bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Results
Authors: West Stuart , Turnbull Lindsay
Published: February 2023

By the time a reader reaches your Results section, they should already have a good idea about what you have done (Methods), and why you have done it (Introduction). Now, you finally get to tell them what you have found out. Ultimately, this is the heart of any paper and what it will be judged on. You may think simply reporting what you found out will be straightforward.
Abstracts
Authors: West Stuart , Turnbull Lindsay
Published: February 2023

Readers use them to quickly form an impression of both the quality and relevance of a paper. Like a good poster or movie trailer, a good Abstract grabs the reader’s attention and makes them want to read on, or at least ensures that they leave with the right impression. In contrast, a poor Abstract will turn readers away, no matter how good your science, and can leave a damaging first impression in the minds of reviewers. So, what makes a good Abstract? We outline four key questions that your Abstract needs to answer. By answering these questions, you will write concise, structured Abstracts that are both powerful and informative.
Titles
Authors: West Stuart , Turnbull Lindsay
Published: February 2023

Once your Abstract is written, it’s time to start thinking about the Title of your paper. You already know exactly what your paper contains and have written an Abstract to summarize the most important points. The Title simply needs to do the paper justice. So, why is the Title important? As ever, it’s useful to put yourself in the place of a potential reader.
Cover Letters
Authors: West Stuart , Turnbull Lindsay
Published: February 2023

Now that your manuscript is finished, it’s time to submit to a journal. In most cases, this is easy: simply upload it to the website of your chosen journal and press submit. But sometimes, the journal requests a cover letter, to supply extra information for the editors—and you can always provide one, even when you aren’t asked. Cover letters play a vital role in getting a paper published. This is particularly true at the highest-impact journals, where editors use cover letters to help decide which papers to send out to review and which to reject immediately.
Punishment and rehabilitation in the community
Authors: Easton Susan , Piper Christine
Published: February 2023

This chapter reviews the main options available to the sentencing court which do not entail immediate custody. It therefore deals with community orders as well as suspended prison sentences (see Chapter 7, section 7.5 for financial penalties). It discusses the tensions between imposing proportionate punishment and delivering rehabilitation programmes. It examines the policy aim of reducing reoffending through specifying in court orders requirements to control and rehabilitate the offender in the community, and discusses the theory and practice of rehabilitation that underpins these initiatives. However, because punishment and rehabilitation also take place in the community for those released from prison, this chapter examines supervision for prisoners released on licence. The chapter, therefore, covers the policy changes in relation to the work and remit of the Probation Service.
Regulatory Transparency in International Investment Law
Authors: Chi Manjiao
Published: February 2023

Transparency is a key element of the rule of law, which can contribute to the overall legitimacy of regulatory decisions. In the field of international investment law, transparency is not only a procedural requirement, but has also evolved to a substantive standard. Some IIAs explicitly incorporate transparency as an FET (fair and equitable treatment) obligation. Even if this is not the case, it is possible for arbitral tribunals to interpret an FET clause as to include a transparency obligation. More recently, some international investment agreements (IIAs) incorporate a rule-of-law clause, which covers an element of regulatory transparency. It seems that transparency has evolved from a procedural requirement to a substantive obligation on States. Given the growing call for greater rule of law in international investment governance, regulatory transparency obligation is likely to be further recognized and enhanced in IIA-making and arbitration practices.
Rule-of-Law Demands and the Domestic Judiciary
Authors: Kriebaum Ursula
Published: February 2023

Promotion of the rule of law is a strong argument in favour of international investment law. This chapter addresses the actual and potential role of rule-of-law criteria for investment tribunals in three areas: whether measures taken by domestic courts constitute expropriation, a denial of justice, or a violation of the effective means standard. It demonstrates that rule-of-law criteria were often the decisive standard in examining judicial decisions of national courts although many of the investment tribunals did not explicitly refer to the concept of the rule of law. Rule-of-law criteria can serve as a useful toolbox for investment tribunals when dealing with alleged denials of justice, judicial expropriation, and violations of the effective means standards. The rule-of-law standards used by investment tribunals are fairly similar to the requirements of human rights treaties and those developed in the case law of the European Court of Human Rights in the context of rule-of-law and judicial proceedings. So far, investment tribunals have not made explicit reference to the concept of the rule of law to justify the criteria they apply when assessing measures of domestic courts. An explicit linkage to the concept of the rule of law could give these criteria additional authority and highlight their importance.
Umbrella Clauses and the Rule of Law
Authors: de Nanteuil Arnaud
Published: February 2023

Access to a judge is a rule-of-law requirement that may be satisfied or at least sustained by umbrella clauses in investment treaties, since such provisions primarily aim at ensuring access to arbitration in case of a breach of a State’s commitments. By providing so, umbrella clauses may also prove to be useful for the promotion of legal stability and certainty. However, umbrella clauses can only be a support for the rule of law if a certain interpretation of such clauses is accepted. That is why focusing on umbrella clauses in the context of the rule of law also helps to answer well-known open questions concerning them, namely the question of their applicability to unilateral commitments or the relevance of the nature of the State acts at stake.
International Investment Agreements, Investor Obligations, and the Rule of Law
Authors: Karamanian Susan L.
Published: February 2023

Critics have claimed that international investment agreements (IIAs) protect investors without regard to the obligations of investors under the applicable law. The critique begs the question whether IIAs and investor-State dispute settlement (ISDS) comport with the rule of law, broadly defined to include both substantive and procedural elements. As for so-called first-generation IIAs, this critique has some merit, yet it is tenuous as various IIAs have recognized that the entry of investments should comply with national law. Arbitral tribunals constituted under IIAs are to interpret treaties under the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties in the light of their terms, context, object, and purpose, which further enables tribunals to at least address investor obligations under IIAs. Arbitration rules that recognize the ability of a State to file a counterclaim play a similar function. Engagement of the public in the development of new treaties and the ISDS process has led to a heightened focus on investor obligations, yet the reforms raise new challenges that foreshadow an ongoing adaptation of IIAs and ISDS to a continued rule-of-law critique.
The Impact of Investment Protection Standards on the Rule of Law
Authors: Sattorova Mavluda
Published: February 2023

Does the investment treaty regime and its investor-State dispute settlement mechanism strengthen or weaken the rule of law in host States? Does the regime assist developing countries in promoting greater effectiveness of the rule of law at the domestic level? This chapter seeks to explore these questions by drawing on a growing body of empirical insights into the rule-of-law impacts of investment treaties on domestic constituencies, with particular focus on developing countries. The overarching objective of the chapter is to reveal some of the on-the-ground perceptions and experiences that often remain unseen behind conceptual framings of international investment law.
Perfect Cows and Skilled Herdsmen
Authors: Ura Karma
Published: February 2023

Cattle holding and grazing lands were two of the four main forms of wealth. Among cattle, mithun crossbreed known as jatsham (female) and jatsha (male) were valued above all others as tailor made for Bhutanese environment, and for their all-round qualities. People crossed mountains to find them and buy. Herds of cattle and yaks moved between summer and winter pastures, consisting of temperate grasslands and sub-tropical forest floors respectively. They were tended by tough and inspiring herdsmen and herdswomen, who became more knowledgeable about insects, plants, and wildlife than any other professions. Allocation of pastures among different cattle owners were decided according to refined rules about division of communal pastures. Provision of such rules took account of carrying capacity of each patch of pasture. Herders were highly skilled crafts persons producing many artisanal wares for everyday use in houses. Crafts they made were often exchanged with grains. A stable commodity-to-commodity exchange rate system allowed fluid barter transactions not only between goods but also between goods and live animals.
Defining Democracy and Democratic Dysfunction
Authors: Dixon Rosalind
Published: February 2023

This chapter explores foundational debates about the scope of commitments to democracy in a constitutional system. It also explores “thin” notions of competitive democracy that focus on a “minimum core” notion of democracy, as well as “thicker” notions of democracy that comprise a broader set of commitments to rights and deliberation, but also norms subject to reasonable disagreement. Having defined democracy in this way, the chapter goes on to explore the three democratic risks to which a theory of responsive judicial review is directed, namely the risks of anti-democratic monopoly power, democratic blind spots, and burdens of inertia, and explains and illustrates each concept. It shows how these blockages can arise in at risk and well-functioning democracies, as well as the interconnection between the various blockages.
Introduction
Authors: Ben-Yishai Ayelet
Published: February 2023

The Introduction establishes the link between Emergencies past, present, and future by opening with a discussion of a prison diary written by Shanta Kumar, a politician from the Hindu right, who spent the Emergency under administrative detention. The prison memoir is an important Indian genre, one that is intimately tied to colonial rule and to the formation of a modern Indian national subject. Indeed, the diary repeats the same themes and motifs that populate colonial-era prison narratives, establishing Kumar—and his political party—within a long lineage of political prisoners in Indian colonial and postcolonial history, despite being their political opponent. The chapter shows that “genre” in this book extends beyond the literary to serve as an object of study, a way of thinking about periods of political crisis and their consequence, an organizing principle of analysis, and a mode of literary and political history. Complementing and problematizing prevailing theories of “states of exception,” the author’s analyses of the tension between crisis and continuity as a textual-political-cultural genre open new theoretical frameworks for thinking about emergencies.
Epic
Authors: Ben-Yishai Ayelet
Published: February 2023

In the wake of the Emergency, two of India’s most prominent and controversial writers, Salman Rushdie and Shashi Tharoor, each set out on an ambitious project, the fictional rewriting of the story of modern India. The result was two epic novels, Rushdie’s Midnight’s Children (1980) and Tharoor’s The Great Indian Novel (1989), which recounted Indian history from the struggle for independence to the Emergency through an engagement with the historical epic of the Mahabharata. Chapter 4 argues that the long form, historical depth, and mythical register of these narratives are in constant tension with the political immediacy and urgency which generated them, getting at the heart of the continuity/crisis paradox which structures this inquiry. The two novels place their narrators as their epic heroes, who wrest the national story away from the carefully crafted myth of Indira Gandhi and reinstate it in their own, explicitly male hands and voices. In doing so, they recover a national virility, and a specifically gendered and conservative political order.
Classical Problems of Antiquity
Authors: Lützen Jesper
Published: February 2023

The quadrature of a circle, the duplication of a cube, and the trisection of an angle are so-called classical problems. The ancient Greeks invented many solutions for them using various curves and instruments. Many of these constructions and their historical origins are discussed in this chapter. However, the ancients sought out solutions using only ruler and compass, but did not find any.
Cube Duplication and Angle Trisection in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries
Authors: Lützen Jesper
Published: February 2023

Descartes’s analytic geometry allowed him to use algebra to solve geometric construction problems. That turned out to be an important key to the proof of the impossibility of solving the classical problems by ruler and compass. Descartes himself believed that he could prove this impossibility. But his rather strange proof was not rigorous. Still, after the proof had been modified during the eighteenth century, it appeared convincing to many leading mathematicians of the Enlightenment. The French Academy therefore declared that they would no longer evaluate circle quadratures, cube duplications, and angle trisections. The original question of constructions by ruler and compass was almost lost sight of.
Circle Quadrature in the Eighteenth Century
Authors: Lützen Jesper
Published: February 2023

During the eighteenth century Newton’s and Leibniz’s arguments for the impossibility of the algebraic indefinite circle quadrature were modified and led to the enlightened opinion that this problem had been proven to be impossible. There was less agreement about the status of the definite circle quadrature, and the problem of constructions by ruler and compass was hardly mentioned. Nevertheless the French Academy declared that they would no longer evaluate circle quadratures, cube duplications, and angle trisections.
Impossible Equations Made Possible
Authors: Lützen Jesper
Published: February 2023

Wallis emphasized that impossible arithmetical problems could give rise to new types of numbers. For example, 3 minus 5 gives rise to the negative number we call −2. In the same vein Cardano tried to solve the “impossible” system of equations x + y = 10 and xy = 40 and came up with a new type of numbers later called complex numbers. This is an example of the creative power of mathematical impossibilities. Complex numbers later became extremely useful in mathematics as well as other sciences. At the end of the chapter we analyze a similar story about the invention of infinitesimals. Like complex numbers they were used successfully long before their meaning was cleared up.
The Insolvability of the Quintic by Radicals
Authors: Lützen Jesper
Published: February 2023

Can the solution of an arbitrary polynomial equation be expressed by a formula in the coefficients using only the arithmetic operations +, −, ∙, : and the extraction of roots (radicals)? After Cardano the answer was known to be yes for equations of degree 1 through 4. Lagrange made a thorough investigation of the general problem but could not solve it. On the basis of his insights, Ruffini (in 1803) and Abel (1826) could prove that for degree 5 such a formula does not exist in general. Galois developed a method for deciding which equations can be solved by radicals. Already Lagrange based his arguments on permutations of the roots and Galois introduced the important concept of a (permutation) group. The fact that Ruffini’s proof was ignored by his contemporaries whereas Abel’s proof was soon celebrated as an important insight indicates that impossibility results began to acquire more importance during the early nineteenth century.
Constructions with Ruler and Compass
Authors: Lützen Jesper
Published: February 2023

In 1801 Gauss proved that a particular class of regular polygons can be constructed by ruler and compass. He claimed that no other regular polygons were constructible by these means but left the proof to Wantzel (1837). Wantzel also proved that the duplication of a cube and the trisection of an angle were impossible by ruler and compass. Forty-five years later Lindemann finally proved that π is transcendental and thus that also the quadrature of a circle is impossible with ruler and compass. We discuss why Wantzel’s proof was overlooked for a century while Lindemann’s discovery gave him instant fame.
Impossible Integrals
Authors: Lützen Jesper
Published: February 2023

Since Leibniz it has been known that, in contrast to differentiation, integration is a difficult art. Even rather simple functions have integrals that cannot be expressed in a simple manner. Abel, and in particular Liouville (in the 1830s), developed methods for proving the impossibility of expressing some simple integrals in elementary terms. These methods were derived from the algebraic techniques developed for solving polynomial equations. Liouville was also able to prove that certain differential equations cannot be solved “by quadrature,” meaning in terms of integral signs. In 1970 Risch found an algorithm that could find the integral of a simple function if it was simple and prove that is impossible if that is the case. It is discussed why so many impossibility results came to light around 1830.
Hilbert and Impossible Problems
Authors: Lützen Jesper
Published: February 2023

In 1900 Hilbert gave a famous talk in Paris in which he formulated a number of problems, the solution to which would enrich the century to come. He emphasized the great interest that impossibility theorems had acquired over the recent years and insisted that a proof of impossibility should count as a solution to the problem. Some of Hilbert’s problems were formulated as impossibility results; other turned out unexpectedly to be answered by an impossibility proof. The problems numbered 1, 3, and 7 are discussed in this chapter. The first problem asks for a proof of the so-called continuum hypothesis and the well-ordering theorem within Cantor’s new set theory. Frege proved the latter using the so-called axiom of choice and Gödel and Cohen proved that the former is independent of the other axioms of set theory.
Impossibility in Physics
Authors: Lützen Jesper
Published: February 2023

Also physics has its impossibility statements. We compare them with the mathematical impossibility theorems and look into the history of one of them: the impossibility of building a perpetual motion machine. We also consider impossibilities in twentieth-century physics, in particular in quantum mechanics. For example, Heisenberg’s uncertainty relations imply that it is impossible to measure both the place and momentum of a particle accurately. We also discuss von Neumann’s controversial proof that it is impossible to obtain a deterministic version of quantum mechanics by introducing hidden variables.
Arrow’s Impossibility Theorem
Authors: Lützen Jesper
Published: February 2023

In 1785 Condorcet showed that if there are three or more candidates in an election it can happen that one cannot determine a candidate who will win over the other candidates in pairwise elections. This is the so-called Condorcet paradox. The question then arose whether one can avoid the problem using a different election method. Many methods were suggested, but all had some unwanted consequences. The problem was investigated by Duncan Black. Finally, in 1950 Kenneth Arrow, who had reformulated welfare economics as a theory of social choice, proved that there exists no voting procedure that satisfies five very simple and desirable conditions. This is Arrow’s impossibility theorem. Many similar impossibility theorems have been discovered since then, in particular the Gibbard–Satterthwaite theorem, which states that all voting methods can be manipulated. The theorem was proved in the mid-1970s independently by the two persons after whom it is named.
The Book of Enoch
Authors: VanderKam James C.
Published: February 2023

The chapter tells about the arrival of the first Ethiopic copies of Enoch into Western Europe through the efforts of James Bruce, the contents of the book, the history of scholarship on it, including the editing and translating work of August Dillmann, before Charles studied it. It then describes the articles and the three books that Charles wrote about it, with an account of his theory regarding the components from which the Ethiopic Book of Enoch was compiled and the dates, teachings, and original languages of each of them. For Charles’s books there is consideration of the contemporary reviews written about them, of more recent textual discoveries, and of how his work continues to impact study of the Book of Enoch today.
The Book of Jubilees
Authors: VanderKam James C.
Published: February 2023

The chapter describes the Ethiopic Book of Jubilees, the process of first making it available to Western scholars in the mid-nineteenth century, and the history of scholarship on it, including the work of August Dillmann. It then describes the serialized translation and the two books that Charles wrote about it. There is a discussion of the teachings he found in Jubilees and the time to which he dated its original Hebrew form. There is consideration of the contemporary reviews of Charles’s books, of more recent textual finds, and of how his work continues to impact study of the Book of Jubilees today.
Recognition and Syntheses 1898–1899
Authors: VanderKam James C.
Published: February 2023

The chapter covers the years 1898–99 when Charles was first appointed Professor of Biblical Greek at his alma mater, Trinity College, Dublin, when he received a D.D. degree from the same school, and when he was appointed to deliver the Hibbert Lectures (on “The Doctrine of the Last Things, in Israel and Judah”). In addition, the chapter deals with his continuing program of publishing that took a somewhat different form than in the previous years. It surveys some very long articles that Charles contributed to reference works, primarily the entries “Apocalyptic Literature” and “Eschatology” in the Encyclopaedia Biblica. The final major publication to be treated is his first synthetic volume, A Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life in Israel, in Judaism, and in Christianity, which was based on the Jowett Lectures that he gave in 1898 and 1899.
The Book of Daniel
Authors: VanderKam James C.
Published: February 2023

The chapter treats the biblical Book of Daniel by examining the traditional view that it contains authentic prophecies and the critical view that it describes contemporary events as if they were future. It places Charles’s short commentary on Daniel (1913) in this context and sketches his conclusions in the introduction to the commentary—that the book is pseudonymous and was originally written in Aramaic (ca. 165 b.c.), but to ease its entry into the canon of Scripture, the beginning and end were soon translated into Hebrew. The Greek translation survived in two recensions. The chapter next turns to his larger Daniel commentary that was published in 1929. There is treatment of his correspondence with Oxford University Press while it was being prepared, of his extended study of the development of the Aramaic language and the place of the Aramaic of Daniel within that history, and of his comments on some passages. The chapter includes a survey of reviews of the larger commentary, a brief consideration of its lasting value, and a postscript on the poor sales of the book
The Ten Commandments
Authors: VanderKam James C.
Published: February 2023

The chapter is devoted to a book by Charles that began as his Warburton Lectures delivered at Lincoln’s Inn and Westminster Abbey in the years 1919–1923. It explains how his published analysis of the Decalogue aimed to study the commandments from three angles—the critical, the historical, and the practical. The chapter surveys the introduction to the volume where critical issues are treated and the earliest textual evidence for the commandments are studied, that is, the Nash Papyrus and various biblical texts. It then surveys the chapters that discuss each of the ten commandments and how Charles, while treating them historically, also attempted to apply them to contemporary issues. An example is the implication of the prohibition of making images to Catholic practice with regard to images or statues. The reviews written of the book are also surveyed.
The Reality of Organizations
Authors: Collins Stephanie
Published: February 2023

This chapter opens with an overview of the book’s theses. It provides a summary of the two running examples that will recur throughout the book: Australia’s Banking Royal Commission and the climate change debate around the Polluter Pays Principle. It then defines ‘organization’ as ‘a collective agent that involves a large number of people who realize a structure that coordinates divided labour via rules and hierarchical command relations, guided by a collective decision-making procedure’. The chapter provides three reasons for realism (ontological holism) about organizations: organizations are multiply realizable; organizations have inward and outward causal-explanatory power; and organizations bear functionalist-interpretivist agency. The chapter closes by providing a chapter-by-chapter overview of the book.
Cosmological and Teleological Reasoning
Authors: Holden Thomas
Published: February 2023

This chapter examines Hobbes’s treatment of the cosmological reasoning (i.e., the first cause argument) and teleological reasoning (i.e., the design argument). On the face of it, Hobbes’s treatment of each of these kinds of reasoning seems strangely ambidextrous, perhaps even self-contradictory. I argue that it is only when we appreciate both the restrained economy of Hobbes’s natural theology and the liberal range of his pious expressivism that we can understand his various assays on cosmological and teleological reasoning, and square them one with another
Talking and Thinking about an Inconceivable God
Authors: Holden Thomas
Published: February 2023

This chapter considers and rejects the suggestion that the doctrine of God’s inconceivability commits Hobbes to semantic atheism, i.e., to the position that there is no genuine thought about God at all, and that all human talk about God is senseless and insignificant speech. Although Hobbes holds that no human can frame an idea or conception of God’s intrinsic nature, his device of ‘indefinite names’ enables us to refer to this mysterious being in language and thought by way of a purely relational characterization. I also address Hobbes’s purposes in asserting that the deity is a kind of body or corporeal being—an assertion that, quite apart from its apparent theological eccentricity, might seem to contradict Hobbes’s doctrine that we can frame no idea at all of God’s nature.
Love and Fear of an Inconceivable God
Authors: Holden Thomas
Published: February 2023

Hobbes advances the radical view that no human passion—no emotion, feeling, sentiment, or affective attitude, including love, fear, hate, and the rest—can genuinely be directed toward an inconceivable being such as the deity. Moreover, even if passions directed toward God were possible, other texts imply and even openly argue that the traditionally valorized religious passions of love and fear of God would be improper. In this chapter I document and examine these arguments problematizing passions that purport to take God as their object. I argue that Hobbes avoids any genuine commitment to God-directed passions, even when it comes to the honor and worship that we are rationally required to show toward the deity. He also radically redefines the sort of ‘love’ and ‘fear’ that we owe to God, and thereby presents us with an intellectualized form of religious devotion purged of sentiment and performative faux-sentiment.
Sin, Necessity, and God’s Moral Attributes
Authors: Holden Thomas
Published: February 2023

This chapter extends the expressivist interpretation of Hobbes’s natural theology to his treatment of God’s moral attributes. Most of the chapter is devoted to addressing two possible challenges to my approach: first, the argument that Hobbes’s deterministic metaphysics entails that the deity is responsible for all our sins, and hence is in fact morally imperfect (no matter what laudatory honor-expressing moral epithets Hobbes might like to bestow upon it); and second, the charge that Hobbes’s use of voluntarist language shows that he is committed to understanding God’s justice and goodness not in expressivist but in metaphysically realist terms.
A primer on tensor analysis in three-dimensional space
Authors: Steigmann David J.
Published: February 2023

The basic elements of tensor analysis and differential geometry are surveyed in detail, to facilitate contact with the geometric theory of plasticity involving the notions of torsion and curvature in non-Euclidean spaces.
Deformation and stress in convected coordinates
Authors: Steigmann David J.
Published: February 2023

In this chapter the contents of Chapter 3 are applied to the description of continuum mechanics using convected coordinates to identify material points. This unifies various concepts in continuum mechanics with other branches of the physical sciences, and facilitates understanding of the crucial concept of strain compatibility.
Elastic and plastic deformations
Authors: Steigmann David J.
Published: February 2023

The decomposition of deformation into elastic and plastic parts is introduced in terms of transformations of the material symmetry group, due to plastic evolution, pertaining to a local undistorted state of the material. This leads naturally to the notion of dislocation density, interpreted as the torsion of the underlying material manifold. Torsion, in turn, implies that the elastic strain is incompatible, and hence that the material is residually stressed when unloaded.
Isotropy
Authors: Steigmann David J.
Published: February 2023

Isotropic materials occupy a prominent position in the classical theory of plasticity. This subject is reconsidered here from the vantage point of the modern theory. It is shown that the classical theory of rigid-perfectly plastic materials emerges naturally from the modern framework based on material symmetry considerations pertaining to isotropy. This enables the classical theory to be understood from the modern perspective, thereby promoting confidence in both the classical and modern theories.
Science in the Ancient Mediterranean World
Authors: Evans James
Published: February 2023

This chapter surveys the development of new ideas about the universe in the ancient world by different cultures inhabiting the Mediterranean region. It looks at Egyptian, Babylonian, and Greek ideas about the nature of the universe and looks at the use of mathematics to explain natural phenomena such as the movements of the planets, and looks at the relationship between astrology and astronomy in different ancient cultures. It surveys the philosophical ideas of ancient thinkers such as Aristotle, Plato, and Ptolemy. It looks at the development of ideas about the human body and the relationship between these ideas and the practice of medicine in the ancient world.
Science in Ancient China
Authors: Harper Donald
Published: February 2023

This chapter surveys the development of new ideas about nature, the universe, and the human body in ancient China, focusing on the period between the fifth century bce and the second century ce. It focuses in particular on cosmogony (the study of the origins of the universe) and cosmology, astrology and the calendar, and medicine, as well as developments in mathematics, music, and geography. It charts the development of correlative cosmology, focusing on the notion of qi as the fundamental stuff of the cosmos, and how it went through processes based on cycles of yin and yang. It surveys the contributions of leading figures such as Zi Wei, Shi Shen, and Chunyu Yi.
Science in the Medieval Christian and Islamic Worlds
Authors: Livesey Steven J. , Brentjes Sonja
Published: February 2023

This chapter surveys the circulation of scientific knowledge around the Islamic and Christian worlds during the medieval period. It explores the vital role played by Islamic scholars in the preservation of ancient Greek ideas in medicine, astronomy, and optics amongst other sciences and how they developed earlier ideas in distinctive ways. It explores the development of universities in western Europe and the incorporation of Greek and Islamic natural philosophy into orthodox Christian tradition. It examines the relationship of scientific and religious ideas in both Christian and Islamic contexts, and shows how Aristotelian ideas, in particular, were incorporated into the Christian orthodox world-view.
The Scientific Revolution
Authors: Henry John
Published: February 2023

This chapter surveys the transformations in scientific understanding that took place during the period usually known as the Scientific Revolution, roughly from 1500 to 1700, It follows the growing emphasis on experiment in science and charts the shift from an Aristotelian and Ptolemaic geocentric view of the universe to a Copernican heliocentric one. It looks at the development of new ideas about the generation of life, anatomy, and physiology. It also looks at the important changes in the culture of knowledge that took place during this period, with the emergence of new kinds of scientific institutions such as the Royal Society in England, and the Royal Academy of Science in France.
Theoretical Visions
Authors: Stanley Matthew
Published: February 2023

This chapter charts the rise of new kinds of theoretical approaches to the understanding of the natural world from the beginning of the nineteenth century, culminating in the emergence of a distinct discipline of theoretical physics. It looks at contrasting national perspectives on the value of theory in Britain, France, and Germany during the nineteenth century and at debates about the role of mathematics. It looks at the emergence of important new theoretical perspectives such as the conservation of energy, special and general relativity, and quantum theory, and places them in their broader cultural context, culminating with a discussion of the place of theoretical physics in the development of nuclear weapons and post-war Big Science.
A Buddhist Educated Person
Authors: David Warner Cameron
Published: February 2023

Demographic, migrational, and educational shifts in Nepal have placed tremendous pressure on monastic institutions in the Himalayan region, especially in Nepal. Increasingly, Himalayan families are opting to have fewer children. At the same time, those families are spending more time each year in Kathmandu or migrating out of Nepal, instead residing in their high Himalayan villages. Concomitantly, the increasing number of secular schools and secular job opportunities, both in rural districts and Kathmandu, have resulted in families from high-altitude districts choosing government and private schools over sending their sons and daughters to be ordained as Buddhist monks and nuns. However, some monasteries have responded to these pressures through reforming their curricula to provide a secular education alongside monastic training. This chapter will focus on one such ‘monastic institute’ in the Pokhara region in which officials expect that 90 per cent of school-age boys who enter the monastery will leave as young adults and engage in secular work. In response to these pressures, this monastic institute provides a secular education alongside contemporary monastic training. From the point of view of monastic officials, what is the value of being trained in a monastery to work in secular vocations? How does the monastic institute work with local secular schools to define a modern education for Himalayan children? This research has implications for ascertaining the future development of the educational sector in the Himalayas as well as the future of institutionalized Himalayan Buddhism writ large.
Contesting Caste at University Sites
Authors: Pfaff-Czarnecka Joanna
Published: February 2023

Nepal’s academic social spaces did not comprise Dalit students, until recently. One of the outcomes of Nepal’s social transformation is the significant increase in the social inclusion of Dalits at all educational levels. Yet, looking back at a long history of caste discrimination—including the denigrating representations suggesting that the Dalits do not fit into the realms of canonized knowledge—the young Dalit academicians are still struggling to understand and to render universities (as) their space of belonging. At work are diverse constellations of exclusion, but also very noticeable efforts to enable change and to contest the salience of caste in society and especially at the university premises. This contribution analyses the social university spaces as comprised of diverse sites where Dalits’ academic inclusion is negotiated. The narration follows several personal trajectories, mainly by students, but also by recently appointed Dalit academic staff. The aims are (1) to grasp how caste is negotiated within the university realm and how these negotiations are shaping the nature of contemporary universities and (2) to expand our conceptual framework for understanding the ‘university lives’: suggesting that they comprise diverse socio-spatial sites where different kinds of knowledge are negotiated and, in this vein, trying to grasp the nature of studying. Only by bringing the personal navigations through the university spaces with organizational perspectives can we grasp the modalities of exclusion and exclusion in educational processes.
Counterpart Theory and Counterfactuals
Authors: Hawthorne John , Yli-Vakkuri Juhani
Published: February 2023

In 1968, David Lewis provided a translation scheme from the language of quantified modal logic (QML) into the language of counterpart theory (CT), one that he thought would make manifest the truth conditions of absolute or metaphysical modal claims. Lewis’s other main contribution to the logic and semantics of modality is his celebrated 1973 semantics for counterfactual conditionals, which is put forward as a more general theory that subsumes the logic of metaphysical modality. It is natural for the advocate of CT to wish to extend Lewis’s 1968 translation scheme for QML to a language that includes the counterfactual conditional connective. This chapter first examines the translation of QML to counterpart theory proposed by Lewis in 1973, making vivid various challenges that confront anyone wishing to marry counterpart theory with a logic of counterfactuals. It then proposes a superior translation scheme within the framework of Lewis’s own counterpart theory.
The Situationalist Account of Change
Authors: Pickup Martin
Published: February 2023

This chapter proposes a new solution to the problem of change: situationalism. According to this view, parts of reality fundamentally disagree about what is the case and reality as a whole is unsettled (i.e. metaphysically indeterminate). When something changes, parts of the world irreconcilably disagree about what properties it has. From this irreconcilable disagreement, indeterminacy arises. The picture is developed using situations, which are parts of possible worlds; this gives it the name “situationalism.” It allows a B-theory endurance view on which there is genuine incompatibility when things change. There are costs to the view, which are explored, but it is a novel approach which offers a distinct explanation of what happens when things exist through change.
The Logic of Past-Alteration
Authors: Kaiserman Alex
Published: February 2023

Is it possible to change the past—to make something that has happened not have happened? Past-alteration is widely believed to be ‘logically impossible’. But despite this, there have been few attempts to actually apply logical resources to the question of whether it is possible to change the past. This chapter articulates a novel tense logic and uses it to argue that past-alteration is possible—with just a single dimension of time—so long as it’s possible for time to have a certain kind of structure: one which is ‘backwards-branching’ and in which the relation of precedence ‘comes apart’ from the relation of succession. The remainder of the chapter explores some of the metaphysical implications of this account of what it is to change the past.
Storytelling
Authors: Richtarik Marilynn
Published: February 2023

Chapter One (‘Storytelling’) focuses on constitutional nationalists’ search in the mid-1980s for a way out of the deadlock of typical Northern Irish politics, with special attention given to Brian Friel’s play Making History (1988). This drama focuses on Hugh O’Neill, leader of an Irish rebellion against Queen Elizabeth I. Friel emphasizes O’Neill’s English education, marriage to the daughter of an English colonist, and policy of co-operating with colonial authority, which alternated with armed resistance to England in his career. The chapter argues that this depiction of the nationalist icon complemented SDLP leader John Hume’s contemporaneous efforts to demonstrate to Protestants that they had nothing to fear from a united Ireland and to persuade republicans to engage politically rather than militarily. Historical events discussed include the New Ireland Forum (1983–4) and the Anglo–Irish Agreement (1985). The chapter contends that both influenced the development of the play, and it draws extensively on the National Library of Ireland’s Friel archive to illustrate the dynamic interplay between authorial intent and circumstance in the work of a politically engaged and motivated writer at a crucial juncture in Ireland’s history.
Grieving
Authors: Richtarik Marilynn
Published: February 2023

Chapter Three (‘Grieving’) explores Deirdre Madden’s One by One in the Darkness and Seamus Deane’s Reading in the Dark, texts that deal with the lingering effects of personal and political trauma. It opens with a description of reactions to the republican and loyalist paramilitary ceasefires announced in the summer and autumn of 1994. Along with relief and joy at the suspension of the fighting, people felt anger about the lengthy conflict and sorrow for lost loved ones. These novels, conceived as responses to the Troubles and written largely before 1994, were both published in 1996. The chapter argues that they express the grief felt by Northern Ireland’s people for the human cost of the decades of conflict. Madden’s novel focuses on the late-twentieth-century Troubles and Deane’s on the shadows cast by the Troubles of the 1920s, but both illustrate the scale of the damage caused by political injustice and civil strife, as well as the stakes of the peace process.
Conclusion
Authors: Ray Reeju
Published: February 2023

The conclusion reiterates the major themes and arguments of this book. It maps the transformations of spatiality and law in the north east frontier of British India examined in detail in the book.
‘Bred out of the contagion of the throng’
Authors: Houston Lloyd (Meadhbh)
Published: February 2023

Chapter 1 reframes the ‘Parnell myth’—the public persona of parliamentary leader Charles Stewart Parnell—as a symbolic edifice within which anxieties concerning the relationship between Irishness and sexual health could be foregrounded and negotiated. Surveying journalistic, biographical, and literary writing about Parnell, including W. B. Yeats’s On Baile’s Strand (1903), J. M. Synge’s The Playboy of the Western World (1907), and James Joyce’s A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1916), this chapter demonstrates how the images of restraint, continence, and regulated passion used to characterize the Chief by his allies before the Split and by modernist authors in its aftermath bequeathed to Irish modernism a sexualized model of artistry rooted in an ideal of self-siring masculine autonomy. It also charts how the tropes of the myth could be used by his detractors to present Parnell as a sexually pathological threat to the integrity of the Irish people.
‘But perhaps this new child will be perfect!’
Authors: Houston Lloyd (Meadhbh)
Published: February 2023

Chapter 5 moves beyond more traditional, male-centred framings of the Censorship Act as a matter of sectarian and demographic concern, to chart the responses of women such as Hannah Sheehy-Skeffington, Signe Toksvig, and, in particular, Kate O’Brien to its passage and operation. Surveying the ideological investments and intellectual origins of O’Brien’s sexual politics, it charts how her model of an ideal relationship—one compacted between intelligent, capable, and beautiful individuals, in which sex is the mutually fulfilling realization of shared desire, and children are the products of choice rather than necessity—reflects and responds to ongoing debates concerning birth control and eugenics in European, British, and Irish culture. In the process, it demonstrates how a desire to marry a eugenic conception of sex and sexuality with an investment in individual liberty and social equality could have potentially noxious political implications, even for notionally progressive authors like O’Brien.
Introduction
Authors: Guroian Vigen
Published: February 2023

This chapter introduces the importance of children’s literature in the life of a child. It clarifies the aim of being a guide to beloved classic and contemporary stories written for children, in line with the narratives’ moral and religious stances. As children generally need guidance and moral road maps in life, themes like love, beauty, immortality, evil, and redemption center most of the best fairy tales and children’s stories. The appreciation of repetition varies between young and college readers, as it can signify either vitality or monotony. C. S. Lewis warned that the rising philosophy of education and theories of childrearing undermine confidence in moral certitudes while substituting the dogma that morality is relative.
A Suspicious Science
Authors: Gabriel Rami
Published: February 2023

The purpose of this book is to provide a systematic exploration of the ways in which psychology is used in contemporary society. The goal is to refine our understanding of the extent and limits of the field as a science and therefore as a set of discourses about truth, biology, mind, and meaning. In addition to conceptual analysis of empirical research, history and anthropology are employed toward articulating a more interdisciplinary, multilevel, global, humanistic form of psychology. The author’s method includes a critical assessment of the nature of explanations provided through the various uses of psychology. A synthesis of epistemic and contextual constraints eventuate in consideration of the affective nature of belief itself. It is argued that psychology takes on the guise of mythology by boring a human-size hole between belief and explanation. Achieving reflexivity, the flexible, functional languages of psychology establish agency as central to human nature. This is the suspicious sphere of epistemology and influence within which the uses of psychology reside.