bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Heroic Transformations in the Classical World
Authors: Brown David
Published: October 2003

The first part of the chapter examines the nature of Greek religion, and argues that it should be treated seriously as a religion, one which through changing versions of its myths sought to conceptualise personal or societal changes in perceptions of how the divine was understood. Differing treatments of Odysseus are then used to anticipate the discussion of Abraham in the chapter that follows; Iphigenia that of Isaac, and Helen and Ganymede that of Joseph. The way in which earlier Christian generations understood Greek myth as also revelatory is used to challenge the narrower view that is dominant today.
Victim into Saint: Patriarchal Retellings
Authors: Brown David
Published: October 2003

Examines the way in which, and some of the reasons why, the stories of the patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, and Joseph, have been altered both within Scripture and subsequently within the later history of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. With Abraham, the main focus is on the way in which Paul reorientated the story towards faith rather than the more natural Jewish reading in terms of faithfulness (obedient conduct). With the akedah or binding of Isaac, the reason all three religions move the focus from father to son is explored. In the case of Joseph, the differing treatments of virtue and temptation are examined.
Divine Accommodation
Authors: Brown David
Published: October 2003

Explores how a kenotic understanding of the incarnation might be used to bolster the general argument. If even in the case of christology, there was only a gradual disclosure of who Jesus was, particularly in the light of the resurrection, it would seem reasonable to expect a similar pattern of development elsewhere. In terms of Jesus’ perfection, a number of apparent limitations on his imagination are explored, including his attitude to the law, his belief in an imminent eschatology and the cry of dereliction, and a distinction drawn between perfection and sinlessness.
The Larger Whole
Authors: Hope Nicholas
Published: October 2003

Describes a new eye, ecclesiastical topography, for the larger whole (1760–1840). These first modern surveys of parishes and established churches introduced semi‐accurate statistics (see Ch. 8). Here, once again anomaly stood in the way, particularly in Protestant Germany, which remained part of the old Catholic Empire. It collapsed first in 1806.
Church and (Nation‐) State (1840–1890)
Authors: Hope Nicholas
Published: October 2003

Is about the first Protestant church constitutions, which developed out of earlier state legislation (see Ch. 14). Transregional Protestant gatherings and discussion about the constitutional position of Protestant churches are examined, as is their constitutional provision at ‘national’ level. Protestant self‐government or ‘synodalism’ became fashionable everywhere.
A Puritan Brotherhood
Authors: Mullan David George
Published: October 2003

Though Puritanism was a piety intended very much for the laity, the clergy remained central to the practice and thinking of the movement. Scottish Presbyterians, in particular, formed a tightly knit community that studied together, worked together, prayed together, married into godly families including each others’, and engaged in a monumental struggle against the Episcopal and liturgical agendas of the early Stewart monarchs. For some of these men, it was the Five Articles of Perth (1618) that galvanized their religious commitment to Presbyterianism, but it remains that most members of the episcopate up to 1638 were, polity apart, Puritans as well.
Covenants and Covenant Theology
Authors: Mullan David George
Published: October 2003

The notion of the covenant was essential to the Scottish Puritan experience. John Knox may well have imported the idea into Scotland from his prophetic interpretation of the English Reformation, and perhaps in 1557 one may see the lineaments of the first religio‐political covenant. The Negative (King's) Confession of 1581 was quickly interpreted in covenantal terms and it became the foundation of the National Covenant of 1638. But the covenant idea also developed in the context of the individual's relationship with God—increasingly interpreted in terms of federal theology—and during this period one observes the building blocks of the personal covenant, which would later in the century become a familiar component of Presbyterian piety. The National Covenant was subscribed by men across the length and breadth of the country and was often received with a revivalistic emotional outpouring.
Isaac Watts
Authors: Watson J. R.
Published: October 2003

Talks about Watts as the first great hymn writer in English; his place in the Dissenting tradition, and his theories of sacred poetry; his work in three major books, Horae Lyricae, Hymns and Spiritual Songs, and The Psalms of David. The chapter also reviews his mature art, as demonstrated in ‘When I survey the wondrous cross’.
The Oxford Movement, and the Revival of Ancient Hymnody
Authors: Watson J. R.
Published: October 2003

Reviews the poetry of the Oxford Movement, John Henry Newman and his followers. Also discusses the Roman Catholic Hymnody, John Mason Neale and the translation of Greek and Latin hymns.
Hymns Ancient and Modern
Authors: Watson J. R.
Published: October 2003

Discusses the success of Hymns Ancient and Modern; Church of England hymns, Hymns of triumph. Reviews the writing of John Ellerton, William Chatterton Dix, and William Walsham How. Also talks about the translation of German hymns.
The Working of the Church–State Alliance
Authors: McManners John
Published: October 2003

The balance of advantage in cooperation between church and state was shifting inexorably towards the secular power. The Gallican devotion to the monarchy ensured that clergy worked for the state while being supported financially by the Church. So clerics worked as diplomats, as conseillers‐clercs in the Parlements and as chaplains to government and municipal institutions, as well as to the army and navy. The secular authorities asserted greater control over the keeping of marriage and baptismal registers. Religious conformity was imposed by the police authorities, if often in a lax manner, and the church was used for the public reading of legal decisions and monitoires, though these could be ignored, and the interweaving of ecclesiastical and secular authority was increasingly criticized by anticlericals.
The Bishops: Worldly Greatness
Authors: McManners John
Published: October 2003

Bishops were expected to live splendidly, and many spent much time at the court at Versailles. Accusations of sexual immorality, however, despite some spectacular examples, were exaggerated. They had to ensure the efficient collection of their revenues by employing trusted servants in the administration. The richer ones accumulated benefices of various kinds, and many were great builders of episcopal residences but also of works of public utility. The status of bishop could lead to other privileges but also responsibilities, especially in provinces with Estates, where bishops usually played leading roles and could become spokesmen for their provinces.
The Curés: Social Origins, Incomes, Mentality
Authors: McManners John
Published: October 2003

In most areas of France (Paris being the major exception), parish priests were local men drawn from the more prosperous sectors of non‐noble society. About a third lived on a fixed salary called the portion congrue, paid by whoever had the right to collect the tithes; the other two thirds drew their incomes from the tithes and whatever lands went with the benefice. Curés’ incomes therefore varied enormously. Parish priests were in close contact with the people in ways involving both conflict and cooperation. Their education had been revolutionized by the Counter‐Reformation, but the results were not what the reformers had hoped for. Curés acted as medical, legal, and agricultural advisers; teachers, custodians of local traditions, and chroniclers of contemporary events; disseminators of news and of selective and censored information about the writings of the Enlightenment.
The Great Chapters: Architecture and Music
Authors: McManners John
Published: October 2003

The eighteenth century was an age of liturgical splendour, and changes to cathedral and collegiate church architecture reflected this, judiciously combining classical and Gothic elements. The removal of rood screens and changes in the admission of light through windows served to emphasize the centrality of the altar in the liturgical space. Chapters spent up to a quarter of their incomes on music, with renowned maîtres de musique being in great demand. Choir schools attached to chapters were the only source of musical training available, and maintained a high standard. Church music was increasingly complex, sophisticated, and virtuosic, following the tastes of the royal court and Parisian high society.
Church and Society in Eighteenth-Century France Volume 2: The Religion of the People and the Politics of Religion
Authors: McManners John
Published: October 2003

The second volume of this study of the relations between the Catholic Church and society in eighteenth‐century France covers the topics of popular religion; the clergy and morals; the Jansenist controversy in its religious and political aspects; the expulsion of the Jesuits; the religious minorities and the issue of toleration; and the crisis of the ancien régime in its politico‐religious dimension. The section on the ‘religion of the people’ considers, in particular, the distinctions between the intentions of the clergy in imposing their version of Christianity on the people and how these were popularly interpreted and incorporated into the social order. The statistical evidence concerning religious practice and conviction is critically assessed. The meanings and importance of processions, pilgrimages, superstitions, hermits, confraternities, and literacy and Bible reading are discussed along with the world of magic and sorcery. The efficacy of confession and writings on morality is considered with reference to sexual mores, business practice, and the theatre. The role of religious issues in political affairs is discussed in detail, linking the Jansenist quarrel and the role of the Jesuits to the developing struggle between the crown and the parlement of Paris, giving due consideration to the role of ideas and how ecclesiastical affairs impinged upon the sovereign courts. An extended evocation of the life of the Protestant and Jewish communities introduces the debate on toleration and how it further embroiled the Gallican Church in political controversies. The final section describes the role of churchmen, from bishops to the disaffected lower clergy, in the coming of the Revolution. As in the first volume, the influence of Enlightenment thought is examined in all sections in relation to the rising force of anti‐clericalism and to tensions within the ecclesiastical establishment.
Religious Practice
Authors: McManners John
Published: October 2003

The main religious duties imposed on the laity were regular attendance at mass and the Easter duties of communion and confession. The practice of these obligations during the eighteenth century held up better in the countryside than in the towns, though everywhere the atmosphere during services was often disorderly and irreverent. The creeping laicization of the eighteenth century is indicated in all the available documentation capable of being expressed in serial quantitative form, including the naming of ships, household furnishings, the practice of contraception, preambles and legacies in wills, and ordinations, but all with variations according to chronology, geography, and class. True de‐Christianization, however, only came with the Revolution.
The Appeal to a General Council
Authors: McManners John
Published: October 2003

Unigenitus caused uproar in France, especially in Paris, where it was viewed as the result of Jesuit conspiracy, standing for papal pretensions against the Gallican Church and clerical manoeuvres against the laity, as well as being an obscurantist attack on scriptural piety, unjust to Jansenists in general and Noailles in particular. Louis XIV forced its acceptance by the bishops, the Sorbonne and the parlement of Paris, followed by the other theological faculties and parlements, but his death and the accession to power of Philippe d’Orléans as regent for the infant Louis XV changed everything. The appeal to a General Council of the Church was led by 16 bishops, backed by the Oratorians and the Maurists. Other bishops either enforced Unigenitus or accepted and then ignored it. Support for the appellants was uneven in France as a whole and centred in Paris, but for their supporters the appeal represented a defence of the Gallican Church against the presumptuousness of Rome and of political freedom against Louis XIV's absolutism.
From the Regent to Fleury
Authors: McManners John
Published: October 2003

By 1720, the government of the Regency, dominated by abbé Dubois, had adopted a repressive policy towards Jansenism and the appellants, a policy, which would be made even harsher under cardinal Fleury from 1726 onwards. The parlements and the Sorbonne were brought to acceptance of Unigenitus by threats, force, and the imposition of a formulary making it appear compatible with Gallican liberties. However, the deposition of Jean Soanen, bishop of Senez, in 1727 by a council of the archbishopric of Embrun caused a huge outcry among the lower clergy and the bourgeoisie of Paris, supported in particular by the avocats of the Parisian bar. Fleury's ruthless policy succeeded in destroying the ‘old Jansenism’ of predestinarian theology and protest against Rome, but opposition to it laid the seeds for a new, politicized Jansenism.
The Mid‐Century Crisis
Authors: McManners John
Published: October 2003

The Jansenist issue could have been settled by compromise and silence by mid‐century but for the policy of the denial of the sacraments to dying Jansenists introduced by Christophe de Beaumont, archbishop of Paris, in 1749. The parlement of Paris made use of ambiguities about jurisdiction over the sacraments to challenge the Church and Louis XV. In the violent controversy, lasting until 1756, the parlement gained the support of most of the other parlements of the kingdom and of the people of Paris as issues of finance became entwined with the religious issue, and theories about the representative nature of the parlement were revived. The exile of individual parlementaires and the king's refusal to accept the parlement's remonstrances raised the quarrel to new heights before a truce was declared after the attempted assassination of Louis XV by Damiens and in view of the pressing needs of a kingdom at war. Over the issue of the sacraments, however, the parlement emerged as the winner.
Lutherans and Jews: Routine Intolerance
Authors: McManners John
Published: October 2003

The Lutherans of Alsace lived under a special regime guaranteeing their rights imposed when the province was incorporated into France in 1660–61. Louis XIV had nevertheless pursued a policy of conversion through inducements and penalization, and his regulations remained in force after his death, though the will for concerted enforcement died away. The real damage to Lutheranism in Alsace was done by a continuing ban on the immigration of non‐Catholics to the province. The Sephardic Jews of the Bordeaux area were well on their way to acceptance in local society and looked upon kindly by the government, but the Ashkenazim of Alsace, mostly miserably poor, suffered from discriminatory legislation and rural anti‐Semitism. The Jews in the papal enclaves of Avignon and the Comtat Venaissin enjoyed the right to practice their religion but lived in a state of permanent inferiority. The case for religious toleration, including for the Jews, was made by Enlightenment thinkers and a small minority of churchmen and lawyers, but there is little evidence of public support for their emancipation.
Towards a Grudging Toleration, 1774–1789
Authors: McManners John
Published: October 2003

By the beginning of Louis XVI's reign the Huguenots of the Desert had come to see themselves as loyal subjects of the French king, and many of the Catholic parish clergy acquiesced in a ‘patchwork pattern of edgy toleration, at the mercy of events and the vagaries of malicious or fanatical individuals’. At the beginning of his reign, Louis announced his intention to enforce the anti‐Protestant laws properly, but soon realized that this was both unpopular and impractical. The proponents of toleration, led by the parlement of Paris, gradually gained the upper hand, despite the continuing opposition of the Church establishment. The issue of civil marriage was the main bone of contention, while supporters of tolerance cited foreign examples. The royal edict of toleration in 1787 was a grudging document, maintaining Protestants as second‐class citizens and ‘did little more than end the fiction that there were no Protestants in France’.
Pattern and Particular: Saint and Novel
Authors: Brown David
Published: October 2003

In the first part of the chapter, attention is given to the various ways in which the cult of the saints helped bridge the gap between Christ and the individual disciple seeking to imitate Christ, with problems of metaphysical, spatial, and temporal distance all noted and discussed. The reason why fictional saints became so popular is then explored in relation to medieval treatments of Margaret of Antioch and Catherine of Alexandria. Attention is drawn to parallels with some important aspects of modern novel writing.
Universal Perfection
Authors: Ludlow Morwenna
Published: October 2003

This chapter analyses different sorts of evidence for the claim that Gregory of Nyssa asserted that all people would be saved. First, it notes those places where Gregory appears to state this belief directly (usually commenting on a verse from Scripture). Second, it argues that Gregory's concept of divine punishment implicitly assumes that such punishment is reformative and will eventually save all people. Third, it examines two arguments used explicitly by Gregory: that all evil will eventually cease to exist, and that human nature was created as a whole, was saved by Christ as a whole, and will be perfected as a whole. The chapter concludes by claiming that there is a place for human free will in Gregory's concept of universal salvation (at least before death), because of the complementary roles played by divine teaching/human learning and divine punishment/human purification.
The War on Liberalism
Authors: Freeden Michael
Published: October 2003

This chapter examines impact of World War I on British liberal thought. It is argued that the war caused liberal thinkers to stretch the limits of liberal theory to a point where mutual responsibility, social welfare, and common ends staked claims equal to, or prior to, the liberty of the individual. The issue of conscription, the reassessment of liberals’ views of the state as an idea and an institution, and British liberal thinkers’ attack on Idealism are discussed.
The Elements of Liberal Humanism
Authors: Freeden Michael
Published: October 2003

This chapter examines the core ideas of the left-liberal ideology. It analyses three central concepts: equality, property, and liberty. Left-liberal ideology is also compared with centrist-liberalism.
Explaining Democratic Government: Background Considerations
Authors: Budge Ian , Keman Hans
Published: October 2003

The comparative, statistical approach adopted in this book needs theoretical ideas to guide it. This chapter specifies the general shape of a satisfactory explanation and shows how the hypotheses proposed and tested in this book relates to other rational choices and mathematical accounts of party government in democracies.
Parties Steering the State: Evaluation and Development of the Theory
Authors: Budge Ian , Keman Hans
Published: October 2003

Concludes that the theoretical and empirical enquiry carried through in the book supports the idea that parties are the significant actors in democratic politics, and their differences in terms of ideology and preferences are what drives democratic politics. The book as a whole has helped to specify how this is done.
The Role and Evolution of European Community Regional Policy
Authors: Armstrong Harvey W.
Published: October 2003

European regional policy has developed gradually since 1975. It has evolved into a more coherent policy and increased in scale. Responsibility is still divided between the European Commission and Member States.
Danish Policy‐Making, Regionalism, and the European Community
Authors: Thomas Alastair H.
Published: October 2003

Regions are not important in Denmark, apart from Greenland. European matters impinge more on the municipalities.
Has Government by Committee Lost the Public's Confidence?
Authors: Wallace William
Published: October 2003

The European Communities were built around a series of committees. The central tension was between the Council of Ministers and its substructure of intergovernmental committees and the European Commission and its committees of experts. The resulting ‘comitology’ sought to replace conflicts of national interest by functional consensus. While this type of decision‐making facilitates business interest group influence, it reduces that of parliaments and political parties. As controversial issues increasingly supplement technical ones, committee government is decreasingly sustainable in a multi‐level political system.
Laying the Foundations
Authors: Banton Michael
Published: October 2003

Most states saw accession to the Convention as a matter of foreign policy. Many perceived it as a way of demonstrating their anti‐apartheid credentials, with but few implications for their internal affairs. In its first eight years, CERD had to concentrate upon establishing the novel reporting regime, upon tutoring state delegations as to the nature of their new obligations, and on agreeing some boundaries to the Committee's mandate.
Consensus and Legitimation
Authors: Morlino Leonardo
Published: October 2003

The entire double process of legitimation and consensus building in the four cases is illustrated with reference to survey data and other sets of data. Attitudes toward politics, democracy, and authoritarianism are discussed in greater detail. The main explanations of the entire legitimation process are provided. The main forms and paths of legitimation are suggested.
State and Civil Society
Authors: Morlino Leonardo
Published: October 2003

A whole picture of interest associations and their relationships with party and state is provided for the four Southern European countries. Unions, associations of industrial entrepreneurs, and associations of landowners receive special attention. The ‘top–down’ direction of consolidation process is presented with its main dimensions.
Regulation in Government: Tools, Characteristics, and Behaviour
Authors: Hood Christopher , Scott Colin , James Oliver , Jones George , Travers Tony
Published: October 2003

Explores three interrelated themes: the tools and approaches regulators used to do their job; the extent to which regulation of government resembled regulation of business; and the extent to which regulatory behaviour and style were linked to the relational distance between the regulators and those they regulate. It argues that while there is no single style of regulation in government, the tools and approaches used by the regulators cut across the different institutional forms taken by the regulators.
Stability Analysis of the Walras–Leontief System
Authors: Morishima Michio
Published: October 2003

This chapter is concerned with the stability of the mixed Walras–Leontief general‐equilibrium system, to which a conventional analysis of stability of equilibrium is applied. The use of this method may be justified by the Walrasian device of tâtonnement, or by making the assumptions that consumption goods and raw materials are perishable and not used more than once, and that capital goods are not subject to purchase and sale, only their services being traded on the market. No redistribution of durable goods occurs among individuals throughout the whole process of trading and pricing. However, a note to Ch. 2 shows that a pure exchange equilibrium is stable under some fairly reasonable assumptions, even if transactions of durable goods and, therefore, redistributions of the stocks of goods take place in the midst of pricing. The chapter also explores the laws of comparative statics that can be established for the Walras–Leontief system.
Towards More Disaggregated Models
Authors: Morishima Michio
Published: October 2003

Returns to the neoclassical model where the full employment of resources and labour is automatically attained and the Rule of Profitability and the Rule of Free Goods control behaviour of activities and prices. The previous two‐good model (consumption and capital good) is complicated to include many kinds of commodities, and it is found that the neoclassical analysis of stability of long‐run equilibrium is not necessarily the same. The stability criterion may be different from model to model if the capital‐good industry is divided into many sectors, although it is shown that it is still valid in models with many consumption goods and one capital good. This means the two‐sector model is inadequate to explain the actual process of capital accumulation, so an approach with merits over the Walrasian‐type analysis is offered, which starts on the road to more disaggregated general equilibrium models. The different sections of the chapter discuss the case of many consumption goods, the finding that that heterogeneity of consumption goods does not affect the stability criterion, the finding that many capital goods may lead to the possibility of ‘stability–instability’, the generalized Leontief model, the shift in the saving function from the ‘uniclass’ to the Cambridge type (the Golden Equilibrium), and the dual stability–instability theorem.
Equilibrium Growth (II) Hicks‐Malinvaud Trajectories
Authors: Morishima Michio
Published: October 2003

Devoted to establishing the existence of competitive equilibrium paths of various orders, and looks in particular at the Hicks–Malinvaud equilibrium growth path. The different sections cover temporary equilibrium and its conditions (the Lindahl–Hicks sequence of temporary equilibria), the responses of entrepreneurs and the custodian in a pseudo‐economy, the proof of existence of a temporary equilibrium, the non‐singularity and non‐triviality of the equilibrium, savings equals investment in the ‘ex ante’ and the ‘ex post’ sense, equilibrium of order T and its existence and non‐triviality, perfect foresight of the future and eternal equilibrium.
Equilibrium Growth. (III) Normative Properties
Authors: Morishima Michio
Published: October 2003

Devoted to establishing the optimality of competitive equilibrium paths of various orders. So far three kinds of equilibrium growth paths have been discussed in the book: the Cassel–von Neumann path of balanced growth, the Lindahl–Hicks sequence of temporary equilibria, and the Hicks–Malinvaud perfect equilibrium over time. These are now examined for efficiency and optimality. Each of them is compared with any other in succession. The different sections of the chapter discuss definitions of efficiency and Pareto optimality, short‐run efficiency of temporary equilibrium and long‐run efficiency of full equilibrium, Pareto optimality of the Lindahl–Hicks and the Hicks–Malinvaud path, Farkas’ theorem of linear inequalities, the fact that shadow prices associated with a Pareto optimum obey the rules of competitive pricing, the conditions that should be satisfied in order for a given point of Pareto optimum to be a competitive equilibrium, and the Golden Rule of Accumulation.
Dynamics and Interdependence
Authors: Hendry David F.
Published: October 2003

When two time series are integrated but not causally related, conventional tests reject up to 80% under the null, at a 5% nominal level. This ‘nonsense regressions’ phenomenon is analysed, and detrending is shown not to solve the problem. Integrated variables that are connected are cointegrated. Since dynamics and cross‐variable interdependence interact, both sequential and conditional factorizations of data‐density functions are needed.
Dynamic Systems
Authors: Hendry David F.
Published: October 2003

Linear dynamic systems are formulated for stationary and integrated data processes. Both open and closed systems are noted. General‐to‐specific modelling of the joint data‐density function is reviewed. A typology of linear dynamic systems is developed, extending that for individual dynamic equations. Alternative models of systems are derived from three operations on systems, namely, contemporaneous and intertemporal transforms, and conditioning. Methods for analysing econometric systems are discussed.
UK Monetary Policy Since 1971
Authors: Dow J. C. R. , Saville I. D.
Published: October 2003

Is a short description of monetary policy since 1971. It provides a brief overview of the monetary controls that will form the basis of the next few chapters. It then has a summary of the basic policies undertaken by Heath, Wilson, Callaghan, and Thatcher, and the major events that influenced monetary policy.
The von Neumann Model as a Chaotic Attractor
Authors: Goodwin Richard M.
Published: October 2003

Teases out parallels in the thinking of von Neumann and Marx. Goodwin presents a simplified version of the von Neumann model removing the assumption of infinite labour supply. The resulting non‐linear difference system shows endogenously erratic behaviour with cyclical output growth. In the long run, this system ceases to oscillate and another model is proposed to circumvent this problem. For low parameter values, the model has a fixed point; for moderate values, it has a limit cycle; and for higher values, a chaotic attractor is observed.
Recollections and Documents
Authors: Hicks John
Published: October 2003

This chapter presents Hicks's personal ‘Keynesian Revolution’ which pre-dates 1936. The route by which he reached his semi-Keynesian ideas, such as those expressed in his ‘Suggestion for simplifying the theory of money’ (written in 1934 and published in Economica in February 1935), are even now of interest. This route can be related to the tracks which have been followed by much more recent writers such as Patinkin and Leijonhufvud.
The Disaster Point in Risk Theory
Authors: Hicks John
Published: October 2003

In the paper on Portfolio Selection, printed in Critical Essays in Monetary Theory, Hicks followed what has become the conventional approach, supposing that the ‘prospect’ of each available investment could be expressed in terms of the first two moments of a probability distribution (e, s). There is also a passage, in that same paper, in which Hicks examined the alternative ‘Bernouillian’ approach to risk-bearing; an approach which has the obvious merit that it imposes no restriction upon the ‘shape’ of the prospect, as does the (e, s) approach, at least in effect. He nevertheless rejected that approach, not on account of its adherence to ‘cardinal utility’ but for another reason. In the particular case of a linear marginal utility function — the only case where it is easy to build a bridge between the (e, s) theory and the Bernouillian theory, so that either approach is applicable — absurd results are obtained. This chapter gives the Bernouillian approach some further consideration.
The True Index
Authors: Afriat S. N.
Published: October 2003

This is the second of five chapters about the cost of living problem and price indices, a typical area for what is understood as choice theory. It discusses the price index, which is associated with a narrow concept of the cost of living problem, is important for both theory and practice, has a long history and large literature, and is now quite an elaborate theory. An outline of the main ideas is given, touching upon history only where points are encountered directly, and bringing in theorems discursively and without proof; William Fleetwood, Irving Fisher, and S. S. Byushgens stand out from the past in the account, with the writings of J. R. Hicks, R. G. D. Allen and Paul Samuelson forming a background. The ‘true index’ of the chapter title is an early vague term that later acquired the meaning dealt with here. The nine sections are: the cost of living; the price index; formulae, and Fisher's Tests (and Ideal Index); the Paasche–Laspeyres interval; existence test; theory and practice; many periods; price levels; and Fisher's formula.
The Four‐Point Formula
Authors: Afriat S. N.
Published: October 2003

This is the fourth of five chapters about the cost of living problem and price indices, a typical area for what is understood as choice theory. Together with the previous and next chapters it discusses theoretical matters arising from the finding of S. S. Byushgens (1925) that Irving Fisher's ‘Ideal Index’ is exact if demand is governed by a homogeneous quadratic utility. specifically, it addresses the four‐point formula. the eight sections of the chapter are: median multipliers and levels; centre locus; linear purchasing power; critical locations; elliptical case; hyperbolic case; parabolic limits; and demonstration: Fisher's data.
The Market
Authors: Afriat S. N.
Published: October 2003

This is the third of six chapters on the logic of price. It deals with the phenomenon of the market, and starts with a discourse on the ‘logic of price’ and a critique of the supply and demand theory. The considerations are taken further with reference to a very simple but none the less adequate linear market model, with an appeal to theorems about distribution matrices known from the theory of Markov processes; a further treatment, without the linearity, involves the KKM lemma. Global stability for a loosely defined tâtonnement is demonstrated from a convergence of infinite products of distribution matrices, analogous to the familiar convergence of powers. The nine sections of the chapter are: the logic of price; supply and demand; price formation; market functions; intercept and slope; linear markets; tâtonnement; continuous markets; and uniqueness and stability.
Optimal Programming
Authors: Afriat S. N.
Published: October 2003

This is the first of five chapters on optimal programming (the typical mathematics of economics) and related issues as related to choice making. It introduces the general ideas of optimal programming in economic terms, with reference to the programming problem of a firm. A theorem is proved that is basic to the entire subject, and requires no special assumptions about the programming functions. The ten sections of the chapter are: bounds, limits and maxima; programming problem of a firm; optimal programming theorem; input–output; output limit function; support gradients and marginal values; complementarity; shadow price decentralization; proof of the theorem; and Lagrange multipliers.
Minimum Paths
Authors: Afriat S. N.
Published: October 2003

This is the fourth of five chapters on optimal programming (the typical mathematics of economics) and related issues as related to choice making, and discusses minimum paths. The eleven sections of the chapter are: connection costs; perpetuum mobile impossible; the triangle inequality; routes; scales; extension theorem; the lp [linear programming] formula; flow argument; elementary decomposition; ford and fulkerson; and shortest path algorithm in basic.
Distribution Matrices
Authors: Afriat S. N.
Published: October 2003

This is the last of five chapters on optimal programming (the typical mathematics of economics) and related issues as related to choice making, and discusses distribution matrices. The six sections of the chapter are: equilibrium; irreducibility; powers and limits; convergence; periodic case; and computer graphics.
Metamorphosis: John Law the Economist
Authors: Murphy Antoin E.
Published: October 2003

Discusses Law's first writing on economic issues, the Essay on a Land Bank. His introduction of the paradox of value and the concept of demand. His use of supply and demand analysis. His introduction of the term ‘the demand for money’ and his analysis of inflation in a demand‐for‐money–supply‐of‐money‐framework.
Money and Trade
Authors: Murphy Antoin E.
Published: October 2003

Provides an analysis of the contents of ‘Money and Trade’ including emphasis on the money‐in‐advance requirement, the circular flow of income, the further analysis of inflation in a money supply and money demand framework, and the formulation of the law of one price for a small open economy—Law's weak point on the balance of payments.
The Lull Before the Storm
Authors: Murphy Antoin E.
Published: October 2003

The inconsistencies in Law's policies of expanding the money supply, reducing the interest rate, and revaluing the exchange rate started to become more evident to people such as Richard Cantillon.His bear attack on the French exchange rate made him a second fortune.
Theories of Sharecropping
Authors: Singh Nirvikar
Published: October 2003

Surveys the theoretical literature on the rationale of sharecropping, with special emphasis on the roles of risk‐sharing, incentive provision, wealth constraints, and screening in an environment of pervasive uncertainty, and information asymmetry.
Credit and Agrarian Class Structure
Authors: Eswaran Mukesh , Kotwal Ashok
Published: October 2003

In this chapter, the authors trace the key role of unequal access to both production and consumption credits in shaping the agrarian class structure.
Institutional Analysis of Credit Co‐Operatives
Authors: Braverman Avishay , Guasch J. Luis
Published: October 2003

In this chapter, the authors present an analysis of the motivation, formation, and design of credit cooperatives and show how their degree of success is likely to depend crucially on the particular incentive schemes, extent of control over resources, quality monitoring, and enforcement of punishment rules.
Consumption and Distribution
Authors: Kornai János
Published: October 2003

The material living conditions of citizens under a classical socialist system are considered. The first part of the chapter looks at consumption, material welfare, and economic security, and compares these under socialist and capitalist systems to the detriment of the socialist system. The second part examines the distribution of money income and material welfare among the various groups in society, again contrasting socialist and capitalist systems. Explanations are then advanced for the real inequality of distribution in welfare shown for the classical socialist system, and tendencies towards equalization and differentiation are discussed.
Market Socialism
Authors: Kornai János
Published: October 2003

This chapter discusses the phenomenon of market socialism in the state sector. The practical changes involved in this constitute one of the major tendencies in the move away from classical socialism. Aspects addressed are ideological antecedents; the application of market socialism in selected socialist countries (Yugoslavia, Hungary, China, Poland, Vietnam, and the Soviet Union); alternative strategies for deregulation; the firm's vertical dependence; the softness and hardness of budget constraint, and the firm's responsiveness to prices; the affinity between public ownership and bureaucratic coordination; horizontal relations of firms in public ownership; the relative proportions of bureaucratic and market coordination, and the interactions between them; and the relation between publicly owned firms and the private sector.
Macro Tensions
Authors: Kornai János
Published: October 2003

Changes in the macroeconomy can be observed in countries undergoing reforms of classical socialism, and can result in tensions if the economy has shifted appreciably from classical towards market socialism. These changes occurred most conspicuously in Poland in the 1980s, and the resulting insolvable contradictions have been called the ‘Polish Syndrome’. The macroeconomic analysis of the changes presented here addresses employment and wages; growth and investment; the state budget and fiscal policy; and the credit system and monetary policy. Two sections then review the macrotensions in the reform economy and their combined effects (1) in interlocking shortage and inflation in internal economic relations, and (2) on foreign trade and debt; the triple relation between shortage, inflation, and indebtedness, and then addressed. Lastly, the effect of the reform processes and macrotensions is assessed on the standard of living.
Private International Capital Flows in Europe in the Inter‐War Period
Authors: Feinstein Charles H. , Watson Katherine
Published: October 2003

Explores the nature, scale, and direction of the massive flows of international capital to and from Europe in the inter‐war period. The authors present new data on the movements of international capital as measured by balance of payments statistics for each of the main lenders and borrowers in all parts of the world. These global estimates for all creditors and all debtors ought, in principle, to agree, but there was a substantial discrepancy between them, particularly in the 1930s. The authors suggest that one major explanation for this is the enormous flight of capital from Europe, evading exchange controls and other restrictions on the free movement of funds. On the basis of these new estimates, they discuss the reasons for, and effects of, the huge movements of long‐term and short‐term capital.
Polish Banking in the Inter‐War Period
Authors: Landau Zbigniew , Morawski Wojciech
Published: October 2003

The principal trend in the development of the banking system in Poland in the years between the wars was a gradual decrease in the importance of private banking and an enhanced role for the state banks. This process was not the result of a deliberate government policy, but reflected the weakness of private Polish capital and the unwillingness of foreign capital to make large investments in a country situated between Germany and the Soviet Union. The great economic crisis was unusually protracted in Poland, continuing from 1929 until 1935, and this, together with the rapid outflow of foreign capital, severely affected the private banks. The government lacked the resources to assist any but the most important private banks, and many of the smaller ones collapsed.
Money and Banking in the Irish Free State, 1921–1939
Authors: Ó Gráda Cormac
Published: October 2003

The years following the creation of an independent Irish Free State were a formative period for the Irish banking system. The Bank of Ireland adapted slowly but effectively to the new situation, but it needed the prospect of the Second World War for the Bank to switch its full loyalty to the country, and for the commercial banks to acknowledge that an Irish central bank might have a useful role to play. It was generally accepted that the Irish banks’ links with London, and the commitment to maintain parity with the sterling, ruled out an independent monetary policy. This argument was reinforced by the virtual absence of a domestic money or capital market, and only the first tentative steps in the development of such markets were made during the inter‐war period.
Linear Transformations, Error Correction, and the Long Run in Dynamic Regression
Authors: Banerjee Anindya , Dolado Juan J. , Galbraith John W. , Hendry David F.
Published: October 2003

The focus in this chapter is on the properties of linear autoregressive‐distributed lag (ADL) models for stationary data processes, in order to understand later transformations in non‐stationary models. Various equivalent transformations of ADL models are considered, especially the error‐correction, Bewley and Bardsen forms, and the estimation of long‐run multipliers (and their variances) from these models is discussed. The role of expectational variables in inference about long‐run multipliers is also investigated and potential problems are shown to be related to the general issue of the absence of weak exogeneity for the parameters of interest.
Testing for a Unit Root
Authors: Banerjee Anindya , Dolado Juan J. , Galbraith John W. , Hendry David F.
Published: October 2003

Methods of testing for a unit root in an observed series are described in this chapter. Both parametric regression tests and non‐parametric adjustments to these test statistics are considered, and tables of critical values for commonly used tests are given. The chapter also uses functionals of Wiener processes to describe the asymptotic distributions of important test statistics.
Regression With Integrated Variables
Authors: Banerjee Anindya , Dolado Juan J. , Galbraith John W. , Hendry David F.
Published: October 2003

The chapter demonstrates the special problems with inference that arise, for example, in orthogonality tests for rational expectations, from the presence of integrated variables. Using results from Sims, Stock and Watson (1990), we show how a proper consideration of the deterministics, the orders of integration of the variables, and dynamic specifications that take into account any co‐integrating relationships among the variables, enables the use of many of the standard distributional results to be restored. Our analysis is illustrated by a number of informative examples.
A Respectable Auditory
Authors: Ross Ian Simpson
Published: October 2003

In the aftermath of the ’45 Rising, the jurist and man of letters, Lord Kames, recruited Adam Smith to come to Edinburgh, Scotland's capital—notable for its superb views, historic buildings, and noisome streets— to deliver to young professionals, from 1748–51, freelance courses of lectures on rhetoric and criticism. Smith's course included a theory of communication, distinguishing between scientific discourse based on reason and the rhetorical kind meant to persuade by moving the passions. Another part of the course was devoted to the origin and progress of language, an example of the philosophical or natural type of history prevalent among the Scottish literati, which Smith adopted for all his works, moral, political, and literary.
Teacher
Authors: Ross Ian Simpson
Published: October 2003

Smith wrote that his thirteen years as a Glasgow professor formed the most useful, and, therefore, the happiest and most honourable period of his life. His students joked about his absent‐mindedness and loved him for his benevolence and learning and also for the care he took over the delivery of his lectures. In due course, they disseminated Smith's ideas. Some were sons of local merchants, from whose fathers Smith learned about Glasgow's growing wealth from trading and manufacturing activities, then reflected on related moral and economic problems and offered solutions. Others were from foreign countries: e.g. S.E. Desnitsky and I.A. Tret’yakov, sent abroad by Catherine the Great to complete their education, who then assisted her reform programme in Russia, by passing on Smith's liberal economic policy advice, at least eight years before it was published in WN.
The Making of The Theory of Moral Sentiments
Authors: Ross Ian Simpson
Published: October 2003

The capstone of Smith's years as a professor was the publication of TMS as a direct challenge to the egoistic theories of Hobbes and Mandeville, and Rousseau. In defining what virtue is and why we ought to act virtuously, Smith offers a sophisticated extension of the arguments of his teacher Hutcheson and a good friend, Hume, to the effect that our moral judgements are based on our sentiments, principally those of justice, benevolence, prudence, and propriety. The chief component of the system is the role of sympathy in human transactions, through which we naturally judge the motives and conduct of others, and then ourselves. Another main component in the system is the impartial spectator, a higher self as it were, identified as the source of our normative judgements. A further important part of the book is rejection of utility as an explanation of the origin of moral rules, but acceptance of it embodied in contemplative utilitarianism, which reveals that the selfish rich, gratifying their desires, are led by an invisible hand to divide with the poor the necessaries of life, almost in the measure that equal distribution would have ensured.