bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Biosynthesis, Transport, and Metabolism of Steroid Hormones
Authors: Stanczyk Frank Z , Bretsky Philip
Published: November 2023

In the human body, a balance exists between production and clearance of steroid hormones. Production of steroid hormones occurs de novo by biosynthetic pathways in specific endocrine glands, i.e., the adrenals and ovaries in women and the adrenals and testes in men. In addition, steroid hormones can be produced in peripheral (nonendocrine gland) tissues from circulating precursors that originate from the endocrine glands. Important sites of peripheral steroid hormone formation include the liver, kidney, breast, prostate, and sexual and nonsexual skin. After steroid hormones are secreted by the endocrine glands, they enter the systemic circulation, where they are mostly bound to proteins. The low-affinity bound and non-protein-bound (free) steroids, sometimes referred to as bioavailable steroids, are available for binding to steroid hormone receptors (progestogen, androgen, estrogen, glucocorticoid, mineralocorticoid); and if active, they exert a biological effect. Alternatively, they undergo metabolism and are excreted primarily through the kidney and, to a lesser extent, the intestine, appearing in urine and feces, respectively.
The Impact of Exogenous Hormone Use on Breast Cancer Risk
Authors: Reeves Gillian K , Banks Emily , Key Timothy J A
Published: November 2023

The importance of endogenous hormones in the etiology of breast cancer is evident from the strong relationships between breast cancer risk and certain aspects of a woman’s reproductive history, such as age at menarche, age at first birth, and age at menopause. More recently, the risk of developing breast cancer among post-menopausal women has also been shown to increase substantially with increasing levels of circulating estradiol, thus providing more direct evidence for the role of hormones in the development of the disease. The relationship between endogenous hormones and breast cancer risk leads naturally to the question of whether exogenous hormones, such as oral contraceptives and postmenopausal hormone therapy, might also have an effect on breast cancer risk. Over 60 epidemiological studies worldwide have examined breast cancer risk in relation to either hormonal contraceptive use or postmenopausal hormone therapy. There have been collaborative reanalyses of data on breast cancer risk in relation to both hormonal contraceptives3,4 and postmenopausal hormone therapy, which have incorporated data from the vast majority of these original studies. In addition, a de- tailed review of the relationship between both these types of hormonal preparations and cancer has been compiled by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). The latter review includes details of many of the individual studies and summarizes the results of the main collaborative reanalyses. Three large randomized controlled trials of postmenopausal hormone therapy have also published results with respect to breast cancer and their findings have been reviewed recently. Other specific types of exogenous hormone that have been examined in relation to breast cancer risk include diethylstilbestrol, which was commonly used during pregnancy in the 1950s, and fertilityenhancing drugs, such as clomiphene citrate, which have been used since the late 1960s.8 However, the amount of data on breast cancer risk in relation to these latter two types of hormonal preparation is substantially less than that available for hormonal contraceptives and post-menopausal hormone therapy.
Hereditary Prostate Cancer: The Search for Major Genes and the Role of Genes Involved in Androgen Action
Authors: Chang Bao-Li , Turner Aubrey R , Isaacs William B , xu Jianfeng
Published: November 2023

Prostate cancer is the most frequently diagnosed noncutaneous cancer in men in Western countries. Both genetic and environmental factors have been implicated in the etiology of this disease. A genetic component of prostate cancer has been suggested by both twin and segregation studies.1–6 About 9% of all prostate cancer cases have been proposed to be due to mutations in prostate cancer susceptibility genes, and the overall effect of heritable factors has been estimated to be higher for prostate cancer than for other common cancers. So far, linkage studies of prostate cancer families have provided evidence for several major prostate cancer susceptibility loci.7–12 In addition to major gene effects, common polymorphisms that result in minor quantitative and qualitative functional differences in gene products most likely modify the risk of prostate cancer. As a hormone-related cancer, genes involved in the androgen-metabolism pathway are particularly compelling candidates for prostate cancer risk factors and have been the focus of many case-control studies. However, few studies have investigated the role of androgen-pathway genes in the etiology of hereditary prostate cancer (HPC), in which genetic factors may play more important roles compared to sporadic cases. This chapter reviews the search for HPC genes and recent efforts to understand the interrelationship of HPC and the androgen-action pathway.
Hormonal Therapies for Prostate Cancer
Authors: Quinn David I , Raghavan Derek
Published: November 2023

Prostate cancer is the commonest malignancy among men in developed countries and the second commonest cause of cancer death. As populations age, prostate cancer becomes an even greater demographic problem. Hormonal therapy has been the mainstay of therapy for prostate cancer for the past century. New applications of such treatment to earlier stages of the disease may be altering its natural history. Normal prostate development and growth as well as the development of prostatic neoplasia are dependent on the action of the testicular androgens testosterone (T) and dihydrotestos terone (DHT). Testosterone, secreted by the testicular Leydig cells, is taken up by a variety of tissues, including normal prostate and prostate cancer. The type II 5a-reductase enzyme acts within the prostate to metabolize T into the more potent androgen DHT. Dihydrotestosterone and T form complexes with the androgen receptor (AR), which then interact with DNA via coactivator recruitment and RNA polymerase II to induce protein synthesis and cell replication. The major mechanism for regulation of serum and tissue androgen concentrations is control of testicular Leydig cell T secretion via the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal (HPG) axis. The testes produce T in response to the serum luteinizing hormone (LH) concentration. This hormone is secreted from the anterior pituitary based on pulsatile and phasic production of LH-releasing hormone (LHRH) by the hypothalamus. In turn, and to complete the loop, LHRH secretion is suppressed by feedback at the hypothalamic level directly either by sex steroid hormones or by hormones released by their end-organ effect, such as inhibin and activin.
Ovarian Cancer: Epidemiology and Molecular Endocrinology
Authors: Whittemore Alice S , McGuire Valerie
Published: November 2023

Ovarian cancer is the sixth most common cancer and the sixth most common cause of cancer death among women worldwide, accounting for 4.4% of incident cases and 5.5% of cancer deaths. In 1999, an estimated 166,000 new cases of ovarian cancer and 101,000 deaths from this disease occurred throughout the world. Incidence and mortality rates are highest in North America and western Europe and lowest in developing countries and Japan. The overall 5-year survival probability is less than 40%, largely because most cancers are diagnosed at an advanced stage. Thus, ovarian cancer is a major health problem, and there is a need to improve our understanding of the etiology of this disease. In this chapter, we focus on epithelial ovarian cancers, which comprise about 90% of all ovarian cancers. The cell of origin of epithelial ovarian cancers is thought to lie either in the surface epithelium covering the ovaries, in the epithelium lining ovarian inclusion cysts, or possibly in residual mullerian tissue in or near the ovaries. Our objectives are to review the current evidence on the roles of steroid hormones and gonadotropins in the etiology of epithelial ovarian cancers and to discuss some of the obstacles to improving our understanding of these roles.
Inner Hygiene in the Nineteenth Century: Causes and Cures of Constipation
Authors: Whorton James C
Published: November 2023

On November 14, 1635, the most storied character in the long history of hygiene died in London. Thomas Parr—“Old Parr, the old, old, very old man”—lived for 152 years in the Shropshire hamlet of his nativity, and lived in robust health. As recently as his 130th year he had been engaged “lustily in every kind of agricultural labour,” and apparently had still been lustfully engaged as well: at age 105, it was recorded, he had been ordered to do penance for fathering a bastard, and 17 years later had taken a new had he ceased to embrace her frequently.”
The Never-Ending Quest for Regularity: Constipation in the Late Twentieth Century
Authors: Whorton James C
Published: November 2023

In July 1972, a middle-aged bank executive arrived at the Mayo Clinic, in Roehester, Minnesota, seeking treatment for persistent diarrhea. For nearly 2 years, he had experienced a dozen or more loose watery stools a day, aggravated by abdominal cramps and frequent vomiting, and he had lost 100 pounds in weight. Mayo gastroenterologists performed a comprehensive physical examination, extensive laboratory tests, X-ray studies, an intestine biopsy, and finally exploratory surgery: “No intra-abdominal disease was found.” Several courses of treatment were then experimented with—antibiotics, prednisone, gluten-free diet—but all were “without benefit.” Consultation with several other clinic gastroenterologists led to suspicion of a pancreatic tumor, but when further exploratory surgery was proposed, the patient chose to return home. His problems continued, and in October he submitted to surgery at another hospital. No tumor was found.
West Slavic
Authors: Franks Steven , King Tracy Holloway
Published: November 2023

This chapter introduces the major clitic phenomena of the West Slavic (WSl) literary languages, which fall into three discrete groups. Here we survey the clitic systems of near neighbors Czech (Cz) and Slovak (Slk), the (east) Lekhitic language Polish (Pol) and, to complete the picture, the isolated pair of Upper Sorbian (USor) and Lower Sorbian (LSor). As in SSl, there is considerable diversity among these WSl systems, from the fairly strict second-position placement displayed by clitics in Cz, Slk and the Sorbians, to the striking freedom of Pol clitics. In discussing these languages, we provide somewhat more detailed description for Cz and Pol than the other WSl languages. The reasons for this are because in relevant respects Slk is highly similar to Cz, for which we have much more accessible information and hence take as a point of departure, and because for the Sorbians there is not much literature available (and virtually none written in any generative paradigm) on syntax in general, let alone on the Clitic systems.
The Nominal Domain
Authors: Franks Steven , King Tracy Holloway
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we review the data about clitics associated with and situated inside the nominal domain. These are clitics dependent in some way on nouns. Pronominal clitics can function as possessive pronouns or, as most clearly seen in Pol, as arguments of the noun, and clitics can serve as reflexive markers on deverbal nouns. These are surveyed in section 9.1. The postpositive articles and demonstratives that occur in Mac and Bg are also sometimes regarded as clitics, although in section 9.2 we argue that these are inflectional affixes. Section 11.3.3 reconsiders the nominal domain data.

Although full pronouns are acceptable as arguments of nouns wherever NPs might appear, as in (la), clitic pronouns cannot function in this way, as shown by (lb-c). The same is true of most other Sl languages, such as Cz, Slk, and Sln. Why clitics should be impossible in NPs is quite mysterious, as we would expect them to occur with the same distribution as other pronominal elements.
Apparent Last-Resort Effects
Authors: Franks Steven , King Tracy Holloway
Published: November 2023

This chapter discusses three purported cases of last-resort effects. These occur when the clitic finds itself syntactically in a position where its prosodic requirements are not met (e.g., in initial position). The main theoretical issue is whether these structures are saved by syntactic means, such as movement of a lexical item to a position where it will support the clitic, are saved by prosodic means, such as Prosodic Inversion, or simply crashes. In addition, there is disagreement over which constructions in fact represent last-resort situations.
Setting the Public Agenda
Authors: Beckett Katherine
Published: November 2023

Crime and drug use are not naturally or inherently “social control” issues but are constructed as such by social actors; the institutionalization of the get tough approach reflects the ascendance of this interpretation of their causes and solutions. Recognizing the importance of the symbolic dimensions of the crime issue does not imply that crime is not a “real” problem; particularly for the poor and nonwhite, the threat of criminal victimization and the harm associated with drug abuse are all too real. At the same time, the extent to which members of the public express concern about these social problems and, more importantly, become more supportive of punitive anticrime policies is clearly linked to the pervasiveness of imagery and rhetoric that depict these problems as the consequence of excessive lenience. What came to be known as “the crime issue” emerged on the national political scene during the 1964 presidential campaign and continued to play an important role in national politics through 1972. The reported rate of crime also increased throughout the 1960s; for many, this trend provided more than ample support for the democracy-at­ work thesis. By contrast, the war on drugs of the 1980s was waged at a time when the reported incidence of drug use was declining. This chapter investigates this puzzle and summarizes two main bodies of evidence that cast doubt on the conventional interpretation of these events.
Creating the Crime Issue
Authors: Beckett Katherine
Published: November 2023

While it is clear that attitudes about crime and punishment are linked to public discourse on those topics, the question remains: how and why were crime-related issues constructed as problems of in­ sufficient punishment and control? Drawing on an analysis of political rhetoric on crime, this chapter traces the emergence and application of this ideological framework and suggests that the discourse of law and order was initially mobilized by southern officials in their effort to discredit the civil rights movement. As the decade progressed, opponents of the welfare state also used this rhetoric to attack President Lyndon Johnson’s Great Society programs and the structural explanations of poverty with which they were associated. Discussions of crime were a particularly effective vehicle for promoting the view that poverty and crime are freely chosen by dangerous and undeserving individuals “looking for the easy way out.” Somewhat contradictorily, conservatives also identified the “culture of welfare” as an important cause of “social pathologies”-especially crime, delinquency, and drug addiction.
Responsive Regulation
Authors: Braithwaite John
Published: November 2023

The Basic Idea of Responsive Regulation is that Governments Should Be Re- sponsive to the conduct of those they seek to regulate in deciding whether a more or less interventionist response is needed (Ayres and Braithwaite 1992). In particular, law enforcers should be responsive to how effectively citizens or corporations are regulating themselves before deciding whether to escalate intervention. Responsive regulation is not only something governments can do; private actors in civil society can also regulate responsively, indeed, even regulate governments responsively (Gunningham and Grabosky 1998). Regulatory formalism is the important contrast to responsive regulation. The formalist says to define in advance which problems require which response and write rules to mandate those responses. The formalist might say, for example, that armed robbery is a very serious evil. Therefore it should always be dealt with by taking it to court, and if guilt is proven, the offender must go to jail. Responsive regulation requires us to challenge such a presumption; if the offender is responding to the detection of her wrongdoing by turning around her life, kicking a heroin habit, helping victims, and voluntarily working for a community group “to make up for the harm she has done to the community,” then the responsive regulator of armed robbery will say no to the jail option.
World Peacemaking
Authors: Braithwaite John
Published: November 2023

This chapter argues that both the restorative justice paradigm and the responsive regulation paradigms are useful for reconfiguring how to struggle for world peace. I argue that this is especially true of the conditions since 1989, where war has been widespread but not about confrontations between major powers. While it remains true that major powers can use their clout to mediate disputes in the shadow of a pyramid of coercive interventions, this rarely solves the underlying sources of late modern wars.
When Firms Change Direction
Authors: Sigismund Anne , Huff Huff James Oran , Barr Pamela S
Published: November 2023

Firms within the same competitive environment (industry) respond in different ways to changing environmental (competitive) conditions. The authors of this book argue that the strategy field has not found answers to the questions that flow from this observation. They answer these questions by using what they call a “cognitively anchored theory of strategic change.”
Towards a Common Semantics for English Count and Mass Nouns
Authors: Gillon Brendan S
Published: November 2023

The distinction between mass nouns and count nouns, first remarked upon by Jespersen (1909, vol. 2, ch. 5.2) in connection with English, is found in a number of the world’s languages, including Chinese, Tamil, German, and French. In English, the most common way to distinguish these two classes of words is syntactic. Cardinal numerals and quasi-cardinal numerals (e.g., “several”) modify count nouns, never mass nouns. Moreover, “little” and “much” modify mass nouns, never count nouns, whereas “few” and “many” modify count nouns, never mass nouns. Count nouns admit a morphological contrast between singular and plural; mass nouns do not, being almost always singular. The pronoun “one” may have as its antecedent a count noun, not a mass noun (Baker 1978. ch. 10.1). Mass nouns with singular morphology do not tolerate the indefinite article, whereas singular count nouns do. Finally, mass nouns occur only with the plural form of those quantifiers whose singular and plural forms differ.
Reference and Proper Names
Authors: Burge Tyler
Published: November 2023

It is perhaps surprising that one needs to theorize about proper names.They seem to present a straightforward, uncomplicated example of how language relates to the world. During the last eighty years, however, there has been considerable disagreement on issues surrounding them. The disagreement has centered on three broad questions: (a) the question of how to explicate the conditions under which a proper name designates an object; (b) the question of how best to speak (semantically and pragmatically) about nondesignating proper names; and (c) the question of the logical role of proper names in a formal theory of language.
Two Theories about Adjectives
Authors: W. (HANS) Kamp J A
Published: November 2023

I will discuss two theories about adjectives. The first theory dates from the late 1960s. It is stated in Montague (1970a) and Parsons (1968). According to this theory, the meaning of an adjective is a function which maps the meanings of noun phrases onto other such meanings; for example, the meaning of clever is a function which maps the meaning of man into that of clever man, that of poodle onto that of clever poodle, and so on. Predicative uses of adjectives are explained as elliptic attributive uses. Thus This dog is clever is analyzed as This dog is a clever dog—or as This dog is a clever animal, or perhaps as This dog is a clever being. Which noun phrase ought to be supplied in this reduction of predicative to attributive use is in general not completely determined by the sentence itself, and to the extent that it is not, the sentence must be regarded as ambiguous.
Scorekeeping in a Language Game
Authors: Lewis David
Published: November 2023

“The king of France is bald” requires the presupposition that France has one king, and one only; “Even George Lakoff could win” requires the presupposition that George is not a leading candidate; and so on. We need not ask just what sort of unacceptability results when a required presupposition is lacking. Some say falsehood, some say lack of truth value, some just say that it’s the kind of unacceptability that results when a required presupposition is lacking, and some say it might vary from case to case.
Epidemiology, Etiology, Genetic Patterns, and Genetic Counseling
Authors: Reardon William , Toriello, Helga V , Downs Catherine A
Published: November 2023

Wilson (58) estimated in 1985 that there were 70 million people in the world with a hearing loss of more than 55 dB. We have calculated that during the year 1985 between 2500 and 4500 profoundly deaf infants were born in the United States. It has been suggested that there are about 2 million deaf individuals and 12 million hearing-impaired individuals in the United States (15). Many of the earlier epidemiologic studies carried out in both Europe and the United States indicate that at least one-third of all cases are hereditary. However, about 90% of people with congenital hearing loss have normal hearing parents. Since acquired forms of congenital and early-onset hearing loss comprise another one-third, it has been estimated that unknown factors are responsible for the remaining one-third. Estimates that one-third of cases are hereditary must be a minimal figure because a considerable proportion of isolated cases of unknown cause may, in reality, be hereditary. More recently the literature suggests that half of congenital hearing loss is genetic, and half is environmental (42). Among known hereditary examples, at least 15%-30% are syndromic, i.e., associated with other anomalies (I 0,11,13,14,19,36,37,40,42,47-50,55).
Genetic Hearing Loss With No Associated Abnormalities
Authors: Smith Shelley D , taggart R Thomas
Published: November 2023

On the basis of the number of known X-linked hearing loss genes, Morton (2) calculated that there would be about 120 different genes causing nonsyndromic hearing loss, 60 prelingual and 60 postlingual. More complicated estimates based on the analysis of mating types, inbreeding coefficients, and mutation rates have indicated that there may be about 36 recessive loci for hearing loss, most of them nonsyndromic. Although the assumptions behind these estimates were uncertain, the predictions appear to be quite accurate, as there are at least 67 Mendelian loci defined currently: 32 dominant (primarily postlingual), 31 recessive (primarily prelingual), and 4 X-linked. Additional loci are listed as “reserved,” and information on those should be forthcoming.
Genetic Hearing Loss Associated with Eye Disorders
Authors: Kimberling William J
Published: November 2023

Usher syndrome is the most commonly occurring disorder in this category. Patients with this syndrome have sensorineural hearing loss and loss of vision due to retinitis pigmentosa. Estimates of its prevalence among profoundly deaf children range from 3% to 8%. In addition to their association with eye disease and hearing loss, some syndromes discussed in this chapter involve the nervous system while others involve different, sometimes multiple, systems. For example, Refsum syndrome and Alstrom syndrome could have been assigned to Chapters 12 or 13, Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders. Gordon syndrome is included in Chapter 10 on genetic hearing loss associated with nervous system disorders. The IVIC syndrome might easily have been assigned to Chapter 8, Genetic Hearing Loss Associated with Musculoskeletal Disorders, but it seemed best to include the syndrome here.
Genetic Hearing Loss Associated with Musculoskeletel Disorders
Authors: Gorlin Robert J
Published: November 2023

Craniometaphyseal dysplasia was erroneously reported in the early literature as Pyle disease. It is characterized by an unusual face and clubshaped metaphyseal flaring of long bones. Autosomal dominant and recessive inheritance patterns have been observed. Extreme variability in the dominant form does not allow for differentiation from the recessive form, whereas the latter appears to be somewhat less variable. Although some recessive cases appear to be more severe than dominant examples, in a sporadic case it is not possible to clinically distinguish between the two forms (18,40). About 80 cases have been reported. The basic defect is altered bone turnover (21,32,33). Clinical findings. Usually within the first year of life, the root of the nose begins to broaden and an elevated wing of bone gradually extends bilaterally over the nasal bridge to the zygomas. Increasing bony sclerosis narrows the nasal lumen, leading to obstruction, with resultant open mouth (2,23) (Fig. 8-1 A-D,l,J).
Genetic Hearing Loss Associated with Neurologic and Neuromuscular Disorders
Authors: Toriello Helga V
Published: November 2023

Many progressive neurodegenerative diseases are associated with sensorineural hearing loss, but the classification of these disorders remains controversial. This chapter combines reports of families with similar disorders and different ages of onset, but separates similar families if the pattern of inheritance was different. It is apparent that some neurological manifestations of these diseases tend to cluster. For example, ataxia is frequently associated with spastic paraplegia (“spinocerebellar ataxia”) and with motor and sensory neuropathy. Pigmentary retinopathies (which include retinitis pigmentosa) are often associated with optic atrophy. Some are considered in this chapter, but others were assigned to Chapter 7. In many older reports, modern neurodiagnostic tests often were not available, making clinical distinctions more difficult. Because of the clinical similarity, it is possible that some disorders described in this section represent unrecognized mitochondrial encephalomyopathies.
Genetic Hearing Loss Associated with Integumentary Disorders
Authors: Toriello Helga V
Published: November 2023

The most characteristic features of Waardenburg syndrome (WS) are widely spaced medial canthi (dystopia canthorum), broad nasal root, and confluent eyebrows (synophrys). Patients frequently have variably colored irides as well as a white forelock. Although certain aspects of this disorder were described by Hammerschlag (42) in 1905, van der Hoeve (I 18) in 1916, and Mende (77) in 1926, the syndrome was first well defined by Waardenburg in 1948 (121,122). Waardenburg (122) estimated that 1.4% of those with profound hearing loss in The Netherlands had this syndrome. DiGeorge et al. (24) suggested that about 2.3% of those with congenital hearing loss have Waardenburg syndrome. It is possible that the actual frequency is twice this estimate, since only about 50% have ocular and/or pigmentation anomalies. Waardenburg syndrome has been divided into four types, depending on the phenotype and presence of additional features.
Pediatric Dental Care
Authors: Farrington Frank
Published: November 2023

Optimum dental health is essential for the total health of the child. The basic dental care needs of children with oral clefts are the same as those for anyone of the same age, with the addition of the special needs resulting from the cleft. Early evaluation and preventive care are extremely important as the primary and developing permanent dentitions provide the basic framework for future dental, orthodontic, and prosthetic treatment. However, parents are often so overwhelmed by other aspects of their children’s care that dental needs are given a rather low priority. Emphasizing the fact that their child with an oral cleft needs the same basic dental care as any child the same age brings an element of normalcy to parents’ thinking regarding their children’s needs. The dental needs of the child can be divided into four stages, based on oral development, preventive needs, and treatment: During each of these stages, the management of the child is a prime concern. Management of the child’s behavior and attitude toward dental care is as important as the actual dental treatment in the child’s overall care. Past dental and medical experience, the age of the child, the extent of care needed, and the child’s attitudes and fears must be of major concern in developing a good dental patient. The American Cleft Palate-Craniofacial Association (1993) provides guidelines for the optimum care of individuals with craniofacial anomalies, regardless of the specific type of disorder. The underlying principle of these guidelines is that patients with craniofacial anomalies are best managed by an interdisciplinary team of specialists.
Genetic Counseling and Interpretation of Risk Figures
Authors: Stadter Carmella S
Published: November 2023

Genetic counseling, defined as the provision of medical, prognostic, and recurrence risk information about a disorder together with psychosocial support to the family, can be a complex undertaking when dealing with oral clefting. Previous chapters have dealt with medical and prognostic counseling, and this chapter will concentrate on recurrence risk and supportive counseling. Patients and families need to be made aware of their recurrence risks and reproductive options in an easy to understand manner with attention paid to the emotional impact of the information. Counseling an individual with a physical defect of the face, one of the most obvious and public parts of the body, is challenging. As with genetic counseling for any condition, one of the key aspects of supportive counseling for families with oral clefts is listening and allowing them to voice their concerns, frustrations, and joys. As discussed in earlier chapters, cleft lip with or without cleft palate (CLIP) and cleft palate alone (CP) result from distinctly different developmental processes occurring at different gestational ages. While these differences lead to certain counseling issues unique to each condition, there are also a number of important counseling issues shared by both conditions. A thorough physical examination of the patient and other family members and a careful medical and family history are of utmost importance to the accuracy of recurrence risk counseling. These tools help to establish the etiology of the cleft, whether the cleft is an isolated abnormality or part of a multiple malformation syndrome in the patient, and whether there is any familial clustering of oral clefts. Only after establishing the etiology can thorough, accurate, and relevant genetic counseling be provided to the patient and family.
International Surgical Missions
Authors: Lee S T
Published: November 2023

For the foreseeable future, there will always be a need for international surgical missions to deal with the backlog and the increasing number of patients with oral clefts in the world. These volunteer field missions should, however, be only a part of an overall global strategy. Rather, the emphasis should be on genetic and environmental research, to understand the causative factors of oral clefts, which might lead to the development of preventive strategies to reduce incidence. Based on the current world population and birth statistics (United States Bureau of the Census, www. census.gov/ipc/www/idbnew.html), 132 million babies were born in 2001, out of a global population of 6.2 billion individuals. If the prevalence at birth of cleft lip with or without cleft palate (CLIP) is taken to be 1/500 live births, 264,000 babies were born with oral clefts in 2001. This enormous number illustrates the magnitude of the problem, which needs to be addressed on a global scale. It is likely that the population with oral clefts will increase globally, unless there are dramatic genetic breakthroughs or new preventive strategies that can reduce this ever-increasing number.
Evidence-Based Care for Children with Cleft Lip and Palate
Authors: Shaw William C , Semb Gunvor
Published: November 2023

In the modern age, evidence-based care is considered to be an integration of the best research evidence with clinical expertise and patient values. With respect to therapeutic interventions, the strongest evidence is derived from systematic reviews that provide a synthesis of relevant randomized control trials (Sackett et al., 2000). For cleft lip and palate care providers, however, there are some challenges ahead. The present scientific basis of the discipline is weak since virtually no elements of treatment have been subjected to the rigors of contemporary clinical trial design (Roberts et al., 1991). Thus, highly complex and varied protocols of care are practised by different teams. Generally speaking, choices regarding surgical technique, timing and sequencing, and ancillary procedures, such as orthopedics, orthodontics, and speech therapy, are arrived at following disappointment in the results of former practices rather than firm evidence that the new protocol has succeeded elsewhere. As a consequence, the unsubstantiated testimony of enthusiasts for a particular treatment has done much to shape current practices. Typically, enthusiastic claims are made for a new type of therapy, the procedure is widely adopted, a flow of favorable clinical reports ensues, little or no positive evidence develops to support the desirability of the procedure, and there is a sharp drop in the number of clinical reports, again without evidence to support the change (Spriestersbach et al., 1973).
Revised Battle Plans
Authors: McDonald JoAnna M
Published: November 2023

While the casualties at Blackburn’s Ford were relatively light, Tyler’s “reconnaissance” showed that the Confederate center and right flank were too strong to turn. In addition, the country roads in this area were too narrow and crooked for maneuvering large columns of troops. With this unforeseen complication McDowell reevaluated his battle strategy.
Lull in the Infantry Fight
Authors: McDonald JoAnna M
Published: November 2023

The Confederates used the respite to reinforce Henry Hill. Brigadier General Thomas Jackson’s Virginia brigade reached the area first about 12:00 noon. Riding at the head of his men, Jackson met Captain Imboden as he was retreating. Enraged at being left alone on the hill, Imboden, swearing, vented his frustration to Jackson. The general, however, calmly replied, “I’ll support your battery. Unlimber right here.”1 Imboden unlimbered his three cannon about three-hundred yards from the Henry House on the southeastern edge of the hill. Shortly after this thirteen additional cannon arrived, previously ordered up by Johnston and Beauregard. Immediately, Jackson deployed them near Imboden’s guns. Captain Imboden then limbered his cannon and went to the rear to refill his ammunition caissons while the newly arrived cannoneers continued to duel with the Union artillerymen.
The Battle for Henry Hill
Authors: McDonald JoAnna M
Published: November 2023

From 1:30–4:00 p.m. chaos reigned on Henry Hill. For purposes of explication, the complex, continuous action has been divided into fifteen stages; after the second stage it is impossible to provide an accurate time. There are several reasons for the confusing nature of this contest: 1) Fifteen Union regiments and thirteen Confederate regiments charged and counterattacked so quickly that the action became a whirlpool of obscurity. 2) Afterwards, not even the participants could provide a clear account. 3) Many Union regiments fired only a few rounds before falling back; as another regiment replaced them, the retreating and charging men became intermingled. 4) As a result, several Union regiments became so disorganized that the soldiers fought in smaller, make-shift battalions. 5) Confederate units combined as well. Those that assailed Matthews Hill either joined with other regiments, battled in makeshift battalions, or rested behind the lines.
Chinn Farm
Authors: McDonald JoAnna M
Published: November 2023

As Brigadier General Milledge Bonham’s and Colonel Arnold Elzey’s brigades extended the Confederate left flank (about 3:30 p.m.), McDowell ordered Union Colonel Oliver Howard to bring up his brigade.1
Killed and Wounded
Authors: McDonald JoAnna M
Published: November 2023

From Matthews Hill to Henry Hill the dead and mortally wounded, friend and foe alike, lay together. On Henry Hill a soldier from the 6th North Carolina counted forty dead horses in a space of fifty yards. The horses’ and soldiers’ bodies contaminated the streams and springs as they began to decompose in the summer heat. With the conclusion of the battle, the Confederates were left with the task of burying the dead and caring for the wounded.
PrologueL”The Joint Resolution ‘For Annexing Texas to the United States’ Is Finally Passed”
Authors: Silbey Joel H
Published: November 2023

The Twenty-Eighth Congress of the United States was in its final hours in the last week of February 1845. In a few days its life would end, as the Constitution dictated, with the inauguration of a new administration and the official coming of its successor, the recently elected Twenty-ninth Congress. On February 27, the Senate met in an unusual evening session to complete work on a long-pending matter: the effort to make Texas part of the Union. The Senators had recessed their normal day session at 3:00 P.M. and reconvened at 6:oo P.M. When they did, the Capitol’s usual atmosphere of overpowering noise, inadequate ventilation, and an excess of foul air was much in evidence. Conditions seemed even worse than usual that night. The Senate chamber was uncomfortably full. All fifty-two senators were present on the floor to hear the last arguments on the matter before them. Above them, the public galleries were similarly jammed with an excited crowd of government officials, senators’ wives, and other citizens of Washington. As one historian has written, “all the learned and the beautiful seemed to be present.” Many members of the House of Representatives had also come over from the other side of the Capitol to be present at this moment of high drama. The crowds spilled over onto the chamber’s floor itself and into the corridors outside, filling nearby alcoves and stairways as well. They rubbed elbows with an array of food and drink purveyors diligently plying their trade at the back of the chamber, as they always did when Congress was in session.
“And tyler too”
Authors: Silbey Joel H
Published: November 2023

John Tyler Of Virginia, the first vice president to succeed to the presidency upon the death of the incumbent, and then first to be married (to his second wife) while president, had a lot on his mind. He was an anomalous political figure in the early 18405, an anti-party outsider at a moment when the pressures of intense partisanship had reached unprecedented heights in the public world in which he lived and worked. Faced with a difficult and unsympathetic political landscape, he did not pull back but fought, rather, to maintain his position in spite of the very long odds against him. This determination led him to press for the annexation of Texas. The issue had limped along for more than seven years without result when he took it up. It no longer did so. Given the president’s personal doggedness and the exalted position that he held, he was able to frame and advance a new attempt to acquire the republic in ways that added a great deal of controversy to the nation’s existing political brew.
“Their Heinous Sin” The Long Shadow Of Texas
Authors: Silbey Joel H
Published: November 2023

I am Aware,” John Van Buren Told The Mass Meeting Of The Barn burners in the upstate New York town of Herkimer in October 1847, “that a fierce political storm is raging-that the political sea was rolling mountains high.” And so it was, had been for some time, and would continue to do. The political class and their constituents had become cognizant, as never before, at least since Thomas Jefferson’s “firebell in the night” warning over Missouri in 1819, of the harsh realities of the nation’s sectional divisions and of the serious potential that those divisions could have for great, and perhaps more long lasting and destabilizing, mischief.
Methods for Studying innovation Processes
Authors: Ven andrew H Van de , Poole Marshall Scott
Published: November 2023

Little is known about how innovations emerge, develop, grow, or terminate over time. Not only has little systematic research been conducted to examine how innovations develop over time, but few process theories adequately explain the sequence of events in the innovating process. Yet an appreciation of temporal processes is fundamental to managing innovations. Given the limited research and theory on innovation processes, MIRP researchers decided to adopt a grounded-theory strategy to discover an innovation process theory (Glaser and Strauss, 1967) which avoids existing overbroad theories in the literature.
innovation Outcomes, Learning, and Action Loops
Authors: Dornblaser Bright M , Lin Tse-min , Ven andrew H Van de
Published: November 2023

A core concept in the Minnesota innovation Research Program (MIRP) is innovation outcomes, defined as the value judgments about success or failure that various people make about the developmental process and end results of an innovation. Kimberly (1981) rightly points out that a positive bias pervades the study and management of innovation. innovation is often viewed as a good thing because the new ideas being developed are expected to be useful-profitable, constructive, or solve a problem. New ideas that are not perceived We are grateful to helpful suggestions on an earlier draft of this chapter from Harold Angle, Scott Poole, as well as our colleagues in the Minnesota innovation Research Program for providing and verifying data on the innovations examined here. Support for this research has been provided in part by a grant to the Strategic Management Research Center at the University of Minnesota from the Program on Organization Effectiveness, office of Naval Research, under contract No. N00014-84-K-0016. as useful are not normally called innovations; they are usually called “mistakes” (Van de Ven 1986). Objectively, of course, the usefulness of an idea can be only partially determined as results become apparent, which is typically after the innovation process is completed and implemented. It is only then when new ideas can be characterized as “innovations” or “mistakes.”
Communication, Conflict, and Learning in Mergers and Acquisitions
Authors: Bastien David T
Published: November 2023

Although mergers and acquisitions (M/ As) are common ways to leverage organizational growth and expansion, many, if not most, have failed to meet their strategic, financial, and organizational goals (Kitching 1967). Davidson (1985) argues that, as a group, M/As have been unsuccessful over the past century, and Magnet (1984) reports that well over two-thirds of recent corporate M/ As examined in a study by McKinsey and Co. never earned as much as the acquirer would have made by investing the money in certificates of deposit issued by a bank. Williams and Feldman (1986) report that, in a large sample study in the healthcare industry, virtually all of the M/ As showed sharp downturns in earnings, productivity, and profitability (in for-profit M/As) and a rise in unwanted employee turnover.
Managing Complex innovations: The Case of Defense Contracting
Authors: Scudder Gary D , Schroeder Roger G , Ven andrew H Van de , Seiler Gary R , Wiseman Robert M
Published: November 2023

Much research on innovation has addressed managing relatively small product development efforts. in these situations, identification and management of the innovation team and the resulting product is relatively straightforward. However, when the product is very technically complex, requiring the teamwork of hundreds of persons, both employees and customers, over several years, the problem of This research was supported (in part) with a major grant from the office of Naval Research (Contract No. N000l4-84-K-0016), Honeywell, inc., the Strategic Management Research Center, and the Operations Management Center at the University of Minnesota. This chapter has benefitted greatly from comments on an earlier draft by Professor Paul Lawrence of Harvard University. managing innovation in a complex, uncertain environment is much more difficult. This chapter examines the development of a highly complex and uncertain innovation over time. The innovation consists of the advanced full-scale development, testing, and production of a major torpedo weapons system by a defense contractor for the U.S. Department of the Navy. in comparison with other innovations examined in the MIRP, the development of this torpedo system is considerable more complex and uncertain in several respects. First, the organization required for the development of the innovation is large and complex.
Assessing The Emergence of New Technologies: The Case of Compound Semiconductors
Authors: Rappa Michael A
Published: November 2023

The objective of this chapter is to develop a conceptual framework and method for monitoring systematically the emergence of radically new technologies. The intent is to improve our understanding and judgment in predicting the progress-or lack of progress-during a technology’s development from its beginning as a curiousity in research laboratories to its fulfillment as a commercial reality.
Technological innovation and industry Emergence: The Case of Cochlear Implants
Authors: Garud Raghu , Ven andrew H Van de
Published: November 2023

How do new industries emerge? What are the roles of individual firms in creating an industry? These questions not only have significant implications for national industrial policy, but they are critical to managers of technological innovations. Although most innovations represent small increments of normal change that refine and improve an established order, this chapter examines the process of commercialization of an “extraordinary innovation” that We gratefully acknowledge useful comments on earlier drafts of this chapter from Joseph Galaskiewicz, John Maurie!, Scott Poole, Michael Rappa, Douglas Polley, Peter Ring, Vernon Ruttan, William Roering, and other colleagues involved in the Minnesota innovation Research Program at the University of Minnesota. We also acknowledge the help of many cochlear implant industry participants for providing us with information about the industry, described here up to 1987. Support for this research program has been provided by a grant to the Strategic Management Research Center at the University of Minnesota from the Program on Organization Effectiveness, office of Naval Research (code 442OE), under contract No. N000l4-84-K-0016. sets in motion a sequence of events that can disrupt, destroy, and make obsolete established competence or create totally new organizations and industries (Rosenbloom 1985). Such innovations have a “transilient” capacity to transform established systems of technology and markets (Abernathy and Clark 1983: 13).