bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Atividade fisiológica da cana-de-açúcar após a aplicação de herbicidas em pré-emergência
Authors: Faria Autieres Teixeira , Saraiva Douglas Teixeira , Pereira Ariana Mota , Rocha Paulo Roberto Ribeiro , Silva Antonio Alberto da , Silva Daniel Valadão , Ferreira Evander Alves , Benevenute Sarah Da Silva
Published: March 2014

Objetivou-se neste trabalho avaliar as características fisiológicas da cana-de-açúcar após aplicação de herbicidas em pré-emergência. Para isso, foi conduzido um experimento em esquema fatorial 2x5, onde o fator A constituiu-se das cultivares RB 867515 e SP 81-3250, e o fator B da aplicação em pré-emergência do tebuthiuron, diuron, ametryn, a mistura formulada diuron + hexazinone e uma testemunha sem herbicidas. O delineamento utilizado foi inteiramente casualizado, com quatro repetições. As avaliações foram realizadas aos 90 dias após a aplicação dos herbicidas. A concentração interna de carbono (Ci), a relação carbono interno e externo (Ci/Ca) e o índice SPAD das cultivares de cana-de-açúcar não foram afetadas pela aplicação em pré-emergência dos herbicidas. No entanto, a condutância estomática (gs), a taxa respiratória (E) e a taxa fotossintética (A) da RB 867515 foram reduzidas quando tratadas com tebuthiuron. A A e a eficiência no uso da água (EUA) da cultivar RB 867515 foi alterada negativamente pela aplicação do ametryn. Conclui-se que existe diferença na sensibilidade dos genótipos de cana-de-açúcar aos herbicidas, sendo que a SP 81-3250 mostrou-se mais tolerante. A aplicação do ametryn e tebuthiuron reduz a A da RB 867515.
Períodos de convivência entre o trigo e plantas daninhas combinados a regulador de crescimento
Authors: Cenci Samantha , Zagonel Jeferson , Ferreira Camila , Senger Marina
Published: March 2014

O uso de regulador de crescimento na cultura do trigo é uma prática usual, sendo um dos seus efeitos a mudança de arquitetura das plantas, a qual pode interferir na época de início de controle das plantas daninhas. Visando avaliar a influência do efeito do regulador de crescimento (trinexapac-ethyl) nas características agronômicas e na produtividade do trigo, determinando assim a melhor época para o início do controle das plantas daninhas na cultura, um experimento foi instalado em Ponta Grossa/PR, no ano de 2011. O delineamento experimental utilizado foi o de blocos ao acaso, em esquema fatorial 2 x 10, representados pelo uso ou não de regulador de crescimento e 10 períodos de convivência entre plantas daninhas e a cultivar de trigo Quartzo. A época ideal de início de controle das plantas daninhas, de forma a não ocorrer redução de produtividade, foi de até 25 dias após a emergência (DAE), independente do uso ou não do trinexapac-ethyl como regulador de crescimento, o qual reduziu a altura de plantas, o comprimento das folhas e o índice de área foliar, porém sem interferir na produtividade e na época de controle das plantas daninhas.
Resíduos de herbicidas em corpos hídricos - uma revisão
Authors: Santos Edson Aparecido dos , Correia Núbia Maria , Botelho Rafael Grossi
Published: March 2014

Os herbicidas são os produtos fitossanitários mais utilizados no mundo e indispensáveis para a produção de alimentos em larga escala. São compostos sintetizados para ação tóxica contra plantas, porém, os mesmos podem apresentar efeitos negativos a diversos outros organismos. Uma das formas de contato e/ou absorção da molécula pelo organismo em questão, é quando a mesma encontra-se em um corpo hídrico. Dessa forma, monitorar a perda e acúmulo de herbicidas em mananciais é procedimento indispensável para produção agrícola sustentável, especialmente no Brasil, principal consumidor de produtos fitossanitários do mundo e um dos maiores produtores de alimentos e detentor de corpos hídricos. Propõem-se com essa revisão apresentar fatores técnicos, operacionais, edafoclimáticos, físicos e químicos dos herbicidas e legislativos a respeito da contaminação de mananciais por herbicidas. Também são apresentados herbicidas detectados recentemente em corpos hídricos do Brasil e as principais técnicas para detecção e quantificação dos produtos na água. Em função da importância do Brasil no cenário mundial, com relação à produção de alimentos, os estudos relacionados ao monitoramento de herbicidas em mananciais são considerados insatisfatórios, principalmente com relação a países que têm a agricultura desenvolvida há mais tempo.
Incidence and Mortality of Anastomotic Dehiscence Requiring Reoperation After Rectal Carcinoma Resection
Authors: Cong Zhi-jie , Hu Liang-hao , Xing Jun-jie , Bian Zheng-qian , Fu Chuan-gang , Yu En-da , Li Zhao-shen , Zhong Ming
Published: March 2014

Anastomotic dehiscence (AD) requiring reoperation is the most severe complication following anterior rectal resection. We performed a systematic review on studies that describe AD requiring reoperation and its subsequent mortality after anterior resection for rectal carcinoma. A systematic search was performed on published literature. Data on the definition and rate of AD, the number of ADs requiring reoperation, the mortality caused by AD, and the overall postoperative mortality were pooled and analyzed. A total of 39 studies with 24,232 patients were analyzed. The studies varied in incidence and definition of AD. Systematic review of the data showed that the overall rate of AD was 8.6%, and the rate of AD requiring reoperation was 5.4%. The postoperative mortality caused by AD was 0.4%, and the overall postoperative mortality was 1.3%. We found considerable risk and mortality for AD requiring reoperation, which largely contributed to the overall postoperative mortality.
In Vitro Selection Using Modified or Unnatural Nucleotides
Authors: Stovall Gwendolyn M. , Bedenbaugh Robert S. , Singh Shruti , Meyer Adam J. , Hatala Paul J. , Ellington Andrew D. , Hall Bradley
Published: March 2014

Incorporation of modified nucleotides into in vitro RNA or DNA selections offers many potential advantages, such as the increased stability of selected nucleic acids against nuclease degradation, improved affinities, expanded chemical functionality, and increased library diversity. This unit provides useful information and protocols for in vitro selection using modified nucleotides. It includes a discussion of when to use modified nucleotides; protocols for evaluating and optimizing transcription reactions, as well as confirming the incorporation of the modified nucleotides; protocols for evaluating modified nucleotide transcripts as template in reverse transcription reactions; protocols for the evaluation of the fidelity of modified nucleotides in the replication and the regeneration of the pool; and a protocol to compare modified nucleotide pools and selection conditions. Curr. Protoc. Nucleic Acid Chem. 56:9.6.1‐9.6.33. © 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Acetic Acid
Authors: Le Berre Carole , Serp Philippe , Kalck Philippe , Torrence G. Paull
Published: March 2014

The article contains sections titled:1.Introduction2.Physical Properties3.Chemical Properties4.Production4.1.Carbonylation of Methanol4.2.Direct Oxidation of Saturated Hydrocarbons4.3.Acetaldehyde Process4.4.Other Processes4.5.Concentration and Purification4.6.Construction Materials5.Wastewater Problems6.Quality Specifications7.Analysis8.Storage, Transportation, and Customs Regulations9.Uses10.Derivatives10.1.Salts10.1.1.Aluminum Acetate10.1.2.Ammonium Acetate10.1.3.Alkali Metal Salts10.2.Esters10.2.1.Methyl Acetate10.2.2.Ethyl Acetate10.2.3.Butyl Acetate10.2.4.2‐Ethylhexyl Acetate10.2.5.Other Esters10.3.Acetyl Chloride10.4.Amides10.4.1.Acetamide10.4.2.N,N‐Dimethylacetamide10.5.Phenylacetic Acid11.Economic Aspects12.Toxicology and Occupational Health
Size Enlargement
Authors: Bück Andreas , Tsotsas Evangelos , Sommer Karl
Published: March 2014

The article contains sections titled:1.Introduction2.Particle Characterization2.1.Particle Size, Particle‐Size Distribution2.2.Additional Particle Properties2.2.1.Particle Density2.2.2.Particle Porosity2.2.3.Flowability2.2.4.Strength2.2.5.Redispersion2.2.6.Particle Moisture3.Size Enlargement by Agglomeration3.1.Binding Mechanisms of Agglomerates3.1.1.Tensile Strength of Agglomerates Derived from Attractive Forces3.1.2.Attractive Forces in Size Enlargement in Air3.1.3.Attractive Forces of Particles in a Liquid Medium3.2.Size Enlargement Processes3.2.1.Growth Agglomeration (Pelletization)3.2.2.Agglomerate Formation from Moist Material3.3.Applications3.3.1.Pressure Agglomeration3.3.2.Spherical Agglomeration3.3.3.Tableting4.Size Enlargement by Coating and Layering4.1.Description4.2.Coating and Layering4.2.1.Kinetics4.2.2.Spraying Equipment4.2.3.Coating and Layering Processes4.2.4.Applications5.Drying Processes
The capacity of hydrous fluids to transport and fractionate incompatible elements and metals within the Earth's mantle
Authors: Adam John , Locmelis Marek , Afonso Juan Carlos , Rushmer Tracy , Fiorentini Marco L.
Published: March 2014

Both silicate melts and aqueous fluids are thought to play critical roles in the chemical differentiation of the Earth's crust and mantle. Yet their relative effects are poorly constrained. We have addressed this issue by measuring partition coefficients for 50 trace and minor elements in experimentally produced aqueous fluids, coexisting basanite melts, and peridotite minerals. The experiments were conducted at 1.0–4.0 GPa and 950–1200°C in single capsules containing (either 40 or 50 wt %) H2O and trace element‐enriched basanite glass. This allowed run products to be easily identified and analyzed by a combination of electron microprobe and LAM‐ICP‐MS. Fluid and melt compositions were reconstructed from mass balances and published solubility data for H2O in silicate melts. Relative to the basanite melt, the solutes from H2O‐fluids are enriched in SiO2, alkalis, Ba, and Pb, but depleted in FeO, MgO, CaO, and REE. With increasing pressure, the mutual solubility of fluids and melts increases rapidly with complete miscibility between H2O and basanitic melts occurring between 3.0 and 4.0 GPa at 1100°C. Although LREE are favored over HREE in the fluid phase, they are less soluble than the HFSE (Nb, Ta, Zr, Hf, and Ti). Thus, the relative depletions of HFSE that are characteristic of arc magmas must be due to a residual phase that concentrates HFSE (e.g., rutile). Otherwise, H2O‐fluids have the capacity to impart many of the geochemical characteristics that distinguish some rocks and melts from the deep mantle lithosphere (e.g., MARID and lamproites).
AMS–NRM interferences in the Deccan basalts: Toward an improved understanding of magnetic fabrics in flood basalts
Authors: Schöbel Stefan , de Wall Helga
Published: March 2014

The evaluation of flow direction in volcanic rocks is among the most important applications of magnetic fabrics studies. A statistically significant sample set of titanomagnetite‐bearing lava flows from the Malwa Plateau, the northern part of the Deccan traps in India, has been investigated for a possible interference of induced and natural remanent magnetization (NRM). The NRM alters the scalar anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility (AMS) parameter and the orientations of the AMS principal magnetic axes, which are crucial for the evaluation of the flow direction. For cleaning of the NRM component, the lava samples have been demagnetized by use of an alternating field (AF) tumbling demagnetizer (peak fields of 100 mT) as previous studies have shown that static AF demagnetization can bias the results. Samples with normal magnetic fabrics demonstrate a redistribution of their principal axes after the demagnetization. The evaluated flow directions show a more differentiated flow pattern of the Malwa area, which seems to fit better into the regional geological setting. In samples with inverse magnetic fabrics, carrying a higher portion of single‐domain particles, AMS principal axes remain unchanged after the demagnetization, indicating that these samples with high coercivity of magnetic carriers are not suitable for geological interpretations. According to these results, we propose that the AMS measurements after tumbling demagnetization give a better reflection of the intrinsic anisotropy of magnetic carriers (at least for samples with normal magnetic fabrics) and therefore a more precise and better reflection of the “actual” mineral fabric.
Life‐Course Criminology
Authors: Jennings Wesley G. , Donner Christopher M.
Published: March 2014

It is well understood that crime is mostly committed by young people (adolescents and young adults) and that most eventually “age out” of crime. Thus, it is critical to study crime and deviance through a developmental and life‐course lens. This perspective assumes that behavior is affected by life‐course factors, and that the evolution of offending over the life course contains elements of both continuity and change. Though relatively new to the criminological literature, this perspective has garnered significant attention and empirical support, and it remains one of the leading theoretical approaches in contemporary criminology.
Goffman, Erving
Authors: Tewksbury Richard
Published: March 2014

Erving Goffman was a sociologist who introduced and advanced the social perspective known as the dramaturgical perspective. Based on the analogy of all social interactions being like a staged performance, he emphasized the ways that persons act differently in front of different audiences, interpret their own and others' behaviors as performances, and understand themselves to have differently known identities across different groups of others.
Race, Ethnicity, and Crime
Authors: Pate Matthew
Published: March 2014

Considerations of race and ethnicity are among the oldest etiological domains for criminological theory. As a systematic proposition, early scholars began by attempting to physically describe criminals. Over time, this approach grew beyond the confines of criminology and into economic, cultural, and political dimensions as well. More modern analyses of race and ethnicity as an aspect of criminal behavior have tended to focus on environmental and social correlates of crime rather than mere physiognomy.
Uniform Crime Reports
Authors: Sarver Robert A.
Published: March 2014

The Uniform Crime Reporting (
UCR
) is a program administered by the
FBI
to collect data on crime. This occurs at the local, state, and national levels. In this program, crime data are voluntarily submitted by more than 17,000 law enforcement agencies. The
UCR
program is intended to provide a national perspective on crime in the United States.
Sutherland, Edwin
Authors: Huss Sheila M.
Published: March 2014

Chronology: born in Gibbon, Nebraska August 13, 1883; grew up in Ottawa, Kansas, and Grand Island, Nebraska; died in Bloomington, Indiana on October 11, 1950.Education: Grand Island College, Nebraska (
AB
, 1904); University of Chicago (
PhD
, 1913): double major in sociology and political economy.Teaching career: instructor, Sioux Falls College, 1904–1906; professor, William Jewell College, 1913–1919; professor, University of Illinois, 1919–1925; professor, University of Minnesota, 1926–1929; professor, University of Chicago, 1930–1935; professor, Indiana University, 1935–1950, and chair of the sociology department at this university until 1949.Professional service: president of American Sociological Society, 1939; president of the Sociological Research Association, 1940; president of the Ohio Valley Sociological Society, 1941.
Park, Robert
Authors: Romero Fabin
Published: March 2014

Robert E. Park was one of the most influential American sociologists; he was best known for his work on urban ecology, race relations, and social disorganization. Park worked with Booker T. Washington at the Tuskegee Institute and the sociologist Ernest W. Burgess (with whom he developed the concentric zone theory) at the University of Chicago. Robert Park played a leading role in the development of what came to be known as the Chicago School of Sociology. His most influential research works are in the areas of human ecology, racial and ethnic relations, migration, assimilation, social movements, and social disorganization.
Determinism
Authors: Crews Gordon A.
Published: March 2014

Determinism, from a criminological perspective, is a philosophy contending that human behavior is caused by biological and psychological factors specific to individuals and/or the structural factors that comprise one's environment. This view takes the position that human behavior is caused by factors such as genetic makeup and/or mental health issues, or the actual environment in which individuals finds themselves. The most famous theorist associated with determinism in the context of criminality is Cesare Lombroso, whose “criminal type” suggested that some people are actually born criminals. These ideas were presented in his historical work
Criminal man
(1863).
Biosocial Criminology
Authors: Nedelec Joseph L. , Beaver Kevin M.
Published: March 2014

Criminological research has historically been driven solely by the empirical analysis of sociological variables. However, recent findings in non‐criminological research have highlighted the importance of biological variables in the etiology of a wide range of behavioral outcomes. Important results regarding antisocial behaviors have been obtained through the methodologies employed in behavioral genetics, molecular genetics, and neuroscience. The current entry provides an overview of the findings of these areas of research and illustrates the need for criminology to recognize and adopt the benefits of a biosocial approach to the study of crime and deviance.
Homicide
Authors: Parker Karen F. , Stansfield Richard
Published: March 2014

This entry provides a definition of homicide and debates the two most widely used sources of homicide data, the Supplementary Homicide Reports (
SHR
) of the
FBI
's Uniform Crime Reporting Program and mortality data from the Vital Statistics Division of the National Center for Health Statistics (
NCHS
). These data are then used to illustrate the changing nature of homicide offending in large
US
cities from 1976 to 2005, including a detailed account of the well‐documented crime drop of the 1990s. As reasons for the crime drop continue to elude scholars, however, racial differences in homicide trends are explored across this time period to illustrate how examination of total homicide rates masks the nature of the crime drop, ignoring diversity in trends and differences in life circumstances across groups based on race. A better understanding of the crime drop will require scholars to move beyond a general investigation of total homicide rates and explore homicides among distinct groups more closely. Both
SHR
and
NCHS
are rich data sources that provide the level of detail in homicide incidents that is critical to moving this literature forward.
Green and Environmental Criminology
Authors: Barrett Kimberly L. , Lynch Michael J. , Stretesky Paul B.
Published: March 2014

Green and environmental criminology represents the coming together of two areas of study: particularly, the study of environmental harms, justice, and laws with the study of class, race, gender, and ethnicity inequalities examined by radical criminologists. These research initiatives include studies of green offending, green victimization, and costs associated with pollution, manufacturing, and distribution of environmental hazards, and enforcement of environmental law. These studies also expand the definition of crime to encompass victimizations to the ecosystem and nonhumans. In these studies, green criminologists aim to understand how power differentials perpetuate environmental degradation, and offer alternatives that promote global sustainability, environmental justice, and public health and safety.
Labeling Theory
Authors: Maddan Sean
Published: March 2014

The labeling theory is the bridge between consensus theories of criminality and more critical approaches of explaining crime. The labeling perspective, as it is more accurately called, focuses on the impact of the societal reaction to criminal behavior and offenders. In this approach, offenders are labeled as criminal by a society that determines which behaviors are criminal or not. From this label, the offender is hypothesized to internalize the behaviors associated with that label and to begin to behave in a manner that is consistent with that label. Thus, an individual who has been labeled as a thief and internalizes the label of thief should be more likely to commit subsequent thefts. While this theory has produced a great deal of research, interest in the labeling perspective has trailed off in recent years due to various theoretical and empirical advancements.
Juvenile Delinquency
Authors: Miller Riane N. , Steiner Benjamin
Published: March 2014

Juvenile delinquency refers to violations of the criminal law committed by individuals who are below the legal age of criminal responsibility, but above a certain minimum age. This entry reviews how society's view of juveniles has evolved over time, which has shaped the definition and treatment of juvenile delinquents. The methods used to measure juvenile delinquency and the extent of delinquency in the United States is also discussed. The entry concludes with an overview of several theories that explain why juveniles engage in delinquency or why there are higher rates of delinquency in some places versus others.
Domestic Violence
Authors: Pinchevsky Gillian M. , Wright Emily M.
Published: March 2014

Domestic violence (DV) is a major social issue affecting both men and women in American society. WhileDVis not new phenomenon, little was known about the dynamics surrounding it prior to the 1970s. Since the 1970s, more research has been devoted to studying this distinct form of violence. Estimates ofDV, based on both official and self‐reports, in the United States are given, followed by a discussion of two distinct typologies ofDV. This followed by a brief overview of the individual‐, couple‐, and macro‐level correlates ofDV. The article concludes with a discussion of the consequences associated withDV.
Personality and Crime
Authors: Jones Shayne
Published: March 2014

The relationship between personality and criminal behavior is robust. Traits such as straightforwardness, compliance, altruism, deliberation, and angry hostility demonstrate the strongest effects, although there are several other lower‐order traits that play an important role as well. Burgeoning evidence indicates a number of mediators and moderators of the relationship between personality and antisocial behavior, consistent with reactive, evocative, and proactive person–environment transactions. Despite all that is known about how personality influences offending, there are several remaining questions that need to be addressed.
Miller, Walter B.
Authors: Hawley Frederick
Published: March 2014

Walter Miller was criminologist most known for his contributions to gang research and his work on lower‐class culture. Basically Miller believed that lower‐class culture has specific “focal concerns” and that the more closely one adhered to these, the more likely one was to be delinquent or criminal. Specifically, lower‐class boys were intensely socialized to these focal concerns in gang contexts and were likely to be involved in delinquency. Miller's ideas had a florescence in the late 1950s but became less current by the mid‐1970s.
Religion and Crime
Authors: Kerley Kent R.
Published: March 2014

Over the past several decades, an impressive research literature has shown that religiosity, which can be defined as a cognitive and behavioral commitment to organized religion, has a significant effect on a wide range of attitudes, behaviors, and life events. A common finding is that religion operates as a social force for reducing many negative behaviors and for buttressing many positive behaviors. When it comes to the precise relationship between religion and crime, however, the findings are somewhat more complicated. This entry is designed to introduce readers to the extensive research literature on religion and crime. It is divided into two sections. First, research on the relationship between religion and crime/deviance in free society will be reviewed. Second, research on religion and crime/deviance in the prison context will be reviewed.
Garofalo, Raffaele
Authors: S.Guy Roger
Published: March 2014

Widely associated with the “Holy Three” of Italian positivism, Raffaele Garofalo was much more broad in his perspective. Garofalo spent his life involved in the administration of criminal justice as a lawyer, prosecutor, and magistrate, and in academia as a professor of criminal law and procedure. Therefore, it is tempting to narrowly associate Garofalo with Cesare Lombroso when his work spanned years, and covered topics that today fall into the realm of public safety, the rights of victims, crime prevention, and the administration of law.
Probation
Authors: Santos Saskia Daniele
Published: March 2014

Probation is a court‐ordered disposition that places the adjudicated offender under the control and supervision of correctional or court authorities. It is often used as an alternative to incarceration. Probation conditions form a contract with the court by which an offender must abide in order to remain in the community. With over four million people on probation, it is the most utilized criminal sanction. Probationers comprise the largest community correctional population and over half of the total correctional population.
Reintegrative Shaming
Authors: Khey David N.
Published: March 2014

Reintegrative shaming is a relatively recent theory by John Braithwaite, which forms the basis of the global restorative justice movement. The theory asserts that admonishment and punishment for criminal behavior can be performed in a holistic way that can bring harmony back to both the offender and victim's lives. This entry briefly reviews the theory, examines the current empirical evidence on the topic, and predicts future trends on reintegrative shaming and the restorative justice movement.
Sheldon, William H.
Authors: Robertiello Gina
Published: March 2014

Chronology: born on November 19, 1898 in Pawtuxet, Rhode Island; died on September 17, 1977 in Cambridge, Massachusetts.Education: Warwick Veterans Memorial High School, 1915; Brown University, 1919;
MA
from the University of Colorado, 1921;
PhD
from the University of Chicago, 1925;
MD
from the University of Chicago Medical School, 1933.Jobs: fellowship in Europe and at Harvard University, 1938; Army Medical Corps lieutenant colonel; director of the Constitutional Laboratory at Columbia University (College of Physicians and Surgeons); professor of medicine at the University of Oregon Medical School (1951).Activity and contributions: developed somatotypology; was a numismatist; developed the Sheldon scale.
Petersilia, Joan
Authors: Lane Jodi , Garcia Crystal A.
Published: March 2014

Joan Petersilia is an American criminologist who studies community corrections and prisoner reentry. She is most famous for conducting a randomized field experiment to examine the impact of intensive supervision probation and parole, for program evaluation research in corrections generally, and for her recent cutting‐edge collaborative partnership with policy makers to reform the parole system in California.
Schizophrenia and Crime
Authors: Brar Gurjeet K. , Schug Robert A.
Published: March 2014

Schizophrenia—a devastating mental illness associated with symptoms ranging from the unusual to the bizarre—may seem like a natural candidate as a contributor to or influence upon criminal and violent behavior. In actuality, the connection between schizophrenia and crime is nuanced, multidimensional, and complex. This relationship has received a fair amount of empirical attention over the past several decades, and efforts from psychological, neurobiological, and psychosocial investigations have contributed to a greater theoretical and criminological understanding of the association between the two.
School Crime
Authors: Mackey David A.
Published: March 2014

Most schools do not have problems with weapons, violence, and serious crime incidents. The majority of criminal acts in school are relatively minor in nature, but these acts may still negatively impact the learning environment. Research indicates that in the 2010 school year there were 828,000 nonfatal victimizations in school for students aged 12–18 years old. Of these incidents, the majority, about 470,000, were crimes of theft, and about 359,000 were violent crimes. Numerous criminological theories examine the context of school crime. Each of these theories has specific recommendations for the prevention of school crime.
Code of the Street
Authors: Burgason Kyle A.
Published: March 2014

The code of the street is a set of informal rules that govern interpersonal public behavior, especially violence, within inner‐city communities. The code regulates the use of violence and supplies the rationale allowing those prone to aggression to initiate violent encounters in an approved way while stipulating both proper demeanor and the appropriate way to respond if challenged.
Social Disorganization Theory
Authors: Walker Jeffery T. , Zawisza Thomas T.
Published: March 2014

The foundations of social disorganization can be linked to plant biology. Early social disorganization researchers applied the principles of plant ecology in the study of crime in neighborhoods. These researchers found that, in many neighborhoods, crime rates remained the same despite the flux in neighborhood populations. Numerous studies spawned as the result of the work of Shaw andMcKay. In the late 1970s there was reformulation of the social disorganization paradigm, which began to incorporate the concept of social control. This, arguably, marked the decline in social disorganization research. Subsequent studies further strayed from the original framework by focusing on collective efficacy rather than area characteristics. Modern social disorganization research has largely been lost to collective efficacy and environmental criminology research.
Gender‐Based Violence
Authors: Atwell Mary Welek
Published: March 2014

Gender‐based violence may include violence against women and girls, especially as motivated by gender animus, violence committed by women and girls, often in response to attacks on them, and the human rights violations that are characterized by brutality directed against females. Contemporary scholars situate gender‐based violence in the unequal relations between men and women characteristic of a patriarchal society.
Corrections
Authors: Burek Melissa W. , MNeal Brittani
Published: March 2014

This entry provides an overview of the major philosophies of corrections from early history to modern times. It discusses the original justifications for punishment and then examines four, more current rationales for corrections. The “fifth” purpose of reintegration is also briefly explored.
McCord, Joan
Authors: Tunstall Ashley M. , Gover Angela R.
Published: March 2014

JoanMcCord(1930–2004) was a criminologist who widely influenced the areas of criminology, criminal justice, and sociology.McCordis best known for her work on the Cambridge‐Somerville Youth Study, which examined the long‐term effects of interventions with at‐risk youth. At the time of her death,McCordwas a Professor of Criminal Justice at Temple University. From 1988 to 1989McCordserved as the first female president of the American Society of Criminology. Her other honors include the prestigious 1993 Prix Emile Durkheim Award from the International Society of Criminology, the 1994 American Society of Criminology's Sutherland Award, and the 2002 Social Policy Best Journal Article Award from the Society on Adolescence.
Violent Crime
Authors: Deckert Antje
Published: March 2014

The category “violent crime” consists of a number of criminal offenses that involve physical force and bodily harm. However, international comparisons prove to be difficult because criminalization of violent behaviors varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. In the United States and other Western countries, violent crime rates have been sharply declining since the mid 1990s. Although several theories have been developed to explain the causes of violent crime, it seems that weapon availability and the abuse of mind‐altering substances are the most significant factors in predicting violent criminal activity. Extensive research into the criminogenic nature of violent media remains inconclusive. Nevertheless, overrepresentations of violent crime, notorious distortions of typical offender and victim characteristics in the media, and the effects of such misrepresentations cannot be entirely discounted.
Bentham, Jeremy
Authors: Rubenser Lorie
Published: March 2014

Born in Houndsditch/Spitalfields, London on February 15, 1748. Died in London on June 6, 1832. Education: Bachelor's Degree from Queen's College, Oxford (1763); Master's Degree from Queen's College, Oxford (1766). He was admitted to the Bar in 1769.
Chesney‐Lind, Meda
Authors: Atwell Mary Welek
Published: March 2014

For the last several decades, Meda Chesney‐Lind has published groundbreaking research on the subject of girls' and women's deviance. Her work has been notable in its focus on how the lives of delinquent girls are often characterized by abuse in the home, running away, unfortunate contact with the juvenile justice system, and life on the street that may lead to criminal activity, including drugs and prostitution. She has consistently called for policies and programming that are gender‐appropriate and that take into consideration the victim–offender nexus in many women's experience.
Shaw, Clifford
Authors: Robertiello Gina
Published: March 2014

Chronology: born in Luray, Indiana, 1896; died August 1, 1957.Education: received degree from Albion College, 1919; MA in sociology, University of Chicago, 1921; doctoral work at the University of Chicago.Career: parole officer, Illinois State Training School for Boys, 1921 to 1923; probation officer, Cook County Juvenile Court, 1924 to 1926; appointed director of the new sociology department, Institute for Juvenile Research, 1926; taught as an adjunct professor at George Williams College (Chicago) and at Central
YMCA
College (Chicago), 1926 to 1941; taught at the University of Chicago, 1941 to 1957; remained director at the Institute for Juvenile Research until he died on August 1, 1957.Work: collected over 200 life histories of delinquent boys; published research in collaboration with Henry D.
McKay
.
Drug Enforcement
Authors: Burek Melissa W. , Tran David (Minh)
Published: March 2014

Drug enforcement involves a variety of strategies employed by agencies at all levels of government and the community. The primary means by which the United States enforces drug laws are tactics that rely on reducing the supply side of drugs, a policy based on theories and approaches related to deterrence, rational choice, and supply and demand.
Quinney, Richard
Authors: Farmer Ashley K.
Published: March 2014

Richard Quinney was born on May 16, 1934, in Elkton, Wisconsin. He obtained his
BS
in sociology and biology from Carroll College in 1956, his
MA
in sociology from Northwestern in 1957, and his
PhD
in sociology from the University of Wisconsin‐Madison in 1962. Between 1962 and 1983, Quinney taught at St. Lawrence University, University of Kentucky, New York University, and University of North Carolina‐Chapel Hill. In 1983 he moved to Northern Illinois University, where he retired in 1997. He is currently professor emeritus in sociology at Northern Illinois University and fellow of the American Society of Criminology.
Parole
Authors: Santos Saskia Daniele
Published: March 2014

Parole is the conditional release prior to the expiration of a prison sentence where the remainder of the sentence is served in the community while being supervised. Parole is comprised of two parts: (1) the decision to release an inmate to community supervision and (2) the conditional supervision following incarceration. Parolees can be released through discretionary release dictated by a parole board decision or by mandatory release, which is dictated by a statute. A parolee can violate his or her parole either by committing a new law violation or by committing a technical violation. A violation of parole can result in person being returned to prison, or having to face another criminal sanction. There are currently over three‐quarters of a million parolees in the United States, which is nearly a fifth of the community supervision population.
Masculinity and Crime
Authors: Doude Sara Buck
Published: March 2014

The examination of the gendered nature of crime arose from the feminist movement, which questioned why males commit higher rates of crime than females and why females were the victims of male offenders. The recognition that crime is a male action according to official crime statistics is a phenomenon to be explained. Messerschmidt's seminal work on the socially structured action of masculinity led the effort to explain the masculine nature of crime. Theories involving the examination of masculinities highlight the performance and “doing” of gender, hegemonic masculinity, and patriarchal constructions of masculine behavior as opposed to the biological predisposition of males to commit crime. The social construction of masculinity emphasizes dominance, sexual prowess, and a dismissal of feminine characteristics. Crimes analyzed from the gendered perspective include rape, assault, and homicide. This research, as a whole, illustrates that crime is a way in which to prove one's socially constructed masculinity.
Collective Efficacy Theory
Authors: Farmer Ashley K.
Published: March 2014

Collective efficacy theory is based upon social disorganization theory of criminology, and has its roots in the Chicago School. The basic tenet of the theory is that communities with strong mutual trust, shared expectations, and the capacity to influence informal social controls will have stronger neighborhood collective efficacy, which will lead to lower rates of crime. The theory provides a framework for explaining crime variation across communities.
Corporate Violence
Authors: Klein Josh R.
Published: March 2014

Corporate violence, a type of white‐collar crime, consists of business corporations causing injury or death to living beings. Corporate violence results from corporate policies and actions that expose living beings to harmful conditions, products, or substances. Corporate violence is indirect and often takes the form of behavior that is generally viewed as legitimate and noncriminal. Contemporary examinations of corporate violence broaden the definition to include harm to nonhuman life and considering the role of corporate violence in everyday life.
Self‐Control Theory
Authors: Diamond Brie
Published: March 2014

Gottfredson and Hirschi's self‐control theory posits that crime is the result of low self‐control. Self‐control is the ability to delay gratification and take into account future consequences of behavior for oneself and others. These characteristics are developed largely through parental socialization (a parent's ability to monitor and discipline antisocial behavior) in childhood. Poor parental socialization leads to low self‐control and increased likelihood of involvement in criminal and similar behaviors. As a general theory of crime, self‐control theory intends to explain all forms of crime in all areas. Evidence in favor of this theory supports the thesis of the importance of self‐control for predicting criminal behavior; however, self‐control does not seem to be the sole explanation of crime, as Gottfredson and Hirschi suggest. Other critiques of the theory have been debated in the literature, yet this remains one of the most tested and influential theories of crime to date.
Classical Criminology
Authors: Robertiello Gina
Published: March 2014

Classical criminology is a theory based on the concept of rational thought and free will. Classical theorists have hypothesized that if the rewards for being a criminal are greater than the possible risks or negative consequences, then criminal behavior seems more likely. This theory is predicated on the notion of deterrence, that is, that if punishment is swift, certain, and severe enough, an individual will be dissuaded from committing a crime. Thus, the possibility of punishment should prevent crime. However, potential criminals must be aware of the consequences, and be able to control their own behavior. Additionally, the punishment must be comparable to the crime itself to have meaning. Classical theory says that humans are pleasure‐seeking, and act consistent with their own best interests. In addition, they are rational and choose to behave in the manner they do.
Sellin, Thorsten
Authors: Bratina Michele P.
Published: March 2014

Thorsten Sellin was a Swedish‐born criminologist best known for his seminal work on culture conflict theory, although his academic career is recognized as one that includes a wide variety of contributions to the field of criminology. Largely influenced by the industrialization, urbanization, and immigration characteristic of Sellin's time, culture conflict theory provided a sociological perspective that was in sharp contrast to the trait theories that had remained popular during the twentieth century. Sellin's work grew from the Chicago School and, although it was not a specific theory of crime causation, it was considered the authoritative statement on the relationship between immigration, culture, and crime.
Capital Punishment
Authors: Vito Anthony G. , Vito Gennaro F.
Published: March 2014

The penalty of death still exists in the criminal justice system of the United States. In this entry, we present current information on the operations of capital punishment including the volume of cases and persons on death row and the distribution of death‐row inmates and executions by state. Specific attention is given to the impact of race upon capital sentencing, particularly the introduction of racial bias in terms of the race of the victim in capital cases. The capital sentencing system approved by the
US
Supreme Court is presented and explained. The major issues surrounding the use of the death penalty are raised. Current research on whether the death penalty acts as deterrent to homicide is presented as well as public opinion concerning capital punishment and the issue of sentencing innocent people to death.
Xenophobia and Crime
Authors: Klein Josh R.
Published: March 2014

The term xenophobia has been defined as a “distrust of foreigners and strangers,” “discrimination against and hatred of foreigners, targeting outsiders and strangers,” or “a deep antipathy to foreigners.” Sociological and criminological interest has been mainly in how xenophobic movements and policies victimize immigrants, and less often in examining the contribution of xenophobia to genocides and mass killing. Scholars associate xenophobia with antipathy, hatred, or conflict for good reason: fear can drive hostility. Individual and societal xenophobia are both rooted in economic, political, and ideological forces as well as in small‐group and individual dynamics.
Stigma
Authors: Breen Clairissa D.
Published: March 2014

Stigma is a state of disgrace, shame, or dishonor. Stigma impacts how individuals view themselves and how they perceive they will be perceived by others. Stigma influences how individuals may be treated by authority figures, or even by their neighbors. Stigma can be culturally specific: a trait stigmatized by one culture may not draw attention in another. In some ways, stigma's greatest impact is on the individuals who feel they are subject to, or perceive, stigma. An individual's behavior can impact stigma and related perceptions. In criminological theory, stigma is multifaceted. Because stigma can be applied to victims as well as to perpetrators, and even to locations where crime has occurred, it has links to a wide range of theories.
Quetelet, Adolphe
Authors: Breen Clairissa D.
Published: March 2014

Lambert Adolphe Jacques Quetelet (1796–1874) was a man of science and mathematics. An intellectual with wide‐ranging interests, he sought a better understanding of the world as well as the people who inhabited it. Well known for his cautious and thorough examination of a wide variety of subjects, his examination of crime was a function of his examination of human development. In the ranks of criminological theorists, Quetelet is not a theorist, as much as a man of science and mathematics who used his understanding of these disciplines to delve briefly into crime and deviance, seeking a logical explanation. Using statistics, mathematics, and geography, Quetelet studied what was known as moral statistics to develop a working knowledge of social mechanics, the precursor of sociology.
Group Conflict Theory
Authors: Breen Clairissa D.
Published: March 2014

The broad category of conflict theory encompasses a range of theories that attempt to explain crime and deviance through conflict. Theories can be subcategorized into those that deal with class, race, gender, power, political standing, social standing, economics, interpersonal relationships, or any other aspect of human interaction that may lead to conflict or dispute. The conflict identified within conflict theories may be real or imagined, it may be historically based or influenced by recent events. Group conflict theories range from the conservative to radical, but rely on the central tenet that conflict is a natural part of human social interaction and can influence criminal and deviant behavior.
Workplace Violence
Authors: Tomsich Elizabeth A. , Gover Angela R.
Published: March 2014

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (
OSHA
) estimates that almost two million workers in the United States experience workplace violence every year. Overall, homicide is the fourth leading cause of death in the workplace in the United States. For women, homicide is the leading cause of death in the workplace. During the 1990s rates of workplace violence reached high levels, which spurred the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention to declare workplace homicide a public health epidemic. According to
OSHA
, workplace violence can result in psychological trauma, an inability to return to work, altered relationships with colleagues and family, perceptions of guilt, powerlessness, and incompetence, as well as concerns that supervisors may criticize their actions. The loss of productivity, criminal investigations, medical costs, workers' compensation payments, legal costs, and public relations fees to restore a company's reputation can cost billions of dollars yearly.
Symbolic Interactionism
Authors: Hume Wendelin M. , Qi Ziwei
Published: March 2014

Symbolic interactionism is within the positivist school of thought. Using a social psychological vantage point, symbolic interactionism—as explained by members of the Chicago school, specifically by Mead and Thomas—posits that one's self‐concept and behavior change from one situation to another. This change depends on the subjects' interpretation of symbols from a given situation and on their generalized interpretation of symbols communicated by others. Symbolic interactionism is often thought of as one of America's main contributions to theory; this theoretical perspective has continued to be popular nearly 100 years after its development around 1914. Some theories shaped by symbolic interactionism include social learning, labeling, and violentization theories. The idea that social reality is fluid, always being re‐created and appearing in new situations is currently very relevant; in consequence, theoretical developments using aspects of symbolic interactionism are likely to continue for some time into the future.
Maturation to Adulthood and Crime
Authors: Bosick Stacey J. , Bersani Bianca E.
Published: March 2014

This entry reviews leading research on the relationship between the maturation to adulthood and crime. It highlights biological and neurological perspectives and then outlines sociological work on the role of life events and cognitive shifts. Research positioned at the intersection of biology and sociology is also reviewed. The entry concludes by discussing what this research implies about the way young offenders are handled in the criminal justice system.