bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Managing Technological Change: Industrial Relations in the Banking and Insurance Industries
Authors: Griffin Gerard
Published: March 2007

Banking and insurance companies have been to the forefront of Australian industry in the introduction of technological innovations into their operations. This paper outlines the extent of such new technology and analyses its impact on industrial relations.
New Technology, the Economy and the Unions in Britain
Authors: Markey Ray
Published: March 2007

The development of an appropriate response to technological change in a period of economic recession has become a major concern of trade unions in Australia, as elsewhere. The lateness of the Australian trade union response is paralleled in Britain. The British Trades Union Congress (TUC) has recently developed a major training program for unionists in negotiation of new technology agreements. However, in the main, trade unions have approached these as productivity agreements, rather than the extension of industrial democracy which is implied in official TUC policy. In doing so, most unions have acquiesced in managerial strategies to ride the recession with minimal investment in the new technologies required to boost Britain's ailing industries. The only unions which have negotiated over new technology in a broader context have been a small number in the white- collar sector. Their approach is primarily a result of their unusual structure, bargaining power and membership.
Strikes in Post-War Australia
Authors: Creigh Stephen , Wooden Mark
Published: March 2007

In recent years, research interest in Australia's strike problem has increased. Although comprehensive strike statistics exist for Australia back to 1913, there are limitations on the value of ABS data for research purposes — mainly because of rules of confidentiality. This article considers the various sources of information on indus trial disputes and surveys both the studies based on these statistics and the character istics of and trends in strike activity since the end of the Second World War. The authors conclude that there is a paucity of information and a need for further research.
The Long-Term Implications of the Hancock Report
Authors: Allen Geoff
Published: March 2007

Although much of the Committee's Report is widely supported, the major disappointment of business is with the self-imposed constraints of alleged 'industrial realities' and traditional attitudes. The emphasis in the Report was on strengthening and improving the workings of centralized institutional mechanisms and third party intermediaries rather than on devising means of building better, more productive employer-employee relationships. A preferable reform agenda would have tackled the fundamental problems of the system: the imbalance of power between employers and unions (which would be exacerbated by the Committee's recommendations); various structural and institutional impediments which further orient the focus of action away from the enterprise and seriously restrict the scope for more flexibility and economic sensitivity in our wage determination processes; and community attitudes, which reflect rights, entitlements, resistance to change, and which are fatalistic in relation to prospects for fundamental reform.
Employment Characteristics of Full-Time Trade Union Officials in New South Wales
Authors: Callus Ron
Published: March 2007

The findings of a survey of full-time union officials are discussed. It is suggested that there are two segments in the labour market for union officials. The first, the traditional, operates as an internal labour market and remains the principal method of selection for the occupations of organizer and executive officers. The second segment represents recent changes in the staffing of large unions. It consists of salaried experts who, unlike the traditional officers, are generally not recruited from within the ranks of the union. Not only is their pattern of recruitment different but they also have attitudes and expectations quite different from the traditional officials.
Employers and Compulsory Arbitration: The Higgins Era 1907-1920
Authors: Plowman David H.
Published: March 2007

In the aftermath of the strikes of the 1890s all mainland states in Australia legislated for some form of tribunal regulation of wages and employment conditions. Employers were antagonistic towards these tribunals, in particular compulsory arbitration tribunals. This paper reviews employers' attempts to circumscribe, by legislative and judicial means, the role of the federal compulsory arbitration tribunal. Although successful in emasculating the New Protection panoply accompanying arbitration, after 1913 their High Court challenges merely opened up new areas for federal jurisdiction. Employers lobbied unsuccessfully for legislation that would make the federal tribunal less intrusive and more benign. They were forced, however, to work within the new regulatory framework. The period proved a formative one in which enduring principles of wage fxation and dispute settlement were evolved, and the basis for the division of jurisdiction between federal and state tribunals were established. The centripetal forces resulting in a greater centralization of basic and secondary wage determination, together with the emergent 'test case' approach to standard hours of work, forced employer associations to take a more national and less state-oriented approach to conditions of employment.
Australian Strike Activity in an International Context: 1964-85
Authors: Beggs John J. , Chapman Bruce J.
Published: March 2007

The relative level of strike activity delivered by the Australian industrial relations system is central to current debate. The most simple method of addressing this issue is to make international comparisons of average working days lost per employee from industrial disputation. This paper reports these data for fourteen OECD countries for 1964-85. Simple comparison of strikes is far from an ideal method for judging the relative efficacy of countries' industrial relations systems, for two main reasons. The first is that different criteria are used across countries for inclusion or collection of strike data. Australian statistics are relatively comprehensive, implying that some part of Australia's relatively high level of strike activity is attributable to measurement. Second, macroeconomic variables influence the incidence and duration of strikes. This simple observation renders suspect the use of international comparisons of these disputes data as reflections only of industrial relations systems, since differences in macroeconomic experience will manifest themselves, to some extent, in these data. Through control for inflation and unemployment, among other things, a more accurate assessment of the Australian industrial relations system in an international context is made possible. The Australian system apparently delivers lower, or about the same, strike activity as culturally and politically similar countries. Overall there is no reason to believe that Australia is markedly different from the international norm.
Threats and Opportunities for Middle Management: New Technology and Competitive Banking
Authors: Bowles M.L. , Lewis M.
Published: March 2007

Since the 1970s the Australian banking industry has witnessed dramatic change as a result of the introduction of new technology and competitive banking. Such conditions have produced a fundamental change in the nature and management of bank work. This paper addresses what these changes have meant for middle management personnel. It is concluded that for branch managers and accountants there has been a change in the content of their jobs, which is reflected in a reduction in their autonomy and decision-making power, with a new emphasis being given to marketing and selling activities. The new competitiveness in the banking industry has encouraged staff to adopt an 'individual orientation' to their work. It is argued that such changes testify to a clear change in the management of the banking industry and suggest that middle management staff in banks will become increasingly hostile or resistant to further change, with a reduction in the number of middle management personnel, brought about by an increase in the technical control of operations through computerization.
Job Mobility in Australia: Theories, Evidence and Implications
Authors: Stromback Thorsten
Published: March 2007

Recent theoretical developments postulate that much of the mobility in the labour market arises from imperfect information. As new information is acquired, either about alternative opportunities or about the productivity of the current job, a worker may quit or be laid off. The paper reviews some of these developments and evaluates the predictions they generate against data from the Australian Mobility Survey. It is found that the tenure, age and occupational effects on mobility are broadly consistent with these predictions. The implications of these findings are discussed with reference to the longstanding concern about the flexibility of the Australian labour market.
Wages and On-Costs in Australian Industries: 1968-69 to 1985-86
Authors: Dixon Peter B. , Prentice David A. , Williams Lynne S.
Published: March 2007

In the study summarized here, estimates were made of the costs of employing labour in Australian industries for the years 1968-69 to 1985-86. The estimates include wages and five types of on-costs. They imply that the on-cost share in labour costs increased sharply in each industry over the period 1968-69 to 1974-75. Since 1974-75, on-cost shares have continued to grow but at moderate rates. The estimates rely on a wide variety of data sources and involve numerous interpolations and extrapolations. They are suitable for the analysis of medium-term trends rather than annual movements. It is to be hoped that the ABS continues its surveys of labour costs started in 1987. These surveys would then provide satisfactory time-series data for investigating the relationship between labour costs and other variables such as employment and inflation. They would also obviate the need for further studies of the type reported in this paper.
Technological Change and the Future of Work
Authors: Probert Belinda , Wajcman Judy
Published: March 2007

In much of the literature on the future of work the image of small-scale workplaces, including the home, predominates. The central force behind the shift away from centralized mass production is seen as technological change, especially in the areas of microelectronics and telecommunications. This article is based on a study of two groups of new technology outworkers, computer programmers and word processors. Although a small-scale, exploratory study, it provides some empirical evidence to set against the largely speculative and rhetorical claims of other writers. The first part of this article critically surveys recent debates on the reorganization of work, and the second part reports on our study and emphasizes the links between technological changes in the labour process and the structure of labour markets.
Enterprise Bargaining: The BCA's Report on Industrial Relations Reform
Authors: Frenkel Stephen , Peetz David
Published: March 2007

The Business Council of Australia's report on industrial relations argues that the major barrier to the competitiveness of large Australian firms is the centralized system, which hosts a fragmented structure of awards and unions that is out of touch with the requirements of corporate management and inconsistent with employee needs. We examine the various elements of the research underlying the Business Council report and show that the report's conclusions are either not supported by the evidence or greatly overstated. A shift towards unregulated decentralized bargaining, as favoured by the report, would probably yield less benefit than the present direction of reform through the award restructuring process within the context of a centralized framework. We conclude that the report diverts attention from the many factors that will determine the future competitiveness of Australian firms and that it serves as a warning about the limitations of sponsored research.
Pay Equity: An Industrial Relations Anomaly?
Authors: Rafferty Felicity
Published: March 2007

The Professional Officers' Association, which operates in the Commonwealth employment sector, has been in the forefront of the contemporary movement to achieve pay equity for women employed in female intensive professions. The Association's experiences have led it to conclttde that pay equity is difficult for parties to the industrial relations system to negotiate in the context of the established industrial relations model, which places strong reliance on the process of negotiation and compromise. This is further complicated by the conflicting position of the Commonwealth government at the political level, with a policy that supports pay equity, and as an employer who historically has resisted and impeded implementation of pay equity, and continues to do sa This paper examines the positions adopted by the Commonwealth government as an employer, by the Indtrstriat Relations Commission as guardian of the public interest, including the national economy, and by unions, primarily in the context of the Association's experiences in pursuing claims for pay equity for female professions. The paper describes the means by which pay equity claims are succeeding with the assistance of the Commission, using the Association's dental therapist cases as a case sttrdy, and draws on the experience of other contemporary pay equity cases in addition to those run by the Professional Officers' Association in order to emphasize tfre dysfunctional aspects of the process imposed by the Indrsstrial Relations Commission as a means of dealing with claims for pay equity.
Employment, Selection and Training Procedures in Australian Manufacturing, 1940-1960
Authors: Wright Chris
Published: March 2007

While contertrporary Australian industrial relations studies are focusing increasingly on the workplace, our understanding of the historical development of workplace industrial relations remains hazy. Nowhere is this more apparent than in the area of workplace labour management, and the role of the personnel manager. This paper seeks to rectify this neglect by analyzing the origins and development of the personnel function in manufacturing industry since the Second World War. Personnel initiatives in the areas of employment, selection and training are examined. The paper concludes that, while a tight post-war labour market provided a general impetus for the more widespread use of specialist personnel work, the nature of personnel practice varied widely between firms.
Scientific Management: Technique or Cultural Ideology?
Authors: Taksa Lucy
Published: March 2007

Interpretations of scientific management usually conflate the entire system with its technical features, particularly as these relate to the economic determinism of incentive wage payment schemes or deskilling. This has served to limit consideration of Taylor's strategies for social integration and/or cultural control. In this context it has been relatively easy for theorists to present scientific management as an outmoded form of technical control, which lacks current relevance. The following paper is intended to rescue Taylor's 'philosophy' from obscurity in order to show that its long-term significance has been far greater than that of its various methods. It will be argued that a re-evaluation of this philosophy provides insight into the ideological trajectory of the strategies associated with the advocacy of cultural change in organizations and human resource management.
Arbitration, Mass Production and Workplace Relations: 'Metal Industry' Developments in the 1920s
Authors: Cockfield Sandra
Published: March 2007

This paper reviews decisions of the Conciliation and Arbitration Court in the 'metal industry' during the 1920s. The focus is on the nature of intervention by the court on three workplace issues: occupational structure, piecework, and shopfloor union organization. It is argued that the court's intervention must be analyzed in the context of the structural change that was occurring in the economy during the period under review, that is, the transition from craft to mass production. To fully understand the nature of the court's intervention it is necessary to be sensitive to the structure of the industry with which the court was dealing. The 'metal industry' covers a broad group of industries, some of which are engaged in craft production, and others where mass production techniques are appropriate. During the 1920s the court was primarily concerned with changing conditions in the manufacturing sector, not the craft sector. This involved facilitating fundamental changes to the occupational structure, as well as advocating payment-by-results schemes and shopfloor union organization.
Trade Union Finances in the 1970s and 1980s
Authors: Griffin Gerard , De Rozairo Stephen
Published: March 2007

This paper outlines and analyzes trade union finances during the 1970s and 1980s. During the 1970s, despite an increasing membership and rising real income, trade unions experienced significant financial problems; in particular, expenditure outpaced income, and assets, measured on a membership per capita basis, decreased markedly. In contrast, and influenced by a falling membership, union financial ratios improved during the 1980s so that by 1989 unions were once again able to finance adequately their existing levels of membership services. An increase in the demand for such services, possibly generated by a move towards enterprise bargaining, could again threaten the financial status of unions.
What Cowboy Ever Wished to Join a Union? 'Wild West' Industrial Relations before 1914
Authors: Perkins John
Published: March 2007

After the Civil War the cowboy came to epitomize the ideology of United States capitalism, an ideology antithetical to collective action by workers to defend and enhance their interests. More tangible factors explaining the relative absence of industrial militancy among ranch workers have been suggested, including the geographical dispersal of a labour force employed in small numbers even on large enterprises, and the pronounced seasonality of employment. To these can be added the youth of most of the ranch workforce, the ensuing transient nature of the job, the diverse social and ethnic origins of participants, the hierarchical nature of work organization and the attractions of the employment. Neverthless, the myth of the cowboy had a pronounced influence on the worker's perception of the employ ment, to the extent that it became more a 'way of life'than a job.
Temporal Flexibility: Management Strategies and Employee Preferences in the Retail Industry
Authors: Deery Stephen J. , Mahony Andrea
Published: March 2007

The introduction of more flexible working time arrangements has become an important managerial objective in Australia. This is particularly the case in the retail services sector where management has sought to obtain greater freedom to match staffing levels more closely to fluctuations in the volume of customer demand. Such arrangements may not, however, be in accordance with employee preferences. The aim of this paper is to examine the issue of temporal flexibility by looking at the employment policies of a large retailing firm as well as the attitudes of its employees to the introduction of flexible working hours. Contradictions are identified in the company's labour utilization strategy, which have attendant costs for both the employees and the organization.
Equal Pay: The Evolutionary Process 1984-1994
Authors: Rafferty Felicity
Published: March 2007

Equal pay in Australia has been implemented with varying degrees of success since the first historic equal pay decision was handed down in 1969. The purpose of this paper is to trace the evolution of the equal pay process in the federal industrial relations sphere, with major emphasis on the period from the mid-1980s to the recent legislation that provides for equal remuneration for work of equal value as a legislative right. The mechanisms for processing equal pay are exam ined, drawing on the experience gained from various cases in which implementa tion of equal pay was the goal. Emphasis is given to recent experience in the Family Court Counsellors Case to illustrate the impact of enterprise bargaining on the equal pay process. The paper concludes that the equal pay process has developed greater objectivity over time, thereby enhancing the flexibility of the Australian Industrial Relations Commission's work value principle for the pur poses of evaluating work in feminized occupations. The conclusion is also reached that enterprise bargaining, which is known to disadvantage women, has also been the catalystfor equal pay as a legislative right—although the value of that right in an enterprise bargaining environment is questioned.
Flexibility, Casualization and Externalization in the New Zealand workforce
Authors: Anderson Gordon , Brosnan Peter , Walsh Pat
Published: March 2007

The New Zealand Employment Contracts Act was introduced in 1991 to make the labour market more flexible. However, it is far from clear that the New Zealand labour market was inflexible. This paper represents the results of a survey of employers which was conducted when the Employment Contracts Act was conting into effect. The paper finds that the labour market was not inflexible and that employers had been able to successfully casualize and externalize labour under the pre-existirzg legal environment. The study finds further that the employer pursuit of flexibility was not part of an unrelenting drive to achieve new forms of work but was, in general, an opportunistic reaction to recession. Furthermore, employers anticipate that growth in employment, when it comes, will be in perma nent full-time jobs rather than in casual or externalized employment.
Women and Enterprise Bargaining: The New Zealand Experience of Labour Market Deregulation
Authors: Hammond Suzanne , Harbridge Raymond
Published: March 2007

In many countries there has been a drive to determine wages and conditions at the level of the enterprise rather than at the industry or national level. In both Australia and New Zealand, governments have pursued policies that have at tempted to decentralize their collective bargaining system to the enterprise level. Although in each case the approach to the process of decentralization has been different, both countries have sought to lower the level at which bargaining takes place.

The decentralization of bargaining has implications for actors in the industrial relations system. This paper examines the impact of decentralization on women workers by updating information that has been collected on an ongoing basis at the Industrial Relations Centre at Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand.

The paper presents the New Zealand data in the context of their implications for equity. The analysis concludes that decentralization has disadvantaged women workers in New Zealand and that these findings have significant implications for policy makers in Australia. It notes that while the Employment Contracts Act in New Zealand holds little commitment to equity, in Australia the rhetoric of equity and fairness is still evident in policy pronouncements. The paper concludes that even with a greater commitment to issues of equity indicated by the Australian government, decentralization of bargaining is likely to exacerbate gender in equalities at work.
Male Labour Market Participation in Australia
Authors: Borland Jeff
Published: March 2007

This paper uses datafrom the Australian Bureau of Statistics Labour Force Survey and Income Distribution Survey to examine changes in male labour market par ticipation in Australia between 1964 and 1994. Aggregate data show a long-run trend of declining male labour force participation. The decrease in aggregate labour force participation has been primarily due to decreases in participation by older men, men with lower levels of education, and men with potential earnings in the middle ranges of the earnings distribution. Labour market flows data show that the lower rate of male participation has been the consequence of an increase in the rate of inflow to the out-of-labour-force category from unemployment.
Workplace Violence: Cause for Concern or the Construction of a New Category of Fear?
Authors: Mullgn Elizabeth A.
Published: March 2007

This paper discusses the problems raised by growing media, official and organisa tional attention to workplace violence. At present this issue is documented in a diffuse and frequently inflammatory way with little attention to accurate quantifi cation of incidence and no systematic attempt to place the risk in context. Sugges tions are made for definition, classification and operationalisation of the variables that constitute workplace violence to facilitate agency data collection, research and management.
Factors Influencing Earnings Differentials Between Male and Female Recent Graduates
Authors: Crockett Geoffrey V.
Published: March 2007

T his study adds to the knowledge of earnings differentials between men and women in Australia, by fitting earnings functions to a sample of workers who were first surveyed in 1983 in their first year of university and who then left university, either having dropped out or having obtained a formal tertiary qualification, and wbo supplied work histories in a 1993 follow-up survey. By analysing incomes in full-time jobs on leaving university and then in the full-time jobs four years later; the problem of differing lengths of work experience is avoided. Decompositions of the identified earnings differentials suggest that about half of the differential favouring men of 11.6 per cent in tbe jobs held after four years was explained by higher levels of formal qualification of men and their more favourable occupational distribution. The remain ing 6 per cent of the overall differential could not be explained by the regression analysis. Differences in the extent and quality of on-the-job training, and the resultant differen tial promotional probabilities between men and women, are suggested as one possible explanation for tbe substantial earnings advantage to men in the job held after four years.
State Regulation for a Moral Economy: Peter Macarthy and the Meaning of the Harvester Judgment
Authors: Wells Andrew
Published: March 2007

Peter Macarthy's thesis shows the strong influence of bis superiors, especially N. G. Butlin. In it be attempted to separate 'fact' from theory, raising 'commonsense' questions and finding answers in statistical series. But be believed that the Australian adoption of a centralised wage-fixing system—determined by social need, not market forces—was a step beyond unregulated capitalism towards a bumane civilisation. He demonstrated that the Harvester judgment was tbe culmination ofa long and complex bistorical process. Yet the unusually favourable market conditions that allowed Har vester to become effective rested on the acceptance of exclusive and exploitative economic and social relations, whose examination lay outside the scope of his thesis.
The Safety Net, Bargaining and the Role of the Australian Industrial Relations Commission
Authors: Peetz David
Published: March 2007

In a policy environment dominated by enterprise bargaining, adjustment of the wages safety net is influenced by a number of factots including the effects of raising award rates on productivity, equity, the incidence of bargaining, wage outcomes from enter prise bargaining and employment. Our understanding of many of these issues has been affected by changes during the 1990s in the relationship between the award safety net and actual wages, by new research and by growing experience of the interaction between award wages and monetary policy. The efficacy of flat rate safety net adjustments in promoting equity is naw also open to challenge. By late in the 1990s the Australian Industrial Relations Commission was in a better position to give effect to its social obligations than it had been at any earlier time in the decade, and to ensure that award rates kept pace in the longer run with changes in community living standards.
Enterprise Bargaining, Wage Norms and Productivity
Authors: Rimmer Malcolm
Published: March 2007

Since 1991 Australia's arbitral system of wage determination has developed into a bybrid supplemented by the processes of collective and individual bargaining at the workplace level. This paper seeks to examine the development of that bybrid. First it seeks to estimate the extent to which enterprise bargaining displaced award-based wage adjustment between 1990 and 1995. Second, it looks at the prospects for the further growth of enterprise bargaining within the existing regulatory System. Third, it looks at the use of workplace productivity as a criterion in wage fixing relative to the previous norms developed under wage indexation and the Accord. Fourth, the paper looks at some arguments and evidence on the role of enterprise bargaining in inducing workplace productivity growth. The paper concludes tbat major institutional changes bave taken place since 1990 largely because of government policy. However, the role of the new institutional framework in linking pay to productivity and in inducing productivity growth remains limited and uncertain.
Equal Pay: Is the Pendulum Swinging Back?
Authors: Preston A.C. , Crockett G.V.
Published: March 2007

The literature on female pay suggests that a key determinant of female relative pay is the overall system of wage determination. The more deregulated the system the greater the gender inequality, reflecting the fact that women occupy a greater share of low wage occupations and, relative to men, are in a weaker bargaining position. Using the unique character of the Australian industrial institutional arrange ments, this paper conducts a within-country test of the hypothesis that labour market deregulation adversely affects female relative pay. Since the early 1990s institutional arrangements for pay determination and labour market regulation in Australia have undergone considerable change, although the reforms introduced vary. At one end of the spectrum there are regulatory systems based on individualism (e.g. Victoria's). At the other there are collective systems, such as in New South Wales.

The research in this paper shows that women in highly deregulated systems have experienced the greatest deterioration in their relative earnings when compared to more collectivist systems. The paper thus cautions against further labour market deregulation, noting also that the results shown here may just be the tip of the iceberg with respect to gender earnings inequality.
Measuring Affect and Action in Inter National Reaction Models
Authors: Holsti Ole R. , Brody Richard A. , North Robert C.
Published: March 2007

The Cuban crisis of October 1962 may be analyzed from several perspectives. The investigator may focus his attention on the unique characteristics of the situation and sequence of events which are outlined here. The analyst of international relations may, as is suggested in this paper, examine these events so as to permit relevant comparisons with other crisis situations, both those resolved by war and those eventually resolved by non-violent means. The conceptual framework for this analysis is a two-step mediated stimulus-response model in which the acts of one nation are considered as inputs to other nations. Such psycho-political variables as perceptions and expressions of hostility are traced over time by means of content analysis of documents to test the consistency of the model. In the Cuban crisis, both sides tended to perceive rather accurately the nature of the adversary's actions and then proceeded to act at an appropriate level. Efforts by either party to delay or reverse the escalation toward conflict were generally perceived as such, and responded to in like manner.
Formal alliances, 1815—1939
Authors: Singer J. David , Small Melvin
Published: March 2007

Although students of world politics have come increasingly to speak of their empirical domain as a social system, little effort has gone into the systematic observation and measurement of its formal or informal structure. One structural attribute of the inter national system which leaves a definite trace and is therefore readily measurable, is that of alliance patterns. This paper examines all written (peacetime only) alliances among system members, describes the procedures for classifying them, and then transforms such information into quantitative indicators of alliance aggregation for various forms of the international system for every year between 1815 and 1939. Such data make it possible to treat this particular system attribute as either a dependent or an inde pendent variable for purposes of hypothesis testing or exploration in world politics.
Nation State Escalation and International Integration
Authors: Smoker Paul
Published: March 2007

A model of world affairs is defined which identifies two interacting systems. The first system is called a nation state system, in which nations are the only actors. The second system is called an international system, in which there are many actors, from individuals to nations to international organizations and corporations. The world system is defined as the amalgam of these two.

Within nations, the four functional requirements of Parsons are used to identify the economy as representative of the adaptation subsystem, the culture as representative of the integrative subsystem, individuals and families as representative of the pattern maintenance subsystem, and government as representative of the goal attainment sub system. An internation system is then specifically defined as interaction between the goal attainment subsystems of nations. A similar procedure is adopted for the inter national system.

The three world arms races are then interpreted in the light of the model using the idea that the international component has been greater in each arms race than in the previous one. In this way it is possible to interpret the differences in behavior in each of the arms races in terms of the model. It is also found that the linkage between trade and defense has increased in each successive arms race.

It is suggested that future analysis of world affairs should take into account other actors, such as international organizations and international corporations, as well as nations. Further, the importance of the integrative system is stressed and some sugges tions for strengthening it are put forward.
The Place of International Law in Peace Research
Authors: Boasson Charles
Published: March 2007

The article first describes the belief, common among lawyers, that they hold the key to all problems in relation to prevention of war. The author compares this belief, and in particular the 'outlawry-of-war'-movement in the first quarter of this century, with the subsequent disillusions which led to the attitude that international law has not much to contribute to serious peace research. He rejects the suggestion that international law is still a 'primitive' kind of law that will gradually evolve into a mature and therefore more effective law. The suggestion that international law must first absorb and eventually reflect the cultural backgrounds and patterns of the peoples of the world and their legal systems, is critically appraised. The thesis that the desires and demands of the dissatisfied nations are not allowed for in the prevalent legal conceptions of traditional international law, is seen in the perspective of the tension normal in any legal order, caused by defective adjustments to ideal demands. The possible beginnings of an international 'criminal' law and its further development, as well as the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials, are discussed in relation to the socio- criminological problems of 'lawlessness' and 'differential association', a recurrent central problem of international law, or rather of the international situation. The article asserts that the experience and the theoretical categories of municipal law are inapplicable to the international constellation. It therefore stipulates that functional and theoretical adaptations to fundamental differences between municipal and international situations be brought into play.
Military Spending and Senate Voting: a Correlational Study
Authors: Gray Charles H. , Gregory Glenn W.
Published: March 2007

The study deals with one aspect of the 'Military-Industrial Complex': the correlation between military spending and voting on liberalism-conservatism and foreign policy issues in the Senate of the 88th U.S. Congress. Measures of manufacturing, education, income, metropolitanism, and liberalism were partialled out of the appropriate correlations. Low, but statistically significant correlations were found. The conclusion was that even low correlations signal further attention to a subject as important as militarism.
Ghetto Riots and Others: the Faces of Civil Disorder in 1967
Authors: Goldberg Louis C.
Published: March 2007

Civil disorders in American cities in 1967 popularly referred to as 'Negro riots' varied in many critical respects. Some can more appropriately be described as social upheavals characterized by a two-phase flow of lawless activities. Others had the character of political confrontations, disorder being used as a political tool by emerging Negro groups to encourage civil authorities to bargain and negotiate with them. Few disorders can be viewed simply as expressive rampages : riots by the anarchic and criminal elements in the community whose binge of anti-social desctruction can only be stopped by 'get tough' police practices. 'Get Tough' police policies were also the cause of some notable disturbances where the fulfillment of anticipations of Negro initiated disorder rather than its reality. Across the nation, ghetto upheavals would trigger 'satellite' disorders in which authority over-reaction occurred. The spread of news about disorders was an important factor in the propagation of violence, considerably more so than actions of Negro radical leaders to foment such events.

The initial conditions out of which a disorder emerged affected its course. Pre- existing grievances have a role, but the kind of grievance rather than the number of grievances seems more important. Negro youths have grievances against the police, and a ghetto uprising may take on the character of a competitive game in which youth attempt to humiliate the police.

The contradictions between American liberalism and American racism make the future seem troublesome. Short-run strategies of conflict amelioration might profitably be concerned not with eliminating violence but with limiting it such that it promotes rather than hinders the movement toward racial democracy.
Religion, War and the Institutional Dilemma: a Sociological Interpretation
Authors: Fusé Toyomasa
Published: March 2007

Religion, especially in its institutionalized church form, has always prescribed universal love and brotherhood and proscribed against killing and violence. Yet the institu tionalized church has always rationalized and come around to the support of the war and institutionally organized killing by its national community. This disparity between religious norms and practice has historically disturbed idealists and intrigued students of religion. This paper is concerned with how a universalistic religion confronts and resolves the dilemma of war vis-a-vis a particularistic socio-political system. It discusses (1) the theoretical bases for the non-pacifist attitudes and behavior of the institutional churches within the framework of the sociological 'Church-Sect' concept, and (2) the available data to lend support to the major hypothesis, that the church as a social institution ( as opposed to the sect) is both reflective and supportive of society's values and practices and that the church, therefore, functions primarily as an agent of conservation rather than as an agent of social change.

These postulates are strongly supported by four sets of data and empirical evidence. The first fully supports the implication that outright opposition to war - conscientious objection - would be more evident in the sects than the churches. The second study supports the thesis that the church, through the chaplaincy system, resolves the value conflict in favor of society in a manner to support the values and objectives of the socio- political system in war. The third study supports the postulate that the church is ac commodative in that its stand on social issues depends largely upon the mood and senti ment of its parishioners rather than standing upon its own religious values. The last set of evidence sheds light on the thesis that the church remains essentially a conservative force by compartmentalizing its radicalism within the campus ministry - i.e., the church is a conservative rather than change-inducing agent vis-a-vis society.
A Structural Theory of integration
Authors: Galtung Johan
Published: March 2007

In this article a definition of integration is given, defining integration as a process whereby two or more actors form one new actor. There are many ways in which this may be brought about, and the process may have very different consequences, but conditions and consequences should not be confused with the definition.

Three types of integration are then distinguished: territorial, organizational, and associational. These three types can be combined in many ways, and nations can be analyzed in terms of how these processes of integration are combined inside the nation. Corresponding reasoning may be used for the analysis of world integration.

The three types of integration are then analyzed in terms of how they satisfy basic human and social needs. It is pointed out that whereas organizational and associational integration are complementary and always will satisfy some human needs, territorial integration depends very much on communication and will tend to disappear with in creasing communication. But organizational integration will lead to crises that can only be alleviated by means of associational integration, and vice versa. Hence, a general world trend of decreasing territorial integration and a pattern of dialectical change from organizational to associational and back again are predicted. The basic problem of a substitute for the decreasingly important territorial integration is then left unanswered.
The Classical Balance of Power Theory
Authors: Chatterjee Partha
Published: March 2007

The paper attempts to formulate an axiomatic model of the classical balance of power system using the fundamental notion that a stable bal ance of power implies the absence of a predomin nant actor or coalition. It is shown that the basic motivation for participating in such a system is security in a world where each nation fears the prospect of being on the losing side. Under condi tions of perfect information, such a system will only be stable when exact equality of power can be maintained, if necessary by suitable alignments with previously neutral nations. Under conditions of uncertainty, the desirable goal would be stable deterrence which may imply an attempt to gain power superior to one's opponent. In both situa tions, a stable equilibrium may be attained only under fairly restricted conditions. The most suc cessful operation would be similar to the 'holder of the balance' case. A 'multipolar' system is more likely to be stable.
A Study of the Problems of Peace
Authors: Barsegov Yuri , Khairov Rustem
Published: March 2007

In the West, studies in the vital field of war and peace are being pursued as an independent field- the science of peace. This article classifies the various explanations of the causes of international conflicts into four major groups: those that see as a main cause and source (1) human nature itself; (2) shortcomings of the social order; (3) divine will; and (4) functional causes (geopolitical, demographical, and political concepts).

These are then given a general assessment from the point of view of the Marxist-Leninist approach to the problem of war and peace. Finally, the Soviet programme for analysing the causes of war and ensuring ways to peace, as e.g. formulated at the 24th CPSU Congress, is briefly presented.
Dilemmas in the British Peace Movement since World War II
Authors: Myers Frank E.
Published: March 2007

The Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, founded in 1958, was by 1960 the largest mass movement in Britain in this century. By 1968, however, most of its mass support had evaporated. The present article sees two explanations for this: (1) the CND was an untenable coalition of four distinct political traditions; this made serious internal crises in evitable ; and (2) the CND was never able to gain the allegiance of the British working class. Through brief comparisons to the United States and Italy, the author indicates that these are common failings of most antiwar movements.
The Costs of Armamentism
Authors: Albrecht Ulrich
Published: March 2007

The political economy of armamentism dates back into past centuries. Often foregone in current de bates, the old hypotheses prove to contain valuable contributions to the understanding of military expenditures in modern capitalist societies. The politico-economic approach is demonstrated as superior if compared with established normative concepts about how large the military budget should be designed. Using empirical data covering four decades, the tremendous rise in the costs of armaments is demonstrated. Each new weapon tends to cost at least twice as much as the pre ceding equipment of the same category. An inter action model between private capital, the military, and the administration is used to explore the causes for overspending under military headings. Applying theoretical evidence about the role of the state, military expenditures turn out as fulfilling vital functions in the reproduction of capitalist societies.
Civilian Defense and Civilian Offense
Authors: Jahn Egbert
Published: March 2007

This study is a critique of the split between re search on civilian defense and nonviolent offensive action since both have different social actors as addressees - the entire nation in case of civilian defense, the lower classes in case of nonviolent re volution. This study, therefore, tries to reconstruct civilian defense as a specific strategy to defend historically achieved aims by the nonviolent move ment which has to act on the whole offensively, integrating the achievements and objectives of in ternational socialism. It tries to develop some ele ments of a theory of the international peace move ment labelled as civilism.
Threatened Leadership and Intergroup Conflicts
Authors: Bekkers Frits
Published: March 2007

Three simulation-experiments and one field-study among 29 Dutch labor Unions are reported in which is investigated the relation between the threat to a leadership position and the initiation of conflicts with an outgroup. It is found in all the studies that leaders who are threatened in the maintenance of their positions are more likely to start a conflict with another group in order to have better chances for re-election, whereas non-threatened leaders tend to opt for intergroup cooperation. This behaviour seems to be very instrumental (subjects take into consideration the chance of winning the conflict), even though most subjects deny that they are preoccupied with holding on to their leadership positions.

The practical conclusion is (with the assumption that it is preferable in the interest of a safe world to have less conflicts between groups): to appoint the most influential leaders in our society for a certain limited period of time (e. g. 5 years) during which they would be very certain of the maintenance of their position, but who would be without a chance of re-election.