bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Measurement Uncertainty and Its Influence on E-Drive Optimization Applications
Authors: Platzer Thomas , Fechter Michael , Kammerstetter Heribert , Kolb Philipp
Published: January 2024

This paper gives insights in the theoretical measurement uncertainty of E-Drive rotor position dependent results, like Id and Iq calculations, done by a modern propulsion power analyzer (PA). The calculation of Id and Iqis fundamental to perform control optimization and application tasks for an E-Drive system. To optimize the E-Drive system application towards e.g., best efficiency, best performance, or improved NVH the importance of the testing toolchain is described: a power analyzer delivering the required results, an automation system, and a Design of Experiment tool to set improved target values.

Consequently, inverters applications featuring field-oriented control (FOC) with permanent magnet synchronous machines (PMSM) are updated with a chosen control strategy. For achieving a certain behavior of an E-Drive, different degrees of freedom in the Inverter Control Unit are available; Lookup tables Id and Iq represent two fundamental application labels to be considered. Since the inverter must rely on the built-in current sensors and the measurement of resolver signals at low bit rate, its controlling signals underly the propagation of the underlying measurement uncertainty. Such as with the calibration of measurement devices, it is recommended to use calibrators of lower measurement uncertainty to define the offset values or adjust calibration values. Therefore, it is recommended to use a highly adaptable power analyzer to perform the measurement task. It is shown what the assumed measurement uncertainty of an inverter reveals compared to a high precision device with automatic and independent resolver offset detection and highly accurate current measurement. It is described how an inaccurate resolver offset value propagates into results like Id and Iq. Also, the PA gives a qualitative evaluation of the inverter settings for rotor position detection. The knowledge about the right measurement technology lays out the base for a successful E-Drive optimization application.
Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) Analysis for e-Motors and Controllers of Electric Two-Wheelers
Authors: Pawar Sneha Ravindra , Desai Manoj Madhukar
Published: January 2024

The Indian government has been promoting electric vehicles through various policy initiatives, such as offering incentives and subsidies to EV manufacturers and consumers, establishing charging infrastructure across the country, and setting ambitious targets for EV adoption. These measures aim to reduce the dependence on imported fossil fuels, mitigate air pollution, and promote sustainable mobility. As a result, the demand for electric vehicles across India is steadily increasing, and the country is emerging as a lucrative market for EVs globally. An electronically commuted brushless DC (BLDC) motor usually functions for traction in electric two-wheelers. Electric vehicles need to comply with electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) requirements. During the EMC compliance of electric two-wheelers, it is certain that the BLDC motor and its controller play an important role. This paper presents the BLDC motor and controller’s Radiated Emission (RE) performance at Electronic Sub-Assembly (ESA) level at different e-motor loading conditions and test setup cases. This study will help OEMs and motor and controller manufacturers to understand the broader spectrum of EMC behavior of electric drive trains of two-wheeler vehicles during the pre-validation or validation phase of the component.
Simulating a V2G Concept for Optimized EV Fleet Charging in India
Authors: Sandhu Rouble , Cao Xinyuan , Faßbender Max , Schade Thomas , Emran Ashraf , Andert Jakob , Xia Feihong , Sharma Vijay
Published: January 2024

Road transport is bound to play a major role in the imminent transition to green energy. India has pledged to reach net-zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2070 at the COP26 [1] and is committed to have 30% electric vehicle (EV) sales by 2030 [2]. The Indian government is promoting fleet electrification through initiatives like FAME–II. India’s EV market is expected to grow at an annual rate of 90% between 2022 and 2030 [3].

With this projection combined with climate targets, comes an anticipated exponential rise in renewable energy contribution to the national power grid, accompanied by a huge transport-related demand for electricity. NITI Aayog – India’s public policy think tank – and the Ministry of Power are already looking into the expansion of EV charging infrastructure in India as part of smart grid implementation.

The deployment of Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) technology as an extension of the smart charging initiative is essential for a smooth transition to renewable energy. The possibility of bi-directional energy flow between the EV battery and the power grid can be used to stabilize the grid demand curve during peak hours. This will also encourage usage of local energy sources like rooftop solar and further incentivize participation in the frequency response services market as a source of revenue for end-users and charging point operators (CPOs).

In this context, this study aims to quantify the benefits of load shifting strategies and dynamic tariffs with respect to V2G charging. An EV fleet at one charging point has been investigated. This was done by making certain data assumptions (outside the current legislative purview) like start and target SoC, arrival and departure times of the EVs etc. Weather data (e.g., solar irradiation etc.) and market data, wherever available from open-source platforms have been aggregated and used. Cost minima are achieved by a combination of peak shaving, rooftop solar self-consumption, and participation in energy markets. Relative to grid-compliant charging, the simulation results show a significant (~28%) cost reduction using the V2G smart charging algorithm.
Lend a Range: Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) Charging
Authors: Kumar Rohit , Penta Amar , Venugopal Karthick Babu , Sahu Hemant , Arya Harshita
Published: January 2024

With increase in number of EVs on Indian roads, poised EV makers to produce innovative and pragmatic concept of electric vehicle features. The concept of bidirectional charging is one of that and which is creating buzz and curiosity among EV buyers. The bidirectional charging enables EV owners to lend the power to grid, other vehicles or use for other auxiliary applications. This paper focuses on idea of vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) level 1, level 2 AC charging using J1772 standard, and level 3 DC fast charging using ISO 15118 or DIN 70121. where one user can lend a range of few kilometers to other based on requirement as a helping hand. This paper proposes a new idea which enable vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) charging using ISO 15118, DIN70121 and J1772 protocol. In V2V charging, source vehicle shall function as a mobile charging source (EVSE) and other shall function as a sink (EV). The idea of making source vehicle as charging station involves sink vehicle authentication and managing the power flow. This paper discusses the overall system level architecture involving need of mobile or remote charging, sources vehicle willingness, V2V authentication, charging request, power flow control, and charging execution.
Regeneration Calibration for Optimum Range and Effective Brakes Performances in eSUV
Authors: Kumar Prabhakar , K Rajakumar , Krishnan Nandhakumar , Suhail Mohammed Thamjeed
Published: January 2024

Regenerative braking is an effective approach for electric vehicles (EVs) to extend their driving range. To enhance the braking performances and regenerative energy, regenerative braking control strategy based on multi objective optimization is explained in this paper. This technical paper would be focusing on extracting optimum Range with effective brake performances without affecting drivability and performances in different drives modes. An extensive research study on public road driving patterns is done to understand the percentage utilization of brakes at various (low-mid-high) speeds as per the customer driving behavior. Multi-Objective optimization function with three vital factors is defined where output generated power, torque smoothness and current smoothness are selected as optimization objective to improve the driving range, braking comfort, and battery lifetime respectively. Braking regeneration maps are calibrated along with optimized foundation brake hardware’s to get the optimum range without affecting the brake performances. Ranges tests are conducted on chassis dynamometer with various drive cycles and optimized calibration showed the improved results on range without affecting the braking and acceleration performance feel.
Automated Charging Methodology for Fleet Operated EV Buses to Reduce Down Time and Increase Safety at Charging Station
Authors: Gullyal Avinash , Ahmed Yasir , Amancharla Naga Chaithanya , Kinjalkar Milind
Published: January 2024

Prime concern for electric vehicle where the application of the vehicle is public transport, is the charging of vehicle and operation of its infrastructure. Such an example of operating the EV buses is under the GCC (gross cost contract) model, with high operation time and comparatively lesser time for charging. It is challenging to meet these requirements. To counter this situation in fleet operated busses it is proposed to adapt an automated charging method which involves minimum man power intervention and automated mechanism to connect & disconnect the charging connectors. This paper proposes an automated pantograph mechanism based method of charging EV buses, meeting requirements as per SAE J3105 & ISO 15118 standards, which would be an ideal way to resolve the current situation. In the above mentioned pantograph type charging, the charging station or depot will have an infrastructure including charger whose input will be from grid, and the charging dispenser will be pantographs particularly inverted type panto. The EV buses will have a pair of panto rails on the roof which will collect the power from inverted panto installed in charging station. Once the EV bus is under the vicinity of pantograph, wireless communication will be initiated. Once the vehicle is aligned and communication is established the pantographs will move down to make contact with rails on EV bus. The EV bus charging will be initiated meeting the ISO 15118 requirements. This automated mechanism of charging provides reduced charging duration because of high current carrying capacity, more operational hours of EV bus and increased safety due to less manpower involved. This overall improves profitability of business and safety.
Twin Motor System for Electric Vehicle Propulsionby by Means of Energy Source
Authors: Pratiwadibhayankaram Ashwini Kumar Krishnaswamy , K A Rakesh , Sangam Manjunath
Published: January 2024

The transport sector in all domains like personal vehicles, public transport and logistics has seen a tremendous growth over the past decade, more so in the last 5 years. The main reasons for this rapid growth is the development of new energy storage systems in battery technology (Lithiumion, sodium ion, aluminum air etc.), hydrogen fuel cells, super capacitors etc. On the other hand there has been tremendous development in the motor drive technology with the availability of brushless dc motors (BLDC Motors), induction motors, Permanent magnet synchronous motors (PMSM, IPMSM). Each motor having its own special characteristics and usage suited for a very specific application in terms of torque and load bearing capacities.

In this paper we describe a unique platform with twin motor drive system electric vehicle which is powered by an artificial intelligence (AI) enabled electronic module DuoPackR. The basic platform is described with the help of a bicycle which has two BLDC motors on the front and rear wheels. Each motor is of 250 W @ 36V. This isonly to demonstrate the twin motor platform which may be extended to any vehicle, both road andrail with any number of wheels in any
System Validation with Battery-in-the-Loop Configuration Using a Virtual Testing Toolchain
Authors: Kolar Ales , Santiago Prabhu , Kural Emre
Published: January 2024

Today, the battery development process for automotive applications is relatively decoupled from the vehicle integration and system validation phase. Battery pack design targets are often disregarded at very early development phases even though they are thoroughly linked to the vehicle-level requirements such as performance, lifetime and cost. Here, AVL proposes a methodology guided by virtual testing techniques to frontload vehicle-level validation tasks in the earlier phase of battery pack testing. This paper focuses on the benefits of the methodology for both battery suppliers and automotive OEMs. Applications will be explained, based on a modular virtual testing toolchain, which involves the simulation platform and models as well as the generation of model parameters and test cases.
Electric Powertrain - Standardization of Adaptable Software in Loop System
Authors: Sajnani Abhishek , Vernekar Kiran , Gosavi Rupesh , Naik Venkatesh
Published: January 2024

The evolution of automotive Electronic Control Unit (ECU) technology brings the additional safety, comfort, and control to the vehicle. With an exponential increase in the complexity involved in modern-day ECU, it is very important to verify and validate robustness, functionality, and reliability of ECU software [1]. As of now, Hardware in loop [HIL] and Vehicle in Loop validations are well known software functional validation methods. However, these methods require physical setup, which can incur more cost and time during the development phase. In recent years, ECU virtualization gained attention for development and validation of automotive ECUs [2]. The goal is to minimize the effort on software testing. This paper focuses on virtualization of Electric Vehicle (EV) powertrain system using SIL approach. The objective is to provide an adaptable EV-virtualization environment for virtual-ECU (vECU) verification and validation. This paper focuses on standardization of SIL simulation setup by using modularized plant models. The term virtualization refers to a methodology of simulating automotive ECUs in a virtual environment (IT equipment) using SIL approach. In this virtual validation approach, ECU software stack is compiled and converted into an executable which can run on general purpose IT equipment with Windows or Linux environment. This executable is called a vECU. As there are no hardware dependencies, virtual ECUs provide the advantage of testing various scenarios in a simulated environment [3]. The demonstrated EV virtualized SIL solution could ultimately result in faster and more cost-effective software development cycle.
A Research Work to Develop an E-Axle Generic DVP for the Indian Market Complying with Indian and International Standards
Authors: Ray Rakesh Kumar , Vaither G V N Selvavindhan
Published: January 2024

The electric vehicle market in India has tremendous growth potential in the upcoming years and decades, attracting numerous automotive manufacturers, including Tier-1 suppliers, seeking to participate in this growth phase. Electric powertrains used in e-cars on Indian roads comply with BIS and AIS standards. However, these standards alone do not provide sufficient clarity on the complete list of tests required for developing an e-Axle through all stages of development. Developing the e-Axle in-house for the Indian market poses a significant challenge for OEMs and Tier-1 suppliers, as it will play a crucial role in overall profitability at high volumes in the long term. Adhering solely to the BIS and AIS standards may prove insufficient in fulfilling the developmental prerequisites of an electric axle (e-Axle) system. A comprehensive list of Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and Traceable requirements for any e-Axle must be fulfilled through Performance, Functional, Durability, and Robustness categories of tests. This paper examines various International and Indian standards related to e-Axle development and testing. Additionally, it proposes a solution in the form of essential tests for each test category (a generic e-Axle DVP). This approach incorporates the applicable tests listed in BIS and AIS standards, along with some other relevant tests taken from international standards. In the end, it serves as a guide for developing an e-axle that not only meets Indian test standards but also aligns with the well-established testing methodology of e-axles based on international test standards.
A Study on Traction Battery Mounting Arrangements in Different EV Buses
Authors: Jain Gaurav , Pathak Rahul , Gore Pandurang
Published: January 2024

Adaption of EV powertrains in existing vehicle architecture has created many unique challenges in meeting performance, reliability, safety, ease of manufacturing & serviceability at optimum cost. Mounting of large size battery packs in existing vehicle architecture is one of them.

Specific energy & the energy density of Lithium ion batteries are very lower compared to Diesel & Petrol, which requires high volume & weight for equivalent energy storage. For movement of many passengers and to ensure sufficient range EV buses typically needs large amount of energy and for storage of same bigger size battery packs are required. These large size batteries directly affect vehicle architecture, seating layout, ease of assembly & serviceability. Moreover the heavy mass of batteries directly influences vehicle dynamics & performance characteristics such as vehicle handling, roll & NVH. The most important consideration in design of EV vehicles in general and buses in specific is safety. Protection of battery in case of accidents, roll over, fire etc is of prime importance for safety of passengers. Thus traction battery mounting strategy has great influence on overall vehicle.

This paper provides an overview of the different types of traction battery mounting strategy used in electric buses globally, comparison of them, advantages and limitations.
Advance Thermal Management System for Electric Vehicle – An Indian Case Study
Authors: Emran Ashraf , Pawar Bhushan , Chavan Sagar , Hemkemeyer David , Sharma Vijay , Garg Shivam , Franke Kai
Published: January 2024

Climate change and global warming are one of the major challenges faced by the world today. A significant number of Indian cities rank among the most polluted globally, with vehicular emissions being the primary contributor. To address this issue, the Government of India is actively advocating for the adoption of zero-emission vehicles such as electric vehicles through policies and initiatives like FAME II [1], PMP and the National Mission for Transformative Mobility and Storage.

The acceptance of electric vehicles is growing in the Indian market seeing more than 200% increase in sales in the year 2022 compared to 2021 with a large share of 2-wheelers, 3-wheelers and compact cars getting electrified. Further adoption of electrification on a much larger scale currently faces the major challenge of high overall vehicle cost compared to conventional vehicles, with the major contribution coming from the HV battery which is the costliest system on the electric vehicles.

An electric vehicle with high energy efficiency can meet its driving range requirements with a relatively smaller battery size thereby leading to lower vehicle costs. Electric vehicle energy efficiency improvement can be achieved not only by reducing the losses at main powertrain components like electric motor, HV battery, transmission etc. or improved vehicle rolling resistance, aerodynamics but also by an energy optimized thermal management system.

The presented study focuses on reducing the energy demand of the thermal management system of an electric vehicle. As a basis for the case study, one of the most sold electric vehicles in the Indian market was selected and assessed for its energy consumption. As a next step, the introduction of advanced technologies like optimized and innovative control strategies such as predictive thermal management control (e.g., intelligent pre-conditioning, cabin air circulation control and smart ventilation) for cooling, heat pump integration along with the heat harvesting strategies for heating were done to detail the potential reduction in energy consumption of the vehicle.

In addition, integrative measures were also assessed to reduce the energy required for cabin air conditioning. Local climatization measures were also investigated for an efficient thermal management system. With the applied improvement solutions, the vehicle energy efficiency and driving range increased. All the simulations were performed on well validated GT SUITE simulation models from FEV.
Study on Range Improvement Controls and Method for Electric Vehicles
Authors: MR Vikram , Pattalwar Ashutosh , Verma Mrinal , Bawa Vikas
Published: January 2024

Electric Vehicles are rapidly growing in the market yet various doubts on success of its adaptation were noted all along the globe. On the question part range is one of the major attribute; however, range anxiety has greatly inspired manufacturers to explore new practices to improve. One of the most important components of an electric vehicles (EV) is the battery, which converts chemical energy to electrical energy thereby liberating heat energy as the loss. When this heat energy loss is high, the energy available in the battery for propulsion is reduced significantly. Additionally, with a higher heat loss in the battery, system is prone to failure or reduced mileage. Therefore, controlling/maintaining system temperature under safe usable limits even during harsh conditions is critical. Simple reduction in energy consumption of electrical cooling/heating devices used with regenerative energy techniques can greatly help in range improvement.

The intention of this paper is to explore ‘program friendly’ methods to improve electric vehicle range in different ambient conditions. Few of the key benefactors here are regenerative braking, a solar roof and defogging method (used along a course of WLTP cycle followed with a highway drive till the end of state of charge). A generic HVAC system is considered with a climate control function. Although, an enhanced strategy is already implemented for Powertrain, Fan and Pump controls which has been done prior to the suggested methods in this paper. Furthermore, the effect of controls on the system are monitored to diversify and optimize the power requirement. Real World scenarios are replicated in 1-D simulation tool for making a comparison between a normal driving mode and enhanced range gain mode. The observations here depict the study on range improvement controls and methods for analyzing vehicle performance in cold and hot climate specific to an electric passenger car.
Comparative Analysis of Electromagnetic Radiated Emission for Electric Powertrain and Conventional Spark Ignition (SI) Powertrain
Authors: Pawar Sneha Ravindra , Desai Manoj Madhukar
Published: January 2024

Due to the transformation of the automotive industry from conventional vehicles to electric vehicles, new challenges have emerged concerning Electromagnetic Compatibility. Though the Radiated Emission limits in global regulation are the same for both types of powertrains of vehicles, however, due to the phenomena of conversion of high voltage to low voltage, rapid charging/discharging, and different components involved in electric powertrain, the Radiated Emission from electric vehicles give a strikingly different trend which is challenging to combat. When compared with the conventional Spark Ignition vehicle, many other electronic components of the electric vehicle stay in the mode of Power ON while in the “Ignition ON” steady state. This resulted in us observing a significant shift in the amplitude and frequency throughout the frequency band of Radiated Emission measurement. This paper presents a comparative analysis of the changing trends of Radiated Emission from Spark Ignition Engine to the electric powertrain in the “Ignition ON” steady state, i.e., Narrow Band Emissions. It shall help the electric vehicle manufacturers to understand the underlying aspects of designing electric powertrains to meet Radiated Emission limits.
Comparison between State of Art Performance of GaN and SiC Converters for Electric Vehicle Application
Authors: Mehrotra Soumya , Ray Rakesh Kumar , Pandey Devbrat , Naithani Hardik
Published: January 2024

The automotive industry is witnessing remarkable progress in various facets of vehicle design, encompassing powertrain. To further boost the performance and efficiency of electric vehicles, researchers and designers are venturing beyond conventional silicon-based solutions into cutting-edge technologies. Among these, the application of wide-bandgap materials, specifically silicon carbide (SiC) and gallium nitride (GaN), in power-semiconductor devices for electric vehicles has gained significant popularity. Wide-bandgap-based voltage source converters crafted from SiC and GaN materials demonstrate superior efficiency when compared to their silicon counterparts. However, it is crucial to note that their performance largely hinges on their utilization at high switching frequencies. With the aim of identifying the most suitable technology for future electric vehicle applications, researchers conducted a comprehensive analysis comparing the efficiency of SiC and GaN devices. The investigation encompassed critical factors such as conduction loss, switching loss, breakdown voltage, and thermal comparison. In addition to efficiency considerations, the study also addressed concerns related to electromagnetic interference (EMI) and electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) arising from these wide-bandgap semiconductors. Special attention was given to the EMI/EMC performance of GaN and SiC converters in electric vehicle power systems, covering aspects such as EMI noise. The ultimate objective of the study was to evaluate the efficiency of SiC and GaN, in electric vehicle charger. This evaluation involved a comparative analysis of their fundamental performance parameters and application costs, all with the overarching goal of enhancing efficiency and achieving superior performance for electric vehicles. Moreover, the researchers sought to strike an optimal balance between vehicle performance and cost, enabling the drawing of market-specific conclusions on this pivotal aspect of electric vehicle technology.
Enhancing Electric Vehicle Performance and Battery Life through Flywheel Energy Storage System: Modelling, Simulation, and Analysis
Authors: Akhtar Juned
Published: January 2024

This research paper focuses on the modelling and analysis of a flywheel energy storage system (FESS) specifically designed for electric vehicles (EVs) with a particular emphasis on the flywheel rotor system associated with active magnetic bearings. The methodology used simulation approaches to investigate the dynamics of the flywheel system. The objective of this study is to explore the effects of implementing the flywheel energy storage system on the performance of the EV. The paper presents a comprehensive model of the flywheel energy storage system, considering the mechanical and electrical aspects. The mechanical model accounts for the dynamic behaviors of the flywheel, including parameters such as rotational speed, inertia, and friction. The electrical model describes the interaction between the flywheel and the power electronics, such as the converter and motor/generator. To evaluate the benefits of the flywheel energy storage system, simulations are conducted. Simulation studies analyses the dynamic behaviors of the flywheel system under various operating conditions. The results demonstrate that the integration of a flywheel energy storage system in the EV powertrain has a positive impact on the battery life. By capturing and storing excess energy during regenerative braking and other driving conditions, the flywheel system reduces the load on the battery, leading to fewer charge-discharge cycles and slower battery degradation. This prolongs the overall battery life and reduces the need for frequent battery replacements. The research findings highlight the potential of flywheel energy storage systems as an effective solution for extending the battery life of EVs. By utilizing the flywheel system to manage energy fluctuations and provide additional power during high-demand situations, the strain on the battery is significantly reduced. This contributes to increased reliability, lower maintenance costs, and improved overall performance of EVs.
Electric Vehicle Charging Interruptions
Authors: Ambuskar Mandar Maruti
Published: January 2024

This paper analyses technical issues encountered while charging electric vehicles using plug-in chargers. The electric vehicles are charged periodically based on charging system configuration and requirements set by the vehicle. In certain instances, the vehicle charging is interrupted, and the battery does not attain the expected state of charge. If such interruptions occur in commercial vehicles, they can delay the product or service delivery, leading to losses to the fleet owner. The charging process needs to be upgraded to deal with such situations. The charging interruptions are analyzed using logged vehicle measurement data, based on which the software and hardware in the vehicle are updated. The analysis showed that though the coupler was connected to the vehicle, the vehicle could not be charged due to an interruption. Communication error, power supply failure, component protection, component leakage, and charging facilities were identified as the causes of interruptions. This analysis was instrumental in the decision to upgrade the charging system in electric vehicles.
GPF: An Effective Technology to Minimize Two Wheeler (2Wh) Particulate Emission
Authors: Bhimavarapu Aditya , Singh Sunil Kumar , Kataria Rohit , Rose Dominik , Boger Thorsten
Published: January 2024

India is the world’s largest two-wheeler (2Wh) market. With the proportion of its middle class rapidly rising, 2Wh sales and the resulting emissions, are expected to grow exponentially. The decision to leap-frog from BSIV to BSVI emission norms shows India’s commitment to clean up its atmosphere. As of now, the regulation mandates Gaseous Pollutant (CO, HC, NOx) emission limits for all 2Whs and a particulate limit (PM & PN) for 2Whs powered by Direct Injection (DI) engines. Most of the 2Whs manufactured in India are powered by gasoline engines using the Port Fuel Injection (PFI) technology, and hence by definition particulate emission limits do not apply to them. Particulates when inhaled - especially of the ultrafine sizes capable of entering the blood stream - pose a serious health risk. This was the primary motivation to investigate the particulate emission levels of the 2Whs, which as on date, do not come under the purview of BSVI regulation.

A study was conducted selecting a motorcycle each from two different vehicle categories – Class 1 and Class 2-1 – as defined under the Indian 2Wh regulation. In the first phase of testing, emissions from both motorcycles in “as is” condition, were measured under WMTC conditions. While the CVS diluted PN emission for the Class 1 motorcycle was found to be 2.2 X 1011 #/km, the same for the Class 2-1 motorcycle was even higher at 7.0 X 1011 #/km. In the second phase, the emission control system for each of the motorcycles was retrofitted with a Gasoline Particulate Filter (GPF) as an “add-on”, downstream to the “as is” catalytic converter system, and emission tests were repeated. Addition of the GPF reduced the particulate emissions by more than 80%. Thus, the study shows that the particulate emissions from the 2Whs are high enough to adversely impact air quality and advanced emission control solutions like the GPF can effectively minimize the 2Wh particulate emissions.
Optimized Soot Monitoring by Ammonia Injection in a sDPF System for BS6.2 Application
Authors: Sharma Prashant , Hareesh Sangaraju , V Suryanarayanan , Palanisamy Krishnaraj , P Jagdesan , Rathiya Akash
Published: January 2024

The BS6 norms (phase 1) were implemented in India from April 1, 2020 and replaced the previous BS4 norms. Phase 2 of the BS6 norms, which came into effect on April 1, 2023. In accordance with the regulation requirement, effective performance of after treatment systems like DPF and SCR demands critical hardware implementation and robust monitoring strategies in the extended operating zone. Effective OBD monitoring of DPF, which is common to all BSVI certified vehicles, such that the defined strategy detects the presence or absence of the component is imperative. A robust monitoring strategy is developed to detect the presence of the DPF in the real world incorporating the worst possible driving conditions including idling, and irrespective of other environmental factors subject to a location or terrain. The differential pressure sensor across the DPF is used to study the actual pressure drop across the DPF. Additional for BS 6 (phase 2) PM sensor becomes an important part to keep the soot under monitoring. PM sensor is a costly affair, and it impacts the overall cost of the system.

This paper briefs about the PM sensor removal in a sDPF system. The soot monitoring will be enabled by extra ammonia injection and detecting the NH3 slip. The performance parameters, methodology derived for evaluation of key parameters and validation of the calibration in chassis dynamometer, on road at various altitude and temperature zones with empty and loaded DPF sample which serves to overcome the challenges in OBD monitoring with respect to DPF. Validation results assure zero misdetections in the field to avoid inconvenience to the customer. By using this approach, we could do soot monitoring of sDPF with existing architecture without adding PM sensor which will save rupees of 3,000 per vehicle. This strategy detects robustly a normal sDPF as good part and detects robustly a defect sample as defect sample. We could see clear gap between WPA sample and BPU sample which shows the robustness of the strategy followed for soot monitoring of sDPF. This strategy has potential to reach higher IUPR ratio with 95% detection accuracy and without any misdetection.
Exhaust after Treatment Solution for H
2
-ICE for Selective NO
x
Removal in the Presence of High Amount of Water Content
Authors: Srisailam Shravan Kumar , Patchett Joe , Wu Ralph , Wang Lu , Shah Sandip , Tang Weiyong
Published: January 2024

North America and Europe are implementing alternate fuels meet the goals of reducing carbon dioxide emissions and creating a sustainable environment. India too has promised to cut down emissions and become CO2 net neutral by 2070. One alternate fuel which has gained importance recently is hydrogen. With the announcement of National Hydrogen Mission by the Government of India in 2023, there has been an increased attention on the hydrogen fuel-based mobility. Technologies like H2-Fuel cell and a hydrogen fueled internal combustion engine (H2-ICE) are finding wider acceptance depending on the application and both offer an opportunity to meet targets of reduced carbon footprint in India and reduce reliance on fuel imports. A key advantage of H2-ICE is that its implementation requires little mod+ification to the conventional ICE. However, the internal combustion engine, even fueled with H2, still emits NOx and therefore must meet current and future regulations. NOx can be removed using Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) with ammonia (urea) as the reductant. Unlike current diesel engines, in which the water content is low (around 10%), H2-ICE may have 30% water in its exhaust which can affect NOx conversion efficiency, NH3 storage, N2O selectivity, or catalyst durability. In this study, the impact of water content on the deNOx performance, selectivity and durability of state-of-the-art BASF SCR technologies showed that water content had a minimal and manageable impact on SCR catalyst performance and that current zeolite and vanada based SCR catalyst will likely be adaptable to H2-ICE engine.
Study of Changes in Exhaust After-Treatment System Components in M & N Category Vehicles from the RDE Monitoring Stage to the RDE Compliance Stage
Authors: Singh Abhay Pratap , Bathina Revanth Kumar , Thakare Kiran Prabhakar
Published: January 2024

Bharat Stage VI emission norms were implemented in India in two stages: Stage I from April 1, 2020, and Stage II from April 1, 2023. For M & N category vehicles, the RDE test along with other applicable certification tests is mandatory for obtaining a BSVI compliance certificate during stages I and II. The RDE test is conducted on roads under real driving conditions, unlike the Type-I test, which uses a predefined cycle on the chassis dynamometer, during which the ambient temperature and other environmental conditions are controlled in a narrow range. During BSVI Stage I for the RDE test, there was no limit for any pollutant. Therefore, it is considered as the RDE monitoring stage, and from BS-VI Stage II, limits are enforced on a few pollutants (NOX and PN) as notified in notification GSR 226(E) dated March 27, 2023. Therefore, it is considered the RDE compliance stage. During the RDE monitoring phase, emissions from M & N category vehicles are comparatively higher because of several reasons such as cost reduction, weight reduction, and optimization of exhaust after treatment systems to meet only the Type-I limit, irrespective of those vehicles’ emissions during real driving conditions. However, to meet the RDE limits in the compliance stage, exhaust aftertreatment components such as the gasoline particle filter (GPF), selective catalyst reduction (SCR), and some other sensors and components are added to both categories of vehicles, along with calibration optimization. This study was conducted on all the characteristic vehicles, such as vehicle category, ignition type, engine capacity, etc., to obtain an overview of the advancement in exhaust aftertreatment components and their RDE emission performance from the RDE monitoring stage to the RDE compliance stage.
Analytical Comparison of Real Drive Emissions from Passenger Vehicle at Different Altitude Operation Conditions
Authors: Pallerla Sunil , Balagangatharan Balamuralitharan , Rajan Gautham , Muthrak Raja Pramod Kumar
Published: January 2024

As a major checkpoint in worldwide Automotive Emission Regulations, the Real Drive Emission (RDE) has been introduced to regulate the amount of pollutants in real road driving conditions. Such tests depend very much on numerous ambient conditions, in which the altitude of the terrain is one major factor. Among the various vehicle exhaust pollutants, NOx, CO & CO2 have the tendency to vary in connection to the atmospheric ambient conditions where the vehicles are being operated. For an instance, in our targeted case of testing at higher altitudes CO & NOx levels are found to be higher than when tested at normal RDE regulatory altitude limits. As the altitude increases, the amount of oxygen present in the atmosphere decreases, which can cause the combustion process in an internal combustion engine to operate at a lesser efficient stoichiometric composition than at sea level. This will in-turn produce more exhaust emissions as a byproduct of such altered compensative functioning (combustion), which will ultimately lead to elevated levels of harmful pollutants into the atmosphere. Hence, there is a significant need to consider various altitude levels as test zones for possible RDE test condition to be included in the vehicle development. For this proposed study, a calibrated PEMS equipment is being used to perform the on-road RDE test trials in carefully formulated test routes in which 2 different fuel based vehicles were validated such that it satisfies all the necessary test boundary conditions to obtain valid results. The final intended outcome of this study would be to provide an analytical comparison of Real Drive Emission evaluation on passenger vehicles at areas of extended atmospheric & drive conditions which are not generally covered under standard regulation test condition.
Soot Sensor Elimination with DPF Substrate Failure Monitoring
Authors: Jain Praveer Kirtimohan , Yadav Omkar , Chendil Chellapandi , Krishnaraj P , R Sivasubramamanian , Daithankar Parag Narsinha , Shanmugam Ramakrishnan Muthu
Published: January 2024

The automobile industry is going through one of the most challenging times, with increased competition in the market which is enforcing competitive prices of the products along with meeting the stringent emission norms. One such requirement for BS6 phase 2 emission norms is monitoring for partial failure of the component if the tailpipe emissions are higher than the OBD limits. Recently PM (soot) sensor is employed for partial failure monitoring of DPF in diesel passenger cars.. PM sensor detects soot leakage in case of DPF substrate failure. There is a cost factor along with extensive calibration efforts which are needed to ensure sensor works flawlessly. This paper deals with the development of an algorithm with which robust detection of DPF substrate failure is achieved without addition of any sensor in the aftertreatment system. In order to achieve this, a thermodynamic model of DPF substate was created using empirical relations between parameters like exhaust flow rate, exhaust gas temperature and soot mass content. The modeling was done in both empty (no soot) and filled (threshold soot content) DPF substrate conditions. There were two methodologies, namely integration method and normalization method. In integration method the pressure drop across DPF substate in actual running condition is cumulatively summed up and compared with the integrated modelled value achieved from the thermodynamic model. If the ratio between modelled and actual crosses the threshold value, a DPF substrate failure flag is raised. In normalization method, actual pressure drop across DPF is corrected using empirical thermodynamic relations for exhaust temperature and soot mass content. The corrected pressure drop is normalized for the exhaust flow rate and then averaged based on release conditions. If the averaged values is lower than the threshold, a DPF substrate failure flag is raised. DPF substrate failure is intimated only when both the methodologies raise the failure flag. The algorithm was tested with actual failed DPF sample and robust detection was observed (more than 90% detection accuracy) and no misdetection.
A Novel Method for Urea Concentration Deterioration Detection in BSVI Heavy Duty Engine
Authors: Venkat Harish , Kumar Gokul Elumalai , Kumar Kosalaraman , G Vijayakumar
Published: January 2024

Diesel Exhaust Fluid (DEF) concentration monitoring is done to detect the concentration at which the emission thresholds are exceeded in BSVI engines [1]. This paper introduces a novel method to model the fault monitoring system with enable conditions designed to detect deterioration in DEF concentration, while reducing misdetection. This eliminates the need for dedicated sensor, reduces complexity, cost, and potential sensor-related failure modes.

Traditionally, Diesel Exhaust Fluid quality sensors have been employed to measure the absolute concentration of Diesel Exhaust Fluid in the aqueous solution of urea [2]. This information is used to detect usage of poor quality DEF which results in increase in NOx emission beyond legal limits. The proposed method leverages the strong relationship between catalyst conversion efficiency and Diesel Exhaust Fluid concentration for modelling a fault monitoring system which also takes inputs from various other sensors, to make the system fault tolerant. This innovation contributes to improved emissions control and regulatory compliance in the automotive industry.
Gasoline Particulate Filter Calibration Approach for BS6 Market
Authors: Arale Shrikant , B G Sharath , Chaudhari Kuldeepak , Madhukar Prahlad , MY Raghu
Published: January 2024

With the implementation of BS6 Norms, there is an increased focus on reducing particulate matter emissions from gasoline Direct Injection (GDI) engines. GPFs are effective in capturing particulate matter (PM) and particulate number (PN) but their calibration is critical to ensure optimal performance and emissions compliance.

This paper presents a study on the calibration of Gasoline Particulate Filters (GPF) to comply with Bharat Stage-6 (BS6) emissions norms. The focus is on thermal management, soot loading, ash loading, and the unique challenges faced in the Indian market. Thermal management strategies include active and passive methods to optimize GPF regeneration and prevent thermal degradation. Soot load detection involves engine-out simulation-based approach as well as delta-Pressure-based approach for accurate soot modelling. Impact of ash loading and its effects on filtration efficiency and pressure drop will also be discussed.

Further the strategies to overcome the challenges with respect to variations in driving conditions, ambient conditions, and the need for cost-effective solutions ensuring effective GPF calibration for Indian market.
Performance Evaluation Study to Optimize the NOx Conversion Efficiency of SDPF Catalyst for BS6 RDE/OBD2 Engine Application
Authors: Singh Shephali , Patil Sandip , Maynal Rajesh A. , Maske Vidyasagar , Seyler Michael , Subramanian Senthilnathan , Deshpande P V , Luquman Shahid
Published: January 2024

To meet future emission levels, the automotive industry is trying to reduce tailpipe emissions through both possible pathways, i.e. emission from engines as well as and the development of novel catalytic emission control concepts. The present study will focus on the close coupled SCR on Filter commonly known as SDPF which is a main pathway to reduce NOx along with particulate mass and number for light duty passenger cars and sport utility vehicles for BS 6 RDE/OBD 2 and future legislation like BS-7. The SDPF is a challenging technology as it is critical component in exhaust after treatment system involving in NOx and PM/PN reductions hence careful optimization of this technology is necessary in terms of space velocity requirements, temperature, feed NOx emission levels, particulate mass and ash holding capacities, NH3 storage on the SDPF, and back pressure.

With BS6 RDE having extremely challenging conformity factor (CF) for NOx equals to 1.43, the SDPF design & optimization is high on importance. Tools such as simulation, synthetic gas bench and engine bench testing and vehicle testing, in conjunction with each other can play critical role in optimal design of the SDPF by enabling the assessment of catalyst performance with different input conditions before the actual hardware testing.

Umicore always strive to design the catalyst not only for legislative cycles but ensure that these systems work well till the end of the useful life. This paper presents a joint study between Umicore and OEM (Original Equipment Manufacturer) for analyzing the performance of a 1.5L engine volume SDPF catalyst for a vehicle application. Initially catalyst parameter evaluation was done on synthetic gas bench (SGB). Further, a systematic approach is followed to understand the effect of feed NO2/NOx ratio, catalyst volume, inlet temperature and the feed NH3/NOx ratio on the NOx conversion efficiency of the catalyst by using a model-based study. The benefit of using an optimal urea dosing strategy over a simplistic dosing strategy for maximum NOx conversion is also demonstrated.