bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
6 History and Memory
Authors: Fox Matthew
Published: September 2007

This chapter places Cicero's use of ironic history within its cultural context. Several different areas of Roman approaches to the past are discussed: the use of historical exempla, the use of funeral masks and the veneration of ancestors, and the Annalistic tradition of historical record-keeping. These are brought together in a discussion of Cicero's attitude to memory, and the intersection between memory and identity. The evidence from Cicero suggests an awareness of the symbolic power of history over its factual basis. The Roman interest in historical revival is explored. The chapter concludes that Cicero's use of history to explore rather than reinforce identity was characteristic of his times. His philosophical tendencies prompted him to exploit history's flexibility.
9 Ironic History in the Roman Tradition
Authors: Fox Matthew
Published: September 2007

This chapter integrates the readings of earlier chapters to consider the place of Cicero's ironic treatment of historical representation in the light of mainstream Latin historiography. First, the question of how far the past can actually be known is explored from treading texts that illustrate both historiographical and philosophical approaches. For Cicero, history is predominantly a form of representation. Cicero's Letter to Lucceius is explored, in which he asks shamelessly for his own historical glorification. The letter is taken as further evidence for Cicero's ironic approach to the past, and to his own relationship to it. A brief discussion of Sallust, Livy, and Tacitus follows, and the chapter concludes that all these writers shared an awareness of the literary and educational potential of presenting conflicting accounts of Rome's past.
10 Cicero from Enlightenment to Idealism
Authors: Fox Matthew
Published: September 2007

The chapter centres on the detailed reading of a little-known treatise on Cicero, written in Latin by the Enlightenment thinker, John Toland. His treatise, Cicero Illustratus, presents Cicero as a cornerstone of the Enlightenment. This chapter looks at Toland's approach to Cicero as representing particular views of criticism that were current at the time. Toland's ambitions for his new edition of Cicero, which was never produced, are presented in some detail. Toland's reading reveals both how far back prejudices against Cicero as an advocate lie, but also that a sensitivity towards the dialogic quality of his writing was easier for Toland than it for today's readers. The chapter reinforces the usefulness of looking at this earlier reading to reveal the difficulties of approaching Cicero caused by subsequent developments in the academic disciplines.
The Four Tests for a Revelation
Authors: Swinburne Richard
Published: September 2007

There are four tests for whether a purported propositional revelation does indeed come from God: that its content is plausible (that not intrinsically improbable); confirmed by miracle; interpreted in a plausible way by a church founded by the prophet who originally delivered the revelation; and that the interpretation is plausibly true. A miracle is a violation of a law of nature, which God alone can bring about. Christianity (unlike Judaism, Islam, and Eastern religions) is a serious candidate for having a revelation authenticated by a miracle — the Resurrection of Jesus.
Conclusion
Authors: Swinburne Richard
Published: September 2007

This book has argued that the Christian revelation satisfies the four tests of a genuine revelation from God very well: the content of the original revelation is plausible, it was confirmed by a miracle, it has been interpreted by a church in a plausible way, and the interpretation is plausibly true. No other purported revelation satisfies these tests nearly as well. There is plenty of scope for the Christian Church to develop its interpretations yet further.
6 Life in a Parish
Authors: Albert Jones David
Published: September 2007

This chapter describes the means by which clergy managed their glebe, whether by cultivating it themselves or letting it, and the means by which tithes were collected. It discusses the extent of their involvement in the agricultural economy of their parishes. It examines the evidence for the size and construction of clergy's parsonage houses, and the steps that were taken from the 1770s to build or improve parsonage houses to promote the residence of incumbents in their parishes. The evidence of the lifestyle of incumbents is investigated, along with the role and position of clergy wives, the provision of support for clergy widows, and the position of clergy in local society. The levels of expenditure of clergy are examined, especially in relation to the overheads in collecting tithe and cultivating glebe, taxation, and charity for the poor of their parishes.
9 Promoting Christian Knowledge
Authors: Albert Jones David
Published: September 2007

This chapter investigates the third key role of clergy: to teach and deepen people's knowledge about the Christian faith. It explores the evidence for the clergy's activity in instructing children in the Christian faith by means of catechizing, and in promoting and managing charity schools, Sunday schools and, in the early 19th century — National Schools. It also considers the evidence for their teaching adults by means of distributing tracts, establishing parochial libraries, and preaching sermons. The evidence of the approach of parish clergy to preaching is examined.
12 Conclusion
Authors: Albert Jones David
Published: September 2007

This chapter highlights emerging themes from the study, including regional variations; the relationship between the regions and London, the centre and localities; the role of clergy as gatherers and disseminators of information, both from and to the centre and localities; and the role of clergy as opinion-formers. It is suggested that clergy were unifying influences in society. The clergy were closely integrated with their local economies and local society, but they formed a distinct social and professional group, which distanced them from their neighbours. The clergy were not an archaic group compared to other professional bodies, but provided something of a model for the reformation and regulation of the legal and medical professions in the 1820s and 1830s.
1 Introduction
Authors: Ralph Jason
Published: September 2007

This chapter examines how criminal justice helps to construct society by reaffirming common values at the moment they meet with opposition. It also introduces the English School approach to the study of international society and it describes how it provides a useful framework for analysing the issues raised by the International Criminal Court. The chapter clarifies the use of the pluralist and solidarist labels at the heart of the English School research agenda, summarises the main arguments of the book and sets out the chapter outline.
2 International Society—Consent and Custom as Sources of Law
Authors: Ralph Jason
Published: September 2007

This chapter examines why legal positivism emphasises the importance of sovereign consent and relates it to the pluralist conception of international society introduced in the previous chapter. This is contrasted with a solidarist conception that identifies sources of law in processes that override the principle of sovereign consent. The chapter also examines the specific and contested role that peremptory norms play in the constitution of international society. Finally, it relates this debate to the contemporary critique of customary international law within American academia and within certain parts of the political and judicial branches of US government. It illustrates this with reference to the debate on the Alien Tort Claims Act and to documents claiming executive privilege in the war on terror.
3 International Society—The Duty Either to Extradite or Prosecute
Authors: Ralph Jason
Published: September 2007

This chapter follows on from the previous by exploring how the pluralist – solidarist distinction at the heart of English School inquiry manifests itself in the question of whether states have a right and duty to extradite or prosecute individuals charged with crimes that offend humanity. By focusing on the Pinochet case before the House of Lords and the Arrest Warrant or Yerodia case before the International Court of Justice it demonstrates how the pluralist concern for order within and between states has restrained the solidarist enthusiasm for universal jurisdiction. The chapter includes a section on the politics of international criminal justice. This advances the argument that the US prefers to limit the decision to prosecute to states because its position of relative power means that it can more or less guarantee its interests and protect its personnel from international criminal accountability. This is illustrated by focusing on the US response to Belgian legislation that enabled its national courts to exercise universal jurisdiction.
7 International Society and America's War on Terrorism
Authors: Ralph Jason
Published: September 2007

The evidence presented in previous chapters contributes to the general argument that the US defends the idea of a society of states because it is in the kind of society that America can preserve a preferred self‐image and can best advance its particular interests. This chapter develops that argument one stage further by focusing on the US response to the terrorist attacks of 9–11. From the perspective of the Bush administration, only those fighting on behalf of sovereign states could claim a right to lawful belligerency and the right to protection under the laws of war. Dealing with the terrorist threat through the norms of the society of states, therefore, provided additional normative criteria to delegitimize Al Qaeda and it put the issue of counter‐terrorism in a legal and political setting the US could, as the most powerful state, more or less dictate. The chapter provides historical context to this policy by focusing on the US rejection of Protocol I additional to the Geneva Conventions and illustrates how US lawyers also used the concept of sovereignty in an attempt to escape the oversight of national as well as international courts.
3 Torture of Detainees and Presidential Prerogative Power
Authors: Pious Richard M.
Published: September 2007

This chapter focuses on the president's use of prerogative powers and the treatment of detainees in the war on terror. President Bush asserted his prerogative power in interpreting and reinterpreting conventions and customary international law obligations, and in interpreting the obligations of government officials to execute faithfully statute law, the Uniform Code of Military Justice, and various directives. It is argued that officials at the highest levels of government made decisions based on the constitutional authority of the president (as administration lawyers defined it) that left open the probability that detainees would be subjected to inhuman treatment and torture as defined by international law. The chapter explores why the issue of the treatment of prisoners has not risen to the level of an Iran-Contra affair and what the reaction tells us about the politics of prerogative power.
5 “The Decider's” Path to War in Iraq and the Importance of Personality
Authors: Langston Thomas S.
Published: September 2007

The purpose of this chapter is not to second-guess the president's decision to go to war with Iraq, but to inquire into the possibility that it represents an outstanding example of the influence of personality upon decision making of the highest importance. The chapter proceeds first by presenting a composite view of the personality of the president, taking into account both his major personality traits and his world-view. Next, it breaks down the decision for war in Iraq into seven discrete decisions. The first six progressively made war increasingly likely. The last was the final decision to launch the invasion. Each decision is characterized based on the major actors who influenced the president's choice, the manner in which the decision was made, and the practical consequences of each choice for the likelihood of war. There is compelling evidence that personal factors drove the decision to wage war in Iraq.
Going Public, Going to Baghdad: Presidential Agenda-Setting and the Electoral Connection in Congress
Authors: Blinder Scott B.
Published: September 2007

President Bush and administration officials sought to persuade the domestic public, lawmakers in Washington, and the international community of the need to take military action against Saddam Hussein's regime, even after the decision to go to war had apparently been made. Using the power of the presidential bully pulpit and sending high-ranking officials to the airwaves and speech circuits, the administration spared no effort to make the case for ‘disarming’ Saddam, by force if necessary. But was ‘going public’ — appealing to the American public to try to increase support for the president's preferred policy — a necessary or even useful step on the president's road to Baghdad? This chapter argues that ‘going public’ was useful in at least one sense: improving the president's chances of success in the Congress.
Anglicanism and the British Empire, c.1700-1850
Authors: Strong Rowan
Published: September 2007

This book demonstrates that British imperialism was integrally connected to British religion. Using published sources, the book identifies the construction, development, and ingredients of a public Anglican discourse of the British Empire between 1700 and c.1850. It argues that the Church of England exhibited an official and conscious Anglican concern for empire and for missions by the Church of England, from the foundation of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts in 1701. Much of that earlier 18th century understanding went on to shape later Anglican Evangelical imperial attitudes in the Church Missionary Society founded in 1799. In this Anglican engagement with the British Empire, a public theological discourse of empire was formed and promulgated. This religious public discourse of empire was developed in an imperial partnership with the state. It was formulated in the Anglican engagement with the North American colonies in the 18th century; it underwent a revival of the church-state partnership in the period between 1790 and 1830, as witnessed in Bengal; and it was fundamentally transformed in a new paradigm of imperial engagement in the 1840s, which was implemented in the colonies of Australia and New Zealand. Both the old and the new imperial Anglican paradigms developed a religious and theological imperial discourse that constructed the identities for various colonized peoples and British colonists, as well as contributing to English-British identity between 1700 and 1850. It was a Christian lens that proved remarkably consistent and enduring for both the old and the new British Empires.
Introduction: English Religion and Empire to 1700
Authors: Strong Rowan
Published: September 2007

The connection between religion and empire in England goes back to at least the 16th century. While missions and religion may not have been a primary motivation for English venturing overseas in the 16th and 17th centuries, nevertheless, when they did so, the English ensured their religion went with them. The annual sermons and the published extracts of the Anglican missionaries attached to the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel and, later, the Church Missionary Society from 1701 until the 1840s, allow investigation into the formation, maintenance, and adaptation of an Anglican discourse of the British Empire from the beginning of the 18th century to the mid-19th century.
2 The Construction of an Anglican Imperialism: British North America in the Eighteenth Century
Authors: Strong Rowan
Published: September 2007

A public theological discourse of how the English-British empire was to be understood was framed by the Anglican Society for Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts in its original missionary engagement with the North American colonies in the 18th century. In its public sermons and missionary reports it constructed identities for the inhabitants of the empire, colonized and colonizers, and for the English themselves. It did so in partnership with the state, though this partnership was seen to be unsatisfactory in important dimensions.
3 Anglicanism in a Resurgent Imperialism: Bengal, 1790–1830
Authors: Strong Rowan
Published: September 2007

The partnership between church and state in the empire underwent a period of revitalization in the period between 1790 and 1830, after the loss of the thirteen North American colonies. This is evident in Anglican engagement with the Bengal mission by both High Church and Evangelical missions. This engagement witnessed a remarkable continuity with the public theological discourse about the British Empire that had been constructed in the North American context previously.
5 The New Paradigm in the Colonies: Australia and New Zealand, 1820s–c.1850
Authors: Strong Rowan
Published: September 2007

This new Anglican imperial paradigm was also framed in the colonies, where it was adopted at different speeds in different colonies. In Australia, between the 1820s and 1840s, the old church-state paradigm only gradually and reluctantly gave way to the new episcopal autonomous one under Bishop William Broughton. In New Zealand, it was the driving force of the state, of the episcopate of Bishop George Selwyn, from the 1840s. In both colonies, Anglican missionaries and bishops continued to construct identities for colonizers and the Aborigines and Maori indigenous peoples in ways similar to the 18th century Anglican missions.
6 Growth and Stability
Authors: GLYN ANDREW
Published: September 2007

This chapter examines whether the great reversal in economic policy over the past twenty-five years has rekindled economic dynamism in rich countries and how the stability of output has been affected. It is shown that excitement over the new economy boom in the USA has dissipated with the collapse of the bubble. Japan has been stuck in a low growth quagmire for fifteen years, reflecting in part the after-effects of precipitate financial liberalization. Europe's economy, battered by the effects of German unification, has been growing only feebly, with mass unemployment in the large Continental economies and with little response to repeated doses of deregulation.
8 Postscript
Authors: GLYN ANDREW
Published: September 2007

This brief postscript reviews further developments affecting the three important themes from the earlier chapters. These are the dangers of economic instability borne out of the expansion and complexity of the financial sector; the impact of globalization and especially the rise of China; the growth in inequality; and the threats to egalitarian policies.
The Senses, Reason and the Imagination
Authors: Kail P. J. E.
Published: September 2007

This chapter compares three key aspects of Hume's account of mind, sense reason, and imagination. Explanatory projection rests with a contrast with detective sources, and it is argued that the senses constitute a detective source of content and reason of belief. This is a discussion of Hume's alleged scepticism about probable reason and the historical background to Hume's account of the imagination.
Into the Labyrinth: Persons, Modality and Hume's Undoing
Authors: Kail P. J. E.
Published: September 2007

This chapter examines two subjects. The first is Hume's account of the fictional idea of substantial self and the sense in which it is projective. The second is an attempt to locate the source of Hume's famous disquiet with his account of personal identity. It is argued that an otherwise recalcitrant feature of Hume's texts becomes perspicuous when viewed from the perspective of realism about necessary connection.
The Golden: Relational Values, Realism and A Moral Sense
Authors: Kail P. J. E.
Published: September 2007

This chapter shows how the projection of pleasure and pain can be integrated into a subtle form of realism. It is argued that Hume's account of the moral sense can be seen as modelled on a view of primitive animal cognition, whereby what is good for the animal is made salient in pleasurable experience; what is bad for it through painful experience. The moral pleasure and pains render salient Hume's catalogue of the morally relational values, namely that which is useful or pleasing.
Chapter 8 Health Insurance Patterns Nearing Retirement
Authors: Levy Helen G.
Published: September 2007

This chapter asks how well Baby Boomers are protected against later-life health shocks. While exposure to such shocks is relatively high, the realization of risk appears unlikely and relatively little wealth is at risk. Almost one-quarter of the original Health and Retirement Study cohort was uninsured at some point in the six-year window before Medicare eligibility, but only 2% had an uninsured hospitalization in this window. Moreover, the amount at stake for the median uninsured person is relatively low. Since many in this age bracket approach old age in poor financial shape, lack of assets may be a larger problem than lack of health insurance. Policies aimed at preventing poverty among the elderly may be more important than policies to expand health insurance coverage among those on the verge of retirement.
The Harlot's Art: Metaphor and Literary Criticism
Authors: Leidl Christoph G.
Published: September 2007

This chapter explores some major issues in developing a model for the study of metaphor as a literary category. Purely structural categorization should be supplemented with sensitivity to context in the operation of metaphor. Central to the purpose of metaphor are the judgements they imply, and their use to create vocabulary for new fields of thought thus throws useful light on how those fields are viewed. Ancient personifications of rhetoric as a woman are used as a case study.
Metaphor and Metonymy: Aristotle, Jakobson, Ricoeur, and Others
Authors: Silk Michael
Published: September 2007

This chapter argues in favour of Roman Jakobson’s privileging of metonymy alongside metaphor as primary linguistic tropes (‘trope’ is to be understood here, in a significant modification of Aristotle’s understanding of metaphor, as deviation from usage perceived or felt as normal). But Jakobson shares with Aristotle, as also with Paul Ricoeur and philosophical theorists at large, the fault of paying too little respect to actual literary practice. The result is that they identify metaphor as the defining characteristic of poetic language, mistakenly ignoring the importance of metonymy as well.
The Rhetoric of the Homeric Problems
Authors: Russell Donald
Published: September 2007

Heraclitus Homericus operates as grammarian, philosopher, and ‘rhetor’, and it is the latter aspect on which this chapter focuses. It shows how the rhetorical case in Homer’s defence is built against Plato, especially through establishing allegory as stock-in-trade of the former, and degeneracy the distinguishing feature of the latter.
Is Co-operation Habit-Forming?
Authors: Seabright Paul
Published: September 2007

Common sense would suggest people who have cooperated in the past would find it easier to cooperate in the future. This chapter examines a number of issues related to cooperation and trust with regard to individual rationality and formation of collective action institutions, both (game-) theoretically and empirically. A cooperative outcome is one of many equilibria possible in a repeated game (i.e., while each game is unique, players can remember each other's strategies in previous rounds). A player's decision on whether or not to cooperate depends on pay-offs from that cooperation and the degree of trust. Repetition seems to do two things: first, by allowing the possibility of retaliation it transforms the game such that cooperation is rational, and second, because both players now know this, it increases the likelihood that other players will cooperate, and thus, making cooperation individually rational. Some of the conjectures identified from the theoretical model are also examined with data from milk-producers' cooperative societies in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Some policy implications are discussed.
CO2 and the Greenhouse Effect: A Game-Theoretic Explorathion
Authors: Hoel Michael
Published: September 2007

This chapter uses game theoretic models to examine scope for international cooperation for reducing CO2 emissions. Though the collective benefits of reduced emissions may be significant, it is in no country's self-interest to make significant sacrifices through a reduction in emissions. In the absence of cooperation, the total quantity of emissions will be in excess of the social optimum, that allocation of emissions which maximizes the total income of all countries minus the environmental costs. However, not all kinds of international agreements lead to a social optimum. A more common type of agreement is one where all countries are required to make uniform percentage reduction in emissions. The cost difference between these two types of agreements may be quite large. This chapter explores two other types of environmental agreements, namely, an international CO2 tax and tradable CO2 permits. Disregarding the size of a country, it is seen that both of these systems are equivalent. With a CO2 tax, setting the tax level can be an issue and it may take a few iterations to reach the desired level of tax.
Management of Wildlife and Habitat in Developing Countries
Authors: Brown Gardner
Published: September 2007

This chapter attempts to explain why and in what circumstances a precipitous rate of decline in the stocks of natural capital is not, by itself, a cause for concern. Many problems related to optimal use of wildlife and habitat can be addressed by better design of property rights systems so that ‘owners’ have an incentive to exclude others. Such property right systems can gradually lead to tradable quotas whereby price can generate revenue for conservation efforts. The chapter uses examples of African wildlife areas and the scope for using mixed strategies where ‘owners’ keep both cattle and game. From an economic analysis vantage point, it is argued that game and cattle interact on both demand and supply sides. Some of the benefits of wildlife viewing are illustrated with the cases of Lumpinee Park in Thailand and Korup National Park in Cameroon.
Researching Japanese Subsidiaries: The Strategy of Multiple Case-study Research
Authors: Elger Tony , Smith Chris
Published: September 2007

This chapter outlines the logic of the research design and the research methods used to study the operations of five Japanese subsidiaries in Britain. It reviews the different limitations of survey-based research and single case research, and advocates theoretically informed multiple case studies to illuminate both the processual dynamics of subsidiary operations and the importance of evolving social contexts. It explains the basis for the selection of the case-study enterprises and outlines the role of extensive interviews with managers and workers, combined with observation and documentary sources, in developing a cumulative understanding of patterns of social relations in each case-study establishment. Finally, it considers the strengths and weaknesses of a particular focus on non-unionized Japanese enterprises in Britain as a basis for contributing to the analysis of the overseas operations of multinational firms more generally.
6 Ciceronian Consensus
Authors: Bell Andrew
Published: September 2007

This chapter uses the oratory of Cicero to show the intricate dynamics of the late Republic, which Caesarism dooms. Cicero did not much like noisy crowds nor the liberalities which invited them. Yet in the summer of 44 AD, he excitedly recorded the ‘testimony and judgement’ of the populus delivered upon the assassins of Caesar. He had been impressed by the roar of the crowd at the ludi Apollinares. He thought this bespoke a future for his res publica but he was wrong. In his own complicated and uncertain fashion, Caesar had shown himself willing and more than able to offer easily better aspects of civic life. Caesarian autocracy had established itself through food and jobs and cash, monuments and memories in Rome.
4 Some Evaluative Terms in Aristophanes
Authors: Dover Kenneth
Published: September 2007

This chapter establishes the range of evaluative strategies found in Greek comedy and then concentrates on an explicit lexical evaluation in comedy. It argues that it would be easy to understand why the language of Aristophanes abstains from the use of the ‘basic’ obscene metaphor in reproaching stupidity and unpleasantness if it also abstained from (1) the metaphorical use of ‘deviant’ obscenity and (2) the use of both basic and deviant obscene words in their literal meanings. However, those conditions are not fulfilled, leaving something that resembles an ecological niche inexplicably unoccupied.
10 Speech within Speech in Menander
Authors: Nünlist René
Published: September 2007

This chapter describes the dramatic use of speech within speech in Menander's comedies. It begins with a historical review that stretches from Homer down to Hellenistic literature, then considers the specific role ‘speech within speech’ takes on in New Comedy. By distinguishing factual and imagined quoted speech, it shows that Menander's usage is closer to that of Euripides than to that of Aristophanes even though the absolute frequency of quoted speech is comparable in all three authors.
From Conservatism to Revolution: British Stock Exchanges 1965–2005
Authors: Thatcher Mark
Published: September 2007

Britain is treated separately because it had a different institutional starting point in the securities sector, reformed earlier and then influenced the other three countries, and followed a specific ‘British reform path’. Between the mid-1960s and the early 1980s, despite pressures from transnational technological and economic developments, traditionalists in the London Stock Exchange successfully fought to retain their inheritance. However, the position changed greatly after the early 1980s. The LSE was transformed from a private British club into a listed company open to takeover. Reversing decades of self-regulation, powers were delegated to new independent financial regulatory authorities. Reforms were led by British state actors. They were triggered for domestic reasons, but thereafter, international factors became important, as British policy makers became concerned about regulatory competition from the US, and selectively used US reforms to justify changes. The chapter therefore shows the importance of US policies in the strategies of domestic policy makers and their legitimation of reforms.
Transformation and Convergence: Stock Exchanges in France, Germany, and Italy 1986–2005
Authors: Thatcher Mark
Published: September 2007

Between 1986 and 2005, rapid and sweeping changes broke with long-standing sectoral institutions for securities trading in France, Germany, and Italy. Stock exchanges were privatised, legal monopolies ended, and regulatory powers transferred to independent regulatory authorities. Policy forms of internationalisation were crucial in these changes. Policymakers feared regulatory competition due to new institutional arrangements in Britain, while also looking to Britain as a successful example of reform. But a second, more important factor was detailed sectoral EU regulation which increased fears of securities trading moving elsewhere and provided occasions and arguments for change. The two forms of internationalisation aided the formation of strong reform coalitions between governments and the managements of incumbent suppliers, and provided arguments to legitimate changes. By 2005, the three countries had adopted similar institutional outcomes to Britain, but following a different route, showing that policy forms of internationalisation can lead to similar outcomes through nationally-specific routes.
Malaria and Rome
Authors: Sallares Robert
Published: September 2007

This book is the first comprehensive study of malaria in ancient Italy since the research of the distinguished Italian malariologist, Angelo Celli, in the early 20th century. It demonstrates the importance of disease patterns in understanding ancient human demography. It argues that malaria became prevalent in Roman times in central Italy as a result of environmental changes, such as deforestation and the spread of certain types of mosquitoes. Using contemporary sources and comparative material from other periods, it is suggested that malaria had a significant effect on mortality rates in certain regions of Roman Italy. All the important advances made in many relevant fields since Celli’s time are incorporated. These include geomorphological research on the development of the coastal environments of Italy that were notorious for malaria in the past; biomolecular research on the evolution of malaria; ancient biomolecules as a new source of evidence for palaeodisease; the differentiation of mosquito species that permits understanding of the phenomenon of anophelism without malaria; and recent medical research on the interactions between malaria and other diseases. In addition to its medical and demographic effects, the social and economic effects of malaria are also considered, for example on settlement patterns and agricultural systems. The varied human responses to and interpretations of malaria in antiquity, ranging from the attempts at rational understanding made by the Hippocratic authors and Galen to the demons described in the magical papyri, are also examined.
1 Introduction
Authors: Sallares Robert
Published: September 2007

This chapter briefly introduces the central demographic question of the excess adult mortality in European populations affected by malaria in the past compared to the predictions of model life tables.
3 Evolution and prehistory of malaria
Authors: Sallares Robert
Published: September 2007

This chapter considers the timing of the introduction of falciparum malaria to southern Europe in antiquity. It moves backwards in time to discuss the earlier coevolution of malaria and modern humans and earlier species of hominids, and then returns towards the present to discuss theories about the spread of malaria in Europe during the Neolithic period. The significance of differences between the ancient European and modern tropical strains of Plasmodium falciparum, the most dangerous species of human malaria, is emphasized.
5 The demography of malaria
Authors: Sallares Robert
Published: September 2007

The first section of this chapter focuses on direct and indirect approaches to the demography of malaria. The problems associated with using cause of death statistics to assess mortality due to malaria are discussed, with particular emphasis on the towns of Sermoneta and Grosseto. The second section considers the interactions of malaria with other diseases, such as syphilis, smallpox, gastro-intestinal diseases, tuberculosis, and pneumonia. This section also includes a detailed discussion of quartan fever (caused by Plasmodium malariae) in antiquity. The third section studies the relationship between malaria and human nutrition. The fourth section compares the historical mortality patterns in certain parts of two different countries which had endemic malaria, namely central Italy, East Anglia, and southeast England. The demographic effects of the interaction in central Italy between Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax are analysed as well as the role played by Plasmodium vivax on its own in the mortality patterns of the early modern English marshlands.
6 The Pontine Marshes
Authors: Sallares Robert
Published: September 2007

This chapter studies the history of the Pontine Marshes in the south of Rome in relation to malaria, for which the region was notorious until the bonifications of Mussolini. The accounts given by early modern travellers are discussed, including ancient evidence for the development of the marshes in antiquity and for the history of the Roman occupation of the area. The evidence of archaeological field surveys is also considered.
8 The city of Rome
Authors: Sallares Robert
Published: September 2007

This chapter reviews the history of the city of Rome in relation to malaria, starting with the sack of Rome by the Gauls c.386 BC. Emphasis is placed on the importance of a detailed study of the topography of the city of Rome. The hills of Rome were much healthier than the intervening valleys and the areas adjoining the river Tiber (since mosquitoes rarely fly up hills) as described by Doni, who wrote a pioneering work on the medical geography of the area around Rome in the 17th century. The reasons for the absence of malaria from the Jewish Ghetto of Rome are discussed. The phenomenon in Rome of mixed infections of Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium malariae also receives attention. Important ancient evidence for malaria in the city of Rome provided by Asclepiades of Bithynia and Galen, and mediaeval accounts of malaria epidemics in Rome, are discussed.
1 Introduction
Authors: Gourvish Terry
Published: September 2007

This introductory chapter presents an assessment of the British railway system under nationalization, public perceptions of rail transport, and the ‘political’ economy of the railways. Topics discussed include the British Railways Board, the Railways Act 1974, and the difficulties of public sector management.
3 Operations, Productivity, and Technological Change
Authors: Gourvish Terry
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses the various aspects of British Rail's operations. Topics covered include passenger pricing and marketing, freight pricing and marketing, operating costs and productivity, trade unions, search for cost savings, railway investment, and the challenge of new technologies. Significant progress was made during the period 1974-9 from a technical and operational perspective, with the appearance of high-speed trains, main-line electrification, and the launching of the Speedlink wagon service. However, insufficient investment in British Rail left managers frustrated.
5 The Serpell Report
Authors: Gourvish Terry
Published: September 2007

The Serpell Report, Review of Railway Finances, published in January 1983 was the most important policy document of the decade to affect the railway industry. The ramifications of the report spread far beyond a narrow definition of finance to encompass planning and long-term strategic objectives, government-railway relations, management structures, and costs. This chapter examines the antecedents to the appointment of the review committee in May 1982, and the implications of the report for future railway management.
8 Business Performance, Pricing, and Productivity
Authors: Gourvish Terry
Published: September 2007

This chapter begins with a discussion of the British Railways Board's management changes and the political climate in which the board operated during the early 1990s. It then discusses the challenges of the 1989-93 recession, efforts to maintain the quality of passenger services, passenger marketing and pricing, increased pressures on the Freight and Parcels business, productivity, and industrial relations in the early 1990s.
9 Investment and the Channel Tunnell
Authors: Gourvish Terry
Published: September 2007

This chapter focuses on railway investments. Topics discussed include investment promotion, reduced investment spending in 1990, the need for project management and procurement, and investments on Channel Tunnel services and the High-Speed Rail Link.
4 The Identity of Marcellinus: Can Procopius and the Other Sources be Reconciled?
Authors: MacGeorge Penny
Published: September 2007

This chapter makes a reconstruction of Marcellinus' career and compares it with that construed from material from Procopius. It is argued that the portrayal of Marcellinus, based on Procopius, as a western army officer in command of troops in Dalmatia seems at odds with evidence from other sources.
7 Syagrius and the Kingdom of Soissons
Authors: MacGeorge Penny
Published: September 2007

This chapter begins with a discussion of the kingdom of Soissons as appears in conventional scholarship and as redefined by Edward James. It then discusses evidence for Syagrius, Soissons, and northern Gaul; the reliability of Gregory of Tours; and titles attributed to Aegidius and Syagrius.
8 A Survey of the Material Evidence for Northern Gaul
Authors: MacGeorge Penny
Published: September 2007

This chapter describes some of the relevant archaeological evidence concerning northern Gaul in the period of Aegidius and Syagrius, with particular reference to the city and region of Soissons. Topics covered include settlement and burial evidence, and numismatic data for late-5th-century Gaul.
11 Alternative Models for Northern Gaul in the Late Fifth Century
Authors: MacGeorge Penny
Published: September 2007

This chapter presents some conclusions regarding comparison in the preceding chapters: the conventional view of a kingdom of Soissons and James's alternative. It is argued that James's view of the kingdom of Soissons as a modern construct is a negative argument, difficult to disprove, and the existence of a ‘Roman’ kingdom in North Gaul can no longer be taken for granted. However, this must not be summarily abandoned without further study.
12 The Background and the Sources
Authors: MacGeorge Penny
Published: September 2007

This chapter presents some background on Italy when it was dominated by Ricimer from AD 460s to 530s. Sources about Ricimer and his successor are described. Although these sources are not particularly good, these are sufficient for some assessments of his role in the sequence of events leading to the end of the western empire.
Conclusion
Authors: MacGeorge Penny
Published: September 2007

This chapter presents some conclusions based on the various studies of individual warlords in this book, and provides suggestions for further research. It is argued that a vital element in the course of events in the 5th century was a split between the eastern and western parts of the Roman Empire. The power of late 5th-century warlords was also hampered by military and financial inadequacies. There is also no satisfying explanation for the disintegration of the West's military superiority in the 5th century.
1 INTRODUCTION
Authors: Heath Malcolm
Published: September 2007

This chapter introduces the late 3rd-century Greek rhetorician Menander of Laodicea (Menander Rhetor), and explains the questions about Menander and the nature of rhetoric in late antiquity. The contents of the succeeding chapters are briefly explained. A key theme of the book — the continuing practical relevance of rhetoric in this period — is highlighted. It is suggested that Philostratus’ influential but one-sided account of the teachers of rhetoric known as ‘sophists’ has produced a distorted image of the so-called ‘Second Sophistic’. An accurate picture must be based on a much wider range of evidence.
The Third Century: Fruition
Authors: Heath Malcolm
Published: September 2007

This chapter examines the evidence for the history of rhetoric after the completion of Philostratus’ Lives of the Sophists. It shows that the movement generally known as the ‘Second Sophistic’ continued to flourish in this period, and that rhetoric was taught by many sophists and philosophers, including (for example) Apsines, Longinus, Porphyry, and Metrophanes, as well as Menander himself. This period also saw the beginning of commentaries on technical works of rhetorical theory; the subsequent history of this genre is briefly summarized. Along with evidence for continuing creativity in literary scholarship, philosophy, law and theology, this shows that the political and military crisis of the 3rd century did not lead to an eclipse of intellectual culture.
4 Menander: Testimonia and Fragments
Authors: Heath Malcolm
Published: September 2007

This chapter assembles all the testimonia and fragments in which Menander is explicitly named; the Greek text is accompanied by an English translation and commentary. The collection is overwhelmingly dominated by the fragments of Menander’s commentary on Demosthenes. He may also have written commentaries on Aeschines and Aelius Aristides. Commentaries on works of rhetorical theory by Minucianus and Hermogenes are also attested. Two works on epideictic oratory have been transmitted under his name, and it is argued that only the second of the two was actually written by Menander.
6 Menander's Commentary
Authors: Heath Malcolm
Published: September 2007

This chapter investigates the nature of Menander’s commentary on Demosthenes by examining selected material from the Demosthenes scholia. It is shown that the commentary was primarily didactic and practical in its orientation, and appears to be based on lectures to advanced students of rhetoric. Menander’s main interest was in analysing Demosthenes’ rhetorical techniques, especially his techniques of argument, and he repeatedly draws attention to features which his pupils can imitate in their own practice. A more detailed examination of Menander’s treatment of three of Demosthenes’ speeches (On the False Embassy, Against Meidias, and Fourth Philippic) shows that his rhetorical analysis was sophisticated, though sometimes based on questionable interpretations, and that his manner of exposition was sometimes unnecessarily confusing.
7 Teaching
Authors: Heath Malcolm
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses the practice of rhetorical education in the Greek-speaking parts of the Roman Empire as well as Menander’s commentary on Demosthenes, drawing on the evidence of Quintilian and Libanius, and technical writers such as Theon and Hermogenes of Tarsus. The structure of the rhetorical curriculum is discussed, and it is shown that the developments of rhetorical theory in the 2nd century AD had consequences for the shape of the curriculum. The relationship between practical exercises (such as progymnasmata and declamation), the study of classical models, and the study of theory is examined.
Feminine Disguise in The Hind and the Panther
Authors: Cotterill Anne
Published: September 2007

This chapter examines the disguise and threat of the feminine in Dryden's long, bewildering beast fable, The Hind and the Panther (1687), which apparently defends James II's Edict of Toleration while offering the public their long-awaited story of Dryden's conversion to Roman Catholicism. The laureate bursts every convention of fable and public relations to challenge readers hungry for blood with a confusing self-image. He invokes the feminine symbol of Eastern mystery and anti-Catholic propaganda — the Scarlet Whore of Babylon and Beast of the Apocalypse — to create protective mystification: against an ominous setting of violent menace he creates not one but two female voices, predator and prey, two beastly mother churches that eerily resemble each other, while the narrator intrudes digressive self-reflection. The lady beasts match wits and exchange dark prophetic fables late into the night to forestall the end of their encounter and the real physical violence threatening the King.
Agent's Awareness and Knowledge of Our Mental Actions
Authors: O'Brien Lucy
Published: September 2007

This chapter attempted to characterize the nature of an agent's awareness. It argues that an agent's awareness is a familiar feature of active psychological phenomena rather than passive ones, and is therefore a feature of paradigm thoughts and utterances; an agent's awareness is an awareness we can have without conceptualizing or self-ascribing it; and that agent's awareness is a feature of thoughts and utterances that the thought or utterance has by virtue of its mode of occurrence.