bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
SYMPOSIUM: THE DEVELOPMENT OF MORAL VALUES IN CHILDREN
Authors: MORRIS J. F.
Published: May 2011

Summary.— Piaget has contrasted the ‘morality of constraints’ of early childhood, with its complete reliance upon external authority, and a rigid system of rules, with the ‘morality of co‐operation’ of later phases of development, in which there is a flexible interpretation of rules in favour of the general interest. There has, however, been a marked lack of field studies tracing this development, particularly in the period of adolescence.

Studies following Piaget (Harrower, MacRae, Lerner, Havighurst, and others) together with the Columbia Character Education Inquiry, have shown:

(a) a tendency for personal values to increase in consistency with increasing age; (b) the content of judgments to become more complex and individualised with age; (c) social‐class differences in ‘moral realism’; (d) differences in ‘moral realism’ between some primitive societies and modern industrial societies; (e) the many‐sided nature of moral development; (f) few striking sex differences in judgments.

A study of value‐judgments of pupils at a London co‐educational grammar school (with supplementary material from two Manchester schools) included responses to fourteen problem‐situations, presented in the course of individual interviews. Pupils were asked what should be done and then what would be done by someone of their age in each of these situations. Judgments showed: (1) changes in the direction of greater autonomy and equity with increasing age; (2) marked discrepancies between what should be done and what would be done. On both levels there was a blend of normative, self‐interested and other elements in the judgments at all ages. Steady development of normative judgment occurs only on the ‘prescriptive’ level. Discrepancies between normative elements on the two levels tend to increase; (3) there were fluctuations in development in the middle forms of the school (third and fourth); (4) sex differences in judgments were slight, with the exception of an earlier age for girls in ‘pubescent fluctuations,’ and rather wider discrepancies for girls; (5) rather greater conformity was found in the modern‐school. Some implications of this study are that: (a) we need further study of individual differences in moral development, in view of the marked degree of individuality of responses; (b) further investigation of the social factors affecting judgments; (c) we must distinguish between the different levels at which value‐judgments influence behaviour, with a view to the constructive reduction of discrepancies.
SOME INFLUENCES AFFECTING CHOICE OF SUBJECTS IN SCHOOL AND TRAINING COLLEGE
Authors: LOVELL K. , WHITE G. E.
Published: May 2011

Summary.— A questionnaire was given to 102 male training college students followed by an interview at which fifteen main questions were put. Evidence was obtained suggesting that:

The subjects (excluding crafts) which male students read at training college are those which they enjoyed most, or felt they did best in, during the latter years of the grammar school course.

There is a significant association between the clearly displayed interests of the parents and the subjects which the son prefers to study later on.

There is a significant association between studying science subjects at a training college and attitude to, or performance in, arithmetic in the junior school.

The influence of the immediate environment, and of the scientific atmosphere in which our interviewees had been reared, does not seem to be of much consequence in affecting their choice of subjects.

A number of suggestions are briefly outlined arising out of our evidence and from a study of wider issues.
A STUDY OF THE INTERVIEW IN THE SELECTION OF STUDENTS FOR TEACHER TRAINING
Authors: BURROUGHS G. E. R.
Published: May 2011

Summary.

Three groups of students applying for admission to a university education department for teacher training were interviewed. Interview ratings were made under a number of different headings by the interviewers.

These interview data, on analysis, indicated that three factors were operating: (a) a factor based on the observable features of the applicant; (b) a factor based on judgments of this intellectual maturity and his ability to express himself; (c) a factor based on a number of personality traits thought to be important in teaching.

Follow‐up data based on teaching marks indicated that the first two factors above were those which gave the best prediction of teaching ability.

The sizes of the follow‐up correlations suggested that the interview, provided that it was not expected to yield information beyond its powers, was as good a predictor of success at this level of education as most other measures.
THE PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF STREAMING BY ATTAINMENT*
Authors: RUDD W. G. A.
Published: May 2011

Summary.

This experiment was undertaken to test the hypothesis that the attainments, attitudes, behaviour and personalities of a group of pupils involved in an organization based upon streaming are influenced by that organization.

The experiment involved two groups, each of ninety pupils, entering the same selective central school at the age of eleven years. The control group was organized into three forms whose membership did not change during the two‐year period following entry to the school. The experimental group was organized into three streams and pupils were transferred between streams after each half‐yearly examination.

Taken together the results of the ability tests showed no significant differences between the groups attributable to the organization based on streaming.

The attitude tests towards examinations, school lessons and school life in general yielded no significant differences between groups.

The samples of classroom behaviour revealed that in the group organized into streams fewer social contributions to lessons were made by pupils, that there was more aggressive behaviour and less attention to work.

The estimates of personality made by the teachers revealed no significant differences between the groups. The pupils' self‐estimates revealed an extensive, but probably temporary, deterioration in personality following re‐grouping.

Studies of several pupils indicated that the more lasting effects of transfer are a highly individual matter. No general long‐term effects attributable to streaming were discovered.
SYMPOSIUM: THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN'S VALUES
Authors: STAINES J. W.
Published: May 2011

Summary.

A theoretical analysis of the concept of the Self shows it to be a learned structure, growing mainly from comments made by other people and from inferences drawn by children out of their experience in home, school and other social groups. Amongst the people likely to be most influential in determining the Self‐picture are teachers. Two hypotheses were formulated: that it is possible to distinguish reliably between teachers in normal class‐rooms in respect of the frequency and kind of comments they make with reference to the Self; and that it is possible to teach so that, while aiming at the normal results of teaching, specific changes can be made in the Self‐picture.

The results of the investigation indicated that:

The first hypothesis was supported. Marked differences occurred between teachers in the frequency of Self‐reference in their comments, particularly in their positive or negative comments on the child's performance, status and Self‐confidence or potency.

The second hypothesis was also supported. One teacher studied the Self‐ratings of his class and tried to teach so that certain Self‐ratings were changed. A small number of changes occurred in Self‐traits, but statistically significant changes were found in two dimensions of the Self, certainty and differentiation. Both changes were interpreted as indicating greater psychological security.

A control class taught by a teacher regarded as typically ‘sound’ and having no awareness of the Self‐picture as an outcome of education showed significant decreases in certainty about the Self and in differentiation. The uncertainty spread throughout the Self and was significantly greater than that of the experimental group. Both changes were interpreted as leading to a marked psychological insecurity. These changes, usually indicative of poor adjustment, were the unsought and unnoticed concomitant outcomes of normal methods aimed at securing the usual academic results.

Standardised tests showed that both classes made about the same gains in some aspects of English and Arithmetic over the experimental period.

The analysis of the Self into categories and dimensions and the use of a Self‐rating scale appear to provide a useful method of discriminating between teachers according to the Self‐reference of their words and of their methods of managing situations in the class‐room.
INTELLIGENCE TEST PERFORMANCE FROM 11 TO 18: A STUDY OF GRAMMAR SCHOOL GIRLS
Authors: WATTS KATHLEEN P.
Published: May 2011

Summary. This paper deals with a long‐term study of the effects of age and practice on the intelligence test performance of grammar school girls. Intelligence testing was conducted annually. The results show that there is continued improvement up to at least seven testings and that this is probably due more to the effects of practice than of age.
ATTAINMENT LEVEL ON LEAVING CERTIFICATE AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE AT UNIVERSITY
Authors: GOULD ELISABETH M. , M'COMISKY JAMES G.
Published: May 2011

Summary.

Six‐hundred‐and‐seventy‐four Arts students with Scottish Senior Leaving Certificates (S.S.L.Cs.) who entered Edinburgh University in 1949, 1950 and 1951, have been made the subjects of a follow‐up, and the different attainment levels on Leaving Certificate compared with headway on the Arts courses.

The main findings are:

There is a significant difference in over‐all academic performance between students with S.S.L.C. qualifications which put them in the top 10 per cent. of the intake to the Arts Faculty in their year, and that of contemporary students with S.S.L.Cs. below this level.

There is a significant difference in over‐all academic performance in favour of students with S.S.L.Cs. above minimal entrance level (i.e., above 3 Highers + 2 Lowers), compared with those with S.S.L.Cs. at minimal entrance level.

There is a significant difference in over‐all academic performance in favour of students with S.S.L.Cs. at the 4 Highers + any number of Lowers level compared with those at the 3 Highers‐f any number of Lowers level.

The results are discussed with particular reference to the quite good predictive value for academic performance at University of the S.S.L.C. at its various attainment levels, but its failure in a high proportion of cases to provide, by itself, a broad enough basis for deciding if the prospective Arts student is really suited for the University course he is undertaking.
THE EFFECT OF NATIONAL SERVICE ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE AT UNIVERSITY
Authors: LEWIS D. G.
Published: May 2011

Summary.

The effect of national service on academic success at university was investigated by comparing the performance of groups of ex‐national‐service and ‘schoolboy’ undergraduates at the University College of Wales, Aberystwyth. The groups were equated on the basis of their attainments in the Higher School Certificate.

For both Arts and Science students the percentage of ex‐national servicemen attaining an honours degree was less than that of the ‘schoolboys,’ the extent of the differences being greater (and statistically significant) in the case of the Science students.

The percentage of ex‐national servicemen attaining a ‘good’ honours degree was also less. Again the difference was greater (and statistically significant) in the case of the Science students.

In Science proportionally fewer ex‐national servicemen failed degree courses in their first year. Nevetheless, their subsequent record, as regards course failures, is inferior to that of the ‘schoolboys.’ In Arts also the percentage of ex‐national servicemen completing their degree without any course failure was less than that of the ‘schoolboys.’

Comparisons of course failures in the separate Science subjects revealed clear differences in favour of the ‘schoolboys’ in the agricultural sciences, mathematics (apart from the first‐year results) and chemistry. None of the ex‐national servicemen were admitted to the honours class in mathematics. Among the Arts subjects comparisons of course failures showed the differences in favour of the ‘schoolboys’ to be most marked in history and modern languages.
AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHYSIQUE, MOTOR CAPACITY AND CERTAIN TEMPERAMENTAL TRAITS
Authors: BULL K. R.
Published: May 2011

Summary. The aim of the investigation was to consider relationships between assessments of physique, general‐motor capacity and a test of temperament. The study was undertaken with boys in the first three years of secondary modern schools and gave an opportunity to examine the suitability of the Iowa‐Brace test for use with British children. Results indicate that there is some relationship between aspects of motor capacity and surgency of temperament.
THE EFFECT OF PHYSICAL CONDITIONING EXERCISES AND ACTIVITIES ON THE MENTAL CHARACTERISTICS OF EDUCATIONALLY SUB‐NORMAL BOYS
Authors: OLIVER JAMES N.
Published: May 2011

Summary. Two matched groups of educationally sub‐normal boys were used in this study as experimental and control groups respectively., The experimental group was given a ten‐week course of systematic and progressive physical conditioning. Both groups were given physical and mental tests before and after the experimental period.

The results show that the improvement by the experimental group in physical qualities and abilities was highly significant. There was also significant improvement in the mental tests. The factor responsible for the improvement on the mental side is probably largely emotional. It is likely to be a combination of (a) the effect of achievement and success, (b) improved adjustment, (c) improved physical condition, (d) the effect of feeling important.

The conclusion is that these effects have been achieved through the medium of physical activity. From this study there is no means of estimating the permanence of the gains; the improvement is so marked, however, as to suggest that more emphasis should be given to the physical education of educationally sub‐normal boys.
THE PORTEUS MAZE TEST AND DELINQUENCY
Authors: GIBBENS T. C. N.
Published: May 2011

Summary. Borstal lads have a significantly higher Q score on the Porteus Maze Test than controls. A high Q score is related to intellectual dullness and also to difference in verbal and performance intelligence. Socially, it is associated with truancy and being one of a large family, and, to some extent, with having a worse prognosis as a delinquent. Although the Q score tends to fall during Borstal training, it is not significantly associated with absconding or repeated punishment. The Q score showed little relationship with any of the scales of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, except the manic scale; but is associated with muscular physique.
SUPPRESSION OF HETERO‐SEXUAL INTEREST AND OF AGGRESSION BY MIDDLE CLASS AND WORKING CLASS GRAMMAR SCHOOL BOYS
Authors: BENE EVA
Published: May 2011

Summary.

A short summary is given of the literature relating to social class differences in attitudes to sex and aggression and to the influence of social mobility on working class attitudes.

The sample and the methods of investigation are described.

The results are discussed. They show significant social class differences regarding suppression of hetero‐sexual interest but no differences regarding suppression of aggression, and indicate that neither intelligence nor social mobility affect the attitudes under consideration. They also seem to show that the young adolescent boys, who formed the sample of this investigation, like girls in theory rather than in practice, and react to frustration inwardly in their thoughts and feelings rather than in overt behaviour.
PERSONALITY DIMENSIONS IN THE QUESTIONNAIRE RESPONSES OF SIX AND SEVEN‐YEAR‐OLDS
Authors: CATTELL RAYMOND B. , COAN RICHARD W.
Published: May 2011

Summary. This report deals with a preliminary investigation of the questionnaire behaviour of children at the six‐to‐eight‐year level. A factor analysis of the data revealed that the number of factors required to account for the responses of children in this age range is quite comparable to what has been found at the adult and late‐childhood levels. The factors appear in nature to be generally similar to those which have been reported for older groups. Tentative designations are offered for some of the factors, but complete identification depends on additional information which will be considered in later publications.
STUDENTS' ATTITUDES TO COURSES IN DEPARTMENTS OF EDUCATION IN UNIVERSITIES
Authors: CHARLTON K. , STEWART W. A. C. , PAFFARD M. K.
Published: May 2011

Summary. The present paper is an interim report on a long‐term plan to investigate the attitudes of students to the courses they undertake in university departments of education. The report is concerned primarily to compare the attitudes of students at the University College of North Staffordshire, to their ‘concurrent’ course with those of students in the University of London to their post‐graduate course. An attitude scale was produced using a combination of both Thurstone and Likert methods of scale construction, and was administered (a) to a group of London students at the beginning and end of their course in October, 1956, and June, 1957, and (b) to a group of Keele students at the beginning of their course in October, 1957. In the first instance, the data obtained have been examined from the point of view of (a) the attitude of the whole group to the whole scale, (b) the attitude of Faculty groups to the whole scale, and (c) the attitude of the whole group to individual items of the scale. The initial attitudes of the London students have also been compared (a) with those they expressed at the end of their course, and (b) with the initial attitudes of the Keele students.
A REPORT ON PROGRESS IN AN L.E.A. REMEDIAL READING CLASS
Authors: FRIEDMANN S.
Published: May 2011

Summary. Comparison was made between the progress in reading of retarded children before entering a remedial class, and after a period of instruction in the class. The difference was found significant at the 0·01 level. The retests of a comparable group of retarded pupils not receiving remedial instruction showed no difference in their progress rate between the periods from first to second, and second to third retests.
FLUENCY AND ESSAY WRITING
Authors: SHOUKSMITH G.
Published: May 2011

Summary. A general interest in essay writing and speculation as to what was meant by ‘fluent’ writing, led the author to undertake the following investigation. A group of Edinburgh school children were given various fluency tests and the results from these, together with the scores from essays and intelligence tests, were analysed. The main conclusion reached was that a minor ‘ideational’ fluency factor did seem to enter into essay writing, together with verbal ability. General fluency did not appear to enter into essay writing.
DISPARITY OF ATTAINMENT IN READING AND ARITHMETIC
Authors: REED GRAHAM , SCHONFIELD DAVID
Published: May 2011

Summary. In a recent article, Dr. Lynn puts forward the view that anxiety is a cause of good reading but interferes with progress in arithmetic. The evidence supporting these contentions has been critically examined and shown to be inconclusive. Suggestions are made for future investigations.
A NOTE ON THE THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE
Authors: BURT CYRIL
Published: May 2011

Summary. It is argued (i) that in psychology, as in other sciences, definitions should be of concepts, rather than of words or things, and (ii) that, although tests of intelligence cannot directly measure innate capacity, nevertheless, by means of statistical methods based on a ‘multifactorial’ theory, it is possible to estimate the relative contributions of environmental and genetic conditions, respectively.
THE EXTENT AND FACTORIAL STRUCTURE OF FUNCTION FLUCTUATION IN A MIXED GROUP OF ADOLESCENTS AND PRE‐ADOLESCENTS
Authors: ANDERSON CHARLES C.
Published: May 2011

Summary.

The extent of fluctuation generally characteristic of a mixed group of pre‐adolescents and adolescents was significantly greater than that of pre‐scholarship primary children, particularly in Arithmetic. Of all tests, one of Food Aversions showed most extensive evidence of fluctuation.

The difference between the average group index of fluctuation in cognitive and in non‐cognitive tests was significant at the 1 per cent. level whereas with the younger groups it had been either insignificant or significant only at the 5 per cent. level.

The size of the group indices of fluctuation for all ten pairs of testing occasions was in phase neither between functions and within groups, nor within functions and between groups.

No general factor was observed in the inter‐correlations between individual indices of fluctuation on all six functions.

Further investigation will be necessary before conclusions can be drawn about the effect of the sex factor on contributions to fluctuation in performance during pre‐adolescence and adolescence.
AN EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION INTO THE RELATIVE MERITS OF LISTENING AND READING COMPREHENSION FOR BOYS AND GIRLS OF PRIMARY SCHOOL AGE
Authors: KING W. H.
Published: May 2011

Summary.

The scores of primary school children on comprehension tests presented orally and visually were compared. Five different types of material were used.

The correlations of the auditory and visual tests with each other and with an Intelligence test were of the order 0·8.

Differences in the mean scores of boys and girls, between boys and girls on the two methods of presentation, and between boys and girls at five levels of intelligence were examined.

There were variations between boys' and girls' results, and between oral and visual presentation; there was a marked tendency for boys to do better than girls on some of the oral tests with practical and scientific content.

Passages chosen for similarity of content were not necessarily equivalent to the children.

One thing clearly emerges from this research: a single mark for one comprehension test is not a valid or reliable mark for an assessment of comprehension in general; a number of short passages with variety in content might be a more useful guide.
THE BEHAVIOUR OF IDIOTS INTERPRETED BY PIAGET'S THEORY OF SENSORI‐MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
Authors: WOODWARD MARY
Published: May 2011

Summary. Piaget's observations on sensori‐motor intelligence and the concept of permanent objects in the development of the normal infant were applied to the study of 147 mentally defective children. The postulated order of difficulty of responses typical of each of Piaget's sensori‐motor stages was confirmed. Repetitive behaviour with objects was readily classifiable into the types of manipulation which Piaget terms secondary, derived secondary and tertiary circular reactions; most of the hand mannerisms resembled the hand movements of infants to which Piaget has given the name of primary circular reactions. The postulated correspondence between the type of problem‐solving or grasping behaviour and the type of circular reaction was found in 43 per cent of the cases. The postulated correspondence between the stage of sensori motor intelligence and object concept development was found in 87 per cent of the cases. It was concluded that the sensori‐motor activities of severe mental defectives could be classified into the six main types distinguished by Piaget.
EXPERIMENTAL EXAMINATION OF SOME OF PIAGET'S SCHEMATA CONCERNING CHILDREN'S PERCEPTION AND THINKING, AND A DISCUSSION OF THEIR EDUCATIONAL SIGNIFICANCE*
Authors: PEEL E. A.
Published: May 2011

Summary. This paper describes four researches designed to test the substance of some of Piaget's schemata for the mental development of children. The first two investigations are concerned with haptic perception and spatial relationships in drawing, the third is devoted to the child's logical judgments, and the fourth to his moral judgments. Large numbers of children were put in Piaget's situations, the numbers ranging from thirty‐two to sixty. The reliability of the judges' interpretation of the children's responses was measured in three of the inquiries by obtaining two independent sets of judgments and correlating the results. The validity of Piaget's schemata was assessed by comparing the development of the children's thinking and perception with the criteria of chronological age, mental age, and the total score giving each child's overall level of perception and thinking. This was done by adapting Guttman's technique to this problem. Some high reliabilities and validities were found and, in general, Piaget's conclusions were substantiated. A short discussion of the educational implications of Piaget's work concludes the article.
A FOLLOW‐UP STUDY OF SOME ASPECTS OF THE WORK OF PIAGET AND INHELDER ON THE CHILD'S CONCEPTION OF SPACE
Authors: LOVELL K.
Published: May 2011

Summary. In their book, The Child's Conception of Space, Piaget and Inhelder suggest that a child's first spatial concepts are topological ones and that these later lead to projective and euclidean concepts. A number of experiments from five chapters of their book were undertaken with some 140 children of nursery‐school age. Part of the evidence presented agrees with that of the authors' and some is at variance with theirs. It is suggested that much more experimentation is needed before the main thesis of Piaget and Inhelder is accepted.
SYMPOSIUM: THE DEVELOPMENT OF MORAL VALUES IN CHILDREN
Authors: WHEELER D. K.
Published: May 2011

Summary. The nature and extent of punishments administered in a representative sample of all Western Australian secondary schools are reported and supplemented by information about the punishment of these same adolescents in their own homes. The reactions to punishment of 765 students are analysed and discussed. Most students conceive of punishment as retaliatory and/or retributive. This is taken to be a reflection of the community attitude towards punishment, which is contrasted with modern preventive and remedial theories of discipline. The effects of sanctions commonly used in schools are considered with respect to educational aims in a democratic society, and the conclusion drawn that such negative sanctions do not effectively promote, and may even retard, the educational process.
THE STANDARDISATION AND PREDICTIVE VALUE OF A BATTERY OF ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT TESTS FOR THE PURPOSE OF ACADEMIC COUNSELLING AT SOUTH AFRICAN UNIVERSITIES*
Authors: SONNEKUS M. C. H.
Published: May 2011

Summary. In this investigation an attempt was made to construct and standardise academic achievement tests for the purpose of counselling at South African universities.

Tests in Afrikaans, English, mathematics, physics and chemistry for first year university students were combined in two batteries for the prediction of academic success in B.A. and B.Sc. courses respectively.

The results proved that the tests standardised in this research are better predictors of academic success than intelligence tests, ability (aptitude), interest, and personality tests.

A comparison of these test results with those in overseas researches shows that they compare favourably.
A FACTORIAL STUDY OF SPEED, POWER AND RELATED TEMPERAMENT VARIABLES*
Authors: MANGAN G. L.
Published: May 2011

Summary. The fields of power, speed, persistence, accuracy and carefulness were investigated by factorizing thirty‐eight sets of test scores among 200 13 and 14‐year‐old Ss. Rotation yielded five clearly identifiable and two less definite factors—content factors g+v and N, speed factors P, verbal tempo and fluency, and temperament factors persistence and speed‐accuracy.

Persistence and speed‐accuracy were identified as work‐attitude or method‐of‐approach factors, which are closely linked with the difficulty of test material. Probably the operation of g and the content factors V, K and N are affected considerably by these work‐habit components. The other speed factors isolated appear to be relatively unimportant.
CATEGORIES IN RATING SCALES: HOW MANY AND HOW BIG?
Authors: SANDON FRANK
Published: May 2011

Summary. Various bases have been proposed to give the number and relative frequencies of the categories used in rating scales. There is always the possibility of error of estimate and it is misleading to give ratings that may be grossly at fault.

From a consideration of:

the possibility of a rater being able to estimate fairly accurately the typical performance of a ratee,

the possibility of the rater being able to estimate fairly accurately how that typical performance of the ratee compares with that of all ratees, and

the purpose of the rating scales, suggestions are made to show how rules can be derived to indicate how many categories (literal grades) should be used and what should be the relative frequencies in these.

The rules depend on the assumption that there is a normal distribution of the quality reviewed and on the requirement that any literal grade that may be assigned to any individual should not be more than one grade out in 95 per cent. of the cases. They can be modified for finer discrimination, or if we allow for other probabilities or for wider errors; and it is suggested that the conclusions are valid when the assumption of normality does not hold.

The more accurately an estimate can predict the criterion, the finer can be the classification.
MALADJUSTED CHILDREN IN GRAMMAR SCHOOLS
Authors: CHAZAN MAURICE
Published: May 2011

Summary. This paper discusses the problems presented by sixty grammar school children referred to a child guidance centre between 1949 and 1956. Some of the children had difficulty in maintaining the standards of behaviour and work required of them; some showed nervous or neurotic symptoms. The analysis of their case‐histories suggests that in most cases their maladjustment was related to a combination of factors, but neither physical condition nor lack of ability was a frequent cause. There were severe personality defects or disturbances in only a quarter of the cases. In nearly every case there were adverse environmental factors. Faulty parental attitudes were particularly damaging, though often modifiable.

The methods of approach to treating the problems, and the outcome of treatment, are outlined. It is suggested that there is a need for further research in this field, and for the wider provision of special schools specifically catering for maladjusted children of superior intelligence.
THE CLASSIFICATION OF INSTANCES OF FOUR COMMON CLASS CONCEPTS BY CHILDREN AND ADULTS*
Authors: ANNETT MARIAN
Published: May 2011

Summary. Dispositional views of conceptual thinking suggest the need for a descriptive study of the ways in which normal subjects of various ages classify familiar objects. The sortings and explanations of 303 children, aged 5–11 years, and forty‐two adults, aged 18–73 years, in grouping pictures of common objects, were analysed. The explanations were classified for both form and content. Five methods of explanation were distinguished, only two of which are recognised in logic. There were four main types of content, the most numerous at all ages being those concerned with spatial position and activity. The main developmental changes were found in methods of explanation. Older adults perform more like children than younger adults.
A FACTOR ANALYSIS OF THE WECHSLER INTELLIGENCE SCALE FOR CHILDREN
Authors: MAXWELL A. E.
Published: May 2011

Summary. A factor analysis of the correlation matrix for the sub‐tests of the WISC was carried out for each of the age groups 7, 10 and 13 years. In each analysis two factors were extracted and these, after rotation, are found to give patterns of loadings which are similar for all three age groups. The factors were then rotated: the first is labelled ‘vg’ (verbal‐intellectual), and the second ‘sp’ (space‐performance).

Methods for obtaining factor scores are then given and it is argued that such scores are preferable to the cumstomary Verbal and Performance scores when summarising a child's performance on this battery of tests.
A FACTORIAL ANALYSIS OF THE EVALUATION OF SCHOLASTIC COMPOSITIONS IN THE MOTHER TONGUE*
Authors: REMONDINO C.
Published: May 2011

Summary. A survey was made of the distinguishable qualities of pupils' compositions, and seventeen qualities were assessed in 230 compositions, both by teachers and non‐teachers. A very similar structure of qualities was observed in all sets of marks. On applying factor analysis, it was found that the qualities could be reduced to four main dimensions: Graphic representation, Language usage, Content and arrangement, and Personal aspects of the content.
SYMPOSIUM: THE DEVELOPMENT OF MORAL VALUES IN CHILDREN
Authors: EYSENCK H. J.
Published: May 2011

Summary. It is argued that moral values are learnt in the course of the child's development, and that consequently any theory regarding their development should be based on the known facts and principles of modern learning theory. An attempt has been made to do so by suggesting that ‘conscience’ is, in fact, a conditioned response built up during the child's formative years by the pairing of conditioned stimuli (arising from aggressive, predatory, and overtly sexual actions) and unconditioned stimuli (slaps, beatings, ‘shaming’, and other punishments) immediately following the conditioned stimulus. Aided by a process of stimulus generalization this should, in course of time, lead to an association between the conditioned stimulus and the fear‐anxiety responses appropriate to the unconditioned stimulus. Certain deductions are made from this hypothesis and are shown to be supported by experimental evidence. It is argued in particular that if the hypothesis is correct, then individual differences in conditionability, i.e., the ease with which conditioned responses are formed, should be related to moral behaviour and the ease with which guilt feelings are aroused. Here also evidence is quoted to suggest that this hypothesis has some foundation in fact. It is concluded that the treatment which children, adolescents, and adults receive in response to immoral acts, should be based upon the recognition of individual differences between them, particularly with respect to their conditionability, as only in this way will the most beneficial results of such treatment be realized.
GOAL‐SETTING BEHAVIOUR, ANXIETY AND SCHOOL STREAMING
Authors: VENESS THELMA
Published: May 2011

Summary. A particular pattern of goal‐setting behaviour in a level of aspiration test was found to occur more frequently in technical schools and in the “A” streams of modern schools than in the lower modern school streams and in grammar schools. In previous research, this pattern, of setting high goals and adhering to them rigidly, whatever the fluctuations in performance, has been associated with anxiety and similar personality traits. Matched pairs of these children and controls were compared for other possible indices of anxiety in the material of an investigation of which this is a part. The findings are discussed in relation to the possible effects of success and failure involved in secondary school selection.
THE PERFORMANCE IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE, AT ‘O’ LEVEL, OF A SAMPLE OF UNIVERSITY STUDENTS
Authors: HEWITT E. A.
Published: May 2011

Summary. Results in the 1953 and 1954 Cambridge examinations in English Language, at ‘O’ level, have been obtained for 1,423 boys and 882 girls, from 197 schools, who were subsequently admitted to universities. Significant differences are shown in the grades awarded to boys and girls, and to arts and science students, of comparable age. Linguists achieved significantly better marks than non‐linguists, but there is no significant difference between the non‐linguists among the arts men and the men who specialised in the ‘pure’ sciences.

The failure rates for boys taking the paper for the first time were 1 in 9 for scientists, 1 in 15 for arts students. For girls the corresponding rates were 1 in 42 and 1 in 27. The male scientists who had won open awards to universities were not inferior in English, at ‘O’ level, to arts students in general, though they were inferior to the arts men who won open awards.

Among the arts men, those who went to Oxford, Cambridge or London gained significantly better marks than those who entered other universities; a similar difference is found in respect of the men scientists, and of the women arts students.
A CRITICAL STUDY OF BILINGUALISM AND NON‐VERBAL INTELLIGENCE
Authors: JONES W. R.
Published: May 2011

Summary. Previous investigations undertaken in Wales have yielded somewhat contradictory results concerning the influence of bilingualism on performance in non‐verbal tests of intelligence. More recent surveys, planned on a wider scale, consistently reveal a tendency for mean scores on such non‐verbal tests to decrease with increasing Welsh linguistic background, and also show statistically significant differences in favour of monoglot (English) groups by comparison with bilingual (Welsh) groups. In the present study, reference is made to a re‐analysis of the results of one of these large‐scale surveys in relation to the parental occupations of the pupils tested. The findings of this re‐analysis indicate that, whereas monoglot and bilingual groups which vary significantly in occupational class also differ significantly in non‐verbal intelligence, corresponding linguistic groups of comparable socio‐economic status do not differ significantly in this respect. It is, therefore, concluded that bilingualism need not be a source of intellectual disadvantage. The importance of a thorough examination of socio‐economic factors in any comparative study of monoglot and bilingual children is strongly emphasised, and a study of bilingualism and non‐verbal intelligence which appeared in a recent issue of this Journal is critically examined on account of its defects in this and in certain other respects.
THE TEACHING OF PSYCHOLOGY IN TRAINING COLLEGES
Authors: COLLIER K. G.
Published: May 2011

Summary. The major function of a psychology course for student‐teachers is to cultivate the student's insight into the thoughts and motives of ordinary children. A brief account is given of various methods used at a particular college for this purpose. Reference is is also made to the problem of ensuring an effective discipline of students' thinking on the academic content of the course.
AGGRESSIVE AND WITHDRAWING CHILDREN IN THE NORMAL SCHOOL
Authors: LUNZER E. A.
Published: May 2011

Summary. In a recent article, Lynn put forward the view that anxious children tend to show a higher performance in reading as compared with arithmetic. A group of aggressive children and a group of withdrawing children were given tests of reading and arithmetic and the disparity scores compared. There is a strong tendency for the former to perform badly in arithmetic and Raven's Matrices. These results are discussed in the light of available evidence.
THE VALIDITY OF TESTS OF SPATIAL ABILITY AS PREDICTORS OF SUCCESS ON TECHNICAL COURSES
Authors: SMITH I. MACFARLANE
Published: May 2011

Summary. The object of this investigation was to assess the validity of two tests of spatial ability against criteria of success on technical courses in a secondary technical school.

Scores on the usual selection tests as well as on a test of spatial ability were correlated with marks obtained in internal and external examinations in a number of technical subjects taken (i) three years, and (ii) five years after the original selection examination.
LEVELS OF ATTAINMENT OF EDUCABLE SUBNORMAL ADOLESCENTS
Authors: MORAN R. E.
Published: May 2011

Summary. This study is an attempt to evaluate, by means of specially designed or adapted tests, the academic achievement of a representative sample of 300 educationally subnormal adolescents in the ‘top’ classes of London E.S.N, secondary schools. Their results are compared with those of ‘normal’ children with the same chronological ages in a secondary modern school and with those of children of similar mental ages in a junior school.

The over‐all results of the E.S.N. adolescents show a wide range of variability, but generally fall below those of the junior school in every area tested, except craft. However, it was observed that in those schools where there were emphasis on and enthusiasm for a certain subject, in certain cases, this effected a relatively superior achievement in this subject, sometimes at the expense of others in the curriculum. It, therefore, seems that if the same enthusiasm and emphasis prevailed in all E.S.N. schools, and were directed at all subjects, combined with better teaching techniques and sound organization, an over‐all rise in the general level of attainment could possibly be accomplished.

However, the writer suggests that the curriculum, although incorporating the academic and craft subjects, should be directed primarily towards vocational guidance and social maturity, rather than depending mainly on verbal facility, in which research has consistently shown the subnormal child to be most handicapped.
OBSERVATIONS ON RETEST DISCREPANCY IN MENTALLY SUB‐NORMAL CHILDREN
Authors: STOTT D. H.
Published: May 2011

Summary. Retest scores of subnormal children were examined in order to check the reliability of previous retests and to estimate to what extent the discrepancies might reflect real changes in the rate of mental development as well as errors of standardization.

The discrepancies were considerably greater than those obtained from the standardization of the Binet by Terman and Merrill. The usual tendency towards increasing discrepancy with time‐interval was confirmed, except for an apparent practice‐effect at short intervals. The gains and losses were much more heterogeneous than could be accounted for by intra‐test error. Boys lost significantly less than girls.

It was concluded that the retest discrepancies might in large part be due to real variations in the rate of mental development (including such as are dependent on changes in motivation).
PERSONALITY ASSESSMENTS AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE IN A BOYS' GRAMMAR SCHOOL
Authors: ASTINGTON E.
Published: May 2011

Summary. This study has as its origin the observation that over 40 per cent. of grammar school candidates for the G.C.E. of the N.U.J.M.B. pass in fewer than three subjects. The hypothesis is considered that this unsatisfactory position might be improved by taking into account in 11+ selection those personality qualities which make for academic success.

After a review of studies attempting to determine the personality qualities associated with academic success or failure, and after some preliminary experiments, it was decided to use teachers' ratings, class‐mates' ratings and a questionnaire as methods of assessment of personality.

In 1953–4 and 1954–5, about 300 boys in five primary schools in a county borough were rated by their class teachers for persistence, independence, dominance, interest, nervousness and emotional stability. Some 700 boys in the maintained boys' grammar school in the same town were assessed in the same years for the same six qualities by the ratings of three teachers, classmates' ratings and a questionnaire; in addition, introversion‐extraversion and sociability were assessed by the questionnaire and sociability also by class mates' ratings.

At all levels, successful boys received significantly higher ratings than unsuccessful boys for persistence, independence and interest; dominance seemed to have no consistent connection with academic achievement; successful boys showed a slight tendency to be considered more nervous but more emotionally stable; successful older boys tended to consider themselves less extraverted and less sociable, than their unsuccessful fellows.

Grammar school teachers' ratings of persistence, independence and interest showed an average correlation of about ·60 with performance in internal school examinations and with G.C.E. achievement. They differentiated significantly between groups of G.C.E. candidates, matched on I.Q., but of contrasting G.C.E. performance. Ratings made in the second year of the grammar school predicted G.C.E. performance better that I.Q., but less well than second‐year examination performance.

Primary school teachers' ratings of persistance, independence and interest showed an initially low correlation, which increased with time, with the boys' subsequent grammar school achievement. These personality ratings showed higher correlations with G.C.E. performance five years later than did I.Q., but were less good predictors than performance in the 11+ examination. On this evidence, the use of such ratings might be considered as an element in 11+ selection, but they ought not to be used as a substitute for the 11+ examination.
PLACEMENT PROBLEMS AMONG ENGINEERING APPRENTICES IN PART‐TIME TECHNICAL COLLEGE COURSES
Authors: VENABLES ETHEL C.
Published: May 2011

Summary. Three groups of part‐time day release students taking first year Ordinary National Certificate Classes in engineering were given a verbal and non‐verbal intelligence test (N> 1000). On the verbal test the mean score was only slightly above that for the population as a whole, but on the non‐verbal test 89 per cent. were at or above the fiftieth percentile with 27 per cent. in the top 10 per cent. of the population. Recent attempts to improve the selection of Ordinary National Certificate students appear to be unrelated to intelligence test scores, as the results obtained in two different areas between 1950 and 1957 show no significant differences. Fifty per cent. had attended secondary modern schools as against 73 per cent. of the whole school population in the same age range. Seventy‐five per cent. had fathers in skilled and managerial jobs, compared with a national average of 53 per cent. In 1957, only 18 per cent. of those not in full‐time education were attending part‐time day classes.

The educational and sociological implications of these figures are discussed in relation to manpower problems. An increase in the number of such students must increase the proportion from secondary modern schools and unskilled homes, so that the problems associated with teaching young people of poor verbal ability are unlikely to diminish.
BEHAVIOUR IN CLASS GROUPS OF CONTRASTING CLIMATE
Authors: CONNOR D. V.
Published: May 2011

Summary. In this study classroom groups of varying ‘climate’ were identified by means of a questionnaire. A comparison of the behaviour of the groups of ‘contrasting climate’ was made in terms of social interaction, teacher‐pupil rapport, social structure, emotional adjustment and attitude to school. An analysis of the results shows: (1) that the class as a social unit seems to have more relevance to the kind of ‘climate’ found than does the school as a whole, and (2) that the quality of the behaviour in those classes which are identified, on the basis of the original questionnaire, as having ‘good climates,’ varied widely from those having ‘poor climates.’
METHODS FOR ASSESSING THE VALUE OF EXHIBITIONS
Authors: SHEPPARD D.
Published: May 2011

Summary. Some who design or use exhibitions to convey information are not aware of the research done on their effectiveness. A discussion is given of the various methods which can be used for such studies and a hypothetical example is given to illustrate their use.