bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
THE RESEARCH EFFORT SURVEYED
Authors: SMITH EDWARD A.
Published: February 2008

FOREWORD COMMUNICATION OF IDEAS and data leads to dross‐pollination in research, which can be as important as the bench work itself. Channels of communication are now highly developed and the growth of specialized symposia and conferences points to the continuing development of this important aspect of research. Those who move about meetings regularly can acquire a balanced understanding of what is going on in the many corners where research is being prosecuted. Those who make a habit of combing, methodically, the technical press can also arrive at some idea of the direction and speed of the currents flowing through a particular subject. There are, however, many technical men who find themselves too busy in their management sphere to keep abreast with either meetings or the scientific journals.
RECENT INVESTIGATIONS INVOLVING EXTENDED CRANKCASE OIL LIFE
Authors: ELLIS E.G.
Published: February 2008

SOME THREE YEARS or so ago a statistical study of the British motor car population revealed that the average life of the individual vehicle was significantly longer than pre‐war. Several contributory factors were discussed. Firstly we apparently drive fewer miles a year than heretofore while the quality of engines and components such as tyres is much higher nowadays. We also note in the post‐war period that changes in vehicle design and greater mechanical efficiency have reduced the time spent on maintenance and at the same time made driving easier. Included here are long‐life plugs, ‘permanent’ anti‐freeze solutions, anti‐corrosive underseal, improved suspension and joints ‘packed‐for‐life’ with special quality grease. All these things might he regarded as indicative of a compensatory trend; as we drive less in our improved labour‐saving vehicles, road conditions become more uncomfortable and hazardous.
A SHOP FLOOR METHOD FOR DETERMINING THE STRENGTH OF CUTTING OIL/WATER EMULSIONS
Authors: SHERWOOD A.E.
Published: February 2008

CUTTING OILS are used in emulsions with water at recommended strengths. On the shop floor there is often only a loose control of the strength of such emulsions with the constant use of an initially correct mixture. The machine operator is liable to add more oil or water indiscriminately according to some rule of thumb. An excessively weak emulsion can lead to corrosion of metal being machined, whilst a too strong solution would be uneconomical. The strength of such emulsions can easily be gauged on the shop floor using the simplest of apparatus, possibly by the machine operator himself.
Lubrication and the Theory of Corrosion
Authors: SELLEI HELEN
Published: February 2008

The lubrication process may become interrelated with corrosion phenomena. Lubricants may be the products of a corrosion process, e.g., during boundary lubrication. They may also serve as a medium which protects the metal during the lubrication process from the corrosive attack of a humid and acidic atmosphere. For better understanding of the relation between lubrication and corrosion phenomena, the theory of corrosion is presented.
ALBERT'S WED!
Authors: ELLIS E.G.
Published: February 2008

LONG suffering, patient and regular readers will have realised that Albert has been peddling the Oilier Oil Co.'s lubes in Manlidale and district for quite a few years now, and apart from some unfortunate episodes, with reasonable success. Although basically gormless and as innocent as a new‐born babe, he is bonhomous, good hearted, popular and as honest as the day is long and now well established in the opinion of both his customers and his employers.
FINE FILTRATION OF ROLLING MILL FLOOD COOLANT OILS
Authors: BAILEY E.W.
Published: February 2008

THE ROLLING of bright metal sheet strip and foil requires that the highly finished rolls should be lubricated. Originally a drip feed was used, just sufficient to maintain an oil film, but as the output required from mills rolling at high speeds has increased there has been an almost universal adoption of flood cooling by means of a light mineral oil with additives. These additives are usually natural fatty substances like lanoline, vegetable or coconut oil or chemical additives in the form of complex higher alcohols. The additives are chosen largely according to the advice of oil suppliers and are usually compounded with the oil before purchase but occasionally may be blended to the preference of the mill manager as a result of his own experience. In many cases the exact mixture is regarded as a trade secret, a situation which may complicate the problems of filtration.
AN EVALUATION OF BOUNDARY BEHAVIOUR IN LUBRICATION WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO DRAWING LUBRICANTS
Authors: STEELE M.C. , STEELE C.M.
Published: February 2008

IN ORDER to investigate boundary lubrication in kinetic friction a wire tribometer was constructed along the principles proposed by Lazarev and Derjagiun.
SOME NOTES ON THE APPLICATION OF ELASTO‐HYDRODYNAMIC THEORY TO GEAR LUBRICATION
Authors: SMITH A.C.
Published: February 2008

The effectiveness of the oil film between the gear teeth will, of course, depend on the magnitude of the asperities. In this respect distinction must be made between the initial state of the gears and that after running‐in. Individual measurements of surface roughness show considerable variation between nominally similar gears, but there is a fairly well defined relationship between typical values and gear quality, as indicated below. Roughness is here expressed in micro‐inches CLA (centre line average), i.e., arithmetical average of the departure of the profile both above and below a centre line of appropriate curvature.
FUNDAMENTALS OF LUBRICATION
Authors: ELLIS E.G.
Published: February 2008

A series of articles dealing, in as simple a way as possible, with the basic facts of lubrication, lubricants, their selection and prescription, specification, application, and testing. This series is primarily intended for students, engineering personnel who may be unfamiliar with certain aspects and others who, one way or another, are interested in this important subject. Part One in our March Issue dealt with Friction, Lubrication and Wear.
PHOSPHATING
Authors: Long Calvin F.
Published: February 2008

PHOSPHATING is a process designed to provide steel surfaces with a scuff‐resistant coating, capable of rapid break‐in. A glance through a microscope will reveal that this process is far more than a mere blackening of the surface.
Friction and Wear of Graphite and Molybdenum Disulphide
Authors: BRAITHWAITE E.R.
Published: February 2008

THIS PAPER deals with two aspects of the frictional and wear properties of graphite and molybdenum disulphide :—
FUNDAMENTALS OF LUBRICATION
Authors: ELLIS E.G.
Published: February 2008

A series of articles dealing, in as simple a way as possible, with the basic facts of lubrication, lubricants, their selection and prescription, specification, application, and testing. This series is primarily intended for students, engineering personnel who may be unfamiliar with certain aspects and others who, one way or another, are interested in this important subject. Part One in our March 1965 Issue dealt with Friction, Lubrication and Wear. Part Two in July dealt with Mineral Oils and their Additives. Part Three, in September and October dealt with Lubricating Greases. Part Four in December and January covered the Purpose and Significance of Lubricant Tests. Part Five in May 1966 dealt with Grease Viscosity and Shear Stability.
The Use of HYDROSTATIC LUBRICATION IN MACHINE TOOLS
Authors: Hunt J.B.
Published: February 2008

The author summarises a number of recently published papers describing some difficulties which arise in machine tool development and research and concerning mainly the inaccuracies caused by irregular slideway movement and regenerative chatter of the cutting tool. The author has also brought together some papers describing the dynamic characteristics of hydrostatic lubrication and shows how this form of lubrication can be used to overcome some of these difficulties.
Grease‐lubricated spiral groove bearing for a straight‐through shaft
Authors: Remmers G.
Published: February 2008

THE SPIRAL GROOVE BEARING is a new and very promising form of “self‐acting bearing”, i.e. one in which the running surfaces are completely separated from each other by a thin layer of lubricant and in which the rotation itself forces the lubricant between the running surfaces. This latter action is achieved in the present case by the pumping action of the spiral grooves. Oil may be used as a lubricant, but grease is also suitable, especially for small bearings (shaft diameters of a few millimetres). The great advantage of grease is that it does not leak away from the bearing so readily when the shaft is stationary.
A Three Year Test
Authors: STRINGER L.S.
Published: February 2008

THE PROVERB “ the proof of the pudding is in the eating ” is just as true in engineering subjects as it is in any other field. With engineering, the eating is the operation of the equipment by the customer on site over a considerable period, which in most cases, would be measured in years of operating time. Unfortunately, the reporting of performance over such a long period is all too scanty to enable the equipment manufacturer to improve his future products. The problem we are to consider in this article is the grease lubrication of rolling bearings operating at speed factors in the region of 300,000 mm/min.
Intermittent Lubrication Using Small Quantities of Grease
Authors: Orte S.
Published: February 2008

THE trend in rolling bearing engineering is towards higher speeds and greater reliability, thus the need for satisfactory lubrication has become an increasingly important issue. The large oil companies annually spend considerable sums of money on research to produce lubricants that will ensure satisfactory bearing operation under the most varied working conditions. The problem is not entirely solved by the development of a suitable lubricant however—it is also necessary to supply the lubricant in the correct quantity.
The Use of Depolymerised Natural Rubber as an Additive for Lubricating Oils
Authors: West G.H.
Published: February 2008

Solutions of three types of depolymerised natural rubber were prepared using several lubricating oils as solvents. The zero shear viscosities of these solutions were measured over the range 35—95°C. employing a Ferranti concentric cylinder viscometer and it was found that the temperature dependence of the zero shear viscosity could be represented by a W.L.F. type relation. On this basis the variable parameter Ts in the W.L.F. relation was adopted as a suitable means of representing viscosity change with temperature. The experimental results showed that higher molecular weight, linear, depolymerised rubber was most effective in reducing the temperature change of viscosity of the base oil. The nature of the lubricating oil was found to be critical in this respect, only oils with an appreciable naphthenic content displaying improved temperature characteristics on addition of rubber.
DEVELOPMENTS IN HYDRAULIC OILS
Authors: Macleod Angus J.
Published: February 2008

IN MAY 1960, the predecessor of this magazine, Scientific Lubrication, published an issue devoted to the subject of “ Hydraulic Systems and Oils,” intending it to be “ … of practical and theoretical value to all readers who design, manufacture, install or maintain hydraulic equipment.” The articles were of undoubted value adding, as they did, to the store of information on hydraulic oils already published. Paradoxically, one hydraulic equipment manufacturer has recently been heard to remark that the majority of this type of literature, although issued by oil companies, gives greater descriptive coverage to the equipment than it gives to the oils. The implication was that the equipment manufacturers' greatest need was for fuller information on the oils, not the equipment.
Temporary Corrosion Preventives in Industry
Authors: ROBERTSON W.S.
Published: February 2008

THERE are a good many industrial applications where temporary corrosion preventives are as important to lubrication as are the final lubricants themselves. If machined parts are left untreated before use; if bearings are not protected in storage; if petrol or diesel engines are stored or shipped long distances without precautions, they are likely to corrode. Then, no amount of care in subsequent lubrication will give satisfactory results. Protecting machined surfaces against corrosion until they are put into use is therefore an essential part of good lubrication. One way of getting that protection is by using temporary corrosion preventives.
SUPERSONIC AIRCRAFT BRING LUBRICATION PROBLEMS
Authors: ELLIS E.G.
Published: February 2008

THE ATTENTION which has been paid in both the lay and technical press to the Concorde has revealed the many problems associated with the design and construction of aircraft flying at supersonic speeds. They relate to both aerodynamic design and the materials of construction where, particularly for the latter, one of the main influencing factors is the high surface temperature caused by skin friction. In the case of the Concorde which, it is stated, has a mximum speed of Mach 2‐2 and will fly for some 60 per cent of the time at a cruising speed of Mach 2‐1, the airframe can still be made mainly from conventional aluminium alloy as are today's jets. But the surface temperature starts to rise rapidly as speed exceeds Mach 2‐2 and this will mean that before long aluminium alloys will have to be replaced by harder metals with higher weight‐to‐strength ratio, for example titanium or stainless steel alloys. At the same time it is known that surface temperatures will range from, say, minus 65°F to 450°F with some—areas e.g., engine mounts—well above 1000°F.
Optimization of Hydrostatic Bearings for Minimum Power and Low Temperature Rise
Authors: O'Donoghue J.P. , Rowe W.B.
Published: February 2008

This paper emphasises the importance of designing bearings for minimum power dissipation and temperature rise. Criteria are given which enable a designer to arrive at optimum values of any parameter for his particular bearing application.
Lubricant Coding
Authors: ELLIS E.G.
Published: February 2008

Many methods of lubricant coding have been devised and employed as aids to maintenance and to operators whose duty it is to top‐up reservoirs and grease bearings. Until PERA published their coding system there was no recognised classification or method in this country, although many companies had devised their own. Lubricating oil companies have always been helpful in suggesting coding systems for their clients and some of these have been described in this journal over the years.
Lubrication: Management Responsibility
Authors: BREWER ALLEN F.
Published: February 2008

PARTS 22–26 IN A SERIES OF THIRTY‐ONE SHORT ARTICLES DESIGNED TO EMPHASIZE TO MANAGEMENT EXECUTIVES THE SAVINGS THEY CAN EFFECT AND FOR WHICH THEY ARE RESPONSIBLE BY GIVING THOUGHT AND ATTENTION TO THE CORRECT LUBRICATION OF THEIR PLANT AND MACHINERY.
Testing Grease for Rolling Bearings
Authors: ELLIS E.G.
Published: February 2008

GREASE has many advantages as a ball and roller bearing lubricant. For example, it is easily retained in the bearing housing, can be used at quite high rotational speeds without leaking and also acts as a protective coating against corrosive attack. The latter naturally depends on the quality of the grease but this article only considers products of repute.
Properties and Uses of FEROBESTOS
Authors: SHERWOOD D.T.
Published: February 2008

WHILST reinforced plastics materials have been employed for bearing surfaces on an ever increasing scale for over thirty years, it is only in the past decade or so that they have really been accepted as engineering materials in their own right and not as just substitutes for metals.
Applications of Bronze‐Plastics Composites for Dry Bearings
Authors: EVANS COLIN J.
Published: February 2008

CONVENTIONAL plain bearings depend for their smooth operation on a film of lubricant which separates the bearing and mating surfaces, when these are in relative motion. However, there are many service conditions under which a constant film of lubricant cannot be guaranteed, for example in oscillatory motion, or when the two parts are moving at low speeds under high loads. Most lubricating oils and greases also have temperature restrictions, becoming too viscous at low temperatures and tending to decompose at high temperatures. Another factor is the possibility of contamination of products by lubricant in, for example, food processing or textile equipment.
SYNTHETIC AVIATION LUBRICANTS
Authors: Robson R.
Published: February 2008

THE EARLY development of the aviation gas turbine was carried out using relatively conventional mineral oil lubricants. With further development of this engine, it became clear that mineral oils were unable to satisfy the demands placed upon the lubricant by the extremes of temperature met with in aviation gas turbine operation. Oxidative instability at high temperature and inadequate viscosity index were two of the prime considerations that triggered off the search for alternative fluids. This search soon revealed that the physical characteristics of a group of chemicals known as diesters offered the best available combinations of properties for use as jet engine lubricants.
NEAT CUTTING OIL AND METALWORKING ADDITIVES
Authors: Nicholson R.A.
Published: February 2008

“As in other fields of lubrication and processing, the incorporation of various chemical additive materials to straight mineral oils can reinforce intrinsic desirable properties or impart new properties necessary to the high performance expected of today's metalworking lubricants and coolants”.
Paper Making Machinery
Authors: Brewer Allen F.
Published: February 2008

This series of articles continues the theme of Mr. Brewer's previous series, “Lubrication—Management Responsibility” The series deals with the lubrication of industrial plant, but with the intention of ‘educating’ Management to the importance of ensuring that production is not lost because of faulty lubricaton.
REMINISCENCES OF A LUBRICANT HANDLING CONSULTANT
Authors: HUNT H.L.
Published: February 2008

An alternative title to this article would be “Truth is Stranger than Fiction”. The characters and their antics, devoted to storing and dispensing lubricants, are almost true and are not mere figments of the author's imagination. There are many instances of works which the author has visited where Fred and Yo Yo really exist and need help.
THEORETICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS INTO THE PERFORMANCE OF FINITE WIDTH TATIONARY EXTERNALLY PRESSURIZED RECTANGULAR BEARINGS
Authors: El‐Kadeem M.A. , Salem Essam , Ragab El‐Sayed Hassan
Published: February 2008

THIS PAPER presents a study of the performance characteristics of finite width stationary externally pressurized rectangular bearings. Two types of bearings are considered, namely, the plain and initially tilted pad bearings. The bearings were lubricated by using incompressible fluid. The study includes:
REMINISCENCES OF A LUBRICANT HANDLING CONSULTANT
Authors: HUNT H.L.
Published: February 2008

The previous article appeared in our September issue and we repeat that Bert and Fred, and their ‘management’ have too many very close relatives in far too many works. As our author states, ‘they’ should be told frankly how a small expenditure on modern equipment for storing and handling oils and greases would save them a lot of money.
OIL SEPARATION FROM GREASE UNDER PRESSURE
Authors: WYLLIE D.
Published: February 2008

This is a companion article to “Grease Pumpability” by Dr. Wyllie that appeared in our January/February issue. That article discussed the factors governing the flow properties of grease and stated how this data could be used to assess the suitability of systems for dispensing greases. The present article deals with work done on oil separation from greases subjected to pressure, especially in spring‐loaded grease cups and describes a special test unit for this work. The results show the effect of pressure and temperature and the greater resistance to oil separation of greases containing high viscosity oil.
EXAMINATION OF SOME OF THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF GREASE
Authors: Willmer S.W.
Published: February 2008

Until comparatively recently, consistency, worked and unworked penetration of a grease were useful indications of its performance ability. Present day requirements of machine tools, and the sophisticated grease formulations available, make these indications of little real value to machine designers. As machine design advances it is increasingly important that lubricants are given attention at the drawing board stage and not left until the test runs. Lubricants must be dimensionally included in design procedures. Whilst lubricants can be so included, it is not so easy for grease, at least not so easy if using the rules still in use to identify its characteristics. This article suggests a method for identifying the important physical characteristics of grease in units more appropriate to those used in modern machine design.
Protective Lubrication of Packaging Machinery
Authors: Brewer Allen F.
Published: February 2008

MANAGEMENT is vitally concerned with effective and protective lubrication of packaging machinery because of the potential relationship in the preparation of commodities for the market. The range of products is widespread, dealing with foodstuffs, wearing apparel and other textiles, cosmetics and cleansing materials and drugs. Demand requires that their production usually must be continuous; only can this be maintained when the machinery functions dependably.
Investigation of Metal Cutting Using Molybdenum Disulphide as a Cutting Fluid
Authors: Bagchi H. , Mukherjee N.P. , Basu S.K. , TRESIDDER C.G.
Published: February 2008

The significant cutting parameters in turning EN 24 steel with carbide tools using MoS2 as a cutting fluid have been evaluated and an equation connecting the significant parameters with surface roughness of the job material has been determined. A typical nomogram has been constructed to determine easily the surface roughness produced on the job when the independent variables are known within the range of experimentation. A comparative study between ordinary cutting fluid and MoS2 as a cutting fluid has been shown. Optimum cutting combinations have been ascertained statistically by the steepest descent method.
DEVELOPMENT TESTING OF METALWORKING LUBRICANTS
Authors: Morton I.S.
Published: February 2008

WHEN WE turn from oil‐based to aqueous cutting fluids, we meet additional problems and require many more tests. Before dealing with these it should be remarked that they often apply to fluids used in other operations, notably rolling and drawing, so that the following section is not restricted to cutting fluids only.
THEORETICAL INVESTIGATION INTO THE PERFORMANCE OF FINITE WIDTH SLIDING EXTERNALLY PRESSURIZED RECTANGULAR BEARINGS
Authors: El‐Kadeem M.A. , Salem Essam , Ragab Hassan
Published: February 2008

THE MAIN objective of this work is to reveal the performance characteristics of sliding externally pressurized rectangular bearings and to get an adequate understanding of the behaviour of such bearings.
TRIBOLOGY AT THE NATIONAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY
Authors: Cooke W.L.
Published: February 2008

THE National Engineering Laboratory was created in 1949 and operated as part of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. Its nucleus was part of the Engineering Division of the National Physical Laboratory, and it was natural therefore that one of the principal areas of work was lubrication and wear, following on from the work of Stanton, Clayton and Fogg at NPL in the 1930s and 1940s. The Lubrication and Wear Division was one of seven divisions at the Mechanical Engineering Research Laboratory (MERL) (later renamed the National Engineering Laboratory) devoted to the science of mechanical engineering. The Division was headed by Dr. (now Professor) F. T. Barwell, and it is interesting to look at the structure of the group which he built up. Much is heard nowadays of ‘the multi‐disciplinary nature of tribology’; it was obviously recognised by Barwell almost a generation ago that a successful attack on the problems of lubrication and wear could only be made by a coherent group of metallurgists, physicists, chemists and engineers.
Re ‐ refining Cuts Costs
Authors: CHATWIN A.H.
Published: February 2008

THE re‐refining of used lubricating oil became established in Great Britain during the second world war and is now carried out by six main companies. The UK consumption of lubricating oils is about 1,150,000 tons per annum and only about 5 per cent of this is being recovered for further use. The remainder is either burned as fuel or disposed of as a waste material by tipping—causing a most serious pollution problem.
DYNAMICALLY LOADED BEARING ASSESSMENT BY OIL FILM ANALYSIS
Authors: Perkins C.A.
Published: February 2008

AUTOMOTIVE engine designers will know that the oil film in a plain bearing system has three duties: it converts energy into heat, supports the load, and separates the relatively moving surfaces.
GRAPHITE
Authors: Feneberger K.
Published: February 2008

In this article K. Feneberger brings this important subject up to date. He suggests that users of graphite for lubrication purposes should be careful what they buy. “In many cases” he says “the powder is accepted by a manufacturer on little more than a code number, at most an approximate ash content and an average particle size distribution”. There is far more to it than that.
Sprayed Surface COATINGS
Authors: Hurricks P.L.
Published: February 2008

The reduction of wear by the use of sprayed surface coatings holds considerable potential at a time when Industry is becoming more conscious of the need to reduce its operating costs. Control of wear is unlikely to become a true science due to the arbitrary nature of the conditions that produce the effect and although no truly economic solution exists for completely preventing surface degradation, it can be minimized to acceptable limits. It is the purpose of this article to present an approach to the use of sprayed surface coatings in tribological situations. Common wear types are briefly described and the philosophy behind the protective surface layer in relation to surface geometry is outlined. The performance of sprayed coatings in adhesive and abrasive wear situations is evaluated and discussed. In addition, the use of sprayed deposits for lubricated bearing surfaces is considered as well as the application of low friction coatings by the spray method.
DIESEL ENGINE OIL SELECTION
Authors: PETER A. , HENSHAW B.W.
Published: February 2008

The paper describes a new and original method of utilising known design features of 4‐stroke and 2‐stroke trunk piston diesel engines for the purpose of enabling accurate selection of the correct type of lubricating oil to be made, in terms of performance level. Assessment is made on the basis of matching test engine parameters with those of the engine under examination. Slow speed crosshead 2‐ and 4‐stroke diesel engines with separate cylinder lubrication are not included. The important parameters of piston speed, b.m.e.p, heat input factor, and fuel sulphur content are used and graphs are provided which permit rapid selection of the type of lubricant most suited to meet the engine requirements. Lubricants are graded in terms of their ability to meet well known specifications which define performance standards by engine test techniques.
Adventures of Antrobus
Authors: LEE ALAN
Published: February 2008

THERE were three of us—Cranmer, Bannerman and I— the local field strength of the diminutive PANJANDRUM OIL COMPANY; a miniature Dad's Army, a thin red line protecting the Company's flanks from the attacks of the insidious majors in a continuing David and Goliath confrontation, and occasionally fixing bayonets for a charge into the enemy positions. “They don't like it up 'em, you know!” is Bannerman's standard wry comment on such a sortie. Today we were jostling among the noon‐day drinkers in Willoughby's, like drought‐maddened cattle at some dusty African water‐hole, bespeaking a moist luncheon and getting our suits pressed in situ, as it were, into the bargain. Passing a drink from that bar to the rear ranks was about as easy as working a ball out of a tight scrum. Performing astonishing feats of dexterity Cranmer nevertheless presently emerged through the legs of the thronging patrons, thrusting upon me not only the expected foaming pinta, but also an unexpected whisky chaser; a devious act of generosity patently intended to compromise me into some corresponding response not yet specified. I took the benison with some misgiving and drank thoughtfully. “You do owe me a favour, you know, Antrobus!” he declared, a shade reprovingly, taking a long draught and watching my changed expression closely—and it was, of course, true. If that amazon of a matron with the faintly drawn Mexican moustache and parturient beard had discovered me in the nurses' quarters after the party … my future would not have been worth an old five gallon drum.
Adventures of Antrobus, No. Two
Authors: LEE ALAN
Published: February 2008

ANY SMART tribology man with not too much residue sludging his circulation would doubtless confirm, if pressed within sight of a public bar, that with the complete disappearance of the old total‐loss lubrication systems one of his greatest potential sources of luboil gallonage today lies in the maintenance and servicing of earth‐moving and construction equipment; especially when veritable armadas of such plant and machinery are deployed in lines abreast and astern across three or four counties in some mammoth and costly project such as motorway construction. A valid reason for holding this view is, in fact, the large body of opinion amongst construction workers that lavish lubrication, tantamount in some instances literally to bathing equipment in oil, is a relatively inexpensive form of insurance against storm and tempest and the rust pestilence—and who should deny them? Hence they appear to the observer clocking up the barrels to dispense materials on site, particularly oils, with the largesse—nay, carefree abandon—of an army in the field, bless their little Lovibond hearts.
CUTTING FLUIDS FOR OPERATIONS ON METAL WITH FLEXIBLE ABRASIVE BELTS
Authors: GHIO F.
Published: February 2008

IMMEDIATELY after the war it was generally believed that flexible abrasive belts could only be used for marginal applications and for several years they were still considered to be useful only for finishing operations with minimal removal of material. Following a wider usage of hard‐to‐grind new alloys together with a parallel progress in flexible abrasive belts, these cutting tools started to be used in a once precluded field, ie “integral operations” by abrasive belts. In fact, for these applications, flexible abrasive belts offer among others, the advantage of not needing reconditioning by the grinder wheel dresser—an operation frequently necessary when using traditional abrasive wheels. Dr Ghio discusses the use of correct cutting fluids for this work and the problems associated with their selection. He concludes that as always, the cutting fluid has to be a compromise between production requirements, quality of finish, and other relevant costs.
THE PROBLEM OF COOLANT CONTAMINATION
Authors: BONNER D.W.
Published: February 2008

THE I.C. engine is a special form of heat engine and, by its very nature, produces excess quantities of heat. Uncontrolled, this heat would soon lead to distortion and damage of mechanical components causing the overall working of the engine to be less efficient and eventually leading to complete breakdown. In the case of small engines, sufficient cooling can be achieved by increasing suitably the external area of the combustion chamber by finning and ensuring a suitable flow of air to these surfaces by ducting and powered fans. These methods are less suitable for larger engines as the extra heat produced would require extensive finning and fans—uneconomical in both power and space. For the majority of i.c. engines the accepted method of cooling is by the transfer of heat through the medium of a suitable fluid.
EMULSIFIABLE SOLVENT DEGREASANTS
Authors: Nicholson R.A.
Published: February 2008

SOME thousands of tonnes of kerosine, or similar hydrocarbon fraction, and hundreds of tonnes of surface active agents are employed annually in the UK production of emulsifiable solvent degreasants. They are generally employed as “extensive” type cleaners of oil‐soiled surfaces of machinery, vehicles, floors, paintwork and degreasing operations in general. In some applications of metal component production for example, they are used for their relatively “intensive” cleaning ability.
TROUBLE SHOOTING in the field of CUTTING OILS AND COOLANTS
Authors: NICHOLSON R.A.
Published: February 2008

IN any investigation of a problem or complaint involving petroleum products in the Industrial field, at least three standard answers will be available to the investigator without the necessity to first ask the questions. These are:
TRIBO‐MECHANICS OF CARBON‐FIBRE‐REINFORCED PLASTICS
Authors: Tsukizoe T. , Ohmae N.
Published: February 2008

Tribology of the carbon‐fibre‐reinforced plastics has been investigated. The wear‐resistance of carbon‐fibre‐reinforced plastics was found to be much better than those of other plastics reinforced with fibres of glass and stainless steel and was affected by the fibre‐orientation relative to sliding. Law of mixture in the frictional coefficient of composite materials was deduced; a comparison of calculated values with experimental data showed good agreements. Wear‐resistance of the carbon‐fibre‐reinforced plastics against fretting was also examined; good wear‐resistance was obtained when sliding within a region about 30° from the carbon‐fibre axis.
CUTTING FLUID QUALITY
Authors: Ivković B.
Published: February 2008

A tribological investigation into the per formance of metal cutting fluid by inducing a radioactive condition into the tool.
WHEN LUBRICATION FAILS
Authors: Booster E.R. , Baker A.E.
Published: February 2008

In most ball bearings, grease functions primarily as a storehouse for the small amount of oil needed to coat ball, raceway and separator surfaces. Bearing life tests indicate that as a grease ages in service, it finally dries to a degree where it fails to provide this lubrication demand when about half the original oil is gone. This condition of dryness which leads to failure is also related to operating factors such as bearing temperature, speed and load.
FRICTIONAL DYNAMICS
Authors: GUJRATI B.D.
Published: February 2008

The fundamental friction studies of rubber have generally dealt with single contact sliders or rollers. It has been demonstrated abundantly that the lubricated friction of rubber is mainly the ‘deformation loss’ component of friction. At moderate sliding speeds where thin film lubrication exists and the interface shear drag is small, the friction is the same as in rolling. The rubber substrate is continually deforming ahead of, and recovering behind, the contact in both rolling or sliding cases. Since the deformation of rubber is partially irreversible, energy is lost which is irreversible, energy is lost which is reflected as the ‘deformation loss’ component of friction at the contact. This deformation loss component of friction has been correlated with the “elastic hysteresis” or the “visco‐elastic losses”. The elastic hysteresis consideration alone does not fully explain rubber substrate deformation and friction behaviour. The assumptions used are incompatible. For example, the delayed or incomplete recovery of the rubber substrate behind the contact leads to residual strains which result in the contact area asymmetry as shown in Fig. 1. In contrast, the elastic hysteresis approach assumes Hertzian elastic contact which is symmetric. It may be noted that all ‘lossy’ materials whether plastic or visco‐elastic in nature must involve frictional contact area asymmetry. Various simplified visco‐elastic considerations of the rolling contact have been illustrated, only qualitatively, the contact deformation and frictional loss behaviour. Direct experimental and quantitive verifications have not been attempted, however. Some rigorous visco‐elastic, two dimensional, continuum analyses of the rolling contact are available in the literature and are very complex. It is difficult to use the results of these analyses to the problem of frictional loss evaluation, primarily because linear and simplified visco‐elastic models have been employed. Moreover, for the general friction problem of rubberlike elastomers which are nonlinear visco‐elastic solids of complex descriptions, physical quantification and interpretation of the parameters used in the above analyses are not possible. Employing the method of a visco‐elastic operator, a semi‐analytical technique has been used recently to express the asymmetry of the sliding contact area and the associated deformation loss component of friction. The results of the analyses agree reasonably with the experimental observations. Dynamic material property parameters used in the analyses are obtained from an indentation test arrangement under closely controlled conditions.
Recycling makes sense
Authors: KILBOURNE L.W.
Published: February 2008

THE re‐refining of lubricating oils has twice been the subject of papers given by the author at Leeds University Tribo‐International events, and the likely dwindling availability of hydrocarbon products now makes his point of view all the more interesting.
BIG GEAR OPERATION
Authors: WOLLHOFEN G.P.
Published: February 2008

TOOTH flank wear shown by waviness happens when the protective surface oxidation is impaired and the yield point of the metals is exceeded under relatively light loads. Seizure points are few, but cover a large area; worn‐off particles are correspondingly large and adhesive wear is severe.
tribo‐international 1980
Authors: Wakelin R.J.
Published: February 2008

WHEN Professor W. B. Heginbotham, Director General of the Production Engineering Research Association, officially opens Tribo‐International 80 at Bodington Hall, Leeds, on Tuesday morning, September 16, he will set in motion the fourth and biggest Exhibition in the biennial series staged by the Leeds Tribology Unit. The event, which has come to be called the “moving parts show”, is a commercial exhibition providing visitors with a rare opportunity of seeing all aspects of lubrication, bearings seals and allied equipment presented under one roof at the same time.
AMERICAN COATING TECHNIQUES
Authors: STALLINGS L. , GABEL B.K.
Published: February 2008

WORK carried out at the United States Naval Air Development Centre indicates that coatings of solid lubricants can considerably cut down wear rates and, consequently, prolong the life of tools made from high‐speed steel. Furthermore, reduced machining and tool‐dressing times may be anticipated—so suggests an article by these joint authors in a recent “Molysulfide Newsletter”.
PISTON RING AND LINER WEAR
Authors: DAY R.A.
Published: February 2008

There must always be a danger that condition monitoring techniques aimed at the wear products of one particular couple may find interference, or even be blanketed by the products of another couple. It is therefore essential for those in such work to recognize what new materials may have been introduced, but not infrequently component makers are unwilling to disclose at any early date the “secrets” of their new coatings. By reviewing the traditional materials, and both the developments and trends in purposely structured materials used in modern piston ring/liner technology it is hoped that some value will result to those engaged in the development of condition monitoring techniques.
JOURNEY THROUGH CHINA
Authors: CRAMPTON J.S.
Published: February 2008

BRIEF news of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers' Tribology Group visit to China as guests of the Chinese Mechanical Engineers Society (CMES), appeared on the “Comment and opinion” page of our September/October issue last year. It was the first since the initial trip in 1979. We asked for a more detailed account and a report of the 3,500 mile journey through the country of a thousand million people, many anxious to know more about the new industrial technologies, now comes from S.J. Crampton, BSc (Eng), FIMechE, FInst Pet, manager, Projects and Research, IMechE, who was a member of the eight‐man party.
CERAMICS TECHNOLOGY
Authors: PARKER D.A.
Published: February 2008

In the development of engine components a number of special techniques are used to combat the hostile operating environment which usually includes high and cyclic forces, high and cyclic temperatures, sliding and often corrosion and/or erosion. Examples of the use of these techniques, namely the development of special materials for substrate and surface, of mathematical modelling verified by telemetry, and of special machining, to solve the problems of the operating environment, are given in respect of piston rings, cylinder liners, bearings, camshafts and valve seat inserts. It is noted that of these techniques the development of special surface and substrate materials provides the most assistance. The application of materials technology to surface and substrate is illustrated with respect to ceramics, including silicon nitride, silicon carbide, zirconia and alumina. Applications underdevelopment include insulation, improvement of wear resistance, reduction of mass, increase of operating temperature and the reinforcement of metals, for example reinforcement of aluminium alloys using alumina fibres incorporated by squeeze casting. The several means open to improve the properties of gravity cast aluminium silicon alloys are reviewed and the improvement of properties obtained by squeeze casting without reinforcement are illustrated. The further enhancement of these properties by the design of an appropriate fibre reinforcement system, incorporated by squeeze casting, is then described. Its application to the reinforcement of a combustion bowl subject to high thermal stress is discussed and the performance of the resulting piston in relation to unreinforced pistons is described. In conclusion the market, product and process aspects of the development are correlated to demonstrate its overall value and to identify further applications.
VISCOSITY CLASSIFICATION
Authors: Bates T.W.
Published: February 2008

A brief review of the conditions to which a crankcase oil is subjected during engine operation is given prior to a consideration of the relevance of the current SAE J300 viscosity classification to the needs of today's engines. Regarding the high‐temperature part, it is concluded that the current classification based on the low‐shear‐rate kinematic viscosity at 100°C provides a useful guide to oil consumption and a convenient means of evaluating used oils; it is, however, unsatisfactory as a guide to the fuel consumption and journal‐bearing performance of polymer‐containing oils. Whilst modification of J300 to include high‐shear‐rate viscosity limits could provide a classification relevant to the fuel consumption of such oils, knowledge of the complicated effects of both elasticity and viscosity on load‐bearing capacity, although increasing, is currently incomplete and it will be some years yet before J300 could be usefully modified to provide a guide to the rheological performance of oils in automotive journal bearings.
EUROPEAN CLASSIFICATIONS:
Authors: Johnson E.W.
Published: February 2008

The object of this paper is to give a better understanding of the CCMC (Committee of Common Market Automobile Constructors) classification system for various automotive engine lubricants.
FAILURE FACTORS
Authors: TOMKINS B.
Published: February 2008

THE Structural Integrity Centre (SIC) had its origins in the 1970s when major integrity issues arose on the UKAEA's plant in service, eg weld cracking in the prototype fast reactors (PFR) steam generator units, and safety concerns led to a rigorous assessment of the integrity of the civil pressurised water reactors (PWR) pressure vessel (the Marshall committee report). In both cases engineers and scientists from various disciplines throughout the authority were involved in the consideration and resolution of these issues, and it was demonstrated that assurance of plant integrity could no longer be provided by the plant designer or operator alone.
CUTTING FLUIDS
Authors: HUGGINS K.F.
Published: February 2008

SYNOPSIS. A new type of cutting fluid is essential to achieving utilisation of the full potential of Automated Machining (AM). Coolant capabilities frequently determine the scope of multi‐tool machining applications. Identifying operational needs and overcoming AM system constraints has provided a unique opportunity to develop a new synthetic cutting fluid technology. A vision for the future is where the expansion of synthetic lubricant technology will continue to contribute significant benefits to an ever‐widening area of manufacturing industry's lubricant requirements.
CAPABILITY ASSESSMENT
Authors: Osborne Bernal
Published: February 2008

MARKET forces, plus a modicum of common sense, have contributed over twenty‐five years or so to the partial, though not complete, elimination of some of the disastrous attitudes described by Dr David Atterton. They were the cause of lost opportunities and the deterioration of long‐established trade links. Both situations are always critical, preceding either bankruptcy or forcing acceptance of new thinking and better business methods and technologies in order to survive.
THE IMPORTANCE OF OIL ELASTICITY
Authors: Bates Terence W. , Williamson Brian , Spearot James A. , Murphy Chester K.
Published: February 2008

Oil film thickness measurements made in the front main bearing of an operating 3.8 L, V‐6 engine were compared with rheological measurements made on a series of commercial and experimental oil blends. High‐temperature, high‐shear‐rate viscosity measurements correlated with the film thickness of all single‐grade and many multigrade oils. However, the film thickness provided by some multigrade oils were larger than could be accounted for by their high‐temperature, high‐shear‐rate viscosities alone. Although the pressure/viscosity coefficients of some of the oils were significantly different from those of the majority of oils tested, they were not oils which produced unusual film thicknesses. As a consequence, correcting oil viscosities for the esimated pressures acting within the bearing was unsuccessful in improving the correlations. The correlations were improved, however, by accounting for the elastic properties of the multigrade oils. Measurements of oil relaxation times at high temperatures and shear rates showed large differences in elastic properties among the test oils. A good correlation (R2 = 0.73) was obtained from a multiple linear regression of film thickness as a function of both high‐temperature, high‐shear‐rate viscosities and relaxation times.
FAILURE DIAGNOSIS
Authors: Lewis M.W.J.
Published: February 2008

Plant failures are often not fully investigated, owing to the pressures of restoring production so as to avoid delays and consequent losses. Instead, problems are overcome by quick solutions. Such solutions, however, may not eliminate the underlying cause of trouble and additional costly failures may occur.
CRANKSHAFT BEARING MATERIALS:
Authors: Massey I.D. , MacQuarrie N.A. , Eastham D.R.
Published: February 2008

Modern highly loaded engines, particularly long life diesel engines, require main and connecting‐rod bearings that combine fatigue and wear resistance with an ability to absorb dirt and cater for slight misalignment. With the extended oil drain intervals, corrosion resistance is also ever important.