bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Interregionalism, Trade, and Standardization
Authors: Bianculli Andrea C.
Published: April 2023

The European Union and the Common Market of the South reached a political accord for a free trade agreement in 2019. This chapter assesses the definitional and normative content of trade facilitation and intellectual property rights therein. Both policy areas are regulated in reference to international rules and standards as set by the World Trade Organization agreements. Yet, they equally evince the articulation of novel definitional and standardization materials. This is the case for transparency, participation, and the involvement of the business community in trade facilitation. In intellectual property, these relate to an explicit commitment to advancing economic and social welfare, and a clear public interest dimension, especially around patents and health. Ideational and institutional elements account for these noteworthy outcomes. Whereas the first refer to how ideas and discourse evolve in trade regulations and standards, the second variable underscores the relevance of history, thus emphasizing interregionalism as a process, where context and time are essential.
Conflicting Standards of Sustainable Biofuel in the EU-ASEAN Trade Negotiations
Authors: Sicurelli Daniela
Published: April 2023

Since the first decade of the twenty-first century, the European Union (EU) has engaged in promoting its own regulatory standards concerning sustainable biofuel throughout trade negotiations with Asian countries. The EU-sponsored sustainability criteria, though, clashed with the criteria adopted by major palm oil producers, such as Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand. These conflicting standards have contributed to the current stalemate of trade negotiations with those partners. This chapter provides a political economy explanation of such a cleavage. It argues that competing interests of biofuel producers in the two negotiating sides, the centrality of palm oil export for Indonesia and Malaysia economies, and the low dependency of those partners on the EU as a trade partner have reduced the bargaining power of the latter in the negotiations. The open dispute against the WTO-compatibility of European sustainability criteria has further challenged the self-attributed image of the EU as a global leader in the promotion of sustainable development.
Introduction
Authors: Javeline Debra
Published: April 2023

This chapter introduces the puzzle of unrealized expectations of retaliatory ethnic violence and unexpected political activism in response to the school hostage taking in Beslan, North Ossetia, the most appalling act of terrorism in Russia’s history. It situates the specific puzzle of victims in the North Caucasus in the larger puzzle about individual responses to violence throughout the world. The advantages and limitations of studying the school hostage taking are presented, along with user-friendly methodological descriptions of the victim survey, the nonvictim surveys, and focus groups. The chapter previews findings about anger, prejudice, and other variables that help understand victim behavior in the aftermath of violence.
Political Grievances
Authors: Javeline Debra
Published: April 2023

Chapter 2 explains the victims’ political grievances against the governments of North Ossetia and Russia. To this day, many questions surround the explosions that triggered the chaos, gunfire, and burning and collapse of the gymnasium roof that took the lives of a significant portion of the hostages, and many victims believe that the authorities, not the hostage takers, initiated the horror or at least exacerbated it once the bloody finale began. Other grievances include the failure to detect the advance planning for such an attack; the poor official preparation to combat terrorism in a known conflict zone; biased investigations that have failed to provide a true account of what happened; and the callous mistreatment of victims.
Social Alienation versus Social Support
Authors: Javeline Debra
Published: April 2023

This chapter offers an in-depth exploration of victim networks and divisions and of the victim organizations Mothers of Beslan and Voice of Beslan from the perspectives of victims who were active in these organizations and victims who were not. The chapter also reports the victims’ perspectives on Russian society and its interest in their plight. While there is some evidence that socially alienated victims were more supportive of retaliatory violence than other victims, the relationship is statistically and substantively weaker than expected, and social alienation played no role in peaceful political participation after the hostage taking. These nonsignificant findings represent an important contribution in the context of prevailing assumptions to the contrary and in counteracting publication bias against null results.
The Rise of Critical Islam
Authors: Soufi Youcef L.
Published: April 2023

In a richly narrated historical study, Soufi excavates an Islamic legal culture of critique from the 10th to 13th centuries. Focusing on the practice of munāẓara (disputation), Soufi explores how and why oral debates became a pervasive and revered part of the intellectual legal landscape of Iraq and Persia. Pushing back against claims that classical Muslim jurists sought to weed out differences of opinion, The Rise of Critical Islam presents a community committed to the openness, fluidity, and continued exploration of the law. In uncovering this classical legal culture, Soufi invites readers to question claims about the promise of secular critique in disciplining religious passions and forging human solidarity.
Introduction
Authors: Soufi Youcef L.
Published: April 2023

What modes of critique are borne by the historical tradition of Islam? Indeed, how might they make us think differently about the nature of post-Enlightenment critique? This book is an attempt to answer these questions by examining a moment in Islamic legal history from the 10th to 13th centuries within the regions of Iraq and Persia. It is an analysis of a legal culture in which the practice of disputation (munāẓara) was revered for its ability to facilitate the search (ijtihād) for God’s law—a law taken to be ever open to contestation, ever uncertain. At the heart of this study is the figure of Abū Isḥāq al-Shīrāzī (d. 476/1083 ce), a celebrated 11th-century Shāfiʿī scholar who distinguished himself as a debater par excellence. The Rise of Critical Islam explores the practice of disputation within the legal culture to which al-Shīrāzī belonged, unravelling the fluidity, openness, and contingency of Islamic law in the classical period. By implication, this critical tradition of religious debate leads us to rethink secularism’s promise to discipline religious passions and forge human solidarity.
Where Is the “Contradiction”?
Authors: Lu-Adler Huaping
Published: April 2023

This chapter rejects the assumption that Kant’s moral claims and racist claims contradict each other and reconsiders the place of raciology in his philosophical system. His raciology has two parts: racialism, which divides humanity into various races and assigns distinct characteristics to each; and racism, which systematically excludes some races from certain goods. Physical geography is a primary locus for the former. The racialist account presented there gets the racist upshot when Kant, having outlined a vision of human progress in his pragmatic anthropology, uses his geographic knowledge to determine which peoples can advance that vision as agents. He excludes nonwhite races from agential participation in this historical unfolding of human progress without contradicting his somewhat abstract moral or anthropologic claims about humanity. His pure moral philosophy, anthropology, and geography constitute three levels of discourse that are separated by real abstraction and so are not on the same plane for logical comparison.
From Baconian Natural History to Kant’s Racialization of Human Differences
Authors: Lu-Adler Huaping
Published: April 2023

This chapter explains the originality of Kant’s theory of race and its practical relevance. Countless predecessors paved the way for him. These include seventeenth-century philosophers such as Bacon and Boyle, who initiated an orderly global data collection that provided massive cross-referenceable reports about extra-Europeans, and eighteenth-century philosophers such as Linnaeus and Buffon, who systematically classified humans on the basis of such reports and studied their differences as natural effects. Although Kant is indebted to all those philosophers’ work for his raciology, the resulting theory is clearly original. His most ingenious creations include a new conception of natural history, a new model of monogenism, and a teleology that bridges his race theory and his vision of human progress. These are not just sophisticated theoretical accomplishments. They have serious racist implications within Kant’s complex philosophical system, including treating “Negroes” as natural slaves and tolerating race-based chattel slavery as a mere chapter of human history.
Race and the Claim to True Philosophy
Authors: Lu-Adler Huaping
Published: April 2023

This chapter reconstructs Kant’s argument for a Eurocentric history of philosophy. He holds that true philosophy could only have started with the Greeks and that the “Orientals,” in particular, are incapable of philosophizing. This conclusion builds on four premises. First, a rational history (Geschichte), contrary to an empirical history (historia), of philosophy is the history of reason’s self-development, which must end with the Kantian critical philosophy. Second, one cannot arrive at true philosophy through the eclectic method. Rather, to philosophize is to build systems in accordance with some rational ends. Third, philosophizing is possible only under certain conditions, including the ability to think in abstracto. Fourth, only the Occidental whites satisfy all those conditions, whereas all others lack the requisite talents and mental dispositions. Professional philosophers today may be unaware of this racist reasoning. But they are complicit in perpetuating, and so bear the burden to undo, its effects.
The Structure of Immersive and Engaging Activities
Authors: Melnikoff David , Carlson Ryan , Stillman Paul
Published: April 2023

One of the most potent predictors of productivity and well-being is the subjective experience of flow. Defined as the feeling of effortless immersion in goal pursuit, flow has been studied for decades, yet effective strategies for boosting flow remain elusive. This stems in part from a lack of knowledge of how flow relates to mental representations of task structure. Many aspects of motivation are shaped by representations of how desired task outcomes and means of those outcomes relate to one another, but how these representations shape flow has not been explored. The authors address this gap by drawing on an empirically validated, computational model of the flow-generating process. From this model, the authors derive a formal framework for understanding how mental representations of task structure shape subjective experiences of immersion and engagement—a framework that could be used to boost flow in daily life.
Variety among Means
Authors: Etkin Jordan
Published: April 2023

Goals are pursued through their means to attainment, where means refers to the products, services, and behaviors that people buy, choose, or otherwise enact to advance a focal goal. Most goals are associated with multiple means, together referred to as the equifinality set. Extending prior work on goal–means configurations, which largely focused on the number of means in the equifinality set, this chapter reviews a program of research on variety among means—the actual or perceived variation among means to a goal—which shapes a range of goal-related phenomena. These include effects on “classic” goal outcomes, such as motivation, perceived goal progress, and attainment expectations, as well as diffuse higher-order goals, such as those for happiness, identity, and relationships. Finally, the author discusses variety as a goal pursued through its own means to attainment and concludes with suggestions for future research.
A Goal Systematic Approach to Persuasion
Authors: Schumpe Birga Mareen
Published: April 2023

This chapter introduces the goal systematic approach to persuasion. Four distinct persuasive strategies are presented that can be used to alter the goal–means architecture in a decision maker’s mind to influence means’ evaluation. On the goal level, additional goals can be made more or less salient. For instance, a persuader can point out that additional goals the recipient holds are being served or harmed by the target means. On the means level, a persuader can shape the decision context favorably. Persuasive attempts are more successful when accompanied by a substitute means that allows the recipient to still fulfill their needs. For instance, reactance as a response to influence attempts can be reduced when recipients are presented with an alternative means to reassert their attitudinal freedom. Lastly, juxtaposition to a more detrimental means can increase a target means’ perceived instrumentality.
Needs Find a Way
Authors: Laurijssen L. Maxim , Leander N. Pontus
Published: April 2023

How do people find alternative means to satisfy unmet needs? Current research mainly focuses on how people shift between means within a single goal domain. Yet, based on the principles of goal systems theory, the authors theorize that people can look beyond their current goal domain and “jump” to other, seemingly dissociated goal domains that serve the same need, or take a “leap” of faith to novel pursuits that are only indirectly associated with need fulfillment. These three mechanisms—means-shifts, domain jumps, and leaps of faith—follow a theoretical assumption that superordinate wants and needs are embedded in a broader associative network, comprised of multiple goal networks that are disconnected from each other but are nevertheless indirectly associated through a common need they serve. Hence, if a proximal means-shift is not instrumental, people can shift upward, to the need level, to find more remote alternatives associated with the need.
The Interplay between Goal Systems and Identities
Authors: Touré-Tillery Maferima , Gamlin Jessica
Published: April 2023

Identities are collections of thoughts, ideas, and pieces of knowledge people have about themselves, which together constitute the self-concept. Socio-cognitive theorists conceptualize the self-concept as an elaborate, dynamic, memory-based structure hierarchically organized and comprised of interconnected “identity” nodes. Goals are the mental representations of desired end states. Goals and the objects or activities that facilitate them (i.e., means) are stored in memory in an interconnected, hierarchical structure. The cognitive structures that support goals and identities are intricately linked. On the one hand, the process and outcome of goal pursuit shape identities, and many identities evolve during the pursuit of important goals. On the other hand, identities determine not only which goals people choose but also the means they use to pursue these goals. This chapter examines the interplay between goal systems and identities and the unique roles identities play within goal systems.
J. L. Austin
Authors: Rowe M. W.
Published: April 2023

This is the first full-length biography of John Langshaw Austin (1911–60). The opening four chapters outline his origins, childhood, schooling, and time as an undergraduate, while the next four examine his early career in professional philosophy, looking at the influence of Oxford Realism, Logical Positivism, Pragmatism, and the later Wittgenstein. The central twelve chapters then explore Austin’s wartime career in British Intelligence. The first three examine the contributions he made to the campaigns in North Africa; the next seven the seminal role he played in ensuring the outstanding accuracy of the D-Day Intelligence; while the final two explore his contributions to Arnhem, the Ardennes, and the post-war administration of Germany. The last main section of the book then outlines and assesses Austin’s contributions to post-war Oxford Ordinary Language Philosophy. The first three chapters discuss the impact on Oxford philosophy of the cultural atmosphere of post-war Britain and the later Wittgenstein’s ideas. The next four look at Austin’s influence on post-war Oxford, particularly his Saturday morning discussion group and his perception lectures. The next five chapters concentrate on America’s influence on Austin and vice versa, paying particular attention to Austin’s work on speech-acts and his semesters in Harvard and Berkeley. The final two chapters examine Austin’s declining influence in Oxford, and his tragically premature death.
Shakespeare Without a Life
Authors: de Grazia Margreta
Published: April 2023

For almost two centuries after his death, Shakespeare had no biography. The makings of one were not available. No chronology had been devised by which to coordinate the events in his life with the writing of his works. Nor was there an archive of primary materials on which to base a life. And the only work by Shakespeare written in the first person, the Sonnets, had yet to be critically edited and incorporated into the canon. Without a biography, how could Shakespeare have been valued and understood? Shakespeare without a Life looks at aspects of Shakespeare’s reception between 1600 and 1800 that have been lost to the still prevailing biographical impulse. It recovers the anecdote as a form of literary criticism, retrieves the ancient category of genre as the canon’s organizing rubric, demonstrates how the quest for authentic documents invalidated other forms of literary record, and reveals how the desire to forge connections between Shakespeare’s life and the Sonnets occluded the poet’s self-presentation as a posthumous poet—‘deceasèd I.’
The invention of quantum mechanics—matrix mechanics
Authors: Golub Robert , Lamoreaux Steven K.
Published: April 2023

Driven by the idea that a physical theory should only deal with observable quantities, Werner Heisenberg, a young post-doc working with Max Born in Göttingen, who had earlier done his Ph.D. work under Sommerfeld in Munich, was led to introduce a new type of object which represented the transitions between Bohr-Sommerfeld orbits. Max Born realized and recognized these objects as matrices. Together with Pascual Jordan, another post-doc, they worked out a complete theory, matrix mechanics. They completed this work in a few months. We discuss the role of matrix mechanics in the development of quantum mechanics.
A Translation Theory of Knowledge Transfer
Authors: Røvik Kjell Arne
Published: April 2023

This book develops a new theory about the challenges of transferring and sharing knowledge across organizational borders. Knowledge transfer refers to processes through which actors and organizational units exchange, receive, and are influenced by the experience and knowledge of others, and can manifest itself through changes in the knowledge bases and performance of recipients. The capacity of an organization to transfer and exploit knowledge from other organizations is a key to its competitiveness, progress, and survival. Thus, imitation is an important prerequisite for innovation. However, effective knowledge transfer is incredibly challenging; it sometimes succeeds, but it frequently fails. Over the last 30 years, considerable research efforts have been made to identify the factors that account for the variations in outcomes of knowledge transfer processes. Chapter 2 of this book contains a comprehensive review of transfer theories and research findings. However, despite great research efforts and many new insights, much of the variation in knowledge transfer processes and outcomes remains unexplained, which calls for a retheorizing of the subject. This book offers a new and fresh reframing of knowledge transfer across organizational borders. Based on extensive research, it outlines a new theory that conceptualizes knowledge transfer between organizations as acts of translation, resembling the translation of language and texts. The author shows how involved actors’ translation competence is a key to better understanding variations in knowledge transfer processes and outcomes. Thus, this new reframing both extends and challenges established theories of knowledge transfer.
What We Do and Do Not Know
Authors: Røvik Kjell Arne
Published: April 2023

Attempts to transfer knowledge across organizational borders vary greatly in terms of processes and outcomes. There are both successes and failures. This chapter reviews a broad selection of literature to shed light on what we know from research about the expressions of and causes of such variations. The chapter identifies and reviews literature from seven research traditions that study the influence on knowledge processes and outcomes from (1) formal organizational structure, (2) absorptive capacity, (3) social networks, (4) geographical distance, (5) cultural distance, (6) institutional distance, and (7) characteristics of the transferred knowledge. The review sums up consistent findings as well as mixed and inconsistent findings. It also identifies white spots in our understanding of why border crossing knowledge transfers vary in processes and outcomes.
Reframing Knowledge Transfer as Acts of Translations
Authors: Røvik Kjell Arne
Published: April 2023

As outlined in Chapter 1, the core of the translation theory is expressed in three propositions. This chapter focuses on proposition 1: “Knowledge transfer between organizational sources and recipients can be conceptualized and understood as acts of translations.” The chapter develops a model of knowledge transfer as acts of translations based on two key processes. The first is de-contextualization; that is, translating an identified organizational practice in an organization and its appurtenant knowledge base into an abstract representation (images, texts, pictures, etc.). The second is contextualization, which translates a representation of a desired source practice to a new practice in a target organization. The model conceptualizes and defines the key de-contextualization and contextualization processes and theorizes and shows how they can relate in concrete knowledge transfers, and thereby increase chances for certain outcomes.
Translation Competence
Authors: Røvik Kjell Arne
Published: April 2023

The book’s last chapter zooms in on implications of the translation theory for knowledge transfer practices. It argues that the theory has the potential to influence involved actors’ translation performance, increasing the chances of achieving desirable outcomes. The chapter coins the key concept of translation competence; that is, the sum of knowledge and skills that an involved actor possesses and applies in acts of transferring knowledge across organizational borders. There are two pillars of translation competence. The first is the translator’s knowledge of source and target contexts. The chapter models the links between translators’ knowledge of contexts and transfer outcomes through three intermediate variables: the degree of viscosity, bilingualism, and velocity. The second pillar is knowledge about translation rules and about how to select and use appropriate rules under various conditions. The chapter theorizes and outlines propositions about which translation rules are appropriate and inappropriate under which scope conditions.
Word stress and intonational prominence in highly synthetic languages
Authors: Gordon Matthew K.
Published: April 2023

Languages with a high degree of morphological synthesis have played a key role in informing both our understanding of the range of cross-linguistic variation in prominence marking and intonation and the development of theories designed to model that variation. Much of the evidence for metrical stress theories has been gleaned from highly synthetic languages in which long morphological words provide the necessary environment for observing rhythmic stress (van der Hulst 1997, Hayes 1995). Morphologically complex words have also provided important insights into the mapping between morphosyntactic and prosodic domains, both word and phrase level, and the relationship between various types of stress-based and intonational prominence. Cross-linguistic study of prosodic constituency and prominence in highly synthetic languages has revealed considerable diversity, including both elements observed in languages with lesser degrees of morphological synthesis as well as novel features that are only observable under the backdrop of morphological complexity.
Accent and tone in Arapaho, Plains Algonquian
Authors: Bogomolets Ksenia
Published: April 2023

This chapter focuses on word-level prominence in Arapaho (Hinónoʼeitíít), a severely endangered Plains Algonquian language spoken by approximately 1000 people, most of them in Wyoming and Oklahoma (see Cowell and Moss 2011: 1–3). In this chapter I propose a novel analysis of the stress system of Arapaho. I argue that it is best analyzed as a lexical accent system, i.e. the position of accent within a morpheme is phonologically unpredictable and is part of the underlying phonological form of the morpheme. As in other lexical accent languages (Bogomolets 2020; Revithiadou 1999; van der Hulst 2010), while the underlying position of an accent within a morpheme is generally unpredictable, a small number of regular rules governs the distribution of stresses within a word. The defining role in the system belongs to (i) the underlying specification of some syllables within some morphemes as carrying accent, to (ii) an accent competition resolution whereby the rightmost of competing accents wins, and to (iii) a trisyllabic stress ‘window’ aligned to the right edge of a morphological word. Stress must be present within the final three syllables of every morphological word, while a default penultimate accent is the result of an iambic foot followed by an extrametrical syllable. The chapter also provides a brief overview of the tone system in Arapaho. The language has developed a single falling toneme (HL); its assignment is synchronically unpredictable, i.e. lexical, and is independent from stress in the language.
M-Words, P-Words, and Accent Phrases in Kashaya
Authors: Buckley Eugene
Published: April 2023

This chapter surveys the evidence for M-Words, P-Words, and accent phrases in Kashaya, a Pomoan language of northern California. It begins with a morphological overview, highlighting the most important features of the verb. The discussion then moves to the prosodic organization, based on left-to-right iambic footing. Optional phrasal accent motivates the accent phrase (AP) constituent, grouping together smaller M-Words and P-Words. The AP plays a different role in reduplicated verbs, however; these consist of two P-Words but one M-Word that cannot be split into two APs, so that the phrasal grouping is obligatory. I suggest that this forced grouping may be the source of broader phrasal stress in the language.
The prosodic structure of Australian polysynthetic verbs
Authors: Mansfield John
Published: April 2023

This chapter describes the prosodic structure of verbs in three polysynthetic languages of northern Australia: Bininj Gun-wok, Murrinhpatha, and Ngalakgan. Verbs in these languages have mixed grammatical word/phrase characteristics, and prosodic constituency reflects these grammatical properties in interesting ways. In all three languages, phrasal accents are anchored to the edges of prosodic words, and provide the only clear form of prosodic prominence. I take a parsimonious approach to prosodic constituency, preferring the smallest possible number of constituent levels, and assuming no particular constituent level (e.g. metrical feet) to be universal. This results in a relatively sparse prosodic hierarchy for Australian polysynthetic languages, in contrast to the multiple verb-internal levels proposed for some other polysynthetic languages (e.g. Schiering et al. 2010; Uchihara 2018).
Prominence in Circassian
Authors: Gordon Matthew K. , Applebaum Ayla B.
Published: April 2023

Circassian languages belong to the family of Northwest Caucasian languages, which are characterized by highly agglutinative verbal morphology and extensive use of clause-chaining constructions. Despite the morphological complexity and resulting long words found in Circassian, no evidence of rhythmic stress has been discovered thus far. Rather, morphological words typically map in one-to-one fashion to prosodic words, which are associated with a single demarcative stress at or near their right edge subject to certain exceptions attributed to stress-resistant morphemes. An exception to the isomorphism between grammatical and prosodic words is provided by a process involving fusion of multiple short morphological words into a single prosodic word. Stress and intonation support the existence of phrase-level prosodic units characterized by stress-linked pitch accents and boundary pitch movements.
The Emperor Caligula in the Ancient Sources
Authors: Barrett Anthony A. , Yardley John C.
Published: April 2023

There can be few historical figures who have made such a powerful impact on the popular imagination as the Roman emperor Caligula (died ad 41). Yet an accurate reconstruction of his life and reign largely eludes us. The problem lies not so much in the quantity of evidence available, but in its quality. For our information we are obliged to draw on ancient accounts that can be colourful and wonderfully entertaining but have a flexible notion of historical truth and often seem to border on fiction. The consequence is that there is hardly a detail that the modern historian can present without deep reservations about its reliability. This book approaches Caligula by presenting the reader with the raw material of the ancient sources. It provides over three hundred translated passages of texts, taken mainly from ancient writers, but also from coins and inscriptions. The translations are accompanied by extensive introductions and notes. These are tailored to the non-specialist, and intended to help such readers navigate material that is often contradictory, often downright incredible, and also place events and institutions in their historical contexts. The colourful and exotic incidents are still there, but presented in a context that will help the reader gain a more sophisticated understanding of how we try to reconstruct events of the past. This approach allows the reader to tackle head on the stark reality that what we read in our sources is not necessarily the truth.
Family and Childhood
Authors: Barrett Anthony A. , Yardley J. C.
Published: April 2023

Caligula was born in Antium in ad 12. At some point he joined his father Germanicus, military commander of the legions in the Rhine military zones. His mother was Agrippina the Elder, granddaughter of Augustus. When Augustus died in ad 14 mutinies broke out among the Rhine legions and Caligula and his mother were briefly seized. After suppressing the mutinies Germanicus carried out campaigns in Germany then was recalled and celebrated a Triumph in Rome, in which Caligula participated. Germanicus was then despatched to Syria. Caligula was the only one of his five children to accompany his parents to Syria. In ad 18 Germanicus died in Antioch and Caligula returned to Rome with his mother and recently born sister.
Young Caligula
Authors: Barrett Anthony A. , Yardley J. C.
Published: April 2023

On returning to Rome, Caligula’s mother Agrippina and his two elder brothers, Nero and Drusus, were the targets of an intense campaign by the notorious prefect of the Praetorian guard Sejanus. His mother and brothers were implicated in some sort of plot and eventually all died in custody. Caligula first went to live with his great-grandmother, Livia, the widow of Augustus, in ad 27. On her death in ad 29 he joined another great-grandmother, the much admired Antonia the Younger, and then in ad 31 was summoned to join Tiberius, who had earlier left Rome permanently to live mainly on the island of Capri. There Caligula was readied for a public career and married his first wife, Junia Claudia, who died soon after. He also became acquainted with two significant figures, Herod Agrippa, the colourful grandson of Herod the Great, and Macro, commander of the Praetorian guard, who had played a key role in the downfall of Sejanus in ad 31. Tiberius died in ad 37. The sources claim that he was very frail and was finished off by Caligula and/or Macro.
The Public Caligula
Authors: Barrett Anthony A. , Yardley J. C.
Published: April 2023

Caligula had a cruel streak which manifested itself in the way that he enjoyed humiliating others, and in his apparent bouts of sadism and random cruelty, although much of the latter may be attributed to his portrayal as a stereotypical tyrant. He is depicted in the sources as wildly extravagant, although it seems that his successor Claudius found the treasury in a healthy state. He abolished the sales tax in Italy, but instituted some new taxes, such as one on prostitution, and reputedly raised revenues by running a brothel in the imperial residence on the Palatine. Of all the signs of erratic, even mad, behaviour, his supposed claims of divinity must stand supreme. Although he behaved moderately in the religious sphere at the outset, by the end he supposedly demanded to be recognized as a god. He seems to have incorporated the famous uncompleted Temple of Apollo at Didyma in Miletus into his own worship. Most remarkably he seems to have demanded worship in the city of Rome itself, which was totally contrary to precedent, and which may be a confusion with a demand that his inner spirit, his genius, be worshipped.
Assassination
Authors: Barrett Anthony A. , Yardley J. C.
Published: April 2023

By late ad 40 tensions between emperor and senate became severe. A number of prominent Romans were put to death, presumably for conspiracy. The background to the plot that brought an end to the reign is very murky. Several prominent names figure in the narrative, men of the stature of Annius Vinicianus and Valerius Asiaticus, politicians, Marcus Clemens, a commander of the Praetorian guard, and Callistus, probably the most powerful of Caligula’s freedmen, but their actual roles are unclear. The fatal blows were struck in an underground passage of the Palatine during a festival there in late January 41, as Caligula was retiring for lunch, by two tribunes of the Praetorian guard, Cassius Chaerea and Cornelius Sabinus. In the chaos that followed the assassination Claudius was discovered in part of the imperial residence by members of the Praetorian guard, taken to the Praetorian camp, and acclaimed as emperor.
Scheduled Castes in the Indian Labour Market
Authors: Thorat Sukhadeo , Madheswaran S , Vani B P
Published: April 2023

This study develops an insight into the discriminatory workings of the labour market and their unequal outcomes with respect to employment, wages, and occupations and their impact on the poverty of untouchable (Scheduled Caste) wage workers in India. It develops an understanding on the persistence of caste inequality in employment, wages, and occupations between the untouchables and the higher castes in the private and public sectors in India. It identifies the causes of high unemployment and low wages of the untouchable workers and their segregation in low-paid occupations. It then goes on to estimate the extent to which caste discrimination results in low employment and wages and engagement of untouchable workers into low-paid occupations. In the end, it provides convincing empirical evidence on the employment discrimination and wage discrimination and its impact on reduced wage incomes and increased poverty of the untouchable wage workers. Estimation of discrimination in employment, unemployment, and occupation and its impact on income and poverty of the untouchables is a net addition to the existing knowledge on the subject.
Caste and Unequal Labour Market Outcomes
Authors: Thorat Sukhadeo , Madheswaran S. , Vani B.P.
Published: April 2023

This chapter lays the foundation towards the issues related to caste inequality which have largely remained unexplored. An economic dimension of the caste system in some detail is dealt as a preliminary ground to explain how discrimination in employment, wages, and occupation are an integral part of caste economic relations. The chapter also presents the justification for the study on the theme of employment discrimination and its impact on income and poverty of untouchables (Scheduled Caste), after closely reviewing the literature on the subject. This chapter identifies the issues for further analysis, and lays down the specific objectives of the study.
Employment and Untouchables
Authors: Thorat Sukhadeo , Madheswaran S. , Vani B.P.
Published: April 2023

This chapter analyses the employment pattern of regular salaried workers of the scheduled castes and higher castes in India and the states, based on the employment unemployment survey pertaining to years 2004–05 and 2017–18. This chapter also studies the differences between the scheduled castes and higher castes, the Labour Force Participation Rate, work participation rate, employment by industry and occupation and by age and education. It also examines the job and social security and extent of informal and formal workers among the scheduled castes and higher castes. It brings out the all-employment indicators between the scheduled castes and higher castes.
Employment Discrimination and Untouchables
Authors: Thorat Sukhadeo , Madheswaran S. , Vani B.P.
Published: April 2023

This chapter presents the empirical evidence on the extent of employment discrimination faced by the scheduled caste workers during 2004–05 and 2017–18 in public and private sectors. More specifically this chapter addresses the question ‘to what extent the low participation of the SC in regular salaried jobs, particularly in the private sector, is due to differences between them and the higher castes in endowment factors like education? And to what extent the differences are due to caste discrimination in hiring?’ Empirical evidence showed that the low probability of employment for the scheduled castes as compared to the higher castes is significantly due to caste discrimination in hiring.
Wage and Occupational Discrimination against Untouchables
Authors: Thorat Sukhadeo , Madheswaran S. , Vani B.P.
Published: April 2023

9.1This chapter addresses the discrimination faced by the scheduled castes in wage earning in the public and private sector. It estimated the earning functions by social groups across the entire wage distribution using quantile regression and also analyses the changes in the contribution of individual characteristics over time. Empirical results indicate that the wage gap between scheduled castes and higher castes is high at a lower level of distribution than at the upper level in public sector and the opposite for private sector. The chapter also estimates the impact of occupation segregation on wage earning between the scheduled castes and higher castes by decomposing the discrimination component further into wage discrimination and job discrimination component, using expanded decomposition method.
The Decline and Fall of an Olivarista
Authors: Weber Samuel
Published: April 2023

This chapter chronicles the downfall of Giovanni Borromeo. After serving as commissioner-general of the army for almost a decade, Borromeo requested promotion and admission to the Order of the Golden Fleece. In this, he followed the logic that had promised social advancement in return for loyal service to the valido. But ordinary people had long pointed out the contradiction between the Borromeos’ quest for upward social mobility and their claim to defend the public good. The oligarchy who took over from the last minister-favorite in the 1650s adopted these arguments to eject Borromeo. The chapter uses Giovanni’s fall to discuss how shifting priorities among the ruling elite could make experience accumulated under different premises worthless almost overnight. It is shown that the constant revalorization of capital forced the nobility to constantly adapt to new circumstances. The chapter closes by foreshadowing the alternative strategy the Borromeos hatched in response to Giovanni’s rout.
Analysing Accountability
Authors: Torrance Andrew B.
Published: April 2023

This chapter offers a closer analysis of the concept of accountability, as defined in Chapter 1, and examines four key conditions or features of accountability: (1) accountability requires a relationship in which one party has the authority to judge an aspect(s) of who the other is according to a shared project; (2) accountability requires an account of the accountable person to be communicated and accurately interpreted by the person to whom they are accountable; (3) accountability is teleological; and (4) there is an order to relationships of accountability. Like Chapter 1, this chapter seeks to think more broadly about how our concept of accountability can be applied in a wider societal context, outside an explicitly theological domain.
The Way Forward for India
Authors: Seshadri V. S.
Published: April 2023

This concluding chapter looks at the way ahead for India. The chapter examines whether India needs to pursue further FTAs at all considering the general impression that the past FTAs have benefitted partner countries far more. It seeks to better understand the impact assessments from earlier FTAs alongside the compelling factors that require India to enhance its market access opportunities by negotiating more FTAs but with well-chosen FTA partners. How India’s past FTAs could have been negotiated better has been dwelt upon. In this regard the fresh impetus being accorded by the government in forging FTAs with select partners has been analysed along with key elements in the recently concluded FTA with the UAE and the interim FTA deal reached with Australia that are also indicative of certain newer approaches. The chapter further identifies key aspects that may need to be kept in view in taking forward ongoing or future negotiations with other partners. Also focused on in this chapter is a fivefold plan on monitoring and implementation of FTAs once they are concluded.
Inquiring Minds
Authors: Toon Adam
Published: April 2023

This chapter develops a fictionalist approach to the nature of knowledge and inquiry (or epistemology). Many of our greatest thinkers about knowledge—such as Descartes, Locke, Berkeley, and Hume—have accepted the basic vision of the mind as an inner world of representations (representationalism). Their disagreements concern the inhabitants of this inner world and its relationship to the world outside—if, indeed, there is a world outside the mind. This chapter sketches an alternative, fictionalist approach to the nature of concepts, knowledge, and understanding. An important implication of this approach is that the mind has a history. From mathematical diagrams in ancient Greece to the invention of computer simulations, new tools and practices have dramatically transformed the nature of the human mind and its limits.
Why Were There Almost No Matriculation Registers in Late Medieval European Universities—Except in Those of the German Empire?
Authors: Schwinges Rainer Christoph
Published: April 2023

This chapter looks into the lack of general matriculation registers in late medieval European universities, with the exception of the German Empire. It discusses how the register represented the entire catchment area of the university. The external reasons for the lack of a general register revolve around migration and the diversity of European university systems, as can be seen in the universities in Paris, Bologna, and Germany. The internal reasons include the fiscal and legal interests of the university, which translates to the special significance of the enrolment oath in German universities. The chapter highlights the importance of considering the different social and cultural traditions across the universities in Europe.
Peregrine Horden (ed.), The reredos of All Souls College Oxford (London, 2021)
Authors: Curthoys Judith
Published: April 2023

This chapter reviews The Reredos of All Souls College Oxford written by Peregrine Horden. It notes the fluctuating physical, social, and religious importance of All Souls College Oxford’s medieval constructions. The history of the reredos of the chapel of All Souls College reflects the history of worship from the fifteenth to the nineteenth century. The chapter provides an outline of the book, which considers the probing, making, breaking, covering, and restoring of the medieval construction, with different aspects of the reredos influenced by religious and political factors. It also questions the examples of the religious intolerance at the east end of the chapel.
Introduction
Authors: North John
Published: April 2023

This chapter gives an overview of the development of ideas and central themes of Roman Religion. It briefly explains the context of gods and goddesses, war-rituals, priests, and communication and innovations to the understanding of religion. Rituals play significant roles in the picture of religion and religious life as it is strongly correlated with the activity of various groups. The chapter clarifies that Romans had rituals but no beliefs, so having beliefs similar to modern Christians are absurd exaggerations of their real positions. Moreover, any attempt to model ancient pagan religious behaviour on modern Christian religious behaviour mostly leads to confusion as both concepts are vastly different from one another. The chapter also considers the tension and debates between religion, belief, and media of communication.
Religion and War
Authors: Rüpke Jörg
Published: April 2023

This chapter focuses on the correlation between religion, war, and political systems. It starts with the significance of war at a political level as it could be presented as a means to resolve or escalate the conflict. The concept of ‘Holy War’ denotes the identification of political and religious systems in particular ways limited to war and religion. The boundaries between religions are frequently overlaid with social economic and ethnic fault lines as they are the results of subjugations or stratification, while War on Religion suggested a predominance of religious motives over interests of power politics or economics. The chapter references the Islamic concept of jihad as an example of religiously motivated wars. It also explains how a city filled with arches and temples of triumphant generals would have shaped the definition of being Roman and differences in linguistic, regional, or any type of ethnic identity.
Festus and the Role of Women in Roman Religion
Authors: Flemming Rebecca
Published: April 2023

The chapter highlights the role of women in Roman religion. It explains how Roman women are characterized by a series of religious incapacities and disabilities that forced them to be at the edges of Roman religious practices. Women’s subordination and sacrificial incapacity constructed an image of what threatened male citizens at the boundaries of the Roman order. Moreover, the ritual help manage the aforementioned threat and maintain order. The chapter also looks into the works of Festus, including his definition of peregrina sacra, which are cults that settled in Rome through evocatio or religious considerations. It clarifies that the Roman constitution can place women in positions of religious power.