bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Freud, Sigmund
Authors: Carpreso Fátima Siqueira , de Freitas Araujo Saulo
Published: October 2013

Sigismund Schlomo Freud (1856–1939; he shortened his name in 1877) was born in Pribor (today in the Czech Republic) and spent most of his life in Vienna, where he graduated in medicine and produced the greatest part of his work. He died in London, where he had moved to escape the persecution of the Jews after the fusion of Austria and Nazi Germany. Freud's unlikely course from clinical work in nervous disorders to social theory, which includes the foundation of psychoanalysis, is explained by the internal logic of his work's development. Freud started his scientific career as a neuroscientist – first doing research on the anatomy of the nervous system and later in the field of neuropathology. His collaboration with the Viennese clinician and physiologist Josef Breuer (1842–1925) and his brief contact with the French neurologist Jean‐Martin Charcot (1825–1893) in the 1880s introduced him to the theoretical and clinical problems related to investigation and treatment of hysteria. This change in Freud's scientific interests represented a decisive step toward the creation of psychoanalysis.
Front‐Horizontal Foreshortening Theory
Authors: Keith Kenneth D.
Published: October 2013

Front‐horizontal foreshortening theory is the notion that people may perceive vertical lines as if they were horizontal lines extending in the distance toward the horizon.
Gabrenya, William K., Jr
Authors: Keith Kenneth D.
Published: October 2013

William Gabrenya is Professor of Psychology at Florida Institute of Technology. Following completion of the B.A. in psychology at Ohio University (1974) he earned the M.A. (1977) and Ph.D. (1979) in social psychology at the University of Missouri‐Columbia. He then spent two years as a postdoctoral research associate at Ohio State University before joining the faculty of Florida Tech in 1981, where he has remained since that time.
Gambia
Authors: O'Donnell Deborah A.
Published: October 2013

This entry focuses on the changing social conditions and explanatory models of mental illness in a small West African country, The Republic of The Gambia. Experiencing rapid urbanization and modernization, traditional notions of mental health and illness in The Gambia are changing markedly. Cultural psychologists have articulated that, during times of societal change, taxonomies of knowledge evolve, previously unconnected beliefs become intertwined, and altered life practices serve to modify interpretative frameworks. All of these cultural processes are playing themselves out in contemporary Gambia.
Geertz, Clifford
Authors: Rich Grant J.
Published: October 2013

Clifford Geertz was born August 23, 1926 in San Francisco, California, and served in the U.S. Navy during World War II. With funding from the G.I. Bill, he graduated in 1950 from Ohio's Antioch College, where he studied philosophy and English. He and his wife, Hildred, whom he met at Antioch, both went to graduate school at Harvard, where they studied under such luminaries as Gordon Allport, Talcott Parsons, and Clyde Kluckhorn in the multidisciplinary Department of Human Relations. Geertz received his Ph.D. from Harvard in 1956. He was a fellow at the Center for Advanced Studies in the Behavioral Sciences in Palo Alto (1958–1959), and an assistant professor at the University of California, Berkeley (1959–1960). He taught at the University of Chicago from 1960 to 1970 and then at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton from 1970 until 2000, when he became emeritus. In 1978–1979 he taught at Oxford University. Geertz conducted fieldwork at a variety of sites, including Java (1952–1954, 1971, 1984, 1986), Bali (1957–1958), and Morocco (1963–1964, 1968, 1972, 1976).
Gender Role Ideology
Authors: Sánchez‐Herrero Silvia A.
Published: October 2013

Gender roles (essentially culturally defined) refer to the set of behaviors performed differentially (and considered appropriate by the society) by men and women at home, at work, and in other public and private spheres in the context of a specific culture. Gender role ideology adds the element of valuation, the opinion about which roles men and women should hold.
Gender Socialization
Authors: Natacha Foo Kune M. R.
Published: October 2013

Gender socialization is the process whereby members of a society learn and reproduce attitudes and behaviors sanctioned by that culture for a given sex. In this process, personality and hierarchies are also transmitted, which has implications for who has power in a particular society. Although some evidence suggests that biology underlies some gender differences, such as through hormones, much evidence also suggests that gender socialization reinforces (and perhaps creates) gender differences.
Gender
Authors: Wong Stephanie J.
Published: October 2013

The distinction between men and women has historically been based on biological sex, such as anatomical differences. It was a long‐held belief, particularly through a biological perspective, that differences between men and women were innate and attributable to nature rather than environmental factors. However, dating back to the nineteenth century, Freud's classic psychoanalytic theory reflected a cultural perspective in shaping this distinction. For instance, Freud viewed women as more passive and as the “other” compared to men. In recent years, researchers, theorists, and practitioners have begun to explore the sociocultural construction of these differences, particularly through the labeling of the term
gender
.
Gestures
Authors: Matsumoto David , Hwang Hyi Sung
Published: October 2013

Gestures are primarily hand movements (although we can see them in head and facial movements as well) that are used basically for two purposes: to illustrate speech and convey verbal meaning. Gestures are interesting because they are a form of
embodied cognition
; that is, they are movements that express some kind of thought or the process of thinking. They likely coevolved with adaptations in our physical anatomy and cognitive and language capabilities, allowing for more rapid and efficient communication systems that went beyond words and verbal language.
Goodnow, Jacqueline
Authors: Serpell Robert
Published: October 2013

Jacqueline Jarrett Goodnow, born in 1924 in Queensland, Australia, received her B.A. from the University of Sydney in 1944, and Ph.D. from Harvard University in 1951. She then worked at several universities in the United States, including George Washington University, from 1951 to 1972. She then returned to Australia, where she was based at Macquarie University from 1972 to 1990. She attained the rank of professor in 1976, and was named emerita in 1991.
Gough, Harrison G
Authors: Keith Kenneth D.
Published: October 2013

Harrison Gough, born in 1921, is professor emeritus in the Department of Psychology at the University of California at Berkeley, where he served on the faculty from 1949 until his retirement in 1986. He received the B.A. in sociology from the University of Minnesota (1942), then enlisted in military service, subsequently returning to Minnesota and completing the Ph.D. in 1949. His mentors at Minnesota included Paul Meehl.
Gudykunst, William B
Authors: Miller Richard L.
Published: October 2013

William B. Gudykunst was born in Manning, Iowa in 1947 and grew up in Glendale, Arizona. His first extended cross‐cultural experience came after he completed the M.A. at Arizona State. He served as an intercultural relations specialist in Yokosuka, Japan where he conducted training designed to help U.S. naval personnel and their families adjust to living and working in Japan. After the Navy, he attended the University of Minnesota where he earned a Ph.D. in 1977. Gudykunst was a prolific author and editor of more than 28 books, including
Bridging Differences
(1998),
Cross‐Cultural and Intercultural Communication
(2003), and
Communicating with Strangers: An Approach to Intercultural Communication
.
Health
Authors: Ronzani Telmo Mota , de Freitas Araujo Saulo
Published: October 2013

In 1948, the concept of
health
was defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as a “complete, biological, social, psychological and spiritual wellbeing.” This definition received some criticism however, because it lacks operationality and because by its standards most people fall somehow within the scope of “illness,” which may lead to a medicalization of society. Despite such criticism, this definition is still broadly used and relates to an important conception, according to which being healthy depends not only on not being sick, but also a number of other factors. Moreover, it reinforces the idea that health is much more than absence of diseases, including also the promotion of preventive actions and quality of life.
Heterogeneous (Loose) Culture
Authors: Fernanda Espinola Maria
Published: October 2013

Heterogeneous or loose cultures have no clear or strict rules regarding how individuals should behave. If clear rules exist, members of the culture are unlikely to follow them or the culture is unlikely to enforce them. The opposite of a heterogeneous or loose culture is a homogenous or tight culture. However, cultures differ on the extent to which they are tight or loose. Some cultures are characterized as being tight in certain contexts (e.g., religious beliefs, child‐rearing practices) and loose in other contexts (e.g., education, political orientation). The looseness or tightness of a culture may also vary according to geographical location. For example, areas in the Northeast of the United States are known for being more loose than areas in the South of the country.
High‐Context Cultures
Authors: Chung Leeva C.
Published: October 2013

Cultural anthropologist Edward T. Hall referred to high‐context cultural groups as those whose language system emphasizes how intention or meaning can best be conveyed through the context (e.g., social roles or positions) and the non‐verbal channels (e.g., pauses, silence, tone of voice) of the verbal message. In high‐context cultures, words are left unspoken in routine communication.
Hofstede, Geert H
Authors: Abi‐Hashem Naji , Barbuto Isabel G.
Published: October 2013

Geert Hofstede is professor emeritus of organizational anthropology and international management at the University of Maastricht in the Netherlands. He is a world‐renowned Dutch social psychologist, researcher, author, and professor. Hofstede was born on October 2, 1928, in Haarlem, the Netherlands, as Gerard Hendrik Hofstede. He is best known for his landmark study on cultural differences ranging over 70 nations. He developed thecultural dimension theorythrough a model of five independent dimensions on national cultural differences, comprising 1) Power Distance, 2) Individualism, 3) Masculinity 4) Uncertainty Avoidance, and 5) Long‐Term Orientation. This model and research on its dimensions are among the most widely cited of cross‐cultural concepts.
Homogenous (Tight) Culture
Authors: Espinola Maria Fernanda
Published: October 2013

One of the cultural dimensions that Hofstede (1980) identified was uncertainty avoidance, which stimulated research on the differences between tight and loose cultures. Homogenous or “tight” cultures have strong values and strict rules regarding what they consider to be acceptable or unacceptable behavior. Moreover, tight cultures tend to punish members who do not adhere to the norms. The opposite of a homogenous or tight culture is a heterogeneous or loose culture. However, cultures differ in the extent to which they are tight or loose. In cultures that are extremely tight, members may be punished with death for disobeying a norm while in cultures that are not as tight, members may be criticized for not following a rule. Additionally, some cultures are characterized as being tight in certain contexts (e.g., religious beliefs, child‐rearing practices) and loose in other contexts (e.g., education, political orientation).
Human Relations Area Files
Authors: White Jill
Published: October 2013

The Human Relations Area Files (HRAF) comprise a searchable database of ethnographic materials, exhaustively coded and indexed to enable systematic cross‐cultural research. The HRAF allows researchers to test psychological and developmental hypotheses cross‐culturally by easily retrieving correlational data about behavioral items in 400 cultures. For example, John and Beatrice Whiting hypothesized that harsh male initiation ceremonies could be explained by the presence of strong Oedipal attachments that could be measured objectively by the presence of exclusive mother‐child sleeping, long postpartum sex taboos, and harsh initiations into manhood. To test the hypothesis, the Whitings chose a sample of 56 societies. A panel of separate judges rated the societies for each element by reading the ethnographic material supplied by the HRAF. The hypothesis was supported; in the 20 societies where both mother‐child sleeping and long post‐partum sex taboos occurred, 14 had exceptionally harsh male initiation ceremonies. In the six societies that did not, there was a compensating cultural alternative, the “couvade” (cultural practice in which the father goes to bed as if he had borne the child).
Human Rights
Authors: Woolf Linda M. , Hulsizer Michael R.
Published: October 2013

Human rights are the inherent and fundamental rights, freedoms, and protections to which all people are entitled regardless of gender, ethnicity, national origin, race, religion, or other classification. These rights are universal, inalienable, and indivisible. As such, all members of the human family innately possess these rights, these rights cannot be given or taken away, and all rights are equally important, interdependent, and interrelated. Human rights include civil and political rights, as well as social, economic, and cultural rights.
Identity
Authors: Bishop Charla McKinzie
Published: October 2013

Identity involves an understanding of oneself and one's role(s) in society. Research has highlighted several specific identity domains, such as ethnicity, gender, and social roles. However, in general terms identity is the collective perspective of the self across several domains. Eriksonian theory suggests that adolescence is the developmental period when most exploration of identity takes place, while other theories and studies suggest developmental, gender, ethnic, and racial variations in the pursuit of understanding self.
Indigenous Healing Systems
Authors: Tanaka‐Matsumi Junko
Published: October 2013

Historically, it has been reported that people across cultures resort to sleep, rest, and social isolation as natural ways of mobilizing their own internal healing power to restore health and balance. For those individuals who cannot cope with distress on their own and have exhausted their own resources, cultures have developed indigenous systems of healing. Cultures abound in indigenous ways of explaining the nature of human suffering and have developed methods aimed at alleviating distress by sanctioned healers in the community. Healing as a concept refers to “the aggregate of techniques used to make human beings whole again by counteracting distress in the body, mind, and spirit”.
Indigenous Personalities
Authors: Misra Girishwar
Published: October 2013

The challenge of understanding the nature of self and others has long occupied the attention of psychologists as well as lay people. Both deploy “personality” as an integrated whole of attributes to explain the causes of behaviors. Indigenous personality concerns itself with the behavior and the related body of knowledge that derives its theories from the people of a particular culture. Hippocrates described personality typologies based on the four fluids: blood, yellow bile, phlegm, and black bile. Similarly,ayurvedicmedicine proposed three metabolic types:vata(wind),pitta(bile), andkaph(phlegm). Cultures have evolved many ways to appraise personality in their efforts to make sense of life (e.g., analyzing blood type, reading horoscopes, and techniques of fortune telling). Psychological scholars have considered personality critical to the understanding of holism, motivation, and individual differences in behavior.
Individualist/Collectivist‐Success Motivation
Authors: Miller Richard L.
Published: October 2013

Individualist‐success motivation is a form of achievement motivation that directs one's attitudes and actions toward the attainment of personal goals and self‐fulfillment. As such, it stands in contrast to collectivist‐success motivation which encourages individuals to connect with others so that their contributions are seen as beneficial to the members of a particular group or society in general. Individualism promotes belief in one's unique identity and as a result individualists are more likely to claim the right to express themselves, make personal choices, and strive for self‐actualization than are collectivists. Collectivists are more likely to see themselves as an inseparable part of a cohesive ingroup and therefore expect and are expected to accord priority to the views, needs, and goals of the group rather than “stand out” as individuals.
Ingroup Relations
Authors: Wu Kuang‐ming
Published: October 2013

Ingroups are groups to which a person belongs. The term
ingroup
is often compared with the other term
outgroup
. Outgroups are groups to which a person does not belong. In psychology, there are several scholars contributing to the concept of, and research on, ingroup relations. First, created the terms ingroup and outgroup in his theory of ethnocentrism to refer to social groups to which an individual did or did not belong respectively. The ingroup includes small close groups (e.g., family), community groups, and large social categories (e.g., nationality, religion). Members of an ingroup may be emotionally involved in the identity of the ingroup. For example, Chinese people tend to have strong connection to their family members. People may have different affectivity toward members inside or outside the group and this affectivity may result in loyalty and preference for the ingroup. Ingroup favoritism at its best provides a positive sense of belonging and affiliation among members, and may create negative impacts on members’ interactions such as competition.
Ingroup
Authors: Miller Richard L.
Published: October 2013

Groups, by their very definition, have boundaries that distinguish between members and nonmembers. For some groups, these boundaries are formal and clearly defined, with access to the group available to “members only” based on specific criteria. In such cases the boundary may be defined by symbols, such as badges, membership cards, or passwords. In other cases the boundaries are not nearly as well‐defined. Either way, it is a universal principle that groups tend to maintain their boundaries by developing a clear distinction between the “we” who are members of the ingroup and the “they” who are outside it. Thus, the ingroup becomes any group with which the individual identifies and belongs. In contrast, individuals tend to regard outgroups with suspicion and hostility. In fact, a common way of maintaining ingroup solidarity and cohesion is through conflict with an outgroup.
Integral Psychotherapy
Authors: Tuli Kailish
Published: October 2013

Integral psychotherapy is a combination of therapeutic processes at the level of body, mind, soul, and spirit. Psychotherapy has many schools of thought, starting with Sigmund Freud, who developed psychoanalysis. Psychoanalysis was the first comprehensive approach to treating mental disorders and was a new approach, showing that there can be therapy without medicines. The new “talking therapy” became a craze and people in many parts of the world, particularly in Europe and the United States, became adherents. Many new centers and associations of psychoanalysis bloomed in various locations in the early decades of the twentieth century.
Intercultural Adaptation
Authors: Chao Ruth Chu‐Lien , Oko‐Riebau Marta
Published: October 2013

Intercultural adaptation refers to the process of people moving from one culture to another. After migrating to a new culture or country, people bring their existing thoughts, values, feelings, behaviors, and beliefs with them, but they also have to adjust to the new rules, societal norms, customs, and language. In this cross‐cultural adjustment process people attempt to integrate their heritage into their new society in order to adjust and align to the new standards. People embracing both their original cultural background and their new culture and values become multicultural. In order to better understand the concept of intercultural adaptation, it is necessary to understand the definition of adaptation. The term “adaptation” originates from biological sciences and means a level of fitness between person and environment. In a more general sense, the term adaptation can be used in regard to psychological and sociocultural phenomena. Psychological adaptation takes place when individuals make emotional changes to cope with stress until equilibrium is reached. To psychologically adapt, individuals can either make the appropriate behavioral changes to meet the expectations of a new environment, or choose to tolerate ambiguous situations.
Intercultural Adjustment
Authors: Abi‐Hashem Naji , Brown Jonathan R.
Published: October 2013

The terms “intercultural adjustment,” “cultural adaptation,” and “acculturation” have often been used interchangeably in the literature. However, in a more precise way, intercultural adjustment is the outcome of a long process of modification, revision, and acclimatization individuals or groups go through when they move into new cultures. The concept of acculturation refers to adopting and incorporating several psychosocial properties of the host culture without losing all one's traditional background, cultural identity, and social values.
Intercultural Communication
Authors: Abi‐Hashem Naji , Peterson Christa E.
Published: October 2013

Intercultural communication is an exchange of information between two or more people of different ethnic groups, races, cultures, or nationalities. According to Ting‐Toomey and, this process involves learning the proper knowledge, skills, and attitudes to navigate cultural differences with sensitivity, creativity, and flexibility – and most importantly to avoid prejudging others who are socially or ethnically different.
Interdependent Self‐Construal
Authors: Dean Kristy K.
Published: October 2013

Self‐construal refers to how a person conceptualizes the relationship between the self and others. A self‐view that emphasizes one's close relationships (e.g., “I'm Michelle's best friend,” “I'm an older sister”) and important group memberships (e.g., “I'm Mexican‐American,” “I'm on the volleyball team”) is said to constitute an interdependent self‐construal. By constructing an identity based largely on one's varied social roles, interdependent self‐construals encourage perceiving the self as fundamentally similar and connected to others and flexible across situations. In other words, thinking of the self as part of a larger “we” instead of “me” characterizes interdependent self‐construals. When construing the self as interdependent, interactions with people in the social world involve a desire to maintain social harmony, which often requires regulating the self in keeping with social norms and expectations. It is important to note that although there are striking similarities between the concepts of collectivism and interdependent self‐construal, interdependent self‐construal is employed to describe the psychological experiences of individuals, whereas the dimension of collectivism is used in reference to cultures more generally.
Item Bias
Authors: van de Vijver Fons J. R.
Published: October 2013

Bias can occur in the context of comparative studies and refers to the presence of nuisance factors. If scores are biased, their psychological meaning is not the same in the groups studied. Bias is not an inherent characteristic of an instrument, but arises in the application of an instrument in at least two cultural groups. As a consequence, an instrument is not inherently biased, but may become so when scores from specific cultural groups are compared.
Jilek‐Aall, Louise
Authors: Draguns Juris G.
Published: October 2013

Louise Jilek‐Aall was born on April 21, 1931 in Oslo, Norway. She studied philosophy at the University of Oslo and pursued medical studies at the University of Tubingen and University of Saarland in Germany and at the University of Zurich in Switzerland, where she defended her dissertation on epilepsy in East Africa under Professor Manfred Bleuler and received the degree of Doctor of Medicine. She holds diplomas in tropical medicine from the Swiss Institute of Tropical Medicine in Basle and in psychiatry from McGill University in Montreal, and a Master of Arts degree in anthropology from the University of British Columbia in Vancouver.
Jung, Carl Gustav
Authors: Brucato Gary , Hogan John D.
Published: October 2013

Once regarded by Sigmund Freud as his heir apparent, Carl Jung developed his own form of analytical psychology, introducing many spiritual and mystical elements which were anathema to Freud. To explore the universal nature of his concepts, Jung traveled the globe, visiting diverse cultures. He lived among the Pueblo Indians of New Mexico and Arizona in 1924, and the people of Mt. Elgon in Kenya in 1926. He also visited Egypt and India, among other places. Jung interpreted the religious symbols or
mandalas
of Buddhism and Hinduism as representations of the unconscious self, reflecting the complex path toward inner development and growth, which he termed
individuation
. This growth involves a strong unconscious drive toward one's most complete and unique self, and requires a lifelong process of identifying and uniting one's unconscious elements. Jung viewed the internal, spiritual focus of Eastern faiths as neglected in a Western society preoccupied with logic and technology, but did note some exceptions, such as occultism, Gnosticism, and Christian mysticism.
Kim, Uichol
Authors: Keith Kenneth D.
Published: October 2013

Uichol Kim is the IFP Distinguished Professor in the College of Business Administration at Inha University in Korea. He is a graduate of Queen's University in Canada, where he completed the Ph.D. in social and cross‐cultural psychology in 1988. Before joining the faculty at Inha he taught at the University of Hawaíi at Manoa from1988 to 1994 and Chung‐Ang University (Korea) from 1995 to 2005. Kim has also been a visiting professor at the University of Bergen (Norway), the University of Konstanz (Germany), the Nordic Institute for Asian Studies (Denmark), Stanford University (United States), the University of Stockholm (Sweden), the Warsaw School of Advanced Social Psychology (Poland), the University of Tokyo (Japan), and the University of Tromsø (Norway).
Leadership
Authors: Allen Joseph A. , Bertolini Anthony , Luteran Steffanie
Published: October 2013

In the storied history of leadership research, no single universally accepted definition of leadership has emerged. Instead, there are two themes consistent across definitions: 1) leaders have influence over others; and 2) leaders use their influence to direct behavior toward certain objectives. Cross‐cultural psychologists continue to research and test the various theories of leadership and the degree to which they apply in a cross‐cultural context. Further, researchers continue to investigate the extent to which certain leadership styles are culturally linked. This entry discusses several leadership theories studied by cross‐cultural psychologists (i.e., consideration and initiating structure, transactional and transformational leadership, leader‐member exchange theory, and charismatic leadership) as well as identifying some current trends in leadership that are receiving increased attention (e.g., women in leadership, e‐leadership, and servant leadership).
Leung, Kwok
Authors: Bond Michael Harris
Published: October 2013

Kwok Leung is a survivor of the educational filter that once existed in Hong Kong. Entering the Chinese University of Hong Kong in 1977, he was one of only 2% of his age cohort then gaining access to the local tertiary system. Like many students at the time, he was in the science stream and majored in biology. In 1979, Leung took a social psychology course and was hooked for life. His group project on group attributions was submitted for publication the next year, during which he worked closely with his supervisor studying distributive justice in American and Chinese cultures. This series of empirical studies became part of the core research in the then‐nascent subdiscipline of cross‐cultural social psychology, and led to his subsequent work on procedural justice with Allan Lind at the University of Illinois.
Lexicon
Authors: Weigold Arne , Weigold Ingrid K.
Published: October 2013

The lexicon is the total number of morphemes (smallest unit that has meaning in a language) that exist either within a given language or in a person's knowledge. The latter is also referred to as the mental lexicon. Although sometimes treated as synonymous with vocabulary, the lexicon is smaller than the total number of words present (in a language) or known (by an individual). For example, “dis,” “establish,” and “ment” are three morphemes in the English language, yet their various combinations result in four vocabulary words: “establish,” “establishment,” “disestablish,” and “disestablishment.” Broadly defined, the lexicon also contains information about the appropriate ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words or word combinations in a particular language. For example, the morphemes “dis” and “ment” cannot be combined by themselves to create a meaningful word in English.
Linton, Ralph
Authors: White Jill
Published: October 2013

Ralph Linton (1893–1953) was a great synthesist. Working within what came to be known as the “Culture and Personality” school, Linton was active at a time when the field of anthropology was very much divided over the nature of the relation between psychoanalysis and anthropology, society and the individual, culture and personality.
Locus of Control
Authors: Inoue Noriyuki
Published: October 2013

Locus of control is the internal sense that individuals have regarding the extent to which they are capable of making their own choices and viewing the consequences as stemming from those choices. The term
locus
derives from the Latin referring to location or place. If individuals believe that they are in control of their lives, then the locus lies internally. If individuals believe that fate, other people, environment, or higher authority control their lives, the locus of control lies externally. Individuals who possess a high internal locus of control believe they can control events in their lives – that they are in the “driver's seat.” The concept of locus of control was originally developed by Julian Rotter in the 1950s and became a popular explanatory construct in the areas of personality psychology and motivation.
Lopez, Steven Regesser
Authors: Fuentes Milton A. , Pastor Silvia C.
Published: October 2013

Steven Regesser Lopez was born on December 14, 1953 in Tucson, Arizona, a city approximately 90 miles north of the Mexican border. Lopez has noted that ethnicity was not significant to him as he was growing up; however, when he entered Claremont Men's College in 1971 the civil rights movement and ethnic pride were salient themes which provoked him to seriously explore his ethnic background. In his junior year of college he designed an independent studies program, which involved taking courses in Mexican literature, Mexican history, and Anthropology, interviewing family members about his family history, and spending a summer in Mexico. When considering his academic major, Lopez selected psychology because he believed it would allow him to pursue his interests in ethnicity and culture. Later Lopez realized that he was personally “looking to psychology to shed further light on the meaning of culture and ethnicity”. His undergraduate efforts resulted in a senior research thesis that examined clinical stereotypes of Mexican Americans and was published in the first edition of
Chicano Psychology
.
Marsella, Anthony J
Authors: Abi‐Hashem Naji
Published: October 2013

Anthony Marsella is a pioneer in the area of cross‐cultural psychology, psychopathology, and counseling, as well as a prolific writer. He is also an advocate for peace, justice, human rights, and local and global stability, and served as president of Psychologists for Social Responsibility.
Maslow, Abraham H
Authors: Hogan John D. , Brucato Gary
Published: October 2013

Abraham H. Maslow was a principal founder of the American School of Humanistic Psychology. His publication describing a theory of motivation with its depiction of a hierarchy of needs became one of his most widelycited contributions and is known in many areas outside of psychology. Although the influence of the humanistic school has waned somewhat in recent years, Maslow's influence is still felt in the contemporary positive psychology movement.
Mate Selection
Authors: Tidwell Natasha D. , Eastwick Paul W.
Published: October 2013

Human mate selection refers to the process by which an individual chooses a sexual partner. Historically, scholars have used this term to refer to the study of factors (e.g., traits) that make a mate desirable as a long‐term romantic partner, but mate selection can also refer to the decision processes involved in brief sexual relationships. In humans, the traits and behaviors that affect mate selection vary throughout the world; although much of our understanding of mate selection comes from research in Western cultures, comparisons across cultures and the search for universal patterns have become more prevalent. This entry reviews research on cultural variability in how men and women approach mate selection with a particular focus on two popular theoretical frameworks: sexual strategies theory and social role theory.
Matsumoto, David
Authors: Keith Kenneth D.
Published: October 2013

David Matsumoto, born in Hawaíi in 1959, is professor of psychology and founder and director of the Culture and Emotion Research Laboratory at San Francisco State University. He is also director of Humintell, an organization that conducts research and training in recognition of microexpressions and subtle expressions as indicators of emotion, as well as cross‐cultural adaptation. A leader in contemporary cross‐cultural psychology, Matsumoto earned the B.A. degree in psychology and Japanese language at the University of Michigan, and the M.A. and Ph.D. degrees at the University of California, Berkeley, in psychology. His experience also includes visiting faculty appointments at the University of Bath (U.K.) and the University of Tokyo (Japan).
McClelland, David C
Authors: Keith Kenneth D.
Published: October 2013

American social psychologist David C. McClelland was born in Mt. Vernon, New York in 1917. After completing the B.A. at Wesleyan University (1938) and M.A. (1939) at the University of Missouri, he earned the Ph.D. in experimental psychology from Yale University in 1941 and then returned to Wesleyan as a member of the psychology faculty. A Quaker who objected to military service as a matter of principle, during World War II McClelland served for a time with the American Friends Service Committee. He continued at Wesleyan until 1956, when he joined the psychology faculty at Harvard University. He remained at Harvard until his retirement in 1986, when he was named professor emeritus. Following his retirement he was named distinguished research professor at Boston University.
Meta‐Analysis
Authors: Beins Bernard C.
Published: October 2013

Meta‐analysis is a statistical procedure that investigators use to integrate research findings across multiple independent studies related to a specific topic. The result of the analysis is a determination of effect sizes associated with target constructs. Although there can be controversies regarding specific aspects of the meta‐analytic approach, research has indicated that such analysis has strengths that traditional, qualitative reviews of the literature do not have.
Mishra, Ramesh C
Authors: Abi‐Hashem Naji , Driscoll Elizabeth G.
Published: October 2013

An Indian‐born scholar who has made significant contributions to the field of cross‐cultural psychology both in India and abroad, Ramesh C. Mishra (b. 1952) is a professor of psychology at Banaras Hindu University in Varanasi, India. He holds a D. Phil. degree from Allahabad University in Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, India. Mishra has been a post‐doctoral research fellow, a Shastri research fellow, and a visiting professor, all at Queen's University in Canada. He also served as a visiting professor at the University of Geneva and at the Jean Piaget Archives in Switzerland.
Model Minority Stereotype
Authors: Miller Richard L.
Published: October 2013

The term “model minority” was first coined by sociologist whose article in the
New York Times Magazine
was titled “Success Story: Japanese American Style.” Since that time, the term has come to characterize a minority group whose members are more successful than the average member of the majority. Success is typically measured by achievement in areas valued by the majority, which can include income, education, family stability, and low crime rate. Model minorities can be ethnic, racial, or religious groups, although the term most often applies to ethnic minorities.
Murdock, George Peter
Authors: Ember Carol R.
Published: October 2013

George Peter Murdock (called “Pete” by those who knew him) was born on May 11, 1897, on a farm in Meriden, Connecticut and he died on March 29, 1985, in Devon, Pennsylvania at the age of 87. He majored in American history at Yale University, where he received his A.B., later receiving the Ph.D. at Yale in the joint sociology‐anthropology program. He spent most of his teaching career at Yale in the anthropology department until 1960 when he moved to the University of Pittsburgh, retiring in 1975.
Natural Selection
Authors: Gharib Afshin
Published: October 2013

Natural selection is Charles Darwin's revolutionary theory explaining the process of evolution. argued that change in species over evolutionary time is driven by a simple process. Within any population of organisms, there are more individuals produced in each generation than there are resources to support them. As a result, individuals have to compete with each other for survival and reproduction. Individuals possessing characteristics that make them most successful at competing against others in their particular environment will be more likely to survive, reproduce, and pass on their traits to the next generation. In this way, each generation will be composed of offspring of the most successful competitors of the previous generation. With each passing generation traits that confer an advantage in a particular environment will become more and more prevalent.
Naturalistic Observation
Authors: Beins Bernard C.
Published: October 2013

Psychologists frequently conduct laboratory‐based studies that permit precise control of variables to which research participants are exposed. Such research often shows considerable internal validity because the investigators can identify the degree to which manipulated variables affect behavior and can rule out initially plausible extraneous variables as causes of behavior. However, the external validity of these studies is sometimes questionable because they may not show ecological validity; that is, the behaviors in the laboratory do not resemble those in the natural world. One alternative to laboratory experiments is naturalistic observation in which the researcher does not manipulate variables in the environment but instead observes behaviors as they naturally emerge.
Nemawashi (根回し)
Authors: Machizawa Sayaka
Published: October 2013

Nemawashi
is a consensus‐building technique commonly used in Japanese society, especially in the business and political world. It is also defined as a process by which an informal agreement or conclusion is made prior to final and official decision making on a particular issue.
Nemawashi
is often used to bring an individual or group idea to an organizational decision. In
nemawashi
, there is usually a facilitator who works with the group, especially directly affected superiors and stakeholders, to secure their cooperation and achieve group consensus.
Noise
Authors: Bronzaft Arline L.
Published: October 2013

The United States was in the forefront of noise control when it passed the Noise Control Act in 1972 and set up the Office of Noise Abatement and Control (ONAC) in the Environmental Protection Agency to carry out the mandate of this Act. However, when former President Ronald Reagan came into office, he largely defunded ONAC, leaving noise control to cities and states. It has essentially remained this way these past 30 years, despite the growth of noise as a nationwide problem. At first many of the states cut back on noise control with the loss of federal funding, but in the past few years, with increased pressure from community groups, more local areas in the United States are passing noise ordinances. New York City had passed its own noise code in the early 1970s, revising it a few years ago, largely in response to the fact that noise ranks high on complaints to its 311 Help Line.
Organizational Development
Authors: Nadler Joel T. , Hitchcock Ashlee M.
Published: October 2013

Organizational development (OD) is a systematic and deliberately planned course of action designed to improve an organization's efficacy. OD requires change through communication, scientific research, behavioral analysis, feedback, cooperation, and application. OD is as diverse as the organizations it is applied to; it can be directed at the micro (individual workers), meso (groups, teams, and departments), and macro (the organization as a whole) levels of the organization. OD is a planned organizational self‐reflection and self‐analysis for the purpose of creating a plan informed from past research aimed at organizational improvement and then evaluated for effectiveness through empirical assessment. An organization's motive for development can include survival, mergers, environmental response, and self‐improvement.
Osgood, Charles Egerton
Authors: Triandis Harry C.
Published: October 2013

Born in 1916 and destined to become one of the most important psychologists of the twentieth century, Charles E. Osgood made contributions in numerous fields, such as psycholinguistics, synesthesia, multiple personality, speech hesitation, suicide notes, aphasia, language universals, facial expressions, color, metaphor, and cross‐cultural psychology.
Outgroup Relations
Authors: Gregerson Mary
Published: October 2013

Outgroup relationsdescribes interactions with social units of which one is not a member, such as cultures other than one's own. Ingroup refers to those units in which one has membership, such as one's own culture.
Peace Psychology
Authors: Woolf Linda M. , Hulsizer Michael R.
Published: October 2013

The complex nature of peace and conflict, coupled with the fact that these behaviors take place within varying historical and cultural contexts, necessitates the broad interdisciplinary nature of peace psychology. As a result, peace psychologists can be found working throughout the world wherever there is conflict or war. In addition, there is a great deal of variety in the type of work conducted by peace psychologists. For example, some peace psychologists focus on interpersonal conflict and relationships, while other psychologists focus on recovery from trauma following violence or intrapersonal peace.
Pedersen, Paul
Authors: Bastien Gilberte , Hankton Umieca N.
Published: October 2013

Paul Bodholt Pedersen, born May 19, 1936 in Ringsted, Iowa, is a pioneer in cross‐cultural and international psychology. He has authored more than 100 articles, 45 books, 82 book chapters, and 22 monographs. In 2001, Pedersen was elected to the Committee for International Relationships in Psychology (CIRP) of the American Psychological Association (APA), and is a Fellow in several APA Divisions including Division 52 (International Psychology) and Division 45 (Ethnic and Minority Issues). In 2010, Pedersen received the APA Award for Distinguished Contributions to the International Advancement of Psychology. Through his efforts to internationalize psychology and raise awareness regarding the importance of multiculturalism, Pedersen became a multi‐linguist, learning to speak Danish, Indonesian, and Mandarin.
Peer Relationships
Authors: Brown Jill R. , Greve Keisha , deGuzman Maria Rosario T.
Published: October 2013

In the early twentieth century, psychologists were writing that peer interaction made a significant contribution to children's socialization. And in his early writings, Jean Piaget argued that exposure to peer conflict and opportunities for social negotiation aided children in the acquisition and development of perspective‐taking skills, cause‐and effect social reasoning, and an understanding of morality. Other early theorists proposed that the ability to self‐reflect, to consider the self in relation to others, and to understand the perspectives of others was largely a function of participation in organized, rule‐governed activities with peers. Piaget suggested that exchanges among peers, whether experienced in the arenas of cooperation or competition, conflict or friendly discussion, allowed the child to gain an understanding of the self as both a subject and an object.
Peng, Kaiping
Authors: Boucher Helen C.
Published: October 2013

Kaiping Peng began his career as a faculty member in the psychology department at Beijing University in China, where he served for five years.
Person Perception
Authors: Keith Kenneth D.
Published: October 2013

Person perception is the process by which people form impressions of others. These impressions are often based on individuals’ appearance, and much of the research has focused on the role of attractiveness in the formation of impressions. Researchers have designed studies to investigate whether people of different cultures form impressions in similar ways. Although a large multi‐culture meta‐analysis found broad agreement on judgments of attractiveness across cultures, people in different cultures do not always agree on what physical features they consider attractive or on the relation of attractiveness to other important psychological characteristics.
Personal Space
Authors: Miller Richard L.
Published: October 2013

Defined personal space as “an area with an invisible boundary surrounding the person's body into which intruders may not come.” The functions of personal space are to avoid overstimulation, reduce stress, control unwanted arousal, achieve desired levels of privacy, and maintain our behavioral freedom. Personal space can also be understood as a form of non‐verbal communication. The spacing between people communicates information about their relationship and the activities in which they are engaged. summarizes how various relationships and activities relate to personal space among most North Americans.
Personality Assessment
Authors: Giordano Peter J.
Published: October 2013

Personality assessment is a complex activity with potentially significant consequences for the individuals being assessed. Generally speaking, personality assessment is a process of gathering, integrating, and interpreting information about a person. Sources of assessment information may include structured or unstructured interviews; discussions with significant others, such as family members, teachers, or employers; direct observations of behavior; examination of medical, legal, educational, or employment records; or the administration and interpretation of a variety of personality tests. By taking into account information gleaned from these sources of data, a thorough understanding of an individual's personality may be obtained.