bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The distribution of plasmids among a representative collection of Scottish strains of salmonellae
Authors: Platt D. J. , Brown D. J. , Munro D. S.
Published: October 2009

The distribution of plasmids was studied in a representative collection of salmonella strains which comprised 98Salmonella typhimuriumand 96 other serotypes. Plasmids were detected in 72% of strains (mean 1·3 plasmids/strain) and individual strains harboured between 0 and 7 plasmids. They were more common amongS. typhimuriumthan other serotypes (incidence 92 and 53%; mean 1·9 and 0·8 plasmids/strain respectively). Although a higher proportion ofS. typhimurium(33%) were antibiotic-resistant compared to other serotypes (14%) the evidence presented indicated that R-plasmids were not responsible for the difference observed in the number and distribution of plasmids in these strains. These results were discussed in comparison with similar studies ofEscherichia coliand other enteric genera.
Plasmids in group JK coryneform bacteria isolated in a single hospital
Authors: Kerry-Williams S. M. , Noble W. C.
Published: October 2009

Investigation of 39 JK-type coryneform isolates from patients at a single hospital revealed that 23 possessed plasmids, which formed six groups on restriction endonuclease analysis. Four of the groups were associated with production of similar bacteriocin-like substances, and shared a minimum of 6·4 kilobase pairs of DNA. These plasmids, found in isolates from different patients, provide strong direct evidence that person-to-person transmission of JK bacteria had occurred within the hospital.
A rapid and simple method for the detection and enumeration ofEscherichia coliin cleansed shellfish
Authors: Humphrey T. J. , Gawler A. H. L.
Published: October 2009

A multiple-tube technique based on peptone water incubated at 44 °C for 24 h followed by detection of indole was found to be sensitive and specific for the detectionof Escherichia coliin oysters and mussels. The method has the advantage of providing rapid results and is both less expensive and less time-consuming than other MPN techniques.
Faecal carriage rate ofYersiniaspecies
Authors: Lewis Ann M. , Chattopadhyay B.
Published: October 2009

A total of 1203 unselected routine faecal samples from 1006 patients were cultured forYersiniaspecies by a cold enrichment technique. Seventy-five specimens (6·1%) from 63 patients were culture-positive forYersiniaspp. Fifty-two wereYersinia enterocolitica, 22Yersinia frederikseniiand 1Yersinia intermedia. The predominantY. enterocoliticaisolates belonged to biotype 1 – serotype 0:6, 30 or serotype 0:5, 27.Y. frederikseniistrains were non-typable. Forty isolates were recovered from 33 patients with gastroenteritis. During the study period 83Salmonellaspp. from 33 patients, 17Shigella sonneifrom 13 patients and 13Campylobacter jejunifrom 12 patients were cultured.Yersiniaspp. was isolated in association with salmonella on three occasions, twice with rotavirus and once each withShigella sonnei, Campylobacter jejuniandTrichuris trichiura.
Comparative pathogenicity and antigenic cross-reactivity of Rift Valley fever and other African phleboviruses in sheep
Authors: Swanepoel R. , Struthers J. K. , Erasmus M. J. , Shepherd S. P. , McGillivray G. M. , Shepherd A. J. , Hummitzsch D. E. , Erasmus B. J. , Barnard B. J. H.
Published: October 2009

Homologous and heterologous haemagglutination-inhibition (HAI), complement- fixation (CF), immunodiffusion (ID) and mouse neutralization tests were performed with the Lunyo (LUN) and a Zimbabwean strainof Rift Valley fever (RVF) virus, the prototype and a South African strain of Arumowot (AMT) virus and prototype strains of Gordil (GOR), Saint-Floris (SAF) and Gabek Forest (GF) viruses, using immune mouseascitic fluids prepared against these viruses. Reactions of identity occurred in all tests between LUN and the Zimbabwean strains of RVF and between the two strains of AMT virus. Otherwise, cross-reactions occurred between all the phleboviruses in HAI tests, while reactions in CF, ID and neutralization testswere monospecific for virus serotypes, except that weak cross-reaction occurred between GOR and SAF viruses in CF and ID tests.

Four sheep infected subcutaneously with the Zimbabwean strain of RVF virus developed transient fever, viraemia, leucopaenia, relative thrombocytopaenia, haemoconcentration and raised serum enzyme levels, which indicated that the sheep had developed necrotic hepatitis. Disseminated focal necrotic hepatitis was confirmed in a sheep killed for examination on day 4 post-infection. The other three sheep recovered uneventfully after only mild depression and anorexia. Groups of three sheep infected with SAF, GOR, AMT and GF viruses had no demonstrable viraemia or other sign of infection or illness, except that the sheep infected with AMT developed mild fever lasting less than 24 h.

Antibody responses were monitored at intervals over a period of 24 weeks in all sheep by homologous and heterologous HAI, CF and cell culture neutralization (CPENT) tests. Homologous antibody responses were marked in the RVF-infected sheep and their sera cross-reacted strongly in HAI tests with antigens of the other viruses. The sera of the RVF-infectes sheep cross-reactes less marledly in CF and CPENT tests. Homologous antibody responses were poor in all the sheep infected with phlebovirused other than RVF, and the cross-reactivity of their sera RVF antigen or virus was negligible. All sheep were challenged with RVF virus 48 weeks after their initial infection. The sheep which had originally been infected with RVF virus were immune and developed neither fever nor viracmia. All other sheep developed fever, viraemia and antibodies to RVF virus.

It was concluded that the African phleboviruses, other than RVF, are unlikely to cause disease in livestock ot to induce antibodies which could cause confusion in the diagnosis of RVF.
Influenza in the United Kingdom 1982–85
Authors: Chakraverty P. , Cunningham P. , Shen G. Z. , Pereira M. S.
Published: October 2009

Influenza surveillance in the UK between the years 1982 and 1985 has demonstrated the regular winter appearance of influenza A virus of both H1N1 and H3N2 subtypes and influenza B.

Their antigenic diversity is described and correlated with the national statistics for morbidity and mortality for influenza.

One unexpected finding has been that despite the wide circulation of influenza viruses there has been a continuation of winters without significant increases in influenza deaths or morbidity. A previous report of influenza surveillance (Pereira & Chakraverty, 1982) noted an already unusual series of three consecutive winters with this pattern. This report records a further 4 years bringing a total of seven successive winters without evidence of epidemics of severe disease associated with influenza viruses, as indicated by the national UK statistics.
The adverse effect of dilution on the infectivity of Fusobacterium necrophorum culture
Authors: Smith G. R. , Turner Ann
Published: October 2009

Dilution had an adverse effect on the infectivity of 24 h cultures of a strain of Fusobacterium necrophorum, which became apparent at or near the minimum lethal dose. Thus in mice inoculated subcutaneously the mortality produced by 0·01 ml of undiluted culture was almost invariably greater than that produced by 0·1 ml of a 1 in 10 dilution. The explanation appeared to lie in the increased physical separation of bacterial cells that was the inevitable consequence of dilution.
The cellular fatty acid composition ofCampylobacterspecies isolated from cases of enteritis in man and animals
Authors: Coloe P. J. , Slattery J. F. , Cavanaugh P. , Vaughan J.
Published: October 2009

The cellular fatty acid composition of 41 strains of suspectedCampylobacter jejuni, 23 from human cases of gastroenteritis and 18 from animals, was examined by gas-liquid chromatography. Three of the 23 human isolates and 2 of 18 animal isolates did not contain 19:0 cyclopropane fatty acid and were identified asC. laridis. The remaining 36 strains had cellular fatty acid profiles consistent withC. jejunibut could be divided into three groups on the ratio of the concentration of 18:1 and 19:0 eycloproprane. Most human isolates (85%) were in groups II or III whereas most animal isolates (56%) were in group I. It is proposed that gas-liquid chromatographic analysis of cellular fatty acids is a relatively easy method for epidemiological typing ofC. jejuniisolates.
Tuberculous meningitis – clinical and laboratory review of 100 patients
Authors: Kilpatrick M. E. , Girgis N. I. , Yassin M. W. , El Ella A. A. Abu
Published: October 2009

In developing countries tuberculous meningitis is a difficult infection to differentiate from other central nervous system (CNS) infections. This paper presents the history, physical findings, laboratory data, and clinical course of 100 patients who were admitted to a special ward and had CSF cultures positive forMycobacterium tuberculosis. Fifty-four patients were comatose when admitted and 76 had meningeal signs. Mean admission CSF values were WBC 531, glucose 23 mg/dl, and protein 166 mg/dl. Only two CSF AFB smears were positive. Sixty-one percent of the chest X-rays taken were consistent with pulmonary tuberculous and 39% were normal. Twenty-four patients died within the first week after admission, before the clinical diagnosis was made and anti-tuberculous therapy could be started. Fifty-three of 76 patients given antituberculous therapy died. Neurologic sequelae developed in 48% of the survivors. The high mortality and morbidity rates in this patient-group were due to the severity of illness on admission and the predominance of children (54%).
Studies on microbial quality of filtered water in households of a university community in Nigeria
Authors: Alabi D. A. , Adesiyun A. A.
Published: October 2009

Water samples from home filters in nine residential areas of a Nigerian university community were studied. The membrane filter technique was used to determine the total coliform and faecal coliform counts/100 ml of water. Most of the 100 samples studied were grossly contaminated with total coliform counts/100 ml ranging from 0–442, faecal coliform counts/100 ml, 0–216 and the total aerobic plate count per millilitre ranged from 3·0 × 103to 1·9 × 109c.f.u. The source (dams) of water, fitness of filter candles, frequency of cleaning candles and pH of water did not significantly (P> 0·05;X2) affect the microbial quality of either filtered boiled or unboiled tap water.

Escherichia colitype I was isolated from 17·9% of the faccal coliforms tested but from only 2·3% of total coliforms.Enterobacter aerogeneswas most predominant (38·5%) amongst faecal coliforms isolated whileEnterobacter cloacaewas the most frequent (37·2%) of the total coliform isolates.

The gross contamination of filltered water from all households sampled calls fpr am englightenment of residents on the proper use of home water filters.
Variation in virulence of bovine rotaviruses
Authors: Bridger J. C. , Pocock D. H.
Published: October 2009

Forty-six gnotobiotic calves aged less than 16 days or 42–116 days were infected with three strains of bovine rotavirus designated C3–160, CP-1 and PP-1. Each virus was passaged and cloned in cell culture (cloned viruses) but CP-1 and PP-1 Were also used before culture (faecal viruses).

Infection of calves aged less than 16 days with faecal or cloned CP-1 caused disease whereas cloned C3–160 and faecal or cloned PP-1 caused subclinical infections. The clinical signs of disease were change in faecal colour to pale yellow or cream, increase of 2- to 7-fold in the volume of faecal output and, usually, anorexia. With the virulent CP-1 virus and the avirulent C3–160, similar amounts of virus were excreted in the faeces for 4–6 days.

Infection of calves aged 56–116days with faecal CP-1 produced disease of similar severity to that seen in calves aged 7–10 days infected with the same virus. No differences in clinical signs, virus excretion or levels of convalescent antibody were seen between the two groups. With cloned CP-1, 5 of 8 older calves developed disease but 3 showed only mild signs of infection.

It was concluded that two strains of rotavirus caused sub-clinical infections in young calves while a third was virulent in calves up to at least 116 days of age.
Institutional outbreaks of rotavirus diarrhoea: potential role of fomites and environmental surfaces as vehicles for virus transmission
Authors: Sattar Syed A. , Lloyd-Evans Nellie , Springthorpe V. Susan , Nair Rama C.
Published: October 2009

To assess the potential of fomites and environmental surfaces as vehicles in the transmission of rotaviral diarrhoea, disks (1 cm diameter) of various porous and non-porous materials were contaminated with about 105plaque-forming units of the Wa strain of human rotavirus (HRV) suspended in faecal matter. The contaminated disks were then held for 10 days at either room temperature (22±2 °C) or 4°C with the relative humidity (RH) at the high (85±5%), medium (50±5%) or low (25±5%) level. Survival was longer on non-porous surfaces at the lower temperature and at lower humidity. In contrast, survival on porous surfaces was very variable; better on cotton-polyester than on poster card or paper currency on which HRV survived very poorly. These results suggest that under the right environmental conditions, HRV-contaminated objects could play a role in the transmission of rotavirus infections in hospitals, nursing homes and day-care centres.
Comparison of the brucellin skin test with the lymphocyte transformation test in bovine brucellosis
Authors: Chukwu C. C.
Published: October 2009

The brucellin skin test and the lymphocyte transformation test were compared in heifers infected with virulentBrucella abortusstrain 544, heifers vaccinated against brucellosis and unexposed cattle. Results of thein vitrolymphocyte transformation test were consistently positive for all 9Brucella-infected heifers while the skin test was consistently positive for 6 of the 9 heifers. In 7 heifers repeatedly vaccinated withB. abortusstrain-19 vaccine thein vitrotest classified 3 animals as positive whereas the skin test identified all the animals as infected during most of the experimental period. Four heifers injected with a single dose ofB. abortusstrain 19 were consistently negative to the lymphocyte transformation test while the skin test classified all the animals as infected during most of the experimental period. The skin test gave strong reactions indicative ofBrucellainfection in heifers vaccinated with ‘Duphavac’ and ‘Abortox’ vaccines whereas the lymphocyte transformation test was consistently negative with these vaccines. The two tests were negative in unexposed cattle. It was concluded that thein vitrotest correlated better withBrucellaisolation than thein vivotest did and that the lack of agreement between the results of the two tests is likely to be due to the different antigens used in the assays.
A study of the relative efficiencies of three commercially available dehydrated Rappaport–Vassiliadis media
Authors: Quail Elaine , McGibbon Loraine , Fricker C. R.
Published: October 2009

The relative efficiencies of three commercially available dehydrated Rappaport–Vassiliadis media have been compared with a similar medium prepared from individual constituents in our own laboratory. An inoculation ratio of 1 : 100 was found to be optimal for each of the media tested. Laboratory produced RV-medium was significantly better than the three commercial preparations after 24 h incubation. However, when the duration of incubation was extended to 48 h, there was no significant difference in the number of salmonella isolates obtained when using our own RV medium and that produced by Oxoid Ltd and Difco Ltd (P > 0·05). All of these three media were, however, significantly more effective than the medium produced by Lab.M.(P <0·01).
Field trials of flocoumafen against warfarin-resistant infestations of the Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus Berk)
Authors: Buckle A. P.
Published: October 2009

The anticoagulant rodenticide flocoumafen was tested against warfarin-resistant Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus Berk.) infesting farm buildings. Complete control was obtained in 10–21 days (mean 14·2 days) in six treatments in which baits poisoned with 0·005% flocoumafen were maintained, in surplus, until rats ceased to feed from them. A further six treatments, in which the application of poisoned bait was restricted to periodic placements of 50 g, were also completely successful in 15–30 days (mean 21·0 days). Less poisoned bait was used in the restricted flocoumafen treatments than in the unrestricted treatments but the time taken to control the rat infestations was significantly longer.
Comparison of the immunogenicity, efficacy and safety of 10 μg and 20 μg of a hepatitis B vaccine: a prospective randomized trial
Authors: Yeoh E. K. , Lai C. L. , Chang W. K. , Lo H. Y.
Published: October 2009

Four thousand and one hospital staff were screened for hepatitis B virus (HBV) markers in a vaccination programme in Hong Kong. The seropositivity rate for HBsAg, anti-HBs and anti-HBc were significantly higher in the 3160 existing hospital staff than in 841 new recruits. Of the subjects negative for HBV markers, 605 were randomized to receive three doses of either 10 or 20 μg of the Merck Institute vaccine (HB-VAX). Compared with the 20 μg dose, vaccination with the 10 μg dose results in equal immunogenicity and efficacy at the completion of the three injections but induced a slower response rate and lower anti-HBs titres with the first two doses. The commonest side-effect of local soreness was less with the 10 μg dose. We conclude that (1) hospital staff working in high endemic areas should be vaccinated on recruitment and (2) the 10 μg dose of HB-VAX can replace the recommended 20 μg dose for adults, being cheaper and as efficacious.
Recovery of bluetongue virus serogroup from sera collected for a serological survey from apparently healthy cattle, from the Sudan
Authors: Elzein E. M. E. Abu
Published: October 2009

Virus of the bluetongue (BT) serogroup was recovered from 11% of cattle sera collected from apparently healthy animals in Khartoum Province for the sole purpose of screening for BT antibodies. Since these sera did not contain BT antibodies, the donor cattle could have been scored as BT free in the serological survey.

Virus was initially isolated in chicken embryos inoculated intravascularly, and was further adapted to Vero cell cultures. Isolates were identified as belonging to the BT serogroup using the agar gel immunodiffusion (AGID) and complement fixation (CF) tests.

The results indicated that cattle in the Sudan could harbour BT virus without showing symptoms of the disease. Such an observation necessitates further work to clarify the role of cattle in the epidemiology of BT in the Sudan.
Exploring molecular variation in the cosmopolitan Caprella penantis (Crustacea: Amphipoda): results from RAPD analysis
Authors: Cabezas M. Pilar , Guerra-García José M. , Baeza-Rojano Elena , Redondo-Gómez Susana , Figueroa M. Enrique , Luque Teresa , García-Gómez J. Carlos
Published: October 2009

Eight populations of Caprella penantis, three of Caprella dilatata and two of Caprella andreae, collected from different sites all over the world, were selected for genetic study. Thirteen primers were tested, and the phenogram, based on the similarity coefficient of Nei & Li and the UPGMA method, separated clearly C. dilatata and C. andreae from the populations of C. penantis, supporting the validity of these three species, traditionally considered altogether under the old ‘acutifrons’ complex. Populations of C. penantis (including, at least, forms simulatrix, testudo and lusitanica) from Spain, Portugal, Morocco, Japan and Brazil were clustered together in the RAPD analysis, indicating that, probably, all the specimens of C. penantis could belong to the same species, in spite of morphological variations in the pleura, gills, robustness and presence/absence of proximal projection in adult male gnathopod 2 propodus. The only population which showed genetic differentiation within the C. penantis complex was the form gibbosa from Coquimbo, Chile. Future analysis based on different molecular approaches (mtDNA, 18S rRNA, ISSR) and additional material from other world areas, should be conducted to confirm these results.
Relationships between macroinfaunal invertebrates and physicochemical factors in two sandy beaches of Patagonia
Authors: Mendez María Martha (Pitu) , Schwindt Evangelina , Bortolus Alejandro
Published: October 2009

The interest in the knowledge of the ecology of soft-sediment communities is increasing due to the importance that these environments pose to ecologists and environmentalists. However, the ecology of Argentinean sandy beaches is almost unknown, in spite of being relatively common landscapes. In this work we describe and compare the macroinfaunal assemblages in the two largest sandy beaches within the Monte León National Park, the first marine-coastal park of Argentina. Macrobenthic samples were collected and environmental descriptions were performed by quantifying and comparing the organic matter content, grain size distribution and depth of the substratum available for macroinfaunal colonization. Results show that polychaetes and crustaceans are the dominant taxa and that the two beaches differ in the physicochemical characteristics, suggesting that a relation between the benthic fauna and physicochemical factors exists. Although they appeared similar at the landscape scale in preliminary visual surveys, the geomorphological differences between habitats are likely to drive strong differences in the structure of the macroinfaunal assemblages. The monitoring of visible landscape features is likely to undermine the efficiency of protection and managing strategies if not complemented by geomorphological and ecological surveys of less visible ecosystem variables.
Taenia crassiceps:in vivoandin vitromodels
Authors: WILLMS KAETHE , ZURABIAN RIMMA
Published: October 2009

Taenia crassicepsis a cestode parasite of wild and domestic animals that rarely affects humans; it has been widely used as an experimental model. The asexual proliferation by budding is a useful attribute ofT. crassicepscysticerci, which allows the various strains to be maintained indefinitely in the peritoneal cavity of inbred mice. Over the last 50 years, experimental results using larval and adult stages ofT. crassicepshave yielded much information on the morphology, infectivity, proliferation dynamics, host immune response, endrocrinological responses and vaccine research, all of which have contributed to our knowledge of cestode biology.
Amongst the palm trees: ruminations on the 1959 Antarctic Treaty
Authors: Dodds K. J.
Published: October 2009

Surrounded by potted palm trees, the 12 delegations including the Soviet Union invited to participate by the United States government decided, over the course of six intense weeks, the legal, political and scientific future of the Antarctic continent and surrounding seas. Thanks in part to the neatly typed entries of Brian Roberts, the Foreign Office's polar advisor for many years; we have at least one source that vividly conveys (from the perspective of a British delegate of course) the febrile atmosphere surrounding the conference (see King and Savours 1995; Dodds 2008). Notwithstanding the achievements of the recently completed 1957–1958 International Geophysical Year and its extension the International Geophysical Co-operation (1959), there was no reason to presume that an Antarctic Treaty would be recognised as legitimate and sufficiently robust to accommodate all the parties concerned. Indeed, it is not uncommon to read in the reports prepared by the delegates for their domestic political leaders, a whole series of counter-factual possibilities if the negotiations failed to secure a modus vivendi for the polar region. We may not assume, therefore, that it was in any way inevitable that a treaty (lasting now for over fifty years) would have emerged when the delegates sat down to discuss the future of Antarctica in October 1959. The treaty was nearly not ratified in Argentina for example because of the anger felt by some political leaders about Article IV and what they considered the ‘giving away’ of Argentine sovereign rights.
Fifty years on: putting the Antarctic Treaty into the history books
Authors: Beck Peter J.
Published: October 2009

Recent media coverage of the threatened collapse of the vast Wilkins ice shelf highlights the manner in which the established focus on global warming and the ozone hole has led Antarctica to be well and truly accepted as playing an integral role in global environmental systems. By contrast, histories of the 1950 and 1960s continue still to treat Antarctica largely as, to quote Philip Quigg (1983), ‘a Pole Apart’, that is a marginal region struggling for inclusion on most world maps. Despite the occasional newsworthy item, like the 1952 Anglo-Argentine clash at Hope Bay (Beck 1987: 18–21) or the 1955–1958 British Trans-Antarctic Expedition (Fuchs and Hillary 1958), Antarctic affairs have not been regarded, except perhaps in Argentina, Australia, Chile and New Zealand, as sufficiently mainstream during the 1950s and 1960s to warrant inclusion in national or global histories covering that period. As a result, it remains easy still to gloss over the 1959 Antarctic Treaty as possessing rather limited contemporary significance, and hence to dismiss it as a limited purpose agreement confined to a relatively marginal area. Indeed, for some commentators, the treaty was even interpreted as a lost opportunity in terms of failing either to internationalise the region or to resolve the longstanding Antarctic sovereignty problem.
The political origins of the Antarctic Treaty
Authors: Bulkeley Rip
Published: October 2009

Like many great institutions, the Antarctic Treaty system has its own creation myth, according to which it was brought into being by the Antarctic science programme of the 1957–1958 International Geophysical Year (IGY). As myths are prone to do, this one combines both an important truth and a good deal of misinformation. After fifty years in which it has shamelessly flattered the earth scientists, who are understandably rather fond of it, and undervalued the many non-scientists who advocated the internationalisation of Antarctica from 1910 onwards, it is time to lay it to rest. But before summarising the intermeshing contributions of private citizens, diplomats and other officials, and scientists, we should first take note of a different factor altogether, political geography.
Australia and the Antarctic Treaty
Authors: Haward Marcus
Published: October 2009

Australia has extensive interests in, and has taken a long term interest over, Antarctica. These interests include a territorial claim to the Australian Antarctic Territory (AAT) encompassing 42 per cent of the continent. In addition to its interests as a claimant state Australian participated in the negotiation of the Antarctic Treaty and has devoted itself to a major role in the Antarctic Treaty system (ATS), firmly committing to upholding the twin pillars of the Treaty: ‘peace’ and ‘science’.
The Antarctic Treaty and the law of the sea: fifty years on
Authors: Joyner Christopher C.
Published: October 2009

Since the Antarctic Treaty was negotiated in 1959, it has undergone major substantive legal transformations as it grew into a multifaceted regime known as the Antarctic Treaty system. Many of those transformations stemmed from actions by the principal decision makers, the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties (ATCPs), as they adopted new strategies and values alongside binding legal agreements for managing their activities in circumpolar southern waters. This essay examines the evolution of the modern law of the sea and seeks to explain how it embellished (has it at times challenged?) the character, significance and purposes of the Antarctic Treaty.
Sovereignty and the Antarctic Treaty
Authors: Rothwell Donald R.
Published: October 2009

Sovereignty was and still remains one of the principal reasons for human endeavour in Antarctica. The ‘Heroic Era’ of Antarctic exploration was designed principally to seek out not only new lands including the South Pole, but also to assert territorial claims on behalf of the sovereign who sponsored these expeditions. The ‘planting of the flag’ was therefore just as much a crucial component of Antarctic discovery, as also was the conduct of science. Sovereignty and science remained twin pillars of Antarctic endeavour throughout the early part of the twentieth century, and whilst the region escaped the horrors of World War II, it did not take long after the war for Antarctic endeavours to resume on both fronts. In a decade of frantic diplomatic activity during the 1950s, which was highlighted by the 1957–1958 International Geophysical Year and the 1959 Washington Conference, there was also the prospect in 1956 of a case before the International Court of Justice between Argentina, Chile and the United Kingdom over the contested status of territorial claims on the Antarctic Peninsula. Notwithstanding that by this time all of the current claims to the continent had by then been asserted, there had also been moves made by India in 1956 and then again in 1958 to reconsider the management of the continent with a view to its internationalisation under a framework created by the United Nations General Assembly.
Linguistics and Literacy
Authors: Kindell Gloria
Published: October 2009

In the good old days, when learning to read was equated with breaking the written code and linguists were content with delving into the mysteries of phonemes, morphemes, and sentences, it was not too terribly difficult to define the scope of linguistics applied to literacy. Now the task is somewhat more complex thanks to both the diversification of lingustics and current concepts of the nature, function, and goals of literacy.
Language and Literacy in West Africa
Authors: Bokamba Eyamba G.
Published: October 2009

Adult education, of which literacy is a central component, is considered as a critical factor in personal and national development (UNESCO 1972:13–16). West African nations, like most other african states, have been aware of the importance of adult education in development in general and in literacy education in particular for several decades now. This awareness is reflected in the articulation of educational and social welfare objectives set up by various governments since the advent of political independence in the late 1950s. For example, the Convention People's Party of the late Dr. Nkwame Nkrumah, former President of Ghana, included in its election manifesto in 1951 a pledge to eradicate illiteracy in the country. A resolution to this effect was adopted by the National Assembly in August of that year (Oyedeji, Omolewa, and Asiedu 1982:12). A similar pledge was expressed, and it formed the core around which long-range educational objectives were articulated by the first conference of Ministers of Education of African States held at Addis Ababa in May 1961.
Reading: United States
Authors: Weber Rose-Marie
Published: October 2009

Nearly a thousand Publications on reading appear annually in the United States. This Cascade of print deals with the place of reading in our society, the nature of skilled reading, how reading is learned, how it is taught and might be better taught, how to evaluate it, and how to explain and cope with failure in learning to read (Weintraub,et al.1983). While only a small number of these studies take up linguistic questions directly, all but a few studies necessarily involve language
Language Policy in South Asia
Authors: Kachru Braj B.
Published: October 2009

In the political divisions within South Asia there has traditionally been no organized effort for language policies.1Language was essentially related to one's caste, village, district, and state. Beyond this, one identified with languages associated with religion (Sanskrit or Arabic), or learned and literary texts (mainly Sanskrit and Persian). At the time of Indian independence (1947), one task of the new government was to unravel the status and position of almost 560 sovereign states which were ruled by an array of mahārājās, nawābs, and lesser luminaries, depending on the size and the revenue of each state and subdivision. Each state state was a kindgom unto itself, and such political divisions did not foster a national language policy. In India, the largest country in South Asia, four languages were used for wider communication asbazārlanguages or languages of literature and intranational communication: Hindi (and its varieties, Hindustani and Urdu), Sanskrit, Persian, and later, English (cf., for Sanskrit, Kachru and Sridhar 1978; Sharma 1976; for English, Kachru 1969; 1982a). The Hindus tended to send their children to apāṭhśālā(traditional Hindu school mainly for scriptural education) for the study of the scriptures and some basic knowledge of the śāastras (Sanskrit instructional texts, treatise), and the Muslims tended to send their children to amaktab(traditional school for Koranic instruction). The denominational schools (vidyāZaya) provided liberal arts instruction in Sanskrit, Persian, Hindi, Arabic, or in the regional languages.
Bilingualism and Education in England: The Work of the Linguistic Monorities Project and Other Recent Research
Authors:   The Linguistic Monorities Project Team
Published: October 2009

This short paper presents a background to the debate about bilingual education in England, an outline of the work of the Linguistic Minorities Project, and a selection of recent research and publications in this area.

In England the issue of bilingual education and mother-tongue teaching has emerged quite recently as the result of several developments. Firstly, it is seen to be a logical extension of “multi–cultural” education for all children, a movement that has developed among progressive educationalists to ensure that the education system reflects the multi–cultural nature of British society. Secondly, there has been increasing pressure from many minority groups for the introduction of lessons in the minority languages as part of the regular school system. Thirdly, the European Community Directive on the education of children of migrant workers has stimulated greater debate and activity in this field (Saifullah Khan 1980a).
U.S. Language-in-Education Policy: Issues in Schooling of Language Minorities
Authors: Macías Reynaldo F.
Published: October 2009

A large literature exists on educational technology (instructional methods, materials, and facilities) and language minorities. Language policies--which guide the objectives and use of this technology--are explicit in some areas, like bilinguage policy. There are educational juris-dictions with responsibilities over teaching and learning. Foreign language policies are advocated more than officially recognized, yet the issue is very visible. The role of billingual education in generating languageissuesfor discussion, debate, and policy making can be seen in its impact on other language relatedareas, such as foreign language instruction, desegregation policies, civil right, promotion of new innovative educational technologies (e.g., language proficiency assessment), TESOL, special education, inter-governmental relations (with Indian peoples, Puerto Rico, and the territories), and, indirectly, as it relates to instruction of Black vernacular English speakers, and instruction of the deaf. It is the (re-)opening of these language issues as they affect a cross section of the U.S. citizenry that is little recognized and, yet, profoundly important. Language permeates social relations, and so is the object of informal, if not formal, policies and norms most notably where there are groups in language contact, but also when language variation is a basis for social differentiation. That many of the works identified here donotdeal with these relationships and differentions as they reflect the distribution of power on our society only idicates the youth of a slowly maturing educational language policy, planning, and politics literature.
Language Teaching and Literacy: Introductory Essay
Authors: Ronayne Cowan J.
Published: October 2009

All of the papers in this section have a great deal more to say about the teaching of English to non-native speakers than about literacy, which is discussed primarily within the context of teaching regional languages in multilingual societies. Two contexts are represented in the discussions of English teaching: either English functions as the dominant language in the society, or it is one of the major languages in a multilingual society.
Language Teaching and Literacy: East Africa
Authors: Chishimba Maurice M.
Published: October 2009

In the area of Eastern Africa, the question of language teaching and literacy has not fully discussed as part of one cogent theme. Such works as have appeared on these subjects have been concerned with specific problems, such as literacy and development (e.g., Government of the Republic of Zambia 1975; Kassam 1978; Lamba 1973; Mwanakatwe and Nyirenda 1972; Nyerere 1976); the problems associated with teaching specific languages (Bagunywa 1970; Gorman 1974; ohannessian and Kashoki 1978; Sifuna 1975), or general educational policy with passing references to languages in education (Africa 1980; Fawcett 1970; Gorman 1970; 1971a; 1974; Mutua 1975; Stabler 1969).
Language Teaching in New Zealand
Authors: Kennedy Grameme D.
Published: October 2009

Language teaching in New Zealand as it relates to the theme of this volume, the movement of people across national boundaries, has had two main directions. The first, arising from the nineteenth century British colonization of tribal Maori society with the subsequent ceding of the land to the British crown, focused on the language education of the indigenous Maori people primarily through the schooling of children. In the 1980's almost all Maoris speak English and a minority are actively bilingual. Language teaching in New Zealand as it relates to the theme of this volume, the movement of people across national boundaries, has had two main directions. The first, arising from the nineteenth century British colonization of tribal Maori society with the subsequent ceding of the land to the British crown, focused on the language education of the indigenous Maori people primarily through the schooling of children. In the 1980's almost all Maoris speak English and a minority are actively bilingual. The second direction, occurring particularly over the last decade or so, has focused on the English language education of immigrants speaking English as a second language and coming as adults or children to a largely English speaking country. This review deals particularly with these two major directions in language teaching and does not, therefore, cover the teaching of foreign languages such as French or German as academic subjects in New Zealand.
National/Funcitonal Approaches
Authors: Barnett Jenny
Published: October 2009

There is not one notional/functional approach any more than there is one structural approach. There is simply a set of beliefs about language and language learning, some or all of which might be expected to underlie syllabi, courses, and classroom materials labeling themselves functional or notional. In this chapter, therefore, we shall be looking at the core of belief, its implications, and its potential for developemnt.
Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) in Language Teaching and Learning
Authors: Otto Frank
Published: October 2009

Many language teachers have had sporadic exposure to applied linguistics, limited experience with programmed learning/individualized instruction, and an incomplete understanding of ways in which educational technology can significantly augment the quality of the teaching–learning process. what is the process. what is the probability that administrators, teacher educator, materials developers, teachers, and students will appreciate and accept CAI as an approach that seeks to combine these three fields meaningfully? The propose of this discussion is to examine CAI is terms of key definitions, observations, concerns, developments, and contributions that have achieved significance during the 1979–80 academic year in the area of language teaching and learning. Implications and a challenge for future research studies will also be listed.
Theory And Problems in Psycholinguistics
Authors: Caramazza Alfonso , McCloskey Michael
Published: October 2009

A major problem for linguistic theory is that of specifying how the sounds of language relate to meaning. Although this problem is an exceedingly complex one, considerable progress has been made in formalizing grammars which, while incomplete, have provided a reasonable first account of the structure of natural language. These developments in linguistic theory, and in particular generative–transformational grammars, have had a profound effect on the psychological study of language, shifting the emphasis from the behavioristic studies of words to the analysis of sentence comprehension and production. More recently, following parallel developments in lingistics, psychologists have also turned their attention to units larger than the sentence, with a particular focus on text comprehension.
Second Language Acquisition: Error Analysis
Authors: Richards Jack C.
Published: October 2009

The collection, classification, and analysis of errors in the written and spoken performance of second or foreign language learners has had a role in language pedagogy since at least the 1950s. However, in the late 60s, and paticularly in the 70s, the study of errors in non-native language performance, or Errors Analysis (EA), assumed a new role in applied linguistics. A more rigorous methodology for EA developed, and it was applied to new issues and questions within second language acquisition research. Yet, by 1980, EA was largely considered a transitional development in applied linguistics. This review considers the nature, development, and achievements of Error Analysis in the period from 1970 to 1980. We will consider EA from three perspectives, reviewing the use of Error Analysis: (1) to account for linguistic competence; (2) to identify learning processes and strategies, and (3) to provied input to language pedagogy.
Language Testing Research (1979–1980)
Authors: Oller John W.
Published: October 2009

This paper will address the following questions:

1. What is language proficiency?

2. What is the relationship between first and second language proficiency?

3. What major theories have been born or laid to rest in the last year or so?

4. Can any consensus be discerned in the various extant controversies?

Although the review will concentrate on research published or presented at professional meetings on testing in the last year, some of the themes will necessitate reference to earlier work, and much that might be considered relevant by other authors will be omitted. The objective is to set down as much as possible to identify controversial issues for what they are, and to highlight emerging trends as best I can them.
Theoretical issues and Problems in the Sociolinguistic Enterprise
Authors: Fishman Joshua A.
Published: October 2009

The major theoretical challenge for the sociology of language consists of the extent that it contributes to and, indeed, benefits from the sciences of society, on the one hand, and the sciences of language, on the other. Considering that the total enterprise only came into being in the early 70s (taking The SSRC's Summer Institute on Sociolinguistics at Indiana University, 1964, as a reasonable date of departure) some progress toward meeting this challenge is undeniable. Such progress is particularly great at the micro-level where variation theory, discourse analysis, speech act theory, pragmatics, and ethnomethodological concerns and sensitivities have pretty much become modern day orthodoxies that often neither recognize nor remember their sociolinguistic co-origins. Nevertheless, precisely here, where the links to linguistics are strongest, there is hardly any link to sociology or to sociocultural theory more generally (none at all, indeed, except for the ethnomethodological corner thereof). If we look for linkages between macro-sociolinguistic efforts and the parent disciplines, the situation is even less heartening, because not only are such links exceedingly few and far between, but nothing approaching schools of thought or elaborated points of view are discernible. That being the case the likelihood of productive theoretical linkages between micro- and macro-sociolinguistic endeavors is rather remote for the forseeable future.
Macrosociolinguistics
Authors: Hartig Matthias
Published: October 2009

Macrosociolinguistics deals with the domain of linguistic behavior in such institutions as political parties, governmental administrations, and other nationwide organizations. It has to do with the distribution of language varieties in such institutions; and it has to cope with standards of planning the language situation. It is, therefore, the area of scientific national differentiation and of the study of normative language use in large institutions.
English and Chinese (Mandarin)
Authors: Taso Feng-Fu
Published: October 2009

For centuries linguists in theoretical linguistics and contrastive analysis have confined themselves to the sentence boundary. This selfimposed restriction is, no doubt, the result of the view, sustained since classical times, that language is a self-contained system, a mechanism for producing and comprehending sentences. The study of discourse was, untill recently, left to scholars from fields such as anthropology, sociology, psychology, and literary criticism who were interested in language.
Acquisition of Morphology and Syntax
Authors: Krakowian Bogdan
Published: October 2009

The early development of second language acquisition [SLA] research in the area of morphology and syntax can be traced in some excellent publications both exemplifying and evaluating the state of the art in this area (e.g., Anderson 1981, Davies, Criper, and Howatt 1984, Hatch 1983, Wode 1981b). The research questions identified and pursued at that time have continued to occupy researchers. (The ones which are the most important and relevant for the discussion here are as follows: 1 the problem of regularity in interlanguage [IL] morphology and syntax; 2) the contribution of Universal Grammar to SLA, and 3) variability in IL performance. The problems enumerated above will provide a framework for the discussion of the acquisition of morphology and syntax. Some additional comments on other, related issues will be included.
Input and Interaction
Authors: Young Richard
Published: October 2009

The role that input plays in second language learning and the interactions between learners and other speakers of the language which provide some of that input are two of the most discussed topics in the contemporary field of second language acquisition [SLA]. Several surveys of the considerable body of literature on input and interaction have appeared recent books on SLA (Hatch 1983a ch. 9, Ellis 1985a ch. 6, Young and Doughty 1987, Chaudron 1988 chs. 3–5) and two collections of papers on input and interaction research have been published (Gass and Madden 1985, Day 1986). This essay will outline the main issues which have emerged form this scholarship and comment on some of the more important theroretical and empirical papers.
Communicative Teaching Methodology
Authors: Johnson Keith
Published: October 2009

The word Communicative has, unfortunately, become so widespread that it has suffered the fate of words like democracy and freedom. At worst it has lost any precise meaning and comes to refer to any set of characteristics considered by its user to be good, modern, progressive. At best, the word is invested with precise meaning, but what is meant by it differs from user to user so that it becomes impossible to make generalizations on the topic which would satisfy all those who use the term. Indeed, any attempt at generalization is likely to lead to more divisive debate than it is to bring warring parties together.