bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Is Social Marketing an Effective Tool to Reduce Health Disparities?
Authors: Williams Jerome D. , Kumanyika Shiriki K.
Published: October 2003

The health status of people of color in the United States remains unconscionably low when contrasted with that of the U.S. majority population, largely due to factors that are modifiable. This paper addresses the issue of using social marketing to reduce health disparities, with a focus on improving dietary and physical activity behaviors and the environments that influence these behaviors. We emphasize the need for the social marketer to adopt a mindset that focuses on and values the perceptions and priorities of the target population and to view dietary and physical activity behaviors through a cultural lens. We highlight the importance of using frameworks such as the theory of reasoned action and the socio-ecological model to enhance the focus on salient personal and environmental variables for a given target population, and we discuss implications for social marketers, for example, in implementing segmentation and promotion strategies. Social marketers who attempt to facilitate changes in dietary and physical activity practices in minority communities face a daunting task. However, we are confident that such efforts are more likely to be successful if they build upon the culturally relevant concepts and key features of social marketing planning and implementation outlined in this paper.

This article reflects issues that were raised during a presentation at the Charting the Course for Social Marketing to Promote Diet and Physical Activity Conference. As a result, we have confined this discussion to addressing those issues related to our presentation, namely assessing the effectiveness and appropriateness of social marketing as a tool to reduce health disparities. In addition, we have attempted to adhere to the objectives of the overall conference theme. Therefore, while we address some broader issues concerning the need to develop culturally appropriate social marketing programs, much of the discussion is directed toward and focuses on specific points raised at the conference.
Marketing Diet and Exercise: Lessons from Mammon
Authors: Hastings Gerard
Published: October 2003

Social marketing's defining quality is that it exploits learning from the commercial sector. This distinguishes it from health education and promotion, and provides three key insights for exercise and nutrition promotion: 1) It is the self-interest at the core of human (and even of social marketers') behavior that dictates the need for consumer orientation and mutually beneficial exchange. 2) Our goals should be subjected to strategic analysis to identify our consumers; we need to work out who in society is best able to bring about a particular change in diet or exercise - and target our social marketing efforts accordingly. In many instances this will not involve targeting the individual citizen. 3) We need to think long term. Whoever the consumer is, we need to move beyond ad hoc transactions and focus on building mutually beneficial relationships with them.
Explicating Social Marketing: What is it, and What isn't It?
Authors: Maibach Edward W.
Published: October 2003

This paper briefly describes social marketing for the purpose of differentiating it from other forms of public health practice for which it is often mistaken, and was commissioned to provide a starting point for a conference on the role of social marketing in promoting physical activity and nutrition. To that end, definitions of social marketing are presented, differences between social marketing and educational approaches to behavioral influence are examined, and a brief set of key concepts are suggested. A clear understanding of the two approaches is important in helping program managers decide when, and how best, to use each approach.

This paper was commissioned so that conference attendees (Charting the Course for Social Marketing to Promote Diet and Physical Activity, UC Davis, 2002) would have a common point of reference - to debate, to modify, or possibly to accept - with regard to the definition of social marketing. Providing a point of reference was also intended to ensure a productive discussion throughout the conference.
The “Doublemint” Factor: Issues and Challenges in Marketing Nutrition and Physical Activity Behaviors in One Program
Authors: Fridinger Fred , Kirby Susan
Published: October 2003

With the tremendous worldwide increase in obesity and other co-morbidities related in part to diet and physical inactivity, greater attention has been focused on strategies to effectively intervene. What is not clear is whether messages and campaigns to promote healthy eating and physical activity can effectively combine the two behaviors together, or whether they need to be separated in the minds of the public. This paper addresses this issue by examining the components of the social marketing approach, in particular by employing an interview process of public health professionals to analyze pertinent issues such as behavioral and target audience factors, the marketing mix (product, price, placement, promotion, and positioning/competition), and exchange theory as they relate to promoting two specific behaviors, healthy eating and physical activity. This initial investigation into the thorny issue of promoting multiple behaviors in one programmatic or message effort is indeed preliminary and should not be considered to be definitive or to have answered many of the questions. Instead, we hope to raise and clarify the issues that present themselves when combining behaviors and attempt to provide questions that program planners and researchers should be asking target audiences and funders during the formative research stage.
Activation of hilA expression at low pH requires the signal sensor CpxA, but not the cognate response regulator CpxR, in Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium
Authors: Nakayama Shu-ichi , Kushiro Akira , Asahara Takashi , Tanaka Ryu-ichiro , Hu Lan , Kopecko Dennis J. , Watanabe Haruo
Published: October 2003

A two-component regulatory system, cpxR–cpxA, plays an important role in the pH-dependent regulation of virF, a global activator for virulence determinants including invasion genes, in Shigella sonnei. The authors examined whether the cpxR–cpxA homologues have some function in the expression of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium invasion genes via the regulation of hilA, an activator for these genes. In a Salmonella cpxA mutant, the hilA expression level was reduced to less than 10 % of that in the parent strain at pH 6·0. This mutant strain also showed undetectable synthesis of an invasion gene product, SipC, at pH 6·0 and reduced cell invasion capacity – as low as 20 % of that of the parent. In this mutant, the reduction in hilA expression was much less marked at pH 8·0 than at pH 6·0 – no less than 50 % of that in the parent, and no significant reduction was observed in either SipC synthesis or cell invasion rate, compared to the parent. Unexpectedly, a Salmonella cpxR mutant strain and the parent showed no apparent difference in all three characteristics described above at either pH. These results indicate that in Salmonella, the sensor kinase CpxA activates hilA, and consequently, invasion genes and cell invasion capacity at pH 6·0. At pH 8·0, however, CpxA does not seem to have a large role in activation of these factors. Further, the results show that this CpxA-mediated activation does not require its putative cognate response regulator, CpxR. This suggests that CpxA may interact with regulator(s) other than CpxR to achieve activation at low pH.
The curli biosynthesis regulator CsgD co-ordinates the expression of both positive and negative determinants for biofilm formation in Escherichia coli
Authors: Brombacher Eva , Dorel Corinne , Zehnder Alexander J. B. , Landini Paolo
Published: October 2003

Production of curli, extracellular structures important for biofilm formation, is positively regulated by OmpR, which constitutes with the EnvZ protein an osmolarity-sensing two-component regulatory system. The expression of curli is cryptic in most Escherichia coli laboratory strains such as MG1655, due to the lack of csgD expression. The csgD gene encodes a transcription activator of the curli-subunit-encoding csgBA operon. The ompR234 up-mutation can restore csgD expression, resulting in curli production and increased biofilm formation. In this report, it is shown that ompR234-dependent csgD expression, in addition to csgBA activation during stationary phase of growth, stimulates expression of the yaiC gene and negatively regulates at least two other genes, pepD and yagS. The promoter regions of these four genes share a conserved 11 bp sequence (CGGGKGAKNKA), necessary for csgBA and yaiC regulation by CsgD. While at both the csgBA and yaiC promoters the sequence is located upstream of the promoter elements, in both yagS and pepD it overlaps either the putative −10 sequence or the transcription start point, suggesting that CsgD can function as both an activator and a repressor. Adhesion experiments show that csgD-independent expression of both yagS and pepD from a multicopy plasmid negatively affects biofilm formation, which, in contrast, is stimulated by yaiC expression. Thus it is proposed that CsgD stimulates biofilm formation in E. coli by contemporary activation of adhesion positive determinants (the curli-encoding csg operons and the product of the yaiC gene) and repression of negative effectors such as yagS and pepD.
Role and regulation of the superoxide dismutases of Staphylococcus aureus
Authors: Karavolos Michail H. , Horsburgh Malcolm J. , Ingham Eileen , Foster Simon J.
Published: October 2003

Staphylococcus aureushas two superoxide dismutases (SODs), encoded by thesodAandsodMgenes, which inactivate harmful superoxide radicals () encountered during host infection or generated from aerobic metabolism. The transcriptional start sites have been mapped and expression analysis on reporter fusions in both genes has been carried out. Under standard growth conditions, manganese (Mn), a mineral superoxide scavenger, elevated total SOD activity but had no effect on the transcription of either gene. Transcription ofsodAandsodMwas most strongly induced by either internally or externally generated, respectively. Sensitivity to internally generatedwas linked with SodA deficiency. Mn supplementation completely rescued asodAmutant when challenged by internally generated, and this was growth-phase-dependent. Sensitivity to externally generatedstress was only observed in asodA sodMmutant and was Mn-independent. In a mouse abscess model of infection, isogenicsodA,sodMandsodAsodMmutants had reduced virulence compared to the parental strain, showing the importance of the enzymicscavenging system for the survival of the pathogen.
Clonal population structure of Pseudomonas avellanae strains of different origin based on multilocus enzyme electrophoresis
Authors: Scortichini Marco , Natalini Emanuela , Angelucci Luca
Published: October 2003

To assess the genetic diversity and genetic relationships ofPseudomonas avellanae, the causative agent of hazelnut decline, a total of 102 strains, obtained from central Italy (provinces of Viterbo and Rome) and northern Greece, were studied using multilocus enzyme electrophoresis (MLEE). Their allelic variation in 10 loci was determined. All loci were polymorphic and 53 electrophoretic types (ETs) were identified from the total sample. The mean genetic diversity (H) was 0·65 and this value ranged from 0·37 for the least polymorphic to 0·82 for the most polymorphic locus. The dendrogram originated from MLEE data indicated two main groups of ETs, A and B. The groups do not appear to be correlated to the geographic origin of the strains, although all the ETs from northern Greece clustered into subgroup B1.Pseudomonas syringaepv.actinidiaeandP. syringaepv.theae, included in the analysis as outgroups, clustered apart. The index of association (IA) forP. avellanaewas 0·90. TheIAvalues were always significantly different from zero for the population subsets studied and no epidemic structure was found. These results would indicate that the population structure ofP. avellanaeis clonal either in northern Greece or in central Italy. The recent outbreaks of the bacterium in new areas of hazelnut cultivation would explain the current clonal structure that is persisting over decades.
Genome-wide transcriptional profiling of the response of Staphylococcus aureus to cell-wall-active antibiotics reveals a cell-wall-stress stimulon
Authors: Utaida S. , Dunman P. M. , Macapagal D. , Murphy E. , Projan S. J. , Singh V. K. , Jayaswal R. K. , Wilkinson B. J.
Published: October 2003

The molecular events following inhibition of bacterial peptidoglycan synthesis have not been studied extensively. Previous proteomic studies have revealed that certain proteins are produced in increased amounts upon challenge of Staphylococcus aureus with cell-wall-active antibiotics. In an effort to further those studies, the genes upregulated in their expression in response to cell-wall-active antibiotics have been identified by genome-wide transcriptional profiling using custom-made Affymetrix S. aureus GeneChipsTM. A large number of genes, including ones encoding proteins involved in cell-wall metabolism (including pbpB, murZ, fmt and vraS) and stress responses (including msrA, htrA, psrA and hslO), were upregulated by oxacillin, d-cycloserine or bacitracin. This response may represent the transcriptional signature of a cell-wall stimulon induced in response to cell-wall-active agents. The findings imply that treatment with cell-wall-active antibiotics results in damage to proteins including oxidative damage. Additional genes in a variety of functional categories were upregulated uniquely by each of the three cell-wall-active antibiotics studied. These changes in gene expression can be viewed as an attempt by the organism to defend itself against the antibacterial activities of the agents.
Integrative, multifunctional plasmids for hypha-specific or constitutive expression of green fluorescent protein in Candida albicans
Authors: Staab Janet F. , Bahn Yong-Sun , Sundstrom Paula
Published: October 2003

The authors have engineered plasmid constructs for developmental and constitutive expression of yeast-enhanced green fluorescent protein (yEGFP3) inCandida albicans. The promoter for the hyphae-specific gene Hyphal Wall Protein 1 (HWP1) conferred developmental expression of yEGFP3 in germ tubes and hyphae but not in yeasts or pseudohyphae when targeted to theENO1(enolase) locus in single copy. The pHWP1GFP3 construct allows for the easy visualization ofHWP1promoter activity in individual cells expressing true hyphae without having to prepare RNA for analysis. Constitutive expression of yEGFP was seen in all cell morphologies when theHWP1promoter was replaced with theENO1promoter region. The use of the plasmids for expression of genes other than yEGFP3 was examined by substituting the putativeC. albicansBCY1(SRA1) gene, a component of the cAMP signalling pathway involved in yeast to hyphae transitions, for yEGFP3. Strains overexpressingBCY1from theENO1promoter were inhibited in germ tube formation and filamentation in both liquid and solid media, a phenotype consistent with keeping protein kinase A in its inactive form by association with Bcy1p. The plasmids are suitable for studies of germ tube induction or assessing germ tube formation by measuring yEGFP3 expression, for inducible expression of genes concomitant with germ tube formation by theHWP1promoter, for constitutive expression of genes by theENO1promoter, and for expressing yEGFP3 using a promoter of choice.
Allelic variation in the contiguous loci encoding Candida albicans ALS5, ALS1 and ALS9
Authors: Zhao Xiaomin , Pujol Claude , Soll David R. , Hoyer Lois L.
Published: October 2003

The ALS gene family ofCandida albicansconsists of eight genes (ALS1toALS7andALS9) that encode cell-wall glycoproteins involved in adhesion to host surfaces. Considerable allelic sequence variability has been documented for regions of ALS genes encoding repeated sequences. Although regions of ALS genes encoding non-repeated sequences tend to be more conserved, some sequence divergence has been noted, particularly for alleles ofALS5. Data from theC. albicansgenome sequencing project provided the first indication that strain SC5314 encoded two divergentALS9-like sequences and that three of the ALS genes (ALS5,ALS1andALS9) were contiguous on chromosome 6. Data from PCR analysis and construction of both single and double deletion mutants indicated that the divergent sequences were alleles ofALS9, and located downstream ofALS5andALS1. Sequences within the 5′ domain ofALS9-1andALS9-2varied by 11 %. Within the 3′ domain of each allele, extra nucleotides were present in two regions ofALS9-2, designated Variable Block 1 (VB1) and Variable Block 2 (VB2). Analysis of strains from the five majorC. albicansgenetic clades showed that bothALS9alleles are widespread among these strains, that the sequences ofALS9-1andALS9-2are conserved among diverse strains and that recombinantALS9alleles have been generated duringC. albicansevolution. Phylogenetic analysis showed that, although divergent in sequence,ALS9alleles are more similar to each other than to any other ALS genes. The degree of sequence divergence forALS9greatly exceeds that observed previously for other ALS genes and may result in functional differences for the proteins encoded by the two alleles.
NF-κB mediates inhibition of mesenchymal cell differentiation through a posttranscriptional gene silencing mechanism
Authors: Sitcheran Raquel , Cogswell Patricia C. , Baldwin Albert S.
Published: October 2003

Cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα), potently inhibit the differentiation of mesenchymal cells and down-regulate the expression of Sox9 and MyoD, transcription factors required for chondrocyte and myocyte development. Previously, we demonstrated that NF-κB controls TNFα-mediated suppression of myogenesis through a mechanism involving MyoD mRNA down-regulation. Here, we show that NF-κB also suppresses chondrogenesis and destabilizes Sox9 mRNA levels. Multiple copies of an mRNA cis-regulatory motif (5′-ACUACAG-3′) are necessary and sufficient for NF-κB-mediated Sox9 and MyoD down-regulation. Thus, in response to cytokine signaling, NF-κB modulates the differentiation of mesenchymal-derived cell lineages via RNA sequence-dependent, posttranscriptional down-regulation of key developmental regulators.
DNA Enrichment by Allele-Specific Hybridization (DEASH): A Novel Method for Haplotyping and for Detecting Low-Frequency Base Substitutional Variants and Recombinant DNA Molecules
Authors: Jeffreys Alec J. , May Celia A.
Published: October 2003

Detecting rare sequence variants in genomic DNA is central to the analysis of de novo mutation and recombination events and the detection of rare pathological mutations in mixed cell populations. Current PCR techniques suffer from noise that limits detection to variants present at a frequency of at least 10-4-10-5per cell. We nowdescribe an alternative approach that recovers genomic DNA molecules containing a known single-nucleotide variant by hybridization selection using a biotinylated allele-specific oligonucleotide, followed by hybrid capture on streptavidin-coated paramagnetic beads and subsequent analysis by PCR. This technique of DNA enrichment by allele-specific hybridization (DEASH) is fast, effective for all tested single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), and can recover large (>10 kb) single-stranded molecules. A single round of DEASH is effective in separating haplotypes from genomic DNA and can not only readily detect and validate DNA molecules containing a single base change at a frequency of 10-5per cell, but can also place these changes within the context of an extended haplotype. This technique offers a newapproach to the analysis of mutation and recombination, and has the potential to detect very rare de novo base substitutions.
Single Nucleotide Variation Analysis in 65 Candidate Genes for CNS Disorders in a Representative Sample of the European Population
Authors: Freudenberg-Hua Yun , Freudenberg Jan , Kluck Nadine , Cichon Sven , Propping Peter , Nöthen Markus M.
Published: October 2003

The detailed investigation of variation in functionally important regions of the human genome is expected to promote understanding of genetically complex diseases. We resequenced 65 candidate genes for CNS disorders in an average of 85 European individuals. The minor allele frequency (MAF), an indicator of weak purifying selection, was lowest in radical amino acid alterations, whereas similar MAF was observed for synonymous variants and conservative amino acid alterations. In noncoding sequences, variants located in CpG islands tended to have a lower MAF than those outside CpG islands. The transition/transversion ratio was increased among both synonymous and conservative variants compared with noncoding variants. Conversely, the transition/transversion ratio was lowest among radical amino acid alterations. Furthermore, among nonsynonymous variants, transversions displayed lower MAF than did transitions. This suggests that transversions are associated with functionally important amino acid alterations. By comparing our data with public SNP databases, we found that variants with lower allele frequency are underrepresented in these databases. Therefore, radical variants obtain distinctively lower database coverage. However, those variants appear to be under weak purifying selection and thus could play a role in the etiology of genetically complex diseases.
An Evolutionary Analysis of Orphan Genes in Drosophila
Authors: Domazet-Loso Tomislav , Tautz Diethard
Published: October 2003

Orphan genes are protein-coding regions that have no recognizable homolog in distantly related species. A substantial fraction of coding regions in any genome sequenced consists of orphan genes, but the evolutionary and functional significance of orphan genes is not understood. We present a reanalysis of the Drosophila melanogaster proteome that shows that there are still between 26% and 29% of all proteins without a significant match with noninsect sequences, and that these orphans are underrepresented in genetic screens. To analyze the characteristics of orphan genes in Drosophila, we used sequence comparisons between cDNAs retrieved from two Drosophila yakuba libraries and their corresponding D. melanogaster orthologs. We find that a cDNA library from adults yields twice as many orphan genes as such a library from embryos. The orphan genes evolve on average more than three times faster than nonorphan genes, although the width of the evolutionary rate distribution is similar for the two classes. In particular, some orphan genes show very low substitution rates that are comparable to otherwise highly conserved genes. We propose a model suggesting that orphans may be involved in the evolution of adaptive traits, and that slow-evolving orphan genes may be particularly interesting candidate genes for identifying lineage-specific adaptations.
Ethnic India: A Genomic View, With Special Reference to Peopling and Structure
Authors: Basu Analabha , Mukherjee Namita , Roy Sangita , Sengupta Sanghamitra , Banerjee Sanat , Chakraborty Madan , Dey Badal , Roy Monami , Roy Bidyut , Bhattacharyya Nitai P. , Roychoudhury Susanta , Majumder Partha P.
Published: October 2003

We report a comprehensive statistical analysis of data on 58 DNA markers (mitochondrial [mt], Y-chromosomal, and autosomal) and sequence data of the mtHVS1 from a large number of ethnically diverse populations of India. Our results provide genomic evidence that (1) there is an underlying unity of female lineages in India, indicating that the initial number of female settlers may have been small; (2) the tribal and the caste populations are highly differentiated; (3) the Austro-Asiatic tribals are the earliest settlers in India, providing support to one anthropological hypothesis while refuting some others; (4) a major wave of humans entered India through the northeast; (5) the Tibeto-Burman tribals share considerable genetic commonalities with the Austro-Asiatic tribals, supporting the hypothesis that they may have shared a common habitat in southern China, but the two groups of tribals can be differentiated on the basis of Y-chromosomal haplotypes; (6) the Dravidian tribals were possibly widespread throughout India before the arrival of the Indo-European-speaking nomads, but retreated to southern India to avoid dominance; (7) formation of populations by fission that resulted in founder and drift effects have left their imprints on the genetic structures of contemporary populations; (8) the upper castes show closer genetic affinities with Central Asian populations, although those of southern India are more distant than those of northern India; (9) historical gene flow into India has contributed to a considerable obliteration of genetic histories of contemporary populations so that there is at present no clear congruence of genetic and geographical or sociocultural affinities.
Two Distinct Modes of Microsatellite Mutation Processes: Evidence From the Complete Genomic Sequences of Nine Species
Authors: Dieringer Daniel , Schlötterer Christian
Published: October 2003

We surveyed microsatellite distribution in 10 completely sequenced genomes. Using a permutation-based statistic, we assessed for all 10 genomes whether the microsatellite distribution significantly differed from expectations. Consistent with previous reports, we observed a highly significant excess of long microsatellites. Focusing on short microsatellites containing onlya few repeat units, we demonstrate that this repeat class is significantly underrepresented in most genomes. This pattern was observed across different repeat types. Computer simulations indicated that neither base substitutions nor a combination of length-dependent slippage and base substitutions could explain the observed pattern of microsatellite distribution. When we introduced one additional mutation process, a length-independent slippage (indel slippage) operating at repeats with few repetitions, our computer simulations captured the observed pattern of microsatellite distribution.
Adaptive Evolution ofMRG, a Neuron-Specific Gene Family Implicated in Nociception
Authors: Choi Sun Shim , Lahn Bruce T.
Published: October 2003

TheMRGgene family (also known asSNSR) belongs to theG-protein-coupled receptor(GPCR) superfamily, is expressed specifically in nociceptive neurons, and is implicated in the modulation of nociception. Here, we show thatKa/Ks(the ratio between nonsynonymous and synonymous substitution rates) displays distinct profiles along the coding regions ofMRG, with peaks (Ka/Ks> 1) corresponding to extracellular domains, and valleys (Ka/Ks< 1) corresponding to transmembrane and cytoplasmic domains. The extracellular domains are also characterized by a significant excess of radical amino acid changes. Statistical analysis shows that positive selection is by far the most suitable model to account for the nucleotide substitution patterns inMRG. Together, these results demonstrate that the extracellular domains of the MRG receptor family, which presumably partake in ligand binding, have experienced strong positive selection. Such selection is likely directed at altering the sensitivity and/or selectivity of nociceptive neurons to aversive stimuli. Thus, our finding suggests pain perception as an aspect of the nervous system that may have experienced a surprising level of adaptive evolution.
Extensive Exon Reshuffling Over Evolutionary Time Coupled to Trans-Splicing in Drosophila
Authors: Labrador Mariano , Corces Victor G.
Published: October 2003

The relative position of exons in genes can be altered only after large structural mutations. These mutations are frequently deleterious, impairing transcription, splicing, RNA stability, or protein function, as well as imposing strong inflexibility to protein evolution. Alternative cis- or trans-splicing may overcome the need for genomic structural stability, allowing genes to encode new proteins without the need to maintain a specific exon order. Trans-splicing in the Drosophila melanogaster modifier of mdg4 (mod[mdg4]) gene is the best documented example in which this process plays a major role in the maturation of mRNAs. Comparison of the genomic organization of this locus among several insect species suggests that the divergence between the lineages of the mosquito Anopheles gambiae and D. melanogaster involved an extensive exon rearrangement, requiring >11 breakpoints within the mod(mdg4) gene. The massive reorganization of the locus also included the deletion or addition of a new function as well as exon duplications. Whereas both DNA strands are sense strands in the Drosophila gene, the coding region in mosquito lays in a single strand, suggesting that trans-splicing may have originated in the Drosophila lineage and might have been the triggering factor for such a dramatic reorganization.
RNAi Microarray Analysis in Cultured Mammalian Cells
Authors: Mousses Spyro , Caplen Natasha J. , Cornelison Robert , Weaver Don , Basik Mark , Hautaniemi Sampsa , Elkahloun Abdel G. , Lotufo Roberto A. , Choudary Ashish , Dougherty Edward R. , Suh Ed , Kallioniemi Olli
Published: October 2003

RNA interference (RNAi) mediated by small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) is a powerful new tool for analyzing gene knockdown phenotypes in living mammalian cells. To facilitate large-scale, high-throughput functional genomics studies using RNAi, we have developed a microarray-based technology for highly parallel analysis. Specifically, siRNAs in a transfection matrix were first arrayed on glass slides, overlaid with a monolayer of adherent cells, incubated to allow reverse transfection, and assessed for the effects of gene silencing by digital image analysis at a single cell level. Validation experiments with HeLa cells stably expressing GFP showed spatially confined, sequence-specific, time- and dose-dependent inhibition of green fluorescence for those cells growing directly on microspots containing siRNA targeting the GFP sequence. Microarray-based siRNA transfections analyzed with a custom-made quantitative image analysis system produced results that were identical to those from traditional well-based transfection, quantified by flow cytometry. Finally, to integrate experimental details, image analysis, data display, and data archiving, we developed a prototype information management system for high-throughput cell-based analyses. In summary, this RNAi microarray platform, together with ongoing efforts to develop large-scale human siRNA libraries, should facilitate genomic-scale cell-based analyses of gene function.
High-Throughput Selection of Effective RNAi Probes for Gene Silencing
Authors: Kumar Rajeev , Conklin Douglas S. , Mittal Vivek
Published: October 2003

RNA interference (RNAi) is a process of sequence-specific posttranscriptional gene silencing mediated by double-stranded RNA. RNAi has recently emerged as a powerful genetic tool to analyze gene function in mammalian cells. The power of this method is limited however, by the uncertainty in predicting the efficacy of small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) in silencing a gene. This has imposed serious limitations not only for small-scale but also for high-throughput RNAi screening initiatives in mammalian systems. We have developed a reliable and quantitative approach for the rapid and efficient identification of the most effective siRNA against any gene. The efficacy of siRNA sequences is monitored by their ability to reduce the expression of cognate target-reporter fusions with easily quantified readouts. Finally, using micro array-based cell transfections, we demonstrate an unlimited potential of this approach in high-throughput screens for identifying effective siRNA probes for silencing genes in mammalian systems. This approach is likely to have implications in the use of RNAi as a reverse genetic tool for analyzing mammalian gene function on a genome-wide scale.
Development of Human Protein Reference Database as an Initial Platform for Approaching Systems Biology in Humans
Authors: Peri Suraj , Navarro J. Daniel , Amanchy Ramars , Kristiansen Troels Z. , Jonnalagadda Chandra Kiran , Surendranath Vineeth , Niranjan Vidya , Muthusamy Babylakshmi , Gandhi T.K.B. , Gronborg Mads , Ibarrola Nieves , Deshpande Nandan , Shanker K. , Shivashankar H.N. , Rashmi B.P. , Ramya M.A. , Zhao Zhixing , Chandrika K.N. , Padma N. , Harsha H.C. , Yatish A.J. , Kavitha M.P. , Menezes Minal , Choudhury Dipanwita Roy , Suresh Shubha , Ghosh Neelanjana , Saravana R. , Chandran Sreenath , Krishna Subhalakshmi , Joy Mary , Anand Sanjeev K. , Madavan V. , Joseph Ansamma , Wong Guang W. , Schiemann William P. , Constantinescu Stefan N. , Huang Lily , Khosravi-Far Roya , Steen Hanno , Tewari Muneesh , Ghaffari Saghi , Blobe Gerard C. , Dang Chi V. , Garcia Joe G.N. , Pevsner Jonathan , Jensen Ole N. , Roepstorff Peter , Deshpande Krishna S. , Chinnaiyan Arul M. , Hamosh Ada , Chakravarti Aravinda , Pandey Akhilesh
Published: October 2003

Human Protein Reference Database (HPRD) is an object database that integrates a wealth of information relevant to the function of human proteins in health and disease. Data pertaining to thousands of protein-protein interactions, posttranslational modifications, enzyme/substrate relationships, disease associations, tissue expression, and subcellular localization were extracted from the literature for a nonredundant set of 2750 human proteins. Almost all the information was obtained manually by biologists who read and interpreted >300,000 published articles during the annotation process. This database, which has an intuitive query interface allowing easy access to all the features of proteins, was built by using open source technologies and will be freely available at http://www.hprd.org to the academic community. This unified bioinformatics platform will be useful in cataloging and mining the large number of proteomic interactions and alterations that will be discovered in the postgenomic era.
Mass privatization in Central and East European countries
Authors: Backhaus Jürgen G.
Published: October 2003

Mass privatization is one form of changing the property rights regime of formerly publicly‐owned means of production in the former peoples’ republics of Central and Eastern Europe. From an economic point of view, the central question at this transition is whether the change in property rights regimes significantly and benevolently affects the governing structure of the assets in question. This short essay attempts to provide a framework which is theoretical enough to guide meaningful questions, and open and naïve enough not to preclude relevant insight. The contribution of this article consists in a theoretically driven questionnaire which, based on the current state of the property rights theory of the firm, the relevant aspects of law and economics as well as financial economics, tries to elicit scholarly information about issues of institutional detail. Ultimately, the aim is to show how the different approaches to mass privatization can be evaluated from the point of view of creating viable governing structures.
Polish mass privatisation scheme
Authors: Sztyber Wladyslaw
Published: October 2003

The Polish programme of National Investment Funds is a particular form of mass privatisation. The purpose of this programme is to implement a privatisation of a definite part of the state property, to create conditions for all adult Polish citizens residing in Poland to participate in the distribution of the value of that property, to provide favourable conditions of development to the enterprises covered by the programme and to improve the effectiveness of their authorisation. This article analyses the extent to which these objectives have been attained.
The impact of Czech mass privatisation on corporate governance
Authors: Hanousek Jan , Kočenda Evžen
Published: October 2003

This paper discusses the privatisation process in the Czech Republic and its influence on corporate governance. While in 1989 the private sector totalled less than 1 per cent of the GDP, at the end of 1996 more than 70 per cent of the GDP was produced by the private sector. Large‐scale privatisation brought companies out of state ownership, but disperse ownership and lack of regulations created an extremely soft management environment. Since 1995 investment funds have started to reorganise their portfolio and more and more companies have undertaken the task of restructuralisation to become competitive. Though a considerable amount of data is still lacking, it can be concluded that the improvement in the profitability of the surveyed enterprises was due to improvements in corporate governance.
Quasi‐effective governance: Slovak mass privatization 1991‐1996
Authors: Vitkovicˇ Marián
Published: October 2003

Although mass privatizations in Slovakia had the same starting point as those in the Czech Republic, mass privatisation in Slovakia led to a different ownership structure, which also partly reflects the different industry structure. Proximately to political decision making of the new management is close and explicit. The new structure lends itself to targeted industrial policy.
Bulgarian mass privatisation scheme
Authors: Tchipev Plamen
Published: October 2003

Striving to shorten the time‐period necessary for the huge transfer of the property needed by the ongoing economic reforms, Bulgaria developed a mass privatisation scheme (MPS). Based on specific financial intermediaries called privatisation funds (PF) that scheme encounters a major problem – to facilitate the establishment of an effective system for corporate governance of the privatised companies. Can it succeed in resolving that problem? This paper provides an analysis of mass privatisation objectives, the legal and economic frameworks of privatisation, funds’ activities, their goals and portfolio structures. It examines the types of funds’ founders and the presence of different groups among their shareholders. Additionally, it outlines the role of financial institutions in the process. The study is based on the PFs’ prospectus for capital rise. Its results should not be seen as final, since the process is competitive, and not all funds will be able to achieve what they strive for in their prospectus.
Two horsemen of the Apocalypse
Authors: Lim Meng‐Kin
Published: October 2003

Throughout the war‐ and disease‐ridden history of our world, more have died from pathogens than have perished by the sword. Both kinds of war – one seen and one unseen – threaten our very existence. Yet we seem to have learned nothing from our experience on both fronts. What chance is there that our species will survive into the next millennium, as microbes almost certainly will?
Is intellectual capitalism the future wealth of organisations?
Authors: Karp Tom
Published: October 2003

This article examines the future of intellectual capitalism. It is concluded that intellectual capital has the potential to become the primary wealth creator in most business organisations. The premise for this conclusion is that the knowledge intensive economy experienced by most companies today makes it increasingly difficult to gain a competitive advantage through traditional and tangible competitive weapons alone. It is however clear that the business case for intellectual capitalism must demonstrate sustained earnings as a result of investments in intellectual matters, and it remains to be seen if this will happen in all industries. Intellectual capitalism also needs to mature as a system before intellectual capital will be more measurable, accountable, risk controllable, thereby more manageable, but the progress of such work is slow for the time being. The most important challenge for intellectual capitalism is to develop the necessary organisational platform of social capital, on which intellectual capital can grow. Business leaders wanting to capitalise on their organisation’s intellectual assets, must develop the culture of their organisation. This is not easily done, and cannot be achieved by investing in another knowledge management system or waiting passively for standard setters to come up with new accounting methods for intellectual capital.
Constructing peace scenarios for the Middle East
Authors: Glenn Jerome C. , Gordon Theodore J.
Published: October 2003

In the aftermath of the Iraq war, global attention to the resolution of the Israeli‐Palestinian conflict has increased, but the way ahead still seems as difficult as before. The lack of trust on both sides has led to the development of the internationally backed “Road map for peace” that avoids direct negotiation between the parties. This inability to communicate, cooperate and compromise could be alleviated by plausible peace scenarios – stories connecting the future and present for the Middle East. This article reports on the results so far of the Millennium Project’s study to create such scenarios.
(How) do regulated prices affect competitive entry?
Authors: Lehman Dale E.
Published: October 2003

Explores how in the USA the Telecommunications Act of 1996 was designed to usher in an era of competition in all telecommunications markets. In practice, the initial explosion of competitive local exchange carriers (CLECs) and an $87 billion publicly traded valuation has fallen instead to less than 200 CLECs and a value of only $4 billion; and has been beset by litigation over the Act and the cost standard for implementing the Act’s unbundling provisions. Reviews studies to date that attempt to determine the extent to which the prices for unbundled network elements (UNEs) have affected competitive entry into local exchange markets; presents new evidence and summarizes the effect of UNE policy on competitive entry.
Who is that (wo)man in the street? From the normalisation of protest to the normalisation of the protester
Authors: VAN AELST PETER , WALGRAVE STEFAAN
Published: October 2003

Abstract.The time has long since passed that protests and demonstrations were regarded as the possible beginning of violent revolutionary ferment. Venting dissatisfaction or making demands in the streets has become commonplace in our ‘demonstration–democracy’. In this article we examine whether this normalisation of street protest also means that more heterogeneous groups of people take to the streets. Have citizens become potentially peaceful protesters or is protest politics still the domain of union militants, progressive intellectuals, and committed students? In answering these questions we will use the three research methods most commonly used for studying collective action: population surveys, protest event–analysis and interviews with protesters at demonstrations.
Some political aspects of taxation and distribution in federal governments: An application of the theory of the core
Authors: CORAM ALEX
Published: October 2003

Abstract. The purpose of this paper is to study questions about taxation and revenue sharing n federal systems. It is particularly concerned with the effect of the heterogeneity of regions on the pattern of taxation and distribution and on the capacity of the central government to retain revenue for its own purposes. It is argued that one useful way to study such questions is to treat federations as coalitions that try to maximise their returns from taxations schemes. This approach is developed using the theory of the core from cooperative game theory. Emphasis is placed on the political constraints on the capacity of the central government.
Defending democracy: Reactions to political extremism in inter–war Europe
Authors: CAPOCCIA GIOVANNI
Published: October 2003

Abstract. While the strategies of political actors and institutions have been largely analyzed with reference to cases of democratic breakdown, democratic survival has often been viewed as a consequence of socio–economic and cultural ‘preconditions’. The analysis of successful reactions to strong extremist challenges in three cases of democratic survival (Czechoslovakia, Finland and Belgium in the inter–war period) against the background of two cases of breakdown in the same historical context (Italy and the Weimar Republic) is a useful complement to this view. The analysis of the selected cases shows how a stable coalition of democratic forces can effectively protect the democratic system from dangerous extremist attacks by pursuing both repressive and inclusive strategies.
Ideology–Driven opinion formation in Europe: The case of attitudes towards the third sector in Sweden
Authors: KUMLIN STAFFAN
Published: October 2003

Abstract. This paper uses attitudes towards the third sector in Sweden to test general assumptions about how citizens in West European political systems apply ideological schemas as shortcuts to political preferences. Attitudes towards the third sector are found to be affected by all ideological schemas reflected in the Swedish party system (state–market, Christian traditionalism, and growth–ecology). Contrary to what is implied by findings from America, these effects are very stable across socio–economic groups (especially those of the dominant statemarket schema). Similarly, no interaction effects of political sophistication could be traced, and the relative impact of the schemas remains the same regardless of whether or not the third sector is presented as an alternative to the welfare state. The implications of these findings for the nature of public opinion formation in ideologically clear and structured political systems are discussed.
Politicians on TV News: Getting attention in Dutch and German election campaigns
Authors: SCHOENBACH KLAUS , DE RIDDER JAN , LAUF EDMUND
Published: October 2003

Abstract. Different strategies apply in the Netherlands and in Germany when TV channels have to decide how often politicians are mentioned or shown in the news during national election campaigns. Extensive content analyses in the 1990s suggest that Dutch political and media traditions promote a more equally distributed attention to different political positions. In Germany, TV news focuses almost exclusively on the incumbent candidate for the top function of the national government (the office of Chancellor) and his challengers. The likely causes are not only the political system and the particular circumstances of the 1990s (with the pre–eminence of Helmut Kohl), but also recent developments in the way in which German journalists define their task.
Left–right party ideology and government policies: A meta–analysis
Authors: Imbeau Louis M. , Pétry François , Lamari Moktar
Published: October 2003

Abstract. This paper summarizes how the partisan influence literature assesses the relationship between the left–right party composition of government and policy outputs through a meta–analysis of 693 parameter estimates of the party–policy relationship published in 43 empirical studies. Based on a simplified ‘combined tests’ meta–analytic technique, we show that the average correlation between the party composition of government and policy outputs is not significantly different from zero. A mutivariate logistic regression analysis examines how support for partisan theory is affected by a subset of mediating factors that can be applied to all the estimates under review. The analysis demonstrates that there are clearly identifiable conditions under which the probability of support for partisan theory can be substantially increased. We conclude that further research is needed on institutional and socio–economic determinants of public policy.