bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
La musique Arabe en Israël: sa préservation, sa rénovation
Authors: Hofman Shlomo
Published: April 2006

Le sort de la musique arabe en Israël pourrait susciter de sérieux doutes parmi les musiciens qui ne connaissent pas assez l'aspect culturel de ce pays, ou sa musique en général, ou celle de sa population arabe en particulier.

Le fait est qu'il existe ici, dans le domaine de la culture musicale arabe, des conditions bien différentes de celles des pays voisins essentiellement arabes, ce qui entraîne des conséquences pour la préservation et la rénovation de la musique arabe. Sur le plan démographique, la population arabe en Israël constitue une minorité (12 per cent environ de l'ensemble de la population), comprenant, d'une part, des musulmans, des chrétiens, et leur parents les druzes, d'autre part, des bédouins mi-nomades et des villageois—les deux groupes vivant dans un milieu plus ou moins arabe—et des citadins qui, par contre, sont mêlés à la population juive des grandes villes (employés, étudiants, commerçants, etc.).
The Bourdon of the East–Its Regional and Universal Trends
Authors: Gerson-Kiwi Edith
Published: April 2006

In the general re-orientation concerning the origins and the true nature of Western polyphony, the bourdon techniques of the Orient are considered as one of the basic forms of simultaneous sound combination. Though not “polyphony” in the accepted meaning of the word, the bourdon has generated a number of polyphonic devices, a kind of proto-polyphony which may perhaps be the living archetypes behind the dead letters of notated music of the Middle Ages, and of their actual performance.

Though the bourdon has already been acknowledged as one of the essential polyphonic forms of the Mediterranean countries, neither the Islamic countries nor central India were explored as to their possible contribution in the field of folk polyphony. Paradoxically, it is just the so-called “monophonic” raga and maqam techniques which are closely bound to the various bourdon styles, and which therefore are actually a polyphonic performance.
Haphazard Assembly as a Pre-Musical Form of Polyphony
Authors: Hoerburger Felix
Published: April 2006

A few years ago I published a short article on a strange phenomenon, which I dared to call “polyphony.” In the meanwhile, Curt Sachs treated a very similar phenomenon in his last book and I felt encouraged to take up this problem once more. I mentioned two examples.

In a village in southern Rumania, I observed some thirty or forty women going to the churchyard; there, each woman stood in front of a tomb and sang a song. Each woman sang a different melody and there was no musical relation between one song and the other. And yet the whole formed a uniform expression in a higher, let us say, extra-musical sense.
L'improvisation et l'Ornementation en Orient et en Occident
Authors: Hacobian Z.
Published: April 2006

Il semble que le rô1e important de l'improvisation dans l'évolution de la musique soit quelque peu oublié de nos jours, ainsi que le fait qu'elle peut être, souvent, considérée comme la base de toute production musicale. L'étude de la constitution et de l'évolution de nombreuses formes musicales est toujours révélatrice à cet égard et ceci surtout aux époques où l'artiste était à la fois créateur et interprète. Ne peut-on pas dire, en exagérant à peine, qu'avant l'invention d'une notation précise toute musique était plus ou moins improvisée ?

Il est certain que des formes telles que Prélude, Toccata et Ricercare ont été, à l'origine, des formes d'improvisation, mais on ne peut naturellement pas limiter à quelques formes ni à une certaine époque ce qu'on pourrait appeler “tendance a l'improvisation”, volonté qui se manifeste presqu' à toutes les époques, sous des aspects différents.
The Synthesis, Perception, and Specification of Musical Time
Authors: Babbitt Milton
Published: April 2006

The various notational means of signifying and conveying the composer's decisions and specifications to the various media for the electronic production of musical sound are probably temporary both in their exact nature and variety. But this should not be construed as a basis for concluding that these notational practices are, therefore, of consequence only to the historian of the ephemeral, or to the operators and designers of such media. The characteristics of these notations and, indeed, the very fact of their probable ephemerality embody implications of far more than mere “historical” interest, implications which extend significantly beyond the nature of the current means and even the structures of the particular media.
Transcription and Transnotation in Ethnomusicology
Authors: Herzog Avigdor
Published: April 2006

The problems of transcription and transnotation in ethnomusicology are especially important in Israel today because the concentration of so many different ethnic groups has led to increased research in their various folk musics. Within the traditional system of musical notation only pitch and duration of a sound can be reflected, while colour and dynamic level must be conveyed by other means. Obviously, such notation is insufficient for the ethnomusicologist who needs an objective, impersonal account of all the musical qualities of that which is actually performed.

Various solutions to this problem have been proposed. Analytical transcription incorporates all elements of the music and its performance—i.e., not only the pitches sung, but the artistic nuances of the performer as well. The problems which arise here are mainly those of accuracy within the framework of our standard notation. Even with the addition of special symbols, truly accurate results remain impossible to attain.
Towards the Exploration of National Idiosyncrasies in Wandering Song-Tunes
Authors: Salmen Walter
Published: April 2006

IT has often been shown that wandering song-tunes are genuine expressions of national idiosyncrasies; that the physiognomy of a people and a province can be judged from folk songs, which, as Goethe says, ‘crystallise the characteristics of a nation.’

The wandering of melodies and melodic patterns over time and space was discussed by W. Tappert as early as 1865 in a very stimulating musical study, without, however, resulting in any direct solution of the present problem. Further progress was made by 0. Fleischer in his publications in SIMG, Vols. 1 and 4, which were later followed by several shorter essays. In more expansive style and with the assistance of indispensable synoptic melodic tables, W. Danckert continued these attempts at analysis and description, chiefly in his book, Das Europäische Volkslied (1939), in a manner which, for the most part, was neither free from prejudice nor convincing.
La musique à l'époque de la peinture paléolithique
Authors: Wiora Walter
Published: April 2006

On connaît les plastiques et les figures célèbres gravées dans les parois de l'époque paléolithique, c'est-à-dire créées pendant le dernier stade de la période glaciaire environ vingt cinq à dix mille ans avant Jésus-Christ. Elles nous prouvent combien on se trompe en préjugeant que l'art des ces temps ne s'élève pas au-dessus d'un niveau tout à fait primitif. Les hommes qui nous ont laissé de telles oeuvres ont-ils developpé également la musique?

Les peintures en Espagne de Test et en Afrique du nord datent d'une époque plus récente que l'art francocantabrique, mais malgré de grandes différences quelques traits principaux du style leur sont communs. Les groupes dont il s'agit n'étaient plus des chasseurs de niveau assez bas tuant le gibier de tout près à l'aide de pierres, de massues ou de lances primitives mais des chasseurs plus évolués se servant des flèches et de javelots pour atteindre le bison, le renne et d'autres grosses bêtes. Ils chassaient dans les vastes steppes et tiraient à longue distance.
Philologie et Folklore Musical: Les chants de pâtres avant leur émergence folklorique
Authors: Pinon Roger
Published: April 2006

L'un des genres les plus étudiés du folklore musical universel est depuis longtemps celui des chants de pâtres, dont les Suisses passent pour détenir les plus beaux spécimens, le “ranz des vaches” en français, le “Kuhreihen” en allemand.

De plus grands connaisseurs que moi ont disserté de ce genre, et l'on pourrait se demander ce qu'il reste à en dire.

Les ethnographes, en effet, ont bien vu la relation existant entre les chants de pâtres et certains modes de vie économique, l'élevage et l'agriculture au stade pré- machiniste. En Europe occidentale on a bien mis en relief l'association intime entre les chants de pâtres et le système de la vaine pâture.
Musical Terms in a Chinese Dictionary of the First Century
Authors: Picken Laurence
Published: April 2006

The dictionary to which the title refers is the Explanation of the Written Characters (Shuo Wên Chieh Tzŭ), compiled by Hsü Shên of the Later Han Dynasty, and dating from about 100 A.D. It would be wrong to suppose that this dictionary mirrors the Chinese spoken language of the first century, for one of the author's objects was to provide ready access to archaic words. Nevertheless, the dictionary presents us with a vocabulary, albeit a literary vocabulary, at a point in time; and it seemed profitable to work through it in search of terms relating to music, musical instruments, and dance. In the course of this search, a fourth category of entries relevant to the field of interest was discovered, that of sounds. At the end of the search, more than two hundred items had been noted, many of which were interrelated. They could be re-classified in various ways; and from the collection as a whole there emerges not only a picture of the world of music of a Chinese scholar of the first century, but a more general picture of the world of natural sounds, of the classification of sounds, and of the place of musical sounds in this classification.
The Music of Mauritania
Authors: Nikiprowetzky Tolia
Published: April 2006

If the music of Mauritania has inspired only limited study till now it is because of its elusiveness. We know it to be governed by strict rules, though uncodified. The existence of parallel yet diverse traditions complicates detailed analysis. It should be remembered that Mauritania covers an area almost twice that of France. Long distances and poor communications—further aggravated by the rigours of the climate—have encouraged the growth of local artistic peculiarities.

Nevertheless, and in spite of this regional diversity, it is possible to perceive a certain basic national music. This derives from obedience to the same fundamental rules, and the use of a common fund of melodic patterns, carried down through the ages and recognizable beneath their sundry local modifications. The imperviousness of Mauritanian music to neighbouring influence adds further justification to a study of it as a single art-source.
Rhythmic and Melodic Elements in Negro Music of Venezuela
Authors: Ramón Luis Felipe , Rivera Luis Felipe
Published: April 2006

The study of the different rhythms that Venezuelan negroes beat on their drums is at present in an analytical and classificatory phase. The Folklore Institute of the Education Department of Caracas possesses a comprehensive record of these rhythms, gradually built up from 1940 to the present. It is unlikely that types of rhythms other than those recorded here remain to be found in Venezuela.

The principal toques (rhythmic sounds from a drum), and songs accompanied by drums (known as golpes in most places where they have been found), have different distinguishing popular names. In the central zone, Barlovento, towards Eastern Venezuela, there are the golpes of the so-called “round drum,” and of the “big drum” or tambor mina. Further west, in the coastal zone of the Federal District, in the State of Aragua, and in parts of Carabobo, there are other golpes, the names of which derive from the lyrics, for example: El Alabado (The Sainted One); El Macizón; María Estaba Lavando (Mary Was Washing), etc. There is also another type of golpe, used only during religious processions, namely the sangueo, played in the central states of Aragua, Carabobo and Yaracuy.
Les variantes folkloriques et les conditions de leur survivance*
Authors: Varga Ovidiu
Published: April 2006

Une des questions qui préoccupent beaucoup, à l'heure actuelle, les folkloristes roumains est celle des variantes folkloriques contemporaines.

Nous n'étudions pas le folklore comme un produit géologique, comme une roche pétrifiée une fois pour toutes, mais comme un phénomène social et historique en continuelle transformation. Le folklore en tant que forme de la conscience seciale est apparu par nécessité sociale, en remplissant à chaque époque historique une fonction sociale donnée. Chaque peuple, chaque génération a créé, modelé, transformé son folklore selon les conditions sociales et historiques, selon son profil moral et ses besoins spirituels.
The Distinction between Folk and Popular Music
Authors: Karpeles Maud
Published: April 2006

I have only twice before had the temerity to speak at a Conference of the IFMC. This will be my third and last time.

I feel I owe my audience an apology because my subject will be the same as on previous occasions and I have little to say that has not already been said many times. But the subject is such an important one that it is good to be constantly reminded of the problems.

For the last two hundred years, in fact ever since the awareness of folk song emerged during the Romantic period, scholars have argued over the definition of folk song. As Goethe said: “Man schreibt so oft den Namen Volkslieder aus und weiss nicht immer ganz deutlich was man sich dabei denken soil.” And if that were true in Goethe's time how much truer is it today when little distinction is drawn by the general public between folk and popular song.
Traditional Folksong and “Folklore” Singers
Authors: Bose Fritz
Published: April 2006

It is said that folk song is dead. And if under folk song we understand what Gottfried Herder, the creator of this word, had in mind, then this may be applied at least to large parts of Europe. Herder called folk songs “the true, veritable, characteristic songs of a people,” and made a clear distinction between street ballads, art songs, and the popular products of the educated classes. Even if one sees in real folk song, as did Béla Bartók, only the songs of tradition, that is, those songs transmitted orally among the less educated classes (as especially among the peasantry in former times), and if one acknowledges only that product as being real folk song which adapts a new form when transmitted from generation to generation, then we can well assert that this true folk song no longer exists, at least with us. We should not however think of the peasantry as the sole class who cultivated folk song, as Bartók did. Folk song has flourished at all times, even within the compass of urban civilization. In former times, as today, it was created there and was then picked up and transmitted by the country folk.
Towards the Comparative Study of the Structure of Traditional Repertoires
Authors: Nettl Bruno , Blum Stephen
Published: April 2006

A major characteristic of ethnomusicology is that it deals with bodies of music, or repertories, variously defined. In contrast to the kind of music-historical studies which involve the works of one composer, or which concentrate on important single, individual compositions, ethnomusicological studies deal primarily with corpora of music which originate from one culture, or which are used by one culture for a particular purpose. Thus, the study of a tribal style, or of the style of a functional group of songs or pieces such as ballads or funeral songs, is the central type of publication in this field.
The Mbira in Cartagena
Authors: List George
Published: April 2006

The mbira or “thumb piano” is reputed to be the only musical instrument which had its origin in sub-Saharan Africa. It is known in various regions of that continent by numerous names, of which mbira, mbila, sansa, or sensa are perhaps the most common. The instrument consists of a number of forged iron strips of different lengths mounted on a board. One end of each of these metal keys is fixed, in most instruments by insertion between metal bridges. The free ends are plucked, usually by the thumbs and forefingers, whence the name “thumb piano.” Small instruments are played while being held in the palms of the two hands. Larger ones are held on the lap. The board may be placed within an open calabash which acts as a resonator or the metal keys may be mounted on a wooden box rather than a board. The instrument diffused to America with the importation of slaves from Africa and is known in Brazil, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and Haiti.
Performing Styles in the Dances of the Carpathian Basin*
Authors: Martin György
Published: April 2006

The Carpathian basin is well suited to the investigation of performing styles in folk dance, because its dance culture is relatively homogeneous despite the variety of peoples, languages and ways of life encountered in this region. This fact invites an investigation of performing styles on a comparative basis. Moreover, the performing styles of one of the most characteristic dance dialects in Central Europe deserve close attention from the viewpoint of the cultural history of Europe as a whole.

The general structure and characteristic features of the dance stock of the Carpathian basin will be here outlined, and comparative references to the neighbouring Balkan dance dialects will help to emphasize the main characteristics of and features peculiar to the area in question.
Bohemian Folk Music: Traditional and Contemporary Aspects†
Authors: Markl Jaroslav , Karbusický Vladimír
Published: April 2006

The earliest musical documentary sources of Bohemian folk music date from the fourteenth century; but up to the end of the eighteenth century the volume of such sources is small. Despite insufficient historical evidence, however, it has been possible to determine the main developmental trends of earlier times from studies of literary and iconographic evidence and, in particular, from the wealth of church hymns for congregational use.

From the beginning, folk music did not pursue a course separate from that of professional performance. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in particular, the inter-relationship between these two was highly beneficial to both. The range of folk-musical instruments was roughly the same as that required for professional performance. Only a few instruments—bagpipes and other rural types—were not used by both cultures. The gradual switch from the bagpipes and whistle-flutes, so popular in the Middle Ages, to the stringed instruments of subsequent centuries, affected folk and professional performance equally. Only the wind instruments of the gothic and renaissance periods failed to find their way into Bohemian folk music on a large scale.
Gustav Mahler und das Volkslied seiner Heimat
Authors: Klusen Ernst
Published: April 2006

That folk song found its way into Mahler's music is often stated but never demonstrated. The term 'folk song' must only be taken to cover the kind of song absorbed by him during his youth; later in life he did not concern himself with folk tunes. The songs of his homeland, on the border between Bohemia and Moravia, include (a) Moravian songs with archaic features, (b) Czech and German-Bohemian folk songs with clearly defined stylistic elements from the eighteenth century, and (c) songs of the bordering German lands of Bavaria and Silesia. Analysis has shown that Mahler used formulae from Moravian folk song, including the lydian fourth, and that there is a basic relationship between his music and the folk songs of his homeland. His melodies tend to be rhythmically free and to use repeated notes. Rhythmic features, such as short notes on strong beats, syncopation, and feminine endings, point to Czech folk song. Repetition of short formulae, and chain- or open forms occur, as in Czech and Moravian folk song. His writing for strings aims at producing the characteristic tone of folk fiddles in Iglau, and displays the heterophony between voice and accompaniment characteristic of that region.
Two Styles of Vocal Music in the Zlatibor Region of West Serbi
Authors: Petrović Radmila
Published: April 2006

The material here analysed was collected in the mountainous region of western Serbia, in villages of widely scattered houses, often far from lines of communication. From the remote past until the first decades of this century, the development of culture, including the development of folk music, has proceeded slowly. The characteristics of each epoch have been retained, however, so that at a later date a culture may reflect once new elements in a tradition persistently held. Owing to the slowness of development, musical materials observed and analysed at the present day may reveal the various strata of social and economic development from the past to the present.

The greater part of the material collected is vocal music, there is no purely instrumental music. The latter may serve as accompaniment to dances but very seldom to songs; indeed, vocal music is the most important music in this region. A further characteristic is that this vocal music is generally sung in two parts.
Der mehrstimmige Volksgesang in der Slowakei*
Authors: Elscheková Alica
Published: April 2006

Von der slowakischen Volksmusik überwog die Ansicht, dass es sich um eine typisch einstimmige Musikkultur handelt, obwohl schon in den achtziger Jahren des 19. Jahrhunderts wertvolle mehrstimmige Aufzeichnungen erschienen; später waren es L. Janaček, die russische Folkloristin E. Lineva und in den dreissiger Jahren des 20. Jahrhunderts K. Plicka, die sporadisch mehrstimmige slowakische Volkslieder vorlegten. Man war aber der Ansicht, dass diese dokumentarischen Aufzeichnungen mehrstimmiger Volkslieder sämtlich isolierte, regionale Erscheinungen darstellen; sie wurden im Zusammenhang mit der walachischen Kolonisation genannt, und es wurde ihnen das Attribut eines fremdem Musikelementes gegeben, oder sie wurden als entlehntes Stilelement der Kunstmusik gewertet.
La Tradition et l'esprit novateur dans la danse populaire
Authors: Katzarova Raina
Published: April 2006

La danse populaire est une variété folklorique des plus persistantes. Les descriptions des rondes et des danses qu'on exécutait il y a 100-160 ans, correspondent entièrement aux rondes et aux danses qu'on exécute encore de nos jours dans les mémes localités. Malgré leur stabilité, les danses popularires subissent une évolution et une rénovation graduelles. La rénovation de la ronde s'effectue de trois manières: (1) Une ronde locale déterminée commence à se danser sur une nouvelle mélodie, ce qui amène un changement de rythme et une tendance à accentuer certains mouvements et certains gestes. (2) Sans que la mélodie change—celle-ci étant intimement liée à l'exécution d'une ronde locale déterminée—les danseurs y apportent des changements dans les pas, les mouvements et les gestes. (3) Par l'introduction simultanée de modifications dans la mélodie et dans la composition choréographique.
Instrumental and Vocal Performance of Dance Music in the Horňácko District of South-East Moravia
Authors: Holý Dušan
Published: April 2006

In Eastern Moravia and districts still further east, we find a special type of rhythmical accompaniment in folk dance-music, performed by second fiddle and bass in a string ensemble. Each bow-stroke (both down and up) regularly combines two rhythmic values with the accent on the second element. Two bow-strokes, first down, then up, correspond to a single two-four bar. Variant types of this accompaniment are also found in Hungarian and Rumanian folk music. In some districts in Slovakia, it is referred to as duvaj, perhaps an attempt to express its character onomatopoeically.

The duvaj-accompaniment has distinctive characteristics in each district. This is clearly shown by the optical recordings of changes in sound intensity (Fig. 1). The first example (upper tracing of five bars) comes from Eastern Slovakia (Vyšné Raslavice); the second (lower tracing of eight bars), is from Central Slovakia (Hrochot pod Polanou). In the second example, irregular sub-division within the bar is shown.
Czech Bagpipe Music*
Authors: Markl Jaroslav
Published: April 2006

In a form that has changed but slightly in recent times, the bagpipe is still used in several European countries, and in Czechoslovak folk music it has played a very important role—perhaps a more important role than that played anywhere else in the world (Markl, 1962).

In Czechoslovak territory, bagpipes, called by various names, are mentioned in chronicles from the Middle Ages, and it may be assumed that they have been one of the most popular of folk instruments since the thirteenth, or at the latest the fourteenth century. Usually played solo, but also together with drum, pipe, and later fiddle, they accompanied folk songs and dances. Unlike bagpipes in France, for example, they never took root in composed music in Czechoslovakia. Only at a very late date, in the thirties of the nineteenth century, and then to a limited extent, were they technically improved by the addition of a second, auxiliary bag. The use of several drones, though known, has never become popular in Czechoslovakia. In the course of six centuries a type of bagpipe with one frontal (melody) pipe and one drone has become predominant.
The Griots of Senegal and Their Instruments*
Authors: Nikiprowetzky Tolia
Published: April 2006

As in all the countries of West Africa where Islam has left its mark, and where powerful chiefs held—or still hold—authority, many griots are to be found in Senegal. Whether they be historians, genealogists or musicians, they are in most cases professionals who together form a well-defined caste. The roles they play are manifold: as historians and genealogists they are the storehouses of the records of a country that has disdained the written language; as musicians, they are present at festive and solemn occasions alike. A griot may be attached to a prince's court, and be a member of his household; or he may be independent and able to charge for his services as he chooses.

Caught up in the life of African society, where intense rivalries excite tribes, clans and families, the griots have always aroused feelings of fear or contempt. More than one enmity, more than one dispute, has originated in the indiscretion of a griot. Their caste, like those of the blacksmiths, the ropemakers, the weavers, etc., is one of the lowest in the hierarchy.
Migrating Patterns of Melody among the Berbers and Jews of the Atlas Mountains
Authors: Gerson-Kiwi Edith
Published: April 2006

In the vast territories of Northwest Africa, there are some remarkable islets of the aboriginal Berber civilization, notably in Morocco, where the Berbers form approximately 45 per cent, of the population, and in Algiers, where they reach some 30 per cent. In addition, one can meet them in the Kabylie, in some Tunisian villages and on the Isle of Djerba. The Berbers are generally recognized as one of the indigenous tribal groups of “White” Africa who call themselves “Imazighen” (noblemen) and use their own language, a Hamito-Semitic dialect of great antiquity which spreads intermittently from the Oasis of Siwa, at the Egyptian-Lybian frontier, to the Atlantic Ocean. The main local dialects spoken in Morocco, are the ‘Tashelhit’ in the South- West and around Marrakesh, and the ‘Tamazirt’ spoken in the North-East.
Dance Types in Ethiopia*
Authors: Martin György
Published: April 2006

A summary will be given here of the results of folk dance research in Ethiopia, carried out during two months in the summer of 1965. In the course of the expedition, collections were made in seventeen settlements in eight different Ethiopian provinces. An outline cross-section of the fund of folk dances in Ethiopia is illustrated by approximately one hundred and fifty dance variants; these were recorded on 3,000 metres of motion pictures and several hundreds of photos, with the musical accompaniments on tape. The collection included dances of the Amhara, Tigrean, Agaw, Adare, Esa-Somalian, Kullo, and Kaficho peoples, as well as those of six different Galla tribes.
La Musique Africaine dans le Golfe Persique
Authors: Olsen Poul Rovsing
Published: April 2006

Les relations commerciales entre les habitants du Golfe Persique et ceux de Zanj ou Afrique orientale sont très anciennes: n'oublions pas non plus que Mascat et Zanzibar étaient liés par une union politique de 1690 environ jusqu'à 1861. On a souvent parlé de l'influence arabe sur les peuplades de la côte est d'Afrique; on a beaucoup moins parlé des conséquences de la présence de minorités importantes d'Africains dans les principautés arabes du Golfe.

La musique arabe de Kuwait, de Bahrain et de la Côte des Pirates n'est pas sensiblement influencée par les musiques africaines: la seule exception notable concerne les danses de guerres normalement appelées ardha à Bahrain, ayala sur la Côte des Pirates; les mélodies, les textes et les danses sont indiscutablement d'origine béouine mais l'influence africaine est sensible dans les rhythmes produits par le groupe de joueurs de tambour qui danse entre les deux rangs de chanteurs arabes.
A Riddle of Cultural Diffusion: The Existence of Inverted Reed Clarinets among the Indians of the Goajira Peninsula
Authors: y Rivera Luis Felipe Ramón
Published: April 2006

The existence at the Peninsula de la Guajira—shared by Venezuela and Columbia— of a type of clarinet with simple, inverted reeds, similar to those found in the north of Africa, poses an interesting problem of cultural transmission. The first question one must ask is, I think, at what moment in history the diffusion of such instruments towards the above-mentioned peninsula took place. I speak of diffusion and not of parallelism for an important reason: the fact that similarities, not only organological but also melodic, exist between the Goajiro music and that of other peoples referred to below.

The Goajiro instrument I describe in the present paper I saw for the first time at the Caracas Science Museum in 1947. A Goajiro Indian woman who happened to be staying there had been in contact with members of the museum's staff for some time. She informed me that the name of the instrument was uótoroyó
Three Yoruba Members of the Mbira-Sanza Family
Authors: Thieme Darius L.
Published: April 2006

The purpose of this paper is twofold. First, I intend to discuss organological data relating to three Yoruba members of the mbira-sansa family. I hope to show organological relationships and a possible line of derivation among these Nigerian instruments, and relationships between them and their relatives in Nigeria and in other African culture areas. In this way, I hope to add to the overall picture of the migration and distribution of the mbira family in Africa generally. Second, I want to speak about playing techniques. Here I will attempt to show some interrelationships in playing styles and some possible lines of derivation of present-day techniques.
The Polyphonic Chant in South America
Authors: Aretz Isabel
Published: April 2006

It is known that in unwritten traditional music, both in unison singing and in performances by two or more instruments, there occur little rhythmic maladjustments and even variations of intonation and changes of notes, apart from the natural changes of register. When these variations are very marked, they produce a real heterophony. But the intention is the only thing to be kept in mind: the intention to form one single sonorous block. Therefore, there is a great difference between a defective adjustment and polyphony or heterophony properly so-called. Heterophony is the singing or the simultaneous performance of several voices or instruments which do not observe musical order, and which enter the ensemble when they wish, without paying attention to order. Heterophony appears to be a particular manifestation, among Indian people and perhaps also among people who are already incorporated into our civilization.
Oriental Elements in the Folk Dance and Folk Dance Music of Greek Macedonia
Authors: Hoerburger Felix
Published: April 2006

Before speaking of “oriental elements,” I must first of all make two qualifying statements in order not to be misunderstood. First, the musicologist, when hearing the expression “oriental music,” thinks of the art music of the Near East; but here I am speaking especially of folk music coming from the East to Greece. Secondly, I shall not speak about “the” elements in general, that is, I cannot give a complete list of existing oriental elements. I only intend to mention some phenomena which I have had the possibility of observing myself, and which, I suppose, are not very generally known.
The Polyphony of Gyil-gu, Kudzo and Awutu Sakumo
Authors: Mensah Atta Annan
Published: April 2006

References in early writings to African music in pre-European times often indicate the existence of harmony. On entering Mossell Bay in December, 1497, Vasco da Gama's men heard four or five flutes played by negroes, “some producing high notes and others low ones, thus making a pretty harmony” (Davidson, 1964). At Malindi, in 1498, Vasco da Gama's Logbook referred to “two trumpets of ivory … of the size of a man,” whose music “made sweet harmony” with those of anafils. Writing on the music of Ashanti and other peoples of the Gold Coast (now Ghana), Bowdich mentioned “several instances of thirds” (Bowdich, 1819).
Multi-Part Organization in the Music of the Gogo of Tanzania
Authors: Nketia J. H. Kwabena
Published: April 2006

Performers of music practised and perpetuated by oral tradition are guided by their knowledge of repertoire, by awareness of usages, procedures and techniques, and above all by their musicianship. Among the Gogo of Tanzania, as indeed among other societies with oral music tradition, these enable performers not only to reproduce what they have learnt, but also to re-create it where tradition allows it; they enable them to make their own additions to existing repertoire or bring new musical types into being. Thus a traditional composer of a particular piece of music need not provide everything for those who learn his music from him. Only the essentials such as the basic text, the melody, type of accompaniment need be provided or suggested.
Nguni Vocal Polyphony
Authors: Rycroft David
Published: April 2006

The Nguni Group comprises principally the Zulu, Xhosa and Swazi-speaking peoples of South Eastern Africa whose languages and cultures are closely related. Through European contact and conquest during the past century and a half, their way of life has been considerably affected. Musically, many non-indigenous forms and features have been adopted by certain sections of each community, but we shall here be concerned only with what still survives of their truly indigenous music.

For individual music-making, instruments of several varieties—particularly musical bows—were formerly used by all Nguni peoples. But their communal music seems always to have been exclusively vocal, apart from the occasional use of ankle-rattles in dance-songs.
Arqueologia de la Cuenca del Qaracha, Ayacucho, Peru
Authors: Valdez Lidio M. , Vivanco Cirilo
Published: April 2006

Para evaluar la ocupación precolombina de la cuenca del Qaracha, realizamos una prospección arqueológica en 1988, la cual produjo evidencias de tres importantes ocupaciones en el área, la primera, baja dominación del estado wari, alrededor de los años 600 D.C., con todos los asentamientos entre 2.800 y 3.650 m snm, teniendo control de los suelos de cultivo identificados con la producción del maíz. Alrededor de los años 900 D.C. todos los sitios wari fueron desocupados, y nuevos sitios se habían construido en posiciones estratégicas en las partes de mayor elevación. El control de los Andes centrales por parte de los inkas resultó en el abandono de los sitios fortificados y la fundación de establecimientos inka (mitimaes) cerca a los antiguos sitios wari. Creemos que el primer cambio fue resultado del colapso del estado wari, seguido por un período muy conflictivo cuando diferentes antiguos integrantes del estado wari se vieron envueltos en guerra. El cambio final puso fin al período convulsionado con el nacimiento del nuevo estado inka en los Andes.
Symbolic Sweatbaths of the Maya: Architectural Meaning in the Cross Group at Palenque, Mexico
Authors: Houston Stephen D.
Published: April 2006

The function of elite Maya architecture should not always be interpreted literally, for it may also reflect metaphorical and semantic extensions best studied through iconography, hieroglyphic texts, ethnohistory, and ethnography. This holistic approach is employed to help resolve puzzling features of the Cross Group sanctuaries at Palenque, Mexico. The Cross Group likely served as the setting for symbolic sweatbaths, probably involving effigies of supernaturals under the care of Kan Balam, the Palenque ruler who commissioned these structures. This and other arguments situate such information within an understanding of metaphor in Maya architecture.
The Narrative Approach to Moche Iconography
Authors: Quilter Jeffrey
Published: April 2006

This paper develops ideas first presented in "The Moche Revolt of the Objects" (Quilter 1990). It suggests that while the thematic approach to Moche iconography is useful, application of an approach that assumes that the themes are segments of a narrative will increase our understanding of the myths behind Moche art. After discussing the basis on which narrative may be inferred from art, the narrative approach is applied to demonstrate how known Moche artistic themes may be placed in sequence. Some previous uncertainties regarding iconographic figures are resolved, and part of the Moche mythic corpus is presented.
Lithic Deposits as Waste Management: Reply to Healan and to Hester and Shafer
Authors: Moholy-Nagy Hattula
Published: April 2006

Here I can only briefly address some of the issues raised by Healan (1992) and by Hester and Shafer (1992). I conclude that although ethnoarchaeology can provide generally valid analogies to lithic production and discard in the past, experimental archaeology will be needed to understand specific details of site formation.

Debitage disposal is affected, among other factors, by site size, settlement density, and length of occupation. The investigation of intersite variability in waste management will give us important insights into the organization of lithic industries in Prehispanic Mesoamerica.
Middle Preclassic Buildings and Burials at Cuello, Belize: 1990 Investigations
Authors: Hammond Norman , Clarke Amanda , Robin Cynthia
Published: April 2006

Two areas of Middle Preclassic architecture flanking a courtyard dating between ca. 650 and 400 B. C. were investigated. Successive plaster-floored houses were found that had perishable superstructures, and which demonstrated periodic partial demolition and rebuilding. Thirteen burials had a range of grave goods and orientations; burial position may, however, be lineage specific. While adult grave goods do not indicate social diversity, abundant shell jewelry with children suggests a status based on family rank rather than on individual achievement.
Inka Administration of the Far South Coast of Peru
Authors: Covey R. Alan
Published: April 2006

This paper examines ethnohistoric and archaeological evidence of Inka imperial strategies for controlling resources and people in the Titicaca Basin and the coastal valleys of southern Peru and northern Chile, and suggests that Inka imperial policies were adapted to meet local conditions in a series of dynamic political and economic interactions. In the coastal region between the Tambo Valley of southern Peru and the Azapa Valley of northern Chile, Inka policies included, variously, the resettlement of labor colonists (mitmaqkuna), the direct incorporation of coastal groups, and the maintenance of alliances with autonomous coastal elites. Altiplano elites exploited the imperial system to extend their own networks of colonization and exchange. Recent archaeological surveys in the Ilo-Ite coastal region, as well as unpublished data collected by Gary Vescelius between 1958 and 1960, indicate that the Inka developed more direct control of the south-central coast than earlier polities had achieved, but that imperial control over this region was limited and influenced by the persistence of autonomous coastal groups. Groups around Ilo remained fairly independent, while parts of the Tambo and Sama valleys and the Quebrada Tacahuay were brought under direct imperial control.
Flaked Stone and Social Interaction in the Casas Grandes Region, Chihuahua, Mexico
Authors: VanPool Todd L. , VanPool Christine S. , Antillón Rafael Cruz , Leonard Robert D. , Harmon Marcel J.
Published: April 2006

This analysis uses flaked stone artifacts to gain insight into the social and economic structure of the Casas Grandes region, northern Chihuahua, Mexico. It begins by considering the intrasite variation in flaked stone reduction at Galeana, a large site near the modern town of Galeana. The analysis of debitage and cores from Galeana indicates that the assemblage is primarily the product of hard hammer, generalized reduction of locally available materials. Differences within the assemblage indicate the presence of spatially distinct reduction areas, with initial core reduction occurring in open areas, and then continuing in room blocks. We then compare the Galeana assemblage with the flaked stone assemblage from the site of Paquimé (Casas Grandes), Chihuahua. The analysis indicates that the reduction technique employed at both sites is similar, but that the Paquimé assemblage is characterized by a greater proportion of cryptocrystaline silicates and obsidian than the Galeana assemblage. Furthermore, much of the raw material from Paquimé does not appear to be locally available. We conclude that the prehistoric inhabitants of Paquimé had greater access to cryptocrystaline silicates and obsidian acquired through trade than did the inhabitants of Galeana. This evidence indicates that the economic pattern evident at Paquimé did not extend to Galeana and supports the idea that Paquimé's economic and political influence over other Casas Grandes sites was limited beyond a 30-km radius.
Spatial Orders in Maya Civic Plans
Authors: Ashmore Wendy , Sabloff Jeremy A.
Published: April 2006

Ancient civic centers materialize ideas of proper spatial organization, among the Maya as in other societies. We argue that the position and arrangement of ancient Maya buildings and arenas emphatically express statements about cosmology and political order. At the same time, the clarity of original spatial expression is often blurred in the sites we observe archaeologically. Factors responsible for such blurring include multiple other influences on planning and spatial order, prominently the political life history of a civic center. Specifically, we argue here that centers with relatively short and simple political histories are relatively easy to interpret spatially. Those with longer development, but relatively little upheaval, manifest more elaborate but relatively robust and internally consistent plans. Sites with longer and more turbulent political histories, however, materialize a more complex cumulative mix of strategies and plausibly, therefore, of varying planning principles invoked by sequent ancient builders. We examine evidence for these assertions by reference to civic layouts at Copán, Xunantunich, Sayil, Seibal, and Tikal.
The Body Context: Interpreting Early Nasca Decapitated Burials
Authors: DeLeonardis Lisa
Published: April 2006

One of the most enigmatic aspects of decapitation practices among south coastal Peruvian Paracas and Nasca cultures (900 B.C.-A.D. 750) is the near absence of headless bodies in the archaeological record. Drawing on a case study of an Early Nasca, Phase 3 headless burial at Site PV62D13 in the lower Ica Valley, together with examples of headless interments reported in the literature, I examine the nature and disposition of headless burials. Three burial patterns, or forms, are proposed. The burial at PV62D13 is distinguished for its extended posture and interment in a non-cemetery setting and is proposed to be a dedicatory burial. Burial forms for disembodied heads are also examined, and over time, a notable increase in cached heads, buried without grave offerings is observed. Painted ceramic images of Nasca trophy heads and headless bodies are reviewed diachronically and a marked increase in decapitation scenes is noted for Late Nasca. Attention is drawn to the limited number of headless body images overall, and possible solutions to reconcile the visual imagery with the archaeological data are offered.
Paleoecological Evidence of an Early Postclassic Occupation in the Southwestern Maya Lowlands: Laguna Las Pozas, Guatemala
Authors: Johnston Kevin J. , Breckenridge Andrew J. , Hansen Barbara C.
Published: April 2006

Magnetic, palynological, and paleoecological data indicate that in the Río de la Pasión drainage, one of the most thoroughly investigated areas of the southern Maya lowlands, a refugee population remained in the Laguna Las Pozas basin long after the Classic Maya collapse and the Terminal Classic period, previously identified by archaeologists as eras of near-total regional abandonment. During the Early Postclassic period, ca. A. D. 900 to 1200, agriculturalists colonized and deforested the Laguna Las Pozas basin for agriculture while adjacent, abandoned terrain was undergoing reforestation. After discussing the archaeological utility of magnetic analyses, we conclude that following the Maya collapse, some refugee populations migrated to geographically marginal non-degraded landscapes within the southern lowlands not previously occupied by the Classic Maya.
Maya Diets of the Rich and Poor: Paleoethnobotanical Evidence from Copan
Authors: Lentz David L.
Published: April 2006

Analysis of plant remains recovered from excavations at Copán in western Honduras has provided substantive data regarding agroeconomic systems of the prehistoric inhabitants. The time span of the deposits ranges from the Gordon/Uir phase (900-400 B. C.), which may have been non-Maya, to the Coner phase (A. D. 700-900+), which encompasses the collapse of the Classic Maya cultural manifestation in the valley. Several traditionally recognized mesoamerican cultigens were identified including corn, beans, and several species of Cucurbitaceae. In addition, remains of a number of economic tree species were discovered, suggesting a reliance on arboriculture as part of the subsistence strategy. Pine charcoal predominated in all deposits and may have been the preferred wood for fuel and construction. Analysis of edible-plant-species distributions from low- and high-status Late Classic dwellings using the Shannon-Weaver index revealed that elite individuals had a higher diversity of available foods, a situation that may have led to nutritional stress among lower-status individuals and, ultimately, social unrest.
Congenital tarsal hyperextension in three cats
Authors: Buote Nicole J. , Reese Catherine J.
Published: April 2006

Case Description—3 kittens were examined because of a malformation affecting the hind limbs, resulting in an inability to bear weight or ambulate normally.

Clinical Findings—2 kittens were younger than 6 weeks of age, and 1 was 4 months of age at the time of initial examination. The congenital abnormality was characterized by severe tarsal hyperextension in which weight was borne on the cranial aspect of the tarsus, and the plantar surface of the metatarsus faced dorsally. In 2 kittens, the condition affected both hind limbs, and in the older kitten, the condition was unilateral. In the 2 kittens in which radiographs were obtained, no bone abnormalities were detected. Full-cylinder fiberglass casts were applied and changed weekly to accommodate growth. Owners administered physical therapy after final cast removal.

Treatment and Outcome—Conservative management involving external coaptation and physical therapy led to favorable results in all 3 cats.

Clinical Relevance—Although further studies are needed to determine the etiology of the disorder, affected kittens may be successfully treated with conservative management. Owners should be committed to the necessity for returning cats for serial cast changes, care for pressure sores, and administration of physical therapy after cast removal.