bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
R&D and Output in a Regulated Vertically Integrated Oligopoly
Authors: Goel Rajeev K.
Published: March 2003

This paper examines input price regulation’s effects on research and development (R&D) and output in a vertically integrated industry. A single integrated firm produces the crucial input and the output. The non‐integrated rival does not produce the input but buys it from the integrated firm at a regulated price. Only the integrated firm engages in cost‐reducing R&D. Results show that changes in input price have a negative effect on the integrated firm’s output and R&D. The non‐integrated firm’s output response to changes in input price depends upon the slope of the demand curve. The welfare analysis examines the social desirability of such regulation.
Measuring Welfare Changes and the Excess Burden of Taxation*
Authors: Creedy John
Published: March 2003

This paper examines methods used to evaluate the welfare effects of tax changes, with emphasis on the measurement problems involved. Welfare changes and excess burdens are defined, along with approximations. Aggregate measures, using a social welfare function, are examined. The special case of income taxation is then examined, leading to discussion of the marginal welfare cost of taxation and the marginal cost of funds. The measurement methods examined include the use and estimation of direct and indirect utility functions, along with the algebraic and numerical integration from estimated Marshallian demand functions to the compensated demands. The use of equivalent incomes to examine tax changes, using unit record data from household budget surveys, is then discussed.
Computing Professionals and the ‘Peace Dividend’
Authors: Bissett Andy
Published: March 2003

For the last four decades much of the world’s most advanced technical resources have been devoted to military systems; but with the end of the Cold War economic and technical resources are being freed to yield the so‐called ‘peace dividend’. This promotes the possibility of a more ethical orientation to many information technologists’ work, and also represents the chance to argue for, and develop, more socially useful and responsible applications of computer technology, in accordance with the development of professional ideals and standards within the computing industry. The author is a member of the Computing Research Centre in the School of Computing and Management Sciences at Sheffield Hallam University, 100 Napier St, Sheffield S11 8HD, England; email: A.Bissett@shu.ac.uk
Ethical Consumerism: The Case Of “Fairly–Traded” Coffee
Authors: Bird Kate , Hughes David R.
Published: March 2003

Consumer concern for “ethical products”, or ethical aspects of the goods which they purchase, is a subject of increasing interest and research,which is here illustrated by an examination of the Fair Trade movement, with special reference to coffee as an indicative commodity. Kate Bird, is currently Lecturer in the Development Administration Group, School of Public Policy, Birmingham University, Birmingham B15 2TT, England, having previously worked abroad and written her MSc dissertation at Wye College on fair trade in coffee products. Dr Hughest holds the Sainsbury Chair in Agribusiness and Food Marketing at Wye College, University of London, Wye, Ashford, Kent TN25 5AH, England (email: D.Hughes@wye.ac.uk), where he is also Director of the Food Industry Management Group. He has wide international experience of food management issues.
Ethical Dilemmas In The Global Telecommunications Revolution
Authors: MacLean Donald J.
Published: March 2003

A revolution is under way in telecommunications technology, and this is generating a new approach to governance in the field as well as new ethical dielmmas which are challenging the core values of the industry’s traditional approach. The author served in the Canadian Department of Communications before founding his own consultancy in communications and information technology. For the past five years he has been chief of the Strategic Planning Unit of the General Secretariat of the International Telecommunication Union, Place des Nations, CH–1211 Geneva 20, Switzerland.
Corruption As A Corporate Threat
Authors: Coulomb Réne
Published: March 2003

Only a clear international convention can adequately tackle corruption in the international business arena, but individual companies do not need to wait for this to happen, especially when the main threat from corruption can be to the company itself. This description of how Lyonnaise des Eaux has taken steps to strengthen its inner workings against corruption shows how “business ethics, based on our values, is now our management’s top priority”. The author is Administrateur Directeur Général of the company, and he first delivered this paper to the Ninth Annual Conference of the European Business Ethics Network which took place last year in Frankfurt.
Maquiladoras: the First World Abusing the Third World?
Authors: Gordon Joseph D.
Published: March 2003

The industrial border region between Mexico and the USA is notorious for its physical, social and moral squalor. But is it entirely a matter of total exploitation or is the answer to the title’s question more complex than a simple yes? The author is completing his MBA degree at London Business School, is an American citizen and has a background as a consultant in information technology.
The Need for Japanese Firms to Formalise Ethical Business Practises
Authors: Seshadri Simon
Published: March 2003

Since the Second World War, Japanese firms have gone from being ridiculed in the West for poor quality products to being highly praised and imitated for their success in manufacturing innovation, quality standards and management philosophy. Arguably, however, one area in which Japanese firms can be said to lag behind their western counterparts is in the development and articulation of policies mandating ethical business practices. In its own markets, but particularly abroad, Japanese business has been accused of a variety of ethical shortcomings, including racial and sexual discrimination, bribery, environmental irresponsibility and the flouting of local laws and customs. This article will consider the reasons for the apparent lag in conduct, examine the issues involved, consider the likelihood of imminent change and offer some personal observations on the subject.
The role of existentialism in ethical business decision‐making
Authors: Agarwal James , Cruise Malloy David
Published: March 2003

This paper presents an integrated model of ethical decision‐making in business that incorporates teleological, deontological and existential theory. Existentialism has been curiously overlooked by many scholars in the field despite the fact that it is so fundamentally a theory of choice. We argue that it is possible to seek good organisational ends (teleology), through the use of right means (deontology), and enable the decision‐maker to do so authentically (existentialism). More specifically, we provide a framework that will enable the decision‐maker to integrate the various ethical schools of thought available to them and to apply this framework in the ethical decision‐making process. The model presented makes explicit the existential position of choice and takes into account other contextual moderating factors. Negative Option Marketing is used as a running application to illustrate the role of existentialism in the decision‐making process.
‘Like building a new motorway’: establishing the rules for ethical email use at a UK Higher Education Institution
Authors: Spence Laura J.
Published: March 2003

Computer mediated communication, in particular email, is of particular importance in the Higher Education sector. In this paper, research at one Higher Education Institution on the ethical use of email is presented. Focus groups were used to gather data on the impact of email, on current patterns of use, and on perceptions of ethical use. Using the analogy of a new motorway, which everyone is expected to use but for which there are no established rules of behaviour or etiquette, the research demonstrates that some ethical guidelines for the acceptable use of email are necessary. It is argued that there needs to be a greater understanding of individual responsibility for computer mediated communication in the higher education sector.
Shareholders versus stakeholders: corporate mission statements and investor returns
Authors: Omran Mohammed , Atrill Peter , Pointon John
Published: March 2003

This paper seeks to discover whether companies that adopt a stakeholder approach, and thereby demonstrate a wider remit of corporate responsibility, provide inferior returns to those that embrace the shareholder value approach. To classify approaches, mission statements were analysed, the final sample comprising 32 shareholder oriented companies and 48 stakeholder oriented companies. To assess performance both accounting–based and market–based measures were used. A number of moderating variables were taken into account: systematic (beta) risk, gearing (long–term debt to total long–term finance), tax ratios, and firm size. ANOVA and Kruskall–Wallis tests revealed that mission orientation did not affect performance, whether in terms of stock returns or excess returns. Neither were accounting returns on equity different overall, although shareholder oriented companies experienced wider variations in this measure. A number of multiple regressions were also performed. However, the mission dummy was not found to be a significant variable.
Should the payment of bribes overseas be made illegal?
Authors: Theobald Robin
Published: March 2003

In a recent contribution to this journal Professor A. Argandona explored the general characteristics of corruption and their implications for the corporate sector. Against this background this paper examines one specific form of corruption: the payment of bribes usually by agents of private firms to civil servants and politicians overseas. The paper focuses specifically upon current attempts by western states to criminalise overseas bribery and the problems such efforts are likely to face. Emphasising the centrality of the demand for corrupt payments as well as their supply, the paper concludes by highlighting a pivotal relationship between bribery on the one hand and the abuse of human rights on the other.
Risk and Return in the 20th and 21st Centuries
Authors: Dimson Elroy , Marsh Paul , Staunton Mike
Published: March 2003

The single most important contemporary issue in finance is the equity risk premium. This drives future equity returns, and is the key determinant of the cost of capital. The risk premium – the expected reward for bearing the risk of investing in equities, rather than in low‐risk investments such as bills or bonds – is usually estimated from historical data. This article starts by summarising new evidence on historical returns in twelve major world markets from the authors' recent book, ‘The Millennium Book: A Century of Investment Returns’. The authors show that the historical equity risk premium has been lower than previously believed, and argue that the future risk premium is likely to be lower still. They discuss what this implies for the cost of capital, stock market values, and companies' target rates of return. They suggest that many companies are seeking too high a rate of return and thus run the risk of under‐investing.
Sex Differences in the Etiology of Aggressive and Nonaggressive Antisocial Behavior: Results from Two Twin Studies
Authors: Eley Thalia C. , Lichtenstein Paul , Stevenson Jim
Published: March 2003

Recent theory and results from twin and adoption studies of children and adolescents suggest greater genetic influence on aggressive as compared to nonaggressive antisocial behavior. In addition, quantitative or qualitative differences in the etiology of these behaviors in males and females have been indicated in the literature. The Child Behavior Checklist was completed by the parents of 1022 Swedish twin pairs aged 7–9 years and of 501 British twin pairs aged 8–16 years. Genetic factors influenced aggressive antisocial behavior to a far greater extent than nonaggressive antisocial behavior, which was also significantly influenced by the shared environment. There was a significant sex difference in the etiology of nonaggressive antisocial behavior. Bivariate analyses supported the conclusion that the etiologies of aggressive and nonaggressive antisocial behavior differ for males and females.
Longitudinal and Concurrent Relations among Temperament, Ability Estimation, and Injury Proneness
Authors: Schwebel David C. , Plumert Jodie M.
Published: March 2003

This study examined longitudinal and concurrent relations between temperament, ability estimation, and injury proneness. Longitudinal assessments of Inhibitory Control were collected through a behavioral battery at toddler (33 months) and preschool ages (46 months). Parent‐reported measures of Inhibitory Control and Extraversion also were obtained at those ages. At school age (76 months), children participated in a set of tasks to assess overestimation and underestimation of physical abilities. Parents provided reports of children's temperament and injury history at school age. Results showed that children who were high on Extraversion and low on Inhibitory Control as toddlers and preschoolers tended to overestimate their physical abilities and to have more unintentional injuries at age 6. Children low on Extraversion and high on Inhibitory Control tended to underestimate their physical abilities. Implications for injury prevention are discussed.
Experiences in After‐School Programs and Children's Adjustment in First‐Grade Classrooms
Authors: Pierce Kim M. , Hamm Jill V. , Vandell Deborah Lowe
Published: March 2003

The experiences of 150 children in after‐school programs were examined in relation to performance in first grade. Three aspects of program experiences (emotional climate, quality of peer interactions, and program curriculum) were associated with the children's concurrent adjustment at school, controlling for family selection factors. Staff positivity in the after‐school programs was associated with boys displaying fewer internalizing and externalizing problems, whereas staff negativity was related to boys obtaining poorer grades in reading and math. Program flexibility was associated with boys having better social skills. More frequent negative interactions with peers in the programs were related to more internalizing and externalizing problems, and poorer social skills at school. Boys who attended programs offering a larger number of different activities had more internalizing and externalizing problems, and poorer grades in reading and math. After‐school experiences also were related to girls' behaviors, but associations were less apparent for girls than boys.
Reasoning about a Structured Object: Three‐ and Four‐Year‐Olds' Grasp of a Borderline Case and an Unexcluded Middle
Authors: Sharpe Dean , Côté Marie‐Hélène , Eakin Laurel
Published: March 2003

Objects, in general, have structure; that is, they can be analyzed into parts. This gives rise to certain problems relating to predicate inheritance. For instance, an object may possess a property in part but not in whole (a borderline case) and different parts of an object may possess opposed properties, so that the object as a whole possesses neither (an unexcluded middle). Experiment 1 (N = 24) tested 3‐year‐olds' grasp of a borderline case, and Experiment 2 (N = 28) tested the ability of children as young as age 3 to grasp an unexcluded middle. Results suggest that children as young as the age of 3 possess a sophisticated ability to reason about the heritability of properties from parts to wholes. We discuss the results in relation to the basic interpretive structures available to young children, particularly object structure.
Children's Understanding of Logical Inconsistency
Authors: Ruffman Ted
Published: March 2003

Five experiments involving 245 participants examined children's understanding of logical consistency. For instance, a character said that a man was both tall and very short. Only by 6 years of age did children show any understanding of logical inconsistency. This occurred despite: (1) good memory for the characters' claims; (2) the use of three different question forms including whether a person had made sense, said something silly, or whether both things a person said could be right; (3) the ability to identify other types of statements (e.g., factual inconsistencies) as not making sense; (4) the ability to compare and contrast the characters' claims in other ways; and (5) attempts to deepen children's processing of the claims by asking them to draw what each character said. Similar to false belief understanding, there was a monotonic relation between the number of older siblings a child had and logical consistency understanding on one of the tasks. It is argued that children may fail the different consistency tasks because of both logical factors (e.g., insufficient insight into logical necessity) and nonlogical factors tied to their social knowledge or insight into representation.
The Structure of Achievement and Behavior across Middle Childhood
Authors: Kowaleski‐Jones Lori , Duncan Greg J.
Published: March 2003

This research used data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY) to describe and model developmental trajectories across middle childhood. Our sample consisted of approximately 1,000 children of NLSY women who were aged 6 to 7 years in either 1986 or 1988. Assessments of PIAT math and reading scores and the mother‐reported Behavior Problem Index in 1986, 1988, 1990, and 1992 provided data for middle‐child trajectories of children aged 6 to 7 in 1986. Assessments in 1988, 1990, 1992, and 1994 provided data for children aged 6 to 7 in 1988. We used the raw score form of these data to estimate LISREL‐based models of their autoregressive structure. As with other samples, average math and reading achievement trajectories were parabolic for NLSY children, with scores increasing at a decreasing rate over this period. Average behavior‐problem trajectories were flat. Behind these average shapes was extreme diversity in level (and in some cases, slopes), of individual trajectories and a pronounced tendency for above average changes between two adjacent assessments to be followed by opposite‐signed changes in the subsequent period. Estimates from our structural models showed great heterogeneity in the average level of achievement and behavior for all three outcomes and heterogeneous slopes for reading scores as well. Boys but not girls were found to have heterogeneous slopes for math and behavior problems, whereas girls but not boys showed a significantly higher degree of persistence if “shocked” off of their expected trajectories.
The Role of Attention in the Development of Short‐Term Memory: Age Differences in the Verbal Span of Apprehension
Authors: Cowan Nelson , Nugent Lara D. , Elliott Emily M. , Ponomarev Igor , Saults J. Scott
Published: March 2003

In previous studies of memory span, participants have attended to the stimuli while they were presented, and therefore have had the opportunity to use a variety of mnemonic strategies. In the main portion of the present study, participants (first‐ and fourth‐grade children, and adults; 24 per age group) carried out a visual task while hearing lists of spoken digits and received a post‐list digit recall cue only occasionally, for some lists. Under these conditions, list information presumably must be extracted from a passively held store such as auditory sensory memory. The results suggest that each individual has a core memory capacity limit that can be observed clearly in circumstances in which it cannot be supplemented by mnemonic strategies, and that the capacity limit appears to increase with age during childhood. Other, attention‐demanding processes also contribute to memory for attended lists.
Adolescent‐Parent Conflict in Middle‐Class African American Families
Authors: Smetana Judith , Gaines Cheryl
Published: March 2003

Everyday conflicts between adolescents and parents were examined in 95 middle‐class African American families, 44 with preadolescents and 51 with early adolescents, who were further divided into two groups based on family income. The incidence, frequency, and intensity of conflicts were assessed using the Issues Checklist, and content, justifications, and resolutions were coded from individual interviews. Conflicts were relatively frequent, low in intensity, and occurred over issues such as the adolescent's room, chores, choice of activities, and homework. Early adolescents rated conflicts as more intense than did preadolescents, but mothers' ratings of conflict intensity and families' ratings of conflict frequency differed by family income. African American adolescents primarily reasoned about conflicts as issues of personal jurisdiction, whereas their mothers primarily appealed to social conventions. Nearly all conflicts were resolved by adolescents giving in to parents, but adolescent concession declined with age, whereas unresolved conflicts and use of punishment increased. Number and intensity of conflicts and adolescent concession were predicted by both parenting practices and sociodemographic background; conflict frequency and joint resolution were predicted only by parents' educational attainment. Although conflict may reflect normative developmental processes of individuation, the cultural and ecological context of middle‐class African American families influences its expression and resolution.
Effect Size, Practical Importance, and Social Policy for Children
Authors: McCartney Kathleen , Rosenthal Robert
Published: March 2003

Real decisions for real children are influenced by the papers developmentalists write, regardless of whether we ever intended our papers to be used in the policy arena. Yet most social scientists seldom analyze data in ways that are most useful to policymakers. The primary purpose of this paper is to share three ideas concerning how to evaluate the practical importance of a finding or set of findings. First, for research to be most useful not only in the policy arena but also more generally, significance tests need to be accompanied by effect size estimates. The practical importance of an effect size depends on the scientific context (i.e., measurement, design, and method) as well as the empirical literature context. Second, researchers need to use all existing data when weighing in on a policy debate; here, meta‐analyses are particularly useful. Finally, researchers need to be careful about embracing null or small findings, because effects may well be small due to measurement problems alone, particularly early in the history of a research domain.
Criteria for Evaluating the Significance of Developmental Research in the Twenty‐First Century: Force and Counterforce
Authors: Fabes Richard A. , Martin Carol Lynn , Hanish Laura D. , Updegraff Kimberly A.
Published: March 2003

Since its birth approximately 100 years ago, the field of child development has undergone fluctuations in the criteria used to determine which research topics are more or less worthy of study. The purpose of this paper is to identify the forces that influence how developmental research is prioritized and evaluated and how these influences are changing as we enter the new millennium. We do so by considering the developmental researcher in context and suggest that there will be increasing pressure to use new criteria when assessing the significance of twenty‐first‐century developmental science. We review the three most commonly used forms of research validity — internal, external, and ecological — and then identify new research validities that we believe are likely to play increasingly important roles in the next millennium. We also argue that many developmental scientists will increasingly be pressured by forces that are external to the traditional research environment and that these forces will shape the ways in which the significance of developmental research is evaluated.
Social Life in Cultures: Judgments, Conflict, and Subversion
Authors: Turiel Elliot , Wainryb Cecilia
Published: March 2003

We present a developmentally grounded perspective on the study of social life in cultures that examines the sources of the coexistence of sociability and opposition, harmony and conflict, acceptance and critique. The coexistence of these elements, it is proposed, is systematically connected both to the development of distinct domains of thought and to the dynamics of participation in more and less hierarchical social relationships in society.
Crying and Infant Abuse in Rhesus Monkeys
Authors: Maestripieri Dario , Jovanovic Tanja , Gouzoules Harold
Published: March 2003

This study investigated the relation between crying and infant abuse in group‐living rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). The subjects were 10 abusive mothers with their infants and 10 control mother – infant pairs. Abused infants cried more frequently than controls in the first 12 weeks of life, even when cries immediately following abuse were excluded from the analysis. The coos of 5 abused infants differed from those of 5 controls in several acoustic parameters, whereas their screams and geckers were acoustically similar, when recorded in the same context. Abusive mothers were less likely than control mothers to respond positively to the cries of their infants. Although infant cries may increase the probability of abuse being repeated, infant crying per se does not appear to be a major determinant of abuse.
A Tale of Two Representations: The Misinformation Effect and Children's Developing Theory of Mind
Authors: Templeton Leslie M. , Wilcox Sharon A.
Published: March 2003

The present research investigates representational ability as a cognitive factor underlying the suggestibility of children's eyewitness memory. The misinformation effect is used as an index of children's suggestibility, and performance on the false belief task is used as an assessment of children's representational abilities (N = 117). Analyses that considered the effect of representational ability and general memory ability on children's susceptibility to misleading information showed that differences in representational ability and general memory ability predicted participants' susceptibility to misleading information. These results demonstrate that the eyewitness memory of children who lack either multirepresentational abilities, sufficient general memory abilities, or both (i.e., most 3‐ and 4‐year‐olds) is less accurate than the eyewitness memory of children with both multirepresentational abilities and sufficient memory abilities (i.e., most 6‐year‐olds and adults). Thus, it appears that the earliest age at which children's eyewitness memory can be considered to be similar to that of adults is 6 years of age, when children's mental representational abilities are similar to those of adults. These results suggest that one factor underlying children's vulnerability to misleading information is the number of representations of an event that they can simultaneously hold and compare.
Parenting and Child Behavioral Adjustment in Early Childhood: A Quantitative Genetic Approach to Studying Family Processes
Authors: Deater‐Deckard Kirby
Published: March 2003

The aim of this study was to examine environmental and gene – environment processes linking parenting (i.e., affect, control, responsiveness) and preschool children's behavioral adjustment difficulties (e.g., noncompliance, conduct problems) by using bivariate genetic analyses of parents' and observers' ratings. The sample included 120 identical and same‐sex fraternal twin pairs (M age = 43 months). Data sources included in‐home observations, interviews, and parents' reports. Observers' ratings of children's difficult behaviors included shared and nonshared environmental variance. In contrast, parents' ratings of children's conduct problems showed genetic and nonshared environmental variance. Observer‐rated maternal behavior included shared and nonshared environmental variance, although maternal responsiveness also included child genetic variance. Parent self‐reported negative and positive affect included shared and nonshared environment as well as child genetic variance. There was no evidence for gene – environment interaction or dominance. Higher levels of difficult behavior and conduct problems covaried with higher levels of maternal negative affect and control and lower levels of maternal positive affect and control. Shared environmental mediation of these correlations was found for observations, whereas genetic and nonshared environmental mediation was found for parents' ratings. In general, estimates of shared environmental variance and mediation were greatest for observational data, and estimates of child genetic variance and mediation were greatest for parent‐rated data. The implications of this pattern of findings for genetic research on family processes are discussed.
The Odds of Resilience
Authors: Von Eye Alexander , Schuster Christof
Published: March 2003

This article presents sample research designs for the investigation of questions concerning resilience. Sample hypotheses from specific research designs are described in the form of odds ratios.
The Stability of Attachment Security from Infancy to Adolescence and Early Adulthood: General Discussion
Authors: Waters Everett , Weinfield Nancy S. , Hamilton Claire E.
Published: March 2003

For over three decades, critics of the developmental and psychometric paradigms have argued that individual differences are neither stable, coherent, nor clinically significant. The present studies extend a long line of research demonstrating the coherence of individual development in attachment security. They make it clear that attachment security can be stable from infancy through early adulthood and that change in attachemnt security is meaningfully related to changes in the family environment. The task now is to better understand the roles of cross‐age consistency in caregiver behavior and the structure of mental representations of early experience in stability and change.
Depressive Symptoms and Co‐occurring Depressive Symptoms, Substance Abuse, and Conduct Problems among Runaway and Homeless Adolescents
Authors: Whitbeck Les B. , Hoyt Danny R. , Bao Wa‐Ning
Published: March 2003

This study examines factors that contribute to depressive symptoms and to co‐occurring depression, substance abuse, and conduct problems among 602 runaway and homeless adolescents. The respondents were interviewed in shelters, drop‐in centers, and directly on the streets in four Midwestern states (Missouri, Iowa, Nebraska, and Kansas). Results indicate that although family‐of‐origin factors contribute to depressive symptoms and comorbidity among runaway and homeless adolescents, experiences and behaviors when the adolescents are on their own also have powerful effects. The authors discuss the findings from a life‐course perspective focusing on mechanisms through which street experiences accentuate or amplify already high levels of psychological distress and behavioral problems among this population of young people.
Patterns of Service Use in Preschool Children: Correlates, Consequences, and the Role of Early Intervention
Authors: Leventhal Tama , Brooks‐Gunn Jeanne , McCormick Marie C. , McCarton Cecelia M.
Published: March 2003

This article explores service use broadly by examining the mix of educational, health, and psychosocial services that preschool children received in the fifth year of life. The sample included 869 children who participated in the Infant Health and Development Program, an early intervention program designed to evaluate the efficacy of a comprehensive early intervention for low‐birth‐weight, premature infants during the first 3 years of life and who were followed until age 5. Cluster analyses of services at age 5 yielded 4 service groups—basic health only (doctor visits; n= 114); basic health and educational services (doctor visits and school/preschool; n=asic health, educational, and psychosocial services (or multiple services; doctor visits, school/preschool, and psychosocial services; n= and specialized health and educational services (doctor visits, school/preschool, emergency room visits and special medical visits [ear and/or eye examinations]; n= 182). Results suggest that neonatal health conditions, maternal education at the time of the child's birth, child developmental status at age 3, and maternal health, family income, and insurance status at age 5 were associated with patterns of services at age 5. Patterns of use are consistent over time (the first 3 years of life to the 5th year of life). After covarying the correlates of the service patterns, participation in the early intervention was not associated with patterns of services at age 5, and service patterns were associated with child well‐being (health, school readiness, mental health), but results differed by intervention status. Findings are discussed in terms of preventive, responsive, and deficit models of service use.
Motivated Scientific Reasoning Biases, Epistemological Beliefs, and Theory Polarization: A Two‐Process Approach to Adolescent Cognition
Authors: Klaczynski Paul A.
Published: March 2003

Theory‐motivated reasoning biases arise when different reasoning skills are invoked to evaluate evidence that is congruent or incongruent with individuals' belief systems. To explore this phenomenon, 66 early and 73 middle adolescents evaluated evidence relevant to their theories of social class or religion. In both conditions, reasoning biases were found, but in‐group biases were evident only in the religion condition. In both conditions, higher order scientific reasoning was used to reject theory‐incongruent evidence and judgmental heuristics (i.e., cognitive rules of thumb) were used to evaluate theory‐congruent evidence. In both conditions, subsequent to the evidence presentation, adolescents' theories became more extreme (i.e., polarized) than at the outset of the experiment. Beliefs regarding the origin, acquisition, and certainty of knowledge, however, appeared to moderate reasoning biases and theory polarization. Age differences emerged on only one index of bias: In the religion condition, middle adolescents were more likely to treat theory‐incongruent evidence as implausible. These findings are pertinent to theories of cognitive development, decision making, rationality, and in‐group favoritism.
Chronicity and Instability of Children's Peer Victimization Experiences as Predictors of Loneliness and Social Satisfaction Trajectories
Authors: Kochenderfer‐Ladd Becky , Wardrop James L.
Published: March 2003

The present investigation was conducted to predict children's loneliness and social satisfaction growth curves from changes in their peer victimization status. Toward this aim, 388 children (193 boys, 195 girls) were interviewed at five points: as children entered kindergarten (in the fall) and spring of kindergarten through third grade. At each assessment, data were gathered on the frequency of children's peer victimization and degree of loneliness and social satisfaction. Groups were formed on the basis of timing and duration of children's victimization status. Hierarchical linear modeling was used to test several hypotheses regarding the nature of victimized children's growth curves. For instance, consistent with the Onset Hypothesis, the trajectories that emerged for children who moved from nonvictim to victim classification showed increasing levels of loneliness and decreasing social satisfaction. In contrast, findings for the Cessation Hypothesis were mixed, which suggests that children moving from victim to nonvictim status do not necessarily evidence significant improvements in loneliness or social satisfaction. The somewhat disparate trajectories that emerged for loneliness and social satisfaction are discussed.
Autonomy and Adolescent Social Functioning: The Moderating Effect of Risk
Authors: Boykin McElhaney Kathleen , Allen Joseph P.
Published: March 2003

This study examined the moderating effect of risk on the relation between autonomy processes and family and adolescent functioning. The present sample comprised 131 adolescents from either a low‐risk or high‐risk social context, their mothers, and their peers. Observational ratings of autonomy processes within the mother – adolescent dyad were obtained, along with adolescent reports of the quality of the mother – adolescent relationship, and both adolescent and peer reports of the adolescent's functioning. Consistent with past research, in low‐risk families, behavior undermining autonomy was negatively related to relationship quality, and adolescents' expressions of autonomy were linked with positive indices of social functioning. In high‐risk families, however, undermining of autonomy was positively linked with mother‐adolescent relationship quality, and adolescents' expressions of autonomy were linked with negative indices of social functioning. Results are interpreted as demonstrating the ways in which the developmental task of attaining autonomy in adolescence is systematically altered depending on the level of risk and challenge in the adolescent's social context.
Visual‐Proprioceptive Intermodal Perception Using Point Light Displays
Authors: Schmuckler Mark A. , Fairhall Jennifer L.
Published: March 2003

Three experiments explored 5‐ and 7‐month‐old infants' intermodal coordination of proprioceptive information produced by leg movements, and visual movement information specifying these same motions. The visual information took the form of point light information for leg and feet movements, with visual displays presented in upright, ego‐centered on‐joint (Experiment 1, N=48); upright, ego‐centered off‐joint (Experiment 2, N=48); and inverted, observer‐centered off‐joint (Experiment 3, N=48) orientations. Measures of preferential looking indicated intermodal perception in infants of both ages while seeing on‐joint, ego‐centered orientations, and for 7‐month‐olds (and possibly 5‐month‐olds) while seeing off‐joint, ego‐centered displays; neither age group demonstrated intermodal perception for off‐joint, observer‐centered displays. These results suggest that coordination of visual and proprioceptive inputs is constrained by infants' information processing of the displays, and have implications for infants' growing understanding of their self‐movement and the development of knowledge of the self.
Nature, Nurture, and Development: From Evangelism through Science toward Policy and Practice
Authors: Rutter Michael
Published: March 2003

During the second half of the 20th century there was an immense increase in both empirical findings on, and conceptual understanding of, the effects of nature, nurture, and developmental processes on psychological functioning‐both normal and abnormal. Unfortunately, the good science has also been accompanied by excessive polarizing claims and by unwarranted extrapolations. This article provides a summary review of the real gains in knowledge, outlines some of the misleading claims, and notes the potential for research and for science‐led improvements in policies and practice. The need to bring about a better interpretation of genetic, psychosocial, and developmental research strategies and theoretical concepts is emphasized.
Generalization of Learning in Three‐and‐a‐Half‐Month‐Old Infants on the Basis of Amodal Relations
Authors: Bahrick Lorraine E.
Published: March 2003

Infants of 3.5 months (N= 124) were given the opportunity to learn to relate two objects and their natural, distinctive sounds during a training phase. The objects and sounds were united by temporal synchrony and amodal audiovisual information specifying object composition. Infants then participated in one of three types of transfer tests (requiring low, moderate, or high degrees of generalization) to measure the extent to which intermodal knowledge generalized to a new task and across events (familiar events; change in color/shape; change in substance, motion, and color/shape). Results indicated that infants tested with the familiar events and with events of a new color/shape showed learning and transfer of knowledge. In contrast, infants tested with events of a new substance, motion, and color/shape showed no generalization of learning. Thus, infants of 3.5 months appear to show a moderate degree of generalization of intermodal knowledge across events. Although this knowledge is not restricted to the events of original learning, it cannot yet be flexibly extended across a variety of contexts.
Elementary School‐Age Children's Capacity to Choose Positive Diagnostic and Negative Diagnostic Tests
Authors: Samuels Mark C. , McDonald John
Published: March 2003

Two experiments involving 72 elementary school‐age children (mean age = 10 years, 3 months, range= 9,4–11,8) and 72 adults compared the ability of participants to choose positive and negative diagnostic tests over positive and negative nondiagnostic tests. Both experiments employed novel test materials, which resolved any issues regarding the effects of context on test strategy employment. In Experiment 1, both children and adults were significantly more likely to prefer positive diagnostic tests over positive nondiagnostic tests; however, only adults demonstrated a significant preference for negative diagnostic tests over positive nondiagnostic ones. In Experiment 2, both children and adults were more likely to choose negative diagnostic tests over negative nondiagnostic tests, demonstrating that despite a strong positive test bias, children could reason diagnostically in selecting among negative tests in cases in which only negative test choices were available.
Observational, Physiological, and Self–Report Measures of Children’s Anger: Relations to Reactive versus Proactive Aggression
Authors: Hubbard Julie A. , Smithmyer Catherine M. , Ramsden Sally R. , Parker Elizabeth H. , Flanagan Kelly D. , Dearing Karen F. , Relyea Nicole , Simons Robert F.
Published: March 2003

The goal of this study was to examine the relations of reactive versus proactive aggression to children’s anger, as assessed using observational, physiological, and self–report measures. Anger was hypothesized to be related to reactive aggression, but not to proactive aggression. Children (N = 272 second–grade boys and girls) participated in a procedure in which they lost a board game and prize to a confederate who cheated. Skin conductance reactivity and heart rate reactivity were measured throughout the procedure. Following the interaction, children viewed a videotape of the game and self–reported on their level of anger after each turn of the game. Observational coding of children’s angry facial expressions and angry nonverbal behaviors was conducted. Reactive aggression, but not proactive aggression, was positively related to skin conductance reactivity and angry nonverbal behaviors, both at an aggregated level and in terms of rate of increase over the time span of the game.
Social Support and Parenting in Poor, Dangerous Neighborhoods
Authors: Ceballo Rosario , McLoyd Vonnie C.
Published: March 2003

This study investigated how stressful environmental conditions influence the relation between mothers’ social support and parenting strategies, utilizing interview data from a sample of 262 poor, African American single mothers and their seventh– and eighth–grade children, as well as objective data about respondents’ neighborhoods. In general, the results indicated that neighborhood conditions moderate the relation between social support and parenting behaviors. Specifically, as neighborhood conditions worsened, the positive relation between emotional support and mothers’ nurturant parenting was weakened. In a similar fashion, the negative relation between instrumental social support and punishment was stronger in better neighborhoods. As the surrounding environments became poorer and more dangerous, the relation between greater instrumental support and a lower reliance on punishment was weakened. Thus, on the whole, hierarchical regression analyses indicated that the positive influences of social support on parenting behavior were strained and attenuated in poorer, high–crime environments.
Cross–Cultural Similarities in the Predictors of Reading Acquisition
Authors: McBride–Chang Catherine , Kail Robert V.
Published: March 2003

Measures of Chinese character/English word recognition, phonological awareness, speeded naming, visual–spatial skill, and processing speed were administered to 190 kindergarten students in Hong Kong and 128 kindergarten and grade 1 students in the United States. Across groups, the strongest predictor of reading itself was phonological awareness; visual processing did not predict reading. For both groups, speed of processing strongly predicted speeded naming, visual processing, and phonological awareness. Despite diversities of culture, language, and orthography to be learned, models of early reading development were remarkably similar across cultures and first and second language orthographies.
Infants’ Perception of Object Trajectories
Authors: Johnson Scott P. , Bremner J. Gavin , Slater Alan , Mason Uschi , Foster Kirsty , Cheshire Andrea
Published: March 2003

Filling in the gaps in what humans see is a fundamental perceptual skill, but little is known about the developmental origins of occlusion perception. Three experiments were conducted with infants between 2 and 6 months of age to investigate perception of the continuity of an object trajectory that was briefly occluded. The pattern of results across experiments provided little evidence of veridical responses to trajectory occlusion in the youngest infants, but by 6 months, perceptual completion was more robust. Four–month–olds’ responses indicated that they perceived continuity under a short duration of occlusion, but when the object was out of sight for a longer interval, they appeared to perceive the trajectory as discontinuous. These results suggest that perceptual completion of a simple object trajectory (and, by logical necessity, veridical object perception) is not functional at birth but emerges across the first several months after onset of visual experience.
How Specific is the Shape Bias?
Authors: Diesendruck Gil , Bloom Paul
Published: March 2003

Children tend to extend object names on the basis of sameness of shape, rather than size, color, or material––a tendency that has been dubbed the “shape bias.” Is the shape bias the result of well–learned associations between words and objects? Or does it exist because of a general belief that shape is a good indicator of object category membership? The present three studies addressed this debate by exploring whether the shape bias is specific to naming. In Study 1, 3–year–olds showed the shape bias both when asked to extend a novel name and when asked to select an object of the same kind as a target object. Study 2 found the same shape bias when children were asked to generalize properties relevant to category membership. Study 3 replicated the findings from Study 1 with 2–year–olds. These findings suggest that the shape bias derives from children's beliefs about object kinds and is not the product of associative learning.