bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Decision Points and Exercises (2): Troubling Your Assumptions
Authors: Prasad Monica
Published: October 2021

Chapters six 6 through eight 8 are the “how to” core of the book. These chapters identify several decisions points that structure a problem-solving analysis, note the tradeoffs involved in the different decisions that might be made, and lay out some possible exercises that could guide thinking. The main argument of these chapters is that there are a range of different approaches that one could take to problem-solving; each has benefits and drawbacks that one should be aware of before making decisions. In particular, each chapter emphasizes the need to consider how one might be wrong at each stage of the project. This chapter focuses on the intermediate stages of a research project.
When to Stop Problem-Solving
Authors: Prasad Monica
Published: October 2021

This chapter addresses some objections that need to be taken seriously, and that may call a halt to a problem-solving enterprise. A scholar should stop problem-solving if they are no longer interested in it, of course, or if they realize that intellectual approaches are not what’s needed for the cause and their commitment is to the cause rather than to the studying. But a problem-solving scholar should also stop upon discovering something new, even if it’s not a step toward solving the problem, because it’s important to get new insights out in the world and let others build on them. It is best to think of problem-solving in the context not of one project, but of a career.
Creator of Evils
Authors: Litwa M. David
Published: October 2021

This chapter studies Marcion(ite) interpretations of Jewish scripture to derive the evil creator idea. Of chief importance was Isaiah 45:7, where the creator confessed to making “evils.” Moreover, the creator arrogantly claimed to be alone in his divinity (Isa 45:22; 46:9), created the conditions for humanity’s fall in Eden (Gen 2–3), and openly admitted to being jealous and enraged (Exod 20:5; Isa 5:25). Marcion’s special talent was contrasting the divine character deduced from the Jewish scriptures with the divine character of Christ. Specifically, this included: (1) the creator’s command to despoil the Egyptians with Christ’s exhortation to voluntary poverty, (2) the creator’s directive to punish “eye for eye” with Christ’s principle of non-retaliation, (3) the creator’s launching of bears to kill forty-two children with Christ’s blessing of the young, and finally (4) the creator’s genocidal violence with Christ’s call for the restraint of rage.
An Alternative to the Proof Paradigm for Ground-Level Rationality
Authors: Talbott William J.
Published: October 2021

In Chapter 5, the author uses the clues from previous chapters to begin the construction of a theory of epistemic rationality in which mistake-correcting reasoning is the paradigm for reasoning. On his account, cognitive models are composed of scenarios, which are themselves sets of propositions that have expectations for experience. Models are tested not by propositions describing experience but by experiences themselves because scenarios holistically generate expectations for experience which the agent’s actual experience can either satisfy or fail to satisfy. On the author’s theory, only scenarios with full or partial necessitation hypotheses can earn rational confidence. He identifies two main conceptual frameworks, the ordinary object framework and the person framework, both of which are causal frameworks. The imagination plays a crucial role in rationality in the author’s theory. He ends with informal statements of two principles of epistemic rationality, of which the formal versions are stated in Appendix A.
Bayesian Accounts of Epistemic Rationality
Authors: Talbott William J.
Published: October 2021

In Chapter 9, the author considers Bayesianism as a theory of mistake-correcting reasoning. He identifies seven kinds of mistake-correcting reasoning that Bayesianism could not explain because Bayesian agents could not make those kinds of mistakes. The author does not argue that it is a virtue of human beings to make those kinds of mistakes, but only that an adequate theory of rationality must be able to explain when it is rational for an agent to discover that they have made such a mistake and how they should correct it. This chapter is not just another rehearsal of the ways in which Bayesian agents are idealized. It is a compendium of ways that humans can learn that cannot be explained in a Bayesian framework. In the next chapter, the author provides an alternative framework that can be used to explain each of the seven examples.
Introduction
Authors: Lytle Mark H.
Published: October 2021

The Introduction begins with a discussion of the Nixon-Khrushchev Kitchen Debate as a frame for postwar consumerism as a strategic objective. In the debate, the two leaders asserted the superiority of their competing economic systems. Nixon described consumer choice as a foundational democratic value that distinguished American freedom from Soviet totalitarianism. Khrushchev boasted that the Soviets provided security for all citizens and promised that in the future they would also surpass the United States in producing consumer goods. Four decades later, facing the aftermath of September 11, 2001, George W. Bush cited the freedom to consume as a value threatened by terrorist extremism. Bush left Obama to face the dilemma of reviving a fossil fuel dependent consumer economy under the deepening threat of climate change.
Postwar Choices
Authors: Lytle Mark H.
Published: October 2021

This chapter examines the choices that wartime and postwar planners made to avoid a recurrence of the depression crisis. They believed underconsumption was a root cause of the crisis, and that in the postwar era mass consumerism and the creation of a consumer democracy, sustained by Keynesian economics, would generate full employment and prosperity. The GI Bill was one key. Most conservatives supported the idea of consumer-driven prosperity, but opposed an expanded role for government to achieve it. Chester Bowles, head of the OPA, saw an improvement in housing stock as a way to promote prosperity and meet the needs of the post-war baby boom generation.
The Birth of a Consumer Democracy
Authors: Lytle Mark H.
Published: October 2021

This chapter surveys housing and suburbanization, autos, and television as three vital engines that drove economic expansion and mass consumerism. It opens with a discussion of Chester Bowles, wartime head of the OPA, and his emphasis on housing and homebuilding as a key to future prosperity. Technological innovation, the productivity of American industry, and the prosperity that followed brought all the former privileges of the wealthy classes within reach of the rapidly expanding American middle class. These factors help explain why so many Americans look back with nostalgia on the postwar decades as “Happy Days.”
America Goes Green
Authors: Lytle Mark H.
Published: October 2021

Among the many “isms” of the 1960s, environmentalism offered one of the most powerful and enduring critiques of consumerism. So the first section of this chapter deals with one of the era’s great ironies: the enigmatic Richard Nixon had one of the greenest records of any president. His administration produced most of the major legislative apparatus, including NEPA, the EPA, OSHA, and the Clean Air, Clean Water, and Endangered Species Acts. Yet Nixon was no environmentalist and also supported the Alaskan Pipeline, the Tennessee-Tombigbee river project, and the Miami airport in the Everglades. His motives were predictably exquisitely political. In the wake of Watergate, the new powers available to environmental organizations shifted leadership from the grassroots efforts of Earth Day to NGOs dominated by professionals. Traditional organizations such as the Audubon Society and Sierra Club assumed more active roles, while new organizations such as the Environmental Defense Fund, Greenpeace, and NRDC promoted more confrontational strategies. The decline of the consumer economy and high unemployment caused a backlash against environmentalism.
Environmental Battlegrounds
Authors: Lytle Mark H.
Published: October 2021

This chapter opens by revisiting the Tellico Dam/snail darter controversy that pitted environmental activism against the rising tide of conservative anti-regulatory fervor. Union members joined anti-environmentalists in blaming regulation as the cause of the nation’s economic woes, especially rampant inflation. On one side, you had increasingly radical environmental groups such as Earth First!, and on the other, the Sage Brush/Wise Use rebellion that found a welcome in the Reagan administration. The Spotted Owl controversy epitomized the growing rift. Reagan appointed such arch Sage Brush rebels as James Watt as secretary of the interior and Anne Gorsuch (mother of the Supreme Court nominee) at EPA to dismantle the programs they were charged to enforce. While the Wise Use movement emerged in the Western states, it had strong followings in the East as well, as conservatives fought regulations in the Adirondacks Park, zoning in Vermont, and preservation of clean water in the Delaware River Gap. Nimbys represented a new source of activism. These were often women fighting against local pollution and other threats to their families, homes, and communities. Lois Gibbs from Love Canal and Penny Newman from California were two of the most effective leaders to emerge. Other groups such as the Clamshell and Abalone Alliances opposed new nuclear power plants.
In Debt We Trust
Authors: Lytle Mark H.
Published: October 2021

The chapter first looks at the Great Inflation that wreaked havoc on the American economy and especially the working and middle classes. The economy shifted away from consumer goods manufacturing to services, dominated by jobs in government, healthcare, recreation and leisure, education, and the professions. Workers, for example, were more likely to drive cabs than to build them. All the same, American consumers continued their spendthrift ways in the 1980s, despite their lower purchasing power. They adjusted their consumer habits in three significant ways: where they shopped, how they paid for goods and services, and what they bought. The first section thus looks at the rise of the “big-box” stores, led by Wal-Mart and Sam Walton, that traded amenities for low prices and in that way extended purchasing power. A number of financial instruments—credit cards, ATMs, mutual money funds—allowed consumers easier access to consumer loans and savings. Finally, technological innovation transformed home and personal entertainment in the form of cable television, tape cassette players, the VCR, and other electronics that also empowered grassroots styles such as punk, rap, and independent films to go mainstream. That cultural upheaval triggered a moral backlash led by evangelical Christians and televangelists such as Oral Roberts, Pat Robertson, and Jerry Falwell. Ironically, they employed the same media technologies to reach mass audiences in order to spread the word that included the ultimate consumer faith: prosperity theology.
Epilogue
Authors: Lytle Mark H.
Published: October 2021

The Epilogue ends with a riff on the self-storage industry as a symptom of overconsumption and an apt metaphor for the United States in the age of Trump. Its main focus is on the misperceptions Trump had about the strengths and weaknesses of the United States and its economy by looking more closely at his misrepresentation of the “war on coal” (there actually has been one) and at the emergence of “Zombie” malls in the retailing sector of the economy. It concludes the book with an assertion that consumption as a strategy for economic growth and social cohesion is no longer sustainable in the era of global warming.
Patents in the History of the Semiconductor Industry
Authors: Galetovic Alexander
Published: October 2021

Chips can be easily copied and semiconductor firms are not monopolies. Nevertheless, in the semiconductor industry patents protect Ricardian rents against free riding. Ricardian rents—rents wrought by a firm’s differential ability to produce more output or value per unit of input—remunerate the investments in R&D that semiconductor firms make in the expectation of profit. In addition, patents enlarge the set of business models, strategies, and contracts that firms can use to trade. Many practices that emerged over time—for example technical marketing, second sourcing, licensing, trade in intellectual property—and the observed evolution of horizontal and vertical specialization would not have been feasible without patents. Last, patents and Ricardian rents in the semiconductor industry conciliate protracted investments in R&D with exceptionally fast growth of multifactor productivity and falling prices over almost 70 years.
Did James Watt’s Patent(s) Really Delay the Industrial Revolution?
Authors: Bottomley Sean
Published: October 2021

Perhaps no inventor or invention was as pivotal to the British industrial revolution than James Watt and his separate condenser. By radically improving the fuel efficiency of steam engines, Watt’s condenser was instrumental to steam’s adoption as a power source in a plethora of industrial activities. However, Watt’s patent for the condenser, obtained in 1769 and extended to 1800, is frequently invoked as a classic example of a “blocking” patent, used to stymie subsequent technical developments in steam engineering, in turn delaying industrialization. The chapter refutes this claim using new archival materials, which show that Watt and his business partner Matthew Boulton were reluctant litigators who were ultimately willing to license their patented technology to other users. The chapter also provides an analytical narrative of Watt’s condenser, concluding that it is an almost ideal illustration of how patents work to stimulate the development and commercialization of new technology.
State Legislatures and Distrust
Authors: Sutton Jeffrey S.
Published: October 2021

This chapter explains the myriad restrictions that state constitutions place on state legislatures—such as single-subject rules, clear-title, and public-purpose clauses—and the kinds of problems that prompted them. The clear-title rule requires the subject of each bill to be expressed plainly in its title. The single-subject requirement ensures that each bill enacted by the legislature contains just one subject. The original-purpose requirement requires a final bill to line up with the stated purpose of the original bill. These limitations grew naturally out of a preoccupation of the Jacksonian era, curbing special interests. The US Constitution does not place comparable restrictions on Congress.
Epilogue
Authors: Sutton Jeffrey S.
Published: October 2021

When it comes to the who-decides questions at the local level, the states have been versatile over time, developing more and more democratic answers. At the national level, the country remains largely fixed in an eighteenth-century republican form of government, one that remains non-democratic in many ways. Are there ways in which these two different approaches to government can complement each other? The conviction of this book is that American constitutional structure cannot be understood without appreciating how the national and state governments handle it. The hope is that a greater appreciation of American federalism offers ways to improve the functioning of each side. The epilogue addresses the gap between the increasingly democratic state governments and non-democratic federal government, the role of the state and federal courts in addressing change, and the structural values of federalism and localism in creating stable and lasting change.
Ritual andRenin Confucius’s World
Authors: Jiang Tao
Published: October 2021

At the very beginning of Chinese moral-political philosophy stood Confucius, who attempted to maintain a continuum between partialist humaneness and impartialist justice in his articulation of ideal personhood, family, and polity. This is reflected in the way two core concepts, i.e., ritual (li) and the virtue of ren, in his philosophy are formulated. In his effort to rescue the collapsing ritual order, Confucius formulated the virtue of ren, usually translated as the Good, humaneness, humanity, human-heartedness, authoritative or consummate conduct, or benevolence, and touted this newly formulated virtue as the new moral foundation for the ritual order that used to be grounded in the Zhou kings’ claim of the Mandate of Heaven. Confucius’s ren contains both a partialist element favoring one’s family and an impartialist element when dealing with others. Confucius’s effort set the parameters for the mainstream moral-political project during the classical period, but his vision would be seriously challenged and significantly reformulated.
The Great Divergence
Authors: Jiang Tao
Published: October 2021

This chapter demonstrates that it was in the hands of Mozi and his followers, the Mohists, as well as the self-professed followers of Confucius, especially Mencius and the Mencians, that the tension between humaneness and justice would receive full treatment in their effort to articulate their respective moral-political projects. As a consequence, the tension between the two norms would become increasingly glaring and could no longer be glossed over. The Mohists would fully embrace justice, whereas the Mencians would tout humaneness. The author calls such a development during the early to mid-Warring States period the “Great Divergence,” referring to the fact that the Mohists and the Mencians would gravitate toward justice and humaneness, respectively, and finding the tension between them hard to reconcile—even irreconcilable under certain circumstances. This pivotal divergence would drastically reshape the subsequent development of the moral-political discourse in the classical period and beyond.
A Model for Global Governance of Platforms
Authors: Fay Robert
Published: October 2021

Digital platforms such as Google, Facebook, Twitter, Amazon, and a more recent entrant, Zoom, have provided core societal functions that have enabled us to work, shop, educate ourselves and our children, run businesses, maintain social contact, and receive and disseminate information. At the same time, the uses of these technologies have led to elevated concerns in areas such as surveillance, cyber risks, democracy, public health, competition and monopoly power, and economic prosperity. Current governance arrangements are incoherent and fragmented nationally and internationally—where they even exist. At the same time, they typically reflect vested state and corporate interests that can be very difficult to challenge. The way forward is to create a new institution for the digital realm: a Digital Stability Board (DSB) that would be a multi-stakeholder forum with a remit to create global governance for big data, AI, and the digital platforms, while allowing national variation to reflect different values and cultures while avoiding a race to the bottom in governance. Taking concerted and coordinated action on global governance under a structure such as a DSB will help to ensure that the benefits of the platforms are magnified, and the risks minimized individually and globally.
Introduction
Authors: Ypi Lea
Published: October 2021

The Introduction focuses on the construction metaphors that Kant deploys in the Doctrine of Method of the Critique of Pure Reason to explain the relevance of the unity of reason for the success of his critical project. It outlines the sources of this metaphor in the previous metaphysical tradition and it focuses on recent constructivist interpretations of the Doctrine of Method to illustrate the need for a more detailed engagement with the concept of purposiveness. It also explains why the concept of purposiveness is crucial to integrate the theoretical and practical uses of reason, and outlines the key steps in the interpretation of the concept of purposiveness that the book tries to advance.
The Right of Sovereignty
Authors: Lee Daniel
Published: October 2021

Bodin’s most important theoretical achievement was to conceptualize sovereignty as an indivisible and portable bundle of legal rights, which he collectively designated ius summi imperii. Sovereignty, on this account, was modelled on the creditor’s in personam right arising from a debt obligation in civil law. Just as a creditor has a right to an actionable remedy enforcing the debtor’s performance of contractual obligations, so too does a sovereign state have a legal right to enforce acts of allegiance owed by its subjects and, in the case of treaty obligations, acts of fidelity owed by foreign obligors. Applying a doctrine of medieval legal science, Bodin traced the source of that sovereign right to the law of nations [ius gentium]. While sovereigns may be exempt from their own legislation [legibus soluti], they always remain legally bound to observe the ius gentium and exercise sovereign rights in accordance with its principles.
Brain–Computer Interfaces for Movement
Authors: Glannon Walter
Published: October 2021

This chapter describes differences between passive and active brain–computer interfaces (BCIs). It explains how active BCIs enable users to move a prosthetic arm or limb, or a computer cursor, and gives them a certain degree of control over these movements. There is shared control between the user and the interface, and this restores the user’s capacity for agency. In normal voluntary bodily movements, one does not have to think about performing them. In BCI-mediated movements, the user must plan how to use the system in activating and directing brain signals to the computer to perform them. There are two intentions: intending to perform an action; and intending to perform it with a BCI. There are two mental acts: activating and directing signals to the computer to produce the motor output. The fact that there are two intentions and two mental acts resulting in a physical movement could motivate a revision of moral and legal criteria of responsibility for BCI users. It could influence judgements of responsibility for actions, omissions, and their consequences.
Roving Printers
Authors: Finkelstein David
Published: October 2021

Using archival records and primary sources derived from English, Scottish, Irish, Australasian, South African, and North American print trade union sources, this chapter examines the phenomenon of the ‘tramping typographer’ in the long nineteenth century. English-speaking printers circulated across regions and continents, acting as transmitters of union values and trade skills, and becoming central to the expansion of labour interests in new territories. Such circulation of highly skilled workers played its part in the development of nineteenth-century anglophone print economies. Between 1830 and 1914, supported by emigration and removal grant schemes, printers and print union members circulated overseas, setting up businesses, engaging in labour and union politics, and creating the print culture infrastructures that sustained social, communal, and national communication and identity.
Book, Image, and Social Presence
Authors: Sillars Stuart
Published: October 2021

In the early 1920s, the literary editor Sidney Clark wrote about English classic texts as moral guides for new readers. In 1932, Q. D. Leavis bemoaned the growth of popular fiction as simple escape. More positive overall was the growth of books as constructions of word and image, not just through illustrations but in all aspects of design, layout and increasingly through pictorial dust jackets in books of all kinds. Design of covers and binding revealed much about contents, with the Left Book Club and its rival Right Book Club the most extreme, declaring their content and political stance. In new homes, books became a way of presenting the owners’ tastes to visitors; the design of Penguin Books in particular made purchasing easier and cheaper, and also offered books of many kinds, identifiable by colour-coded covers, to new readers.
Alternative Life Histories
Authors: Hutchings Jeffrey A.
Published: October 2021

Life-history differences are pervasive within populations. A subset of this variability is reflected by discontinuous variation in behavioural, developmental, and/or morphological traits during breeding. These mating and reproductive phenotypes are expressed as two or more alternatives, mostly by males. Alpha males are typically larger, territorial, aggressive, and overt in attracting potential mates, obtaining copulations by defending access to females and guarding resources necessary for reproduction. In contrast, beta males commonly obtain fertilizations by sneaking, adopting a satellite or searching behaviour, or mimicking females in colour or behaviour. Alternative phenotypes can be distinguished as short-term, often reversible behavioural tactics or as longer-term, developmentally constrained, genetically influenced strategies. Their expression is highly dependent on the attainment of a threshold based on learning, experience, environmental quality, genetic architecture, or some combination thereof. Threshold reaction norms have proven valuable in providing theoretical and empirical constructs for understanding the evolutionary stability of alternative mating phenotypes. After considering the role of negative frequency-dependent selection on the evolutionary stability of alternative mating phenotypes, the chapter closes by addressing terminological inconsistencies in the literature.
Applications
Authors: Hutchings Jeffrey A.
Published: October 2021

When compared to the unexploited environments in which organismal life histories evolved, hunting and fishing impose additional sources of extrinsic mortality often several times greater than natural mortality. This has direct consequences for lx and potentially bx. Efforts to achieve sustainable exploitation, which are often based on the concept of maximum sustainable yield, depend on how natural (M) and harvest-induced (F) mortality change with age. For data-poor populations, life-history based approximations can be used to estimate key parameters, such as M. Complex and simple methods are used in the setting of fishery management reference points related to population size and fishing mortality; reference points define targets and limits to guide sustainable harvesting efforts. Exploitation has potential to effect evolution. By selectively removing individuals on the basis of size or age, or by simply imposing an unduly high F that is random with respect to phenotype, harvest-induced evolution has potential to alter life histories in aquatic and terrestrial animals.
Mindreading in Adults
Authors: Apperly Ian A. , Wang J. Jessica
Published: October 2021

In adults, Theory of Mind (ToM) or mindreading is a multifaceted ability that is underpinned by a number of social and cognitive factors, and implicates multiple brain regions. Additionally, everyday intuition suggests that some adults are better mindreaders than others, opening lines of enquiry into individual differences. The result is a literature with a wide range of findings that may appear difficult to reconcile. This chapter attempts to make sense of these findings and the broad themes in the literature. It begins by reviewing a cognitive model that offers a framework for thinking about similarities and differences between mindreading tasks and component processes. It then highlights the potential challenges in employing experimental tasks when attempting to capture individual differences in mindreading. Finally, it discusses two motivational factors that are often overlooked as possible dimensions on which individuals could differ in everyday mindreading. It ends with some recommendations for future investigations.
Understanding Atypical Social Behaviour Using Social Cognitive Theory
Authors: Livingston Lucy A. , Happé Francesca
Published: October 2021

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is often proposed to be the condition of atypical social cognition, because the social behaviours observed in ASD can be attributed to a range of atypicalities in underlying social cognitive processing. This chapter presents and critiques the most prominent social cognitive theories. We suggest that the ‘Theory of Mind’ theory of autism—which proposes that autistic social atypicalities are best explained by difficulties in inferring the mental states of other people—continues to be the most compelling social cognitive theory, with the greatest explanatory power. We also reflect upon ongoing issues that stymy our understanding of the social cognitive underpinnings of ASD, including heterogeneity, co-occurring conditions, and compensatory ability. Finally, the chapter touches on ongoing debates in the field and suggests avenues for future research required to facilitate knowledge of autistic social behaviour and cognition across the whole lifespan.
Meaning
Authors: Briggs Andrew , Reiss Michael J.
Published: October 2021

Someone who consistently feels that their life is meaningless is unlikely to say that they are flourishing. But people can find meaning in very different ways. Is meaning something to be discovered, perhaps like truth, or is it something to be chosen? And is meaning an impersonal thing, like gravity, or does it have to be imparted by an agent, like love? Meaning depends on the preparedness of the recipient. Objects can be a source of great pleasure. They can help bring meaning to our lives and contribute to our flourishing. But for most of us, once our basic material needs have been met, while objects can provide pleasure and be meaningful for us, it is relationships that are more important—and often longer-lasting. Many people find meaning in religion. This doesn’t mean that they don’t find it in anything else, but they find in religion the ultimate source of meaning.
Contemporary Structural Change
Authors: Sumner Andy
Published: October 2021

This chapter concentrates on the ‘new’ patterns of contemporary economic development and structural change. The chapter focuses on the second great transformation outlined. Specifically, it examines the evolution of late economic development towards stalled industrialization, deindustrialization, and tertiarization. The empirical basis of these patterns is explored anew. Furthermore, the myth accompanying this transformation—that economic development is sector-neutral—is discussed. Additionally, the extent to which patterns of late economic development—stalled industrialization, deindustrialization, and tertiarization—matter is considered. It is argued that (modern) manufacturing remains preferable to tertiary-led economic development.
Income Inequality within Countries
Authors: Sumner Andy
Published: October 2021

This chapter addresses the within-country component of global inequality and the impact of deindustrialization on national income inequality. The chapter focuses on the fourth great transformation outlined, specifically the shift to a form of immiserizing growth. This chapter revisits Kuznets’ seminal work and asks what trend might be expected for national inequality during deindustrialization. The chapter makes estimates of the empirical evidence on deindustrialization, tertiarization, and national income inequality in developing countries. The accompanying myth—that if developing countries integrate more and more into GVC world, the process will lead to broad-based economic development—is critiqued. A theoretical exposition to explain the connection between deindustrialization, tertiarization, and rising national income inequality in the developing world is given.
Conclusion
Authors: Sumner Andy
Published: October 2021

The intellectual contribution of the book has been to provide a detailed account of the contemporary processes of stalled industrialization, deindustrialization, and tertiarization as well as on their characteristics, drivers, and consequences in the developing world. Furthermore, the book has connected empirically and theoretically the phenomena of stalled industrialization, deindustrialization, and tertiarization, the emergence of a GVC world, and global inequality. This concluding chapter summarizes the book’s content and restates the main arguments of the book. There is discussion of the future prospects for developing countries and the ‘tertiary trilemma’ they face, specifically: Should middle-income developing countries pursue higher-value-added services-led growth which is unequalizing and has weaker employment growth? Or should they rather seek lower-value-added services-led growth which has higher employment growth? Or should they instead pursue the shrinkage of services and subsidize re-industrialization-led growth?
The Making of a King
Authors: Waterfield Robin
Published: October 2021

The book is a biography of Antigonus II Gonatas, king of Macedon from 276 to 239, and a history of the Greek mainland in the third century BCE. It falls into two parts. The first part covers the salient history of the decades preceding Antigonus’s accession to the throne, including what little is known of his early life, and the second part is a partly chronological, partly thematic account of his reign. The first part, which begins roughly with the death of Alexander the Great in 323, focuses on the history of Macedon, Sparta, Athens, the Aetolian and Achaean Confederacies, and Ptolemaic Egypt. The main recurrent themes of the second part are warfare (Antigonus vs Celts, Antigonus vs the Ptolemies of Egypt, Antigonus vs the Greeks, Antigonus vs Alexander of Corinth), administration (Antigonus’s reformation of Macedon, Antigonus’s methods of controlling the Greeks), and culture (Antigonus’s court). Antigonus emerges as one of the great kings of ancient Macedon, who stabilized the country after a period of chaos and held powerful foes at bay. But the successes of his early years as king were offset by the increasing power of the Greek confederacies, and his legacy was the perpetuation of the hatred the Greeks felt for their Macedonian overlords. This in turn ultimately made it possible for the Romans to replace the Macedonians as the arbiters of the Greeks’ fate.
The Pride of Sparta
Authors: Waterfield Robin
Published: October 2021

After control of the mainland Greeks passed into Macedonian hands in 338, Sparta stayed aloof from the League of Corinth and the organizational structures put in place to keep the Greeks in order. This stance was prompted by the Spartans’ awareness of their proud history, but the reality was that Sparta was no longer as strong as it had been, and indeed was suffering from a severe decline in the number of its citizens, and therefore in the size of its army. After an armed rebellion led by their king Agis III in 330 was put down, Sparta took a back seat in international affairs, until its pride was somewhat revived in the 290s and 280s by the maverick Cleonymus, a member of one of the two Spartan royal families. Cleonymus allied himself with Pyrrhus of Epirus for an attempt to take Sparta for himself, but died in the process. By then the anti-Macedonian faction in Sparta had gained the upper hand, as in Areus I’s expedition against the Aetolians, Macedonian allies at the time, in 281. When Antigonus gained the Macedonian throne in the 270s, he knew he could expect trouble in the Peloponnese from the Spartans.
The Wheel of Fortune
Authors: Waterfield Robin
Published: October 2021

Antigonus was at the height of his power. He made his son Demetrius the joint ruler of Macedon. After the Chremonidean War, Athens effectively came under his direct control. The Spartans lay low, and the rest of the Peloponnesians remained under pro-Macedonian sole rulers or garrisons. Antigonus used his brother, Demetrius the Fair, for an abortive attempt to make trouble for Ptolemy in North Africa, and as a result of the battle of Andros effectively drove the Ptolemies out of the Aegean. But Antigonus’s nephew, Alexander, who was his viceroy in the Peloponnese, rebelled, taking Corinth with him. Corinth was vital for Antigonus’s control of Greece. Alexander’s assassination ended the war, and Antigonus recovered Corinth. But he held it only for two years. Aratus of Sicyon was now dominant in the Achaean Confederacy, and he took Corinth by a ruse in 243. Antigonus subsequently lost many of the Peloponnesian states to the Achaeans, and he allied himself with the Aetolians to try to stem the tide. Meanwhile, ties with Antiochus II were weakening. Sparta was in turmoil as Agis IV attempted to impose a raft of major reforms, designed to restore Sparta to its position as leader of the Peloponnese.
Foundations and Applications of Social Epistemology
Authors: Goldberg Sanford C.
Published: October 2021

This book collects twelve recent papers by the author on social epistemology. Roughly half of them propose a research program for social epistemology—including an animating vision, foundational questions, and core concepts—and the other half are applications of this vision to particular topics. The author characterizes the research program itself as the exploration of the epistemic significance of other minds. Such a program will enumerate the various ways in which we depend epistemically on others, it will describe the proper way to evaluate beliefs according to the sort of dependence they exhibit, and it will provide the basis for identifying and characterizing various dysfunctions of our epistemic communities. The book suggests that several core concepts will be helpful as part of this exploration: epistemic dependence (direct and diffuse); entitlements (epistemic as well as those deriving from our social practices); the normative expectations we have of one another as epistemic subjects; and the socio-epistemic practices in which we participate. It goes on to put this program and these concepts into practice by exploring such topics as the epistemic agency exhibited in inquiry, the practices that constitute news coverage, the basis for allegations of what we or others should have known, how reliance on another’s testimony contrasts with reliance on an instrument, our reliance on others as consumers of testimony, and the epistemic upshot of non-epistemic social norms (whether these are moral, political, professional, or relationship-based).
A Proposed Research Program for Social Epistemology
Authors: Goldberg Sanford C.
Published: October 2021

This chapter proposes a particular program for Social Epistemology to pursue, according to which social epistemology is the systematic exploration of the epistemic significance of other minds. Three questions are fundamental to this exploration: (1) what are the varieties of ways we rely on others in information acquisition, storage, processing, assessment, and transmission? (2) With respect to each of these sorts of ways we rely on others, what is the epistemic significance of the fact that we do so rely? And (3) what are appropriate norms for the assessment of such acts of reliance? Some of these norms will be norms of inquiry, and it is here where we will see the face of epistemic agency in social epistemology.
Social Epistemology and Epistemic Injustice
Authors: Goldberg Sanford C.
Published: October 2021

This chapter discusses the nature of various forms of epistemic injustice, as seen from the angle of social epistemology. To do so, it relies on the author’s previously developed approach to social epistemology. More specifically, it focuses on the variety of norms that inform our socio-epistemic practices. It is in connection with such norms that we see the potential for a variety of distinct forms of epistemic injustice. These injustices can arise from the norms themselves (as when the norms themselves are part and parcel of a practice which itself is unfair), from the application of those norms (as when the practice itself is unfairly implemented), or with the access others have to participate in the shaping of those norms (as when certain people are unfairly excluded).
The Division of Epistemic Labor
Authors: Goldberg Sanford C.
Published: October 2021

This chapter builds on the author’s programmatic approach to research in social epistemology, according to which such research involves the systematic investigation of the epistemic significance of other minds. This research program is developed by appeal to the thesis of the Division of Epistemic Labor. After formulating this thesis as a thesis of epistemic dependence, the chapter illustrates several ways in which individual subjects are epistemically dependent on one or more of the members of their community in the process of knowledge acquisition. Such an account supports various conclusions about the cognitively distributed nature of some knowledge acquisition, and the chapter ends with these.
Can Asserting That p Improve the Speaker’s Epistemic Position (And Is That a Good Thing)?
Authors: Goldberg Sanford C.
Published: October 2021

This chapter argues that there are cases in which a speaker S’s observation of the fact that her assertion that p is accepted by another person enhances the strength of S’s own epistemic position with respect to p, as compared to S’s strength of epistemic position with respect to p prior to having made the assertion. It concludes by noting that the sorts of consideration that underwrite this (happy) possibility may go some distance toward explaining several (unhappy) aspects of our group life as epistemic subjects—in particular, groupthink and group polarization.
If That Were True I Would Have Heard about It by Now
Authors: Goldberg Sanford C.
Published: October 2021

This chapter argues that there is a species of inference from absence that can provide justification for beliefs formed in this way. The inference is from the absence of testimony that p, to the conclusion that not-p. Beliefs acquired in this way are called “coverage-based,” since they depend for their epistemic goodness on the quality of the coverage one’s community provides for one. The chapter explores the conditions on acquiring a justified coverage-based belief. It provides a process reliabilist account of the conditions on the justification of coverage-based beliefs, and suggests that the epistemology of these beliefs is importantly different from testimony-based beliefs.
Epistemically Engineered Environments
Authors: Goldberg Sanford C.
Published: October 2021

This chapter defends the claim that, when we rely on other speakers by accepting what they tell us, our reliance on them differs in epistemically relevant ways from our reliance on instruments. The focus here is on what is distinctive of our reliance on instruments. The chapter’s key notions will be those of our social practices, the normative expectations that are sanctioned by those practices, and the epistemically engineered environments constituted by some of these practices. With these notions in mind, it will argue that one’s reliance on instruments, while relevantly different (epistemically speaking) from one’s reliance on other speakers, can nevertheless manifest a kind of epistemic dependence which epistemological theory can and should acknowledge.
Cultivating Collectives
Authors: Rayner Cynthia , Bonnici François
Published: October 2021

How do the principles of systems work show up in the day-to-day activities of organizations? Chapters 4 to 7 describe four practices of systems work, demonstrating how the principles from Chapter 3 are put into action. Chapter 4 describes a key role for organizations, which is to cultivate collectives comprised of primary actors: people who are immersed in a social issue and who often have lived experience of the social issue itself. It is a seemingly innocuous role that can have profound consequences. The organizations visited for the research are each doing this in different ways, yet with similar objectives. Through peer groups, incubators, learning circles, committees, and numerous other structures, these organizations are cultivating collectives that enable individuals, families, and groups to gain new perspectives while learning together—ultimately creating an action system for broader change.
Measuring for Learning
Authors: Rayner Cynthia , Bonnici François
Published: October 2021

Measuring systems change raises the fundamental questions of systems work: namely, who, what, and when are we measuring, and why? Measurement should be embedded in systems work as a practice, not just to prove successful outcomes but as part of the overall learning process of organizations and broader collectives. This kind of measurement puts primary actors in charge of their own data, revealing a deeper understanding of what is valued by those who are immersed in the context of a social issue. To measure systems work more effectively, organizations and their supporting actors can support self-evaluation, surface invisible value, shorten feedback loops, and measure for meaning. When measuring for learning, organizations are able to ask different questions, recognizing that the primary aim is to determine “what is happening” rather than “what worked.” Organizations and primary actors are also able to access “deep data” that captures the richness of individual experiences while visualizing the bigger picture as it emerges.
Future versus Present Morality
Authors: Zohny Hazem
Published: October 2021

This chapter discusses future and present morality, differentiating between Presentists and Anticipators. Both Presentists and Anticipators reflect some truth about the future. However, there is a lot to be said for Presentists, and for the claim that this book — and the way ethicists have been allured by future visions — is a little bit morally bad. This is because questions of distributive justice — of justly allocating resources — are relevant to what ethicists focus on. And ethicists — especially the applied variety who appeal to the implications of moral theories or principles for specific situations — have been overly preoccupied by the promises and perils of emerging and future technologies. Specifically, while applied ethicists readily delve into the science behind artificial intelligence, gene editing, brain-machine interfaces, and nanotech, they have not bothered learning much about economic theories and the conflicting values and difficult trade-offs directly raised by economic policy. One reason for this is that applied ethicists largely relegate the ethics of economics to economists or political philosophers, where libertarians, socialists, and those in-between fight it out by appealing to large, abstract principles or assumptions about things like the proper role of the state.
How Should We Value the Health of Future People?
Authors: Williams Bridget
Published: October 2021

This chapter examines the health of future people and the health of people now. Will health become less important for a fulfilling life? How likely is it that population health will continue to improve? How should we navigate uncertainty in outcomes? Are we justified in showing partiality to people who are closer to us in time? The World Health Organization defines health as “a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.” Health is both intrinsically and instrumentally valuable. It seems difficult to see how the intrinsic value of health would change across time; a person is a person no matter when they exist. Moreover, it could be argued that for humanity as a whole there would be greater instrumental value in improving population health earlier rather than later. Nevertheless, the health of people in the future matters and this should be factored into our health policies. The chapter then looks at the importance of considering future health burdens and health benefits.