bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Chemistry of Cigarette Burning Processes
Authors: Chen P
Published: July 2016

Cigarette-burning and the smoke-formation processes and smoke composition are important topics for understanding cigarette performance. This paper proposes the molecular formulas representing the active components of bright, burley, and Oriental tobaccos and a basic chemistry model of the cigarette burning processes. Previous knowledge of the cigarette burning processes and smoke formation helped to establish parameters in deriving the basic chemistry equations. The proposed chemistry provides a brief view of the mechanisms of the cigarette burning during puffing and interpuff smoldering, and can be used to interpret and predict the smoke composition for cigarettes made from bright, burley, and Oriental tobaccos. Based on the proposed chemistry, the effect of ventilation on smoke component deliveries is discussed and the reaction heat of the puffing process is estimated.
Glycerol Transfer in Cigarette Mainstream Smoke
Authors: Liu C
Published: July 2016

Experiments have been conducted to examine the effect of different levels of blend glycerol (0 to 11.4 wt% on cigarette mainstream smoke (MSS) yields. The glycerol transfer is generally found to be proportional to the blend glycerol level with the maximum glycerol contribution to the nicotine-free-dry-particulate-matter (NFDPM or ‘tar’) per cigarette at 36% for a 11.4% blend glycerol. For cigarettes with different designs the glycerol in NFDPM may also depend on the glycerol loading per unit rod length. The tobacco rod filtration did not change significantly within the glycerol range investigated and hence plays a relatively minor role. Significant glycerol condensation ahead of the burning coal after a puff was measured. This condensation may have implications on glycerol levels in the sidestream smoke during inter-puff smouldering.
An Approach to Modeling a Burning Cigarette
Authors: Muramatsu M
Published: July 2016

The temperature and smoke components distributions inside a burning cigarette have been briefly reviewed. Then, focusing on our mathematical model to explain the natural smoldering mechanism of a cigarette and new mathematical models recently published by other authors, an approach to modeling a burning cigarette has been outlined.

It has been more than forty years since modeling the burning process of a cigarette was first attempted. Although the modeling work, which has been adopted as a means to research the burning mechanism of a cigarette, has seen a certain degree of progress in the last forty years, almost all mathematical models published are restricted to a burning cigarette under a free convection or a steady draw condition. No realistic model has been published yet to explain the processes occurring inside a burning cigarette under an intermittent puffing cycle.
A Profile of the Heat Generation Inside a Cigarette During Puffing
Authors: Nagao A , Yamada Y , Miura K , Horio M
Published: July 2016

The transient temperature distribution inside a burning cigarette during a 2-second constant-draw single puff was measured to determine the heat generation rate at various positions. The calculation of the heat generation was applied only to a vertically positioned cigarette. The solid-phase temperature was measured by an infrared thermometer with an optical fiber probe, and the gas-phase temperature was measured by a thermocouple. Heat generation rates at various positions inside the burning cigarette were obtained from the temperature distribution profile based on the heat balance equations. Heat generation was found to be concentrated within a region 2 to 3 mm behind the paper char line. The maximum heat generation rate was observed during the initial period of puffing and the heat generation rate decreased significantly in the interval during the middle unsteady period. Steady heat generation was observed in the latter period. The puffing volume as well as the properties of cigarette paper affected the heat generation rate during the unsteady period. The amount of the heat generated during the unsteady period was more than half of the total regardless of the cigarette paper basis weight and the puffing volume.
Factors Influencing the Formation of Tobacco-Specific Nitrosamines in French Air-Cured Tobaccos in Trials and at the Farm Level
Authors: deRoton C , Wiernik A , Wahlberg I , Vidal B
Published: July 2016

Several trials the results of which are compiled in this paper, were carried out at the Tobacco Institute of Bergerac (ITB) and in the area nearby from 1996 to 2003. The objective was to study the formation of tobacco-specific nitrosamines (TSNA) in dark air-cured and burley tobaccos during curing and post-curing treatment under the conditions of cultivation, curing and storage commonly applied by the growers in the south-western part of France. For experimental purposes special treatments were performed in certain trials.

The results showed that the main genetic trait involved in the formation of TSNA is the propensity of a variety to convert nicotine to nornicotine (NN). In addition, the ability of a variety to lose water rapidly limits the formation of nitrite and hence also the formation of TSNA. Furthermore, agricultural practices that led to an increase of alkaloid concentrations in the tobacco leaves also led to an increase of TSNA concentration. Priming, a mode of harvest which speeds up the cure, as compared to stalk-cutting, as well as low temperatures during curing, limit the formation of TSNA, but do not yield tobaccos of the best quality. Ventilation in the barn plays a major role, and the leaves cured in well ventilated curing structures, such as plastic sheds, generally contained smaller amounts of TSNA than leaves cured in a conventional curing barn. The results also indicated that the TSNA concentrations may increase after the end of cure, if the cured tobaccos were kept hanging in the barn under humid conditions. The concentration of TSNA may also continue to increase, whereas nitrite concentrations tend to decrease, when the leaves are kept in bales.

It can be concluded that the French climatic conditions with moderate temperatures and low relative humidity at the time of curing, are favourable for the production of air-cured tobaccos with a good quality and low TSNA concentrations (1.5-3.5 µg/g), provided that the variety has low NN content, the nitrogen fertilization is moderate, the curing is performed in a well ventilated environment, the tobacco is taken down and stripped as soon as it is cured, and the bales are stored as briefly as possible before the leaves are threshed and stabilized.
Formation of Tobacco-Specific Nitrosamines (TSNA) During Air-Curing: Conditions and Control
Authors: Staaf M , Back S , Wiernik A , Wahlberg I , Long RC , Young JH
Published: July 2016

The present review deals with studies performed during several consecutive years on the effect of air-curing on tobacco-specific nitrosamine (TSNA) formation and quality of tobacco. Temperature, relative humidity, water content and water activity data were collected during curing of dark tobacco in traditional air-curing barns and bulk-curing barns of different sizes, and chemical analysis of the cured tobacco were performed.
On an Optimal Choice of Pre-Perforated Tipping Paper and Porous Plug Wrap Paper
Authors: Eitzinger B
Published: July 2016

To minimize the effect of permeability variations of tipping and plug wrap paper on the degree of filter ventilation and consequently on the smoke yields, a mathematical model for the flow through a layered structure of perforated tipping paper and porous plug wrap paper was derived. The output of the model was compared to experimental data and a very good agreement was found.

A statistical investigation revealed that measured permeability values of tipping and plug wrap papers are normally distributed. Furthermore, it was shown that the statistical distribution of the total permeability of the layered structure cannot be distinguished from a normal distribution at reasonable levels of statistical significance.

Based on these investigations and on the mathematical model, expressions for the expected value and the coefficient of variation of the total permeability were derived. It was shown that in spite of the non-linear model the difference between the exact expected total permeability and a simple estimate calculated from the expected permeabilities of tipping and plug wrap is sufficiently small, such that for all practical purposes this estimate can be used.

The coefficient of variation of the total permeability was then minimized. The solution of this optimisation problem delivered practically applicable design rules for the permeabilities of tipping and plug wrap papers. It was shown that the minimal coefficient of variation of the total permeability is lower than the coefficient of variation of the permeability of tipping and plug wrap paper. Typically an optimal design can be achieved by choosing the tipping paper permeability between 10% and 50% higher than the total permeability. A simple example demonstrated the usefulness of this approach.
Analysis of Minor Alkaloids in Tobacco: A Collaborative Study
Authors: Chen PX , Qian N , Burton HR , Moldoveanu SC
Published: July 2016

A collaborative study regarding the analysis of minor alkaloids in tobacco and tobacco products was initiated by the Analytical Methods Committee of the Tobacco Science Research Conference (TSRC). One purpose of the study was to assess the reliability of methods used for the analysis of minor alkaloids and nicotine in tobacco and tobacco products, as practiced in different laboratories. A second purpose was to select a preferred method or to develop a hybrid method based on the best elements from the procedures currently used for the analysis of minor alkaloids. A hybrid method was developed and its results compared with the values from existing methods. The hybrid method proves to be reliable, has good repeatability, and is easy to implement. This new method can be used as a reference procedure for minor alkaloids and nicotine analysis using either flame ionization (FID) or mass spectrometric (MS) detection. A comparison with the older techniques shows that the hybrid method considerably improved the repeatability, but only marginally increased the reproducibility for different laboratories. This may be, in part, because any new method requires some time to become fully standardized and reliable. Also, the contribution of other sources of variation such as different standards and different equipment may have limited the improvement in reproducibility.
Numerical Simulation of a Cigarette during Smoking
Authors: Eitzinger B , Pirker S
Published: July 2016

A mathematical model for a lit cigarette is derived, which predicts pressure, flow velocity, temperature and gas concentrations inside and outside the cigarette. It consists of a continuum-mechanical model for the flow and a discrete model for the chemical reactions occurring in the tobacco particles.

The cigarette model is simulated for a cigarette in a vertical position by methods known as computational fluid dynamics (CFD). Calculated temperature and gas concentration profiles are compared to measured data from the literature for smouldering, puffing and steady-draw. For thermo-physical properties, such as temperature fields and burn rates, a good correspondence with experimental data was found. The correspondence with measured gas concentration profiles was also acceptable, even though the reaction model is rather simple. The results show the importance of including the surroundings of the cigarette in the computational domain.

Secondly, a cigarette in a horizontal position is simulated both for free smouldering and for smouldering on a substrate, as occurs, for example, during the ignition strength test. The results show certain qualitative differences between the two smouldering regimes in the flow pattern outside the cigarette and in the transfer of heat to the surroundings and to the substrate.

The proposed model offers two main advantages. Firstly, it does not need the input of any data, that can only be measured if the cigarette has been lit, such as temperature fields or burn rates. Secondly, with this model all types of smoking regimes such as smouldering, puffing and steady-draw can be simulated without making any modifications to the mathematical model or its parameters. Only the boundary conditions need to be adapted.
Analysis of Protein Amino Acids in Tobacco Using Microwave Digestion of Plant Material
Authors: Moldoveanu SC
Published: July 2016

This paper describes a technique using microwave digestion and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), which makes possible the analysis of protein amino acids in tobacco. The technique involves first the measurement of free amino acids, a hydrolysis using microwave digestion, and a measurement of total resulting amino acids. The content of protein amino acids is determined from the difference of total and free amino acids. The digestion is performed with aqueous 6 N HCl (with 1% phenol) for two hours in a microwave at 120°C in sealed vials. The GC-MS analysis is performed after the amino acids are derivatized with N-methyl-N-(t-butyldimethylsilyl)trifluoroacetamide (MTBSTFA). The technique provides reliable results with less than 10% relative standard deviation (RSD) for most amino acids. Only the determination of very low level amino acids is affected by larger errors. The method provides results for free amino acids that are in very good agreement with those obtained by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and also results for protein levels in tobacco in agreement with data previously reported in the literature. Results are given for several single grade tobaccos and for tobacco blends from four Kentucky reference cigarettes.
Evaluation of Doubled Haploid Derivatives of the Flue-cured Nicotianatabacum cv. Wislica
Authors: Berbec A , Laskowska D
Published: July 2016

A total of 51 doubled haploid (DH) derivatives of the flue-cured true-breeding tobacco variety Wislica were obtained via anther culture and colchicine-induced chromosome doubling. Of that number eight DH lines showed morphological aberrations and/or reduced vigour that made them unfit to be grown in the field. The remaining 43 DH lines were grown in 2001 under regular flue-cured tobacco management and evaluated for principal growth indicators, yield, curability and gross money returns from unit area. In 2002, the evaluation was scaled down to include 13 best performing DH lines of 2001. The DH lines showed a considerable variation for basic growth parameters. Usually, the DH lines had more leaves but were shorter than the parental genotype mostly due to shorter internodes. The majority of DH lines showed delayed flowering compared to the parental cultivar. Yields of cured leaves varied extensively, some of the DH lines yielding above and some below cv. Wislica. Curability measured as percentage of light (1st to 3rd) grades was generally lower in DH lines compared to that in cv. Wislica. However, because of the high leaf yield some of the DH lines were not inferior to the parental cultivar with respect to money returns from unit area.
Large-scale Identification of Expressed Sequence Tags (ESTs) from Nicotianatabacum by Normalized cDNA Library Sequencing
Authors: Alvarez S Perez , Montero D Cabezas , Dong HT
Published: July 2016

An expressed sequence tags (EST) resource for tobacco plants (Nicotianatabacum) was established using high-throughput sequencing of randomly selected clones from one cDNA library representing a range of plant organs (leaf, stem, root and root base). Over 5000 ESTs were generated from the 3’ ends of 8000 clones, analyzed by BLAST searches and categorized functionally. All annotated ESTs were classified into 18 functional categories, unique transcripts involved in energy were the largest group accounting for 831 (32.32%) of the annotated ESTs. After excluding 2450 non-significant tentative unique transcripts (TUTs), 100 unique sequences (1.67% of total TUTs) were identified from the N. tabacum database. In the array result two genes strongly related to the tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) were obtained, one basic form of pathogenesis-related protein 1 precursor (TBT012G08) and ubiquitin (TBT087G01). Both of them were found in the variety Hongda, some other important genes were classified into two groups, one of these implicated in plant development like those genes related to a photosynthetic process (chlorophyll a-b binding protein, photosystem I, ferredoxin I and III, ATP synthase) and a further group including genes related to plant stress response (ubiquitin, ubiquitin-like protein SMT3, glycine-rich RNA binding protein, histones and methallothionein). The interesting finding in this study is that two of these genes have never been reported before in N. tabacum (ubiquitin-like protein SMT3 and methallothionein). The array results were confirmed using quantitative PCR.
Editors’ Note
Authors: Heller WD , Scherer G
Published: July 2016

The unexpected death of Richard Baker at Easter of this year was a shock for all who knew him. It was just in the last Issue of the Journal (Volume 22, No. 4, January 2007) that we as Editors were pleased and proud to print the laudation by Thomas A. Perfetti of Richard Baker who received the 2006 Tobacco Science Research Conference Lifetime Achievement Award. In this Issue, we have the sad duty to print an obituary for Richard Baker. We have asked Ray Thornton, a former Scientific and Regulatory Manager at BAT to write the obituary, because Ray was a colleague, neighbour and friend of Richard Baker.

BeiträgezurTabakforschung International/Contributions to Tobacco Research has lost one of its most dedicated and productive Advisory Board Member. Richard Baker was member of the Advisory Board since 1994. He has thoroughly reviewed numerous manuscripts submitted to the Journal. He also convinced many authors of tobacco- or smoke- related papers from inside and outside the Tobacco Industry to submit their manuscripts to the Journal. The Advisory Board Members of the Journal will remember his well-founded and also humorous contributions at the yearly or biennial meetings.

We, as Editors, want to state: Richard Baker has rendered outstanding services to the Journal, we shall miss him very much.
The Expansion of Tobacco and Its Effect on Cigarette Mainstream Smoke Properties
Authors: Green CR , Schumacher JN , Rodgman A
Published: July 2016

For nearly four decades, the expansion of tobacco has been recognized as one of eight technologies significant in the design of a ‘less hazardous’ cigarette. The data previously presented at scientific conferences and/or published in several scientific monographs and journals on the effect of the expansion of tobacco on the composition and biological properties of the mainstream smoke from cigarettes containing it are summarized. In addition, previously unpublished data on the same subjects are presented in considerable detail. Included are 1) the effect of tobacco expansion on the yields of total particulate matter (TPM), nicotine, and several hundred components of cigarette mainstream smoke from control tobacco cigarettes vs. expanded tobacco cigarettes; 2) the changes in mainstream smoke yields of total particulate matter, nicotine, and specific smoke components produced by inclusion of various levels of expanded tobacco in a cigarette blend; and 3) the changes in composition of expanded tobacco. In the latter study, the decrease in levels of numerous significant flavorful components of the tobacco produced by expansion provides the need for inclusion of such compounds in flavor formulations. In study 2), the reductions in per cigarette yields of total particulate matter, nicotine, and several components of concern were determined and confirmed the significance of tobacco expansion as a cigarette design technology to produce what was originally defined as a ‘less hazardous’ cigarette but more recently as a ‘potential reduced exposure product’ (PREP).
Determination of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons In Exhaled Cigarette Smoke
Authors: Moldoveanu SC , Coleman W III , Wilkins JM
Published: July 2016

The retention by humans of 20 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from mainstream cigarette smoke was evaluated. The analysis was done by a new technique using solid phase extraction (SPE) for the cleanup and the concenration of PAHs. The new technique has excellent sensitivity and accuracy, which were necessary for the analysis of the very low levels of PAHs present in the exhaled cigarette smoke. The study was done on a common commercial cigarette with 10.6 mg ‘tar’ by U.S. Federal Trade Commission (FTC) recommendation. The results were obtained from ten human subjects, each smoking three cigarettes. The exhaled smoke was collected using a vacuum assisted procedure that avoids strain in exhaling. The study showed that the PAHs with a molecular weight lower than about 170 Daltons are retained with high efficiency. The heavier molecules are less retained, but even compounds such as indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene, dibenz[a, h]anthracene, and benzoperylene are retained with efficiencies around 50%. The dependence of retention efficiency for PAHs (in %) on their octanol-water partition coefficient (LogPow) was found to be nonlinear and showed considerable variability for several compounds that have very close LogPow values. Better correlation was obtained between the retention efficiency and PAHs vapor pressure (Log VP).
Transmission and Survival of Ralstoniasolanacearum on Tobacco Machinery
Authors: Fortnum BA , Gooden D
Published: July 2016

Bacterial wilt (Ralstoniasolanacearum) is an extremely damaging disease of flue-cured tobacco in the southeastern USA. It is generally believed that R. solanacearum infects field-grown tobacco through the roots. Epidemics of bacterial wilt are so common within South Carolina that the organism must be spread in a more rapid and efficient manner than the movement of soil on equipment. Field trials conducted at the Pee Dee Research and Education Center measured the spread of R. solancearum down a row of tobacco from a point inoculation following machine flower removal (topping), leaf harvest or stalk cutting. Machine topping, leaf harvest and stalk cutting increased disease 879%, 1245%, and 800% respectively within a 20 plant row when compared to hand topping, hand harvesting or a non contaminated stalk cutter (cv. K 326, P ≤ 0.001). A survey was conducted to determine if R. solanacearum is a common contaminate on harvesting equipment in South Carolina. Tobacco harvesting equipment was randomly selected within Horry and Marion counties and sampled for R. solanacearum by streaking sterile cotton swabs on the harvester surface, then re-streaking the swab onto an enriched Tetrazolium-based selective media (SM3). R. solanacearum-like colonies that developed on SM3 were inoculated onto cv. Rutgers tomato to confirm pathogenicity. Bacteria from diseased plants were reisolated on SM3 and R. solanacearum identity confirmed with an immuno strip test. Pathogenic populations of R. solanacearum were recovered from steel defoliator knives, rubber defoliators and steel guides (51, 50 and 50% of sampled harvesters respectively). The survival of R. solanacearum on mechanical steel topper blades was determined by running the topper through infected tobacco plants and sequentially sampling the steel knives over time for viable populations of R. solanacearum. Sterile cotton swabs were swept across the blade surface, then streaked onto SM3 media. Confirmed pathogenic populations of R. solanacearum could be recovered on SM3 media for up to 6 h after topping R. solanacearum-infected tobacco. The efficiency of machine transmission of R. solanacearum and it's longevity on tobacco machinery may be responsible for the high frequency of bacterial wilt epidemics in flue-cured tobacco occurring in the Southeastern USA and its movement into previously clean fields.
Book Review: The Chemical Components of Tobacco and Tobacco Smoke
Authors: Green CR
Published: July 2016

This book is highly recommended as an indispensable reference source for tobacco and smoke chemists as well as other scientists involved in the study of tobacco and its products. The compilation of proper chemical names, common names, Chemical Abstract Service numbers (CAS No.), and structures is alone worth the purchase price.
Smokeless Tobacco - An Overview
Authors: Klus H , Kunze M , Koenig S , Poeschl E
Published: July 2016

Smoking, especially cigarette smoking, is the most common form of tobacco consumption world-wide. It is generally accepted that smoking carries health risks for smokers. The combustion and pyrolysis products of tobacco generated during smoking are considered to be responsible for the harmful effects. Smokeless tobacco, another wide-spread form of tobacco use, is not subjected to burning and produces no combustion or pyrolysis products. Therefore, there is an increasingly intense debate about the potential role of smokeless tobacco in reducing the harm of tobacco use.

An overview is presented on the different types of smokeless tobaccos consumed around the world. Commercial products differ widely in composition and patterns of use. The smokeless tobaccos of the Western world (Europe and North America) need to be clearly distinguished from those popular in Asia, Africa and South America. The modern smokeless tobaccos used in Europe and North America are reviewed regarding their chemical composition and toxicological properties. Agents of concern found in smokeless tobacco, especially the tobacco specific N-nitrosamines, are dealt with in particular.

The epidemiological evidence is summarized concerning a wide range of health outcomes. Published reviews and studies are presented and interpreted regarding non-neoplastic oral diseases, various forms of cancer, circulatory diseases, several other diseases and pregnancy outcome. While many of the epidemiological studies have weaknesses and data are often inconsistent it is quite obvious that smokeless tobacco use is much less risky for consumers than smoking. In fact, for modern forms of European moist snuff such as Swedish snus, which is subject to strict quality standards, there is evidence for - if any - only very limited serious health risk.

The ongoing public discussion centers around the influence smokeless tobacco may have on smoking rates (initiation or cessation) and the occurrence of tobacco specific diseases - with Sweden being a revealing example. There is an interesting controversy regarding product and marketing regulations for smokeless tobaccos in the European Union.
Childhood Geographies and Spatial Justice
Authors: Jones Stephanie , Thiel Jaye Johnson , Dávila Denise , Pittard Elizabeth , Woglom James F. , Zhou Xiaodi , Brown Taryrn , Snow Marianne
Published: July 2016

This post-qualitative research analyzes the spatialized practices of young people within a working-class community and how those guided the opening and facilitating of a local community center. Seeing place-making as a social and political act, the authors were inspired by Heath’s classic study and argument that children’s education might be better served if educators understood and built on their community-based language practices. Writing through theories of new materialism, spatiality, and children’s geographies, we build an argument for spatial justice by considering the ways educational scholars and educators might understand and build on children’s community-based spatial practices.
Anti-cancer effect of naringenin chalcone is mediated via the induction of autophagy, apoptosis and activation of PI3K/Akt signalling pathway
Authors: Zhang Shuai , Jiang Zong-Fei , Pan Qiang , Song Chun-Yu , Zhang Wen-Hua
Published: July 2016

The aim of the current study was to investigate the in vitro and in vivo anti-tumor effects of naringenin chalcone in U87MG human glioblastoma cells and in xenograft mice model. The effect of naringenin chalcone on apoptosis induction was assessed by fluorescence microscopy using acridine orange/ethidium bromide and Hoechst 33342. Effect of the compound on PI3K/Akt signalling proteins was assessed by Western blot assay. Naringenin chalcone induced dose-dependent as well as time-dependent cytotoxic effects in these cells. Transmission electron microscopy showed that naringenin chalcone induced the formation of autophagic vacuoles. The number and size of these autophagic vacuoles increased with increasing dose of naringenin chalcone. It also led to the activation of both phosphorylated as well as non-phosphorylated PI3K and Akt proteins. In vivo results showed that both tumor volume and tumor weight were lesser in naringenin chalcone-treated groups with its different doses than in vehicle control group.

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Cell proliferation assay: 1 min 08 sec 
A Case Study of Behaviour and Performance of Confined or Pastured Cows During the Dry Period
Authors: Black Randi , Krawczel Peter
Published: July 2016

The objectives of this study were to determine the effect of the dry cow management system (pasture or confined) on: (1) lying behaviour and activity; (2) feeding and heat stress behaviours; (3) intramammary infections, postpartum. Non-lactating Holstein cows were assigned to either deep-bedded, sand freestalls ( n = 14) or pasture ( n = 14) using rolling enrollment. At dry-off, cows were equipped with an accelerometer to determine daily lying time (h/d), lying bouts (bouts/d), steps (steps/d) and divided into periods: far-off (60 to 15 d prepartum), close-up (14 to 1 d prepartum), calving (calving date) and postpartum (1 to 14 d postpartum). Respiration rates were recorded once weekly from dry off to calving from 1300 to 1500 h. Feeding displacements were defined as one cow successfully displacing another from the feed bunk and were recorded once per week during the 2 h period, immediately after feeding at 800 h. Pastured cows were fed a commercial dry cow pellet during far-off and total mixed ration during close-up, with free access to hay and grazing. Freestall housed cows were fed a total mixed ration at far-off and close-up. Cows housed in freestalls were moved to a maternity pen with a mattress at commencement of labour. Pastured cows calved in pasture. After calving, all cows were commingled in a pen identical to the freestall housing treatment. Cows housed in freestalls laid down for longer during far-off and close-up periods, had fewer lying bouts during the calving period and took fewer steps throughout the study period when compared to pastured cows. Freestall housed cows experienced more displacements after feeding than did pastured cows. Respiration rates increased with an increasing temperature humidity index, more in pastured cows than in freestall housed cows. Pastured cows altered their lying behaviour and activity, suggesting a shift in time budget priorities between pastured and confined dry cows. Pastured cows also experienced less aggression around feeding but may be more susceptible to heat stress.
Mammary Development and Breast Cancer: A Wnt Perspective
Authors: Yu Qing , Verheyen Esther , Zeng Yi
Published: July 2016

The Wnt pathway has emerged as a key signaling cascade participating in mammary organogenesis and breast oncogenesis. In this review, we will summarize the current knowledge of how the pathway regulates stem cells and normal development of the mammary gland, and discuss how its various components contribute to breast carcinoma pathology.
Coordination Control of a Novel Wind Farm Configuration Including a Hydrogen Storage System and a Gas Turbine
Authors: Xuan Shihua , Hu Weihao , Yao Jun , Chen Zhe
Published: July 2016

This paper proposes a novel configuration that combines wind turbines, an electrolyzer, and a gas turbine with the corresponding generator. A control strategy for this configuration is also proposed. The purpose of this configuration and its control strategy is to make the wind farm work like a conventional power plant from a grid’s point of view. The final proposed configuration works properly with the proposed control strategy, the three times per revolution (3p) oscillation frequency is removed and the output power fluctuations caused by wind fluctuation are compensated. The final power output of the proposed configuration is constant like that of a conventional power plant, and it can change according to the different requirements of the transmission system operator.
Health Impacts from Corn Production Pre-and Post-NAFTA Trade Agreement (1986–2013)
Authors: Mendoza-Cano Oliver , Sánchez-Piña Ramón , González-Ibarra Álvaro , Murillo-Zamora Efrén , Nava-Garibaldi Cynthia
Published: July 2016

Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a powerful methodology for the study of health impacts and public policies. We performed this study to quantitatively explain the potential health impacts on disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) of corn produced in Mexico and imported from the United States of America (U.S.) from 1984 until 2014. The processes are hybrid and organic corn production. The functional unit was defined as 1 ton of corn production. Results indicate a total value of 178,431, 244,175, and 283,426 DALYs of three decades: 1984–1993, 1994–2003, and 2004–2013, of Mexican production; the U.S. production and transport were also calculated, showing values of 29,815, 65,837, and 107,729 for the same three decades. Additionally, DALYs were obtained for the category of human health and climate change by functional unit: 802.31 (1984–1993), 802.67 (1994–2003), and 803.92 (2004–2013), and for imported corn transported to Mexico from the U.S., 859.12 (1984–2013). DALYs on human toxicity were obtained: 99.05 (1984–1993), 99.05 (1994–2003), and 99.04 (2004–2013), and for the corn imported and transported to Mexico from the U.S., 116.25 (1984–2013). Conclusions: Environmental and health impacts in terms of DALYs are higher when corn is imported versus the corn produced in Mexico. Environmental health and nominal corn cultivation and transport impacts have increased as a result of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). Mexico needs to redefine its public policies to suffer less of an environmental burden from corn to ensure global environmental health and food security.
Mapping Environmental Inequalities Relevant for Health for Informing Urban Planning Interventions—A Case Study in the City of Dortmund, Germany
Authors: Flacke Johannes , Schüle Steffen , Köckler Heike , Bolte Gabriele
Published: July 2016

Spatial differences in urban environmental conditions contribute to health inequalities within cities. The purpose of the paper is to map environmental inequalities relevant for health in the City of Dortmund, Germany, in order to identify needs for planning interventions. We develop suitable indicators for mapping socioeconomically-driven environmental inequalities at the neighborhood level based on published scientific evidence and inputs from local stakeholders. Relationships between socioeconomic and environmental indicators at the level of 170 neighborhoods were analyzed continuously with Spearman rank correlation coefficients and categorically applying chi-squared tests. Reclassified socioeconomic and environmental indicators were then mapped at the neighborhood level in order to determine multiple environmental burdens and hotspots of environmental inequalities related to health. Results show that the majority of environmental indicators correlate significantly, leading to multiple environmental burdens in specific neighborhoods. Some of these neighborhoods also have significantly larger proportions of inhabitants of a lower socioeconomic position indicating hotspots of environmental inequalities. Suitable planning interventions mainly comprise transport planning and green space management. In the conclusions, we discuss how the analysis can be used to improve state of the art planning instruments, such as clean air action planning or noise reduction planning towards the consideration of the vulnerability of the population.
A New Approach to Urban Road Extraction Using High-Resolution Aerial Image
Authors: Wang Jianhua , Qin Qiming , Gao Zhongling , Zhao Jianghua , Ye Xin
Published: July 2016

Road information is fundamental not only in the military field but also common daily living. Automatic road extraction from a remote sensing images can provide references for city planning as well as transportation database and map updating. However, owing to the spectral similarity between roads and impervious structures, the current methods solely using spectral characteristics are often ineffective. By contrast, the detailed information discernible from the high-resolution aerial images enables road extraction with spatial texture features. In this study, a knowledge-based method is established and proposed; this method incorporates the spatial texture feature into urban road extraction. The spatial texture feature is initially extracted by the local Moran’s I, and the derived texture is added to the spectral bands of image for image segmentation. Subsequently, features like brightness, standard deviation, rectangularity, aspect ratio, and area are selected to form the hypothesis and verification model based on road knowledge. Finally, roads are extracted by applying the hypothesis and verification model and are post-processed based on the mathematical morphology. The newly proposed method is evaluated by conducting two experiments. Results show that the completeness, correctness, and quality of the results could reach approximately 94%, 90% and 86% respectively, indicating that the proposed method is effective for urban road extraction.
Influence of Growth Rate and Magnetic Field on Microstructure and Properties of Directionally Solidified Ag-Cu Eutectic Alloy
Authors: Zuo Xiaowei , Zhao Congcong , Zhang Lin , Wang Engang
Published: July 2016

We report the influence of growth rate and external magnetic field on the eutectic lamellar spacing and properties of directionally-solidified Ag-Cu eutectic alloys. The results indicated that the relationship between the lamellar spacing of directionally-solidified Ag-Cu alloys and the growth rate matched the prediction of the Jackson-Hunt model, and the constant was 5.8 µm3/s. The increasing external magnetic field during solidification tilted the growth direction of the lamellar eutectics, and coarsened the eutectic lamellar spacing. These decreased the microhardness and strength of Ag-Cu alloys, but increased their electrical conductivity. The competitive strengthening contributions between the refinement of the eutectic lamellar spacing and the change in growth direction of the eutectics resulted in higher strength in the as-rolled sample with a 0.8 T magnetic field than with other samples, which was confirmed from higher relieved deformation energy using differential scanning calorimetry.
The Effects of Corrosive Media on Fatigue Performance of Structural Aluminum Alloys
Authors: Yang Huihui , Wang Yanling , Wang Xishu , Pan Pan , Jia Dawei
Published: July 2016

The effects of corrosive media on rotating bending fatigue lives (the cyclic numbers from 104 to 108) of different aluminum alloys were investigated, which involved the corrosion fatigue lives of five kinds of aluminum alloys in air, at 3.5 wt. % and 5.0 wt. % NaCl aqueous solutions. Experimental results indicate that corrosive media have different harmful influences on fatigue lives of different aluminum alloys, in which the differences of corrosion fatigue lives depend strongly on the plastic property (such as the elongation parameter) of aluminum alloys and whether to exist with and without fracture mode II. The other various influence factors (such as the dropping corrosive liquid rate, the loading style, and the nondimensionalization of strength) of corrosion fatigue lives in three media were also discussed in detail by using the typical cases. Furthermore, fracture morphologies and characteristics of samples, which showed the different fatigue cracking behaviors of aluminum alloys in three media, were investigated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) in this paper.
The Regulation of Osteogenesis Using Electroactive Polypyrrole Films
Authors: Li Chuan , Hsu Yi-Ting , Hu Wei-Wen
Published: July 2016

To evaluate the effect of electrical conductivity of biomaterials on osteogenesis, polypyrrole (PPy) was fabricated by oxidative chemical polymerization as substrates for cell culture. Through adjusting the concentrations of monomer and initiator, polypyrrole films with different electrical conductivities were fabricated. These fabricated polypyrrole films are transparent enough for easy optical microscopy. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray spectroscopy and four-point probe were used to assess the microstructures, surface chemical compositions and electrical sheet resistance of films, respectively. Results indicate that higher monomer and initiator concentration leads to highly-branched PPy chains and thus promotes the electron mobility and electrical conductivity. Selected polypyrrole films then were applied for culturing rat bone marrow stromal cells. Cell viability and mineralization assays reveal that not only these films are biocompatible, but also capable of enhancing the calcium deposition into the extra cellular matrix by the differentiated cells.
Protein Dynamics in the Plant Extracellular Space
Authors: Guerra-Guimarães Leonor , Pinheiro Carla , Chaves Inês , Barros Danielle , Ricardo Cândido
Published: July 2016

The extracellular space (ECS or apoplast) is the plant cell compartment external to the plasma membrane, which includes the cell walls, the intercellular space and the apoplastic fluid (APF). The present review is focused on APF proteomics papers and intends to draw information on the metabolic processes occurring in the ECS under abiotic and biotic stresses, as well as under non-challenged conditions. The large majority of the proteins detected are involved in “cell wall organization and biogenesis”, “response to stimulus” and “protein metabolism”. It becomes apparent that some proteins are always detected, irrespective of the experimental conditions, although with different relative contribution. This fact suggests that non-challenged plants have intrinsic constitutive metabolic processes of stress/defense in the ECS. In addition to the multiple functions ascribed to the ECS proteins, should be considered the interactions established between themselves and with the plasma membrane and its components. These interactions are crucial in connecting exterior and interior of the cell, and even simple protein actions in the ECS can have profound effects on plant performance. The proteins of the ECS are permanently contributing to the high dynamic nature of this plant compartment, which seems fundamental to plant development and adaptation to the environmental conditions.
Quantifying Live Aboveground Biomass and Forest Disturbance of Mountainous Natural and Plantation Forests in Northern Guangdong, China, Based on Multi-Temporal Landsat, PALSAR and Field Plot Data
Authors: Shen Wenjuan , Li Mingshi , Huang Chengquan , Wei Anshi
Published: July 2016

Spatially explicit knowledge of aboveground biomass (AGB) in large areas is important for accurate carbon accounting and quantifying the effect of forest disturbance on the terrestrial carbon cycle. We estimated AGB from 1990 to 2011 in northern Guangdong, China, based on a spatially explicit dataset derived from six years of national forest inventory (NFI) plots, Landsat time series imagery (1986–2011) and Advanced Land Observing Satellite (ALOS) Phased Array L-band Synthetic Aperture Radars (PALSAR) 25 m mosaic data (2007–2010). Four types of variables were derived for modeling and assessment. The random forest approach was used to seek the optimal variables for mapping and validation. The root mean square error (RMSE) of plot-level validation was between 6.44 and 39.49 (t/ha), the normalized root-mean-square error (NRMSE) was between 7.49% and 19.01% and mean absolute error (MAE) was between 5.06 and 23.84 t/ha. The highest coefficient of determination R2 of 0.8 and the lowest NRMSE of 7.49% were reported in 2006. A clear increasing trend of mean AGB from the lowest value of 13.58 t/ha to the highest value of 66.25 t/ha was witnessed between 1988 and 2000, while after 2000 there was a fluctuating ascending change, with a peak mean AGB of 67.13 t/ha in 2004. By integrating AGB change with forest disturbance, the trend in disturbance area closely corresponded with the trend in AGB decrease. To determine the driving forces of these changes, the correlation analysis was adopted and exploratory factor analysis (EFA) method was used to find a factor rotation that maximizes this variance and represents the dominant factors of nine climate elements and nine human activities elements affecting the AGB dynamics. Overall, human activities contributed more to short-term AGB dynamics than climate data. Harvesting and human-induced fire in combination with rock desertification and global warming made a strong contribution to AGB changes. This study provides valuable information for the relationships between forest AGB and climate as well as forest disturbance in subtropical zones.
Involvement of Acylated Homoserine Lactones (AHLs) of Aeromonas sobria in Spoilage of Refrigerated Turbot (Scophthalmus maximus L.)
Authors: Li Tingting , Cui Fangchao , Bai Fengling , Zhao Guohua , Li Jianrong
Published: July 2016

One quorum sensing strain was isolated from spoiled turbot. The species was determined by 16S rRNA gene analysis and classical tests, named Aeromonas sobria AS7. Quorum-sensing (QS) signals (N-acyl homoserine lactones (AHLs)) were detected by report strains and their structures were further determined by GC-MS. The activity changes of AHLs on strain growth stage as well as the influence of different culture conditions on secretion activity of AHLs were studied by the punch method. The result indicated that strain AS7 could induce report strains to produce typical phenotypic response. N-butanoyl-dl-homoserine lactone (C4–HSL), N-hexanoyl-dl-homoserine lactone (C6–HSL), N-octanoyl-dl-homoserine lactone (C8–HSL), N-decanoyl-dl-homoserine lactone (C10–HSL), N-dodecanoyl-dl-homoserine lactone (C12–HSL) could be detected. The activities of AHLs were density-dependent and the max secretion level was at pH 8, sucrose culture, 1% NaCl and 32 h, respectively. The production of siderophore in strain AS7 was regulated by exogenous C8–HSL, rather than C6–HSL. Exogenous C4–HSL and C8–HSL accelerated the growth rate and population density of AS7 in turbot samples under refrigerated storage. However, according to the total viable counts and total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N) values of the fish samples, exogenous C6–HSL did not cause spoilage of the turbot fillets. In conclusion, our results suggested that QS was involved in the spoilage of refrigerated turbot.