bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Social Life of Opium in China, 1483–1999
Authors: Zheng Yangwen
Published: October 2003

The history of opium is a major theme in modern Chinese history. Books and academic careers have been devoted to its study. Yet the question that scholars of the opium wars and of modern China have failed to ask is how the demand for opium was generated. My puzzle, during the initial stage of research, was who smoked opium and why. Neither Chinese nor non-Chinese scholars have written much about this, with the exception of Jonathan Spence. Although opium consumption is a well-acknowledged fact, the reasons for its prevalence have never been fully factored into the historiography of the opium wars and of modern China. Michael Greenberg has dwelt on the opium trade, Chang Hsin-pao and Peter Fay on the people and events that made armed conflicts between China and the West unavoidable. John Wong has continued to focus on imperialism, James Polachek on Chinese internal politics while Opium regimes: China, Britain, and Japan, 1839–1952, the latest work, has studied the political systems that controlled opium. But the political history of opium, like the opium trade and the theatre of war, is only part of the story. We need to distinguish them from the wider social and cultural life of opium in China. The vital questions are first, the point at which opium was transformed from a medicine to a luxury item and, secondly, why it became so popular and widespread after people discovered its recreational value. It is these questions that I address. We cannot fully understand the root problem of the opium wars and their role in the emergence of modern China until we can explain who was smoking opium and why they smoked it.
Rm 7.7–25 encore une fois: enjeux et propositions
Authors: ALETTI JEAN-NOËL
Published: October 2003

After having briefly dealt with the egô in Rom 7 and stated that all the rhetorical techniques support its non-Christian identity, the article shifts to the background of the passage and shows that it must be Jewish and Greek, and stresses the relevance of such a double background for the anthropology of the pericope.
Natural Ehrlichia phagocytophila transmission coefficients from sheep ‘carriers’ to Ixodes ricinus ticks vary with the numbers of feeding ticks
Authors: OGDEN N. H. , CASEY A. N. J. , FRENCH N. P. , BOWN K. J. , ADAMS J. D. W. , WOLDEHIWET Z.
Published: October 2003

In a longitudinal study in a UK upland site, 38% of adult sheep were detected as infected with the tick-borne bacterium Ehrlichia phagocytophila by PCR of blood samples. Infection prevalence declined significantly with sheep age but varied significantly and non-linearly with the number of adult Ixodes ricinus ticks feeding per sheep. These findings suggested that under conditions of natural repeated tick-borne challenge sheep remain partially susceptible to re-infections, but the likelihood of re-infection depended on the numbers of feeding ticks. Transmission efficiency from sheep to immature ticks also varied significantly and non-linearly with the number of adult ticks feeding per sheep: transmission efficiency was almost zero in sheep with low adult tick infestations rising to 30% at certain levels of adult tick infestation. Infection intensity in infected engorged immature ticks also varied with the number of adult ticks feeding per sheep, but neither prevalence nor intensity of infection in engorged ticks were related to sheep blood PCR result. These findings suggest that variation in the numbers of ticks feeding per sheep may influence E. phagocytophila transmission by direct effects on transmission at the tick–host interface.
Triclabendazole-resistant Fasciola hepatica: β-tubulin and response to in vitro treatment with triclabendazole
Authors: ROBINSON M. W. , TRUDGETT A. , HOEY E. M. , FAIRWEATHER I.
Published: October 2003

Resistance in Fasciola hepatica to triclabendazole (‘Fasinex’) has emerged in several countries. Benzimidazole resistance in parasitic nematodes has been linked to a single amino acid substitution (phenylalanine to tyrosine) at position 200 on the β-tubulin molecule. Sequencing of β-tubulin cDNAs from triclabendazole-susceptible and triclabendazole-resistant flukes revealed no amino acid differences between their respective primary amino acid sequences. In order to investigate the mechanism of triclabendazole resistance, triclabendazole-susceptible and triclabendazole-resistant flukes were incubated in vitro with triclabendazole sulphoxide (50 μg/ml). Scanning and transmission electron microscopy revealed extensive damage to the tegument of triclabendazole-susceptible F. hepatica, whereas triclabendazole-resistant flukes showed only localized and relatively minor disruption of the tegument covering the spines. Immunocytochemical studies, using an anti-tubulin antibody, showed that tubulin organization was disrupted in the tegument of triclabendazole-susceptible flukes. No such disruption was evident in triclabendazole-resistant F. hepatica. The significance of these findings is discussed with regard to the mechanism of triclabendazole resistance in F. hepatica.
Molecular variation of Trypanosoma brucei subspecies as revealed by AFLP fingerprinting
Authors: AGBO E. E. C. , MAJIWA P. A. O. , CLAASSEN H. J. H. M. , TE PAS M. F. W.
Published: October 2003

Genetic analysis of Trypanosoma spp. depends on the detection of variation between strains. We have used the amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) technique to develop a convenient and reliable method for genetic characterization of Trypanosome (sub)species. AFLP accesses multiple independent sites within the genome and would allow a better definition of the relatedness of different Trypanosome (sub)species. Nine isolates (3 from each T. brucei subspecies) were tested with 40 AFLP primer combinations to identify the most appropriate pairs of restriction endonucleases and selective primers. Primers based on the recognition sequences of EcoRI and BglII were chosen and used to analyse 31 T. brucei isolates. Similarity levels calculated with the Pearson correlation coefficient ranged from 15 to 98%, and clusters were determined using the unweighted pair-group method using arithmetic averages (UPGMA). At the intraspecific level, AFLP fingerprints were grouped by numerical analysis in 2 main clusters, allowing a clear separation of T. b. gambiense (cluster I) from T. b. brucei and T. b. rhodesiense isolates (cluster II). Interspecies evaluation of this customized approach produced heterogeneous AFLP patterns, with unique genetic markers, except for T. evansi and T. equiperdum, which showed identical patterns and clustered together.
Genetic and biological diversity among isolates of Neospora caninum
Authors: SCHOCK A. , INNES E. A. , YAMANE I. , LATHAM S. M. , WASTLING J. M.
Published: October 2003

Neospora caninum is a protozoan parasite that causes bovine abortion. The epidemiology of N.caninum is poorly understood and little is known about the genetic diversity of the parasite, or whether individual isolates differ in virulence. Such diversity may, among other factors, underlie the range of pathologies seen in cattle. In this study we analysed biological and genetic variation in 6 isolates of N. caninum originating from canine and bovine hosts by measurement of growth rate in vitro, Western blotting and random amplification of polymorphic DNA (RAPD). This comparative analysis of intra-species diversity demonstrated that heterogeneity exists within the species. The relative growth rate in vitro, as assessed by 3[H]uracil uptake, showed significant variation between isolates. However, no significant differences were detected between the antigenic profiles of each isolate by Western blotting. RAPD-PCR was performed on DNA from the 6 Neospora isolates; 3 strains of Toxoplasma gondii, Sarcocystis sp. and Cryptosporidium parvum were also analysed. Twenty-six RAPD primers gave rise to 434 markers of which 222 were conserved between all the Neospora isolates and distinguished them from the other Apicomplexa. An additional 54 markers were unique for Neospora but were polymorphic within the species and able to differentiate between the individual isolates. The RAPD data were subjected to pair-wise similarity and cluster analysis and showed that the Neospora isolates clustered together as a group, with T. gondii as their nearest neighbour. N. caninum isolates showed no clustering with respect either to host or geographical origin. The genetic similarity between Neospora isolates from cattle and dogs suggests that these hosts may be epidemiologically related, although further analysis of bovine and canine field samples are required. The genetic and biological diversity observed in this study may have important implications for our understanding of the pathology and epidemiology of neosporosis.
Bulinus species on Madagascar: molecular evolution, genetic markers and compatibility with Schistosoma haematobium
Authors: STOTHARD J. R. , BRÉMOND P. , ANDRIAMARO L. , SELLIN B. , SELLIN E. , ROLLINSON D.
Published: October 2003

Of the four species of Bulinus found on Madagascar, three species: B. obtusispira, B. liratus and B. bavayi are endemic while the fourth, B. forskalii, is probably a recent introduction from the African mainland. The evolutionary relationships of these species with Bulinus species from Africa were studied by phylogenetic analysis of DNA sequence variation at two mitochondrial loci: cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI) and large ribosomal subunit (LSU) or 16S. The observed levels of nucleotide divergence within Bulinus were substantial but may underestimate the true levels as there was evidence of ‘saturation' of transitional substitutions at both loci. A putative secondary structure model for the sequenced segment of the 16S was developed. Subsequent phylogenetic analysis using transversional changes only for both loci, showed that there were contrasting levels of divergence within the four species groups. B. obtusispira was consistently placed within the B. africanus group, appearing ancestral to this group and was closest to the basal node within Bulinus. Together with B. bavayi, the two species appear to have been isolated on Madagascar for a long time, contrasting with both B. liratus and B. forskalii that appear more recent colonisers; however, estimate of exact times of divergence is problematic. A PCR-RFLP assay was developed to enable identification and discrimination of B. obtusispira and B. liratus using discriminatory variation within the COI. To enable population genetic analysis within B. obtusispira, microsatellite markers were developed using an enrichment method and 8 primer pairs are reported. Laboratory infection experiments using Madasgacan S. haematobium from the Mahabo area showed that certain populations of B. obtusispira, B. liratus and B. bavayi were compatible.
Induction of stress by the swimbladder nematode Anguillicola crassus in European eels, Anguilla anguilla, after repeated experimental infection
Authors: SURES B. , KNOPF K. , KLOAS W.
Published: October 2003

The purpose of this study was to determine under laboratory conditions over a period of 311 days if infection with the nematode Anguillicola crassus induces stress in European eels (Anguilla anguilla), and stimulates the endocrine stress axis as measured by serum cortisol levels. Eels were experimentally infected with 3rd-stage larvae (L3) in different doses to simulate natural conditions with varying infection pressures. Blood samples were drawn from the caudal vein every 2 weeks and serum cortisol concentrations were determined by radioimmunoassay (RIA). The results showed that the application of L3 resulted in a significant increase in the cortisol levels. The period of time at which elevated cortisol values were observed was consistent with the time of larval development and the appearance of adult A. crassus. Thus, there is a stress response to the larval and young adult stages, but no chronic response to older adults. Therefore, it is likely that infection of eels under natural conditions especially with a high number of larvae may be a considerable stressor, in combination with different environmental factors like water temperature, pH, oxygen concentration, pollution and inter-individual relationships.
Evolutionary relationships between trematodes and snails emphasizing schistosomes and paragonimids
Authors: BLAIR D. , DAVIS G. M. , WU B.
Published: October 2003

Snails and digeneans have been associated for at least 200 million years. Their inter-relationships over such a time-span must have been complex and varied. Few studies have attempted to explore these relationships in the light of knowledge of the phylogeny of both host and parasite groups. Here we focus on two important families of digeneans, the Schistosomatidae and the Paragonimidae, for which molecular phylogenies are available. We investigate the types of evolutionary relationships between host and parasite, operating at different phylogenetic depths, that might explain current host specificity and distributions of both associates. Both families of parasites utilise a number of highly diverged gastropod families, indicating that host extensions have featured in their histories. However, schistosomatids and paragonimids show different patterns of association with their snail hosts. As befits the apparently more ancient group, schistosomatids utilise snails from across a wide phylogenetic range within the Gastropoda. The genus Schistosoma itself has experienced one long-range host switch between pulmonates and caenogastropods. By contrast, paragonimids are restricted to two superfamilies of caenogastropods. Despite these differences, modern schistosomatid species appear to be more host specific than are paragonimids and host additions, at the level of host family, are far less common among species of schistosomatids than among paragonimids. Some species of Paragonimus exhibit remarkably low levels of host specificity, with different populations utilising snails of different families. Existing knowledge relating to the phenomenon will be presented in the context of phylogenies of schistosomatids, paragonimids, and their snail hosts. Discussion focuses on the usefulness of current theories of snail–digenean coevolution for interpreting these findings. In the past, much emphasis has been placed on the idea that digeneans engage in a one-to-one arms race with their snail host. We consider that phylogenetic tracking rather than an arms-race relationship might be a common alternative. Not being bound by the restrictions imposed by an arms race, some digeneans might be able to extend to new host species more easily than the literature suggests. Switches into related host taxa are most likely. However, ecologically equivalent but unrelated gastropod hosts may also be exploited. Given the right ecological setting, digeneans are able to switch across considerable phylogenetic distances. Examples from the Paragonimidae and Schistosomatidae are given.
Pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic modelling of the anti-malarial activity of mefloquine
Authors: HOSHEN M. B. , STEIN W. D. , GINSBURG H. D.
Published: October 2003

Treatment protocols for the chemotherapy of malaria are usually acquired through clinical trials. Once pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic information becomes available, it is possible to use mathematical modelling for testing these protocols and, possibly, for improving them. In this report the case of monotherapy by mefloquine is analysed. Published pharmacokinetic and clinical results are used to derive the essential model parameters such as kill rate, parasite growth rates, drug sensitivity and the pharmacokinetic parameters. Good agreement is obtained between clinical results and simulated parasite numbers using the derived parameters. It is demonstrated that the 2 exponential kinetics of mefloquine elimination can be reduced to an operational single exponent for pharmacodynamic modelling by educated choice of sampling times of plasma drug concentration. It is deduced that a second drug dose, at a properly chosen time-interval, results in radical cure even when resistant parasites are present and at maximal parasite growth rates such as those found in non-immune patients. Finally, a table is provided for guiding the optimal choice of dosing intervals under different values of population pharmacokinetics, drug resistance and individual immunity parameters.
Genetic heterogeneity and phylogenetic status of Leishmania (Leishmania) infantum zymodeme MON-1: epidemiological implications
Authors: HIDE M. , BAÑULS A. L. , TIBAYRENC M.
Published: October 2003

Leishmania (Leishmania) infantum zymodeme MON-1 is responsible for the majority of visceral leishmaniasis cases around the Mediterranean basin, albeit that it causes also cutaneous forms. The MON classification is based on starch gel multilocus enzyme electrophoresis (MLEE) typing. The aim of this work was to explore further the genetic diversity and phylogenetic status of this zymodeme by alternative typing techniques. Fourteen L. (L.) infantum/L. (L.) chagasi stocks identified as MON-1 by MLEE in reference laboratories, 3 L. infantum stocks attributed to other zymodemes (MON-24, MON-29, MON-33) and reference standard stocks belonging to other species (L. (L.) major, L. (L.) tropica and L. (L.) donovani) were characterized by 2 different markers: MLEE on cellulose acetate plates and Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD). We have obtained 10 different genotypes with RAPD and 6 different genotypes with MLEE on cellulose acetate plates for the 14 L. infantum/L. chagasi MON-1 stocks studied. MLEE and RAPD data gave quite congruent phylogenetic results: L. infantum zymodeme MON-1 was shown to be polyphyletic and genetically heterogeneous. This work confirms the necessity of using different markers to build up a robust phylogeny. Finally the epidemiological and clinical implications of these results are discussed.
Food webs and the transmission of parasites to marine fish
Authors: MARCOGLIESE D. J.
Published: October 2003

Helminth parasites of fish in marine systems are often considered to be generalists, lacking host specificity for both intermediate and definitive hosts. In addition, many parasites in marine waters possess life cycles consisting of long-lived larval stages residing in intermediate and paratenic hosts. These properties are believed to be adaptations to the long food chains and the low densities of organisms distributed over broad spatial scales that are characteristic of open marine systems. Moreover, such properties are predicted to lead to the homogenization of parasite communities among fish species. Yet, these communities can be relatively distinct among marine fishes. For benthos, the heterogeneous horizontal distribution of invertebrates and fish with respect to sediment quality and water depth contributes to the formation of distinct parasite communities. Similarly, for the pelagic realm, vertical partitioning of animals with depth will lead to the segregation of parasites among fish hosts. Within each habitat, resource partitioning in terms of dietary preferences of fish further contributes to the establishment of distinct parasite assemblages. Parasite distributions are predicted to be superimposed on distributional patterns of free-living animals that participate as hosts in parasite life cycles. The purpose of this review is first, to summarize distribution patterns of invertebrates and fish in the marine environment and relate these patterns to helminth transmission. Second, patterns of transmission in marine systems are interpreted in the context of food web structure. Consideration of the structure and dynamics of food webs permits predictions about the distribution and abundance of parasites. Lastly, parasites that influence food web structure by regulating the abundance of dominant host species are briefly considered in addition to the effects of pollution and exploitation on food webs and parasite transmission.
Female mice mate preferentially with non-parasitized males
Authors: EHMAN K. D. , SCOTT M. E.
Published: October 2003

If parasitic infection is a driving force in female mate choice, then females should preferentially select parasite-free males. The role of infection on female mate choice in mammals was assessed using a 3-chambered apparatus. A female CD-1 mouse was allowed to choose between 2 tethered male mice, 1 uninfected and 1 infected with 200 larvae (L3) of the intestinal nematode Heligmosomoides polygyrus. Both uninfected and infected males were equally receptive to the oestrous females, and females did not differ in the number of visits and time spent exploring the 2 males. Female time preference was not a useful predictor of ultimate mate choice, whereas first mount preference of the female was a reliable indicator. Results indicate that female mice preferentially mated with uninfected males as evidenced by first ejaculation choice, but that male infection status did not significantly affect female reproductive success. Interestingly, litters sired by infected males contained a significantly higher percentage of females suggesting that parasite-induced hormonal changes may alter the sex ratio of the offspring. This study provides the first direct evidence of the impact of parasitic infection on mammalian mate choice.
Effects of the isolation methodology on protein profiles of blood trypomastigotes of Trypanosoma cruzi
Authors: HÖLSCHER C. , HARTMANN R. , MOSSMANN H. , SCHAUB G. A.
Published: October 2003

Blood trypomastigotes of Trypanosoma cruzi were isolated from infected athymic rnu/rnu rats and purified by an improved procedure of DEAE-Sephacel ion-exchange chromatography. Elution into a buffer supplemented with bovine serum albumin avoided column-induced changes on the surface of the parasites. Biotin-labelled bovine serum albumin, fluorescence microscopy, flow cytometry and Western blot analysis revealed a very intense binding of albumin to the parasite. Incubation and washing of cells without protein supplementation did not result in any damage or lysis of parasites but it did cause extensive shedding of cellular and surface proteins into the supernatant which could be prevented by using the protein-supplemented buffer. A decreasing yield of high molecular weight cellular proteins in relation to centrifugal force was a general phenomenon observed in scanning densitometry of SDS gels after isolation in either protein-supplemented buffer or protein-free buffer. The quantity of shed cellular components increased with increasing centrifugal force. In contrast, quantities of high molecular weight, biotin-labelled surface proteins increased with greater centrifugal force, indicating labelling of otherwise inaccessible residues. These data emphasize the importance of protein supplementation of buffers with proteins and of choosing low centrifugation forces (<400 g) during investigations of T. cruzi.
Host oyster tissue extracts modulate in vitro protease expression and cellular differentiation in the protozoan parasite, Perkinsus marinus
Authors: MACINTYRE E. A. , EARNHART C. G. , KAATTARI S. L.
Published: October 2003

Perkinsus marinus is responsible for a chronic disease (Dermo) of the Eastern oyster, Crassostrea virginica. In order to simulate the in vivo environment more closely, a chemically defined medium (JL-ODRP-3) was supplemented with tissue homogenate extracts or plasma from oysters possessing varying degrees of susceptibility to P. marinus infection. In media supplemented with extracts from highly susceptible oysters (C. virginica), P. marinus cells secreted elevated amounts of a set of low molecular weight serine proteases (LMP: 30–45 kDa) as assessed by enhanced digestion within gelatin-substrate SDS–PAGE gels. Oyster species of low susceptibility (C. gigas and C. ariakensis) did not exhibit this ability to upregulate P. marinus LMP expression. Oyster extract supplementation also led to pronounced changes in P. marinus cellular morphology, such that the cells were comparable to those observed within naturally infected oysters.
Effect of fox, pig, sheep, and poultry bile on the establishment of domestic and sylvatic species of Trichinella in rats
Authors: THEODOROPOULOS G. , STYLIARA M. , PETRAKOS M. , KAPEL C. M. O.
Published: October 2003

Most sylvatic species of Trichinella are known to have poor infectivity to rats, but in the present study oral administration of bile from other hosts appeared to modify this infectivity. A total of 75 rats were inoculated in groups of 25 with 3 species of Trichinella (T. spiralis, T. nativa, and T. nelsoni) and each group of rats was given per os daily doses of bile from pig, sheep, chicken and fox respectively (4×5 rats). As a control 1 group of 5 rats was given daily doses of water. Whereas, the addition of bile did not increase the establishment of T. spiralis, fox bile had a significant positive effect on the establishment of muscle larvae of T. nativa and T. nelsoni. Addition of bile to cultures of the same Trichinella species had an overall negative effect on the in vitro survival of larvae. The present observation that carnivore bile favours the establishment of sylvatic Trichinella may explain why carnivores are equally receptive to all Trichinella species.
Winch and Romanticism
Authors: Phillips D. Z.
Published: October 2003

Philosophical romanticism is the view that, in maintaining out forms of life, we are engaged in the endless task of “acknowledging the human” in reading and being read by others. Winch's discussions of “human nature” and the principle of universalizability in ethics should discourage us from imputing such romanticism to his work. On the other hand, his discussions of generality in “the human” and the human neighbourhood might tempt one to do so. Winch's contemplative conception of philosophy should, in the end, count against this temptation. His work is a passionate example of doing conceptual justice to different readings of “the human”.
A Reply to De Anna on the Simple View of Colour
Authors: Edwards Jim
Published: October 2003

John Campbell proposed a so-called simple view of colours according to which
colours are categorical properties of the surfaces of objects just as they normally appear to
be. I raised an invertion problem for Campbell's view according to which the senses of
colour terms fail to match their references, thus rendering those terms meaningless—or
so I claimed. Gabriele de Anna defended Campbell's view against my example by contesting
two points in particular. Firstly, de Anna claimed that there is no special problem here for
the simple view of colours, a similar invertion story could apply to primary qualities terms
for shapes. Secondly, de Anna purported to give an account of the senses and references of
colour terms in my invertion story which renders the senses and references of those terms
mutually consistent.

In this paper I contested both of de Anna's claims. Regarding
the first, I argue that his imagined invertion of apparent shapes is not epistemically stable,
in contrast to the invertion of apparent shapes is not epistemically stable, in contrast to
the invertion of apparent colours. Hence the victims of apparently inverted shapes would be
able to discover the mismatch of senses and refences of their shape terms, in contrast to the
victims of apparent invertions of colours. Regarding the second, I argue that de Anna's
account of the victim's colour terms itself uses and not merely mentions so-called colours
terms. Hence de Anna' account of them is itself meaningless due to a mismatch of sense and
reference. So I conclude that my objection to Campbell's simple view of colours stands.
Financial aspects of development of remediation technologies for contaminants in soils in cold regions
Authors: Williams Peter J.
Published: October 2003

During the last several decades there has been much financial investment in the cold regions on projects (mining, oil and gas, etc) that can be the source of ground contamination and that require actions to prevent, mitigate, or remedy such effects. Yet contamination in freezing ground and its remediation have been the subject of research largely only in the last 10 years. This is a short time in terms of research and subsequent technology development, particularly as so few scientists are involved. Probably, therefore, many significant advances remain to be made.

Normally in the development of new technologies there is a driving financial input from industrial activity; a certain, if small, percentage of expenditures goes towards research and development. In the case of major geotechnical, contaminant-remediation projects in the cold regions, it appears that a substantially smaller percentage of expenditures than might be expected is going into inherently necessary research. The implication is that contamination management is not developing at a rate that would be the most effective and cost-efficient. The reasons for this are examined with regard to international funding of major construction projects in cold regions, and the associated requirements for contaminant management, and political and societal pressures. The potential scientific advances are examined and it is concluded that not only the contaminant management industry (consultants, contractors) but the industries behind cold-regions development and society more generally, would benefit greatly from an understanding of and provision for such advances.
Spill evaluation of petroleum products in freezing ground
Authors: Barnes David L. , Filler Dennis M.
Published: October 2003

In North American cold regions, terrestrial spill-response tactics have evolved through clean-up experience with crude oil and refined petroleum products. Alaska has developed response tactics as guidelines for clean-up of petroleum-based spills. Generic application of any response tactic without regard for season, site-specific conditions, and equipment limitations can further damage an ecosystem. For example, the practice of igniting and burning petroleum product spilled onto frozen tundra without consideration of the anthropogenic effect on the surface energy balance may actually increase the vertical migration of the spilled product. Prior to application of any mitigation strategy to a release of petroleum product, the movement of the product through freezing soil needs to be better understood. Case studies are presented, and lessons learned from them are discussed.
Contaminants in the Arctic and the Antarctic: a comparison of sources, impacts, and remediation options
Authors: Poland John S. , Riddle Martin J. , Zeeb Barbara A.
Published: October 2003

Contaminants, in freezing ground or elsewhere in the world, are of concern not simply because of their presence but because of their potential for detrimental effects on human health, the biota, or other valued aspects of the environment. Understanding these effects is central to any attempt to manage or remediate contaminated land. The polar regions are different from other parts of the world, and it would be naïve to assume that the mass of information developed in temperate regions can be applied without modification to the polar regions. Despite their obvious environmental similarities, there are important differences between the Arctic and Antarctic. The landmass of the Arctic is much warmer than that of the Antarctic and as a result has a much greater diversity and abundance of flora. Because of its proximity to industrial areas in the Northern Hemisphere, the Arctic also experiences a higher input of contaminants via long-range aerial transport. In addition, the Arctic, with its indigenous population and generally undisputed territorial claims, has long been the subject of resource utilisation, including harvesting of living resources, mineral extraction, and the construction of military infrastructure. The history of human activity in Antarctica is relatively brief, but in this time there has been a series of quite distinct phases, culminating in the Antarctic now holding a unique position in the world. Activities in the Antarctic are governed by the Antarctic Treaty, which contains provisions dealing with environmental matters. The differences between the polar regions and the rest of the world, and between the Arctic and the Antarctic, significantly affect scientific and engineering approaches to the remediation of contamination in polar regions. This paper compares and contrasts the Arctic and Antarctic with respect to geography, configuration, habitation, logistics, environmental guidelines, regulations, and remediation protocols. Chemical contamination is also discussed in terms of its origin and major concerns and interests, particularly with reference to current remediation activities and site-restoration methodology.
Soil and water contamination in the Larsemann Hills, East Antarctica
Authors: Goldsworthy P.M. , Canning E.A. , Riddle M.J.
Published: October 2003

The Larsemann Hills provide a unique opportunity for studying the environmental impacts of four research facilities run by three nations (Australia, China, and Russia). Soil and water samples collected from the vicinity of each station approximately 10 years after their establishment were analysed for a variety of hydrocarbons, metals, and nutrients. Results confirm that hydrocarbon contamination is the most common impact of the stations. Nutrient enrichment of soil was identified within small areas of each station, and water samples obtained from several local tarns and meltpools revealed low-level contamination by metals and polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH). Faecal coliforms were present in intertidal pools adjacent to sewage effluent discharge but not in any other water bodies tested. The cumulative impact of the four facilities was an increase in the number of sites contaminated, rather than increased contamination at specific locations due to the additive effect of overlapping sources. The highest levels of contamination were extremely localised and the footprint of contamination arising from each of the facilities remained discrete from that of neighbouring stations. These data provide a baseline to compare environmental conditions at these locations in the Larsemann Hills before and after implementation of the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty.
Assessment of contamination by heavy metals and petroleum hydrocarbons at Atlas Cove Station, Heard Island
Authors: Stark Scott C. , Gardner David , Snape Ian , McIvor Ewan
Published: October 2003

Located on the northwest coast of Heard Island, a World Heritage-listed sub-Antarctic territory of Australia, Atlas Cove served as the site of the first permanently occupied Australian National Antarctic Research Expedition (ANARE) station (1947–55). Subsequent to its closure, Atlas Cove Station was abandoned and left largely to the mercy of the natural elements, although it has been visited and occupied on an infrequent basis by ANARE. All activities on the island are now subject to the provisions of the Heard Island Wilderness Reserve Management Plan. During 2000–2001 a major clean-up of the site was undertaken, with most of the remaining structures demolished and material collected for return to Australia and disposal. To assess the extent and intensity of contamination within the station area, soil and water samples were collected and analysed for petroleum hydrocarbons and heavy metals. Assessment of site contamination was made with reference to specific background control limits calculated for Atlas Cove Station, and comparison was also made with Australian and New Zealand guidelines for the protection of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Contamination by heavy metals is evident throughout the station but not at levels of sufficient magnitude to infer a significant potential toxic impact on local ecosystems. Hence remedial action to reduce the concentration and mobility of heavy metals in soil and water is not a high priority, although monitoring of changes at the site through time is recommended. Contamination by petroleum hydrocarbons is at a level that may cause a significant toxic impact on the environment and requires further investigation to assess impacts and possibly to undertake remedial action. Given the large quantity of petroleum-contaminated soil present, remediation processes that can be carried out in situ are likely to be the preferable clean-up options. The benefits of remediation, however, must be balanced against any negative effect this might exert on the plant and animal wildlife that have recolonised this historically important site.
Contaminants in freezing ground and associated ecosystems: key issues at the beginning of the new millennium
Authors: Snape Ian , Riddle Martin J. , Filler Dennis M. , Williams Peter J.
Published: October 2003

The ways by which contaminants in freezing ground disperse and interact with associated ecosystems is a new and challenging field of applied research that is crucial to effective assessment, monitoring, and remediation in cold regions. Three key issues have been identified as needing urgent research and development. The first concerns the development and application of meaningful environmental guidelines for cold regions. This usually means that contaminants in freezing ground per se need to be considered in their broadest context by also addressing associated ecosystems, such as the receiving marine environment. The second issue concerns developing best practice for bioremediation of seasonally frozen soils. Of particular concern are the risks, benefits, and costs of using so-called bioproducts, which may not offer substantial improvements over biostimulation of indigenous cold-adapted organisms. The third issue concerns the need for assessment and monitoring protocols and cost-effective analytical tools. In this respect the potential use of field portable instruments deserves careful consideration and on-site testing. Taken together, development of these issues during the coming years will be crucial if the science behind managing contaminants in freezing ground is to catch up with the knowledge that underpins the remediation industry elsewhere.
Predicting admission rates to secure forensic psychiatry services
Authors: COID J. , KAHTAN N. , COOK A. , GAULT S. , JARMAN B.
Published: October 2003

Background. The planning and development of secure forensic psychiatry services for mentally disordered offenders in England and Wales has proceeded independently within different regional areas. However, certain mental disorders, offenders, and offending behaviour are all more prevalent in geographical areas characterized by socio-economic deprivation and social disorganization. Failure to consider these factors has led to inadequate service provision in some areas and inequity in funding. A new model is required to predict admissions to these services as an aid to resource allocation.

Method. Actual admissions (N=3155) to high and medium secure psychiatric services for seven of 14 (pre-reorganization) Regional Health Authorities, 1988–94. Expected admissions were calculated for each district using 1991 census data adjusted for under-enumeration. Standardized psychiatric admission ratios were calculated and a range of social, health status, and service provision data were used as explanatory variables in a regression analysis to determine variation between districts.

Results. Actual psychiatric admissions varied from 160% above to 62% below expected for age, sex, and marital status, according to patients' catchment area of origin, measured according to deciles of the distribution of underprivileged area scores at ward level. The most powerful explanatory variables included a composite measure of social deprivation, ethnicity and availability of low secure beds at regional level.

Conclusion. Admission rates to secure forensic psychiatry services demonstrate a linear correlation with measures of socio-economic deprivation in patients catchment area of origin. A model was developed to predict admissions from District Health Authorities and is recommended for future use in resource allocation. Identification of factors that explain higher admission rates of serious offenders with mental disorder from deprived areas is a priority for future research.
Long-term outcome of anorexia nervosa in a prospective 21-year follow-up study
Authors: LÖWE B. , ZIPFEL S. , BUCHHOLZ C. , DUPONT Y. , REAS D. L. , HERZOG W.
Published: October 2003

Background. Given our poor understanding of the very long-term course of anorexia nervosa, many questions remain regarding the potential for recovery and relapse. The purpose of the present study was to investigate long-term outcome and prognosis in an anorexic sample 21 years after the initial treatment.

Method. A multidimensional and prospective design was used to assess outcome in 84 patients 9 years after a previous follow-up and 21 years after admission. Among the 70 living patients, the follow-up rate was 90%. Causes of death for the deceased patients were obtained through the attending physician. Predictors of a poor outcome at the 21-year follow-up were selected based on the results of a previous 12-year follow-up of these patients.

Results. Fifty-one per cent of the patients were found to be fully recovered at follow-up, 21% were partially recovered and 10% still met full diagnostic criteria for anorexia nervosa. Sixteen per cent were deceased, due to causes related to anorexia nervosa. The standardized mortality rate was 9·8. The three groups also showed significant differences in psychosocial outcome. A low body mass index and a greater severity of social and psychological problems were identified as predictors of a poor outcome.

Conclusions. Recovery is still possible for anorexic patients after a period of 21 years. On the other hand, patients can relapse, becoming symptomatic again despite previously achieving recovery status. Only a few patients classified as having a poor outcome were found to seek any form of treatment, therefore, it is recommended that these patients should be monitored regularly and offered treatment whenever possible.
Cognitive therapy, nutritional therapy and their combination in the treatment of bulimia nervosa
Authors: HSU L. K. G. , RAND W. , SULLIVAN S. , LIU D. W. , MULLIKEN B. , McDONAGH B. , KAYE W. H.
Published: October 2003

Background. This study compared the effectiveness of cognitive therapy (CT), nutritional therapy (NT), the combination of cognitive and nutritional therapy (CNT), against a control condition of support group (SG) in the treatment of bulimia nervosa.

Methods. One hundred female out-patients who fulfilled DSM-III-R criteria for bulimia nervosa were randomized to the four treatment groups. NT and CT were designed to cover different areas with minimal overlap, and CNT provided all of the features of both of these treatments. The control condition was conducted in a group self-help format. Each of the treatments lasted 14 weeks.

Results. All three active treatments as well as SG produced significant decreases in binge/vomit episodes. Intent-to-treat analysis found CNT and CT to be significantly more effective than SG in retaining subjects in treatment and completion of study, as well as in producing greater improvements in dysfunctional attitudes and self-control. CNT was superior to SG in achieving abstinence from bulimic behaviour. NT was superior to SG only in increase of self-control. Logistic regression found that the cognitive component, whether given alone or in conjunction with NT, and higher pre-treatment self-control scores were significant predictors for both completion of study and abstinence.

Conclusion. CT (either alone, or in combination with nutritional therapy) remains the treatment of choice for bulimia nervosa. A treatment escalation approach should be tested for the treatment of bulimia with the more intensive and less widely available CT (with or without nutritional counselling) offered after patients have failed the less intensive and more widely available support group treatment.
Mood congruent memory bias induced by tryptophan depletion
Authors: KLAASSEN T. , RIEDEL W. J. , DEUTZ N. E. P. , VAN PRAAG H. M.
Published: October 2003

Background. Mood congruent memory bias predicts a more superior recall memory of learnt material congruent with the mood state at the time of learning. The present study is the first report of an experimental study in which a biological mood induction was used to test this hypothesis. The influence of acute tryptophan (TRP) depletion, inducing low serotonin neurotransmission and a depression of mood, on memory bias was evaluated in healthy volunteers (16 with and 11 without a family history of major affective disorder).

Methods. Twenty-seven subjects received 100 g of an amino acid mixture with and without TRP according to a placebo-controlled, double-blind, balanced, cross-over design. An affective memory test consisting of a 30-word list with words of positive, neutral, and negative affective valence and a mood questionnaire were assessed at 6 and 24 h following treatment administration.

Results. TRP depletion impaired delayed recall of neutral and positive words, but not of negative words. There was no interaction of family history and treatment and there was no post hoc association between the influence of TRP-depletion on mood and on affective memory bias.

Conclusion. Experimentally induced serotonergic depletion in normal individuals shifts affective memory bias towards negative affective valent verbal stimuli.
The West London Schools Study: the effects of chronic aircraft noise exposure on child health
Authors: HAINES M. M. , STANSFELD S. A. , BRENTNALL S. , HEAD J. , BERRY B. , JIGGINS M. , HYGGE S.
Published: October 2003

Background. Previous field studies have indicated that children's cognitive performance is impaired by chronic aircraft noise exposure. However, these studies have not been of sufficient size to account adequately for the role of confounding factors. The objective of this study was to test whether cognitive impairments and stress responses (catecholamines, cortisol and perceived stress) are attributable to aircraft noise exposure after adjustment for school and individual level confounding factors and to examine whether children exposed to high levels of social disadvantage are at greater risk of noise effects.

Methods. The cognitive performance and health of 451 children aged 8–11 years, attending 10 schools in high aircraft noise areas (16 h outdoor Leq > 63 dBA) was compared with children attending 10 matched control schools exposed to lower levels of aircraft noise (16 h outdoor Leq < 57 dBA).

Results. Noise exposure was associated with impaired reading on difficult items and raised annoyance, after adjustment for age, main language spoken and household deprivation. There was no variation in the size of the noise effects in vulnerable subgroups of children. High levels of noise exposure were not associated with impairments in mean reading score, memory and attention or stress responses. Aircraft noise was weakly associated with hyperactivity and psychological morbidity.

Conclusions. Chronic noise exposure is associated with raised noise annoyance in children. The cognitive results indicate that chronic aircraft noise exposure does not always lead to generalized cognitive effects but, rather, more selective cognitive impairments on difficult cognitive tests in children.