bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
“Kamour”
Authors: Sadiki Larbi , Saleh Layla
Published: April 2024

This chapter delves into the Kamour movement protestscape. The chapter explores enduring questions of spatial justice and the perpetuation of marginalization under democratization through an examination of a youth-led movement demanding a local share of oil wealth in Tataouine province. The limits of procedural democracy (institution-building and voting) come to the fore when there are unresolved regional distributional imbalances, with attendant affective tendencies such as humiliation and double consciousness (hogra). Tunisia’s subaltern youth socially act and en-act “peoplehood” through protest defiance against the state. Drawing on primary data including focus group interviews, social media, and newspapers, the chapter lays out the organization, demands, strategies, and identity-markers of the Kamour movement. New learning augments youth protest competencies in a fledgling democracy, enhancing the agentic, affective, and cognitive elements of social doing. Years before Kais Saied’s July 25, 2021 power grab, the Kamour youth offered a critical test of the representativeness, responsiveness, and inclusiveness of Tunisia’s new democracy.
Revelation and Religious Experience in the Islamic Tradition
Authors: Vahid Hamid , Morvarid Mahmoud
Published: April 2024

All great theistic religions rest their belief systems on faith in divine revelations which are commonly recorded and preserved in sacred texts and writings. However, while such religions share this common starting point about revelation, they differ between themselves in regard to how this claim should be properly conceived. These differences include, among other things, distinct responses to such questions as to whether God Himself is the author of the sacred texts or whether they are written by humans who are merely inspired by Him; the sense in which God has spoken those words and the role that the prophets have played in the ensuing process. In Islam, God is regarded as the sole author of the Quranic verses, which are said to have been dictated to Prophet Mohammed. This ‘dictation model’ of revelation (waḥy) raises, however, a host of problems. In addition to the metaphysically oriented questions just noted, it also raises the spectre of the epistemological problem of error and accuracy. This chapter aims to elucidate the Islamic view of revelation from both the historical as well as the modern perspective as it is principally understood by such Muslim thinkers as al-Fārābī, Avicenna, al-Ghazzālī, and their modern successors such as Mohammad Iqbal, and to show how it has been progressively enriched by the different philosophical disciplines that have been brought to bear on it.
Islamic Faith and Knowledge of God
Authors: Aijaz Imran
Published: April 2024

This chapter critically discusses a particular view of Islamic faith (Ar. iman) that the author calls the ‘faith is knowledge’ view. According to this view, faith involves an appropriate response to knowledge of God. The author of the chapter argues that this understanding of faith, specifically of its cognitive component, may be reasonably doubted from the perspective of the ‘reflective Muslim’. Typically, Muslim apologists who defend the ‘faith is knowledge’ claim that knowledge of God is part of our natural disposition. They also contend that cosmological and teleological considerations provide evidence for knowledge of God. Both claims may be reasonably rejected by reflective Muslims, as it will be shown. Because of this, Muslim thinkers would do well to take seriously and explore other models of Islamic faith that do not require the ‘faith is knowledge’ view.
Science, Reason, and Buddhism
Authors: Priest Graham
Published: April 2024

Buddhism is unique in the world’s major religions in that there is no god. Consequently, there is no such thing as divine revelation. All we can do is to figure things out for ourselves. As the Kālāma Sūtra puts it: don’t believe something just because some sacred text or person says it is so; it’s got to make sense to you. Of course, you can take expert advice. When it comes to the nature of the natural world we live in, the experts are the scientists. Thus, HH the Fourteenth Dalai Lama says that if Buddhist beliefs conflict with science, then it is the Buddhist beliefs that need to be revised. In fact, it is remarkable to what extent modern science has shown the Buddhist view of the natural world to be right: we live in a world of massively interconnected causal interaction, and are ourselves objects composed of parts in a dynamic evolution. Of course, there are things in some Buddhist texts that science does not now endorse, such as that there is a mountain, Mt Sumeru, at the middle of the Earth’s surface. Putting this down to a time when the geography of the world was largely unknown is easy enough. But there are some fairly orthodox Buddhist beliefs which are not verified by science which are not so easily disposed of. The most obvious are the beliefs in karma and rebirth. What is to be said of these? In this chapter, all these matters will be discussed.
Emotion as Indian Philosophy of Value
Authors: Frazier Jessica
Published: April 2024

As Jeremy Bentham noted, philosophies that do not anchor goodness in God often take the emotions of pleasure and pain as the basis of ethics. What else do people ultimately want or fear, for themselves or others? The binary idea of positive and negative emotion underpins utilitarianism and many notions of virtue and sin. Yet India, with its longstanding history of yogic introspection, has developed a more complex theory of emotions. The theory of ‘rasas’, or sustained complex moods, says that the simple passions are of many types. Furthermore they are malleable—and able to be developed into higher-order forms. In particular, they may be scaled out according to wider or narrower concerns, or altered in qualitative character according to greater and lesser degrees of egoism. This, according to rasa theory, can be done through techniques of (i) combining affects, (ii) generalizing their focus, and (iii) intensifying emotional self-reflexivity, all of which open up the phenomenological possibilities of emotion beyond Bentham’s simple positive and negative passions. A broad palette of emotion can be curated through practices of self-cultivation; this in turn alters the ethical itself. Impersonal arc-emotions for instance—what Chakrabarti calls ‘Ownerless Emotions’—may focus on the overall coherence of a situation, rather than one’s personal appetites. Or a ‘bliss’ is possible that escapes all acquisitive character. Thus in Hinduism one may seek ‘higher’ emotions that transcend egoistic impulses, and achieve other states of subjectively intrinsic value—thereby challenging the standard ethics based on desire and aversion.
Morality and Divine Law
Authors: Abdalla Bakinaz
Published: April 2024

Theoretically, evaluating the moral quality of an individual may vary depending on how we understand the nature and foundation of values and the extent to which the individual’s acts meet the criteria for what counts as moral. Suppose we grant the existence of divine law. To what extent (and in what way) does divine law structure the conduct of morally excellent individuals, if such individuals exist? The present chapter tackles this question by examining the relationship between the conduct of the prophet Mohammad and the Quran against fundamental Islamic assumptions and within theological and philosophical frames of reference in the medieval Islamic legacy. The author of this chapter argues that the latter framework is better suited to account for the prophet’s moral quality in an Islamically satisfactory fashion, despite indications to the contrary.
Conventionalizing Rebirth
Authors: Finnigan Bronwyn
Published: April 2024

What should the Buddhist attitude be to rebirth if one accepts that it is inconsistent with current science? This chapter critically engages forms of Buddhist agnosticism that adopt a position of uncertainty about rebirth but nevertheless recommend ‘behaving as if’ it were true. What does it mean to behave as if rebirth were true, and are Buddhist agnostics justified in adopting this position? This chapter engages this question in dialogue with Mark Siderits’ reductionist analysis of the Buddhist doctrine of the two truths, conventional and ultimate. Richard Hayes (1998) characterizes talk of rebirth as a useful fiction. Siderits characterizes talk of persons as a useful fiction and explains and justifies statements that involve it as conventionally true despite persons not featuring in our final or ultimate ontology. Does rebirth satisfy the same criteria to count as conventionally true, and does thinking of it in these terms help explain and justify what it might mean to behave as if rebirth is true? This chapter will defend a conditional yes to these questions. In the process, it will clarify the distinctively Buddhist approach to rebirth, provide an analysis of how the concept of rebirth might relate to practical outcomes, and address some limitations of this approach.
‘Liberation in Life’
Authors: Barua Ankur
Published: April 2024

The author of this chapter discusses a central motif relating to life and the afterlife that lies at the heart of Advaita Vedānta, which was systematized by Śaṃkara (c. 800 ce). Advaita may be characterized as a form of ‘monism’ according to which there are no ontological distinctions across reality. One implication of this claim is that it is not meaningful to speak, from an ontological perspective, of any distinctions between this worldly life and a hereafter in another domain. Some Advaita commentaries do not hesitate to draw the logical conclusion that the afterlife is here and now, if only an individual can become awakened to the presence of deep divinity at the core of the human person. We will explore some of the conceptual and moral aspects of this claim that individuals who become re-centred in the true self already begin to inhabit the afterlife in and through worldly structures. The chapter will also engage with the charge that Advaita styles of monism generate antinomian behaviour in which an individual claims to have gone beyond good and evil.
Philosophy and Friendship
Authors: Clark Kelly James
Published: April 2024

For the past century there has been a remarkable renaissance in the philosophy of religion. In reality, however, philosophy of religion has been mostly philosophy of Christianity, dominated as it is by Christian philosophers. Engaging with each of the other chapters of this book, the author of this chapter discusses the importance of expanding the scope of philosophy of religion to include, for example, Judaism, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, and atheism. The author also argues for the importance of expanding the community of scholars, which in philosophy of religion has been restricted mostly to Christians, to include, Jews, Muslims, Hindus, Buddhists, atheists, and agnostics.
Modes of Being and Quantification
Authors: van Inwagen Peter
Published: April 2024

Some philosophers believe that there is more than one mode of being. For the sake of having an example, that abstract and concrete objects enjoy distinct modes of being. And suppose it is maintained that these two modes are so fundamentally different that each requires its own pair of quantifiers. But if we have these two pairs of quantifiers, we must also have the “generic” existential and universal quantifiers of the logic texts—or we shall be unable to express, for example, the thesis that everything is either abstract or concrete. Arguments are presented in support of the general position of which this is one case: ‘There isA an x Fx’ is indistinguishable from ‘There is an x (Ax & Fx)’, where ‘there isA a/an’ is the abstract existential quantifier, ‘there is a/an’ is the generic existential quantifier, and ‘Ax’ abbreviates ‘x is an abstract object’.
Fictionalist Nominalism and Applied Mathematics
Authors: van Inwagen Peter
Published: April 2024

Fictionalist nominalism is the thesis that mathematical objects like numbers exist only “according to the mathematical fiction.” But one may ask, “But then how is applied mathematics possible?” If an applied mathematician, who claims to have solved a problem, says, “The critical mass is 47.3 kg,” it would seem that—if fictionalist nominalism is right—he or she ought to have said, “According to the mathematical fiction, the critical mass is 47.3 kg.” It is frequently contended that this criticism misses the mark because the mathematical fiction is, in a certain respect, a reliable fiction—in that it is a conservative extension of nominalistically acceptable discourse. In reply it is here argued that if this is true, it leaves us with no account of the success of applied mathematics but Mill’s: “Well, it’s always worked.”
Decompartmentalization as a Fact
Authors: Burgorgue-Larsen Laurence
Published: April 2024

Chapter 4 argues that, notwithstanding the differences among the legal bases for the texts when it comes to interpretation, the common feature that links the 3 Courts concerns their decompartmentalized use of external sources. It involves an overall openness that pays little attention to what means are brought to bear to that end. Softness and hardness go hand in hand. While this approach is expressly authorized by Articles 60 and 61 of the African Charter (which authorize a version of the approach that might be termed ‘faithful’), in the case of the European Convention it is the result of a praetorian approach, and, in the American, of a rather bold analysis of Article 29(b) of the American Convention—referred to here as ‘rebellious decompartmentalization’.
The Effects of Decompartmentalization
Authors: Burgorgue-Larsen Laurence
Published: April 2024

Chapter 5 analyses the effects of decompartmentalization at two levels. The first has to do with the drafting process, whereby texts setting out human rights protections have undergone significant transformations and there has been an increase in the positive obligations imposed on states. In others words, and taking the case law of the 3 Courts into account—the immediate effects of decompartmentalization is directly linked to the level of the human rights guarantees. Interpretive and substantive decompartmentalization has the direct consequence of enhancing the protections provided for in the treaties and placing further obligations on states. The second is more political and sociological: heftier obligations have in turn generated strong pushback within the judicial world: first within the Courts themselves (with some judges dissenting), but also among certain stakeholders, particularly conservative NGOs, which, as the analysis shows, have adopted a common strategy attacking liberal interpretations of human rights.
Conclusion
Authors: Burgorgue-Larsen Laurence
Published: April 2024

The conclusion reaffirms that sovereign power has always been paramount. It may have been contained and corralled, but it has never been eliminated. And, whereas this was seen, naturally enough, in the processes through which the 3 Courts were set up, once that had happened, they still had to deal with the permanence of this political reality. While the present serves as a forceful reminder of this, the conclusion presents a number of challenges for the future. Thus far, the 3 Courts have been able to develop rights and afford victims extensive remedies. But for how much longer? Is the swing of the pendulum preordained in the history that is still to unfold?
Introduction
Authors: Arnold John H.
Published: April 2024

The Introduction sets out the wider historiographical context for discussion of lay piety in the middle ages, emphasizing that the book uses a rich regional study in order to explore change over time much more fully than previous works. The theoretical tools for analysis are also discussed, principally the anthropologist Talal Asad’s analysis of ‘religion’ as a mechanism of power. The chapter also describes the broad sociopolitical outlines of southern France in the period, the nature of the surviving sources, and sketches the overall structure of the following chapters.
Christianity and Local Churches, c. 1000–c. 1150
Authors: Arnold John H.
Published: April 2024

Using, principally, a mixture of charter evidence and archaeological site reports, the chapter explores what we can know of local churches and their development in the eleventh and early twelfth centuries. The term ‘local’ is used to avoid the potentially anachronistic use of ‘parish’. It is demonstrated that many, perhaps a majority, of local churches were built and created by collective groups of lay people, and that church ‘ownership’ should not be assumed to be in the hands of a single lord. Through the charter evidence we can see local priests, some however apparently ‘unfree’ men, and some fairly common level of material provision for the performance of the liturgy, the provision of baptism and burial, and perhaps of some wider aspects of the cura animarum (the ‘care for souls’). The chapter works to provide a point of reference for later developments explored in the subsequent chapters.
Space and Materiality
Authors: Arnold John H.
Published: April 2024

Various ‘spaces’ of Christian worship are explored in this chapter, from the spiritually charged space of the saint’s shrine, to the local cemetery, to the interior of the parish church. Change over time is addressed throughout, particularly in regard to the developments in church building across the thirteenth century, as the new ‘gothic’ style was established in the region. At the same time, however, it is noted that older ‘romanesque’ churches remained common, and it is suggested that an important element in the lived experience of lay worship would be an increased awareness of contrasting spaces and material circumstances, for example for liturgical performance. The interior material features of parish churches are also analysed, including crucifixes, bells, retables, and other decoration—noting however that there may have been rather fewer wall paintings until quite a late date than scholarship might previously have assumed. The chapter uses an array of evidence, including one very rich fourteenth-century diocesan visitation record for Aix, and includes visual images. It concludes with discussion of the fraught area of eucharistic materiality.
The Discipline of Belief
Authors: Arnold John H.
Published: April 2024

This chapter evokes the concept of ‘discipline’ in a Foucauldian sense, not as simple repression, but as an elaborated area of knowledge and power, in this case particularly over sin, confession, penance, and associated issues. It is argued that across the thirteenth century, whilst such discipline partly rested upon outside authority, it increasingly asked ordinary Christians to regulate their own behaviour: to police themselves, in line with the wider rules of Christian society. We can in fact see the development of disciplines, plural, where the dynamic between exterior demand and internal volition could differ considerably. The chapter explores these issues via parochial confession (from the evidence of confessors’ manuals, preaching exempla, and other materials), the ‘care of souls’ present within inquisition into heretical wickedness, and the elaboration of discourses around ‘sin’ in regard to areas of lay life—commerce and sexuality in particular.
Conclusion
Authors: Arnold John H.
Published: April 2024

The conclusion reiterates key findings from the preceding book about the nature of change over time in ordinary Christians’ experience of religion and belief, and discusses changing inflections to the very common phrase ‘for the love of God’ across the period, arguing that we see a shift from a dominant petitionary mode, structured by the logic of lordship, to a dominant affective mode, structured by the logic of caritas.
Obesity and Responsibility for Health
Authors: Nath Rekha
Published: April 2024

This chapter examines the case for health care policies aimed at holding obese individuals responsible for their weight and for obesity-related health issues. In particular, it considers the merits of two arguments for policies that would seek to make obese individuals bear some of the higher health care costs associated with being that way. On the fairness argument, it is claimed that such policies would serve the interests of fairness by holding obese individuals to account for irresponsible lifestyle choices that are linked to their higher weight and its associated health risks. On the public health promotion argument, it is claimed that adopting such policies could produce impressive public health benefits: encouraging people to make healthier lifestyle choices, reducing obesity rates, and reducing obesity-related health care spending. Both arguments face serious objections. Contrary to the fairness argument, policies aimed at holding obese individuals responsible for their weight or for related health problems would neither treat people as they deserve to be treated nor make the distribution of health care resources fairer. And contrary to the public health promotion argument, those policies would not produce better health outcomes for society at large. Indeed, they would tend to do just the opposite. Reflection on the shortcomings of those arguments reveals that their conclusion is false: society should not adopt policies aimed at holding obese individuals responsible for their weight or for obesity-related health problems.
Physician, Heal Thyself
Authors: Parker Joshua , Davies Ben
Published: April 2024

Burnout among health care professionals is at epidemic proportions. Aside from being bad for the burned-out professional, burnout is also bad for patients, since it is generally correlated with lower quality care. A prominent response to this problem in medicine has been to emphasise strategies of self-care, focusing on what the individual can do to avoid burnout. More starkly, some have suggested that health care professionals may owe a duty of self-care to their patients. In this chapter, we critique this individualist focus, arguing that this focus on individual responsibility is both ethically exploitative, and pragmatically self-defeating.
Fighting Vaccination Hesitancy
Authors: Miller Daniel J. , Nussberger Anne-Marie , Faber Nadira , Kappes Andreas
Published: April 2024

Addressing vaccination hesitancy is a major challenge in the fight against infectious disease. Vaccine hesitancy has given rise to recent outbreaks of vaccine preventable diseases (e.g., measles) in developed countries. In developed regions, particularly Europe and North America non-structural barriers to vaccination such as risk perceptions and philosophical beliefs seem to play a crucial role in vaccination uptake (Larson et al. 2014), and also contribute to current vaccine hesitancy with regard to COVID-19. To combat these developments, understanding psychological factors in vaccination hesitancy is increasingly important. A better understanding of these psychological factors in turn points to communication strategies that can reduce vaccine hesitancy. These strategies depend upon individuals’ possession of capacities that are required for morally responsible agency (“responsibility-level capacities”), and in particular the capacities to recognize and respond to reasons. Strategic communication concerning vaccines can improve the exercise of individuals’ responsibility-level capacities as they pertain to risk perception and outcome expectancies. We begin by introducing cutting-edge work from the philosophical literature on agency and responsibility, with a special focus on the responsibility-level capacities at work in the practical context of deciding whether to vaccinate. We then summarize lessons drawn from a variety of studies in psychology and behavioural economics on how individuals reason, decide, and behave in these practical contexts. These lessons help illuminate the extent to which individuals exercise responsibility-level capacities in such contexts while also pointing to strategies that can improve the exercise of those capacities.
The concept of evolutionary change
Authors: Chipman Ariel D.
Published: April 2024

Natural selection results in organisms that are optimally adapted to their environment. Organisms change over time and lineages split through speciation. Phylogenetic trees are a graphical representation of the evolutionary history of species and of the relationships among them. Trees are reconstructed by searching for a tree that best satisfies a series of criteria, given the data available about the taxa for which we are building the tree. Having a tree allows us to trace the evolution of characters over evolutionary time. Characters that are derived from a shared common ancestor are homologous characters, whereas characters that appeared independently several time over evolution are convergent characters. Characters that do not have homologs in any related species are known as evolutionary novelties. When tracing the evolution of characters or of organisms, we often ask question about why they are the way they are. It is important to differentiate between proximate causes, the immediate driving force for a phenomenon we see, and ultimate causes, the deeper causes that reflect the full evolutionary history of a species.
Motility and symmetry
Authors: Chipman Ariel D.
Published: April 2024

Almost all animals are capable of some form of movement. However, this movement is often of body parts relative to each other. Not all animals are capable of locomotion, which is the movement of the entire animal from one place to another. Animals can be classified based on their degree of motility. Sessile animals do not move from their place at all. Sedentary animals move little or infrequently, and mobile animals are capable of free movement in space. Aquatic mobile animals can move on the sea floor and are then known as benthic, or move in the water column and are then known as pelagic. On land, animals can walk, run, crawl, or fly. Locomotion is usually achieved by muscles, but in some smaller organisms it is achieved by ciliary action. The degree of motility is linked to body plan and to the structure of the nervous system. Sessile and sedentary animals are often radially symmetrical and often have a nervous system arranged as a nerve net. Mobile animals tend to be bilaterally symmetrical and have centralized nervous systems.
Diploblastic organisms
Authors: Chipman Ariel D.
Published: April 2024

Diploblastic organisms have only two germ layers: endoderm and ectoderm. The largest phylum of diploblastic animals is Cnidaria—jellyfish, corals, sea anemones, hydroids, and others. Cnidarians are radially symmetrical with a digestive system that has only one opening. The mouth is usually surrounded by tentacles that carry cnidocytes or stinging cells. Many cnidarians are colonial, and the colonies are sometimes embedded in a mineral skeleton. Some cnidarians can appear in two form, polyps or medusae. When there is a medusa stage, it is usually responsible for sexual reproduction. Many cnidarians have complex life histories, often with an alternation of sexual and asexual generations. The second bilaterian phylum is Ctenophora. While superficially similar to cnidarians, ctenophores are very different in structure and life history. They move using rows of cilia known as comb rows or ctenes. All ctenophores are predators and most of them trap food using long tentacles with sticky cells.
Sensory systems
Authors: Chipman Ariel D.
Published: April 2024

The world is teeming with information that can be collected by an organism and used to improve its chance of survival. Different sources of information are known as sensory modalities. Sense organs in diverse animals are optimized for detecting and interpreting different sensory modalities. The interpretation of sensory information is done by the nervous system, which is composed of neurons and a range of other supporting cells. The most ancient and most common sensory modality is chemoreception—the ability to detect specific molecules based on dedicated receptors situated on chemosensory cells. Mechanical reception includes a range of organs that give information about physical-mechanical aspects of the world. This includes touch receptors, gravity and motion detectors, flow detectors, pressure detectors, and others. Photoreception gives many organisms, including ourselves, the most detailed and nuanced information about the world. Photoreceptor organs range from simple light-detecting patches, to complex eyes with a movable lens and a large hemispherical retina. We can trace an evolutionary trajectory linking the different types of photoreceptor organs. Additional sensory modalities include detection of electro-magnetic fields, a sense of self, and the perception of pain.
Platyhelminthes
Authors: Chipman Ariel D.
Published: April 2024

Platyhelminthes (flatworms) is a bilaterian phylum that include both free-living and parasitic taxa. Flatworms have a flat body with no secondary body cavity. The free-living flatworms are small simple animals that live in water and in damp terrestrial environments. They are unusual among bilaterians in using stem cells for all growth, which leads to highly developed regenerative capabilities. Many flatworms have adapted and specialized as internal parasites of other animals. These parasitic taxa have lost some of the typical flatworm characters, including a reduction or complete loss of the digestive system. On the other hand, they have evolved adaptations to the parasitic lifestyle, including a unique type of integument that protects against the host’s immune system. Many have also evolved highly complex multi-stage life histories.
Mollusca
Authors: Chipman Ariel D.
Published: April 2024

Mollusca is a large and diverse phylum with many familiar representatives, from snails and clams to octopuses and squid, as well as several less-familiar representatives, such as chitons and aplacophorans. Despite this diversity in body plans, we can reconstruct a generalized mollusk and see how all these body plans are variations on a theme. The generalized body plan usually includes a shell that is secreted by a mantle. On the ventral side of the animal is a muscular foot, and dorsal to it is the visceral mass. In different lineages, each of these components has been expanded, reduced, or specialized as part of an adaptation to different lifestyles. Bivalves (oysters, clams, and relatives) have reduced the foot, the head, and sense organs as part of a transition to a sessile lifestyle. Gastropods (snails) maintain almost all of these structures, but have evolved a torsion of the visceral mass relative to the foot. Cephalopods (octopuses and squid) have lost or reduced the shell, evolved a closed circulatory system, and are adapted for an active and highly mobile lifestyle. Because of their hard shells, mollusks have an excellent fossil record, and they are important components of almost all fossil assemblages.
Skeletons and coeloms
Authors: Chipman Ariel D.
Published: April 2024

Skeletons are structural elements that provide support, muscle anchoring points, and protection. Skeletons can be external or internal. External skeletons are composed of plates and offer physical protection. Internal skeletons are often composed of bones. For a rigid mineralized skeleton to allow movement, there have to be joints between individual elements. The type of movement and locomotion an animal can carry out depends on what type of skeleton it has, if any. The main muscles used for locomotion tend to be body wall muscles, which can be longitudinal or circular. Coordinated activity of body wall muscles can lead to peristaltic or sinusoidal types of locomotion. Animals with appendages display other types of locomotion, such as walking or swimming. All muscle activity must be done against some sort of support structure. Animals without rigid mineralized skeletons often have a hydrostatic skeleton or coelom, which serves as the semirigid anchoring point for locomotory muscles.
Molting animals
Authors: Chipman Ariel D.
Published: April 2024

Rigid exoskeletons impose a constraint on an animal’s ability to grow. In order to grow, animals with a rigid exoskeleton must remove and replace the skeleton with a new one of a larger size. This is known as molting, and is found in a large clade of animals, the Ecdysozoa, which is composed of three sub-clades. One of the sub-clades within Ecdysozoa is Nematoida, which includes nematodes or round worms, and nematomorphs or horsehair worms. Both of these phyla are elongated worms with no external appendages, and with a reduced body cavity or pseudocoelom. Nematodes display very little morphological diversity, but are extremely abundant, with their diversity being manifested in physiological and ecological specializations.
Arthropoda II
Authors: Chipman Ariel D.
Published: April 2024

Mandibulata is the larger of the two branches of Arthropoda (the other being Chelicerata). It includes hexapods and their relatives, crustaceans, and myriapods. Mandibulates are characterized by a head tagma with antennae and three pairs of feeding appendages. Myriapoda is the least diverse class and includes centipedes and millipedes. Centipedes are predators with anterior venom claws. Millipedes are herbivores or detritivores with pairs of segments fused to give diplosegments. Crustacea is a paraphyletic group, since it encompasses hexapods as well as a diversity of marine, freshwater, and terrestrial taxa that are considered to be crustaceans. There is a diversity of body plans within crustaceans, with different levels of tagmatization and adaptations to different modes of life and motility. Hexapoda is the class that includes insects and is by far more diverse than the others. Known insect diversity is higher than the known diversity of all other animals combined. Insects are characterized by three tagmata: head, thorax, and abdomen, by three pairs of walking appendages, and, in most cases, by two pairs of wings. The diversity of insects lies in the specializations of the walking appendages, feeding appendages, and wings.
Excretory systems
Authors: Chipman Ariel D.
Published: April 2024

Excretory systems have two separate roles: elimination of waste products and maintaining a correct ion balance. Waste products are mostly breakdown products of nitrogenous compounds, which include toxic ammonia. The excretory system has to detoxify and remove ammonia to prevent it from accumulating in tissues. Maintaining ion balance, or osmoregulation, involves selectively removing excess ions and water or both to maintain a level of salinity of the tissue fluids that is similar to that of sea water. The simplest excretory organs are protonephridia. These are single-cell structures that draw water and small molecules from the body fluids and remove excess material as urine. Metanephridia are multicellular structures that draw fluids into a lumen and return necessary components back to the body, removing the excess as urine. Terrestrial arthropods have a third type of excretory organ, known as Malpighian tubules—these remove excess ions from the body fluids and transfer them to the digestive system for removal.
Vertebrate characteristics
Authors: Chipman Ariel D.
Published: April 2024

Vertebrata includes some of the most familiar and best-loved animal species. The generally larger size of vertebrates makes them dominant animals in most environments. Vertebrates are distinguished from other chordates by the presence of bone, which forms the vertebral column and to other skeletal structures. Vertebrates also have a large distinct head with a skull and an enlarged brain. Many of the novel structures of vertebrates are derived from a vertebrate-specific group of embryonic cells, the neural crest. There are two types of bones in vertebrates: endochondral bone, which is derived from ossification of cartilage, and dermal bone, which is derived from ossification of the mesodermal layer of the integument. The brain of vertebrates is composed of three embryonic regions that differentiate to give rise to a complex, multi-regional adult brain. A series of acute sense organs are linked to the brain, to give a high level of sensory processing.
Vertebrate organogenesis
Authors: Chipman Ariel D.
Published: April 2024

To understand the vertebrate body plan, we will follow embryonic development from the end of gastrulation through organogenesis. The model for this will be the frog embryo, as a generalized representative of vertebrates. Gastrulation defines the posterior of the embryo. As gastrulation progresses, it creates a tube that will become the digestive tube. Dorsal to the digestive tube, the mesoderm differentiates into a number of regions. Dorsal to the mesoderm, the ectoderm thickens and flattens to form the neural plate. The neural plate folds and sinks in to form the dorsal nerve cord. The axial mesoderm forms the notochord. The paraxial mesoderm gives rise to a series of cell clusters called somites. These will be the origin of most of the segmental structures: segmental muscle, vertebrae, dermis and others. The lateral mesoderm forms two sheets, with the space between them becoming the coelom. The outer mesodermal sheet or parietal mesoderm will form ventral body wall tissues and the circulatory system. The inner sheet or visceral mesoderm will give rise to all the mesodermal components of the digestive system.
The Importance of Remittance Flows
Authors: De Vries Catherine E. , Doyle David , Solaz Hector , Tertytchnaya Katerina
Published: April 2024

This chapter introduces the book, describes the case selection, and previews the chapters that follow. Money Flows proposes that financial remittances influence their recipients’ incentive to hold the authorities to account through various complementary channels. The book focuses on three specific ones, considering how remittances colour recipients’ economic evaluations; shape the burden of corruption; and change how recipients interact with and view their state. Through these three channels, remittances will in turn impact the approval function of the authorities. This process has implications for the incentive to reward those in office for their competence or to punish them for their incompetence.
Remittances and Government Approval
Authors: De Vries Catherine E. , Doyle David , Solaz Hector , Tertytchnaya Katerina
Published: April 2024

This chapter explores the relationship between remittances and government accountability, focusing on the authorities’ approval function. It demonstrates that remittance recipients report higher levels of government approval than others. Drawing on evidence from the 2008–2009 recession in Central-Eastern Europe, the Caucasus, and Central Asia, the chapter also shows that experiencing a decline in remittances makes recipients report lower levels of government support and blame the national government for the recession than other members of the population. In its concluding sections, this chapter also provides descriptive evidence of how changes in remittances impact national-level patterns of government approval. Increasing remittances are associated with increased government approval, and vice versa.
“Please Excuse All Mistakes”
Authors: Lystra Karen
Published: April 2024

Letter-writing was a crucial form of labor in nineteenth-century America. And like other forms of labor, it divided people by social class. It was a widely held belief among all ranks of American society that to be inept with language was to demonstrate one’s lower social standing. Working-class correspondents openly expressed fears that their writing would provoke the ridicule and laughter of their peers and of their better-educated compatriots. Such class shame had a partial antidote in community care, respect, and recognition. Less firmly rooted in the advancing culture of individualism, poorer, undereducated Americans felt intensely the loss of their face-to-face community. Exchanging letters with family and friends supported their need for a safe haven within a larger group. The Civil War created a need and an opportunity for unschooled white and Black soldiers to acquire writing skills. This was an unintended consequence of Civil War camp life.
The Love Continuum
Authors: Lystra Karen
Published: April 2024

The language of their letters suggests that the working-class experience of love is best described on a continuum. A small group of couples who shared their sense of love with middle-class romantics congregate at one end of this emotional continuum, while the large majority of working-class Americans were located on the nonromantic side. Some couples were situated in the middle and seemed to mix and match romantic love with elements of nonromantic attachment. The meaning of love in all three groups and their accompanying behavior is discussed, but an understanding of nonromantic love is emphasized. Rarely documented nonromantic proposals of marriage are presented and evaluated. The hostility expressed by family and community toward an interracial marriage and the couple’s emotional response is also highlighted.
Sex Talk, Humor, and Fear of Ridicule
Authors: Lystra Karen
Published: April 2024

Middle-class couples took pleasure in verbalizing their sexual experiences and desires, which added to the erotic intensity of extended courtships. But they had the protection of a deeply held ethic of privacy that was lacking in working-class culture. The laboring folk, by contrast, had a porous sense of privacy, reflected in the common practice of sharing letters of all types, including correspondence between married and unmarried couples. Given the truncated value they placed on privacy, and their more relaxed attitude toward disclosing the intimate details of their lives, what was noticeably absent from working-class letters was any earnest erotic content. When they discussed sex, it was most often treated humorously (or as manly boasts). Did certain anxieties provoke this unspoken reserve about sexual intimacy? This chapter addresses that question. A rare discussion of birth control and of sexual harassment in working-class letters is also included.
Love to All Inquiring Friends
Authors: Lystra Karen
Published: April 2024

The majority of correspondents did not express their affection in the vocabulary of romantic love. Still, they did not necessarily neglect their spouses as a consequence. Their feelings were often symbolized in prospective acts of kindness. Couples conveyed nonromantic love by performing expected gender roles: women by preparing food and clothing; men by providing necessities for their family. The vocabulary of romantic love was missing from the majority of nineteenth-century working-class marriages, whatever the level of care between partners. There was something off-limits for the majority about sending love to spouses. Time and again, married men and women imparted love to their tribe rather than a spouse. They felt an intense need to reinforce relationships within their community. This deep-seated and taken-for-granted behavior is documented and interpreted.
Fighting to Stay Together
Authors: Lystra Karen
Published: April 2024

Several working-class couples disclose a great deal about the dynamics of community and marriage. They often reveal the various points of tension and contestation between the group and the conjugal pair. The married couple, in many instances, maintained permeable boundaries with their community. Those weak boundaries affected good as well as bad marriages. But troubled relationships were especially vulnerable to community pressures. These relationships vividly demonstrate the active role that intermediaries played in marital conflicts. They also display the most common source of marital disputes: a spouse’s failure to satisfy traditional role obligations. This chapter opens up the marital arguments of a poor farming couple living in Alabama, an upstate New York textile factory worker and his sixteen-year-old wife, a bigamous Massachusetts husband and heartbroken wife, and an illiterate Ohio farmer whose scribe freely interjected himself in the couple’s marital friction.
Epilogue
Authors: Lystra Karen
Published: April 2024

After an account of thousands of letters, the shortest in this bulky stack ends the volume. Isaiah Francis Wilson composed his two-line letter in the Mohawk language, indicating his primary identity, followed by an English translation: “I guess there is a great many miles between here and your home, is not that so Friend.” He expressed a longing for home, not only as a place, but as an emotional state. Another emotional state—romantic love—was making inroads in working-class culture, but the individualism it both reflects and inculcates was not yet ascendant in 1880 when this study ends. Waves of immigration, growing urban centers, a national market economy, and the expansion of mass culture and education were poised to noticeably change the American social landscape. The transition to a romantic ethos that promoted self-expression and personal fulfillment over collective bonds in the practice of working-class intimacy had begun.
Divine Dialectic
Authors: Burton Simon J. G.
Published: April 2024

This chapter focusses on the development of Petrus Ramus’ dialectic and its abiding Neo-Platonic character. It opens by situating Ramus’ dialectic in the evangelical and mystical milieu of a Paris which had been profoundly impacted by the Fabrist movement. It then considers how Ramus’ early dialectic shows his engagement with Franciscan and Cusan themes of Christian philosophy tracing a mathematical and mystical ascent to God. Outlining the dual rhetorical and metaphysical turn of Ramus’ logic the chapter provides a detailed account of his understanding of invention, judgement, and method. In doing so, it seeks to show the continuing importance of Platonic Realism in Ramus’ mature dialectic, even alongside his important rapprochement with Aristotelian logic. It also reveals an important mathematical dimension of Ramism.
Return to the Golden Age
Authors: Burton Simon J. G.
Published: April 2024

This chapter examines Petrus Ramus’ reform of Church and society, through reform of the academy, and his attempt to hold together the older Fabrist vision of the evangelical reform of a unified Christendom with new Protestant imperatives. It opens by examining Ramus’ attempt to reform the University of Paris and its link to a humanist, encyclopaedic and transformative programme of education. It then considers the central role of mathematics in Ramus’ curricular reform as a key to unlocking all of knowledge and initiating an evangelical programme of studies. It also shows Ramus’ desire to recover a lost Golden Age of humanity and his conviction that method marks out the path of return to Eden. It finally considers Ramus’ mathematical and mystical reform of theology, its link to Christian Platonic and Cusan understandings of learned ignorance, and the role of method as a template for a concordant, harmonious Church and society.
Archetypal Reform
Authors: Burton Simon J. G.
Published: April 2024

This chapter considers English Ramism and its pioneering of a Realist and exemplaristic method. It focusses especially on Alexander Richardson, William Ames, and the University of Cambridge. It opens by considering the development of Cambridge Ramism and its close link with Puritanism, evident in William Perkins. It then examines Richardson’s and Ames’ logic and its connection to Augustinian and Franciscan Realism. It also considers their eclectic, Scotistic, exemplarism. It then turns to the encyclopaedic grounding of all the arts and sciences in the divine mind, such that all things are understood to emanate from and return to God. This serves to connect Cambridge Ramism intriniscally to Scripture as a logic of faith, enabling the development of a Christian philosophy opposed to scholastic metaphysics and ethics. It also gives rise to a covenantal expression of theology rooted in Franciscan fashion in the freedom and love of the Trinity.