bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Tourism in the Galápagos Islands: The Dilemma of Conservation
Authors: Kenchington Richard A.
Published: August 2009

The Galapágos Archipelago is an area of very special significance to ecologists. Its unique flora and fauna, rugged scenery, and historical connections with Charles Darwin, make it a place of environmental pilgrimage. Between 1970 and 1985, visiting tourist numbers, comprised largely of foreign naturalists, grew from negligible levels to about 15,000 per annum. In 1987, visitor arrivals to the Galápagos grew to 32,500 following the opening of a second airport in 1986.

Management of tourism has involved a policy which requires most visitors to be accommodated on boats, places strict controls on the sites which can be visited, and requires tourists to be accompanied by highly-trained Naturalist Guides. The policy precludes development of any substantial island-based tourist infrastructure. Recently this approach has become increasingly inadequate in the face of rapid small-scale, little coordinated, tourist development.
The Uncertain Future of the Desert National Park in Rajasthan, India
Authors: Rahmani Asad R.
Published: August 2009

The 3,162 sq. km Desert National Park (DNP) is one of the largest protected areas in India. It represents all of the natural features of the Thar Desert in India. Since its establishment in the early 1980s, the wildlife population has increased, and now the Indian Gazelle, the Great Indian Bustard, the Desert Fox, etc., are easily seen in it. But although many core areas of 500 to 1,000 hectares each have been established, progress in the development of the Park is slow, and now the future of the Park itself is in jeopardy owing to a plan to construct a feeder canal of the main Indira Gandhi Nahar (canal) Project (IGNP), which would bisect the Park. It is feared that such improvement in irrigation facilites would make it impossible to shift the villagers outside the Park boundary, as had been planned earlier—and moreover, it would attract settlers to the Park. Salient features of the DNP, its important fauna, and various options to save the Park, are described in this paper.
Environmental Opportunities and Limits for Development
Authors: Bryson Reid A.
Published: August 2009

Let us return to people and food, and another simple equation. The number of people per hectare of arable land, calculated over large regions, looks like a climatic distribution. I guessed at the form of the equation, calculated what the population per arable hectare was on the basis of climate, and compared it with the situation as observed. The correlation between them is 0.998. (See Fig. 8.) It is an almost perfect relationship. The equation relates population per arable hectare to rainfall and temperature, and ultimately to sunlight and water. If one enters Fig. 9, which is a graph of the equation, with the temperature, and finds the intersection with the appropriate rainfall curve, one can see how many people are currently fed from an arable hectare.
The Impact of Conventional War on Natural Areas of the USSR
Authors: Smirnov Nicolai N.
Published: August 2009

Military destruction by conventional arms of both terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems is described, with emphasis placed on the effects of World Wars I and II on the territory of the USSR (especially of Russia, Byelorussia, and Ukraine). It is shown that a wide range of serious damage is done in terrestrial natural areas: to forests which may be decimated, to mammals which are commonly killed, and to the land which is extensively disturbed and rendered infertile or even uncultivable. Inland waters, too, are widely disturbed, though numerous new bodies of water may be formed in various ways, while fisheries are commonly disturbed, though ‘Wartime military activities can greatly reduce fish catches, to the benefit of fish populations.’
Natural Resource Exploitation and the Role of New Technology: a Case-history of the UK Herring Industry
Authors: Whitmarsh David J. , Reid Christopher A. , Gulvin Clifford , Dunn Michael R.
Published: August 2009

Technological change in the UK herring industry took place rapidly after 1965, due in part to the active encouragement encouragement given to fishermen to switch from driftnetting to pelagic trawling and purse-seining. The adoption and diffusion of these modern methods of capture stimulated a major expansion of output, but this very success was undermined by the depletion of the fish-stocks on which the industry depended. In the case of the West of Scotland herring fisheries, which were especially important to UK fishermen, the decline in fish-stock biomass caused vessel catch-rates to fall after 1973. The failure of international fisheries management, which acted as a permissive factor in the intensification of fishing effort, also had important economic implications as it resulted in the dissipation of resource-rent. The Authors calculate that the maximum sustainable ‘rent’ which could have been generated from the West of Scotland herring fishery was approximately £14 millions per annum at 1976-equivalent prices.

The resource-rent effectively financed the overcapitalization of the fleet and the decline which followed, and it is the speed with which this occurred that most distinguishes the herring fishery from others where technological change has taken place. The article concludes by arguing that, although the UK public authorities (notably the Herring Industry Board) might reasonably be criticized for pursuing a development strategy which resulted in economic and biological over-fishing, the international regime of fisheries management which prevailed at the time gave them little choice but to adopt a pro-active approach to technical innovation.
Park-People Relationships: The Case of Damage Caused by Park Animals Around the Royal Bardia National Park, Nepal
Authors: Studsrød Jan Erik , Wegge Per
Published: August 2009

Crop damage and livestock predation were a serious problem in three Village Development Committees (VDCs) situated adjacent to the Southwestern Part of the Royal Bardia National Park. The seriousness of crop and livestock losses varied considerably with the distance from the Park's border and the specific location of farms. This was explained by the variations in the distribution of animal wildlife inside the Park, the presence of natural and Man-made barriers, the availability of forested areas outside the Park, and the agricultural cropping pattern. Adjacent to the section of the Park with the highest animal densities, crop losses varied from 47% for Lentil to 24% for Wheat. Farther away, the extent of crop losses was reduced. In the ‘Far’ zone situated 2–8 km from the Park, only 3% of the Paddy was reported lost.

Two wildlife species, Chital and Wild Boar, were responsible for roughly half of the total damage to crops by animals. Damage from a newly-introduced population of Rhinoceros unicornis was increasing, with Paddy (Rice) and Lentil the crops most affected by that species. The economic value of livestock loss to wild predators was estimated to be two percent of the value of total crop losses. The estimated value of grasses harvested by local villagers inside the Park, seen as ‘compensation’ for crop losses and denial of access to traditional resources, constituted only 10% of the total economic loss from crop losses and livestock predation.
Recent Themes in Conservation Philosophy and Policy in the United States
Authors: Wildes Fred T.
Published: August 2009

A key characteristic of conservation in the United States is the dichotomy between two main philosophies. One of these is anthropocentric and utilitarian, advocating the wise use of Nature and natural resources, while the other is basically ecocentric, as it espouses principles of nonuse and preservation. This dualism has existed since the early days of the conservation movement, when the formerly uncontrolled use of a supposedly limitless natural environment finally gave way to a policy of resource management which was designed to conserve Nature and resource availability within the framework of human utilization. Generally opposed to this historically dominant paradigm were those who believed in preserving Nature for its own sake, and who have laboured over the years to modify and ameliorate the prevalent, central pattern.

After a period of relative unconcern, conservation underwent a resurgence as part of the environmental movement of the 1960s and 1970s. Environmental quality was the key concern, being highlighted by problems of pollution and degradation of the natural habitat. While providing the impetus for some broad environmental and conservation measures, this central focus directed primary attention to setting the problems. The traditional dominance of utilitarian resource management was maintained, relying on our managerial and scientific skills to address heightened environmental concerns. The era also spawned a number of other philosophies and themes. These have included a renewed sense of the ethics and spirituality of Nature, the emergence of ecology as a publicly-recognized-as-important field of science, ‘greener’ ecocentric movements, theories advocating more radical change, neo-Marxist theory on the relationship between Man and Nature, and various themes on limiting environmental growth and stress especially imposed by everincreasing human numbers.
The ‘Facilitator’: Proposing a New Mechanism to Strengthen the Equitable and Sustainable Use of Biodiversity
Authors: Krattiger Anatole F. , Lesser William H.
Published: August 2009

The focus of the Convention on Biological Diversity on conservation, the sustainable use of the greatest possible diversity of biota, and the equitable sharing of the benefits derived therefrom, has broadened the opportunities and responsibilities of a range of entities that are involved with conservation. Countries seeking to market their genetic resources, as well as firms seeking access to these materials, are uncertain as to how to proceed under the new expectations brought about by the Convention, and the excitement stemming from prospecting revenues is having an unfortunate side-effect in emphasizing the perceived newness of this opportunity. The continued emphasis on newness discourages participation until a less risky standard practice emerges.
Faunal Resources of the Gaoligongshan Region of Yunnan, China: Diverse and Threatened
Authors: Shilai Ma , Lianxian Han , Daoying Lan , Weizhi Ji , Harris Richard B.
Published: August 2009

We estimate that roughly one-third of Gaoligongshan's total area is now devoted exclusively to agriculture and other uses that preclude maintenance of biodiversity. In most cases, primary forests existing at the establishment of the three Nature Reserves have been conserved effectively. However, small-scale (but largely unmonitored and uncontrolled) tree-felling and other vegetation disturbance continues in many areas. Despite these lapses, forests are in better condition within, than outside of, established Nature Reserves. As well, the future for these forests looks brighter than for those surviving outside Reserves: at the very least, county governments are not free to convert them into pine plantations.

In contrast, hunting has been reduced only slightly — much less effectively than forest cutting has been. Although it is possible to find evidence of persistence of some rare animal species, and some Nature Reserve personnel believe there are indications that sensitive and rare species are showing an upward trend, poaching of animals is still common, particularly of smaller-bodied or lesser-known species. Although it seems well established that wellknown species (e.g. Takin) must be strictly protected, many species at equal or greater risk of extirpation and equally protected legally (e.g. some species of pheasants), do not enjoy such effective protection.
SCOPE: The First Sixteen Years
Authors: White Gilbert F.
Published: August 2009

Understanding of processes of change in the global environment comes from analysis of evidence that spans the boundaries between nations and between disciplines. Scientists are obliged to work across those boundaries in a variety of ways if they are to arrive at reasonably accurate judgements as to what is known or not known about the alterations that are taking place in the air, water, soil, and biota, of the Earth. One of the devices which they have used since 1969 is the Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment (SCOPE).
Intensity of Human Predation on Rocky Shores at Las Cruces in Central Chile
Authors: Durán L. René , Castilla Juan Carlos , Oliva Doris
Published: August 2009

The rocky shore of central Chile is heavily harvested by mariscadores de orilla and skin-divers, but their catches are not considered in the fishery statistics. The aim of the present paper is to estimate the intensity of human predation and annual catch of each of the species taken at Las Cruces, Central Chile. The activity pattern of both categories of collectors demonstrate a temporal grouping. The observation of mariscadores de orilla and skin-divers in 3 sectors of fringe totalling 1,500 m of rocky shore during 12 months allowed us to estimate the annual catch per species caught (kg per year).
Economic Development and Threats to National Parks: A Preliminary Analysis
Authors: Machlis Gary E. , Tichnell David L.
Published: August 2009

This paper examined the relationship between economic development and threats to national parks. Many Authors have suggested that the type and intensity of threats to parks may be influenced by the socio-economic characteristics of the region where the park is located. This idea was tested, using a stratified sample (N=135) of the world's national parks, with data derived from a survey of park managers.
Land-use Planning: One Geologist's Viewpoint
Authors: Zen E-An
Published: August 2009

Planning for the best use of land and its resources should take fully into consideration the long-term consequences of each type of use in order to stretch out most beneficially the well-being of society in the future, and to protect the integrity of the land and its biota. Three kinds of land-use can be distinguished for planning purposes. Reversible land-use leaves the land, after use, essentially as it was before; little or no man-induced modification remains. An example of reversible use in the United States is the designation of certain public lands as Wilderness. Terminal land-use commits the land to a chosen particular use, and any attempt at reversal requires either time-scales that are long compared with the expected lifespan of the social and political institution, or a commitment of resources that is too high for society to consider worth bearing. Examples of terminal land-use are location of metropolises and sites of toxic and/or radioactive waste disposals; by its nature the list grows monotonically. A current source of some social tension arises from the fact that Wilderness designation appears to assign a terminal-use status by legislative fiat, whereas in fact the land is being used reversibly.
Industrial Land-use and the Conservation of Native Biota in the Shrub-steppe Region of Western North America
Authors: Rickard William H. , Rogers Lee E.
Published: August 2009

The Bitterbrush-Sagebrush/Cheatgrass vegetation-type occupies about 300 km2 on the US Department of Energy's Hanford Site in the shrub-steppe region of southeastern Washington State. Prior to 1943, part of the land was used for irrigated agriculture and the remainder as grazing land for domestic livestock. In 1943, farming and livestock grazing were terminated and the resident human population was relocated. Use of the land since 1943 has been industrial, mostly for nuclear energy development. The land is not available for public use and shooting of wildlife is prohibited.

Nuclear energy development on the Hanford Site consists of a few large buildings that are widely separated, with undeveloped land in between which supports native plants and animals. This undeveloped land provides habitats for native species that are not adapted to intensive irrigated agriculture—a potential use of almost all of the land in the Bitterbrush-Sagebrush vegetation type. The primary disturbance to vegetation is wildfire. Fire destroys Bitterbrush and Sagebrush and these plants are slow to recolonize the burns. Other species are less affected by burning and are capable of quick recovery. The industrial use of the land provides a potential for the ecological study of self-revegetation of abandoned ploughed ground and the response of biota to wildfire.
An Indian View of Man and Nature
Authors: Oza G.M.
Published: August 2009

The World Wildlife Fund and others are trying to save more than 1,000 species of higher animals (including about 257 species of mammals, 348 of birds, and 186 of reptiles and amphibians), and an almost incredible 30,000 species of plants, from extinction.

The year 1980 witnessed the launching of the World Conservation Strategy, in which human survival is the vital dimension, and in 1982 there was the Declaration of the World Campaign for The Biosphere as, primarily, a much-needed educational device (see above).

The capability of choosing our destiny thus lies within us. We have totally to reject planning which includes deaths of human beings as one of the ‘costs’. The future will belong to those who are contemplative enough to give Mankind well-founded hope and a sensible human way to attain that hope.
Energy-flow Relationships Between Agro- and Forest Ecosystems in Central Himalaya
Authors: Pandey Uma , Singh J.S.
Published: August 2009

The primary occupation of 90% of the rural population of the hilly regions of the Central Himalaya is agriculture. The cultivated land is the nucleus of village settlements and also a factor which leads to increases in the human and livestock populations in a positive feedback manner, taking over land from forests at an ever-increasing rate. These village anthropobiomes are centres of massive energy-consumption.

A detailed study was conducted on three villages, Khurpatal, Bhalutia, and Mehragaon, with a view to investigate (a) the energy efficiency of agriculture, (b) the viability of their agro-ecosystems, and (c) the viability of forest ecosystems at the current level of agricultural activity. The cropping systems are divisible into vegetable and wheat-based systems. Among different crop-combinations, wheat-soybean is characterized by the minimum energy input and potato-cabbage-potato by the maximum energy input in Khurpatal. Thus from an energetic point of view, wheat-soybean is the most efficient (output: input ratio = 12.03) cropping pattern. Among alternatives practised in the remaining two villages, the wheat—paddy combination of Bhalutia is the most efficient, having an output: input ratio of 1.35, and the wheat-maize and fallow-pulses systems of Mehragaon are the most inefficient, with an output: input ratio of, respectively, 0.55 and 0.18.
Industrial Development and the Conservation of Vascular Plants, with Special Reference to Britain
Authors: Kelcey John G.
Published: August 2009

This paper, which has been nearly a decade in gestation, describes the contribution that industrial development makes to the conservation of wild plants in Britain. It challenges the priorities of the British conservation movement in concentrating its efforts on rare species and habitats, on the creation of Nature reserves, and on the maintenance of rare species as rare species. A more positive approach is now advocated, stressing the need to prevent common species from becoming rare, the creation of new habitats, and the propagation and reintroduction of uncommon species.

Whilst species conservation is relatively easy to justify and comprehend, habitat conservation is considerably more difficult. ‘Industrial habitats’ may be defined as those derived from any industrial process (including transport routes). Such habitats are characterized by a complex association and interaction of slope, aspect, drainage, nutrient status, and the chemical and physical characteristics of the skeletal soils—all of which are apt to change markedly over very short distances. In addition they are generally open, lack stability, do not receive frequent applications of fertilizer and/or herbicide, and are often inaccessible or well protected.
Agricultural Production and Environment: A Review
Authors: Biswas Margaret R.
Published: August 2009

There is no doubt whatever that changes in the development strategies in the agricultural sector will be essential if mankind is to eliminate world hunger—at least if human populations continue to grow as currently envisaged. In this review an attempt has been made to outline some of the criteria on which new approaches should be based. It should also be realized that the changes which it will be necessary to adopt for an alternative form of development will not be easy, because any such changes are bound to affect some segments of the population adversely, and one can be assured that vested interests will oppose them strongly. Thus, it is somewhat naive to assume that even an obviously improved policy will be automatically adopted. The proponents of the change will have to convince the people at large that such changes will be beneficial and necessary. It will not be an easy task, but certainly worth while to accomplish.

In order for land, water, and various inputs, to be used most efficiently for maximizing agricultural production on a sustainable basis, it will be essential to have an effective organizational infrastructure as well as a well-trained cadre of people. While bringing new land under cultivation is a viable alternative to solving the food problem in some countries, in many others far more effective use than at present must be made of existing land, especially addressing the problem of soil-loss. Failure to introduce terracing is a good example of failure to use existing technology, while on the other hand inappropriate technologies are liable to be introduced. South-south transfer of technology can present as many problems as north-south transfer of technology, as the attempt to transfer the processing of cashew-nuts from India to Tanzania has demonstrated.
Political Aspsects of Ecologically Sustainable Development
Authors: Caldwell Lynton K.
Published: August 2009

In less than two decades, the concepts of limits to growth and of the necessity of an ecologically sustainable economic order have gained international recognition. These concepts are not yet understood by most people or most governments, but belief in the necessity for planning for a sustainable future is growing.

Several lines of strategy are necessary to obtain a truly global commitment to sustainable programmes of development that will simultaneously protect The Biosphere. Among those now undertaken are the World Conservation Strategy, the international environmental education movement formalized at Tbilisi in 1977, and the World Campaign for The Biosphere.

Educational efforts are necessary but insufficient to move the world into an ecologically sustainable mode of behaviour. Political action that reflects moral conviction roused by scientific information will also be necessary. Safeguarding the environmental future and The Biosphere requires a social commitment of a moral, quasi-religious character.
The Conflict Over Limestone Quarrying in Doon Valley, Dehradun, India
Authors: Bandyopadhyay Jayanta , Shiva Vandana
Published: August 2009

The Doon Valley, in the foothills of the Himalayas in the State of Uttar Pradesh in India, has become the centre of major public-interest litigation in the Supreme Court of India. The conflict is centred around the utilization of the rich limestone deposits located in the Mussoorie Hills in the northern part of the Valley. The Mussoorie Hills receive an annual rainfall of some 2,000 mm, which is the second highest in North India. There is a very good water resource in the Mussoorie Hills, which is obviously connected with the water-holding capacity of the limestone belt.

For the operators of the limestone quarries, the best use of the high-grade limestone deposit lies in its physical extraction for commercial and industrial use. For the residents of the Valley, however, the best use of the limestone belt lies in its in situ functioning for the stabilization of soil and water resources. Damage to the stability of the hydrological balance of the Valley means damage to all other economic activities which, directly or indirectly, are dependent on the water resources in the Valley. These include agriculture, horticulture, tourism, animal husbandry, and knowledge-based industries etc. that together provide livelihood to the vast majority of the residents of the Valley.

The paper analyses the ecological background of the conflict. It evaluates the negative externalities of limestone quarrying in Doon Valley that damages perennial economic activities such as agriculture and tourism. The official steps taken by the State Government to control the ecological damage from quarrying having proved inadequate, the residents of the Valley looked for justice and the right to survival from the Supreme Court of India.
Protected Natural Territories in the Crimea, USSR
Authors: Newcombe Lydia F.
Published: August 2009

The Soviet Union's Crimean peninsula in the Black Sea has the northernmost occurrence of Mediterranean-type climate and vegetation, particularly in its narrow southern coastal strip which has been almost entirely developed for the tourist and health resort trade. Three inland mountain ranges and their vegetation, both forest and steppe, exert a protective influence over the microclimates of the coast and are thus being extensively studied by scientists at the Ministry of Agriculture's Nikita Botanical Garden and at Simferopol State University. Inland of these ranges lies an expanse of former meadow-steppe that is now under cultivation.

In order to protect and study the high concentrations of remaining native and relict taxa of flora and fauna of the peninsula, three Nature preserves have been established on it–two in the mountain zone and northern coastal islands, and one along the southern coast and adjacent lower slopes. Here human access is restricted while long-term ecological studies are undertaken.

The Nikita Botanical Garden is involved in both conservation and exploitation of natural resources, and in improving health conditions of the resort. These tasks are integrated through a programme of mass seed propagation and ecological studies of wild-growing plants, the results of which are then used in landscaping the resort zone and producing industrial plant materials.
Soil Loss, Hydrological Changes, and Conservation Attitudes, in the Sabi Catchment of Zimbabwe
Authors: du Toit Raoul F.
Published: August 2009

The Communal Lands—occupied by peasant farmers—of the upper catchment of the Sabi River (which drains the southeastern portion of Zimbabwe) are severely deforested, overgrazed, and eroded. Siltation of the river channel has increased the risk of overbank flooding at a downstream irrigation scheme, and a rise in annual outflow from the catchment over the last three decades has additional implications for irrigation development, as well as for the availability of ground-water reserves in the areas of dryland peasant farming.

In a study area within one of the Communal Lands, the average rate of soil loss from fields of gentle slope is estimated to be such that the next generation of peasant farmers will be unable to achieve crop-yields above a very low ‘subsistence’ level. The degraded environment is the inevitable consequence of the expansion of a primitive system of cultivation—in a region of low inherent potential for crop production—under the pressure of rapid population growth. While the peasants are aware of many of the consequences of their exploitative methods of land-use, and recognize the importance of basic conservation measures such as erosion-control terraces, they generally feel that remedial action is beyond their means.

The effective implementation of available technical solutions to the deterioration of the land resources, will depend upon the provision of greater financial incentives for intensified production, as well as upon more positive political influences, than exist at present. The eventual stabilization of the situation is achievable only if population growth is reduced; but much might be done to improve production, and promote conservation, through field research into appropriate farming systems for peasant agriculture in the Sabi catchment and similar environments.
A Model of Resources and Human Needs
Authors: Fluck Richard C.
Published: August 2009

An examination of the relationship between human needs (above and beyond the basic physiological needs and concomitant consumption of resources) has re-emphasized the importance of control of human population in order to meet several other, also important, human needs. Development of human resources to their fullest potential requires utilization of additional resources beyond those necessary for the provision of basic physiological needs.

A preliminary model of resource requirements to meet human needs suggests that resource requirements for meeting the human needs for safety are considerable, those for meeting the cognitive and esteem needs are moderate, while those for meeting belongingness and love, aesthetic, and self-actualization, needs are minimal. Both industrialized and non-industrialized societies can adequately meet basic human needs, but industrialized societies may the better meet some of the higher human needs.
Conservation Education Programmes: Evaluate and Improve Them
Authors: Jacobson Susan K.
Published: August 2009

Evaluation of the conservation education programme at Kinabalu Park in Malaysia demonstrated the importance of such evaluation in determining a programme's worth and providing due observation of feedback and opportunity for improvement. The goal of the programme was to foster more favourable attitudes towards the park system and the conservation of natural resources than formerly prevailed among local villagers. The programme was formally evaluated by using a survey instrument in the form of a mobile unit's questionnaire that had been designed to obtain information about shifts in villagers' attitudes towards the Park before and after exposure to the conservation programme.
Our Common Future—Call for Action
Authors: Brundtland Gro Harlem
Published: August 2009

When this century began, neither human beings nor technology had the power radically to alter planetary systems. As the century draws to a close, not only do vastly increased human populations and their activities possess that power, but we are also faced with major unintended changes that are occurring in the atmosphere, in soil, in water, among plants and animals, and in the relationships among all of them.
Nature and the Ganga
Authors: Bhargava Devendra Swaroop
Published: August 2009

The Ganga's unique and numerous virtues appear to be based on myths, but the reasons for its importance are traceable to scientific premises. The Ganga, symbolizing Indian culture and civilization, is regarded by the Hindus as the holiest amongst the rivers, and it is the Indo-Gangetic plain's most significant river owing to its mighty basin and course, and extraordinarily high self-purifying powers. The Ganga originates from Gangori in the Uttrakhand Himalayan glacier as an upland stream, emerges as a river of the plains at Rishikesh, and, after traversing almost the entirety of India from West to East, finally merges into the Bay of Bengal.
Environmental Concerns in Pakistan, with Special Reference to Water and Forests
Authors: Biswas Asit K.
Published: August 2009

The state of the environment and its proper management is a prerequisite condition for the sustainable development of any country, and Pakistan is no exception.

Thus, availability of appropriate quantities of water and energy on a reliable basis in Pakistan is essential for improving the quality of life. This means that the policies formulated and actions taken must ensure that the developments taking place should not endanger the overall resource and environmental bases of the country, on which the development process itself depends. Currently, some serious environmental problems exist in Pakistan in terms of salinity development, waterlogging, and inefficient water-use, in the water sector, and deforestation in the energy sector—especially so far as fuel-wood availability is concerned. Furthermore, deforestation in the upper reaches of the catchment areas is contributing to high sediment-loads in the rivers of Pakistan, which in turn is reducing the reservoir capacities and their designed economic lives.
The Origin and Fate of Artefacts Stranded on Islands in the African Sector of the Southern Ocean
Authors: Ryan Peter G.
Published: August 2009

The ever-increasing amount of marine debris in the Southern Ocean gives cause for concern, but the subject is little studied. I surveyed beaches on Tristan da Cunha, Inaccessible, Gough, and the Prince Edward Islands, in the African sector of the Southern Ocean, for stranded artefacts during 1984. The types of debris, their origin, and probable fate, were recorded and are reported in this paper.
Actors and Factors of Deforestation in ‘Tropical Asia’
Authors: Thapa Gopal B. , Weber Karl E.
Published: August 2009

Forest resources in tropical Asia are purportedly destroyed by shifting cultivators and spontaneous settlers as well as farmers in planned settlements for the purposes of expansion of agricultural land, land speculation, commercial crop cultivation, livestock ranching, logging, and manufacturing of paper and various industrial goods.
Achieving Marine Conservation Through Biosphere Reserve Planning and Management
Authors: Kenchington Richard A. , Agardy Mary T.
Published: August 2009

Most marine ecosystems present priorities for conservation which are different from, but no less urgent than, those of terrestrial systems. These priorities relate to understanding and regulating human use and impact within the large scale, and the high but variable degree of connectivity of marine systems. The identification and preservation of remnant examples of marine ecosystems, otherwise destroyed by human activity, is generally less of an issue than it is for terrestrial conservation. As a consequence, the needs of marine conservation are not readily addressed by models developed for terrestrial ecosystems, which are based on excluding or severely limiting human access in managed areas. An exception is the philosophy of the Biosphere Reserve, developed as part of the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Programme. This appears particularly appropriate to marine environments, as it focuses on managing human activities and impacts within the sustainable capacity of the ecosystem.
Towards Management of Environmental Problems in Egypt
Authors: Haas Peter M.
Published: August 2009

As a poor, developing country, Egypt faces a wide variety of pollution and other environmental problems associated with poverty. In this essay are reviewed the most severe environmental problems currently facing Egypt, as well as the range of policies which the government has assayed in order to manage them. Some of the widespread environmental problems are growing acute. Water pollution is seen as serious, and many new factories are being built without sufficient pollution control. There are real threats to agricultural productivity and public health. While many new institutional and legal steps have been undertaken in the last 7 years, most have failed to curb effectively mounting environmental stresses in the country. A rare counter-example is Mediterranean water quality, which is being helped by activation of UNEP's Mediterranean Action Plan.
Global Climatic Issues in the Coastal Wider Caribbean Region
Authors: Gable Frank J. , Gentile J.H. , Aubrey D.G.
Published: August 2009

There is mounting evidence of global climate change. Analysis of near-surface temperatures over land and oceans during the past 130 years shows marked warming during the first half of this century, with relatively steady temperatures thereafter to the mid-1970s and rapid warming occurring during the 1980s. Of further significance is the fact that the warmest decade in the record is that of the 1980s, with some of the most pronounced warming occurring in the lower latitudes which include the wider Caribbean region. In the context of this study, the important consequences of this warming are the potential impacts associated with rising sea-level and the increased frequency, intensity, and seasonality, of tropical storms due to thermal expansion of the oceans, melting of land-based ice-sheets and glaciers, and local geological parameters. Within the wider Caribbean, rates of relative sea-level rise have been recently estimated at around 2.5 mm/yr. Also, meteorological changes are evident with the occurrence of unusually intense storms such as Hurricane Gilbert in 1988. Rising sea-level coupled with meteorological changes present the potential for increased coastal erosion, loss of wetlands, disappearance of special habitats such as mangroves, and destruction of coral-reef communities. These potential impacts may have a significant influence on future land-use and development practices that could alter the economic growth and development of the region not least through curtailment of tourism.
The Mid-Holocene Ecological History of the Moorlands of England and Wales and its Relevance for Conservation
Authors: Simmons Ian G.
Published: August 2009

The nature of the moorlands of England and Wales is described and a brief outline of their postglacial ecological history is propounded. Emphasis then switches to a particularly critical phase in this evolution, namely the later centuries of the Mesolithic period of the mid-Holocene, when the human groups of the period employed fire as a management tool for vegetation.
Environmental and Nature Conservation in Iran
Authors: Firouz Eskandar
Published: August 2009

A brief description is given of the physiography, climate, and natural vegetation, of Iran. Subsequently an analysis is made of the environmental problems which are building up to crisis proportions. Of particular concern is the alteration and destruction of natural ecosystems through the impact of Man over a period of many centuries. As a result of H. I. M. the Shahanshah's personal attention to this problem, forests were nationalized, range improvement measures have been instigated, and the Department of the Environment has undertaken a comprehensive programme of conservation and management of areas of national importance.

A programme of scientific investigation and management of wildlife resources has been initiated. Intensive studies of Wild Sheep, gazelles, and Persian Ibex, are now under way. In all reserves the condition of the vegetation is closely monitored. Due to these measures, wildlife populations have increased in most reserves. Iran has some of the finest wetlands in south-west Asia, and has made much progress towards their preservation, over one million hectares of the most important wetlands being now fully protected.

The Department of the Environment has had considerable success in its programme of protection of endangered species—including the Onager, the Persian Fallow Deer, the Asiatic Black Bear, the Asiatic Cheetah, the Marsh Crocodile, the Great Bustard, and the Caucasian Black Grouse. The future of these species is now almost certainly ensured in national reserves.

Iran now has four categories of reserves: National Parks, Protected Areas, Wildlife Refuges, and National Nature Monuments. Thirteen National Parks have recently been approved. Currently there are 27 Wildlife Refuges. An extension of this network of national reserves is planned within an international framework.
The Role of Fire in Natural Communities: An Example from the Southern Sierra Nevada, California
Authors: Parsons David J.
Published: August 2009

The exclusion of fire from the low-elevation foothills of the southern Sierra Nevada of California over the past century has resulted in large expanses of over-mature, senescent chaparral. The fuel buildup associated with this situation poses a threat, in that any fire which gets started has the potential of becoming a major holocaust.

A detailed analysis is made of the vegetational succession following fire in four different-aged stands of Chamise chaparral in the southern Sierra Nevada. Progression from a diverse multi-species herb and shrub community towards a dense, structurally uniform, low-diversity stand dominated by a single woody species, Adenostoma fasciculatum (Chamise), is demonstrated. An increase in shrub cover and height along with the amount of dead material found laddered through the canopy, create optimal conditions for combustion within some 35 years following the last fire. The herbaceous vegetation shows a high diversity and cover in the first few years after burning, but rapidly decreases thereafter. Evidence is presented that frequent fires are required to maintain the chaparral community in a vigorous and healthy state. The need to institute progressive fuel-management programmes which recognize the natural role of fire in the evolution of the chaparral type wherever it is found, is discussed and advocated. Attempts are also made to relate these findings to the preservation of other fire-adapted vegetation types of the world.
Marine Parks and Reserves in Italy
Authors: Renzoni Aristeo
Published: August 2009

After repotting the present situation of marine parks and reserves in the Mediterranean Sea and along the Italian coasts, the author lists and comments on the proposals for the establishment of further marine parks and reserves in Italy. The major bureaucratic and other obstacles to the establishment of these areas are discussed.

Scientists, conservationists, and some formerly indifferent people, are pressing hard for the institution of such marine parks and reserves, and even though the areas may cover only a tiny fraction of the Mediterranean Sea, their establishment in the face of steadily increasing human populations may set a good example for others; the adoption of anti-pollution measures by a few factories in the areas concerned suggests that this campaign may be having some effect already.
Biodegradation, an Environmental Solution to Some Toxic Organic Compounds
Authors: Liu Dickson L. S.
Published: August 2009

The failure of conventional waste-treatment methods to solve problems associated with complex industrial wastes, suggests that we must re-examine our approach to this problem. Two distinct types of biodegradation, homogeneous and heterogeneous, have been recognized to occur in the environment and are distinguished according to the solubility or insolubility, respectively, of the compound involved. Unfortunately, many of the most persistent toxic compounds fall into the second or insoluble category, and conventional treatment processes are inefficient in dealing with them.

Our studies have shown that the primary site of the biodegradation of these persistent compounds is at the substance–water interface and that the rate of such biodegradation can be greatly increased if the tested compound can be suspended in an aqueous phase as a fine stable emulsion. Our recent work on PCB biodegradation exemplifies the benefit of a multidisciplinary approach in solving environmental problems, and supports the need to continue fundamental research in such areas of applied environmental science.
Erosion Rates and Land-use History in Southern Michigan
Authors: Davis Margaret Bryan
Published: August 2009

The quantities and kinds of sediment that have accumulated in Frains and Murray Lakes, Michigan, over known intervals of time, provide a measure of erosion from the watersheds. This study has focused on the ash-weight of sediment and has derived estimates of ‘sediment yield’ from the landscape, though estimates of sediment yield from watersheds have seldom been made from the quantity of sediment accumulating in natural lakes. An exception is Mirror Lake, New Hampshire, where estimates from a core could be compared directly with sediment yields monitored in the last few years in experimental watersheds in the surrounding Hubbard Brook Forest (Likens & Davis, 1975). Detailed study of sediment cores can yield much more information than has been presented here. The chemical constituents of the sediments yield information about the chemistry of lake water and runoff from the watershed, while the remains of phytoplankton that are preserved in the sediment show the progress of eutrophication. A recent study of pre- and post-settlement sediment at Linsley Pond, Connecticut, is an example of a multidisciplinary approach to the determination of human influences on lake history (Brugam, 1975).

The data from Frains Lake permit a reconstruction of erosional events since Man arrived on the scene. The result is similar to Wolman's (1967) history of erosion in the vicinity of Baltimore, Maryland; his reconstruction, however, was based entirely on analogy with modern watersheds that were experiencing different kinds of land-use at the current time. Thus his estimate of pre-settlement erosion, for example, is tentative because there are no undisturbed watersheds today to measure for comparison.
Population Growth and Environmental Problems in Taiwan (Formosa): A Case-study
Authors: Li Yuan-Hui
Published: August 2009

Taiwan has the highest population density in the world today. The population growth-rate has been decreasing linearly since 1951, but the present growthrate of 2% is still much too high to lessen the population pressure. With the area of agricultural land severly limited, the agricultural sector of Taiwan can no longer absorb extra farm labourers without sacrificing the productivity of each farm labourer.

In order to feed the growing population, the high productivity of a rice paddy has been maintained by applying ever-increasing amounts of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, which in turn cause many pollution problems. Moreover the rapid growth of industries, which are mainly financed by outside capital, causes the expansion and congestion of the cities along with all sorts of pollution problems (air pollution of cities, water pollution of rivers, harbours, coastal waters, etc.)

The heavy dependence on imported energy (70% of the total energy consumption) and on trade with Japan and the United States, puts Taiwan in a vulnerable position with regard to fluctuations in the world economy. The ever-increasing population density, and the demands of a higher per caput consumption on the limited natural resources, risk leading to economic inadequacy and ecological degradation. Such a situation could endanger our industrial civilization more widely.
Bacteriological Pollution in the Drinking-water of Jordan
Authors: Shehabi Asem
Published: August 2009

The present bacteriological pollution of chlorinated drinking-water supplies in many regions of Jordan gives cause for considerable alarm, especially as it has been ascertained in the work described in this paper that faecal coliform Bacteria have already polluted 37% of the underground wells in the Amman–Zarqa area. Intensive efforts should be launched in order to prevent further pollution of ground-water in Jordan.