bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Conclusion
Authors: Bamyeh Mohammed A.
Published: May 2019

The conclusion addresses some key characteristics of Islam in connection with sociology of religion. In particular, it explores the idea of religion as a historically emerging compromise amongst a myriad of populations; the dynamics by which ethical standpoints emerge out of metaphysical contemplation; and the dialectics of love and fear as approaches to divinity. On the basis of these discussions it introduces the notion of Islam as a “reserve discourse” that is called upon to solve social and political problems not as a first option, but only when other discourses have fared poorly. The modern problems that were addressed in the book include social solidarity; participatory ethics; political legitimation; social justice; and civic ethics.
Rights and Constitutions
Authors: Somos Mark
Published: May 2019

This chapter examines Otis’s speech in Paxton’s Case to understand why John Adams regarded it as the start of the American Revolution, and describes Otis’s speech as the inflection point when European state of nature theories began to turn into a revolutionary American discourse. In Otis’s system, the state of nature was a source of substantive rights (including life, liberty, and property) that endured in the polity and remained inalienable for both white colonists and enslaved African Americans. Newly discovered archival evidence about this key speech is presented. The chapter follows further strands of state of nature interpretation before the Stamp Act, including Williams’s 1762 election sermon and polemical publications by Otis, which introduced the meaning of the state of nature as interstate relations into the revolutionary discourse. It concludes with Thomas Pownall’s view of citizens of the British Empire sharing the sociability, interdependence, and common rights that characterize the state of nature.
The First Continental Congress
Authors: Somos Mark
Published: May 2019

Following overviews of revolutionary, moderate, loyalist, and shifting usages, chapter 7 introduces state of nature arguments during and around the First Continental Congress in order to reconstruct the process of contestation and consolidation that led to a relatively stable, and distinctly American concept of the state of nature by 1776. In a continuation of previous accounts of the dynamic of contesting and consolidating a shared American semantic range of the state of nature, this chapter describes several key moments when moderates and loyalists objected to invoking the state of nature for fear that doing so would make reconciliation with Britain improbable or impossible. Patriots at the Congress insisted on using the term, and the package of connotations and constitutional claims accumulated since 1761, for the same reason. The long-running controversy surrounding Galloway’s Plan, and the polemic between Samuel Seabury and Alexander Hamilton, are discussed as extensions of the same state-of-nature dynamic of the First Continental Congress.
Conclusion
Authors: Somos Mark
Published: May 2019

The conclusion reviews the book’s claims, methods and sources, and summarizes the book’s conclusions concerning the stages and mechanisms in the evolution of the distinct American state of nature discourse. Placing the American state of nature discourse in its broader intellectual and chronological context, and comparing the state of nature to property and liberty as a fundamental and orientational concept for the colonists, the chapter asserts that without due attention to the state of nature discourse, no history of the American Revolution and early constitutional design can be written.
Introduction
Authors: Salmon Pierre
Published: May 2019

This introductory chapter presents the mechanism of political yardstick competition and provides an overview of the following chapters. The presentation of the mechanism includes indications on its recognition in the 1980s in the context of decentralization and fiscal federalism and comments on the literature that developed since then. Among the comments it is argued in particular that two elements in the contribution of the core research program are in reality disjoint. Only praise is needed about the empirical element, which has exploited in an inventive way the tools of spatial econometrics. However, the theoretical element has been generally developed in a game-theoretic framework dependent on the assumption of a single representative voter. Doing without that framework and assumption is a distinctive feature of the alternative approach adopted in the book. This is necessary above all to increase the plausibility and relevance of yardstick competition, in particular as a latent force constraining policy-making.
A characterization of political yardstick competition
Authors: Salmon Pierre
Published: May 2019

The characterization of yardstick competition elaborated in this chapter and adopted throughout the book starts from a distinctive critical assumption about the agency setting in which it operates. In this electoral agency setting, the principals are the individual members of large heterogeneous electorates or, more generally, large populations of citizens. Individual voters or citizens differ in how they interpret their role and incumbents can treat citizens’ response to their actions as a non-strategic aggregate relation between comparative performance and expected electoral support. The chapter goes on to show that the difficulties associated with this hypothesis are mitigated by the crucial assumption that voter response is not linear but S-shaped—the effects of insignificance, ambiguity, or confusion on the aggregate response tend to dissipate when differences in comparative performance get larger. The possibility is also acknowledged that in real-world settings, depending on circumstances, the mechanism may not work.
Two heuristic models
Authors: Salmon Pierre
Published: May 2019

Two heuristic models are presented in this chapter. The first shows how yardstick competition may have an influence on the allocation of government’s efforts, in particular how it may reorient it from transactions with interest categories to broader concerns such as economic growth. Extensions of the model concern the possible influence of yardstick competition on domestic institutions such as checks and balances and its implications for international political relations, in particular international leadership. One effect of yardstick competition is to maintain policy-making within some bounds. What factors determine these bounds? The second model suggests a rough division of these determinants into two categories, related to information and political institutions respectively. The determinants are summarized in a checklist that may be useful in particular for analyzing persistent low economic growth.
Final comments: perverse effects, advice, and arguments
Authors: Salmon Pierre
Published: May 2019

This concluding chapter considers three related matters: perverse effects, advice, and arguments. Perverse effects of yardstick competition are a serious possibility. They may take different forms, but in all cases, they justify some reluctance to derive and formulate recommendations. But, abstaining from giving any advice does not imply policy irrelevance. The uncovering of yardstick competition as a possibly important mechanism should play a role mainly as an argument in political economy debates. This suggestion is in agreement with a methodological position relating three concepts undervalued for a long time in the philosophy of science: models, as imaginary non-linguistic entities; mechanisms, as ingredients both of models and of reality; and arguments, in particular when critical of established views.
Musical Understandings
Authors: Shaw Brian P.
Published: May 2019

This chapter addresses assessment of students as musical learners, rather than merely as performers. Ensemble music teachers often conceive of each class as a rehearsal, the focus of which is to improve the group’s performance of concert repertoire. The assumption is that individual skills will inherently improve in this paradigm, but too often the resulting individual skills are uneven or lacking. Individual instruction and assessment of musical foundations is a path to better ensembles. Students can build musical independence through deepening their knowledge base and assisting with interpretation. Improving their ability to critique musical performances facilitates other self and peer assessment activities. Assessment of knowledge, reasoning, creative products, and dispositions facilitates transfer and students’ ability to understand what they are performing and why they are performing it.
Concert Preparation
Authors: Shaw Brian P.
Published: May 2019

This chapter provides assessment strategies for performance preparation assessment. Even though performing is a central and necessary aspect of ensemble music classes, concerts are not themselves assessment of individual students’ musical learning. The chapter includes a variety of ways to implement assessment in the rehearsal. Both informal assessment during the course of a traditional rehearsal and formal assessment settings off the podium can improve performance results. Self and peer assessment build metacognitive musicians and provide pathways to individualized feedback that teachers may have missed. Infusing assessment into the ensemble rehearsal is an investment of class time that pays noticeable dividends.
Improvisation, Two Variations on a Watermelon, and a New Timeline for Piano Phase
Authors: Chapman David
Published: May 2019

Steve Reich’s Piano Phase (1967) represents a pivotal moment in the composer’s creative practice. With this keyboard duet, the composer felt that he had successfully translated his phase-shifting process to live performance and had left behind earlier improvisatory practices. Documents held in the Steve Reich Collection at the Paul Sacher Stiftung complicate this picture: in the months before its composition and premiere, Reich first revived Music for Two or More Pianos or Piano and Tape (1964) as a potential model for live performance, and in Improvisations on a Watermelons (1966) he explored concepts now firmly associated with Piano Phase. An archival audio recording of the Piano Phase premiere also documents a brief improvisation performed by Reich and Arthur Murphy. This chapter argues for a more critical reading of the composer’s autobiographical statements—such as, “we were not improvising”—and offers a newly detailed timeline for the origins of Piano Phase.
Building an Evolutionary Studies Program at a Small Liberal Arts College
Authors: Hughes Susan M.
Published: May 2019

Since the very nature of an Evolutionary Studies program is interdisciplinary, it stands to reason that building such a program at any institution would entail the involvement of several disciplines across the curriculum. The fewer faculty members, course offerings, and resources at small liberal arts colleges can pose as obstacles in the development of such a program. However, by reaching out to the few faculty members teaching evolutionary studies, the first step of its development began. From there, both the involvement of other disciplines and a heightened student, faculty, and administrative awareness was needed. Instrumental components in building this program have included speaker events, student participation at evolutionary conferences and workshops, student involvement in research, and the development of new courses and a minor degree. This chapter discusses the successes and barriers in developing an interdisciplinary Evolutionary Studies program at a small liberal arts college.
Extraordinary Claims, Extraordinary Proof
Authors: Nolen Thomas G.
Published: May 2019

In 1859, Darwin proposed an extraordinary claim that natural selection could explain both the origin of species and why organisms were so well adapted to their environments. In the past 160 years, through thousands of studies, an enormous body of evidence has been compiled supporting Darwin’s extraordinary claims. This chapter explores both the critiques of current skeptics who contend that evolutionary theory has little utility for the modern human condition and presents research that has tested the now “un-extraordinary” claims about human origins. Further, utilizing the assumption that humans are animals, the author argues that when testing the possible adaptive value of a human characteristic, the standard fall back should no longer be that the trait is “cultural” but that, on the basis of overwhelming evidence, it is biological. If this happened to not be the case, then that would require extraordinary proof.
Charles Darwin and Selection in Relation to Sex in the Colors of Monkeys
Authors: Winters Sandra , Petersdorf Megan , Higham James P.
Published: May 2019

This chapter explores how Darwin’s theory of sexual selection has structured research on primate coloration. Darwin was fascinated by the conspicuous colors displayed by many animals and pointed to primates as a particularly colorful and interesting group. The chapter provides an overview of Darwin’s theory of sexual selection, highlighting how different selective mechanisms can lead to the extravagant colors found in many primate species. The chapter then overviews both modern and historical studies of primate coloration, emphasizing how methodological advances and a resurgence of interest in sexual selection has led to a modern revival of Darwin’s ideas regarding primate coloration. Finally, the chapter concludes with a discussion of future questions and possible directions of this research. Darwin’s collected works clearly show that he was captivated by the bright colors displayed by many primates, and his theory of sexual selection remains the key to understanding the evolution of many of these impressive traits.
How Evolutionary Studies Enables People to Think Outside the Box
Authors: Gallup Gordon G. , Stolz Jennifer A. , Burch Rebecca L. , Bremser Jennifer A.
Published: May 2019

Using a variety of different and often provocative examples, this chapter illustrates how evolutionary theory can be used to think about things in new and sometimes even counterintuitive ways. Examples include how semen sampling may be an evolved mate-choice mechanism, why pubic hair removal may promote pedophilia, why we owe our existence to the moon, why the risk of conception is higher as a result of being raped, why bottle-feeding your previous child may put your next child at risk of becoming autistic, and why smart people are attracted to evolutionary studies. The chapter argues that evolutionary theory enables people to think about human behavior and human existence in ways that are outside the box.
Reconciling Evolution with a Christian Identity
Authors: Hawley Patricia H. , Phillips Rachael K. , Olson Matthew S.
Published: May 2019

The tension between evolution and religion is undeniable. Faith is an important part of teachers’ identities. This fact has documentable impact on the degree to which teachers teach evolution according to state standards because their loyalty to their faith can sometimes be at odds with their need to fulfill pedagogical responsibilities. At the same time, teachers’ identities are under attack by educational outsiders who denigrate religion. Those who favor both science and religion find themselves in deep epistemological anxiety. Can we help teachers convey good science and help them resolve some of their anxieties? This chapter describes a professional development workshop designed for teachers that both implicitly and explicitly attempts to clarify key misconceptions about the nature of science, evolution, and natural selection in ways that are informed by the epistemological anxieties experienced by teachers and in terms provided by the source that accelerates those anxieties.
Law and Politics
Authors: White G. Edward
Published: May 2019

Bush v. Gore, when it was first decided, was widely criticized by commentators as an unjustifiable intervention by the Supreme Court into the Florida electoral process in the 2000 presidential election. Two decades later, the case seems much less significant, and arguably less controversial. The chapter traces the “journey” of the Supreme Court toward Bush v. Gore, which consisted of a combination of its abandoning the “political question” doctrine, which posited that the Court should avoid reviewing legislative decisions affecting the redistricting of voters in political elections, and the unique circumstances of the 2000 presidential election in Florida and Florida’s electoral processes.
The Cast
Authors: Davis Nancy E.
Published: May 2019

Chapter 1 establishes the American political and mercantile environment into which the Chinese woman Afong Moy was thrust when she arrived in 1834. It explores the lives and the economic motivations of the Carnes merchant family, whose business focused on selling inexpensive Chinese goods to middle-class Americans. Having a branch of the Carnes firm in France enabled them to select French goods which were then cheaply replicated in China for the United States market. Their ship captain, Benjamin Thorndike Obear, and his wife, Augusta, brought Afong Moy from China to the United States, entwining their lives with hers in unexpected ways. The Chinese goods that accompanied Afong Moy affected thousands of American households.
Off Stage
Authors: Davis Nancy E.
Published: May 2019

Returning to New York City in 1836, Afong Moy’s sales functions fully ended and her manager, Henry Hannington, employed her solely as an oriental object in his New York diorama and panorama entertainments. After the Panic of 1837, Hannington’s operations collapsed. Those who brought her to America, Nathaniel and Francis Carnes and Captain Benjamin Obear, appear to have abandoned her despite their promise of returning her to China. In 1838, as Chapter 9 relates, Afong Moy, without resources or financial support, entered a poorhouse in Monmouth, New Jersey. Yet, the public did not forget her. Rallying to her defense, newspapers across the nation ran articles decrying her treatment. Citizens forced her guardians to come forward and contribute to her support.
Questions of Style and Structure
Authors: Meisner Nadine
Published: May 2019

The principle focus of chapter 6 is aesthetic, examining Petipa’s structures and devices; most of his big ballets fitted the same model started by The Pharaoh’s Daughter. As part of the tendency for ever-bigger scale and precedence of dance over narrative, Petipa used massed ensembles to great effect. He considered important the inclusion of national dance, but equally made recurring use of dream or vision sequences as classical-dance interludes. To conclude his ballets, he usually liked to present a tableau to bring a satisfying resolution. Don Quixote and King Candaules illustrate Petipa’s methods and are examined in detail. The chapter ends with Saint-Léon’s sudden death in Paris.
The Vsevolozhsky Reforms
Authors: Meisner Nadine
Published: May 2019

This chapter describes the arrival of Ivan Vsevolozhsky as director of the Imperial Theatres; Alexander III was a conservative and yet it was under his reign that the monopoly of the Imperial Theatres was dissolved. This brought about the emergence of commercial theatres, and with them, middlebrow entertainments, featuring virtuoso Italian ballet dancers. They also promulgated the féerie: a spectacular genre, emphasizing visual effects. The influence of the féerie and of Italian dancers on the Imperial Ballet and Petipa’s work is discussed, as are Vsevolozhsky’s reforms and his drive to elevate ballet music by introducing concert-hall composers, notably Tchaikovsky and Glazunov.
Matters of the Flesh
Authors: Shapiro Lawrence A.
Published: May 2019

Andy Clark has defended a view of the body’s relationship to the mind that he calls the Larger Mechanism Story (LMS). At the same time, he has criticized an alternative account, the Special Contribution Story (SC). After first clarifying the commitments of these two stories, I argue that Clark’s favored LMS is of less psychological interest than SC, and that SC offers an interesting and viable research program.
The World Well Gained
Authors: Anderson Michael , Chemero Anthony
Published: May 2019

Many commentators on Clark’s writings on predictive processing have wondered how well the predictive processing model actually fits with embodied and extended cognition. The former seems to imply that cognition is secluded from the environment, while the latter implies that cognition is in and of the environment. This chapter argues that a reconciliation with embodied and extended cognition is possible but requires that predictive processing proponents reject environmental seclusion. To do so means adopting ecological information in place of the Shannon information most typically invoked by proponents of predictive processing, and giving many of the other semantic-sounding terms they use (e.g., “prediction,” “model,” “representation”) deflationary understandings.
Being a Beast Machine
Authors: Seth Anil K.
Published: May 2019

Throughout his career Andy Clark has shaped how scientists and philosophers think about the role of representation in action, perception, and cognition. In the latest iteration of this debate he has foregrounded the influential perspective of predictive processing, which sees perception as a process of action-oriented “best guessing” (inference) about the causes of noisy and ambiguous sensory signals and which involves the brain-inducing “generative” models of how hidden causes mediate the effects of actions on sensory signals. This chapter develops this position in the context of interoception (the sense of the body from within) and physiological regulation. A key idea here, which recalls twentieth-century cybernetic theory, is that interoceptive inference is targeted towards maintaining physiological homeostasis rather than inducing complete and accurate internal models of an external state of affairs. The chapter explores how this perspective helps connect control-oriented interoceptive inference to phenomenological properties of embodied selfhood and subjectivity. The upshot echoes (or perhaps subverts) a classic philosophical trope of the Enlightenment philosopher Julien de La Mettrie: to find the origins of our conscious selves in our nature as beast machines.
Introduction
Authors: Sylvester Christine
Published: May 2019

This chapter begins the book by considering the knowledge on war that a seemingly unrelated abstract painting can harbor. That relationship introduces readers to the major theme of war authority as a decentralized and multilocated phenomenon. Background overviews provide information on America’s two wars studied here—in Vietnam and Iraq—the rise of militarism in the United States after the Vietnam War, and the heroization of soldiers today. The research sites for the study come into view along with the concepts that frame the study, including war as experience, memory, curation, and material objects as bearers of curator-coordinated war knowledge. The key argument to be sustained throughout the book is: war is experiential injurious politics that produces numerous sites of war expertise, many of which are overpowered by stories that gain truth through technical dominance, repetition and practice.
America’s Wars in Vietnam and Iraq
Authors: Sylvester Christine
Published: May 2019

This chapter reviews American wars in Vietnam and Iraq from critical social and political history sources and from people who experienced these wars. How America remembers and renders accounts of itself, relative to how others remember America in these wars, is key to learning whose war knowledge gets attention and whose wars languish unacknowledged. The chapter reconstructs the wars from memories of ordinary people close to or distant from combat, rather than positioning war only as a matter of state interests, military strategies, and geopolitics that collateralize people. In doing so it considers three contemporary paintings that can convey ideas related to Americans and their post-911wars
Remembering, Forgetting, Curating, and Re-Curating War
Authors: Sylvester Christine
Published: May 2019

The final chapter reviews the main conclusions of the book and raises one more pathway, by Elaine Scarry, into understanding war through people’s experiences and curations Those who die in war can be interpreted and revivified by many people, groups, and institutions, each curating loss in its own terms. That there are many contenders for war memory and authority reflects a social institution that is highly decentralized in its sites, experiences and effects. To grasp this institution and the wars of our time requires gathering knowledge from locations ordinary and official, expert and everyday, profound and prosaic, literary, journalistic, and artistic—and on all sides of a war.
Introduction
Authors: Fedyukin Igor
Published: May 2019

The Introduction defines the notion of “administrative entrepreneurship” and outlines the role the “administrative entrepreneurs” played in building the infrastructure of the early modern state, including schools. Recent historiography has tended to question the traditional image of the “absolutist” state as a powerful unified actor, stressing instead the limits of the rulers’ actual power, the role of social compromises, and the pervasiveness of unofficial clans and patronage networks that structured early modern politics in Europe and elsewhere. Scholars also emphasize the premodern, patrimonial character of bureaucracy in that era. Against this backdrop, the Introduction argues that it might have been the self-seeking projectors who drove the invention and expansion of the state as they strove to invent jobs for themselves and to promote their agendas. The chapter introduces three types of “administrative entrepreneurs”—the “experts,” the “ministers,” and the “functionaries”—and outlines their respective modes of operation.
The Naval Academy and the “Impostor Baron without Any Diploma”
Authors: Fedyukin Igor
Published: May 2019

The key role in setting up the first “well-regulated” school of Peter I’s era, the Naval Academy in St Petersburg (1715), belongs, it turns out, to an impostor. The first proposal for the Academy was presented to Peter I by the so-called baron de Saint-Hilaire, who also drafted its regulations and became its first director, and who has also been assumed to be an experienced French naval expert. As the chapter demonstrates, however, Saint-Hilaire, in fact, was a complete fraud, an international adventurer, and a swindler. Nevertheless, he successfully acted as the head of the school for over a year and introduced to Russia a new administrative role, that of a school director appointed purely to manage teaching, rather than to teach himself. While the baron himself was soon dismissed, this administrative role was claimed by his successors from among the Russian elite. The story of Saint-Hilaire stresses the ambiguity of expertise in the early modern era.
Conclusion
Authors: Fedyukin Igor
Published: May 2019

The Conclusion sets the broader context for the key episodes of innovation driven by projectors that have been the subjects of the preceding chapters. It explores the role of diverse enterprisers in the evolution of schools in Russia in the second half of the eighteenth century and later. These enterprisers included numerous private teachers, who dominated the educational landscape in Russia well into the nineteenth century, and diverse officials who promoted their personal projects from within the emerging educational bureaucracy. Contrary to the pervasive myth that the “state” has always been and still is the only player in education in Russia, similar dynamics, to some extent, are observed also in the twentieth century and today.
Tracking Belief
Authors: Rowlands Mark
Published: May 2019

Problems in attributing beliefs to animals stem from the fact that the contents (of beliefs and desires) used in such attribution are anchored to humans. This chapter spells out a de-anchoring strategy. The result of this is that it can be appropriate to explain the behavior of an animal using contents that only humans can entertain as long as our contents track theirs. That is: (a) the truth of a belief with our content guarantees the truth of their belief, and (b) our belief and theirs share narrow content. This is important not just in the case of animals. There are good reasons for thinking that tracking begins at home. There are no stable belief contents shared by different humans or even attaching to a single human through time. Content must be de-anchored in order to make sense of ourselves as well as other animals.
Red Sunday
Authors: Tausig Benjamin
Published: May 2019

This chapter describes what the author calls the “historical symbolic repertoires” on which dissident movements draw when making themselves visible and audible. In conversation with Judith Butler, Diana Taylor, and Eric Drott, among others, the chapter analyzes how one Red Shirt subgroup carefully tended to its own use of symbolic repertoires in an effort to persuade middle-class witnesses of the necessity of its politics. Through ethnography of several activists, the chapter explains how people are beholden to the past, even as they try to break from its constraints. Protesters also contend with the fundamentally unpredictable nature of audition when attempting to address audiences, who often hear them in unexpected ways, especially in the context of heavy mediation.
Epilogue
Authors: Kruglanski Arie W. , Bélanger Jocelyn J. , Gunaratna Rohan
Published: May 2019

In this chapter, the authors discuss the unprecedented impact of the current wave of violent extremism on world politics and culture. From the rise of right-wing anti-immigrant parties and leaders around the world to the immense economic costs incurred by individuals, publics, and nations in the war on terror. It proposes that a major challenge facing the world today is to bring to bear all the relevant science and understanding of radicalization to the fight against violent extremism wherever it appears. The alternative to winning this fight could be a frightening descent into chaos and pernicious clash of civilizations and world conflict.
Homo artifex
Authors: Stout Dietrich
Published: May 2019

While stone tools provide only the narrowest keyhole view of the lives of our ancestors, new theory and methods that explicitly focus on the interaction of organisms and environments over time—niche construction, the evolution of development, phenotypic accommodation, and gene–culture co-evolution—provide opportunities for squeezing “mind” from enigmatic stones. Tool-making, like language and theory of mind, is a culturally transmitted skill acquired through extended practice. It is also a key component of a human cultural niche that supports our unique adaptive strategy of large brains, cooperative breeding, and extended development. As discussed in this chapter, by deploying methods from the neural and behavioral sciences to better understand this archaeologically visible behavior, we can hope to more broadly illuminate the evolution of the human mind, brain, and culture.
Sticks, Stones, and the Origins of Sapience
Authors: Barnard Philip J.
Published: May 2019

This chapter explores the conjecture that tool use helped lay the foundations of key properties of modern minds: propositional meaning; wisdom and intuitions about meanings with their ineffable qualities and links to emotion; and our ability to walk, talk, and think about meanings at the same time. People need to react to similar things with similar thoughts and behaviors (generalization), while reacting to different things with different thoughts and behaviors. Differentiation within the behavioral systems of ancestral species must have advanced in tandem with differentiation of their mental and neural systems. Tool use clearly contributed to that differentiation. Such differentiation creates new challenges for grasping what mental states underpinning perception, the control of vocal and physical actions, and bodily reactions all have in common. The emergence of two meaning systems in a specific architectural arrangement is one plausible evolutionary response to those challenges.
Stone Tools and Spatial Cognition
Authors: Hodgson Derek
Published: May 2019

Spatial cognition is fundamental to producing stone tools, with specific, dedicated neuronal pathways. These arise from primary sensory areas and later interact with higher-level pathways for increasingly complex purposes. These higher processes involve visuospatial memory, visuomotor control, attention, and planning. Although clarifying the way these pathways interact helps explain cognitive evolution, there is the problem of ascertaining how these attributes interact and feed back with the materials undergoing modification. Determining when and in what way this feedback mechanism led to a reshaping of cerebral architecture within the context of evolution of the brain is problematic because the link with cerebral substructures is not straightforward. This partly results from a delay between a cognitive attribute and its expression. This chapter explores the intricacies of spatial cognition in relation to these issues, especially with reference to making and using stone tools.
The Handaxe Aesthetic
Authors: Wynn Thomas , Berlant Tony
Published: May 2019

From an evolutionary perspective, it is unlikely that the modern human aesthetic sensibility emerged fully formed 40,000 years ago. Rather than positing antecedents that left little or no archaeological trace, in this chapter, concepts derived from neuroaesthetics are applied this chapter applies concepts derived from neuroaesthetics to evidence that is available in abundance—stone tools—to illuminate the very early evolution of human aesthetic cognition. In particular, the visual processing components and appraisal components of aesthetic cognition are evident in even the earliest handaxes, 1.7 million years ago. Most stone tools were straightforward mechanical devices that hominins made and used to perform work. But some appear to have been overdetermined: Hominins invested more time and effort in their manufacture than was necessary for their mechanical function. It is this added value that has the potential to inform us about aesthetic sensibilities.
The Stories Stones Tell of Language and Its Evolution
Authors: Putt Shelby S.
Published: May 2019

Language origins remain shrouded in mystery. With little remaining from our earliest ancestors, language evolution researchers have turned to stone tools to learn about ancestral language capacities, as discussed in this chapter. Because inferior frontal areas of the brain, once thought specific to language, are now known to participate during manual motor tasks as well, technological-origin hypotheses propose that tool-making was a potential cause or contributor to the evolution of language. Cutting-edge neuroimaging techniques to monitor regional brain activation patterns associated with tool-making processes are helping to investigate the potential evolutionary relationship between language and tool-making. These experiments have identified one area in the left dorsal pars opercularis portion of Broca’s area where language and stone tool-making functions rely on similar cognitive operations. A more general motor origin for language seems likely in other inferior frontal areas of the brain. Clearly, stone tools have stories to tell if we know how to listen.
Epilogue
Authors: Wynn Thomas
Published: May 2019

Contributions to evolutionary cognitive archaeology (ECA) now present a wide range of commitments to cognitive science itself. It is still common to find quasi-cognitive approaches that rely on terms with little to no grounding in formal cognitive science, but which also have practical utility, especially when discussing technical cognition. Many ECA practitioners now employ terms and concepts grounded in cognitive science, most often cognitive neuroscience, though most of these remain post hoc applications. A more powerful approach begins with a cognitive ability of interest, identifies representative activities that would leave an archaeological signature, and traces their development in archaeological record. Such an approach not only enhances the picture presented by the standard narrative of paleoanthropology but also puts ECA in a position to make positive contributions to cognitive science itself.
Sex and the State
Authors: Togman Richard
Published: May 2019

Chapter 1 begins by laying out the fundamental question of the book: What accounts for the ongoing choices of world leaders at multiple levels of governance to spend vast sums of money and manpower to instill a sexual duty to the state and policies designed to manipulate fertility that have a relatively robust record of failure? It explains government motivation as rooted in a narrative crafted to give meaning to fertility and in the discursive linkages drawn between fertility and the major threats a country perceives itself to face that determine government action. Moreover, this chapter outlines an explanation of why natalist policy typically fails. This book argues that the dissonance between macro understandings of fertility at the state level and micro understandings of fertility as practiced by individuals lies at the heart of the failure of policy.
How I Learned to Love the Bomb
Authors: Togman Richard
Published: May 2019

Chapter 5 explores Europe countries’ rapid abandonment of efforts to boost their birth rates and the dramatic shift of natalist attention to the global South. Uncovering the origins of a new discourse on population, this chapter demonstrates how the concept of development was melded with the newly created problem of high fertility in the postcolonial world. It looks at the role of scientists, doctors, academics, and military leaders in driving a massive expansion of Western development efforts in the area of reproduction and the creation of modern birth control techniques. In addition, this chapter highlights how an extremely broad range of Western-based, organizations from the World Bank to the CIA and Planned Parenthood, became involved in encouraging Third World governments to lower the fertility of their populations.
Enemy at the Gates
Authors: Togman Richard
Published: May 2019

Chapter 7 takes an in-depth look at the evolution of population politics within the developing world from 1800 to 1980, with a special focus on India and China. An exploration of the role of British influence on early Indian demographic thinking in tandem with the role of indigenous Indian thinkers, this chapter broadens the lessons developed in chapters 2 through 6 and applies them to the newly formed states of the postcolonial world. Similarly, the chapter discusses the origins and evolution of Chinese attitudes toward population control. Exploring the distinct similarities of China’s One-Child policy to other population control efforts of its time, this chapter demystifies China’s efforts, as they stand in ready comparison in style if not in intensity with other efforts occurring throughout the developing world.
Counterfeiting Confidence
Authors: Blumenthal Susanna L.
Published: May 2019

Taking Herman Melville’s The Confidence-Man (1857) as a point of departure, this essay explores the perils of trusting too much or too little in the representations of strangers in a burgeoning capitalist society. It attends in particular to the “natural struggle between charity and prudence” that was exhibited not only by fictional passengers on the steamboat Fidèle but also by their real-life counterparts in nineteenth-century American courtrooms, where alleged con men and women were more than occasionally called to account for their questionable moneymaking ventures. While many of the era’s imaginative writers figured the law and its enforcers as marginal and ill equipped to meet the challenges posed by fraudsters, contemporary court records tell a different story, revealing the ways members of the bench and bar endeavored to police the ambiguous borderlands between capitalism and crime.
Regulating Greed
Authors: Levmore Saul
Published: May 2019

John Dos Passos’ The Big Money (1936) is hardly the only important American work to see greed as a cause of the stock market crash and then the Great Depression. It is packed with the problem of distinguishing greed from ambition, and it raises the question of the right social response to unattractive impulses. Prior to losing his idealistic fervor, or exchanging it for conservative passion, Dos Passos freely associated ambition with corruption, and acquisitiveness with antisocial self-interest. His deployment and biographical sketches of industrialists and other notable Americans suggest the difficulty of distinguishing avarice from ambition. Dos Passos’ treatment of ambition presupposes an economy where one person’s gain is at the expense of another; artistic accomplishment is, however, freed from this assumption. The novel speaks more to individual excesses than to their regulation, but it offers an opportunity to think about both.
The Morning and the Evening Star
Authors: Nussbaum Martha C.
Published: May 2019

Freud said that Americans are immature because they channel their libido into moneymaking. In Babbitt (1922), Sinclair Lewis seems to agree. It is generally thought that his 1927 novel, Elmer Gantry, continues the critique, exposing American religiosity as itself fundamentally commercial. I argue that Lewis’s project is deeper and more complicated than the standard reading admits and that it derives ultimately from Dante’s idea of the aspirations and errors of love. (Dante is a favorite author of Lewis’s and figures in Babbitt as the one notable from the past who is conjured up in the Babbitts’ séance.) Novels that shock are often read crudely at first, and Lewis’s novels are no exception. I argue that Lewis ultimately agrees with Elmer’s sermon: love is indeed “the morning and the evening star.” As in Dante, so in Lewis: love can aspire, but it can also be deflected and stunted in many ways. Moneymaking is one form of stunting; excessive interest in sex is another (and a better one in Dante’s view, because it is closer to what really matters). And perhaps worst of all, it can be blinded by intellectual pride, a vice from which the agnostic novelist and former ministerial student was in no way free. The novel does criticize George Babbitt the avaricious, it does criticize Elmer Gantry the libidinous, but it reserves its deepest and saddest condemnation for the Lewis surrogate, Frank Shallard, who cannot find anything worthy of his love.
Bartleby’s Consensual Dysphoria
Authors: West Robin
Published: May 2019

In this essay I seek to understand why many of the 2011 Occupy Wall Street protestors embraced Bartleby, the dysfunctional scrivener of Melville’s Story of Wall Street, as a fellow traveler in their movement. I first situate Bartleby the Scrivener in the context of classical legal thought, expanding on some claims put forward in a seminal article on Bartleby by Brook Thomas in the 1980s. I then argue that Melville’s scrivener suffered from a psychic and political condition I call “consensual dysphoria.” Bartleby suffered from consensual dysphoria in extremis. The OWSers recognized this—thus their otherwise inexplicable empathic bond with him. Consensual dysphoria, as depicted by Melville and as suffered by Bartleby, I will urge, is a part of the debilitating legacy of classical legal thought that persists today, and in an even more developed and exaggerated form.
The Li of Chinese American Familism
Authors: Jeung Russell M. , Fong Seanan S. , Kim Helen Jin
Published: May 2019

Chapter 6 identifies how Chinese Americans maintain the value of family through rituals, including rites of passage, ethnic routines, and table traditions. Rites of passage such as the wedding tea ceremony provide individuals with distinct responsibilities within the family. Ethnic routines, including family meals, transnational visits, and reunions, inculcate the norms of hospitality, reciprocity, and face/shame. They also teach the cultural scripts of familism through table traditions, such as pouring tea. Traditions and rituals change over time, however, and second-generation Chinese Americans pass on their liyi values and ethics differently than their immigrant parents did. The second generation lack a migration story of family sacrifice and have an attenuated knowledge of Chinese liyi traditions, and racialized multiculturalism further reduces ethnic traditions to what is marketable and consumable. Chinese Americans therefore hybridize and Americanize their ethnicity, which results in a new liyi Chinese American identity that consists of food and fun.
Dodd-Frank and the Regulation of Depository Institutions Capital Requirements
Authors: Rechtschaffen Alan N.
Published: May 2019

This chapter continues the discussion of the previous chapter on the Dodd-Frank Act. In the years since its passage, the legislation has had dramatic effects on the operation and stability of the financial markets, and will continue to play a vital role in the capital markets. In addition to establishing new capital and leverage requirements for banks, bank holding companies, and systemically significant nonbanks, Dodd-Frank also mandates that these requirements be “countercyclical, so that the amount of capital required to be maintained by a company increases in times of economic expansion and decreases in times of economic contraction.” The remainder of the chapter covers the Volcker Rule; living wills, credit exposure reports, and concentration limits; and other prudential standards.
Using Financial Instruments
Authors: Rechtschaffen Alan N.
Published: May 2019

Capital markets provide enterprises with the opportunity to access capital to maintain their level of business activity. Therefore, ensuring the stability of the capital markets and preventing systemic failure are paramount concerns of the Federal Reserve and other financial market regulators. Access to capital markets is facilitated through the use of financial instruments that allow risk to be negotiated among market participants. When using financial instruments to achieve goals, a corporation must be aware of several considerations: the value of the asset underlying the financial instrument, duties or obligations the corporation owes to the other party to the contract, the implications and “worst case scenario” of the performance of the financial instrument, the risk of the transaction, and how the specific transaction can achieve the corporation's goals. This chapter discusses goal-oriented investing, achieving investment goals, and managing risk.
Options
Authors: Rechtschaffen Alan N.
Published: May 2019

An option is a derivative that derives its value from another underlying asset, instrument, or index. Options “transfer the right but not the obligation to buy or sell the underlying asset, instrument or index on or before the option's exercise date at a specified price (the strike price).” A contract that gives a purchaser such a right is inherently an option even if it called something else. Options can trade over the counter or on an exchange. Regulatory jurisdiction will be defined by the underlying asset negotiated under the terms of the option, by the location where the options are traded, and by the counterparties to an option transaction. This chapter discusses the characteristics of options, how options work, the Black-Scholes model and option pricing, delta hedging, and option strategies.