bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Method for Sonic Fatigue Testing
Authors: Vreeland Robert H.
Published: August 2009

New jet aircraft, designed and tested to the latest specifications, have suffered numerous structural failures of a type not previously encountered. These failures are concentrated in the flap, wing trailing-edge, empennage, and after fuselage areas. They have occurred both as sudden, large-scale skin failures and as progressive cracking during the service life of the airplane. Recent investigations have shown that these failures resulted from a previously unsuspected cause. Test programs by several aircraft companies have proved that jet-engine noise during ground run-up or take-off is the cause. More recent investigations have indicated that aerodynamic noise can produce failures in other areas or can add to the damage caused by engine noise. A proof test of an airplane surface is usually required because the present state of the art limits the amount of accurate analysis that can be used to design the surface for resistance to this sonic fatigue. Many methods have been used during the past few years to test for resistance to sonic fatigue. Each company has developed its own facility and there appears to be little or no correlation of results among facilities. References (1) through (6)2 describe some of these test facilities and methods. Most of the testing has been done to solve particular problems which existed at the time of the test, and very little design information has resulted.
A Method for Predicting the Rate of Fatigue-Crack Propagation
Authors: McEvily Arthur J. , Illg Walter
Published: August 2009

The rate at which fatigue cracks grow under cyclic loading is of considerable concern in the safe operation of aircraft. If it is accepted that fatigue cracks are inevitable, then information is needed concerning their growth characteristics. This subject has drawn an increasing amount of attention in recent years, in both theoretical (1) and experimental investigations (2,3). Much of the theoretical work, however, is qualitative, and the empirical expressions derived in connection with experimental work are of an ad hoc nature and cannot be extended to specimen configurations and stress levels other than those used in the particular investigations. In several recent papers however (4,5,6), an attempt has been made to put the subject of crack propagation on a generalized, quantitative basis. The purpose of this paper is to summarize briefly this recent work, and to present quantitative expressions for the rate of fatigue-crack propagation in sheet specimens of the aluminum alloys 2024-T3 and 7075-T6 for stress ratios R = 0 and R = −1.
Variable-Amplitude Fatigue Tests of Aluminum-Alloy Specimens
Authors: Hardrath Herbert F. , Naumann Eugene C.
Published: August 2009

Two series of axial-load and rotating-beam fatigue tests of aluminum-alloy specimens subjected to constant and varying amplitudes of stress are reviewed. Stress spectra for variable-amplitude tests simulated the gust-frequency spectrum in both series of tests and two additional arbitrary spectra in rotating-beam tests. The axial-load test series included tests in which the sequence of loading was varied systematically. Data are compared on the basis of the linear cumulative-damage rule to study effects of sequence, mean stress, spectrum shape, frequency of repeating the load schedule, and others. Supporting or conflicting information in the literature are cited.
Electron Optical Design of Electron Probes
Authors: Fisher R. M.
Published: August 2009

The initial development of electron probe analysis was begun in 1949 by Castaing, who has continued to make very large contributions to the theory and practice of the method. Interest in microprobe techniques has grown considerably in the past few years, and there are now more than ten commercial models available. This paper reviews the electron optical factors important to the design and performance of an electron probe, including those that affect lens working distance, probe size and intensity, and contrast in scanning images.
Methods of Quantitative Electron Probe Analysis
Authors: Wittry David B.
Published: August 2009

Methods of quantitative electron probe analysis using empirical working curves have achieved only partial success because of variations in instrument design, analysis conditions, and homogeneity of standards. These problems have been solved for X-ray fluorescence analysis, but many of the more successful empirical methods cannot be used in electron probe analysis; instead, a more theoretical approach is indicated. In electron probe analysis, quantitative results can be achieved with only pure elements as standards provided: (1) the analysis conditions are carefully selected, (2) the observed intensities can be corrected to obtain the primary intensity actually produced in the specimen, and (3) the relationship of the primary intensity and concentration can be calculated. While present methods of making some of the corrections require improvement and a “universal” theory for relating the primary X-ray intensities to the concentrations still does not exist, the success achieved with this approach indicates that it should be used to the fullest extent before resorting to calibration curves. Moreover, as information is accumulated, the number of cases requiring the use of calibration curves should diminish so that eventually it may be possible to perform quantitative analysis in any system with only pure elements as standards
An Introduction to Electroforming
Authors: Graham A. Kenneth
Published: August 2009

The objective of this paper is to introduce the subject of electroforming and to discuss briefly the fundamentals involved in its practice. By so doing, it is also hoped that the paper will serve as a basis for a better understanding of when, what, and how to electroform, and especially to aid in pointing out the considerations needed in order to develop realistic specifications. An indication of the scope and magnitude of electroforming may be obtained from the following applications: 1. For many years the Bureau of Printing and Engraving at Washington, D. C. has been electroforming printing plates for paper currency, bonds, and stamps. The printing industry also has been producing electrotypes for an equally long period. These applications and the manufacture of record stampers require an accuracy of reproduction that is fantastic and well illustrate the fact that electroforming is a precision tool. 2. Prior to World War II the Germans made use of electroforming for a number of products, one in particular being the electroforming of sheet iron for high-density metal reported to have been used in “baby” submarines. 3. During World War II, our Government used electroforming for many parts, some notable examples being the following: (1) large 60-in. reflectors, (2) antenna masts and pitot tubes for aircraft, and (3) large accurate molds for explosives. 4. Current uses of the process are growing. A few interesting examples are: linear accelerator parts, radar and electronic components, complex air frame skin sections, and shipboard radar antenna feeds. The electroplater is concerned only with taking some existing article and creating upon it an adherent metallic deposit, which then becomes a permanent part of the altered article. The electroformer, on the other hand, is intent on creating a new object which did not before exist. We may therefore word our definition to say that “electroforming is the art of producing or reproducing metallic objects by electrodeposition upon a master form, mandrel or matrix, which is then removed in whole or in part.”
Alloy Electroforming for High-Temperature Aerospace Applications
Authors: Browning Myron E. , Turns E. W.
Published: August 2009

Within the last two decades the electroforming industry has readily adapted to meeting specific and unusual needs of the aircraft industry. Electroformed nickel and copper have been used in many aircraft applications, all the way from simple tooling to actual production aircraft parts. Now that the Aerospace Age is upon us the needs, the applications, and the uses continue to grow. New electroforming techniques are being developed to utilize further such traditional metals as nickel, copper, silver, gold, and chromium. As the requirements for aerospace components of high complexity and high integrity mount, the need to advance the state of the art of electroforming further is apparent. The next logical step must most certainly be alloy electroforming. In this instance, the step between basic alloy electrodeposition and competent alloy electroforming is a “giant” step. One motion toward completing that step prompts the writing of this paper. Specifically covered in this paper are examples of the use of two alloy electroplating systems (cobalt-tungsten and cobalt-tungsten-nickel) to effect alloy electroforming systems capable of producing aerospace components.
Historical Reflections on Electroforming
Authors: Bart S. G.
Published: August 2009

The request that I speak on the historical aspects of electroforming was no doubt prompted by the fact that my father, Blasius Bart, was as much responsible as any single individual for developing the art of electroforming and raising it to practical levels. It was during the period of his active career—a span extending from the turn of the century to a scant 10 years ago—that the foundation was laid on which we today are building a new metal-working industry. Even before that, however, other ingenious men were experimenting with electrochemistry. Much of what is described in papers of this symposium had its beginnings in the ideas and experiments of a scattering of individuals in this country, England, and the Continent, who were intrigued by the possibilities of what they called “galvanoplasty.” To convey something of our debt to them, I have culled from our files some representative items which may give a better understanding of the base on which our present state of the art rests.
Replica Epoxy Molds
Authors: Schwenk M. F.
Published: August 2009

Recent developments in replica optics techniques originally conceived by U. S. Army Engineer Research and Development Laboratories are of significance to the electroforming industry. Basically the replica process is a simple and low-cost method to produce high-quality replicas of complex surfaces. The completed mirror consists of a protected aluminum reflecting surface bonded to an epoxy backing. However, many military and commercial applications have requirements which eliminate the use of plastic as a backing material. The foremost limiting factor is high-temperature operation which affects the dimensional stability of epoxy reflectors. In these cases, a more durable material such as copper or nickel is a necessity for the backing. That portion of the replica process of interest to electroforming is the step allowing fabrication of many inexpensive epoxy molds from one glass master. Optically precise epoxy molds can be fabricated for various configurations as long as the maximum included angle by line in the surface is no greater than 180 deg. Thus, such surfaces as parabolas, ellipses, prisms, or complex combinations of these can be readily replicated. These recent developments with epoxy molds permit quantity fabrication of high-quality metallic reflectors. The low cost of the epoxy molds allows purchase of additional molds, thereby permitting increased production rates. In addition, the lightweight epoxy offers ease of handling and less danger of breakage during handling or separation. Separation of the metallic reflector from the mold is normally achieved by thermal expansion. With glass, this is a critical operation, whereas with epoxy it is routine.
Automated Systems for Cleaning Diesel Engines and Other Railroad Equipment
Authors: Stengele F. H. , Lenzin E.
Published: August 2009

This paper is concerned with the cleaning of diesel locomotives, diesel engine component parts, and other mechanical parts, and the automation of such cleaning operations.
A Test for Oxidation Stability of Diesel Lubricating Oils
Authors: Wright R. H.
Published: August 2009

The New York Central R.R. Technical Research Dept., finding the procedures currently employed by industry in evaluating the quality of diesel lubricating oils to be inadequate, has designed a test procedure which places particular emphasis on the oxidation stability of an oil. Tests previously employed by the railroad's laboratory were inadequate for separating the various oils into good and bad categories. Most oils submitted for laboratory approval passed, but later many caused serious engine distress in the field. In addition to this, the tests used were extremely time-consuming, sometimes running as long as several weeks. The laboratory's researchers, after months of work, were convinced that the resistance of an oil to oxidation was highly indicative of its general performance in a diesel engine; field correlation substantiated this theory to their complete satisfaction. The procedure was accelerated and a simple mathematical interpretation of results followed the construction of a unique apparatus in which this laboratory work was performed. A package test was evolved which reduced running time to about one-tenth of that needed for the most rapid of those used previously. The quality of diesel lubricating oils purchased by the railroad improved and several suppliers felt the test to be so indicative that they use it in their own laboratories, while one large refiner currently is using it in the evaluation of used lubricating oils. This paper describes the test procedure and the design of the apparatus used, and supplies data required to assign numerical demerit ratings to oils tested in this new apparatus.
Plastic Behavior of Metals at Cryogenic Temperatures
Authors: Kula E. B. , DeSisto T. S.
Published: August 2009

The serrated yielding exhibited by metals during tension tests at temperatures near absolute zero is the principal consideration of this paper. Stress-strain curves are presented for various metals including Armco iron, “K” Monel, and titanium at temperatures from +200 to −269 C. The variations of yield stress and ductility are shown to depend primarily on crystal structure. At −269 C, serrated yielding occurs in many metals. This is caused by adiabatic heating, and can occur independently of the deformation mechanism. A partial differential equation is derived relating load to strain hardening, strain rate, and thermal softening. At cryogenic temperatures, it is shown that thermal softening becomes so large that maximum load is exceeded, and discontinuous yielding occurs. During yielding, heating occurs, reducing the thermal-softening term, and serration ceases.
Low-Temperature Phase Transformations
Authors: Reed R. P. , Breedis J. F.
Published: August 2009

Changes in crystallographic structures can occur solely at low temperatures by a diffusionless, shear-type of transformation to a product structure termed martensite. This paper presents a review of martensitic transformations which occur in ferrous and nonferrous alloys. Specifically, kinetic, structure, and the theoretical approaches to describing diffusionless transformations are treated. The kinetic characteristics pertinent to this class of transformations include dependence upon temperature, time, applied stress, and chemical composition. The structural aspects of martensitic transformations include their morphology and crystallography. Four general types of martensite transformation morphology have been observed in steels and in nonferrous alloys. With particular reference to steels, the product structures may be morphologically described as either: (1) plates, (2) sheets comprised of martensite crystals or laths, (3) homogeneous sheets, or (4) surface martensite. Theories pertaining to martensitic transformations relate either to the initiation or to the subsequent growth of the product. Theories employing thermodynamic analyses or dislocation models generally are concerned with nucleation, while crystallographic theories attempt to predict the mode of growth and the final orientations of the product. Both approaches are discussed. Approximately 650 references appear in the extended bibliography which lists almost all articles published in English after 1940, in addition to major articles published in other languages. Tables which attempt to classify articles are also included to simplify research of martensite literature.
Quantitative X-ray Diffraction Measurements by Fast Scanning
Authors: Handy R. L.
Published: August 2009

Optimum experimental conditions were determined for X-ray diffraction analysis of the calcite/dolomite ratio of limestone. An equation was derived for determining the number of counting periods necessary to achieve a given level of accuracy. X-ray diffraction peak intensities were measured over the 2θ scan, scanning at a rate of 2 deg/min with counting periods of 40 sec. For greater accuracy, peak areas were measured rather than peak height. Ultra-fine grinding of specimens in a porcelain impact ball mill gave more reproducible results than other specimen-preparation methods, even though the fine grinding caused line-broadening. Mounting the specimen in a holder and rotating it during testing further reduced variance about 1/3. X-rays from a medium-wavelength tube such as copper, a beam-slit width of 3 deg, and a detector-slit width of 0.1 deg were found most suitable. An equation was developed to relate the coefficient of variation to peak and background counts. The calculated coefficient of variation is the maximum variation that may be attributed to the counting statistic, excluding experimental error. By use of the equation or graphs, the minimum coefficient of variation is predicted from one fast scan, and the number and optimum arrangement of additional counting periods to reduce variation to the desired limit can be obtained.
Determination of Acetate Additions in Cement by Gas Chromatography
Authors: Wexle A. S.
Published: August 2009

Acetate grinding aids were analyzed quantitatively using a gas chromatograph equipped with a hydrogen flame detector. The acetate first had to be concentrated and converted to acetic acid. With mechanical stirring, 100 g of cement was added to 400 ml of phosphoric acid. The portion of the mixture which distilled at 115 C within 1 hr was collected. The pH of the distillate was adjusted to 11, and the distillate concentrated to 5 ml. The pH of the concentrate was adjusted to 1 with hydrochloric acid and the volume brought up to 10 ml with water. A 0.001 ml sample of this solution was injected into the chromatograph. The column was packed with Fluoropak support coated with 8 per cent Carbowax and 2 per cent terephthalic acid, and was operated at 175 C. Helium at a flow rate of 70 ml/min was the carrier gas. The column first had to be primed with large doses of water containing 0.1 per cent acetic acid. Acetate content was determined by a comparison of the peak height of the known amounts of acetic acid. With 10 samples, the coefficient of variation was 5.0 per cent for interground cement. It was 14.7 per cent for 9 millground samples. Sensitivity was about 25 ppm for unconcentrated acetate. Concentration increased the sensitivity about 20 times. With special techniques the limit of detection can be lowered to 25 ppb.
Introduction
Authors: Heymann Frank J.
Published: August 2009

Five years ago, during the 1961 Annual Meeting, ASTM held its first Symposium on Erosion and Cavitation, the proceedings of which were published as STP 307. As a direct result of the interest stimulated by that Symposium, Technical Committee G-2 was established, and the 1966 Symposium was the first to be held under its sponsorship. In 1961 six papers were presented; the 1966 Symposium heard eighteen presentations, including six from abroad. Of these ten are contained in this volume; some of the others will eventually appear in other ASTM publications. There have been many symposia dealing with cavitation as a fluid flow phenomenon as well as a damage-producing phenomenon. Curiously though, there had been a notable lack of communication in this country (though not in Europe) between those concerned with cavitation damage and those concerned with liquid impingement damage. The two ASTM Symposia are, to the best of my knowledge, the first in this country to focus on the damage mechanism and the material response to it, and thus on the common aspect of cavitation and impingement attack—for it is now widely (though not universally) accepted that the principal direct cause of damage in both instances is the mechanical stressing due to the high-speed impact of a liquid surface upon a solid surface, though corrosion can, certainly, enter the picture under appropriate conditions and mechanical and chemical effects can reinforce each other. The mechanical stress theory was proposed by Cook in 1928, but over the years there have been many who doubted the possibility of sufficiently high mechanical stresses and postulated principally chemical mechanisms or a variety of other more fanciful mechanisms. I believe that the days of wild conjecture are over and that investigators today at least talk the same language and agree on the kind of quesions to ask. This is not to say that all stimulating disputes have vanished: such still exist, as for instance concerning the exact nature of the interaction between mechanical and corrosive effects, and the exact meaning of the various phases observed in erosion rate-time histories. ASTM is interested in the properties of materials and the ways of defining, testing, prescribing, and controlling these properties. Thus, naturally, we are interested not only in the mechanism of erosion, but in how the resistance of materials to erosion can be objectively defined, how it can best be tested, and how test results should be interpreted, and whether this property can be correlated with other known material properties. Also of interest is the influence of the physical as well as chemical properties of the impinging liquid. All of these points are still in need of further enlightenment, even though the literature of the past forty years is replete with comparative erosion test data, some of which are valuable but few of which can be quantitatively compared with one another. Here, again, the right questions are finally being asked, and some of these questions and proposed answers are discussed in these papers.
Water Jet Impact Damage in a Cobalt-Chromium-Tungsten Alloy
Authors: Beckwith D. J. , Marriott J. B.
Published: August 2009

The mechanism of water jet erosion in a wrought cobalt base alloy used for shielding steam turbine low pressure blades is shown to be a three-stage process. Detailed metallographic examination of lightly eroded polished surfaces has confirmed the presence of carbide/matrix interface cracking and slip line cracking during the initial stage. Similar damage is observed during conventional fatigue deformation. The relative importance of these two modes of cracking during the subsequent stage is indicated, and the over-all kinetics of the process are discussed in terms of the alloy structure and the nature of liquid jet impact.
Experience With a 20-kc Cavitation Erosion Test
Authors: Hobbs J. M.
Published: August 2009

A modified 20-kc ultrasonic drill unit has been found to be highly suitable for determining the relative rates of erosion of metals exposed to cavitation in water to an accuracy of about ±12 per cent. With 5/8-in.-diameter specimens at an amplitude of 0.002 in. (peak-to-peak) in water at 20 C, all materials tested eroded at a fairly steady rate after 5 mm3 had been removed, this rate being maintained until 10 mm3 were eroded. Twenty-four steels and four nonferrous metals were tested under standard conditions, and an attempt has been made to correlate their erosion resistance with the various forms of strain energy derived from tension tests on the same materials. The best correlation was obtained with the “ultimate resilience” (that is, the limiting strain energy beyond the elastic limit), expressed as 1/2-(tensile strength)/elastic modulus.
Introduction
Authors: Callaway J. R.
Published: August 2009

Approximately a year and a half ago the Advisory Committee of Technical Division F decided that it would be desirable to hold a symposium on diesel fuel oils from the aspect of the consumers, the diesel engine builders, and the diesel fuel producers. This had resulted from the Regular Common Carriers Council's interest in obtaining cleaner and more uniform diesel fuel. The RCC had also expressed the need for better fluidity at low temperatures and better all-round performance of the fuels available to the trucking operators throughout the United States. As a result of this and other factors, this Symposium has been organized to answer many of the questions related to diesel fuels, and it will no doubt provoke more questions. A brief review of the latest available statistics (U.S.) on diesel fuels is presented to orient the purpose of the Symposium.
Use of Nuclear Meters in Soils Investigations: A Summary of Worldwide Research and Practice
Authors: Smith P. C. , Johnson A. I. , Fisher C. P. , Womack L. M.
Published: August 2009

Questionnaires circulated throughout the world provided information on research and practice in the use of nuclear meters for moisture and density measurements in soils. The study was sponsored by Committee D-18 on Soil and Rock for Engineering Purposes, American Society for Testing and Materials. Information was received from equipment manufacturers and users of the equipment in government agencies, private companies, and universities in the agricultural, engineering, hydrologic, and geologic disciplines; this information was received from 13 foreign countries and the United States. This report describes the equipment produced by various manufacturers, discusses health and safety in the use of such equipment, and discusses procedures followed by users in applying nuclear meters to the measurement of the moisture and density of rock and soil materials. The limitations and accuracy of test results are described; research involving use of nuclear meters is summarized; and an extensive Bibliography of published literature is presented.
Use of Conventional Test Equipment in the Evaluation of Typewriter Supplies
Authors: Smoak M. P.
Published: August 2009

The evaluation of a typewriter supply product is a complex testing application in which measurements related to many different characteristics of the product are required. The characteristics of interest may be relatively simple, such as the length of a ribbon, or complicated, such as the average useful life of a fabric ribbon. Several common difficulties in defining the measurement objectives and selecting the test equipment are discussed. Examples of applications of commercially available test equipment are given. Some of the instruments discussed include counters, microscopes, force transducers, and reflection photometers. In each case emphasis is placed on the necessity of thoroughly understanding both the measurement requirement and the basic function of the available test equipment so that the equipment may be applied properly. Once the measurement is well defined and the equipment is used properly, the results may be interpreted meaningfully.
Water Movement Through Porous Hydrophilic Systems Under Capillary, Electrical, and Thermal Potentials
Authors: Winterkorn Hans F.
Published: August 2009

The importance of the interaction between solid internal surface and pore water for water transmission under hydraulic gradients and electrical and thermal potentials is pointed out. This interaction results in the establishment of a restrained water phase possessing characteristic mechanical, thermal, and electrical properties. If only a hydraulic gradient is established, the restraint can be expressed as a volume factor which, however, is also a function of the hydraulic gradient, especially at high values of the latter. The characteristic thermal and electrical properties of the interphase are the necessary conditions for thermo- and electro-osmotic flow. The basic theories of these phenomena are presented in a simple manner. The considerations presented and the equations derived hold only for such soils or similar systems that do not possess a significant gas phase.
Measurement of the Hydraulic Conductivity of Soil in Place
Authors: Kirkham Don
Published: August 2009

Several recently developed and two proposed methods for measuring the hydraulic conductivity of soil in place are described. Particular attention is given to the so-called auger hole, piezometer and tube methods. In the auger hole method an auger hole is bored to a depth below the water table and the water in it is pumped out. After the hole has been emptied, the ensuing rate of rise of water in it is determined and this rate is then converted to the hydraulic conductivity of the soil by use of a suitable formula. In the piezometer and tube methods the procedure is the same except that the auger hole is now effectively cased, and there is only a small cavity at the base of the cased hole into which the rate of water entry is noted. The latter methods have the advantage that they permit the measurement of the hydraulic conductivity at virtually a point in the soil. The auger hole method, on the other hand, gives an average conductivity for the whole length of the hole. Results from the auger hole method are less variable. The problem of soil anisotropy is discussed, and it is pointed out that the anisotropic components of the hydraulic conductivity may be determined by use of the methods.
Reconnaissance Exploration of Subsurface Conditions by Aerial Photographic Interpretation
Authors: Erb D. K.
Published: August 2009

The primary purpose of this paper is to review and discuss some of the factors involved in the practical application of stereoscopic aerial photographic interpretation to the exploration of relatively shallow subsurface soil, soil-rock, or rock conditions on a reconnaissance level. In view of the broad and complex nature of this field of pre-engineering investigation and the abundance of published information on both general and specific aspects of this subject, it was decided to confine the discussion to some basic principles involved in analyzing and interpreting vertical aerial photography.
Calibration of Nuclear Meters for Measuring Moisture and Density
Authors: Troxler W. F.
Published: August 2009

The techniques in use today for the calibration of nuclear probes and some of the factors that influence calibration are discussed. Scientists and engineers have now proved the validity of determining the moisture content and density of engineering materials by means of radioactive gages. Even though the ability of the nuclear-type gage to measure moisture and density is generally acknowledged, there are still a number of questions that need answering. One such question involves an appropriate method of calibration and recalibration of the gage. Another question is whether the experimentally determined calibration curves remain valid with varying soil constituents. Initial work involved in the calibration of moisture and density probes required masses of soil that represented an infinite volume. Satisfactory portable standards have now been made to calibrate neutron moisture probes.
Use of Geophysical Logs in Soil Engineering
Authors: Guyod Hubert
Published: August 2009

The measurement of some of the physical properties of the soils and rocks penetrated by bore holes provides information of value to the soil engineer. Electrical resistivity, radiation, and acoustical properties are particularly useful. The measurements continuously recorded in terms of depths give a detailed log on which geological and physical changes are indicated. In a typical case, the field operations are conducted as follows: (1) A small number of test wells scattered over the area of interest are drilled, cored, and logged with one or several appropriate probes; (2) additional holes are then drilled between the test wells; and (3) these holes are logged but not cored. By correlating the logs and the core data the geology of the area and some of the rock properties can be mapped. None of the methods reviewed, however, can be used to measure dynamic properties. The main advantages of geophysical logs are that detailed information is readily obtained at the well sites and at a lower cost than if each hole were cored. The equipment used for the logging of shallow holes is small, light, rugged and simple. No special technician is needed for its operation.
Basic Concepts of Water Vapor Migration and Their Application to Frame Walls
Authors: Joy F. A.
Published: August 2009

The laws governing water vapor flow and heat flow through solids are quite similar, but the vapor flow coefficient or permeability is not constant, relative humidity being an important factor for some materials. Vapor flow in the walls of frame dwellings is an unsteady state, and its control by a vapor barrier must consider the moisture storage capacity of wall materials as well as climatic conditions.
Interlaboratory Comparison of Thermal Conductivity Determinations with Guarded Hot Plates
Authors: Robinson Henry E. , Watson Thomas W.
Published: August 2009

A description is given of a program of comparative thermal conductivity tests made in seventeen different laboratories on corkboard at mean temperatures from 20 F to 130 F with 20 different guarded hot plates. The objective of the program was to determine the reproducibility of results obtained in tests made in accordance with the requirements of ASTM Method of Test C 177-45. Examples of results showing good and poor agreement are presented and discussed. Histograms are given showing the frequency distribution of the average differences between the results obtained with each apparatus and the corresponding results obtained with a reference apparatus.
Determining Soil Moisture and Density by Nuclear Radiations
Authors: Lane D. A. , Torchinsky B. B. , Spinks J. W. T.
Published: August 2009

The development of a meter which can be used to determine soil moisture and density rapidly, independent of soil type, is described. The moisture meter is based on fast neutron bombardment of the soil causing the reflection of slow neutrons which activate a detector foil. The activity of the detector foil after a given exposure time can be related to the water content of the soil. The density meter is based on the fact that the amount of gamma ray absorption of the soil is proportional to the density of the soil. Field and laboratory studies of the meter have shown it to have considerable promise, although further development work is necessary. A particular application of the meter is that it can be used to study soil moisture variations in the field over long periods without disturbing equilibrium conditions.
A Test on a Slotted Revolving Cylinder Coal Sampler
Authors: Blatter A. O.
Published: August 2009

Results of a sampling test made on a coal from one source using an automatic sampler that employs a slotted cylinder for the sampling instrument are presented and discussed. The test procedure and results are given in some detail for the purpose of assessing the procedure and to encourage others to perform and report similar tests. Automatic samples were removed at five different locations across the belt and are compared with hand samples taken at similar locations from the stopped conveyor belt. A statistical analysis of 11 tests shows that the coal varied from time to time and that the mean values from the different sampling locations were different. This was observed both in the case of hand samples and machine samples, with the machine samples indicating somewhat more variation from time to time, as might be expected, since they were taken at points more widely separated in the coal stream. The weight of sample collected by the automatic sampler tended to be much more uniform than the belt load (from position to position), indicating that a gross sample taken by machine, under these conditions, would not be properly proportioned. Size distribution of the machine samples was biased in the direction of including too many fines, that is, excluding coarse coal. The average ash of the two types of sample differed “significantly.” Since the difference was only 0.3 per cent, in this case, there may be no reason to be unduly perturbed, but the difference is real. A coal having another size or ash distribution, or both, and handled at a different tonnage per hour might show up better than this coal in the comparison of hand versus machine samples, but it is clear that under some conditions the comparisons could be much more unfavorable.
Low-Temperature Resistance Test Methods for Non-Rigid Insulation
Authors: Craig C. L.
Published: August 2009

Methods for evaluation of the low-temperature resistance of non-rigid insulating materials have progressed from haphazard arbitrary methods to one widely used standard test. Not too long ago, this property was determined by pinching the material with pliers or bending it in half while it was in a can of dry ice. This basic idea then was refined somewhat by standardizing the exposure time in a cold box and bending a specimen around definite diameter mandrels. This was commonly known as the mandrel-bend test, but was found to be non-reproducible due to the effects of variations in bending force and speed, and mandrel temperature. Another step in the evolution of a low-temperature test for insulating materials was development of a jig to hold and bend the specimen a controlled distance. This test has been adopted as ASTM Method D 736 and has been used quite extensively in the rubber industry. However, results from this method have been found to be affected by the rate of flexing, which cannot be closely controlled, thus reducing reproducibility. A little over a decade ago, an impact failure test was introduced and adopted as ASTM Method D 746. This test introduced a new criterion for low-temperature failure—cracking of the specimen by high-speed impact while in a cold liquid bath. Results from this method were found to be fairly reproducible, and, with slight modifications, it rapidly has become standard for evaluation of most non-rigid insulation materials. Comparatively little consideration has been given to the significance of the results.
Effect of Forming on Mechanical Properties
Authors: Waisman J. L. , Yen C. S.
Published: August 2009

Effects of stretching and bending on the static and fatigue strengths of sheet metals were determined experimentally on several aluminum alloys, commercial pure titanium and type 302 stainless steel. These effects can be explained or predicted by considering the effect of three factors: strain hardening, micro-residual stress, and macro-residual stress.
Evaluation of Laboratory Tests as Indicators of the Service Life of Uninhibited Electrical Insulating Oils
Authors: McConnell T. A.
Published: August 2009

In 1944 ASTM Committee D-9 on Electrical Insulating Materials, under the sponsorship of Subcommittee IV on Liquid Insulation, instituted a field-testing program, the primary purpose of which was to evaluate the merits of two oil-sludging tests when applied to oils known to be of good, medium, and poor quality. The two tests, one the sludge accumulation and the other the pressure oxidation, represented at that time the latest development in accelerated oil-sludging tests. It was hoped that the two tests would fulfill a need long recognized by both producer and consumer of electrical insulating oil: that of distinguishing between the many brands of oil available, with respect to oxidation resistance and chemical breakdown during service. The well-known physical, electrical, and chemical screening tests, while generally used for purchase specifications, gave little indication of the oxidation resistance that could be expected of a given oil. Earlier sludging tests such as the Snyder Life test had proved to be inadequate, first because they were incapable, within a reasonable length of time, of distinguishing between oils of mediocre and excellent quality, and second, because it was not possible to establish a correlation between laboratory sludging time and expected life in service. In 1942 both the sludge accumulation and pressure oxidation tests were published as ASTM Tentative Methods D 670. Before advocating that the tests be advanced to standard status, Subcommittee IV desired to establish their adequacy not only for classifying oils for initial quality but also for predicting sludging propensity in service. It was for this reason that the 10-year field-testing program was initiated.
Need for Research and Development of Test Methods for Windows
Authors: Dunn L. M.
Published: August 2009

Windows of different shape and size, constructed from a wide variety of glass types and supporting materials, serve many more specific purposes than just the one of allowing light to enter into buildings exposed to changing or even extreme climatic conditions. After defining the window as a complex technical object, this paper stresses the necessity for better, more efficient and standardized test procedures and equipment, calls for coordination of building code provisions, and enumerates the steps to be taken to obtain these improvements.
Introduction
Authors: Scott R. K.
Published: August 2009

Since the most recent symposium on this subject in 1947, X-ray diffraction methods have been much improved by the use of the diffractometer, semiquantitative spectrographic methods have been developed and applied, and a number of newer analytical techniques have been brought to bear on the deposit problem. The present symposium presents the utility of these analytical tools in determining the nature of deposits, starting with a statement of the problem from the standpoint of the water-treatment engineer. Then follow methods of elemental analysis (excluding wet chemical), phase identification, the study of thin corrosion films on steel, and finally the correlation of elemental analysis with phase identification, using the techniques employed for many years by the mineralogist.
Automotive Central Hydraulic Systems and their Fluid Requirements
Authors: Risk T. H.
Published: August 2009

The development of central hydraulic systems will greatly expand the use of hydraulic actuators in automobiles. Tests to date indicate that a properly developed central hydraulic system will offer many customer advantages which can lessen driver fatigue and improve safety and reliability at reduced cost. A central hydraulic system is analogous to the conventional automotive electrical system. With the electrical system, energy is obtained from the generator and stored in the battery. Many accessories are driven by merely hooking onto this system. Items such as headlights, radios, and window lifts are attached without any change to the basic system. However, many other accessories are not so easily added. For example, power steering has its own independent system, which includes pump, actuators, and fluid. Again, power brakes have a completely separate system, utilizing a vacuum booster to assist the operation of the master cylinder, which, in turn, employs a special fluid to actuate the wheel cylinders. Convertible top mechanisms are often a combination of electrical and separate hydraulic systems. It seems that whenever a new actuating mechanism is added, other than an electrical device, it has been necessary to provide a complete system for this one device. The central hydraulic system offers the possibility of operating a multiplicity of devices from one central power source, in much the same manner as from the electrical system. The central hydraulic system consists of a pump, accumulator, and a reservoir. The pump is a generator that charges the accumulator, which in turn, stores energy for use by various mechanisms. Items that can conceivably be actuated from a central hydraulic system are brakes, steering gear, windshield wipers, window lifts, adjustable seats, convertible tops, starters, clutches, fuel pumps, injection equipment, air conditioning, suspensions, and suspension leveling systems. Obviously, connecting of all of these to one power source should reduce complexity and cost. This should mean easier installation, lower maintenance costs, and more trouble-free operation. In addition, items attached to a central hydraulic system can be operated from the accumulator when the engine is off. This permits applications which heretofore were confined to electric battery use because of the requirement for actuation regardless of whether or not the engine was running.
Development and Testing of Aircraft Hydraulic Fluids
Authors: Peeler R. L. , Kovacich S. A.
Published: August 2009

The requirements of the aircraft and missile industries for hydraulic fluids for use under severe operating conditions have greatly accelerated development and testing of new fluids. Most of the critical tests have involved high temperatures or such unusual environments as nuclear radiation. These tests have generally involved nonstandard methods; it has been up to each experimenter to select his own. Military specifications and contract requirements have often suggested the test methods used. This paper covers the results of some of the methods used recently at California Research Corp., partly as work done under contract to the U.S. Air Force.
Mechanical Properties of Molybdenum And Molybdenum-Base Alloy Sheet
Authors: Semchyshen M. , Barr Robert Q.
Published: August 2009

The mechanical and physical properties of molybdenum and molybdenum-base alloys have been rather extensively documented in the past decade. Almost all of these data have been developed in connection with investigations of wrought bar stock; very little data have been accumulated on the properties of sheet. On the other hand, considerable interest has developed in recent years in the utilization of molybdenum and molybdenum-base alloys in the form of sheet products. This interest is concentrated on sheet of about 1/16-in. gage. This paper represents a summary of the several investigations that were initiated to determine some of the mechanical properties of unalloyed molybdenum and of three molybdenum-base alloys, processed to 1/16 in. thick sheet from vacuum arc-cast ingots.
Coulometric Determination of Tin with Electrolytically Generated Iodine: Application to Analysis of Zircaloy
Authors: Caton Roy D. , Freund Harry
Published: August 2009

Milligram quantities of tin (II) can be titrated with iodine generated electrolytically in a solution of hydrochloric acid and potassium iodide. A means has been devised by which the low-level amounts of tin can be reduced to the divalent state prior to titration by passing through a heated antimony reductor column directly into the titration cell. The reduction step is accomplished in 10 min, thus affording a decrease in time over previous methods. The procedure has been applied to the determination of tin in Zircaloy, and the weighted standard deviation of 70 analyses was 0.007 mg of tin. Recovery studies made on two alloys and the statistical analysis of a factorial design experiment employing the determination of tin in synthetic Zircaloy solutions with various combinations of nickel, chromium, and iron show that the three metals do not interfere with the determination of tin in Zircaloy.