bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Normative Influence, Theories of
Authors: Louis Winnifred R.
Published: November 2011

Norms are defined as group‐based rules or standards for perception, attitudes, or action. In psychological research, norms may be explicit or implicit. In sociological research, the term is more likely to be reserved for implicit rules communicated nonverbally (e.g., “folkways”), in contrast to explicitly stated rules or “black‐letter” laws (“stateways”). A central distinction in psychological theories of normative influence is between
models of compliance
, in which normative influence changes behavior or expressed attitudes for extrinsic motives but private perceptions or attitudes are unaffected; and
models of conformity
, in which people internalize norms so that both private attitudes and public actions change.
Occupation
Authors: Nimrod Rosler Daniel Bar‐Tal
Published: November 2011

Occupation of a geographical area and its inhabiting population can be the deliberate or accidental product of a militarized intergroup conflict. Such a state of affairs carries military, political, economic, societal, and legal consequences for both the occupying and occupied societies. But when an occupation persists for a long period, it creates major human, material, psychological, and moral consequences for each of the involved societies and for their relations, affecting all aspects of individual and social life, as well as their image, set of beliefs and values, and codes of behavior.
Othering of People and Phenomena
Authors: Joffe Hélène
Published: November 2011

This article delineates the role played by “othering” in the formation of people's identities and in their responses to mass threats. Cultural theory, most notably that of the modernist theorist Edward Said, utilizes the notion of othering to explain Western ways of subordinating certain peoples and thereby constructing superior identities. Drawing on psychoanalytic and social psychological theories, this article demonstrates that the process by which people buttress their own sense of identity by locating undesirable qualities in others is not necessarily culture specific. Such processes lie at the root of identity formation.
Peace Education
Authors: Nelson Linden L.
Published: November 2011

The idea that public education has an essential role in creating a more peaceful world has a long history. It was not until the twentieth century, however, that peace education programs were created. They were originally designed to teach about causes of war and approaches to preventing war, and later in the century they were developed to teach about social conflict, violence, and peace at all levels from interpersonal to international. While definitions of peace education vary in regard to the range of topics and methods that are included, contemporary definitions tend to be very broad. For example, a statement released by educators from 27 nations at a conference convened by the Hague Appeal for Peace on October 20–23, 2004, in Tirana, Albania, defined peace education as including “teaching for and about democracy and human rights, nonviolence, social and economic justice, gender equality, environmental sustainability, disarmament, traditional peace practices, international law, and human security” (Hague Appeal for Peace, 2004). In line with this very broad conception, peace education is defined here as teaching and learning that is intended to facilitate development of peaceful people.
Peace Psychology inAustralia
Authors: Bretherton Diane
Published: November 2011

Peace psychology in Australia has been influenced by the history of colonization. Before the first fleet arrived from Britain the continent was occupied by a number of Indigenous nations, each with its own territory, language, and culture. The Indigenous people saw themselves not as owners of the land, but rather as custodians born from the land in order to be able to care for it. The creation of the land and its unique plants and animals occurred during the dreamtime, a mystic space which is eternal. Travel through the land of other nations was made possible through knowledge of the stories and songs of the people. In Aboriginal culture the possession of knowledge was of great importance and there are still rules as to who is permitted access to knowledge of particular rituals, sacred sites, and customs.
Peace Psychology: Contributions from Europe
Authors: Boehnke Klaus , Shani Maor
Published: November 2011

As is the case in the entire discipline of psychology, peace psychology as an emerging area of inquiry is relying heavily on research done in North America. The theoretical and empirical study of social conflicts, violence, and peace has, however, been an integral part of European psychology from its beginning as well.
Peace Psychology: Contributions from North America
Authors: Christie Daniel J.
Published: November 2011

Peace psychology in North America has been shaped by geohistorical forces emerging during the Cold War, a period when the United States and Soviet Union were engaged in an arms race and competed for global hegemony. But the roots of peace psychology are much deeper. This article will use a historical lens and identify the contributions of North American psychologists to peace psychology. More details can be found in Christie, Wagner, and Winter (2001).
Peace Psychology, Philosophical Foundations of
Authors: Rudmin Floyd W.
Published: November 2011

Historically, psychology found its roots in philosophy (Hergenhahn, 1997). Modern psychology began to appear in the mid‐1800s, primarily in Germany but also in America, Austria, England, France, and Russia. Across the two millennia that psychology was intertwined with philosophy, most writings rarely mentioned peace or war. However, some philosophical psychologists did develop theories on peace and did actively engage in efforts to influence their contemporary politics. Two traditions are evident in this early history of peace psychology, both of which begin with a presumption that humans have a “natural” tendency towards violence and war.
People Power
Authors: Montiel Cristina Jayme , Berba Carlo Miguel
Published: November 2011

In an unexpected press conference in Camp Aguinaldo at around 6:30 p.m. on February 22, 1986, Philippine Vice Chief of Staff General Ramos and Defense Minister Enrile announced their withdrawal of support for strongman Ferdinand Marcos in the midst of political instabilities following nearly 14 years of dictatorship, countless political killings and human rights violations, the assassination of leading opposition senator Ninoy Aquino, and a recent election marred by massive fraud and violence. By 9:00 p.m., Jaime Cardinal Sin, Archbishop of Manila, went on radio, asking the Filipino people to support “our two good friends.” The popular archbishop made subsequent calls on radio, summoning people to fill the streets precisely to avoid bloodshed. By 10:20 p.m., Butz Aquino, leading social activist, called on all concerned citizens and political groups to gather in front of Camp Aguinaldo, along Epifanio de los Santos Avenue (EDSA). Through the first night, the number of people on the street had quickly risen to 30,000. This was the start of the Philippine People Power revolution, or what is now locally referred to as the EDSA revolution.
Personality Processes in Interpersonal Conflict, Assessing
Authors: Sullivan Katherine E. , Iyer Priya A. , Venzor Erika , Jensen‐Campbell Lauri A.
Published: November 2011

Interpersonal conflict is an inevitable part of life and has been linked to important developmental outcomes. The sequelae associated with interpersonal conflicts are not exclusively negative; conflicts can have both positive and negative consequences for individuals. In order to understand why some conflicts are harmful while others may actually lead to personal and social growth, one must consider that interpersonal conflict involves mutual opposition between two or more persons. Research has consistently found that personality is an important influence on how individuals deal with conflict, which in turn, influences the potential deleterious effects of these conflicts (Jensen‐Campbell & Graziano, 2001). This paper will examine different methodological and statistical assessments that may be employed in determining how personality influences conflict in conjunction with situational influences. We will begin by examining important ways to assess personality followed by how to incorporate these personality assessments into conflict research.
Positioning Theory
Authors: Harré Rom
Published: November 2011

The scope of what people actually do is very much narrower than what they can do. “May” is a tighter concept than “can” in the world of human action. Intervening between the domain of the possible and the domain of the actual is the domain of the permissible and the impermissible. Every society, whether large or small, maintains a moral order, a loose system of rules, conventions, and principles that shape what people believe it is appropriate or proper to do. How does this dominant feature of human life fit with the ambitions of psychology? Behaviorism dealt with patterns in what people actually do. Cognitivism opened up the background of behavioral
possibilities
in researching into the schemata which, if the occasion were called for, could be realized in action. Cognitive psychology showed us what people are able to do. Positioning theory tackles the third question — what are the processes by which the domain of the permissible is extracted from the domain of the possible? In short, positioning theory leads to an understanding of how moral orders are involved in the selection of what is done from what can be done.
Post‐Conflict Psychosocial Intervention
Authors: Wessells Michael
Published: November 2011

Following armed conflict, psychosocial support is needed on a large scale (de Jong, 2002) yet is highly challenging to organize. Insecurity, which limits humanitarian access and impedes healing, often increases through widespread crime and gender‐based violence, including family violence associated with high levels of unemployment and economic distress. Post‐conflict environments are chaotic, as displaced populations return home and humanitarian agencies flood in. Also, few trained psychologist or psychiatrists are present in most war zones.)
Post‐Traumatic Stress Disorder and Peace
Authors: Levitt Julie Meranze
Published: November 2011

This article will consider how post‐traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is defined, how it is applied cross‐culturally, and its ramifications for peace psychology.
Praxis
Authors: Osorio Jorge Mario Flores
Published: November 2011

Praxis in Latin American psychology, education, sociology, and philosophy is posed as an explanation/transformation process of dealing with problems arising from the oppression and exclusion suffered by most of the world population (Flores Osorio, 2009). Thus, it is necessary to analyze the sense and meaning this notion has in its theoretical construction and in the understanding of psychological problems, and analyze also the epistemological references and specific practice from where resignification of the concept has been made in social sciences. That concept is no longer a philosophical abstraction; it is a social reality.
Prejudice, Types and Origins of
Authors: Cohrs J. Christopher , Duckitt John
Published: November 2011

Prejudices are ubiquitous. In the fifth round of the World Values Survey, carried out between 2005 and 2008, 44% of the respondents from 57 countries from around the world agreed or agreed strongly that “men make better political leaders than women do,” and 53% said they did not trust very much or did not trust at all “people of another nationality.” In the fourth round of the European Social Survey, carried out in 2008 and 2009, 16% of the respondents from 17 European countries disagreed or disagreed strongly that “gay men and lesbians should be free to live their own life as they wish,” and 48% tended to agree that “people over 70 are a burden on the country's health service these days.” Prejudiced attitudes such as these have negative social and health consequences for members of the targeted groups. They also have negative consequences for societies as a whole because they impair social interactions and undermine the positive contributions of groups to societies. Prejudices can translate into actual discriminatory and violent behavior, further aggravating these negative consequences. If prejudices are widely shared in a culture, they represent cultural violence, legitimating and facilitating individual and collective oppression and violence. Against this background, it is not surprising that the body of research on prejudice is immense.
Problematization
Authors: Montero Maritza
Published: November 2011

The concept of problematization was formally articulated by Brazilian educator Paulo Freire in 1970, although he had already been practicing this maieutic process or method that helps bring forth ideas and insights, within his pedagogic practice, since the 1960s. Freire proposed a change in the traditional type of education where the student passively receives information unrelated to one's life. He criticized “banking education,” metaphorically alluding to the pupils as a sort of piggy bank receiving structured knowledge without the capacity to produce, apply, or transform it. Freire (1970) introduced problematization as a technique or strategy to critically analyze one's being and role in the world “in which and with which” one is (p. 90).
Prosocial Behavior
Authors: Kent Valerie
Published: November 2011

The word antisocial appeared in the late eighteenth century, but prosocial arrived only in recent decades and is still not in standard dictionaries. Altruism and morality seem to refer to similar concepts, so why yet another word in the social science lexicon?
Protestant Work Ethic
Authors: Christopher Andrew N. , Zabel Keith L.
Published: November 2011

The notion of the “Protestant work ethic” (PWE) has its roots in Max Weber's
The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism
, first published in 1904, in which he espoused that the success of capitalism and economic growth throughout Western Europe and North America was partly the consequence of Puritanical values such as a calling to one's work and frugality with one's resources. Although Weber's writings emphasized how the Protestant Reformation was responsible for the rise of modern capitalism, psychological research has focused on PWE endorsement irrespective of religious affiliation or depth of religious commitment. Certainly, the essence of the “Protestant” work ethic can be seen in other religious teachings. For instance, the Prophet Mohammed preached that hard work absolved sins and that “no one eats better food than that which he eats out of his own work.” Indeed, as illustrated in the two quotations that began this article, the Protestant work ethic is a socially ubiquitous phenomenon no longer tied directly to religion. Today, psychologists use the term to refer to a conglomeration of beliefs encompassing (a) the belief that hard work yields desirable outcomes; (b) the importance of work in one's daily life; (c) the avoidance of wasting time; (d) an abhorrence of idleness; (e) the delay of immediate rewards for future rewards; (f) an emphasis on self‐reliance; and (g) the importance of behaving morally and ethically. Although there are several measures of PWE, the most commonly used measure asks respondents the extent to which they agree or disagree (typically using a 1–7 response range) with statements such as “The credit card is a ticket to careless spending,” “Most people who do not succeed in life are just plain lazy,” and “Our society would have fewer problems if people had less leisure time.”
Psychological Warfare
Authors: DeGirolamo Silvia , Beech Deanna
Published: November 2011

The concept of psychological warfare as a “means to effect an ends” pervades today's world culture. It is no longer only used to explain the intentional efforts to manipulate the enemy's will to fight. More recently it has been expanded to describe attempts to sway public opinion on contentious issues as well as the use of humanitarian aid as an extension of foreign policy.
Psychosocial Accompaniment of Victims of Political Violence
Authors: Rodríguez Stella Sacipa , Guerra Claudia Tovar
Published: November 2011

The existence of victims of political violence, of their pain, their needs, and their rights, was first recognized in the mid‐twentieth century in Western Europe as a result of World War II. In Latin America the theme only emerged in the 1970s in countries of the Southern Cone such as Chile, as a result of the work of some psychologists and psychiatrists who, with the protection of the Catholic Church, initiated work with victims whose needs had been identified by the lawyers responsible for gathering testimonies concerning crimes committed by the state (Lira, 1984).
Questionnaires in Conflict Research, Use of
Authors: Nauta Aukje , Kluwer Esther
Published: November 2011

Conflict is omnipresent in social relationships and, given its often negative consequences, it is an important research topic. In organizations, conflict may hinder productivity and job satisfaction. In close relationships, conflict can be a threat to satisfaction, or even to the endurance of the relationship. It is therefore theoretically and practically important to study conflict by gathering data on its appearance, causes, and consequences and on the emotional, cognitive, motivational, and behavioral aspects that accompany it.
Racism
Authors: Duncan Norman
Published: November 2011

While it was first employed more than 80 years ago, the term racism remains one of the most difficult terms to define. This is undoubtedly a function of the complexity of the phenomenon of racism as well as its constantly changing dynamics and contours. However, while it is difficult to provide a comprehensive definition of racism, it is not that difficult to describe the phenomenon's key features. A discussion of some of these features of racism follows a brief but essential discussion of the related notion of “race.”
Refugee Mental Health
Authors: Philpot Catherine , Tipping Susannah
Published: November 2011

Throughout history there has been war, forced displacement, and atrocities committed towards fellow humans (Summerfield, 1999). The deleterious effects of such traumas have long been acknowledged. In the last two decades, there has been an extraordinary increase in the number of publications focusing on refugee mental health and well‐being, including books, book chapters, entire journals, and articles in other relevant, non‐refugee focused journals. Changing social and political landscapes have influenced the foci and methodology of refugee mental health. More recently, the zeitgeist in refugee mental health has seen a shift away from biomedical and quantitative approaches to a more ecological perspective. This review of the literature reflects these changes, while emphasizing the key contributions made by different approaches.
Restorative Justice
Authors: Nwoye Augustine
Published: November 2011

Restorative justice is a recently popularized approach for promoting justice and reconciliation among parties or communities in conflict. It entails the exercise of helping to repair the harm inflicted upon victims at the hands of offenders. As a process of rebuilding peace and justice among individuals or communities in conflict, it is founded upon a theory of justice which argues that crime and wrongdoing is an offense not against the state but against the individual and those with whom s/he is connected. Hence, in the practice of restorative justice, the person who has harmed another takes responsibility for his or her actions and the person who has been harmed gains visibility as much as the one who has done harm. In this way, the fundamental ingredient of restorative justice consists of a “public encounter of perpetrator and victim accompanied by acts of confession and forgiveness and the possibility of amnesty and/or reparation” (Little, 2006, p. 173).
Restorative Justice: Some Archetypal Roots
Authors: Shearer Ann
Published: November 2011

One striking aspect of restorative justice is its appeal for authority to the justice systems of traditional societies. Its structures and philosophy have both been widely influenced by beliefs and practices that seek to restore a pre‐existent social order, whose ancient divine origins are still invoked. A justice that seeks to heal rather than punish and to re‐integrate erring individuals through the reparation of wrongs rather than to exclude them was once, some claim, universal: traditional societies still understand what European justice lost with the rise of the state and the gradual emergence of individual aspiration as more important than community cohesion.
Self‐Efficacy
Authors: Rodrigues Maria V.
Published: November 2011

Research stemming from Albert Bandura's social learning theory demonstrates that people who believe in their own ability to affect the world around them are more likely to attain their goals. According to Bandura (1992), self‐efficacy operates at the individual level of analysis and refers to individual differences in the extent to which individuals believe that they can achieve their goals. This suggests that efforts at promoting both negative peace (absence of violence) and positive peace (social justice) may well depend on the degree to which the individual has a sense of self‐efficacy. The psychological ability to set challenging goals for oneself and to actively pursue those goals in the face of adversity is rendered in large part by a strong belief in one's own agency. The belief in one's own agency was termed self‐efficacy by Bandura.
Social and Emotional Learning
Authors: Nelson Linden L.
Published: November 2011

Social and emotional learning (SEL) has been defined as “the process through which children and adults acquire the knowledge, attitudes, and skills to: recognize and manage their emotions, set and achieve positive goals, demonstrate caring and concern for others, establish and maintain positive relationships, make responsible decisions, and handle interpersonal situations effectively” (Payton et al., 2008, pp. 5–6). The term social and emotional learning was first introduced at a 1994 meeting hosted by the Fetzer Institute for the purpose of discussing the ineffectiveness of so many prevention and health promotion interventions for children and youth (Greenberg et al., 2003). SEL was proposed as a conceptual framework that could address the underlying causes of many individual and social problems that were previously targeted by a wide variety of different programs.
Social Dilemmas
Authors: Gifford Robert
Published: November 2011

Consider a simple situation. A number of people sit around a large bowl, which contains a dozen walnuts. Once taken, the walnuts may be traded for something valuable — money or food, for example. The people are told that they may take as many walnuts out of the bowl as they wish at any time; turn‐taking is not required. They are ready to grab as many walnuts from the bowl as they can when they are given one more piece of information: If any walnuts remain in the bowl ten seconds after the start, I will place that many more walnuts in the bowl. How many walnuts
should
they take? How many
will be
taken?
Social Injustice
Authors: Opotow Susan
Published: November 2011

Social justice, the fair distribution of resources and benefits to all members of a society, is an abstract ideal that applies the concept of justice broadly. Social injustice, its opposite, is the discrepancy between what is and what should be. Edmond Cahn (1949) describes social injustice as an emotionally laden construct provoking the “outrage, horror, shock, resenting, and anger … that prepare the human animal to resist attack” (p. 24). Social injustice, motivated by emotions evoked by morally laden cognitions about right and wrong, can motivate individuals, groups, and nations to take action, including violence and war, in order to right perceived wrongs.
Social Interdependence Theory
Authors: Johnson David W. , Johnson Roger T.
Published: November 2011

Ideally, the procedures used to establish and maintain enduring consensual peace would be based on validated social science theory. Guidelines for establishing peace are often derived from ideologies and other belief systems. There are relatively few procedures that are actually based on well‐established theory. The extent to which psychological theorizing results in more effective practice depends primarily on the relationship between theory, research, and practice. Ideally, theory guides and summarizes research, research validates or disconfirms theory (thereby leading to its refinement and modification), and effective practice is guided by validated theory, yet it reveals inadequacies that lead to further refinement of the theory and to new research studies. There have been very few procedures derived from theory that aimed to establish and maintain peace. Social interdependence theory is an exception. It provides a classic example of the interaction between theory, research, and practice, especially in regard to phenomena most closely related to peace.
Social Psychological Peace Research
Authors: Vollhardt Johanna Ray
Published: November 2011

From its beginning, social psychology as a field has been concerned with many issues related to peace and violence between and within groups. Influenced by political conflicts of the time, social psychologists have tackled issues such as prejudice, aggression, conflict between groups, or how obedience to authority can contribute to violence; but also how tools such as superordinate goals and intergroup contact can be used to ameliorate and overcome intergroup conflict. Thus, social psychology has examined both catalysts and obstacles to negative and positive peace, that is, the absence of violence and the presence of social justice, respectively (Cohrs & Boehnke, 2008). The overlap and influence are mutual — social psychological theories feed into peace psychology and conflict resolution, but issues related to peace and conflict also shape social psychology, constituting a substantial amount of research within social psychology that can be considered “social psychological peace research” (Vollhardt & Bilali, 2008).
Social Representations of Reconciliation
Authors: DeZalia Rebekah Phillips
Published: November 2011

After a conflict ends within a society, steps are usually taken by leaders to prevent future violence through the promotion of reconciliation among the previously warring parties. There are many overt methods of bringing reconciliation, such as conducting truth commissions or providing reparations to victims. However, there are also more subtle ways in which individuals within a society are guided towards reconciliation with their former enemies. One of these less obvious techniques is through the changing of social representations. By modifying the commonly held beliefs, myths, and values within a society, leaders try to prevent people from connecting with the representations that instigated previous violence and enforce representations that will bring peace.
Social Representations of War and Peace
Authors: Van der Linden N. , Licata L.
Published: November 2011

Wars are not only fought on battlefields. They are also fought in people's minds. Conducive to this state of affairs is the fact that an appeal to force alone is seldom considered sufficient. Wars require justification in the eyes of public opinion and/or the international community. As a consequence, leaders may need to insist on the virtues of war or assert that, in addition to other merits, it also serves the cause of peace. Such claims are usually contested by opponents of war who have developed and championed their own representations of war and peace. Hence, it can be argued that wars, in their preparation, execution, and remembering, are also wars of images and meanings.
Sport and Peace Psychology
Authors: Sachs Michael L. , Schweighardt Sherry L. , Buckle Michael E.
Published: November 2011

Exercise and sport psychology encompasses the application of the theory, research, and practice found within the discipline of psychology to behavior in exercise and sport. Some in our field would prefer to broaden our name to performance psychology because our work encompasses not only individuals who engage in exercise and sport (and almost any type of physical activity), but other areas of human endeavor which encompass performance, such as the performing arts (e.g., dance, theater, music), medicine (especially surgery), the military (especially special forces operations), astronautics, and so on. These are all areas where one's performance at a given moment matters, in some cases having life or death implications.
Storytelling as a Peacebuilding Method
Authors: Coburn Clare
Published: November 2011

Storytelling, like restorative justice, mediation, and other peacebuilding approaches, has its antecedents in traditional culture. Stories have been employed for entertainment, as sources of wisdom and tradition, and educational material throughout history. The sharing of stories in indigenous and folk traditions acts as a way to pass on the culture, morals, traditions, and ethos of a particular group, tribe, nation, religion, or spiritual practice.
Suicide among War Veterans
Authors: Beara Vladan
Published: November 2011

Veterans are people who have actively participated in war and survived. They carry within them the life‐changing experience of war, with which they also have to live after the war is over. Entering into war represents an extreme collapse of the dynamic balance between a human and his/her environment. This is a life change that is so massive and deep that for most warriors it leads to psychological crisis and requires a search for more adaptive coping mechanisms. “The term psychological crisis can only relate to a relatively intensive and often dramatic state of discrepancy in which the whole functioning of a person, life choices that person made, beliefs upon which they have constituted their lives, are disputed … a change that is not impartial and occasional but more or less whole and substantial” (Vlajković, 2005).
Suicide Terrorism
Authors: Noor Noraini M.
Published: November 2011

Suicide terrorism is characterized as the targeted use of self‐destructing humans against noncombatants, usually civilians, to bring about political change. While the goal of a suicide attack is to physically destroy an initial target, it is used primarily as a weapon of psychological warfare intended to influence the larger public audience. The main target is not those actually killed in the attack, but those who are made witness to it. The adversary's own media magnify the attack's effects on the target population.
Terror Management Theory: Why War?
Authors: Solomon Sheldon
Published: November 2011

An unflattering but arguably defining characteristic of humankind is a long‐standing disdain of and hostility towards other humans. Even a benevolent perusal of history reveals an appalling succession of genocidal atrocities and vicious subjugation of designated inferiors. Attila the Hun, Caligula, the Crusades, Ivan the Terrible, Peter the Cruel, Adolf Hitler, Joseph Stalin, Viet Nam, Birmingham Alabama, Pol Pot, Saddam Hussein, Rwanda, Bosnia, Osama Bin Laden … The times, places, and people change, but “man's inhumanity to man” persists; and demonic despots are never exclusively responsible for hatred and violence. It takes “normal” people, doing “God's work,” their patriotic duty, or “just following orders,” to stoke the gas chambers at Auschwitz, sow the killing fields in Cambodia, or hone the horrors of Abu Ghraib. Increasingly potent weapons of mass destruction readily accessible to religious and secular apocalyptic governmental and ad‐hoc aggregations of zealots put humans in the discomfiting position of becoming the first species to exterminate itself willfully.
Threat, Kinds and Effects of
Authors: Tausch Nicole
Published: November 2011

Threat, a central concept in theories of ethnocentric behavior and intergroup conflict, is probably one of the most important factors underlying intergroup hostility or war. Threat can be most broadly defined as the anticipation of negative consequences or loss, either for oneself or one's group, and can involve challenges to power and status, well‐being and security, beliefs and values, or self‐esteem. Threats can originate from an outgroup or from within an ingroup, as well as from more abstract factors in the environment such as economic insecurity or climate change. Psychological analyses of the role of threat emphasize the subjective nature of threat rather than objective threatening conditions. Thus, it is
perceived
rather than actual threat that affects how people think, feel, and behave. In the context of intergroup relations, experiences of threat often result in negative perceptions of and attitudes toward outgroups, as well as avoidant or confrontational behavioral tendencies. Social psychological research has demonstrated that both threats directed at an ingroup as a whole as well as threats directed at the individual can be consequential for intergroup relations.
Tolerance for Diverse Groups
Authors: Vollhardt Johanna Ray
Published: November 2011

For many centuries, tolerance for diversity has been considered crucial for maintaining peace — both by decreasing the likelihood of violence and discrimination, and by fostering social justice among diverse groups. While once the emphasis was exclusively on tolerance for religious diversity, in the last decades the focus has shifted to also include tolerance for diverse ethnic groups — immigrants as well as those native to a country. Within our increasingly multicultural and diverse societies, tolerance can be considered a key element in maintaining cultures of peace (Vollhardt, Migacheva, & Tropp, 2008).
Transitional Context
Authors: Bar‐Tal Daniel , Sharvit Keren
Published: November 2011

The concept of transitional context can be viewed as a layer that is situated between short‐lived situations and the stable long‐lasting cultural context (Bar‐Tal & Sharvit, 2008). Proposing a distinction between cultural contexts and short‐lived situations, Ashmore, Deaux, and McLaughlin‐Volpe (2004) defined situation as “a particular concrete physical and social setting in which a person is embedded in any one point in time.” Conversely, they defined cultural context as a “general and continuing multilayered and interwoven set of material realities, social structures, and shared belief system that surround any situation” (p. 103). A cultural context is constructed through years, shaped by the cumulative experiences of each society. It includes tangible and nontangible products such as symbols, scripts, habits, rules, narratives, concepts, and knowledge relating to one's group and other social categories. One critical aspect of the cultural context of social groups is shared societal beliefs, which represent the shared psychological repertoire that provides meaning and rules of practice to society members. In contrast, transitional context is based on the premise that social contexts are dynamic and changing, even when the broad structural and cultural characteristics of a society remain relatively stable over a long period of time.
Trust and Distrust
Authors: Kramer Roderick M.
Published: November 2011

Peace scholars and conflict theorists alike have long recognized the vital role that trust plays in facilitating constructive relationships, both within and between interdependent groups and nations (Kahn & Zald, 1990). Trust has been shown, for example, to facilitate the willingness of groups or nations to work toward more cooperative solutions to their problems.
Truth and Reconciliation Commissions, Psychological Impact of
Authors: Hamber Brandon
Published: November 2011

Most of the wars, either civil or intrastate, in the last century have affected civilians as well as combatants. Entire societies are victimized, institutions destroyed, and the social fabric severely damaged. Dealing with the aftermath of such conflict requires strategies of social transformation aimed at rebuilding the shattered political, economic, and social relationships characteristic of prolonged strife. Processes such as truth commissions have been identified as helping in this task by exposing the full magnitude of the destruction, assisting victims of violence, building intergroup reconciliation, and breaking the silences of repression. Truth commissions, however, are only one strategy within the broad panoply of transitional justice.
Violence, Youth
Authors: Greene Michael B.
Published: November 2011

A great deal of progress has been made during the past 20 years in our understanding of the etiology and dynamics of youth violence and in creating effective youth violence prevention and intervention programs. In this article, violence will be defined, methods of measuring youth violence will be described, key epidemiological data on youth violence in the United States will be highlighted, and four conceptual models that have influenced and shaped efforts to create effective violence prevention and intervention programs will be discussed.
Xenophobia
Authors: Bastian Brock
Published: November 2011

Xenophobia is a concept that has not received a great deal of attention in the psychological literature. According to the
Oxford English Dictionary
, the word consists of two parts:
xeno
(referring to “guest, stranger, person that looks different, foreigner”) and
phobia
(“fear, horror or aversion”). Although there has been little research or writing focusing directly on xenophobia, as a concept it raises three important issues that are relevant for research on prejudice and which have received a good deal of attention in the literature. First, prejudice does not necessarily involve negative attitudes towards others (e.g., they are dirty or untrustworthy). Simply perceiving a person as foreign, alien, or strange is sufficient to produce aversion or a preference for reduced contact. Second, xenophobia highlights the fact that prejudice against others involves both cognitive and emotional elements: It involves not only viewing other groups as different along some socially important dimension, but also having an aversive emotional reaction towards that difference. Third, prejudice is often studied within the context of intergroup relations or as attitudes held towards specific social groups; however, prejudice can also involve an aversion to difference
per se
. Xenophobia highlights the fact that sometimes people show dislike for others simply when they appear different to one's own “kind.” This form of prejudice is anchored in a love of or preference for people who are similar to one's self and an aversion to anyone who differs from one's self. In what follows I will review research and theory that elucidates each of these three central components of xenophobia, therefore providing some grounding for a term that has itself received little empirical investigation.
The Intrinsic Ability of Silk Fibroin to Direct the Formation of Diverse Aragonite Aggregates
Authors: Wang Ting , Porter David , Shao Zhengzhong
Published: November 2011

As an analogue of the main protein contained in naturally formed nacre, reconstituted silk fibroin (SF) from theBombyx morisilkworm silk shows a strong preference for the formation of the aragonite form of CaCO3crystals and allows fine control over their size and morphology. The aragonite phase could be generated via two different routes: direct growth or dissolution and recrystallization, depending on the concentration of Ca2+and SF. Generally, lower concentrations of Ca2+and SF favor the formation of aragonite needles and their aggregates, of which the lattice structure of the precursor is similar to that of the organic matrix in natural shell. Higher concentrations lead to the formation of aragonite aggregates via a dissolution and recrystallization process through intermediates of lens‐like vaterite. Molecular modeling shows that theβ‐strand conformers of silk fibroin molecules has an excellent match with the ionic spacing in the aragonite (010) plane, which can promote growth along the (001) long axis of aragonite crystals. This synergy between silk fibroin and the aragonite phase may help our understanding of the function of organic matrices involved in the biomineralization process, and facilitate the fabrication of synthetic materials with the potential for high performance mechanical properties.
Geochemical and Process Engineering Challenges for Geothermal Power Generation
Authors: Frick Stephanie , Regenspurg Simona , Kranz Stefan , Milsch Harald , Saadat Ali , Francke Henning , Brandt Wulf , Huenges Ernst
Published: November 2011

Handling of the geothermal fluid, which is typically a complex mixture of salt solution and dissolved gases, is one of the main challenges for designing and operating reliable and efficient geothermal power plants. In the geothermal fluid loop, undesired mineral precipitation and fluid‐material interactions must be prevented and the design and dimensioning of all components must be adapted according to the characteristics of the geothermal fluid. This paper outlines geochemical and process engineering aspects as well as research activities in these fields and introduces the Groß Schönebeck site, which is a central site for geothermal research.
Androgen deprivation and thromboembolic events in men with prostate cancer
Authors: Ehdaie Behfar , Atoria Coral L. , Gupta Amit , Feifer Andrew , Lowrance William T. , Morris Michael J. , Scardino Peter T. , Eastham James A. , Elkin Elena B.
Published: November 2011

BACKGROUND:

Androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) improves prostate cancer outcomes in specific clinical settings, but is associated with adverse effects, including cardiac complications and possibly thromboembolic complications. The objective of this study was to estimate the impact of ADT on thromboembolic events (TEs) in a population‐based cohort.

METHODS:

In the linked Surveillance, Epidemiology and End Results–Medicare database, we identified men older than 65 who were diagnosed with nonmetastatic prostate cancer between 1999 and 2005. Medical or surgical ADT was identified by Medicare claims for gonadotropin‐releasing hormone agonists or bilateral orchiectomy at any time following diagnosis. TEs included deep venous thrombosis, pulmonary embolism, and arterial embolism. The impact of ADT on the risk of any TE and on total number of events was estimated, controlling for patient and tumor characteristics.

RESULTS:

Of 154,611 patients with prostate cancer, 58,466 (38%) received ADT. During a median follow‐up of 52 months, 15,950 men had at least 1 TE, including 8829 (55%) who had ADT and 7121 (45%) with no ADT. ADT was associated with increased risk of a TE (adjusted hazard ratio = 1.56; 95% confidence interval, 1.50‐1.61; P < .0001), and duration of ADT was associated with the total number of events (P < .0001).

CONCLUSIONS:

In this population‐based cohort, ADT was associated with increased risk of a TE, and longer durations of ADT were associated with more TEs. Men with intermediate‐ and low‐risk prostate cancer should be assessed for TE risk factors before starting ADT and counseled regarding the risks and benefits of this therapy. Cancer 2011. © 2011 American Cancer Society.
Matrix metalloproteinase‐2 polymorphisms and clinical outcome of Chinese patients with nonsmall cell lung cancer treated with first‐line, platinum‐based chemotherapy
Authors: Zhao Xueying , Wang Xun , Wu Wenting , Gao Zhiqiang , Wu Junjie , Garfield David H. , Wang Haijian , Wang Jiucun , Qian Ji , Li Huan , Jin Li , Li Qiang , Han Baohui , Lu Daru , Bai Chunxue
Published: November 2011

BACKGROUND:

Matrix metalloproteinase‐2 (MMP‐2) is well known for its critical role in cell survival and cancer development. It also plays an important role in hematopoietic recovery after chemotherapy‐induced myelosuppression. In this study, the authors investigated the association of MMP‐2 polymorphisms with treatment efficacy and the occurrence of severe toxicity in patients with nonsmall cell lung cancer (NSCLC) who were receiving first‐line, platinum‐based chemotherapy.

METHODS:

A pharmacogenetic association study was performed in 663 Chinese patients who had inoperable stage III/IV NSCLC and were receiving first‐line, platinum‐based regimens. Information about objective response, progression‐free survival, overall survival, grade 3 or 4 gastrointestinal toxicity (nausea/vomiting), and hematologic toxicity (neutropenia, anemia, thrombocytopenia) was available. Sixteen tag single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of MMP‐2 were assessed.

RESULTS:

In 7 polymorphisms, significant associations were observed with the incidence of grade 3 or 4 neutropenia. The variant homozygotes of reference SNP rs12934241 exhibited the most significant effect on the risk of neutropenia, leading to an incidence rate that increased from 12.3% (for the C/C genotype) to 50% (for the T/T genotype; odds ratio, 8.33; P = 8.8 × 10−5). Stratified analyses indicated that rs12934241 exhibited a much stronger influence in the cisplatin‐gemcitabine regimen subgroup than subgroups that received other regimens (Pinteraction = .003). Further haplotype analyses produced results that were consistent with results from single‐SNP analyses. However, no significant association was observed between MMP‐2 polymorphisms and treatment efficacy, including response rate, clinical benefit, progression‐free survival, and overall survival.

CONCLUSIONS:

To the authors' knowledge, this study provides the first evidence for a predictive role of MMP‐2 polymorphisms in the variability of severe chemotherapy‐related neutropenia among Chinese patients with platinum‐treated, advanced NSCLC. Cancer 2012;3587–3598. © 2011 American Cancer Society.
Scripting distributed scientific workflows using Weaver
Authors: Bui Peter , Yu Li , Thrasher Andrew , Carmichael Rory , Lanc Irena , Donnelly Patrick , Thain Douglas
Published: November 2011

Weaver is a high‐level distributed computing framework that enables researchers to construct scalable scientific data‐processing workflows. Instead of developing a new workflow language, we introduce a domain‐specific language built on top of Python called Weaver, which takes advantage of users' familiarity with the programming language, minimizes barriers to adoption, and allows for integration with a rich ecosystem of existing software. In this paper, we provide an overview of Weaver's programming model, which allows users to organize and specify scientific workflows by using a collection of datasets, functions, and abstractions. We also explain how these workflow specifications are compiled into a directed acyclic graph that is used by the Makeflow workflow manager to dispatch work to a variety of distributed execution platforms. To demonstrate the power and benefits of using the framework in constructing scientific research applications, the paper examines four distinct real‐world applications scripted using Weaver and analyzes the performance, scalability, and impact of the distributed generated scientific workflows. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.