bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Goethe im Deutschunterricht
Authors: Leppmann Von Wolfgang
Published: February 2007

Wie die anderen großen Klassiker seiner und früherer Zeiten, hat auch Goethe nie Deutschunterricht im heutigen Sinne genossen. Es mag dahingestellt bleiben, ob er trotzdem oder deswegen ein—Goethe geworden ist. Tatsache ist jedoch, daß er seit etwa einem Jahrhundert im Deutschunterricht gelesen wird und daß es trotzdem noch keine größere, das Thema auch nur annähernd erschöpfende Arbeit gibt über die Behandlung, die sein Werk und seine Persönlichkeit auf der deutschen Schule erfahren haben. Eine seltsame Unterlassung in Anbetracht der sonst schon längst ins Unermeßliche angewachsenen Goetheliteratur ! War und ist die Schule denn nicht der Ort auf dem Goethes großen Nachfolgern, seinen Widersachern, und auch uns, seinem Publikum im allgemeinen, eine erste Kenntnis seiner Art und Eigenart vermittelt wurde? Mogen die Umstânde dieser ersten Bekanntschaft nicht oft genug fürs ganze Leben ausschlaggebend gewesen sein? Und hat Goethe selber die Wichtigkeit gerade des dichterischen Schulerlebnisses nicht hoch genug angesetzt als er in den Wahlverwandtschaften schrieb, daß “ein Lehrer, der das Gefühl… an einem einzigen guten Gedicht erwecken kann,” mehr leistet als einer, “der uns ganze Reihen untergeordneter Naturbildungen der Gestalt und dem Namen nach überliefert?”—Diesen Worten können freilich andere entgegengesetzt werden, etwa diejenigen, mit denen der um den Deutschunterricht besonders verdiente Rudolf Hildebrand in seinem Buche Vom deutschen Sprachunterricht (1867) den damaligen Schulbetrieb charakterisierte: “Der Unterricht im Deutschen gilt den Lehrern… nicht als der leichteste und angenehmste, ja vielen wohl als der schwerste und lästigste, und lästig, nicht selten geradezu langweilig, selbst sterbenslangweilig, nicht den Lehrern bloß, auch den Schülern, und nicht an Volks- und Bürgerschulen bloß, ebensogut, ja besonders an Gymnasien.”
Emerson and Whitehead
Authors: Campbell Harry Modean
Published: February 2007

In his discerning book entitled Emerson's Angle of Vision, Sherman Paul has pointed out two fundamental ways in which Whitehead, in spite of some obvious differences, is like Emerson. Both Emerson and Whitehead, says Paul, exalted the moral, ethical, and imaginative science of the seventeenth century over the analytical rationalism of the eighteenth century, and, as a logical consequence of this emphasis, both condemned Lockean sensationalism in the same way. Following Professor Paul's suggestion, the purpose of this study is to explore in some detail the basic views of Emerson and Whitehead about religion—man's relation to Nature and God. The remarkable similarities between the views of Emerson and those of Whitehead on this subject may not indicate much, if any, indebtedness of the twentieth-century philosopher to his nineteenth-century predecessor, but if these parallels are extensive and important enough, they may well indicate that Whitehead's total achievement in the philosophy of religion is like that of Emerson—that, religiously, Whitehead may be said to be a kind of twentieth-century Emerson, in one important way, as may appear, more of a transcendentalist than Emerson. Indeed, though the obscurity of his style will prevent him from being as popular as his predecessor, Whitehead's influence as a leader in the religious revolt against the “philosophy of logical analysis” and the other philosophies that make ours an “age of analysis” may in time be as great as that of Emerson in the similar romantic-transcendentalist revolt against the analytical rationalism of the age of “Enlightenment.” More of this later, but first let us examine the evidence.
Browning and Macready: The Final Quarrel
Authors: Reed Joseph W.
Published: February 2007

Robert Browning's theatrical career began with a casual remark at a dinner party in 1836 and ended with a bitter quarrel in 1843. The somewhat unwilling sponsor and mentor of the young playwright, responsible for both the beginning and the end of his career, was William Charles Macready, the leading actor-manager of the early nineteenth century. Between these two men there existed a relationship —more than mere tutelage, but never quite friendship—which played an important part in the making of the poet.
The French Coterie of the Savoy 1896
Authors: Garbáty Thomas Jay
Published: February 2007

The yellow nineties have always been regarded as fascinating yet also as something of a literary liability, a movement that took more from the world than it gave in return. And yet, although Art for Art may have rested in the “splendid isolation” of individual emotions, as it often did, for instance, in the poems of Arthur Symons, it was, in its debt to the French Symbolists, to Gautier, Verlaine, Mallarmé, Rimbaud, to the perfectionists like Flaubert, and in its over-all aspects to Baudelaire, truly international. There had been, of course, foreign influence on the Victorians, but never had there been such complete sympathy of interests as that which now bound the two intellectual groups facing each other across the water. Cultural barriers changed into cultural bridges, the fear of mal de mer was conquered, and the Channel was crossed and recrossed. London became a Quartier of Paris; Dowson and Wilde walked the streets dressed à la Bohème, the Beardsley group liked to think of themselves as habitués of the Café Royal, and Verlaine found an audience more rapt than that of the brasseries in the Boul. Mich. There was a new union of forces. The powerful influences of France can be traced nowhere better than in the life story of the Savoy, which, in its brief spurt of brilliant life in 1896, was more truly representative of the time than the Yellow Book. It would not be rash to call the Savoy an Anglo-French periodical, and in this, certainly, the first of its kind.
Keats, Milton, and The Fall of Hyperion
Authors: Sperry Stuart M.
Published: February 2007

It has frequently been assumed that Keats, in revising the earlier version of Hyperion into The Fall of Hyperion: A Dream, was liberating himself from the influence of Milton and, especially, of Paradise Lost. In the new induction to The Fall he abandoned the epic structure of the first Hyperion for a form that is both more personal and allegoric—that of a vision or dream. The change is sweeping, involving not only structure but style, and apparently reflects the poet's dissatisfaction with the epic nature of the earlier version. Valid reasons for that dissatisfaction are not difficult to find. The first two books of Hyperion, with their description of the fallen divinities and their conclave, in general parallel the action of the first two books of Paradise Lost. Whereas Milton in his opening books gradually introduces his main subject, the fall of man, Keats suddenly presents, in his third, the deification of the poet, Apollo, through an imaginative and supremely intense realization of human destiny and its suffering. That vision is largely subjective and personal and represents Keats's groping toward a new and more mature conception of tragic beauty, the relevance of which to the epic events that precede it is not, and perhaps never could have been, made clear. Nor is it apparent how he could have continued his narrative when its climax had already been achieved.
James Joyce: Barnacle Goose and Lapwing
Authors: Beebe Maurice
Published: February 2007

It Is a paradox that James Joyce, exemplar of the artist-as-exile, was one of the most domestic of modern writers—“very much a family man, a devoted husband, a good father, and a loyal son.” For Stephen Dedalus, the artist as young man, the artist as family man would have seemed a contradiction in terms. The true artist, Stephen insisted, must free himself from allegiance to home and family as well as country and church. The paradox is no problem for those critics who, dissociating Joyce from his fictional counterpart, consider Stephen less a portrait than a parody of the artist and his theory of art one that Joyce either never took seriously or eventually rejected. If, however, the testimony of Joyce's brother and others who knew him in Dublin may be accepted, the young Joyce was a good deal like Stephen in situation, manners, and temperament; and the ideas on art and artist which appear in Joyce's early essays and notebooks are virtually the same as those expounded by Stephen. This is not to say that the Joyce who wrote A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man and Ulysses is identical with the Joyce-Stephen presented in the novels. Between the time depicted and the time of writing occurred several events, including his elopement with Nora Barnacle in October 1904, which changed the artist's outlook. Yet, if Joyce looked back on the foibles of his youth with amused detachment and described them with irony, he was ready to admit the relationship between author and hero. “Many writers have written about themselves,” he said to Frank Budgen, “I wonder if any of them has been as candid as I have.”
Irish Folk Songs in Joyce's Ulysses
Authors: Worthington Mabel P.
Published: February 2007

The importance of music in James Joyce's life and art has always been evident. A volume of his poems he called Chamber Music; the title of his last book is that of an Irish-American ballad. Almost the first recollections of young Stephen Dedalus were musical; and one of the most moving passages of A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man describes Stephen's hungry young brothers and sisters singing “Oft in the Stilly Night,” in which Stephen joins. Music plays an essential part in several stories in Dubliners, notably in “The Dead.” Ulysses and Finnegans Wake are full of references to music and musicians.
The Intellectual Background of Lizardi as Reflected in El Periquillo Sarniento
Authors: Spell Jefferson Rea
Published: February 2007

The Promulgation, in 1812, of the Constitution of Cadiz provoked throughout Spain and her domains a bitter controversy between the opponents and the partisans of that liberal and innovative body of legislation. Among the supporters in Mexico City was José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi (1776–1827), who, as soon as the Constitution went into effect there, established a sheet, El Pensador Mexicano (1812–14), with the avowed purpose of defending the new form of government and of praising its liberal provisions, particularly those granting freedom of the press and abolishing the Inquisition. His first article began with an exlamation: “¡Gracias a Dios y la nueva Constitutión que ya nos vamos desimpresionando de algunos errores que nos tenían enterrados nuestros antepasados!” But, in spite of the freedom of the press, the Viceroy ordered his arrest, and some months in jail dampened his enthusiasm; he continued, however, his periodical as well as its successor, the Alacena de Frioleras (1815), with articles of a less controversial nature, until the end of that year. Continually in difficulty with the censors after 1814, when the Constitution was abrogated by Ferdinand VII, he finally limited himself to the writing of fiction until the reestablishment of the Constitution in 1820. During this period he produced four novels, one of which, El Periquillo Sarniento (1816), is his masterpiece. While the characters and setting of this novel are definitely Mexican, with certain autobiographical elements, the mold in which it is cast is that of the Spanish picaresque. Like its prototype in general, the Periquillo is concerned with matters of a purely ethical nature; but this aspect of the novel is less impressive—in contrast, for example, with Alemán's Guzmán de Alfarache or the novels of Francisco Santos—than the wealth of ideas in regard to definite reforms that the author believes would contribute to the general welfare. These ideas, interwoven with incidents in the life of a picaro, did not originate with the author but reflect wide reading in many fields. To point out the sources of these ideas, and thereby fathom the intellectual background of Lizardi, is the object of this article.
The Pattern of the Stowaway in Goethe's Works
Authors: Buck George C.
Published: February 2007

The Purpose of this paper is to analyze one particular aspect of Goethe's creative process which manifests itself throughout his artistic career, a strange and as yet unexplained motivation which prompted him at times to incorporate in his works enigmatic elements which puzzled his contemporaries and continue to confound scholars. Toward the end of Werther, for example, we find several pages of a translation from Ossian. The sixth book of Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre is purportedly a manuscript entrusted to a doctor by a mysterious aunt and which bears a title of its own: “Die Bekenntnisse einer schönen Seele.” Obviously this chapter made a singular impression on the public at that time, because in 1806 an otherwise unknown author by the name of Friedrich Buchholz wrote a novel with this same title and it was reviewed by Goethe. Goethe's chapter has even been issued in a separate edition by the theologian Hermann Dechent. Not many novels contain chapters which can exist independent of their matrix.
Malory's Treatment of the Sankgreall
Authors: Moorman Charles
Published: February 2007

Eugene vinaver, in his 1947 edition of the Winchester manuscript of Malory's Morte Darthur, has this to say generally about Malory's handling of the source for his sixth section, the French Vulgate Cycle La Queste del Saint Graal: “Malory's Tale of the Sankgreall is the least original of his works. Apart from omissions and minor alterations, it is to all intents and purposes a translation of the French. … His attitude [toward the source] may be described without much risk of over-simplification as that of a man to whom the quest of the Grail was primarily an Arthurian adventure and who regarded the intrusion of the Grail upon Arthur's kingdom not as a means of contrasting earthly and divine chivalry and condemning the former, but as an opportunity offered to the Knights of the Round Table to achieve still greater glory in this world.” Thus Vinaver proceeds in his introduction and notes to this “sixth romance” of Malory's to show in detail how Malory “secularizes” the Grail. In spite of these claims, I think it possible to show 1) that Malory's Tale of the Sankgreall is not simply a redaction of the French material, 2) that Malory's changes are far from mere “omissions and minor alterations,” and 3) that Malory's attitude toward his source is not as Vinaver describes it.
Fictional Evolution: The Old French Romances and the Primitive Amadís Reworked by Montalvo
Authors: Place Edwin B.
Published: February 2007

The earliest authenticated printed version of the Amadís de Gaula, a prose romance of chivalry reworked and expanded into four books (and a subsequently published sequel) by the Spaniard Garcí Rodríguez de Montalvo, appeared at Saragossa in 1508. Between this date and 1492 an earlier edition of Montalvo's work was undoubtedly published, probably in Castile. As we shall see, this may or may not have been partly or wholly identical in content with a MS. Amadis embodying certain changes in the Briolanja episode made at the instigation of a Prince Alfonso of Portugal. Before 1379 there was an Amadis in three books circulating in Castile, and about this same time a version, perhaps the same, by one Vasco Lobeira of Portugal was extant. Moreover, there was an Amadis of unknown proportions, but presumably of one or two books only, as early as 1345–50. I shall show that this version may have been written in 1331. But no version, I repeat, survives except Montalvo's.
Science and Society in the New Atlantis and Other Renaissance Utopias
Authors: Bierman Judah
Published: February 2007

Though apparently only a fragment, the posthumously published New Atlantis provides insights into Bacon's idea of science not discoverable in his other works. In Salomon's House, the poet of science gave a local habitation and a name to the process and product of science, creating a concrete image of the “learning” for which he had sued so eloquently and so fruitlessly twenty years earlier before the new monarch, the learned James. Clearly an integral part of Bacon's program, in many places the New Atlantis is no less than a fictionalized paradigm of The First Book of the Advancement of Learning For example, as a correlative to the arguments by which he defended learning from the ignorant zeal of religious, political, and social fanatics, Bacon created in the New Atlantis a little world sanctified to God, politically stable, socially conservative, and morally pure and dedicated to the pursuit of science. Further, in its leading institution, the College of the Six Days Works, we find also a correlative to the criticisms of contemporary scientific practice that Bacon had offered earlier in The Advancement in his analysis of “the errors and vanities which have intervened amongst the studies themselves of the learned” and in the “peccant humours” which weaken and corrupt learning. But the New Atlantis is more than a mere paradigm: it projects an image of science in operation and of the relation of scientists to society not to be found in Bacon's earlier works. My purpose here is to explore the structure of that image, emphasizing in particular the contrast between it and the image of science projected by other Renaissance Utopias.
Dorothy M. Richardson: The Personal “Pilgrimage”
Authors: Glikin Gloria
Published: February 2007

During her lifetime Dorothy Richardson withheld all but the essential facts about herself—and gave even these grudgingly. In the years of the novelist's greatest vogue, between 1915 and 1930, when Pilgrimage was preferred by some of its readers to Proust and Joyce and was dismissed by others as unformed and insignificant, she held back the minimal biographical details which most novelists readily furnish. She listed neither place of birth nor date in Who's Who. She offered only what was known: the titles of her books and her publisher's address, and in a parenthesis her married name. It would seem that she wished to remain for her readers the author of Pilgrimage, the creator of Miriam, the historian of a woman's stream of consciousness.
The Lost Girl: D. H. Lawrence as a “Dickens of The Midlands”
Authors: Gtjrko Leo
Published: February 2007

The nervous, obsessional Lawrence, summoning mysterious gods, blueprinting Utopian colonies with himself at their head, and assuming the Christlike task of changing the course of modern history, tends to shut out our view of the other Lawrences. He was also, somewhat unexpectedly, a writer with a highly developed flair for comic satire.
Unferth: Foil to Beowulf?
Authors: Ogilvy J. D. A.
Published: February 2007

On the evidence available, it is possible to arrive at a considerable variety of views on the artistic technique of the author of Beowulf. Even so, it is doubtful whether we should attribute to him the subtlety of a Sartre, as, apparently, does J. L. Rosier in his “A Design for Treachery: The Unferth Intrigue.”
Animals in Molière
Authors: Hope Quentin M.
Published: February 2007

References to animals, epithets that reduce men to the level of animals, anecdotes, proverbs, and allusions which assume that men and animals are in all respects alike, and appearances on stage of animals or of men disguised as animals have been staple ingredients of comedy from Aristophanes to Ionesco. Comedy rarely loses sight of the fact that human behavior has its animal aspects; farce uses it as a cornerstone of its madhouse. It is therefore only natural that the animal world should be represented in Molière comedy. It is not as generously represented, either in incident or in imagery, as it is in Shakespeare; no one is metamorphosed into a donkey from the shoulders up like Bottom, or dons a stag's horns like Falstaff; nor does any animal play a part as important as Citron in Racine's Les Plaideurs, the dog who is tried for stealing a roast and whose puppies, deposited in the lap of the judge in a desperate appeal to compassion, break up the proceedings by an ill-timed response to the call of nature. No animals make their presence felt so palpably in Molière. In fact, animals appear on stage only in his pastoral plays. But their frequent appearances in the dialogue illustrate the richness and variety of the resources which Molière brought to the task of writing comedy.
Congreve's Mirabell and the Ideal of the Gentleman
Authors: Gagen Jean
Published: February 2007

Since The Way of the World was first presented in 1700, almost every conceivable issue involving this comedy has been subject to critical discussion. For some time, there has been nearly unanimous agreement that the play is a masterpiece of its kind. Yet a notable misunderstanding of what Congreve intended in his portraiture of Mirabell continues to be expressed. Mirabell is commonly but mistakenly regarded as a rake and a cad, who, in spite of his polished manners, is guilty of reprehensible behavior.
Schillers Abhandlung “Über Naive und Sentimentalische Dichtung” Im Lichte Der Deutschen Popularphilosophie Des 18. Jahrhunderts
Authors: Hermand Von Jost
Published: February 2007

Schillers Verhältnis zur Ästhetik ist bisher fast ausschließlich unter der Perspektive seiner Kant-Rezeption betrachtet worden. Was sich darüber hinaus an Hinweisen auf Vorkantisches, vor allem auf die sogenannte “Popularphilosophie” des 18. Jahrhunderts findet, erschöpft sich meist in bloßen Titelangaben oder übernommenen Zitaten. So tauchen Baumgarten, Mendelssohn, Garve oder Sulzer, um nur die wichtigsten Anreger zu nennen, lediglich in den Anmerkungen der historisch-kritischen Gesamtausgaben oder in kleinen, wenig beachteten Spezialuntersuchungen auf, während sie in zusammenfassenden Darstellungen häufig übergangen werden, um Schillers ästhetische Anschauungen nicht in den Bereich des “Obskuren” herabziehen zu müssen. Besonders in der Zeit um 1900, die im Zeichen eines blühenden Neukantianismus stand, herrschte fast durchweg die Meinung von Udo Gaede: “Von einem positiven Einfluß dieser Studien [gemeint sind die Popularphilosophen] auf Schillers Schriften wird man im allgemeinen kaum sprechen können. Ihre Theorien waren durch Kants Begründung der Ästhetik überwunden, und Schillers Ideen beruhten zu sehr auf Kant, als daß er sich anders als ablehnend gegen sie hätte verhalten können.”
The Mode of Byron's Don Juan
Authors: Ridenour George M.
Published: February 2007

A problem currently in our reading of Byron's Don Juan is that of identifying the speaker. There is a tendency to deny the presence of a single speaker, and to dissolve the poem into a number of different voices. This, accompanied by an emphasis on the ironic nature of statements made in the course of the work, is intended to move us towards seeing the poem as ultimately ironic, often with some suggestion of the literature of the “absurd.” An extreme statement of this position is offered by William H. Marshall, who claims that the structural basis of the poem is “only the seeming myriad of speakers.”
The Mythographers and the Romantic Revival of Greek Myth
Authors: Zwerdling Alex
Published: February 2007

That the english romantic poets were much more seriously interested in Greek myth, both in itself and as a subject for poetry, than their eighteenth-century predecessors hardly requires demonstration. The divergence may be suggested, admittedly in somewhat exaggerated form, by juxtaposing two quotations: Addison (in Spectator 523) congratulates a new poet because he “had not amused himself with Fables out of the Pagan Theology,” unlike the fashionable poetasters who filled their works with the exploits of river gods; and Keats hopes (in the Preface to Endymion) that he had “not in too late a day touched the beautiful mythology of Greece, and dulled its brightness.” The poet who uses the “pagan fables,” Addison suggests, can only be amusing himself; while for Keats those fables have become “the beautiful mythology of Greece,” which the poet scarcely feels himself worthy to touch.
The Concept of Inspiration in Thoreau's Poetry
Authors: Williams Paul O.
Published: February 2007

The great majority of Thoreau's poems bear in some way on the subject of inspiration: on the conditions of its induction, the description of its progression, the feeling and value of the vision it gives, or the lament for its absence. A study of inspiration in Thoreau's poetry throws new light on his poetic structures, themes, and image patterns, and perhaps offers ground for comment on why Thoreau dropped verse for prose almost entirely quite early in his writing career.
Zola, Pelletan, and La Tribune
Authors: Kanes Martin
Published: February 2007

Victor Hugo, observing his unhappy homeland from exile in Guernsey, wrote, in Napoléon le petit: “Et la liberté de la presse! Qu'en dire? N'est il pas dérisoire seulement de prononcer ce mot?” The word and the thing had indeed been effectively muzzled by the decrees of 17 and 23 February 1852, which made of each editor the censor of his own publication and punished infractions in the criminal courts. The history of journalism under the Second Empire is sad indeed, and there is no need to retell it here; for a number of complex reasons, the press law of 1868 eventually eliminated the “censure préventive” and in response to pressures for a “liberal” empire established that “tout Français majeur et jouissant de ses droits civils et politiques peut, sans autorisation préalable, publier un journal ou écrit périodique.” Although it retained the requirements of prior declaration of ownership and staff, as well as the fiscal stamp, the new law was nevertheless a long step in the direction of freedom.
Stephen Dedalus, Poet or Esthete?
Authors: Scholes Robert
Published: February 2007

The Problem of Stephen Dedalus is one of the most curious and interesting in modern letters. One aspect of the problem has been brought to our attention recently in a very impressive book by Wayne C. Booth, The Rhetoric of Fiction (Chicago, 1961). Mr. Booth notes that A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man was not, by its first readers, thought to be an ironic work. It was after the publication of Ulysses, with its presentation of Stephen as the fallen Icarus, that the reassessment of Stephen's character began; and it was the publication of the Stephen Hero fragment in 1944 which really accelerated the movement toward a view of the novel as mainly ironic, with Stephen seen as a posturing esthete rather than an actual or even a potential artist. The most extreme version of this ironic view of Stephen has been proposed by Hugh Kenner, in his Dublin's Joyce (1955).
T. S. Eliot on Henry James
Authors: Holder Alan
Published: February 2007

Considering how little T. S. Eliot has written about the novel, one is especially struck by the frequency with which the name of Henry James gets into his criticism. Eliot has left little doubt as to his admiration for James, having referred to him once as “the most intelligent man of his generation,” and on another occasion having placed him among “the greatest novelists.” More than one student of Eliot has shown the influence of James's works on his poetry, but virtually nothing has been said about the nature and validity of Eliot's critical remarks on a writer who has been a stock property of his mind for the last half century. It is the aim of this study to examine the responses that one of America's major novelists has called forth from the most influential critic of our time.
The Role of Emulation in Corneille's Polyeucte
Authors: Harvey Lawrence E.
Published: February 2007

Any critic writing on Polyeucle must come to grips with a problem that is specific to this particular play (not merely generic, as the conflict between two kinds of “love-duty”). He must ask himself, “Why did Corneille, the poet of heroic humanism, choose to write about Christian martyrdom?” I do not believe it is an adequate answer to say that he did not write about Christian martyrdom but, once again, about heroic humanism. It must have been obvious to Corneille that on the one hand martyrdom had something in common with heroism and on the other that it provided a new variation on the theme. The question, then, is to identify this new variation, to determine the quiddity of Polyeucte, the special light it throws on the Cornelian glorification of man. If Corneille's theater as a whole is about idealism, its potential and its dangers, then the Christian idealism of the martyr is particular in several ways. It demands the ultimate sacrifice, which is not necessarily demanded of the secular hero. The martyr must not only risk his life, he must give it. At the same time, it promises an ultimate in glory. Thus, both the “danger” and the “potential” are extreme. It is this aspect of martyrdom that enters the dramaturgy of Polyeucte in the conflicts between the heroic Christian idealism of Polyeucte and Néarque and the various forms and levels of religious and secular idealism represented by the other characters (and Polyeucte and Néarque) at different moments of the play. But there is a related yet even more fundamental aspect of martyrdom that is built into the fabric and structure of Polyeucle. As Tertullian wrote (A pologeticus, Ch. i), “The more you mow us down, the more quickly we grow; the blood of Christians is fresh seed.” Grace, working through the example of the martyr, leads others to augment the ranks of the Christians. It is this theme of emulation that is central in Polyeucte and forms the link between the two worlds of heroic humanism and Christian martyrdom. As has often been pointed out, admiration is a key emotion in Corneille's theatre. But it is not solely an emotion the playwright hopes to evoke in the spectator; it is also a basic response of many characters to the noble and courageous actions of other characters and a response they hope to arouse in others by their own actions. Now the term admiration, the act of gazing at with wonder, can (and did at times in the Latin) imply strong approval and desire. Admiration may, as it very often does in Corneille, lead to emulation. I should like to suggest that in this theme the seventeenth-century dramatist discovered a religious analogue to the admiring imitation of a model or an ideal self-image that we find typical of so many of his secular heroes.
Apprendre “Le Larron” de Guillaume Apollinaire
Authors: Cranston Mechthild
Published: February 2007

Malgré l'obscurité voulue, “ce poème troublant et mystérieux” (qui parut d'abord dans La Plume du ler-15 aoÛt 1903) n'est pas sans nous livrer des clefs à son interprétation. Dans l'étude qui suit nous essaierons d'apprendre ce Larron d'Apollinaire dans son propre réseau lexique, thématique et psychologique qui retient son identité. Nous tâcherons de le saisir en flagrant délit pour connaître le motif et le but de son crime. Aux fruits qu'il vole nous connaîtrons le voleur qui, par son i dentité même, justifiera son crime.
Time and Place in Donne's Sermons
Authors: Gifford William
Published: February 2007

Certain of Donne's sermons can be fully appreciated only if we know a great deal more about their background than we usually do. The editors of his sermons have supplied brief descriptions, in many cases, of the circumstances in which the sermons were given but, except for certain obvious examples such as the Sermon of Valediction, did not have time to show how closely Donne's sermons, even those which are less celebrated, could be involved in the time and place in which they were delivered.The purpose of this paper is to call for a more serious in-depth approach to the backgrounds of many sermons by showing that such an approach can be of real value. Donne was a world made cunningly of elements in the sermons as well as the poems, and a large part of that world was his interest in the people and events around him. Often he succeeded in bringing those people and events into his art of preaching, and until his manner of doing so is examined his art goes unrecognized and one side of his complex mind will be unappreciated.
William Combe and the Original Letters of the Late Reverend Mr. Laurence Sterne (1788)
Authors: Hamilton Harlan W.
Published: February 2007

Of all the ambiguous publications which for two centuries have muddied the waters of Sterne scholarship, none has given more trouble than a small volume which appeared in 1788 with the title Original Letters of the Late Reverend Mr. Laurence Sterne; Never Before Published. Printed at the Logographic Press and issued without a word of explanation twenty years after Sterne's death, this collection of thirty-nine letters contains material which, if it can be accepted as authentic, is of substantial importance to the biographer of Sterne. Unfortunately, the biographers have never been able to agree on its authenticity.
Rhythm as Form in Lawrence: “The Horse Dealer's Daughter”
Authors: Mccabe Thomas H.
Published: February 2007

D. H. Lawrence's art is not so loose as many critics have thought. Indeed, his most characteristic stories reveal a coherent form that rests on various rhythmic devices: repeated scenes, phrases, and characters. These may be called conventional rhythmic devices, but the form of these stories rests chiefly on Lawrence's unique rhythmic devices: the dynamic relations of attraction-repulsion between his characters and his expanding rhythmic imagery that enables him to reveal direct psychic experience. E. M. Forster's Aspects of the Novel and E. K. Brown's Rhythm in the Novel provide the theoretical background for the term, “rhythm,” but Lawrence's use of rhythm in fiction is only partly explained in these critics' terms. “The Horse Dealer's Daughter” is a perfect example of rhythmic form in Lawrence's work: the dynamic, to-and-fro rhythm between death and life, between the daily self controlled by the will and the essential self guided by desire, between the two lovers each separate and other who touch and draw apart, touch and draw apart. And all these rhythms are gradually transformed from the realistic to the psychic or unconscious world through repeated and expanding images of eyes, hands, waters.
Disenchantment: Tom Sawyer in Huckleberry Finn
Authors: Fetterley Judith
Published: February 2007

Mark Twain's disenchantment with the boy hero of his first novel is revealed in a series of significant changes which distinguish the Tom Sawyer of Adventures of Huckleberry Finn from the Tom Sawyer of The Adventures of Tom Sawyer. In Tom Sawyer, Tom's cruelty is essentially a by-product of his failure to consider the consequences of his actions; when he does consider, he feels remorse. In Huckleberry Finn, cruelty is a primary motive in all Tom's plans. Tom's interest in rules in Tom Sawyer is a minor aspect of his character and in fact supports his larger role of exposing the rigidities and hypocrisies of the rule- ridden society of St. Petersburg; in Huckleberry Finn, Tom's interest in rules is an obsession which makes him the butt rather than the agent of exposure and intensifies his cruelty. Tom is the natural leader of the world of Tom Sawyer because each of his schemes provides pleasure for those concerned. In Huckleberry Finn, Tom has nothing of value to offer; he maintains his control instead through a series of tyrannies. The ending of Huckleberry Finn is a major exposure of Tom's cruelty and of the connection between cruelty and pleasure in his mind.
The Death of Lazarillo de Tormes
Authors: Gilman Stephen
Published: February 2007

In Contrast to the apologetic and ambiguous prologue of the Libro de buen amor, that preceding the Lazarillo de Tormes shocks us with its forthright arrogance: “Yo por bien tengo que cosas tan señaladas y por ventura nunca oydas ni vistas vengan a noticia de muchos y no se entierren en la sepultura del olvido.” The evasive ego of Juan Ruiz—an ego which, as Alfonso Reyes notes, is comic by mediaeval definition and slips with childish glee into one role after another—has been replaced by an explosion of self: “Yo por bien tengo …” The “soy quien soy” of the hero-braggarts of the “comedia” seems to have been combined with the autobiographical complacency of an Alonso de Contreras or a Pedro de Baeza. The result is that the reader, as soon as he becomes aware of the insignificance of the events so pompously announced, tends to read the prologue as a parody. If Lazarillo is an anti-hero, the prologue is appropriately an anti-prologue. The oral bombast of “cosas tan señaladas y por ventura nunca oydas ni vistas” sounds almost as if it were designed to hawk the “pliegos sueltos” of a “romance.” Prologues are by definition self-conscious, but in this one self-consciousness is driven to self-caricature.
Miss Havisham Brought to Book
Authors: Meisel Martin
Published: February 2007

We are lucky to have in Forster's admirable life of Dickens what Forster himself calls the “germ” of Great Expectations. Forster reports that in 1860 Dickens announced in a letter, “For a little piece I have been writing—or am writing; for I hope to finish it to-day—such a very fine, new, and grotesque idea has opened upon me, that I begin to doubt whether I had not better cancel the little paper, and reserve the notion for a new book. You shall judge as soon as I get it printed. But it so opens out before me that I can see the whole of a serial revolving on it, in a most singular and comic manner.” “This,” Forster adds, “was the germ of Pip and Magwitch,” and a marginal gloss declares, “Germ of new tale.”
The Middle English Amis and Amiloun: Chivalric Romance or Secular Hagiography?
Authors: Kratins Ojars
Published: February 2007

Romance is one of the most abused generic terms of medieval literature. For a good many scholars it serves as a commodious bottom drawer which will hold almost anything that could not be stored elsewhere. Having been enlarged to mean nothing less than “imaginative fiction,” the term romance communicates very little, especially when it is applied to such a conglomerate body of works as “The Middle English Romances.” Apparently indifferent to the possibilities of greater clarity and meaning through a more circumspect application of the word, scholars have wasted little time on morphological problems in the Middle English romances, and yet they would not discountenance discussions of whether The Scarlet Letter is a novel or a romance. There, indeed, labelling the work with one or the other term becomes a matter of making a statement about the area of meaning of the work and about the techniques with which this meaning is conveyed. In medieval studies, the latitude in application of the term romance and its consequent diminishing usefulness for descriptive purposes might have been felt more keenly if it were not for the assumption that the tracing of the sources of a given work has contributed the most significant part to its understanding. However, the variety of forms that the same story material can demonstrably assume, e.g., the Arthurian tradition, should make us more sensitive to the opinion of some scholars that generic patterns have a more important influence than story material upon the shape of a literary product. Moreover, the concept of genre acts as a kind of perspective which one assumes towards the work one is examining, and depending upon its appropriateness, it can make the structure more or less meaningful. The few writers who have ventured to deal with the whole body of the so-called romances and to make judgments on their respective merits have ignored the possibility that, without finer and more specific terminological distinctions, they may be mistaken about some of the ugly ducklings. Such has been the lot of the Middle English version of the story of Amis and Amiloun, because the perspectives of romance and saint's legend are not identical.
The Dialectic of Il Cortegiano
Authors: Lipking Lawrence
Published: February 2007

The book of the Courtier, by the overwhelming weight of its reputation and influence, comes to us as a handbook of the courtly virtues, or, more historically considered, as a treatise on the education of a Renaissance courtier. It is reasonable that it should. Castiglione himself announced his intention of teaching “what manner of man he must be who deserves the name of perfect Courtier, without defect of any kind” (i, 1); and his division of his work into four books which treat successively and compendiously the personal qualities, the conduct, the female counterpart, and the utility and aspirations of the courtier emphasizes its appearance of being a handbook. One can hardly refute, therefore, those writers who use The Courtier as an encyclopaedia of courteous manners, or even those who find in it a manual of Renaissance philosophy. Few works of the Renaissance have a more genuine documentary value.
The Problem of Billy Budd
Authors: Rosenberry Edward H.
Published: February 2007

When a monumental new edition of Billy Budd appeared in 1962, it was the hope of the editors that their exhaustive scholarship might contribute to a definitive interpretation of the novel. Such a wish might seem unnecessarily restrictive, but the extreme critical divergence on Billy Budd has created a genuine threat to its artistic integrity as a result of its apparent failure to support a demonstrable reading. This essay is an attempt to end the war, or to make the end more predictable.
A Reading of Robert De Boron
Authors: Giffin Mary E.
Published: February 2007

In writing the chapter on “The Work of Robert de Boron and the Didot Perceval” for Arthurian Literature in the Middle Ages, Pierre Le Gentil shows that many questions remain unanswered for readers of the Metrical Joseph. Beyond the statements which we understand as the poet's—that at the time when he told the story of the graal he was with his lord Gautier de Montbéliard in peace, that no one had yet told the story, and that he intends to continue with stories of Alain, Petrus, Moyses, and Bron—we have been guided in our reading largely by conjecture. From the fragment of the Merlin which follows the Metrical Joseph in MS. fr. 20047 of the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris, we can see that the poet places the two works within the concept of the struggle between Christ and Satan for the soul of man. Several of his sources have been pointed out; but beyond a few conclusions from the text itself, a reader wonders at the strange combination of Christian tradition and Celtic legend which Robert de Boron has effected in these two works. Discussions have been complicated by manuscripts of works related in various ways to the poems of MS. fr. 20047, and by the proliferation of stories of the Grail following Robert de Boron's Christianization of Celtic stories which had been circulating for about a hundred years before his time.
Theme and Structure in the Merchant's Tale: The Function of the Pluto Episode
Authors: Wentersdorf Karl P.
Published: February 2007

to Regard the Merchant's tale simply as a conventional piece of anti-feminist literature, exemplifying the faithlessness of married women, is to overlook the Merchant's simultaneous concern with the role of the husband in matrimony and with his joint responsibility for the success or failure of his marriage. That responsibility is brought out in the course of the argument which takes place between January and his brethren when the old knight announces his intention of wedding a young girl. The debate emphasizes the folly of the proposed step, as much through the sycophantic approval of Placebo as through the objective and wise warnings of Justinus. But it is more than a question of folly. The Merchant draws attention to the knight's lechery, his indifference to a young woman's feelings, and his jealousy; and these weaknesses are stressed as the counterparts to May's wantonness, her indifference to January's feelings, and her infidelity. If May does wrong in breaking her marriage vows, January is also at fault in marrying for completely selfish reasons; and from the medieval theological standpoint, he is clearly wrong in arguing (E 1836–41) that in wedlock his lechery is not sinful.
Reconstruction of the Faust Book: The Disputations
Authors: Haile H. G.
Published: February 2007

Toward the close of the last century, one of the busiest areas of literary research centered about the Faust Book. The Faust image, that unique gift of Germany to Western tradition, had fascinated scholars and critics for over a hundred years, and the oldest printed texts of the Faust Book had long since been established and edited. During the nineteenth century, however, further documentary references to the historical Faust had been accumulating, while at the same time researchers had gained a more complete and accurate knowledge of the scope of the Faust legend together with its relationship to similar sorcerers' tales. Then, beginning in the 1880's, a number of important discoveries were made in such rapid succession as to hinder careful evaluation of any one document.
Le Comique dans l'œuvre romanesque de Sartre
Authors: Prince Gerald
Published: February 2007

The comic in Sartre's fiction stems primarily from exaggerated ridicule of certain characters. In La Nausée, Roquentin describes the bourgeois surrounding him as completely devoid of individuality. The comedy results from the substitution of the mechanical for the human, from the distance between the pretenses of the bourgeois and reality, and from the parody of literary giants such as Proust. Le Mur shows Sartre's comic power in portraying people's bad faith. Again, comedy results from humans losing their humanity and from the contradictions inherent in certain visions of reality. The subject of Les Chemins de la liberi éallows for less comedy, but humor is not lacking in Sartre's last novels. Sartre uses comedy mainly to denounce bad faith. He uses it also to indicate certain changes in a character's situation and, in La Nausée, to underline his hero's predicament. The importance of comedy in Sartre's fiction proves that he is not only a philosophical novelist but also a comic one. (In French)
Hunting Epiphany-Hunters
Authors: Feshbach Sidney
Published: February 2007

Robert Scholes's view that Joyce was primarily interested in constructing a genre composed of epiphanies as texts, and not equally interested in the epiphany as a process of esthetic apprehension or in the possible use of the epiphany as a structural principle, is disputed in these comments. This argument seeks to establish briefly that Joyce held the epiphany—process and text—as essentially integrated and inseparable. The comments are a response to Robert Scholes's correspondence with Florence Walzl (PMLA, March 1967).
Robert Burton's Tricks of Memory
Authors: Renaker David
Published: February 2007

A comparison of the text of Burton's Anatomy of Melancholy with its sources shows the latter to have undergone substantial alterations apparently wrought unconsciously by the author's memory. These alterations run to type: figures are exaggerated and extraordinary events are made more extraordinary. Sometimes figments are created by the fusion of two remembered names, or the elements of two stories, into one. The resulting distortions and figments often exceed their originals in literary charm, but the effect is never to falsify or misrepresent the meaning of the original.
Sir Kenneth Clark's The Nude: Catalyst for Robert Graves's “The Naked and the Nude”?
Authors: Hollahan Eugene
Published: February 2007

One of Robert Graves's favorites among his own poems is “The Naked and the Nude,” frequently anthologized but rarely commented upon by critics. Sir Kenneth Clark's The Nude: A Study in Ideal Form (1956), a work of art history, most likely served as the initial stimulus for this poem. The initial chapter of Clark's book, which appeared one year before Graves's poem, has the same title as the poem. Analysis shows that the poem develops an argument for frank, direct nakedness as opposed to cunning, prurient nudity; this argument is also implied in Clark's monumental study of nude art. Further, Clark is himself influenced by various English poets; hence, a reciprocal process is here at woik, resulting in a cross-pollination between two distinct disciplines. Discovery of this catalyst for Graves's poem is valuable because it provides us with insights into the nature of Graves's imaginative processes, and it also helps to explain Graves's preference for this poem.