bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Application of Diagnostic Criteria For Migraine Without Aura*
Authors: Torelli P , Beghi E , Manzoni G C
Published: November 2023

Thanks to its unquestionable merits, the International Headache Society (IHS) classification published in 1988 has been instrumental for a correct scientific and clinical approach to primary and symptomatic headaches. Fifteen years later, nosographic and clinical knowledge has considerably improved, calling for a revision of the 1988 classification and leading to the publication of the International Classification of Headache Disorders (2nd edition) (ICHD-II) in 2004. Although substantial progress has been made in the last few years, there is still much to be learned in the headache field.
Tension-Type Headache: What is New in the Second Edition of the International Classification of Headache Disorders?
Authors: Bendtsen L , Jensen R
Published: November 2023

The classification of tension-type headache is not simple. Tension-type headache is the most common of primary headaches with a lifetime prevalence of 30%–78% thus known to almost everybody, but it is also the most featureless of headaches, which obviously makes classification difficult. It is also the headache type with the highest socioeconomic impact of all primary headaches and yet one of the least studied headaches, which hampers progress in classification.
Other Primary Headaches: Old Concepts and New Views
Authors: Nappi G , Sandrini G , Ghiotto N , Cecchini A P , Tassorelli C , Sances G
Published: November 2023

Since the appearance, in 1988, of the International Headache Society’s Classification and Diagnostic Criteria for Headache Disorders, Cranial Neuralgias and Facial Pain, numerous papers have been published, aiming to validate the proposed criteria or to identify new nosographic entities. In the recently published second edition of the classification (International Classification of Headache Disorders, ICHD-II), Chapter IV, previously named ‘Primary Miscellaneous Headaches’, emerges as one of the chapters to have under- gone the most profound revision, as indicated by its title, which has now been changed to Other Primary Headaches.
Duration of Rebound Headache in the Treatment of Substance-Overuse Headache: Effects of Prednisolone Versus Tricyclic Antidepressants
Authors: Göbel H , Heinze A , Heinze-Kuhn K
Published: November 2023

If taken too frequently, all effective migraine and headache drugs can lead to an increase in headache frequency and ultimately to permanent headache. Before the complete picture of ‘medication-induced permanent headache’ is reached, patients experience a continuous increase in the frequency of headache attacks and also an increase in the dosage needed to obtain relief. Medication-induced headache may also occur in cases of incorrect use of triptans. Reports in the literature about medication-induced headache in connection with the use of triptans have been known for several years.
Headache Attributed to Mild Head Injury
Authors: Stovner L J , Mickeviciene D , Schrader H , Obelieniene D , Surkiene D , Kunickas R , Sand T
Published: November 2023

Two studies on the postconcussion syndrome (PCS) have relatively recently been performed in Lithuania, one historical and one prospective cohort study, both with control groups. The present paper summarizes the results on headache in these studies, and discusses the results in relation to the relevant diagnoses of the International Classification of Headache Disorders (ICHD II): acute (5.1.2) and chronic (5.2.2) posttraumatic headache attributed to mild head injury.
Headache or Facial Pain Attributed to Disorders of Cranium, Neck, Eyes, Ears, Nose, Sinuses, Teeth, Mouth, or Other Facial or Cranial Structures
Authors: Göbel H
Published: November 2023

Since many headaches originate from the cervical, nuchal, or occipital regions or are localized there, disorders of the cervical spine and other structures of the neck and head have frequently been regarded as the commonest causes of headache. The objective of the second edition of the IHS classification is not to describe these headaches in all their forms; nor is it to pander to traditions, or to accept criteria which only permit ‘knowing’ by intuition that the headache is cervicogenic or caused by other structures of the head.
Cranial Neuralgias and Central Causes of Facial Pain
Authors: Lance J W
Published: November 2023

Pain in the head is mediated by afferent fibers in the trigeminal nerve, nervus intermedius, glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves, and the upper cervical roots via the occipital nerves. Impulses giving rise to the sensation of pain may be generated by compression or distortion of these nerves, and exposure to excessive heat or cold or other sources of irritation. Lesions of the central connections of sensory fibers can also cause pain referred to the distribution of the appropriate nerves.
ICHD Classification Research
Authors: First M B
Published: November 2023

The first edition of the International Classification of Headaches was established in order to introduce needed precision in the definition of the various types of headaches by assuring ‘reasonably low inter-observer diagnostic variability’. (Introduction to Classification and Diagnostic Criteria for Headache Disorders, Cranial Neuralgias, and Facial Pain, 1988, p 10).
Autoantibodies In Rheumatoid Arthritis: Prevalence And Clinical Significance
Authors: Steiner Günter , Smolen Josef S
Published: November 2023

Autoantibodies are a characteristic feature of autoimmune diseases. Although with only few exceptions autoantibodies do not appear to play important pathogenic roles, they are often very useful for diagnostic purposes. This includes various autoantibodies typical for organ-specific autoimmune diseases and is likewise true for most autoantibodies that occur in autoimmune rheumatic diseases , such as anti-double-stranded (ds) DNA in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), anti-topoisomerase I (Scl-70) in scleroderma, anti-histidyl-tRNA synthetase (Jo-1) in poly/dermatomycosis’s, or anti-proteinase 3 in Wegener’s granulomatosis. Nevertheless, some autoantibodies, such as antids DNA, may also serve as indicators of disease activity.
Introduction: What is alpine?
Authors: Nagy Laszlo , Grabherr Georg
Published: November 2023

This book introduces the reader to a special mountain environment that can be relatively well defined by its characteristic physiognomy and its relative position along a bioclimatic gradient, which is reflected by the vertical zonation of the vegetation. Alpine environments are found where, along an altitude gradient, natural woody vegetation changes from various lowland and montane forest formations and gives way to dwarf-shrubs, various grass–heath, sedge–heath, and moss–heath formations, and finally, to open frozen ground. This book is about the upper, treeless end of this vertical gradient. The transition from closed forest to treeless vegetation—the upper montane zone with the treeline ecotone—marks the upper limits of tree growth. More precisely, an imaginary line connecting the highest outposts, forming clumps of small-stature trees, called the tree-line is the lower limit of the alpine zone; areas lying above it are called alpine (Grabherr et al. 2003; Körner 2007a). According to such criteria, overall, about 3% of the terrestrial surface of the Earth is covered by al-pine ecosystems, where about 4% of the Earth’s flora is found (Heywood 1995).
Elevation gradients
Authors: Nagy Laszlo , Grabherr Georg
Published: November 2023

There are striking changes in vegetation from lowlands to high mountain-tops, similarly to that from the Equator towards the poles. These changes entail a reduction in the structural and floristic diversity of ecosystems and a reduction in biomass from the tall lowland forests to low stature alpine heaths, or arctic tundra. The simplification in structure and the trends in species richness and biomass have been related primarily to a reduction in temperature alone, or in combination with other climatic and physiographic factors in alpine environments (e.g. Theurillat et al. 2003). Harsh mountain climate is locally ameliorated by glacial geomorphic landscape features, which contribute much to habitat diversity, and vegetation and species diversity patterns.

To appreciate fully the scale of changes in vegetation (and climate) along an altitude gradient there is no better place to start than in the rainforest, at the foot of an equatorial high mountain (Table 3.1). From evergreen rainforest at near sea level, one can scale the range of montane forest and treeless alpine formations and reach high mountain tops, capped by glacial ice.
Resuscitation and acute treatment of brain injuries (traumatic and atraumatic)
Authors: Ratcliffe Jane
Published: November 2023

Acute brain injury may be categorized into two main areas in terms of mechanism, namely traumatic and atraumatic, but there is considerable over-lap in terms of pathological processes and management. Outcome depends on both the extent of the brain injury and the maintenance of blood supply and oxygen delivery to the brain. Whatever its cause, adequate resuscitation and ongoing stabilization is paramount in achieving the optimal outcome. Resuscitation management protocols must be agreed between the regional paediatric neurosurgical and trauma centre and the referring hospitals within its catchment area to ensure adequate resuscitation, stabilization and investigation and thus enable safe and rapid patient transfer. There is good evidence that managing acute brain injuries in children in paediatric trauma centres improves outcome (Potoka et al. 2000).
physical (motor and functional) difficulties
Authors: Henderson Nicola , Kinley Eileen , Loughran (with contributions from Susie Harrison Sue , Ritson Paul , Weston) Juliet
Published: November 2023

This chapter will discuss physical rehabilitation and strategies for optimizing physical function following an acquired brain injury (ABI). It focuses upon the physiotherapy and occupational therapy assessments and early, intermediate and late rehabilitation, including initial management within the community setting. Throughout, it is essential to highlight that general management and more specific treatment approaches should be multidisciplinary, involving not only therapists but also the family/carers, ward nursing staff, play specialists and hospital school teachers.
Prevention of brain injury
Authors: Gregg Jackie , Appleton Richard
Published: November 2023

Accidents in children and young people are a major cause of death and serious disability and so it is not surprising that reduction in accidents was identified as (and remains), a major target area in the Department of Health ‘s Health of the Nation document (1992) – ‘The consequences of some accidents can be life-long disability, or predisposition to ill-health later in life. Action to reduce accidents will have a significant effect on the health and well-being of children ‘ (Department of Health 1992: 117). More recently this has been recognized in the National Service Framework (NSF) for disabilities and chronic medical conditions; unfortunately, this recognition does not include additional NHS-funding for the predictable and inevitable deficiencies that the NSF has identified.
Pathogenesis of cancer
Authors: Watson Dr Max , Barrett Ann , Spence Roy AJ , Twelves Chris
Published: November 2023

The cause of cancer is multifactorial and includes lifestyle, environmental exposures, and inherited genetic susceptibility. It is thought that as many as 80–90% of all cancers may be the result of such environmental or life-style factors. Changes to the individual’s genome are increasingly thought to be the final common pathway in the development of cancer, whatever the initial trigger. These genetic influences are often classified as initiators or promoters. The Human Genome Project (completed in 2003) has shown the DNA sequence for 30,000 genes. However, linking genes to the risks of disease with certainty is far from the straightforward process that is sometimes portrayed in the popular media, as there are many other complex environmental factors involved.
Patients with common gynaecological cancers
Authors: Watson Dr Max , Barrett Ann , Spence Roy AJ , Twelves Chris
Published: November 2023

In 2001 6,883 women were diagnosed with ovarian cancer in the UK.1 In 2003 4,617 women died from ovarian cancer in the UK.2 Background *Fifth commonest cancer in women *Commonest gynaecological cancer in the UK *Risk is reduced by factors that reduce the number of ovulatory cycles, e.g. pregnancy, prolonged use of oral contraceptive pill * *Median age at diagnosis 66 years *> 90% of tumours are epithelial in origin . Serous adenocarcinoma 40–50% . Endometrioid 15–30% . Mucinoid and clear cell 10–15% each *Spread is predominantly to other organs in the pelvic cavity and is often associated with ascites. Later spread may be to the chest and liver parenchyma *5-year survival less than 25% Presentation Ovarian cancer spreads mainly intraperitoneally and may often remain ‘silent’ until the disease is advanced; 80% of patients, therefore, present with disease which has spread beyond the pelvis.
Patients with genitourinary cancers
Authors: Watson Dr Max , Barrett Ann , Spence Roy AJ , Twelves Chris
Published: November 2023

The Gleason system is based on the degree of glandular differentiation (Gleason grade 1 is well differentiated, and grade 5 is poorly differentiated) which is closely associated with disease progression. Diagnosis and staging Patients with raised PSA or palpable prostate abnormalities are evaluated by transurethral ultrasound (TRUS), and local biopsy.
Patients with head and neck cancer
Authors: Watson Dr Max , Barrett Ann , Spence Roy AJ , Twelves Chris
Published: November 2023

Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) tends to progress from local disease, along lymph node levels in a stepwise manner, to distant disease occurring quite late. This allows radical treatment to be matched with treatment of the important lymph node groups, e.g. radical neck dissection. These are complex, for example, the posterior one-third, or base of tongue, is not mobile, and tumours involving this part are much more likely to spread to local lymph node stations at an earlier stage of the natural history. They also have more of a tendency to spread bilaterally, because of extensive lymphatic pathways which cross the midline.
Episode of care: a central concept of general/family practice
Authors:   Wonca
Published: November 2023

Changes in the need for and use of classifications in primary care have continued since the publication of ICPC in 1987. The main purpose of the classification was then seen to be its use in gathering data for research and policy formulation. However, its use has now widened as research data and practical experiences with ICPC, as well as the emergence of new concepts in general/family medicine, have resulted in new applications.
Use of ICPC for recording reason for encounter
Authors:   Wonca
Published: November 2023

Procedures for coding information using ICPC vary somewhat according to the type of information being recorded, for example reason for encounter, health problem, or intervention. In order to promote consistent recording and therefore better comparability of data between centres, the following standards are suggested.
Severity of illness coding
Authors:   Wonca
Published: November 2023

Since 1993 the WONCA Classification Committee has been developing the Duke Severity of Illness Checklist (DUSOI) system for international use. The WONCA Severity of Illness Field Trial (WONCA-SIFT) was conducted to test the system in 16 countries. The committee recognized that a method is needed to enable doctors to code not only the name of each health problem, but also the level of severity of each problem. This is applicable to problems whether in respect of episode of care, or for each encounter (see Fig. 2).
Functional status assessment: the COOP/WONCA charts
Authors:   Wonca
Published: November 2023

In 1987 the WONCA Classification Committee began to develop a way of classifying and recording the overall functional status of the patient as distinct from the status of severity of their health problem(s). Over a number of years this work, later conducted in cooperation with the WONCA Research Committee, resulted in production of the COOP/WONCA Functional Status Assessment Charts.
Study Description And Methods
Authors: Chen Junshi , Peto Richard , Pan Wenharn , Liu Boqi , Campbell T Colin , Boreham Jillian , Parpia Banoo , Cassano Patricia , Chen Zhengming , Feng Zulin , Gelband Hellen , Li Junyao , Pan Hongchao , Root Martin , Wu Yanping , Youngman Linda
Published: November 2023

The 2,400 counties that comprise rural China, with an average population of a few hundred thousand per county, differ greatly from each other in the ways the local populations live and in the main diseases by which they die. Many of these differences in lifestyle and disease rates have persisted for centuries. Even though in recent decades there has been a nationwide reduction in death from infectious disease (particularly in childhood), there is still great heterogeneity among counties in childhood mortality rates, as well as in the age-standardised mortality rates from the main chronic diseases of middle age.
Reliability re-survey in selected mainland counties (1993).
Authors: Chen Junshi , Peto Richard , Pan Wenharn , Liu Boqi , Campbell T Colin , Boreham Jillian , Parpia Banoo , Cassano Patricia , Chen Zhengming , Feng Zulin , Gelband Hellen , Li Junyao , Pan Hongchao , Root Martin , Wu Yanping , Youngman Linda
Published: November 2023

To help assess the reliability of the methods used in the 1989 survey, a repeat survey using those same methods was carried out in 1993. Thirteen counties in mainland China that represent a good north-south mix and a range of affluence levels were included (counties AC, BA, CB, CC, FA, HA, KB, LC, ND, QA, AC, RA and TD). In each, the re-survey was carried out at the same time of year as the 1989 survey, to avoid seasonal differences. After a refresher training course, the same 1989 personnel (where available) conducted the re-survey, during which they had no access to the 1989 values.
Taiwan: survey of mortality (1986-88) and of biochemistry, diet and lifestyle (1989)
Authors: Chen Junshi , Peto Richard , Pan Wenharn , Liu Boqi , Campbell T Colin , Boreham Jillian , Parpia Banoo , Cassano Patricia , Chen Zhengming , Feng Zulin , Gelband Hellen , Li Junyao , Pan Hongchao , Root Martin , Wu Yanping , Youngman Linda
Published: November 2023

To compare mainland China with Taiwan, 16 areas in Taiwan were selected for study. Mortality rates during 1986-88 were calculated from review of death certificates, and a survey of biochemistry, diet and lifestyle similar to that in mainland China was undertaken in 1989. The three-day weighed household dietary survey was not conducted in Taiwan.
METHODS: Selection of study sites and participants in mainland China
Authors: Chen Junshi , Peto Richard , Pan Wenharn , Liu Boqi , Campbell T Colin , Boreham Jillian , Parpia Banoo , Cassano Patricia , Chen Zhengming , Feng Zulin , Gelband Hellen , Li Junyao , Pan Hongchao , Root Martin , Wu Yanping , Youngman Linda
Published: November 2023

In the early 1980s, 69 counties were randomly chosen from the total of about 2400 largely rural counties in China to represent the full range of mortality rates (in the previous 1973-75 nationwide survey) for seven major types of cancer: nasopharynx, oesophagus, stomach, liver, lung, colorectal and leukaemia. These counties are distributed throughout China and are, in aggregate, reasonably representative of rural mainland China as a whole.
Selection of study sites and participants in Taiwan
Authors: Chen Junshi , Peto Richard , Pan Wenharn , Liu Boqi , Campbell T Colin , Boreham Jillian , Parpia Banoo , Cassano Patricia , Chen Zhengming , Feng Zulin , Gelband Hellen , Li Junyao , Pan Hongchao , Root Martin , Wu Yanping , Youngman Linda
Published: November 2023

Taiwan was not included in the 1983 study, but the 1989 study included 16 sites in Taiwan, ranging from highly urban to rural (unlike the exclusively rural sites in mainland China). The method used to select the sites was also different from that used in mainland China. In Taiwan, 16 types of area were defined (by 3- digit postal codes):
Mortality rates (1973-75 and 1986-88)
Authors: Chen Junshi , Peto Richard , Pan Wenharn , Liu Boqi , Campbell T Colin , Boreham Jillian , Parpia Banoo , Cassano Patricia , Chen Zhengming , Feng Zulin , Gelband Hellen , Li Junyao , Pan Hongchao , Root Martin , Wu Yanping , Youngman Linda
Published: November 2023

Mortality rates for 1973-75 were taken from the nationwide survey that had been done during the mid-1970s for other purposes, and mortality rates for 1986-88 were from a special survey carried out in 1989-90 as part of the present study. Many of the causes assigned in the 1973-75 survey are less specific than those assigned in the later survey, although overall mortality and, in most counties, mortality rates from the main causes of death are reasonably reliable from both periods. Age-standardised mortality rates for particular age ranges were always calculated as the unweighted average of the component five-year mortality rates (e.g., 35-39, 40- 44,…,65-69 for the age range 35-69).
Blood samples (plasma and red blood cells)
Authors: Chen Junshi , Peto Richard , Pan Wenharn , Liu Boqi , Campbell T Colin , Boreham Jillian , Parpia Banoo , Cassano Patricia , Chen Zhengming , Feng Zulin , Gelband Hellen , Li Junyao , Pan Hongchao , Root Martin , Wu Yanping , Youngman Linda
Published: November 2023

Fasting 10 ml venous blood samples were collected from 8,280 individuals in mainland China in trace-mineral-free heparinized vacutainers, which were placed on ice in light-free vacuum jars. Samples were transported to the county laboratory within about four hours of the last blood draw of the day. Upon arrival at the county laboratory, blood samples were immediately separated into three fractions: 1.3 ml of packed red blood cells (RBCs), washed three times with saline, haemolyzed with 3 ml preservative buffer, then mixed and frozen.
Diet survey: household three-day weighed food intake
Authors: Chen Junshi , Peto Richard , Pan Wenharn , Liu Boqi , Campbell T Colin , Boreham Jillian , Parpia Banoo , Cassano Patricia , Chen Zhengming , Feng Zulin , Gelband Hellen , Li Junyao , Pan Hongchao , Root Martin , Wu Yanping , Youngman Linda
Published: November 2023

A three-day household dietary survey was carried out in 60 households per county in mainland China (a total of 60 x 69 = 4140 households), split roughly equally between the two study xiangs in that county. These included the same households surveyed in 1983, to the extent possible, with replacements to compensate for attrition due to death or migration.
How the brain talks to the spinal cord
Authors: Donovan-Rodriguez Tansy , Suzuki Rie , Dickenson Anthony H
Published: November 2023

Descending pathways from the brain to the dorsal horn of the spinal cord are important in the modulation of nociceptive information, and have been demonstrated to have key roles in chronic pain states. Study of these facilitator and inhibitory pathways has not only improved our understanding of the mechanisms underlying these states, but also afforded new approaches to pharmacotherapy in these clinically important areas (see references in Millan 2002).
Functional neuroimaging of primary headaches
Authors: Rio Margarita Sánchez del
Published: November 2023

Functional imaging of a paroxysmal disorder is challenging, more so if spontaneous attacks are to be captured. These factors determine the selection of the imaging technique and study design. The goal is to provide information pertaining to the pathophysiology of primary headache disorders. Functional activation of brain regions is thought to be reflected by increases in the regional cerebral blood flow (CBF), a useful surrogate to detect synaptic activity. This increase in CBF does not differentiate whether the underlying physiological event is excitation or inhibition or any other energy-consuming process.
Posterior cerebral hypoperfusion in migraine without aura
Authors: Denuelle Marie , Fabre Nelly , Payoux Pierre , Chollet François , Geraud Gilles
Published: November 2023

Cerebral blood flow (CBF) studies in migraine have introduced the concept of a pattern different in migraine with aura and migraine without aura. The migraine aura is characterized by a focal reduction of regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) in the posterior part of one hemisphere. The hypoperfusion is followed by a phase of long-lasting hyperperfusion temporally dissociated from the headache. In contrast most of Xenon 133, CBF studies in migraine without aura demonstrated only rare and mild changes in brain perfusion.
Porifera
Authors: Banner F T , Dyrynda E P E J , Dyrynda E A
Published: November 2023

The Porifera or Sponges are sedentary, aquatic, fundamentally radially symmetrical invertebrates. They possess a minimal diversity of cells and the simplest grade of metazoan organization (Hyman 1940; Brien 1973; Bergquist 1978). They are filter feeders characterized by an internal monolayer of flagellated choanocytes collectively circulating one or more unidirectional water streams through the aquiferous system, a network of pores, canals, and chambers perforating the body.
Cnidaria
Authors: Cornelius P F S , Manuel, R L , Ryland J S
Published: November 2023

The Cnidaria (formerly known as Coelenterata) are most obviously characterized by their radial, or sometimes more strictly biradial, symmetry (p. 101). The basic structure is saclike with a single terminal opening, the mouth, which also functions as an anus. The internal space is the coelenteron or gastrovascular cavity, which may be subdivided by radially arranged partitions, the mesenteries or septa. The mouth is surrounded by a circle or circles of tentacles. The body wall consists of only two layers of cells, ectoderm and endoderm, between which is the mesogloea. The mesogloea ranges from a non-cellular membrane in hydroids, to a thick fibrous layer in anemones, and a jelly-like filling in medusae. The musculature, formed from epithelio-muscular cells, may be well-developed. All cnidarians are characterized by the presence, especially on the tentacles, of stinging capsules, cnidae or nematocysts, of various types. These capsules are unique to the phylum. Nematocysts consist basically of a capsule with an armed or naked thread coiled inside it. When stimulated the thread is fired by eversion.
Crustacea I Entomostraca
Authors: Isaac M J , Moyse J
Published: November 2023

The Crustacea exhibit a great diversity of structure, adaptation, and development. Freshwater and terrestrial species are common, but the greater majority of species are marine. Crustaceans occur in all marine habitats, from the supralittoral zone to the abyss; additionally, most holoplanktonic animals belong to the Crustacea, and the meroplankton largely consists of the larval stages of benthic Crustacea. The phylum comprises more than 30 000 species worldwide.
Crustacea II Malacostraca Peracarida
Authors: Isaac M J , Makings P , Naylor E , Smaldon, G , Withers R G
Published: November 2023

The Malacostraca is the largest class of the Crustacea, with more than 19 000 species known from marine, freshwater, and terrestrial habitats. It is also the most familiar crustacean group, including the edible and economically important, crabs, lobsters, shrimps, and prawns, as well as a number of significant wood-destroying pests. The Malacostraca as a whole encompasses the broadest range of morphological and functional diversity, and displays a wealth of adaptive features. The largest crustaceans are the malacostracan spider crabs.
Family Hippopotamidae
Authors: Harris J M
Published: November 2023

The Family Hippopotamidae is presently restricted in distribution to sub-Saharan Africa, where it is represented by two monospecific genera. Hippopotamus amphibius Linn. 1758, the common large hippo, was distributed in historic times throughout much of the continent. The pygmy hippo, Hexaprotodon liberiensis (Morton, 1844), is today found only in parts of West Africa. Both species are grazers. The large hippo is gregarious and amphibious, spending much of its day submerged in water but emerging to feed at night; the forest-dwelling pygmy hippo occurs singly or in pairs and appears to be less aquatically inclined. Undoubted representatives of the family are first known from Middle and Late Miocene sites in East Africa (Pickford 1983). Hippopotamids were first known from outside Africa during the Late Miocene, persisting into the Pleistocene in Eurasia, but did not extend into the New World.
Family Camelidae
Authors: Harris J M
Published: November 2023

Camels and llamas, which originated in the New World, form part of the artiodactyl suborder Tylopoda The composition of the Tylopoda has been debated (Romer 1966; Webb and Taylor 1980) but the family Camelidae is evidently most closely related to the Oromerycidae (Gentry and Hooker 1988).
Family Giraffidae
Authors: Harris J M
Published: November 2023

The Family Giraffidae comprises medium to largesized ruminant artiodactyls of the Infraorder Pecora. Like other pecorans, giraffids possess paired cornual protuberances on the cranium which are diagnostic at the family level. In giraffids such structures have been called ossicones (e.g. Arambourg 1960), horns (e.g. Singer and Bone 1960), and vellericorns (Lankester 1902). The term horn is inappropriate and ossicone is the most widely accepted term. Giraffid paired ossicones are epiphyseal structures (Solounias 1988) and differ from bovid horns by lacking a keratinous sheath, from tragulid horns by being unbranched, and from cervid antlers by being permanently retained on the cranium. In the extant representatives — the giraffe, Giraffa camelopardalis (Linnaeus, 1758), and okapi, Okapia johnstoni (Sclater, 1901)—the paired ossicones are covered with skin throughout life and, at least in Giraffa, are present as cartilaginous precursors in the fetus (Spinage 1968). One or more median ossicones, which constitute secondary bone growth over a frontonasal boss (Solounias and Tang in press), occur in extant representatives of Giraffa.
Family Bovidae
Authors: Harris J M
Published: November 2023

The Family Bovidae (antelopes and cattle) is today represented by 123 species, 68 of which are endemic to sub-Saharan Africa (Honacki et al. 1982). It is not clear whether bovids originated in Eurasia or Africa; the earliest occurrences are nearly simultaneous in both regions (early Miocene) and subsequently there were repeated migrations between them (Vrba 1985b). According to Janis and Scott (1987), the presence of horn cores is the sole apomorphic character that can be used to characterize the Family Bovidae and thus it would be impossible to recognize a hornless bovid ancestor with any degree of certainty.
Mollusca I Polyplacophora,Scaphopoda,and Gastropoda
Authors: Hayward P J , Wigham, G D , Yonow N
Published: November 2023

The molluscs constitute one of the largest groups of marine organisms and, with the exception of the Monoplacophora, representatives of all classes may be found in British waters. The basic molluscan body plan has responded adaptively to environmental pressures and opportunities, perhaps more so than any other phylum of marine organisms, and has been profoundly modified in many different ways. Living molluscs occur in terrestrial, freshwater, and marine ecosystems, and in the latter case have become adapted to almost every kind of habitat from abyssal oozes to oceanic surface currents. Nevertheless, the distinctive molluscan morphology is recognizable in each of the many disparate living orders.
Mollusca II Bival Via And Cephalopoda
Authors: Hayward P J
Published: November 2023

The bivalve molluscs are largely sedentary animals. They may be firmly attached to fixed substrata, or hidden in cracks and crevices, and some are found as borers in a variety of rocks, wood, or organic carbonates. Many simply burrow into fine or coarse bottom deposits, some lying unattached in the very top layers, others inhabiting more permanent burrows. With a few exceptions, such as the scallops and the file shells, mobility is limited to movement within the burrow or the immediate environment. Most bivalves are microphagous feeders although two small groups, the Protobranchia and the Septibranchia, are specialized, respectively, as particulate deposit feeders and carnivores. Adaptive radiation of this homogenous group is thus expressed largely in shell form.
Hemichordata And Urochordata
Authors: Knight-Jones E W , Ryland J S
Published: November 2023

Hemichordates comprise worm-like Enteropneusta ( = Balanoglossida) and tentaculate Pterobranchia. Enter-opneusts have gill slits very like those of Amphioxus (Ch. 17) so are linked with chordates, particularly because they also have a dorsal, sometimes tubular, nerve cord in the collar (a short region just behind the mouth). They lack a notochord, however, so are placed in a phylum separate from the Chordata. The ‘tornaria’ larvae of one family are like some echinoderm larvae. Pterobranchia are closely related to enteropneusts (see e.g. Horst 1927—39), but the only pterobranchs known from Britain belong to a minute colonial genus, atypical of hemichordates.
Myxomatosis
Authors: Fenner Frank , Ross John
Published: November 2023

Myxomatosis, caused by a virus of a South American rabbit, was introduced into wild European rabbit populations in Australia and Europe in the 1950s. It had an immediate and catastrophic effect on rabbit numbers, and it has continued to be an important factor in the ecology of the rabbit.
General introduction
Authors: Hopkin Stephen p. , Read Helen J
Published: November 2023

Millipedes do not as their name suggests have a thousand legs. Indeed the ‘world champion’ Illacme plenipes has only(!) 375 pairs (Enghoff 1990), and most have fewer than fifty pairs. Nevertheless, it is the presence of so many legs arranged in two pairs per body segment which is their most characteristic feature. The presence of these diplosegments separates the Class Diplopoda (millipedes-sometimes millepedes or millipeds) from the three other classes of Myriapoda, the Chilopoda (centipedes), Symphyla, and Pauropoda, all of which have only one pair of legs per segment (Fig. 1.1.). It has been estimated that there are approximately 10,000 described species of millipedes in the world (Hoffman 1979; IUCN 1983). These range in size from as little as 2 mm to 30 cm in length.
Taxonomy, evolution, and zoogeography
Authors: Hopkin Stephen p. , Read Helen J
Published: November 2023

The following descriptions are intended to illustrate the range of forms found in the Class Diplopoda and to provide an introduction to the main groups referred to in the text. More detailed descriptions of each family can be found in Hoffman’s (1982) very useful guide. Classification is based on Enghoff (1984a) which is reproduced in Table 2.1 The polyxenid or 'bristly' millipedes are rather different from all other millipedes.
Basic anatomy, locomotion, and ecomorphology
Authors: Hopkin Stephen p. , Read Helen J
Published: November 2023

Millipedes consist of three main parts—the head, body, and telson. The head bears the mouthparts and a number of sensory structures including the antennae, Tömösvary organs, and eyes (if present) (Fig. 3.1). The structure and function of the sense organs are covered in detail in Section 6.2. The head capsule is usually heavily calcified to facilitate burrowing between soil particles, fragments of leaf litter, or rotting wood. The body is generally long and cylindrical although in some groups there are prominent lateral projections (Fig. 3.13a).
Feeding and digestion
Authors: Hopkin Stephen p. , Read Helen J
Published: November 2023

In the great majority of millipedes, dead plant material is chewed by the mandibles into small pieces (Enghoff 1979a, 1990; Manton 1964) and passed into the lumen of the foregut where it receives secretions from the salivary glands (Nunez and Crawford 1977). The distal segment of the mandible, the gnathal lobe (Fig. 3.8), is the most complex structure of the mouthparts. The biting and crushing parts of the mandibles are based on the same general scheme but modifications exist which are taxon-specific. Exceptions to this general rule include the siphonophorids that have a long tubular beak which they may insert into plant roots (Johns 1962), and Polyzonium which has specialized mouthparts consisting of brush-like structures, the function of which is obscure (Kuhnelt 1976). Some platydes-mids may feed on fungus using sucking mouthparts (Lewis 1984). There are even carnivorous millipedes (Hoffman and Payne 1969), and a cave dwelling species that filter feeds (Enghoff 1985). As far as we are aware, no one has studied the internal anatomy of the these atypical species.
Ecology
Authors: Hopkin Stephen p. , Read Helen J
Published: November 2023

Many of the earlier workers, such as Schubart and Verhoeff, included valuable ecological details in their treatises on identification. However, many of their comments were inferred from preserved millipedes. More recent identification guides (e.g. Blower 1985; Demange 1981) have included ecological information based on field and laboratory studies of living animals.
Molecular Aspects And Phylogenetic Implications Of Plastid Genomes Of Certain Chromophytes
Authors: Kowallik Klaus V
Published: November 2023

The participation of both nuclear and organellar genes in the formation of multifunctional protein complexes of mitochondria and plastids presupposes a co-evolution of nuclear and organellar genomes. The molecular organization of plastid genomes may thus reflect, to a certain extent, the phylogenetic relationships between species. It may also elucidate trends in the evolution of the plastid genomes themselves. In this article we discuss investigations of plastid genomes of the heterokont algae Odontella sinensis, Coscinodiscus granii (Bacillariophyceae), Dictyota dichotoma (Phaeophyceae), and several Vaucheria species (Xanthophyceae) following restriction and gene mapping experiments.
The Origins Of The Diatom And Its Life Cycle
Authors: Mann David G , Marchant Harvey J
Published: November 2023

The vegetative cell of diatoms is suggested to have evolved from the diploid zygotic cyst of a haplontic pre-diatom with a flagellate vegetative phase. The cyst wall contained many similar siliceous plates, each of which developed centrifugally, as in diatom valves and scales. Growth of the pre-diatom in marginal habitats may have selected for mechanisms allowing mitotic division of the cyst, rather than meiotic germination to produce zoids, and this in turn could have brought about a change from multipolarity to bipolarity in cyst wall architecture. The structure of the recently described chrysophyte order, the Parmales, lends some support to this proposed phylogeny. The siliceous components of the walls of both the diatoms and Parmales are similar in several respects, suggesting that the Parmales may be the closest extant relatives of the diatoms and an offshoot from the pre-diatom stock.
The Tetrodotoxin Venom Of Chaetognaths
Authors: Thuesen Erik V
Published: November 2023

For many years it was suggested that chaetognaths paralysed their prey with a toxin before ingesting them. These suggestions were based on light microscopy observations (Burfield 1927; Kuhl 1938), observations of chaetognaths feeding in the laboratory (Parry 1944; Feigenbaum and Maris 1984; Nagasawa 1985c) and observations of the microstructure of chaetognath buccal morphology made by scanning electron microscopy (Bieri et  al. 1983; Thuesen and Bieri 1987).
Deep Sea Chaetognaths
Authors: Terazaki Makato
Published: November 2023

All depths of the oceans below 1000 m are considered here as deep sea. There are relatively few samples from this region, and even fewer from more precisely defined depths, so that knowledge of deep sea chaetognaths is incomplete and fragmentary and only single individuals or a few specimens have been caught so far for a number of species. The distribution and way of life of many of the deep sea species is thus very incompletely known. As several new species have been found recently, many more presumably remain to be collected and described.
The tropical Pacific species of Usnea and Ramalina and their relationship to species in other parts of the world
Authors: Stevens G N
Published: November 2023

Many of the species of Usnea and Ramalina which occur in tropical Australia and the western Pacific region have been found to extend much farther afield in their distribution. These taxa can be divided into maritime species (occurring on mangroves or lowland forest trees) and montane forest species (occurring in upland open-forest and rainforests). Species of Ramalina are mostly in the former category, whereas species of Usnea mainly occupy montane forests. The altitude of tablelands in the tropics of Australia and the high mountains of the Pacific islands tends to nullify the effects of high temperatures found at sea level in lower latitudes, so that species found in elevated tropical regions are not necessarily of tropical origin. Several species of Usnea which occur in montane rainforests at high elevations appear to be temperate taxa which tolerate tropical conditions at the elevation at which they grow. By tracing the palaeobiogeography of the phorophytes for both maritime and montane species of Usnea and Ramalina, the tropical or temperate origins of the lichens can be hypothesized.
Lichens of Papua New Guinea
Authors: Lambley P W
Published: November 2023

An attempt is made to provide an overview of the macrolichen flora of Papua New Guinea and to relate this to the island’s complex geological history and to the range of habitats now present. The lichen flora is shown to be composed of a number of different elements, including an interesting Gondwanaland clement. The mountainous nature of the island provides opportunities for studying the altitudinal zonation of lichen species and their communities. The conservation of the flora is discussed in relation to the increasing destruction of the forests through logging, mining developments, and agricultural activities.
Ecology of the threespine stickleback on the breeding grounds
Authors: Whoriskey Frederick G , FitzGerald Gerard J
Published: November 2023

A central theme of the behavioural ecology of reproduction of natural populations is the study of the factors causing variation in individual reproductive success (genetic contribution to future generations) (Clutton-Brock 1988). A knowledge of their relative importance is necessary to formulate predictions about the evolution of an animal’s morphology or behaviour. Pertinent questions include: how widely does breeding success vary among individuals of each sex? How much variance in reproductive success is contributed by different components of reproductive success (survival to breeding age, reproductive life span, fecundity, mating success, and offspring survival)? To what extent does survival change with age? How do environmental, phenotypic, developmental, or genetic factors affect reproductive success in each sex?

Although only some of these questions have been adequately answered for the threespine stickleback, Gasterosteus aculeatus, this small fish is an excellent subject with which to address many important issues in behavioural ecology.
Evolution of foraging behaviour in the threespine stickleback
Authors: Hart Paul J B , Gill Andrew B
Published: November 2023

Through foraging behaviour the stickleback matches its needs to the demands of the habitat. The flexibility of the fish is constrained by its morphology and physiology, which reflect the history of selection through which generations of ancestors have passed. In this chapter we consider the threespine stickleback as a decision-making system buffeted by the features of past and present environments. We first describe the structure of the habitats in which the fish live, as this will determine the context in which selection has taken place. Next we consider the morphological attributes of the fish, as these determine the constraints within which decisions must be taken. The principal part of our discussion reviews what is known about behaviours such as deciding when to feed, searching for prey, exploiting patchy resources, and selecting a diet. Development of behaviour is considered where appropriate.
The Thionins: A Protein Family That Includes Purothionins, Viscotoxins And Crambins
Authors: Garcia-Olmedo F , Rodriguez-Palenzuela P , Hernandez-Lucas c. , Ponz* F , Marana. c. , Carmona M J , Lopez-Fando J , Fernandez J A , Carbonero P
Published: November 2023

The toxic properties of mistletoes, which were responsible for a famous death in Nordic mythology, can be ascribed to different components, including the toxic lectin viscumin (Olsnes et al., 1982) and a mixture of small basic proteins, which were first isolated by Winterfeld and Bijl (1949) and designated “viscotoxin”. The viscotoxins produce hypotension and other effects at sublethal doses (Samuelsson, 1974).
The High Molecular Weight Subunits Of Wheat, Barley And Rye: Genetics, Molecular Biology, Chemistry And Role In Wheat Gluten Structure And Functionality
Authors: Shewry Peter R , Halford Nigel G , Tatham Arthur S
Published: November 2023

Although almost unheard of only a decade ago, the High Molecular Weight subunits of wheat glutenin have since become the most intens¬ ively studied group of wheat proteins. This is in spite of the fact that they account for only about 5% of the total proteins of the mature grain. This sudden interest resulted from the demonstration by Payne and coworkers at the Plant Breeding Institute (Cambridge, UK) that allelic variation in the polypeptide composition of the HMW subunits was closely correlated with the breadmaking quality of European cultivars of wheat, and of the progeny of crosses between them (Payne et al. 1979; 1981a). These observations have since been confirmed and extended in a number of other laboratories and countries and “subunit screening” is now routinely used in many plant breeding program mes.
The Molecular Biology of Glutamine Synthetase in Higher Plants
Authors: Forde Brian G , Cullimore Julie V
Published: November 2023

Glutamine synthetase (GS), as the first enzyme in the main pathway of ammonia assimilation in higher plants, occupies the same key position in nitrogen metabolism as ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase (Rubisco) does in carbon metabolism. The assimilation of am rnonia occurs primarily through the glutamate synthase cycle, in which GS (EC 6.3.1.2) acts in conjunction with glutamate synthase (GOGAT; EC 1.4.7.1 and EC 1.4.1.14) to convert ammonium ions and 2-oxoglutarate to glutamate, via glutarnine, at the expense of ATP and reducing power (Miflin and Lea, 1980). The glutarnine and glutamate produced by the cycle can then be used to synthesize all other nitrogen-containing compounds in the plant. Ammonium can arise from a diversity of sources, both primary (such as nitrate or ammonium ions in the soil or nitrogen-fixing bacteria in root nodules) and secondary (such as photorespiration in green leaves, phenylpropanoid metabolism, or de-arnination of amino acids in germinating seeds).
Demography: Age And Stage Structure
Authors: Stearns Stephen C
Published: November 2023

Demography, the key to life history theory, allows us to calculate the strength of selection on life history traits for many conditions. This chapter presents the tools needed: age, size, and stage-specific schedules of reproduction and mortality; the Euler—Lotka equation relating life history traits to fitness; the matrix representation of that equation that generalizes it to populations classified by stage and size as well as by age; and the sensitivity and elasticity of fitness to changes in life history traits. The chapter is technical, but the insights it offers are worth the effort: why age at maturity is a pivotal trait, how to weigh the contributions to fitness of early and late fecundity, why selection to lengthen life is generally weak, and why life history theory makes no general predictions.