bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Emergency Oil Spill Response: Data Collection Automation, and Dissemination
Authors: Muskat Judd
Published: December 2021

The California Department of Fish and Wildlife (CDFW), Office of Spill Prevention and Response (OSPR) has employed Geographic Information System (GIS) technology for oil spill planning and response since the early 1990's, adding remote sensing tools to the mix by the turn of the Century. Discussed herein are OSPR's current smartphone and tablet-based field data collection applications. We use an off-the-shelf tool for pre-response protection strategy planning and use customized tools developed in-house for California Sea Otter Surveys, Wildlife Search and Collection and the Shoreline Cleanup Assessment Technique (SCAT). The benefits of automated field data collection include the omission of transcription errors during manual data input and streamlined data processing. This results in accurate and timely information delivered to responders, thus enhancing their capability for informed decision making.

OSPR uses the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA) Environmental Response Management Application® (ERMA), a web-based GIS data viewer as the Common Operational Picture (COP) for data dissemination throughout the incident response community during an oil spill event, and for the post emergency response cooperative Natural Resource Damage Assessment (NRDA). OSPR also uses ERMA a planning tool by uploading significant data layers from the U.S Coast Guard's (USCG) six Area Contingency Plans (ACP) for coastal California and OSPR's Geographic Response Plans for inland waters of the state with higher risk of an oil spill. These response planning data are freely downloadable from the ERMA platform.

In the Summer/Fall of 2019 at the Cymric Oil Field in Kern County, California, over 1,000,000 gallons of oil, mud and steam seeped into a dry stream bed from several “surface expressions”. Direct access to the spill site was not permitted for Health and Safety concerns. OSPR used an off-the-shelf small Unmanned Aerial System (sUAS, aka drone) equipped with a standard high definition (HD) camera and a thermal infrared camera for SCAT reconnaissance, resources at risk evaluations, and regularly scheduled mapping missions for overall site situational awareness.
Polluting shipwrecks in Swedish waters: investigations, risk assessment methodology and oil removal operations
Authors: Lindgren J. Fredrik , Åberg Frida , Johansson Josephine Rubia
Published: December 2021

Large amounts of oil exists in old shipwrecks worldwide, both as cargo and bunker. This oil will eventually enter the marine environment as the ship hulls deteriorate or as other types of activities affect the wrecks. Oil being a complex mixture of hazardous substances will when released into the marine environment be a source of both lethal and sub-lethal effects to organisms. Costs of an oil spill in the marine environment, including clean-up actions, socioeconomic and environmental costs is often substantial. Sweden has a ten year nationally funded program where oil removal operations on shipwrecks are performed. From a list of 300 potentially polluting shipwrecks, 31 wrecks have initially been selected for oil removal operations. In a first stage extensive gathering of information was performed regarding each wreck, both archive data and in-situ data at the wreck site. Secondly, a risk analysis was carried out. Based on the probability of oil leakage, amount of oil in the wreck and sensitivity of recipients, a prioritization for oil removal operations was made of the 31 wrecks. Based on the prioritization, time of the year and cost of an operation wrecks are finally selected for oil removal operation. So far, since 2017, five operations have been performed.

During 2019 and 2020, two successful oil removal operations were carried out. The ship Lindesnäs wrecked 1957 in a snow storm close to the lighthouse Norra Kränkan on the Swedish east coast with a cargo of kerosene and diesel as bunker fuel. The operation from mobilization to demobilization lasted for 22 days, and 299 m3 of oil and a large ghost net was removed from the wreck. Secondly, Finnbirch, which wrecked in 2006 east of the island of Öland and started to leak oil during the end of 2018, was salvaged in a two-part operation. In 2019, 60 m3 of diesel fuel and lubricant oil were salvaged, during a fourteen-day operation. In 2020, 114 m3 of heavy fuel oil (HFO) was salvaged from the wreck during a fifteen-day operation. The costs per ton of removed oil were far less than cost for oil clean-up operations in Swedish waters. In conclusion, using a risk-based approach for prioritization of potentially polluting shipwrecks and the subsequent proactive removal of oil from shipwrecks is a cost-effective approach to alleviate the problem.
Bridging research to response – how the spill response community benefits from academic engagement
Authors: Holland Robert D , Coolbaugh Thomas S , Schuler Paul
Published: December 2021

Often technical advances are made through key industry-academic alliances in a diverse range of engineering, medical and scientific disciplines. Oil spill response studies are no stranger to research programmes within the academic / R&D community and have advanced our knowledge, understanding and capability significantly over the last 50 years. For example, following the use of industrial detergents during Torrey Canyon in 1967, the research, development and scientific rigour behind the latest marine dispersants is testament to the value in investment of resources to develop and deliver solutions to new and emerging risks.

Typically, spill responders are focussed on operational issues and seeking maximum reward when selecting a response technique(s) as part of a given spill scenario. Research scientists conversely may be focussed on a more detailed aspect of the spill such as a sub-cellular, non-lethal biological effect which may have limited relevance to the immediate clean-up effort. Having a spill response organisation intrinsically involved with academic response research ensures that an element of “operational realism” is injected into the programmes to produce outputs with more direct relevance and application to advance the boundaries of future spill response techniques and capability.

The paper discusses the merits and leverage potential of “Bridging Research to Response” and offers suggestions for future collaborations potentially adding value to all spill stakeholders.
Geographic Response Strategies on Canada's West Coast
Authors: Gardner Jocelyn , Ostrowski Stefan
Published: December 2021

In 2012, Western Canada Marine Response Corporation (WCMRC) began developing site specific shoreline protection strategies, known at Geographic Response Strategies (GRS) for the entire coast of British Columbia (B.C.). The project started in Vancouver Harbour and has since spread along the Salish Sea and Strait of Juan de Fuca, as well as into Prince Rupert and Kitimat on the northern B.C. coast. Recognizing that B.C. has approximately 27,000 km of coastline (~16,777 miles) and with 450 strategies already developed only within a few hundred kilometres, WCMRC saw a need to automate the GRS development process from data collection all the way to the final GRS output. In conjunction with a local environmental consulting company, WCMRC developed a new sensitivity model. This new model can help the Response Readiness Team quickly assess intertidal sensitivity to oiling based on shoreline type, oil residency index, biological, archaeological, and/or socio-economic features of the shoreline, as well as operational protection feasibility. Now, using ESRI GIS web tools, a GRS can be developed automatically as a geo-referenced PDF, easily exportable to mobile devices for operational use. Overall, the automated enhancements have provided WCMRC with the tools necessary to manage the GRS program for B.C.'s entire coast. This means that more coastline can be assessed far more quickly and GRS's can be developed using fewer human resources. Additionally, if a spill occurs in a more remote area that has not yet had GRS's developed, they can be created within minutes based on the information from the Environment Unit in the Incident Command Post, or initial assessments by responders.
The Multi-Partner Research Initiative: A Scientific Research Network to Support Decision Making in Oil Spill Response
Authors: Lee Kenneth
Published: December 2021

The Government of Canada's Oceans Protection Plan (OPP) is a comprehensive, transformative $1.5 billion strategy to build a world-leading marine safety system to protect marine ecosystems, while enabling inclusive economic growth. A key component of the OPP is the Multi-Partner Research Initiative (MPRI), led by Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) in collaboration with other federal agencies (Environment and Climate Change Canada, Canadian Coast Guard, Natural Resources Canada, and Transport Canada), that aims to advance oil spill research by fostering a national/international research network that brings together scientific experts in the field. The core studies under this program are focused on the provision of scientific knowledge to support the development, validation and regulatory approval of Alternative Response Measures (ARMs) that include: spill treating agents, in situ burning, oil translocation and decanting/oily waste disposal. Additional research includes studies on key “cross-cutting” issues, such as natural attenuation and bioremediation of oil, assessment of toxic impacts associated with oil spills and the application of oil spill countermeasures, and oil detection and mapping by autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs). The deliverables from this research program will provide essential information to support Net Environmental Benefit Analysis (NEBA) for decision making to select the optimal oil spill response option(s) to protect the marine environment and its living resources. With an emphasis on supporting the development of the next generation of scientists in the field through engagement with the private sector (i.e., spill response organizations and oil industry partners) and other international (e.g., USA, Norway, France, Australia, China) government agencies, MPRI is anticipated to have a profound influence on the oil spill research community and emergency response agencies within Canada and abroad.
SpiDeR –Spill Detection and Recognition system for ROV operations
Authors: Pocwiardowski Pawel
Published: December 2021

The paper presents the outline of the Spill Detection and Recognition system – SpiDeR and its application to underwater oil and gas detection, classification and source characterization demonstrated in the remote-sensing survey of Mississippi Canyon area in the Gulf of Mexico founded by BSEE in 2017. The main objective of the operation was to deploy sensor package from a remotely-operated vehicle (ROV) to survey, detect, and map the location(s) of hydrocarbon emissions that are responsible for the surface oil spill and sheen footprint in the Mississippi Canyon Area. The objectives have been accomplished by conducting a multi-day, three-part survey mapping the area of interest, generation of georeferenced charts and 3D visualizations with detected oil active spills, all supported by a ROV intervention outfitted with oil spill detection and recognition system SpiDeR.

SpiDeR is a modular sensor suite capable of detecting, recognizing the source and classifying the hydrocarbon underwater leaks. The sensor suit with selectable configuration can be installed on any type of ROV vehicle and interfaces to the ROV with a single cable conducting the power and data. The presented here and used during the mission complete sensor suite consist of two 3D, broad band, electronically scanning multibeam sonar systems NORBIT WBMS STX, one Forward Looking Sonar NORBIT WBMS FLS, fluorescent oil classifier LIF – Laser Induced Fluorescence detection unit and the video camera with lights.

The most useful capability of the SpiDeR is the ability to generate 3D imagery (georeferenced bathymetry) even when the ROV is not moving. That combined with time gives 4D observable capabilities of the oil spill. The 4D capabilities have been proven useful during the u-bathymetry part in Phase 2 and forward-looking 3D in Phase 3 of this mission.

The system has been deployed from the ROV in the area where it has been known for the last decade that the leak of hydrocarbons is coming from. The real task at hand was to recognize the leak source and that source contain hydrocarbons and accurately document the source location and provide measurable documentation of its character.
California's Stakeholder Matrix: A Liaison Tool for the first 96 hours of Response
Authors: Addassi Yvonne Najah , Shinn Cassidee
Published: December 2021

Research on crisis and risk communication continues to illustrate the need for and benefits of early and sustained stakeholder engagement during disasters, both natural and manmade. The California citizenry is deeply committed to environmental protection and expects to “engage” with their government on policy development and environmental solutions. Stakeholders expect a high-level of government transparency, driving the need for engagement even more during emergency responses such as oil spills.

Within the Incident Command System (ICS), it is the responsibility of the Liaison Officer (LOFR) to coordinate and share information with stakeholders. A review of “After Action Reports” and “lessons learned” from oil spills, both nationally and within California, point to the continued need for strong stakeholder engagement by the LOFR and has become a priority of California's lead oil spill response agency, the California Department of Fish and Wildlife, Office of Spill Prevention and Response (OSPR).

Building off stakeholder engagement tools found in crises and risk communication literature and in Incident Command System job aids, OSPR crafted a stakeholder matrix that was readily scalable, easy to use, and easy to translate to Incident Commanders and other Command Staff during response. This matrix is a template of simple inputs, allowing stakeholders and engagement strategies to be identified, grouped, and prioritized. It is intended to be a planning tool for the first 24–96 hours, a precious time in a response. It is often too early to expect the LOFR to have completed a stakeholder engagement plan, yet this time is critical to initiating early stakeholder communication that will set the tone for the response. This matrix serves as the initial plan for the LOFR. This paper will describe the development of this tool, its evolution, and its use. It will also highlight feedback from exercises and response partners. It will describe the flexibility and scalability, and considerations for broader applications.
Snare Performance for Sunken and Submerged Oil Detection and Monitoring
Authors: VERFAILLIE M.P. , GLOEKLER M.D. , KINNER N.E. , BALCOM E.A. , BERNARDY C.A. , ROSA Z.R. , ROSS J. J.
Published: December 2021

ABSTRACT - 687127

Most oil spill response strategies, tactics, and equipment are designed to address floating oil. Previous research and historic events have shown that spilled oil can suspend (i.e., submerged oil) or sink (i.e., sunken oil) as a function of the oil's density relative to that of the receiving waters. Processes such as wave action or current velocity, sediment entrainment, and oil weathering (e.g., evaporation) may change the buoyancy of floating oils causing them to submerge or sink. Non-floating oil is more difficult and expensive to detect and poses significant challenges for containment and cleanup. Many existing detection techniques for non-floating oils rely on oleophilic sorbents, such as snare, which are weighted depending upon the oil's location in the water column and then towed behind a vessel in designated transects. Currently, there is no quantitative method to relate the amount of oil collected by snare to the amount of oil encountered during towing. In addition, the dynamics and interactions of towed snare and oil remain largely unknown. To address these knowledge gaps, various components of snare performance have been evaluated since 2016 by the Coastal Response Research Center (CRRC) at the University of New Hampshire (UNH).

The research has evaluated: (1) the impacts of temperature, salinity, oil type, and tow velocity on adsorption and desorption of oil to snare, (2) snare dynamics and position in the water column as a function of tow velocity, (3) the impacts of material type and potential alternatives to snare (e.g., mosquito and fishing nets, plastic debris) for lesser developed countries (LDCs), and (4) the interaction of snare with sunken and submerged oil. The results determined: (1) adsorption of oil to snare was best for less viscous oils (No. 6 Fuel Oil) and lower water temperatures (5°C) and desorption was greatest at low temperatures (6°C) and low current velocities (< 1 knot), while salinity had no significant effect. (2) Tow depth for snare arrays decreased with increased velocity unless a vane was used. (3) Optimal spacing of snare on a chain is a function of tow and current velocity, and drag forces on the tow chain. (4) Snare alternatives with greatest potential for sunken oil detection in LDCs were nylon mosquito netting and plastic bags. The findings from this research improves understanding of the behavior of snare and how it interacts with sunken and submerged oil and can improve towing techniques used by oil spill responders, leading to more effective detection.
Understanding the Fates and Chemical Compositions of Weathered Oil in Coastal Marshes since the 2010 Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill
Authors: Overton Edward B. , Meyer Buffy M. , Miles M. Scott , Turner R. Eugene , Adhikari Puspa L.
Published: December 2021

Coastal marshes were heavily impacted by the Deepwater Horizon (DWH) oil spill in 2010, with approximately 90% of shoreline impacts occurring in Louisiana's coastal wetlands. Spilled crude oils impact an environment through four major mechanisms: ecosystem exposure to reactive and toxic aromatic compounds; covering and smothering that hinders normal plant and animal physiology; depletion of dissolved oxygen; and disruption of the aquatic food web. Crude oil's ability to cause environmental harm depends upon its composition, which is a very complex mixture of many thousands of reduced carbon compounds made from the degradation of plant material deposited deep underground. This study reviews the results from the chemical characterization of petroleum hydrocarbons, at various weathering stages, in >2000 marsh surface sediments and select sediment cores samples collected from various sampling locations in Terrebonne Bay, Grand isle, and northern Barataria Bay from 2010 to 2018. The sediment samples were analyzed for target saturated alkanes, polycyclic aromatic compounds, and the forensic biomarker (hopane and sterane) compounds. The chemical characterization of the compositional changes of target compounds in DWH oil, from its pre-stranding stage just offshore in the Louisiana Bight, through stranding on marshy shorelines and through its degradation and weathering over eight years has given insights into the complexity of oil residues and potential for impacts in these varying environmental conditions. Stranded oil initially had two prominent fates: settling on surface sediment/soils of the marshes, and subsurface deposition primarily by means of settling into fiddler crab burrows. Both initial fates affected shorelines and 10–20 meters inward. Over time, surface oil residues were spread beyond initially impacted areas by Tropical Storm Isaac in 2012 and other weather events, and oil residues were quickly degraded. Subsurface stranded oil was degraded much more slowly under anaerobic conditions and some was re-released as fairly fresh oil during the coastal erosions caused by DWH surface oiling damage to the marsh plants. However, these re-releases were relatively slow and were quickly aerobically degraded once the stranded oil reached marsh surfaces. There was also evidence of anaerobic degradation of heavily weathered surface oil residues during the 2015 to 2018 timeframe. This eight-year study establishes a very complex narrative between the physical and chemical properties of stranded oil and its interactions with coastal marsh environments.
Advanced Well Control Reduces Risk of a Blowout
Authors: Nedwed Tim , Mitchell Doug
Published: December 2021

There are still concerns about well control especially for operations in sensitive environments. Currently the final barrier while drilling oil and gas wells is a valve system (blowout preventer or BOP) located on top of wells. These valves can isolate wells by sealing around or shearing through obstructions in the well (e.g. drilling pipe and casing). If these valves fail or if some other barrier in a well fails, hydrocarbon loss to the environment is possible. Adding barriers capable of responding to a well control loss could alleviate these concerns. ExxonMobil is currently evaluating concepts to provide two additional methods to kill an out-of-control well. One utilizes rapid crosslinking polymers to form a polymer-plug seal inside a BOP after a failure. The other is to rapidly pump seawater into a well to produce back pressure that overpressures the entire well bore to keep hydrocarbons from escaping oil / gas bearing zones.

Mixing dicyclopentadiene (DCPD) and other monomers with a ruthenium-based catalyst causes a rapid polymerization reaction that forms a high-strength, stable solid. These reactions can occur under extreme temperatures and pressures while withstanding significant contamination from other fluids and solids. The well-control concept is to rapidly pump the monomers and catalyst into a leaking BOP to form a polymer seal that prevents further flow.

The seawater injection concept uses high-pressure and capacity pumps located on a surface vessel and a conduit from these pumps to a port on a BOP. If a blowout occurs, seawater at high rate is pumped in the BOP. If BOP seal failure is the reason for containment loss, then the seawater will overpressure the BOP and seawater will displace the hydrocarbons passing through the leak point. Seawater injection will also overpressure the entire wellbore to keep hydrocarbons from escaping anywhere in the well. For example, if a leak occurs deep in the well, seawater injection into the BOP will overpressure the entire well and the seawater will replace the hydrocarbon flowing through the leak point.

We have conducted testing of the polymer plug concept at representative temperatures and pressures using a small-scale BOP. Polymer seals were formed when the scale BOP was flowing drilling mud, a crude-oil surrogate, and water. The seals held up to 5,000 psi pressure for almost 18 hours. We have completed modeling of the seawater injection concept to define pumping needs. This paper describes the current status of concept development.
Creating a legacy of oiled wildlife response preparedness through the post-Macondo Oil Spill Response - Joint Industry Project
Authors: Ziccardi Michael , Bergeron J.D. , Chilvers B. Louise , Grogan Adam , Hebert Charlie , Kelway Paul , Nijkamp Hugo , Regmann Sascha , Ruoppolo Valeria , Smith Lisa , van der Spuy Stephen , Velter Claude
Published: December 2021

In 2015, an ambitious wildlife response preparedness project was initiated; funded as part of the post-Macondo IPIECA-IOGP (International Association of Oil and Gas Producers) Oil Spill Response Joint Industry Project (OSR-JIP). The Global Oiled Wildlife Response System (GOWRS) Project, which involved 11 leading wildlife response organizations from seven countries, aimed to develop an international framework for oiled wildlife response as well as encourage the further development of wildlife response preparedness by industry and other stakeholders. This paper will provide an overview and assessment of the key outcomes of both the JIP-funded phase of the project (2015-16; development of internationally agreed standards and common operating procedures) and the second industry-funded phase (2017-18; focused on response readiness) in order to provide key background information to support the movement towards operationalizing the system.
Net Environmental Benefit Analysis Embedded Action Plan Development
Authors: Peach Dennis , Taylor Kirstin
Published: December 2021

During a response to an oil spill the responsible party needs to develop Incident Action Plans that aim to minimise the environmental and socio-economic effects of the incident on the surrounding area.

It is widely accepted that Net Environmental Benefit Analysis (NEBA) and the Spill Impact Mitigation Assessment (SIMA) methodology should be considered before, during and after any spill response. However, during the initial response phase, actions are typically reactive. Decisions may therefore be based on the needs of the response, media or the local inhabitants rather than the long-term benefits to the affected area.

But how can we confirm that when the strategies and tactics are developed NEBA/SIMA is taken into account? To ensure that all response options chosen have considered NEBA/SIMA, especially during the initial stages of a response, it should be embedded into the action plan development process. This will also capture the decision-making process for the strategy and tactical plan development as evidence.

This paper explores where an Incident Management System (IMS) could be amended to ensure that NEBA/SIMA is integrated into decision making. This should guarantee that NEBA/SIMA is always considered in determining the correct response operations that capitalize on the net environmental benefits for the response. The process will follow the IPIECA/IOPG good practice guidelines for incident management implementation of IMS and contest the existing formal processes found in Incident Command System (ICS).
Niger Delta Remediation – Complex Balancing among the Local Community, Government Agencies, NGOs, Cleanup Contractors, and the Petroleum Industry; An Example from Bodo Ogoniland, Nigeria.
Authors: Giadom Ferdinand D. , Wills Iniruo
Published: December 2021

Oil-related damage to productive mangrove habitat is prevalent in most areas of the Niger Delta where oil operations (drilling, pipelines and oil export) are present. The remediation and restoration of these areas is one of the most intractable problems confronting the oil industry and government today. The formation of the Bodo Mediation Initiative (BMI) with a partnership between the various parties has been mostly successful to date and offers a path forward to other parts of the Delta. Ogoniland, where Bodo is located, has a long history of agitations against the oil industry as a result of dwindling livelihoods and deteriorating public health largely perceived to be caused by the degradation in environmental quality due to oil spills. In 2008, two large oil spills occurred from operational breaks in the Trans Niger Pipeline and subsequently ~1000 ha of mangroves were directly killed by the spills. From 2009 onward, spills from illegal activities (oil theft, transport and refining) became common, inhibiting potential mangrove recovery further affecting the livelihood of many Bodo residents. The BMI was formed in 2013 under the auspices of the Dutch Ambassador to Nigeria with a focus on building trust between the pipeline operating oil company and the local community, in order to initiate cleanup and restoration of the damaged mangrove habitat around Bodo. The mediation process of the BMI was fraught with difficulties due to internal community squabbles arising largely from a misperception regarding the attendant benefits to the community. After a series of delays and mediation efforts, cleanup began in 2017 and continues until present (2019) with planned continuance to 2020. While the Project has obtained many successes, the inability to prevent continuing oil theft and illegal refining is a notable failure, causing continued spillages to the area and setbacks to the cleanup and restoration program being undertaken.
Founding Principles for Cooperation & Success for Oil Spill Preparedness & Response
Authors: Nicoll Andrew , Charlebois Patricia
Published: December 2021

Thirty years ago, a diplomatic conference held in Paris recognised the importance of cooperation in helping countries better prepare for and respond to oil pollution incidents. The Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Cooperation Convention (OPRC 90) was thus conceived and shortly afterwards, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) and IPIECA jointly developed a program to help nations implement the provisions of the Convention with practical assistance and technical cooperation as the central offering. This programme, which was launched in Cape Town and became known as the Global Initiative (GI), is still growing, developing and evolving some 24 year later. A key fundamental concept is the principle of regionality. Often countries in a specific region share similar geographical features and cultures, and face similar risks associated with the extraction and transportation of oil, which transcend the needs of national sovereignty and independence. The GI program focuses on these shared values of marine environmental protection and draws strength, not only from the collective will of national governments to protect the marine environment, but also on the needs of industry to work collaboratively with regulators and authorities to achieve a common goal for society. A regional approach also “raises the bar” in terms of national preparedness, ensuring a regional level playing field. It also underscores the need for regional collaboration noting that a catastrophic oil spill may exceed the capacity for any single country to respond. To that end, the GI program has further developed to be in a position to accommodate the growing range of needs of countries implementing OPRC 90, from offering support on core concepts (on topics such as implementing legislation, designating authority in charge etc.), to facilitating training on more technical topics (e.g. sensitivity mapping and how to implement a shoreline clean-up program). For a quarter of a century, the GI model has progressed into a series of regional programs which now encompass a third of all maritime coastal states. In this session we will hear more of these regional manifestations of GI, their challenges and opportunities which will provide us with a truly global perspective on what GI has achieved and has still to achieve in a world where the risks of oil spills continue to evolve. This paper will explore the concept of regionality and other key elements that continue to make the program relevant and adaptable to the oil spill risks that society faces today.
Measuring Progress in Oil Spill Preparedness
Authors: Canova Emilie , Favier Julien , Lee Nai Ming , Taylor Peter
Published: December 2021

Governments and industry have been cooperating in the development of oil spill preparedness for more than 30 years. This has included support to the ratification and implementation of instruments such as the International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation (OPRC 90), which provides the basis for collaborative efforts between governments and industry to prepare for and respond to marine oil pollutions. Joint activities implemented in this framework represent a major investment and it is important to measure and track the extent to which they have led to sustained improvements.

This paper examines the challenges of measuring progress in oil spill preparedness that have emerged over time, leading to the development of different tools and systems to monitor long-term developments.

It will first review the metrics and tools used to assess the key elements of preparedness, focused on regions where the International Maritime Organization (IMO) - industry Global Initiative has been active since 1996. The challenges of ascribing and assessing the indicators will be highlighted. Whilst a quantitative method, such as the IPIECA Global Risk Analysis, is useful regarding technical aspects and to compare progress in time and between different regions, it does have a number of caveats, including the verification of data and the need to ensure that preparedness frameworks described in national strategy are translated into credible response capability. There is thus a need for more refined metrics and a complementary qualitative approach. Moreover, the difficulty to catalyse lasting change without sustained efforts was recognized. This paper will discuss why the measures should apply both for evaluation and decision-making and explain why it is key to build more comprehensive (from legal basis to implementation processes and equipment) and sustainable national preparedness systems. The indicators cover a range of aspects of oil spill readiness and should enable a picture of both national and regional preparedness to be constructed, which inform decisions on future actions and activities. The benefits of a step based approach and the potential for tools such as the Readiness Evaluation Tool for Oil Spills (RETOSTM) to underpin broader evaluations will be highlighted. The need for an enhanced methodology to measure progress in preparedness and its consistency with the risk exposure is finally discussed.
Incorporating Automatic Satellite Detections of Oil Spills with Numerical Fate and Trajectory Modeling
Authors: McGrath Gabrielle G. , Woolridge Tony , Dodge Kelley , Mahdianpari Masoud
Published: December 2021

In recent years, access to freely available and commercial satellite imagery, such as Sentinel-1, RADARSAT-2, COSMO-SkyMed, and TerrsSAR-X, increased to the level where most global waters are observed at least once per day by one of these satellite platforms. The availability of this data combined with technological advancements in machine-learning and smart image segmentation allows for the potential to automatically detect oil spills and reduce the likelihood of false alarms. This improved satellite monitoring could result in early discovery of releases and the ability to launch a quicker response to mitigate potential damages. Numerical modeling will be used in combination with the detection results to determine the fate and trajectory of the oil as well as to hindcast where the oil was released. Implementing models into the process facilitates an effective response and incident investigation by determining where the oil is spreading and discovering where the oil originated. In 2019, Petroleum Research Newfoundland and Labrador (PRNL) launched a project led by C-CORE and RPS titled SpillSight to conduct a study into this technology for automatically detecting spills by satellite and modelling the outputs.
Oil Spill Modeling for the Enbridge Line 3 Replacement Program with Response for Planning, Preparedness, and Environmental Purposes
Authors: Horn Matthew
Published: December 2021

Oil spill trajectory and fate modeling and analyses were performed to support evaluation of the downstream movement, behavior, timing, and potential ecological and human health risks resulting from hypothetical releases of crude oil from the proposed Enbridge Line 3 Replacement Program. The investigation involved assessing multiple hypothetical pipeline releases into terrestrial and aquatic environments. The quantitative assessment of the three-dimensional movement (i.e. trajectory) and behavior (i.e. fate) of released oil used site-specific environmental and geographic conditions, including seasonal and hydrographic information. The main questions being addressed included: What is the expected spatial extent, timing, and magnitude of hydrocarbon contamination from an unmitigated release?How do changes in the release location and release volume affect the ultimate trajectory, fate, and number of potentially susceptible resources.How does the inclusion of modeled response options change predictions (i.e. unmitigated vs. response mitigated scenarios)?

The 2-dimensional OILMAPLand and 3-dimensional SIMAP computational oil spill models were used to assess hypothetical crude oil release scenarios into the Mississippi River near Palisade, MN. Results were presented in an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) and an Assessment of Accidental Releases (AAR) presented to the Minnesota Department of Commerce Energy Environmental Review and Analysis (MN DOC EERA) and the Pollution Control Administration (MN PCA) as both oral and written testimony. The findings demonstrated realistic predictions of containment and collection efficiencies following an accidental release and aided regulators in the decision-making process for the project.
Using Oil Spill Modeling in Oil Spill Exercises and Drills
Authors: Horn Matthew
Published: December 2021

Oil spill trajectory and fate modeling was used in inland response Full Scale Exercises including the Enbridge Des Plains River (fall 2018) and Wisconsin River (fall 2019). The Spill Impact Model Application Package (SIMAP) was used to predict the three-dimensional movement (i.e. trajectory) and behavior (i.e. fate) of a hypothetical release of oil using site-specific environmental and geographic conditions (including seasonal and hydrographic information) for the date of the exercise. The RPS OILMAPLand model was also used to predict the two-dimensional movement and behavior of the oil over the land surface, before it was predicted to enter the waterway. The oil spill modeling evaluated the spatial extent, timing, and magnitude of hydrocarbon contamination at downstream locations including thicknesses of floating surface oil and the mass of oil on shorelines and sediments. The assessments included the potential for released oil to move over the land surface, before entering the waterway, as well as becoming entrained in the water column as a result of surface floating oil passing over local features such as locks and dams. The results were presented at two separate exercise planning session and the full scale exercise as static images, GIS shape files, and videos. Results were also included in the COP for the exercise itself, with predicted results provided at hourly intervals for several days.
Oil/gas jets in water crossflow: The impact of the droplet size
Authors: Daskiran Cosan , Cui Fangda , Zhao Lin , Socolofsky Scott A. , Lee Kenneth , Boufadel Michel C.
Published: December 2021

During undersea oil blowout in crossflow conditions, the oil droplets entrained horizontally which increased the residence time of droplets in the water column. Knowledge of the trajectory of an oil plume is important for predicting the pathways of hydrocarbons and to devise countermeasures. We conducted large-scale experiments in the Ohmsett tank where we released oil from a one-inch vertical orifice that was towed to produce the behavior of a jet in crossflow. The average oil velocity at the orifice was 1.36 m/s and the crossflow velocity was around 0.27 m/s which resulted in a jet-to-crossflow velocity ratio of 5.0. The results were simulated numerically using the Large Eddy Simulation (LES) turbulence model and the mixture multiphase model within the open-source software OpenFOAM. The instruments including ADVs, LISSTs, shadowgraph cameras, holographic camera, and fluorometers were employed. The oil jet released from the nozzle started to meander in the vertical direction most probably due to weak crossflow. The trajectory and meandering behavior of the oil jet, wavy pattern along the leading edge of the jet and column breakup observed in the experiments were captured well with the numerical simulation. The surface breakup just above the orifice created ligaments and droplets downstream of the jet. Larger oil droplets were observed near the upper boundary of the plume due to their higher buoyancy while the smaller droplets were suspended in the water column and they were entrained by water crossflow. This work reveals that different size of droplets determines the overall shape of plumes mostly the upper and lower boundaries of the plume.
Tropical Oil Pollution Investigations in Coastal Systems [TROPICS]: A 32-year Review of Response and Recovery
Authors: Renegar D. Abigail , Schuler Paul , Turner Nicholas , Dodge Richard , Knap Anthony , Bera Gopal , Jézéquel Ronan , Benggio Bradford
Published: December 2021

In 1984, the Tropical Oil Pollution Investigations in Coastal Systems (TROPICS) experiment began in Bahia Almirante on the Caribbean coast of Panama. This study sought to compare the impacts of a severe, but realistic spill of untreated crude oil versus chemically treated (dispersed) crude oil on tropical marine reef, sea-grass, and mangrove ecosystems. The aim of the study was to identify and evaluate the environmental trade-offs of dispersant use in tropical marine and subtidal systems. As a result of continuing research at the site, the study became one of the most comprehensive field experiments examining the long-term impacts of oil and dispersed oil exposures in nearshore tropical communities.

Consequently, TROPICS has been the foundational and seminal field study which served as the historical antecedent for Net Environmental Benefit Analysis (NEBA), as well as the basis for follow-on Spill Impact Mitigation Analysis (SIMA) and Comparative Risk Analysis (CRA) for oil spill planning, preparation, and response. From the initial experiment in 1984, through three decades of study and data collection visits, the coral reef, seagrass, and mangrove communities have exhibited significantly different damage and recovery regimes, depending on whether the sites were exposed to non-treated crude oil or dispersed crude oil. While this study does not definitively determine whether or not dispersants should be applied in tropical nearshore environments, it is illustrative of the environmental and ecosystem trade-offs between surface oil impacts to the shoreline, compared to water column exposure from chemically dispersed oil.

This paper provides an overview of the results and observations reported in numerous previous TROPICS publications, as a progression of damage and recovery over time. With this perspective, planners and responders can use this study to predict what damages/recoveries may be expected from an oil spill incident in this environment. The results of the TROPICS experiment are examined within the context of this recent parallel research from the perspective of ongoing implications for oil spill preparedness and response.
Fractionation, Chemical Analysis, and In Vitro Testing Identify Bioactive Components in MC252 Crude Oil
Authors: Overton Edward , Pangeni Deepa , Wilson Mark , Wickliffe Jeffrey , Alqassim Ahmad , Miller Charles
Published: December 2021

Crude oil is a complex mixture that includes polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) as one of its major components. The toxicity of some chemically substituted PAHs found in oil, such as the methylated species, are relatively understudied. A combination of chemical fractionation and analysis coupled with a bioassay was used to identify a subset of oil PAHs that activated aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR). Silica gel chromatography was used for primary and secondary oil fractionation, and standard and reverse phase high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) were used for the final fractionation steps. Both gas chromatography (GC-) and HPLC-coupled with mass spectrometry (MS) were used to separate and identify compounds present in the petroleum fractions. Bioactivity of the individual fractions was identified and measured using a recombinant yeast strain that expressed the human aryl hydrocarbon receptor complex (AHRC) transcription factor that is composed of human AHR and the ARNT proteins. AHRC activation by oil components results in expression of β-galactosidase, and readout from this enzymatic activity is proportional to the amount and potency of the compounds that activated the system. Silica gel separations produced 25–29 fractions that were assessed for bioactivity using the AHRC reporter system. Bioactivity peaked with the fractions that contained larger PAHs that included four ring compounds such as the triphenylenes, benzanthracenes, and chrysenes (MW 228 + additional methyl groups). When tested as individual compounds, the triphenylenes and benzanthracenes were less potent than the chrysenes, so the latter constituted more of the AHRC signaling activity in the oil fractions. The chrysenes in bioactive fractions were mixtures of the parent compound along with mono-, di-, tri-, and tetra-methyl derivatives and other PAHs. The six possible mono-methylchrysenes were obtained and tested for AHRC activity and for their concentrations in oil. Chrysene, 1-, 2-, 3-, and 6-methylchrysene were present, but 4- and 5-methylchrysene were not detected in the bioactive fractions of oil that were resolved by HPLC. When tested individually in the AHRC bioassay, 4-methylchrysene was the most potent ligand, and 5-methylchrysene was the least potent. Synthetic mixtures of PAHs were reconstructed based upon the chemical composition of one fraction with the high AHRC activity. Collectively, these data show that: 1) the six methylchrysene isomers are within an order of magnitude of chrysene in their ability to activate the AHRC bioassay; 2) although they are a minor group, the chrysene compounds in oil potently activate AHRC signaling; 3) chrysenes diminish as oil weathers, while triphenylenes of identical molecular weight persist, 4) this methodology can be useful for identification and characterization of the bioactivity of sub-fractions and individual compounds found in oil.
Volunteers as an Integrated Part of the Oil Spill Response Capacity in Finland
Authors: Rantavuo Emmi , Halonen Justiina , Niinimäki Teemu , Seppänen Tytti
Published: December 2021

Responding to a major oil spill is a labour intensive operation and involves several governmental and regional authorities, agencies and voluntary organisations. In Finland, The Finnish Border Guard is the competent pollution response authority that conducts the response measures in the event of an oil spill on the open sea. The RFRSs are in charge of oil spill response operations both in coastal and inland waters. The environmental agencies assist the RFRSs in executing the response operation e.g. by providing expertise in nature protection prioritisation. Along with the authorities, several non-governmental institutions as well as voluntary organisations are involved. Especially the Voluntary Oil Spill Response Troops of the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) Finland are prepared to assist in responding to an oil spill contaminating shorelines. The response capability of the WWF voluntary troops is based on long-term training and pre-education. Today, the troops consist of over 9000 volunteers, 3000 of which have completed response training and can easily be integrated into an authority driven operation. The collaboration between authorities and volunteers is regularly tested by means of co-operation exercises and real spill response cases. This paper studies the collaboration framework of the voluntary troops and the RFRSs and the benefits of the pre-established system.