bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Import Duties: Police Reform and Influences from Abroad
Authors: Savage Stephen P
Published: November 2023

One potential source of influence in changing policing in any nation state is the multitude of alternative policing models, systems, styles, and approaches which exist elsewhere on the international scene. Those alternative policing forms have been shaped by nationally specific configurations of law, politics, social structures, cultures, and histories which generate variation and difference across nation states in the way policing is organized, oriented and activated. There are, as a consequence, many different examples offered from the international environment of the way the business of policing is undertaken, some of which might be taken on board by governments and/or police organizations as better ways of doing policing business.
Cosmetic surgery
Authors: Waterhouse Norman
Published: November 2023

Cosmetic surgery has become the subject of intense media and public interest in the last few years. It is unique amongst the surgical specialties in that prospective patients are directly targeted by advertising, and often, through the use of aggressive sales and marketing techniques. For the general public and potential patients, understanding the procedures and accessing high-quality care is problematic, and independent professional advice from an appropriately trained and experienced doctor is essential. This advice should include a realistic assessment of the benefits and complications of any treatment. This book provides a clear and informative guide to cosmetic surgery and an overview of the range of procedures now available. The book also features an explanation of what makes a well-trained cosmetic surgeon and how to choose one. Individual chapters are devoted to specific procedures including facelifting, breast surgery, eyelid and chin lifts, liposuction, lasers/peels, botox and fillers and abdominoplasty.
Scope of Application & General Provisions
Authors: Hondius Professor Dr. Ewoud , Heutger Dr. Viola , Jeloschek Dr. Christoph , Sivesand Dr. Hanna , Wiewiorowska Aneta
Published: November 2023

These Principles apply to contracts for the sale of goods. Not only has the contract for the sale of goods served as the paradigm for contracts in general, but it is also probably the most common contract, and certainly the most common consumer contract, that there is. In fact, sales come in all shapes and sizes: ranging from the purchase of the daily newspaper at the news-stand or the groceries in the supermarket, through to the purchase of a new car and to commodity sales on highly specialised markets. Moreover, there are many mixed transactions that contain a certain element of sale, such as distribution contracts or all sorts or manufacturing contracts. These Principles also apply to Consumer Goods Guarantees, as regulated in Chapter 6. Such guarantees are provided to the consumer in the course of sales of goods. Given this importance of sales transactions, these Principles start with a definition of the contract for the sale of goods. It is rather short and simple, as it merely addresses the main obligations of the parties, i. e. the transfer of ownership on the part of the seller and the payment of the price on the part of the buyer. This definition reflects the essence of the contract for the sale of goods: the transfer of ownership from the seller to the buyer, or a third party, for a price. The CISG and the Consumer Sales Directive as instruments of international sales law do not contain such a definition.
Obligations of the Seller
Authors: Hondius Professor Dr. Ewoud , Heutger Dr. Viola , Jeloschek Dr. Christoph , Sivesand Dr. Hanna , Wiewiorowska Aneta
Published: November 2023

This Article provides an overview of the main obligations which the seller assumes under a sales contract, some of which are elaborated in the following Sections of this Chapter (it should be noted that this list is not meant to be a chronological account of the performance of a sales contract). However, it follows from Article 1:203 (Derogation) that the parties are free to regulate the content of their obligations. Therefore the seller may not, on the one hand, be subject to all the obligations set out in this Article. He may not, for instance, be under an obligation to deliver the goods, as they are already in the buyer’s possession. On the other hand, the seller may also have to comply with a number of other obligations arising from the particular agreement between the parties (e. g. a duty to provide for training in the use of the machinery delivered), from commercial usage or from other provisions contained in the present Principles (e. g. in the case of carriage under Article 2:104). The issue of when the transfer of ownership will take place, and what separate steps, if any, must be taken to effect the transfer are addressed by the Principles on Transfer of Movable Property. The Sales Principles only deal with obligational issues. They require
Text of Articles
Authors: Lilleholt Kåre , Victorin† Anders , Fötschl Andreas , Konow Berte-Elen R , Meidell Andreas , Tørum Amund Bjøranger
Published: November 2023

Scope of application and general provisions Article 1:101: Lease of goods This Part of Book IV applies to contracts for the lease of goods. A contract for the lease of goods is a contract under which one party, the lessor, undertakes to provide the other party, the lessee, with a temporary right of use of goods in exchange for rent. The rent may be in the form of money or other value This Part of Book IV does not apply to contracts where the parties have agreed that ownership will be transferred after a period with right of use even if the parties have described the contract as a lease The application of this Part of Book IV is not excluded by the fact that the contract has a financing purpose, the lessor has the role as a financing party, or the lessee has an option to become owner of the goods This Part of Book IV regulates only the contractual relationship between lessor and lessee Article 1:102: Consumer leases For the purpose of this Part of Book IV, a consumer lease is a contract under which a business leases goods to a natural person who is acting primarily for purposes which are not related to that person’s trade, business or profession (the consumer).
Remedies of the lessee
Authors: Lilleholt Kåre , Victorin† Anders , Fötschl Andreas , Konow Berte-Elen R , Meidell Andreas , Tørum Amund Bjøranger
Published: November 2023

Article 4:101: Overview of remedies If the lessor fails to perform an obligation under the contract, the lessee is entitled, according to Book III, Chapter 3 and the rules of this Chapter: to enforce specific performance of the obligation; to withhold performance of the reciprocal obligation; to terminate the lease; to reduce the rent to claim damages and interest Comments Overview Relationship to the general rules in Book III General rules in Book III, Chapter 3 on non-performance and remedies apply also to non-performance of obligations under a contract of lease of goods. Some derogations or additions are needed due to the characteristic traits of lease contracts. In the present Article a general reference is made initially to Book III, Chapter 3, while derogations and additions are found in subsequent provisions. Rules already found in Book III, Chapter 3 are thus not repeated Lessee’s remedies only The present Chapter deals with the lessee’s remedies only. Provisions on the lessor’s remedies for non-performance of the lessee’s obligations are found in Chapter 6.
Remedies of the lessor
Authors: Lilleholt Kåre , Victorin† Anders , Fötschl Andreas , Konow Berte-Elen R , Meidell Andreas , Tørum Amund Bjøranger
Published: November 2023

Article 6:101: Overview of remedies If the lessee fails to perform an obligation under the contract, the lessor is entitled, according to Book III, Chapter 3 and the provisions of this Chapter: to enforce performance of the obligation; to withhold performance of the reciprocal obligation; to terminate the lease; to claim damages and interest. Comments General Scope of this Chapter The provisions of the present Chapter apply where “the lessee fails to perform an obligation under the contract”. Thus the scope is limited to non-performance of the lessee’s obligations; cf. the parallel provisions in Chapter 4 concerning remedies of the lessee. Reference to general rules The lessor is entitled to the listed remedies according to Book III, Chapter 3 and the provisions of the present Chapter. This formula implies that the general rules are partly supplemented, and partly derogated from, by the provisions of the chapter. Listing of remedies The list of remedies is exhaustive, but the remedies are described in a general way and more specific rules are found in Book III, Chapter 3 and the subsequent provisions of the present Chapter.
New parties and sublease
Authors: Lilleholt Kåre , Victorin† Anders , Fötschl Andreas , Konow Berte-Elen R , Meidell Andreas , Tørum Amund Bjøranger
Published: November 2023

Article 7:101: Change in ownership and substitution of lessor Where ownership passes from the lessor to a new owner, the new owner of the goods is substituted as a party to the lease contract if the lessee has possession of the goods at the time ownership passes. The former owner remains subsidiarily liable for the non-performance of the lease contract as a personal security provider. A reversal of the passing of ownership puts the parties back in their original positions except as regards performance already rendered at the time of reversal. The rules in the preceding paragraphs apply accordingly where the lessor has acted as holder of a right other than ownership. Comments Overview Lease contracts and change in ownership Generally, a party to a contract may assign the right to performance under the contract (III. – 5:105 (Assignability. general rule)), but the party will not be discharged of contractual obligations without the other party’s assent (III. – 5:301 (Transfer of a contractual position)). For lease contracts, a change in ownership of the leased goods raises some special questions. The lessor’s position as owner of the goods (or holder of a comparable right) and as a party to the contract are closely connected. In order to perform the obligations under the contract the lessor must be able to make the goods available for the lessee’s use and in most cases must also be able to carry out work on the goods in the form of maintenance and repairs. This normally presupposes that the lessor is the owner of the goods. Rules are needed concerning the consequences of a change of ownership regarding both the contractual relationship between the lessee and the original lessor and the relationship between the lessee and the new owner.
Diagnostics for dislocated elements
Authors: De Cat CéCile
Published: November 2023

This chapter establishes the empirical basis of my investigation into the interpretive and syntactic properties of dislocated structures in spoken French. It opens with a discussion of what the term ‘spoken French’ covers. The following two sections assess the extent to which prosody and the presence of a resumptive element can be used as diagnostics for dislocated structures in this language.
Acquisition
Authors: De Cat CéCile
Published: November 2023

The study of child language and that of the target system build on each other. Child language research relies on an informed study of the target system; in return, because the child’s linguistic production is not entirely target-like but constrained by universal rules, its study provides the researcher with a privileged means of investigating Universal Grammar (UG), hence allowing refinements of the analyses that fed it in the first place.
International Legal Theories Evolved at Nuremberg
Authors: Birkett Norman
Published: November 2023

final verdict upon Nuremberg will no doubt be passed in the distant future; it will be the verdict of history. What we can do at the present time is, in quietude, to discuss some of the important matters upon which the verdict of history may finally rest. I say ‘in quietude’ for at Nuremberg we had movie cameras, and brilliant lighting, and 250 press representatives from one country alone; and in all those circumstances it was a little diﬃcult to realize that it was a trial at all comparable with the kind of trial with which we are familiar in Great Britain.
Looking Back at the Nuremberg Trials with Special Consideration of the Processes Against Military Leaders
Authors: Laternser Dr. Hans
Published: November 2023

Almost four decades ago on October 1, 1946, the International Military Tribunal in Nuremberg pronounced its verdict in the so-called great process against Goering et al. and especially against the indicted organizations. Shortly thereafter, twelve further processes were carried out in Nuremberg. All these trials belong to history. Yet we are approaching a time which is ripe for a valid appraisal of this significant segment of the development of international law.
Nuremberg : Forty Five Years Later
Authors: Larin A M
Published: November 2023

The debate over the prosecution of alleged German war criminals following World War I anticipated the controversies which plagued the Nuremberg trial. In the early twentieth century, the law of war was codified in the Hague Convention of 1907.
Nuremberg Trial: The Law Against War and Fascism
Authors: Larin A M
Published: November 2023

On 31 August 1946, at the end of the 403rd open judicial hearing, the presiding judge, G. Lawrence, announced a recess and the tribunal withdrew to consider and agree on its verdict. After a month, on 1 October 1946, the judges returned to the courtroom in the Palace of Justice and read out their verdict. It was indeed an unprecedented historical document. Peoples of the world have suffered from bloody conflicts for thousands of years, arising from the will of cruel and selfish rulers. However, on this occasion, in Nuremberg, those guilty of planning, preparing, unleashing, and waging an aggressive war, of war crimes and crimes against peace and humanity, were for the first time convicted and punished by a court.
The Legality of the Nuremberg Trials
Authors: Goodhart Arthur L
Published: November 2023

The International Military Tribunal which is now sitting in Nuremberg finds its being in the agreement² entered into in London on 8th August 1945 by the Governments of Great Britain, the United States, France, and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics for the ‘prosecution and punishment of the major war criminals of the European Axis’. After stating that, in accordance with the Moscow Declaration of 30th October 1943, those Germans who had been responsible for war crimes should ‘be sent back to the countries in which their abominable deeds were done’ to be tried by the national Courts of those countries, the Agreement provides that an International Military Tribunal shall be established ‘for the trial of war criminals whose offences have no particular geographical location’, these being ‘the major war criminals’.
Living with diabetes
Authors: Matthews David
Published: November 2023

A diagnosis of diabetes does not mean that the person with diabetes has to stop driving. The DVLA have clear criteria for new and existing licence holders who have diabetes, and it is important that relevant changes to treament and the development of complications that may affect driving are reported. A diagnosis of diabetes must be reported to insurers. A diagnosis of diabetes is a material fact and if not reported may invalidate the driver’s insurance cover. Testing blood glucose levels is recommended before and during a journey, and, if in any doubt about safety to drive, stop, test and treat if necessary.
What is Down syndrome?
Authors: Selikowitz Mark
Published: November 2023

There are more differences between children with Down syndrome than there are similarities. Superimposed upon his individual characteristics, each child and adult with Down syndrome has features that he shares with others who have the syndrome. No child with Down syndrome has all the characteristic features. Anyone may have some of the features of the syndrome.
Your child’ s health
Authors: Selikowitz Mark
Published: November 2023

The majority of children with Down syndrome will be born without a heart defect, and will be active and vigorous children who suffer little ill health. Like all children, children with Down syndrome benefit from a healthy lifestyle. They should not be overprotected. Every child with Down syndrome should follow a systematic schedule of examinations and tests during her life.
Ergativity
Authors: könig Christa
Published: November 2023

Unlike other case systems in Africa, the number of African languages with ergative systems is severely limited. Ergativity as a grammaticalized case system is not only limited in number; its occurrence is also areally and genetically restricted: It is largely confined to the Northern Lwoo languages of West Nilotic (Nilo-Saharan), spoken in the region of South-West Ethiopia/South-East Sudan (see section 3.1). The only other language with a restricted ergative system is Tima, presumably a Kordofanian language spoken in the Nuba Hills of West Sudan; the split ergative system of this language will be discussed in section 3.2.
Our aims in this section
Authors: Campling Frankie , Sharpe Michael
Published: November 2023

If you or someone you know has been diagnosed as having chronic fatigue syndrome or my algic encephalomyelitis (CFS/ME) you are likely to have a lot of questions you want answered. During the 15 years and more that we have been working with those suffering from this illness, we have become familiar with the questions that are the most commonly asked. These are:
What should it be called and why?
Authors: Campling Frankie , Sharpe Michael
Published: November 2023

Various names are used for this illness, which can be very confusing. What are the different names, and where do they come from? Do they all mean the same thing? What name should we use? Well, to start with the first question (and ignoring the disgusting and inaccurate ‘yuppie flu’), the names used for this condition can be:
What do we know about CFS/ME?
Authors: Campling Frankie , Sharpe Michael
Published: November 2023

There has already been a great deal of research into CFS/ME. The aims have been to find out how many people have CFS/ME and the factors associated with it (epidemiology), to understand the causes (epidemiology),), and to find a test which will positively diagnose the condition (diagnostic test). Research is of course ultimately devoted to finding an effective treatment. Research into treatment (clinical trials) is discussed in Chapter 8.
What is the best treatment?
Authors: Campling Frankie , Sharpe Michael
Published: November 2023

Many treatments have been tried for CFS/ME. The bad news is that at the present time there is no cure for CFS/ME; the good news is that there is a lot that can be done to manage the illness and speed recovery.
Some myths about CFS/ME
Authors: Campling Frankie , Sharpe Michael
Published: November 2023

Before reading this book you have probably heard or read a variety of things about CFS or ME. Some of these things may have been only partially correct or, worse still, not true at all. Some of these ‘myths’ may get in the way of you effectively managing your illness.
Relaxation and calm breathing
Authors: Campling Frankie , Sharpe Michael
Published: November 2023

Relaxation is one of those words that mean different things to different people. What we mean in this context is not just ‘taking it easy’'. We mean letting go of physical tension in all your muscles.
Improving your sleep
Authors: Campling Frankie , Sharpe Michael
Published: November 2023

People with CFS/ME often find that their sleep pattern has changed. At the beginning of their illness they sometimes sleep much more. Later on they may find that they have difficulty getting to sleep or that they may wake during the night. Often, even if they have slept, they still wake up feeling tired. Good-quality sleep, at normal times, is something we all need, so it is worth looking at all the ways that you can get back to this.
Improving your mood
Authors: Campling Frankie , Sharpe Michael
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapters, we discussed some things you can do to help yourself in a practical way. In these next chapters we will look at the way you feel emotionally, which can be just as important.
Managing your thinking
Authors: Campling Frankie , Sharpe Michael
Published: November 2023

Understanding the way you think—the way you view yourself, your life, and the world around you and your illness—can make a great difference to the way you cope. We all of us, well or ill, have established patterns of thinking. Some of these are helpful and some unhelpful, and they influence our feelings and our mood. Moods and emotions have a huge effect on how you feel generally, which is why we believe that actively managing your thinking is so important. Some of your beliefs and thought patterns may well have been appropriate in the past but no longer fit the person you are today.
Summary of our self-help advice
Authors: Campling Frankie , Sharpe Michael
Published: November 2023

We very much hope that you will try out the self-help techniques we have outlined in this section. Both research and increasing amounts of clinical experience have shown that they can result in an improvement in your condition. Over time they can make a great difference to your state of health and to your well-being. In the 15 years and more that we have been working with people with CFS/ME we have seen the benefits that can come from this approach. We do not say that these techniques will give you a cure, but they can give you the significant benefits of a decrease in symptoms and/or an increase in your level of functioning. You could try:
Cognitive behaviour therapy, graded exercise therapy, and adaptive pacing therapy
Authors: Campling Frankie , Sharpe Michael
Published: November 2023

These are the main treatments used by the National Health Service in the UK for CFS/ME. Cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) and graded exercise therapy (GET) have the strongest evidence for effectiveness. Adaptive pacing therapy (APT) has been less well researched, but is supported by anecdote and by professional and patient experience.
Children and young people with CFS/ME
Authors: Campling Frankie , Sharpe Michael
Published: November 2023

It is not only adults who can get CFS/ME. It is a sad fact that children and young people can suffer from it as well. Their symptoms are very similar to those experienced by adults, though they may not talk about being fatigued in quite the same way. Like adults, the onset of illness may be acute following a viral-type illness (such as glandular fever), or may be more gradual. As we have said before, the label CFS/ME probably covers more than one condition, so your child’s illness may be very different from that of another child with the same diagnosis.
Dynamics of Competition
Authors: Robertson Duncan A , Caldart Adrián A
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we go beyond traditional, economics-based models and review how we can use new, alternative models to study the dynamics of competition. ‘Turbulence’, ‘high velocity environments’, ‘hypercompetition’: these are all notions that describe environments that are not stable and do not conform to the idealized notions of equilibrium that characterize the formal models discussed in the last chapter. In this section we review several different theoretical approaches that address the dynamism of competition.
Co-Evolution
Authors: Robertson Duncan A , Caldart Adrián A
Published: November 2023

Our discussion so far in this book has focused on analysing the dynamics of the external landscape of organizations, where they interact with each other competitively or cooperatively (Chapters 2 to 4) and on the analysis of the internal dynamics of organizations (Chapters 5 and 6).

The conceptual divide between the dynamics of the interactions between firms and the dynamics within them is useful to emphasize the main features and challenges associated with each of these approaches. In the real world, however, firms face the challenge of managing their external and internal landscapes simultaneously.
From Servants of the State to Elected Representatives: Public Sector Background among Members of Parliament
Authors: Cotta Maurizio , Almeida Pedro Tavares de
Published: November 2023

Elected parliaments were introduced in Europe for the fundamental purpose of checking and controlling the absolutist (or semi-absolutist) monarchies which in the previous period had greatly expanded their powers thanks to the development of the large and pervasive bureaucracies of the modern state (Tilly 1975; Bendix 1964; Poggi 1978). In this way, even when the king was not (or could not be) directly challenged, his government and his administrative longa manus could be scrutinized, controlled, kept within limits.
Audits, Monitoring and Impact Assessments
Authors: Hill Henrietta , Kenyon Richard
Published: November 2023

The vast majority of employers are familiar to some degree with management practices that analyse performance and set direction. These practices will vary from employer to employer and many will depend upon size, sophistication and resources. But it would be an unusual employer that did not draw up long-and short-term business plans, carry out some form of analysis of its operation and design metrics to monitor its performance.

The purpose of this chapter is to look at the way those general business concepts of planning, implementing and analysing can be imported into the promotion of equality and diversity.
Procurement and Outsourcing
Authors: Hill Henrietta , Kenyon Richard
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we seek to examine the ways in which one organisation can influence the equality and diversity performance of other organisations, when acting as a consumer of goods or services. That might occur where an organisation simply goes into the market as a purchaser. It might also occur when an organisation outsources some of its support services to a private or voluntary organisation or, having previously outsourced those services, decides to re-let them to another service provider—also known as second, third, fourth, etc, generation outsourcing.
Positive Action and Occupational Requirements
Authors: Hill Henrietta , Kenyon Richard
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 7 we look at the two decision-making processes of recruitment and promotion. This chapter is a precursor to Chapter 7. It deals with two preliminary considerations ahead of any recruitment or promotion exercise.

We begin with an examination of ‘positive action’, the legally permissible steps that an employer, wishing to promote equality and diversity, can take to encourage those from under-represented groups to apply for jobs and to better equip them for success at the selection stage in the recruitment and promotion processes.
Family-Friendly and Flexible Working
Authors: Hill Henrietta , Kenyon Richard
Published: November 2023

The promotion of ‘family-friendly’ initiatives within the workplace has been a key plank of ‘New Labour’ policy. Since coming into power in 1997 the Government has deployed a range of education and awareness-raising campaigns designed to secure a better work-life balance for those with family responsibilities.

An essential part of that policy package has been the development of a complex legislative framework which provides extensive and enforceable rights for parents and carers.
Attendance Management
Authors: Hill Henrietta , Kenyon Richard
Published: November 2023

This chapter is about managing employees who are absent and unable to work on account of a medical condition. Although we have begun the chapter with a quote about disability, we do not wish to give the impression that attendance problems and disability are synonymous: attendance at work is not an issue for many disabled people. However, for some disabled people, regular attendance may be more difficult than for their non-disabled colleagues.
Religious Practice, Dress Codes and Freedom of Expression In The Workplace
Authors: Hill Henrietta , Kenyon Richard
Published: November 2023

The interplay between equality and diversity law and human rights principles in the workplace is perhaps strongest in the areas of religious practice, dress codes and freedom of expression. These three areas are interrelated in that they often overlap in practice, and all involve a tension between the employee’s right not to be discriminated against on any of the prohibited grounds and their right to respect for their human rights in the workplace (most strikingly if they are public sector employees); and the employer’s desire to run their business in efficient ways that are fair to all. In this chapter we explore the law relating to these issues and seek to offer practical ways in which advisers can strike a fair balance between these competing needs.
The Nature and Extent of Serious Further Offences
Authors: Nash Mike , Williams Andy
Published: November 2023

This chapter introduces and examines the concept and definition of serious further offences (SFOs), as well as the review and notification procedures. This will provide a more holistic understanding of such offences and why there are inquiries into them. To this end we examine three key elements. First, we examine the development of the concept of SFOs and review the key protocols and criminal justice policies that set out the current review and notification requirements for SFO cases. Secondly, we examine the definitions of SFOs, again linking these definitional parameters to both the current criminal justice policy and inquiries into them. Finally, we discuss basic facts and figures to give the reader an insight into the nature and extent of SFOs. Some readers, particularly practitioners, may consider the historical development of SFOs to be a trivial matter that can be ignored.
Failure and Blame—Learning Lessons from Elsewhere
Authors: Nash Mike , Williams Andy
Published: November 2023

Learning lessons from tragedy is invariably cited as a prime justification for instituting reviews of and inquiries into serious further incidents in a variety of organizational settings. Yet in a curious paradox, busy professionals rarely find the time to read the reports of these inquiries whilst a lack of time both to read and think is itself frequently cited as a cause of failure in the reports. Therefore it is possible that reports may be read more by managers than practitioners and that organizational changes needed may be submerged beneath greater demands for policy compliance, or what Alaszewski (2002:377) describes as ‘encoded ‘ knowledge.
SFO Inquiries—Opening Pandora ‘s Box
Authors: Nash Mike , Williams Andy
Published: November 2023

Since the introduction of the SFO notification and review protocols there have been four major independent inquiries into SFOs. Between 2004 and 2006, HMIP produced four major reports into SFOs that were to have a dramatic impact on the probation service, as well as the SFO notification and review policies dis- cussed in Chapter 1. This chapter examines in detail the major themes and issues that came out of these inquiries. In doing so, we utilize the key profiling inputs examined in the previous chapter to provide some structure to our analysis. Of course it is not possible or indeed necessary to go through each facet and caveat of the inquiries in detail. Readers who are interested in the detailed intricacies of each inquiry should go to the actual reports themselves.
Conclusion
Authors: Nash Mike , Williams Andy
Published: November 2023

There are a variety of ways for organizations and governments to respond to tragedies and significant incidents which might be regarded as falling within their ambit (as most are). For example, when unnaturally high rainfall flooded much of central and eastern England during the summer of 2006 the government was blamed for not providing enough flood defences and for allowing building on flood plains. Although global warming may have contributed it was undoubtedly a natural phenomenon totally beyond the control of anyone. Yet as soon as the rain fell and kept on falling, blame had to be passed on to someone. It appears that there always has to be someone or something to blame.
Asthma in the Modern World
Authors: Jackson Mark
Published: November 2023

On Saturday, 7 June 2008, at the onset of the monsoon period marked by the Hindu ritual of Mrigasari Karti, several thousand people with asthma arrived in Hyderabad in India in order to receive a controversial treatment for their respiratory illness. For over 160 years, the Bathini Goud family had been dispensing a secret remedy that had reportedly been revealed to one of their ancestors by a saint in 1845 on the condition that the medicine would be administered without cost to all patients. The treatment, which comprised swallowing a live murrel fish stuffed with a yellow medicinal paste, was referred to by the Goud family as a ‘fish prasadam’, a form of karma-free food offered to the gods. According to popular belief, consumption of the medicine, followed by a strict diet for forty-five days, for three successive years effectively prevents the accumulation of phlegm and offers a complete cure for asthma.
The simple sentence
Authors: Blake Barry J
Published: November 2023

A mental lexicon is not much use on its own if we want to talk about our experiences. We need syntax, a set of rules to combine words into phrases and sentences. Syntax is also called ‘grammar’, but grammar is used in a number of different senses. It can refer to a comprehensive description of a language. If I buy a Spanish grammar I would expect some information about pronunciation and word building as well as syntax. In its most common use in the community at large ‘grammar’ refers to syntax and inflection, particularly to a set of rules for guidance as to what is ‘right’ and what is ‘wrong’.
Varieties
Authors: Blake Barry J
Published: November 2023

Speakers of a language don’t all speak the same, nor do individuals speak the same in every situation. In most languages there are different varieties spoken in different areas. In many cultures there is language variation correlated with social position, sex, or age, or with the setting or situation. In this chapter we shall look at some of these types of variation.

Languages change over time. Most of us are aware of changes in vocabulary as new words come into use, mainly for new inventions such as computers, and other words fall into disuse, but all aspects of language change including pronunciation, word-building, syntax, and the meaning of particular words.
Introduction European Citizenship: An Avenue for the Social Integration of Europe
Authors: Giesen Bernhard , Eder Klaus
Published: November 2023

The avenue to European integration as imagined by the founding fathers of the EEC and finally established by the treaties of Maastricht and Amsterdam has led to a common market for goods, labour, and capital and to supranational political institutions. The status of the resulting institutions, however, is far from clear. Although the increasing influence of the European Court of Justice and its claim to supremacy over national legislation and even over the national constitutional courts hints at the growing power of European governance regarding the member states, the status of the European Community has been heavily debated among legal and political scientists as well as among politicians and practitioners of international law. It has centred around the question of whether Europe is a federation created by a treaty between autonomous national governments, as the ‘intergovernmentalists’ claim, or whether this federation gave rise-intentionally or as an unintended consequence-to strong supranational institutions which reside at the top of national governments and can rightly claim to be based on an implicit constitution. In the first case the European Community is the domain of international law and can dispense with the question of a European demos and of a strong conception of citizenship. Both remain exclusively at the level of nations and their member states. If, however, as the European Court of Justice successfully claims, the Community represents the sovereign centre of governance (at least for a certain range of policy fields, the First Pillar of the Union), then the issue of European citizenship comes to the fore and a debate about its relationship regarding the multiplicity of national citizenship can hardly be avoided.
Citizenship and the European Union
Authors: Beyme Klaus von
Published: November 2023

The internal conflicts regarding the ratification of the Maastricht Treaty showed the difference of traditions in the perception of citizenship: some countries followed their doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty and had the treaty ratified by a parliamentary majority. Britain, when it admitted a referendum on the question of adherence to the European Community, deviated from its basic constitutional principles. Some Scandinavian parliamentary systems followed the British example. But even when a country voted ‘no—as Norway has already done twice—the West European constitutional mystique was sufficiently generalized to respect such a decision. In some countries the tiny majority in favour of further European integration caused misgivings, such as in France or Denmark.
Conclusion Citizenship and the Making of a European Society: From the Political to the Social Integration of Europe
Authors: Eder Klaus , Giesen Bernhard
Published: November 2023

Europe is more than a system of legal norms and rules and political institutions which regulate European citizenship. Europe is also a symbolic space where projections and memories, the collective experiences and identifications of the people of Europe are represented. Europe has a cultural meaning. There are three different motives in addressing European citizenship as being more than an administrative matter. It is first of all a concept which raises moral concerns about justice and democracy, and which conveys a sense of transnational universalism. These non-legal elements of citizenship are at the basis of the hope and despair that accompany the discourse on European citizenship. The expectations in terms of political participation and social justice put on national citizenship provoke the question of whether European citizenship can realize what national citizenship rights have succeeded in doing: the creation of a largely stable system of political freedom and social justice.
Sustainable Development and Policy
Authors: Atkinson* Giles
Published: November 2023

The call for countries to pursue policies aimed at achieving’sustainable development’ was established both in the Brundtland Report and at the Earth Summit in 1992. Sustainable development has since been adopted as an over-arching goal of economic and social development by international agencies, individual nations, local governments, and even corporations, and, further, has generated a huge literature. While there are legitimate questions about what these bodies have signed up to, the focus on sustainability broadly embodies the goal that development policy deliver improvements in the prospects of people both now and into the future.
Making Things Stick: Enforcement and Compliance
Authors: Heyes* Anthony G
Published: November 2023

Environmental regulations are only useful if firms comply with them. Since compliance is generally costly, regulations have to be enforced if they are to work. Since enforcement is itself costly, enforcement is usually incomplete, meaning that some firms get away with noncompliance. Only by taking account of this sort of leakage can the success of a regulatory programme be assessed accurately.
The UK Landfill Tax
Authors: Brisson Inger , Powell* Jane
Published: November 2023

The landfill tax was introduced into the fiscal framework of the United Kingdom on 1 October 1996, and immediately acquired landmark status. This rank can be explained by two reasons; first, the tax was designed to reflect the actual environmental cost of landfilling waste, and so it became the first true environmental tax in the UK. Second, in a further digression from previous practice, the Treasury agreed to the hypothecation of a portion of the revenue from the tax, to facilitate the search for alternative methods of waste disposal.
Decentralization in Four Colombian Cities
Authors: Angell Alan , Lowden Pamela , Thorp Rosemary
Published: November 2023

In a country characterized by diversity and complexity, it is to be expected that the four cities chosen as case studies will offer a varied testing ground for the impact of decentralization. Our focus in this chapter is on the changing role of local mayors since 1988, and the effect such changes have had on nature of the administrations over which they preside. Even against a backdrop of contrasting histories and institutional resources, and despite some negative developments, there are clearly discernible points of progress in the emerging picture of local government reform in our case studies. While these cannot be taken as an indication of national patterns of change, they are at least illustrative of the types of change decentralization may produce. New and reformist political leaders are emerging at the local level. Some are more independent of old clientelist loyalties and more competent than others are. Nor is political independence from regional bosses a guarantee of effective and honest government. What is unquestionable, however, is that positive change in the quality of municipal government has proven possible even in the least promising circumstances-and largely thanks to decentralization. Moreover, it is equa1ly certain that the local governments of the four cities are far better placed today to play a key role as leaders of local development than they were a decade ago.
Premises
Authors: Malcolm Rosalind , Pointing John
Published: November 2023

Premises may be in such a state that they constitute a statutory nuisance to the occupier of those premises (an “internal nuisance’) or to an adjoining occupier. When premises fall into the internal nuisance category, this will, normally, fall under the health limb of section 79(1 )(a) of the Environmental Protection Act 1990 (‘EPA l 990’) since there is no element of a private or public nuisance present.1 Some actual or threatened injury to health must then be shown.
Noise And Noise Nuisance
Authors: Malcolm Rosalind , Pointing John
Published: November 2023

There is no adequate legal definition of noise and its measurement and control are often complicated. Noise is also perceived differently by different individuals and in some respects is a social construct. Changes in lifestyle affect the ways in which problems are perceived and defined. Significant increases in noise affecting a high proportion of the population have been caused by an ever-increasing volume of road traffic. Increases in the number of aircraft movements coming from more and larger airports have also caused substantial problems which are similarly difficult to resolve.
Other Remedies
Authors: Malcolm Rosalind , Pointing John
Published: November 2023

This chapter considers alternatives to the use of the abatement notice procedure under section 80 of the Environmental Protection Act 1990 (‘EPA 1990’) and to ‘persons aggrieved’ taking their own proceedings under section 82 of the EPA 1990. (However, a discussion of civil claims in nuisance, which constitutes a different legal regime from statutory nuisance, is beyond the scope of this work. Civil or private nuisances are property torts which do not apply to local authorities unless a council is taking action in its own right to protect its interests. Conceptual overlaps between private, public and statutory nuisance are analysed in Chapter 4.)
The Governance of Local Economies in Germany
Authors: Glassmann Ulrich , Voelzkow Helmut
Published: November 2023

This chapter asks whether local economies actually exist in Germany. We show that they do, but that they are subject to other governance mechanisms than those associated with the term ‘industrial district’. The collective competition goods that are produced via inter-firm co-operation and diverse local or regional providers evolve from a distinct institutional arrangement.
Liquidity Provision via Banks and Markets: A Discussion
Authors: Thadden Ernst-Ludwig van
Published: November 2023

Liquidity provision is usually considered to be one of the main macroeconomic functions of the banking system. Yet, while this notion is old and can be traced back at least to Adam Smith, precise definitions and analyses of the role of banks for liquidity provision date only from the early 1980s. In this survey, I will briefly review this earlier literature, thus paving the way for some of the work of the 1990s that is collected in the main part of this section.
Banking Panics, Information, and Rational Expectations Equilibrium
Authors: Chari V V , fagannathan Ravi
Published: November 2023

Banking panics were a recurrent phenomenon in the United States until the 1930s. They have reemerged as a source of public concern and much theoretical research recently. In this paper, we provide an information-theoretic rationale for bank runs. The traditional “story” is that contagion is an important aspect of bank runs. The idea seems to be that when the general public observes large withdrawals from the banking system, fears of insolvency grow resulting in even larger withdrawals of deposits.
Contagion and Efficiency in Gross and Net Interbank Payment Systems
Authors: Freixas Xavier , Parigi Bruno
Published: November 2023

The impressive growth in the value of daily interbank payments1 has raised concerns about the potential systemic risk induced by contagion. This effect, also known as the domino effect, occurs if the failure of a large financial institution to settle payment obligations triggers a chain reaction that threatens the stability of the financial system. (See, among others, Brimmer (1989).) The two main types of large-value interbank payment systems, “net” and “gross,” differ sharply in their exposure to contagion risk. In the former, netting the positions of the different banks through compensation of their claims only at the end of the day implies intraday credit from one bank to another, and exposes banks to contagion.
Capital Requirements and the Behavior of Commercial Banks
Authors: Rochet Jean-Charles
Published: November 2023

In fact, the above questions have already been examined, notably by U.S. economists, who used essentially two competing sets of assumptions. In the first setup, financial markets are supposed to be complete and depositors are perfectly informed about the failure risks of banks. Then the Modigliani-Miller indeterminacy principle applies and the market values of banks are independent of the structure of their assets portfolio, as well as their capital to assets ratio. How-ever, when a bankruptcy cost is introduced as in Kareken and Wallace (1978), it is found that unregulated banks would spontaneously choose their assets portfolio in such a way that failure does not occur. The reason is market discipline: since capital markets are supposed to be efficient and banks’ creditors (including depositors) are supposed to be perfectly informed, any increase in the bank riskiness would immediately reflect in the rates of return demanded by stockholders and depositors.