bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Consistency of fats: A review
Authors: Deman J. M.
Published: January 2007

The consistency of fats can be measured with the cone penetrometer (AOCS Method Cc 16‐60). Several suggestions have been made to convert readings of penetration depth into parameters such as yield value, hardness or hardness index. This may extend the usefulness of the method. Motor‐driven penetrating devices yield results in terms of force/area or stress. More basic information about the rheological properties of fats can be obtained with creep measurements. This includes the viscous flow component as well as instantaneous and retarded elastic components. Such methods are more suitable for research purposes than for quality control. Characteristics and application of various methods will be reviewed.
Products from the reaction of fatty acids with ketones and their characteristic properties as cutting fluids additives
Authors: Watanabe S. , Fujita T. , Suga K. , Sugahara K.
Published: January 2007

Hydroxy acids were synthesized in good yields from ketones and fatty acids by the use of lithium naphthalene in the presence of diethylamine. For example, from cyclohexanone and undecylenic acid (I), 2‐(1‐hydroxy‐1‐cyclohexyl)‐10‐undecenoic acid (III) was obtained in 92% yield. Hydroxy acids were treated withp‐toluenesulphonic acid to give corresponding unsaturated fatty acids. From the reaction of (III), 2‐(1‐cyclohexenyl)‐10‐undecenoic acid (IV), a 3,4‐unsaturated acid was obtained (yield 59%). Corrosion and lubricity tests for these products as water‐based cutting fluid additives were carried out. We have found that triethanolamine salts of 2‐cyclohexenyl and 2‐hydroxycyclohexyl fatty acids showed effective rust‐inhibiting and antiwear properties for water‐based cutting fluids.
Margarines, butter and vegetable oils as sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
Authors: Hopia Anu , Pyysalo Heikki , Wickström Kim
Published: January 2007

Concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) were determined in Finnish butter, margarines and vegetable oils and their raw materials. In all the samples some degree of PAH contamination was found. The average per capita intake was estimated at 0.6 µg per day. The plant raw materials are supposed to be contaminated by combustion‐derived atmospheric particles during the growing period. Inappropriate drying processes can substantially increase the contamination level. Deodorization processes used by food industry seem to decrease the total PAH levels significantly.
Synthesis of 2‐alkyloyl‐1,4,3,6‐dianhydrosorbitol‐5‐sulfates and evaluation of the surface active properties
Authors: Saheki Yukifami , Negoro Kenji , Sasaki Takanori
Published: January 2007

New anionic surfactants 2‐alkyloyl‐1,4,3,6‐dianhydrosorbitol‐5‐sulfates were synthesized by sulfation of 2‐alkyloyl‐1,4,3,6‐dianhydrosorbitol. Studies on the surface active properties such as surface tension, dispersibility and emulsifiability of these surfactants were carried out. The results showed these surfactants are better dispersants and emulsifiers than Span 80 and Span 85.
Chemistry on the decay of the phenoxy radical from butylated hydroxytoluene
Authors: Omura Kanji
Published: January 2007

Decay of unstable 2,6‐di‐tert‐butyl‐4‐methylphenoxy radical (2) was investigated in various solvents. Radical 2 was conveniently generated by dissociation of bis(methylcyclohexadienone) (1a), unstable dimer of 2, in solution. The products were butylated hydroxytoluene (3), 1,2‐bis(4‐hydroxyphenyl)ethane (7), 4,4′‐stilbenequinone (8), and 4‐(4‐hydroxybenzyl)cyclohexadienone (5). Unidentified products also were formed. The formation of 5 was favored in polar solvents, but was not subject to catalysis with Et3N or HCl. In contrast, the rates of formation of 7 and 8 appeared to be independent of solvent polarity. The mechanism of formation of the dimeric productsvia reactive intermediate quinone methide 4, generated from 2 by disproportionation, is discussed. Gradual disintegration of 5 in solution into 3 and 4 was investigated.
Analysis of free malonaldehyde formed in lipid peroxidation systemsvia a pyrimidine derivative
Authors: Osawa Toshihiko , Shibamoto Takayuki
Published: January 2007

A high‐performance liquid chromatographic (HPLC) method for the determination of malonaldehyde (MA) in foods and biological samples was developed. MA was derivatized by reaction with urea under acidic conditions to form 2‐hydroxypyrimidine, which was subsequently measured by HPLC. The highest yield (98%) of the product was obtained when 100 nmol of MA was reacted with 60 mmol of urea for 60 min at 100°C. Arachidonic acid, linolenic acid, linoleic acid and oleic acid were oxidized by a FeCl2/H2O2 reagent in aqueous solution. MA formed was determined as 2‐hydroxypyrimidine by HPLC. Arachidonic acid produced the highest level of MA (60 nmol/mg fatty acid), whereas oleic acid did not produce any. The formation levels of MA in microsomes upon enzymatic and nonenzymatic oxidation were 34 nmol/mL and 45 nmol/mL, respectively. Antioxidative activity of α‐tocopherol was also monitored successfully by this HPLC method.
Kinetics of pheophytin‐A photodecomposition in extra virgin olive oil
Authors: Serani A. , Piacenti D.
Published: January 2007

The amount of pheophytin‐A in extra virgin olive oil was determined by reverse‐phase high‐performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with chlorophyll‐A as an internal standard. The kinetics of pheophytin‐A photodecomposition at 15, 40 and 50°C at three different luminous energies were studied. The pheophytin‐A photodecomposition process develops according to a first‐order reaction. From the Arrhenius’ straight lines, it appears that the incident luminous energy does not change the activation energy but increases the reaction frequency factor.
Novel derivatives of methyl hexahydro‐3‐methyl‐6‐thioxo‐1,2,4,5‐tetrazine‐3‐nonanoate
Authors: Saeed M. T. , Mustafa J. , Rauf A. , Osman S. M.
Published: January 2007

Methyl hexahydro‐3‐methyl‐6‐thioxo‐1,2,4,5‐tetrazine‐3‐nonanoate (I) on treatment with reagents such as chloroacetic acid, 1,2‐dibromoethane and 2‐mercaptoethanol under different reaction conditions afforded methyl 3,4,6,7‐tetrahydro‐3‐methyl‐6‐oxo‐2H‐thiazolo[3,2‐b]‐1,2,4,5‐tetrazine‐3‐nonanoate (II), methyl 3,4,6,7‐tetrahydro‐3‐methyl‐2H‐thiazolo[3,2‐b]‐1,2,4,5‐tetrazine‐3‐nonanoate (III) and methyl 8‐methyl‐1‐oxa‐4‐thia‐6,7,9,10‐tetraazaspiro‐[4.5]‐decane‐8‐nonanoate (IV) in good yields. The structures of compounds II–IV were established by elemental analysis, infrared (IR), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), and mass spectral data.
A novel technique for the preparation of secondary fatty amides
Authors: Bilyk Alexander , Bistline Raymond G. , Piazza George J. , Feairheller Stephen H. , Haas Michael J.
Published: January 2007

A technique for the synthesis of monosubstituted fatty amides at low temperature and ambient pressure was developed. This method involved the condensation of an amine with a triacylglycerol. The primary amine (ethyl,n‐butyl,n‐hexyl andn‐octyl were tested) acted as reagent and solvent for the fatty substrates. No additional organic solvent or catalyst was added. Tallow, vegetable oils and fish oil all served well as substrates, as did pure tripalmitin. The rate of amidation was dependent upon temperature and the ratio of fat to amine. In a series of experiments conducted with tallow andn‐butylamine at a fat:amine molar ratio of 1:16, amidation could be carried out at 20°C, producingn‐butyltallowamide in 83% yield in 24 hr. When the fat:amine molar ratio was reduced to 1:8, and the temperature raised to 45°C, the amide yield was 87.6% in 24 hr. When the reaction was carried out at the boiling point ofn‐butylamine (78°C) and at a fat:amine ratio of 1:8, the amide yield was 93.2% in 4 hr. The reaction progressed more rapidly with higher molecular weight amines. The identity and purity of the amides was assessed by thin‐layer chromatography and confirmed by elemental analyses and infrared and C13 nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy.
Quantitation and distribution of altered fatty acids in frying fats
Authors: Márquez‐Ruiz G. , Tasioula‐Margari M. , Dobarganes M. C.
Published: January 2007

The distribution and quantity of polar compounds and altered fatty acids in used frying oils, collected by Food Inspection Services of the Junta de Andalucía in Spain, was measured. Additional samples evaluated were sunflower oil, high‐oleic sunflower oil, and palm olein that were subjected to thermoxidation and frying in laboratory experiments. A combination of adsorption and high‐performance size‐exclusion chromatography was applied to the oil samples both before and after transesterification. Through analysis of fatty acid methyl ester derivatives, differentiation of four groups of altered fatty acids (oxidized monomers, nonpolar dimers, oxidized dimers, and polymers) could be attained. Evaluation of real frying samples with polar compound levels around the limit for fat rejection (21.1–27.6% polar compounds) gave values of total altered fatty acids ranging from 8.1 to 11.3%, and levels higher than 20% were found in the most degradated samples. The results obtained clearly support the need for control and improvement of the quality of used fats in fried‐food outlets.
Nondestructive determination of fatty acid composition of husked sunflower (Helianthus annua L.) seeds by near‐infrared spectroscopy
Authors: Sato Tetsuo , Takahata Yasuhiro , Noda Takahiro , Yanagisawa Takashi , Morishita Toshikazu , Sakai Shinji
Published: January 2007

Determination of the fatty acid composition of sunflower (Helianthus annua L.) seeds by near‐infrared (NIR) spectroscopy was examined. Sunflower seeds were husked (removed from their hulls by a husking machine or manually with a knife). NIR spectra of these seeds were scanned from 1100 to 2500 nm at 2‐nm intervals in a whole‐grain cell with a wideangle moving drawer for machine‐husked seeds or in a single‐grain cup for a manually husked single‐grain seed. The extracted oils from machine‐husked seeds also were scanned by sandwiching them between a pair of slide glasses to create a thin layer and by placing them on a syrup cup. For extracted oil, the absorption band around 1720 nm filled out to the shorter wavelength region in the NIR second‐derivative spectra as the percentage of the linoleic acid moiety increased, because linoleic acid absorbs in this region. On the other hand, for husked seeds and for a single‐grain seed, as the percentage of linoleic acid increased, the trough at 1724 nm where oleic and saturated acids absorb decreased in the second‐derivative NIR spectra. Determination of the fatty acid composition of sunflower seeds could be carried out successfully according to the NIR spectral pattern for both extracted oil (r=−0.989) and kernel seed (r=−0.993). This is important, especially for a manually husked single‐grain seed (r=−0.971), because it can still be germinated after such nondestructive analysis.
Separation and identification of eugenol in ethanol extract of cloves by reversed‐phase high‐performance liquid chromatography
Authors: Myint San , Daud Wan Ramli Wan , Mohamad Abu Bakar , Kadhum Abdul Amir H.
Published: January 2007

A method has been developed for the separation and identification of eugenol in the alcohol extract of cloves directly without having to previously separate other components. Extraction of eugenol with alcohol is followed by analysis with high‐performance liquid chromatography. Separation by reversed‐phase chromatography on low‐polarity μBondapak C18 was achieved with isocratic elution. Tentative identification is based on chromatographic appearance of a peak with retention time 5.54 min for pure standard reference eugenol. The identification of eugenol was confirmed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry analysis.
1H nuclear magnetic resonance determination of the yield of the transesterification of rapeseed oil with methanol
Authors: Gelbard G. , Brès O. , Vargas R. M. , Vielfaure F. , Schuchardt U. F.
Published: January 2007

The formation of fatty acid methyl esters by transesterification with methanol can be monitored by1H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy; this accurate determination is simpler than chromatographic methods.
Preparation and properties of ethoxylated fatty methyl ester nonionics
Authors: Hama I. , Okamoto T. , Nakamura H.
Published: January 2007

Ehthylene oxide (EO) cannot react directly with fatty methyl esters that have no active hydrogen. We developed a new synthetic method, which directly inserts EO into fatty methyl esters (RCOOCH3) to give [RCO(OCH2CH2)nOCH3]. This was achieved by the use of a novel solid catalyst modified by metal cations. Ethoxylates of fatty methyl esters obtained by this method were homogeneous monoesters and had good properties as nonionic surfactants.
Characterization of brighteners in detergents by high‐performance liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry/ultraviolet/fluorescence and three‐dimensional high‐performance liquid chromatography
Authors: Ogura I. , DuVal D. L. , Miyajima K.
Published: January 2007

A method has been developed for the identification of unknown brighteners in detergents by a high‐performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)/mass spectrometry (MS)/ultraviolet (UV)/fluorescence system with MS/MS capability. Ten brighteners from five groups—stilbene, biphenyl stilbene, pyrazoline, oxazole, and coumarin derivatives—were separated on a C8 reverse‐phase HPLC column. The UV and fluorescence detectors positively located the brightener peaks and differentiated betweentrans andcis isomers separated by the chromatographic system. Ion‐spray (IS)/MS and IS/MS/MS spectra were then used to identify the structure of unknown brighteners in detergent products. An HPLC with a diode‐array detector provided a quick identification check and accurate quantitative data for known brighteners, even on overlapping peaks.
Production of n‐3 polyunsaturated fatty acid‐enriched fish oil by lipase‐catalyzed acidolysis without solvent
Authors: Yamane Tsuneo , Suzuki Tomomasa , Sahashi Youko , Vikersveen Line , Hoshino Tamotsu
Published: January 2007

Fish oil rich in n‐3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (n‐3 PUFA) was prepared by nonsolvent enzymic acidolysis. n‐3 PUFA‐enriched fish oil contained 25% eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and 40% docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). In acidolysis of cod liver oil, EPA content of the original fish oil was reduced at 5 h, but DHA content of the fish oil increased. It was assumed that EPA in the fish oil was replaced by DHA to reach a new chemical equilibrium. Two‐stage acidolysis, which was carried out under CO2 replacement early (about 3 h) and also in vacuum at 5–24 h, was effective for reduction in the content of diacylglycerol, which was formed by reverse reaction, hydrolysis. This method has industrial significance because PUFA‐enriched triacylglycerol is easily separated from the reaction mixture by molecular distillation.
Kilogram‐scale ester synthesis of acyl donor and use in lipase‐catalyzed interesterifications
Authors: Bloomer Scott , Adlercreutz Patrick , Mattiasson Bo
Published: January 2007

Scaling up of Lipozyme‐catalyzed ester synthesis with >99% conversion and a reflux trap to remove product water from the reaction mixture is reported. Ethyl stearate was synthesized in 2000‐g batch reactions from technical stearic acid. The ethyl stearate was purified to 97% by crystallization and interesterified with sunflower seed oil by means of a lipase catalyst to investigate reaction parameters of temperature, substrate ratio, enzyme content and catalyst water activity. The endpoint of the reaction was defined as the incorporation of stearate into sunflower seed oil corresponding to the amount of stearate necessary to be incorporated into palm oil mid‐fraction to produce a cocoa butter substitute. No tristearate was formed at the reaction endpoint in any of the reactions conducted. Reaction times decreased and levels of free fatty acids and diglycerides increased with increasing temperature and with increasing ratio of acyl donor to triglyceride. Increasing the enzyme content of the reaction mixture reduced reaction times but caused higher levels of free fatty acids and diglycerides. In reactions catalyzed by Lipozyme of defined water activity, the shortest reaction times were obtained at intermediate water activity, while free fatty acid and diglyceride levels increased with water activity. When the interesterification reaction was carried out in refluxing pentane with the condensed solvent dried by passage through a reflux trap, the free fatty acid and diglyceride levels were reduced to 6 and 3.3%, respectively.
Differential scanning calorimetry of confectionery fats: Part II—Effects of blends and minor components
Authors: Cebula Deryck J. , Smith Kevin W.
Published: January 2007

Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) measurements of the crystallization and melting phenomena of typical confectionery fats are presented. The results show the sensitivity and reproducibility with which DSC data can be used to classify the types of confectionery fat. Calculations of the reproducibility of crystallization and melting parameters obtained from DSC are presented. In addition, the effects are shown on the thermograms of progressive changes in formulation to a typical cocoa butter equivalent. Further, the effects brought on by the presence of minor components, such as trisaturated triglycerides and other polar materials, which are common in confectionery fats, are described and quantified.
Incorporation of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids into groundnut oil by lipase‐catalyzed ester interchange
Authors: Sridhar R. , Lakshminarayana G.
Published: January 2007

Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) were incorporated into groundnut oil by interesterification with a 1,3‐specific lipase fromMucor miehei. The resultant EPA and DHA concentrations of the groundnut oil were 9.5 and 8.0%, respectively.
Biodegradation ofVernonia galamensis seed Oil byAcinetobacter andPseudomonas sp.
Authors: Eva‐Sarbah‐Yalley  , Ayorinde Folahan O. , Eribo Broderick E.
Published: January 2007

The biodegradability ofVernonia galamensis seed oil (VO) has been demonstrated with two environmental bacterial strains,Acinetobacter Iwoffi (HU 3955), andPseudomonas sp. (HU 4020). A time‐dependent increase in the degradative activities of both bacteria species was apparent. There wasca. 60% decrease in the amount of VO over an eightday incubation period. Additionally, lipolytic activity was evident from the amount of free fatty acid (FFA) that was generated. The percent FFA of the residual oil were 82% for thePseudomonas strain, and 62% for theAcinetobacter strain. The weight per epoxy value of the VO in the fermentation medium remained relatively constant over the incubation period, suggesting the lack of preference for either the epoxidized or nonepoxidized acids present in VO.
Modelling the temperature dependence of kinematic viscosity for refined canola oil
Authors: Lang Weiguo , Sokhansanj Shahab , Sosulski Frank W.
Published: January 2007

Viscosities of refined, bleached, deodorized (RBD) and refined, bleached, winterized (RBW) canola oils were measured at temperatures from 4 to 100°C. The viscosities of these refined canola oils were exponentially related to the oil temperature. Viscosity of the RBW oil was slightly greater than that of the RBD oil when the temperature was below 15°C. Compared to refined soybean oil, the canola oils were substantially more viscous. The viscosity of canola oil was modelled asv = exp(C0 + C1T + C2T2). The maximum predicted error was less than 1.6% over the tested temperature range.
Photopyroelectric method for determination of thermophysical parameters and detection of phase transitions in fatty acids and triglycerides. Part I: Principles, theory, and instrumentational concepts
Authors: Dadarlat Dorin , Bicanic Dane , Visser Henk , Mercuri Fulvio , Frandas Angela
Published: January 2007

The photopyroelectric (PPE) technique is proposed to detect solid‐to‐liquid phase transitions in fatty acids and triglycerides. Various PPE configurations and cell geometries were used to obtain thermal parameters in the vicinity of the melting points for these samples. In the standard (SPPE) configuration used to determine specific heat, the sample is thermally thin and optically opaque, while the sensor itself is thermally thick. The same configuration, but with a thermally thick sample instead, allows direct measurement of the sample’s thermal diffusivity. The temperature dependence of the thermal effusivity was obtained for a thermally thick sample and a thermally thin sensor [inverse (IPPE) configuration], and for a semitransparent thermally thick sensor by making use of the front configuration.
Radical chlorinations of triglycerides
Authors: Sonnet Philip E. , Osman Stanley
Published: January 2007

Several triglycerides were synthesized with an iodoaroyl group. Intramolecular radical chain transfer chlorinations were conducted that resulted in the associated pair of fatty acids of the triglyceride becoming chlorinated. The distribution of monochlorinated species was similar to that obtained by direct radical chlorination of the relevant fatty acid methyl esters. Functionalization was, as expected, away from the carboxylate group but gave no indication that either alignment of chains or the constraints of an intramolecular process could limit the manifold of products of the reaction. To gauge the effect on halogenation of a structure, bearing more than one electron‐withdrawing group, methyl oleate was converted to thebis trifluoroacetate of methyl 9,10‐dihydroxystearate. No products of chlorination on carbons 2–8 were observed.
Margarine and shortening oils by interesterification of liquid and trisaturated triglycerides
Authors: List G. R. , Mounts T. L. , Orthoefer F. , Neff W. E.
Published: January 2007

Liquid vegetable oils (VO), including cottonseed, peanut, soybean, corn, and canola, were randomly interesterified with completely hydrogenated soybean or cottonseed hardstocks (vegetable oil trisaturate; VOTS) in ratios of four parts VO and one part VOTS. Analysis of the reaction products by high‐performance liquid chromatography showed that at 70°C and vigorous agitation, with 0.5% sodium methoxide catalyst, the reactions were complete after 15 min. Solid‐fat index (SFI) measurements made at 50, 70, 80, 92, and 104°F, along with drop melting points, indicated that the interesterified fats possess plasticity curves in the range of commercial soft tub margarine oils prepared by blending hydrogenated stocks. Shortening basestocks were prepared by randomly interesterifying palm or soybean oil with VOTS in ratios of 1:1 or 3:1 or 4:1, respectively. Blending of the interesterified basestocks with additional liquid VO yielded products having SFI curves very similar to commercial all purpose‐type shortening oils made by blending hydrogenated stocks. Other studies show that fluid‐type shortening oils can be prepared through blending of interesterified basestocks with liquid VO. X‐ray diffraction studies showed that the desirable β′ crystal structure is achieved through interesterification and blending.
The spectroscopic quinoidal ion method for the analysis of carbonyl compounds
Authors: Meyer Sonja R. , Rebrovic Louis
Published: January 2007

The spectroscopic quinoidal ion method for carbonyl compound analysis has been evaluated. Conjugated aldehydes and saturated ketones are rather stable after an initial time period. Saturated aldehydes are unstable and decompose rapidly with time. The stability of aldehydes is directly related to the size of the alkyl group attached to the aldehyde function. The larger the group, the slower it decomposes.
Isobaric vapor‐liquid equilibrium data for the system: Heptaldehyde‐methyl undecenoate
Authors: Ravikumar Y. V. L. , Kale Vijay
Published: January 2007

Isobaric‐bubble temperature data at 50 mmHg were collected for the system heptaldehyde‐methyl undecenoate over the entire composition range by the indirect method with a standard Swietoslawski‐type ebulliometer. The vapor compositions were computed by means of the nonrandom two‐liquid equation. The average absolute error in temperature was 0.4°K.
Amines from aldehydes derived from the ozonization of soybean esters
Authors: Anders D. E. , Pryde E. H. , Cowan J. C.
Published: January 2007

Investigations were carried out on reductive amination of caproaldehyde, pelargonaldehyde and azelaaldehydate esters, obtainable from ozonolysis of soybean oil products, with ammonia and hydrogen in the presence of nickel catalyst. A solvent system giving good yields of primary amine while suppressing amide formation was devised. Excess ammonia and homogeneous solutions suppressed secondary amine formation. Nonpolar solvents suppressed ammonolysis. Optimum conditions for reaction varied with the aldehyde.

Excellent yields of hexylamine (91%), nonylamine (90%), methyl 9‐aminononanoate (92%) and butyl 9‐aminononanoate (93%) were obtained from caproaldehyde, pelargonaldehyde, methyl azelaaldehydate and butyl azelaaldehydate, respectively, when aminated in anhydrous ammonia and either cyclohexane or methyl cyclohexane.
A rapid method for concentrating highly unsaturated fatty acid methyl esters in marine lipids as an aid in their identification by GLC
Authors: Jangaard Peter M.
Published: January 2007

The selective solubility of unsaturated fatty acid methyl esters in nitromethane at temperatures down to 蜢20C can be used to concentrate highly unsaturated methyl esters. With a typical sample of marine oils methyl esters having an iodine value of 110舑190, a concentrate can be ready for GLC analysis in an hour or less and the nitromethane layer can be injected directly for analysis in GLC apparatus with ionization detectors. Examples of the use of the method in the identification of component fatty acids in herring oil are given.
Imitation dairy products—Past, present and future
Authors: Hetrick J. H.
Published: January 2007

The history of substitute dairy products and their impact on the market is reviewed. The present status of filled and imitation milk products is discussed from the flavor acceptance, economic, legal and nutritional standpoints. Comments on some factors which will affect the future growth potential of these products, such as Consumer acceptance, economics, proposed legislation with respect to compositional, nutritional and labeling requirements and industry attitude toward marketing of these products are given.
The use of optical brighteners for synthetic fibers in detergents
Authors: Anliker R. , Hefti H. , Kasperl H.
Published: January 2007

It has been demonstrated that the choice of the right optical brightening agent for use in the dope or for topic‐brightening in the textile‐mill has a big influence on the ability of the fiber to be further brightened in the wash‐bath, on the lightfastness and the washfastness of the white, and very often also on the colored wash‐load. The investigation also deals with the mutual influence of brighteners applied during the production of the fiber or the fabric and those used in detergents. Ways are described to overcome undesired changes in the hues of pastel shades. Some aspects of the visual assessment and measurement of whitening effects are discussed.
High oleic oils by selective hydrogenation of soybean oil
Authors: Popescu Ovidiu , Koritala Sambasivarao , Dutton H. J.
Published: January 2007

High oleic (monoene) oils were obtained from soybean oil by selective hydrogenation with copper catalysts. A mixture of nickel and copper chromite catalyst had activity suitable for producing the high monoene oils. A new catalyst (copper‐on‐Cab‐O‐Sil) prepared in the Laboratory was more active than commercial copper catalysts. Hydrogenated oils contained 61–72% monoenoic and 14–24% dienoic acids, and there was essentially no increase in stearic acid. Thetrans‐isomer content of these oils varied between 17% to 32%. Double bonds in the monoene were distributed along the molecule from C6 to C15, but were located preferentially in the C9 position for thecis‐monoene and in the C10 and C11 positions for thetrans‐monoene. When the iodine value of these high monoene oils was about 90–95, they remained liquid above 28 C. Citric acid treatment reduced the copper content of hydrogenated oils to a level that was comparable to that of the original soybean oil.
Metabolism of gossypol in the chick
Authors: Lyman Carl M. , Cronin John T. , Trant Mary M. , Odell George V.
Published: January 2007

14C labeled gossypol was administered to young chickens and the deposition of gossypol plus gossypol decomposition products in the various tissues was evaluated by determination of14C activity in a scintillation spectrometer. Most of the gossypol activity was recovered in the feces with relatively smaller amounts retained by the tissues. Most of the labeled compound retained was found in the liver, muscle, blood and kidneys, with the highest concentration in the liver. Increasing the protein content of the diet by the addition of fish meal reduced the amount of gossypol plus gossypol decomposition products found in the tissues.
Identification of polyoxyalkylene‐type nonionic surfactants by paper chromatography
Authors: Selden George L. , Benedict J. H.
Published: January 2007

Despite the increasing importance of nonionic surfactants, methods for their identification have been limited to specific groups. Accordingly, a general analytical scheme for the identification of polyoxyalkylene‐type nonionic surfactants was developed, which uses qualitative tests and two paper chromatographic solvent systems. This procedure differentiates among the ethoxylates of alcohols, thioalcohols, alkyl phenol, fatty acids, polyoxyethylene polyoxypropylene acids, sorbitan fatty esters, fatty amides, polyoxyethylene glycols (PEG) condensates. In addition, individual members of a class can be separated and identified. The method is applicable to a variety of detergent products and to mixtures of more than one nonionic. As little as 7 mg of a nonionic surfactant are sufficient for complete characterization.
Automatic determination of the foam end point in a simulated dishwashing test
Authors: Hartwig G. M.
Published: January 2007

The disappearance of foam when increments of soil are added is frequently used to assess the foam performance of surfactants in dishwashing. A small scale screening test has been published using a Terg‐o‐tometer to generate foam and disperse the soil. However, the end point is difficult to determine visually because of the violent agitation of the surface. A method has been developed, whereby the surface foam reflectance is automatically and continuously recorded from four beakers of surfactant solution simultaneously. Near the end point, the rate of foam disappearance is determined and the complete foam disappearance can be interpolated from the instrumental recorded curves. Comparisons are given for experienced operator and instrumentally determined end points which are shown to be in agreement.
Studies on conductivity of the system: Barium soap‐water and propanol‐1
Authors: Mehrotra K. N. , Varma R. P.
Published: January 2007

The conductivity behavior of barium soap solutions in water‐propanol‐1 mixtures is exhibted by an equation: where A and B are constants, C is concentration of barium soap in q, moles/litre and µ is molecular conductivity.

The values of the constant B are independent of the chain length of the soap below 50% propanol‐1 concentration whereas above 50%, the values increase with the increase in the number of carbon atoms in the soap. The values of constant A also show a transition at 50% propanol‐1 concentration.

The results confirm that the change in the behavior takes place at about 50% propanol‐1 concentration.
The triglycerides of sable fish(Anaplopoma fimbria). I. Quantitative fractionation by column chromatography on silica gel impregnated with silver nitrate
Authors: Dolev Ami , Olcott H. S.
Published: January 2007

The triglycerides of sable fish muscle oil were eluted from a silver‐nitrate‐impregnated silica gel column with petroleum ether containing increasing amounts of ethyl ether as solvents. Eighteen peak fractions were analyzed for fatty acid composition. Calculated iodine values progressed regularly from 38 to 115. The detailed data show that the fractionation did not depend upon the presence of individual fatty acids but on total unsaturation. Not all of the triglycerides containing polyunsaturated fatty acids were eluted.
Homogeneously catalysed hydrogenation of unsaturated fatty acids to unsaturated fatty alcohols
Authors: Stouthamer B. , Vlugter J. C.
Published: January 2007

The use of copper and cadmium oxides or soaps as catalysts for the hydrogenation of unsaturated fatty acids to unsaturated fatty alcohols has been investigated. It is shown that copper soaps homogeneously activate hydrogen. When copper and cadmium oxides are used as catalysts, they react with the acid under formation of a homogeneous soap solution. A continuous reaction system for the preparation of unsaturated fatty alcohols by hydrogenation under the influence of copper and cadmium soaps is described.
Properties of detergent phosphates and their effects on detergent processing
Authors: Shen C. Y.
Published: January 2007

Phosphates are usually key ingredients in detergent formulations ranging from liquids to free‐flowing powdery material to hard cakes. Their functional properties, which contribute to the over‐all detergency by controlling the alkalinity, lowering the critical micelle concentration, sequestering metal ions, and decreasing soil redeposition, are generally considered to be the reason for their wide use. Another important but less recognized reason is their versatile role in improving the handling properties and lowering the cost of the finished products.

The sophistication of the phosphate manufacturing processes makes it possible to turn out a large number of phosphates with different properties and physical forms. Trisodium orthophosphate, tetrapotassium pyrophosphate, and sodium phosphate glass are for the specialties. Sodium tripolyphosphate, the work‐horse of the detergent phosphates, has many grades. Some are designed to give the desired hydration properties for different detergent‐processing conditions. Size and density are varied for granular grades to reduce segregation and degradation in dry‐blended detergents. Sodium trimetaphosphate, which converts rapidly into tripolyphosphate, offers a new detergent‐processing technology. Effervescent phosphate is an intriguing new detergent phosphate with many possible new applications.

The properties of these phosphates and their effect on the detergent products and processes are discussed in detail.
Applicability of the turbidity test for castor oil to some other hydroxy and epoxy fatty compounds
Authors: Lakshminarayana Gollamudi
Published: January 2007

A large number of hydroxy as well as nonhydroxy fatty compounds were employed to explore the applicability of the turbidity test for castor oil (1) and to understand the nature of the turbidity. The test was capable of detecting up to ca. 2% of hydroxy, hydroperoxy, and epoxy fatty acids and their esters, also the epoxy, acetoxy, and hydroxy fatty alcohols present in a petroleum ether solution of a nonpolar triglyceride oil. Monohydric primary alcohols, sterols, mono‐ and diglycerides were not detected. The turbidity developed, whether H2SO4 contained ammonium molybdate or not, because of the formation of a sulfate and its precipitation from the petroleum ether solution of oil.
Synthesis of triacylglycerol from polyunsaturated fatty acid by immobilized lipase
Authors: Kosugi Yoshitsugu , Azuma Naoki
Published: January 2007

More than 95% of polyunsaturated acid (PUFA) was converted to triacylglycerol by immobilized lipase fromCandida antarctica orRhizomucor miehei. The esterification was carried out at 50–60°C with shaking and dehydration for 24 h. The substrates consisted of glycerol and free fatty acid or ethyl esters of the fatty acid at a 1∶3 molar ratio. The docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) or eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) in the substrate polymerized during the reaction, and they required 5–10% more than the stoichiometric amount to compensate for the PUFA loss. On the contrary, ethyl esters of DHA and EPA were not polymerized. Pure tridocosahexaenoyl, trieicosapentaenoly and triarachidonoyl glycerol were isolated after passing the product through a basic aluminum oxide column. Industrial feasibility of this process was discussed for the ethyl ester as substrate.
Lipase‐catalyzed transesterification of rapeseed oil and 2‐ethyl‐1‐hexanol
Authors: Linko Y. ‐Y. , Lämsä M. , Huhtala A. , Linko P.
Published: January 2007

Lipase‐catalyzed transesterification (alcoholysis) of lowerucic acid rapeseed oil and 2‐ethyl‐1‐hexanol without an additional organic solvent was studied in stirred batch reactors. Of a number of commercially available enzymes investigated, the best results were obtained with aCandida rugosa lipase. The optimal transesterification conditions were an oil/alcohol molar ratio of 1∶2.8, a minimum of 1.0% (w/w) added water, and with a temperature of 37–55°C. Under the optimal conditions, a nearly complete conversion was obtained in one hour with 14.6% (w/w) lipase, whereas 0.3% (w/w) lipase required 10 h for similar results. The enzyme was inactivated at 60°C.
Quality control in oil processing
Authors: Sato Susumu
Published: January 2007

The Nissin Oil Mills have installed computer controls on the entire oil processing line to improve plant efficiency and to produce products of uniform high quality.
Fractionation of lauric oils
Authors: Rossell J. B.
Published: January 2007

The different methods of edible oil fractionation are reviewed, and the applicability of these to the fractionation of palm kernel and coconut oils is discussed. Crystallization from solvents such as acetone, hexane or 2‐nitro‐propane, is the most easily understood and most convenient for small‐scale laboratory trials, but the cost of solvents and the need to flameproof plants makes it uneconomical for an industrial undertaking. Dry crystallization is commonly employed, and there are several methods, described here, for subsequent separation of solid stearin from liquid olein. Chemical and physical properties of the separated stearins and oleins depend on fractionation conditions and on the yields sought. These are reviewed. The properties of the fractions may be further modified by hydrogenation, interesterification, blending or combinations of these techniques.

Many sophisticated confectionery fats are manufactured from lauric stearins and their methods of manufacture and product applications are reviewed. A commercial operation must take care to find a good outlet for the secondary fractionation products (or byproducts) however, and useful outlets for these secondary fractions are therefore considered in addition to those of the main product.
Chemical interesterification of palm, palm kernel and coconut oils
Authors: Laning Steven J.
Published: January 2007

Chemical interesterification processes are discussed as they apply to palm, palm kernel and coconut oils. Included are process descriptions, selected physical and functional changes resulting from this process, analytical techniques and commercial edible applications. These fats are utilized worldwide in a growing variety of food products. The demands of these applications provide an endless need for fats with varying physical and functional characteristics. Interesterification alone and in combination with other processes such as hydrogenation and fractionation significantly extends the range of the otherwise limited physical and functional characteristics of naturally occurring palm, palm kernel and coconut oils.
Palm oil and palm kernel oil in food products
Authors: Traitler H. , Dieffenbacher A.
Published: January 2007

Cocoa butter equivalent (CBE) formulation, especially the compatibility of palm oil based CBE with cocoa butter, is of special interest to chocolate manufacturers. Traditionally palm oil is fractionated to obtain high‐melting stearin and olein with a clear point of around 25 C, the latter serving as cooking oil. Recently, palm oil has been fractionated to recover an intermediate fraction known as palm mid‐fraction (PMF), which is suitable for CBE formulations.

Generally, production of PMF is based on a three‐step procedure. However, a dry fractionation system, which includes selective crystallization and removal of liquid olein by means of a hydraulic press, has been developed. Iodine value, solid content (SFI) at different temperatures, cooling curves (Shukoff 0°) and triglyceride/fatty acid composition determination confirmed effectiveness of the procedure followed. A direct relationship between yield, quality of PMF and crystallization temperature during fractionation has been achieved. Yield of 60% for olein of IV 64–67 has been achieved. Yield of 30% for PMF of IV 36–38 and 10% for high melting stearin of IV of 20–22 are also being achieved.

High‐melting stearin may be used in oleochemical applications, soaps, food emulsifiers and other industrial applications such as lubricating oil. Olein fraction, especially after flash hydrogenation thereby reducing the IV to 62/64, has excellent frying and cooking oil characteristics. Palm olein is also suitable as dietary fat and in infant formulation. Studies on interesterification of high‐melting stearin with olein showed possibilities to formulate hardstocks for margarine and spread formulations, even without using hydrogenated fat components.

Palm kernel and coconut fats or fractions or derived products are used for confectionery products as partial CB replacers and as ice cream fats and coatings. Coconut oil also serves as a starting material for the production of medium‐chain triglycerides.
Improvement of lecithin as an emulsifier for water‐in‐oil emulsions by thermalization
Authors: Weete John D. , Betageri Sucheta , Griffith George L.
Published: January 2007

The various forms (granular, liquid, gum) of lecithin can be heated under certain conditions of time and temperature to greatly improve their properties as emulsifiers for water‐in‐oil emulsions. Viscosity, discontinuous phase‐holding capacity, stability and water retention were greatly enhanced in emulsions containing thermalized lecithins as the emulsifier compared to those prepared with corresponding amounts of nonthermalized lecithins. The improved emulsification properties of the thermalized lecithins appeared to be due, at least in part, to an increase in diglycerides and free fatty acids resulting from the thermal degradation of phosphatides.
Glycerylbisether sulfates. II: Performance properties
Authors: Condon Brian D.
Published: January 2007

Traditional structure vs. performance relationships have been thoroughly investigated for alcohol ether sulfates (AES) wherein hydrophobe chainlength and degree of ethoxylation served as variables for structure variance. Therefore, a series of molecules, 1,3‐bis‐(alkylethylenoxy)‐propane‐2‐yl sodium sulfates or glycerylbisether sulfates (GBES), analogous to AES but with a centrally located hydrophile structure, was synthesized and evaluated for its cloth detergency, foaming and wetting properties. Performance test results are presented as response surfaces in the two variables mentioned in addition to comparisons to common surfactants. The centrally located hydrophile structures exhibited varying surfactant and performance properties, with increasing detergency performance shown by higher‐molecular weight GBES molecules: Optimum foaming and wetting performance was produced by a range of structures roughly given by CnEOn−6 for n=6–8.
Addition of N,N‐dibromosulfonamides to internal olefins: Synthesis of N‐sulfonylaziridines
Authors: Foglia T. A. , Haeberer E. T. , Maerker G.
Published: January 2007

The addition of N,N‐dibromobenzenesulfonamide (NNDBS) to internal acyclic olefins has been investigated. The major products formed were shown to be β‐bromosulfonamides. The reaction has been applied to pairs ofcis‐trans olefins and has been found to proceed in a stereoselective fashion. To account for this observed selectivity an ionic mechanism has been proposed. The β‐bromosulfonamides prepared have been cyclized with base to N‐sulfonylaziridines. The configurations of the latter have been shown to be the same as those of the starting olefins.
Ethylene adduct of conjugated octadecadienoic acids: II. Ozonization products
Authors: Dufek E. J. , Cowan J. C. , Friedrich J. P.
Published: January 2007

Methyl 8‐(4‐n‐hexylcyclohex‐2‐enyl) octanoate obtained by esterifying the adduct of ethylene andtrans,trans‐9,11‐octadecadienoic acid was ozonized in methanol as a participating solvent. The resultant cyclic methoxyhemiperacetal was reduced with powdered zinc to the dialdehyde, methyl 9,12‐diformylstearate, which was isolated as the tetramethyldiacetal. This dialdehyde readily air‐oxidizes to give methyl 9,12‐dicarboxystearate. Heating the cyclic methoxyhemiperacetal slowly from 25 to 100 C in vacuo results in an unusual decomposition reaction which gives hydrogen and methyl 9 (12)‐carbomethoxy‐12(9)‐carboxystearate as the primary products and methyl 9 (12)‐carbomethoxystearate as the major by‐product. Treatment of the cyclic hemiperacetal with hydrogen peroxide in formic acid gave unexpectedly dihydroxystearic acid as one of the products.
Enzymatic synthesis of monosaccharide fatty acid esters and their comparison with conventional products
Authors: Fregapane Giuseppe , Sarney Douglas B. , Greenberg Sydney G. , Knight Dorothy J. , Vulfson Evgeny N.
Published: January 2007

5‐O‐Acyl‐1,2‐O‐isopropylidene‐D‐xylofuranose and 6‐O‐acyl1,2∶3,4‐di‐O‐isopropylidene‐D‐galactopyranose were enzymatically prepared from the corresponding monosaccharide acetals and commercial (crude) fatty acid mixtures. Subsequent acid‐catalyzed hydrolysis of the isopropylidene group(s) gave monosaccharide esters with overall yields of 59–88%, where the monoester content was at least 80% (galactose oleate) and typically 90% for the other preparations. In contrast to sugar fatty acid esters prepared by conventional, high‐temperature (trans)esterification, the enzymatically obtained monosaccharide esters contained no appreciable quantities of undersirable side products, and the only contaminants were monosaccharides and fatty acids.
Agronomic potential and seed composition of cuphea, an annual crop for lauric and capric seed oils
Authors: Hirsinger Frank
Published: January 2007

Cuphea is an herbaceous summer annual plant native to Mexico. The seed oil contains various medium‐chain fatty acids which, depending on the species, account for 40 to more than 80% of the total fatty acids. Cuphea oil could be a substitute for conconut‐ and palm kernel oil because of the high lauric acid content, but also could serve as a natural source of capric acid, which presently comes mainly from petrochemicals.

Agronomic research recently begun at Oregon State University is directed toward adaptation and yield improvement of Cuphea. Initial Oregon field experiments in 1983 indicated that Cuphea is well adapted to the Willamette Valley. The plant, however, is not yet adapted to current farm production technology. Slow emergence and seedling growth may be altered by breeding and selection. Seed indehiscence and indeterminate growth already have been altered through mutations.

In recent experiments seed yield could be increased significantly by multiple harvests, which indicates that further gain could be expected through improved technology. Present yield potential of Cuphea is about 300 kg of oil per hectare.
Processing characteristics and oxidative stability of soybean oil extracted with supercritical carbon dioxide at 50 C and 8,000 psi
Authors: List G. R. , Friedrich J. P.
Published: January 2007

The crude oil extracted from soy flakes with supercritical carbon dioxide (SCCO2) was characterized for color, free fatty acid, phosphorus, neutral oil loss, unsaponifiable matter, tocopherol and iron content and compared to a commercial hexane‐extracted sample of crude degummed oil. Characterization and processing studies indicate that SCCO2 extraction yields a product comparable to a hexane‐extracted degummed oil. However, hexane‐extracted degummed soybean oils exhibit better oxidative stability because phosphatides, which are natural antioxidants, are essentially absent in SCCO2‐extracted oils.