bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
4. Subduction of oceanic lithosphere
Authors: Molnar Peter
Published: April 2017

‘Subduction of oceanic lithosphere’ begins with the notion that for the Earth not to expand, the sum total of new lithosphere made at a spreading centre (or mid-ocean ridge) must be matched by the removal, by subduction, of an equal amount of lithosphere elsewhere. The subduction process is asymmetric: one plate will slide beneath the other at island arcs and continental margins like the Andes of South America. Before it plunges beneath the island arc, the subducting plate of lithosphere bends down gently to cause a deep-sea trench. The subducting plate slides beneath the region between the trench and volcanoes, commonly in large earthquakes, and plunges to great depth, pulled down by gravity acting on the dense slab of subducted lithosphere. Water carried to depth by the subducting plate lowers the melting temperature of the adjacent rock and enables volcanoes to form.
4. Gravitational waves
Authors: Clifton Timothy
Published: April 2017

As stars collapse they eject huge amounts of mass and energy; their gravitational field changes rapidly and, therefore, so does the curvature of the space-time around them. If the curvature of space-time is pushed out of equilibrium, by the motion of mass or energy, this disturbance travels outwards as waves. ‘Gravitational waves’ explains the effect of a gravitational wave: in a binary pulsar, the waves carry energy away from the system so that the two neutron stars slowly circle in towards each other. Gravitational waves were first detected in 2015 by the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory in America. There are also plans to set up a detector in space.
5. Cosmology
Authors: Clifton Timothy
Published: April 2017

Cosmology began as a scientific discipline at the beginning of the 20th century, with the work of Albert Einstein and Edwin Hubble. Gravitational interaction is fundamental to cosmology, as gravity dominates over all other forces on large-scale distances. ‘Cosmology’ outlines the modern history of cosmology, discussing how studies have provided knowledge on the early Universe and its expansion. The Concordance Model proposes that only c.5 per cent of the energy in the Universe is in the form of normal matter; c.25 per cent is in the form of the gravitationally attractive dark matter; and the remaining c.70 per cent is in the form of the gravitationally repulsive dark energy. But there is still much to learn.
6. The components of slang
Authors: Green Jonathon
Published: April 2017

‘The components of slang’ outlines the forms and etymological roots of slang and considers how the terms are validated. Slang offers no forms unique to itself. It borrows much of its lexis from standard English and employs similar methods of constructing it. The simplest, and most popular use is in varieties of combining, whether as phrases, compounds, or derivatives. Slang offers many agglomerations and it seems that once a pattern is accepted, all suggested combinations are justifiable. The role of synonymity within slang could be seen as a means of avoiding the real world by conjuring up an infinity of parallel terms or better ways of burrowing deeper inside it.
7. Recording slang
Authors: Green Jonathon
Published: April 2017

‘Recording slang’ considers the defining of slang terms, the spelling of slang, the dating of slang terms, and the pronunciation of slang. What does a slang term mean? The answer is often obvious, but not invariably. The same word can stand in for multiple meanings, some barely differentiated from others. The task of discerning these differences, of dividing them into senses is not helped, of course, by the core nature of the language under analysis. Slang is innately imprecise. Its use suggests fluidity and malleability. Spelling and pronunciation, also, are not really considered by slang’s speakers, but how is the word heard, how is it to be set down?
8. The lexicography of slang: slang’s dictionaries
Authors: Green Jonathon
Published: April 2017

‘The lexicography of slang: slang’s dictionaries’ considers the slang-related texts that make up the slang lexicographical ‘canon’. Traditional English-language slang lexicography can be broken down into three successive periods. The ‘canting’ or criminal slang dictionaries of the 16th to 18th centuries, the ‘vulgar tongue’ works of the late 18th to mid-19th, and the ‘modern’ productions that have appeared since. A fourth category can now be added: on-line dictionaries. Works discussed include Thomas Harman’s Caveat for Common Cursetors (c.1566); The Classical Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue, Grose (1785); John Camden Hotten’s Modern Slang, Cant and Vulgar Words (1859); and Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional English, Partridge (1937).
3. Linear equations and inequalities
Authors: Higgins Peter M.
Published: April 2017

‘Linear equations and inequalities’ describes how to solve the simpler type of linear equations with one unknown and simultaneous linear equations with two unknowns. It also introduces manipulation of inequality signs, and closes with an example of finding the values of unknown quantities that satisfy particular equations while being constrained to lie within certain ranges. This mathematics underpins much of the logistics of modern society, governing operations such as railway and airline schedules, while allowing businesses to meet customer demand by running lower stock inventories, which represents an enormous and ongoing cost saving. The algebraic ideas of elimination and constraint satisfaction underlie all this.
2. Medieval and Renaissance learning and practice
Authors: Bennett Jim
Published: April 2017

‘Medieval and Renaissance learning and practice’ describes the techniques used by the three major cultures of ambitious development in navigation—Chinese, Arab, and European. It begins with the ‘Arab compass’ that used horizon astronomy, the kamāl, and latitude sailing. It then describes the Chinese use of the magnetic compass, believed to have been first used at sea during the 11th century. By the 15th century, the Chinese were using the compass alongside dead reckoning and so could choose between coastal and latitude sailing. The use of portolan sea charts and sets of tables (toleta) in the Mediterranean and quadrants and astrolabes in the Atlantic in the 14th‐15th centuries is also described.
3. A mathematical science
Authors: Bennett Jim
Published: April 2017

‘A mathematical science’ shows that the idea of navigation taking on techniques from other disciplines is reinforced by the appearance of instruments from these disciplines modified for seaborne use. The mariner’s astrolabe had only the altitude scale and was more robustly made to withstand the rigours of use at sea. The cross-staff, and then backstaff, replaced the astrolabe. These instruments made familiar the concept of latitude in degrees. Seamen also used the nocturnal to find local time from the rotation of the stars around the celestial Pole. The new role for mathematics in navigation is nowhere better exemplified than in the development of nautical charts—particularly the 16th-century Mercator projection.
1. The discovery and significance of moons
Authors: Rothery David A.
Published: April 2017

‘The discovery and significance of moons’ begins with the long-established Earth-centred (geocentric) view of the cosmos that was eventually replaced by Nicolaus Copernicus’ heliocentric model in the early 16th century, which had the planets including the Earth going round the Sun and only the Moon going round the Earth. The discovery of more planets and their moons by Galileo Galilei, Christiaan Huygens, William Herschel, and others is described along with the process of naming moons. There are 190 known moons of our Solar System’s planets, but is knowing of them any use? The ability to determine longitude and to measure the mass of the object about which the moons orbit was important.
2. The Moon
Authors: Rothery David A.
Published: April 2017

The Earth’s Moon is the fifth largest moon in our Solar System and is made almost entirely of rock. The virtual absence of an atmosphere leads to a very large day–night range of temperature at the Moon’s surface of about 270°C. ‘The Moon’ outlines the phases, orbit, and rotation of the Moon and goes on to describe the face of the Moon seen from Earth and the farside of the Moon first observed in 1959 from the Soviet probe Luna 3. The impact craters observed on the Moon are explained, and the results of lunar exploration and dating of rock samples brought back are described, but what are the Moon’s origins?
4. The moons of giant planets
Authors: Rothery David A.
Published: April 2017

The giant planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune each have an extensive entourage of moons: small inner moonlets, closest to the planets, mostly less than a few tens of kilometres in radius and irregular in shape; next are large regular satellites exceeding about 200 km in radius; and then there are the irregular satellites mostly less than a few tens of kilometres in radius. ‘The moons of giant planets’ describes these different types of moons, the space missions to find them, their orbital resonance and tidal heating, as well as the spectacular and complex rings and shepherd moons of Saturn and the other giant planets.
1. Three thousand years of futures
Authors: Gidley Jennifer M.
Published: April 2017

By understanding how humans in the past have framed the future, we can gain a deeper appreciation of the significance of futures thinking. ‘Three thousand years of futures’ explores the history of time consciousness, beginning with prophets in Judaeo-Christian and Persian cultures, the sibyls of ancient Greece, and Plato’s utopian vision. It then considers the Renaissance period, which represented a revolution in thinking and culture that pointed to a radically different future, and the 18th-century European Enlightenment. The dark side of progress—as portrayed by Malthus—is discussed along with Cornucopianism, which emerged in response. Finally, the effects of the two world wars on states’ future planning is considered.
3. Educating bodies
Authors: Shilling Chris
Published: April 2017

The matter of education raises broader issues about how profit or value is extracted from or added to embodied subjects. Educational institutions seek to structure and direct people’s embodied capacities for experiencing, reflecting on, and engaging with the social, physical, and symbolic environments in which they live. The results of these educational processes can also enhance or constrain people’s ability to add value to their own lives as well as to those of others. ‘Educating bodies’ considers the mechanisms involved in body pedagogics, described by Marcel Mauss as ‘techniques of the body’, comprising biological, physiological, and social processes, as well as John Dewey’s discussion of anoetic and noetic knowledge.
2. Revelation and the transmission of knowledge
Authors: Knott Kim
Published: April 2017

Central to Hinduism is the belief that traditional stories and the truths they contain are worthy of continual retelling. ‘Revelation and the transmission of knowledge’ considers the notions of sruti (revelation) and smriti (tradition) and the differences between them. Sruti means that which is revealed and the manifestation of the divine in the world, particularly the truths revealed in the early stages or rishis which were later brought together in the form of scriptures. Smriti refers to that which is ‘remembered’ or ‘handed down’. Brahmins, gurus, and storytellers, in their different ways, are all channels for the truth once revealed, then remembered, and orally transmitted through history.
7. Challenges to Hinduism: women and dalits
Authors: Knott Kim
Published: April 2017

Are issues of status, hierarchy, and power in India related to Hindu ideas about how society should be ordered, organized, and led? Is it possible to separate social and religious questions, or are they inextricably linked? ‘Challenges to Hinduism: women and dalits’ shows that such a distinction is artificial and unworkable. In India, caste and gender issues are not simply social matters demanding a secular response; they are underpinned by religious ideas and maintained by customary practices and brahminical institutions. Arguably, the very nature of Hinduism as a religion, and even ‘religion’ itself, is challenged by this interrelationship.
5. The Revolution in power (1914–1920)
Authors: Knight Alan
Published: April 2017

The rebel leaders of 1914 purged opponents and imposed their will by force. This new radicalism had three dimensions: personnel, policy, and practice. ‘The Revolution in power’ describes the two crucial and related issues that now occupied the political agenda: could the victorious rebels—Villa, Zapata, Carranza, and Obregón—agree, first, on a common programme and, second, on a common government which would enact it? The final big bout of civil war ran from 1914 to 1915 with the winner being Carranza due to the superior generalship of the supporting Obregón and the Carrancista. The challenges and responses of the Carranza government and the 1917 Constitution are also described.
7. The radio sky
Authors: Cottrell Geoff
Published: April 2017

‘The radio sky’ considers radio telescopes that can see much longer wavelengths. Cosmic radio waves were first discovered in 1932 by Karl Jansky, with the first radio telescope built in 1937. Technology for radar systems advanced during World War II and then after the war scientists, such as Bernard Lovell and Martin Ryle, made use of the advances in electronics, radio technology, and digital computers, to found radio astronomy. Single-dish antennas—including the Lovell Telescope at Jodrell Bank Observatory—continue to play important roles. To improve angular resolution two antennas need to be operated as an interferometer. These are described along with the discovery of quasars, supermassive black holes, pulsars, and neutron stars.
5. People, objects, and identity
Authors: Fox Michael Allen
Published: April 2017

‘People, objects, and identity’ considers how the home is a major focus in the construction of self-identity and how people carve out home space even within institutions. It suggests that a home is always a house plus many other ingredients, but a house is a home minus many elements. These elements include the people who matter to us and the objects we choose to keep in our homes. The links between home, objects, and personal identity are dramatically illustrated by two stories focusing on the Holocaust. They demonstrate that destroying homes and their occupants’ ties to place also amount to erasing things that mould identities and create networks of memories.
1. Big ideas
Authors: Binney James
Published: April 2017

Isaac Newton laid the foundations of astrophysics when he showed that it is possible to obtain precise quantitative predictions from appropriately defined physical laws. To do this, he had to invent new mathematics—the infinitesimal calculus—and use its language to encapsulate physical laws. Astrophysics is the application of the laws of physics to everything that lies outside our planet. ‘Big ideas’ outlines the differential equations that make up these physical laws and explains that they are valid in every part of the universe and at all time. The universal and eternal nature of the laws of physics gives rise to three important conserved quantities: momentum, angular momentum, and energy.
2. Gas between the stars
Authors: Binney James
Published: April 2017

The space between stars is taken up by gas—mostly hydrogen and helium—which manifests itself in many ways, the most important being the absorption of starlight. ‘Gas between the stars’ describes interstellar absorption and the reddening of stars—when dust grains in the gas absorb blue and ultraviolet light, but let red light from the Sun pass through. These dust grains play a crucial role in regulating the temperature, density, and chemical composition of the gas. This composition of interstellar gas hinges on the balance between the destructive power of ultraviolet photons and the catalytic action of dust grains.
1. What is modern China?
Authors: Mitter Rana
Published: April 2017

China is the world’s most populous country with a rapidly growing economy, an expanding political presence, and at the beginning of the 21st century, 1.3 billion people lived there. ‘What is modern China?’ looks at what China looks like today. China is going through a massive period of change. It is a major actor in the world markets. Despite its image of prosperity, it is fast becoming one of the world’s most unequal societies. China is also suffering from a resource and environmental crisis. China today is a mix of indigenous social influences and customs and external influences. Does China regard itself as modern?
3. Making China modern
Authors: Mitter Rana
Published: April 2017

Chinese 20th-century politics appears as a story of constant conflict. The clash between the Nationalists under Chiang Kaishek and the Communists under Mao Zedong lasted for decades. ‘Making China modern’ looks at the legacies of Mao and Chiang and the context surrounding them. The early 20th century could be seen in terms of their clash, or as a long modernizing project by two parties that agreed on as many issues as they disagreed. The parties had shared goals, such as reducing rural poverty, maintaining a one-party state, creating a powerful industrialized infrastructure, and establishing a strong centralized state. What can be said about the Chinese political system since 1989? How much has changed?
2. Conversion
Authors: Balserak Jon
Published: April 2017

What is conversion? Reformed theology believes that everyone is born unconverted as sinners, enemies of God and hell-bound. ‘Conversion’ explains that Calvinism asserts that people do not want to convert and they cannot convert themselves—only God can convert a person. Calvinism also asserts that God has already chosen those whom he will convert—the elect. This doctrine of predestination is key to Calvinism. But does God love everyone? This concept is discussed along with the differences between true and false conversions and how people deal with the idea of whether or not they are one of the chosen ones.
3. Migration and globalization
Authors: Koser Khalid
Published: April 2017

‘Migration and globalization’ shows how international migration is an important dimension of globalization. Growing developmental, demographic, and democratic disparities provide powerful incentives to move and the segmentation of labour markets in richer countries is creating increasing demand for migrant workers there. Migration has been facilitated by revolutions in communications and transport; the development of migration networks; and the establishment of rights and entitlements for migrant workers. The growth of a migration industry adds further momentum to international migration, even where it is not officially permitted. There are more reasons and additional means to migrate than ever before.
2. Motivation and incentives
Authors: Baddeley Michelle
Published: April 2017

Incentives are the fundamental driver in economic analysis. Money is often the main incentive, but a complex range of other socio-economic and psychological factors also drive our decision-making. ‘Motivation and incentives’ outlines two groups of incentives and motivations: intrinsic and extrinsic. Extrinsic motivations can crowd out our intrinsic motivations when our intrinsic motivations are dampened by external rewards. Pro-social choices and image motivation are key drivers too, especially for charitable donations. Efficiency wage theory is another example of how economic and socio-psychological influences motivate effort at work. Insights from behavioural economics help us to develop a richer understanding of the complex motivations driving our choices and efforts, and their consequences.
6. Taking time
Authors: Baddeley Michelle
Published: April 2017

Often our everyday decisions unfold over time and what we want today is not always consistent with what we might want tomorrow. Understanding why many people do not behave in a way that is consistent with their own long-term best interests is a key challenge for behavioural economists and policy-makers. ‘Taking time’ explains how humans (and animals) suffer from present bias: we have a disproportionate preference for smaller, immediate rewards over delayed, larger rewards—a reflection of underlying time inconsistency. It considers the intertemporal tussle between our patient and impatient selves, pre-commitment strategies, and self-control. The behavioural life cycle models of choice bracketing, framing, and mental accounting are also discussed.
1. Puzzles, proofs, and paradoxes
Authors: Stewart Ian
Published: April 2017

‘Puzzles, proofs, and paradoxes’ introduces nine typical examples of reasoning about the infinite—puzzles, paradoxes, even a few proofs—including Galileo’s squares and numbers problem; David Hilbert’s hotel scenario that illustrated Cantor’s theory of infinite numbers; Guido Grandi’s proof of the Creation from 1703; and concepts concerning the area of a circle, the largest number, and the diagonal of a square. Each of these nine examples is discussed briefly, before the chapter analyses whether the methods or the answers are logically acceptable. Some of the concepts deserve further discussion, and are returned to in later chapters.
4. The flipside of infinity
Authors: Stewart Ian
Published: April 2017

‘The flipside of infinity’ examines a logical counterpart of the infinite: infinitesimals. These are quantities that are infinitely small, instead of infinitely large. Historically, such quantities formed the basis of calculus, one of the most useful branches of mathematics ever invented. However, they caused considerable head-scratching, starting an argument that took about two centuries to resolve. This was achieved using a version of Aristotle’s potential infinity—namely, potential infinitesimality. Exhaustion is also explained, along with the modern concept of a limit, which abolished infinitesimals. Then it considers how infinitesimals were reinstated and outlines non-standard analysis, which provides a logical framework for infinitesimals.
1. Introduction
Authors: Patrick Graham
Published: April 2017

Organic chemistry is the study of carbon-based compounds in terms of their structure, properties, and synthesis. One reason for considering organic chemistry as a specialist field is because of the vast numbers of different organic compounds that can be synthesized—far more than would be possible for any other element. For over a hundred years, organic chemists have contributed vastly to our understanding of life at the molecular level, and produced novel compounds that have revolutionized modern society. The Introduction explains that there have been many benefits, but also some drawbacks. New discoveries can produce problems that affect health and the environment if they are not used with due care and responsibility.
3. The synthesis and analysis of organic compounds
Authors: Patrick Graham
Published: April 2017

The design of novel medicines, insecticides, perfumes, flavourings, or polymeric materials relies crucially on organic chemists. ‘The synthesis and analysis of organic compounds’ outlines how the synthesis of an organic compound is devised to ensure that each atom is in the correct position within the molecule. It explains retrosynthesis and how reactions are carried out and monitored using chromatography and infrared spectroscopy. Once a reaction has been carried out, it is necessary to isolate and purify the reaction product. The structure of the end product needs to be analysed by elemental analysis, mass spectrometry, X-ray crystallography, or nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Another important part of organic chemistry is understanding how reactions take place.
9. Nanochemistry
Authors: Patrick Graham
Published: April 2017

Nanochemistry involves the synthesis of molecular nanostructures measuring 1–100nm. These could serve as molecular components for nanorobots and other molecular devices that could be used in medicine, analysis, synthesis, electronics, data storage, or material science. ‘Nanochemistry’ describes the carbon allotropes of diamond, graphite (including the single-layer graphene), and fullerenes and looks at their properties and potential applications. It then considers nanotubes, which are useful in nanoelectronic circuitry as insulators, semiconductors, or conductors; rotaxanes and their potential as molecular switches; nanoparticles and nanostructures constructed from DNA; and examples of nanodevices and nanomachines. It ends with a discussion of the safety and toxicology issues of nanotechnology.
Jewish sectarianism in the Second Temple period
Authors: Lim Timothy H.
Published: April 2017

‘Jewish sectarianism in the Second Temple period’ contextualizes the Dead Sea Scrolls within the history of Second Temple Judaism and discusses the origins and history of the Qumran community of the Essenes. The period began under Persian rule, when Cyrus adopted a policy of religious tolerance. Alexander’s conquest of Judaea led to Hellenistic rule, until the Maccabaean revolt gained Jewish freedom. The Qumran–Essenes did not view Maccabaeans as legitimate rulers, so left the group before the Hasamonaean dynasty began. Judaism at this time comprised many sects. Some, such as the Qumran–Essenes, were introversionist and isolated, whereas others were reformist and remained in wider society.
Perceiving
Authors: Passingham Richard
Published: April 2017

Do you need to recognize an object to know how to handle it? Why do some amputees continue to feel their arm even though it is absent? Why do some people see colours when they read or hear words? ‘Perceiving’ considers these questions and then provides the background information to answer them. It explains that the brain is not a single pathway from input to output, but that there are separate pathways and that pathways diverge. The different regions of the brain—such as the ventral and dorsal systems and primary sensory area—are explained in terms of how they are used for the recognition and classification of objects, and for perceptual awareness.
Checking
Authors: Passingham Richard
Published: April 2017

Having made a decision, we need to check that we carry it out as intended. In other words we need to monitor our own behaviour. ‘Checking’ considers the following questions: How does being aware of our intentions influence our actions? How can we learn from our mistakes when we perform tasks that are difficult? How is it that human beings are able to infer the intentions of others? Various cognitive neuroscience studies show that we are aware of what we intend to do and so we can then compare it to what we actually do. We are also aware of our own mental states and have the ability to infer the mental states of others.
Acting
Authors: Passingham Richard
Published: April 2017

Why is there a relation between handedness and the cerebral hemisphere that is specialized for language? How is it that we can learn the violin? Why can’t we tickle ourselves? ‘Acting’ considers these questions and in doing so, looks at right-handedness, left hemisphere specialization for gestures, spoken language, learning skills, and the sensory consequences of actions. There is a relation between right-handedness and left hemisphere dominance for speech. It is likely that in human evolution the tendency to right-handedness developed before speech. Both vocal and manual skills depend on cerebellar mechanisms, and in the human brain the cerebellum has expanded in line with the neocortex.
5. Enlightenment and reaction
Authors: Rady Martyn
Published: April 2017

‘Enlightenment and reaction: 18th and 19th centuries’ describes the reigns of Charles VI (1711–40), Maria Theresa (1740–80), Joseph II (1780–90), Leopold II, and Francis. It outlines the practice of ‘cameralism’, or ‘treasury science’, which was complemented by the new philosophy of natural law that, by the 18th century, dominated the universities and educated discussion. It also describes the rise of freemasonry, the Jacobin trials, and the important figure of Clemens von Metternich, who took direction of Habsburg foreign policy from 1809, at the lowest point in its fortunes, until 1848. Metternich’s aversion to political reform only made revolution more likely.
6. The era of Franz Joseph
Authors: Rady Martyn
Published: April 2017

‘The era of Franz Joseph: 19th century’ considers the rule of Franz Joseph after his uncle, Emperor Ferdinand, abdicated at the end of 1848. Franz Joseph’s reign began with nine years of ‘neo-absolutism’, but the unaccountability of his regime led to financial ruin. Franz Joseph abandoned neo-absolutism grudgingly, but eventually, in February 1861, he ordered the establishment of a parliament or Reichsrat and, later, gave Hungary home-rule. The rise of nationalism throughout the empire is described along with the explosion of artistic and intellectual vitality that took place in Vienna around 1900. The history and role of Jews in contributing to Habsburg and Central European culture is also discussed.
Where does international law come from?
Authors: Lowe Vaughan
Published: April 2017

The rules of international law come from two main sources: treaties and customary international law, both of which are created by States. States are bound by the rules with which they have chosen to bind themselves—rules to which they have consented. ‘Where does international law come from?’ explains how international law works and considers the nature of customary international law and of treaties. Systems of customary law, including customary international law, are rooted in the regularity of an identified practice, whereas a treaty is an agreement between States that is legally binding. Often the broad principles set out in laws have to be mediated through detailed technical rules and standards.
What international law does badly (or not at all)
Authors: Lowe Vaughan
Published: April 2017

International law cannot manufacture agreement where none exists. For this reason, international law is not well suited to the promotion of innovative solutions to international problems where the interests of States are radically divergent. ‘What international law does badly (or not at all)’ considers this in relation to climate change and to the protection of commercial interests in proprietary drugs. Also, international law cannot itself deliver international justice. While the law is an invaluable instrument for the implementation of policies that aim to make the world more just—the special preferential treatment given to developing States within the World Trade Organization, for example—it will not miraculously produce justice and fairness of its own force.
2. The architecture of the heavens
Authors: Gingerich Owen
Published: April 2017

During his studies, Copernicus learned three important details about celestial motions that would provide a fundamental foundation for his future astronomical work. First, the sun moves eastward in an annual path around the sky, tilted so that the sun travels higher in the sky in summer. Furthermore, the sun moves faster in winter than in summer. Second, the planets also move eastward, in approximately the same path as the sun, but occasionally they slow down, stop, and move westward for a while. Third, the stars themselves move very, very slowly eastward. ‘The architecture of the heavens’ describes the work of Mesopotamian, Babylonian, and Greek astronomers that was the starting point for Copernicus.
7. Severe and unusual weather events
Authors: Dunlop Storm
Published: April 2017

Convective clouds may range from relatively innocuous showers to major supercell systems accompanied by dramatic conditions. ‘Severe and unusual weather events’ explains how convective cells generate in cumulonimbus clouds and how thunderstorms and associated lightning develop. Convective clouds may cluster together resulting in vigorous circulation and heavy precipitation. Even more active and dramatic systems are supercells that create tornadoes. These arise when a deep pool of unstable air is accompanied by a strong increase in wind speed with height, together with directional wind shear. Tropical cyclones are closed, non-frontal, low-pressure systems of high winds arising some 5–10° away from the equator, where the Coriolis acceleration promotes their overall rotation.
3. Fighting disease
Authors: Cooper Chris
Published: April 2017

‘Fighting disease’ looks at how the immune system and vaccination work. It considers the scientific studies of Louis Pasteur, late in the 19th century, who brilliantly expanded on the work of Robert Koch and Friedrich Henle, to formally expound the germ theory of human disease. But how did the body defend itself against these micro invaders? The phagocytic theory of immune defence resulted from the work of Élie Metchnikoff, Paul Ehrlich, and Emil von Behring. Immunoglobulin molecules provide the key to how the body creates the variety of molecules needed to protect against the different invaders experienced over a lifetime, and to how vaccination against a disease protects against future infection.
Complex systems
Authors: Holland John H.
Published: April 2017

What is complexity? A complex system, such as a tropical rainforest, is a tangled web of interactions and exhibits a distinctive property called ‘emergence’, roughly described by ‘the action of the whole is more than the sum of the actions of the parts’. This chapter explains that the interactions of interest are non-linear and thus hierarchical organization is closely tied to emergence. Complex systems explains several kinds of telltale behaviour: emergent behaviour, self-organization, chaotic behaviour, ‘fat-tailed behaviour’, and adaptive interaction. The field of complexity studies has split into two subfields that examine two different kinds of emergence: complex physical systems and complex adaptive systems.
Emergence
Authors: Holland John H.
Published: April 2017

‘Emergence’ looks at the relations between building blocks, generated systems, and the phenomenon of emergence. To understand emergent phenomena, it is necessary to describe the emergence of a system’s behaviour from the non-additive interactions of its building blocks. Emergence occurs when the generators for a generated system combine to yield objects having properties not obtained by summing properties of the individual generators. Co-evolution, often mediated by tags, is one of the major mechanisms for generating non-linear interactions between CAS agents. Tags serve as building blocks but can also be constructed from other building blocks. Tag recombination provides a general mechanism for emergence, because signal-processing lies at the heart of all complex systems.
Putting it all together
Authors: Holland John H.
Published: April 2017

‘Putting it all together’ reviews the keys points from previous chapters. The overall objective of this Very Short Introduction is to give a general idea of what we know and don’t know about complex systems, with an emphasis on how an overarching theory would increase our understanding. In looking at language acquisition as a test case, we see how mechanisms, and the structures they help build, tell us ‘where to look’ when trying to understand complex systems. We are still a long way from an overarching theory of complexity, but there is strong evidence that such a theory is possible.
Reading Iran
Authors: Ansari Ali M.
Published: April 2017

Two important contributing factors to any understanding of Iran and the identity of Iranians are the centrality of history, and the subtle nature of Iran’s relationship with the West. ‘Reading Iran’ explains that an understanding of Iran’s history is not only important for the context and frame of reference it provides, but also the light it sheds on the experiences that Iranians consciously claim to share. Western writers approach Iran with considerable cultural baggage, not all of it negative, but which is undoubtedly coloured by an extensive cultural, literary, and occasionally political relationship. The Iranian present imagines its past and, in so doing, constructs a thoroughly cosmopolitan, inclusive, and frequently contradictory identity.
Iran and the Iranians
Authors: Ansari Ali M.
Published: April 2017

‘Iran and the Iranians’ explains that to begin to understand Iran is to appreciate its history—real and mythological—to see how different influences have been woven into a complex tapestry and how each layer has reinforced and redirected various traditions. Transcending that tradition and harnessing it for the future has been at the heart of the progressive agenda for over a century. Despite Iranians’ complex inheritance it is also true that as a political culture and civilization, the idea of Iran and the Iranians have sustained some striking continuities. The persistence of the language and the flexibility and adaptability of their culture has made it durable.
An idea whose time has come
Authors: Moon Jeremy
Published: April 2017

What is corporate social responsibility (CSR)? ‘An idea whose time has come’ begins with the definitions of CSR before looking at its antecedents and recent developments. CSR is simultaneously a set of societal expectations and a set of business practices. A business should be accountable; it should compensate for negative impacts and contribute to societal welfare; and the business needs to be operated ethically, responsibly, and sustainably. CSR has been embraced by businesses ranging from multinational corporations to small- and medium-sized enterprises and state-owned enterprises. Contemporary CSR is taken seriously, engaged in, and promoted by a much wider set of organizations including labour, finance, governmental, civil society, and professional organizations.
The company level
Authors: Moon Jeremy
Published: April 2017

‘The company level’ looks at the practice of corporate social responsibility (CSR), within companies. It considers four frameworks that companies use to identify and manage their responsibilities: Carroll’s CSR pyramid, the stakeholder model, the triple bottom line approach, and the shared value approach. It then looks at the practices companies engage in, which are distinguished by their respective spheres: community, workplace, marketplace, and environment. The issues of internal organization and integration of CSR are critical to the performance and impact of companies adopting CSR. But how do CSR companies assess and understand the impact of their CSR contributions? The growth of intra-organizational CSR staff indicates a need for appropriately prepared personnel.
National and international developments
Authors: Moon Jeremy
Published: April 2017

‘National and international developments’ compares national approaches to corporate social responsibility (CSR), particularly between the USA and Europe, but also within Asia and Africa, and in so doing also identifies factors in the international development of CSR among these and other countries. CSR was first established in the USA, where the concept of specific company level responsibilities emerged both as a management and an academic concept, reflecting related cultural, economic, and political themes. The concept has not been simply exported; rather it has been adapted to different national ethical and regulatory frameworks in which assumptions and systems of responsibility are framed.
CSR and new governance
Authors: Moon Jeremy
Published: April 2017

‘CSR and new governance’ is concerned with the institutionalization of corporate social responsibility (CSR) within systems of societal governance. CSR emerges as a means of governing business and of bringing business to wider governance agendas—referred to as ‘new governance’. CSR features in a range of new governance systems, particularly in the standards and partnerships that institutionalize responsible business behaviour. The ways in which business defines and manages CSR, through new associations and individual companies, are reviewed, along with multi-actor organizations in which CSR also gets regulated and organized, including UN initiatives and a group of new CSR standards; the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative; the Ethical Trade Initiative; and a group of resource-specific stewardship councils.
1. Gold, sand, and string
Authors: Hall Christopher
Published: April 2017

‘Gold, sand, and string’ considers elements of the Periodic Table from which every material we use is built. It focuses on three materials—gold, sand, and string—that represent the metallic, inorganic, and organic resources on which we draw. The atomic structure of gold, silver, iron, and copper are described along with the important alloys that can be created from them: bronze, brass, and steel. Quartz (silica) and calcite are also important minerals used in glassmaking and cement manufacture, respectively. Cellulose, a polymer made up of a sugar-molecule chain, is the most abundant material in the biosphere. It is at the heart of cotton and the commodity materials of wood and paper.
3. Tough but slippery
Authors: Hall Christopher
Published: April 2017

‘Tough but slippery’ considers the physical characteristics of materials. Understanding properties in certain materials allows us to predict their behaviour and to use them appropriately in industrial processes. Aerospace engineers require lightweight materials with low density, but oil industry drilling engineers use the dense mineral barytes to make heavy muds for controlling the pressures in wells. Thermal expansivity, specific heat, and thermal conductivity are properties that describe the thermal behaviour of materials. Mechanical material properties include stiffness, strength, hardness, weakness, softness, brittleness, and toughness. In metals, yield and plasticity are of the greatest significance and value. Elasticity of polymer molecules and the viscosity and specific energy of liquids and gases are also described.
Genes before 1944
Authors: Slack Jonathan
Published: April 2017

‘Genes before 1944’ outlines the development in our understanding of genes based on Gregor Mendel’s work carried out in 1866 on hereditary factors, to Oswald Avery’s paper on the chemical composition of DNA and the identity of the ‘transforming principle’ with a gene. Two completely separate lines of work led to our modern view, and they came together in the mid-twentieth century to create the new science of molecular biology. One of these lines of work was the study of heredity by biological experimentation and the other was the study of the chemistry of DNA.
Conclusion
Authors: Slack Jonathan
Published: April 2017

There are many concepts of the gene. They range from defined sequences of DNA encoding proteins, to variant genes distinguishing individuals (markers), to unknown genes controlling quantitative traits, to hypothetical entities controlling behaviour as well as other complex characteristics. The science of genes is at its most precise and reliable when dealing with known protein coding genes. But all of the different concepts of the gene have been and continue to be important in numerous areas of human thought.
Microbiology of human health and disease
Authors: Money Nicholas P.
Published: April 2017

Microbiological research has been dominated by studies on pathogenic organisms since the work of Louis Pasteur in the 19th century. Recent research suggests that populations of microbes that live in our digestive, reproductive, and respiratory tracts are as important to our wellbeing as the avoidance and treatment of infection. The average human comprises 40 trillion eukaryotic cells and an accompanying microbiome of 100 trillion bacteria, mostly in the gut, and one quadrillion viruses. In addition to bacteria and viruses, the microbiome contains archaea, plus fungi and other eukaryotic microorganisms. The majority of these microbes are beneficial and only a minority have the potential to cause disease.
Under-nutrition
Authors: Bender David A.
Published: April 2017

Severe under-nutrition is generally associated with developing countries where food is in short supply, affecting some 162 million people world-wide, but malnutrition is also seen in about 2 per cent of the population of developed countries. ‘Under-nutrition’ highlights the three conditions classified as protein-energy malnutrition: marasmus, which affects adults and children; kwashiorkor, which affects young children; and cachexia, which is associated with advanced cancer and other chronic diseases, and involves increased metabolic rate as well as reduced food intake. Malnutrition leads to impaired immune responses, predisposing to infection, and muscle loss resulting in increased fatiguability, inability to work, and falls.
Functional foods, superfoods, and supplements
Authors: Bender David A.
Published: April 2017

When a vitamin or mineral deficiency is widespread in a population, a common approach is to enrich or fortify a staple food. ‘Functional foods, superfoods, and supplements’ defines functional foods as foods that contain one or more added ingredients to provide a positive health benefit, over and above the normal functions of food to provide nutrients and satisfy hunger. Superfoods are ordinary foods that are especially rich in nutrients or antioxidants and other potentially protective compounds, including polyunsaturated fatty acids and dietary fibre. ‘Nutritional supplements’ covers a wide range of preparations which are regarded as foods rather than medicines, and in most countries are regulated under food rather than under medicinal legislation.
Geology or biology?
Authors: Sheppard Charles
Published: April 2017

Early seafarers were wary of coral reefs, naturalists were confused by them, but many coastal people benefited greatly from these rocky structures that grew up to the sea’s surface. ‘Geology or biology?’ highlights the discovery of reefs by early explorers, discusses the various theories of how they are formed, and considers their biological complexity. Coral reefs will grow upwards to meet the surface when sea level is high, and will be eroded away during periods when sea level is low. A progressive understanding of vertical land movement and of vast changes in sea level lasting thousands of years show the layers of complexity that must be superimposed on Charles Darwin’s central theory of atoll formation.
The architects of a reef
Authors: Sheppard Charles
Published: April 2017

‘The architects of a reef’ gives a global overview of reef distribution and details the biology, growth, and reproduction of the main animals and plants that build them. Coral reefs are diverse, tropical ecosystems. The dominant groups of biota are corals, coelenterate animals, mostly living in colonies but with some solitary species. All lay down a skeleton of limestone. The key to the evolutionary success of reef corals is the symbiosis that they form with single-celled algae that grow in the coral tissue itself. Coral’s energy sources, coral wars, and the other organisms found in coral reefs—soft corals, other calcareous coral relatives, sponges, and calcareous algae—are described.
The resulting structure—a reef
Authors: Sheppard Charles
Published: April 2017

‘The resulting structure—a reef’ shows that coral reef profiles, composed of reef flats, reef crests, and reef slopes, are remarkably consistent. The general structure is complicated by shifts of sea level over geological time, so the basic pattern will have superimposed upon it evidence of episodic growth and erosion. The environmental conditions on the reef slope are ideal for most corals and other reef life including the soft corals and sponges, so this is where most species are found. The cryptic, or hidden, life of the coral reefs is discussed along with the rugosity of the corals, and the structure and life of the sand in the back reef area.