bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Art Education in 19th-Century America
Authors: Winner Ellen
Published: April 2022

This chapter describes the highly utilitarian approach to the teaching of drawing in the 19th century in the United States. Parallels are drawn to what the author observed in China in the mid 1980s. The chapter also notes an important difference. In China, this approach was a way of teaching children about Chinese artistic traditions, In the United States, this method was explicitly designed to train the kind of drawing skills needed for the growing manufacturing economy. Drawing instruction in 19th-century America was justified not in terms of being able to make something beautiful but, rather, for its practical value for the industrial revolution—an idea that was already widespread in Britain, France, and Germany. The ability to make precise copies, including enlarging and reducing their scale, was called for in many areas—design of tools and machines, textiles, ornamental architectural features such as balustrades and moldings, ship building, and so forth. Like the Chinese method, this kind of education trained skill but did not attempt to develop visual thinking or creativity or self-expression—thereby laying the groundwork for the turn to progressive art education in the 20th century.
Making Art Education Academic
Authors: Winner Ellen
Published: April 2022

This chapter discusses the revolt against progressive art education spearheaded by Elliot Eisner in the form of Discipline-Based Art Education (DBAE). Whereas progressive art education was a reaction against the mind-numbing method inflicted on children in the 19th century, DBAE was a reaction against an extreme form of progressive art education that resulted in a hands-off, laissez-faire approach. DBAE called for art education to include not only studio art but also art history, art criticism, and aesthetics. It called for the development of a sequential curriculum by experts and rigorous assessment of learning. The strengths of DBAE included the insistence that art be a necessary part of general education with funding equivalent to that given to other school subjects, as well as a refusal to justify arts education in terms of something else—whether manual dexterity and skills for industry (as in the 19th century) or personal and emotional development (as in the first half of the 20th century). However, DBAE stoked controversy as art educators rebelled against the idea that there was one right way to teach art which they believed was being pushed on them.
Reimagining Art Education for the 21st Century
Authors: Winner Ellen
Published: April 2022

This chapter argues that art education in the United States has blossomed in the 21st century with new approaches that are major positive steps forward. These approaches build on progressive art education practices but take them much further in the following six ways, each of which brings students closer to working like mature artists: (1) Artworks are driven by ideas, not formal principles; (2) art making is a form of inquiry and research (shades of Reggio); (3) students make art about social justice issues that concern them—and often this involves a challenge to the dominant culture; (4) art making is interdisciplinary, with students doing STEM research (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) to inform their work (shades of Reggio)—this includes digital art making; (5) artworks are more student- than teacher-driven; and (6) students become involved in peer-to-peer critiques that bypass the teacher. American art education has come a long way from the mind-numbing drawing lessons of the 19th century to the mind-expanding approaches featured in this chapter. The 21st-century approaches have much in common because they are all based in the practices of contemporary art worlds. Meaning has become more important than beauty. Art has become socially conscious. Art making has become a form of interdisciplinary research. Students are given wide latitude to make their own discoveries. And art is both made and shown by using the new digital media.
Conclusion
Authors: Jin Kim Helen
Published: April 2022

The US evangelical empire came to power, in part, through the Cold War in Asia, as revealed in this transpacific history of the Billy Graham Evangelistic Association, Campus Crusade for Christ, and World Vision. These organizations have transformed since their mid-twentieth-century origins, but they remain powerful institutions in America, Korea, and the world. Race for Revival reveals a hidden religious, transpacific and Cold War historical context for understanding contemporary concerns over the white evangelical vote for Trump, and the uncertain place of nonwhite people, including Koreans and Korean Americans, in the evangelical movement. For those who seek change, especially racial, religious, and political change, within the United States, and beyond, calling for an end to the unending Korean War is key. The “forgotten war” has led to a forgotten peace. But revival is not a race and one race does not have a monopoly on revival.
A Bright Future in Sales
Authors: Vyse Stuart
Published: April 2022

This chapter outlines how, in some cases, overconfidence and unrealistically positive beliefs about one’s capabilities can lead to higher achievement and better performance in competitive situations. Drawing on the theory of positive illusions by Shelly Taylor and Jonathan Brown, as well as game theory, the chapter shows how entrepreneurs and job candidates who have inflated views of themselves can succeed over equally qualified individuals who have more realistic views of their standing. In certain situations—launching a war or starting a business—overconfidence can have drastic consequences. But once people are committed to an enterprise, overconfidence can sustain motivation and lead to ultimate success. Part of the key to success in these instances is to believing their own hype. If they merely try to bluff their way through, competitors can often see they are bluffing. By deceiving themselves into believing their overconfidence, they are more likely to be successful.
The Mind’s Best Trick
Authors: Vyse Stuart
Published: April 2022

The question of free will is one of the longest and most hotly debated issues in the history of philosophy. Legal systems and moral judgments often depend on the notion of choice: the belief that an individual can choose between different possible actions. At the same time, much of the universe appears to be completely deterministic, responding only to the laws of physics. Research in both neuroscience and cognitive psychology suggests that this human sense of doing is a delusion. In some contexts, people feel like they are doing something when they are not and in others they are doing something when they feel like they are not. This research suggests that the human sense of will is a delusion, but it is a very valuable delusion. Humans are a social species and they benefit in several ways from having an illusion of conscious will.
Growth and Consumption in Uttar Pradesh under ‘Neoliberalism’
Authors: Srivastava Ravi
Published: April 2022

The adoption of a neoliberal growth regime by the central government in the early 1990s paved the way for provincial governments to fashion neoliberal agendas in the light of their own circumstances. This chapter focuses on specific features of the political economy of growth and development in the state of Uttar Pradesh, India’s largest state. It examines how these policies impacted the spread of economic opportunity in the post-liberalization period in terms of incomes, private consumption, and jobs. The chapter finds that neoliberal policies, in the background of the state’s political economy, implied slow growth, increasing the gap with the national economy, and growing spatial concentration of industrial growth. The state economy has been unable to produce sufficient jobs, accelerating outmigration across the spectrum of workers. The gap between consumption levels in the state and the national level have grown, and inequality between rural and urban consumption, and within urban areas has increased significantly. Upper castes remain highly over-represented among the consumption rich, the landed classes, and among those with better jobs. On the other hand, while Scheduled Castes and Muslims now carry higher weight among the consumption poor, there is also some evidence of an intra-group increase in consumption inequality, which cautions against treating social categories as homogenous. Very limited improvements at the bottom combined with rising inequalities in jobs, incomes, and patterns of consumption across, and even within, social classes are creating an aspirational pressure cooker, which cannot be ignored.
The Urban Experience in Contemporary India
Authors: Patel Sujata
Published: April 2022

The chapter engages with the literature that has emerged since the 1990s in urban studies in India, and in this context discusses the nature of India’s urban modernity. It suggests that contemporary processes of capitalism have enveloped the entire territory of the country into an urban space with the mobile upper classes termed ‘middle classes’ and the state policies linking unevenly the so-called rural and urban areas through new forms of capitalist accumulation. These organize specific patterns of spatial inequalities and exclusions and in turn fuel contradictory processes of politics relating to gender, caste, ethnicity, and religiosities. The focus of urban studies should be to analyse the way the global intersects with regions and localities as these are being spatially constituted in the context of uneven urbanization.
Markets and Aspirations
Authors: Prakash Aseem
Published: April 2022

Aspirations are not merely individual goals but are rooted in the class and social location of the aspirer and their relationship with the wider socio-economic structure, that is, the institutions of state, markets, and civil society. In synergy with this argument, the chapter moves away from the existing frameworks for understanding aspirations of individuals that argue that individual’s aspirations are either constituted by themselves—an individual cognitive effort to shape their future—or shaped by their class locations. The chapter argues that the initial socio-economic location and its constraints construct a corresponding reference point that the aspirer wants to realize in the immediate future. Second, this initial social location determines their interaction with the formal and informal institutions in the domain of state, markets, and civil society that in turn shape aspiration pursuits, particularly their market entry and sustenance. Third, adverse inclusion in the markets translates to aspiration gaps.
Ruth Page
Authors: Meglin Joellen A.
Published: April 2022

In Ruth Page: The Woman in the Work, the Chicago ballerina emerges as a highly original choreographer who sought the iconoclastic as she transgressed boundaries of genre, gender, race, class, and sexuality in her art. Her works were often controversial—and sometimes censored—even as she succeeded in roles usually reserved for men in the ballet world: choreographer, artistic director, and impresario. From extensive dramaturgical analysis of her most famous ballets—La Guiablesse, Frankie and Johnny, Billy Sunday, Revenge, The Merry Widow, Camille, Carmina Burana, and Alice—to embodied reconstruction of an avant-garde solo performed in a “sack” designed by Isamu Noguchi, this book follows the global reach of Ruth Page’s career spanning the greater part of the twentieth century. A biography that disrupts notions that New York was the only cradle of the American ballet and George Balanchine its exponent to eclipse all others, Ruth Page explores the woman’s unique sensibility, corporeal praxis, and collaborative ethos to reveal her Chicago-centered network of creativity. In the process of discovering the woman in the work, we encounter an international cast of dancers (Anna Pavlova, Harald Kreutzberg, Frederic Franklin, Alicia Markova), composers (William Grant Still, Aaron Copland, Jerome Moross, Darius Milhaud), visual artists (Noguchi, Pavel Tchelitchew, Antoni Clavé), and companies (Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo, Ballets des Champs-Elysées, London Festival Ballet). But Page’s Chicago nucleus of dancers and artistic collaborators as well as Chicago institutions (Chicago Allied Arts, Federal Theatre Project, Lyric Opera of Chicago, Chicago Opera Ballet) crucially shaped her intermedial aesthetics.
From Pavlovita to Première Danseuse
Authors: Meglin Joellen A.
Published: April 2022

This chapter poses the question, How did this daughter of the middle—the middle child, the middle class, the Midwest—who grew up in the relative obscurity of Indianapolis, come to tour South America with Anna Pavlova and to perform as première danseuse with Adolph Bolm, a former international star of Diaghilev’s Ballets Russes? The mother’s sacrifice, with marriage, of her own dreams to become a concert pianist laid the groundwork for Page’s eschewal of a conventional life. The child’s Progressive-Era girl’s education and early explorations as a barefoot, interpretive dancer gave her the confidence to audition for Pavlova and led to training with company member Jan Zalewski in Chicago. After graduating from Tudor Hall School for Girls, Ruth enrolled in Miss Williams and Miss McClellan’s French School for Girls in New York and commenced study with Bolm. Her ballet training culminated in a yearlong tour of South America with Pavlova’s company (1918–1919), chaperoned by her mother. The case is made that, as an international community of artists with an international repertory of national dances and international touring itinerary, Pavlova’s company offered the young dancer an alternative to college: a cosmopolitan education. Page went on to play the role of the Infanta in John Alden Carpenter’s ballet The Birthday of the Infanta, choreographed by Bolm, and became première danseuse of the latter’s Ballet Intime. In 1922, Page starred with Bolm in the first dance film with a synchronized soundtrack, Danse Macabre.
Grand Finale
Authors: Meglin Joellen A.
Published: April 2022

Before Les Ballets Trockadero de Monte Carlo, before Mark Morris, Page created her unorthodox Alice in the Garden (1970) at Jacob’s Pillow, casting the Queen of Hearts and the Caterpillar in male drag. The corps de ballet consisted of turtles, snails, and frogs, which quivered and pulsated on the ground. Flowers chattered as they danced. Based on Lewis Carroll’s eccentric masterpiece, Alice the ballet was part-pastiche, part-extravaganza, and a sophisticated work of theatre for adults as well as children. Applying Richard Dyer’s theory of the subversive potential of pastiche, this chapter argues that Page’s Alice ballets used this mode to comment, lovingly, on the art form that had consumed her for more than half a century—and to challenge social/aesthetic constrictions of all kinds. Alice asserts ballet’s potential to mix and amalgamate signs and to act as a liberating vehicle of contemporary expression. In short, ballet’s ambiguous status between high art and children’s theatre / popular entertainment—moreover, its value as a vehicle for the pastiche of gender signs—make it a flexible, malleable art form, capable of transgressing class and gender boundaries. Exploring Page’s final decades of life after the loss of her husband to amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the researcher takes the measure of the woman in the work through her unabated energy. The 1970s–1980s witnessed the creation of new choreographies by Page; the establishment of the Ruth Page Foundation, its associated school, and the Chicago Ballet; and the production of documentaries to preserve her legacy.
“A Matter Pregnant with Great, Serious, National Consequences”
Authors: Baer Friederike
Published: April 2022

This chapter discusses King George’s decision to employ foreign auxiliary troops to fight in its war against the Americans. Ultimately, Britain concluded subsidy treaties with six German territories: Hessen-Kassel, Hessen-Hanau, Braunschweig-Wolfenbüttel, Anhalt-Zerbst, Ansbach-Bayreuth, and Waldeck. Britain’s hire of thousands of German soldiers in a war against its own subjects on another continent provoked unprecedented debates about the trade in soldiers in Britain, the American colonies, and Continental Europe. A powerful critic in German-speaking Europe was King Frederick of Prussia, who worked actively to prevent Britain from hiring Germans to fight against the Americans. However, the subsidy treaties were welcome news in some German communities, not least because of the economic benefits that were associated with them.
“In General a Good Body, & Very Fit for Service”
Authors: Baer Friederike
Published: April 2022

The rulers that concluded subsidy treaties with Britain struggled to raise the required number of troops for the war in America. All of the territories dealt with acts of resistance, such as the refusal by recruits to report for mustering and even a few incidents of open rebellion. In fact, every year until the end of the war in 1783, the six German rulers struggled to supply Britain with additional men or to replace soldiers in American regiments lost in battle, to disease, accident, or desertion. At the same time, there were also many reasons why a man from the Holy Roman Empire may have volunteered for service in America. Finally, the corps was accompanied by hundreds of civilians, including a large number of women and children.
“The Garden of All of North America”
Authors: Baer Friederike
Published: April 2022

This chapter examines the experiences of the German troops during their first few months in New York after their arrival in the summer of 1776. Most of them almost immediately joined a major military campaign. In their written accounts, they recorded their initial impressions of the enemy and what struck them as an unnatural kind of warfare. They also commented extensively on the natural environment and the people they encountered, including free and enslaved Blacks. All were amazed by the evident wealth of the colonies, especially in comparison to their home territories, and were deeply suspicious of the rebels’ motives for rising up against their king. Many German military units actively recruited Black men for various roles, including especially drummers.
“The Men Are Weary from Toil”
Authors: Baer Friederike
Published: April 2022

This chapter focuses on the experiences of the German troops in Canada in 1776 and 1777. Over the course of the fall, hundreds of them participated in a military campaign that took them as far south as Fort Crown Point in upstate New York before withdrawing to Quebec. The following year, thousands more participated in General John Burgoyne’s campaign into New York, while a few hundred troops from Hanau were part of Colonel Barry St. Leger expedition into the Mohawk Valley. In August 1777, a detachment led by Lieutenant Colonel Friedrich Baum and composed mostly of Braunschweig troops suffered a devastating defeat at Bennington. In addition to military matters, German-authored accounts of these campaigns include extensive commentary on the Canadian terrain, the climate, the habitants, and Native American customs and manners.
“Conquered Little but Lost Much”
Authors: Baer Friederike
Published: April 2022

In June 1778, the British ended their occupation of Philadelphia after less than nine months. The following year, they also evacuated Rhode Island, which had been under British control since 1776. While many of the German troops that had participated in these campaigns would eventually take part in the southern campaigns, thousands remained stationed in the New York region for the remainder of the war. Between 1778 and 1781, they engaged in numerous skirmishes and battles with the Americans, and they participated in raids along the New England and Virginia coasts. Ultimately, however, none of these activities resulted in any significant gains. Members of the German corps were struggling to understand why the British were voluntarily giving up possessions in the northern rebellious colonies they had fought hard to conquer, including Philadelphia and Rhode Island.
“We Were Once Again Onlookers and Idlers”
Authors: Baer Friederike
Published: April 2022

This chapter examines the experiences of German prisoners of war after Yorktown. When the Americans defeated the British at Yorktown in the fall of 1781, thousands of German troops remained in captivity in the American and Spanish colonies, and many more joined them as a result of the surrender. Several months later, the American Congress decided on a plan that would lower the number of prisoners requiring upkeep, raise revenue, and enlist additional men into the Continental Army. This chapter explores American strategies aimed at German prisoners of war, including efforts to entice them to desert, and the captives’ responses to these strategies. In addition, it discusses the fate of the prisoners after the conclusion of peace in the spring of 1783.
“I Will Always Call Them Rebels”
Authors: Baer Friederike
Published: April 2022

The British army evacuated from the United States over the course of the summer and fall of 1783. The departure resented many, though not all, members of the German corps with the choice of settling in America or going home. Ultimately, a few thousand men, women, and children remained in Canada and the United States. However, the vast majority returned to Germany. They were accompanied by several hundred Americans and Canadians, including wives and children of German soldiers. In addition, at least 200 Black men, women, and children went to Europe with German regiments during or at the conclusion of the war.
States of Consciousness and Self-Organization
Authors: Combs Allan
Published: April 2022

This chapter explains that like biological ecologies, consciousness is stabilized in nonlinear, chaotic, self-creating, or “autopoietic” contexts that are never at rest but continuously recreating themselves through feedback and feed-forward processes. Nonlinearity is virtually universal in biological as well as natural cognitive systems. Unlike mathematical models of highly abstracted events that take place outside of real-world contexts, these systems are famously unpredictable, though often successfully characterized in general terms as recognizable patterns. Like the weather, the interior “stream of consciousness,” first described in detail by William James during the late 19th century, follows recognizable patterns over time, yet cannot be predicted in detail. The motion of a marble rolling in a grooved space, or “basin,” is often used to models systems. Natural nonlinear systems tend to be complex, so that small changes sometimes produce unexpected consequences. This is especially true in hypercomplex real-world environmental ecological systems, and it is true for human experience itself, which can be dramatically shifted by minute chemical changes in the brain, or changes in internal events such as the onset of sleep or dreaming.
Animals, pandemics, and climate change
Authors: Sebo Jeff
Published: April 2022

This chapter discusses the relationship between animals, pandemics, and climate change. In the Anthropocene, human activity is increasingly responsible for harm in the world. For example, factory farming, deforestation, and the wildlife trade are all killing trillions of animals per year unnecessarily. They are also contributing to global threats such as pandemics and climate change. These global threats are, in turn, contributing to biodiversity loss, ecosystem collapse, and animal suffering, both directly and indirectly. In light of these impacts, we should reduce our use of animals as part of our pandemic and climate change mitigation efforts and increase our support for animals as part of our pandemic and climate change adaptation efforts, and we should do so holistically, structurally, and comprehensively.
Limits on inclusion for animals
Authors: Sebo Jeff
Published: April 2022

This chapter considers two general objections to the claim that we have a duty to include animals in health and environmental advocacy and policy. First, the futility objection holds that including animals is futile, both because we can never achieve this goal and because, even if we did, we would likely do as much harm as good. Second, the demandingness objection holds that including animals is too demanding, both because it involves too many requirements and because it involves too many restrictions to be morally required. While these objections are reasonable, they provide us with reason to act thoughtfully, not with reason not to act. Including animals in health and environmental advocacy and policy is not as futile or demanding as we might expect. And insofar as it is, it can still be morally required.
Conclusion
Authors: Sebo Jeff
Published: April 2022

The 2020 mink pandemic illustrated many of the themes of this book. When COVID-19 infected farmed mink populations, humans “culled” millions of farmed minks to prevent the spread of disease. Whether or not “culling” these animals was the right decision under the circumstances, we never should have been in these circumstances in the first place, and we should now do everything we can to get out. This chapter summarizes the mink pandemic, examines the ethics of the mink pandemic, and draws conclusions for future health and environmental crises. The book then closes with the observation that expanding our moral and political circle to include animals will change the world dramatically, and that we might have reason to expand our moral and political circle even farther than that.
Introduction
Authors: Hübner Karolina
Published: April 2022

This introduction highlights some of the larger themes that emerge in the course of examining the history of metaphysical accounts of human nature, and of the ethical and political consequences of such accounts. It highlights the long-standing battle between naturalistic accounts of human beings (on which human beings are just another part of nature) and rationalist-exceptionalist accounts (on which human beings are not merely distinctive but superior to other kinds of things in virtue of their cognitive capacities). The essay also draws attention to the many ways that the concept of being “human” has been misused to marginalize or oppress certain groups. In light of such abuses, the introduction poses the question of the philosophical, ethical, and political value of continuing to think in terms of something like a common human nature. It ultimately suggests that we may reengineer the concept to advance political and social goals.
Democracy under Fire
Authors: Jacobs Lawrence R.
Published: April 2022

How did democracy become so vulnerable in America? Donald Trump is a shrill warning of the political system's fragility, but he alone is not the problem. The vulnerability is broader and deeper — and looms still. Even before Trump ran for president, his disdain for the rules and norms of democracy and the US Constitution was well-known by many prominent Republicans who were unable to stop his nomination. Trump's presidency is the culmination of a series of political decisions since the late 18th century that ceded party nominations to small cliques of ideologues.
Political Elites and the Failure to Protect Democratic Institutions, 1960s–1972
Authors: Jacobs Lawrence R.
Published: April 2022

This chapter turns to issues relating to attempts and failures to protect democratic institutions in the 1960s and early 1970s. It traces the revival of the presidential primary in response to the convergence of elite divisions and rivalry with institutional patterning. The chapter starts by locating this unexpected turn in the conflict and elite rivalry of the 1960s that created an opening for sweeping change.
The Ills of Primary Elections and Democratic Deformation
Authors: Jacobs Lawrence R.
Published: April 2022

This chapter tracks primaries to question the heroic narratives of American history and politics. In doing so, it also reveals the broader strains and threats plaguing American democracy at a critical juncture. The chapter begins by revisiting the previous chapters to identify the barriers to changing the current course of American politics. It then catalogues the damaging consequences of primaries for political polarization, political inequality, entrenched racial disparities, and erosion of democratic authority and legitimacy.
Involvement Is Everything (1965–1967)
Authors: Tobin Robert
Published: April 2022

The election of Southerner John E. Hines to succeed Arthur Lichtenberger as presiding bishop in 1964 surprised many, but it soon became clear Hines would maintain his predecessor’s activist approach, particularly regarding race. This led to tensions between the national church and certain Southern bishops, notably Charles Carpenter of Alabama and John M. Allin of Mississippi. The murder of seminarian Jonathan Daniels outside Selma in 1965 became for many in the church a symbol of their commitment to racial equality as a Christian duty. This flowering of support for civil rights, however, came at a moment when mainline Protestantism was losing its authority and prestige in national life. Black Power, youth counterculture, and opposition to the Vietnam War embodied the anti-establishment sentiment gaining ground across the nation. Within Episcopalianism, James Pike challenged his fellow bishops to abandon doctrinal orthodoxy and traditional authority structures in the spirit of the times.
No Love without Justice (1970–1979)
Authors: Tobin Robert
Published: April 2022

At the start of a new decade, Episcopal leaders recognized the need for reconciliation and renewal within the church. In 1973 John Hines announced his intention to step down, having staked his leadership on an increasingly unpopular empowerment program. Meanwhile, the failure of General Convention to approve women’s ordination to the priesthood led a group led by Suzanne Hiatt and Carter Heyward to seek “irregular” ordination in July 1974. This triggered a crisis among the bishops, highlighting differences among them about the relationship between institutional leadership and prophetic activism. The election of John M. Allin to succeed Hines as presiding bishop proved divisive, signaling as it did a turn away from his activist agenda to a more traditional model of church mission. By the close of the 1970s, the Episcopal Church was simultaneously more outward-looking and more inwardly troubled than ever before.
Vaughan Williams
Authors: Saylor Eric
Published: April 2022

This single-volume life-and-works biography of Ralph Vaughan Williams provides a contemporary reassessment of one of the twentieth century’s most versatile, influential, and enduringly popular British musicians. Throughout his wide-ranging career—as composer, conductor, editor, scholar, folk-song collector, teacher, author, administrator, and philanthropist—Vaughan Williams worked tirelessly to improve the standards and quality of British musical life. His compelling and original musical language—inspired in part by elements drawn from English folk song, French impressionism, Wagnerian post-chromaticism, Tudor-era sacred music, and Anglican hymnody—presented a distinctively British response to musical modernism over his sixty-year-long career, and in works ranging from art songs for amateurs to perhaps the finest symphonic cycle of the twentieth century. Alternating between biographical and analytical chapters, it draws upon previously inaccessible primary sources alongside a wealth of secondary material to craft a concise and engaging overview of Vaughan Williams’s life and music.
“I Think I Am Improving” (1902–1908)
Authors: Saylor Eric
Published: April 2022

Two enormously influential events transformed Vaughan Williams’s career during the first decade of the twentieth century: his firsthand study, collection, and preservation of English folk songs—through which he came to know the influential collector Cecil Sharp—and his acceptance of the editorship for The English Hymnal. As he later claimed, “close association with some of the best (as well as some of the worst) tunes in the world was a better musical education than any amount of sonatas and fugues.” The results were apparent in the flood of music that came forth during this period—songs, chamber compositions, stage works, choral music, and orchestral pieces—all of which began receiving public performances in London, Bournemouth, and other cities throughout England. He also lectured widely, accepted the position as conductor for the Leith Hill Musical Competition, and began to lead his own works in performances as well. Despite these accomplishments, Vaughan Williams still felt in need of further guidance in finding his musical voice. This goal led him to undertake a short period of study with Maurice Ravel in Paris, a decision as successful as it was improbable, and which helped him resolve the conflicts between his conservatory training and the vernacular traditions he had come to admire.
The Music of 1914–1922
Authors: Saylor Eric
Published: April 2022

Vaughan Williams’s return to composition was a gradual process—beginning with a series of arrangements and small-scale works—but soon revealed important new stylistic and expressive practices. Several compositions that premiered in the immediate postwar period were completed in full or in part before the war; they share several traits with those written following his return to England: extensive counterpoint, evocations of older styles or genres (often suggesting neoclassical practices), and associations with religious or spiritual topics. Four works from this period—The Lark Ascending, the Pastoral Symphony, the Mass in G Minor, and The Shepherds of the Delectable Mountains—represent some of the most significant and influential contributions to English pastoral music in the twentieth century, and powerfully affected the tastes and aesthetics of British musicians and audiences for many years to come. From a musical perspective, pastoral compositions often display elements such as modally inflected scales, rhapsodic melodies with irregular phrase lengths, gently flowing rhythms, triadic yet tonally ambiguous harmonies, quiet dynamics, and light and transparent textures, all of which contribute to the generally understated and restrained expressive tone of such works.
“I Live a Very Quiet Life Now” (1943–1951)
Authors: Saylor Eric
Published: April 2022

The critical and popular acclaim received by the Fifth Symphony, the stimulus of film and radio commissions, and the emotional deepening of Vaughan Williams’s relationship with Ursula Wood lifted a weight from his creative shoulders, as did the donation of Leith Hill Place to the National Trust upon the death of his brother, Hervey. Ultimately, however, it was the end of the war that restored life to normal at White Gates, though many administrative and professional obligations arose alongside Vaughan Williams’s return to active composition. New friends and colleagues like Ernest Irving, Joseph Cooper, and Roy Douglas provided him with new opportunities and assistance in composing, and his seventy-fifth birthday justified a widespread public celebration of his long career. His creative energies seemed entirely undiminished, most notably in the shattering success of his Symphony No. 6 in E Minor, but also in an array of large- and small-scale works, for amateurs and professionals alike, that steadily emerged during this time. Yet health issues were also a growing concern, both for Ralph and Adeline. It was therefore doubly tragic that Adeline died soon after the disappointing premiere of The Pilgrim’s Progress—a work that had absorbed the composer off and on since the early twentieth century—both events that cut the composer to his core.
Introduction
Authors: Nwoye Augustine
Published: April 2022

This chapter rejects Western knowledge hegemony as reflected in the tendency of mainstream Eurocentric psychology to operate as a universal psychology that can speak for all persons. The basic argument of the chapter is that it is not possible for mainstream Western psychology operating from its own limited Cartesian standpoint to generate a psychological knowledge system that could adequately and effectively reflect the holistic psychology of pre- and postcolonial Africans. The chapter highlights the fundamental limitations of mainstream Western psychology and illustrates its basic insufficiency to play this role for the people of Africa. Drawing from the important writings of four prominent authors on the partiality of human knowledge, the chapter proposes the emergence of the Madiban tradition and a decolonized, postcolonial discipline of African psychology through which African scholars can have their own voice for doing meaningful and holistic study of the psychology of Africans from an Africentric paradigm.
An Africentric Theory of Human Motivation
Authors: Nwoye Augustine
Published: April 2022

This chapter proposes a theory of five sources of human motivation recognized within the Africentric perspective. These sources include the need to protect against shame, the urge to overcome the limitations of one’s birth or background, the need to compete favorably with one’s age mates, the urge to avoid angering the ancestors, and the fear of ostracism. The theory places premium on the social nature of human motivation and, in particular, on the idea that the social world exists within the psychological makeup of each individual, thereby demonstrating the way in which the phenomenon of human motivation is indelibly linked to the influences and forces of the external world of culture and society and community norms and values. The theory is offered against the background of the current lack of attention to the contributions of culture and society in the evolution of human motivational processes in African scholarship.
Writing the Body
Authors: Nwoye Augustine
Published: April 2022

Chapter 9 highlights an Africentric theory of the embodied gates of stress in ordinary life. Developing such a theory was deemed necessary in that, despite the existence of five or more main theories of stress recognized in mainstream Western psychology, there is a need to articulate some experience-near theories of stress that could facilitate a better understanding of the sources of stress among people in non-industrial settings, as in Africa. The chapter presents one such theory, offered from the perspective of the Africentric paradigm. In pursuing such a task, the chapter places emphasis on the metaphor of the gates of stress in order to give recognition to the determining role of the body and the spiritual view of the people in stress-related illnesses in Africans.
The Therapeutic Use of Songs in Apartheid South Africa
Authors: Nwoye Augustine
Published: April 2022

This chapter explores the social change mechanisms implemented by the oppressed majority in South Africa during the Apartheid period (1948–1991). This is offered as an alternative to the prevailing social history of ideas of Apartheid South Africa which refers to the literature of criticism and disavowal of the role played by professional psychology during Apartheid. Following that literature, several scholars have drawn attention to the negative and appalling use that was made of professional psychology by some South African psychologists such as Hendrik Verwoed, a North American-trained psychologist who was instrumental in promoting the social and political machinations of the Apartheid system. The purpose of this chapter is to showcase some samples of locally produced songs of hope, consolation, and resistance by the oppressed majority, analyze their contexts and contents, and foreground some of the sources of their psychological potency and therapeutic value.
From Mind to Relationship
Authors: Nwoye Augustine
Published: April 2022

This chapter argues that while recognizing and appreciating the enormous work that has been done in the modern psychoanalytic literature to improve our understanding of the phenomenon and dynamics of grief and mourning, the current psychoanalytic perspective on mourning as an intersubjective phenomenon is still limited and needs to be expanded to accommodate the African perspective on grief and mourning, in which there is an emphasis on the role of culture and the community in facilitating mourning. The chapter highlights that, across the different cultural groups of Africa, bereaved persons neither grieve alone nor heal on their own; they are assisted by the community and culture to grieve and mourn the pain of their loss. To clarify and substantiate this claim, a five-stage theory of community participation in grief work in Africa is offered.
Rituals of Cleansing and Repossession
Authors: Nwoye Augustine
Published: April 2022

This chapter argues that pathological and irreversible damage from moral injury is rare in Africa because of the presence of coherent and transformative rituals of cleansing and repossession which the indigenous African community makes available to the morally injured person(s). The balance of the discussion demonstrates that such rituals and performative experiences heal by addressing some principal aspects of the cultural memory of the victims. The central aim of the chapter is to elaborate on the content, process, symbolic meanings, and clinical potency of these rituals. The chapter suggests that the use of rituals in mental health promotion is one aspect of psychological practice in Africa that appears to uniquely distinguish it from mainstream Western approaches to mental health practice. The chapter emphasizes the need for alternative perspectives for delivering relevant psychological care to victims of moral injury from non-Western cultures.
Improving Research Transparency in the Social Sciences
Authors: Christensen Garret , Miguel Edward
Published: April 2022

There is growing interest in enhancing research transparency and reproducibility in the social sciences. We discuss existing work on these topics, and discuss the evidence suggesting that publication bias and specification searching have been widespread across disciplines. We next discuss recent progress in this area, drawing on experiences in both economics and other social sciences. We focus on the trend toward preregistration of studies and pre-analysis plans, as well as multiple testing adjustments. We discuss areas where consensus is emerging on new practices, as well as approaches that remain controversial, and speculate about the most effective ways to make social science research more credible in the future.
Is Science in Crisis?
Authors: Fanelli Daniele
Published: April 2022

The literature of all disciplines, and especially the behavioral sciences, abounds with pronouncements that science is in crisis, purportedly because studies are rife with biased and false results, publication bias and questionable research practices are pervasive, scientific misconduct is growing, and that most of these problems are caused by pressures to publish and a broken rewards system of incentives. This chapter critically reviews the evidence behind these claims and concludes that there is little empirical support for beliefs in a “crisis,” at least in the simplistic terms in which the alleged crisis is typically portrayed. Rather than a crisis, contemporary science is facing new challenges that result from its growing complexity and diversity. A renewed attention to reproducibility and integrity represents an opportunity to innovate research and academic systems and boost scientific discovery.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Meta-Analyses
Authors: Corker Katherine S.
Published: April 2022

Meta-analysis provides a systematic technique for summarizing results of quantitative research and assessing variability. Yet, the technique has come under scrutiny for its susceptibility to flawed conclusions stemming from problems with questionable research practices, publication bias, selection bias, and noncumulative methods and measurement. After briefly reviewing the history of meta-analysis, this chapter considers the strengths and weaknesses of the technique. It then reviews alternatives to, and supplements for, meta-analysis, including systematic review, bias-correction techniques, and large preregistered studies. These alternatives and supplements aim to address the weaknesses of meta-analysis while preserving its strengths. Many recent critiques of meta-analyses highlight persistent flaws with the technique, but ultimately, there seems to be no substitute for a well-done meta-analytic synthesis.
Questionable Interpretive Practices
Authors: Jussim Lee J. , Stevens Sean T. , Anglin Stephanie
Published: April 2022

This chapter reviews the role of questionable interpretive practices (QIPs) in leading to false scientific conclusions. After briefly reviewing some recent examples of scientific mythmaking, we identify four types of QIPS that are the focus of this chapter: blind spots/cherry-picking; selective calls for rigor; mythmaking; and phantom facts. The chapter then reviews examples of each QIP that can be found in the psychological and/or social science literature, and describes each in sufficient detail to convey exactly how and why the wrong conclusion was reached. We conclude by identifying both general strategies and specific practices that researchers can adopt to limit their vulnerability to QIPs and therefore improve the validity of their conclusions.
The Importance of Type III and Type IV Epistemic Errors for Improving Empirical Science
Authors: Tate Charlotte Ursula
Published: April 2022

Sciences that use the null hypothesis statistical test continue to contend with type I errors (false positives) and type II errors (false negatives). In addition to those errors, statisticians and researchers have identified type III and type IV errors, which focus a scientist’s attention on the larger logical and epistemic outcomes of statistical decision-making that accompany either rejecting or retaining the null hypothesis. Specifically, type III and IV errors interrogate the match between theory and measurement on one side and statistical procedures on the other side. Type III errors occur when scientists use the correct statistical procedures on the wrong theoretical organization or operationalization of variables (viz., theory misspecification). In contrast, type IV errors occur when scientists use the incorrect statistical procedures (viz., evaluation misspecification) on the correct theoretical organization or operationalization of variables. Examples are provided to illustrate each error, as are recommendations to minimize the occurrence of these errors.
Viral Science and the Tragedy of the Scientific Commons
Authors: Menon Tanya , Winship Christopher
Published: April 2022

In recent decades there has been an exponential increase in both the public appetite for information and the speed at which technologies can transmit it. These dynamics have motivated scientists and other content producers to accelerate their production cycles and convey their content in more rapidly digestible forms. We propose that, too often, scientists have participated in this process by transforming scientific research into highly simplified, emotional, and persuasive viral content. This transformation of research science into viral science for public and corporate consumption has led to the danger that science might degenerate into merely one more type of folklore replete with dubious causal relationships. We explore the dynamics of these changes through the specific example in social science of the extraordinary reach of implicit bias research in corporate settings and public discourse. We consider how the increasingly permeable boundary between academia and the public can threaten scientific authority and identify potential institutional responses to reclaim it. We propose a new Hutchins Commission as one possible approach to ameliorate these problems.