bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The genetic algorithms, I inkage learning, and scalable data mining
Authors: Kargupta Hillel , Sanseverino Eleonora Riva , Johnson Erik , Agrawal Samir
Published: November 2023

The Genetic Algorithms (GAs)(Holland 1975) are search algorithms motivated by the extra-cellular flow of evolutionary information through selection, crossover, and mutation. The GAs are typically applied to problems in which little knowledge is available about the quantitative properties of the objective function. The lack of quantitative information characterizing the search space for many real life search problems, the inherent suitability implementations, and apparent robustness against noisy data have made the GAs quite popular for solving large search, optimization, and machine learning related problems. In the recent past there has also been growing interest in the application of GAs for Knowledge Discovery and Data mining (KDD). The field of KDD deals with the problem of detecting patterns within large databases.
Applications of artificial neural networks to the analysis of multivariate data
Authors: Goodacre Royston
Published: November 2023

Multivariate data consist of the results of observations of many different characters (variables) for a number of individuals (objects) (Mark 1991; Martens and Nies 1989). Each variable may be regarded as constituting a different dimension, such that if there are n variables each object may be said to reside at a unique position in an abstract entity referred to as n-dimensional hyperspace. This hyperspace is necessarily difficult to visualize, and the underlying theme of multivariate analysis (MVA) is thus simplification (Chatfield and Collins 1980) or dimensionality reduction, which usually means that we want to summarize a large body of data by means of relatively few parameters, preferably the two or three which lend themselves to graphical display, with minimal loss of information.
Automatic design of analog electrical circuits using genetic programming
Authors: Koza John R , Bennett Forrest H , Andre David , Keane Martin A
Published: November 2023

The design process entails creation of a complex structure to satisfy user defined requirements. The design of analog electrical circuits is particularly challenging because it is generally viewed as requiring human intelligence and because it is a major activity of practicing analog electrical engineers.
Biochemical studies of PTPase catalytic activity
Authors: Goldstein Barry J
Published: November 2023

In attempts to gain insight into the nature of the PTPase catalytic reaction, as well as possible physiological substrates for the various PTPase homologues, a number of studies have utilized [32P]-labelled phosphorylated peptide and protein substrates for direct comparison of the activities of recombinant PTPase enzymes (Table 7). As expected, differences in kinetic parameters towards these substrates have been demonstrated, although this analysis has been hampered by the relatively low stoichiometry of the labelled substrate and the difficulty in evaluating true initial rates of dephosphorylation and relative substrate affinities [245, 540]. These types of studies have also been helpful in mapping the residues involved in the catalytic reaction, and to distinguish between differences in the potential enzyme activity of the two domains of the tandem-domain transmembrane PTPases.
Synthesis of carbohydrate acceptors
Authors: Osborn Helen M I , Khan Tariq H
Published: November 2023

Carbohydrate donors and acceptors are essential building blocks for all oligosaccharide syntheses. Indeed, in order to synthesise the wide range of oligosaccharides found in nature, a whole range of donors and acceptors are required which incorporate specific protecting-group patterns to allow entry only to the isomer of choice. For example, if the disaccharide shown below were required, an acceptor which displayed a free hydroxyl group only at C-4 would be required, together with a fully protected donor molecule.
Synthesis of carbohydrate donors
Authors: Osborn Helen M I , Khan Tariq H
Published: November 2023

Together with carbohydrate acceptors, carbohydrate donors are essential molecules for the synthesis of oligosaccharides. Carbohydrate donors incorporate a group at C-l which can be displaced under specific reaction conditions by carbohydrate acceptors. This process often involves transient formation of a carbonium ion which is subsequently trapped by the free hydroxyl group of the carbohydrate acceptor to allow formation of the new glycosidic bond.
The fossil record of the evolution of Homo sapiensin Europe and Australasia
Authors: Stringer Chris
Published: November 2023

In this paper, I review the fossil evidence from the area which preserves the best record of recent human evolution, Europe, and compare it with the record from the other end of the inhabited world in the late Pleistocene, Australasia. I will also discuss the growing body of genetic data relevant to our origins. The debate about the tempo and mode of modem human evolution is still dominated by two contrasting models-that of Multiregional Evolution[1-3] and that of a single origin-the so-called ‘Out of Africa’ model. [4,5]
Ancient DNA
Authors: äbo Svante Pä
Published: November 2023

The vast majority of all species that have ever existed on earth are now extinct and artefacts of only a small minority survive, either as museum specimens or as fossils. Nonetheless, if we could retrieve genetic information from these remnants it might add a great deal to our knowledge about them, about their relationships to each other and to living populations.
Interpolation and divided differences
Authors: Schatzman Michelle , Taylor John
Published: November 2023

The problem that we consider in this chapter is the following: let f be a function which we assume to be continuous on the interval [a, b] and let xO, xl,... , xn be n + 1 pairwise distinct points given in the interval [a, b].
Quadrature
Authors: Schatzman Michelle , Taylor John
Published: November 2023

This chapter of the book is dedicated to numerical integration, and it is in preparation for the last chapter of the book, which will be on differential equations. The word quadrature has become celebrated by the problem of the quadrature of a circle. This involves a geometric construction with a ruler and compass to find a square whose area is equal to that of a given circle. That this is impossible is the consequence of two results of the nineteenth century.
Subspaces
Authors: Hirschfeld J W P
Published: November 2023

Let pc(r)(n,q) be the set of r-spaces of PG(n,q) and let ø (r;n,q) be the cardinality of PG(r)(n,q). Also, let 𝒳 (s,r; n,q) be the number of r-spaces through r-space of PG(n,q).
The Line
Authors: Hirschfeld J W P
Published: November 2023

A projectivity is determined by the images of three points, by (6.1). Therefore there exists a projectivity I. such that Qi= Pi Ifor i ∈ N4 if and only if the cross-ratios of the two sets of four points in the corresponding order are equal.
Arcs in ovals
Authors: Hirschfeld J W P
Published: November 2023

The objective of this section is to associate an algebraic curve to an arc of degree two. This is, perhaps, the most significant result in the book.
Channel Assignment on Infinite Sets Under Frequency—Distance Constraints
Authors: van den Heuvel Jan , McDiarmid Colin
Published: November 2023

Large-scale radio systems for multiple users, such as those used in mobile phone networks, are often based on a cellular structure (MacDonald 1979; Hale 1980; Macario 1997). The service area is divided into cells and each cell is serviced by one transmitter, which communicates with users within the cell using a particular radio channel or set of channels. In any particular application the available channels are uniformly spaced in the spectrum, justifying integer labellings of these channels. It is often assumed, at least as a starting position, that the transmitters all have the same power, are omnidirectional, and are laid out like the vertices of a triangular lattice: in this case, the natural cells form a hexagonal pattern.
The beginnings of communications
Authors: Solymar Laszlo
Published: November 2023

The principal aim of this chapter is to present some evidence for the existence of early communications systems. At the same time, faithful to the dual purpose of the book, the concept of communications will also be discussed starting at the very beginning. Terms like ‘binary arithmetic’ and ‘bit’ will be liberally used, and the two digits o and r will be introduced in the sense used by communications engineers.
The electrical telegraph
Authors: Solymar Laszlo
Published: November 2023

The electric telegraph combines in a judicious manner some properties of electricity with the basic principles of telegraphy. Scientists of the purer kind and technologists often disagree concerning the impact of their respective disciplines upon civilization and upon each other. There is however no disagreement about electricity. It did not emerge as an answer to an urgent technological requirement. It was science for science’s sake. It came about because some people had both lively minds and time to waste.
Wireless telegraphy
Authors: Solymar Laszlo
Published: November 2023

There are a number of major milestones in the history of communications and, in our narrative, each of them has so far been associated with a single country: the mechanical telegraph with France, the electrical telegraph with England and the telephone with the United States. There were, of course, good reasons for this. Revolutionary France, facing a hostile Europe, was ready to explore any new means likely to help the war effort. In England in the 1830s the newly established railways cried out for fast communications in order to avoid accidents and to improve efficiency. In response, Cooke and Wheatstone managed to turn an academic toy into a practical device. What about the telephone? Shouldn’t it also have started in England, the leading industrial power at the time? Not necessarily. In England the needs of industry and· business were perfectly well served by the Royal Mail and the telegraph. And perhaps temperament also played a role. To make instant decisions, without the time to reflect, was not an Englishman’s way of conducting his affairs. The telephone’s success needed a country with vast open spaces, vast distances and a population less inclined to hide their feelings.
Constructal Optimization of Paths for Heat Transfer
Authors: Bejan A
Published: November 2023

This article is a review of recent work in which heat transfer enhancement, or thermal resistance minimization is achieved by optimizing the internal architecture of a heat-generating volume. When the cooling is provided by a stream that flows through the volume, it is possible to optimize the spacings between the internal features that are being cooled. When the cooling function is served by a point-size heat sink, a fixed amount of high conductivity material can be distributed through the volume to minimize its overall thermal resistance. The discovery is that any volume element can have its shape (or size) optimized such that its flow resistance is minimal. The given volume is covered in successive steps of optimization and construction. The visible portion of the optimized volume-to-point flow path that emerges is a tree network that is completely deterministic. This solution has a definite time direction: from small to large, hence the name “constructal”. Small size and slow and shapeless flow (diffusion) come first, and larger sizes and organized flows (streams) come later.
Prediction of Turbulent Heat Transfer 1n Single-Phase Industrial Flows
Authors: Launder B E
Published: November 2023

The paper surveys recent developments at UMIST in the computational modelling of heat transfer in single-phase turbulent flows. Particular attention is given to models capable of wide geometric applicability because only such approaches find utility in industrial applications. Attention is mainly given to non-linear eddy-viscosity models and second-moment closure with applications drawn principally from turbomachinery applications.
Continuous Cellular Automata for Heat Conduction
Authors: Berezovski A
Published: November 2023

A generalization of cellular automata is presented to simulate heat conduction in continua. The essential feature of the method is a description of the interaction between the elements of a continuum in terms of the Gibbsian phase space instead of the space of physical variables. The behaviour of the material satisfies the equations of state or constitutive equations. The method provides a tool for the direct simulation of a process rather than for the solution of partial differential equations. One- and two-dimensional examples of the method are discussed.
Random Walk Trajectory Model of Interphase Heat Exchange in Turbulent Two-Phase Flow
Authors: Brenerman M H , Kessel A R
Published: November 2023

The universally accepted continuous mixture (CM) models are valid for describing two-phase flows (TPF) when the inhomogeneities have a characteristic size which is much less than the scale of the problem. There is a great interest in creating alternative models. Here a combined EulerianLagrangian mathematical model of heat transfer in TPF with large-scale inhomogeneities is presented. It treats the kinetics of the carrying phase as a random process and that of the dispersed phase as a random walk (Lagrangian approach on a macro scale). The interaction between the particles and the carrying phase is chosen in a classical form (Eulerian approach on a micro scale). Differential equations are replaced by a random walk simulation scheme. This approach incorporates some phenomenological details of TPF and is simple for numerical simulation.
Solving Systems of Ordinary Differential Equations
Authors: Heggs P J , Walton C
Published: November 2023

If a process is described by a system of ordinary differential equations, which is also a boundary value problem (BVP), a clearer physical understanding is obtained from the solution of the BVP problem, rather than treating the system as an initial value problem (IVP). As an example, the thermal analysis of a 1:2 pass exchanger has been considered. In such an exchanger, the thermal performance may be described by 3 simultaneous ordinary differential equations containing three dependent variables. It is shown that the solution of these equations as an initial value problem results in the Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD) approach. In contrast the boundary value problem leads to the Effectiveness - Number of Transfer Units (c-NTu) method and the solution itself generates three dimensionless parameters, each of which has a clear physical significance.
Precedence Ordering Techniques
Authors: Heggs P J , Walton C
Published: November 2023

Engineers frequently encounter systems of non-linear equations. Precedence ordering is a technique which not only minimizes the number of steps in their solution, but can also reveal whether an explicit solution exists. As an example, the technique is applied to the rating calculation for the performance evaluation of a heat exchanger. It is often stated that the use of the logarithmic mean temperature difference methodology in the rating calculation requires an iterative procedure. By applying a precedence ordering technique, it is shown that this is untrue, and that it is possible to obtain an explicit solution for the new duty.
New Approach to Modelling Structures of Randomly Intersecting Pores. Application to Char Gasification
Authors: Kantorovich I I , Bar-Ziv E
Published: November 2023

A general approach to the analytical treatment of arbitrary complex random porous structures has been developed. The idea of the method is that all information on the porous system can be obtained from a consideration of the intersections of infinite imaginary objects with the elements of the porous structure. The combination of features that must be imposed on the system (set of probabilities, shape of interpore contact region, combination of shapes of pores and/or solid elements, conditions of intersections, etc.) determines a specific model of the porous structure. A model of the porous structure based on cylindrical pores (grains) truncated at the inersections is developed. Variations of the internal surface area of char during gasification have been studied. A comparison of the model results with experimental data on char reactivity has not revealed a correlation between the surface area and reactivity.
Spectral Analysis of Lewis Number Influence on Double-Diffusive Convection of a Binary Gas
Authors: Morega A M , Nishimura T
Published: November 2023

In many natural and industrial phenomena, double-diffusive transport processes, that may occur under competing or concurrent thermal and compositional gradients, play a key role and their understanding is of fundamental importance.
Heat Transfer of High Temperature Fouling in Combustion Chambers
Authors: Mulholland A J , Gomatam J
Published: November 2023

In the current economic and political climate it is vital to develop energy saving methodologies as well as protecting the environment. According to recent studies conducted by the European Union, heat exchangers, due to their ubiquity in industry, represent the largest potential area for energy saving. Their efficiency is significantly affected by the build-up of insulating deposits, known as fouling, on their surfaces. We present an image analysis of industrial deposits which confirms their fractal morphology; we exploit these properties to derive an equation governing the fouling resistance which has an explicit dependency on the Sierpinski fractal dimension of the deposit geometry. Using computer simulated deposits, which include the auto-retardation effect of compaction but with no deposit removal, we show that the fouling resistance can not only reach an asymptotic value over time as the mass increases, but in fact can decrease. This is due to the increased connectivity of the constituent particles and reduced insulation as the density increases.
Modelling of Heat Transfer Processes 1n Naturally Fractured Oil Formations
Authors: ustrov V N , Plochoi S
Published: November 2023

It is well-known that many naturally fractured oil and gas beds display a non-linear behaviour during their development (1). Therefore, the application of a standard linear approach (2) for such formations is limited. A non-linear dependence of the effective bed parameters upon the stress state system is suggested within the framework of the model [3]. Consequently the effective porosity and permeability coefficients can decrease significantly when the reservoir pressure falls. Investigations of some classic and new filtration problems confirm the usefulness of the approach. Here two non-isothermal filtration processes are considered. The first is the injection of a hot fluid into a fractured formation. Such a process is used to increase the recovery rate of oil. The second process is that of non-isothermal gas filtration.
Confidence Intervals for Transient Estimation of Thermal Properties - Theory
Authors: Osman A M , Al-Najem N M , Beck J V
Published: November 2023

The present paper develops an efficient method for the construction of confidence intervals of thermal properties estimates when correlated random errors are present in temperature measurements. A first-order autoregressive model is used to model autocorrelated measurement errors. An efficient method for numerical evaluation of the covariance matrix of the estimated parameters is described. The approximate Bonferroni method is used to provide simultaneous 95% confidence intervals. A test case for simultaneous estimation of thermal conductivity and volumetric specific heat, and the associated 95% confidence intervals is presented. The paper concludes with a preliminary Monte Carlo study to validate the developed method for the estimation of confidence intervals.
Numerical Modelling of Concentration Fluctuations in Turbulent Reactive Plumes in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer
Authors: Silue M , Mokhtarzadeh-Dehgham M R
Published: November 2023

A major source of atmospheric pollution is the exhaust gases released from the combustion of fossil fuels in the power generation and other industries. The nitrogen oxides in the effluent are of major concern as they react with atmospheric oxidants to produce nitrogen dioxide which has harmful environmental effects. As a gas it adversely effects health and vegetation at low concentrations (of order 200 parts per billion by volume). It also undergoes reactions leading to fine particles and aerosols which are readily taken up in cloud and rain water and contribute to the acidification of rainfall.
Modelling Crystallization in Chocolate Moulding
Authors: Tewkesbury H , Stapley A G F , Fryer P J
Published: November 2023

Classical models for phase change in materials cannot be applied to chocolate as a sharp solidification front cannot be identified. This makes a front tracking or moving mesh system inappropriate. Chocolate can, instead, be classified as a continuous solidification process [1] for treatment by finite-element analysis. The numerical modelling of chocolate solidification is not simple as the rate at which chocolate is cooled during the production process affects the rate of crystallization and thus the generation of latent heat.
Minimizing Heat Loss into Creeping Flow Past a Cylinder
Authors: Turfus C
Published: November 2023

The heat loss from a cylinder translating uniformly at low speed in an unbounded region of viscous fluid is considered. If the obstacle’s boundary is given by a conformal outer-radius-preserving mapping of a circle, a global maximum is achieved when the circle is mapped onto a line segment aligned parallel to the direction of motion. If the cylinder boundary is constrained to be an ellipse, a minimum occurs with a line segment aligned perpendicular to the direction of motion, although this is not a minimum in the space of general perturbations. The heat loss from star-shaped cylinders is independent of the angle of their orientation.
Analytical Investigation into the Effect of Thermal Capacity on the Phase Delay Angle used to Determine Local Heat Transfer Coefficients
Authors: Turnbull W O , Oosthuizen P H
Published: November 2023

A proposed one-dimensional model for transient heat conduction within a thermally thin surface layer bonded to an adiabatic substrate is expanded to include the effects of back conduction. The adiabatic model suggests that it may be possible to measure local heat transfer coefficients from the phase delay that develops between a sinusoidally imposed surface heat flux and the local surface temperature. The results from the expanded model indicate that the back conduction and substrate thermal capacity cannot be ignored, even when using materials of very low thermal resistivity. However, the previously indicated phase delay angle is still apparent, albeit significantly modified by the effects of the substrate thermal capacity.
Process research and development: the modern approach
Authors: Cabri Walter , Fabio Romano Di
Published: November 2023

The evolution of chemistry during the last 20 years has been impressive; there are practically no limits on what can be synthesized in a laboratory. Nowadays, medicinal chemists have available an incredible portfolio of reactions and analytical apparatus to design new drugs to meet society’s needs. The most important and spectacular characteristics of the drugs discovered since the 1980s are the complexity and sophistication of their architecture. However, over the last five years, the drug discovery process has changed dramatically, making use of different technologies such as high-throughput screening and combinato rial chemistry. This approach, based on solid phase chemistry, results in simple structures, generally heterocycles, that are flat with a poor chemical diversity. The first decade of the third millennium will tell us if this type of approach, based on numbers of new molecules and not on diversity and complexity, will allow us to discover new successful drugs.
Thienamycin-imipenem
Authors: Cabri Walter , Fabio Romano Di
Published: November 2023

Despite the outstanding antibacterial profile of thienamycin 1, this compound was not considered attractive for clinical use because of its high chemical instability, found to be both pH- and concentration-dependent.4.
Losartan
Authors: Cabri Walter , Fabio Romano Di
Published: November 2023

This chapter describes the evolution of the synthesis of the cardiovascular drug losartan potassium 1. This molecule, now largely in use as an antihypertensive agent, was the first approved drug of its class. The claims of the patents filed by DuPont/Merck’s researchers over the years determined the synthetic approaches that other companies developed to produce losartan 1 analogues. From a chemical and industrial point of view, the most interesting topic of this chapter is palladium(O)-catalysed synthesis of biphenyls such as in the Suzuki- and Negishi-type reactions.
Concerning Biot-Savart’S Law
Authors: Chemin Jean-Yves , Gallagher Isabelle , Iftimie Dragos
Published: November 2023

It is very easy to describe in terms of the curl whether a divergence-free vector field belongs to spaces of the LP type or not. Proposition 3.1.1 Let a and b be two real numbers such that There exists a constant C such that, for every antisymmetric matrix Ω  with coefficients in La, there exists a unique divergence-free vector field belonging to the space La + Lb, having Ω  as curl and satisfying As the space s is dense in La, we may assume that the coefficients of the matrix Ω belong to s. Biot-savart’s law (1.8) says that
Analyticity and Gevrey Regularity
Authors: Chemin Jean-Yves , Gallagher Isabelle , Iftimie Dragos
Published: November 2023

The aim of this chapter is to describe some properties concerning high order regularities in the Euler equation. The two principal theorems we will prove here concern the regularity in time of the flow of a solution of the Euler system (E). They are: Theorem 8.1.1 Let r be a real number, strictly greater than 1.
Toward a General Setting
Authors: Holland John H
Published: November 2023

Each example, in one way or another, models the world. Even a game like chess has its origin in the powers maneuvering on early battlefields, and its later European incarnation retained warlike names for its pieces: knight, castle, pawn (foot soldier), bishop (in the Crusades), and so on.
Samuel’s Checkersplaqer and Other Models as Cgp’s
Authors: Holland John H
Published: November 2023

In chapters 3 and 4 we closely examined two modeling projects that increased our understanding of learning and self-organization: Samuel’s checkersplayer and models of Hebb’s theory of the central nervous system. Both studies took place at IBM at the dawn of the computer age, but they teach lessons that are surprisingly current. We have only recently advanced beyond what was learned at that time, and many current studies fail to take those lessons about learning and self-organization into account. In part, such failures occur because the field moved in other directions for a long time. But the lessons also seemed largely tied to the specific efforts, checkers and Hebb’s theory. Their general applicability was questioned.
The world of particles: a variety of habitats
Authors: Little Colin
Published: November 2023

The conditions within different types of sediment vary enormously, and as the lives of organisms living on soft shores are intimately bound up with the characteristics of the sediments, we begin by considering sediments as habitats.
The coarse extreme: life on sandy beaches
Authors: Little Colin
Published: November 2023

Sand and shingle shores are high-energy environments. Waves pound the shores, stirring up and eroding particles, making settled life difficult for plants and animals. The particles are, in any case, non-cohesive, so unless they are held together by the actions of organisms, the sediment is unstable. There are often few signs of life to be seen on the surface, where the particles are most likely to be disturbed: most fauna is infauna.
A fine option: life on mudflats and seagrass beds
Authors: Little Colin
Published: November 2023

There is no strict demarcation in particle size between sand beaches and mudflats. Despite the powerful sorting capacity of currents derived from waves and tides, both invariably have a wide range of particle sizes. In estuaries especially, sediment may even have alternating layers of mud and sand laid down by successive current regimes. Nevertheless, the differences between a clean sandy beach facing the open ocean (where particles larger than 63 µm predominate) and a sheltered mudflat (where many particles are less than 63 µm) are enormous.
Life at the bottom: sublittoral sediments and community structure
Authors: Little Colin
Published: November 2023

Below the level of low tide, species common in the intertidal zone are replaced by others. In part, the changes are related to increasing depth, so there are species characteristic depth zones. In some cases the reasons for this sublittoral zonation are fairly easily understood-for instance algae and seagrasses do not penetrate to great depths because they need light for photosynthesis. But in general, we know little of why species are distributed in this way, and there have been no rigorous tests to examine why intertidal species are not found in the sublittoral.
Experimental determination of structure factor phases in biocrystallography
Authors: Fourme Roger , Shepard William , Schiltz Marc , Ramin Michel , Kahn Richard
Published: November 2023

X-ray crystallography plays a central role in the elucidation of three dimensional structures of biological macromolecules as it can reach, in favourable conditions, atomic or near-atomic resolution. The sample is a single crystal that diffracts X-ray radiation. In optical microscopy, the recombination of scattered rays (which is expressed mathematically as a Fourier synthesis) is performed by the lens system of the microscope; in the case of crystallography, the synthesis is performed by computation. Unfortunately, measurements allow us to derive quantities proportional to the amplitudes of diffracted rays, but the phases are lost. This difficulty, known as the phase problem, is familiar to all crystallographers. In the case of macromolecular crystals, special procedures have been designed to get estimates of lacking phases. The present chapter is devoted to this question.
Local structure of metalloproteins at atomic resolution by XAFS
Authors: Hasnain S S
Published: November 2023

Soon after the first X-ray experiment using X-rays from a synchrotron for muscle diffraction (Rosenbaum et al. 1971), the Kronig and Kossel structures of the physics text books were transformed into a ubiquitous technique called XAFS (X-ray absorption fine structure) (Sayers et al. 1971; Kincaid and Eisenberger 1975), which found immediate applications in biology, chemistry, geology and materials science [see, e.g. Goulon et al. (1997)]. The growth of the subject has been very rapid and can be judged by the size of the proceedings for first international XAFS conference (140 pp.) held in March 1981 at Daresbury (Garner and Hasnain 1981) and the tenth conference in August 1998 in Chicago (nearly 900 pp. of the Journal of Synchrotron Radiation (1999), 6, Part 3). Worldwide, the number of XAFS instruments continues to increase, some 25% of all SR instruments are either devoted or partially used for doing XAFS.
Soft radiofrequency pulses
Authors: Freeman Ray
Published: November 2023

It is sometimes fruitful to violate accepted tenets of NMR spectroscopy, for example the essentially universal use of short intense radiofrequency pulses for excitation.
Separating the wheat from the chaff
Authors: Freeman Ray
Published: November 2023

A high resolution NMR spectrum contains two kinds of information-signals that will help us solve the chemical problem in hand, and the remaining signals that are of no real interest. In many cases the latter are more numerous or more intense and may mask the former. So we must find some specific property that allows us to discriminate between them. It may be based on differences of chemical shift, spin-spin coupling, relaxation times, the number or topology of coupled spins, or on symmetry properties. Some of these techniques are so important that they are in everyday use, others are more specific and perhaps less well-known.
Inter-group aggression and territoriality in Tar chimpanzees
Authors: Boesch Christophe , Boesch-Achermann Hedwige
Published: November 2023

Forest scenes, questions of neighbourhood: In the early days of the project we had difficulty in estimating the size of the territory of the study community. We happened to be following for a certain distance a noisy group of chimpanzees that vocalized and drummed at regular intervals, in what we considered the northern range of their territory. After about two hours of moving northwards, we started to wonder how far they were going and tried to get into visual contact without scaring them by approaching too quickly. In striking contrast to the behaviour we had so far achieved in the habituation process, they immediately ran away at full speed before we could even get a faint glimpse of them. This was quite unlike what we expected. We expected them to be curious and, if they decided to leave, they would do so quietly and slowly. It became obvious that we had been following two communities, first the one under study and then a totally non-habituated neighbour community. What is it that attracts two communities? Do they have violent interactions or do they peacefully intermingle? 27 June 1985: We were with a large party in the northern part of the territory. The chimpanzees quietly socialized after having fed for some time on the abundant fruit of Chrysophyllum trees. Macho had been trying for some time to lead the oestrus female Loukoum away from the other males, without much success. Suddenly, at 14.55, as he had just made another attempt to lead her away, he found himself, without any kind of warning, facing several stranger chimpanzees who rushed towards him. With a tremendous scream of fear, Macho ran towards the other males to be reassured by Brutus and Schubert, the alpha and beta males. They stared for a few seconds in the direction of the strangers, then the three of them followed by four other adult males charged with typical waa-barks against the strangers. Possibly surprised by the violence of this immediate reaction, the strangers fled and were pursued for many hundred metres before the two parties apparently settled down to exchange signals by drumming and calls.
Divergence along genetic lines of least resistance
Authors: Schluter Dolph
Published: November 2023

The idea that genetic variation in a population is limited, that traits covary genetically, and that the results of natural selection are consequently biased, is older than the ecological theory of adaptive radiation (Maynard Smith et al., 1985). Simpson (1953) mentioned the idea (see the above quote) but made no attempts to determine whether in any adaptive radiation ‘the realized path of evolution [was] more likely, in strictly genetic terms, than the paths not taken’ (Futuyma et al., 1995). A conceptual framework for addressing the question had not yet been developed and the ecological theory did not incorporate one. Yet, incorporating such a framework would benefit the study of adaptive radiation for at least one very practical reason: if genetics favours certain paths of evolution over others, then the direction and rate of phenotypic divergence is partly predictable. In this chapter I evaluate the success of recent attempts to predict divergence in adaptive radiation from genetic measurements of populations.
Collagen X
Authors: Ricard-Blum Sylvie , Dublet * Bernard , der Rest Michel van
Published: November 2023

Isolated as a low molecular weight collagen synthesized by cultured chick embryo chondrocytes [65, 75, 96] and by rabbit growth plate cartilage organ cultures [89], collagen X was first designated as short-chain collagen (SC collagen) [98] or G collagen [463]. This transient and developmentally regulated collagen is a hypertrophic cartilage-specific molecule [see 26, 40, 44,515, 731 for reviews].
Fibril-associated collagens with interrupted triple helices (FACITs)
Authors: Ricard-Blum Sylvie , Dublet * Bernard , der Rest Michel van
Published: November 2023

abstract

The term FACIT (Fibril-Associated Collagen with Interrupted Triple helices) was first used in 1989 to refer to a subclass of collagens which do not form quarter-staggered fibrils by themselves but appear to be associated with fibrils [15, 34, see 24, 41, 50, 51, 53, 55 for reviews]. The FACIT family comprises collagens IX, XII, XIV, XVI and XIX. Association with fibrils has however only been demonstrated so far for collagens IX, XII and XIV.
Collagen X
Authors: Ricard-Blum Sylvie , Dublet * Bernard , der Rest Michel van
Published: November 2023

Collagen IX is the 6rst described member of the FACIT family [see 35, 42, 56 for reviews]. It is a heterotrimer comprising three distinct polypeptide chains al(IX), a2(IX) and a3(IX) (1038]. It was initially referred to as collagen M [947], Ml and M2 [949], CPS1 and CPS2 [906, 908], LMW and HMW [942], and X1-X7 fragments [943].
Collagen XIV
Authors: Ricard-Blum Sylvie , Dublet * Bernard , der Rest Michel van
Published: November 2023

Collagen XIV is a homotrimeric molecule, which was first isolated from fetal bovine skin and tendon [922]. The corresponding cDNA was isolated from embryonic chick skin [989]. This protein is closely related to collagen XII and a procedure using two chromatographic steps has been developed for separating these two collagens [905]. Collagen XIV isolated from human placenta has been found to be identical to human undulin [110, 1193]. The determination of the complete primary structure of human undulin has provided conclusive evidence for the identity of human collagen XIV and undulin [958]. Undulin has been isolated as an extracellular matrix glycoprotein from skin and placenta and has been found to be associated with collagen fibrils at sites where they are tightly packed [1000, 1133].
Collagen XIX
Authors: Ricard-Blum Sylvie , Dublet * Bernard , der Rest Michel van
Published: November 2023

Collagen XIX has been discovered from sequencing of cDNA clones isolated from rhabdomyosarcoma cell lines [661, 1013]. It was initially referred to as Y collagen [661] and RH COL [1013], before being designated as collagen XIX [1014, 1182]. Based on sequence and alignment data, collagen XIX exhibits a strong structural homology to the FACIT group of collagens [661, 1013, 1182].
The development of man’s ideas concerning nature
Authors: Williams R J P , Silva J J R Fraústo Da
Published: November 2023

Since man became self-conscious he has tried to build up knowledge about himself and his relationship with his surroundings, even with the universe. One approach through chemistry and the associated physics of chemicals, which we will use in this book, has existed for thousands of years in developing form.
Forces and related energies
Authors: Williams R J P , Silva J J R Fraústo Da
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapter we described the change in knowledge over 2000 years with respect to the units of composition of all substances and materials around us. Whereas the Greek philosophers classified such substances and materials under the headings air (gas), water (liquid), earth (solid) and fire, and a similar classification ,,vas adopted by the ancient Chinese thinkers, we know today, leaving fire to one side, that the fundamental units of which everything is composed on Earth are the atoms of the 90 naturally occurring chemical elements.
Electrons in atoms amd their eneregetics
Authors: Williams R J P , Silva J J R Fraústo Da
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 1 we showed that there were 90 stable elements on Earth, the fundamental units of matter at the chemical level which, in principle, could be put together to form compounds in whatever way we liked. Hence, the element composition was the first fundamental variable of all materials. In Chapter 2 we observed that, in fact, the atoms of the chemical elements could be charged, and so could bulk materials, and that charged bodies exerted an electrostatic force on one another.
Ordering and stability of atom and component associations
Authors: Williams R J P , Silva J J R Fraústo Da
Published: November 2023

When we look around us we observe different substances and objects, many of which are effectively static or are in dynamic stationary states in the sense that they do not translocate, i.e. flow. The analysis of all these substances and objects at a fundamental level shows that they are ultimately formed from atoms of the 90 naturally occurring chemical elements on Earth (see Chapters 1 and 3 ).
Dilute solutions and order-disorder balance
Authors: Williams R J P , Silva J J R Fraústo Da
Published: November 2023

In Chapters 4 and 5 we have been concerned with systems in which there was either only one component or in which there were several components, each present in considerable amounts, In Chapter 4 our major concern was with ordered structures while in Chapter 5 it was with the balance of order with disorder within such systems. In both chapters we considered the effect of variables on the material present.
The development of anaerobic organisation: from prokaryotes to eukaryotes
Authors: Williams R J P , Silva J J R Fraústo Da
Published: November 2023

The proposed anaerobic primitive prokaryote described in the previous chapter represents the simplest form of living organisation that we know of. As we have seen, space is divided in these organisms into three compartments: inside (cytoplasm), membrane and outside, Fig. 11.1. The cell as a whole is small and often cylindrical in shape.
Survey and conclusions
Authors: Williams R J P , Silva J J R Fraústo Da
Published: November 2023

We have titled this book ‘Bringing chemistry to life’ and subtitled it ‘From matter to man’. An alternative subtitle would be ‘The physical-chemical evolution of natural systems’.
Basic concepts
Authors: Lindsey J K
Published: November 2023

Repeated measurements, as the name suggests, are observations of the same characteristic that are made several times. What distinguishes such observations from those in more traditional statistical data modelling is that the same variable is measured on the same observational unit more than once: the responses are not independent as in the usual regression analysis and more than one observational unit is involved: the responses do not fond a simple time series.
Longitudinal studies
Authors: Lindsey J K
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapter, we saw how to allow for heterogeneity among units, the generally observed phenomenon that responses from the same unit are usually uniformly more closely related than responses across units. Some units systematically give higher responses than others under apparently identical conditions. Although this is an important type of dependence relationship among repeated measurement observations, it is certainly not the only one. Many repeated measurements studies involve observation of responses over time (or space) and often the evolution of responses is of special importance. Because the same unit is producing several successive responses, those that are closer together will often tend to be more closely related; in other words, individual history is playing a role. In such cases, these relationships must also be included in the model. In contrast, heterogeneity models, such as random effects, assume that individual differences are inherent, not varying over time.
Non-normal responses
Authors: Lindsey J K
Published: November 2023

Models based on the multivariate normal distribution, as described in the previous two chapters, have been widely used in the analysis of repeated measurements because they are well understood, with widely available software. However, in most cases, they only provide crude approximations to the variability of the process under study. Recently, a number of other flexible multivariate models have become available, in part due to the increasing power of computers. In this chapter, I shall look at some of these models, often reanalysing data already studied in the previous chapters.
Overdispersion
Authors: Lindsey J K
Published: November 2023

Categorical data are produced when the response is an indicator of which of a number of events has occurred. However, these will be repeated measurements only if repeated events are observed on the same units (Section 1.2). When no explanatory variables, not even time, distinguish such responses on a unit, the events can be aggregated as counts, a special case of categorical data. This will always occur if only one category of event is being observed. In the simple case of counts, the data will often be collapsed into a contingency table. However, this does not mean that all contingency tables involve repeated measurements. Thus, I use the term, counts, to refer to aggregated repeated measurements of one or more categories of event on the same unit and frequencies for responses on different units aggregated into categories (Lindsey, 1995a).
Spatial aspects of disease dynamics
Authors: Hess G R , Randolph S E , Arneberg P , Chemini C , Furlanello C , Harwood J , Roberts M G , Swinton J
Published: November 2023

Landscape epidemiology focuses on the biotic and abiotic factors that influence the manner in which disease agents spread spatially between sub-populations of hosts (Pavlovsky 1966; Meade et al. 1988). With the advent of advanced technology for gathering and analysing extensive data on the structure of the landscape and the way host populations use this landscape, coupled with a realization that spatial structuring is important, landscape epidemiology has blossomed as a field of study. Advances in remote sensing and geographic information systems (Box 6.1) allow researchers to explain current.
Brentjes’ formalism
Authors: Schweiger Fritz
Published: November 2023

In this section we present a slightly modified account of multidimensional continued fractions as given in Brentjes 1981. We consider ℝn+1 equipped with an inner product X. Y. Therefore An additive discrete subgroup Ω ⊆ ℝn+l  of rank n + 1 is called a lattice. , ℒ = {Lo, Li, …, Ln} denotes a lattice base, this means
Continued fractions on simplices
Authors: Schweiger Fritz
Published: November 2023

24 Let p0, Pl, … , Pn ∈ ℝn+1 be n + 1 points in the hyperplane xo + x  1 + … + Xn = 1. Then the n-dimensional volume of the simplex spanned by P  0  , P  l  , … , Pn is given by Proof: Since for any vectors ω1, … , ωn we get
Two-way graphical representation of data matrices
Authors: Krzanowski W J
Published: November 2023

Various graphical methods have been described in Chapters 2 and 3 for representing the entities indexing either the rows or the columns of a matrix, where the entries in the matrix may be of various possible types. It sometimes happens, however, that valuable information may be extracted from a visual display of both the rows and the columns of the matrix, considered simultaneously.

For example, Gabriel (1971) analysed a set of data in which the percentage of houses possessing various facilities (e.g. toilet, bath, kitchen, water, electricity) was measured for each of a number of localities in Israel (e.g. old city quarters, modern city quarters, rural localities). One of the methods already described could be used to provide a graphical representation in which the localities are denoted by points, such that closeness of two points implies similarity of the two corresponding localities. By means of his biplot technique (to be described in this chapter), however, Gabriel was additionally able to superimpose on this plot a representation of the other set of entities, the facilities, in such a way as to highlight the main facilities shared by groups of similar localities. The resultant plot gave a more complete picture of the data matrix, as well as providing valuable insight into the relationships between the facilities and the localities.