bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Christian Frontier
Authors: Morris Colin
Published: October 2003

The purpose of mission was seen as the extension of Christian worship and ‘the Christian name’. Scandinavia offers a picture of (relatively) peaceful evangelism, with the protection of the rulers. The same is true of Poland and Hungary, but in the Slavonic lands along the Baltic, a long process of military conquest was initiated to overcome the Wends and Prussians. In Palestine, the main purpose of warfare was to defend the Holy Sepulchre from increasing Muslim pressure.
The Message of the Churches
Authors: Morris Colin
Published: October 2003

Liturgical worship was seen as the predominant purpose of the church, and lies behind the creation of great cathedrals. At the same time there was an attempt to provide every locality with a parish church, although it is questionable how far this succeeded in educating the laity in the content of the Christian religion. Preaching became more significant, and so was the participation of the faithful in processions and pilgrimages.
The Formulation of the Faith
Authors: Morris Colin
Published: October 2003

Serious theological thinking still tended to be monastic, but cathedral schools were increasingly applying methods derived from logic to theology: an approach in which Abelard was famous. Some of these thinkers were notable for the value, which they ascribed to human relationships, in particular, to ‘friendship’. Such concerns lay behind the growing devotion to the crucified humanity of Christ and the doctrine of purgatory.
Friars, Beguines, and the Action Against Heresy
Authors: Morris Colin
Published: October 2003

With Innocent's encouragement, the Franciscans and Dominicans were founded with a policy of personal poverty. There was a parallel development of communities for women with the Beguines and female houses of Dominicans and Cistercians. Stricter measures developed for the suppression of heresy.
Proclaiming the Faith
Authors: Morris Colin
Published: October 2003

The struggles continued to recover Jerusalem and involved attacks on Constantinople and Egypt, without real success. Concentration began to shift towards missionary effort in Asia and Morocco. In Europe, there was a sustained effort to instruct and discipline the faithful. Popular religion was as a whole marked by ignorance, discipline, and legend.
The Structure of Government
Authors: Morris Colin
Published: October 2003

The episcopal office was revivified by new ideas; greater independence in election gave the bishops more freedom of action as ‘ordinaries’, and (especially in France and England) made it possible for them to act as agents for the reforms decreed by fourth Lateran. These efforts were supported by the diocesan synods and bishops and strengthened by the maintenance of registers and the creation of official principal. Efforts were made to protect the financial position of vicars in parishes. Cathedral canonries were the target of papal provisions.
The Roman Church and the Lay Power in the Thirteenth Century
Authors: Morris Colin
Published: October 2003

Governments became more active, and there was more awareness of rights as vested in one single authority. They were formalized in established institutions, and two coherent jurisdictions, of church and state, were in confrontation especially over the development of the new phenomenon of papal taxation,. Frederick II renewed the intense hostility between papacy and Hohenstaufen over the control of Italy. Vigorous discussions continued over the nature of papal authority and the rights of the cardinals. The papacy became the victim of its own success: the exploitation of the church as a whole for revenue alienated sympathy and stifled its initiative for reform.
The Early Development of Canon Law and the Council of Serdica
Authors: Hess Hamilton
Published: October 2003

An augmented second edition of The Canons of the Council of Sardica, ad 343: A Landmark in the Early Development of Canon Law (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1958). The earlier historical and exegetical study of the Serdican canons has been updated from that of the first edition in the light of more recent scholarly treatment of the period and of topics relating to early conciliar legislation and the Serdican canons themselves. The first three chapters—constituting Part I—are completely new, covering successively the beginnings of the conciliar movement in the second century as an inter‐congregational medium for decision‐making, the development of the conciliar system (‘councils’ in the West and ‘synods’ in the East) in the third and early fourth centuries into an exclusively episcopal forum employing the consensus process of the Roman senate and other civil deliberative bodies, the fourth‐century emergence of conciliar legislation in the form that came to be known as ‘canons’, and the final development of conciliar legislative acts from consensual agreements to ecclesiastical law during the fifth and sixth centuries. The Serdican canons are presented and studied both as a series of episcopal enactments that shed light in uniquely important ways on fourth‐century developments of conciliar legislation and as a centrepiece for a study of fourth‐ and fifth‐century church legislation in general. Solutions are presented for problems regarding the form of publication of the Serdican canons, the literary priority between the Greek and Latin texts, and their variant readings. In content, the canons are concerned almost exclusively with questions concerning the episcopate: the appointment of bishops, their working relationships with one another, the provision for appeal to the bishop of Rome for retrial in cases of unjust judgements against them by their peers, the prohibition of uninvited episcopal visits to the imperial court, and the prevention of unjust treatment of the clergy by their bishops. The main conclusion reached in this study is that decision‐making in the early Christian Church followed a significant path of development, following Roman cultural and governmental models, as it moved from congregational self‐rule to a system of ecclesiastical law parallel to and interrelated with the Roman civil code.
The Council at Serdica
Authors: Hess Hamilton
Published: October 2003

The failure of the attempted settlement of the dispute over the teachings of Arius by the Council of Nicaea in 325 resulted in intense turmoil within the Church during the decades to follow, and this was greatly exacerbated by the division of the Empire after the death of Constantine and the differing ecclesiastical policies of his heirs. Following the deposition of Athanasius and other bishops by the partisans of Arius and their restoration by a council at Rome in 341, a council to resolve the doctrinal differences and personal grievances was convened by permission of the emperors to meet at Serdica in 343. Upon arrival at Serdica, the Eastern bishops, largely sympathetic with the anti‐Nicene party, refused to meet with the Westerns, and two rival councils were held. The Western council confirmed the restoration of Athanasius and his companions at Rome in 341, considered but rejected a new creed, wrote an encyclical and other letters, resolved a dispute over the dating of Easter, and enacted the canons that we are here considering; the Eastern council reapproved the Fourth Creed of Antioch, drafted a paschal cycle, wrote an encyclical condemning Athanasius and his associates and all who had entered into communion with them. The chapter ends with a brief discussion of the life of Ossius of Cordova, who presided over the Western council and was also the leading figure in the framing of the Serdican canons.
The Appointment of Bishops
Authors: Hess Hamilton
Published: October 2003

Canon 5 in the Latin text describes a situation in which only one bishop remains in a province, who is unwilling to ordain others to fill the vacancies, so that bishops must be summoned from a neighbouring province to do this. The Latin also presupposes the popular election of bishops, as was still generally observed in the West. This seems also to have been the original sense of the corresponding canon VIa in the Greek text, although the received reading alters the situation described in the Latin, and also reflects the developing Eastern practice of episcopal appointment, as well as ordination, by the bishops of the province. Canon 6 (Greek VIb) reflects a current movement in both the East and the West to control an increase in the numbers of bishops during a period of rapid growth in the number of Christian congregations. Canon 13 (Greek X) provides the earliest known stipulation that no one should be ordained bishop until he has held the offices of reader, deacon, and presbyter, as a series of steps, so that he may be proven worthy of the episcopate.
Episcopal Visits to the Imperial Court
Authors: Hess Hamilton
Published: October 2003

In response to a general problem in the fourth‐century Church arising from ambitious or unworthy petitions submitted to the imperial court by individual bishops, seven of the Serdican canons are devoted to specifying appropriate causes for petition and for regulating the ways in which they should be presented. Canons 8 (Greek VII) and 10b draw a distinction between self‐seeking petitions, which are condemned, and petitions concerning widows, orphans, those who suffer injustice, and exiles, and stipulates that no bishop shall go to the court unless he is summoned or invited by the emperor. Canon 9a (Greek VIII) directs that the petitions should be delivered to the court by the petitioning bishop's deacon, and canon 9b (Greek IXa) adds that the petitions should first be approved by the metropolitan bishop of the province. Canon 10a (Greek IXb) makes a provision for bishops who have petitions and who are going to Rome that the Roman bishop may examine and send approved petitions to the court. This chapter also considers the development of the office of the metropolitan bishop in the East in the light of the evidence provided by Canon 9b (Greek IXa).
Resurrection and the New Jerusalem
Authors: Soskice Janet Martin
Published: October 2003

Important though the empty tomb is, full‐flooded resurrection faith (such as we find in Paul) involves much more than the ‘etiolated orthodoxy’—Christ is risen—God does miracles—we shall rise. The resurrection faith of Paul and the Gospels can only be understood in terms of the Jewish restoration eschatology of their day. What the resurrection might mean for Paul is explained through his image of the body (both Christ's and our own) as temple. This is connected with Jesus’ ‘temple destruction’ saying in the Gospel. Belief in the resurrection for Paul has implications not only for a corporeality (bodiliness) but also for our belonging together in one body corporateness, and is thus profoundly moral. Christ's risen body is the new Temple, in a profound theology of divine presence—the place where God dwells with women and men.
Resurrection as Glory: Divine Presence and Christian Origins
Authors: Newman Carey C.
Published: October 2003

Christianity's break with Judaism—the mutual ‘parting of the ways’—still baffles those who study it. Was the rupture early and driven by a ‘high’ Christology or was the split late and to be explained sociologically (e.g. differences over temple and law)? This paper makes a contribution to this large and vexing question by investigating the narrative, historical, and theological logic standing behind the NT's (New Testament) identification of Jesus as ‘Glory’.

Part I of this study briefly outlines the different ways the Glory tradition signs the visible, movable divine presence within the Hebrew Bible. Part II plots how Glory came to define the age of eschatological blessing in (1) the prophets, (2) the writings of second temple Judaism, and (3) within Jesus’ own vision for the future. Part III isolates the resurrection as the narrative, historical, and theological trigger for the equation Jesus = Glory. Part IV sketches the profound sociological implications of such an equation.

On the basis of this study, three major conclusions are reached. (1) Christians’ use of Glory language signals that the eschatological age of blessing—the events hoped for by prophets—had broken‐in upon this world in the resurrection of Jesus. (2) The NT's provocative use of Glory language clearly opened a theological breach in the wall of Jewish monotheism by scandalously identifying Jesus as the divine presence. (3) The sociological implications of (1) and (2) as stated above were twofold: Glory language created internal cohesiveness and growth within the Christian community and at the same time clearly marked the boundary lines between Christianity and Judaism. In short, the NT's use of Glory language as a sign of God's power and presence in the resurrection of Jesus indicates that the parting of ways between Christianity and Judaism occurred quite early and did so because of a high Christology.
Evidence for the Resurrection
Authors: Swinburne Richard
Published: October 2003

In assessing what happened on some particular past occasion we have to take into account both detailed historical evidence (memories, testimony, and physical traces) and general background evidence. In the case of the Resurrection, we must take into account the normal detailed historical evidence (e.g. that contained in the NT) and balance it against our background evidence. The latter will include both evidence of what normally happens (e.g. that humans do not rise from death), but also the evidence of natural theology—that there is a God who may be expected on occasion to set aside the laws of nature. An Appendix to this philosophical discussion argues that the widespread early Christian practice of celebrating the Eucharist on Sundays provides strong detailed historical evidence, additional to that normally considered, in favour of the Resurrection.
The Resurrection of Jesus and Roman Catholic Fundamental Theology
Authors: Schüssler Fiorenza Francis
Published: October 2003

Francis Schüssler Fiorenza develops a fundamental theological approach to Jesus’ resurrection that takes seriously the contemporary critique of foundationalism. He first discusses two different contemporary approaches within fundamental theology to the resurrection of Jesus: one emphasizing probability and combining internal and external reasons, the other focusing on the life of Jesus. After analysing two distinct genre of New Testament testimonies, hymnic material, and appearances narratives, he treats the importance and function of the testimony not only as an avenue of openness to transcendence, but also as a key for the interpretation of the New Testament texts. He concludes with reflections on the nature of metaphor, historical reconstruction, hermeneutical interpretation, and the relations between the object and ground of faith.
The Bible, History, and Apologetics
Authors: Barr James
Published: October 2003

The appeal to history has been a traditional element in Christian apologetics; Christianity has been said to be ‘an historical religion’. But the historical character of the Bible has continued to create problems for many, and to have an effect on thinking about medical, social, and other universal questions.
Biblical Criticism
Authors: Barr James
Published: October 2003

Examples of severe contrast between historical criticism and ideological interpretation are discussed. Many other aspects, such as form criticism or redaction criticism, are added. Objectivity, once seen as a value, is now disdained as a power‐based ideology. Broadly speaking, scholarship, or some currents within it, has entered a ‘post‐modern’ phase.
Ideology
Authors: Barr James
Published: October 2003

In spite of its importance on the present scene of biblical study, it is far from clear what ‘ideology’ actually is. The term is often used pejoratively; but it is also possible to praise it and regard ideology as not only inevitable but also desirable. Moreover, are the thoughts of the biblical writers themselves ideology? Examples of contrary views are surveyed.
The Old Latin Gospels
Authors: Burton Philip
Published: October 2003

The term ’Old Latin’ (Vetus Latina) is conventionally applied to those forms of the Latin Bible that predate in origin the Vulgate of Jerome. They are preserved in two forms: in citations in the early Christian writers, and in various manuscripts dating over some 1000 years, from late antiquity to the high Middle Ages. This study particularly addresses the manuscript traditions of the four canonical Gospels, and seeks to answer three questions: How did the extant traditions come into being? What distinct techniques of translation can be identified? What is their relationship to the sort of language traditionally described as ’Late Latin’ or ’Vulgar Latin’? The work concludes with a comparison of the Old Latin translation techniques and those employed by Jerome in his revision.
Origins—The Gospel of John
Authors: Burton Philip
Published: October 2003

Are the textual relations in the Old Latin Gospel according to John similar to those in the Synoptic Gospels? How far is the presentation in Jülicher's Itala edition helpful?
Translation Technique
Authors: Burton Philip
Published: October 2003

An analysis of the conceptual framework for analysing the translation technique of the Old Latin Gospels. The terminology found in Cicero, Augustine, and Jerome is summarized, along with modern terms such as ’formal equivalence’ and ’dynamic equivalence’. An approach is adopted based on modern language‐contact studies.
Contextual Sensitivity
Authors: Burton Philip
Published: October 2003

An analysis of the extent to which the Old Latin Gospels are characterized by literalism, based on a study of the extent to which the translators will vary their translations of given terms according to context. Factors such as Latin idiom and theological nuance are discussed.
Derived Forms
Authors: Burton Philip
Published: October 2003

An analysis of the use of derivational morphology and of so‐called ’abstract nouns’ as a translation feature of the Old Latin Gospels. It is suggested that these are due in part to a desire for formal correspondence between Greek and Latin, in part to the general rise of such forms in late Latin and Romance, and in part to the tendency of translators to use high‐level (superordinate) terms in their target‐language.
Rare, Literary, and Technical Terms
Authors: Burton Philip
Published: October 2003

An analysis of the use of rare, obscure, and technical terms as a translation feature in the Old Latin Gospels. It is suggested that these forms need not be ’archaisms’ or ’vulgarisms’ (as is often suggested); the use of inappropriately precise and technical terms is a wider feature of translationese in general, and Biblical translation in particular.
Semantic Extensions
Authors: Burton Philip
Published: October 2003

An analysis of the treatment of semantic extension (semantic calquing) and specialization as a translation feature in the Old Latin Gospels. Particular attention is given to the development of specialized senses, to the influence of Septuagintal Greek, and questions of collocation.
Calques
Authors: Burton Philip
Published: October 2003

An analysis of the use of calques as a translation feature in the Old Latin Gospels. Particular attention is given to revival of archaic formations in order to create words that are well‐formed according to earlier Latin rather than late Latin practice.
Loan‐Words
Authors: Burton Philip
Published: October 2003

An analysis of the use of loan‐words in the Old Latin Gospels, both as a translation feature and as an index of their status in late Latin general. Particular attention is given to the semantic fields in which lexical borrowing is most likely; to the motivation for these loans; and to the degree of assimilation to native Latin phonology and morphology.
The Latinity
Authors: Burton Philip
Published: October 2003

Various theoretical frameworks are considered for the analysis of the language of the Old Latin Gospels, in particular ’Late Latin’, ’Vulgar Latin’, and ’Christian Sondersprache’. It is argued that Biblical Latin should be considered a distinct idiom, albeit one that draws on the language of its time and general cultural milieu.
Morphology and Syntax
Authors: Burton Philip
Published: October 2003

An analysis of the morphology and syntax of the Old Latin Gospels, and the extent to which they represent patterns characteristic of later and sub‐literary Latinm, and of the Romance languages. Particular consideration is given to the reorganization of the classical case‐ and gender‐systems, to the phenomena of defective and suppletive forms, and to the replacement of synthetic by periphrastic forms.
Narrative and Enlightenment: The Challenge of Postmodernism
Authors: Brown David
Published: October 2003

Examines the current debate between modernism and postmodernism in theology, and argues for a position between the two. In much contemporary theology, the modernism of the Enlightenment is given summary dismissal. That, it is argued, is wrong, not least because the Enlightenment insisted on openness and it is change and development that are integral to a tradition's life. Nonetheless, postmodernism also has its merits, though writers often fail to give the term clear conceptual definition, and so a particular version must first be identified before its merits can be assessed.
The Hermeneutics of Pentecost and Crib
Authors: Brown David
Published: October 2003

The Latin of John 19.30 (tradidit) is used to introduce the question of how the Spirit continues its work through a developing tradition. This is then explored at length in some of the reasons behind changing ways in which the nativity have been related in story and depicted in art. The claim is made that so deeply ingrained are these changes that few readers are now aware of how very differently the evangelists intended their narratives, but these changes can be defended.
Continuing Revelation: Learning from Judaism and Islam
Authors: Brown David
Published: October 2003

The first part of the chapter offers three arguments for insisting that any approach that automatically condemns post‐biblical developments will inevitably result in the condemnation of Scripture as well. The second part then suggests that Christianity should learn from Orthodox Judaism's and Islam's implicit acceptance of continuing revelation. In the case of the former, the role of haggadah and kabbalah is noted; in the case of the latter, the role of naskh, hadith, ijma, and qiyas.
Art as Revelation
Authors: Brown David
Published: October 2003

Explains how art can sometimes function as a stimulus towards changes in understanding of the nature of revelation. In the iconoclastic controversy, the incarnation was used to give a legitimacy to art that it had lacked within Scripture, while Romanesque sculpture has an openness that canonical writings lack in general. Most attention, though, is given to Gothic art's stress on the incarnation as identification with humanity, an emphasis conspicuous by its absence in the biblical canon.
German and Scandinavian Protestantism 1700-1918
Authors: Hope Nicholas
Published: October 2003

This book is the first history in English of the Lutheran Church in Germany and Scandinavia in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Beginning and ending in war, this period was of particular unease and upheaval for the Church. Attempts to emulate the spiritual community of the early Church, reform of the Church establishment and steps taken to enlighten parishioners were almost always held back by the anomalous structural legacy of the Reformation, tradition and parish habit, sacred and profane. The birth of the modern nation state and its market economy posed a fundamental challenge to the structure and ethos of the Reformation churches, as it did to the Catholic Church. The First World War deepened the crisis further.
Hard Times
Authors: Hope Nicholas
Published: October 2003

Opens with suffering and Lutheran spirituality in the Baltic region in the Great Northern War; analyses an unsettled extended family of Reformation church orders and rites (some 351: see Ch.r 8), which provide the arbitrary, complex, and controversial institutional framework in this book, and ends with a brief analysis of the diverse Reformation rite of public worship.
Consolidation of a Protestant Canon of Prayer
Authors: Hope Nicholas
Published: October 2003

Considers about the emergence of a new Protestant devotional canon (c.1550–1700). It shapes the practice of piety in the period covered by this book, and for this reason prefaces all of the following chapters. Discusses prayer as the practice of piety, printers and editions and the reception of Anglican and Puritan spirituality.
Parish Crisis in a Credulous World
Authors: Hope Nicholas
Published: October 2003

Looks at the way parishes and pastoral care coped in hard times (Ch. 1) in the interdependent German and Scandinavian churchscape of the Baltic region. Belief in divine intervention and superstition was commonplace. Propagation of the Gospel and teaching the catechism, also as a way of raising standards of literacy, attempted to stamp out parochial ignorance.
The Political Parish and 1648
Authors: Hope Nicholas
Published: October 2003

Deals with attempts to impose religious uniformity on the bizarre parish order created by historical accident and custom since the Reformation. This was frozen by the Westphalian peace, and its ethos lasted until 1918. The largest religious denomination in the home parish was favoured, since it owned the parish church. Specific to Germany was the simultaneous usage of a parish church by Lutheran and Catholic and Lutheran and Reformed parishioners.
Government of the Church‐State
Authors: Hope Nicholas
Published: October 2003

Examines authority in the interdependent church state conditioned by the customary arrangements described previously. Professionalization of government carried out by ‘new monarchy’ (1650–1750) moved from the Reformation custodianship towards modern state sovereignty. New too was the consolidation of a modern public law and a new Protestant canon law based on ‘collegialism’.
The Clergy
Authors: Hope Nicholas
Published: October 2003

Discusses a clergy training in university theology, analyses Lutheran ‘Orthodoxy’, in particular the controversial definition given by Pietism and the reformation of manners (c.1690–1730). Examines what was taught at grammar school and university, censorship of theological and religious books, and at clergy background and recruitment.
Cura Animarum Specialis: The Pastoral Office
Authors: Hope Nicholas
Published: October 2003

Addresses the reform of the rural and urban pastoral office in the context of the ‘practice of piety’, meaning individual spiritual renewal and better standards of pastoral care in parishes. Special attention is paid to Anglican, Puritan and Dutch Reformed influence. Lutheran ‘Pietism’ associated with the urban clergymen, Spener and Francke, and their disciples, follows as a movement of pastoral reform.
Reform
Authors: Hope Nicholas
Published: October 2003

Takes up the second theme of part I. Reform is put in the context of diocesan and parish visitation, land and people, propagation of the Gospel and a reformation of manners. Pietism is discussed as a post‐war official programme. The Christian Year in church and home, a new interest in the shape of the liturgy, a development in church architecture from Latin choir to congregational nave, and church music are major topics.
Towards an Apostolic Congregation in Church and Home
Authors: Hope Nicholas
Published: October 2003

Continues the theme of reform: here as an attempt to develop an active gathered congregation modelled consciously on the congregation of the New Testament and early Church. Spirituality, individual daily devotional exercise, homiletic reform and the introduction of a modern congregational hymn book are examined. A high vernacular replaced local dialect.
Herrnhut
Authors: Hope Nicholas
Published: October 2003

Looks at Herrnhut, ‘the Lord's keeping’, count Zinzendorf's first settlement (in English, ‘Moravians’), as a cheerful Protestant religion of the heart. It gave ordinary people in the town and the country a sense of dignity and purpose in life. Much was about etiquette and experiment. After the 1750 Moravian mission, using native languages was very successful in Scandinavia and in Estonia and Livonia, in defining ethnic identity.
Discussing Hymns: The State of the Art
Authors: Watson J. R.
Published: October 2003

Considers the traditional view of hymns as second‐rate literature, and the neglect of them by most literary critics, apart from Donald Davie and Lionel Adey. Hymns have been thought of as belonging to the church, rather than to the world. Church critics have not helped by concentrating on content and function in worship. There is a need to understand the form of hymns, and the inseparable nature of form and content (Bakhtin).
The Seventeenth‐Century Anglican Tradition
Authors: Watson J. R.
Published: October 2003

The development of hymns in the ‘Anglican’ tradition, as opposed to the dominant Puritanism of the time is discussed. The work of John Cosin, Samuel Crossman and John Mason is reviewed. The morning and evening hymns of Thomas Ken, Tate and Brady's metrical psalms (the ‘New Version’) are also discussed.
The Journey to Zion: Puritan Psalms and Hymns
Authors: Watson J. R.
Published: October 2003

The continuity of the metrical psalm tradition in writers such as William Barton and Francis Rous is reviewed. The metrical psalms of John Milton, the beginnings of hymn singing under the Baptist Benjamin Keach, the poems of Richard Baxter and John Bunyan, and the hymns of Joseph Stennett are also discussed.
After Watts
Authors: Watson J. R.
Published: October 2003

Discusses the hymns of Watts’ contemporaries, and those who were influenced by him. Reviews Joseph Addison and The Spectator; the response to Newtonian physics; and the continuity of the Dissenting tradition in the hymns of Philip Doddridge, Anne Steele, and Benjamin Beddome.
John and Charles Wesley
Authors: Watson J. R.
Published: October 2003

Discusses the early hymns of the Methodist revival, beginning with John Wesley's translations from the German. Reviews John Wesley's work as an editor, culminating in his 1780 ‘Large Hymn Book’ and the response of the Methodists to the problems of the time in Charles Wesley's hymns.
Charles Wesley and His Art
Authors: Watson J. R.
Published: October 2003

Talks about Charles Wesley's use of the Bible, the Book of Common Prayer, the psalms, and other sources. Reviews his adaptation of other poets, such as Milton, Young, and Popeand the techniques of his hymn writing.
Victorian Women Hymn‐Writers
Authors: Watson J. R.
Published: October 2003

Discusses the woman writer, and hymn writing as an acceptable occupation for women; the character of this writing, and examples of it from Charlotte Elliott, Sarah Flower Adams, and Cecil Frances Alexander; Frances Ridley Harvergal and her enthusiasm. Also talks about Dora Greenwell and the single woman; Anna Laetitia Waring; the Brontë sisters.; Christina Rossetti.
The Coronation: Reflections on the Allegiance of the Clergy
Authors: McManners John
Published: October 2003

The coronation ceremony of Louis XVI in 1775, described in detail, illustrates the sacred character of the French monarchy and the interdependence of Church and State. The multitudinous official ceremonies of the ancien régime, notably the Te Deums, celebrating victories and happy events in the royal family, and the intercessionary processions ordered by the clergy, made the same points. But the criticism of the ceremony by lawyers and anticlericals indicates the continuing debates about the role of the Church in relation to the restraints differentiating the absolute monarchy from despotism. Throughout the eighteenth century, the lawyers in the Parlements had disputed with clerical spokesmen over whether the Parlements or the Church constituted the principal intermediary power between king and people. The Church defended its rights and privileges on traditional grounds, but some writers also made unconvincing attempts to justify them with arguments based on Enlightenment principles.
The General Assemblies of the Clergy and Clerical Taxation
Authors: McManners John
Published: October 2003

The general assemblies of the clergy, dominated by the bishops, voted taxation to the crown, presented remonstrances to the king, and also (in the absence of a general council of the church) made doctrinal and disciplinary pronouncements. The assemblies effectively upheld the privileges of the clergy, aided by an efficient bureaucracy created for the collection of taxes. The occasion of granting supply allowed the presentation of the grievances of the Gallican Church arising from the complex and often unjust system of the assessment of the tax burden. Debates about taxation were endless; provinces annexed to the kingdom since 1561 enjoyed a different tax regime; arguments were constant about the array of minor taxes owed in certain circumstances; and some institutions built up heavy tax arrears. Lay complaints about clerical exemption from ‘ordinary’ taxation were constant and vocal, but overall assessments of the amount of tax paid by the Church reveals a considerable increase in the course of the century.
The Bishops: Aristocratic Vocations
Authors: McManners John
Published: October 2003

Bishops were appointed by the crown, and the vast majority were drawn from the aristocracy. Connections at court were very useful for those seeking appointments, while noble families would place one of their younger sons in the Church. Young noblemen destined for ecclesiastical careers had to qualify themselves for selection by pursuing university studies at the Sorbonne to the grade of licence, often supplemented by study at the seminary of St Sulpice, and then by serving an apprenticeship in diocesan administration as a grand vicaire.
Collaborators of the Curé
Authors: McManners John
Published: October 2003

Most curés, especially in rural areas, were poorly housed in presbyteries provided by the parish, but enjoyed the indispensable aid of a housekeeper. In larger parishes he may have had the help of one or more vicaires, but there were no general rules governing this. Supernumerary priests known as prêtres habitués were to be found everywhere, either as individuals or organized in small communities, but their existence was increasingly seen as an abuse by the church authorities, and their numbers declined steadily over the century.
The Religious Vocation and Social Usefulness: Men
Authors: McManners John
Published: October 2003

Monastic houses were valued for the employment they provided, which could be of vital importance in poor regions, while monks had time to pursue all manner of interests, which could be of social utility. Other functions included the provision of charity and the running of hospitals and maisons de force. The collèges of the teaching orders educated the sons of nobles and bourgeois, with the Oratorians and Doctrinaires replacing the Jesuits in the leading role, while in the later eighteenth century, individual religious set up pensionnats for less well‐off boys. The Frères des Écoles Chrétiennes provided a unique blend of vocationally orientated education combined with strict religious orthodoxy.
Abbés
Authors: McManners John
Published: October 2003

The word ‘abbé’ was extended to cover nominal churchmen, with the tonsure as a minimum clerical qualification, who held abbatial revenues in commendam, or in an even wider sense, to designate clerics living off the Church without working for it. In the novels, correspondence, and memoirs of the age these abbés on the margins of the Church became a stereotype of dubious and opportunistic adventurers. Some, especially those hanging around the royal court, fitted the stereotype, while many others used the leisure provided by their sinecures, or else built on their meagre incomes by publishing literary works of all kinds. In so doing, some prominent abbés made noteworthy contributions to Enlightenment thought, while others defended Catholic doctrine against Enlightened attacks.
Sermons
Authors: McManners John
Published: October 2003

The people of eighteenth‐century France could attend ‘sermons innumerable’, not only at religious festivals but also for every civic and national occasion. An abundance of technical advice and models to follow were available to preachers, imposing length and structure and suggesting how to fulfil the needs and desires of audiences, using sermons written out in advance and learnt by heart. It was agreed that the reign of Louis XIV had been the great age of the sermon, making a direct appeal to the heart, but the eighteenth century did not produce great orators to rival those of the late seventeenth. As the century wore on, the principal tendency came to be to concentrate on questions of morality and humanitarian generosity, reflecting both the influence of the Enlightenment and of the Counter‐Reformation desire to bring conduct into line with belief.
Confraternities
Authors: McManners John
Published: October 2003

The multitude of confraternities of different kinds, particularly numerous in the South, bound people together both for religious purposes and for cooperation and sociability, and their ‘picturesque diversity’ was such that it baffles generalization. Trade guilds were religious as well as secular organizations but tending to become more secular. The standard types of confraternity found in most parishes would include a sort of vestry guild taking care of the liturgical requirements of the church, one confraternity dedicated to collecting money for charitable purposes, and another, a devotional one, concerned with preparation for death. The Pénitents of southern France were a special case, ostensibly devoted to the disciplining of life in preparation for death, but in practice organizations of sociability and fellowship. The reforming clergy considered the confraternity type of organization ideal as an instrument for evangelism and moral improvement, as is shown most notably by the secret organization known as the ‘Aa’ and by the Jesuit lay congregations.
Sexual Passion
Authors: McManners John
Published: October 2003

Clerical moralists looked upon sexual desire as the most dangerous of the passions, and most continued to preach an impractical and repressive rigorism throughout the eighteenth century. Their hatred of prostitution was ‘uncompromising and relentless’; an attitude shared in theory by the secular authorities, though in practice straightforward repression was impossible and prostitution was regulated and controlled, often by unofficial means. A shift in attitude is discernible in the Church's dealing with prostitutes, moving from the mere imposition of penance towards attempts at reform. The attitude of casuists to premarital sex was again theoretically severe. Illegitimacy rate rose during the century, but remained low outside the major cities as a result of social pressures as much as religious indoctrination. Clerical distrust of sexual desire extended to relationships within marriage, with much repetition of advice of the most austere kind. However, contraception, mostly by coitus interruptus, spread widely, starting among the elite and in the towns, and more liberal attitudes were beginning to become more prevalent in the late eighteenth century.
The Fall of the Jesuits
Authors: McManners John
Published: October 2003

The events leading to the expulsion of the Jesuits from France in 1765 took place against the background of a rising tide of public hostility to the Society of Jesus. Their traditional enemies within the Church joined with Enlightenment thinkers and a broad swathe of public opinion to accuse them of an unlimited will to power. They were accused of complicity in Damiens's attempt on the king's life; their relatively relaxed moral teachings were seen as an attempt to gain influence among the elite; and the financial misdeeds of father Lavalette in the West Indies provided the parlement of Paris with a line of attack. As the provincial parlements joined in the attack, the crown and the Jesuits’ friends in the Church failed to defend them properly. The suppression of the order in France was not as brutal as the earlier expulsion from Portugal and many ex‐Jesuits found comfortable niches in society. Once the Jansenists had overcome the Jesuits, they lost their own relevance on the political and religious scene: by expelling the Jesuits, the Jansenists ‘defined themselves out of existence’.
The Huguenots: The Great Persecution
Authors: McManners John
Published: October 2003

Discusses the erosion of the rights of the Calvinist minority in seventeenth‐century France, setting the scene for Church and State policy and the struggle for toleration in the eighteenth century. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes by Louis XIV in 1685 was the culmination of a long process of harassment of the Huguenots and restriction of their rights. They had to face the persistent ill will of fanatical Catholics, including lawyers; the Church consistently called for harsh measures; and the crown resorted to all manner of chicanery to obtain conversions. The revocation damaged France economically and the country lost population. It bequeathed to the eighteenth century large numbers of insincere converts of Catholicism, with many remaining Protestants in their hearts and others drifting towards having no religion at all.
The Political Role of the Bishops
Authors: McManners John
Published: October 2003

As the crisis of the ancien régime developed amidst plans to reform the parlous condition of state finances, bishops were called upon to play a political role in the various assemblies called to vote money for the crown. The Assembly of the Gallican Church in 1785 was preoccupied above all with the preservation of clerical fiscal privileges, while in the Assembly of Notables of 1787, the 15 bishops coordinated opposition to the money‐raising schemes of the director‐general of finances, Calonne. When Calonne was replaced by the archbishop of Toulouse, Loménie de Brienne, the new director‐general promised to uphold the clergy's privileges but proposed wide‐ranging new taxes, meeting universal opposition. Bishops presided over the provincial assemblies that were supposed to vote the new taxes, but could do little to overcome the opposition. The Assemblies of the Clergy continued to defend their privileges while also claiming to ‘speak for the nation’ in affirming the traditional limits on royal power and calling for regular sessions to oversee expenditure. When Loménie de Brienne's decision to call an Estates General opened up a Pandora's Box of complaints and ideas, the bishops presiding at provincial Estates could do nothing to control events.
The Revolt of the Curés
Authors: McManners John
Published: October 2003

As the only members of the clerical estate in regular contact with the people, many curés throughout the eighteenth century had protested against social injustice and of the abuses of nobles, of the monopolists, and others who obstructed the proper distribution of food to the poor. They also had their own grievances within the Church, demanding a greater say in diocesan affairs, and raising issues, which by mid‐century had moved from theory to practicalities involving the persecution of Jansenists and the parlous financial condition of ordinary parish priests. In the cahiers de doléance and Estates General of 1789, radical curés joined in the attack on aristocratic privilege, and their requests for justice for themselves gained the support of lay propagandists. Curés elected to the Estates General, took a major part in debates and came to consider themselves as ‘members of the First Order where the interests of the Gallican Church were concerned, and of the Third when the interests of the nation were at stake’.
English Works of John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester
Authors: Fisher John
Published: October 2003

John Fisher (1469–1535), appointed bishop of Rochester by Henry VII, was one of the most distinguished churchmen and humanists of the early sixteenth century and Reformation period. A friend of Erasmus’, he introduced the study of Greek and Hebrew to the University of Cambridge, of which he was Chancellor, and was beheaded by Henry VIII for his opposition to the Act of Supremacy. He was a notable preacher and author of the first sermon‐sequence to be printed in English. This edition contains introductions and a critical commentary to the English writings of the last 15 years of Fisher's life, including his two anti‐Lutheran sermons, pastoral sermons, and devotional works composed while he was a prisoner in the Tower of London.
Valuing and Prostituting Women: Equality and Mary Magdalene
Authors: Brown David
Published: October 2003

Challenges two common modern positions on past treatments of women within the Christian tradition, that sexual equality is already present in the New Testament and that attitudes in the later Church, typified by Mary Magdalene as the representative sinner, represented a decline. In place of the former an alternative approach to the justification of sexual equality is canvassed, while many positive features in the western composite figure of Mary Magdalene are noted.
Heaven and the Defeat of the Beast: Social Aspects of Discipleship
Authors: Brown David
Published: October 2003

The first part of the chapter considers some of the positive reasons why heaven as a present reality came to supplement and even supplant eschatology as a purely future concept. Thereafter, consideration is given to the question of why, if modern Christianity is right to discount the idea of hell as a place of eternal punishment, it nonetheless was allowed by God to survive in Christian consciousness for so long. In seeking an answer, the rituals of death, the invention of purgatory, and images of Satan and the Last Judgement are explored at some length, the discussion concluding with note being taken of how the contrasting images of Leviathan and of the Unicorn also contributed to this overall picture.
Mary and Virgin Promise
Authors: Brown David
Published: October 2003

Two competing ways of understanding Mary's role are observed in the New Testament, one of her as a purely passive instrument of promise and the other (more hidden) as a struggling disciple. The doctrine of the immaculate conception is seen as the illegitimate culmination of the former trend and that of the assumption as an appropriate terminus of the latter. A number of secondary themes are also explored, such as the impact of inadequate christologies (both ancient and modern) and the use of virginity to effect freedom for women.
Posing Pilate's Question: Truth and Fiction
Authors: Brown David
Published: October 2003

The first half of the chapter explores various ways in which fictive forms such as the novel, poetry, and art can all lay claim to truth, and indeed at a level sometimes more profound than the nearest factual equivalent. The eight criteria for legitimate development or otherwise that have been employed through the two volumes are then briefly summarized.