bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A life course approach to musculoskeletal ageing: muscle strength, osteoporosis, and osteoarthritis
Authors: Bassey Joan , Sayer Avan Aihie , Cooper Cyrus , Cauley Jane
Published: September 2009

This chapter reviews the development and aging of three key components of the musculoskeletal system (muscle, bone, and cartilage), and considers their consequences for adult disease. Musculoskeletal disorders are an important cause of morbidity and functional impairment in the general population. They are strongly age-related, and tend to occur more frequently among women than men. For the three important causes of musculoskeletal disability(age-related declines in muscle strength; osteoporosis; and osteoarthritis) evidence now exists to suggest aetiological factors acting throughout the life course.
Depression and psychological distress: a life course perspective
Authors: Maughan Barbara , Rodgers Bryan
Published: September 2009

Biological, psychological, and social factors contribute to risk for depressive disorders. Understanding how they combine, their relative salience at different stages in the life course, and why women are at such markedly increased risk constitute significant challenges for research. This chapter provides an overview of recent evidence on these three related themes. It begins by sketching in epidemiological findings on changing rates and gender ratios in depressive disorders from childhood to older age, highlighting the periods when women's increased vulnerability first emerges, and when it appears to decline. It then examines the main domains of risk for depressive conditions, exploring how far men and women differ in exposure or susceptibility to risks that affect both sexes, or whether some gender-specific risks may be involved. Throughout, it highlights the differing pathways through which individual vulnerabilities, childhood adversities and later stressors have been argued to combine in the genesis of depression.
Social and economic trajectories and women’s health
Authors: Bartley Mel , Sacker Amanda , Schoon Ingrid , Hunt Kate
Published: September 2009

This chapter describes some of the complexity and change in women's lives, and proposes an approach to the study of socioeconomic and psychosocial pathways through the life course, as precursors of physical and mental health outcomes. The first section outlines what is known about women's socioeconomic life trajectories: the relationship between social origins and destinations, labour force participation, and their relationship to marriage and child rearing. The second section describes a theoretical and methodological approach to the analysis of the life course that takes account of social structure and changing individual characteristics over time.
A life course perspective on women’s health behaviours
Authors: Schooling Mary , Kuh Diana , Graham Hilary
Published: September 2009

Adult behaviours such as smoking, alcohol consumption, diet, and exercise are sources of risk for many chronic diseases and the need to change unhealthy behaviours remains a key aspect of health promotion policies. The difficulty of changing adult behaviours has led to a growing interest in the origins and development of individual behaviours and healthy lifestyles. An interdisciplinary life course perspective seeks to integrate into a broad developmental framework alternative approaches to the study of health behaviour which currently focus either on individual characteristics or on the social context. This chapter reviews evidence for the long-term effects of the childhood social environment on adult behaviour and for role modelling and behavioural tracking, pathways through which behaviours are conventionally thought to be initiated and maintained into adult life.
Overweight and obesity from a life course perspective
Authors: Power Chris , Parsons Tessa , Dietz William H.
Published: September 2009

This chapter examines the causes of obesity among women from a life course perspective. It emphasizes factors that affect a woman's vulnerability to obesity, particularly those from childhood since it is suspected that obesity risk starts early in life. Although only a brief outline is provided on the consequences of obesity, here too several life stages are involved.
The life course of Black women in South Africa in the 1990s: generation, age, and period in the decade of HIV and political liberation
Authors: Stein Zena , Karim Quarraisha Abdool , Susser Mervyn , Ben-Shlomo Yoav , Smith George Davey
Published: September 2009

This chapter describes elements of the transition to liberal democracy over the past decade for two birth cohorts of women in South Africa. It also considers the HIV epidemic. The focus is on the comparative effects of the political, social, and epidemic changes on the life course experience of those born in the 1950s and the 1970s.
The activities of a clinical trial
Authors: Meinert Curtis L. , Tonascia Susan
Published: September 2009

This chapter discusses the activities in a clinical trial. Topics covered include the stages of a clinical trial, division of responsibilities, and the approaches to ensure orderly transition of activities.
Coordinating and other resource centers in multicenter trials
Authors: Meinert Curtis L. , Tonascia Susan
Published: September 2009

This chapter focuses on coordinating centers because of their key role in multicenter trials. The coordinating center, or data coordinating center when there are separate coordinating centers for data collection and treatment, will be among the first to be funded and the last to cease operations when the trial is completed. In fact, the coordinating center may operate after the trial is terminated if post-trial follow-up is required.
Sample size and power estimates
Authors: Meinert Curtis L. , Tonascia Susan
Published: September 2009

This chapter discusses the role of sample size and power estimates in planning a trial. It details the methods for making such calculations in trials involving fixed sample designs.
Randomization and the mechanics of treatment masking
Authors: Meinert Curtis L. , Tonascia Susan
Published: September 2009

A valid trial requires a method for assigning patients to a test or control treatment that is free of selection bias. The best method for ensuring bias-free selection is a bona fide randomization scheme. This chapter discusses the principles and practices to be followed in administering the randomization schedule.
Preparatory steps in executing the study plan
Authors: Meinert Curtis L. , Tonascia Susan
Published: September 2009

This chapter outlines the steps required in executing the trial, with emphasis on the steps to be carried out in getting started. Topics discussed include essential approvals and clearances, approval maintenance, developing study handbooks and manuals of operations, testing data collection procedures, developing and testing the data management system, training and certification, and phased approach to data collection.
Patient follow-up, close-out, and post-trial follow-up
Authors: Meinert Curtis L. , Tonascia Susan
Published: September 2009

This chapter discusses the steps involved in patient follow-up, close-out, and post-trial follow-up. Topics covered include the maintenance of investigator and patient interest during follow-up, losses to the follow-up, close-out of patient follow-up, termination stage, and post-trial patient follow-up.
Funding the trial
Authors: Meinert Curtis L. , Tonascia Susan
Published: September 2009

An essential step in the execution of a trial is the acquisition of funding to carry it out. The approach taken is influenced by whether the investigator or sponsor is responsible for initiating the trial. This chapter details the nature of funding vehicles for clinical trials, with emphasis of National Institutes of Health (NIH) grants and contracts.
Essential management functions and responsibilities
Authors: Meinert Curtis L. , Tonascia Susan
Published: September 2009

This chapter presents an outline of the general principles and practices to be followed in managing a trial. Topics covered include management requirements, management deficiencies, patient safety monitoring, advisory-review functions, committee procedures, preferred separation of responsibilities and functions, and special management issues.
Committee structures of multicenter trials
Authors: Meinert Curtis L. , Tonascia Susan
Published: September 2009

This chapter discusses a number of practical issues concerned with the formation and operation of committee structures.
Preparation of the study publication
Authors: Meinert Curtis L. , Tonascia Susan
Published: September 2009

This chapter outlines the content requirements of a finished report and the steps involved in the preparation of such reports. Topics discussed include preparatory steps, content suggestions, internal review and submission, and acceptance and publication.
Locating and reading published reports
Authors: Meinert Curtis L. , Tonascia Susan
Published: September 2009

This chapter presents a review of methods for locating reports of trials in the published literature. It also contains a list of points a leader should consider when reading a report. It closes with a discussion of the responsibilities of persons who critique study publications.
Introduction
Authors: EVANS TIMOTHY , WHITEHEAD MARGARET , DIDERICHSEN FINN , BHUIYA ABBAS , WIRTH MEG
Published: September 2009

This chapter introduces the issue of unacceptable disparities in health that exist between different groups within societies: between poor, middle-income and rich groups, between urban and rural, and between black and white/ethnic populations within countries. It sets the scene for the rest of the book by outlining the meaning of “health equity” and its converse, “inequities in health”; why the issue is considered a major challenge to public health, and how countries could go about measuring and tackling observed inequities. It draws on evidence in the subsequent chapters from thirteen countries around the globe. The challenge, as seen throughout this book, is not merely the promotion of health, but a fair chance for all to achieve it.
Health Equity in a Globalizing World
Authors: CHEN LINCOLN C. , BERLINGUER GIOVANNI
Published: September 2009

This chapter explores the concept of globalization and makes an assessment of its potential influence on health and equity. It considers growing concerns about the impact of globalization on inequities in health. The chapter does not argue whether globalization is intrinsically good or bad or whether we should nurture or impede it. Rather, it accepts that globalization is a reality, not a choice. A more pertinent question concerns the direction of globalization. What type of globalization is good or bad for human health? How are the globalizing processes that are underway to be confronted and used for, rather than against, the promotion of health equity?
Measuring Disparities in Health: Methods and Indicators
Authors: ANAND SUDHIR , DIDERICHSEN FINN , EVANS TIMOTHY , SHKOLNIKOV VLADIMIR M. , WIRTH MEG
Published: September 2009

This chapter explores critical issues related to the measurement of health equity. It notes that without reliable data on disparities in health, policy makers and populations are less equipped to demand change and monitor progress. The chapter provides a comprehensive approach to the measurement of inequity. It outlines five basic considerations in the choice of health measures, highlighting the ways that assumptions can affect the magnitude and assessment of a given health disparity. A range of measures—new and old, simple and complex—for assessing intergroup and interindividual inequalities in health are reviewed. It outlines methods of measurement and suggests indicators for making assessments in both data-poor and data-rich countries.
China: Increasing Health Gaps in a Transitional Economy
Authors: LIU YUANLI , RAO KEQIN , EVANS TIMOTHY , CHEN YUDE , HSIAO WILLIAM C.
Published: September 2009

China's outstanding health achievements before the 1980s and rapid economic growth over the past decade are well documented. Less well known, however, is the impact of the transition from a socialist to a market economy on overall health development and equity in health and health care. This chapter presents an analysis of inequities in health in China, covering inter-regional and gender inequities in adult life expectancy at an individual and an ecological level. It addresses the overarching question of whether economic growth has yielded improved health status for all, or only for some. The chapter ends with a consideration of the policy implications of their findings.
South Africa: Addressing the Legacy of Apartheid
Authors: GILSON LUCY , MCINTYRE DI
Published: September 2009

This chapter traces the legacy of the apartheid system in South Africa, pointing out draconian social and economic policies and their ramifications for the health of different groups in the population. The high infant mortality level and nearly fivefold disparity in infant mortality rates between richer and poorer ethnic groups in the population are but two of the most obvious health impacts. South Africa is now trying to deal with the legacy of apartheid by developing policies with explicit equity objectives. The chapter takes a critical stance as to whether the government's policies are sufficient to redress the inequities of the past. In particular, it questions the potential impact of the macroeconomic restructuring and what must be done to develop a effective health equity monitoring system for such overarching policies.
Kenya: Uncovering the Social Determinants of Road Traffic Accidents
Authors: NANTULYA VINAND M. , MULI-MUSIIME FLORENCE
Published: September 2009

Road traffic accidents are a burgeoning public health problem worldwide. Globally, the problem is ranked ninth among the major causes of mortality and disability, forecast to rise to third position by the year 2020. Africa has experienced a rapid growth in this cause of death. In the Kenyan analysis of road traffic accidents, this chapter takes a creative approach to analyzing policy issues in the transport and road safety sectors. It debunks the myth of purely behavioral explanations for the growing burden of road traffic accidents in Kenya. It points instead to systematic corruption, inadequate labor protection, and lack of alternatives for low-income passengers as root causes of the problem. Rather than fall back on putative and ineffective efforts to influence driver behavior through crippling fines, the chapter recommends a variety of policies aimed at engaging stakeholders and tackling the structural antecedents of the problem.
Health Care Financing: Assessing Its Relationship to Health Equity
Authors: HSIAO WILLIAM C. , LIU YUANLI
Published: September 2009

This chapter on health care financing introduces financing as one aspect of the health system that affects health equity. The configuration of financing, defined as both mobilization of financial resources and the allocation of those resources to the population, will affect health outcomes in two important ways. First, it determines, in part, the availability of health care and who has access to it. Second, it dictates the degree of financial protection offered against catastrophic costs of illness. It is argued that although financing issues often tend to dominate debates and prescriptions for health systems reform, methods of financing are but one aspect of a broad health system that involves institutions, policies, and human resources.
Vietnam: Efficient, Equity-Oriented Financial Strategies for Health
Authors: HUNG PHAM MANH , DZUNG TRUONG VIET , DAHLGREN GÖRAN , TUAN TRAN
Published: September 2009

This chapter provides a unique look at policymakers' commitment to equity in health in the face of multiple political and economic pressures. The Vietnamese have had a traditional focus on equity, early on creating an impressive health infrastructure that extended throughout the country. Vietnam's overall health performance in terms of life expectancy is remarkably high given its level of economic development. In 1989, however, the legislature implemented Doi Moi (meaning change to the new), resulting in privatization of trade and social services (including health), and the opening up of markets. Cuts in public spending and introduction of user fees for public services were part of this prescription. Faced with these challenges, the chapter presents policymakers' approaches to developing a health financing system that would be both equitable and efficient.
Study Background, Rationale, and Participating Agencies
Authors: Pecora Peter J. , Kessler Ronald C. , Williams Jason , Downs A. Chris , English Diana J. , White James , O'Brien Kirk
Published: September 2009

This chapter begins by presenting data on the number of youth in care in the United States and how long they receive services. Next come a description of family foster care and a summary of the expectations of care. Then findings from foster care studies, research limitations, and the financial costs of providing care are presented. Conclusions about foster care are then drawn, followed by the rationale of the Northwest Alumni Study. The chapter concludes with a brief description of each chapter of this book. Quotes from alumni are included in this chapter and throughout the other book chapters to provide a first-person context; these were taken from interviewers' notes.
Risk Factors
Authors: Pecora Peter J. , Kessler Ronald C. , Williams Jason , Downs A. Chris , English Diana J. , White James , O'Brien Kirk
Published: September 2009

This chapter summarizes the risk factors for adverse adult outcomes that Northwest alumni faced before or during care. These included the number of places lived before foster care, parents' health and criminal problems, and abuse/neglect. In this volume, the term risk factors refers to those descriptors, aside from demographic variables, largely in effect before the alumni entered foster care and certainly before they became eligible for the study. Thus, risk factors are here differentiated from factors the agencies could likely control or influence. This chapter presents prevalence data on many risk factors that will later be associated with outcomes and will later be used as controls before examining the relationship between foster care experiences and outcomes. This chapter provides the context for experiences that placed alumni at risk for poor long-term outcomes.
Effects of Optimizing the Foster Care Experience on Outcomes
Authors: Pecora Peter J. , Kessler Ronald C. , Williams Jason , Downs A. Chris , English Diana J. , White James , O'Brien Kirk
Published: September 2009

Child welfare administrators and practitioners want to know which aspects of service delivery to target to improve long-term success for youth in care. One way to address this issue is to ask “What outcomes would be achieved had alumni received an ideal (optimal) level of care?” To examine this question, statistical simulations were conducted to estimate the degree to which optimizing foster care experiences would affect alumni outcomes. Optimization analyses were designed to estimate decreases in undesirable outcomes not increases in desirable outcomes. Each of the seven foster care experience areas was optimized: (1) Placement History, (2) Educational Services and Experience, (3) Therapeutic Service and Supports, (4) Activities with Foster Family, (5) Preparation for Leaving Care, (6) Leaving Care Resources, and (7) Foster Family and Other Nurturing Support While in Care
Wine and Conversation
Authors: Lehrer Adrienne
Published: September 2009

The vocabulary of wine is large and exceptionally vibrant—from straight-forward descriptive words like “sweet” and “fragrant”, colorful metaphors like “ostentatious” and “brash”, to the more technical lexicon of biochemistry. The world of wine vocabulary is growing alongside the current popularity of wine itself, particularly as new words are employed by professional wine writers, who not only want to write interesting prose, but avoid repetition and cliché. The question is: what do these words mean? Can they actually reflect the objective characteristics of wine, and can two drinkers really use and understand these words in the same way? This book explores whether or not wine drinkers (both novices and experts) can in fact understand wine words in the same way. The conclusion, based on experimental results, is no. Even though experts do somewhat better than novices in some experiments, they tend to do well only on wines on which they are carefully trained and/or with which they are very familiar. Does this mean that the elaborate language we use to describe wine is essentially a charade? This book shows that although scientific wine writing requires a precise and shared use of language, drinking wine and talking about it in casual, informal setting with friends is different, and the conversational goals include social bonding as well as communicating information about the wine. The book also shows how language innovation and language play, clearly seen in the names of new wines and wineries, as well as wine descriptors, is yet another influence on the burgeoning and sometimes whimsical world of wine vocabulary.
1 Wine Words
Authors: Lehrer Adrienne
Published: September 2009

The large and growing wine vocabulary is analyzed into its major categories: acidity, sweetness, balance, age, astringency, body, nose, finish, effervescence, and evaluation. The vocabulary of most categories have an evaluative as well as descriptive components, where negative words either have too much or too little of the property described, whereas the positive words have the right amount. A thin has too little body while a coarse wine has too much. Both delicate and full-bodied are positive descriptors for describing body. Many words are only evaluative, and these can be divided into those of high praise, low praise, mild derogation, and strong derogation. There are also numerous metaphorical descriptors based on personality and character, such as vivacious, assertive, and aggressive.
2 Extending the Vocabulary
Authors: Lehrer Adrienne
Published: September 2009

Wine vocabularies can be extended morphologically by adding suffixes such as –y, –ish, –ic, –ful or –ous to nouns to construct adjectives: woody, stylish, metallic, graceful, and harmonious. More commonly, however, new wine descriptors are added by extending the meanings of words from other semantic fields. A wine can be sharp, meaning that it causes an intense taste sensation, just as a sharp object can cause an intense feeling sensation. Many metaphorical words are used to describe the texture, strength, and age of wines. Descriptors like feminine and masculine can be interpreted by their associations with standard wine descriptors. A feminine wine is light, perfumed, and delicate; a masculine is big, heavy, and possibly rough.
5 Evaluating Wines: Scoring Systems
Authors: Lehrer Adrienne
Published: September 2009

Judging and evaluating wine are an important part of the wine world, especially the marketing part. Traditional scoring systems were based on a 20-point scale. One of the most influential was the Davis score card, in which points were deducted for defects. Only 2 points were given for general quality. Another 20-point system is the Roseworthy score card, developed in Australia. More recently a 100-point scoring system, introduced by Robert M. Parker, has become popular, and many wine critics have adopted it. (However, the scale starts at 50.) McCoy remarks that the popularity for American consumers is that it is similar to school grades.
6 Semantic Analysis
Authors: Lehrer Adrienne
Published: September 2009

A semantic theory must account for both how words are related to other words (intralinguistic connections) and how words connect to the world. Semantic field theory, which is appropriate for intralinguistic relations, is applied to wine words in this chapter. The semantic relationships most commonly found among wine descriptors are synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy (class inclusion), and incompatibility. Association, a weaker connection, also plays a role in understanding words. Four classes of descriptors are discussed: natural kind terms, gradable adjectives, evaluative words, and metaphors. The role of experts is discussed, but there are different kinds of wine experts, not all of whom use the same terminology. For example, wine writers use and generate metaphors (brawny, decadent) which the wine scientists consider silly or meaningless.
10 The Davis Subjects
Authors: Lehrer Adrienne
Published: September 2009

The Davis subjects were wine science experts, either graduate students or research staff in the department of or research staff Viticulture and Enology at the University of California at Davis. Tasks were identical to those carried out by previous subjects. Subjects showed more consensus than previous groups, mainly on California wines, on which they had considerable experience. Their tasting strategy was to identify the varietal and describe it in terms of typical characteristics. But they did no better than non-experts on unfamiliar wines since subjects either could not identify the type or misidentified it. John Reid, one of the subjects, carried out his own matching experiment later, using premium California wines, and the subjects did outstanding well in matching wines with a partner's descriptions.
11 Later Experiments
Authors: Lehrer Adrienne
Published: September 2009

Subsequent to the publication of Wine and Conversation (1983), one more wine study was carried out, which was to determine if subjects could re-identify wines with their own previous descriptions. The performance of the group of subjects on the matching task was no better than chance. Other researchers also continued these experiments, sometimes using the same methods and/or adding new paradigms. Harry Lawless and Gregg Solomon found that experts performed statistically better than non-experts on matching tasks, but not always impressively better. Roman Weil's asked subjects to match wines with those of descriptions by famous wine critics, and his results were consistent with those of the author' study. In Germany, Christiane von Herder-Dahrendorf and Christiane Raphael conducted experiments exclusively with experts, but found that they did not achieve greater consensus that the author of this book did with non-experts.
13 Functions of Language
Authors: Lehrer Adrienne
Published: September 2009

Classifications of the functions of language reflect the interests and goals of the one classifying. Most utterances serve more than one function, and communication includes more than transferring information. Speech act taxonomies highlight illocutionary acts, for example, constatives, directives, commissives, and acknowledgments. Other taxonomies, such as Halliday's, divide functions into referential-informational, interpersonal, and textual. Jacobson's system adds aesthetic and phatic functions. Phatic communion, a term from Malinowski, serves to create social bonds.
14 The Development of Scientific Language
Authors: Lehrer Adrienne
Published: September 2009

The treatment of language by philosophers has been biased toward scientific language, requiring precision in reference, denotation, and truth conditions. Scientific language, however, is special, and most conversation does not require such precision. Wine scientists, especially enologists writing scientific articles, must agree on terminology if communication is to succeed. Ann Noble, among others, has developed olfactory standards so that others can learn to discriminate and label accurately.
16 Snobs, Anti-Snobs, and Marketing
Authors: Lehrer Adrienne
Published: September 2009

Wine culture, according to Robert Fuller, shares features with popular religion: a special vocabulary, ritualized behaviors, and ceremonies. Although wine drinking has become popular, there are still elements of elitism. Wine marketing sometimes uses snob appeal, but just as often makes fun of snobbery. Names of wines and wineries has become colorful and entertaining, partly to attract customers, but also as a larger part of the word-play in contemporary advertising. Many wines and wineries use animal names (Yellowtail, Black Swan, Funky Llama), and some are puns, like Bored Doe. Although choosing wines to complement food has always been a concern, greater attention and specificity has recently been applied to food-wine pairings; not just red wine with meat, but a Australian Shiraz with grilled rib lamb chops marinated in a mustard cream sauce.
17 What Else Is Like Wine Description?
Authors: Lehrer Adrienne
Published: September 2009

The concept of tasting notes has spread from wine to other beverages, especially beer, coffee, and tea. There are descriptions such as "aromas of dark chocolate, flowers, and graham crackers" that could apply to any of these beverages. Food like chocolate and cheese can also be described by a specialized vocabulary. Descriptions of perfume show many parallels to wine descriptions, and a fragrance wheel has been constructed. The language of music criticism can be added. Word for describing people also show similarity with wine words. Many are evaluative terms are evaluative as well as descriptive. To be thrifty is positive; to be stingy is not.
18 Conclusion
Authors: Lehrer Adrienne
Published: September 2009

This chapter summarizes the main discussions of the book outlining the topics of the three parts of the books. Part I dealt with wine words and the extensive wine lexicon that has emerged. Part II reported on the experiments conducted which interestingly showed that the nonexpert and even some expert wine drinkers generally did not agree on wine descriptions and often did not form a consensus on wines. Part III dealt with the functions of language and certain aspects of wine culture such as elitism, anti-elitism, and marketing.
Protecting the health and safety of rescue and recovery workers
Authors: Lippy Bruce
Published: September 2009

This chapter addresses the protection of the health and safety of rescue and recovery workers at the World Trade Center site. It covers hazards faced by rescue and recovery workers, deficiencies in systems, including inappropriate gaps and overlaps in responsibilities of governmental agencies, the delayed health and safety plan, difficulties with communication, inadequate respiratory protection, inadequate safety protection, and medical services and record-keeping issues. It concludes with recommendations to planners for future responses, including OSHA responsibilities, personal protective equipment, air monitoring, training, and using technology to protect workers.
The public health response to the anthrax epidemic
Authors: Brachman Philip S.
Published: September 2009

This chapter describes the public health response to the anthrax epidemic in 2001. It discusses historical background, epidemiology of anthrax, terrorist use of anthrax, and evaluation of the public health response to the anthrax outbreak in 2001. It concludes that the public health response to the anthrax bioterrorist event in 2001 was rapid and comprehensive, and it may have prevented the further spread of anthrax.
Responding to the public health crisis in Afghanistan
Authors: Salama Peter , Leaning Jennifer , Borrel Annalies
Published: September 2009

This chapter describes responding to the public health crisis in Afghanistan. It discusses background, children's health, women's health, food security and nutrition, and program strategies and recommendations.
Strengthening the public health system
Authors: Keck C. William , Erme Marguerite A.
Published: September 2009

This chapter addresses strengthening of the public health system. It reviews the evolution of the public health system in the United States, describes the strengths and deficiencies in the system that were revealed by the terrorist attacks in 2001, and provides recommendations for strengthening the public health system so that it can be more effective in responding not only to the health consequences of terrorism, but also to other major challenges.
Protecting civil liberties
Authors: Geiger H. Jack
Published: September 2009

This chapter addresses protecting civil liberties during the response to terrorism. It describes unique aspects of the “war on terrorism”, terrorism legislation, civil liberties, terrorism, executive power and civil liberties, dissent and academic freedom, and civil rights under siege. It concludes with a discussion of terrorism and the future of civil liberties.
Exploring the roots of terrorism
Authors: Easley Cheryl E. , Allen Carol Easley
Published: September 2009

This chapter explores the roots of terrorism. It addresses historical and political roots of terrorism, economic and social roots of terrorism, and the philosophical, ideological, and religious roots of terrorism. It also discusses the psychology of terrorists and concludes with a discussion of preventing terrorist attacks.
CHAPTER EIGHT London and the Continent, 1812–19
Authors: Lister Warwick
Published: September 2009

This chapter continues to draw upon the Chinnery Family Papers, especially the extensive correspondence between Viotti and members of the Chinnery family. Viotti's role as a founding member, director, and performer in the Philharmonic Society in London in 1813–16, and his involvement in an abortive attempt to form a rival association, including the establishment of a Royal Academy of Music, are considered at length. Due consideration is given to his continued participation in private concerts in the Chinnery home and elsewhere in London, his yearly visits to the Continent, usually to Paris, with Margaret Chinnery in the years 1814–18, his involvement in the wine business, his dealings with music publishers, and his pupils, including Philippe Libon, Nicolas Mori, and André Robberechts.
CHAPTER TEN Last Years, Death, and Aftermath
Authors: Lister Warwick
Published: September 2009

In this chapter Viotti's increasing preoccupation with his financial situation and his deep affection for Margaret Chinnery come to the fore. His strenuous attempts to obtain a pension are described, and fresh evidence is adduced concerning a new position created for him by the Opéra administration. His failing health becomes increasingly apparent, though he continued to make music with friends, including Baillot, at Châtillon, the summer home near Paris bought by Margaret Chinnery. The death of his half-brother, André Viotti, with whom he had become close, was another blow. After Viotti's death in London in 1824, Margaret Chinnery was left with three lawsuits involving his estate. George Chinnery died in 1825, survived by his father, who died in 1827, and his mother, who died in 1840.
CHAPTER ELEVEN Viotti's Achievement and Legacy
Authors: Lister Warwick
Published: September 2009

This chapter considers how Viotti exerted influence on violin playing and composition in the 19th century through his playing, his compositions, and his teaching. The putative role of Viotti as the father of modern violin playing is discussed, with attention given to a genealogy of teachers and pupils “descended” from Viotti through the 19th century and into the 20th. The conservative and progressive elements of his violin concertos are considered, as well as the influence of violin methods and treatises, particularly Baillot's L'Art du violon of 1834. Lastly, his various friendships are reviewed, his love for Margaret Chinnery being the most important—in fact, as shown in his letters to her, this was the mainspring of his existence from the time he met her in 1792 until his death.
2 Principles of Demarcation
Authors: Rupert Robert D.
Published: September 2009

In this chapter, it is assumed that, in order for the debate over extended cognition (and mind) to have substance, there must be a genuine distinction between what is cognitive and what is not. This motivates the search for a mark of the cognitive, a principle demarcating the cognitive. Desiderata for a principle of demarcation are set out. Various principles supportive of the extended view are considered, and it is argued that they fall short of the desiderata or are unsatisfactory on independent grounds. These candidate criteria include causal, metaphysical, and epistemic principles, as well as proposals gleaned from Clark and Chalmers's paper, “The Extended Mind.”
3 Cognitive Systems and Demarcation
Authors: Rupert Robert D.
Published: September 2009

This chapter proposes a systems-based principle of demarcation. A state is cognitive if and only if it is the state of a mechanism that is a component of an integrated cognitive system. Informal and formal descriptions of integration are given. The systems-based approach is claimed to yield a nonextended view in the case of the typical human, and to provide the best explanation of the success of standard experimental methods in cognitive psychology and cognitive neuroscience. Given the empirical facts, the systems-based view may entail some extended human cognition when applied; nevertheless, this is not likely to be of the sort that causes paradigm shift in the study of core cognitive phenomena. Objections are considered, and replies provided. Throughout, the following reply recurs: insofar as the extended view explains the extant success of cognitive psychology and related disciplines, it does so by recreating the structure of nonextended explanations.
5 Functionalism and Natural Kinds
Authors: Rupert Robert D.
Published: September 2009

This chapter begins to engage more directly with arguments in support of the extended view. Functionalist approaches are criticized, as is Clark and Chalmers's natural-kinds-based argument. It is held that neither analytic functionalism nor psychofunctionalism supports the extended view. Moreover, it is argued that the empirical work does not sustain Clark and Chalmers's claim to the superiority of an extension-friendly taxonomy of cognitive scientific kinds or properties. Ballard's work on deictic points and Gray's research on cognitive impartiality are reviewed, and it is argued that both results are best given nonextended interpretations. This chapter also takes up and criticizes a pragmatic argument for the extended view.
6 Developmental Systems Theory and the Scaffolding of Language
Authors: Rupert Robert D.
Published: September 2009

This chapter examines two kinds of argument for the extended view: arguments from nontrivial causal spread and arguments from transformational power. The first emphasizes the causal contributions of external resources, and the second their power to transform human cognitive capacities. These general styles of argument are briefly criticized, then addressed at length in specific forms. An argument from developmental systems theory in evolutionary biology illustrates reasoning based on nontrivial causal spread. The cognition-enhancing effects of natural language ground an example of the argument from transformational power. The former style of argument is criticized for its indiscriminate appeal to causal contributors. The latter form of reasoning applies most obviously to historical influences; given that nonextended views naturally accommodate historical forces, it is argued that such observations provide little distinctive support for the extended conclusion.
7 Dynamical Systems Theory
Authors: Rupert Robert D.
Published: September 2009

This chapter addresses a long-running theme in the literature on extended cognition: the dynamical coupling of the organism and the environment. Six kinds of dynamical-systems-based model are considered. The chapter argues that some such model-types have impressive exemplars but that these are not of the right sort to be of use to proponents of the extended view. Most importantly, it is argued that the dynamical-systems-based models that most clearly apply to cognitive tasks also mark a traditional boundary between the organism and the environment, a boundary mediated by sensory (or sensory-like) inputs. An argument from evolutionary dependence is also bruited and criticized for its excessive emphasis on epistemological considerations.
8 The Experience of Extension and the Extension of Experience
Authors: Rupert Robert D.
Published: September 2009

This chapter explores two routes from phenomenology to extended cognition. One appeals directly to the contents of conscious experience, for example, the subject's sense of having an extended body under certain conditions. It is argued that the best account of such results is an error theory, one that appeals to neural representations of body, self, and the environment; the general fallibility of introspective reports is also discussed. The other route rests on a theory of sensory experience, the sensorimotor contingency view. It is argued that the distinctive claim of such a view—concerning the ubiquity of virtual content—is false and thus cannot be used to support an extended view; it is also argued that the systems-based view, and its organismically local application, provides the best explanation of the learning of sensorimotor contingencies.
9 Embedded Cognition and Computation
Authors: Rupert Robert D.
Published: September 2009

This chapter spells out the embedded view and the principles of modeling normally associated with it. The embedded approach aims to minimize the amount of computation and representation included in cognitive models, thereby explaining how the cognitive system carries out its cognitive tasks in a timely fashion; the general strategy for doing so employs locally valid heuristics. The chapter then focuses on the role of computation in the embedded view, advancing the following contentions: that the embedded view has been most successful when set within a computational framework, that simplifying computation does not amount to eliminating computation—even where explicit rules are eliminated—and that dynamical systems theory does not model the subtle timing of the organism's interaction with the environment in a way inherently superior to computationalist strategies.
11 The Embodied View
Authors: Rupert Robert D.
Published: September 2009

The chapter argues that, contrary to the claims of the proponents of the embodied approach, embodied cognitive modeling does not underwrite a new view of the fundamental relation between mind and body. The standard complaints lodged against computationalism are shown to follow largely from mistaken interpretations of functionalism, computationalism, and the associated accounts of realization. It is argued that although the embodied approach may rightly place special emphasis on imagistic representation, the empirical work on embodiment does not support very strongly a distinctively imagistic account of cognitive processing. The lessons of the chapter are briefly applied to Searle's Chinese Room argument and Harnad's concern about symbol grounding.
12 Summary and Conclusion
Authors: Rupert Robert D.
Published: September 2009

This chapter summarizes the book's arguments against the extended view, as well as the primary conciliatory contentions advanced with regard to the embedded and embodied views. The chapter closes with comments on the positive importance of the embodied and embedded programs, particularly in respect of such philosophical issues as reductionism and naturalized epistemology.
Introduction
Authors: Holland Walter W. , Florey Charles , Olsen Jørn
Published: September 2009

This introductory chapter begins with a brief description of the purpose of the book, which is to illustrate how the subject of epidemiology has developed in the past fifty years by providing personal stories from prominent leaders of the discipline. The different themes illustrated in the five sections of the book and an overview of the subsequent chapters is presented.
Epidemiological concepts pre-1950 and their relation to work in the second half of the century
Authors: Saracci Rodolfo
Published: September 2009

This chapter begins with a discussion of the emergence of the epidemiology of non-communicable diseases. It then discusses methodological developments, differential developments between old and new epidemiologies, and modern epidemiology.
Development of the epidemiology of cancer
Authors: Doll Richard
Published: September 2009

This chapter traces the development of the epidemiology of cancer. Topics covered include the applications descriptive epidemiology, mortality data, incidence data, case-control studies, and cohort studies.
Cardiovascular disease epidemiology
Authors: Blackburn Henry
Published: September 2009

This chapter traces the development of the epidemiology of cardiovascular disease (CVD). Formal epidemiological research in cardiovascular diseases took several forms, beginning in 1948. The prototype and icon of international investigations was the Framingham Heart Study. The explosion of prospective studies from 1948 onwards, the modern era of research from 1972 to the present, and conceptual evolution in CVD epidemiology are discussed.
The epidemiological study of mental disorders since the beginning of the twentieth century
Authors: Fuhrer Rebecca , Robins Lee
Published: September 2009

This chapter traces the development of the epidemiology of mental disorders. Topics discussed include early epidemiology from 1901–60, improving diagnosis and counting the prevalence of a broad spectrum of disorders, identifying the target population, the scope of psychiatric epidemiological studies, multiple diagnoses and comorbidity, and the current status of epidemiological studies of mental disorders.
Tuberculosis
Authors: Comstock George W.
Published: September 2009

This chapter on tuberculosis provides a model of how epidemiology tackles an issue and the advances that have occurred as a result of sound research worldwide in the control of one of the world's scourges. It illustrates the need for proper diagnosis to trace the natural history and thus to be able to prevent and treat the condition. It also shows how modern genetic studies can and will be used in disease control.
Public health and epidemiology
Authors: Breslow Lester , Detels Roger
Published: September 2009

This chapter discusses the role on epidemiology in public health. It focuses on four major public health areas — smallpox, kuru, injuries, and health behaviours — in which the contributions of epidemiological findings have been crucial in improving health.
Health services research and epidemiology
Authors: White Kerr L.
Published: September 2009

This chapter illustrates the importance of sound epidemiology to the improvement and development of medical care and health services, starting with the contributions of Florence Nightingale in the middle of 19th century, which contributed both to improvement in the care of soldiers in a war, but also to the design of hospitals and the measurement of performance in peacetime. In all countries there is an inexorable growth in demand for health services. Thus, there is need to develop evidence for improving the effectiveness and efficiency of both health service and health practice.
Occupational epidemiology
Authors: Harrington Malcolm , Sorahan Tom
Published: September 2009

This chapter provides a thorough account of how registers can be and are being used in the identification and surveillance of occupational/environmental factors in the development of disease and how risks are identified. It also emphasizes the methodological issues in occupational epidemiology.
Social epidemiology
Authors: Susser Mervyn , Myer Landon
Published: September 2009

This chapter outlines the different ways in which social epidemiology has developed in the USA compared with the UK and other countries. In the USA, the subject was not developed to the same extent in the 1960s as in the UK, and the major drivers for methodological and subject interests were in psychiatry. By contrast, the underlying feature of UK concern was inequality.
Theoretical developments
Authors: Miettinen Olli S.
Published: September 2009

This chapter focuses on theoretical developments in epidemiology. There have been enormous strides in the statistical methods used in epidemiology. To some extent, concerns about experimental design or the choice of population to study, observer variability, response rates, and methods of measurement in the testing of specific hypotheses have been replaced by intricate, sophisticated statistical methods, made possible by computers, particularly small PCs.