bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Word “American” Ends in “I Can”: The Ambiguous Promise of the American Dream
Authors: Hochschild Jennifer L
Published: November 2023

In the beginning,” wrote John Locke, “all the world was America.” Locke was referring specifically to the absence of a cash nexus in primitive society, but the sentence evokes the unsullied newness, infinite possibility, limitless resources that are commonly understood to be the essence of “the American dream.” The idea of the American dream has been attached to everything from religious freedom to a home in the suburbs, and it has inspired emotions ranging from deep gratification to disillusioned fury. Nevertheless, the phrase elicits for most Americans some variant of Locke’s fantasy-a new world where anything can happen and good things might.
The Convergence of Black and White Attitudes on School Desegregation Issues
Authors: Rossell Christine H
Published: November 2023

In its pursuit of racial equality in the schools in the four decades since Brown v. Board of Education, the civil rights leadership has made various assumptions about the attitudes and policy preferences of black and white parents. From 1968 to the present, the plaintiffs ’ attorneys initiated class-action suits on behalf of black students and their parents that demanded the achievement of racial balance throughout the school system by means of mandatory reassignments. In addition, the plaintiffs ’ attorneys argued that white opposition to mandatory reassignment should be ignored by the courts because it was caused by racism. Most federal district courts appear to have been convinced by these arguments since, from 1968 through 1981, they overwhelmingly ordered the implementation of the mandatory reassignment plans demanded by the attorneys who claimed to be representing the interests of black students and their parents. The opinion data offered in this chapter, however, show that these suppositions about the attitudes and opinions of black and white parents have been wrong and suggest that the civil rights establishment has not always reflected the views of its constituency. Contrary to popular belief, black attitudes toward mandatory reassignments are not very favorable and never have been. In addition, there is considerable evidence calling into question the assumption that white opposition to busing stems solely from racism. In short, the civil rights leadership’s almost single minded pursuit of mandatory reassignment plans in school desegregation litigation from the late 1960s through the early 1990s has either ignored or disregarded the attitudes of ordinary parents.
Brown Blues: Rethinking the Integrative Ideal
Authors: Iii Drew S Days
Published: November 2023

More than forty years have passed since the Supreme Court’s Brown v. Board of Education decision, declaring unconstitutional state-imposed segregation of public schools. One would have thought that by now American society would have arrived at a consensus with respect to the substance and scope of Brown. The truth is otherwise. Even in the education sector of our national life that Brown specifically addressed, deep differences remain over what changes that decision was designed to effect.
The Social Construction of Brown v. Board of Education: Law Reform and the Reconstructive Paradox
Authors: Stefancic Richard Delgado Jean
Published: November 2023

Fundamental to so much discussion about equality in America has been the Supreme Court’s 1954 decision in Brown v. Board of Education declaring racially segregated schools unconstitutional. Yet critics have differed as to the success of the Court’s Brown decision in actually achieving equality in American life. Broadly speaking, there are two views about Brown. The conventional view holds that Brown is one of the two or three most important cases in American legal history. According to this interpretation, Brown supplied the impetus for the modern civil rights movement, demonstrated that courts, at least at times, can assert moral leadership, and emphasized that African Americans are entitled to live in the United States on terms equal to whites.
Introduction: A Revolution in Industry
Authors: Wren Daniel A , Greenwood Ronald G
Published: November 2023

When we think of a revolution we think of a sudden, violent upheaval in social, economic, or political arrangements. The revolution that came to industry, however, was a series of changes that took place gradually over a half century or more. Ever since humans began to chip flints for weapons, use pierced slivers of bone for needles, employ iron plows instead of wooden ones, and use water power for grinding grain, there have been advancements in technology-the art of making tools and equipment. Although technology had been advancing for thousands of years, changes in late-eighteenth-century England marked the beginning of new technologies that developed more rapidly than ever before.
The Work of Networks in Taiwan’s Export Fashion Shoe Industry
Authors: Hsing You-Tien
Published: November 2023

This chapter discusses the mechanisms of coordination used by production and marketing networks in Taiwan’s fashion shoe industry. Contrary to the conventional wisdom, the competitiveness of Taiwan’s export fashion shoe industry is not based simply on low production costs. Instead, competition unfolds on three fronts at the same time: securing the lowest costs and the highest quality in the least amount of time. In producing the highest possible quality shoes at the lowest possible costs, Taiwanese export fashion shoe makers have been quick in responding to market signals, punctual in making deliveries and operating with short production cycles.
Introduction The Constitution of Reason
Authors: Smith Steven D
Published: November 2023

It was a confident, even a cocky age; and the founders did not feel them­ selves seriously constricted by the claims of modesty as they introduced their newly concocted Constitution to the world. Thomas Jefferson declared it to be “unquestionably the wisest ever yet presented to men.” Although not perfect, the Constitution was “competent to render our fellow-citizens the happiest and the securest on whom the sun has ever shone.” Like Jefferson, James Wilson conceded that the document was not perfect, but he nonetheless insisted that it represented “the best form of government that has ever been offered to the world.
Rationalizing the Constitution
Authors: Smith Steven D
Published: November 2023

The conclusion of the preceding chapter might seem to have brought our inquiry to its natural end. The constitutional enterprise was, and is, a project of freeing human affairs from the powers of force and fortuity and bringing them under the governance of reason. But the aspiration to establish reason resulted, first, in the failure of the framers’ legalistic strategy for embodying the enduring conclusions of reason in a written text and, more recently, in a discourse that pays constant lip service to “reason” but in fact amounts to a degraded practice characterized by obfuscation, sophistry, namecalling, and the exercise of cultural authority and political power. The aspiration to reason, it seems, has traveled full circle; it has deteriorated into something that is the opposite of reason.
The Collapse of Legal Classicism, z930-z942
Authors: Wiecek William M
Published: November 2023

The constitutional revolution of 1937-19381 resembled other revolutions of modem times. At the outset, the ancien regime seemed impervious to challenge. The collapse, when it came, was shockingly sudden. The authority of the old order disintegrated almost embarrassingly, and its fragmented resistance was soon mopped up by the new regime. With hindsight, we now see that classical legal thought had advanced far in decay by 1937. But nevertheless, after the seemingly absolute dominance of classical premises in the 1920s, and the succession of cases in 1935-1936 reviewed in this chapter, the abrupt destruction of a dominant way of thinking about law was dramatic.
The Society of Brain
Authors: Loritz Donald
Published: November 2023

In time, the primitive brains that had developed by the end of chapter 2 surrounded themselves with yet another self-similar membrane. Called the notochord, this cartilaginous tube houses the primitive central nervous system of the phylum Chordata. In ontogeny as well as phylogeny, this notochord further develops into a hard, tubular backbone, so the members of Chordata have come to be popularly known as “vertebrates.” The long, hollow notochord/backbone with its bulbous skull at one end is self-similar to the long, hollow axon and its cell body, and it serves the self-same purpose of communication in these larger, more complex organisms. In time, the four-celled model brain of chapter 2 evolved into the trillion-celled human brain.
One, Two, Three
Authors: Loritz Donald
Published: November 2023

One, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten. This seems to form a simple and perfectly natural sequence. And since the microscope had revealed that one neuron connected to the next, behaviorists were quick to fasten on the notion that these neural connections formed “stimulus-response chains.” In such a chained sequence, the neuron for one could be thought to stimulate the neuron for two, which stimulated the neuron for three, and so on, like the crayfish tail in figure 2.6.
Truth and Consequences
Authors: Loritz Donald
Published: November 2023

In the last chapter we saw that the topic-that which we are talking about plays a privileged role in ordering our unfolding motor and language plans, our sentences.
Why Incentives Matter
Authors: McKenzie Richard B , Lee Dwight R
Published: November 2023

American executives have come under increasing attacks in the media for accepting huge compensation deals that can run into tens of millions of dollars a year in salary, bonuses, and stock options-all justified as incentives for running more efficient and profitable firms. The total compensation of many executives now rivals the pay of successful rock, sports, and movie stars, and executive compensation packages continue to outpace the rate of inflation by a substantial margin. The average salary of the CEOs at the 365 largest corporations in the country hit $2.3 million 1996, up 39 percent over the average CEO salary for the previous year. But salary represented less than half of the average CEO’s total compensation, which was $5.8 million for the year, 54 percent higher than the year before.
Cutting Health Insurance Costs
Authors: McKenzie Richard B , Lee Dwight R
Published: November 2023

The Infamous “Health Care Crisis” in the United States amounts to nothing more than costs for a particular service, health care, responding to the market forces of supply and demand. Unfortunately, the forces have been distorted by legal and political factors that have gotten the incentives wrong. In our view, the “crisis” is more a matter of political rhetoric than economics. Political grandstanding alone will hardly solve whatever health care problem exists. Careful reflection by policymakers and managers on the exact sources of the problem might. The current distortion present a possibility for managers to benefit both their firms and its workers by policies that get the incentives right.
“Why Professors Have Tenure and Businesspeople Don’t
Authors: McKenzie Richard B , Lee Dwight R
Published: November 2023

Tenure Is Nothing Short of a holy grail for newly employed assistant professors in the country’s colleges and universities. If they do not receive tenure, faculty members must, as a general rule, be dismissed after seven years of service, which means they must seek other academic employment or retreat from academic life. With tenure, professors have the equivalent of lifetime employment. Rarely are they fired by their academies, even if they become incompetent at teaching and/or researching.
Sentential Negation in French
Authors: Rowlett Paul
Published: November 2023

This is the first full-length study of sentential negation phenomena in French. Paul Rowlett assesses, from a generative perspective, the respective contribution made to the expression of clausal polarity by ne, pas, and elements such as jamais and personne. His conclusions have far-reaching implications, leading to the controversial hypothesis that, despite widespread belief, French is not a negative concord language.
Foundations
Authors: Rowlett Paul
Published: November 2023

This is a study of the syntax of (sentential) negation, with particular reference to Modern French, and of the insight into Universal Grammar (henceforth, UG) it offers. The purpose of this first chapter is to set out my basic assumptions, which will be essential to the development of the study. Section 1.1 starts with my assumptions about the extent of Verb Movement, introducing the Split-Infl hypothesis. Section 1.2 turns to fundamental issues concerning the syntactic representation of sentential negation. In particular, I introduce and motivate NegP, a functional projection housing clausal polarity features. Section 1.3 introduces the notion of affective element; my conclusions are drawn together in section 1.4.
Jespersen’s Generalization
Authors: Rowlett Paul
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, I move away from predominantly French considerations and adopt a more cross-linguistic perspective. I consider the nature of the relationship between the way a given language marks sentential negation and the (un)availability of a phenomenon known as negative concord (henceforth, NC), in which, roughly speaking, multiple negative items can co-occur without negation being canceled out. (See section 3.2 for illustration.) NC has provoked considerable interest among linguists over the years (e.g., in recent work by Newson 1994 and Déeprez 1995, forthcoming) but has so far failed to be given anything like a generally accepted explanation. Indeed, in her recent (1995) study of the syntax of negation, Haegeman acknowledges (p. 304fn2) that it is not clear what the distinctive property of NC languages is and decides (p. 166) to leave the precise characterization of NC on the research agenda.
Negative Arguments
Authors: Rowlett Paul
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, I move away from negative adverbs. My aim is to provide a syntactic analysis of negative arguments, which show a number of similarities with the adverbs discussed in chapter 4. They co-occur with each other (and the adverbs) without producing DN; they license ne; and they have sentential scope (see (1)). In contrast to the elements discussed in the previous chapter, though, the elements of interest here are argumental rather than adverbial and, consequently, are associated with Θ-roles and, presumably, A-positions. The two elements I consider are personne ‘anyone/no-one’ and rien ‘anything/nothing’. Examples are given in (1)
National Origin and the Development of Organizational Capabilities The Case of International Human Resource Management in Two Japanese MNCs
Authors: Taylor Sully
Published: November 2023

In the last few years, the competitive landscape for multinational firms (MNCs) has changed enormously. Due to changes in transportation systems, communication, and government policies, there is increasing equalization of access to input resources, whether material, financial, or technological (Bartlett & Ghoshal, 1989; Ohmae, 1995; Pfeffer, 1994). This equalization has led to a reassessment of the distinctive features that enable a particular firm to compete globally (Bartlett & Ghoshal, 1990; Ohmae, 1995; Pfeffer, 1994). At the same time, MNCs cannot retreat to home markets. They are increasingly forced to compete globally due to economies of scale, strategic moves of competitors, and actions of governments (Porter, 1986; Prahalad & Doz, 1987). There is as a result an interesting paradox: just as MNCs are being inexorably forced to increase their global activities in order to remain competitive, the ability of an individual firm to differentiate itself from another is being worn away through the equalization of access to the resources on which they rely. Inevitably, what distinguishes the competitiveness of one MNC from another is its internal resources to outmaneuver its competitors. Organizational resources are becoming the keystone of what makes a MNC competitive (Pfeffer, 1994).
Understanding the Jewish Dimension of the Holocaust
Authors: Michman Dan
Published: November 2023

Holocaust historiography, by now unimaginable in its extent, deals with fragments or subtopics of the event itself. Few studies have been devoted to an effort to set the Holocaust “as a whole” within, as Amo Mayer put it, “the singular historical context in which it was conceived and executed.” Moreover, on examining those studies, one discovers that what is usually being “set in history,” what is usually being explained, is the persecution of the Jews-their expropriation, forced emigration and, ultimately, their murder. The paths of explanation differ, emphasizing variously Hitler’s will to world power; rabid eliminationist antisemitism; racism; the almost apocalyptic clash between Bolshevism and fascism; the modem bureaucratic state and economic modernization; and modernity itself; but all these theories share one characteristic: the subject of the analysis is one-dimensional-the issue of persecution or murder-and the explanation is placed linearly in German and/or European history. The Jews are thus perceived as an object, as “raw material,” and of minor importance in any explanation of the “event” as such.
The Master Paradigm
Authors: Shandler Jeffrey
Published: November 2023

How did an American relationship with the Holocaust develop over the course of the half century following the end of World War II? One measure is provided by tracking the use of the term Holocaust itself. In I959, historian Leon Jick noted, “a book called Holocaust was published in New York” that described a recent fire in a Boston nightclub in which hundreds of people perished.1 This, he argued, demonstrates that the term Holocaust had yet to be associated with the Nazi persecution of Europe’s Jews, which evinces the limited awareness of this historical epoch among Americans during the first postwar decades.
Prologue
Authors: Roy Cynthia B
Published: November 2023

Interpreting for people who do not speak a common language is a linguistic and social act of communication, and the interpreter’s role in this process is an engaged one, directed by knowledge and understanding of the entire communicative situation, including fluency in the languages, competence in appropriate usage within each language, and in managing the cross-cultural flow of talk. Within the last decade, researchers have begun to examine the process of interpreting as embedded within a process of verbal interaction, a conversational process of people talking to each other through an interpreter, or, as I will call it here, a discourse process. Although the term discourse has come into wide use and is associated with a variety of disciplines, we get the first use of the term from linguistics (Harris 1952). In linguistics, discourse analysis is a familiar term generated from several branches of linguistics, often referring to analyzing “language beyond the sentence.”
The Meeting And The Participants
Authors: Roy Cynthia B
Published: November 2023

Social interaction is both composed of and composed by the interactants, their roles, their expectations, and their obligations within a social situation. Within interpreted events, getting to know the participants, their perspectives, and their reflections of what occurred is a luxury we do not have in real time. Not much has been written about the views or perspectives of the three people as they enter or emerge from an interpreted event. This chapter offers the opportunity to meet the three participants, to read their views about interpreters, to learn their goals within the event, and their reflections on being involved. This chapter sets the scene by describing the physical setting and an overview of the meeting. From this point on, I refer to the participants by their role titles as their names because it is their enactment, their assumptions and expectations, and their perceptions of their respective roles that are significant in understanding their words and actions. So, I introduce the Professor, the Student, and the Interpreter and allow their perspectives to come forth in their own words. In this way, they add to the definition, description, and understanding of the event we call interpreting.
Turn Exchanges In An Interpreted Professor-Student Conference
Authors: Roy Cynthia B
Published: November 2023

In professional discussions, papers, books, and pamphlets about interpreting, there is a largely underlying assumption that if speakers are talking back and forth, interpreters should make it possible for them to seem as if they are talking directly to one another. Although it may be possible at times for speakers to feel as if they are talking directly to each other, they are not. They are always exchanging speaking turns with the interpreter.
Racist Reactions and Ebonics Satire
Authors: Baugh John
Published: November 2023

This chapter explores a series of racist-to-benign reactions sparked by Ebonics. As a linguist devoted to the educational welfare of the poor, I typically reject most ignorant comments that confirm racist linguistic stereotypes. However, any Ebonics survey would be incomplete without describing some of the vicious as well as innocent cases of Ebonics insults that sprang forth after Oakland’s ill-fated resolutions captured public attention. Racist web sites appeared with alarming speed as Ebonics became an open target of public ridicule. Some Oak-land educators were claiming to have elevated public awareness of this issue to new heights, but the following examples show that African American language had been maligned and dragged down to new depths through the promulgation of various unsavory opinions.
Foreign Direct Investment Outflows and Manufacturing Trade: A Comparison of Japan and the United States
Authors: Graham Edward M
Published: November 2023

This chapter presents empirical evidence on whether outward foreign direct investment (FDI) and international trade are substitutes or complements, that is, whether a nation’s greater stock of FDI is associated with decreases or increases of its ex ports and imports.1 This issue has long concerned policy makers, who have worried about possible negative effects of outward FDI upon a nation’s balance of payments and employment of its work force. In this chapter, I report results pertaining to two nations that are home to large stocks of FDI: the United States and Japan.
Abolishing The Death Penalty Even For The Worst Murderers
Authors: Bedau Hugo Adam
Published: November 2023

In the wake of the death sentence for Timothy McVeigh, convicted in June 1997 for his role in the murderous bombing of the Federal Building in Oklahoma City two years earlier, it is timely to ask this question: Who has the better of the argument, those who believe that some offenders (such as McVeigh) ought to be punished by being put to death, or those who believe that no one ought to be executed (not even McVeigh) and instead should be sentenced to long-term imprisonment? To focus the question and keep the discussion relevant to the current scene, we can put aside the status of the death penalty for nonhomicidal crimes, for at least two reasons. First, the paradigm crime punishable by death has ahvays been murder (“a life for a life”). It is also now settled constitutional law that such nonhomicidal crimes as rape and armed robby are 110 longer subject to the punishment of death, as they had been only a generation ago. Second, we need not discuss whether the death penalty is the appropriate punishment for all homicides. A mandatory death penalty for those convicted of killing another person would re­ quire abolishing the distinction between murder and manslaughter and behveen first- and second-degree murder; it would also require abolishing prosecutorial, judicial, and executive discretion in capital cases. Even if those considerations were not persuasive, the Supreme Court has decreed that mandatory death penalties, even for first-degree murder committed by a person under life sentence for murder, is unconstitutional.
Tokens Of Our Esteem: Aggravating Factors In The Era Of Deregulated Death Penalties
Authors: Simon Jonathan , Spaulding Christina
Published: November 2023

One legacy of Furman v. Georgia1 and its progeny has been a new species of legal act, the capital aggravating factor, which features in virtually all post-Furman capital sentencing systems. Capital aggravating factors operate in two quite distinct fields. In the penalty trial field, capital aggravators define the homicidal behavior of particular individuals as appropriate for capital punishment. The jury’s finding that a constitutionally appropriate aggravating factor applies, even a single one, is an essential prerequisite to a constitutional death sentence (and in some states the jury is thereafter free to impose death without further findings). In the legislative field, they provide a kind of currency through which states seek to recognize various concerns and valorize certain kinds of subjects and situations. Aggravating factors have tremendous symbolic capital because they advertize the priori­ ties of a particular political community in the light of the most charged ritual known to ancient or modern societies: the ceremonial sacrifice of a human being. In the two decades since the death penalty came back into our midst, the relationship between these two fields has become more problematic. In some respects the first generation of post-Furman aggravators insisted on a relationship between these two fields. The swing Justices in Furman were concerned primarily with the arbitrariness of the few death sentences handed down by the states. Aggravating factors promised to assure a legitimate public justification for the appropriateness of execution in each prisoner’s case. The construction of aggravating factors in the legislative field was to eliminate arbitrariness in the penalty trial field. Swing Justices in Furman and Gregg v. Georgia2 first insisted and then assumed that the two would have a tightly controlled and rational relationship. Aggravators were to be the channels of discretion or the arms of an extended public will. The power to kill under law would act through the discretion of juries and or judges, but correspond to the values of law. Other agendas that states might have wanted to advance through executions were suppressed in the name of supporting the basic enterprise of sustaining the death penalty (still an open question after Furman).
Is it Reasonable to Expect a Return from Investments in Information Technology?
Authors: Lucas Henry C
Published: November 2023

What is the value of investments in information technology (IT)? Is there a return from investing in IT? These two questions are critical because firms invest huge amounts in information technology; an estimated SO percent of U.S. capital investment today is for IT. For top-ranked banks like Chase and Citibank, express carriers like FedEx and UPS, and large brokerage firms, annual IT budgets approach or exceed $1 billion. The chairman of NationsBank, Hugh McColl, stated at a CEO series seminar at New York University in April 1997 that his bank was spending $500 million a year on software and had a total IT budget of $1.9 billion. After its merger with Bank of America, the combined banks will initially have an annual IT budget of $4 billion! (Only a portion of these budgets represents investment in new IT initiatives; the rest is for ongoing operations.)
When IT Becomes a Part of Strategy
Authors: Lucas Henry C
Published: November 2023

It is easy to focus on individual IT investments rather than their cumulative impact. Companies budget for individual applications of technology, and the IT staff works on a project basis. For some firms, the combination of all its individual investments in technology far exceeds their individual impact. A good example is the American Hospital Supply, Baxter, Allegiance saga from the Chapter 5. Here, continued investments in technology changed the hospital supply industry and the supply firm’s own view of its fundamental business. There are examples where IT has become intertwined with the basic strategy of the corporation. In these cases, positive experiences with IT investments have provided management with the confidence to incorporate more technology as a part of strategy. The close linking of strategy and technology makes it difficult to measure the return from IT quantitatively, but we may be able to do so qualitatively.
Where IT Value is Found
Authors: Lucas Henry C
Published: November 2023

Is there value from investing in information technology? Our first imight is that value depends on the type of IT investment. Table 12-1 reviews IT investment types and comments on the kind of return one is likely to see. The table illustrates why it is difficult to prove there is value from IT investments, particularly if one wants to demonstrate a measurable financial return. For a number of investments, it is hard to identify the value returned because so many other factors influence outcomes. These investments may provide value in ways other than a clearly defined financial ROI.
Lexical Replacement
Authors: Brown Cecil H
Published: November 2023

In accord with the proposal that the extent of lexical borrowing is positively influenced by the degree of bilingualism is Casagrande ‘ s distinction between “primary accommodation” and “secondary accommodation” in contact situations. He relates this contrast to the four principal means by which languages enlarge their vocabularies to deal with new objects and ideas (see chapter 3): No knowledge of the language of an impinging culture is required for meaning extensions or new coinages and only native linguistic materials are used.
Postcontact Linguistic Areas
Authors: Brown Cecil H
Published: November 2023

Data assembled in the preceding chapters attest to the diffusion of several postcontact linguistic traits across both genetically affiliated and unaffiliated languages of the southeastern United States (SE). These include Spanish loanwords for items of acculturation (see table 9.4) and loan shifts that involve the imported referents PEACH and PIG (chapter 10). Two lingua francas of the region, Mobilian Jargon and Lingua Franca Creek, are identified as probable primary agents of diffusion. This is in accord with the findings of chapter 8 that genetically unrelated languages spoken by groups who use the same lingua franca share native terms for acculturated items mainly as a result of parallel acquisitions from the lingua franca.
Market Pressures and Quality Consciousness
Authors: Cole Robert E
Published: November 2023

How are we to understand the rise of the American quality movement in the 1980s? Was it a simple response to market pressures or did more complicated institutional factors shape how and when the movement developed? Quality does not at first glance appear to be an issue like those noted by March and Olsen (1976) in which top management discovers motives only through adopting new approaches. After all, in the early 1980s, the objective became clear in one manufacturing sector after another: meet the Japanese quality challenge. Seems straightforward enough.
Japanese Returnees’ Retention of English-Speaking Skills: Changes in Verb Usage over Time
Authors: Reetz-Kurashige Anita
Published: November 2023

This study tracked the English-speaking ability of 18 school-age Japanese returnees for a period of 12-18 months. The data included interviews, free talking, and storytelling. We measured the changes in the subjects’ retention of ability to tell or to retell stories and specifically examined children’s changes in verb forms over their first three years back in Japan. The purpose of the research was to provide pedagogically useful information on attrition, highlighting verb forms.
Not a Total Loss: The Attrition of Japanese Negation over Three Decades
Authors: Hansen Lynne
Published: November 2023

Little is known of the effect on a language of long-term discontinuation or reduction of its use. The fledgling field of language attrition, not yet two decades old, has seen few longitudinal studies over extended periods (but see de Bot & Clyne 1989). Some information on attrition over several decades is available, however, from cross-sectional studies of the first language (Ll) loss of immigrants (de Bot et al. 1991) and of forgetting a second language (L2) learned at school (Bahrick 1984.a, b; de Bot & Lintsen 1986; Grendel et al. 1995). This chapter provides new perspectives on long-term attrition through an examination after several decades of a second language that had been acquired in a natural milieu. Through an analytical focus on negated structures, evidence is brought to bear on theories of regression and critical thresholds in L2 attrition.
Testing the Regression Hypothesis: The Remains of the Japanese Negation System in Micronesia
Authors: Hayashi Brenda
Published: November 2023

The present study is a replication of the research reported in the previous chapter. Despite a growing trend over several decades toward quantitative research in applied linguistics, this important aspect of it, replication, has scarcely begun. According to Santos (1989:700), “What is considered standard procedure (replication studies) in other disciplines that hypothesize, quantify, and generalize is ignored in ours We have reached the point in applied linguistics where there is enough research to make replication of some of it not only worthwhile, but also necessary to advance the field. “ And in this same vein, Olshtain (1989:164), at the conclusion of her article, “Is Second Language Attrition the Reversal of Second Language Acquisition? “ states that “it is only through comparison and validation of previous work that attrition studies can progress and contribute to the overall field of second language acquisition research. “
Formulating the Mess: Sensing and Making Sense of the Situation
Authors: Ackoff Russell L
Published: November 2023

In order to close the gaps between where an organization is and where it wants to be, one must, of course, know where it is, where it is heading if it does not change its behavior, and what are the internal and external obstructions to its changing. This requires relatively complete knowledge and understanding of the current state of the organization and its environment. Such knowledge and understanding are usually divided among different members of the organization. Therefore, preparation of what might be called the state of the organization or a situational analysis requires identifying sources, seeking them out, soliciting and collecting their knowledge and understanding, and compiling it into a comprehensible form.
Organizational Development and Transformational Leadership
Authors: Ackoff Russell L
Published: November 2023

Sooner or later some honking wannabe will lurch up to inform you that your choices are to lead, follow him, or get out of his way. In Chapter 2, I pointed out that the proper objective of a social system is self-development and development of its stakeholders and itself, and that quality of life is a more appropriate index of development than standard of living. Standard of living is an index of growth. Unfortunately, “development” and “growth” are commonly treated as synonyms. They are not the same thing. Either can take place without the other. Rubbish heaps grow, but do not develop, and Einstein continued to develop long after he stopped growing.
Linguistic and Ethnographic Fieldwork
Authors: Dorian Nancy C
Published: November 2023

A people and their language-what could be more straightforward? In the ideal case, it really is straightforward. There is a particular place where a certain group of people live, and in that particular place they speak a certain language. They have a name for themselves and their language, and no other people goes by that name or claims to speak that language as a mother tongue. If you seek them out, they will tell you who they are and what language they speak; and if they see that you are really interested in them, they will teach you about themselves and their language, perhaps even help you learn to speak their language if you desire.
Sign Language and the Deaf Community
Authors: Baker Colin
Published: November 2023

The theme of this chapter is that there has been an ethnic awakening among the Deaf community no less than among other ethnic minority groups in the world. This chapter covers three major issues. First, I deal with the importance of understanding that Deaf people and Deaf communities are very varied and include different types of Deaf people. Second, I present the pre-1970s view of deafness. This is the medical model, which consists of an interlinked series of negative myths, false beliefs, assumptions, values, and popular hypotheses and convictions about the disabilities, deficiencies, and disadvantages of the Deaf community. Part of this view is that sign language is a mark of abnormality. Third, I examine different elements of the ethnic awakening among Deaf people. This section examines the reconstruction of deafness, the growth of status of sign language, new perspectives on Deaf people as bilinguals, modern progressive bilingual education for Deaf people, and some “ethnic revival” views of the nature, purpose, and identity of Deaf communities.
Second-Language Learning
Authors: Spolsky Bernard
Published: November 2023

Second-language learning is the process by which an individual who has, during the first few years of life, acquired one language (or, often, more than one language) from his or her caretakers or peers goes on to add one or more new languages to his or her repertoire. The context of learning might be informal inter course with people using a different language, or the organized instruction of an educational system, or a program of self-instruction, or a combination of these. From the point of view of such a broadly defined field of second-language learning, language and ethnicity can be looked at in two ways. First, we can ask how those asserting ethnicity (in revival movements, for instance) have needed to be come involved in language teaching. Second, we can look at the influence that the ethnic revival and heightened understanding of language and ethnicity have had on the field of second-language learning.
Amerindians
Authors: Mccarty Teresa L , Zepeda Ofelia
Published: November 2023

My mother and father came upon this land so many years ago. I don’t remember much of it. I think I was about five years old. Here we stay on our land that we have had for so many years. Here we have our homes. Our sheep, horses, and cows-these came here with us. We made life here. My parents said that there will be life here and the people will live here. My father and mother have passed on. Now there are only those of us who are the children, so this is how we live.
South and Southeast Asia
Authors: Schiffman Harold F
Published: November 2023

In this chapter I take the approach that a study of language and ethnicity in South and Southeast Asia should be focused primarily on establishing some fundamental notions about the linguistic culture of the area by which I mean the sum totality of ideas, values, beliefs, attitudes, prejudices, myths, religious strictures, and all the other cultural ideas and expectations that South and Southeast Asians bring from their culture to their dealings with language. Because South and Southeast Asian linguistic culture has long been deeply concerned with the transmission and codification of language(s) used in the area, it is necessary to examine what notions about the value of literacy and the sanctity of texts are current in the area. To establish notions of what constitutes a linguistic culture, I believe that we need to look not only at the overt manifestations of “high” linguistic culture-the explicit, the de jure, the codified, the written, and the official-but also at covert aspects of the linguistic culture: the implicit, de facto, unstated, unofficial, perhaps “folk-cultural” aspects of the linguistic culture.
Developmental Relationship of Hematopoietic Stem Cells and Endothelial Cells
Authors: Nishikawa Shin-Ichi , Nishikawa Satomi , Fraser Stuart , Fujimoto Tetsuhiro , Yoshida Hisahiro , Hirashima, Masanori , Ogawa Minetaro
Published: November 2023

Hematopoietic cells (HC) and vascular endothelial cells (EC) are the tissues that mature earliest during embryogenesis. In the 7.5 days postcoitus (dpc) mouse embryo, mature erythroid and EC are found in the yolk sac (YS), whereas other tissues-such as the somitic stage for muscle cells-are at intermediate stages of development. It is widely accepted that HC and vascular EC share common precursors (Sabin, 1920; Murray, 1932; Pardanaud et al., 1989).
Transcriptional Control During Erythroid and Megakaryocytic Development
Authors: Orkin Stuart H
Published: November 2023

Establishing a functioning hematopoietic system is the end result of a series of developmental decisions, each executed in large part by transcriptional mechanisms (Orkin, 1996). Following the commitment of mesoderm to an hemangioblast fate, the first hematopoietic progenitors are produced. At the yolk-sac stage of development, only primitive (or embryonic) red blood cells are produced. Within the embryo proper, hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) ultimately generate progenitors that are heterogeneous with respect to their lineage options. Subsequently, single (or bi-or tri-) potent precursors develop. Cellular differentiation completes the formation of terminally mature blood cells. In this chapter, attention is directed to the roles of particular transcription factors involved in specifying aspects of erythroid and megakaryocytic development. The erythroid and megakaryocytic lineages are of special interest in that they appear to be derived from common bipotential progenitors and share several critical transcriptional components, yet ultimately they serve very different biological functions.
Ets Transcription Factor Mutations and Hematopoiesis
Authors: Dahl Richard , Hackenmiller, Renee D , Simon M Celeste
Published: November 2023

The Ets family of transcription factors consists of a large number of winged helix-loop-helix DNA-binding proteins. Members of the Ets family are related by a high degree of sequence identity within the DNA-binding domain (ETS domain), which recognizes purine-rich DNA motifs centered around the core nucleotides GGAA/T (Karim et al., 1990). The Ets proteins are highly conserved through evolution and are important regulators of development in flies, worms, and mammals. At least eight Ets proteins, including PU. I, Spi-B, Ets-1, Ets-2, Elf-1, Fli-1, TEL, and GABPcx are expressed in hematopoietic cells (see Table 35.1), and binding sites for these Ets proteins have been described in a large number of genes thought to be involved in hematopoietic differentiation and immune system function (reviewed in Bassuk and Leiden, 1997).
The Role of the Thrombopoietin Receptor in Megakaryopoiesis
Authors: Drachman Jonathan G , Kaushansky Kenneth
Published: November 2023

Occasionally, in science, findings from one area of researchinsightful and important for that discipline-exert a profound, catalytic influence on what was previously thought to be a completely unrelated field of study. The discovery of the oncogene v-mpl was such an event, initiating a new chapter in the study of hematopoietic growth factors in general, and thrombopoiesis, in particular.
The Role of Osteoblasts in Hematopoietic Stem Cell Biology
Authors: Emerson Stephen G , Taichman, Russell S , Adams Scott
Published: November 2023

After birth, blood cells are produced in the bone marrow. The development of the bone marrow cavity is a coordinated process in which blood precursors migrate and colonize spaces carved out of embryonic bone and cartilage. The physical proclivity and localization of hematopoietic precursors to the marrow space suggests that either cells or matrix molecules in the acellular bone microenvironment control homing and/or proliferation of hematopoietic stem cells. The key role of extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins, such as fibronectin and laminin, and glycoconjugates such as heparan sulfates, has been amply demonstrated by elegant co-culture studies. More recently, it has become clear that osteoblasts themselves directly influence and regulate hematopoiesis. This chapter will describe our current understanding of the role of osteoblasts in hematopoiesis, and suggest likely directions for critical experiments in the near future.
Transcriptional Regulation of T Cell Development and Activation
Authors: Kuo Chay T , Leiden Jeffrey M
Published: November 2023

The T lymphocytes are important mediators of mammalian immune responses to viral, bacterial, and parasitic pathogens, as well as to tumor cells. They have also been implicated in the etiology of allergic and autoimmune diseases, including asthma, diabetes mellitus, and multiple sclerosis. Thus, in addition to its basic scientific significance, a molecular understanding of T cell development and activation will have important implications for understanding and treating a wide variety of human diseases.
Lineage Commitment of CD4+ T Helper Lymphocytes
Authors: Glimcher Laurie H , Ranger Ann M , Ho I-Cheng
Published: November 2023

Cells of the immune system interact with each other and undergo a complex pattern of gene expression in response to extracellular and intracellular signals. Among the most important of external signals for immune system cells are a set of polypeptides, designated cytokines or lymphokines, that possess a diversity of biological activities in several cell types.
Signal Transduction and Regulation of Antigen Receptor Gene Rearrangement During Early Lymphocyte Development
Authors: Shaw Albert C , Bassing Craig H , Swat Wojciech , Alt Frederick W
Published: November 2023

Immunoglobulin (lg) and T cell receptor (TCR) proteins, as crucial elements in the humoral and cell-mediated immune responses, are synthesized in B and T lymphocytes, respectively, in the context of complex, precisely regulated de elopmental pathways.
The Phylogenetic Development of the Cells That Express, and the Mechanisms That Diversify, lmmunoglobulins and T Cell Antigen Receptors
Authors: Miracle Ann L , Hawke Noel A , Anderson, Michele K , Litman Gary W
Published: November 2023

Specific immune-type recogmt10n has been identified throughout the extant vertebrate taxa, which include the jawless vertebrates (e.g., lamprey and hagfish). However, immunoglobulin (lg) and T cell antigen receptor (TCR) genes are confined only to the radiations of the jawed vertebrates, which are represented by the cartilaginous, ray-finned, and fleshy-finned fishes, as well as amphibians, reptiles, avians, and mammals. The basic processes of genetic reorganization and secondary diversification of lg genes has been demonstrated in all species of jawed vertebrates studied to date. Remarkable variation in the organization of lg genes has been recognized in a large number of species, representing critical points in the phylogeny of jawed vertebrates. Although the mechanisms underlying the rearrangement of antigen-binding receptor genes have been characterized in great depth only in mammals (see Chapter 48, this volume), all observations to date suggest that the basic mechanism of DNA-mediated segmental rearrangement of both lg and TCR genes has been conserved throughout the jawed vertebrates.