bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Economics of Tobacco
Authors: Warner Kenneth E
Published: November 2023

The leading cause of premature mortality and avoidable morbidity, tobacco, is also the fuel of a powerful economic engine. The financial yield from sales of tobacco products, primarily cigarettes, marks the cultivation of tobacco and the manufacture, distribution, marketing, and retailing of tobacco products as one of this nation’s leading economic activities. The relationship between tobacco’s health toll and its economic yield is not coincidental. The profitability of the enterprise-both its absolute magnitude and its rate of re-turn-have provided the tobacco industry with economic incentive and political clout that have contributed to high rates of addiction to nicotine, and hence to tobacco’s unique burden of disease (Taylor 1984; White 1988). Given the role of economics in the etiology of nicotine addiction and dis-ease, this chapter examines essential ingredients in the economics of tobacco and tobacco products.
Older Smokers
Authors: Rimer Barbara K , Orleans C Tracy
Published: November 2023

The older population is growing steadily, and by the year 2010 will represent 20% of the total U.S. population. Only recently has special attention been paid to the needs of older smokers. Older smokers experience many significant health consequences from continued smoking and derive a number of important health benefits when they stop smoking. However, they also may face special barriers when they attempt to quit after a lifetime of smoking. This chapter reviews smoking prevalence rates for older smokers, examines the health effects associated with continued smoking, the health benefits of quitting, and suggests programmatic strategies for intervention. The role of physicians is pivotal and will be discussed.
Worksite and Community Intervention for Tobacco Control
Authors: Gruman Jessie , Lynn William
Published: November 2023

For over 25 years, cigarette smoking has been identified as a primary cause of disease and death. Traditionally, models for treatment of communicable disease have been based on ridding the host or individual of the pathogen causing the disease. While many contemporary chronic diseases are not caused by a single identifiable external pathogen, the models for their treatment have developed in parallel to those of communicable diseases. Past approaches to the understanding and treatment of cigarette smoking have been consistent with this conventional model: smoking behavior has been viewed as an individual problem requiring an individual solution. Thus, smoking behavior was seen as a disease that posed a threat to the health of the smoker. Treatment of this disease was conceived of as short-term and highly tailored to the needs of the individual. This view has long shaped the behavioral and clinical investigations of smoking: most research in the field has explored individual smoking behavior and developed and tested strategies and skills by which people who smoke can be assisted in the cessation process (i.e., cured). This model has also dominated the way in which the results of such research have been practically applied: the commonly accepted means for intervening to reduce smoking has been to make cessation services available to smokers who seek help in stopping smoking, just as patients who are ill seek medical care for relief.
On the Magnetical Philosophy
Authors: Verschuur Gerrit L
Published: November 2023

Facts are necessary to tran scend points of view rooted in pure thought. Facts, however, are hard to come by. It was one thing for Gilbert to alter his point of view about magne tism; it was quite another for the study of the phenomenon to be placed on a quantitative footing. But since his book caused such a stir, readers wanted to make use of the ideas. This they proceeded to do with a vengeance. For at least half a century following the publication of De Magnete (in 1600), Gilbert’s in sights were at the heart of what came to be called the Magnet ical Philosophy, which allowed a wide range of phenomena to be erroneously accounted for in terms of magnetism. For ex ample, proselytizers of both the earth-centered (geocentric) and the sun-centered (heliocentric) views of the heavens were to draw upon it for inspiration.
Let the Experimentation Begin
Authors: Verschuur Gerrit L
Published: November 2023

The first step on the long journey of subsequent discovery regarding the nature of both magnetism and electricity was taken in 1660, when Otto von Guericke (1602-1686) built the first electric generator that made plenty of sparks when you needed them. His device consisted of a large ball of sulfur mounted on a long shaft with a hand crank. When the sulfur ball was rotated at high speed and a cloth applied, sparks would leap about, particularly between a spark gap connected to two brushes that touched the spinning sphere. Von Guericke car ried this device from place to place in his laboratory and ap plied the electricity where he wanted it.
Oersted and Ampere:The Birth of Electromagnetism
Authors: Verschuur Gerrit L
Published: November 2023

Curious minds now began to make major break throughs in understanding magnetism that would, at first, be based on keen perception of unexpected phenomena in the lab oratory. Not all the minds involved were ready to see what ser endipity placed before them, however. For example, during the twenty years following the invention in 1800 of the voltaic cell, no experimenter recognized the magnetic effects associated with electric currents.An exception was a French chemist, Nicholas Gautherot, who in 1801 noticed that two wires connected to the ends of a voltaic cell tended to adhere to one another. But nei ther he nor any of the others who later reported that they had seen this phenomenon paid any further attention to it.
The Wages of Curiosiry
Authors: Verschuur Gerrit L
Published: November 2023

Childhood memories of my fear of lightning came flooding back to me as I considered the question “What is mag netism?” It began to look almost self-evident that, like so many other questions in the history of the natural sciences, explana tions for magnetism were originally rooted in superstition. Yet, over the millennia, curious people managed to transcend su perstition as they began to find answers that had a bearing on reality; that is, the way the universe really is, as opposed to the way someone might have wished it to be. How they did so in regard to magnetism is the theme of this book. Significant and rather sudden progress in understanding this phenomenon during the early nineteenth century marked a great watershed in human thought, a divide that signaled the end of a primitive fascination with, and reliance upon, untested beliefs for providing answers to fundamental questions. That was the time when experimentation began in earnest. The break throughs in understanding magnetism that resulted were ac companied by giant steps forward in astronomy and in physics in general, and set the scene for our modern scientific era in which experiment and observation (which go hand-in-hand) are recognized as the primary means for getting at truth.
The Brain in Antiquity
Authors: Finger Stanley
Published: November 2023

The history of modern neurology, neuropsychology, and related disciplines is closely associated with the theory that different parts of the brain serve different functions. This idea, known as localization theory, is consistent with the basic biological principle that structures which look different should have different functions.
Some Movement Disorders
Authors: Finger Stanley
Published: November 2023

During the Middle Ages, a number of “movement” disorders that affected groups of people were witnessed. One type, referred to as the dancing manias, was typically associated with religious gatherings where the multitudes would congregate and then dance. The frenzied dancers often experienced delusions and hallucinations of a religious nature and sometimes fell to the ground completely delirious and exhausted. This “hysteria” was seen in Aixla-Chapelle, France, in 1374 and spread rapidly throughout Europe during the time of the plague (Barbeau, 1958).
The Emergence of the Concept of Cerebral Dominance
Authors: Finger Stanley
Published: November 2023

The current concept of cerebral dominance can be thought of as having evolved in a number of stages. The first stage involved occasional speculations about the two hemispheres being functionally different in the face of a strong majority, who maintained that the hemispheres were structurally and functionally identical. These ideas of equivalence were based more on philosophical notions than on careful observations, and this type of thinking extended from the time of the early Greeks well into the 1800s.
Patients and their Problems
Authors: Wilson Barbara A
Published: November 2023

Many neurological conditions give rise to brain damage. Most patients referred to neuropsychologists are likely to have experienced one of the following Traumatic head injury following a road traffic accident, fall, industrial or sporting accident, or assault.Cerebral vascular accident (stroke). Viral infection of the brain, particularly encephalitis. Hypoxic brain damage following, for example, such insults as myocardial infarction, respiratory arrest, carbon monoxide poisoning, or anesthetic accident. Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome following chronic alcohol abuse and poor nutrition.
Jay: Compensating for Amnesia
Authors: Wilson Barbara A
Published: November 2023

Jay was born in 1965. After leaving school he went to a university to study law. During his 2nd yr there, at the age of 20 yr, he sustained an epileptic seizure and collapsed during a tutorial. He was admitted to the accident and emergency department of the local hospital where he had two further seizures. A computed tomography (CT) scan carried out soon afterwards, showed a large subarachnoid hemorrhage arising from the left occipital region. A subsequent arteriogram showed a left posterior cerebral artery aneurysm. The aneurysm was clipped 3 wk later.
Laurence: Listening to the Message and Not the Words
Authors: Wilson Barbara A
Published: November 2023

Laurence developed epilepsy when he was approximately 11 yr old. He had about one seizure a year for a number of years but was otherwise well. He liked sports and was a good football player. One day early in 1982 at the age of 25 while playing football, he felt strange. There was a pressure in his head and he lost his balance and fell. A local doctor was called. Laurence was told he just had a headache. He said, “No, it’s more than that.” The doctor gave Laurence some tablets and sent him home to his wife and children. Later that day Laurence’s mother called. She noticed that Laurence’s eyes were crossed and told him to go to the local hospital. He was kept in and had some eye tests. The following day Laurence was sent to a university teaching hospital about 20 miles away. A tumor was discovered-an intraventricular giant cell astrocytoma in the left hemisphere. Surgery was carried out in January 1982. Laurence was said to have made a good recovery although he had both expressive and receptive dysphasia.
Jenny: Regaining Quality of Life Following a Horseback Riding Accident
Authors: Wilson Barbara A
Published: November 2023

Jenny was 17-yr-old when she had a devastating accident in May 1981. An excellent horsewoman, who had won many prizes, she had just returned from a 20 mile ride with her prize-winning horse. Jenny followed the same routine as she did every evening. She untacked and fed the horse. After that she mounted the horse in order to jump the hedge into the field before dismounting and leaving the horse for the night. Jenny always jumped the hedge without a bridle or saddle. This was something she could accomplish with ease. On this particular night, however, something happened. Jenny mounted the mare bareback but instead of jumping the hedge, the horse went in the opposite direction down into the lane for about 400 yards with Jenny clinging on, straight into the road. A car was coming, the driver braked but at that moment there was a failure in the brake pipe system (discovered later when the spilled brake fluid covered the roadway for several yards). The car hit Jenny and the horse. Jenny was thrown 30 feet. The horse was badly mutilated and had to be destroyed immediately.
Jim: Improving Concentration and Reducing Behavior Problems
Authors: Wilson Barbara A
Published: November 2023

On the referral form sent out by the rehabilitation center, Jim’s social worker described him as “a bit of a drifter and a loner.” He had left school at 16-apparently of average ability-and for the next 10 yr held a succession of short-term jobs on building sites, at supermarkets, and in garages. He lived with his elderly widowed mother and had never married. In 1979, when he was 26 yr old, Jim was involved in a motorcycle accident, sustained a very severe head injury, and was in a coma for 3 wk. Soon after the accident Jim developed epilepsy.
Chemical Fractionation During Formation Of The Earth’s Core And Continental Crust: Clues From As, Sb, W, And Mo
Authors: Sims K W W , Newsom H E , Gladney E S
Published: November 2023

We have analyzed suites of continental crustal rocks of different geologic ages, as well as midocean ridge and ocean island samples for As, Sb, W, and Mo, using radiochemical, thermal, and epithermal neutron activation analysis. The oceanic data show that Mo, As, and Sb have the same incompatible behavior as the light rare earth elements ( e.g., Ce) during igneous fractionation, while W behaves as a highly incompatible element and correlates with Ba The Mo/Ce ratio is the same in oceanic and crustal materials. However, crustal-derived materials, including Archean shales, appear to be enriched in As and Sb relative to Ce, and W relative to Ba, compared to the correlations in the oceanic rocks. A similar enrichment in crustal material has been previously observed for the element Pb. The suite of affected elements (Pb, As, Sb, and W) suggests that the enrichment is probably due to hydrothermal processes during crustal formation. The question of core formation through geologic time has been examined using Mo/Ce ratios; no significant change in this ratio has been observed in samples ranging from recent back to 3.8 Ga in age. The depletions of these siderophile elements relative to CI chondrites in the Earth’s primitive mantle ( silicate portion of the Earth) provide clues to the accretion and core formation history of the Earth. Our new depletion value for W differs significantly from the previous estimate based only on oceanic samples, and now overlaps the depletion of Co and Ni. The depletion of Mo is confirmed to be greater than that of Co and Ni, but less than that of the highly siderophile elements. The new data therefore provide additional support to the heterogeneous accretion theory, but are also consistent with the inefficient core formation theory.
Human Consanguinity Effects Revisited: Why is the Measurable Impact of Inbreeding So Small?
Authors: Neel James V
Published: November 2023

Between the years 1958 and 1964, Jack Schull was the senior partner in a series of joint studies in Japan on consanguinity effects, a series that provides the most comprehensive view of the results of human inbreeding in a defined population to this date. The results have been presented and analyzed in a book and a series of papers published between 1965 and 1972. At that time, studies on inbreeding effects were seen as one of the two or three strongest approaches to understanding the amount and significance of the genetic variation present in the human genome. Given the theme of this symposium, it seemed particularly appropriate to review these studies in light of some of the developments in biochemical, molecular, and population genetics since this last analysis. Not only do they recall one of Jack’s very significant contributions to the genetic literature, but, considered in conjunction with more recent developments, they will pose some searching issues for those interested in evaluating the biological significance of the avalanche of genetic variation now upon us. In brief, I will first suggest that there is an apparent gap between the results of inbreeding and what we now know about human mutation rates and the amount of variation at the protein and DNA level, and will then raise some questions concerning ways to bridge this gap.
Generalized Occupancy Problem and Its Applications in Population Genetics
Authors: Chakraborty Ranajit
Published: November 2023

Analysis of categorical observations constitutes one of the principal ways of handling genetic data, evidenced in the contributions of the honoree of this symposium in relation to his studies on inbreeding effects (Schull and Neel, 1965), genetic effects of radiation exposure (Schull et al., 1981) and adaptation effects of high altitude hypoxia (Schull and Rothhammer, 1990). In the context of hypothesis testing based on specific genetic models in such data analysis, often we need to contrast frequencies of different endpoints in samples of unequal sizes or predict expected frequencies in populations from observations in samples of small sampling proportions. For example, Neel (Chapter 4, this volume) illustrates one such problem where the frequencies of different genetic variants are contrasted in two Japanese cities, Hiroshima and Nagasaki, where the sample sizes are widely different. In a previous study (Chakraborty et al., 1988) the issue of sample size adjustment was addressed by deriving the expectation and variance of the observed number of alleles in samples of fixed sizes.
Some Theoretical Predictions for Electrophoretic Polymorphisms Maintained by Balancing Selection
Authors: Smouse Peter E , Chakraborty Ranajit
Published: November 2023

With the development of electrophoretic assay methods for proteins in the 1960s, it became clear that genetic variation was more widespread in natural organisms than we had imagined. The neo-Darwinian predilection was to invoke widespread balancing selection, but the theoretical implications of overdominant genetic load for a large fraction of the genome (Hubby and Lewontin, 1966; Lewontin and Hubby, 1966) quickly led to the conclusion that most of the variation must be selectively neutral (Kimura, 1968; King and Jukes, 1969). The neutralist/selectionist debate is still with us two decades later (e.g., Clarke, 1975; Gillespie, 1986a,b; Nei et al., 1976), and while the genetic load argument has lost some of its apparent theoretical force in the interim, there is almost no compelling direct evidence for widespread selective maintenance of these electrophoretic polymorphisms (e.g., Mukai, 1964; Mukai and Yamazaki, 1980). The obvious alternative to neutrality is balancing selection, possibly heterosis of some sort, although frequencydependent selection would also be adequate to explain the results (Clarke, 1964; Clarke and O’Donald, 1964; Cockerham and Burrows, 1971; Cockerham et al., 1972; Kojima and Yarbrough, 1967; Lewontin, 1958; Schutz et al., 1968; Wright, 1948). There is a large agricultural literature on heterosis (reviewed in Bush, 1988), but attempts to find it in natural populations have met with only mixed success.
Genetic Variation and Evolution of Human Populations
Authors: Nei Masatoshi , Livshits Gregory , Ota Tatsuya
Published: November 2023

Genetic variation within and between populations provides important information on the evolutionary history of the populations. To obtain a reliable picture of the evolutionary history, however, one must use gene frequency data from a large number of loci because gene frequency changes are known to be subject to large stochastic errors. Yet, experimentalists often use data from a single locus or a small number of loci. This is particularly so when DNA polymorphism data are used. For example, Wainscoat et al. (1986) constructed a phylogenetic tree for human populations using a DNA region that involves a part of the β-globin gene cluster. Phylogenetic trees from mitochondrial DNA are also often used for inferring the evolutionary history of human populations (Cann et al., 1987; Vigilant et al., 1989), though mtDNA is inherited as a single genetic entity and therefore is equivalent to a single genetic locus.
Compositional Statistics Evaluated by Computer Simulations
Authors: sidow Arend , Wilson Allan C
Published: November 2023

Phylogenetic hypotheses testable with DNA sequences span the entire range of evolutionary relationships, from trees relating individuals within a species (Vigilant et al., 1989), to the tree of life (Fox et al., 1980; Lake, 1988; Gouy and Li, 1989; Sidow and Wilson, 1990). A number of methods are available for inferring evolutionary relationships among homologous and aligned DNA sequences.
Statistical Methods for Testing Molecular Phylogenies
Authors: Li Wen-Hsiung , Gouy Manolo
Published: November 2023

Although numerous methods have been developed for reconstructing phylogenetic trees, there exist few methods for evaluating the statistical confidence of an inferred phylogeny or for testing whether one phylogeny is significantly better than another. In fact, the statistical methodology for testing phylogenies is in a rather primitive state. This has occurred for two reasons. First, although phylogenetic reconstruction has long been recognized as a problem in statistical inference (Edwards and Cavalli-Sforza, 1964), few authors have formulated the problem in a statistical framework.
Developmental Neuropsychology
Authors: Spreen Otfried , Risser Anthony H , Edgell Dorothy
Published: November 2023

This book provides the most detailed overview of child neuropsychology available today. The second edition has been thoroughly revised and updated. It includes new discussions of such conditions as infant HIV infection and Tourette’s syndrome, as well as new chapters on newborn and infant assessment and on cognitive development in relation to brain functions.
Critical Periods, Plasticity, and Recovery of Function
Authors: Spreen Otfried , Risser Anthony H , Edgell Dorothy
Published: November 2023

At first glance the concepts of critical periods and plasticity seem to be opposites, one suggesting rigidity, the other flexibility. On closer scrutiny, however, the ideas are not incompatible. At some developmental stages the organism is more receptive or vulnerable to environmental influences than at other stages, and it is at these times that the labels “critical” or “sensitive” are applied. The ability of the CNS to change in response to these environmental influences is referred to as “plasticity.” Both concepts have a direct bearing on the recovery of function after brain lesions.Essentially, the critical period is the time between the emergence anatomically or functionally of a given biobehavioral system and its maturation. The system may be affected in this emergent but immature state (for better or worse) by exogenous stimuli and this effect can be permanent should the system “harden” to maturity (Colombo 1982, p. 263).The concept of critical periods has its origins in experimental embryology. Working on the effects of inorganic compounds on the development of Fun dulus eggs, Stockard (1921) first thought that the development of one-eyed fishes was caused specifically by magnesium ion. Further experiments showed that similar malformations could be produced by other inorganic chemicals ad ministered at appropriate times during development.
From Comity to Estrangement
Authors: Mayers David
Published: November 2023

Beginning with the Crimean War, the era of cordial Russian-U.S. relations lasted through the 1860s and intensified during the Civil War. The sale of Alaska to the United States in 1867 marked the high point. Thereafter, continuing to the 1914 European emergency, bilateral relations became ever strained. This decline in mutual confidence was caused by American impatience (on official and popular levels) with anti-Jewish pogroms and other persecutions in the empire. Incipient Russian-U.S. rivalry for influence in the Far East produced additional complications. This second concern in the United States was dissipated by Japan’s startling victory over czarist forces in the 1904/1905 war, which incidentally strengthened the disdain felt by many Americans for Russian institutions and backwardness. Yet there was never serious threat of an open breach. Relations between St. Petersburg and Washington remained correct to the end of the Romanov dynasty. The quality of U.S. diplomats in Russia was uneven during the final decades of the czars. Able men were assigned to St. Petersburg, of whom the best were John Foster, Andrew Dickson White, and George von Lengerke Meyer. On the other hand, incompetents were also sent. Cases in point were the ministers during the crisis of southern rebellion: disreputable Simon Cameron and maladroit Cassius Marcellus Clay.
War and Revolution
Authors: Mayers David
Published: November 2023

American diplomacy in St. Petersburg seemed to mock the Provisional Government’s herculean effort to prosecute military operations against Germany while establishing democracy. Against the background of Bolshevik audaciousness and despite Washington’s need for reliable analysis of shifting conditions, U.S. diplomacy was hesitant and uncomprehending. In contrast to compelling Americans on Russian soil, from the romantic John Reed to the Red Cross’s exuberant Raymond Robins, Ambassadors George Marye and David Francis stood out because of their nai’vete. Wartime Diplomacy Nowhere more than in Russia did the Great War prove the wisdom of Clausewitz’s injunction against making warfare into “something pointless and devoid of sense.” Casualties in 1914 to 1918 were unimaginable to St. Petersburg as it considered the course to take during the weeks following Francis Ferdinand’s assassination. Of the 12,000,000 men who were mobilized for military service, approximately 1,700,000 were killed in battle, 4,950,000 wounded, 2,410,000 captured.1 Additional fatalities from disease, suffering among civilians, and damage to property were equally fearful. Acquisition of the Black Sea Straits, Constantinople, and other Turkish territories could not have justified these costs, let alone the unleashing of destructive revolution and civil war.
After Stalin
Authors: Mayers David
Published: November 2023

Radio Moscow announced on March 5, 1953, the death of Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin, lauded in his lifetime as the Guiding Light of Communism, the Genius Leader of Progressive Mankind. This bulletin, broadcast throughout the USSR, was accompanied by funereal music and exhortations to the public to resist panic and despair. There was also official reassurance: the government, composed of his dedicated lieutenants, stood united; the country was ever strong. Thus a nervous new leadership-temporarily led by Beria, Malenkov, Molotov-inaugurated its coming to power and an era of political uncertainty. Reared on the myth of Stalin’s marvelous achievements, citizens throughout the empire wept openly or were stunned by grief into silence. Crowds in Moscow, hoping to glimpse his body as it lay in state, surged past police control, and in the alarm hundreds of people (perhaps two thousand) were trampled to death. At the time, Andrei Sakharov was carried away by the mourning and melancholy thoughts on the universality of death. Although aware of Stalin’s responsibility for destroying countless innocent people, he could still write tenderly about him: “I am under the influence of a great man’s death. I am thinking of his humanity.”1
Toward an Understanding of Nonpathological Mood States: Evidence, Speculations, and Applications
Authors: Thayer Robert E
Published: November 2023

There are a number of features that any comprehensive understanding of mood must incorporate. After first indicating what these essential features are, some observations and speculations will be provided about the ways in which energy and tension moods meet these criteria. Parts of this understanding were more fully developed elsewhere in this book, but ideas specific to mood will be added in the present discussion. This chapter also includes hypothetical scenarios of mood relations that might occur in life circumstances characterized by varying degrees of stress, and some theory is provided about the ways in which food and drugs are often used as mood modulators. Last, practical applications will be offered concerning maintenance of optimal moods based on this understanding.
Modular Organization of Information Processing in the Normal Human Brain: Studies with Positron Emission Tomography
Authors: Raichle Marcus E
Published: November 2023

Substantial evidence supports the hypothesis that the human brain is structurally and functionally modular. One of the great challenges in neuroscience is to understand how this modularity is organized in support of mental activity. Such an understanding must at least accompany, if not precede, a knowledge of how specific components of a mental operation are implemented in individual modules (e.g., local ensembles of neurons). Modern imaging techniques substantially improve our ability to identify and study widely distributed component modules supporting specific mental operations. One approach is the measurement of local brain blood flow with positron emission tomography (PET). Changes in neuronal activity are accompanied by rapid (<1 s) changes in local blood flow and metabolism in the brain (Raichle, 1987). Positron emission tomography accurately and rapidly measures changes in local blood flow (Raichle, 1983, 1986). Assuming all mental activity is accompanied by changes in local blood flow, PET is ideally suited to accomplish the task of relating changes in local neuronal activity to mental activity. These studies reveal the distributed, modular nature of mental activity implemented in the normal human brain (Petersen, Fox, Posner, Mintun, & Raichle, 1988, 1989; Petersen, Fox, Snyder, & Raichle, 1990). This technique is especially important because it permits an examination of these distributed modular relationships in the normal human brain.
Mnemonic Functions of the Cholinergic Septohippocampal System
Authors: Olton David S , Givens Bennet S , Markowska Alicja L , Shapiro Matthew , Golski Stephanie
Published: November 2023

Many lines of evidence suggest that the cholinergic projection from the medial septal area (MSA) to the hippocampus has an important role in mnemonic processing. Anatomically, these neurons project to areas that have fundamental roles in memory, the hippocampus and temporal cortex. Neurochemically, the system contains acetylcholine (ACh), a neurotransmitter that has been closely linked to mnemonic functions. Clinically, pathology in the MSA is correlated with amnesia, and many attempts to improve impaired mnemonic function focus on compounds that alter the cholinergic system. Experimentally, neurotoxic lesions of the basal forebrain cholinergic system (BFCS) produce impairments in tasks that involve recent memory, and the pattern of impairments suggests that one of the psychological processes disrupted by these lesions is memory.
The gene as a unit of selection
Authors: Williams George C
Published: November 2023

Well-reasoned treatments of Darwinism for wide audiences (e.g. Sober 1984; Lloyd 1988; Brandon 1990) have recently had the benefit of Dawkins’ (1976, 1982b) and Hull’s (1988) concepts of replicators and interactors. The concepts are general in scope, but replicators usually mean genes, and interactors the individual organisms that transmit their genes in varying degrees to future generations. Organisms do the reproducing; genes direct development and provide the heritability on which response to selection depends.
The Foundations of American Citizenship
Authors: Sinopoli Richard C
Published: November 2023

Richard Sinopoli explores the political world view of the individuals who made the American Revolution, focusing on their conceptions of citizenship as expressed in the debates over the ratification of the 1787 Constitution.
The Real Line
Authors: Wise Gary L , Hall Eric B
Published: November 2023

The real line is the playground of real analysis. Although many introductory treatments of the real line might lead one to believe that the real line is rather lackluster and dull, such is not the case. In this chapter we will explore several pathological properties and subsets of the real line. Before proceeding, however, we will first present some useful definitions. A subset P of JR is said to be perfect if it is closed and if every point of P is a limit point. A subset A of JR is said to be nowhere dense if its closure has an empty interior. A subset of JR is said to be of the first category if it is a countable union of nowhere dense sets and otherwise is said to be of the second category. A subset of JR is said have the property of Baire if it is given by the symmetric difference of an open set and a set of the first category. A Hamel basis H for JR over Q is a subset of JR such that each nonzero real number may be uniquely represented as a finite linear combination of distinct elements from H with nonzero rational coefficients. That such a set exists is a consequence of the axiom of choice and is shown in Example 1.29.
Differentiation
Authors: Wise Gary L , Hall Eric B
Published: November 2023

Note that for any positive integer k, g has k derivatives at the point a and they are all equal to zero. Now consider the set of functions mapping R into R given by{f+ bg; b€R}. For each positive integer k, the kth derivative at the point a of any function in this set is equal to the kth derivative at the point a of f. Thus, each function in this set of functions has the same Taylor’s series at the real number a, and the cardinality of this set is c.
Conditioning
Authors: Wise Gary L , Hall Eric B
Published: November 2023

The topic of u-algebras is basic to the subject of conditioning since conditioning is conventionally taken with respect to au-algebra. In many cases the u-algebra of interest is that generated by some random variables representing data. Hence, in applications, it is common to treat u-algebras as somehow representing knowledge or information associated with data. The following example from Billingsley [1986] shows that associating u algebras with knowledge or information, as commonly understood, may lead to incorrect conclusions. Consider the probability space ([0, 1], B([0, 1]), .X), where A denotes Lebesgue measure on B([0, 1]) and consider the u-sub algebra g given by the family of all subsets of [0, 1] that are either countable or co-countable. Now, for BE B([0, 1]), consider the conditional probability P(B IQ). Since g contains all singletons {w}, and hence might be seen as being completely informative, one might suppose that P(B IQ) is equal to 18 . In other words, one might rationalize that to know the sets in g implies that one knows w itself and hence knows whether or not w is contained in B, leading to the conclusion that P(B IQ) should be one when w is contained in Band zero otherwise. It follows quickly, however, from the definition of conditional probability that P(B IQ)= P(B), except possibly off a countable subset of [0, 1]. D
Applications of Probability
Authors: Wise Gary L , Hall Eric B
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we will consider counterexamples concerning applications from engineering and statistics in which probability theory is used. Example 10.1. There exist two complex-valued, uncorrelated, mutually Gaussian random variables that are not independent. Proof: This example is from Ash and Gardner (1975). Consider four mutually Gaussian, zero mean random variables X1, X2, X3, and X4 with covariance matrix Proof: This example describes a situation in which a linear filter described via convolution with a nowhere zero function is a no-pass filter for a large family of input random processes.
Intermediary Metabolism in the First Third of the Twentieth Century
Authors: Holmes Frederic Lawrence
Published: November 2023

The field of intermediary metabolism, in which Hans Krebs became a leading investigator during the 1930s, had coalesced into a well-defined subfield of biochemistry during the three decades preceding his entry into that area. This chapter is intended to provide a panoramic view of developments during the period that shaped the general problems that Krebs took up. Although the themes discussed here do not become immediately pertinent to the account of Krebs’s professional life until Chapter 7, it is convenient to group them together at the beginning. Later chapters will make reference to portions of this chapter as they come to bear on successive stages of Krebs’s work, and some of the more specialized aspects of the prior history of intermediary metabolism will be treated in the places at which Krebs encountered them. Some readers may prefer to postpone reading this chapter until after the chapters on his early life and training.
Freiburg: The Foundation of a Career
Authors: Holmes Frederic Lawrence
Published: November 2023

At Altona, Hans Krebs recalled much later, his research time had been too limited to undertake an ambitious project. Only when he came to Freiburg was he “completely free, for the first time, to follow my own ideas on research and to choose my own subject.” His clinical duties in his new post were, however, as demanding as they had been in his previous one. Here too, he had “full clinical responsibility for a ward of twenty-two patients.” Here too he had to leave his laboratory for emergency calls, as well as for the normal ward rounds; and here too he was given extra responsibilities to catch up on the medical experience he had missed during his years with Warburg.
Introduction
Authors: Mott Stephen Charles
Published: November 2023

Like air and water, politics is something in which everybody has a self-interest. Limits of supply also characterize its concerns; decisions must be made about them. Politics often even treats water and clean air. It deals with subjects in which the whole society has interest and which have consequences that affect the whole community or a substantial portion of it.’ Political action is influenced by ideals as well as by material desires and self-interests. People care about the nature of the society in which they live, not just about what it does for them as individuals. Widely shared values and collective purposes, even public moods, exert influence on political choices with a degree of independence from the actual needs of a citizen. For example, support for policies regarding health care or employment does not necessarily correlate with the degree of a family’s needs in those matters.
To Seek and to Distrust Government
Authors: Mott Stephen Charles
Published: November 2023

Government often seems to be secondary to genuine human life. The state is not a part of most people’s primary relationships. Its entry into our life often is experienced most obviously as an irritation at best, and at times as a severe oppression. Our resulting attitude can be to want as little government as possible, to disdain it, and not to seek it as a path of Christian vocation and mission.
The Politics of Time
Authors: Mott Stephen Charles
Published: November 2023

The understanding of time and history have a direct bearing on politics. Optimism or pessimism about the course of history is an important component of a political stance. The weight given to the past, present, and future varies significantly from one political ideology to another. Applying a theological interpretation of history to politics is significant not only because of its bearing on those factors. It also unavoidably discloses the relationship that the saving work of Christ has to political thought since the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ form the center of history.
Flourish in Freedom: Liberalism
Authors: Mott Stephen Charles
Published: November 2023

Liberalism is the vision that has captured American political thought. That does not mean that conservative thought is insignificant. The dominant form of American conservatism lays claim to be the true interpreter of the classical liberal tradition. In reality it is a form of liberalism. The basic conflict in American political thought is between two developments upon earlier liberal thought.
Prosperity Through Unfettered Competition: Laissez-Faire Conservatism
Authors: Mott Stephen Charles
Published: November 2023

Laissez-faire conservatism and capitalism are related historically. They are not synonymous.2 Laissez-faire conservatism is a theory of government adopted for capitalism, which is an economic theory. For laissez-faire political philosophy, the selfregulating interplay of price values in the market solely determines the allocation of prices and productive resources as well as the distribution of social goods for the needs of people and the environment. This is to proceed without governmental assistance.
Electron Microscopy and Microprobe Analysis: Recalling the Ambience of Some Inventions
Authors: Hillier James
Published: November 2023

Looking back, the period 1935 to 1945 was a most exciting, even spectacular, decade during which a remarkably small group of researchers, scattered throughout Europe and North America, took the magnetic transmission electron microscope (TEM) from a rather quiescent, theoretical concept to a reasonably reliable, practical instrument in serial production. In that decade the same group took the resolving power of the TEM from a doubtful comparison with a light microscope to a value that was routinely 20-fold beyond the limit of the light microscope and, in the hands of experts, 200-fold beyond! It was also in that decade that the electron microprobe analyzer was invented.
Histology Of The Nervous System Of Humans And Vertebrates
Authors: Cajal S Ramón Y , Azoulay DR L , swanson Neely , Swanson larry W
Published: November 2023

Countless modifications during evolution have provided living matter with an instrument of unparalleled complexity and remarkable functions: the nervous system, the most highly organized structure in the animal kingdom. The dominant role played by the nervous system is obvious. From its inception, this system mediated ever increasing coordination between the various elements of multicellular organisms, which were essentially unstructured, disorganized, and subject to all the vagaries of the surrounding environment early on. The nervous system provided these animals with the necessary mechanisms for nutrition and defense, and the number, precision, power, and coordination of these mechanisms steadily increased. Furthermore, in the highest echelons of life, it also provided optimal means for survival: feelings, thought, and will. In short, the refinement of nerve cells and the overall system formed by them clearly provides the most effective mechanism to improve living organisms.
Research Methods And Their Major Results
Authors: Cajal S Ramón Y , Azoulay DR L , swanson Neely , Swanson larry W
Published: November 2023

The nervous system contains three major elements: neurons or nerve cells, glial cells, and epithelial or ependymal cells (there is no need to include nerve fibers, which are simply extensions of neurons). In addition, three types of structure, which have been recognized in vertebrates for many years, are immediately obvious. First, neural centers are found throughout the central nervous system, in sensory ganglia, and in autonomic ganglia, all of which contain neuronal cell bodies along with their major intercellular connections, as discussed below. Second, nerves or nerve bundles consist primarily of long axons that arise from neurons, together with glial cells. And third, the peripheral endings of axons in the nerves form a variety of structures that directly contact either muscles or glands, or the epidermis and vanous sense organs.
Neurons: Size And General Morphology
Authors: Cajal S Ramón Y , Azoulay DR L , swanson Neely , Swanson larry W
Published: November 2023

Any neural center, no matter how complex, consists of only two intimately intermingled cell types: neurons, with their conducting process or axon, and glial cells. The general histology of the nervous system is therefore based entirely on studies of these two elements, including such anatomical features as size, shape, and fine structure, as well as the functional properties associated with them. We shall start with the fundamental unit of the nervous system, the nerve cell, or as Waldeyer has called it, the neuron.
Structure Of Spinal White Matter
Authors: Cajal S Ramón Y , Azoulay DR L , swanson Neely , Swanson larry W
Published: November 2023

Elements forming the spinal white matter have already been described m the General Principles section of this book, under the topic of central myelinated fibers. Only a few details need be added for the sake of completeness. A thin transverse section through spinal white matter that has been stained with carmine or hematoxylin displays a vast number of parallel nerve fibers that are also cut transversely. These fibers lie side by side, but are separated by glial cells. The Fibers. The diameter of nerve fibers in spinal white matter varies considerably; the thickest, which lie in the ventrolateral funiculus, may reach 12 to 15 µ,m, whereas the thinnest, which are found in the pyramidal tract, dorsolateral fasciculus proprius, and gracile fascicle, never exceed 2 to 3 µ,m. In general, thick and thin fibers are intermingled throughout the white matter, with thick fibers predominating here and thin fibers there. The only major exceptions to this rule are found in Lissauer’s marginal zone and the gracile fascicle, where virtually all of the fibers are thin. It is also the case that thick and medium-sized fibers are associated with the axons of relatively large cells in the dorsal horn, whereas thinner fibers are associated with the axons of small cells in the substantia gelatinosa or with the ascending or descending branches of axons that bifurcate with a thick and a thin branch.
Commissural And Funicular Neurons
Authors: Cajal S Ramón Y , Azoulay DR L , swanson Neely , Swanson larry W
Published: November 2023

Cells in the gray matter of the spinal cord that we have referred to as ventral commissural neurons are characterized by an axon that courses ventrally and then transversely to cross the midline near the ventral, white commissure before entering the ventral funiculus on the opposite side of the cord and becoming one of the myelinated fibers in what we have called the commissural fascicle. Golgi was the first to demonstrate that these neurons send an axon to the ventral funiculus, and this projection has since been described in greater detail by ourselves, Kolliker, Van Gehuchten, Cl. Sala, Lenhossek, and Retzius.
Arrangement Of Funicular Neurons In Various Parts Of The Gray Matter
Authors: Cajal S Ramón Y , Azoulay DR L , swanson Neely , Swanson larry W
Published: November 2023

Direct or uncrossed funicular neurons are undoubtedly the most abundant cell type in the gray matter of the spinal cord. Many of them form groups that can be recognized by their location and the distinctive morphology of neurons contained within them. Because of this, anatomists have been forced to adopt a topographically based description of funicular neurons. A priori, it would seem that a description based on the disposition of the axon arising from these cells would be more useful, and this certainly would be true if the axons arising in the same nucleus all had the same destination. However, we have already seen that this is not the case, and that, instead, many regions of the gray matter contain neurons with very different projections. Thus, it would seem that descriptions based on axonal relationships are associated with more difficulties than those based on the topography, and thus are less useful for a clear understanding of spinal cord histology.