bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
4 Raising the Standard: The War on Global Poverty1
Authors: Bhalla Surjit S.
Published: May 2010

There are two standard approaches to the measurement of poverty: an exclusive survey-based method, and the alternative method of using distribution from the surveys and means from the national accounts data. Over the last two decades, household surveys have shown a disturbing trend in terms of the decreasing amount of survey ‘capture’ of national accounts data. This chapter suggests a third method for measuring poverty; this method imputes the growth rate in national accounts consumption to the mean in the benchmark year 1987. The results using this method show world poverty decline to be considerably larger than that revealed by the ‘official’ World Bank exclusive survey method. This finding forms the basis of the suggestion that the world poverty line needs to be raised in order to reflect the drift from absolute to relative poverty in the developing world. The chapter also emphasizes the lack of any relationship, theoretical or empirical, between initial inequality and future trends in poverty. What matters is the inequality around the poverty line, not overall inequality.
5 Irrelevance of the $1‐a‐Day Poverty Line1
Authors: Srinivasan T. N.
Published: May 2010

This chapter argues that whether an individual is deemed poor depends not only on that individual's economic and non-economic endowments but also, equally, the place of that individual in the socio-economic-political processes of the country of which he or she is a citizen. For this reason any meaningful indicator that distinguishes the poor from non-poor has to be multidimensional. Any indicator of poverty could serve three distinct purposes: (i) a positive one of depicting the extent of poverty, the socio-economic profile of the poor, at one or more points of a time, in some well defined unit (e.g., nation state or units within a nation, or aggregates of nations such as low income countries), with the depiction providing a yardstick both for monitoring the performance in poverty reduction of national governments and international agencies and also for an analysis of determinants of poverty; (ii) a normative one as an input into policy formulation; and (iii) for mobilization of support among citizens, media, and governments for the objective of and policies for poverty alleviation and for policies. However, given the formidable problems in conceptualizing and measuring poverty and the tremendous heterogeneity among the poor — however conceptualized — within and across societies, any uni-dimensional indicator such as the $1 a day poverty line popularized by the World Bank is meaningless and completely irrelevant. At best one can hope to construct a comprehensive multidimensional poverty indicator for relatively homogeneous groups recognizing the unavoidable arbitrariness in doing so. Some tentative ideas for such an indicator are provided.
12 The Changing Nature of Urban Poverty in China1
Authors: Riskin Carl , Gao Qin
Published: May 2010

This chapter examines several different standards that have been used for defining and measuring urban poverty in China, and the resulting estimates of poverty rates and trends. The best estimates are very low in comparison with other large developing countries, but still well above the almost-zero rates generated by the most austere poverty lines used. Urban poverty rose from the 1980s into the 1990s and then fell after about 1997. The identification of interesting changes in the characteristics of the urban poor is followed by a discussion of government benefits programs. The changing composition of the income of poor and near-poor urban residents reveals no evidence that direct benefit payments had a significant impact on their incomes. China's safety net and other benefits programs did not have a measurable impact on urban poverty by 2002 and were not the cause of urban poverty decline.
14 Poverty Decline in India in the 1990s: A Reality and Not an Artifact
Authors: Sundaram K. , Tendulkar Suresh D.
Published: May 2010

This chapter addresses the problems of comparability of the size distributions from the NSS 50th (1993–4) and the 55th (1999–2000) rounds of Consumer Expenditure Surveys (CES) arising from the use of a mixed reference period (MRP) in the latter survey, as opposed to the uniform reference period used in the 50th round, and from the canvassing of consumer expenditure on food items on two recall periods (7 days and 30 days) from the same set of households. These are resolved by an analysis of unit-level records of the 50th round CES to generate comparable estimates on MRP and of the 55th round employment–unemployment survey (EUS) to settle the 7-day/30-day problem. Generating comparable estimates on five measures of poverty, it is shown that in the 1990s poverty declined in both rural India and in the country as a whole on all five measures, while in urban India it declined on all measures of poverty except the number of urban poor. An analysis of the 61st round (2004–5) CES points to a slowdown in the pace of poverty reduction in rural areas and a worsening of poverty in urban areas between 2000 and 2005.
Narrative and Speech Problems in Thucydides Book I
Authors: Moles John
Published: May 2010

This chapter examines Thucydides' presentation of the pre-history and causes of the Peloponnesian War in his Book 1. It explores the interplay of various key-words in Thucydides' explanatory scheme (especially arche, diaphora, prophasis and aitia), and the ways in which the narrative of the Pentekontaetia (1.89-118) is moulded to support the analysis. Thucydides' methods owe something, and in some cases allude, to Homer, Hesiod, Herodotus, and the Hippocratics. Punning and word-play, e.g. on arche as beginning and arche as empire or on Pausanias as ‘stopper’, are seen as important; so is the tracing of events back to Pausanias and Themistocles. The chapter finally discusses how far this may be seen as an ‘open’ text: not very, it argues.
Rome and Persia 357–9: The Role of Tamsapor
Authors: Seager Robin
Published: May 2010

This chapter deals with two aspects of Ammianus Marcellinus's account of the satrap Tamsapor's role in the renewal of hostilities between Rome and Persia on Rome's eastern frontier in AD 359. The first section argues that Tamsapor deliberately sabotaged the negotiations initiated by the prefect Musonianus in 357. The reactions and motives of Sapor II and Constantius II are also examined. The second section investigates the precise nature of Tamsapor's dealings with the Roman renegade Antoninus and his sponsorship of Antoninus at the Persian court. The chapter concludes by suggesting some reasons for Ammianus's interest in the episode.
Munera uestra cano: The Poet, the Gods, and the Thematic Unity ofGeorgics1
Authors: Nelis Damien
Published: May 2010

This chapter offers a study of some aspects of the structure of the first book of Vergil's Georgics. It attempts to explain the book's thematic coherence by looking at the ways in which the poet relates his description of the life and work of the Italian farmer to the movement of the solar year, to Roman history, and to contemporary politics. Particular attention is paid to the ways in which Vergil reacts to his predecessors in the didactic genre and to the ways in which he handles the themes of religion and knowledge and the role of the new divinity he refers to by the name ‘Caesar’. Study of the poem's intertextuality helps to illustrate his engagement with contemporary politics, civil strife and the Roman revolution.
Pompeius Trogus in Tacitus'Annals
Authors: Levene David
Published: May 2010

There is a long-standing controversy over how far Tacitus's Annals drew on the work of the Augustan historian Pompeius Trogus. Various parallels in language have been observed, but this may be the result of Trogus's epitomator Justin imitating Tacitus rather than of Tacitus imitating Trogus. This chapter argues that where there is a congruence of theme, especially when allied to linguistic parallels, there are strong reasons for seeing allusions to Trogus by Tacitus. It argues further that Tacitus, while drawing on Trogus, also reworks his ideas in an ironic and critical way, seeing (for example) Augustus as a perverted recreation of Trogus' idealized primitive monarchs, or Tiberius as the embodiment of Trogus' suggestion that the true threat to the Roman empire is from within itself.
Chapter 3 Climate and Invasive Species: The Limits to Climate Information
Authors: New Mark , McSweeney Carol
Published: May 2010

This chapter describes the current state-of-the-science in observational climate dataset development and in climate change modeling, and assesses the ability of this science to support projections that are useful for assessing the effects of climate change on invasive alien species (IAS) risk. A large weight of empirical evidence has shown that climate is a strong predictor of actual and potential distributions of species, both native and alien invasive. This relationship forms the basis for climate-envelope species distribution models that are used to predict potential ranges of IAS in the present day, and also both IAS and native species under climate change. These correlative models have many well-documented limitations, but in the absence of more detailed data and improved methods to calibrate process-based models more rapidly, we are hampered in our ability to develop process-based models at the species level. Thus, correlative models will remain a tool for projecting potential ranges of IAS under climate change, perhaps with enhancement to account for dispersal and other dynamics.
Chapter 5 Variation in the Rate and Pattern of Spread in Introduced Species and its Implications
Authors: Williamson Mark
Published: May 2010

The variation in spread rate both within and between species is considerable. Managers' attention is inevitably on those that spread fast. This chapter shows that those that spread slowly need to be watched too. Just because an alien species has a small range now does not mean that it will not eventually be widespread. The literature is full of instances of plants that were initially thought benign, even beneficial, which came to be regarded as pests when they became widespread. Lags in spread are common and measured in decades. The time to become widespread after the lag period is finished is often considerable, measured in centuries even in state-sized areas. Both these effects raise problems for managers. Often, resources seem only sufficient to tackle species that are already pests, but it might nevertheless be a good long-term strategy to devote some effort to studying those established aliens which appear benign, to see if they are likely to become pests.
Chapter 8 A Model of Prevention, Detection, and Control for Invasive Species
Authors: Polasky Stephen
Published: May 2010

This chapter constructs a model to analyze optimal policy and management to reduce damage from invasive species that includes strategies for information collection and control, to prevent introduction and to control already introduced species. The chapter is organized as follows. Section 8.2 presents the model of prevention, detection, and control. The model is analyzed, and results of the analysis are presented in Section 8.3. Section 8.4 contains a brief set of concluding remarks and a discussion of challenges needing further research.
Chapter 9 Second Best Policies in Invasive Species Management: When are they “Good Enough”?
Authors: Finnoff David , Potapov Alexei , Lewis Mark A.
Published: May 2010

The rapid and often shocking consequences of the spread of invasive species has led to calls for the application of rules of thumb in their management. This contrasts significantly with arguments that in these types of situations, effort-intensive characterizations of optimal rules of management are likely to be worthwhile. To provide some insight into this debate facing policy makers, this chapter weighs the trade-offs, and characterizes critical parameters of applying simple decision rules in contrast to dynamically optimal decision rules for a simple example of the management of invasive species. It poses the question of whether or not managers can use second-best policies that do not vary over time, nor as conditions change, and not significantly waste resources in comparison to first-best programs of dynamically optimal management which might vary tremendously over time or as conditions change. Over an infinite time horizon, second-best policies always waste some resources compared to first-best policies, but the magnitude of the waste tends to be small. In situations with fast-spreading invasions, low rates of growth in marginal damages, and high rates of growth in marginal costs, second-best policies will waste less compared to dynamically optimal policies. In the opposite circumstances, with slowly spreading invasions, high rates of growth in marginal damages, and low rates of growth in marginal costs, second-best policies will waste more in total compared to dynamically optimal policies.
Chapter 16 Globalization and Bioinvasions: The International Policy Problem
Authors: Perrings Charles , Burgiel Stas , Lonsdale Mark , Mooney Harold , Williamson Mark
Published: May 2010

Invasive species control is a public good. Once provided, the benefits it offers in terms of enhanced protection of human, animal, and plant health, and the productivity of agriculture, forestry, aquaculture, and fisheries, are available to everyone. Like all public goods it will be undersupplied if left to the market. This makes it a collective responsibility — a legitimate role of government at many different scales. This role involves two different functions. One is the development of broad strategies and supporting institutions, statutes, regulations, or agreements for addressing the problem. A second function involves the implementation of that policy, and specifically the use of public resources to undertake all of the actions described in this volume: inspection and interception at the port of entry; sanitary and phytosanitary measures both along pathways; and in situ detection, eradication, and control of harmful species that have been introduced, established, and spread. This chapter considers both broad issues of policy and specific challenges to management.
Love as Intimate Identification
Authors: Helm Bennett W.
Published: May 2010

This chapter argues that to love someone is to be intimately concerned for his well-being as this particular person. Such intimate concern is cashed out in terms of intimate identification: having a concern for his identity, understood in terms of the sharing of his cares and values for his sake, that is analogous to, but not identical with, your concern for your own identity. This account of love enables us to make sense of the idea that love is essentially for particular persons, the way love essentially involves trust and respect, and the intuitive depth of our feelings of pride, shame, and other person-focused emotions focused on others.
Justification and Non‐Fungibility of Love
Authors: Helm Bennett W.
Published: May 2010

This chapter begins with a brief overview of the account of the justification of values and priorities, and then takes on the fungibility problem. Given that the issue with fungibility is that of replaceability without loss, when you do not yet love someone, when she does not yet have this distinctive import to you, the issue of loss, of your losing that import, cannot yet arise. Consequently, the chapter distinguishes the question of the discernment of love (what makes someone worthy of your potential love or more worthy of that love than others?) from the question of the constancy of love (what justifies your continuing — or ceasing — to love someone?). Worries about fungibility arise, therefore, only in the case of justifying the constancy of love. Finally, the kinds of losses to which we are subject in loving someone is examined so as to have a better understanding of what non-fungibility — irreplaceability without loss — comes to in the case of love.
Vague Intensions: A Modest Marriage Proposal
Authors: Beall Jc
Published: May 2010

On one hand, vague predicates seem to be useful; on the other, they appear to be fully tolerant (and thereby useless). Utility demands cutoffs; tolerance forbids them. This tension has fueled much work on vagueness. This chapter gives a very modest proposal on how to escape this apparent tension. The proposal is not profound, but it may be liberating. Genuinely vague predicates are without cutoffs, but they are useful in providing us the ingredients for sharp look-alikes of the vague. If this is right, the existence of cutoffs is neither a worry nor surprising.
Vagueness and Central Gaps
Authors: Pagin Peter
Published: May 2010

This chapter proposes a new account of the semantics of vague expressions in natural language. It assumes that vague expressions are semantically tolerant. It is observed that the intuitive statement of tolerance corresponds to two different first-order formalizations. Both yield the Sorites contradiction for domains that contain a Sorites sequence of object with respect to some predicate /F/ in the language. But suppose there is a /significant central gap/, i.e. an area in the scale that is larger than the tolerance margin (in the context of use) such that objects with measures above the gap satisfy /F/ and objects with measures below that gap do not, while no object has a measure in the gap. Then one of the two tolerance principles is false. The other is true, but does not induce a Sorites contradiction. The main idea of the proposal is to use the idea of /domain restriction/ so that utterances are interpreted as concerning domains of object so restricted that they contain central gaps. This allows us to retain tolerance, consistency, and bivalence.
Vagueness as Semantic
Authors: Kölbel Max
Published: May 2010

This chapter argues that vagueness, understood as a semantic phenomenon, can be accommodated within standard semantics by assimilating it to contingency in standard modal semantics and suitably modifying the pragmatics. It claims that vague predicates are not defective, assumes that their vagueness involves at least extensional indeterminacy, and then considers the three ways in which standard semantics allows for extensional indeterminacy: ambiguity, indexicality, and relativity to circumstances of evaluation (e.g. contingency). The third of these is found to be most promising, and is outlined in more detail. It involves treating assertability, but not truth, supervaluationally. This explains the seductiveness of Sorites arguments and yields a fine account of borderline cases. The chapter concludes with a brief consideration of higher-order vagueness and a comparison of the view outlined with other views.
Supervaluationism and the Report of Vague Contents
Authors: García‐Carpintero Manuel
Published: May 2010

In recent papers, Schiffer advances an argument against supervaluationist accounts of vagueness, based on reports of vague contents. From a perspective more congenial to supervaluationism than Schiffer's, McGee and McLaughlin also pose a related problem about de re ascriptions of propositional attitudes and indirect discourse. The difficulty is gestured at in this argument by Wright: ‘there are additional concerns about the ability of supervaluational proposals to track our intuitions concerning the extension of ‘true’ among statements involving vague vocabulary: ‘No one can knowledgeably identify a precise boundary between those who are tall and those who are not’ is plausibly a true claim which is not true under any admissible way of making ‘tall’ precise. This chapter develops a defence of supervaluationism based on the point that the problematic occurrences of singular terms occur in indirect discourse, and supervaluationists may allow that they shift their referent there. Schiffer dismisses a proposal like this, mainly because it ‘undermines . . . a leading virtue of supervaluationism . . . its implication that vagueness is . . . not a feature of the world’. This chapter argues on the contrary that the reply does not undermine the fundamental contentions of the supervaluationist account.
Supervaluationism, Indirect Speech Reports, and Demonstratives
Authors: Keefe Rosanna
Published: May 2010

Can supervaluationism successfully handle indirect speech reports? This chapter considers and rejects Schiffer's claim that they cannot. One alleged problem with indirect speech reports is that the truth of ‘Carla said that Bob is tall’ implausibly requires that Carla said all of a huge number of precise things (i.e. that Bob was over n feet tall, for values of n corresponding to precisifications of ‘tall’). This chapter shows why the supervaluationist is not committed to this. It argues that vague singular terms are no particular problem for supervaluationism within indirect speech reports, but there remain some issues surrounding certain vague demonstratives. The supervaluationist has good responses available, however, and any remaining questions face all theories of vagueness and are more appropriately addressed within a theory of demonstratives rather than a theory of vagueness.
Non‐Transitive Identity
Authors: Priest Graham
Published: May 2010

This chapter defines a notion of identity in the second-order paraconsistent logic LP. The notion does not have the properties of transitivity or substitutivity, but these may be regained in consistent contexts. The chapter then discusses applications of this notion of identity, especially to entities involved in change. Soritical changes come in for special consideration.
Identity and the Facts of the Matter
Authors: Forbes Graeme
Published: May 2010

This chapter draws out some parallels between Chisholm's Paradox and puzzles about identity through time. It focuses on the example of Old Number One, the Bentley racing car in which Wolf ‘Babe’ Barnato won the Le Mans 24 hour race in 1929 and (debatably) 1930. Attempts in 1990 to sell a certain car, also referred to as Old Number One, were resisted by some on the grounds that too many upgrades, modifications, and repairs had taken place for the 1929 car to be considered the same car as the 1990 car. The chapter argues for the coherence of a ‘no fact of the matter’ verdict about such puzzles, and develops apparatus that involves a novel conception of degrees of truth in terms of higher-order levels of vagueness, thereby avoiding the need for talk of ‘degrees of identity’.
The Illusion of Higher‐Order Vagueness
Authors: Wright Crispin
Published: May 2010

It is common among philosophers who take an interest in the phenomenon of vagueness in natural language not merely to acknowledge higher-order vagueness but to take its existence as a basic datum; so that views that lack the resources to account for it, or that put obstacles in the way, are regarded as deficient just on that score. This chapter aims to loosen the hold of this deeply misconceived idea. Higher-order vagueness is no basic datum but an illusion, fostered by misunderstandings of the nature of ordinary (if you will, ‘first-order’) vagueness itself. To see through the illusion is to take a step that is prerequisite for a correct understanding of vagueness, and for any satisfying dissolution of its attendant paradoxes.
What Is This Thing Called Happiness?
Authors: Feldman Fred
Published: May 2010

This book is a philosophical study of the nature and value of happiness. Part I is devoted to critical discussion of the most important theories about the nature of happiness, understood as some sort of psychological state. Views discussed include sensory hedonism, local preferentism, Kahneman's theory, and Whole Life Satisfactionism. Part II of the book contains the exposition and defense of a novel theory about the nature and value of happiness. It is a form of attitudinal hedonism. The idea that a person's welfare, or well‐being, depends essentially on happiness is explained and (with reservations) defended, provided that happiness is understood according to the theory presented here. Part III of the book extends the discussion into some areas that bear on interactions between empirical research concerning happiness and philosophical inquiry into the same phenomenon. Current methods of measuring happiness are criticized and a new method is proposed. Philosophical implications of empirical research concerning happiness are evaluated.
Some Puzzles about Happiness
Authors: Feldman Fred
Published: May 2010

Popular reports indicate that some empirical researchers have discovered that the curve of lifetime happiness is U‐shaped; others have discovered that it is inverted U‐shaped; and others have found that it is a straight line. Perhaps the researchers were focusing on distinct phenomena. But then which of them was actually studying happiness? We need to determine the nature of happiness before we set out to plot its curve. The attempt to determine the nature of happiness is a philosophical project, not to be confused with the empirical project of trying to determine the typical causes of happiness. There is a further philosophical question: does individual human welfare track happiness? If we can determine what happiness is, and if we come to think that welfare tracks happiness, then we will want to determine whether philosophical reflection can help to shed light on the conceptual foundations of empirical research into happiness.
Subjective Local Preferentism about Happiness
Authors: Feldman Fred
Published: May 2010

Preferentism is the view that the concept of happiness can be explicated by appeal to the concepts of desire and satisfaction. There are subjective as well as objective forms. According to a typical objective form of preferentism, a person's level of happiness is equal to the extent to which his desires are satisfied. In this chapter a form of subjective preferentism due to Wayne Davis is explained. Arguments are presented to show that this form of preferentism goes wrong in certain types of case. Happiness involves more than just the belief that things are going as you want them to be going. Preferentism confronts a near‐paradox. This involves a person who has one desire: the desire to be unhappy. Davis's theory seems to imply (given certain natural assumptions) that this person believes he is happy if and only if he believes he is unhappy.
2 Defining Soft Innovation
Authors: Stoneman Paul
Published: May 2010

This chapter introduces the issues and provides a fuller argument as to why soft innovation, conceptually, is important. Innovation that encompasses the artistic, formal (as in the contrast between form and function), intellectual or aesthetic, has largely been ignored in the mainstream literature on innovation. At the centre of the analysis here is a form of innovation labelled soft innovation, defined to encompass changes in goods and services that primarily impact upon these aspects rather than functional performance. Soft innovation mainly concerns product innovation and product differentiation. The emphasis upon product differentiation means that economic analysis designed for exploring (static) models in differentiated markets can be brought to bear upon dynamic questions relating to innovation. Innovation in terms of new product launches in such markets may reflect either movements towards equilibrium or changes in the equilibrium. Two main types of soft innovation are detailed: the first involving changes in products in the creative industries; the second involving changes in the aesthetic/intellectual dimensions of products in other industries.
9 Soft Innovation and Uncertainty: Variant Proliferation, Insurance Markets, and Finance
Authors: Stoneman Paul
Published: May 2010

This chapter addresses issues relating to risk and uncertainty, and particularly the choice between corporate innovation strategies of small numbers nurturing and letting a thousand flowers bloom. The financing of innovation is also discussed.
6 IPR and Catch‐Up: The Case of Taiwan's IC Industry
Authors: Wu Hsueh‐Liang , Chiu Yi‐Chia , Lee Ting‐Lin
Published: May 2010

This chapter illustrates how the changing roles of intellectual property right regime affected the technological catch‐up of Taiwan, analyzing the case of three semiconductor‐related sectors: IC foundry, DRAM, and IC Design. The study shows that Taiwanese semiconductor firms operated within a framework of institutions, comprised of government agencies including research institutions, inter‐firm linkages, and institutional infrastructure including the IPR regime. Based on a case study of the semiconductor industry, it is argued that, when an industry is far from the technological frontier, weak IPR protection fosters technological development by inducing the path‐following catch‐up, whereas when the industry approaches or already has reached the technological frontier, technological development depends more on spillovers facilitated by global networks of firms rather than on coordination of investment. Consequently, the IPR regime needs to be strengthened and international harmonization becomes necessary.
7 Israel's High‐Tech Catch‐Up Process: The Role of IPR and Other Policies
Authors: Pugatch Meir , Teubal Morris , Zlotnick Odeda
Published: May 2010

This chapter discusses the experience of Israel. At the time of its independence in 1948, its people came from different parts of the world, providing them with international orientation from the beginning. As a result, many of the businesses targeted foreign markets, mainly USA and Europe, and were more concerned with the intellectual property regime in these foreign countries than Israel's own. Together with public support for innovation and military‐related expenditure, some startup firms, mainly in information technologies, grew and succeeded in IPO (initial public offering) or selling themselves. Another successful case is Teva, now the largest generic drug producer. It benefited from the patent law amendment in 1967, which allowed local firms to copy patented drugs if the patent owners did not market them in Israel. This provision was dropped after TRIPS; however, Teva had accumulated process technologies by then.
8 Innovation and IPR in a Catch‐Up‐Falling‐Behind Process: The Argentine Case
Authors: López Andrés
Published: May 2010

This chapter first points out that, for Argentina, the twentieth century was the period of falling behind. Although catch‐up occurred during 1860–1929, the economy at the time was mainly based on agriculture. By contrast, industrialization and technological capability building took place while the overall economy was falling behind following the government's import substitution policy and macro instability. The chapter examines technology transfer, learning, and innovation in the country's catch‐up and falling‐behind processes, and the role of intellectual property regime. It is argued that the IPR regime had little impact except for on agriculture and pharmaceuticals. These two industries are analyzed in detail to suggest that the domestic pharmaceutical firms failed to accumulate technological capabilities even in the absence of product patents and that genetically modified soybeans diffused widely because the American inventor, Monsanto, failed to secure a patent for it in Argentina.
Adpositions
Authors: Hagège Claude
Published: May 2010

This pioneering study is based on an analysis of over 200 languages, including African, Amerindian, Australian, Austronesian, Indo-European and Eurasian (Altaic, Caucasian, Chukotko-Kamchatkan, Dravidian, Uralic), Papuan, and Sino-Tibetan. Adpositions are an almost universal part of speech. English has prepositions; some languages, such as Japanese, have postpositions; others have both; and yet others, kinds that are not quite either. As grammatical tools they mark the relationship between two parts of a sentence: characteristically one element governs a noun or noun-like word or phrase while the other functions as a predicate. From the syntactic point of view, the complement of an adposition depends on a head: in this last sentence, for example, a head is the complement of on while on a head depends on depends, and on is the marker of this dependency. Adpositions lie at the core of the grammar of most languages, their usefulness making them recurrent in everyday speech and writing. The author examines their morphological features, syntactic functions, and semantic and cognitive properties. He does so for the subsets both of adpositions that express the relations of agent, patient, and beneficiary, and of those which mark space, time, accompaniment, or instrument. Adpositions often govern case and are sometimes gradually grammaticalized into case. The author considers the whole set of function markers, including case, which appear as adpositions and, in doing so, throws light on processes of morphological and syntactic change in different languages and language families.
Introduction
Authors: Hagège Claude
Published: May 2010

This introductory chapter begins with a definition of adpositions (Adps) then reviews the current state of research on Adps. The book's scope and aims of the book, approach, argument, and intended readership are discussed. Adps do not always appear in the shortest types of sentences. Their knowledge and grammatical use are not acquired at an early stage of language-learning by children. However, Adps can be considered a fundamental part of speech because using lexemes only does not suffice to build a sentence, at least one which is recognized as complete and is not reduced to a one-word exclamation or interrogation. Certain tools are necessary to link lexemes to one another and to the whole sentence, thereby setting up dependency relationships.
Towards a comprehensive characterization of adpositions
Authors: Hagège Claude
Published: May 2010

This chapter provides a precise and full characterization of adpositions (Adps), by showing what they are, what they are not, and what they do, synchronically and diachronically. The chapter is organized as follows. Section 1 first proposes a general definition of Adps. Section 2.1 studies the relationship between Adps and case affixes. Section 2.3 characterizes Adps with respect to the term they govern. Section 2.4 presents word-types that might be mistaken for Adps, while Section 2.5 presents Adps as sources of new units. Finally, the ‘adposition’ is justified in relation to the other available terms.
Conclusion and prospects
Authors: Hagège Claude
Published: May 2010

This concluding chapter begins with a review of discussions in the preceding chapters. It then discusses adpositions as morpholexical units shedding light on a theory of linguistic categories; adpositions as midpoints and images of language leaks and diachronic drifts; and morphology as the most linguistic component of human languages.
Causation and Relations Between Events: An Introduction to WG Semantics
Authors: Gisborne Nikolas
Published: May 2010

In this chapter, there is a discussion of causation and ditransitive verbs, organized around the question of whether ditransitives lexicalize a causative structure or not, and concluding that they do not. This discussion serves two purposes: it shows the Word Grammar representation accounts for some key (and well understood) phenomena in lexical semantics; and it sets up a discussion of causation, small clauses, agency and ditransitivity which is central to some of the following analyses subsequently in the book. In addition to the specific analyses of individual verbs, there is a more general discussion of the nature of sublexical causation, and whether it should be understood in terms of relations between events, relations between participants and events, or relations between participants in events and other participants.
An Emergent European Executive Order
Authors: Trondal Jarle
Published: May 2010

This book poses two pertinent questions: First, if a European Executive Order is emerging, how can we empirically see it? Second, if a European Executive Order is emerging, how can we explain everyday decision‐making processes within it? The goal of this book is twofold: First, it identifies key institutional components of an emergent European Executive Order. The nucleus of this Order is the European Commission. The Commission, however, is increasingly supplemented by a mushrooming parallel administration of EU‐level agencies and EU committees. This book provides fresh empirical survey and interview data on the everyday decision‐making behaviour, role perceptions, and identities among European civil servants who participate within these institutions. In addition, this book reveals how an emergent European Executive Order profoundly penetrates the domestic branch of executive government. Secondly, this book claims and empirically substantiates that an emergent European Executive Order is a compound executive order balancing a limited set of key decision‐making dynamics. One message of this book is that an emergent European Executive Order consists of a compound set of supranational, departmental, epistemic, and intergovernmental decision‐making dynamics. Arguably, a compound European Executive Order transforms the inherent Westphalian order to the extent that intergovernmentalism is transcended and supplemented by a multidimensional mix of supranational, departmental, and/or epistemic dynamics. This book also theoretically explores conditions under which these decision‐making dynamics gain prevalence. It is argued that the decision‐making dynamics evolving within an emergent European Executive Order is conditioned by the formal organization of its composite parts and by the social interaction patterns that emerge among the civil servants. Political processes and political systems can neither be adequately understood nor explained without including the organization dimension(s) of executive orders.
Chapter 7 Agency governance in an emergent European Executive Order
Authors: Trondal Jarle
Published: May 2010

Chapter 7 argues that diagnosis of an emergent European Executive Order should incorporate the diverse dynamics of EU‐level agencies. Recent years have witnessed comprehensive reform efforts in the Commission aimed partly at increasing institutional effectiveness and efficiency. One constituent ingredient thereof has been the creation of EU‐level agencies with regulatory and non‐regulatory discretionary competences beneath the Community institutions. This chapter conceptualizes theoretically and explores empirically three complementary images of agency governance in the European Union. Based on a rich body of survey and interview data among regulatory and non‐regulatory EU‐level agencies, this chapter demonstrates that EU‐level agencies are compound institutions that combine the roles as autonomous administrative spaces, multilevel epistemic networks, and Community institutions.
Chapter 10 How supranational are intergovernmental institutions? The transformative power of Council Working Groups
Authors: Trondal Jarle
Published: May 2010

Chapter 10 studies mechanisms of socialization and re‐socialization among domestic government officials attending EU committees. It is argued that domestic government officials participating in EU committees supplement pre‐existing role perceptions with supranational roles under certain conditions. EU committees are seen as transformative institutions that accompany a partial re‐socialization of the committee participants. The data demonstrates that domestic civil servants become re‐socialized due to their intensity of participation on EU committees. Contrary to neo‐functionalist assumptions, however, the length of participation on EU committees does not significantly impact on the re‐socialization of committee participants. The data also demonstrates that supranational roles are indeed secondary to pre‐existing intergovernmental and departmental roles. Consistent with the idea of compound executive orders, the emergence of supranational roles among EU committee participants does not replace pre‐established roles within intergovernmental institutions such as the Council of Ministers.
Chapter 12 An emergent European Executive Order and the domestic branch of executive government
Authors: Trondal Jarle
Published: May 2010

Chapter 12 argues that the differentiated organizational constellation of the European Executive Order contributes to a differentiated penetration of the domestic branch of executive government. It is argued that the Commission mainly activates the lower echelons of domestic government hierarchies, notably professional experts within sector ministries and subordinate agencies. Furthermore, the Commission tends to weaken the domestic politico‐administrative leadership, the Foreign Office, and the Prime Ministers Office. By contrast, the Council of Ministers tends to strengthen the domestic politico‐administrative leadership, the Foreign Office, and the Prime Ministers Office. This chapter offers a comparative analysis of the decision‐making processes within the central administrations of Norway and Sweden. Based on a rich body of survey and interview data, this chapter reveals that multilevel interaction of executive orders—notably the Commission and the Norwegian and Swedish central administrations—occur largely outside the control of the domestic politico‐administrative leadership, the Prime Ministers Office, and the Foreign Office. In Sweden, this tendency is to some extent counterbalanced by the interlocking effect of the Council of Ministers. In sum, executive orders at different levels of government are semi‐open and interpenetrated, but the effects of EU institutions on the domestic branch of executive government are differentiated.
Different Views of the Cathedral: The Literature on Property Law Theory
Authors: Hamilton Jonnette Watson , Bankes Nigel
Published: May 2010

This chapter reviews property law theory and its literature that aims to show how developments in general property theory may be relevant for energy and natural resources. It focuses on liberal Western understandings of property, and primarily those within the common law tradition. The chapter is organized as follows. Section I takes a broad look at the literature addressing the question of ‘what is property?’ and the issues raised by that question. It discusses a number of conceptualist and instrumentalist approaches to the matter of definition, looks briefly at the issue of commodification, and examines the literature on the categories of property. It concludes with a consideration of the numerous clauses principle. Section II addresses the problem of justifying property, or at least private property. It outlines the various explanations, dividing them into four types: the labour, desert, first possession (or occupation), and economic theories; personhood theories; liberty-based theories; and pluralist theories. It then looks at explanations for the movement of property from one category to another. The section concludes with a study of the justifications for (private) property as applied to the issue of expropriation.
Property Law Sources and Analogies in International Law
Authors: Redgwell Catherine
Published: May 2010

This chapter explores property rights protection at international law, while also considering the relationship of ‘ownership’, sovereignty, and sovereign rights of states over their energy and natural resources at international law, both within and beyond national jurisdiction, where international regimes of ownership and property rights may be applicable.
Property Rights in Oil and Gas under Domanial Regimes
Authors: Omorogbe Yinka , Oniemola Peter
Published: May 2010

This chapter examines the property rights over petroleum in situ between the federal, state, and local governments in a federation. It also discusses the legal character of the various property rights given to companies for exploration and development under the various petroleum licences and leases, production-sharing contracts, pure service contracts, joint ventures, and other petroleum arrangements, as well as the rights of communities where petroleum exploration and production activities are carried out. The chapter focuses particularly on developing countries, although, where necessary and relevant, comparisons are made with more developed economies.
Legal Models of Petroleum and Natural Gas Ownership in Brazilian Law
Authors: de Alencar Xavier Yanko Marcius
Published: May 2010

The exploration and production of oil and gas in Brazil have been government monopolies for a considerable time. Under this model, these mineral resources belong to the government, and are to be used in accordance with the national interest. The state-run company, Petrobras (Petr óleo Brasileiro SA), maintained exclusive control of all oil industry activities in Brazil for four decades following its establishment in 1953. In 1995, Amendment No 9 to the 1988 Federal Constitution changed the legal structure of the state monopoly, and established a new regulatory framework for the Brazilian oil industry. Although government monopoly has been retained, the amended Constitution and the Oil and Natural Gas Act (Federal Law No 9478/1997) allowed private companies to exercise ownership over oil and gas through concession contracts and the payment of fees and surtaxes to the government. The opening of the petroleum market has permitted a very large influx of money from national and international companies, which has been sufficient to increase the number of proven oil reserves and enhance energy security. However, the global energy crisis, the gradual rise of oil and gas prices, and the recent discoveries of new reserves in Brazilian deep waters (the so-called ‘pre-salt’ fields) have led to renewed political debate about the legal structure of oil industry activities, with arguments being made for it to be changed back in the direction of greater governmental participation. Over the course of the past century, the balance of public and private involvement in the Brazilian petroleum industry has in fact undergone a number of changes, as this chapter will discuss.
Ownership Unbundling and Property Rights in the EU Energy Sector
Authors: del Guayo Iñigo , Kühne Gunther , Roggenkamp Martha
Published: May 2010

On 19 September 2007, the European Commission (EC) proposed a number of amendments to the existing EU energy legislation, including a further step in the gradual introduction of unbundling of energy activities, the so-called ownership unbundling: electricity and gas companies involved in both network (transport and/or distribution) and commercial (supply and/or production) activities, legally would no longer be allowed to be engaged in those two types of energy activities, and consequently such organizations would be asked to divest ownership in one or both activities. On 22 April 2009, the European Parliament adopted a resolution on the common position of the Council, whereby a new unbundling option was given to member states, together with the two options originally envisaged by the EC's proposal. Two months later, on 25 June 2009, the European Council adopted the new rules on the Internal Energy Market (IEM). The new Electricity and Gas Directives were published in the Official Journal of the EU on 14 August 2009 and entered into force 20 days after their publication. Member states are required to implement these directives in national law within 18 months after entry into force, with the exception of the rules on unbundling. This chapter assesses how the provision of ownership unbundling when (and if) adopted by any of the member states, will affect the property rights of gas and electricity network owners.