bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Feminism as Life Raft
Authors: Klonis Suzanne , Endo Joanne , Crosby Faye , Worell Judith
Published: July 2006

We looked at relationships between academic women's feminist identity and their perceptions of discrimination. From a sample of self-labeled feminist professors of psychology who had participated in the Feminist Teaching Project, we examined previously transcribed interviews and also collected new, auxiliary information. We expected to find that our respondents would view feminism as both provoking discrimination and helping them cope with discrimination. We found that experiences with gender discrimination were common among our sample, but that feminism in isolation was not perceived by our respondents as a provocation for problems. Rather than making it hard for women to swim in academic waters, feminism seemed to serve as a life raft for many professors.
Who Considers Themselves Victims of Discrimination?: Individual Difference Predictors of Perceived Gender Discrimination in Women and Men
Authors: Kobrynowicz Diane , Branscombe Nyla R.
Published: July 2006

We focus on the general issue of how and why individuals might decide if they have been victims of gender discrimination and how social status differences between women and men may change the significance of experiencing gender discrimination. Because both self-protective and situational factors have been found to influence interpretation of prejudicial events, in the present study we explore several individual-difference factors that might differentially predict perceived gender discrimination in women and men. We found that, for men, low self-esteem and high personal assertiveness were related to higher ratings of personal discrimination. Low self-esteem was also related to men's perceptions of discrimination against men as a group. For women, high need for approval was negatively related to perceptions of personal discrimination whereas depression was positively related. Depression was also related to higher ratings of discrimination against women, as was feminism. We argue that perceptions of discrimination serve different purposes for structurally privileged and disadvantaged groups.
Struggling with a Nontraditional Past: Academically Successful Women from Disadvantaged Backgrounds Discuss Their Relationship with “Disadvantage”
Authors: LePage-Lees Pamela
Published: July 2006

This article reports findings from a qualitative study that explored the educational experiences of women who were academic high achievers and who were disadvantaged as children. An interesting result was that most participants, if not all, believed that one reason they were successful was because they never revealed their personal histories to education professionals. This article describes the participants' relationship to the concept of disadvantage and the process they went through to have a voice in a system that rewarded them for their silence. It also addresses the question of when it is appropriate to disclose personal information in educational settings. Some believe there should be a separation between the personal and the professional. Others argue that women and disadvantaged students need education that is connected to their life experiences. If this is true, we must ask how this connection can be made when people from disadvantaged backgrounds believe they must hide who they are to succeed.
Commitment, Intimacy, and Women's Perceptions of Premarital Sex and Contraceptive Readiness
Authors: Hynie Michaela , Lydon John E. , Taradash Ali
Published: July 2006

A person-perception study was conducted to examine the influence of intimacy and commitment on the acceptability of premarital sex and contraceptive preparedness. Ninety-six women rated a female target's personality and behavior after reading a diary entry describing a couple's initial sexual encounter. The nature of the couple's relationship and who provided the condom were manipulated between participants. Women inferred a committed relationship when intimacy was present. Women rated the target, and her behavior, as more acceptable when she had sex in a relationship with commitment. When she provided a condom, the target was perceived as less nice in the noncommitted than in the committed relationship. When her partner provided the condom, however, commitment level did not influence personality ratings.
Comparison of Feminist Versus Psychoanalytic/Dynamic and Other Therapists on Self-Disclosure
Authors: Simi Nicole L. , Mahalik James R.
Published: July 2006

The Feminist Self-Disclosure Inventory (FSDI) was developed to assess principles of therapist self-disclosure as described in the feminist therapy literature. This 18-item Likert-type scale was completed in a mailed survey by women psychotherapists (i.e., 41 self-identified feminist therapists, 34 psychoanalytic/dynamic, and 68 other therapists). Results indicated that the FSDI was comprised of five factors [i.e., Therapist Background (TB), Promotes Liberatory Feelings (PLF), Promotes Egalitarianism (PE), Therapist Availability (TA), and Empowering Client (EC)], and that the overall scale had excellent internal consistency and very satisfactory test-retest reliability. Also, feminist therapists endorsed FSDI factors significantly more than psychoanalytic/dynamic and other therapists with the greatest differences on items reflecting overall use of self-disclosure, disclosing sexual orientation, using disclosure to create egalitarianism, and encouraging the client's choice of a role model in the therapeutic relationship.
Age and Gender in Relation to Body Attitudes
Authors: Wilcox Sara
Published: July 2006

In order to examine whether the double standard of aging exists in self-perceptions of body attitudes, 144 men and women aged 20 to 80 years were tested. Variables that might moderate the relationship between body attitudes and aging, including self-esteem, health, masculinity, appearance orientation, and exercise participation were also examined. No age, gender, nor Age × Gender differences in body attitudes were found. Self-esteem, health, and masculinity were positively related to body attitudes, but these relationships did not vary according to age or gender. An Age × Gender × Exercise interaction indicated a positive relationship between age and body satisfaction among women exercisers but a negative relationship among women nonexercisers. Finally, appearance orientation was unrelated to body attitudes among all participants. The results of this study do not support the double standard of aging in self-perceptions but do suggest the similarity and importance of body attitudes across the adult life span.
The Unfaithful Lover
Authors: Spalding Leah R. , Peplau Letitia Anne
Published: July 2006

To examine heterosexuals' perceptions of bisexuals, 353 young adults read a description of a dating couple and rated each partner and the couple on several dimensions. The gender and sexual orientation (bisexual, heterosexual, homosexual) of each partner was varied among research participants. Compared to heterosexuals, bisexuals were seen as less likely to be monogamous, more likely to give a sexually transmitted disease (STD) to a partner, and more able to satisfy a partner sexually. Compared to gay men and lesbians, bisexuals were seen as more likely to give an STD to a partner and less able to satisfy a partner sexually. Despite their seeming behavioral compliance to heterosexual relationship norms, bisexuals in male–female relationships were not viewed more positively than bisexuals in same-gender relationships. Participants perceived male and female bisexuals similarly. Explanations for these and other findings are considered.
Racial and Gender Biases in Magazine Advertising
Authors: Plous S. , Neptune Dominique
Published: July 2006

Recent evidence suggests that racial and gender biases in magazine advertisements may be increasing. To explore this possibility, a content analysis was performed on 10 years of fashion advertisements drawn from magazines geared toward White women, Black women, or White men ( N = 1,800 advertisements from 1985–1994). The results indicated that (a) except for Black females in White women's magazines, African Americans were underrepresented in White magazines; (b) female body exposure was greater than male body exposure, and White female body exposure rose significantly during the 10 years; (c) White women were shown in low-status positions nearly twice as often as were other models; and (d) Black women wore the majority of animal prints, most of which were patterned after a predatory animal. These findings suggest that racial and gender biases in magazine advertising persisted, and in some cases increased, between the mid-1980s and mid-1990s.
Resource Loss, Resource Gain, and Communal Coping During Pregnancy Among Women with Multiple Roles
Authors: Wells Jennifer D. , Hobfoll Stevan E. , Lavin Justin
Published: July 2006

We investigated stress, coping, and employment status in 92, mostly European American pregnant women. Conservation of Resources (COR) theory (Hobfoll, 1988, 1989) was applied as a specification of role-quality theory to examine the stressful influences of women's multiple roles. Women's resource loss predicted psychological distress better than either their resource gains or their employment status (i.e., multiple versus single roles). Full-time employed women were significantly more distressed under high loss conditions than were part-time or nonemployed women. Examining women's coping strategies based on a communal model of coping, we found that active, prosocial coping was associated with better emotional outcomes. A significant interaction was found for the effects of loss × cautious action such that loss was related to greater depression, but only among women who did not employ cautious action.
Where are the Latinas?
Authors: Ginorio Angela B. , Martínez Lorraine J.
Published: July 2006

The inclusion of scholarship about Latinas into psychology courses is considered by answering two questions: (1) How do we evaluate the scholarship that should be included? (2) What factors should be considered for inclusion? To answer the first question on the evaluation of scholarship, six criteria are presented. The factors to be considered for the inclusion of scholarship about Latinas are illustrated in a discussion of three topics that are often presented in introductory psychology courses: identity, gender role socialization, and educational achievement and aspirations. Our discussion questions the validity of the conceptualization of these three topics when Latinas and other ethno-racial groups are excluded and offers evidence of the possibilities for clarification and expansion of theory and knowledge when they are included.
Contextualizing Violence in a Participatory Classroom
Authors: Ginorio Angela B.
Published: July 2006

Techniques for integrating race, class, gender, sexual orientation, age, disability, and other categories of socially defined identity in a student-centered participatory classroom are outlined for a survey course on women and violence. Keeping categories of socially defined identity central to every course component changes not only the content of the course, but also the questions asked and the range of possible answers. Students were given two tools with which to analyze each topic: theoretical frameworks (psychology, sociology, feminism) and the categories of socially defined identity. Difficulties with the material are interpreted as signposts of the complexity of the theoretical issues involved rather than as intellectual failures of the students or the instructor. An open and participatory classroom climate facilitates dealing with the stresses of this topic as well as with the ambiguities faced by students exploring the multidimensional space of socially defined identities.
Gender Differences in Reasoning About Military Intervention
Authors: Finlay Barbara , Love Gayle Dienberg
Published: July 2006

The question of gender associations with moral reasoning and values has received a great deal of attention since Gilligan first published In a Different Voice in 1982. Various authors have argued that women are less hierarchical, more relational, more caring, more empathetic, and more concerned about not harming others than men. Yet, these claims have been questioned by other scholars. Data from a small survey of college students are used to address this question. We found that, in examining students' narrative justifications of their opinion on a particular question of military intervention, gender was related to the type of justification used in a manner consistent with the arguments of Gilligan. We argue that “objective” tests are less likely to detect this difference than content analyses of narratives. The different bases of judgments have implications for political opinions as well as interpersonal interactions.
Disordered Eating and Perceptions of Childhood Abuse Among Women in a Primary Care Setting
Authors: Wiederman Michael W. , Sansone Randy A. , Sansone Lori A.
Published: July 2006

Research has demonstrated links between sexual abuse and disordered eating among women in college student and mental health samples. Little is known about such relationships among women from other samples or the relationship between other forms of childhood abuse as well as disordered eating (vomiting, starvation, laxative abuse). Prevalence of disordered eating was significantly higher among women who indicated a perceived childhood history of sexual, physical, or emotional abuse or who had personally witnessed violence.
Factors That Influence Depressive Symptoms in Mothers of Infants
Authors: Lutz Wilma J. , Hock Ellen
Published: July 2006

This study explored the association between interpersonal factors and depressive symptoms in first-time mothers over the first two years of parenthood. An interpersonal style characterized by dependency, recollections of rejection in childhood, and current relationship characteristics was assessed in a nonclinical sample of 133 women. The final model explained 52% of the variance in depressive symptoms at 24 months. Controlling for initial symptom levels, interpersonal variables explained 24% of the outcome variance. The findings suggest that two interpersonal attributes, peer rejection in childhood and a dependent interpersonal style, are particularly important to our understanding of depressive symptomatology.
A Mediational Model Linking Self-Objectification, Body Shame, and Disordered Eating
Authors: Noll Stephanie M. , Fredrickson Barbara L.
Published: July 2006

This study tests a mediational model of disordered eating derived from objectification theory (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997). The model proposes that the emotion of body shame mediates the relationship between self-objectification and disordered eating. Two samples of undergraduate women ( n = 93, n = 111) completed self-report questionnaires assessing self-objectification, body shame, anorexic and bulimic symptoms, and dietary restraint. Findings in both samples supported the mediational model. Additionally, a direct relationship between self-objectification and disordered eating was also observed. Implications and future research directions are discussed.
The Double Standard of Praise and Criticism for Mothers and Fathers
Authors: Deutsch Francine M. , Saxon Susan E.
Published: July 2006

Praise and criticism reported by parents was examined to investigate the double standard of parenting for men and women. Transcripts from interviews with parents were coded for the types of praise and criticism reported. Repeated-measures categorical analyses confirmed double standards of both praise and criticism. Mothers reported being criticized more than fathers did for too little involvement at home or too much involvement in paid work. Fathers reported being criticized more than mothers were, for too much involvement at home or too little in paid work. Fathers, particularly equal sharers, reported more praise than mothers for involvement in parenting, whereas mothers reported more praise than fathers for successfully combining family and work. Women also reported receiving both more praise and more criticism about their husbands than their husbands reported about them. Double standards of both praise and criticism were discussed in terms of their potential to discourage nontraditional family life.
Dimensions of Desire
Authors: Tolman Deborah L. , Szalacha Laura A.
Published: July 2006

This study provides an example of how feminist psychology can bridge qualitative and quantitative methods while keeping lived experience at the center of an inquiry. The goal of the study was to begin to understand adolescent girls' experiences of sexual desire. We describe three separate and synergistically related analyses of interviews with 30 adolescent girls. We begin with a qualitative analysis of their voiced experiences of sexual desire; follow with a quantitative analysis of the differences in how urban and suburban girls describe these experiences, assessing the role of reported sexual violation; and conclude with a second qualitative analysis exploring the interaction between social location and reported sexual violation. These three analyses enabled us to understand qualitatively and to quantify interrelated dimensions of desire as described by adolescent girls.
Beyond the Measurement Trap
Authors: Smith Paige Hall , Smith Jason B. , Earp Jo Anne L.
Published: July 2006

Many areas of women's health, including battering, suffer from conceptual and methodological deficits. This article uses the “measurement trap” (Graham & Campbell, 1991), a set of conditions defined by lack of information resulting from a narrow conceptualization of the problem, poor existing data sources, inappropriate outcome indicators, and limited measurement techniques, as a framework for describing how current approaches to conceptualizing and measuring battering hamper research and program efforts in the field of domestic violence. We then describe an alternative conceptualization-and-measurement approach that is based on battered women's experiences. We argue that an experiential approach, which grounds measurement in women's lived experiences, improves our ability to conduct research that correctly identifies, monitors, and explains the epidemiology of this phenomenon and provides a solid basis for policy and program development.
Focus Groups
Authors: Wilkinson Sue
Published: July 2006

Focus groups are little used in feminist psychology, despite their methodological advantages. Following a brief introduction to the method, the article details three key ways in which the use of focus groups addresses the feminist critique of traditional methods in psychology. Focus groups are relatively naturalistic and so avoid the charge of artificiality; they offer social contexts for meaning-making and so avoid the charge of decontextualization; and they shift the balance of power away from the researcher toward the research participants and so avoid the charge of exploitation. The final section of the article, which evaluates the potential of focus groups for feminist research, identifies some other benefits of the method and also discusses some problems in the current use of focus groups. It concludes that the use—and development—of focus group methods offer feminist psychology an excellent opportunity for the future.
Fundamentalism in Psychological Science
Authors: Walsh-Bowers Richard
Published: July 2006

Drawing from social historical studies and critical feminist perspectives on psychological method and report writing, I analyze the content of the fourth edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA, 1994) as if it were a biblical text. I focus on the correspondence between the espoused intention of sensitivity toward participants and the codes of investigative conduct made explicit and implicit in the manual. Specifically, I examine definitions of research, research roles, ethical standards, writing style, and gender issues. I then discuss the manual's function as a fundamentalist bible in relation to psychologists' culture, including socialization of psychology students and the production of research articles. I conclude with recommendations for investigative and compositional alternatives.
The View From Down Here
Authors: Jaffee Sara , Kling Kristen C. , Plant E. Ashby , Sloan Mathew , Hyde Janet Shibley
Published: July 2006

In this article, graduate students and one faculty member respond to the innovative methods presented in this issue. We identify three theoretical and methodological tensions that shape our interest in and willingness to work with these methods. The first questions whether the strengths of doing qualitative research outweigh the limitations. The second involves feminist research ideals and how attainable they are. The third explores epistemological tensions between qualitative and quantitative research. Although intrigued by the data these methods generated and by their underlying epistemology, we question the status of certain qualitative research in psychology. We contend that the criteria by which qualitative research is evaluated must be made more explicitly before quantitatively trained researchers will incorporate these methods into their own work.
Qualitative Analysis of Women's Experiences of Sexual Aggression
Authors: Testa Maria , Livingston Jennifer A.
Published: July 2006

Women's descriptions of recent sexually aggressive incidents were examined to gain a better understanding of the situations in which sexual aggression occurs, to understand the events from the woman's perspective, and to examine the actual and perceived role of alcohol in such incidents. The sample consisted of women who were sexually active and drank moderately to heavily. Classification of incidents according to the circumstances surrounding their occurrence revealed four major sexual aggression situations: date, current/previous relationship, unsuspecting, and set-up. Three major themes emerged through thematic analysis: alcohol contributing to the perpetrator's aggression, victim's judgment or behavior contributing to the event, and responses to aggression. Quantitative analyses confirmed that a large percentage of incidents involved alcohol or drugs and that perpetrator's alcohol/drug consumption was associated with more severe outcomes. Implications for prevention are discussed.
Halloween Costumes and Gender Markers
Authors: Nelson Adie
Published: July 2006

A content analysis of 469 children's Halloween costumes explored the extent to which children's fantasy dress reproduces and reiterates more conventional messages about gender. Based on the presence of gender markers, masculine, feminine, and gender-neutral costumes were identified and reanalyzed using a modified version of Klapp's (1962) categorization of heroes, villains, and fools. Both male and female costumes contained a high proportion of hero costumes. However, feminine costumes were clustered in a narrow range depicting beauty queens, princesses, and other exemplars of traditional femininity and contained a higher proportion of costumes of animals and foodstuffs. Masculine costumes emphasized the warrior theme of masculinity and were more likely to feature villains, especially agents or symbols of death. Gender-neutral costumes accounted for less than 10% of costumes examined.
Inferences Regarding the Personality Traits and Sexual Orientation of Physically Androgynous People
Authors: Madson Laura
Published: July 2006

Three studies investigated inferences about physically androgynous (PA) people. In Experiments 1 and 2, participants rated the personality, gender-role behavior, occupation, and sexual orientation of male, female, and PA targets in a within-subjects design. Targets were presented in color photos in Experiment 1 and in verbal descriptions in Experiment 2. Experiment 3 used verbal descriptions in a between-subjects design. In all three studies, participants inferred that the traits and behaviors in the PA targets were less gender-typed than those in the male and female targets. Participants also inferred that the PA targets were more likely to be homosexual and less likely to be heterosexual than the male and female targets. These results indicate that people draw conclusions about psychological characteristics from a person's physical appearance, but challenge Brewer's (1988) and Fiske and Neuberg's (1990) descriptions of how gender affects this process. Assumptions about PA people may also reinforce butch/fem stereotypes of lesbians and gay men.
IF YOU LET ME PLAY SPORTS: How Might Sport Participation Influence the Self-Esteem of Adolescent Females?
Authors: Richman Erin L. , Shaffer David R.
Published: July 2006

This study tests a model specifying that girls' precollege participation in sporting activities will foster positive body images, enhanced perceptions of physical competence, and more flexible gender identities, which, in turn, predict higher college self-esteem. A sample of 220 college females (mean age = 19.65 years) provided retrospective reports of their precollege sport involvement and contemporaneous assessments of body image, perceived physical competencies, gender identity, global self-esteem, and other psychosocial variables. Consistent with prior reports on male and mixed-gender samples, greater precollege sport participation predicted higher self-esteem in this exclusively female sample. Follow-up path analyses and tests for mediation revealed that the model's intervening variables totally mediated the sport participation/self-esteem relationship. The patterning of these data implies that participating in sports promotes females' self-worth by fostering physical competencies, favorable body images, and gender flexibility, and, in the absence of any such psychosocial benefits, participation in sports has little salutary effect on and can even undermine self-esteem.
Development of the Short form of the Feminist Perspectives Scale
Authors: Henley Nancy M. , Spalding Leah R. , Kosta Andrea
Published: July 2006

Development and testing of a 36-item version of the Feminist Perspectives Scale are reported. Study 1 ( N = 209) found high internal consistency for Femscore (α = .85). Alpha was greater than .70 for several subscales, although some showed reliability sufficient only for testing large groups. Test-retest correlations for all but one subscale were between .77 and .87. Validity was demonstrated by correlations between short and long forms (Femscore r = .87), among subscales, and with demographic/attitudinal variables. In Study 2 ( N = 95), relationships to the Attitudes toward Women Scale (AWS) and Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) were examined. The AWS was correlated negatively with the Conservative subscale and positively with the Liberal Feminist and Fembehave subscales. BSRI femininity was also positively correlated with the latter two subscales.
Psychometric Characteristics of the Social Reactions Questionnaire: A Measure of Reactions to Sexual Assault Victims
Authors: Ullman Sarah E.
Published: July 2006

Negative social reactions are common responses to disclosures of sexual assault. A study was undertaken to evaluate the psychometric characteristics of a new measure of social reactions to sexual assault victims, the Social Reactions Questionnaire (SRQ). Good reliability and validity were demonstrated for the measure in three samples of sexual assault victims: community volunteers, college students, and victims contacting mental health agencies. The SRQ provides a much needed measure of both the positive forms of social support and several negative social reactions received by sexual assault victims disclosing their assaults to a range of informal social network members and formal support providers.
Gender-Role Personality Traits in Japanese Culture
Authors: Sugihara Yoko , Katsurada Emiko
Published: July 2006

The etic (universal) aspect of gender-role personality traits was examined in Japanese culture. The Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI; Bem, 1974, 1977) was validated for the Japanese culture and modified for this study. An investigation of the personality traits among 1,227 college students using the Japanese BSRI indicated that male students scored significantly higher on the Masculine scale than the female students, whereas they did not differ from each other on the Feminine scale. It was also found that both female and male students scored significantly higher on the Femininity than on the Masculinity scale.
Psychological Abuse, Self-Esteem, and Women's Dating Relationship Outcomes: A Comparison of the Self-Verification and Self-Enhancement Perspectives
Authors: Katz Jennifer , Arias Ileana , Beach Steven R. H.
Published: July 2006

Self-verification theory implies that people with negative self-views may be drawn to abusive partners who mistreat them. However, abusive partner behavior differs from the types of partner feedback typically examined within a self-verification framework, which could render generalization to abuse problematic. We propose that self-enhancement theory better accounts for the effects of abuse on relationship outcomes. Self-enhancement theory suggests that people are drawn to others who treat them favorably, regardless of people's own self-views. We investigated the effects of abusive feedback from dating partners, relative to women's self-esteem levels, on relationship intimacy and stability. Predictions based on both self-verification and self-enhancement theories were tested cross-sectionally and with a subsample of women 6 weeks after the initial assessment. Results were most consistent with self-enhancement theory; partner abuse was related to lesser relationship stability and intimacy. More limited support was obtained for self-verification theory. Importantly, women with lower self-esteem did not endorse greater stability or intimacy as a function of receiving psychological abuse. We conclude that self-enhancement theory better explains the link between psychological abuse and relationship outcomes, although self-verification theory may account for reactions to other types of partner behavior.
Reduced-Hours Job-Role Quality and Life Satisfaction among Married Women Physicians with Children
Authors: Barnet Rosalind Chait , Gareis Karen C.
Published: July 2006

Interest in reduced-hours career options has been sparked by recent studies indicating an increase in the work week, especially among professional and managerial employees, a preference among all employees to reduce work hours substantially, and the perception that the absence of reduced-hours career options is an obstacle to professional advancement. Interest has also been fueled by the growing numbers of dual-earner couples whose ability to manage work/family demands might be facilitated by reduced-hours options. Yet, the belief that part-time work is associated with beneficial health effects has received scant empirical support. Building on prior research with full-time employees, we hypothesized that the quality of the experience of working reduced hours would better predict life satisfaction than would work hours per se. This hypothesis, which we tested in a sample of female reduced-hours physicians with children in two-earner couples, was supported.
Putting Feminist Pedagogy to the Test: The Experience of Women's Studies from Student and Teacher Perspectives
Authors: Stake Jayne E. , Hoffmann Frances L.
Published: July 2006

Critics of women's studies (WS) have charged that WS teaching overemphasizes students' personal experience and is overly politicized. They claim further that WS classes discourage critical, independent thinking and stifle open, participatory learning, causing student dissatisfaction. This study provides empirical evidence of the process of WS teaching from the perspective of 111 teachers and 789 of their students from 32 campuses in the United States. Contrary to WS critics, WS faculty and students reported strong emphases on critical thinking/open-mindedness and participatory learning and relatively weaker emphases on personal experience and political understanding/activism. In addition, student ratings of positive class impact were higher for WS than non-WS classes. The results support the pedagogic distinctiveness of women's studies.
Further Evidence That the Pigment in the Dubin‐Johnson Syndrome Is Not Melanin
Authors: SWARTZ H.M. , CHEN K. , ROTH J.A.
Published: July 2006

The pigment in the Dubin‐Johnson syndrome (DJS) is shown unequivocally not to be a typical melanin or closely related polymer. In electron spin resonance (ESR) studies of DJS pigment from a hepatoma, it is shown that, unlike true melanins, the pigment associated with the DJS syndrome has no free radical in the absence of light. Exposure to even low levels of visible light over a broad frequency range induces a free radical in the DJS pigment. Previous studies did not appreciate the sensitivity to light of this pigment and therefore erroneously concluded that the DJS pigment had a permanent free radical. The light induced ESR signal in DJS tissue has spectroscopic properties that differ significantly from any known melanins. The pigment is not extracted by lipophilic solvents and is centrifuged down at 50,000g, but not at 5,000g.
RNA and DNA in Melanosomes of Hamster Melanoma
Authors: VEDRALOVÁ ELIŠKA , DUCHOŇ JIŘÍ , HACH PETR
Published: July 2006

The melanosomes were isolated from Syrian hamster melanoma Ma by three different methods. Levels of about 0.2% RNA and less than 0.05% of DNA were detected in the melanosome preparations. The higher the purification of the melanosome samples, the lower the DNA content observed. Consequently, traces of DNA in melanosomes could originate from contamination. The irreversible interaction of DNA with melanosomes in vitro was not demonstrated.
Median Effect and Long Term Recovery Analysis of Biological Modifier Interactions With Difluoromethylornithine on the Proliferation of Human Melanoma Cells
Authors: BREGMAN MARVIN D. , BUCKMEIER JULIE , FUNK CAROLE , MEYSKENS FRANK L.
Published: July 2006

The ability of difluoromethylornithine (DFMO), a specific polyamine synthesis inhibitor, to interact with various biological modifiers to inhibit the colony‐forming growth of human melanoma cells was determined by using the median effect principle to computer model the strength of two agent interactions. Either alpha‐ or gamma‐IFN (interferon) in combination with DFMO resulted in a synergistic inhibition on human melanoma colony formation. For human melanoma cells which were not resistant to 13‐cis RA (retinoic acid), an additive suppression on colony formation was obtained with the retinoid‐DFMO combination. Dexamethasone (DEX) interacted with DFMO to yield a synergistic reduction in melanoma colony number on glucocorticoid sensitive cells and no growth enhancement with DFMO on glucocorticoid resistant melanoma lines.

Human melanoma cells displayed differential long‐term growth sensitivity to DFMO treatment. C8146C human melanoma cells were terminally growth‐inhibited by a 96 h exposure to DFMO, in a manner which was concentration and time dependent. The proliferation of C82‐7A melanoma cells was inhibited by 95% in presence of DFMO, but upon removal of DFMO the cells regained their ability to proliferate and form colonies. The simultaneous addition of DEX plus alpha‐IFN plus 13‐cis‐RA with DFMO caused most of the human melanoma cells in these lines to become permanently growth arrested. Pre‐treatment with DEX plus alpha‐IFN plus 13‐cis RA, but without DFMO, did not have any long term effect on the ability of melanoma cells to recover and proliferate in soft agar. Since human melanoma cells are heterogeneous with respect to sensitivity to these hormones, it may be advantageous to use DFMO with several of these agents in combination.
An Association of Melanophores Appearing at Metamorphosis as Vehicles of Asymmetric Skin Color Formation With Pigment Anomalies Developed Under Hatchery Conditions in the Japanese Flounder, Paralichthys olivaceus
Authors: SEIKAI TADAHISA , MATSUMOTO JIRO , SHIMOZAKI MASUMI , OIKAWA ATSUSHI , AKIYAMA TOYOKO
Published: July 2006

The mechanisms for asymmetric skin color formation in the Japanese flounder are studied with particular concerns to causes for pigment disorder (hypomelanosis) occurring under hatchery conditions. For an analysis of normal pigmentation, fish were raised with wild zooplanktons in an indoor hatchery, whilst for hypomelanosis, they were raised with Brazilian Artemia nauplii, a diet used in the hatcheries. Morphological observations, counting of melanophores, histochemical assay of DOPA‐positive immature cells (melanoblasts), and radiometric estimation of tyrosinase activities in skins of developing larvae and juveniles indicate that 1) the structural plan for pigmentation in this species is bilaterally symmetric until metamorphosis, utilizing large‐sized melanophores (hence larval melanophores) as main vehicles, and 2) an asymmetric coloration characteristic to metamorphosed juveniles is formed by an intensive development of smaller‐sized melanophores (hence adult‐type melanophores) appearing selectively in the ocular side at the later stages of metamorphosis and by an absence of it in the blind. These findings apparently indicate that 1) two types of melanophores occur in this species which differ with respect to morphological properties and developmental fate, and 2) selective differentiation of adult type melanophores in the ocular side of the body at or after metamorphosis is primarily responsible for an asymmetric coloration of its adult form. The similar assays on the fish fed with Artemia nauplii indicate that defective development of adult‐type melanophores results in hypomelanosis in their ocular‐sided skins, yielding a pigmentary pattern seen in the blind side of the metamorphosed juveniles with normal pigmentation. Thus, it is likely that some nutritional factor(s) present or deficient in these Artemia nauplii interfere with the development of adult‐type melanophores, possibly through modified tissue environment.
Invasive Characteristics of Neural Crest Cells In Vitro
Authors: GEHLSEN KURT R. , HENDRIX MARY J.C.
Published: July 2006

An investigation of the invasiveness of avian neural crest cells and neural crest‐derived melanocytes through a human amniotic basement membrane (BM) was undertaken. Avian neural tube explants or derived melanocyte populations were seeded directly onto BMs in membrane invasion culture system (MICS) chambers for periods of 24, 48, and 72 h. In 36 experimental trials for each group, neither neural crest nor neural crest‐derived melanocytes were observed to have invaded the BMs. In concert with these studies, coculturing of B16F10 murine melanoma cells with avian neural crest‐derived melanocytes was performed in MICS chambers. Under these experimental conditions, the neural crest‐derived melanocytes were able to successfully invade the BMs and to a greater extent than the B16F10 tumor cells. These data suggest that neural crest cells and neural crest‐derived melanocytes do not have the ability to invade the BM alone; however, they can be induced to be invasive when cocultured in the presence of B16F10 cells. Alternatively, the B16F10 cells may create weaknesses within the BM that facilitate migration of the pigmented crest cells.
Assays for Mammalian Tyrosinase: A Comparative Study
Authors: JARA JOSE R. , SOLANO FRANCISCO , LOZANO JOSE A.
Published: July 2006

This work describes a comparative study of the tyrosinase activity determined using three methods which are the most extensively employed; two radiometric assays using L‐tyrosine as substrate (tyrosine hydroxylase and melanin formation activities) and one spectrophotometric assay using L‐dopa (dopa oxidase activity). The three methods were simultaneously employed to measure the activities of the soluble, melanosomal, and microsomal tyrosinase isozymes from Harding‐Passey mouse melanoma through their purification processes. The aim of this study was to find any correlation among the tyrosinase activities measured by the three different assays and to determine whether that correlation varied with the isozyme and its degree of purification. The results show that mammalian tyrosinase has a greater turnover number for L‐dopa than for L‐tyrosine. Thus, enzyme activity, expressed as γmol of substrate transformed per min, is higher in assays using L‐dopa as substrate than those using L‐tyrosine. Moreover, the percentage of hydroxylated L‐tyrosine that is converted into melanin is low and is affected by several factors, apparently decreasing the tyrosinase activity measured by the melanin formation assay. Bearing these considerations in mind, average interassay factors are proposed. Their values are 10 to transform melanin formation into tyrosine hydroxylase activity, 100 to transform tyrosine hydroxylase into dopa oxidase activity, and 1,000 to transform melanin formation into dopa oxidase activity. Variations in these values due to the presence in the tyrosinase preparations of either inhibitors or regulatory factors in melanogenesis independent of tyrosinase are also discussed.
On the Formation and Degradation of Melanosomes in Smooth Muscle Cells: Electron Microscopic Investigation on the M. Sphincter Pupillae of the Rat
Authors: STANKA PETER , BARGSTEN GERHARD , SAHLMANN BERND
Published: July 2006

The electron microscopic investigation of the m. sphincter pupillae of adult black hooded rats showed the presence of melanosomes in the smooth muscle cells. In shape and size the melanosomes were like those of the iridial epithelium. In addition, premelanosomes and tyrosinase activity were observed as well as melanosomes with disintegrated content and acid phosphatase activity. The data suggest that the smooth muscle cells of the m. sphincter pupillae are capable of the formation and degradation of melanosomes.
Initial Mushroom Tyrosinase‐Catalysed Oxidation Product of 4‐Hydroxyanisole is 4‐Methoxy‐Ortho‐Benzoquinone
Authors: NAISH S. , COOKSEY C.J. , RILEY P.A.
Published: July 2006

Evidence is presented that the first and major product of the oxidation of 4‐hydroxy‐anisole (4HA) by tyrosinase is 4‐methoxy ortho benzoquinone (4‐MOB). 4‐MOB was synthesized by oxidation of 4HA by potassium nitrodisulphonate and comparisons made between the synthetic quinone and an extract of a reaction mixture in which 4HA had been completely oxidized by mushroom tyrosinase. The chemical species were found to be identical in UV/visible absorption spectrum, 1H‐NMR spectrum, and by thin‐layer chromatography.
Selective Cytotoxicity of Hydroquinone for Melanocyte‐Derived Cells is Mediated by Tyrosinase Activity but Independent of Melanin Content
Authors: SMITH CHRISTOPHER J. , O'HARE KATHYRN B. , ALLEN JOHN C.
Published: July 2006

In previous studies we have shown melanotic melanomas to be exquisitely more sensitive to hydroquinone (HQ) inhibition than non‐melanotic cell lines in vitro. Indeed, incorporation of [H3] Urd and [H3] Thd have been shown to be respectively 80 and 35 times more sensitive to HQ inhibition. The difference between the cell lines studied was their derivation, marked by their different melanin contents. The presence of melanin was proposed as a possible explanation of the differences. However, comparative experiments reported here demonstrate that amelanotic melanoma cell lines are equally susceptible to HQ inhibition. Thus, the action of HQ is apparently independent of the melanin content of the cell. Significantly, the tyrosinase levels in the melanomas and the amelanomas were found to be comparable and markedly different from that in the non‐melanoma control cell lines. Thus, the results reported here support the hypothesis put forward by other workers that hydroquinone melanotoxicity is independent of cellular melanin content but requires the presence of active tyrosinase.
Ultrastructural Changes Produced in Ehrlich Ascites Carcinoma Cells by Ultraviolet‐Visible Radiation in the Presence of Melanins
Authors: LEA PETER J. , PAWLOWSKI ANDREW , PERSAD SURUJ D. , MENON I. ARAVIND , HABERMAN HERBERT F.
Published: July 2006

Irradiation of Ehrlich ascites carcinoma (EAC) cells in the presence of pheomelanin, i.e., red hair melanin (RHM), has been reported to produce extensive cell lysis. Irradiation in the presence of eumelanin, i.e., black hair melanin (BHM), or irradiation in the absence of either type of melanin did not produce this effect. We observed that RHM particles penetrated the cell membrane without apparent structural damage to the cell or the cell membrane. Irradiation of the cells in the absence of melanin did not produce any changes in the ultrastructure of the cells. Incubation of the cells in the dark in the presence of RHM produced only minor structural, mainly cytoplasmic changes. Irradiation of the cells in the presence of RHM produced extensive ultrastructural changes prior to complete cell lysis; these changes were more severe than the effects of incubation of the cells in the dark in the presence of RHM. When the cells incubated in the dark or irradiated in the presence of latex particles or either one of the eumelanins particles, viz. BHM or synthetic dopa melanin, these particles did not penetrate into the cells or produce any ultrastructural changes. These particles were in fact not even ingested by the cells.
Pigment Types of Various Color Genotypes of Horses
Authors: SPONENBERG D. PHILLIP , ITO SHOSUKE , ENG LUDEMAN A. , SCHWINK KAY
Published: July 2006

Hair samples of various colors of horses were analyzed for content of both eumelanin and pheomelanin by a procedure using high performance liquid chromatography. The results are in accord with generally accepted genetic hypotheses accounting for the various colors. However, the results support the hypothesis that the chestnut/sorrel group of colors is conditioned by the extension locus, not the brown locus. The results also indicate that the brown locus is a likely contributor to some rare color phenotypes
Pigment Types in Sheep, Goats, and Llamas
Authors: SPONENBERG D. PHILLIP , ITO SHOSUKE , WAKAMATSU KAZUMASA , ENG LUDEMAN A.
Published: July 2006

Pigment types in various colors of fiber from sheep, goats, and llamas were assayed by a method using high performance liquid chromatography. In these three species the black/gray group is due to eumelanin, which is fully intense in all three species. Red phenotypes are due to pheomelanin and fade considerably with age in fiber from sheep and goats, but not in llamas. This phenomenon has implications on the genetic mechanisms used in generating white fiber. Brown phenotypes in sheep are due to eumelanin, in goats these phenotypes are equivocal, and they were not observed in llamas.
Induction of Growth Factor Receptors on Cultured Human Melanocytes
Authors: GILCHREST BARBARA A. , YAAR MINA , PEACOCKE MONICA
Published: July 2006

Using a sensitive and selective culture system for human epidermal melanocytes, we have demonstrated that the morphologic changes induced by addition of phorbol 12‐tetradecanoate 13‐acetate (TPA) to proliferating newborn melanocytes are associated with induction of nerve growth factor (NGF) receptors, as measured by messenger RNA (mRNA) levels and protein accumulation and by cell surface immunofluorescent staining. Growth factor deprivation or addition of NGF similarly results in NGF receptor induction. NGF is believed to function in vivo and in vitro as a survival factor for many neural crest‐derived cells and has been demonstrated to promote specific neural cell functions ranging from neurite outgrowth to enzyme induction, but to date no role for NGF has been identified with regard to normal human melanocytes. Our data demonstrate that, given appropriate stimulation, cultured human melanocytes may express the NGF receptor gene and therefore suggest that NGF may modulate human melanocyte behavior in vivo. This first demonstration of a growth factor receptor on human melanocytes provides an important opportunity to explore signal transduction relevant to their growth, differentiation, and malignant transformation.