bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
THE VALIDITY OF SURGICAL WOUND INFECTION AS A CLINICAL INDICATOR IN AUSTRALIA: COMMENT AND MEASURING SURGICAL WOUND INFECTION: COMMENT
Authors: Majoor Jennifer W. , Ibrahim Joseph E. , Cicuttini Flavia M. , McNeil John J.
Published: January 2008

We commend McLaws et al. for their informative review on the validity of surgical wound infection as a clinical indicator in Australia.1 We too, wish to emphasize that consistency in case‐finding methods and indicator definitions is mandatory when pooling data and using indicator rates to compare quality of care.
ROTATIONPLASTY OF THE LOWER LIMB FOR CHILDHOOD OSTEOSARCOMA OF THE FEMUR
Authors: Heeg M. , Torode I. P.
Published: January 2008

Background: Surgical management of osteosarcoma of the limb in childhood often involves extensive surgery. Intervention ranges from local resection to amputation depending on the level and the extent of the disease process. However, where the disease is extensive the level of amputation may preclude effective prosthetic use. In these circumstances resection of the diseased segment of the limb, i.e. an intercalary amputation and reconstruction with rotation of the tibial component of the limb can provide function equivalent to a below‐knee amputee.

Methods: To examine the role of rotationplasty of the lower limb for childhood osteosarcoma of the femur, a retrospective study was carried out which examined the function of five patients who had been treated by a tibial rotationplasty. The records of two patients who had died from metastatic disease 2 and 4 years after surgery were examined. The three surviving patients were examined clinically and their clinical records and radiographs were reviewed.

Results: Of the two patients who died from metastatic disease, neither had local recurrence of the tumour, neurovascular complications, late derotations or psychological problems. In the three patients who survived, there had been no local recurrence of tumour or other complication and each has an excellent level of activity with below‐knee function using a rotationplasty prosthesis.

Conclusions: For children with osteosarcoma of the femur and with extensive disease that precludes complete limb preservation, resection and tibial rotationplasty provides function far superior to a high above‐knee amputation or a hip disarticulation without the risk of local recurrence.
PRIMARY RECONSTRUCTION AFTER EXTENSIVE CHEST WALL RESECTION
Authors: Fui A. C. Y. , Hong G. S. , Ng E. H. , Soo K. C.
Published: January 2008

Background: Chest wall resection and reconstruction has been proven to be a safe surgical procedure. This is particularly useful for breast cancer patients with chest wall recurrences or for those who first present with locally advanced cancer in the chest wall where there is both a large soft tissue and bony defect that need repair. In addition, many of these patients have had irradiation or chemotherapy, which can significantly impair wound healing.

Methods: Thirty‐four patients underwent chest wall resection and primary reconstruction over an 8‐year period.

Results: Twenty‐three patients had breast carcinomas and six had breast and chest wall sarcomas. Of the breast carcinoma patients, 12 had local recurrences and 11 presented with locally advanced primary disease. Bony resection of the chest wall was required in 16 (47%) cases. Thirty myocutaneous flaps (18 rectus abdominis, four pectoralis major, eight latissimus dorsi) and three omental flaps were used for reconstruction. One required a deltovertebral skin flap. Skeletal reconstruction was necessary in four cases. All except one (97%) achieved primary wound healing. There was one mortality (3%) and three patients required further surgery for complications that were related to the reconstruction. Post‐resection metastases occurred in 13 (42%) patients and only 2 (6%) had local recurrences. The 2‐year survival rate was 78% with a mean survival time of 25.5 months.

Conclusions: Primary reconstruction for curative or palliative purposes is a useful and safe surgical procedure for patients with recurrent or locally advanced chest malignancies after extensive chest wall resection. Pedicled myocutaneous flap is the preferred option for skeletal and soft‐tissue coverage.
FUNCTIONAL POPLITEAL ENTRAPMENT SYNDROME
Authors: Deshpande Arvind , Denton Michael
Published: January 2008

Background: Classic popliteal artery entrapment is caused by the abnormal relationship between the popliteal artery and the medial head of the gastrocnemius, resulting in repetitive arterial compression and trauma. There is, however, a distinct subset of calf claudicants who have an anatomically normal popliteal fossa but can occlude the popliteal artery by repetitive vigorous exercise which involves active plantar flexion with or without extension at the knee joint.

Methods: Eight patients who led a vigorous athletic lifestyle were evaluated with duplex scan and biplane angiogram after being referred for bilateral calf claudication. They were found to have significant stenosis or occlusion of the popliteal artery with active plantar flexion. All patients had transection of the medial head of the gastrocnemius muscle with release of any vascular bands tethering the popliteal artery.

Results: Seven of the eight patients had complete relief. One patient noticed return of claudication at long distances, but a postoperative angiogram was normal. In all patients postoperative duplex scan showed no stenosis or occlusion of the popliteal vessels with the foot in active plantar flexion and the knee in extension.

Conclusions: Functional popliteal artery entrapment is becoming a significant cause of disabling claudication in young athletic individuals and needs to be diagnosed accurately for appropriate treatment. This condition is becoming well known with the incorporation of sports in the daily routine of most young people.
IMPROVING THE EASE AND SAFETY OF LAPAROSCOPY: A TECHNIQUE FOR OPEN INSERTION OF THE UMBILICAL TROCAR
Authors: Rice J. G. , McCall J. G. , Wattchow D. A.
Published: January 2008

Background: Sharp cannulation of the abdominal cavity for laparoscopy occasionally causes life‐threating injury to major vessels.

Methods: A technique of open cannulation is described to minimize this risk.

Results: In over 2000 general surgical laparoscopies performed the Flinders Medical Centre, there were no major vessel injuries and only one bowel injury (prior to laparotomy).

Conclusions: We advocate the use of open technique to minimize injuries caused by abdominal cannulation for laparoscopy.
THE TENSOR FASCIAE LATAE MYOCUTANEOUS FLAP CLOSURE OF MAJOR CHEST AND ABDOMINAL WALL DEFECTS
Authors: Gruen Russell L. , Morrison Wayne A. , Vellar Ivo D.
Published: January 2008

Background: The usual methods of closure of major chest and abdominal wall defects have significant disadvantages. Skin grafts provide no structural support and result in incisional hernias. Synthetic mesh requires skin cover and is prone to infection and wound breakdown. The tensor fasciae latae (TFL) myocutaneous flap offers skin cover and a semi‐rigid fascial layer. We document our unit'experience in pedicled and free TFL flaps.

Methods: The TFL flap closure of trunk defects was undertaken in 10 patients between August 1989 and April 1997. All cases were not amenable to primary closure and repair with synthetic mesh or skin grafts.

Results: The defect was satisfactorily repaired in all cases without subsequent herniation. The closure techniques using a pedicled TFL flap and a TFL flap for a free‐tissue transfer are described.

Conclusions: We conclude that the TFL flap is the method of choice for repairs of major truncal defects.
A PRELIMINARY EXPLORATION OF THE INTERACTIONAL SKILLS OF TRAINEE SURGEONS
Authors: Perkins J. J. , Sanson‐Fisher R. W. , Anseline P. , Gillespie W. J. , Lowe A.
Published: January 2008

Background: The interactional skills of 21 surgical trainees were studied in the areas of breaking bad news to patients and preparing patients for potentially threatening medical procedures. When compared to the established guidelines for dealing with these issues, the trainees performed poorly.

Methods: Trainees were videotaped using clinical histories delivered by simulated patients in simulated consulting rooms. All videos were scored on standard rating scales where the criteria for rating the specific interactional skills were adopted from existing guidelines.

Results: The proportion of trainees who could meet the guidelines when breaking bad news was low. The proportion of trainees who met the guidelines were: closing the the consultation (0%), provided patient information about prognosis (43%) and treatment (38%) and when they gave support (10%). There were also low numbers of trainees who could meet the guidelines when they prepared patients for potentially threatening procedures. Ten per cent of trainees followed the guidelines when providing information, 25% could establish treatment goals, 35% could give a prognosis and 0% could deal appropriately with psychosocial issues or close the consultation appropriately.

Conclusions: It is concluded that there is a need for further formal training in interactional skills as part of surgical training.
Social Indicators
Authors: Owens Helen
Published: January 2008

This article was prepared by Helen Owens of the Institute research staff.

Until the mid‐1960's it was generally accepted that gross national product provided not only a measure of economic performance but also a useful overall indicator of some aspects of human welfare. The limitations of GNP with respect to most non‐market phenomena were well recognised but the implicit assumption was made that the unmeasured aspects of welfare were positively related to changes in income as recorded in national accounts statistics. However, in the last decade or so, growing recognition of social costs and problems asociated with material advancement has led economists and other social scientists to look for new approaches to the measurement of social ‘progress’.1
Trying to Understand Stagflation
Authors: McDonald Ian M.
Published: January 2008

After a brief account of some of the salient facts of Australia's recent economic experience, this paper reviews some explanations for the apparent failure of labour markets to clear in recession and then reviews some explanations for the fluctuations in the aggregate demand for labour. Next, some links between real wages and employment are examined. The paper concludes with a discussion of the implications for economic policy of the preceding analysis.
Flexible Exchange Rates‐Twelve Years After‐Are There Alternatives?
Authors: Argy V.
Published: January 2008

The article reviews the performance of flexible exchange rates in the last twelve years and considers whether there are any real alternatives to the present regime. It first presents an ‘idealised’ version of what flexible exchange rates were sup posed to do; it then shows how different the reality has been. The article evaluates, in some detail, two claims made for the flexible exchange rate system: that nominal rates would tend to move in line with relative prices and with other changes in fundamentals and that it would provide macroeconomic independence. The article concludes by providing a framework in terms of cost‐benefit analysis for the evaluation of alternative exchange rate regimes.
Australian Monetary Policy: Recent Experience and Some Current Issues
Authors: Davis Kevin
Published: January 2008

This article surveys Australia's recent monetary experience highlighting current problems in interpreting the stance of monetary policy. It then examines changes in the techniques of monetary policy stemming from deregulation and changing views of the authorities. Finally, money supply control, deregulation and broad money growth, and commercial bill financing are analysed so as to help to shed light on the current problems of interpreting monetary condition.
Australia's Foreign Debt: 1975 to 1985
Authors: Dixon Peter B. , McDonald Daina
Published: January 2008

This article analyses Australia's debt accumulation since 1975 and comments on possible future paths of adjustment. In Section 2 we derive a formula describing the dynamics of debt accumulation. In Section 3 we apply the formula with Australian data for the period 1975 to 1985. A detailed analysis of developments in Australia's goods and services account is provided. Section 4 presents concluding remarks and reviews policy options available to Australia in the light of its external economic position. The article includes two appendices. The first contains some forecasts for the next year of developments In Australia's external accounts. The second gives data details and sets out the algebra underlying various computations in the article.
The Rise and Fall of National Allocative Planning in Australia
Authors: Ward Ian , Kulkarni Anand
Published: January 2008

In 1979 the Australian Labor Party's supreme policy making body, Federal Conference, proposed that a future Labor government embark on an extensive program of economic planning. In addition to continuing Keynesian monetary and fiscal policy, the Conference argued in favour of the introduction of a more comprehensive form of stability planning, or incomes policy; partial allocative, or industry, planning; and a national allocative plan. Since coming to power in 1983, the Federal Government has introduced an incomes policy as well as a number of industry plans. However, it has rejected national allocative planning. In this article we discuss the differences between these forms of economic planning and analyse the reasons which might explain the Government's rejection of national allocative planning.
Australia: The Conning of Age
Authors: Kelley Allen C. , Duke James B.
Published: January 2008

Australia faces a relatively favourable demographic future: ageing is proceeding at a slower pace here, the pattern of the labour force ageing is conducive to restructuring in the intermediate future, and a well‐established immigration policy can be used to accommodate demographics with social and economic goals. The financing of social services for the aged will produce fewer concerns here partly because of less immediate demographic pressures and partly because of the orientation of the age‐pension system. Provided there are increasing investments in today's youth, then chances of longer term productivity retardation from ageing will be lessened and the necessary funding base for aged welfare secured.
The Effects of Government size on Economic Performance: a Quantitative Assessment of a Budget Reduction
Authors: Dee Philippa
Published: January 2008

A question featuring prominently in policy debates over the last few years is whether Australia can gain from having smaller government. Proponents have stressed beneficial impacts on the supply side of the economy; opponents have stressed the deflationary impact from possible reductions in demand. This article provides a quantitative assessment of this essentially empirical question, namely, whether supply or demand responses would dominate. It suggests that over the short term, demand contraction may be important. In the longer term, increased incentives can expand Australia's productive capacity, although incentives to work longer appear less important than incentives created for capital accumulation. But the longer term expansion may be crucially dependent on foreign investor acquiescence to increased involvement in the Australian economy.
Is Monetary Policy Too Tight?
Authors: Harper Ian R. , Lim G. C.
Published: January 2008

Monetary policy has steadily become tighter over the past twelve months. In various statements, the Government has indicated its view that monetary policy needs to be tight in order to subdue an ‘excessively high’ rate of growth of domestic demand. This article asks whether the current stance of monetary policy is now too restrictive and, if so, what the consequences might be for the pattern and growth of economic activity during 1989‐90. A number of scenarios based on alternative settings of monetary policy in 1989‐90 are derived from a short‐term simulation model of the Australian economy. The scenarios suggest that, if monetary policy remains at the current degree of tightness, the Australian economy may well experience a recession in 1989‐90. Some easing of monetary conditions is mandatory if a sharp and unnecessary slowdown of economic activity is to be avoided. Exactly how far monetary policy should be eased depends crucially on the rate of growth of autonomous investment.
Worldwide Tax Reform ‘How Does Australia Compare?’
Authors: Sandford Cedric
Published: January 2008

Drawing principally on the English‐speaking countries, where tax reform has proceeded furthest, the common characteristics and causes of the worldwide tax reform movement of the 1980s are examined. Tax reform reflected the change in economic philosophy — disillusionment with state intervention and a revival of belief in the efficacy of markets.

The causes and content of tax reform in Australia have much in common with those elsewhere except that the reduction in marginal rates of income tax was achieved with no real change in the tax mix. The success of tax reform is assessed using as criteria: (i) how far the outcome matched the objectives specified by the reformers themselves — in particular tax neutrality; (ii) the sustain‐ability of the reforms; and (iii) how far ‘undesirable’ consequences (especially distributional effects) were avoided. Applying these criteria to Ireland, Canada, the United Kingdom, the United States, New Zealand and Australia, it is concluded that in all these countries there are deficiencies, but Australia comes second to New Zealand in the success league. The notable Australian deficiencies are the lack of a broad‐based consumption tax (Australia is now the only OECD country without one) and the fact that lower marginal rates of income tax have been achieved mainly because of falling real thresholds of the tax brackets.
Poverty Among Young Australians
Authors: Bell David N. F. , Rimmer Russell J. , Rimmer Sheila M.
Published: January 2008

In this article the incidence of poverty among the young is explained in terms of their labour force experience, educational attainment, gender, and living arrangements. The availability of the Australian Longitudinal Survey data enables the incomes of individuals to be related to many other socioeconomic variables over a number of years.

Generally the poor do not have high levels of education. About half of those classified as poor, endured a poverty spell of one year. But less than five per cent of the poor were so in each of the four survey years. Many of the poor were studying. Their low current incomes were presumably endured in the anticipation of high future earnings. The young women who were poor, many with children, were typically living in households offering them no additional financial support.
Australia, Japan and the OECD: GDP Rankings and Revealed Preference
Authors: Dowrick Steve , Quiggin John
Published: January 2008

Data on volumes and prices of consumption and investment are used to compare Australian real GDP for 1990 with the other OECD countries. Australian consumption patterns, including leisure, and price structure are very different from most other countries and especially from those of Japan. The Australian bundle of consumption, investment and leisure is revealed preferred to that of Japan and a number of other countries which are conventionally ranked above Australia in comparisons of real GDP per capita at international prices.
Forecasting and Futurology
Authors: Johnson David , Kenyon Peter
Published: January 2008

The Institute of Applied Economic and Social Research has published forecasts of the Australian economy since the late 1960s. These forecasts (usually 12 to 18 months ahead) have been dominated by short‐term macroeconomic factors. Compared with when the IAESR commenced its forecasting, there are now many forecasters who concentrate on the performance of the Australian economy over the short term. There is, however, a dearth of regular commentary which focuses on policy options for the medium to long term.

This article is the first of many which will aim to fill this perceived gap. In so doing we shall adopt a wider concept of forecasting called futurology.

In this approach, many constraints of traditional forecasting are relaxed. In particular, we allow responses by economic agents to policy changes. This will suggest plausible situations in which different outcomes are possible. Our purpose is not to suggest what the future will be, but what it might be under different scenarios.

Here, we put together some necessary ingredients to facilitate futurology. We review recent Australian economic performance, consider the implications of meeting a goal of five per cent unemployment by the year 2000 and outline some important influences on likely future growth. We suggest that new growth theory may provide a policy framework to achieve both high growth and low unemployment, noting the constraints imposed by increasing globalisation.

In subsequent articles, we shall employ these ingredients to write out plausible timepaths setting out how desirable end‐points (including the reduction of unemployment) may be achieved.
Four Examination Answers for Schools: Accounting
Authors: Wise Trevor D. , Wise Victoria J.
Published: January 2008

We Iicive selected four Yew Twelve e.˜miiin˜ition questions, from the I YO/ papers set by examiner in Queensland, Tasmania. Victoria arid Western Australia. As the solutions to a range of practicle problems haw been provided in a prevoius issue of this publication, we have chosen questions which examine the students knoweledge of accounting principles mid theoretical issues.
Balance Sheet Restructuring and Investment
Authors: Mills Karen , Morling Steven , Tease Warren
Published: January 2008

Abstract

This article looks at the evolution of corporate balance sheets and investment over the past few years.

We find that many companies have significantly improved their balance sheets in this time. Leverage has been reduced, and this, coupled with lower nominal interest rates, has improved the interest cover and cash flows of the corporate sector. For many firms, the process of balance sheet repair has proceeded a long way so that the extent to which the financial position of firms will impinge on investment is much lower than it was a few years ago.

Looking further ahead, it appears that the rate of return to investing in capital is relatively high, at least when judged against the standards of earlier downturns. With the recovery picking up pace we should, therefore, see firms more inclined to expand their capital expenditure and less focused on financial restructuring.
Total Factor Productivity, Annual User Charges, Capital Stocks and Cost Allocation: A Synthesis
Authors: Salerian J. , Jomini P.
Published: January 2008

Abstract

Total factor productivity (TFP) is an increasingly popular method of measuring the productivity of Government Trading Enterprises (GTEs) over time. It is important that the productivity changes reflect real improvements in productivity, rather than the particular treatment of financial items such as the written down value of assets. The annualised cost of capital (or annual user charge) is an important component of the measurement of TFP. This article compares three alternative methods of calculating an annual user charge (current cost accounting, the economic carrying charge and the discount weighted average tariff). Each method of calculating the annual user charge is combined with three methods of calculating the capital stock (deflated written down value, deflated replacement cost and the deflated value of the annual user charge). The trend in the input index is influenced by the method used and, in turn, affects the evolution of TFP. This is particularly important in GTEs where assets tend to be large, and asset additions or replacements occur infrequently.

To demonstrate the importance of this, a case study of Transperth's electrification of its urban passenger rail system is presented. The study shows that estimates of productivity varied by up to 20 per cent within three years of the assets being replaced.
Gender Inequality in the Provision of Employer‐Supported Education
Authors: Miller Paul , Mulvey Charles
Published: January 2008

Abstract

Only 27 per cent of females compared with 51 per cent of males undertaking programs of education in Australia do so with financial or other support from their employer. Using data from the How Workers Get Their Training, Australia 1989 survey, an analysis of this differential is undertaken by investigating the effects of dependent children and by controlling for differences in other characteristics between males and females. Although after controlling for these differences the absolute difference between males and females was small, 3.5 percentage points, the estimated bias in favour of males accounts for over 80 per cent of this differential; that is, less than 20 per cent of the differential can be accounted for by differences in male and female characteristics.
Developing with Foreign Investment: Malaysia
Authors: Athukorala Premachandra , Menon Jayant
Published: January 2008

Abstract

Over the past two decades, there has been a decisive shift in trade and industry policy in developing countries (DCs) away from import substitution and towards export‐orientation. As part of this policy shift, an increasing number of DCs have become more receptive to foreign direct investment (FDI). Despite its policy relevance, the literature on the role of FDI in the export expansion of manufactured exports from DCs is sparse. This article attempts to fill this gap through a case study of the role of export‐oriented FDI in Malaysia's rapid industrialisation. The overall conclusion of the article is that export‐oriented FDI has brought significant returns to Malaysia principally because the general economic climate has been favourable for the internationalisation of production for a considerable period of time.
Capital Constraints and Employmen
Authors: Fahrer Jerome , Simon John
Published: January 2008

Abstract

This article considers whether capital is a significant constraint on employment in Australia. We calculate the level of capital‐constrained employment for seven sectors of the Australian economy. The calculations suggest that the manufacturing; transport, storage and communication; and recreation, personal and other services sectors have sufficient capital installed to increase employment. In two other sectors, mining and wholesale and retail trade, the potential for increases in employment through increased capital utilisation may be constrained by surplus labour (as of June 1993). While some sectors are capital constrained at the moment, we find that the investment requirements to increase employment in these sectors are not onerous. We also project investment requirements in each of the sectors for employment growth over the next five years. These projections suggest that a jump in investment followed by relatively modest growth is required to sustain growth in employment.
The Revival of Economic Liberalism: Australia in an International Perspective
Authors: Henderson David
Published: January 2008

Abstract

Over the past 15 years or more, all the member countries of the OECD, including Australia, have liberalised their economic systems: there has been a general adoption of market‐oriented economic reforms. This article surveys the process of reform during this period for all the OECD economies, but with special reference to developments in Australia. It looks at five main areas of policy: financial markets (national and international), public finance, privatisation and deregulation, labour markets, and international trade. It considers in turn the nature of the process, the course and content of reforms, the main causal influences at work, and the impact and significance of liberalisation. In doing so, it draws extensively on work carried out in the OECD Secretariat.
Privatisation and Crime
Authors: Zagorski Krzysztof
Published: January 2008

Abstract

While criminalisation of the Russian economy can partly be explained by privatisation in conditions of underdevelopment of free market institutions, the emphasis on privatisation as the prime cause of crime may lead to gross oversimplification. The present article claims that faster and more radical, rather than slower and partial, privatisation could create less room for criminal behaviour in Russia. Half‐measures applied to privatise the Russian economy have contributed to prolonged uncertainty and to a blurred demarcation between the private and government sectors as well as between management and ownership in business enterprises. Prolonged coexistence of the two sectors creates too much opportunity for criminal behaviour. Moreover, an explanation of the growth in crime in Russia is impossible without analysing the legacies of the former communist system, the developments in politics (including demoralisation of the ex‐communist state apparatus), cultural factors and the specific features of the privatisation as actually conducted.
An Ordered‐Probit Analysis of Price and Performance in Competitively Tendered Contracts
Authors: Domberger Simon , Li Eric Ah Lik
Published: January 2008

Abstract

This article adopts an ordered‐probit estimation procedure to investigate the influence of competitive tendering on contract price and performance. Using a two‐equation recursive system the findings of Domberger, Hall and Li (1995) turned out to be robust to the ordered‐probit methodology which confirmed the strong negative effect of competitive tendering on contract price. The evidence also suggested that performance was either enhanced or remained the same in the presence of competition. Overall, the results of this investigation support the view that competitive tendering generates efficiency gains without adverse effects on quality of service.
The Social Structure of the Australian Urban Labour Market: 1976–1991
Authors: Hunter Boyd
Published: January 2008

Abstract

The changing social structure of the labour market has both distributional and efficiency implications for Australian society. This article analyses the increase in the employment inequality among Australian urban neighbourhoods (that is, Collectors Districts or CDs) between the 1976 and 1991 censuses. When CDs are ranked by socioeconomic status we find that the employment rate falls by more in the low status areas than in other areas. Given that participation and population growth rates are higher in the high status areas, this phenomenon is likely to be driven by differences in employment levels. Shift share analysis of changes in employment levels shows that the lower demand for workers who live in the low status areas has led to falls in employment in those areas. Therefore the structural shift in the Australian economy has been a major explanation of the differences in employment rate within Australian cities. The results raise questions about the current ability of Australia's economy to adjust to the structural change necessary in an open economy.
The Impact of the Welfare State on the Economic Status of Indigenous Australian Women
Authors: Daly Anne , Hawke Anne
Published: January 2008

This article uses census data and Department of Social Security administrative records to examine the role of social security income in explaining the growth and relative improvement in the income status of indigenous Australian women. The real median income of indigenous women was 81 per cent of that of non‐indigenous women in 1991 compared with 74 per cent in 1976. Much of the change has come about from an improvement in the position of indigenous women who were not in employment. The article argues that much of this improvement can be attributed to increased access to social security benefits for indigenous women and therefore needs to be qualified by the circumstances in which these women live.
The Australian Term Structure as a Predictor of Real Economic Activity
Authors: Alles Lakshman
Published: January 2008

This study examines the empirical relation between the yield spread of the term structure of interest rates and future economic activity in Australia. Results indicate that the term spread has significant power to predict real GDP growth but not nominal GDP growth. The term spread has more power in forecasting cumulative future growth than marginal growth in periods ahead. Around one‐third of the variance of two year GDP growth can be explained by the term structure one to two quarters ahead. Explanatory power begins to decline beyond two to three years into the future whatever the combination of the long and short term yields used to measure the spread. The term spread has more explanatory power than the most widely used leading index for forecasting economic activity when forecasting cumulative GDP growth beyond two quarters.
Bank Deregulation, Supervision, and Agency Problems
Authors: Davis Kevin
Published: January 2008

This article argues that the financial instability of the 1980s following financial deregulation in Australia can be partly traced to a lack of attention to agency problems in banking. Because the market for corporate control and corporate governance structures in banking were unsatisfactory, the benefits of increased competition in financial product markets were offset by inadequate monitoring and controls on bank management. It is also argued that the current emphasis of prudential supervision on capital adequacy requirements can provide only a partial solution to achieving efficiency and stability in the financial sector—because it focuses only upon the agency relationships between owners and government/depositors. Complementary developments in corporate governance and control are required to address agency relationships involving bank management. Some recent developments in this area and in supervision of non‐bank financial markets are assessed from the perspective developed in this article.
Changes in the International Competitiveness of Australian Manufacturing: 1968 to 1989
Authors: Bloch Harry
Published: January 2008

Disaggregated data for twenty‐seven Australian manufacturing industries are used to examine movements in international price competitiveness relative to each of sixteen major trading partners over the period 1968 to 1989. The changes in price competitiveness are decomposed into elements of exchange rates, tariff rates, profit margins and unit production costs. Great diversity in outcomes is found across both industries and trading partners, with differences in the growth of labour productivity and the cost of materials most closely associated with divergence in outcomes. The results show that domestic manufacturing industries have been able to achieve improved international competitiveness, where they have outperformed comparable industries in Australia's trading partners in terms of labour productivity growth or reductions in the costs of materials.
Income, Health and Happiness
Authors: Saunders Peter
Published: January 2008

This article utilises unit record data from the 1989–90 National Health Survey to explore the relationships between low income and perceptions of health and happiness. After describing how the key variables were constructed, attention is focused on the incidence of perceived poor health and unhappiness among those individuals living in income units on either side of a poverty threshold related to the Henderson poverty line. The results reveal that those in poverty generally have poorer health and are less happy than those above the poverty threshold. The observed differences are statistically significant for many income unit types, particularly non‐aged single people and couples with children. Attention then turns to exploring how health and happiness vary across the deciles of the income distribution. Again, significant differences are revealed, particularly when more sophisticated distributional measures are employed. Finally, consideration is given to the possibility that the results reflect reverse causality, and that the observed correlations incorporate the role of intervening variables.
CYCLIC REPRODUCTION, SEX DETERMINATION AND DEPRESSION IN THE CLADOCERA
Authors: BERG KAJ
Published: January 2008

1. The two series of observations on Cladocera showing (a) that a state of depression produced by unfavourable external conditions in Daphnia females kept in cultures causes a change from parthenogenetic to gamogenetic propagation, and (b) that gamogenesis in nature is accompanied by a state of depression in the populations in question, go to prove the correctness of the hypothesis that in nature the transition from parthenogenesis to gamogenesis is caused by the influence of unfavourable external conditions. Unfavourable external conditions cause states of depression in the females and thereby the change in the mode of reproduction and so also a change in sex determination. (Section II.)

2. A number of earlier and more recent laboratory experiments have given results which support this depression hypothesis. (Section III.)

3. Investigations in nature on parthenogenesis and gamogenesis in the Cladocera and simultaneous observations on other functions in these animals likewise afford support for the depression hypothesis. (Section IV.)

4. The reproductive cycle of the Rotifera is compared with that of the Cladocera. There is a good deal of evidence which would seem to indicate that in the Rotifera transition from parthenogenesis to gamogenesis—and so also the sex determination associated with it—is likewise caused by a state of depression, and that this state of depression may be induced by the influence of various external factors. (Section V.)

5. A general survey is taken of some of the biological peculiarities characterising the state of depression associated with the change from parthenogenesis to gamogenesis. (Section VI.)
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE CHLORIDES IN TISSUES AND ANIMALS
Authors: IRVING LAURENCE , MANERY JEANNE F.
Published: January 2008

1. Chlorine is an important component of an adult animal organism as a whole, since its depletion quickly results in serious consequences.

2. Chloride occurs in large and characteristic amounts in all tissues and fluids. Although a constant net composition is maintained, this chloride is not fixed, but an extensive movement occurs daily between different systems of the body. No conclusive demonstration of large chloride reserves has as yet been made.

3. A study of teleost eggs showed that the total base concentration remained constant, that during development the chloride concentration was reduced, and that new bicarbonate, phosphate and protein anions compensated for the chloride lost. Growth proceeded through changes in anions rather than changes in cations. Chloride reduction is a characteristic of all embryonic growth.

4. That chloride reduction accompanies specialisation is shown in embryonic development. Also the chloride concentration of adult tissues and fluids is inversely proportional to their degree of specialisation.

5. The loss of chloride with growth cannot be explained by theories of membrane equilibria. The energy necessary for the excretion of chloride is derived from metabolic processes involving bicarbonate and phosphate anions. Chloride ions do not participate in oxidative reactions but behave as relatively inert complements to other anions.

6. Because chloride is so easily determined, and since its movement attends changes in the concentration of other anions, and since low chloride is a sign of high specialisation, its concentration in tissues and fluids is useful as an initial indicator of the electrolyte make‐up or an electrolyte change in a system.
CONTROL OF MOVEMENTS BY THE CEREBRAL CORTEX IN PRIMATES
Authors: HINES MARION
Published: January 2008

Only the area frontalis agranularis of the agranular isocortex allocated by Economo & Koskinas to the cytoarchitectural motor type of cortex (man and macaque) has yielded contraction of skeletal muscle by stimulation with electric currents. Regions surrounding Flechsig's primary areas, characterized by large pyramids in layer IIIc, were electrically excitable in the macaque; but in man no movements so far have been obtained from areas 18 and 22. Areas which share ho cytoarchitectural features of these electrically excitable regions have responded to stimulation with the electric current. With one exception it is impossible to allocate these results to particular cortici‐fugal systems. Regions from which movements of eyes and ears were obtained shared either cortico‐tectal or cortico‐bulbar systems.

The frontal lobe of the monkey contains the neural mechanisms which maintain posture, start progression and choose the skeletal muscle to be innervated. The purposive use of that muscle in mass organization depends upon extrapyramidal systems; that in discrete organization upon the pyramidal system. Atrophy of skeletal muscle followed lesion of the pyramidal tract; hypertonia, contracture, brisk tendon reflexes, and clonus, followed ablation of extrapyramidal systems stemming from area 4; the ‘grasp reflex’ (reflex contraction of flexor muscles maintained by stretch) followed removal of extrapyramidal systems from area 6.

Coincident with the remarkable mosaic type of localization of sensibilities within the three posterior lobes, control of movement, the initiation of contraction, fixation of more proximal muscles, distribution of tone, sequence of contraction with innervation of prime movers and of co‐operating muscles have migrated as a whole to the frontal lobe of the primate, Macaca mulatta. Compared with the cat, in which extrapyramidal activity is distributed generously in three of the four lobes of the cortex cerebri, the frontal lobe of the monkey, like that of man, ‘serves in the motor aspect of the mind’.
EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATIONS ON CHROMOSOMES
Authors: CATCHESIDE D. G.
Published: January 2008

(i) When nuclei are irradiated by X‐rays, neutrons or radioactive radiations either clumping of the chromosomes or breaks and structural rearrangements of the chromosomes are observed at metaphase according to the division stage, respectively late prophase and metaphase or resting stage and early prophase, reached at the time of radiation. (2) Chromosome structural changes are induced at the resting stage, chromatid at early prophase. The number of primary breaks induced greatly exceeds the total number of breaks observed at the subsequent metaphase. The majority of the breaks restitute after being open for a few minutes. Exchanges are possible during the time the breaks are open. If the dose of radiation is given at a high intensity, in a short time, so that all the primary breaks coexist, the yield of X‐ray induced exchanges is proportional to the square of the dose. If the dose is given at a lower intensity, in a longer time, some restitution of the earlier formed breaks occurs before the later ones are formed, and the yield of exchanges is then proportional to a lower power of the dose. (3) Only breaks with an initial separation of not more than 1 μ have an appreciable chance of taking part in an exchange. (4) In neutron and α‐ray experiments, in which a small number of ionizing particles cross the nucleus, the yield of exchanges is linearly proportional to dose and independent of intensity. Thus the majority of the exchanges are between pairs of breaks produced simultaneously by the same ionizing particle. (5) An ionizing particle may break both chromatids of a split chromosome at the same locus and an isochromatid break usually results. (6) A proportion of the primary chromatid breaks are unjoinable; hence a proportion of interchanges are incomplete, a proportion of isochromatid breaks show non‐union and a proportion of breaks not taking part in exchanges persist as visible chromatid breaks instead of restituting. (7) The number of primary chromatid breaks can be inferred (Table 2) and are found to differ for different radiations. A proton or an α‐ray traversing a chromatid has almost unit probability of causing a break. An electron is likely to cause a break only if the last 0–3 μ of its ionized track traverses the chromatid; hence a minimum of 15–20 ionizations must be produced in a chromatid of diameter 01 μ for the breakage probability to approach unity. The relative efficiencies of different wave‐lengths and types of radiation can be explained on this basis.

I am greatly indebted to Dr D. E. Lea, Strangeways Laboratory, Cambridge, for his collaboration on radiation problems and especially on the present occasion for most generous permission to use unpublished calculations without which the present account would have been even more imperfect.
STAGES IN THE ORIGIN OF VERTEBRATES: ANALYSIS BY MEANS OF SCENARIOS
Authors: GANS CARL
Published: January 2008

Vertebrates lack an epidermal nerve plexus. This feature is common to many invertebrates from which vertebrates differ by an extensive set of shared‐derived characters (synapomorphies) derived from the neural crest and epidermal neurogenic placodes. Hence, the hypothesis that the developmental precursor of the epidermal nerve plexus may be homologous to the neural crest and epidermal neurogenic placodes. This account attempts to generate a nested set of scenarios for the prevertebrate‐vertebrate transition, associating a presumed sequence of behavioural and environmental changes with the observed phenotypic ones. Toward this end, it integrates morphological, developmental, functional (physiological/behavioural) and some ecological data, as many phenotypic shifts apparently involved associated transitions in several aspects of the animals. The scenarios deal with the origin of embryonic and adult tissues and such major organs as the notochord, the CNS, gills and kidneys and propose a sequence of associated changes. Alternative scenarios are stated as the evidence often remains insufficient for decision. The analysis points to gaps in comprehension of the biology of the animals and therefore suggests further research.
IS GREATER FEMALE LONGEVITY A GENERAL FINDING AMONG ANIMALS?
Authors: SMITH DAVID W. E.
Published: January 2008

(A) There are data showing beyond question a gender gap, with women living longer than men, especially in economically developed societies. There is greater male vulnerability to the major causes of human death.

(B) In lower animals there are data suggesting a female survival advantage to adult life in many species, but the observations do not consider longevity or survival to an advanced age.

(C) In laboratory rodents kept under controlled conditions the relationship of sex to longevity is variable, with males sometimes showing greater longevity than females and with life span being dependent on factors like breeding and diet.

(D) Similar genetic and hormonal processes operate in humans and in non‐human mammals including the genetic mechanism of sex determination, the hormonal consequences of sex determination, and the effects of hormones on processes which affect longevity such as cholesterol levels and immune functions.

(E) Causes of death in humans and animals are different, and it seems unlikely, therefore, that the same mechanisms could be determinants of longevity in all mammalian species.

(F) Human male and female longevity continue to change, and it is likely that the gender gap will narrow, with societal and medical changes in post‐industrial societies reducing the male disadvantages in behaviour and in the handling of cholesterol.

(G) It remains an important question whether part of the gender gap seen in humans is based on other differences in the basic biology of males and females.