bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
From conversion payments to integrated action plans in the European Union.
Authors: Lampkin N.
Published: November 2017

Organic farming is an approach to agriculture that emphasizes environmental protection, animal welfare, sustainable resource use and social justice objectives, utilizing the market to help support those objectives and compensate for the internalization of externalities. Although organic farming as a concept has existed for over 80 years, only since the mid-1980s has it become the focus of significant attention from policy-makers, consumers, environmentalists and farmers in Europe. In 1991, the EU introduced legislation to define organic crop production (EC Reg. 2092/91) followed by livestock production in 1999 (EC Reg. 1804/1999). Consumer demand for organic food has risen sharply, leading to the active involvement of multiple retailers and substantially higher prices at the farm gate than those received in the conventional sector. A more widespread application of policies for supporting conversion to and continued organic farming came into effect in 1992 when support to organic farming was included as one measure in the agri-environment programme (EC Reg. 2078/92), an accompanying measure of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) reform. This has been continued under the Agenda 2000 rural development programme (EC Reg. 1257/1999). As a result, policy support for organic farming is now widely available across Europe, in recognition of its contribution to surplus reduction, environmental and rural development policy objectives. These factors have contributed to substantial growth in supply, helping market development by increasing availability of products and raw materials, but in some cases also leading to oversupply problems and downward price pressures. As a consequence, more emphasis is now being placed on the development of action plans at local, national and EU levels, integrating supply-push and demand-pull policy measures. This paper documents the development of the organic sector, reviews the support policies in the various EU countries prior to and after the reforms of the CAP in 1992 and 2000, and discusses likely future directions in policy development.
The influence of the EU Common Agricultural Policy on the competitiveness of organic farming.
Authors: Offermann F.
Published: November 2017

The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) strongly influences the economic framework of agriculture in the EU, contributing to a significant share of farm receipts. Organic farms tend to receive higher total payments than comparable conventional farms due to support from agri-environmental programmes. However, due to differences in production structures, they receive fewer payments from the general schemes like arable area payments and livestock headage premia, which were introduced as part of the 1992 CAP reform. As yields in organic farming are lower, organic farms are also likely to gain less from the still widespread use of price support measures. Still, the CAP reforms have significantly increased the competitiveness of organic farming relative to conventional farming. While the introduction of direct support to organic farming in all EU member states was probably the single most important change. Modifications of the general support schemes also play a decisive role in this development. The replacement of price support by partly decoupled payments favours extensive farming systems. The introduction of premiums for set-aside has especially benefited organic arable farms. Initial calculations indicate that further decoupling as envisaged in the current discussion of future reforms of the CAP, such as grassland premiums or general uniform area payments, will considerably increase the financial attractiveness of organic farming in the EU.
Norwegian experience with conversion and support payments for organic farming.
Authors: Orlund K.
Published: November 2017

The development of organic farming is an integral part of Norwegian agricultural policy. Governmental conversion and support payments to organic farmers have been, and still are, important tools to reach the political goals established for organic farming in Norway. Norwegian experiences with conversion and support payments directed towards organic producers is the main focus of this paper. The paper describes how the subsidy system in Norway has emerged and the impact support payments have had on the development of organic farming. The subsidies are especially effective in increasing acreage demanding productions, but are not effective in enhancing acreage-intensive productions. Conversion and support payments can be effective tools to steer the development in the right direction but they are not effective if used as the only development tools.
Lianas and gap-phase regeneration: implications for forest dynamics and species diversity.
Authors: Schnitzer S. A. , Bongers F.
Published: November 2017

In this chapter, the authors focus primarily on the role of lianas in gap-phase regeneration following a treefall, a process that is thought to be important to overall forest regeneration and diversity. A brief background on gap-phase regeneration, outlining what it is and how it is hypothesized to work, is followed by a discussion of the role of lianas in gap-phase regeneration and how lianas can drastically alter the commonly assumed pathway of gap-phase regeneration. In the next section major theories are described and tests of how treefall gaps can maintain species diversity in tropical rainforests. Some applied research is reviewed on the role of lianas in post-logging gaps that are created during forest management and timber harvest.
Climbers in forest fragments in Togo.
Authors: Kokou K. , Caballé G.
Published: November 2017

Togo is located in the Dahomey Gap which separates the West African tropical moist forest from that of Central Africa. Farmland, fallow lands and savannahs essentially characterize the predominantly open landscape. In forest fragments in southern Togo, climbing plants represent one third of the total number of species. This study, conducted at 83 sites across Togo, addresses three objectives: (1) inventory of lianas and vines in forest fragments; (2) further characterization and description of forest types using lianas and vines; and (3) identification of environmental factors liable to explain variation in liana and vines species composition or justify their predominance and preference to different ecological regions in Togo. The results of this study showed that discrimination between forest types can be achieved on the sole basis of the floristic composition of climbers.
Checklist of climber species in Upper Guinea.
Authors: Jongkind C. C. H.
Published: November 2017

This list contains the names of all the climbing flowering plant species recorded from the forests of western Africa (Upper Guinea). Of the 746 species on this list the majority would be called lianas. Information on geographical distribution, climbing method, and fruit dispersal types is also included.
The entertainment industries: a re-introduction.
Authors: Moss S.
Published: November 2017

This chapter offers an introduction to key concepts concerning the entertainment industries. It covers the concept of novelty; the emotional effects of entertainment; the key mediums by which entertainment is delivered; and the composition of the entertainment industries, including events, visitor attractions, and entertainment venues and facilities.
Event planning and management.
Authors: Devine L. , Moss S.
Published: November 2017

This chapter is concerned with the practicalities and project management functions that need considering and implementing when running an event, from the initial conception of an event, to planning, running and managing the event, and then reviewing the event afterwards.
Human resources and artist management.
Authors: Barrett M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter is about employing and being employed in the entertainment industries. It considers the context of this industry and then provides an introduction to the generic principles of human resource management, before applying these to the specific context of recruitment and employment in entertainment, while also exploring alternatives to employment. The chapter goes on to consider the issue of equal opportunities, before concluding with an introduction to the main entertainment unions and industry bodies. The chapter offers examples from music, theatre, film and television.
Arts and cultural management.
Authors: Walmsley B.
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on the specific issues faced by managers in the arts and cultural sector. The first part of the chapter defines the arts and cultural industries and discusses the roles of managers and leaders working in the sector. The second part considers how arts organizations are structured and how they function operationally and strategically to fulfil their missions. The next part focuses on how producing companies fund, plan, programme and tour their work, exploring the role that cultural policy plays in supporting artistic projects. The last part focuses on arts venues and explores the challenges and opportunities they are facing in a world of reduced public funding. The chapter concludes with a case study on West Yorkshire Playhouse, one of the UK's largest regional producing theatres, which illustrates how management works in practice and critically explores the major macro-environmental factors currently affecting the sector.
Introduction to entertainment law.
Authors: Mendis D.
Published: November 2017

This chapter deals with selected legal issues that relate to the entertainment industries including parody, television formats, piracy and illegal file-sharing. As these issues all hinge on the laws of copyright, the chapter begins with a brief introduction to copyright law. The second part of the chapter considers legal issues arising from the media sector of the entertainment industries, such as the laws of defamation and privacy. Although the focus lies predominantly on UK and English law, the chapter does incorporate international case studies and provide comparative examples from other jurisdictions.
Introduction to facilities management.
Authors: Hassanien A. , Dale C.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the concept of facilities management within the context of the tourism, hospitality and events (THE) industries. It investigates the scope of facilities management and explores the growing importance and evolution of facilities management with particular emphasis on the motives behind it. Also, it discusses the benefits and objectives of facilities management for THE operations.
Information technology and THE facilities.
Authors: Robinson N. , Dale C.
Published: November 2017

This chapter investigates the role of information technology in tourism, hospitality and events (THE) facilities. It presents a typology of technologies as they relate to THE facilities. The chapter acknowledges developments in technologies as a process of political, economic and social changes that have occurred historically. It is concluded that technologies have the potential to drive change in facilities to meet day-to-day consumer needs and demands.
Innovation.
Authors: Hassanien A. , Gordon P. , Dale C.
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the role of innovation in tourism, hospitality and events (THE) facilities. The chapter looks at various aspects of innovation in the THE industries. It includes discussion on the definition, importance, motives, drivers, types, process and measurement of innovation.
Mobilities and information technology.
Authors: Benckendorff P. J. , Sheldon P. J. , Fesenmaier D. R.
Published: November 2017

In this chapter we have reviewed how mobile technologies can be used by the travel industry to support travelers while they are on the move. We have discussed how the broader impact of these technologies can be understood using a mobilities paradigm. We have reviewed some of the key aspects of the mobile technologies ecosystem, including mobile devices, signals and sensors, and operating systems and apps. The final part of this chapter presents ten functions of mobile devices in tourism. Mobile devices are perfectly suited to the application of travel. Despite all of these developments and applications, mobile devices are still in their infancy. As these technologies mature a range of new applications and possibilities will emerge for travel organizations and destinations.
Aviation and information technology.
Authors: Benckendorff P. J. , Sheldon P. J. , Fesenmaier D. R.
Published: November 2017

In summary, the application of IT in aviation is ubiquitous, comprehensive and dynamic. The aviation industry has used IT intensely and creatively to thrive in a competitive and volatile market. Its need for massive information processing and data communications has created the many systems discussed above. In the process, the airline industry has become a classic example of the successful application of information systems to operations, marketing and management. As demands on airlines and airports increase, airlines must investigate and invest in new technologies to improve the efficiency, comfort and safety of air travel. Throughout this chapter we have suggested how IT can improve the passenger experience and aviation operations. A variety of technologies and innovations are converging to streamline passenger processing.
Tourist experiences and information technology.
Authors: Benckendorff P. J. , Sheldon P. J. , Fesenmaier D. R.
Published: November 2017

The attractions and entertainment industry is changing rapidly to provide visitors with ever more enjoyable, thrilling, educational and diverse experiences. Whilst technology is not leading the way, it is providing more options for the development of entertainment and educational experiences. Virtual and augmented reality technologies are likely to increase and become more refined so that visitors can experience changes in time and place at will. Operators are using IT to efficiently track their operations and to control access to their facilities. They can also use IT to market their activities and to personalize guest experiences. Larger theme parks like Disney are likely to lead the sector in IT use but innovative solutions using visitors' own mobile devices are also being implemented creating opportunities for smaller attractions that cannot afford expensive IT systems.
The future of information technology and tourism.
Authors: Benckendorff P. J. , Sheldon P. J. , Fesenmaier D. R.
Published: November 2017

The tourism industry has responded to the various forces of change by adopting a new paradigm embracing innovation led by travelers' co-creation activities. Once thought of as a "problem" which could not be controlled, leaders within the industry now recognize the "brilliance" of this strategy through the extensive use of CRM programs, the use of social media/user-generated media, videos, blogs and tweets, and customer-driven innovation (CDI) to create new travel products. Advances in technology are creating new materials and enabling machines and everyday objects to become "smart". A move toward open systems will allow all of these technologies to interact with each other, resulting in new opportunities to stream travel processes. All of these developments are converging to create a bold new world that may be even more disruptive than the development of the Internet and social media. The revolution over the past two decades appears to have taken hold, and now offers the means for both the traveler and the industry to realize a future just imagined a few years ago.
Introduction: using events as a strategic marketing tool.
Authors: Gerritsen D. , Olderen R. van
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter explains what events are and how organizations can use them strategically. Moreover, it discusses several types of events and introduces the EVENTS model developed at the NHTV Breda University of Applied Sciences as a tool to study systematically the strategic use of events. Finally, the structure of the book is described.
The translation of strategy into concept.
Authors: Hover M. , Gerritsen D. , Olderen R. van
Published: November 2017

The concept of an event should be aligned to the values of the target group. A conversion must be made into a perfectly staged experience. The tools required to do so are an analysis of supply and demand, the values of the target group and the experience model. The experience model shows how an event will be experienced. In this, the psychosocial framework plays a vital role. There are three levels of experience: basic, memorable and transformative. The factors within the psychosocial framework are knowledge, expectations, motives, mood, involvement, social context, personality and values. A concept, as the result of an idea, is the active principle that creates coherence and gives direction to the realization of one or more objectives. Clear criteria can be formulated for a strong experience concept, and creativity is indispensable to arrive at a concept that focuses not only on the content of an event but also on the form. Form refers to the setting of an event. The physical environment is part of it and should meet three basic conditions. Finally, the experience tools for an event are thematizing, storytelling, senses, play, co-creation and personnel.
Planning for tourists and residents in an historic destination - York UK.
Authors: Tempest I.
Published: November 2017

This chapter provides a 50-year overview of how tourism has been organized and developed in the historic city of York (UK), through public-private partnerships. The chapter looks at how town planning has guided land uses in the city and, in a case study on transport, highlights how sustainability initiatives have influenced resident and tourist transport uses.
Understanding the Balaton: a Hungarian case study in planning for tourism.
Authors: Raffay Á. , Clarke A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter provides an account of the scale and complexities of governance around Lake Balaton, in Hungary. It critically assesses the challenge of working towards sustainable development, within emerging governance structures, highlighting competition between different destination management organizations (DMOs). In its assessment of this destination, the chapter considers the challenges of planning multi-tourist activities in the Balaton area, given these governance complexities.
Beyond enclave tourism: the road to sustainability of Mauritius.
Authors: Prayag G.
Published: November 2017

This chapter profiles the small island developing state (SIDS) of Mauritius as an example of enclave tourism, which has limited economic links to the local community. The chapter considers the opportunities and constraints that enable sustainable tourism development to emerge. It particularly considers the consequences of non-participatory tourism planning and development processes on the residents' role in tourism.
What is economics?
Authors: Hill B.
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the essence of economics, explaining the concepts of opportunity costs, scarcity, the objectives of choice, and the mechanisms of allocating scarce resources. The scientific approach to economics is also discussed, as well as the problems faced by scientific economists.
Explaining the behaviour of individuals: theory of consumer choice.
Authors: Hill B.
Published: November 2017

This chapter explains two theories to explain consumer behaviour: (i) utility theory; and (ii) indifference theory. Both make the reasonable assumption that the objective the consumer has in mind is to get the greatest amount of satisfaction possible from the limited amount of purchasing power he or she possesses.
Demand and supply: the price mechanism in a market economy.
Authors: Hill B.
Published: November 2017

This chapter explains the theories of demand and supply. Factors affecting demand for commodities are discussed, including the price of the commodity, the income of consumers, the changes in the price of competitive and complementary goods, and the tastes of consumers. The significance of the price and income elasticities of demand to agriculture is discussed. Also explained are the factors affecting supply of commodities, including the price of the commodity, the prices of all the other commodities that are within the firm's production possibilities, the prices of factors of production, the state of technology, and the goals of firms.
Factors of production and their rewards: theory of distribution.
Authors: Hill B.
Published: November 2017

This chapter explains land, capital, labour, and entrepreneurship as factors of production. It also explains the mobility and unemployment of these factors of production, their allocation and their rewards.
Macroeconomics: the workings of the whole economy.
Authors: Hill B.
Published: November 2017

This chapter analyses the workings of the aggregate economy and offers explanations for macroeconomic phenomena. It covers: the circular flow of income; the level of aggregate demand; employment; inflation; the quantity theory of money; economic growth; and the costs of economic growth.
The LETS experience economy.
Authors: Buswell J. , Williams C. , Sutton C.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the growth in the importance of the experience economy and the nature of the leisure, events, tourism and sport (LETS) consumer experience, and considers their implications for the management of service quality. Factors in the relationship between service quality and the LETS experience are highlighted.
Quality and satisfaction concepts.
Authors: Buswell J. , Williams C. , Sutton C.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the core theories that shape our understanding of service quality and customer satisfaction, including the relationship between expectations and perceptions and between service quality and customer satisfaction. The chapter also discusses a number of approaches to aid managers in their quest for improvement. Human Sigma in particular is a new approach that measures an important service quality determinant in the leisure, events, tourism and sport (LETS) industry - that is, employee and customer engagement.
Principles of monitoring service quality.
Authors: Buswell J. , Williams C. , Sutton C.
Published: November 2017

This chapter explains the importance for leisure, events, tourism and sport (LETS) organizations to monitor service quality and the key approaches used to generate feedback from their consumers. It distinguishes between qualitative and quantitative methods and offers insights into the choice of methods for tracking consumer behaviour and customer satisfaction.
Invasive alien plants as a constraint to development in tropical Asia: is there a crisis in the making?
Authors: Murphy S. T.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the reality of the threat of invasive species, with a focus on invasive alien plants in the developing countries of tropical Asia to form a 'case study' of what type of information is available on invasive alien plants, the magnitude of the threats involved and whether or not these plants have any benefits. The extent to which country and other stakeholder responses and actions to the reported threats match this reality is then reviewed. This is followed by a discussion of what factors have led to the paucity of action that has been found and whether this is leading to a crisis of the impacts of invasive plants and other invasive alien species. For tropical Asia, as for other parts of the globe, the opportunities are there to address the ongoing crisis of invasions of alien plant species. However, a core urgent need is for coordinated regional and national actions that involve all principal stakeholders in new partnerships to catalyse actions.
Impacts and management options for Mikania micrantha in plantations.
Authors: Sankaran K. V. , Tjitrosemito S. , Sastroutomo S. S.
Published: November 2017

This chapter looks at the impact of mikania (M. micrantha) in plantation crops and reviews options for its management. A tabulated summary of the various impacts of mikania in plantations and commercial crops in the Asia-Pacific region is provided. Options for controlling mikania in plantations include manual/mechanical measures and the application of herbicides but, there are often significant constraints to implementing these methods. Mikania has serious impacts on the productivity and profitability of plantations across the Asia-Pacific region, which the current management efforts are either unable to contain or, if they work, can only do so at a cost that is unsustainable. Economic assessments have proved that mikania invasion in plantations causes cost escalation or income reduction, or both. Managers frequently fail to decide how to make the trade-off.
Mikania micrantha: its status and impact on people and wildlife in Nepal.
Authors: Baral H. S. , Adhikari B.
Published: November 2017

Of the non-native species that have begun to show invasive characteristics, M. micrantha (mikania) has emerged as the most serious weed in the tropical and subtropical areas of Nepal. This chapter discusses the arrival and spread, as well as the ecological, economic and social impacts of mikania weed. Current management practices in Nepal are also described. The First National Workshop for Stakeholders - Mikania micrantha Weed Invasion in Nepal is mentioned, which aims to assess the state of knowledge of mikania invasion in Nepal and consider management options. The meeting provided basic information to researchers, managers and conservationists from concerned agencies in the environment, forestry and agricultural sectors to facilitate and synergize efforts to control mikania. Although manual, cultural (utilization) and chemical measures were considered at the workshop, they were discounted as practical or sustainable widescale solutions.
Sustainability, ethics and social responsibility: a developed economies perspective.
Authors: Wiscombe C. A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter defines key concepts that underpin the management of sustainability for rural tourism in developed countries, namely, the concepts of 'rural', rural development, rural tourism, sustainability and ethics. It also discusses the role of stakeholder theory in rural tourism sustainability; and outlines where different responsibilities lie when developing tourism in rural areas.
Sustainability and ethics in rural business and tourism in the developing world.
Authors: Lim W. M. , Heitmann S.
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores sustainable (and unsustainable) and ethical (and unethical) practices in rural business and tourism in contexts in which sustainability and ethics are not formalized. The chapter considers the opportunities and challenges for encouraging and promoting ethically sustainable development in contexts in which informal practices are dominant using real-world cases of business practices and tourism activities in developing countries, particularly from Africa and Asia, and consequentially explains the implications of theories and practices on sustainability and ethics in rural business and tourism in developing countries.
Opportunities for growth: the rural tourism policy and planning perspective.
Authors: Wiscombe C. A. , Gelder S.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the global, international and national policy and planning infrastructure that contributes to rural tourism sustainability from which regional and local development can emerge. It uses examples from developed economies to illustrate the points made.
Wants, needs, demand, benefits and participation.
Authors: Veal A. J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter reviews a number of concepts relating to policy making and planning in leisure, sport and tourism, including: wants, needs, demand, benefits, and participation and, in less detail, opportunities, collective consumption, quality of life and well-being.
Public policy making.
Authors: Veal A. J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter provides an introduction to public decision-making processes, particularly in leisure, sport and tourism. The following are discussed: international dimensions of public policy; formal national constitutions; other institutions involved in leisure, sport and tourism policy making and implementation; theoretical models and approaches in decision making; and urban growth regimes and their application to leisure, sport and tourism.
Planning tool 3: facility/service audit - facility use and its measurement.
Authors: Veal A. J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers the challenges of measuring facility use levels in leisure, sport and tourism. It discusses the different usage data collection methods, and brings capacity and use together by examining the spatial dimension of facility use. Spatial analysis is concerned with facility catchment areas and the chapter considers how these might be measured and used in the planning process. Finally, the chapter gives some consideration to spatial modelling, hierarchies of facilities and priority social area analysis.
Performance evaluation.
Authors: Veal A. J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores the evaluation stage of the planning process in leisure, sport and tourism. The steps involved in performance evaluation are outlined and in particular it is emphasized that performance evaluation must be linked to goals and objectives. Various examples of performance evaluation are considered, namely marketing-based customer service quality approaches and importance-performance analysis and the Comprehensive Area Assessment performance framework. In the subsequent section, applications in arts, sport and tourism in Australia and the UK are considered.
The nature of tourism research.
Authors: Smith S. L. J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter introduces the reader to the some of the ways that social scientists think about tourism and how they ask questions about it. A core message of this chapter is that there is no single 'right' way of doing tourism research. However, research can be done well or not so well.
Questionnaire design and delivery.
Authors: Smith S. L. J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter explains why surveys are a common data collection tactic in tourism; explains the two basic formats of questions; and offers practical advice in designing effective questionnaires. Three options for distributing the questionnaire are also discussed: personal distribution; self-completion (mail-back) surveys; and web-based (online) surveys.
Indices and scales.
Authors: Smith S. L. J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter describes a number of important indices and scales used in tourism research. These empirical (quantitative) tools can help summarize complex data simply for easier comprehension and further analysis. Two indices that are particularly useful in tourism research are explained: the location quotient, and the Gini coefficient. Two established scales are explored: the semantic differential scale and the Likert scale. Also described is a tool that combines two scales into a single tool: importance-performance analysis.
Content analysis.
Authors: Smith S. L. J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter defines content analysis; discusses its uses in tourism research; highlights the possible elements to include in a content analysis; and describes the general procedures for undertaking a content analysis. Content analysis of travel photographs is discussed in the last part of the chapter.
Qualitative research in leisure, recreation and tourism.
Authors: Ruddell E.
Published: November 2017

This chapter includes the broad family of techniques called qualitative research methods. Although the specific techniques may vary, some over-arching themes unite qualitative methods into one larger family. Qualitative research focuses on descriptions based on kind rather than on quantity. It emphasizes the meanings people construct surrounding events in their lives. It also emphasizes the importance of understanding those meanings as they are embedded in context. The perspective is emic rather than etic. As such, text rather than numbers is its primary data source. Finally, its approach is inductive and interpretive rather than deductive. Qualitative methods take extensive training to master and can be very tedious and time-consuming to conduct. However, the effort to conduct such research can be engaging and exciting, as one frequently feels on the edge of discovery. Indeed, qualitative research is a powerful and engaging tool for understanding the local, lived experience of a person's meaning making.
Communicating research results.
Authors: Tierney P.
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on communicating and reporting research results and discusses four types of research reports: class assignments, a thesis or dissertation, a research journal article and a technical report. Most comprehensive research reports, such as a thesis, contain all of the following sections: title page, abstract, introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion, references and appendices. The research report is divided into three sections: 'front matter', containing legal notices, title, an executive summary and listings of contents; the 'body', which is the heart of your report, containing your introduction, literature review, methods, results and discussion sections; and 'back matter', consisting of references and appendices. There are two broad types of research presentations covered in this chapter: a thesis or dissertation defence; and a research conference presentation. We present typical steps in the thesis or dissertation defence process and stages in getting accepted and presenting at a research conference. The chapter ends with a discussion of ethical and legal considerations for publishing, presenting and protecting your work.
Organic livestock husbandry and breeding.
Authors: Hörning B.
Published: November 2017

A short overview about organic animal husbandry is given. The problems encountered in organic animal housing and breeding are discussed. The possible conflict areas in housing are regulations, health risks, environmental pollution and profitability. Alternative breeding approaches applied on dairy cows, pigs and poultry are presented.
Economic management in organic agriculture.
Authors: Wynen E.
Published: November 2017

This chapter highlights key issues affecting returns to management in organic agriculture, often comparing them with returns to management on a conventional farm. Production, input costs, output prices, premiums and subsidies are discussed to arrive at the farm profitability on established organic farms. The strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats in organic farming are also identified.
Social responsibility in organic agriculture: learning, collaboration and regulation.
Authors: Pyburn R. , Sriskandarajah N. , Wals A. E. J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter provides an overview of social responsibility within the organic sector, referring to different conceptualizations and discussions underway. Against this backdrop, the focus on social justice issues, as embraced by leading organizations in the field, is discussed and a three-pronged approach for addressing social responsibility is presented and advocated. Regulation, collaboration and learning are argued as three necessary and (potentially) mutually reinforcing coordination mechanisms for fostering enhanced social responsibility throughout the organic sector and furthering the social agenda. Regulation and collaboration are explored, with several examples provided to illustrate current manifestations of how these mechanisms work. A learning approach is articulated in more depth, with nuances and challenges considered.
Research to support the development of organic food and farming.
Authors: Watson C. , Alrøe H. , Kristensen E. S.
Published: November 2017

In this paper, development of organic research is examined briefly through both the public and private sectors and then some of the issues that surround research on organic agriculture in terms of approaches and appropriate methodologies is explored. The extent to which organic and conventional agriculture require different research and different approaches to research is also explored.
Design of farmer education and training in organic agriculture.
Authors: Seppänen L. , Francis C.
Published: November 2017

This chapter begins by exploring and discussing the unique characteristics and challenges of organic agriculture. It is suggested that these challenges need to be understood for developing both the content and methods of efficient education for organic farmers. Three different perspectives for learning are presented (knowledge acquisition, participation and knowledge creation) and related to farmer training in organic agriculture. Concrete examples in planning and conducting networks and educational programmes (in Norway and the USA) and in using learning tools (in Finland), are presented. Some elements of these case examples are discussed in the context of the three learning perspectives.
Poisoning by day lily (Hemerocallis sp.; Hemerocallidaceae) in Brazilian cats.
Authors: Souza T. M. , Fighera R. A. , Kommers G. D. , Barros C. S. L.
Published: November 2017

A report on cases of plant poisoning covering the year from 1995 to year 2000 among Brazilian cats was presented. Emphasis of the report focused on the clinical aspects as well as necropsy findings in cats poisoned by Day Lily Hemerocallis spp.; Hemerocallidaceae in the southern regions of Brazil.
Heterologous expression of a cytochrome P450 from Turkey liver that activates aflatoxin B1.
Authors: Coulombe R. A., Jr. , Yip S. S. M.
Published: November 2017

The purpose of this study was to clone, express and partially characterize the gene product P-450 from turkey liver to gain an insight on its role in the sensitivity of this species to aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). We identified a novel P-450, which we designated as CYP1A5 based on the nucleic and amino acid sequence similarities with the chicken CYP1A5. The gene was heterologously expressed in sufficient quantities in Escherichia coli. It oxidized AFB1 to form 2 metabolites with kinetic properties largely similar to the human CYP1A2, the P-450 isoform principally responsible for metabolizing AFB1 in the liver and lungs. Because of the importance of these metabolites in the toxicity of AFB1, we conclude that this P-450 probably plays a role in the hypersensitivity of turkeys to AFB1.
Lupine-induced crooked calf diseases: plasma disposition of lupine alkaloids following repeated challenge in cattle that have given birth to affected calves or those that have borne normal calves.
Authors: Gay C. C. , Tibary A. , Panter K. E. , Mealey K. L. , Gay J. M. , Hjartarson S. W. , Motteram E. , Wierenga T. , James L. F.
Published: November 2017

In this study, a hypothesis that the pharmacokinetic disposition of anagyrine following repeated challenge, and the response of the fetus, is different in cows that give birth to calves with lupine-induced arthrogryposis than in those that give birth to clinically normal calves was examined. 12 mature cows were obtained from ranches on which calves with lupine-induced arthrogryposis had been born. The cows were challenged with 2 g of dried lupine per kg body weight between 46 and 51 days of the gestation period for the first challenge, and 2.5 g/kg body weight for the 2nd and 3rd challenge between day 60 to 63 and day 68 to 75 respectively. Results: plasma alkaloid concentrations are shown from the two groups of cattle. For the three outcome variables, the differences between the two groups over the three time periods were not statistically significant. Whereas a significant decrease in fetal activity was observed in all cows 4 hours and 12 hours after challenged both at 60 and on the 70th day of pregnancy. There is no evidence in this study to support the differences in metabolism and disposition of anagyrine as a reason for differing birth outcomes in cows under the same lupine-exposure risk. It is probable that this difference between cows reflects differences in amount and timing of lupine consumption.
ARGT-related inhibition of GlcNAc-1-P transferase activity in different tissues of sheep and rats.
Authors: Stewart P. L. , Greenwood J. , Michalewicz A. , Colegate S. M.
Published: November 2017

The inhibition of the enzyme N-acetylglucosamine-1-phosphate transferase (GPT) by corynetoxins (CTs) is a primary biochemical lesion associated with Annual Ryegrass Toxicity (ARGT) and its tunicamycins (TMs)-based experimental model. The determination of microsomal GPT activity in different tissues provides an indirect way to assess the toxicodynamics of TMs. However, this can be subject to variation depending on the conditions of the collection and storage prior to analysis. This study was conducted to determine the stability of enzyme in sheep and rat liver tissue stored at -80°C. The presence of CTs/TMs in tissues other than the liver which can adversely affect the endogenous microsomal GPT was also determined along with the native GPT activity for rough and total microsomal fractions from various tissues of sheep. Liver samples were collected from four male rats and three 18-month-old ewes. The GPT activity of the rough microsomal fraction was determined in fresh tissue samples and samples stored for 4 months at -80°C. To determine the effects of CTs/TMs on the GPT of different tissues, the specific GPT activities for the total, smooth and rough microsomal fractions isolated from liver, kidney, heart, lung, muscle and brain were assessed. Groups of 5 sheep were also exposed to 40.5 to 4.5 µg TMs/kg/bw/day in their diet over a 12-month period while groups of 20 mice were similarly exposed to 121.5 or 13.5 µg TMs/kg/bw/day in their diet over a 9- and 12-month period, respectively. The results showed that liver samples can be successfully stored at -80°C for at least 4 months without any adverse effect on the GPT activity. However, the GPT stability of freeze-stored liver microsomes is not so reliable but does increase if the protein concentration is greater than 3 mg/ml, resulting in a loss of less than 10% of initial activity over a 4-week period. The GPT activity in sheep liver microsomes was affected to a far greater extent in vivo by TMs than activity in other tissues and is therefore the tissue of choice as an indicator of tunicaminyluracil glycolipid exposure. A dose-dependent effect on liver rough microsomal GPT activity was observed in rats and sheep in both genders when exposed to low levels of dietary TMs. There was no evidence of any compensating upregulation of GPT activity back to levels consistent with untreated animals in either study.
Effects on bodyweight of rats and sheep due to exposure to tunicamycins: implications for annual ryegrass toxicity.
Authors: Anderton N. , Cao Y. , Darcy C. , Ford M. , Greenwood J. , Knill A. , Michalewicz A. , Stewart P. L. , Wilson S. , Colegate S. M.
Published: November 2017

Eight studies were conducted to determine the weight-related effects and feed intake levels for rats and sheep given tunicamycin (TMs) as single parenteral doses or exposed to different levels of dietary TMs for varying lengths of time: 75 and 300 µg/kg bw single SC for 72 h (study 1); 100 and 200 µg/kg bw single SC for one day to 20 weeks (study 2); 294 and 800 µg/kg bw/day oral for 2 weeks (study 3); 800 µg/kg bw/day oral for one week (study 4); 108 µg/kg bw/day oral for 6 months (study 5); 40 µg/kg bw/day oral for 6 months (study 6) and 121.5 and 40.5 µg/kg bw/day oral for 12 and 9 months, respectively (study 7). The last study utilized sheep given 40.5 µg/kg bw/day oral for 12 months. It was found that in studies 1 and 2, involving single subcutaneous injections of TMs to adult rats, a reduction in body weight was observed, whereas in studies 3 to 7, involving total exposure of young growing rats to TMs, a reduction in weight gain was observed. The studies in rats indicated at least two mechanisms (related to feed intake and utilization) for adverse impact on body weight. It is not known whether these mechanisms are sequentially related via dose level. Actual loss of body weight, in contrast to a reduction in body weight, only occurred in the immediate aftermath (about one week) of a single subcutaneous dose equivalent to about 50-70% of a subcutaneous LD5. Significant reduction in weight gain was observed in rats receiving non-lethal amounts of dietary TMs but concomitant adverse effects required euthanasia or death after 9 months. Assuming that a bacterial gall on annual ryegrass contains about 1-2 µg of CTs and a single sheep ingests about 1 kg feed/day, study 8 implies that no adverse effect on body weight or feed intake is expected with sheep ingesting the equivalent of 800-1620 bacterial galls/kg/day for 12 months.
Dose response of tunicamycins in sheep following intra-duodenal administration.
Authors: Hauptli S. L. , Colegate S. M. , Glover S. , McClure S. J.
Published: November 2017

The aim of this study was to determine the minimum single, intra-duodenal dose of tunicamycins that would significantly alter serum biochemistry (liver enzymes, albumin, total protein and total bilirubin) but would not induce overt clinical signs of the disease. This dose would subsequently be used as a challenge dose in the mucosal vaccination experiments. Six- to 12-month-old fine wool Merino wethers were given single doses of tunicamycins dissolved in 0.05 M aqueous NaOH at 12.5, 18.75, 25, 31.25, 37.5, 50, 62.5, 100, 150, 200, 250 or 1000 µg TMs/kg body weight. After 16 days or when clinical signs were observed, the sheep were euthanized and liver samples were taken for histopathology. Blood from each animal were collected from the jugular vein at 08.00-09.00 h each day and immediately prior to euthanasia for biochemical examination. Sheep that received doses less than 150 µg TMs/kg bw showed no evidence of neurological signs. At 150 µg TMs/kg bw, one sheep from the group showed episodes of moderate to severe tremor and ataxia after stimulation on Day 3 and was later euthanized. One case of mild neurological signs was seen following a dose of 200 µg TMs/kg bw; however, full recovery was seen once stimulation had ceased and no further periods of neurological signs were presented. A dose of 250 µg TMs/kg bw caused periods of lateral recumbency and convulsions in one sheep at Day 2.5 post-dosing and moderate stimulation-initiated tremor and ataxia in another at Day 4.5 post-dosing. All sheep given 1000 µg TMs/kg bw presented spontaneous, repeated episodes of lateral recumbency, severe tremor and convulsions on Day 3. While there were statistically significant differences between the levels of some serum liver enzymes and haematology parameters even between lower dose groups, the relevance of these differences is difficult to judge without further studies. The levels remained within normal ranges expected for sheep and the apparent differences persisted throughout the 16 days. Histopathological assessment revealed liver changes characteristic of tunicaminyluracil toxicity in sheep exposed to a single, intra-duodenal dose of 1000 µg TMs/kg bw. Diffuse mild lipidosis and hydrophic degeneration of hepatocytes were observed along with occasional hepatocytes that were undergoing coagulative necrosis accompanied by cytoplasmic changes. The results of this experiment indicate that further studies need to be conducted to establish the relevance of lower dosage results, and to therefore establish whether serum liver enzymes or haematological parameters are of any value in detecting subclinical toxicity resulting from intraduodenal administration of tunicamycins. However, whilst the data indicated that a study of the efficacy of mucosal vaccination is best assessed by challenging with doses of tunicamycins that cause overt clinical signs, regular assessment of LDH and TBIL during a challenge study may yet reveal a lessened impact at lower doses following vaccination.