bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Bottom-hole Beans-Theory, Methods and Effects of Their Use
Authors: Clark William A.
Published: June 2014

A bean placed at the bottom of tubing in flowing wells is not a new idea. Infact, a device which in effect was a bottom bean was patented prior to 1890 byJohn D. Rockefeller. Because of the limited use of the bottom bean, prior to1922, when it was installed in a few wells in the Santa Fe Springs field, California, the knowledge of the results of its operation is very meager. Sincethen various oil operators have experimented with bottom beans, but most of therecords of the results obtained by their use are unavailable. For the past yearor two, more attention has been directed to this method of producing wells; thetheory and best means of application have been studied, and accurate recordsmaintained.

In theory, the use of bottom beans in flowing orgas-lift wells should secure certain advantageous results. With the exceptionof flow friction of the tubing and flow lines, there is no back-pressure heldon the rising column of fluid. Thus severe beaning is possible with no dangerof killing the well by too heavy a fluid column, a condition that often existswhen a surface bean is used.

The whole energy of the gas expanding to atmospheric pressure is utilized tolift the fluid in the well. The same effect is obtained when flowing a wellthrough open tubing or casing. In using a surface bean this energy of expandinggas is wasted into the flow lines beyond the bean, because the fluid hasreached the surface by the time the restriction is reached and the work of thegas performed. The bottom bean affords an efficient use of the expanding forceof gas, utilizing less gas to raise the same amount of oil, hence allowing forlower gas-oil ratios.

The flow restriction being at the entrance to the flowstring, a more uniform mixture of gas and oil enters the tubing and a steadierbackpressure is held on the well. The uniform mixture and high velocityattained while flowing through the bean, which is above the critical velocityrequired to suspend a spray condition of gas and oil, prevent slippage of gas, surging and heading with its resultant strain on the casing.
Velocity of Flow through Tubing
Authors: Davis E.L.
Published: June 2014

There have been many attempts to devise formulas for flowing efficiency andflow friction of oil-gas mixtures in oil-well flow tubes. Actually, however, flowing efficiency is rarely any real concern of the oil producer andflow-friction formulas contain so many unknown variables as to be of little, ifany value.

The production engineer is generally concerned with producing as much oil aspossible with a minimum expense per barrel, and with the lowest possible netgas-oil ratio. These ends frequently are opposed to each other and the gas-oilratio usually is sacrificed. In competitive operations, such as in town-lotfields, high current production is the sole interest.

In conservative operation the greatest possible amount of oil obviously shouldbe produced by natural flow unless the net formation gas-oil ratio can beimproved by circulating gas. In practice this condition frequently exists. Itwould be a great advantage if the flowing condition of a well could be analyzedto determine the best possible producing status. Anticipating the death of awell so that gas-lift could be started immediately after the death, orpreferably before, would save both production and expense. Frequently ithappens that circulating gas fails to help a flowing well, or will not flow itafter it has stopped flowing naturally. A knowledge of the laws governing flowwould save considerable expense in testing such cases. A predetermination ofprobable pressures and amounts of circulating gas needed to flow wells and givebest possible producing conditions would help in designing compressorinstallations.

The optimum producing status of an oil well generally may be obtained by theconditions that subject the producing formations to the least possibleback-pressure. This pressure is made up of the weight of the fluid column, frictional resistance to flow and the reaction from the acceleration of thefluid mass. A mathematical calculation of these components to arrive at acondition giving a minimum summation is impractical. Formulas would be complexand the results untrustworthy because it is impossible to assign proper valuesto the many variables involved.
Characteristics of Drilling Fluids
Authors: Parsons C.P.
Published: June 2014

To properly account for the various characteristics of drilling mudsobtained in different areas and geological horizons, it is necessary to studythe composition of the mud from a chemical and physical standpoint asdetermined by the proportions and activities of the various solid contituentsthat are present in various states of division.

Briefly summarized, science teaches that there are three states of divisioninto which these solid constituents or particles may be grouped:namely, the suspended state, the individual particles of which are known assuspensoids;the colloidal state, in which the individual particles are termedcolloids;and the crystalloidal state, wherein the individual particles areheld in true solution and are termed crystalloids,

The suspended state is one wherein the particles are fairly large and arepresent as molecular complexes, having none of the properties of colloids orcrystalloids. Since matter varies in physical character and in chemicalactivities with its state of division, these coarser suspensoids do notthemselves materially affect the physical or chemical properties of thesolution in which they are suspended. On the other hand, they are distinctlydetrimental in drilling muds and it is desirable that they be removed. Underthe general classification of suspensoids are included sand, gravel andcuttings which contribute nothing to the colloidal stability or other desirableproperties of the drilling fluid.

As the state of division approaches but does not reach a molecularsimplification, the term "colloidal state" is used in describing thiscondition. The colloidal state arises when one form of matter is in a very finestate of division and is distributed through a second phase. The material inthe finely divided state is called the dispersed phase, while the liquid inwhich it is dispersed is called the dispersive phase. These particles of matterare in a colloidal state and will not settle out from the dispersive phase solong as colloidal conditions are stable. Moreover, they exhibit the property ofhaving an oscillating movement around a central position in solution (theBrownian movement).

In the third state of division, the crystalloidal state, the individualparticles are held in true solution and are usually present as single moleculesor ions.
Experimental Measurement of Slippage in Flow through Vertical Pipes
Authors: Moore T.V. , Wilde H.D.
Published: June 2014

In many of the important problems of the petroleum engineer, it is necessaryto know accurately the laws governing the flow of gas and liquid mixtures invertical pipes. Although much work has been done along these lines, nosatisfactory solution to the problem has been found. A good theoreticaldiscussion of the energy balance in a gas-lift has been published by Versluys.One of the most important factors affecting the efficiency of the flow of oiland gas mixtures is slippage, and in most of the experimental work that hasbeen done no provision has been made for the measurement of this quantity. As Versluys pointed out, since there is no method now known to estimate it fromthe data usually taken, slippage must be determined empirically.

This paper presents the results of some work carried on to measure slippage inshort experimental gas-lifts. As shown herein, slippage can be easilycalculated in a vertical pipe carrying a mixture of oil and gas if thefractions of the pipe occupied by liquid and gas respectively are known. In this work, the fraction of the pipe occupied by the liquid was measured under awide variety of conditions and the relationship between this fraction and otherquantities, which are easily measured in ordinary work, was determined.

It was hoped that the quantitative relationship obtained from this work couldbe used for making accurate calculations in flowing or gas-lift wells, butunfortunately it did not check satisfactorily when applied to actual wells. Apparently flow in long flow pipes is more efficient than in the short onesused for the experimental work. Nevertheless, it is felt that the datathemselves are of interest; that the method of attack may be of value in futurework and that the relationship derived between slip and the relative velocitiesis a contribution toward the solution of the gas-lift problem.
Stabilizing the Oil Business
Authors: Beaty Amos L.
Published: June 2014

The oil industry can prosper only if crudeproduction is not excessive. This is true for several reasons.

In the first place, the marketing branch of thebusiness is so highly competitive that there is little room for profits in it.There are too many service stations, too many middle men or jobbers, too manyrefiners eager to press their products upon the market. And the battle isbetween the strong. If any money is being made in oil today it is by smallmarketers who buy products from the refining companies and sell on guaranteedmargins.

In the second place, refineries are overbuilt. There isa large surplus refining capacity. If refined stocks were drawn down they couldand would be replenished in short time on short notice. This excessive refiningcapacity is not serious, however, if the supply of crude is limited to traderequirements. True, it may reflect upon the intelligence of the industry, butif there were a shortage of crude for a few years refining capacities would bereadjusted. In the meantime no great harm could result from some idle capacity.It requires no computation to see that refiners could not produce surplusstocks of products from a short supply of crude. I have in mind, of course, theincreased yields from cracking. Allowance must be made for that. Still, thepicture is the same; less crude is required.

I think we can have prosperity in the oil business iftoo much crude is not produced. A proper limit at this point would be felt allthe way down the line. It would slow the refiner and slow the marketerinevitably. Once this constant pressure to make more and sell more is off, operations will be normal and there will be some return on investments.

Prices In Relation To Production

Potential production at this time is very large, andthis condition has existed for many months. As a result the price of crude islow. It is below the average cost of production. Nevertheless, if restraintswere withdrawn actual production would immediately increase and the situationwould become even worse than it is now.
Changing Concepts in the Petroleum Industry
Authors: Umpleby J.B.
Published: June 2014

The function of gas in the development and production of oil hasfar-reaching consequences that should be emphasized. The technical aspects ofthe subject have recently had a great deal of attention but less thought hasbeen given to fundamental concepts underlying oil and gas law and the manycustoms and practices that have grown up in the industry. I shall reviewbriefly the advance in knowledge of the subject and attempt to relate theseconcepts to legislative, judicial and operating problems.

Early writers on oil and gas in Pennsylvania noted their close association inoil pools and their contemporaneous decline in output; also, that as gaspressure decreases so does production, that new offset wells reduce the outputof existing wells, and even that tubing a well lengthens its flowing life.Expanding gas was deduced as the principal expulsive force. These fundamentalobservations had been made at least as early as 1880. They were treated, however, as academic considerations and did not greatly influence law orpractice for many years except to instill into all operators an urgent desireto hasten offset drilling in order to obtain as much of the flush aspossible.

The most noteworthy later advance in knowledge came in 1926 when Beecher andParkhurst published their paper on Effects of Dissolved Gas upon the Viscosityand Surface Tension of Oil. This paper added to the old idea of an expellingforce the concept of a modifying agent that actually changes the physicalcharacteristics of the oil and facilitates its movement through the pore spacesof the reservoir rock. Largely since the publication of this paper, intensivestudy and concerted effort have been given to means of using to a maximum, inproducing oil, these combined properties of gas. This is shown clearly by thenumber of papers dealing with the subject, and the new and revived terms nowwidely used to express thought, such as the expressions gas energy, reservoirpressure, reservoir energy, gas-oil ratio, bottom-hole pressure, beaning, tapered tubing and back-pressure.
Propositions and Corollaries in Petroleum Production
Authors: Snider L.C.
Published: June 2014

All important industries have certain basic principles in common whichgovern them and give them a family resemblance. In addition, each industry hasa certain individuality due to some principle or principles which govern, orare accepted as governing, that industry and which is not effective in others.The customs and practices of an industry depend on these basic principles muchas the corollaries follow a proposition in geometry. After the proposition isproved or is accepted as proved, the corollaries are seen to be true almostwithout additional evidence or proof. In many cases, the corollaries are moreimportant in practical affairs than the proposition on which they depend. Bycontinued application the corollaries may come to be accepted as law and thefact that their truth depends on the correctness of the fundamental propositionis forgotten or ignored. If it is discovered that an error was made indemonstrating the proposition and that the proposition is untrue, thecorollaries are, in most cases at least, equally untrue. Considerable time maybe required, however, to realize the fact that the corollaries have failed, particularly if they have been embodied in custom and law.

For example, in the business of government the proposition that women areintellectually inferior to men was formerly considered, by most men at least, to be duly proved if not axiomatic. This proposition was never embodied in law, but its corollaries-that the rights of the wife in property and even in her ownchildren were inferior to the rights of the husband, and that women had noplace in governmental affairs-were duly incorporated in law or so completelyapproved by custom that they had the effect of law.

Developments of the past few decades have proved, to the satisfaction of themajority, that woman's intellectual inferiority to man had not beensatisfactorily demonstrated, and that the proposition that she was inferior, although accepted for many generations, was untrue. It was not so great a shockto men to discover that this proposition was wrong as it was to find out thatits corollaries were also untrue and that the laws embodying them were not goodlaws and were subject to repeal.
Relation between Gas Energy and Oil Production
Authors: Boatright Byron B.
Published: June 2014

The energy which causes oil and gas to flow from a reservoir formation intoa well depends upon a differential between the formation pressure and thepressure at the well face. This differential pressure may be the result ofanyone of at least three forces, or a combination of them. Gas under pressurein an oil-producing formation (part of the gas may be in solution and part incontact with the oil) is the principal source of energy for producing oil inmost fields. In some fields, however, hydrostatic pressure due to water incontact with the oil and/or the force of gravity may be important factors incausing oil to flow into a well. Still another force affecting oil movement issuggested by some students of the problem; the force dependent upon thephenomenon of capillarity.

Hydrostatic pressure is seldom the only source of energy in an oil sand, but itis commonly an adjunct to the compressed gas in the formation. Where thiscondition prevails, increased production may be obtained provided the waterencroachment is properly controlled. In addition to the water-drive effect, thehydrostatic head may tend to maintain pressure in the formation byprogressively reducing the volume of the reservoir as withdrawals to thesurface are made through the producing wells.

The action of the force of gravity on the oil in a formation is of relativelysmall importance, from an energy standpoint, until the last stage of theproductive life of a well is reached. This force is the only remaining naturalsource of energy in some of the eastern fields, but in most of the deep wellsof the Mid-Continent and California districts the force of gravity can beprecluded as a source of energy, because the wells reach their economic limitof production before the force of gravity becomes an important factor in movingoil to the wells.

Since the majority of fields produce oil chiefly by reason of the gas pressurein the oil horizons, the following treatment deals mainly with factors thatinfluence gas-energy relationships.

Gas-Energy Relationships

Formation Pressures

The gas pressures existing in oil-producing formations may be the result of acombination of several contributing factors.
Advantages of Flowing Wells through Tubing
Authors: Marsh Hallan N. , Robinson Bruce H.
Published: June 2014

It is generally believed that the flowing of wells through tubing instead ofcasing results in the conservation of gas. It is further believed that use oftubing prolongs the flowing life of a well and results in greater ultimaterecovery, provided either that there are no adjacent wells, or that anyadjacent wells are similarly operated. Recent experience in the flowing ofBuckbee zone wells at Santa Fe Springs has not only substantiated both of thesebeliefs but has led to the further conclusion that the use of tubing results ina greater cumulative flowing production, even in a highly competitive fieldlike Santa Fe Springs, where the wells concerned are closely offset by wells ofboth the same and other companies flowing through casing. Further, gas-oilratio has been so reduced that greater ultimate recovery can be expected.

In the belief that such would be the case, the majority of the Buckbee zonewells of one company were brought in through tubing, but enough wells wereflowed through casing to form the basis for a comparison. For the purpose ofthis comparison, wells with flow strings 2~-2 or 3-in. dia. are designated astubed wells, while those having flow strings larger than 3-in. dia. aredesignated as untubed wells. Casing used was mostly of 5%-in. dia., theremainder being of 4%-in. dia. There were 15 tubed wells and 8 untubed wellsand they were scattered over the field in such a way that neither group appearsto have any distinct advantage as regards location. Locations of all wellsinvolved in the comparison are shown on Fig. 1. All the Buckbee sand wells ofthe company are included in the average production curves, with the exceptionof eight that were unsatisfactory for reasons other than the method offlowing.

Findings

1. Buckbee sand wells flowing through casing larger than 3 in. had an averagemaximum production rate of 4670 bbl. per day, while wells flowed throughstraight tubing or 3-in. casing had an average maximum production of only 3300bbl. per day. (See Fig. 2.)
Flowing Wells with Small Tubing
Authors: Hawkins R.R.
Published: June 2014

Properly designed tubing strings make it possible to continue the flowinglife of wells beyond the stage where ordinarily they would be put to pumping.Wells no longer able to flow through 2-in. tubing can be made to producethrough smaller tubing if conditions within the well are carefully studied andcorrectly designed strings are "installed. In this way, pumping expense maybe postponed and in some pools it is within reason that the entire recovery maybe obtained by natural flow if maintenance of pressure is practiced. Infrequenttubing changes would be necessary but their cost would be much less than thatof installing and maintaining pumping equipment.

If small wells are to be made to flow naturally, careful consideration must begiven the actual lifting mechanics within the string, so that fairly accurateknowledge of reservoir conditions, especially pressure, is essential. Wellsproducing between 5 and 25 bbl. daily are classified here as "smallwells."

Exponential Flow

A maximum of the energy contained in the expanding gas must be employed to douseful work if natural flow is to be continued. It is evident that adiabaticexpansion would defeat this purpose, therefore the velocity of the gas must beheld down to a minimum in order that isothermal expansion may be approached. Ofcourse, true isothermal expansion would not be obtainable in an oil well, hencethe use of the term "exponential?. Obviously the closer the approach toisothermal expansion, the more efficient the lift.

Experiments by the U. S. Bureau of Mines have shown that for isothermalexpansion to take place in a gas well where water is being produced, a definiterelationship exists between the depth of the well and the minimum operatingpressure. The latter must be such that the tubing fill-up, if static conditionsprevailed, would be equivalent to 14 per cent of the distance between the topof the fluid inside the tubing and the tubing head.
Recent Development and Use of Bottom-hole Choking
Authors: Ross J.S.
Published: June 2014

Although the opinion has prevailed for several years that bottomhole chokingunder certain flow conditions should effect an increase in flow efficiencies, the use of bottom-hole chokes until recently has been limited in applicationmainly because of mechanical difficulties encountered in their construction. Within the past year, however, bottom-hole choking, through the development ofa removable type of choke, has been applied successfully under variousconditions of flow in many Mid-Continent fields. The observation of these fieldtests indicates that bottomhole choking, although not applicable to all flowconditions, has an important place in the operation of oil and gas wells.

This paper gives briefly the conclusions drawn from the data obtained from theexperiments with this bottom-hole choke under various flow conditions, and adescription of the choke and its operation.

Purpose of Bottom-hole Choking

Since, in a normal well, the velocity with which the column of gas is movinggenerally has a direct bearing upon the quantity of oil it can lift, probablythe main purpose of bottom-hole choking is to accomplish an increase in thevelocity of this rising column, particularly in the lower portion of the tubingstring. This it does first, by expansion of the free gas accompanying the oil;next, by liberation and expansion of some of the occluded gas normally carriedin the oil to the surface; and lastly, by atomization, which results in a moreintimate and uniform mixture of the oil and gas. It is apparent, then, that ifthis velocity, particularly in the lower portion of the flow string, at a givenrate of production, is inefficiently low, owing either to an insufficientsupply of gas or to excessive surface choking, and slippage takes place, bottom-hole choking should bring about an increased velocity of the gas andhence an increased lifting capacity. But if the velocity of the column of gasat this same rate of production through a surface choke alone is at or above avelocity necessary to lift the oil efficiently, increasing the velocity bybottom-hole choking would probably serve no useful purpose, other than tosteady the flow by the better mixture of oil and gas and to lower deliverypressures.
A Method for Computing Pressure Drop in the Pipe of Flowing Oil Wells
Authors: Nowels K.B.
Published: June 2014

Data pertaining to pipe line flow for both oil and gas in horizontal ornearly horizontal pipe lines are both extensive and accurate. However, the pipeformulas used to determine pressure drop for flowing fluids (liquids and gases) under conditions of horizontal flow are not generally applicable to flowing oiland/or gas wells. Except for some data developed in small laboratory set-ups, little or no information was available concerning flow of oil and gas mixturesin vertical pipes, when, in 1928, the writer began the development of a methodfor computing pressure drops in the pipes of flowing oil wells, as outlined inthis paper.

In 1929, Uren presented some findings based on laboratory experiments in whichvertical flow of an extremely heavy crude oil was induced by means of airthrough a 2-in. pipe, 41 ft. long. The friction factors derived from theexperiment, as well as values for pressure drop per 100 ft., are not believedsatisfactory in their application to flow problems in the field.

Versluys, also in 1929, presented a mathematical development of the theory offlowing oil wells, and in 1930, gave a companion paper setting forth someprinciples governing the choice of length and diameter of tubing in oil wells. Since the termination of the study presented in this paper, another valuablecontribution pertaining to the problem of vertical flow was made by Moore and Wilde.

Although there were writings dealing with the principles of the gas-lift, asearch of the available literature indicated that specific information onvertical flow was lacking with the exception of the writings of Uren, Versluys, and Moore and Wilde, to which reference has been made.
Petroleum Stabilization in 1932
Authors: Oliver Earl
Published: June 2014

Superficial observation of the petroleum stabilization movement in 1932 isdisappointing. Threatened overproduction persisted; waste continued; prorationwas violated; gasoline taxes were evaded; and, as a consequence, chaosthreatened the industry as the year drew to a close.

However, comparison of the movement in 1932 with its beginning a few years ago, and analyses of those influences that promote its growth as well as those whichretard it, disclose some reasons for encouragement.

Stabilization, as we see it, is not merely a mechanical engineering problem. Itinvolves social engineering. By which we do not mean it is possible, or evendesirable, to change the nature of men, but rather that it is possible to setup procedure that will avoid causing them to clash. It comprehendsconsideration of physical objects that is clearly within the field of theengineer, but it considers them only in relation to their distribution, utilization and control in harmony with philosophies that motivate men andshape current conceptions of right and wrong or of justice and injustice ifthose terms be deemed more acceptable.

Stabilization cannot be effected without utilizing the knowledge of theengineer, but neither can it be effected without utilizing more than comeswithin his traditional field of activity. In discussing the problem herein weshall endeavor to treat it briefly from that consolidated viewpoint.

Rapid fluctuations in supply have characterized the oil industry from itsbeginning; yet only within the past ten years has an understanding begun todevelop regarding the extent of waste-the degree of dissipation of naturalresources-that attends the operation of the industry under the practices andlaws which control it in the United States. The extent and regrettableconsequences of those wastes, their underlying causes and the ease with whichthey could be prevented are not yet generally understood even within theindustry.

Producing Tomorrow's Oil Today

The interests detrimentally affected by these economic evils are vastly greaterthan the mere 'welfare of the oil industry.
Recoverable Oil and Gas Content of Land as Suitable Standard of Each Owner's Rights in Pool
Authors: Griswold E.H.
Published: June 2014

The many complexities arising from our present oil pool proration systemsemphasize the need for a suitable standard of property rights. Attempts atconservation and unitization agreements have frequently failed because of thelack of such a standard.

The necessity of reducing production to consumption has caused umpires, committees, commissions and other governing bodies to allocate the productionof flush fields among the respective owners. The methods of allocation varywidely and conservation of underground reserves is frequently neglected ormisused.

Critical economic conditions increase, rather than modify, competitive methods.In some fields we have irregular and uneconomically close well spacing. Manyoperators drill unreasonably large holes, take excessive sand penetrations orleave their wells untubed in order to secure higher potential open-flow teststhan their offsets. All of these practices result in economic waste andfrequently damage to the pool.

Regardless of our agreement with the fundamental principles of proration orunitization, both are actual necessities in many of our present economicsituations, and we are in urgent need of a suitable standard of rights tofacilitate and simplify their operation.

The problems pertinent to unit management are simple and of daily use in manypartnership enterprises, but the problems of fair and proper division ofproduction under either proration or unitization are, as yet, subject tocontroversy. The rights of respective owners must be ascertained andstandardized before we can eliminate wasteful practices and still preserveconstructive competition in our industry.

Valuation of tracts

In a recent unitization conference it was found that each participant had adifferent basis for calculating the relative values of tracts. Some of theseassumptions were as follows:Unrestricted open-flow operation to abandonment.Current proration system to abandonment.
Production Engineering in 1932
Authors: Stephenson Eugene A.
Published: June 2014

In spite of tremendous handicaps notable advances in production engineeringhave been achieved during 1932. The technique of deep well drilling hascontinued to progress, notably in California and at Big Lake, Texas. In thelatter field a method has been devised by which two grades of oil in contactwith each other are produced without intermingling. In rig design manyimprovements have been made whose objective is to facilitate deep drilling withreduced power losses and increased life of the equipment. Flush joint casingand drill pipe have been improved further, careful tests indicating that thedrilling time can be reduced by from 5 to 20 per cent where flush-joint pipe isused.

Slow-speed pumping has come into wider use, with further increases in over-allefficiencies. A number of improved well pumps also have been developed and arebeing tested. One of the most important of these is a positive displacementpump of the rotary type, directly connected to an electric motor placed in thebottom of the hole, and adaptable to various sizes of tubing and casing.

In some localities the trend is towards the replacement of electric motors andlarge-cylinder engines by multiple-cylinder gas engines.

Experiments have been conducted and critical analyses made of flow conditionsin wells equipped with various styles of tubing which give promise that tubingmay be designed to fit individual well conditions. In those wells producing atless than maximum capacity, the gas-oil ratio has been shown to depend on therate rather than on the method of production, or the design of equipment.

Important factors in the design of screened pipe have been carefully analyzedand made the basis of a method for determining the required mesh.

Remarkable progress has been made in the use of subsurface pressure data.
The Killing and Well History of Milham Elliott No. 1 and Continental Elliott 12-8 Wells on the North Dome of Kettleman Hills, California
Authors: Silent Roy , Rousselot N.A.
Published: June 2014

The first producing wells completed in the Kettleman Hills area werenoteworthy for their high gas-oil ratios. As a result they became the object ofcriticism, and controversies arose based on their alleged lack of gasconservation. Ultimately protracted hearings ensued in the District Court ofthe area, and diverse rulings and subsequent modifications have been handeddown affecting the permissible gas-oil ratios. When the Kettleman North DomeAssociation was formed in April, 1931, and the control of the major portion of the North Dome area vested therein, it was decided to produce only those wellswhich had a relatively low gas-oil ratio.

Among the wells having the highest gas-oil ratio were the Milham Elliott No. 1(the discovery well) and the Continental Elliott 12–8, drilled as an offset toit. Under the numbering system adopted by the Kettleman North Dome Association, these wells are now known as 88–2P and 1–12P, respectively.

Milham Elliott No.1 was originally drilled to 7236 ft., then redrilled to 7108ft. The upper portion of the Temblor Horizon produces with a very large gas-oilratio; production which actually consists of light crude oil with an'accompanying large volume of gas. Little was known as to the location of theTemblor formation at that time but it is now generally accepted that its topwas encountered at 6180 ft., giving 928 ft. of penetration. Initial productionwas estimated at 4000 bbl. of oil and 80 to 90 million cubic feet of gas perday, giving a gas-oil ratio in excess of 20,000 cu. ft. of gas per bbl. of oil.This ultimately increased to a ratio of about 48,000 at the time the well waskilled when it was producing about 1100 bbl. of oil and 52 million cubic feetof gas, with a flow pressure of 1200 pounds.

The Continental Elliott 12–8 was drilled to a depth of 6876 ft. with the top ofthe Temblor at 6100, giving a penetration of 776 ft.
Proration of an Oil Field Based on Uniform Allowable Gas Production
Authors: Barnes R.M. , Bell A.H.
Published: June 2014

The ideas set forth in this paper are proposed for consideration anddiscussion as the result of recent study of various plans for control andproration of gas and oil production from Kettleman North Dome oil field. Theywould be applicable to any oil field during its flush production stage. Theproblems of development and proration are so intimately connected in Kettlemanhills and in many other flush fields that they have both been covered in thispaper.

Many are of the opinion that Kettleman North Dome oil field should beconsidered as containing only one zone to its present total penetratedthickness of nearly 1500 ft., and that the hydrocarbon content of this zonegradually changes from dark and relatively low-gravity oil with relatively lowgas-oil ratios on the flanks and plunges to mostly light-colored andhigh-gravity oil with high gas-oil ratios in the higher structural positions, somewhat according to the idealized section shown in Fig. 1. At least the lower400 ft. contains dark oil in the higher structural positions.
Gas Column Apparatus for Precise Measurement of Oil Well Pressure
Authors: Gill Stanley
Published: June 2014

Published in Petroleum Transactions, AIME, Volume 103, 1933, pages 191–191. The apparatus is composed of sections of small diameter, seamless steel tubingwelded into a continuous flexible tube. At the bottom end a ?- in. pipe nipplewith a 10 to 15-lb. weight is attached, together with a registering thermometerand a pair of ball check valves. The entire length of tubing is coiled in asingle layer upon a drum 4 ft. in diameter which can be attached to theplatform of a truck and provided with devices for winding and unwinding thetubing. Connections are made with the upper end of the tubing through astuffing box, thence to a gas manifold to which a pressure gage is connected.Hydrogen gas is carried in standard 2-ft. cylinders and readings are taken byadmitting gas into the tubing from one (or both) of the hydrogen cylindersuntil the pressure has been built up above that to be measured. At this timethe gas supply is cut off. Excess gas escapes through the open end of thetubing and when equilibrium is reached, the pressure is read at the surfacegage. Corrections are made for the weight of the column of gas. The advantagesclaimed for the apparatus include accuracy and the ability to measure thepressures at any number of points without removing the gage. Among thedisadvantages of the apparatus are the somewhat bulky size of the equipment andits relatively high initial cost.
Mechanics of Water Movement in Natural and Artificial Flooding of Oil Sands
Authors: Nowels K.B.
Published: June 2014

The attainment of efficient flooding to a large extent depends upon aknowledge of fluid movement through porous media and the pressures used incontrolling this movement, Little has been understood concerning thefundamental principles involved in the forced drive of water-flooding and anattempt will be made to present some data which may be of interest.

Considerable data and technical information pertaining to natural andartificial water-flooding have been presented in the past by Torrey, Umpleby, Fettke, Panyity and others. Their papers have thoroughly covered thedescription of past and present-day methods of oil recovery by flooding in theBradford field, especially an article by Torrey in the Petroleum EngineeringHandbook. A bibliography of papers devoted to water-flooding, published in Mr. Torrey's article, is appended to this paper. No attempt has been made, therefore, to describe the installations and procedure necessary in flooding, thus permitting the writer to deal exclusively with the mechanics of watermovement in flooding operations and its relationship to well spacing.

Artificial water-flooding will probably always be the most successful in oilfields described by Herold as being under "capillary control" and willprobably be useless in fields naturally under hydraulic or volumetric control.The natural water drive in an oil field under either of these two controls maygive efficient recoveries, as a result of the regulated encroachment of edgewater. Such a "natural flood" resulting from the influence of edgewater must not be confused with the term as used in this paper, however. Anyreference to "natural flood" will here refer to the old method offlooding formerly used in the Bradford field. This was discovered largely byaccident and utilized the hydrostatic pressure created by a column of waterstanding in a watered-out oil well in forcing the oil to an adjacent producingwell.
Development of Hydrogen Porosimeter
Authors: Coberly C.J. , Stevens A.B.
Published: June 2014

The absolute porosity of a rock or sand may be defined as the volume of the inter particle space expressed as a percentage of the total rock volume. The effective porosity as contrasted with the absolute porosity is the volume of the interparticle spaces which intercommunicate with passages of sufficientsize to permit the entrance or recovery of gas or oil, also expressed as apercentage of the total rock volume. A knowledge of effective porosity is ofprime importance in estimating the ultimate recovery to be expected from oiland gas-bearing formations.

The determination of the effective porosity of a rock includes the measurementof two values:the volume of the rock as a whole, andthe volume of thegrains and sealed pore space.

This paper deals with a new apparatus which hasbeen called a "hydrogen porosimeter" for determining the volume of thegrains and the sealed pore space. This volume is determined by means of thepressure relations established in the instrument by the introduction of a knownquantity of hydrogen.

The Hydrogen Porosimeter

The apparatus used in this work consists of an upper chamber for measuring thegas, a lower chamber for holding the sample to be tested, a gage for measuringthe pressures, a tank of hydrogen, and the necessary connections. (Figs. 1 and 2.)

Of the several gases that might be used for this work, hydrogen has been chosenfor three reasons:it deviates less from the gas laws than most gases;it readily penetrates the sample;it is absorbed less than most gases bythe solids and liquids with which it may come in contact.

Method of Operation

After placing the sample to be tested in the lower chamber, the apparatus isthoroughly flushed with hydrogen to remove all air from the system, which isthen brought to atmospheric pressure The valve connecting the two chambers isnext closed and the pressure in the upper chamber is brought up to a pressureby admitting gas from the tank.
Effect of Gas Withdrawal upon Reservoir Fluids
Authors: Lindsly Ben E.
Published: June 2014

The withdrawal of gas and/or oil in appreciable quantity from a natural oilreservoir causes the pressure within the reservoir to diminish, and if the oilis completely saturated with gas, this dissolved gas begins to evolve fromsolution. The liberation of gas from solution in oil causes the oil to changein several ways, the principal changes being:reduction in volume or "shrinkage";increase in specific gravity (decrease in degrees A.P.I.);decrease of energy in the oil;increased viscosity;increased surface tension.

As the writer's investigations have been concerned more with the first threeitems than with changes in viscosity and surface tension the followingdiscussion relates particularly to the volumetric shrinkage of the oil, to theincreased specific gravity, and to the decreased energy in the oil, each causedby the liberation of dissolved gas.

One of the most surprising facts that have developed in the study ofhigh-pressure well-head and" bottom-hole" samples is the greatreduction in volume that occurs in some oils when the naturally dissolved gasis liberated. High-pressure samples taken from well heads in the Oklahoma City, Kettleman Hills and Ventura, Calif., fields decreased in volume from 11.2 to40.5 per cent when the dissolved gas was liberated in reducing the pressure onthe sample to atmospheric.

The amount of shrinkage an oil undergoes when gas is liberated depends upon thequantity of gas liberated and also upon its composition. A given volume of theheavier gases, propane and butane for example, will occupy more space in theoil than an equal volume of methane. The reason for this probably is that themolecules of the heavier gases are larger than those of the lighter gases. Whengases are not in solution, and particularly when they are at low pressures, thedistance between the gas molecules is so much greater than the dimensions ofthe molecules themselves that the mere size of the molecules has little effectupon the space occupied by the gas. Avogadro's hypothesis, which in effectstates that all gases under the same conditions have the same number ofmolecules per unit volume, relates to this phenomenon.
Kettleman Hills Middle Dome Unit Plan
Authors: Jensen Joseph
Published: June 2014

When the legal holders of Government permits in the Middle dome of KettlemanHills entered into an agreement on May 27, 1929, to suspend all drillingactivities on five permits, covering portions of the Kettleman Hills Middledome, until Jan. 1, 1931, and the owners of fee lands contiguous theretoassured Secretary Ray Lyman Wilbur, of the Department of the Interior, thatthey too would respect a drilling suspension for a period of a little more than19 months, none of these interested parties realized that this was the firststep in a chain of events that would culminate, more than four years later, inthe formation of the Middle Dome Corporation for the development of the Middledome area in a unit plan that would be the first unit plan to be approved bythe California Regional Producers Committee and recommended to the President asa satisfactory unit plan, under Section 7 of Article III of the Oil Code, approved Aug. 17, 1933. Neither did they realize that more than two milliondollars would be spent before oil or gas would be successfully and continuouslyproduced from wells drilled on that Middle dome area. On Oct. 1, 1933, underthe terms of the Middle Dome Agreement, the Middle Dome Corporation assumescontrol of activities and is responsible for the division of all productsproduced from the Middle dome area to members of the Middle DomeCorporation.

This Middle dome plan is the second successful unit plan developed inCalifornia in the past three years, the first being the Kettleman North DomeAssociation,! formed under the agreement of Jan. 31, 1931, for the unifiedoperation and development of more than 12,000 acres of land on the North domeof the Kettleman Hills. All other unit plans discussed in the past four yearsin the state have not yet been completed, for one reason or another, but underSection 7 of Article III of the new Oil Code numerous plans of development, some of which may be unit plans, will be forthcoming within the next fewmonths.
Influence of Well Diameter upon the Pressure Gradient and Rate of Flow of Oil through the Reservoir Rock in the Vicinity of a High-pressure Flowing Well
Authors: Uren L.C. , Domerco J. , Mejia J.
Published: June 2014

That the diameter of a well through the oil-producing formation has animportant influence on its rate of production is a principle accepted by manypetroleum technologists. Knowledge of this principle extends back at least tothe time when Slichter and King confirmed it in a study of the dynamics of flowof water through porous strata into wells. More recently, the senior author andhis associates have produced qualitative experimental data confirming theprinciple as applied to drainage of expanding oil and gas mixtures, andsuggesting that wells of large diameter, or wells having cavities about themwithin the reservoir rock, enjoy a material advantage in competition with wellsof ordinary diameter. Apparently, however, no one has produced experimentaldata designed to indicate quantitatively the advantages that wells of largediameter possess in comparison with wells of normal diameter producing undercomparable conditions. This paper reviews some preliminary experimental resultsof this kind, together with some conclusions and speculations based thereon, which further emphasize the importance of well diameter as a factor indetermining the efficiency of oil recovery.

Theoretical Aspects of Radial Flow of Fluids into Wells

It is well understood that in a reservoir rock of uniform thickness andpermeability oil and gas flow toward the wells along radial lines. Thecross-section of the reservoir rock through which the fluids must move becomesever smaller as the wall of the well is approached.
Some Economic Aspects of Gas-solubility Investigations
Authors: Morris Alexander B.
Published: June 2014

Studies such as the investigations into the solubility of gases in crude oilunder various conditions, which have been carried on during the past three orfour years, are very interesting from an academic point of view, but thisconsideration alone is hardly sufficient to warrant the large contributionsfrom the industry necessary to maintain them. Some definite benefit to theindustry as a whole should be forthcoming. The purpose of this paper is todirect the attention of company engineers, and company executives, to some ofthe ways in which the information gained from these studies can be madedirectly profitable.

This work has two principal economic aspects. One affects the investmentbudget, and through it the financial requirements of the companies. The otheraffects operations, and through this course is reflected in current earnings.It will be shown that, as a direct result of the investigations into gassolubility, undertaken in the recent past by various investigators, it is nowpossible:To determine more accurately the amount of reservoir oil originallypresent.To obtain closer control on operating conditions, to effect more economicalrecovery.To predict earlier and more dependably when and how much surface liftingequipment will be needed.To reduce, or entirely avoid the very large investment in gasoline recoveryequipment now frequently found necessary.To control the gravity of the pipe-line oil so as to secure the greatestpossible revenue from the products of the well.To effect the recovery of a large amount of gasoline now wasted while thepracticability of a gasoline recovery system is being decided.To plan operations, by comparison with the history of old propertiesoperated without this new information, so as to avoid the mistakes of ignorancemade in the past.

These points will be discussed in the following pages, though not necessarilyin the order stated.