bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Formative Years of the American Society of International Law
Authors: Kirgis Frederic L.
Published: April 2006

The United States at the dawn of the twentieth century was just beginning to comprehend the influence it could have on the international scene. It had no desire to become involved in the European power politics that had produced, in the lifetimes of many Americans then living, the Crimean War, the Franco-Prussian War and the essentially European Boer War in South Africa. Nevertheless, a distinct strain of expansionism could be found in American foreign policy. The belief was stirring in those concerned to establish a nonviolent world order that the interaction of nation-states would benefit from exposure to American values, American economic dynamism and the lessons to be drawn from the American federal experience. This belief, combined with a deep aversion to what was seen as essentially a European proclivity for settling disputes by resort to war, motivated some of the more influential participants in the American peace movement. That movement, in turn, gave birth to the American Society of International Law.
Alien Tort Claims Act—genocide—war crimes—violations of international law by nonstate actors: Kadic v. Karadzic. 70 F.3d 232, cert, denied, 64 U.S.L.W. 3832 (June 18, 1996)
Authors: Bello Judith Hippler , Posner Theodore R.
Published: April 2006

In a suit brought by Bosnian nationals against Radovan Karadzic, die U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit held that, under the Alien Tort Claims Act, a U.S. district court may exercise jurisdiction over a nonstate actor accused of committing genocide or war crimes in violation of international law. Relying on various international agreements, including the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide and common Article 3 of the four Geneva Conventions, the court found that, under modern international law, genocide and war crimes are universally condemned regardless of whether the perpetrator is die agent of a state or an independent, nonstate actor. However, the court declined to extend its holding beyond these two categories of international law violations, finding that no similar consensus exists widi respect to more commonplace violations such as torture and summary execution; the current state of international law with respect to these acts concerns state actors only, according to die court.
Contemporary Practice of the United States Relating to International Law
Authors: Nash Marian
Published: April 2006

By two circular notes, both dated December 22, 1993, the Secretary of State informed the Chiefs of Mission at Washington,,first, of recently enacted congressional legislation related to nonpayment of parking fines or penalties owed to the District of Columbia, and second, of a new policy with respect to payment of parking tickets, effective January 1, 1994, that the Department of State had initiated in response to congressional concerns about the problem and in cooperation with the District of Columbia.
The Work of the Sixth Committee at the Forty-eighth Session of the UN General Assembly
Authors: Morris Virginia , Bourloyannis-Vrailas M.-Christiane
Published: April 2006

At the forty-eighth session of the General Assembly, the Sixth (Legal) Committee reviewed the annual reports of the International Law Commission (ILC), the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL), the Special Committee on the Charter of the United Nations and on the Strengthening of the Role of the Organization (Special Committee), and the Committee on Relations with the Host Country (Host Country Committee). The Sixth Committee also considered proposals for two new legal instruments relating to (1) the jurisdictional immunities of states and their property, and (2) the safety and security of United Nations personnel. Other items covered by the committee included a proposal to request an advisory opinion from the International Court of Justice on questions regarding extraterritorial jurisdiction, as well as topics concerning international terrorism, economic relations, procedural aspects of the United Nations Administrative Tribunal and the United Nations Decade of International Law (Decade).
Integrating Environmental Values into the European Convention on Human Rights
Authors: Desgagné Richard
Published: April 2006

Over the last two decades, the protection of the environment has become a necessity so widely recognized that environmental concerns have pervaded most fields of international law, including the international law of human rights. In 1976 the European Commission of Human Rights dismissed an application on the ground that “no right to nature conservation [was] as such included among the rights and freedoms guaranteed by the Convention and in particular by Arts 2, 3, or 5.” In 1993, however, the Commission found that the erection and operation of a waste and water treatment station near the domicile of the applicant was such a nuisance as to amount to a violation of her right to a private life. This development in the case law of the European Commission reflects a growing awareness of the links between protection of human rights and protection of the environment.
Distyly and variation in heteromorphic Incompatibility in Gaertnera Vaginata (Rubiaceae) endemic to La Reunion Island
Authors: Pailler Thierry , Thompson John D.
Published: April 2006

Documenting the floral biology of species throughout the Rubiaceae family is of particular interest since heterostyly and dioecy may have evolved more than once in this large family. Unfortunately many species in several tropical regions remain unstudied. The purpose of this paper is to describe the floral biology, the nature of self‐incompatibility, morph ratios, and fecundity in natural populations of Gaertnera vaginata, a small tree endemic to the island of La Réunion in the Indian Ocean. Measurements of floral characters in populations across the entire distribution of this species showed that G. vaginata exhibits a reciprocal stigma height and anther height dimorphism characteristic of a distylous species. Pollen grain size and corolla tube length are consistently greater in short‐styled plants and long‐styled plants produce more pollen per flower. Controlled pollinations in a natural population showed that 25% of the short‐styled plants gave at least one fruit on intramorph (illegitimate) pollination, whereas no long‐styled plants set fruit on illegitimate pollination. In total, 19.4% of illegitimate pollinations produced fruit on short‐styled plants. No self‐pollination gave fruit on either morph and between‐morph pollinations produced 92.2 and 92.8% for short and long‐styled plants, respectively. Overall, short‐styled plants were significantly more abundant than long‐styled plants. Short‐styled plants outnumbered long‐styled plants in 16 of the 19 populations. In three of these populations the morph ratio was significantly different from 1:1. In two natural populations, fruit set was significantly higher on long‐styled plants, although the number of seeds per fruit was not significantly different between the two morphs. The possible effect of variation in the strength of heteromorphic incompatibility on observed variation in morph abundance and the possible causes for the variation in fruit set are discussed.
Phylogenetic relationships in Saxifragaceae sensu lato: a comparison of topologies based on 18S rDNA and rbcL sequences
Authors: Soltis Douglas E. , Soltis Pamela S.
Published: April 2006

Relationships among the morphologically diverse members of Saxifragaceae sensu lato were inferred using 130 18S rDNA sequences. Phylogenetic analyses were conducted using representatives of all 17 subfamilies of Saxifragaceae sensu lato, as well as numerous additional taxa traditionally assigned to subclasses Magnoliidae, Caryophyllidae, Hamamelidae, Dilleniidae, Rosidae, and Asteridae. This analysis indicates that Saxifragaceae should be narrowly defined (Saxifragaceae sensu stricto) to consist of ~ 30 herbaceous genera. Furthermore, Saxifragaceae s. s. are part of a well‐supported clade (referred to herein as Saxifragales) that also comprises Iteoideae, Pterostemonoideae, Ribesioideae, Penthoroideae, and Tetracarpaeoideae, all traditional subfamilies of Saxifragaceae sensu lato, as well as Crassulaceae and Haloragaceae (both of subclass Rosidae), Paeoniaceae (Dilleniideae), and Hamamelidaceae, Cercidiphyllaceae, and Daphniphyllaceae (all of Hamamelidae). The remaining subfamilies of Saxifragaceae sensu lato fall outside this clade. Francoa (Francooideae) and Bauera (Baueroideae) are allied, respectively, with the rosid families Greyiaceae and Cunoniaceae. Brexia (Brexioideae), Parnassia (Parnassioideae), and Lepuropetalon (Lepuropetaloideae) appear in a clade with Celastraceae. Representatives of Phyllonomoideae, Eremosynoideae, Hydrangeoideae, Escallonioideae, Montinioideae, and Vahlioideae are related to taxa belonging to an expanded asterid clade (Asteridae sensu lato). The relationships suggested by analysis of 18S rDNA sequences are highly concordant with those suggested by analysis of rbcL sequences. Furthermore, these relationships are also supported in large part by other lines of evidence, including embryology, serology, and iridoid chemistry.
A Phylogeny of the Chloroplast Gene RBCL in the Leguminosae: taxonomic correlations and Insights Into the Evolution of Nodulation
Authors: Doyle Jeff J. , Doyle Jane L. , Ballenger Julie A. , Dickson Elizabeth E. , Kajita Tadashi , Ohashi Hiroyoshi
Published: April 2006

Phylogenetic analyses of the chloroplast‐encoded rbcL gene in Leguminosae are consistent with previous hypotheses in suggesting that the family as a whole is monophyletic, but that only two of its three subfamilies are natural. The earliest dichotomies in the family appear to have involved tribes Cercideae or Cassieae (subtribe Dialiinae), followed by Detarieae/Macrolobieae, all of which are members of subfamily Caesalpinioideae. The remainder of the family is divided into two clades: (1) Mimosoideae and the caesalpinioid tribes Caeasalpinieae and Cassieae (subtribes Ceratoniinae and Cassiinae); (2) Papilionoideae. Basal groups within Papilionoideae are, as expected, elements of the grade tribes Sophoreae and Swartzieae. Major clades within Papilionoideae include: (1) a Genistoid Alliance comprising Genisteae, Crotalarieae, Podalyrieae, Thermopsideae, Euchresteae, and also some Sophoreae; (2) a clade marked by the absence of one copy of the chloroplast inverted repeat, with which are associated Robinieae, Loteae, and some Sophoreae; (3) Phaseoleae, Desmodieae, Psoraleeae, and most Millettieae, a group also marked by presence of pseudoracemose inflorescences; and (4) a well‐supported clade comprising Aeschynomeneae, Adesmieae, and some Dalbergieae. Nodulation is most parsimoniously optimized on the rbcL strict consensus tree as three parallel gains, occurring in Papilionoideae, the caesalpinioid ancestors of Mimosoideae, and in the genus Chamaecrista (Caesalpinieae: Cassieae).
Comparative ultrastructure of plasmodesmata of Chara and selected bryophytes: toward an elucidation of the evolutionary origin of plant plasmodesmata
Authors: Cook Martha E. , Graham Linda E. , Botha C. E. J. , Lavin Colleen A.
Published: April 2006

We have used transmission electron microscopy to examine plasmodesmata of the charophycean green alga Chara zeylanica, and of the putatively early divergent bryophytes Monoclea gottschei (liverwort), Notothylas orbicularis (hornwort), and Sphagnum fimbriatum (moss), in an attempt to learn when seed plant plasmodesmata may have originated. The three bryophytes examined have desmotubules. In addition, Monoclea was found to have branched plasmodesmata, and plasmodesmata of Sphagnum displayed densely staining regions around the neck region, as well as ring‐like wall specializations. In Chara, longitudinal sections revealed endoplasmic reticulum (ER) that sometimes appeared to be associated with plasmodesmata, but this was rare, despite abundant ER at the cell periphery. Across all three fixation methods, cross‐sectional views showed an internal central structure, which in some cases appeared to be connected to the plasma membrane via spoke‐like structures. Plasmodesmata were present even in the incompletely formed reticulum of forming cell plates, from which we conclude that primary plasmodesmata are formed at cytokinesis in Chara zeylanica. Based on these results it appears that plasmodesmata of Chara may be less specialized than those of seed plants, and that complex plasmodesmata probably evolved in the ancestor of land plants before extant lineages of bryophytes diverged.
Fossil mushrooms from Miocene and Cretaceous ambers and the evolution of Homobasidiomycetes
Authors: Hibbett David S. , Grimaldi David , Donoghue Michael J.
Published: April 2006

Two species of fossil mushrooms that are similar to extant Tricholomataceae are described from Cretaceous and Miocene ambers. Archaeomarasmius leggetti gen. et sp. nov., from mid‐Cretaceous amber of New Jersey, resembles the extant genera Marasmius and Marasmiellus. Two fruiting bodies of Archaeomarasmius were found. One consists of a complete pileus with stipe, and the other consists of a fragment of a pileus. The latter was accidentally exposed, and zxsubsequently was used for molecular systematics studies (attempts to amplify ribosomal DNA were unsuccessful) and electron microscopy. The spores are smooth and broadly elliptic with a distinct hilar appendage. Protomycena electra gen. et sp. nov., which is represented by a single complete fruiting body from Miocene amber of the Dominican Republic, is similar to the extant genus Mycena. Based on comparison to extant Marasmieae and Myceneae, Archaeomarasmius and Protomycena were probably saprophytes of leaf litter or wood debris. The poor phylogenetic resolution for extant homobasidiomycetes limits the inferences about divergence times of homobasidiomycete clades that can be drawn from Archaeomarasmius and Protomycena. The ages of these fossils lend support to hypotheses that the cosmopolitan distributions of certain mushroom taxa could be due to fragmentation of ancestral ranges via continental drift. Anatomical and molecular studies have suggested that there has been extensive convergence and parallelism in the evolution of homobasidiomycete fruiting body form. Nevertheless, the striking similarity of these fossils to extant forms suggests that in certain lineages homobasidiomycete macroevolution has also involved long periods during which there has been little morphological change.
Paternally biased cpDNA inheritance in Turnera ulmifolia (Turneraceae)
Authors: Shore Joel S. , Triassi Maria
Published: April 2006

We end‐labeled Hin fI restriction digests of a PCR‐amplified plastid encoded gene, the large subunit of ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase, to investigate patterns of cpDNA inheritance in Turnera ulmifolia. A total of 70 progeny from crosses among plants taken from ten populations revealed varying patterns of inheritance. A majority of progeny inherited the paternal cpDNA (64%), while 19% exhibited maternal and 17% biparental inheritance. Eight variegated progeny showed biparental inheritance and were analyzed in greater detail. We extracted and analyzed the cpDNA content of light‐ vs. dark‐green leaf sectors from these plants. The results showed that vegetative segregation of cpDNA had occurred for seven of the eight plants.
Patterns and consequences of self‐pollen deposition on stigmas in heterostylous Persicaria japonica (Polygonaceae)
Authors: Nishihiro Jun , Washitani Izumi
Published: April 2006

In order to test the “anti‐interference” hypothesis for adaptive significance of reciprocal herkogamy, patterns of illegitimate pollination and effects of self‐pollen on the legitimate pollination and fertility were investigated in a naturally pollinated experimental population of distylous Persicaria japonica. Pollen deposition was compared among the emasculation treatments, i.e., emasculation of a single flower from individual inflorescences, emasculation of all the flowers of individual inflorescences, and no emasculation control. In both morphs, considerable illegitimate pollination was found to occur in all the treatments, and there was no significant difference in incompatible pollen load among the treatments. Therefore, it is suggested that herkogamy of P. japonica can sufficiently reduce both intraflower and intra‐inflorescence self‐pollinations, but not interinflorescence geitonogamous and/or interclonal illegitimate pollination. Measurements of pollen load after the repetitive pollen addition showed that space on the stigma surface may not limit the legitimate pollination under natural pollination conditions. Seed sets after legitimate pollination following prior self‐pollination did not differ from the controls without self‐pollination. Therefore, there is little possibility that incompatible pollen load interferes with either pollination or fertilization by compatible pollen, suggesting that “anti‐interference” is unimportant for adaptive significance of reciprocal herkogamy at least in P. japonica.
Combined effects of water, nutrient, and UV‐B Stress on Female Fitness in Brassica (Brassicaceae)
Authors: Conner Jeffrey K. , Zangori Laura A.
Published: April 2006

Our knowledge of the effects of increased levels of ultraviolet‐B radiation (UV‐B) on plant fitness is limited mainly to yield studies in a few crop species. Previous greenhouse and garden studies of Brassica have found greater detrimental effects of UV‐B on fitness in gardens than in the greenhouse, suggesting the possibility that additional stresses in the field decrease the ability of Brassica to cope with UV‐B. Possible interactions between UV‐B and water/nutrient stress in determining plant fitness have rarely, if ever, been studied experimentally. Here we report measurements of female fitness in two species of Brassica in an experiment in which both UV‐B and levels of water and nutrients were varied in a 2 × 2 factorial design. Water and nutrient stress reduced female fitness in both species, while UV‐B caused fitness reductions in only one of the species. There was evidence for interactions between UV‐B and water/nutrient stress for only a few of the traits measured; most traits, including those closely related to fitness, showed no evidence of an interaction.
Circumscription of the Malvales and relationships to other rosidae: evidence from rbcL sequence data
Authors: Alverson William S. , Karol Kenneth G. , Baum David A. , Chase Mark W. , Swensen Susan M. , McCourt Richard , Sytsma Kenneth J.
Published: April 2006

The order Malvales remains poorly circumscribed, despite its seemingly indisputable core constituents: Bombacaceae, Malvaceae, Sterculiaceae, and Tiliaceae. We conducted a two‐step parsimony analysis on 125 rbcL sequences to clarify the composition of Malvales, to determine the relationships of some controversial families, and to identify the placement of the Malvales within Rosidae. We sampled taxa that have been previously suggested to be within, or close to, Malvales (83 sequences), plus additional rosids (26 sequences) and nonrosid eudicots (16 sequences) to provide a broader framework for the analysis. The resulting trees strongly support the monophyly of the core malvalean families, listed above. In addition, these data serve to identify a broader group of taxa that are closely associated with the core families. This expanded malvalean clade is composed of four major subclades: (1) the core families (Bombacaceae, Malvaceae, Sterculiaceae, Tiliaceae); (2) Bixaceae, Cochlospermaceae, and Sphaerosepalaceae (Rhopalocarpaceae); (3) Thymelaeaceae sensu lato (s.l.); and (4) Cistaceae, Dipterocarpaceae s.l., Sarcolaenaceae (Chlaenaceae), and Muntingia. In addition, Neurada (Neuradaceae or Rosaceae) falls in the expanded malvalean clade but not clearly within any of the four major subclades. This expanded malvalean clade is sister to either the expanded capparalean clade of Rodman et al. or the sapindalean clade of Gadek et al. Members of Elaeocarpaceae, hypothesized by most authors as a sister group to the four core malvalean families, are shown to not fall close to these taxa. Also excluded as members of, or sister groups to, the expanded malvalean clade were the families Aextoxicaceae, Barbeyaceae, Cannabinaceae, Cecropiaceae, Dichapetalaceae, Elaeagnaceae, Euphorbiaceae s.l., Huaceae, Lecythidaceae, Moraceae s.l., Pandaceae, Plagiopteraceae, Rhamnaceae, Scytopetalaceae, Ulmaceae, and Urticaceae.
The spatial genetic structure of cytoplasmic (cpDNA) and nuclear (allozyme) markers within and among populations of the gynodioecious Thymus vulgaris (Labiatae) in southern France
Authors: Tarayre Michele , Saumitou‐Laprade Pierre , Cuguen Joël , Couvet Denis , Thompson John D.
Published: April 2006

Recent advances in molecular biology have allowed the development of techniques to contrast spatial differentiation in nuclear and cytoplasmic genes and thus provide important data on relative levels of gene flow by pollen and seed in higher plants. In this paper, we compare the spatial structure of nuclear (allozymes) and cytoplasmic (cpDNA) genes among populations of the gynodioecious Thymus vulgaris in southern France. Based on a combination of three restriction enzymes (CfoI, EcoRV, and PstI), eight chlorotypes (combination of three restriction enzyme patterns revealed by Southern hybridization of Beta vulgaris cpDNA) were identified in the 13 studied populations. One chlorotype was particularly abundant and was detected in nearly all populations. Only one chlorotype was specific to a single population. Up to four different chlorotypes were observed in some populations. An FST of 0.238 (P < 0.002) for cpDNA haplotypes indicates spatial structure of cytoplasmic genes among the studied populations. Similar patterns were found within a single young population (CAB) structured in patches and surrounded by a continuous cover of T. vulgaris where the FST is 0.546 (P < 0.002). No significant correlation between sex and chlorotype nor between cpDNA diversity and female frequency was detected. Allozyme markers showed markedly less spatial structure (FST = 0.021 among populations and 0.019 in the CAB population, P < 0.001). This difference between cpDNA and nuclear allozyme markers suggests that pollen dispersal is more important than seed dispersal both among and within populations.
Independent terrestrial origins of the Halosphaeriales (marine Ascomycota)
Authors: Spatafora Joseph W. , Volkmann‐Kohlmeyer Brigitte , Kohlmeyer Jan
Published: April 2006

A phylogenetic study of marine ascomycetes was initiated to test and refine evolutionary hypotheses of marine–terrestrial transitions among ascomycetes. Taxon sampling focused on the Halosphaeriales, the largest order of marine ascomycetes. Approximately 1050 base pairs (bp) of the gene that codes for the nuclear small subunit (SSU) and 600 bp of the gene that codes for the nuclear large subunit (LSU) ribosomal RNAs (rDNA) were sequenced for 15 halosphaerialean taxa and integrated into a data set of homologous sequences from terrestrial ascomycetes. An initial set of phylogenetic analyses of the SSU rDNA from 38 taxa representing 15 major orders of the phylum Ascomycota confirmed a close phylogenetic relationship of the halosphaerialean species with several other orders of perithecial ascomycetes. A second set of analyses, which involved more intensive taxon sampling of perithecial ascomycetes, was performed using the SSU and LSU rDNA data in combined analyses. These second analyses included 15 halosphaerialean taxa, 26 terrestrial perithecial fungi from eight orders, and five outgroup taxa from the Pezizales. In these analyses the Halosphaeriales were polyphyletic and comprised two distinct lineages. One clade of Halosphaeriales comprised 12 taxa from 11 genera and was most closely related to terrestrial fungi of the Microascales. The second clade of halosphaerialean fungi comprised taxa from the genera Lulworthia and Lindra and was an isolated lineage among the perithecial fungi. Both the main clade of Halosphaeriales and the Lulworthia/Lindra clade are supported by the data as being independently derived from terrestrial ancestors.
Ant protection of the nectaried fern Polypodium plebeium in central Mexico
Authors: Koptur Suzanne , Rico‐Gray Victor , Palacios‐Rios Mónica
Published: April 2006

Nectaries on fronds of Polypodium spp. have been studied previously only in cultivated specimens. We conducted field observations in middle‐elevation forests in Mexico and found five ant species associated with nectaries of Polypodium plebeium and P. lepidotrichum. To investigate whether nectaries promote protection against herbivores, we performed antexclusion experiments with nectary‐bearing ferns (P. plebeium) and other ferns without nectaries (Polypodium plesiosorum, P. furfuraceum, and Phlebodium pseudoaureum). When ants were excluded from the developing fronds of Polypodium plebeium, damage from foliage‐feeding sawfly and lepidopteran caterpillars was significantly greater than in control fronds. Ferns without nectaries did not show a difference in damage between ant‐excluded and control fronds. Our results demonstrate that fern nectaries can support ant defense of the plant body as do the extrafloral nectaries of many angiosperms.
Samuel Clain and the Rumanian Enlightenment in Transylvania
Authors: Hitchins Keith
Published: April 2006

In the second half of the eighteenth century the leavening effects of the Enlightenment began to be felt among the Rumanians of Transylvania. The Enlightenment in Transylvania—and in Eastern Europe generally —was a curious blend of natural law, rationalism, and optimism, drawn from the West, and nationalism, a response to local conditions. It is no coincidence that the first tangible signs of national awakening among the Rumanians manifested themselves at this time. In the thought of the Enlightenment they discovered new justification for their claims to equality with their Magyar, Saxon, and Szekler neighbors. For example, they applied the notion of “natural” civil equality between individuals to the relationship between whole peoples, and they accepted wholeheartedly the myth of the social contract as the foundation of society and as the guarantee of the rights of all those who composed it.
Backwardness and Industrialization in Russian History and Thought
Authors: Wolfe Bertram D.
Published: April 2006

When all other countries are crisscrossed by railroads and are able rapidly to concentrate and to shift their armed forces, Russia must necessarily be able to do the same. It is difficult, it is expensive, but, alas, inevitable.... With regard to railroads, as in many other things, we are particularly fortunate; we did not have to expend energy on experiments and strain our imagination; we can and shall reap the fruits of others’ labor.

A. K. Khomiakov
Observations on Bureaucracy, Totalitarianism, and the Comparative Study of Communism
Authors: Hollander Paul
Published: April 2006

Editor’s Note: In his covering letter for the following piece Mr. Hollander remarked that “sociologists rarely make themselves heard on the pages of the Slavic Review” and expressed the hope that other readers will also be “inclined to join the debate.” We should like to take the opportunity thus provided to invite all sociologists to raise their voices in our pages. We also join the author in his hope that others will enter the debate.
Into the Heart of Darkness: Mandelstam’s Ode to Stalin
Authors: Brown Clarence
Published: April 2006

The obscurity of poems is differently motivated. The later poems of Wallace Stevens are obscure in part because what he wished to say, the one thing that he was trying more and more monomaniacally to say, namely, that there is an imagined life greater and more real than the ordinary life of the senses, became increasingly complex and intractable and hence more difficult to say. The later poems of Osip Mandelstam, whose poems were never easy, are in part obscure because what he wished or had to say involved, if said plainly, the danger of death.
Surrealism in Twentieth-Century Russian Poetry: Churilin, Zabolotskii, Poplavskii
Authors: Karlinsky Simon
Published: April 2006

All her life Zinaida Gippius remembered how startled she was when as a young girl she was told that the Russian word predmet was devised and introduced into the language by Karamzin at the very end of the eighteenth century. The discovery left her wondering how the Russians who lived before that time could discuss all sorts of basic things without a word denoting “object” in the language. We may well be startled in a similar way when we stop to realize that the handy adjective “surrealistic” was coined only in the late 1920s. Furthermore, the word did not initially mean what it came to mean later. When Vladimir Maiakovskii encountered the French Surrealists during his trip to Paris in 1927, he was not sure just what their movement was about but from their behavior concluded that they must be the French equivalent of his own LEF group.
A Neo-Marxist Theory of Comparative Analysis
Authors: Cattell David T.
Published: April 2006

The symposium on “Comparative Politics and Communist Systems” (Slavic Review, March 1967) represents, I believe, a general consensus among social scientists in Slavic studies that the study of Communist countries should be integrated into developments in the social sciences in general. The question is how this should be accomplished. The symposium participants argued for immediate and direct integration through various models such as the developmental or bureaucratic model. Another group, represented by the Communist Studies Conference of the American Political Science Association and the recent Carnegie grant for comparative communism, proposes that comparative communism be considered a major subcategory of comparative analysis. At least in the initial stage, it is reasoned, the various Communist systems should be compared with one another. I would suggest, however, that before either scheme is accepted the net be cast wider for a broader, more flexible organizing device.
Post-Stalin Trends in Russian Literature
Authors: Erlich Victor
Published: April 2006

Writing about recent Soviet literature is a hazardous occupation. A Western chronicler of the post-Stalin literary ferment is as likely to overestimate an ephemeral trend as he is to miss a significant cue. He must be equally wary of premature euphoria and premature impatience. Last but not least, he has to do his best to maintain a viable balance between literary and political considerations.

The latter question was raised sharply by Mr. Andrew Field, a keen if somewhat petulant student of modern Russian literature. Mr. Field deplored the tendency prevalent in the West to discuss recent Soviet imaginative writing sub specie of its alleged ideological heterodoxy rather than of its literary texture.
Argonauts of Peace: The Soviet Delegation to Western Europe in the Summer of 1917
Authors: Wade Rex A.
Published: April 2006

“We are Argonauts of peace.” Under this self-description a delegation of Russian socialists sailed to western Europe in the summer of 1917 to rally popular support for a great conference of world socialism to meet at Stockholm for the purpose of reuniting the International and ending the war. Of all the peace flurries of the war none other roused such hopes and fears as the “Stockholm Conference.” Its proposal caused sharp crises in the governments and in the socialist parties of all the belligerent powers. That it never met contributed mightily to the outcome of the Russian Revolution and the Bolsheviks' coming to power.

The Stockholm Conference was the child of the Russian Revolution. There had been several abortive efforts during the war to reconvene the International, and now the Russian Revolution encouraged some neutral socialists to form a Dutch-Scandinavian Committee to make another effort. It met with a rebuff from the socialist parties of the belligerent powers. The intervention of the Petrograd Soviet of Workers and Soldiers Deputies, however, drastically changed the situation. The Soviet took its first, tentative step into international affairs with the issuance on March 14/27 of a general appeal to the peoples of all countries to unite for peace. Soviet backing for an international socialist conference took more concrete form when the “Siberian Zimmerwaldists,” led by Irakli Tsereteli, returned to Petrograd in late March and asserted their control over the Soviet.
Bishop Strossmayer and Mme. Olga Novikov: Two Unpublished Letters, 1879
Authors: Baylen Joseph O.
Published: April 2006

During the Eastern Crisis of 1876-78, and the years preceding the victory of W. E. Gladstone and the British Liberal party in the Midlothian general election in April 1880, the renowned Slavophile and Croatian patriot Josip Juraj Strossmayer, Roman Catholic bishop of Diakovo, attempted with some success directly and indirectly to enlist Gladstone's support for South Slav nationalist aspirations. Bishop Strossmayer was an ardent advocate of the liberation of the South Slavs from Austrian, Magyar, and Turkish rule, a vocal partisan of South Slav unity, and, at times, a thorn in the side of the Vatican. As the long-time bishop of a large diocese which embraced Slavonia and parts of Bosnia and Serbia, he labored for over fifty years to advance the national traditions and culture of the South Slavs and to promote an awareness among the South Slavs of their common ethnic and cultural origins. Strossmayer achieved notoriety and won the close friendship of Lord Acton and Dr. Johann von Dollinger by his opposition to the Dogma of Papal Infallibility in the Vatican Council of 1869-70 and attracted the attention of Gladstone and many Anglican clerics by his efforts to effect the reconciliation and reunion of the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches. He was also interested in promoting the union of the Western and Eastern churches as a device to remove the religious rivalry which hindered the unification of the South Slavs and persevered in his endeavors to facilitate spiritual unity among the Balkan Slavs, even though these efforts alienated many of the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic clergy.
The Tambov Revolt (1920-1921)
Authors: Singleton Seth
Published: April 2006

Peasant life is known—it is to eat in order to work, to work in order to eat, and, beside that, to be born, to bear, and to die. Our revolution is a rebellion in the name of the conscious, rational, purposeful, and dynamic principle of life, against the elemental, senseless, biological automatism of life; that is, against the peasant roots of our old Russian history.

Boris Pilnyak, The Volga Falls to the Caspian Sea

We cannot ignore the decision of the rank and file of the people, even though we may disagree with it. In the fire of experience, applying the decree in practice, and carrying it out locally, the peasants will themselves realize where the truth lies.

Lenin, introduction to the Land Decree, November 8, 1917
Political Changes in Hungary After the Soviet Invasion of Czechoslovakia
Authors: Racz Barnabas
Published: April 2006

When the economic reform (NEM) was introduced in Hungary in early 1968, it was announced that political reforms aiming at the "democratization of the socialist system" would also be made. The Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party (MSZMP) and the government stated that economic decentralization would be accompanied by the "strengthening of socialist democracy and the broadening of the participation of the masses in political activities." Several measures were taken to promote this objective through discussion and debate–but not through dissent or decision-making. After the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968, which seriously affected the entire East European bloc, Hungary's move toward democratization became less pronounced and the government's policy definitely more cautious both in words and deeds. In this study I attempt to analyze the meaning and scope of the political changes that took place in Hungary in the aftermath of Czechoslovakia, giving special attention to the concept of democracy, the organization of the party and government, the position of the mass organizations, and the meaning of the increasing group conflicts.
Internal Migration in Russia in the Late Nineteenth Century
Authors: Leasure J. William , Lewis Robert A.
Published: April 2006

The Purpose of this study is to describe and analyze the magnitude and direction of the appreciable internal migration that occurred in Russia during the last decades of the nineteenth century. The first part of the article is a description of regional migration patterns, the second part an analysis of these patterns, primarily in terms of economic differentials.

Migration is a complex phenomenon. The supply of migrants to an area is related to such factors as income, distance, size of population, distribution of information, social and cultural amenities, location of resources, and government policy. Some factors may influence potential migrants more than others at a particular stage of economic development. Economic factors seem to be crucial, especially in the early stages of economic development. A useful way to interpret economic data is to compare income differences between areas. Specifically, we shall analyze the relationship between migration by guberniia and differences in indicators of income as inferred from socioeconomic data.
Crime and the Environment: The New Soviet Debate
Authors: Osborn Robert J.
Published: April 2006

The Revival of criminology as a formal discipline in the Soviet Union is raising anew the old Marxist problem of the effect of the environment on the individual. For thirty years following the abolition of the OGPU's Institute for Studying Crime and the Criminal there had been no research facility devoted to studying the causes of crime. Then in 1964 the USSR Public Prosecutor's Office transformed its existing crime-detection research center into the All-Union Institute for Studying the Causes of Crime and Developing Crime-Prevention Methods (hereafter called the Institute for Crime Prevention). Because of its sponsorship it is rather likely that the Institute's senior researchers have access to at least part of the country's largely unpublished crime statistics, hence that they can speak with greater authority than Soviet crime specialists working in the universities and under the Academy of Sciences. It was also in the same year that criminology began to be offered as a subject at Moscow University Law School, and other Soviet law schools have followed suit.

In a society whose ideology asserts that the effect of the environment on the individual is largely known, the effort to isolate particular effects should be of some interest. The assumption that Soviet crime is a product of elements of the capitalist past surviving in the present is strongly reaffirmed by the Institute's director, Igor I. Karpets, and his deputy, Vladimir N. Kudriavtsev. Since by any Soviet definition of “environment” the Soviet citizen is exposed to the socialist present far more than to remnants of the prerevolutionary period, the problem of identifying the “survivals” is coupled with the problem of lack of positive response to the socialist environment by some persons. Karpets seeks these phenomena first of all in the human mind.
The Russian Soldier in 1917: Undisciplined, Patriotic, and Revolutionary
Authors: Ferro Marc
Published: April 2006

1917. A revolution explodes, the most violent in history. Within a few weeks a society rids itself of all its leaders: the monarch and his lawyers, the police and the priests, the landowners and civil servants, the officers and employers. There is no citizen who does not feel free—free to make his own choices and decide his own future. Before long everyone has a plan in his pocket for remaking the country. As the bards of the revolution foretold, a new era in the history of man is beginning.
The “Memoirs” of Count Münnich
Authors: Ransel David L.
Published: April 2006

Since the first Russian publication of Count B. C. Münnich’s “Memoirs” in 1842 historians have employed them as a useful primary source on eighteenthcentury history. However, the Russian title,Zapiski, is misleading. Münnich was not writing his personal memoirs or even a state memorandum: instead he was offering a proposal for central government reform with an accompanying historical justification. Scholars have occasionally remarked on this aspect of the document. But it has gone unrecognized that Münnich’s writing also bore a strongly partisan political imprint. The political design only becomes clear in the context of the prolonged battle for position and influence waged between two powerful court parties in the first years of Catherine II’s reign. At a crucial stage in this struggle Münnich used his proposal in an apparent attempt to break the deadlock and facilitate Nikita Panin’s rise to power in late 1763.
Educating the Russian Peasantry: The Elementary School Reforms of Count Dmitrii Tolstoi
Authors: Sinel Allen
Published: April 2006

Throughout the nineteenth century the Russian government brooded over the part it should play in education. On the one hand, no great power could now maintain itself without a literate, well-trained population; on the other, schools provided the intellectual equipment, and sometimes even the stimulus, to criticize the social and political structure of Russia. Thus, the more the autocracy encouraged the spread of education essential to the well-being of the state, the more it contributed to the growth of antistate elements. This paper will analyze the efforts of Count Dmitrii Tolstoi, Minister of Education 1866-80, to resolve this problem in the field of elementary education.
Enlightened Despotism and Islam Under Catherine II
Authors: Fisher Alan W.
Published: April 2006

Discussions of Catherine II as an “enlightened despot” usually emphasize her attempts to reform the social and political bases of the Russian Empire and to gain the active support of the nobility and gentry in governmental activity. Catherine denned enlightened government as wellordered government, achieving its policy and programs through bureaucratic and political means rather than with the sheer force that many of her predecessors had used.

The term “Russification” is seldom used with reference to the period of Catherine II, even though it was in her reign that the Cossack Sech was abolished, the special privileges granted by Peter I to the Baltic provinces abrogated, and the first successful assimilation of Russia’s Muslim subjects into the Russian state accomplished.
Leontiev’s Prickly Rose
Authors: Rzhevsky Nicholas
Published: April 2006

Contemporaries and latter-day critics of Constantine Leontiev have tended to respond to him in one of two ways. The first and by far the more common approach has focused on his reactionary political views, homosexuality, and quirks of personal life; the second, on his talent as a writer. The eccentric psychopolitical image of Leontiev created in the first instance has injected a paradoxical note of disharmony into the appreciation of a seemingly inverse grace and form in his fiction. The man has come to represent one thing, his literary work something quite different and unrelated. Although critics like Vasilii Rozanov, Nicholas Berdiaev, and Father Georges Florovsky have hinted at the ideological factors which suggest possible ways of resolving this paradox, no real organic interpretation explaining Leontiev’s fiction in terms of his own cultural situation, his ideas, beliefs, and ideological problems is available.
The Soviet Regional Leadership: The Brezhnev Generation
Authors: Rigby T. H.
Published: April 2006

The secretaries of republic and regional party committees are the most important category of officials in the USSR after the supreme leadership. They formed 36 percent of the full members of the Central Committee chosen in 1976, while the next largest group, comprising members of the Council of Ministers, made up 24 percent. They are also the most important reserve from which members of the supreme leadership are co-opted. A study of the careers of Politburo members in 1971 showed that two-thirds of them had spent at least five years as regional or republic party first secretaries before being promoted to senior jobs at the center. The same applies to nine of the twelve present members of the Central Committee Secretariat.

This article focuses on the first secretaries of regional (oblast') and territorial (krai) party committees—the obkom and kraikom secretaries—of the Russian Republic (RSFSR). They make up almost two-thirds of all republic and regional party officials elected as full members of the present Central Committee, but their importance lies not only in their numerical weight within the political elite.
On the Authenticity of the Kurbskii-Groznyi Correspondence: A Summary of the Discussion
Authors: Skrynnikov R. G.
Published: April 2006

Six years ago Professor E. Keenan wrote a major study, refuting the authenticity of the correspondence between Ivan the Terrible and Kurbskii. Keenan's book attracted great attention. In 1973 the Institute of Russian Literature (Pushkinskii Dom) published my book Correspondence between Ivan the Terrible and Kurbskii: Paradoxes of Edward Keenan. In the course of the discussion generated by the publication of Keenan's book, scholars of the most varied schools and tendencies have expressed their reaction to the subject of the controversy. Between 1972 and 1975 a series of articles summarizing the controversy were published, and the matter was thoroughly discussed. Edward Keenan's paradoxes have not received support among the scholarly community. Keenan's idea that, in view of the spuriousness of nearly all the writings of Ivan IV and several other significant compositions of that time, the history of Russia in the sixteenth century needed to be written anew might have served as a stimulus to an all-embracing discussion of a broad range of problems. In the absence of any serious proof of the fabrication, however, such a discussion did not take place. A number of works of Ivan IV and Kurbskii have been preserved to the present in copies indisputably compiled in the sixteenth century, and the controversy as to whether the persons in question were the writers goes by default.
The Feminine Stereotype and Beyond: Role Conflict and Resolution in the Poetics of Marina Tsvetaeva
Authors: Gove Antonina Filonov
Published: April 2006

In examining the development of Tsvetaeva's lyric verse, it is possible to discern a recurrent thematic strain: a rejection by the poet of the conventional roles imposed on the individual by society, particularly certain characteristics of the feminine role. I will try to show that Tsvetaeva, in the process of rejecting, via her poetry, this key ingredient in a person's self-concept—namely, the sex role as defined by society—along with a rejection of other limiting social norms, developed images of the self that transcend social roles. Moreover, the working out of this poetic identity is not continuous but falls into several chronological stages.

In discussing a poet's self, critical method prescribes that a distinction be maintained between the individual and the poetic persona. Without negating this methodological stricture, it is important to keep in mind that for some poets an adequate interpretation requires one to perceive that the persona is an elaborate poetic projection and mythologization of the individual.
Labor Turnover in the Soviet Union
Authors: Powell David E.
Published: April 2006

The major objective and main content of the policy which our Party consistently implements involves creating for the worker the most pleasant surroundings for work, study, and leisure, in order to develop and utilize his abilities to the fullest.

Leonid Brezhnev

In recent years, Soviet officials and scholars have expressed increasing concern
about the "lack of discipline" among industrial workers in the USSR. Labor
productivity remains low, and it is improving at an unacceptably slow pace. At
the same time, "shirking," "idling," on-the-job drunkenness, and industrial accidents
are widespread. But the most troublesome manifestation of the Soviet
worker's lack of discipline is the high rate of labor turnover.