bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
I
ran, Kurdish National Autonomy Movement
Authors: Bhattacharya Nandini
Published: September 2017

The Kurds are the largest non‐state nation in West Asia, and their homeland, Kurdistan, remains distributed mainly among Turkey, Iraq, and Iran, and to a lesser extent in Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Syria. Five to six million Kurds, forming 10 percent of Iran's population, still live in Iran and strive to carve out their autonomous existence. Despite the changes in ideology and regimes, Iranian nationalism and Kurdish identities have repeatedly clashed since 1945.
Iraq, Anti‐British Nationalists
Authors: Chatterjee Shibashis
Published: September 2017

Iraq's modern history begins from the eighteenth century with the gradual penetration of western trade and capital as a byproduct of Ottoman Turkish agreements with the western powers, primarily through the commercial agency of the British East India Company. The early nationalism came in the form of urban opposition to Ottoman rule. In particular, the Iraqi and Syrian army officers who had fought for the Ottomans came to support the first wave of Arab nationalism against this regime. But the movement, led by the Hashemite Prince Faisal and strategically supported by Britain, proved abortive. Full independence of the people of Iraq was not considered because of the imperial struggles between France and Britain. Although Britain lost control of Syria to France, it managed to gain Iraq and Palestine as mandated territories under the League of Nations. Faisal became the puppet‐king.
I
raqi Resistance, 1991–2007
Authors: Chatterjee Shibashis
Published: September 2017

Iraq was an oil‐rich country with a dictatorship trying to steer an autonomous course, which brought it into confrontation with the US as the Cold War ended. During the Cold War, Iraq's geopolitical and strategic significance had brought Saddam Hussein gains. Holding together a state divided between ethnic and sectarian identities of the Iraqi Sunnis, Shi'ias, and Kurds, Hussein opted for a brutal dictatorship, but received support from both the US and USSR. The importance of Iraq increased rapidly after the Shah's collapse in Iran in 1978, with the US desperate to balance Soviet interests in the region. Second, a regional conflict of interest existed between Iran and Iraq. The Shi'i Islamic rebellion in Iran emboldened the local Shi'i community to challenge the Sunni Ba'ath rule. Fearful of Iranian support for Shi'i and Kurdish groups as well as ambitious for a regional leadership role, Hussein went in for a war against Iran to mobilize domestic support and garner military help from abroad. The war with Iran was a careful gamble, and Saddam was able to achieve some goals, though at an enormous cost. Saddam's grandiose plans of weaponization, including weapons of chemical warfare, were realized with the full knowledge and connivance of the US and Moscow. Moreover, the war apparently united Iraq in the face of a bellicose neighbor. The Kurds as the only exception paid a terrible price for their betrayal at the hour of national peril, as Saddam saw it.
I
reland, Great Rebellion, 1798
Authors: Conner Clifford D.
Published: September 2017

In 1798 a long‐anticipated rebellion burst forth in Ireland, releasing the repressed fury that had accumulated over decades of oppression. Ireland's impoverished Catholics – politically disenfranchised, tormented by harsh penal laws, barred from formal education, and economically helpless in the face of the ever‐increasing demands of rack‐renting landlords – were ready for revolution. They had the requisite determination, courage, and numerical superiority to sweep aside their oppressors, if only their potential power could be organized and focused. The unknown factor was leadership. Could the raw power of the Irish rebels be harnessed to create a coordinated striking force?
I
reland, the Troubles
Authors: White Robert W.
Published: September 2017

“The Troubles” is a neutral term that attempts to balance the perspective of paramilitaries, who saw themselves as soldiers engaged in a war, and the perspective of the media and government officials who observed a sectarian conflict between the Northern Irish Catholic and Protestant communities. Events associated with the Troubles that made worldwide news include the bombing of Birmingham pubs (Provisional IRA, 1974), the attack on the Miami Showband (Ulster Volunteer Force/Ulster Defence Regiment, 1975), the firebombing of the La Mon House restaurant (Provisional IRA, 1978), and the Omagh bombing (Real IRA, 1998).
Irish Republican Army (
IRA
)
Authors: White Robert W.
Published: September 2017

The Irish Republican Army (IRA) was born in April 1916 when rebels in Dublin declared an Irish Republic, but its roots date from much earlier. Some of the 1916 rebels had been Fenians in the 1860s–1880s and some Fenians had been Young Irelanders in the 1840s. The IRA's ideology dates from eighteenth‐century republican philosophy and the United Irishmen of the 1790s, who, in the words of Theobald Wolfe Tone sought “to break the connection with England, the never‐failing source of our political ills … and to substitute the common name of Irishmen in place of the denomination of Protestant, Catholic and Dissenter.”
Irish Republican Army Resistance Campaign
Authors: White Robert W. , White Francis K.
Published: September 2017

On December 12, 1956 the Irish Republican Army began what they called the Resistance Campaign, which would continue until February 26, 1962. For the first three years IRA forces attacked Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) police stations and officers, British army bases and personnel, and government facilities in many parts of Northern Ireland. By 1960, however, strong opposition from the British and Northern Ireland governments and the collaboration of the Republic of Ireland's Cabinet limited military action to areas along the border of these two states. Disappointed, internal IRA critics complained that the campaign was meant to be more than this. Later, journalists and historians described it as the Border Campaign, and it is popularly known by this title. Many 1950s IRA activists, however, including Ruairí Ó Brádaigh, the primary author of the IRA statement “to end the Resistance Campaign,” continue to use the original name.
Islamic Political Currents
Authors: Hannan Jason
Published: September 2017

Like other religious cultures, the Islamic world has been forced to reckon with a variety of modern realities, including secularism, democracy, industrial capitalism, human rights, gender equality, and natural science. These developments have revealed certain tensions between Islam and modernity. It is often said that Islam today is in a state of crisis and must undergo reform if it is to flourish in the modern world. There has been a wide range of Muslim responses to the challenges of modernity and all have had to face an inescapable dilemma: how to address such challenges while remaining faithful to the Islamic tradition. In some cases, the responses have become powerful political movements; in others, they remain mere ideas. There are pointed disagreements among Muslims concerning how to respond to modern realities. What binds these different points of view, however, is a common struggle for the future of Islam.
Italian Risorgimento
Authors: Block Marcelline
Published: September 2017

The nineteenth‐century struggle for the political, cultural, and social unification of Italy is known as theRisorgimento, which means “the resurgence” or “the rebirth.” TheRisorgimentohad many supporters, including conservative members of the aristocratic establishment such as Count Camillo Benso di Cavour (1810–61), who after 1852 was the prime minister of Piedmont‐Sardinia under King Victor Emmanuel II. Other significant actors in theRisorgimentoinclude the revolutionary, pro‐democratic philosopher Giuseppe Mazzini (1805–72) and the popular, charismatic folk hero Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807–82). Garibaldi is commemorated by the street named “rue Garibaldi” in Nice, his birthplace, while Cavour is memorialized by the street called “via Cavour” in the historic center of Rome.
I
taly, Anti‐War Movement, 1980–2005
Authors: Montagna Nicola
Published: September 2017

The peace movement in Italy from the early 1980s and the early 2000s arose in reaction to the Italian government's joining external allies in international conflicts. The coalitions in the anti‐war movement are actors from a diversity of political cultures: trade unions, Catholic groups, environmentalists, left‐wing parties, and Occupied Social Centers. Overall, five cycles of protest characterize the peace movement from 1980 to 2005.
I
taly, New Syndicalism, Cobas, and Precarious Workers' Organization
Authors: Fumagalli Andrea
Published: September 2017

Cobas are independent rank‐and‐file worker organizations that emerged in Italian factories in the 1980s in opposition to the established system of trade union representation averse to class conflict. The history of Italian cobas can be traced to the late 1960s, during what was known as the great blue‐collar movement called
autunno caldo
(hot autumn). In that period within the large firms of the North, some autonomous workers' collectives opposed to traditional trade unions that were linked to Italy's left‐moderate parties began to develop a new form of unionism based on autonomous labor control. The first cobas took the names Comitati operai di base and Cub, and continued into the early 2000s. The philosophy of cobas is rooted in response to the repressive labor conditions in the 1960s, aimed at supporting “same wage increase for all,” without taking into account different occupational categories. Cub and Comitati operai di base were autonomous organizations linked to leftist extra‐parliamentary political groups (Avanguardia Operaia, Lotta Continua, Potere Operaio) and the student movement.
I
taly, Operaism and Post‐Operaism
Authors: Mezzadra Sandro
Published: September 2017

Operaismo
(“operaism”), also known in the English‐speaking world as “autonomist Marxism,” refers to a theoretical and political current of Marxist thought that emerged in Italy in the early 1960s. An original reading of Marx in the framework of the radical workers' struggles that developed in the country during the decade led to the invention of new theoretical concepts (such as technical and political class composition, the mass worker, the refusal of work) and of a new political methodology (so‐called militant investigation or co‐research). The development of operaism deeply influenced both the political culture and social movements of the 1960s and 1970s in Italy. The theories of Italian revolutionary operaism, which after 1968 shaped political experiences such as Potere Operaio (Workers' Power) and the multifarious movements of Autonomia Operaia (Workers' Autonomy), were widely circulated abroad as well.
Italy, 17th‐Century Revolts in the South
Authors: Martone Nicole , Martone Eric
Published: September 2017

During the early modern period, the Italian peninsula remained divided and experienced frequent invasions from various foreign powers, which exercised control over parts of the peninsula. Often, such foreign occupation was met with fierce resistance by the Italian people, resulting in numerous insurrections in the pursuit of freedom. Furthermore, while the northern Italian peninsula remained, for the most part, independent of foreign domination and emerged as a cultural center during the Renaissance, the southern Italian peninsula was exploited by foreign powers. The result was sharp social divisions and uneven development among the peoples of Italy.
J
abotinsky,
V
ladimir (
Z
e'ev) (1880–1940) and Revisionist Zionism
Authors: Davidson Lawrence
Published: September 2017

Vladimir Jabotinsky was born in Odessa, Russia, on October 18, 1880 into a middle‐class family with an intellectual and internationalist outlook. He had a secular education and, while still in high school, developed an interest in journalism. Following graduation he got a job as the European correspondent for several Russian newspapers and traveled in that capacity to Bern in Switzerland and Rome in Italy. While in Rome he also took up the study of law.
Jalib, Habib (1928–1993)
Authors: Sulehria Farooq
Published: September 2017

Known as the People's Poet, Habib Jalib signifies struggle for democracy, socialism, secularism, peace, and human and women's rights in Pakistan. Born in 1928 at Miani, an Afghan village in Hoshiarpur district, Punjab (now in India), Jalib witnessed extreme poverty as his father, a shoemaker, was hardly able to make ends meet. His parents, however, were ambitious regarding the education of their children. In 1943 the family moved to Delhi, which for centuries has been the political and cultural center of the Indian subcontinent. Young Jalib was greatly influenced by Delhi's literary atmosphere through his elder brother Mushtaq Mubarik. In Delhi Jalib's father managed to establish himself as a small trader, and the family experienced relative prosperity. This financial comfort proved shortlived, however, as the partition of India in 1947 forced his family to migrate to Karachi, ushering in another period of extreme poverty.
Jamaica, Peasant Uprisings, 19th Century
Authors: Sheller Mimi
Published: September 2017

Peasant uprisings in nineteenth‐century Jamaica can be understood as part of a longer history of slave uprisings and anti‐slavery struggles. They also connect to the emergence of African and black liberation movements throughout the Americas, to wider working‐class movements across the transatlantic world, and to ongoing peasant movements in twentieth‐century Latin America. Thus they are an important link between different historical forms of popular social protest and political uprising.
James, C. L. R. (1901–1989)
Authors: Bush Roderick
Published: September 2017

C. L. R. James is one of the preeminent revolutionary theoreticians, activists, and cultural critics of the twentieth century. His role as anti‐colonial militant, Pan‐African internationalist, Marxist revolutionary, and political activist establishes him as one of the intellectual giants of the twentieth century in the tradition of W. E. B. Du Bois. James's life began in the Trinidadian periphery of the world‐system in a middle‐class family of schoolteachers. He combined the benefits of a superb education with an uncommon sensitivity to the common people of Trinidad. In Trinidad he was a teacher but became an anti‐colonial militant who infused his writings with the lives of the common people whose passion, common sense, and decency he had come to respect and love.
J
apan, Community Labor Union Movement
Authors: Urano Edson I.
Published: September 2017

Enterprise unions are functionally “adjusted” to the productionist and enterprise‐centered characteristics of Japanese society, with both core enterprises and regular workers as the pillars of the social system. The emergence and hegemony of this type of union has effectively resulted in the exclusion of marginal workers, such as part‐timers, temporary workers, and foreign workers, from the labor movement. In this context, Japanese community unions are meaningful organizations which function as alternatives to the mainstream labor movement. Despite their numerical irrelevance, their link to the progressive social movements of the past, their combativeness, and their inclusive role on the unionization of minorities and atypical workers make them of major relevance as a sociological phenomenon.
J
apan, Pacifist Movement, 1945–Present
Authors: Muto Ichiyo
Published: September 2017

After Imperial Japan's defeat in World War II in 1945, a broad pacifist social consensus emerged in Japan. By 1995, it came to permeate not just the peace movement, but also social movements in general as their guiding spirit. For decades this pacifism enjoyed majority popular support and served as one of the defining characteristics of post‐World War II Japanese state and society.
J
apan, Protest and Revolt, 1800–1945
Authors: McClellan Janet E.
Published: September 2017

In Japan the period of the Industrial Revolution spanned two phases of critical social and political periods that included the Tokugawa Shogunate (1603–1868) and the Meiji Restoration (1868–1912). The examination of peasant, union, and labor uprisings and strikes includes the study of oppressive taxation burdens imposed by officials and the combined malfeasance of taxing authorities and ministerial officials in complicity with the social/political elites in the repression of laborers. Specifically, a series of revolts occurred from 1800 to 1884 when regional crop failures together with excessive taxation and official malfeasance threatened the livelihood and lives of the populace and effectively brought about the end of the Shogunate period and the rise of the Meiji Restoration. The Meiji Restoration was followed by a steady progression of the nation toward militarism (1912–45).
Japan, Resistance to Construction of Narita Airport
Authors: Muto Ichiyo
Published: September 2017

In July 1966 the Japanese government suddenly announced plans to build a new airport at Sanrizuka, a thriving farming area 40 miles from downtown Tokyo. The decision reflected the regime's overconfidence and condescension toward workers and peasants. The government did not consult the local farmers involved, who first learned about the plan from a newspaper article. The government assumed from its previous experience of land confiscation for large industrial projects that if offered money the farmers would willingly give up their land. Instead, the move sparked a prolonged movement that challenged not only plans for the airport, but Japan's hegemonic notions of development and economic growth and the supremacy of corporate power at the expense of the people, their dignity, and their environment. The movement grew to include many facets of Japan's New Left, and created alliances and organizational models new to Japan's progressive movements.
J
apan Socialist Party (
JSP
)
Authors: Nakakita Koji
Published: September 2017

The Japan Socialist Party (Nihon Shakaito) (JSP) was the most important socialist party in post‐World War II Japan. From 1955 to 1993, under the so‐called 1955 system, it was the largest opposition party to the ruling Liberal Democratic Party (LDP). Ideologically, it advocated Marxism and pacifism for most of its existence, and was one of the most leftist parties affiliated with the Socialist International.
J
apan, Student Movements
Authors: Muto Ichiyo
Published: September 2017

As in most of the world, the 1960s marked a period of intense social struggle and resistance in Japan. By 1968 the New Left student movements were in a period of ascendancy, having instigated and maintained long periods of sometimes violent struggle in the universities, communities, and on the streets. While the student movements of the 1960s commenced in reaction to the Japan‐US Joint Security (ANPO) Treaty and widespread anti‐Vietnam War and anti‐US imperialism sentiment, by 1968 students in Japan had long since begun to challenge the university system itself – not just its leadership, but the ideological premises on which the university system was structured and its relation to the capitalist state and elitist hierarchies. Further, the student movements, particularly the Zenkyoto movement, were instrumental in challenging what many considered to be a myth of economic growth and social ascendancy, as well as monolithic notions of development. Animated by massive campus revolts, violent street fights, and seemingly unwavering militancy, increasing numbers joined the student movements and the wider New Left movements.
Jara, Victor (1932–1973)
Authors: González Benjamin Anaya
Published: September 2017

One of the most influential songwriters of the Latin American Nueva Canción (New Song) movement, Victor Lidio Jara Martinez was killed, along with thousands of Chileans, after newly appointed Army General Augusto Pinochet assaulted the Palace of La Moneda and killed President Salvador Allende on September 11, 1973. In the following days, participants of the Unidad Popular (the leftist coalition that supported Allende's presidency) were detained, tortured, and killed after being taken to the Chile and National stadiums. Victor Jara, who was born in the peasant village of Lonquen on September 28, 1932, was detained in the building of the Technical University in the College of Arts where he had taught. After being brutally separated from his friends, he was ordered to sing for the crowd of detainees in the stadium in which he had performed many times. Then he was tortured. On September IS, 1973, he was killed and his corpse abandoned in the street.
Jaurès, Jean (1859–1914)
Authors: Kurtz Geoffrey
Published: September 2017

Jean Jaurès was a prominent socialist politician, orator, and writer during the period of the Second International (1889–1916) and France's Third Republic (1870–1940). A defender of Alfred Dreyfus, a proponent of democratic reformism, and an advocate for peace, Jaurès sought to reconcile Karl Marx's theory of class conflict with the liberal individualism of the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. He was assassinated on the eve of World War I.
Jewish Bund
Authors: Rosenblum April
Published: September 2017

The Jewish Bund, known in full as the General Jewish Workers' Union of Lithuania, Poland and Russia (Der Algemeyner Yidisher Arbeter Bund in Lite, Poyln, un Rusland), was a mass movement of Jewish workers that played an essential role in the birth of the Russian revolutionary movement. A secular organization, it opposed tsarism and capitalism, and fought both to remedy universal inequality and to defend Jewish cultural and political rights. With 30,000 active members on the eve of the Russian Revolution of 1905, the Bund comprised one of the largest socialist organizations in the Russian empire.
Jewish Resistance to Nazism
Authors: Grenimann Rabbi Yehiel
Published: September 2017

Jewish resistance to Nazism should be seen within two contexts: the history of Jewish responses to the virulent European Christian anti‐Semitism of the approximately 1,000 years which preceded the Holocaust on the one hand, and the history of religious, ethnic, and political resistance to totalitarianism in the twentieth century on the other.
Joshi, P. C. (1907–1980)
Authors: Gupta Shatarupa Sen
Published: September 2017

P. C. Joshi was born in in Almora, Uttar Pradesh. He joined the Workers' and Peasants' Party in 1928 and became the joint secretary of its United Provinces unit. Alarmed at the rise of communist and trade union activities, the British launched a series of repressive measures, culminating in the arrest of 31 labor leaders, including Joshi, on March 20, 1929; they were tried for three years in the famous Meerut Conspiracy Case. Joshi joined the Communist Party of India (CPI) the same year. He was released in 1933 and participated in the All‐India Textile Workers' Strike from Kanpur, for which he was again arrested and imprisoned for two years.
Julião, Francisco (1915–1999)
Authors: Novaes Henrique Tahan
Published: September 2017

A lawyer, deputy, novelist, and socialist influenced by the Catholic Church's left wing, Francisco Julião was leader of the Farmers' Leagues in the northeast of Brazil and a federal deputy for the Brazilian Socialist Party (PSB). Julião revealed the correlation that existed between large landed property, the monoculture of sugar cane, and the proliferation of poverty in the northeast. His theory of social revolution revolved heavily around biblical and Christian principles, “according to which the land should belong to those who work on it, with their own hands and their own sweat, and not the sweat of others” (Julião 1962: 22). He believed that the real battle was that between peasants and property owners, and he thus supported radical agrarian reform. His theory, however, suffered the impact of the 1959 Cuban Revolution and the anti‐communist hysteria that followed in the United States and other western countries. He was exiled after the military coup in 1964.
Jung Hwa‐am (1896–1981)
Authors: Jang‐Whan O. H.
Published: September 2017

Jung Hwa‐am was a Korean anti‐imperialist and revolutionary activist with strong bonds to the activist movement. As an anarchist activist, Jung was a member of the Je‐jung‐kuk jo‐sun mu‐jung‐bu ju‐eu‐ja yun‐meng (Korean Anarchist Federation in China). Together with the brothers Li Eul‐kyu and Li Jung‐kyu, Jung worked for the National Labor University in Shanghai and the Chung‐Yung People's Training Center in collaboration with Chinese anarchists in 1927. Following the full‐scale invasion of the Japanese army in China, Jung participated in a broad anti‐Japanese front.
Kabouters
Authors: Bogad L. M.
Published: September 2017

In the spring of 1970 a countercultural group called the Kabouters (Dutch for “Gnomes”) launched a ludic electoral campaign that included many acts of mass absurdism and civil disobedience, non‐violent sabotage, and symbolic, Utopian inversion/subversion in the Netherlands. An ideologically heterogeneous, loosely organized anarchist/environmental movement, the Kabouters were unified in their opposition to the Dutch capitalist, social‐democratic system and its attendant paradigms, symbols, and rituals. They referred to their counter‐institutions and people's meetings as the organs of the Orange Free State, a mythical, mystical, New Left fantasy‐nation that had formed, and was meant to flourish, within the rotting body of the corrupt capitalist state. Ironically, though the movement was anti‐parliamentarian, their electoral campaigns and their overall history were completely intertwined. In fact, the ebb and flow of Kabouter unity, power, and grassroots energy were reflected by their various showings at the polls. Though the Kabouters' accomplishments included the creation of an impressive array of non‐electoral, grassroots, and egalitarian counter‐institutions, the movement began with a municipal electoral campaign and ended with a campaign for the national parliament. This was a result of their innovative use of the electoral system as a central forum for their guerilla theater media strategy.
Kadalie, Clements (ca. 1896–1951)
Authors: Van der Walt Lucien
Published: September 2017

Born in or just before 1896 at Chifira village near the Bandawe mission station in Nyasaland (now Malawi) to a chiefly lineage, Clements Kadalie was educated by Presbyterian missionaries at the Livingston Missionary Institution and qualified as a teacher in 1912. Dissatisfied with his opportunities, Kadalie left teaching in 1915, moving to Mozambique and then Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), where he worked as a clerk in various jobs from 1916 to 1917. During this time, he was radicalized by white prejudice and the color bar.
K
ashmir, Popular Struggles to 1947
Authors: Chattopadhyay Kunal
Published: September 2017

Conquered by the Mughal emperor Akbar in 1586, Kashmir has experienced religious diversity which has been a source of division ever since, although the people retain a strong sense of unity known as
Kashmiriyat
(Kashmiri national identity). From the Mughals Kashmir passed to the Afghan empire of Ahmad Shah Abdali, and then to the Sikh empire of Maharaja Ranjit Singh. Ranjit gave Jammu as
ajaigir
(land allotment against military service) to Dogra Rajput chieftain Gulab Singh. After Ranjit's death, Gulab Singh helped Britain to conquer the empire. As a reward, in the Treaty of Amritsar of 1846, Kashmir was given to Gulab in return for 75 lakh rupees, a token tribute of a dozen pashmina goats, one horse, and three pairs of Kashmiri shawls. Kashmiri nationalists subsequently have called Amritsar a bill of sale, not a treaty.
Katarismo and Indigenous Popular Mobilization,Bolivia, 1970s—Present
Authors: Rivera Cusicanqui Silvia
Published: September 2017

In 1974, almost 200 years had passed since the great Andean insurgency of 1780–1. The Agrarian Reform Law of 1953 had been in force more than two decades, and the peasantry seemed to have been tamed and satisfied with the distribution of land in the Andean high plateau (Altiplano) and valleys, while a new oligarchy was formed through the concentration of land in the eastern lowlands of Bolivia. In January that year, during the dictatorship of Hugo Banzer Suárez (1971–8), Qhichwa peasants in the Tolata and Epizana communities blockaded roads in protest at a series of measures that benefited the industrial products of the landed oligarchy of the lowlands (sugar, rice, oil, and others) and froze the prices of the traditional peasant crops. More than 80 peasants were brutally killed and disappeared in the ensuing confrontations, and a wave of rage and dissatisfaction erupted in the whole western Andean region of the country.
Kautsky, Karl (1854–1938)
Authors: Nautz Jürgen
Published: September 2017

Karl Kautsky was born in Prague on October 16, 1854. In 1863 the family moved to Vienna, the capital of the Hapsburg empire. During his schooldays, influenced by reading George Sand and Louis Blanc, Kautsky became a socialist. In 1875 he became a member of the Social Democratic Party in Austria, founded the year before at Neudörfl. Greatly influenced by Ernst Haeckel's popular book
Natürliche Schöpfungs‐geschichte
, Kautsky intensified his studies in scientific materialism and Darwinism. His theories were first developed in 1876/7 in the manuscripts
Entwurf einer Entwkklungsgeschichte der Menschheit
(1927) and
Rasse und Judentum
(1914). Kautsky also studied economic theorists Karl Eugen Dühring, David Ricardo, Wilhelm Roscher, and Adam Smith, philosophers John Stuart Mill and Friedrich Albert Lange, and Karl Marx, especially his
Capital
(1875/1876).
Kelly, Edward “Ned” (1855–1880) and the Kelly Gang
Authors: McQuilton John
Published: September 2017

The Kelly Gang was at large in Northeastern Victoria (also known as Kelly Country) from October 1878 to June 1880. It consisted of Edward (Ned) Kelly, his brother Dan, Steve Hart, and Joe Byrne. The Kelly Outbreak began in October 1878 when a police search party and the gang fought a gun battle at Stringybark Creek. Three policemen were shot dead. Declared outlaws by the Victorian government, a reward was placed on gang's heads. A massive police hunt followed, but failed to find them. In December 1878, the gang robbed a bank in the Victorian town of Euroa. In February 1879, they crossed the border into New South Wales and robbed a bank at Jerilderie. During the robbery, Ned Kelly left what he called a “small part of my life,” an 8,300‐word letter setting out his side of the story (the Jerilderie Letter). The colonial governments and banks in Victoria and New South Wales increased the original reward to £8,000. Although an unprecedented sum of money, it found no takers. The Kelly Gang disappeared from sight until June 26, 1880. No longer the hunted, the gang had become the hunter.
Kent State Student Uprising
Authors: Warner Maddern Stacy
Published: September 2017

The incidents at Kent State University on May 4, 1970 would galvanize the anti‐Vietnam War movement in the United States, forming solidarity between colleges and universities across the nation. Responding to President Richard Nixon's announcement that US forces would invade Cambodia on April 30, 1970, students began demonstrating on the campus of Kent State University intending to “bring the war home.” Beginning on Friday May 1, the protest included an effigy of burning draft cards, American flags, and copies of the US Constitution. The protest and violence would escalate and travel into the neighborhoods of Kent, Ohio, where several bars had to be closed and police were called out to quell disturbances. The following morning, after declaring a state of emergency, Kent Mayor Leroy Satrom asked Ohio Governor James A. Rhodes to assist in what was by then considered a city‐wide riot.
K
enya, Neoliberalism and Women's Protest
Authors: Gona George
Published: September 2017

In 1980 Kenya became one of the first two countries, along with Turkey, to receive support from the World Bank for broad macroeconomic Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs) to address structural weaknesses in its economy. The dictates of SAPs called on workers and peasants to tighten their belts and to contribute to their own development – euphemisms which meant digging deep into their pockets to survive. SAPs involved cuts in education and health expenditure by governments, which negatively affected the provision of these services, for example, charging people “user fees” at health facilities. The reforms entailed downsizing in state‐owned enterprises (SOEs) (also called parastatals) and retrenchments in the public sector. Trade liberalization was also a critical component of SAPs, leading to stiff competition from imports for former protected industries. This resulted in the closure of factories and redundancies. The argument was that neoliberal policies would bring about economic growth. Trade openness would result in economic competitiveness and hence increased profits. Yet the effects of SAPs were such that they outweighed these economic nobilities.
Khmelnytsky Uprising
Authors: Waskey Andrew J.
Published: September 2017

The Khmelnytsky (Chmielnicki) Uprising was a series of armed peasant revolts across present‐day Ukraine that raged from 1648 to 1654, converging with a campaign to liberate the territory from Polish control. The uprisings are considered to be actions that liberated the Ukrainians and set in motion the formation of the modern nationalist movement.
Khmelnytsky Uprising, 1654
Authors: Ness Immanuel
Published: September 2017

The Khmelnytsky Uprising was a series of organized peasant rebellions waged by Cossacks and Tatars in Ruthenia (contemporary Ukraine) in response to occupation, imposition of a foreign culture, and repression of local peoples by the Polish‐Lithuanian Commonwealth. The sequence of popular campaigns raged in the southeastern region of the Commonwealth beginning in 1648 and culminated in the Khmelnytsky Uprising of 1654, viewed as the forerunner to the national autonomy movement. The uprisings are considered by Ukrainians as key rebellions that liberated Ukrainians, leading to the formation of the modern Ukrainian state.
Khmer Rouge and Pol Pot
Authors: Corfield Justin
Published: September 2017

The formation of the communist movement in Cambodia goes back to the late 1920s when some of the Chinese who were resident there became involved in strike and sympathy action, undoubtedly motivated by events in China. In 1930, the Indochinese Communist Party (ICP) was founded in Hong Kong by Ho Chi Minh, aiming to draw together the communists in Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos. However, from the start it was dominated by the Vietnamese, and members from Cambodia also tended to be ethnic Vietnamese. The first communist in Cambodia who seems to have been an ethnic Khmer (the native people of Cambodia) was Ben Krahom (“Red” Ben), a 24‐year‐old manual laborer who was involved in distributing leaflets in Phnom Penh on July 31, 1930. He worked at an electricity plant in the Cambodian capital, and nothing more is known about his career.
Kollontai, Alexandra (1872–1952)
Authors: Zukas Alex
Published: September 2017

The socialist‐feminist Bolshevik revolutionary Alexandra Kollontai, nee Domontovich, who held the distinctions of being the first woman cabinet minister and the first woman ambassador in modern history, is more often remembered for raising fundamental questions about sexual intimacy, about the relationship between love and work, and about traditional sexual and social mores that challenged orthodox socialist and feminist thought and practice. Her ideas found little resonance among her socialist and feminist contemporaries, but they became a touchstone for many socialists and feminists who came of age in the 1970s and after.
K
orea, Peasant and Farmers' Movement
Authors: Young‐su Won
Published: September 2017

Korea's rural communities have been continuously hard hit by imperial exploitation, industrialization, urbanization, and globalization. After the end of Japanese imperial rule, rural society was transformed into a peasant economy that was subordinated to the urban sector. As South Korean society turned from an agricultural to an industrial one, the rural population decreased from more than three‐quarters to one‐tenth of the whole population.
K
orea, Post‐World War II Popular Movements for Democracy
Authors: Young‐su Won
Published: September 2017

South Korea's brilliant economic performance and achievement since the end of the Korean War was built on the labor and suffering of workers, peasants, and the socially marginalized. An incessant series of popular struggles and movements reflects and represents the aspiration for democracy and popular welfare as a basic condition for humane subsistence. In the course of fierce resistance against the military dictators who have ruled Korea in the postwar years, various movements have developed a wide range of organizations and political strategies, establishing a vital social force over the diverse sectors of South Korean society.
K
osovo, Civil and Armed Resistance, 1990s
Authors: Ströhle Isabel
Published: September 2017

Following the abolition of Kosovo autonomy in 1989 and the restoration of Serbian central rule in Yugoslavia by Slobodan Milosevic under the “anti‐bureaucratic revolution,” a broad resistance movement emerged in the region. In December 1989, the leaders of the Kosovo Albanian opposition founded the Democratic League of Kosovo (LDK), forming a shadow state with parallel political institutions. The LDK, organized on the basis of a broad political movement rather than a standard party, sought to prevent violent conflict, deny the legitimacy of Serbia's rule, and encourage international intervention.
K
otane,
M
oses (1905–1978)
Authors: Van der Walt Lucien
Published: September 2017

Moses Kotane was a South African communist and nationalist credited with uniting the Communist Party of South Africa (CPSA) at a time when it was disjointed and overtly racist. Under his leadership, the chasm between the CPSA and the African National Congress (ANC) was bridged, making him a national hero in both South Africa and the Soviet Union.
K
uliscioff,
A
nna (1853/1857?–1925)
Authors: Cherubini Donatella
Published: September 2017

Anna Kuliscioff was a leading Russian revolutionary and anarchist. After immigrating to Italy, she went on to become a socialist feminist, dedicating her political work to advancing the cause of women's emancipation.
K
urdistan Nationalist Movement and the
PKK
(
K
urdistan
W
orkers'
P
arty)
Authors: Ekici Deniz
Published: September 2017

The Partiya Karkerên Kurdistan (PKK) or Kurdistan Workers' Party was one of the most radical and influential Kurdish revolutionary movements in the twentieth century. The PKK was born out of the ashes of previous Kurdish rebellions against the modernizing Turkish state established under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Atatiirk following World War I, in quest of founding an independent Kurdish state. While the majority of Kurdish movements were more traditionally nationalist in character, the PKK was unique due to its Marxist‐Leninist orientation (Barkey & Fuller 1998).
Anarchism, Romania
Authors: Biebuyck Erin K.
Published: September 2017

Dwarfed by nationalist and fascist movements on the right and communism and socialism on the left in a country caught between European and Asian empires, anarchism has not played a significant role in Romanian history. Indeed, it appears not to have been a native growth, instead imported to the country by Russian and Bulgarian political refugees in the late nineteenth century (Muñoz 1981: 1–2). One of the latter, the exiled Bulgarian nationalist Hristo Botev (1847–1876), founded what may have been the first anarchist group in the Romanian port city of Galatz in 1871, issuing a proclamation of solidarity for the Paris Commune of that year (Relgis 1959: 66). Errico Malatesta, too, made a sojourn in Romania in 1879, as did Elisée Reclus in 1884. Shortly thereafter, anarchist works began to appear in Romanian translation, for example, Mikhail Bakunin's
God and the State
(
Dumnezeu şi Statul
, 1884), Peter Kropotkin's
Appeal to the Young
(
Catra tineri
, 1886), Jean Grave's
Society on the Day After the Revolution
(
Societa dupa revolutie
, 1887), Reclus's
Evolution and Revolution
(
Evolutie si revolutie
, 1885), and Malatesta's
Among Peasants
(
Intre ţarani
, 1891) (Nettlau 1897/1968: 47, 70–1, 74, 90, 94, 125–6). In Bucovina, a multi‐ethnic province claimed by the Austro‐Hungarian empire until 1919, works by German anarchists such as Erich Mühsam, Gustav Landauer, Pierre Ramus, and Rudolf Rocker circulated (Relgis 1959: 67).
Anarchist Synthesis
Authors: Shantz Jeffrey
Published: September 2017

Synthesist anarchism refers to organizing approaches that attempt to bring together anarchists of varying tendencies and perspectives within a single group, federation, or project. As a form of political action, anarchist synthesis is sometimes referred to as “big tent” or “small‐a” anarchism.
Anarcho‐pacifism
Authors: Barclay Harold B.
Published: September 2017

Anarcho‐pacifists hold that anarchism is a philosophy of non‐violence, arguing that since anarchism opposes all domination, it cannot endorse the worst form of domination, which is violence upon another person. While pacifism remains a minority position among anarchists, anarcho‐pacifists have considerably influenced other anarchists in their emphasis on non‐violent civil disobedience as a means of protest.
Andrews, William Henry “Bill” (1870–1950)
Authors: van der Walt Lucien
Published: September 2017

Born in Suffolk, England, in 1870, Andrews became a prominent South African union leader, syndicalist, and communist. He was trained as a fitter and joined the Amalgamated Society of Engineers (ASE) in 1890. In 1893 he arrived in South Africa. In appearance the epitome of the respectable English craftsman, and a charismatic figure, Andrews worked in the mines and formed a branch of the ASE union in 1894, also serving as vice‐president of the Johannesburg Trades and Labor Council. After a brief stint in imperial forces during the Anglo‐Boer War (1899–1902), he helped reorganize his union in 1902 and served as vice‐president, then president, of the Witwatersrand Trades and Labor Council until 1905. Subsequently Andrews became full‐time organizer for the ASE, helped form the Natal Federation of Trades, chaired the founding meeting of the South African Labor Party (SALP) in 1909, was active in the Transvaal Federation of Trades formed in 1911, and served as leader of the SALP parliamentary caucus from 1912.
Barrett, Rafael (1876–1910)
Authors: de Laforcade Geoffroy
Published: September 2017

Born in 1876 in Spain of a British father and a Spanish mother, Rafael Barrett trained as a mathematician and engineer. He arrived in Buenos Aires in 1903, where he was active in Spanish republican circles and began a career as a journalist. He traveled to Paraguay in 1904 to cover the liberal revolution, which he joined, working briefly in the government statistics bureau, then for the railroad company, from which he resigned in 1906 to protest its treatment of workers.
B
ellegarrigue, Anselme (Dates Unknown)
Authors: Buelinckx Erik
Published: September 2017

Little is known of the birth and death of the revolutionary writer and journalist Anselme Bellegarrigue, but his brief appearance (1848–51) during and immediately after the 1848 revolution in France left us one of the earliest anarchist manifestos. He was probably born between 1820 and 1825 in or near Toulouse, France, maybe of Basque origin. After attending the lyceum of Auch, and probably a little before 1847, still a monarchist, he traveled to the United States of America.
Bonanno, Alfredo (b. 1937)
Authors: Shantz Jeffrey
Published: September 2017

Alfredo Bonanno is an Italian anarchist whose greatest influence has been within the insurrectionary tradition within anarchism. In numerous self‐published pamphlets, including
The Anarchist Tension
and
Armed Joy
, he has advocated the spontaneous uprising of the exploited against state capitalist authority.
Brown, Bob (b. 1944)
Authors: Corfield Justin
Published: September 2017

Bob Brown, the leader of the Australian Greens Party, rose to national prominence over his campaign to stop a dam being built on the Franklin River in Tasmania in the early 1980s. He went on to form and lead the Greens Party in the Australian parliament.
Bey, Hakim (b. 1945)
Authors: Grindon Gavin
Published: September 2017

Hakim Bey is the
nom de plume
of Peter Lamborn Wilson, influential anarchist cultural critic and author of
TAZ: The Temporary Autonomous Zone
(1991). His early writing concentrates on theology and poetry (Nasr 1978: ix), but on returning to the US he began to inflect his ideas with anarchism, Situationism, and Deleuzian philosophy. His most influential work,
TAZ
, argues for the creation of spaces of liberation from authority in everyday life, which are capable of disappearing from sanctions before they can be crushed by government and all powers. Hakim Bey is a central figure in post‐left anarchy and his critical writing has been highly influential amongst rave youth culture and a range of anarchist countercultures – not least in the organization of Reclaim the Streets, a global organization dedicated to unsanctioned events that typified anti‐globalization activism in the 1990s. However, he has also suffered heavy criticism.
Anarchism and Sexuality
Authors: Kümper Hiram
Published: September 2017

The ways in which questions of sexuality have been taken up by anarchist thinkers and movements are often close to those of other political tendencies, including socialism, Marxism, and even bourgeois libertinism, and many of these different discourses have inspired one another; hence, it is not always easy to differentiate between them. Theoretically, anarchists were from the beginning concerned about the private and domestic sphere in a very specific way, because in their anti‐statism, they could not rely on the statist solutions of Marxists and others (crèches, public kitchens, and so on). Also, most anarchists did not believe that consciousness could be transformed by historical changes such as the mass integration of women into the industrial workforce, instead conceptualizing human nature as relatively stable. Therefore, they saw the liberation of sexuality as taking place not within the totality of society but in small local units such as families, communes, or partnerships.
Anarchism,
B
ulgaria
Authors: Mitchell Ryan Robert
Published: September 2017

Although utopian socialism had always been a part of the Bulgarian national liberation movement, the tradition of anarchism was first introduced to the country in the late 1880s, primarily from students exposed to radical streams of thought within the Russian university system. In 1892, the first anarchist reading groups in Bulgaria were formed in the city of Rousse, devoted to the study of the works of Bakunin and Kropotkin. Anarchism would largely remain an academic or literary pursuit until revolutionaries adopted it in earnest at the turn of the century.
Anarchism,
U
kraine
Authors: Mitchell Ryan Robert
Published: September 2017

While anarchist movements in many countries developed as a constituent part of broader national liberation movements (e.g., Bulgaria and Georgia), the Ukrainian anarchist movement was characterized by its lack of, and widespread antipathy toward, the notion of nationalism. Long subjugated by landlords, German colonists, and repressive tsarist authorities, the nation's large peasant population tended to distrust all governments and was not nearly as enthusiastic at the prospect of installing one with a Ukrainian variant. The anarchist movement in the Ukraine, best exemplified by the anarchist revolutionary figure Nestor Makhno (1889–1935) and his Makhnovist Revolt of 1919–21, seized upon this volatile population in the political turmoil following the Russian Revolution of 1917 and World War I.
Anarchists Against the Wall
Authors: Gordon Uri
Published: September 2017

Anarchists Against the Wall (in Hebrew: Anarchists Against the Fence) is an Israeli action initiative supporting the popular Palestinian struggle against segregation and land confiscation in the West Bank.