bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The role of physical content in piagetian spatial tasks: Sex differences in spatial knowledge?
Authors: Golbeck Susan L.
Published: October 2006

Sex‐related differences on Piagetian horizontality (water level) and verticality (plumb line) tasks were examined in 64 college students. It was hypothesized that females' difficulties on these Euclidean spatial problems are due not to differences in underlying spatial competence, but rather to differences in knowledge of task specific information about the physical properties of water levels and plumb lines. This was tested by presenting subjects with the standard water level and plumb line problems and also modified problems not requiring knowledge of physical principles (i.e., drawing “straight up and down” or “straight across” lines inside tipped rectangles). While males were expected to outperform females on the standard tasks, no sex differences were expected on the modified tasks. Results of an ANOVA on scores for horizontality and verticality each showed main effects for sex and task version but failed to reveal the hypothesized interaction. However, performance on the Euclidean spatial tasks was also considered in terms of overall success versus failure. While males were more successful than females in the standard format, males and females were equally successful in the modified, nonphysical, format. Hence, college aged males and females generally do not differ in spatial competence although they may be differentially influenced by task content. Findings are discussed in terms of their implications for theory and practice. It is emphasized that science educators must be especially aware of such task influences for females so that performance deficits are not mistaken for competence deficits.
Some effects of the iscs program: A meta analysis
Authors: Atash M. Nadir , Dawson George O.
Published: October 2006

Many studies have been conducted to assess the effects of the ISCS program on student performance. On the basis of the conflicting findings, the task of arriving at a general conclusion about the effects of ISCS has been difficult indeed. This study was designed to integrate quantitatively the collective research dealing with the effects of ISCS on student performance and attitude. The weighted mean effect size was found to be 0.09, indicating that the performance of the ISCS students was 0.09 standard deviations above the performance of students in traditional science courses. The design of the study accounted for a significant proportion of variation in the effect size, whereas the type of instrumentation and reliability of the instrument did not.
Persuading teachers to reexamine the innovative elementary science programs of yesterday: The effect of anecdotal versus data‐summary communications
Authors: Koballa Thomas R.
Published: October 2006

Two anecdotal and two data‐summary communications were prepared to test the effect of the communications on preservice teachers' attitudes toward supplementing traditional, textbook‐based science programs with either SAPA or SCIS. The results of the investigation in which the communications were used indicate that communications of an anecdotal nature were more effective than data‐summary communications in changing the attitudes of preservice elementary teachers. Also, attitudes changed by anecdotal communications were found to be less susceptible to dissipation than those changed by data‐summary communications.
A neurological model of sensory‐motor problem solving with possible implications for higher‐order cognition and instruction
Authors: Lawson Anton E.
Published: October 2006

Grossberg's neural modeling principles of learning, perception, cognition, and motor control are presented as the basis for construction of a neurological model of sensory‐motor problem solving. The pattern of problem solving is assumed to be universal, thus is sought in the higher‐order shift from the child's use of an additive strategy to the adolescent's use of a proportions strategy to solve the Pouring Water Task (Suarez and Rhonheimer, 1974). Possible neurological principles involved in this shift and in the process of psychological equilibration are discussed as are possible educational implications.
A factor analytic study of secondary science teacher competencies within which growth is perceived as important by science teachers, supervisors, and teacher educators
Authors: Tulloch Bruce R.
Published: October 2006

The purpose of this study was to elucidate the repertoires of competencies within which a novice's growth was perceived as important to effective science teaching. To obtain perceptual response data, the Science Teacher Competency Sorting Instrument was developed, pilot‐tested, and administered to random national subsamples of science teachers, supervisors, and teacher educators. Data obtained was tabulated and subjected to common factor analysis. Eleven factors were extracted, rotated, and given designations which described the nature of the interrelationships existing among their subsumed variables. The establishment of contrast vectors provided a means to investigate the degrees of consensus and disagreement existing among the subsamples concerning their attributions of importance to growth in the derived factors. The repertoires established were found to generally reflect the categories specified a priori in previous studies while being more descriptive and precise. While growth in most factors was viewed with equal importance, science teachers and teacher educators differed in the emphasis given to two factors pertaining to instruction. Teachers stressed growth in class‐centered presentational skills to a greater extent than their colleagues in higher education who emphasized growth in skills promoting scientific literacy. The paper concludes by discussing some implications of the findings for secondary science teacher education.
Science and technology related global problems: An international survey of science educators
Authors: Bybee Rodger W. , Mau Teri
Published: October 2006

This survey evaluated one aspect of the Science‐Technology‐Society theme, namely, the teaching of global problems related to science and technology. The survey was conducted during spring 1984. Two hundred sixty‐two science educators representing 41 countries completed the survey. Response was 80%. Findings included a ranking of twelve global problems (the top six were: World Hunger and Food Resources, Population Growth, Air Quality and Atmosphere, Water Resources, War Technology, and Human Health and Disease). Science educators generally indicated the following: the science and technology related global problems would be worse by the year 2000; they were slightly or moderately knowledgeable about the problems; print, audio‐visual media, and personal experiences were their primary sources of information; it is important to study global problems in schools; emphasis on global problems should increase with age/grade level; an integrated approach should be used to teach about global problems; courses including global problems should be required of all students; most countries are in the early stages of developing programs including global problems; there is a clear trend toward S‐T‐S; there is public support for including global problems; and, the most significant limitations to implementation of the S‐T‐S theme (in order of significance) are political, personnel, social, psychological, economic, pedagogical, and physical. Implications for research and development in science education are discussed.
The occurrence of assimilation and accommodation in learning high school physics
Authors: Renner John W. , Abraham Michael R. , Birnie Howard H.
Published: October 2006

The Piagetian model of intelligence consists of the elements of content, mental structures and mental functioning. While the first two elements are said to be variants, the third element is described as invariant. Mental functioning begins with a process called assimilation which promotes disequilibrium and, in reestablishing equilibrium, the learner accommodates to what was assimilated. The assimilation‐disequilibrium‐accommodation process has been labeled adaptation which Piaget described as the accord of thought with things. The newly‐acquired ideas (or concepts) are next organized with other knowledge; Piaget described that organization process as the accord of thought with thought.

While the Piagetian mental functioning model has been available for some time, empirical evidence that the model actually did or did not function was not found. Teaching and curriculum development procedures were extracted from the mental functioning model and a twelfth‐grade physics course was so organized and taught. Naturalistic data collected from individual student interviews and in‐class discussions were used to evaluate the hypothesis that mental functioning and the factors which compose it are integral parts of the learning process.
A piagetian analysis of process skill test items
Authors: Adey Philip S. , Harlen Wynne
Published: October 2006

Test items used to survey the attainment of science process skills in a representative sample of 11 year olds in Britain were analyzed to determine the level of demand, in Piagetian terms, made by each item. It was found that: the level of cognitive demand was a reliable predictor of the limiting difficulty of an item; that the difference between potential difficulty as measured by supposed demand level and the actual difficulty encountered by subjects was revealing of areas in the curriculum where further effort in teacher education and curriculum development would be profitable; and that there was some evidence for an inherent hierarchy of process skills.
Attainment of skill in using science processes II. Grade and task effects
Authors: Berger Carl F. , Pintrich Paul R.
Published: October 2006

Two studies were used to examine developmental and task effects in estimation problems. Time to solution data were collected on students' performance to describe their efficiency in processing information. Study One demonstrated developmental differences in speed of processing between younger students (first grade) and older students (third and sixth grade), with younger students performing at a slower rate. Study Two demonstrated that the amount of feedback information present influenced speed of processing. Results were discussed in terms of student and task characteristics and the implications of such variables for an information processing model of learning. Implications for science teaching were also discussed in terms of diagnosing learning problems and designing science curriculum.
The performance of college students on piaget‐type tasks dealing with distance, time, and speed
Authors: Poduska Ervin , Phillips Darrell G.
Published: October 2006

Research was done to probe and extend Piaget's theory of the conception of speed. Specifically tested was the hypothesis that there is no hierarchical relationship in performance on the following Piaget‐type tasks: conservation of distance, asymmetric series of speeds, one‐to‐many (circular) speeds, symmetric speeds, time, and proportional reasoning. The research also tested the gender‐related performance on these six tasks. One hundred freshman and sophomore college students were shown demonstrations of equipment individually for each of the six tasks. A set of open‐ended questions based on the demonstrations was administered to each subject in a 45‐minute interview. Subjects were scored as “pass” on a given task if they manipulated objects in certain ways and gave specific types of explanations. A scalogram analysis of the data yielded a z‐score of — 3.7 which indicated that subjects passed the task in a certain sequence. The tasks were found to form a unidimensional scale and to be increasingly difficult in the order listed above. A chi‐square test for two independent samples showed a significant difference (alpha = 0.05) in performance between males and females on all speed tasks. No significant differences in performance between males and females were found for the distance and time tasks.
Comments and criticism comments on “a research methodology for studying how people think”
Authors: Shayer Michael
Published: October 2006

Larkin and Rainard's (1984) article was sufficiently interesting not only to have me recommending it to others but also to re‐read it for a third time. Unhappily I then realized that as a biproduct I had been giving my students an entrée into the old fallacy of inverse probability (see R. A. Fisher's, The Design of Experiments, Chapter 1). The fallacy occurs on pages 252 and 253. The authors say:

“ ⃛ sample size is rarely important to generalizability. Suppose, for example, 500 or 10 individuals are tested out of a population of 5000. Testing 500 (instead of 10) decreases the standard error of the mean by only a factor of 1.1 [= (1–10/5000)/(1–500/5000)]. Most research does not use large samples to increase generalizability. Instead the function is either to estimate many parameters in a detailed model, or to increase statistical significance, a factor sensitive to sample size.”
A comparison of teacher and principal perception of an outstanding science teacher
Authors: Searles William E. , Kudeki Naile
Published: October 2006

The purpose of this study was to determine the level of agreement or disagreement between principals and teachers when using established criteria to measure the effectiveness of a science teacher. To obtain this information, 28 principals and 81 science teachers were randomly selected to complete an instrument for their perceptions of an outstanding science teacher. The respondents involved in this study were employed in the English‐speaking high schools in the Province of Québec, Canada. The questionaire was constructed from a model based on the theoretical framework of previous research in science education and instructional theories. The data collected from the two populations were tested using the arithmetic mean, Pearson chi‐square and cross tabulation using the Lambda & Gamma tests to determine the strength or form of the association between the two variables (position and perception). Results indicated that the high school principals and science teachers agree on the relative importance for most of the evaluative criteria. From such results it was possible to construct a profile of the attributes of an outstanding science teacher, and also, to make recommendations to school board officials, school principals, science teachers, and researchers in the field of education.
Preservice teachers' acquisition and retention of integrated science process skills: A comparison of teacher‐directed and self‐instructional strategies
Authors: Strawitz Barbara M. , Malone Mark R.
Published: October 2006

The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of two methods of instruction designed to teach preservice elementary teachers to acquire and retain integrated science process skills. In one section instruction was provided by the teacher, whereas in the other section, instruction was provided by written self‐paced self‐instructional materials. Results indicated that the self‐instructional method was significantly more effective than the teacher‐directed method. Both treatments produced long‐lasting retention effects.
The role of target students in the science classroom
Authors: Tobin Kenneth , Gallagher James J.
Published: October 2006

This study investigated whole class interactions in 200 science lessons involving 15 teachers and students from grades 8 to 12 in two urban Australian high schools. A relatively small number of 3–7 “target students” monopolized whole class interactions. In most instances target students were male. Compared to others in the class, target students asked more questions of the teacher, were called on to respond to higher cognitive level questions, and received higher quality feedback. Two types of target student were identified. The students who actively participated in classroom interactions in a self‐initiated manner tended to accept responsibility for their academic achievement and for interactions with others. The second type of target student, who participated as a consequence of being selected by the teacher, tended to have higher formal reasoning ability and achieve at a higher level than others in the class.
Inter‐relationship among laboratory process skills in biology
Authors: Tamir Pinchas , Amir Ruth
Published: October 2006

Inquiry oriented practical matriculation tests of 3650 12th grade biology students in Israel were analyzed to find out the interrelationships among 21 process skills. Using correlations and varimax factor analysis, seven factors were obtained. These factors are listed according to the relative percentage of the total variance accounted for from highest to lowest: handling quantitative relationships, explaining and assessing data, conceptualizing and planning investigations, summarizing results, interpreting and concluding, selecting form of presenting findings, designing experiments.

The theoretical and practical implications of these findings are briefly discussed. Theoretically, the associations as well as the dissociations identified provide important clues regarding the organization of process skills related knowledge in cognitive structure. From a practical perspective the findings offer guidance for teacher educators as well as biology teachers on more effective ways for developing science process skills.
The role of cognitive factors in chemistry achievement
Authors: Chandran Sarath , Treagust David F. , Tobin Kenneth
Published: October 2006

Evidence from the research literature suggests that a variety of cognitive factors is responsible for chemistry achievement. This investigation examined the role of four cognitive factors, namely, formal reasoning ability, prior knowledge, field dependence/ independence, and memory capacity on achievement in chemistry as measured by tests of laboratory application, chemical calculations and content knowledge. The sample comprised grade 11 students from eleven high schools who were following the same chemistry syllabus. The results indicated that prior knowledge and formal reasoning ability were each statistically significantly related to variation in chemistry achievement. Field dependence/independence and memory capacity played no significant role in chemistry achievement.
Effects of traditional and discovery instructional approaches on learning outcomes for learners of different intellectual development: A study of chemistry students in Zambia
Authors: Mulopo Moses M. , Fowler H. Seymour
Published: October 2006

This study examined the differential effectiveness of traditional and discovery methods of instruction for the teaching of science concepts, understandings about science, and scientific attitudes, to learners at the concrete and formal level of cognitive development. The dependent variables were achievement, understanding science, and scientific attitude; assessed through the use of the ACS Achievement Test (high school chemistry, Form 1979), the Test on Understanding Science (Form W), and the Test on Scientific Attitude, respectively. Mode of instruction and cognitive development were the independent variables. Subjects were 120 Form IV (11th grade) males enrolled in chemistry classes in Lusaka, Zambia. Sixty of these were concrete reasoners (mean age = 18.23) randomly selected from one of the two schools. The remaining 60 subjects were formal reasoners (mean age 18.06) randomly selected from a second boys' school. Each of these two groups was randomly split into two subgroups with 30 subjects. Traditional and discovery approaches were randomly assigned to the two subgroups of concrete reasoners and to the two subgroups of formal reasoners. Prior to instruction, the subjects were pretested using the ACS Achievement Test, the Test on Understanding Science, and the Test on Scientific Attitude. Subjects received instruction covering eight chemistry topics during approximately 10 weeks. Posttests followed using the same standard tests. Two‐way analysis of covariance, with pretest scores serving as covariates was used and 0.05 level of significant was accepted. Tukey WSD technique was used as a follow‐up test where applicable. It was found that (1) for the formal reasoners, the discovery group earned significantly higher understanding science scores than the traditional group. For the concrete reasoners mode of instruction did not make a difference; (2) overall, formal reasoners earned significantly higher achievement scores than concrete reasoners; (3) in general, subjects taught by the discovery approach earned significantly higher scientific attitude scores than those taught by the traditional approach. The traditional group outperformed the discovery group in achievement scores. It was concluded that the traditional approach might be an efficient instructional mode for the teaching of scientific facts and principles to high school students, while the discovery approach seemed to be more suitable for teaching scientific attitudes and for promoting understanding about science and scientists among formal operational learners.
Tools for bridging the cultures of everyday and scientific thinking
Authors: Hawkins Jan , Pea Roy D.
Published: October 2006

A perspective about science education is developed which has implications for the design of interactive learning technologies. Current philosophical work concerning the interpretative nature of scientific inquiry is reviewed as a context for discussing the situation of the child in developing scientific understanding. This view of learning emphasizes the relationships among informal understanding, conceptual change, and enculturation into modes of scientific discourse. A prototype software system for supporting scientific inquiry processes in students is described.
Instructional design, cognition, and technology: Applications to the teaching of scientific concepts
Authors: Reif F.
Published: October 2006

The effective educational use of information technologies depends crucially on good instructional design based on an adequate understanding of cognitive processes. To teach flexible intellectual performance, such design must ensure that the knowledge acquired by students be explicit, coherent, reliably interpretable, and testable. For example, the ability to use scientific or mathematical concepts requires both explicit general interpretation procedures and knowledge about various special cases. Detailed observations indicate that good scientists have these kinds of knowledge, but that students exhibit many mistakes traceable to knowledge that is fragmented and unin‐terpretable. Instructional guidelines, based on such cognitive considerations, were tested in an experiment where students were taught an explicit procedure specifying the concept “acceleration,” and then diagnosed and corrected mistakes committed by themselves or others. Such teaching greatly improved students' concept interpretations and blocked previous misconceptions. Computers can provide powerful tools for research on instructional design and for implementing more effective teaching.
Artificial intelligence and science education
Authors: Good Ron
Published: October 2006

Artificial intelligence (AI) is defined and related to intelligent computer‐assisted instruction (ICAI) and science education. Modeling the student, the teacher, and the natural environment are discussed as important parts of ICAI and the concept of “microworlds” as a powerful tool for science education is presented. Optimistic predictions about ICAI are tempered with the complex, persistent problems of: 1) teaching and learning as a soft or fuzzy knowledge base, 2) natural language processing, and 3) machine learning. The importance of accurate diagnosis of a student's learning state, including misconceptions and naive theories about nature, is stressed and related to the importance of accurate diagnosis by a physician. Based on the cognitive science/AI paradigm, a revised model of the well‐known Karplus/Renner learning cycle is proposed.
Computer simulations to stimulate scientific problem solving
Authors: Rivers Robert H. , Vockell Edward
Published: October 2006

Computer simulations were employed by high school biology students in an attempt to enhance their problem solving skills. The simulations were administered under two conditions: (a) unguided discovery and (b) guided discovery. In addition, a control group received no simulations. To ascertain the effectiveness of the simulations in enhancing problem solving abilities, performance was compared on (a) subsequent unit pretests, (b) standardized tests measuring scientific thought processes, and (c) a standardized test of critical thinking. The results indicate that (a) the students using the simulations met the unit objectives at least as well as the control students, and (b) the students using the guided version of the simulations surpassed the other students on the subsequent simulation pretests, on the tests of scientific thinking, and on the test of critical thinking. The authors discuss the apparent usefulness of the programs in terms of the opportunities they provide students (a) to be actively involved in the learning process and (b) to repeatedly practice applying principles that would otherwise be practiced much less often.
Cognitive consequences of student estimation on linear and logarithmic scales
Authors: Berger Carl F. , Pintrich Paul R. , Stemmer Paul M.
Published: October 2006

Estimation is a general problem solving task that has cognitive consequences for students. Many physical and biological phenomena are best modeled using logarithmic scales, but there has been little research that addresses students' understanding of logarithmic scales. Forty junior high school students were asked to solve two types of estimation problems, linear and logarithmic. A microcomputer simulation was used to provide data on students' performance on the two estimation tasks. Past research has shown that this simulation can provide an interesting and reliable method for examining students' learning on an estimation task. Results from this study showed that performance on the linear scale could be described by a general learning curve with improved performance over time. In addition the logarithmic scale results indicated a more complex interaction involving both the number of estimation trials and the position of the estimation “target” on the logarithmic scale. Students' strategy use did not relate to performance on the linear task but did influence performance on the logarithmic task. The results are discussed in terms of students' knowledge of logarithmic scales and their general strategies for problem solving. Implications for teaching and using logarithmic scales in science classes are also discussed.
Ideal and actual outcomes from precollege pascal instruction
Authors: Linn Marcia C. , Sloane Kathryn D. , Clancy Michael J.
Published: October 2006

More systematic study of the relationship between instructional practice and learning outcomes are needed before we can build powerful instructional theories. In this study, we relate programming proficiency to instructional practice in 14 Pascal programming classes at the High School level. We found that instructional practices involves (a) extensive on‐line access, (b) explicit instruction, and (c) extensive feedback. These results help clarify the nature of time‐on‐task and encourage researchers to examine explicit instruction more closely.
Classroom climate and science‐related attitudes of junior high school students in Taiwan
Authors: Lin Bao‐Shan , Crawley Frank E.
Published: October 2006

Differences in classroom climate and science related attitudes were investigated among junior high school science classes and students in Taiwan. The sample consisted of 1,269 students enrolled in 40 science classes distributed equally among ten junior high schools, five metropolitan and five rural. Classes were further classified according to sex (21 boys and 19 girls classes) and ability (19 high and 21 low ability classes). Using the Learning Environment Inventory (Anderson, Walberg, & Fraser, 1982) to measure climate, science classes in metropolitan schools, more than rural, were found to be characterized by Speed, Friction, Favoritism, Difficulty, Cliqueness, and Competitiveness. No differences were found in the classroom climates of classes in which students were grouped according to sex or ability. Using the Test of Science‐Related Attitudes (Fraser, 1981), students in science classes in metropolitan schools, in contrast to rural, expressed more positive attitudes toward the Social Implications of Science, Adoption of Scientific Attitudes, and Attitude to Scientific Inquiry. Boys more than girls recorded high scores on Leisure Interest in Science and Career Interest in Science. High ability students were found to have higher scores on Attitude to Scientific Inquiry than did low ability students. When examining the relationship between the 15 subscale scores of the LEI and the seven subscale scores of the TOSRA for the 40 classes, only 9 out of 105 correlations proved to be significant. Most differences in climate, attitude, and their interactions were attributed to school location rather than to student characteristics.
Analysis of the project synthesis goal cluster orientation and inquiry emphasis of elementary science textbooks
Authors: Staver John R. , Bay Mary
Published: October 2006

The purpose of this descriptive study was to examine selected units of commonly used elementary science texts, using the Project Synthesis goal clusters as a framework for part of the examination. An inquiry classification scheme was used for the remaining segment. Four questions were answered: (1) To what extent do elementary science textbooks focus on each Project Synthesis goal cluster? (2) In which part of the text is such information found? (3) To what extent are the activities and experiments merely verifications of information already introduced in the text? (4) If inquiry is present in an activity, then what is the level of such inquiry?

Eleven science textbook series, which comprise approximately 90 percent of the national market, were selected for analysis. Two units, one primary (K‐3) and one intermediate (4‐6), were selected for analysis by first identifying units common to most series, then randomly selecting one primary and one intermediate unit for analysis.

Each randomly selected unit was carefully read, using the sentence as the unit of analysis. Each declarative and interrogative sentence in the body of the text was classified as: (1) academic; (2) personal; (3) career; or (4) societal in its focus. Each illustration, except those used in evaluation items, was similarly classified. Each activity/experiment and each miscellaneous sentence in end‐of‐chapter segments labelled “review,” “summary,” “evaluation,” etc., were similarly classified. Finally, each activity/experiment, as a whole, was categorized according to a four‐category inquiry scheme (confirmation, structured inquiry, guided inquiry, open inquiry).

In general, results of the analysis are: (1) most text prose focuses on academic science; (2) most remaining text prose focuses on the personal goal cluster; (3) the career and societal goal clusters receive only minor attention; (4) text illustrations exhibit a pattern similar to text prose; (5) text activities/experiments are academic in orientation, almost to the exclusion of other goal clusters; (6) end‐of‐chapter sentences are largely academic; (7) inquiry is absent or present only in limited forms in text activities/experiments; and (8) texts allocate only a minor portion of space to activities/experiments. Detailed findings are given as numeral, percentage, and decimal values. Discussion focuses on the implications of the results and a comparison of NSTA recommendations with the results of this analysis.
A study of two measures of spatial ability as predictors of success in different levels of general chemistry
Authors: Carter Carolyn S. , Larussa Mary A. , Bodner George M.
Published: October 2006

Preliminary data (Bodner and McMillen, 1986) suggested a correlation between spatial ability and performance in a general chemistry course for science and engineering majors. This correlation was seen not only on highly spatial tasks such as predicting the structures of ionic solids (r = 0.29), but also on tasks such as multiple‐choice stoichiometry questions (r = 0.32) that might not be expected to involve spatial skills. To further investigate the relationship between spatial ability and performance in introductory chemistry courses, two spatial tests were given to 1648 students in a course for science and engineering majors (Carter, 1984) and 850 students in a course for students from nursing and agriculture (La‐Russa, 1985) at Purdue. Scores on the spatial tests consistently contributed a small but significant amount to success on measures of performance in chemistry. Correlations were largest, however, for subscores that grouped questions that tested problem solving skills rather than rote memory or the application of simple algorithms, and correlations were also large for verbally complex questions thaty required the students to disembed and restructure relevant information.
Learning about technology: Family vs. peer pairings
Authors: Heller Patricia , Padilla Michael , Hertel Barbara , Olstad Roger
Published: October 2006

Recently a number of institutions have begun sponsoring nondeficit science and/or technology learning experiences for parents and their middle school‐aged children which are intended to be enriching rather than remedial or compensatory in purpose. Very little research documenting the effects of parental involvement in the education of older children has been reported, however.

The intent of this article was to present two studies designed to determine whether middle school‐aged children's attitudes and content achievement are different when they take a technology course with their parents (parent‐child treatment) or with their peers (child‐child treatment). The first study focused on learning about communications technology (primarily telegraphs, telephones and radios); the second study focused on microcomputers.

Results indicate that parents have little affect in helping their children learn the subject matter of technology courses. Likewise, parents do not affect children's attitudes toward computers. Both results were attenuated by the fact that the students in the studies were high achievers who were interested in and motivated to learn the subject matter, regardless of treatment. Significant differences were noted for computer literacy favoring the parent‐child group, however. Parents also seemed to effect children's attitudes toward the subject matter of the courses.

Further research needs to be done with less appealing course content or with less motivated students to fully determine the effect of parent‐child and child groupings in science and technology courses.
Learning chemistry from text: The effect of decision making
Authors: Pedersen Jon , J. Ronald , Alice Bonnstetter , Corkill J. , Glover John A.
Published: October 2006

Two experiments examined the relative effects of questions requiring decisions, statements providing the decision information to students, questions not requiring decisions, and control procedures on students' memory for chemistry text reading materials. Experiment 1 employed immediate recall. The results of Experiment 1 indicated that students who made and justified decisions about the contents recalled significantly more information than students in any other condition. In addition, students who answered questions that did not require decisions recalled significantly more of the content than students in the control or the statements conditions. No other contrasts reached significance. Experiment 2 employed delayed recall assessed one week after reading. The results confirmed those of Experiment 1. The overall results of the study are discussed in terms of an elaboration perspective on memory.
The necessity of each phase of the learning cycle in teaching high school physics
Authors: Renner John W. , Abraham Michael R. , Birnie Howard H.
Published: October 2006

The learning cycle is a method of teaching—it is also a curriculum organization principle and is derived directly from the mental functioning model invented by Piaget. Although Jean Piaget contributed to the formation of the learning cycle (Piaget, 1973), its present structure has to be attributed to Dr. Robert Karplus and the persons who developed the materials of the Science Curriculum Improvement Study (SCIS). It was through the SCIS activities that many of us learned how to develop curricula and teach with the learning cycle. The learning cycle is built upon the premise that three distinct phases are necessary in developing understanding of a concept, that those phases have a definite sequence, and each phase has a definite structure or form. The research done in testing the form variable has already been reported in this journal (Renner, Abraham, & Birnie, 1985). This report explores whether or not each learning‐cycle phase is necessary in learning a concept.
The relationship between cognitive preferences, student background and achievement in science
Authors: Tamir Pinchas
Published: October 2006

Cognitive preferences of Israeli 12th grade students were studied as part of the Second IEA Science Study. It was found that during the last ten years Israeli students have become more oriented toward application. Higher sociocultural status, higher achievement in science, liking of science studies, more time devoted to science homework, and intentions to study science in college were all associated with a higher preference for principles and critical questioning as well as with a lower preference for recall. Science majors compared with non‐science majors exhibited a higher level of intellectual curiosity. There were no differences between cognitive preferences of boys and girls.
Improving research on teacher quality in science and mathematics: Report of a symposium of scientists, educators, and researchers
Authors: Blank Rolf K.
Published: October 2006

Many initiatives designed to improve the quality of elementary and secondary teachers have been proposed and implemented at national, state, and local levels. It is unclear whether these initiatives are based on a common definition of teacher quality or adequate knowledge about the conditions that produce quality teaching. This article summarizes the results of a symposium of the National Research Council on the state of research knowledge on teacher quality. Topics for needed research that were identified in the symposium included studies on the effects of state and local policies which set new standards for teachers, studies on the subject‐matter knowledge and preparation of teachers, analyses of alternative methods of developing teaching skills, and assessments of the effects of school conditions for teaching on career patterns of teachers.
Evidence that science locus of control orientation can be modified through instruction
Authors: Haury David L.
Published: October 2006

A desire to foster enduring, positive attitudes toward science teaching among elementary school teachers led to study of self‐perceptions. On the basis of evidence for strong links between locus of control orientation and attitudes, an attempt was made to enhance internality through instruction.

A quasiexperimental research strategy was employed to compare the effects of two instructional treatments, with pretest measures being used to check the initial equivalence of treatment groups, and analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) being used to test treatment effects. Both treatments incorporated strategies known to have positive effects on attitudes, but the experimental treatment was novel in its emphasis on self‐management, goal clarification, and individualized course expectations.

There was found by ANCOVA to be a significant (p ≦ 0.05) difference in science locus of control (SciLOC) orientation between groups following treatment, with subjects exposed to the experimental treatment exhibiting greater internality. Quantitative comprehension and subject age were employed as covariates of SciLOC orientation, and subject gender was employed as a moderator variable. Though the treatment effect is small, accounting for 3% of the variance in SciLOC orientation, control orientation is shown susceptible to educational intervention. These results encourage attention to teacher attitudes from a rather new perspective, and they raise several interesting research questions regarding instructional methods and the long‐term effects of enhancing internality.
The nature and use of prediction skills in a biological computer simulation
Authors: Lavoie Derrick R. , Good Ron
Published: October 2006

The primary goal of this study was to examine the science process skill of prediction using qualitative research methodology. The think‐aloud interview, modeled after Ericsson and Simon (1984), let to the identification of 63 program exploration and prediction behaviors.

The performance of seven formal and seven concrete operational high‐school biology students were videotaped during a three‐phase learning sequence on water pollution. Subjects explored the effects of five independent variables on two dependent variables over time using a computer‐simulation program. Predictions were made concerning the effect of the independent variables upon dependent variables through time. Subjects were identified according to initial knowledge of the subject matter and success at solving three selected prediction problems.

Successful predictors generally had high initial knowledge of the subject matter and were formal operational. Unsuccessful predictors generally had low initial knowledge and were concrete operational. High initial knowledge seemed to be more important to predictive success than stage of Piagetian cognitive development.

Successful prediction behaviors involved systematic manipulation of the independent variables, note taking, identification and use of appropriate independent‐dependent variable relationships, high interest and motivation, and in general, higher‐level thinking skills. Behaviors characteristic of unsuccessful predictors were nonsystematic manipulation of independent variables, lack of motivation and persistence, misconceptions, and the identification and use of inappropriate independent‐dependent variable relationships.
Integrating quantitative and qualitative evaluation methods to compare two teacher inservice training programs
Authors: Lawrenz Frances , McCreath Heather
Published: October 2006

Qualitative and quantitative evaluation procedures were used to compare two physical‐science teacher inservice training programs. The two programs followed the master teacher training model espoused by NSF but used different types of master teachers and types of activities. The two evaluation procedures produced different results and together they provided a much clearer picture of the strengths and weaknesses of the two programs. Using only one approach or the other would have substantially altered the conclusions.
Developments in style and purpose of research on the learning of science
Authors: Gunstone Richard F. , White Richard T. , Fensham Peter J.
Published: October 2006

Recent years have seen a substantial growth in research that probes children's ideas about natural phenomena. This article places the research in a context that enables comprehension of how it informs and influences the practice of science education. To this end, past, present, and developing styles of research are discussed. The predominant style of past research was based on elaborate experimental designs and complex statistical analyses of data. Studies employing that style helped focus concern on questions about individual learning which the studies did not actually seek to answer, e.g., why does the learning resulting from a particular treatment vary between individuals? What is understanding and how can it be assessed? Such questions lie at the heart of current probing of children's ideas. Some issues of importance in the probing of children's ideas are considered, as are ways in which these issues have influenced the development of a current style of research. From this present context, developing styles in the research field are described. These focus particularly on research on the strategies used by learners, and on the continued growth of interaction between research and practice.
Defining attitude for science educators
Authors: Shrigley Robert L. , Koballa Thomas R. , Simpson Ronald D.
Published: October 2006

A distinct and complex definition of attitude is evolving within the literature. A mental readiness to respond and a correlational consistency between attitude and behavior—although controversial and in need of further study and analysis—remain viable subcomponents within the definition. Most agree that evaluation is the heartbeat of attitude. The impact of social influence on attitudes is becoming increasingly important. Attitudes are learned and not inherited.
Attitudes toward science and science knowledge of intellectually gifted and average students in third, seventh, and eleventh grades
Authors: Barrington Byron L. , Hendricks Bryan
Published: October 2006

A questionnaire regarding attitudes toward science and scientific knowledge (Yager & Yager, 1985b) was administered to 143 intellectually gifted (IQ > 130) and intellectually average third‐, seventh‐, and eleventh‐grade students. Measures of internal reliability on four attitude subscales and a content knowledge subscale are reported. Three‐way ANOVAs comparing grade, sex, and ability revealed significant differences between average and gifted students in attitudes toward being a scientist, usefulness of science, and, as might be expected, in knowledge of science. Similarly, there were significant differences between grades on attitudes toward teachers and toward science classes, with the most favorable attitudes expressed in third grade, next most favorable in eleventh grade, and clearly more negative attitudes expressed by students in seventh grade. There also was a significant interaction between grade level and ability regarding attitudes toward science classes. In contrast to what might be expected from reported differences between males and females in attitudes toward science, gender as a separate variable did not have a significant main effect in any of the comparisons.
The intellectual factors believed by physicists to be most important to physics students
Authors: Peltzer Arnold
Published: October 2006

College physics professors, researchers, and teachers were asked to rate the importance to physics students of different intellectual abilities. These abilities were selected from J. P. Guilford's Structure‐of‐Intellect model of intelligence and presented on a 65‐item questionnaire. Analysis of the responses found that four general intellectual factors were described. They were identified as abilities related to visualization, mathematics, logic, and problem solving. The variations of these factors' importance was examined for two different student subgroups, students who are studying to be physicists and students who are studying physics to be scientifically aware laymen. Variations between two respondent subgroups, physicists who are primarily engaged in research and physicists who are primarily engaged in teaching, were also explored.
Identification of student misconceptions in genetics problem solving via computer program
Authors: Browning Mark E. , Lehman James D.
Published: October 2006

A genetics problem practice program and tutor on microcomputer was used by 135 undergraduate education majors enrolled in an introductory biology course at Purdue University. The program presented four genetics problems, two monohybrid and two dihybrid, and required the users to predict the number and type of each class of offspring. Student responses were recorded on diskette and analyzed for evidence of misconceptions and difficulties in the genetics problem‐solving process. Three main areas of difficulty were identified: difficulties with computational skills, difficulties in the determination of gametes, and inappropriate application of previous learning to new problem situations.