bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Conclusion Self-Help in Action
Authors: Grassby Richard
Published: October 2023

Sir dudley north is remembered as a political economist rather than as a man of business; half of his fortune came from office and marriage. But he did succeed in business when his partners and many Levantine merchants performed modestly or failed. According to Roger, he acquired such a reputation in Turkey that the Grand Signor arranged to observe him from a window. His rise from obscurity to wealth in twenty years was a remarkable personal achievement. What made the difference? The multitude of decisions which underlie his success do not always find expression in his accounts and those which do cannot be condensed into a few simple formulas. Each sector of his business required different qualities. Guilford remarked that trade had ‘many subtletys ‘, but he singled out industry and justice, accounting, hard work, honesty, and fair treatment of associates. Dudley himself considered that business was too technical for amateurs, that it could only be managed by those brought up to it. In particular he emphasized internal resources: the rich were distinguished from the poor by industry and ingenuity, quick decision, patience, sense, and courage.
Changes In Tenurial Patterns Between 1066 And 1086
Authors: Clarke Peter A
Published: October 2023

The question of how much change was wrought on England by the Norman Conquest is one which has been the subject of much con troversy. This is especially true when tenurial patterns and practices are considered. At first sight Domesday shows a complete tenurial revolution, with a total replacement of the major landholders of 1066, but signs of continuity do exist. More than one recent paper has questioned whether any revolution took place at all. In this con cluding section the evidence from earlier chapters will be used to see what changes in tenurial patterns took place, and how far a ‘tenurial revolution’ can be substantiated.
Frederick the Great and the Era of Limited War
Authors: Bond Brian
Published: October 2023

If we are to appreciate the tremendous impact made by the French Revolution and Napoleon on both the theory and practice of war it is essential to describe the character and ethos of war in the preceding era. These can most conveniently be viewed through the exploits and experiences of the outstanding soldier-statesman, Frederick the Great of Prussia (1712-86). Historians agree that there was a great deal of continuity between, say, the 1750s and 1790s in the steady improvement of physical conditions, notably of roads; of weapons such as field artillery, and, perhaps most important of all, of military organization.
Napoleon and the Decisive Battle
Authors: Bond Brian
Published: October 2023

The battle of Valmy in 1792 marked the dawn of a new era in military history. Between that date and 1815 Europe witnessed almost uninterrupted warfare between France and virtually all the other powers of a scale and intensity not experienced for centuries. This transformation in the direction of ‘total war’ made the ‘temperate and indecisive contests’ of the era of the Enlightenment appear as absurd anachronisms.
Moltke and the Wars of German Unification
Authors: Bond Brian
Published: October 2023

Prussia’s sensational victories in 1866 and 1870-1 are pivotal to any consideration of the pursuit of victory in modem history. In purely military terms they suggested that decisive, Napoleon-style campaigns were still possible in the railway age and thereby created a seductive but dangerous model. Even more impressive than Napoleon’s campaigns, they were near perfect examples of Clausewitz’s celebrated axiom that war is an instrument of policy. As this chapter will argue, it was mainly due to Bismarck’s state craft that these wars were politically controlled and yielded lasting political gains to the victor. Austria never challenged her expulsion from Germany and the settlement with France lasted until 1914-even then Alsace Lorraine was not the casus belli and it was Germany who invaded France. The greatest prize, German unification, seemed to have been achieved at a very reasonable price and would only be undone some seventy-five years later by reckless adventures undreamt of in the Bismarck era.
The Pursuit of Victory in the Nuclear Age
Authors: Bond Brian
Published: October 2023

John Keegan concludes his stimulating study of The Face of Battle with the reflection that ‘the suspicion grows that battle has already abolished itself’.1 What he had chiefly in mind was the great projected clash of the super powers and their rival alliances in Central Europe in which nuclear weapons would probably be used. Writing in the mid-197os, Keegan believed that modem conditions of war, generally, let alone of battle itself, had become too psychologically stressful to be endured by the majority of troops. Con fidence that battle was meaningful and decisive was waning; future battles might well be fought only in ‘never never land’.
Court Life and Court Culture
Authors: Vale Malcolm
Published: October 2023

In previous chapters we have seen how the material infrastructure of courts developed from the later thirteenth century on wards.The following chapters attempt to describe and analyse the superstructure—that is, the cultural forms and artistic expression—of court life. Nevertheless, just as the religious and secular features of the court can never be entirely separated, so its material and non-material aspects can never be completely divorced from each other. There was a symbiotic relationship between the two, and one sphere constantly overlapped and impinged upon the other. Moreover, as we shall see in a subsequent chapter, it is necessary to adopt a much broader definition of court ‘culture’ than has sometimes been the case. Thus the following chapters seek to integrate the arts, both ‘fine’ and applied, into a more general cultural context in which as much emphasis is placed upon use and function as upon style and aesthetic response. The elaborate panoply of ritual and display, of liturgy and ceremony, was supported by—and to some extent embodied in—the visual and other arts. It is evident that during this period painting, sculpture, literature, music, dance, drama, and the applied arts could serve many purposes. But, in a courtly setting, they could convey specific messages about the nature and representation of power, the role of devotional religion, and the forms of behaviour appropriate to a social milieu in which concepts such as courtoisie and debonaireté were increasingly gaining ground.1 Art at court is therefore treated here as both a symptom and an agent of cultural change—as an active as well as a passive index of the evolution of taste, of the representation of power, and the development of dynastic ideologies.
Art at Court: Investment in Culture?
Authors: Vale Malcolm
Published: October 2023

With the increasing development of the French royal court into a sharply distinguished social elite formation, court society developed a special culture as a natural part of its special social existence. Early forms of this elite culture in gestures, speech, love-making and taste ⃛ had existed not only at royal courts but even, and especially, at the courts of territorial lords as early as the Middle Ages.
The Role of Art in the Late Anglo-Saxon Church
Authors: Gameson Richard
Published: October 2023

This study explores the role of early medieval religious art in its historical context, focusing on England from the reign of Alfred the Great to the aftermath of the Norman conquest. Tenth and eleventh century society expressed itself extensively through visual means, and the surviving material provides a rich body of evidence for the religious culture of the time. Combining visual and documentary evidence, The Role of Art in the Late Anglo-Saxon Church sheds new light on a wide range of magnificent art works and their functions, and offers fresh perspectives on the ecclesiastical history and beliefs of late Anglo Saxon England, with important implications for the study of early medieval civilization in general.
Liberty, Civic Rights, and Duties in Sixteenth-Century Europe and the Rise of the Dutch Republic
Authors: Gelderen Martin van
Published: October 2023

Everywhere people have the ‘desire to live in liberty’, but, at least according to Guido Bentivoglio’s Relatione dell[e] Provincie Unite of 1611, nowhere was ‘the love for liberty’ as strong as in the ‘Flemish regions’. It was an opinion widely shared in seventeenth-century Europe. With the rest of Europe suffering from civil wars or rising absolutism, the Dutch Republic was said to offer a haven of tolerance, intellectual and individual freedom, serving as sanctuary for philosophers such as Descartes, Spinoza, Bayle, and Locke. The Dutch themselves had cherished the idea of liberty from the beginning of their revolt in the 1560s. In the political literature justifying and motivating the protest and resistance against the government of Philip II, liberty was presented as the supreme political value, to be virtually equated with the common good.
The Modern State: Equal Rights. Equalizing the Individual’s Status and the Breakthrough of the Modern Liberal State
Authors: Stourzh Gerald
Published: October 2023

Paul of Tarsus was about to be questioned under torture —so the Acts of the Apostles tell us —and preparations had begun. ‘The chief captain commanded him to be brought into the castle, and bade that he should be examined by scourging’. Yet as the Roman soldiers ‘bound him with thongs, Paul said unto the centurion that stood by, “Is it lawful for you to scourge a man that is a Roman, and uncondemned?” When the centurion heard that’, so the story goes on, ‘he went and told the chief captain, saying, “Take heed what thou doest: for this man is a Roman”.’ The Latin Vulgate puts it even more precisely: hie enim homo civis Romanus est.
Property And Inheritance
Authors: Sawyer Birgit
Published: October 2023

Throughout Scandinavia the sponsors were normally closely related to the deceased. With few, if any, exceptions they, as survivors, can be assumed to have had an interest in property that had been owned by the deceased, whether by inheritance or because it had been jointly owned, for example by man and wife or by trading partners. There are, indeed, various indications that it was the new owner of the property that had belonged to the person being commemorated who commissioned the inscription and determined how it was formulated. The heirs’ natural interest in marking their status and in proclaiming the inheritance could explain the care taken to state the nature of the relationship in the inscriptions.
Dictionary Of Saints
Authors: Orme Nicholas
Published: October 2023

Since the earliest days of Christianity its people have venerated God, the angels, and the saints in distinctive religious cults. Such cults have been much studied by historians, but their multiplicity and variety present huge obstacles to understanding them fully. This book attempts to produce a complete inventory of all known religious cults, dedicated to the Deity or to another named person, in one part of England: the county of Cornwall.
Relic Cults in England in the Twelfth Century
Authors: Crook John
Published: October 2023

The twelfth century in England was characterized by a resurgence of interest in indigenous saints’ cults. The reservations of Norman churchmen had vanished, and a new generation of prelates eagerly espoused the cause of native saints. The art and architecture of the period bears witness to this renewed enthusiasm, not least the adaptation of early Anglo-Norman architecture in response to the renaissance of the cults of local saints.Typical of the new attitude was Faritius, appointed abbot of Abingdon in the auspicious year 1100. He was an energetic rebuilder of his monastery church. His opinion of English saints was evidently very different from that of his sceptical predecessor, Abbot Athelhelm; for during his fifteen-year abbatiate a shoulder-blade and arm of St Ethel world were received at Abingdon, and Bishop William Giffard, who, one supposes, may have been the donor of these Winchester relics, presided at their translation into a new reliquary.
The Foundation of the Garter
Authors: Collins Hugh E L
Published: October 2023

In 1416, the fourth year of the reign of Henry V, arrangements were made for the membership, assemblies, and electoral meetings of the order of the Garter to be regularly recorded in an official register, named the Registrum Ordinis Chartaceum. Fortunately preserved by Anstis in the Black Book of Windsor, these annals form the basis for much of our knowledge of the fraternity during the later Middle Ages.
The Garter in Fifteenth-Century Politics, 1400–1461
Authors: Collins Hugh E L
Published: October 2023

If the Garter had succeeded in consolidating its position in English political life by the end of the 1390s, then it was certain to have this new-found stability challenged during the tumultuous events of the following century. As a monarchical institution, founded to celebrate and perpetuate traditions of service and loyalty among the knightly classes, the order was never more vulnerable than during periods of political opposition and upheaval. The fifteenth century, then, was to test the mettle of the fraternity as it had never been tested before.
The Sovereign and the Garter
Authors: Collins Hugh E L
Published: October 2023

In view of the central role played by the king in the Garter’s organization and ceremonial life, it was inevitable that the tone and character of the order during each reign would be shaped, at least partially, by the personality and preferences of the individual monarch. Indeed, as a curial institution, the order’s composition was to large degree reflective of the broader changes in the temper of the royal court and household during the period.
The Cold War
Authors: Hanhimäki Jussi , Westad Odd Arne
Published: October 2023

The Cold War contains a selection of official and unofficial documents which provide a truly multi-faceted account of the entire Cold War era. This volume presents the different kinds of materials necessary to understand what the Cold War was about, how it was fought, and the ways in which it affected the lives of people around the globe. By depicting the experiences of East Berlin housewives and South African students, as well as those of political leaders from Europe and the Third World, The Cold War emphasizes the variety of ways in which the Cold War conflict was experienced. The significance of these differences is essential to understanding the Cold War: it demonstrates how the causes of the clash may have looked very different in Santiago from the way they looked in Seoul, New York, Moscow, or Beijing. The book examines the entirety of the Cold War era, presenting documents from the end of World War II right up to the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. A final selection of source material goes on to illustrate the impact of the Cold War to the present day. Again, the emphasis is global: there are documents on the aftermath of the Cold War in Africa and Europe, as well as on the links between the Cold War and the dramatic events of 11 September 2001. By providing a truly international glimpse of the Cold War and its various actors and subjects, The Cold War helps cut through the often simplistic notions of the recent past and allows the reader to explore the truly global impact of the East-West confrontation that dominated international relations in the second half of the twentieth century.
The Iron Curtain
Authors: Hanhimäki Jussi , Westad Odd Arne
Published: October 2023

Aside from Germany, the area that came to symbolize the onset of the Cold War was East-Central Europe. For many in the West, the Communist takeovers in this region between 1944 and 1948 were easily seen as a frightening and gradually escalating sign of Stalin’s true intentions. In October 1944, for example, Winston Churchill had been willing to divide East-Central Europe into British and Soviet spheres of influence, with the so-called percentage agreement. A year and a half later, however, Churchill—who had been defeated in late July 1945 in the British general election-had changed his mind. In .March 1946 the former prime minister declared in a speech in Fulton, Missouri, that an Iron Curtain had descended from the Baltic to the Adriatic.
The Division of Germany
Authors: Hanhimäki Jussi , Westad Odd Arne
Published: October 2023

The future of Germany was undoubtedly the most contentious issue in post-war Europe. After the surrender of Germany in the spring of 1945, the dashes between the four occupying powers—Britain, France, the Soviet Union, and the United States-over such issues as as the redrawing of the German-Polish border, reparations, and political power became endemic. By 1949 the differences between the former allies had helped to create the basis of the four-decade-long division of Germany and the bizarre division of Berlin into eastern and western zones.
The Marshall Plan and NATO
Authors: Hanhimäki Jussi , Westad Odd Arne
Published: October 2023

There is no question that the enhanced American role in Western Europe was both a contributing source and an outcome of the tensions and divisions that characterized the origins of the Cold War in Europe. In retrospect it is easy to assume that US policy followed a straightforward logic whose major goals were to restore and strengthen capitalism, minimise left-wing influence, and prevent the Soviet Union from extending its power beyond the regions -were the Red Anny was stationed in the aftermath on World War II. Accordingly, the Western response grew gradually harsher and more comprehensive, eventually excluding any serious attempt at rapprochement With the USSR. By 1947, with the announcement of the Truman Doctrine and the launch of the Marshall H Plan, the di-vision of Europe accelerated; by 1949 it was confirmed ,with the creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).
Communism in Eastern Europe and China
Authors: Hanhimäki Jussi , Westad Odd Arne
Published: October 2023

Without the existence of Communist regimes in Eastern Europe and East Asia, the Cold War would almost certainly have been a less intense and less dangerous Great Power confrontation. For the United States, the Soviet imposition of Communist regimes on the countries it occupied in Eastern Europe after ,World War II was a key cause of the conflict, and the victory of the Chinese Communists a key challenge to America. For the Soviet Union, the alliance with the East European countries created a ‘socialist camp’ that could confront the West, and the alliance with China, as long as it lasted, gave credibility to the concept of global Communist power. For both superpowers, the existence of Communism outside the Soviet Union was at the heart of their conflict.
Latin America And The Cold War
Authors: Hanhimäki Jussi , Westad Odd Arne
Published: October 2023

Given the United States’s proximity and the lack of Soviet resources and capabilities of projecting its influence onto the Western Hemisphere, Central and South America remained rather distant from the issues that lay at the heart of the East-west division in the 1940s. By the early 1980s, however, US president Ronald Reagan quoted the ‘Truman Doctrine as he exhorted the American Congress to hack his crusade against Communism in Central America. wile direct Soviet involvement outside of the island of Cuba remained limited, Latin America had gradually claimed a place as one of the hottest battlegrounds of the Cold War.
Cultures and Mindsets
Authors: Hanhimäki Jussi , Westad Odd Arne
Published: October 2023

No single aspect of the Cold War is more important-and more difficult to understand-than the way mind sets and cultures came to define, intensify, and prolong the conflict on a global scale. From its very beginning, the struggle between the Soviet Union and the Western powers was intimately connected to sets of images of oneself and others—images that reflected one’s place in society and in the world. In the post-war period, the degree to which local social and political conflicts in most areas came to take on a Cold War significance is staggering-not only in North America, Europe, and East Asia, but also in Africa, the Middle East, and Latin America, large groups of people came to identify them selves with the cause of one or the other of the superpowers.
The Fall of Détente
Authors: Hanhimäki Jussi , Westad Odd Arne
Published: October 2023

In the mid-1970s the policies of reducing military tension through negotiations and agreements came under increasing pressure in international affairs and within the superpowers themselves. Within a few years the optimistic climate of the early part of the decade had been replaced with what some scholars see as a second Cold War. There were many reasons why US—Soviet detente collapsed as a political project. Some historians argue that the failure was inherent in the project itself: because Americans and Soviets had different notions of what detente consisted of, conflict would replace co-operation sooner or later. Others claim that super power detente-different from detente in Europe-was less a policy of co operation than an attempt, partially through covert means, to outmanoeuvre the other side and gain advantages in an on going Cold War.
Challenges to the Cold War: The 1980s
Authors: Hanhimäki Jussi , Westad Odd Arne
Published: October 2023

A1though there is disagreement among historians as to when the Cold War began to fade as an international system, most recent surveys point to the years around 1980 as the beginning of the end. In order to grasp that argm11ent, one needs to look beyond the superpower conflict itself and see what broader changes took place that would make it unlikely for the Cold War to remain the main dividing line in international politics. Some of the more fundamental changes Were economic-the increase in international trade, the economic rise of East Asia, and the decline in prices for raw materials all stimulated the economies of the capitalist countries while impeding those of the Eastern Bloc and its Third World allies. Others were changes in technology, such as communications and computers, almost all of which were developed in the West and hardly implemented in the Soviet Union.
British on the Nile
Authors: Collins Robert O
Published: October 2023

No river in the world has been measured over so long a time as the Nile. Its vital statistics formally begin with the erection of the Rodah nilometer in the eighth century, but the flows of the Nile have been the constant concern of the inhabitants since Pharaonic times. Moreover, the Rodah nilometer was only the principal source of measurement, to which were added throughout subsequent centuries information from numerous gauges upstream, as well as the observations of the Arab chroniclers of medieval and modern Egypt. The purpose of this obsession with the flow of the Nile, which continues unabated to this day, was as obvious as it was understandable, since the prosperity of Egypt has always been dependent upon the waters of that great river flowing out of Africa.
The Shadow of Revolution, 1841-1848
Authors: Schroeder Paul w.
Published: October 2023

Domestic affairs dominated Europe in the 1840s. Until the 1848 revolutions and the international conflicts they spawned, there appeared to be few, if any, major developments in international relations. Those that occurred seem important only in portending and setting the stage for these revolutions, representing, as it were, creaks and groans in an ageing building at the first tremors of a coming earthquake.
Greeks, Turks, and Latins: The Crusade in Romania, 1274–1396
Authors: Housley Norman
Published: October 2023

Whatever the strategic complexities which resulted from the idea of attacking Mamluk power in Egypt, and from the need to defend Armenia and Cyprus, crusading in the south-eastern Mediterranean remained essentially straightforward owing to the continuity of its foremost goal: the recovery of the Holy Land. The same cannot be said of the crusading activity which took place in the fourteenth century in the north-eastern Mediterranean, the area to which contemporaries gave the name Romania, and which roughly comprised the lands constituting the Byzantine Empire at the time of the Fourth Crusade (see maps 3 and 4). Latin interests here were complex and contradictory, and papal policy lacking in clarity; above all, there was no tradition of crusading comparable in richness and chivalric connotations with that which had developed in connection with the Holy Land. Despite this, it was in Romania that the crusading movement displayed its greatest vitality in the fourteenth century. And for all the complexity of texture, an evolution of ideas and goals is visible in this period, as the West moved from an initial concentration on countering the revival of Byzantine power towards attempts to organize resistance to the Turkish maritime principalities in Anatolia, finally recognizing the Ottomans as Christendom’s greatest enemies.
The Kingdoms of Cilician Armenia and Cyprus, 1274–1573
Authors: Housley Norman
Published: October 2023

When Acre fell in 1291, the remaining Latin establishments in the eastern Mediterranean comprised not only the Frankish states and colonies of Romania, but also the Kingdoms of Armenia and Cyprus (see map 7). Like Frankish Greece, these Kingdoms originated as by-products of the crusading movement, and their defence by western Catholics was an important goal of the papacy’s crusading policy in the fourteenth century. By 1274 Cilician Armenia, a non-Frankish country, was economically debilitated, politically chaotic, and immensely vulnerable to Islamic attack. In 1375 it was extinguished altogether by the Muslims. For most of the century preceding this, Cyprus, protected by the sea, had presented a very favourable contrast to its embattled northern neighbour. The island’s Frankish royal house and nobility enjoyed deep-rooted governmental stability, occasionally marred by dynastic and constitutional conflict; and until the mid-fourteenth century Cyprus’s economic prosperity was striking. But by 1400 the most independent, constructive, and brilliant period of Cyprus’s medieval history had ended. Invaded, exploited, and politically disrupted, fifteenth-century Cyprus increasingly resembled the Kingdom of Armenia a century earlier. In Cyprus, as in Syria and Greece, Frankish government began well but ended in disunity and disaster.
The Man Charles Stuart
Authors: Russell Conrad
Published: October 2023

‘You cannot believe the alteration in the opinion of the world touching his Majesty’. This comment, by the Earl of Kellie to the Earl of Mar, marks the end of the ‘honeymoon period’ at the beginning of Charles’s reign, and it is dated 26 July 1625, when Charles had only been four months on the throne. It marks a remarkably swift general recognition, during Charles’s first year, that as a king he was not a success, and that judgement is one which has never been reversed. Yet, whenever we attempt to analyse why Charles as king was not a success, this general agreement instantly evaporates, and attempts to explain an agreed judgement rapidly degenerate into adjectival incoherence.
Arthur Henderson as Labour Leader
Authors: Mckibbin Ross
Published: October 2023

Arthur Henderson was the only member of the industrial working classes to lead a British political party. He was the only trade-unionist to lead the Labour Party, and, as well, one of the only two active Christians to do so. In the history of the Labour Party’s first thirty years he seems to have a centrality shared by no other man. But what constitutes his centrality is a genuine problem, and both his contemporaries and his colleagues were aware of it. J. R. Clynes once wrote: ‘I would not class Mr Henderson as a type, but as one quite unlike any any other of his colleagues.’ In this chapter I would like to test his judgement, to examine both Henderson’s ‘typicality’ as a historical figure in the labour movement and the significance of his career as a labour leader.
Working-class Gambling in Britain, 1880-1939
Authors: Mckibbin Ross
Published: October 2023

If two of the main themes of this book are the internal culture of the British working classes and the way that culture was perceived by those who stood outside it hardly anything illustrates them better than the development of working-class gambling in the last quarter of the nineteenth century. As a mass phenomenon its existence cannot be doubted but nearly all we know about it is derived from people who did not practise it, who often disapproved of it, and whose observation of it was equally often a prioristic. The ‘problem’ of working-class gambling is thus a double one: we need to discover, in so far as we can, its ‘actual’ character but we have to do so via evidence which is, to a greater or lesser degree, ideologically hostile. In this chapter I would like to approach that double problem by examining the spread of gambling as a popular activity, the part it played in the economic and intellectual environment of the working class and by assessing it in the light of wider class relationships.
From Commune to Signoria: II Political Revolution, Crisis and Reaction
Authors: Jones Philip
Published: October 2023

‘In Italy the people rules.’ Of the rival pressures dividing cities, from democratic to autocratic, there is no possible doubt which most impressed contemporaries and subsequent tradition. In their own age and after, the Italian republics, above all other communes, stood for revolution: the triumph of libertas, the subversion of the established order of God-given hierarchy and sacral (if ultimately also popular) rulership (regimen regale) by a diametrically contrary system, elsewhere contained, of community, collegiality, collective self-government-regimen politicum, or what by 1300 in Greek and then learned Italian circles was coming to be called (or branded) ‘democracy’ (or mob rule). As stated by John of Viterbo in his De Regimine Civitatum, cities signified freedom (civitas dicitur civium libertas, habitantium immunitas)-and not only cities. A passion, almost mystique, of ‘liberty’ possessed all society and communes grew by hundreds. Formally to be sure cities may not, in the antique manner, have founded any cult of freedom, at least before the fourteenth century when Lucca (in 1370) established a feast of Liberty, erecting an altar in the cathedral and (like Rienzo in Rome a few years earlier and Florence a few years later) inscribing the word ‘Libertas’ on its banners and arms. Communes equally were slow to generate a literature of liberty, the earliest tract on freedom being Alamanno Rinucci ni’s De Libertate (of 1479). Even now there was nothing programmatic in communal expansion, no proclamations of freedom or the rights of man in laws or manifestos. But, however inarticulate, all places great and small cherished ideals of liberty or liberation: cities from superiors, boroughs
Monastic Towns? Minsters as Central Places c.650–850
Authors: Blair John
Published: October 2023

And who can describe in words the supreme beauty of this church, and the countless wonders of that minster (monasterium)—of that city (civitas) as we may say, if it can rightly be called a city when it is surrounded by no circuit of walls? But because countless peoples come together in it, it earns the name ‘city’ from the gathering of crowds there. This city is supreme and metropolitan, in whose suburbs (suburbani), which holy Brigit marked out with a precise boundary (certo limite designavit ), is feared no mortal adversary nor onslaught of enemies. But it is the safest city of refuge, with all its external suburbs (cum suis omnibus deforis suburbanis), in the whole land of the Irish for all fugitives. Treasures of kings are kept there . . . And who can count the varied crowds and countless peoples flocking together from all provinces? Some come because of the abundance of feasts, others to obtain healing of their ailments, others to stare at the crowds; others bring great gifts and offerings to the celebration of holy Brigit’s birth.
A Maturing Economy
Authors: Theodore Hoppen K
Published: October 2023

At the end of the nineteenth century the United Kingdom was the richest country the world had ever known. Yet accounts of its economy have been dominated by talk of failure, not failure in the sense of slums and poverty, but failure with respect to abstractions, notably overall rates of growth: were these faltering and if so were they faltering in comparison with what had gone before or with what was happening abroad or with both? Britain’s subsequent economic woes have, indeed, generated a kind of treasure hunt in reverse—an obsessive search for the precise moment when an age of gold began to tarnish and decay.
Living and Spending
Authors: Theodore Hoppen K
Published: October 2023

The family dominated Victorian life. Few questioned its importance, few comprehended its kaleidoscopic differences. Middle-class observers repeatedly detected threats to its integrities: working wives, youths earning more than was ‘good for them’, the licentiousness of factory life, bad housing, excessive drinking, religious decline. The talismanic paraphernalia designed to repel such evils—silver-framed photographs, genre paintings of family scenes, mugs and pots exuding cheerful domesticity—cluttered Victorian homes as densely as votive offerings cluttered the sooty popish chapels so despised by Protestant Englishmen. For all but the poorest the notion of ‘home’ was becoming increasingly associated with ideas of protection and defence. Middle- and upper-class husbands enjoyed the best of all worlds: long absences on ‘business’ or pleasure, on the one hand, much emphasis upon the virtues of domestic life, on the other. Neither the young Gladstone, simultaneously telling his wife that sadly he could be little with her while eagerly planning a trip to Ireland with two fellow MPs, nor the Revd Edward Miall, leaving his wife and five children for a solo summer in Scotland, were at all unusual. Within the home itself a kind of internal remoteness was condoned, even encouraged. Middle-class wives were praised for sheltering their husbands from the tedium of domestic affairs: ‘How wonderfully she looked after him ... everything was arranged ... so that he might do the maximum of work.’ The Revd Sabine Baring-Gould (author of ‘Onward Christian Soldiers’ and begetter of sixteen offspring) asked one small child at a party, ‘And whose little girl are you?’ She burst into tears: ‘I’m yours, Daddy’.
The Island of Ireland
Authors: Theodore Hoppen K
Published: October 2023

From the perspective of British and even more so of English history, nineteenth-century Ireland has been seen primarily as the home port of a troublesome pirate ship, the SS Irish Question. Apart from stereotypical notions suggesting that it was also a land remarkable for the violence, religious intensity, laziness, and jollity of its inhabitants, neither the mid-Victorian nor subsequent generations in Britain have known much about the island of Ireland itself. And it is precisely out of this smooth avoidance of any real engagement with the close and reciprocal connections between developments within Ireland and the changing nature of the Irish Question that many of the misunderstandings and complications of modern Irish British relations have grown.
Introduction: The Protestant Succession
Authors: Beddard Robert
Published: October 2023

In November 1688 William Henry, hereditary Prince of Orange and Stadhouder of the Dutch Republic, invaded England with a powerful army. He came at the invitation of a group of James H's Protestant subjects: seven dissident noblemen and gentlemen-five Whigs and two Tories-who wished to check the king’s unpopular catholicizing policies, but felt themselves unequal to the task without the prince’s active ‘protection to countenance their rising’ against the promoters of Popery at home. Their appeal for outside help-itself an admission of native despair in the face of a strong and wilful Catholic monarch-sprang from a deep-rooted dissatisfaction ‘with the present conduct of government’, not from an overpowering desire to pull down the monarchy or to switch kings. The absence of a sitting parliament (none had met since November 1685), and their exclusion from royal favour (increasingly monopolized by their opponents), denied them any alternative means of bringing pressure to bear on King James and his ministers to get them to abandon their unacceptable measures. Their aim in calling in the Prince of Orange was to preserve the lawful Protestant Establishment in Church and State from what they feared was the threat of imminent Catholic subversion. They sought to reassert the laws of the land ‘in relation to their religion, liberties, and properties’, all of which, they believed, had been ‘greatly invaded’, and to remove, by force if necessary, the king’s’evil counsellors’, foremost of whom they reckoned the hated Papists and their fellow-travellers, the ultra-Tory prerogative men.1 In this enterprise to reverse royal policy they cast William of Orange in the role of Protestant deliverer. It was, of course, a role for which his high birth and international character as a sovereign prince pre-eminently suited him.
The Revolutions in America
Authors: Davies K G
Published: October 2023

The transmission of the English Revolution to the plantations was not expected to give rise to difficulties and in most places did not. The colonies were not invited to concur in what had happened, though one or two responded as if they had been; they were simply instructed to proclaim William and Mary. No explanation of events in England was provided, let alone justification, and no special measures were taken to ensure that the colonies complied. In two particular instances the order to proclaim the new sovereigns was associated with what might be construed as an inducement. As early as 11 January 1689 the Prince of Orange wrote to Jamaica appointing a governor, restoring officers suspended or evicted by the late Duke of Albemarle, and cancelling acts of assembly passed since Albemarle’s death. These orders were repeated on 22 February when William was able to write as king. This singling out of Jamaica probably owed more to the efficiency of that colony’s lobby in England than to anything else. In regard to New England, however, there was some recognition in London of the value of a conciliatory gesture.
Different Motives for Regulation: A Survey of the Literature
Authors: Franks Julian , Mayer Colin
Published: October 2023

1.1 There are three classes of literature that are relevant to a study of the regulation of investment managers. The first is corporate finance theory, which explains how a firm’s capital structure is determined. The second is regulation of banks and in particular bank capital adequacy requirements. The third is the regulation of the professions. This chapter will discuss each in turn.
Investment
Authors: Yoshikawa Hiroshi
Published: October 2023

Investment has always played a central role in both the growth of and the fluctuations in the Japanese economy. It is the most volatile component of aggregate demand, but on the other hand, it is only through investment that economic growth is made possible. In the process of economic growth, investment not only determines the rate of capital accumulation, but also leads to technical progress, since most modern technological innovations are embodied in new capital goods. On the other hand, as was observed in Chapter 2, business cycles in Japan were basically investment-led during the high-growth period of the 1950s and 1960s (see also Table 9.7 below). Clearly, it is essential to understand the behaviour of investment in order to grasp the movements of the Japanese economy in both the short run and the long run.
Ireland: Marriage Loses Popularity
Authors: Kennedy Finola , Mccormack Kevin
Published: October 2023

The 1980s was a decade in which marriage lost the popularity it enjoyed in the 1960s and early 1970s. Against a background of economic uncertainty and rising unemployment, the proportion of young women who were married in the age group 25-29 years slipped from two-thirds to just over one-half. The decline in the popularity of marriage among the young was accompanied by a rise in educational participation, an increase in cohabitation and an increase in marriage breakdown.
What is Old Age? Variation over Time and between Cultures
Authors: Laslett Peter
Published: October 2023

At first sight the answer to the question posed in the title to this chapter seems to be exceedingly simple. Since ageing is a series of biological changes occurring in all humans at all ages and at all times, then old age is the name for the final stage of that programme during which decline itself accelerates markedly. The only thing that has to be settled is the point at which individuals reach that final stage, and this is evidently a particular birth anniversary, the 50th, 55th, 60th, 65th, 70th, or whatever. Any person who has passed that anniversary is to be considered as being in old age. The proportion which the total of these people makes up of the whole is the obvious measure of how old a population is in comparative terms.
Prospect for Extended Survival: A Critical Review of the Biological Evidence
Authors: Olshansky S Jay , Carnes Bruce A
Published: October 2023

For as long as humans have inhabited the earth, intense mortality selection pressures have produced a pattern of high unstable death rates resulting in high attrition at younger ages. Like most other mammals, survival to ages where senescence may be observed has always been a rare event for humans. These highly selective forces of natural selection have come under greater control in the past two hundred years, as we have developed an understanding of the germ theory of disease, and then manipulated our environment to reduce the force of mortality from infectious and parasitic diseases. Recent declines in middle-age and old-age mortality have been observed in nations with low death rates, making survival into older ages a common event in developed nations. Although scientists have been discussing seriously for the past century the evolutionary and biological forces that lead to senescence (Fisher, 1930; Haldane, 1941; Medawar, 1952; Weismann, 1891; Williams, 1957), these recent unexpected declines in mortality at later ages have brought forth a renewed interest in the question of how high human life expectancy can increase (for example, see Manton et al., 1991; Olshansky et al., 1990).
Mortality Projections for Japan: A Comparison of Four Methods
Authors: Wilmoth John R
Published: October 2023

Death-rates at all ages have fallen with an astonishing speed over the past 40 years in Japan. Life expectancy at birth among the Japanese is now the highest in the world for any national population. While most people agree on the advantages of a longer life for the individuals who benefit from it, there is increasing concern, in Japan as elsewhere, about an important side-effect of rapid mortality decline, namely, population ageing. All analysts agree that populations in developed countries like Japan will continue to grow older (whether measured by the median age of the population, the percentage over age 65, or some other indicator), but the extent and speed of this transformation over the next 30-50 years are somewhat less certain and depend, to a large extent, on future trends in death-rates at older ages (Horiuchi, 1991).
Formal and Informal Care:New Approaches
Authors: Daatland Svein Olav
Published: October 2023

However differently the modern nations have organized their ageing policies, they seem to have the following problem in common: while needs are increasing, the resources to accommodate these needs are diminishing, at least in a relative sense. And while earlier the increased needs could be coped with because of economic growth, the joint occurrence of continued ageing and an economic recession indicates that the needs-resource gap will expand.
The Dynamics of Age Systems in East Africa
Authors: Spencer Paul
Published: October 2023

Within any society, some overarching premiss may be characteristic of a much wider region. Studies of rural Mediterranean societies, for instance, emphasize the concept of honour associated with the integrity of the family. Studies of Hindu society stress the concept of purity which defines status within the caste hierarchy. Correspondingly, in studies of traditional Africa, a theme that recurs is the association of respect with age. It is hardly surprising that the terms ‘elder’ and ‘elderhood’ are so well established as translations of vernacular terms. They convey a sense of status and respect.
The Emergence of Individualism and New Forms of Inequality
Authors: Spencer Paul
Published: October 2023

Early accounts of the Chamus seem to indicate that the irrigation systems of the two villages were already failing as they built up their herds of cattle. There are two interpretations of this decline. David Anderson’s painstaking reconstruction of their economic history has suggested that, towards the end of the nineteenth century, the Chamus economy was upset by their strategic position as a provisioning centre for Swahili caravans, whom they supplied with grain in exchange for items that could be retraded locally for cattle. Chamus eagerness to build up their herds at this point led them to over-cultivate, he argues, spoiling the fine ecological balance of their irrigation system. They then compounded this further by diverting labour to tend their growing herds, but at the expense of maintaining the irrigation system, bringing about its disrepair and decline. Robert Chambers’s alternative interpretation puts the failure of the system on a wider ecological footing and at a later stage. As the herds built up after the Disaster, he notes, there were reports of serious overgrazing, and this would have interfered with the natural drainage that fed the irrigation system. Rain could no longer be retained by the soil, leading to a more spasmodic supply ofwater. This culminated in a flash flood in 1917, which diverted the Great Uaso River from its normal course and placed the major irrigation system of the Down-River village beyond repair.
Introductory Essay
Authors: James Wendy
Published: October 2023

The world as the Uduk-speaking people knew it was almost destroyed in the closing years of the nineteenth century. Those who had not been enslaved, or enserfed by chiefdoms of the Sudan Ethiopian border, had.fled as refugees away to the north and west. The three valleys of the Ahmar, Tombak, and Yabus which they had made their homeland over the previous century or so were deserted. In my previous book, ‘Kwanim Pa: The Making of the Uduk People: An Ethnographic Study of Survival in the Sudan Ethiopian Borderlands (henceforth abbreviated as ‘KP),1 I have described these events and their continuing relevance for our under standing of the society the Uduk have recreated since the early twentieth-century pacification of this region by the Anglo-Egyptian government of the Sudan.
The Consequences of an International Wrong in International and National Law
Authors: Mann F A
Published: October 2023

The doctrine of the international wrong, that is to say, the violation of a duty imposed by public international law, is both one of the most important and one of the most intricate chapters of public international law. It is, on the one hand, so important because it is that part of public international law with which the practising lawyer most frequently comes (or ought to come) into contact, for wrongs suffered by a physical or legal person at the hands of a foreign State are unfortunately a matter of daily occurrence, although they are not always diagnosed as such, and even if they are, the absence of diplomatic protection or the lack of submission by the wrongdoing State to a tribunal is likely to render a remedy illusory.