bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Perceptions and Intent to Promote Exclusive Breastfeeding by Significant Others in Umuokanne Community Imo State, Nigeria
Authors: Douglas O. I. , Ibe S. N. O. , Nwufo C. R.
Published: January 2020

Perception and intent of significant others to promote exclusive breastfeeding is important in understanding their perceived behaviour and their state of mind toward exclusive breastfeeding practice.  It also helps to identify what intentions this significant other had toward the promotion of exclusive breastfeeding practice (EBF). This study aimed to determine the perceptions and intentions of significant others to promote exclusive breastfeeding in Umuokanne Community, Imo State, Nigeria. The descriptive study design was employed to elicit information from 245 significant others (mothers of the nursing mother, mothers-in-law and husbands) within the six villages in Umuokanne Community. Instruments for data collection were structured on the questionnaire and focus group discussions (FGDs). And finally, the reliability test was established (r = 0.68) between them. 20 significant others participated in the FGDs. Results of the study revealed that significant others had positive perceptions and indicate readiness towards the promotion of exclusive breastfeeding. 120(80%) of grandmothers and 69(73%) of husbands had positive perceptions on the elements of EBF, 100(100%) of grandmothers and 74(78%) of husbands had positive perceptions of the essential roles to play in the promotion EBF, 75(50%) of grandmothers and 57(60%) of husbands had negatively perceived not giving of colostrum to an infant, early introduction of any feed in less than six months of an infant life,  early introduction of fluid to an infant, giving off water and water mixed with medicinal herbs/roots, were not believed to be a barriers to EBF promotion. The description could be based on three key concepts namely, perceived insufficiency of breast milk, low income and cultural practices. Age, education, income and parity were also statistically significant (P = 0.05). However, 136(91%) of grandmothers and 78(82%) of husbands showed a positive intention towards the promotion of EBF practice. Hence, this study concluded that a positive perception shows the willingness to take action and a positive intention indicate readiness toward the promotion of EBF. Therefore, there is need to expand the current strategies employed in the promotion of EBF to include significant others and their cultural perspectives.
Wirebond Process Improvement with Enhanced Stand-off Bias Wire Clamp and Top Plate
Authors: C. Pulido Jonathan , Ray I. Gomez Frederick , Graycochea Jr. Edwin M.
Published: January 2020

New design for a certain issue in semiconductor industry is another way to modify the standard configuration into specified limit or to make a possible solution of the problem.  This paper presents a new modified design for wirebond top plate with a bias platform structure that will maintain a consistent second bond into a leadframe leads with half-etch configuration on quad-flat no-leads (QFN) packages especially in wirebond process. This paper used a side by side comparison to proof that the new design is better than the older design.  With the new specialized wire clamp and top plate design, parts per million (PPM) level performances is improved by almost 90%.
Ameliorating Effects of Omega-3 Fatty Acids on Underlying Mechanisms of Type 2 Diabetes
Authors: Fatima Qazi Abroo , Muhammad Shaikh Din
Published: January 2020

Aims: The current study investigated the effects of polyunsaturated Omega-3-fatty acids on underlying mechanism linked with diabetes in streptozocin induced type 2 diabetic Wistar rats.

Study Design:  Experimental analytical Study.

Place and Duration of Study: The study was conducted at Isra University Hyderabad and Sindh Agricultural University, Tandojam between November 2016 and November 2018.

Methodology: Seventy-five Wistar rats were assorted to five groups (15 rats per group): negative control group A and positive control group B and experimental groups C, D and E. Rats within group B,C,D, and E were injected with streptozocin (65 mg/kg body weight) to induce diabetes. Experimental groups C, D and E received Omega-3-fatty acid supplemented food in 0.3 g, 0.4 g and 0.5 g/kg bodyweight dosage for 12 weeks, respectively.

Results: Omega-3-fatty acids treated rats showed significant decrease in blood glucose level and rise in serum insulin as compared to positive control group (p-value = 0.001). At the same time, they showed significantly increased expression of insulin gene along with transcription factors: PDX1 and NKX6.1 as compared to group A (p-value = 0.001).

Conclusion: It is concluded that O3FAs reduces insulin resistance in Streptozocin-induced diabetic Wistar rats by modulating the transcription factors essential for insulin gene expression.
Detection of Oxacillin (Methicillin)-resistant Staphylococcus aureus Isolated from a Tertiary-care Hospital, Georgetown, Guyana
Authors: Cheddie Paul , Seepersaud Drovashti , Ramlochan Tereasia
Published: January 2020

Background and Aim: Methicillin-resistant Staphylocccus aureus (MRSA) continues to be a major problem globally. Previous data had suggested that the prevalence of MRSA infections in the tertiary hospital setting was 51%. The aim of this study was to conduct a point prevalence survey of MRSA infections occurring at a tertiary-care hospital in Georgetown, Guyana, and to determine to what extent methicillin-resistance was occurring among Staphylococcus aureus isolates utilising the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) data.

Study Design: This study was based on a prospective, analytical design.

Place and Duration of Study: Microbiology department, Georgetown Public Hospital Corporation (GPHC), and Department of Medical Technology, University of Guyana, between May 2019 and July 2019.

Methodology: A total of 101 consecutive, non-repetitive, laboratory-identified MRSA and methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA) isolates were tested using an oxacillin broth microdilution method.

Results: We found that 65.4% of Staphylococcus aureus were oxacillin (methicillin) resistant with a majority of the isolates being high level oxacillin resistant strains (i.e., MICs > 256 μg/ml) (84.85%). Most of the resistant isolates were collected from patients admitted to medical and surgical wards. Conclusion: Methicillin-resistance continues to be a major problem in the hospital setting and conventional techniques are unlikely to identify all of the potentially resistant isolates.
Benzothiazole amphiphiles promote RasGRF1‐associated dendritic spine formation in human stem cell‐derived neurons
Authors: Cifelli Jessica L. , Berg Kyle R. , Yang Jerry
Published: January 2020

Synaptic dysfunction has been implicated as an early cause of cognitive decline in neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs) such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Methods to slow down or reverse the loss of functional synapses, therefore, represent a promising avenue to explore for treating NDDs. We have previously reported the development of a class of benzothiazole amphiphiles (BAMs) that exhibited the capability to improve memory and learning both in wild‐type mice and in an AD rodent model, putatively through promoting RasGRF1‐associated formation of dendritic spines in hippocampal neurons. While these results represent a good first step in exploring a new approach to treating NDDs, the capability of these compounds to increase spine density has not been previously examined in a human neuronal model. Here, we found that neurons derived from differentiated human induced pluripotent stem cells exhibited both an increase in RasGRF1 expression and a phenotypic increase in the density of postsynaptic density protein 95‐positive puncta (which we use to provide an estimate of dendritic spine density) in BAM‐treated vs. control neurons. These results demonstrate that the previously observed spinogenic effects of BAMs in rodent neurons can be recapitulated in a human neuronal model, which further supports the potential utility of BAM agents for treating human diseases associated with spine deficits such as AD or other NDDs.
Bone and Skeletal Development
Authors: Matkovic Velimir
Published: January 2020

Skeletal tissue provides the best example of general growth progress through maturity. It also provides the best approximation of the biological age of humans. Skeletal tissue goes through several developmental stages from fetal life to the peak bone mass of young adulthood. Bone fragility fractures are common during rapid bone modeling. Heredity, physical exercise, and nutrition influence bone accretion and peak bone mass.
Fine Motor Development
Authors: Payne V. Gregory , Chang Seung Ho
Published: January 2020

Fine motor development
refers to changes in human movement, especially those movements that are produced from small muscle or small muscle group action, as opposed to gross movements, which are produced via action of the large muscles or muscle groups. When the terms
fine
and
gross movement
are used jointly, they form a useful, but simplistic, means of categorizing human movement. Examples of important and developing fine movements of childhood include certain infant reflexes, prehension (grasping and releasing), handwriting, drawing, and keyboarding.
Development of Early Handedness, Manual Specialization, and Hemispheric Specialization
Authors: Young Gerald
Published: January 2020

The development of handedness is related to the development of specialized manual function but follows its own developmental trajectory. Specialized lateralized hand function is referred to as
manual specialization
and is considered a reflection of underlying hemispheric specialization—for example, in terms of the left hemisphere's superior fine motor and language skills and the right hemisphere's superior spatial skills. The two major models used to explain laterality development concern an early equipotential and then a progressive lateralization of development versus an invariant model—for example, in which the two hemispheres exhibit from early in life the characteristics of adult hemispheric specialization. This entry critically examines the development of handedness, manual specialization, and hemispheric specialization, and, novel to the literature, shows that the equipotential and invariant models are not contradictory. It examines research for both lateralized behavior and brain structure and function from one age period to the next (prenatal to preschool). The research points to connectivity and network models as new ways of explaining left–right differences in brain and behavior, which tie into a proposed activation–inhibition coordination model. The origins of laterality in behavior and brain are shown to lie in biological and environmental influences, including genetically and culturally.
Movement, Space, and the Development of Spatial Thinking
Authors: Pruden Shannon M. , Nazareth Alina , Odean Rosalie , Abad Carla , Bravo Elsa , Garcia Nelcida
Published: January 2020

This entry discusses how one particular spatial skill, mental rotation, develops. Mental rotation is the ability to rotate two‐ and three‐dimensional objects in space using one's mind. Males consistently outperform females on mental rotation tasks. Mental rotation is a skill linked to success in and entry into the science, technology, engineering, and mathematics disciplines. One modern‐day approach to the study of development, the
relational developmental systems
framework, calls for examination of multiple interdependent systems operating at different levels of analysis (psychological, cultural, and biological) to explain development. Using this framework, this entry explores the development of mental rotation skill by examining research on six systems: working memory, cognitive strategy selection and flexibility, spatial anxiety, spatial–relational language, spatial play, and motor skill. It also explores future research ideas for the study of the development of mental rotation.
History of the Behavior Analysis of Child Development
Authors: Novak Gary
Published: January 2020

This entry traces the history of the behavior analysis of child development from its start in “baby biographies” to current‐day theory and research. Two main pathways appear. The first is from John B. Watson's adoption of Ivan Pavlov's conditioning through the methodological behaviorism and grand learning theory taught at the University of Iowa. The second goes from Edward Thorndike's law of effect through the motherlode of Skinnerian behavior analysis to basic and applied behavioral theory at the universities of Washington and Kansas, led by Sidney Bijou and Donald M. Baer. Today the legacy of these trails is a natural science that contributes to the understanding of basic behavioral development and applied behavior analysis.
Reinforcement
Authors: Dozier Claudia L. , Foley Elizabeth A. , Goddard Kelsey S. , Jess Rachel L.
Published: January 2020

This entry defines the principle of reinforcement and provides an overview of the process by which it strengthens behavior. The various types of reinforcement, including positive and negative reinforcement, automatic and social reinforcement, and unconditioned and conditioned reinforcement, are discussed. Various factors that influence the efficacy of reinforcement—motivating operations, as well as the immediacy, quality, magnitude, and schedule of reinforcement—are explored. Several procedures that involve reinforcement for creating new behavior (i.e., shaping and chaining) are explored. Finally, the entry provides a brief overview of the role of reinforcement in increasing both appropriate and inappropriate behavior in children.
Motivation in Childhood
Authors: Cengher Mirela , Miguel Caio F.
Published: January 2020

Although usually considered an internal organismic variable, motivation can also be understood as a functional relation between environmental operations and behavior. These motivating operations (MOs) are defined based on their two specific effects, namely the value‐ and the behavior‐altering effects. MOs may (1) alter the value of an environmental stimulus, which is akin to making you want it, as well as (2) increase all behaviors that have produced that stimulus in the past, or make you act in some way to get what you want. This entry describes unlearned and learned MOs, and how they can be manipulated to change behavior.
Behavioral Therapy and Cognitive–Behavioral Therapy
Authors: Zlomke Kimberly R. , Greathouse Ashley Dawn , Rossetti Kristina
Published: January 2020

As the prevalence of mental health difficulties in children continues to rise, effective interventions to address emotional and behavioral difficulties in children are becoming increasingly important. Many interventions for children have been developed as extensions to evidence‐based practices developed for adults. A number of interventions commonly utilized in child populations address concerns regarding conduct, behavior, anxiety, and depression (among other difficulties) that have derived from the theories and intervention of behavioral therapy, cognitive–behavioral therapy, and contemporary third‐wave therapies.
Clinical Behavior Analysis
Authors: Friman Patrick C.
Published: January 2020

Behavior analysis has contributed significantly to knowledge of behavioral dynamics and processes across species and settings. Clinical behavior analysis (CBA) is a major subdivision of behavior analysis, which involves the use of direct and indirect conditioning models to understand and address clinically significant behavior problems. Although adult‐focused CBA is growing rapidly, especially as it incorporates indirect conditioning models, the majority of CBA literature is still devoted to children. This entry briefly describes the role of indirect conditioning models and more broadly documents the clinical utility of direct conditioning treatments for a large and diverse set of conditions afflicting typically developing children.
Precision Teaching
Authors: Johnson Kent , Street Elizabeth M.
Published: January 2020

Precision teaching is an approach to instruction and behavior change based on the principles of operant learning. It stresses identifying observable behavioral components, setting performance and learning aims for those components, asking individual learners to perform each of the target behaviors in turn, timing their performances, recording their performance frequencies across the span of the instructional sequence, plotting those frequencies on a standard chart, and using the chart to assess the effectiveness of instruction and to decide what to do next. The behavior of the individual learner is the basic unit of analysis in precision teaching. Its founder, Ogden R. Lindsley, developed precision teaching on the basis of his assumption that the optimal way for a teacher to function is as a scientist–practitioner, designing instructional methods and interventions based on performance data. This entry describes the history of the development of precision teaching; its five‐step methodology; the properties of its accompanying Standard Celeration Chart, highlighting its focus on tracking relative change over time and how the chart is the vehicle through which instructional decisions are made and results are communicated; and how to use precision teaching at home and in preschool to prepare children to become academic stars in elementary school.
Comparative Cognition between Children and Animals
Authors: Rakoczy Hannes , Haun Daniel
Published: January 2020

How does the human mind develop over the individual's lifetime? This is the central question of the study of cognitive development. How does the human mind work in relation to other animal minds? This is the central question of comparative psychology. Developmental comparative psychology integrates the two questions. It tries to understand how the human mind works by understanding how it came about over time, both ontogenetically (in each individual's life history) and phylogenetically (over the course of evolution). To do so, it compares the cognitive capacities and processes of individuals across different developmental time points as well as across species. This entry gives an introduction to the newly emerging field of developmental comparative psychology. It summarizes central empirical findings concerning commonalities and differences in humans and other species, and discusses the most important theoretical approaches in the field.
Developmental Language Disorder
Authors: Carroll Julia M. , Critten Sarah
Published: January 2020

Recent UK research suggests that around 10% of children show significant language difficulties at school entry. While some of these children have other developmental difficulties such as autism or Down syndrome, around 7% of the population have unexplained language difficulties or developmental language disorder (DLD). The language of children with DLD may be characterized by the use of short, simple words and sentences; difficulties in understanding instructions or following conversations; and grammatical errors that would be unusual for typically developing children. DLD is a disorder that has lifelong consequences, particularly in terms of literacy and school attainment, social relationships, and occupational outcomes. DLD is heterogeneous and often co‐occurs with other developmental difficulties, making it relatively difficult to understand the causes of the disorder.
Cross‐Cultural Differences in Mathematical Ability
Authors: Dowker Ann
Published: January 2020

International comparisons show that some countries and groups do much better in mathematics tests than others. Suggested explanations include teaching methods and school characteristics; languages and, in particular, counting systems; and cultural and occupational practices. The entry reviews the evidence on the influence of these factors on mathematical performance.
Learning in Infancy
Authors: Kirkham Natasha Z.
Published: January 2020

Learning can be thought of as changes in behavior that happen as a result of experience. In infancy, learning occurs early on in development (in some cases prior to birth), and continues rapidly, as the baby moves from being a reactive organism at birth, capable of little more than looking, listening, and sleeping, to a 1‐year‐old who can organize, parse, and understand their environment. This entry reviews the basics of early learning from before birth to the end of the first year of life, concentrating on the visual and auditory domains.
False‐Belief Understanding
Authors: Edwards Katheryn , Maymon Christopher N. , Peloquin Claudie M. , Sivanantham Schyana , Low Jason
Published: January 2020

Cognitive developmental changes in belief understanding, particularly how and when children come to first appreciate false beliefs, occupy the bulk of research on human mindreading. Given apparently conflicting evidence from direct and indirect false‐belief tasks, there is much debate over whether there is a major conceptual breakthrough in belief reasoning sometime around children's 4th birthday and whether infants should be credited with abstract belief understanding. Focusing on who has belief concepts and when they have them, however, is only part of the developmental story. The contradiction could also reflect how the mature belief reasoning that children grow into involves two kinds of mindreading solutions: a flexible cognitive system for making sophisticated but effortful ascriptions about others' beliefs and an efficient cognitive system for tracking others' beliefs in an efficient but limited manner.
Loneliness
Authors: Maes Marlies , Vanhalst Janne , Qualter Pamela
Published: January 2020

Many children report feeling lonely sometimes or often. For most of those children, loneliness is a temporary experience, serving an adaptive function by motivating them to reconnect to others. Some children, however, feel lonely across long periods of time. Such prolonged loneliness has been found to be associated with academic difficulties and poorer psychological and physical health. This entry discusses the concept of loneliness in childhood, highlighting its emotional, cognitive, and genetic components. In addition, the entry considers how the family and peer environments contribute to children's feelings of loneliness. Interventions are proposed that focus on (1) helping those children who have moved from temporary to prolonged feelings of loneliness and (2) ensuring that children who report temporary loneliness do not move to prolonged loneliness. Such interventions include social skills training, providing social opportunities for youth, CBT and attention‐retraining programs, and addressing the stigmatization of loneliness among youth.
Biased Cognitive Processing of Emotional Information in Child Anxiety and Depression
Authors: Lisk Stephen C. , Lau Jennifer Y. F.
Published: January 2020

Anxiety and low mood (depression) can be common in children. Cognitive models of these conditions posit that distortions in the way that information is attended to, evaluated, stored, and retrieved may maintain symptoms, and even contribute to the initial onset of symptoms. While there are ample data to support these hypotheses in adults and adolescents, less work has been conducted in children. This entry discusses how these “cognitive” biases are measured and summarizes how they manifest in children with anxiety and/or mood symptoms, focusing on attention, interpretation, and memory processes. It also includes discussion of data from studies that have attempted to modify these cognitive processes in order to assess their causal role on symptoms, and whether they could reflect new intervention targets. The entry finishes with suggestions for future research in this area.
Culture and Emotion
Authors: Anastassiou‐Hadjicharalambous Xenia , Essau Cecilia A.
Published: January 2020

The scientific inquiry pertaining to culture and emotion has moved beyond the nature versus nurture debate toward a framework of anticipation that all humans share a similar biologically programmed basis for emotional experience; yet, across development, emotions are elicited, displayed, and perceived in a diverse set of complex ways that are affected significantly by cultural factors across all domains of emotional experience. This entry reviews the current state of understanding and identifies future directions of research in the field of culture and emotion across development.
Peer Rejection and Dislike
Authors: Duffy Amanda L. , Gardner Alex A. , Zimmer‐Gembeck Melanie J.
Published: January 2020

Peer rejection and dislike are adverse social experiences that can threaten children's basic need for belonging. This entry provides a review of what is known about these potentially emotionally damaging peer experiences, while also highlighting the complexities inherent in defining rejection and understanding its significance and impact. It summarizes selected research that has addressed the conceptualization and measurement of peer rejection and dislike, and behavioral risk factors for, and consequences of, rejection and dislike during childhood, including aggression, social withdrawal, physical appearance, gender‐nonconforming behavior, emotional difficulties, and academic problems. Other topics addressed include the social information processing sensitivities and biases that can better explain why rejection and dislike have long‐term negative consequences for emotional adjustment, and the potential for other social relationships (e.g., with parents or teachers) to buffer the negative effects of peer rejection and dislike.
Depressive Disorders in Childhood
Authors: Long Erin E. , Griffith Julianne M. , Haraden Dustin A. , Jivanjee‐Shakir Fatema F. , Schweizer Tina H. , Hankin Benjamin L.
Published: January 2020

The recognition of childhood depression is a relatively recent development in the field of psychology. Prior to the 1980s, it was thought that children lacked the cognitive capacity to experience depression in the same way as adults. Work in recent decades supports the existence of depression in children as young as preschool age; however, in many areas, there remains a dearth of research investigating depression in childhood. This entry discusses the diagnosis and measurement of child depression, demographics and prevalence rates, etiologies, and interventions.
Divorce, Child Custody, and Parenting Plans
Authors: Gong Xiaopeng , Carano Kenneth T.
Published: January 2020

The entry provides a comprehensive overview of the consequences of divorce on children. Parenting plans after marital dissolution and child custody are also discussed, and suggestions for future research are provided.
Birth Order and Family Constellation
Authors: Gallagher Richard , Lima Christopher N. La
Published: January 2020

The position in which a person enters the family at birth is that person's birth order. The potential importance that birth order has upon behaviors within the family and later personality development was introduced by Alfred Adler. Adler proposed that one's position would impact a variety of personality characteristics including responsibility, ambition, sociability, and willingness to break the rules. Following Adler's proposals, numerous studies have investigated if particular birth positions are associated with particular personality profiles and forms of psychopathology. Increasingly sophisticated methods have investigated the true effect of birth order on development, personality, and psychological and medical disorders. This entry provides a survey of the literature and draws conclusions about the importance of birth order for applied psychology and research on personality and development.
Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (
CAPTA
)
Authors: Clay Amy Leonard , Okoniewski Katherine C. , Haskett Mary E.
Published: January 2020

In the 1960s the federal government of the United States identified the safety of children as a public welfare issue, and began undertaking to safeguard children at risk of maltreatment. The Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act of 1974 (CAPTA) as amended by the CAPTA Reauthorization Act of 2010, was the first federal legislation to provide funding to support and improve the nation's response to child maltreatment. The entry provides an overview and discussion of the act, including information related to manifestations of the act, such as the Office on Child Abuse and Neglect, the Advisory Board on Child Abuse and Neglect, and citizen review panels. Research related to CAPTA and the effectiveness of its mandates is discussed, as are the shortcomings of the act. A discussion of future directions is provided.
Domestic Violence
Authors: Piotrowski Caroline C. , Letourneau Nicole
Published: January 2020

Intimate partner violence (IPV), also called domestic violence between marital or romantic partners, affects millions of children worldwide. Extensive research has demonstrated the negative effects of exposure to IPV on children, which include internalizing and externalizing problems, negative perceptions and cognitions, traumatic stress, and problems with physical health, interpersonal relationships, or social competence. There is a wide range of variability in the onset, seriousness, and longevity of these effects; however, some children are resilient despite their challenging circumstances. Research studies are now focused on identifying risk and protective factors that not only explain individual differences in adjustment but can also be modified to enhance prevention and intervention programs. In order to advance this evidence base, more research is needed on the effects of exposure to multiple forms of violence across different contexts, as well as how developmental pathways of how resilience are optimized or regained over time.
Childhood Sexual Abuse
Authors: Kenny Maureen C. , Wurtele Sandy K. , Vázquez Alejandro L.
Published: January 2020

Childhood sexual abuse has reached epidemic proportions internationally. While definitions vary, childhood sexual abuse is generally understood as a form of maltreatment where a child is used in a sexual manner for the gratification of an adult. It encompasses sexual contact between an adult and child or the use of the child for pornographic purposes, and is typically perpetrated by someone known to the child. There are numerous risk factors, including child and family characteristics, and girls between the ages of 12 and 14 years are at the highest risk. The sequelae of childhood sexual abuse can include depression, anxiety, posttraumatic reactions, and substance abuse, with these difficulties continuing into adulthood. There are a variety of evidence‐based treatments available that target the victims' symptoms. Prevention of childhood sexual abuse requires a comprehensive approach involving children, parents, policy makers, and the community.
Growing Up with Parents with Disabilities
Authors: McConnell David , Hahn Lyndsey
Published: January 2020

Negative attitudes toward parents and parenting with disabilities are widespread. In the public mind, parental disability has long been associated with child misfortune. Research in this area, however, reveals tremendous variability in the experiences of children brought up by parents with disabilities, with many faring well by comparison with age peers with the same socioeconomic backgrounds. Moreover, the research, although limited in a number of important respects, suggests that the problems or hardships faced by many children brought up by parents with disabilities owe more to exclusionary and disabling social processes than to parental disability per se. This entry reviews the current state of knowledge about parents with disabilities and the developmental health of their children. The review, which is more illustrative than exhaustive, is organized around four topics. These are the epidemiology of parents with disabilities, cultural antipathy to parents and parenting with disabilities, the entanglement of parental disability with adverse life conditions, and the lived experience of growing up with a parent with disabilities.
Physical Education
Authors: Bryant Lynne , Castelli Darla M.
Published: January 2020

This entry provides an overview of physical education learning experiences and their potential impact on the development of physically literate and healthy children. Regular participation in physical activity has multiple benefits. Best practices in physical education—formal instruction on how to participate safely and progressively in physical activity—are explored and specific examples provided. The essential components of curriculum, instruction, student assessment, environment, and policy are examined through the national physical education standards that define what an individual should know and be able to do as a result of instruction. When it is taught by certified teachers, physical education helps children to maximize their capacity as physically literate individuals by refining their motor skills, increasing their knowledge, creating positive attitudes, and improving their physical fitness. Secondarily, physical education addresses public health concerns about the prevalence of sedentary behavior, childhood obesity, mental health issues, and type 2 diabetes mellitus.
Artistic Development and Education
Authors: Lin Siu Fung
Published: January 2020

Children's art education cannot be discussed without any knowledge about children's artistic development, both as artists and as beholders. Classical stage‐ and age‐related accounts from Luquet to Kellogg serve as the backbone of studies in children's drawings, while Lin and Thomas counterproposed a nonlinear approach to children's understanding of pictures. Contemporary studies into diverse aspects of children's drawings are summarized for our understanding of children's educational needs. The development of art education, from Walter Smith's craftsmanship style to John Ruskin's drawing from nature, to Elliot Eisner's philosophy to Viktor Lowenfeld's romantic free approach are discussed. The entry also gives a brief history of the art education curriculum in the United States, Europe, and the Far East, and links art education for children with Lev Vygotsky's sociocultural theory and Jean Piaget's stage theory.
Sociometric Status Types
Authors: Cillessen Antonius H. N.
Published: January 2020

Sociometric status types are an expression of the social status that a child or adolescent has in the peer group. Traditionally, sociometric status types have been assessed by asking children or adolescents to name whom they like most and whom they like least in their peer group. On this basis, youths are classified into one of five sociometric status types: accepted, rejected, neglected, controversial, and average. Sociometric status is associated with social behavior and with later developmental outcomes. In recent years, the traditional sociometric method was supplemented by asking youths to name whom they see as most popular and least popular.
Rough‐and‐Tumble Play
Authors: StGeorge Jennifer , Fletcher Richard
Published: January 2020

Rough‐and‐tumble play is a form of social physical play that is vigorous and playful, and that appears to function for children as a compelling learning environment for social and emotional skills. The structure, prevalence, and function of this play are discussed, with a focus on both father–child rough‐and‐tumble and peer‐to‐peer rough‐and‐tumble. Various perspectives are summarized, and the variation in data collection methods is discussed. Future research directions that demonstrate the potential of rough‐and‐tumble play for psychosocial intervention are suggested.
Enemies
Authors: Casper Deborah M. , Meter Diana J.
Published: January 2020

Antipathetic relationships, also referred to as enemy relationships, are dyadic relationships characterized by mutual dislike. Although they are common among youth, we know far less about antipathetic relationships than we do about other types of peer relationships, such as friendships, because it is a relatively understudied topic. It is less common to have multiple antipathies, compared to one, and when youth do, it is linked to maladjustment. Youth with mutual antipathies are more likely than those without antipathies to report higher levels of internalizing and externalizing problems, are more likely to be rejected by their peers, and are less likely to engage in or to be the recipient of prosocial behavior. Conflict, jealousy, aggression, aberrant behavior, and intimacy rule violations are relationship dynamics that lead to mutual antipathy. More research is needed to better understand the dynamic nature, course, and long‐term implications of youths' involvement in antipathetic relationships.
School Bullying
Authors: Fox Claire L.
Published: January 2020

This entry provides an introduction to the field of school bullying and aims to show just how far understanding of the problem has progressed since the late 1970s. It begins by defining the phenomenon before considering measurement issues and the incidence and nature of school bullying. Attention then turns to questions about the effects of school bullying and the characteristics of the children who are directly involved. The entry concludes with a consideration of other factors that influence school bullying, such as the role of the wider peer group and school‐level factors.
Socioeconomic Status Effects
Authors: Bradley Robert H.
Published: January 2020

There is broad interest in socioeconomic status because of the abundant research showing its connection to almost every aspect of child well‐being. Living in conditions of high resources increases the likelihood that children will do well and be able to address whatever challenges they face; and it often leads to a very productive and satisfying life. By contrast, living in a resource‐poor environment makes it difficult for children to avoid having problems, be they poor health, poor achievement, or engagement in maladaptive behavior. There are many mechanisms linking low socioeconomic status to suboptimal functioning, from epigenetic changes that begin during pregnancy to insufficient nutrition and health care, to shortcomings in access to materials needed for learning, to living in chaos for extended periods of childhood, with parents struggling to fill gaps and to provide supportive care. Research is only beginning to delineate the complex interconnections between socioeconomic factors and the processes that connect them to various components of children's development.
Sociocultural Perspective on Adolescence
Authors: Vadeboncoeur Jennifer A. , Padilla‐Petry Paulo
Published: January 2020

A sociocultural perspective on adolescence is distinct from other perspectives given the definition of development as a dialectical process that emerges from the relation between an individual and his or her historical, cultural, and social environment. Lev S. Vygotsky (1896–1934), whose scholarship grounds this perspective, called this relation the individual's social situation of development. Attending to historical, social, and cultural variations in environments, and the effects of these variations on individuals' social situations of development, highlights the need to acknowledge adolescence(s). This entry (1) provides theoretical framing for a sociocultural perspective of development; (2) defines adolescence(s) as emerging from the unity of individual and environment, including perceptions and expectations of adolescents; (3) describes the potential role of schooling in shaping individuals' social situations of development through learning–teaching relationships and, thus, shaping the developmental potential of adolescents; and (4) advances a perspective on the purpose of education, broadly, with a brief conclusion.
Behavioral, Cognitive–Behavioral, and Social Learning Approaches
Authors: Leung Hildie , Shek Y. W. Esther
Published: January 2020

Learning refers to changes in behaviors as a result of prior experience. Learning has been a core topic in psychological research and continues to be studied in many fields. This entry provides an account of three major learning theories (i.e., behavioral, cognitive, and social learning). Particularly, the history, applications, and critiques of the respective learning approaches are presented.
Ethnographic Research in Adolescent Development
Authors: Smyth John
Published: January 2020

This entry begins by posing a number of framing questions, namely: (1) What is ethnographic research? (2) Why do ethnographic research with adolescents? (3) What are some examples of ethnographic research in and with adolescents? (4) How might ethnographic research advance a socially critical understanding of adolescents? And (5) what are the challenges facing ethnographic research? The entry then discusses the key attributes of ethnographic research: studying everyday lives up close; the quest for underlying meaning and cultural logics as ascribed by informants; holistic portrayals of observations, interviews, and artifacts; being open to the prospect of surprise and refocusing in light of experience; and the pursuit of an advocacy role as a consequence of what is learned with informants. The entry then engages in a discussion of how this research approach might be an efficacious way of accessing what might otherwise remain concealed in adolescent lives. To illustrate all of this, the key revelations are provided from a number of significant ethnographic studies of adolescent lives, particularly as they relate to schooling. The entry concludes by pointing to how this style of research can lead to adolescents becoming powerful agents in understanding and gaining some control over their lives; the entry also considers issues to be mindful of.
Adolescence in Collectivistic Cultures
Authors: Wang Qian , Qu Yang , Ding Ruyi
Published: January 2020

Adolescence is a phase of development during which youth progress toward maturity physically and psychosocially. What defines maturity, particularly psychosocial maturity, may vary across cultures. According to the distinction between individualism and collectivism, typical characterizations of adolescence in many Western cultures (such as increased individuation from parents, orientation toward peers, emotionality, and risk taking) are in line with individualistic emphases on independence, personal autonomy, and individuality. Such characterizations are expected to be less evident or even reversed in collectivistic cultures, which emphasize interdependence, mutual obligations, and harmony between in‐group members (particularly the family). This entry draws upon research mainly in Asia but also in sub‐Saharan Africa and Latin America to illustrate how youths' navigation over the teen years in collectivistic cultures compares with that of their counterparts' in individualistic cultures. It concludes with discussions of theoretical and methodological issues in studying adolescence across the globe.
Theories of Adolescent Moral Development
Authors: Bronk Kendall Cotton , Baumsteiger Rachel
Published: January 2020

This entry provides a broad overview of some leading theories of adolescent moral development, including stage and domain theories and moral identity and moral personality theories. It covers a recent debate in the field, around the role of moral choice and moral intuition, and, in addition to including a discussion of adolescent moral devleopment from a theoretical perspective, it focuses on practical work to cultivate character among adolescents in school. The entry concludes with a discussion of cultural and contextual influences on adolescent moral development and a brief statement that highlights areas in need of additional empirical attention.
Character Building and Adolescent Development
Authors: Ruch Willibald , Wagner Lisa
Published: January 2020

This entry aims to provide an introduction to conceptualizations of character, with an emphasis on the VIA Classification of Character Strengths and Virtues. After describing the classification and the measurement of character strengths, the entry discusses findings of age‐related differences in adolescence as well as potential influences on the development of character in adolescents. These aspects are complemented by empirical results on the role of character strengths in different realms of adolescents' lives and on strengths‐based interventions.
Treatment of Adolescent Mental Disorders: Cross‐Cultural Issues
Authors: Yang Xue , Chiu Marcus Y. L.
Published: January 2020

Culture plays a vital role in shaping the context of symptom manifestation, the interpretation of symptoms and disorders, and the choice of treatment, and defines the available options of action to take. Yet culturally specific treatment for children and adolescents, at the juncture of this writing, is sparse. This entry introduces various cultural factors in relation to pharmaceutical and nonpharmaceutical treatment to draw attention to the cultural issues surrounding perceptions of illness and treatment, of treatment options, as well as of treatment outcomes. Some of these cultural factors have been identified while many remain to be explored and understood.
Prevention of Adolescent Mental, Emotional, and Behavioral Health Disorders: A Global Perspective
Authors: Fagan Abigail A. , Lewis Amanda N. , Catalano Richard F.
Published: January 2020

Mental, emotional, and behavioral health disorders affect a large proportion of adolescents and young adults worldwide, and their prevention is a public health priority. Much research has identified the risk and protective factors that precede and influence the development of such disorders. In addition, many interventions have been developed to reduce risk factors and increase protective factors, and controlled trials or rigorous evaluations of many of these programs have indicated that they prevent the development of mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders. Despite this growing evidence of effectiveness, these programs are currently not being used at a sufficient scale to reduce rates of disorders worldwide. Additional effort and resources are needed to increase the number and use of effective prevention programs on a global scale.
Developmental Assets
Authors: Roehlkepartain Eugene C. , Blyth Dale A.
Published: January 2020

The framework of developmental assets articulates supports, opportunities, relationships, and personal strengths that contribute to youth well‐being, including the avoidance of high‐risk behaviors and engagement in positive or thriving behaviors. It operationalizes core principles and practices of positive youth development, including a focus on strengths in young people and their communities, a bioecological approach that emphasizes the interactions between persons and their contexts, and a focus on relationships as catalysts for development. This entry summarizes the framework and its underlying theory, research on young people's experiences of developmental assets, and how the framework has been utilized to advance policy and practice in the United States and globally.
Leadership
Authors: Shek Daniel T. L. , Ng Eddie C. W.
Published: January 2020

Leadership is enormously needed nowadays, particularly for young people. This entry provides an overview of leadership in adolescents, highlights some key developments of the past decades, and raises several unresolved questions that need further input from the practitioners and researchers in the field. The common thread throughout the key theories summarized in this entry is that adolescent leadership is not only about individual attributes or competence but also a continuous process that involves collaboration and value‐driven aspiration and that occurs through meaningful interaction with others and the learning process.
Prevention of Risk Behavior
Authors: DiClemente Ralph J. , Patel Nihari
Published: January 2020

Adolescence is a period of time between the ages of 12 and 25 that is marked by rapid change in physical, psychological, sociocultural, and cognitive development. As a result, adolescents show an increasing involvement in health risk behaviors. This entry focuses on four prominent health risk behaviors that begin during adolescence: alcohol use, substance use, tobacco use, and the sexual transmission of diseases. Each section highlights the prevalence of the risk behavior, discusses its short‐ and long‐term consequences, and concludes with prevention interventions that have successfully addressed the risk behavior.