bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Rational Degree of Pain
Authors: Evans Richard J
Published: November 2023

On 16 July 1734 Johann Schmid, accused of theft, was brought to the town hall in Brunswick to be interrogated by the investigating judges. Despite being confronted with the evidence of his crime, he denied all the charges brought against him. On the advice of the Law Faculty at Wittenberg University, the judges therefore decided to put Schmid to the torture.
The Wheel the Sword, and the Axe
Authors: Evans Richard J
Published: November 2023

On 16 September 1800 the city of Berlin was treated to the unusual spectacle of a woman being broken with the wheel. As was normal in such cases, members of the public were allowed into the ‘poor sinner’s parlour’ during the period between the delivery of the verdict and the day of execution. ‘The crowds’, it was reported, ‘were so great that milita1y assistance was already required the day before the execution to prevent disorder.’
The Third Reich and its Executioners
Authors: Evans Richard J
Published: November 2023

When the Nazis came to power in 1933, a widespread debate began in judicial circles on which method of execution would be most appropriate in view of the new principles of penal policy being enacted in the Third Reich. At this time traditional methods of execution were still widespread in Germany. The handheld axe was still used in most of Germany, including Prussia, while the guillotine was employed in Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden, Saxony, Thuringia, Bremen, Oldenburg, and Hesse. The axe was frequently condemned abroad as barbaric, and was felt by some influential figures to be something of a propaganda gift to foreign enemies of the Third Reich, even though it had been widely used under the Weimar Republic.
From Execution to Extermination
Authors: Evans Richard J
Published: November 2023

A series of decrees gave concrete form to this principle. Many of them involved the application of the death penalty. Up to the outbreak of war in 1939, it has been calculated, the Third Reich had sentenced some 664 people to death and executed about the same number. This was already a huge increase on the performance of previous regimes in modern German history. But now the death penalty was extended even further. The war provided the occasion for its application to a wide variety of new offences. On I September 1939, for instance, the premeditated spreading of ‘news, broadcast by foreign radio, which is designed to undermine the resistance of the German people’ was made punishable by death in especially serious cases. Similarly, anyone convicted of ‘publicly’ attempting to ‘subvert or cripple the will of the German or of an allied people to military selfassertion’ was also made subject to the death penalty. The term ‘publicly’ was soon given an extremely wide interpretation by the courts.
‘1n the Interests of Humanity’
Authors: Evans Richard J
Published: November 2023

As far as the administration of the law was concerned, the Soviet zone of occupation was initially established on the same basis as the others, with a Soviet Military Administration controlling Soviet military tribunals which could try German and other civilians, and a revived German judicial system with jurisdiction over Germans alone, run by the five federated states into which the zone was divided. The German population was subject to roughly the same restrictions and regulations as in the West, with the Red Army’s primary concern to prevent any resurgence of Nazism. The Soviet military tribunals held a substantial series of war crimes trials, and also operated severe sanctions, including the death penalty, against any Germans who looked like resisting the military occupation, against anyone committing common murder, and above all against Nazi war criminals. All this was roughly comparable to what went on in the West.
The Heavenly City of the French Revolutionaries
Authors: Hampson Norman
Published: November 2023

By way of preface, I should like to emphasize as vigorously as I can that what follows is not intended to suggest that the French Revolution was all about the construction of a heavenly city or a New Jerusalem. Authentic—and radical—revolutionaries like Danton would have ridiculed any such idea. Even the most ideologically inclined were also practical politicians who were concerned about their victory—and personal survival—in a singularly bloody arena. As politicians, they had to deal with concrete problems and to accommodate such pressures as they did not have the resources to resist, which often arose from economic causes. From start to finish the Revolution existed in three dimensions: political, economic, and ideological. In one sense each of these constituted an autonomous force but each reacted upon the other two and was influenced by them, so that the particular form of each was partially shaped by the simultaneous existence of the three.
Finland: The Male Domination*
Authors: Heikkinen Antero , Kervinen Timo
Published: November 2023

IN the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries Finland made up the eastern part of the kingdom of Sweden. Its population of about 300,000 to 400,000 persons was concentrated in southern and south-western Finland and along the coast. Farming was the main means of living. In the south and along the coast corn was cultivated in fields, elsewhere slash-and-burn agriculture predominated. With the exception of Turku and Viipuri, Finnish towns remained very small, partly due to strict mercantilist legislation which limited the activities of most towns, especially from the beginning of the seventeenth century. Only a few, such as Turku, were allowed to engage in foreign trade. Other towns had to export their products through them, or through Stock- holm.
Romania 1866–1947
Authors: Hitchins Keith
Published: November 2023

From the mid-nineteenth century until the Second World War, the energies of Rumanian political and intellectual élites were absorbed by the building of their nation. In this comprehensive and scholarly study Keith Hitchins traces these complex processes and explores how Rumania's leaders attempted to transform the ideology of modern nationhood into strong political, economic, and social institutions and to find ways of preserving independence in an international political and economic order dominated by the great powers. As the new Rumania took shape, the threads of historical continuity remained strikingly evident: in government a strong administrative centralization prevailed, despite the maturing of parliamentary institutions and the diversity of political expression; the national economy remained beholden to agriculture, despite the steady growth of industry; and in cultural life traditional values persisted, despite the adoption of modern forms. In foreign relations the most pressing aim was to unite all Rumanians in a single state and to defend its sovereignty within an uncertain international order. In all these endeavours, the measure of achievement was the West. After the Second World War, when the Communist Party came to power, this historical continuity was broken. The experiment in nation-building gave way to a new ideology, and Rumania now turned to the Soviet political and economic model.
Introduction
Authors: Haigh Christopher
Published: November 2023

THE title of this book has been chosen quite deliberately: it is English Reformations. It is not The English Reformations. That would claim that the only English Reformations which ever were took place in the Tudor period, and suggest that they formed a complete and effective process. But the various (and varied) Reformations in sixteenth-century England were haphazard and had only limited success, at least by comparison with Protestant aims: they did not make Church or people emphatically Protestant, and there remained much still to be done. There were to be later energetic attempts at more complete Reformation: in the mid-seventeenth century, when more Protestant forms of Church government and worship were proposed; and in the late eighteenth century, when Methodists and Evangelicals offered a more fervent faith to those whose Protestantism was nominal or minimal. So the book is not a study of the once-and-for-all English Reformations. Rather, it examines some English Reformations, some of the campaigns to change the constitution of the national Church and the beliefs of its people; it asks how they happened, what they achieved, and why they were unable to do more.
Problems and Persecution, 1553–1558
Authors: Haigh Christopher
Published: November 2023

THE first official sermon of Mary’s reign provoked trouble at St Paul’s Cross. It was preached by Gilbert Bourne, one of Mary’s chaplains, on 13 August 1553. Some of the crowd objected to his prayer for souls departed, or to his condemnation of Edward’s government for its imprisonment of Bonner—which, despite the popularity of Bonner’s release, may not have been tactful three days after Edward’s funeral. ‘There was a great uproar and shouting at his sermon, as it were like madpeople, what young people and women as ever was heard, as hurly-burly and casting up of caps’, wrote Henry Machyn in his diary. The Privy Council took the view that Protestant agitators were responsible, and it may have been right: leading Protestant clergy were suspiciously on hand to calm the mob, and the alleged ringleaders were soon arrested. The lord mayor and aldermen were warned to keep better control, and there was a round-up of Protestant preachers. On 20 August Thomas Watson preached on the obedience of subjects and the wickedness of false teachers, with ‘all the crafts of London in their best livery, sitting on forms, every craft by themself, and my lord mayor and the aldermen, and 200 of the guard, to see no disquiet done’.
Legislation and Visitation, 1558–1569
Authors: Haigh Christopher
Published: November 2023

ON 17July 1558 Thomas Bentham wrote from London to the leaders of the Protestant exiles on the Continent. He was minister of the underground Protestant congregation in the city, still grappling with the problems of living under a Catholic regime. He reported on the continuing persecution, and asked for advice: ‘Whether the professors of the gospel may prosecute their right and cause in any papistical court?’, and whether they might pay tithes to avoid prosecution for refusal. Bentham was planning for the survival of a beleaguered minority, with little realistic hope for a change in its fortunes. There had recently been raging thunderstorms in the Midlands, which he took ‘to be a token of God’s great displeasure for sin’. The suffering of the godly and the signs of divine wrath were clear enough to Bentham. ‘And yet men, for the most part, were never more careless nor maliciously merry than they are now. God amend them!’ There was no sign of Catholic collapse, no suggestion that Mary’s Church might be in terminal decline. He did not know, and he did not expect, that in four months the trials of the Protestants would be over and their political triumph at hand.
Monarchy and Lordships in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem 1099-1291
Authors: Tibble Steven
Published: November 2023

Using contemporary sources, especially the chronicles of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, Steven Tibble studies the relationship between monarchy and nobility in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem. He argues that the relative power of the seigneuries has been substantially overstated, and that the monarch exercised far more control over the baronage and feudal structure, particularly in the twelfth century, than has hitherto been recognized.
England Under The Norman And Angevin Kings 1075–1225
Authors: Bartlett Robert
Published: November 2023

This vivid and and comprehensive account of the politics, religion, and culture of England in the century and a half after the Norman Conquest lays bare the patterns of everyday life, and increases our understanding of medieval society at a time when England was more closely tied to Europe than ever before. This was a period in which the ruling dynasty and military aristocracy were deeply enmeshed with the politics and culture of France. The book describes their conflicts and their preoccupations: the sense of honour, the role of violence, and the glitter of tournament, heraldry, and Arthurian romance. The author explores the mechanics of their government, and analyses the part played by the Church at a time of radical developments in religious life and organization. He investigates the role of ordinary men and women: the fundamental importance of the peasant economy, the growing urban and commercial arenas; and also their outlook on the world, including their views on the past; on sexuality; on animals; on death, the undead and the occult. The result is a fascinating and complex account of a period which begins with conquest and ends in assimilation.
Warfare
Authors: Bartlett Robert
Published: November 2023

Although England was dominated by an aristocracy trained in armed combat, it was, by the standards of the time, a relatively peaceful country Large-scale warfare was rare. The endemic violence of Wales, to which the Anglo-Normans contributed so much, occasionally spilled over into the counties of the Welsh .March, and the Scots did make incursions across the Border, but such incidents were uncommon.
Cosmologies
Authors: Bartlett Robert
Published: November 2023

The period 1075–1225 is one of the great ages of historical writing in England. History was not an academic subject, pursued by the masters of the emerging schools, but it was read and written by thoughtful and literate men in the monasteries and in the courts of kings, bishops, and barons. Because it did not form part of the syllabus of higher education, history was not subjected to the process of systematization and explication for pedagogic purposes that can be observed in the development of rhetoric, logic, theology, law, and natural science.
Plantagenet England 1225-1360
Authors: Prestwich Michael
Published: November 2023

In this thorough and illuminating work, Michael Prestwich provides a comprehensive study of Plantagenet England, a dramatic and turbulent period which saw many changes. In politics it saw Simon de Montfort's challenge to the crown in Henry II's reign and it witnessed the deposition of Edward I. In contrast, it also saw the highly successful rules of Edward I and his grandson, Edward III. Political institutions were transformed with the development of parliament and war was a dominant theme: Wales was conquered and the Scottish Wars of Independence started in Edward I's reign, and under Edward III there were triumphs at Crécy and Poitiers. Outside of politics, English society was developing a structure, from the great magnates at the top to the peasantry at the bottom. Economic changes were also significant, from the expansionary period of the thirteenth century to years of difficulty in the fourteenth century, culminating in the greatest demographic disaster of historical times, the Black Death. In this volume in the New Oxford History of England Michael Prestwich brings this fascinating century to life.
Government
Authors: Prestwich Michael
Published: November 2023

There are very dive rent opinions of government in England in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. One view is that the country enjoyed a remarkably sophisticated bureaucratic system; another is that it subverted from a surfeit of government, with quite unnecessarily complex administrative procedures that achieved little. No other country in western Europe approached it in terms of the complexity of both central and local government. There was what at times appears to have been an obsession with supervision, control, and above all record-keeping. The quantity of documents produced increased rapidly in the course of the thirteenth century.
Politics Under Henry III
Authors: Prestwich Michael
Published: November 2023

In the evening of 4 August 1265 the mutilated body of Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, lay on the battle Weld of the Green Hill outside Evesham. This gruesome scene dominates the story of the politics of Henry III’s reign; it was the culminating point of a ferocious civil war. Yet, for all that there was at times much bitter faction Whiting, for the thirty years from the early 1230s England had been at peace. The civil war of John’s Wall months on the throne, and of the early years of Henry III’s minority, lay in the past. If it were not for the bloody events of the civil war of 1264-5, Henry’s reign might be seen as one in which brutal convict was replaced by political manoeuvring, in which groups of foreigners were integrated into English society with increasing success, and as one in which major advances were made in government and law.
Conclusion
Authors: Prestwich Michael
Published: November 2023

England in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries was in many ways a cosmopolitan country. Under Henry III many of the leading Wgures in the realm were not English in origin; not only were there the court favourites from Savoy and Poitou, but the king’s main opponent, Simon de Montfort, was a Frenchman. There were many prominent foreigners in the English Church, including Boniface of Savoy, archbishop of Canterbury, Peter des Roches, bishop of Winchester, and Peter of Aigueblanche, bishop of Hereford. Westminster abbey owed its inspiration in architectural terms to France. Edward I relied greatly upon the Savoyard Otto de Grandson; GeoVrey de Geneville was another important supporter of the king. Edward’s great castles in Wales owed much to the influence of the Savoyards, and above all Master James of St George.
Centre and Periphery 1900-1936: National Integration and Regional Nationalisms Reconsidered
Authors: Fusi Aizpúrua Juan Pablo
Published: November 2023

Regional nationalisms have been in Spain like the Anglo-Irish question in British politics, ‘One of those desperate problems of internal government which admit of no smooth and satisfying solutions’, to put it in H. A. L. Fisher’s classic words. This became evident in the years between 1900 and 1936 and has remained so ever since. Basque nationalism constituted the main obstacle to political stability in the transition towards democracy after General Franco’s death in 1975.
Crime, Justice, and Discretion in England 1740—1820
Authors: King Peter
Published: November 2023

The criminal law has often been seen as central to the rule of the 18th century landed elite in England. This book presents a detailed analysis of the judicial process - of victim's reactions, pretrial practices, policing, magistrates hearings, trials, sentencing, pardoning and punishment - using property offenders as its main focus. The period 1740-1820, the final era before the coming of the new police and the repeal of the capital code, emerges as the great age of discretionary justice, and the book explores the impact of the vast discretionary powers held by many social groups. It reassesses both the relationship betweeen crime rates and economic deprivation, and the many ways that vulnerability to prosecution varied widely across the lifecycle, in the light of the highly selective nature of pretrial negotiations. More centrally, by asking at every stage who used the law, for what purposes, in whose interests and with what effects, it opens up a number of new perspectives on the role of the law in eighteenth century social relations. The law emerges as the less the instrument of particular elite groups and more as an arena of struggle, of negotiation and of compromise. Its rituals were less controllable and its merciful moments less manageable and less exclusively available to the gentry elite than has been previously suggested. Justice was vulnerable to power but was also mobilised to constrain it. Despite the key functions that the propertied fulfilled, courtroom crowds, the counter-theatre of the condemned and the decisions of the victims from a very wide range of backgrounds had a role to play, and the criteria on which decisions were based were shaped as much by the broad and more humane discourse which Fielding called the "good mind" as by the instrumental needs of the propertied elites.
Introduction
Authors: King Peter
Published: November 2023

This book focuses on one central and particularly contested aspect of the law—property crime and the ways it was dealt with, defined, and perceived. Using both a detailed study of the Essex court records and more diverse sources drawn from all over England, it attempts to construct a social history of the process by which those accused of property crime were handled both formally and informally by the institutions, groups, and individuals responsible for the administration of the criminal law, as well as analysing those who found themselves on the receiving end of the law. It focuses on the final period of what has recently been called’ “Old Regime” criminal justice’, on the last three-quarters of a century before both the repeal of the bloody code and the introduction of professional police forces. This was, it could be argued, the golden age of discretionary justice in England. The whole criminal justice system was shot through with discretion—about this at least almost all historians of crime agree (as did contemporaries, whether they advocated criminal law reform or opposed it). The criminal justice system relied on the participation of a wide range of social groups at almost every stage in the prosecution process and gave them extensive discretionary powers. Although the formal criminal law and the legal handbooks sometimes appeared rigid and inflexible, in reality the administration of the eighteenth-century criminal justice system created several interconnected spheres of contested judicial space in each of which deeply discretionary choices were made. Those accused of property offences in the eighteenth century found themselves propelled on an often bewildering joumey along a route which can best be compared to a corridor of connected rooms or stage sets.
Sentencing Policy and the Impact of Gender and Age
Authors: King Peter
Published: November 2023

Any accused person who failed to avoid being convicted of an indictable property crime by finding an appropriate escape route during pretrial negotiations, committal proceedings, grand jury hearings, or petty jury trial faced a bleak set of prospects in the eighteenth century. Fines or nominal periods in gaol were very occasionally employed but the range of punishments used against the vast majority of convicted property offenders was stark and un-compromising. By 1740 there were no widely used sentences equivalent to modem non-custodial and non-corporal sanctions, such as community service orders, conditional discharges, or probation orders. Convicted property offenders faced humiliation, pain, incarceration, deprivation, separation, death. The specific combination of these sensations experienced by any particular individual depended on the sanction selected for him or her. For a few fraudsters a public, painful, and occasionally health-threatening spell in the pillory would be the final destination.
Kinship and Marriage
Authors: Telban Borut
Published: November 2023

To enter into a discussion on kinship in the 1990s involves re-engaging arguments which had already dominated anthropological discourse for 100 years when Levi-Strauss (1965) presented his Huxley Memorial Lecture more than thirty years ago. The cultures of New Guinea have been crucial in many of these discussions. Although it would be far beyond the scope of this book to consider in any detail kinship systems elsewhere in New Guinea, as neither Ambonwari nor Karawari as a language group has been studied before, I find myself under an obligation to present a concise description of the Ambonwari system. This will, I hope, shed new light on other kinship systems of Sepik societies.
Spirits
Authors: Telban Borut
Published: November 2023

Until recently many ethnographers have tended to look at items of material culture as mere objects, either as art objects or in terms of an interest in their production, the materials used and decorations applied. In his discussion of Trobriand canoes Malinowski (1922: 105-23) argued that such descriptive accounts do not tell us much about the function of these objects, about people’s emotional attitudes towards them, or about their social implications and cultural importance. It seems obvious today that to separate the objects of material culture from their social and cultural contexts and from the particular historical moment in which they were fashioned constitutes a misinterpretation of their essential aspects. Such things belong to the world which is determined by people through their imagination and cosmology. At the same time they reciprocally influence people’s perception and experience of them. In Ambonwari such ‘objects’ can be classified into two groups: first, those things which are used in daily life such as tools, weapons, and all other things which are handled daily by people, helping them to carry out their activities; second, those objects which represent the embodiment of spirits and are therefore regarded as beings themselves. The second group, as I will show, is the province of men. I argue that by manipulating the visibility of these spirits Ambonwari men seek control over their own existence.
Landscape and wlemory
Authors: Hastrcp Kirsten
Published: November 2023

During the hay harvest in Sudursveit in 1982 I was told that the yield from one tun (infield), always fell short of expectations. The young farmer explained to me that there was an dldg (spell), upon it. However much the field looked like other fields, and often it would look even more promising, something would invariably go wrong. The farmer had no opinion when or why this dldg had occurred, it was a retrospective explanation of present-day experience. As such it has affinities all over the world where people have to cope conceptually with haphazard misfortune. At another level, it also points to the fact that the Icelandic landscape is deeply ‘marked’, even if there are no ruins of ancient palaces. It is marked by a history that goes beyond local memory, but which is part of a collective consciousness of space.
The Pastoral Domestic Economy
Authors: Sneath David
Published: November 2023

Cultural Models and the Household

Gender roles and an associated division of labour remain central elements in Mongolian culture. Layers of symbolism exist to express these cultural forms, and in some ways they remain stronger as parts of a conceptual scheme than as a practical guide to work. However, these principles remain the greatest single factor in the allocation of tasks in most pastoral households. The female sphere of competence and responsibility includes preparing food products (such as cheeses, yoghurt, and blood-sausage) cooking, making and repairing clothes, washing, childcare, cleaning the ger, milking, making tea, and looking after animals close to the ail. Women and children also usually collect the dried dung that is used for fuel. In fact some of these tasks may be done by men from time to time, but the responsibility for their completion is generally held to be that of the senior woman of the household. Seniority plays an important part in the amount and type of work that women do. Adult daughters and young wives who have married into a household usually do more work than older women, although the more senior women can sometimes provide as much childcare as the busy mothers of the children.
The Impact of Cattle-Keeping on the Wildlife, Vegetation, and Veld Products
Authors: Perkins Jeremy S , Stuart-Hill Greg , Kgabung B
Published: November 2023

Botswana’s semi-arid climate, periodic droughts, poor soils, and lack of perennial water supplies, coupled with its Protectorate status of indirect colonial rule by the British, meant that at Independence in 1966 it was one of the least developed countries in the world. Rapid economic growth has ensued, due primarily to the exploitation of diamond reserves in the Kalahari (Moma 1979), but also to foreign aid and a generous EU agreement on beef exports. The latter is commonly termed the Beef Protocol Agreement. It has been severely criticized from some quarters for directing the country along a trajectory of development that is widely regarded as being both environmentally unsustainable and socially and economically damaging, except to a small influential minority of large cattle-owners (Perkins and Ringrose 1996).
Introduction
Authors: Goodman Roger
Published: November 2023

This book is a study in Japan of what it has become fashionable in Britain to call the ‘socially excluded’ or the ‘underclass’, namely the sector of the society which is so far removed from the political and economic levers of power that it has virtually no say in the way that it is treated. It seeks to answer the question of what happens to such people in Japanese society and why.
The Effectiveness of Yoōgoshisetsu as a Form of Child Protection
Authors: Goodman Roger
Published: November 2023

There is, of course, more than one way to measure the effectiveness of the care offered in yoōgoshisetsu. One of the easiest is probably in terms of material needs. Children in homes tend to be well dressed and well groomed. Even the smallest children have their own clothes which are cleaned and ironed for them. Indeed, care staff often feel that looking after the children’s clothes is a full-time job in itself. In most homes there is an abundance of toys for children to play with. Some of these are old toys that have been donated to the home, but many are new, either donated by local companies or bought by visitors or supporters of the home.
Dualism And Hierarchy
Authors: Forth Gregory
Published: November 2023

Society in the Keo region of the eastern Indonesian island of Flores reveals a pervasive pairing of villages, clans, and other groups. Apart from introducing a hitherto undescribed population, this study, deriving from fieldwork conducted by the author over a period of 15 years, analyses a form of society that has occupied anthropologists since the inception of their discipline: morphological dualism, or dual organization. Drawing on a notion of encompassment inspired by Dumont's theory of 'hierarchy', the author interprets dualistic social forms as products of a continuous process of combination and a tendency to create binary wholes through the partial assimilation of junior by senior partners. While Keo exemplifies a variant of a widespread eastern Indonesian pattern of binary classification and asymmetric marriage alliance, the analysis shows how Keo morphological dualism cannot be reduced to the categories of a dual classification nor to unique or exclusive forms of reciprocity or functional complementarity. Exploring these issues through original ethnographic studies of numerous Keo domains and settlements, the book is of critical relevance not just to dualism, but to a variety of continuing concerns in contemporary social anthropology, including the concept of 'descent', the social construction of inequality, and connections between ritual practice (especially animal sacrifice), and social order.
Vernacular Literacy in New Minority Settings in Europe
Authors: Chloros Penelope Gardner
Published: November 2023

Vernacular literacy for migrant populations represents a further complication compared with vernacular literacy for indigenous groups. The 1953 Unesco report, which recommended that all children should have the right to education in their ‘mother tongue’, did not lead to any widespread implementation of the latter. Reasons for this range from a lack of theoretical precision as to what the concept of ‘mother tongue’ is intended to mean (see Introduction to this volume and Section 2.2 below) to the fact that a nation’s resources to introduce new teaching programmes may be limited in proportion to the number of dialects or vernaculars in which such teaching needs to be conducted.
Tradition, Trial, and Error: Standard and Vernacular Literacy in China, Hong Kong, Singapore, and Malaysia
Authors: Kwan-Terry Anna , Luke k. K
Published: November 2023

Unity and diversity in time and space, in the meaning but perhaps even more so in the value and significance of literacy, both fascinate and promise to reward close study. In this chapter we attempt just such a study, if only in a small way. We restrict ourselves to East and South-East Asia, and within that region we make special reference only to those areas with which we are most familiar that is, China, Hong Kong, Singapore, and Malaysia.
Language and Reality in Plato’s Cratylus
Authors: Ackrill J L
Published: November 2023

The Cratylus is a curious dialogue, and it is perhaps not surprising that it has not been a favourite among scholars or among philosophers, at least until recently. About half of the dialogue, a great chunk in the middle, speculates about the etymology of Greek words in a manner that is sometimes amusing, but often just boring. The arguments in the other half used to be interpreted in a rather narrow way, as concerned with the origin of language, or with the suitability of particular names to particular things. More recently, serious and complicated philosophical issues have been found to be raised by these argumentative parts of the Cratylus, though there remains dispute as to how many of the issues were in Plato’s own mind, and also as to how the various parts of the dialogue hang together. The typical modern approach will regard the etymological section of the dialogue as only mildly interesting, but will discover in the rest of it material relevant to a number of important topics in the philosophy of language, philosophical logic, and metaphysics-topics carried forward in the Theaetetus and Sophist. As usual with Plato, fundamental ideas are presented in a very simple way; but it is often instructive to get back from sophisticated modern discussions to the basic essentials.
Bradley And Floating Ideas
Authors: Holdcroft David
Published: November 2023

It is a fundamental tenet of Bradley’s metaphysics that every idea in some sense qualifies reality. Yet prima facie there are many ideas which do not, so that it could be argued that: When an idea is taken as false it may even be repelled and denied. And, apart from this, ideas may be recognised as merely imaginary, and, taken in this character, they float suspended above the real world.
Introduction
Authors: Rosenthal David M
Published: November 2023

Despite dramatic recent advances in studying the mind, there is still strikingly little consensus about the nature of consciousness. Doubtless this is in part because theorists often use the term ‘conscious’ for different phenomena, and don’t always clarify which they are talking about. And even when they do, they often fail to characterize the relevant phenomena in terms that are neutral as regards competing theories, and subsequent theorizing inherits the bias of those characterizations. These problems in picking out and describing the phenomena hinder efforts to reach agreement about consc10usness.
Sensory Quality and the Relocation Story
Authors: Rosenthal David M
Published: November 2023

More than any other aspect of mental functioning, the qualitative dimension of mind has stubbornly and persistently resisted informative explanation. Not only is there little convergence about what would count as a good theoretical approach; many believe that no satisfactory theoretical treatment of sensory states and their qualitative properties is possible at all. This emerges especially vividly in connection with functionalist theories of mind. Whatever merits functionalism may have in dealing with intentionality, qualitative mental phenomena seem to many to pose insurmountable difficulties for functionalist theories.
Sensory Qualities, Consciousness, and Perception
Authors: Rosenthal David M
Published: November 2023

There is a popular notion, prevalent in both scientific and commonsense contexts, that qualitative mental states always occur consciously. It’s plain that many types of mental state, such as thoughts, desires, beliefs, and intentions, often occur without being conscious. But qualitative states, it often is held, never do, because being conscious is in effect essential to a state’s having qualitative character at all. What’s essential to something is a function of the kind of thing it is. We count a state as being qualitative only ifit has qualitative properties. But on the popular view just mentioned, a state’s having qualitative properties means that there is something that it’s like to be in that state-something that it’s like for the subject. And, when a state isn’t conscious, there simply is nothing it’s like for one to be in that state.
First-Person Operationalism and Mental Taxonomy
Authors: Rosenthal David M
Published: November 2023

Any acceptable theory of consciousness must plainly satisfy two main constraints. It must, first of all, do reasonable justice to our commonsense, folk-psychological intuitions about consciousness and mentality. Some of these intuitions will be helpful in identifying just what phenomena the theory seeks to explain. Others the theory will predict, using its explanatory machinery. Still others the theory may be neutral about, avoiding any conflict between theory and intuition. Also, a theory may jettison certain intuitions, ruling in effect that they do not reflect the nature of conscious phenomena; but the theory must then explain why those intuitions, despite being mistaken, still strike us as compelling.
Syntactic Change in Welsh
Authors: Willis Dayid W E
Published: November 2023

Welsh is often cited as an exemplary case of verb-initial language. While this is generally true of the language today, earlier written texts show widespread use of subject-initial, object-initial, and other word orders. David Willis challenges the conventional view that these orders were restricted to an artificial literary register, claiming instead that they were alive in spoken Welsh up until the Early Modern period. He looks at Middle Welsh word order within a Principles and Parameters framework, showing extensive parallelisms between Middle Welsh and verb-second systems in Germanic and Romance languages. He also provides rich documentation of syntactic change in Welsh, showing for the first time how the transition from the verb-second rule of Middle Welsh to the verb-initial system of Contemporary Welsh took place. He examines a case study of a verb-second system outside of the Germanic languages, investigates how such systems have come to be lost over time, and raises questions about the fundamental mechanisms of language change.
Constrained Parental Autonomy
Authors: Ross Lainie Friedman
Published: November 2023

In Deciding for Others: The Ethics of Surrogate Decision Making, Allen Buchanan and Dan Brock seek to determine how decisions ought ‘to be made for those who are not competent to decide for them selves’.
The Child as Organ Donor
Authors: Ross Lainie Friedman
Published: November 2023

The first successful kidney transplants from living donors occurred in 1957 when three minors served as kidney donors for their identical twin siblings. Seeking to insulate the hospital from liability, attorneys requested the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court to review the planned procedures. The attorneys’ concerns were twofold: the common law principles prohibited minor donors from giving effective consent to medical procedures; and it was not clear whether parents could give consent for their child to participate as an organ donor because the donation was not undertaken to serve the child’s medical well-being.
Metaphysics A 8
Authors: Lloyd G E R
Published: November 2023

A 8 is distinctive, and my own treatment will depart from a normal lineby-line commentary format. There is, in any event, far too much material, in this chapter, to attempt to give comprehensive coverage, on textual and interpretative points, in a single relatively circumscribed study. So I shall be selective, and my selection will reflect some of my own particular interests. The topics I shall concentrate on are ones that are comparatively neglected in the literature, namely (r) why Aristotle attempted this combination of astronomy and metaphysics, and (2) how competent he is, and how competent he claims to be, on the astronomical side. It is not that I shall ignore such favourite other problems as those to do with the developments or changes in Aristotle’s thought on the issues raised in this chapter, or with how precisely the unmoved movers operate, that is on their roles as final and/or efficient causes. But I shall have less to say on those than on the two questions I have specified.
Without Specifiers
Authors: Cormack Annabel
Published: November 2023

I argue that UG does not make use of any special specifier projection related to a head. Rather, putative specifiers have various alternative descriptions. It is argued that because every instance of structure building (i.e. Merge) must be licensed under selection, functional heads and minor category heads must project doubly headed structures. Under these assumptions, there is no place for a Spec-head relation: instead, head-complement or head-head relations must and may suffice.
Adjectival Modifiers and the Specifier-Adjunct Distinction
Authors: Duffield Nigel
Published: November 2023

It has recently been proposed that the categorial distinction between specifiers and adjuncts is unnecessary and that reference to specifiers as unique, distinguished positions should be eliminated from grammatical descriptions (see e.g. Kayne 1994; Chomsky 1995a, b).1 Whatever the conceptual attractions of this move, it is obviously important that this should not involve any significant loss of empirical coverage. In this chapter, I will suggest that the cost of retaining reference to specifiers as distinguished positions is compensated for by the possibility of a restrictive treatment of certain parametric differences across typologically related languages.
The Additional-wh Effect and Multiple Wh-Fronting
Authors: Grewendorf Günther
Published: November 2023

This chapter suggests an analysis of Saito’s (1994b) additional-wh effect which is based on a new account of multiple wh-in-situ. It will be shown that Japanese is an LP-type ‘multiple fronting language’ displaying properties analogous to languages such as Bulgarian and Romanian, which are ‘overt’ multiple fronting languages. For the latter, a new analysis in terms of formation of a wh cluster is proposed. In Section 2 of this chapter, I point out some differences between scrambling in German and scrambling in Japanese (extensively discussed in Grewendorf and Sabel 1996) that will turn out to be crucial for my analysis of the additional-wh effect (Saito 1994b). The relevant generalizations describing the additional-wh effect along with the constraints it is subject to are outlined in Section 3. In Section 4, I suggest an account of the additionalwh effect crucially based on an analysis of Japanese scrambling, according to which the particular properties of Japanese scrambling are attributed to the presence of multiple specifiers in the Japanese agreement system. This account is in turn based on a new theory of multiple wh-fronting languages.
A Different Solution
Authors: Carstairs-McCarthy Andrew
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 1, when discussing how my perspective differs from others currently represented in research on language evolution, I said that I would invoke evidence from two apparently unconnected areas: the process of vocabulary acquisition in infancy and the anatomy of the vocal tract. In this chapter I will try to show how this evidence suggests an economical answer to why language possesses those three peculiarities. An economical answer to this question is not a complete answer to how and why human language evolved. Some issues in language evolution, such as its social role within primate and early hominid groups, are almost entirely independent of the issues that I address here.
Apes, Anthropology, and the Brain
Authors: Carstairs-McCarthy Andrew
Published: November 2023

As I said there, this scenario does not attempt to cover all aspects of how and why language evolved. What is more, the vocal tract changes to which I attributed such importance were presented without any discussion of archaeological or anatomical evidence for their timing or for their relationship with other potentially relevant factors such as brain size, tool use, or culture. The picture that I presented is, therefore, incomplete.
Just How Unique Are We?
Authors: Carstairs-McCarthy Andrew
Published: November 2023

Readers who have found my argument persuasive on the whole may nevertheless feel uneasy about where it has led. Human language turns out (if I am right) to be a by-product of a change in the anatomy of the vocal tract brought about by our ancestors’ taking to the ground and walking on two legs. The only other essential ingredient was an expectation that distinct vocalizations should mean different things. But this picture looks topsy-turvy. Surely brain development must have more to do with language evolution that I have given it credit for! And what about the suggestion that the distinction between reference and truth, as relationships between linguistic expressions and the world, is in turn merely a by-product of vocal-tract-driven syntax? Surely such bizarre conclusions must be wrong! That kind of reaction is understandable, but it does not justify shrugging evidence aside.
Disputed Questions on Truth
Authors: Kenny Anthony
Published: November 2023

During the academic year 1255-6, Aquinas was ordered to proceed to the degree of Master and to take up the chair of theology in Paris. For the next three years his principal duty was to lecture on the Bible; but he also had the task of presiding over the formal disputations that constituted an integral part of the academic curriculum. Such a disputation, on a thesis announced in advance, would last over two days: on the first, a bachelor would receive and reply to arguments from the audience against the master’s thesis; on the second, the master would summarize the arguments on both sides, and give his own overall solution to the question in dispute. A record was kept of these proceedings, and the texts of many of Aquinas’ disputations survive. The Parisian ones are traditionally known, from the topic of the first of them, as Disputed Questions on Truth (De Veritate). In the course of these disputations, we can see Aquinas consolidating and developing his account of being.
Vocabulary Survey
Authors: Wright Laura
Published: November 2023

Part of a starling which breasts the flow of the river; ?a bulging piece of stonework at the bottom of a pier.
Negative Liberalism
Authors: Spector Horacio
Published: November 2023

I am going to apply the term ‘negative liberalism’ to a variety of liberal political theories having as a common denominator the recognition that negative freedom is a fundamental social value. The negative liberal holds that the social and political order must be built on the ideal of maximum negative liberty and rejects particularly any attempt to have this role occupied by any form of positive freedom. Even though the meaning of positive freedom is more contested than that of negative freedom, there seems to be widespread agreement that positive freedom is something distinct from and independent of negative freedom, and the notions of negative freedom and positive freedom will be the object of detailed analysis in this chapter.
Change And Aristotle’S Theological Argument
Authors: Ackrill John
Published: November 2023

Aristotle’s general metaphysics starts from nature, seeking its causes and principles: matter, form, essence, and so on. His theology also starts from the world of change. The steps in his main argument for the existence of an unmoved mover are reasonably clear (although exactly where and how it fails can be disputed): there is change, and change (like time) is necessarily eternal; to guarantee that necessary eternality there must be one eternal movement, and its cause (final cause) must itself be an eternal unchanging mover.