bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Isolating effects of terrain and soil moisture heterogeneity on the atmospheric boundary layer: Idealized simulations to diagnose land‐atmosphere feedbacks
Authors: Rihani Jehan F. , Chow Fotini K. , Maxwell Reed M.
Published: May 2015

The effects of terrain, soil moisture heterogeneity, subsurface properties, and water table dynamics on the development and behavior of the atmospheric boundary layer are studied through a set of idealized numerical experiments. The mesoscale atmospheric model Advanced Regional Prediction System (ARPS) is used to isolate the effects of subsurface heterogeneity, terrain, and soil moisture initialization. The simulations are initialized with detailed soil moisture distributions obtained from offline spin‐ups using a coupled surface‐subsurface model (ParFlow‐CLM). In these idealized simulations, we observe that terrain effects dominate the planetary boundary layer (PBL) development during early morning hours, while the soil moisture signature overcomes that of terrain during the afternoon. Water table and subsurface properties produce a similar effect as that of soil moisture as their signatures (reflected in soil moisture profiles, energy fluxes, and evaporation at the land surface) can also overcome that of terrain during afternoon hours. This is mostly clear for land surface energy fluxes and evaporation at the land surface. We also observe the coupling between water table depth and planetary boundary layer depth in our cases is strongest within wet‐to‐dry transition zones. This extends the findings of previous studies which demonstrate the subsurface connection to surface energy fluxes is strongest in such transition zones. We investigate how this connection extends into the atmosphere and can affect the structure and development of the convective boundary layer.
A heuristic evaluation of long‐term global sea level acceleration
Authors: Spada Giorgio , Olivieri Marco , Galassi Gaia
Published: May 2015

In view of the scientific and social implications, the global mean sea level rise (GMSLR) and its possible causes and future trend have been a challenge for so long. For the twentieth century, reconstructions generally indicate a rate of GMSLR in the range of 1.5 to 2.0 mm yr−1. However, the existence of nonlinear trends is still debated, and current estimates of the secular acceleration are subject to ample uncertainties. Here we use various GMSLR estimates published on scholarly journals since the 1940s for a heuristic assessment of global sea level acceleration. The approach, alternative to sea level reconstructions, is based on simple statistical methods and exploits the principles of meta‐analysis. Our results point to a global sea level acceleration of 0.54 ± 0.27 mm/yr/century (1σ) between 1898 and 1975. This supports independent estimates and suggests that a sea level acceleration since the early 1900s is more likely than currently believed.
Material transport across Europa's ice shell
Authors: Allu Peddinti Divya , McNamara Allen K.
Published: May 2015

Jupiter's moon Europa exhibits a deformed icy surface with salt deposits concentrated along the varied geological features. The topographic alignment of salt deposits has been speculated to indicate an endogenic sourcing of the material. Two‐way transport of salts from a liquid‐water ocean beneath the ice shell to the surface, and vice versa, has been speculated. We present dynamical models that demonstrate the incorporation of newly frozen ice into convective plumes within the ice shell, caused by convection within the ice shell that drives dynamic topography along the ice‐ocean boundary. The new ice that forms at the freezing front can be transported by the rising ice plumes toward the surface until it is blocked by a high‐viscosity lid at the surface. Weakening of the lid by tidal or tectonic forces could then lead to the surface detection of ocean trace chemistry captured in the newly formed ice.
Revising midlatitude summer temperatures back to A.D. 600 based on a wood density network
Authors: Schneider Lea , Smerdon Jason E. , Büntgen Ulf , Wilson Rob J. S. , Myglan Vladimir S. , Kirdyanov Alexander V. , Esper Jan
Published: May 2015

Annually resolved and millennium‐long reconstructions of large‐scale temperature variability are primarily composed of tree ring width (TRW) chronologies. Changes in ring width, however, have recently been shown to bias the ratio between low‐ and high‐frequency signals. To overcome limitations in capturing the full spectrum of past temperature variability, we present a network of 15 maximum latewood density (MXD) chronologies distributed across the Northern Hemisphere extratropics. Independent subsets of continental‐scale records consistently reveal high MXD before 1580 and after 1910, with below average values between these periods. Reconstructed extratropical summer temperatures reflect not only these long‐term trends but also distinct cooling pulses after large volcanic eruptions. In contrast to TRW‐dominated reconstructions, this MXD‐based record indicates a delayed onset of the Little Ice Age by almost two centuries. The reduced memory inherent in MXD is likely responsible for the rapid recovery from volcanic‐induced cooling in the fourteenth century and the continuation of warmer temperatures until ~1600.
What is the nature of magnetosheath FTEs?
Authors: Roux Alain , Robert Patrick , Fontaine Dominique , Contel Olivier Le , Canu Patrick , Louarn Philippe
Published: May 2015

Cluster multipoint measurements are used to study two successive magnetosheath flux transfer events (FTEs). Magnetic field lines in the leading region are found to be closed magnetospheric field lines. For event 1 these field lines are wounded up by a large current structure oriented eastward and moving poleward. Conversely, the trailing region corresponds to opened magnetic field lines. For both events the leading edge of the FTEs is a tangential discontinuity separating the magnetosheath from closed field lines. In the case of event 1 magnetosheath ions are accelerated through the FTE trailing edge via a rotational discontinuity and penetrate on closed field lines through a second discontinuity. Thus, the ion jet is accelerated equatorward of the spacecraft but the backtracking of the discontinuities and the lack of dispersion show that ion acceleration occurs at less than 2 RE from Cluster. On the other hand the extrapolation forward indicates that the FTE bulge steepens as in simulations of Dorelli and Bhattacharjee (). Evidence is given for the penetration of magnetosheath ions inside the core of the FTE, on closed field lines. Magnetosheath electrons are accelerated in parallel and antiparallel directions on open and on closed field lines, thus breaking the frozen‐in condition. Event 2 is also split in two distinct regions but no evidence is found for accelerated bidirectional magnetosheath electrons. For event 2 the two discontinuities at the trailing region are stacked together when they are crossed by the spacecraft, suggesting that the current splitting is a reconnection signature.
Lower thermospheric response to atmospheric gravity waves induced by the 2011 Tohoku tsunami
Authors: Yu Yonghui , Yan Zhiyu , Hickey Michael P.
Published: May 2015

Previous GPS observations have revealed that while ionospheric TIDs were seen propagating in all directions away from the 2011 Tohoku earthquake epicenter, the total electron content (TEC) fluctuations associated with the subsequent tsunami were largest for waves propagating toward the northwest of the epicenter. Ionospheric motions observed approximately 10 min after the earthquake were attributed to fast acoustic waves directly produced by the earthquake. Waves that first appeared about 40 min after the tsunami onset in TEC measurements were attributed to atmospheric gravity waves. In this paper, we conjecture that the remarkably different responses observed for the eastward and westward propagating waves noted in previous observations can be explained by the different ocean depths associated with the two directions of travel and by the effects of the mean winds. The former has consequences for the generated gravity waves (wave spectrum), while their combination has consequences for the ability of the waves to propagate to higher altitudes. Because the ocean depth to the east of the epicenter is greater than that to the west, the eastward propagating tsunami travels faster than the westward propagating tsunami; and hence, the eastward propagating gravity waves that are generated will be faster than the westward waves. We demonstrate that the faster eastward waves encounter regions of evanescence that inhibits their upward propagation, with the result that the westward propagating waves reach the lower thermosphere sooner and with much larger amplitudes than those of the eastward propagating waves. However, at much higher altitudes the slower westward propagating waves are severely damped by viscosity, with the result that only the eastward propagating waves survive to F region altitudes. These results are clearly seen in our full‐wave model simulations and also in the evolution of the wave momentum flux calculated using our 2‐D, time‐dependent model.
Response of the ionospheric convection reversal boundary at high latitudes to changes in the interplanetary magnetic field
Authors: Chen Y.‐J. , Heelis R. A. , Cumnock J. A.
Published: May 2015

In this paper we present a systematic study of the location of the convection reversal boundary for southward interplanetary magnetic field by using Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) F13 and F15 spacecraft measurements during local summer seasons from 2000 to 2007 for both hemispheres. All the convection reversal boundaries are identified pass bypass by locating the highest‐latitude location where the plasma flow shows a large‐scale two‐cell pattern and reverses direction from sunward to antisunward. The location of the convection reversal boundaries are placed into 10 different categories based on By and the magnitude of southward Bz. Observations suggest that (1) the location of the boundary is well organized by the magnitude of Bz, being at lower latitudes for stronger negative Bz and also organized by the polarity of By, moving toward the dawnside/duskside when By changes from negative to positive in the northern/southern hemisphere; (2) the average latitudinal movement of the boundary associated with By changes is comparable to the average movement of the boundary with Bz changes; (3) an initial reconfiguration of the boundary near local noon is redistributed around the dawnside or duskside dependent on the direction of By; and (4) the boundary has a general spiral shape, which varies depending on Bz and By.
Solar wind plasma interaction with Gerasimovich lunar magnetic anomaly
Authors: Fatemi Shahab , Lue Charles , Holmström Mats , Poppe Andrew R. , Wieser Martin , Barabash Stas , Delory Gregory T.
Published: May 2015

We present the results of the first local hybrid simulations (particle ions and fluid electrons) for the solar wind plasma interaction with realistic lunar crustal fields. We use a three‐dimensional hybrid model of plasma and an empirical model of the Gerasimovich magnetic anomaly based on Lunar Prospector observations. We examine the effects of low and high solar wind dynamic pressures on this interaction when the Gerasimovich magnetic anomaly is located at nearly 20∘ solar zenith angle. We find that for low solar wind dynamic pressure, the crustal fields mostly deflect the solar wind plasma, form a plasma void at very close distances to the Moon (below 20 km above the surface), and reflect nearly 5% of the solar wind in charged form. In contrast, during high solar wind dynamic pressure, the crustal fields are more compressed, the solar wind is less deflected, and the lunar surface is less shielded from impinging solar wind flux, but the solar wind ion reflection is more locally intensified (up to 25%) compared to low dynamic pressures. The difference is associated with an electrostatic potential that forms over the Gerasimovich magnetic anomaly as well as the effects of solar wind plasma on the crustal fields during low and high dynamic pressures. Finally, we show that an antimoonward Hall electric field is the dominant electric field for ∼3 km altitude and higher, and an ambipolar electric field has a noticeable contribution to the electric field at close distances (<3 km) to the Moon.
Effects of salinity variations on pore water flow in salt marshes
Authors: Shen Chengji , Jin Guangqiu , Xin Pei , Kong Jun , Li Ling
Published: May 2015

Spatial and temporal salinity variations in surface water and pore water commonly exist in salt marshes under the combined influence of tidal inundation, precipitation, evapotranspiration, and inland freshwater input. Laboratory experiments and numerical simulations were conducted to investigate how density gradients associated with salinity variations affect pore water flow in the salt marsh system. The results showed that upward salinity (density) gradients could lead to flow instability and the formation of salt fingers. These fingers, varying in size with the distance from the creek, modified significantly the pore water flow field, especially in the marsh interior. While the flow instability enhanced local salt transport and mixing considerably, the net effect was small, causing only a slight increase in the overall mass exchange across the marsh surface. In contrast, downward salinity gradients exerted less influence on the pore water flow in the marsh soil and slightly weakened the surface water and groundwater exchange across the marsh surface. Numerical simulations revealed similar density effects on pore water flow at the field scale under realistic conditions. These findings have important implications for studies of marsh soil conditions concerning plant growth as well as nutrient exchange between the marsh and coastal marine system.
A Bio‐Social‐Cultural Approach to Early Cognitive Development: Entering the Community of Minds
Authors: Nelson Katherine
Published: May 2015

Important cognitive changes take place during the preschool years in addition to the acquisition of a first language. A bio‐social‐cultural (BSC) theory is needed to explicate the relation between language and cognition during this period of development. The foundations of the BSC approach in evolutionary and developmental systems theory are noted and applied to the emergence of autobiographical memory and the understanding of one's own and other minds within the general conception of “entering the community of minds” a conceptual framework for the social‐cultural components of this approach. The need for further theoretical and empirical research including neurological change during this period is indicated.
Agency as an Explanatory Key: Theoretical Issues
Authors: Biernacki Richard , Skotnicki Tad
Published: May 2015

In philosophy agency designates the inalienable ability of individuals to make choices about their conduct that are not determined by the environment. In empirical social science, however, agency designates not autonomous free will but the launching of patterned action that surpasses constraints in the setting and that directs the course of institutional change. Many social scientists have limited the explanatory task they take on to show that agency is an indispensable part of ongoing social life. They have also reasoned that portrayals of institutional structures alone or even of the cultural resources that accompany them, such as shared scripts for social interaction, are inadequate for explaining important changes. It is typical therefore to feature agency as a logically necessary contributor. Study of agency can be improved by specifying affirmatively when and how action is in decisive ways organized independently of the constraints in the setting and this sense transcends them. This sharper requirement for positive demonstration of how agency brought about change is satisfied by reconstructing the actors' independent invention of a new master problem that guides their conduct. This promising approach to explaining transformative action has disseminated from study of artistic and scientific innovation to that of institutional change.
Against Game Theory
Authors: Lucas Gale M. , McCubbins Mathew D. , Turner Mark
Published: May 2015

People make choices. Often, the outcome depends on choices other people make. What mental steps do people go through when making such choices? Game theory, the most influential model of choice in economics and the social sciences, offers an answer, one based on games of strategy such as chess and checkers: the chooser considers the choices that others will make and makes a choice that will lead to a better outcome for the chooser, given all those choices by other people. It is universally established in the social sciences that classical game theory (even when heavily modified) is bad at predicting behavior. But instead of abandoning classical game theory, those in the social sciences have mounted a rescue operation under the name of “behavioral game theory.” Its main tool is to propose systematic deviations from the predictions of game theory, deviations that arise from character type, for example. Other deviations purportedly come from cognitive overload or limitations. The fundamental idea of behavioral game theory is that, if we know the deviations, then we can correct our predictions accordingly, and so get it right. There are two problems with this rescue operation, each of them is fatal. (i) For a chooser, contemplating the range of possible deviations, as there are many dozens, actually makes it exponentially harder to figure out a path to an outcome. This makes the theoretical models useless for modeling human thought or human behavior in general. (ii) Modeling deviations are helpful only if the deviations areconsistent, so that scientists (and indeed decision makers) can make predictions about future choices on the basis of past choices. But the deviations are not consistent. In general, deviations from classical models are not consistent for any individual from one task to the next or between individuals for the same task. In addition, people's beliefs are in general not consistent with their choices. Accordingly, all hope is hollow that we can construct a general behavioral game theory. What can replace it? We survey some of the emerging candidates.
AIDS
and Social Networks
Authors: Weinreb Alexander , Adams Jimi , Trinitapoli Jenny
Published: May 2015

During the past 30 years, research on the global AIDS pandemic and on social networks has coevolved. Insights from social networks literature have advanced our understandings of AIDS; simultaneously, key empirical insights from the AIDS literature have furthered the development of social network research—especially methodologically. We elaborate on this reciprocal relationship, identifying some of the key developments and future directions for research on AIDS and on social networks generally. From existing literatures, we discuss how (i) social networks analysis was central to early attempts to understand the spread of HIV through sexual and needle‐sharing relationships; (ii) subsequent prevention efforts leveraged similar insights to different ends; (iii) social networks have been crucial in understanding patterns of care for people living with HIV/AIDS; and (iv) the structural composition of networks across international, organizational, and individual levels highlights the epidemic's global implications in ways that extend far beyond epidemiology. We contend that future research must integrate recent developments from both fields in order advance understandings. Among these, we identify as most promising: (i) a move from static modeling approaches toward research emphasizing the dynamic properties of networks; (ii) a shifting focus from single networks in isolation (e.g., sexual transmission networks) to the analysis of multiplex networks (i.e., those involving multiple relationship types represented simultaneously); and (iii) an acknowledgment—conceptual and methodological—of the “vertical” embeddedness of networks. Continued advances in this area will require the gathering of high quality social network data specifically designed to address such questions.
Ambivalence and Inbetweeness
Authors: Giesen Bernhard
Published: May 2015

In the following remarks, we present new developments in social theory and cultural analysis that converge in a particular focus on a third perspective beyond the distinction between inside and outside. This focus on “thirdness” transcends the classical structuralist paradigm of binary classification. It is especially sensitive for the analysis of sudden surprises, paradoxical twists, and disturbing events in history and social life and, thus, contrasts to the assumption of progress and orderly linear development. We outline this new paradigm with respect to three different domains: garbage, monsters, and victims.
An Evolutionary Perspective on Developmental Plasticity
Authors: Hartman Sarah , Belsky Jay
Published: May 2015

In this essay, we advance the argument that variations in developmental plasticity should be treated as an individual‐difference construct in research on environmental influences on human development. As guided by the diathesis‐stress framework, past research has focused mainly on the development of dysfunction and negative outcomes in “vulnerable” individuals and the absence of such effects in “resilient” ones in response to adverse developmental experiences and environmental exposures. An evolutionary perspective challenges this traditional and prevailing framework for understanding person‐X‐environment interaction, leading to the view that there are individual differences in developmental plasticity, with those individuals most susceptible to the negative effects of adverse experiences also most likely to benefit from positive ones. Evidence consistent with this view is summarized and directions for future research are outlined.
An Imaging Gene by Environment Interaction (IG×E) Approach to Understanding Youth Antisocial Behavior
Authors: Waller Rebecca , Dotterer Hailey L. , Hyde Luke W.
Published: May 2015

An examination of the complex interplay of genes, environmental experience, and the brain is critical to understanding psychopathology, violence, and aggression. This essay reviews the gene–environment (G×E) interaction and imaging genetics literature relating to the development of youth antisocial behavior (AB). A model is proposed that bridges these approaches within an imaging gene×environment (IG×E) interaction framework. The potential application of an IG×E framework to youth AB is outlined and ongoing research challenges are discussed.
Applications of Selective Exposure and Attention to Information for Understanding Health and Health Disparities
Authors: Earl Allison , Nisson Christina
Published: May 2015

In this essay, we discuss how social psychological work on selective exposure and attention can be used to understand information selection decisions in a health context. In particular, we begin with an overview of the selective exposure and attention literatures, including a summary of literature suggesting that people are more likely to seek out (selective exposure) and pay attention to (selective attention) information they agree versus disagree with. We then discuss various motives that may influence information selection and attention. Finally, we conclude with a summary of how the work on selective exposure and attention can be brought to bear on health message design and reduction of health disparities.
Architecture of Markets
Authors: Fligstein Neil , Calder Ryan
Published: May 2015

Markets are socially constructed arenas where repeated exchanges occur between buyers and sellers under a set of formal and informal rules governing relations among competitors, suppliers, and customers. These arenas operate according to local understandings and rules that guide interaction, facilitate trade, define what products are produced, indeed constitute the products themselves, and provide stability for buyers, sellers, and producers. Marketplaces are also dependent on governments, laws, and cultural understandings supporting market activity. Our essay provides a brief exposition of this perspective. Then, it considers cutting‐edge work on three topics: (i) the formation of markets and prices, (ii) the organization of capitalism in different societies, and (iii) financialization and globalization. We suggest that in the future, path breaking research will: (i) explore the sociology of consumption, (ii) combine insights from the sociology of markets and from studies of the role of economic thought in constructing markets, and (iii) investigate national and transnational regulations.
Assimilation and Its Discontents
Authors: Zhou Min
Published: May 2015

This essay offers a review of the scholarly literature on immigrant assimilation, looking at how classical assimilation theories explain the processes and outcomes of assimilation among contemporary immigrants and their offspring and how alternative theories are developed to address assimilation's discontents. The essay first revisits the commonly held assumptions underlying classical theories of assimilation and investigates why even normative pathways can lead to divergent assimilation outcomes. It then discusses new theoretical development in this area, highlighting the central ideas and conceptualization of the segmented assimilation theory and the neoclassical assimilation theory. The author emphasizes how multilevel determinantsinteractto produce unconventional pathways that have profound implication for success or failure of assimilation. She also suggests that researchers problematize the notions of “success” or “failure,” paying special attention to how immigrants and their offspring, rather than social scientists themselves, imagine and frame these notions because subjective conceptualization can influence strategies that result in vastly different pathways and outcomes. The essay concludes with a discussion on issues for future research.
Attention and Perception
Authors: Rensink Ronald A.
Published: May 2015

This essay discusses several key issues concerning the study of attention and its relation to visual perception, with an emphasis on behavioral and experiential aspects. It begins with an overview of several classical works carried out in the latter half of the twentieth century, such as the development of early filter and spotlight models of attention. This is followed by a survey of subsequent research that extended or modified these results in significant ways. It includes work on various forms of induced blindness and on the capabilities of nonattentional processes. It also covers proposals about how a “just‐in‐time” allocation of attention can create the impression that we see our surroundings in coherent detail everywhere, as well as how the failure of such allocation can result in various perceptual deficits. The final section examines issues that have not received much consideration to date, but that may be important for new lines of research in the near future. These include the prospects for a better characterization of attention, the possibility of more systematic computational explanations, factors that may significantly modulate attentional operation, and the possibility of several kinds of visual attention and visual experience.
Becoming Adult: Meanings of Markers to Adulthood
Authors: Settersten Richard A. , Ottusch Timothy M. , Schneider Barbara
Published: May 2015

This essay examines a range of meanings and markers of adulthood, from biological to social, psychological, and legal. It describes a shift from more universal and traditional definitions of adulthood, which were also heavily gendered, to an increasingly diverse and personalized set of definitions. This shift reflects the prolonged, complex, and highly unequal spectrum of pathways that young people take into adulthood today. And yet, public perceptions of what adulthood is supposed to look like, and even the views of young people themselves, are often anchored in an earlier historical era. The clash between outdated ideas and the new realities of adulthood create a major set of contradictions for young people. Two contexts are shown to be crucial in determining individuals' actual and perceived progress toward adulthood: families and institutions of higher education. But in these contexts, too, young people receive contradictory signals about their status. The essay concludes with thoughts about the changing meanings of what it means to be “young” and “adult” today.
Behavioral Economics
Authors: Hochman Guy , Ariely Dan
Published: May 2015

Standard economic models portray decision makers as perfectly rational agents who act selfishly to maximize their total earnings. In contrast, ample evidence in behavioral research suggests that people systematically deviate from the extreme rational assumption of such economic models. Behavioral economics is aimed at identifying the forces which shape the economic decisions that people make, in order to provide important insights of the human nature. This type of research often deals with questions such as how the presentation of information effect decision making, how different types and valances effect behavior, and what are the social, emotional, and situational factors that underlie economic decision making. This article describes foundational research in behavioral decision making and economics that lead to the emergence of behavioral economics; outline cutting‐edge research on applied behavioral economics, debiasing techniques, and neuroeconomics; and discusses key issues for future research, such as the use of field experiments and tailor‐made methodologies, and focusing on a more comprehensive approach. Our hope is that as behavioral economics advances it will examine not only the nature of the decisions people make but also their underlying cognitive processes.
How Brief Social‐Psychological Interventions Can Cause Enduring Effects
Authors: Kenthirarajah Dushiyanthini (Toni) , Walton Gregory M.
Published: May 2015

In recent years, several studies have shown that brief, theory‐based social‐psychological interventions can cause large, enduring effects on important outcomes, such as school achievement and marital relationships. How are such effects possible? We propose afield‐theory model: this model distinguishes “nudge” interventions—interventions designed to change a “snapshot” in time such as a particular decision or behavior—from interventions designed to change a “movie”—core beliefs or other aspects of the self and thus people's behavior as it unfolds over time in diverse settings.Movie interventionstarget underlying social‐psychological processes—such as students' confidence that they belong in school or individuals' felt security in close relationships. These psychological processes can interact with naturalistic variables—such as how people interact with one another and the relationships they build—to propel intervention effects forward in time. In this model, real‐world factors can serve as proximal outcomes that catalyze long‐term effects. An important implication is that such interventions can sometimes amplify their effects over time, if the targeted recursive process “snowballs.” A second implication is that the long‐term effects of movie interventions are dependent on the context—specifically, on whether the context affords naturalistic variables that can catalyze changes in the self forward in time. To illustrate thisfield‐theory model, we compare it to Mortensen and Cialdini's (2010)full‐cycle model. Although both models share important features, including an emphasis on laboratory research, the latter treats forces in the world as “noise” and predicts that the effects of psychological interventions will dissipate, not strengthen with time. In addition to their applied potential, movie interventions raise profound new theoretical questions, such as how psychological processes unfold over time and do so in interaction with social contexts. Exploring these questions represents an exciting direction for future research.
Built Environments and the Anthropology of Space
Authors: McDonogh Gary W.
Published: May 2015

Analysis of human interaction with and interpretations of the surrounding physical world has been of fundamental interest for anthropology since its emergence as a discipline in the nineteenth century. The comparative description of homes, monumental spaces, and worked landscapes has provided foundations for social and cultural analysis and facilitated early exchanges with archaeology, architecture history, and linguistics. Over time, changes in the lives of those with whom anthropologists work and the concomitant expansion of urban anthropologies have promoted new questions as well as expanding interactions with geography, social theory, urban studies and gender, class, ethnic, and cultural studies while engaging anthropologists in wider public participation. Future anthropologies of space and place should continue to build on these methodological, data and theoretical heritages, including fieldwork and global comparisons, while expanding interdisciplinarity and engaging civic perspectives. Building on these foundations, anthropologists will need to address environmental concerns in their broadest scope. They will also grapple with the methodological and theoretical challenges of changing mobilities and similarly analyze rapidly evolving (electronic) mediations and virtual spaces and communities while sharing this knowledge in wider academic and public discussions.
Bullying and Cyberbullying
Authors: Bauman Sheri , Taylor Aryn
Published: May 2015

The purpose of this essay is to explore diverse forms of bullying according to multiple theoretical frameworks of aggression, victimization, and human development. We comment on existing anti‐bullying legislation and bullying prevention programs. Bullying manifests in a variety of settings, and with the popularity and accessibility of the Internet, a new form of bullying has become prevalent: cyberbullying or cyber aggression. Different forms of cyber aggression are discussed, as well as psychosocial implications for both aggressors and victims. Current trends in bullying and cyber aggression such as Internet trolling and innovative prevention strategies are detailed, as well as potential areas of future research in the social and behavioral sciences.
Causes of Fiscal Crises in State and Local Governments
Authors: Kogan Vladimir
Published: May 2015

Financial insolvency is a rare occurrence in American state and local governments. However, when it does happen, as in the case of Detroit's historical bankruptcy filing in 2013, the consequences for vital city services, public employees, and taxpayers can be devastating. This essay reviews existing and emerging research on the causes of government fiscal crises, paying particular attention to how social, economic, and legal constraints interact with the electoral incentives faced by public officials to create financial distress. It concludes by identifying a number of open questions that should guide future research, to help identify potential institutional and political reforms that can help avert future problems before they occur.
Regulation of Emotions Under Stress
Authors: Shallcross Amanda J. , Troy Allison , Mauss Iris B.
Published: May 2015

Stressful life events (SLEs) are frequently associated with a range of deleterious mental and physical health outcomes. However, some individuals exhibit resilience, defined as maintained or even improved health in the wake of SLEs. How and why might this be the case? Given that SLEs give rise to negative emotions, which in turn contribute to mental and physical illness, promising answers to questions about resilience lie in research on people's ability to manage their emotions, or, emotion regulation. This essay focuses on emerging empirical evidence that suggests that two seemingly opposite emotion regulation strategies, cognitive reappraisal and emotional acceptance, are particularly effective for managing negative emotions, which, in turn, may confer resilience. By integrating theory with extant empirical evidence, we offer a model that aims to reconcile how these two strategies—one that involves minimizing emotions (cognitive reappraisal) and the other that involves engaging with emotions (emotional acceptance)—are each associated with resilience. Specifically, we propose that these strategies are not contradictory, but rather complementary. We additionally discuss broader implications for the links among stress, emotion regulation, and health, as well as key issues for future research at the intersection of social and clinical psychology, medicine, and public health.
Childhood
Authors: Kramer Karen L.
Published: May 2015

Childhoodrefers to the period of growth and development bracketed by weaning and puberty, roughly ages 3–10. During this important life history stage, the brain rapidly grows and achieves the majority of its adult size, the first permanent molars erupt, and the digestive tract matures. Socially, communication skills are rapidly acquired during childhood, gender identities are established, cooperative norms of behavior develop, and self‐reflection and emotional regulation mature. Cognitively, increasing independence exposes children to a high frequency of new experiences, perpetual learning, experimentation, and change. Childhood development has captured the attention of scholars from diverse disciplines. This review highlights foundational and new research in biological, social, cognitive, and economic aspects of child development. Attention is paid to how childhood is distinct compared to juvenility in other closely related species and the remarkable changes that have occurred during human evolution. This review focuses on childhood in traditional societies where children grow up under energetic, demographic, and social conditions that more closely reflect the selective pressures that shaped childhood.
Choice Architecture
Authors: Camilleri Adrian R. , Larrick Rick P.
Published: May 2015

“Choice architecture” is a metaphor capturing the idea that all choices occur within a structure of contextual and task features. These features in turn help to “construct” a person's choice. In this chapter, we summarize the academic literature on three types of choice architecture tools—defaults, information restructuring, and information feedback—and document some real‐world examples where these tools have been applied as successful “nudges.” We end the chapter with a discussion of some key challenges and opportunities associated with this new field—including the need for customized choice architecture and the political acceptability of the use of choice architecture—and highlight some avenues for future research.
Cities and Sustainable Development
Authors: Cusack Christopher
Published: May 2015

When considering the future of the world, one must first and foremost consider the future of its cities. Cities are currently home to more than half the world's population and are projected to encompass the preponderance of all future population growth. Cities also require vast inputs of energy and resources while producing vast outputs of waste. Recognition that these trends are not sustainable has generated a wealth of relevant research. How cities can be sustainably developed in such a way that meets present needs without limiting the ability of future generations to meet their own needs is the critical problem to solve. Research in a myriad of fields, including sociology, political science, economics, and geography, is active in its pursuit of the sustainable city. This essay explains the components of sustainable development and underscores the connection between sustainability and cities. Foundational research, which primarily takes a regional approach to urban analysis, is then explored. This, then, is followed by cutting‐edge research that highlights new ways to measure sustainability and new efforts to build sustainable cities. The essay concludes with an examination of some of the key issues for future research, including the need to consider the cultural diversity within and between cities, as well ways to generate sustainability through pioneering efforts of planning and governance.
Class, Cognition, and Face‐to‐Face Interaction
Authors: Rivera Lauren A.
Published: May 2015

Social class—one's relative socioeconomic rank in society—plays a vital role in shaping individuals' future educational and occupational attainment, job satisfaction, and overall mental and physical well‐being. Although sociologists have studied macrolevel aspects of class formation and reproduction for over a century, how class distinctions are produced and reproduced on the ground in everyday social interactions has received far less empirical attention. Like other forms of stratification, class inequalities are driven not only by differential access to material resources but also how we fundamentally perceive ourselves, others, and appropriate behavior. Yet, the social sciences have yet to develop a clear and convincing theory of the microdynamics of social class. In this essay, I integrate contemporary research across disciplines to illuminate how social perception and interaction shape and are shaped by social class. I review classical and cutting‐edge research on the microdimensions of social class, discuss outstanding issues, and highlight promising directions for future research.
Coevolution of Decision‐Making and Social Environments
Authors: Bruch Elizabeth , Hammond Ross A. , Todd Peter M.
Published: May 2015

Social scientists have a longstanding theoretical interest in the relationship between individual behavior and social dynamics. A growing body of work demonstrates that, when human behavior is interdependent—that is, what one person does depends on the past, present, or anticipated future actions of others—there is not a simple or linear relationship between the choices of individuals and their collective consequences. Outside of the academy, policy makers are increasingly aware that well‐intentioned interventions can backfire if they fail to account for how people change their behavior in response to the intervention. This type of problem requires a systematic modeling approach. Our entry provides a brief introduction to a growing body of research that brings together two disparate literatures—studies of decision‐making and studies of the interplay between individuals' decisions and features of the social environment—through dynamic computational modeling. Cognitive scientists characterize human decision‐making under uncertainty usingheuristics, rules‐of‐thumb that produce satisfactory choices quickly and with limited information. The heuristics we use and information samples we gather have profound consequences for the choices we make. At the same time, the social context defined by the choices of others feeds back to affect individual decision‐making. In recent years, there has been growing interest in methods such as agent‐based modeling and systems dynamics that can capture the dynamic interplay between individuals' choices and features of the environment. However, historically these approaches have not been grounded in cognitively plausible models of human behavior. We identify areas of high potential for future research, and lay out a preliminary framework to help guide understanding of the decision‐making process and its consequences in different social domains.
Cognitive Bias Modification in Mental
Authors: Reuland Meg M. , Steinman Shari A. , Teachman Bethany A.
Published: May 2015

Cognitive biases
refer to a tendency to favor a particular way of processing information, such as habitually attending to threatening information in the environment, or interpreting ambiguous information in a negative way. Importantly, cognitive biases are linked to a number of emotional problems, such as anxiety and depression, raising the question of whether altering cognitive biases could relieve the symptoms of these disorders.
Cognitive bias modification
(CBM) refers to a group of interventions typically delivered via computer that alter cognitive biases through repeated practice in processing information in a healthy way (e.g., learning to attend to neutral, rather than threatening, cues). Some research suggests that CBM can ameliorate symptoms of mental illness and reduce emotional vulnerability to stressors. Moreover, CBM's computerized format offers a potentially cost‐effective option for wide dissemination, which could prevent and reduce the public health burden of mental illness. At the same time, mixed research findings suggest more research is needed before CBM can be considered a frontline treatment for psychopathology. The current essay describes CBM's theoretical framework, reviews the CBM outcome literature, and explores key questions for future research, such as how CBM works, for whom it works best, and optimal delivery conditions.
Cognitive Remediation in Schizophrenia
Authors: Reeder Clare , Wykes Til
Published: May 2015

It is well established that many people with a diagnosis of schizophrenia experience significant problems with thinking skills such as concentration, memory, comprehension of social information, reasoning, and organization. These are often experienced by the individuals themselves as debilitating and demoralizing, but crucially, they also can limit people in their capacity to achieve fundamental life goals, such as working, having fulfilling relationships and living independently, which underpin well‐being and a satisfactory quality of life. Cognitive remediation for schizophrenia is a psychological therapy that aims to improve thinking skills and consequently to benefit other more general areas of functioning and improve quality of life.

This entry will summarize the foundational research background to the development and effectiveness of cognitive remediation; and the cutting‐edge research into the developments in our understanding of the mechanisms of cognitive change and its relationship to improvements in everyday functioning, and new applications for cognitive remediation. The key aims for the field of cognitive remediation are now (i) to optimize its effectiveness in improving cognitive skills, but critically, in a way that ensures that these cognitive improvements have a measurable impact on other more general life skills, and (ii) to facilitate the wider dissemination of cognitive remediation into the clinical community. To achieve these goals, we need to establish an evidence‐based, theoretical underpinning to cognitive remediation, including an understanding of the active ingredients and how best to deliver the therapy.