bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Scottish strategic and spatial context for sustainable development
Authors: Roberts Peter
Published: September 2002

This paper examines the strategic spatial context for sustainable development in Scotland. In providing this contextual overview the paper considers the influence of European Union policies and the evolution of Scottish and UK thinking. Particular emphasis is placed on the recent introduction of the idea of preparing a Scottish national spatial planning framework. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. and ERP Environment.
Sustainable development and the management of the Scottish environment: stringing the beads
Authors: Roberts Peter , Jackson Tony
Published: September 2002

This paper examines the environmental dimension of sustainable development policy and practice in Scotland. Among the issues considered in the paper are matters related to the political context for environmental policy and the evolution of statutory responsibilities. Looking forward, the paper assesses the growing influence of the European Union on environmental issues and calls for the establishment of a more integrated approach to policy. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. and ERP Environment.
The Global 2000 Report to the President and the Threshold 21 model: influences of Dana Meadows and system dynamics
Authors: Barney Gerald O.
Published: September 2002

The author first met Dana Meadows and her colleagues in the Limits to Growth project during a postdoctoral year at MIT, setting the author on a new career and life path. The first major step was directing the Global 2000 Report for President Jimmy Carter. In the Global 2000 project, we improved the connections and consistency among the sector‐specific elements of the Government's Global Model. The results of the projections were generally consistent with the Limits study, but analysis showed that the Government's models were biased optimistically because of omitted feedbacks. Another major step was the establishment of Millennium Institute (MI) and the development of the Threshold 21 (T21) integrated national development model. There are no global decision makers who can address the global issues of Limits; humanity's global decisions are largely the combined consequences of national level decisions. MI's T21 model provides an analytical tool for ministers of finance and planning that produces the same financial and monetary outputs as the models used by the World Bank and IMF, but that also address the social and environmental aspects of national sustainability issues. After more than a decade of work, T21 has gained much respect and has been customized to more than a dozen countries, industrialized as well as developing. In addition to describing the influence of Dana and system dynamics on the author's life, the article sketches out work needed for the future. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The electronic oracle: computer models and social decisions
Authors: Meadows Donella H. , Robinson Jennifer M.
Published: September 2002

This paper is an excerpt from The Electronic Oracle: Computer Models and Social Decisions (Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 1985), by the late Donella Meadows and Jennifer Robinson. The book investigates the practice and impact of systems analysis and computer modeling, particularly as applied to social policy. The authors explore the nature of models, the biases and hidden assumptions of different modeling methods, the pragmatics of the modeling process, and the impact of modeling on the real world. These issues are approached through detailed case studies of nine models designed to address issues of economic development, resources and the environment. The models used methods including econometrics, linear programming, input/output analysis, and system dynamics. Though the models were “identified as ‘better than average’” by the authors and by “other modelers, clients, and sponsors,” Meadows and Robinson (p. 104) found “mismatches of methods with purposes, sloppy documentation, absurd assumptions buried in overcomplex structures, conclusions that do not even follow from model output, and project management strategies that destroy the possibility of influencing actual policy.” The record in the world of business modeling is at least as dismal. The excerpt presented here focuses on implementation. The authors explore why so many modeling projects fail and present guidelines for improvement. The methods developed in the book to expose hidden assumptions, to make undiscussable values and biases discussable, remain central to anyone seeking to have an impact on the real world. The book both anticipated and shaped important developments, including the focus on ‘modeling for learning,’ group model building, and the systems thinking and organizational learning movements. Yet despite welcome advances in hardware, software, and modeling methods since the book was written, we have not yet realized the authors' vision of a world in which modelers are not only scientific and rigorous, but also “compassionate, humble, open‐minded, responsible, self‐insightful, and committed.” John Sterman Copyright © 1985 International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis. Reprinted by permission.
Exploring policy options with a behavioral climate–economy model
Authors: Fiddaman Thomas S.
Published: September 2002

Many integrated energy–economy–climate models have been developed to address climate change policy. While these models are quite varied in scope, most share a common core of economic optimization and equilibrium assumptions. By contrast, system dynamics models of energy–economy interactions focus on disequilibrium dynamics, with behavioral decision rules and explicit stocks and flows of capital, labor, resources and money. This article tests climate policies using a system dynamics model that includes many features missing from economic models. Among these are endogenous technological change and boundedly rational decision making. Energy requirements are embodied in capital, and energy production capacity depends on explicit capital stocks. The search for optimal policies is decoupled from other decisions, and uses criteria that are fair across generations. Earlier experiments with the model, briefly reported here, indicate that these features greatly alter policy outcomes. The model is used to test a family of emissions permit and tax policies like the Kyoto Protocol under a range of assumptions. Uncertainty is included in the analysis through Monte Carlo simulation. Results suggest that nearly all policy options are a net benefit, and that the landscape for policy choice is more forgiving than generally supposed. However, implementation remains a critical issue, and the viability of tradeable permits is questionable. Carbon tax policies are found to outperform fixed emissions permits in nearly all circumstances. The model used in this article is available at https://metasd.com/2014/07/free/. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Cloudy skies: assessing public understanding of global warming
Authors: Sterman John D. , Sweeney Linda Booth
Published: September 2002

Surveys show that most Americans believe global warming is real. But many advocate delaying action until there is more evidence that warming is harmful. The stock and flow structure of the climate, however, means “wait and see” policies guarantee further warming. Atmospheric CO2 concentration is now higher than any time in the last 420,000 years, and growing faster than any time in the past 20,000 years. The high concentration of CO2 and other greenhouse gases (GHGs) generates significant radiative forcing that contributes to warming. To reduce radiative forcing and the human contribution to warming, GHG concentrations must fall. To reduce GHG concentrations, emissions must fall below the rate at which GHGs are removed from the atmosphere. Anthropogenic CO2 emissions are now roughly double the removal rate, and the removal rate is projected to fall as natural carbon sinks saturate. Emissions must therefore fall by more than half even to stabilize CO2 at present record levels. Such reductions greatly exceed the Kyoto targets, while the Bush administration's Clear Skies Initiative calls for continued emissions growth. Does the public understand these physical facts? We report experiments assessing people's intuitive understanding of climate change. We presented highly educated graduate students with descriptions of greenhouse warming drawn from the IPCC's nontechnical reports. Subjects were then asked to identify the likely response to various scenarios for CO2 emissions or concentrations. The tasks require no mathematics, only an understanding of stocks and flows and basic facts about climate change. Overall performance was poor. Subjects often select trajectories that violate conservation of matter. Many believe temperature responds immediately to changes in CO2 emissions or concentrations. Still more believe that stabilizing emissions near current rates would stabilize the climate, when in fact emissions would continue to exceed removal, increasing GHG concentrations and radiative forcing. Such beliefs support “wait and see” policies, but violate basic laws of physics. We discuss implications for education and public policy. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Identification of significant host factors for HIV dynamics modelled by non‐linear mixed‐effects models
Authors: Wu Hulin , Wu Lang
Published: September 2002

Non‐linear mixed‐effects models are powerful tools for modelling HIV viral dynamics. In AIDS clinical trials, the viral load measurements for each subject are often sparse. In such cases, linearization procedures are usually used for inferences. Under such linearization procedures, however, standard covariate selection methods based on the approximate likelihood, such as the likelihood ratio test, may not be reliable. In order to identify significant host factors for HIV dynamics, in this paper we consider two alternative approaches for covariate selection: one is based on individual non‐linear least square estimates and the other is based on individual empirical Bayes estimates. Our simulation study shows that, if the within‐individual data are sparse and the between‐individual variation is large, the two alternative covariate selection methods are more reliable than the likelihood ratio test, and the more powerful method based on individual empirical Bayes estimates is especially preferable. We also consider the missing data in covariates. The commonly used missing data methods may lead to misleading results. We recommend a multiple imputation method to handle missing covariates. A real data set from an AIDS clinical trial is analysed based on various covariate selection methods and missing data methods. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Analysis of the ratio of marginal probabilities in a matched‐pair setting
Authors: Nam Jun‐mo , Blackwelder William C.
Published: September 2002

Statistical methods for testing and interval estimation of the ratio of marginal probabilities in the matched‐pair setting are considered in this paper. We are especially interested in the situation where the null value is not one, as in one‐sided equivalence trials. We propose a Fieller‐type statistic based on constrained maximum likelihood (CML) estimation of nuisance parameters. For a series of examples, the significance level of the CML test is satisfactorily close to the nominal level, while a Wald‐type test is anticonservative for reasonable sample sizes. We present formulae for approximate power and sample size for the CML and Wald tests. The matched design is seen to have a clear advantage over the unmatched design in terms of asymptotic efficiency when the two responses of the pair are highly positively correlated. We recommend the CML method over the Wald method, especially for small or moderate sample sizes. Published in 2002 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Combining regression and association modelling for longitudinal data on bacterial carriage
Authors: Ekholm Anders , Jokinen Jukka , Kilpi Terhi
Published: September 2002

A longitudinal data set, from the Finnish Otitis Media (FinOM) Studies, reporting carriage or non‐carriage of Streptococcus pneumoniae at 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 12, 15 and 18 months of age of 329 children living in Tampere, Finland, is analysed. A logistic regression model on five time varying explanatory variables is fitted. The temporal association between presence at different ages is measured by dependence ratios and the structure of these is shown to be well described by a model indicating that roughly 10 per cent of the children are not susceptible to the bacteria, while for those that are susceptible, carriage status at a future observation age is conditionally independent of past observed statuses, given the present status. The dependence ratios between carriage at adjacent observation ages decay exponentially with age. Maximum likelihood estimates are obtained for the parameters of the full model, which is the combination of the marginal logistic regression and the association models. The parameter estimates of the full model, strengthened by non‐testable Markov assumptions, are used for assessing the median duration of carriage and the acquisition rate as functions of age. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
A Bayesian space varying parameter model applied to estimating fertility schedules
Authors: Assunção Renato M. , Potter Joseph E. , Cavenaghi Suzana M.
Published: September 2002

We propose a spatial generalized linear model (GLM) to analyse the vital rates for small areas. In each small area, we have a response vector and covariates to explain its variability. The statistical methodology is based on a spatial Bayesian approach and it allows the covariates' parameters of the generalized linear model to vary smoothly on space. Hence, the effect of a covariate on the response varies depending on the random variables measurement location. Our model is an extension of disease mapping models allowing the space–covariate interaction to be modelled in a natural way and giving space a position of intrinsic interest. We introduce the model in the context of fertility curve estimation. In each small area, we have a curve describing the variation of fertility rates by age modelled by Coale's fertility model, which implies a GLM in each area. A simulation shows the advantages of our approach. In addition, the paper applies the procedure to census data used to study the diffusion of low fertility behaviour in Brazil. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Modelling HIV viral rebound using non‐linear mixed effects models
Authors: Fitzgerald Anthony P. , DeGruttola Victor G. , Vaida Florin
Published: September 2002

Individuals infected with the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV‐1) who initiate antiretroviral therapy typically experience a marked decline in concentrations of HIV‐1 RNA in plasma. Often, however, viral rebound occurs within the first year of treatment and this rebound may be associated with resistance to antiretroviral therapy. For this reason, it is important to study the patterns of virological response of HIV‐1 RNA to treatment. In particular, there is interest in the relationship between the lowest level of plasma HIV‐1 RNA attained after initiation of therapy (nadir value) and the time until rebound. To investigate this question, we implement a simple and flexible non‐linear mixed effects model for the trajectory of the HIV‐1 RNA until rebound. This model is also consistent with biological insights into the effects of treatment. We also show how the problem of censoring of HIV‐1 RNA values at the lower limit of assay quantification can be addressed using a multiple imputation scheme. The algorithm is simple to implement and is based on accessible software. Our application makes use of data from clinical trial 315 conducted by the AIDS Clinical Trials Group (ACTG 315). We find a strong relationship between HIV‐1 RNA nadir and time to rebound, with potentially important consequences for the management of HIV‐infected individuals. Copyright 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Comparison of bandwidth selection methods for kernel smoothing of ROC curves
Authors: Zhou Xiao‐Hua , Harezlak Jaroslaw
Published: September 2002

In this paper we compared four non‐parametric kernel smoothing methods for estimating an ROC curve based on a continuous‐scale test. All four methods produced a smooth ROC curve of the test. The difference in these four methods lay with the way they chose their bandwidth parameters. To assess the relative performance of the four bandwidth selection methods, we conducted a simulation study using different underlying distributions, along with varied sample sizes. The results from our simulation study suggested that the kernel smoothing method originally proposed by Altman and Léger for estimation of the distribution function was the best choice for estimation of an ROC curve. We illustrated these methods with a real example. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
On the assessment of adverse drug reactions from spontaneous reporting systems: the influence of under‐reporting on odds ratios
Authors: van der Heijden Peter G. M. , van Puijenbroek Eugène P. , van Buuren Stef , van der Hofstede Jacques W.
Published: September 2002

A well‐known problem in spontaneous reporting systems (SRSs) for adverse drug reactions (ADRs) is under‐reporting, that is, the problem that not all occurrences of ADRs are reported to the SRS. We look at the question of how to draw statistical conclusions from analyses of SRS data using reporting odds ratios. We will show that certain under‐reporting problems play no role in assessing ADRs from SRSs: the results from the analyses turn out to be biased by some specific under‐reporting problems, but not by others. SRS data can be particularly useful for the assessment of drug–drug interactions. If the assumption holds that there is an under‐reporting problem for a first drug, and an under‐reporting problem for a second drug, but that these two under‐reporting problems do not influence each other, then reporting odds ratios estimated from SRSs are useful for signalling drug–drug interactions in the ADR‐experiencing population. Similar results hold for covariate–drug interactions. We illustrate our results using two examples. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Tests for 2×K contingency tables with clustered ordered categorical data
Authors: Jung Sin‐Ho , Kang Seung‐Ho
Published: September 2002

Ordered categorical data summarized in a 2×K table usually consist of two‐sample multinomial or K‐sample binomial observations. In analysing these data, we usually assign scores to the K columns and perform a testing for the equality of two multinomial distributions in the former case and no trend among K binomial proportions in the latter case. Among the most popular score tests are the Wilcoxon rank sum test and the Armitage's linear trend test. In this paper we extend the score tests to be used for clustered data under diverse study designs. Our methods do not require correct specification of the dependence structure within clusters. The proposed tests are based on the asymptotic normality for large number of clusters and are a generalization of the standard tests used for independent data. Simulation studies are conducted to investigate the finite‐sample performance of the new methods. The proposed methods are applied to real‐life data. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Competing risks analysis of patients with osteosarcoma: a comparison of four different approaches
Authors: Tai Bee‐Choo , Machin David , White Ian , Gebski Val
Published: September 2002

In failure time studies involving a chronic disease such as cancer, several competing causes of mortality may be operating. Commonly, the conventional statistical technique of Kaplan–Meier, which is only meaningfully interpreted by assuming independence of failure types and the censoring mechanism, is employed in clinical research involving competing risks data. Some authors have advocated the use of a cause‐specific cumulative incidence function which takes into account the existence of other events within a competing risks framework, without making any assumption about independence. Lunn and McNeil have proposed an approach based on an extension of the Cox proportional hazards regression, which enables direct comparisons between failure types. We have extended this approach to estimate cause‐specific cumulative incidence. As it is often not easy to follow competing risks methodology in the literature, this paper sets out systematically the assumptions made and the steps taken to implement four different methods of analysing competing risks data using cumulative incidence rates or the Kaplan–Meier estimates of cause‐specific failure probabilities. The data obtained from a randomized trial of patients with osteosarcoma were used to compare these four approaches. As illustrated using the osteosarcoma data, the estimates of the classical Kaplan–Meier methods have larger numerical values than the cause‐specific cumulative incidence. On the other hand, estimates of the cause‐specific cumulative incidence rates from the conventional method and the modified Cox method are highly comparable. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Estimating probability of non‐response to treatment using mixture distributions
Authors: Pavlic Maja , Brand Richard J. , Cummings Steven R.
Published: September 2002

Repeat measurements of patient characteristics are often used to assess response to treatment. In this paper we discuss a normal mixture model for the observed change in the characteristic of interest in treated patients. The methods described can be used to estimate the overall proportion of non‐response to treatment and also the probability that a patient has not responded to treatment given his or her observed change. The model parameters are estimated using maximum likelihood, and the delta method is used to construct a pointwise confidence band for the conditional probability that a patient is a non‐responder to treatment. The work was initially motivated by analysis issues in the Fracture Intervention Trial (FIT), a randomized trial of the osteoporosis drug alendronate, and the method is illustrated with data from that study. We also evaluate key aspects of the estimation procedure with two simulation studies. In the first, the data generation model is the assumed normal mixture model, and in the second, the data are generated according to a shifted and scaled central t‐distribution model suggested by the FIT data. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
On tests of the overall treatment effect in meta‐analysis with normally distributed responses
Authors: Hartung Joachim , Knapp Guido
Published: September 2002

For the meta‐analysis of controlled clinical trials or epidemiological studies, in which the responses are at least approximately normally distributed, a refined test for the hypothesis of no overall treatment effect is proposed. The test statistic is based on a direct estimation function for the variance of the overall treatment effect estimator. As outcome measures, the absolute and the standardized difference between means are considered. In simulation studies it is shown that the proposed test keeps the prescribed significance level very well in contrast to the commonly used tests in the fixed effects and random effects model, respectively, which can become very liberal. Furthermore, just for using the proposed test it is not necessary to choose between the fixed effects and the random effects approach in advance. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
A multiple imputation method for missing covariates in non‐linear mixed‐effects models with application to HIV dynamics
Authors: Wu Hulin , Wu Lang
Published: September 2002

We propose a three‐step multiple imputation method, implemented by Gibbs sampler, for estimating parameters in non‐linear mixed‐effects models with missing covariates. Estimates obtained by the proposed multiple imputation method are compared to those obtained by the mean‐value imputation method and the complete‐case method through simulations. We find that the proposed multiple imputation method offers smaller biases and smaller mean‐squared errors for the estimates of covariate coefficients compared to other two methods. We apply the three missing data methods to modelling HIV viral dynamics from an AIDS clinical trial. We believe that the results from the proposed multiple imputation method are more reliable than that from the other two commonly used methods. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Is sense of coherence a mediator between adversity and psychological well‐being in adults?
Authors: Gana Kamel
Published: September 2002

The role and status of sense of coherence (SOC) in psychological functioning are still unclear. A conceptual model in which sense of coherence mediates the relationship between adverse experiences and psychological well‐being was developed and estimated using structural equation modeling. Data was obtained from a sample of 193 adults (30–85 years old). The mediating role of sense of coherence was demonstrated by using the rationale and procedure suggested by Holmbeck. The buffering effect of sense of coherence was demonstrated through multi‐group analyses (weak vs. strong SOC groups). Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Self‐esteem, stress and cigarette smoking in adolescents
Authors: Byrne D. G. , Mazanov J.
Published: September 2002

Both high stress and low self‐esteem have been consistently, though independently, reported to relate to aspects of adolescent smoking behaviour. Recent work on self‐esteem, however, suggests that adequate provision of this attribute may protect the individual adolescent from unpleasant dysphoric or harmful behavioural states. In line with this suggestion, the present study sought to extend this to the area of adolescent smoking behaviour. While independent associations were confirmed there was not strong support for a protective effect of self‐esteem on adolescent smoking in the face of stressor exposure. A modest sex effect was evident but not of sufficient magnitude to allow firm conclusions. Nonetheless, the results were tempting enough to indicate further investigation. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Influence of hypothalamically induced restlessness under fasted and fed conditions on plasma levels of glucose, free fatty acids and total cholesterol
Authors: Kojima Kyoji , Mohamed Souher , Fujimaru Yasuaki , Mori Yoshinobu , Kaname Hitoshi , Sumida Yasuhisa , Kinukawa Naoko , Tashiro Nobutada
Published: September 2002

Influence of hypothalamically induced emotional behavior on plasma levels of epinephrine (E), norepinephrine (NE), glucose, cortisol, free fatty acids (FFA) and total cholesterol (T‐C) were examined in cats under both fasted and fed conditions. Restlessness was evoked intermittently for 6 h by electrical stimulation of the anteromedial hypothalamus (AMH). Blood was sampled immediately before, 1 h after and 6 h after the start of stimulation. Both E and glucose levels in the restlessness group increased markedly after 1 h and then tended to decrease after 6 h in fasted and fed states. In the restlessness group the NE level increased after 1 h and further increased after 6 h and cortisol level increased markedly, whether cats were fasted or fed. The FFA level in the fasted restlessness group showed no change while it increased in the fasted control group after 6 h. By contrast, the FFA level in the fed restlessness group significantly increased after 6 h while no change was observed in the fed control group. The T‐C level decreased only under the fasted condition in both restlessness and control groups. These results indicated that AMH‐induced restlessness elicited marked sympatho‐adrenal activation and hyperglycemia whether cats were fasted or fed while the behavior showed a different pattern in the response of plasma FFA between fasted and fed conditions. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Hassles and uplifts: including interpersonal events
Authors: Maybery D. J. , Graham D.
Published: September 2002

An examination of hassle and uplift scale factor structures and checklists from daily diary research revealed a paucity of interpersonal events on the former. In addition, interpersonal positive and negative events were found to be prominent predictors of distress and well‐being outcomes in diary research. Using Lazarus and Folkman's appraisal model of stress this paper illustrates day to day interpersonal events as important inclusions on hassle and uplift scales and as predictors underlying the person–environment relationship. The study (n= 124) examined the predictive utility of including a range of interpersonal events to one of the most commonly used hassle and uplift measures (developed by Delongiset al.) in the literature. Four outcomes, encapsulating distress and well‐being concepts were used. The Percieved Stress (PSS) and Satisfaction with Life Scales (SWLS) measure global concepts of perceived distress and life satisfaction and the Positive and Negative Affect Scales (PANAS) allowed for investigation of events with dichotomous distress and well‐being outcomes. Regression analyses ordered the entry of the interpersonal events to follow the Delongis measures and a new group of events relevant to a University student population. The results supported the notion that groups of both positive and negative interpersonal events were important measures over and above other hassles and uplifts (including the Delongis measure). These findings in combination with diary research suggest that current hassle and uplift scales may inadequately measure daily interpersonal sources of distress and well‐being. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The influence of physical and mental training on plasma beta‐endorphin level and pain perception after intensive physical exercise
Authors: Øktedalen O. , Solberg E. E. , Haugen A. H. , Opstad P. K.
Published: September 2002

The intention of the study was to investigate a possible correlation between increase in circulating blood level of beta‐endorphin and decrease in pain perception after short‐term intensive physical exercise. In addition, we wanted to see if plasma beta‐endorphin level and pain perception were influenced by regular physical or mental training and if there was any difference in response between trained and untrained subjects. Twenty physically trained males were studied before and after a 6‐month intervention period while practising regular physical endurance training. Eleven of them were randomized to perform daily additional mental training (ACEM meditation). Nine untrained males served as control subjects and were investigated only at baseline. All participants were tested for maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max) during treadmill exercise, and pain perception measured by an ischaemic pain test was performed just before and after VO2max. Blood samples analysed for beta‐endorphin were drawn before and after the tests. There was a substantial decrease of 47 per cent (p < 0.005) in basal plasma beta‐endorphin level after the intervention. The plasma beta‐endorphin level increased two‐fold (p < 0.01) in response to the VO2max test. The subjects experienced post‐exercise hypoalgesia (p < 0.001), but there was no correlation between the exercise‐associated opioid hyperendemia and the hypoalgesia. No difference was found between trained and untrained subjects regarding the circulating blood level of beta‐endorphin or the exercise‐induced hypoalgesia. Practising regular meditation had no influence on beta‐endorphin level or pain tolerance level. Peripheral beta‐endorphin level and pain perception are modulated by intensive physical exercise and by regular physical, but not by mental training. It could be speculated that the observed initial high basal level of beta‐endorphin is due to pre‐experimental stress and tension. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Types of software evolution and software maintenance
Authors: Chapin Ned , Hale Joanne E. , Khan Khaled Md. , Ramil Juan F. , Tan Wui‐Gee
Published: September 2002

The past two decades have seen increasing sophistication in software work. Now and in the future, the work of both practitioners and researchers would be helped by a more objective and finer granularity recognition of types of software evolution and software maintenance activities as actually done. To these ends, this paper proposes a clarifying redefinition of the types of software evolution and software maintenance. The paper bases the proposed classification not on people's intentions but upon objective evidence of maintainers' activities ascertainable from observation of activities and artifacts, and/or a before and after comparison of the software documentation. The classification includes taking into account in a semi‐hierarchical manner evidence of the change or lack thereof in: (1) the software, (2) the documentation, (3) the properties of the software, and (4) the customer‐experienced functionality. A comparison is made with other classifications and typologies. The paper provides a classified list of maintenance activities and a condensed decision tree as a summary guide to the proposed evidence‐based classification of the types of software evolution and software maintenance. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Redesigning the Academy of Vocal Arts (AVA)
Authors: Pourdehnad John , Hebb Adele
Published: September 2002

Throughout its 67‐year history, the Academy of Vocal Arts (AVA) has focused exclusively on tuition‐free advanced training, including performance experience, for young singers showing the potential for careers in the world's leading opera houses. The Interactive Planning Approach was utilized for long‐range strategic planning. Over 100 stakeholders (faculty, students, managers, subscribers, donors, and board members), representing a wide variety of interests, participated in a six‐month effort to redesign the organization, using professional facilitation and guidance. Since the plan's adoption in 1997, a large percentage of the designed actions have been implemented, including some of the most ambitious and supposedly difficult to accomplish. As a result, the academy has advanced its enrollment, programs, facilities, and endowment significantly. What follows is a description of an organization's participative planning effort and an examination of the reasons for its success. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The role of Future Search in rural regeneration: process, context and practice
Authors: Whittaker Julie , Hutchcroft Ian
Published: September 2002

The Future Search process in principle appears relevant for promoting participatory approaches to rural regeneration, offering a forum for stakeholders to conduct dialogue and find a common sense of direction. Consequently, a Future Search conference was organized in Devon, England, to encourage community‐led rural regeneration, and this paper reflects on that experience. It highlights achievements but focuses on difficulties encountered in using Future Search where democratic processes are a key issue. The carefully planned structures of Future Search and the intensity of the conference process were found in some respects to be incongruous with the needs and expectations of the participants. The conference also revealed that action planning can be problematic when participants belong to different organizations. Therefore, the value of Future Search for rural regeneration would seem to be primarily in creating dialogues and establishing networks, with more limited scope for action planning. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Communicative action in practice: Future Search and the pursuit of an open, critical and non‐coercive large‐group process
Authors: Polanyi Michael F. D.
Published: September 2002

Future Search has emerged as a widely used large‐group process for building common ground and stimulating multi‐stakeholder action on complex issues in a collaborative and participatory way. Yet there are few careful evaluations of the approach. Through a detailed qualitative analysis, this paper critically assesses a Future Search conference on repetitive strain injuries (RSI) held in 1998. The paper draws on Jürgen Habermas' standards of communicative action to explore the extent to which the process was inclusive, non‐coercive and reflective. The Future Search process encouraged participants to introduce a variety of observations, beliefs and experiences. Two fundamentally opposed analyses of RSI arose: a ‘consensus–knowledge’ model and a ‘conflict–power’ model. However, the process fell short of communicative action because its structure privileged—and thus led to the uncritical adoption of—the former model without allowing adequate participant reflection on the questionable and contested assumptions upon which the model is based. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Social cognition and the participatory planning process
Authors: Kar Nilamadhab , Kar Brajaballav
Published: September 2002

Social cognition focuses on the mental processes involved in social interactions. In the participatory planning process, which puts into use the knowledge and skills of individuals through active interaction, the study of social cognitive abilities seems relevant. The objective of this article is to review the social cognitive factors and their implications in participatory planning and designing. Social cognitions are observed early in childhood and they develop over decades through experience. It appears that they are partially independent of formal intelligence. The existing data suggests that social cognition may have a biological basis in the form of neurophysiological substrates and genetic loci. Social cognitions help in comprehending, adjusting interpretations, thinking of multiple alternatives, social problem solving and in various other processes. Social cognitions are instrumental in dealing with a variety of interpersonal problems observed during interactions in the group and in coping with potential stressors like negative outcomes. Various factors like positive mood states, belief in self‐efficacy and goals may affect social cognition and planning and decision‐making processes. These findings suggest that practitioners and researchers of participatory change processes should pay attention to social cognition. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Insights into software testing
Authors: Woodward Martin R.
Published: September 2002

MARTIN WOODWARD aims to provide a brief insight into some of the many aspects of software testing. The various stages required when testing large software systems are outlined and then a selection of possible testing techniques are described and illustrated. Given the increased use of formal specifications in software development, one could exploit such a specification during testing and some of the ways this might be done are indicated. Similarly, the nature of the design approach used in the development of the software or even the nature of the particular application being developed can lead to particular test strategies. Finally, testing is not purely a technical matter; people issues and management of the process have a significant impact on the success or otherwise of this activity.
A brief discussion of these topics rounds off this review. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Biphasic modulation of NMDA‐induced responses in pyramidal cells of the medial prefrontal cortex by Y‐931, a potential atypical antipsychotic drug
Authors: Jardemark Kent E. , Ai Jinglu , Ninan Ipe , Wang Rex Y.
Published: September 2002

Similar to the effects produced by the atypical antipsychotic drugs (APDs) clozapine and olanzapine, Y‐931 {8‐fluoro‐12‐(4‐methylpiperazin‐1‐yl)‐6H‐[1]benzothieno[2,3‐b][1,5]benzodiazepine maleate, a purported atypical APD} effectively facilitated N‐methyl‐D‐aspartate (NMDA)‐induced, but not (±)‐α‐amino‐3‐hydroxy‐5‐methylisoxazole‐4‐propionic acid (AMPA)‐evoked, responses in pyramidal cells of the rat medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). Similar to olanzapine and clozapine, the concentration–response curve of Y‐931 in these experiments was biphasic. At present, the mechanisms behind the biphasic modulatory actions of Y‐931 and olanzapine on NMDA‐induced currents in the mPFC are not clear. In addition to augmenting NMDA responses, Y‐931 prevented the phencyclidine (PCP)‐induced block of the NMDA responses and increased the amplitudes and durations of excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs) evoked by electrical stimulation of the forceps minor. Overall, our findings suggest that APDs, particularly the atypical ones, share a common property in that they facilitate NMDA receptor‐mediated transmission in the mPFC and perhaps other functionally related limbic structures as well, which could be the cellular basis for their ability to alleviate some schizophrenic negative symptoms and cognitive dysfunctions. Synapse 41:294–300, 2001. © 2001 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Differential time‐course profiles of dopamine release and uptake changes induced by three dopamine uptake inhibitors
Authors: Lee Tong H. , Balu Ramani , Davidson Colin , Ellinwood Everett H.
Published: September 2002

Using real‐time voltammetry, we compared the effects of cocaine (1.0, 3.0, or 10 μM), WIN 35428 (0.1, 0.5, or 2.0 μM), and nomifensine (0.2, 1.0, or 5.0 μM) on electrically evoked dopamine release and uptake in the rat accumbens slice. The time course for onset and offset of the drug effects were determined by perfusing single drug concentration for 30 min, followed by a 60‐min washout. Cocaine elicited a rapid, concentration‐independent increase in dopamine release and a more gradual, concentration‐dependent inhibition of uptake. During washout, uptake inhibition rapidly abated to near baseline values. During the same period, the potentiation of dopamine release exhibited a slower offset for all concentrations and, for 10 μM cocaine, was even greater than that observed during drug perfusion (“rebound” increase). The release rebound was not observed during continuous 90‐min perfusion, verifying that cocaine washout per se was a sufficient condition. Selective D1 or D2 antagonists (0.5 μM SCH 39166 or 2 μM sulpiride, respectively) were without effect on cocaine‐induced release alterations. WIN 35428 and nomifensine induced similar changes in dopamine kinetics during perfusion. However, in contrast to cocaine, no consistent release rebound was observed during their washout. For 2 μM WIN 38425, washout and continuous perfusion groups exhibited similar changes in dopamine release and uptake. The time‐course mismatch between uptake inhibition and DA release potentiation as well as release rebound during washout suggests that altered dopamine release might play a role in behavioral effects of cocaine. Synapse 41:301–310, 2001. © 2001 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Maturational increases in c‐fos expression in the ascending dopamine systems
Authors: Andersen Susan L. , LeBlanc Celeste J. , Lyss Pamela J.
Published: September 2002

The unique maturational period of adolescence is replete with numerous changes in anatomy and function that may yield clues as to why drug abuse emerges at this stage. The behavioral effects of amphetamine are diminished during periadolescence (35 days) relative to younger (21 days) and older (>60 days) rats, prompting us to examine amphetamine effects on neuronal activation with the immediate early gene, c‐fos. Amphetamine (1 and 5 mg/kg, i.p.) increased c‐fos immunoreactivity in rats 21, 35, and 60 days of age in a dose‐dependent manner. When expressed as a percentage of vehicle for each age, amphetamine‐induced effects on c‐fos immunoreactivity were higher at 21 days of age compared with the effects at 35 and 60 days of age in the nucleus accumbens core and shell, striatum, and prefrontal cortex. These data provide a possible reason as to why stimulants produce dysphoria in children, before transitioning to euphoria during adolescence. Implications of these results are discussed for stimulant use in a pediatric population and the development of drug abuse. Synapse 41:345–350, 2001. © 2001 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Performance based design extreme wind loads on a tall building
Authors: Jain Anurag , Srinivasan Mukund , Hart Gary C.
Published: September 2002

This paper presents a procedure for the calculation of wind loads on a proposed 385 ft tall building located in strong wind and mixed strong wind and hurricane wind regions. The procedure for the computation of design wind loads uses mixed distribution and Monte Carlo simulation. The results of a probabilistic analysis of hurricane wind speeds are combined with the probability distribution of recorded extreme wind speeds (excluding hurricane data) at the site. A 50‐year sample of extreme wind speeds is created and the maximum 50‐year wind (from the hurricane and the recorded data) is noted. The simulation is repeated for a large number of samples (>10000) and the probability distribution of the 50‐year wind speed is computed for use in establishing the design wind speed Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Modernizing science education
Authors: Hurd Paul DeHart
Published: September 2002

This article is focused on changes taking place in the teaching of science as part of general education. Over the past century a host of changes in the nature and practice of science have served to make outmoded the science curricula now found in school textbooks. Past and present reform efforts have been limited to updating traditional subject matter, which is not adequate for life and living in today's world. A new framework is required for a general education in science, one that is student centered and up‐to‐date on the nature of science technology. As stated in the Science Bulletin (2000), “Science and technology have become the driving force for mankind's quest for a better society” (p. 1). The new science curriculum also should be focused on the utilization of science technology for public welfare and human benefit. © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 39: 3–9, 2002
Views of nature of science questionnaire: Toward valid and meaningful assessment of learners' conceptions of nature of science
Authors: Lederman Norm G. , Abd‐El‐Khalick Fouad , Bell Randy L. , Schwartz Renée S.
Published: September 2002

Helping students develop informed views of nature of science (NOS) has been and continues to be a central goal for kindergarten through Grade 12 (K–12) science education. Since the early 1960s, major efforts have been undertaken to enhance K–12 students and science teachers' NOS views. However, the crucial component of assessing learners' NOS views remains an issue in research on NOS. This article aims to (a) trace the development of a new open‐ended instrument, the Views of Nature of Science Questionnaire (VNOS), which in conjunction with individual interviews aims to provide meaningful assessments of learners' NOS views; (b) outline the NOS framework that underlies the development of the VNOS; (c) present evidence regarding the validity of the VNOS; (d) elucidate the use of the VNOS and associated interviews, and the range of NOS aspects that it aims to assess; and (e) discuss the usefulness of rich descriptive NOS profiles that the VNOS provides in research related to teaching and learning about NOS. The VNOS comes in response to some calls within the science education community to go back to developing standardized forced‐choice paper and pencil NOS assessment instruments designed for mass administrations to large samples. We believe that these calls ignore much of what was learned from research on teaching and learning about NOS over the past 30 years. The present state of this line of research necessitates a focus on individual classroom interventions aimed at enhancing learners' NOS views, rather than on mass assessments aimed at describing or evaluating students' beliefs. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 39: 497–521, 2002