bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
. . . And on Rare Occasions There Are Changes in Its Community of Living Things
Authors: Officer Charles , Page Jake
Published: November 2023

When European settlers arrived on the east coast of North America, they were confronted by vast stretches of virgin forest made up largely of enormous old trees—the stuff of picture postcards. Today we rhapsodize over such places and seek to protect them, but to the early settlers fresh from the domesticated landscapes of Europe, this forest was a dark place, a savage wilderness that needed taming. And, practically speaking, none of it is left. Attitudes about “nature” change. Indeed, one scholar found that the very word “nature” has more than 100 separate meanings. To a geologist, nature is every thing and every process, and life is merely one phenomenon that has come about in nature. And life is dangerous. The existence of (1) the immune system and (2) the fossil record attests to this obvious but often overlooked fact of life. Immune systems, which all higher animals and most plants possess in one form or another, are in a nearly constant battle against other forms of life. The fossil record makes it clear that far more species have vanished than now live on the planet.
Newcomers, New Revolutionaries, and New Spaces
Authors: Sides Josh
Published: November 2023

Back to the wasteland, that abandoned patch of Golden Gate Park at the foot of John F. Kennedy Drive, where the park meets the Pacific Ocean: preservationists had tried to revive it, bless their hearts. They quixotically restored one of the park’s oldest windmills in 1980, but the propeller proved too heavy to spin, so it never did. A few paces to the south, a dark tunnel opened to a small clearing behind the Beach Chalet where the foliage was dense enough to provide shelter for the homeless and the public sex hunters. In 1981, the last of the Beach Chalet’s long list of disreputable tenants—in this case a rough-and-tumble motorcycle bar—closed its doors, and the building was abandoned for almost two decades. The subsequent isolation of the area further enhanced its appeal as a public sex venue, even at the height of the AIDS epidemic in the early 1990s.
Conclusion
Authors: Brody Howard
Published: November 2023

Here I want to address two different tasks. First, some additional topics belong, in my opinion, on the “future” list, and yet for various reasons did not lend themselves to chapter-length expansion. I want now to list briefy some of those additional topics. Second, I have been arguing all along for a bioethics that attends more carefully to disparities in power. I do this not merely so that we can be intellectually stimulated—even though we have seen all along how interesting theoretical developments follow as a result of the new focus I suggest. I propose that we should, as a general rule, do more to speak up on behalf of those who lack power, especially when we can ind ways to assist them to speak for themselves. This in turn suggests, as we move from theory to practice, that bioethics ought to adopt a more activist sense of its mission. I will conclude the volume by discussing what such an activist bioethics might entail.
Boston City Hospital: Cradle of Modern Neurology in the United States
Authors: Rowland Lewis P
Published: November 2023

The University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine was the first and only medical school in the 13 American colonies when, in the fall of 1765, students enrolled for “anatomical lectures” and a course on “the theory and practice of physick.” They enrolled at the College of Philadelphia, which was the name of the University of Pennsylvania in pre-Revolutionary times. King’s College organized a medical faculty in 1767 and was the first institution in the North American colonies to confer the degree of doctor of medicine. The first graduates in medicine from the college were Robert Tucker and Samuel Kissarn, who received the degree of bachelor of medicine in May 1769 and that of doctor of medicine in May 1770 and May 1771, respectively. Instruction in medicine was given until interrupted by the Revolution and the occupation of New York by the British, which lasted until November 25, 1783. In 1784 instruction was resumed in the academic departments, and in December of the same year the medical faculty was reestablished. In 1814 the medical faculty of Columbia College was merged with the College of Physicians and Surgeons.
The Beginning of the Bielski Otriad
Authors: Tec Nechama
Published: November 2023

From March 1942 Asael with thirteen followers continued to elude the Germans by staying in the forests, close to the town of Nowogródek. When collecting provisions, they made an effort not to rob poor peasants but instead took from those they thought had extra food. Familiarity with the area and with local farmers helped them decide who was an appropriate target. Bowing to tradition, the men handled the acquisition of food while the women prepared the meals. All ingredients were cooked together. With potatoes most plentiful and with meat and fat at a premium, the mainstay of each dish was potatoes with very little fat or meat. Depending on availability, different kinds of vegetables, cereals, and flour also found their way into the same pot. How a dish tasted depended on what the men were able to collect rather than on personal preferences or the cook’ s skills. Even a basic item such as salt was a problem. The peasants themselves were often forced to do without it.
Self-Made Men: Abraham Lincoln and Frederick Douglass
Authors: Edwards Jonathan , Lincoln Abraham
Published: November 2023

Few expressions in our language have shriveled as badly as the term “self-made man.” Today, it would rarely be applied to anyone other than a successful entrepreneur. Among intellectuals, at least, it is widely regarded as the platitudinous expression of an obsolete individualism. Once upon a time, however, the self-made man represented a heroic ideal, with significance to millions as an expression of the meaning of life, an ideal in which making money was incidental to self-fulfillment. Henry Clay has been credited with inventing the term, and it was often applied to him by others. As Clay and his contemporaries used the expression, a self-made man was one who had attained eminence by his own efforts in any walk of life, not necessarily in business and not just in monetary terms. The process of becoming self-made was understood as the development of human potential broadly conceived. Finally, what distinguished the self-made man was that his identity was a voluntarily chosen, conscious construction, not something that had to be achieved by an individual in isolation.
The Constructed Self Against the State
Authors: Edwards Jonathan , Lincoln Abraham
Published: November 2023

When the news came to Concord of Margaret Fuller’s death, Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862) hastened to Fire Island, New York, to comb the beach in hopes of finding her body or her effects, especially the manuscript of her book on the revolution in Rome. His efforts, like those of others, were in vain; the book and its author were lost forever. Margaret and David (as his family called him) had been friends and fellow Transcendentalists. The two provided each other with intellectual stimulation and mutual criticism; they reinforced each other’s dedication to self-construction and self-culture.
Injustice, Evil, and Oppression
Authors: Card Claudia
Published: November 2023

Iris Young’s Justice and the Politics of Difference (1990a; hereafter JPD) quickly became one of the most frequently cited sources in feminist philosophy on the nature of oppression. In this book, Young rejects what she calls a distributive paradigm of justice. She presents an alternative to approaches inffuenced by John Rawls’s idea of justice as fairness in distributing benefits and burdens of social cooperation. Rawlsian approaches tend to begin from and become fixated on economic and political conffict resolution under ideal conditions. Young does not take justice’s primary concern to be adjudicating confficts of interest regarding the distribution of such goods as income and wealth. On her view, the primary concern is to work toward a society that would be free of oppression and domination. This approach centers on human development and power relationships, not on external benefits and burdens. And it begins from a set of very nonideal conditions. We might call it an agency or human development paradigm.
Varieties of Global Responsibility: Social Connection, Human Rights, and Transnational Solidarity
Authors: Gould Carol C
Published: November 2023

In her last papers, Iris Marion Young developed an important position on global responsibility, which she called a “social connection” model (Young 2004, pp. 365–388; Young 2006c, pp. 102–130). This approach was advanced to supplement existing “liability” models of responsibility and to articulate a conception of our moral responsibilities to counter the structural injustice characteristic of contemporary globalization processes. In this chapter, I will be concerned to analyze Young’s model and to consider it in the context of other approaches to our obligations to people at a distance, especially that of Pogge. I will go on to delineate some other varieties of global responsibility—particularly in regard to fulfilling people’s human rights—that hold importance in this new domain, as I have argued previously, and will also link these conceptions of global responsibility to a notion of transnational solidarities.
Women’s Work Trips and Multifaceted Oppression
Authors: Johnston-Anumonwo Ibipo
Published: November 2023

Being employed is an essential aspect of meaningful participation in society for most people. Access to jobs for different social groups is thus a relevant topic of inquiry. Since, like men, a majority of employed women work outside the home, an examination of women’s commuting is one way to appraise women’s access to jobs.
Thermidor at Last:Hashemi-Rafsanjani’s Presidency (1989–1997) and the Economy
Authors: Arjomand Saïd Amir
Published: November 2023

Khomeini knew what he was saying when he reminded his patiently suffering followers they had not made the revolution for more melons. The Iranian economy was still a wreck at the time of Hashemi-Rafsanjani’s take- over a decade later. Despite the quadrupling of the price of oil, Iran’s per capita gross national product (GNP) in 1988 was just getting back to the level it had been 21 years earlier—that is, before the massive economic growth spurt that preceded the Islamic revolution—and labor productivity had slipped almost as badly. The first step to rectify the situation, according to the new President’s economic advisor, was to create the political and cultural preconditions for economic growth through liberalization and education, respectively.The more obvious and specific political precondition was the smooth post-revolutionary transfer of power and political stability that would permit the transition of an amorphous revolutionary power structure into a developmental state. Rafsanjani’s personal predisposition may have played a part in setting economic development as a major policy goal. When he had been sent by Khomeini to visit Islamic revolutionary groups opposing the Shah abroad in the mid-1970s, he had proven to be an avid traveler and had taken much interest in the economic development of Japan, Europe, and the United States.
The Hardliners, Foreign Policy and Nuclear Development
Authors: Arjomand Saïd Amir
Published: November 2023

The negative u.s. response discussed in chapter 8 is not sufficient to explain the failure of pragmatism in Iran’s foreign policy from 1989 to 2005. There were also significant internal obstacles. Two important features of the “great revolutions” account for the shaping of post-revolutionary foreign policies and for their distinctive direction for a long time after the revolution. The first is ideological and the second is structural. First, the universalist ideology and international orientation of the revolution create “fifth columns” in a number of foreign countries with special claim to attention and resources that strongly affect the revolutionary regime’s subsequent “realistic” calculations of its geopolitical interests. Second, the typical revolutionary condition of dispersion of power or “multiple sovereignty” that results from the collapse of the old state is only gradually transformed by the post-revolutionary centralization of power and state rebuilding, and leaves a permanent residue of semi-autonomous military-intelligence and economic-industrial baronies.The military-mobilizational-intelligence cartel develops special ties with the fifth columns and becomes tangled with economic baronies as it creates its own economic empire.
Words That Went Dead
Authors: Ricks Christopher
Published: November 2023

There is an entry in Time Flies (1885), ‘A Reading Diary’, by Christina G. Rossetti, where time flies back and returns her from her mid-fifties to her childhood. The mouse and the insect revive, as mortally stark as the groundhog of Richard Eberhart’s poem or the hedgehog of Beckett’s Company. But one would never divine from the scholar’s paraphrase in 1987 that such an incident could put the fear of God into anyone: Rossetti recalls her first experience of death when, in early childhood, she found a dead mouse in the grounds of a cottage.
Languages, Both Dead and Living
Authors: Ricks Christopher
Published: November 2023

A language is a matter of life and love, as well as of life and death. Yes, I loved her, it’s the name I gave, still give alas, to what I was doing then. I had nothing to go by, having never loved before, but of course had heard of the thing, at home, in school, in brothel and at church, and read romances, in prose and verse, under the guidance of my tutor, in six or sewn languages, both dead and living, in which it was handled at length.
An Italian’ss Experience: Earth and Country
Authors: Jenkyns Richard
Published: November 2023

Dryden said that the Georgics was the best work of the best poet;’ and if that be a slight exaggeration, we might at least agree that no poem on such a scale has come so close to perfection. The third book, masterly in technique, does not quite achieve the same quality of inspiration as the others, and a severe criticism might find that a small blemish. The second and fourth books reach the greatest heights, but if the first book alone had survived, it would suffice to establish the Georgics as one of the very finest achievements of classical poetry. Though it yields more and more upon each re reading, it is not essentially a difficult work, and it has not been much misunderstood—or not until recently. Yet there are some difficulties in talking about it. The first is that so much of the merit and indeed meaning of the poem resides in the details and their accumulation that any description which falls short of being a commentary is likely to be inadequate. This book may seem, following a track printed with the spoor of many large beasts, to fall into the trap of dwelling on the purple patches at the expense of the didactic sections which make up the greater part of the poem; but it will indeed give space to examining the didactic texture, and it will try to show how the different elements in the work relate to each other. Certainly any interpretation of the Georgics is false which turns the didactic parts into padding between the bits that really matter.
A Trojan in Italy: The Later Aeneid
Authors: Jenkyns Richard
Published: November 2023

Within the Aeneid Virgil’s exploration of time, nature, history, communal identity, and their relation to each other reaches its apogee in the seventh and eighth books. Certain of these themes are continued and even enlarged in the last third of the poem; as we have already seen, the idea of the Trojans as oriental is most fully treated in the ninth book, and the idea of their being absorbed into Italy comes to completion with the likening of Aeneas to father Appenninus in the twelfth. But these passages carry on existing themes; by the end of the eighth book Virgil has given us his idea of Italy virtually entire.
Letter-forms as Evidence for Dating Inscriptions
Authors: Jeffery L H
Published: November 2023

In archaic Greek lettering no less than in other scripts there is a distinction between the formal and the informal or cursive style. It is not a conspicuous difference, like that between a formal inscription on stone from Pompeii and a contemporary graffito on one of the house-walls; and for that reason it is apt to be overlooked in modern commentaries on the chronological development of the Greek alphabet. But it is essential to remember that caution must be used when we compare the lettering of any inscription on stone or bronze with that of any painted inscription. The letter-forms used by the vase-painter will almost certainly be considerably more developed than those cut by a contemporary mason.
The Western Colonies
Authors: Jeffery L H
Published: November 2023

Kyme, the famous Greek outpost in Campania, stood apart from the later Euboic colonies in more ways than one. She was founded from Pithekoussai about the middle of the eighth century (i.e. some twenty years before Naxos, the earliest of the others), and the motives for her foundation appear to have been more ambitious than those of the rest. The steady flow of the Euboic and Achaian emigrants into Sicily and southern Italy from c. 734 onwards was directed principally towards good land on which to settle and raise crops, whereas Kyme’s isolated position north of all the rest reveals what was probably the main motive of the pioneers who founded her-trade with the wealthy interior. Moreover Pithekoussai and Kyme were the only Euboic colonies in the west in which both Eretrians and Chalkidians took part.
Introduction
Authors: Flower Michael Attyah
Published: November 2023

It is a well-known fact that most of what the Greeks and Romans wrote has been lost to us. This is true for history as it is for other genres. Moreover, it is extremely difficult to assess the merits and defects of historians whose work survives only in fragments. Even the word ‘fragment’ is misleading, since the majority of such fragments are not papyrus scraps (as for the Hellenica Oxyrhynchia) nor even verbatim quotations, but paraphrases by later writers. One suspects, however, that none of the lost historians equalled the literary brilliance and historical acumen of Herodotus and Thucydides. But that is small consolation for the student of the late Classical and Hellenistic periods, for whom such writers as Diodorus Siculus and Plutarch hardly compensate for the great contemporary histories that have been lost.
The Works of Theopompus
Authors: Flower Michael Attyah
Published: November 2023

His first works, therefore, were probably his epideictic orations, although there is no reason to assume that he would have abandoned oratory altogether once he had begun to write history. A fragmentary book-list from Rhodes (T 48) of about 100 BC preserves the titles of some ten non-historical works by Theopompus. Several of these are unmistakably epideictic orations in the manner of Isocrates.
Philip’s Conquest of Europe
Authors: Flower Michael Attyah
Published: November 2023

Theopompus, as argued in the second chapter, wrote the bulk of the Philippica during the decade after Philip’s death. The mere fact that he named his massive and far-reaching contemporary history Philippica is a clear indication of his frame of mind. He considered Philip to be the central figure of his time, and perhaps as early as 346 BC he perceived the impact that Philip would have on his generation. In the event, his estimate proved correct, for Philip’s career changed the political structure of the entire Hellenic world and made possible the Macedonian conquest of Asia. Part of Theopompus’ task as a historian was not only to record what happened, but to explain how and why it happened. The fact that he considered the primary causative force to be the person of Philip does not in itself imply admiration. There is no reason to believe that Theopompus differed in this respect from the modern historian. Do we presuppose that the historian who writes historical biography must admire the subject of his inquiry, and if such admiration is absent from the work, do we consider the author a moralist and not a historian?
Moral Criteria and the Psychological Method
Authors: Flower Michael Attyah
Published: November 2023

As Dionysius of Halicarnassus observed, the most original and striking feature of Theopompus’ historical method was his utilization of moral criteria in evaluating individuals and events. Theopompus’ moralizing, however, falls into two quite distinct categories, something which has not been recognized. One type of moralizing has already been discussed in previous chapters. That is where he censures both individuals and societies, whether cities or whole nations, for their conspicuous moral faults. These faults are usually aspects of their life-style, entailing such activities as excessive drinking and eating, gambling, and sexual license. But it also includes the doing of unjust deeds, such as enslaving cities (F 28) and destroying entire peoples (F 81).
The Revival of Learning
Authors: Mango Cyril
Published: November 2023

At the beginning of the eighth century, we are told, liberal education at Constantinople collapsed as a result of the instability of imperial rule. Whatever exactly may be meant by that statement, the fact remains that literary pro- duction in the capital ground practically to a halt. That had nothing to do with Iconoclasm as such, although it is true to say that the chronological span of the First Iconoclasm (730–80) corresponds to the most uncultivated phase of Byzantine history.
Fragmentation (1204–1453)
Authors: Reinert Stephen W
Published: November 2023

From the perspective of political history, the final 250 years of the Byzantine experience frequently impress the reader as little more than a pathetic spectacle of accelerating fragmentation, disintegration, and decay. The trajectory begins in April 1204, with European crusaders dismembering and occupying much of the empire, and ends in irrevocable defeat on 29 May 1453, when an Ottoman army storms Constantinople and brings the Byzantine imperial tradition to a close.
The Environmental Setting
Authors: Potts D T
Published: November 2023

The modern, scientific study of the Arabian Gulf has its ultimate origins, as we shall see in Volume II, in the attempts to gather accurate information on the coasts and waters of the region by Nearchus and later Greek admirals who served under Alexander the Great and his Seleucid successors. For centuries, however, no further systematic efforts at describing the region were undertaken until the renowned Arab pilots (mu’allim) Ibn Majid (d. c.1500) and Sulaiman al-Mahri (d. c.1553) compiled their famous navigational works. With the arrival of the Portuguese and Ottoman fleets in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, though, and the entrance of the British East India Company and the Dutch East Indies Company into the region, the accumulation of knowledge of the coasts, ports, tides, and general conditions in the area increased markedly. From this point on, naval charts of the Gulf, admittedly of highly variable quality, began to proliferate.
North-Eastern Arabia during the Parthian and Sasanian Periods
Authors: Potts D T
Published: November 2023

To a great extent, the local archaeological assemblages that characterize the Hellenistic period in north-eastern Arabia would appear to have persisted through the Parthian era as well, and even into early Sasanian times. Certainly this is true in the case of the indigenous ceramic industry, and it may also be true with regard to some of the debased variants of the local coinage discussed above. Nevertheless, significant social, demographic, technological, and religious changes occurred following the Hellenistic period. As we shall see, by the first century AD the northward displacement of some of the older, sedentary population of the region by nomadic Arabs from the south must have begun. At the same time, contacts with the Iranian world intensified as north-eastern Arabia first fell under Parthian suzerainty, and later became a province of the Sasanian empire.
South-Eastern Arabia from the Hellenistic to the Sasanian Period
Authors: Potts D T
Published: November 2023

It has long been recognized by students of Cl. Ptolemy’s geography of Arabia that the toponyms and tribal names assignable to the area between the Qatar peninsula and the Hadhramaut bespeak the existence there of a sizeable population by the second century AD.1 Nevertheless, the recovery of the material complement to the information which can be gleaned from the available historical sources has only begun to take place in the past few years. We shall now examine the archaeological evidence from those sites in the UAE and the Sultanate of Oman where finds dating to the Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian periods have been made.
An Introduction To The Cyropaedia
Authors: Gera Deborah Levine
Published: November 2023

What is the Cyropaedia? It can be described as a biography of Cyrus the Great, a history of the beginnings of the Persian empire, a romance, an encomium, a military handbook, a guide to the political administration of an empire, a didactic work on ethics, morals, and education, etc.; it is, in fact, all of these things. Cicero’s famous statement— ‘Cyrus file a Xenophonte non ad historiae fidem scriptus sed ad effigiem iusti imperi’ —is perhaps the best starting-point when attempting to define or narrow down the genre of this work: the Cyropaedia was not written as history and is a portrait of a model, just ruler. Cicero may have needed to point this out to his brother Quintus because Xenophon himself nowhere indicates—either in his preface to the work or in the course of narrating the deeds of Cyrus the Great—that he is not presenting a purely historical account. He begins the Cyropaedia with a discussion of the instability of political regimes and observes that man is the most difficult of creatures to rule. None the less, states Xenophon, the example of Cyrus serves as proof that governing men is not an impossible task, since the Persian king successfully ruled a great empire and commanded the willing obedience of his many subjects. Hence Xenophon turned to an investigation of Cyrus the Great, concentrating on the Persian’s family background, character, and education. The Cyropaedia is, according to Xenophon’s preface, the result of these researches (Cyr. 1.1. i–6).
Socrates In Persia
Authors: Gera Deborah Levine
Published: November 2023

At first sight one would not expect Socrates — the man, his life, ideas, and techniques of argument — to exercise any real influence over the Cyropaedia. Cyrus and his Persian soldiers are, after all, far removed in time, geography, and way of life from the world of the Athenian philosopher. None the less Socrates, Xenophon ’ s Socrates, is a real presence in the Cyropaedia, and this chapter deals with Socratic echoes in the work. For a start, Cyrus the Great has several character traits in common with Socrates: both have temperate habits and moderate material needs, both are capable of enduring a great deal of physical discomfort, and both have a tendency towards preachy didacticism. These characteristics are not, of course, restricted solely to these two heroes in Xenophon.
An Approach to Eating
Authors: Gowers Emily
Published: November 2023

One of the more bizarre episodes in the travels of Peregrine Pickle involves a Roman banquet staged by a learned doctor and attended by an absurd collection of foreign guests. The dishes re-created for their diversion include boiled goose in anchovy sauce, salacacabia, dormouse and poppy pie, stuffed saw’s stomach, and fricassee of snails. The dinner is a fiasco. Fits of choking, weeping, spluttering, and eventually vomiting ensue, and one guest speaks for the whole party when he exclaims: ‘Christ in heaven! what beastly fellows these Romans were!’
Black Pudding: Roman Satire
Authors: Gowers Emily
Published: November 2023

The cook pulled back his tunic, snatched up his knife, and proceeded to slash the pig’s stomach all over, his hand trembling. At once, out of the wounds stretched by the slithering weight of the pig, came tumbling mounds of blood puddings and sausages.
A Taste of Things to Come: Invitation Poems
Authors: Gowers Emily
Published: November 2023

If a Roman writer were a dinner party, what sort of dinner party would he be? This sounds like a trivial game, but it is a question we can also ask more seriously about the Latin invitation poem. The handful of invitations that survive are still being read literally: such windfall lists of food seem far too good to waste, when they could be used to tell us what the Romans really ate. By now, however, it should go without saying that the style of the party that a writer offers his guests is also some sort of projection of the style in which he entertains his readers. And these proffered poetic meals are the first that Latin scholars have been ready to see as ‘declarations of taste as well as means’. The loaded table is no longer what it seems. Lurking under the heavy weight of material are more abstract notions of style: the modest dish represents small-scale poetry, the clean napkin pure diction, the wine-jar Greek lyric, and so on.
Garlic Breath Horace, Epode 3
Authors: Gowers Emily
Published: November 2023

Garlic is one foodstuff that has inspired a love-hate relationship throughout history. In Anglo-Saxon England, its haters have always been the more strident party. John Evelyn banishes it in ignominy from his Acetaria: Whilst we absolutely forbid it entrance into our Salleting, by reason of its intolerable Rankness, and which made it so detested of old; that the eating of it was (as we read) part of the Punishment for such as had committed the horrid’st crime; ’tis not for ladies’ Palates, nor those who court them, further than to permit a light touch on the dish, with a clove thereof, much better supply’d by the gentler Roccombo.
Sparta Rediviva
Authors: Rawson Elizabeth
Published: November 2023

It is not possible to recount here in any detail the well-known history of the recovery and diffusion of the main works of Greek literature; nor, clearly, to consider all Sparta’s appearances in Renaissance writings, which would require profound knowledge of the period. It must suffice to indicate the main features of the interest she aroused, quoting some of the most famous (and often, in this respect, typical rather than original) works of the time, before turning to concentrate on certain specific political themes. It is obvious that the Renaissance was fated to admire Sparta.
The Revolutionary Period in England
Authors: Rawson Elizabeth
Published: November 2023

Elizabethan England, with one eye on the needs of the country and another on rebellions abroad that provoked some sympathy, torn between the original teachings of the great reformers and traditional constitutionalist formulations, tended to touch with a long pair of tongs theories that anyone, even the Estates, might resist the monarch. Hooker, indeed, would not allow it; but before him some Anglican writers agreed, very noncommittally, that in some countries officers with such duties had been set up (they seem to have thought primarily of the Electors in Germany)-though it was often argued that, even if the king’s civil power rested on a contract, his religious authority was direct from God and unchallengeable. The Puritans for their part found it necessary towards the end of the reign to deny that they followed the Scots or other recent Calvinist parties in allowing rebellion. But it was only to the most classically-minded writers, it seems, like the Italian-travelled diplomat and courtiet Charles Merbury, that such theories were most readily indicated by reference not to Electors but ephors;
T, Ry, Tp
Authors: Diggle James
Published: November 2023

Turyn detected three separate stages in Triclinius’ work on T. He distinguished these stages by the following criteria: (i) at the earliest stage, the use of black ink and rounded breathings; (ii) at the second stage, the use of black ink with angular breathings; (iii) at the third stage, the use of brown or yellow ink with angular breathings. Triclinius’ other autograph manuscripts show that the change from rounded to angular breathings occurred c. I 3 r 9. Turyn dates the original hand T’ to 1300- 1o, the first stage of T riclinius’ revision to c. 1315, the second to c. 1319-2 5, the third to c.1325.2
The Legacy of Athenian Law?
Authors: Todd S C
Published: November 2023

Law is one of the very few areas of social practice in which the ancient Greeks have had no significant influence on subsequent societies. To grasp the significance of this statement, it is worth examining for a moment the contrast with politics, that other area of life in which relationships between human beings are publicly regulated. The Greeks invented not merely the terminology of politics, but many of its fundamental concepts: it was the fourth-century philosopher Aristotle who coined the term ta politika to denote the study of public life specifically within that characteristically Greek institution, the polis or city-state, and thereby invented politics as a subject to study; and the idea that the demos or citizen body, however defined, should exercise kratos (sovereign authority), was the revolutionary tenet of the one Greek polis about which we are well informed, and of which the legal system forms the subject-matter of this book: democratic Athens.
Sources of Law: Sources of Information
Authors: Todd S C
Published: November 2023

‘Sources of law’ is a formally ambiguous phrase which raises two questions, one of interest primarily to historians and the other to lawyers. The question for the former is, ‘how can we now know what the law was?’ A lawyer, however, asks, ‘how did an Athenian court decide what the law was?’ So different, indeed, are these questions that they merit discussion in separate chapters.1 Here I shall consider the historian’s question, set in the present and with an answer of merely declaratory force: ‘the sources are the following, and from them we can (or occasionally cannot) find out that the law was such-and-such.’2 The lawyer’s question will be discussed in the next chapter, for that concerns the past and the mind of the ancient Athenian, where it had in some sense an imperative or normative force also: ‘we can find out the law from the following sources, and on this basis we should deliver our verdict.’
Relations between Persons and Things
Authors: Todd S C
Published: November 2023

Lysias’ speech Against Hippotherses was (re)discovered on a papyrus from the Egyptian village of Oxyrhynkhos, and first published by Grenfell and Hunt in 1919 (P. Oxy. 1606). The remains of this papyrus are substantial but very diffuse: the Hippotherses, with six fragments securely attributed, is the best preserved of the four or more previously unknown speeches that it originally contained; but five of these fragments each contain fewer than twenty lines of readable text, and their relative position within the speech is unknown. It is the conclusion of the speech that is best preserved, since the only substantial fragment contains almost intact the final two-and-a-half columns (lines 127-326: in all, about 325 words of text), with the title written at the end.
Relations with the Polis
Authors: Todd S C
Published: November 2023

Lysias 26 is an attack on a man named Euandros, written to be delivered at his dokimasia (the scrutiny which all incoming public officials had to undergo before being allowed to take up office). The speech is addressed to the boule or council(§ 21), and the office to which he has been allocated (though see further below) is that of Ark/um. We know from Ath. Pol. 55. 2 that each of the nine arkhons had to face a double dokimasia, before the boule and then in front of a lawcourt; and although the details of this twofold process are in some respects obscure (for the various controversies see Rhodes 1981: 614-17), nevertheless Euandros is clearly undergoing the first of these hearings.
Fortunatus and the Rhetorical Tradition: Panegyrics to Kings
Authors: George Judith w.
Published: November 2023

Fortunatus’ earliest known poems for the Merovingian court were his epithalamium and panegyric (Poems,6. 1 and 1a) to Sigibert and Brunhild, delivered at Metz in 566. Such formal poetry is a fruitful point at which to begin a consideration of his work, and of his place as a poet in Merovingian society. His panegyrics to the Frankish kings form a series of poems in the same genre, composed over two decades from 567 to 587. Analysis of these poems enables us to chart Fortunatus’ development in technique, in ideas, and in his relationship to his patrons. Because of the strong conventions governing the genre, moreover, it is here that we can most easily make comparisons with earlier work in the same literary tradition, to see how the poet adapted a genre for a Merovingian audience, and how his role differed from that of earlier poets.
Epitaphs and Consolations
Authors: George Judith w.
Published: November 2023

No subject so readily evokes a cliched response as bereavement and the consolation of grief. A long and rich tradition existed, in both pagan and Christian writing, of consolation for the bereaved, and of praise and commemoration of the dead. In literary and in epigraphic writing, standard motifs recurred with far less variation than in panegyric. The tradition thus placed constraints on a poet, in terms of the scope for imaginative flexibility and responsiveness to individuals. Since these were notable qualities in Fortunatus’ development of panegyric, it is of interest to look at his consolations and epitaphs to see how he used this literary tradition, and to what extent he exercised these qualities here.
Merovingian Noblewomen
Authors: George Judith w.
Published: November 2023

Fortunatus’ verse affords us glimpses of yet another group of patrons Merovingian women. Some of these vignettes, however, are more detailed and intense than any we have considered so far, and give us clearer insights both into the patrons they addressed and into the character of the poet himself. In devoting separate attention to Fortunatus’ poems to women we perhaps imply an expectation that they differ from those he addressed to men, or that women in Merovingian society had very different roles from their male contemporaries--or both. Yet, within the wealthy and educated class for whom Fortunatus wrote, there is evidence that neither assumption is necessarily nor invariably true.
Introduction
Authors: Isaac Benjamin
Published: November 2023

The traditional view of the Roman empire holds that the republic was a period of expansion, the principate one of successful defence against barbarian attack, the late empire one of less successful defence and retrenchment. Past generations could look upon the growth of the empire with admiration, free from moral qualms. European imperial ists were convinced that it was a good thing for a civilization they considered superior (their own as well as Rome) to rule barbaric natives. Both the republic and the principate were admirable, the republic as a period of dynamic expansion, the principate as one of stability and defence of what had been achieved. In our time of doubts, anguish, and egalitarianism it is no longer easy to admire an expanding empire. Self-determination is held to be a right. Infringement of that right is seen as immoral. Accordingly, views of the Roman republic are now ambiguous. That leaves us with the Roman Peace of the principate as an object of admiration. From the moment when Augustus put a stop to expansion the empire became laudable in modern eyes, for it defended civilization against the barbarians and thus laid the basis for our own achievements. In fact this is not true for Augustus. It has been shown to what extent this period, in spirit as in fact, was one of aggressive expansion. Even so, however, the old view of the principate after his time still persists. One of the achievements of the principate is held to be the development of a system of frontier defence that allowed the citizens of the empire to live in peace and quiet. Hence ‘Roman Frontier Studies’. The frontier also is considered a suitable object for comparison with the frontiers of modern states organized to keep out the armies of neighbouring states.
The Military Function Of Roman Veteran Colonies
Authors: Isaac Benjamin
Published: November 2023

It is clearly of interest to determine what was the function of veteran colonies, what was the motive for their establishment, and what was their share in the transformation of a defeated people into subjects of a Roman province. The economic, social, and cultural aspects often discussed do not concern us here. The impact on Rome and Italy of the removal of numerous citizens and their settlement elsewhere was of course significant, but this is not a topic to be considered in a work which deals with the provinces. And since we are interested specifically in the eastern parts of the empire hopes of ‘Romanization’ can be disregarded, for this was not an aim that could have been contemplated in earnest by Roman policy-makers in the East. There were not very many such foundations there, but those that existed have been credited with an important military function; and the question for us is whether this is correct. The subject, however, cannot be discussed in isolation, and something will therefore have to be said of Roman colonies in other regions and other periods than those which form the subject proper of this book.
The Treasures of the Parthenon
Authors: Harris Diane
Published: November 2023

The term ‘Parthenon’ in this chapter refers specifically to the west cella of the temple. The treasurers had access only from the western doors. Passing through the back chamber into the ‘Parthenon’ would have been possible only by breaking the seals on the Opisthodomos grills and gate. The chamber itself had four Ionic columns supporting the superstructure. The Treasures would have been seen only by the treasurers and priests; it was not open to the public and no cult statue stood inside. This room, then, was a chamber devoted to the storage of Athena’s treasures in the fifth century. There is no evidence that cult veneration took place in the room.
The Treasures and the Worshippers
Authors: Harris Diane
Published: November 2023

Rarely in the fifth century and more frequently in the fourth, the treasurers included the name of the individual dedicant along with the description of the object kept in the temple. These names provide some information concerning the kind of dedicant who worshipped Athena on the Akropolis. The worshippers’ names must have been inscribed on the item or attached with a tag; for how else could the treasurers identify these items in the inventories? Ceramic evidence for the use of writing to identify objects begins in the seventh century, with personal names and dedications painted on pottery. Many metal scraps discovered on the Akropolis were found to have inscriptions. These bronze objects with inscriptions from the Akropolis all date to the sixth century BC; they were presumably destroyed during the Persian wars. They include a pomegranate, shields, vases, and other metal dedications. Had they originated in the fifth or fourth century, it might have been possible to identify the bronzes exactly with treasures which appear in the inventories. But even without this possibility the bronze inscriptions from the Akropolis are models and parallels for how the treasury functioned in the classical period; the weight, the name of the dedicant, or other important identifying characteristics were inscribed on the inventoried objects in much the same manner as in the earlier period. The inscriptions on the votive offerings usually have a brief statement of who the dedicant is, and for which god the object was intended. Other circumstances, such as the dedicant’s occupation or reason for prayer, are occasionally included.
The Unity of the Oresteia
Authors: Kip A Maria Van Erp Taalman
Published: November 2023

In Aeschylus’ Agamemnon 1412—20, Clytaemnestra reproaches the chorus for applying double standards: ‘Now you sentence me to banishment from the city, to the hatred of the citizens and the loud curses of the people. But then you laid no blame on this man, who without qualms, as if it concerned the death of a sheep—one out of many, in fleecy flocks—sacrificed his own child, my dearest daughter that I bore with pain, to charm away the Thracian winds. Is it not him you should have banished form the land, to atone for the guilt that defiled him?’. Referring to these lines, Rosenmeyer asserts that ‘the burden of the tragedy quite simply proscribes any suggestion of Clytaemnestra having done what she did in order to avenge her daughter. The timing of the “explanation”, the narrow scope granted to it and the almost throwaway quality of the announcement combine to reduce its importance within the larger scheme.’1 Vickers, in his turn, remarks on Clytaemnestra’s words: ‘as if she does not believe it, she does not press it’.2 Comparable statements have been made by other scholars. In my view, however, their arguments are mistaken.
Tragic Rhetoric: The Use of Tragedy and the Tragic in the Fourth Century
Authors: Wilson P J
Published: November 2023

One of the starting-points of this paper is an interest in the ambivalent attitudes towards tragedy generated in antiquity: not simply in the contrast between the enormous popularity of tragic drama with the Athenian dêmos in the fifth century and the suspicion of intellectuals in the fourth, but in the wider—and largely unrecoverable—attitudes towards tragedy as a cultural institution, and more specifically in speculation concerning the dynamics of Athenian identification with tragedy as an institution. For on the one hand one finds a very high degree of collective and individual self-identification with this leading cultural product of Athens, an energetic contest for the prestige which attaches to it—both within and beyond Attica. lndividuals—ehorêgoi, poets, and actors—accrued huge stores of cultural capital from their association with the institution of tragedy, as did the Athenians collectively, for whatever its origins, classical tragedy was in practice a thoroughly Athenian phenomenon and drew spectators from all Greece to the festival of the Great Dionysia; while on the other hand, tragedy was by its very nature a troubling performance and it did not require an elaborate theoretical formulation sensitive to the dangers of mimesis in order for doubts to be raised about its introduction into the heart of the city.
Tragic and Homeric Ironies: Response to Rosenmeyer
Authors: Lowe N J
Published: November 2023

Surveys of irony are commonly of inverse value to their length; Professor Rosenmeyer’s seems to me one of the very finest, and in particular a significant advance on the canonical Mueckean taxonomy. Its fuller recognition of the unusual status of drama in the cladistics of the ironic makes it possible, in a way that Muecke’s analysis does not, to address the central question of what—if anything—is distinctive about the ways of irony in ancient tragedy, and how thinking about ironies might help us to frame or circumscribe at least the ancient world’s notion of ‘the tragic’ itself. Rosenmeyer has fingered four peculiarities that sharpen the ironic possibilities open to theatre: the much tighter structural economy of drama; the interpolation of the actor into the process of fiction as a mediating presence between character and audience to replace the deleted narrator; the blatant asymmetry of the one-way mirror that is the fourth-wall window; the extra load carried by public speech in the characters’ self-definition. I want, in picking up the gauntlet tossed down in his closing paragraphs, to use these very points as the basis for one possible definition of ‘the tragic’ that may in turn help us to pin down the nature of the special relationship we continue to see between Greek tragedy and what we find it convenient to call irony.