bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Reaction from Public Policy and Regulation after COVID-19 Crisis in Latin America
Authors: Montoya Milton Fernando , Abaunza Daniela Aguilar
Published: August 2022

The COVID-19 pandemic as a global health crisis has created an economic and social emergency all around the world and Latin America is no exception. There have been repercussions for employment, exports, public and private debt, development of infrastructure projects, and in the mining and electrical sector. During this crisis there was an increase in the international gold prices which occurred because of the panic that weak economies created in different countries; therefore central banks’ intention of increasing golds reserves made gold more stable and desirable as a commodity. By contrast, other kinds of minerals used for the mining and electrical sector was highly impacted because there was insufficient demand and restricted mobility for continuing large-scale projects. This chapter analyses the Colombian and Peruvian governments’ reactions, through public policymaking and regulation, throughout the pandemic. It also comments on the repercussions, if any, that the COVID-19 pandemic effected in these countries. The chapter further draws attention to the importance, in both countries, of strengthening the mining and electricity sectors for the effective recovery of the economy, since both Colombia and Peru are major destinations of mining and electricity projects, and highly reliant on exports in this sector.
The New Nationalism of the Mexican Energy Policy in a Turbulent International Context
Authors: Márquez José Juan González
Published: August 2022

This chapter analyses the new Mexican Energy Transition boosted by the government of the so-called Fourth Transformation of the National Public Life (4th Transformation), which took the chair in 2018. The research evaluates both the return to the state monopoly over the energy sector cancelled by the constitutional reform of 2013 and those governmental actions aimed at discouraging investment in clean energies. In light of that evaluation, the survey discusses the implications of this new transition in Mexico’s international commitments regarding opening the energy sector, clean energies, and greenhouse gas emission reduction. In the same vein, the chapter assesses the impacts of the international context on the objectives of the 4th Transformation’s energy policy. In particular, it inquires about how the international Pandemic of COVID-19 influences the new Mexican Energy Policy.
Energy Resilience in the United States
Authors: Smith Don C. , Zillman Donald N.
Published: August 2022

The concept of energy resilience in the United States received relatively limited attention until recently. During the 2017–2021 Donald Trump presidency, the emphasis was on ‘America First’ policies that included promotion of fossil fuels and disparagement of climate change science. In the run-up to the 2020 general election, then candidate Joe Biden included the concept of resiliency in his campaign platform but typically in the context of new job development and addressing climate change. Once in office, President Biden continued the theme of resiliency and linked it to addressing job development and climate change. He worked through a combination of executive orders, regulatory measures, and legislation. While Biden did not often use the words ‘energy resilience’, it was obvious that his administration’s efforts were informed by it. Meanwhile, during 2020–2021 the U.S. was beset with challenges to its democratic foundation.
Force Majeure and the COVID-19 Energy Market Crash
Authors: Boute Anatole
Published: August 2022

The COVID-19 pandemic, and in particular government and market reactions to the health crisis, in combination with a price war between the major oil producers, triggered one the largest recorded demand and price shocks in the history of the global oil and gas markets. By focusing on force majeure, this chapter examines whether the coronavirus-linked energy market crash can excuse suppliers and buyers of natural gas and oil from performing their long-term sale-purchase and investment obligations. The analysis is of broader relevance. It has been argued that the market crash serves as a warning for the energy industry of what is to come in the peak oil demand era. Does force majeure, as one of the few flexibility provisions in energy contracts, contribute to facilitating the adjustment to energy crises or does it contribute to locking the parties in their long-term obligations, even when there is no longer sufficient demand?
Extreme Natural Event Impacts on the Energy Sector and its Regulation
Authors: Lucas Alastair R.
Published: August 2022

Notwithstanding market and infrastructure vulnerability in the face of extreme weather and COVID-19 pandemic events, the Canadian oil and gas sector has shown considerable resilience. This has been supported, particularly in the pandemic, by targeted federal and provincial financial assistance, including oil field environmental cleanup, deferral of monitoring, reporting and taxes, and general employee income and limited corporate relief, but no open-ended industry bailout packages. A case study shows that the COVID-19 period featured newly developed or implemented federal carbon pricing and clean energy programs aimed ultimately at net-zero greenhouse gas emissions. These were ‘drafted’ behind the rapid oil and gas industry economic recovery and the general government pandemic recovery measures. Thus, the sector has moved beyond economic shock recovery and shown dynamic resilience, putting itself in a position to adjust to federal green law and policy initiatives.
Transnational Energy Law Regimes and Systems Dynamics
Authors: Ahmad Nadia B.
Published: August 2022

This chapter examines the growth of green energy finance and renewable energy incentives for building better transnational energy systems and networks by understanding the functioning and finance mechanism put in place by IRENA and the Secretariat of the Energy Charter Treaty. IRENA as an intergovernmental organization and the Energy Charter Treaty are two ways to leverage capital to build more resilient energy systems. Considering the underlying mechanisms of these institutions provides a window to see how the idea of systems dynamics will be significant for building sustainable and reliable energy infrastructure worldwide. One of the key observations made is that when taking into account ongoing natural resource scarcity, high rates of joblessness, and market shocks, the transnational energy law regimes show promise in adapting to worsening climate change conditions and economic constraints. These variables can be understood through system dynamics, which is a part of systems theory, to understand and appreciate the dynamic approach to complex systems.
Public–Private Partnership in the Reconstruction of the Energy Sector
Authors: Eiamchamroonlarp Piti
Published: August 2022

Replacing 4,000 diesel buses with locally manufactured electric buses is perceived by the Thai government and the state-owned enterprise ‘Bangkok Mass Transit Authority’ (BMTA) as a sustainable way to achieve an environmentally friendly transportation system. This replacement is expected to reduce carbon emissions and simultaneously incentivize cleaner energy consumption in Thailand through a more integrated and reliable transportation system. However, having limited capital and technological expertise, the BMTA needs support from, and potentially, partnership with the private sector to push forward this project. This partnership can be created through a public–private partnership (PPP) law. This PPP approach can be deemed as a win-win solution as it allows the BMTA to carry out its functions while contributing to profitability, thus attracting the private sector. Regardless of BMTA’s ability to allocate the demand risk to a private contractor, the electricity system and electricity operators, such as charging station operators, will face challenges arising from electricity demand variation, especially when ridership levels drop. This study finds that the electricity licensing regime, and the third party access (TPA) right, guaranteed by the Energy Industry Act B.E. 2550 (2007), can contribute to energy resilience. Energy resilience is achieved by diversifying sources of electricity and thus reducing the consequences of disruptive events faced by centralized electricity systems as they serve as legal bases permitting utilization of an energy system storage system and peer-to-peer electricity trading.
Increasing the Resilience of the Energy System Through Consumers
Authors: de Fontenelle Louis
Published: August 2022

Resilience could be achieved through increased decentralization of energy systems in which the consumer would have a key role. Indeed, united consumers within energy communities could become the basic cells of energy systems, producing, storing, and sharing energy at the local level. Consumers could also provide various flexibility services to the networks to promote their balance and efficiency (service interruptibility, variation of consumption according to peak periods), thus meaning increasing resilience. In a future electricity system based on renewable energies, supply could be guaranteed by consumers themselves, since new technologies allow them to consume whenever it is most convenient for the rest of the system. Within the traditional paradigm, resilience was in the hands of supply, but in the future paradigm it will be in the hands of demand (demand response). Digital consumers are clearly providing a great service to the whole energy system, maximizing energy consumption/generation and system intelligence. All these developments require a rethinking of the traditional value systems and legal norms of energy systems (universal services, continuity of service) in order to adapt them to this rise in energy consumers.
Conclusion—Managing Disruption and Reinventing the Future
Authors: Banet Catherine , Mostert Hanri , Paddock LeRoy , Montoya Milton Fernando , Guayo Íñigo del
Published: August 2022

The chapter summarizes the key findings from the collection of chapters contained in the book around three main points. First, dealing and building resilience happens in a precise legal context. It is necessary to understand the manner this legal framework works as a complex and interlinked system to appraise the effects of the application of resilience thinking to it. Second, the chapter describes some key lessons learned from the legal responses to resilience and resilience building. Third and finally, the chapter presents the key structural principles of energy, infrastructure, and natural resources law for the forthcoming era as identified in the book and which will play an instrumental role in building resilience.
The Work of Justice in Parmenides B 8
Authors: Evans Matthew
Published: August 2022

Near the end of an early argument in Parmenides B8, the figure of ‘Justice’ is said to hold ‘what-is’ within shackles, so as to prevent it from being either generated or destroyed. Interpreters standardly assume that this claim is to be understood, not as a premise of that argument, but as a picturesque expression of the logical or rational necessity that binds the truth (or the acceptance) of its premises to the truth (or the acceptance) of its conclusion. The aim of this paper will be to cast doubt on this interpretation, and to develop an alternative to it. If this is right, then the work of Justice, both in B8 and in the poem as a whole, is far more robust than we have often been led to believe. The implications of this discovery for our understanding of Parmenides in particular, and of European thought in general, are both momentous and unsettling.
The Anatomy of Primary Substance in Aristotle’s Categories
Authors: Ademollo Francesco
Published: August 2022

This paper investigates two aspects of Aristotle’s conception of a primary substance in the Categories. The first part concerns a primary substance’s relation to its accidental attributes: on one interpretation, (A), a primary substance encompasses all its attributes, including accidental ones; on another, (B), it encompasses only its essential attributes, the accidental attributes being extrinsic to it, though related; on an intermediate interpretation, (C), it does not encompass all its attributes or only essential ones, but all necessary ones. After surveying the history of these interpretations, the chapter argues in favour of (B). In the second part, it argues that a particular human being, their soul, and their body all count as primary substances, where soul and body are parts of the substance. This hypothesis harmonizes with some views advanced in the Categories and passages from other Aristotelian works. The chapter concludes by comparing this view with Aristotle’s mature hylomorphic doctrine.
“Ostjuden” as Predetermined Targets
Authors: Beck Hermann
Published: August 2022

This chapter concentrates on the roots of animosity against “Ostjuden.” Discriminated against already during the Empire, mistrust and enmity toward “Ostjuden” skyrocketed in the wake of the 1918 revolution, when revolutionary unrest and charges that they bore responsibility for “stabbing the German army in the back” were squarely laid at their doorstep by organizations of the German Right. Roots of prejudice even go back to nineteenth-century popular novels, such as Gustav Freytag’s Soll und Haben. The chapter also investigates the extent of popular violence against Jewish immigrants from Eastern Europe during the Weimar Republic, their incarceration in camps in Pomerania and Bavaria during the early 1920s, and pogrom-like popular violence against them during the so-called Scheunenviertel riots in November 1923. Another section of this chapter explores, on the basis of archival sources, their difficult paths to German citizenship during the Weimar Republic. Successful naturalization applications were often nullified by a stroke of the pen in 1933. This leads to closer scrutiny of the official policies of the Hitler/Papen government toward this minority, as well as Hindenburg’s and Hitler’s personal views of “Ostjuden.” The chapter concludes with a brief synopsis of the difficult relationship between German Jews and “Ostjuden.”
Violent Attacks
Authors: Beck Hermann
Published: August 2022

This chapter focuses on the multitude of violent attacks on Jews in Germany in the late winter and spring of 1933. These were widely commented upon in British and American newspapers. It begins by concentrating on antisemitic violence in the Weimar Republic and how this was handled by the authorities, before focusing on the various categories of antisemitic violence and crimes during the period of the Nazi seizure of power, beginning on a large scale after the 5 March 1933 elections. To impress on the reader the dense frequency of attacks and extent of antisemitic violence, one Aktenbestand, which registers antisemitic incidents unedited in telegram style and without mentioning full names over a forty-eight-hour period, is cited here in detail. The detached, matter-of-fact language of this documentation diminishes the callous savagery of the crimes—reality was far more brutal than the documentation suggests. The second section of this chapter concentrates on a frequent but little-known category of attack: forcible expulsion through violent threats. From the many dozens, possibly hundreds, of cases—due to the fragmentary character of the evidence, we cannot be more precise—a few of the better-documented cases are presented here to display the trials, tribulations, and often tortures to which victims were subjected before being expelled from their homeland. Most victims complied and left Germany forthwith, since they knew that non-compliance could and would result in cold-blooded murder. The chapter concludes with a brief section on attacks on Jewish livestock dealers and those incarcerated and at the mercy of their jailers.
Pillory Marches and the Perfidy Decree
Authors: Beck Hermann
Published: August 2022

This chapter focuses on pillory marches and the much harsher sentences meted out to Jews than non-Jews for infractions against the so-called Heimtücke Verordnung (“Perfidy Decree”). The medieval and early modern punishment of pillory marches, designed to dishonor victims by the publicity of what was originally meant as a disciplinary measure, was revived in Nazi Germany. During the Nazi takeover, members of Nazi organizations frequently held up to ridicule their Jewish business rivals, and non-Jewish victims were punished for their alleged intimacy with Jewish Germans (long before sexual relations between Jews and non-Jews were criminalized). Those Germans who continued to patronize Jewish shops were branded as “traitors of the people” and publicly humiliated by seeing their names published in local papers, read out at meetings, or posted on billboards. This remorseless effort to drag private matters into the public realm became the hallmark of the nascent dictatorship. To “put someone in the pillory” was meant to destroy the social status of those stigmatized and to enforce conformity in others by pressuring doubters into line and compelling them to profess allegiance to the new regime. Jews and non-Jews were sentenced differently for similar offenses under the “Perfidy Decree,” which was designed to curb negative domestic gossip and nip in the bud any communication that was unwelcome to the regime. The decree had an immediate effect on interpersonal relations and social discourse by imposing an unnatural discretion, fostering denunciations, and promoting an atmosphere of all-pervasive fear.
Legal and Economic Discrimination
Authors: Beck Hermann
Published: August 2022

This chapter concentrates on the legal and economic discrimination of German Jews in 1933. It begins with local and regional ordinances against German Jews throughout March 1933 which, in an effort to standardize anti-Jewish legal measures across the Reich and reclaim the authority of the central government, led to the antisemitic legislation of April 1933. The four components of this legislation—the Law on the Restoration of a Professional Civil Service, the Law on Admission to Legal Practice (both of 7 April 1933), the Decree on the Admission of Physicians to the National Health Insurance Service (of 22 April 1933), and the Law Against the Overcrowding of German Schools and Universities (of 25 April 1933)—as well as their consequences and impact, are briefly discussed here. Legislative measures, however, were only the tip of the iceberg. The Reich government had emphasized that the April laws would pertain solely to the public realm and that the “Aryan clause” would play no role in the private sector of the economy. Since the public sector dovetailed in many ways with the private economy, such as when various levels of government awarded contracts to companies in private industry and commerce, the “Aryan clause” was effectively introduced into large parts of the non-public sector as well—orders and contracts became dependent on whether the firms in question were “free of Jewish influence.” The chapter explores this economic discrimination in all of its ramifications in the private sector of the economy.
Protestant Church Leaders and the “Jewish Question”
Authors: Beck Hermann
Published: August 2022

This chapter examines the relationship between German Protestant Church leaders and German Jews, especially the Church’s reaction to the April boycott, antisemitic violence, and pleas for help from Jews who had converted to Protestantism but now found themselves under attack. It begins with an investigation into Church responses to the worldwide boycott of German goods and shows that Church leaders willingly colluded with the emerging Nazi State by minimizing antisemitic attacks, even denying their existence. Church leaders told their foreign counterparts “not to believe exaggerated and invented reports about terror in Germany.” Before and after the boycott, several prominent Church leaders urged Hermann Kapler, the most influential figure in German Protestantism, to take an active stand by protesting against the treatment of Jews, but no actions were undertaken. An examination of the countless pleas for help from baptized Jews reveals that their entreaties were met mostly with indifference. The main reason for such seeming callousness is revealed in Church leaders’ correspondence: Hitler’s national revolution, despite its excesses, was welcomed by the bulk of the Protestant hierarchy, resulting in a growing consensus with the regime by April 1933. Otto Dibelius, the most energetic leader among Protestant bishops, reflected the Church’s sympathy with the new Nazi regime, which reached a high point in spring 1933, when he publicly defended the April boycott in a radio address to an American audience, after openly criticizing Nazism in 1932. Others, less critically predisposed to National Socialism, would fall in line with even fewer reservations.
The German Catholic Church Between Doctrine and Self-Preservation
Authors: Beck Hermann
Published: August 2022

This chapter starts out by scrutinizing the initially critical attitude of German Catholic bishops toward National Socialism, warning against “cultural teachings that are incompatible with Catholic doctrine” and prohibiting the participation of Catholics in the Nazi movement. Despite their criticisms, the German episcopate had not worked out a common policy toward Nazism, and warnings against National Socialism were often accompanied by professions of national solidarity and devotion to the Fatherland. While far more critical than their Protestant counterparts, Catholic bishops in 1933 (the vast majority of whom were in their sixties and seventies) had lived through Bismarck’s Kulturkampf and were careful to avoid maneuvering the Catholic Church into the role of a pariah once again. The attitude of bishops began to undergo a decisive alteration after the 5 March 1933 elections, when it became clear that the NSDAP had made significant inroads into the Catholic milieu and bishops saw themselves locked into competition with Protestant Churches to curry favor with the new regime. On 28 March, former warnings and reservations against Nazism were rescinded. Until the end of March, when Archbishop Adolf Bertram, the primus inter pares among German archbishops, sent a circular memo about the April boycott to the other archbishops inquiring whether the Church should intervene, Catholic bishops had managed to evade the issue of antisemitic violence. No intervention took place, since Bertram adopted the narrative of the government regarding the boycott. In extensive correspondence with members of the clergy, Archbishop Michael von Faulhaber of Munich repeatedly emphasized that Catholic protests would turn the fight against Jews into a fight against Catholics, and that Jews could help themselves. This would essentially remain the line followed by Catholic bishops in 1933. Thus, while a few courageous individual voices urged that the Catholic Church speak out, the episcopate remained silent.
Reactions of the German Administrative and Judicial Bureaucracy
Authors: Beck Hermann
Published: August 2022

This chapter scrutinizes reactions of the German administrative and judicial bureaucracy. In the late winter and spring of 1933, German administrative officials were directly involved in handling complaints from foreign embassies and consulates about attacks on their Jewish citizens, while upper-echelon officials in the judicial branch, especially public prosecutors, dealt with antisemitic crimes. When dealing with complaints from foreign consulates, officials were caught in the predicament between their own sense of justice (they knew quite well that the substance of the charges against the SA were true) and national solidarity with the perpetrators, which the new government expected from them. Available documents clearly show that higher civil servants who prepared reports for the Interior Ministry did their utmost to minimize the severity of the attacks. To justify attacks and provide seemingly legitimate pretexts for them, victims were often labeled communists who had allegedly issued subversive statements, even in attacks on affluent middle-class Jews with whom such accusations were manifestly absurd. In the judicial branch, public prosecutors aided and abetted crimes ranging from theft to murder. Given the political and psychological climate during the spring of 1933 and the amnesties of 21 March and 25 July 1933, they knew full well that offenders would be released in any case, and in their reports and summaries they worked toward this end by exculpating perpetrators with specious excuses. The all-too-willing complicity of the administrative and judicial bureaucracies in the spring of 1933 cannot solely be explained by opportunism alone (though concern about professional careers did play a role), but must take into account the deep-seated antisemitic prejudice with which higher officials were suffused.
Reactions of Hitler’s Conservative Coalition Partner
Authors: Beck Hermann
Published: August 2022

Given the vested interest conservatives had evinced in the Prussian/German State and the fact that they had closely identified themselves with the Reich and its political fate since the nineteenth century, some German Jews erroneously assumed in 1933 that Hitler’s conservative alliance partner, the DNVP, might resist what the prominent Weimar German Jewish journalist Georg Bernhard once called “the implementation of Nazi’s racial idiocies.” This hope that conservatives would temper Nazi antisemitism and act as a brake on the realization of its antisemitic program was futile. As this chapter shows, the DNVP and conservatives in general would fulfill none of the expectations placed on them. During the Weimar Republic, the DNVP had excluded Jews from some of its regional organizations and, while the party’s antisemitism abated after 1924, its leadership group and rank-and-file membership were permeated with a cultural anti-Judaism mixed with a political antisemitism that associated Jews with left-wing politics, advocated the removal of “Ostjuden” from Germany, and favored restrictions on Jewish influence. During the period of the Nazi takeover, the DNVP was anxious not to be considered “judenfreundlich,” but at the same time was reluctant to signal to national-minded baptized Jews that to them the party as a whole was off limits. Those DNVP members who were appalled at Nazi attacks emphasized the merits of patriotic German Jews, drew attention to their efforts on Germany’s behalf in the past, and appealed to the party leadership for help. Numerous regional DNVP associations, on the other hand, actually participated in the April boycott. Given the endemic antisemitism of its leaders and most of its members, it was illusory to expect any help from the DNVP as a whole.
Epilogue
Authors: Beck Hermann
Published: August 2022

The Epilogue briefly sums up the most significant results of the fourteen chapters of this book. It probes into the reasons why it was possible that a mere five weeks after Hitler’s accession to the chancellorship Germany was swept by a wave of antisemitic violence during which neither the Protestant and Catholic Churches, nor the administrative and judicial branches of the bureaucracy, nor Hitler’s conservative coalition partner interfered or spoke out in defense of Germany’s Jews. A complete change in popular mood brought about by the surging popularity of the new regime following the 5 March elections, the promise of national unity after the discord and strife of the Weimar years, and the growing sense, as Sebastian Haffner wrote, that “great times lay ahead,” form the background of the events examined here. In the spring of 1933, even Henning von Tresckow and Claus Graf von Stauffenberg, prominent members of the 20 July 1944 plot to kill Hitler, had high hopes for the new government. The atmosphere that spring was characterized by a mixture of enthusiasm and fear: passionate agreement with many of the goals of the new regime, on the one hand, and fear of its terror, on the other. The complete absence of protest on the part of Protestant Church leaders can be explained partially by deep-seated and seemingly indelible notions about the negative influence of Jewish predominance in public life and other forms of anti-Jewish bias. What astonishes is not just the shrinking back from any form of open or even veiled protest but the anxious anticipation of the wishes of the new regime’s dominant coalition partner that we observe in both the bureaucracy and the DNVP. Three interconnected and mutually overlapping reasons account for this phenomenon: the growing popularity of a regime that propagated antisemitism and made it socially and politically acceptable, fear of Nazi terror and repressive measures, and, most importantly, antisemitic prejudices on the part of the German elite.
Love, Hate, and the Law in Tudor England
Authors: Poos L.R.
Published: August 2022

Love, Hate, and the Law in Tudor England reconstructs the life of Ralph Rishton, a member of the sixteenth-century Lancashire gentry who was a child bridegroom and a serial wife discarder, who bribed church officials to obtain a forged annulment, defrauded a kinsman out of his inheritance, and adroitly manipulated his own and other people’s land. The dozens of lawsuits in which the Rishtons were involved, in many different courts, elucidate one family’s engagement with law in Tudor England: how they used and misused law, how it shaped their perceptions of rights and mutual obligations, and how it framed litigants’ and witnesses’ language. Drawing upon trial and estate records, the core of this book is the central narrative of Ralph Rishton and his three wives, of litigiousness and violence, marriage and property, and the pursuit of equitable resolutions to disputes, along with countless smaller narratives that vividly capture a culture in its time and place. Alongside that central narrative, the book uses the Rishton stories as a starting point for analysing child marriage, the construction of memory, and the development of local historical identity through antiquarians and the Victorian and Edwardian local press, demonstrating how—from the time of the Rishtons into the twentieth century—historical narratives were continually reshaped and repurposed.
‘It Would Be a Pity Not to Complete the History’
Authors: Poos L. R.
Published: August 2022

The stories of Roger and Ralph Rishton had a long afterlife, as they continued to be reshaped and repurposed by local antiquarians and the provincial press. The Rishton family faded from local prominence in the later Tudor and Stuart periods, owing mainly to their recusancy, which in turn was a reflection of the continuing strength of Catholic conviction in post-Reformation Lancashire and eventually caused them to lose their estates during the English Civil War. From the seventeenth to the nineteenth century, Lancashire antiquarians sought, copied, and preserved documents from gentry family histories and began to retell Rishton stories. The vast expansion of the provincial press in the Victorian and Edwardian eras created a new outlet for local history, as newspapers featured columns with revolving repertoires of stories rooted in locality, consciously engendering a sense of historical place for their readerships, and stories about Roger and Ralph were recurring chapters in east Lancashire papers. This retrospective examination of the Rishton stories’ afterlife ends with reflection upon the power of those stories and their continual repurposing, culminating in a poem from the later twentieth century exemplifying their lasting appeal.
The State of Confusion
Authors: Unnsteinsson Elmar
Published: August 2022

This chapter presents two models of confusion, the belief model and the concept model. It argues that the models ought to capture both combinatory and separatory cases of confusion, that is, both cases where two objects are taken for one and one object is taken for two. Positive arguments are developed in favor of the belief model and it is shown that objections developed by Ruth Millikan and Joseph Camp are inconclusive. They have argued that mistaking two objects for one cannot consist in a mental state of believing that those two objects are identical because, roughly, the thinker will not have the two required concepts at their disposal, only the one. This chapter shows in some detail that this is not true, by arguing that the mental state in question can be an implicit belief. The notion of implicit belief is then examined in more depth in the next chapter.
Representational Acts and Implicit Attitudes
Authors: Unnsteinsson Elmar
Published: August 2022

This chapter argues for the distinction between representational acts and representational states on the assumption that the former are under greater intentional control than the latter. Individuals choose what to say but they put up with their beliefs. On this basis it is argued that there are profoundly or strongly implicit attitudes, namely, attitudes which a speaker may possess without having the conceptual resources for its expression in a representational act. Thus, the speaker’s representational states can outstrip their capacity for representational action. This chapter shows how this notion of implicit attitude is assumed by other theorists in explaining self-deception, mental fragmentation, and similar phenomena. Finally, it is argued that the state of confusion is precisely a state of this kind, namely, where the speaker may lack the capacity for performing the corresponding representational act. In Chapters 1 and 2, the language of the theorist is distinguished from the language of the subject whose thought and talk theorists are trying to explain. Here this distinction comes into its own as a tool for identifying contentful attitude states in subjects lacking the relevant representational capacities themselves. Finally, two illustrations are presented to support the contention that mental states can be profoundly implicit both in content and in attitude, that is, thinkers can lack access to the content of, for example, a belief, and lack access to the fact that it is a belief rather than some other attitude type. The next chapter then examines the nature of intentionally controlled representational actions.
Explanation, Mechanism, and Function
Authors: Unnsteinsson Elmar
Published: August 2022

This chapter presents and argues for a mechanistic and teleofunctionalist perspective on explanation in cognitive science. It proposes that the theorist’s task is to explain cognitive capacities by postulating mental mechanisms whose function is to enable the production of some characteristic effect. Pragmatic competence is, in the author’s view, the capacity to produce speech acts with certain specific intentions. This capacity is explained by dedicated mechanisms whose normal operation results in the production of such acts. The mechanism of referential competence is a component part of the mechanism of pragmatic competence and can be decomposed into component operations by defining its characteristic functional contribution to acts of speaker meaning, and examining the ways in which it may malfunction. Four explanatorily relevant aspects of the mechanism for reference are identified: context, external conditions, constitution, and etiology. Most importantly, the decomposition makes it possible to develop new mechanistic accounts of familiar phenomena in the philosophy of language and mind. First, the author shows that the so-called Humpty Dumpty constraint on communicative intentions should be thought of as a constitutive feature of the mechanism for referential competence. Second, the author argues for a mechanistic reinterpretation of well-known arguments for externalism about content, associated with Kripke, Putnam, Burge, and others. Both will serve as models for the notion of the edenic constraint on reference to be introduced in Chapter 7.
Antioch and Northern Syria in the Sixth Century
Authors: Parker Lucy
Published: August 2022

This chapter analyses Antioch and northern Syria in the sixth century, the setting for Symeon the Younger’s life and cult. It explores the series of disasters, including earthquakes, plague, and Persian invasion, which hit the city during Symeon’s lifetime. It summarizes the literary evidence relating to these disasters, which presents a picture of catastrophe, before considering archaeology, which offers some, albeit limited, support for a picture of decline. It considers new archaeological perspectives on crisis, including the paradigm of ‘resilience’. It explores social and cultural tensions in the Antiochene region, including conflicts over paganism, and divisions between Chalcedonians and miaphysites. It argues that Christian communities in Antioch were fractured as much by tensions and disagreement over proper Christian identity and attitudes towards the pagan past as they were by Christological divisions. It addresses the scholarly debate about the state of the Roman empire in this period, arguing that the severity (or otherwise) of the economic and practical consequences of disasters did not necessarily correlate to the scale of their cultural, psychological, and ideological ramifications.
Defending Didactic Enlightenment, 1805−1815
Authors: Bow Charles Bradford
Published: August 2022

This chapter examines Stewart’s defence of his didactic Enlightenment. In the contexts of Leslie affair of 1805−6, which harboured an ecclesiastical counter-revolutionary attack against the Scottish philosophical tradition, Stewart defended the utility of his educational doctrine. He went on to confront competing philosophical systems in the revived republic of letters after his triumph over Edinburgh clergymen with the support of his intellectual disciples in the Edinburgh Review. Stewart ridiculed Immanuel Kant’s Transcendental Idealism and John Horne Tooke’s ‘etymological metaphysics’ in his Philosophical Essays (1810), which cleared the way for his rational logic of moral education that he set forth in the second volume of his Elements (1814). And the development of an experimental programme of education for a boy, who was born blind and deaf, exhibited the wider democratization of Stewart’s didactic Enlightenment.
Homer the Rhetorician
Authors: van den Berg Baukje
Published: August 2022

This book is the first monograph study devoted to the monumental Commentary on the Iliad by Eustathios of Thessalonike, one of the most renowned orators and teachers of the Byzantine twelfth century. Homeric poetry was a fixture in the Byzantine educational curriculum and enjoyed special popularity under the Komnenian emperors. For Eustathios, Homer was the supreme paradigm of eloquence and wisdom. Writing for an audience of aspiring or practising prose writers, he explains in his commentary what it is that makes Homer’s composition so successful in rhetorical terms. This book explores the exemplary qualities that Eustathios recognizes in the poet as author and the Iliad as rhetorical masterpiece. Moreover, by placing Eustathios’ reading of the Iliad in the long traditions of earlier literary criticism, rhetorical thought, and Homeric exegesis, it sheds light on the conceptual framework governing Eustathios’ analysis of Homeric poetry and reassesses his contribution to the history of both rhetoric and the reception of Homer. With chapters on Eustathios’ hermeneutic programme as well as his views on the poet’s rhetorical virtuosity, the poem’s rhetorical plausibility, and the different functions of the Homeric gods, the book charts Eustathios’ literary criticism of the Iliad. In this way, it advances our understanding of the rhetorical thought of a leading intellectual and the role of a cultural authority as respected as Homer in one of the most fertile periods in Byzantine literary history.
Introduction
Authors: van den Berg Baukje
Published: August 2022

This section briefly introduces the life and work of Eustathios of Thessalonike, the literary climate of the Komnenian period, as well as the age-old connection between Homeric poetry and rhetorical thought. It lays out the book’s approach to the Commentary on the Iliad as an ideological and cultural text that allows us to read the Iliad from beginning to end through Byzantine eyes. The introduction also justifies the choice of the texts that are used throughout the study to place Eustathios’ reading of Homer in its wider literary critical, rhetorical, and exegetical contexts.
Epilogue
Authors: van den Berg Baukje
Published: August 2022

This epilogue to the book suggests several avenues for future research. Eustathios’ rhetorical analysis of Homer can be fruitfully put into dialogue with the broader literary culture of the time: his reflections on literature and language in the Homeric commentaries shed light on the stylistic and compositional underpinnings of his own writings as well as those of his students and contemporaries. Eustathios’ rhetorical reading accounts for only one (albeit significant) part of his Homeric exegesis. A comprehensive study of the material other than the rhetorical and grammatical can further flesh out what it means to be a polymath in the twelfth century. Largely unexplored remains also what Eustathios’ scholarship can tell us about medieval thought beyond the linguistic and literary. Eustathios’ moralizing reading of Homer, his reflections on heroism and rulership, and his incidental remarks on human behaviour and interhuman relations can open a perspective onto contemporary political thinking and social values. By continuing to unlock the classical scholarship of intellectuals such as Eustathios, we will gradually come closer to a fuller appreciation of the Byzantine study of ancient literature as an expression of Byzantine thought.
That Damned Dialogue
Authors: Guyer Benjamin M.
Published: August 2022

This third chapter analyses the increasingly fractious relations between the national churches of England and Scotland. The first section examines how James VI of Scotland, newly crowned in 1603 as James I of England, embraced the Church of England. The second section details the king’s attempt, from 1617 onward, at using his new church to set the standard for how the churches in his other kingdoms would operate. But placing the Church of England into close contact with the Church of Scotland revealed conflicting understandings of sixteenth-century religious change. The English church was just as far removed from the developing historiographies of evangelicals in Europe. As the third section shows, the English took no notice in 1617 of the first Luther centenary. The chapter concludes with a survey of Jacobean historiography on Tudor England. Setting the stage for Chapter 4, this portion of the chapter notes that early Stuart historians not only failed to see Tudor religious history as one of reformation—they actually advanced the first negative appraisals of the sacrilege that took place under Henry VIII and Edward VI.
Reformed Catholics, True Protestants
Authors: Guyer Benjamin M.
Published: August 2022

The chapter opens with how the early 1660s often appeared on the verge of repeating recent political history, as new political and religious pamphlets reiterated arguments many decades old. This only changed in 1662, when a new oath of conformity was ratified. The stage was thus set for the further refinement of English Reformation historiography. Throughout Charles II’s reign, historians largely told the same story—but with two notable differences. First, there was a growing awareness of the differences that emerged under Edward VI about Eucharistic doctrine. Second, Henry VIII was increasingly excised from histories of the English Reformation, leaving it a fundamentally Edwardian-Elizabethan event. Finally, the chapter surveys perspectives on Martin Luther and uses of the term “Protestant,” concluding that even in the late seventeenth century, England lacked a clearly defined “Protestant” identity.
Nominalization in Latin
Authors: Spevak Olga
Published: August 2022

This book is devoted to verbal nouns, defined as nouns which have a systematic correspondence with a clause structure. The book aims to contribute to the much-debated question of ‘abstract nouns’ in general and ‘verbal derivatives’ in particular by showing that syntactic parameters are useful for a better classification of what are traditionally called nomina actionis. It adopts a descriptive approach and it provides methods and criteria for identifying these nouns which retain some verbal properties and for distinguishing them from nouns with concrete reference. This distinction is important for a better understanding of Latin texts and for the presentation of these words in dictionaries. The book investigates the use of verbal nouns in various text types: narrative texts and technical treatises (rhetoric, architecture, and legal texts). It shows that verbal nouns, as well as gerunds, gerundives, participles in participial clauses, and also, partly, infinitives, are competing expressions with a low ‘sententiality’ that serve, to different extents, to condensate clausal expressions. They form a system in which the elements are partly overlapping and partly complementary. The fact that Latin does not have a verbal noun available for every verb should not be viewed as a ‘deficiency’, but as a facet of this complex system.
How China is Reshaping the Global Economy
Authors: Jenkins Rhys
Published: August 2022

The growth of China and its re-emergence as a major economic power has been a key feature of globalization in the twenty-first century. China has become an increasingly significant actor in the global economy and this is likely to continue in the foreseeable future. The implications of this for Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) have been a source of major debate. This book examines the arguments, drawing on a growing body of research on China’s economic involvement in SSA and LAC. It begins by considering the process of economic reform in China from the late 1970s that provided the basis for China’s growing integration with the global economy. It considers four aspects of this integration: the growth of China as a global manufacturing centre; its impact on global commodity markets; the overseas expansion of Chinese firms as part of the ‘Go Global’ policy; and the increased role of China in global capital flows. Discussion of China’s impact on SSA and LAC is characterized by disagreements over both the extent of its presence and the underlying drivers. The book documents the different forms of Chinese economic involvement and clarifies some of the confusions that have arisen over the extent of China’s presence. It then analyses the economic, social, political, and environmental impacts of China on both regions to show a much more varied picture than the one that is often presented. These impacts depend to a significant extent on local conditions and actors and cannot be explained solely as a consequence of Chinese expansion.
The Transformation of the Chinese Economy
Authors: Jenkins Rhys
Published: August 2022

This chapter analyses the growth of the Chinese economy since the late 1970s and the various phases of economic reform during the period. It shows the way in which China became increasingly integrated with the global economy through trade and inward investment and later by outward foreign direct investment (OFDI). Key aspects of the economic reforms discussed are the reform of the financial sector that led to the creation of the policy banks, and enterprise reform leading to changes in the management of state-owned enterprises (SOEs) and the growth of the private sector. Developments in the Chinese labour market affecting employment, wages, and productivity are also considered. Finally the negative environmental impacts of China’s rapid economic growth and the responses to it are discussed.