bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Single Parenthood
Authors: Obreshkova Evgeniya , Goulart Pedro
Published: March 2016

Single parenthood has been increasing within the developed world and it has been affecting traditional roles and changing relationships. Scholars have made efforts to understand the existing various types of single parenthood, as well as its causes and its consequences. The majority of single parents are women who are in charge of their children, but there are an increasing number of male parents. Desertion, widowhood, separation and divorce, or simply preferring to be alone have been pointed as potential causes. Single parenthood has often been associated with higher probability of unemployment and insufficient income, and also potentially affects the educational and socialization outcomes of children. Nonetheless, families and societies have found ways to adapt to these changes. Whether social policies address these issues adequately and how these policies are conceived are disputable matters.
Principle of Least Interest
Authors: Buckley Rhonda R.
Published: March 2016

The principle of least interest suggests that the person who is least interested in maintaining a relationship can most easily walk away from the relationship. This concept is associated with power and control in social relationships and is most often associated with social exchange theory.
Cohesion, Marital
Authors: Doane Michael J.
Published: March 2016

Marital cohesion refers to the degree of connectedness, togetherness, and emotional bonding between marital partners. Cohesion in marriages is related to positive relationship qualities, including greater relationship satisfaction and lower hostility between partners. Also, marital cohesion is positively related to individual well‐being, such as higher levels of self‐esteem. Yet, extremely high levels of cohesion may be unhealthy for marriages, reflecting too much dependence between partners. An optimal level of cohesion in marriages is defined by balancing healthy levels of both separateness and togetherness. Marital cohesion is included in research on both the dyadic adjustment process and the circumplex model of marital functioning. Previous research has focused on studying cohesion at the individual level, and future work should seek to model cohesion at the dyadic level (i.e., describing how cohesion functions between relationship partners).
Orphans
Authors: Schmeeckle Maria
Published: March 2016

Orphans are usually defined as children under the age of 18 who have lost one or both parents to death. Social orphans are children who have living parents but who are not under the care of these parents. There is worldwide concern for orphans, many of whom have lost parents due to the HIV/AIDS epidemic, which is particularly acute in sub‐Saharan Africa. Contemporary orphanhood reflects global inequalities. While the highest number of orphans are in Asia, proportions are highest in Africa and they are rising. After surviving parents, extended families provide the most significant alternative living environment for orphans. Community‐based support, institutionalization, and international adoption are other options for orphan care. A few orphans head their own households, and orphans sometimes take responsibility for siblings. International agencies such as the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) are shifting their focus from specific subpopulations of children (such as orphans) to a more systematic and comprehensive approach to child protection.
Household Labor
Authors: Train Kelly Amanda
Published: March 2016

Household labor largely remains “women's work” and the responsibility of women, regardless of women's increased involvement in the paid workforce. Men in the early twenty‐first century are increasingly involved in direct interaction with and care of their children, and perform some household duties such as cleaning, cooking, and so on, as well as “male tasks” such as repairs and outdoor work. Nonetheless, women are often held responsible for the bulk of housework, money work, child care, eldercare, care for disabled family members, and emotional work. Men are generally able to choose when they perform household labor, as well as which tasks and to what extent they will perform these duties.
Extended Family
Authors: Quashie Nekehia T.
Published: March 2016

Extended family households have increasingly received attention in academic and policy research due to demographic processes of population aging, migration, and new family formations as well as shifts in socioeconomic conditions for older and younger cohorts. The form and function of extended families also differ according to gender systems. Continued research on extended families is particularly important in the Global South, where societies are faced with the confluence of rapid population aging and the constant migration of younger cohorts.
Divorce Rates, Measurement of
Authors: van Vleet Bethany L. , Bodman Denise Ann
Published: March 2016

Accurate and precise rates for marriage and divorce are important in helping researchers and policymakers to understand relationships and relationship dissolution. Typically, data related to divorce are gathered through formal governmental collections, such as census records or court data and surveys, but the quality and extent of the data vary. A number of common methods are used to determine divorce rates, including current marriage to current divorce ratio, crude divorce rate, refined divorce rate, longitudinal cohort analysis, and life tables; however, each has significant weaknesses.
Unemployment and Families
Authors: Rosino Michael
Published: March 2016

Economic phenomena such as unemployment affect individuals within families, relationships within families, and family systems as a whole. Unemployment often manifests in economic pressure, which creates both financial strain and psychological stress. However, the specific effects of unemployment are moderated by individual family characteristics such as race, social class, and gender ideology as well as the wider social context. Families who have access to substantial social and economic resources may experience little or no stress as a result of unemployment. Additionally, families with more flexible divisions of gendered household labor can more easily adapt to unemployment. Studies employing family stress and coping models have illuminated important techniques for coping with the stress of unemployment including pragmatic reframing, mutual support, and open communication.
Deinstitutionalization of Marriage
Authors: Walker Laquitta M.
Published: March 2016

The deinstitutionalization of marriage is understood as the decline of marriage as societies have become more accepting of different forms of and alternatives to marriage. The changes in the social norms surrounding what was once the primary mode of family formation have arisen as a result of several social forces including the rise in cohabitation both before marriage and as an alternative to marriage, the increase in age at first marriage, the rise in divorce, the increase in out‐of‐wedlock childbearing, and the increase in the acceptability of same‐sex marriages.
Childhood Socialization
Authors: Aransiola Joshua O.
Published: March 2016

Socialization has been conceived as the lifelong learning process of adapting to societal norms and values. Thus the process starts immediately after the birth of a child through interaction with significant others in his/her life. The agents of socialization include the family, peer groups, schools, religious organizations, mass media, and sports. The tenets of six major theories of socialization – psychoanalytic, attachment, social learning, family system, social ecological, and evolutionary developmental theory – are discussed in this entry.
Eastern
E
uropean Immigrants
Authors: Farnicka Marzanna A. , Liberska Hanna , Grzegorzewska Iwona
Published: March 2016

The political changes in eastern Europe that took place after 1989 led to a greater number of people leaving their home countries to look for better working conditions in other countries. It is possible to identify two basic patterns of this migration: the first and most common targets are the wealthier countries of the European Union, and the second are the classical targets of emigration, such as the United States or Canada. In the majority of cases, labor migration has replaced political migration. In the European Union there is the obvious issue of economic liberalization between the member states as they attempt to integrate economically. This trend is a key factor in the facilitation of migration. Most immigrants from eastern European countries are young people aged 35 and above on average or well‐educated professionals. With increased migrational movement in these countries, new social phenomena have emerged, such as Euro‐orphanhood, fluid populations, and an increased number of mixed marriages.
Hypogamy
Authors: Almanzar Josephine Marie
Published: March 2016

Hypogamy is the act of marrying someone of a lower social and economic class than your own. Hypogamy has been found to be practiced more by men than by women. For men power and control is the one of the strongest attainments and what often leads them to pursue a hypogamous relationship. The idea of power and control is made possible by the gender roles and expectations that society has instilled in both men and women. Societal institutions have created deeply rooted systematic differences between men and women and an idea of how far women can go socially, professionally, and economically. Immigration and citizenship have influenced the goal of marriage, consequentially creating hypogamy on the personal level. Finally, social changes brought about by the feminist movement and World War II, for example, helped tilt the scale in favor of women in society and of hypogamy.
Concerted Cultivation
Authors: Hunt Andrea N.
Published: March 2016

The concept of concerted cultivation is attributed to Annette Lareau's groundbreaking ethnographic research on social class and childrearing patterns. Concerted cultivation refers to middle‐class parenting strategies that emphasize the accumulation of cultural capital. Parents are active in their child's education which is reinforced in the home. Children take part in numerous extracurricular activities and are taught how to negotiate relationships with teachers and the bureaucratic processes within the educational system.
Veneration of the Dead among the
I
gbo
Authors: Ebere Charles
Published: March 2016

One of the key pillars of the traditional religion of the Igbo of southeastern Nigeria is the veneration of the dead. It emanates from their worldview that the dead, whom they refer to as ancestors, have a direct impact on the lives of people in the community and consequently need respect from the living. It is a mutual interaction that helps them maintain their identity and invariably strengthens the living. The Igbo's acceptance of Christianity has not in any way diminished their belief in the potency of the dead. This is a development that warrants further investigation as to why they are caught between two spiritual worlds that profess different belief systems.
Father Role, History of
Authors: Puhlman Daniel J. , Pasley Kay
Published: March 2016

Fathering has changed considerably over the past century. The father's role has moved from being the moral leader to the breadwinner, advancing into a sex role model and, most recently, becoming more nurturing and caring in regular family interactions. The role of the father has been reflected in the shifting ways that scholars identify and measure father involvement using various models that take into account these shifting roles. In addition, other factors such as family structure, father identity, and co‐parenting have been recently identified as having an important influence on contemporary father roles.
Divorce Statistics
Authors: Krywult‐Albańska Małgorzata
Published: March 2016

This entry provides an overview of issues involved in the collection of divorce statistics for selected world regions (mostly for modern industrialized countries). Matters discussed include sources of data on marital dissolution, the construction of indicators, and the implications of various methods of measuring divorce. Divorce correlates, which have an impact on divorce rates, are outlined. A general overview of trends with respect to marital dissolution is provided, pointing to a general increase in divorce rates in various countries. The final section discusses some implications of contemporary changes in the process of family formation for the collection of data on marital breakup.
Working‐Class Families in the
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Authors: Peoples Clayton D.
Published: March 2016

Working‐class individuals make up close to 40 percent of the working population in the United States. As such, working‐class families are a large and important demographic group worthy of attention. Working‐class families are in a unique – and potentially precarious – economic position: although they are not technically in poverty, they are by no means in a comfortable financial situation. They have lower pay and fewer benefits than their counterparts in the middle and upper classes and this presents some challenges like heightened psychological and/or familial distress. Recent economic shifts, such as the globalization of the economy and outsourcing, have served to exacerbate these challenges and have also led to changes in family structure (e.g., a shift away from the breadwinner–homemaker model). Scholars and practitioners should pay close attention to working‐class families in the future to ensure that the challenges and needs of this important demographic group are understood and addressed.
Stay‐at‐Home Mothers
Authors: Gemelli Marcella
Published: March 2016

Stay‐at‐home mothers care for children in the home, generally without working for pay outside the home. Sociologists view stay‐at‐home motherhood, and motherhood in general, as a social construction, rather than as a biological or deterministic role. The number of stay‐at‐home mothers has fluctuated throughout the decades, reflecting changes in the economy, women's rights, women's educational attainment, and cultural attitudes.
Symbolic Interaction Theory
Authors: Yeager Erica Owens
Published: March 2016

Symbolic interaction theory focuses on the social production of shared experience via symbols. People interact with one another and, in so doing, continually recreate lived reality as experienced by participants. All knowable reality, including one's “self,” is given form and meaning via social exchange. The self develops in successive stages, and self‐sentiment relies on the interpretation of others' reactions. Shame and embarrassment feature heavily as well, as avoiding these unpleasant emotions is the foundational goal of social actors.
Feminist Perspectives on Families
Authors: Sharp Elizabeth A. , Blume Libby Balter
Published: March 2016

Feminist perspectives offer a revolutionary critical lens for studying families and for challenging traditional understandings of sex, gender, sexualities, conceptualizations of families, and individuals' family roles. Feminist thought considers issues of power on individual, relational, familial, institutional, structural, and global levels, as well as the interplay of power across these levels. Praxis (i.e., applying research to promote social justice), reflexivity (i.e., critical questioning of research practices), and the use of a diversity of feminist approaches are distinctive features of feminist thought in family studies. Feminist perspectives expose essentialist binaries (e.g., men/women); critique restrictive gendered roles in families (e.g., the disproportionate amount of women's family labor); question biological determinism as well as the myth of separate private/public spheres; and challenge other notions, including: (1) that families are unmitigated safe havens; (2) that there is one monolithic family; and (3) that one type of family is optimal.
Denmark, Families in
Authors: Janning Michelle , Rytkønen Helle
Published: March 2016

Denmark, like other Scandinavian countries, is unique in its approach to family policies and practices. With a majority of mothers in the paid workforce, a generous paid maternity leave policy, free healthcare and university education, acceptance of multiple family forms, a majority of children attending preschools with governmental stipends for families, and progressive policies on gender and sexualities relative to other countries, Denmark is known for being very liberal when it comes to family roles and policies. It is an affluent country where the welfare state plays a large role in family practices and norms and where there is less economic inequality between families than in other countries. Despite relatively low numbers of foreigners with a non‐European background living in Denmark, increases in immigration and accompanying issues of unemployment, crime, and the interface of cultural traditions have been a major issue at local and national elections in recent decades.
Children in Families
Authors: Huff Nichole , Stamper Katie , Kelly Jenell
Published: March 2016

The role of children in families has experienced distinct changes over the past century. Many family researchers consider childhood to be socially constructed, and both childhood and its prominence in the empirical study of human development have undergone a paradigm shift in recent decades. Family scientists, educators, and mental and medical healthcare providers now stress the significance of family life in the normative development of children. A family system, or lack thereof, has the potential to impact one's biopsychosocial health. Most crucial in this impact is the psychological, social, and emotional progression of a child. “Family” is largely a system‐defined concept, generally consisting of a set of people who share a relationship (e.g., blood, adoption, covenant). Families typically consist of kinship networks that may include multiple generations and varying systemic structures. The focus of this entry is on the evolving role of children in family life.
Global Gender Gap Report
Authors: Black Carol F.
Published: March 2016

The Global Gender Gap Report, published annually since 2006, is an evaluation of the gender gap in four main categories in countries worldwide. Scores range from 0 to 1, with a perfect score of 1 meaning there is no gender gap in that category. The four categories measured are economic participation and opportunity; educational attainment; health and survival; and political empowerment. There is also an overall composite score. The report measures levels of gender gap, and not levels of attainment in each category. Iceland, Finland, Norway, and Sweden share the top four spots every year, meaning that they have the least amount of gender gap. Political empowerment shows the greatest gender gap by far of any the four categories worldwide. Health and survival, based on sex birth ratios and life expectancy, shows the least gender gap. As well as inspiring innovative projects toward gender equity, the Global Gender Gap Report has also generated scholarship.
Greatest Generation
Authors: Sturdevant Katherine Scott
Published: March 2016

Journalist Tom Brokaw coined the epithet “Greatest Generation” in 1994 to describe those born between 1901 and 1924 who survived the Great Depression and World War II. The parents of the baby boomers, they are popular culture heroes and, particularly, male role models. What they offered to and expected from their children largely determined the nature of the latter, the most populous generation of Americans. As the Greatest Generation has aged and died, society has honored them with movies, museums, and monuments. Historians have recorded their oral history. Analyzing them helped spawn study of generational theory and intergenerational relations. Further investigation of their influence should inform social history and sociology about the generation's experiences and influence on women and families; sexuality, marriage, and divorce; race and gender; civil rights movements; aging, death, and dying; and the long‐term effects of war, including posttraumatic stress, which went undiagnosed for many World War II veterans.
L
iberia, Families in
Authors: Guseh James S.
Published: March 2016

Liberia is a poor developing country with a population of 4.2 million. Fourteen years of civil war (1989–2003) have had a devastating impact on the development of Liberia. About 200,000 lives were lost and a million people displaced. Its economic infrastructures were also destroyed. Liberia is moving toward sustainable development but still faces the effects of the war. Sixty‐four percent of the population live below the poverty rate. The total fertility rate is five children per woman, and the infant mortality rate is 76.9 per 1000 live births. Youths constitute 64 percent of the population. This youth bulge reflects the demographic transition, that is, declines in birth rates followed by declines in death rates, bringing about rapid population growth. Youths lack basic needs, such as access to employment and education. Unless these needs are met, Liberia faces continued poverty, higher incidence of violence, and democratic erosion.
Family Development Theory
Authors: Rago Marina
Published: March 2016

Family development theory is a framework for studying family functioning and its relations across time. Family relations are observed by both an internal perspective, which draws attention to the relationships between family members, and an external perspective, which refers to the links within the social context in which the family lives. Essentially this theoretical approach examines the main transition periods that characterize each member of a family during his/her personal lifetime and the critical events that affect the family as a whole. These changes shape the family life cycle. Principles of interdependence, moments of relational collision, boundaries, resilience, communication processes, and task performance are constant elements of the family life cycle. Across the family life cycle, each family develops basic competencies, patterns of functioning, and capabilities to foster the growth of its members and its own equilibrium in order to protect itself from major disruptions in the face of crisis.
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ations Perspectives on Families
Authors: Köse Burak
Published: March 2016

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) is the document to begin with for any exploration of how UN perspectives on family took shape and changed over time and of how they affected policies and debates on family in general. A historical review of UN documents shows how family and family‐related issues have been discussed and handled within the United Nations and how UN perspectives on family have evolved in conjunction with changing international politics, social and economic conditions, and cultural understandings, as well as amid the competing viewpoints of member states and organizations in the United Nations.
Work and Families in theUnitedStates
Authors: Davis Shannon N.
Published: March 2016

This entry summarizes recent research findings on the intersection of work and families, with a focus on paid and unpaid work in heterosexual families and brief summaries of research on cohabiting heterosexual and gay and lesbian families. Contrasts between dual‐earner and sole‐earner families are highlighted in the areas of career prioritization, childbearing, childrearing, housework, perceptions of fairness of housework, marital satisfaction, divorce, and the key role of work–family conflict in understanding the intersection of work and family life in the contemporary United States.
Child Development
Authors: Huff Nichole
Published: March 2016

To adequately study child development, one must consider the biological, psychological, emotional, and cognitive changes that occur from birth through the end of adolescence. Using a biopsychosocial model, this entry will address the following stages of normative child development: infancy (birth to age 1); toddler (ages 1–2); preschooler (ages 3–5); school‐aged child (ages 6–11); and adolescence (ages 12–18). Two major developmental theorists, Jean Piaget and Erik Erikson, will also be introduced.
Coupledom
Authors: Brown Kristina S.
Published: March 2016

Coupledom is the state of being in an exclusive couple. Synonyms for coupledom are “monogamy,” “partnership,” “cohabitation,” or “marriage,” though coupledom is the broader term where words like “cohabitation” or “marriage,” for example, further define the couple relationship. The use of the word “coupledom” gives space to a broader definition free from seeming constraints such as vows or legal contracts.
Virginity
Authors: Ellialti Tuğçe
Published: March 2016

Virginity is widely defined as the state of a person who has never engaged in sexual activity, particularly vaginal–penile intercourse. Since virginity “loss” is understood as an important rite of passage entailing a transition from childhood to adulthood, first sexual intercourse has been marked with a set of moral and normative concerns about the meaning of (mostly female) virginity. Historically, while premarital adolescent sex has been relatively common and acceptable for men in most societies, a significant value has been attributed to female virginity, which serves as a social norm that regulates women's sexual behavior. In addition, perceptions and definitions of virginity loss are greatly shaped by gender identity and sexual orientation. Moreover, besides women‐only practices such as virginity examination, hymen repair surgery, and virginity pledges, female virginity has also been surrounded by relatively new interpretations and meanings, some recent examples of which are “technical” and “born again” virginity.
Gay Men's Relationships in the
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Authors: Harder Brittany M.
Published: March 2016

Although the exact number of gay men's relationships in the United States is unknown, the number and visibility of gay couples is increasing. These relationships are both similar to and different from heterosexual relationships. Identity, intimacy, stability, commitment, and legal factors influence the formation and maintenance of these relationships. Gay men's relationships are also influenced by many sociohistorical and political events; thus, understanding how such history shapes modern gay relationships is important. Recent changes to both federal and state laws have significantly increased the opportunities available to gay men. Therefore, understanding these relationships is critical to an overall understanding of the diversity of relationships and families.
Latino Families in theUnitedStates
Authors: Anguiano Ruben P. Viramontez , Galindo Rene
Published: March 2016

This entry explores the role of Latino family life through traditional and modern value systems and illustrate basic demographic shifts. The entry focuses on understanding the interface between Latino family life, immigration, and education, examines how immigration policies impact Latino families and education realities, and explores how the strength of Latino family values serve as buffering mechanisms in Latino families as they face challenges in educational and community settings.
Joint Family Structure
Authors: Faller Alexis , Brown Kristina S.
Published: March 2016

The joint family structure is in a state of transition in terms of definition and family roles, though it is most commonly defined as a multigenerational family with reincorporated members including lateral relatives such as nephews and cousins. Globalization, industry, technology, and women's rights have contributed to a decrease in the number of joint families as members break off into nuclear families. As the joint family structure changes, levels of intimacy also change.
Collateral Family
Authors: Faller Alexis , Brown Kristina S.
Published: March 2016

Collateral family members, such as siblings, aunts, uncles, and other extended family, play an important role in behavioral, social, and identity development throughout the life span. As individuals age, role functions change and become reciprocal. Collateral family members participating in mental health or medical treatment provide beneficial instrumental and emotional support.
Family Lineage
Authors: Brown Kristina S. , Rubens Mark
Published: March 2016

Family lineage is defined as a group of people who are related to each other as the direct descendants of a particular ancestor. While the term is used synonymously with family trees and genograms, family lineage specifically follows the descendants of a single progenitor or ancestor. On the maternal side, this is referred to as matrilineage and on the paternal side it is referred to as patrilineage.
Teen Dating Violence in the
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Authors: Decleene Christine
Published: March 2016

Teen dating violence is a form of interpersonal violence that involves various types of abuse, which can range from physical abuse to emotional and psychological abuse. Teen dating violence results in serious consequences for victims, including the potential for experiencing interpersonal violence in adult relationships. Social learning theory and feminist theory are common theoretical frameworks used to explain this type of violence. A better understanding of teen dating violence is needed in order to develop effective prevention strategies.
A
rab
A
merican Families
Authors: Ads Menatalla M.
Published: March 2016

Arab American families are an important community to explore and understand. Their history of immigrating to the United States began in the late nineteenth century. The role and value of family in Arabic culture has affected the immigration processes of these families. Frequently, Arab American families in the United States also have had to deal with many stressors within their environment, most importantly discrimination. Arab American families often develop a strong cultural identity as a way to cope with these stressors. Different professionals working with Arab American families can play an important role in helping them to generate growth from these difficult experiences by understanding and appreciating them.
M
ongolia, Families in
Authors: Borjigin‐Tulga Namjil Tumur‐Ochir , Bolduukhai Oyun‐Erdene
Published: March 2016

About 6000 years ago the traditional nomadic Mongolian family emerged in central Asia. The nomadic culture of the Mongolian family has changed since then, but its traditions have been passed on from generation to generation. Globalization has brought further changes to Mongolian families.
Conception
Authors: Fransisco Kara
Published: March 2016

Conception and, more specifically, the way in which people conceive, have evolved significantly over time. While conception was at one point limited to sexual intercourse between two participants, the act of conceiving has now been revolutionized. Because of this, the prior limitations on who can physically conceive have shifted. For instance, same‐sex couples and couples dealing with infertility, who would otherwise be unable to fit into the traditional model of conception, are now able to engage in these relatively new methods of conception. From assisted reproductive technology to donor sperm and surrogacy, the way in which humans conceive and who can conceive have changed and are continuing to change. Along with providing new methods for family formation, these new ways of conceiving present ethical considerations in the commercialization of reproductive material and services.
Censuses of Population
Authors: Köse Burak
Published: March 2016

Censuses of population refer to the official procedures of counting the members of a population in a specific territory at a particular time, and collecting various types of information about them in order to assess the size and the characteristics of that given population. Censuses of population date back to ancient Egypt and China and to the Roman Empire but took their modern form over the last few centuries in and through the processes of colonialism and modernization. Results of censuses of population are (supposed to be) used to formulate public and social policies and to design political and administrative institutions. Censuses of population often create social unrest and political controversy for several reasons; such issues have been recently addressed by an emerging body of critical scholarship.
Feminization of Poverty
Authors: Merino Gina Alvarado , Lara Joanna
Published: March 2016

The feminization of poverty refers to a series of arguments about the gendered nature of poverty, which vary by author. They usually refer to women being poorer than men and to women heads of households being poorer than other types of women or men who are heads of households. The debates around the nature of the feminization of poverty have led to a rich debate that remains unresolved. Feminist social scientists have pointed out the need to refine the arguments that support the feminization of poverty thesis, to contextualize statistical analysis of poverty, and to include the interaction of gender with other variables such as race and ethnicity to improve their analysis.
Migration and Families
Authors: Bures Regina M.
Published: March 2016

Migration involves families or individuals moving from one geographic location to another. Researchers distinguish between three types of migration: local moves, or residential mobility; long‐distance moves, which are typically interstate moves; and moves across national borders, which are called immigration or emigration. Because of the legal and policy constraints affecting moves between countries, immigration and emigration are generally studied separately. Historically, family change has been associated with residential mobility, whereas job change has been associated with migration. The increase in dual‐career families has contributed to a decrease in interstate migration. For families that do migrate, the husband's job and earnings consequences tend to be the primary determinants of interstate migration. Understanding which families move and why is important for local and regional planning.
Single Fathers
Authors: Doucet Andrea
Published: March 2016

Since the early 1990s, the numbers of single fathers has slowly and consistently increased in many western countries, including the United States and Canada. In this field of scholarship and research, there is some debate about the meanings and the everyday practices of “single fathers” and how these differ from, or are similar to, those of “single mothers.” This entry defines and explores the concept of the “single father” in broad terms within increasingly diverse family forms and discusses single fathers who vary in their marital status, cohabitation status, and resident status; these include fathers who have sole custody or joint custody, noncustodial fathers, widowed or unmarried fathers, and men who are residential or nonresidential single fathers.
Women, Gender, and Families of Color
(Journal)
Authors: Hamer Jennifer F.
Published: March 2016

Women, Gender, and Families of Color
is a multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary serial publication that emphasizes the historical and contemporary experiences of black, Latino/Latina, indigenous, and Asian Americans. It is published biannually by the University of Illinois Press.
Homelessness in the
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Authors: Miller‐Smith Monica
Published: March 2016

Homelessness occurs when individuals and families are unable to sustain stable, affordable housing. The homeless population is composed of numerous homeless subpopulations; these include but are not limited to families, chronically homeless individuals, unaccompanied youth, veterans, and survivors of domestic violence. Geographically, rates of homelessness are greater in urban communities; however, homelessness is also prevalent in rural communities too. Regardless of subpopulation or location, research has revealed that key strategies to ending homelessness are prevention and access to permanent, affordable, supportive housing.
Contraception in the
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Authors: Franzese Alexis T. , Panaggio Nicole C.
Published: March 2016

Contraception plays an important role in family life within the United States. The use of contraception and contraceptive preferences vary according to demographic factors such as gender, race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, age, and religious affiliation. The role of contraception within family life can extend beyond that of family planning to serve a variety of medical purposes including disease prevention. Factors related to contraceptive usage and family relationships are addressed.
Family Counseling
Authors: Brown Kristina S. , Janousek Thomas , Ashley Jessica L.
Published: March 2016

Family counseling emerged in the 1950s and 1960s on the heels of marriage counseling. It was developed in response to a better understanding of the idea that change in one person can lead to change – both negative and positive – in his/her family. Leaders in the field include Nathan Ackerman and Gregory Bateson, while prominent theoretical orientations include classic approaches such as Bowen family systems therapy and strategic family therapy, as well as more recent approaches such as solution‐focused therapy and narrative family therapy.
Heterosexism
Authors: Charlebois Justin
Published: March 2016

This entry provides an overview of the complex concept of sexuality and discusses the role of heterosexuality in defining both marital and nonmarital social roles. Social norms construe heterosexuality as a stable, monolithic entity when in fact it is heterogeneous and fraught with internal contradictions and inconsistencies. In contemporary US society, one form of reproductively oriented heterosexuality associated with stable nuclear families is privileged over other forms of heterosexuality and homosexuality. This entry illustrates that while heterosexuality is frequently associated with erotic behaviors, desires, and practices, it is a pervasive social institution with significant nonsexual implications. Institutionalized heterosexuality construes social roles and contributes to the formation of gendered material inequalities and divisions of household labor as well as prioritizing husbands' careers in marriage. This entry also discusses the superordinate position that heterosexuality occupies in relation to non‐heterosexualities in contemporary US American society.
Childbirth
Authors: Fransisco Kara
Published: March 2016

Childbirth signifies the end of the gestation period, resulting in the birth of an infant. In the United States, women experience labor and birth in a variety of ways. From natural delivery to induction, the labor process can initiate in differing ways. The method in which a woman begins her labor can alter her experience of childbirth with childbirth becoming more medicalized, especially in the cases of induced labor. The high rate of inductions in the United States is associated with the elevated rate of cesarean deliveries. Cesarean deliveries result in longer hospital stays and higher maternal mortality rates. Assisted reproductive technology has played an interesting role in the transformation of childbirth, as more mothers are birthing at later ages. The conglomeration of events in labor and childbirth result in either positive or negative experiences, which can ultimately affect a woman's desire to procreate in the future.
Transgender
Authors: Behr Brittany
Published: March 2016

This entry endeavors to give a basic overview on transgender identities and issues, including terms, etiquette, surgeries, and cross‐cultural transgender groups. Vocabulary and concepts that are discussed in this entry are cisgender, romantic identity, gender identity, pansexual, heteroromantic, aromantic, top surgery, bottom surgery, sexual reassignment surgery, preferred pronouns, transman, transwoman, transition, genderqueer, nonbinary gender, gynophilia, androphilia, neutrios, chestbinder, androgeny, multigender, bigender, trigender, androgyne, two‐spirit, hijra, kothi, niwaan, and kathoey.
Journal of Family Communication
Authors: Olson Loreen N. , Socha Thomas J.
Published: March 2016

This entry introduces readers to the
Journal of Family Communication
, a Taylor & Francis/Routledge publication. Publishing four issues per year, the journal is the only academic serial dedicated exclusively to publishing scholarship on communication in, and about, families. The entry summarizes the journal's scope and describes its historical beginnings and concludes with a list of editors and their terms.
Adoption,
GLBT
Authors: Duncan Melanie L.
Published: March 2016

Efforts to expand the benefits that are afforded to opposite‐sex couples to same‐sex couples have seen progress in the areas of anti‐discrimination, relationship recognition, and parental rights. While a great deal of attention has been given to relationship recognition, less attention has been paid to parental rights; specifically, adoption of children by GLBT individuals and couples. A review of research, social attitudes, and legal perspectives on GLBT adoption will highlight the challenges faced by this segment of the population in terms of the how they can become parents and how adoption laws shape the access that lesbians and gay men have to adopting children both within and outside the United States.
Adoption, Laws, in theUnitedStates
Authors: Duncan Melanie L.
Published: March 2016

The legal system plays an integral role in determining who will formally be recognized as a family, the relationships that the members have to one another, and the processes through which this occurs. The responsibility of the legal system in these matters is most readily apparent in adoption. Adoption has many legal facets including: the regulation of who may adopt, who may be adopted, the means through which a child may be adopted, the fees associated with adoption, and so on. This entry discusses the spectrum of legal issues pertaining to adoption.
Family Process
(Journal)
Authors: Lebow Jay L. , Slesinger Noël
Published: March 2016

Family Process
is a leading journal in the field of couple and family therapy. It seeks to produce the best articles concerned with couple and family therapy and family science. In particular,
Family Process
has had a crucial role in the evolution of family therapy, serving as a principal outlet for the development of the field.
Child Abuse & Neglect: The International Journal
Authors: McLeigh Jill D.
Published: March 2016

Established in 1977,
Child Abuse & Neglect: The International Journal
was the first peer‐reviewed journal focused specifically on the abuse and neglect of children. Since its founding, the journal has encouraged publication of the best available science for the benefit of children, researchers, policymakers, and practitioners. The journal continues its tradition of inviting submissions from across the globe and supporting interdisciplinary approaches to child abuse and neglect.
Youth & Society
(Journal)
Authors: Zimmerman Marc A.
Published: March 2016

Youth & Society
is a multidisciplinary peer‐reviewed academic journal that examines critical contemporary issues and presents useful practical information for studying and working with young people and their families. The journal was first published in September 1969. The first two issues included contributions from seven disciplines covering eight regions of the world, including anthropology, psychology and psychiatry, sociology, political science, and law. Those regions included Africa, the Pacific rim (Japan and Philippines), Europe (Germany and England), what was then the USSR, and the United States. The themes of the journal have expanded considerably since 1969 and include youth involvement, adult–adolescent relationships, family issues, identity development, adjustment, and health and mental health issues.
Two‐Person Career
Authors: Cody‐Rydzewski Susan
Published: March 2016

A two‐person career is understood to be one that requires the support and involvement of both spouses. While only one spouse is actually employed, it is assumed that the other will also be substantially involved, often in aspects of planning, preparing, and supporting the efforts of the other in his (or her) career. Traditionally, two‐person careers have involved an employed husband. More recently, however, wives have begun to find themselves employed employed in two‐person careers. Traditional gender roles and ideologies may prevent women from having the full support of their husbands.
Research on Aging
(Journal)
Authors: Tavares Jane L. , Burr Jeffrey A.
Published: March 2016

Research on Aging
was established in 1979 and is a peer‐reviewed academic journal that publishes research manuscripts in the field of gerontology and aging studies.
Research on Aging
is an interdisciplinary journal designed to reflect the expanding role of research in the field of gerontology. The journal exists to provide for the publication of research in the broad range of disciplines concerned with aging. Scholars from the disciplines of sociology, geriatrics, history, psychology, anthropology, public health, economics, political science, criminal justice, and social work are encouraged to contribute articles to the journal.
Adoption, History
Authors: Duncan Melanie L.
Published: March 2016

The adopting of children has solidified its position, across societies, as a means of forming families. Adoptions have occurred through both formal and informal routes. Often, adoption involves the taking in of children of relatives who had passed or were incapable of providing adequate care. However, a growing number of adoptions seek to place children with families, whether or not there was a previous familial relation. The placement of children with an adoptive family is grounded in legal and societal precedent regarding who is perceived to be an ideal parent and under what circumstances adoptions can occur.
Violence against Women: An International and Interdisciplinary Journal
Authors: Renzetti Claire M.
Published: March 2016

Violence against Women: An International and Interdisciplinary Journal(VAW) is a peer‐reviewed journal published monthly by SAGE Publications and is dedicated to publishing research on all aspects of the problem of violence against women. The journal was founded in 1995 by Claire M. Renzetti, who continues to edit the journal.VAWemploys a broad definition of violence and includes articles from a variety of disciplines that examine a wide range of types of violence; risk and protective factors for perpetration and victimization; consequences of violent victimization; violence prevention and interventions; and policy, practice, and advocacy issues throughout the world. The journal is especially committed to publishing research on understudied and underserved groups.
Journal of Social and Personal Relationships
Authors: Duck Steve
Published: March 2016

The Journal of Social and Personal Relationships
is an international and interdisciplinary peer‐reviewed journal that publishes the highest quality original research on social and personal relationships. It is published eight times a year, is multidisciplinary in scope and draws material from the fields of social psychology, clinical psychology, communication, developmental psychology, and sociology. Published for the first time in 1984, the
Journal of Social and Personal Relationships
sets out as its goals the encouragement and support of scholars working on social and personal relationships, whether as personally intertwined as families or as socially connected in other roles.
Gender & Society
(Journal)
Authors: Heston Laura V.
Published: March 2016

Gender & Society
is a peer‐reviewed academic journal on the study of gender, which has published many articles on the study of families since its founding in 1987. As a top‐ranked journal in the fields of both sociology and women's studies,
Gender & Society
is an influential outlet for empirical work developed by scholars across the social sciences.