bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Syntax of Number Markers
Authors: Wiltschko Martina
Published: August 2021

This chapter explores the syntactic significance of number marking based on distributional, formal, and interpretive properties and its parameters of variation. On the basis of these properties, various syntactic analyses of number marking are evaluated. The hypothesis that number marking is hosted in a functional category NumP is introduced and it is shown that it can account for some, but crucially not all, of the properties of number marking. However, the assumption that number marking associates with a functional category, does not imply that it will associate with the same functional category across all languages, nor that it will associate in the same way. Diagnostics are provided to identify where and how on the nominal spine a given number marker associates.
Family and Place
Authors: Seshagiri Urmila
Published: August 2021

How can we understand Virginia Woolf’s life and art through the idea of ‘home’? This chapter answers the question by tracing the multiple places Woolf called home over the course of her life. From a Kensington childhood to final years spent with Leonard Woolf in Richmond, from her famously defiant young adulthood in Bloomsbury to her sister Vanessa Bell’s artistic retreat in Sussex, Woolf’s movements between homes shaped her maturing aesthetic philosophies. As the daughter of Leslie and Julia Stephen, Woolf experienced Englishness itself through a sense of simultaneous belonging and exile. She consistently framed citizenship and national identity as feminist problems because ‘if one is a woman one is often surprised by a sudden splitting off of consciousness, say in walking down Whitehall, when from being the natural inheritor of that civilization, she becomes, on the contrary, alien and critical’ (ARO 96). My essay illuminates the vitality of ‘home’ – physical as well as conceptual – in Woolf’s literature, feminism, and politics.
Time
Authors: Matz Jesse
Published: August 2021

Orlando and other texts express Woolf’s interest in subjective ‘time in the mind’, an interest she shared with other modernists who challenged chronological norms, but Woolf explored other forms of time as well. Some align her work with the theories of Henri Bergson, Mikhail Bakhtin, and Mary Sturt, and this variety—the way Woolf developed forms of time across her career as a writer—tracks with the phenomenological hermeneutics of Paul Ricoeur. His Time and Narrative explains the dialectical pattern according to which Woolf perpetually found new ways for time and narrative to shape each other, culminating in novels that thematize this reciprocal relationship between the art of narrative and possibilities for temporal engagement. Woolf’s early fiction breaks with linear chronology, starting a series of virtuoso performances of temporal poiesis.
Narrative Ethics
Authors: Utell Janine
Published: August 2021

This chapter offers an orientation to Woolf’s narrative ethics, as well as readings informed by those perspectives and attending to questions of intimacy, alterity, and failed sociality. These resistant readings of Woolf’s ethics, taking into account the novelist’s rejection of normativity, her feminism, and her ambivalence around queer sexuality, find that Woolf is concerned with attempting to define ‘the good life’ while also feeling that flourishing is elusive, even impossible, for those on the margins. Mrs Dalloway and The Years are taken as focus texts, demonstrating how we might read Woolf’s narratives—and her feminism—via postmodern ethics and affect theory. Significantly, a focus on narrative ethics illuminates reading Woolf’s queer sexualities. Across her career, Woolf’s innovations in the representation of character, everyday experience, and the failure of community have implications for ethical thinking and reading.
Allusion and Metaphor
Authors: de Gay Jane
Published: August 2021

This chapter demonstrates that Woolf’s allusive practice involved transforming and interrogating texts rather than invoking the authority of earlier texts or their scholarly interpretations. It shows how Woolf’s allusions are often supported by metaphors that draw attention to the longevity of past literature that is essential to the act of allusion. These include organic metaphors such as the growth of seeds, plants, and flowers; familial metaphors of conception, birth, and reproduction; and the ethereal metaphor of haunting. The chapter examines how Woolf uses allusion and metaphor to articulate relationships with the literary past in A Room of One’s Own and in her representation of characters who are female writers in Night and Day, Orlando, and Between the Acts.
Biography and Autobiography
Authors: Marcus Laura
Published: August 2021

This chapter explores the centrality of biography and autobiography to Woolf’s reading and writing life, and to her cultural milieu, in which experiments in life-writing were a crucial aspect of the modernist reaction against the Victorian era. It examines Woolf’s deep engagement in her fiction with life-writing forms, from the bildungsroman of The Voyage Out to the play with conventional biographical forms of Jacob’s Room, Orlando, The Waves, and Flush and the autobiographical foundations of To the Lighthouse. It also examines her biography of Roger Fry, and her own experiment in memoir-writing, the posthumously published ‘A Sketch of the Past’, in the context of concerns with the nature of memory, identity, and sexuality.
Literary London
Authors: Southworth Helen
Published: August 2021

Focusing on the period up to 1924, this chapter explores Virginia Woolf’s engagement with London as much-loved home, as literary subject (from Night and Day to Jacob’s Room and Mrs Dalloway), and as professional milieu. It considers Woolf’s roots in Hyde Park Gate, her move from Kensington to Bloomsbury after the death of her father, Leslie Stephen, and the establishment of the Bloomsbury Group. At the same time, this chapter widens the lens to look at the larger London literary scene. This was a resource to which Woolf gained access through a large network of friends, including, but not limited to, other Bloomsbury Group members, and professional contacts acquired through her work as publisher along with Leonard Woolf at the Hogarth Press. The chapter closes with Woolf’s move back into the ‘centre of things’ in Bloomsbury in 1924 as both she and the press began to outgrow Richmond.
Woolf’s Feminism
Authors: Brown Stephanie J.
Published: August 2021

The fullness of Woolf’s engagement with early-twentieth-century feminism has at times been overshadowed by the prominence given A Room of One’s Own, and by longstanding archival obstacles to accessing her extensive work in periodicals. This chapter aims to offer an overview of Woolf’s engagement with British feminism during her lifetime, and to promote a richer conversation about how Woolf’s fiction, journalism, and essays, as well as A Room and Three Guineas, reflect a sustained engagement with, contributions to, and wariness of the feminist concerns of her day. Her responses to women’s suffrage, worker’s rights, the legal status of married women, education, political power, economic parity, and pacifism were unified by her consistent endeavors to draw attention to patriarchy as structuring public perceptions of ‘women’s issues’. (125)
War and Peace
Authors: Pong Beryl
Published: August 2021

This chapter examines the intertwining of modernist time philosophy with the recurring theme of global war in Woolf’s oeuvre. Looking at a range of texts—including Jacob’s Room, Mrs Dalloway, Three Guineas, The Years, and Between the Acts—it examines how Woolf’s work developed in relation to the major geopolitical events that preoccupied her pacifist activism and informed her temporal innovations. It argues for the need to temporalize her relationship to what Martin Hägglund calls chronolibido—the investment in temporal finitude rather than temporal transcendence—which has to be understood both philosophically as well as politically, to understand how her desire to hold on to a life essentially mortal took shape in the context of seemingly unending war in the early twentieth century.
Work
Authors: Wilson Mary
Published: August 2021

Relationships with domestic servants were among the longest-lasting and most complicated of Virginia Woolf’s life. For Woolf, domestic spaces are not private but shared, bringing women of different classes into intimate and sometimes uncomfortable proximity. Woolf’s life also spans a time of significant changes in the institution of domestic service in Britain, changes that affect Woolf’s own experience of domesticity and shape her writing. This chapter explores the intertwined contexts of domesticity and class in Woolf’s life and her writing, showing the contradictions and complexities in her thinking over time and across genres. As Alison Light has shown, Woolf’s attitude towards domestic workers often reflected ingrained class prejudices; feminist critics may be disturbed at how often servants mark the limits of Woolf’s imagination. Yet Woolf’s writing also demonstrates a career-long effort to think through the ‘servant problem’, an effort that shapes her aesthetic, her feminism, and her domestic life.
Traditions and Transformations
Authors: Marler Regina
Published: August 2021

Modernist, feminist, experimental: the terms we now most associate with Virginia Woolf all presuppose a break with conventions and a rejection of the status quo in art and power relations. Yet all her life, Virginia Woolf kept returning in memory to her childhood home, to the crowded Victorian family in which she was raised, where boys went to the best schools that Sir Leslie Stephen could afford, and girls, however clever or gifted, were shaped for charitable work, for motherhood, for marriage to prominent men. This obsessive turning back is a kind of pained nostalgia: a lament, a grievance, a comfort—and the engine of even her most avant-garde work. This chapter explores the traditions and assumptions of that potent childhood world, in part through the prism of three conservative female role models her mother, Julia Stephen, chose for her daughters: Mrs. Humphry Ward, Octavia Hill, and Florence Nightingale.
Consumer Culture
Authors: Sheehan Elizabeth M.
Published: August 2021

This chapter shows how consumer culture shapes the content, form, and reception of Virginia Woolf’s feminist modernism, including the methods of analysis used by scholars. As critics note, Woolf’s life coincided with key developments in consumer culture, which are examined and reproduced in her work. Woolf’s experimental techniques in such novels as Mrs Dalloway and Orlando, for example, reflect the particular conceptions and experiences of time and space generated by consumer culture. Orlando depicts history as a series of fashions and suggests that fashion’s repetitions accompany cycles of war and empire-building. In doing so, Orlando anticipates its reappearance as an inspiration for twenty-first century fashion. It also prompts scholars to consider how methods of literary periodization and historicism reproduce the logic of consumer culture. Reading Woolf in relation to consumer culture, then, involves addressing how and why her work continues to be consumed.
Disability, Illness, and Pain
Authors: Outka Elizabeth
Published: August 2021

This chapter investigates Woolf’s contradictory attitudes towards bodies outside what Rosemarie Garland-Thomson terms ‘the normate’. Woolf evinces a profound understanding of bodies experiencing illness or mental health issues, but she often displays callous, deeply normate reactions to bodies with structural or cognitive differences. Critics have noted these contradictions, typically using a medical humanities frame for assessing her treatment of illness and mental health, and a disability studies frame for assessing her treatment of structural and cognitive impairments. These separate frames are vital, yet their separation may also elide how Woolf uses certain forms of illness and disability to make other forms less visible. Drawing on her diary, the essays ‘On Being Ill’ and ‘Street Haunting’, and Mrs Dalloway, the chapter explores how Woolf’s attitudes reveal inherent tensions surrounding definitions of illness and disability and argues that we need a composite, multi-modal approach to evaluate her treatment of non-normate bodies.
The Academy and Publishing
Authors: Neverow Vara
Published: August 2021

This chapter surveys Woolf’s posthumous career. Initially, Woolf’s reception was mixed at best. Her own friend, E.M. Forster, spoke of her feminism in a disparaging fashion, and she was seen as an elitist highbrow. However, by the early 1970s, Woolf was on the rise. Her work was integrated into academia, and Quentin Bell’s biography of his aunt and the steady publication of Woolf’s letters and diaries buttressed Woolf’s reception. Jane Marcus’s scholarship shaped American academia. Brenda R. Silver’s 1999  Virginia Woolf Icon on Woolf’s status in popular culture and dedicated publications such as the Virginia Woolf Miscellany (1973–present), Woolf Studies Annual (2005–present), and the annual conferences and selected essays on Woolf (1991–present) furthered Woolf’s status. Edited and annotated editions of Woolf’s work (including those from Shakespeare Head Press and Cambridge University Press) have brought Woolf fully into focus as a major modernist and feminist. This chapter explores these trends in Woolf’s evolving critical and cultural reception.
Magic Realism and Experimental Fiction
Authors: Lojo-Rodríguez Laura Mª
Published: August 2021

In 1934, Argentinian editor and writer Victoria Ocampo commissioned Jorge Luis Borges the translations of Virginia Woolf’s A Room of One’s Own and Orlando, to be published in 1935 and 1937, respectively, under the auspices of the intellectual circle ‘Sur’ (‘South’). These translations would inspire generations of writers, appealed by Woolf’s subversive strategies to trespass physical and psychological boundaries, and by her innovative conception of time, history, and gender, which anticipated what came to be later known as ‘magic realism’. This essay explores the ways in which Woolf’s influence affects the construction of alternative ontological realms that both coexist with and transcend identifiable historical sites in the work of Jorge Luis Borges, Gabriel García Márquez, William Faulkner, Toni Morrison, Michèle Roberts, and Jeanette Winterson. The chapter further examines the different strategies these writers use to unsettle received assumptions pertaining to history and to propose alternative rewritings of it in Woolf’s wake.
Virginia Woolf in the Canon of Women’s Literature Narrative Futures of The Feminist Novel
Authors: Krouse Tonya
Published: August 2021

Virginia Woolf’s novels have historically been regarded as exceptional for their nuanced characterization, particularly of women, and as foundationally influential to women writers after 1945. This chapter investigates the feminist underpinnings of Woolf’s portrayals of female characters in order to trace Woolf’s ongoing legacy in the feminist writing of today’s women authors. Focusing on three archetypes—the Angel, the Artist, and the Girl—the chapter evaluates Woolf’s techniques for female characterization alongside those deployed by women writers including Margaret Atwood, Zadie Smith, Doris Lessing, Claire Messud, Fatima Mernissi, and Jenni Fagan. These comparative readings show the ways in which Woolf’s fiction inspires contemporary women writers to explore relationships between women and gives them a map for creating complex narratives of affiliation to encompass women’s physical, emotional, and intellectual lives.
Virginia Woolf, Filmmaker
Authors: Shin Jacqueline
Published: August 2021

This chapter considers the afterlives of Virginia Woolf, beginning with a general overview and then turning to Woolf’s legacy in film. Whereas a few filmmakers have attempted to adapt Woolf’s works with varying degrees of success, a handful of twenty-first-century filmmakers have moved towards alternative modes of engagement beyond adaptation. Mark Cousins, François Ozon, David Lowery, and Alex Garland, this chapter suggests, have embraced Woolf as an experimental filmmaker, as one of them. Her writing helps focalize the explorations of identity, loss, and survival in What Is This Film Called Love? (2012), Under the Sand (2000), A Ghost Story (2017), and Annihilation (2018). No longer are Woolf’s biography, her body, or even particular works at the forefront of her legacy; this chapter argues that in this eclectic group of films, Woolf and her writing are not only vaporized and reconfigured but also, problematically, domesticated and neutered.
Stream of Consciousness
Authors: Zhang Dora
Published: August 2021

Few terms are more associated with the innovations of modernist fiction—and Virginia Woolf’s novels in particular—than ‘stream of consciousness’, yet the contours of the term often remain vague. This chapter argues that Woolf makes distinctive contributions to the genre that have been underrecognized both because of its gendered association with formlessness, and because stream of consciousness is often simply conflated with interior monologue, which she mostly did not use. Instead, Woolf’s contributions include her use of free indirect discourse to overcome the egotism of the first person, experiments with rendering collective streams of consciousness in Between the Acts, and finally, her use of analogies to evoke the feeling of thinking, which also illuminates unappreciated links to William James, the psychologist who coined the term together, Woolf’s strategies refute the charge of intense individualism that is often levied at stream-of-consciousness writing.
Gender Equality Politics
Authors: Galligan Yvonne
Published: August 2021

This chapter examines the gender contract between women, society, and the state to identify continuities and changes in gender equality in Irish society since the 1970s. It examines attitudes to women in the home and the controversial public policy debates on abortion to illustrate shifts and stasis in this relationship. The chapter explores the slow evolution of gender equality as an institutional policy concern, supported by successive government commissions and given impetus by the feminist movement. These initiatives culminated in national gender equality plans linked to international commitments, along with targeted plans for specific areas such as violence against women, and women’s participation in political and public life. The chapter concludes that while strides towards gender equality have been made in social, economic, and political life over fifty years, there remain deep-seated attitudes resistant to women’s autonomy and equal citizenship. The gender contract continues to be a work in progress.
Judges and the Political Organs of State
Authors: Hickey Tom
Published: August 2021

This chapter considers the record of the Irish Supreme Court in its constitutional policing of the two political ‘organs of State’. It outlines the basis upon which the judicial organ enjoys the authority to determine the limits of the powers of the Oireachtas and Government. It explores the various approaches taken by judges and courts in a selection of the main cases in the period 1970–2020. On the powers of Government—and the power of the judicial organ with respect to those powers—it considers the case of Crotty v An Taoiseach. As for the powers of the Oireachtas—and the judicial power in that context—the chapter looks at In re Haughey, Abbeylara and Angela Kerins. Overall, the analysis suggests that Irish judges have not been meek in their constitutional regulation of the political organs, although they have sought to limit their interventions to particular cases and contexts.
The Constitution, Politics, and Public Policy
Authors: Carolan Eoin
Published: August 2021

The chapter examines how constitutional law affects the nature of Irish politics and public policy. How has the Constitution, and its interpretation by the courts, influenced the choices made by the Oireachtas and by the executive in their approach to, and implementation of, public policy? The chapter argues that looking to the outcome of constitutional litigation alone provides an incomplete account of the many ways in which constitutional law and culture influence political action. Positing a more complex relationship between the constitution-as-law and the constitution-as-politics, the chapter describes how the Constitution has shaped civic and political identity in Ireland; and imposed limits on what is perceived as ‘permissible’ public policy. The chapter also explores how these limits are influenced by non-judicial actors engaged in constitutional interpretation; by public, media, or professional perceptions of constitutional meaning; and by the effects of constitutional rights provisions on power relations and political bargaining.
Penal Culture in Ireland
Authors: O’Donnell Ian
Published: August 2021

Ireland enjoys a level of imprisonment around half that of England and Wales and one-eighth that of the USA. However, this is not the result of structured policy choices. Several factors generally associated with penal severity are evident in that crime is (episodically) salient and lethal violence has risen, there is low trust in government, little evidence of deference to experts, and the principles of justice are seldom articulated. Countervailing forces are that the system remains highly discretionary, punishments are individualized, and key criminal justice personnel are unelected and thereby insulated from public sentiment. To add depth to this analysis of penal culture requires the addition of local factors, including a history of coercive confinement, the lack of an infrastructure for following through on political commitments, profound inertia, imitation (in legislative and policy terms), migration patterns, attitudes to state expenditure, and a clientelist political system.
The Irish Courts and the Administrative State
Authors: Daly Paul
Published: August 2021

Everyone in Ireland is affected by the administrative state. For the most part, the bodies involved are creatures of statute that are subject to the law, as set down by the superior courts. The focus in this chapter is on the constraints of public law, which is highly centralized, with legal interpretation firmly vested in the judicial branch. In addition, there is relatively little legal pluralism. Irish judges have adopted a traditionalist approach to the relationship between the judiciary and the administrative state. The courts control the articulation of legal norms, giving little or no weight to the views of non-lawyers about the meaning of law. They rely moreover on a formalistic distinction between questions of law, which are for the courts, and questions of fact or policy, which are for non-lawyers. Bringing comparative perspectives to bear allows us to observe how traditional Irish judges have been in this area.
Bicameralism in a Unitary State
Authors: Murphy Mary C.
Published: August 2021

This chapter describes, explains, and analyses the Irish Senate (officially Seanad Éireann). It details the birth and evolution of the bicameral principle in Ireland and provides an account of its key features, including its vocational character and complex electoral arrangements. The chapter also outlines the role, powers, and functions of Seanad Éireann and identifies the key criticisms of this body. These include the institution’s subservience to the lower house, the complex manner in which members are elected and appointed, and the limited nature of vocational representation in the Seanad. Campaigns for reform and the 2013 abolition referendum are discussed with reference to the several reform proposals of varying depth and substance that appeared over the decades.
The Politics of the Presidency
Authors: Coakley John
Published: August 2021

This chapter assesses the political role of the President of Ireland, exploring the tension between the authority implied by direct election and the limited powers explicitly granted to the President in the constitution. It outlines the changing role of the President since the creation of the office in 1938, drawing attention in particular to the manner in which incumbents have pushed out the perceived boundaries of the office since 1990. It begins by looking at the manner in which the President is elected and the institutional architecture within which the office is embedded. It continues by exploring the formal constitutional and legal provisions that define the President’s role, evaluating the historical legacy that shaped the office in its early years. The chapter concludes by assessing the manner in which the office has been transformed, most notably by the three most recent presidents (Mary Robinson, Mary McAleese, and Michael D Higgins).
The Politics of Banking in Ireland
Authors: Gallagher Patrick , Ó Riain Seán , Rhatigan Fergal , Byrne Michael
Published: August 2021

The chapter traces the historical development of banking and finance in Ireland. The financial system has historically been characterized by domestic economic weakness alongside significant activity by foreign firms, with state agencies filling the gap. Overall, the sector has been vulnerable to internationalization, and booms and risks. The chapter explores how, through the 1990s, it transformed from a sleepy backwater to one of the most financialized systems in Europe. This was driven by the transnational integration of the Irish banking system, linked to a shift towards market-based banking. In the 2000s, new technologies formed a disastrous combination with domestic conditions, ultimately leading to the banking crisis and the loading of banking debts onto the public purse. Finally, the chapter examines the politics of the Irish bailout. This was not simply a matter of domestic politics, nor of the bargaining power of banks, but involved EU interstate politics.
Education for Citizenship in a Changing Country
Authors: Zellentin Alexa
Published: August 2021

This chapter discusses some questions regarding the political theory of education in Ireland: 1. Which value commitments and attitudes should be encouraged to prepare children for their roles in society? 2. Who should decide what children learn? How is the role of the state to be balanced against that of parents and educational institutions? 3. How should education respond to increasing diversity and value pluralism? 4. To what extent should public education promote equality of opportunities? It identifies the concerns relevant to policy choices on these issues. The first section presents the basic structure of the Irish educational system. The second discusses its implications for debates on the authority and responsibility to educate, the third debates dealing with diversity, the fourth value education. The final section considers the idea of equality of opportunity in view of the different resources available to different schools.
The Party System
Authors: Little Conor , Farrell David M.
Published: August 2021

This chapter focuses on the attributes and development of the Irish party system, describing its structure and where it sits in comparative perspective. As well as examining party size and ideology, the chapter applies Peter Mair’s conceptualization of the party system as the structure of competition for control of the executive to the Irish case. In doing so, it explores the relationship between electoral change and party system change, arguing that the systemic changes that have been emerging since the 2011 election are an extension of a longer-term trend in the opening up of the Irish party system. This incremental change was accelerated by the economic crisis that began in 2008 and its aftermath. The chapter suggests that the Irish party system is potentially at a critical juncture: a moment of uncertainty that provides opportunities for agency (by voters, party leaders, and others) to shape a durable future path.
The (Un)Changing Irish Voter
Authors: Marsh Michael
Published: August 2021

This chapter explores the extent to which the cleavages underlying voting behaviour in the Irish party system have changed since the 1970s. The divisions within the party system can be seen as between Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael, between Fianna Fáil and the rest, between Fine Gael and the rest (leaving aside Fianna Fáil), and between left and right. The basis for voting analysed are class, religion, party identification, and ideology. The weight of each on each division is traced over time. While the party system has clearly fragmented, and the left has grown in size, the importance of each of these factors has not changed significantly, either since the 1970s, or just since the economic crisis. Various explanations for the lack of change are discussed, including the persistence of candidate centred voting, localism, and how party competition has tended to obscure real policy differences.
The Politics of Referendums
Authors: Gallagher Michael
Published: August 2021

Ireland has become one of the world’s biggest users of referendums, which are an important part of the system of governance. The use of the referendum is tightly related to constitutional change, and partly as a result, referendums have not been held on classic left–right tax and spend issues. Rather, the main issues that have generated referendums have been moral (particularly divorce and abortion) and the ratification of EU treaties. The chapter analyses the factors influencing referendum voting behaviour: the impact of party allegiance has been weakening, while social class and age are both strongly related to referendum voting behaviour, though the pattern varies depending on the issue. Referendums are sometimes accused of facilitating the suppression of minority rights, but that has not been the Irish experience. On the whole, the referendum experience in Ireland can be seen as an enhancement of, rather than a threat to, representative government.
Irish Media and the Shaping of Political Discourse
Authors: Suiter Jane , Flynn Roderick
Published: August 2021

This chapter summarizes the development of the Irish media system through the lens of mediation and mediatization. It outlines the early strong state control of the broadcasting sector and the relatively quiescent attitude of many print journalists in the early days of development. It follows with a description of the growing influence of political actors and consequences of mass media logics which was at the core of late twentieth-century Irish democracy. Next, it describes the rise of digital communication technologies and the advent of social media, and the emergence of a hybrid media system that instigated a shift in power relations between politicians and journalists. Finally, it concludes with a focus on the challenges related to regulation of the social media environment and those related to supporting a quality information environment.
The Role of the Central Bank of Ireland as an Independent Financial Regulator
Authors: Clarke Blanaid
Published: August 2021

The chapter evaluates the extent to which the Central Bank of Ireland (CBI) operates as an independent and accountable supervisor. The CBI was established pursuant to the Central Bank Reform Act 2010 as the body responsible for central banking and financial regulation in Ireland. The chapter explains the CBI’s functions and describes the national and EU regulatory landscape within which it operates. It compares the CBI to its predecessor, the Central Bank of Ireland and Financial Services Authority, which was criticized for perceived regulatory and supervisory failures in the lead up to the Irish Banking Crisis in 2008. In doing so, it identifies significant improvements in terms of the CBI’s independence, transparency, and accountability. The chapter also suggests further changes that might be considered in this context.
Regulating the Information Society
Authors: McIntyre T. J.
Published: August 2021

Ireland has become a global hub for personal information, with internet firms headquartered there holding information on billions of users. But has Ireland been a responsible regulator? This chapter examines the approach of the Irish state, tracing the evolution of data protection governance and its application to the internet industry. It outlines the legal and policy context, and argues that regulation has been hampered by a weak legislative framework and significant under-resourcing of the data protection supervisory authority. Using Facebook as a case study, it examines how this has prompted international pressure for stronger regulation and evaluates the Irish response. It concludes by arguing that Ireland has yet to properly engage with the wider issues presented by its new role as a key jurisdiction for the internet industry, with data protection being just one of many aspects that need more attention as Irish regulation increasingly has spillover effects elsewhere.
The Politics of Police Accountability
Authors: Conway Vicky
Published: August 2021

This chapter centres on examining the politics of police accountability, and how this topic has been politicized in Ireland. The inevitability of politicization is reflected on, while also exploring how this can be done in the most democratically positive way. The argument is made that the nature of the state can be determinative in shaping the mechanisms of accountability adopted, and that in Ireland colonialism is central to this. It argues that three phases of politicization can be identified: colonial, postcolonial, and post-postcolonial. Both structures, cases, tribunals, and commentary are analysed in order to make this argument. The chapter suggests what post-postcolonialism looks like in this context, and what its ramifications may be.
Transcranial brain stimulation and EEG/MEG
Authors: Bergmann Til Ole , Tomasevic Leo , Siebner Hartwig R.
Published: August 2021

Noninvasive transcranial brain stimulation (NTBS) techniques, such as transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and transcranial direct or alternating current stimulation (TDCS/TACS) can be combined with electroencephalography (EEG) and magnetoencephalography (MEG). The combination of NTBS and EEG/MEG can 1) inform brain stimulation (where, when, and how to stimulate), and 2) reveal aftereffects of stimulation induced changes in cortical activity, and interregional connectivity (offline approach), as well as the immediate neuronal response to the stimulation (online approach). While offline approaches allow to separate NTBS and EEG/MEG in space and time, online approaches require concurrent stimulation and recording. While TMS and MEG cannot be combined online, concurrent TMS-EEG as well as TDCS/TACS-MEG/EEG are feasible but pose a range of methodological challenges at the technical and conceptual level. This chapter provides an introduction into the principal experimental approaches and research questions that can be tackled by the combination of transcranial brain stimulation and EEG/MEG. We review the technical challenges arising from concurrent recordings as well as measures to avoid or remove stimulation artefacts. We also discuss the conceptual caveats and required control conditions.
Monetary Independence and Rollover Crises
Authors: Bianchi Javier , Mondragon Jorge
Published: August 2021

This article shows that the inability to use monetary policy for macroeconomic stabilization leaves a government more vulnerable to a rollover crisis. We study a sovereign default model with self-fulfilling rollover crises, foreign currency debt, and nominal rigidities. When the government lacks monetary independence, lenders anticipate that the government would face a severe recession in the event of a liquidity crisis and are therefore more prone to run on government bonds. In a quantitative application to the Eurozone debt crisis, we find that the lack of monetary autonomy played a central role in making Spain vulnerable to a rollover crisis. Finally, we argue that a lender of last resort can go a long way toward reducing the costs of giving up monetary independence.
The Long-Run Impact of the Dissolution of the English Monasteries
Authors: Heldring Leander , Robinson James A , Vollmer Sebastian
Published: August 2021

We use the effect of the Dissolution of the English Monasteries after 1535 to test the commercialization hypothesis about the roots of long-run English economic development. Before the Dissolution, monastic lands were relatively unencumbered by inefficient feudal land tenure but could not be sold. The Dissolution created a market for formerly monastic lands, which could now be more effectively commercialized relative to nonmonastic lands, where feudal tenure persisted until the twentieth century. We show that parishes affected by the Dissolution subsequently experienced a rise of the gentry and had more innovation and higher yield in agriculture, a greater share of the population working outside of agriculture, and ultimately higher levels of industrialization. Our results are consistent with explanations of the Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions which emphasize the commercialization of society as a key precondition for taking advantage of technological change and new economic opportunities.
Sleep stage-dependent changes in tonic masseter and cortical activities in young subjects with primary sleep bruxism
Authors: Toyota Risa , Fukui Ken-ichi , Kamimura Mayo , Katagiri Ayano , Sato Hajime , Toyoda Hiroki , Rompré Pierre , Ikebe Kazunori , Kato Takafumi
Published: August 2021

Study Objectives

The present study investigated the hypothesis that subjects with primary sleep bruxism (SB) exhibit masseter and cortical hyperactivities during quiet sleep periods that are associated with a high frequency of rhythmic masticatory muscle activity (RMMA).

Methods

Fifteen SB and ten control participants underwent polysomnographic recordings. The frequencies of oromotor events and arousals and the percentage of arousals with oromotor events were assessed. Masseter muscle tone during sleep was quantified using a cluster analysis. Electroencephalography power and heart rate variability were quantified and then compared between the two groups and among sleep stages.

Results

The frequency of RMMA and percentage of arousals with RMMA were significantly higher in SB subjects than in controls in all stages, while these variables for nonrhythmic oromotor events did not significantly differ between the groups. In SB subjects, the frequency of RMMA was the highest in stage N1 and the lowest in stages N3 and R, while the percentage of arousals with RMMA was higher in stage N3 than stages N1 and R. The cluster analysis classified masseter activity during sleep into two clusters for masseter tone and contractions. Masseter muscle tone showed typical stage-dependent changes in both groups but did not significantly differ between the groups. Furthermore, no significant differences were observed in electroencephalography power or heart rate variability between the groups.

Conclusion

Young SB subjects exhibited sleep stage-dependent increases in the responsiveness of RMMA to transient arousals, but did not show masseter or cortical hyperactivity during sleep.
Comparative Genotoxicity and Mutagenicity of Cigarette, Cigarillo, and Shisha Tobacco Products in Epithelial and Cardiac Cells
Authors: Tellez Carmen S , Juri Daniel E , Phillips Loryn M , Do Kieu , Thomas Cindy L , Willink Randy , Dye Wendy W , Wu Guodong , Zhou Yue , Irshad Hammad , Kishida Shosei , Kiyono Tohru , Belinsky Steven A
Published: August 2021

Epidemiology studies link cigarillos and shisha tobacco (delivered through a hookah waterpipe) to increased risk for cardiopulmonary diseases. Here we performed a comparative chemical constituent analysis between 3 cigarettes, 3 cigarillos, and 8 shisha tobacco products. The potency for genotoxicity and oxidative stress of each product’s generated total particulate matter (TPM) was also assessed using immortalized oral, lung, and cardiac cell lines to represent target tissues. Levels of the carcinogenic carbonyl formaldehyde were 32- to 95-fold greater, while acrolein was similar across the shisha aerosols generated by charcoal heating compared to cigarettes and cigarillos. Electric-mediated aerosol generation dramatically increased acrolein to levels exceeding those in cigarettes and cigarillos by up to 43-fold. Equivalent cytotoxic-mediated cell death and dose response for genotoxicity through induction of mutagenicity and DNA strand breaks was seen between cigarettes and cigarillos, while minimal to no effect was observed with shisha tobacco products. In contrast, increased potency of TPM from cigarillos compared to cigarettes for inducing oxidative stress via reactive oxygen radicals and lipid peroxidation across cell lines was evident, while positivity was seen for shisha tobacco products albeit at much lower levels. Together, these studies provide new insight into the potential harmful effects of cigarillos for causing tobacco-associated diseases. The high level of carbonyls in shisha products, that in turn is impacted by the heating mechanism, reside largely in the gas phase which will distribute throughout the respiratory tract and systemic circulation to likely increase genotoxic stress.
Prevalence and risk factors for positive lymphatic filariasis antibody in Sabah, Malaysia: a cross-sectional study
Authors: Zakaria Nur Dalila , Avoi Richard
Published: August 2021

Background

Lymphatic filariasis (LF) is a public health problem in Sabah, Malaysia. In the subdistrict of Tangkarason, nine rounds of mass drug administration (MDA) were probably not effective in reducing the prevalence of microfilaria to the <1% threshold recommended by the World Health Organization for stopping MDA. This cross-sectional study was conducted to identify the risk factors associated with positive LF antibody in Tangkarason.

Methods

Eligible adults >18 y of age in seven endemic villages in Tangkarason, Beluran, Sabah, were interviewed and tested for LF antibody using the Brugia Rapid kit. Multivariable logistic regression was employed to analyse the associated factors.

Results

A total of 244 respondents were included in this study. Their median age was 40 y (interquartile range 30–53). The antibody prevalence of brugian filariasis in the study population was 31.1% (95% confidence interval [CI] 25.7 to 37.2). Older age (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 1.04 [95% CI 1.02 to 1.06]) and outdoor jobs (aOR 2.26 [95% CI 1.05 to 4.85]) were identified as independent risk factors for positive LF antibody. Participating in the MDA program previously (aOR 0.24 [95% CI 0.10 to 0.57]) was found to be a protective factor for LF infection.

Conclusions

A high prevalence of microfilariae was confirmed in all the study sites, which was above the target of <1%. Important factors associated with positive LF antibody were identified, which could be used as a guide for program managers to design more focused control measures in LF-endemic areas.
Effector functions of Th17 cells are regulated by IL‐35 and TGF‐β in visceral leishmaniasis
Authors: Asad Mohammad , Sabur Abdus , Kamran Mohd , Shadab Md. , Das Sonali , Ali Nahid
Published: August 2021

Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) is a debilitating human pathogenesis in which the body's immune functions are severely compromised. Various subsets of T cells, including Th17 cells are important regulators of immune responses observed in various pathologies. The role of Th17 cells and its correlation with immuno‐regulatory cytokines are however not well understood in human VL. Herein we studied how IL‐17 is associated with the progression of Leishmania donovani infection using murine model of VL. We found induction of a strong IL‐17 response at the early phase of infection which progressively reduced to basal level during chronic VL. The mechanistic study of this behavior was found to be linked with the role of regulatory T cells (CD4+CD25+ T cells) that suppresses the proliferation of the Th17 cell population. Moreover, TGF‐β and IL‐35 derived from CD4+CD25+ T cells are the key mediators for the downregulation of IL‐17 during chronic VL. Thus, this study points to an antagonistic effect of Tregs and Th17 cells that can be used for designing better therapeutic and preventive strategies against leishmaniasis.
Accelerated 3-Year MD Pathway Programs: Graduates’ Perspectives on Education Quality, the Learning Environment, Residency Readiness, Debt, Burnout, and Career Plans
Authors: Leong Shou Ling , Gillespie Colleen , Jones Betsy , Fancher Tonya , Coe Catherine L. , Dodson Lisa , Hunsaker Matthew , Thompson Britta M. , Dempsey Angela , Pallay Robert , Crump William , Cangiarella Joan
Published: August 2021

Purpose

To compare perception of accelerated and traditional medical students, with respect to satisfaction with education quality, and the learning environment, residency readiness, burnout, debt, and career plans.

Method

Customized 2017 and 2018 Medical School Graduation Questionnaires (GQs) were analyzed using independent samples t tests for means and chi-square tests for percentages, comparing responses of accelerated MD program graduates (accelerated pathway [AP] students) from 9 schools with those of non-AP graduates from the same 9 schools and non-AP graduates from all surveyed schools.

Results

GQ completion rates for the 90 AP students, 2,573 non-AP students from AP schools, and 38,116 non-AP students from all schools in 2017 and 2018 were 74.4%, 82.3%, and 83.3%, respectively. AP students were as satisfied with the quality of their education and felt as prepared for residency as non-AP students. AP students reported a more positive learning climate than non-AP students from AP schools and from all schools as measured by the student–faculty interaction (15.9 vs 14.4 and 14.3, respectively; P < .001 for both pairwise comparisons) and emotional climate (10.7 vs 9.6 and 9.6, respectively; P = .004 and .003, respectively) scales. AP students had less debt than non-AP students (P < .001), and more planned to care for underserved populations and practice family medicine than non-AP students from AP schools (55.7% vs 33.9% and 37.7% vs 9.4%; P = .002 and < .001, respectively). Family expectations were a more common influence on career plans for AP students than for non-AP students from AP schools and from all schools (26.2% vs 11.3% and 11.7%, respectively; P < .001 for both pairwise comparisons).

Conclusions

These findings support accelerated programs as a potentially important intervention to address workforce shortages and rising student debt without negative impacts on student perception of burnout, education quality, or residency preparedness.