bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Viral receptors and the mechanisms of HIV-1 entry into cells and the central nervous system
Authors: González-Scarano Francisco
Published: November 2023

Since its initial isolation and identification as the cause of the acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), an extraordinary amount of resources has been devoted to the dissection of every step in the life cycle of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1), in the events that take place in the extremely complicated interaction between the virus and the host, and in the evaluation of every potential intervention point in order to help the host over-come the virus. As a result, we now probably know more about HIV than about any other human viral pathogen. However, there are still many aspects of HIV biology that remain unresolved. In this chapter we will summarize our knowledge of an essential function of HIV: how the virus is able to engage different cell types throughout the body, attach and/or bind to specific molecules on their cell surface, and initiate infection by delivering the capsid containing the viral genome into the cytoplasm.
Astrocyte immunobiology
Authors: Etty Benveniste , Benos Dale J
Published: November 2023

HIV-1 infection causes neurological disorders in nearly 90% of infected patients, either by opportunistic infections of the brain (e.g. toxoplasmosis) or by development of HAD. HAD, a subcortical dementia characterized by impaired cognitive function, psychomotor slowing, and behavioral impairment, occurs in up to 30% of all patients infected with HIV-1 (Glass and Johnson 1996; Price 1996; Brew 1999; McArthur et al. 2003). The use of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) may reduce this incidence, and appears to have beneficial effects on HAD (Avison et al. 2002). HAD occurs predominantly in patients with late HIV-1 infection and severe immunosuppression, and is associated with limited survival time. HAD develops independently of opportunistic infections and is caused by direct infection of cells in the central nervous system (CNS) by HIV-1.
Transcriptional analysis of inflammatory and glial responses in the central nervous system: development of RNA fingerprints for neuroAIDS and other central nervous system disorders
Authors: Roberts Eleanor S , Fox Howard S
Published: November 2023

NeuroAIDS comprises a constellation of symptoms that vary in severity. Their manifestations in the central nervous system (CNS) are a devastating consequence of this disease, which can follow infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). At the very least, neuroAIDS affects the quality of life for a significant number of HIV-infected individuals and, at its most severe, the disease ends in death. The currently accepted model holds that HIV-induced diseases of the CNS are initiated by HIV infection of the CNS and that the neuronal damage occurs indirectly through the action of activated macrophages and microglia. Yet, the molecular processes leading to neuronal dysfunction and death remain unclear. Although a host of neurotoxic molecules made by activated macrophages and microglia have been posited to play a crucial role in neuroAIDS, the in vivo relevance of many remains to be determined.
The simian immunodeflciency virus/macaque model: detailing viral weapons and host defenses in HIV central nervous system disease
Authors: Zink M Christine , Babas Tahar , Mankowski Joseph L , Carruth Lucy M , Barber, Sheila A , Clements Janice E
Published: November 2023

In the 20 years since the discovery of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) as the cause of AIDS, significant progress has been made in our understanding of a number of facets of HIV itself and the diseases it causes. The clinical and pathological manifestations of AIDS were quickly described, and criteria for a diagnosis of AIDS established. The virus was readily cultured in a number of cell lines and in primary cells, allowing investigation of the viral replicative cycle and of interactions between the virus and host cells in vitro. Molecular techniques were used to delineate the structure of HIV and to define many of the functions of its genes. The pathological changes in the central nervous system (CNS) of HIV-infected individuals have been thoroughly described, and in situ hybridization and immunohistochemical staining on autopsy material have provided much information about viral burden and cytokine expression in the brains of patients with chronic HIV-induced CNS disease (Glass et al. 1995; Koenig et al. 1986; Power and Johnson 1995; Wesselingh et al. 1993).
Studies of adaptive immunity in a murine model of HIV-1 encephalitis
Authors: Poluektova Larisa Y , Gorantla, Santhi , Gendelman Howard E
Published: November 2023

HIV-1 infection of the brain occurs early after viral exposure, but significant neurological disease ensues only years later. During the acutesero conversion reaction, brain disease manifests as a mild meningoencephalitis, a sensory neuropathy, or subtle cognitive, motor, and/or behavioral disturbances (Navia et al. 1986; Brew et al. 1995; Aylward et al. 1993; Luer et al. 1994; Berger et al. 1989). Throughout the course of HIV-1 disease, viral infection in the brain occurs primarily in perivascular macrophages and microglia and is associated with a robust adaptive immune response.
HIV dementia: living with the suffering, the diagnosis, and the uncertainties
Authors: Karen A
Published: November 2023

I am not supposed to be writing these words today. A few years ago, I might not have been able to understand them. That I have memories to share—that I am alive at all—is a medical miracle. If you are reading this book, it is because you want to make miracles like mine possible. To conquer viruses, you will need to understand the other chapters in this book. To heal people—to connect with their hearts— you will need to read the next few pages. You need, in short, to know my story. My name is Karen, and I have AIDS. Apparently, that was discovered on Friday, March 7, 1997. But I don’t remember that day, or for that matter much of the previous four months. I can only tell this story with the help of my family’s memories. The first time I thought something might be wrong was mid-December. I was trying to recover from a case of ‘strep’ throat and thought all I needed was a few days’ bed rest, which my schedule as a teacher—Christmas break was approaching—would soon accommodate.
Living with HIV in an African community: a mental health point of view
Authors: Brazington Roy , Ramsden Tracy
Published: November 2023

The purpose of this chapter is to explore the experience of Black African men and women with HIV infection living in London. However, Black African men and women are not a homogeneous group and are only being discussed in this chapter as such. They are, in fact, made up of many distinct different people with diverse cultures and experiences. It should also be noted that the authors of this chapter are themselves White middle-class professionals working in a specialized mental health team for HIV-positive people. The experiences contained within his text refer only to HIV-positive individuals living in London and this may, or may not, translate very well elsewhere. The authors are also aware that their own race, gender, class, and sexuality will undoubtedly have had an impact upon the relationship with their clients.
HIV neurocognitive disorders
Authors: Grant Igor , Sacktor, Ned , McArthur Justin
Published: November 2023

A diagnostic scheme for HIV dementia that is valid and reliable must meet at least the following three requirements. It must include: (1) clearly defined, objectifiable inclusion criteria; (2) specific exclusion criteria; and (3) a specified threshold for making the diagnosis. Unfortunately, several commonly used schemes do not meet all of these requirements. For exam-Probable (must have each of the following): Acquired abnormality in two or more cognitive domains, present for at least 1 month, and cognitive dysfunction impairing work or activities of daily living, not solely attributable to systemic illness Acquired abnormality in motor function or performance, verifled by clinical examination and/or neuropsychological tests and/or decline in motivation, emotional control, or change in social behavior Absence of clouding of consciousness for a period of time sufflcient to establish (1) No other etiology present (e.g. medical, psychiatric, substance abuse, CNS infection, or neoplasm).
Spinal cord disease: clinical presentations and pathology
Authors: Mazzella Luca , Rocco, Alessandro Di , Tagliati Michele
Published: November 2023

Although the clinical manifestations of myelopathy are not encountered as frequently as those of neuropathy and dementia, the spinal cord is commonly affected during HIV infection. The most common cause of spinal cord disease in the course of HIV infection is AIDS-associated vacuolar myelopathy (VM; Snider et al. 1983; Simpson and Tagliati 1994; Petito et al. 1985). Although VM is strictly a pathological diagnosis, the term VM is used at large to indicate the clinical manifestation of primary myelopathy associated with AIDS. VM has fairly typical clinical features and is potentially disabling, but its symptoms often overlap with those of neuropathy or other neurological disorders associated with late stage AIDS. This may explain, at least in part, why VM tends to be clinically underrecognized.
Magnetic resonance spectroscopy and functional magnetic resonance imaging in the evaluation of HIV-associated brain injury
Authors: Chang Linda , Ernst Thomas
Published: November 2023

Functional neuroimaging techniques are highly sensitive and can serve as objective non-invasive surrogate markers to monitor the severity of brain injury as well as the effects of treatments. Various nuclear medicine techniques, such as single-photon emission tomography (SPECT) and positron emission tomography (PET), have been applied to evaluate human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) dementia. SPECT studies have evaluated changes in cerebral blood flow (Shielke et al. 1990; Holman et al. 1992; Sacktor et al. 1995; Christensson et al. 1999), while PET studies have evaluated cerebral glucose metabolism (Rottenberg et al. 1987, 1996; Villemagne et al. 1996).
Club drugs and HIV transmission
Authors: Mattison Andrew , Cherner Mariana
Published: November 2023

Users describe the effects of GHB as a euphoric, pleasant intoxication and disinhibition similar to that produced by alcohol or benzodiazepines. In addition, some report increased libido and enhancement of the sexual experience (Chin et al. 1998; Laborit 1972). GHB gained notoriety among regulatory agencies as well as in the club/party scene because of increases in the numbers of adverse effects and overdoses associated with its use (most often when co-administered with other substances). These can include weakness, nausea and vomiting, dizziness, loss of peripheral vision, hypothermia, respiratory acidosis, decrease or loss of consciousness, and coma. Overdosed users generally regain consciousness within 1–5 hours without sequelae (Chin et al. 1992, 1999; Dyer 1991; Ross 1995). Because the median lethal dose (LD50) is only about five times the intoxicating dose (Vickers 1969), and because it is synergistic with alcohol, the risk of central nervous system (CNS) depression is greater with GHB than with other club drugs.
Pain management in HIV infection
Authors: Lefkowitz Mathew , Grant Igor
Published: November 2023

Pain referable to the gastrointestinal tract (GI) tract is a common presentation of many HIV-related opportunistic infections and neoplasms. Abdominal pain in patients with AIDS can result from stomach ulcers or colitis caused by cytomegalovirus (CMV) or Mycobacterium aviumcomplex (MAC). Cholecystitis can be due to coincident gallstones or to infections, most commonly Cryptosporidium or CMV, but also MAC, or Kaposi’s sarcoma. Sclerosing cholangitis (also known as AIDS cholangiopathy), which presents as right upper quadrant or epigastric pain, is most commonly caused by CMV or Cryptosporidium. Pancreatitis in HIV-infected patients is most frequently due to drug therapy, specifically intravenous
Classifying unbounded nondeterminism in CSP
Authors: Barrett Geoff , Goldsmith Michael
Published: November 2023

Recent research has provided models for Communicating Sequential Processes (CSP) which allow the compactness axiom implying finite nondeterminism to be relaxed. In particular, arbitrary processes can be identified with the set of predeterministic processes which implement them.
The importance of cardinality, separability, and compactness in computer science with an example from numerical signal analysis
Authors: Grce Klaus E
Published: November 2023

This chapter gives an example where topological guidance has been essential in developing a numerical algorithm for solving a problem from signal analysis. The chapter explains the importance of car dinality, separabitity, and compactness in numerical analysis, and provides examples of spaces that can be made separable or compact by a non-standard choice of topology. Furthermore, the chapter sug gests a definition of ‘approximate computability’ and analyses some immediate consequences of the definition.
Logical Depth and Physical Complexity
Authors: Bennett Charles H
Published: November 2023

Some mathematical and natural objects (a random sequence, a sequence of zeros, a perfect crystal, a gas) are intuitively trivial, while others (e.g., the human body, the digits of 7r) contain internal evidence of a nontrivial causal history. Persons of Turing’s genius do not shy away from asking big questions, and hoping to see, in advance of the eventual slow progress of science, the essential outlines of the answers. “What is intelligence?” is one such question that clearly fascinated Turing. “How do complicated structures arise in nature?” is another. On this latter question, seeds planted by Turing have begun to mature to an extent that I think would please him.
Influences of Mathematical Logic on Computer Science
Authors: Davis Martin
Published: November 2023

When I was a student, even the topologists regarded mathematical logicians as living in outer space. Today the connections between logic and computers are a matter of engineering practice at every level of computer organization. Companies with names like Logical Devices or Logicsoft abound. One can walk into a shop and ask for a “logic probe”. This is by no means simply a matter of terminology. Issues and notions that first arose in technical investigations by logicians are deeply involved, today, in many aspects of computer science.
Algorithms in the World of Bounded Resources
Authors: Gurevich* Yuri
Published: November 2023

Abstract. Writing an algorithm, one has in mind some addressee (or addressees), i.e., a computing agent, a possible executor of the algorithm. In the classical theory of algorithms, one addresses a computing agent with unbounded resources. We argue in favor of a more realistic theory of algorithms which recognizes the multiplicity of addressees and the fact that their resources may be bounded. We are especially interested in the case when the resources of each relevant computing agent are bounded. An algorithm is supposed to be given by an exact prescription, defining a computational process. Writing the prescriptions, we make assumptions about the computing agent. The classical theory of algorithms makes a simplifying assumption that the resources of the computing agent are unbounded.
Comparing the Church and Turing Approaches: Two Prophetical Messages
Authors: Trakhtenbrot Boris A
Published: November 2023

The search for a precise mathematical characterization of what “algorithm” and “computable function” should mean resulted half a century ago in the discovery of three well-known equivalent approaches. Their chronologicalorder is as follows: λ-definability (Church-Kleene, 1932-34); general recursiveness(Godel-Hetbrand, 1934) and Turing machines (1936).The type-free λ-calculus was conceived by A. Church as a foundation for logic and mathematics, but this aim failed. In spite of this failure Churchrealized that a consistent part of this calculus is a paradigm for computation· in the same way as predicate calculus is a paradigm for deduction. In 1934 he proclaimed his famous Thesis, which identifies the intuitivenotion of computable function with the formal notion of λ-definable function, but there still was some lack of consensus about this Thesis. We learn from Davis 1982 that it was only after Turing’s work that Godel accepted Church’s Thesis which had then become the Church-Turing Thesis. This is the way the miracle occurred: the essence of a process that can be carried out by purely mechanical means was understood and incarnated in precise mathematical definitions.
Life in the Undistributed Middle
Authors: Belnap Nuel
Published: November 2023

Some logics have no connectives with the lattice properties. Some logics have lattice connectives satisfying distribution as well. What this paper wonders about is those logics in the middle: They have lattice connectives that do not satisfy the distributive laws. By the ‘ lattice properties’ I mean the familiar properties of conjunction and disjunction that can be stated in Gentzen fashion with no reference to structural context.
Theorems in Classical Logic are Instances of Theorems in Condensed BCI Logic
Authors: Bunder Martin W
Published: November 2023

Any proof in classical logic can be rewritten as a proof in intuitionistic implicational logic with the constant formula f and two additional axioms, ex also quodlibet (f1) and double negation (f2). We show here that any classical proof in this form can be transformed into a proof of a theorem of condensed BCI logic, from which the original theorem can be recovered by means of a series of simple replacements.

The fact that, for a given classical theorem, only a finite number of such replacements are possible from its condensed BCI counterpart allows us to formulate decision procedures for the intermediate systems BCif1, BCif2, BCKf1, BCKf1f2, BCIWf1, BCIWf2 and BCKWf1 in terms of known decision procedures for BCI, BCK, BCIW, and BCKW implicational logics.
Introduction to the region
Authors: Mackinnon John , Phillipps Karen
Published: November 2023

THIS field guide includes all birds recorded from the Greater Sunda Islands—Sumatra, Borneo, Java, and Bali together with their offshore satellites (the Mentaur Islands off western Sumatra, Riau and Lingga archipelagos, Bangka and Belitung off eastern Sumatra, Natunas, Anambas, Tambelan, Karimata, Karimunjawa, Madura, Bawean, Kangean, Nusa Penida, and the islands off the north and east coasts of Borneo). The book does not include Palawan and Andaman which, although faunistically related to the Greater Sundas, are generally not included under that term and are ornithologically included in guides for India and Philippines respectively. Bali, which some geographers include in the Lesser Sundas, is included in this book because it is faunistically and geologically an offshore island of Java. The endpaper map (also shown opposite) shows the region covered. This area consists of the following political territories: the whole of East Malaysia including Sarawak and Sabah, the whole of Brunei and large areas of Indonesia including the eight provinces of Sumatra, three provinces of Java, the province of Bali, and the four provinces of Kalimantan.
Biogeography
Authors: Mackinnon John , Phillipps Karen
Published: November 2023

THE Greater Sundas lie in one of the world’s most interesting zoogeographical areas, the Malay—Indonesian archipelago, an arc of some 17 000 islands straddling the Equator and extending for 5000 km between main-land Asia and the continent of Australia. The archipelago can be divided into three distinct faunal sub-regions: the Australo., —Papuan subregion, which consists of all the islands lying on the Sahul or Australian continental shelf such as Aru, New Guinea, and New Britain; the Sundaic subregion, which includes all the islands lying on the Sunda or Asiatic continental shelf such as Borneo, Sumatra, and Java plus the Malay Peninsula—which, although not an island, is faunistically more similar to the other Sundaic areas than to the rest of the Asian mainland; and finally, the Wallacean subregion, which consists of all the islands that lie between the two continental shelves such as Philippines, Sulawesi, the Moluccas, and the Lesser Sunda Islands.
Late Mesozoic
Authors: Hallam Anthony
Published: November 2023

The Cretaceous Period was a time of considerable geological activity associated primarily with the disintegration of Pangaea and a considerable increase in volcanism, which had significant biogeographic consequences. As in previous chapters attention will be directed initially to the framework of major geological events before considering organic distributions. The most up-to-date plate tectonic reconstructions for the Cretaceous are those of Scotese et al. (1988), which have utilized an interactive computer graphics method. The three dimensional capabilities of this method allow the rotation and manipulation of plate outlines in ‘real time’. Two major phases of plate reorganization are recognized, in the Mid Cretaceous (95 Ma) and latest Cretaceous (65 Ma). The synchroneity of these phases across the world indicates that plate motions are interconnected and suggests to the authors that the reorganizations are triggered by the subduction of major ridge systems, or by the elimination of subduction zones due to continental collision. Furthermore the implication is that ‘slab pull’ is the dominant plate-tectonic mechanism, with oceanic spreading centres passively following lines of stress emanating from ocean trenches. Fig. 8.1 gives Scotese et al.’s global reconstruction for the Late Cretaceous, indicating the areas of new ocean floor. During the Mid Cretaceous, starting in the earliest Aptian, volcanic eruptions on a massive scale took place, registering an extraordinary upwelling of heat and deep-mantle material. Basalts were initially erupted beneath the Pacific basin and created most of the oceanic plateaus of the present-day western Pacific (Winterer 1991). Eruptions from these mantle upwellings spread to other oceans and sea-floor spreading rates increased. The overall effect was to increase the Earth’s ocean crust production by 50-100 per cent during the time interval 125 to 80 Ma. Since this time substantially coincides with a long episode of constant normal geomagnetic polarity (the so-called Quiet Zone of the ocean floor) Larsen (1991) has proposed a superplume model whereby the removal of large quantities of heat and deep-mantle material stopped the reversal process of the Earth’s magnetic field.
The Netherlands
Authors: Rooijen P van
Published: November 2023

At various times during the Late Cretaceous, chalk was deposited over the Netherlands. A major transgression in Late Cretaceous times almost completely submerged the country and led to the extensive deposition of chalk and marly chalk. At the end of the Early Cretaceous, a structural high extended from Zandvoort in the north-west towards Krefeld in the south-east (Fig. 9.1). This structure comprised the Zandvoort Ridge, the Maasbommel High, and the Krefeld High. On both sides of the structure, thick sequences of Lower Cretaceous sediments accumulated in depositional basins (Heybroek 1974). A transgression, which had become general by Aptian—Albian times, sub-merged these structural elements from the north and formed thick sequences of chalk in the northern and central parts of the country during Late Cretaceous times. In the central and northern Netherlands, chalk deposition began during the Cenomanian, but along the margins of the depositional basin, in the south-eastern part of the country, a supply of elastic sediments prevented the formation of chalk during the early part of the Late Cretaceous. Instead, argillaceous sediments and glauconitic sands were deposited during the Santonian and Early Campanian, to be replaced by carbonates only in Late Campanian times.
Essential ingredients of real metapopulations, exemplified by the butterfly Plebejus argus
Authors: Thomas Chris D
Published: November 2023

Metapopulations are groups of local populations connected by occasional dispersal, in which persistence and patch occupancy are determined by the balance between local extinctions and colonizations (Gilpin and Hanski 1991). The development of metapopulation theory has been important in both population dynamics and conservation, since it has expanded the concept of population persistence from the local scale to whole regions. Many models have been constructed, of varying realism, and these have provided insight into factors which may be important to the persistence of groups of local populations. As these models are increasingly being applied to conservation, the time has come to assess critically the applicability of meta-population theory to real populations, particularly those of rare and endangered species (Harrison 1994).
Evolution of Social Insect Colonies
Authors: Crozier Ross H , Pamilo Pekka
Published: November 2023

This book is about the genetics and behaviour of individuals within colonies of social insects - bees, wasps, ants, and termites. Colonial living is characterized by division of labour and finely coordinated organization, by reproductive function being limited to certain individuals, by cooperative brood care, and by the presence of non-reproductive workers. Within a colony, however, many events are the result of conflicts between individuals seeking to maximize their own interests. Ever since Darwin, this interplay of cooperation and conflict has raised many important questions in evolutionary biology, especially about how cooperative behaviour is maintained in the absence of direct reproduction by workers. How is the heritable component of this behaviour passed on? Crozier and Pamilo's contribution is to analyse the genetic basis of the patterns of reproduction and resource allocation found in social insect colonies. This is done more comprehensively and with greater depth and insight than in any previous study, and is a significant step forward in the fields of population genetics and social evolution.
The progress of evolution
Authors: Colin P. Groves
Published: November 2023

Ten or even five years ago a chapter with this title would have explained how slow and gradual evolution is and how it works by natural selection and random mutations and recombination. There would then have been brief descriptions of industrial melanism and the evolution of the horse, before turning to an attempt to apply the same model to the human fossil record. Such a simplistic viewpoint is no longer possible: the ferment in evolutionary biology that has been taking place in the last decade, in one of the most exciting and fast-developing fields in biology, demands consideration. That no real analysis of human evolution, taking these new ideas into account, has been made is surely an anthropological scandal.
Epigenesis and evolution
Authors: Colin P. Groves
Published: November 2023

Ever since Haeckel the processes of ontogeny and phylogeny have been associated in biology, either causally in one direction or another, or more simply by ontogeny setting limits to what can happen in phylogeny. The present revival of interest in developmental shifts as evolutionary mechanisms is due largely to the insights of Gould (1977), although a beginning had been made previously by Løvtrup (1974).
Background to human evolution
Authors: Colin P. Groves
Published: November 2023

Before examining in detail the remains of fossil hominins, there are a few topics that must be got out of the way. First, there is the question of an interim nomenclature; although I will attempt to establish a new taxonomy later on, we need some shorthand means of reference for different fossil types. Next, there will be a brief overview of the sites at which the fossils have been found, and their dating. Finally, a consideration of the principle of variation: if we are going to erect a taxonomy, we need to know how much variation to expect within a species (or subspecies), and where to draw the line.
The progress of human evolution
Authors: Colin P. Groves
Published: November 2023

It is finally time to review the evidence. What sort of a story does it tell? How did human evolution progress, how well does it fit the models proposed earlier, and what special features does it show? The literature on human evolution is replete with ideas on why we have such a big brain. It is only recently that some (Hemmer 1967; Godfrey and Jacobs 1981; Passingham 1982; Hofman 1983; Blumenberg 1984) have started to enquire what this increase actually amounts to, what it depends on, and what evolutionary mode it represents.
An introduction to marketing
Authors: Barker John
Published: November 2023

The marketing system, as it exists at present in British agriculture, is very varied. There is a combination of longstanding traditional practice, compulsorily organized marketing for some products, and for others a highly complex situation from the farm gate through to the household shopping basket. Only a small minority of farmers can afford to stay in agriculture in the long term without making a profit. Thus the vast majority must be able to show some margin over expenditure in order to stay in business.

It follows that, in theory at least, marketing management should be of some importance to the individual farmer, since if he is aiming to make a profit from his transactions then marketing considerations should be apparent in all of his decision making, from short-term storage versus immediate sale considerations through to long-term planning of the structure of farming enterprises.
Applicability of marketing principles to farmers
Authors: Barker John
Published: November 2023

Various approaches to the analysis of agricultural marketing structures have been developed. All are attempts to break down complex marketing systems into parts which can be more readily understood. One method of classifying the activities which occur in the marketing processes is to break them down into functions.

Shaw (1912), who is usually credited with the origination of this approach, defines a marketing function as ‘a major specialized activity performed in accomplishing the marketing process’. Another approach identifies primary and secondary functions (Kohls 1968). In this way, all marketing activities are classified into three major processes: assembly, equalization, and distribution. In order to perform these principal marketing functions, various subsidiary tasks must be fulfilled, namely processing, packaging, grading or specification, transport, storage, risk bearing, demand creation, and use of market information.
Applicability of marketing techniques to farmers
Authors: Barker John
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapter, various principal and subsidiary marketing functions were identified as being of relevance to a firm in the disposal of its output. In different industries, and for different firms, the relevance of particular functions will vary. To a certain extent, all firms will fulfil functions such as packaging and demand creation in a specific way. The key concept here is that of the marketing mix, defined by Kotler (1972) as ‘the set of controllable variables that the firm can use to influence the buyers’ responses’.

There are a large number of variables which qualify for inclusion in the marketing mix. McCarthy (1971) introduced a four-factor classification popularly known as the ‘four Ps’-product, place, promotion, and price. Each classification includes a number of marketing considerations, as shown in Table 3.1. The marketing mix is regarded by many firms as being of very great importance, and marketing programmes are designed specifically to determine the optimal marketing mix.
Government support of agricultural markets in the UK
Authors: Barker John
Published: November 2023

In 1917, the British Government took the first positive steps of intervention in the marketing of general agricultural commodities for a considerable period of time. Before then, agriculture had operated under free trading conditions since the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846. Laissez-faire worked reasonably well in the second half of the nineteenth century, with production reaching record levels in the 1870s. Thereafter, however, the spectre of plentiful supplies of imported food created increased competition, particularly cheap grain from the prairies of North America, and refrigerated meat and dairy products from Argentina and Australia.
Channels used by farmers marketing individually
Authors: Barker John
Published: November 2023

In the first part of this book, a review has been undertaken of the relevance of marketing in the particular environment of agricultural business. The overall conclusion of this review was that, although marketing is carried out in agriculture, not all of the participants in the markets, namely farmers, are personally involved in the marketing of their output. This was followed by a discussion of the legislation affecting agricultural marketing. The aim of this second part of the book is to investigate, in detail, the various methods by which farmers dispose of their produce. A number of well tried and tested channels have been used throughout generations by farmers, and the most important of these will be considered from the point of view of their use for particular commodities, and their individual advantages and disadvantages.
The Age Of Enlightenment 1740–1801
Authors: Marker Gary
Published: November 2023

After Peter’s death in 1725 and another fifteen years of troubled and ill- defined rule, the next six decades witnessed a self-conscious reassertion of the Petrine legacy. For the remainder of the century, indeed of the old regime, legitimacy was linked to the name and achievements of Peter, officially canonized both as the founder of the All-Russian Empire and its great Europeanizer. Ironically, this epitome of masculine authority, this father of the fatherland, was enshrined and succeeded by strong female rulers, first his daughter Elizabeth (1741–61) and, after the brief reign of Peter III (1761–2), Catherine the Great (1762–96).
From Stalinism To Stagnation 1953–1985
Authors: Freeze Gregory L
Published: November 2023

After decades of personalized tyranny, news of Stalin’s illness had a traumatic impact on the population. Recalling the recent ‘doctors’ plot’ (with transparent anti-Semitic overtones), some contemporaries suspected that ‘the doctors are involved in this.
Introduction: on the Grand Tour
Authors: Marino John A
Published: November 2023

Guercino’s fresco of Aurorain the Casino Ludovisi in Rome depicts the charioteer Dawn ushering in a virile Day to dispel the furtive Night. Guercino’s Dawn,commissioned by the cardinal nephew of the newly elected Pope Gregory XV (1621-3), celebrates the beginning of his Bolognese compatriot Alessandro Ludovisi’s pontificate as a new golden age, while it marked the high point of baroque painting among the Bolognese school in Rome-Annibale Carracci, Guido Reni, Francesco Albani, Lanfranco, Domenichino, as well as the young Guercino himself. Dawn, boldly streaking across the sky above the pope’s casa,a house in the sense both of family and of property where social relationships and power politics were one, chases away the darkndess.
Religion, spirituality, and the post Tridentine Church
Authors: Schutte Anne Jacobson
Published: November 2023

At first sight, 1580 may seem a year of no particular significance in Italian religious history: no pope died, no ecumenical council met, no major doctrinal or disciplinary directive was promulgated, no important bureaucratic organ was established, no new religious order was founded, no famous heretic was executed, no saint was elevated to the honour of the altars. In recent historical writing, such conventional chronological markers matter less than they once did. Rather than looking for critical moments associated with persons or institutions, scholars now focus on processes. From this perspective, 1580 or thereabouts appears to mark the beginning of a distinctive phase in early modern Italian Catholicism.
Mare magnum:the arts in the early modern age
Authors: Snyder Jon R
Published: November 2023

Italian art, architecture, literature, and music were never more influential abroad than during the years 1550-1796. The first truly international aesthetic, which is conventionally called the ‘baroque’, was born in Italy as Renaissance culture metamorphosed by the mid sixteenth century. This new aesthetic-especially in art, architecture, and music-spread quickly across a large swath of the planet, from Rome to St Petersburg, from Madrid to Lima, from Manila to Mexico City, from Goa to Salvador (Bahia).
Science and society
Authors: Findlen Paula
Published: November 2023

In the middle of the sixteenth century, the Italian peninsula could easily lay claim to being the centre of the scientific world in western Europe. Home to the oldest and most venerable universities, nascent Jesuit colleges, a thriving print industry, and academies where learned men congregated to discuss books and present their own work, Italy was institutionally and intellectually fertile ground in which ideas could thrive. Northern European scholars routinely made the pilgrimage to Italy to benefit from its unique intellectual resources.
The Taiping Rebellion 1850–1864
Authors: Gray Jack
Published: November 2023

Throughout the last decades of the eighteenth century and the first decades of the nineteenth in China, scarcely a year passed without violent protest or armed rebellion. Some of this protest was scarcely distinguishable from banditry. Much was of the spontaneous rice-riot kind. On several occasions, however, small groups raised the banner of the Ming dynasty and marched against the foreign rulers. The Taiping Rebellion of 1850 was only the greatest of many outbreaks. A major rebellion broke out in 1796.
The self-strengthening movement
Authors: Gray Jack
Published: November 2023

The years 1861 to 1894, between the end of the Third War with the West and the outbreak of the First Sino-Japanese War, were make-or-break years for the reform of the old system. The period had begun with defeat, and rebellion still raged. The Taipings were to hold Nanjing for three more years.
Reform and revolution
Authors: Gray Jack
Published: November 2023

Defeat by Japan in 1894–5 was the greatest shock that the Chinese had suffered since the Opium War. The victor was not a great Western power, but a small Asian country. The defeated Chinese forces were as modern as those of the enemy. The old excuses would not work this time. The conservatives were at last put on the defensive. These were the circumstances in which the Hundred Days of Reform commenced, led by young graduates.
The war-lord era
Authors: Gray Jack
Published: November 2023

From 1916 to 1931 the political history of China as a united country virtually ceases. There was a shifting system of quasi-independent states concerned to maintain or improve their positions in a struggle to control the national government, whose authority these very rivalries prevented from being more than nugatory. It was a situation which called forth explanations inspired by disillusionment and despair, explanations which stressed the selfishness of the war-lords, their lack of political principle and their indifference to the national interest. Explanation in these terms, because it could serve as propaganda for the Nationalist Party by representing the conflict between the Nationalists and war-lords as a struggle between good and evil, has become the almost unchallenged interpretation. The truth, however, is much more interesting.
The Chinese Communist Party, 1935–1949
Authors: Gray Jack
Published: November 2023

Of the 90,000 men who broke out of Jiangxi, only one in ten reached the new base in the north. The Long March is often described as an epic victory. An epic it was, but to call it a victory is only wisdom after the event. In itself it was a disastrous retreat following a devastating defeat. The three main soviets had been rooted out; now nine out of ten of the Red Army were killed or scattered.
The Chinese People’s Republic 1949–1957
Authors: Gray Jack
Published: November 2023

The new Chinese People’s Republic was proclaimed in Tian An Men Square, Beijing, on 1 October 1949. Mao Zedong from the rostrum announced, ‘China has stood up.’ It was the nationalist message which most Chinese wanted to hear; to most of his vast audience, socialism in 1949, as in 1919, was first and a foremost a means to national revival.
China since the death of Mao
Authors: Gray Jack
Published: November 2023

On the death of Mao in September 1976, Hua Guofeng succeeded. His position as Party Chairman was publicly confirmed one month later. He claimed, and the Party leadership accepted, that Mao had nominated him as successor. Mao had always emphasized his belief that experience of government in the provinces was the best preparation for power at the centre. Hua had served virtually his entire career in Mao’s own home province of Hunan, where he had conscientiously carried out Maoist policies. He had been brought to Beijing by Mao and appointed Minister of Public Security on 17 January 1975.
Languages of Pleasure
Authors: Perriam Chris , Thompson Michael , Frenk Susan , Knights Vanessa
Published: November 2023

The removal by death of the dictator and subsequently of formal censorship facilitated experimentation from the second half of the 1970s with erotic and pornographic writing. Such was the compelling power of the drama of the death, and such the emphasis subsequently placed in popular speech and by a gleeful liberal and rueful conservative press on the phenomenon of destape (with the two meanings of ‘release of pressure’ and ‘going topless’), that it is all too easy to entertain the misconception of a Spain under tight moral lock and key right up until the punctual event of November 1975. Whereas it is certainly true that with the relax¬ ation of censorship nudity in the theatre and cinema (and not just, as it had been for years, on the smarter tourist beaches) and pornography in the news kiosks (and not just under the counter) were suddenly a presence, the process of acclimatization is one with no easy point of origin and with many trajectories. Although many literary narratives and dramatic works of and about the Franco years are concerned with the denial and repression of pleasures, other texts were able to construct alternative spaces in which to explore fantasies or pursue ideals (even within the domains of religion, as is clear from the sensual, religious poetic writings of Adriano del Valle appearing in Vertice in the early 1940s and, at the end of the decade, in the poetry of the Cantico group of poets).
The economy
Authors: Félix Joël
Published: November 2023

For the school of classical liberal thought which arose in France in the middle of the eighteenth century, the goal of enlightened government was to substitute a rational economic order for an older, inefficient economic system. In this older system, so the liberals claimed, the dominant principles were those of the royal financiers, who, to help their sovereign slake his thirst for grandeur, were plundering their country’s wealth through a multitude of unnecessary taxes, internal customs arrangements, and cumbersome regulations. In contrast, the liberals held forth the promise of a more harmonious society, and of a resolutely modern state which would be able to reform the nation’s economic structures by allowing private initiative and the free play of the market to generate an endless spiral of wealth. The king would thus accomplish what he had been set on earth to do: preserve his country’s health and his subjects’ happiness.
Culture and Economic Constraints
Authors: Britnell Richard
Published: November 2023

Even if rational economic calculation, in some sense, is common to all men, there have been contrasts both between and within societies concerning what is worth doing. There have been differences in the extent to which people quantify the results of their activity and learn from the past. In different societies, too, there have been variations in the extent to which social institutions have encouraged or inhibited change. These differences have coincided to some extent with those of religion and education, social status, and ethnic identity. The beliefs and allegiances of the period 1050–1530 were sufficiently unlike those of our own day to deserve some discussion from this point of view.
Procedural Routines and the Uses of Literacy
Authors: Britnell Richard
Published: November 2023

Opportunities for studying the economic and social history of Britain between 1050 and 1300 become progressively more favourable because of a huge increase in the number of written records during the course of the period. Archaeological evidence also improves; more structures were built and more material remains were deposited with the growth of total population and wealth. But for the first time in British history, from the eleventh century written records begin to outstrip archaeological evidence as a source for economic and social history, supplying new sorts both of quantitative and qualitative evidence. They also supply an increasingly precise chronology of change, though the study of timbers by dendrochronologists is now also permitting the fine dating of some types of unwritten evidence.
Britain and Ireland in the Early Fourteenth Century
Authors: Britnell Richard
Published: November 2023

The economic development achieved in Britain and Ireland between 1050 and 1300 represented a lasting achievement in many respects. It is true that the levels of trade and population reached then were not maintained. Yet many of the innovations that had made population growth possible during these 250 years made a lasting contribution to the technical and institutional resources of later generations, benefiting their levels of productivity, their standards of living, and the quality of their collective culture in a wide variety of ways. It is impossible to envisage life in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries without ethical norms, administrative and political institutions, systems of money and credit, levels of literacy, and industrial and agrarian technologies, that had been absent in 1050.
Rural Settlement and Society
Authors: Britnell Richard
Published: November 2023

Since, as we saw in Chapter 4, the population of Britain declined between 1300 and 1530, we should expect abundant tangible evidence from rural sources. If total numbers in England fell from 4.5–6 m. in 1300 to around 2 m. in 1524, and if at least four-fifths of the population lived in rural settlements of various kinds, then rural population fell by at least 2.0–3.2 m. in the course of the period, and the decline was probably even greater between 1348 and the nadir of fifteenth-century contraction around 1450. If, too, many of the problems of the thirteenth-century countryside in southern England had resulted from shortages of land, we should expect those problems to be alleviated as the relationship between population and the land altered to increase per capita resources. Since Wales, Scotland, and Ireland experienced similar demographic contraction we should expect parallel evidence in their documentary and archaeological evidence. We should nevertheless expect the effects of rising resources per capita to be less marked in regions that had suffered less from land hunger before 1348 and that benefited less from manufacturing development and urban demand thereafter.
Procedural Routines and the Uses of Literacy
Authors: Britnell Richard
Published: November 2023

The history of records and record keeping between 1050 and 1300 is one of dramatic growth, as so often with the origins and early development of new techniques. The following two centuries, by contrast, have less novelty to offer. By 1300 the use of writing as an aid to communication and administrative control was so thoroughly embedded in the way government and legal institutions worked that it would have taken greater catastrophes than those of the fourteenth century to undermine it, and historians using records of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries have generally been more impressed at the degree of continuity with the past than by change, except in regions of severe political instability like parts of Ireland.