bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Agricultural intensification and the decline of pastoralism: a case study from Kenya
Authors: Heald Suzette
Published: April 2006

Using a case study, this article takes up the issue of the decline of pastoralism in Kenya's arable farming zones. It argues that this process should not be taken as self-evident, with a decline in stockholding seen as consequent simply upon the relative rewards of agriculture, population increase and environmental depletion. On the contrary, such a view ignores the fact that cattle were the first sector of the traditional agro-pastoralist societies of Kenya to become commercialised and, in the process, criminalised. Historically, cattle-raiding heroes soon became feared stock thieves, and it is this process which is essential to understanding the eventual decline of the pastoral sector and also to emerging patterns of inequality. The argument is based upon a longitudinal study of Kuria District in south-west Kenya, with survey data collected from the same homesteads in 1985 and 1995. Both surveys were designed to assess the effects of tobacco growing on emerging patterns of socio-economic stratification. Such a methodology is rare and challenges the interpretations that might be reached solely on the basis of cross-sectional survey data. Despite increasing differentiation of incomes over the ten-year period, there has been no straightforward consolidation of relative wealth and poverty. Rather, there are indications of significant equalising tendencies at work in the local economy. Over the ten years there had been a 50 per cent decrease in cattle ownership. Understanding the dynamics of this situation takes the argument in other directions and towards understanding the effects of commodification on the military wing of the pastoral economy. Agricultural intensification in Kuria has been accompanied by an upsurge in cattle raiding and it is this factor more than any other which has led to the decline of stock, as people divest themselves of cattle to forestall the depredations of raiders. At the same time, attitudes to the raiders themselves have hardened and evidence suggests that it is raiding families—rather than, say, the poor as such—who find it expedient to migrate and in the process sell their land, allowing some consolidation of land holdings by other members of the community.
Islam and popular music in Senegal: the emergence of a ‘new tradition’
Authors: McLaughlin Fiona
Published: April 2006

This article explores the influence of Islam on Senegalese popular music and describes the emergence of a ‘new tradition’ that adapts the griot's praise song to Sufism. The emerging tradition is discussed against the backdrop of social relations between griots and the people they praise, and between marabouts or Sufi religious leaders and their disciples. Elements derived from both relationships can be found in the ‘new tradition’, making for a hybrid musical genre that reflects the social and religious reality of modern Senegal.
African conversion from a world religion: religious diversification by the Waso Boorana in Kenya
Authors: Aguilar Mario I.
Published: April 2006

The Boorana of the Waso area of north-eastern Kenya settled there in the 1930s. Upon the settling of colonial administrative boundaries in 1934 they became isolated from the rest of the Boorana in northern Kenya and Ethiopia. Thereafter a process of ‘somalisation’ took place through which they replaced their Oromo ritual moments with Islamic practices. By the 1950s most of the Waso Boorana had converted to Islam, and since then have been considered Muslims by the rest of Kenya. Nevertheless recent research has shown that there has been a revival of traditional religious practices among them. The article divides the history of the Waso Boorana into two periods: (1) from their settlement in the Waso area to the events leading to Kenya's independence (1932–62) and (2) from Kenya's independence to the 1990s (1963–92). It is in this second period in their history that the Waso Boorana began a process of religious diversification. Traditional religious practices revived in their settlements and distrust emerged of Islam. The article argues that there has been a reconversion to traditional practices, based on a local principle, the Waso Boorana division of herds.
‘First the forest’: conservation, ‘community’ and ‘participation’ in south-west Cameroon
Authors: Sharpe Barrie
Published: April 2006

Western concern with ‘conserving’ or ‘managing’ the rain forests of Africa has led to the setting up of a number of conservation projects. In such projects the ‘participation’ of the ‘community’ in forest conservation has become the new orthodoxy. However, proposals about local people's participation presume that defining the future of the forest is a straight contest between the alternatives of conservation or forest clearing. Such proposals also presume that the existence of communities is non-problematic. In contrast, this article documents that there is already considerable local debate about forest use and conservation, much of it among those excluded from the formal arena of politics and policy-making. Concern with ‘the environment’ includes concern about the perpetuation of society, and represents a clear continuation of West African village cosmologies focused on the societalisation of space. At the same time, conservation aims of ‘keeping the forest as it is’ have few resonances, since forest people see society itself as an artful, but often problematic, construction in which the conversion of the forest plays a central part. In conclusion, the article suggests that the key to environmental management must be for external agencies to articulate with the interests and values of those who hold a legitimate stake in African forest resources.
Indian films and Nigerian lovers: media and the creation of parallel modernities
Authors: Larkin Brian
Published: April 2006

This article discusses the significance of Indian films in revealing a relatively ignored aspect of the transnational flow of culture. The intra-Third World circulation of Indian film offers Hausa viewers a way of imaginatively engaging with forms of tradition different from their own at the same time as conceiving of a modernity that comes without the political and ideological significance of that of the West. After discussing reasons for the popularity of Indian films in a Hausa context, it accounts for this imaginative investment of viewers by looking at narrative as a mode of social enquiry. Hausa youth explore the limits of accepted Hausa attitudes to love and sexuality through the narratives of Indian film and Hausa love stories (soyayya). This exploration has occasioned intense public debate, assoyayyaauthors are accused of corrupting Hausa youth by borrowing foreign modes of love and sexual relations. The article argues that this controversy indexes wider concerns about the shape and direction of contemporary Nigerian culture. Analysingsoyayyabooks and Indian films gives insight into the local reworking and indigenising of transnational media flows that take place within and between Third World countries, disrupting the dichotomies between West and non-West, coloniser and colonised, modernity and tradition, in order to see how media create parallel modernities. Through spectacle and fantasy, romance and sexuality, Indian films provide arenas for considering what it means to be modern and what may be the place of Hausa society within that modernity. For northern Nigerians, who respond to a number of different centres, whether politically to the Nigerian state, religiously to the Middle East and North Africa, economically to the West, or culturally to the cinematic dominance of India, Indian films are just one part of the heterogeneity of everyday life. They provide a parallel modernity, a way of imaginatively engaging with the changing social basis of contemporary life that is an alternative to the pervasive influence of a secular West.
Towards a conceptual framework of household coping: reflections from rural West Africa
Authors: Adams Alayne M. , Cekan Jindra , Sauerborn Rainer
Published: April 2006

The study and application of household coping have largely been confined to the problems of famine and food insecurity. Based on field insights from West Africa, this paper argues that understanding how households cope and allocate resources in times of crisis is of immense value to a broad array of development interventions. It also introduces a conceptual framework that evaluates household coping in exogenous and endogenous contexts. The application of this framework may provide a more informed approach to development intervention design, implementation and targeting that is sensitive to the differential needs and experiences of rural households and communities.
Introduction: Elections and electoral politics in Africa
Authors: Young Tom
Published: April 2006

The new British ambassador to Maputo, Richard Edis, recently travelled to the Renamo base at Maringue to meet its leader Alfonso Dhlakama. He carried with him a letter from Overseas Development Minister Baroness Lynda Chalker, two footballs and a pile of books on ‘democracy’ for Dhlakama's library.’

Warning: We don't want it

The people of Yardaji Have No Regard For Any Political Party Whatsoever: We Are Tired of Hearing Idle Talk. Whoever Ignores This Advice Will Regret It. Listen Well: Don't Come Here. This is Not a Matter Of One Person Alone. We Don't Want It.
Ethnography in the reconstruction of African land use histories: a Sierra Leone example
Authors: Nyerges A. Endre
Published: April 2006

The history of vegetation and land use in western Africa includes a pattern of environmental change that can best be described as gradual, subtle, and difficult to measure accurately. As compared, for example, with the process of large-scale felling in Amazonia, deforestation in this context is not readily amenable to analysis and quantification. Local ethnographic, ecological, and ethnohistorical techniques, however, can be used to develop the information required to advance our understanding of the processes of land use and forest change in the region. In this article, research into the contemporary ecology and ethnography of one swidden fanning group, the Susu of Sierra Leone, is combined with historical reconstruction and ethnohistorical documentation of the area, beginning with the visit of the Portuguese Jesuit Priest Fr Balthazar Barreira in 1516. Later documentary sources include the journal of the British_staff sergeant Brian O'Beirne, who explored the road from Freetown to the Fouta Jallon in 1821, and an account of a regional tour by the colonial traveller Frederick Migeod in 1922. These and other data are used to determine how present production systems cause processes of forest change, to assess the extent to which present production systems reflect the past, and to determine how past systems have affected the environment and changed and evolved over time.
Ethnic Dance Research Guide: Relevant Data Categories
Authors: Hanna Judith Lynne
Published: April 2006

Because of the expressed interest of more than 35 particpants of the IX International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences, this 1970 ethnic dance research guide with 1973 revisions is being reprinted here.

Analyst's definition of dance: purposefuly, intentionally rhythmical, and culturally patterned sequence of non-verbal body movement and gesture which are not ordinary motor activities, the motion having inherent value.
Strategies for Comprehending Text and Coping with Reading Difficulties
Authors: Paris Scott G. , Oka Evelyn R.
Published: April 2006

Reading is a foundation for literacy and education, yet it presents formidable problems for learning disabled children. Although some of these difficulties may have specific perceptual or phonological roots, we argue that they become pervasive roadblocks to learning and motivation. Thus, children who cannot decode words, identify main ideas, or summarize text well become frustrated. We discuss how, as a result of such frustration, learning disabled children develop counterproductive coping strategies and fail to use effective cognitive strategies. Interventions that teach students (a) how to use strategies selectively and (b) how to set goals, persevere, and make accurate attributions while reading help learning disabled readers significantly. The metacognitive and motivational characteristics of these successful interventions will be considered in terms of “cognitive coaching.” Instruction that incorporates the twin goals of enabling and empowering students is likely to lead to stable improvements in both acquisition and use of adaptive learning strategies.
Reciprocity in the Teacher-Pupil and Peer Verbal Interactions of Learning Disabled, Behavior-Disordered, and Regular Education Students
Authors: Moore Steven R. , Simpson Richard L.
Published: April 2006

The purpose of this study was to examine the reciprocal interactions of learning disabled (LD), behavior-disordered (BD), and regular education students. The interactions of 15 students from each diagnostic group (LD, BD, regular education) and their peers, teachers, and classroom aides were observed using a behavior observation instrument designed to monitor (a) frequency of 14 target behaviors, (b) direction of the interaction (i.e., given to or received from), and (c) status of the party involved in the interaction (i.e., peer, teacher, aide). A correlational analysis indicated that negative peer-student interactions were reciprocal. In contrast, neither positive or negative teacher-student interactions nor positive peer-student interactions were reciprocal. First-order conditional probabilities (i.e., the probability of a statement being followed by a selected response) showed that BD, LD, and regular students responded to others in a similar manner. Likewise, the teachers of the three groups were similar in their responses to students. In all groups, positive, negative, and neutral statements were most likely to be followed either by an absence of a response or by a neutral response.
Direct and Frequent Measurement of Student Performance: If It's Good for Us, Why Don't We Do It?
Authors: Wesson Caren L. , King Robert P. , Deno Stanley L.
Published: April 2006

Teachers serving learning disabled (LD) students provided information about the use of direct and frequent measurement in special education. Although most were familiar with these measurement strategies, relatively few teachers used them because they thought they were too time consuming or because of their own lack of skills. However, teachers who did use the techniques most often reported that measurement of this type requires less than 10% of a student's instructional time. The implications of these and other findings related to special education measurement and teacher training are discussed.
Hyperactive and Comparison Children's Response to Detailed VS. Global Cues in Communication Tasks
Authors: Zentall Sydney S. , Gohs Deborah E.
Published: April 2006

According to the optimal stimulation theory, hyperactive children suffer from insufficient arousal, expecially in contexts that provide minimal stimulation. In the present study hyperactive children were predicted to perform worse than controls on tasks requiring attention to detailed information because utilization of detailed cues requires narrowing and sustaining attentional focus (optimally produced by states of high arousal). Hyperactive and comparison children were presented with a series of receptive communication tasks requiring attention to (a) detailed cues alone, and (b) global cues followed by detailed cues or detailed cues followed by global cues, under conditions in which subjects were permitted to ask for clarifying cues or information. Findings demonstrated that hyperactive boys performed worse than controls in tasks which provided detailed cues alone. During tasks in which additional cues available were detailed, experimental subjects responded more impulsively than controls. Problems with detailed cues were not attributable to overall differences between groups in motivation, ability to request information, information processing speed, or nonspecific impulsivity. These findings suggest that hyperactive children may more readily process global than detailed information in tasks that are analogous to classroom listening tasks.
Reactive Effects of Self-Assessment and Self-Recording on Attention to Task and Academic Productivity
Authors: Lloyd John Wills , Hallahan Daniel P. , Kosiewicz Marianne M. , Kneedler Rebecca Dailey
Published: April 2006

In two experiments, the effects of self-assessment and self-recording were compared as treatments for increasing on-task behavior and academic productivity. In Experiment 1, both procedures caused increases in attention to task and academic productivity for one student, but neither procedure was more effective than the other. In Experiment 2, self-assessment by itself was neither effective in increasing the students' on-task behavior nor their academic productivity. However, the introduction of self-recording after a period of self-assessment resulted in increased on-task behavior, but not increased productivity. Based on these results, self-recording appears to be a more effective procedure than self-assessment for increasing attention to task.
Increasing Metacomprehension in Learning Disabled and Normally Achieving Students through Self-Questioning Training
Authors: Wong Bernice Y. L. , Jones Wayne
Published: April 2006

This study investigated the hypothesis that insufficient metacomprehension is one possible cause underlying learning disabled adolescents' comprehension problems, and that training them to monitor their understanding of important textual elements fosters metacomprehension and, consequently, improves their comprehension performance. A total of 120 learning disabled eighth and ninth graders and normally achieving sixth graders participated in the study. Half the subjects were randomly assigned to receive a 5-step self-questioning training in which they learned to monitor their understanding of important textual units. The results clearly showed that training substantially increased learning disabled adolescents' awareness of important textual units, as well as their ability to formulate good questions involving those units. Moreover, training facilitated their comprehension performance. However, training did not substantially increase normally achieving sixth graders' metacomprehension or comprehension performance. The differential effects of training on the two groups of students underscore the inactive nature of the learning disabled adolescents' reading as opposed to the active nature of reading in normally achieving sixth graders.
Effects of Illustrations on Learning Disabled Students' Reading Performance
Authors: Rose Terry L. , Robinson Helen H.
Published: April 2006

An alternating-treatments design was used to investigate the relative effects of illustrations on the oral reading in context and comprehension accuracy of five elementary-school learning disabled students. Social comparison data were used to verify oral reading deficiencies. Results showed no apparent relationship between the presence or absence of illustrations and changes in oral reading rates or response accuracy of comprehension questions. Results are discussed in relation to the purported benefits of illustrations. Finally, implications for instruction and suggestions for future investigations are discussed.
Accuracy of Learning Disabled Students' Self-Prediction of Decoding
Authors: Loper Ann Booker
Published: April 2006

Two experiments were conducted to investigate LD children's ability to predict and evaluate their own oral decoding performance. In the first experiment, LD and non-LD children predicted whether they could correctly pronounce words which varied in pronounceability, as defined by orthographic structure. Results indicated that non-LD children's predictions were more sensitive to orthographic variations than were those of the LD subjects. In a second experiment subjects were required to predict performance of nonsense words from a standardized reading test, whose items were of graduated difficulty. A “range” was constructed for each child spanning the easiest item on which a child made an error to the most difficult item to which he/she responded correctly. Groups of LD and normal children were established, matched on number of words in a “range” and accuracy within the range. Results tentatively suggested that when words were individualized in this manner, LD children were as competent as non-LD children in predicting and evaluating their own performance.
Metacognitive Control Processes and Memory Deficits in Poor Comprehenders
Authors: Cornoldi Cesare
Published: April 2006

This article presents theoretical reflections and empirical data on metacognitive aspects of memory and reading problems in children with reading-comprehension disabilities. A distinction is made between metacognitive awareness and metacognitive control processes. It is hypothesized that metacognitive awareness will bring about differences between good and poor comprehenders. Differences in control processes are more complex and must be carefully articulated. The ability to discriminate the relative difficulty of different sections of material to be read and/or studied is particularly important. This strategy is considered together with the “time allocation” strategy, in which the student discriminates between items requiring a greater or lesser expenditure of cognitive resources. Discrimination difficulty and differential allocation of cognitive resources are involved in cognitive tasks such as reading and memory. Experimental results suggest that, depending on the nature of a task, control processes can be employed differentially. Poor comprehenders present less adequate control processes while reading a passage, but not while memorizing isolated lists of items.
Material-Appropriate Processing: Implications for Remediating Recall Deficits in Students with Learning Disabilities
Authors: McDaniel Mark A. , Einstein Gilles O. , Waddill Paula J.
Published: April 2006

Research with nondisabled learners has shown that the effectiveness of encoding activities depends on the type of material to which such activities are applied. We review the material-appropriate processing approach (McDaniel & Einstein, 1989) and examine the extent to which this framework might be used to help anticipate and explain the mnemonic effects of elaborative encoding tasks and study adjuncts for less able learners. For less able learners, elaborative tasks that require processing that is also invited by the material seem to enhance recall, but elaborative tasks that require processing not invited by the material produce little or no enhancement in recall. Apparently, less able learners are not capable of spontaneously exploiting the affordances of the to-be-learned material without appropriate study instructions or adjuncts. Further, unlike nondisabled learners, less able learners do not seem to benefit from study instructions that require types of processing not afforded by the material.
Mnemonic Instruction for Students with Learning Disabilities: What it is and What it Does
Authors: Scruggs Thomas E. , Mastropieri Margo A.
Published: April 2006

One of the characteristics of learning disabled (LD) students most commonly mentioned by teachers and researchers is difficulty with semantic memory. Recently, an instructional model has been developed, referred to as mnemonic instruction, which is directly targeted to learners with difficulties in semantic memory. This article describes the concept of mnemonic instruction and how it interacts with the specific learning characteristics of LD students. Additionally, the extraordinary effectiveness of the techniques with LD students, as reported in numerous published research studies, is described. Implications for classroom instruction and further research are provided.
Knowledge of Revision and Revising Behavior among Students with Learning Disabilities
Authors: MacArthur Charles A. , Graham Steve , Schwartz Shirley
Published: April 2006

The study investigated learning disabled students' knowledge of revision, their revising behavior, and the quality of their revisions. Students' predominant conception of revision, as revealed in interviews, was correction of errors. However, when presented with a specific text, most students were able to make some substantive suggestions for revision—primarily addition of information. Actual revisions of stories and opinion essays consisted mainly of mechanical changes or minor word changes that had no effect on meaning. In terms of quality, fewer than half of all revisions were rated as improvements. Furthermore, no overall change in length, quality, or mechanical errors was found between first and second drafts. The only type of revision that positively affected overall quality was addition of T-units. Implications for revision instruction are discussed.
Pragmatics: The Meaning of Verbal Language in Learning Disabled and Nondisabled Boys
Authors: Boucher C. Robin
Published: April 2006

The semantics usage of LD and non-LD boys in a social situation involving interaction with an adult and peers was analyzed to determine (a) if there were differences of meaning usage between LD and non-LD boys and (b) if LD and non-LD boys switched meaning usage relative to listener age. Employing a semantic feature model and transcripts of verbal language from a parent study, results indicated that overall, LD and non-LD boys were highly similar in meaning usage and showed internal consistency of meaning usage across interaction types. Usage switching occurred infrequently, mostly among non-LDs, and switching was only slightly complementary — LDs and non-LDs adapted usage of Possession meaning to listener age as if taking reciprocal roles. Findings suggest that although remediation in a few areas may help LD boys match non-LD peers' meaning usage and interact more effectively, further research is needed to clarify LD children's use of semantics. Described is a potentially useful application of the present analysis to semantics evaluation and the use of a pragmatics model for remediation. Research in other pragmatics areas is recommended in order to arrive at a differentiation between LD children's language and social deficits.
Inferential Word-Decoding Weakness in Reading Disabled Children
Authors: Ackerman Peggy T. , Anhalt Jean M. , Dykman Roscoe A.
Published: April 2006

Evidence is presented that a large number of reading disabled (RD) children, especially younger ones, exhibit impaired inferential thinking in a head-fitted word-decoding task. This weakness is theorized to be linked to a lag in the development of phonological sensitivity. Recent work is reviewed that suggests phonological sensitivity can be enhanced by direct instruction, with carry-over benefits to word-recognition skill.
Effects of Interactive Vocabulary Instruction on the Vocabulary Learning and Reading Comprehension of Junior-High Learning Disabled Students
Authors: Bos Candace S. , Anders Patricia L.
Published: April 2006

Drawing upon theory-driven vocabulary instruction and the vocabulary-reading comprehension connection, this study compared the effectiveness of three interactive vocabulary strategies derived from the knowledge hypothesis with definition instruction derived from the access and instrumental hypotheses. Subjects were 61 learning disabled junior-high students. Using content-area texts, students participated in one of three interactive strategies — semantic mapping (SM), semantic feature analysis (SFA), and semantic / syntactic feature analysis (SSFA) — or in definition instruction (DI). Learning was measured both at short and long term by vocabulary and comprehension multiple-choice items and written recalls. Results from the multiple-choice items suggested that students participating in the interactive strategies demonstrated greater comprehension and vocabulary learning than students receiving definition instruction. Results of the written recalls indicated qualitatively and quantitatively greater recalls at long term for students in the SFA and SSFA conditions compared with the DI condition. Implications for research and practice are discussed.
Tutoring Learning Disabled Students: A Critical Review
Authors: Scruggs Thomas E. , Richter Lori
Published: April 2006

Twenty-four empirical investigations of tutoring interventions were evaluated. Although all authors favored their use, equivocal results were reported. Particularly weak were substantiated reports of social benefits to tutors or tutees. Methodological problems associated with such research in field settings are discussed, and implications for future research are given.
Intra-Individual Discrepancy in Diagnosing Specific Learning Disabilities
Authors: O'Donnell Linda E.
Published: April 2006

The relationship between intra-individual discrepancy and exceptionality is studied in 248 children from grades one through six. Categories of exceptionality include children classified as: gifted/creative; sensorily impaired; behavior disordered; physically handicapped; mentally retarded; and learning disabled. The discrepancy between a child's expected level of functioning and actual level of functioning is computed by nine formulae commonly used in the field of special education. The study revealed a highly statistically significant relationship between discrepancies and exceptionalities, though a relatively low strength of association was found. The results also indicate that the intra-individual discrepancy is questionable when used as the defining characteristic of special learning disabilities; such a discrepancy is equally likely to occur in children classified as sensorily disordered, behaviorally disordered, and learning disabled.
Stimulant Medications and the Classroom Attention-to-Task and Deviant Social Behaviors of Twelve Hyperactive Males
Authors: Simpson Richard L. , Reece Carol Ann , Kauffman Ralph , Jones Fowler
Published: April 2006

Twelve hyperactive males, ages 6 to 12, were treated with methylphenidate, d-amphetamine and a placebo under double-blind conditions. Each of the subjects was evaluated via a structured classroom observation procedure in his regular classroom setting over a continuous 30-week period to determine the influence of the medication on classroom functioning. Individual analysis of subjects' data revealed that the drug treatment was associated with variant levels of positive influence. The significance of objective multidisciplinary drug evaluation strategies is stressed.
Resource Room Support Services for Regular Teachers
Authors: Speece Deborah L. , Mandell Colleen J.
Published: April 2006

In order to assess the delivery of support services from resource room teachers to regular elementary teachers involved in mainstreaming learning disabled students, a list of 26 services was developed from the literature. The Index of Support Services was distributed to 228 regular educators who were asked to rate the importance and frequency of occurrence of each service. The results indicated that regular teachers rated nine support services as critical for effective mainstreaming. However, only two services, remedial instruction in the resource room and informal student progress meetings, were provided with any degree of regularity. Training in consultation skills at the college level and public school administrative support are discussed as means of alleviating the discrepancy between needed and delivered resource room support services.
Discrepancy and Severity in the Learning Disabled: A Consolidated Perspective
Authors: Weller Carol
Published: April 2006

This paper presents a consolidated criteria model which can be used to identify the discrepancy and severity level of learning disabled students. Academic and socialization skills are evaluated in light of seven considerations: 1) the problem's effect on other abilities, 2) academic and socialization problem correspondence, 3) alteration of future life needs, 4) remediation versus compensation, 5) effect on social skills with peers and adults, 6) strengths and weaknesses, and 7) avoidance of problem areas. The seven criteria are applied to a mild, moderate, and severe learning disability grouping. Research indicating the need for continued investigation into the use of the model is reported. Recommendations for research and educational uses of the model are also presented.
The Effects of Three Prereading Activities on Learning Disabled Students' Reading Comprehension
Authors: Sachs Arlene
Published: April 2006

This study examined the effects of three prereading activities on learning disabled children's reading comprehension. Thirty-six children classified as learning disabled participated. The three prereading activities consisted of (a) a modified Directed Reading Activity, (b) a modified Concept Analysis Activity, and (c) a Worksheet Activity (control). To counterbalance for order of prereading activities and experimenter, a factorial/modified Latin-Square design was selected. Barrett's Taxonomy (1976) was used as a guide to develop the reading comprehension tests. Literal, inferential, evaluative, appreciative, and total test reading comprehension constituted the dependent measures. Repeated one-way analysis of variance and Newman-Keuls procedures were used to analyze the data.

The results, which replicated and substantiated a preliminary study (Sachs, 1981), indicate that evaluative reading comprehension is affected by both a modified Concept Analysis Activity and a modified Directed Reading Activity compared to the effect of a Worksheet Activity.
Teacher-Pupil and Peer Verbal Interactions of Learning Disabled, Behavior-Disordered, and Nonhandicapped Students
Authors: Moore Steven R. , Simpson Richard L.
Published: April 2006

The purpose of this study was to compare the interactions of learning disabled (LD), behavior-disordered (BD), and nonhandicapped students. The interaction of 15 pupils from each diagnostic group and their peers, teachers, and classroom aides were observed by means of a behavior observation instrument. The observation system was designed to monitor (a) frequency of 14 target behaviors, (b) direction of the interaction (i.e., given to or received from), and (c) status of the party involved in the interaction (i.e., peer, teacher, aide). The results indicated that BD and LD students emitted significantly more negative statements to teachers than did regular education students. The teachers of the three groups of students did not differ in positive and negative statements directed to students; however, BD teachers emitted significantly more neutral statements to their students than did LD and regular teachers. Finally, the three groups did not differ in types of statements emitted. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for current educational practice.
What's “Special” about the Special Education Resource Room for Learning Disabled Students?
Authors: Thurlow Martha L. , Ysseldyke James E. , Graden Janet L. , Algozzine Bob
Published: April 2006

This article reports on a study of the instructional ecology of resource rooms and regular classrooms for LD students. Eight students were observed on 53 events in 10-second intervals for two complete days of classroom instruction. Comparisons were made of how these students spent their time in resource and regular rooms. In general, opportunities for differentiated instruction were available to the LD students in the resource rooms (e.g., instruction in reading was more individualized). However, no practical differences were noted in the amount of time students were actively engaged in instruction in the two settings. Overall, in both settings, LD students were actively engaged in responding to academic tasks for a very short time (29 minutes per day in resource rooms, 19 minutes per day in regular classrooms).
Behavior Problem Patterns among the Learning Disabled: Boys Aged 6–11
Authors: Epstein Michael H. , Cullinan Douglas , Rosemier Robert
Published: April 2006

Problem-behavior rating scale data on elementary-aged learning disabled and normal boys were factor analyzed according to the Quay and Peterson (Note 1) procedures. Somewhat different factors were identified for normal and learning disabled groups. The discussion focuses on the implications of the findings for a current issue in child psychopathology — hyperactivity as distinct from other conduct problems — and for classifying youngsters' behavior and emotional problems.
The Effects of Material Difficulty upon Learning Disabled Children's Oral Reading and Reading Comprehension
Authors: Armstrong Stephen W.
Published: April 2006

Efficient reading instruction has become of interest to researchers operating within an applied behavior analysis framework. For older learning disabled students, the lack of functional reading skills restricts acquisition of content subjects in the mainstream. One aspect of teaching reading is determining the skills on which to focus instructional time. Two frequently taught reading skills are oral reading and reading comprehension. Previous research has investigated the effects of reinforcement of one skill and the indirect effects upon the other. The present study explored this relationship further by having subjects read material at two levels of difficulty in a multi-element design. Results indicated that previous studies may have underestimated the effects of increasing oral reading rates upon comprehension. Guidelines for oral reading rate criteria are suggested.
Human Figure-Drawing Performance of LD Children: Research and Clinical Perspectives
Authors: Pollak Jerrold M.
Published: April 2006

Based on a critical review of research on the human figure-drawing performance of learning disabled children, it is concluded that such research is sparse and suffers from methodological weaknesses, particularly vague and shifting sample selection criteria. As a result, it has contributed little to our understanding of learning disorders in children or added to current knowledge of specific relevance to the child clinician. Suggestions for future research directions and implications of this research for the child clinician are discussed.
Achievement-Potential Discrepancy Status of Students in LD Programs
Authors: Valus Ann
Published: April 2006

This study addresses the issue of achievement-potential discrepancy by applying a standard-score and regression-analysis procedure to data on new LD placements. Questionnaires were mailed to a random sample of teachers of LD students in Kansas and Iowa. Results indicated that only two-thirds of the initially placed pupils exhibited a severe discrepancy. A comparison between IQ scores of underachievers and non-underachievers suggested that the latter tended to be slow learners. A comparison between the results of the standard-score and regression-analysis procedures revealed a large overlap between the two as well as a statistically significant relationship. The use or nonuse of the regression analysis did not have the expected effects on identifying a severe discrepancy.
Minimum Standards for the Description of Subjects in Learning Disabilities Research Reports
Authors:   CLD Research Committee, Smith Deborah Deutsch , Deshler Don , Hallahan Dan , Lovitt Thomas , Robinson Suzanne , Voress Judy , Ysseldyke James
Published: April 2006

Many descriptions of subjects in research reports about learning disabled persons limit meaningful interpretation of the results because of their vagueness and inconsistency. Researchers are hampered in replicating or extending the research, and practitioners are uncertain about the application of the reported findings. In an effort to establish more universal standards in this area, the Council for Learning Disabilities' (CLD) Research Committee proposes a set of guidelines to be used for subject descriptions in LD research reports.
Consultation Skills for Resource Teachers
Authors: Friend Marilyn
Published: April 2006

Although the importance of the resource teacher's consulting role has been widely acknowledged, relatively little information is available on educators' perceptions of that role. This study was undertaken to identify the consulting skills educators expect resource teachers to possess, and to determine how proficiently resource teachers are judged to perform the consultant role. Based on the responses of resource teachers, regular education teachers, and principals to a questionnaire, most of the skills typically associated with consultation were determined to be necessary for resource teachers. In addition, resource teachers were rated moderately skilled as consultants. These results suggest that educators' expectations for resource teachers' job performance may be unrealistic, and that consultation may be an area in which skill development for resource teachers is needed.
Developmental Changes in LD Readers' Encoding Preferences
Authors: Swanson H. Lee
Published: April 2006

The present study addressed the question, “Do encoding preferences underlie disabled readers' recall deficiencies and, if so, what cognitive mechanisms influence these preferences?” The free recall of learning disabled readers, ages 8 and 10, was compared with that of nondisabled readers during directive and nondirective encoding conditions. The former training condition was implemented to assess the independent effects of semantic and nonsemantic encoding. Both ability groups were found to recall more semantically than nonsemantically organized items. Age and ability group differences emerged in recall, but not in retrieval organization. During the nondirective phase readers' encoding preference for categorically organized and unrelated items was assessed. Although no ability group differences emerged, disabled readers preferred to encode categorically organized items nonsemantically whereas nondisabled readers organized items by semantic features. Results, discussed in terms of mismatch between encoding and retrieval processes, semantic cohesiveness of item retrieval, and children's word knowledge base, question the popular notion that strategy training eliminates processing differences between ability groups.
Implementation of the Dcld Competency Standards
Authors: Leigh James E.
Published: April 2006

This article discusses the DCLD Code of Ethics and Competencies for Teachers of Learning Disabled Children and Youth and reviews each of its stated purposes related to: teacher training programs, certification standards, employment criteria, and monitoring of ongoing professional practices. Recommendations are made for practical implementation of the competency statements. While some of the recommendations pertain to applications in the future, the discussion emphasizes the need to implement the DCLD competencies as soon as possible. Even though the philosophical and theoretical debates regarding learning disabilities will not be resolved by the DCLD document, implementation of the competency standards will lead to significant improvement of services to children with learning disabilities.
Auditory and Visual Vigilance in Normal and Learning Disabled Readers
Authors: Swanson H. Lee
Published: April 2006

The Continuous Performance Test was administered to normal and learning disabled males (CA 12.5) to test the proposition that learning disabled children manifest an attention deficit related to reading performance. Children were tested on two task lengths (4.45 and 9.30 minutes) and two modalities (auditory and visual) in which dependent measures were correct detections and false responses. As expected, learning disabled children with reading deficiencies made significantly fewer correct detections and more false responses than did normal children. There was no strong evidence to indicate that a visual presentation provided better attention for learning disabled children. Results were interpreted as supporting the notion that learning disabled readers are underattentive to critical stimuli.
Writing and Writing Instruction for Students with Learning Disabilities: Review of a Research Program
Authors: Graham Steve , Harris Karen R. , MacArthur Charles A. , Schwartz Shirley
Published: April 2006

This article reviews our research program in written language, including examinations of what and how students with LD write. The evidence indicates that these students' writing difficulties stem, in part, from problems with basic text production skills, scant knowledge about writing, and difficulties with planning and revising text. In other studies, we have evaluated the effectiveness of instructional procedures for addressing one or more of these difficulties, including strategy instruction, procedural facilitation, word processing, basic skills instruction, and the process approach to writing. Our research in each of these areas is reviewed and recommendations for future research are provided.
Content Area Instruction Delivered by Secondary Learning Disabilities Teachers: A National Survey
Authors: McKenzie Robert G.
Published: April 2006

This article describes the results of a survey of 54 State Departments of Education (including Washington, DC; the Bureau of Indian Affairs; the Virgin Islands; and Puerto Rico) regarding the estimated extent to which secondary learning disabilities (LD) teachers provide content area instruction to their students. Data are reported in terms of (a) the degree to which students with learning disabilities in each state receive content coursework from special educators, (b) the pattern of and projected growth in such models, and (c) the perceived adequacy of teacher-training programs for preparing secondary LD teachers to provide content instruction. Results reflect substantial variability across states, as well as between and within geographic regions. The influence of geography in shaping service delivery for LD adolescents is discussed.
Minority Overrepresentation: A Case for Alternative Practices Prior to Referral
Authors: Maheady Larry , Towne Richard , Algozzine Bob , Mercer Jane , Ysseldyke James
Published: April 2006

Although the problem of minority overrepresentation in special education programs for the mildly handicapped has been widely recognized and documented, the factors responsible for such an overrepresentation remain the source of much controversy. The most popular explanation continues to be the presence of systematic bias in the assessment process, particularly with regard to intelligence testing. Unfortunately, attempts at isolating and controlling specific facets of this bias have been largely unsuccessful. Furthermore, preoccupation with this problem has detracted our attention from a much more pressing concern: the identification and provision of effective instructional services prior to referring minority students to special education. The purpose of this manuscript was to describe alternative approaches to dealing with the overrepresentation problem. Specifically, we have highlighted the importance of using alternative instructional strategies prior to referral, and have described five practices that appear to hold promise in this area.