bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
GAINS FROM TRADE IN INTERMEDIATE INPUTS IN THE UK FOOD SYSTEM
Authors: McDonald J. R. S. , Milner C. R.
Published: November 2008

In this paper we report estimates of the specialisation gains associated with trade in intermediate agricultural and food inputs. A Vertically Integrated Sectors (VIS) modelling approach is employed to compare the levels of factors required to produce imported intermediate inputs domestically with those required to produce the “compensating” exports needed to purchase the imported intermediates. On the basis of the 1979 UK input‐output tables, an average of 10.6 per cent fewer factors would have been required in agriculture and 2.2 per cent fewer in food processing with trade in intermediate inputs than without. The results support the view that the promotion of domestic production of agricultural inputs via import substitution would be costly.
THE COST OF DIFFERENTIAL GENDER ROLES IN AFRICAN AGRICULTURE: A CASE STUDY OF SMALLHOLDER BANANA‐COFFEE FARMS IN THE KAGERA REGION, TANZANIA
Authors: Tibaijuka Anna
Published: November 2008

In 1982/83, due to either economic pressure or profit motivation, 30 per cent of the men in a random sample of 200 smallholder banana‐coffee farms in the Kagera region of Tanzania had adopted a more liberalised division of labour, and engaged in operations and horticultural farm enterprises that traditionally are the responsibility of women. A linear programming model is used to estimate the impact of gender roles on farm incomes and resource productivity among the sample. The results suggest that by liberalising sex roles, cash incomes could increase by up to 10 per cent while the productivity of labour and capital would improve by 15 per cent and 44 per cent respectively. In view of the economic benefits to be reaped, it is recommended that, within the framework of economic adjustment, African governments should launch campaigns to enhance this process because gender roles impair efficiency.
MEASUREMENT OF TECHNICAL EFFICIENCY IN THE NORTH‐WEST FRONTIER PROVINCE OF PAKISTAN
Authors: Parikh A. , Shah K.
Published: November 2008

The objective of this study is to measure technical efficiency, using a translog frontier production function on cross‐sectional data from 397 farms in the North‐West Frontier Province of Pakistan in 1988–89. The estimated farm level technical efficiency is found to be dependent upon levels of credit and education, farmers' ages and the extent of land fragmentation. Lack of education, restricted credit and fragmented holdings are found to be causes of inefficiency; hence policies which consolidate holdings, provide credit or educate farmers will tend to improve efficiency in agriculture.
AGRICULTURAL REFORMS IN CHILE AND NEW ZEALAND: A REVIEW*
Authors: Valdés A.
Published: November 2008

Chile and New Zealand are both small countries for which agricultural exports are important: both undertook comprehensive economic reforms during the 1970s and 1980s respectively. Comparison of the experiences shows that macroeconomic policy, above all the resulting movements in the real exchange rate and in interest rates, has a critical impact on agriculture. In both cases, rolling back the state has encouraged private responses. In Chile the challenges ahead lie in continuing productivity improvements, and in raising the welfare of smallholders in marginal areas. Six years after the initiation of reforms, New Zealand agriculture shows a healthy recovery. Once committed to economy‐wide reforms – stabilisation, adjustment, and trade liberalisation – and companion reforms of institutions, how do governments best proceed? With what reforms and in what mix, sequence, strength, and speed? For agriculture, specifically, this paper takes a close look at which reforms, or aspects of their implementation, can accelerate or slow down private investment and aggregate supply response.
COINTEGRATION, AND CAUSALITY: EXPLORING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AGRICULTURAL AND PRODUCTIVITY
Authors: Schimmelpfennig D. , Thirtle C.
Published: November 2008

This study investigates the causal relationships between total factor productivity (TFP) and explanatory variables, such as public sector agricultural extension, farmer education, private sector patents and the weather. Cointegration and Granger causality tests are applied to the UK data which were used by Hallam (1990). Unlike Hallam, we find that there is a relationship between research spending and productivity. The same methodology is applied to new data for ten EC countries and the USA. In all cases there is evidence of a long run relationship between TFP and. Pooling the data for the ten EC countries and the USA, and then testing for causality shows that expenditures are Granger prior to TFP and that TFP is also Granger prior to expenditures. This result agrees with Pardey and Craig's (1989) US study.
THE ECONOMIC POLITY OF FARM POLICY
Authors: de Gorter Harry , Swinnen Johan F. M.
Published: November 2008

A review of the ‘new political economy’ of agricultural policies includes models of social income maximising governments, collective action by ‘pressure groups’, and the interaction between politicians and voters. An alternative explanation for Olson's “social by‐product” theory for why farmers received massive subsidies as a large group is also presented. An explanation for various patterns of farm policy interventions is given, including why rich countries subsidise and poor countries tax farmers. Finally, the role of public research expenditures and the interaction with commodity policy is explored.
THE COMBINATION OF AGRICULTURAL OUTPUT AND INPUT PRICE INDICES
Authors: Lund P. J.
Published: November 2008

Measures of agricultural incomes, and of the industry's productivity, are often derived by combining measures of the aggregate values and volumes of the industry's outputs and inputs. Combinations of price indices are less common but some have been published by Eurostat and are described in this paper. They are of two basic forms, one indicating the net effect of changes in output prices and input prices on the industry's value added and the other indicating changes in the industry's terms of trade. The paper examines the role, construction and interpretation of these measures and offers some cautions about their interpretation in the context of CAP reform.
AN ANALYSIS OF MANAGEMENT AGREEMENT BARGAINING UNDER ASYMMETRIC INFORMATION
Authors: Fraser Iain M.
Published: November 2008

This paper provides a game theoretic analysis of Management Agreements under asymmetric information. A simple two‐period game is employed to represent the Coasian bargaining process which takes place between the farmer and English Nature over the introduction of a Management Agreement. The analysis shows that if the farmer possesses an information advantage and wishes to exploit it to gain an economic rent from the bargaining process, inefficient outcomes are possible. The implications of the analysis for the continued reliance upon voluntarism and Management Agreements for the protection of Sites of Special Scientific Interest are considered.
MARKETING COOPERATIVES IN MIXED DUOPOLIES
Authors: Tennbakk Berit
Published: November 2008

This paper analyses a market in which agents with different ownership structures compete with each other by simultaneously choosing quantities. In the first part of the paper, the government can choose to support the formation of a marketing cooperative by a group of farmers, or to establish a public marketing firm. The resulting market structures will thus be a duopoly of one marketing cooperative and one private wholesaler, or a mixed duopoly including a public firm. The equilibrium outcomes of the two market arrangements are analysed and the welfare implications compared. It is shown that both consumers' surplus and total welfare are higher in a mixed duopoly with public firm than in a mixed duopoly with cooperative, which is in turn socially superior to a pure private duopoly. In the second part, agents' incentives with regard to choice of ownership structure are discussed and analysed in a two‐stage game.
THE POTENTIAL IMPACT OF ENVIRONMENTAL CROSS‐COMPLIANCE ON ARABLE FARMING
Authors: Russell Noel P. , Fraser Iain M.
Published: November 2008

It is argued that the ongoing CAP/GATT reforms provide a basis for the introduction of environmental cross‐compliance (ECC). ECC enables policymakers to restrict output‐related direct support payments to those farmers who comply with specified environmental guidelines aimed at reducing the external damage effects of agricultural production.

This paper is an exploratory investigation of ECC and presents the results of a farm‐level linear programming analysis of 15 North‐West England arable farms. The environmental guidelines, which relate to permanent as opposed to rotational set‐aside and to levels of fertiliser use, are widely applicable to the extent that ECC can be implemented as a voluntary policy system. They are clearly effective in achieving policy goals since all but one of the farmers investigated would comply with the full range of restrictions considered. Within this range, gross margins are reduced by up to 10 per cent while area and output of seed crops are reduced by around 22 per cent and 12 per cent respectively. Row crops area and output are more robust, each falling by just under 4 per cent.
MEASURING NON‐USE VALUE OF ENVIRONMENTAL GOODS USING THE CONTINGENT VALUATION METHOD: PROBLEMS OF INFORMATION AND COGNITION AND THE APPLICATION OF COGNITIVE QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN METHODS
Authors: Hutchinson W. George , Chilton Susan M. , Davis John
Published: November 2008

Much interest now focuses on the use of the Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) to assess non‐use value of environmental goods. The paper reviews recent literature and highlights particular problems of information provision and respondent knowledge, comprehension and cognition. These must be dealt with by economists in designing CVM surveys for eliciting non‐use values. Cognitive Questionnaire Design Methods are presented which invoke concepts from psychology and tools from cognitive survey design (focus groups and verbal reports) to reduce a complex environmental good into a meaningful commodity that can be valued by respondents in a contingent market. This process is illustrated with examples from the authors' own research valuing alternative afforestation programmes.
A CALIBRATION METHOD FOR AGRICULTURAL ECONOMIC PRODUCTION MODELS
Authors: Howitt Richard E.
Published: November 2008

A method for calibrating agricultural production models is presented. The data requirements are those for a linear programming model with the addition of elasticities of substitution. Using these data, production models with a CES production function can be simply and automatically calibrated using small computers. The resulting models are shown to satisfy the standard microeconomic conditions. When used for analysis of policy changes, the CES models are able to respond smoothly to changes in prices or constraints. Prior estimates of elasticities of substitution, supply or demand can be incorporated in the models.
CAUSALITY BETWEEN PRODUCTIVITY AND EXPORTS IN AGRICULTURE: EVIDENCE FROM ASIA AND LATIN AMERICA
Authors: Arnade Carlos , Vasavada Utpal
Published: November 2008

This paper examines the causal relationship between agricultural productivity and exports for selected Asian and Latin American countries. Alternative views about the causal relationship between these variables of economic interest exist. Economic theory provides no firm basis to judge whether productivity causes exports or exports cause productivity (export‐led growth). Since this issue is empirical, econometric tests are utilised to investigate the nature of this causality. Test results are mixed although the export‐led growth hypothesis is validated in a few cases.
UK OVERSEAS TRADE STATISTICS: FOOD, FEED AND DRINK
Authors: Lund P. J. , Price R. D. S.
Published: November 2008

This paper describes the statistical basis of examinations of UK trade in food, feed and drink and of the magnitude of the trade gap between imports and exports. It includes a description of the main features of UK trade statistics, an explanation of the coverage of the series on UK trade in food, feed and drink and examinations of the composition of that trade and of trends in the trade gap.
TOWARDS A BROADER UNDERSTANDING OF MEAT DEMAND — PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS
Authors: Bansback Bob
Published: November 2008

This paper sets out meat consumption trends in the United Kingdom and within other EU countries over the past 40 years; it shows that whereas in the UK meat consumption has only increased by a small amount, for other EU countries it has almost doubled. In analysing the data in more detail, it is apparent that ‘non‐price/income’ factors have been playing a more important part both for the UK and other EU countries. It is true that in recent years there has been much more published empirical work on the effect of different attitude, demographic and structural factors on meat demand; commercial and Governmental organisations have also been collecting a significant amount of relevant unpublished data. However, there has not been much recent progress on integrated approaches which combine the analyses of the consumer behaviourist with those of the economist. The paper concludes by stating that this is an area of growing importance for the food industry and those interested in analysing food demand trends. Agricultural economists should therefore get more involved in it.
AN APPROACH TO LINKING AN ECOLOGICAL VEGETATION MODEL TO AN AGRICULTURAL ECONOMIC MODEL
Authors: Moxey A. P. , White B. , Sanderson R. A. , Rushton S. P.
Published: November 2008

Agricultural policy measures are directed increasingly towards encouraging production systems that are deemed to be favourable for ecologically valued plant communities and species. This paper presents an approach to linking an ecological model of vegetation with a regional economic model of agricultural production to provide a means of estimating the costs of achieving a given area of a desired vegetation type. This is demonstrated by an empirical study of heather and hay meadow conservation in the River Tyne catchment in northern England. The results show that policy measures need to take account both of spatial linkages within agriculture and temporal links between ecological processes and agricultural productivity.
LOCAL ECONOMIC STRUCTURE AND OFF‐FARM LABOUR EARNINGS OF FARM OPERATORS AND SPOUSES
Authors: Hearn David H. , McNamara Kevin T. , Gunter Lewell
Published: November 2008

Off‐farm income has become an increasingly important source of farm household income in the past twenty years. While research has examined farm households' decision to work off‐farm, our understanding of how a region's economic structure influences the off‐farm labour decision is not strong. This manuscript uses Huffman's conceptual model for farm households' level of off‐farm earnings. Results show that higher relative employment in sectors which offer more flexible work schedules is strongly associated with higher off‐farm labour earnings.
NATURAL AND REPRODUCIBLE CAPITAL AND THE SUSTAINABILITY OF LAND USE IN THE UK
Authors: Whitby Martin , Adger W. Neil
Published: November 2008

The article reviews the relevant concepts in assessing sustainability at the sector level for British agriculture and forestry. It notes that the use of reproducible capital is not sustainable in the sector as depreciation has exceeded gross fixed capital formation for some years, although that retrenchment may, however, be an appropriate response to expected lower farm prices and increased efficiency in the use of capital. It then exemplifies the problems of measuring the sustainability of use of natural capital by reference to specific problems, namely the release of global pollutants from agriculture and forestry, the economic cost of soil erosion and the economic cost associated with damage to Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI). On the basis of a wider review of the context of these changes, it is concluded that the sustainability of primary land use, as currently practised, must await substantial research before positive claims can be made for its overall sustainability.
PARTICIPATION IN SET ASIDE: WHAT DETERMINES THE OPTING IN PRICE?
Authors: Roberts D. , Froud J. , Fraser R. W.
Published: November 2008

This paper analyses the decision facing Community farmers of whether or not to participate in the voluntary rotational set aside scheme. For each individual producer, an “indifference price” for cereals can be identified at which the expected profit from either opting in or out of the scheme is identical. An expected utility model is used to investigate the influence of various factors on the level of indifference price and hence the uptake of set aside. Empirical analysis, based on FBS farm level data, suggests that this price is relatively insensitive to the uncertainty faced by the farmer and the farmer's attitude to risk. It is, however, sensitive both to the key policy variables and to the farm's cost structure and yield. The results presented help explain the initial high take up of set aside in England.
THE RANKING OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS JOURNALS
Authors: Burton Michael , Phimister Euan
Published: November 2008

This note reports a ranking for agricultural economics journals, based on citation data for the years 1986 and 1991. The rankings are generated using data envelopment techniques, and form part of a wider evaluation of economics journals. The results indicate that the American Journal of Agricultural Economics and Journal of Agricultural Economics and Land Economics are consistently ranked highly, irrespective of time period or citation measure used. They also indicate that the performance of the agricultural economics journals considered is broadly comparable with other applied economics journals.
A MICROECONOMETRIC ANALYSIS OF MILK QUOTA TRANSFER: APPLICATION TO FRENCH PRODUCERS
Authors: Guyomard Hervé , Delache Xavier , Irz Xavier , Mane Louis‐Pascal
Published: November 2008

In this paper, we use the duality theory framework and the concept of virtual or shadow price of a rationed good to analyse producer behaviour under output quota when individual quota rights can be leased or rented for one production cycle. We propose a formal model of tradable quota rights which allows us to determine the lease price of quota and the exchanged quantity at equilibrium. The implications of trading On farmers' decisions (output choice level and traded licences), and on their incomes, are derived formally. The theoretical framework is applied to a sample of French milk producers for the year 1991. We then determine efficiency gains and regional shifts in production that such a market would generate.
CONTINGENT VALUATION OF THE PERCEIVED BENEFITS OF FARM ANIMAL WELFARE LEGISLATION: AN EXPLORATORY SURVEY
Authors: Bennett Richard , Larson Douglas
Published: November 2008

There has been increasing policy debate about farm animal welfare and the need for further legislation in the UK, European Union and, more recently, the USA. However, there is a need for information on the extent to which citizens would wish to support legislative developments intended to improve the welfare of farm animals. The paper describes a survey which explores the application of contingent valuation to animal welfare issues by eliciting people's willingness to pay to support specific farm animal welfare legislation. The findings suggest that contingent valuation may be applied to such animal welfare issues but that studies need to formally address the associated problems of embeddedness, purchase of moral satisfaction and failure of respondents to adequately consider substitute and complementary goods, and their potential effect of overstating willingness to pay.
A NOTE ON MEASURING RETURNS TO GENERIC ADVERTISING IN INTERRELATED MARKETS
Authors: Kinnucan H. W.
Published: November 2008

This note focuses on the theoretical relationship between price and generic advertising when supply is uncontrolled and markets are interrelated through consumer preferences. A key finding is that the mutatis mutandis relationship between own‐price and own‐advertising is indeterminate unless the structural elasticities pertaining to own‐price and own‐advertising effects are greater in absolute value than the corresponding cross elasticities. This implies, inter alia, that benefit‐cost analyses based on single‐equation models may overstate producer returns to generic advertising, a conclusion verified in the empirical application.
RISK‐SHARING AND THE SUPPLY OF AGRICULTURAL CREDIT: A CASE STUDY OF ISLAMIC FINANCE IN SUDAN
Authors: Elhiraika Adam B.
Published: November 2008

The prohibition of interest‐bearing credit and its replacement with a profit and loss sharing (PLS) system that accords with Islamic injunctions has been associated with remarkable increases in formal lending to agriculture. A model is used to show that the PLS mechanisms may reduce adverse selection and moral hazard effects as returns to both lenders and borrowers are not fixed but dependent on the actual results of credit‐financed projects. Survey data is utilised to demonstrate that the instruments employed by banks in agrarian finance provide higher returns than non‐agricultural loans, and are hence attractive despite the yield and price uncertainty characteristic of agricultural production.
PERCEIVED PROFITABILITY AND FARMERS‘ CONSERVATION BEHAVIOUR
Authors: Cary John W. , Wilkinson Roger L.
Published: November 2008

Attempts to reduce land degradation by influencing the management behaviour of farmers will be better informed when the relative importance of factors influencing the use of ‘conservation’ practices aimed at enhancing longer‐term land productivity can be quantified. Land managers' perceptions of the technical feasibility and profitability of such practices will play an important role in the decisions about their use. Of particular interest is the relative importance of an individual's perceptions of the profitability of conservation behaviours and the individual's conservation orientation. In a pretest‐post test study the influence of prior perceptions about two ‘conservation’ practices, and of environmental orientation, on the subsequent behaviour of farmers is investigated. A logistic regression model is developed to show the relative influence of perceptions of profitability and technical feasibility and of personal environmental concern on the choice of conservation practices. Perceived profitability was the most important factor influencing the use of conservation practices.
A POLICY ORIENTED MULTI‐INPUT AND MULTI‐OUTPUT MEASURE OF OVERALL EFFICIENCY AND ITS DECOMPOSITION
Authors: Jonasson Lars
Published: November 2008

In this paper a partly new set of efficiency indexes is proposed, based on a nonparametric approach. A social concept is used with special emphasis on relevance for policy decisions. A multi‐input and multi‐output index of overall efficiency is developed and a decomposition including size efficiency is introduced. This is the first set of indexes that is aimed directly at what policy makers might find interesting to know, not at something that is close. Because of this, the proposed indexes are more general and involve fewer restrictive assumptions. Tentative examples reveal that the difference between the traditional and the adjusted indexes might be of major importance for policy decisions.
CALCULATING THE RATE OF DECOUPLING FOR CROPS UNDER CAP/OILSEEDS REFORM
Authors: Cahill Sean A.
Published: November 2008

The model presented in this paper measures the rate of decoupling achieved by the compensatory payments package provided under ‘CAP/Oilseeds Reform’ legislation. Results from the model suggest that, contrary to expectations, we may view the compensatory payments as ‘effectively fully decoupled’ from production of wheat, rapeseed and soybeans. Three factors drive this result. First, when compared with base period returns, the compensatory payments ‘skew’ crop revenue per hectare. Second, the set–aside and ‘Blair House accord’ area restrictions on the model ensure effective full decoupling for rapeseed and soybeans. (Without these restrictions, the payments package is only partially decoupled from production of these crops.) Finally, as currently designed, the model does not allow land To leave crop production; thus, if area in one crop decreases in response to changes in prices and/or payments, area in at least one other crop must increase. For coarse grains and sunflower, the model generates decoupling rates of 80 per cent and 70 per cent respectively, suggesting partial decoupling of the payments package from production of these crops.
EFFICIENCY TESTS OF FUTURES MARKETS FOR UK AGRICULTURAL COMMODITIES
Authors: Aulton A. J. , Ennew C. T. , Rayner A. J.
Published: November 2008

An efficient futures market should provide a forecast of the future spot price which reflects all publicly available information; ideally, for effective price discovery such forecasts would also be unbiased. Evidence for market efficiency, much of which is US based, is mixed and despite its importance from both public and private perspectives, there are relatively few studies of futures market efficiency in relation to UK agricultural commodities. This paper presents the results of a study of market efficiency in relation to three distinct UK futures markets using a cointegration methodology. The results provide evidence of efficiency and unbiasedness in relation to wheat, some concerns with respect to efficiency in relation to potatoes and pigmeat and some concerns about bias in relation to potatoes.
Contingent Valuation Versus Choice Experiments: Estimating the Benefits of Environmentally Sensitive Areas in Scotland
Authors: Hanley Nick , MacMillan Douglas , Wright Robert E. , Bullock Craig , Simpson Ian , Parsisson Dave , Crabtree Bob
Published: November 2008

This paper reports results from a study of the economic value of the conservation benefits of Environmentally Sensitive Areas (ESAs) in Scotland. The main novelty of the approach taken is in comparing two direct valuation methods, namely contingent valuation and choice experiments, to value these benefits. The Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) is well‐established as a technique for valuing the sorts of landscape and wildlife enhancements associated with ESAs. The CVM experiment reported here uses a dichotomous choice format, and includes a new correction for part‐whole bias. Choice experiments are much less used as an environmental valuation technique. We note several advantages of such experiments over CVM, and then report characteristic values and ‘programme values’ estimated using the method. This application brings to light some problems in applying the choice experiment method. Finally, we discuss the issue of benefits transfer in the context of these two approaches to valuation.
Farm Income and Economic Welfare Considerations
Authors: Hubbard L. J. , Allanson P. F. , Renwick A. W.
Published: November 2008

We present four decision rules for ranking income distributions based on specific restrictions on the form of the welfare function. These rules reflect different emphases on presumed preferences for both higher incomes and a more equitable distribution of income, ceteris paribus. Particular attention is paid to the occurrence of negative incomes, and we show how these can directly affect the ordinal rankings. The four decision rules are employed in a comparative analysis of farming incomes in England over the period 1983/84–1993/94. The outcome is a more complete ranking of income distributions than is possible using conventional measures. There is some evidence of an improvement in the welfare of the farming community over the period.
New Futures Markets in Agricultural Production Rights: Possibilities and Constraints for the British and Dutch Milk Quota Markets
Authors: Pennings Joost M. E. , Meulenberg Matthew T. G.
Published: November 2008

Farms are increasingly being affected by policies that involve production rights. Because of fluctuations in the prices of these rights in the spot market, farmers face a price risk. Establishing a futures market might enable them to hedge against this price risk. Rights futures have some features that differ from those of traditional commodity futures. This makes them an effective and efficient tool for managing price risk. The implications of these findings will be illustrated for milk quotas in the United Kingdom and The Netherlands. Prior conditions which might make a futures market for milk quotas successful in both countries will be deduced.
Using a Programming Approach to Measure International Agricultural Efficiency and Productivity
Authors: Arnade Carlos
Published: November 2008

Multifactor agricultural productivity for seventy countries is calculated using a programming method. Productivity measures are divided into indices that measure technical efficiency and technical change. Agriculture in many developing countries is technically inefficient but technical change has had a greater impact on agricultural productivity. Multifactor productivity is declining in many developing countries where both agricultural output and the use of some agricultural inputs has rapidly grown. The level of education in a country and research services are factors which can explain differences in agricultural productivity growth between countries.
Pricing Organic Nitrogen Under The Weak Disposability Assumption: An Application to the French Pig Sector
Authors: Piot‐Lepetit Isabelle , Vermersch Dominique
Published: November 2008

The nonparametric approach Data Envelopment Analysis is used in order to measure individual technical inefficiency. Different models are evaluated using a 1991 FADN data set of French pig farms. Organic nitrogen is considered as a byproduct of animal breeding. Used as plant nutrient, organic manure becomes an input in crop production which is pollutant when excessive amounts enter surface and groundwater. In the latter case, the usual hypothesis of strong disposability of organic nitrogen is refuted because the elimination of pollution is costly. In this paper, we introduce a hypothesis of weak disposability of organic nitrogen and compare the technical efficiency measures obtained with and without this assumption. Then, using the duality between the restricted cost function and the input‐output distance function and following Färe and Primont (1995), we derive a shadow price of organic nitrogen which can be compared to the unit cost of different existing manure treatments.
The Diversity of Farmers' Risk Management Strategies in a Deregulated New Zealand Environment
Authors: Martin S. , McLeay F.
Published: November 2008

In this paper, the results of a nation‐wide survey of New Zealand sheep and beef farmers are presented. Multivariate statistical techniques are used to identify groups of farmers who differ in their risk management practices. Five groups are identified. They are labelled income risk reducers, capital managers, part‐timers, debt and market risk managers, and production managers. These groups differ in their perceptions of risk sources and in some farm and farmer characteristics. Reasons for these differences are identified and discussed in the context of deregulation.
Eating Out: Statistics and Society Presidential Address
Authors: Lund Philip
Published: November 2008

Eating‐out is generally considered to be of increasing importance as a form of food consumption even though there are differing definitions of its scope. There have recently been some noteworthy additions to the available statistics on eating‐out in the UK and these indicate its growth through time and its pattern across society. Eating‐out involves a degree of interaction with others and has been studied by sociologists as well as by those whose interest primarily stems from ones in the agri‐food chain or in food consumption. It also raises some interesting issues about how ‘externalities’ (and, in particular, those arising from smoking) are best allowed for in circumstances in which both application of the polluter‐pays principle and very restrictive regulations may be considered impractical and inappropriate.
Information for Policy Design: Modelling Participation in a Farm Woodland Incentive Scheme
Authors: Crabtree Bob , Chalmers Neil , Barron Nicola‐Jo
Published: November 2008

Incentive schemes which use farmers and landowners as agents of policy are now the main driving force for modifying the countryside environment. Nevertheless, policy‐makers lack quantitative models that describe farmers' response to schemes, and specifically their entry decisions. This paper examines the benefits from modelling entry decisions with and without additional information generated through surveys of participants and non‐participants. It uses logit models to predict the probability of entry into a farm woodland incentive scheme, initially using only those explanatory variables that are available to policy‐makers from the annual farm census. The model performs well in identifying those factors pre‐disposing farmers to entry. The potential gains from enhancing the information set by incorporating lifestyle and other variables not recorded in the census are examined. The cost of additional surveys, and their small sample size compared with the census, casts doubt on the value of such an approach which may reduce rather than enhance predictive power.
Off‐Farm Employment and Grain Marketable Surplus in China
Authors: Zong Ping , Davis John
Published: November 2008

This paper examines the effects of off‐farm employment on grain marketable surplus supply during the reform period in China. A theoretical framework demonstrates that farm households' supply behaviour depends not only on the profitability of farm production but also on alternative off‐farm wage opportunities of household members. An empirical model, which assumes full income maximisation of farm households, simultaneously evaluates the effects of on‐farm and off‐farm income on their grain supply behaviour. Particular attention is paid to the effect of off‐farm income through a comparison of conditional and unconditional grain marketable surplus supply elasticities. Results show that off‐farm income had a strong negative effect on grain marketable surplus from farm households following liberalisation of factor markets in China and that this could lead to a loss of marketable surplus supply.
The Implications for Agricultural Statistics of Changes in the System of National Accounts
Authors: Hill Berkeley
Published: November 2008

Recent changes to the internationally‐agreed system of national accounts carry implications for the aggregate production accounts for agriculture in the EU, notably a shift away from using the ‘national farm’ concept. They have also encouraged the development, within the national accounts framework, of accounts for the agricultural households subsector. These changes not only impose new tasks on producers of agricultural statistics but also provide new material which is likely, in some instances, to challenge policy‐makers, economists and other users to revise their thinking about the nature of this industry and the problems that are faced.
Rural Policy Reform and Local Development Programmes: Appropriate Evaluation Procedures
Authors: Midmore Peter
Published: November 2008

As a result of various political and economic pressures, European policies that affect rural regions have evolved to become more local and participatory, reflecting diverse and rapidly changing circumstances. The experimental LEADER programme has attempted to instigate innovative responses to characteristic rural problems by focusing on very small districts and providing funding directly to local people and their representatives, and this has raised problems in assessing their impact and success in conventional terms. Few accurate statistics are available at such a disaggregated level, and the greater impact of external influences obscures quantitative relationships that could be investigated using conventional cost‐benefit analysis. Several illustrative individual LEADER group evaluation studies are used to construct an account of the difficulties involved in use of project outcomes, targets and indicators to describe the qualitative changes resulting from local, integrated projects. The major approaches, of semi‐structured in‐depth interviews, participant observation and documentary analysis are considered and used to place evaluation in the theoretical context of Habermas's concept of communicative competence. It is concluded that evaluation should be integral to local rural development projects, and that whilst a range of investigative approaches have been used, in contrast there is scope for extension of the range of analytic approaches.
Trigger Point Injections for Chronic Non-Malignant Musculoskeletal Pain: A Systematic Review
Authors: Scott N. Ann , Guo Bing , Barton Pamela M. , Gerwin Robert D.
Published: November 2008

Objective. This systematic review assessed the available published evidence on the efficacy and safety of using trigger point injection (TPI) to treat patients with chronic non-malignant musculoskeletal pain that had persisted for at least 3 months.

Methods. All published systematic reviews or randomized controlled trials detailing the use of TPI in patients with chronic, non-malignant musculoskeletal pain (persisting for >3 months) were identified by systematically searching literature databases and the Websites of various health technology assessment agencies, research registers, and guidelines sites up to July 2006.

Results. Although no systematic reviews were identified, 15 peer-reviewed randomized controlled trials met the inclusion criteria. However, deficiencies in reporting, small sample sizes, and marked inter-study heterogeneity precluded a definitive synthesis of the data. TPI is a safe procedure when used by clinicians with appropriate expertise and training. It relieved symptoms when used as a sole treatment for patients with chronic head, neck, shoulder, and back pain or whiplash syndrome, regardless of the injectant used, and may be a useful adjunct to intra-articular injection in the treatment of osteoarthritis pain. Although the addition of TPI to stretching exercises augments treatment outcomes, this was also true of other therapies such as ultrasound and laser.

Conclusion. The efficacy of TPI is no more certain than it was a decade ago as, overall, there is no clear evidence of either benefit or ineffectiveness. The only advantage of injecting anesthetic into trigger points may be to reduce the pain of the needling process, which may not be an insignificant benefit.
SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY OBSERVATIONS OF DEFORMITIES IN SMALL PENNATE DIATOMS EXPOSED TO HIGH CADMIUM CONCENTRATIONS1
Authors: Morin Soizic , Coste Michel , Hamilton Paul B.
Published: November 2008

Different types of malformations are likely to affect the morphology of diatoms when exposed to particularly unstable environmental conditions, the most easily identifiable being distortion of the whole frustule. In the present study, we investigated, by means of SEM, valve abnormalities induced by high cadmium contamination (100 μg · L−1) in small pennate diatoms. Changes in the shape of Amphora pediculus (Kütz.) Grunow and anomalous sculpturing of the cell wall of many species, such as Encyonema minutum (Hilse) D. G. Mann, Mayamaea agrestris (Hust.) Lange‐Bert., Gomphonema parvulum (Kütz.) Kütz., or Eolimna minima (Grunow) Lange‐Bert., were observed, which were not, or almost not, noticeable in the LM. With consideration to current knowledge of diatom morphogenesis, metal uptake by the cell would induce, directly or indirectly, damage to many cytoplasmic components (e.g., microtubules, cytoskeleton, Golgi‐derived vesicles) involved in the precisely organized silica deposition. This study confirms that many species, whatever their size, are likely to exhibit morphological abnormalities under cadmium stress, and that this indicator may be valuable for the biomonitoring of metal contamination, even if SEM observations are not necessary for routine studies.
Nitric Oxide Plays a Crucial Role in the Development/Progression of Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis in the Choline‐Deficient, l‐Amino Acid‐Defined Diet‐Fed Rat Model
Authors: Fujita Koji , Nozaki Yuichi , Yoneda Masato , Wada Koichiro , Takahashi Hirokazu , Kirikoshi Hiroyuki , Inamori Masahiko , Saito Satoru , Iwasaki Tomoyuki , Terauchi Yasuo , Maeyama Shiro , Nakajima Atsushi
Published: November 2008

Background: The pathogenesis of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is still unclear. Recently, the 2‐hit hypothesis was proposed, in which nitric oxide production, representing oxidative stress, was proposed as a very important candidate for the second hit.

Methods: The total study period was 10 weeks. A total of 20 rats were randomly divided into 2 groups. Group 1 was administered the Choline‐Deficient, l‐Amino Acid‐Defined diet to produce a NASH model, and Group 2 as control received the Choline‐Sufficient, l‐Amino Acid‐defined diet. The blood and tissue concentrations of nitrate + nitrite were measured using the Griess reagent and the expression levels of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) proteins and mRNA was determined by Western blotting.

Results: In regard to nitric oxide (NO) and NO metabolites, there were significant differences in the blood (especially portal venous blood) as well as tissue (liver and visceral fat) concentrations between the 2 animal groups; the amounts of NO metabolites in the tissues were much higher in the NASH models. The level of nitrotyrosine was much markedly higher in the NASH models than in the controls. In regard to the tissue expression of iNOS a significant difference between the 2 groups was found in the visceral fat, especially in the mesenterium.

Conclusions: Based on these results, we hypothesize that the iNOS expression and NO levels in the visceral fat increase, with increased diffusion of NO and its metabolites into the liver, resulting in increased nitrotyrosine formation in the liver; this, in turn, induces inflammation, apoptosis, and fibrosis in the liver, which are one of the characteristic features of NASH.
Could Removing Arsenic from Tobacco Smoke Significantly Reduce Smoker Risks of Lung Cancer?
Authors: Cox, Jr. Louis Anthony (Tony)
Published: November 2008

If a specific biological mechanism could be determined by which a carcinogen increases lung cancer risk, how might this knowledge be used to improve risk assessment? To explore this issue, we assume (perhaps incorrectly) that arsenic in cigarette smoke increases lung cancer risk by hypermethylating the promoter region of gene p16INK4a, leading to a more rapid entry of altered (initiated) cells into a clonal expansion phase. The potential impact on lung cancer of removing arsenic is then quantified using a three‐stage version of a multistage clonal expansion (MSCE) model. This refines the usual two‐stage clonal expansion (TSCE) model of carcinogenesis by resolving its intermediate or “initiated” cell compartment into two subcompartments, representing experimentally observed “patch” and “field” cells. This refinement allows p16 methylation effects to be represented as speeding transitions of cells from the patch state to the clonally expanding field state. Given these assumptions, removing arsenic might greatly reduce the number of nonsmall cell lung cancer cells (NSCLCs) produced in smokers, by up to two‐thirds, depending on the fraction (between 0 and 1) of the smoking‐induced increase in the patch‐to‐field transition rate prevented if arsenic were removed. At present, this fraction is unknown (and could be as low as zero), but the possibility that it could be high (close to 1) cannot be ruled out without further data.
Adverse Selection With Frequency and Severity Risk: Alternative Risk‐Sharing Provisions
Authors: Ligon James A. , Thistle Paul D.
Published: November 2008

Abstract

The analysis considers an insurance market with adverse selection where individuals' loss distributions may differ with respect to both the frequency and severity of loss. We show that the combination of deductibles and coinsurance can be used to sort rationed policyholders. Because of their screening properties, coinsurance and deductibles may both be equilibrium forms of risk sharing for a particular insurer facing asymmetric information, with different rationed consumers choosing different risk‐sharing provisions.
Effects of Corporate Diversification: Evidence From the Property–Liability Insurance Industry
Authors: Liebenberg Andre P. , Sommer David W.
Published: November 2008

Abstract

Using a sample of property–liability insurers over the period 1995–2004, we develop and test a model that explains performance as a function of line‐of‐business diversification and other correlates. Our results indicate that undiversified insurers consistently outperform diversified insurers. In terms of accounting performance, we find a diversification penalty of at least 1 percent of return on assets or 2 percent of return on equity. These findings are robust to corrections for potential endogeneity bias, alternative risk measures, alternative diversification measures, and an alternative estimation technique. Using a market‐based performance measure (Tobin's Q) we find that the market applies a significant discount to diversified insurers. The existence of a diversification penalty (and diversification discount) provides strong support for the strategic focus hypothesis. We also find that insurance groups underperform unaffiliated insurers and that stock insurers outperform mutuals.
Capitalizing on Catastrophe: Short Selling Insurance Stocks Around Hurricanes Katrina and Rita
Authors: Blau Benjamin M. , Van Ness Robert A. , Wade Chip
Published: November 2008

Abstract

We develop several hypotheses regarding short‐selling activity around Hurricanes Katrina and Rita. We find that abnormal short selling does not increase until 2 trading days after the landfall of Katrina and that short‐selling activity is much more significant around Rita. We find a substantial increase in short‐selling activity in the trading days prior to the landfall of Rita and relatively less short‐selling activity in the trading days after landfall. There is little evidence that suggests that traders short insurance stocks with more potential exposure in the Gulf region than other insurance stocks in the days before landfall.
Mortality Heterogeneity and the Distributional Consequences of Mandatory Annuitization
Authors: Gong Guan , Webb Anthony
Published: November 2008

Abstract

This article investigates the distributional consequences of mandatory annuitization. Using Health and Retirement Study (HRS) data and accounting for longevity risk pooling within marriage and preannuitized wealth, we find substantial redistribution away from disadvantaged groups in expected utility terms. Using HRS data on subjective survival probabilities, we construct a subjective life table for each individual in the HRS. We calculate the value each household would place on annuitization, based on the husband and wife's subjective life tables, and the household's degree of risk aversion and proportion of preannuitized wealth. A significant minority would perceive themselves as suffering a loss from mandatory annuitization.