bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
“Saving Lives”—Lü Kun’s Manual on City Defense
Authors: Filipiak Kai
Published: February 2013

Abstract

The subject of this article is theBook on Saving Lives(Jiuming shu) written by the late Ming scholar-official Lü Kun. The book enjoyed great popularity during the Ming and Qing dynasties and offers practical advice for those who were in charge of city defense. Lü wrote this text in anticipation of imminent social crises. His prime motivation was to save the lives of his fellow countrymen when “bandits” attacked the county seat. The book, which is a survival manual rather than a handbook for magistrates, was written for military non-professionals who would lead the civilian population to defend the county. On the other hand, the text is of a military nature and refers to the military function of Chinese towns.

The majority of the book deals with military preparedness. Although the book also discusses various aspects of city defense such as weapons, tactics, fortification, training, and military law, Lü himself lacked combat experience. In this respect, the book illustrates a dilemma: The defense of small cities lay beyond the scope of the central government. This placed the responsible officials in a difficult and contradictory situation. The magistrate, for example, was not prepared for the job. He lacked military experience but had to lead the local population into war. Despite his power, he depended on the cooperation of the people, including the assistance of rich families and the support of armed villagers skilled in martial arts. In this way, Lü Kun’s treatise illustrates the consequences of earlier political decisions to concentrate the military on the northern border and around the capital.
Triggered Convection, Gravity Waves, and the MJO: A Shallow-Water Model
Authors: Yang Da , Ingersoll Andrew P.
Published: March 2013

The Madden–Julian oscillation (MJO) is the dominant mode of intraseasonal variability in the tropics. Despite its primary importance, a generally accepted theory that accounts for fundamental features of the MJO, including its propagation speed, planetary horizontal scale, multiscale features, and quadrupole structures, remains elusive. In this study, the authors use a shallow-water model to simulate the MJO. In this model, convection is parameterized as a short-duration localized mass source and is triggered when the layer thickness falls below a critical value. Radiation is parameterized as a steady uniform mass sink. The following MJO-like signals are observed in the simulations: 1) slow eastward-propagating large-scale disturbances, which show up as low-frequency, low-wavenumber features with eastward propagation in the spectral domain, 2) multiscale structures in the time–longitude (Hovmöller) domain, and 3) quadrupole vortex structures in the longitude–latitude (map view) domain. The authors propose that the simulated MJO signal is an interference pattern of westward and eastward inertia–gravity (WIG and EIG) waves. Its propagation speed is half of the speed difference between the WIG and EIG waves. The horizontal scale of its large-scale envelope is determined by the bandwidth of the excited waves, and the bandwidth is controlled by the number density of convection events. In this model, convection events trigger other convection events, thereby aggregating into large-scale structures, but there is no feedback of the large-scale structures onto the convection events. The results suggest that the MJO is not so much a low-frequency wave, in which convection acts as a quasi-equilibrium adjustment, but is more a pattern of high-frequency waves that interact directly with the convection.
Ocean Basin Geometry and the Salinification of the Atlantic Ocean
Authors: Nilsson Johan , Langen Peter L. , Ferreira David , Marshall John
Published: March 2013

A coupled atmosphere–sea ice–ocean model is used in an aqua-planet setting to examine the role of the basin geometry for the climate and ocean circulation. The basin geometry has a present-day-like topology with two idealized northern basins and a circumpolar ocean in the south. A suite of experiments is described in which the southward extents of the two (gridpoint wide) “continents” and the basin widths have been varied. When the two basins have identical shapes, the coupled model can attain a symmetric climate state with northern deep-water formation in both basins as well as asymmetric states, where the deep-water formation occurs only in one of the basins and Atlantic–Pacific-like hydrographic differences develop. A difference in the southward extents of the land barriers can enhance as well as reduce the zonal asymmetries of the atmosphere–ocean circulation. This arises from an interplay between the basin boundaries and the wind-driven Sverdrup circulation, which controls the interbasin exchange of heat and salt. Remarkably, when the short “African” continent is located near or equatorward of the zero wind line in the Southern Hemisphere, the deep-water formation becomes uniquely localized to the “Atlantic”-like basin with the long western boundary. In this case, the salinification is accomplished primarily by a westward wind-routed interbasin salt transport. Furthermore, experiments using geometries with asymmetries in both continental extents and basin widths suggest that in the World Ocean these two fundamental basin asymmetries should independently be strong enough for uniquely localizing the Northern Hemisphere deep-water formation to the Atlantic Ocean.
Intermodel Variability and Mechanism Attribution of Central and Southeastern U.S. Anomalous Cooling in the Twentieth Century as Simulated by CMIP5 Models
Authors: Pan Zaitao , Liu Xiaodong , Kumar Sanjiv , Gao Zhiqiu , Kinter James
Published: March 2013

Some parts of the United States, especially the southeastern and central portion, cooled by up to 2°C during the twentieth century, while the global mean temperature rose by 0.6°C (0.76°C from 1901 to 2006). Studies have suggested that the Pacific decadal oscillation (PDO) and the Atlantic multidecadal oscillation (AMO) may be responsible for this cooling, termed the “warming hole” (WH), while other works reported that regional-scale processes such as the low-level jet and evapotranspiration contribute to the abnormity. In phase 3 of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP3), only a few of the 53 simulations could reproduce the cooling. This study analyzes newly available simulations in experiments from phase 5 of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP5) from 28 models, totaling 175 ensemble members. It was found that 1) only 19 out of 100 all-forcing historical ensemble members simulated negative temperature trend (cooling) over the southeast United States, with 99 members underpredicting the cooling rate in the region; 2) the missing of cooling in the models is likely due to the poor performance in simulating the spatial pattern of the cooling rather than the temporal variation, as indicated by a larger temporal correlation coefficient than spatial one between the observation and simulations; 3) the simulations with greenhouse gas (GHG) forcing only produced strong warming in the central United States that may have compensated the cooling; and 4) the all-forcing historical experiment compared with the natural-forcing-only experiment showed a well-defined WH in the central United States, suggesting that land surface processes, among others, could have contributed to the cooling in the twentieth century.
Indian Ocean Dipole Response to Global Warming in the CMIP5 Multimodel Ensemble*
Authors: Zheng Xiao-Tong , Xie Shang-Ping , Du Yan , Liu Lin , Huang Gang , Liu Qinyu
Published: March 2013

The response of the Indian Ocean dipole (IOD) mode to global warming is investigated based on simulations from phase 5 of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP5). In response to increased greenhouse gases, an IOD-like warming pattern appears in the equatorial Indian Ocean, with reduced (enhanced) warming in the east (west), an easterly wind trend, and thermocline shoaling in the east. Despite a shoaling thermocline and strengthened thermocline feedback in the eastern equatorial Indian Ocean, the interannual variance of the IOD mode remains largely unchanged in sea surface temperature (SST) as atmospheric feedback and zonal wind variance weaken under global warming. The negative skewness in eastern Indian Ocean SST is reduced as a result of the shoaling thermocline. The change in interannual IOD variance exhibits some variability among models, and this intermodel variability is correlated with the change in thermocline feedback. The results herein illustrate that mean state changes modulate interannual modes, and suggest that recent changes in the IOD mode are likely due to natural variations.
Generation Mechanism of the South Pacific Subtropical Dipole
Authors: Morioka Yushi , Ratnam J. V. , Sasaki Wataru , Masumoto Yukio
Published: February 2013

Distinct pattern of interannual variability in sea surface temperature (SST) in the South Pacific [i.e., the South Pacific subtropical dipole (SPSD)] is examined using outputs from a coupled general circulation model. The SPSD appears as the second empirical orthogonal function (EOF) mode of the SST anomalies in the South Pacific and is associated with a northeast–southwest-oriented dipole of positive and negative SST anomalies in the central basin. The positive and negative SST anomaly poles start to develop during austral spring, reach their peak during austral summer, and gradually decay afterward. Close examination of mixed-layer heat balance yields that the SST anomaly poles develop mainly because warming of the mixed layer by shortwave radiation is modulated by the anomalous mixed-layer thickness. Over the positive (negative) pole, the mixed layer becomes thinner (thicker) than normal and acts to enhance (reduce) the warming of the mixed layer by climatological shortwave radiation. This thinner (thicker) mixed layer may be related to the suppressed (enhanced) evaporation associated with the overlying sea level pressure (SLP) anomalies. Weaker-than-normal surface wind also contributes to the thinner mixed layer in the case of the positive pole. Furthermore, the SLP anomalies are linked with the geopotential height anomalies in the upper troposphere and are associated with a stationary Rossby wave pattern along the westerly jet in the midlatitudes. This suggests that the SLP anomalies that generate the SPSD are not locally excited but remotely induced signals.
Measurement of Tidal Form Drag Using Seafloor Pressure Sensors
Authors: Warner Sally J. , MacCready Parker , Moum James N. , Nash Jonathan D.
Published: March 2013

As currents flow over rough topography, the pressure difference between the up- and downstream sides results in form drag—a force that opposes the flow. Measuring form drag is valuable because it can be used to estimate the loss of energy from currents as they interact with topography. An array of bottom pressure sensors was used to measure the tidal form drag on a sloping ridge in 200 m of water that forms a 1-km headland at the surface in Puget Sound, Washington. The form drag per unit length of the ridge reached 1 × 104 N m−1 during peak flood tides. The tidally averaged power removed from the tidal currents by form drag was 0.2 W m−2, which is 30 times larger than power losses to friction. Form drag is best parameterized by a linear wave drag law as opposed to a bluff body drag law because the flow is stratified and both internal waves and eddies are generated on the sloping topography. Maximum turbulent kinetic energy dissipation rates of 5 × 10−5 W kg−1 were measured with a microstructure profiler and are estimated to account for 25%–50% of energy lost from the tides. This study is among the first to measure form drag directly using bottom pressure sensors. The measurement and analysis techniques presented here are suitable for periodically reversing flows because they require the removal of a time-mean signal. The advantage of this technique is that it delivers a continuous record of form drag and is much less ship intensive compared to previous methods for estimation of the bottom pressure field.
A Generalized Method for Estimating the Structure of the Equatorial Atlantic Cold Tongue: Application to Drifter Observations
Authors: Hormann Verena , Lumpkin Rick , Perez Renellys C.
Published: February 2013

A generalized method is developed to determine the position of the Atlantic northern cold tongue front across its zonal extent from satellite sea surface temperature (SST) data. Previous approaches estimated the frontal position subjectively or individually, calling for a more objective technique that is suitable for large datasets. The developed methodology is based on a median frontal SST, and associated positional uncertainties are on the order of 0.3° latitude for the period 1998–2011. Frontal characteristics are generally consistent with tropical instability waves (TIWs) and interannual variations are large. Application to drifter observations shows how the new methodology can be used to better understand circulation features near the northern cold tongue front. A drifter pair deployed on the eastern side of a passing TIW crest north of the front revealed that the trajectories of the drifters were clearly influenced by the shape of the front and they did not cross the front, but rather stayed close together about 2.5° north of the front. In a more complete analysis using all available drifters near the Atlantic northern cold tongue front, only about 12% of the trajectories crossed the front. Analyses in an along- and cross-frontal frame of reference complement isopycnal coordinate mapping, and tropical Atlantic drifter velocities averaged in frontal coordinates indicate a broadened shear zone between the northern branch of the South Equatorial Current and North Equatorial Countercurrent as well as meridional convergence near the front.
Bourdieu 1993: A Case Study in Scientific Consecration
Authors: Wacquant Loïc
Published: March 2013

Drawing on archival materials and personal testimonies, I reconstruct the conditions under which Bourdieu came to receive the Gold Medal of the National Center for Scientific Research, France’s highest science prize, in 1993 as a signal case study of the existential predicament and institutional trappings of scholarly consecration. Bourdieu’s award speech and the ceremony at which he read it present a triple interest for the history and sociology of sociology. They illustrate how a shaping figure in the discipline personally experienced, reflexively viewed, and practically navigated the nexus of science, authority, and power. They mark 1993 as a pivot-year in Bourdieu’s intellectual evolution, leading to a new agenda foregrounding the state as paramount symbolic power, the alchemy of group formation, and the unfinished promise of democratic politics; and they help explain why he ventured more forthrightly into civic debate in the 1990s. Bourdieu’s ambivalent acceptance of the prize also illustrates his conception of the ‘Realpolitik of reason’ and put an emphatic end to the eclipse of Durkheim by restoring sociology to its rightful place at the scientific zenith in the country of its birth.
Performance of Environmental Resources of a Tourist Destination
Authors: Mihalič Tanja
Published: March 2013

Despite the apparent importance of destinations’ environmental resources, there appears to be little theoretical and applied research explicitly focusing on destination environmental supply. This research attempts to address this gap in the literature. First, it reviews and evaluates the body of research in tourism environmental resources and proposes a conceptual model to test their performance. The model combines tourism supply–demand view with importance–performance gaps and was used to survey tourism in Slovenia. The results show that the studied destination uses its environmental resources too extensively and that Slovenian environmental tourism experience does not meet visitors’ expectations. This finding challenges Slovenian policy makers, who position Slovenia as a green destination. The proposed model can form the basis for further conceptual and empirical research into the tourism contributions of environmental resources. In its present form, it can be used to examine environmental performance and to suggest policy implications for any destination.
The Stormy Relations between Rafael Correa and Social Movements in Ecuador
Authors: Becker Marc
Published: March 2013

Despite persistent calls for examining the diversity of Latin America’s “pink tide,” many scholars continue to divide the governments into a simplistic “good” or moderate left and a “bad” or radical/nationalist left. Ecuador’s Rafael Correa is inevitably included with Venezuela’s Hugo Chávez and Bolivia’s Evo Morales as part of a triad of radical left-leaning governments in South America. While Correa, along with Chávez and Morales, has faced threats to his power from the traditional conservative oligarchy, the greatest challenges to his government have come from the social-movement left. These dissidents have criticized his administration for failing to foster transformation of the structures that exploit and oppress marginalized communities. A constant difficulty for social-movement activists has been challenging Correa from the left without strengthening a common enemy on the right.

A pesar de insistentes llamados a examinar la diversidad de la llamada “marea Rosa” latinoamericana, muchos académicos continúan dividiendo burdamente a estos gobiernos en una izquierda moderada o “buena” y una izquierda nacionalista, radical y “mala.” Rafael Correa de Ecuador se ve incluido, inevitablemente, en el grupo de Hugo Chávez de Venezuela y Evo Morales de Bolivia, una triada de radicales de izquierda en América del Sur. Aunque Correa, junto a Chávez y Morales, ha tenido que enfrentar a la oligarquía conservadora tradicional, los mayores desafíos a su gobierno han provenido del movimiento social izquierdista. Estos disidentes han criticado a su administración por no fomentar la transformación de las estructuras que explotan y oprimen a las comunidades marginadas. Una constante dificultad para los miembros dellos movimientos sociales ha sido desafiar a Correa desde la izquierda sin así fortalecer al enemigo común que es la derecha.
Volumetric Thermoacoustic Imaging over Large Fields of View
Authors: Roggenbuck M. A. , Walker R. D. , Catenacci J. W. , Patch S. K.
Published: March 2013

The thermoacoustic (TA) contrast mechanism relies on rapid tissue heating and subsequent thermal expansion. TA computerized tomography (TCT) is therefore inverse source imaging. The TA contrast mechanism provides information complementary to that revealed by current diagnostic imaging techniques, but has been limited to just a few centimeters depth penetration. In this article, whole organ TCT is demonstrated on a large swine kidney. TA sinograms show that TA signal generated by high-power, very high frequency (VHF) electromagnetic pulses is detectable after travel through 6 cm of soft tissue. Reconstructed images provide resolution sufficient to track progression of calyces throughout the kidney. Because VHF electromagnetic energy can easily penetrate the abdomen of large adults, our results indicate that whole organ TA imaging is feasible in vivo, provided an ultrasound array can be placed near the region of interest. Pulses of 22 to 25 kW with carrier frequency 108 MHz and 900 ns pulse width were applied at a 100-Hz pulse repetition frequency to generate a 13-kV/m electric field and TA signal. Only 2 to 5 mJ was absorbed in the kidney per pulse, causing temperature and pressure jumps of only 5e-6°C and 4 Pa averaged throughout the 141-g specimen. TA pulses were detected by focused, single-element transducers (V306, Panametrics), amplified by 54 dB and averaged 64 times to reduce electronic noise. Data were measured over a cylindrical measurement aperture of radius 5 cm and length 6 cm, by rotating the specimen 1.8 degrees between tomographic views and translating 2 mm between slices. Reconstruction via filtered backprojection yields in-plane resolution better than 5 mm, but suffers significant blurring between planes. Both in-plane resolution and slice sensitivity profile could be improved by applying shorter irradiation pulsewidths and using less directional transducers. Both hardware changes would be recommended for a clinical prototype.
Vector Quantization of RF Channel Data for Ultrasound Imaging
Authors: Huang Pei-Ching , Li Pai-Chi
Published: March 2013

Quantization is a necessary step in a digital beamformer that should be implemented efficiently when designing an ultrasound imaging system. Several factors should be considered, including the accuracy of both amplitude and phase in the digital representation, the quantization efficiency, and the complexity of the quantization scheme. While uniform scalar quantization (SQ) is currently used in most ultrasound imaging systems, this study used simulations and experimental data to explore vector quantization (VQ) based on the signals received by adjacent elements of the transducer array generally being strongly correlated. The signal-to-quantization-noise ratio, focusing quality, and accuracy in phase aberration correction and blood velocity estimation were assessed. The results show that using VQ instead of conventional SQ reduces the quantization noise by 10 dB with minimal degradation in the focusing quality. Similarly, the performance of correlation-based phase aberration correction was not affected at this level of quantization. Nevertheless, velocity estimation accuracy was found to be more susceptible to VQ noise when the reduction in the number of bits is limited to a factor of two. One benefit of using a more efficient quantizer is the reduced data size, which directly affects the data transfer rate and is an important design consideration for a digital imaging system.
Effects of Caregiver Behavior on Habituation Rate and Self-Efficacy in Infants
Authors: Riksen-Walraven J. Marianne
Published: March 2013

A model for cognitive development and the development of self-efficacy in infancy was proposed. On the basis of learning-theoretical principles it was hypothesized that (a) an infant's rate of habituation to visual stimuli is a function of the amount of stimulation provided by its primary caregiver, and (b) the strength of an infant's exploratory behavior and its ability to analyse contingencies between its acts and their effects is a function of the responsiveness of the caregiver towards the infant. The subjects were 100 ninemonth-old infants from working-class families with their primary caregivers. The effects of two different intervention programs were examined, one program aiming at heightening the caregiver's responsiveness towards the infant, the second at enhancing the amount of stimulation provided to the infant. The programs were carried out by the caregivers for a period of three months. The proposed model was confirmed by the findings.
The Development of the Processing of Social Perspectives: A Cognitive Model
Authors: Oppenheimer Louis
Published: March 2013

A cognitive model for the development of the processing of social perspectives was designed to represent the relationships between various cognitive variables and the processing of social perspectives. Several of the relationships between the variables and perspective-taking, in particular, are discussed in detail. Empirical data obtained from studies investigating some of the hypotheses based upon the model are presented.
Malnutrition and Mother-Infant Asynchrony: Slow Mental Development
Authors: Ferreira Maria Clotilde Rossetti
Published: March 2013

This paper suggests an explanation for the link between environment, malnutrition and rate of mental development. Its basic assumption is that biological factors, such as malnutrition or perinatal traumas, and difficult socioeconomic conditions interact to slow mental development by undermining the establishment and maintenance of a 'syntonic', 'synchronic' and 'reciprocal' relationship between the child and the mother.

The family in a deprived social environment is usually burdened with socioeconomic and health problems. In these circumstances, the child will rarely find in its immediate environment a person available and prepared to 'syntonize', i.e. to tune in to him, and to be stimulating and responsive to his behavior. At the same time, children born in this environment, because of malnutrition and other ailments, will often be biologically less able to be stimulating and responsive to their caregivers. These children show apathy, irritability and a loss of interest in the social environment. Their behavior is often more disorganized and less predictable than that of the controls, requiring a special effort from those who interact with them to achieve syntony and synchrony with them. The combination of these conditions, acting throughout the child's early years, creates a cycle of interactional deprivation, which inhibits its intellectual development. In order to break this cycle, one needs to improve the environmental situation of the family in addition to improve its nutritional status.
A Dual Model of Cognitive Development: Structure in Cultural Stimulation, Construction by the Child
Authors: Aebli Hans
Published: March 2013

A constructivistic paradigm of cognitive development is proposed. It bases on the connection of elements by relational terms drawn from semantic memory and includes a process of objectivation which condenses proposition-like structures into elements, to be connected in turn. Sensorimotor actions, verbal explanations and mathematical constructions can thus be transcribed. The same formalism is able to describe behavioral models, action sequences in which the child participates and games played by the child. A dual model of development, where structures in cultural stimulation are reconstructed in the child's cognition, is outlined.
Auditory-Visual Coordination in the First Year of Life
Authors: McGurk Harry , MacDonald John
Published: March 2013

Two competing hypotheses concerning the nature of inter-modal development are outlined. The first sees the development proceeding from a state of discrete, independent sensory systems towards integration and synthesis between modalities. This is contrasted with a second viewpoint in which the early responsiveness of the organism is seen as a-modal and the developmental sequence as one of increasing sensory differentiation. A number of studies which have investigated auditory-visual co-ordination in young human infants, are reviewed. It is concluded that the data support the notion of ontogenetic development being a process of integration between sensory systems that are initially relatively independent.
Sex Differences in Spatial Ability: A Critique
Authors: Clear Sarah-Jane
Published: March 2013

This paper examines the controversy surrounding the two main problem areas of this field. The first problem is the definition and description of spatial ability, there being concern over precisely what is measured by different tests, and the lack of independence of such tests. The second area deals with the aetiology of sex differences in spatial ability. The most compelling current theory, that of a recessive gene influence, has certain anomalies which require additional factors, such as sex-typing or hormonal limitation, to be brought in to complete the explanation, although these too require further clarification. Searching for a cause of sex differences without an understanding of the cognitive strategies involved would seem to be a sterile pursuit, and it is proposed that an analysis of spatial problem solving (e.g. in mental rotation) will shed more light on individual differences, set in the context of genetic and environmental influences.
Age Differences in Cortical Activity Associated with Preparation to Respond
Authors: Schaie Joyce Parr , Syndulko Karl
Published: March 2013

Correlations between the amplitudes and latencies of the slowly developing negative potential called the contingent negative variation (CNV) and performance in two tasks requiring motor response were studied. Time estimation and forewarned reaction time tasks were used with preparatory intervals of 2, 4, and 8 sec duration. Youngyoung, young-old, and old-old groups of females were tested. The hypothesis that deficits in time estimation ability in the elderly might help to account for age differences in performance in reaction time was investigated. Significant age and interval related differences in the correlation between time estimation ability and reaction time performance were found. The findings are discussed in terms of thefr potential significance for developmental research and clinical assessment.
Research and the Bernard Van Leer Foundation
Authors: Wall W. D.
Published: March 2013

The Bernard van Leer Foundation differs from most other Foundations in that it conducts an integrated program of action-oriented and research studies in some twentyfive countries. Its goal is that of enabling children at a disadvantage "nevertheless to realise their human potential" and much of its work is concerned with educational programs for children of preschool and school age. More recently there have been extensions into older groups and the concept of "integrated education for development" has arisen greatly widening the earlier "compensatory education" notion. Projects are developed by consultation between HQ and the field and are conducted by local staff. They aim to be innovative, capable of generalisation and respectful of local values and culture.

The problems and possibilities of such work are discussed from the viewpoint of evaluation and the contribution which can be made to the behavioural sciences notably to comparative child development.
Perceived Deprivation of Material and Nonmaterial Rewards as Related to Altruistic Behavior Among Young Adolescents
Authors: Yinon Yoel
Published: March 2013

The present study deals with the question whether persons who constantly feel deprived (both materially and non-materially) would help other people more than persons who do not feel deprived because they can sympathize more with the needy, or would help less because their mood is often bad, and people do not tend to help while being in a bad mood. It was found that subjects who considered themselves to be highly deprived helped more, on two separate occasions, than subjects who regarded themselves as not deprived.
Children's Construction of Three-Dimensional Patterns
Authors: Halford Graeme S.
Published: March 2013

Four groups of children, with chronological ages ranging from 6.6 to 12.5 and mental ages ranging from 7.9 to 14.7, were tested for ability to reproduce five-element twoand three-dimensional patterns. Testing was carried out either in the presence or in the absence of the original pattern. The main effects of age, pattern complexity and model present-model absent were all significant, as were a number of interactions. In general there was a linear increase in performance on three-dimensional patterns with age, but all age-groups showed high levels of performance on two-dimensional patterns. Results are discussed in relation to information processing accounts of cognitive development.
Mother-Infant Studies: Subject Refusals and Sampling Bias
Authors: Freese Margaret P. , Thoman Evelyn B. , Becker Patricia T.
Published: March 2013

Do sampling biases introduced in studies requiring a large amount of time make those samples less representative than the samples in studies requiring less subject involvement? This question was explored in the context of mother-infant interaction studies by eomparing maternal attitudes of two groups of mothers: 20 mothers who participated with their infants in 35 hours of observation and testing, and 17 mothers who refused to participate in that study, but did spend 30 minutes completing a questionnaire. These two groups of mothers differ widely in their willingness to be involved in a study. All subjects completed the Pregnancy Research Inventory at the end of the eighth month of pregnancy. There were no significant differences between the two groups on any scale. The importance of developing procedures to assess important biases introduced into studies requiring substantial commitments of time is discussed.
Perceived Maternal Disciplinary Practices and Their Relation to Development of Moral Judgment
Authors: Saraswathi T. S. , Sundaresan J.
Published: March 2013

The relationship between maternal disciplinary practices and moral judgment in children was examined. Sex and social class were included as variables.

Two hundred and forty-nine children, from upper-middleand working-class samples, were interviewed on maternal disciplinary practices. Data on moral judgment were available from a previous study.

Results indicated a general pattern of negative correlations between maternal power assertion and child's moral maturity scores (MMS), and positive correlations between maternal induction and MMS. The correlations were, however, statistically significant only in the case of upper-middle-class girls. Use of love withdrawal as a disciplinary measure was reported very infrequently.

The results are discussed in terms of the theoretical issues related to induction as a process variable, and a cross-cultural perspective of the empirical findings is described.
Looking Forward: Integrated Participation in the Process of Change
Authors: Weikart David P.
Published: March 2013

Creating change in traditional practices or introducing service where none exists is a delicate and time-consuming exercise requiring commitment, skill, and patience by those who aspire to such goals. The record of success by those who try is limited, and many can recount their personal and professional frustrations. It seems as if the flow of history with its ebb tides of myth and practice holds more force than the power of rational attacks on clusters of problems through systematic research and development. The power of the information wrested from such efforts seems pale beside the inertia of the system which endlessly generates the issues that call for resolution. Yet change occurs, projects succeed, new techniques are adopted, and even obstinate bureaucracies evolve in response to persistent and focused efforts to force key issues and enthusiasms to the surface. Citizens involved in creative change must be prepared to labor toward small goals that only gradually yield to larger attainments. Over the past several decades of change throughout the world, a variety of lessons have been learned about such processes, and a consensus seems to be emerging that will encourage those persistent enough to remain at their stations. This paper will touch briefly on some of these lessons.
The Influence of Context on Story Recall and Feelings of Comprehension
Authors: Harris P. L. , Mandias F. , Terwogt M. Meerum , Tjintjelaar J.
Published: March 2013

Children of 8 and 10 years read stories either with or without prior information regarding the setting of the story. For both age groups, the provision of setting information aided recall. Moreover, a significant majority of each age group claimed that they had found it easier to understand the story with setting information provided as compared to the story without. A follow-up study lent validity to these introspections. The provision of setting information facilitates recall by improving comprehension rather than retrieval alone: when setting information was provided after comprehension but prior to recall, no improvement in recall was obtained.
Toward Interactive Synchrony: The Gaze Patterns of Mothers and Children in Three Age Groups
Authors: Farran Dale C. , Hirschbiel Paul , Jay Susan
Published: March 2013

The gaze patterns of 81 mother-child dyads (6, 20 and 36 months) were investigated during 20 minutes of free play in a laboratory setting. The results indicated that children at the three ages studied were not different in the total amount of time they looked at their mothers. The groups of mothers were significantly different with the difference primarily resulting from the looking patterns of the mothers of 6 month olds: these mothers looked for a longer total amount of time and longer too for each individual look when compared to mothers of older children. Mutual regard at each age was most often initiated by the mother and terminated by the child though mothers terminated more gazes at the older ages. At the two older ages there were more simultaneous initiations and terminations of mutual regard than at 6 months. Although adult synchrony was not observed in looking interactions of the oldest children, the increase in the simultaneity of mutual looks foreshadows the adult pattern.
Four Questions in Psychological Development
Authors: Kagan Jerome
Published: March 2013

This paper deals with four major issues in developmental psychology: the preservation of structures over time, the mechanisms of change in development, the psychological growth functions for emergent competences, and the determinants of individual variation in psychological development. We emphasize the role of the maturation of the central nervous system on the emergence of cognitive competences during early development and question the traditional doctrine on the preservation of the products of early experience.
Towards a Mechanism of Joint Visual Attention in Human Infancy
Authors: Butterworth George , Cochran Edward
Published: March 2013

Three experiments are reported which aim to distinguish between mechanisms that might serve joint visual attention between human infants and adults. Between 6 and 18 months of age, the infant will adjust his (or her) line of gaze contingent on a change in the adult's focus of attention but behaves as if the adult is referring to loci within the infants' visual space. Thus, if the adult looks behind the infant, the infant scans the space in front of him. Various explanations of this phenomenon and of the capacity for joint visual attention are discussed.
Early Post-Partum Contact and Later Attitudes
Authors: de Chateau Peter
Published: March 2013

In a randomized, prospective study the long-term effects of early post-partum skin-toskin and suckling contact was studied. In follow-up studies 36 hours, 3 and 12 months after delivery maternal behaviour, infant behaviour, the duration of breast feeding and certain attitudes towards child rearing procedures were shown to develop differently in a group of mothers and infants with early post-natal contacts as compared to a control group. Three years after delivery parents with early contact appreciated their children's language development to be faster; the number of siblings born in these families was greater than in controls. In the discussion, the relative importance of the immediate postnatal period is emphasized, a more family oriented development seems to occur in the presence of early post-delivery interaction.
Environmental Discontinuity Associated with Transition from Foster to Adoptive Homes
Authors: Yarrow Leon J. , Klein Robert P.
Published: March 2013

This paper is concerned with the amount and quality of environmental change consequent to adoptive placement, and its implications for the adaptation of the infant. A great range of environmental discontinuity is associated with the move from a foster to an adoptive home. It was found that change per se in the environment is less important than change associated with less adequate care. Infants who experience a marked deterioration in quality of the environment following adoptive placement show disturbances in adaptation, whereas infants who are moved to an environment where there is a significant improvement in maternal care are less likely to show significant disturbances following the move. Disturbances were found in interpersonal relationships, in level of responsiveness to inanimate objects, in level of functioning on developmental tests, in adjustment to routines, in emotional expression and in physiological functioning.
Relationship of Adolescent Self-Concept to Perceptions of Parents in Single and Two-Parent Families
Authors: Rosenthal David M. , Peng Chao-Ying J. , McMillan James M.
Published: March 2013

This study investigated the relationship of adolescent self-concept to perceptions of parents in single and two-parent families. The sample consisted of 558 children, 19% from single-parent homes. Examination of the data indicated that children from single parent families have lower self concepts. There was also a significant relationship between self concept and the adolescents' perceptions of their parents. In addition, perceived love was found to be the best predictor of self concept in adolescents.
Two Functions of Imitation During Infancy
Authors: Uzgiris Ina C.
Published: March 2013

A review of recent studies on imitation, particularly during infancy, suggests that imitation may serve two functions: gaining understanding of puzzling observations and communicating mutuality and shared understanding with another person. Although changes in cognitive understanding influence development in imitation, the occurrence of imitation in specific situations may be governed by the interplay of the two functions that imitation can serve. This analysis implies that research needs to consider not only the kinds of acts that are imitated at different developmental levels, but also the child's understanding of the interpersonal interaction during which imitation is obtained in order to elucidate the age-related trends in imitation.
Classification Skills and Feedback Sequence as Determinants of Hypothesis Testing and Problem Solving
Authors: Fuchs Karen D. , Turner Ralph R.
Published: March 2013

The purpose of this study was to determine whether training classifiers and nonclassifiers (determined by Piagetian tasks) to use feedback to manipulate stimulus attributes would have an effect on concept attainment similar to that predicted by a recent theoretical synthesis of children's hypothesis testing literature. Forty second and third-graders were pretested to assess classification status; half of the subjects received training. The results suggested that feedback sequence is related to the probability that the problem will be solved and classification status is a determinant of hypothesis testing strategies.
Ocular Strategies of Young Children and Adults in Two Memorization Tasks
Authors: Pf-Cheux Marie-Germaine , Baudonniere Pierre-Marie , Taranne Pierre
Published: March 2013

Oculomotor activity during a 10-second inspection of stimuli to be subsequently recalled was recorded in 5and 7-year old subjects and in adults (20 subjects in each group). Subjects either memorized the content of three different designs, or the location of three identical flowers. The spatial characteristics of the two stimuli were the same.

It was hypothesized that the Ss would organize their ocular activity in relation to the task. Of particular concern was the meaning young children would attribute to "the same place", as it could be inferred from points explored and from the sequence of fixations in the visual field.

The data revealed that the 5-year olds used the same exploratory strategy in both tasks, perhaps because they lack a clear representational concept of what a location is. Seven-year olds used differentiated strategies, scanning as adults do in the content task, and relating elements to each other in the position task.
Peer Support Among Soviet Day Care Toddlers
Authors: Ispa Jean
Published: March 2013

The hypothesis that Soviet day care children (mean age = 25.44 months) derive emotional support from the presence of their group-mates was tested. Children were observed in a strange situation in one of three conditions: with a familiar peer (a groupmate), with an unfamiliar peer (a child from another group), or with no peer. An adult stranger was present during two of the three four-minute episodes. Results indicated that children with familiar peers were more comfortable than children with unfamiliar peers, who, in turn, were more comfortable than children with no peer. Differences between children with familiar and unfamiliar peers were most apparent while the adult stranger was absent. Children paired with unfamiliar peers, but not children paired with familiar peers, were upset by her departure. During all three episodes, children with no peer were more upset than children in either of the other two conditions.
Effects of Focusing Training on Hypothesis Testing in Concrete Operational Children
Authors: Goodwin Kathryn S. , Turner Ralph R.
Published: March 2013

Recent attempts to account for the development of problem solving strategies in discrimination learning tasks have culminated in a theoretical synthesis proposed by Gholson and Beilin (1979). Their developmental model for human learning combines a qualitatively changing central processor with subprocesses such as directed attention and memory that control information flow. Predictions from the theory suggest that strategic systems are directly related to Piagetian stage levels and that focusing, in particular, cannot be manifested until the child is operating formally. The present authors suggested that late concrete operational children, possessing class inclusion skills, were competent to produce focusing because of the nature of the task, and that they would manifest focusing following training. Early and late concrete operational children were identified, and half of each group was trained to focus. The results indicated that focusing was manifested by the late concrete operational children but independently of the training. Both the amount of negative feedback and the nature of the probe techniques affected the manifestation of focusing. These results are discussed with reference to the Gholson-Beilin theory and to their methodological implications.
An Examination of Learning Proficiency Differences in Low and Middle Ses Children
Authors: Turner Ralph R.
Published: March 2013

The results of research investigating differences in matrix completion abilities between low-SES and middle-SES children have been inconsistent. This study provided a framework in which several unresolved issues could be examined. Item type, order of presentation, training modes, and developmental level were varied in two SES groups in an attempt to clarify previous research findings.

The subjects were 288 individually tested children. SES level was determined by the Hollingshead and Redlich (1958) scale while developmental level was represented by first, third, and fifth grade levels. Training consisted of maximal prompt, correctness-of-response feedback, and a no-training-control condition. Subject responded to double classification and enclosure matrix completion item types until a criterion performance was obtained, and were then shown 11 transfer items of each type.

The results revealed significant SES, grade, and training main effects. Generally, middle-SES and older subjects were able to learn more efficiently and transfer more effectively than their counterparts. SES and training interacted with item type and order of presentation which indicated differential facilitative effects across SES levels. A major finding was the absence of a significant SES X grade interaction. This result supports a developmental lag as opposed to Level I Level II interpretation.
Intra-Cultural Variation in Cognitive Development: Conservation of Length Among the Imbonggu
Authors: Lancy David F. , Souviney Randall J. , Kada Venina
Published: March 2013

The article reports the results of a study in which twelve different conservation of length tasks, indicative of passage from Piaget's preoperational to concrete operational stages of cognitive development, were administered to a sample of individuals from a remote and traditional society in Papua New Guinea. Individuals were systematically selected to represent varying age and education levels. Results are consistent with earlier research which has shown that conservation of length, and, by implication, concrete operations, is fully achieved only after 7 or more years of formal schooling.