bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Visual Interaction in Recently Admitted and Chronic Long‐stay Schizophrenic Patients
Authors: RUTTER D. R.
Published: July 2011

Several reports have suggested that schizophrenic patients engage in very little Looking and eye‐contact*. However, previous work, much of it methodologically unsatisfactory, has been based almost always on the clinical psychiatric interview, with the result that several important questions remain unanswered. In particular, we do not know how schizophrenic patients behave in free conversation, how their behaviour with another patient may differ from their behaviour with a psychiatrically normal partner, nor even whether they show individual consistency across encounters. The first study was designed to examine these questions, by observing recently admitted schizophrenic patients in two free dyadic conversations, one with a schizophrenic partner and one with a psychiatrically normal partner, and comparing them with three control groups: depressive patients; patients suffering from neurotic or personality disorders; and psychiatrically normal chest patients. The second study went on to test whether the early descriptions of gross abnormality may be more appropriate to chronic long‐stay patients than to recently admitted patients, and the design consisted of a comparison between the two groups.

The first study revealed a quite unexpected pattern of results. Consistently across their two encounters, schizophrenic subjects behaved similarly for the most part to all three control groups, normal and abnormal alike. Moreover, the few differences which did emerge conflicted sharply with previous findings, including the writer's, and were no more marked in patient‐patient than patient‐normal encounters. The second study revealed no differences between chronic long‐stay and recently admitted schizophrenic patients. It is suggested that the differences in findings between the present two studies and previous reports are most likely to be attributable to differences in verbal content: schizophrenic patients show abnormalities of visual interaction when talking about personal matters, but behave quite normally when the topic is not of immediate personal relevance.
Reconstructing Approximations to Dialogue
Authors: SHAPIRO D. A.
Published: July 2011

Fifteen undergraduate subjects attempted to reconstruct, following Clarke's (1975) procedure, four approximations to dialogue generated by Pease (1972a). Subjects displayed significant (P < 0.001) ability to locate utterances by the dialoguing participant immediately following the correct utterance by the monologuing participant, but not vice versa. Subjects did no better than chance in reconstructing the sequence of utterances by either participant alone. Methodological and theoretical implications are discussed, with reference to the predominant strategy apparently followed by subjects.
Children's Concepts of a Fair Exchange*
Authors: EISER CHRISTINE , EISER J. RICHARD
Published: July 2011

Fifty‐two children aged 10 and 12 years judged the fairness of 16 imaginary trades between an ‘Explorer’ and ‘Indian’. Each party had four different goods, of low/high cost to self and low/high value to other. The four trades where the two parties both incurred equal costs and received equal values were consistently rated as fairest; of these, the two trades where both parties received values proportionate to their costs were rated as fairer, especially by boys. Older subjects tended to rate trades fairer. Implications for the development of notions of parity and equity are discussed.
Games Theory, Television and Leisure: An Adolescent Study
Authors: HENDRY L. B. , THORNTON D. J. E.
Published: July 2011

Sutton‐Smith's games typologies of potency, strategy, and fortunism were applied to television viewing preferences in order to: (1) construct a television classification based on Sutton‐Smith's three types; and (2) ascertain whether or not 204 adolescents designated as potents, strategists and fortunists could be distinguished in terms of their games involvement, attitudes to sport and social class.

Results suggested that adolescents who prefer television programmes which represent a given lifestyle exhibit characteristics similar to Sutton‐Smith's original descriptions. Potents were distinguished by risk‐taking, favourable ascetic attitudes to games and to some extent by non‐manual social class; strategists by favourable social attitudes to games and non‐manual social class; and fortunists by lower social class and favourable attitudes to games of chance. In addition, male potents and strategists were significantly more often involved in games playing in their leisure time than fortunists.
Group Modification of Affective Verbalizations: Resistance to Extinction and Generalization Effects
Authors: FROMME DONALD K. , STOMMEL JOSEPH A. , DUVALL RONALD D.
Published: July 2011

An operant group procedure significantly increased the frequency of here‐and‐now affect, feedback, and empathy statements made by two groups of four subjects during ten one‐hour sessions, divided into base line, acquisition, extinction, reacquisition and generalization periods. The continuously reinforced group showed resistance to extinction, attributed in part to reinforcement by other group members when a subject made reinforceable statements. Failure of the variably reinforced group to replicate this finding was attributed in part to a less adequate conceptual grasp of the reinforcement categories resulting from the reduced feedback associated with a variable ratio schedule. Both groups showed strong generalization effects when subjects were distributed among eight new groups and the new subjects' performance was also significantly higher than typical base levels.
Is financial dishonesty a rational decision?
Authors: Farrington David P. , Kidd Robert F.
Published: July 2011

A field experiment was conducted to test the theory that financial dishonesty is a rational decision in which the likelihood of being dishonest increases with the utility of dishonesty and decreases with its cost. People in the streets of Cambridge, England, were given an opportunity to dishonestly accept a coin from an experimenter under two conditions of utility (low or high) and two conditions of cost (low or high). Utility was varied by the value of the coin, and cost was varied by the experimenter's statement. Thirty‐one of the 84 subjects falsely claimed the coin. In agreement with the prediction, more dishonesty occurred in the low cost condition, but, contrary to expectations, the utility manipulation had no overall effect on dishonesty. Cost and sex of experimenter interacted significantly, in that the cost manipulation affected dishonesty only with the male experimenter. It was also found that high utility tended to produce greater dishonesty in the low cost condition than in the high cost condition.
Prisoners' personality: A factor analytically derived structure
Authors: Heskin K. J. , Bolton N. , Banister P. A. , Smith F. V.
Published: July 2011

A factor analytic study of personality questionnaire data obtained from a group of 175 long‐term prisoners revealed a factor structure which appears to be peculiar to prisoners. In particular, hostility and anxiety obtain prominence in the structure, while the theoretically significant dimension of extraversion is relegated in importance.
Male and female perceptions of their own and the other sex
Authors: Burns Robert B.
Published: July 2011

Adult Open University students revealed their perceptions of their own and the opposite sex using the semantic differential technique. Analysis of the data by t test manifested the conventional stereotypes of masculinity and feminity despite presumed changes due to current social pressures. There was considerable agreement on the characteristics of male and female respectively. Most discrepancy occurred between a sex's perception of itself and its belief as to how the other perceived it. These latter inferred perceptions produced extreme stereotypes.
An experimental study of compliance and post‐hypnotic amnesia
Authors: Wagstaff Graham F.
Published: July 2011

A procedure was devised to test the hypothesis that the traditional measure of post‐hypnotic amnesia, which involves determining the number of items recalled before and after a ‘release’ signal, may be significantly biased by compliance. One group of subjects (group B) was given an opportunity to ‘own‐up’ to compliant behaviour before being tested for post‐hypnotic amnesia. Another group (group A) was only given the opportunity to own‐up after being tested for amnesia. Results indicated a very strong compliance effect, group A showed significantly more post‐hypnotic amnesia than group B.
The relative attractiveness of different types of information about another person
Authors: Duck Steve , Craig Gordon
Published: July 2011

Four distinctions are drawn between the epistemological and associated theoretical status of stimuli presented to subjects within the affect‐reinforcement and information‐processing frameworks for investigating interpersonal attraction. Three types of information about others have been used in studies of attractiveness: external (physical properties, sociological status, etc.); impersonal (evidence about the other's attitudes to events or objects); interpersonal (evidence about the other's characteristic descriptions of or attitudes about other individuals). These three types of information are, in terms of the distinctions made earlier, of crucially different significance and status as informers about the other's cognitive structure and content: hence it is predicted that they have different weights as attractive stimuli. A factorial experiment manipulating the three types of information x two levels of similarity showed that information type interacted significantly (P 0.05) with the similarity manipulation, as predicted. The results are interpreted as indicating the likely processes of inference made by strangers about one another as a means of determining future profitability of further acquaintance.
Simultaneous speech, interruptions and dominance
Authors: Ferguson Nicola
Published: July 2011

Simultaneous speech and interruptions are often employed as measures of dominance in observational studies of family interaction. This paper questions the assumption that these particular features of conversation are signs of dominance. Four types of interruption or ‘speaker‐switch non‐fluency’ are distinguished on the basis of data drawn from 7 1/2 hours of spontaneous, experimentally unstructured conversation. Three of these non‐fluencies involve simultaneous speech. It is suggested that the classification of interruptions and simultaneous speech may not be altogether satisfactory in many observational studies of family interaction. Coefficients of correlation are computed for the four types of speaker‐switch non‐fluency and two measures of dominance. Only two of the non‐fluency types are significantly (P < 0.05) correlated with dominance.

The data presented here are not final or conclusive, but it is hoped that they will stimulate critical evaluations of various behavioural measures which are used in family interaction research.
Sex‐trait stereotypes in England, Ireland and the United States
Authors: Williams John E. , Giles Howard , Edwards John R. , Best Deborah L. , Daws John T.
Published: July 2011

The item pool of the Adjective Check List (ACL) was used in an assessment of male and female sex‐trait stereotypes in England, Ireland and the United States. Subjects were 50 men and 50 women university students in each of the three countries. The general finding was a high degree of cross‐national similarity in the traits ascribed to men and to women, although the male and female stereotypes were not as highly differentiated in Ireland as in the two other countries. An ACL need analysis of the male and female stereotypes common to all three countries revealed that the male stereotype was markedly higher on needs for autonomy, exhibition, aggression and dominance; and moderately higher on achievement and endurance. The female stereotype was markedly higher on needs for deference, abasement, succourance, and nurturance; and moderately higher on affiliation, intraception, and heterosexuality. Projected studies of sex‐trait stereotypes in countries of greater historical and linguistic diversity were discussed.
A factor analytic study of the oral character
Authors: Kline Paul , Storey Ron
Published: July 2011

The rationale and construction of two tests of the oral personality, OOQ, oral optimism, and OPQ, oral pessimism, was described in the context of previous research. Item analyses on 457 subjects, followed by a cross‐validating study on 100 subjects produced two face valid personality inventories. These were then factored together with the Dynamic Personality Inventory, the 16 PF test and some other oral scales. The promax rotated factor analysis gave sound support for the validity of the two tests, and hence the existence of two personality syndromes, similar to those described as oral in the psychoanalytic literature.
Factorial invariance across gender for the primary symptom dimensions of the SCL‐90
Authors: Derogatis Leonard R. , Cleary Patricia A.
Published: July 2011

The present study was focused on an evaluation of factorial invariance across gender for the primary symptom dimensions of the SCL‐90 ‐ a multidimensional self‐report symptom inventory. The argument is advanced that evidence of invariance across relevant subject parameters is an essential component of reliability for dimensional constructs. Findings indicated substantial levels of invariance across gender for eight of the nine primary symptom dimensions of the SCL‐90 with moderate levels for the ninth. The implications of invariance, for the SCL‐90 in particular, and clinical measurement in general are related and discussed.
Similarity, interpersonal attitudes and attraction: The evaluative‐descriptive distinction
Authors: Craig Gordon , Duck Steven W.
Published: July 2011

Forty subjects chose trait words to describe six public figures and then received information regarding several strangers' judgements of the same public figures. The strangers' judgements had been ‘rigged’ to be similar or dissimilar in terms of the evaluative and descriptive aspects of the subjects' original judgements. Two hypotheses were tested: (a) that a subject's rating of the attractiveness of a stranger would be differentially influenced by the extent of similarity to his own judgement in both the evaluative and descriptive components of that judgement, and (b) that cognitively complex subjects would be less likely than cognitively simple subjects to rate strangers as unattractive when they manifest descriptive dissimilarity. Significant main effects were found for both evaluative similarity (P < 0·001) and descriptive similarity (P < 0·01), evaluative similarity having greater influence on attraction than descriptive similarity. Cognitive complexity interacted with descriptive similarity (P < 0·05) to the extent that complex subjects were more accepting of strangers who used different trait dimensions. The results are discussed in relation to consensual validation and the suggestion that validation of judgement about others' personality has a salient place in attraction.
Children's behaviour and the BSAG: Some theoretical and statistical considerations
Authors: Ghodsian M.
Published: July 2011

The 12 syndromes of the Bristol Social Adjustment Guide were factor analysed using data obtained on some 14000, 11 year olds. Separate analyses carried out for six social class and two sex categories revealed two very stable factors. These were discussed in relation to factors found in other similar analyses.

Certain theoretical and empirical limitations and problems were pointed to and it was suggested that within the context of these, the factors provide simple and parsimonious descriptions of classroom behaviour and might be of value in future research.
Salience, importance and evaluation in judgements about people
Authors: Warr Peter , Jackson Paul
Published: July 2011

Three experiments are described which examine the mutual operation of different weighting criteria. The criteria are evaluative direction, and what are termed ‘general salience’ and ‘importance‐in‐context’. The first experiment establishes a paradigm case where general salience is varied but importance‐in‐context is controlled. Later experiments extend this paradigm case to stimulus compounds where both general salience and importance‐in‐context are controlled and to compounds where both are varied. Each experiment employs different stimulus material: trait adjectives, tape‐recorded messages and newspaper articles. The three weighting criteria are shown to operate in an apparently non‐additive way, in that the influence of one depends upon the state of the others. This is viewed as consistent with a sequential judgement process in which a perceiver searches for a significant starting point and then adjusts his provisional estimate in the light of the other information available to him.
The place of impulsiveness in a dimensional system of personality description
Authors: Eysenck S. B. G. , Eysenck H. J.
Published: July 2011

Three questionnaire studies are reported in which sets of items traditionally used to measure impulsiveness were intercorrelated and the resulting matrices factor analysed; the factors extracted were correlated with measures of the major personality dimensions E (extraversion), N (neuroticism) and P (psychoticism), and also with the L (lie; dissimulation) scale. It was found that impulsiveness in the broad sense (ImpB) breaks down into four factors (narrow impulsiveness or ImpN, risk‐taking, non‐planning and liveliness) which are replicable from sample to sample and from males to females. These factors are positively correlated with each other and also with sociability to varying degrees. ImpB correlates quite well with extraversion, but even better with psychoticism; ImpN correlates positively with N and P, suggesting that this trait is somewhat pathological. It is suggested that the distinction between ImpB and ImpN is crucial for the discussion of the nature and measurement of extraversion and also for future experimental work on the causal background and experimental testing of impulsive behaviour patterns.
The management of dementia: A review of some possibilities
Authors: Miller Edgar
Published: July 2011

Evidence relating to the effects of therapeutic intervention on the behaviour of elderly demented patients is reviewed. Contrary to common prejudice there is strong evidence that improvements in functioning can be achieved by social and behavioural manipulations although maintaining such gains may be more difficult. There are some indications as to what type of intervention is likely to be most effective and some specific techniques that might be of use are discussed.
Dogmatism, social attitudes and personality
Authors: Smithers A. G. , Lobley D. M.
Published: July 2011

Rokeach's claim that dogmatism is a measure of general authoritarianism was examined among a sample of 551 British university students. It was found that both high scorers (radicals) and low scorers (conservatives) on Eysenck's conservatism‐radicalism scale scored high on the dogmatism scale, although the V‐shaped curve did include more of the conservative end of the scale. Item analysis showed that nine items tended to elicit a more dogmatic response from conservatives and four from radicals, but 27 did not discriminate. In principal components analysis 38 of the 40 items loaded significantly on the first factor; in varimax and promax analysis the small groups of items identified as ‘conservative’ or ‘radical’ emerged on separate factors. It is concluded that the dogmatism scale can be regarded as a measure of general authoritarianism, but with some bias towards the right. Eysenck's tough‐tenderminded scale was found to correlate with extraversion, and with both it was possible to envisage a weak curvilinear relationship with dogmatism. Conflicting results in previous studies for the relationship between introversion‐extraversion and dogmatism may have been due to the different mean levels of extraversion in the samples. The positive correlation between dogmatism and neuroticism found elsewhere was confirmed.
Retrieval from long‐term memory in presenile dementia: Two tests of an hypothesis
Authors: Miller Edgar
Published: July 2011

Recent experimental studies have suggested that patients with presenile dementia might have difficulty in retrieving information from memory as well as a reduced ability to acquire new information. The hypothesis that this retrieval difficulty might be due to an inability to inhibit the recall of irrelevant information was tested by two investigations. Free recall data failed to give clear support for the hypothesis but a prediction based upon recognition testing was confirmed.
Reducing multiple problem behaviours in a profoundly retarded child
Authors: Wehman Paul , Marchant Jo Ann
Published: July 2011

The purpose of the present paper is to describe two behaviour management programmes developed for a profoundly retarded child in a special education classroom. The target behaviours were: (1) inappropriate object contact, (2) wild running about the room, and (3) consistent refusal to eat. Literature was reviewed in an effort to find information which would help in the management of these behaviours. However, only a limited number of studies were found to be directly relevant. Salzberg & Napolitan (1974) modified inappropriate object contact through physical restraint. Neumann & Gaoni (1975) increased food consumption in a woman suffering from anorexia nervosa by using preferred foods. No literature was found which demonstrated the suppression of wild running behaviour.
Controlled drinking training with a female alcoholic
Authors: Brown Robert A.
Published: July 2011

Controlled drinking training based upon an avoidance conditioning paradigm (Mills, Sobell & Schaefer, 1971) has previously been demonstrated to offer an alternative to abstinence for some alcoholics. This paper describes the treatment and outcome of controlled drinking training as applied to a 33 year old female who had previously attempted abstinence and who could engage in sexual intercourse only after drinking.
An investigation of the role of ‘hypnosis’, hypnotic susceptibility and hypnotic induction in the production of age regression
Authors: Fellows Brian J. , Creamer Mark
Published: July 2011

In response to criticisms of the methodology of Barber's (1969) experiments, a 2×2 factorial design, varying hypnotic susceptibility and hypnotic treatment, was used to study the role of ‘hypnosis’ in the production of age regression by suggestion. Twenty subjects of high hypnotic susceptibility and 20 subjects of low hypnotic susceptibility were randomly allocated to one of two treatment conditions: hypnotic induction procedure or motivational instructions. Both treatments were followed by suggestions to regress to the age of seven years. Two measures of age regression were taken: the Draw‐a‐Man Test and a subjective rating of the reality of the experience. The results showed significant effects of both variables, with high susceptibility and induction treatment producing better regression on both measures than low susceptibility and motivation treatment. Hypnotic susceptibility was the stronger of the two variables. The ranking of the four conditions corresponded with predictions of hypnotic depth from the state theory of hypnosis, but the findings were not inconsistent with the non‐state theory. The drawings of all regressed groups were more mature than the norms for the age of seven and the drawings of a group of seven year old children.
Attention, eye tracking and schizophrenia
Authors: Acker William , Toone Brian
Published: July 2011

Two experiments are reported. The first experiment successfully replicated the finding that Smooth Pursuit Eye‐Tracking (SPET) performance recorded using electronystagmographic techniques statistically differentiates between groups of clinically diagnosed schizophrenic patients and normal controls. Ratings taken of spontaneous patient behaviour during testing indicated that behaviour which on a priori grounds was thought to preclude optimum attention to eye tracking was related to greater impairment of schizophrenic performance. The second experiment investigated the effect of experimentally induced distraction on SPET performance by normal controls. It was found that competing tasks of increasing levels of difficulty produced increasing degrees of impairment in SPET performance. The results of the two experiments were interpreted as evidence that SPET performance is sensitive to superficial inattention, and that deficits in schizophrenic SPET performance are best explained by attentional deficits in the schizophrenics.
A test of the schizophrenic's ability to process information in one or two sensory modes
Authors: Schuck John , Leventhal Donald , Carbonell Joyce
Published: July 2011

Twenty‐three schizophrenics, ten psychiatric controls, and 17 normal controls were used to test the hypothesis that schizophrenics suffer a deficit in their ability to integrate information from different sensory modes. The task involved identifying auditory, visual, or mixed (auditory and visual) patterns which had previously been equated in difficulty for normal subjects. Mean error scores were greatest for schizophrenics and least for normals with psychiatric controls in between. Moreover, the schizophrenics did equally well whether the task was visual, auditory, or mixed. Thus, schizophrenics showed no deficit specific to the synthesis of information from two different sensory modes.
Some psychological, educational and criminological variables related to recidivism in delinquent boys
Authors: McGurk B. J. , Bolton N. , Smith M.
Published: July 2011

The HDHQ, 16 PF and PSI were administered to 315 detainees at Medomsley Detention Centre, Durham, along with tests of intelligence and attainment, and measures of previous criminal history. One hundred and ninety‐one boys were subsequently reconvicted within two years of their release. They were found to have lower scores on reading and arithmetic tests, to show a greater degree of extrapunitive hostility and to score more highly on tests of social non‐conformity. Recidivists had also begun their criminal careers at an earlier age than non‐recidivists and had committed significantly more previous offences.
Simple behaviour rating scales for maximum security patients: Development and validation*
Authors: Hinton John , Webster Sylvia , O'Neill Michael
Published: July 2011

An outline is given of objective behaviour rating scales developed for use by nurse custodians in the maximum security hospital setting. Four independent scales are described: (a) antisocial belligerence, (b) disorientation, (c) withdrawal and (d) personal hygiene. The scales gave high test‐retest and inter‐rater reliabilities. Various indications of validity and potential usefulness of the scales are given. In particular, a probable relationship of the scales (a) and (c) with an impulsivity/overcontrol dimension is suggested — this relating to the type of aggressive offending recorded.
Anxiety, extraversion and smoking
Authors: McCrae Robert R. , Costa Paul T. , Bossé Raymond
Published: July 2011

In previous large‐scale studies, smoking has been found to be associated either with extra version or anxiety, though not both. Using a large population of adult American males, anxiety and extraversion scores were examined in groups of never smokers, former light, former heavy, current light and current heavy smokers to test the hypotheses that smokers would be both more extraverted and more anxious than non‐smokers. Two independent measures of both traits were used. Heavy current smokers were seen to be significantly higher than non‐smokers on both measures of neuroticism or anxiety; there were no differences between groups in extraversion. The small magnitude of reported relations led to the suggestion that future research focus on more meaningful classification of smokers and more specific facets of personality.
Global capacity reduction and schizophrenia
Authors: Knight Robert G. , Russell Paul N.
Published: July 2011

This paper reviews the evidence for a specific deficit in the flow of information through the schizophrenic processing system. It is suggested that there is little to support the notion of a single defective mechanism underlying schizophrenic cognitive dysfunction. The lack of a valid and reliable metric for measuring degree of difficulty across tasks and a lack of concern with matching tasks for attentional processing load, detracts from the usefulness of available results. The applicability of a global limited capacity model of selective attention to schizophrenic information processing is discussed as the most appropriate means of systematizing the wealth of published empirical data.
Visual interaction in schizophrenic patients: The timing of Looks
Authors: Rutter D. R.
Published: July 2011

Previous research has suggested that schizophrenic patients engage in very little Looking* and eye‐contact, at least in ‘personal’ conversations. As yet, however, we know nothing about the precise timing of their Looks, even though this has important clinical implications. Data from three studies are presented and no evidence of abnormality is found. It is concluded that, taken together, findings from visual interaction suggest not that schizophrenic patients behave in a socially unskilled way as has sometimes been argued, but simply that they are embarrassed by ‘personal’ conversations and, like perfectly healthy people who are embarrassed, respond by averting the gaze.
On the social significance of artifacts in experimenting
Authors: Fair Robert M.
Published: July 2011

The actions of both experimenters and subjects in experimental contexts are analysed in terms of a social and reflexive model of man, a symbolic interactionist model. The analysis suggests that many diverse experimental ‘artifacts’ are only artifactual to the extent that one subscribes to a false natural scientific model of psychological experimentation which ignores the social context in which it is conducted. A realistic treatment of that context reveals the unitary, rather than the diverse, nature of many such supposed ‘artifacts’; they issue from the fact that experimental subjects are aware of themselves, not only as actors, but also as ‘objects of interest’ to others.
The relationship of age, sex and personality to social attitudes in children aged 8–15 years
Authors: Powell Graham E. , Stewart Robert A.
Published: July 2011

Eight hundred and eight children between 8 and 15 completed the Junior Personality Questionnaire yielding psychoticism (P), extraversion (E), neuroticism (N) and lie (L) scores, and the Children's Scale of Social Attitudes giving conservatism (CON), religion (REL), ethnocentrism (ETH), punitiveness (PUN) and SEX scores.

It was found that: P related positively to PUN and ETH and negatively to CON and REL: E related positively to SEX and negatively to ETH; N related to social attitudes in only a few specific group instances; L related positively to CON and REL and negatively to SEX. The relationships seemed to be mediated by the tough‐mindedness of the high P child; by the sociability of the extravert; and by the social acquiescence of high Lie scorers. The claim of Pearson & Sheffield (1976) that personality and social attitudes are unrelated is therefore rejected.

With age, CON, REL, ETH, and PUN scores tended to fall whilst SEX scores rose. These developmental trends were discussed in the light of social‐group theory, social‐learning theory and cognitive‐developmental theory. These theories had to cope with the very early acquisition of orthodox attitudes and then their subsequent liberalization. Modelling theory dealt with this task most adequately.
Delinquency and the development of moral reasoning
Authors: Emler Nicholas P. , Heather Nick , Winton Maurice
Published: July 2011

A sample of 34 incarcerated male delinquents aged 16–17 and a matched group of controls were compared on self‐report measures of delinquency, on Rest's (1975) Defining Issues Test (DIT) of moral reasoning, and on measures of logical operational ability. The mean levels of self‐reported delinquency of the incarcerated group were substantially higher than those of the controls. There was no significant difference between the groups in logical operational ability but the mean P score (index of mature moral reasoning) was significantly higher in the control group. However, no relationship was found between moral reasoning and levels of self‐reported delinquency. It was concluded that degree and seriousness of involvement in delinquency is unrelated to immaturity of moral reasoning and that the utility of the cognitive developmental approach to moral socialization may therefore be more restricted than has previously been claimed.
Necker cube reversals, arousal and psychopathy
Authors: Lidberg L. , Levander S. E. , Schalling D. , Lidberg Y.
Published: July 2011

Necker cube reversals were studied in a group of 24 arrested men in three experimental sessions; two weeks, one week and immediately before trial. The first session was assumed to represent a moderate laboratory stress due to the novelty of the situation, and the last session a real‐life stress associated with anticipation of appearing in court. Both were superimposed on the sustained real‐life stress of being in jail. There were no stress‐related changes between the three sessions in the rate of apparent change (RAC) of the Necker cube. The intra‐individual stability of RAC was extremely high. There were significant positive correlations between RAC in all sessions, and a psychopathy‐related inventory scale, the Gough delinquency scale.
The craving factor in the treatment of smoking
Authors: Harrington Neil
Published: July 2011

A review of previous studies suggests that many of the consistent results obtained may reflect individual differences in smoking behaviour. It was felt that Tomkins' (1966) distinction between craving and non‐craving smokers would be particularly relevant to this. The present study investigates the effects of such individual differences in smoking behaviour within a self‐control treatment programme. Thirty‐four smokers were assigned to three groups: two self‐control treatment groups and an attention‐monitoring control group. The treatment groups differed in that group II concentrated on the positive aspects of not smoking, whereas group III used a wide range of techniques. Treatment effects were not significant but a critical factor in abstinence, drop‐out and percentage reduction during the study was craving/non‐craving status. The results indicate that two separate populations of smokers exist who seem to have different responses to treatment. This, it is argued, has blurred analysis of results in previous studies. The two types of smoker may require separate treatment considerations, both in therapy and in long‐term management.
The interpretation of posture through an alternative methodology to role play
Authors: Bull Peter
Published: July 2011

The purpose of this experiment was to develop a methodology to investigate the postural expression of different emotions and attitudes using a technique which avoided the artificiality implicit in the use of a role play design. Subjects were asked to categorize tape‐recorded extracts as either funny, sad, interesting or boring and to rate them in order of intensity. The postures displayed when listening to the recordings were then analysed according to these ratings, the whole interview being recorded on videotape without the subject's knowledge. Results showed distinctive postures for all four categories, such as dropping the head for sadness and leaning the head on one hand for boredom, thus providing empirical support for the utility of this methodology as a way of obtaining observations of non‐verbal cues under controlled conditions without inducing any artificial self‐consciousness in the subjects.
Bodily communication and personality
Authors: Campbell Anne , Rushton J. Philippe
Published: July 2011

Fifteen measures of non‐verbal communication were coded from videotaped interactions between a female confederate and 18–21 year old female subjects (n = 46). Three measures of extraversion and neuroticism had previously been taken from the subjects, as was a measure of IQ. Correlation and factor analysis revealed significant relationships between certain of the variables. Extraversion was strongly associated with speaking more; a teacher's rating of neuroticism was associated with touching the self, pausing during conversation, and an absence of expressive gesture; lower IQ was associated with smiling while listening; and self‐report personality questionnaire neuroticism was associated with gaze aversion.
Self‐management programmes with mentally retarded workers: Implications for developing independent vocational behaviour
Authors: Wehman Paul , Schutz Richard , Bates Paul , Renzaglia Adelle , Karan Orv
Published: July 2011

Three research studies were conducted to investigate the differential effects of externally administered, self‐administered and self‐determined reinforcement contingencies on the work production rates of developmentally disabled workers. The results of Expt. I indicated that Client 1, a profoundly retarded male, would work at equivalent rates under externally administered or self‐administered reinforcers. Experiment II indicated that a severely retarded male would also work at a high work rate under a self‐determined reinforcement contingency. The results of Expt. III replicated these findings in a more controlled design. Different tasks adapted from community workshops were utilized in each study. The implications of these studies for developing independent vocational behaviour in the retarded were discussed.
The effects of reducing frequency of negative thoughts on the mood of depressed patients — tests of a cognitive model of depression
Authors: Teasdale John D. , Rezin Valerie
Published: July 2011

Cognitive theories of depression propose that depressed mood is caused by depressing cognitions (negative thoughts). In two studies of depressed patients, presentation of external information at a high rate was used to reduce the frequency of negative thoughts, and the subsequent effect on depressed mood examined. Single‐case designs were employed in both studies. In the first study, significant reduction in negative thoughts and depressed mood was achieved in each of two selected patients. In the second study, the same procedure produced reduction in negative thoughts which was individually significant for seven of 13 unselected depressed patients, and also significant for the 13 patients as a group. However, this led to little improvement in depressed mood. This appeared to be due to the small extent of thought reduction achieved. Reduction in negative thought frequency correlated significantly with score on the Newcastle diagnosis scale, being greater for neurotic compared to endogenous depression. Mean depressed mood and mean negative thought frequency were significantly positively correlated across subjects.
Language and social behaviour in severely educationally subnormal children
Authors: Beveridge Michael , Spencer Jenny , Mittler Peter
Published: July 2011

There is a strong positive relationship between age and the number of social interactions a child is likely to initiate during a typical classroom free‐play period. The type of interaction which shows the largest increase is verbally initiated child‐child interactions. Verbally initiated child‐teacher interactions also increase with age, though not so markedly as child‐child interactions. There appears to be no significant change in non‐verbal initiations of interactions with age, either to the teacher or to peers. These results give support to the use of observational techniques for language assessment in that they give further information about the growth of productive language skills as reported in a population survey of language abilities in mentally handicapped school children.
Orienting responses and locus of control
Authors: Lobstein Tim , Webb Bob , Edholm Otto
Published: July 2011

Few studies have attempted to relate the locus of control (Rotter, 1966) variable to physiological activity. This paper describes the heart‐rate and skin conductance responses of 40 subjects exposed to a series of auditory stimuli, in relation to their locus of control scores. It was found that those scoring relatively “externally” on the locus of control scale gave less decelerative and more accelerative heart‐rate responses and tended to give larger skin conductance responses when there was a change in stimulus characteristics, than those scoring “internally”. These results may be interpreted to support Lazarus' (1966) suggestions that control over a situation lessens the threat perceived in that situation. They also indicate that internal subjects tend to seek information to increase their control.
Hypnosis as obedience behaviour
Authors: Hunt Sonja M.
Published: July 2011

Obedience to authority has been implicated in hypnotic behaviour from the earliest theories. However, no exact formulation of a model of obedience was available until Milgram's experiments in the 1960s. Milgram's model can usefully be applied to hypnotic behaviour in terms of antecedent and immediate antecedent variables, binding and strain factors and the resolution of conflict.

An experiment was carried out to test the hypothesis that the presence of a “disobedient” hypnotic subject in the same room as another hypnotic subject would lower the susceptibility to hypnosis of the second subject. Results showed that when one subject disobeyed by leaving the hypnotic situation, susceptibility was significantly less than that of control subjects. It is suggested that hypnosis can be viewed as an “agentic state” whereby the subject gives up autonomy and relinquishes responsibility for his actions to the hypnotist, whilst remaining responsible to the hypnotist for his performance as an hypnotic subject.
The British Study of Values: I. Prediction of drop‐out from a psychology degree course
Authors: Gibson H. B.
Published: July 2011

The British version of the Study of Values (SOV) test was administered to 77 students at the beginning of an honours degree course in psychology. These students had already taken two tests of cognitive ability before admission. Failure to graduate after 3 years was taken as a criterion of drop‐out. It was found that the drop‐outs were not significantly different from the graduates on the measures of cognitive ability, but a measure of tough‐mindedness‐tender‐mindedness derived from the SOV test predicted drop‐out significantly. For both male and female students extreme tender‐mindedness predicted drop‐out, and for males deviation towards either extreme was a significant predictor. These findings can perhaps be interpreted in terms of the deviation hypothesis of Berg (1959).
The British Study of Values: II. The effects of “test‐faking‘ and of maturation on a psychology degree course
Authors: Gibson H. B.
Published: July 2011

An experiment is reported involving students who went through an honours psychology degree course. After admission they were given the British version of the Study of Values test, and immediately afterwards asked to repeat the test “faking good” in a manner which they would imagine would make them appear as ideal candidates for the psychology course.

Three years later, all the 62 students who had completed the course were again asked to complete the test in the standard manner. Certain significant differences were noted between the original genuine test profiles and the profiles obtained by “faking good”. In general, the final profiles obtained at the end of the course were found to be more similar to the original genuine profiles (although certain significant changes had taken place) than to the profiles obtained by “faking good”. These data provide some test‐retest data about the test after a lapse of 3 years, and highlighted the uselessness of the test as a screening device where test‐faking might be an operative factor.
Differential evaluation of male and female expertise: Prejudice against women?
Authors: Ward Colleen
Published: July 2011

The study was undertaken to investigate the differential evaluation of males and females in professional expertise and in particular, to test the hypothesis that professional females are devalued in relation to males. Ninety‐two university students and 94 art students were asked to view and evaluate two paintings on a series of 14 items. Sex of the artist was varied in each case. Analysis revealed no pervasive pro‐male bias in the evaluation of the works. Painting A which received overall lower ratings was judged more favourably on composition, use of colour, originality, artistic potential and general appeal when the artist was described as female. No main effects for sex of artist were established for painting B which received higher ratings. These results are interpreted in light of Deaux & Taynor's (1973) research which indicates that females who are low in competence are favoured over low competence males while the reverse is true for highly competent persons. Painting B also yielded some interesting interaction effects with art students more favourably evaluating works attributed to males while the reverse was true for university students. An interpretation is offered in terms of exploitative advantage, suggesting that prejudice against women may not be solely due to the subtle influence of sex‐role stereotypes, and is further explained by occupational prestige theory and the Queen Bee syndrome.
Personality and position of the planets at birth: An empirical study
Authors: Gauquelin M. , Gauquelin Françoise , Eysenck S. B. G.
Published: July 2011

The precise birth dates and locations of several thousand famous French scientists, sportsmen, and actors were ascertained from their biographies, as well as personality descriptions. From the data relating to birth times and locations the precise positions of the planets Mars, Jupiter and Saturn were calculated for each person, with particular attention being paid to the period immediately following the rise and the upper culmination of the respective planets. The personality descriptions were independently rated in terms of their relevance to the three major personality dimensions of E (extraversion), N (neuroticism), and P (psychoticism), and scores assigned to each of the people forming the sample on these dimensions, and their opposites (i.e. there are separate scores for introversion as well as for extraversion.) It was predicted and found that introverts are very significantly more frequently born when Saturn had just risen or just passed its upper culmination; extraverts when Mars and Jupiter had just risen, or just passed their upper culminations. No positive effects were found for neuroticism and only relatively weak effects for psychoticism.
The long‐term consequences of head injury: A discussion of the evidence with special reference to the preparation of legal reports
Authors: Miller Edgar
Published: July 2011

An outline is presented of the longer term consequences of severe closed head injury (i.e. those exceeding the period of PTA). It is shown that head injury can have very serious consequences for the victim. Despite the fact that measures of IQ have been claimed to show considerable recovery it is likely that severe head injury invariably results in some degree of permanent functional impairment. The vexatious issue of the “post‐concussional syndrome” is discussed and the conclusion is reached that it is unlikely that this syndrome is solely produced by the possibility of compensation.