bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Investigating Allegations of Chemical or Biological Warfare: The Canadian Contribution
Authors: Sapiro Miriam E.
Published: April 2006

The 1925 Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or Other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare unequivocally makes the use of chemical and biological weapons an illegitimate means of waging war. Yet enforcement of the Protocol is hindered by the lack of an investigative mechanism to provide prompt and effective verification of an alleged violation. In response to controversy stemming from this omission, in 1982 the General Assembly requested that the Secretary-General enlist the assistance of experts to investigate alleged breaches of the Protocol and relevant rules of customary international law, devise procedures for timely and efficient investigation, and document information relating to the identification of chemical and biological warfare agents. In 1984 the Secretary-General submitted his Report on Chemical and Bacteriological (Biological) Weapons to the General Assembly, which included the provisional procedures recommended by the Group of Consultant Experts. Deeply concerned about the use of such weapons, and perceiving a need for more extensive guidance on the subject, the Canadian Government prepared the Handbook for the Investigation of Allegations of the Use of Chemical or Biological Weapons and presented it to the Secretary-General on December 4, 1985.
Community Law, International Law and the Italian Constitution
Authors: La Pergola Antonio , del Duca Patrick
Published: April 2006

For more than 20 years the Italian Constitutional Court and the Court of Justice of the European Communities have disputed the proper relation between Community and national law. In S.p.A. Granital v. Amministrazione finanziaria, the Constitutional Court recently adopted a position consistent with the Community Court’s view of the supremacy of Community law. Italian constitutional law doctrines on international law profoundly affected this development and may in turn be altered as the implications of the Constitutional Court’s view of Community law are worked out.
Transboundary Harm: The International Law Commission’s Study of “International Liability”
Authors: Magraw Daniel Barstow
Published: April 2006

The International Law Commission of the United Nations is currently studying a topic entitled “International Liability for Injurious Consequences Arising out of Acts Not Prohibited by International Law” (hereinafter “international liability” or “topic”). That topic has proven to be as serpentine as its title suggests and consequently is difficult to define. It is generally understood as encompassing, in particular, harmful transnational environmental effects of internationally lawful activities. This aspect alone has made the topic increasingly important, as demands on resources have intensified, technological advances have given rise to threats of widespread and even catastrophic transboundary harm, and the international community has grown more interdependent in other ways.
The “Corporate Will” of the United Nations and the Rights of the Minority
Authors: Zoller Elisabeth
Published: April 2006

In contrast to the withholding practices of certain member states in respect of part of their assessed contributions to the budget of the United Nations, United States withholding began rather recently. U.S. withholding started in 1980 and, until 1985, applied only to specific programs and decisions. Previously, in 1978, the Legal Adviser of the Department of State had concluded in a memorandum of law that Article 17 of the UN Charter “impose[s] a legal obligation on members to pay the amount assessed to them by the General Assembly.” Referring to the U.S. written statement submitted to the International Court of Justice inCertain Expenses of the United Nations, he added: “Accordingly, the General Assembly’s adoption and apportionment of the Organization’s expenses create a binding international legal obligation on the part of State Members to pay their assessed shares.” In his view, there was apparently no possible exception to this obligation.
The World Court and Jus Cogens
Authors: Christenson Gordon A.
Published: April 2006

In the merits phase of decision in the case brought by Nicaragua against the United States, the World Court briefly mentions references by states or publicists to the concept of jus cogens. These expressions are used to buttress the Court’s conclusion that the principle prohibiting the use of force found in Article 2(4) of the United Nations Charter is also a rule of customary international law.
The Negotiations for the Future Political Status of Micronesia (1980-1984)
Authors: Armstrong Arthur John , Hills Howard Loomis
Published: April 2006

Fourteen years of Micronesian political status negotiations culminated in 1983 with the final signature of the Compact of Free Association between the United States and the Governments of Palau, the Marshall Islands and the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM). Upon being approved in accordance with its terms and the constitutional processes of the signatory Governments, the Compact will establish bilateral relationships between the United States and the new states emerging from the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. Approval of these future political status arrangements will also provide the basis for termination of the Trusteeship Agreement between the United States and the United Nations Security Council. The Compact defines an international political partnership between the United States and the freely associated states that is without precise precedent in international law or U.S. domestic practice. Under the Compact, each freely associated state will enjoy control over its internal affairs and its foreign relations, including competence to enter into international agreements. Mutual security arrangements, set forth in the Compact and its separate agreements, provide for a U.S. defense umbrella during the life of free association and long-term exclusion of third-country military forces, should any or all of the freely associated states opt for independence at some future date.
The President and International Law: A Missing Dimension
Authors: D’Amato Anthony
Published: April 2006

As the chairman of the panel at the 1985 ASIL Annual Meeting on the question “May the President Violate Customary International Law?” I must confess that the issue that originally troubled me when I suggested this topic for discussion remains securely hidden in the shadows of the debate. Yet I think it is of central importance. The reason it has remained obscure, despite its significance, is that it is an extraordinarily difficult intellectual puzzle. My brief purpose here is to bring it into the light, not to try to solve it.
The President Is Bound by International Law
Authors: Paust Jordan J.
Published: April 2006

In a recent issue of the Journal, one finds a largely theoretical discussion of a question that potentially implicates quite serious legal policies and consequences: “May the President violate customary international law?” Despite professorial conjecture, the answer to such a question, which can be documented in actual trends in legal decision, emphatically has been no (i.e., the President is bound by and may not lawfully violate international law).
The Iran-United States Claims Tribunal
Authors: Leich Marian Nash
Published: April 2006

In a notice issued by David P. Stewart, Administrator for Iranian Claims, under date of June 24, 1983, the Department of State informed claimants before the Iran-United States Claims Tribunal at The Hague of recent developments at the Tribunal with specific regard to settlement of claims. The notice read in part:

On two recent occasions, the Tribunal had refused to certify as Tribunal awards settlements submitted by U.S. claimants and Iran. In one case the amount of the proposed settlement significantly exceeded the amount of the claim. In the other, the settlement was in the full amount of the claim plus interest, but the settlement required that, after the settlement had been paid from the Security Account at the N.V. Settlement Bank of Netherlands, more than half of the amount of the settlement would be paid to Iran for taxes allegedly owed. The U.S. claimant had previously denied that any such taxes were owed. The United States—and, to the best of the Department of State’s knowledge, all U.S. claimants—has consistently denied that Iranian counterclaims for taxes are within the Tribunal’s jurisdiction.
Professor Rubin’s Reply Does Not Live up to Its Title
Authors: D’Amato Anthony
Published: April 2006

If there were a truth-in-advertising law that applied to essays in the American Journal of International Law, Alfred Rubin’s reply to my article on Judge Bork could be charged with deceptive packaging. His tentative and speculative contentions hardly prove his title statement that I am “seriously mistaken.” Yet his very failure of proof means that my arguments remain valid and that I have suffered no damage. As a result, I may lack standing, or have no cause of action, to bring a case of deceptive advertising against Professor Rubin.
The XIII International Congress on Penal Law
Authors: Bassiouni M. Cherif
Published: April 2006

The International Association of Penal Law holds an international congress every five years in a different country. The 13th congress was held on October 1-7, 1984 in Cairo, Egypt, under the auspices of President Hosni Mubarak.
Politics Across Borders: Nonintervention and Nonforcible Influence Over Domestic Affairs
Authors: Damrosch Lori Fisler
Published: April 2006

It is time for a fresh look at the norm of nonintervention in domestic affairs, as applied to nonforcible efforts to influence another state’s internal politics. The existence of such a norm is widely proclaimed, and it is commonly assumed to be a legal obligation rather than a mere practice of comity or aspirational objective. For governments, scholars and international organs alike, the “rule” against interference in internal politics seems to be an article of faith; but despite the frequency of its incantation in international discourse, how the norm applies to nonforcible conduct is inadequately understood.
United States v. Biermann
Authors: Weinstein Bonnie
Published: April 2006

Defendants, citizens of the United Kingdom, Bermuda, the Federal Republic of Germany and the United States, were operators of a sailing vessel on the high seas that was registered in the United Kingdom and flying the UK flag. Defendants were indicted for possession of several tons of marijuana, with intent to distribute, following a search and seizure of their vessel by the United States Coast Guard. Initially, the court granted defendants’ request for an evidentiary hearing. However, upon further consideration, the U.S. District Court for the Northern District of California (per Legge, J.) held: that the court had proper jurisdiction, and that defendants’ motions to suppress evidence obtained from the boarding, search and seizure of the vessel and to conduct an evidentiary hearing should be denied.
The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance and the European Community
Authors: Grzybowski Kazimierz
Published: April 2006

After nearly 15 years of official and unofficial contacts and negotiations, on June 25, 1988, representatives of the European Community (EC) and the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA or COMECON), meeting in Luxembourg, signed a Declaration establishing official relations between the two parties so as to “develop cooperation in areas which fall within their respective spheres of competence, and where there is common interest.”
Whales: Their Emerging Right to Life
Authors: D’Amato Anthony , Chopra Sudhir K.
Published: April 2006

Writers of science fiction have often speculated about what it would be like to discover, on a planet in outer space, a much higher form of intelligence. How would we react to those creatures? Would we be so fearful of them that we would try to kill them? Or would we welcome the opportunity to attempt to understand their language and culture? Stranger than fiction is the fact that there already exists a species of animal life on earth that scientists speculate has higher than human intelligence. The whale has a brain that in some instances is six times bigger than the human brain and its neocortex is more convoluted. Discussing the creative processes of whales, Dr. John Lilly says that a researcher “is struck with the fact that one’s current basic assumptions and even one’s current expectations determine, within certain limits, the results attained with a particular animal at that particular time.” Whales speak to other whales in a language that appears to include abstruse mathematical poetry. They have also developed interspecies communication with dolphins. Whales are the most specialized of all mammals.
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission v. Arabian American Oil Co.
Authors: Barbash David M.
Published: April 2006

Ali Boureslan, a naturalized U.S. citizen of Lebanese descent, was employed by the Arabian American Oil Co. (Aramco) as a cost engineer. Boureslan began his tenure with Aramco in 1979 in its Houston, Texas, office, but a year later he requested and received a transfer to the company’s offices in Saudi Arabia. Boureslan alleged that in the ensuing four years he was the victim of racial and religious harassment from his immediate supervisor. He was finally dismissed on June 16, 1984, for allegedly poor work performance.
Weltover, Inc. v. Republic Of Argentina
Authors: Pizzurro Joseph D.
Published: April 2006

Plaintiffs, two Panamanian corporations and a Swiss bank, brought an action against the Republic of Argentina and Banco Central de la República Argentina (Banco Central) for breach of obligations arising out of the issuance of certain bonds. The defendants moved to dismiss for lack of subject matter jurisdiction and lack of personal jurisdiction under the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act of 1976 (28 U.S.C. §§1602-1611 (1988)) (FSIA). In the alternative, defendants moved for dismissal under the doctrine of forum non conveniens. The district court denied the motions and held that: (1) the acts of the defendants in issuing, and breaching the payment obligations under, certain bonds were commercial, and the failure to pay on those bonds, which contemplated payment in New York, constituted a direct effect in the United States even though the plaintiffs were non-U.S. entities; (2) the aggregate of the defendants’ contacts with the United States, together with the promise to pay the plaintiffs in New York, satisfied the minimum contacts requirement under the due process clause; and (3) the defendants had not made a sufficient showing to justify a dismissal of the case on the grounds of forum non conveniens.
The Action Violates International Law and Policy
Authors: Barrie George N.
Published: April 2006

It was with great surprise and some disappointment that I took note in the July 1987 issue of theAmerican Journal of International Lawof the decision by the American Society of International Law to divest its investment portfolio of stocks in all corporations with direct investments in South Africa. Despite the sentiments that may have motivated this decision, many of which are reflected in the Note of Henry J. Richardson III, there were no doubt many arguments voicedtothe contrary at the meeting of the Society when the matter was discussed.
Qiu v. Secretary-General of the United Nations
Authors: Knox John
Published: April 2006

In September 1984, the UN Secretary-General (Respondent) offered five-year fixed-term contracts as interpreters to Rong Qiu, Kefu Zhou, and Jiping Yao (Applicants), who had just completed the UN training course for interpreters at the Beijing Institute of Foreign Languages. The letters of appointment accepted by the Applicants stated that they were “on secondment from the Government of China.” They received very good performance ratings, and in the spring of 1989 their department recommended that they be offered probationary, career-track appointments when their contracts expired.
The United Nations Creates a Working Group on Arbitrary Detention
Authors: Brody Reed
Published: April 2006

The United Nations Commission on Human Rights, which met from January 28 to March 8, 1991, in the shadow of the gulf war, nevertheless completed what many observers considered its most productive session in recent history. The Commission took action on a record of nineteen country situations—creating new rapporteurs on Iraq and Iraqi-occupied Kuwait—began plans for a 1993 World Conference on Human Rights, and set up an intersessional working group to complete a draft declaration on disappearances. The most important long-term accomplishment of the Commission, however, was the creation of a five-member working group to investigate cases of arbitrary detention throughout the world.
Sources of International Law: New Tendencies in Soviet Thinking
Authors: Mullerson R. A.
Published: April 2006

As this discourse is devoted to the sources of international law in Soviet doctrine and the diplomatic practice of the USSR, I think that it is necessary to begin by characterizing my understanding of the contemporary Soviet doctrine of international law.

In Western countries, the Soviet doctrine of international law is often regarded as monolithic, without internal contradictions and discussions. It is not so, though I would agree that there are some grains of truth in those allegations. On certain questions we have had too much unanimity in our social sciences at large, and in the doctrine of international law in particular. One could feel this unanimity particularly in the domain of the most sensitive political and legal problems.
Foreign Affairs and Civil Liberties
Authors: Dorsen Norman
Published: April 2006

Foreign affairs, and its close relation national security, has been a graveyard for civil liberties for much of our recent history. The questions to be answered are not whether this is true—it demonstrably is—but why we have come to this pass and how we might begin to relieve the Bill of Rights of at least some of the burden thus imposed on it.
Federal Regulation of Aliens and the Constitution
Authors: Aleinikoff T. Alexander
Published: April 2006

In two cases decided in the afterglow of the centennial of the U.S. Constitution, the Supreme Court said nearly everything the modern lawyer needs to know about the source and extent of Congress’s power to regulate immigration. The cases sustained the constitutionality of the first significant congressional restrictions on immigration—the shameful Chinese exclusion laws. Constitutional analysis of the immigration power has yet to shed the original sins of the Court’s ratification of Congress’s ignominious legislation.
The Constitution Abroad
Authors: Lobel Jules
Published: April 2006

In recent years federal courts have faced a growing number of challenges to United States actions abroad. Citizens living abroad have brought claims alleging that their property was unlawfully taken or that their lives were threatened by United States governmental action. Aliens living in foreign countries have also invoked constitutional protections—Nicaraguans have alleged torture and assassination attributed to CIA activities in Central America; a Mexican alleged that his home in Mexico was searched by Drug Enforcement Agency officials without a search warrant; a Lebanese citizen claimed that he was unlawfully arrested and interrogated in international waters by U.S. agents; a Polish refugee tried for hijacking in a special United States court convened in Berlin sought the right to a jury trial. These cases test the extent to which the Constitution limits U.S. conduct abroad.
Legitimacy in the International System
Authors: Franck Thomas M.
Published: April 2006

The surprising thing about international law is that nations ever obey its strictures or carry out its mandates. This observation is made not to register optimism that the half-empty glass is also half full, but to draw attention to a pregnant phenomenon: that most states observe systemic rules much of the time in their relations with other states. That they should do so is much more interesting than, say, the fact that most citizens usually obey their nation’s laws, because the international system is organized in a voluntarist fashion, supported by so little coercive authority. This unenforced rule system can obligate states to profess, if not always to manifest, a significant level of day-to-day compliance even, at times, when that is not in their short-term self-interest. The element of paradox attracts our attention and challenges us to investigate it, perhaps in the hope of discovering a theory that can illuminate more generally the occurrence of voluntary normative compliance and even yield a prescription for enhancing aspects of world order.
Universal International Law
Authors: Charney Jonathan I.
Published: April 2006

In this shrinking world, states are increasingly interdependent and interconnected, a development that has affected international law. Early international law dealt with bilateral relations between autonomous states. The principal subjects until well into this century were diplomatic relations, war, treaties and the law of the sea. One of the most significant developments in international law during the twentieth century has been the expanded role played by multilateral treaties addressed to the common concerns of states. Often they clarify and improve rules of international law through the process of rendering them in binding written agreements. These treaties also promote the coordination of uniform state behavior in a variety of areas. International organizations, themselves the creatures of multilateral treaties, have also assumed increasing prominence in the last half of this century. They contribute to the coordination and facilitation of contemporary international relations on the basis of legal principles.
Extraterritoriality of Human Rights Treaties
Authors: Meron Theodor
Published: April 2006

On the eve of the planned U.S. invasion of Haiti, responding to an appeal from the International Committee of the Red Cross to apply international humanitarian law, the United States stated that

[i]f it becomes necessary to use force and engage in hostilities, the United States will, upon any engagement of forces, apply all of the provisions of the Geneva Conventions and the customary international law dealing with armed conflict.

Further, the United States will accord prisoner of war treatment to any detained member of the Haitian armed forces. Any member of the U.S. armed forces who is detained by Haitian forces must be accorded prisoner of war treatment.
The 1994 Agreement and the Convention
Authors: Oxman Bernard H.
Published: April 2006

In June 1994, some twelve years after the conclusion of the Third UN Conference on the Law of the Sea, the UN Secretary-General reported to the General Assembly that informal consultations had led to agreements that appeared to have removed the obstacles to general adherence to the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea.
International Law Implications of the 1994 Agreement
Authors: Sohn Louis B.
Published: April 2006

This paper analyzes the legal implications of the Draft Resolution and Draft Agreement Relating to the Implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982, as well as the effectiveness of the proposed arrangements under international law.
The ILC Adopts a Statute for an International Criminal Court
Authors: Crawford James
Published: April 2006

As an offshoot of its work on a Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind, the International Law Commission has for the past several years been working on the idea of an international criminal court. At its forty-fourth session in 1992, the Commission established a working group, which laid down basic parameters for a Draft Statute. The general approach of the working group was endorsed by the Commission and by the General Assembly in 1992. At its forty-fifth session in 1993, the Commission received the report of a working group containing a Draft Statute for an International Criminal Tribunal and, without formally adopting the text, referred it to the General Assembly for comment. The 1993 Draft Statute gave effect to the general approach adopted in 1992, but with a number of modifications and refinements and with much further detail. The General Assembly “took note with appreciation” of the Draft Statute and invited the Commission to continue its work “as a matter of priority,” with a view to elaborating a final draft, if possible, at its 1994 session.
Foliar Nutrient Dynamics and Resorption in Naturalized Lonicera maackii (Caprifoliaceae) Populations in Ohio, USA
Authors: Demars Brent G. , Boerner Ralph E. J.
Published: April 2006

Foliar phosphorus (P) and nitrogen (N) concentrations and nutrient resorption in the forest understory shrub Lonicera maackii (Rupr.) Maxim (Caprifoliaceae) were measured along contiguous topographic gradients in two southwestern Ohio forests during 1992–1994. Mean summer foliar P varied significantly among topographic positions (but not sites or years), with uplands having greatest P concentrations and bottomlands exhibiting the lowest. Unlike for P, the mean summer foliar N concentrations varied little among sites, topographic positions, and years. Mean absolute and proportional P resorption ranged from 0.48 mg/dm2 (33.7%) in slope positions to 0.80 mg/dm2 (53.1%) in bottomland positions. Repeated‐measures analysis of variance (RMANOVA) for P resorption indicated significant topographic and year effects, a site × year and a site × year × topographic interaction. Mean absolute and proportional foliar N resorption ranged from 6.82 mg/dm2 (30.7%) in bottomlands to 8.41 mg/dm2 (37.3%) in slope positions. RMANOVA indicated a significant topographic effect for both absolute and proportional N resorption and a significant year effect for absolute N resorption. These significant year effects for P and N stemmed from lowest resorption of nutrients in 1993. The results for P resorption support the hypothesis that foliar resorption is greater in forested sites with lower P fertility. However, resorption rates for N did not support the hypothesis clearly, as slopes with intermediate N availability had greater N resorption rates than did N‐rich bottomlands.
Noteworthy idioblastic sclereids in the stems of Eulychnia (cactaceae)
Authors: Nyffeler Reto , Eggli Urs , Leuenberger Beat Ernst
Published: April 2006

Stems of Eulychnia (a genus of six to nine species of candelabriform or arborescent cacti) have a parenchymatic cortex with two distinct regions. The outer chlorenchymatic layer is characterized by a conspicuous parallel striping, whereas the inner cortex region devoid of chlorophyll has a coarsely granular aspect. Stem samples from nine accessions, collected in the field or taken from cultivation, were studied from resin‐embedded microtome sections and maceration. Two different forms of lignified sclereids were found dispersed in the cortex and the pith. The sclereids of the outer palisade‐like cortex layer are distinctly elongated and strictly oriented at right angle to the stem surface, whereas those of the inner cortex and pith are globular or subglobular and conspicuously enlarged compared with the surrounding parenchyma cells. The ontogeny of the sclereids was studied from stem samples of different ages. Formation of the secondary cell walls starts only after cell growth is completed. A screening of numerous South American cacti for the presence of idioblastic sclereids showed that these structures are unique for the genus Eulychnia. Finally, functional aspects of the sclereids are shortly discussed. It is assumed that the sclereids contribute to the mechanical support and reinforcement of the plants.
Evolutionary implications of meiotic Chromosome Behavior, Reproductive Biology, and Hybridization in 6X and 9X Cytotypes of Andropogon gerardii (Poaceae)
Authors: Norrmann Guillermo A. , Quarín Camilo L. , Keeler Kathleen H.
Published: April 2006

Andropogon gerardii, big bluestem, has 60 and 90 chromosome cytotypes. Meiosis in the hexaploid was shown to be regular, although some secondary associations of bivalents form. Meiosis in the enneaploid (2n = 9x = 90) is irregular, leading to most gametes having unbalanced chromosome complements. Both cytotypes show considerable self‐incompatibility. Cytotypes crossed freely, forming a variety of fertile euploids and aneuploids. Indistinguishable exomorphology, intermixing in natural populations, and compatibility suggest that A. gerardii is best understood as a cytotypically complex single species.
Genetic diversity in three colonizing orchids with contrasting mating systems
Authors: Sun Mei
Published: April 2006

Comparative studies on the genetic attributes of colonizing orchids with diverse mating systems are lacking in the literature. Eulophia sinensis, Spiranthes hongkongensis, and Zeuxine strateumatica are colonizing orchids that frequently occupy newly created habitats in Hong Kong. Mating system studies showed that E. sinensis is a self‐compatible but pollinator‐dependent outcrossing species, S. hongkongensis is a self‐pollinating taxon, and Z. strateumatica is apomictic. Population genetic attributes of these orchid species were investigated. Despite their contrasting mating systems, electrophoretic surveys revealed a striking lack of allozyme variation, both within and among populations, in all three species. However, gene duplications were evident in these species, due to their likely polyploid origins. The percentage of duplicate loci exhibiting “fixed heterozygosity” was 10, 21.4, and 20% in E. sinensis, S. hongkongensis, and Z. strateumatica, respectively. The genetic attributes of these orchids are compared to those found in other colonizing plant species.
Allozyme diversity in Pinus virginiana (Pinaceae): intraspecific and interspecific comparisons
Authors: Parker Kathleen C. , Hamrick J. L. , Parker Albert J. , Stacy Elizabeth A.
Published: April 2006

Two of the four members of subsection Contortae of the genus Pinus occur in the southeastern United States: Pinus virginiana, which ranges throughout the southern and central Appalachian Mountains, and P. clausa, which is restricted to Florida and southern Alabama. We examined allozyme variation within P. virginiana and genetic relationships between this species and the two varieties of P. clausa (var. clausa and var. immuginata). P. virginiana maintains more genetic diversity at both the species (Hes = 0.139) and population (Hep = 0.128) levels than the other three species in the subsection, which may reflect the combination of its widespread distribution and the absence of cone serotiny. Genetic differentiation among populations in P. virginiana was relatively low (GST = 0.053), but significant contrasts in allozyme frequencies and genetic diversity were apparent between populations to the northwest vs. southeast of the Appalachian Mountains. These regional differences likely resulted initially from historical processes that occurred during the Pleistocene and early Holocene, and have been reinforced by modern selective pressures and barriers to gene flow. The mean genetic distance between populations of P. virginiana and P. clausa (D = 0.071) was greater than that between populations of the two varieties of P. clausa (D = 0.012), which suggests that the two varieties diverged at some point after the separation of the two species.
Seed output and the seed bank in Vallisneria Americana (Hydrocharitaceae)
Authors: Lokker Cynthia , Lovett‐Doust Lesley , Lovett‐Doust Jon
Published: April 2006

Seed banks and sexual reproduction are known to be significant in colonization and re‐establishment of some aquatic macrophyte communities. For highly clonal aquatic macrophytes, however, there is a lack of information on seed production and seed fate as compared with annual sexual species. The seed bank for three populations of Vallisneria americana in the Huron–Erie corridor of the Great Lakes was sampled and quantified in the spring of 1994, and related to seed production in the previous season at these sites. Seed deposition rates during 1994 were also assessed. Sites varied in the proportion of plants flowering and in their tertiary sex ratios, but did not differ in seed numbers produced per unit area. The size of the seed bank was not significantly related to the previous season's seed output, and estimates of seed deposition in the following year tended to be approximately tenfold greater than seed densities found in the seed bank. The stages between seed production and subsequent seed germination are generally very dynamic, with dispersal, mortality, and predation as likely regulating factors. The potential for seedling establishment in V. americana needs to be assessed more fully before the role of seeds in population processes can be determined.
Nutrient sensitivity of the cost of male function in gynodioecious Phacelia linearis (Hydrophyllaceae)
Authors: Eckhart Vincent M. , Chapin F. Stuart
Published: April 2006

Allocation trade‐offs should be measured as opportunity costs, estimating what individuals sacrifice in one function by allocating to others. We investigated opportunity costs of male function in gynodioecious Phacelia linearis, asking whether nutrient limitation contributes to them. This hypothesis predicts that hermaphrodites experience greater nutrient stress than females, and that hermaphrodite disadvantages in production might decrease with nutrient supply. We cultivated hermaphrodites and females at two nutrient levels, scoring individuals for prereproductive leaf number at 5 wk, and biomass, nitrogen concentration, and fruit and seed production at 16 wk. Nutrient treatments caused final growth differences of two orders of magnitude. No gender difference appeared at 5 wk, but at 16 wk hermaphrodites produced less stem, leaf, and inflorescence biomass than females, and made fewer fruits. Hermaphrodites’ shoot‐size disadvantage was marginally significantly more severe at low nutrients than high nutrients. Significant gender × nutrient interactions for root fraction and whole‐plant nitrogen concentration indicate greater nutrient stress in hermaphrodites than females. Hermaphrodites also acquired less total nitrogen than females. Nutrient limitation contributes to opportunity costs of male function, but there must be other contributors. Possibilities include limitations in other resources, gender effects on morphology, and genetic trade‐offs not directly involving allocation or morphology.
Ontogenetic phenotypic plasticity during the reproductive phase in Arabidopsis thaliana (Brassicaceae)
Authors: Pigliucci Massimo
Published: April 2006

While phenotypic plasticity has been the focus of much research and debate in the recent ecological and evolutionary literature, the developmental nature of the phenomenon has been mostly overlooked. A developmental perspective must ultimately be an integral part of our understanding of how organisms cope with heterogeneous environments. In this paper I use the rapid cycling Arabidopsis thaliana to address the following questions concerning developmental plasticity. (1) Are there genetic and/or environmental differences in parameters describing ontogenetic trajectories? (2) Is ontogenetic variation produced by differences in genotypes and/or environments for two crucial traits of the reproductive phase of the life cycle, stem elongation and flower production? (3) Is there ontogenetic variability for the correlation between the two characters? I found genetic variation, plasticity, and variation for plasticity affecting at least some of the growth parameters, indicating potential for evolution via heterochronic shifts in ontogenetic trajectories. Within‐population differences among families are determined before the onset of the reproductive phase, while among‐population variation is the result of divergence during the reproductive phase of the ontogeny. Finally, the ontogenetic profiles of character correlations are very distinct between the ecologically meaningful categories of early‐ and late‐flowering “ecotypes” in this species, and show susceptibility to environmental change.
Climate influences on growth and reproduction of Pinus banksiana (Pinaceae) at the limit of the species distribution in eastern North America
Authors: Despland Emma , Houle Gilles
Published: April 2006

The presence of conflicts in the allocation of resources among the different functions of an organism is a fundamental postulate of modern ecology. It is assumed that reproduction occurs at a cost because it monopolizes resources that could be used for other functions (e.g., growth). These conflicts may be particularly evident under stressful conditions, such as under low water or nutrient availability, or under severe climatic conditions. There we may expect to find strong negative relationships between an organism's growth and reproduction. We studied a population of Pinus banksiana (Pinaceae) at the northern limit of the species distribution, in subarctic Québec (Canada) where Pinus banksiana occupies nutrient‐poor, sandy terraces along the Great Whale river. Serotinous cones of Pinus banksiana produced between 1969 and 1992 were sampled to estimate interannual variations in several variables representing reproduction, and to relate these to climate and tree growth. Climate appears to influence each developmental stage involved in the production of viable seeds, from the time of cone initiation to that of seed maturation. In general, reproductive variables are positively related to high temperatures during the three growing seasons required for seed production; growth is also positively correlated to summer temperatures. Consequently, investment in maturing seeds is positively associated with growth. Thus, both reproduction and growth covary with climate: during relatively warm and long growing seasons, resource allocation to both functions increases. Under these conditions, no trade‐off is apparent.
Origin and relationships of Saintpaulia (Gesneriaceae) based on ribosomal DNA internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences
Authors: Möller Michael , Cronk Quentin C. B.
Published: April 2006

Phylogenetic relationships of eight species of Saintpaulia H. Wendl., 19 species of Streptocarpus Lindl. (representing all major growth forms within the genus), and two outgroups (Haberlea rhodopensis Friv., Chirita spadiciformis W. T. Wang) were examined using comparative nucleotide sequences from the two internal transcribed spacers (ITS) of nuclear ribosomal DNA. The length of the ITS 1 region ranged from 228 to 249 base pairs (bp) and the ITS 2 region from 196 to 245 bp. Pairwise sequence divergence across both spacers for ingroup and outgroup species ranged from 0 to 29%. Streptocarpus is not monophyletic, and Saintpaulia is nested within Streptocarpus subgenus Streptocarpella. Streptocarpus subgenus Streptocarpus is monophyletic. The ITS sequence data demonstrate that the unifoliate Streptocarpus species form a clade, and are also characterized by a unique 47‐bp deletion in ITS 2. The results strongly support the monophyly of (1) Saintpaulia, and (2) Saintpaulia plus the African members of the subgenus Streptocarpella of Streptocarpus. The data suggest the evolution of Saintpaulia from Streptocarpus subgenus Streptocarpella. The differences in flower and vegetative characters are probably due to ecological adaptation leading to a relatively rapid radiation of Saintpaulia.
Genetic diversity and population structure of Yucca filamentosa (Agavaceae)
Authors: Massey Lisa K. , Hamrick J. L.
Published: April 2006

Using 19 allozyme loci we studied genetic diversity in 18 populations of Yucca filamentosa (Agavaceae) from the southeastern United States. Of the 19 loci surveyed, 17 (89.5%) were polymorphic in at least one of the populations sampled. There was considerable variation among populations in the percentage of polymorphic loci (range = 31.6–84.2%, mean = 67.6%). Similar heterogeneity among populations was observed for mean number of alleles per polymorphic locus (range = 2.0–3.0; mean = 2.48) and mean expected heterozygosity (range = 0.113–0.288; mean = 0.213). On average, 83% of the total genetic diversity was found within populations. Duplications of three allozyme loci were detected in several populations. The life‐history characteristics of Y. filamentosa (a long‐lived, semiwoody, predominantly outcrossing monocot with a large geographical range) may contribute to the maintenance of such high levels of genetic diversity. These results contradict expectations of the genetic structure of Y. filamentosa based on observations of the dispersal and pollination behavior of its sole pollinator, Tegeticula yuccasella, the yucca moth.
Reproduction and development of the endangered sedum integrifolium ssp. leedyi (Crassulaceae)
Authors: Olfelt Joel P. , Furnier Glenn R. , Luby James J.
Published: April 2006

Information on reproduction and life history is important for the conservation of endangered plants. We investigated rates of flowering, seed set, and germination in populations of the endangered perennial plant Sedum integrifolium ssp. leedyi. Germination and flowering rates differed significantly among populations, but seed set rate did not. We assayed 26 plant clusters (81 stems) from four of the five known populations for evidence of clonal reproduction using 28 randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers. Of the 81 stems, 75 had unique genotypes and three pairs had identical genotypes, suggesting that clonal reproduction is infrequent. Flowering, seed set, and germination rates were correlated with our estimates of ratios of effective to actual population sizes (Ne/N), but not with Ne. The single formally protected population may be experiencing inbreeding depression. We grew plants from seed to maturity in a greenhouse, with a germination rate of 77% and survival of 98% of the germinants at 6 mo, suggesting that this will be a viable means of ex situ propagation. Plants flowered 4–6 mo after germination and produced mature fruits 1–2 mo later, suggesting that they have the potential to sexually reproduce in their first or second season of growth.
Tylerianthus crossmanensis gen. et SP. NOV. (aff. Hydrangeaceae) from the Upper Cretaceous of New Jersey
Authors: Gandolfo Maria A. , Nixon Kevin C. , Crepet William L.
Published: April 2006

A fossil flower with affinities to the modern families of the saxifragalean complex is described. Fossils were collected at Old Crossman Pit, Raritan Formation, New Jersey, USA. These sediments are dated on the basis of palynology as Turonian (Upper Cretaceous, ~90 million years before present). Fossils are charcoalified and preserved with exceptional three‐dimensional detail. The characters observed in these flowers, when compared with those of extant flowers of several families of the saxifragalean complex, suggest a close relationship with extant members of the Saxifragaceae and Hydrangeaceae. Hypotheses on the origin of petals and staminodes and a possible mechanism of pollination are discussed. This new taxon provides additional characters in the floral morphology of the fossil saxifragoids and extends their geographical distribution in the Cretaceous to North America.
Phylogeny and radiation of pollination systems in Disa (Orchidaceae)
Authors: Johnson S. D. , Linder H. P. , Steiner K. E.
Published: April 2006

We studied the patterns of adaptive radiation in Disa, a large orchid genus in southern Africa. A cladogram for 27 species was constructed using 44 morphological characters. Pollination systems were then mapped onto the phylogeny in order to analyze pathways of floral evolution. Shifts from one pollination system to another have been a major feature of the evolutionary diversification of Disa. Unlike many plant genera that are pollinated mainly by a single group of insects, radiation in Disa has encompassed nearly all major groups of pollinating insects; in all, 19 different specialized pollination systems have been found in the 27 species included in this analysis. Another striking pattern is the repeated evolution of broadly similar pollination systems in unrelated clades. For example, butterfly‐pollinated flowers have evolved twice; showy deceptive flowers pollinated by carpenter bees, twice; long‐spurred flowers pollinated by long‐tongued flies, four times; night‐scented flowers pollinated by moths, three times; and self‐pollination, three times. This suggests that a few dominant pollinator species in a region may be sufficient to generate diversification in plants through repeated floral shifts that never retrace the same pathways.
A NEW FOSSIL FLOWER FROM THE TURONIAN OF New Jersey: Dressiantha bicarpellata gen. et sp. nov. (Capparales)
Authors: Gandolfo Maria A. , Nixon Kevin C. , Crepet William L.
Published: April 2006

Recent discoveries of fossil reproductive structures from deposits of the Raritan Formation in New Jersey (Turonian, Upper Cretaceous, ~90 million years BP) include a previously undescribed representative of the Order Capparales. The fossils are usually charcoalified with three‐dimensional structure and excellent anatomical details. In the present contribution, we introduce a taxon represented by fossil flowers that have a combination of characters now found in the families of the Order Capparales sensu Cronquist. The fossil species is characterized by an unique suite of characters, such as the presence of a gynophore, arrangement of the sepals, unequal petal size, monothecal anthers, and a bicarpellate gynoecium, that are found in extant families of the Order Capparales. This new taxon constitutes an important addition to our understanding of Cretaceous angiosperm diversity and represents the oldest known fossil record for the Capparales. Heretofore, the oldest known capparalean was from the Late Tertiary sediments of North America.
Parallel evolution of glucosinolate biosynthesis inferred from congruent nuclear and plastid gene phylogenies
Authors: Rodman James E. , Soltis Pamela S. , Soltis Douglas E. , Sytsma Kenneth J. , Karol Kenneth G.
Published: April 2006

The phytochemical system of mustard‐oil glucosides (glucosinolates) accompanied by the hydrolytic enzyme myrosinase (β‐thioglucosidase), the latter usually compartmented in special myrosin cells, characterizes plants in 16 families of angiosperms. Traditional classifications place these taxa in many separate orders and thus imply multiple convergences in the origin of this chemical defense system. DNA sequencing of the chloroplast rbcL gene for representatives of all 16 families and several putative relatives, with phylogenetic analyses by parsimony and maximum likelihood methods, demonstrated instead a single major clade of mustard‐oil plants and one phylogenetic outlier. In a further independent test, DNA sequencing of the nuclear 18S ribosomal RNA gene for all these exemplars has yielded the same result, a major mustard‐oil clade of 15 families (Akaniaceae, Bataceae, Brassicaceae, Bretschneideraceae, Capparaceae, Caricaceae, Gyrostemonaceae, Koeberliniaceae, Limnanthaceae, Moringaceae, Pentadiplandraceae, Resedaceae, Salvadoraceae, Tovariaceae, and Tropaeolaceae) and one outlier, the genus Drypetes, traditionally placed in Euphorbiaceae. Concatenating the two gene sequences (for a total of 3254 nucleotides) in a data set for 33 taxa, we obtain robust support for this finding of parallel origins of glucosinolate biosynthesis. From likely cyanogenic ancestors, the “mustard oil bomb” was invented twice.