bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Feminist Theory
Authors: Kennedy Rosanne
Published: July 2017

It would be difficult to overstate the impact of feminist theory on studies of the British and American novel. While women historically have been significant as producers and consumers of the novel, they were neglected by critics prior to feminism. In 1976, Ellen Moers proposed that women writers such as Jane Austen and Harriet Beecher Stowe had been marginalized because they “have written novels, a genre with which literary historians and anthologists are still ill at ease” (1976,
Literary Women
, xi). The exclusion of writers such as Mary Shelley and the Brontes was compounded by their preference for popular genres such as the
gothic
, which were considered unworthy of serious analysis. In recovering neglected novelists and genres, feminist critics have offered radically new accounts of the
history
of the novel and how the novel has produced gendered, raced, and sexualized subjectivities, identities, and spheres of power. They have explored the ideological work of the novel in naturalizing imperialism, and have analyzed the gendered effects of colonialism in novels. They have pioneered studies of the cultural work of affect and examined the role of popular but discredited “women's genres” such as
melodrama
and sentimental fiction in producing
national
identity and belonging. The feminist transformation of novel studies has been enabled by the Anglo‐American women's movement and the Civil Rights movement of the 1960s, the entry of women into academic positions in the 1970s, and the subsequent development of feminist theory.
F
rance (19th Century)
Authors: Ginsburg Michal Peled
Published: July 2017

A convenient way to describe the nineteenth‐century French novel in all its variety is to map it onto the changes in literary movements, from Romanticism to
realism
to
naturalism
and fin‐de‐siècle Decadence (see
decadent
). This method is useful, however, only as long as one takes it with a grain of salt. Literary movements bring together writers who are often quite different from each other: the realism of Honoré de Balzac is not that of Gustave Flaubert. Authors can “belong” to more than one movement: Stendhal's pamphlet
Racine et Shakespeare
(1823) is rightly considered a manifesto for the Romantic movement but his novel
Le Rouge et le noir
(1830,
Scarlet and Black)
, with its famous mirror analogy—“A novel is a mirror carried along a high road” (chap. 40)—is just as rightly taken as an example of realism. Finally, movements do not succeed each other like the days of the week: Romanticism does not disappear when realism arrives on the scene. And with authors who had long writing careers, we find various sorts of “anachronisms”: Victor Hugo, the leader of the Romantic movement early in the century, publishes his masterpiece
Les Miserables
(1862) after Flaubert's
Madame Bovary
(1857), the realist novel par excellence. With this cautionary note in mind we can start tracing the changes the French novel undergoes through the century.
Genre Theory
Authors: Hitchcock Peter
Published: July 2017

Genre's general provenance has been to categorize any number of cultural expressions, both verbal and non‐verbal, including sounds, images, speech, writing—all in the service of understanding the discursive construction of meaning. Genre theory attempts to make sense of this wide diversity and is in many ways the cultural task of providing a conceptual key to the complex knot of social expressivity. Because of genre's extent, however, the project of providing a master principle is largely unattainable, and most analyses of the subject either isolate significant components or offer descriptions of generic characteristics (Duff). There was a time, perhaps that of Horace (65–8
bce
) or Alexander Pope (1688–1744), when the work of generic distinction was similarly complex yet more forceful, as if the very limited and precise parameters of genre and non‐genre permitted a more definitive heuristic function. Today, most studies of genre in literary studies are those that recall the polemical ring of their classic forebears, Plato and Aristotle, yet are unable to significantly reproduce their schema (Fowler). These studies need not be in agreement with classicism; what they suggest instead is that genre theory is at its best when it claims the ideological significance of distinction as an important endeavor in its own right (see
ideology
). By considering this implication, this I not only intend to raise the question of a politics of genre but also to show that the field of study is historical in its impress, even if history is not pronounced in this critique or that. At this level, genre theory is an agonistic arena for debating cultural norms—the rules, let us say, of cultural exchange at any one moment in history. If grand statements on genre are less possible now, it is not because genre has diminished in importance but because a plethora of genres saturate advanced modernity and resist even the most everyday categorical distinctions that would separate them. Genres change and the genre of genre theory has mutated accordingly, but today the authority of genre theory has less relative social power than before, and that observation is not without its lesson for cultural analysis in general.
Gothic Novel
Authors: Armstrong Nancy
Published: July 2017

Ever since the publication of Horace Walpole's
The Castle of Otranto
in 1764, arguably the first gothic novel, readers have considered gothic fiction hostile to the form and function of the novel proper—and why shouldn't they? A novel like Jane Austen's
Northanger Abbey
(1818) makes out‐and‐out fun of gothic devices and their disregard for the kind of world educated people consider real and normal, while any number of Victorian novels—e.g., Sir Walter Scott's
Waverley
(1814), Charlotte Brontë's
Jane Eyre
(1847), Wilkie Collins's
The Woman in White
(1860), and virtually all the novels of Charles Dickens—use these same gothic devices to question just how real
realism
actually is. We tend to call a work of fiction “gothic” only when its literary devices encourage us to entertain possible alternatives to conventional, everyday reality, whatever that may be. But when novels assure us that such an alternative is artificial or delusional in relation to the world we should consider real, it is a safe bet that the novel will be using gothic conventions to challenge, even update, but ultimately confirm the reigning notions of what distinguishes self from other, subject from object, and life from death—distinctions that have organized so‐called “reality” since
The Castle of Otran‐to
first appeared. In view of the fact that the literary devices we classify as gothic have proved as durable as the novel itself, it seems only reasonable to consider them essential both to the
genre
and to its claim to realism.
Graphic Novel
Authors: Gardner Jared
Published: July 2017

The graphic novel is a book‐length narrative utilizing sequential images and text. Beyond that simple definition, however, few commonalities can be presumed about the form. Most graphic novels make use of the fundamental grammar of sequential comics, including dialogue balloons, panels separated by blank space, and connections between the panels (temporal, spatial, emotional, or symbolic) that must be forged by the reader. The comics theorist Scott McCloud has influentially described the work required of the reader in essentially filling in the space between the panels as “
closure
.” And just as the relationship between the panels is variable and by no means always transparent, so too is the relationship between text and image. Unlike in the
illustrated
novel, where the image usually serves the text, in the graphic novel image and text are always in an uneasy collaboration, sometimes even working at cross‐purposes in terms of the narrative information they convey. If there is one thing that the increasingly diverse range of graphic novels share it is their engagement with these gaps and tensions inherent in the form—gaps which other narrative forms (classical Hollywood cinema, for example) have often worked to smooth over.
History of the Novel
Authors: Lynch Deirdre Shauna
Published: July 2017

Histories of the novel—accounts that trace, variously, fiction's beginnings, progress, rise, and setbacks, that nominate particular candidates for the title of “the first novelist,” or that identify these pioneers’ most important or representative successors‐began to be written in England, France, and China in the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. A boom in the authoring, reading, and marketing of fiction was then commencing both in Western Europe and East Asia, and histories of the novel, I will suggest, often serve to manage and police such booms. These histories increased in number and were harnessed to new sociopolitical ends after the nineteenth century. That was when the novel became, with history‐writing itself, one “sign of the modern,” and when every nation‐state that aspired to participate in the world literary system was pressured to display evidence of a well‐rooted tradition of narrative fiction (N. B. Dirks, 1990, “History as a Sign of the Modern,”
Public Culture
2:25–32).
Iberian Peninsula
Authors: Resina Joan Ramon
Published: July 2017

Perhaps it is Mikhailbakhtin'sdefinition of the novel as an internally dialogized form of discourse that most usefully helps to discriminate between forms of narrative with a view to tracing something like a genealogy of the novel in the Iberian Peninsula. Nearly every other criterion seems inadequate. For instance, Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra's famous insertion of literary criticism in the second part ofDon Quixote(1605, 1615)—which Carlos Fuentes deemed the mark of the genre's modernity—hinges on self‐re‐flexivity and thus on the distinction betweenrealismand fantasy (seescience fiction), but only retrospectively did literary histories associate this “realist” work with the emergence of a new genre called “novel.” Cervantes merely distinguished between good and bad books, qualifying his statements by employing contemporary criteria of style as well as plausibility. There is no point in sketching a précis of the history of the various Iberian literatures in the vernacular, which is something that only ignorance would attempt. Nor is it possible to outline long‐term trends without great vagueness. The novel is a genre with many species and individuals. But, short of formulating a synthesis, it is possible, I believe, to recognize—in the various degrees of reality and fantasy, of object‐directed and consciousness‐directed discourse that make the long history of Iberian narrative—the novel's remarkable mastery of a universe of discourse, in short, its heteroglossia (Bakhtin's term for this genre's refraction of the author's intention through multiple voices). The basic form of this refraction, dialogism, anchors the narrative in someone else's discourse, breaking up the object into linguistically mediated points of view, which, when fully developed, give rise to a polyphony of voices (seenarrative perspective). The incidence and importance of this feature is my primary guide in selecting from the mass of narrative in five languages some landmarks of Iberian fiction in an unabashedly subjective manner, hoping to provideoneaccount of the vitality of the novel in the Iberian Peninsula.
Illustrated Novel
Authors: Godbey Margaret J.
Published: July 2017

The history of illustration ranges from ancient Egyptian papyrus to twenty‐first‐century computer‐generated images. Illustrations accompany religious texts, works of nonfiction, poetry, and narrative prose fiction, but the illustrated novel developed in the eighteenth century, primarily in France and England, and reached its height in the nineteenth century. The term
illustrated novel
refers to an extended narrative with multiple images that, together with the text, produce meaning. Therefore, the illustrated novel is not a work graced by a single decorated cover or frontispiece. Yet certain novels remain intertwined with a particular frontispiece or cover design. The interdisciplinary nature of illustrated novels recognizes the difficulty of determining what constitutes a “novel” or an “illustration,” and thus it fuels a variety of critical approaches including, but not limited to, reception studies, art history, cultural studies, bibliographical studies, and semiotic analysis. Although illustrator and author often collaborated over the original text and illustrations, subsequent editions contain illustrations an author may or may not have endorsed. Some authors illustrated their own work, and some novels had multiple illustrators. The form lost its appeal in the twentieth century as illustration flourished in children's literature and migrated to the luxury book market. Nevertheless, critical interest in the illustrated novel continues to grow.
Intertextuality
Authors: Gladieu Marie‐Madeleine
Published: July 2017

Intertextuality refers to the relationship among texts that echo or refer to one another, often through allusion, citation, or borrowing. Laurent Jenny defines intertextuality as “the necessary precondition of reading literature,” and Michel Riftaterre, as the mechanism of literary reading itself. This change in ways of thinking about literary texts began in the final years of the 1960s and in the following decade, when Mikhail
bakhtin
coined the notion of dialogism in 1970 and when the word intertextuality was used for the first time by Julia Kristeva in
Sêmêiotikè
in 1969 (1980,
Desire in Language)
.
Jewish American Novel
Authors: Schreier Benjamin
Published: July 2017

There is little consensus about the definition of the Jewish American novel. Should we mean novels both by and about American Jews, or is one of these criteria sufficient? For that matter, how is “American Jew” defined? As with any identity‐based canon, the problem is that barring racialist logic, the categories are incoherent (see
race
). To argue narrowly, that a Jewish novel reflects the tenets of Judaism, is to miss the bulk of Jewish American writers, whose secularism defies religious dogmas (see
religion
). Similarly, language cannot demarcate the Jewish American novel; indeed, European‐born Jews writing in
yiddish
in the U.S., like Scholem Asch and I. B. Singer, only complicate our job. To more broadly insist that Jewish novels thematically explore specifically Jewish ideals, sensibilities, or leitmotifs—novelist Cynthia Ozick, for one famous example, claims that Jewish literature is necessarily “liturgical”—or that the Jewish American novel presents Jews experiencing problems historically experienced by Jews—such as religious doubt, generational conflict, anti‐Semitism, assimilation, marginality, etc.—is to plunge into a metonymical morass from which only race provides coherent escape.
Journalism
Authors: Rubery Matthew
Published: July 2017

Journalism involves a range of writing practices not easily distinguishable in some instances from those used by novelists. Historically, the distinction between the two kinds of writing has often been a source of controversy. The term journalism was introduced into the English language in the 1830s, although the traditions of this form of public communication were well established by that point. Since the seventeenth century, journalism has evolved from the private exchange of intelligence to the public dissemination of information through various media including print, radio, television, and the internet. Before the printing press, news circulated in the form of speech and written manuscripts, and from the sixteenth century onward the earliest printed news was in many ways a record of the informal exchange of information, known as gossip or rumor (see
paper and print
). The first newsletters were translations of foreign events, natural disasters, and supernatural occurrences. In 1621, for example, Thomas Archer produced the first English “coranto,” or newsbook, a digest of foreign news translated from Dutch. The development of news written about the contemporary world at regular intervals, as opposed to occasional reports about singular events, was a key step in the eventual separation of journalism from literature (C. J. Sommerville, 1996,
The News Revolution in England)
. Another important distinction was the claim to be based on facts.
Life Writing
Authors: Douglas Kate
Published: July 2017

“Life writing” is an inclusive term used to describe the multitude of ways people construct “true” stories about their lives and/or the lives of others. The term is often used interchangeably with “life narrative,” “autobiography,” “auto/biography,” “autobiographical fiction,” “biography,” “memoir,” and “first‐person media.” There are distinct differences between these alternative terms—particularly as they represent diverse subgenres and movements within what has been historically known as “autobiography.” Though the term “life writing” has been in use since the eighteenth century, it has gained currency in recent times as an umbrella term to represent all forms of nonfictional life‐story telling (Jolly; Smith and Watson, 2001). Life writing attempts to circumvent problems associated with the term autobiography—which has historically been associated with an exclusive genre of writing—dominated by portraits of “great men.” Alternative terms such as “memoir” attempted to broaden and reshape the field—to promote life stories that had been excluded by the limits of autobiography. Life writing proposes to broaden the parameters of life and self‐representation even further, to promote a greater inclusive‐ness, and to provide a site for the cross‐examination of an expansive set of life‐story texts. Life writing considers the multitude of ways that people narrate their lives and the lives of others, in light of the texts and technologies people use to record these lives. Thus the term “life writing” has come to encompass texts other than written texts—oral testimony, artifacts, visual texts (photography, film, on‐line media), and so on (Jolly, ix).
L
ukács,
G
eorg
Authors: Kaposy Timothy
Published: July 2017

Georg Lukács (1885–1971) was not only one of the founders of Western Marxism, he was one of the most important twentieth‐century theorists and historians of the novel (see
marxist
,
novel theory
(20
th
a),
history
). Born into a wealthy assimilated Jewish family in Budapest, Lukács was heralded a prodigy by his earliest educators. As a teenager, he was involved in the pragmatic and theoretical debates of fin‐de‐siècle Hungary, and also organized dramatic productions of Henrik Ibsen (1828–1906) and August Strindberg (1849–1912) within Budapest's factories and handicraft shops. Leaving his native soil in 1906 he enrolled first at the University of Kolozsvár, then in 1909 at Berlin University and later in Heidelberg. Lukács crossed a significant threshold of his thinking in this period: in addition to reading the texts of Wilhelm Dilthey (1833–1911), G. W. F Hegel (1770–1831), and Karl Marx (1818–83) for the first time, he was taught by luminaries Ernst Bloch (1885–1977), Georg Simmel (1858–1918), and Max Weber (1864–1920). Described in retrospect as “romantic anti‐capitalism,” Lukács's early writing interprets a startling range of thinkers to illustrate and critique the loss of “traditional” societies in Europe since the late eighteenth century.
A lélék ‘es a formák
(1910,
Soul and Form)
consists often essays, largely metaphysical in design. Lukács's focus on artistic and critical conduct, the desire of poets, artists, and philosophers to create a semblance of reality in their work, is described in a way that shifts between a yearning for the preservation of soul amid a “lachrymose reality” and hints of social commentary. The first chapter, “On the Nature and Form of the Essay,” in particular influenced many theorists of his generation, including Theodor Adorno (1903–69), and it has been taken up by contemporary theorists as well (see Butler). Examining a panorama of artists and thinkers both majorSøren Kierkegaard (1813–55), Novalis, Laurence Sterneand minorStefan George (1868–1933), Theodor Storm (1817–1938) Lukács explores the rapid emergence of modern bourgeois sensibilities and their clash with the prevailing aesthetic trends of previous eras.
Melodrama
Authors: Gui Weihsin
Published: July 2017

A genre of theater that emerged in late eighteenth‐century France, melodrama is distinguished by spectacle and sensationalism, intense and extravagant displays of emotion and affect (often through the use of stage tableaux), polarized characters who are hapless victims, dastardly villains, and virtuous heroes, highly schematized plots centered around family secrets, domestic scandals, or calumnious mysteries, and the ultimate revelation and resolution of such affairs when the forces of good triumph over evildoers. Peter Brooks's important study (1976,
The Melodramatic Imagination)
points to French playwright François‐René Guilbert de Pixerecourt (1773–1844) as the founder of this genre. But the influence of melodrama extends beyond the stage onto the pages of the modern European and Anglo‐American novel, exemplified by Honoré de Balzac's
Le Père Goriot
(1835,
Father Goriot)
and Henry James's
The Wings of the Dove
(1902). Responding to modernity's desacralization and loss of tragic vision (see
modernism
), the melodramatic imagination in the modern novel underscores the theatricality and excess of fictional representation. This dramatic excess locates and articulates the “moral occult,” namely “the domain of spiritual forces and imperatives that is not clearly visible within reality,” but has to be revealed (Brooks, 20). James's characteristic dense and sinuous prose, and his portrayal of female protagonists like Isabel Archer in
The Portrait of a Lady
(1881), can be read as the work of a melodramatic imagination. Similarly, Balzac's combination of literary realism and theatrical melodrama may be thought of as subversions of the prevailing social conventions underpinning these
genres
.
Memory
Authors: Dupuy Edward J.
Published: July 2017

How great, my God, is this force of memory, how exceedingly great! It is like a vast and boundless subterranean shrine. Who has ever reached the bottom of it?
Narrative Perspective
Authors: Bell Michael
Published: July 2017

If narrative perspective, in its most general meaning, is the angle from which the subject is viewed, then it is clearly one of the most significant factors governing a novel's representation of its world. Indeed, it can on occasion virtually constitute the subject of the narrative. Henry James, for example, records that the “germ” of
The Spoils of Poynton
(1897) was given him as a reported situation in which a wealthy, cultured widow, with a much‐loved only son and a house full of beautiful objects, faced the prospect of passing the inheritance to a pushy, philistine daughter‐in‐law. The situation only came alive for James's novelistic imagination, however, when he imagined it from the viewpoint of a new, invented character, a young woman of intelligent sensibility and deeply in love with the son, who, for those very reasons, is unable to use the sharp elbows of her rival. Through her consciousness, the very crudeness of the external situation as James first heard it is transmuted into an anguished internal drama.
Narrative Technique
Authors: Phelan James
Published: July 2017

Narrative technique is the umbrella term for the multiple devices of storytelling. In the terms of narratology's distinction between story and discourse or the what and the how of narrative, narrative technique is a rough synonym for discourse. Narrative technique is so central to our understanding of storytelling that, throughout history, theorists of narrative in general (e.g., Aristotle in the
Poetics
, ca. 335
bce
) or the novel in particular (e.g., Henry Fielding in his Preface to
Joseph Andrews
, 1742) invariably comment on it. But ever since Henry James wrote his Prefaces to the New York edition of his novels (1909–10), theorists have paid increasing attention to the subject, as they have proposed and debated various ways of achieving a more adequate understanding of its workings. Here I will focus on four key concepts: transmission, temporality, vision, and voice.
N
orth
A
frica (
M
aghreb)
Authors: Gana Nouri
Published: July 2017

The Maghreb is the name that Arab writers and geographers gave to the region north of the Sahara which, for Europeans, corresponded to Barbary or Africa Minor, and for Ibn Khaldoun, to the Berber zones before the seventh‐century Arab conquest. Nowadays, the term is much more specific but not fully unequivocal. As opposed to the Mashreq (i.e., the place of the rising sun), which covers all Arab lands east of Egypt, the Maghreb (i.e., the place of the setting sun) refers to the westernmost fringes of the Arab world in northwestern Africa. At the height of Arab Muslim rule in the medieval Mediterranean, the Maghreb used to denote not only northern Africa but also Sicily and Spain. Given that the word Maghreb in Arabic comes from the root
gharb
(“west”), it has at times been used sweepingly in reference to different regions west of the Arab peninsula. Hence, the association between the Maghreb and the West in the Mashreqi imagination has enjoyed an enduring resonance throughout Arab history and did not fully diminish after either the collapse of Arab rule in Europe nor of European rule in the Maghreb.
Northern Europe
Authors: Sjávik Jan
Published: July 2017

The novel of the Nordic countries has its roots in the medieval Icelandic sagas, the oral narrative tradition of the Scandinavian countries, and the continental European literary tradition. As modern Scandinavian literary culture gradually developed under the influence of such forces as the Lutheran reformation and the Humanist tradition, texts written in the vernacular languages gradually replaced the Latin writings of medieval priests and monks. The antiquarian concerns of some of the major Scandinavian humanists, few though they were, led to a renewed interest in the literary monuments of the high Middle Ages that were preserved primarily in Icelandic manuscripts, and the works of Snorri Sturluson and other medieval saga writers began to be studied and translated into the modern Scandinavian languages. The oral literature of the Nordic countries later became the object of similarly enthusiastic attention.
Novel Theory (20th Century)
Authors: Puckett Kent
Published: July 2017

What characterizes novel theory in the twentieth century? In the broadest terms the phrase “twentieth‐century novel theory” refers to any and all thinking about the novel over the course of those hundred years. Insofar as the novel emerged in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries as a distinctly authoritative literary form, novel theory is the large and disparate effort to account for the rise, shape, and limits of the novel as a literary form and as a historical phenomenon. However, if the novel has encouraged many kinds of critical response, there are a few key concepts that give the field of novel theory thematic and intellectual coherence. Oddly enough, one of the most important of these concepts comes from someone who had relatively little to say about the novel: the German sociologist Max Weber (1864–1920).
Philosophical Novel
Authors: Cunningham David
Published: July 2017

The philosophical novel can be minimally defined as a
genre
in which characteristic elements of the novel are used as a vehicle for the exploration of philosophical questions and concepts. In its “purest” form, it perhaps most properly designates those relatively singular texts which may be said to belong to both the history of
philosophy
and of literature, and to occupy some indeterminate space between them. Today the term is often used interchangeably with the more recent concept of the “novel of ideas,” though some theorists have sought to establish a clear division between the two (Bewes).
Picaresque Novel
Authors: Yadav Alok
Published: July 2017

Picaresque
is a critical construct used since the nineteenth century to refer to both a specific novelistic genre and a wider fictional mode. In its narrower usage, the term refers to a genre of fiction centered on the life of a
pícaro
or
pícara
. Scholars have built up a normative conception of this genre, according to which the picaresque novel consists of a retrospective first‐person narrator writing an episodic and open‐ended narrative about his or her life as a rogue, one who hails from a low or dishonorable background and travels from place to place in a struggle for survival (see
narrative perspective
). The
picaro
seeks a secure toehold while living by his or her wits in an exploitative, corrupt, urban world.
Plot
Authors: Newton K. M.
Published: July 2017

Plot is one of the oldest of critical terms, since it is a translation of Aristotle's
mythos
in the analysis of tragedy in his
Poetics
(ca. 335
bce
). For him it meant “the organization of events” (11), and is the most significant of the six elements that he argues constitute tragedy; it is the “most important thing of all” (11) and the “source and … soul of tragedy” (12). He emphasized the need for a coherent relationship between the incidents that combine to produce a tragic drama in order that the action of the play is not episodic but exists as an organic whole. Intrinsic to his concept of tragedy is “effecting through pity and fear the purification of such emotions” (10) and plot functions as the most important formal element in achieving this (see
comedy
).
Psychoanalytic Theory
Authors: Dore Florence
Published: July 2017

Psychoanalytic readings of narrative fiction advance the idea that the novel's most important feature is its depiction of human subjectivity. The psychoanalysts who have most influenced literary studies believe that reading, whether clinical or literary, reveals the unconscious dimension of the human mind in particular. Scholars of the novel who employ psychoanalytic theory, accordingly, presuppose that the principal function of the novel is to describe the unconscious. Psychoanalytic study of the novel can be said to have originated in 1907 by none other than the founder of psychoanalysis himself, Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), but psychoanalytic theory did not become established as a preferred method for analyzing novels until the mid‐1970s, following the introduction of French psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan's (1901–81) theories into literary studies. In what follows, I will explain why Lacan had such a tremendous influence on novel theory. Lacan is known for his revision of the Freudian conception of the unconscious, and this change in psychoanalytic theory turns out to have overlapped, historically and theoretically, with narratologist Roland Barthes's (1915–80) influential revision of the idea of the author. In the 1970s Lacanian theory was taken up by literary scholars interested in Barthes, and in combination, psychoanalytic theory and narratology created a significant conceptual approach to understanding the novel as a genre (see
novel theory
, 20TH a). Two of the three psychoanalytic readings Dorothy Hale identifies as crucial to the development of novel theoryby literature scholars Peter Brooks (“Turning the Screw of Interpretation”) and Shoshana Felman (“Freud's Masterplot: Questions of Narrative”)were published in Felman's 1977 collection,
Literature and Psychoanalysis
. Of these early psychoanalytic readings influenced by Lacan, I will focus on Brooks's to demonstrate the particular version of psychoanalytic theory that would qualify it as a movement in novel theory.
Publishing
Authors: Finkelstein David
Published: July 2017

The age of print and publishing begins with the development of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg (fl. 1390–1468) in Mainz, Germany in about 1450. Adapting techniques and equipment used in agricultural settings (e.g., the grape press), by 1456 Gutenberg had begun producing multiple copies of texts in printed form, including a 42‐line Bible, some grammatical works, a papal indulgence, and at least one broadside astrological calendar. Within a few years of its first use, this new technology for making books had spread throughout Europe (see
paper and print
).
Race Theory
Authors: Cherniavsky Eva
Published: July 2017

Let us start with what “race theory” is not. It is not a unified body of analytic work, nor does the signifier
race
name a singular object of investigation that would remain consistent across different theoretical traditions or schools of inquiry. If we can say anything at all about “race theory” in general, it is that the work of theorizing race remains fundamentally bound up in the effort to historicize the production of race as an epistemological category, as well as to address the centrality of race to the production of modern epistemologies; to situate racial tropologies within the wider discursive fields of modernity (discourses of gender, class, nationalism, empire, and mass culture, for example); and to chart the manifold articulations of racial epistemologies and discourses to institutionalized social practiceto the material conditions of raced bodies and raced subjects. In other words, if there is anything that “race theory,” in general, might tell us at the outset, it is that race is less an object than a field of inquiryan inquiry into processes of racialization at the center of modern knowledges, discourses, and institutions.
Realism
Authors: Nabers Deak
Published: July 2017

Realism served as the dominant mode of nineteenth‐century novelistic discourse. Although the representation of reality has played at least some small role in many literary movements and projects, the term “literary realism” generally identifies a historically specific set of literary techniques and ambitions. Emerging in France in the 1830s in the work of Stendhal and Honoré de Balzac, realism received its first theoretical elaborations in the 1840s and 1850s in the work of French authors Champfleury and Louis Edmond Duranty and the English critic John Ruskin (1819–1900). The mode flowered across Europe from the 1850s through the 1880s: in France in the work of Gustave Flaubert; in England in the work of George Eliot and Anthony Trollope; in Russia in the work of Leo Tolstoy and Ivan Turgenev. By the late nineteenth century, literary debate in the U.S. revolved around realism, which heavily influenced the work of Mark Twain, Henry James, and William Dean Howells. “The great collective event in American letters during the 1890s and 1890s,” Walter Bert‐hoff explains, “was the securing of ‘realism’ as the dominant standard of value” (1). Constructed out of an awkward mix of paradoxically linked commitments and bearing a complicated and multivalent relationship to nineteenth‐century social order, realism has invited a long history of critical speculation. Its exact specifications have repeatedly resisted simple definition.
SoutheastAsian Archipelago
Authors: Bahari Razif
Published: July 2017

The Southeast Asian novel has come to be regarded as a problematic category, and justifiably so. Questions of critically representing and talking about the Southeast Asian novel have to ineluctably negotiate a series of issues relating to insider/outsider binaries ofspace, perspective, voice, and representation that trouble the languages of literary creation and criticism. What constitutes a Southeast Asian novel: one written about or set in Southeast Asia, or one written by a Southeast Asian (with all the complexities that that appellation entails)? If we agree on the former, then works such as C. J. Koch'sThe Year of Living Dangerously(1978), Anthony Burgess'sThe Malayan Trilogy(1972), and Noel Barber'sTanamera: A Novel of Singapore(1981) would fall under the Southeast Asian category. It is unlikely that any one formulation will do justice to the longstanding concern about who and what should be regarded as Southeast Asian; therefore, when from time to time reference is made to the Southeast Asian novel, this is simply by way of shorthand to mark off writing by Southeast Asians—specifically from the maritime Southeast Asian nations of Indonesia, Singapore, and the Philippines, as well as Malaysia—from that by non‐Southeast Asians. Two other nation‐states in the region, Brunei and Timor‐Leste, are not discussed in this entry as they do not have autonomous traditions in the novel.
Southeastern
E
urope
Authors: Aleksić Tatjana
Published: July 2017

Southeastern Europe is better known as the Balkans, although this name has historically been problematized and often acquired negative connotations. Maria Todorova's seminal study on the Balkans,
Imagining the Balkans
(1997), has, for example, analyzed both the category itself and the various negative connotations assigned to the region. The region is imagined as a more or less compact entity due to historical developments that marked it, primarily the Ottoman colonization, but also the many episodes of turbulent history since the formation of modern nation‐states. Cultural development in the region that has, for the most part, been a polygon of conflicts for the world powers, has suffered a certain dose of “belatedness” relative to European mainstream influences, as Gregory Jusdanis controversially claims about modern Greek culture in
Belated Modernity and Aesthetic Culture
(1991). Most importantly, culture in the Balkans has rarely had the luxury of avoiding the grip of history and evolving with independent aesthetic attributes. The few periods of relatively unhindered literary and cultural developments created a sense of time compression that sometimes prevented literary styles that had almost run parallel courses from maturing to their full distinction.
Southern
A
frica
Authors: Van der Vlies Andrew
Published: July 2017

The concerns and form of the novel in southern Africa have been determined largely by the region's cultural and social politics: for autochthonous communities as for settlers (mostly from Europe), writing served to mediate experiences of modernity, alienation, and ideological interpellation. Permanent European settlement began with the establishment by the Dutch East India Company of a refreshment station at the Cape of Good Hope in 1652; the diary of the settlement's first commander, Jan van Rie‐beeck, is often cited as the progenitor of an Afrikaans literary tradition in South Africa. Little creative writing was produced until the early nineteenth century, by which time the erstwhile Dutch settlement had expanded and come under British control (1795–1802, and from 1806): South Africa achieved measures of independence in 1910 and 1930, and became a white minority‐ruled republic in 1961 and a multiracial democracy in 1994. Elsewhere in the region, British, Portuguese, and German colonial expansion ensured that the whole of southern Africa was directly or indirectly ruled by European powers, or by self‐governing minorities of European descent, by the early twentieth century.
Time
Authors: Gallagher Catherine
Published: July 2017

Paul Ricoeur tells us that a novel is a chronologically organized discourse ultimately referring (whatever its ostensible themes or subjects) to the passage of time. He also reminds us, though, just how complex and fractured that reference is, and especially in the case of fictional narratives, how far removed from our normal experience of time as comprising past, present, and future. Indeed, even as the novel takes place in timeas a linear sequence of signs in the consciousnesses of its readersit nevertheless seems to suspend and displace the temporality of our daily existence, superimposing intricate, multilayered, and anachronistic time schemes of its own. This entry on the topic of time and the novel will survey various techniques for distinguishing, ordering, layering, interrupting, destabilizing, and suspending such temporal components of the form as story, plot, narrative, narrating, and reading. It will also discuss the historical facets of novels and their suspended time in textuality.
U
nited
S
tates (19th Century)
Authors: Samuels Shirley
Published: July 2017

Writing about the nineteenth‐century novel in the U.S. in 1957, a moment of the consolidation of the canon of American literature, Richard Chase drew a firm distinction between the novel and the romance: unlike the romance, he declared, the “novel renders reality closely and in comprehensive detail” (12). He cites the novelist Nathaniel Hawthorne in his preface to
The House of the Seven Gables
(1851): “When a writer calls his work a Romance, it need hardly be observed that he wishes to claim a certain latitude, both as to its fashion and material, which he would not have felt himself entitled to assume, had he professed to be writing a Novel” (18). The implication here is that the canonical works of nineteenth‐century U.S. literature such as Hawthorne's are not, in fact, novels at all: just as it was held in the mid‐twentieth century that the history of the U.S. was an “exceptional” case, so, apparently, was its literature. For all the influence Hawthorne has had on the form of the novel, such a distinction has not persisted in the critical analysis of nineteenth‐century fiction. Rather, scholars have come to recognize a rich diversity of forms and genres of the novel in use in this period, and their engagement with the complex social and political issues of this moment. They have also returned to a historical context in which questions of readership challenge conventional assumptions such as Chase's about literary value and canonicity.
U
nited
S
tates (20th Century)
Authors: Seguin Robert
Published: July 2017

The history of the novel in the U.S. during the twentieth century can in many ways be charted in terms of a fundamental, interactive tension between, on the one hand, the idea or sense of the national
space
and, on the other, local or
regional
specificities or densities that are in some fashion resistant to this idea. The
“national”
in this context signifies essentially the rapid and expansive unfolding of capitalist modernity in America following the end of the Civil War in 1865, an era that saw the increasing unification of what had hitherto been a more loosely aggregated national realm (see
modernism
). With the full advent of industrialization, along with the widespread implementation of railroads and the telegraph, a genuinely national commercial marketplace was established for the first time. The rhythms of wage labor and commodity production (and consumption) became increasingly the norm, and people, goods, ideas, and images could now circulate more widely and easily than ever before, all of which fostered a manifold set of overlapping and often contradictory perceptions and experiences and offered up a new social substance for literary reflection. Thus, modernity might be welcomed for its social dynamism and cosmopolitanism, or instead criticized for its rootlessness and cultural depthlessness; the local, meanwhile, might either be favored for its traditional values and sense of connectedness (to people, to the land) or shunned for its backwardness and refusal to embrace innovation. This multivalent, ongoing cultural dialectic of nation and region, intertwined with a tension between modernity and tradition, affords a productive framework for considering the course of the twentieth‐century American novel.
Western
A
frica
Authors: Korang Kwaku Larbi
Published: July 2017

The first known novel from Western Africa was serialized in a Gold Coast (colonial Ghana) newspaper between 1885 and 1889. In the next half‐century, writersmostly from the Gold Coast and Senegalpublished a handful of titles. It was in and since the 1950s that the novel in Western Africa acquired the breadth, depth, and intensity of authorial productivity, readerly reception, and publishing sponsorship that have made novel writing in the region a sustainable intellectual enterprise.
Yiddish Novel
Authors: Frieden Ken
Published: July 2017

A latecomer to the genre, the Yiddish novel was heavily influenced by Russian and English models. Satiricrealismandparodycharacterize nineteenth‐century Yiddish fiction, while twentieth‐century authors explored a wide range of styles. With a few notable exceptions, Yiddish novels were directed to a popular audience.
Rapid Photochemical Synthesis of Sea‐Urchin‐Shaped Hierarchical Porous COF‐5 and Its Lithography‐Free Patterned Growth
Authors: Kim Soyoung , Park Chibeom , Lee Minkyung , Song Intek , Kim Jungah , Lee Minhui , Jung Jaehoon , Kim Yousoo , Lim Hyunseob , Choi Hee Cheul
Published: July 2017

Despite potential advantages of covalent organic frameworks (COFs) in wide area applications, several limitations in conventional solvothermal synthesis, such as long reaction time and high reaction temperature, reduce reaction efficiency and prohibit technical processes for practical applications. Therefore, the development of a novel synthesis method that provides better reaction efficiency and spatial controllability has become a critical challenge. Herein, a photochemical synthesis of C9H4BO2 (COF‐5) is demonstrated for the first time, by which “sea urchin‐shaped” COF‐5 (UV‐COF‐5) with uniform size is synthesized with a highly enhanced growth rate, ≈48 times faster than that of the solvothermal method for 75% yield. In addition, an enlarged surface area is measured from UV‐COF‐5, which originates from its hierarchical morphology. The selectively increased growth rate of UV‐COF‐5 in the [001] direction observed by microscopic analysis results in the local 1D morphology of the hierarchical structure. Density functional theory calculations determine that the enhanced growth rate along the [001] direction can be understood by the characteristic of the interlayer orbital coupling at the frontier energy region. In addition, this study successfully demonstrates the preparation of COF‐5 patterns without any complicated postsynthesis lithography process, but simply by utilizing optical masks during the photochemical method.
Enhanced Magnetocaloric Effect from Cr Substitution in Ising Lanthanide Gallium Garnets Ln3CrGa4O12 (Ln = Tb, Dy, Ho)
Authors: Mukherjee Paromita , Dutton Siân E.
Published: July 2017

A detailed study on the crystal structure and bulk magnetic properties of Cr substituted Ising type lanthanide gallium garnets Ln3CrGa4O12 (Ln = Tb, Dy, Ho) is carried out using room temperature powder X‐ray and neutron diffraction, magnetic susceptibility, isothermal magnetization, and heat capacity measurements. The magnetocaloric effect (MCE) in Ln3CrGa4O12 is compared to that of Ln3Ga5O12. In lower magnetic fields attainable by a permanent magnet (≤ 2 T), Cr substitution greatly enhances the MCE ‐ by 20% for Ln = Dy and 120% for Ln = Ho compared to the unsubstituted Ln3Ga5O12. This is likely due to changes in the magnetic ground state as Cr substitution also significantly reduces the frustration in the magnetic lattice for the Ising type Ln3Ga5O12.
Highly Bright Flexible Electroluminescent Devices with Retroreflective Electrodes
Authors: Shim Hyunseok , Allabergenov Bunyod , Kim Joonwoo , Noh Hee Yeon , Lyu Hong‐Kun , Lee Myoung‐Jae , Choi Byeongdae
Published: July 2017

Flexible and stretchable light‐emitting films using phosphor powders for electroluminescent (EL) devices offer the advantages of low cost and high durability under deformation. However, their low brightness is a significant disadvantage. A device structure adapting a light‐transmission emitting layer and a retroreflective electrode to boost the brightness of EL device films is presented. The EL devices are fabricated by sandwiching the ZnS‐particle‐doped transparent resin emission layer between indium tin oxide and prismatic Ag thin film retroreflector electrodes. The ZnS particles, which are on the scale of tens of micrometers, dispersed in the emission layer induce light reflection over a wide viewing angle. However, at a high particle loading, the reflection rate is drastically decreased by the closed microstructure of the phosphor/resin emission layer. By optimizing the device structure and the composition of the emission layer consisting of phosphors, dielectric nanoparticles, and resin, a device is fabricated exhibiting a luminance of 1017 cd m−2 (6.67 V µm−1 at 10 kHz), which is 442% brighter than that of a conventional EL device.