bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Towards a contextually appropriate framework to guide counseling of torture survivors in Sub-Saharan Africa
Authors: Higson-Smith Craig , Eagle Gillian
Published: May 2018

Introduction: If the right to rehabilitation is to become a meaningful reality for torture survivors in sub-Saharan Africa, it is necessary that counseling practice be responsive to the contextual and cultural demands of the region. Recent reviews of evidence-based practice with torture survivors are discussed with a focus on those approaches developed and/or tested with torture survivors in sub-Saharan Africa. Methods: The results of a mixed methods study of ongoing torture rehabilitation work are reported. This study incorporated a review of 85 case files of torture survivors treated at torture rehabilitation centers in three countries in sub-Saharan Africa, and in depth interviews with fifteen counsellorsand fourteen clients at those same centers. Quantitative data are presented in tabular form supported by uni- and bi-variate statistical analyses as appropriate. Qualitative data are presented in terms of themes identified through emergent coding. Results and discussion: Help-seeking torture survivors in this region are a diverse and highly symptomatic group, often struggling to survive with their families in precarious circumstances and under ongoing threat. In addition to incorporating key aspects of existing evidence-based practice, counselorsalso use a range of psychosocial approaches to assist torture survivors to protect and support their families in the face of seemingly overwhelming life challenges. We propose that more systematic methodologies that facilitate the inclusion of the voicesof clients and clinicians in ongoing international debates relating to evidencebased practice with torture survivors will enhance the application of such practices in diverse contexts.
Cultural logics of emotion: Implications for understanding torture and its sequelae
Authors: J. Kirmayer Laurence , Ban Lauren , Jaranson James
Published: May 2018

This paper explores the significance of cultural variations in emotion for the meaning and impact of torture, focusing on the dynamics of shame, humiliation, and powerlessness. Forms of physical and psychological pain and suffering share some common neurobiological pathways and regulatory systems that are influenced by social and cultural factors. All forms of torture follow an affective logic rooted both in human biology and in local social and cultural meanings of experience. Understanding the impact of specific forms of torture on individuals requires knowledge of their learning histories, and of the personal and cultural meanings of specific kinds of violence. Exploring cultural meanings requires attention to over-arching discourse, embodied practices, and everyday engagements with an ecosocial environment. Restitution, treatment and recovery can then be guided by knowledge of cultural meanings, dynamics, and strategies for coping with catastrophic threats, injury, humiliation, helplessness and loss.
O Apocalipse de João e a interpretação cosmológica do mundo romano
Authors: Terra Kenner
Published: May 2018

O Apocalipse de João é uma obra instigante. Sua linguagem cheia de violência, com monstros aterrorizantes, pessoas clamando por justiça, anúncios de mortes e desespero, em um quadro de espetáculos celestes, fascina os que gostam de ficção e alimenta a esperança dos que esperam um dia entrar na Nova Jerusalém, onde não haverá mar nem morte, quando as lágrimas serão enxugadas. Contudo, o livro do Apocalipse será lido como uma narração da realidade. Nesse sentido, o texto não é visto como reflexo de qualquer opressão, mas construção discursiva a respeito do sistema que, para o visionário, é a negação da ordem. Assim sendo, a tese defende o terror como instrumento de persuasão, o qual serviu, na estratégia do visionário, para descrever o seu contexto como realidade caótica. Por meio de estratégias narrativas, o narrador deseja que sua visão seja levada a sério e que seus interlocutores aceitem a sua interpretação da realidade, deixando a associação com a vida e sistema romanos, pois se assim procederem serão comparados aos selados e receberão as mesmas recompensas. Dessa maneira, sua descrição com linguagem escatológica joga com o futuro e com o presente; prevê o caos, mas o vive em nível narrativo. Por isso o livro do Apocalipse, com um dualismo extremamente radical, não dá espaços para dúvidas.
A Escola Confessional Católica Romana
Authors: Junqueira Sergio , Leal Valéria Andrade
Published: May 2018

Com objetivo de assinalar a identidade e os princípios da Escola Confessional Católica Romana foi organizada uma pesquisa qualitativa documental elaborada a partir do magistério da Igreja Católica Romana, pois esta compreensão da confessionalidade é refletida na discussão sobre a educação na sociedade que se quer propor ou impor. A Escola Católica se entende como aquela que é dirigida pela autoridade eclesiástica competente ou por pessoa jurídica eclesiástica pública, ou que a autoridade eclesiástica reconhece como tal, pois a instrução e a educação nela devem fundamentar-se nos princípios da doutrina católica; os mestres devem distinguir-se pela retidão de doutrina e probidade de vida. Efetivamente a escola católica é convocada, por seu ambiente, a desenvolver atividades de instrução e aprendizagem que favoreçam valores propostos pelo Evangelho mesmo na pluralidade dos contextos culturais e na variedade das possibilidades educativas; quer colaborar na formação do respeito pela dignidade de cada pessoa e pela sua unicidade, visando o equilíbrio nos aspectos cognitivos, afetivos, sociais, profissionais, éticos, espirituais e buscando o encorajamento para que cada estudante possa desenvolver os próprios talentos, num clima de cooperação e de solidariedade; visa promover a pesquisa científica como empenho rigoroso em relação à verdade, com a consciência dos limites do conhecimento humano, mas também com uma grande abertura da mente e do coração; quer educar para o respeito pelas ideias, a abertura ao confronto, a capacidade de discutir e colaborar num espírito de liberdade e de atenção pela pessoa.
Educação confessional presbiteriana: do pragmatismo protestante ao calvinismo, um longo caminho
Authors: Gomes Antonio Maspoli de Araujo
Published: May 2018

O sistema Mackenzie de Ensino surge em 1870 com o nascimento da Escola Americana, uma instituição paroquial, calvinista confessional. A confessionalidade, contudo, é implantada somente pela reforma dos Estatutos da Universidade, em 1999, quando o nome Universidade Mackenzie é mudado para Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie. A partir da análise da literatura, os objetivos deste artigo são: a) inventariar as raízes históricas da educação protestante presbiteriana; b) analisar o processo de transformação recente da educação presbiteriana, na Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie, de educação pragmática para educação confessional. O método de pesquisa utilizado é o histórico crítico combinado com princípios da observação participante.
Traços pagãos no discurso da Teologia da Prosperidade
Authors: Dusilek Sérgio Ricardo Gonçalves
Published: May 2018

O objetivo deste artigo é evidenciar, a partir dos estudos de Erich Auerbach, a alegoria e o modelo figural da interpretação bíblica e os traços pagãos presentes na Teologia da Prosperidade. Para tanto, se fará uso da crítica literária, ressaltando como esta percebe nuanças do texto bíblico voltadas para a estruturação dos personagens, do ambiente em que estão inseridos e que contribuem para a manifestação do sublime, contrastando com o discurso da Teologia da Prosperidade. Dessa feita, as noções e disparidades de conceitos referentes ao caráter do herói e modelagem dos personagens, a perspectiva da vitória, o uso da alegoria e as visões sobre consumação entre o Cristianismo e o paganismo serão abordadas nesse texto. Ao final é proposta uma provocação: o que cresce no Brasil é o cristianismo ou o paganismo?
A paz de Cristo seja contigo! Uma reflexão sobre violência e liturgia no Brasil
Authors: Adam Júlio Cézar
Published: May 2018

A Teologia Prática é a reflexão da práxis teológica, a partir da práxis e para a práxis, o que a coloca frente ao desafio de apontar pistas de como lidar com a violência e não apenas incluí-la no discurso teológico. Pretende-se neste artigo, portanto, refletir sobre a relação entre violência e liturgia, apontando tais pistas possíveis, no contexto brasileiro. O culto cristão como ação simbólica-representativa do Evangelho (Schleiermacher), nas diferentes tradições confessionais, reúne pessoas que experimentam as mais diferentes formas de violência. Mesmo assim, o culto corre o risco de celebrar ao largo da violência cotidiana, ou de camuflá-la ou ainda de reforçá-la. Quais são as possibilidades de enfrentamento e alternativa à violência na e a partir da liturgia, é algo que se procura tratar aqui. A metodologia utilizada é a de revisão bibliográfica, através da qual se busca, por um lado, apresentar aspectos do contexto da violência e, por outro lado, se busca analisar a função da liturgia e do culto cristão frente à violência. Na primeira parte do artigo, trata-se os complexos meandros da violência, principalmente a violência no contexto brasileiro. Na segunda parte, reflete-se sobre a relação entre violência e liturgia, principalmente analisando a teoria de Ernst Lange, sobre a função do culto de propiciar identidade, distância, celebração e festa, para, por fim, apresentar as possibilidades concretas da liturgia como alternativa à violência, analisando alguns dos elementos e formas que constituem a liturgia cristã. Ao longo do artigo, alguns filmes brasileiros são referidos como ilustração, descrevendo brevemente aspectos da narrativa dos filmes e traçando paralelos com o contexto.
Feminist practical theology and (un)making structural violence against immigrant women and families
Authors: Johnson Susanne
Published: May 2018

A key thesis of this essay is that exploration of the construct of structural violence—especially as iterated in Johan Galtung’s notion of the triangle of violence—can help elucidate the theological concept of systemic or social sin, and thereby help Christians generate a more adequate ethical response to issues and dilemmas in immigration debates in the U.S. today. The notion of structural evil and sin can proffer insight into the reality of complex webs and entanglements in structural violence that enshrouds the lives and journeys of unauthorized Latino/a immigrants into the United States, and into the role of U.S. citizens in perpetuating such violence. Structural violence, seen theologically as social sin, is a conceptual key to “critical seeing” of political, social, legal, and economic structures and policies that drive forced economic immigration in the first place, and also to exposing the moral oblivion and blindness that thwarts the church from offering hospitality and justice to unauthorized immigrants. I argue that because structural violence originates in the vastly unequal distribution of power and privilege among human agents, which systematically advantages elite power brokers at the expense of people on the lowest rungs of society, then repentance from structural violence must entail collective efforts toward redistributing power, and ensuring more equitable access to resources needed for human flourishing. The primary practice and discipline dedicated to this radical task is faith-based community organizing.
Cryo-EM structure of the adenosine A2A receptor coupled to an engineered heterotrimeric G protein
Authors: García-Nafría Javier , Lee Yang , Bai Xiaochen , Carpenter Byron , Tate Christopher G
Published: May 2018

The adenosine A2A receptor (A2AR) is a prototypical G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) that couples to the heterotrimeric G protein GS. Here, we determine the structure by electron cryo-microscopy (cryo-EM) of A2AR at pH 7.5 bound to the small molecule agonist NECA and coupled to an engineered heterotrimeric G protein, which contains mini-GS, the βγ subunits and nanobody Nb35. Most regions of the complex have a resolution of ~3.8 Å or better. Comparison with the 3.4 Å resolution crystal structure shows that the receptor and mini-GS are virtually identical and that the density of the side chains and ligand are of comparable quality. However, the cryo-EM density map also indicates regions that are flexible in comparison to the crystal structures, which unexpectedly includes regions in the ligand binding pocket. In addition, an interaction between intracellular loop 1 of the receptor and the β subunit of the G protein was observed.
Cyclic compressive loading activates angiotensin II type 1 receptor in articular chondrocytes and stimulates hypertrophic differentiation through a G‐protein‐dependent pathway
Authors: Nakamura Fumihisa , Tsukamoto Ichiro , Inoue Shinji , Hashimoto Kazuhiko , Akagi Masao
Published: May 2018

Angiotensin II type 1 receptor (AT1R) appears to have a mechanosensing function in a number of cell types. The purpose of this study was to examine whether AT1R expressed in articular chondrocytes is involved in osteoarthritis (OA) progression in vivo and whether cyclic compressive loading activates the AT1R and stimulates hypertrophic differentiation of chondrocytes in vitro. The relationships between the modified Mankin score for cartilage degeneration and the expression of AT1R and type X collagen (Col X) were studied in mouse knees with OA induced using the destabilization‐of‐medial‐meniscus model. Cyclic compressive loads were applied to cultured bovine articular chondrocytes in three‐dimensional agarose scaffolds. Expression of Col X and runt‐related transcription factor 2 (Runx2) was analyzed using RT‐PCR and western blotting. We dissected the downstream pathway for intracellular signal transductions of AT1R including G‐protein‐dependent and G‐protein‐independent pathways. Positive significant correlations between the Mankin score and the rate of AT1R‐immunopositive cells and between the rates of AT1R and Col X expression were noted. The expression of Col X and Runx2 was increased by compressive loading but suppressed by addition of olmesartan, an Ang II receptor blocker, to the agarose scaffolds. Compressive loading upregulated the phosphorylation of c‐Jun N‐terminal kinase (JNK), Src, and STAT1, but olmesartan significantly suppressed only JNK phosphorylation. We conclude that AT1R expressed by articular chondrocytes may be involved in OA progression in vivo. Mechanical stress can activate AT1R and stimulate hypertrophic differentiation of chondrocytes through the G‐protein‐dependent pathway. AT1R has a mechanosensing function in chondrocytes and may be a new therapeutic target in OA.
Adams,JohnQuincy (1767–1848)
Authors: Edel Charles
Published: May 2018

John Quincy Adams (1767–1848) was the leading American diplomat and strategist of the nineteenth century. Appointed as the American minister to Holland at the age of twenty‐seven, he worked in the foreign service under presidents Washington, Adams, and Madison. He served as secretary of state for eight years under Monroe, shaped the Monroe Doctrine, and is credited with extending American borders to the Pacific. Elected president in 1824, he served one term before being defeated by Andrew Jackson. Following his defeat, he served as a Massachusetts Congressman for the final seventeen years of his life.
B
aker,
J
ames (1930–)
Authors: de Groot Michael
Published: May 2018

As secretary of state (1989–92) under George H. W. Bush, James A. Baker III served as the American chief diplomat during a transformative era in international history. Baker helped manage the end of the Cold War in Europe and played a leading role in ensuring that the United States would have a dominant position in the post‐Cold War world.
BalkanWars (1912–13)
Authors: Brennan Christopher
Published: May 2018

The Balkan Wars (1912–13) arose from the desire of former Ottoman territories in the Balkans – now independent, nationalistic, land‐hungry countries: Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania – to carve up the remainder of the empire's European possessions among themselves. The first war was a swift success for the coalition, but disappointments (such as the creation of an independent Albania by the Great Powers) and disputes over the sharing of the spoils resulted in Bulgaria's attacking its former allies to secure land it considered rightfully its own, chiefly the region of Macedonia. Bulgaria was briskly undone in this second war and forced to sign the punishing Treaty of Bucharest. With the Ottoman Empire, it was the great loser of these conflicts. Thus, in 1914, tensions and resentment in the Balkans still ran high, and the result of the Balkan Wars largely determined the behavior of its participants during the First World War.
Barbaro,Ermolao (1453/4–93)
Authors: Maxson Brian Jeffrey
Published: May 2018

Ermolao Barbaro (1453/4–93) was a patrician and diplomat from Venice in the later fifteenth century. His short life meant that he enjoyed only a modest diplomatic career. His major contribution to the history of diplomacy is his short treatise,On the Office of the Diplomat(c. 1489–93), which was the first European treatment devoted to the resident ambassador, a then new development in European diplomacy.
B
erlin
C
risis (1958–61)
Authors: Colman Jonathan
Published: May 2018

Late in 1958 Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev – motivated by a variety of concerns that included large‐scale migration from the German Democratic Republic – threatened the American, British, and French military presence in West Berlin. The Western powers were unwilling to withdraw because to do so would represent a major Cold War victory for the Soviet Union. The result was an intermittent crisis which ended in August 1961, when the communist authorities built a wall around West Berlin, ending the refugee problem. Nevertheless, there were still tensions over Berlin until access arrangements for the Western allies were agreed in 1971.
Bretton Woods Conference (1944)
Authors: Thomson Erik
Published: May 2018

The United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference, better known as Bretton Woods for the New Hampshire hotel where it took place in July 1944, represented a crucial step in the Allies' plan to develop institutions intended to prevent economic instability after the Second World War. It established the International Monetary Fund and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, which became the core of the World Bank. The agreement reflected the economic dominance of the United States by making the US dollar's convertibility to gold the keystone of the international financial system. This system hoped to use pegged, but adjustable, exchange rates and restricted capital flows to minimize balance‐of‐payments deficits and prevent competitive currency devaluation. When the United States accrued persistent trade deficits, the system broke down, and in August 1971 Richard Nixon ended the system by unilaterally ending the conversion of US dollars to gold. Nonetheless, the Bretton Woods institutions continue to support international economic cooperation.
C
heney,
R
ichard (1941–)
Authors: Rakove Robert B.
Published: May 2018

Richard “Dick” Cheney (1941–) is best known as the vice president of George W. Bush between 2001 and 2009, yet his importance to the history of US foreign relations extends much further. A key actor in the Ford presidency, a powerful legislator during the Reagan years, and secretary of defense in the first Bush presidency, Cheney was both capable and adaptive. Nevertheless, his choices during the second Bush White House – particularly those related to the invasion and occupation of Iraq, and the adoption of torture – have proved most fateful, and divisive.
Cixi (1835–1908)
Authors: Adams Christa
Published: May 2018

Empress Dowager Cixi (1835–1908) was born in Beijing to a bureaucrat family of the Yehenara clan. Selected as a concubine for the Xianfeng Emperor (1831–61) at age sixteen, Cixi was the only imperial consort to bear a surviving male heir, Zaichun, later the Tongzhi Emperor (1856–75). Following the death of the Xianfeng Emperor in 1861, Cixi, along with her cousin, the Empress Dowager Ci'an (1837–81), staged the Xinyou coup with two of the deceased Xianfeng Emperor's younger brothers, Prince Gong (1833–98) and Prince Chun (1840–91). The coup enabled Cixi to style herself and Ci'an as regents for the Tongzhi Emperor, displacing the presumed advisers, the eight regents. Although both Cixi and Ci'an served as regents, Cixi possessed greater interest in politics. She effectively governed the Qing Empire from “behind the screen” through both the reign of her son, the Tongzhi Emperor and, following his death, that of her nephew the Guangxu Emperor (1871–1908).
Clinton,Bill (1946–)
Authors: Boys James D.
Published: May 2018

As president of the United States, Bill Clinton (1946–) led diplomatic efforts in Haiti, Bosnia, Northern Ireland, Iran, and Iraq and pursued peace talks in the Middle East. Working with Madeleine Albright, George Mitchell, and Richard Holbrooke, Clinton repeatedly prioritized diplomatic solutions over armed conflict.
Congress of Vienna (1815)
Authors: Orgill Nathan N.
Published: May 2018

Together with the two treaties of Paris – concluded in May 1814 and November 1815 respectively – the Congress of Vienna framed the general peace settlement that ended the long period of international conflict stemming from the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. The international conference met from October 1814 until June 1815 and was presided over by the most important statesmen of the age representing the four victorious Great Powers as well as France. It decided the major outlines of the postwar territorial settlement in central and eastern Europe, ensuring Prussia, Russia, and Austria annexed new territories and populations as compensation for their part in the wars, while Britain primarily gained new colonial territories outside of the Continent. The gathering is often viewed as a long‐term success, in that it balanced the interests of the Great Powers and created lasting mechanisms to preserve peace up through the middle of the nineteenth century.
Congress System
Authors: Goldsmith Thomas
Published: May 2018

Following the final conclusion of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars in 1815, the leading powers sought a new mode of conducting international business to prevent a repeat of the horrors of war and revolution. The Congress System was that attempt. Based on no clear legal foundation, with each of its participants having their own definitions of its role and purpose, the Congress System lasted from the Congress of Vienna in 1815, through to the Congress of Verona in 1822. It formed the first deliberate attempt to forge a new style of international relations to prevent the domination of a single power while avoiding the confrontational aspects of the operation of the balance of power. It sought to do this through face‐to‐face meetings of the leading statesmen with the aim of removing causes of confusion and disagreement between the Great Powers.
DalaiLama
Authors: McConnell Fiona
Published: May 2018

As the spiritual and political leader of Tibet the Dalai Lama is a key diplomatic figure and, due to political turmoil in Tibet since the 1950s, the diplomatic role of the current, fourteenth, Dalai Lama has been of heightened significance compared to his predecessors. He met with Mao Zedong in 1954, negotiated the settlement of Tibetan refugees in India with Jawaharlal Nehru, has a significant international presence in advocating for world peace, and is instrumental to ongoing Sino‐Tibetan relations.
Diplomacy, The Arts, and Popular Culture
Authors: Neumann Iver B.
Published: May 2018

Diplomacy usually takes place in settings that are constructed not only with a view to functionality, but also to beauty. Beauty lends status and ambiance to diplomatic sites. The first part of this entry discusses the use of art by diplomats. The second part discusses how diplomacy is represented in popular culture and art. Since very few people have first‐hand knowledge of diplomacy, and diplomacy as such is rarely given much exposure in the news, most people owe their understanding of diplomacy to representations of diplomacy in popular culture and the arts. These representations have legitimacy effects. They feed back into how diplomats represent themselves to the public and, by extension, into how politicians represent issues to the public. In this sense, representations of diplomacy have an indirect constitutive effect on diplomacy.
Disarmament Conferences (1932–37)
Authors: Webster Andrew
Published: May 2018

The World Disarmament Conference (1932–34) and the Second London Naval Conference (1935–36) were the final two parts of the long interwar effort to achieve meaningful international disarmament, for both ultimately failed in their main purposes. The World Disarmament Conference brought to an end the League of Nations disarmament process launched in 1920 under the terms of the Versailles treaty and Article 8 of the League Covenant; the Second London Naval Conference marked an attempt at private negotiations among the major maritime powers (Britain, the United States, and Japan) launched in 1921–22 at the Washington Naval Conference to control arms competition at sea. As a result, this period was defined by a decisive shift on the part of all the main powers towards conceiving of their security in terms of military rearmament rather than negotiated disarmament.
Grew,Joseph (1880–1965)
Authors: Doenecke Justus D.
Published: May 2018

Joseph Clark Grew (1880–1965) entered the State Department in 1910, serving before World WarIIin Mexico City, St. Petersburg, Berlin, and Vienna. Successive activities included Germany as embassy counselor, Austria‐Hungary as chargé in Vienna, and acting chief of the department's Division of Western European Affairs. During the Paris Peace Conference he was secretary to theUSCommission. Then followed ministerial posts in Denmark (1920) and Switzerland. After being undersecretary of state, he was made ambassador to Turkey (1927–32). From 1931 to 1941, he was ambassador to Japan. In this post he continually sought to reduce tensions, but warned the Japanese that continued expansion would lead to conflict with the United States. In 1942 he became director of the department's Division of Far Eastern Affairs and in 1944–45 he served as undersecretary of state.
KashmirDispute since 1947
Authors: Constable Philip
Published: May 2018

The Kashmir conflict was a legacy of the partition of India in 1947. Both India and Pakistan claimed sovereignty over Kashmir leading to war in 1947–48, 1965, and 1999, as well as to its relevance in the secession of Bangladesh in 1971. The Kashmir conflict drew international attention during the Cold War as the United States, USSR, and China sought to have strategic influence in South Asia, while preferring not to be militarily involved. Within this dispute, Kashmir pursued its own autonomy and independence of regional power interference from the late 1940s. This movement, initially under the National Conference Party led by Sheikh Abdullah, turned into the militant insurgency of the Jammu‐Kashmir Liberation Front in the 1980s. Kashmir reflects the difficulties that India and Pakistan have experienced since 1947 in terms of nationalist secession and the increasingly militant measures that nationalist insurgencies have taken for autonomy and independence.
Literature andDiplomacy
Authors: Rossiter William T.
Published: May 2018

The relationships between literature and diplomacy are plural, ancient, and reciprocal. This entry examines the history of those relationships from the fourteenth century to the present day, from the end of feudalism and the birth of humanism, and the ambassadorial practices attendant upon each, to present‐day international relations and literary responses to diplomatic handling of global terrorism. The entry focuses in its first section on the figure of the author‐diplomat, turning to the products of those figures in the second section, which considers representations and imitations of diplomats, diplomatic process, and diplomatic rhetoric. Genres of literary diplomacy are suggested (for example, lyric, dramatic, romantic) in order to trace specific traditions of representation.
Locarno Agreements (1925)
Authors: Johnson Gaynor
Published: May 2018

The Locarno agreements, signed in October 1925, by Britain, France, Germany, and Italy are seen as a highpoint in European diplomatic relations after the First World War. They were a series of security pacts that, among other things, outlawed war for thirty years and reconfirmed the territorial settlement between Germany, France, and Belgium as defined by the peace settlements at the end of the First World War. However, the significance of these agreements has been brought into question by recent scholarship on interwar international history.
Mehmed the Conqueror (1432–81)
Authors: Işiksel Güneş
Published: May 2018

One of the most intriguing Renaissance figures and mightiest rulers of Islamicate realms, Mehmed II (1432–81) was the seventh Ottoman ruler. After a brief co‐regency with his father between 1444 and 1446, he reigned without interruption for three decades, from 1451 to 1481. During this period he not only strengthened his dynasty's rule over patchy territories disseminated in Anatolia and the Balkans, but also pushed the frontiers of his polity to the middle Danube and to the Euphrates in order to create a solid empire. His by‐name is due to the conquest of Constantinople as well as his successful military undertakings in Asia Minor and southeastern Europe.
Nehru,Jawaharlal (1889–1964)
Authors: Mukherjee Mithi
Published: May 2018

Jawaharlal Nehru (1889–1964) was the first prime minister of independent India and also its foreign minister from 1947 to 1964. One of Mahatma Gandhi's closest aides, Nehru became a leading spokesman for the Indian National Congress in the anti‐colonial movement against British rule. After independence, India, under Nehru's leadership, played a prominent role on the world stage, particularly in organizations such as the United Nations and the Commonwealth of Nations, as the voice of non‐violence, anti‐colonialism, and anti‐racism. Nehru also played a key role in creating the Non‐Aligned Movement that became a crucial forum in the Cold War era for articulating the concerns of postcolonial Asian and African nations, and for advocating the cause of world peace. Nehru's commitment to his ideals was tested severely in the realm of foreign policy with the eruption of hostilities with Pakistan over Kashmir in 1947 and a border war with China in 1962.
Neurath, Baron Constantine von (1873–1956)
Authors: Zander Patrick G.
Published: May 2018

Baron Constantine von Neurath (1873–1956) served as the first foreign minister in the Nazi regime under Adolf Hitler. From January 1933 to February 1938 Neurath served in this capacity and was a prominent voice in Germany's withdrawal from the League of Nations, the remilitarization of the Rhineland, and the Czech Crisis of 1938. He is a controversial figure because while he served the Nazi regime out of a sense of patriotic duty, he was not an enthusiastic Nazi (only joining the party in 1937) and generally tried to be a restraining influence on Hitler's instinctive aggression and radicalism. Despite his aversion to war and his attempts to prevent conflict, his deep involvement in Nazi expansionism resulted in his conviction as a war criminal at Nuremburg.
Anglo‐Norman Treaties
Authors: Oksanen Eljas
Published: May 2018

The union of England and Normandy following the Norman Conquest of 1066 gave rise to a situation where the kings of England also had claims to significant territories in France. The diplomatic efforts the Anglo‐Normans used to safeguard and expand their possessions are famously represented by a sequence of treaties between the kings of England and their neighbors the counts of Flanders. Those concluded in 1101, 1110, and 1163 are the oldest English treaty documents to survive in the original, and other sources reveal they are part of a longer series of agreements extending from 1066 to the late twelfth century. The treaties sought to secure the political and military assistance of the counts with an annual money fief, and exemplify the economic and political transformations of the central Middle Ages that led to the increasing use of paid soldiers.
Nuclear Non‐Proliferation Treaty (1970)
Authors: Rubinson Paul
Published: May 2018

The Nuclear Non‐Proliferation Treaty (NPT) was an attempt by the superpowers to limit the spread of nuclear weapons during the Cold War. It was also an attempt by the non‐aligned nations to protect themselves from aggression at the hands of the nuclear powers, as well as secure for themselves access to peaceful nuclear technology. The ratification of the treaty is largely understood as initiating the era of détente, though the creation of the treaty involved placating the conflicting demands of the Soviet Union, NATO, the Third World, and various US constituencies. The treaty remains in effect today, though its existence is tenuous and its effects ambiguous.
Old Diplomacy
Authors: Leira Halvard
Published: May 2018

Old diplomacy is a term which has been used both politically and analytically since the French Revolution. Politically, it emerged as a term of abuse, used to criticize all which had been wrong with interstate interaction before 1789, in particular secrecy, duplicity, and the reliance on aristocracy. Thus, it was often contrasted with a desired new diplomacy. Political versions of the term have persisted until the present day, although the target changed. A particular spike in criticism happened in 1918–20, when old diplomacy was blamed for the outbreak of the Great War. Analytically, old diplomacy has been used to refer more neutrally to earlier forms of diplomacy. This usage emerged in the nineteenth century, but has been more prevalent from the middle of the twentieth century.
Olympiodorus of Thebes (early 5th centuryce)
Authors: Lee A. D.
Published: May 2018

Olympiodorus of Thebes was a poet and historian in the early fifth centuryCEwhose good education and contacts provided opportunities for him to participate in a number of imperial embassies from Constantinople, including one to the Huns. His career exemplifies the important role of non‐specialists in the diplomacy of this period, while the surviving portions of his history provide valuable evidence about the Roman Empire's dealings with various neighbors.
Partition ofIndia
Authors: Fraser T. G.
Published: May 2018

The partition of Britain's Indian Empire in 1947 brought into being the new states of India and Pakistan, ending almost two centuries of British domination of the subcontinent. It was accompanied by one of the greatest mass movements in modern history and the slaughter of vast numbers of Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs, with abiding consequences for the region. In 1971 Pakistan split with the independence of Bangladesh.
Renaissance Diplomacy
Authors: Quaglioni Diego
Published: May 2018

It is undeniable that many signs of discontinuity with the forms and practices of international relations in the medieval world can be traced back to the end of the fifteenth and the beginning of the sixteenth century. According to one of the best historical works of the past century on the rise of modern diplomacy, Garrett Mattingly'sRenaissance Diplomacy, first published in 1955, the main change in Renaissance European diplomacy was represented by the invention of the resident ambassadors in fifteenth‐century Italy and consequently by the development of diplomatic professionalization. Although challenged by different arguments expressed by more recent historians, the strength of Mattingly's thesis resides in its ability to provide a convincing overview of the factors that characterized an age of transformation in European international relations into the construction of a community of sovereign states.
R
oosevelt,
T
heodore (1858–1919)
Authors: Barber Christopher Ernest
Published: May 2018

Theodore Roosevelt (1858–1919) was president of the United States of America from 1901 to 1909. His personal exuberance corresponded in all matters with his own foreign policy outlook, resulting in a seismic shift in the United States' position in world affairs. Roosevelt focused most of the attention of his presidency on foreign policy. He exemplified a more muscular projection of American power in the early twentieth century by consolidating its imperial interests, opening up international trade to American business, and proactively enforcing American interests.
Sforza,Francesco (1401–66)
Authors: Senatore Francesco
Published: May 2018

The mercenary Francesco Sforza (1401–66) was Duke of Milan from 1450. Sforza's claim to an important place in the history of modern European diplomacy is based on the fact that he was the first to make systematic use of resident ambassadors, basing his political and military action on the gathering of information from emissaries, friends, and spies in many Italian and European states. His chancery followed the regularity and secrecy of correspondence in minute detail. Sforza spoke about himself as the “master of information” (“signore delle novelle”): his ambassadors were not to divulge information without his authorization. Copies of their letters (sometimes faked) were used for propaganda purposes.
TheodosiusII(401–450)
Authors: Nechaeva Ekaterina
Published: May 2018

The diplomacy of Theodosius II (401–450) was mostly determined by two fronts: Persia on the east, and the Huns in the Balkans. Confrontations with the Vandals in Africa, though occasionally requiring East Roman military presence, mostly remained the responsibility of the West Roman government. Relations with Persia throughout the reign of Theodosius II were mainly peaceful, military conflicts were short and relatively successful for the Romans, while diplomatic efforts were focused on safeguarding the safety of groups of Christians under Persian control. An agreement to share the financial burden of defending the passes in the Caucasian Mountains from nomadic raids was reached between Theodosius II and Yazdagard II.

The Hunnic front was the major challenge for East Roman diplomacy. Agreements with the dangerous Hun empire forced the Romans to make payments to keep the peace. Continuing threats to the Balkans and the increasing demands of Attila resulted in an unsuccessful assassination attempt on the Hun leader. When clandestine diplomacy failed, Theodosius had to act flexibly, adjusting the rules and acknowledging an important shift in priorities, placing the Huns at the forefront of imperial partners.
Treaty ofPhilinus
Authors: Hoyos Dexter
Published: May 2018

The Sicilian historian Philinus of Acragas (Agigrento), writing in the late third centurybce, asserted that a treaty between Rome and Carthage bound the Romans to keep away from Sicily and the Carthaginians from Italy: therefore Rome's military intervention in the island in summer 264bcein effect made her guilty of provoking the First Punic War. Although the Greek historian Polybius, around 150bce, rejected the treaty's existence, the issue remains strenuously debated, shading into the larger question of the nature of Roman imperialism.
US
–
J
apan Treaty of Commerce and Navigation (1911)
Authors: McAvoy Shawn
Published: May 2018

The US–Japan Treaty of Commerce and Navigation (1911) superseded the 1894 treaty, which Japan had terminated due to its restrictive immigration clauses, and in order to renegotiate all unequal treaties with the Western powers. In the United States, the new treaty encountered stiff resistance from Western states, particularly California, which feared a significant increase in the numbers of Japanese immigrants. The treaty went into effect on July 17, 1911. During the treaty's lifetime, multiple crises threatened its termination, including the California land law 1913, the Japan–China Treaty 1915, the Russo‐Japanese Treaty 1916, and the US Immigration Act 1924. The Second Sino‐Japanese War (1936–45) ultimately proved fatal. Public and congressional unease at the exportation of goods to a power aggressively expanding into China, along with Japanese violations of US property and citizens in Japanese‐occupied territories, ultimately led to Washington abrogating the treaty, which ceased on January 26, 1940.
W
olsey,
C
ardinal (1470/74–1530)
Authors: Richardson Glenn
Published: May 2018

Cardinal Wolsey (1470/74–1530) was Henry VIII's principal foreign policy adviser between 1512 and 1529. He was a masterly diplomatic tactician but fell from power when the papacy refused to grant Henry an annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon.
ABMTreaty (1972)
Authors: Johnson Edward
Published: May 2018

The Anti‐Ballistic Missile Treaty (ABM Treaty) signed in Moscow in May 1972 by the Soviet Union and the United States represented the first occasion in which the two superpowers agreed to limit a range of nuclear weapons. Anti‐ballistic missiles are part of a defense system to protect a state against nuclear attack by intercepting incoming missiles from hitting the homeland territory. The ABM Treaty was signed because the technical difficulties, cost, and strategic implications of deploying them undermined their utility in the eyes of American and Soviet policy‐makers. In particular, such systems threatened the stability of the nuclear deterrent relationship, Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD) between the United States and the Soviet Union by jeopardizing the certainty that in the event of one state launching a nuclear strike it would be open to retaliatory nuclear destruction by its enemy. The possibility of successfully defending one's homeland against a retaliatory nuclear strike undercut deterrence and made ABMs a strategic liability.
AlabamaDispute (1862–72)
Authors: Barber Christopher Ernest
Published: May 2018

From 1862 to 1872, theAlabamadispute was a pivotal episode in Anglo‐American relations. During the US Civil War, Britain declared its neutrality between the contending Union forces and the Confederacy. However, a number of Confederate commerce raiders like theAlabamawere built in British shipyards thereby violating the laws of neutrality. In order to avoid deteriorating relations, both states agreed to the Treaty of Washington in 1871, which provided for four separate arbitrations as well as an expression of official regret on the part of the British for their lack of diligence regarding the commerce raiders. The subsequent arbitration of theAlabamaclaims by an international tribunal in Geneva from 1871 to 1872 marked a new epoch in international law. It strengthened the laws of neutrality and brought public attention to the potential usage of international arbitration.
Cavour,Camillo (1810–61)
Authors: Wright Owain
Published: May 2018

Camillo Cavour (1810–61) was the chief architect of a united Italy. While Mazzini might have been more energetic in promoting the ideal, and although Garibaldi might have played a more memorable role in its realization, it was Cavour who did more than any other individual to create certain opportunities and to exploit others, in order to realize the dream of Italian nationalists. It is unlikely that Cavour considered a completely united Italy to be a realistic prospect until the process of unification was well underway, but through his utterly unscrupulous diplomacy and his astute statecraft, he made possible the overthrow of the Italian system established by the Congress of Vienna in 1815. As the first prime minister of the new kingdom of Italy proclaimed in 1861, Cavour then determined the constitutional and administrative structure of the new state, as well as setting the course for its future direction.
CubanMissileCrisis (1962)
Authors: Johnson Edward
Published: May 2018

The crisis began in mid‐October 1962 when the Americans became aware that the Soviet Union was deploying nuclear weapons on the island of Cuba, ninety miles from theUSmainland. The Kennedy administration refused to accept this situation and took steps to force their removal using a naval quarantine to prevent further Soviet deliveries of missiles and preparing for air strikes and an invasion should the missiles not be removed, a course of action which would almost certainly have led to a nuclear war between the two superpowers. The crisis ended on October 28 when the Soviet Union agreed to the removal of the nuclear weapons on the island. Neither before nor since has the world come as close as it did in those thirteen days to a nuclear war.
Hitler,Adolf (1889–1945)
Authors: Colman Jonathan
Published: May 2018

Adolf Hitler (1889–1945) brought particular dynamism and aggression to the conduct of German foreign policy. Within a few years of securing power in 1933, he had overthrown the Versailles Treaty, reestablished Germany as the leading European state, and had embarked on a path of territorial expansion in the east. Historians have debated whether he had a clear plan for German expansion which he implemented systematically, or if he was merely exploiting external opportunities aimlessly in response to domestic pressures. The truth lies somewhere between the two views, with Hitler best understood as combining flexible methods with consistent goals. Any pressures from within the Nazi state pushed him in a broad direction he was always determined to travel.
Lansdowne,Lord (1845–1927)
Authors: Menning Ralph
Published: May 2018

Lord Lansdowne (1845–1927) was British foreign secretary (1900–5) in the period when the power blocs of the First World War first took on their contours. Though Lansdowne was the chief British architect of the Anglo‐French entente cordiale, he did not intend to tie Britain to France invariably; such an alignment would have been inimical to his conception of the international “system.” Returning to the British government (1915–16) during the First World War, Lansdowne showed foresight and considerable courage in proposing – first to the government and then to the public – a negotiated, as opposed to a victor's, peace.
C
hamberlain,
N
eville (1869–1940)
Authors: Stone Glyn
Published: May 2018

Neville Chamberlain (1869–1940) pursued the appeasement of Nazi Germany to bring about a lasting European settlement based on peaceful diplomacy and reconciliation but not at any price. As early as 1934 he identified Germany as the potential number one enemy and in the following years endorsed an accelerating defense program based on a long war strategy, priority until 1939 being given to the Royal Air Force and Royal Navy. After several years of British governments failing to find confirmation of Hitler's ultimate intentions, Chamberlain was able to extract his promise that he was only interested in the unification of the German‐speaking peoples and in peaceful negotiation as the way forward in international diplomacy. In agreeing to the Munich settlement Chamberlain had fulfilled the chiefs of staff advice to postpone war for as long as possible while Britain continued to rearm. As war leader Chamberlain refused to consider any peace terms while Hitler remained in power and avoided conflict with the Soviet Union both before and after the outbreak of the Russo‐Finnish War, taking chiefs of staff advice not to create a further front on which to fight the war. He resigned as prime minister in early May 1940 and was succeeded by Winston Churchill. As Lord President of the Council in Churchill's War Cabinet, Chamberlain remained opposed to any consideration of surrender.