bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Gen-Z Vs. Vaping
Authors: Dimentberg Evan , Dimentberg Evan
Published: September 2020

Vaping is a fairly new trend. Generation Z’s overconsumption of these products can lead to serious health
problems in the future. The purpose of this article is to understand why vaping is prevalent. Furthermore,
the article analyses gen-Z’s perception of vaping and compares it to their actual habits. All data was taken
from an independent online survey unless stated otherwise and can be accessed at the end of this document.
Observations of cetaceans off southern Sri Lanka, April 2007–2013
Authors: Anderson R. C. , Alagiyawadu A.
Published: September 2020

Cetaceans were observed off the South coast of Sri Lanka in the month of April, every year over a seven-year period, 2007–13. During 48 days atsea a total of 290 cetacean sightings were recorded. Blue whales were abundant, accounting for 61% (n = 177) of all sightings. This concentrationof blue whales was predicted and discovered based on a migration hypothesis and there was evidence of the expected net westward movement inApril. Nevertheless, most blue whales seen were not obviously on passage and many appeared to be feeding. Mothers with calves and likelyreproductive behaviour (breaching and rushing) were also observed. There were five sightings of Bryde’s-type whales (B. brydei/edeni); four wereidentified as B. brydei, one was identified as B. edeni. Sperm whales were sighted 16 times within a narrow band centred just outside the 1,000misobath. Modal group size was 10–12; based on size most individuals appeared to be mature females or immatures. Spinner dolphin (n = 35 sightings)was the most abundant species, accounting for 67% of all cetaceans seen by number of individuals. They were frequently associated with tuna andseabirds. Risso’s dolphin was only seen once, despite being reported as common around Sri Lanka in the early 1980s. They were taken in largenumbers by local fisheries, which may have reduced local abundance. Other species recorded were: dwarf sperm whale (n = 3 sightings); shortfinnedpilot whale (n = 3); common bottlenose dolphin (n = 9); Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin (n = 3); pantropical spotted dolphin (n = 4); andstriped dolphin (n = 4). Since the discovery of blue whales off southern Sri Lanka, commercial whale watching centred on the fishing port of Mirissahas developed rapidly, bringing new revenue to the region but also the potential for disturbance to the whales.
Best practice guidelines for cetacean tagging
Authors: Andrews Russel D. , Baird Robin W. , Calambokidis John , Goertz Caroline E. C. , Gulland Frances M. D. , Heide-Jorgensen Mads Peter , Hooker Sascha K. , Johnson Mark , Mate Bruce , Mitani Yoko , Nowacek Douglas P. , Owen Kylie , Quakenbush Lori T. , Raverty Stephen , Robbins Jooke , Schorr Gregory S. , Shpak Olga V. , Townsend Jr. Forrest I. , Uhart Marcela , Wells Randall S. , Zerbini Alexandre N.
Published: September 2020

Animal-borne electronic instruments (tags) are valuable tools for collecting information on cetacean physiology, behaviour and ecology, and forenhancing conservation and management policies for cetacean populations. Tags allow researchers to track the movement patterns, habitat use andother aspects of the behaviour of animals that are otherwise difficult to observe. They can even be used to monitor the physiology of a taggedanimal within its changing environment. Such tags are ideal for identifying and predicting responses to anthropogenic threats, thus facilitating thedevelopment of robust mitigation measures. With the increasing need for data best provided by tagging and the increasing availability of tags, suchresearch is becoming more common. Tagging can, however, pose risks to the health and welfare of cetaceans and to personnel involved in taggingoperations. Here we provide ‘best practice’ recommendations for cetacean tag design, deployment and follow-up assessment of tagged individuals,compiled by biologists and veterinarians with significant experience in cetacean tagging. This paper is intended to serve as a resource to assist tagusers, veterinarians, ethics committees and regulatory agency staff in the implementation of high standards of practice, and to promote the trainingof specialists in this area. Standardised terminology for describing tag design and illustrations of tag types and attachment sites are provided, alongwith protocols for tag testing and deployment (both remote and through capture-release), including training of operators. The recommendationsemphasise the importance of ensuring that tagging is ethically and scientifically justified for a particular project and that tagging only be used toaddress bona fide research or conservation questions that are best addressed with tagging, as supported by an exploration of alternative methods.Recommendations are provided for minimising effects on individual animals (e.g. through careful selection of the individual, tag design and implantsterilisation) and for improving knowledge of tagging effects on cetaceans through increased post-tagging monitoring.
Design and Manufacturing of Leaf and Coil Suspension
Authors: Bose V. Chandra , Rajasimman V. , Prabu R. Gokul , Govind K. Har
Published: September 2020

The suspension system of an automobile separates the wheel/axle assembly from the body. The primary function of the suspension system is to isolate the vehicle structure from shocks and vibration due to irregularities of the road surface and to maintain contact with the surface thereby providing traction and control. Leaf spring is the preferred type of suspension system in almost all light and heavy commercial and transport vehicles. Leaf spring used in many vehicles due to having some main characteristics which are economical construction, uniformly distributed load, simple assembly in the vehicle and forgiving on use in rough terrain. In this paper we would like to take a look on the leaf spring, its design parameters and analysis. The paper is based on material selection, designing, experimental testing and load analysis etc.
Divergent Co-mordibidites of Zika Virus and Microcephaly in Latin America
Authors: Smerdon Victoria Ann , Courage J. Mike , Danielson-Francios Serge
Published: September 2020

Since 2015, a major problem in our society has been the spread of the Zika virus, formally known as ZIKV. ZIKV, originally of African origins, in recent years has spread its way across the Pacific with minor outbreaks before landing in Latin America. The most significant change in ZIKV from discovery is its increasing neurological effects, unique to this disease family. Data has suggested that a pregnant mother having been diagnosed with ZIKV that the child will be subject to congenital disorders as well as Guillain-Barre syndrome. Most notably has been the diagnosis of microcephaly, where a baby is born with an abnormally small head. Some data has suggested a significant increase of rates of microcephaly, but the limitation of small sample sizes and not all populations having been studied prevents a definite conclusion on the effect size of this diagnosis. Therefore, I decided to preform a meta-analysis on existing data sets to determine the likelihood that a child would develop microcephaly, hypothesizing a positive association. My odds ratio did result in a value confirming this confirmation, but because they were statistically insignificant, I had to reject the hypothesis that a pregnant mother’s child would develop microcephaly. I presented alternative hypotheses that there is no association because of genomic changes in the virus or not all of Latin American is feeling the effects of microcephaly at the same extent, with Brazil feeling the effects of the virus the strongest, skewing the data and making researchers overestimate the effects of microcephaly. I hypothesized that Brazil has been assumed to be hardest hit because of possible lack of evaluation on past rates of microcephaly, addition of a pesticide to the water, and the Brazilian population being more genetically susceptible to microcephaly. Further research should study genomic changes in the virus strain and testing the Brazilian population original risk of genetic microcephaly.
Strategies for Grassroots Activism in the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict
Authors: Pathak Riti , Williams Alesia
Published: September 2020

The Israeli-Palestinian conflict is an ongoing crisis originating from the ethno-religious struggle between the Palestinian Arabs and Zionist Jews over the land of Palestine. There have been several attempts to create peace in this conflict, including foreign intervention and aid. However, one of the most overlooked methods is grassroots activism: civilian movements that work for social and political change on a local, regional, or international level. While there have been sociological analyses and other studies conducted on grassroots activism in the conflict, there has been a lack of comprehensive approaches analyzing these qualitative studies and the effectiveness of this activism. Thus, the purpose for this project was to find which strategies were most effective for grassroots movements that focus on creating peace in the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict. It was hypothesized that nonviolent activism would emerge as most effective. A mixed methods approach incorporating both a qualitative meta synthesis and a quantitative frequency analysis was conducted through a thematic synthesis. Line-by-line coding was completed on six journal articles obtained from JSTOR, Academic Search Complete, and Sociological Collection; descriptive and analytical themes based on strategies for grassroots activism were created based on this coding. A statistical analysis was completed displaying the frequency of each strategy coded as low, medium, or high success. Joint activism emerged as the most effective strategy based on the coding completed with 57% coding under high success: this suggests that joint activism should be utilized most often for conflict resolution in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.
Benefits of Music Intervention for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Authors: Hafting Finn Keith , Bezanson Birdie
Published: September 2020

Current literature, (Gold, Wigram, & Elefant, 2006), (Wimpory & Chadwick, 1995), (NRC, 2001), suggests that there is insufficient evidence to predict long-term (P to Grade 12) benefits of music intervention for students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). To understand how music intervention can be employed in Nova Scotian schools, music teachers, music therapists, and staff of the Nova Scotia Department of Education and Early Childhood Development were interviewed. The primary needs of students with ASD were identified as, Expression of thoughts, Language, Motor skills, and Social skills. Music intervention was found to have substantial long-term and short-term benefits for students in all grade levels depending on their individual needs. However, to treat these needs, elements of music and music intervention must be considered during program planning meetings.
A Colorful Impact: The Psychological Impact of Colors
Authors: West Barbie , Silberman Joshua
Published: September 2020

This paper offers an analysis of research done by professionals and studies of said professionals recreated by an undergraduate student. The goal of this research was to identify a connection between colors and emotions. Through tests and surveys, there was a connection indication; however, it is still unknown the exact connection.
Augmenting Performance: Vocal Activity Compared to Presence in the Social Facilitation of Running
Authors: Malik Humza , Flowers Kate
Published: September 2020

Objective The impact of encouragement on performance has been observed in the setting of exercise, but further research is necessary in running. To compare the improvement in pace experienced by subjects of different backgrounds (from a running team, non-running sports team, or no sports team) as a result of active (verbal encouragement) and passive social facilitation, this study was conducted.

Method Eighteen male high school students, age 17.3±0.75 years were recruited for this study, six from each background listed above. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three treatments: external verbal encouragement (EVE), without external verbal encouragement (WEVE), or no presence. Improvement in pace after the introduction of a social facilitator was recorded along with overall consistency in pace. Statistical significance was set at α = 0.10.

Results A significant improvement in short-term pace among subjects from a running team was generated by EVE, t(1) = -5.198, p = 0.0605, and no presence generated a significant improvement in short-term pace among subjects from a non-running sports team, t(1) = -5, p = 0.0669. EVE also generated a significant improvement in long-term pace among subjects from a running team, t(1) = -5.069, p = 0.0620. A conclusion on consistency was not reached.

Conclusion Verbal encouragement saw to long-term and short-term improvement in pace of subjects selected from a running team, while the lack of presence assisted the short-term performance of subjects selected from non-running sports teams. Results obtained offer potential to impact competitive long-distance running.
The Effect of a Biomass Increase on The Carbon Fixation Rates of A. Thaliana
Authors: Lewis Evan , Talarczyk Patricia
Published: September 2020

Arabidopsis Thaliana, a model organism for genetic modification, was tested to discover whether or not a genetic increase in biomass affects the plant’s rate of carbon fixation. An experimental design was employed, involving the testing of the carbon fixation rates from 4 separate experimental groups, genetically modified and a control group, both sterilized and unsterilized. Sterile water and a 50% bleach solution were used for seed sterilization, and once complete, all types of seeds were given a week long cold treatment. After the cold treatment had concluded, these plants were grown on moist fertilized soil, and were watered using a glass tray. Water was added into the flat surface every 2 days, and this nourishment was absorbed by the soil through holes in 4.409 x 3.937 terracotta pots. This absorption allowed for dry soil to remoisten, ultimately providing hydration to A. Thaliana. Growth measurements of the observed largest leaf were taken each week for a 4 week growth period. Once fully grown, a procedure known as photosynthetic flotation was used to uncover carbon fixation rates between the experimental groups, involving 0.5 cm leaf disks rising in a bicarbonate solution as carbon dioxide was converted to oxygen. The faster the leaf disk rose, the more rapidly carbon dioxide was fixated. Overall, data gathered from this experiment showed little difference between carbon fixation rates of biomass genetic modification and a control group, causing for this genetic modification only being able to be used to combat overpopulation with larger food being produced, but not that of reversing climate change. However, there was a significant gap in terms of the time to rise of leaf disks between sterilized and unsterilized groups, revealing that a more specific study in regards to this variable must be conducted.
Movimiento sinistral en el Cretácico Inferior de la Zona de Falla de Atacama al norte de Paposo (24ºS), Chile
Authors: Hervé Miguel
Published: September 2020

La zona de Falla Atacama, que se extiende por unos 1.000 km en la Cordillera de la Costa del norte de Chile, ha tenido, a lo largo de su actividad meso-cenozoica,episodios de transcurrencia que han generado extensas franjas de ro casi milonlticas.Hasta este momento,no había sido posible determinar el sentido de este movimiento horizontal relativo. El estudio geológico de las rocas plutónicas que forman elbatolito costero, en el área al norte de Paposo,ha permiti­ do identificar un plutón granodiorltico que está desplazado 34 km, en el sentido sinistral, a lo largo del Sistema de Falla lzcuña, que está incluido en la Zona de Falla Atacama. Se trata delprimer antecedente de terreno que permite estable­cer el sentido y la magnitud del movimiento en la Zona de Falla Atacama. Este movimiento transcurrió en elCretácico In­ferior entre los 144 Ma (edad del plutón desplazado) y los 131 Ma (edad de un granito post-milonitización). Una milonita fue datada en 139 Ma,confirmando asl la edad supuesta para su formación. La Zona de Falla Atacama se dispone a lo largo de un arco magmático mesozoico, de carácter calcoalcalino, relacionado con una zona de subducción. Su actividad transcurrente tuvo lugar cerca de la culminación de la evolución de la actividad magmática del arco. La presencia de sistemas de fallas transcurrentes, paralelos al sistema arco-fosa, delatan subducción oblicua. Se propone aqul, que en el borde continental de este sector del norte de Chile, durante el Mesozoico, se produjo esta situación de convergencia oblicua, con una fuerte componente NW-SE del movimiento de la placa oceánica subductada. De esta forma, se genera un sistema de fallas sinistrales similar al descrito.
Conquered
Authors: Daniel Larry J.
Published: September 2020

Operating in the vast and varied trans-Appalachian west, the Army of Tennessee was crucially important to the military fate of the Confederacy. But under the principal leadership of generals such as Braxton Bragg, Joseph E. Johnston, and John Bell Hood, it won few major battles, and many regard its inability to halt steady Union advances into the Confederate heartland as a matter of failed leadership. Here, esteemed military historian Larry J. Daniel offers a far richer interpretation. Surpassing previous work that has focused on questions of command structure and the force's fate on the fields of battle, Daniel provides the clearest view to date of the army's inner workings, from top-level command and unit cohesion to the varied experiences of common soldiers and their connections to the home front. Drawing from his mastery of the relevant sources, Daniel's book is a thought-provoking reassessment of an army's fate, with important implications for Civil War history and military history writ large.
Feeding the Multitudes
Authors: Ash Stephen V.
Published: September 2020

This chapter assesses the food shortage and the process of supplying food in Richmond. The food delivery process consisted of many transportation channels from boats to trains; however, with wartime scarcity the crisis deepened as food production in the regions supplying the city diminished and transportation was disrupted. The distribution of the goods also became a problem, and protests among Richmonders against the War Department arose.
1–10 April 1865
Authors: Ash Stephen V.
Published: September 2020

In the epilogue, John Jones’ diary reveals the details of his experience of the Civil War and provides an overview of Richmond at the end of the war when the Union forces invaded and restored the city. Jones recorded the effect of Richmond through the changes and displays his input of the ending of the war. The epilogue concludes with the consequences of the war, including death and the destruction of businesses. It also considers the blessings that came with the end of the war, including reduced crime and death. But most prominently noted is the absence of slavery at war’s end, which transformed Richmond as a post-war city.
Journeys of Discovery
Authors: Raghavan Pallavi
Published: September 2020

This chapter explores the geopolitical legacy of colonialism between India and Pakistan, and the United States, by investigating the influence over trade, military alliances, and international politics. The chapter covers India and Pakistan’s foreign policy and factors that lead up to the transfer of power. The chapter focuses on preexisting colonial ideas and strategies that optimized India’s, Pakistan’s, and the United States’ positions during the Cold War.
Advocates for Zion
Authors: Goldman Shalom
Published: September 2020

This chapter details the release of the Leon Uris novel Exodus and subsequent film adaptation as well as the less celebrated Frank Sinatra vehicle The House That I Live In. The pages also recount the kidnapping of 8-year-old Yossele Schumacher by his Orthodox Israeli grandparents, as well as the extradition drama between Israel and the US concerning Dr. Robert Soblen. Finally, the chapter explores the respective relationships to Israel of writers James Baldwin, John Steinbeck, and Saul Bellow.
Israel at Seventy, Dancing on a World Stage
Authors: Goldman Shalom
Published: September 2020

The epilogue presents the contemporary emergence of Israeli-made entertainment on the world stage. The narrative walks through 9/11 and its consequences up to the present day, including the friendly relationship between President Trump and Prime Minister Netanyahu. Finally, the pages account for the championing of Israel by the American far-right via Evangelical donations and the continuing criticisms of Israeli actions including those of Edward Said and BDS.
Florida A&M Develops a Sporting Congregation
Authors: White Derrick E.
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines the development of Florida A&M’s football program. From its beginnings in 1896 through the early 1930s, FAMU’s football teams were not very good. Ironically, FAMU’s football program improved during the Great Depression to propel the football program forward. Notably, FAMU launched its Orange Blossom Classic football game in 1933. This was followed by the hiring of William Bell as head coach in 1936, and Gaither as an assistant coach in 1937.
A Double-V Campaign On the Field and Off
Authors: White Derrick E.
Published: September 2020

During World War II, the FAMU football program faced challenges from the growing war effort, which drafted increasing numbers of faculty, staff, and students. Head Coach William Bell volunteered for services after the 1942 season, leaving the program reeling. Additionally, Gaither was diagnosed with two cancerous brain tumors in the spring of 1942. Gaither and the FAMU football program survived through war’s end.
Southerners on New Ground
Authors: Hogan Wesley C.
Published: September 2020

At its core, Southerners on New Ground (SONG) was formed in the 1990s as both political exploration and call for action. The centuries-old tendency for opponents to use “divide and conquer” kept freedom movements for women, African Americans, LGBT people, workers, and immigrants from banding together. Quite simply, people were losing their rights because they were not showing up for each other’s causes. Other models such as union organizing or community organizing based on evolutions of the Saul Alinsky/IAF template had thrived in building people-power through industrial, religious, and community institutions, rooted in long-standing formal and informal social relationships. But these didn’t work in the South of the 1990s. It was hard to know how to get non-Black gay people to show up to fight for racial justice, or non-gay people to show up to fight against homophobia. In this chapter, SONG organizers set out to do just that. They created an intersectional community organizing model, and used it to fight for racial justice, against homophobia, and for an economy that worked for all at the beginning of a tightening neoliberal regime.
The Intolerable Price of Self-Respect
Authors: Hogan Wesley C.
Published: September 2020

The iced tea and Skittles Trayvon Martin carried home when he was murdered by George Zimmerman in February 2012 in suburban Sanford, Florida, represent an undeniable and terrifying truth: if you happen to be Black, the most basic of activities can get you killed in today’s America. In most cases, the killers walk free. Law enforcement and the legal system muster elaborate rationales, and leaders of the major institutions of the culture look the other way. James Baldwin’s observation is as pertinent today as it was when made in 1962: his countrymen, he recognized soberly, “have destroyed and are destroying hundreds of thousands of lives and do not know and do not want to know it.” In the end, almost no law enforcement is held accountable for the routine killings happening on the streets of America. Particularly for young Black citizens, this fact is a blunt daily reminder that for far too many in power, Black lives do not matter. The Movement for Black Lives (M4BL) and its organizations like the Dream Defenders, BYP100, SONG, and others have put healing and restorative justice at the center of their movement work, as this chapter covers. They try to answer: how can the movement build the best possible futures for Black people? Is abolition the best path? What are others? Through both movement and electoral politics, they seek fresh ways to make government bodies accountable to people at the base.
Citizens of a World Not Yet Built
Authors: Hogan Wesley C.
Published: September 2020

Corporations profiting from incarceration, politicians benefiting from division and hatred, civil servants defending their positions rather than serving the people—these are cancers at the heart of civil society that require pursuit of a kind of “freedom politics” in both electoral politics and community organizing. Young people come to these realities without yet being resigned to the everyday pathologies inherent in the tension between striving for freedom politics and the push for elite control in American life, and they have created new tools over the last sixty years to create equal access for all to our democracy, acting as if they are citizens of a world not yet built. This chapter sums up the tools they have innovated.
Drug War Profiteers
Authors: Bartilow Horace A.
Published: September 2020

This chapter is motivated by the following questions: Why do American policymakers continue to increase funding for a drug war that has failed to realize its objectives, and why do they consistently give greater priority to reducing the supply of illicit narcotics from foreign countries than reducing demand in the United States? In answering these questions, the chapter draws on theories of the state to highlight the role that corporate capital play in shaping the federal government’s budgetary allocations for drug enforcement. Congressional deliberations of Plan Colombia and the Mérida Initiative with Mexico serve as case studies to test pluralist, radical and elite theories of U.S. drug enforcement policy making. Radical and elite theories consistently explained the ways in which corporate power shaped the drug supply reduction strategies of Plan Colombia and the Mérida Initiative. Both theories also explain how these strategies justifies the provision of large government contracts to corporate members of the regime, how drug enforcement foreign aid is used to provide security for American oil companies that operate in Latin America, and how that aid is also used to market the defense industry’s military hardware to countries in the region to prosecute the drug war.
Drug War Policy Reforms and the Endurance of the Embedded Corporatist Regime
Authors: Bartilow Horace A.
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines why it is difficult to dismantle the drug enforcement regime even when it fails to realize its raison d’être. The chapter acknowledges that, while the Obama administration’s “safe harbor” policy has changed federal domestic marijuana policy by choosing not to prosecute marijuana offenses in states that have legalized marijuana, the administration’s continuation of overseas enforcement policies has facilitated the endurance of the drug enforcement regime. The continuity of the drug enforcement policies of the Obama and Trump administrations is discussed in the context of critiquing the ways in which the forty-eight-year-old drug war has failed to slow the flow of illicit drugs into the United States. It is argued that the endurance of the regime is partly due to the competing nature of drug policy reforms promoted by various U.S. civil society organizations and a number of Latin American governments, which undermine the ability to galvanize domestic and international support around a cohesive policy alternative to the prohibition and corporatist norms of the existing regime. The chapter concludes by examining existing drug policy reforms, such as decriminalization and legalization, and shows their limits in addressing the pathological effects of the corporatist drug enforcement regime.
What Should Babies Eat and Whose Business Is It?
Authors: Bentley Amy
Published: September 2020

In the nineteenth century, before the rise of commercial baby food, nearly all infants were breastfed exclusively for most of their first year. By 1950, most infants were eating solid food before two months of age, and that food was increasingly made by companies, not parents. At first, commercial baby food was the same as canned food for adults, just in smaller jars. But in the 1970s, when parents rebelled against “canned food taste,” baby food manufacturers responded by offering more variety and less salt and sugar. Today, age of first solid food and choice of baby food vary widely. When and what babies eat, argues Amy Bentley, mirrors our larger debates about nutrition, diet, and the morality of commercial versus home-made food.
Introduction
Authors: Marinari Maddalena
Published: September 2020

The introduction looks at the broader efforts of many Americans, animated by nativism and xenophobia, to cast so called “new immigrants” from Asia and Europe as undesirable. At the end of the nineteenth century, immigration laws emerged as a tool of social engineering and nation building. At first, legislators passed immigration laws that focused heavily on qualitative restriction to determine who could enter the country. Later they moved on to quantitative restriction, imposing numbers on how many immigrants could arrive. The only issues on which restrictionist legislators and Italian and Jewish anti-restrictionists could find common ground when it came to immigration reform were family reunification and skill-based immigration, which opened up opportunities for some immigrants but heavily penalized others thus contributing to create the uneven and unfair immigration system still in existence today.
The Battle Begins
Authors: Marinari Maddalena
Published: September 2020

The first chapter examines Italian and Jewish immigrants’ efforts to oppose proposed restrictions on new immigrants from eastern and southern Europe from the passage of the 1882 Immigration Act to the adoption of a literacy test in 1917. During this critical period in the rise of the antirestrictionist movement, both groups created national advocacy organizations (American Jewish Committee and the Order Sons of Italy) to negotiate with legislators in hopes of achieving more political influence. These organizations successfully opposed the passage of a literacy test for arriving immigrants older than 16 until World War I, when organizations like the Immigration Restriction League successfully used the war to mobilize labor unions, reformers, regular Americans, and politicians from the South eager to preserve their political influence to push for the test, which Congress passed over President Wilson’s veto. War and immigration emerge as linked processes in U.S. history. Amid rampant anti-immigrant rhetoric and violence during WWI, the debate over immigration policy pitted advocates for qualitative restriction against those who advocated for quantitative restriction as the best approach to curtail immigration from eastern and southern Europe. Supporters of the literacy test won a temporary battle.
Introduction
Authors: Povitz Lana Dee
Published: September 2020

Using the conceptual lens of terroir, this chapter provides an overview of hunger and poverty in the United States, starting with the urban liberalism of the 1960s and tracing the onset of austerity politics from mid-1970s through the early 2000s. It shows how New York City food activism was connected to an array of apparently unrelated social movements, including American Communism, community control, the countercultural New Left, feminism, Black Power, and AIDS activism. As governments reduced spending on social programs, leaders from these movements formed nonprofit organizations geared toward providing services, such as emergency meals and low-cost groceries. This chapter offers an overview of why and how service provision came to absorb the attention of late-twentieth century activists and shows how nonprofit kitchens and offices became sites of mentorship. As charismatic, overwhelmingly female leaders passed on values and strategies forged in earlier eras, they enacted activist genealogies that helped sustain political involvement over decades. Powerful interpersonal bonds and people’s own sense of being transformed by their activism illuminate the underappreciated role of emotion in the history of left-progressive movements.
Life Is with People
Authors: Povitz Lana Dee
Published: September 2020

This chapter uses Brooklyn’s Park Slope Food Coop as a case study of community building from a place of privilege. In contrast to food activists who grounded their work in citizens’ rights and government responsibility, the Coop anchored its work in the theory and practice of cooperation and participatory democracy. Established in 1973 as a self-help effort by upwardly mobile, young, white people, the Coop’s high-quality, low-cost, mostly organic health food was a strong draw. At the same time, the Coop provided substantial social nourishment and an opportunity to participate actively in something that affected people on a daily basis. Yet, as satisfying as this community was for many members, the homogeneity of its leadership meant that it unintentionally replicated patterns of white and middle-class dominance that many of its members professed to oppose.
Epilogue
Authors: Povitz Lana Dee
Published: September 2020

This epilogue explores the development of a self-conscious, twenty-first century movement for food justice. It compares the food systems approach of some activists, with its focus on quality, with the anti-poverty advocates who appeared more focused on the question of access. It concludes by suggesting that in the twenty-first century, access and quality need not be treated as mutually exclusive. Finally, it challenges today’s food activists to ground any movement for food justice in the fight against poverty.
Introduction
Authors: Theobald Brianna
Published: September 2020

This chapter introduces and defines several of the book’s key terms, including biological reproduction, colonialism, settler colonialism, and reproductive justice. Articulating the book’s overarching arguments, the chapter contends that colonial politics have been and remain reproductive politics. It further argues that Native women have navigated pregnancy and birthing in myriad ways that disrupt any tidy dichotomy between “traditional” and “modern” birthing in the twentieth century. The introduction begins with an overview of the founding of the Women of All Red Nations (WARN) in 1978 and suggests that the roots of this 1970s activism are not only in Native struggles for sovereignty and self-determination in post-World War II decades but in Native women’s reproductive-related activism throughout the century.
To Instill the Hospital Habit
Authors: Theobald Brianna
Published: September 2020

This chapter explores the Save the Babies campaign, a pronatal campaign spearheaded by the Office of Indian Affairs during the Progressive Era to combat Indian infant mortality. The chapter addresses each of the campaign’s three basic components—home visits conducted by field matrons; annual baby shows, where medical staff evaluated infants; and the promotion of hospital childbirth—while dedicating particular attention to the latter. The chapter further considers the choices Native women made regarding where and with whom they delivered and finds that a minority of women accepted hospital childbirth almost immediately. As maternity patients, Native women disrupted the OIA’s vision of how a hospital should look, sound, and function.
Relocating Reproduction
Authors: Theobald Brianna
Published: September 2020

This chapter considers the experiences of the thousands of Native women of childbearing age who migrated from reservations to cities in the decades following World War II. The federal government’s relocation program promoted the urban migration of Native individuals and families and provided basic assistance to facilitate the process. The chapter argues that the Bureau of Indian Affairs’s desired outcome of relocating women alongside men, as well as women’s own agency in pursuing relocation, forced the BIA to make adjustments to relocation policy to accommodate women’s reproductive needs. In cities, Native women navigated the bureaucracy of health insurance but often found that long-term coverage was out of reach. Native women relied on their own ingenuity and the support of familial and social networks both on and off reservations in their attempt to obtain adequate prenatal, obstetric, and postnatal care, as well as in negotiating urban motherhood.
Introduction
Authors: Oropeza Lorena
Published: September 2020

On June 5, 1967, Reies López Tijerina and fellow land-grant activists, members of the Alianza Federal de Mercedes, conducted an armed raid on a courthouse in northern New Mexico to bring attention to their cause: redress for massive land dispossession among the region’s Spanish-speakers following the U.S. Mexico War.  While the Tierra Amarilla Courthouse Raid made Tijerina a hero to young activists within the emerging Chicano Movement, Tijerina’s ideas mattered as much as his actions. Drawing from a deep-sense of injustice rooted in childhood poverty and shaped by his years as a Pentecostalist preacher, Tijerina accused the United States of operating as a colonial power in New Mexico.
The Prophet
Authors: Oropeza Lorena
Published: September 2020

In a little-known chapter in Tijerina’s life, he claimed to be a prophet named Iratéo, which he said meant Wrath of God. In 1955, Iratéo convinced a small group of devoted followers to create a religious utopia in the desert outside of Casa Grande, Arizona, and await the end of the world. Pooling their resources and digging underground bunkers for shelter, residents of Valle de Paz (Valley of Peace) were soon beset by rattlesnakes, floods, and hostile neighbors. Community residents also began to lose their faith in Tijerina because of his autocratic, abusive, and often absent leadership. He frequently took long trips to Mexico to study land-grant history. The community collapsed entirely after Tijerina was arrested on theft charges and then jumped bail rather than face trial.
The Evangelist
Authors: Oropeza Lorena
Published: September 2020

In New Mexico, Reies López Tijerina saw long-held aspirations—to secure a piece of land, to find ultimate justice, and even to establish and protect a cultural haven—hit fertile ground. Within two years of the 1963 Alianza Federal de Mercedes founding, he convinced thousands to join his new organization by spreading a three-part land-grant gospel that: 1) upheld Spanish colonial documents as a sign of legitimate ownership; 2) blasted American ownership of land grants as fraudulent; and 3) accused Americans not only of land theft but “cultural genocide.” Many land-poor Spanish-speakers in New Mexico responded to Tijerina’s fearless accusations and, as Tijerina turned to his preacher past, his religious allusions. Many shared his deep faith. More importantly, they bitterly recalled how their ancestors had once used the land without interference.
The American
Authors: Oropeza Lorena
Published: September 2020

In 1964, Reies López Tijerina was unceremoniously deported from Mexico on the suspicion that he was interfering in governmental affairs. The suspicion was baseless, but it left Tijerina, who had always taken pride in his Mexican heritage, no choice but to appeal to the U.S. government to promote the agenda of the organization he headed, the Alianza Federal de Mercedes. Specifically, Tijerina, now emphasizing his U.S. citizenship, sought an investigation into how land originally deeded to Spanish-speakers in New Mexico before the American takeover of the region had rapidly fallen into American hands afterward. Tijerina traveled to Washington D.C. and met high-level officials, including Robert F. Kennedy. Ultimately, only the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) paid him any sustained attention, convinced that Tijerina might be a Mexican operative.
Epilogue
Authors: Oropeza Lorena
Published: September 2020

As leader of the Alianza de Mercedes Federales, Reies López Tijerina failed to recover even one acre of contested land on behalf of his land-poor Spanish-speaking membership. However, his ideas regarding the nature of American continental expansion remain influential in 2020. After his release from federal prison in 1971, where he spent time in the psychiatric ward suspected of displaying a “personality disorder of the schizoid type,” Tijerina entered a slow slide into near obscurity. New interests, including numerology and genealogy, competed with his land-grant commitments. Certain that a vast Jewish conspiracy threatened global security, Tijerina also displayed a virulent anti-Semitism. Nonetheless, his ideas regarding conquest, indigeneity, land theft, culture, and history infused the Chicano movement and later entered mainstream historical works. He died in 2015.
Dragged up Hither from the Bottom of the Sea
Authors: Zallen Jeremy
Published: September 2020

Beginning with the rise of the American whale fishery in the 1750s, this chapter explores the violent accumulation and circulation of energy embodied in whales. The lives and struggles of workers across the Atlantic world were caught up in the politics and processes of producing oil lights. Enslaved Africans forced into nightwork in West Indian sugar houses, the London poor confronting new state-sponsored street lamps, cotton mill laborers, and Pacific mariners were tangled together around common threads of American whale oils. American deep-sea whaling voyages first triggered a street lighting revolution that radiated from London to Europe and America, while a New England run trade in spermaceti candles, whale oil, slaves, and sugar helped illuminate and circulate the people and goods caught up in colonial transatlantic sugar slavery. Later, American whale oils lubricated an industrial revolution in cotton manufacturing, while fugitive slaves and free blacks carved out a geography of freedom in the globe-spanning Quaker-run fishery. As these entwined revolutions in night and cotton intensified in the antebellum period, they overwhelmed the capacity of the American fishery to meet the demand for both light and lubrication, even as ship masters drove whalemen on harder and longer voyages for less pay.
Rock Oil, Civil War, and Industrial Slavery Interrupted
Authors: Zallen Jeremy
Published: September 2020

This chapter examines how the contingently timed and combined onslaught of Pennsylvania petroleum and the Civil War radically reoriented the possibilities and geographies of light in North America. On the eve of war, free-labor western Pennsylvania and industrial-slavery western Virginia were both poised to capture and launch fossil fuel revolutions in power and light. This chapter uses business, court, and military records along with newspapers and trade journals to explore how one of these revolutions—that based on free-labor and ownership of a mineral liquid “distilled by nature free of charge”—came to triumph over the other—that based on industrial slavery and capital-intensive coal oil—and how that triumph was understood then and subsequently as an inevitable stage of “progress.” As military clashes interrupted and destroyed turpentine camps, whaleships, and southern coal mining, the reservoirs of American light shifted their center of gravity markedly northward and westward. A period of widely increased access to illuminants, it was also a time of deepening monopoly control over the means of light. This chapter explores the centrality of political economy and organized violence to any true understanding of the histories of labor, energy, and technology.
Laying the Groundwork for a Movement
Authors: Hong Jane H.
Published: September 2020

This chapter analyzes the Chinese exclusion repeal campaigns as a negotiation between a community-based effort driven by the needs of Chinese Americans and an elite white American campaign rooted in Washington’s wartime imperatives. In what became a pattern in later campaigns, a group called the Citizens Committee interrupted and ultimately superseded Chinese Americans’ attempts to restore non-quota admission for the alien wives of Chinese American citizens. Charting this context makes clear how the Magnuson Act, far from a product of wartime geopolitics alone, more accurately represented the convergence of transnational and national, diplomatic and community-based pressures. It frames the 1943 Magnuson Act repealing Chinese exclusion as culminating years of lobbying to liberalize U.S. immigration policy toward Chinese on the one hand, and as planting the seeds of a longer repeal movement on the other.
Entangling Immigration and Independence
Authors: Hong Jane H.
Published: September 2020

This chapter charts how Indians and Indian Americans sought to use U.S. repeal legislation as an instrument to achieve their own national and anticolonial goals. During and immediately after World War II, they cultivated transpacific networks of support for repeal spanning Delhi, Whitehall, and Washington, DC. By pairing Indian and British sources with U.S. archives, the analysis upends conventional accounts of the 1946 Luce-Celler Act as a cause originated and spearheaded by elite white racial liberals and conservative internationalists. Instead, it reveals how white Americans and later, British officials, did not take concrete action until Indians prompted them. Ultimately the effort only succeeded because Britain decided to support the change in U.S. immigration law, and Indian colonial officials were the intermediaries who made it happen.
Manila Prepares for Independence
Authors: Hong Jane H.
Published: September 2020

Drawing from U.S. and Philippine archives, this chapter places Filipina/o advocates in conversation with Filipina/o Americans and their allies in the 1940s campaign to pass a Philippine citizenship bill. Philippine officials took up the legislative cause in order to prepare for what they feared would be the catastrophic financial costs of national independence from U.S. colonial rule. They hoped to cultivate Filipina/o Americans as a reliable source of remittances and other support sent from the United States to the islands. Manila’s role in the Washington-based naturalization campaign thus exemplified Philippine officials’ instrumental understanding of the U.S. citizenship bill as a means to achieve their own national goals. It also reflected their flexible view of national citizenship. Through their support of naturalization rights, Manila officials sought to inculcate in Filipina/o Americans a sense of responsibility to the islands that transcended a formal legal status alone. Viewed from Asia, then, Manila’s campaigning for the Luce-Celler bill can be seen as an act of Philippine state-building intended to safeguard and promote the islands’ economic welfare and stability after independence.
A Freezer Full of Marsh Hens
Authors: Herman Bernard L.
Published: September 2020

Marsh hens (mud hens, sage hens, clapper rails, rail birds) are the emblem of marshland worlds of men hunting vast wetland meadows and marshlands of salt grass, cooking together in clam houses and garage kitchens. This chapter examines the natural history of marsh hens, hunting lore, storytelling, terroir, foodways and regional identity through historical narratives, recipes, and oral histories.