bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Should Human Factors Psychology and Industrial/Organizational Psychology be Re-Integrated for Graduate Training?
Authors: Smolensky Mark W.
Published: January 2012

This panel addresses the extent to which students should be exposed to both human factors psychology and industrial/organizational psychology. Should a combined curriculum be developed called work psychology that would have a core set of courses including both industrial/organizational and human factors while still permitting students to specialize? Should courses should be taught in a holistic fashion? For example, when covering the topic of workplace design, should such topics as workstation design, ergonomics, and shift work be augmented with organizational topics as fatigue, boredom, morale, teamwork, job enrichment, and safety? Conversely, is there, perhaps, strong justification for continuing to maintain two distinct disciplines? The panel members straddle the continuum from advocating continued separation of the two disciplines to re-integrating the two disciplines.
Effects of Network Pattern and Status Congruence on Computer-Mediated Group Decision Making
Authors: Mosier Donna J. , Dubrovsky Vitaly J. , Clapper Danial L.
Published: January 2012

Classic experimental studies on restrictive communication networks concluded that network patterns and status congruency affect efficiency, satisfaction, and leadership of group decision making. This experiment had a two-fold purpose: (1) to determine if computer-mediated communication would effect the results of these studies; and (2) to assess centrality of network position as a context cue of social status. The results suggested that network pattern retained its influence in computer-mediated groups, while influence of status congruence was weakened by the equalization effects of the computer media. The results also indicated that a center position in the computer network did serve a social-context cue of status: a high-status person exerted status influence only occupying the hub position. Thus, assignment of group members to network positions of equal or different centrality can be used as means of controlling influence of status and authority in computer-mediated groups.
What Aspects of Organizational Redesign Enhance Job Quality?
Authors: Gabrielsson Åsa
Published: January 2012

Organizational redesign was studied at an industrial company. The outcome was documented during a two-years period by means of interviews, questionnaires and documentation material. The aim of the study was to describe and analyze what aspects of work industrial workers found important while in the midst of the organizational redesign.

Workers considered personal responsibility, variation in tasks, and control over their work situation the most important factors. Much more information and performance feedback from management was desired. They also wanted more possibilities to influence decisions regarding their work and greater freedom to plan their work activities.

Workers had conforming needs with respect to their desired work situation, even though they rated their existing work situation differently. The involvement in the change process seemed to positively influence their development and commitment to work. The findings emphasize a shift from individual focus on “resistance to change”, to a holistic focus on “preparation to change”. An integrated view on structural, relational, and individual factors entails a better understanding of the change process as a phenomena, and might give a key to a better understanding of work motivation and satisfaction.
Human-Centered Reengineering: The Integration of Human Factors into Business Reengineering
Authors: Somberg Benjamin L. , Day Mary Carol
Published: January 2012

Business reengineering is currently being employed by many companies to maintain and improve their effectiveness. However, 50% to 70% of all reengineering efforts fail to accomplish their objectives. Although business reengineering and human factors approaches to work process reengineering share many goals, their approaches differ in four significant ways: (1) a top-down vs. a bottom-up approach; (2) starting from scratch vs. learning from an analysis of strengths and weaknesses of the existing work environment, (3) relying mainly on data from management vs. data from workers at all levels, and (4) treating processes and systems independently without a view of the worker at the center vs. a worker-centered integrated approach to process and system design. An integration of human factors approaches into business reengineering can increase the success of reengineering efforts. Data from projects where human factors specialists worked on reengineering efforts illustrate the mutual benefit to both types of work that can be gained through collaboration.
The Effects of Team Member Distribution and Accountability on a Brainstorming Task
Authors: Kass Steven J. , Inzana Carolyn M. , Willis Ruth P.
Published: January 2012

The current study investigates the effects of physical distribution of team members and accountability of individual outputs on brainstorming performance. Teams were asked to generate as many uses for a knife as they could in a 12 min period. Participants included 103 undergraduate students enrolled in psychology courses. A 2 (distributed vs. face-to-face) x 2 (accountable vs. non-accountable) analysis of variance revealed a significant main effect of accountability and a significant interaction. Individuals in face-to-face accountable teams generated the fewest ideas. These results are interpreted in terms of “evaluation apprehension” and “social loafing.”
Temporal Factors in Visual Perception: A Differential Approach
Authors: Kennedy Robert S.
Published: January 2012

Traditionally, sensory, perceptual, and cognitive psychology were normative fields of study where investigators were interested in those aspects of the responses that are normal (common, shared). In the 70's a “new look” emerged where individual dserences were emphasized and paradigms were developed. The predicate for the work reported here follows from the notion that people with better spatial abilities often perform better in jobs that require such skills, while static vision acuity relates to the perception of small spots, fine lines, and grids. We hypothesize that there are other, perhaps equally important abilities ON WHICH INDIVIDUALS DIFFER, and we refer to them collectively as temporal visual factors. These are visual functions that operate faster (neurally) than static acuity and support such activities as real and apparent motion perception. We propose to report on the recent development of a computerized temporal acuity test battery. Separate empirical studies at three universities will describe how the different tests are shown to be stable over repeated measures, have high (r > .707) retest reliability, are factorially rich, and are largely uncorrelated with spatial acuity and intelligence. The tests all work on a 386PC, or better, and are transportable by disk.
Multicultural Human Factors Concerns aboard the International Space Station Alpha
Authors: Lozano Mary L. , Wong Clifford K.
Published: January 2012

As we enter the 21st century, we can expect an increase of international spaceflight missions made up of crew members from different cultures. This study assesses the potential effects of cultural and interpersonal communication factors on crew interaction and crew operations for multicultural spaceflight crews. During international missions, crew members from different countries will be living and working together within the confined and isolated quarters of their spacecraft. On many International Space Station Alpha missions, a crew will consist of Canadian, European, Japanese, and U.S. personnel. Mission duration can range from 90 to 180 days for International Space Station Alpha and approximately two years for a round-trip manned mission to Mars. Effective and efficient multicultural crew interaction and operations will assume a major role in flight safety and mission success. By means of a questionnaire and personal interviews, information was gathered, indicating cultural characteristics considered to be most relevant for future spacefarers from the various nations involved in future International Space Station Alpha missions.
Predicting Performance Variability: The Accuracy of Vigor and Fatigue Self-Reports
Authors: Harris Wayne C. , Goernert Phillip N. , Trench Bart , Sachau Daniel
Published: January 2012

The psychological factors that contribute to performance decrements were examined. Collegiate swimmers self-reported psychological moods states four days prior to competition across multiple seasons. As expected, event time decreased as the season progressed. Event times also decreased when fatigue scores decreased. Tension, Depression, Anger, Vigor, and Confusion scores were not related to meet time. The present results suggest that self-reports are a useful predictor of performance decrements under some conditions.
Does Culture Affect Risk Perception?
Authors: Vredenburgh Alison G. , Cohen H. Harvey
Published: January 2012

As forensic consultants in the areas of Human Factors and Safety, the authors have frequently been asked to testify on cases concerning the “reasonableness of conduct” and assumption of risk of plaintiffs and defendants. The principal goal of this study is to determine whether there are differences in risk-perception among various racial and cultural groups. Participants in the study identified themselves as either Caucasian, Mexican-American, Asian-American, or African-American. Risk perception was measured with a survey designed specifically for this research, which included items generated from activities that resulted in accidents frequently investigated by the authors. Subjects were selected from intact church congregations and ethnically identified social clubs. The independent variable in this study was the cultural or ethnic identity of the subjects. The dependent variable was risk perception. Using an ANOVA, cultural differences were found. Consistent with past research, women were found to perceive higher risk. Level of education was not found to be related to risk perception.
An Evaluation of Mounting Step Dimensions and Handhold/Handrail Dimensions on Semi-Trucks, Agricultural and Industrial Vehicles
Authors: Zwahlen Helmut T. , Kim Dae Sig , Gerth Richard J.
Published: January 2012

This study reviews the literature with regard to falls and slips occurring when operators are mounting or dismounting high profile vehicles (HPV's) and discusses the major applicable design standards and guidelines for mounting steps and handhold/handrails. A checklist for the evaluation of mounting steps and handholds/handrails on HPV's is designed (3 major categories: step dimensions, handhold/handrail dimensions, and step surface factors). A sample of 31 HPV's consisting of 12 semi-trucks, 9 agricultural vehicles, and 10 industrial vehicles were selected, and their mounting steps, handhold/handrail, and step surface dimensions were measured. The checklist results show that, primarily due to the lack of a 3 point system, none of the semi-trucks conformed well to the standards and guidelines and must be considered as inadequate from a compliance and safety point of view! Similar conclusions were drawn for the other HPV's.
Noise Evaluation of Karaoke Facilities in Korea
Authors: Park Min-Yong
Published: January 2012

An experiment was conducted to evaluate potential noise exposures to naive commercial “Karaoke” users using a 2-way, mixed-factors design with 2 independent variables of Noise Source (no-singer, 1-singer, and 2-singer) and Music Type (Trot, Ballad, and Rock). Each member of two singer groups (a total of 18 subjects) sang 5 popular songs of each music type in each singing condition. Equivalent continuous sound pressure levels (Leq) and maximum sound pressure levels (Max Lp) were measured for data analysis purposes. The statistical analyses indicate that noise levels were significantly different according to noise source and music type. The levels under most popular singing conditions were very serious, especially when two people were singing: higher than the OSHA's 95 dBA exposure limit. Rock music generated above 95 dBA even under 1-singer source. Max Lp often exceeded the OSHA's 115 dBA non-permissible level under some singing situations. A spectrum analysis revealed that Karaoke noise may have a potential impact on the speech band (500 − 4000 Hz) hearing. Some noise abatement strategies and ergonomic issues are discussed.
An Ergonomic Design Strategy for the Transit Bus Operators' Workspace
Authors: Lowe Brian D. , You Heecheon , Bucciaglia Joseph D. , Gilmore B.J. , Freivalds Andris
Published: January 2012

Transit bus operators suffer from and complain of numerous musculoskeletal ailments and discomfort over the course of a work day. This result is not surprising when one critically evaluates the operators' work station in many transit buses. Ergonomic efforts in the design of the transit bus have lagged far behind those of the automobile and most aircrafts. This paper presents the design methodology and results of a project directed towards developing design guidelines for the transit bus operators' workstation. Two phases of the project are reported here: the preliminary geometric layout of the seating area with respect to driver anthropometry and component dimensions and the evaluation of a laboratory mock-up based on the results of the first two phases. The goal of this project is to apply relevant human engineering design principles to the transit bus so that future generations of bus operators can work in a safer, more comfortable, and more productive environment.
Development of a Navigation/Situation Display to Improve Aerial Fire Fighting Safety and Efficiency
Authors: Battiste Vernol , Downs Michael
Published: January 2012

Aerial fire fighting is a high-risk, high-cost aviation environment. Normal aviation risks are magnified, sometimes significantly, by a number of factors. Over the years a number of accidents (mid-air collisions and controlled flight into terrain), near mid-air collisions, and other serious incidents involving fire fighting aircraft have occurred. The causes of these accidents or incidents have been primarily attributed to loss of situational awareness in the relatively unstructured aerial environment surrounding wildland fires. In an effort to improve safety and efficiency researchers at NASA Ames Research Center are working with aerial fire fighters to develop a standard phraseology, air space structure, and a navigation/situation display. This paper will focus on the results of an initial communication analysis, and will present a prototype airspace structure, and the preliminary design and evaluation of the navigation/situation display.
Group-View Displays for Enhancing Crew Performance
Authors: Stubler William F. , O'Hara John M.
Published: January 2012

Group-view displays present information to multiple personnel simultaneously. Recent developments in human-system interface technologies have the potential of increasing the effectiveness of group-view displays in control centers. While established human factors guidelines exist for many visual characteristics of group-view displays, limited guidance has been available regarding the functions that these display systems should provide to enhance crew performance in control room settings. This paper draws research findings from the areas of teamwork, computer-supported cooperative work, and human-computer interface design to describe four functions that group-view displays may perform to support various aspects of team performance in advanced control centers.
Evaluation of Digital Communications on Performance of an Armor Battalion
Authors: Lickteig Carl W.
Published: January 2012

The U.S. Army is forging a digital communication system for combat vehicles as we enter the Information Age. Justification for this investment assumes it will improve soldier and unit performance. This evaluation assessed the performance of an armor battalion equipped with digital command, control and communication systems that vertically linked its platoon, company and battalion echelons in distributed interactive simulation. Participants included 210 soldiers in duty assignments that included a fully-manned, point platoon operating under company and battalion level commanders. Findings indicated that digital communication systems can provide significant improvements, over voice-only communications, on some important measures tested under an armor battalion's maneuver functions: move on the surface, navigate, process direct fire targets, and engage direct fire targets. The evaluation's method provides an example of how soldier-in-the-loop simulation can efficiently assess performance improvements anticipated from technologies such as digital communication systems, prior to critical but costly field evaluation.
An Experimental Plan for the Evaluation of a Decision Support System
Authors: Westra Daniel P. , Hutchins Susan G.
Published: January 2012

This paper describes an experimental plan for the evaluation of display modules that comprise an experimental decision support system (DSS) for combat information center (CIC) decision makers. A description of the test bed simulation known as the decision-making evaluation facility for tactical teams (DEFTT) is given. A rationale for the development of the test tasks (scenarios) is also given. The initial effort and rationale for developing the display modules is described along with a brief description of the performance measurement system. Data have been collected for subjects’ performance in the DEFTT system without the DSS and the results of these baseline runs are given.
Symposium on Distributed Simulation for Military Training of Teams/Groups: The Engineering of a Training Network
Authors: Bell Herbert H.
Published: January 2012

This presentation describes the architecture and engineering development of the Multi-Service Distributed Training Testbed (MDT2). It summarizes the basic principles underlying Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS) and the major components of MDT2. It then discusses the problem of simulator interoperability and describes some of the interoperability problems encountered during in developing MDT2. MDT2 demonstrates that widely dissimilar training devices can be successfully linked to create a virtual testbed for training research.
The Role of Observational Learning in Automated Instruction of Complex Tasks
Authors: Goettl Barry P. , Gomez Cathy Connolly
Published: January 2012

This study tested the prediction that observational learning will be more effective for motor tasks having substantial cognitive demands than for those that do not. Subjects were divided into three treatment groups: performers, observers, and no-observe controls. In Phase I, subjects were trained on a computer-based flight task requiring relatively little cognitive demands. In Phase II, subjects were trained on a different flight task that had significant cognitive and strategic demands. In Phase I, performers were superior to both observers and controls; the observers did not differ significantly from the controls. In Phase II, observation showed a beneficial effect for females. The female observers performed as well as the female performers. The results of this study suggest that observational learning benefits tasks with significant cognitive components more than tasks that are primarily psychomotor. Implications for computer-based training are discussed.
Team Training to Improve the Effectiveness of Teams in the Aircraft Maintenance Environment
Authors: Ivaturi Subarao , Gramopadhye Anand K. , Kraus David , Blackmon Robert
Published: January 2012

Previous task analysis of aircraft inspection/maintenance operations and FAA reports have reported the importance teamwork plays in completing aircraft inspection/maintenance tasks. Hence, it is necessary that we identify team training strategies that will improve team skills, thereby improving team performance within the aircraft inspection/maintenance environment. This paper reviews that state-of-the-art literature on team training. Drawing from the task analysis of aircraft inspection and maintenance operations, site visits to repair facilities and a detailed review of the various team models, a framework developed as a first step in understanding teamwork in aircraft inspection and maintenance operations is reported. The paper also reports the results of a study conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of team training in the aircraft maintenance environment.
The Effects of Optic Flow, Proprioception, and Texture on Novice Locomotion in Virtual Environments
Authors: James K. R. , Caird J. K.
Published: January 2012

The ability of a user to move to different locations within a virtual environment (VE) is a fundamental action that subserves the activities of exploration and manipulation. By empirical analogy, the perceptual information used to locomote to a target within a virtual environment is compared to the perceptual information used to walk to a location in the real world. An experiment is reported that had participants move to a location as accurately as possible within a VE where a target object was presented. The amount of visual feedback available to participants was manipulated. Three conditions were compared: static viewing of the target and virtual environment before locomotion, the disappearance of the target object as movement to the object was initiated, and locomotion to the target while both object and environment were present. In addition, the composition of virtual environments was either textured or polygonal. Error measures indicated that users locomote within VE's with less accuracy than those that walk blindfolded in the real world. Texture had its largest effect on the accuracy of movement when optic flow was not available, that is, static estimates of distance. Discussions center on the relative contribution of visual, cognitive, and proprioceptive information to VE user movement accuracy.
Dynamic Auditory Preview for Visually Guided Target Aiming
Authors: Elias Bartholomew
Published: January 2012

The effects of a dynamic auditory preview display were examined in a visual target aiming task. A moving sound stimulus aligned with a visual target was presented over various distances beyond the bounds of a visual display. Results indicated reduced error magnitudes in aimed responses to visual targets with increasing auditory preview distance. In subsequent testing, the effects of position and velocity misalignments between the sound source and the visual target were assessed. In position misalignment conditions where the sound source lagged behind the visual target, higher error magnitudes were observed. However, when the auditory display preceded the visual target, performance improved. In velocity mismatch conditions, responses toward fast moving targets improved when a relatively faster sound source was previewed but were disrupted when a slower sound source was previewed. On the contrary, responses toward slow moving targets improved when a relatively slower sound source was previewed and were disrupted when a faster sound source was previewed.
Graph-Task Dependencies in Three-Dimensional Data: Influence of Three-Dimensionality and Color
Authors: Wickens Christopher D. , LaClair Melanie , Sarno Kenneth
Published: January 2012

This study compared conventional 2D graphs with 3D graphs and color based graphs for presenting 3-dimensional data. These data were in the format representing the effects on Y, of 4 levels of X and 4 levels of Z. Z was represented by a parameter (line type) in the 2D display, by space (depth) in the 3D display, and Y was represented by color in the color display. Subjects answered questions about the displayed data that varied in the degree to which they required focused attention on a single data point, to integration across the entire data space. The results indicated that the 3D display supported slowest and least accurate performance for the focused attention questions, a cost that dissipated when the questions became more integrative. Performance with the color display suffered badly in both speed and accuracy with the most integrative questions. The 2D display performed consistently well in both speed and accuracy. The results are consistent with prior data and with emerging theoretical perspectives on graph-task dependencies.
Displaying Quantitative Information in Two and Three Dimensions
Authors: Hollands J. G. , Pierce Byron J. , Magee Lochlan E.
Published: January 2012

Subjects made trend and difference estimates in an experiment with three display types: two-dimensional (2D), three-dimensional with monocular cues (3D mono), and three-dimensional with monocular cues and stereopsis (3D stereo). The results showed a general accuracy advantage for 2D displays, even for global trend estimates. Binocular stereopsis appeared to provide a slight advantage in accuracy for trend estimation. The data are partially consistent with the predictions of the Proximity Compatibility Principle. Possible mental operations used with the various displays are discussed.
Pitfalls, Pratfalls, and Prospects for Progress in Pilot Hiring, Screening, and Selection
Authors: Besco Robert O.
Published: January 2012

Recent airline accidents have been attributed to pilot errors of junior pilots whose professional flying experience, at the time of hiring, did not measure up to the standards of the hiring airline. How these pilots slipped through the screening process of conscientious and well intentioned personnel departments is a major question. Several tested and proven methods of applicant screening are suggested to be used in the hiring process for new pilots.
Evaluation of Hand-Dominance on Manual Control of Aircraft
Authors: Gawron Valerie J. , Priest James E.
Published: January 2012

In the transport aircraft community the non-dominant hand control of aircraft is the norm. This historical precedence may be biasing the cockpit designs of the newer fly-by-wire aircraft which utilize a small sidestick controller rather than a wheel-column. Very little data are available to determine what effect non-dominant hand control using small throw controllers has on the pilot operator. To provide such data, a part-task simulation study was undertaken. Three different compensatory tracking tasks were performed with both left and right hand-controllers. Six right-hand dominant and three left-hand dominant subjects performed all three tasks, with both controllers. The results indicate that performance degraded and workload increased when the pilots were forced to use their non-dominant hand.
New Methods for Modeling Human-Machine Interaction
Authors: Nickerson Raymond S.
Published: January 2012

Use of the term mental model has proliferated in the discussion of human-machine interaction. Although it seems clear that humans must depend on mental models when doing problem solving in the domain of complex systems, the literature on the topic presents a confusing variety of perspectives, and there is little empirical evidence of the structure of the models people use or of how they influence human performance. The objectives of this symposium are to (a) provide a taxonomy for mental models and suggest a theory that is intended to unify what appear now to be disparate views, (b) outline an information-theoretic method for determining the structure of complex systems, and (c) describe an application of the theory and method to a process-control simulation. In the first presentation, Moray makes the case for the need for modeling methods that can deal effectively with systems of unusual complexity. In the second, Conant describes such a method. Jamieson, in the third, reports the results of an experiment in which this method was applied.
Thinking Naturally about Uncertainty
Authors: Cohen Marvin S. , Freeman Jared T.
Published: January 2012

Methods for handling uncertainty should be evaluated in terms of their cognitive compatibility with real-world decision makers. Bayesian models of uncertainty demand precise up-front assessments of all problem elements and discourage the dynamic evolution of problem understanding. They handle missing or conflicting data by mathematical aggregation, while real-world decision makers regard gaps in knowledge and conflicting evidence as problems to be solved. Finally, they produce as output a statistical average rather than a coherent picture of the situation. Another approach to decision making, based on pattern-matching, does not address the ways in which situation pictures are evaluated and modified. A third approach, however, called the Recognition / Metacognition model, treats decision making under uncertainty as a problem-solving process that starts with the results of recognition, verifies them, and improves them where necessary. Critiquing strategies identify problems of incompleteness, conflict, and unreliability in situation models, and lead to correcting steps that retrieve or collect additional information or adopt assumptions. Training methods based on this model have been developed and tested with active-duty Naval officers.
How Decision-Makers Cope with Uncertainty
Authors: Lipshitz Raanan
Published: January 2012

We analyzed 112 self reports of decision-making under uncertainty to find how decision makers conceptualize uncertainty and cope with it in the real world. The results show that decision makers distinguish between three types of uncertainty, inadequate understanding, incomplete information and undifferentiated alternatives, to which they apply five strategies of coping, reducing uncertainty, assumption-based reasoning, weighing pros and cons of competing alternatives, suppressing uncertainty, and forestalling. The relationships between these types of uncertainty and tactics of coping suggest a R.A.W.F.S. (Reduction, Assumption based reasoning, Weighing pros and cons, Forestalling and Suppression) heuristic of contingent coping with uncertainty in naturalistic settings.
An Analysis of Uncertainty in the Marine Corps
Authors: McCloskey Michael J.
Published: January 2012

In an effort to better understand the nature of uncertainty faced by Marine Corps warfighters, Klein Associates conducted an exploratory study of uncertainty. We developed a method for classifying levels and sources of uncertainty and we studied Marines in action to determine the specific types of uncertainty that occurs on the battlefield. Uncertainty can exist at the levels of raw data, inferences drawn from data, or projections/diagnoses from multiple inferences and/or data. The sources of uncertainty include missing, unreliable, ambiguous/conflicting, or complex information.

We observed decision makers at regimental and battalion command posts during a military exercise and recorded instances where they faced uncertainty. We coded these instances for both the level and source of the uncertainty. The uncertainty events we observed clustered around missing, unreliable and ambiguous data, ambiguous inferences, and ambiguous projections. These areas have implications for the design of supports for operating in the midst of uncertainty.
Impact of Naturalistic Decision Support on Tactical Situation Awareness
Authors: Morrison Jeffrey G. , Kelly Richard T. , Hutchins Susan G.
Published: January 2012

A prototype decision support system (DSS) was developed to enhance Navy tactical decision making based on naturalistic decision processes. Displays were developed to support critical decision making tasks through recognition-primed and explanation-based reasoning processes and cognitive analysis of the decision making problems faced by Navy tactical officers in a shipboard Combat Information Center. Baseline testing in high intensity, ambiguous scenarios indicated that experienced decision makers were not well served by current systems, and their performance revealed periodic loss of situation awareness. A study is described with eight, expert Navy tactical decision making teams that used either their current system alone or in conjunction with the prototype DSS. When the teams had the prototype DSS available, we observed significantly fewer communications to clarify the tactical situation, significantly more critical contacts identified early in the scenario, and a significantly greater number of defensive actions taken against imminent threats. These findings suggest that the prototype DSS enhanced the commanders' awareness of the tactical situation, which in turn contributed to greater confidence, lower workload, and more effective performance.
Cognitive Engineering of a New Telephone Operator Workstation Using COGNET
Authors: Ryder Joan M. , Weiland Monica Z. , Szczepkowski Michael A. , Zachary Wayne W.
Published: January 2012

Many cognitive engineering methodologies for user-centered design involve modeling procedural knowledge; others deal with domain semantics or conceptual models. COGNET (COGnitive NEwork of Tasks) is a framework for modeling human cognition and decision-making which provides an integrated representation of the knowledge, behavioral actions, strategies and problem solving skills used in a domain or task situation, yielding a powerful cognitive engineering tool. A case study of the design of the user interface for a new telephone operator workstation is presented to illustrate the derivation of the design from the components of the COGNET model. The model does not directly convey any specific feature of the interface design, but rather a formal representation of the what the user must do with the resulting interface. This information is then evolved through a set of transformations which systematically move toward design features, in a fully traceable manner.
In and Out of the Loop: Strategic Skill and Windows of Opportunity in Discrete Process Control
Authors: Sanderson Penelope
Published: January 2012

A long-standing question in cognitive engineering is the effect of computer aids on work skills. We examined the performance of human operators in a discrete process control environment. During an extended training period, humans controlled production under one of four different conditions (manual, hybrid, supervisory, and automatic) that varied the degree of in-the-loop control. After a training period all subjects transferred to a supervisory condition with two scheduling logic errors to compensate for. Training results showed that production was best overall with supervisory control, intermediate with hybrid control, and worst with manual control. Supervisory performance did not differ across the two scheduling aids. When scheduling logic errors were introduced, subjects who had trained in the automatic condition (simply observing) took longer to respond and let production drop most. Overall, performance depends on an interplay between (1) ability to identify goal-relevant cues and (2) ability to connect cues to action. Moreover, whether out-of-the-loop unfamiliarity is seen depends on how tight the “windows of opportunity” for action are in the domain.
Simplified English for Aircraft Workcards
Authors: Chervak Steven , Drury Colin G. , Ouellette James P.
Published: January 2012

For technical communications in international civil aviation maintenance, most manufacturers have adopted a restricted language: Simplified English (SE). This uses a standard vocabulary and syntax rules with the aim of improving understanding, particularly for people with restricted abilities in English. This paper describes the first test of the efficacy of Simplified English for comprehension of documentation used at the worksite by Aircraft Maintenance Technicians (AMTs). Sixteen workcards, representing two levels of difficulty (Easy and Difficult), two levels of language (SE and Non-SE) and two levels of document layout (standard and revised) were tested on 175 practicing AMTs in a between subject design using a comprehension test. Comprehension was significantly improved with Simplified English, particularly for the Difficult workcards and for non-native English speakers. No effects of layout were found.
Extending User-Centered Methods beyond Interface Design to Functional Definition
Authors: Kelley John F. (“Jeff”) , Spraragen Susan L. , Jones Lauretta , Greene Sharon L. , Boies Stephen
Published: January 2012

The contributions of human factors or usability practitioners to application development often begin with a functional specification handed down from an external source. User-centered design methods are commonly applied to how function is delivered but not what functions will be delivered. We in the Interactive Transaction Systems (ITS) group at the T.J. Watson Research Division of IBM have succeeded, during several application development efforts, in expanding the scope of our user-centered, iterative design approaches to include functional as well as interface definition for both software and hardware (kiosk/workstation) design. By learning our customer's business and owning the entire development process, we can better design our solutions to solve their problems (and their client's problems in the case of service industry solutions). We achieve this by including the functional definition in the first of four phases we have defined for all of our development projects.

A significant facilitation for this in the arena of software development has been the CADT (Customer Access Development Toolset) development platform we use to build our applications. This set of tools for iterative application design and development gives us the flexibility to quickly and effectively address emerging functional requirements.
Data Entry Interaction Techniques for Graphical User Interfaces
Authors: Cuomo Donna L. , Jablonka Eliot , Mosier Jane N.
Published: January 2012

Despite the widespread use of graphical forms-based interfaces, there are no widely accepted and proven interaction methods for supporting even the most common data entry tasks. We present three common data entry tasks (task flow, domain-related data entry, hierarchical list selection) and a variety of commonly-used designs to support them, and some pros and cons of each. We recommend that good designs to commonly performed data entry tasks be identified and catalogued
Influence of Food Label Quantifier Terms on Connoted Amount and Purchase Intention
Authors: Wogalter Michael S. , Kalsher Michael J. , Litynski Diane M.
Published: January 2012

This research examined the influence of food label quantifier terms (e.g., Low, Reduced, and Free) on people's interpretation of implied quantity. Experiment 1 assessed people's perceptions (connotation) of eight terms to determine whether the terms convey distinct quantities. Results showed significant differences among the lowest quantity-connoting terms. Experiment 2 investigated the influence of three specific quantifier terms placed in the context of nutrient claims on product labels and measured their effect on purchase intentions before and after dietary health concerns were made explicit. Results showed that the quantifier terms influenced people's purchase intentions when health and diet concerns were made salient, but not when general purchase preferences were requested. Implications for consumer comprehension and interpretation of food label are discussed, and suggestions for future research are offered.
Informational Constraints of Remote Technical Support Environments: Implications for the Design of Support Systems
Authors: Wilson Karen S.
Published: January 2012

Effective remote technical support is a competitive factor in consumer satisfaction. This paper reports the analysis of the remote support domain with respect to the agents, their information requirements, the issues relevant to the transfer of information from one agent to another, and the technology and tools that are currently used. The goal of this work was to understand the current environment with respect to the future direction of such environments and to understand the issues that afflict that environment so that the design of any support system would incorporate the appropriate design requirements. The factors contributing to performance behavior in the remote support task include the problem solving nature of the task, the restricted perceptual context, the distributed knowledge of the remote support team, and the role of communicating to remotely located agents. Research in these issues leads to the conclusion that tools designed to support the collaboration of remote technical support teams must maintain the interactivity of the team member dialogues that are used to define, test, and respond to the problem. But the tools must also be developed to facilitate behaviors exhibited in effective teamwork.
Applying in the Classroom What We know about Groups and Teams
Authors: Stone Nancy J.
Published: January 2012

Human factors and ergonomics specialists need to work in teams. This article highlights various benefits and potential problems of groups and teams. The main focus is on ways to successfully implement student teams in the classroom. Key elements include: centralizing the organization structure with the faculty member in charge, determining group composition, defining group goals and roles, establishing an appropriate reinforcement structure (i.e, the grading system), and dealing with conflict. References for more in-depth team building guidelines are provided.
Using Technology to Team Teach across Institutions: The Circle Project
Authors: Boehm-Davis Deborah A. , Norman Kent L. , Sebrechts Marc M. , Silverman Barry G.
Published: January 2012

The Consortium Interactive Research on Collaborative Learning Environments (or CIRCLE) project, was designed to examine how the distance among remote universities can be bridged electronically and how this bridge can be used to develop truly collaborative learning with shared, distributed student and faculty responsibilities. Although the problem of “distance learning” based on the model of instructional television has been well-studied, the problem of collaborative distance learning, based on a design team model, poses new technological and psychological issues. The CIRCLE project was designed to develop a model of four-way instructional collaboration. A course offering across the four institutions suggests that although the students' learning is enhanced by exposure to multiple experts, teaching through technology does impose constraints on the learning environment that make it more difficult to acquire that expertise.
Pedestrian Accidents: Repeating Patterns and Litigation
Authors: Olsen Richard A.
Published: January 2012

Human factors analysis can be applied to pedestrian safety, but pedestrian fatalities have continued to be about 15 percent of the total traffic fatalities, many involving litigation. In some cases, pedestrian behavior is the only part of the situation that is likely to be manipulate. Fatalities are more likely at night. It does not seem likely that effective countermeasures will be introduced in the driver or the visibility environment in the near future. Efforts to encourage safe practices in walking and crossing patterns have been made with marginal effects. Litigation should recognize that drivers cannot avoid every pedestrian. The only practical approach seems to be to modify the visibility and behavior of each pedestrian. A concerted program to make every pedestrian visible by devising, distributing, and enforcing use of visibility aids seems promising. Efforts to implement such visibility improvements would recruit every agency that contacts the walking public, especially the young, old, and those using wheelchairs, bicycles, and other mobility aids.
History and Characteristics of Human Factors Research
Authors: Meister David
Published: January 2012

As a sequel to a study which analyzed the annual meetings of the Human Factors Society (HFS) during the period 1959–1972 (Meister, 1995), the following is a study of the characteristics of Human Factors/Ergonomics (HF/E) research as these have changed over the years 1965–1994.
The Ponzo Illusion in Virtual Environments: Correctly Applied Size Constancy?
Authors: King Robert A. , Fujawa Greg E. , Elliott Kelly G.
Published: January 2012

The perceived size of a stimulus can be greatly influenced by the surrounding depth cues. The effect size of the Ponzo Illusion was tested in a virtual environment with many depth cues (MC) and few depth cues (FC) conditions. The effect of size and the depth cues on the perceived proximal size of the stimulus was measured. Methods. A modified Wheatstone stereoscope was used to present the stimuli on a monitor positioned 80 cm from the subjects. The subjects used a 6AFC confidence rating scale to indicate whether the first or second of two sequentially presented stimuli had a greater proximal extent. The ‘many cues’ (MC) condition included texture, relative height, foreshortening, linear perspective, relative brightness, and relative size. The few cues condition consisted of linear perspective, relative height, and relative size. Stimulus size (proximal extent) was varied independently from all other depth cues. Results. Both depth cue context and proximal size were found to have a significant effect on the perceived proximal size for FC conditions. However, for MC conditions only the depth cues, and not proximal size, had an effect on perceived proximal size. The effect size for both depth cues and proximal size had a significant linear trend. But proximal size had a larger trend that was significantly related to the size constancy function.
Fitness-for-Duty Testing: Issues, Challenges, and Opportunities
Authors: Fiorentino Dary , Burns Marcelline
Published: January 2012

Implementation issues of Fitness-For-Duty testing are discussed from the scientific, administrative, and labor viewpoints. Results on the sensitivity of 4 Fitness-For-Duty tests from a 24-subject laboratory experiment using alcohol as the stressor are also reported.
Application of Multiple Cut-Offs for Fitness for Duty Testing
Authors: Kennedy Robert S. , Drexler Julie M. , Rugotzke Gene G. , Turnage Janet J.
Published: January 2012

“Sensitivity,” (percentage correct detections of the number treated) is the most often used index of psychological tests or test battery adequacy, although other factors (stability, reliability, other forms of validity, usability, etc.) are also reported as positive features. This paper reports on a method to improve “specificity” [ratio of persons correctly identified as not treated to total number not treated]. Specificity issues are a great concern, where behavioral testing may be used for managerial or regulatory decisions about workers. In such cases the percentage of workers with appreciable dosages may be < 10% and false positive percentages thereby become important. In two alcohol experiments, we empirically validated different multiple cut-offs seeking good false positive rates. In two additional alcohol studies we cross validated our optimum findings and found false positive rates of 3.6% (96.4% specificity) can be achieved with a combination of 6% decrement on three of four tests while retaining adequate sensitivity.
Another Look at air Traffic Controller Performance Evaluation
Authors: Stein Earl S. , Sollenberger Randy L.
Published: January 2012

This paper describes a study that evaluated the reliability of a recently developed rating form designed to assess air traffic controller performance. Six supervisors from different radar approach control facilities nationwide viewed 20 video tapes of controllers working traffic from a previously recorded simulation study. The observer/raters used a new evaluation form that consisted of 24 different rating scales measuring specific areas of controller performance. An important part of this study was observer training. The training consisted of practice rating sessions followed by group discussions. In discussion, observers established mutual evaluation criteria for each performance area. Inter-rater reliability was assessed using intraclass correlations, and intra-rater reliability was assessed using Pearson product-moment correlations on repeated video tapes. In general, the reliability of the form was quite good, however, a few rating scales were much less reliable than the others. Reasons for the differences in rating scale reliability are discussed.