bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Phosphine resistance in Lasioderma serricorne (F.) (Coleoptera: Anobiidae).
Authors: Savvidou N. , Mills K. A. , Pennington A.
Published: November 2017

Thirty-one strains of the cigarette beetle, L. serricorne, collected from tobacco in 25 countries were established on laboratory diet over a three-year period. Fourteen strains were tested with seven concentrations of phosphine (0.0034 to 0.855 g/m3) and used to develop a mortality test for phosphine resistance based on the test for other storage beetles produced by the Food and Agriculture Organization. From their probit response lines, a discriminating concentration was set at 0.17 g/m3, for 20 h, and at 25°C and 60% relative humidity. Of the 31 strains tested, 17 (55%), which originated from 12 countries and with two of unknown origin, were designated as resistant. One of the resistant strains was subjected to further treatments of phosphine to select a population homozygous for at least one major gene for phosphine resistance. Adults from this strain survived five times the discriminating concentration and the homozygous population was subsequently used in virgin crosses with the laboratory-bred, susceptible strain to produce heterozygous insects. Both the homozygotes and the heterozygotes were used to develop a more rapid knockdown resistance test, which would give results within a working day. This test requires treatment of adults with a concentration of 0.476+0.09 g/m3 phosphine for 2 h and 45 minutes.
The use of phosphine as an alternative to methyl bromide for the disinfestation of palm dates.
Authors: Mills K. A. , Wontner-Smith T. J. , Cardwell S. C. , Bell C. H.
Published: November 2017

Trials in a Tunisian date processing facility were carried out with phosphine as a methyl bromide alternative for the control of the larvae of the carob moth, Ectomyelois ceratoniae [Apomyelois ceratoniae], and of eggs laid on dates during processing. The dates were transferred into plastic mesh crates used for regular storage. Bioassays of larvae-infested dates together with eggs of the mill moth, Ephestia kuehniella, used as a closely related model for the control of Ectomyelois ceratoniae eggs, were included in treatments monitored for temperature and gas concentration in sheeted stacks. These were carefully sealed and vacuum-tested with poly(vinyl chloride) covering sheets and polyethylene base sheets. Two freight containers were modified as electrically heated fumigation chambers to allow dates to be heated before treatment to a maximum of 30°C to shorten exposure periods without impairing date quality. Cooling of the dates occurred during the treatments. Aluminium phosphide tablets and cylinderized ECO2FUME were used in monitored trials at a theoretical maximum concentration of between 1.5 and 1.8 g/m3. Only the larvae-infested dates were available for the majority of trials in heated containers. At 15-30°C, larval control was obtained with a 3-day exposure period and a 2-day exposure with ECO2FUME. In a stack at an average temperature of 23°C, E. kuehniella eggs survived a 7-day but not a 10-day exposure period. In the heated container, the eggs survived a 5-day but not a 7-day exposure period at an average of 25°C. In the absence of trials at lower temperatures, recommended exposure periods for the control of E. ceratoniae under these fumigation conditions were 10, 7, 5 and 3 days at 15, 20, 25 and 30°C, respectively. No impairment to the palatability of the dates was noted in any trial.
The use of carbon dioxide as an alternative to methyl bromide for the disinfestation of palm dates.
Authors: Mills K. A. , Wontner-Smith T. J. , Cardwell S. C. , Bell C. H.
Published: November 2017

Trials in a Tunisian date processing facility were carried out with carbon dioxide as an alternative to methyl bromide for the control of the larvae of the carob moth, Ectomyelois ceratoniae [Apomyelois ceratoniae], and of eggs laid on dates during processing. Dates were transferred into plastic mesh crates used for regular storage. Bioassays of larvae-infested dates were included in treatments closely monitored for temperature and gas concentration, together with eggs of the mill moth, Ephestia kuehniella, used as a closely related model for the control of Ectomyelois ceratoniae eggs in various enclosures. In all trials, the concentration was kept at or more than 40% by the addition of gas when appropriate. Dates were treated in carefully sealed and vacuum-tested stacks, using either PVC [poly(vinyl chloride)] covering sheets and polyethylene base sheets or PVC covering and base sheets. At ambient temperatures of 15-25°C, exposure periods for larvae and eggs were 7 and 10 days, respectively. Two freight containers were modified into electrically heated fumigation chambers to allow dates to be heated before and during treatment to a maximum of 30°C to shorten exposure without impairing date quality. The containers were pressure-tested before and after sealing modifications. At 30°C, an exposure period of 4 days controlled both developmental stages. Vacuum chambers in the plant were not sufficiently gas-tight to carry out trials without re-establishing vacuum and modifying rates daily. Under such conditions, larval and egg bioassays showed survival in a 4-day exposure period. Trials conducted in a more gas-tight chamber showed that immature Rhyzopertha dominica survived a 5-day exposure period. Hence, the use of CO2 under vacuum even in improved chambers at temperatures above 15°C appears to require an exposure of 6 days. There was little advantage in using high capital-cost vacuum treatments for the control of larvae, although it was beneficial for the control of eggs. Trials in chambers at atmospheric pressure showed that dates do not significantly sorb CO2. No impairment to the palatability of the dates was noted in any trial.
Emission, entry and deposition of pesticide spray on neighbouring nontarget areas after fogging warehouses with Detmolin F® (dichlorvos).
Authors: Klementz D. , Reichmuth C. , Holdt G.
Published: November 2017

Detmolin (dichlorvos) residues in the air after fogging were studied in Brandenburg, Germany during 1999-2001. The level of active substance contained in the air of the store, at the store's windows and ventilation points, and at 5, 10, 20 and 50 m downwind of the building at a height of 1.6 m was measured using adsorption tubes. With an application of 6 litre Detmolin F/1000 m3, the maximum concentration of the active substance found in the six trials was 95 mg/m3 in the stores. The maximum concentration at windows and doors was measured when these were opened 4 or 6 hours after treatment. Depending on wind speed and temperature, concentrations fluctuated between 100 and 550 µg/m3. Pesticide concentrations in nontarget areas clearly decreased both with increasing time after treatment and with increasing distance from the treated store. Deposition was measured both in model standard waters (steel tubs) and on filter paper. Maximum concentrations of the active substance in water were found in four trials, in the water samples drawn 5 m from the store 24 h after application. These concentrations ranged from 5 to 50 µg/litre.
Repellency and toxicity of essential oils from Ocimum gratissimum (Lamiaceae) and Laurus nobilis (Lauraceae) from Georgia against the rust-red flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum Herbst) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae).
Authors: Andronikashvili M. , Reichmuth C.
Published: November 2017

Six essential oils, three of which were obtained from Laurus nobilis (leaves, branches and stems) and three from Ocimum gratissimum (whole plant) samples from Georgia, USA, were evaluated for repellency and toxicity properties against T. castaneum. The content of the oils in 500 µlitre with acetone as the solvent varied from 0.0625 to 5.0000 µlitre/ml. Repellency tests on impregnated filter paper demonstrated pronounced differences in the number of insects repelled with the six samples of L. nobilis and O. gratissimum oils. The degree of repellency of all test compounds followed the following pattern: O. gratissimum (3) > L. nobilis (3) > O. gratissimum (2) > O. gratissimum (1) > L. nobilis (1) > L. nobilis (2). All samples of both plant species showed high repellency class (IV-V). A contact toxicity bioassay on treated filter paper discs revealed differences between the respective oils from O. gratissimum 1, 2 and 3. Test solutions were prepared by dissolving essential oils in 1 ml acetone. The concentration ranged from 1 to 300 µlitre/ml. Acute adult mortality was determined after 3, 5 and 7 days of treatment. In experiments with concentrations of less than 10 µlitre/ml, mortality was not observed. Toxicity was positively correlated with the concentration up to 50-80 µlitre/ml and negatively correlated with concentrations of more than 80-100 µlitre/ml. At 60 µlitre/ml, 76 and 88% mortality were obtained within 7 days of application of the essential oils from O. gratissimum (1) and O. gratissimum (2), respectively. At 80-100 µlitre/ml, mortality of adult beetles did not increase further. The beetles released an odoriferous substance (quinone) from their defence glands. Weak insecticidal property was recorded for the other essential oil from O. gratissimum (3) and L. nobilis (2). Within 7 days, concentrations of less than 50 µlitre/ml did not result in insect mortality. The fecundity of the surviving insects was reduced. The composition of the essential oils significantly varied with the raw material from which the oil was obtained.
Effect of temperature and relative humidity on diatomaceous-earth-treated Callosobruchus maculatus (F.) and Acanthoscelides obtectus (Say) (Coleoptera: Bruchidae).
Authors: Prasantha B. D. R. , Reichmuth C. , Büttner C.
Published: November 2017

Adults of C. maculatus and A. obtectus were exposed to mung bean and common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) treated with the diatomaceous earth Fossil-Shield at 1020 and 1080 mg/kg, respectively. Diatomaceous-earth-treated bruchids were kept at 20, 25, 30 and 35°C with 43, 52, 64, 75 and 84% relative humidity, respectively. The mortality of C. maculatus and A. obtectus generally increased as the temperature increased but decreased with the increase in relative humidity. The variation between insect mortalities at 25 and 30°C under 52-75% relative humidity did not significantly vary. The interaction between temperature and relative humidity had little effect on the mortality of C. maculatus, but significantly affected the levels of control of A. obtectus. A. obtectus was less susceptible to Fossil-Shield than C. maculatus. Temperatures between 25 and 30°C are physiologically optimum for bruchids, but 35°C is close to the maximum tolerable temperature. At 20°C, most of the tropical and subtropical stored product insects show reduced activity, so the amount of lethal dust that comes in contact with insects becomes very small.
Insecticidal activity of some aromatic plants from Croatia against lesser grain borer (Rhyzopertha dominica F.) on stored wheat.
Authors: Kalinovíc I. , Rozman V. , Guberac V. , Maríc S.
Published: November 2017

Essential oils and plant dusts from the Croatian aromatic plants Lavandula officinalis [L. angustifolia] (dust from ground leaves, flowers and stems), Laurus nobilis (dust from ground leaves), Rosmarinus officinalis (dust from ground leaves and stems), and Thymus vulgaris (dust from ground leaves, flowers and stems) were evaluated for insecticidal activity against the lesser grain borer R. dominica infesting market and seed wheat under laboratory and storage conditions. Up to 100% mortality of adults was obtained over the exposure period. The efficacy of the plant material was compared to a control with no treatment. The rates of essential oils and plant dust recalculated on 5-kg wheat samples were 3.75 ml per sample of oils, and 37.5 g per sample of dust. In general, all essential oils exhibited strong insecticidal effect (100% mortality of adults after 24 h). L. nobilis was the most effective in dust form (100% mortality of adults after 7-10 days of exposure) under storage conditions. In the control samples, no mortality of adults was recorded. Over the 5-month period, damage on wheat was 30%, while insect population increased up to 190%. No changes in quality, colour or flavour of the commercial wheat flour were recorded during the treatment; however, each sample retained the scent of the plants tested. On seed wheat, no negative effect on germination or energy of germination was recorded. These aromatic plant products proved to be partial substitutes for synthetic insecticides if applied to smaller stocks of stored wheat.
Effect of the temperature during spraying on the biological efficiency of chemical protectants of stored grains.
Authors: Faroni L. R. D'A. , Guedes R. N. C. , Queiróz M. E. L. R. , Pimentel M. A. G.
Published: November 2017

The effects of high temperatures during application on pirimiphos-methyl persistence and efficacy against maize weevil (Sitophilus zeamais) were studied. Maize (cv. BR-1051) grains were sprayed with pirimiphos-methyl 500 EC (0.8 ml c.p./litre at 1.5 litre/t of maize) at different temperatures (25, 30, 35, 40, 45 and 50°C) and 55% relative humidity. The grains were then maintained at 27±1°C and 55±5% relative humidity for 90 days. Residues of pirimiphos-methyl on the sprayed grains were analysed every 30 days. Grain samples were evaluated every 15 days after insecticide spraying for their effect on maize weevil. Insect mortality was evaluated after 24 and 48 h of exposure to the treated grain. The level of pirimiphos-methyl residue on maize grains decreased with an increase in storage period and air temperature during insecticide spraying (varying from 11.0±0.1 to 1.1±0.1 ppm, corresponding to the residue levels at 25°C on the day of spraying and after spraying at 50°C and 90 days of storage). The same trend was observed for mortality of the maize weevil, which was reduced from 95.4±13.3% to 2.5±2.5% after 90 days storage after insecticide spraying at 50°C. These results indicate that temperature at spraying can affect insecticide persistence and activity during storage.
Microencapsulated formulations of chlorpyrifos as possible grain protectants.
Authors: Trostanetsky A. , Kostyukovsky M. , Carmi Y. , Frandji H. , Schneider R.
Published: November 2017

The efficacy of two new microencapsulated formulations of chlorpyrifos against Sitophilus oryzae, Rhyzopertha dominica, Tribolium castaneum and Plodia interpunctella was studied under laboratory conditions. Master 25 and Master Quick at 10 and 20 ml/t were mixed with whole wheat grain as food. Master 25 resulted in the complete mortality of S. oryzae and T. castaneum adults at a concentration of 10 ml/t. A concentration of 20 ml/t was necessary to obtain 100% mortality in P. interpunctella larvae. Against R. dominica, Master 25 was not sufficiently effective at either rate. On the other hand, Master Quick resulted in 93 and 100% mortality of R. dominica adults at 10 and 20 ml/t, respectively, and 100% mortality of the other insects at 10 ml/t. Two months after treatment, the activity of Master 25 at 10 ml/t strongly decreased; at 20 ml/t, it was still highly active against S. oryzae, less active against T. castaneum and completely ineffective against R. dominica. On the other hand, Master Quick at 20 ml/t showed high activity against the insects, including R. dominica.
Enhanced effectiveness of vacuum or CO2 in combination with increased temperatures for control of storage insects.
Authors: Navarro S. , Finkelman S. , Sabio G. , Isikber A. , Dias R. , Rindner M. , Azrieli A.
Published: November 2017

Laboratory studies were conducted to determine the combinations that enhance the effectiveness of insect control based on vacuum or CO2 in combination with increased temperatures as quarantine treatment of storage pests. The effects of commodity (cocoa beans) moisture content and the partial pressure of oxygen on the effectiveness of vacuum were studied. For Tribolium castaneum, Ephestia cautella [Cadra cautella] and Plodia interpunctella, the egg stage was the most resistant to low pressure: the duration required to obtain LT99 was 22, 45 and 49 h, respectively. For Tribolium castaneum, the larval and adult stages were the most susceptible, with an LT99 of 7 h. For E. cautella and P. interpunctella, the adult stage was the most susceptible, with LT99 of only 6 and 5 h, respectively. The evaluation of the effect of CO2 at 45°C on the reduction of exposure time for diapausing larvae of T. granarium indicated that by increasing the CO2 concentration to 90%, the LT99 value was reduced to approximately 10 h (LT99 value of 29 h at 35°C). For E. cautella, the larval stage was the most resistant to 90% CO2 at 40°C, with an LT99 value of only 6 h. For O. surinamensis under the same conditions, the LT99 value was 9 h for the most resistant egg stage. A transportable flexible storage system was developed for the control of insect pests. Experiments were carried out using a 15 m3 capacity plastic container termed the "Volcani Cube" or "GrainPro Cocoon". Bioassays in field trials [location not given] at 30°C demonstrated that complete mortality of test insects representing all the four developmental stages of E. cautella and Tribolium castaneum was observed upon three-day exposure to vacuum maintained between 23 and 75 mm Hg.
The efficacy of carbon dioxide treatments (under pressure or by modified atmospheres) for pest control in stored products.
Authors: Riudavets J. , Gabarra R. , Castañé C. , Alomar O. , Pons M. J. , Sánchez J.
Published: November 2017

The application of carbon dioxide under pressure and preservation by modified atmospheres with high carbon dioxide concentrations are discussed as control methods for stored products pests.
Interaction of starvation and insecticide toxicity in granary weevil Sitophilus granarius L. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) populations of different susceptibility.
Authors: Kljajic P. , Milosevski N. , Zivanovíc M. , Almasi R. , Períc I.
Published: November 2017

The effects of starvation and contact insecticides (dichlorvos, malathion, chlorpyrifos-methyl, pirimiphos-methyl and deltamethrin) on granary weevils were studied in Yugoslavia. The evaluated weevil populations of varying levels of susceptibility to insecticides consisted of laboratory population (normally susceptible to insecticides), and populations from Cacak, Belgrade Port, Bijeljina and Kikinda. Laboratory weevils and those obtained from Belgrade Port and Kikinda were used to determine the interaction between starvation and insecticide toxicity. Insecticide toxicity was determined by exposing surviving individuals to treated filter paper (after previous starvation periods LT20 and LT50 in the 10×10 experiment variant). The mortality percentage for granary weevil adults was modified to include the mortality rate in untreated vessels. A mortality rate of 95% was recorded for the laboratory and Kikinda populations after 11 days; similar mortality rate was recorded after 8 days for the population from Belgrade Port and approximately after 8 days and 10 days for the Bijeljina population. The level of insecticide resistance had no significant effect on granary weevil susceptibility to starvation. After LT20 starvation interval and 24-h exposure of weevils to treated filter paper, chlorpyrifos-methyl was the most toxic among the insecticides, while the least toxic was dichlorvos (LD95 level was 14.5-fold lower than that of chlorpyrifos-methyl). Following LT50 starvation and 24-h exposure to treated filter paper, the most toxic insecticide was dichlorvos and the least toxic was deltamethrin (LD95 level was 9.6-fold lower than that of dichlorvos). Malathion and deltamethrin demonstrated higher toxicity to unstarved individuals. After LT50 starvation of the selected weevil adults from Belgrade Port and their 24-h exposure to treated filter paper, deltamethrin showed higher toxicity than malathion (LD95 level was 10.2-fold higher). The variation in insecticide toxicity was not significant considering the individuals from Kikinda. However, compared with the toxicity of the two insecticides to unstarved adults (both populations), malathion and deltamethrin showed equal toxicity. This shows that the resistance levels found in granary weevil populations from Belgrade Port and Kikinda had no effect on malathion and deltamethrin toxicity.
Efficacy against resistant strains of insects of recirculated phosphine fumigation of paddy rice held under PVC sheeting.
Authors: Yang LongDe Yang LongDe , Yang ZiLi Yang ZiLi , Jiang TianKe Jiang TianKe , Qin ZhangGui Qin ZhangGui , Yang LongDe Yang LongDe , Deng Gang Deng Gang , Wu Xiuqong Wu Xiuqong , Yan XiaoPing Yan XiaoPing
Published: November 2017

Recirculated phosphine fumigation was carried out in two bulks of rice with volumes of 1458 m3. A split application technique for insect control was evaluated and compared with a single application. When a single application was used, the phosphine concentration was reduced from 400 ppm to 100 ppm within 14 days, whereas with the split application technique (at the same total application rate), the phosphine concentration remained at approximately 100 ppm after 28 days. Recirculated fumigation under film resulted in the complete control of the adult and immature stages of the resistant strains of rice weevil (Sitophilus oryzae), red flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum) and lesser grain borer (Rhyzopertha dominica). The residues of phosphine on rice were very low (0.0019-0.0037 ppm).
The influence of intensive and extensive quantities on the degassing behaviour of phosphine-based fumigation bags.
Authors: Schmitt S. , Jakob G. , Dierks-Lange H. , Heck F. W.
Published: November 2017

Phosphine (PH3) and metal phosphides are used as fumigants for pest control in a wide range of application methods. New possibilities for increasing the degassing rate of fumigation bags based on metal phosphides are discussed. The reversible and irreversible reactions during the degassing process of a fumigation bag are described in a reaction law assuming a diffusion-controlled heterogeneous process. Three possible ways to improve the degassing rate are presented: (1) if the amount of free reactive metal phosphide in fumigation bags is increased, the degassing rates will be higher and attained more quickly than before; (2) since the water uptake and release of super-absorber are reversible, the super-absorber can be used as a local water reservoir, reducing the decrease in humidity and providing the fumigation bag with a constant amount of water so that the degassing rate can be markedly increased; and (3) a generator is introduced which sucks in cold air, warms it moderately and heats only the chamber with the fumigation bags, resulting in a constant reaction that is also facilitated at low temperatures of the external surroundings.
Efficacy of sulfuryl fluoride on stored product insects in a semolina mill trial in Italy.
Authors: Drinkall M. J. , Zaffagnini V. , Süss L. , Locatelli D. P.
Published: November 2017

An experimental fumigation was undertaken in a semolina mill in Italy in July 2001 to evaluate the insecticidal activity of sulfuryl fluoride determined from laboratory chamber fumigations. The structure was sealed using rigid polycarbonate sheeting, sprayable foam, polyethylene and tape. Seventeen stored product insect bioassays were introduced throughout the mill prior to fumigation. Insect species and life stages included in the bioassays were mixed cultures of Sitophilus oryzae, Rhyzopertha dominica, Stegobium paniceum, eggs and pupae of Plodia interpunctella, Ephestia kuehniella, eggs and adults of Tribolium confusum and Tribolium castaneum. Monitoring lines to measure gas concentration were placed in close proximity to each bioassay location together with data loggers for recording temperature. The structure was fumigated for 22 h and 15 minutes, and a range of concentration × time products from 1101 to 1501 g h-1 m-3 were recorded. Following aeration of the structure, the bioassays were removed and incubated under laboratory conditions at 27°C and 70% relative humidity for mortality assessments. Insect survival was not recorded following 30 days of incubation, confirming previously determined efficacy findings from sulfuryl fluoride chamber fumigations.
Low pressure for controlling postharvest insects.
Authors: Hulasare R. , Phillips T. W. , Mbata G. N. , Payton M.
Published: November 2017

The eggs, larvae and pupae of Tribolium castaneum, Plodia interpunctella and Rhyzopertha dominica in glass chambers at 25, 33, 37 and 40°C were exposed to low pressure (32.5 mm Hg) for time intervals ranging from 30 minutes to 144 h. Studies on the eggs of Ephestia cautella [Cadra cautella] were conducted at pressures of 50, 75, 100, 200 and 300 mm Hg under 5, 15, 22.5, 30 and 37.5°C. Data were analysed with probit analysis, and exposure times to obtain 99% mortality were compared using the lethal-dose ratio test. A study on the effect of low pressure on the mortality of eggs of Rhagoletis pomonella (apple maggots) in apples was conducted by exposing apples infested with the maggot to a low pressure of 25 mm Hg at 25°C. Mortality of all life stages increased with increasing temperature in each species. The eggs were the most tolerant among the developmental stages, and Rhyzopertha dominica was the most tolerant of the low pressure. The susceptibility of eggs to low pressure varied with age. The youngest and oldest eggs were the most susceptible for P. interpunctella and R. dominica. Effective levels of mortality were achieved at pressures as high as 300 mm Hg for eggs of the four species. Such mortality rates were obtained only at 30 and 37.5°C; higher temperatures significantly reduced lethal time values. A practical treatment of 2-5 days can be achieved with 75 mm Hg at a typical room temperature of 22.5°C, but cooler temperatures will require several more days to induce substantial mortality. Treatment of infested apples at 25°C for 24 h resulted in approximately 87% mortality, increasing to 96% at 48 h. Mortality data were described by an exponential dose-response curve. Thus, low pressure may be a viable alternative to methyl bromide for the postharvest treatment of fresh fruits.
Sulfuryl fluoride as a new fumigant for the disinfestation of flour mills in France.
Authors: Ducom P. , Dupuis S. , Stefanini V. , Guichard A. A.
Published: November 2017

The efficacy of sulfuryl fluoride against pests infesting flour mills in France was evaluated. Eggs, larvae and pupae were exposed to concentration × time products (CTPs) of 1125, 1503 and 1877 g h-1 m-3 at 25°C for 24 h. The storage pests consisted of the granary weevil (Sitophilus granarius), Indian meal moth (Plodia interpunctella), Mediterranean flour moth (Ephestia kuehniella), and confused flour beetle (Tribolium confusum). Adult male German cockroaches (Blattella germanica) were also included. All the developmental stages of each species were killed at each CTP.
Response of pests of flour mills to high temperatures in the presence and absence of 10% carbon dioxide.
Authors: Bell C. H. , Savvidou N. , Wontner-Smith T. J. , Bartlett D.
Published: November 2017

The effects of high temperatures on 10 pest species of flour and flour mills (Ephestia kuehniella, Tribolium castaneum, Tribolium confusum, Cryptolestes turcicus, Ptinus tectus, Sitophilus granarius, Gnatocerus cornutus, Tenebrio molitor, Liposcelis bostrychophila and Acarus siro) were studied. Some tests were conducted with the addition of 10% CO2. For S. granarius, the effect of the CO2 at 40°C was highly beneficial. Target temperatures were reduced by several degrees or the duration required for complete mortality was shortened from 2 or 3 days to within the 24-h limit targeted for flour mill treatments. For Tribolium confusum, the addition of CO2 at ≥40°C had little effect on the reduction of survival of older stages, although the exposure time allowing survival was within 3 days for younger stages. At 44°C, the presence of 10-11% CO2 in the heated atmosphere seemed to adversely affect the effectiveness of combined exposures against several species, with increased levels of survival and longer times being required for complete control over those for heat alone. The most heat tolerant species, Tribolium castaneum, survived 48-h exposures at 44°C, with the survival increasing from 1 to 10% when CO2 at 11% was added to the atmosphere. Complete mortality of all the developmental stages of Tribolium castaneum was obtained within 24 h only at 48°C.
Some properties of sulphuryl fluoride in relation to its use as a fumigant in the cereals industry.
Authors: Bell C. H. , Wontner-Smith T. J. , Savvidou N.
Published: November 2017

The toxicity of sulfuryl fluoride (SF) to various pest species, the penetration of SF into flour, and the potential for any problems to arise because of fumigant cross resistance or malfunction of electronic equipment exposed to SF were studied in the UK. The pest species included Tribolium castaneum (rust-red flour beetle), T. confusum (confused flour beetle) Cryptolestes turcicus (Turkish grain beetle), Ephestia kuehniella (Mediterranean flour moth), Ptinus tectus (Australian spider beetle), Sitophilus granarius (granary weevil), Gnatocerus cornutus (broad-horned flour beetle), Tenebrio molitor (meal worm), Liposcelis bostrychophila (book louse) and Acarus siro (flour mite). For most of the pests, the egg stage was the most tolerant of fumigation, but the postembryonic stages of mites were as tolerant as the eggs. Most of the species were completely controlled by a concentration × product of 500 g h-1 m-3 at 30°C, or 1000 g h-1 m-3 at 25°C. Penetration studies into flour of 30 cm depth revealed that SF required 30 to 40 minutes to break through to this level whether or not there was forced air movement over the flour surface, and that only 2.5-3 h were required, irrespective of temperature over the range 18-28°C, for concentrations to reach 50-60% of those at the surface. At venting, 90% of the gas present in flour at 30-cm depth had dissipated after 4.5 h. Studies on phosphine-resistant and susceptible strains of T. castaneum revealed no cross resistance to SF, and repeated exposure of computer equipment to the gas revealed no malfunction. SF is a promising replacement for methyl bromide in the flour milling industry.
Modelling stored product ecosystems using the postharvest aeration and storage simulation tool (PHAST) with realistic boundary conditions.
Authors: Maier D. E. , Ileleji K. E. , Montross M. D.
Published: November 2017

A previously developed finite-element model of the heat, mass and momentum transfer during aerated and non-aerated grain storage was used to investigate the traditional theory of moisture migration (i.e. the movement of excessive moisture in a grain mass during non-aerated storage, which can lead to spoilage). Very little moisture accumulation at the exposed top surface of the bulk (less than 0.1 percentage points) was predicted for a non-aerated bin with a diameter of 5.5 m and an eave height of 11.0 m in Indianapolis, Indiana, USA, during 12 months of storage. The model used permeable boundaries that allowed natural convection currents to originate and flow into the headspace and plenum air. It was determined that moisture "migration" in the traditional sense did not occur. Instead, a more realistic theory of moisture equilibration between the grain mass and headspace and plenum air was developed. Moisture accumulation in the upper portions of a grain mass occurred primarily due to natural convection currents that entered and exited the headspace. By controlling the equilibrium relative humidity of the headspace, moisture accumulation at the grain surface of a bin could be minimized.
Optimising the performance of vertical aeration systems.
Authors: Bartlett D. , Armitage D. M. , Harral B.
Published: November 2017

Complex computational modelling of air flow from vertical aeration systems showed that if the aerator fan is set to blow rather than suck, then the volume of grain cooled is up to 20% greater and better cooling is obtained near the floor. Temperature, grain moisture content change and ventilating air pressure were measured in six commercial grain stores equipped with vertical ventilation systems. At each, the volume of air moved by the fan was up to 20% more when it was blowing than when it was sucking. During ventilation, diurnal temperature fluctuations were used to estimate the speed of the cooling zone, which was linked to the pressure gradient in the grain bulk and this relationship was used to estimate cooling times. Five perforated duct sections were tested to establish their air pressure/flow characteristics in sucking and blowing. Horizontal pressure drop was approximately 50% of that for vertical flow. Ducts with >30% outlet area offered little resistance to flow at working flow rates while <10% outlet area restricted the air flow. Duct wall resistance was 16% lower when blowing wheat than when sucking. A simple model, based on cooling front velocities and the pressure and flow characteristics obtained from the farm tests and trials with ducts, was developed to enable routine design of new systems in a short time. The simple model was compared with the complex model and good agreement demonstrated.
Mathematical modelling the stored-grains ecosystem.
Authors: Thorpe G. , Chen Li Chen Li
Published: November 2017

Global competition is forcing organizations that store grains to become ever more efficient. Capital and running costs associated with storing grains must be reduced, while key indicators of grain quality must be met. Mathematical models of the stored-grain ecosystem have now reached a sufficiently high degree of sophistication to be used with increasing confidence in specifying the design and operation of grain stores. In this paper, a finite-volume model of a farm silo fitted with a conical base is formulated and the resulting discretized equations are solved explicitly. Modelled results compare very well with experimental results obtained from an aerated silo containing canola at Wongan Hills in Western Australia. Limitations of the model are that more accurate methods of estimating the temperatures of the surfaces of the silos must be used, and buoyancy-driven flows in the grains and the headspace must be considered.
Organic farming and nature conservation.
Authors: Vetterli W. , Perkins R. , Clay J. , Guttenstein E.
Published: November 2017

This paper summarizes the potential contribution of organic farming to biodiversity conservation through an assessment of its impact on the World Wildlife Fund's conservation priorities: 238 global priority ecoregions and six global themes (living water, forests for life, toxics, species, endangered seas and climate change). Organic production (the production methods as well as the movement) has contributed to biodiversity conservation by: (1) identifying production systems with ambitious and comprehensive principles for sustainable agriculture; (2) demonstrating that alternative methods of production are commercially and economically viable; and (3) galvanizing an important and rapidly growing demand in the marketplace for more sustainably produced products. The lack of science-based indicators to measure environmental impacts of organic production, however, limits our ability to assess its impacts on biodiversity conservation. The safety of natural compounds should be investigated scientifically and not assumed. To identify truly sustainable production methods and move beyond statements of principles to measurable conservation results, robust, scientifically-based measures or indicators are needed to assess impacts and evaluate trade-offs between different kinds of production systems, including organic, on environmental criteria.
A social agenda for organic agriculture.
Authors: Cierpka T. , Geier B.
Published: November 2017

This paper describes how the organic movement with its holistic approach is already engaged in "social agenda" activities. In this context, it highlights the coordinating and supporting activities of the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) with an emphasis on the cooperation with the fair trade movement. An outlook is given about concrete plans and activities of the organic movement to ensure that organic agriculture is not only ecologically and economically sound but also socially sound and sustainable.
Emerging issues in the marketing and trade of organic products.
Authors: Giovannucci D.
Published: November 2017

The paper begins with a macro view of the shifting regulatory, business, and consumer environments that are inducing fundamental changes in the global trade regime and increasing the demand for standards. This in turn has profound implications especially for small- and medium-sized producers. It discusses how in the case of organics, emerging trade standards may actually benefit the producers rather than being a barrier to entry. In order for organics to expand their appeal and enter mainstream distribution channels they will likely have to adapt some aspects of modern industrial agribusiness. However, a more industrialized approach means walking a fine line because this may contradict the core organic values and risk alienating a loyal customer base. Recent research and examples, drawn primarily from the coffee industry, outline the key issues such as the certification process, quality, and consistency that will require attention. The paper considers that meeting the demands of further growth and those of mainstream distribution channels will be difficult for most producers, and will require a combination of public and private support.
International harmonisation of organic standards and guarantee systems.
Authors: Bowen D.
Published: November 2017

A large array of governmental organic regulations is developing worldwide, in parallel with private organic guarantee systems and in some respects, in conflict with them. The result is at present, an increasingly chaotic system for international trade of organic products. This is ironic since one of the main aims of establishing organic standards and regulations has been to foster trade in organic products. In order to sustain and grow trade in organic products and the livelihoods of producers in developing and developed countries who depend on this trade, some means to harmonize the many organic guarantee systems seems essential. Identifying and implementing a mechanism for establishing equivalence among these systems is regarded as the best approach to the problem. The International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements, in cooperation with FAO and the United Nations' Conference on Trade and Development, presented a conference in 2002 to address issues of international harmonization of organic systems. Core challenges and some possible approaches to them were identified. Representatives of the conference's host organizations have agreed to collaborate in a task force to carry the results forward with the aim of progressing toward solutions.
What are the key issues faced by organic producers?
Authors: Wynen E.
Published: November 2017

Concerns facing organic producers can be divided into two main groups, production and marketing. In the early days of the organic industry, the production problems of farmers were emphasized, and research topics were often concentrated on soil, pests and diseases. More recently, as the industry matures and international trade of organic products has grown, the importance of market-related issues has come to the fore. On the one hand, the need for harmonization of standards and acceptance of equivalence for market development, which would facilitate international trade, is recognized. On the other hand, a more serious push towards domestic consumption seems afoot, which would advantage domestic farmers but disadvantage producers in exporting countries.
Consumer preferences for organic foods.
Authors: Wier M. , Hansen L. G. , Andersen L. M. , Millock K.
Published: November 2017

The Danish market for organic foods is especially well suited for consumer analyses because it is relatively mature, meaning that it does not suffer seriously from the supply shortages and barriers that dominate most of the markets outside Denmark. The well-functioning Danish market makes it possible to collect and analyse reliable data on purchases. Our study distinguishes itself by being based on observations of stated as well as actual purchasing behaviour of a large number of organic as well as conventional foods. The project applies information at the individual household level (panel data), which makes possible a detailed and informative approach. The panel data were provided by a marketing research company. In addition, the modelling is supported by a questionnaire, surveying households in the very same panel as applied in the model estimations. An essential feature and the ultimate strength of the project is that it can reveal differences between actual and postulated behaviour and enlarge the analyses by information on attitudes, values, food habits/eating patterns and food interests. In the paper, preliminary results from the project are presented.
The role of research, information and communication.
Authors: Michelsen J.
Published: November 2017

Organic agriculture distinguishes itself from other production systems by values that oppose certain mainstream agricultural practices. These values are in tune with policy instruments that attempt to change citizens' behaviour via communication, i.e. involving citizens' attitudes and social norms. Communication in support of organic agriculture takes place in the domains of agriculture policy, the farming community and the food market as well as within institutional settings that coordinate activities across domains. Available evidence from initial comparative studies in Europe suggest that the distinction between organic and mainstream agriculture institutions is weak within the farming community, but strong within agricultural policy. Public policies based on certification and financial support seem to have had limited impact on organic agriculture development. Finally, it seems that differences in organic agriculture development among European countries are positively related to institutional changes and continuing interrelations across domains and between organic and mainstream agricultural institutions.
Dutch policy on organic agriculture: a market-oriented approach.
Authors: Nuytens-Vaarkamp G.
Published: November 2017

The organic share in the total agricultural surface in the Netherlands is relatively small: 1.9% of the total agricultural area is under organic management. Dutch citizens want a sustainable form of agriculture, and organic farming has a pioneering role in this. In its efforts to promote organic farming, Dutch policy takes a market-oriented approach but the emphasis is on establishing cooperation between market players with the demands of the public and consumers as the guiding and controlling principle. Market players have formed a Task Force made up of representatives from all the links in the chain. In a chain plan, the parties set out targets to develop the market for the product group concerned. In order to communicate effectively the Task Force has drawn up a joint communication plan to improve the harmonization between supply and demand and further the development of the organic chain. The first results are promising: agreements have been concluded in the pig production sector and more are likely to follow for organic bread, beef, fruit and vegetables. A first evaluation of the current chain approach will be made by the end of 2002 to determine whether it can replace the current subsidy scheme for the primary producer who wishes to convert to organic production.
Forest climbing plants of West Africa: introduction.
Authors: Bongers F. , Parren M. P. E. , Swaine M. D. , Traoré D.
Published: November 2017

The rainforests of Upper Guinea extend from Senegal to Togo and are separated from the rest of the West African forest by the Dahomey Gap: an extension of savannah from the Sahel to the Gulf of Guinea. The Upper Guinea forest zone harbours a large number of animal and plant species, and has been earmarked as one of the world's hotspots of diversity. This region is under threat, however, from conversion for agriculture and from logging, and is becoming increasingly fragmented. This introductory chapter presents an overview of the book and examines the climbers of the West African forests, particularly those of Upper Guinea, including their role in the forest ecosystem.
A botanical synopsis of the lianes and other forest climbers.
Authors: Jongkind C. C. H. , Hawthorne W. D.
Published: November 2017

This chapter covers some fundamental botanical aspects of climbing plants in Upper Guinean forests, particularly their taxonomy, morphology, biogeography and modes of dispersal.
Climber abundance, diversity and colonisation in degraded forests of different ages in Côte d'Ivoire.
Authors: Kuzee M. E. , Bongers F.
Published: November 2017

The sustainable management of degraded forests is intrinsically linked with the management of climbers, i.e. woody lianas as well as herbaceous vines. They are a natural component of most forests but tend to be more conspicuous in disturbed areas, such as gaps, fragmented forests, forest edges, logged-over forests and forests that have suffered hurricane damage. A study was undertaken in the Forêt Monogaga Forest Reserves in southwest Côte d'Ivoire and sought to answers questions on climber diversity. Which climbers grow more commonly in degraded forests? What is the occurrence of rare species in degraded forests compared to mature forests? Does climber diversity alter as forests mature and, if so, what are the patterns observed? The study showed that in degraded forest climbers are abundant and diverse. However, even though recently cleared sites are high in light levels, the limited availability of small trees constrains climber abundance and distribution.
Climbing plants in Ghanaian forests.
Authors: Swaine M. D. , Hawthorne W. D. , Bongers F. , Toledo Aceves M.
Published: November 2017

The total number of forest climbers in Ghana has been recorded as 604 but this number has increased to 634 following further research and taxonomic revisions as the taxa become better known. The focus of this paper is on woody climbers (lianes), and the variation in liana biology and ecology is described for the commoner Ghanaian species. These features are related to their distribution and the forest environment across the country.
Taxonomy, population dynamics and utilisation of the rattan palms of the Upper Guinea forests of West Africa.
Authors: Sunderland T. C. H. , Beligné V. , Bonnéhin L. , Ebanyenle E. , Oteng-Amoako A. , Zouzou E. J.
Published: November 2017

The stems of the climbing palms or rattans of Upper Guinea play a significant role in the forest economy of the region through the utilization of the inner stems, or cane, for furniture and the manufacture of household commodities in many rural areas. This chapter summarizes the knowledge available on population dynamics and the abundance of the resource under different harvesting regimes. Market aspects and related information on management strategies are also presented.
Utilisation of climbers in two forest reserves in West Côte d'Ivoire.
Authors: Tra Bi F. H. , Kouamé F. N. , Traoré D.
Published: November 2017

This chapter reports a detailed study in two forest reserves in western Côte d'Ivoire, Haut-Sassandra and Scio. These two were chosen as they are relatively well preserved and are among the Society for Forest Development (SODEFOR) pilot forests holding relatively large numbers of agricultural immigrants who depend on the forests to satisfy their health, housing and handicraft needs. The uses and application of forest climbers are reported. A total of 114 species were used by the populations in both forest areas, from 83 genera and 35 families. Some 83 were used medicinally, 9 for oral hygiene, 16 as aphrodisiacs, and 4 for magical properties. Food (30 species), craft work (25 species), construction (19 species), and hunting and fishing (8 species) were the other uses.