bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Concurrent Coupling of Atomistic and Continuum Models
Authors: Xu Mei
Published: February 2010

This chapter presents a review of concurrent multiscale methods for coupling continuum, molecular, and quantum mechanics with a particular emphasis on the Bridging Domain Method. An expanded taxonomy of multiscale methods is presented which highlights the role and characteristics of concurrent multiscale methods. Several popular 0 K methods are summarized: master-slave coupling, ONIOM, the Bridging Domain Method, the Bridging Scale Method and the Quasicontinuum method. The topic of ghost forces in the Bridging Domain Method is studied and the stability properties of Lagrange multiplier coupling methods are reviewed. Several methods for coupling molecular dynamics with continua are described: master-slave and handshake methods, the Bridging Domain Method, and the Bridging Scale Method. The conservation properties of the Bridging Domain Method are demonstrated. Numerical examples are presented which focus on the reduction of spurious phonon reflections from the continuum/molecular interfaces in the Bridging Domain Method. Examples of the simulation of cracks and defects in graphene using a modified ONIOM method to couple continuum, molecular, and quantum subdomain are also given.
Blending Methods for Coupling Atomistic and Continuum Models
Authors: Bochev P. , Lehoucq R. , Parks M. , Badia S. , Gunzburger M.
Published: February 2010

We review some recent developments in the coupling of atomistic and continuum models based on the blending of the two models in an overlap, or bridge, subdomain. These coupling schemes resemble overlapping domain decomposition methods. However, their analysis and development is complicated by the non-local force model employed by the atomistic model. We present an abstract framework for atomistic-to-continuum (AtC) coupling methods and formulate precise mathematical notions of patch and consistency tests for the methods. The framework admits both force-based or energy-based coupling methods and allows us to identify four general classes of blending methods. We subject each class to patch and consistency tests and discuss important implementation issues such as: the enforcement of displacement continuity constraints in the bridge region; internal vs. external blending; the role of ghost forces, or forces that arise from coupling nonlocal and local models of force, and how they can be mitigated by blending methods.
Error Estimates for Multiscale Operator Decomposition for Multiphysics Models
Authors: Estep D.
Published: February 2010

Multiphysics, multiscale models present significant challenges in terms of computing accurate solutions and for estimating the error in information computed from numerical solutions. In this chapter, we discuss error estimation for a widely used numerical approach for multiphysics, multiscale problems called multiscale operator decomposition. In this approach, a multiphysics model is decomposed into components involving simpler physics over a relatively limited range of scales, and the solution is sought through an iterative procedure involving numerical solutions of the individual components. After describing the ingredients of adjoint-based a posteriori analysis, we describe the extension to multiscale operator decomposition solution methods. While the particulars of the analysis vary considerably with the problem, there are several key ideas underlying a general approach to treat operator decomposition multiscale methods.
Finite Temperature Multiscale Methods for Silicon NEMS
Authors: Tang Z. , Aluru N. R.
Published: February 2010

In this chapter, we present a finite temperature quasicontinuum method for multiscale analysis of silicon nanostructures at finite temperature. The quasicontinuum method uses the classical continuum mechanics framework, but the constitutive response of the system is determined by employing an atomistic description. For finite temperature solid systems under isothermal conditions, the constitutive response is determined by using the Helmholtz free energy density. The static part of the Helmholtz free energy density is obtained directly from the interatomic potential while the vibrational part is calculated by using the theory of quantum-mechanical lattice dynamics. We describe three quasiharmonic models, namely the real space quasiharmonic model (QHM), the local quasiharmonic model (LQHM), and the reciprocal space quasiharmonic model (QHMK), to compute the vibrational free energy. We also describe a QHMG approach - where the quasiharmonic approximation is combined with the local phonon density of states (LPDOS). The LPDOS is efficiently calculated from the phonon Green's function (GF) by using a recursion method.
Multiscale Materials
Authors: Yip Sidney
Published: February 2010

Modeling and simulation across different length and time scales enables atomic-level understanding of materials properties and behavior which manifest at the meso- and macro-scales. Case studies of theoretical strength of crystals and defect nucleation and mobility illustrate the recent progress on studying unit processes. A future challenge lies in probing complex functional behavior of real materials.
How Words Mean
Authors: Evans Vyvyan
Published: February 2010

This book is concerned with word meaning, and the role of words in meaning construction. The specific problem addressed concerns how best to account for the inherent variation of word meaning in language use. That is, the books seeks to provide an account for the way in which the meaning associated with any given word form appears to vary each time it is used, in terms of the conceptualization that it, in part, gives rise to. The book develops a new theoretical synthesis building upon developments in cognitive science: in particular cognitive linguistics and cognitive psychology. The model proposed is termed the Theory of Lexical Concepts and Cognitive Models, or LCCM Theory for short. The theory is based upon two central theoretical constructs: the lexical concept and the cognitive model. The essential insight of the theory is that meaning construction in language understanding relies upon the interaction between distinct types of knowledge representation — units of semantic structure: lexical concepts, and units of conceptual structure: cognitive models — which inhere in distinct representational systems that evolved for different purposes: the conceptual system and the linguistic system. The book provides a joined-up account of lexical semantics and semantic compositionality which is at once descriptively adequate and psychologically plausible.
2 Towards a new account of word meaning
Authors: Evans Vyvyan
Published: February 2010

This chapter outlines the starting points and guiding assumptions for the Theory of Lexical Concepts and Cognitive Models (LCCM Theory). LCCM Theory arises from five recent developments in the language sciences which are explored in detail. The chapter also discusses the principled distinction at the heart of LCCM Theory: the presumption that the linguistic and conceptual system consist of distinct types of representation: the lexical concept and the cognitive model.
5 Symbolic units
Authors: Evans Vyvyan
Published: February 2010

This chapter provides a brief overview of the nature and structure of the symbolic unit, as developed in constructional accounts of the linguistic system in cognitive linguistics. In LCCM Theory, the symbolic unit is the representation type that is held to populate the linguistic system, and hence crucial to the account of lexical representation and semantic composition developed.
11 Lexical concept selection
Authors: Evans Vyvyan
Published: February 2010

This chapter addresses the first of the compositional mechanisms at the heart of LCCM Theory: lexical concept selection. As a linguistic form may potentially be associated with a large number of distinct lexical concepts, language understanding involves a process whereby an appropriate lexical concept is identified. This process of lexical concept identification is referred to as lexical concept selection. Of all the lexical concepts associated with a given form, what makes one appropriate, rather than another, can be attributed loosely to the notion of context, although this subsumes a number of more specific factors that influence lexical concept selection. The chapter considers the various factors involved in this process of selection.
2 Institutions and Policies Shaping Industrial Development: An Introductory Note
Authors: Cimoli Mario , Dosi Giovanni , Nelson Richard , Stiglitz Joseph E.
Published: February 2010

This chapter notes that all historical experiences of sustained economic growth — starting at least from the English Industrial Revolution — find their enabling conditions in a rich set of complementary institutions, shared behavioral norms, and public policies. Indeed, the paramount importance of institutions and social norms appears to be a rather universal property of every form of collective organization we are aware of. Moreover, much more narrowly, discretionary public policies have been major ingredients of national development strategies, especially in catching-up countries, throughout the history of modern capitalism. Conversely, from a symmetric perspective, there are extremely sound theoretical reasons supporting the notion that institutions and policies always matter in all processes of technological learning and economic coordination and change. This chapter focuses on the latter issue and outlines some theoretical foundations and for industrial policies in a broad sense, and for measures of “institutional engineering” shaping the very nature of the economic actors, the market mechanisms and rules under which they operate, and the boundaries between what is governed by market interactions, and what is not.
5 Industrial Policies in Developing Countries: History and Perspectives
Authors: Di Maio Michele
Published: February 2010

This chapter presents a detailed comparative account of the role played by industrial policies — including innovation and technology policies, education and skill formation policies, trade policies, targeted industrial support measures, sectoral competitiveness policies, and competition-regulation policies — in spurring development and growth in developing countries in the last fifty years. It illustrates their different effectiveness, highlighting the importance of the varying combinations of policy measures and of the details of their implementation.
9 Microeconomic Evolution in High Uncertainty Contexts: The Manufacturing Sector in Argentina
Authors: Kosacoff Bernardo , Ramos Adrián H.
Published: February 2010

In the last three decades, Argentina's real output underwent several violent fluctuations. This chapter aims to identify some of the effects of such volatility on the structure of the industrial sector and on the evolution of the micro behaviors and strategies of industrial companies. After a brief review of the history of industrialization in Argentina since the end of the 19th century, the chapter proceeds to the exploration of industrial dynamics since the 1970s, and in particular of the coupled dynamics between macroeconomic conditions and micro decision-making processes. It shows that macroeconomic instability and policy shocks entail an implicit “industrial policy” albeit of a perverse kind.
2 Hesiod and Plato's history of philosophy
Authors: Boys-Stones G. R.
Published: February 2010

This chapter argues that Hesiod's praise of one form of eris (‘strife’) makes him a symbol and archetype for what Plato sees as the unproductive squabbling of much subsequent philosophical debate. His own philosophical methodology, underpinned by the assonant language of eros, is presented as a transformation of this eris, a transformation which retains what is positive in its drive for progress, while freeing itself of its tendency to polemic for polemic's sake.
12Hesiod'sTheogony andPlato'sTimaeus
Authors: Sedley David
Published: February 2010

This chapter asks what the Theogony can teach us about the advent of evil in the Timaeus, and in so doing, uncovers a ‘a remarkably deep isomorphism’ between the two texts: both, for example, introduce first the potential for evil (Hesiodic Chaos and its descendants, Platonic matter) and then its realization (Hesiodic and Platonic woman).
Executive Power of the European Union
Authors: Curtin Deirdre
Published: February 2010

The picture of Brussels-based bureaucrats exercising wide-ranging, arbitrary executive powers with no accountability is one of the favourite images conjured by Eurosceptics across the political spectrum. What truth is there in the image? This book aims to bring the EU's executive powers out of the shadows by mapping the evolution and current form of the EU's various executive actors, their powers, and the mechanisms for holding them accountable. In doing so it provides a rich understanding of the way in which the EU's institutional and legal framework fits within national constitutional presumptions about how power should be controlled and accountability achieved. Covering both the political executive and the administrative executive at the EU institutional level, the book analyzes their relationship with national executive power, and traces the historical evolution of executive order in Europe from the Peace of Westphalia through classic inter-governmental organizations to the allegedly unique EU framework. The book's analysis covers both the formal legal structure of the Union and the evolution of the EU's living institutions in practice. The picture presented is of a fragmented, cluttered and complex European executive space, resistant to radical constitutional reform and in need of a more nuanced understanding of the different forms of executive power required by different political aims and modes of decision-making.
Chapter 7 V3. Executive–Legislative Relationships
Authors: Flinders Matthew
Published: February 2010

The relationship between the executive and legislature at the national level remains heavily weighted in favour of the government but a far more balanced relationship is observable at the sub‐national level.
Chapter 8 V4. Electoral System
Authors: Flinders Matthew
Published: February 2010

The politics of electoral reform under New Labour provides a critical case of marginalization and strategic manoeuvring in order to avoid shifting to a more proportional electoral system. And yet devolution was founded on variants of more proportional system which leaves the national system in an anomalous position.
Underdetermination and Commonsense Realism
Authors: Devitt Michael
Published: February 2010

This chapter defends commonsense realism from the underdetermination theses of extreme skepticism. If true, these would count against nearly all our knowledge and hence undermine realism about the observable world. The traditional responses to these theses rest on a priori knowledge. The chapter rejects a priori knowledge, but even if there were such knowledge, these traditional responses tend to involve bizarre metaphysics and to be otherwise unsatisfactory. Instead, it offers a Moorean response: realism is much more firmly based than the epistemological theses that are thought to undermine it. The Moorean response is supported by a naturalistic one that appeals to scientific practice. Rather than proceeding form an a priori epistemology to an a priori metaphysics, we should proceed from an empirical metaphysics to an empirical epistemology. We should put metaphysics first.
The Corpus of Iambic Poets
Authors: Rotstein Andrea
Published: February 2010

This chapter surveys the poets that may be included in a corpus of iambic poetry. It proposes to view both canon and corpus as a gradient structured by core and periphery, referred to as the ‘received iambos’. It presents the ‘received iambos’ by a graded diagram where the canonical poets (in three degrees) are in the centre, minor iambic poets next, followed by poets who composed iamboi as a minor part of their work, then by a fuzzy area of works with an equal claim to belong to parody and, outside the circle, poets linked to iamboi by virtue of a salient feature of their work that was shared by the iamboi genre.
IambosandIambeionin the Classical Period
Authors: Rotstein Andrea
Published: February 2010

The examination of evidence in the two previous chapters helped establish the notions with which the genre of iambos was associated in the archaic period. This chapter continues to survey 5th- and 4th-century BCE testimonies, focusing on the terms iambos and iambeion. It begins by exploring the use of iambos for ‘iambic rhythm’ in Damon of Oa and in Plato. It then turns to the use of iambos for an ‘iambic poem’, by Herodotus and Aristophanes, and of iamboi for ‘iambic genre’ in Plato, who conceives iamboi also as public performances. A brief reconstruction of the history of the term iambeion shows its connection with the rhythmical sense of iambos. It considers the inconclusive evidence for a Dorian iambos represented by Aristoxenus of Selinus, and concludes by offering a hypothesis of the development of terms from the archaic into the classical period.
Archilochus as a Prototype of Invective Poetry
Authors: Rotstein Andrea
Published: February 2010

This chapter contends that, previous to the categorization of iambos as invective, it was Archilochus who was first of all conceptualized as a representative par excellence of blame poetry. It examines the types of content associated with Archilochus before the Hellenistic period. Such early testimonies provide information on the reception of Archilochus at a stage when invective emerged as the dominant feature of his work. They also suggest awareness regarding other aspects of his poetry. Thus, although Archilochus begins to function in the 5th century BCE as prototype of invective poetry, he is not simply reduced to that. Archilochus' reputation was a matter of ideological contestation, and whoever praises or blames him usually has ulterior motives.
Letter‐Writing and the Rise of the Novel
Authors: Whyman Susan E.
Published: February 2010

This chapter considers how letters became literary at a time when letters and literature were closely aligned. It suggests that epistolary literacy can offer new insights into the rise of the novel. It introduces Jane Johnson, an untrained Buckinghamshire mother who writes a story about Clarissa, composes original poems, and keeps records of her reading. Her epistolary practices are analyzed in relation to the epistolary writings of the novelist Samuel Richardson. The chapter concludes that provincial women like Johnson were not only influenced by literature; they had a powerful impact on literary culture. When Richardson's historical insights are connected to Johnson's epistolary literacy, the study of the novel is enriched.
Measurement of health utilities in children
Authors: Sung Lillian , Petrou Stavros , Ungar Wendy J.
Published: February 2010

The measurement of health-related quality of life (HRQoL) has been increasingly emphasized in pediatrics. The same issues relevant to the measurement of HRQoL in adults apply to children, although assessment in children poses additional challenges. These include the need to consider the developmental ability for self-assessment in younger children and the possibility of enhanced risk aversion when parents are proxy respondents for their children, particularly when a standard gamble is used to determine health state utility for calculation of quality-adjusted life years (QALYs). This chapter discusses direct and indirect preference elicitation techniques and presents some of the more common methods to elicit health state utilities in children. Next, the issue of different raters of utilities is discussed and age-related issues are considered. Finally, future directions for research in the understanding of pediatric health utilities are suggested.
Locality
Authors: Fodor Jerry A.
Published: February 2010

There are increasingly good reasons to doubt that the ‘classical’ representational theory of mind (RTM) language of thought (LOT) computational theory of mind (CTM) model is anything like a general account of how the cognitive mind works; and the magnitude of our current bewilderment about certain aspects of cognitive processes is the measure of the failure. This is not, of course, a cause for lamentation. A lot of our best science has been learned from the falsification of prima facie interesting ideas: it's a matter of figuring out where you are by finding out where you aren't. Just as Holmes says: ‘When you've eliminated all the impossibles, what's left must be the truth’. Assuming, of course, that there is anything left, and assuming that there is only one of them. This chapter is about what seems to have gone wrong.
The Ising model in two dimensions: summary of results
Authors: McCoy Barry M.
Published: February 2010

This chapter summarizes the many results of the exactly solved Ising model in two dimensions at H = 0 including: the partition function, free energy, spontaneous magnetization, the Toeplitz determinant representations of the correlation functions, the Painlevé VI differential equation for the diagonal two spin correlations, the form factor expansion of the magnetic susceptibility, the scaling limit, the boundary properties of the half plane lattice, and the random layered lattice. For H ≠ 0 the Lee-Yang circle theorem, the free energy and magnetization for H/kBT = iπ/2 expansions for small H, the results of Zamolodchikov at T = Tc and a discussion of extended analyticity are given.
The Pfaffian solution of the Ising model
Authors: McCoy Barry M.
Published: February 2010

This chapter presents the computation of the partition function of the two-dimensional Ising model in terms of a sum of Pfaffians using a combinatorial approach. This method is extended to derive the determinental expressions for the correlation functions.
Health and Social Justice
Authors: Ruger Jennifer Prah
Published: February 2010

Envision a society in which all people have the ability to achieve the central health capabilities of avoiding premature death and escapable morbidity, and where everyone has comprehensive health insurance and access to high‐quality health care. This vision is the animating principle behind the health capability paradigm, a unique new approach where not just health care, or the right to health alone, but health and the capability for health itself are moral imperatives. Ruger has been developing this health capability paradigm for over 15 years. Her innovative approach bridges the gaps at the interdisciplinary intersection of ethics, economics, political science, law and human rights, with practical and theoretical applications for the financing and delivery of health care and public health. The health capability paradigm provides philosophical justification for the direct moral importance of health, health capability, and the right to health, as well as a theoretical basis for prioritizing needs and allocating resources. There are no guarantees of good health, but society can, if it will, design and build effective institutions and social systems, structures and practices, that support all citizens in the pursuit of central health capabilities. Key tenets of this theory, which emphasizes responsibility and choice for health, include health agency, shared health governance, incompletely theorized agreements, internalized public moral norms to guide social choice and collective action, and a joint scientific and deliberative approach to decision-making that incorporates medical necessity, medical appropriateness, and shortfall equality. This paradigm integrates both proceduralist and consequentialist approaches to justice, and emphasizes the critical roles of both moral and political legitimacy. We can no longer afford to ignore human suffering. This book weaves together a number of disparate constructs and original insights to produce a foundational new framework for thinking about and taking action to achieve health and social justice— the health capability paradigm.
1 From Cold War Constraints to New Possibilities
Authors: Casarini Nicola
Published: February 2010

This chapter traces the evolution of the first twenty years of Europe—China relations, that is, since their inception in 1975, when the European Community and the People's Republic of China established formal diplomatic relations, until 1995 when the EU adopted its first document on China and ushered in a policy of constructive engagement with Beijing. The chapter explains the reasons for Europe—China relations to be derivative of broader relations with the two superpowers in the 1970s and 1980s, discussing why Chinese leaders tended to use relations with European countries as part of their policy to gain strategic advantage vis‐à‐vis the Soviet Union and the United States, and why both Western and Eastern Europe's relations with China were derivative of their respective ties with Washington or Moscow. This chapter subsequently discusses the new possibilities which opened up after the end of the Cold War and the demise of the Soviet Union.
Introduction
Authors: Blundell Stephen J. , Blundell Katherine M.
Published: February 2010

This introductory chapter explores the concept of large numbers, showing why large numbers appear in thermal physics and explaining how to handle them. Large numbers arise in thermal physics because the number of atoms in the bit of matter under study is usually very large (for example, it can be typically of the order of 1023), but also because many thermal physics problems involve combinatorial calculations. The chapter discusses Stirling's approximation, which is useful for handling expressions, such as ln N!, which frequently appear in thermal physics. The thermodynamic limit and state the ideal gas equation are also considered.
Heat
Authors: Blundell Stephen J. , Blundell Katherine M.
Published: February 2010

This chapter explores the concepts of heat and heat capacity. Heat is defined as 'thermal energy in transit'. The heat capacity C of an object is given by C = dQ/dT. The heat capacity of a substance can also be expressed per unit volume or per unit mass.
Temperature and the Boltzmann factor
Authors: Blundell Stephen J. , Blundell Katherine M.
Published: February 2010

This chapter explores the concept of temperature and shows how it can be defined in a statistical manner. This leads to the idea of a Boltzmann distribution and a Boltzmann factor. These ideas are used to define the temperature of a system from a statistical perspective and hence derive the Boltzmann distribution. This distribution describes how a thermal system behaves when it is placed in thermal contact with a large thermal reservoir.
Energy
Authors: Blundell Stephen J. , Blundell Katherine M.
Published: February 2010

This chapter focuses on one of the key concepts in thermal physics, that of energy. What happens when energy is changed from one form to another? How much work can you get out of a quantity of heat? These are key questions to be answered. The chapter marks the beginning a study of thermodynamics proper, and the first law of thermodynamics is introduced.
Entropy
Authors: Blundell Stephen J. , Blundell Katherine M.
Published: February 2010

This chapter uses the results from Chapter 13 to define a quantity called entropy and to understand how entropy changes in reversible and irreversible processes. It also considers the statistical basis for entropy, and uses this to understand the entropy of mixing, the apparent conundrum of Maxwell's demon, and the connection between entropy and probability.
The third law
Authors: Blundell Stephen J. , Blundell Katherine M.
Published: February 2010

This chapter discusses the third law of thermodynamics. Topics covered include different statements of the third law by Walter H. Nerst, Max Planck, and Francis Simon; and consequences of the third law.
Photons
Authors: Blundell Stephen J. , Blundell Katherine M.
Published: February 2010

This chapter considers the thermodynamics of electromagnetic radiation. It begins by discussing spectral energy density, Kirchoff's law, radiation pressure, and the statistical mechanics of the photon gas, respectively. It then goes on to cover the statistical mechanics of the photon gas and black-body distribution. The final sections concern the thermal radiation that exists in the Universe as a remnant of the hot big bang and the effect of thermal radiation on the behaviour of atoms, and hence the operation of the laser.
Cooling real gases
Authors: Blundell Stephen J. , Blundell Katherine M.
Published: February 2010

Chapter 26 considered how to model the properties of real gases using various corrections to the ideal gas model. This chapter uses these results to explore some of the deviations from ideal gas behaviour that can be observed in practice, in particular with changes in the behaviour of a Joule expansion. It then introduces the Joule-Kelvin throttling process (which has no effect on an ideal gas, but which can lead to cooling of a real gas) and discusses how real gases can be liquefied.
Non-equilibrium thermodynamics
Authors: Blundell Stephen J. , Blundell Katherine M.
Published: February 2010

This chapter discusses non-equilibrium thermodynamics and shows how fluctuations lead to the Onsager reciprocal relations, which connect certain kinetic coefficients. It applies these ideas to thermoelectric phenomena and briefly discusses time-reversal symmetry.
Conclusion
Authors: Black Jane
Published: February 2010

The concluding chapter looks at republican regimes, noting that the prerogatives associated with plenitude of power were taken for granted by the government of Florence and other regimes based on popular sovereignty. It is noted that absolute power was discredited in Italy just at the time when it was coming into vogue in France. But the author shows that thinkers such as Guillaume Budé and Jean Bodin accepted the teachings of Alciato and others that the king had an obligation not to infringe the fundamental rights of subjects. The early seventeenth‐century lawyer Ludovico Rodolfini summed up earlier opinion, coming down firmly on the side of the rule of law.
Legal Ownership and Nature of Kyoto Units and EU Allowances
Authors: Wemaere Matthieu , Streck Charlotte , Chagas Thiago
Published: February 2010

The Kyoto Protocol creates sovereign rights for parties trading Kyoto units. Kyoto parties can then authorize private entities to participate in trading under the international instrument. This chapter analyzes the legal nature and characteristics of the different units. Clear decisions on the nature and the treatment of these units are important to give legal security and certainty to both governments and private (or public) entities, and provide security and confidence to the trading system. Where legislation defines tradable units differently, but where the trading systems are linked, such as in the EU ETS, difference in treatment can make one sub-market of the overall system more attractive than others. Different treatment can thus lead to intended and — worse — unintended distortions of the market.
Accounting for Emissions: From Costless Activity to Market Operations
Authors: Cook Allan
Published: February 2010

This chapter examines, in the context of the European Union's new Emissions Trading Scheme under the Kyoto Protocol, the issues surrounding the aborted attempt by the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) in early 2005 to regulate the accounting for ‘cap-and-trade’ schemes. It argues that the features that made this model attractive to governments were precisely the ones that accountants found difficult to capture under existing standards. After showing why the challenge has to be faced, the chapter suggests a possible way forward that the IASB might consider when it revisits the subject, as it is now doing.
Trade and Investment Implications of Carbon Trading for Sustainable Development
Authors: Marie-Claire Cordonier Segger , Markus Gehring
Published: February 2010

This chapter briefly examines, based on recent legal analysis and scholarship in the field of sustainable development, the trade and investment implications of carbon trading. First, it considers how trade regimes, investment rules, and emissions trading schemes can serve as tools for sustainable development. It then examines the trade and investment implications of new emissions trading regulations, suggesting ways to minimize overlaps with trade and investment disciplines when drafting carbon-related regulations, and addressing issues related to technology transfer. It considers how trade and investment regimes might be refined to complement and support climate-change-related measures. The chapter concludes with a call for integration and, at a minimum, coherence among trade, investment, and climate change regimes that share common sustainable development objectives.
Carbon Markets and Policy in Australia: Recent Developments
Authors: Wilder Martijn , Fitz-Gerald Louisa
Published: February 2010

This chapter examines the recent developments in climate policy in Australia, with a specific focus on the recently introduced legislation for emissions trading in Australia. It also considers the newly implemented mandatory greenhouse and energy reporting regulations, which provide detail on the mandatory corporate greenhouse emissions and energy reporting scheme, and the design proposals for an expanded national renewable energy target. The chapter concludes by considering some recent developments in the voluntary carbon market in Australia, including the investigation by the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (ACCC) into ‘green’ marketing.
The Voluntary Carbon Market: Its Contributions and Potential Legal and Policy Issues
Authors: Michelle Passero
Published: February 2010

Over the past several years, transactions for the voluntary purchase and sale of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reductions have grown significantly. Also known as the ‘voluntary carbon market’, this market has provided a benefit to the climate by building public awareness and infrastructure for transactions and informing government climate policy. This chapter begins with a background on the voluntary carbon market — what it is and the reasons for its growth. It elaborates on the contribution of the voluntary market including the development of GHG reduction accounting standards, registries and policy. It then discusses the additional actions that could be taken in this respect, and identifies the potential need to clarify the legal nature of reductions in the voluntary market.
Aviation and Climate Change Regulation
Authors: Clarke Claybourne Fox , Chagas Thiago
Published: February 2010

Aviation emissions are the fastest growing source of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. Aviation emissions from Annex I Countries increased by 67% between 1990 and 2005 and, according to some estimates, by as much as 90% when aviation emissions from non-Annex I Countries are included for this period. This chapter examines the current status of international aviation under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the ongoing debate over developing measures under the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) or including the sector in a post-2012 agreement, the moves by the EU to bring international aviation under the European Union Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS), and issues that will need to be considered when implementing measures at the international level to reduce the sector's emissions.
Design of Environmental Tax Reforms in Europe
Authors: Speck Stefan , Jilkova Jirina
Published: February 2010

This chapter provides an overview of carbon‐energy taxation introduced under environmental tax reforms in Europe. First a broad overview of the relative shares of taxes on energy, transport, and pollution is presented. This overview treats developments in EU‐15 as well as in the ten new member states and shows that tax‐reform proposals are considered across Europe as a whole. Developments in tax‐shifting are most advanced in Denmark, Finland, Germany, Netherlands, Slovenia, Sweden, and the UK. Comprehensive reform proposals have also been put forward in countries such as France, Italy, and Belgium, while currently among the new member states Estonia and Czech Republic have announced tax shifts to be implemented. The chapter investigates whether there have been ‘implicit’ tax shifts, i.e. by examining how the ratios of labour taxation‐to‐GDP and of environmental taxes‐to‐GDP have developed during the last decade. Furthermore, the chapter looks into how European countries have designed their tax shifts, and in this connection how the concern of potential losses of competitiveness have been addressed and mitigated. This is done by explaining the different principles and measures applied in the seven countries which have already introduced tax shifts.
Trends in the Competitiveness of Selected Industrial Sectors in ETR Countries
Authors: Salmons Roger , Miltner Alexandra
Published: February 2010

The objective of this chapter is to assess whether the carbon‐energy taxes introduced under the environmental tax reforms (ETRs) that were implemented in seven European Union countries between 1990 and 2001 have had any impact on the competitiveness of selected industrial sectors in those countries. Underlying the analyses is a series of country datasets with each dataset containing generic data such as exchange rates and emission factors, and sector‐specific data on energy use, energy prices and taxes, economic variables, and labour market variables. By definition, if an ETR raises the production cost of a firm, or the average production cost for a sector, then it has a negative impact on competitiveness compared to the (hypothetical) situation if the ETR had not been implemented – all else being equal. However, from a policy perspective it is more relevant to consider whether there has been any deterioration in competitiveness compared to the (actual) situation before the ETR was implemented.
The Effects of Environmental Tax Reform on International Competitiveness in the European Union: Modelling with E3ME
Authors: Barker Terry , Junankar Sudhir , Pollitt Hector , Summerton Philip
Published: February 2010

This chapter assesses the macroeconomic effects of carbon‐energy taxation introduced under unilateral environmental tax reform (ETR) in the 1990s undertaken in six member states of the European Union: Denmark, Finland, Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden, and the UK. The effects are estimated using the large‐scale Energy–Environment–Economy (E3) model for Europe, E3ME, which covers the countries involved, as well as the complete single market, so that the effects on other economies can be considered, along with any effects on competitiveness. The method is to identify the key characteristics of the green tax reform packages and include these in the modelling of the price and non‐price effects of the ETR on energy use and international trade in E3ME. The effects are then compared with a ‘reference case’ (i.e. a counterfactual case) generated by E3ME over the period 1995–2012 including current and expected developments in the EU economy, e.g. the impact of the EU Emission Trading Scheme, but without the ETR. The ETRs caused a modest reduction in fuel use and greenhouse gas emissions in all six of countries and a very small increase in employment and GDP. All the ETRs were assumed to be revenue‐neutral. The revenue recycling meant that the cost of ETR to the economy was significantly reduced and in several cases resulted in an increase in GDP. The method for revenue recycling strongly affects the results, as does the scale of exemptions offered to certain fuel user groups.
Second occurrence focus andRelativized Stress F
Authors: Rooth Mats
Published: February 2010

This chapter identifies a tight relation between information structure prominence, in terms of focus, and prosodic prominence, in terms of accent. This is done by way of a detailed analysis of second occurrence focus (SOF), a phenomenon that has drawn the attention of semanticists and phonologists only in recent years. There are parallels between the semantics and phonology which can be captured by means of two generalizations. The first one is Stress F, which posits that a pitch accent must be placed somewhere in the prosodic domain of the focus constituent. The second one, called Relativized Stress F, establishes a hierarchy between two bound foci with overlapping or embedding domains. The focus with higher semantic scope is prosodically more prominent than the focus with lower scope. The effects of both constraints can be captured in a strictly local fashion by the introduction of operators that operate as modifiers on semantic combination functions, such as Functional Application. These modifiers pass the information of semantic and prosodic prominence up the syntactic tree. Thus, the chapter, despite its strong semantic bias, relates the semantic interpretation of focus to the prosody, mediated by the syntax.
Subject focus in West African languages
Authors: Fiedler Ines , Hartmann Katharina , Reineke Brigitte , Schwarz Anne , Zimmermann Malte
Published: February 2010

In chapter 10 ‘Subject Focus in West African Languages’, Ines Fiedler, Katharina Hartmann, Brigitte Reineke, Anne Schwarz, and Malte Zimmermann investigate the peculiarities of subject focus marking in three West African language groups. After a discussion of various strategies of focus realization, it is shown that most languages in the sample exhibit a subject/non‐subject asymmetry with respect to focus marking: While focus on non‐subjects can often go unmarked, subject focus must always be marked. The grammatical ways of subject focus marking vary widely across the languages under discussion. Strategies used include syntactic, morphological and prosodic focus marking, as well as the reorganization of the entire clause into a thetic statement. It is argued that the special status of focused subjects follows from the fact that the default interpretation of subjects is a topic interpretation. In order to avoid this default reading, a focused subject must be marked as such.
Information structure and OV order
Authors: Hróarsdóttir þorbjörg
Published: February 2010

Chapter 11 ‘Information Structure and OV order’ by Þorbjörg Hróarsdóttir studies the change from object‐verb order to verb‐object order. A number of European languages have undergone such a change and here the focus is on the change in Icelandic. Morphological triggers, or the absence thereof, have often been related to clustering of syntactic properties in both diachronic change and acquisition. As seen from the English viewpoint inflectional morphology may express the relevant cue for parameters, and hence the loss of inflection may lead to a grammar change. This paper argues that this analysis does not carry over to Icelandic, as the loss of OV in Icelandic took place despite rich case morphology. Instead, it is argued that the relevant cue may be expressed differently among languages: While it may have been expressed through morphology in English, it was expressed through information structure in Icelandic. In both cases, external effects led to fewer expressions of the relevant (universal) cue and a grammar change took place. It is also shown how Object Shift in Modern Icelandic supports the claim that the placement of the object in Older Icelandic is connected to information structure.
Chapter 7 A Layered European Public Sphere
Authors: Eriksen Erik O.
Published: February 2010

The development of post‐national democracy in Europe depends not merely on rights but also on the emergence of an overarching communicative space that functions as a public sphere. But is this possible when there is no collective identity? Although the EU is not a state, nor a nation, its development as a new kind of polity is closely connected to the formation of a common communicative space. Cooperation and problem‐solving create public spaces but have not produced a single, non‐exclusive, general European public sphere. Rather, we find a layered public sphere containing several transnational, segmented publics evolving around policy networks, as well as legally institutionalized discourses—strong publics, such as the EP, Comitology, the ECJ, and conventions. The lack of a truly European public sphere can be seen as the consequence of the democratic deficit, the deeper causes of which may result from a weak European civic solidarity.
Chapter 10 Parliamentary Democracy without a Demos
Authors: Eriksen Erik O.
Published: February 2010

This last chapter addresses the puzzle of why parliamentary democracy has become the legitimacy standard for the EU when there is no demos. We witness a development from a situation in which democracy served as a guiding norm for national systems only, to one where democracy has become an increasingly relevant standard also for evaluating the EU. Following its empowerment, the European Parliament, together with national parliaments, is part of a European multi‐level parliamentary field. But why has the reform process taken the form of support for a parliamentarian model of representative democracy when central conditions for it to work properly are not in place? The solution to the puzzle is sought in the normative thrust of the parliamentary principle as the main embodiment of popular rule. But the lingering question is whether there can be democracy based on an empowered parliament without a political community.
Chapter 10 The Outlook for Canada's Public Sector Employee Pensions
Authors: Pozzebon Silvana
Published: February 2010

This chapter examines the context and features of occupational pension plans in the Canadian public sector and compares these with their private sector counterparts. Relative to the declining importance of registered pension plans in the private sector, pension coverage rates of public sector employees remain high and their pension plans retain traditional characteristics. Yet funding considerations have brought considerable change to public sector employee pensions. These and other challenges are discussed.
Chapter 15 Pension Fund Activism: The Double‐Edged Sword
Authors: Barber Brad M.
Published: February 2010

Many public pension funds engage in activism by using their pooled ownership of stock to affect changes in the corporations they own. The merits of activism depend on (1) the conflicts of interest between corporate managers and shareholders, and (2) the conflicts of interest between portfolio managers and investors. These conflicts lead to two types of activism: shareholder activism and social activism. Portfolio managers can use their position to monitor conflicts that might arise between managers and shareholders (shareholder activism), but they can also abuse their position by pursuing actions that advance their own moral values or political interests at the expense of investors (social activism).
Peacekeeping
Authors: Lehnardt Chia
Published: February 2010

This chapter surveys the roles that PMSCs have taken on and the more ambitious possibilities that have been proposed in the area of peacekeeping. There is, at present, little guidance on what functions can be outsourced in the implementation of a UN Security Council mandate. In fact, PMSCs have been engaged in a broad spectrum of activities, including some of the more ancillary aspects constituting peace consolidating measures or post-conflict measures, such as the recruitment and training of troops and the clearing of mines. At the same time, the status of PMSCs under international humanitarian law is murky at best. The situation is compounded by the questions of who ultimately bears responsibility for the company misconduct. Despite these concerns, suggestions have been made for expanded use of PMSCs, such as employing them as UN blue helmets or even as UN-mandated or UN-led troops carrying out military operations.