bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Game
Authors: Ott Walter
Published: August 2022

This chapter sets out three axes along which views about the laws of nature can vary. First is the contrast between top-down views, which hold that laws govern events, and bottom-up views, which hold that events or powers fix or determine the laws. The second is the distinction between ‘realist’ views, which posit something that forces events to take the course they do, and ‘anti-realist’ views, such as Hume’s, which do not. A third axis is the relationship between laws and their truthmakers: is a true law statement to be paired to a single truthmaker, or not? Each of the three most popular views on laws of nature (the universals theory, the powers view, and the Humean view) is located along the three axes. The chapter then sets out the structure of the book, which explores each family in turn and attempts to distill the best possible version of each.
The Early Days
Authors: Ott Walter
Published: August 2022

This chapter argues that the debate over the origins of the concept of laws of nature has been put off the scent by the following assumption: that laws are (at least) regularities. None of the prominent seventeenth-century figures understands laws in that way. Instead, we should adopt a ‘thin’ concept of laws, which requires only that they be general statements that play the axiom role relative to a given science. Descartes’s central move is to offer a ‘thick’ concept of laws as divine intentions, which untethers natural philosophy from the pursuit of the Aristotelians’ definitions. Despite its dependence on theology, Descartes’s view of laws has some important virtues that should be preserved, if possible. Descartes’s laws function together as a web, with no one law on its own reporting or entailing a regularity. For that very reason, the problem of ceteris paribus clauses does not arise. The Cartesian view can also deal with conservation laws.
Primitivism
Authors: Ott Walter
Published: August 2022

The moderns are united in thinking that the laws of nature cannot execute themselves. If laws are not merely descriptions of general metaphysical principles flowing from powers and Aristotelian natures, then they need to be enforced by a divine agent. This chapter looks at a contemporary top-down view that tries to dispense with such invisible means of support. On the primitivist view, the laws of nature are brute facts about the worlds they govern. The chapter argues that there are important virtues to primitivism, chiefly its ability to deal with conservation laws such as the first law of thermodynamics. Primitivism, like the Cartesian view, can also provide nomic stability: the laws continue to hold across counterfactual variations in initial conditions. But the chapter argues that primitivism comes at too high a price. Primitivism not only refuses to say what the laws might be; it also can say nothing about how they do anything. The chapter presents the ‘governing dilemma’: either governing is causing or it isn’t. If laws govern by causing, then overdetermination threatens. If governing is weaker than causing (perhaps because it amounts merely to constraining), then the notion is too weak to mark primitivism off from its Humean competitors.
Contemporary Best Systems Analyses (I)
Authors: Ott Walter
Published: August 2022

This chapter develops the contemporary best system analysis. The chapter looks at Lewis’s formulation before proceeding to the revisions that have been proposed. Chief among these are changes to the criteria for lawhood. Although laws must be chosen from the ranks of regularities, what makes them laws is in part their role in our epistemic economy. Laws must be useful to creatures with our cognitive limitations and needs. The chapter also considers objections to Humeanism based on quantum mechanics before defending the revised best system analysis against some prominent objections. The chapter argues that the best system analysis can provide as compelling an account of counterfactuals as any of its competitors, and that it has nothing to fear from arguments that rely on impoverished or underdetermined scenarios
Settling up
Authors: Ott Walter
Published: August 2022

This chapter sets out and evaluates all the views so far considered, and adds some new ones: the hybrids. It may be attractive to combine a best system-style analysis of lawhood and a more robust realist metaphysics. After sorting the views along the three axes, the chapter evaluates the views in light of the desiderata argued for throughout the book. One surprising result is that the best version of the top-down family, the revised universals view, ends up looking very much like the revised powers view. This suggests that anyone attracted to realism will need to work with such a view. The chapter argues, however, that the best account of laws is given by the rules theory, so the best realism will hijack the rules theory account of laws and marry it to a robust metaphysics. On the anti-realist side, the rules theory simpliciter comes out ahead. The chapter counts up the costs of realism and points toward anti-realism.
Reading Fear in Flavian Epic
Authors: Agri Dalida
Published: August 2022

This book examines the textual representations of emotions, fear in particular, through the lens of Stoic thought and their impact on depictions of power, gender, and agency. It first draws attention to the role and significance of fear, and cognate emotions, in the tyrant’s psyche, and then goes on to explore how these emotions, in turn, shape the wider narratives. The focus is on the lengthy epics of Valerius Flaccus’ Argonautica, Statius’ Thebaid, and Silius Italicus’ Punica. All three poems are obsessed with men in power with no power over themselves, a marked concern that carries a strong Senecan fingerprint. Seneca’s influence on post-Neronian epic discourse can be felt beyond his plays. His Epistles and other prose works prove particularly illuminating for each of the poet’s gendered treatment of the relationship between power and emotion. By adopting a Roman Stoic perspective, both philosophical and cultural, this study brings together a cluster of major ideas to draw meaningful connections and unlock new readings.
Fear in Flavian Representations of Epic Tyrants
Authors: Agri Dalida
Published: August 2022

Building up from Seneca’s theory on emotion, Chapter 1 explores the depictions and uses of fear and related emotions (e.g., envy, anger, hatred), in the tyrant’s psychology across all three Flavian epics and their role in the image of the tyrant as the feminized ‘other’. It is divided into four main sections, each dedicated to a case study: King Pelias in Valerius Flaccus’ Argonautica, Polynices as an aspiring tyrant, and Creon in Statius’ Thebaid, and at last the fearsome Hannibal in Silius Italicus’ Punica. This part of the book looks at how tyrants’ fear, read through the lens of Stoic thought, similes, and intra- and intertextual models, reveals a narrative of figuratively ‘emasculated’ leadership and political impotence.
Reflections on the Life of a British Criminologist
Authors: Sparks Richard , Lanskey Caroline
Published: August 2022

This conversation is a composite of two interviews with Tony Bottoms, conducted by Caroline Lanskey and Richard Sparks, in March and October 2018. The first was a public event, as part of the Institute of Criminology’s ‘In conversation with …’ series. The second, intended to pick up issues that were missed or left inadequately discussed first time round, took place at Tony’s home. The conversation addresses a wide range of topics in roughly chronological order. These include key intellectual and personal influences, especially in Tony’s early life; his views on relations between practice and academic inquiry in light of his experiences as a probation officer; the changing contours and characteristics of criminology as a field; and Tony’s principal contributions to research. With regard to the latter, the discussion touches upon Tony’s work in environmental criminology, sentencing and parole, prisons, problems of procedural justice and legitimacy, desistance from crime, and theories of compliance. Among the distinctive features of Bottoms’s work throughout have been his concerns with the normative dimensions of criminological questions, and the relations between empirical inquiry and policy problems.
Keeping a Human Perspective
Authors: Gelsthorpe Loraine
Published: August 2022

This chapter considers values, compliance, accountability to people who have offended, and the relational dimension of criminal justice, focusing on developments in the provision of services for women offenders in the community. The chapter charts developments regarding community-based provision over the past 20 years, as well as looking at the importance of the relational and community dimensions to the work and how this is relevant to compliance. Consumers of criminal justice practices are not always consulted, yet their voices are important to our understanding not only of what works, but of ‘what matters’. Anthony Bottoms has shown keen interest in this continuing vacuum in penal thought, the collapse of the rehabilitative ideal, the introduction of an instrumental focus on ‘what works’, and legitimacy deficits in an increasingly bureaucratic system of criminal justice. All of these are far removed from a fundamental focus on human fulfilment, a key theological and normative concern. This chapter rehearses some of these themes in its discussion of developments with regard to women in conflict with the law. Work with women marks a return to the community, and to the notion of a therapeutic alliance and its relevance to compliance. It helps us see what is meaningful to those women who consume ‘criminal justice’.
Rightful Authority
Authors: Tankebe Justice
Published: August 2022

Legitimacy is not conventionally viewed as embracing power-holders’ own need to believe in the moral validity of their authority. The main focus on legitimacy has been on its audience dimension; that is, legitimacy as perceived by those over whom power is exercised. However, legitimacy cannot be sufficiently understood from the perspective of power-audiences alone; a fuller analysis of legitimacy necessarily requires a focus on power-holders’ beliefs in the moral validity of their own claims to power. Max Weber argued that power-holder legitimacy was a precondition for any attempt at cultivating audience legitimacy. Yet in their empirical analysis of legitimacy, police scholars have not given power-holder legitimacy the importance Weber indicated it deserves. Tony Bottoms supervised the chapter author’s doctoral research, in which the author first explored the notion of self-legitimacy; this was subsequently developed in two joint publications. This chapter re-analyses the data collected in Ghana for the chapter author’s doctoral research to examine the conditions associated with police self-legitimacy.
Distributing Social Transfers in Rwanda
Authors: Williams Timothy P. , Nzahabwanayo Sylvestre , Lavers Tom , Ndushabandi Eric
Published: August 2022

This chapter examines the political dynamics shaping the distribution of Rwanda’s Vision 2020 Umurenge Programme (VUP). The research finds that, first, despite selecting ‘most likely’ cases for variation within Rwanda, there is little evidence of systematic variation in state capacity and programme implementation between research sites. This suggests that the government’s stated commitment to uniform implementation across the country may have addressed past variation in the reach of the state. Second, despite relatively high levels of infrastructural power across the sites, significant challenges remain. Notably, the pressures of top-down performance assessment have tended to prioritize the productive aspects of the programme, forcing local officials to make difficult choices that undermine the VUP’s protective role. As such, the chapter highlights the importance not just of infrastructural power, but the purposes for which that power is deployed.
“Fear of the Lord is the Beginning of Wisdom”
Authors: Ward H. Clifton
Published: August 2022

This chapter argues that Clement’s presentation of the divine economy as a pedagogy is mirrored by a hermeneutical process in which the “little ones” (new converts) read Scripture “according to the letter,” while Clement’s contemplative gnostic reads “according to the syllable.” Clement pictures this hermeneutical contrast as a movement from fear to wisdom. As Christians traverse the divine pedagogy leading to the eschatological vision of God, they (as readers) will actually progress through distinct modes of reading. Moreover, the chapter argues that Clement derives this distinctive narrative from the Scriptures themselves and thereby manifests that the Lord’s voice in Scripture reveals itself to simple believers in a pedagogic mode as “examples” or “moral exhortations,” but, to Clement’s contemplative, Scripture appears in didactic mode as “symbols” or “enigmas” that introduce the deepest mysteries of God. This reading of Clement situates the focus on the intended audience of his treatises.
The United Kingdom
Authors: Keating Michael
Published: August 2022

Chapter 2, by Michael Keating, examines the current state of the UK union, emphasizing the centripetal effects that Brexit has created. Keating outlines how the UK had experienced a growing process of devolution during the past two decades, with significant powers transferred from the centre towards regional governments in Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. Nevertheless, Keating underlines how this process had been largely problem-driven, and had occurred without a proper federal conceptualization, and without considering the supportive framework of the EU towards devolution. Brexit, however, has unsettled that balance, revealing new centralizing trends. This in turn has ignited new decentralizing trends, most visible in Scotland, but increasingly also in Wales. Keating therefore concludes that the UK union is increasingly fractured.
Safeguards
Authors: Howse Robert
Published: August 2022

Chapter 13, by Robert Howse, focuses on another mechanism foreseen in the Protocol, whose operation is left to the discretion—and wisdom—of the parties: the ‘Safeguards’ Article 16. As Howse explains, Article 16 is an emergency provision that either the UK or the EU can invoke unilaterally if the application of this Protocol leads to serious economic, societal, or environmental difficulties that are liable to persist, or to diversion of trade. However, as Howse shows from a comparative perspective with a variety of safeguard mechanisms in international trade agreements, Article 16 is not really the silver bullet that many political leaders claim it is. In fact, triggering the clause would not authorize a full-blown suspension of the Protocol. Rather, a process—detailed in Annex 7 attached to the Protocol—would start; measures would need to be strictly necessary and proportionate; and the other party could take rebalancing measures. Howse details the legal content of Article 16, and points out its limited power, concluding that ultimately the provision does not allow a party to opt out of the Protocol.
Turbulence and Convection
Authors: Satz Helmut
Published: August 2022

Turbulence is one of the main unsolved problems in classical physics. We present turbulence as experimental realization of the Feigenbaum scenario, as studied by Libchaber and Maurer in specific experimental set-ups. This provides an experimental illustration for the approach to chaos.
‘In Fit Sound’
Authors: Creaser John
Published: August 2022

This chapter considers the role of enactment or onomatopoeia in Milton’s verse—traditionally a quality highly valued, but doubted by Samuel Johnson and by some recent critics. The pervasive but constantly modulating relations between words and meaning, symbol and sense, are explored, ranging through onomatopoeia and beyond. Diverse modes of onomatopoeia such as the iconic, potential, realised, imparted, imitative, and emphatic are considered, together with styles of realisation varying from the bravura to the latent. Although onomatopoeia has only a minor role in language as a whole, it can seem the epitome of literature. As for Milton, in the words of Hazlitt: ‘The sound of his lines is moulded into the expression of the sentiment’.
Friendship for Virtue
Authors: Kristjánsson Kristján
Published: August 2022

Voluminous bodies of literature continue to be published on Aristotle-inspired virtue ethics within philosophy and social science. No less than two of the ten books of Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics are devoted to the topic of friendship, in particular its ‘complete’ or most developed type as ‘friendship for character or virtue’. Yet the salience accorded to friendship within the current virtue ethics literature is not proportionate to the importance accorded to it by Aristotle. Furthermore, in current moral education, where Aristotelianism is all the rage, friendship is rarely mentioned. This book has four main aims. The first is to give the virtue of friendship the pride of place it deserves in contemporary Aristotle-inspired virtue ethics. The second is to integrate Aristotelian theory with recent social scientific research on friendship through mutual adjustments. The third is to retrieve Aristotelian friendship as a moral educational concept, where ‘friendship for virtue’ is to be understood as ‘friendship for virtue development’. The fourth is to offer a more detailed and realistic account than Aristotle did of why even the best of friendships can go stale and dissolve and why the human relationships they represent are so precarious—for example in circumstances where erotic love and friendship clash. Through its revised and applied Aristotelianism, this book makes a contribution to various ongoing debates within moral philosophy, moral psychology and moral education about the salience of friendship—addressing the topic in a way that is accessible both for academics and general readers.
Priors that Allow You to Learn Inductively
Authors: Pettigrew Richard
Published: August 2022

In this chapter, I consider an objection that is inspired by a worry that Wayne Myrvold (2019) raised to my earlier work on epistemic risk. This notes that our account permits priors, such as the uniform prior, that do not allow you to learn from experience in the ways we think you should. In the end, I think these priors, and the inductive scepticism they embody, must be permitted, however little we like the consequences of adopting them. But, unlike in my earlier work, they are not now mandated, which was the central focus of Myrvold's original objection.
The Protestant Church Between Action and Silence
Authors: Beck Hermann
Published: August 2022

During the second half of March and throughout April 1933, the Protestant World Alliance for International Friendship Through the Churches put consistent pressure on German Church leaders to speak out against antisemitic attacks. In this context, the true mindset of the leaders of German Protestantism was largely misunderstood abroad, since fear was by no means the sole reason why German Protestants held back. An equally important factor to explain their reserve was that they largely agreed with the legal measures, as well as with most of the new regime’s overall policies. Members of the German Protestant hierarchy also succeeded in their efforts to minimize and belittle antisemitic attacks to the outside world. The bulk of this chapter focuses on the crucial meeting of 26 April 1933, when possible Protestant Church reactions to antisemitic violence and legal measures were discussed. The discussions among the roughly three dozen Church leaders present make it obvious that, with one exception, that of the Bavarian Church leader Wilhelm von Pechmann, all other formerly critical voices had fallen silent, and an overwhelming majority, led by Hermann Kapler, decided that German Protestantism as a whole would remain mute. The chapter also probes into the reasons for this inactivity. It concludes with the Protestant Church’s memorandum on the “Jewish Question,” which confirms that the Protestant Church leadership shared the reservations and prejudices of other conservative elites, which in turn allowed them to square their indolent reticence with their own conscience.
‘I Will Keep Him in Suit’
Authors: Poos L. R.
Published: August 2022

Litigation concerning Ralph Rishton’s marriages and property continued for a decade after his death. Tracing it reveals the paths Elizabethan English people had to pursue through different legal systems to assert rights stemming from complex fact patterns. Ralph left in his wake a trail of deliberately contradictory estate settlements, which this chapter traces in detail to uncover his aspirations for his succession. His second wife doggedly sought, but failed, to have courts (at Chester and York) declare her marriage’s validity. She did succeed, however, in asserting rights to property she received from Ralph as part of her marriage settlement. Ralph’s son by his second marriage likewise sought to claim rights in part of Ralph’s estates: after years of litigation and arbitration he was partially successful, owing to a resolution reflecting the posture of English equity courts towards equitable determination. Tracing these and all the other lawsuits left in Ralph’s wake permits some broader conclusions about law in operation during the period. The chapter reveals the familial and geographical closeness of lawyers to members of the east Lancashire gentry and how that proximity furthered law consciousness. Law for the Rishtons was transactional, a means of finding opportunities and exploiting contingencies.
Talking About
Authors: Unnsteinsson Elmar
Published: August 2022

The book develops and argues for a new intentionalist theory of the speech act of singular reference. Specifically, it proposes a Gricean theory of pragmatic competence within which referential competence can be identified and explained. It argues that combining insights from theories of mechanistic explanation in cognitive science and intentionalist theories of speech acts affords a completely new perspective on old questions about reference and speaker meaning. The resulting theory is called edenic intentionalism and it is based on the idea that referential competence is explained by a dedicated cognitive mechanism with a specific function, namely the function of enabling the production of edenic or optimal referential speech acts. Importantly, the author shows how this theory dissolves traditional puzzles in the philosophy of language and mind, puzzles arising from cases where the speaker is confused about the identity of the object of intended reference. The author develops an original account of the mental state of confusion, based on a detailed examination of the distinction between representational actions and representational states, which allows for a satisfying answer to familiar questions about attitude ascription and Frege’s puzzle about identity.
The Life of Symeon Stylites the Younger
Authors: Parker Lucy
Published: August 2022

Chapter 3 examines the Life of Symeon the Younger, which shows how the recently deceased leader was memorialized by his disciples to perpetuate his cult posthumously and how they dealt with controversial aspects of his career. It explores the evidence for the Life’s authorship and dating, suggesting that it was probably written shortly after Symeon’s death by a monk from his monastery. It considers previous scholarly interpretations of the Life, arguing that it cannot be seen as a Chalcedonian reaction to the miaphysite takeover of the cult site of Symeon Stylites the Elder at Qalaat Semaan. Rather, the Life of Symeon the Younger can be read as an extended apologia for Symeon’s failure to protect Antioch and its environs from the natural and military disasters of the sixth century. The hagiographer adopts various biblical models, including those of Abraham and Job, to attempt to exculpate Symeon of accusations of failure, but the difficulty of the situation leads him into inconsistencies and problematic theological claims. He also adopts a more aggressive approach, finding scapegoats to blame for the disasters: in particular, he targets the rich of Antioch, whom he depicts as sinful pagans. He goes so far as to support Justinian’s controversial purges, depicting Justinian’s agent Amantios as a divine officer and agent of God’s vengeance.
Becoming a Moral Pedagogue, 1772−1792
Authors: Bow Charles Bradford
Published: August 2022

This chapter examines Dugald Stewart’s transition from student to professor of moral philosophy. As a pupil of Adam Ferguson’s moral science and Thomas Reid’s philosophy of common sense, Stewart adopted the Scottish school of philosophy. His career progression at Edinburgh University from student to professor of mathematics, to professor of moral philosophy at Edinburgh University owed a significant debt to the Scottish tradition of academic patronage. The foundations of demonstrating the general laws of human belief in his educational doctrine derived from his experience as a joint professor of mathematics between 1772 and 1785. His unwavering commitment to abolitionism emerged whilst substituting for Ferguson’s course of lectures on moral philosophy during the winter of 1778−9 at Edinburgh University. But he had not conceived of a moral philosophy of his own between succeeding Ferguson as professor of moral philosophy in 1785 and witnessing the early stages of the French Revolution during the summer of 1789. Robert Burns’s example of exercising the imagination in poetry helped shape the objectives of Stewart’s educational doctrine. Having revised key elements of the way in which he taught moral philosophy during the winter of 1789−90, Stewart became a moral pedagogue as a reaction to formidable currents of credulity in the Age of Revolution.
Globalizing a Moral Empire of the Mind, 1816−1828
Authors: Bow Charles Bradford
Published: August 2022

This chapter examines the globalization of Stewart’s educational doctrine. Considered by contemporaries to be his magnum opus, the two completed parts of Stewart’s preliminary Dissertation, exhibiting a general view of the progress of metaphysical, ethical, and political philosophy (1816, 1822) refashioned the revised fourth, fifth, and sixth editions of the Encyclopædia Britannica as a vehicle for his system of moral education. The final volume of his Elements published in 1827 and The Philosophy of the Active and Moral Powers of Man (1828) completed this system of cultivating moral and intellectual character in the science of applied ethics. Having already received reports that his elementary introduction to the science of mind reformed moral education in Europe, Britain, and America, Stewart sought to widen this moral empire of the mind in his final publications. The moral edification of autodidacts in a globalizing knowledge economy became Stewart’s objective during the final years of his life in the Athens of the North after the Scottish Enlightenment.
Recognizing Potentials
Authors: Carolini Gabriella Y.
Published: August 2022

South–South Cooperation (SSC) is marked by deep contradictions in practice, shown in how the largest Southern economies pursue models of economic growth and hierarchical development partnerships of the sort long supported by orthodox international financial institutions and high-income countries in the North. This chapter examines whether other growing platforms for capacity development through SSC, such as the United Nations’ Water Operators’ Partnerships (WOPs) program, can instead deliver on the promises of SSC. Leveraging a case study of a cooperation partnership between water operators in Brazil and Argentina, the chapter explores whether the proximities that mattered to high-level learning in Maputo’s international cooperation project ecosystem were also relevant to the South American WOP. As the collaboration between water operators in Brasília and Salta showed, defying the WOP’s mentor–mentee model indeed proved an effective root for fostering high-level learning that matters for material and knowledge improvements on the ground.
The Spirit of Global Health
Authors: Peng-Keller Simon , Winiger Fabian , Rauch Raphael
Published: August 2022

Since the beginning of the World Health Organization, many of its staff members, regional offices, Member States, and directors-general have grappled with the question of what a ‘spiritual dimension’ of health looks like, and how it might enrich the health policies advocated by their organization. Contrary to the widespread perception that ‘spirituality’ is primarily related to palliative care and has emerged relatively recently within the WHO, this book shows that its history is considerably longer and more complex, and has been closely connected to the organization’s ethical aspirations, its quest for more holistic and equitable healthcare, and its struggle with the colonial legacy of international health organizations. Such ideals and struggles silently motivated many of its key actors and policies—such as the provision of universal primary healthcare—which for decades have embodied the organization’s loftiest aspirations. The WHO’s official relationship with ‘spirituality’ advanced in fits, leaps, and setbacks. At times creative and interdisciplinary, at others deeply political, this process was marked by cycles of institutional forgetting and remembering. Rather than a triumph of religious lobbyists, this book argues, the ‘spiritual dimension’ of health may be better understood as a ‘ghost’ that has haunted—and continues to haunt—the WHO as it comes to terms with its mandate of advancing health as a state of ‘complete well-being’ available to all.
Introduction
Authors: Winiger Fabian , Peng-Keller Simon
Published: August 2022

Contrary to the widespread perception that the ‘spiritual dimension’ of health is primarily related to palliative care and has emerged relatively recently within the WHO, its history is considerably longer and more complex. The emergence of a ‘spiritual dimension’ in WHO discourse was connected to aspirations for universal primary healthcare, attempts to deliver a more holistic form of healthcare, and the search for a shared ethical framework to unify the disparate national interests represented in the organization. This chapter introduces the reader to the background, rationale, and broader context of the book, and makes some preliminary observations about the topic. It then gives a brief overview of previous research on religion, spirituality, and the World Health Organization, and explains the scope and method used to build on this literature. It concludes with an overview and brief introduction to each chapter in the book.
Dangerous Positions
Authors: Guyer Benjamin M.
Published: August 2022

The fundamental theme of the chapter is resistance. It begins by charting the rise of British resistance theory among the Marian exiles in Europe, with close attention paid to the writings of John Knox. The second section looks at how “reformation” acquired disruptive connotations in protest literature produced in the 1570s; the fifth section returns to this theme by focusing upon the backlash that developed in the 1590s against threats of martial reformation. The third and fourth sections bridge these decades by comparing and contrasting how the Marian and Elizabethan churches discussed reformation. An especial focus is given to analyses of the recent past, such as writings on Cardinal Wolsey and Martin Luther. However, neither the Marian nor the Elizabethan church identified early/mid-sixteenth century events as reformation. By restoring papal unity, Mary’s church availed itself of the conciliar vocabulary of reformation still in use at the Council of Trent. Elizabeth’s church, having refused papal allegiance, could not do so. It thus found itself besieged by reformation on two fronts—that of Trent, and that of militant evangelicals. The Elizabethan church had no discourse of reformation to call its own.
Sick Note
Authors: Millward Gareth
Published: August 2022

Sick Note is a history of how the British state asked, ‘who is really sick?’ Tracing medical certification for absence from work from 1948 to 2010, it shows that doctors, employers, employees, politicians, media commentators, and citizens each concerned themselves with measuring sickness. At various times, each understood that a signed note from a doctor was not enough to ‘prove’ whether someone was ‘really’ sick. Yet, with no better alternative on offer, the sick note survived in practice and in the popular imagination—just like the welfare state itself. Sick Note reveals the interplay between medical, employment, and social security policy. The physical note became an integral part of working and living in Britain, while the term ‘sick note’ was often deployed rhetorically as a mocking nickname or symbol of Britain’s economic and political troubles. Using government policy documents, popular media, internet archives, and contemporary research, this book covers the evolution of medical certification and the welfare state since the Second World War, demonstrating how sickness and disability policies responded to demographic and economic changes—though not always satisfactorily for administrators or claimants. Moreover, despite the creation of ‘the fit note’ in 2010, the idea of ‘the sick note’ has remained. With the specific challenges posed by the global pandemic in the early 2020s, Sick Note shows how the question of ‘who is really sick?’ has never been straightforward and will continue to perplex the British state.
Introduction
Authors: Spevak Olga
Published: August 2022

This chapter discusses various approaches to nominalization and defines it as ‘a noun (phrase) which has a systematic correspondence with a clause structure’. Such nouns are called ‘verbal nouns’. Verbal nouns lack sentential properties. They are compared with non-finite verb forms (participles, infinitives, gerunds, and gerundives), which show a lack of sentential properties (desententialization) to various extents. It is argued that verbal nouns retain some verbal properties, especially the requirement of arguments or obligatory constituents and aspectual (lexical) properties of the corresponding verbs. On the basis of their combinability with temporal expressions, four classes of verbal nouns can be distinguished expressing activities, accomplishments, achievements, or states. Many verbal nouns are polysemous: they can be used as verbal nouns with a verbal meaning, or as nouns with a concrete meaning to denote physical entities.
Verbal nouns in legal texts
Authors: Spevak Olga
Published: August 2022

This chapter is devoted to the use of -tio and -tus nouns and their competitors in legal texts, comprising epigraphic material from the Republican period. Many nouns in -tio are legal terms that serve to name legal acts or actions. They are typically used in the nominative with the verb sum in the imperative. The arguments are almost always explicit or at least implicit, including the first argument, denoting the agent, a well-defined but non-specific person. Consequently, the noun phrases involving a -tio noun are often complex. Gerundives, which allow more complexity than verbal nouns, are the principal competitors of -tio nouns at the noun phrase level. They are typically found in expressions of purpose.
Consequence Relations
Authors: Citkin Alex , Muravitsky Alexei
Published: August 2022

An in-depth study of the concept of a consequence relation, culminating in the concept of a Lindenbaum-Tarski algebra, intended for advanced undergraduate and graduate students in mathematics and graduate students in philosophy, as well as researchers in the field of mathematical and philosophical logic. The book is aimed to fill the niche left after the publication of Rasiowa and Sikorski’s The Mathematics of Metamathematics (1970), Rasiowa’s An Algebraic Approach to Non-Classical Logics (1974), and Wójcicki’s Theory of Logical Calculi (1988). The problem of obtaining confirmation that a statement is a consequence of a set of statements as prerequisites, on the one hand, and the problem of demonstrating that such confirmation does not exist in the structure under consideration, on the other hand, are considered in a balanced way, using predominantly algebraic methods, as one two-sided problem. Namely, for the second part of this problem, the concept of the Lindenbaum-Tarski algebra plays a key role, which becomes even more important when the considered consequence relation is placed in the context of decidability. This role is traced in the book for various formal objective languages. The included exercises are an essential component of the reader’s assimilation of the book’s material.
Matrix Consequence
Authors: Citkin Alex , Muravitsky Alexei
Published: August 2022

This chapter is devoted to matrix consequence. We especially focus on the single-matrix consequence. Namely, we prove the Los-Suszko-Wójcicki theorem, the Wójcicki theorem, and the Shoesmith-Smiley theorem; all these theorems are about when a structural abstract logic (a unifying term for the structural consequence relation and structural consequence operator) has an adequate logical matrix. We conclude this chapter with two discussions — on finitary matrix consequence and on the conception of separating tools.
Education, Occupation, and Marriage
Authors: Gibson Kate
Published: August 2022

This chapter examines the life chances of middling and elite illegitimate individuals. Using a prosopographical database of 225 children and grandchildren of peers, the chapter quantifies the effect of illegitimacy on life chances by comparing illegitimate children with their legitimate half-siblings or cousins and allowing for differences in gender and birth order. Quantitative analysis of the database is supplemented by qualitative analysis of the letters and diaries of middling and elite families. It argues that illegitimacy had a measurable negative effect on social status: illegitimate individuals married at a later age, married lower down the social scale, and were less likely to achieve markers of power, such as office and landholding. The chapter explores the nuances behind this disadvantage. Illegitimate men fared worse than illegitimate women due to the impact of illegitimacy on markers of genteel masculinity. Their position was markedly worse to that of legitimate younger sons. Mixed-race and white children followed similar trajectories, suggesting that illegitimacy had a greater impact than race on socio-economic status. The chapter indicates that families made specific, pragmatic decisions about the prospects of illegitimate children. Families gave illegitimate children a cheaper, more practical education focused on financial self-sufficiency, whilst encouraging them into occupations and marriages that would keep them within the status and influence of their paternal family. Throughout, the chapter examines individuals’ ability to remain within their father’s social class, measured through their access to opportunities for power and social connections.
The Individualist Objection
Authors: Fischer Jessica J. T.
Published: August 2022

Should we be able to access benefits, based on our membership in a group? While this sometimes seems plausible, at other times an appeal to group-membership seems objectionable. Given that contractualists are interested in the personal claims of individuals, they must take these concerns seriously. This chapter suggests that determining whether claims which arise from an individual’s group-membership are legitimate is particularly difficult when assessing principles of risk imposition. In fact, it may lead us to re-examine a popular contractualist approach to risk, and the puzzle this approach gives rise to: so-called ex ante contractualism sometimes imposes large burdens on some, in order to secure smaller benefits for others, despite the fact that this conflicts with the anti-utilitarian spirit of contractualism. This chapter offers a diagnosis of this puzzle. It is argued that claims which cannot be justified on grounds other than by appeal to an individual’s group-membership fail to constitute truly individual claims. Yet ex ante contractualism nevertheless admits such claims by relying on probabilities which are conditioned by an individual’s group-membership.
Attributive Silencing
Authors: Schroeder Mark
Published: August 2022

This chapter explores a novel form of silencing first discussed in print by Mary Kate McGowan (2017), which I call attributive silencing. Whereas other forms of silencing have been explored through the lenses of epistemology and the philosophy of language, we learn about the possibility of attributive silencing through the philosophy of action and the theory of responsibility. Attributive silencing, I will argue, far from being a bare theoretical possibility, is an indisputably genuine phenomenon, but how easily it can happen will depend on the correct theory of attributability, and hence on the correct theory of persons. On some theories of persons it will be rare, but, according to the interpretive account of persons, attributive silencing can happen quite easily and without fault. The phenomenon of attributive silencing therefore has many important possible applications, one of which is to shed at least partial light on women’s refusals of sexual advances, one of the original applications of theoretical work about silencing.
Introduction
Authors: Jażdżewska Katarzyna
Published: August 2022

The Introduction discusses the model of the history of ancient dialogue prevailing in modern scholarship, according to which the dialogue after its extraordinary bloom in the fourth century bce went into disuse in the Hellenistic period, and resurfaced only much later: in Latin literature in the mid-first century bce (Cicero); in Greek in the second half of the first century ce (Plutarch). It points out that due to the exceedingly fragmentary character of the sources it would be difficult to produce strong evidence for a conspicuous break in dialogue-writing in Hellenistic times, and argues for the need to re-evaluate the remains of the post-Platonic dialogue, the last comprehensive study of which was carried out in 1895 by Rudolf Hirzel. The Introduction also discusses the notion of the dialogue as a genre and emphasizes its fluidity and a Protean character which has characterized dialogic literature from its beginnings.
Dialogic Entanglements
Authors: Jażdżewska Katarzyna
Published: August 2022

The chapter, which aims to widen understanding of the dialogue, traces some of the ways in which the post-Platonic dialogue interacted and blended with other prose forms. It examines cases in which generic boundaries were fluid and focuses on dialogue’s relationship with anecdote, letter, and biography. It shows how anecdote, chreia, which frequently contained a short verbal exchange related in direct speech, was associated with the dialogue, and how anecdotes could be converted into dialogues and dialogue snippets into anecdotes. It also discusses how letters embedded dialogues when they reported conversations and philosophical discussions, sometimes of considerable length, and examines biographies “hosting” dialogized passages as well as lives entirely structured as dialogues.
Dialogues in Papyri
Authors: Jażdżewska Katarzyna
Published: August 2022

The chapter provides an overview and examination of extant dialogue fragments in papyri. Despite difficulties encountered when studying this evidence, papyri fragments provide a significant contribution to our knowledge about the use of the dialogue, which was not limited to philosophical inquiry. In the chapter, dialogue fragments have been divided into four main categories: philosophical dialogues, dialogues on literature (which betray the influence of Peripatetic and Alexandrian scholarship and of genres of biography and zetemata), historical dialogues (that is, dialogues set in the past and intended at reviving historical circumstances and characters), and dialogized anecdotes. Besides these groups, remnants of what seem to be dialogized school exercises also are discussed (they include animal prose fables and dialogues between historical characters).
Quantum Stochastic Processes
Authors: Strasberg Philipp
Published: August 2022

This chapter describes the basic features of open quantum systems, i.e. quantum systems that are affected by noise due to uncontrollable degrees of freedom of an environment or bath. This noise is responsible for effects such as dissipation,decoherence and irreversibility. We study the equilibrium states of open quantum systems and review tools from quantum measurement theory, which describe how to theory, that describe how to extract information from an (open) quantum system. We generalize these tools to multimulti-time statistics and define the notion of a quantum stochastic process and a quan tum Markov process. Finally, we study in which cases a quantum stochastic process looks classical.
Language, Writing, and Mobility
Authors: Coulmas Florian
Published: August 2022

This book brings together three subjects which command our attention because of their changing roles in everyday life, language, writing, and mobility. In different ways, borders are being crossed, redrawn, and redefined as we watch, and while comparable processes could be observed in the past, they are today more conspicuous than ever, being propelled by demographics, technological innovation, and consumer capitalism. The said three subjects interact in various ways and have an impact on language contact which, as this book is designed to show, are best captured by a processual view along the lines laid out for social analysis by Norbert Elias. The processual view of language and society adopted here is congenial with the sociolinguistic paradigm developed over the past several decades, with one important difference, it assigns writing a central position. Sociolinguistics has always concentrated heavily on speech and largely ignored writing, although the social importance of writing cannot be denied. Giving written language its due in this book, then, has four reasons. (1) Writing is the most consequential technology ever invented. (2) Writing both suggests stability and defines borders. (3) Linguistics, while emphasizing that writing is external to language, is nevertheless indebted for its analytic categories to writing. (4) By turning virtually everyone into a writer/producer of texts, the digital revolution has fundamentally changed communication patters in ways that impact both social formations and language. Computer mediated communication (CMC) has transformed the social functions of writing and, through it, language.
Wanderlust
Authors: Coulmas Florian
Published: August 2022

Using the loanword ‘wanderlust’ as point of departure, the final chapter summarizes the many ways in which the mobility of speakers, words and languages are at the heart of how societies adjust their linguistic repertoires. As expounded in the previous chapters, trade, religion, nation-building, colonialism, migration, and technology impact the spatial and temporal dynamics of how people communicate, what languages they use, how they use them, and how they change them. Against this background, this chapter examines traditional patterns of language categorization and societal stratification and argues that a processual view of language and society in the spirit of Norbert Elias is the most promising approach for coming to grips with language and mobility in such a highly complex mix of variables and the momentous changes we are experiencing at present.
The Man Who Trusted Atoms
Authors: Succi Sauro
Published: August 2022

In which we discuss the microscopic foundations of Thermodynamics, as first unveiled by Ludwig Boltzmann, “the man who trusted atoms”. Ludwig Boltzmann is responsible for a timeless achievement: by means of a statistical formulation of the atomic motion, he managed to unify two apparently disparate fields: mechanics and thermodynamics. In the process, he also managed to illuminate the reasons why in our macroscopic world time flows one-way only, from Present to Future and never back to the Past.