bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The effect of wind on shore gastropods
Authors: Courtney W. A. M.
Published: August 2009

A preliminary investigation into the effect of wind on shore gastropods has been undertaken. Moderate winds displace some Monodonta lineata (da Costa) from boulders on the shore and some individuals detach within six hours in weaker winds in the laboratory (5–10 km/h, 10°C, 94% humidity). Sheltered aspects of the rock are used to minimize the effects of the wind on shores, and maintenance movements on the shore are extensive.

In calm conditions and in light winds Monodonta lineata is more widely dispersed about the rocks than in moderate winds when the animals are either sheltering in cracks or displaced.

Providing the rock surface is damp then animals continue to move about during emersion in light winds. On a small boulder beach animals moved as much as 4 m upshore during one tidal cycle. Only slight reorientation movements were recorded during moderate winds.

Animals withstand a windspeed of 4 km/h for six hours in a wind tunnel in a humidity of 94% at 10°C, but are displaced within an hour by 10 km/h winds in similar conditions.
The setae of Eurydice pulchra (Crustacea: Isopoda)
Authors: Fish Susan
Published: August 2009

The setal armature of Eurydice pulchra Leach is described using an ordinary optical microscope. On the basis of size, setae are divided into macrotrichs and microtrichs. Macrotrichs are further classified according to structural similarities into four groups. Only two types of microtrichs have been recognized. The distribution of the different setae on both adults and juveniles is described and where possible an attempt is made to relate morphology and distribution to function.

The setal armature of E. pulchra has been divided into macrotrichs, varying in length from 0·025 to 0·4 mm, and microtrichs varying in length from 2 to 10 μm. The macrotrichs have been classified into groups based on structural similarities and 17 distinct types have been recognized. Each differ in length, degree of chitinization and modification of the shaft wall. The distribution of the macrotrichs has been described and particular types have been shown to occur in distinct positions on the body. Many of the macrotrichs are peculiar to one position on the body.

Two types of microtrichs have been described, a single type approximately 10 μm in length and a smaller type 2 μm in length. The latter occurs in short crescentic rows principally on the pleopods and oostegites. All setal types occurring in the adult have been shown to be present in the newly emerged juvenile although the number developed is very much less. Similar setal types are present in males and females. An attempt has been made to relate the morphology and distribution of both macrotrichs and microtrichs to possible functions.
Surplus killing by carnivores
Authors: Kruuk Hans
Published: August 2009

In several field observations, foxes, Spotted hyaenas and other carnivores killed many more prey individuals than they could eat. Functional and causal aspects of this phenomenon are discussed and the conclusion is reached that these surplus kills are the consequence of behavioural compromises in both predator and prey to meet opposing environmental requirements.

(1) Observations are reported in which carnivores killed considerably more prey animals than they could possibly eat, and causal and functional aspects of this behaviour are discussed. The species concerned were especially foxes and Spotted hyaenas, and references are quoted about surplus killing by other Canidae, Felidae and Ursidae.

(2) It is argued that satiation in carnivores does not inhibit further catching and killing, but it probably does inhibit searching and hunting. Thus carnivores are able to procure an “easy prey” but normally satiation limits numbers killed.

(3) Many, if not all, carnivores possess behaviour patterns which allow utilization of a kill at a later time, or allow other members of the same social unit or offspring to use the food.

(4) Several prey species showed a lack of anti‐predator reaction under particular climatological circumstances; it is argued that this lack of response usually has survival value. Sometimes anti‐predator behaviour is accidentally made ineffective.

(5) Surplus kills are made possible by (2) and (4) above, and only very rare circumstances give a predator access to so many prey that (3) is ineffective. It is suggested that surplus kills are the consequence of behavioural compromises in both predator and prey to meet opposing environmental requirements.
Recovery and in vitro cultivation of adult Schistosoma bovis from experimentally infected mice
Authors: Magzoub M.
Published: August 2009

Adult Schistosoma bovis worms survived in a defined medium up to 18 days; but the female worms produced no ova in such medium. Addition of horse serum to the defined medium increased the period of survival to a maximum of 24 days. During this period the adult female worms remained in copula and continued to produce non‐viable ova up to the end of the third week. During the major portion of their survival period, worms in both media showed active somantic movements with frequent contortions and body flexing. Gut action was rapid and almost continous.
Nature of the air‐breathing organs of the Indian fishes Channa, Amphipnous, Clarias and Saccobranchus as shown by electron microscopy
Authors: Hughes G. M. , Munshi J. S. Datta
Published: August 2009

The structure of the air‐breathing organs of the Indian fishes Channa punctatus, Channa Striatus, Amphipnous cuchia, Clarias batrachus and Saccobranchus fossilis has been investigated using electron microscopy. In all species the barrier separating the air from the blood consists of three main layers (epithelium, basal lamina and endothelium). The total thickness ranging from 0.78 μm in C. punctatus 1.6 μm in S. fossilis.

In Clarias and Saccobranchus the presence of pillar cells characteristic of gill secondary lamellae confirms evidence for the origin of these organs by modification of a typical gill structure.

In Amphipnous and two species of Channa, however, the evidence suggests that the accessory organs represent modified gills. The presence of valve‐like structures between the afferent and efferent blood spaces of the vascular papillae gave the appearance of pillar cells under the light microscope.

The structure of these organs is correlated with physiological studies on the degree of their importance in the life of the animal and the degree of gill development
The structure of encysted sperm of some British Pseudoscorpiones (Arachnida)
Authors: Legg Gerald
Published: August 2009

The sperm of pseudoscorpions consists of a coiled head (nuclear material), axial filament and an “annular” mitochondrion, all enclosed within a cyst.

Variations occur in the gross morphology of different pseudoscorpion sperm. These variations are discussed in terms of possible morphological relationships.
Artificial insemination of Reindeer (Ragifer tarandus)
Authors: Dott H. M. , Utsi M. N. P.
Published: August 2009

Semen collected from reindeer bulls in an artificial vagina was used for the artificial insemination of 16 reindeer cows: two with undiluted semen, five with diluted semen and nine with frozen semen. The two cows which received undiluted semen gave birth to normal calves 217 days later. The other cows returned to oestrus 23.5 days (mean) after insemination and subsequently calved, having been served by a fertile bull.
Development and morphology of the glochidium larva of Anodonta cygnea (Mollusca: Bivalvia)
Authors: Wood Elizabeth M.
Published: August 2009

The development of the parasitic glochidium larva of Anodonta cygnea L. is outlined, with reference to earlier studies on unionid larvae, and a comparison is made between the mature glochidia of the three genera, Anodonta, Unio, and Margaritifera.

The glochidium of Anodonta cygnea is anatomically and morphologically specialized in connection with its parasitic existence. The specialized structures are described, and their significance discussed.
Morphology and anatomy of Maccabeus tentaculatus (Priapulida: Seticoronaria)
Authors: Por F. D. , Bromley H. J.
Published: August 2009

Maccabeus tentaculatus Por, 1973 from the infralittoral bottoms of Cyprus is described. A detailed description of this new type of priapulid is given. The animals are characterized by a tubiculous life, a peculiar tentacular crown and a “trap‐feeding” nutrition of small prey animals. A whole series of morphological peculiarities of the external and internal morphology corresponds to the mode of life and feeding of the animals. All the specimens found are females. The larva is a typical priapulid larva. All the stages to the adult have been found.
Aposematic and cryptic Lepidoptera tested on the mouse
Authors: Marsh Neville , Rothschild Miriam
Published: August 2009

The toxicity of 53 species of Lepidoptera which are aposematic (a) at all stages of development; (b) as larvae but not as adults; (c) as adults but not as larvae, is compared with that of cryptic species, by means of a qualitative test consisting of intraperitoneal injection into the laboratory mouse. Points of interest which emerged from this study include (i) Pieris brassicae is toxic whether or not the larval diet contains sinigrin and mustard oils; (ii) a marked sexual dimorphism in toxicity is noted in several species; (iii) a yellow (recessive) variety of Callimorpha dominula (ab. lutea) is less toxic than the typical form; (iv) P. brassicae pupae are acceptable to certain birds if the larvae are reared on artificial diet, but rejected (on account of taste or smell) if fed on cabbage; (v) only Arctia caja, out of 14 species tested, retains its toxicity when dried, and (vi) the gravid female Zygaena trifolii and her eggs kill the mouse in two to three minutes.
A re‐examination of the subspecies of Red deer (Cervus elaphus) with particular reference to the stocks in Britain
Authors: Lowe V. P. W. , Gardiner A. S.
Published: August 2009

In 1906, Lönnberg identified a native subspecies of Red deer Cervus elaphus scoticus L., in Britain after examining a sample of stags' skulls from Glenquoich (Inverness‐shire, Scotland). In north‐west England, it is commonly believed that “Red deer of indigenous stock have persisted in this area (Furness Fells, Lancashire, England) from time immemorial…” (Chard, 1966). Arrangements were made to introduce animals into a park within this area in 1970, which, in view of this local opinion, would have been the only Red deer within the district not of native origin. Therefore, it was thought desirable to examine all the stocks of wild or feral Red deer in Britain and to determine which, if any, of them could be considered native and thus deserving of special measures to ensure their survival.

After examining samples of skulls, using multivariate analysis, it appeared that, within the limits of the material representing the various subspecies of the world, there was little support for the concept of subspeciation in Red deer. In Great Britain, however, there appeared to be two distinct forms of Red deer leading a free existence, one presumed to be native and the other to be of park derivation. Visually, the differences were indetectable and could be demonstrated only by discriminant analyses.
Reproductive compatibility of voles from separate continents (Mammalia: Clethrionomys
Authors: Grant P. R.
Published: August 2009

The North American Red‐backed vole, Clethrionomys gapperi, and the Eurasian Bank vole, C. glareolus, are probably derived from a common ancestor. They have been isolated from each other for a minimum of 20,000 generations, probably many more. Interbreeding experiments in the laboratory show that in that time only partial reproductive isolation has developed. They interbreed as frequently as do pure strain pairs, and produce litters of approximately the same size. Hybrids exhibit reduced viability, but this may be partly an artifact produced by the laboratory rearing conditions. If they ever made contact in nature the most likely outcome appears to be selection against hybrids leading to full speciation and the establishment of contiguous allopatry. It is recommended that they be considered semispecies, in the terminology of Mayr (1963), and retain their separate names.
Jaw and tongue features in Psittaciformes and other orders with special reference to the anatomy of the Tooth‐billed pigeon (Didunculus strigirostris)
Authors: Burton P. J. K.
Published: August 2009

The parrot (Psittaciformes) show many highly distinctive features of head morphology. Jaw and tongue musculature have been investigated in seven other orders, for most of which parrot affinities have been postulated. The functional properties and evolution of various modifications found in parrots are discussed. Several features seen in the Tooth‐billed pigeon (Didunculus strigirostris) show a significant trend towards conditions in parrots, favouring the view that the Columbiformes are the order mostly closely related to the Psittaciformes. These features also set Didunculus apart from other pigeons, and it is strongly urged that it be given full family rank.
Effect of food consumption and temperature on reproduction in the ciliate Colpidium campylum
Authors: Laybourn Johanna E. M. , Stewart J. M.
Published: August 2009

The reproduction of the ciliate Colpidium campylum Stokes is described, at a range of temperatures, in relation to the amount of energy consumed by these ciliates. The rate of reproduction was found to vary with temperature and in relation to the energy consumed at 10°, 15° and 20° C. The possible explanation is discussed.
Transitory colour changes in the new melanophores formed by quantitative colour change in the minnow Phoxinus phoxinus
Authors: Ahmad R. U.
Published: August 2009

Minnows (TeJeosiei: Phoxinus phoxinus (L.)) were exposed on a black background for varying periods to allow melanophore formation. The ages and times of appearance of melanophores were photographically determined. The background responses of the newly‐formed melanophores were assessed microscopically in fixed preparations of animals killed in liquid nitrogen at different time‐intervals. The results were interpreted according to the generally accepted belief that rapid and slow colour changes indicate nervous and hormonal mediation respectively. The age of the newly‐formed melanophores appeared to influence their background responses, the older melanophores being more responsive. It is suggested that the sensitivity to hormonal control develops first in the life of a pigment cell, to be followed later by sensitivity to nervous control. Nervous control, however, does not appear simultaneously for W/B and B/W adaptations but develops first for the latter. This differential development is considered to provide evidence for double innervation of melanophores.
The parasite load of some African game animals
Authors: Pester F. R. N. , Laurence B. R.
Published: August 2009

The total parasite load, helminths and arthropods, was measured in wild antelopes (Antilopinae and Alcelaphinae) in Kenya. Two parasite faunas were present, one consisting of endemic species and the other of species introduced into Africa with human livestock, presumably within the last 2000 years. There was little evidence of natural immunity to helminthic infection and gazelle restricted by ranching died of acute helminth infection. The helminth fauna of antelopes was dissimilar from that of zebra and giraffe which graze in the same savannah area, although species of tick were shared. New host records from Kenya are given for Bigalkenema curvispiculum Gibbons, Paracooperia raphicerci Ortlepp, Trichostrongylus axei Cobbold and T. colubriformis Giles from Gazella thomsonii Gilnther, B. curvispiculum from G. granti Brooke, Cooperia fulleborni Hung from Connochaetes taurinus Burchell and Moniezia expansa Rudolphi from Giraffa camelopardalis tippel‐skirchi L. The implication of parasitic infection to conservation programmes and the possible future erosion of the conservation areas in East Africa is discussed briefly.
Grey seals, Halichoerus grypus, of the Dee Estuary and observations on a characteristic skin lesion in British seals
Authors: Anderson Sheila S. , Bonner W. N. , Baker J. R. , Richards R.
Published: August 2009

Grey seals on the West Hoyle Bank feed on a variety of fish and have a high incidence of dermal lesions, often associated with emaciation and nematode parasite infection. Corynebacterium phocae has been isolated from an active lesion. The significance of large numbers of seals in the Dee Estuary bearing lesions is discussed and the occurrence of seals with lesions elsewhere in British waters is reviewed. No evidence was found to associate the dermal lesions with any environmental factor and it is probable that lesions develop as a result of infection of minor wounds.
Carotenoids in thirty‐eight species of Lepidoptera
Authors: Feltwell John , Rothschild Miriam
Published: August 2009

Carotenoids in 38 species of Lepidoptera have been examined qualitatively and quantitatively. Comparisons are made between cryptic and aposematic species, pupae and adult, dried and fresh material, males and females, and certain polymorphic species. Although some selective storage is demonstrated, Lepidoptera chiefly store the carotenoids present in their food plants unchanged. It was found that the Large White (Pieris brassicae), a toxic species, stored more carotenoids than the less toxic Small White (P. rapae) while ab. coerulea (P. brassicae) contained only 25 % of the carotenoids found in typical specimens.
The mechanical behaviour of some molluscan hard tissues
Authors: Currey J. D. , Taylor J. D.
Published: August 2009

Pieces of shell from 19 species of molluscs exhibiting various microstructures were tested for tensile strength, modulus of elasticity in bending and modulus of rupture. In tensile strength most shells with cross‐foliated, foliated, homogeneous and crossed‐lamellar structures did not exceed 60 MNm 2 but prismatic and nacreous structures often exceeded this value. Nacreous structure was generally superior to all others in modulus of rupture tests; that of Turbo being about equal to bone. Values of modulus of elasticity were more uniform between structures. There is a general relation between mechanical properties, microstructure and the life style of each animal. Nacreous structure, which is very strong but not widely used, apparently evolved earlier than the less strong but widely used crossed‐lamellar structure.
Specific status of Echinocardium cordatum, E. australe and E. zealandicum (Echinoidea: Spatangoida) around New Zealand, with comments on the relation of morphological variation to environment
Authors: Higgins R. C.
Published: August 2009

The specific status of the heart‐urchin Echinocardium cordatum (Pennant) around New Zealand is discussed in the context of the suggestion that the New Zealand form of this spatangoid is sufficiently distinct from E. cordatum to be regarded as a separate species, namely E. australe Gray or E. zealandicum Gray. A brief history of the problem is outlined and it is demonstrated that, from the beginning of the present century, specialist opinion has favoured the unitary species concept and been unenthusiastic about the validity of Gray's species. The pattern of variability revealed by a comparative morphological study of E. cordatum from the British Isles and E. australe/zealandicum from New Zealand did not support the specific separation of the Australasian species. Alternatively, it is proposed that the morphological structure of the test in E. cordatum may be considerably influenced by sediment texture and that the distinctiveness of some of the New Zealand specimens is related to their occupation of very fine deposits, which are not commonly exploited by E. cordatum around the British Isles.
The mechanics of jumping by a dog (Canis familiaris)
Authors: Alexander R. McN.
Published: August 2009

A force platform has been used to obtain records of the forces exerted on the ground by an Alsatian dog, during take‐off for running long jumps and standing scale jumps. The records have been analysed in conjunction with cinematograph film, taken simultaneously, and anatomical data. Stresses in the principal muscles of the hind limb, and in the triceps, have been calculated and the values obtained are compared with the stresses found by other investigators in isometric experiments with excised mammal muscles. Stresses in certain tendons and bones have been calculated, and the values obtained are compared with published values for the strength of tendon and bone. Evidence is presented that the gastrocnemius and plantaris muscles behave, in take‐off for a jump, essentially as passive elastic bodies. Most of the elastic energy is probably stored in their tendons. A tendency for distal limb muscles to be pinnate, with much shorter fibres than proximal limb muscles, is noted and discussed.
The Phthiraptera (Insecta) parasitic on flamingoes (Phoenicopteridae: Aves)
Authors: Clay Theresa
Published: August 2009

The phthirapteran parasites occurring on the flamingoes are listed and their distribution discussed. New species of Anaticola and Anatoecus are described.
The Grapsidae and Ocypodidae (Decapoda: Brachyura) of Tanzania
Authors: Hartnoll R. G.
Published: August 2009

Twenty‐nine species of the Grapsidae and 15 species of the Ocypodidae were collected from the littoral zone in the area around Dar es Salaam. Nine species of Grapsidae and three of Ocypodidae were new records for the East African area, bringing the total of recorded species for the region to 35 and 26 respectively. The distribution of these crabs indicates a very limited endemism in the western Indian Ocean, with the majority of species forming an attenuated extension of the abundant Indo/West Pacific brachyuran fauna.

The habitat preference of each species is described. Within each subfamily there is a relative uniformity in general habitat preference, mode of life and manner of feeding. The species of each subfamily are then separated by substrate choice and preferred level on the shore. The greatest numbers of species occur in the most diverse habitats—the creek mangrove, the coastal mangrove and the reef flat.
The Green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas): mating, nesting and hatching on a farm
Authors: Simon Marlin H. , Ulrich Glenn F. , Parkes Alan S.
Published: August 2009

The collection of eggs from wild rookeries for incubation and hatching on the Mariculture Ltd farm on Grand Cayman Island, BWI, was described in the previous paper. It was realized, however, that this method of stocking the farm must sooner or later be superseded by the production of farm‐laid eggs, and at an early stage a start was made on the task of establishing a breeding colony. The necessary collection of adult turtles and progress in breeding to the end of 1973 is described in the present paper.
The ultrastructure of the small granular, proteinaceous epidermal cells of some British lumbricids (Annelida) and a reassessment of the identity of the so‐called albumen cells
Authors: Richards K. Sylvia
Published: August 2009

The ultrastructure of the small granular, proteinaceous cells of 11 species of lumbricid earthworm is described and no species differences were recorded. The cells are characterized by the presence of membrane‐bound, electron dense granules (0.6–0.7 urn in diameter) arising from polarized Golgi systems in close topographical relationship to the granular endoplasmic reticulum. Variations in electron density of the granules appear to be associated with maturation of the granules. The granules show a finely reticular substructure at high magnification. A less than fully mature stage of this cell type is described.

The occurrence of the small granular cell type in the annelids is discussed, as is the possible function of its secretion.

The confusions in the lumbricid literature concerning this cell type are discussed, and the much referred to figure of the ‘albumen’ cell type in English texts is shown not to be equivalent to the small granular, proteinaceous type referred to in this and a previous histochemical study.
Evidence for social difference in the flank organ secretion of Arvicola terrestris (Rodentia: Microtinae)
Authors: Stoddart D. Michael , Aplin R. T. , Wood M. J.
Published: August 2009

Gas‐liquid chromatographic and mass spectroscopic analysis of secretion from the flank organs of Arvicola terrestris (L.) reveals a complex mixture of long chain esters, with the possible addition of some other substances and certainly cholesterol. Each g.l.c. peak consists of a series of isomers of the particular compound.

By comparing the proportion of the total peak height contributed by individual peaks, it was possible to analyse chromatograms to identify differences in pattern of peak height proportion between the sexes, between adult and juvenile animals of each sex, between families and between populations. There is little obvious difference between the sexes but quite marked differences between adult and juvenile animals. Comparison of samples taken from a population in June, when density was low and the breeding season had just begun and September, when density was high and the breeding season was drawing to a close, showed marked differences—especially in females. Cholesterol is a very important constituent of female flank organ secretion in June but much less important in September. Families born in captivity show significant differences between chromatogram peak patterns. The occurrence of highly significant differences between populations suggests the presence of olfactory dialects. It is not known whether this is genetically or environmentally influenced.

These observations indicate the range of difference in sebaceous output found in one species of rodent, and suggest that sexual condition and group affiliation is expressed in glandular secretion thought to be used for range demarcation.
Water usage and diet preferences of free ranging kangaroos, sheep and feral goats in the Australian arid zone during summer
Authors: Dawson Terence J. , Denny M. J. S. , Russell Eleanor M. , Ellis Beverley
Published: August 2009

In much of the arid rangelands of Australia the common large mammalian herbivores are the native marsupials, the Red kangaroo (Megalein rufa) and the Euro (Mucropus robustus), and the introduced eutherian species, the domestic sheep (Ovis aries) and the feral goat (Capra hircus). In the north west of New South Wales a study was carried out to examine the patterns of water usage during summer of these species when they were free ranging in the same area. Drinking frequencies, water turnovers, electrolyte concentrations and diet preferences were determined and information obtained on movements and dispersal from watering points.

The marsupials had a much lower water usage than either of the eutherians. The tritiated water turnover of the goats was three times and that of the sheep four times the value obtained for kangaroos. While much of the difference between the marsupials and eutherians appeared to be due to fundamental physiological differences the high water usage of sheep was in part related to the high intake of halophytic plants in their diet.

The water turnovers of the Red kangaroos and Euros were not found to be different. Drinking studies and urine osmolalities suggested, however, that the open plains dwelling Red kangaroos had a higher water requirement than the hill inhabiting Euro.

The principal components of the diets of the Red kangaroo were grasses; of the Euro, grasses and shrubs; of goats, trees and shrubs; of sheep, halophytic shrubs.
An investigation of the factors influencing mean cell volume in populations of the ciliate Colpidium campylum
Authors: Laybourn Johanna E. M.
Published: August 2009

Variation in mean cell volume of the ciliate Colpidium campylum Stokes is described in relation to energy consumption, temperature and population density. Mean cell volume was unaffected by temperature and population density, while energy consumption had a marked effect. A linear relationship existed between mean cell volume and energy consumption up to an energy intake of 8000 μJ during 24 h by each individual present at the beginning of each experiment, above this level of energy intake mean cell volume maintained a maximum.

Within the temperature range 10°C‐20°C, temperature had no effect on the mean cell size of C. campylum. Population density also exerted no noticeable effect on mean cell volume. The quantity of energy consumed, however, had a marked effect. In experiments where less than 8000 μJ were consumed/individual/24 h, the mean cell volume decreased. Above this level of energy consumption mean cell volume maintained a constant level.

The maximum values obtained for cell sizes were 160–190 × 103μm3 and the minimum values 40–100 × 103μm3. A response to decreased food concentration and hence decreased energy consumption was obtained within the 24 h experimental period, indicating a rapid response to changed environment by the ciliates.
The mechanics of hopping by kangaroos (Macropodidae)
Authors: Alexander R. McN. , Vernon Alexandra
Published: August 2009

Force‐platform records and films of kangaroos and a wallaby hopping have been analysed to obtain data about the energetics of hopping and about the stresses which act in muscles, tendons and the tibia. The quantitative anatomical data required for the analysis have been obtained from X‐radiographs and dissections. It is shown that fluctuations of potential energy and external kinetic energy account for most of the energy cost of hopping; fluctuations of internal kinetic energy are relatively unimportant. Evidence is presented that large savings of energy are effected by elastic storage of energy in the gastrocnemius and plantaris tendons. The elastic mechanism is particularly effective at high speeds and seems to account for the observation of Dawson & Taylor (1973) that oxygen consumption is more or less constant over the whole range of hopping speeds. A mathematical model of hopping is presented. The stresses which occur in hopping are discussed.

Force platform records and films have been made of kangaroos and a wallaby hopping.

The maximum forces exerted on the ground were about six times body weight. The force exerted on the ground changes direction, throughout the period when the feet are on the ground, so that it is always more or less in line with the centre of mass. Consequently the animal decelerates a little and then accelerates again, during the contact phase.

The fluctuations of potential energy which occur in each hop are slightly smaller at high speeds than at low ones. Fluctuations of external kinetic energy increase with speed and account for most of the energy cost of hopping at high speeds. Fluctuations of internal kinetic energy (due to acceleration and deceleration of the limbs) are relatively small. While the feet are on the ground the extensor muscles of the hip do positive work, those of the knee negative work and those of the ankle negative work followed by positive work. The energy cost of hopping is reduced substantially by elastic storage of energy in the Achilles tendon. In the case of a wallaby hopping at moderate speed the calculated saving was 40%. The maximum stresses developed in leg muscles, tendons and the tibia have been calculated and are discussed in relation to the known properties of muscle, tendon and bone. The trunk pitches as the animal hops because the two legs swing forwards and back simultaneously. Appropriate tail movements reduce, but do not eliminate, this effect. A mathematical theory of hopping is presented and used to investigate the merits of different hopping techniques.

Dawson & Taylor's (1973) discovery that the rate of oxygen consumption of kangaroos decreases a little, as hopping speed increases, is probably to be explained by the increased role of elastic storage of energy at high speeds.
The larval development of the prawns Macrobrachium equidens and Macrobrachium sp. (Decapoda: Palaemonidae), reared in the laboratory
Authors: Ngoc‐Ho Nguyen
Published: August 2009

The larval development of two species of Macrobrachium reared in sea water is described. In one of these species, M. equidens (Dana), the larvae metamorphosed successfully in normal sea water whilst in the other, Macrobrachium sp., the postlarvae were only obtained in water of slightly lower salinity. Descriptions of the larval stages of both species are given and compared with larvae of other species of Macrobrachium.
Studies on the effects of bait and sampling intensity on trapping and estimating Wood mice, Apodemus sylvaticus
Authors: Gurnell J.
Published: August 2009

The effects of baiting a Longworth trap with whole oats and the density of traps on an area, or sampling intensity, on trapping and estimating Wood mice were studied on two neighbouring woodland plots in November 1971. Standard capture‐mark‐recapture (CMR) methods were used for two weeks followed by five nights of removal trapping.

The presence of bait significantly increased the likelihood of capturing marked and unmarked animals. By increasing the sampling intensity a greater proportion of the population was sampled, although the number of animals captured per trap night decreased. These results have been related to the “effective” number of traps on an area.

Observations on population structure, weather, movement and capturing marked and unmarked animals have been made. CMR population estimates closely resembled the cumulative number of individuals captured in each study and were for the main part lower than the estimates from the removal trapping carried out at the end of the studies.
Experiments on resting site selection by the typical and melanic forms of the moth, Allophyes oxyacanthae (Caradrinidae)
Authors: Steward R. C.
Published: August 2009

Six families of the cryptic moth, Allophyes oxyucanthae, four of which contained both the typical and melanic forms of this polymorphic species, were tested for evidence of resting site selection in a large box lined with oak bark of three reflectances. Moths from different families were tested separately. Typicals from all four families tended to show a preference for the background which most closely matched their reflectance and on which they were most cryptic. Melanic moths from different families showed different resting site selection behaviour; those from two families preferring dark bark, on which melanics were most cryptic, while those from other families did not. The significance of these results in relation to previous suggestions about the control of resting site selection is discussed
Kinetics of smimming in some smooth‐bodied polychaetes
Authors: Clark R. B. , Hermans Colin O.
Published: August 2009

The opheliids Amniotrypane and Armundiu have very small parapodia bearing few chaetae, and these are pressed back against the body when the animals swim; the archiannelid Polygordius lacks parapodia and chaetae. All three worms have smooth bodies and swim by retrograde sinusoidal movements in the same way as other long, narrow, smooth‐bodied animals, unlike nereidiform polychaetes in which the parapodial beat provides the driving force and the body undulations travelin the same direction as that of locomotion.

The wavelength of the undulations is comparable to the body length of these smooth polychaetes and this generally results in pronounced yaw. The kinetics of swimming are similar to those observed in nematodes and the amphioxus, and these polychaetes have comparable structural and mechanical features. A thick cuticle containing a spiral fibre system and lacking circular body‐wall muscles is comparable to the situation in some nematodes, but in these polychaetes transverse muscles antagonize the longitudinal muscles and may allow adjustment of the internal hydrostatic pressure‐and hence the stiffness of the body‐as in the notochord of amphioxus which has similar swimming characteristics.

Like amphioxus, these polychaetes leave and re‐enter the substratum in which they live. The small archiannelid Protodrilus has a similar muscular anatomy to that in Polygordius, but has a thin cuticle without spiral fibres. Prorodrilus has not with certainty been observed to swim.
Surface structures and sense organs of the cypris larva of Balanus balanoides as seen by scanning and transmission electron microscopy.
Authors: Walker G. , Lee V. E.
Published: August 2009

Various features of the settlement stage larva (cyprid) of the barnacle, Balanus balanoides(L.), were studied using scanning and transmission electron microscopy. The cuticle of the valves is pitted and in section has a characteristic ultrastructure. Small sensory setae protrode from the surface of this cuticle and are probably mechanoreceptors able to sense water movement around the larva. Each of the pair of caudla appendages which protrude from between the larval valves posteriorly, is made up of several sensory setae. These appendages are able to sense settlement surface topography. Certain other features of the larva are alos described and their roles discussed; such features include the frontal filaments, antennules and thoracic limbs.
The influence of age on the breeding biology and survival of the Arctic tern Sterna paradisaea
Authors: Coulson J. C. , Horobin Jean
Published: August 2009

The paper describes the influence of the age of Arctic terns on the breeding biology and postfledging survival. Some of the effects of a “red‐tide” on the terns are described.
Chemical composition of the body fluids andmuscle of the hagfish Myxine glutinosa and the rabbit‐fish Chimaera monstrosa
Authors: Robertson James D.
Published: August 2009

Comprehensive analyses have been made of the plasma and parietal muscle of the marine cyclostome Myxine glutinosa and of the chimaeraoid Chimaera monstrosa, and the sum of some 17 constituents compared with the directly determined osmotic concentration of plasma. Both Myxine and Chimaera plasmas are isosmotic with sea water within 2%. Ions account for at least 96% of the total concentration of the plasma in Myxine and about 60% in Chimaera, but the blood of the latter contains 332 mM urea, compared with 3 mM in Myxine. In muscle a similar divergence exists, the urea concentrations per kilogram muscle water being practically the same as in the respective plasmas of the two species. The mean values in millimoles of the other nitrogenous constituents of muscle are for Myxine and Chimaera (figures for latter in brackets), trimethylamine oxide 87 (189), betaine 65 (38), creatine and creatinine 30 (37), amino acids 291 (43). Using osmotic coefficients the calculated osmotic concentration of muscle exceeds that of plasma in Myxine and possible reasons for this are discussed.

Estimates of inulin space in Myxine muscle have enabled intracellular concentrations of ions to be calculated. Analysis of Myxine bile shows it to have much higher concentrations of sodium, calcium and magnesium, and much lower chloride, than plasma. The resulting large anion deficit is presumably made up chiefly by the bile salt myxinol disulphate.
The breakdown of symbiotic zooxanthellae in the sea anemone Phyllactis (=Oulactis) flosculifera (Actiniaria)
Authors: Steele R. D. , Goreau N. I.
Published: August 2009

The sea anemone Phyllactis (=Oulactis) flosculifera Lesueur (Actiniaria) has developed specialized adaptations of a structural, behavioural and chemical nature, which allow the “farming” of its symbiotic zooxanthellae as well as their breakdown and use as a source of nutrition. The presence of an extension of the upper column, the ruff, increases the exposed surface area, and the pattern of expansion and contraction of ruff and tentacles allows the high standing crop of algal symbionts they contain maximum exposure to illumination. A protein extract from the combined ruff, oral disc and tentacles has a destructive effect in vitro on the zooxanthellae of Phyllactis (52%), Aiptasia (37·5%) and Zoanthus (16%). Intracellular degeneration of zooxanthellae is greatest in the phagocytic cells of the trefoil forming the free end of the upper mesentery, but also occurs in other parts of the mesentery. The algal pellet extruded by Phyllactis consists mostly of debris, testifying to the anemone's ability to break down its zooxanthellae. Aiptasia tagetes Duch. & Mich, shows only a simple phototactic response, has no algal‐damaging agent and very few degenerate zooxanthellae in its mesenteries, but it extrudes large numbers of its symbionts in all stages of the life history.
Aspects of vertebral development in lizards and snakes
Authors: Winchester Lesley , Bellairs A. d'A.
Published: August 2009

The embryonic and postnatal development of vertebrae of the mid‐trunk and mid‐tail inLacerta vivipara, Anguis fragilisandNatrix natrixhave been studied. Centra and neural arches develop independently after the perichordal tube has been formed, the neurocentral suture representing a consistent boundary between them. The condyle and cup of each centrum are formed by differential growth of cartilage; inAnguisandNatrixthe joints between centra are synovial. The zygosphenial joints ofLacerta arecontinuous with the zygapophysial joints and not separate from them as in snakes. The autotomy splits in the tail vertebrae ofLacertaare derived from four distinct components which become continuous in postnatal life. The chordal cartilage is not involved in the split formation.
An experimental analysis of the significance of tuft‐structures as a shelter for invertebrate fauna, with respect to wind‐velocity and temperature
Authors: Bossenbroek Ph. , Kessler A. , Liem A. S. N. , Vlijm L.
Published: August 2009

Adverse weather conditions (high wind velocities and low temperatures) are shown to influence the distribution pattern of invertebrate animals in tussocks (in natural tussocks in the field and in artificial tussocks in the laboratory). Tussocks may also influence the dynamics of their populations. This is to be investigated.
Sperm transfer and mating in Ricinoides hanseni (Ricinulei: Arachnida)
Authors: Legg Gerald
Published: August 2009

Ricinuleid reproduction involves indirect sperm transfer using the highly modified distal podomeres of the third legs of the male. This is homologous with the apparatus and technique used by male spiders, which possess elaborate pedipalps. The interpretation of the method of sperm transfer is based upon morphological studies of the male's third legs and the female's genital atrium and the behaviour of males during mating. The male charges the emboli of his modified leg tarsi with sperm from his penis. After climbing on to the back of a receptive female he delicately and precisely places a modified tarsus in the genital atrium of the female. A series of lobes on the tip of part of the modified tarsus fit into a number of vesicular evaginations of the female's genital atrium. The lobes form part of the mechanism which provides a firm attachment of the male's tarsal elements with the female's genital atrium during sperm transfer. A tubular element of the modified tarsus fits into a spermatheca of the female. Sperm and seminal fluid are then injected from the male's embolus into the female's spermatheca.
Observations on the displays, menstrual cycles and sexual behaviour of the “Black ape” of Celebes (Macaca nigra)
Authors: Dixson Alan F.
Published: August 2009

The behaviour of a captive group of Celebes “Black apes” has been studied in order to describe the repertoire of visual displays and to gather quantitative data on menstrual cycles and sexual behaviour. A comparison of the displays of the Black ape with those of other Old World monkeys indicates that its behaviour is closest to that of Macaques and baboons. This lends support to the view that it should be included in Macaca, rather than being placed in a separate genus Cynopithecus.
Dual bioluminescent systems in the anglerfish genus Linophryne (Pisces: Ceratioidea)
Authors: Hansen Kjeld , Herring Peter J.
Published: August 2009

Females of the anglerfish genus Linophryne bear barbels containing luminous organs, in addition to an escal light organ. Luminescence has been observed from the barbels of four species of Linophryne, and the morphology of the luminous organs investigated. The barbel light organs do not contain bacteria but complex paracrystalline photogenic granules. The esca contains luminous bacteria. The esca is ectodermal in origin whereas the barbel organs may be derived from the mesoderm.

The possible significance of this unique dual system of luminous organs is discussed.
The House mice of the Faroe Islands: a study in microdifferentiation
Authors: Berry R. J. , Jakobson M. E. , Peters Josephine
Published: August 2009

The House mice (Mus musculus L.) of the Faroe Islands (62°N, 7°W) are frequently quoted as examples of rapid evolution, because they seem to be clearly differentiated both from mice in other parts of the world, and between different islands within the Faroe group despite being introduced through human agency within the last millennium. They are also of interest in being among the most climatically stressed mice in the Northern Hemisphere.

The present study is an attempt to determine the extent of differentiation between the populations on the six Faroe islands which harbour mice. It is based on size and organ weights, measurements on the mandibles and scapulae, non‐metrical variation of the skeleton, and allozymic frequencies at 22 loci. Distance statistics calculated for all five groups of data between samples from each island compared with every other, showed that all the populations were clearly distinct. However the distances calculated from the different data were disconcertingly heterogeneous. The most likely explanation is that the different characteristics scored each depend on a relatively small number of different genes.

Taking all the results together, it seems most probable that mice first entered the Faroes via the main port of Torshavn and spread from there to Nols0y, Hestur and Sand0y, and from Sand0y to Fugloy and Mykines. The large inter‐island differences can be attributed primarily to “instant sub‐speciation” produced by each colonization depending on a probable small number of effective founders.
Structure in avian growth patterns: a multivariate study of passerine development
Authors: O'Connor Raymond J.
Published: August 2009

A series of four principal component analyses was applied to data on the nestling development of three passerines, the Blue tit Parus caeruleus, House martin Delichon urbica and House sparrow Passer domesticus. The pattern of weight development in the tit and sparrow was largely controlled by selection for growth rate and for final size but in the martin final size was due to the prevailing levels of nestling food. Development in all three species was primarily through size increase in all growth measures but the differential development of individual organs or body constituents nevertheless accounted for 15% or more of the variance in developmental pattern. Blue tit young in broods of above average size sacrificed differential development to maintain size increase. Species specific differences in the integration of weight and plumage development and their sensitivity to hatching weight and hatching order were explicable as adaptive modifications of developmental pattern to the nature of each species' food supply. The value of such individual measures of development as weight and feather growth is assessed in the light of multivariate analysis of arrays of such variables.