bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Childless Mother: The Disfigurations ofEva Trout or Changing Scenes(1968)
Authors: Corcoran Neil
Published: September 2007

This chapter focuses on Bowen's last, problematical novel, Eva Trout, which has polarized critical opinion. It explains this opinion and reasons for it, then proposes a new reading of it as the climax in an altogether novel structure of Bowen's interest in the figures of mother and child. In the novel's eponymous heroine, Bowen articulates a representation of that impossible figure — the mother who has no child. A radically unsettling experimental fiction, this novel disfigures various figurations in the earlier work in a process of anamorphosis likened to some photographic distortions. In addition, such figures of authority in the earlier work as Henry James are, in this novel, replaced with an extensive consideration of Dickens, as novelist of childhood and writer of the grotesque. Finally, the chapter considers the metanarrative element of the novel, including its engagement with the forms and metaphysics of traditional Christianity.
Foundations of Language
Authors: Jackendoff Ray
Published: September 2007

This book surveys the last thirty-five years of research in generative linguistics and related fields and offers a new understanding of how language, the brain, and perception intermesh. The book renews the conclusions of early generative linguistics: that language can be a valuable entrée into understanding the human mind and brain. The approach is interdisciplinary. The book proposes that the creativity of language derives from multiple parallel generative systems linked by interface components. This shift in basic architecture allows for a reconception of mental grammar and how it is learned. The book aims to reintegrate linguistics with philosophy of mind, cognitive and developmental psychology, evolutionary biology, neuroscience, and computational linguistics. Among the major topics treated are language processing, the relation of language to perception, the innateness of language, and the evolution of the language capacity, as well as more standard issues in linguistic theory such as the roles of syntax and the lexicon. In addition, this book offers a sophisticated theory of semantics that incorporates insights from philosophy of language, logic and formal semantics, lexical semantics of various stripes, cognitive grammar, psycholinguistic and neurolinguistic approaches, and the author's own conceptual semantics.
Implications for Processing
Authors: Jackendoff Ray
Published: September 2007

This chapter goes further toward a rapprochement of theoretical linguistics and psycholinguistics. It concerns itself with the job of the language processor: how stored pieces are used online to build combinatorial linguistic structures in working memory during speech perception and production. It begins by showing how the architecture proposed in Chapter 5 translates into a processing model, with the interface components playing a crucial role. In particular, the treatment of the lexicon in the parallel architecture turns out to fit nicely into analyses of lexical access in perception and production. It then takes up some more general questions about the role of modularity in processing. The overall goal is to show that the parallel architecture offers a theoretical perspective that unifies linguistics with psycholinguistics more satisfactorily than was previously possible.
Reference and Truth
Authors: Jackendoff Ray
Published: September 2007

The most difficult challenge to a mentalist semantics is the intuition that language refers to objects and events ‘in the world’. A direct connection between a language in the mind and objects in the world is severely problematic. It is argued that the proper formulation of reference is as a relation between linguistic expressions and the world as conceptualized by the language user. Such a formulation aligns with standard views in perceptual psychology, and permits a far richer ontology of entities for language. Some of the standard philosophical objections to this view are answered; at the same time, some of the standard puzzles of reference are shown to dissolve.
Radical Construction Grammar
Authors: Croft William
Published: September 2007

This book presents a profound critique of syntactic theory and syntactic argumentation. Recent syntactic theories are essentially formal models for the representation of grammatical knowledge. These theories posit complex syntactic structures in the analysis of sentences, consisting of atomic primitive syntactic categories and relations. The result of this approach to syntax has been an endless cycle of new and revised theories of syntactic representation. The book argues that these types of syntactic theories are incompatible with the grammatical variation found within and across languages. The extent of grammatical variation demonstrates that no scheme of atomic primitive syntactic categories and relations can form the basis of an empirically adequate syntactic theory. This book defends three theses: (i) constructions are the primitive units of syntactic representation, and grammatical categories are derivative; (ii) the only syntactic structures are the relations between a construction and the elements that make it up (that is, there is no need to posit syntactic relations); and (iii) constructions are language-specific. Constructions are complex units pairing form and meaning. Grammatical categories within and across languages are mapped onto a universal conceptual space, following the semantic map model in typology. The structure of conceptual space constrains how meaning is encoded in linguistic form, and reflects the structure of the human mind.
Syntactic Argumentation and Radical Construction Grammar
Authors: Croft William
Published: September 2007

The fundamental question of syntactic theory is: what is the nature of a speaker’s grammatical knowledge? But an equally fundamental question is hardly discussed: is there a general method to demonstrate the existence of the syntactic categories and elements that are the basic units of syntactic theory? The standard method is distributional analysis, the employment of different constructions as arguments (tests) for an analysis. But distributional analysis shows that one cannot establish universal basic syntactic categories and relations, because of mismatches among the tests within and across languages. So theorists engage in methodological opportunism, using different tests in different languages and ignoring conflicting results across tests in the same language. But this is empirically invalid. This chapter argues that we must abandon the belief that atomic categories and relations are the primitives of syntactic theory. Instead, constructions are the primitives of syntactic theory — a radical version of construction grammar.
The Coordination—Subordination Continuum
Authors: Croft William
Published: September 2007

The distinction between coordination and subordination is claimed to be a structural universal. However, the structural criteria used to distinguish coordination from subordination do not match up across languages. This chapter proposes a functional analysis of complex sentence structure in terms of the Gestalt distinction between figure and ground. Coordination and complements constitute a complex figure (following Wierzbicka), while adverbial clauses and relative clauses constitute a figure-ground structure (following Talmy and Reinhart). Coordination and complementation are linked by grammaticalization, via serial verb constructions, and adverbial clauses and relative clauses are also linked by grammaticalization. Comparative and conditional relations are ambivalent, and expressed crosslinguistically by either complex figure or figure-ground constructions. A conceptual space is presented to account for Cristofaro’s implicational hierarchies for different types of semantic relations between situations and their encoding as balanced (asserted, and more coordinate-like) and deranked (nonasserted, less coordinate-like) complex sentence constructions.
Harmonic Morphisms Between Riemannian Manifolds
Authors: Baird Paul , Wood John C.
Published: September 2007

Harmonic morphisms are maps which preserve Laplace's equation. More explicitly, a map between Riemannian manifolds is called a harmonic morphism if its composition with any locally defined harmonic function on the codomain is a harmonic function on the domain; it thus ‘pulls back’ germs of harmonic functions to germs of harmonic functions. Harmonic morphisms can be characterized as harmonic maps satisfying a condition dual to weak conformality called ‘horizontal weak conformality’ or ‘semiconformality’. Examples include harmonic functions, conformal mappings in the plane, holomorphic mappings with values in a Riemann surface, and certain submersions arising from Killing fields and geodesic fields. The study of harmonic morphisms involves many different branches of mathematics: the book includes discussion on aspects of the theory of foliations, polynomials induced by Clifford systems and orthogonal multiplications, twistor and mini-twistor spaces, and Hermitian structures. Relations with topology are discussed, including Seifert fibre spaces and circle actions, also relations with isoparametric functions and the Beltrami fields equation of hydrodynamics.
Riemannian manifolds and conformality
Authors: Baird Paul , Wood John C.
Published: September 2007

This chapter introduces fundamental concepts from Riemannian geometry, including the Laplacian and harmonic functions on a Riemannian manifold. The next two sections discuss weak conformality and the dual notion of horizontal weak conformality (or ‘semiconformality’) needed for the description of harmonic morphisms in Chapter 4. The fibres of a horizontally conformal submersion form a conformal foliation, which are studied in the final section.
Mini-twistor theory on three-dimensional space forms
Authors: Baird Paul , Wood John C.
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses harmonic morphisms from 3-manifolds to surfaces, especially those of constant curvature. First, the local behaviour is considered, showing that the foliation given by its fibres is a smooth conformal foliation by geodesics, even at critical points. This leads to a local factorization of a harmonic morphism as a submersion followed by a weakly conformal map of surfaces and a local normal form. The mini-twistor spaces of geodesics in the three complete simply connected space-forms are described: that these are complex surfaces leading to Weierstrass-type representations of submersive harmonic morphisms on domains of these spaces. This, together with a stronger version of the factorization theorem, determines all harmonic morphisms on such domains leading to classifications of the harmonic morphisms from these spaces to a surface. Finally, the constructions are generalized to give a class of harmonic morphisms from higher-dimensional space forms.
Island foxes
Authors: Roemer Gary W.
Published: September 2007

The island fox (Urocyon littoralis) is endemic to the California Channel Islands, a continental archipelago located off the coast of the southwestern United States. A descendent of the mainland gray fox (U. cinereo argenteus), it is hypothesized that island foxes first colonized the three northern Channel Islands (Santa Cruz, Santa Rosa, and San Miguel) by chance. Native Americans then transported foxes from these islands to three southern Channel Islands (Santa Catalina, San Clemente, and San Nicolas). Each island's fox population is currently recognized as a distinct subspecies, and both the hypothesized colonization scheme and the current taxonomic classification are supported by morphological and genetic evidence. This chapter discusses the evolution, ecology, and conservation of the island fox.
Red foxes
Authors: Baker Philip J. , Harris Stephen
Published: September 2007

The red fox (Vulpes vulpes) is the most widely distributed extant canid species, and is present in a broad range of habitats ranging from arctic tundra to deserts to city suburbs. Throughout its range, its general social system encompasses a territorial breeding pair accompanied by up to eight subordinate individuals. However, there is substantial plasticity in social organization, principally through variation in territory size, group size, and group structure. This chapter reviews work undertaken in a long-term study in Bristol, England, investigating the mechanisms and benefits of group formation in a population of urban red foxes.
Raccoon dogs
Authors: Kauhala Kaarina , Saeki Midori
Published: September 2007

Japanese raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides viverrinus) have been isolated from populations (e.g., N. p. ussuriensis) on mainland Asia for about 12,000 years. Since the environment and climate of Japan differ greatly from that on mainland Asia, different selection pressures have affected the two populations. This chapter compares several features of Finnish (N. p. ussuriensis, originally from SE Russia) and Japanese raccoon dogs to evaluate the progress of the Japanese raccoon dog towards speciation. It reviews the chromosome number, skull and tooth morphology, body size and weight, the ability to hibernate, reproduction, home ranges, habitat use, and diet of Japanese and Finnish raccoon dogs.
Patagonian foxes
Authors: Novaro Andrés J. , Funes Martín C. , Jiménez Jaime E.
Published: September 2007

The culpeo (Pseudalopex culpaeus) and the South American grey fox or chilla (P. griseus) are closely related canids that live in western and southern South America. This chapter examines patterns of prey selection by culpeos and chillas in areas where the two species are sympatric and: (1) where sheep were abundant and the main wild prey, lagomorphs, had different densities; (2) where both canids were protected and sheep density was low. These comparisons are used to evaluate the competitive relationships between the culpeo and chilla and the factors that determine predation on livestock. The comparisons are based on two studies that reported data on culpeo and chilla food habits and a broad array of prey availability, and on unpublished information from one of these studies.
Coyotes
Authors: Gese Eric M.
Published: September 2007

The coyote population at Yellowstone National Park (YNP), Wyoming, has not been subject to human persecution for several decades allowing for direct observation of their behaviour, interactions among pack members, and how they deal with changes in their environment. From January 1991 to June 1993, data from over 2500 hours of direct observation were collected on members of five resident packs, five transient individuals, and eight dispersing animals, in the Lamar River Valley of YNP. This chapter synthesizes the findings of this study.
Grey wolves—Isle Royale
Authors: Vucetich John A. , Peterson Rolf O.
Published: September 2007

The wolves (Canis lupus) of Isle Royale, an island in Lake Superior (North America), have been studied with their primary prey, the moose (Alces alces), continuously and intensively since 1959. This environment is unique because on Isle Royale for a number of reasons: humans do not exploit wolves or moose, wolves are the only predator of moose, moose comprise an overwhelming majority of wolf prey, and the annual exchange of wolves and moose with the mainland is negligible. This chapter presents a chronology of research for this wolf-moose system, general characteristics of the wolf population, and reviews some insights learned from studying the ecology of these wolves.
Grey wolves—Yellowstone
Authors: Phillips Michael K. , Bangs Edward E. , Mech L. David , Kelly Brian T. , Fazio Buddy B.
Published: September 2007

About 150 years ago, the grey wolf (Canis lupus) was distributed throughout the contiguous United States, except for in southeastern US from central Texas to the Atlantic coast, where the red wolf (Canis rufus) occurred. Conflict with agricultural interests resulted in government-supported eradication campaigns beginning in colonial Massachusetts in 1630. Over the next 300 years, the campaigns were extended throughout the US resulting in the near extermination of both species. In recent decades, efforts to recover the red and grey wolf were carried out. This chapter summarizes extermination and recovery efforts for both species in the contiguous US.
African wild dogs
Authors: Creel Scott , Mills Michael G. L. , McNutt J. Weldon
Published: September 2007

African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) always have low population densities when compared to sympatric large carnivores. Most populations are small, and only a handful exceeds 500. Three of the largest remaining wild dog populations are found in Kruger National Park (South Africa), the Selous Game Reserve (Tanzania), and Northern Botswana. With a total of 1,900-2,500 individuals, these areas protect about one-third of the African wild dogs alive today, and the future of wild dog conservation rests in large part on these ecosystems. This chapter identifies the demographic variables that have a strong impact on growth and aims to determine conservation priorities and evaluate management actions.
Existence and uniqueness
Authors: Fabrizio Mauro , Angelo Morro
Published: September 2007

This chapter provides a wide class of mathematical problems which originates from the application of Maxwell’s differential equations to electromagnetic systems. Static, stationary, and transient problems are investigated for dielectrics or conductors with instantaneous response or with memory, subject to various boundary conditions. The main concern is to establish existence, uniqueness, and stability of the solution. This objective is realized by applying different mathematical techniques both to adhere to the features of the model and to offer a profitable set of approaches.
Wave propagation
Authors: Fabrizio Mauro , Angelo Morro
Published: September 2007

This chapter investigates some aspects of wave propagation with a major focus on the effects of linear constitutive properties (functions or functionals). A detailed analysis of time-harmonic waves in uniform materials is given and classical topics on plane waves are re-visited, such as waves in magneto-hydrodynamics or in anisotropic dielectrics. Propagation and reflection-transmission are examined for dissipative materials, where the wave vector is complex valued. The propagation of plane wavefronts (singular surfaces) is also developed for materials with memory.
M/G/1-TYPE MARKOV CHAINS
Authors: Bini D. A. , Latouche G. , Meini B.
Published: September 2007

This chapter is devoted to the theoretical analysis of M/G/1-type Markov chains. Conditions for the ergodicity are given in terms of the drift. The reduction to solving a nonlinear matrix equation is shown and the role played by canonical factorizations in this regard is pointed out. The Ramaswami formula for the computation of the stationary distribution is revisited in terms of canonical factorizations.
FUNCTIONAL ITERATIONS
Authors: Bini D. A. , Latouche G. , Meini B.
Published: September 2007

The major iterative algorithms based on functional iteration techniques for solving nonlinear matrix equations are described, analysed, and compared in this chapter. First, the basic concepts on fixed point iterations are recalled, then linearly convergent iterations are treated, and finally Newton’s iteration is considered.
MICROSCOPIC DERIVATION OF THE TDGL EQUATION
Authors: Larkin Anatoly , Varlamov Andrei
Published: September 2007

This chapter presents the basic aspects of the microscopic description of fluctuation phenomena in superconductors. The notion of fluctuation propagator as the vertex part of the electron: electron interaction in the Cooper channel, diagrammatic representation of fluctuation corrections, the method of their averaging over impurities, are introduced. The developed method of Matsubara temperature Green's functions applied to a description of the fluctuations allows the determination of the values of the phenomenological parameters of the GL theory. It also allows the determination of the treatment of fluctuation effects quantitatively, even far from the transition point, and for strong magnetic fields taking into account the contributions of dynamical and short wavelength fluctuations, as well as the quantum effects eluding from the phenomenological consideration.
PHASE SLIP EVENTS
Authors: Larkin Anatoly , Varlamov Andrei
Published: September 2007

The specifics for a one-dimensional superconductor fluctuation mechanism of phase-slip events are discussed and the corresponding smearing of the transition is found using the framework of the Ginzburg-Landau formalism. The quantum theory of phase slip events is demonstrated with the example of the nano-ring.
FLUCTUATIONS NEAR SUPERCONDUCTOR-INSULATOR TRANSITION
Authors: Larkin Anatoly , Varlamov Andrei
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses the quantum phase transition using the example of superconductor-insulator transition. For the 3D case, a version of the Ginzburg-Landau formalism is formulated from both normal and anomalous diffusion. The description of such transition in the case of 2D superconductors is very specific and strongly differs from the 3D case. The ideas of boson and fermion mechanisms of the Tc suppression in 2D cases are presented, and their predictions are compared with the experimental conditions.
PHYSICAL BACKGROUND
Authors: Feireisl Eduard
Published: September 2007

This chapter is devoted to a review on the underlying physical theory. Besides the basic notions of reference configurations, kinematics, constitutive equations, and balance laws, this part includes mention of the general pressure-density temperature state equation, in particular which arises in low energy nuclear physics and astrophysics. In particular, some examples of non-monotone pressure-density constitutive laws are presented.
A PRIORI ESTIMATES
Authors: Feireisl Eduard
Published: September 2007

A priori estimates play a decisive role in the analysis of any nonlinear problem. They determine the class of functions, where the solutions are looked for. A priori estimates resulting from the basic physical principles — conservation (or balance) of mass, momentum, and energy — are discussed. The role of the presence of viscosity and heat conductivity is crucial here.
VARIATIONAL SOLUTIONS
Authors: Feireisl Eduard
Published: September 2007

The concept of a variational solution to the full Navier-Stokes-Fourier system is introduced in this chapter. Each equation of the complete system, that means, the equation of continuity, the momentum equation, and the energy equation, is treated separately. The basic facts of the theory of renormalized solutions of the continuity equation are reviewed. Moreover, the renormalized solutions of the thermal energy are introduced as a suitable tool to deal with possible concentrations of temperature.
Numerical Methods for Image Registration
Authors: Modersitzki Jan
Published: September 2007

This text provides an introduction to the theoretical, practical, and numerical aspects of image registration, with special emphasis on medical imaging. Given a so-called reference and template image, the goal of image registration is to find a reasonable transformation such that the transformed template is similar to the reference image. Image registration is utilized whenever information obtained from different viewpoints times and sensors needs to be combined or compared, and unwanted distortion needs to be eliminated. The book provides a systematic introduction to image registration and discusses the basic mathematical principles, including aspects from approximations theory, image processing, numerics, optimization, partial differential equations, and statistics, with a strong focus on numerical methods. A unified variational approach is introduced and enables a separation into data-related issues like image feature or image intensity-based similarity measures, and problem inherent regularization like elastic or diffusion registration. This general framework is further used for the explanation and classification of established methods as well as the design of new schemes and building blocks including landmark-, thin-plate-spline, mutual information, elastic, fluid, demon, diffusion, and curvature registration.
PRINCIPAL AXES-BASED REGISTRATION
Authors: Modersitzki Jan
Published: September 2007

This chapter follows the idea of registering image features, but the registration is now based on features which can be deduced from the images automatically. To this end, an image is considered as a density function or a mass distribution. From this distribution, so-called principal axes are derived and stochastic interpretations for this approach are presented. A Gaussian estimator is related to the so-called Kullback-Leibler distance of image densities. This interpretation allows a generalization to t-distributions that lead to more robust moment estimators like Cauchy densities. The different approaches are discussed and compared. How image moments change under transformation is explained. The principal axis transformation is derived and discussed. Performance and ambiguity is demonstrated using a variety of intuitive examples.
SUMMARY OF PARAMETRIC IMAGE REGISTRATION
Authors: Modersitzki Jan
Published: September 2007

This chapter summarizes the techniques discussed so far in this book. The techniques are all based on the minimization of a certain distance measure, and the distance measure is based on image features or directly on image intensities. Image features can be user supplied (e.g., landmarks) or may be deduced automatically from the image intensities (e.g., principal axes). Typical examples of intensity-based distance measures are the sum of squared differences, correlation or mutual information. For all proposed techniques, the transformation is parametric, i.e., it can be expanded in terms of some parameters and basis functions. The desired transformation is a minimizer of the distance measure in the space spanned by the basis functions. The minimizer can be obtained from algebraic equations or by applying appropriate optimization tools.
NON-PARAMETRIC IMAGE REGISTRATION
Authors: Modersitzki Jan
Published: September 2007

This chapter introduces non-parametric registrations. The idea behind this type of registration is to come up with an appropriate measure both for the similarity as well as for the likelihood of a non-parametric transformation. It sets up a general framework for the consideration of different registration techniques, which is based on a variational formulation of the registration problem; the numerical schemes to be considered are based on the Euler-Lagrange equations which characterize a minimizer.
FLUID REGISTRATION
Authors: Modersitzki Jan
Published: September 2007

This chapter introduces the fluid registration scheme of Christensen and relates this to the elastic registration. Though the fluid approach is more related to a flow approach rather than to an optimization approach, the analogy becomes visible using iterative Tychonov regularization. The chapter summarizes basic conservation laws like conservation of mass and conservation of linear momentum. Assuming a Stokes fluid, the underlying partial differential equation for the fluid registration is derived. It is shown that these equations can be solved numerically, and a fluid registration algorithm is presented together with various comments and remarks concerning implementation details. Various examples and a discussion of the fluid registration are given.
THE OVERLAP IN GLASSY SYSTEMS
Authors: Parisi Giorgio
Published: September 2007

This chapter considers many of the various definitions of the overlap and of its probability distribution that have been introduced in the literature, starting from the original papers of Edwards and Anderson, together with some of the most recent results on the probability distribution of the local overlap in spin glasses. These quantities are related to the fluctuation-dissipation relations both in their local and in their global versions.
THE SURFACE STATISTICS OF A GROWING AGGREGATE
Authors: Kardar Mehran
Published: September 2007

The paper on ‘The surface statistics of a granular aggregate’ by Edwards and Wilkinson (1982) established an enduring framework for characterizing dynamic scaling phenomena for growing surfaces. More generally, it provided a new way of analyzing fluctuation phenomena in a variety of non-equilibrium circumstances. After briefly reviewing some key concepts of the Edwards-Wilkinson equation, a number of its generalizations in connection with different types of growing surfaces are described. Growth equations are related by mathematical links to sums over directed paths in random media. The latter reveals further connections to the contributions of Edwards in polymer physics (path integrals) and disordered systems (the replica formalism).
Avoiding Attack
Authors: Ruxton Graeme D. , Sherratt Tom N. , Speed Michael P.
Published: September 2007

The book discusses the diversity of mechanisms by which prey can avoid or survive attacks by predators, both from ecological and evolutionary perspectives. There is a particular focus on sensory mechanisms by which prey can avoid being detected, avoid being identified, signal (perhaps sometimes dishonestly) to predators that they are defended or unpalatable. The book is divided into three sections. The first considers detection avoidance through, for example, background matching, disruptive patterning, countershading and counterillumination, or transparency and reflective silvering. The second section considers avoiding or surviving an attack if detection and identification by the predator has already taken place (i.e., secondary defences). The key mechanism of this section is aposematism: signals that warn the predator that a particular prey type is defended. One particularly interesting aspect of this is the sharing of the same signal by more than one defended species (the phenomenon of Mullerian mimicry). The final section considers deception of predators. This may involve an undefended prey mimicking a defended species (Batesian mimicry), or signals that deflect predator’s attention or signals that startle predators. The book provides the first comprehensive survey of adaptive coloration in a predator-prey context in thirty years.
Signalling to predators
Authors: Ruxton Graeme D. , Sherratt Thomas N. , Speed Michael P.
Published: September 2007

Predators that rely on surprise may be persuaded to desist from attacking if prey use reliable signals that the predator has been detected. Prey may also be able to reliably signal to a predator that they are difficult to catch or subdue, and that cause the predator to desist from attacking or switch their attack to another prey individual. The theory underlying such signals is considered and compared to the available empirical data to determine the evolution of such signals and their ecological prevalence.
Deflection and startling of predators
Authors: Ruxton Graeme D. , Sherratt Thomas N. , Speed Michael P.
Published: September 2007

Prey sometimes have conspicuous marking on specific parts of their body that are considered to deflect the point of predatory attack towards defended or expendable parts of the body. Other signals are generally hidden, but can be revealed suddenly and startle the predator, causing it to desist from attack or at least pause long enough to increase the likelihood of prey escape. This chapter examines the logical basis for such signals and the empirical evidence for them.
Biosimplicity via stoichiometry: the evolution of food-web structure and processes
Authors: Elser James J. , Hessen Dag O.
Published: September 2007

Food webs are among the most complex entities under study in modern biology. But what if major features of their structure and dynamics were the product of a relatively few simple rules? This chapter describes perspectives arising from the field of biological stoichiometry to argue that major features of food web function in ecosystems are the outcome of a relatively straightforward combination of chemical principles (mass balance, stoichiometric combination) of entities experiencing the Darwinian selective algorithm. It argues that the fate of energy or carbon in food webs, to a major extent, is governed by the availability and packaging of key nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus. Indeed, phenomena such as transfer efficiency, length of food chains, community composition, degree of omnivory, and the relative importance of grazing versus detrital pathways all appear to have a strong stoichiometric component and the underlying rules generating these phenomena involve fundamental evolutionary trade-offs and coevolutionary dynamics.
Biodiversity and aquatic food webs
Authors: Hillebrand Helmut , Shurin Jonathan B.
Published: September 2007

Biodiversity in freshwater food webs can be considered in terms of the number of species occupying unique trophic positions or the number of species within a trophic position. Either can affect energy flow or biomass partitioning, and the two aspects of diversity may feed back on one another. This chapter analyses the importance of biodiversity in aquatic food webs on three different levels. First, it asks how varying diversity within trophic groups affects the outcome of trophic interactions. It then presents a conceptual framework and contrasts this model against experimental manipulations of consumer or prey diversity. Second, it asks how consumers and resources affect biodiversity within trophic levels. This question has a long history of experimental and modeling studies, and these are reviewed. The role of biodiversity at local and regional spatial scales for freshwater food webs is examined. Dispersal among local habitats can constrain local species diversity and influence the outcome of food web interactions. The interactive effects of the regional pool versus resident diversity on the outcome of trophic interactions are discussed.
INTRODUCTION TO FIXED-PARAMETER ALGORITHMS
Authors: Niedermeier Rolf
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses three introductory examples for studying exact and fixed-parameter algorithms. It starts with the boolean Satisfiability problem and its numerous parameters, then discusses an application problem from railway optimization, and concludes with a communication problem in tree networks (Multicut in Trees). It briefly summarizes the leitmotif of parameterized algorithm design and analysis.
THE ART OF PROBLEM PARAMETERIZATION
Authors: Niedermeier Rolf
Published: September 2007

This chapter sheds light on the various aspects of how problems can be studied from a parameterized point of view. Doing so, it emphasizes the importance of small parameters, guaranteed parameter values, the existence of more than one parameter for one and the same problem, and structural parameterizations.
DEPTH-BOUNDED SEARCH TREES
Authors: Niedermeier Rolf
Published: September 2007

This chapter presents the second very basic design technique for fixed-parameter algorithms: depth-bounded search trees. It starts with simple observations and some basic definitions and facts, including recurrences and branching vectors as a tool for analysing search tree sizes. It continues giving several specific search tree results, including outlines of problems such as Cluster Editing, Vertex Cover, Hitting Set, Closest String, and Dominating Set in Planar Graphs. Moreover, it discusses how to interleave search tree and kernelization procedures to further speed up computation, and it proposes a way to generate automatically search trees (also analysing their sizes) using Cluster Deletion as an illustrative example.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS
Authors: Niedermeier Rolf
Published: September 2007

This chapter gives a summary of what happens in Part II and Part III.
ZUKUNFTSMUSIK
Authors: Niedermeier Rolf
Published: September 2007

This chapter concludes the book, summarizes the ideas discussed, and puts forward a list of three central challenges for parameterized algorithm design.
THE DUALITY OF CLASSICAL AND CONSTRUCTIVE NOTIONS AND PROOFS
Authors: Negri Sara , Plato Jan Von
Published: September 2007

The method of converting mathematical axioms into rules of sequent calculus reveals a perfect duality between classical and constructive basic notions, such as equality and apartness, and between the respective rules. Derivations with the mathematical rules of a constructive theory are duals of corresponding classical derivations. The class of geometric theories is among those convertible into rules, and the duality defines a new class of ‘co-geometric’ theories. Examples of such theories are projective and affine geometry. The logical rules of classical sequent calculus are invertible. For quantifier-free theories, this has the effect that logical rules can be permuted to apply after the mathematical rules. For mathematical rules involving variable conditions, this separation of logic does not always hold because quantifier rules may fail to permute down. A sufficient condition for the permutability of mathematical rules is determined and applied to give an extension of Herbrand theorem from universal to geometric and co-geometric theories.
SEPARATION PROPERTIES IN CONSTRUCTIVE TOPOLOGY
Authors: Aczel Peter , Fox Christopher
Published: September 2007

This chapter studies separation properties in topology as done on the basis of the formal system CZF. Until the 1970s, there was only a limited focus on the general notion of a topological space in constructive mathematics, with most attention being paid to metric space notions both in intuitionistic analysis and in Bishop-style constructive analysis. But in later years, because of the development of topos theory, the study of sheaf models, and work on point-free topology, including work on formal topology, the notions of general topology in constructive mathematics have received more attention. This chapter presents a fairly systematic survey of the main separation properties that topological spaces can have in constructive mathematics. These are perhaps the first kinds of properties to consider when moving from the study of metric spaces to the study of general topological spaces.
PREDICATIVE EXPONENTIATION OF LOCALLY COMPACT FORMAL TOPOLOGIES OVER INDUCTIVELY GENERATED TOPOLOGIES
Authors: Maietti Maria Emilia
Published: September 2007

Martin Hyland first classified the exponentiable locales as the locally compact ones. This chapter proves the counterpart of Hyland's result for inductively generated formal topologies. More precisely, by adapting Hyland's proofs to the context of formal topology, it proves that locally compact formal covers are the exponentiable objects in the category of inductively generated formal covers. Then, it deduces the analogous result for inductively generated formal topologies (that is, formal topologies with a unary positivity predicate). This demonstrates once more how impredicative reasoning can be unwound predicatively with great patience, but with the benefit of a quite explicit proof.
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE THEORY OF C*-ALGEBRAS IN CONSTRUCTIVE MATHEMATICS
Authors: Takamura Hiroki
Published: September 2007

This chapter introduces an elementary theory of C*-algebras in the context of Bishop-style constructive mathematics. It givens proof of the Gelfand-Naĭmark-Segal (GNS) construction theorem in Bishop's constructive mathematics. This important theorem in the theory of operator algebras says that for each C*-algebra and every state, there exists a cyclic representation on some Hilbert space. This chapter's contribution is of particular interest in view of the Bridges-Hellman debate on whether constructive mathematics is able to cope with quantum mechanics. Since quantum mechanics is bound up with the theory of operator algebras on Hilbert spaces, a constructive treatment of the latter has been a challenge for constructive mathematics from the very beginning.
COMPUTABILITY ON NON-SEPARABLE BANACH SPACES AND LANDAU'S THEOREM
Authors: Brattka Vasco
Published: September 2007

In computable analysis, a computable normed space turns out to be necessarily separable. In classical functional analysis, non-separable spaces occur naturally, for example as dual spaces of common separable spaces. The question arises whether the notion of a computable normed space can be generalized to the non-separable case in a meaningful way. This chapter proves that there are at least two concepts which capture this notion, one of which is stronger than the other. The first focuses on computability of the norm, while the second one preserves computability of the linear operations. One can measure the quality of these concepts by regarding the number of classical results which can be proved computationally by applying the corresponding concept. Using the first concept, the chapter proves a computable version of Landau's Theorem for sequence spaces, which suggests that priority should be given to the computability of the norm.
Nervous system
Authors: Schmidt-Rhaesa A.
Published: September 2007

Nervous systems are directional signalling systems. Several components of nervous systems are present in non-metazoan organisms, and sponges are able to use electrical signals without having a nervous system. Nervous systems evolved within Eumetazoa, first as a nerve net, but there were numerous tendencies to create heterogeneity within this system by the emphasis of particular regions or pathways. This can be seen in cnidarians, and particularly occurs within bilaterians. A brain and an orthogon (the regular arrangement of longitudinal and circular nerves) are characteristic bilaterian features, and their exact evolution is discussed in this chapter. The tendency to concentrate and specialize the nervous system is very common among bilaterians. A variety of neurotransmitters are used in nervous systems, most of which are broadly distributed, while only few are of phylogenetic importance.
Excretory systems
Authors: Schmidt-Rhaesa A.
Published: September 2007

Excretory systems remove excretions from the body and serve as organs of osmoregulation. Active transport and ultrafiltration are the two basic principles of excretion. The structure of filtration organs corresponds with the type of body cavity being present. Both types of organs — protonephridia and metanephridial systems — filter body fluids, either into a canal system (protonephridia) or into the coelom (metanephridial systems), and remove the excretes in a canal system, where modification takes place. Protonephridia and metanephridial systems differ in the location and structure of these two components. There are different models of excretory organ evolution, but the model considered most likely in this chapter is one which describes unique evolution and subsequent differentiation of protonephridia, and multiple evolution of metanephridial systems.
Respiratory systems
Authors: Schmidt-Rhaesa A.
Published: September 2007

Oxygen uptake is essential for animals, and many animals take up oxygen through their external surface. In these cases particular respiratory structures are not formed; in water these are generally called gills and on land these are called lungs. Structurally, all respiratory organs correspond to create an extended surface with a minimized distance between external environment and transport systems within the body. Their occurrence and structural composition is so diverse that multiple evolution must be assumed. The transport of oxygen in the body is facilitated by carrier molecules, the respiratory pigments. There are three groups of such pigments: hemoglobins, hemerythrin, and hemocyanin. These groups appear to have originated independently, but phylogenetic information can be derived, especially in the case of hemoglobin and hemocyanin.
Intestinal systems
Authors: Schmidt-Rhaesa A.
Published: September 2007

Animals obtain nutrients using a two-step procedure: food collection and uptake by endocytosis. In eumetazoans, a particular intestinal tract evolved, making it possible to digest food prior to the uptake of the smallest compartments. This chapter presents models for the evolution of this intestinal tract and its further evolution. There is a general trend for evolution from a saclike system to a tubelike one-way gut. In particular, the anterior, ectodermal part of the intestinal tract can be very diverse and contains a pharynx in various forms or it contains cuticular hard structures. Feeding is discussed in the context of larvae evolution and in adults.
Ecophysiological and biogeochemical responses to atmospheric change
Authors: Chambers Jeffrey Q. , Silver Whendee L.
Published: September 2007

There are several atmospheric changes that may affect physiological and biogeochemical processes in old-growth tropical forests. Elevated CO2 is likely to directly influence numerous leaf-level physiological processes. To assess potential ecosystem-level responses for a Central Amazon forest, an individual-tree-based carbon cycling model was used to carry out a model experiment constituting experimentally-observed tree growth rate increases linked to the known and expected increase in atmospheric CO2. The results suggested a maximum carbon sequestration rate of only 0.05 Mg C ha-1 yr-1 for an interval centred on 1980-2020. This low sequestration rate results from slow-growing trees and the long residence time of carbon in woody tissues. In contrast, changes in disturbance frequency, precipitation, and other factors can cause marked and relatively rapid losses and gains in ecosystem carbon storage. Observed changes in tropical forest inventory plots over the past few decades may be driven by changes in disturbance regimes and factors, rather than by a response to elevated CO2. Whether observed changes in tropical forests are the beginning of long-term permanent shifts or a transient response is still uncertain.
Ecological responses of Amazonian forests to El Niño-induced surface fires
Authors: Barlow Jos , Peres Carlos A.
Published: September 2007

Over the last twenty years the combined effects of El Niñno-induced droughts and land-use change have greatly increased the frequency of fire incidents in humid tropical forests. Despite the potential for rapid ecosystem alteration and the current prevalence of wildfire disturbance, the consequences of such fires for tropical forest biodiversity remain poorly understood. This chapter provides a pantropical review of the current state of knowledge on these fires, including new data from seasonally dry forests in central Brazilian Amazonia. Tree mortality and changes in forest structure are strongly linked to burn severity. Despite the paucity of data on faunal responses to tropical forest fires, some trends are becoming apparent; for example, large canopy frugivores and understorey insectivorous birds appear to be highly sensitive to changes in forest structure and composition during the first years following fires. Finally, the viability of techniques and legislation for reducing forest flammability and preventing anthropogenic ignition sources from coming into contact with flammable forests is tested.