bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Earth System: An Introduction to Earth Systems Science
Authors: Small Eric E.
Published: October 2011

The atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and solid Earth are the basic components of the Earth system. These different components are not separate entities; instead they interact over a broad range of spatial and temporal scales. Determining how various internal and external influences impact each component of the Earth system individually is challenging.

It is even more difficult to understand how the various components interact to yield the response of the entire Earth system to different forcings. This, however, is the critical task global change scientists must face in order to assess how various human activities, such as emissions of greenhouse gases, impact the environment.
New shipboard laboratory may answer questions about deep biosphere
Authors: Fisk Martin
Published: October 2011

A shipboard microbiology laboratory to investigate the extent and diversity of the subsurface biosphere in the ocean basins is being developed by the Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) and may soon provide answers to some of the exciting questions about Earth's deep biosphere. The answers may also be relevant to explorations for extraterrestrial life.

The oceanic subsurface biosphere may contain half of Earth's biomass [Whitman et al., 1998]. Each liter of deep sea sediment, even at depths of a kilometer below the seafloor, typically contains more than 1 billion microbes. Volcanic rocks below the sediment also appear to contain microbes at all depths investigated so far, except where the temperature exceeds 100°C. Although microbes probably contribute less than a gram of biomass per cubic meter of oceanic crust, the vast amount of oceanic sediment and rock makes the total microbial biomass globally significant.
In Memoriam
Authors: Anonymous
Published: October 2011

Perry Ehlig died on December 26, 1999, at age 72. He was a member (Tectonophysics) who joined in 1987.

Allan Gutjahr died on January 3, 2000, at age 62. He was a Fellow and member (Hydrology) who joined in 1980.
Are ocean wave heights increasing in the eastern North Pacific?
Authors: Allan Jonathan , Komar Paul
Published: October 2011

Erosion, caused in large part by unusually severe storms, has damaged beaches and property in recent years along the Pacific coast of the United States. In the Pacific Northwest (Oregon and Washington), four storms were experienced during the 1998–1999 La Niña winter that produced wave heights which exceeded what had been projected as the 100‐year extreme event. This occurrence raises questions about the effects of climate controls— such as El Niños and La Ni˜nas—on wave conditions in the North Pacific, and whether there has been a progressive increase in wave heights during recent decades, much as has been found in the North Atlantic.

In the North Atlantic, researchers have documented from a long‐term record of wave measurements west of Lands End, England, that wave heights have increased progressively since the late 1960s [Carter and Draper, 1988; Bacon and Carter, 1991; Kushnir et al., 1997; Gulev and Hasse, 1999]. Previous to our study, no attempt had been made to examine whether such trends exist in the North Pacific. This is now possible, thanks to more than a quarter‐century of ocean buoy measurements of daily wave conditions throughout the eastern North Pacific.
Fish fat, quantum cryptography: All in a day's work at the news
Authors: Carr Matthew
Published: October 2011

Fellow scientists always get a laugh when I tell them my first publication was in The Dallas Morning News.

That article (about fish fat and how it helps fight depression) was the first tangible product of my AGU‐sponsored participation in the Mass Media Science and Engineering Fellows Program, sponsored by the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). The program sends science and engineering graduate students to media organizations across the country for 10‐week summer stints as science journalists. The objective is to strengthen the connections between scientists and journalists and improve coverage of science in the media.
Exploring continental margin carbon fluxes on a global scale
Authors: Liu K.‐K. , Atkinson L. , Chen C. T. A. , Gao S. , Hall J. , MacDonald R. W. , McManus L. Talaue , Quiñones R.
Published: October 2011

How quickly anthropogenic CO2 is being absorbed by the ocean remains one of the most critical and yet unanswered questions asked by climate researchers. Since the ocean is a major sink of anthropogenic CO2,an accurate estimate of the present oceanic uptake rate of anthropogenic CO2 is essential for reliable prediction of future atmospheric CO2. This number is difficult to pin down because the net airto‐sea CO2 flux is a small difference (about 2 Pg C yr−1, 1 Pg = 1015 g) between two huge fluxes—namely, the uptake and the release of CO2 at sea surface (each about 90 Pg C yr−1).
Weather radar testbed unveiled
Authors: Showstack Randy
Published: October 2011

Some of the same radar technology used by the U.S. Navy in missile guidance and tracking operations is being employed in the first full‐time phased array radar facility, unveiled on 24 April by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Severe Storm Laboratory in Norman, Oklahoma.

The facility, known as the National Weather Radar Testbed, could help meteorologists forecast earlier warnings for tornadoes and other types of severe weather. The facility serves as a testbed to determine whether the phased array radar will become the next significant technological advancement in improving U.S. weather services.
High levels of mercury in U.S. rainfall
Authors: Showstack Randy
Published: October 2011

The mercury levels in rainfall in 12 U.S. states far exceed safe standards established by the Environmental Protection Agency, according to a 29 May report by the National Wildlife Federations non‐profit environmental group.

All 12 states that were analyzed rated at least 84% above the EPAs human health standard for mercury in lakes, which is 3.5 nanograms per liter. The states also rated at least 99% above EPAs Great Lakes wildlife standard for mercury in lakes, which is 1.3 nanograms per liter.
Atmospheric map of nitrogen dioxide
Authors: Showstack Randy
Published: October 2011

The European Space Agency's (ESA) Envisat satellite for environmental monitoring has produced a high‐resolution global atmospheric map of nitrogen dioxide, the agency announced on 11 October.

Scientists employed the satellite's onboard Scanning Imaging Absorption Spectrometer for Atmospheric Chartography (SCIAMACHY) instrument to record the spectrum of sunlight shining through the atmosphere, and to find spectral absorption “fingerprints” of NO, in the troposphere.
Effects of drought on rainforest
Authors: Showstack Randy
Published: October 2011

An experiment to simulate the effects of climate change and severe drought on a parcel of rainforest in the Brazilian Amazon has found that some parts of the affected forest tolerated the dry condition by absorbing water from deeper in the soil.

When the water in the soil had been depleted, many small trees stopped growing, rather than shedding their leaves. This finding has implications for climate change because the amount of carbon removed from the atmosphere during tropical droughts will decrease significantly, according to researchers.
2005 Fund drive fueled by Challenge Gift
Authors: Anonymous
Published: October 2011

AGU Executive Director Fred Spilhaus has announced a challenge gift of $50,000 from James A. Austin, Jr. for student travel grants. Austin, AGU's Development Board Chair, will personally donate $1 for every $3 given by other Union members and friends for this purpose. The goal is to raise a total of $200,000—including Austin's gift—by 1 December 2005 so that contributions can have an immediate impact. Endowment and annual gifts designated for this purpose qualify as matching funds.
In Memoriam
Authors: Anonymous
Published: October 2011

John S. Gahimer, 61, 29 April 2008, Planetary Sciences, 2007

Theodore R. Harris, 66, 22 April 2008, Global Environmental Change, 2003
Research Spotlight: What factors influence drainage patterns?
Authors: Kumar Mohi , Tretkoff Ernie
Published: October 2011

Drainage density, a measure of how much the landscape is dissected by channels, is known to vary among different climates. The prevailing thought holds that drainage density is low in arid regions because of low runoff; it increases in semiarid regions as runoff increases, and then decreases in subhumid regions as expanding vegetation counteracts the erosive runoff. Extremely humid regions may have high drainage density because of variable and torrential precipitation regimes.
Research Spotlight: Ridge versus plume: A closer look at the seafloor south of Iceland
Authors: Kumar Mohi , Tretkoff Ernie
Published: October 2011

Site of many volcanoes, Iceland is generally thought to be fueled by a plume of hot mantle rising from the core‐mantle boundary. It also sits atop the Mid‐ Atlantic Ridge, the plate boundary where the North American plate is spreading away from the Eurasian plate. Because of the possible interaction of these complex deep and shallow geodynamic processes, the degree to which ridge processes may influence plume processes and vice versa is a subject of much debate.
Research Spotlight: Understanding the magma distribution in the Taupo Volcanic Zone
Authors: Tretkoff Ernie
Published: October 2011

The Taupo Volcanic Zone, on the North Island of New Zealand, is an active region of intense volcanism with high heat flow. The high heat flux from this zone is comparable to that found in Iceland and at Yellowstone National Park in the United States. It has been suggested that large volumes of magma in the Taupo Volcanic Zone come from a “mush zone” that contains a mixture of solid crystals and melt.
Research Spotlight: Climate change and urbanization increase urban heat island effect
Authors: Kumar Mohi , Tretkoff Ernie
Published: October 2011

The urban heat island effect, in which an urban area is notably warmer than surrounding nonurbanized areas, will likely increase in coming decades as urbanization is projected to increase dramatically (one estimate projects that there will be 6 billion urban dwellers worldwide by 2050). However, many climate model projections have not included urbanization trends.
Research Spotlight: Trend discrepancies found in tropical cyclone data sets
Authors: Kumar Mohi , Ofori Leslie , Tretkoff Ernie
Published: October 2011

It has been hotly debated recently whether global warming has led to an increase in tropical cyclone activity in the western North Pacific over the past several decades. One complicating factor in the debate is that different data sets show different trends in tropical cyclone activity.
Research Spotlight: Global carbon cycle influenced by peatlands
Authors: Kumar Mohi , Ofori Leslie , Tretkoff Ernie
Published: October 2011

Peatlands, which contain large amounts of decaying plant matter, hold significant stores of carbon and can release that carbon into the atmosphere, affecting the global carbon cycle. Although previous studies have investigated the dynamics of peatlands within a particular region, few studies have looked at peatland dynamics globally over a long time period, and estimates of the amount of carbon stored in peatlands vary.
Research Spotlight: New map shows height of global forest canopy
Authors: Ofori Leslie , Tretkoff Ernie
Published: October 2011

Scientists have developed a map that details the heights of the world's forests. The map, the first to span the entire world based on a single model, was generated from lidar (light detection and ranging) data collected over a 7‐year period from NASA's Ice, Cloud, and land Elevation Satellite (ICESat) as well as from data from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer on board NASA's Terra and Aqua satellites.
Plasma-enhanced gasification of low-grade coals for compact power plants
Authors: Uhm Han S. , Hong Yong C. , Shin Dong H. , Lee Bong J.
Published: October 2011

A high temperature of a steam torch ensures an efficient gasification of low-grade coals, which is comparable to that of high-grade coals. Therefore, the coal gasification system energized by microwaves can serve as a moderately sized power plant due to its compact and lightweight design. This plasma power plant of low-grade coals would be useful in rural or sparsely populated areas without access to a national power grid.
Note: Simultaneous electrical and optical detection of expanding dense partially ionized vapour clouds
Authors: De Angeli M. , Castaldo C. , Ratynskaia S. , Grosso G. , Almaviva S. , Caneve L. , Colao F. , Maddaluno G.
Published: October 2011

The scheme and construction of an electro-optical probe able to collect charge and detect optical emission from expanding dense partially ionized vapour clouds are reported. The instrument can be applied to phenomena such as dust impact ionization and solid target laser ablation. First, results of measurements of expanding plasma cloud formed upon ablating W target are presented. Use of the instrument in different experimental facilities, including tokamak, is discussed
Double exchange mediated ferromagnetic coupling between Co atoms in dicobalt complex
Authors: Pradhan Kalpataru , Jena Purusottam
Published: October 2011

Realization of the full technological potential of molecular magnets requires a fundamental understanding of the origin of magnetic coupling in molecular systems. Using gradient corrected density functional theory and Cl as a ligand we show that the magnetic coupling between Co sites in a di-cobalt complex can be manipulated. While the ferromagnetic states of Co2Cl6 and Co2Cl7 are 0.07 eV and 0.20 eV lower in energy than their respective antiferromagnetic states, they are nearly degenerate in Co2Cl8. The origin of ferromagnetic coupling is explained using the double exchange model caused by charge disproportionation.
The role of tillage, fertiliser and forage species in sustaining dairying based on crops in southern Queensland 1. Winter-dominant forage systems
Authors: Chataway R. G. , Orr W. N. , Cooper J. E. , Cowan R. T.
Published: October 2011

Field studies were conducted over 5 years on two dairy farms in southern Queensland to evaluate the impacts of zero-tillage, nitrogen (N) fertiliser and legumes on a winter-dominant forage system based on raingrown oats. Oats was able to be successfully established using zero-tillage methods, with no yield penalties and potential benefits in stubble retention over the summer fallow. N fertiliser, applied at above industry-standard rates (140 vs. 55 kg/ha.crop) in the first 3 years, increased forage N concentration significantly and had residual effects on soil nitrate-N at both sites. At one site, crop yield was increased by 10 kg DM/ha.kg fertiliser N applied above industry-standard rates. The difference between sites in fertiliser response reflected contrasting soil and fertiliser history. There was no evidence that modifications to oats cropping practices (zero-tillage and increased N fertiliser) increased surface soil organic carbon (0–10 cm) in the time frame of the present study. When oats was substituted with annual legumes, there were benefits in improved forage N content of the oat crop immediately following, but legume yield was significantly inferior to oats. In contrast, the perennial legume Medicago sativa was competitive in biomass production and forage quality with oats at both sites and increased soil nitrate-N levels following termination. However, its contribution to winter forage was low at 10% of total production, compared with 40% for oats, and soil water reserves were significantly reduced at one site, which had an impact on the following oat production. The study demonstrated that productive grazed oat crops can be grown using zero tillage and that increased N fertiliser is more consistent in its effect on N concentration than on forage yield. A lucerne ley provides a strategy for raising soil nitrate-N concentration and increasing overall forage productivity, although winter forage production is reduced.
Aerobic respiratory chain of
Escherichia coli
is not allowed to work in fully uncoupled mode
Authors: Borisov Vitaliy B. , Murali Ranjani , Verkhovskaya Marina L. , Bloch Dmitry A. , Han Huazhi , Gennis Robert B. , Verkhovsky Michael I.
Published: October 2011

Escherichia coli
is known to couple aerobic respiratory catabolism to ATP synthesis by virtue of the primary generators of the proton motive force—NADH dehydrogenase I, cytochrome
bo
3
, and cytochrome
bd
-I. An
E. coli
mutant deficient in NADH dehydrogenase I,
bo
3
and
bd
-I can, nevertheless, grow aerobically on nonfermentable substrates, although its sole terminal oxidase cytochrome
bd
-II has been reported to be nonelectrogenic. In the current work, the ability of cytochrome
bd
-II to generate a proton motive force is reexamined. Absorption and fluorescence spectroscopy and oxygen pulse methods show that in the steady-state, cytochrome
bd
-II does generate a proton motive force with a H
+
/e
-
ratio of 0.94 ± 0.18. This proton motive force is sufficient to drive ATP synthesis and transport of nutrients. Microsecond time-resolved, single-turnover electrometry shows that the molecular mechanism of generating the proton motive force is identical to that in cytochrome
bd
-I. The ability to induce cytochrome
bd
-II biosynthesis allows
E. coli
to remain energetically competent under a variety of environmental conditions.
A plant virus evolved by acquiring multiple nonconserved genes to extend its host range
Authors: Tatineni Satyanarayana , Robertson Cecile J. , Garnsey Stephen M. , Dawson William O.
Published: October 2011

Viruses have evolved as combinations of genes whose products interact with cellular components to produce progeny virus throughout the plants. Some viral genes, particularly those that are involved in replication and assembly, tend to be relatively conserved, whereas other genes that have evolved for interactions with the specific host for movement and to counter host–defense systems tend to be less conserved.
Closteroviridae
encode 1–5 nonconserved ORFs.
Citrus tristeza virus
(CTV), a
Closterovirus
, possesses nonconserved p33, p18, and p13 genes that are expendable for systemic infection of the two laboratory hosts,
Citrus macrophylla
and Mexican lime. In this study, we show that the extended host range of CTV requires these nonconserved genes. The p33 gene was required to systemically infect sour orange and lemon trees, whereas either the p33 or the p18 gene was sufficient for systemic infection of grapefruit trees and the p33 or the p13 gene was sufficient for systemic infection of calamondin plants. Thus, these three genes are required for systemic infection of the full host range of CTV, but different genes were specific for different hosts. Remarkably, either of two genes was sufficient for infection of some citrus hybrids. These findings suggest that CTV acquired multiple nonconserved genes (p33, p18, and p13) and, as a result, gained the ability to interact with multiple hosts, thus extending its host range during the course of evolution. These results greatly extend the complexity of known virus–plant interactions.
Avidity of CD1d-ligand-receptor ternary complex contributes to T-helper 1 (Th1) polarization and anticancer efficacy
Authors: Wu Tai-Na , Lin Kun-Hsien , Chang Ya-Jen , Huang Jing-Rong , Cheng Jing-Yan , Yu Alice L. , Wong Chi-Huey
Published: October 2011

Invariant natural killer T cell (NKT) cells (iNKT cells) produce both T-helper 1 (Th1) and T-helper 2 cytokines in response to α-Galactosylceramide (α-GalCer) stimulation and are thought to be the important effectors in the regulation of both innate and adaptive immunity involved in autoimmune disorders, microbial infections, and cancers. However, the anticancer effects of α-GalCer were limited in early clinical trial. In this study, several analogs of α-GalCer, containing phenyl groups in the lipid tails were found to stimulate murine and humaniNKT cells to secrete Th1-skewed cytokines and exhibit greater anticancer efficacy in mice than α-GalCer. We explored the possibility of different Vβ usages of murine Vα14iNKT or human Vα24iNKT cells, accounting for differential cytokine responses. However, T-cell receptor Vβ analysis revealed no significant differences in Vβ usages by α-GalCer and these phenyl glycolipid analogs. On the other hand, these phenyl glycolipids showed greater binding avidity and stability foriNKT T-cell receptor when complexed with CD1d. These findings suggest that CD1d–phenyl glycolipid complexes may interact with the same population ofiNKT cells but with higher avidity and stability to drive Th1 polarization. Thus, this study provides a key to the rational design of Th1 biased CD1d reactive glycolipids in the future.
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
RhlR is required to neutralize the cellular immune response in a
Drosophila melanogaster
oral infection model
Authors: Limmer Stefanie , Haller Samantha , Drenkard Eliana , Lee Janice , Yu Shen , Kocks Christine , Ausubel Frederick M. , Ferrandon Dominique
Published: October 2011

An in-depth mechanistic understanding of microbial infection necessitates a molecular dissection of host–pathogen relationships. Both
Drosophila melanogaster
and
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
have been intensively studied. Here, we analyze the infection of
D. melanogaster
by
P. aeruginosa
by using mutants in both host and pathogen. We show that orally ingested
P. aeruginosa
crosses the intestinal barrier and then proliferates in the hemolymph, thereby causing the infected flies to die of bacteremia. Host defenses against ingested
P. aeruginosa
included an immune deficiency (IMD) response in the intestinal epithelium, systemic Toll and IMD pathway responses, and a cellular immune response controlling bacteria in the hemocoel. Although the observed cellular and intestinal immune responses appeared to act throughout the course of the infection, there was a late onset of the systemic IMD and Toll responses. In this oral infection model,
P. aeruginosa
PA14 did not require its type III secretion system or other well-studied virulence factors such as the two-component response regulator GacA or the protease AprA for virulence. In contrast, the quorum-sensing transcription factor RhlR, but surprisingly not LasR, played a key role in counteracting the cellular immune response against PA14, possibly at an early stage when only a few bacteria are present in the hemocoel. These results illustrate the power of studying infection from the dual perspective of host and pathogen by revealing that RhlR plays a more complex role during pathogenesis than previously appreciated.
The Protein Phosphatase 2A regulatory subunit Twins stabilizes Plk4 to induce centriole amplification
Authors: Brownlee Christopher W. , Klebba Joey E. , Buster Daniel W. , Rogers Gregory C.
Published: October 2011

Centriole duplication is a tightly regulated process that must occur only once per cell cycle; otherwise, supernumerary centrioles can induce aneuploidy and tumorigenesis. Plk4 (Polo-like kinase 4) activity initiates centriole duplication and is regulated by ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis. Throughout interphase, Plk4 autophosphorylation triggers its degradation, thus preventing centriole amplification. However, Plk4 activity is required during mitosis for proper centriole duplication, but the mechanism stabilizing mitotic Plk4 is unknown. In this paper, we show that PP2A (Protein Phosphatase 2ATwins) counteracts Plk4 autophosphorylation, thus stabilizing Plk4 and promoting centriole duplication. Like Plk4, the protein level of PP2A’s regulatory subunit, Twins (Tws), peaks during mitosis and is required for centriole duplication. However, untimely Tws expression stabilizes Plk4 inappropriately, inducing centriole amplification. Paradoxically, expression of tumor-promoting simian virus 40 small tumor antigen (ST), a reported PP2A inhibitor, promotes centrosome amplification by an unknown mechanism. We demonstrate that ST actually mimics Tws function in stabilizing Plk4 and inducing centriole amplification.
Libation
Authors: Stewart Dianne M.
Published: October 2011

This chapter explores the encounter between Europeans and Africans during four centuries of European expansion (1492-1838), looking at the historical legacy of African-derived religions in Jamaica during the slave period and its theological potential for contemporary Jamaicans. By examining Obeah and Myal within the socio-historical setting of pre-Emancipation Jamaica, it refutes the bad-versus-good classification of the two traditions as a product of absolutist reasoning in Western Christian thought. Instead, it posits that the idea of moral neutrality is most compatible with the metaphysical assumptions and ethical principles embraced by practitioners of both traditions.
Emergency Measures
Authors: MacFarquhar Roderick
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines the remedial measures taken by the Chinese government to address the catastrophic decline in grain output and its impact on people's food consumption during the 1960s. Based on the recommendations of Politburo Standing Committee economists Zhou Enlai and Chen Yun, the government agreed to purchase grain from abroad. Chen Yun also proposed the implementation of the Sixty Articles on Agriculture, stepping up industrial support for agricultural development, and the mobilization of urban residents to the countryside in order to reduce the amount of grain taken from the peasantry for sale in the cities.
A Plethora of Plans
Authors: MacFarquhar Roderick
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses various plans considered by the Chinese government to address the prospect of persisting mass starvation in the countryside and its spread to the cities. At this point, Chairman Mao appeared to be ready to acknowledge or accept the blame for the economic disaster that resulted from his failed GLF initiative. The plans included the establishment of a less egalitarian accounting system, the restoration of or compensation for confiscated private properties, the importation of grains, and the transfer of millions of urban residents back to the countryside.
The Sino-Soviet Rupture and the Vietnam War
Authors: MacFarquhar Roderick
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines the aggravation for the conflict between China and the Soviet Union during the early 1960s. After the January 1963 East Germany party congress, the CCP and the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) issued a series of polemics. The only point of agreement was that the situation was critical. While the Chinese believed that there was a serious threat against world communist movements, the Russians referred to serious differences on cardinal issues of policy. A major focus of the rival polemics was Yugoslavia.
Introduction
Authors: Prunty Wyatt
Published: October 2011

This introductory chapter begins with a discussion of the difference between contemporary and modern poetry. It then turns to Robert Lowell, arguing that because of his early success as a young modernist and later success with poetry that diverged from modernist norms, his career is representative of a substantial segment of a younger generation of poets who distanced themselves from the tenets of their modernist elders. It compares the systematic minimalism of Edmund Husserl’s method in his Cartesian Meditations: An Introduction to Phenomenology with the factualism of Lowell’s method, which began with the second version of “The Mills of the Kavanaughs”. The chapter also considers the work of Heidegger.
The Genealogy of Disjunction
Authors: Jennings R. E.
Published: October 2011

This book presents a study of the English word or, and the logical operators variously proposed to present its meaning. Although there are indisputably disjunctive uses of or in English, it is a mistake to suppose that logical disjunction represents its core meaning. Or is descended from the Anglo-Saxon word meaning second, a form which survives in such expressions as ‘every other day’. Its disjunctive uses arise through metalinguistic applications of an intermediate adverbial meaning which is conjunctive rather than disjunctive in character. These conjunctive uses have puzzled philosophers and logicians, and have been discussed extensively under such headings as ‘free choice permission’. This study examines the textbook myths that have clouded our understanding of how or and other ‘logical’ vocabulary comes to have something approaching its logical meaning in natural languages. It considers the various historical conceptions of disjunction and its place in logic from the Stoics to the present day.
Introduction
Authors: Jennings R. E.
Published: October 2011

The first chapter discusses the association of the English word ‘or’ in reasoning. “Or” is descended from the Anglo-Saxon word meaning second, a form which survives in such expressions as “every other day.” If logical theory had not introduced the vocabulary of disjunction, we could not formulate the question. The truth-functional character of ‘or’ and ‘and’, if they have such a character in their natural language habitat, is a character that is derived as a consequence of their playing a certain role in discourse, one best described as punctuation, or in a specialized sense of the word adverbial. In many cases, the transformation of a sentence embedding an or-list to an equivalent or joined pair of sentences cannot plausibly be called disjunctive distribution. ‘Or’-words derive from additive rather than from subtractive ancestors.
Stoic Disjunction
Authors: Jennings R. E.
Published: October 2011

This chapter examimes relevance to misunderstandings about the meaning of aut and possible meanings of ‘or’. In spite of what has been said about the notion of form, there is no harm in applying the word ‘formal’ to the Stoics' work. By some standards, it is not informal, and by those standards, we may therefore call it formal where it is the contrast intended. Since the substitution account of validity would not rule out such disjunctions and a descriptive account would, the descriptive account seems on that score to be the more likely candidate for the Stoic conception of validity. Boole also took exclusivity, even the same arity-free idea of exclusivity, to be centrally important to his representation, but the exclusivity was constructed out of a non-exclusive disjunctive use of ‘or’.
In Black and White
Authors: Ayers Edward L.
Published: October 2011

The chapter discusses the naming conventions which showed various signs of deference, condescension, and even affection towards blacks and whites. Customs and even laws served to segregate the two races. Nonetheless, humane relations still existed between whites and blacks but such instances were regarded as exceptions. Rural race relations were delineated affecting every aspect of life in the New South. Segregation was fast becoming the norm and segregation laws swept the nation. The railroad system was the point of most contention as regards segregations as it was the main form of transportation during that time. Racial discomfiture sometimes leads to overt conflict and even violence. Thus, statewide railroad segregation peaked during this time. The chapter also discusses the significant change on interracial social relations particularly in terms of sex and marriage.
Populism
Authors: Ayers Edward L.
Published: October 2011

This chapter describes the relationships between the alliance and their members and the dynamics between the members of different races. The alliance was not driven by a single idea or policy; rather, it was the general insistence that the government should pursue actions that are more beneficial to its constituents that united it. Conflicts arose between the members of the alliances. The members of the White Alliance had differing views while the blacks, who were members of the Colored Alliance, also had different perspectives. The conflicts were mostly political in character but some were even social. This difference eventually led to the sharp decline of the Colored Alliance. The anxieties of rural life did not help much as it even contributed to the conflicts between the members.
Turning of the Tide
Authors: Ayers Edward L.
Published: October 2011

The chapter discusses the norms of life in the New South particularly concerning women. The standards of clothing and fashion changed and bicycles became all the rage for Southern women. The idea of women's right of suffrage was first tackled during these times. It was also during this time that education became the center of discussion and was seen as the ticket of the Southern blacks to a life of better treatment by the whites. This chapter also touches on the events in the Chicago World's Fair and the Negro Building, the latter being the only place within the fair that the Negroes could actually enter and buy goods. The chapter also discusses Booker T. Washington and his viewpoint and speeches regarding the relationship of blacks and whites.
Books
Authors: Ayers Edward L.
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the development and evolution of literature and books during the 1880s, 1890s, and 1900s. People wrote less and less about the events and rather more about social and inward subjects. The chapter talks about George Washington Cable who was the first Southern author of the postwar era. Some of his works include Old Creole Days and The Grandissimes, the latter achieving renown as it was highly applauded by the Northerners. Another Southern author worthy of note was Joel Chandler Harris who surfaced in the 1880s. His book Uncle Remus: His Songs and Sayings generated a lot of buzz as it mirrors the Southern way of life. One of Harris' admirers was Mark Twain himself who persuaded the former to join him.
War, Ottoman Officials, and Western Institutions
Authors: Göçek Fatma Müge
Published: October 2011

This chapter traces the effects on the Ottoman social structure of its continuous state of war during the 18th and 19th centuries. The process through which the households of the officials established initially to assist the sultan in governance ended up challenging him instead. The Ottoman sultan then adopted Western-style educational institutions to train a new corps of officials loyal to him. The foundation of the state schools in the empire demonstrates the pattern by which the sultan attempted to develop a new official corps but instead produced the origins of the Ottoman bureaucratic bourgeoisie. As trained future officials, they allied with each other and developed a social vision of the empire based on a constitutional system of rule and formed secret organizations against the sultan to achieve his vision.
Introduction
Authors: Lowry Richard S.
Published: October 2011

Mark Twain highlights personal experience as the primary foundation of building pieces of literature, rendering them certain legitimacy. Mark Twain considered himself to be a “scribbler of books” instead of a novelist. The difference between “capital” and “cultural or educational” writing was distinct and this resulted in different qualities of writing, of which the former Mark Twain was uneasy about. Mark Twain was a social fiction “authored” by a particular man. This is extended to Mark Twain's books wherein his characters are public figures living double lives. His characters are not created from scratch, but rather, are derived from incidents out of real life. Mark Twain's writings encompass a variety of genre, intent, and quality. What distinguishes his works from others is that they employed narrative to retain his humor rather than employing humor to drive the narrative.
The Financing of Venetian Music Books
Authors: Bernstein Jane A.
Published: October 2011

Music printing in sixteenth-century Venice was a complicated and multifaceted business. It involved many financial risks and required substantial sums of money. In comparison with other fields, the music book trade did not generate an impressive income. Yet the music publisher/printer had to have a good business sense, for in order to be successful he not only had to gain entrance into intellectual circles, but also to remain, first and foremost, a businessman who could carry on his trade in the international marketplace. Independent sponsorship of publications by printers was a highly risky enterprise. Only the large Venetian presses, such as the Scotto firm, had the necessary capital and contacts to finance their own publications.
Composers, Patrons, and the Venetian Music Press
Authors: Bernstein Jane A.
Published: October 2011

Composers quickly became aware of the possibility of addressing a larger audience through the press. With the commercialization of music printing, they no longer had to rely solely on their intermediate circle of patrons for the circulation of their music. Composers could now augment their fixed income either by selling their works outright to printers, or by getting involved in the actual publishing and marketing of their own works. Patrons also saw the potential of the printing press as a means of public recognition. Dedications abound with metaphors extolling the culture, erudition, and generosity of the benefactor.
Reformulations of Zionist Ideology Since the Establishment of the State of Israel
Authors: Shimoni Gideon
Published: October 2011

This chapter focuses on the post-independence or “residual” ideology of Zionism as an issue internal to the Jewish ethnic entity. The term “ideology” here refers to an action-oriented set of ideas relating to a given social reality. In its pre-independence stage, the common denominator of all Zionist ideologies was the proposition that a fundamental defect inhered in the Jewish situation-national homelessness. The solution proffered was the return of Jews to Zion and the restoration of Zion to the Jews. Variants of pre-independence Zionist ideology revolved only around secondary questions such as the precise definition of the defect; which Jews and how many of them were to return to Zion; and in what sense and in what ways Zion was to be restored to the Jews. In the post-independence stage, residual Zionist ideology necessarily calls for an evaluation of the relative significance of Israel, and diasporic Jewries, for the Jews as a collective entity in the world.
Jewish Leadership in Times of Crisis: Argentina During the Eichmann Affair (1960–1962)
Authors: Avni Haim
Published: October 2011

Two basic questions arise whenever security and political crises occur: on the one hand, how much authority does a voluntary leadership command within its own community; and, on the other hand, how much influence on the national political powers can such a leadership expect to have. These general issues are examined here via a case study of one of the most protracted crises in the relations between Argentines and the Jews: the kidnapping of Adolf Eichmann in 1960 and his subsequent trial and execution in Israel in June 1962. This process unfolded against the backdrop of growing political instability in Argentina, in which antisemitism became a growing threat to the community's well-being.
Jewish Communal Reconstruction in the Former Soviet Union
Authors: Gitelman Zvi
Published: October 2011

The fall of communism in 1991 radically changed the political dimension of Jewish life in the former Soviet Union. The most obvious transformation, of course, was that which resulted from the shattering of the Soviet Union into fifteen or sixteen independent states. No longer is there a single policy toward Jews on the territory of the former Soviet Union. In the Ukraine, the Baltic, and other states, prominent political leaders have explicitly renounced antisemitism and have pledged that the new states will not discriminate against Jews and will guarantee their civil and cultural rights. This has brought about a major change in the Jewish situation and the one on which this chapter will concentrate: the opportunity to rebuild Jewish institutions and communities, which, except for some synagogues, had been destroyed by the Soviet regime back in the 1920s.
Concentric Rings of Healing
Authors: Glucklich Ariel
Published: October 2011

There is nothing “magical” (occult) about magic, the claims of its practitioners to the contrary notwithstanding. Instead of taking the boasts of magicians literally, the sociology and the symbolism of magic have come to dominate academic interest. The only admissable hypotheses deal with social function or symbolic meaning. But perhaps a different set of speculations could also be considered. Assume, as a working hypothesis, that the earliest form of magical practice was the healing of sick and injured people. If quantity is a sign of need, no act of magic is more necessary than curing illness. In Banaras, magical healing outstrips every other form of practice, including, most notably, astrological divinations. In the search for health, Banarsis ignore doctrinal, sectarian, and caste boundaries without a thought. All magical healing tries to do this: It restores the wholeness—the systemic completeness—in the consciousness of the main participants. The specific desired goal of a given rite is then perceived as inherently contained in the actions of the rite because the rite produces this relational consciousness.
Philosophical Issues
Authors: Glucklich Ariel
Published: October 2011

Do we consider certain phenomena magical because we think of the body and the mind as distinct and separate? It seems possible that the extraordinary power attributed to so-called magical healing would be accepted as commonplace if we were to let go of the centuries-old habit of separating body and mind. Many writers on new medicine, “quantum healing” and the rest, feel that this distinction should be dropped. But if we abandon dualism, what is the alternative: Materialism? Mentalism? Some New Age scientists, Fritjof Capra for instance, have fallen back on an idealism that uses the idiom of contemporary physics but owes more to the ancient mystical philosophies of Asia. Unfortunately, it is far easier to lament the sorrows of Cartesian dualism than to devise an alternative that will satisfy our commonsense and ideals. Since magic is also a cultural fact, and is often a corporate affair, the question of body and mind extends to nature and culture. This chapter considers the various philosophical possibilities and their effects on how one can understand magic.
Animal Magic
Authors: Glucklich Ariel
Published: October 2011

No clear demarcation line separates humans from animals in Banaras, either in theory or in practice. Just as Americans speak English with little reflection on rules of grammar, so Banarsis interact with animals directly and without the intervention of a scientific system of classification. India's mythology is vast and vividly populated with an immense variety of animals. Still, the act of linking a particular animal to a given myth is seldom a clear-cut intellectual act. Sociologists and anthropologists like to use such terms as analogy, homology, symbolization, and instantiation to describe the connection. The common thread in the rich sociological analysis of symbolic animals is the arbitrary or conventional quality of human relations to nature. The residents of Banaras, especially fishermen or boat-owner castes, use fish in their rites of exorcism. The use of animals, usually birds, to detect the stealthy arrival of ghosts may be connected with another practice—the reading of omens in the behavior of animals. This chapter examines the use of animals in magic and in healing.
The Qur'an and God's Prophets
Authors: Stowasser Barbara Freyer
Published: October 2011

The Qur'an, the God's Word revealed to the Prophet Muhammad, teaches believers the doctrine of its own nature. First, the Arabic Qur'an is truly and literally God's Word as revealed verbatim (word for word) and seriatim (in a continuous series over time) to Prophet Muhammad. Second, the Qur'an, the Sacred Word of God, is the faithful copy of a text contained in a heavenly tablet, God's heavenly Scripture. Third, the Qur'an is God's final message to the world, guidance for all humankind. Fourth, the Qur'an follows and confirms other revelations that were sent to various people in history.
Taboo
Authors: Talalay Kathryn
Published: October 2011

This chapter looks at the life of Josephine and her faithfully kept diary since her early teens. Josephine came from a wealthy and powerful family in Texas. At the age of sixteen or seventeen she married Jack Lewis, a travelling salesman but the marriage didn't last long because of Josephineɧs urges to liberate herself from the Cogdell family. Josephine moved to California to continue her education and had a brief fling there. In 1921, she moved to San Francisco and there she met John Garth and fell in love with him. But after five years, their relationship reached an emotional nadir and this forced them to separate. By then she had met George Schuyler and he became her lover.
Farewell
Authors: Talalay Kathryn
Published: October 2011

It was not only Philippa's world that had tumbled, her parents' married life had also reached an impasse. They didn't quarrel about money nor over the way their daughter was raised, but the issue they clashed on was the interracial nature of their marriage which had always been an overwhelming societal strain. In addition to these marital difficulties lay conflicting differences in temper and life-style. Josephine dogmatically adhered to ideas about purity and believed in devoting her life loving only one man while George was a devoted epicure and an unchanged womanizer. Nothing seemed to help to relieved Philippa's depression, even a proposal of marriage from a handsome African prince by the name of Dr. Nwafor Orizu, who would later become acting president of Nigeria, did not boost her flagging spirits. Added to Josephine's problems were issues she had concerning her relationship with her daughter.
South of the Border
Authors: Talalay Kathryn
Published: October 2011

The year 1950 opened a new chapter in Philippa's life when she started her professional travels abroad. While the relationship of Philippa and her mother continued to be troubled, the tour accomplished one important thing: it renewed Philippa's faith in her ability as a performer. During 1951 and 1955, Philippa visited and performed in every South and Central American country, and numerous Caribbean islands. American National Theatre and Academy's financial support seldom amounted to more than a contribution toward travel expenses for Philippa, yet the sponsorship provided her with an official stamp of approval. While travelling all over Central and South America, Philippa had realized for the first time in her life an alternative to America's colour obsession.
Suite Africaine
Authors: Talalay Kathryn
Published: October 2011

From London, Philippa went to Istanbul and Beirut to give a series of concerts and meet old friends. Then, by personal invitation, Philippa proceeded to Addis Baba to see Haile Selassie, who had organized a short reception in her honour in the Throne Room of his new Jubilee Palace on Christmas Day. On New Year's Day, 1958, Philippa traveled from Addis to Khartoum. From Khartoum she travelled again to Uganda for a series of performances. But possibly the best part of her stay in Uganda was her visit to the famed Queen Elizabeth National Park on the western fringe of the country. While the West African tour had been a success for Philippa, it was also a soul-searching journey for her. The kaleidoscopic and wearing tour had come to an end and Philippa had been opened up to Africa's complexity and beauty.
Who Killed the Congo?
Authors: Talalay Kathryn
Published: October 2011

Regular travel was Philippa's antiseptic, with her globetrotting came her musical career. But in the summer of 1960, when she reached her twenty-ninth birthday, she started working as a political journalist. On June 7, 1960, Philippa arrived in Elisabethville, the capital of the Belgian Congo's copper-rich Katanga province, exactly three weeks before the colony would gain its uneasy independence. Philippa would later inform New York how Congo's independence would have a tragic end. And indeed shortly after Independence Day, the Republic of Congo, as the new nation was called, began to disintegrate as ethnic and personal rivalries surfaced.