Spatio-temporal landslide forecasting based on combination of rainfall thresholds and landslide susceptibility maps: a test in the Northern Apennines (Italy).
Authors: Rosi Ascanio , Segoni Samuele , Tofani Veronica , Catani Filippo 
Published: March 2020

&lt;p&gt;Landslide forecasting and early warning at regional scale are difficult task and they are usually accomplished by the mean of statistical approaches aimed to define rainfall thresholds and landslide susceptibility maps.&lt;br&gt;&amp;#160;Landslide susceptibility maps are based on the analysis of predisposing factors to assess the spatial probability of landslide occurrence, while rainfall thresholds are based on the correlation, valid on a wide area, between landslide occurrence and triggering factors, which usually are a couple of rainfall parameters, such as rainfall duration and intensity.&lt;br&gt;Susceptibility maps are static map that can be used for the spatial prediction of the most landslide prone areas, nut cannot be used to predict the temporal occurrence of a landslide triggering.&lt;br&gt;Rainfall thresholds can be used for temporal prediction, but with a coarse spatial resolution (usually some hundreds or thousands of km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;), and the reference areas could contains both plains and hillslopes, so the alerts could involves both areas, even if landslides are improbable in river plains; this means that rainfall thresholds are not very suitable to identify the most probable triggering sites.&lt;br&gt;Rainfall thresholds and susceptibility maps can be therefore conveniently combined into dynamic hazard matrixes to obtain spatio-temporal forecasts of landslide hazard.&lt;br&gt;To combine these inputs, they are combined in a purposely-built hazard matrix, where each parameter is classified into 3 classes: landslide susceptibility map has been classified in S1 (low susceptibility), S2 (medium susceptibility) and S3 (high susceptibility), while rainfall rate has been classified in the classes R1, R2 and R3, by the definition of 2 rainfall thresholds.&lt;br&gt;The combination of the aforementioned classes allowed to define a matrix with 5 hazard classes, from H0 (null hazard) to H4 (high hazard), which was calibrated so that there was not any landslide in the H0 class and that the 90% of the landslide were in H2-H4 classes.&lt;br&gt;The result of this procedure is a dynamic hazard map, where the hazard, which is calculated for each pixel, can change over the time, based on rainfall rate variations.&lt;br&gt;For operational purposes, such a map cannot be used, since the pixel based resolution is too fine to be used during an emergency or to plan any activity in the planification phase, so the results have been aggregated at municipality scale, which is more easily readable for the end-users as local administrators and decision makers.&lt;br&gt;In this way it is possible to overcome the issues due to the stillness of susceptibility maps and to the coarse spatial resolution of rainfall thresholds, also avoiding results which could be hardly understandable outside of the scientific community.&lt;br&gt;This procedure was tested in a test site located in Northern Tuscany (Italy) and the work showed the possibility of obtaining results which are balanced between the scientific soundness and the needs of end-users like mayors, local administrators and civil protection personnel.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&amp;#160;&lt;/p&gt;