bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
VISUALIZATION, PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS OF TOMOGRAPHIC DATA
Authors: Ohser Joachim , Schladitz Katja
Published: May 2008

This chapter discusses methods for image segmentation and image processing particularly useful for 3D images of materials and structures, and analysis methods developed for extracting the spatial structural information from tomographic data. The intrinsic volumes and their densities are introduced as basic and versatile geometric characteristics of image objects and image components or segments, respectively. An efficient algorithm for their measurement is described. Covariances and correlations are investigated using spectral methods. The chapter concludes with a survey of visualization techniques and an introduction to the simulation of materials behaviour based on CT data and computing of macroscopic properties.
NEUTRON ABSORPTION TOMOGRAPHY
Authors: Lehmann Eberhard , Kardjilov Nikolay
Published: May 2008

This chapter discusses neutron absorption tomography. Topics covered include the interaction of neutron radiation with matter and comparison to x-rays, specifics of neutron tomography, limitations in neutron tomography, and selected applications and experimental options.
8 Irrigation Management—Does Bottom Up Work Better than Top Down in Sri Lanka?
Authors: Herath Gamini
Published: May 2008

In Sri Lanka, the major institutional innovation introduced since the 1980s is the Irrigation Management Transfer (IMT) to water user associations (WUAs). In situations where top-down transfer occurred, the achievements have been limited. There is a modest increase in yield but gains in terms of cost recovery, efficiency, equity, etc., have not been significant. A review of literature in this chapter indicates that the bottom-up approach seems to be better than the top-down approach, at least in the short term when it comes to irrigation water management.
12 Community Tanks vs Private Wells: Coping Strategies and Sustainability Issues in South India
Authors: Balasubramanian R.
Published: May 2008

This chapter analyses the main causes of degradation of common pool tank irrigation systems and the interrelationships among poverty, private coping mechanisms, and collective action towards tank management in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Decline of traditional irrigation institutions, population pressure, and the development of private wells have exacerbated the process of tank degradation. Econometric analysis of collective action towards tank management indicates that the increase in private wells has a strong negative effect on collective efforts for tank management. Poor people are more dependent on tanks, and hence, they contribute more towards tank management compared to non-poor households. Group size has a negative impact on cooperation, while the traditional governance structures promote collective action. Wealth inequality is found to have a U-shaped relationship with collective action. The chapter proposes several policy measures to revive and sustain the tanks so as to provide livelihood security to the poor.
13 Tradition and Sovereignty: Conflicts over the Forests of Dir‐Kohistan
Authors: Rafi Khan Shaheen
Published: May 2008

Resource rights in Dir-Kohistan are governed by two concurrent systems of law and governance. Customary law has its origins in the garzinda wesh system introduced in the early 17th century. Statutory law, in the shape of the 1927 Forestry Act, was introduced in 1974 when Dir Kohistan's forests were declared protected forests. Statutory law overrides customary entitlements to subsistence and forest royalties. The official instruments of management (line departments) and adjudication (courts) are inefficient, lack transparency, and are a recurring source of tension and conflict. The traditional jirga system continues to provide swift and just decisions and has been used recently to mediate conflict between communities and the government.
15 Efficiency and Low Costs Under Non‐Limiting Supply Conditions in Bhutan
Authors: Edward L. Webb , Lam Dorji
Published: May 2008

This chapter explores the question of why forest-related institutions evolved under non-limiting conditions in Bhutan. It finds that nationalization and protection policies have resulted in two kinds of instability. By increasing the cost of compliance, the government's new forestry strategy has led to non-compliance and increased livelihood risk. There is adequate policy space to address these instabilities, and doing so will certainly increase the probability of both biological and social sustainability of rural livelihoods.
16 So Far So Good: Next Steps in Community Forestry
Authors: Raj Kanel Keshav
Published: May 2008

This chapter presents the evolution of the community forestry program in Nepal. Community forests as commons are parts of national forest, managed and used by local communities organized into legitimate groups. The second-generation reform issues in community forestry as identified by the government are also compatible with the Millennium Development Goals and the Tenth Five Year Plan of Nepal. Analysis of the achievements and the challenges of community forestry indicates that strategic reforms are needed in three thematic areas, namely governance, livelihood, and sustainable forest management in order to meet these goals in the future.
Mercenaries
Authors: Percy Sarah
Published: May 2008

The main aim of this book is to argue that the use of private force by states has been restricted by a norm against mercenary use. It traces the evolution of this norm, from mercenaries in medieval Europe through to private security companies in modern day Iraq, telling a story about how the mercenaries of yesterday have evolved into those of today in the process. The norm against mercenaries has two components. First, mercenaries are considered to be immoral because they use force outside legitimate, authoritative control. Second, mercenaries are considered to be morally problematic because they fight wars for selfish, financial reasons as opposed to fighting for some kind of larger conception of the common good. The book examines four puzzles about mercenary use, and argues that they can only be explained by understanding the norm against mercenaries. First, the book argues that moral disapproval of mercenaries led to the disappearance of independent mercenaries from medieval Europe. Second, the transition from armies composed of mercenaries to citizen armies in the 19th century can only be understood with attention to the norm against mercenaries. Third, it is impossible to understand why international law regarding mercenaries, created in the 1970s and 1980s, is so ineffective without understanding the norm. Finally, the disappearance of companies like Executive Outcomes and Sandline and the development of today's private security industry cannot be understood without the norm.
3 The Origins of the Norm against Mercenary Use, 1100–1600
Authors: Percy Sarah
Published: May 2008

This chapter examines the early origins of the norm against mercenary through three major cases of mercenary use, broadly covering the period that runs from the 12th century through to the 16th century. It looks at mercenaries in France and England from the 12th to the 14th century, with a particular focus on the routiers and écorcheur of 14th-century France. It also discusses Swiss mercenaries from the 13th to the 16th centuries. Finally it looks at Italian mercenaries during the same period. The military enterpriser system in the German states during the Thirty Years War is also considered. These four cases show that the anti-mercenary norm ultimately led to a major shift away from mercenary use by the end of the 17th century. Rulers brought the mercenary trade entirely under the control of the state, eliminating the independent, entrepreneurial mercenary from the international stage. After the 17th century, states bought and sold units of mercenaries or allowed the recruitment of individual mercenaries on their territory under strict licence.
7 New Model Mercenaries: PMCs, PSCs, and the Anti-Mercenary Norm
Authors: Percy Sarah
Published: May 2008

This chapter demonstrates the continued influence of the norm against mercenary use by examining the development of PMCs and PSCs starting in the mid-1990s. It argues that the shift away from the provision of combat services can only be explained by the anti-mercenary norm. It then traces the continued relevance of the anti-mercenary norm to the private security industry, looking at state control and regulation and the persistence of the cause aspect of the norm. The final section considers the future of the norm against mercenaries.
3 Joseph Priestley, Metaphysician and Philosopher of Religion
Authors: Dybikowski James
Published: May 2008

This chapter examines Priestley's philosophical thought. It argues that Priestley's chief importance as a philosophical theorist lies in keeping alive, clarifying, and deepening lines of thought under threat of being marginalized as the exclusive preserve of unbelievers. His championing of the cause of necessity made it easier to entertain such a view impartially and more difficult to dismiss it out of hand. His spirited defence of the doctrines of necessity and materialism has been singled out for praise by the likes of the Victorian scientist T. H. Huxley, who found his ‘among the most powerful, clear, and unflinching expositions of materialism and necessarianism which exist in the English language’. As James Harris observes, Priestley's formulation of the doctrine of necessity became the point of departure for defenders of necessity for the next forty years in Britain, particularly among dissenters. As for his third major philosophical interest — the association of ideas — he served as a champion of Hartley through his edition, but the loss of his manuscript during the Birmingham riots meant that this potential legacy was left unrealized.
Advanced Structural Inorganic Chemistry
Authors: Li Wai-Kee , Zhou Gong-Du , Mak Thomas
Published: May 2008

This text is an updated English version of a class-tested textbook originally published in Chinese in 2006. Its contents are based on the lecture notes of several courses taught by the authors at The Chinese University of Hong Kong and Peking University. These courses include Chemical Bonding, Structure and Properties of Matter, Advanced Inorganic Chemistry, Quantum Chemistry, Group Theory, and Chemical Crystallography. This book consists of three parts. Part I reviews the basic theories of chemical bonding, with chapters on elementary quantum theory, atomic structure, bonding in molecules, bonding in solids, and computational chemistry. Part II introduces point groups and space groups, and their applications to the study of discrete molecules and crystals. A large number of worked examples are provided in order to illustrate the usefulness and elegance of the symmetry concept. Part III constitutes about half of the book and it gives a succinct description of the structural chemistry of the elements in the Periodic Table. The main-group elements are covered in seven chapters and three other chapters deal with the rare-earth elements, transition-metal clusters and supramolecular systems. The selected systems, many of them from recent literature, are used to elucidate various aspects of structure and bonding presented in Parts I and II, and to expound the current research trends in structural inorganic chemistry
2 The Analysis of Income Satisfaction with an Application to Family Equivalence Scales
Authors: Van Praag Bernard
Published: May 2008

This chapter focuses on income satisfaction based on empirical results derived from German and British data. Various methods are discussed and compared. These results are used to define family equivalence scales. It is shown that the results derived from the financial-satisfaction question and older results, derived from the Leyden School income-evaluation question developed by Van Praag and Kapteyn in the 1970s, are nearly identical. The preference-drift phenomenon is also discussed.
4 The Aggregation of Satisfactions: General Satisfaction as an Aggregate
Authors: Van Praag Bernard
Published: May 2008

This chapter focuses on the development of the satisfaction aggregation model. Satisfaction with life as a whole is analysed as a weighted aggregate of the domain satisfactions. It is shown that various domain levels can be distinguished, leading to a two- or three-layer model. The model is applied to job satisfaction for the British data set; the job is broken down into sub-domains such as salary, safety, permanence, etc. The employee then evaluates his/her job based on these sub-domain satisfactions. It is argued that various satisfactions can be dealt with as observable numerical variables, which can be analysed by traditional econometric one- and multiple-equation(s) models.
12 Taxation and Well‐being
Authors: Van Praag Bernard
Published: May 2008

This chapter examines the feasibility of a lump-sum tax based on ‘ability’, defined as a function of IQ and education. Empirical research on a Dutch database shows that shifting from income-based to ability-based taxation would not have devastating effects on net income positions. These relatively small effects are attributed to the prevailing equitable tax rates in the Netherlands, and the limitation of the study to full-time employees.
14 A Generalized Approach to Subjective Inequalities
Authors: Van Praag Bernard
Published: May 2008

This chapter applies the subjective income inequality concept developed in Chapter 13 to analyse inequality in domains of life other than finance such as health, job, marriage, etc. It is shown that if satisfaction vector inequality is defined as a variance-covariance matrix of a vector of individual satisfactions, those satisfaction dimensions are highly correlated. The inequality of satisfaction with life as a whole can be defined as an aggregate of several domain satisfactions, which is a more important index to evaluating the distribution of well-being in a population than inequality with respect to one domain.
16 Multi‐dimensional Poverty
Authors: Van Praag Bernard
Published: May 2008

The concept of subjective poverty developed in Chapter 15 is now extended to a multidimensional concept of poverty. Subjective poverty dimensions are constructed for e.g., health, leisure, and housing satisfaction poverty. The chapter not only examines the incidence of poverty, but also transitions from non-poverty to poverty and vice versa, the volatility of poverty, and poverty predictions. The results show that although there is a correlation between being in poverty for every domain, we cannot speak of an overall poverty concept. It is suggested that poverty should be seen as a multi-dimensional concept.
17 Epilogue
Authors: Van Praag Bernard
Published: May 2008

This chapter synthesizes the findings presented in the book. It highlights the success in developing a methodology that can analyse satisfaction along the lines similar to those used by econometricians to analyse ‘objective’ variables. Future research should focus on developing methods that can estimate decision-utility functions for other domains. The relevance of the neoclassical equilibrium assumption is put into question. In line with the multi-disciplinary content of this text, the book stress the need for strengthening the collaboration with the sister disciplines.
Saving Truth From Paradox
Authors: Field Hartry
Published: May 2008

The book is an opinionated survey of philosophical work on paradoxes of truth and of related notions, such as property-instantiation, with occasional forays into related topics such as vagueness, the nature of validity, and the Gödel incompleteness theorems. It advocates a particular approach, according to which the paradoxes are to be resolved by the adoption of a non-classical logic: a logic in which excluded middle is restricted. (The logic is quite different from intuitionist logic, which doesn't avoid the paradoxes and also has many unnatural features; and it is much more powerful than the most familiar logic of the paradoxes, the strong Kleene logic, in that it contains a serious conditional.) The book also provides a systematic and detailed look at the main competing approaches. These include Tarski's theory, Kripke's theories, Lukasiewicz's theory, classical gap theories, classical glut theories, supervaluational theories, revision theories, stratified theories, contextual theories, and dialetheic theories. It attempts to compare the virtues of such theories on a range of issues. It also argues against the view that any solution to the paradoxes is inevitably faced with ‘revenge paradoxes’.
Determinateness, Stratification, and Revenge
Authors: Field Hartry
Published: May 2008

Does the presence of a transfinitely iterable determinacy operator re-create the difficulties with stratified truth theories? This chapter argues that it does not. It begins by pointing out the many clear differences between what we have for determinacy and what we have with stratified truth theories. It goes on to consider some genuine costs, but argues that we can live with them. It ends by considering and rebutting some remaining worries about how revenge paradoxes might arise.
Paraconsistent Dialetheism and Soundness
Authors: Field Hartry
Published: May 2008

Priest has argued that his dialetheic theories declare themselves sound and in this regard are better than non-dialetheic theories. This chapter shows this to be unfounded. Indeed, dialetheic theories cannot on pain of triviality declare modus ponens to be truth-preserving, and those that accept excluded middle declare it not to be. Moreover, Priest's favored dialetheic theories say that modus ponens doesn't preserve truth even when applied to premises we accept. In this respect, they do worse than glut theories in classical logic and weakly classical theories. This however is not a problem for all dialetheic theories.
9 General Conclusion
Authors: Kramarz Francis , Cahuc Pierre , Crépon Bruno , Skans Oskar Nordstörm , Schank Thorsten , Lomwel Gijsbert van , Zylberberg André , Nicoletti Giuseppe , Ours Jan van
Published: May 2008

This concluding chapter presents a synthesis of the discussions in the preceding chapters. It is argued that in no country that engaged in ‘straight’ work-sharing (i.e., decreasing the workweek from, say, forty to thirty-five hours) created extra employment. In all countries there were and still are forces pushing for some form of work-sharing. However, the exact implementation is an equilibrium phenomenon that largely depends on a complex set of factors ranging from institutions, the size and international positioning of the country (contrast Sweden, a small open country, and France, a much bigger country with ambiguous feelings vis-à-vis globalization); the centralization or decentralization of union-firm bargaining (compare Germany, with industry-level bargaining, versus France, with relatively weak unions); and family preferences (contrast the Netherlands, where a significant proportion of citizens prefer women to take care of children, versus Sweden, where men are virtually mandated to take parental leave).
Kelvin and Fitzgerald: Great Irish Physicists
Authors: Weaire Denis
Published: May 2008

This chapter compares Lord Kelvin and George Francis Fitzgerald. Topics covered include their Irish roots, education, publications, educational concerns, attitudes towards James Clark Maxwell, and final words.
How to Account for Illusion
Authors: Brewer Bill
Published: May 2008

Early modern empiricists think of perceptual experience as the presentation of an object to a subject. Phenomena of illusion suggest that such objects must be mind dependent things. Alternatively, perceptual experience may be characterized instead in terms of its representational content (this is the Content View). In that case, illusion is simply false perceptual content. This chapter argues that the early modern empiricists had a key insight: the idea that the core subjective character of perceptual experience to be given by citing the object presented is more fundamental than any appeal to perceptual content, and can account for illusion, and indeed hallucination, without resorting to the problematic postulation of any mind-independent objects distinct from the mind-independent physical objects we all know and love (this is the Object View). It is also suggested that the Object View provides a more promising context for the basic commitments of disjunctivism than the current orthodoxy of the Content View.
Disjunctivism and Discriminability
Authors: Smith A. D.
Published: May 2008

Disjunctivists typically claim that something is a hallucination if it is an experience that is not a perception, but that the subject cannot tell, just in virtue of having the experience and ‘introspecting’ it, whether it is not a perception. This chapter argues that there are states that are not hallucinations, as this term is usually understood, but that meet the condition of being thus subjectively indiscriminable from perception. Such states are not hallucinations, since they are not even sensory in character. A modification to the condition is finally introduced that improves matters, but does not entirely avoid counter-examples. In the course of the chapter a position that is termed ‘extreme disjunctivism’ is discussed. This position is particularly unfitted to accommodate the counter-examples.
McDowellian Neo‐Mooreanism
Authors: Pritchard Duncan
Published: May 2008

It is claimed that McDowell's treatment of scepticism offers a potential way of resurrecting the much-derided ‘Moorean’ response to scepticism in a fashion that avoids the problems facing classical internalist and externalist construals of neo-Mooreanism. This chapter evaluates the prospects for a McDowellian neo-Mooreanism and offers further support for the view.
The Disjunctive Conception of Experience as Material for a Transcendental Argument
Authors: McDowell John
Published: May 2008

This chapter considers a diagnostic approach to scepticism about perceptually acquired knowledge of the external world and suggests that this approach can be pursued through a transcendental argument that belongs neither to the ambitious type (associated with P. F. Strawson) nor to the modest type (associated with Barry Stroud). The diagnosis is that this scepticism expresses an inability to make sense of the idea of direct perceptual access to objective facts about the environment. The argument aims to show that this idea must be intelligible, because it is a necessary condition for it to be intelligible that experience has a characteristic that, for the purposes of the argument, is not in doubt. The disjunctive conception of experience insists upon this idea. Crispin Wright has accused this conception of being ‘dialectically quite ineffectual’ as a response to scepticism; this charge is considered, and rejected.
Comment on John McDowell's ‘The Disjunctive Conception of Experience as Material for a Transcendental Argument’
Authors: Wright Crispin
Published: May 2008

In his contribution to the present volume, John McDowell proposes a distinctive kind of ‘transcendental’ argument for the disjunctive conception of experience, and renews his claim that the latter can be deployed to defuse certain kinds of sceptical doubt, responding obiter to the misgivings advanced in Wright (2002) about its credentials for the latter task. This chapter queries the putative ‘transcendental’ authority of disjunctivism, and reinforces the misgivings. It is argued that the root of sceptical doubt has less to do with a ‘highest common factor’ conception of the commonality between perceptions and illusions than with the possibility of phenomenological matching; and that scepticism can take a direct realist conception of sense experience in its stride once proper heed is given to the gap between direct awareness of a situation and the possession of warrant to believe that it obtains.
Truth in Virtue of Meaning
Authors: Russell Gillian
Published: May 2008

The analytic/synthetic distinction looks simple. It is a distinction between two different kinds of sentence: synthetic sentences are true in part because of the way the world is, and in part because of what they mean, whereas analytic sentences — like all bachelors are unmarried and triangles have three sides — are different; they are true in virtue of meaning and so, no matter what the world is like, as long as the sentence means what it does, it will be true. The distinction seems powerful because analytic sentences seem to be knowable in a special way; one can know that all bachelors are unmarried, for example, just by thinking about what it means. But many 20th-century philosophers, with Quine in the lead, argued that there were no analytic sentences, that the idea of analyticity didn't even make sense and that the analytic/synthetic distinction was therefore an illusion. Others couldn't see how there could fail to be a distinction, however ingenious the arguments. But since the heyday of the debate, things have changed in the philosophy of language. Tools have been refined, confusions cleared up, and most significantly, many philosophers now accept a view of language — semantic externalism — on which it is possible to see how the distinction could fail. One might be tempted to think that ultimately the distinction has fallen for reasons other than those proposed in the original debate. This book argues that it hasn't. It uses the tools of contemporary philosophy of language to outline a view of analytic sentences which is compatible with semantic externalism, and defends that view against the old Quinean arguments. It then goes on to draw out some surprising epistemological consequences.
2 China's Telecommunications History and Policy Trajectory
Authors: Harwit Eric
Published: May 2008

This chapter begins by putting the Chinese case in the context of telecommunications development trajectories. It briefly considers policies in other countries where growth was in many cases slower, and where government intervention (except in the cases of Japan and South Korea) was less effective. It then examines historical development in the Chinese sector from the Qing dynasty to the beginning of the reform era, ones that set the stage for effective industrial policy beginning in the early 1980s. The chapter then turns to the post-1976 reform period in China, and chronicles the ways the government developed policies to foster the industry. It discusses policies employed that were strikingly similar to those seen in Japan during the 1950s and 1960s: favourable grants and loans, effective tax policies, shielding of the sector from international competition, and other strategies that encouraged the industry to rapidly expand.
7 The Digital Divide of Telephones and the Internet
Authors: Harwit Eric
Published: May 2008

This chapter first puts the case of China's ‘digital divide’ in a comparative development context, and considers past studies of the importance of telecommunications spread to areas of low penetration. It then turns its attention to China, and examines the ways urban and rural communications systems have expanded over the past several decades. The chapter indicates that government leaders and institutions have goals for developing the industry that may not necessarily take into account the broader needs of all sectors of society. They have generally put revenue collection ahead of equitable access. Education officials, however, have made some progress in spreading availability of data networks. The chapter then considers newer technologies of data communication, and assesses problems related to equitable access to China's Internet. It concludes that government policies have brought somewhat mixed results, but that new technologies may help to bridge the digital divide.
Compound Democracies
Authors: Fabbrini Sergio
Published: May 2008

This book compares the American and European political systems. By deploying a powerful new model to analyse the two systems, it draws some challenging conclusions about their increasing similarity. The book argues that the process of regional integration in Europe over the last sixty years has significantly reduced the historical differences between the democracies on either side of the Atlantic. The EU and the US are now similar because they represent two different species of the same political genus: the compound democracy. The defining feature of compound democracy is the union of states and their citizens. Through such union, the states agree to pool their sovereignty within a larger integrated supra-state or supranational framework. They do so because these unions are primarily pacts for avoiding war. Because the states which made those unions were, and continue to be, asymmetrically correlated, any attempt to create a unified polity — that is a political system where the decision-making power is monopolized by only one institution — is likely to fail. The book goes on to argue that the US and the EU are based on a multiple diffusion of powers which guarantees that any interest can have a voice in the decision-making process, and no majority will be able to control all the institutional levels of the polity. This type of system allows an inter-states organization to operate as a supra-state polity, but it does so at the expense of decision-making capacity and accountability.
Differentiation in authority structures: state, nation, and democracy in Europe and America
Authors: Fabbrini Sergio
Published: May 2008

This chapter reconstructs the European and American patterns of state, nation, and democracy building to show the different authority structures that emerged in the 19th century — and thus the institutionalization of different modalities of partisan politics in the 20th century. The different processes of political development in Europe and America has brought into being two distinct political orders on the two shores of the Atlantic. In the European nation-states the political order was constructed around the experience and the idea of the state. In both early state-builders and late state-builders, the state has become the natural container of the nation. In America, on the other hand, nationality has been the product of the democratic process, not its precondition. Nation and democracy went together, the one defining the other. It was the democratic process which defined the boundaries of the nation.
Alternative paths to a modern social order: territoriality, market, and welfare in America and Europe
Authors: Fabbrini Sergio
Published: May 2008

This chapter analyzes the development of a market economy and welfare system in both America and Europe. America and European nation-states have followed radically different paths of market-building. The institutionalizations of these different paths have constrained the strategies for dealing with the negative effects of the operation of the market. Since the turn of the 19th century, America has built a regulatory state, that is, an institutional apparatus designed to pursue market-correcting strategies. At the same time, even after World War II, the single European nation-states have continued to pursue market-substituting strategies, that is, they created institutional apparatuses for implementing some form of public control of the economy. It was within this different structuring of the relations between the market and the state that different types of welfare systems have developed on the two shores of the Atlantic.
Structural transformation of European politics: the growth of the supranational European Union
Authors: Fabbrini Sergio
Published: May 2008

This chapter analyzes European politics during the period following World War II. A process of supranational integration has gradually aggregated into a common institutional framework, now called European Union, which combines confederal and federal, intergovernmental and Community institutional properties. The growth of European supranationalism, the institutional structure of the EU, the judicial order of supranational EU, and the supranatural EU as a democratic policy are discussed.
2 Measuring Food Security Using Respondents' Perception of Food Consumption Adequacy
Authors: Migotto Mauro , Davis Benjamin , Carletto Calogero , Beegle Kathleen
Published: May 2008

This chapter compares information on self-perceived food consumption adequacy from the subjective modules of household surveys with standard quantitative indicators, namely calorie consumption, dietary diversity, and anthropometry. Datasets from four countries are analysed: Albania, Indonesia, Madagascar, and Nepal. The chapter concludes that while subjective food adequacy indicators may provide insight on the vulnerability or ‘relative’ dimension of food insecurity, they are too blunt an indicator for food insecurity targeting. An effort towards developing improved subjective food security modules that are contextually sensitive should go hand in hand with research into how to improve household survey data for food security measurement along other dimensions of the phenomenon, particularly calorie consumption.
5 Women's Status and Children's Food Security in Pakistan
Authors: Guha‐Khasnobis Basudeb , Hazarika Gautam
Published: May 2008

This chapter examines the role of women's intra-household status relative to men's in children's food security in Pakistan. Data from the 1991 Pakistan Integrated Household Survey (PIHS) yield a measure of evidence of a positive relation between women's intra-household status and children's food security.
8 Measuring the Efficacy of Targeted Schemes: Public Works Programmes in India
Authors: Ghosh Nilabja , Guha‐Khasnobis Basudeb
Published: May 2008

During liberalization in India, public works programmes are intended to be more targeted and integrated with other social objectives through innovative designing. In particular, the government is all set to use public works programmes, known for their self-selective properties, as a nationwide instrument to confer earning opportunity to rural people backed by legal reinforcement. This chapter considers targeting as the principal qualification of any welfare programme in today's context. Using NSSO data on four different states, it examines how far existing programmes have successfully targeted the food insecure in India.
12 International Trade, Food Security, and the Response to the WTO in South Asian Countries
Authors: Chand Ramesh
Published: May 2008

Implementation of various provisions of the WTO Agreement on Agriculture causes serious concern with regard to the performance of the agriculture sector and food security, and South Asian countries have become quite sensitive to the consequences of future WTO agreements. The cautious approach towards the WTO is mainly caused by the increased dependence on food imports and deterioration in self-reliance in agriculture in the post-WTO period because of a much higher growth in food import as compared to exports. Decline in international prices and trade distortions are the underlying causes for an adverse impact on agriculture during the post-WTO period. South Asian countries should address these two issues in future negotiations.
The Macedonian Question
Authors: Livanios Dimitris
Published: May 2008

Although the Macedonian Question and British foreign policy in the Balkans during the 1940s have attracted considerable interest, the relation between the two issues has not received much attention. This book explores the British connection of the Macedonian Question from the outbreak of the Second World War to the aftermath of the Tito-Stalin split. Its aim is two-fold: first, to investigate British views of and policy towards the Bulgar-Yugoslav controversy over Macedonia during that period, and to assess the impact of British actions and strategic plans within their historical context. Secondly, to discuss some salient dimensions of the Macedonian Question, including the emergence of the federal Macedonian unit within Tito's Yugoslavia and the functioning of the Macedonian national ideology, by offering a perspective based on British archival sources. It consists of three parts. The first part charts the background to the Macedonian Question, and includes an analysis of British foreign policy on Macedonia from 1878 to the outbreak of the Second World War. The second part focuses on developments during the Second World War, and examines British policy towards Bulgar-Yugoslav relations, their wartime planning concerning the future of Yugoslavia and Bulgaria, and their attempt to prevent a Balkan federation of the South Slavs. The third part covers the period from 1945 to 1949, and investigates British reactions to Tito's second attempt to absorb Bulgarian Macedonia and to create a federation.
Truly Understood
Authors: Peacocke Christopher
Published: May 2008

This book argues that truth and reference have a much deeper role in the explanation of meaning and understanding than has hitherto been appreciated. Examination of specific concepts shows that a grasp of these concepts has to be characterized in terms of reference, identity, and relations to the world. The book develops a positive general theory of understanding based on the idea that concepts are individuated by their fundamental reference rules, which contrasts sharply with conceptual-role, inferentialist, and pragmatist approaches to meaning. It treats thought about the material world, about places and times, and about the self within the framework of this general account, and extends the theory to explain the normative dimensions of content, which the book theorizes are founded in the network of connections between concepts and the level of reference and truth. The second part of the book explores the application of this account to some problematic mental phenomena, including the conception of many subjects of experience, concepts of conscious states, mental action, and our ability to think about the contents of our own and others' mental states.
The Roots of Coptic Christology: Incarnation and Divine Participation in Late Antique Alexandrian Greek Theology
Authors: Davis Stephen J.
Published: May 2008

This introductory chapter begins with a discussion of Alexandrian Christology from the 2nd to the 5th centuries. It then discusses the strong influence of Cyril of Alexandria, the Council of Chalcedon, and the reception of Alexandrian Greek Christology.
Christology in Coptic Eucharistic Liturgies
Authors: Davis Stephen J.
Published: May 2008

This chapter examines Egyptian liturgical rites and Christological elements in Coptic worship. While the primary focus will be on Eucharistic invocations, the chapter will also look at how the recitation of saints' names and stories functioned as crucial metaphors for christological participation within the Egyptian mass. It is argued that the intersecting ritual domains of Coptic liturgy and hagiography comprised a set of practices through which the doctrine of the Incarnation was not only communicated, but also re-enacted or performed.
War in England 1642-1649
Authors: Donagan Barbara
Published: May 2008

This book focuses on answering a misleadingly simple question: in terms of ordinary lives what kind of a war was the English civil war? Eschewing descriptions of specific battles or analyses of political and religious developments, the book examines the ‘texture’ of war, addressing questions such as what did Englishmen and women believe about war and know about its practice before 1642? What were the conditions in which a soldier fought — for example, how efficient was his musket (not very), and how did he know where he was going (much depended on the reliability of scouts and spies)? What were the rules that were supposed to govern conduct in war, and how were they enforced (by a combination of professional peer pressure and severe but discretionary army discipline and courts martial)? What were the officers and men of the armies like, and how well did they fight? The book deals even-handedly with royalists and parliamentarians, examining how much they had in common, as well as discussing the points on which they differed. It looks at the intimacy of this often uncivil war, in which enemies fought at close quarters, spoke the same language, and had often been acquainted before the war began, just as they had often known the civilians who suffered their presence. A final section on two sieges illustrates these themes in practice over extended periods, and also demonstrates the integration of military and civilian experience in a civil war.
Time for thepolis: audiences and contexts
Authors: Clarke Katherine
Published: May 2008

This chapter focuses on the polis, and considers the value placed on its past, the importance of the proper telling of history, and its use in inter-polis diplomacy. It examines not only the comic theatre and public occasions such as the epitaphios, but also inscriptions, such as the Lindos Chronicle and the Parian Marble, which offer publicly displayed history and may reveal shared opinions and values. The chapter concludes by examining the striking honorific inscriptions for local historians, often itinerant rather than native, and considers issues of status, historiographical authority, and the implications of a semi-professional Mediterranean network of local historiography, recalling the Artists of Dionysus, for the close relationship between the polis and the telling of its past.
5 Formal Universals as Emergent Phenomena: The Origins of Structure Preservation
Authors: Bybee Joan L.
Published: May 2008

This chapter illustrates the relationship among synchronic universals, paths of change, and mechanisms of change with respect to the phonological changes that create the structural tendency known as Structure Preservation in Lexical Phonology. Topics discussed include substantive and formal universals, structure preservation, three unidirectional paths of change in phonology, sound change, and categorization of phonetic variants.
6 Paradigmatic Uniformity and Markedness
Authors: Garrett Andrew
Published: May 2008

This chapter surveys a set of levelings and extensions affecting verb paradigms in two languages: English and Ancient Greek. It shows that pure leveling does not exist and that the emergence of paradigm uniformity is always the imposition of an existing (uniform) pattern on a non-uniform paradigm. It identifies a systematic difference between English and Ancient Greek in the directionality of paradigmatic changes. In English (and other languages), present-tense verb forms influence preterites; in Ancient Greek, presents are influenced by non-presents (aorists). This finding is not readily accommodated by theories invoking frequency or form predictability as the major factors influencing paradigmatic directionality, and a more complex theory is needed that also takes account of the semantics of morphological categories.
7 Explaining Universal Tendencies and Language Particulars in Analogical Change
Authors: Albright Adam
Published: May 2008

This chapter shows that a confidence-based model can make correct predictions not only about individual cases, but also about the typology of analogical change. The chapter is organized as follows: first, it provides a brief overview of tendency-based vs. structurally-based approaches to analogical change, summarizing the major generalizations that have been uncovered, and situating the current work in an area that has been approached from radically different perspectives. It then presents an overview of the synchronic model developed by Albright (2002a). It shows how the synchronic confidence-based approach can explain the direction of analogy in individual cases, and then moves on to explore its typological implications. It considers first some apparent counter-examples to the confidence-based approach, showing that in at least some cases where analogy has seemingly favoured an uninformative member of the paradigm, that form is not nearly as uninformative as it might appear. An exploration of the parameter space of the model reveals that even without an explicit bias to select more frequent forms, they are nonetheless selected as bases under most conditions.
10 The Classification of Constituent Order Generalizations and Diachronic Explanation
Authors: Whitman John
Published: May 2008

This chapter proposes a different classification of the Greenbergian constituent order universals, which extends naturally to larger compendia. Based on this classification, it suggests that the best-known generalizations of this type, cross-categorial universals, arise most plausibly through language change (and thus are usually statistical). Two other types — hierarchical and derivational universals — are true candidates for principles of synchronic grammar.
6 International Mobility of Researchers and Scientists: Policy Options for Turning a Drain into a Gain
Authors: Thorn Kristian , Holm‐Nielsen Lauritz B.
Published: May 2008

High demand for researchers and scientists has led to an increase in skilled migration in recent years. The chapter focuses on improving our understanding of the push and pull factors affecting the migration decisions of researchers and scientists from developing countries and discusses policy options for maximizing the potential gains associated with international mobility of advanced human capital. Evidence suggests that a reasonable salary level should be guaranteed but that return decisions of researchers and scientists are primarily shaped by factors such as the quality of the research environment, professional reward structures, and access to state-of-the-art equipment.
8 International Mobility of Health Professionals: Brain Drain or Brain Exchange?
Authors: Bach Stephen
Published: May 2008

The consequences of health professional mobility have become a prominent public policy concern. This chapter considers trends in mobility amongst doctors and nurses and the consequences for health systems. Policy responses are shifting from a reactive agenda that focuses on stemming migration towards a more active agenda of managed migration that benefits source and destination countries. Improved working conditions and effective human resource practice are required to encourage retention of health professionals in both source and destination countries.
2 A Short History of the Washington Consensus
Authors: Williamson John
Published: May 2008

This chapter traces the origin of the term ‘Washington Consensus’ to a paper written for a conference in 1989 that aimed to explore how the set of ideas accepted as a basis for policy in developing countries had changed. Ten policies — covering the areas of macroeconomic discipline, microeconomic liberalization, and opening up the economy (globalization) — were asserted to be widely believed in Washington as widely needed in Latin America, and the conference papers were intended to explore the extent of agreement with those propositions in the region. The term subsequently evolved: while some people continued to use it in the original sense, it has also been identified with IMF/World Bank policies (and thus used to embrace capital account convertibility and the bipolar exchange rate doctrine as well as institution-building and anti-corruption policy) and with a belief in market fundamentalism. The chapter argues that this is a very different usage with little support (and certainly not consensus support) in Washington. It concludes by emphasizing that the reforms listed in 1989 are not adequate for the present day, and outlines desirable directions in which to supplement them.