bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
An Analysis of Some Predatory Behaviour Patterns in Four Species of Carnivorous Marsupials (Dasyuridae), with Comparative Notes on the Eutherian Cat Felis catus
Authors: Pellis Sergio M. , Officer Renata C. E.
Published: May 2010

Two aspects of predatory behaviour in five species of carnivorous mammals were studied: four species (Dasyurus viverrinus, Dasyurus hallucatus, Dasyuroides byrnei and Phascogale tapoatafa) of a group of Australian marsupials, Dasyuridae, and an eutherian, the domestic cat, Felis catus. All data were collected from captive animals in laboratory conditions. Using sequences of predatory behaviour recorded on movie film, two aspects of predation were compared: (a) attack strategy, that is, the behavioural patterns leading up to biting the prey, and (2) head shaking movements used during killing.

All individual predators of all species but Dasyuroides byrnei exhibited avoidance of attacking prey from the front. Indeed, two of the four individual Dasyuroides used not only did not avoid frontal attack but selected to do so even when attacks from the rear or side were possible (e.g., the prey sat unmoving in the centre of the enclosure). Frontal attacks by Dasyuroides involved the use of the forepaws to grasp and pin prey, and the directing of killing bites to the head. These two behaviour patterns are also present in the other three species of dasyurids. Therefore, the frontal attack employed by this species does not involve the use of novel behaviour patterns.

Analysis of head shakes revealed two basic forms. From a downward pointing position the head was rotated in one of two ways: the snout traversed an arc in space, as seen in Felis catus and Dasyurus hallucatus, or the sagittal crest traversed an arc in space, as seen in the other three species of dasyurids. When the prey is held down by the forepaws, either form of head shake enhances penetration of the canines into the prey, whereas, when not held down by the forepaws, both forms of head shake can disorient prey, enabling subsequent killing bites to be applied.
Lek Breeding and Territorial Aggression in White‐eared Kob
Authors: Fryxell John M.
Published: May 2010

Territorial aggression in a lek breeding population of white‐eared kob (Kobus kob leucotis) was investigated in the Boma National Park region, southern Sudan. The frequency of aggression on leks was positively related to the number of females present, but generally declined over the course of the breeding season. Males fought most strenuously for central territories that were preferred by females. Males with females in their territories were more frequently engaged in fights than unaccompanied males. Such fights often induced females to leave their original partners, especially when large groups of females were involved. Territorial aggression led to damaging injuries in several instances, and mortality of breeding age males was disproportionately high. These results suggest that the intensity of aggression exhibited by territorial males was scaled to potential reproductive benefits.
Consort Intrusion and Female Mate Choice in Japanese Macaques (Macaca fuscata)
Authors: Huffman Michael A.
Published: May 2010

Consort intrusion behavior has been proposed to largely function as a means of preventing or suppressing the reproductive activity of subordinate males. In the Japanese macaques of Arashiyama B troop this behavior was found to be ineffective in influencing female mate choice and affecting differential reproduction. Mainly directed towards the female of the pair intrusion resembled sexual solicitation and appeared to be an extension of consort behavior. Although the intruder male was almost always dominant over the other male, intrusion failed to provide priority of access to the estrous female as she most frequently chose to remain with her current partner. Copulations which were intruded upon were as likely to end in ejaculation as those which were undisturbed. Only a small proportion of intruder male‐female pairs mated. Pairs that did mate were likely to have been in consort before or during the period in which intrusion occurred. No significant correlation was found between male rank order and number of possible females impregnated. Individual young, middle to lower ranking males were estimated to have been reproductively the most successful.
Response to a Dangerous Enemy: Should a Brood Parasite be Mobbed?
Authors: Mclean Ian G.
Published: May 2010

Models of a long‐tailed cuckoo and a song thrush (as a control) were presented 1.5 to 3 m from the nests of whiteheads, a species that the cuckoo is known to parasitize. Tests were conducted early in incubation (days 3 to 8) and during the nestling period. Most breeding females responded to the cuckoo by remaining inconspicuous or hiding. Other members of the cooperatively breeding group mobbed the cuckoo if they saw it. This difference in behaviour resulted in differences in overall response between incubation and nestling periods; the cuckoo was only occasionally mobbed during incubation because birds other than the female rarely approached the nest, whereas the cuckoo was almost always mobbed after eggs hatched. Cuckoos benefit from group breeding by whiteheads because chicks receive more food if reared by larger groups. I suggest that inconspicuous behaviour by the female in the presence of a cuckoo results in at least two effects: first, females can determine what the intentions of the cuckoo are, particularly if it intends to lay in the nest; second, no cues about size of breeding group are given to the cuckoo.

Comparisons are drawn with the recent study of PAYNE et al. (1985) on splendid wrens and Chrysococcyx cuckoos. Despite similar social behaviour, splendid wrens and whiteheads behaved differently in the presence of a cuckoo. Mobbing may not always be the most appropriate tactic when faced with a brood parasite.
Group Response to Alarm Pheromones in Social Wasps and the Honeybee
Authors: Moritz R. F. A. , Bürgin H.
Published: May 2010

The reaction of social wasps and honeybees to alarm pheromones was quantified using a metabolic bio‐assay. Groups of workers placed in an air flow‐through system were exposed for 60 s to the odour of a squashed venom sac and sting apparatus. The reaction of the workers was a stereotyped short term increase in their metabolic activity which was monitored with an infrared CO2‐analyzer. Group size had considerable influence on the reaction of each individual in the group. In honeybees, isolated workers showed weak responses to the alarm stimuli and with increasing group size the reaction per individual rose. Wasps showed the opposite behaviour. Isolated wasp workers generally reacted more intensely than workers in groups. This phenomenon is particularly well expressed in small species (e.g. Paravespula vulgaris). The large workers of Vespa crabro only showed this phenomenon if they were exposed to high doses of 2‐methyl‐3‐butene‐2‐ol, the major compound of their alarm pheromone. We could not elicit any alarm reactions in Polistes gallicus with this metabolic bioassay.
Pigeon Homing: The Orientation of Young Birds that had been Prevented from Seeing the Sun
Authors: Wiltschko Wolfgang , Wiltschko Roswitha , Keeton William T. , Brown A. Irene
Published: May 2010

To test whether the sun is an essential factor for the development of a functioning orientation system in birds, a group of young pigeons was raised as ‘No‐Sun’‐birds. They were not allowed to see the sun, and they were released to fly around their loft only under total overcast. The control group had an equal number of opportunities to fly under overcast plus additional flights under sun.

When released as untrained birds under solid cloud cover, the ‘No‐Sun’‐birds were significantly oriented, whereas the controls were not. Small magnets glued between the wings (north toward the head) reversed the ‘No‐Sun’‐birds' orientation, indicating they used a magnetic compass.

These findings show that the orientation system can develop without information from the sun. Differences in the orientation behavior of the ‘No‐Sun’‐birds and normally raised young pigeons are discussed.
Scotopic and Photopic Spectral Sensitivities of Boobies
Authors: Reed Jonathan R.
Published: May 2010

The day and night visual capacities (photopic and scotopic spectral sensitivity) of several species of boobies (family Sulidae) were analyzed using a behavioral psychophysical testing technique. On the basis of these data there is evidence for sensitivity to near‐ultraviolet light in the order Pelecaniformes. The scotopic spectral sensitivity functions of three booby species conform closely to the spectral absorption characteristics of avian rhodopsin. There are marked differences between the photopic sensitivities of a coastal booby species with that of a pelagic species; these differences appear correlated with their respective feeding ecologies. Lastly, a brief review of avian spectral sensitivity and a consideration of individual variation in avian vision studies are presented.
Replacement of a Lost Clutch: A Strategy for Optimal Resource Utilization in Necrophorus vespilloides (Coleoptera: Silphidae)
Authors: Müller Josef K.
Published: May 2010

The behaviour of female Necrophorus vespilloides whose clutches had been removed partially or completely was tested in laboratory experiments. If the reproductive activities can proceed without disturbances, the first larvae reach the carcass 56 h after the start of egg‐laying. If no larvae come to the carcass, all females resume egg‐laying within five days. The second clutch (‘replacement clutch’) is, on average, smaller than the first one. If the eggs from the replacement clutches are also removed, the females produce new clutches until no more carrion is available.

One larva coming to the carcass prevents production of replacement clutches with 20 % of the females. 5 and 10 larvae prevent a higher proportion of females from producing new clutches; the reaction of the female depends on the size of the carcass offered and on the number of larvae present on the carcass. There are two behavioural options for the females with respect to time when egg‐laying is resumed. Some females produce a replacement clutch while the larvae are still at the carcass; other females wait until the larvae leave the carcass. In the presence of only a few larvae at the carcass most females show both forms of behaviour under experimental conditions.
A Sensitive Period for Song Acquisition in the Song Sparrow, Melospiza melodia: A Case of Age‐limited Learning
Authors: Marler Peter , Peters Susan
Published: May 2010

Variation in the timing of vocal learning during the first year of life was studied in male song sparrows. Subjects were hatched in nests in the wild, reared in the laboratory from 2–10 days of age and tutored twice daily with tape‐recorded songs from 10–350 days of age. Tutor songs were changed frequently. Half were conspecific and half heterospecific (swamp sparrow) songs. Timing of acquisition was determined by comparing analyses of crystallized songs with tape‐recorded models for evidence of imitations. Learning began, on average, at 22 days of age and was heavily concentrated in the following 40‐day period. Occasional cases of learning occurred as late as 200 days of age. There was a strong preference for conspecific songs. Imitations of songs acquired early in the sensitive period were more complete than those of songs acquired later. In song production, elements acquired at different times were sometimes detached from their original context and combined with others by a process of syntactical rearrangement. With the sensitive period defined in this manner, the song sparrow may be characterized as an “age‐limited” song learner, as contrasted with species that are “age‐independent” learners.
Queen Succession in the Social Wasp, Polistes annularis
Authors: Hughes Colin R. , Beck Mary O. , Strassmann Joan E.
Published: May 2010

Outcomes of conflicts among social animals can strongly affect individual fitness and therefore partly determine how sociality evolves. In the social wasp, Polistes annularis, conflicts over egg laying result in a linear dominance hierarchy discernible from which wasps attack which others. We investigated the structure and maintenance of dominance hierarchies in colonies containing both nest foundresses and workers. We also investigated the outcome of a potential conflict between foundresses and workers over the identity of the female which becomes queen after the original queen disappears. To investigate queen replacement we recorded individuals' behavior before and after removal of the queen from 13 nests. This experiment simulated natural queen disappearance which occurs frequently. All foundresses were ranked over workers; high ranking females were most aggressive and directed most of their attacks to the female directly beneath them in the hierarchy. This hierarchy determined succession to queenship; the beta female became queen within 3 h. Therefore a foundress became the new queen whenever one was present. There was no evidence of conflict between workers and foundresses when a foundress became queen. This chance of becoming queen contributes to the expected fitness of a female that accepts a subordinate role in spring.
Bill Color Preferences of Zebra Finches
Authors: Burley Nancy , Coopersmith Carol B.
Published: May 2010

Bill color varies with age and sex in zebra finches. Among birds of similar age and condition, males' bills tend to be redder and darker than those of females, but there is overlap in the phenotypic expression of the sexes. The bills of young birds are paler and less red than those of older birds. There is also interindividual variation within age and sex class.

Experiments were performed to measure heterosexual and isosexual (= same sex) preferences of finches. Females preferred to associate with males with the reddest, brightest bills; they even preferred males whose bills were exaggerated through color applications of non‐toxic marking pen. Males preferred to associate with females with bill colors in the middle of the phenotypic range. Females thus have “directional” preferences for male bill color, whereas male preference is “stabilizing” with regard to female bill color.

In isosexual tests, neither sex showed a consistent preference for particular bill colors. Both sexes, however, displayed a tendency toward individual variability in preference. Bill color appears to be more important in heterosexual than in isosexual interactions.

Several authors have recently suggested that organisms prefer brightly colored mates because bright coloration indicates superior physical condition. Results reported here do not support this hypothesis. Alternative functional explanations for the observed preferences are that bill color signals mating status, age or reproductive value. None of these appears to be a cogent explanation for the trends. Preferences do not appear to result from sexual imprinting. The possibility that the preferences are aesthetic and non‐functional is discussed.
Vigilance Behaviour in White‐browed Sparrow‐weavers Plocepasser mahali
Authors: Ferguson J. W. H.
Published: May 2010

Group‐living white‐browed sparrow‐weavers engage in vigilance behaviour when fellow group members feed on the ground. Vigilance is characterized from normal perching behaviour by distinct combinations of calls and by exposed perches. The level of vigilance increases with the density of herbacious vegetation. Large groups do not perform less vigilance and more feeding compared with small groups, and are exposed to larger numbers of interactions with predators. This suggests that anti‐predator vigilance is an adaptation for surviving high diurnal predation rates, the latter being an effect of the group‐living nature of these birds.
Song Learning in Bengalese Finches: a Comparison with Zebra Finches
Authors: Clayton N. S.
Published: May 2010

Male Bengalese finches, Lonchura striata var. domestica, learn their song from an adult male conspecific with whom they can interact at 35 to 70 days of age and normally‐raised males fail to reproduce song which they have only heard before or after this time. Birds which have been raised by their mother alone and those which have been deprived of a song tutor during the learning phase produce abnormal songs with indistinct elements and little or no phrase structure; this is typical of males which fail to hear adult song during their development. These songs are unstable and are replaced by normal songs, if there is an opportunity to learn from an adult male conspecific. Presumably, this flexibility in the time when young males learn acts as a safeguard to ensure that normal conspecific song is produced.

These results bear striking similarity to those on zebra finch song development. Differences between the two species, especially in the learning of call notes by female zebra finches, are discussed.
A Comparative Study of Mating Behaviour in Some Neotropical Grasshoppers (Acridoidea)
Authors: Riede Klaus
Published: May 2010

Aspects of premating and mating behaviour in several South American grasshopppers (Acridoidea) are described and compared. Examples of communication by acoustical, visual and chemical means are given.

Acoustic signals are emitted only by species of the subfamilies Gomphocerinae, Acridinae, Romaleinae and Copiocerinae. Each subfamily has distinct sound‐producing mechanisms, and the songs occur in different behavioural contexts. In Gomphocerinae and Acridinae the sexes recognize and attract each other by species‐specific songs produced by a femuro‐tegminal stridulatory mechanism. In contrast, Romaleinae produce a simple song by rubbing the hindwings against the forewings. These songs are similar in different species and no attraction of females could be demonstrated, but the behaviour may function in male‐male interaction and during copulation. Sexual pheromones also play a role in this subfamily. Acoustic activity during copulation has been observed in Aleuasini (Copiocerinae), but its function is still unclear.

No sound production at all exists in the Leptysminae, Rhytidochrotinae, Ommatolampinae, Melanoplinae, Proctolabinae and Bactrophorinae, but conspicuous movements of hindlegs (kneewaving) and antennae were observed. In some species these form part of a soundless courtship display.

Ecological constraints have little influence on the basic mating strategies: romaleine, gomphocerine and melanopline grasshoppers often coexist in various habitats, but show the divergent behaviour patterns characteristic of their respective subfamilies. Intrinsic factors of female reproductive physiology seem to be more important: a hormonally controlled reproductive cycle in gomphocerine females provides for only few short copulations, while romaleine females copulate frequently and longer. In Gomphocerinae and Acridinae, receptive females are rare (male‐biased operational sex ratio) which leads to intense competition among males. It is hypothesized that this could be responsible for the high diversification of song and courtship patterns in these subfamilies.
Reaction to Alarm Substance in Cave Populations of Astyanax fasciatus (Characidae, Pisces)1
Authors: Fricke Diethard
Published: May 2010

The effect of species‐specific skin‐extract containing alarm substance has been studied in two epigean and three hypogean populations of the Mexican‐tetra Astyanax fasciatus. In all populations tested the feeding rate at the water surface decreased significantly after introducing the alarm substance and the fish avoided this surface area. Additionally epigean fish and some individuals from the Chica cave showed zigzag movements, rapid swimming and hiding. The fish did not respond to a skinextract of a species without alarm substance.
Orientation of Dunnocks (Prunella modularis) at Sunset
Authors: Bingman Verner P. , Wiltschko Wolfgang
Published: May 2010

To find out the relative importance of the geomagnetic and solar cues for the orientation at the time of sunset, dunnocks were tested outdoors during the spring migration periods of 1982 and 1983. Experimental magnetic fields were produced by Helmholtz coils. In the various magnetic conditions, the following results were obtained:

In the local geomagnetic field, the dunnocks oriented in a seasonally appropriate northerly direction.

In a magnetic field the north of which was shifted 120° clock‐wise to ESE, the birds showed a corresponding shift in their orientation.

In a vertical magnetic field without meaningful directional information, birds previously tested in either the local geomagnetic field or the shifted magnetic field now displayed axially bimodal orientation, with the axes of the two groups differing.

These findings indicate that for migratory dunnocks, the magnetic field plays a dominant role in determining their orientation at the time of sunset, and that magnetic information may affect the dunnocks' response to other directional, presumably solar cues as well.
Effect of Population Density, Size of Habitat and Oviposition Substrate on the Breeding System of Pupfish (Cyprinodon pecosensis)
Authors: Kodric‐Brown Astrid
Published: May 2010

Size of habitat, availability of oviposition substrate, and population density were manipulated to determine their effects on the structure and dynamics of the pupfish breeding system. The fish established a territorial breeding system in large tanks, irrespective of population density or oviposition substrate. A dominance hierarchy, in which one male controlled most of the oviposition substrate and spawned with most females, was established in small tanks at low densities. Both population density and oviposition substrate affected the number of males defending territories. Male spawning success was inversely related to availability of oviposition substrate, but was not affected either by density or tank size. Location of a territory and its size also influenced spawning success. Males with bigger territories had higher spawning success. A “carryover” effect of neighbors was observed; males with reproductively active neighbors spawned more often than those with less successful neighbors. Interference with spawning was affected both by tank size and density. Agonistic behavior of breeding males was not affected by any manipulation, but it was positively associated with male spawning success at high but not at low densities. In all treatments the mortality of breeding males was approximately 8 times as high as that of females, suggesting that, under these experimental conditions, the cost of reproducing is substantially higher for males. Comparisons between breeding pupfish in these experiments and in natural environments provide a basis for understanding the selective pressures that have favored the maintenance of these extremely plastic breeding systems.
Sensitive Periods for Song Acquisition from Tape Recordings and Live Tutors in the Swamp Sparrow, Melospiza georgiana
Authors: Marler Peter , Peters Susan
Published: May 2010

Sensitive periods for song acquisition by male swamp sparrows in the first year of life were compared, using two types of training protocol: 1) training with tape‐recorded songs and, 2) training by exposure to live singing tutors. Subjects were exposed to a range of tutors and tape recordings on regularly changing schedules. Singing was recorded, and the time of acquisition was determined by the occurrence of imitations of particular models. The results obtained with tape‐ and live‐tutoring were very similar. In both cases most learning occurred prior to 45–55 days of age. Some song acquisition occurred as late as 250–300 days of age.
A Quantitative Technique to Compare and Classify Humpback Whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) Sounds
Authors: Chabot Denis
Published: May 2010

In an attempt to minimize observer bias, numerical taxonomy methods were used to describe and classify humpback whale sounds. The spectrograms (N = 1255) were digitized into a 16 × 21 binary matrix. The rows were 16 frequencies selected on a logarithmic scale (0.12–8 kHz). The columns were 21 time samples taken every 0.1 s. Each point of the matrix was coded 1 if it lay over part of the sound. Other binary variables were added to code for relative intensity within a sound, frequency modulation and amplitude modulation. The sounds were then compared using the Jaccard similarity coefficient for binary data, and classified with average linkage cluster analysis. This technique produced 115 clusters, which were compared with my aural and visual impressions of the sounds. I agreed with most major categories identified by cluster analysis, but many small clusters had to be fused to other categories. This was partially due to the technique used, and to the complexity of the repertoire under study. Improvements are proposed to further reduce observer bias in classification of sounds, and thus make studies of animal communication performed by different researchers or on different species more easily comparable.
Social Organisation of the BatTadarida (Chaerephon) pumila(Chiroptera: Molossidae) in Ghana, West Africa
Authors: McWilliam Andrew N.
Published: May 2010

The social organisation of the polyoestrous bat,Tadarida pumila, was studied in northern Ghana (W. Africa). Although this small (8.5 g) free‐tailed bat is not sexually dimorphic in size, adult males develop an odorous inter‐aural crest of long hairs. A social system based on female defense polygyny was found which, however, also involved elements of resource defense. Harems, each generally established in the roof space of separate dwelling houses with restricted access, consisted of an adult male and up to 21 females, with their young, and the larger harems were held by heavier males. Harem composition was stable and both harem males and females showed high site fidelity over the study span of 16 months. Some female young were recruited to their natal harems, at a sufficient rate to replace the annual loss of harem females. However, most young, which were born in three successive cohorts during the rainy season, apparently dispersed over the dry season, following early sexual maturation. The potential causes and benefits of female associations are discussed.
The Role of Song Phonology and Syntax in Vocal Learning Preferences in the Song Sparrow, Melospiza melodia
Authors: Marler Peter , Peters Susan
Published: May 2010

Are young songbirds ready to learn virtually any song, or are they predisposed to learn songs of their own species? To explore this question tests were conducted on the equipotentiality of auditory song learning stimuli in the song sparrow. 23 males reared as nestlings were exposed to tape recordings of their own and other species songs in early life and subsequent song production was analyzed for imitations. Birds exposed to natural song sparrow songs, including their fathers', and equal numbers of swamp sparrow songs, strongly preferred conspecific songs. They neither favored nor eschewed paternal songs despite having had access to them for 6–10 days as nestlings. In three other experiments synthetic songs were used in which some properties were held constant and others were systematically varied. Birds were exposed to 1–4 segmented songs varying in phrase order, tempo and syllable number, each synthesized in two versions, one from conspecific and the other from heterospecific (swamp sparrow) song syllables. With one‐segmented songs (alien syntax) subjects favored conspecific over heterospecific syllable songs. Heterospecific syllables were rendered more acceptable by incorporation into two‐segmented trilled songs (more song sparrow‐like syntax). Heterogeneous summation of phonological and syntactical cues appeared to occur. There was also evidence of interaction between phonology and syntax. When another phrase type, the note complex, was added, in three‐ and four‐segmented songs, a preference for conspecific syllables reappeared. Heterospecific syllables may be more readily accepted as a trilled sequence than without repetition, as in a note‐complex. When phrase structure within four‐segmented songs was varied, birds favored patterns most like normal conspecific song. We conclude that there are innate learning preferences in the song sparrow, based on note and syllabic structure (phonology and syllabic syntax), and temporal organization of phrases (segmental syntax), differing from those of the closely related swamp sparrow, Melospiza georgiana, in which song syntax plays no role in learning preferences.
Second Language Acquisition: A Framework for Studying the Importance of Input and Interaction in Exceptional Song Acquisition
Authors: Pepperberg Irene M. , Neapolitan Denise M.
Published: May 2010

Recent studies demonstrate that specific types of live input and social interaction facilitate “exceptional” song acquisition. The term “exceptional” denotes time‐independent song acquisition and learning of nonspecies‐specific song (or parts of song) and second dialects by birds generally thought to have restrictions on their learning capabilities. Recent research in human second language acquisition (SLA) also emphasizes the roles of input and interaction. The purpose of this paper is to focus on these parallels and suggest that SLA studies can provide further insights into exceptional song acquisition, particularly with respect to new directions for ornithological research.
Social Play in Free‐ranging Columbian Ground Squirrels, Spermophilus columbianus
Authors: Waterman J. M.
Published: May 2010

Play in the Columbian ground squirrel (Spermophilus columbianus) was examined using marked individuals in a population in southwestern Alberta, Canada. The components of play varied with the age, sex and relatedness of the interactors. Only in intra‐sexual play were differences apparent in littermate and non‐littermate play. Male‐male non‐littermate play had fewer contact behaviours than littermate play, whereas female‐female non‐littermate play had escalations in aggressive‐related behaviours. Yearling play was longer and had more aggressive‐related behaviours than juvenile play. Reversals were more common in yearling bouts. The significance of those differences in social play that were related to sex, age and relatedness are discussed in light of the social organization of the Columbian ground squirrel.
Patterns on the Face: The Eyebrow Flash in Crosscultural Comparison
Authors: Grammer Karl , Schiefenhövel Wulf , Schleidt Margret , Lorenz Beatrice , Eibl‐Eibesfeldt Irenäus
Published: May 2010

255 instances of “brow raise” filmed in three cultures in unstaged social interactions were analyzed on different levels using the “Facial Action Coding System” (FACS, Ekman & Friesen 1978). Contraction and slackening of the M. frontalis, pars medialis et lateralis are involved, and show temporal constancy in all three cultures, creating a pattern with a typical movement configuration. This configuration is discussed as a universal prerequisite for stimulus generation perception. The total time of contraction varies with contextual features, and brow raise in openings is longer than during interactions. An analysis of co‐occurrence of other facial movements showed universal patterns occurring in all three cultures. Brow raise is most often accompanied by a smile. The antithesis of this “eyebrow flash”, both in neuromuscular and semantic aspect, is brought about by the action of the M. corrugator supercilii, lowering the brows and pulling them together. In addition, a set of functional patterns could be identified in all three cultures, ranging from a factual “yes” to a “yes to social contact”. Thus, the eyebrow flash can be interpreted as a “social marking‐tool” which emphasizes the meaning of other facial cues, head movements and even verbal statements.
Locomotor Activity in the Freshwater Crab Potamon fluviatile: The Analysis of Temporal Patterns by Radio‐telemetry
Authors: Gherardi Francesca , Tarducci Federica , Vannini Marco
Published: May 2010

Locomotor activity in a field population of the freshwater crab, Potamon fluviatile, was studied during the breeding season by means of radio‐telemetry and by direct counts of active animals along a transect of the stream. The basic pattern of crabs' locomotor activity can be described as a sequence of short distance movements around the shelters (foraging movements), followed by rarer long distance displacements (wandering movements). Whilst direct counting showed that the crabs exhibit a broadly nocturnal rhythm in foraging movements, no daily periodicity in wandering activity was revealed by telemetry. There is sexual difference in these latter excursions: females move farther along the stream and into the surrounding terrestrial habitat than do males. This behaviour is in contrast to observations made during the non‐breeding season and is probably related to the stage of female reproduction.
Rattlesnakes Create a Context for Localizing Their Search for Potential Prey
Authors: Hennessy David F. , Owings Donald H.
Published: May 2010

This paper presents systematically collected field data on what transpires between free‐living rattlesnakes (Crotalus viridis oreganus) and individuals of an important prey species, California ground squirrels (Spermophilus beecheyi). In the course of two field seasons we discovered that rattlesnakes and California ground squirrels can engage in at least six different episode classes: snake watching, snake following, inspecting/probing coiled snakes, interaction, rattlesnake approaching squirrel and envenomation. If a rattlesnake is moving directly toward a squirrel and is within 3 m of its burrow an interaction may develop, but more commonly it does not. Instead of engaging the snake, the squirrels seemed to try to remain stationary in the face of the snake's advance, as if to minimize affording the snake information about the nursery burrow location. The rattlesnakes in turn behaved as though they were using the location of the squirrels that resisted moving away from their advance as the hub of a radial search pattern. We argue that if the squirrel engages the snake before it discovers the burrow, the location of the nursery burrow may be revealed and the pups' vulnerability actually increased.
Brood Value and Life Expectancy as Determinants of Parental Investment in Male Three‐spined Sticklebacks, Gasterosteus aculeatus
Authors: Ukegbu Angela Adanze , Huntingford Felicity Ann
Published: May 2010

29 breeding male three‐spined sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus) caught in the wild at different times in the breeding season were exposed simultaneously to a potential threat to their nest (a conspecific male) and to two hunting trout (potential predators of adult sticklebacks, seen through a transparent partition). By promoting a variety of protective responses, the presence of the predators reduced both the time spent confronting the intruder and the rate at which it was attacked. Subjects with a clutch of eggs in their nest maintained higher levels of territorial defence in the presence of predators than did those with an empty nest. However, those breeding later in the season took fewer risks to defend their nest. Possible proximate mechanisms responsible for these results are discussed. In addition, the adaptive significance of the behavioural changes is considered in the light of the value of the brood and the expected future reproductive output of the sticklebacks breeding at different times in the season.
Agonistic and Sexual Behavior of Nilgiri Tahr (Hemitragus hylocrius)
Authors: Rice Clifford G.
Published: May 2010

Nilgiri tahr (Hemitragus hylocrius) were observed in the wild in Eravikulam National Park, Kerala, India. Agonistic and sexual behaviors were described and classified by social function.

The social behavior of Nilgiri tahr was compared with that of related species. Nilgiri tahr are thought to be evolutionary intermediates between the Rupicaprini and the Caprini; this was reflected in their behavior. While they used reverse parallel fighting and neckfighting, clashing with the horns was also well developed.
Pillar Function in the Fiddler Crab Uca beebei (II): Competitive Courtship Signaling
Authors: Christy John H.
Published: May 2010

Male Uca beebei court and attract females into burrows they defend on muddy sand flats in the intertidal zone on the Pacific coast of the tropical Americas. Mating, oviposition and incubation (breeding) occur underground in males' burrows. Some courting males build mud pillars (2 cm high) at the entrance of their burrow. The purpose of this field study was to assess the role of pillars in competitive courtship signaling among males.

I studied the effect of pillars on female behavior by recording the responses of wandering females to courtship from males resident at burrows with and without pillars. I also caught females, released them individually in a circular arena with an equal number of empty burrows with and without pillars around its circumference, and chased the females with a simulated avian predator. Females moved to burrows of both types more often when they were courted (82%) than when they were chased (67%). Receptive females were attracted to the burrows of the males that courted them significantly more often (97%) when these burrows had pillars than when they lacked pillars (66%). However, once females entered males' burrows they were equally likely to remain, mate and breed in both types of burrows. Females also more often moved to burrows with pillars (66%) than to burrows without pillars when they ran from the simulated predator. Both male courtship displays and pillars probably provide cues females use to locate males' burrows. The visual similarity between pillars and a display courting males give immediately before they enter their burrows suggests that pillars are icons of the display. The effect of pillars on female behavior, the timing of pillar building relative to when females choose mates, and contrasts in the behavior of males that do and those that do not build pillars suggest that pillar building has evolved due to competition among males to attract females into their burrows.
Information Transfer across Fish Shoals under Predator Threat
Authors: Magurran Anne E. , Higham Anthony
Published: May 2010

The hypothesis that shoaling fish can obtain information about a predator's approach from changes in the behaviour of other shoal members was tested in an experiment in which receiver minnows (Phoxinus phoxinus) behind a one‐way‐mirror could observe the reaction of transmitter minnows threatened by the stalk of a pike (Esox lucius) model. Although the receiver minnows were out of visual contact with the pike model they decreased their foraging behaviour and started hiding when the pike model came towards the feeding patch of the transmitter fish. The presence of skittering behaviour and inspection behaviour in the transmitter but not in the receiver fish suggests that individual confirmation of the predator does play a role in determining the nature of the anti‐predator response. Nevertheless there is clear evidence that receiver fish modify their own behaviour on the basis of information obtained from individuals which have seen a predator.
Social Dynamics of a Captive Dingo Pack: Population Regulation by Dominant Female Infanticide
Authors: Corbett Laurence K.
Published: May 2010

The social organization and dynamics of a captive dingo (Canis familiaris dingo) colony was studied to understand behavioural mechanisms of population regulation. Dingoes developed into an integrated pack of 7 adults and one litter of pups. Other adults were surplus or were killed so that, of the potential 43 dingoes in the enclosure, only 16 survived after three years. Within the pack there were discernable, but not totally independent, male and female hierarchies where rank order was largely determined and maintained by aggressive behaviour. Most rank changes occurred during the breeding season and plasma Cortisol values suggested that the alpha and low ranking males exhibited the highest stress levels. All females became pregnant, but the alpha female killed all pups of all other females, despite being closely related. Although the structure and dynamics of dingo and wolf packs is largely similar, the major mechanism suppressing reproduction in dingoes is dominant female infanticide whereas in wolves dominants suppress copulation by subordinates. Some consequences of this reproductive strategy provide insight into the significance of the copulatory tie in canids and an additional explanation for the increase in dingo numbers in Australia since European settlement.
Influence of Age and Size on the Response to Novel Prey by Fry of the Cichlid Fish Cichlasoma managuense (Pisces: Cichlidae)
Authors: Meyer Axel
Published: May 2010

The response to a novel prey item was investigated during the first month of feeding of the cichlid fish Cichlasoma managuense. The relative contribution of size and age to improvement in predatory behavior was addressed. Group I (control) was fed nauplii of Artemia salina and group II a manufactured flakefood diet. Group II fish were tested for their ability to prey on a novel diet, the nauplii of Artemia salina. Latency to respond to the presence of novel prey decreased and the number of capture attempts increased with increasing experience with the artificial diet and with age. As size increased so did the number of capture attempts, but the latency did not change. Size and experiential and maturational factors may affect parts of the predatory behavior differentially. During the first month of feeding, age may be more important than size for the decrease in latency and the increase in the number of capture attempts. The number of capture attempts during the first 30 s of the observation period and the capture success increased faster than the latency decreased. Latency to respond to novel prey may mature at a slower rate than the number of capture attempts.
Additional Information on the Relationship between Intra‐specific Aggression and Anti‐predator Behaviour in the Three‐spined Stickleback, Gasterosteus aculeatus
Authors: Tulley J. J. , Huntingford F. A.
Published: May 2010

18 non‐breeding three‐spined sticklebacks from a heavily predated site a further 24 fish from a predator‐free site were screened for their responses to a realistic model pike. The behaviour of the same fish when confronted with a territorial intruder during the breeding season was also recorded, the two tests being carried out in random sequence and with an interval of at least 6 weeks. Multivariate analyses identified major behavioural dimensions in the pike test and in the intruder test, summarized by the labels ‘boldness’ and ‘aggression’ respectively. Sticklebacks from the heavily predated site were both less bold and less aggressive than those from the unpredated site. Levels of aggression for individuals within each population were positively correlated with their boldness scores, but only for the period when the subjects were recovering from a simulated predatory attack.
On the Relationship between Aggression and Social Dominance
Authors: Francis Richard C.
Published: May 2010

It is frequently assumed that variation in dominance status is in large part a function of differences in levels of aggressiveness. This assumption and the reasoning underlying it are examined in this paper. It is argued that the large role ascribed to aggression with respect to dominance success results from a conceptual error, in particular, the temptation to conflate the two constructs. There may be an association between aggression and social dominance, not because levels of aggression determine dominance success, but because aggression is a manifestation of dominance. It is further argued that the analysis of dominance relationships exclusively in terms of individual attributes such as aggression is flawed. Social dominance is a relational quality, which could be profitably studied from a sociological perspective.
Oviposition Site Selection and Spatial Predictability of Female White‐faced Dragonflies (Leucorrhinia intacta) (Odonata: Libellulidae)
Authors: Wolf Larry L. , Waltz Edward C.
Published: May 2010

Location of breeding or egg‐laying sites may be an important factor underlying social behavior of many organisms. We studied oviposition sites used by a population of Leucorrhinia intacta dragonflies at a small pond near Syracuse, NY, USA. Females preferentially used shallow water as an oviposition habitat. Shallow water increases egg hatching rate through temperature effects on development time and reduces predation on the female. Use of shallow water areas was reduced by locally high densities of territorial males. The same oviposition sites probably maximized the fitness of the male, female, and offspring, meaning that site selection did not necessitate fitness tradeoffs among these classes of individuals. Pond sectors used by ovipositing females were significantly correlated within and between years, but not within days or between consecutive days. Use of pond sectors within and between days was not related to the relative availability of the shallow water habitat, while seasonal use of pond sectors was related positively to availability of shallow water. In spite of the preference by females for ovipositing in shallow water, short‐term location of females was not predictable and males could not search predictably good areas during a day. However, across a season, areas with more shallow water available were used for oviposition more than areas with limited substrate.
The Reproductive Behavior of Acanthurus nigrofuscus (Forskal) and other Surgeonfishes (Fam. Acanthuridae) off Eilat, Israel (Gulf of Aqaba, Red Sea)
Authors: Myrberg Arthur A. , Montgomery W. Linn , Fishelson Lev
Published: May 2010

The reproductive behavior of Acanthurus nigrofuscus, a common surgeonfish of the Red Sea, is described for two overlapping populations inhabiting the coral reefs off Eilat, Israel (Gulf of Aqaba). The spectacular daily spawning activities, often involving aggregations of thousands of individuals, as well as the often long distance migrations to and from the spawning grounds by groups in highly organized formations are characterized in detail. Evidence is provided that the precise timing of these various phenomena is controlled by ambient light levels during the late afternoon. Less detailed information is also provided on comparable activities of two other surgeonfishes from the same reefs: Ctenochaetus striatus and Zebrasoma xanthurum. Finally, comparisons are made of reproduction and its associated environmental controls among populations of the same and related species of surgeonfishes at widely distributed locations in the Indo‐Pacific.
Can Individual Differences in History of Dominance Explain the Development of Linear Dominance Hierarchies?
Authors: Jackson Wendy M.
Published: May 2010

Observed dominance hierarchies are often more linear than expected from randomly‐formed dominance relationships, and in triads of animals attacks are distributed non‐randomly. I hypothesize that an individual's history of dominance affects its probability of initiating aggressive interactions in the future and that individuals with winning records are more likely to initiate (winning begets initiating). Consistent with this hypothesis, evidence is presented that dominant individuals are more likely to attack than subordinate individuals.

The winning begets initiating hypothesis may also explain why correlations between predicted dominance ranks (based on size, age etc.) and observed dominance ranks can be low: If the cost of engaging in and losing an interaction is high relative to the potential benefits of winning, then a large individual conditioned to be subordinate may refrain from contesting smaller, dominant individuals despite its actual competitive superiority.