bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
15. Police powers
Authors: Faragher Colin
Published: September 2017

Each Concentrate revision guide is packed with essential information, key cases, revision tips, exam Q&As, and more. Concentrates show you what to expect in a law exam, what examiners are looking for, and how to achieve extra marks. This chapter discusses the law on police powers. These include the role of the police, the organization of the police in England and Wales, police areas, the powers and functions of police and crime commissioners, the Mayor’s Office for Policing and crime in London, the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 and its Codes of Practice, which contain rules concerning police powers of stop, search, entry, seizure of property, arrest, detention, and treatment of suspects; what does reasonable suspicion mean, the meaning of public place, and information which must be given on arrest.
16. Public order and terrorism
Authors: Faragher Colin
Published: September 2017

Each Concentrate revision guide is packed with essential information, key cases, revision tips, exam Q&As, and more. Concentrates show you what to expect in a law exam, what examiners are looking for, and how to achieve extra marks. This chapter discusses the law on public order, and terrorism; the Public Order Act 1986, which concerns the control of protests and assemblies; the Terrorism Act 2000, which introduced comprehensive counter-terrorist measures throughout the UK; and the Anti-terrorism Crime and Security Act 2001, which focuses on terrorist funding, intelligence gathering, immigration, and the elimination of organized crime. There is also a section on the Counter Terrorism and Security Act 2015.
Tort Law Concentrate
Authors: Brennan Carol
Published: September 2017

Each Concentrate revision guide is packed with essential information, key cases, revision tips, exam Q&As, and more. Concentrates show you what to expect in a law exam, what examiners are looking for, and how to achieve extra marks. Having begun with a consideration of the meaning of tort and the context of the ‘tort system’, Tort Law Concentrate covers the key elements of negligence: duty of care, breach of duty, and causation. Economic loss and psychiatric injury are specifically discussed. The guide also explains the intentional torts: trespass to the person and to land as well as the tort in Wilkinson v Downton are covered, as is product liability. The family of nuisance torts, with their importance for environmental control are included, as is the key issue of remedies. This new edition includes coverage of recent case law, such as Woodland v Swimming Teachers’ Association (2014) and Coventry v Lawrence (2014). This edition has been fully updated in light of developments in the law, including the Defamation Act 2013 and the continuing impact of the Human Rights Act 1998.
2. Negligence: duty of care
Authors: Brennan Carol
Published: September 2017

This chapter discusses law on duty of care. Duty is the first element in the ‘negligence equation’ and the primary means of limiting liability in negligence. It begins with the fundamental ‘neighbour principle’ of Donoghue v Stevenson and charts its evolution throughout the twentieth century. The current ingredients of the test for determining duty of care in novel situations are: foreseeability; proximity; and fairness, justice, and reasonableness. This is the ‘three-stage’ test set out in Caparo v Dickman (1990), used in novel situations. Policy is a major influence on the development of duty in negligence.
7. Causation in fact
Authors: Brennan Carol
Published: September 2017

This chapter discusses the law on causation in fact. This is a matter of historical fact and can be addressed initially by the ‘but-for’ test. However, the but-for test is inadequate to establish causation in a number of different situations: unknown causes, cumulative causes, and consecutive causes and those in which the test produces an illogical or unjust outcome. It is an area in which recent policy-driven decisions have revived the approach of ‘material increase in risk’, as in the asbestos case of Fairchild v Glenhaven. Allocation of liability has been addressed in the Compensation Act 2006, s 3.
8. Causation: intervening acts and remoteness
Authors: Brennan Carol
Published: September 2017

This chapter discusses the law on intervening acts and remoteness. There are a range of situations in which the defendant’s act can be a cause of the claimant’s loss because it satisfies the ‘but-for’ test. However, this is followed by one or more events which contribute to the eventual damage in such a way that the chain of causation can be broken. This is sometimes referred to as an intervening act (or novus actus interveniens), and such acts can be divided into three categories: actions by the claimant himself, actions by a third party, and natural events. Remoteness is a simpler way of describing what is also known as causation in law, and is concerned with the extent of a defendant’s duty. The key case is The Wagon Mound No 1 where the test of reasonable foreseeability of damage was adopted.
9. Employers’ liability and vicarious liability
Authors: Brennan Carol
Published: September 2017

This chapter discusses both common law and statute on employers’ liability and vicarious liability. Employers’ liability is concerned with the employer’s personal, non-delegable duty in respect of the physical and psychological safety of his employees. This was established in Wilsons and Clyde Coal v English (1938) and is reinforced by the statutory requirement that employers have compulsory insurance. Vicarious liability involves the employer being liable to a third party for the tort of his employee. This must occur in the course of employment, a concept which was redefined in Lister v Hesley Hall (2002). The employment relationship has been re-examined in the light of institutional child abuse cases.
11. Intentional torts
Authors: Brennan Carol
Published: September 2017

This chapter discusses both common law and statute in relation to the torts of trespass to the person: battery, assault, and false imprisonment. These torts have three common characteristics: they are the result of intentional actions, take the form of direct harm, and are actionable per se, that is, without proof of damage. An additional intentional tort is derived from Wilkinson v Downton (1897), the wilful infliction of physical harm upon the claimant by indirect means. This category of intentional harm is also augmented by the Protection from Harassment Act 1997. Defences to the intentional torts are also discussed.
13. Occupiers’ liability
Authors: Brennan Carol
Published: September 2017

This chapter discusses the law on occupiers’ liability, a form of negligence liability which was governed previously by the common law and now by statute law. The key statutes are the Occupiers’ Liability Act 1957 which governs duty to lawful visitors and the Occupiers’ Liability Act 1984, regarding non-visitors, or trespassers. In determining to whom the duty is owed, it is necessary to identify the status of the entrant onto land. To determine who owes the duty as occupier, the main criterion is control of the land. Exclusion of liability and defences are included.
14. Defamation
Authors: Brennan Carol
Published: September 2017

This chapter presents the tort of defamation. The tort is divided into two causes of action: libel, which concerns communications in permanent form; and slander, which concerns communications in transitory form. Libel has been actionable without proof of damage although serious harm is now a factor. Slander is actionable only with proof of damage except in two exceptional situations. The claimant must establish a defamatory statement, referring to the claimant and its publication. The primary defence to defamation is truth and defences in this field raise issues under art 10 European Convention on Human Rights. The Defamation Acts 1996 and 2013 are covered, as are remedies for defamation.
16. Defences and limitation
Authors: Brennan Carol
Published: September 2017

This chapter first discusses the defence of contributory negligence, voluntary assumption of risk, and illegality. Contributory negligence occurs when the claimant has contributed to his own damage, and permits damages to be apportioned according to what is just and equitable. Voluntary assumption of risk is a complete defence, on the basis that the claimant freely agreed to run the risk of damage. Illegality is a complete defence, on the grounds that the law will not reward or appear to condone an illegal act. The chapter then turns to limitation periods, which restrict the amount of time within which legal actions must be commenced. The main statute is the Limitation Act 1980.
1. Introduction to the English Legal System
Authors: Thomas Mark , McGourlay Claire
Published: September 2017

Each Concentrate revision guide is packed with essential information, key cases, revision tips, exam Q&As, and more. This introductory chapter provides an overview of the English legal system (ELS). The study of ELS involves the study of the legal system of both England and Wales; Scotland and Northern Ireland are subject to a separate yet connected legal system. These four countries are subjected to the laws of the UK; however, each individual constituent has devolved powers allowing them to legislate in particular areas. Where a conflict between laws of the UK and laws of the constituent country arises, the UK law takes precedence. The effect of devolution from the UK to Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland does not affect this parliamentary supremacy. Indeed, it has been argued for some time that devolution of power has not gone far enough in allowing Scotland or Northern Ireland to govern themselves.
2. Sources of Law I: Domestic Legislation
Authors: Thomas Mark , McGourlay Claire
Published: September 2017

Each Concentrate revision guide is packed with essential information, key cases, revision tips, exam Q&As, and more. This chapter examines domestic legislation. Domestic legislation is created by Parliament, which consists of the House of Commons, the House of Lords, and the Monarch. It is divided into primary legislation and secondary legislation. Primary legislation takes the form of ‘Acts of Parliament’, commonly referred to as ‘statutes’. Statutes can cover a vast variety of laws from criminal law, land law, contract law, and many others. Meanwhile, secondary legislation — also known as delegated legislation or subordinate legislation — is the most common instrument for implementing change within the UK. Parliament has neither the time, the resources, nor the expertise to deal with certain matters. It is for these reasons that the majority of legislation is made outside of Parliament. Accordingly, Parliament may delegate such powers, through an Act of Parliament to other bodies and institutions to implement. Such bodies often include the Privy Council, government ministers, local authorities, and other regulatory agencies.
3. Sources of Law II: Case Law
Authors: Thomas Mark , McGourlay Claire
Published: September 2017

Each Concentrate revision guide is packed with essential information, key cases, revision tips, exam Q&As, and more. This chapter focuses on case law, a major source of law providing for the interpretation of statutes and the application of law to particular circumstances. Case law, also known as the common law, is a set of judge-made rules that have either a binding or persuasive effect on future cases. Judge made means that a member of the judiciary has decided a case in a certain way which has led to the development of that particular piece of law. Certain courts are obliged to follow previous judgments, whereas other can ignore them due to their seniority. Indeed, the doctrine of precedent denotes a system of case law — binding or not — that a lower court may or may not have to follow. Whether precedent is binding is dependent on whether there is a statement of law, as opposed to fact, certain reasoning for that decision (known as ratio decidendi), and the decision of a superior court.
4. Sources of Law III: Effect of EU and International Law
Authors: Thomas Mark , McGourlay Claire
Published: September 2017

Each Concentrate revision guide is packed with essential information, key cases, revision tips, exam Q&As, and more. This chapter discusses the effect of EU and international law. The UK is a signatory to multiple international institutions. Each of these institutions sets a framework for the UK to operate within, granting certain rights, benefits, and obligations. The most prominent institutions are the EU, the European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (ECHR), and the United Nations. Although the UK's continued involvement in these institutions will have a direct impact on the operation of UK law, relations with other states, whether they be good or bad, will also shape the face of the English legal system. The chapter then studies international law, considering basic matters such as the meaning of international law, the doctrine of state sovereignty, and the distinction between public and private international law.
5. Court Structure
Authors: Thomas Mark , McGourlay Claire
Published: September 2017

Each Concentrate revision guide is packed with essential information, key cases, revision tips, exam Q&As, and more. This chapter focuses on court structure. The courts of England and Wales can be divided into numerous different classifications. There are three different ways that courts may be classified: criminal and civil courts, trial and appellate courts, and superior and inferior courts. In England and Wales, there is often thought to be a stark divide between criminal and civil courts. Criminal courts deal with individuals who have ‘allegedly’ committed a criminal offence and it is the role of the arbiters of fact to determine the guilt or innocence of a defendant based on the evidence presented before them. On the other hand, civil courts deal primarily with the resolution of private disputes between individuals. Such disputes can include matters of contract law, personal injury, and family law. However, the jurisdiction of some courts is not limited to one area of law, but rather is approachable for both substantive areas of law.
6. Personnel of the English Legal System
Authors: Thomas Mark , McGourlay Claire
Published: September 2017

Each Concentrate revision guide is packed with essential information, key cases, revision tips, exam Q&As, and more. This chapter looks at the multitude of different professionals, both legal and lay, in the English legal system (ELS). Legal professionals, often referred to as ‘lawyers’, includes such individuals as solicitors, barristers, legal executives, and paralegals. Barristers and solicitors were traditionally two very distinct roles in the ELS. Nowadays, a fusion of roles has occurred, meaning that the two professions are not as different as they formerly were. Meanwhile, judiciary refers to the various judicial ‘offices’ and ‘office holders’. Law officers are the individuals responsible for the operation of the ELS and includes such persons as the Attorney General and the Solicitor General. Court staff are the individuals involved in the day-to-day running of the ELS and include such persons as clerks, ushers, legal advisers, and many other persons. Lastly, laypersons refer to a special class of individuals — namely magistrates and juries responsible for trying cases in the Crown Court and magistrates' court respectively.
7. The Criminal Justice System
Authors: Thomas Mark , McGourlay Claire
Published: September 2017

Each Concentrate revision guide is packed with essential information, key cases, revision tips, exam Q&As, and more. This chapter examines the criminal justice system (CJS). The CJS is built upon procedural, evidential, and substantive foundations. These foundations dictate its direction and progression. A case will always begin with an investigation by the police or some other investigatory body. An individual may then be charged with an offence where he/she is provided with the option of pleading guilty or not guilty. Trial may follow. Where the defendant's case will be tried depends on the type of offence in question and, in some cases, the decision of the defendant. A convicted person may appeal against either conviction or sentence for which the defendant will be required to prove why they either should not have been convicted, or why their sentence should be reduced.
8. The Civil Justice System
Authors: Thomas Mark , McGourlay Claire
Published: September 2017

Each Concentrate revision guide is packed with essential information, key cases, revision tips, exam Q&As, and more. This chapter discusses the civil justice system. Civil justice is concerned with the private dispute between individuals in the absence of the state. It seeks to solve disputes before they have had a chance to enter the legal structure, through the use of alternative dispute resolution (ADR). Civil justice follows a similar pattern to its criminal counterpart; however, some of the procedural rules — specifically those relating to evidence — appear to be much more relaxed than in the criminal justice system. During the process of civil justice, a number of issues may arise which brings the procedure to an end. These issues include ADR, through which parties may decide to settle the case at any point; default judgment, wherein judgment may be entered against a defendant at any point in the proceedings; and offers to settle, known as a ‘Part 36 Offer’, in which an individual makes an offer to another without prejudice.
9. Funding Access to the English Legal System
Authors: Thomas Mark , McGourlay Claire
Published: September 2017

Each Concentrate revision guide is packed with essential information, key cases, revision tips, exam Q&As, and more. This chapter addresses funding access to the English legal system. Funding legal services may be provided publicly or privately. Public funding relates to funding available from the state, whereas private funding specifically refers to the assets and monetary resources available to that specific individual. Only certain individuals are entitled to benefit from public funding, whilst all persons can, in theory, privately fund legal services. Moreover, legal aid — meaning state-funded assistance in legal matters — is available in both criminal and civil cases but is restricted to narrow circumstances and types of cases. The availability of legal aid depends on several tests set by the government. Where legal aid is not available and the individual cannot privately fund their case, pro bono institutions may be available to provide advice.
The origin of the LMC stellar bar: clues from the SFH of the bar and inner disc
Authors: Monteagudo L , Gallart C , Monelli M , Bernard E J , Stetson P B
Published: September 2017

We discuss the origin of the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) stellar bar by comparing the star formation histories (SFHs) obtained from deep colour–magnitude diagrams (CMDs) in the bar and in a number of fields in different directions within the inner disc. The CMDs, reaching the oldest main-sequence turn-offs in these very crowded fields, have been obtained with VIMOS on the Very Large Telescope in the service mode, under very good seeing conditions. We show that the SFHs of all fields share the same patterns, with consistent variations of the star formation rate as a function of time in all of them. We therefore conclude that no specific event of star formation can be identified with the formation of the LMC bar, which instead likely formed from a redistribution of disc material which occurred when the LMC disc became bar unstable, and shared a common SFH with the inner disc thereafter. The strong similarity between the SFH of the centre and edge of the bar rules out the expected significant spatial variations of the SFH across the bar.
Horace's Satires
Authors: Freudenburg Kirk , Janssen Niek
Published: September 2017

Horace’s Satires are a collection of two books of hexameter poems that offer a humorous-critical commentary, of an indirect kind, unique to Horace, on various social phenomena in first century bce Rome. The Satires are Horace’s earliest published work: Book 1, with ten poems, was published around 35 bce, and Book 2, with eight poems, was published around 30 bce. Also known as the Sermones (“Conversations,” which seems to be the title that Horace gave them), the Satires stand out for their markedly unelevated themes and attitudes; their seemingly colloquial (but carefully composed) style; their often frank tone; and their rapid shifts of speakers, audiences, and perspectives. Horace’s primary mode of operation is to take a complex philosophical issue and tackle it in a quasi-moralizing, self-effacing, and purposefully inconsistent way. The diatribe in Satire 1.1 against people’s avarice and discontent with their own lot, for example, is obviously at odds with the fact that the poem, emphatically addressed to Maecenas in its opening line, marks the beginning of Horace’s first published collection, his move into the public eye, which (despite the poet’s own protestations in Satire 1.6) is inevitably a bid to move up to the higher echelons of Roman society. Yet, Horace employs other registers as well. He offers a dialogue between Odysseus and Tiresias (Satire 2.5), an exposé on witchcraft through the eyes of a statue of Priapus (Satire 1.8), and jeremiads directed against the poet himself in the voice of a failed businessman turned Stoic zealot (Satire 2.3) and of his own slave (2.7). He frequently explores themes usually avoided in high classical poetry, such as sex (Satire 1.2) and food (Satires 2.2, 2.4 and 2.8). The self-awareness of these poems becomes apparent in recurrent reflections on the art of writing satire (Satires 1.4, 1.10, and 2.1), in which Horace repeatedly compares himself to Lucilius, the originator of Roman satire, and laments his inability to speak as freely as his forebears given who he is, and the troubled times that he lives in. In short, Horace’s Satires embody the core idea of Roman satura, which literally means a “mish-mash of foodstuffs.” The outstanding “Horatian” quality of his poems is their imperviousness to being pinned down. In later times they were just as popular with pious monks as they were with dirty-minded epigrammatists. Today they are equally likely to be cited in studies of Roman sexuality, ancient literary criticism, and Epicurean philosophy. It is Horace’s protean slipperiness that has kept interest in the Sermones alive to this day.
Internet and Video Game Addiction
Authors: Anthony Wen (Vivien) Li , Anthony Blake
Published: September 2017

Internet and video games have become a major aspect of modern culture and daily life. According to Internet World Stats, more than 3.7 billion people worldwide accessed the Internet via computers, smartphones, and/or tablet computers in March 2017 (see World Internet Usage and Population Statistics, 2017). The 3.7 billion Internet users in 2017 represented a 933.8 percent increase over the number of Internet users in 2000 (see World Internet Usage and Population Statistics, 2017). Moreover, playing video games has become a major entertainment activity for many people. According to Global Games Market Report (2017), more than 2 billion people worldwide play video games via computer, game consoles (e.g., Sony PlayStation, Microsoft Xbox, and Nintendo), and/or mobile devices (e.g., smartphones and tablet computers) on the Internet and offline. Widespread Internet availability and video game development substantially benefit people by enhancing their access to a broad range of information and creating avenues for social communication and recreation. However, the penetration of the Internet and video games into daily life is a serious problem for an increasing number of people, rising to the level of addictive habits and carrying negative consequences similar to substance use and gambling disorders. China and South Korea have identified Internet and video game addiction as a significant public health issue. In addition to those countries, cases of Internet and video game addiction have been reported by media, clinical workers, and researchers in many other regions. Kimberly Young first adapted the DSM-IV compulsive gambling disorder criteria to define Internet addiction disorder in 1998 (Shaw and Black 2008, cited under An Overview of Internet and Video Game Addiction). In the past twenty years, a deluge of research has been conducted to conceptualize Internet and video game addiction, explore the etiology and mechanisms of Internet and video game addiction, estimate the prevalence rates of these problems in different regions and populations, and develop and evaluate measurement instruments, diagnostic criteria, and evidence-based intervention and prevention programs for Internet and video game addiction. A number of inpatient and outpatient intervention programs are provided in clinical settings for individuals suffering from Internet and video game addiction.
Draupadī
Authors: Hudson Emily T.
Published: September 2017

Draupadī is the central heroine of the classical Sanskrit epic the Mahābhārata, which tells the tale of a fratricidal war between two sets of cousins (the Pāṇḍavas and the Kauravas), resulting in the near devastation of the world. Draupadī is born from a sacrificial fire; jointly marries the five Pāṇḍava brothers; is humiliated, sexually harassed, and nearly publicly stripped by the Kauravas after her eldest husband loses her in a dice game; joins her husbands in their thirteen-year exile during which she is sexually assaulted twice; spurs them to avenge her in battle against the Kauravas; and finally, after the Pāṇḍavas’ pyrrhic victory and thirty-six-year-long rule, accompanies them to Mount Meru on their journey of ascent to heaven. Even though the epic presents her as an incarnation of the goddess Śrī (prosperity), she has little theological significance in the story. However, in folk reimaginings of the epic in Tamil Nadu, she becomes the virginal embodiment of the supreme goddess Parāśakti and is worshipped in many temple festivals in that region. Interpreted variously through the ages as a scholar; a model of Hindu womanhood; a goddess; Mother India; a head-strong, opinionated woman; an instigator of war; and a seductress, Draupadī is often compared to the more subservient and mild-mannered Sītā, the heroine of the Rāmāyaṇa. While Sītā is the more popular of the two, it is hard to overestimate the impact that Draupadī and the sexual violation she endures at the hands of the Kauravas in the dicing scene has had on Indian culture and consciousness. This scene has been reimagined in numerous plays, novels, dances, graphic narratives, and songs from a variety of feminist, colonial, and postcolonial perspectives, and has provided the culture with its preeminent metaphor of intolerable violence and injustice at the hands of blind male authority. Since the turn of the twenty-first century, Draupadī has also been adopted by transnational feminists as a symbol for violence against women. Draupadī is known by several names: Yajñasenī (which means “daughter of Yajñasena”), Pāñcalī (referring to her status as princess of Pāñcala), and Kṛṣṇā (dark one), which highlights her associations with the god Kṛṣṇa as well as her destructive elements.
Use of GIS in Environmental Science
Authors: Ahmad Karam , Laituri Melinda
Published: September 2017

The use of geographic information systems (GIS) in environmental science is a complex, multifaceted, and amorphous topic. Environmental science is a multidisciplinary field that integrates the biological, social, and physical sciences to address the seemingly intractable environmental problems humans face. Increasingly, GIS is the tool used to organize, analyze, manage, and visualize geospatial data that links models to derive outputs from environmental analysis and modeling. Coupled, the fields of GIS and environmental science cover a multitude of topics and approaches scattered across a broad bibliographic landscape. The environmental movement of the 1960s and 1970s fueled the development of environmental science as a disciplinary field closely related to ecology, geography, and hydrology. In the 1980s, GIS became a more accessible tool for researchers through such programs as GRASS, Intergraph, and ESRI’s ArcInfo to characterize and analyze complex environmental problems. During the 1990s, approaches to environmental science focused on risk management, pollution, and monitoring. The coincidence of Internet development, data accessibility, visualization, and software modeling tools have created a perfect storm for the adoption of an integrated approach—environmental science with an integrated technology (GIS)—to address environmental issues. There has been a virtual explosion of applications and research utilizing GIS that cover a broad range of issues: water resources, climate change, urban planning, environmental justice, vulnerability studies, etc. This bibliography provides an entrée to the complex landscape of GIS applications for environmental science. It is not an exhaustive bibliography, but one that highlights some of the main avenues of GIS applications. Utilizing the Web of Science, Academic Search Premier, and Google Scholar, key articles on GIS and environmental science were accessed and organized around various thematic areas, including Disasters, Ecology, Pollution, Public Health and Epidemiology, and Water Resources Analysis. There are numerous other areas of this topic, but selecting these areas presents the reader with an overview of the field. Many of the articles in this bibliography provide a jumping off point to explore other topic areas that are not included in this bibliography.
Virtual Water
Authors: Beltrán Maria J.
Published: September 2017

The concept of virtual water was originally promoted by Professor Tony Allan to shed light on how Middle Eastern countries’ water requirements have exceeded available resources since 1970. Trying to explain why no war over water has occurred when many economies in the Middle East region have only half the water they need, Allan argued that economic systems solved the water supply problem for the region, supplying water via trade. In other words, water scarcity in these countries was being managed by importing virtual water in the form of agricultural products from the international market. While virtual water is a theoretical indicator, the “water footprint” emerged as a methodological attempt to estimate virtual water, although some authors point out the confusion surrounding these two indicators (see General Overviews). As the water footprint and virtual water provided useful means for estimating flows of water through international trade in products and services, many works have been published around these concepts since the first great meeting held on the topic, the Congress of Virtual Water in 2003 (see General Overviews). This article introduces the foundational pieces in this literature, then includes different sections on the associated concepts (see Colors of Virtual Water Flows I and Colors of Virtual Water Flows II), the main methodologies used to quantify virtual water flows (see Methodologies for Quantifying Virtual Water Flows), studies on virtual water flows at different geographical scales and across diverse economic sectors and products (see Applications of Accounting Methods I and Applications of Accounting Methods II), the most important papers dealing with the role of virtual water and water footprint as a policy tool (see From Virtual Water and Water Footprint to Policy), and finally the main criticisms of these concepts (see Critics of Virtual Water and Water Footprint).
Effects of Land Use
Authors: Munroe Darla K.
Published: September 2017

Land use refers to the management or modification of the earth’s land surface by human agents. Often it refers to the conversion of natural landscapes like forests or wetlands into built environments or agricultural production, but also includes activities such as mining or the storage of waste into landfills. Land use is spatial, that is, resulting from interactions between humans and their environment. Land use is also temporal because past land changes may alter what choices are possible in the future. Natural and social science communities have engaged in studying the drivers of land-use change and associated environmental consequences as dynamic, coupled, social-environmental systems.
Pets and Domesticated Animals in the Atlantic World
Authors: Alves Abel
Published: September 2017

While some might think that the study of pets and domesticated animals in the Atlantic world is a relatively recent phenomenon, there were a few pioneering efforts prior to the discipline-defining work of Alfred W. Crosby Jr., William Cronon, Harriet Ritvo, and Keith Thomas. Today, under the influence of individuals like Virginia DeJohn Anderson, Helen Cowie, and Erica Fudge, the field is expanding through a willingness to study the agency of nonhuman animals and the relationships that were formed between them and humans of different ethnicities and estates. In the spirit of James Serpell’s call to seek out instances of pet-keeping beyond the 19th-century European bourgeoisie, there is also a focus on the roles and attitudes of Africans and Indigenous Americans in the development of an Atlantic matrix of traditions regarding pet-keeping and domestication. Evidence is mounting that behaviors we associate with pet-keeping today were present from 1492 on, and were not only displayed in the homes of members of the elite. While the comfort and longevity of companion animals might very well have been determined by the status of their humans, the concern demonstrated by humans of lower economic and social standing for companion animals has been found in the archives and early printed works by scholars like Sonya Lipsett-Rivera and Marcy Norton. As with other aspects of this growing line of research, more remains to be done. In any relatively new field or subdiscipline, terminology and periodization remain in flux. However, regular interactions in an Atlantic world certainly only began with Columbus’s first voyage in 1492, while the publication of Charles Darwin’s The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals and Anna Sewell’s Black Beauty, both in the 1870s, marked a victory for what had been two human perceptions of other animals that may have always been there, but that were frequently muted: that humans and other animals share the same feelings and similar methods of communication in their common sentience, and that the cruel use of, at the very least, domesticated animals is morally reprehensible and wrong. As much as our interactions with our pets and domesticated animals have shaped them, they have also shaped us in the Atlantic world and, indeed, globally.
Communication Apprehension
Authors: Perrault Evan K.
Published: September 2017

One cannot discuss the construct of communication apprehension (CA) without bringing up the scholar James C. McCroskey. McCroskey coined the concept with his graduate students during his time on faculty at Michigan State University, and published the first article in 1970 utilizing the term. CA is generally defined as people’s fear or anxiety related to actual or anticipated communication with others. As many of the references in this article will show, McCroskey went on to author or coauthor dozens of publications concerned with CA over the years. CA is divided into two general categories: trait CA and state CA. A person has trait CA when he or she has fear or anxiety about speaking across the entire spectrum of communication contexts. On the other hand, state CA occurs when a person has fear or anxiety about speaking in just one situation or context. In other words, people may be low in trait CA but have high state CA in certain situations. For example, someone may experience fear or anxiety about communicating with a physician during a medical consultation (i.e., high state CA), but not have any other fear or anxiety surrounding communication in other interpersonal contexts (i.e., low trait CA). Research into CA has generally been focused on finding ways to reduce CA among individuals, as it has usually been framed as a negative attribute.
Media Systems Theory
Authors: Seethaler Josef
Published: September 2017

This article outlines the paradigms and research traditions in the analysis of the development and organization of media systems. Considering media systems as a set of media institutions and practices that interact with and shape one another, two major strands can be distinguished: (older) normative-critical approaches, which aim at generalizing particular concepts of how media systems should function within society, and (newer) analytical approaches, which attempt to explain the emergence of and changes to media structures and institutions and their impact on media performance and audience behavior. Normative approaches are overshadowed by the political circumstances of the Cold War era, while analytical approaches to date have only a short, though promising, history. Like media systems themselves, media systems theory has evolved within and been influenced by political and cultural contexts. The starting point of much of the research was the notion that the status and structures of mass media are largely determined by the political and social orders and norms within which the media operates. In order to be able to adequately grasp these connections, media systems research developed comparative models and procedures early on, since only a comparison can show the characteristics that prevail in a given geographical context (or temporal context—though this is less often theoretically considered or empirically explored). Thus it comes as no surprise that media systems research has been on the up and up with an overall increasing interest in comparative research in the course of the dramatic political and economic changes triggered by the “third wave of democratization” and the ongoing market deregulation. Considerations on the effects that these phenomena might have on the structure and performance of media systems have led to a new stage in the development of media systems theory, in that more elaborated approaches—such as the “three models of media and politics” proposed by Daniel C. Hallin and Paolo Mancini in their book Comparing Media Systems: Three Models of Media and Politics (Hallin and Mancini 2004, cited under Core Texts and General Overviews)—are providing an empirical foundation as opposed to a normative foundation for comparative media system analysis. The present radical transformation in the media imposes yet unknown challenges on media systems research. Due to technological and economic changes, all kinds of boundaries are blurring: between national markets, media genres, journalistic cultures, publics, and even between users and producers. This raises the question of whether media systems research, which is generally focused on previous upheavals of media structures, has sufficient potential to provide a theoretical framework for the current changes, and whether this can also be used to understand future developments.
E-Government
Authors: Scholl Hans Jochen
Published: September 2017

Pairing two terms such as “electronic” and “government” to name a phenomenon and create the label of “electronic government” was the signature of the early days of the Internet and web in the 1990s, which also witnessed similar creations such as “electronic business,” “electronic commerce,” and “electronic democracy,” among others. In those early days, labeling something “electronic” was meant to suggest modern, novel, and future-oriented undertakings supported by information and communication technology (ICT). None of these labels emanated from any academic discourse or research, but rather they evolved and were promoted from within ICT vendor and trade press communities. Another and equivalent label for “electronic government” is “digital government,” which was and has remained popular in North America. Both terms have been used interchangeably. Academia blessed the terms “electronic government” (EG) and “digital government” (DG) only later, by providing definitions that attempted to capture the ideas of modernizing government, fostering participation, and improving services by means of novel ICTs. One definition, which in 2006 was also adopted by the Digital Government Society, reads, “Electronic government is the use of information technology to support government operations, engage citizens, and provide government services.” Over the years and since its recognizable beginnings in the late 1990s, the multidisciplinary study domain of e-government has formed around these themes and has produced a sizable and well-respected body of knowledge at the intersection of the public sphere, including public administration, information, and information technology as well as individual, group, and institutional stakeholders’ needs and wants in this particular context. The study domain qua definition spans several traditional disciplines. Consequently, no single discipline has claimed or can claim sole ownership of the domain as its academic “home turf.” Hence, as a multidisciplinary domain of study, EG needed almost a decade to establish its unique outlets of publication, which were then recognized also from the vantage points of contributing disciplines such as Public Administration, Political Science, Management Information Systems Research, Information Science, Computer Science and Human-Computer Interaction Research, and others. One challenge for any multidisciplinary study domain such as EG is that the contributing disciplines may base their work on different standards of inquiry and norms of publication. Hence, what may count as good research in one discipline may not be equally acceptable in another discipline. However, although a niche domain of study to these contributing disciplines, over the years EG has successfully overcome this particular challenge and has established a widely recognized academic footprint and a reputation of high quality in research, which also enjoys high relevance to practice.
Managing Grapevine Trunk Diseases With Respect to Etiology and Epidemiology: Current Strategies and Future Prospects
Authors: Gramaje David , Úrbez-Torres José Ramón , Sosnowski Mark R.
Published: September 2017

Fungal trunk diseases are some of the most destructive diseases of grapevine in all grape growing areas of the world. Management of GTDs has been intensively studied for decades with some great advances made in our understanding of the causal pathogens, their epidemiology, impact, and control. However, due to the breadth and complexity of the problem, no single effective control measure has been developed. Management of GTD must be holistic and integrated, with an interdisciplinary approach conducted in both nurseries and vineyards that integrates plant pathology, agronomy, viticulture, microbiology, epidemiology, biochemistry, physiology, and genetics. In this review, we identify a number of areas of future prospect for effective management of GTDs worldwide, which, if addressed, will provide a positive outlook on the longevity of vineyards in the future.
Genome-Wide Association Mapping of Loci for Resistance to Stripe Rust in North American Elite Spring Wheat Germplasm
Authors: Godoy Jayfred Gaham , Rynearson Sheri , Chen Xianming , Pumphrey Michael
Published: September 2017

Stripe rust, caused by Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici, is a major yield-limiting foliar disease of wheat (Triticum aestivum) worldwide. In this study, the genetic variability of elite spring wheat germplasm from North America was investigated to characterize the genetic basis of effective all-stage and adult plant resistance (APR) to stripe rust. A genome-wide association study was conducted using 237 elite spring wheat lines genotyped with an Illumina Infinium 90K single-nucleotide polymorphism array. All-stage resistance was evaluated at seedling stage in controlled conditions and field evaluations were conducted under natural disease pressure in eight environments across Washington State. High heritability estimates and correlations between infection type and severity were observed. Ten loci for race-specific all-stage resistance were confirmed from previous mapping studies. Three potentially new loci associated with race-specific all-stage resistance were identified on chromosomes 1D, 2A, and 5A. For APR, 11 highly significant quantitative trait loci (QTL) (false discovery rate < 0.01) were identified, of which 3 QTL on chromosomes 3A, 5D, and 7A are reported for the first time. The QTL identified in this study can be used to enrich the current gene pool and improve the diversity of resistance to stripe rust disease.
Pheochromocytoma of the bladder
Authors: Williams Paige , Siref Larry , Feloney Mike
Published: September 2017

Pheochromocytoma is a rare catecholamine-secreting tumor. Unless recognized and treated appropriately it can be lethal. Common symptoms include sustained or paroxysmal hypertension associated with headaches, sweating, or palpitations. This article describes a patient with an extra-adrenal pheochromocytoma who presented with symptoms associated with voiding.
An introduction to gastrointestinal tract CMV disease
Authors: O'Hara Kevin Michael , Pontrelli Gina , Kunstel Katherine L.
Published: September 2017

Cytomegalovirus (CMV) causes chronic infection that can manifest disease in many organs. The gastrointestinal (GI) tract is a common location for CMV disease. This article reviews the signs, symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of GI CMV disease.
Spontaneous carotid artery dissection
Authors: Perez Daniel J.
Published: September 2017

Symptomatic spontaneous internal carotid artery dissection is responsible for up to 20% of strokes in patients under age 45 years. A carotid artery dissection occurs when arterial walls separate and create a false lumen. Risk factors include neck trauma, recent infection, family history, smoking, hypertension, oral contraceptives, migraine headaches, and connective tissue disease. Dissections can produce local pain, facial paralysis, and pupillary defects. Treatment includes anticoagulation and, in the event of pharmaceutical failure or recurrence, surgery.
Assessment of Technical Skills Competence in the Operating Room: A Systematic and Scoping Review
Authors: Fahim Christine , Wagner Natalie , Nousiainen Markku T. , Sonnadara Ranil
Published: September 2017

Purpose

While academic accreditation bodies continue to promote competency-based medical education (CBME), the feasibility of conducting regular CBME assessments remains challenging. The purpose of this study was to identify evidence pertaining to the practical application of assessments that aim to measure technical competence for surgical trainees in a nonsimulated, operative setting.

Method

In August 2016, the authors systematically searched Medline, Embase, and the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews for English-language, peer-reviewed articles published in or after 1996. The title, abstract, and full text of identified articles were screened. Data regarding study characteristics, psychometric and measurement properties, implementation of assessment, competency definitions, and faculty training were extracted. The findings from the systematic review were supplemented by a scoping review to identify key strategies related to faculty uptake and implementation of CBME assessments.

Results

A total of 32 studies were included. The majority of studies reported reasonable scores of interrater reliability and internal consistency. Seven articles identified minimum scores required to establish competence. Twenty-five articles mentioned faculty training. Many of the faculty training interventions focused on timely completion of assessments or scale calibration.

Conclusions

There are a number of diverse tools used to assess competence for intraoperative technical skills and a lack of consensus regarding the definition of technical competence within and across surgical specialties. Further work is required to identify when and how often trainees should be assessed and to identify strategies to train faculty to ensure timely and accurate assessment.