bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Silent Crisis: The State of Rain Forest Nature Preserves
Authors: van Schaik Carel P. , Terborgh John
Published: November 2020

The principal response of the global community to the threats against biodiversity has been the establishment of strictly protected areas, exemplified by the National Park System of the United States. In such areas, consumptive uses are banned and wild nature is allowed to exist in untrammeled form. Nonconsumptive recreational uses—such as sightseeing, hiking, swimming, boating, and camping—are permitted but are regulated as to place and time and number of participants. In the tropical forest realm, however, protected nature preserves are in a state of crisis. A number of tropical parks have already been degraded almost beyond redemption; others face severe threats of many kinds with little capacity to resist. The final bulwark erected to shield tropical nature from extinction is collapsing. The predictable and unpredictable ecological processes likely to affect the future ability of protected rain forest areas to retain their full biodiversity are examined in chapter 3. While the potential impact of ecological processes could be severe, they are amenable to technical solutions and could be solved given sufficient resources and knowledge. A far more immediate and significant threat is posed by human activities. Indeed, the crisis of parks in the tropics results primarily from increasing human pressure on all unexploited natural resources, aggravated by ineffective protection. Pressure on parks is exerted on local, regional, and national scales, usually taking the form of illegal land appropriation or resource extraction. The attack on tropical parks is being pressed by four main classes of actors: local and displaced populations of agriculturalists and extractors, governments, resource-robbing elites, and (in a few cases) indigenous forest-dwelling populations. In this chapter, we discuss the root causes of the actions of each of these groups and of the institutional failure that results in ineffective enforcement of park legislation. many common themes, regardless of the geographic area to which they pertained, and one theme in particular stood out: despite legal status and the presence of conservation officers, protected areas are not safe from illegal appropriation and exploitation. Our perception is that the threat to tropical parks is not widely appreciated.
Specific Evolutionary Algorithms
Authors: Bäck Thomas
Published: November 2020

In this chapter, an outline of an Evolutionary Algorithm is formulated that is sufficiently general to cover at least the three different main stream algorithms mentioned before, namely, Evolution Strategies, Genetic Algorithms, and Evolutionary Programming. As in the previous chapter, algorithms are formulated in a language obtained by mixing pseudocode and mathematical notations, thus allowing for a high-level description which concentrates on the main components. These are: A population of individuals which is manipulated by genetic operators — especially mutation and recombination, but others may also be incorporated — and undergoes a fitness-based selection process, where fitness of an individual depends on its quality with respect to the optimization task.
Heterogeneous Logic
Authors: Barwise Jon , Etchemendy John
Published: November 2020

A major concern to the founders of modern logic—Frege, Peirce, Russell, and Hilbert—was to give an account of the logical structure of valid reasoning. Taking valid reasoning in mathematics as paradigmatic, these pioneers led the way in developing the accounts of logic which we teach today and that underwrite the work in model theory, proof theory, and definability theory. The resulting notions of proof, model, formal system, soundness, and completeness are things that no one claiming familiarity with logic can fail to understand, and they have also played an enormous role in the revolution known as computer science. The success of this model of inference led to an explosion of results and applications. But it also led most logicians—and those computer scientists most influenced by the logic tradition—to neglect forms of reasoning that did not fit well within this model. We are thinking, of course, of reasoning that uses devices like diagrams, graphs, charts, frames, nets, maps, and pictures. The attitude of the traditional logician to these forms of representation is evident in the quotation of Neil Tennant in Chapter I, which expresses the standard view of the role of diagrams in geometrical proofs. One aim of our work, as explained there, is to demonstrate that this dogma is misguided. We believe that many of the problems people have putting their knowledge of logic to work, whether in machines or in their own lives, stems from the logocentricity that has pervaded its study for the past hundred years. Recently, some researchers outside the logic tradition have explored uses of diagrams in knowledge representation and automated reasoning, finding inspiration in the work of Euler, Venn, and especially C. S. Peirce. This volume is a testament to this resurgence of interest in nonlinguistic representations in reasoning. While we applaud this resurgence, the aim of this chapter is to strike a cautionary note or two. Enchanted by the potential of nonlinguistic representations, it is all too easy to overreact and so to repeat the errors of the past.
Introduction To Renormalization Group Modeling Of Turbulence
Authors: Orszag Steven A. , Staroselsky, I.
Published: November 2020

The renormalization group (RNG) and related e-expansion methods are a powerful technique that allow the systematic derivation of coarse-grained equations of motion for turbulent flows and, in particular, the derivation of sophisticated turbulence models based on the fundamental underlying physics. The RNG method provides a convenient calculus for the analysis of complex physical effects in complex flows. The details of the RNG method applied to fluid mechanics differ in some crucial respects from how renormalization group techniques are applied to field theories in other branches of physics. At the present time, the RNG methods for fluid dynamics are by no means rigorously justified, so their utility must be based on the quality and quantity of results to which they lead. In this paper we discuss the basis for the RNG method and then illustrate its application to a variety of turbulent flow problems, emphasizing those points where further analysis is needed. The application of a field-theoretic method like the RNG technique to turbulence is based on the fundamental assumption of universality of small scales in turbulent flows. Such universal behavior was first suggested over 50 years ago in the seminal work of A. N. Kolmogorov who argued that the small-scale spectrum of incompressible turbulence is universal and characterized by two numbers, the rate of energy dissipation ε per unit mass and the kinematic viscosity v.
Population Dynamics
Authors: Chu C. Y. Cyrus
Published: November 2020

Population Dynamics fills the gap between the classical supply-side population theory of Malthus and the modern demand-side theory of economic demography. In doing so, author Cyrus Chu investigates specifically the dynamic macro implications of various static micro family economic decisions. Holding the characteristic composition of the macro population to always be an aggregate result of some corresponding individual micro decision, Chu extends his research on the fertility-related decisions of families to an analysis of other economic determinations. Within this framework, Chu studies the income distribution, attitude composition, job structure, and aggregate savings and pensions of the population. While in some cases a micro-macro connection is easily established under regular behavioral assumptions, in several chapters Chu enlists the mathematical tool of branching processes to determine the connection. Offering a wealth of detail, this book provides a balanced discussion of background motivation, theoretical characterization, and empirical evidence in an effort to bring about a renewal in the economic approach to population dynamics. This welcome addition to the research and theory of economic demography will interest professional economists as well as professors and graduate students of economics.
Soil Water Flow
Authors: Warrick Arthur W.
Published: November 2020

The definitions of hydraulic head and soil water potential in chapter 1 assumed equilibrium. However, the primary motivation was to develop a background useful to describe dynamic systems. If a system is in equilibrium, no flow will occur; otherwise, flow will occur from regions of high to low hydraulic head. The primary flow equation will be Darcy’s law. When Darcy’s law is combined with conservation of mass, the result is a continuity equation that can have several different forms. We will refer to all of those forms generically as soil water flow equations. Generally, for unsaturated conditions, the soil water flow equation is called the Richards equation. A starting point is to examine two classical relationships from fluid dynamics, the Bernoulli and the Poiseuille laws. Bernoulli’s law relates the total potential for ideal fluids and is commonly derived in introductory physics and fluid mechanics texts (see Serway, 1990). Assumptions include an ideal fluid (non-viscous), which is one that is incompressible and which exhibits steady and irrotational flow. For these conditions, the sum of gravitational, pressure, and inertial energy at positions S1and S2 are the same along any streamline For a real fluid, viscosity causes a loss of energy as friction that must be overcome. Additionally, for most problems of interest in soils, the velocity head will be negligible compared with the pressure and gravitational terms.
A Guide to Biblical Sites in Greece and Turkey
Authors: Fant Clyde E. , Reddish Mitchell G.
Published: November 2020

Nearly two-thirds of the New Testament--including all of the letters of Paul, most of the book of Acts, and the book of Revelation--is set outside of Israel, in either Turkey or Greece. Although biblically-oriented tours of the areas that were once ancient Greece and Asia Minor have become increasingly popular, up until now there has been no definitive guidebook through these important sites. In A Guide to Biblical Sites in Greece and Turkey, two well-known, well-traveled biblical scholars offer a fascinating historical and archaeological guide to these sites. The authors reveal countless new insights into the biblical text while reliably guiding the traveler through every significant location mentioned in the Bible. The book completely traces the journeys of the Apostle Paul across Turkey (ancient Asia Minor), Greece, Cyprus, and the islands of the Mediterranean. A description of the location and history of each site is given, followed by an intriguing discussion of its biblical significance. Clearly written and in non-technical language, the work links the latest in biblical research with recent archaeological findings. A visit to the site is described, complete with easy-to-follow walking directions, indicating the major items of archaeological interest. Detailed site maps, historical charts, and maps of the regions are integrated into the text, and a glossary of terms is provided. Easy to use and abundantly illustrated, this unique guide will help visitors to Greece, Turkey, and Cyprus appreciate the rich history, significance, and great wonder of the ancient world of the Bible.
The State-of-the-Art in Tissue Exchange
Authors: Saltzman W. Mark
Published: November 2020

It is an impressive spectacle. Multicellular organisms—from fruitflies to humans—emerge from a single cell through a coordinated sequence of cell division, movement, and specialization. Many of the fundamental mechanisms of animal development are known: differentiated cells arise from less specialized precursor or stem cells, cells organize into functional units by migration and selective adhesion, and cell-secreted growth factors stimulate growth or differentiation in other cells. Despite extensive progress in acquiring basic knowledge, however, therapeutic opportunities for patients with tissue loss due to trauma or disease remain extremely limited. Degeneration within the nervous system can reduce the quality and length of life for individuals with Parkinson’s disease. Inadequate healing can cause various problems, including liver failure after hepatitis infections, as well as chronic pain from venous leg ulcers and severe infections in burn victims. The symphony of development is difficult to conduct in adults. Tissue or whole-organ transplantation is one of the few options currently available for patients with many common ailments including excessive skin loss and artery occlusion. During the past century, many of the obstacles to transplantation were cleared: immunosuppressive drugs and advanced surgical techniques make liver, heart, kidney, blood vessel, and other major organ transplantations a daily reality. But transplantation technology has encountered another severe limitation. The number of patients requiring a transplant far exceeds the available supply of donor tissues. New technology is needed to reduce this deficit. Some advances will come from individuals trained to synthesize basic scientific discoveries (for example, in developmental biology) with modern bioengineering principles. Tissue engineering grew from the challenge presented by tissue shortage. Tissue engineers are working to develop new approaches for encouraging tissue growth and repair; these approaches are founded on basic science of organ development and wound healing. A few pioneering efforts are already being tested in patients; these include engineered skin equivalents for wound repair, transplanted cells that are isolated from the immune system by encapsulation in polymer membranes for treatment of diabetes, and chondrocyte implantation for repair of articular cartilage defects.
Tissue Barriers to Molecular and Cellular Transport
Authors: Saltzman W. Mark
Published: November 2020

Previous chapters have revealed the importance of molecular diffusion in tissue engineering. Molecules—and gradients of molecules—may represent the underlying mechanism of tissue induction and pattern formation (Chapter 3); growth factors—and the rate of delivery of growth factors to a cell surface—can influence the rate of cell proliferation (Chapter 4); chemoattractants can influence the rate and pattern of cell migration within a tissue space (Chapter 7). To think quantitatively about these processes, it is often helpful to think about molecular concentrations and the spatial variations in concentration that produce diffusion fluxes. This idea has been illustrated earlier in the book for specific examples such as bicoid gradient formation in the insect embryo (Section 3.3.4) and ligand diffusion to the cell surface (Section 4.3.2). Some of the basic concepts of molecular transport are also reviewed in Appendix B. But tissues are often heterogeneous structures, formed by the assembly of cells and the accumulation of matrix materials in the extracellular space. The heterogeneous composition of tissues can have a dramatic influence on local rates of molecular movement through the tissue; capillary endothelial cells prevent the diffusion of intravascular proteins into the tissue interstitial space, for example. This chapter discusses this concept and provides quantitative methods for evaluating rates of molecular movement between tissue spaces that are separated by diffusive barriers. In addition, the last section of the chapter shows how this same analysis may be useful when thinking about rates of cellular movement between tissue compartments. In multicellular organisms, thin lipid membranes serve as semipermeable barriers between aqueous compartments. The plasma membrane of the cell separates the cytoplasm from the extracellular space; endothelial cell membranes separate the blood within the vascular space from the rest of the tissue. Properties of the lipid membrane are critically important in regulating the movement of molecules between aqueous spaces. While certain barrier properties of membranes can be attributed to the lipid components, accessory molecules within the cell membrane—particularly transport proteins and ion channels—control the rate of permeation of many solutes.
Environmental and Social Consequences of Coca/Cocaine in Peru: Policy Alternatives and a Research Agenda
Authors: Young Kenneth R.
Published: November 2020

The demand for illicit drugs can leverage dramatic changes in land cover and associated native biological diversity. These changes, in turn, can lead to loss of critical habitats and rare species of plants and animals, in addition to the degradation of remaining habitats and the contamination of water bodies. Concomitantly, demand can transform social and economic processes, acting against the interests of long-time residents, such as indigenous groups, by attracting new colonists and fomenting crime and violence. Given these potential interconnections between illicit drugs and grave social and environmental consequences, it is more than peculiar that so much scholarly work on environmental transformations does not consider drug-related causes in those countries that supply or transship the drugs. Examples of this myopia include most of the literature on tropical deforestation, where illicit drugs are ignored (e.g., Anderson 1990; Wood 1990; Dove 1993; Myers 1993; Place 1993; Rudel 1993; Brown and Pearce 1994; Jepman 1995; Goldsmith 1998; Barraclough and Ghimere 2000; Horta 2000). The chapters in this book partly correct this deficit and I provide here information for the case of Peru and for “coca/cocaine.” In this chapter, I provide an overview of the way these processes have acted in Peru in relation to the demand for coca leaves, which are transformed into cocaine paste and cocaine. I find great spatial heterogeneity in the negative impacts, at least some of which can be explained by the values and practices of particular social groups. A political ecology approach is helpful in this assessment because by definition illicit drugs intermix the power of governments and economic forces with outcomes toward and resistance by local peoples. I begin by characterizing “coca/ cocaine,” first disaggregating the two words and then showing how the associated processes have affected geopolitics acting upon and within Peru. Then, I examine the evidence available for the effects of coca/cocaine on local landscapes inhabited by indigenous and other social groups. Finally, I outline the known environmental consequences. In the conclusion, I provide the elements necessary for a more complete research agenda that, in turn, could provide the information needed to explore policy alternatives for the social actors involved.
An Agent-Based Approach to Environmental and Urban Systems within Geographic Information Systems
Authors: Jiang Bin , Randy Gimblett H.
Published: November 2020

Both environment and urban systems are complex systems that are intrinsically spatially and temporally organized. Geographic information systems (GIS) provide a platform to deal with such complex systems, both from modeling and visualization points of view. For a long time, cell-based GIS has been widely used for modeling urban and environment system from various perspectives such as digital terrain representation, overlay, distance mapping, etc. Recently temporal GIS (TGIS) has been challenged to model dynamic aspects of urban and environment system (e.g., Langran, Clifford and Tuzhilin, Egenhofer and Golledge), in pursuit of better understanding and perception of both spatial and temporal aspects of these systems. In regional and urban sciences, cellular automata (CA) provide useful methods and tools for studying how regional and urban systems evolve. Because of its conceptual resemblance to cell-based GIS, CA have been extensively used to integrate GIS as potentially useful qualitative forecasting models. This approach intends to look at urban and environment systems as self-organized processes; i.e., how coherent global patterns emerge from local interaction. Thus this approach differentiates it from TGIS in that there is no database support for space-time dynamics. An agent-based approach was initially developed from distributed artificial intelligence (DAI). The basic idea of agent-based approaches is that programs exhibit behaviors entirely described by their internal mechanisms. By linking an individual to a program, it is possible to simulate an artificial world inhabited by interacting processes. Thus it is possible to implement simulation by transposing the population of a real system to its artificial counterpart. Each member of population is represented as an agent who has built-in behaviors. Agent-based approaches provide a platform for modeling situations in which there are large numbers of individuals that can create complex behaviors. It is likely to be of particular interest for modeling space-time dynamics in environmental and urban systems, because it allows researchers to explore relationships between microlevel individual actions and the emergent macrolevel phenomena. An agent-based approach has great potential for modeling environmental and urban systems within GIS. Previous work has focused on modeling people environment interaction, virtual ecosystems, and integration of agent based approach and GIS.
Mobile Agents with Spatial Intelligence
Authors: Itami Robert M.
Published: November 2020

Recreation behavior simulation (RBSim) is a computer program that simulates the behavior of human recreators in high-use natural environments. Specifically RBSim uses concepts from recreation research and artificial intelligence (AI) and combines them with geographic information systems (GIS) to produce an integrated system for exploring the interactions between different recreation user groups within geographic space. RBSim joins two computer technologies: • Geographic information systems to represent the environment, and • Autonomous agents to simulate human behavior within geographic space. RBSim demonstrates the potential of combining the two technologies to explore the complex interactions between humans and the environment. The implications of this technology should also be applicable to the study of wildlife populations and other systems where there are complex interactions in the environment. RBSim uses autonomous agents to simulate recreator behavior. An autonomous agent is a computer simulation that is based on concepts from artificial life research. Agent simulations are built using object-oriented programming technology. The agents are autonomous because, once they are programmed, they can move about the landscape like software robots. The agents can gather data from their environment, make decisions from this information, and change their behavior according to the situation in which they find themselves. Each individual agent has its own physical mobility, sensory, and cognitive capabilities. This results in actions that echo the behavior of real animals (in this case, humans) in the environment. The process of building an agent is iterative and combines knowledge derived from empirical data with the intuition of the programmer. By continuing to program knowledge and rules into the agent, watching the behavior resulting from these rules, and comparing it to what is known about actual behavior, a rich and complex set of behaviors emerge. What is compelling about this type of simulation is that it is impossible to predict the behavior of any single agent in the simulation and, by observing the interactions between agents, it is possible to draw conclusions that are impossible using any other analytical process. RBSim is important because, until now, there have been no tools for recreation managers and researchers to systematically investigate different recreation management options.
A 200-Year Perspective of Climate Variability and the Response of White Spruce in Interior Alaska
Authors: Juday Glenn Patrick , Barber Valerie
Published: November 2020

The two most important life functions that organisms carry out to persist in the environment are reproduction and growth. In this chapter we examine the role of climate and climate variability as controlling factors in the growth of one of the most important and productive of the North American boreal forest tree species, white spruce (Picea glauca [Moench] Voss). Because the relationship between climate and tree growth is so close, tree-ring properties have been used successfully for many years as a proxy to reconstruct past climates. Our recent reconstruction of nineteenth- century summer temperatures at Fairbanks based on white spruce tree-ring characteristics (Barber et al. in press) reveals a fundamental pattern of quasi-decadal climate variability. The values in this reconstruction of nineteenth-century Fairbanks summer temperatures are surprisingly warm compared to values in much of the published paleoclimatic literature for boreal North America. In this chapter we compare our temperature reconstructions with ring-width records in northern and south-central Alaska to see whether tree-growth signals in the nineteenth century in those regions are consistent with tree-ring characteristics in and near Bonanza Creek (BNZ) LTER (25 km southwest of Fairbanks) that suggest warm temperatures during the mid-nineteenth century. We also present a conceptual model of key limiting events in white spruce reproduction and compare it to a 39-year record of seed fall at BNZ. Finally, we derive a radial growth pattern index from white spruce at nine stands across Interior Alaska that matches recent major seed crop events in the BNZ monitoring period, and we identify dates after 1800 when major seed crops of white spruce, which are infrequent, may have been produced. The boreal region is characterized by a broad zone of forest with a continuous distribution across Eurasia and North America, amounting to about 17% of the earth’s land surface area (Bonan et al. 1992). The boreal region is often conceived of as a zone of relatively homogenous climate, but in fact a surprising diversity of climates are present. During the long days of summer, continental interior locations under persistent high-pressure systems experience hot weather that can promote extensive forest fires frequently exceeding 100 kilohectares (K ha). Summer daily maximum temperatures are cooled to a considerable degree in maritime portions of the boreal region affected by air masses that originate over the North Atlantic, North Pacific, or Arctic Oceans.
Monitoring Agricultural Drought in Poland
Authors: Bochenek Zbigniew , Dabrowska-Zielinska Katarzyna
Published: November 2020

Poland is situated in the Great European Plain between the Baltic Sea and the Carpathian and Sudety mountains. Its territory includes lowlands (91.3%), highlands (7.7%), and mountains (1%). Most of Poland’s soils are light soils of podsolic origin, which are usually of poor quality. It is for this reason that only 25% of the agricultural land, which accounts for 60% of the total territory and engages about 12% of population, is used for producing wheat, barley, sugar beets, rape seed, and vegetables. Average yields of main crops in Poland are lower than in the majority of West European countries. But the higher harvest areas put Poland sixth in Europe in the production of wheat, second in the production of rye and potatoes, and fourth in the production of sugar beet. The variation in the production of these crops during 1990–2000 is shown in figure 13.1. Private farms cover about 84% of the total agricultural land. About 55% of the farms have an individual area < 2 ha. Liquidation of state farms and substantial reduction in the number of cooperative and collective farms have impacted the size of individual farms and increased their importance in agricultural production and Polish export. Since 1980, the average area of individual farms increased from 6.5 to 7.8 ha. Poland is located in the region where precipitation exceeds transpiration. But since the 1960s, annual rainfall has gradually decreased by about 70 mm (Slota et al., 1992). Due to the shortage of precipitation, high temperature fluctuations in the spring, and cool weather during summertime, yields of the main crops have decreased and drought frequency has increased, particularly during the last decade. Drought usually begins in western Poland, moves through the central part, and eventually reaches eastern side (between 51°N and 54°N), which is highly susceptible to droughts. Regions located above 54°N are in the zone of Baltic Sea climate characterized by higher rainfall (600–700 mm) and hence are less prone to drought than the rest of Poland.
Agricultural Drought in Ethiopia
Authors: Mersha Engida , Boken Vijendra K.
Published: November 2020

In Ethiopia, 85% of the population is engaged in agriculture (CSA, 1999). Agriculture supplies a significant proportion of the raw materials for the agro-industries, and accounts for 52% of the gross product and 90% of the export earnings. A wide range of climatic, ecological, and socioeconomic diversities influence Ethiopian agriculture. The dependency of most of the population on rain-fed agriculture has made the country’s economy extremely vulnerable to the effects of weather and climate, which are highly variable both temporally and spatially. If rains fail in one season, the farmer is unable to satisfy his needs and pay his obligations (tax, credit, etc). Farmers remain in the bottom line of poverty and lead a risky life. Moreover, due to climatic change and other human-induced factors, areas affected by drought and desertification are expanding in Ethiopia (NMSA, 1996a; WMO, 1986). There are three major food supply systems in Ethiopia (IGADD, 1988; Teshome, 1996): crop, livestock, and market-dependent systems. Cropbased systems are practiced principally over the highlands of the country and comprise a very diverse range of production, depending on altitude, rainfall, soil type, and topography. Any surplus above the farmer’s need is largely dependent on, for example, good weather conditions, absence of pests and diseases, availability of adequate human and animal power. Failure of rains during any cropping season means shortage of food supply that affects farmers and others. The livestock system constitutes about 10% of the total population, which is largely based in arid and semiarid zones of the country. This system is well adapted to highly variable climatic conditions and mainly depends on animals for milk and meat and is usually supplemented by grains during nondrought years. Approximately 15% of the Ethiopian population is market dependent and is affected by the preceding two food supply systems. Its food supply (grain, pulses, and oil seeds) has been facing serious shortages due to recurring droughts. People’s purchasing power determines access to food in the market-dependent food supply system. In Ethiopia, an agricultural drought is assessed using the concept of the length of growing period (LGP).
Growth of Cratons and their Post-Stabilization Histories
Authors: Rogers John J. W. , Santosh M.
Published: November 2020

As we have seen in chapter 3, continental crust evolved from regions of the mantle that contained higher concentrations of LIL elements than regions that underlie typical ocean basins. The most complete record of this evolutionary process is in cratons, which passed through periods of rapid crust production to times of comparative stability over intervals of several hundred million years. After the cratons became stable enough to accumulate sequences of undeformed platform sediments, they moved about the earth without being subjected to further compressive tectonic activity. Because many of the cratons are also partly covered by sediments that are unmetamorphosed or only slightly metamorphosed, they appear to have undergone very little erosion since the sediments were deposited. Thus, a craton may be considered as a large block of continental crust that has been permanently removed from the crustal recycling process. This chapter starts with a discussion of the history of cratons as interpreted from studies of the upper part of the crust. We describe the Superior craton of the Canadian shield and the Western Dharwar craton of southern India within the chapter and use appendix E for brief summaries of other typical cratons. These cratons and numerous others elsewhere developed at different times during earth history, and we look for similarities and differences that may have been caused by progressive cooling of the earth (chapter 2). This section concludes with a summary of the general evolution of cratons and the meaning of the terms “Archean” and “Proterozoic.” The following section is an investigation of processes that occurred following stabilization, all of which take place in the presence of fluids that permeate the crust. We include a summary of these fluids and their effects on anorogenic magmatism and separation of the lower and upper crust. The final section discusses the relationship between cratons and their underlying subcontinental lithospheric mantle (SCLM). Continual metasomatism and metamorphism of the SCLM after cratons develop above it apparently has not destroyed the relationship between the ages of the cratons and the concentrations of major elements in the SCLM. This provides us with an opportunity to determine whether cratons evolved from the mantle beneath them or by depletion of much larger volumes of mantle. The discussions in this chapter are based partly on information summarized in appendices B (heat flow) and D (isotopes).
Gondwana and Pangea
Authors: Rogers John J. W. , Santosh M.
Published: November 2020

Pangea, the most recent supercontinent, attained its condition of maximum packing at ~250 Ma. At this time, it consisted of a northern part, Laurasia, and a southern part, Gondwana. Gondwana contained the southern continents—South America, Africa, India, Madagascar, Australia, and Antarctica. It had become a coherent supercontinent at ~500 Ma and accreted to Pangea largely as a single block. Laurasia consisted of the northern continents—North America, Greenland, Europe, and northern Asia. It accreted during the Late Paleozoic and became a supercontinent when fusion of these continental blocks with Gondwana occurred near the end of the Paleozoic. The configuration of Pangea, including Gondwana, can be determined accurately by tracing the patterns of magnetic stripes in the oceans that opened within it (chapters 1 and 9). The history of accretion of Laurasia is also well known, but the development of Gondwana is highly controversial. Gondwana was clearly a single supercontinent by ~500 Ma, but whether it formed by fusion of a few large blocks or the assembly of numerous small blocks is uncertain. Figure 8.1 shows Gondwana divided into East and West parts, but the boundary between them is highly controversial (see below). We start this chapter by investigating the history of Gondwana, using appendix SI to describe detailed histories of orogenic belts of Pan-African age (600–500-Ma). Then we continue with the development of Pangea, including the Paleozoic orogenic belts that led to its development. The next section summarizes the paleomagnetically determined movement of blocks from the accretion of Gondwana until the assembly of Pangea, and the last section discusses the differences between Gondwana and Laurasia in Pangea. The patterns of dispersal and development of modern oceans are left to chapter 9, and the histories of continents following dispersal to chapter 10. By the later part of the 1800s, geologists working in the southern hemisphere realized that the Paleozoic fossils that occurred there were very different from those in the northern hemisphere. They found similar fossils in South America, Africa, Madagascar, India, and Australia, and in 1913 they added Antarctica when identical specimens were found by the Scott expedition.
Rifting of Pangea and Formation of Present Ocean Basins
Authors: Rogers John J. W. , Santosh M.
Published: November 2020

At the end of the Paleozoic the supercontinent Pangea was surrounded by the “superocean” Panthalassa (all ocean). We have no way of knowing what islands, island arcs, spreading ridges, and other features most of the ocean contained, because all of it has now been subducted. We can, however, be somewhat more specific about continental fragments and spreading ridges in the small region of Panthalassa directly adjacent to the eastern margin of Pangea. This part of the ocean, known as “Tethys,” left a record of its history as continental fragments continued to rift from the Gondwana (southern) part of Pangea and move across Tethys to collide with the Laurasian (northeastern) margin of Pangea (chapter 8). During the Mesozoic and Cenozoic the positions and configurations of continents and ocean basins gradually attained their present form. Major continental reorganization resulted from movements of fragments across Tethys and the opening of the Atlantic, Indian, Arctic, and Antarctic Oceans and associated smaller seas. The size of Panthalassa, now known as the Pacific Ocean, gradually decreased as other oceans opened and small seas formed by a variety of processes in the western Pacific. Separation and collision of continental plates in what had been the center of Pangea formed the Gulf of Mexico–Caribbean and the Mediterranean. By creating new spreading centers, the breakup of Pangea generated a larger volume of young ocean lithosphere both in the new ocean basins and in the Pacific than the volume occupied by spreading centers in Panthalassa. By filling more of the ocean basins, these ridges forced seawater to rise eustatically onto continental platforms, creating shallow seas and filling cratonic basins where the crust was tectonically depressed. We begin this chapter by discussing the successive changes in Tethys and then the origin of the world’s major ocean basins. This is followed by an investigation of the smaller seas of the western Pacific region and the specific histories of the Gulf of Mexico–Caribbean and the Mediterranean. We continue with a discussion of the causes and locations of rifts that break up supercontinents and finish with a description of eustatic sealevel changes.
Reading History
Authors: Allen Janet , Landaker Christine
Published: November 2020

Having trouble interesting your students in history or the history textbook? Concerned about the ability of your students to actually read the textbook? Learn ways to tie reading strategies to the learning of history, and discover sources that will help history come alive for your students. Nationally known literacy advocate Janet Allen discusses strategies for teaching nonfiction reading using Joy Hakim's award winning A History of US series as the center of a blossoming campaign among educators to integrate literacy and history. Classroom tested at a variety of grade levels, real student samples are interspersed throughout the book providing clearer understanding of the strategies in action.
Neuropsychological Aspects of Sickle Cell Disease
Authors: Schatz Jeffrey , Puffer Eve S.
Published: November 2020

The purpose of this chapter is to summarize current knowledge about the brain bases of the psychological effects of sickle cell disease (SCD). For the purpose of this chapter, we categorize two broad approaches commonly used to identify the behavioral correlates of brain function. Psychological or behavioral models are used that have been developed independent of the study of the nervous system. A common example of this approach is psychoeducational assessment, which focuses on constructs relevant to functional outcomes such as IQ scores and academic skills. Psychological models are also used for assessments that have been derived more directly from neuroscience. This approach typically involves assessing specific neurocognitive domains derived from theories of brain organization, such as language, visual-spatial, and executive functions. SCD offers a challenge to neuropsychologists because of the multiple factors to consider for understanding brain function. Because SCD is a genetic condition present from birth, the disease is likely to interact with developmental factors in infancy or early childhood. Because of social-historical factors, individuals with SCD are more likely than the general population to grow up in difficult social and economic conditions that place them at higher risk for some adverse brain effects. The disease itself also has specific effects on the brain that may lead to acquired brain injury during childhood or later in life. This context creates a challenge; there are multiple potential routes for brain effects that could have an impact on psychological functioning throughout the life span. We discuss research to date on a number of these factors, including pregnancy and birth risks, social and environmental factors in early childhood, and more direct effects of the disease on the brain. These factors are discussed in their likely order of impact based on current research, with direct effects of SCD on the brain having the most robust and well-established effects on neuropsychological functioning. An overview is presented in table 24-1. Mothers of children born with SCD either have SCD or trait. Data on pregnancy outcomes of mothers with SCD or trait indicate that most of these pregnancies are successful and without serious complications (Koshy, 1995; Sun, Wilburn, Raynor, & Jamieson, 2001).
Conclusion: Axioms of Resilience
Authors: Vale Lawrence J. , Campanella Thomas J.
Published: November 2020

What can we conclude about the nature of urban resilience from this global tour of disaster and recovery? Do the wide range of historical and contemporary accounts presented in this book reveal common themes that can help us understand the processes of physical, political, social, economic, and cultural renewal and rebirth? Or are the trajectories of recovery simply too diverse to distill common elements sufficient to develop an interpretive framework? Are cities resilient because their recovery has followed some particular identifiable model, or are they resilient only because interpreters choose to define resilience in such fluid and malleable ways? We began this book with the observation that, at least for the last two centuries or so, nearly every traumatized city has been rebuilt in some form. This historical fact raises the question of whether it is possible for a city to be rebuilt without being resilient. What does the concept of a resilient city mean if every city appears to qualify? Is it even prudent to compare a city like Jerusalem, challenged throughout its many centuries with profound suffering and repeated bloodshed, and a swaggering upstart like Chicago in 1871? In short, the contents of this book demand that we question its very title. What, then, is urban resilience? On one level, urban resilience implies a physical capacity to bounce back from a significant obstacle, much like a rubber ball dropped on the pavement. But cities are not rubber balls, nor is a disaster like an asphalt plane, from which a rebound can be definitively predicted by a set of mathematical equations. This constraint has not prevented some scholars from seeking systematic analyses of post-disaster recovery. Perhaps the best comparative study is Reconstruction following Disaster, a project focused on natural disasters, which was sponsored by the U.S. National Science Foundation in the mid-1970s. Its team of researchers proposed and tested a “model of recovery activity” that classified the recovery process into four distinguishable (if overlapping) stages: “1) Emergency responses; 2) Restoration of the restorable; 3) Reconstruction of the destroyed for functional replacement; and 4) Reconstruction for commemoration, betterment and development.”
Threshold Phenomena and Influence: Perspectives from Mathematics, Computer Science, and Economics
Authors: Kalai Gil , Safra Shmuel
Published: November 2020

Threshold phenomena refer to settings in which the probability for an event to occur changes rapidly as some underlying parameter varies. Threshold phenomena play an important role in probability theory and statistics, physics, and computer science, and are related to issues studied in economics and political science. Quite a few questions that come up naturally in those fields translate to proving that some event indeed exhibits a threshold phenomenon, and then finding the location of the transition and how rapid the change is. The notions of sharp thresholds and phase transitions originated in physics, and many of the mathematical ideas for their study came from mathematical physics. In this chapter, however, we will mainly discuss connections to other fields. A simple yet illuminating example that demonstrates the sharp threshold phenomenon is Condorcet's jury theorem, which can be described as follows. Say one is running an election process, where the results are determined by simple majority, between two candidates, Alice and Bob. If every voter votes for Alice with probability p > 1/2 and for Bob with probability 1 — p, and if the probabilities for each voter to vote either way are independent of the other votes, then as the number of voters tends to infinity the probability of Alice getting elected tends to 1. The probability of Alice getting elected is a monotone function of p, and when there are many voters it rapidly changes from being very close to 0 when p < 1/2 to being very close to 1 when p > 1/2. The reason usually given for the interest of Condorcet's jury theorem to economics and political science [535] is that it can be interpreted as saying that even if agents receive very poor (yet independent) signals, indicating which of two choices is correct, majority voting nevertheless results in the correct decision being taken with high probability, as long as there are enough agents, and the agents vote according to their signal. This is referred to in economics as asymptotically complete aggregation of information.
Modern Organic Synthesis in the Laboratory
Authors: Li Jie Jack , Limberakis Chris , Pflum Derek A.
Published: November 2020

Searching for reaction in organic synthesis has been made much easier in the current age of computer databases. However, the dilemma now is which procedure one selects among the ocean of choices. Especially for novices in the laboratory, it becomes a daunting task to decide what reaction conditions to experiment with first in order to have the best chance of success. This collection intends to serve as an "older and wiser lab-mate" one could have by compiling many of the most commonly used experimental procedures in organic synthesis. With chapters that cover such topics as functional group manipulations, oxidation, reduction, and carbon-carbon bond formation, Modern Organic Synthesis in the Laboratory will be useful for both graduate students and professors in organic chemistry and medicinal chemists in the pharmaceutical and agrochemical industries.