bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Human Smoking Behaviour in Comparison with Machine Smoking Methods: A Summary of the Five Papers Presented at the 1995 Meeting of the CORESTA Smoke and Technology Groups in Vienna
Authors: Eberhardt HJ , Scherer G
Published: July 2016

During the last months there have been extensive discussions, particularly in the United States, whether and to what extent data obtained by machine smoking using standardized methods (e.g. ISO, FTC, Coresta) permit conclusions about the actual uptake of smoke constituents (nicotine, condensate, etc.) by a smoker. This topic was a major focus of interest at the meeting of the Coresta Smoke and Technology Group in Vienna from 10th to 14th September 1995. A total of five studies were presented, four of which compared smoke yields obtained by standard machine smoking with actual yields obtained by human smoking. The fifth study investigated the effect of alternative puffing regimens and filter vent blocking on “tar” and nicotine yields of cigarettes. This paper summarizes the essential findings of the five studies.
Trends in Tobacco Leaf Usability
Authors: Campbell JS
Published: July 2016

The farmers and the buyers are partners in the production and purchase of usable tobacco leaf for manufacture into products acceptable to the consumer. The blend in these products and their ultimate sales price in the market place alters over time. Both parties must continually be aware of, and react to, these changes, if they are to stay in business. The principles of leaf purchase with regard to selection of ideal subjective looks, particularly emphasizing colour, maturity and plant position, will not be radically changed, but they must be coupled with acceptable, objective chemical contents to ensure subsequent, accurate product blending and favourable smoking properties. High technology in cigarette manufacture also demands that the threshed product, after green leaf processing, notably particle size, objectionable stem, and stem in lamina, together with packing moisture and minimal foreign matter, must meet strict specifications. The growing, curing, marketing, and purchase of leaf, together with its green leaf processing and cigarette manufacture, have all become more objective in definition. Usability, in relation to all these factors, is therefore what is attractive to the buyer/manufacturer and ultimately to the consumer, but the actual inclusion of leaf in a particular product is also related to its price. Usability and price play a major role in leaf selection and these are discussed.
Conference Report - 7th International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate (Indoor Air 96) July 21-26, 1996, Nagoya, Japan
Authors: Scherer G
Published: July 2016

The international community working in the field of indoor air research gathers every three years to discuss the state-of-the-art. In Nagoya, Japan, some 900 scientists from more than 50 countries met. More than 600 papers were presented in the form of keynote lectures, plenary lectures, lectures in technical sessions and posters. Special issues were discussed in 16 workshops. The papers have been published in four proceeding volumes with almost 4000 pages.
Alternative Forms of Storage Protection: Biological Insecticides for the Control of the Cigarette Beetle (Lasiodermaserricorne) and the Tobacco Moth (Ephestiaelutella)
Authors: Eberhardt HJ
Published: July 2016

A large number of physical and chemical pest control methods have been developed up to now in order to ensure the effective protection of stored tobacco and tobacco products. These methods include the use of fumigants and insecticides, treatment of baled tobacco in cold chambers, monitoring the extent of infestation with pheromone traps and, the most important preventive measure of all, maintaining a strict programme to ensure hygienic storage conditions. To date, very little serious consideration has been given to the practical use of biologically based insecticides in storage pest control. Compared with synthetically-produced pesticides, however, they often have the advantage of being significantly less toxic to users and the environment, while retaining a comparable level of effectiveness on the target organism. One reason for this neglect may certainly be found in the somewhat higher price of bioinsecticides. Another hurdle is presented by the complex mixture of different biological pesticides, which makes it more difficult to obtain official approval for their use in some countries. One possible alternative is, for example, the use of Bacillus thuringiensis endotoxin preparations. The insecticidal activity of certain B.t. kurstaki or B.t. tenebrionis strains against the tobacco moth and cigarette beetle has already been sufficiently documented. Recent research has also looked at the possibility of using natural substances, such as extracts from the neem tree (Azadirachtaindica), as storage protectants. Another very promising development is based on the autodissemination technique, whereby a modified pheromone trap in combination with entomopathogenic viruses or fungi could help to achieve a dramatic increase in mortality rates in stored tobacco pests. The chemical and biological properties of these bioinsecticides will be presented here and their advantages and disadvantages as storage protectants for tobacco discussed.
Metabolic Studies of the Growth Regulator, Maleic Hydrazide
Authors: Haas M , Schröder P , Komoßa D , Sandermann H , May RG
Published: July 2016

The metabolism of the plant growth regulator maleic hydrazide (MH) has been studied in sterile cell suspension cultures of tobacco, soybean, maize and wheat under standardized conditions. Maleic hydrazide was converted to its O-b -D-glucoside in yields between 9.0 % (tobacco) 15.0 % (soybean), 5.1 % (maize) and 2.2 % (wheat) respectively. This glucoside was completely cleaved under simulated conditions (pH 1, 37°C, 24 h) of a ruminant stomach. From these results it is concluded that MH-O-b-D-glucoside (MHG) belongs to a small group of acid-labile pesticide conjugates (11). The participation of a glucosyltransferase (GT) (EC 2.4.1-) in this conjugation reaction of MH was demonstrated in vitro for the first time. In addition, up to 18 % of the applied maleic hydrazide became associated with nonextractable residues (NER) in soybean, whereas in tobacco only 0.2 % could be detected in this fraction. The residue from soybean cells was solubilized only to a low degree (about 3 %) under simulated stomach conditions, but up to 20 % by the white rot fungus Phanerochaetechrysosporium.
Mouth Insertion Depths in Canadian Smokers
Authors: Porter A , Dunn P
Published: July 2016

There is the potential for smokers of ventilated cigarettes to block the ventilation holes either accidentally or deliberately thereby altering the smoke deliveries from those obtained by standardized machine smoking. One way in which the holes can be blocked is by inserting the cigarette into the mouth so that the holes are partially or completely blocked by the lips of the smoker. We have assessed to what extent this occurs amongst Canadian smokers by measuring the saliva patterns on 2756 cigarette butts collected in Montreal, Toronto and Vancouver. The butts were a cross-section of brands smoked in Canada. Saliva stains were visualized by treating the tipping paper with ninhydrin solution. The insertion depth was assumed to be the maximum extent of the saliva stain from the mouth end of the tipping. The brand of each cigarette butt was identified where possible as well as whether the filter was ventilated and if so, the distance of the vent holes from the mouth end. The butt lengths were also determined. Of the 2756 butts collected, 2232 had lip imprint patterns that could be visualized with ninhydrin solution. 56.2 % of the butts with measurable insertion depths, and which could be identified by brand, were ventilated. There was no significant difference between the average insertion depths for ventilated and non-ventilated brands (10.6 AA± 3.6 and 11.0 AA± 3.6 mm respectively). It was estimated that for the ventilated brands between 3.7-10.3 % of the butts could have had the vents blocked completely for at least one puff, 13.8-20.4 % of the butts had vents that could have been partially blocked and 75.9 % of the butts showed no sign of any vent blockage during smoking.
Discussion of a Study on the “Determination of Mainstream and Sidestream Cigarette Smoke Components for Cigarettes of Different Tobacco Types and a Set of Reference Cigarettes”
Authors: Irwin WDE
Published: July 2016

The following discussion looks at some of the results of the paper by PERFETTI et al. (1) from a different perspective. Those results are in Tables 3 and 7 of PERFETTI et al. Tables in this discussion are identified by letter rather than number to avoid confusion. The main purpose of the discussion is to suggest that sidestream (SS) and mainstream (MS) yields of a smoke component should be “normalised” to SS and MS tars respectively before calculating SS/MS ratios. With the ubiquitous use of filter ventilation, simple SS/MS ratios are subject to substantial variation and may be of limited value in understanding the smoke system. BROWNE et al. (2) found that as ventilation increases (0-83 %), the SS/MS ratio for smoke nicotine increased (3.49-13.11) and PERFETTI et al. found a similar trend. This is because of the known reduction in mainstream nicotine with ventilation and the known relatively minor effect of ventilation on sidestream yields. It follows that, with the introduction of ventilation in many products, SS/MS ratios for many smoke components will have a very wide range, making this ratio of relatively little value in understanding the underlying system. However, if the SS and MS yields of component X (in this case nicotine) are “normalised” to SS and MS tar yields respectively, then a more useful ratio can be calculated. That ratio is SS yield of X per unit SS tar divided by MS yield of X per unit MS tar. In the case of nicotine/tar ratio (NTR) it is conveniently expressed as a percentage, or milligrams of nicotine per 100 mg of tar. Tables A - C use tobacco nicotine (%), weight of nicotine consumed (mg), weight of tobacco consumed (mg), MS and SS tar and nicotine (mg) from tables of PERFETTI et al. to calculate other variables and construct scatter plots. In Table A, “nicotine transfer” is the MS or SS nicotine (mg) divided by weight of nicotine consumed (mg) expressed as a percentage. “NTR” was defined previously. “TANT” (“Tar Adjusted Nicotine Transfer”) is the NTR (%) divided by tobacco nicotine (%). Table B gives the SS/MS nicotine ratios from Table 3 of PERFETTI et al. and, additionally, the SS/MS NTR ratios calculated from Table A.
Prediction of Pressure Drop and Ventilation in a Lit Cigarette
Authors: Dwyer RW , Chen P
Published: July 2016

In order to understand how the raw materials and processing contribute to the performance of the products, a mathematical model of pressure drop and ventilation in a lit cigarette has been developed. The model can be used to predict these parameters based on the geometry and properties of tobacco rod and filter, such as cigarette circumference, paper permeability, and design of filter vent rows. The model can be used to evaluate the contributions of variable components to the changes of pressure drop and ventilation of a lit cigarette.
Yields of Cadmium, Tar, Nicotine and Carbon Monoxide in Mainstream Smoke of Greek Cigarettes: A Comparative Study
Authors: Kalaitzoglou M , Samara C
Published: July 2016

A comparative study of the mainstream smoke chemical composition of major brands of cigarettes produced in Greece has been conducted. The concentrations of tar, nicotine, CO and cadmium in the mainstream smoke of 32 cigarette brands were determined. In addition, the concentration of Cd in cigarette tobacco was also measured and the transfer rate of Cd from tobacco to smoke was calculated. Smoking of cigarettes and determination of tar, nicotine and CO were carried out by the ISO standard methods (ISO 8243, 3308, 4387, 10315, 10362, 3402, 8454), while the concentration of Cd was determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry coupled with a graphite furnace (GF-AAS) after acid digestion of tobacco and total particulate matter (TPM) samples. Results were explained in relation to technical specifications of cigarettes. Depending on the amount of tar, cigarettes were classified into seven groups: non filter (NF), 100 mm long cigarettes (L 100), high (H), medium (M), low (L), super low (SL) and ultra low tar yields (UL). Low concentrations of Cd were found in the tobacco of most cigarette brands (94-572 ng/cig), thus resulting in low Cd concentrations in TPM (2-55 ng/cig). The transfer rates of Cd from cigarette tobacco to TPM ranged from 2 % (UL) up to 12 % (H). Relationships among the measured parameters were investigated by the Spearman correlation analysis. Concentrations of cadmium in TPM were strongly correlated with tar and followed the variation of Cd concentrations in cigarette tobacco. However, this tendency was not observed in ultra light cigarettes probably because of a cigarette ventilation effect. The transfer percentage of Cd in TPM was highly correlated with tar, although it was independent of the initial concentration of Cd in tobacco. Finally, factor analysis showed that concentrations of tar, nicotine, and CO in mainstream smoke were influenced by technical specifications of cigarettes, while concentrations of Cd in TPM were influenced by the initial level of Cd in tobacco.
Genetic Variability in Nicotianatabacum and Nicotiana Species as Revealed by RAPD Markers: 1. Development of the RAPD Procedure
Authors: del Piano L , Abet M , Sorrentino C , Acanfora F , Cozzolino E , Di Muro A
Published: July 2016

At present there is no information about the level of genetic variability in N. tabacum and in the Nicotiana genus as revealed by random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD). Such knowledge could be useful for taxonomic and breeding purposes. The aim of this paper is to assess the potential application of the DNA polymorphisms generated by RAPD markers within this genus and in tobacco. As rigorously standardized reaction conditions are required to obtain a reproducible RAPD marker, four rapid DNA extraction methods were compared and several parameters of the reaction conditions for the random polymorphic DNA amplification were analysed and optimized. The DNA of six-week-old leaves of N. tabacum var. Samsun was obtained with the following methods differing in the strategy of purification: the cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) method, that of Edwards, nucleon phytopure system and the method of Goring. Reproducible amplification profiles were obtained with all the methods except for Edwards'. As regards amplification conditions, the effects of primer-template annealing temperature, of a final extension step, of the number of cycles and of the length of extension time in each cycle were analysed. Moreover, the effects on amplification reaction of the DNA amount, of MgCl2, primer and deoxynucleotide triphosphate (dNTP) concentration were evaluated. Then DNA of 12 Nicotiana species and Nicotianatabacum was amplified with primers OPA-01 and OPA-13 which revealed a considerable polymorphism. The same primers used to analyse 36 var. of N. tabacum belonging to different types, showed identical amplification profiles. Further amplification experiments were carried out with only 12 of the tobacco lines; three primers among the 12 assayed revealed one polymorphic fragment each.
Investigations on the Genetics of Resistance to Root-knot Nematodes (Meloidogyne incognita) in Tobacco (Nicotianatabacum)
Authors: Honarnejad R , ShoaiDeylami M
Published: July 2016

The analysis of a full diallel cross of ten tobacco varieties showed that genetic control of resistance to root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne incognita) in tobacco was governed by partial dominance. When measuring the overall genetic variance, the portion of additive variance was found to be very substantial. This property may well be inherited by progenies and with a high degree of heritability (0.60-0.63). Partitioning the total sums of squares of the genotypes into the sum of squares for general (GCA) and specific combining ability (SCA) of parents and hybrids points to additive and non-additive gene activities in generating resistance to root-knot nematodes in tobacco. Because of significant reciprocal differences, the maternal cytoplasm plays an important role in the inheritance of resistance to root-knot nematodes. The proportion of additive and heritable variance was significant and to such an extent (60 %) that a selection for resistant lines might be a promising project. Since some varieties show a high GCA for resistance, they could be regarded as donors for resistance for progenies. In addition, the significantly high SCA and resistance of several hybrids would suggest successful selection of lines with resistance to root-knot nematodes in tobacco.
A Simple Technique for Determining the pH of Whole Cigarette Smoke
Authors: Dong J , Glass JN , Thompson BT , Price BF , Lauterbach JH
Published: July 2016

A new technique has been developed to determine the pH of whole cigarette smoke. In this technique, whole smoke from ten cigarettes was trapped in 300 mL water containing 1% (w/v) sodium chloride and the pH was determined on the resulting aqueous suspension of cigarette smoke. Two impingers with an extra coarse porosity fritted disc were used to dispense the smoke in the aqueous trapping medium. Cigarettes were smoked on a 20-port Borgwaldt RM 20/CS smoking machine using modified FTC (Federal Trade Commission) conditions. The puff volume was adjusted to take a 35 mL puff as measured through the cigarette and the collection traps. This new technique accounts for the contributions to smoke pH from both the vapor phase and the particulate phase of smoke. The repeatability of this new technique was determined on eighteen replicates of a commercially available non-menthol, filter cigarette. Each measurement was done on a different day to check for a possible drift in pH with time. The mean pH value for the chosen sample was found to be 4.97 with a standard deviation of 0.07 pH units. The smoke pH values for over 150 commercially available cigarette brands with a variety of “tar” levels were determined. The smoke pH values had a range from 4.6 to 5.5, with an average of 4.79 and a maximum standard deviation of 0.10 pH units. An experimental flue cured cigarette had a smoke pH of around 5.0, while an experimental Burley cigarette had a smoke pH of 5.4. No correlation between smoke pH and “tar” or total particulate matter (TPM) and between pH and nicotine levels was found. The purpose of the present study was to develop a practical, relatively simple laboratory method to measure the pH of a water solution of whole smoke, and was not intended to reflect, or have direct relevance for any biochemical or biological phenomena such as inhalability of smoke, flavor perception, nicotine ab-sorption, etc.”
Pyrolysis of Cigarette Ingredients Labelled with Stable Isotopes
Authors: Stotesbury S , Willoughby LJ , Couch A
Published: July 2016

It is important to know how tobacco additives behave when cigarettes are smoked, whether they transfer intact to the smoke or whether there is any decomposition during smoking. Pyrolysis-GC-MS is a technique that can be focussed upon the effects of combustion from a single material free from interference from the complex mixture of different components present in the smoke. However, because pyrolysis is a model technique, the results need to be validated by comparison with cigarette smoke chemistry. In a previous paper we presented such a method for modelling the smoke chemistry from a burning cigarette using pyrolysis-GC-MS. The transfer and the extent of degradation of anisole, p-anisaldehyde, benzaldehyde, isoamylisovalerate, methyl trans-cinnamate and vanillin within a burning cigarette were estimated using this pyrolysis method. When these data were compared with results from smoke studies from 14C-analogues of the materials, the high levels of transfer predicted by pyrolysis were found to be generally consistent with the smoke chemistry data. However, there were still two outstanding issues. Firstly, there was some ambiguity in the labelled study about whether vanillin actually transferred without degradation or not. Furthermore, the results from the 14C-labelled study showed a greater extent of degradation for p-anisaldehyde than that indicated from the pyrolysis experiments. The purpose of the current study was to present some new information obtained to address these questions by better understanding the effect upon the smoke chemistry from adding vanillin and p-anisaldehyde, and the relationship between the smoke chemistry and the pyrolysis results. Components were identified in the smoke from cigarettes loaded with p-anisaldehyde and vanillin labelled with 18O and 13C. The extent of degradation from each additive was estimated by identifying labelled degradation products in the smoke. Because there was a clear distinction between the mass spectra from the labelled compounds and their natural counterparts, the major degradation products from the labelled compounds could be readily identified in the chromatograms of the corresponding smoke extracts. Evidence of some degradation at above the transfer temperature was indicated for both additives. The amount of degradation was found to be less than 1% for p-anisaldehyde and only 0.1% for vanillin. This low level of degradation was acceptably consistent with the intact transfer values of 97% and 100%, respectively, obtained by pyrolysis.
A Critical Assessment of Recent Work on the Application of Gas/Particle Partitioning Theories to Cigarette Smoke
Authors: Lauterbach JH
Published: July 2016

In the August 1997 issue of Environmental Science&Technology (ES&T), PANKOW and co-workers at the Oregon Graduate Institute reported that the addition of ammonia-containing additives to cigarette tobacco increased the amount of unprotonated nicotine in cigarette mainstream smoke (MSS) and thus increased the bioavailability of nicotine to the smoker. Articles about PANKOW's work also appeared in other publications along with allegations that ammonia-containing additives are used to manipulate nicotine deliveries. However, initial review of PANKOW's research and that reported on environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) in an earlier paper showed that potentially serious issues existed with PANKOW's experimental data and conclusions. Consequently, a critical assessment of PANKOW's research and the underlying theories of gas/particle partitioning was undertaken. This assessment confirmed that PANKOW and his co-workers made a number of errors not only in their determinations of the gas/particle partitioning coefficients for nicotine in MSS and ETS but also in the interpretations of the data. During the preparation of this assessment, data from other researchers became public. These data showed that there was no correlation between tobacco ammonia (including residual ammonia from the use of ammonia-containing additives) and MSS ammonia deliveries and MSS smoke pH, and that the amount of unprotonated nicotine in the undiluted MSS of a full flavor (FF) American filter cigarette was less than 0.1%. These new data fully substantiated the findings of this assessment, and it can be safely concluded that the assertions made by PANKOW and his co-workers were incorrect. However, this assessment also showed that there is significant merit in the application of PANKOW's theory of absorptive partitioning for the estimation of the gas/particle partitioning of semivolatile components in MSS and ETS. Application of PANKOW's theory along with data from recent tobacco related conferences has allowed estimation of the gas/particle partition coefficient for nicotine in cigarette MSS and also has allowed approximation of values for the activity coefficient of nicotine in mainstream particulate matter.
On the Hybrid F1 Characteristics of Physiology, Biochemistry, Product Quality and Resistance to Black Shank in Oriental Tobacco
Authors: Chen X , Guo J , Huang J , Yang J , Jiang T , Sun D , Yu X
Published: July 2016

Experiments were conducted from 1996 to 1998 at the Hefei Institute of Economics and Technology and at the Oriental Experimental Station of the Zhejiang Province (China). Seven F1 hybrids and three parental varieties of Oriental tobaccos were evaluated for the characteristics of photosynthetic and transpiration rates, esterase isozymes, resistance to black shank, quality and product potential from the 1996-1998 growing seasons. Tobacco leaves had higher photosynthetic rates and many differences among genotypes in the early stage of plant vigorous growth compared with more mature leaves. However, transpiration rates were lower in the younger leaves and greater in the more mature leaves. All the entries had four common bands (B1, B3, B4 and B6) of the esterase isoenzymes. Differences between entries resulted from in having or not having the B2 and B5 bands and color intensity differences of all the bands. These differences could be used to identify individual entries. The F1hybrids Samsun X Toy and Samsun X Argjiro, compared with the CK Samsun control, had obvious heterotic vigor in the characteristics of product, for yield, quality and resistance to black shank. The F1 hybrid Samsun X Toy maintained higher photosynthetic and transpiration rates in the two growth stages compared to other entries. However, the F1hybrid Samsun X Argjiro had higher photosynthetic rates and lower transpiration rates in the early growth stage and the two rates were lower in the later stage, but it maintained higher photosynthetic rates for the whole growth stage. Net photosynthetic rates had a significant positive correlation with yield product, quality and resistance to black shank of the Oriental tobacco F1hybrids.
The Use of Nonlinear Constitutive Equations to Evaluate Draw Resistance and Filter Ventilation
Authors: Eitzinger B , Ederer G
Published: July 2016

This study investigates by nonlinear constitutive equations the influence of tipping paper, cigarette paper, filter, and tobacco rod on the degree of filter ventilation and draw resistance. Starting from the laws of conservation, the path to the theory of fluid dynamics in porous media and Darcy's law is reviewed and, as an extension to Darcy's law, two different nonlinear pressure drop-flow relations are proposed. It is proven that these relations are valid constitutive equations and the partial differential equations for the stationary flow in an unlit cigarette covering anisotropic, inhomogeneous and nonlinear behaviour are derived. From these equations a system of ordinary differential equations for the one-dimensional flow in the cigarette is derived by averaging pressure and velocity over the cross section of the cigarette. By further integration, the concept of an electrical analog is reached and discussed in the light of nonlinear pressure drop-flow relations. By numerical calculations based on the system of ordinary differential equations, it is shown that the influence of nonlinearities cannot be neglected because variations in the degree of filter ventilation can reach up to 20% of its nominal value.
A Mathematical Scheme for Calculating Flows and Pressure Drops in Lit and Unlit Cigarettes
Authors: Dwyer RW , Chen P , Wasyk RD
Published: July 2016

A computational methodology is presented for evaluating the flows and pressure drops in both lit and unlit cigarettes. The flows and pressure drops across rows of tipping-paper perforations are considered explicitly, as are the locations and relative sizes of the ventilation holes. The flows and pressure drops across air-permeable cigarette papers are included. The influence of plugwrappermeabilities on filter ventilation is developed. Lit cigarettes are mimicked by adding a “coal” pressure drop to the upstream end of the cigarette. The computational scheme is used to predict the effects of tobacco-rod length, puff volume, and vent blocking on cigarette ventilation and pressure drop. A derivation of the pressure-drop and flow equations for a cigarette with an upstream pressure drop is included in an appendix.
Determination of the Transfer Efficiency of d-Nicotine to Mainstream Smoke
Authors: Perfetti TA , Gordon BM , Coleman III WM , Morgan WT
Published: July 2016

Experiments were conducted to independently determine the mainstream smoke transfer efficiency of d-nicotine and l-nicotine. Two types of cigarettes (University of Kentucky 2R1 reference cigarette and a cigarette prepared from reconstituted sheet material, TS1) were employed in the study. A chiral-gas chromatography-selected ion monitoring-mass selective detection analysis was used to separate and determine d- and l-nicotine. The two types of cigarettes were injected with varying levels of d- or l-nicotine (0-20 mg). The tobacco was removed from the nicotine-injected cigarettes and analyzed for total nicotine and d- and l-nicotine. The cigarettes were smoked under FTC (Federal Trade Commission) conditions, and the Cambridge pad extracts were analyzed for total nicotine and d- and l-nicotine. The total nicotine transfer efficiency and the transfer efficiencies of d- and l-nicotine were determined. Nicotine transfer efficiency is dependent on the type of tobacco employed in a blend and the configuration of the cigarette. As a result, the total nicotine transfer efficiency for the 2R1 cigarettes was different than for the TS1 cigarettes. Likewise, the independently measured transfer efficiencies for d- and l-nicotine were different between the two cigarettes. The transfer efficiencies of d- and l-nicotine were not found to be different within a cigarette type. The average transfer efficiency for d-nicotine in a 2R1 cigarette was determined to be 19.25%. The average transfer efficiency for l-nicotine in a 2R1 cigarette was 16.05%. The average transfer efficiency for d-nicotine in a TS1 cigarette was 10.15% and 10.65% for l-nicotine. These differences between d- and l-nicotine were determined not to be statistically significant and are of no practical consequence.
The Heat of Combustion of Tobacco and Carbon Oxide Formation
Authors: Norman AB , Perfetti TA , Perfetti PF , Hayworth RG
Published: July 2016

Recent studies demonstrated a relationship between mass burn rates of straight-grade cigarettes and heats of combustion of the tobacco materials. In the present work, relationships between measured heats of combustion and elemental composition of the tobacco materials were further analyzed. Heats of combustion measured in oxygen were directly correlated with the carbon and hydrogen content of the tobacco materials tested. Ash content of the materials was inversely related to the heats of combustion. The water insoluble residues from exhaustively extracted tobacco materials showed higher heats of combustion and higher carbon content than the non-extracted materials, confirming a direct relationship between carbon content and heat of combustion. A value for the heat of formation of tobacco was estimated (1175 cal/g) from the heat of combustion data and elemental analysis results. The estimated value for heat of formation of tobacco appears to be constant regardless of the material type. Heat values measured in air were uniformly lower than the combustion heats in oxygen, suggesting formation of CO and other reaction products. Gases produced during bomb calorimetry experiments with five tobacco materials were analyzed for CO and CO2 content. When the materials were burned in oxygen, no CO was found in the gases produced. Measured heats of combustion matched estimates based on CO2 found in the gas and conversion of the sample hydrogen content to water. Materials burned in air produced CO2 (56% to 77% of the sample carbon content) and appreciable amounts of CO (7% to 16% of the sample carbon content). Unburned residue containing carbon and hydrogen was found in the air combustion experiments. Estimated heat values based on amounts of CO and CO2 found in the gas and water formed from the hydrogen lost during combustion in air were higher than the measured values. These observations indicate formation of products containing hydrogen when the materials were burned in air. CO and CO2 formation during combustion in air were related to the composition of the tobacco materials. Materials with high carbon and low ash content showed evidence of higher CO2 formation. Amounts of unburned residue also varied with material composition. Thus, energy released during tobacco combustion in air is related to material-dependent formation of reaction products in addition to the carbon oxides and to the quantity of unburned material.
Synthesis of 3-Oxo-α-ionol Ethyl Carbonate and its Conversion to Megastigmatrienones in Tobacco Smoke
Authors: Yang H , Liu J , Li K , Yin X , Tan X , Wang J
Published: July 2016

3-Oxo-α-ionol ethyl carbonate, a precursor of megastigmatrienones was prepared by reduction of α-ionone to α-ionol, followed by esterification with ethyl chloroformate and then by oxidation with t-butyl chromate. The total yield was about 23%. Infrared (IR) and mass spectra of this compound were determined. Upon smoking, cigarettes to which 0.002% by weight of the titled compound was added had an improved and more harmonious flavor. The smoke was sweeter and had a cleaner after taste. Experimental results suggest that the title compound added to the tobacco pyrolyzes to form megastigmatrienones during smoking.
Handling and Curing Characteristics of Cut-Strip Tobacco. Part 1: Effect of Strip-Size, Packing Density and Mode of Orientation
Authors: Johnson WH , Young JH , Ellington GH , Weeks WW , Tutor JC
Published: July 2016

Previous work has demonstrated potential handling and curing efficiencies in the use of cut-strip tobacco. The present work considers further the effect of cut-strip size, packing density and mode of orientation on cured leaf chemistry (starch, reducing sugars, and total alkaloids) and leaf quality. Results showed that cured leaf chemistry of 15.2 × 22.9 cm cut-strip more closely matched properties of whole leaf than pieces 15.2 × 15.2 cm or smaller. Starch contents were significantly higher for the smaller cut-strip sizes, perhaps due to edge drying effects, while alkaloids were significantly lower. Within the range of 194 to 292 kg/m, packing density had little effect on leaf chemistry, with the exception that reducing sugars were slightly lower for the higher packing densities. This could be due to a longer time for the drying front to move through the more tightly packed tobacco, and hence more respiratory loss of sugars. Government grades and average market prices of cured strips were essentially unaffected over the range of strip sizes or packing densities tested. Based on airflow resistance measurements and observed drying characteristics, vertical orientation of strips was far superior to horizontal orientation, both with vertical airflow through the tobacco. The higher packing density reduced specific energy use (kWh/kg green tobacco) by as much as 22%, indicating potential energy savings for cut-strip over whole leaf curing.
Studies on the control of broomrape (Orobancheramosa L.) in Virginia tobacco (Nicotianatabacum L.)
Authors: Covarelli L
Published: July 2016

During 1997 and 1998, in the province of Perugia (Umbria, central Italy), four field experimental trials were carried out to study the control of broomrape (OrobancheramosaL.) in Virginia tobacco. In 1997, maleic hydrazide (2040 mL ha-1), flumetralin (1200 mL ha-1), n-decanol (10720 mL ha-1), glyphosate (180-324 mL ha-1) and rimsulfuron (12.5-25 g ha-1) were tested on the variety K 394. In the second year, maleic hydrazide (2040 mL ha-1), n-decanol (10720 mL ha-1) and butralin (2160 mL ha-1) were utilised in the same variety. Furthermore, a field experiment was performed to assess the susceptibility of different untopped Virginia tobacco varieties to broomrape. The presence of the weed was recorded as the number of the aboveground broomrape plants per m2 and after harvest dry weight was determined. Maleic hydrazide proved to be highly effective against the parasitic weed when used at the early flowering stage of the crop, reducing by 95% and 73%, on average, the number of broomrape plants with respect to the untreated control, respectively in 1997 and 1998. Rimsulfuron, used 55 days after transplanting, had a satisfactory activity against broomrape (reduction of 50-70%). A double treatment with glyphosate caused a reduction of 100% of broomrape but it significantly depressed tobacco yield. Flumetralin, n-decanol and butralin did not show any control of broomrape. The variety BC 60 FB was found to be highly resistant to the weed with an average of 85% reduction in broomrape plants compared to the other varieties in the experiment.
Editors’ note
Authors: Heller WD , Scherer G
Published: July 2016

Since the beginning of 2003, BeiträgezurTabakforschung International/Contributions to Tobacco Research is available on the Internet at www.beitraege-bti.de.

The website contains PDF files of all articles published in the Journal since 1961. In addition, an infobase has been implemented which allows the search for authors, bibliographic data and words in titles and abstracts. The website is updated with the complete articles at about the same time as each new issue of Beiträge goes into print. This means that the new issues may be available on the Internet somewhat earlier than the printed issue.

We think the website of Beiträge is an improvement of the service for all present readers and might also help to enlarge the readership of the Journal in the future. We all know that nothing is perfect and everything (particularly new things) can be improved. The Editorial Office of Beiträge would be grateful for any suggestions regarding improvement of the website.

We as Editors would like to take this opportunity to assure our readers that, despite this “great technical achievement”, the journal will keep to some “old-fashioned” traditions. For example, the peer-review process is maintained as it is and also the printed issue of Beiträge will be send to you in the usual way.
Observing the Peripheral Burning of Cigarettes by an Infrared Technique
Authors: Liu C , Woodcock D
Published: July 2016

A modern infrared camera was used to observe the peripheral burning of cigarettes during puffing and smouldering. The computer-controlled infrared system captured thermal images with recording rates up to 50 Hz at 8-bit (256-colour) resolution. The response time was less than 0.04 s at ca. 780 °C. The overall performance of the system was superior to most infrared systems used in previously reported investigations. The combined capacity allowed us to capture some faster, smaller high-temperature burning events on the periphery of a cigarette during puffing, which was first described by Egertion et al. in 1963 using an X-ray method. These transient burning events were caused by tobacco shreds near the coal surface experiencing the maximum air influx. The temperature of these transient burning events could be ca. 200 to 250 °C higher than the average peripheral temperature of the cigarette. The likelihood of these high-temperature burning events occurring during smouldering was significantly less. Some other details of the cigarette's combustion were also observed with improved simplicity and clarity.
Current Measurement Reliability of Selected Smoke Analytes
Authors: Purkis SW , Bailey IA
Published: July 2016

The reliability of measurements of mainstream smoke analytes other than “tar”, nicotine and carbon monoxide (CO) is not known but is important in the current regulatory environment internationally. An appreciation of between laboratory variability is essential for companies contracting analytical work to outside suppliers.

Seven laboratories obtained data from three cigarette brands for as many as they could currently measure of the 44 smoke analytes, commonly referred to as the “Hoffmann list”. The brands, of “tar” yields 12 mg, 8 mg and 5 mg, were smoked under the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) smoking regime to obtain average yield values based on 5 replicates, each laboratory smoking their chosen number of cigarettes per replicate. In addition, laboratories used their preferred and internally validated methodology i.e. smoking machine type, trapping system, sample work-up and detection system. Around 3600 data points were obtained.

This study was based on one point in time measurements. It did not therefore include any components of longer-term variability that would be expected to further increase the measurement variability. No analytes had lower within-laboratory measurement variability than “tar” and 70% of the other analytes had significantly higher levels. All laboratories ranked the products in the same order for all analytes (except some metals) but there were as much as 10-fold differences in measured values between laboratories. The mean difference between highest and lowest yield measurements was 80% when the values for the three smoke analytes with differences in excess of 8-fold were excluded.

Given the lack of standardised methods, and the consequent high degree of inter-laboratory variability it is not currently possible to make meaningful comparisons between such data from several sources. Indeed, calculation of yields from benchmarking studies may prove no less reliable.
TSNA Levels in the Mainstream Smoke of Simplified Blend Prototypes
Authors: Zuber J , d'Andres S , Boudoux R , Renaud JM
Published: July 2016

Different approaches have been reported in the literature to reduce the tobacco-specific nitrosamine (TSNA) levels in mainstream smoke (MSS). The reduction of TSNA in the raw tobacco is an approach that has received much attention in recent years. Different elements determine the level of TSNA in MSS: During combustion, part of the TSNA in the cigarette filler can transfer into smoke while another portion can undergo thermal degradation. Moreover, it is possible that TSNA can be pyrosynthesized and that concomitant synergetic effects between the blend components can also occur. Depending on their extent, the formation and degradation of nitrosamines during the combustion process might have an important impact on TSNA level in the smoke of blended cigarettes and might lead to MSS TSNA deliveries which would not parallel that of the blend components.
On the Development of a Very Rapid Gas Chromatographic Method for the Analysis of High Molecular Weight Hydrocarbons in Cigarette Smoke
Authors: Coleman III WM , Gordon BM
Published: July 2016

A very rapid, flash-gas chromatographic (GC), quantitative method for the analysis of high molecular weight saturated hydrocarbons in cigarette smoke has been developed. The method was fast, accurate and precise. Sample turn around times were approximately six minutes, with an accompanying average percent relative standard deviation (%RSD) of less than 10%. Four linear saturated hydrocarbons with 27, 29, 31 and 33 carbon atoms were quantitated in an array of reference cigarettes ranging in “tar” deliveries from approximately 2 to approximately 20 mg. By use of a cyclohexane extraction of cigarette smoke captured on Cambridge filter pads, the extraction efficiency was determined to be greater than 95% for each hydrocarbon. The approach represents a significant advance over current analytical procedures that require, on average, greater than 30-min sample turn around times.
Application of Pattern Recognition Method for Color Assessment of Oriental Tobacco based on HPLC of Polyphenols
Authors: Dagnon S , Edreva A
Published: July 2016

The color of Oriental tobaccos was organoleptically assayed, and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) of polyphenols was performed. The major tobacco polyphenols (chlorogenic acid, its isomers, and rutin), as well as scopoletin and kaempferol-3-rutinoside were quantified. HPLC polyphenol profiles were processed by pattern recognition method (PRM), and the values of indexes of similarity (Is,%) between the cultivars studied were determined. It was shown that data from organoleptic color assessment and from PRM based on HPLC profiles of polyphenols of the cultivars studied are largely compatible. Hence, PRM can be suggested as an additional tool for objective color evaluation and classification of Oriental tobacco.
Application of a Diffusion-denuder Method for the Investigation of the Effects of ‘Smoke pH’ on Vapor-phase Nicotine Yields from Different Types of Cigarettes
Authors: Cochran EW , Joseph MJ , Stinson SS , Summers SS
Published: July 2016

The potential effects of smoke pH on vapor-phase nicotine, or unprotonated nicotine, were investigated using a diffusion denuder method selected for its ability to quantitatively monitor vapor-phase nicotine in the presence of smoke particulate. For the purpose of this paper, the pH of the water-soluble fraction of mainstream cigarette smoke will be referred to as ‘smoke pH'. In this study, samples with different construction parameters affecting smoke pH were analyzed for percent vapor-phase nicotine. The smoke pH values ranged from 5.87 to 7.79. Percent initial vapor-phase nicotine values ranged from 0.4% to 1.5%. The range of the vapor-phase nicotine values for this study was (a) independent of smoke pH and (b) potentially dependent upon cigarette construction. In a second experiment, cigarettes with the same construction were used to repeat the analysis, thus eliminating construction as a variable. The tobacco was treated with varying levels of urea to give a range in smoke pH from 6.47 to 7.15. The determined initial vapor-phase nicotine values ranged from 0.4% to 2.1% of the total mainstream smoke nicotine. This variation was independent of smoke pH. It was determined in this study that (a) the maximum initial vapor-phase nicotine delivered to mainstream smoke was 2.1% of the total nicotine delivered for our cigarette samples and (b) the delivery of the unprotonated nicotine to mainstream smoke was not meaningfully affected by changes in smoke pH within the range studied.
Adhesive Distribution between Paper Components of Cigarettes
Authors: Kroell B , Starlinger S , Eitzinger B
Published: July 2016

The objective of this contribution is to characterise the distribution of adhesive between the plug wrap paper and the tipping paper on a finished cigarette. On the one hand, it is well known that this distribution influences various properties of the cigarette, but on the other hand, there are no methods available to completely determine this distribution. The area covered by adhesive, the amount of adhesive, and the thickness and position of the adhesive layer between the plug wrap and the tipping paper were chosen as essential quantities. Image analysis was used to evaluate the area covered by adhesive, and the amount of adhesive between the papers. The thickness and position of the adhesive layer were determined by processing pictures of paper cross-sections obtained with a time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometer (TOF-SIMS).