bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Health Promotion Programs: Design, Monitoring, and Evaluation
Authors: Lee Anthony B.
Published: February 2014

A quick survey of the definition and history of the development of health promotion programs and the rise of monitoring and evaluation (M&E) activities is provided to help orient the reader. Major theoretical approaches to health promotion are outlined. An overview of the basic components involved in program design in M&E follows. The entry then articulates the variety of M&E approaches that exist today, and concludes with key challenges confronting the design, monitoring, and evaluation of health programs.
Race and Public Health
Authors: Dressler William W.
Published: February 2014

The description and explanation of racial and ethnic health disparities is a major initiative in public health research. Two major explanations have dominated discussions of health disparities. The first is that genes contributing to the risk of disease aggregate by race. The second is that racial minorities are subject to prejudice and discriminatory acts on the basis of their minority status, the stresses of which contribute to disease risk. Both of these explanations require an explicit reconceptualization of race. Genetic researchers have used the tools of molecular biology to identify “ancestry informative markers,” or sets of genetic polymorphisms shared by individuals descended from a single population. The logic of defining racial groups in terms of these markers is, however, problematic in much the same way that older definitions based on skin color were. A more fruitful approach is to focus on how racial and ethnic groups are culturally constructed in a given setting, and how individuals both self‐identify and are identified by others as belonging to a particular group. Evidence suggests that the combination of the cultural construction of race and structural barriers confronting minority groups contribute substantially to the explanation of health disparities.
Mental Illness, Medicalization of
Authors: Bakhtiari Elyas , Olafsdottir Sigrun
Published: February 2014

Medicalization refers to a process whereby previously non‐medical aspects of life become medical. As social behaviors or conditions are redefined as medical conditions, they come under the domain of the medical profession to define, diagnose, and treat. More specifically, the process of medicalization has been conceptualized as “defining a problem in medical terms, using a medical language to describe a problem, adopting a medical framework to understand a problem, or using a medical intervention to ‘treat’ it.”
Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Authors: Sointu Eeva
Published: February 2014

Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) is not a coherent or unified whole. CAM is, rather, an umbrella term that encompasses a diverse array of healing techniques. There is also diversity among complementary and alternative medicines in terms of the relationships CAM practices have with biomedical institutions. Generally, what unifies forms of CAM is a lack of state‐supported legitimacy. This marginality is entwined with the rise of biomedical dominance. However, many CAM practices, while institutionally marginal, are culturally resonant. Although the philosophical underpinnings of forms of CAM vary, many CAM practices emphasize a holistic conceptualization of health and illness. An active role allocated to the client also characterizes much contemporary CAM. While the turn to complementary and alternative medicines is often seen to relate to a sense of dissatisfaction with biomedicine, cultural rather than solely medical factors are also important in the rise of complementary and alternative medicines.
Translational Research
Authors: Perry Cheryl A.
Published: February 2014

Translational research encompasses the movement of research from basic science discoveries through the development of clinical applications and, ultimately, to the dissemination and implementation of drugs, devices, and diagnostics that result in evidence‐based improvements in care. Though it has been broken down into phases ranging from T0 to T4, the process of translational research is bidirectional and its success is dependent on the input of stakeholders and researchers with a variety of expertise. One of the most significant challenges related to translational research is determining how to best increase efficiency and effectiveness, so that the movement from basic (T0) research to improvements in health outcomes (T4) is as expeditious as possible.
Medical Sociology and Genetics
Authors: Dingwall Robert
Published: February 2014

The rapid progress in genetic science has attracted considerable interest among medical sociologists. The expression of genes is significantly influenced by the social environment. The interest of medical sociology in genetics lies in the social attempts to manage the consequences of this indeterminacy and the fact that biological environments are socially shaped. When genetic issues first re‐emerged into popular and scientific discourse, they were associated with claims that they represented revolutionary challenges to established institutions, practices, professional interests, and so on. As further empirical work has been conducted, many of the supposedly unique features of genetic medicine have proved to be reincarnations of well‐established topics within medical sociology like professional–patient communication, the nature of disease and its relation to other forms of deviance, the structuring of health services and the choice between public and private systems of funding, and so on.
Health and Globalization
Authors: Cockerham William C. , Cockerham Geoffrey B.
Published: February 2014

Health and disease are connected globally in that diseases now spread rapidly from continent to continent and efforts to contain them operate on a global level; markets for drugs and other health care commodities and the corporations that produce them span the globe; and global processes like pollution, modernization, and technological change impact on local environments. Consequently, globalization is a process of international networking that affects the health of populations either positively or negatively. This entry describes the globalization process, the spread of Western medicine, medical tourism, global pandemics, and the global governance of health and disease.
Suffering
Authors: Honkasalo Marja‐Liisa
Published: February 2014

Suffering as a phenomenon and as a notion is closely intertwined with illness and pain. The task of medicine is understood as alleviating pain and suffering. The question of suffering and its counterpart, evil, is ancient and has occupied human intellectual history in myths, theology, and philosophy. All the cosmologies include some kinds of theodicies – mythical or rational ways of legitimating suffering. For the research of health and illness, suffering is important first for the understanding of the illness experience in cultural and existential contexts; and second for the study of “social suffering” which connects different kinds of human problems, those that create pain or distress, with political violence or with other forms of human misery. The latter view of suffering defines affliction broadly as a social and political question extending from the realm of medicine and medicalization.
Stress and Health
Authors: Rivera Fernando I. , Burgos Giovani
Published: February 2014

The overview on stress and health is framed by the three central components of the social stress paradigm: stressors, coping/social support, and health outcomes. The entry begins by defining stressors and differentiating stressors from stress. This is followed by an identification of the different types of stressors (i.e., sudden traumas, life events, daily hassles and non‐events, and chronic stressors) and an examination of some of the key health outcomes that result from exposure to stressors. Next, attention is focused on the different types of resources that ameliorate the negative consequences that stressors are expected to have on health. The entry concludes with a brief summary of key findings in the study of stress and health.
Fundamental Cause
Authors: Hinote Brian P.
Published: February 2014

Researchers in fields like epidemiology and medicine have enjoyed great success identifying risk factors associated with the leading causes of morbidity and mortality. Unfortunately, most of this vast body of research focuses upon proximal, individual‐level behavioral factors, with much less attention devoted to investigating potential distal causal factors that are predominantly social in nature. This entry introduces one of the most important explanations of disease pathogenesis in social epidemiology and medical sociology – the fundamental cause explanation. The idea of social causation is very important in studies of health and disease as a way to emphasize the limitations of traditional risk factor epidemiology. The entry explains what a fundamental cause actually is, and how it helps us move beyond individual‐level conceptualizations of disease causation and health trends, before discussing how socioeconomic status (SES) functions as just such a fundamental cause. Finally, the value of this approach is underscored by opening up new ways to think about how and why individual health situations and aggregate epidemiological trends come about – not as a result of the actions of disconnected agents, but as a consequence of broader underlying structures of advantage and disadvantage.
Professions and Institutions
Authors: Leicht Kevin T.
Published: February 2014

The relationship between institutions and professions has been defined by neo‐institutional theory since the 1990s. However, the abandonment of Keynesian economics and the rise of neoliberal ideology have changed the relationship between the normative and technical environments in the professions. The emphasis by old institutional theory on how best to organize different spheres of activity presents a way forward for social scientists and policymakers who are uncomfortable with unbridled free markets as the sole normative force in professional life.
High Temperature Behavior of Si3N4 and Yb2SiO5 Coated Carbon Fibers for Silicon‐Nitride CMC
Authors: Pontiller Peter , Willert‐Porada M.
Published: February 2014

For oxide‐free ceramic matrix composites (CMC), with Si3N4 matrix and carbon fiber reinforcement, for extreme high temperature applications, protective coatings of the C‐fibers are investigated. Two different coatings are compared: reactive CVD‐derived pure Si3N4 coatings to investigate C‐fiber‐matrix reactions and powder based Yb‐silicate coatings to reveal potential reactions with the Yb‐silicate additive serving as sintering aid for Si3N4. The reactivity toward carbon in nitrogen atmosphere is studied in the temperature interval from 20 °C up to 1700 °C. A new ceramic phase – an Yb‐carbido‐nitiridosilicate, Yb2Si4CN6–is found as product of carbothermal reduction of the Yb‐silicate. The carbothermal reduction occurs also with other RE‐silicates, RE = Yb, Er, Y, Gd, and Sm while SiC is found as reaction product on carbon fibers coated with pure Si3N4. The oxidation resistance of the coated fibers in air was investigated in the temperature interval up to 1000 °C, and the apparent activation energy of oxidation was analyzed based on DTA‐EGA results. The oxidation kinetic reveals a significant increase of onset point of oxidation temperature by up to 150 K for Si3N4 coated short carbon fibers obtained from the reactive CVD coating process. Such fibers have a high application potential for carbon‐fiber reinforced Si3N4‐CMC. The role of Yb2Si4CN6 as reinforcement for Si3N4‐CMC is discussed based on bond strength comparison of carbides (SiC), nitride silicates (SiAlON), and nitrides (Si3N4).
Modification of the Gallium‐Doped Zinc Oxide Surface with Self‐Assembled Monolayers of Phosphonic Acids: A Joint Theoretical and Experimental Study
Authors: Li Hong , Ratcliff Erin L. , Sigdel Ajaya K. , Giordano Anthony J. , Marder Seth R. , Berry Joseph J. , Brédas Jean‐Luc
Published: February 2014

Gallium‐doped zinc oxide (GZO) surfaces, both bare and modified with chemisorbed phosphonic acid (PA) molecules, are studied using a combination of density functional theory calculations and ultraviolet and X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy measurements. Excellent agreement between theory and experiment is obtained, which leads to an understanding of: i) the core‐level binding energy shifts of the various oxygen atoms belonging to different surface sites and to the phosphonic acid molecules; ii) the GZO work‐function change upon surface modification, and; iii) the energy level alignments of the frontier molecular orbitals of the PA molecules with respect to the valence band edge and Fermi level of the GZO surface. Importantly, both density of states calculations and experimental measurements of the valence band features demonstrate an increase in the density of states and changes in the characteristics of the valence band edge of GZO upon deposition of the phosphonic acid molecules. The new valence band features are associated with contributions from surface oxygen atoms near a defect site on the oxide surface and from the highest occupied molecular orbitals of the phosphonic acid molecules.
Marrying kin in small‐scale societies
Authors: Walker Robert S. , Bailey Drew H.
Published: February 2014

Objectives

Marriages among kin have the dual effect of both increasing average group relatedness as well as reducing the total number of kin by eliminating more genealogically and geographically distant individuals from kinship networks. Marriage decisions therefore face a tradeoff between density of kin, or formation of intensive kinship systems, and the diversity of kin, or extensive kinship systems. This article tests the hypothesis that extensive kinship systems best characterize hunter‐gatherer societies, whereas more intensive forms of subsistence, like horticultural, agricultural, and pastoral economies, are more likely to have intensive kinship systems.

Methods

Here, we investigate the wide range of variation in prevalence of kin marriages across a sample of 46 small‐scale societies, split evenly between hunter‐gatherers and agropastoralists (including horticulturalists), using genealogies that range in depth from 4 to 16 generations. Regression methods examine how subsistence and polygyny relate to spousal relatedness and inbreeding across societies.

Results

On average, hunter‐gatherers show limited numbers of kin marriages and low levels of inbreeding, whereas some agropastoralists are characterized by much higher levels of both, especially in societies where polygynous marriages are more common.

Conclusion

Intensive kinship systems emerge in some intensive economies. This pattern may have favored a kin‐selected increase in more large‐scale cooperation and inequality occurring relatively recently in human history after the advent of domesticated plants and animals. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 26:384–388, 2014. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Histopathological and clinical analysis of chronic rhinosinusitis by subtype
Authors: Czerny Mary S. , Namin Arya , Gratton Michael Anne , Antisdel Jastin L.
Published: February 2014

Background

Chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS) encompasses diverse phenotypic expression. Clinical and histological differences suggest 4 CRS subtypes: eosinophilic CRS with and without nasal polyps (eCRSwNP, eCRSsNP, respectively) and non‐eosinophilic CRS with and without nasal polyps (neCRSwNP, neCRSsNP, respectively). The mucosal basement membrane (BM) and cilia are believed to play roles in CRS pathogenesis by impacting mucociliary clearance and immune barriers. This study aimed to identify clinical, surgical, and histopathological subtype differences to further elucidate disease mechanisms.

Methods

Ethmoid tissue from 33 adult CRS patients and 7 controls was obtained during endoscopic sinus or other sinonasal surgery (controls) and analyzed by light and transmission electron microscopy for BM thickness and presence of cilia. CRS patients were categorized into the 4 subtypes, and 22‐item Sinonasal Outcome Test (SNOT‐22) score, endoscopy, computed tomography (CT), and surgical data were compared and analyzed for association with histopathology measures.

Results

CRS subtypes could be distinguished by CT score and surgical data, with eCRSwNP patients exhibiting greatest disease severity. Whereas eosinophilia was associated with absence of cilia, nasal polyposis showed no association with surgical or histopathological measures. No significant difference in BM thickness was found between controls and CRS subtypes, but distinctions were found regarding cilia, which were less common in eosinophilic subgroups compared to controls and neCRSsNP patients.

Conclusion

CRS subtypes exhibit some differentiating histopathological and surgical features. The absence of cilia appears to have an important role in the eosinophilic subgroups. Further histologic evaluation is warranted to evaluate for possible subtype‐specific treatment targets or prognostic markers.
Alzheimer's disease and parkinson's disease: Distinct entities or extremes of a spectrum of neurodegeneration?
Authors: Perl Daniel P. , Warren C. Olanow , Calne Donald
Published: February 2014

Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD) are generally considered to be separate and distinct disease entities. However, a considerable amount of evidence demonstrates that these disorders share common clinical and neuropathologic features and that overlap between the two conditions is extensive. For example, a significant percentage of AD patients exhibit extrapyramidal features, and many PD patients develop dementia. Similarly, at autopsy many AD patients not only exhibit the neuropathologic features of that disorder but also exhibit nigral pathology, including Lewy bodies. The vast majority of demented PD patients show widespread neurofibrillary tangles and senile plaques as well as Lewy body formation and nigral degeneration. The extent of such overlap is far greater than one would anticipate by chance alone. We argue that such overlap reflects a common pathogenic mechanism for the neurodegeneration encountered within specific vulnerable neuronal populations. Furthermore, we suggest that the current nosologic approach, which attempts to separate AD from PD, fails to properly deal with the issue of overlap and that a new classification of the neurodegenerative disorders should be considered.
Determinants of neuronal vulnerability in neurodegenerative diseases
Authors: Morrison Brett M. , Hof Patrick R. , Morrison John H.
Published: February 2014

Selective neuronal vulnerability can be defined anatomically by the differential vulnerability of circuits and neurochemically by the vulnerability of neurons that differentially express particular proteins. The anatomic perspective is exemplified by the vulnerability of the nigrostriatal projection in Parkinson's disease (PD), the degeneration of upper and lower motor neurons in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), and the preferential loss of long corticocortical projections in Alzheimer's disease (AD). The neurochemical perspective is reflected in the heightened vulnerability of neurons that normally express high somatodendritic levels of neurofilament (eg, entorhinal and association cortices in AD, the spinal cord in a mouse model of ALS, and the retina in a primate model of glaucoma), as well as the reduced vulnerability of neurons that express calcium‐binding proteins (eg, neocortex of AD patients, the spinal cord and brainstem of ALS patients, and the spinal cord of a mouse model of ALS). By combining neurochemical and anatomic correlates of vulnerability, an integrated view of vulnerable neurons is emerging in which characteristics of vulnerable neurons appear to transcend both brain region and disease state, suggesting that neurodegenerative disorders share common mechanisms of degeneration.
Epidemiology versus genetics in parkinson's disease: Progress in resolving an age‐old debate
Authors: Langston J. William
Published: February 2014

Determining the relative contributions of environment and heredity to the cause of Parkinson's disease (PD) is more than an academic issue because its resolution dictates future research directions to an enormous degree. This article reviews new advances on both sides of this equation. The recent identification of the genetic mutation responsible for parkinsonism in a large Italian kindred is likely to provide exciting new research opportunities but the mutation does not appear to be responsible for the vast majority of PD. A large twin study also points away from genetic influences as important, at least in patients with disease beginning after the age of 50 years. On the other hand, genetic influences loom large in younger‐onset disease. With regard to the environment, epidemiologic studies have provided only broad, thought‐tantalizing clues to the cause of the disease. Although rural living, well‐water consumption, and exposure to pesticides have emerged as potential risk factors, identification of specific agents is lacking, and aging remains as the only unequivocal risk factor for the disease. The surprisingly strong inverse relationship between cigarette smoking and PD provides an intriguing lead, but novel experimental avenues to pursue this observation are not readily obvious. The amyotrophic lateral sclerosis/dementia/parkinsonism complex in the western Pacific suggests the possibility of long‐latency toxins, but pinning down a specific causative agent for this syndrome has eluded investigators to date. Despite the many obstacles ahead, however, research on PD appears to be more robust than ever, and our quest to find its cause appears to be under a full head of steam as we approach the 21st century.
Understanding cell death in parkinson's disease
Authors: Jenner Peter , C. Warren Olanow
Published: February 2014

Current concepts of the cause of Parkinson's disease (PD) suggest a role for both genetic and environmental influences. Common to a variety of potential causes of nigral cell degeneration in PD is the involvement of oxidative stress. Postmortem analysis shows increased levels of iron, decreased complex I activity, and a decrease in reduced glutathione (GSH) levels. The decrease in GSH levels may be a particularly important component of the cascade of events leading to cell death because it occurs in the presymptomatic stage of PD and may directly induce nigral cell degeneration or render neurons susceptible to the actions of toxins. There is evidence suggesting that oxidative stress might originate in glial cells rather than in neurons, and alterations in glial function may be an important contributor to the pathologic process that occurs in PD. Oxidative damage occurs in the brain in PD, as shown by increased lipid peroxidation and DNA damage in the substantia nigra. Increased protein oxidation is also apparent, but this occurs in many areas of the brain and raises the specter of a more widespread pathologic process occurring in PD to which the substantia nigra is particularly vulnerable. The inability of the substantia nigra to handle damaged or mutant (eg, α‐synuclein) proteins may lead to their aggregation and deposition and to the formation of Lewy bodies. Indeed, Lewy bodies stain for both α‐synuclein and nitrated proteins. Current evidence enables us to hypothesize that a failure to process structurally modified proteins in regions of the brain exhibiting oxidative stress is a cause of both familial and sporadic PD.
Mitochondria in the etiology and pathogenesis of parkinson's disease
Authors: Schapira A. H. V. , Gu M. , Taanman J.‐W. , Tabrizi S. J. , Seaton T. , Cleeter M. , Cooper J. M.
Published: February 2014

Mitochondria play a critical role in cellular energy metabolism. The identification of a respiratory chain defect in Parkinson's disease (PD) provides not only a direct link with toxin models of parkinsonism but also insight into the mechanisms involved in etiology and pathogenesis. The presence of the complex I deficiency in PD substantia nigra and platelets suggests the involvement of a systemic cause. Genomic transplantation studies have been undertaken that involve the transfer to a novel nuclear background of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) from PD patients with a complex I defect, followed by both mixed and clonal expansion of the resulting cybrids. The mixed cybrids with the PD mtDNA expressed the complex I defect present in the original PD donor platelets. Clonal expansion of one such mixed cybrid culture produced a spectrum of clones with complex I and complex IV activities, ranging from severe deficiency to normal range, a pattern typical of a heteroplasmic mtDNA mutation. Histochemical, immunohistochemical, and functional assessments of ΔψM all showed a pattern in the PD clones typical of that produced by a mtDNA mutation. Patients with focal dystonia and a platelet complex I defect were used as disease controls for the cybrid studies. The mitochondrial abnormality was eradicated by transfer of dystonia mtDNA to a control nuclear background in both mixed and clonal cybrids, with no evidence of clonal heterogeneity. These results help to validate our findings in the PD patients and suggest that the complex I deficiency in dystonia is not due to an abnormality of mtDNA. We hypothesize that the mtDNA defect alone may be the cause of PD in a proportion of patients and may contribute to pathogenesis in others. Identification of the mtDNA genotype responsible for PD may allow the testing of neuroprotective strategies in appropriate patients.
Mitochondrial dysfunction in parkinson's disease
Authors: Mizuno Yoshikuni , Yoshino Hiroyo , Ikebe Shin‐Ichiro , Hattori Nobutaka , Kobayashi Tomonori , Shimoda‐Matsubayashi Satoe , Matsumine Hiroto , Kondo Tomoyoshi
Published: February 2014

This review discusses the etiology and pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD). Mitochondrial respiratory failure and oxidative stress appear to be two major contributors to nigral neuronal death in PD. Complex I deficiency has been reported by several groups and appears to be one of the basic abnormalities responsible for mitochondrial failure. The principal question is whether or not complex I deficiency is primary or secondary. The second question is whether or not complex I deficiency is localized in the nigrostriatal system or is systemically present. It is our impression that complex I deficiency is not the primary cause but that its deficiency appears to be systemic. The primary cause may be the combination of genetic background and potential nigral neurotoxins. Exposure of nigral neurons to a high risk for oxidative damage because of its high dopamine content may be the reason for more pronounced nigral complex I deficiency compared to systemic organs. Oxidative stress and mitochondrial failure produce a vicious cycle in nigral neurons. To explore the genetic risk factors of sporadic PD, studies on familial PD and parkinsonism are important. Recently, an autosomal dominant form of familial PD was found to be caused by point mutations of the α‐synuclein gene, and an autosomal recessive familial parkinsonism was mapped to the long arm of chromosome 6 near the Mn‐SOD gene locus. Information obtained in these familial cases will contribute to the research on sporadic PD.
Excitotoxicity and nitric oxide in parkinson's disease pathogenesis
Authors: M. Flint Beal
Published: February 2014

A potential role for excitotoxic processes in Parkinson's disease (PD) has been strengthened by the recent observations that there appears to be a mitochondrially encoded defect in complex I activity of the electron transport chain. An impairment of oxidative phosphorylation will enhance vulnerability to excitotoxicity. Substantia nigra neurons possess N‐methyl‐D‐aspartate receptors and there are glutamatergic inputs into the substantia nigra from both the cerebral cortex and the subthalamic nucleus. After activation of excitatory amino acid receptors, there is an influx of calcium followed by activation of neuronal nitric oxide (NO) synthase, which can then lead to the generation of peroxynitrite. Consistent with such a mechanism, studies of 1‐methyl‐4‐phenyl‐1,2,3,6‐tetrahydropyridine neurotoxicity in both mice and primates have shown that inhibition of neuronal NO synthase exerts neuroprotective effects. Studies utilizing excitatory amino acid receptor antagonists have been inconsistent in mice but show significant neuroprotective effects in primates. These results raise the prospect that excitatory amino acid antagonists for neuronal NO synthase inhibitors might be useful in the treatment of PD.
Neuroprotective and neurorestorative properties of GDNF
Authors: Gash Don M. , Zhang Zhiming , Gerhardt Greg
Published: February 2014

Glial cell line‐derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) promotes recovery of the injured nigrostriatal dopamine system and improves motor functions in both rodent and nonhuman primate models of Parkinson's disease (PD). The neurorestorative effects of a single administration of GDNF last for at least 1 month and can be maintained in rhesus monkeys by monthly injections. Adult midbrain dopamine neurons stimulated by GDNF show increased cell size, neurite extent, and expression of phenotypic markers. In parkinsonian nonhuman primates, GDNF treatment improves three of the cardinal features of PD: bradykinesia, rigidity, and postural instability. Although intracerebral administration is necessary because of the blood‐brain barrier, intraventricular, intrastriatal, and intranigral routes of administration have been found to be efficacious in rodents and nonhuman primates. GDNF also induces neuroprotective changes in dopamine neurons which are active within hours after trophic factor administration. The powerful neuroprotective and neurorestorative properties of GDNF seen in preclinical studies suggest that trophic factors may play an important role in treating PD.
Neuroprotection for parkinson's disease
Authors: Koller William C.
Published: February 2014

Levodopa is the most effective drug available for the treatment of Parkinson's disease (PD). As a precursor of dopamine, levodopa causes an increase in brain dopamine, which is depleted in PD. However, long‐term levodopa therapy is associated with complications such as dyskinesias, motor fluctuations, and mental status changes. The treatment of these side effects is a major challenge for the clinician.
The causes of parkinson's disease are being unraveled and rational neuroprotective therapy is close to reality
Authors: Marsden C. David , Olanow C. Warren
Published: February 2014

There has been significant progress in our knowledge of the cause, the pathogenesis, and the nature of the mechanism of cell death in Parkinson's disease (PD). Mutations in single genes have now been shown to be able to cause PD but likely only account for a small number of cases. Alternatively, there is evidence that environmental factors play a large role in the majority of cases of sporadic PD. Most likely, genetic factors predispose patients to develop PD if combined with other gene mutations or environmental toxins. Interest has thus focused on factors that contribute to the pathogenesis of neurodegeneration and the mechanism of cell death in an attempt to design a neuroprotective therapy. Oxidant stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, excitotoxicity with excess nitric oxide formation, and glia and inflammatory processes are all thought to contribute to the cell death process and agents that interfere with these events may be neuroprotective. It is now generally held that the final culmination of these events is the induction of apoptosis in nigral dopaminergic neurons and this too offers opportunities for providing neuroprotection. A rational argument can be made for investigating a large number of different approaches or combination of approaches in the hope of developing a meaningful neuroprotective therapy, using clinically relevant indices and neuroimaging markers of nigral dopaminergic neurons. It is evident that conventional approaches to trials that utilize large numbers of patients in search of small incremental effects are costly and time consuming. As such, it will be virtually impossible to test all of the potentially valuable neuroprotective agents that are now at hand, let alone those that will likely soon emerge. We suggest that it may be more profitable to test a large number of agents in a small number of selected patients in search of a more robust neuroprotective effect. In this way, we will reduce the risk of missing a powerful neuroprotective treatment with a treatment that might not otherwise have been studied because of a lack of time, money, or patients.
Assessing Chemical Heterogeneity at the Nanoscale in Mixed‐Ligand Metal–Organic Frameworks with the PTIR Technique
Authors: Katzenmeyer Aaron M. , Canivet Jerome , Holland Glenn , Farrusseng David , Centrone Andrea
Published: February 2014

Recently, the use of mixtures of organic‐building‐block linkers has given chemists an additional degree of freedom for engineering metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) with specific properties; however, the poor characterization of the chemical complexity of such MixMOF structures by conventional techniques hinders the verification of rational design. Herein, we describe the application of a technique known as photothermal induced resonance to individual MixMOF microcrystals to elucidate their chemical composition with nanoscale resolution. Results show that MixMOFs isoreticular to In‐MIL‐68, obtained either directly from solution or by postsynthetic linker exchange, are homogeneous down to approximately 100 nm. Additionally, we report a novel in situ process that enables the engineering of anisotropic domains in MOF crystals with submicron linker‐concentration gradients.
The Formazanate Ligand as an Electron Reservoir: Bis(Formazanate) Zinc Complexes Isolated in Three Redox States
Authors: Chang Mu‐Chieh , Dann Thomas , Day David P. , Lutz Martin , Wildgoose Gregory G. , Otten Edwin
Published: February 2014

The synthesis of bis(formazanate) zinc complexes is described. These complexes have well‐behaved redox‐chemistry, with the ligands functioning as a reversible electron reservoir. This allows the synthesis of bis(formazanate) zinc compounds in three redox states in which the formazanate ligands are reduced to “metallaverdazyl” radicals. The stability of these ligand‐based radicals is a result of the delocalization of the unpaired electron over four nitrogen atoms in the ligand backbone. The neutral, anionic, and dianionic compounds (L2Zn0/−1/−2) were fully characterized by single‐crystal X‐ray crystallography, spectroscopic methods, and DFT calculations. In these complexes, the structural features of the formazanate ligands are very similar to well‐known β‐diketiminates, but the nitrogen‐rich (NNCNN) backbone of formazanates opens the door to redox‐chemistry that is otherwise not easily accessible.
Coordination Complexes of Ph3Sb2+ and Ph3Bi2+: Beyond Pnictonium Cations
Authors: Robertson Alasdair P. M. , Burford Neil , McDonald Robert , Ferguson Michael J.
Published: February 2014

The syntheses of salts containing ligand‐stabilized Ph3Sb2+ and Ph3Bi2+ dications have been realized by in situ formation of Ph3Pn(OTf)2 (Pn=Sb or Bi) and subsequent reaction with OPPh3, dmap and bipy. The solid‐state structures demonstrate diversity imposed by the steric demands and nature of the ligands. The synthetic method has the potential for broad application enabling widespread development of the coordination chemistry for PnV acceptors.
Aerobic Oxidation in Nanomicelles of Aryl Alkynes, in Water at Room Temperature
Authors: Handa Sachin , Fennewald James C. , Lipshutz Bruce H.
Published: February 2014

On the basis of the far higher solubility of oxygen gas inside the hydrocarbon core of nanomicelles, metal and peroxide free aerobic oxidation of aryl alkynes to β‐ketosulfones has been achieved in water at room temperature. Many examples are offered that illustrate broad functional group tolerance. The overall process is environmentally friendly, documented by the associated low E Factors.
9‐Membered Carbocycle Formation: Development of Distinct Friedel–Crafts Cyclizations and Application to a Scalable Total Synthesis of (±)‐Caraphenol A
Authors: Wright Nathan E. , Snyder Scott A.
Published: February 2014

Explorations into a series of different approaches for 9‐membered carbocycle formation have afforded the first reported example of a 9‐exo‐dig ring closure via a AuIII‐promoted reaction between an alkyne and an aryl ring as well as several additional, unique Friedel–Crafts‐type cyclizations. Analyses of the factors leading to the success of these transformations are provided, with the application of one of the developed 9‐membered ring closures affording an efficient and scalable synthesis of the bioactive resveratrol trimer caraphenol A. That synthesis proceeded with an average yield of 89 % per step (7.8 % overall yield) and has provided access to more than 600 mg of the target molecule.
Deracemisierung durch simultane bio‐oxidative Racematspaltung und Stereoinversion
Authors: Schrittwieser Joerg H. , Groenendaal Bas , Resch Verena , Ghislieri Diego , Wallner Silvia , Fischereder Eva‐Maria , Fuchs Elisabeth , Grischek Barbara , Sattler Johann H. , Macheroux Peter , Turner Nicholas J. , Kroutil Wolfgang
Published: February 2014

Deracemisierung, also die Umwandlung eines Racemats in ein enantiomerenreines Produkt mit theoretisch 100 % Ausbeute und 100 % ee, stellt eine attraktive, aber auch anspruchsvolle Option für die asymmetrische Synthese dar. Hier beschreiben wir ein neuartiges Konzept einer chemo‐enzymatischen Deracemisierung mittels einer Kaskadenreaktion. Die Reaktionsfolge beinhaltet zwei enantioselektive Oxidationsschritte und einen nicht stereoselektiven Reduktionsschritt, durch welche zur gleichen Zeit eine Stereoinversion und eine kinetische Racematspaltung realisiert werden. Dieses Konzept wird anhand der Umwandlung von rac‐Benzylisochinolinen in optisch reine (S)‐Berbine vorgestellt. Die racemischen Substrate wurden in enantiomerenreine Produkte (ee>97 %) umgewandelt, wobei Umsätze von bis zu 98 % und Ausbeuten von bis zu 88 % erreicht wurden.
Geometric Requirements for Hydrocarbon Catalytic Sites on Platinum Surfaces
Authors: Gao Jie , Zhao Haibo , Yang Xiaofang , Koel Bruce E. , Podkolzin Simon G.
Published: February 2014

Vibrational spectroscopic measurements and density functional calculations were used to identify a preferential catalytic mechanism for the transformation of acetylene, HCCH, to vinylidene, CCH2, on surfaces of Pt‐Sn ordered alloys. In this mechanism, two adjacent Pt atoms adsorb an acetylene molecule and a third neighboring Pt atom is required for stabilizing the reacting H atom during the transformation. Therefore, unlike a direct H shift along the CC bond in organometallic compounds with a single transition‐metal atom, this mechanism has a geometric site requirement of three adjacent Pt atoms in the form of a three‐fold site. The same geometric site requirement is identified for preferential CH bond cleavage of acetylene with the formation of adsorbed CCH and H species. In the absence of three‐fold Pt sites, the reaction mechanism changes, and reactions of H transfer and CH bond cleavage are suppressed.
A Chimeric Siderophore Halts Swarming Vibrio
Authors: Böttcher Thomas , Clardy Jon
Published: February 2014

Some bacteria swarm under some circumstances; they move rapidly and collectively over a surface. In an effort to understand the molecular signals controlling swarming, we isolated two bacterial strains from the same red seaweed, Vibrio alginolyticus B522, a vigorous swarmer, and Shewanella algae B516, which inhibits V. alginolyticus swarming in its vicinity. Plate assays combined with NMR, MS, and X‐ray diffraction analyses identified a small molecule, which was named avaroferrin, as a potent swarming inhibitor. Avaroferrin, a previously unreported cyclic dihydroxamate siderophore, is a chimera of two well‐known siderophores: putrebactin and bisucaberin. The sequenced genome of S. algae revealed avaroferrin’s biosynthetic gene cluster to be a mashup of putrebactin and bisucaberin biosynthetic genes. Avaroferrin blocks swarming through its ability to bind iron in a form that cannot be pirated by V. alginolyticus, thereby securing this essential resource for its producer.
Polyhydroxybutyrate and hydroxyvalerate production by Bacillus megaterium strain A1 isolated from hydrocarbon‐contaminated soil
Authors: Güngörmedi Gökhan , Demirbilek Murat , Mutlu M. Burçin , Denkbaş Emir Baki , Çabuk Ahmet
Published: February 2014

In this study, we attempted to find an alternative microbial resource as a bioplastic producer. Among all of the isolates, the A1 strain produced 44% poly(β‐hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) in proportion to its dry cell weight. The molecular identification of the 16S RNA gene showed that this bacterium was a strain of Bacillus megaterium with the accession number KC579390. The optimization studies led us to the conclusion that the highest poly(β‐hydroxybutyrate‐co‐hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV) production was 78% when 5% molasses was used as the carbon source at pH 6 and 35°C after 60 h of incubation. Attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and H‐NMR were used for chemical characterization. Differential scanning calorimetry was used to determine the thermal properties of the PHB and PHBV that were synthesized with sucrose and molasses as carbon sources, respectively. The FTIR spectra of the polymers were characterized by typical absorption bands at 1715–1720 cm−1 for amide‐bound CO bands and 1261–1279 cm−1 for an ester‐bound CO band. The molecular weights of PHB and PHBV synthesized with sucrose and molasses were calculated as 428 and 498 kDa, respectively, according to the viscometric method. This study indicated that the B. megaterium strain A1 is an alternative microbial resource as a bioplastic producer. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2014, 131, 40530.
On the non‐newtonian viscous behavior of polymer melts in terms of temperature and pressure‐dependent hole fraction
Authors: Dinc Fatma Sahin , Sedlacek Tomas , Tav Cumali , Yahsi Ugur
Published: February 2014

A new theoretical non‐Newtonian viscosity model is developed by taking the fractional series expansion of Eyring's shearing strain rate. A broad range of experimental rheological data of various polymer melts including polyethylenes, polypropylene, polystyrene, poly (methyl methacrylate), and polycarbonate are fitted well using the proposed model. From the model; zero shear, constant shear‐stress and constant shear‐rate viscosities are derived as a linear function of viscosity related quantity, Yh, called “thermo‐occupancy function” and their coefficients are discussed in detail. The thermo‐occupancy function is expressed in terms of temperature and structural vacancies such as hole fraction computed from the Simha‐Somcynsky Hole Theory (SS). In addition, the derivative of the logarithm of viscosities with respect to the hole fraction, named as viscoholibility, is observed decreases with the increasing hole fraction. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2014, 131, 40540.
Fishermen's perception on the sustainability of small‐scale fisheries and dolphin–fisheries interactions in two increasingly fragile coastal ecosystems in western Greece
Authors: Gonzalvo Joan , Giovos Ioannis , Moutopoulos Dimitrios K.
Published: February 2014

Despite their geographic proximity, the Gulf of Ambracia and the Inner Ionian Sea Archipelago are remarkably different in terms of environmental features, human activities, and dolphin species composition and densities.

Interviews of small‐scale professional fishermen (n = 100) showed that younger generations do not see any future in fisheries and that the traditionally‐oriented fishing community is rapidly changing.

Fish captures have reportedly decreased dramatically during the last 20 years. The main factors having an adverse impact on the sustainability of small‐scale fisheries differed significantly between areas.

Net damage as a consequence of dolphin predation was almost unanimously reported. Hence, fishermen seemed genuinely interested in collaborating in future research initiatives to evaluate the damage caused by dolphins and to explore potential mitigation strategies.

Dolphins were not the only animals held responsible for net damage, nor those reportedly causing the largest economic loss to small‐scale fisheries, which was attributed to either sea turtles or the critically endangered monk seal, depending on the area.

The fishermen of the Gulf of Ambracia advocated the introduction of measures to curtail habitat degradation as the top priority, while their colleagues of the Inner Ionian Sea Archipelago identified fisheries management measures and effective law enforcement as the most urgently needed actions.

Given the high dependency of local communities on fisheries, ensuring their sustainability is crucial to providing local fishers with sufficient income. The top management measures identified by local small‐scale fishermen perfectly match the priorities set out within the Natura 2000 network, achievable through an ecosystem‐based approach. Failure to take action in a timely manner may lead to irreversible environmental damage coupled with the need for harsher regulatory measures.

Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Scholar metadata and knowledge generation with human and artificial intelligence
Authors: Liu Xiaozhong , Guo Chun , Zhang Lin
Published: February 2014

Scholar metadata have traditionally centered on descriptive representations, which have been used as a foundation for scholarly publication repositories and academic information retrieval systems. In this article, we propose innovative and economic methods of generating knowledge‐based structural metadata (structural keywords) using a combination of natural language processing‐based machine‐learning techniques and human intelligence. By allowing low‐barrier participation through a social media system, scholars (both as authors and users) can participate in the metadata editing and enhancing process and benefit from more accurate and effective information retrieval. Our experimental web system ScholarWiki uses machine learning techniques, which automatically produce increasingly refined metadata by learning from the structural metadata contributed by scholars. The cumulated structural metadata add intelligence and automatically enhance and update recursively the quality of metadata, wiki pages, and the machine‐learning model.
Phosphine‐Initiated Domino Reaction: A Convenient Method for the Preparation of Spirocyclopentanones
Authors: Liang Ling , Li Erqing , Xie Peizhong , Huang You
Published: February 2014

An efficient synthetic approach has been developed for the construction of the spirocyclopentanone skeleton via a phosphine‐catalyzed [3+2] annulation reaction. With this novel and economical protocol, various quaternary carbon‐centered spirocyclopentanones could be readily obtained.