bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Documenting plant diversity: unfinished business
Authors: Crane Peter R.
Published: April 2004

The exploration of global plant diversity has made great progress towards documenting most species on the planet, and the economic benefits of this have been enormous. Linnaeus concluded that ‘the number of plants in the whole world is much less than commonly believed, I ascertained by fairly safe calculation it hardly reaches 10 000’ (Linnaeus 1753, p. 4). The most recent estimates, crude as they are, place the total number of plant species at
ca
. 420 000 (Govaerts 2001; Bramwell 2002). But despite evident progress with both the exploration of plant genomes and the exploration of plant diversity, there is still much to be done. In both areas of our science, further basic underpinning documentation is fundamental to our ability to make progress in the future.
Automated species identification: why not?
Authors: Gaston Kevin J. , O'Neill Mark A.
Published: April 2004

Where possible, automation has been a common response of humankind to many activities that have to be repeated numerous times. The routine identification of specimens of previously described species has many of the characteristics of other activities that have been automated, and poses a major constraint on studies in many areas of both pure and applied biology. In this paper, we consider some of the reasons why automated species identification has not become widely employed, and whether it is a realistic option, addressing the notions that it is too difficult, too threatening, too different or too costly. Although recognizing that there are some very real technical obstacles yet to be overcome, we argue that progress in the development of automated species identification is extremely encouraging that such an approach has the potential to make a valuable contribution to reducing the burden of routine identifications. Vision and enterprise are perhaps more limiting at present than practical constraints on what might possibly be achieved.
Stability or stasis in the names of organisms: the evolving codes of nomenclature
Authors: Knapp Sandra , Lamas Gerardo , Lughadha Eimear Nic , Novarino Gianfranco
Published: April 2004

Nomenclature, far from being a dry dusty subject, is today more relevant than ever before. Researchers into genomics are discovering again the need for systems of nomenclature—names are what we use to communicate about organisms, and by extension the rest of their biology. Here, we briefly outline the history of the published international codes of nomenclature, tracing them from the time of Linnaeus in the eighteenth century to the present day. We then outline some of what we feel are the major challenges that face the codes in the twenty–first century; focusing primarily on publication, priority, typification and the role of science in the naming of organisms. We conclude that the codes are essential for taxonomists in the pursuance of their science, and that the democratic nature of decision–making in the regulation of the rules of nomenclature, though sometimes perceived as a potential weakness, is in fact one of its great strengths.
The promise of a DNA taxonomy
Authors: Blaxter Mark L.
Published: April 2004

Not only is the number of described species a very small proportion of the estimated extant number of taxa, but it also appears that all concepts of the extent and boundaries of ‘species’ fail in many cases. Using conserved molecular sequences it is possible to define and diagnose molecular operational taxonomic units (MOTU) that have a similar extent to traditional ‘species’. Use of a MOTU system not only allows the rapid and effective identification of most taxa, including those not encountered before, but also allows investigation of the evolution of patterns of diversity. A MOTU approach is not without problems, particularly in the area of deciding what level of molecular difference defines a biologically relevant taxon, but has many benefits. Molecular data are extremely well suited to re–analysis and meta–analysis, and data from multiple independent studies can be readily collated and investigated by using new parameters and assumptions. Previous molecular taxonomic efforts have focused narrowly. Advances in high–throughput sequencing methodologies, however, place the idea of a universal, multi–locus molecular barcoding system in the realm of the possible.
Tropical forests and global atmospheric change: a synthesis
Authors: Malhi Yadvinder , Phillips Oliver L.
Published: April 2004

We present a personal perspective on the highlights of the Theme Issue ‘Tropical forests and global atmospheric change’. We highlight the key findings on the contemporary rate of climatic change in the tropics, the evidence—gained from field studies—of large–scale and rapid change in the dynamics and biomass of old–growth forests, and evidence of how climate change and fragmentation can interact to increase the vulnerability of plants and animals to fires. A range of opinions exists concerning the possible cause of these observed changes, but examination of the spatial ‘fingerprint’ of observed change may help to identify the driving mechanism(s). Studies of changes in tropical forest regions since the last glacial maximum show the sensitivity of species composition and ecology to atmospheric changes. Model studies of change in forest vegetation highlight the potential importance of temperature or drought thresholds that could lead to substantial forest decline in the near future. During the coming century, the Earth's remaining tropical forests face the combined pressures of direct human impacts and a climatic and atmospheric situation not experienced for at least 20 million years. Understanding and monitoring of their response to this atmospheric change are essential if we are to maximize their conservation options.
Protist taxonomy: an ecological perspective
Authors: Finlay Bland J.
Published: April 2004

This is an exploration of contemporary protist taxonomy within an ecological perspective. As it currently stands, the ‘morphospecies’ does not accommodate the information that might support a truly ecological species concept for the protists. But the ‘morphospecies’ is merely a first step in erecting a taxonomy of the protists, and it is expected to become more meaningful in the light of genetic, physiological and ecological research in the near future. One possible way forward lies in the recognition that sexual and asexual protists may all be subject to forces of cohesion that result in (DNA) sequence–similarity clusters. A starting point would then be the detection of ‘ecotypes’—where genotypic and phenotypic clusters correspond; but for that we need better information regarding the extent of clonality in protists, and better characterization of ecological niches and their boundaries. There is some progress with respect to the latter. Using the example of a community of ciliated protozoa living in the stratified water column of a freshwater pond, it is shown to be possible to gauge the potential of protists to partition their local environment into ecological niches. Around 40 morphospecies can coexist in the superimposed water layers, which presumably represent different ecological niches, but we have yet to discover if these are discrete or continuously variable. It is a myth that taxonomic problems are more severe for protists than for animals and plants. Most of the fundamental problems associated with species concepts (e.g. asexuals, sibling species, phenotypic variation) are distributed across biota in general. The recent history of the status ofPfiesteriaprovides a model example of an integrated approach to solving what are essentially taxonomic problems.
Taxonomic triage and the poverty of phylogeny
Authors: Wheeler Quentin D.
Published: April 2004

Revisionary taxonomy is frequently dismissed as merely descriptive, which belies its strong intellectual content and hypothesis–driven nature. Funding for taxonomy is inadequate and largely diverted to studies of phylogeny that neither improve classifications nor nomenclature. Phylogenetic classifications are optimal for storing and predicting information, but phylogeny divorced from taxonomy is ephemeral and erodes the accuracy and information content of the language of biology. Taxonomic revisions and monographs are efficient, high–throughput species hypothesis–testing devices that are ideal for the World Wide Web. Taxonomic knowledge remains essential to credible biological research and is made urgent by the biodiversity crisis. Theoretical and technological advances and threats of mass species extinctions indicate that this is the time for a renaissance in taxonomy. Clarity of vision and courage of purpose are needed from individual taxonomists and natural history museums to bring about this evolution of taxonomy into the information age.
Tomorrow's taxonomy: collecting new species in the field will remain the rate–limiting step
Authors: May Robert M.
Published: April 2004

I am writing this as one of five contributions of ‘short thoughts’, by way of introduction to this issue dedicated to deeper thoughts on the major challenges facing taxonomy and systematics in the twenty–first century.I am writing this as one of five contributions of ‘short thoughts’, by way of introduction to this issue dedicated to deeper thoughts on the major challenges facing taxonomy and systematics in the twenty–first century.
Unitary or unified taxonomy?
Authors: Scoble Malcolm J.
Published: April 2004

Taxonomic data form a substantial, but scattered, resource. The alternative to such a fragmented system is a ‘unitary’ one of preferred, consensual classifications. For effective access and distribution the (Web) revision for a given taxon would be established at a single Internet site. Although all the international codes of nomenclature currently preclude the Internet as a valid medium of publication, elements of unitary taxonomy (UT) still exist in the paper system. Much taxonomy, unitary or not, already resides on the Web.

Arguments for and against adopting a unitary approach are considered and a resolution is attempted. Rendering taxonomy essentially Web–based is as inevitable as it is desirable. Apparently antithetical to the UT proposal is the view that in reality multiple classifications of the same taxon exist, since different taxonomists often hold different concepts of their taxa: a single name may apply to many different (frequently overlapping) circumscriptions and more than one name to a single taxon. However, novel means are being developed on single Internet sites to retain the diversity of multiple concepts for taxa, providing hope that taxonomy may become established as a Web–based information discipline that will unify the discipline and facilitate data access.
The topographical regulation of embryonic stem cell differentiation
Authors: Murray Patricia , Edgar David
Published: April 2004

The potential use of pluripotent stem cells for tissue repair or replacement is now well recognized. While the ability of embryonic stem (ES) cells to differentiate into all cells of the body is undisputed, their use is currently restricted by our limited knowledge of the mechanisms controlling their differentiation. This review discusses recent work by ourselves and others investigating the intercellular signalling events that occur within aggregates of mouse ES cells. The work illustrates that the processes of ES cell differentiation, epithelialization and programmed cell death are dependent upon their location within the aggregates and coordinated by the extracellular matrix. Establishment of the mechanisms involved in these events is not only of use for the manipulation of ES cells themselves, but it also throws light on the ways in which differentiation is coordinated during embryogenesis.
The archaeal Sec–dependent protein translocation pathway
Authors: Bolhuis Albert
Published: April 2004

Over the past three decades, transport of proteins across cellular membranes has been studied extensively in various model systems. One of the major transport routes, the so–called Sec pathway, is conserved in all domains of life. Very little is known about this pathway in the third domain of life, archaea. The core components of the archaeal, bacterial and eucaryal Sec machinery are similar, although the archaeal components appear more closely related to their eucaryal counterparts. Interestingly, the accessory factors of the translocation machinery are similar to bacterial components, which indicates a unique hybrid nature of the archaeal translocase complex. The mechanism of protein translocation in archaea is completely unknown. Based on genomic sequencing data, the most likely system for archaeal protein translocation is similar to the eucaryal co–translational translocation pathway for protein import into the endoplasmic reticulum, in which a protein is pushed across the translocation channel by the ribosome. However, other models can also be envisaged, such as a bacterial–like system in which a protein is translocated post–translationally with the aid of a motor protein analogous to the bacterial ATPase SecA. This review discusses the different models. Furthermore, an overview is given of some of the other components that may be involved in the protein translocation process, such as those required for protein targeting, folding and post–translational modification.
Taxonomy: where are we now?
Authors: Raven Peter H.
Published: April 2004

This is a commentary by the author on the current state of taxonomy - comprising past, present and future taxonomic perspectives.
Helminth risks associated with mixed game and livestock interactions in and around Lake Mburo National Park, Uganda
Authors: Ocaido M. , Siefert L. , Baranga J.
Published: April 2004

A study was performed in and around Lake Mburo National Park (LMNP) to identify common helminths that parasitize both game and livestock. Various techniques including floatation, Baerman and sedimentation tests, faecal culturing and post‐mortem were used to identify helminths recovered during the survey. Identification was based on egg, larval and adult helminth developmental stages. Results showed that 22 species of parasitic nematodes, lungworms, ascaris, trematodes and tapeworms occur in both wild game and livestock found in and around the national park. The significance of the findings to helminth cross‐infection among game, livestock and man is discussed.
Fish species and trophic diversity of haplochromine cichlids in the Kyoga satellite lakes (Uganda)
Authors: Mbabazi Dismas , Ogutu‐Ohwayo R. , Wandera S. B. , Kiziito Y.
Published: April 2004

Prior to the 1980s, lakes Kyoga and Victoria previously supported an exceptionally diverse haplochromine fish fauna comprising at least 11 trophic groups. The species and trophic diversity in these lakes decreased when the introduced Nile perch depleted haplochromine stocks. From December 1996 to October 1998, we studied species and trophic diversity of haplochromine fishes in six satellite lakes without Nile perch in the Kyoga basin and compared them with the Kyoga main lake against historical data from Lake Victoria where Nile perch were introduced. Forty‐one species were found in the study area, of which, the Kyoga satellite lakes contributed 37 species in comparison to only 14 from the Kyoga main lake. Analysis of trophic diversity based on 24 species that contained food material revealed seven haplochromine trophic groups (insectivores, peadophages, piscivores, algal eaters, higher plant eaters, molluscivores and detritivores) in the Kyoga satellite lakes in comparison to two trophic groups (insectivores and molluscivores) in the Kyoga main lake. Many of the species and trophic groups of haplochromines depleted by the introduced Nile perch in lakes Kyoga and Victoria still survive in the Kyoga satellite lakes. This is attributed to the absence of Nile perch in those lakes. Nile perch has been prevented from spreading into the satellite lakes by swamp vegetation that separate them from the main lakes. If these swamps prevent Nile perch from spreading into the lakes, it is possible to conserve fish species, especially haplochromines, which are threatened by introduction of Nile perch in the main lakes.
Adulthood nicotine treatment alleviates behavioural impairments in rats neonatally treated with quinpirole: possible roles of acetylcholine function and neurotrophic factor expression
Authors: Brown Russell W. , Thompson Kenyatta D. , Thompson Kimberly N. , Ward J. Jeffrey , Thacker Stephanie K. , Williams Michael T. , Kostrzewa Richard M.
Published: April 2004

Increases in dopamine D2 receptor sensitivity are known to be common in drug abuse and neurological disorders. Past data from this laboratory have shown that long‐term increases in D2 sensitivity can be produced by quinpirole treatment (a D2/D3 agonist) during early development. The present investigation was designed to test the hypothesis that nicotine administration in adulthood would reduce both cognitive and skilled reaching impairments produced by increases in D2 sensitivity. Female Sprague–Dawley rats were treated with quinpirole (1 mg/kg) or saline from postnatal day 1 (PD 1) to PD 21. Beginning in adulthood (PD 61), rats were treated with nicotine (0.3 mg/kg free base) or saline twice daily for 14 consecutive days before behavioural testing commenced. Animals neonatally treated with quinpirole demonstrated performance deficits on the Morris water task and a skilled reaching task compared to controls. Deficits on both tasks were completely alleviated by adulthood nicotine treatment. Animals neonatally treated with quinpirole demonstrated a significant 36% decrease of ChAT in the hippocampus compared to saline controls that was partially eliminated by nicotine. Additionally, neonatal quinpirole produced a significant decrease in hippocampal NGF content compared to controls, however, nicotine failed to alleviate this decrease in NGF. The results of this investigation demonstrate that long‐term increases in dopamine D2 receptor sensitivity produce significant decreases in hippocampal cholinergic and NGF expression that may result in cognitive impairment. Nicotine alleviates both cognitive and skilled reaching impairments caused by increases in D2 sensitivity, but the mechanism through which nicotine is acting is currently unknown.
Contribution of the ventral tegmental area to cocaine‐seeking maintained by a drug‐paired conditioned stimulus in rats
Authors: Di Ciano Patricia , Everitt Barry J.
Published: April 2004

Stimuli paired with cocaine can maintain cocaine‐seeking as conditioned reinforcers. Although converging evidence implicates a role for the ventral tegmental area (VTA) in the primary reinforcing effects of drugs of abuse, the role of the VTA in mediating associative influences over drug‐seeking remains to be determined. The present study therefore investigated the contribution to CS‐maintained cocaine‐seeking under a second‐order schedule of reinforcement of the VTA, and its terminal regions, the nucleus accumbens (NAcc) core and basolateral amygdala (BLA), previously shown to be critical for the acquisition of this behaviour. Inactivation of the VTA or NAcc core by direct infusion of a mixture of the GABAA and GABAB receptor agonists, baclofen and muscimol, decreased cocaine‐seeking when rats were drug‐free, while drug‐seeking after self‐administered cocaine was increased only when they were infused into the NAcc core. Inactivation of the BLA had no effect on drug‐seeking. These results are discussed with reference to critical and distinct contributions of the VTA, NAcc core and BLA to drug‐seeking maintained by conditioned reinforcers
Independent on‐line control of the two hands during bimanual reaching
Authors: Diedrichsen Jörn , Nambisan Rohit , Kennerley Steve W. , Ivry Richard B.
Published: April 2004

Many studies on bimanual coordination have shown that people exhibit a preference for mirror‐symmetric movements. We demonstrate that this constraint is absent when bimanual reaching movements are made to visual targets. We investigated the ability of humans to make on‐line adjustments during such movements when one or both targets were displaced during the initial phase of the movements. Adjustments were as efficient during bimanual as unimanual movements, even when two adjustments had to be made simultaneously. When one target was displaced in the bimanual condition, the hand reaching to that target adjusted efficiently to the displacement. However, a small transient perturbation in the trajectory of the other hand was also observed. This perturbation was in the same direction as the displacement, rather than in mirror‐symmetric direction. A control experiment demonstrated that these perturbations could be elicited by visual information alone, but that they were also influenced by whether an adjustment was required in the trajectory of the other hand. Our results demonstrate near independent control of the two arms during visually guided reaching. The subtle interference observed between the arms reflects interactions between target‐related representations in visual coordinates rather than between movement‐related representations in joint‐ or muscle‐coordinates.
Orexins (hypocretins) directly interact with neuropeptide Y, POMC and glucose‐responsive neurons to regulate Ca2+ signaling in a reciprocal manner to leptin: orexigenic neuronal pathways in the mediobasal hypothalamus
Authors: Muroya Shinji , Funahashi Hisayuki , Yamanaka Akihiro , Kohno Daisuke , Uramura Kazuhide , Nambu Tadahiro , Shibahara Megumi , Kuramochi Motoki , Takigawa Morikuni , Yanagisawa Masashi , Sakurai Takeshi , Shioda Seiji , Yada Toshihiko
Published: April 2004

Orexin‐A and ‐B (hypocretin‐1 and ‐2) have been implicated in the stimulation of feeding. Here we show the effector neurons and signaling mechanisms for the orexigenic action of orexins in rats. Immunohistochemical methods showed that orexin axon terminals contact with neuropeptide Y (NPY)‐ and proopiomelanocortin (POMC)‐positive neurons in the arcuate nucleus (ARC) of the rats. Microinjection of orexins into the ARC markedly increased food intake. Orexins increased cytosolic Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) in the isolated neurons from the ARC, which were subsequently shown to be immunoreactive for NPY. The increases in [Ca2+]i were inhibited by blockers of phospholipase C (PLC), protein kinase C (PKC) and Ca2+ uptake into endoplasmic reticulum. The stimulation of food intake and increases in [Ca2+]i in NPY neurons were greater with orexin‐A than with orexin‐B, indicative of involvement of the orexin‐1 receptor (OX1R). In contrast, orexin‐A and ‐B equipotently attenuated [Ca2+]i oscillations and decreased [Ca2+]i levels in POMC‐containing neurons. These effects were counteracted by pertussis toxin, suggesting involvement of the orexin‐2 receptor and Gi/Go subtypes of GTP‐binding proteins. Orexins also decreased [Ca2+]i levels in glucose‐responsive neurons in the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH), a satiety center. Leptin exerted opposite effects on these three classes of neurons. These results demonstrate that orexins directly regulate NPY, POMC and glucose‐responsive neurons in the ARC and VMH, in a manner reciprocal to leptin. Orexin‐A evokes Ca2+ signaling in NPY neurons via OX1R–PLC–PKC and IP3 pathways. These neural pathways and intracellular signaling mechanisms may play key roles in the orexigenic action of orexins.
Primary somatosensory cortex modulation of tactile responses in nucleus gracilis cells of rats
Authors: Malmierca Eduardo , Nuñez Angel
Published: April 2004

Corticofugal influences from the primary somatosensory cortex to the gracilis nuclei were studied with single unit recordings performed in urethane‐anaesthetized rats. Two types of neurons were identified: low firing rate (LF) neurons, which could be activated antidromically by medial lemniscus stimulation; and high firing rate (HF) neurons. The effects of electrically stimulating the contralateral primary somatosensory cortex were studied in two situations: when the stimulated cortical area and specific gracilis cells had overlapping receptive fields and when the receptive fields of the cells and primary somatosensory cortex did not overlap. Cortical stimulation facilitated cortical and tactile responses in most gracilis neurons (68% and 58% for LF and HF neurons, respectively) with overlapping receptive fields. When receptive fields were different, cortical stimulation inhibited tactile response in most LF neurons (58%) and some HF neurons (20%). Trains of cortical shocks during sensory stimulation demonstrated that the facilitatory and inhibitory effects outlasted the stimulation period by 5 min. The facilitatory effect was decreased by iontophoretic application of the N‐methyl‐D‐aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist APV (50 mm). However, APV did not modify the intensity of the tactile response inhibition in cells with nonoverlapping receptive fields, although, its duration was decreased (<5 min). Iontophoretic application of the γ‐aminobutyric acid (GABA)A antagonist bicuculline (20 mm) blocked the cortically evoked inhibition in cells with nonoverlapping receptive fields. The results indicate that the somatosensory cortex precisely controls somatosensory transmission throughout the gracilis nucleus by means of NMDA and GABAA receptor activation.
RGS21 is a novel regulator of G protein signalling selectively expressed in subpopulations of taste bud cells
Authors: Von Buchholtz Lars , Elischer Andrea , Tareilus Erwin , Gouka Robin , Kaiser Carmen , Breer Heinz , Conzelmann Sidonie
Published: April 2004

G‐protein‐mediated signalling processes are involved in sweet and bitter taste transduction. In particular, the G protein α‐subunit gustducin has been implicated in these processes. One of the limiting factors for the time‐course of cellular responses induced by tastants is therefore the intrinsic GTPase activity of α‐gustducin, which determines the lifetime of the active G protein complex. In several signalling systems specific ‘regulator of G protein signalling’ (RGS) proteins accelerate the GTPase activity of G protein α‐subunits. Using differential screening approaches, we have identified a novel RGS protein termed RGS21, which represents the smallest known member of this protein family. Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and in situ hybridization experiments demonstrated that RGS21 is expressed selectively in taste tissue where it is found in a subpopulation of sensory cells. Furthermore, it is coexpressed in individual taste cells with bitter and sweet transduction components including α‐gustducin, phospholipase Cβ2, T1R2/T1R3 sweet taste receptors and T2R bitter taste receptors. In vitro binding assays demonstrate that RGS21 binds α‐gustducin in a conformation‐dependent manner and has the potential to interact with the same Gα subtypes as T1R receptors. These results suggest that RGS21 could play a regulatory role in bitter as well as sweet taste transduction processes.
Functional importance of Ca2+‐activated K+ channels for lysophosphatidic acid‐induced microglial migration
Authors: Schilling Tom , Stock Christian , Schwab Albrecht , Eder Claudia
Published: April 2004

Migration of microglial cells towards damaged tissue plays a key role in central nervous system regeneration under pathological conditions. Using time lapse video microscopy we show that lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) enhances chemokinetic migration of murine microglial cells. In the presence of 1 µm LPA, the mean migration rate of microglial cells was increased 3.8‐fold. In patch‐clamp studies we demonstrate that LPA induces activation of a Ca2+‐activated K+ current. Microglial Ca2+‐activated K+ currents were abolished by either 50 nm charybdotoxin or 10 µm clotrimazole. In contrast, 5 µm paxilline did not have any significant effects on Ca2+‐activated K+ currents. The LPA‐stimulated migration of microglial cells was inhibited by blockers of IKCa1 Ca2+‐activated K+ channels. The mean migration rate of LPA‐stimulated cells was decreased by 61% in the presence of 50 nm charybdotoxin or by 51% during exposure to 10 µm clotrimazole. Microglial migration was not inhibited by 5 µm paxilline. It is concluded that IKCa1 Ca2+‐activated K+ channels are required for LPA‐stimulated migration of microglial cells.
Misreading Islamist Terrorism: The “War Against Terrorism” and Just‐War Theory
Authors: Schwartz Joseph M.
Published: April 2004

Abstract: The Bush administration's military war on terrorism is a blunt, ineffective, and unjust response to the threat posed to innocent civilians by terrorism. Decentralized terrorist networks can only be effectively fought by international cooperation among police and intelligence agencies representing diverse nation‐states, including ones with predominantly Islamic populations. The Bush administration's allegations of a global Islamist terrorist threat to the national interests of the United States misread the decentralized and complex nature of Islamist politics. Undoubtedly there exists a “combat fundamentalist” element within Islamism. But the threat posed to U.S. citizens by Islamist terrorism neither necessitates nor justifies as a response massive military invasions of other nations. Not only does the Bush administration's war on alleged “terrorist states” violate the doctrine of just war, but in addition these wars arise from a new, unilateral, imperial foreign‐policy doctrine of “preventive wars.” Such a doctrine will isolate the United States from international institutions and long‐standing allies. The weakening of these institutions and alliances will only weaken the ability of the international community to deter terrorism.
Of Power and Compassion
Authors: Telhami Shibley
Published: April 2004

Abstract: While military and economic power are obviously central instruments of policy in international relations, there are a number of reasons why power alone is insufficient to succeed in fighting terrorism. Three central reasons are discussed in this essay: the limitations and the dilemma of power; the proposition that the most threatening form of terrorism, such as al‐Qaeda's, is conducted by nonstate actors, conventional deterrence against whom is less effective; and the role of motivation in conflicts where the distribution of power is asymmetrical. In addition to these objective reasons, it is argued that the foreign‐policy strategies pursued ultimately affect the actors' own values.
Losing to Terrorism: An American Work in Progress
Authors: Bobrow Davis B.
Published: April 2004

Abstract: The evolution of the U.S. war on terrorism is on a path that poses a substantial probability of losing to it, although not necessarily of a victory by its declared targets. That conclusion follows from the definition presented of terrorism and thus central questions about the merits of responses justified by an objective of reducing it. Likely American responses to 9/11 are suggested by a review of well‐known policy‐making tendencies from past scholarship and experience, tendencies well‐established prior to 9/11 and by no means unique to the Bush II presidency. The expectations those tendencies suggest have been born out by what the United States has done and not done. Well‐established criteria and their implied rules of practice for security enhancing great‐power statecraft are presented, and the chosen U.S. program of action is found to be counter‐productive in their light.
Gender differences in regional cutaneous microcirculatory responses to capsaicin
Authors: Ferrell W.R. , Wong B.B. , Lockhart J.C. , Ramsay J.E.
Published: April 2004

Vascular responsiveness between healthy male and female subjects to capsaicin, an agent promoting neuropeptide release, was compared. Changes in skin perfusion were measured non‐invasively using laser Doppler imaging. Topical application of a 3% solution of capsaicin to the dorsum of the hand resulted in vasodilatation in nine of 10 male subjects, but in less than half of the female subjects. Responses to capsaicin at the shin were smaller but did not show gender differences. Fingertip temperature was significantly lower in females compared with males and this correlated (r = 0.54, P < 0.01) with the maximum response to capsaicin. These effects were specific to capsaicin as endothelium‐dependent and ‐independent vasodilator mechanisms, assessed non‐invasively by iontophoresis of acetylcholine and sodium nitroprusside, respectively, showed no gender differences. These findings suggest a specific anomaly in capsaicin‐sensitive vasodilator mechanisms in some subjects, perhaps indicative of subclinical expression of Raynaud's phenomenon.
Studying long‐term effect of phenytoin either alone or combined with ascorbic acid on the anesthetic effect of urethane in rats
Authors: El Desoky Ehab S. , Abdulla Mostafa Mh
Published: April 2004

Phenytoin is an anticonvulsant drug known to interact with many other drugs. Previous data suggest that chronic administration of phenytoin delays urethane‐induced loss of righting reflex (LRR) and this phenomenon being potentiated by concomitant administration of ascorbic acid (ASC). Therefore, we examined how phenytoin at two different doses combined or not with ASC (fixed dose) interact with both the latency to, and the duration for urethane‐induced LRR in experimental rats. The results showed that lower dose of phenytoin (60 mg/kg rat b.i.d.) has significantly shortened the duration of LRR while higher dose of the drug (120 mg/kg b.i.d.) has delayed the latency to LRR (cut‐off period of 15 min). Furthermore, addition of ASC to any of the two doses of phenytoin gave results similar to that observed for latency to and duration of LRR when phenytoin was given alone at the higher dose (120 mg/kg b.i.d.).

Our data suggest a resistant effect of chronic administration of phenytoin on latency to and/or duration of loss righting reflex induced by urethane in experimental animals. A dose–response relationship of phenytoin in this regard is expected and needs further investigations. The resistant effect of phenytoin on righting reflex has been augmented when ASC was chronically given in combination. This result supports a possible interaction between the two drugs and needs further investigations at both experimental and clinical levels.
Stalinism as a Civilization: New Perspectives on Communist Regimes
Authors: Hedin Astrid
Published: April 2004

A new line of inquiry into the history of communist regimes and the cold war has emerged. Pioneered by Stephen Kotkin and other American historians, it views Stalinism as the defining era of socialism, building a specific anti-capitalist and illiberal modernity that mustered voluntary participation and international legitimacy. This model of Stalinism as a rival civilization, held together by participatory totalitarianism, challenges older research on communist regimes – both revisionist and totalitarian studies. However, the degree of originality of this perspective is questioned here, citing precursors, parallels and contrasts within European research and political science.
Taxation and Distributive Justice
Authors: Farrelly Colin
Published: April 2004

Distributive justice concerns the fair distribution of the benefits and burdens of social cooperation. Opposition to higher rates of taxation, or even existing levels of taxation, is often made on grounds that such taxes are unfair burdens. This fairness argument can be given a number of further, more-specific formulations. Libertarians, such as Robert Nozick, argue that taxation of income is unfair because it violates individual rights. They invoke an entitlement argument that presumes that the appropriate baseline of property rights is pretax income. Others take issue with specific policies that are supported by taxation, such as welfare provisions, and argue that welfare reform is necessary because tax burdens are only legitimate when they satisfy some form of reciprocity thesis. These arguments are critically assessed here in relation to three recent books – The Cost of Rights, The Myth of Ownership and The Civic Minimum – which explore different arguments often invoked in defence of tax cuts. Themes that raise important questions about taxation and justice are also examined – private property, welfare reform and inheritance. The real challenge facing justice theorists is to take scarcity seriously; thus, I emphasise the shortcomings of simply endorsing a ‘cost-blind’, rights-oriented conception of justice, which currently dominates debates in normative political theory.
Asymptomatic gastritis in naproxen‐treated North Indian children with juvenile rheumatoid arthritis
Authors: Rongali Atchum Naidu , Singh Surjit , Thapa Babu Ram , Vaiphei Kim
Published: April 2004

Aims:  Nonsteroidal anti‐inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are the agents of choice in patients with juvenile rheumatoid arthritis (JRA). While NSAIDs have been associated with gastritis in adults with rheumatoid arthritis (RA), not much is known about children with JRA. In this prospective study we set out to evaluate 31 children with JRA, who fulfilled the diagnostic criteria given by the American College of Rheumatology (ACR).

Methods:  All patients had received naproxen for at least 3 months prior to their enrolment. Mean age of children was 9.02 years (range 2.5–16 years) with the male : female ratio being 1.8 : 1 (boys 20; girls 11). Eleven (35.5%) patients had polyarticular, 15 (48.4%) had pauciarticular and the remaining five (16.1%) had systemic onset JRA. Duration of disease varied from 5–84 months (mean ± 2, SD = 25.32 ± 20 months) with a mean duration of therapy of 14.19 months (range 4–72 months). Six patients had complaints of mild non‐specific upper abdominal pain.

Results:  On upper gastrointestinal endoscopic examination none of the children showed any significant gross findings. However, histopathology of antral biopsies showed features of active and/or chronic gastritis in almost all the patients. Helicobacter pylori was identified in 16 (51.8%) of these on hematoxylin and eosin staining and the findings were confirmed with Giemsa/Gram staining. Fourteen (85.5%) were also positive by the rapid urease test (RUT). Ten of the 16 patients with H. pylori infection showed evidence of active inflammation in the antral biopsies.

Conclusions:  Asymptomatic gastritis is a common finding in children with JRA who are receiving naproxen. There appears to be no correlation between the presence of H. pylori infection or histological gastritis and presence of abdominal symptoms in children with JRA.
Leflunomide in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis and other autoimmune disorders
Authors: Fox Robert , Helfgott Simon
Published: April 2004

Leflunomide (Arava) is an isoxazole derivative approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Its mechanism of action is based on the inhibition of dihydro‐orotate dehydrogenase, an enzyme that controls the pathway for denovo synthesis of uridine ribose monophosphate (rUMP) in activated T‐cells. Leflunomide is structurally unrelated to other known immunomodulatory drugs in clinical use. Data have demonstrated benefit in control of clinical symptoms and quality of life in RA and prevention of radiologic progression after 24 months of treatment. Further, studies suggest a role for the combination of methotrexate plus leflunomide in the treatment of some patients with refractory RA. Recent studies have also indicated efficacy in psoriatic arthritis, other autoimmune disorders and in prevention of allograft rejection. A recent important issue is reports of potentially serious liver toxicity and guidelines for monitoring toxicity.
Churg–Strauss syndrome confined to calf muscles
Authors: Ching Daniel W. T.
Published: April 2004

A 42‐year‐old Caucasian man presented with spontaneous bilateral calf pain. Past history included asthma for 8 months and sinusitis for 1 month. Investigations revealed eosinophilia, raised ESR, CRP, IgE and antimyeloperoxidase antibodies. Ethmoid sinus tissue excised during otolaryngological surgery showed non‐specific mixed inflammatory infiltrate including eosinophilia. A calf muscle biopsy demonstrated vasculitis with extravascular eosinophilia. He responded promptly to treatment with prednisone which was eventually stopped after 6 months. There is no recurrence at 6‐year follow up. It is important to recognize this presentation because prompt treatment might prevent progression of localized vasculitis to more widespread and life‐threatening vasculitis.
Analyses of serum levels of type 1, type 2 and type 3 cytokines reveal multiple abnormalities in lupus‐prone (NZB × NZW) F1 mice
Authors: De Albuquerque Deijanira A. , Ebling Fanny M. , Lienesch Douglas W. , Singh Ram Raj , Hahn Bevra H.
Published: April 2004

Aim:  Inherent in vivo cytokine milieu may help protect normal subjects from developing clinical autoimmunity, whereas changes in cytokine milieu may contribute to the development of lupus‐like autoimmunity.

Method:  Here, we measured circulating levels of the three prototypic cytokines, type 1 (IFN‐γ and IL‐2), type 2 (IL‐4) and type 3 (TGFβ) in the NZB/NZW F1 model of lupus and MHC‐matched nonautoimmune mice.

Results:  Our results demonstrate that circulating IFN‐γ and IL‐4 levels were higher and active TGFβ levels were lower in lupus‐prone animals than in nonautoimmune mice.

Conclusion:  Such an in vivo cytokine milieu may contribute to the development of lupus in NZB/NZW F1 mice and to the nonautoimmune phenotype in normal animals.
Therapy with biologic agents in SLE
Authors: Zandman‐Goddard Gisele , Shoenfeld Yehuda
Published: April 2004

The revolution of biologic targeted therapy for autoimmune disease is underway. While anticytokine treatment (anti‐TNF‐α and anti‐IL‐1Ra) are proving beneficial in such diseases as rheumatoid arthritis and spondyloarthropathies, the road to successful treatment in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is more complex, and perhaps because the mechanisms of disease remain unelucidated. The aims of novel therapies in SLE are to target the autoimmune disease at different points: B‐cell depletion (Lymphostat‐B, Rituximab), inhibition of T–B interaction (IDEC‐131), blockade of cytokines (anti‐IL‐10 antibodies), manipulation of idiotypes (IVIG), tolerance induction to DNA and to Ig‐peptides and peptide therapy (Riquent). We review the current knowledge on biologic agents in SLE patients. We utililized MEDLINE for relevant information from 2000 to 2003. Since biologic agents in this disease are at preliminary stages, we include information from abstracts, open trials, as well as phase I, II, and III studies. Anecdotal reports are not included. B‐cell depletion therapy is promising.
Intravascular lymphoma associated with systemic lupus erythematosus
Authors: Naya Masanao , Mukai Masaya , Bohgaki Miyuki , Notoya Atsushi , Kohno Michifumi , Matsubara Izumi
Published: April 2004

We report a case of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) associated with intravascular (angiotropic) lymphoma. A 27‐year‐old woman had been suffering from uncontrolled severe eruptions for a long time and was admitted because of high fever due to hemophagocytic syndrome (HPS). As her SLE had not been well‐controlled by moderate doses of steroids and azathioprine, autoimmune associated HPS was first considered. She was initially treated with steroid pulses and γ‐globulin for HPS. However, chromosomal analysis of bone marrow cells revealed severe abnormalities. After malignant lymphoma‐associated HPS was diagnosed, chemotherapy was commenced in the intensive care unit with artificial respiration and continuous hemodiafiltration. The patient died of cerebral infarction at day 45. It is suggested that the SLE itself was associated with the development of the intravascular lymphoma rather than due to the azathioprine.
The potential role of procalcitonin in the emergency department management of febrile young adults during a sustained meningococcal epidemic
Authors: Bugden Simon A , Coles Clare , Mills Graham D
Published: April 2004

Objective:  To prospectively investigate the diagnostic characteristics of procalcitonin as an aid in the diagnosis of meningococcal disease in febrile young adults presenting to the Waikato Hospital emergency department during a sustained meningococcal epidemic.

Methods:  The study population were emergency department patients aged 14–40 years presenting with either a temperature ≥ 38.0°C without an obvious focus of infection, or symptoms consistent with meningococcal disease. All had procalcitonin levels, N. meningitidis PCR, blood ± CSF cultures.

Results:  One hundred and eighty‐three patients presented with undifferentiated febrile illness over a 9 month study period. Nine were subsequently shown to have meningococcal disease. A positive procalcitonin (≥ 0.5 ng/mL) had a sensitivity of 100% (CI 66.4–100), specificity 89% (CI 83.1–93.1), negative predictive value 100% (CI 97.6–100) and positive predictive value 32% (CI 15.9–52.4) for meningococcal disease.

Conclusions:  The finding of a procalcitonin level ≥ 0.5 ng/mL in young adults with undifferentiated fever indicates an increased chance that the presenting illness may be meningococcal disease. In New Zealand's continuing meningococcal epidemic empirical antibiotics should be strongly considered in those with elevated procalcitonin levels in the hope of reducing meningococcal disease deaths due to delays in antibiotic administration.
How long does stridor at rest persist in croup after the administration of oral prednisolone?
Authors: Parker Robyn , Powell Colin VE , Kelly Anne‐Maree
Published: April 2004

Objectives:  To determine the duration of stridor at rest (SAR) after the administration of oral prednisolone (1 mg/kg) to children admitted to hospital with croup from the ED. The secondary objective was to determine whether children with mild croup had a more rapid resolution of SAR.

Methods:  This was a retrospective explicit chart review of all children admitted to the paediatric ward of a community, paediatric teaching hospital with a diagnosis of croup over one year. Data collected included patient demographics, Westley and Geelhoed croup scores on presentation to the ED and the duration of SAR after administration of steroids.

Results:  For the 188 cases analyzed, median duration of SAR was 6.5 h (95% CI 6–7 h, range 0.5–82 h). Children with a Westley score of ≤ 2 or a Geelhoed score of ≤ 3 had a shorter duration of SAR than those with higher scores (6 h vs. 7 h, P < 0.05), which although statistically significant is unlikely to be of clinical significance.

Conclusions:  Stridor at rest resolves promptly after the administration of oral steroids in the vast majority of cases. This suggests that a subset of patients previously admitted to hospital with croup may be able to be treated and discharged from the ED.
A paediatric trauma study of scooter injuries
Authors: Fong Christina PH , Hood Natalie
Published: April 2004

Objective:  To investigate the incidence and describe the nature of non‐motorized scooter related injuries in children presenting to the ED.

Setting:  Paediatric ED of a metropolitan tertiary referral hospital.

Methods:  A prospective observational study of patients aged under 19 years presenting with injuries sustained while using a non‐motorized scooter. Clinicians recorded the data in the patient record. Main outcome measures: type of injury sustained; period of experience on the scooter; the use of protective gear; the presence of adult supervision; the place of accident; and the patient outcome.

Results:  Sixty‐two eligible patients were recruited over an 18 month period. The incidence of scooter‐ related injuries was 1.3% of all paediatric trauma presentations. There was a fall in scooter injury presentations over the study period; however, this was not statistically significant. The most common injury sustained using a scooter was an upper limb fracture (41.9%). Closed head injury comprised 8.1% of all scooter related injuries. The majority of patients were not wearing protective gear and were unsupervised at the time of their accident. Most patients (79%) were managed in the ED and discharged.

Conclusions:  There has been no significant change in scooter injury presentations over the two summer periods of 2000 and 2001. Children presenting to the ED with a scooter related injury tend to be primary school aged, which may have implications on scooter design, age recommendations and safety guidelines.