bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Comparison of Tension Test Data Using ASTM D 638 and ISO 527
Authors: Friday MJ
Published: April 2008

Although several fundamental differences exist between ASTM D 638 Standard Test Method of Tensile Properties of Plastics and ISO 527 Plastics-Determination of Tensile Properties, the actual test results can be quite similar. Test data for both test methods have been gathered by an interlaboratory testing provider and the summary statistics of the two groups were compared. The thermoplastic resins tested in this study included polycarbonate (PC), polybutylene terephthalate (PBT), acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) and high impact polystyrene (HIPS). All resins were unfilled, unreinforced, and uncolored. The following properties were analyzed: Tensile Stress at Yield, Tensile Stress at Break, Elongation at Yield, and Modulus of Elasticity. After removing outliers, the data from the remaining labs were analyzed. The strength of agreement between ISO data and ASTM data varied depending on the property and material used. There were surprising similarities for modulus of elasticity since different speeds of testing and calculation methods were used.
Development of a Standard for Determining KIC and GIC for Plastics at High Loading Rates: the ESIS Protocol for 1 m/s Testing
Authors: Pavan A , Williams JG
Published: April 2008

This paper describes research work undertaken by the Technical Committee on Polymers and Composites (TC4) of the European Structural Integrity Society (ESIS) to develop a standardized testing procedure for conducting KIC and GIC tests on plastics at a moderately high rate of loading, namely a load-point displacement rate of 1 m/s. One of the authors (A. P.) has acted as the task group leader for this activity within the Committee, with responsibility for the preparation of the testing protocol, the coordination of interlaboratory round-robins and the analysis of data generated thereby. The proposed testing procedure stems from the linear elastic fracture mechanics scheme covered in a protocol for “quasi-static” (low loading rate) determination of KIC and GIC which was developed within the same ESIS group previously.

In this paper the background for the extension of the scope of the preceding protocol to higher rates is illustrated, the problems encountered are highlighted and the solutions found and proposed in the final draft of the protocol are reviewed. A summary of the test results obtained in a series of round-robin exercises — which involved some thirty laboratories across Europe on a five-year span — is reported and the significance of interlaboratory consistency of the collected data is commented upon with the view of validating the protocol. In conclusion, it is pointed out that an agreed standardized procedure can be finalized to form the basis of national and international standards.
Temperature Measurements in TGA
Authors: Kelsey M , Foreman J
Published: April 2008

The temperature of the specimen in thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) is affected by several factors, including specimen mass and heat capacity, transitions in the material, crucible mass and material of construction, and furnace response. Because many thermogravimetric analyzers have a thermal sensor that is separated from the specimen, differences in specimen conditions have no effect on the observed temperature. In this situation, the temperature sensor is calibrated by synchronization to an observed material transition. By using a TGA with a direct contact thermal sensor this study shows that the above effects have significant temperature implications. Furthermore, only by using a TGA with direct-contact temperature sensing can one observe the true sample temperature during a specimen mass change or other transition.
Acetone Immersion Testing Per ASTM Test Method D2152
Authors: Houle JF
Published: April 2008

In the late 1950s and early 1960s, inadequate fusion of PVC materials was a relatively frequent occurrence for North American PVC pipe manufacturers. As a result, an acetone-immersion test method was developed and published in 1963 as ASTM D2152 “Standard Test Method for Adequacy of Fusion of Extruded Poly(Vinyl Chlo-ride) (PVC) Pipe and Molded Fittings by Acetone Immersion.”

Over the years, PVC pipe extrusion machinery and materials became more sophisticated. As a result, inadequate fusion occurred infrequently and failure rates of acetone tests dropped to near zero. Manufacturers also realized that other quality tests (such as impact and flattening tests) were identifying the occasional fusion problem that did occur.

Another complication arose in the 1980s: acetone, once considered a relatively harmless chemical, was determined to be a health and safety hazard and a toxic waste. Strict government regulations were imposed on the storage, use, and disposal of ace-tone.

This paper will show that the acetone-immersion test is severely limited in its usefulness due to its application and to the properties of the substance itself.
Stainless Steels for Medical and Surgical Applications
Authors: Winters GL , Nutt MJ
Published: April 2008

Description

Twenty-one peer reviewed papers give you the latest research and technical developments in the medical uses of stainless steels. It covers a wide range of topics, including corrosion, wear, biological response, radiopacity, and the high cost of medical products. New alloys are discussed as solutions to some issues by offering more biocompatible, higher quality, radiopaque, or low cost alternatives for orthopaedic implants and stents. Several corrosion papers address this key concern for all medical devices, while others offer creative options for this field. Timely issues, such as injuries due to the interaction of implants and MRI examinations are also addressed.

Audience: This new publication is a valuable resource for materials scientists and engineers, medical device development engineers, medical doctors and surgeons, metallurgists; medical researchers, medical device R&D managers, and stainless steel manufacturing engineers.
Stability of a C-type Impact Machine Between Calibrations
Authors: Sundqvist M , Chai G
Published: April 2008

In order to investigate the stability of an impact testing machine between ordinary calibrations, impact tests have been performed on a regular basis using specimens from an isolated batch of material. A nickel based alloy, W-Nr. 1.4563, was chosen due to its ageing stability. The material was heat treated and a microstructure analysis was carried out ensuring a homogenous structure in all specimens. The specimens were then cut out in the longitudinal direction.

The machine is a 300 J C-type pendulum and usually approximately 30 specimens are tested every day. Commonly the materials are very tough, generating energy values above 80% of the machine capacity.

For the stability analysis, a set of control specimens was tested on the first day of every week and the results were recorded. Notched type A specimens (Charpy V) were used and tests were performed with an ISO striker. On the other days ordinary specimens were tested. The total number of tested specimens and especially the number of specimens generating energy values above 240 J were documented.

The deviation of energy values obtained by the control specimens between the calibrations was evaluated. By using a stability diagram the correlation between energy divergence, time and number of daily tested specimens was studied.

The results could be used as complementary guidelines, apart from the regular radius measurement of the anvils, for determining optimal intervals between calibrations for similar machines used in the high energy area.
Characterizing Material Properties by the Use of Full-Size and Subsize Charpy Tests: An Overview of Different Correlation Procedures
Authors: Lucon E , Chaouadi R , Fabry A , Puzzolante J-L , Van Walle E
Published: April 2008

A total of 565 instrumented impact tests (232 performed on full-size and 333 on subsize Charpy-V specimens) have been analyzed in order to derive meaningful assumptions on the correlations existing between test results obtained on specimens of different size. Nine materials (pressure vessel steels) have been considered, in both the as-received and irradiated state, for a total of 19 conditions examined. For the analysis of data, conventional as well as novel approaches have been investigated; the former ones, based on a review of the existing literature, include predictions of upper-shelf energy (USE) values by the use of normalization factors (NF), shifts of index temperatures related to energy/lateral expansion/shear fracture levels, and a combination of both approaches (scaling+shifting of energy curves). More original and recent proposals have also been verified, available in the literature but also proposed by SCK•CEN in the frame of enhanced surveillance of nuclear reactor pressure vessels. Conclusions are drawn regarding the applicability and reliability of these methodologies.
Effects of Anvil Configurations on Absorbed Energy
Authors: Yamaguchi Y , Takagi S , Nakano H
Published: April 2008

The effects of anvil configurations on the absorbed energy were quantified using Japanese V-notch reference test specimens at three energy levels (30 J, 100 J, and 160 J). All tests were performed on a 500 J C-type machine with a 2 mm radius striking bit. The test temperature was O°C. The effects of five critical parameters of anvils and supports were analyzed with an orthogonal array L18. These effects were finally expressed as a formula of the uncertainty propagation. Furthermore, the difference of absorbed energy with different tapers of anvils was studied.
The Difference Between Total Absorbed Energy Measured Using an Instrumented Striker and that Obtained Using an Optical Encoder
Authors: Manahan MP , Stonesifer RB
Published: April 2008

The application of optical encoders in Charpy impact energy measurement has improved significantly the accuracy of “dial energy” determination. Instrumented strikers offer an alternative method of energy measurement which is accurate and reproducible for both conventional and miniature specimen testing while providing additional useful information such as general yield load, peak load, brittle fracture load, and brittle fracture arrest load. It has been observed that the total absorbed energy measured using these two technologies, while generally in good agreement, sometimes differs by a significant amount. The instrumented striker total absorbed energy has been found to be higher or lower than the optical encoder energy depending on the ductility of the test specimen and other factors. This paper examines and provides explanations for these energy differences. A summary of mechanisms for pendulum energy loss, other than in fracturing the test specimen, is provided along with estimates of the amount of energy which may be associated with each mechanism.
On the Accuracy of Measurement and Calibration of Load Signal in the Instrumented Charpy Impact Test
Authors: Kobayashi T , Inoue N , Morita S , Toda H
Published: April 2008

Significant variation in measured load of an instrumented Charpy impact test is observed if specimen materials or sizes are changed from the standard specimen. Load calibration factors for different materials and sizes of specimens are evaluated by means of both experiments and finite element analysis. Elastic finite element analysis shows that the strain fields in the instrumented striker in contact with different materials and sizes of specimens are not exactly the same as those for the standard specimen. As a result of experiment and analysis, the decrease in stiffness or size of specimens results in a decrease in the calibration factor. Those are attributable to strain localization near the region in which the strain gage is attached. Therefore, the measured load for low-stiffness materials or miniaturized specimens is overestimated when the decrease of calibration factor is disregarded. Those results strongly suggest that the system must be calibrated for the different materials and sizes of specimens to obtain accurate toughness data.
Dynamic Force Calibration for Measuring Impact Fracture Toughness using the Charpy Testing Machine
Authors: Kishimoto K , Inoue H , Shibuya T
Published: April 2008

The Charpy impact test is one of the most popular techniques for assessing mechanical properties of materials under impact loading. Although many studies have evaluated the impact fracture toughness of materials by using the instrumented Charpy testing machine, there still remains difficulty in obtaining the impact force accurately. In this paper, a technique is developed to remove the effect of mechanical vibration of the instrumented hammer on the output of the sensor. Details for practical application of this technique are also presented. An application of this technique to measure the impact fracture toughness of PMMA is demonstrated. Factors which affect the evaluation of the impact fracture toughness are discussed.
Low Striking Velocity Testing of Precracked Charpy-type Specimens
Authors: Varga T , Loibnegger F
Published: April 2008

The usual loading rate for impact testing is near 5 m/s. As it will be demonstrated, force-deflection diagrams show strong oscillations, at least at the beginning. Investigations on realistic loading rates showed, however, in most practical cases effective loading rates below 0.1 m/s. Because this is true in nearly every case, a loading rate of 0.1 m/s seems to be sufficient for precracked specimens.

If the loading rate is reduced from about 5 m/s to 0.1 m/s, the force-deflection-diagram can be evaluated without parasitic oscillations. Therefore measurement of fracture toughness, KId, Jd and the calculations of CTOD become easier.

Regarding fracture work and specific fracture work, the steel investigated shows no significant difference if 5 m/s and 0.1 m/s impact velocity is compared. Fracture toughness characteristics will become comparable when transition temperature shifts below 20°C are negligible.

If a transition temperature shift above 15°C is of importance, the experimental results have to be treated differently. A substitution will become not practicable without a function converting the 0.1 m/s results to 5 m/s results and vice versa.

If the steels tested are sufficiently brittle, an extrapolation to the fracture toughness of larger sections will become possible.
In-situ Heating and Cooling of Charpy Test Specimens2
Authors: Manahan MP
Published: April 2008

This paper presents an innovative approach to CVN and MCVN testing: the specimens are heated and cooled on the test machine itself. This approach is not only cost-effective but is technically superior to methods requiring transfer of the test specimen to the test machine from a thermal conditioning bath because the specimen is very accurately centered and is thermally conditioned up to the moment of impact. The system developed is capable of thermally conditioning both CVN and MCVN specimens over the temperature range of -180°C ⩽ T ⩽ 315°C. Advanced systems are under development which will extend this temperature range. This paper presents data obtained using the in-situ heating and cooling system and compares the results with specimens which were heated and cooled using a liquid bath transfer approach. Specimens instrumented with embedded thermocouples were used to characterize the heat loss during bath transfer and to compare with the uniform temperature field produced by the in-situ system. Measurements are also presented which show a factor-of-two improvement in specimen alignment can be easily achieved with the in-situ system centering tool.
The Effects of OD Curvature and Sample Flattening on Transverse Charpy V-Notch Impact Toughness of High Strength Steel Tubular Products
Authors: Waid GM , Zantopulos H
Published: April 2008

With the inclusion of transverse impact toughness requirements in the American Petroleum Institute (API) specifications as well as various companies' specifications, the need arose for evaluating the effects of OD curvature and sample flattening on transverse Charpy V-Notch toughness of high strength steel tubular products. The alloy steels evaluated in this study were AISI 4130 and a modification, 4130M7. Charpy impact tests were conducted on specimens having various amounts of OD curvature and on sample flattening to determine the degree of influence of these effects. Tapering the specimens by as much as 75% or this much OD curvature did not have a significant effect on the CVN energy. Flattening of the tubes before testing reduced the CVN energy by about 4%. The factors derived from this study allow for adjustments on the test results of non-standard specimens so that a correlation can be made to standard Charpy V-Notch results.
Application of Single-Specimen Methods on Instrumented Charpy Tests: Results of DVM Round-Robin Exercises
Authors: Böhme W , Schindler H-J
Published: April 2008

Based on a previous round-robin exercise of the German DVM task group on “Instrumented Impact Testing” with about 400 instrumented Charpy-specimens being tested, another exercise was performed to explore the possibilities of extended evaluations such as single-specimen methods. The previously determined multi-specimen cleavage JR-curve serves as a reference. Different methods — e.g., the key-curve method — were applied. Overall, the results are encouraging and the agreement of the calculated JR-curve with reference data is quite good especially for large amounts of crack extension. There was some uncertainty left in the first part of the JR-curve, where notch blunting and initiation of crack growth take place, and where the calculated curves tend to overestimate the crack resistance. Results of a new “blind” round-robin indicate improved results in this initial part of the JR-curve.
Relation Between Fracture Toughness and Charpy Fracture Energy: An Analytical Approach
Authors: Schindler H-J
Published: April 2008

Fracture toughness is often estimated from the Charpy fracture energy by empirical correlation formulas, although the latter are known to be in general of poor accuracy and valid only with restrictions. In the present paper the relation between these two types of toughness parameters is considered from a theoretical point of view. Unexpectedly a mathematical relation was found to exist. As known from experimental data, this relation is not unique, but dependent on some material properties like tensile strength and uniform fracture strain. The derived relation can be used in the upper-shelf and upper ductile-to-brittle transition range. It is in good agreement with experimental data and the current empirical correlation formulas, giving theoretical support to the latter and confirming the present model. In the lower transition range, the use of the ASME lower-bound curve is suggested. The temperature shift due to loading velocity and notch sharpness requires additional experimental work.
Use of Instrumented Charpy Test for Determination of Crack Initiation Toughness
Authors: Viehrig H-W , Boehmert J , Richter H , Valo M
Published: April 2008

The instrumented Charpy test provides the opportunity to determine dynamic crack initiation (Jid) toughness. Under the condition of the impact bending test, the critical step for evaluating Jid is the identification of the ductile crack initiation point on the impact load versus displacement curve. Therefore, acoustic emission (AE) was monitored and used as a tool for ductile crack initiation detection. With a tup-integrated AE sensor, different types of AE events could be identified during loading of a Charpy size specimen. One type of AE signal appeared in the temporal vicinity of crack initiation and was applied to define Jid. A verification of these results was performed by simultaneous optical measurement of COD with an inverted impact pendulum. Additionally “Cleavage R-Curves” (JdΔa) were evaluated and physical crack initiation toughness (Jidszw) values were determined by measurement of the stretch zone width (SZW).
Estimation of NDT and Crack-Arrest Toughness from Charpy Force-Displacement Traces
Authors: Sokolov MA , Merkle JG
Published: April 2008

A force-displacement trace of a Charpy impact test of a reactor pressure vessel (RPV) steel in the transition range has a characteristic point, the so-called “force at the end of unstable crack propagation,” Fa. A two-parameter Weibull probability function is used to model the distribution of the Fa in Charpy tests performed at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) on different RPV steels in the unirradiated and irradiated conditions. These data have a good replication at a given test temperature, thus, the statistical analysis was applicable. It is shown that when temperature is normalized to TNDT, using (T - TNDT), or to T100a using (T - T100a), the median Fa values of different RPV steels have a tendency to form the same shape of temperature dependence. Depending on normalization temperature, TNDT or T100a, the results suggest a universal shape of the temperature dependence of Fa for different RPV steels. The best fits for these temperature dependencies are presented. These dependencies are suggested for use in estimation of nil-ductility transition (NDT) or T100a from randomly generated Charpy impact tests. The linear least squares and maximum likelihood methods are used to derive equations to estimate TNDT and T100a from randomly generated Charpy impact tests.
Advancements in Pipe Monolith Lysimeter Designs
Authors: Heim LG , Tanner MJ , Crane AB , van Wesenbeeck IJ , Velagaleti RR
Published: April 2008

The self-contained field lysimeter, patented by ABC Laboratories, Inc. (U.S. Patent # 5,594,185) has been used to test the mobility and dissipation of various agrochemicals in a variety of field sites and soil types. In this paper we present data to support the functionality of the pipe lysimeter design and describe some recent design modifications that have been made to improve its performance. The previous design, presented at the ASTM Eighth Symposium on Environmental Toxicology and Risk Assessment, Atlanta, Georgia, April 1998, used a steel soil core casing, which for some test substances could result in unwanted wall sorption or catalyzed degradation. The use of a stainless steel core casing, while generally considered to be inert for most test substances, can become very expensive, increasing the overall cost of the field project. for these reasons, the modular lysimeter design was modified to allow the use of PVC and other non-metallic soil core casing materials.

The utilization of non-metallic soil core casing materials requires the use of a custom manufactured cutting tip and pressing ring for generation of the soil core. Other significant modifications include enhanced methods for the leachate and over-flow module attachment to the soil column, and the instrumentation used for the leachate collection void at the base of the soil column.

Development of the monolith lysimeter design to include non-metallic soil core casings provides a comprehensive method for use of all potential core casing materials in the generation of intact, undisturbed soil columns. Benefits of the PVC lysimeter modification include minimal compaction during soil-core generation, chemically inert casing materials for some test substances, and reduced materials costs. In addition, the instrumentation scheme used for the PVC lysimeter allows for more pre-fabrication prior to field deployment, and minimal labor requirements in the field for instrumentation and installation, significantly reducing the overall cost of field lysimeter projects.
Evaluation of the Water Quality Significance of OP Pesticide Toxicity in Tributaries of Upper Newport Bay, Orange County, CA
Authors: Lee GF , Jones-Lee A , Taylor S
Published: April 2008

Stormwater runoff in San Diego Creek, the primary tributary to Upper Newport Bay in Orange County, CA, has been found to be toxic to Ceriodaphnia and Mysidopsis with total acute 24 hr toxicities up to 16 acute toxic units (TUa). About half of this toxicity has been found to be due to the organophosphate (OP) pesticides diazinon and chlorpyrifos used in urban areas for structural termite and ant control, and lawn and garden pest control. The other half is due to unknown causes likely associated with the use of pesticides in commercial nurseries and agriculture. The non stormwater flow into Upper Newport Bay is non-toxic. Stormwater runoff events cause short-term pulses of toxic waters to enter this marine bay.

Studies on the fate of the toxic pulses of San Diego Creek water in Upper Newport Bay show that for many stormwater runoff events, the Creek freshwater forms a lens above the marine waters that is diluted by tidal mixing with the bay's marine waters. The regulatory issue that should be assessed is the water quality and ecological significance of the pulses of aquatic life toxicity that exist in the waters at the bottom of the freshwater lens where the Creek waters mix with the marine waters. For some stormwater runoff events, potentially toxic waters are present in a limited areal and volumetric extent in the bay for several days. It is unclear whether these toxic pulses of OP pesticides are significantly adverse to the beneficial uses of Upper Newport Bay because of their limited duration and the limited number/type of marine aquatic organisms that are exposed to toxic conditions associated with stormwater runoff events. Further studies need to be conducted to define the magnitude of the potential beneficial use impairment of bay waters due to this toxicity.
Cadmium and Aluminum in Yellow Perch, Perca flavescens (Mitchill), from Presque Isle Bay, Lake Erie, Pennsylvania
Authors: Pontzer PR , Steele CW
Published: April 2008

We examined the relationship between the amounts of aluminum and cadmium in Cascade Creek with those found in yellow perch from Presque Isle Bay near Erie, Pennsylvania. Cascade Creek flows through a major portion of Erie and is subject to street runoffs, sewage and industrial effluents. Yellow perch ages 0+ to 3+ and water samples were collected at five sites within Presque Isle Bay and from Edinboro Lake. Water samples were also taken from five sites along Cascade Creek on the last mile of its flow into the bay. Edinboro Lake, about 15 miles south of Erie, was used for baseline comparisons because it lacks significant effluent contamination. Two-factor, unbalanced ANOVA found significant age class, and site-and-age class interaction in the perch cadmium concentrations. Single-factor, unbalanced analysis of variance (ANOVA) found significant relationships between cadmium concentration and age for three of the five bay sites. Two-factor, unbalanced ANOVA found significant site, age class, and site-and-age class interaction in the perch aluminum concentrations. Single-factor, unbalanced ANOVAs found significant relationships between aluminum concentration and age for three of the five sites in Presque Isle Bay. The data indicate elevated concentrations of aluminum and cadmium in the tissues of yellow perch, and that metal concentration is often correlated with capture site and age.
Evaluation of a Terrestrial Foodweb Model to Set Soil Cleanup Levels
Authors: Doctor PG , Gano KA , Lane NK
Published: April 2008

The Washington State Department of Ecology (Ecology) is revising the Model Toxics Control Act (MTCA: WAC 173-340-7490 to 7494) to include terrestrial food pathways in an ecological risk evaluation and to set cleanup levels. One of the key provisions of the ecological risk assessment approach proposed by Ecology is a generic simplified “foodweb” model that would be used to set cleanup levels.

The terrestrial model is based on four feeding guilds and default species are the earthworm, shrew, vole, and robin. The use of a foodweb model implies that the results should in some way be descriptive of the ecosystem being evaluated. Any decision criterion (e.g., a benchmark or cleanup level) should be site-specific, and based on species present at the site. The default species are not representative of the fauna in the native shrub-steppe ecosystem of the Hanford Site. Therefore, the use of species not present at the site to set soil cleanup levels seems flawed. Alternative species for the four feeding guilds have been selected. Species specific exposure parameters were developed from the literature.
Composite Analysis for Low-Level Waste Disposal in the 200 Area Plateau of the Hanford Site, Southeast Washington
Authors: Kincaid CT , Bergeron MP , Cole CR , Freshley MD , Johnson VG , Kaplan DI , Serne RJ , Streile GP , Strenge DL , Thorne PD , Vail LW , Whyatt GA , Wurstner SK
Published: April 2008

A composite analysis of low-level radioactive waste disposal and other radioactive sources was recently completed for the Hanford Site in Southeast Washington State. Impacts from source release and environmental transport were estimated for a 1 000-year period following Site closure in a multi-step process involving 1) estimation of radiological inventories and releases, 2) assessment of contaminant migration through the vadose zone, groundwater, and atmospheric pathways, 3) and estimation of doses. The analysis showed that most of the radionuclide inventory in past-practice liquid discharge sites and pre-1988 solid waste burial grounds on the 200 Area Plateau will be released in the first several hundred years following Hanford Site closure, well before projected releases from active and planned disposals of solid waste. The maximum predicted agricultural dose was less than 6 mrem/y in 2050 and declined thereafter. The maximum doses for the residential, industrial, and recreational scenarios, were 2.2, 0.7, and 0.04 mrem/y, respectively, and also declined after 2050.
Considerations of Risk in Liquid Effluent Management
Authors: Ballinger MY , Shields KD , Buck JW , Gelston GM
Published: April 2008

Liquid effluent monitoring for research and development laboratories is difficult because of the diverse and variable effluent streams and wide range of chemicals used in continuously changing projects. Risk assessment tools can aid in the design of reasonable monitoring programs. In this paper, an assessment was performed to determine the human health risk of accidental discharges of chemicals into the sewer systems servicing research and development laboratories at the Hanford Site's 300 Area. As part of this assessment, the single largest container of chemical compounds used in the laboratories was assumed to be discharged into the sewer system transported to a treatment facility, then pass untreated into the Columbia River. The Multimedia Environmental Pollutant Assessment System was used to model the transport and fate of the chemical contaminants, and exposure estimates were obtained for two receptor locations and for population impacts. Results of this assessment indicated that the human health risk from the source terms analyzed would not exceed levels generally accepted as safe and that no additional controls or monitoring of specific chemicals were indicated from this risk perspective.
Using Ecological Site Scoping to Evaluate Contaminant Transport Pathways
Authors: Ryti RT , Kelly E
Published: April 2008

Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) has developed an ecological screening evaluation process that emphasizes the development and testing of an ecological exposure and transport pathway site conceptual model. LANL developed this screening approach in partnership with personnel from the State of New Mexico regulatory authority (the New Mexico Environment Department or NMED).

A key part of the screening evaluation process is the completion of an innovative ecological scoping checklist. This checklist helps to (1) determine if complete pathways to ecological receptors exist; (2) determine how the impacted media should be aggregated spatially for screening, establishing the functional/operational boundaries of the assessment; and (3) gather information to develop the site conceptual model (SCM). The SCM includes contaminant sources, dominant transport pathways and exposure routes, and potential receptors. The scoping checklist consists of a series of questions and placeholders for field notes, which are intended to guide the risk assessor in developing the SCM, and provide the decision-makers with consistent information on receptors, potential transport pathways and potential exposure pathways. This paper summarizes the LANL/NMED scoping checklist and gives examples of its application at the LANL Environmental Restoration (ER) sites.
Risk Assessments and Hazardous Waste Cleanup in Indian Country: The Role of the Federal-Indian Trust Relationship
Authors: Tano ML
Published: April 2008

Federal law, policy and court decisions demonstrate that a trust relationship exists between the federal government and Indian tribes; that the obligations thereunder attach to all executive agencies of the federal government; and that the performance of these obligations should be judged by the most exacting fiduciary standards. These fiduciary duties require, where a tribal or treaty asset has been harmed through the actions of the federal trustee, an absolute obligation to correct the harm. Thus, the use of risk ranking systems such as the Hazard Ranking System or the Department of Defense's Relative Risk Site Evaluation Framework, to determine if environmental cleanup is required is inappropriate. The author maintains risk analysis is more appropriately used to determine when and how such cleanup will proceed.

The author also argues that more research is required to develop metrics to evaluate the totemic, ceremonial aspects of trust assets such as salmon or religious sites; and the impact of the loss or impairment of the totem to the spiritual, emotional, mental and physical health and cohesiveness of the tribal society.
Computer Tracking Method for Assessing Behavioral Changes in the Nematode Caenorhabditis elegans
Authors: Boyd WA , Anderson GL , Dusenbery DB , Williams PL
Published: April 2008

Computer tracking of Caenorhabditis elegans, a free-living soil nematode, is a promising tool to assess behavioral changes upon exposure to contaminants. A short life cycle, a known genetic make-up, thoroughly studied behavior, and a completely mapped nervous system make C. elegans an attractive soil test organism with many advantages over the commonly used earthworm. Although many toxicity tests have been performed with C. elegans, the majority focused on mortality, a much less sensitive endpoint than behavior. A computer tracking system has been developed to monitor behavioral changes using C. elegans. Because conditions unrelated to specific toxicant exposures, such as changes in temperature, developmental stage, and presence of adequate food sources, can affect behavior, there is a need to standardize tracking procedures. To this end, we have developed reference charts for control movement comparing the movement of four and five day old adult nematodes. The use of K-medium versus deionized (DI) H2O for pretracking rinses was also investigated. A final reference chart compared the behavioral responses of nematodes at various food densities (i.e. bacterial concentrations).
New Approaches for Toxicity Identification Evaluation of Hydrophobic Organic Contaminants in Sediments
Authors: McElroy AE , Elskus AA , Fay AA
Published: April 2008

An Amberlite XAD-4 polymeric resin technique was used to independently evaluate the contribution of easily desorbable hydrophobic organic contaminants (HOCs) to overall sediment toxicity. After incubation with native sediments, XAD resins were extracted with the organic solvents, and material captured in the extracts amended back unto reference sediment either intact or after fractionation to isolate different compound classes. A variety of bioassays utilizing fish embryos and larvae and invertebrates exposed to whole sediments, and luminescent bacteria(Microtox®, Mutatox®) exposed to sediment extracts were then used to compare the toxicity of native sediments to reference sediments amended with XAD extracts, and to compare the relative sensitivity of the bioassays used. The data obtained support the use of the XAD method as a tool for toxicity identification evaluation in sediments contaminated with HOCs, the use of Ampelisca abdita as a sensitive indicator of acute sediment toxicity, and the use of Microtox® as a screening tool to obtain a relative estimate of potential toxicity.
Comparison of the Toxicological Effects of Nitrate versus Chloride Metallic Salts on Caenorhabditis elegans in Soil
Authors: Peredney CL , Williams PL
Published: April 2008

There is growing interest in the use of bioindicators to assess metal toxicity in soil. The current ASTM Standard Guide for Conducting Laboratory Soil Toxicity Test with the lumbricid earthworm Eisenia fetida (E 1676-97)uses a common earthworm. The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans is a natural soil inhabitant with many characteristics that make it an ideal alternate test organism. It has been used to assess metal toxicity in aquatic media, agar plates and in soil. Work is currently underway on the design of a C. elegans procedure for metals in soil. The objective of this study was to determine differences in LC50s between the chloride salt and the nitrate salt forms of cadmium, copper, lead, nickel, and zinc in three types of soil: Cecil, Tifton, and ASTM artificial soil. Results indicated that the toxicological effect of the metallic salt varies and is dependent on the particular metal. For Cd and Pb the nitrate form is more toxic while Cu and Ni are more toxic in the chloride form. The composition of the soil also effected toxicity, with the metals being the least toxic in ASTM soil and the most toxic in Tifton soil. This is strongly correlated with organic matter and clay content of the soil. It is important to determine the effects of carrier salt form and soil composition on metal toxicity, not only in order to standardize the protocol for Caenorhabditis elegans soil toxicity testing, but also in establishing acceptable exposure concentrations in the soil.
Cold Starting and Pumpability Studies in Modern Engines — Results from the ASTM D02.07C Low Temperature Engine Performance Task Force Activities: Background and Organization
Authors: May CJ , De Paz EF , Girshick FW , Henderson KO , Rhodes RB , Tseregounis S , Ying LH
Published: April 2008

In response to a request by SAE, the Low Temperature Engine Performance (LTEP) task force was established within Section 7C in 1992 to determine the starting and pumping characteristics of modern engines using multigrade and single-grade oils, determine if there existed a “safety margin” between limiting cranking and pumping viscosities in modern engines, and assess the benefits or limitations of current lab tests for identifying oils which could result in pumpability failures in engines. This paper discusses the background surrounding the activity and the organization of the task force.
Cold Starting and Pumpability Studies in Modern Engines — Results from the ASTM D02.07C Low Temperature Engine Performance Task Force Activities: Engine Selection and Testing Protocol
Authors: May CJ , De Paz EF , Girshick FW , Henderson KO , Rhodes RB , Tseregounis S , Ying LH
Published: April 2008

As part of the Low Temperature Engine Performance task forces activities, letters were sent to all major light- and heavy-duty automotive manufactures to solicit input for engine selection. On the basis of these responses, and considering availability, annual production, potential sponsorship and range of pumping characteristics, 9 light duty engines (including 4-, 6- and 8-cylinder designs) were selected for further study. At the same time, protocols for testing the engines under both cold start and pumpability conditions were developed by consensus. Cold start testing called for good winter grade fuel, booster batteries and fresh engine tune-up to maximize starting potential. Pumpability testing was conducted via motoring of the engine to allow testing of the oil at/below the minimum starting temperatures in a repeatable fashion.
Cold Starting and Pumpability Studies in Modern Engines — Results from the ASTM D02.07C Low Temperature Engine Performance Task Force Activities: Cold Start Testing
Authors: Tseregounis S , De Paz EF , Girshick FW , Henderson KO , May CJ , Rhodes RB , Ying LH
Published: April 2008

Cold start studies were conducted on 10 different engines (including duplicates of one type), and six different multigrade oils ranging from SAE 0W-30 to 25 W-30. As expected, the results showed that for all the engines, the minimum starting temperature decreased with decreasing winter viscosity grade. The 4.0L I-6 engine had the highest minimum start temperatures (MSTs) for all the oils, while the lowest MSTs were distributed over seven of the other eight engines tested. The difference in the starting characteristics of the 4.0L I-6 engine were attributed to the fact that this engine design was relatively old (early 1980s) compared to the rest of the engines in this program (1990s). Another interesting observation was that, excluding the 4.0L I-6 engine, there was no effect on the MSTs due to engine displacement, number of cylinders or configuration. This is contrary to older studies which showed that as number of cylinders increased, minimum starting temperatures decreased. Improved starting characteristics of these modern engines are attributed to improvements in engine technology.

An excellent correlation was observed between minimum start temperature and cold cranking simulator (CCS) viscosity for the modern engines. In addition, the CCS viscosity for these engines at the minimum start temperatures was 2 to 4 times higher than the present SAE J300 limits. In contrast, the MSTs for the older engine design (4.0L I-6) appear to follow the present CCS temperature and viscosity limits. The oil viscosity at the MST for the 4.0L I-6 engine was relatively constant (3,000 to 5,000 mPa-s) throughout the whole temperature range, while with the newer engines, limiting viscosity decreased with decreasing temperature (25,000 mPa-s at -19°C to 7,000 mPa-s at -37°C). This requirement for lower oil viscosities at lower temperatures is attributed to a need to compensate for increased internal engine friction with decreasing temperature.

Comparison of these results with those from the 1970s shows that the older engine design (4.0L I-6) follows a similar pattern (comparable CCS viscosities and no temperature effect) to the old 4- and 6-cylinder engines, while the newer engines parallel the results for older V-8s.
SAE 5W-30 Pumpability Studies in Modern 4- and 8-Cylinder Engines: Gelation Index and MRV Effects
Authors: May CJ , Koenitzer BA , Lai PKS
Published: April 2008

Four SAE 5W-30 formulations with a range of MRV and Gelation Index properties were tested in motored 4- and 8- cylinder engines at ambient temperatures between -35°C and -38°C (below anticipated minimum start temperatures (MSTs)). A slow-cooling profile was used to enhance gelation effects in the test engines, which were motored at normal fast idle speeds. Oil pressurization after the pump was relatively rapid in all cases and did not show a large dependence on oil type or temperature. However, pressurization times at the main gallery showed a correlation to interpolated D 4684 MRV viscosities of the test oils. No correlation was observed between pumpability characteristics and D 5133 gelation index. While the two 2.0L I-4 engines gave comparable pressurization characteristics, the two 4.6L V-8s were quite different from each other. Pumpability differences between the V-8 engines were due to the presence of a plate-type oil cooler in one engine, which reduced oil pressure by 200 KPa and lead to significantly longer pressurization times. At the lowest test temperatures, the 2.0L designs showed ‘pseudo air-binding’ behaviour with all the test oils, in which gallery pressure dropped near zero after an initial pressure spike; pressure before the filter, however, continued to be registered. Low temperature rheological analysis of some of the used test oils was conducted to understand changes occurring after the relatively brief engine operation. In some cases oils with higher gelation indices showed significant decreases after engine operation, while MRV values were relatively unaffected.
Comparison of the Environments of Transportation Vehicles: Results of Two Surveys
Authors: Dumyahn TS , Spengler JD , Burge HA , Muilenburg M
Published: April 2008

Two surveys of commercial transportation environments were conducted. In the spring of 1994, environmental conditions on a variety of aircraft over 22 domestic routes were monitored. In 1996, an expanded survey of 27 travel segments was performed on Boeing 777 aircraft, interstate trains, interstate buses, short-distance commuter trains, and subways. A wide variety of environmental measurements were performed including standard Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) parameters of temperature, relative humidity and carbon dioxide (CO2). Aircraft cabin air pressure was continuously measured. Contaminants including carbon monoxide, particles, and volatile organic compounds (VOC) were monitored or sampled. Surface dust was collected using modified hand vacuums, sifted and the fine particles analyzed for fungi, bacteria, endotoxin and cat and dust mite allergens.

Reasonable correlation between CO2 levels and passenger loads was observed for travel segments with variable passenger loads, such as trains and subways, which is consistent with fixed volume ventilation. CO2 levels were stable for the cruise portion of flight segments, but were significantly higher during preflight and post-flight periods, suggesting lower ventilation at times of increased passenger activity.

No significant differences in total fungal concentrations were noted between any transportation modes measured in 1997 or between concentrations in transportation environments and those from living room samples collected during early spring in Boston. Cat allergen was detected in most dust samples with the highest dust mite concentrations recovered from a train. Particle concentrations were highest in subways and generally higher on all ground transportation environments than on aircraft. VOC s associated with mobile sources were higher for ground transportation than for aircraft as were many other VOCs. Exceptions were acetone and ethyl alcohol, which were higher on aircraft.
The Effect of Recirculation on Aircraft Cabin Air Quality — In-flight Tests and Simulation Study
Authors: Arnold KE , Crha S , Patten L
Published: April 2008

A simulation model was used to predict the levels of carbon dioxide, humidity, and oxygen in passenger cabins of several aircraft at different flight conditions. The absolute effects of varying passenger loads, air recirculation rates and cabin pressures, were found to be different for each type of aircraft, however general trends of increasing carbon dioxide (CO2) and humidity levels with increasing passenger loads and recirculation rates were consistent among all the commercial aircraft. The primary factor affecting the partial pressure of oxygen was cabin pressure. The validity of the Air Quality Computer Simulation as a tool for predicting CO2, humidity and oxygen (O2) levels at any point in a flight were corroborated by comparing the simulation results with in-flight air quality data collected using the Air Quality Monitor.