bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Relationships Between Cooperative, Competitive, and Individualized Learning Preferences and Students’ Perceptions of Classroom Learning Atmosphere
Authors: Owens Lee , Barnes Jennifer
Published: March 2008

Learning preferences and perceptions of classroom learning atmosphere were compared for a sample of 279 Sydney secondary school students in Grades 7 and 11. Students completed both the Learning Preference Scale—Students and the Classroom Learning Atmosphere Scale—Secondary twice, once for their English classes and once for their mathematics classes. Grade 11 students prefer both more cooperative and more competitive contact than do Grade 7 students. English generally is seen as more appropriate for cooperative contact than is mathematics, though girls prefer competing in English more than boys do, and boys prefer competing in mathematics more than girls do. Personal cooperative learning preferences are clearly related to perceptions of actual classroom emphasis on interpersonal relationships and personal development in three of the four Year × Subject groups. Grade 11 mathematics differs in that both students with high cooperative learning preference and students with low cooperative learning preference perceive classroom atmosphere similarly. Discussion concentrates on the study of mathematics by girls and the efficacy of cooperative learning.
The Effects of a Computer-assisted Instruction Program on Basic Skills Achievement and Attitudes Toward Instruction of Spanish-speaking Migrant Children
Authors: Saracho Olivia N.
Published: March 2008

This study investigated the effects of a computer-assisted instruction (CAI) program on basic skills achievement and attitudes toward instruction of Spanish-speaking migrant children. The study used two comparable groups of third, fourth, fifth, and sixth grade, Spanish-speaking migrant children. One group used CAI to supplement instruction while the second group served as a control. The academic achievement gains and attitudes of the groups were compared. Children (256) were administered the Comprehensive Tests of Basic Skills twice during 1 year and a Students’ Attitude Instrument at the end of the year. The results indicated that students who used the CAI program had greater achievement gains than did students who participated in the regular classroom program. However, students who were in the non-CAI program had more favorable attitudes toward CAI than did students in the CAI program.
A Meta-analysis of Pretest Sensitization Effects in Experimental Design
Authors: Willson Victor L. , Putnam Richard R.
Published: March 2008

A meta-analysis of outcomes from 32 studies investigating pretest effects was conducted. All outcomes were computed as standardized differences between pretested and nonpretested groups. Eleven other variables were coded for each outcome. Initial descriptive statistics were indicative of differences between randomized and nonrandomized studies, so all further analyses were based on randomized group outcomes (n = 134). For all outcomes the average effect size was +.22, indicating the general elevating effect of pretest on posttest. Cognitive outcomes were raised .43, attitude outcomes .29, personality .48, and others about .00 standard deviations. Sixty-four percent of all effects were positive, and 81 percent of the cognitive effects were positive. Duration of time between pre- and posttesting was related to effect size, with effect size generally being small for durations less than a day or over 1 month. Year of publication, sample size, presence of experimental treatment, and sameness or difference of pretest and posttest were not significantly related to effect size. Researchers must continue to include pretest as a design variable when it is present, and to estimate its effect.
Teacher-Child Interactions and Children’s Locus of Control Tendencies
Authors: Galejs Irma , Hegland Susan
Published: March 2008

Children and teachers were observed during free-play periods in a two-phase study examining the relationships among children’s locus of control tendencies, children’s behaviors, and teacher-child interactions. The Stephens-Delys Reinforcement Contingency Interview was administered to 51 children between 3 and 5 years of age. Eight children (four boys and four girls) with the highest and eight children with the lowest locus of control scores were observed interacting with peers, materials, and teachers. There were no significant relationships between children’s behaviors and locus of control measures. Teacher behaviors in response to the behaviors of the same 16 children also were observed. Teachers reinforced task and peer involvement in internal children and nontask involvement in external children.
Longitudinal Study of Assertion Training as a Drug Abuse Prevention Strategy
Authors: Horan John J. , Williams John M.
Published: March 2008

Seventy-two nonassertive junior high school students were assigned randomly to assertion training (in which one-third of the training stimuli involved drug-use peer pressure), placebo discussions focused on similar topics, or no treatment at all At posttest, the experimental students showed highly significant gains on behavioral and psychometric measures of assertiveness as well as decreased willingness to use alcohol and marijuana. At a 3-year follow-up point these students continued to display higher levels of assertiveness and less actual drug use.
Teachers: Bargaining For Control
Authors: Retsinas Joan
Published: March 2008

Private sector labor unions have left the bargaining tables with economic victories, not with a voice in major corporate policies. Teachers are comparatively new at bargaining, and this research investigates the extent to which teachers have inverted the private sector experience, winning control gains but not economic gains. The hypotheses hold that fiscal stress within a community and the level of political opposition will have a negative impact on economic gains and a positive impact on control gains. Data from Rhode Island school districts are used in multiple regression analysis to test those hypotheses.
An Analysis of the Impact of Commercial Test Preparation Courses on SAT Scores
Authors: Sesnowitz Michael , Bernhardt Kenneth L. , Knain D. Matthew
Published: March 2008

Data collected by the Federal Trade Commission from the Educational Testing Service and Commercial Coaching Schools in the New York Metropolitan area are used in an observational study to test the hypothesis that commercial coaching can improve performance on the Scholastic Aptitude Test. Evidence is presented that many students who sought commercial coaching had scored below expectations on previous standardized exams. Their poor performance, however, was found not to be due to chance but rather to a systematic inability to do well on such tests. The data are consistent with the hypothesis that coaching can, at the very least, help such students to overcome their inability to perform as one would predict from their demographic and personal characteristics.
Cognitive Correspondence Between Question/Statement and Response
Authors: Dillon JT
Published: March 2008

Analysis of teacher-student exchanges in high-school discussion classes revealed that only half of all student responses exhibited the same cognitive level as the teacher’s intervention. But questions and statements differed greatly in degree of correspondence with their respective responses. Whereas half of all answers to questions were at the same level as the question, half of responses to statements were at correspondingly higher levels. The findings are compared to other studies which together offer little support for the notion of cognitive correspondence between question and answer. Implications for theory and research on questions are noted.
Fieldwork in Geography and Long-term Memory Structures
Authors: Mackenzie Andrew A , White Richard T
Published: March 2008

This study was based on the model of memory proposed by Gagne and White (1978). Three treatments were compared in their effects on eighth and ninth graders’ learning and retention of geographical facts and skills. In addition to a basic program, the first treatment had an active excursion, the second had a passive excursion, and the third had no excursion. The excursion treatments were slightly better than the control on initial learning. In retention, the active excursion treatment showed marked superiority over the others, which supports the Gagné and White model and Wittrock’s (1974) generative model of learning, and which has implications for the management of excursions.
Some Relationships Among Indices of School Desegregation
Authors: Dziuban Charles D , Esler William K
Published: March 2008

The relationships among several suggested indices of school desegregation were examined. The measures were discussed for their utility in the remedy process. Issues involved in the formulation of desegregation indices were related to kinds of information they yielded. Recommendations were made for the properties of an effective index.
Feature Frequency and Negative Instances in Concept Learning
Authors: Shumway Richard J. , White Arthur L. , Wilson Patricia , Brombacher Bruce
Published: March 2008

In conjunctive feature identification tasks, sequences of all positive instances are favored over mixed sequences of positive and negative instances in laboratory tasks, but in mathematical conjunctive feature identification tasks, mixed sequences are favored over all positive instances. The subjects were 100 adolescents randomly assigned to one of four treatments formed by crossing sequence condition (positive or positive/negative) with relative frequency of features of irrelevant dimensions (equal or unequal). Results support the classical favoring of positive over positive/negative for equal frequency of irrelevant features (1:1) but positive/negative over positive for unequal frequency of irrelevant features (9:1) (p < .05). Feature frequency of irrelevant dimensions is shown to be a critical factor in the effects found for negative instances. Implications for educational practice are discussed.
Using Requests Effectively in Peer-directed Instructional Groups
Authors: Wilkinson Louise Cherry , Spinelli Francesca
Published: March 2008

Two studies investigated second and third grade children’s use of requests and responses in their instructional groups. Students in groups of varying reading and math ability were studied. Standardized reading and math achievement tests and assessments of language competence were administered. Samples of peer-directed, group activity were audio- and videotaped. The results showed that (a) ability groups differed in reading and math achievement; (b) groups differed in their use of requests and responses; and (c) particular aspects of requests predicted obtaining appropriate responses, which were almost always “on-task. “Implications of these findings for children’s acquisition of skills in peer-directed instructional groups are discussed.
Reassessing the Discrimination Against Women in Higher Education
Authors: Wilson Kenneth L , Shin Eui Hang
Published: March 2008

This paper argues that the sex composition of college curricula is the major source of sex inequality in higher education today. Census data are analyzed to demonstrate that while women are obtaining an ever growing proportion of college degrees, fields of specialty are still segregated to an important extent. A model of prejudice and discrimination is constructed and analyzed as a possible explanation of the sex composition of college curricula. College curricula are ranked according to their potential for yielding high levels of income, power, and prestige in the occupational structure. The impact of discrimination in higher education is assessed by examining the extent to which the income, power, and prestige potential of college curricula can explain (a) the sex composition of those curricula, and (b) the female/male attrition rates in those curricula. Results show that men are disproportionately represented in curricula ranked high on the three stratification dimensions, and that those curricula have the highest amounts of prejudicial attitudes against women. Implications are drawn for status attainment research, and the direction of policy development is discussed.
Adaptive Instruction and Classroom Time
Authors: Wang Margaret C , Walberg Herbert J
Published: March 2008

The study described in this paper assessed (a) the degree of implementation of a program of primary grades instruction—the Adaptive Learning Environments Model; and (b) the association of the degree of implementation with efficient use of student time and other classroom resources and processes. Data were collected on 156 kindergarten- through third-grade classes (138 teachers) that included students with economically disadvantaged backgrounds and mainstreamed mildly handicapped and gifted students. The classes were located in 10 school districts across a wide geographic region and differed in ethnocultural and socioeconomic characteristics. Results from the study showed that 96 percent of the teachers were able to establish and maintain the Adaptive Learning Environments Model at moderate to high criterion levels, and that the degree of implementation was associated with students’ efficient use of learning time and with constructive classroom behaviors and processes.
Instructional Strategy and the “Creation” of Classroom Status
Authors: Morine-Dershimer Greta
Published: March 2008

This paper argues that the teacher’s selection of instructional strategy can play a role in determining who participates and who is heard in class discussions, and that the teacher can, in effect, “create” new groups of pupils who are high in these “communicative status” variables by his/her choice of instructional strategy. Case studies of three classrooms where different types of instructional strategies were used illustrate and support the point. These classrooms also differed in the acquired academic and social status of the pupils who participated and the pupils who were attended to in class discussions; the cognitive level of pupil responses that were attended to by other pupils; and final reading achievement (entering reading controlled for). The case studies were developed as part of a year-long sociolinguistic study of 164 second-, third- and fourth-grade pupils in six classrooms in a single elementary school.
Age of Admission and Trends in Achievement: A Comparison of Blacks and Caucasians
Authors: Langer Philip , Kalk John Michael , Searls Donald T
Published: March 2008

This study investigated the changing achievement relationships among students based on ages at entry into first grade and ages relative to their classmates. Data from students in grades 4, 8, and 11 were selected from National Assessment of Educational Progress achievement data in mathematics, science, and reading collected from national samples of Caucasian and black 9-, 13-, and 17-year-old students. Relative age, class age, sex, parental education, home environment, and type of community were entered in stepwise multiple regression analyses. The achievement data for Caucasians indicated that the significantly higher achievement of the oldest as compared to the youngest students at age 9 remained significant, but decreased at age 13, and disappeared by age 17. For blacks, while the trend did not decrease at age 13, it also disappeared at age 17. A second analysis of the proportion of students retained one grade revealed significantly increasing proportions of retained students as relative age became younger for Caucasians and blacks. Clinical screening based on sex and school district entrance age requirements was suggested for several groups. Signs of inadequate readiness in some of these groups pose potentially serious threats to academic careers and suggest delaying entrance for a year.
Measuring the Viability of Colleges: Who Is Really in Distress?
Authors: Gilmartin Kevin J
Published: March 2008

A longitudinal file was developed containing statistics on almost all colleges and universities in the country and was used to compute 61 indicators of institutional viability. Particular colleges were identified as being in distress based on a combination of objective measures: closure, default on a federal loan, extreme enrollment declines, extreme reduction in faculty salaries, and extreme declines in current fund revenues and balances. These colleges were used to validate the indicators as being related to distress, separately by type of college. The validated indicators for each type of college were then used to construct a summary index of viability, which was found to classify accurately colleges that are viable or in distress. Distributions of the summary measure are displayed for various kinds of colleges (e.g., traditionally black colleges, women’s colleges, 2-year vocational colleges). Twelve kinds of colleges were found to frequently receive low scores on the summary measure.
Example Comparison Strategy Versus Attribute Identification Strategy in Concept Learning
Authors: Park Ok-Choon
Published: March 2008

Two concept-teaching strategies, designed to facilitate the identification process of critical attributes and the formation and elaboration process of a prototype, were compared to test their effectiveness. Results showed the following: (a) Using an analytically organized list of critical attributes and their relationships resulted in better performance than using best examples in classifying newly presented examples during instruction (p < .05), but the former required a longer time to complete the instructional booklet (p < .001); (b) presentation of best examples facilitated prototype formation in memory and resulted in a higher degree of retention (p < .005). Other findings suggest that field-dependent students need more best examples in expository form than do field-independent students to form the conceptual prototype.
Institutional Inbreeding Reexamined
Authors: Wyer Jean C , Conrad Clifton F
Published: March 2008

Data from the 1977 Survey of the American Professoriate were used to examine the relationship between origin and productivity and institutional rewards. The analyses indicated that inbred and noninbred faculty were not significantly different on standard measures of scholarly productivity. However, when an adjustment was made for the confounding effects of time allocation, the groups could be differentiated, and inbred faculty were found to be more productive in all areas of scholarly research. Despite the results on productivity, the analyses showed that inbred faculty are paid significantly less than noninbred faculty.
Cognitive Style, Operativity, and Reading Achievement
Authors: Roberge James J , Flexer Barbara K
Published: March 2008

This developmental study was designed to examine the effects of field dependence-independence and level of operational development on the reading achievement of sixth, seventh, and eighth graders. An analysis of covariance was performed on the reading achievement test scores. Field dependence-independence had no significant effect on students’ reading achievement, but high-operational students scored significantly higher than low-operational students on all of the tests. The educational implications of the findings are discussed.
Patterns of Absence and Pupil Achievement
Authors: Monk David H. , Ibrahim Mohd Ariffin
Published: March 2008

Student absences throughout the school year vary in timing and number. Similarly, classrooms vary in the total number of pupil days of absence, in the distribution of absences throughout all school days, and in the degree to which the same students are repeatedly absent. This paper compares these and other aspects of absentee patterns with pupils’ performance on a standardized ninth grade algebra examination. Results indicate that patterns of absence, in addition to the gross quantity of absence, are related to pupils’ performance. Moreover, results indicate that attending students’ test score performance is sensitive to classmates’ absences.
Level of Importance of Postquestions and Children’s Learning from Text
Authors: Wixson Karen K.
Published: March 2008

This research was designed to investigate the effects of postquestions directed at information of differing levels of importance on children’s understanding and recall of expository text. One hundred seventy-two average and above average fifth grade students read one of three short, expository passages and wrote the answers to a set of postquestions directed at either the most important, the next most important, the least important, or text-irrelevant information. One week later subjects wrote a free-recall and answers to a set of test questions. The results of the analysis of the recall data indicated that subjects’ recall of the questioned information was superior to their recall of the unquestioned information and to the recall of subjects who were questioned about different information regardless of the level of importance of the postquestions. The results of the analysis of the children’s answers to the test questions corroborated the findings from the recall data. These results support the conclusion that postquestions directed at information from all levels of importance within expository text result in a backward review effect in children that is specific to questioned information.
Students’ Cognitions and Time on Task During Mathematics Instruction
Authors: Peterson Penelope L , Swing Susan R , Stark Kevin D , Waas Gregory A
Published: March 2008

This study investigated students’ reports of attention, understanding, cognitive processes and affect during mathematics instruction. Two classes of fifth grade students (N = 38) were taught a 9-day mathematics unit on measurement by one of their teachers. Students were videotaped during instruction and interviewed subsequently using a stimulated-recall procedure. Students completed an achievement test and questionnaires about their attention, cognitive processes, motivational self-thoughts, and attitudes toward mathematics. Results suggest that students’ reports of attention, understanding, and cognitive processes were more valid indicators of classroom learning than observers’ judgments of students’ time on task. Findings also indicate that students’ reported affect as well as cognitions mediated the relationship between instructional stimuli and student achievement and attitudes.
Effects of a Minimal Intervention on Teacher Behavior and Student Achievement
Authors: Coladarci Theodore , Gage NL
Published: March 2008

Results from recent classroom-based experiments suggest that teacher behavior can be modified and student achievement improved through minimal interventions where (a) teacher training is carried out in correspondence course fashion and (b) comprehensive classroom observations are not conducted. This experiment represents such an intervention, carried out in the fourth, fifth, and sixth grade classrooms of 32 volunteer teachers. The experimental group teachers received through the mail a series of teacher training packets containing recommendations for teaching practices derived from the results of four large-scale correlational studies of teaching. Before and after training, classroom observations were conducted for 2 hours on two occasions. Analyses indicated that the intervention did not effect significant change in training-related teaching practices or end-of-year student achievement. Discussion of these results addresses factors that probably mediate treatment implementation and, consequently, effects on student achievement in research of this kind.
Teachers’ Perceptions of the Frequency of Evaluation and Assessments of Their Effort and Effectiveness
Authors: Natriello Gary
Published: March 2008

This paper examines the relationship between teacher perceptions of the frequency of evaluation activity and assessments of their effort and effectiveness. Drawing on the theory of evaluation and the exercise of authority developed by Dornbusch and Scott (1975) , we proposed two hypotheses concerning the impact of evaluation processes on teacher leverage, the ratio of effectiveness to effort. First we predicted a curvilinear relationship between the frequency of evaluation activities and teacher leverage. Second, we expected that the impact of evaluation on teacher leverage would be influenced by the ways in which teachers conceived of their teaching tasks. We predicted a curvilinear relationship between the degree to which teachers conceived of their tasks as active or unpredictable and the impact of evaluation on leverage. The hypotheses were examined in a survey of 182 teachers in six inner-city middle schools. Neither hypothesis was confirmed. The results indicated a positive relationship between frequency of evaluation and teacher leverage. Teachers reporting more frequent evaluation activity experienced a greater degree of effectiveness in relation to effort on their teaching tasks. The second hypothesis could not be examined because teachers in the study conceived of all of their teaching tasks as highly inert or predictable.
Faculty Desegregation and Student Achievement
Authors: Sanders Jimy M
Published: March 2008

The priority attached to inner city student desegregation has often become diminished with the onset of mandatory faculty desegregation. Consequently, students tend to be substantially more segregated than teachers in urban schools. Moreover, faculties in predominately minority schools typically have higher turnover and less experience than faculties in other schools. In the largest district initially placed under court-ordered faculty desegregation, we examined how these circumstances may have influenced academic attainment among elementary students. Achievement among black students was negatively related to the extent to which their teachers were racially isolated. Also, achievement was lower for black students assigned teachers who were involuntarily transferred for faculty desegregation purposes. The achievement of black, Hispanic, and white students was positively associated with teaching experience and negatively related to faculty turnover. These findings suggest that poorly planned desegregation policies can have undesirable consequences.
Achievement as a Function of Time Spent in Learning and Time Needed for Learning
Authors: Gettinger Maribeth
Published: March 2008

The causal effects of time spent in learning (TSL) and time needed for learning (TTL) on reading and spelling achievement, as measured by standardized achievement, criterion test accuracy and retention, and teacher rating were investigated. The subjects were 171 fourth and fifth grade students. TTL was evaluated as the number of trials needed to master a learning or spelling task to 100% criterion. TSL was evaluated using the same procedure, except that children self-determined the number of trials they spent on an alternate task for each skill area. Within the model proposed, TTL contributed significantly to achievement, and its direct effect was greater than that of TSL. The data were also analyzed in terms of Carroll’s (1963) model of learning. Results supported this model in which degree of learning is postulated to be a function of the ratio of TSL to TTL.
The Reading Process in Content Fields: A Psycholinguistic Investigation
Authors: Guzzetti Barbara J
Published: March 2008

This study focused on readers’ attempts to gain meaning from three content passages using the syntactic and semantic cue systems. The design employed a 3 × 3 × 6 repeated-measures analysis of variance and supplemental ethnographic techniques to examine the reading processes of 36 fifth grade students. Results indicated that high, average, and low ability readers are consistent in using syntactic and semantic cues to reconstruct meaning; the application of these strategies does not vary with the reading content. Evidence from this study suggests that it is not the content of the material in and of itself that affects the ability of any type of reader to reconstruct meaning. It appears that it is the readers’ prior knowledge and interest in content material that influences comprehension.
Generalizability Theory and Experimental Design: Incongruity Between Analysis and Inference
Authors: Hopkins Kenneth D
Published: March 2008

The inferences drawn from many statistical analyses are not congruent with the analyses performed. The analysis commonly employed when cognitive or affective measures serve as the dependent variable yields an inference that is rigorously generalizable only to the specific set of scales or items that were employed, and not to the intended universe of items of which the set used is viewed as a representative sample. The arguments in this paper show that if the items are incorporated into the design as levels of a random facet via generalizability theory, the inferential question in the desired universe of inference can be examined statistically. An estimate of the reliability (generalizability) of the outcome variable also accrues from the proposed analysis; consequently the statistical and measurement fidelity questions are unified in a single analysis. Advantages of nesting items within subjects are proposed.
Inducing Use of a Text Lookback Strategy Among Unsuccessful Readers
Authors: Garner Ruth , Hare Victoria Chou , Alexander Patricia , Haynes Jacqueline , Winograd Peter
Published: March 2008

A text lookback strategy was taught to 12 remedial readers in three sessions. Readers were taught why to use lookbacks, when to use them, and where to use them with expository texts and accompanying questions. Five days after training was completed, the 12 subjects and 12 students in a control group were assessed for use of lookbacks and question-answering accuracy. Significant differences between training and control groups emerged both for percentage of correct answers with lookbacks (for questions not answered correctly from memory) and for percentage of lookbacks used (sometimes leading to an accurate answer, sometimes not) when needed. Classroom instruction in the use of text lookbacks is suggested.
Using the Sentence Verification Technique To Assess the Comprehension of Technical Text as a Function of Subject Matter Expertise
Authors: Royer James M. , Lynch Douglas J. , Hambleton Ronald K. , Bulgareli Christopher
Published: March 2008

We report four studies that are concerned with the construct validity of the Sentence Verification Technique (SVT) as a measure of reading comprehension. The studies proceed from the assumption that readers with greater subject matter expertise should comprehend technical text in their area of expertise better than readers with less subject matter expertise. Experiment 1 had graduate students in psychology, advanced undergraduate psychology majors, and undergraduates who had never had a psychology course, read and take an SVT test on technical psychological text and/or nontechnical book reviews. Experiment 2 measured text comprehension of the technical and nontechnical text at the beginning and end of a semester psychology course. Experiment 3 evaluated whether the text comprehension of readers who varied in level of expertise would be influenced by Kintschian text structure variables. Experiment 4 tested whether the SVT was a measure of sentence comprehension or a measure of passage comprehension. The results of these studies were consistent with the interpretation that the SVT is a measure of text comprehension.
Teacher Clarity and Its Relationship to Student Achievement and Satisfaction
Authors: Hines Constance V. , Cruickshank Donald R. , Kennedy John J.
Published: March 2008

Relationships between the clarity behaviors of teachers and the dual outcome measures of student achievement and satisfaction were examined. Relatively reliable measures of clarity (both of a low-inference and high-inference nature) on 32 preservice teachers who taught the same lesson within a small-group laboratory setting were generated by (a) trained observers, (b) participating students, and (c) the teachers themselves. The high and relatively low-inference measures of teacher clarity correlated highly, and both were significantly and positively related to postinstructional measures of student achievement and student satisfaction. A number of specific clarity behaviors have been identified that appear to be strongly and directly linked to desirable student outcomes.
Proactive and Retroactive Facilitation of Long-Term Retention by Curriculum Continuity
Authors: Arzi Hanna J , Ben-Zvi Ruth , Ganiel Uri
Published: March 2008

A longitudinal research study was designed to investigate effects of mutual interrelations between courses in sequential teaching on long-term retention of learning. This paper mainly relates to the following question: Is the retention of previously learned course material facilitated by new content taught in subsequent courses? Students were followed up for 3 consecutive years from junior to senior high school. Two groups were investigated: Both had studied the same introductory physical science course in grade 7, but only one group continued to study related physical science topics in grade 8. Analysis of longitudinally matched data detected significant proactive and retroactive effects of courses: (a) Prior knowledge acquired in grade 7 facilitated further learning in grade 8; and (b) retention of the grade 7 subject matter over a 2-year interval was higher in the group that had studied physical science continuously during grades 7 and 8. These long-lasting effects are not due to mere rehearsal, since the content of the grade 7 course is used but not retaught in subsequent courses. Explanations are provided by Ausubel’s assimilation theory. The main educational implication is that a program composed of a hierarchical sequence of learning units is superior to a discontinuous array of discrete courses.
The Implicit Clinical Curriculum
Authors: Slotnick HB , Kerbeshian Lynn A , Heller PS
Published: March 2008

We sought the existence of an implicit curriculum covering clinical skills (medical and nonmedical) not directly addressed in the School of Medicine’s formal curriculum. Topics in the curriculum were identified by clinical faculty who described their expectations for students, and these expectations were confirmed by interviews with 65% of the teaching faculty. The curriculum identified—although not discussed among faculty or with students—is nevertheless “in place” and educationally sound: Learnings are clearly and defensibly related to medical practice, learnings are ordered in an instructionally defensible manner, and implications can be drawn for selection of instructional techniques. The curriculum also allows identification of instructional areas needing strengthening.
Effects of Class Size on Attention, Communication, and Disruption of Mildly Mentally Retarded Children
Authors: Forness Steven R , Kavale Kenneth A
Published: March 2008

Although the number of children in special classrooms for the mildly mentally retarded may vary considerably from classroom to classroom, little evidence is available on the effects of differing class size. The present study examined classroom behavior of 393 pupils in 26 educable mentally retarded classrooms in regard to differential effects of having approximately 12, 15, and 19 pupils per classroom. Several effects were found in attention and communication, but relatively few were found in disruptive behavior.
Evaluating Pre-Primer Basal Readers Using Story Grammar
Authors: Feldman Mary Jane
Published: March 2008

The present study evaluated pre-primer basal reading materials using the Johnson and Mandler (1980) story grammar. Three stories from two widely used series were selected and rewritten in accord with the rules of the story grammar. Subjects were 96 first graders who were seen individually and randomly assigned to one of eight conditions. The eight conditions were formed by a 2 × 2 × 2 crossed design. Each of the three conditions in the design had two levels as follows: (a) The story version condition was either story grammar story or basal reader story; (b) the picture condition was either pictures present or pictures absent; and (c) the presentation condition was either oral reading or listening to a tape recording. The following conclusions were drawn: (a) Children who read or listened to story grammar stories had better recall than children who read or listened to basal reader stories; (b) the recall for stories with pictures was not different from the recall for stories with no pictures, with the exception that when pictures were present there were more logical additions to the stories than when pictures were absent; (c) children who listened to stories had better recall on some aspects of recall than children who read stories; and (d) there were no significant differences between the story grammar and basal reader versions on words read per second, words skipped, or reading errors during oral reading.
High-Ability Women and Men in Undergraduate Mathematics and Chemistry Courses
Authors: Boli John , Allen Mary Lou , Payne Adrienne
Published: March 2008

Using samples of college students of very high ability and strong academic background, sex differences in performance and perceptions of performance in introductory chemistry and mathematics courses were studied. Considerable differences favoring men were found, and these appeared to be due primarily to differences in mathematics background. In addition, female high school role models and general attitudes about women’s mathematical ability were found to have little effect on performance. While women were not less likely than men to continue the sequences of courses studied, they were nevertheless much less likely to major in the natural sciences and engineering, preferring the life sciences instead when they chose technical majors. The evidence suggests that women’s weaker mathematics background and the poorer course performance it produced were responsible for this outcome.
Classroom Control and Student Outcomes in Grades 2 and 5
Authors: Crocker Robert K. , Brooker Gwen M.
Published: March 2008

This study sought to identify dimensions of classroom control derived from factor analysis of selected classroom process variables, to interpret these dimensions in relation to two contemporary models of classroom control, and to explore the relationships between dimensions of control and certain cognitive and affective outcomes. Data used in the study were drawn from a larger data base developed from some 30 hours of observation per classroom, pre- and posttesting, teacher interviews, and other data sources in a sample of 36 second grade and 39 fifth grade classes. Results of the study indicate that dimensions of boundary control and disruptive behavior are readily identifiable but, contrary to what has been suggested by other authors, warmth or emotional climate cannot be clearly separated from disruptive behavior or discussion-recitation. Correlations with outcomes are generally consistent with those found in other process-product studies.
Teachers’ Predictions of Children’s Early Reading Achievement: An Application of Social Judgment Theory
Authors: Cooksey Ray W. , Freebody Peter , Davidson Graham R.
Published: March 2008

We present and implement a framework for studying teachers’ informal expectations in the context of reading education. The framework is called Social Judgment Theory (SJT) and it entails an idiographic analysis of various aspects of cues used to form policies and make judgments. Major attention focuses on the relative importance attached to each cue and the overall relationship between the pattern used by the teacher and the pattern that actually obtains in the reading ecology. Preliminary work is described that examines the expectation policies of novice teachers when considering potential achievements in vocabulary development and reading comprehension. A multivariate application of SJT revealed that the novice teachers studied held generally accurate expectation policies with respect to the ecology, but showed large individual differences in the importance they placed on various cues. Subsequent cluster analysis of the expectation policies revealed several different types of policy weighting schemes. We draw implications of the general application of SJT for the study of informal classroom policies, and we point to the next step—the provision of policy feedback to teachers for the purposes of heightening awareness and improving policy accuracy.
The Effectiveness of Alternative Training Activities in Changing Teaching Practices
Authors: Sparks Georgea Mohlman
Published: March 2008

The relationships between types of in service training activities and changes in teaching behavior were investigated. Three groups of junior high teachers (N = 19) attended five workshops on effective teaching. Group I received no extra activities, Group II participated in peer observations, and Group III was coached by the trainer. Pre- and posttraining observations, questionnaires, and interviews were used to assess behavior change and attitudes. Profiles of day-to-day variations in teaching practices were examined for stability of teaching behavior. Of the teachers needing to improve, three Group I teachers, six Group II teachers, and two Group III teachers approached or exceeded the criterion level of performance on academic interactions. Peer observation appeared to be more effective than trainer-provided coaching in boosting workshop effectiveness. Further study of the context features related to the effectiveness of peer observations in district-based programs is required.
Construct Validity of Medical Clinical Competence Measures: A Multitrait-Multimethod Matrix Study Using Confirmatory Factor Analysis
Authors: Forsythe George B. , McGaghie William C. , Friedman Charles P.
Published: March 2008

This study investigates the construct validity of three methods used to evaluate clinical competence in medicine: standardized test, supervisor performance ratings, and peer performance ratings. Three attributes of clinical competence are investigated: cognitive abilities, interpersonal skills, and professional qualities. Measures representing each attribute-method combination include: National Board of Medical Examiners (NBME) examination (standardized test of cognitive abilities); two scales derived from the California Psychological Inventory (CPI) (standardized test of interpersonal skills and professional qualities); and the three scales derived from the Resident Evaluation Form (REF) (peer and supervisor ratings of all three attributes). Scores for each attribute-method combination were obtained from a convenience sample of 166 resident physicians in three primary care specialties. These scores were cast into a multitrait-multimethod matrix design and analyzed using confirmatory factor analysis. Results suggest a lack of construct validity for the CPI and REF scales, moderate convergent validity for the NBME, and substantial method variance in the REF-derived ratings. Findings are discussed in terms of the implications for a theory of medical clinical competence, further research and development in clinical competence measurement, and current measurement practice in medical education.
Classroom Intellectual Composition and Academic Achievement
Authors: Dar Yehezkel , Resh Nura
Published: March 2008

Assuming that the intellectual level of the classroom affects the quality of learning environments, it is argued that separating students into homogeneous educational frameworks enriches the environment for high-resource students and impoverishes it for low-resource students, whereas the converse occurs under heterogeneous mixing. Academic achievement consequently will be affected. This argument was subjected to an empirical analysis in two Israeli samples, one ethnically and socioeconomically heterogeneous, the other socially homogeneous. First, presuppositions concerning the impact of three dimensions of student-body composition on academic achievement were probed. It was found that (a) the intellectual component of student-body composition outweighs both ethnic and socioeconomic components; (b) classroom composition is more effective than school composition; and (c) classroom intellectual level is more effective than its variance. Subsequently, two hypotheses were supported: classroom intellectual composition positively affects the student’s academic achievement, and compositional quality and personal ability interact (i.e., low-resource students are more sensitive than high-resource students to compositional quality). An educational implication follows: In separation, the low-resource students’ loss is greater than the high-resource students’ profit, and in mixing, the high-resource students’ loss is smaller than the low-resource students’ gain.
A Comparison of Activity Structures During Basic Skills and Problem-Solving Instruction in Seventh-Grade Mathematics
Authors: Burns Robert B. , Lash Andrea A.
Published: March 2008

The primary purpose of this study was to describe problem-solving instruction and examine whether it was different from basic skills instruction. Nine seventh-grade mathematics teachers were observed for 5 consecutive days during their regular instruction. They were then asked to plan and implement a 6-day unit over four problem-solving skills given to them by the experimenters. Their problem-solving instruction was observed using the same observational methodology as during regular instruction. Detailed narrative records of the lessons, teacher, and observer ratings of the instruction, and student work assignments were obtained. These data were used to segment each lesson and describe the activity structure of the daily instruction. Comparison of the activity structures and teacher and observer ratings between regular and problem-solving instruction revealed few major differences between the two types of instruction. Between-teacher differences in activity structures were greater than differences across the two types of instruction, suggesting consistent but individualistic time use patterns for teachers. An organizational style for instruction was suggested as a possible explanation for the findings.
Classroom Management: Students’ Perspectives, Goals, and Strategies
Authors: Allen James D.
Published: March 2008

This paper presents an alternative viewpoint on classroom management. A field study was conducted to investigate classroom management from the perspective of high school students. Findings suggest that students use six strategies to achieve two major goals during classroom events and that the combination of strategies used by students is based on different context features of each classroom. The teacher’s clear expression of his or her academic and behavioral expectations to students and provision of a cooperative classroom environment for students to achieve their classroom goals are identified as important features affecting students’ views on classroom management.
Using Research Findings to Change School and Classroom Practices: Results of an Experimental Study
Authors: Griffin Gary A. , Barnes Susan
Published: March 2008

A quasi-experimental, treatment-control group investigation was designed to test the effects of introducing research findings from effective teaching and school leadership into ongoing school settings. Research findings were translated into observable staff developer and teacher behaviors. Following 5 days of training 3 weeks prior to the beginning of school, treatment staff developers implemented self-designed plans to increase effective teaching behaviors. Both staff developers and teachers recorded journal entries, and teachers were observed. Based on staff developer journal entries, a significant treatment effect was found for the transfer of all staff developer behaviors. Based on classroom observations, a significant treatment effect was found for teacher behaviors in 4 of 10 categories of effective teaching behaviors: academic planning and preparation, academic presentation, organizing for classroom management, and presentation of rules and procedures.