bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Street-Level Leadership: Rethinking the Role of Public Servants in Contemporary Governance
Authors: Vinzant Janet , Crothers Lane
Published: March 2007

Demands for governmental reform and reinvention have created new pressures on public servants to help create a government that works better and costs less. At the same time, changes in management approaches are pushing higher levels of responsibility and discretion downward to lower levels of the organization. Together, these factors have: (a.) increased the range and scope of discretion front-line public servants exercise, and (b.) created an environment in which bureaucratic decision making is scrutinized against an increasingly complex set of standards. Traditionally, researchers have viewed the tension between bureaucratic discretion and accountability through one of several frames: bureaucracy, public policy, professionalism, or politics. While each of these perspectives is useful, none fully captures the challenges and responsibilities facing public servants in the present environment. This paper describes and evaluates a model of public service based on the notion of leadership. We argue that street-level leadership is a useful theoretical perspective because it stresses the importance of values, relies on skills and expertise, encompasses a wide range of discretionary behaviors, and provides a framework for evaluating the appropriateness and legitimacy of discretionary choices.
Grade Creep in the Federal Service?
Authors: Lewis Gregory B.
Published: March 2007

Why did the mean grade of federal white-collar workers rise 1.2 grades between 1977 and 1993? The author explores 4 possible explanations: (a) increasing complexity of federal work and increasing qualifications of federal workers; (b) declining discrimination against women and minorities; (c) responses to the underpayment of federal workers; and (4) grade creep, an inflation of grades without an accompanying rise in the difficulty and responsibility of the work. Based on analysis of a 1% sample of federal personnel records for 1976 and 1992, the author finds that rising qualifications and declining discrimination appear to be the main causes of the grade rise, though grade creep also seems to play a part. Rising grades do not seem to be a response to private-sector competition in high-pay metropolitan areas.
Administrative Assault
Authors: Diamond Michael A.
Published: March 2007

In this article, the author offers a psychoanalytic perspective of violence and aggression in the workplace. With particular focus on public sector organizations, such as the postal service, the author submits that shame and injustice are at the emotional core of the problem. Following a statistical summary of violence in the workplace and an overview of the social and behavioral science research, the author provides a psychodynamic schema for analyzing the potential for violence at work. The model presented combines what the author refers to as a toxic mix of oppressive cultures and persecutory identities at work In conclusion, the author provides a brief description of his organizational change methodology.
Strategic Information Systems Planning in the Public Sector
Authors: Bajjaly Stephen T.
Published: March 2007

Strategic information systems (IS) are touted throughout the trade press and the academic literature as the way to achieve the greatest benefits from an investment in new information technology (IT). Using document imaging within state agencies as the backdrop, research hypotheses about the existence and comprehensiveness of strategic IS planning in the public sector are tested. Through a nationwide mail survey completed by state agency IT managers, the findings strongly support a relationship between formal IS strategic planning and an interest in strategic IS. State agencies that engage in comprehensive, formal strategic IS planning are able to foster an environment more supportive of the use of IT within state government.
Performance Evaluation of Federal Administrative Law Judges
Authors: Musolf Lloyd
Published: March 2007

Federal administrative law judges (ALJs) are among the few classified service employees who are exempted from periodic performance review. The purpose is to protect their decisional independence from encroachment by the agencies that employ them. Given the interest of the public administration community in performance evaluation, this article reviews and analyzes recent attempts to answer the question of who should evaluate federal ALJs' performance. The end in view is to challenge the community in general and human resources scholars and practitioners in particular to add the question posed here to their purview. The importance of the ALJ position and the difficulty of answering the question deserve a wider, informed audience.
The Visions of Charles C. Slater: Social Consequences of Marketing
Authors: Nason Robert W. , White Phillip D.
Published: March 2007

This article focuses on the accomplishments of a leader in marketing. During the past two decades the visions and contributions of Charles Slater broadened the conceptualization of marketing, applied that conceptualization to developing countries, formulated a new theory on market process, and built that theory into a class of simulation models applied around the world. His dedication, intellect, and humanism has brought macromarketing to the fore and left a rich legacy upon which an emerging discipline can build.
A. Macromarketing Approach to Economic Development
Authors: Cundiff Edward W.
Published: March 2007

The early comparative marketing studies first brought to the attention of scholars a relationship between marketing and economic development. Acceptance of this relationship by planners resulted in incorporating macromarketing inputs into economic development plans. For optimum effect both macro and micro inputs are necessary.
Marketing and Economic Development: Focusing on the Less Developed Countries
Authors: Hosley Suzanne , Wee Chow Hou
Published: March 2007

Marketing, as a discipline, has played an important role in the development of industrialized nations. Until recently, however, its potential as a source of development in the Third World has been largely ignored (Kotler 1982; Dholakia 1984; Wood and Vittell 1986). This article is a review of the current and not so current literature on the thoughts of those rare developmental economists and marketers who have considered this potential role for marketing A simple model is presented as a guide to sorting out the various viewpoints on this topic. The potential role of marketing in development is then discussed, leading to the conclusion that it could play an active and simulative role in the development process, but it should be used with care. Areas for future research are also highlighted.
Generation and Evaluation of the Workspace of a Manipulator
Authors: Hansen J.A. , Gupta K.C. , Kazerounian S.M.K.
Published: March 2007

An algorithm is presentedfor noniterative generation of the workspace of a general n-R manipulator. It is shown that if special techniques are used for the reduction of points, such algorithms, which otherwise require large storage, become computationally feasible. For the evaluation of the workspace, approach angles and approach lengths for points in the workspace are analyzed by using a stable iterative algorithm for inverse kinematic analysis. One modification makes it a strict descent algorithm with respect to certain measures of deviation from the target position; another uses a variable convergence criterion to improve its speed and accuracy in the determination of the limiting configurations.
Obstacle Avoidance for Kinematically Redundant Manipulators in Dynamically Varying Environments
Authors: Maciejewski Anthony A. , Klein Charles A.
Published: March 2007

The vast majority of work to date concerned with obstacle avoidance for manipulators has dealt with task descriptions in the form ofpick-and-place movements. The added flexibil ity in motion control for manipulators possessing redundant degrees offreedom permits the consideration of obstacle avoidance in the context of a specified end-effector trajectory as the task description. Such a task definition is a more accurate model for such tasks as spray painting or arc weld ing. The approach presented here is to determine the re quired joint angle rates for the manipulator under the con straints of multiple goals, the primary goal described by the specified end-effector trajectory and secondary goals describ ing the obstacle avoidance criteria. The decomposition of the solution into a particular and a homogeneous component effectively illustrates the priority of the multiple goals that is exact end-effector control with redundant degrees of freedom maximizing the distance to obstacles. An efficient numerical implementation of the technique permits sufficiently fast cycle times to deal with dynamic environments.
An Analytical Approach for Gait Study and Its Applications on Wave Gaits
Authors: Song Shin-Min , Waldron Kenneth J.
Published: March 2007

In the past, the determination of the gait stability margins of legged locomotion systems depended mainly on numerical computation assisted by graphical methods. Although some of these results were expressed as empirically derived equa tions, analytical derivations were lacking. The only exception was the equation of the longitudinal stability margin for quadruped wave gaits derived by McGhee and Frank (1968). They applied a complicated, nonlinear programming ap proach to the derivation. In this paper, we describe an ana lytical approach that has proved to be more efficient than previous gait study techniques. This analytical approach de fines the foot positions by means of the concept of local phase, which is the fraction of a cycle period by which the current foot position follows the placement of that foot. Based on this concept, basic theorems that simplify the study of periodic gaits are developed. This analytical approach is then applied to derive a general equation for the longitudinal stability margin for the 2n-legged wave gait. Also, this ap proach is applied to study the effects on the stability margin of the wave gait by varying the stroke and the pitch of the leg.
Improvement of the Response of an SMA Actuator Using a Temperature Sensor
Authors: Kuribayashi Katsutoshi
Published: March 2007

The ordinary control method, pulse width modulation (PWM) control method, for the shape memory alloy (SMA) actuator has a basic defect: the response of an SMA actuator controlled by this method is very slow, because the maxi mum voltage supplied to the SMA must be kept low in order to prevent the SMA from burning because its temperature is unknown. In this paper, a new control method is proposed to improve the response speed of the SMA actuator by limiting the temperature of the SMA to below the limited value in stead of by limiting the maximum voltage supplied to the SMA. Therefore this new control method allows us to use powerful drivers for supplying voltage to an SMA so as to in crease the heating speed of the SMA. First, a temperature sensor system to detect the SMA's temperature was developed by solving several problems. Next, experiments of the position control by a new SMA actuator system with a temperature threshold for SMA were carried out. Results show that the re sponse speeds are much faster than those using the ordinary control method. In addition, some conditions to further im prove the response speed of the proposed control method for an SMA actuator were obtained.
Singular Aspects of General Planar Motions with Two Degrees of Freedom
Authors: Gibson C.G. , Marsh D. , Xiang Y.
Published: March 2007

General planar motions with two degrees of freedom differ funda mentally from those with one degree of freedom, in that they may exhibit "cross-caps" singularities. At such singularities the trajec tories fail to exhibit four of the generic singularity types normally associated with such motions, namely, lips, beaks, and two of their degenerations. Provided cross-caps are avoided, the union of the bifurcation curves associated with the lips and beaks types are char acterized kinematically as envelopes of a two-parameter family of instantaneous singular lines. In the special class of composite planar motions, these lines are described in terms of the classical instanta neous centers of the constituent motions with 1 DOF, and it is shown that not all generic singularity types can appear on the trajectories. Computer-generated pictures illustrate the theory for examples of rational motions.
A Comparison of Practice and Self-Report as Sources of Information About the Goals of Expert Practice
Authors: Chaffin Roger , Imreh Gabriela
Published: March 2007

A concert pianist recorded her practice as she learned the Italian Concerto (Presto) by J. S. Bach for performance, commenting on what she was doing as she practised. After the performance the pianist reported decisions made during practice on three basic dimensions (fingering, technical difficulties, familiar patterns of notes), four interpretative dimensions (phrasing, dynamics, tempo, pedal), and three performance dimensions representing features of the music attended to during performance (basic, interpretative, expressive). Number of features per bar served as predictor variables in regression analyses in which the predicted variables were number of starts, stops, and repetitions. Practice was divided into three separate learning periods. Practice was affected by basic dimensions in the first two periods and by interpretative dimensions in the last two periods, while performance dimensions affected practice throughout. The frequency of comments made while practising showed similar patterns, providing converging evidence for changes in the pianist's goals across the learning process. Practice and self-reports did not, however, entirely agree. Self-reports failed to mention practice of dynamics and indicated that selection of performance features occurred late in the learning process whereas practice data showed that both dynamics and performance features were practised right from the start. Practice sometimes provides information not available in self-reports.
Comparative Tone-Colour Responses of College Music Majors with Absolute Pitch and Good Relative Pitch
Authors: Block Lenore
Published: March 2007

The purpose of the present study was to test the hypothesis that college music majors possessing absolute pitch will be more consistent in their tone-colour responses over a period of time than college music majors possessing good relative pitch.

Data were gathered for 22 college music majors, 10 possessors of absolute pitch and 12 who possess good relative pitch. The students were administered an individual test on five consecutive weeks. Each test consisted of recordings of the 12 tones within an octave performed on a pipe organ, using the flute stop. The tones of each week's test were in a different random order. After each note was sounded, the student selected a colour from a colour wheel placed in front of him. Consistency of response, from week to week, was measured and evaluated. A comparison of the two groups' mean variability across the five trials for each of the 12 tones revealed a statistically significant difference (p < *001) between the two groups' mean response for each of the 12 pitches. In all cases, the mean response of the perfect pitch subjects was significantly more consistent than that of the relative pitch subjects.
The Differences in Descriptive Abilities of Band, Choral, and Orchestral Students
Authors: Nierman Glenn E.
Published: March 2007

The purpose of the study was to examine the effects of membership in secondary school music performance organisations on student capability to select appropriate verbal responses describ- ing perceptions of musical components. A questionnaire, portions of Gordon's Musical Aptitude Profile (MAP), and an original "Musical Verbal Descriptor Profile" (MVDP) were administered to 892 members of bands, choruses, orchestras and to control groups consisting of ninth through twelfth-grade students with no high school music performance experience. The primary analysis of the data indicated that there was a significant difference between participants in secondary school music ensembles and non-participants in terms of their ability to select appropriate common or musical vernacular descriptions of recorded musical events.
The Role of Visual and Auditory Feedback during the Sight-Reading of Music
Authors: Banton Louise J.
Published: March 2007

This study examined the role of auditory and visual feedback during the sight-reading of a short piece of piano music. Its purpose was to identify errors that arose due to the removal of feedback and to compare the performances of pianists at different levels of sight-reading practice frequency, general musical experience and sight-reading ability. Subjects were tested under the following conditions: normal sight-reading, sight-reading when unable to view the keyboard (no visual feedback) and sight-reading where auditory feedback was unavailable (no auditory feedback). The findings indicated that performances where visual feedback was unavailable resulted in a significantly increased number of adjacent note errors, suggesting that visual feedback is utilised by pianists in order to guide the discrete movements of the hands over the keyboard, but that the degree to which it is relied upon is dependent on the pianist's familiarity with the sight-reading situation itself. Sight-reading when auditory feedback was unavailable proved to be indistinguishable from normal sight-reading, both being superior to performances where visual feedback was unavailable. General musical experience and sight-reading ability were significant factors in distinguishing between errors which might produce a breakdown in performance and those which will not impede fluency. This raises a series of questions concerning (a) differences between high ability and low ability pianists and (b) efficient practice techniques and objectives.
A Comparison of Perceived Musical Tension and Aesthetic Response
Authors: Fredrickson William E.
Published: March 2007

This study used the Continuous Response Digital Interface (CRDI) to measure musicians' and non-musicians' perceptions of ongoing "aesthetic response" in the first movement of Haydn's Symphony No. 104, in an attempt to determine if musical "tension" might relate to the aesthetic experience. Subjects (musicians n = 43, non-musicians n = 40) indicated their aesthetic responsiveness using the CRDI. Analysis focuses on composite graphs of mean group responses and comparisons to results of a previous study (Madsen and Fredrickson, 1993) which replicated the work of Frede V. Neilsen entitled "Oplevelse af Musikalsk Spending (The Experience of Musical Tension)." Results of this study indicated some co-variation between perceived tension graphs of subject responses from the previous study and recorded aesthetic response, primarily in the musicians. Overall, tension responses were found to be more variable than the aesthetic response, with the latter being consistently positive and somewhat higher. Non-musicians' responses were consistently more positive than musicians' responses throughout, which conforms to the findings in previous studies using the CRDI with these populations.
Scientific Graphs and the Hierarchy of the Sciences:
Authors: Smith Laurence D. , Best Lisa A. , Stubbs D. Alan , Johnston John , Archibald Andrea Bastiani
Published: March 2007

Studies comparing the cognitive status of the sciences have long sought to identify the distinguishing features of `hard' and `soft' science. Attempts by philosophers of science to ground such distinctions in abstract principles and by sociologists of science to detect relevant differences (for example, in consensus levels) have met with limited success. However, recent investigations of scientists' concrete practices of data representation provide new leads on this problem. In particular, Bruno Latour has argued that graphs are essential to science due to their ability to render phenomena into compact, transportable and persuasive form. Applying Latour's notion of `graphism' to the hierarchy of sciences, we found that the use of graphs across seven scientific disciplines correlated almost perfectly with their hardness, and that the same pattern held up across ten specialty fields in psychology.
Tacit Knowledge, Trust and the Q of Sapphire
Authors: Collins H. M.
Published: March 2007

Russian measurements of the quality factor (Q) of sapphire, made 20 years ago, have only just been repeated in the West. Shortfalls in tacit knowledge have been partly responsible for this delay. The idea of `tacit knowledge', first put forward by the physical chemist Michael Polanyi, has been studied and analysed over the last two decades. A new classification of tacit knowledge (broadly construed) is offered here and applied to the case of sapphire. The importance of personal contact between scientists is brought out and the sources of trust described. It is suggested that the reproduction of scientific findings could be aided by a small addition to the information contained in experimental reports. The analysis is done in the context of fieldwork conducted in the USA and observations of experimental work at Glasgow University.
Precautionary Uncertainty
Authors: Levidow Les
Published: March 2007

Through the precautionary principle, governments acknowledge the limits of science as a basis for policy, while seeking to clarify scientific uncertainty. This tension is exemplified by the European risk regulation of genetically modified (GM) crops. The risk debate has been translated into various precautionary approaches, each with its own cognitive framing of the relevant uncertainties. Early safety claims took for granted intensive agricultural models; normative judgements served to downplay uncertainties which were not readily reducible, thus justifying commercial approval of products. In the late 1990s public protest strengthened broader accounts of uncertainty, for example through more stringent environmental norms and more complex causal pathways of potential harm. Fact-finding methods were debated as a value-laden choice for how best to generate more relevant knowledge.

As risk-assessment research challenged assumptions in safety claims, critics cited the results as evidence of greater uncertainty. Invoking the precautionary principle, regulatory procedures delayed or restricted commercial use of GM crops. They not only increased the burden of evidence for safety, but also stimulated and requested knowledge about more complex uncertainties. Criteria for relevant evidence were implicitly linked with different framing visions for agriculture.

Such value conflicts made scientific uncertainty more important - rather than vice versa. When risk research methods were challenged, fact/value boundaries were blurred, thus increasing `uncertainty' - rather than vice versa. In these ways, the risk controversy was constituted by divergent accounts of the relevant scientific uncertainty. Uncertainty was constitutive, not merely contextual. In general, then, precaution offers a means to justify uncertainty - not simply vice versa.
The Third Wave of Science Studies
Authors: Collins H.M. , Evans Robert
Published: March 2007

Science studies has shown us why science and technology cannot always solve technical problems in the public domain. In particular, the speed of political decision-making is faster than the speed of scientific consensus formation. A predominant motif over recent years has been the need to extend the domain of technical decision-making beyond the technically qualified élite, so as to enhance political legitimacy. We argue, however, that the `Problem of Legitimacy' has been replaced by the `Problem of Extension' - that is, by a tendency to dissolve the boundary between experts and the public so that there are no longer any grounds for limiting the indefinite extension of technical decision-making rights. We argue that a Third Wave of Science Studies - Studies of Expertise and Experience (SEE) - is needed to solve the Problem of Extension. SEE will include a normative theory of expertise, and will disentangle expertise from political rights in technical decision-making. The theory builds categories of expertise, starting with the key distinction between interactive expertise and contributory expertise. A new categorization of types of science is also needed. We illustrate the potential of the approach by re-examining existing case studies, including Brian Wynne's study of Cumbrian sheep farmers. Sometimes the new theory argues for more public involvement, sometimes for less. An Appendix describes existing contributions to the problem of technical decision-making in the public domain.
A Method of Predicting Nobel Prizewinners in Chemistry
Authors: Ashton S.V. , Oppenheim C.
Published: March 2007

A study was carried out to test Garfield's claim that citation counting can be used to predict Nobel prizewinners. Using a sample of 83 eminent chemists, it was found that receipt of the Nobel Prize is indeed correlated with citation counts, but that it is more strongly correlated with the number of papers co- authored in which the senior author's name is not the first in the list of authors. This result was tested out on the 1976 Nobel prizewinner, W. N. Lipscomb. It was found that a ranking by numbers of papers not first-authored predicted that Lipscomb would receive the Prize, whilst a ranking by citation counts would not have done so.
National Economic Resources and the Production of Research in Lesser Developed Countries
Authors: Frame J. Davidson
Published: March 2007

The relationship between national scientific effort, national economic size, and national affluence is investigated. It is found that the relationship between these variables differs substantially for developed countries (DCs) and underdeveloped countries (LDCs). While affluence and economic size jointly correlate highly with levels of scientific effort m DCs, economic size alone correlates strongly with levels of scientific effort in LDCs. It is concluded that so long as LDCs remain underdeveloped economically, the prospects for their establishing strong scientific capabilities are weak.
Carcinogenic Risk Assessment in the United States and Great Britain: The Case of Aldrin/Dieldrin
Authors: Gillespie Brendan , Eva Dave , Johnston Ron
Published: March 2007

The question is posed: why were two pesticides, Aldrin and Dieldrin, judged to be carcinogenic in the US but not in Britain when the same evidence was available to the public authorities in both countries? No single cause is identified; rather, a variety of mutually reinforcing factors account for the decisions by the two public authorities: the uncertainty of the scientific evidence; the application of different standards of carcinogenicity associated with different social and scientific commitments; the government agencies with primary responsibility for the decisions; the way in which pesticides are regulated; and several cultural and economic considerations. The case study illustrates the analytical inadequacy of the fact-value distinction, and the tendency of decision-makers to justify their decisions by recourse to science. It also supports the view that the traditional relationship between science and public policy is being redefined in complex, technical areas of decision-making like risk assessment.
Scientific Societies and their Journals: Biomedical Scientists Assess the Relationship
Authors: Levitan Karen B.
Published: March 2007

This paper represents a preliminary attempt to re-examine traditional assumptions about the importance of the scientific society as journal publisher. It is based on an exploratory study, conducted in 1975, which investigated the opinions and practices of biomedical scientists regarding: their memberships in scientific societies; their use of journals and other information sources; their publications in journals; their professional activities in general; and their understanding of the social system of science. The scientists in this sample seemed to consider journal publishing independent of their membership in a society and viewed the society as one of many publishers contributing to scientific communication.
Wartime Fission Research in Japan
Authors: Hughes Phillip S.
Published: March 2007

This Note discusses recent work on atomic projects carried out in Japan in World War ll.
The Subjective Computer: A Study in the Psychology of Personal Computation
Authors: Turkle Sherry
Published: March 2007

When people talk about the growing ubiquity of the computer presence they tend to fall back on two images: the computer as tool and the computer as toy; objective instrumentality and engrossing play. This paper examines another dimension to the impact of the computer on individuals: a subjective dimension. What people do with computers weaves itself into the way they see the world. People use a discourse about computers for thinking and talking about other things, about politics, religion, education, and about themselves and other people.

The subjective dimension of the computer presence is not merely a matter of discourse, of using the computer intellectually as a metaphor or model. There is another, and more emotionally charged aspect which does not engage ideas about computers as much as the immediate quality of an individual's experience when working with them. Working with computers can be a way of 'working through' powerful feelings. This essay develops this idea by using as a case study a group of computer users for whom issues related to control are particularly salient. For a first generation of computer hobbyists, controlling the computer which they experience as a safe and completely knowable microworld is a way to deal with frustrations and aspirations, both personal and political, that have nothing to do with the computer per se.

The work reported in this paper was supported in part by the National Science Foundation (under grant number MCS 77-27860) and the Laboratory of Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts. The views and conclusions contained in this paper are those of the author and should not be interpreted as necessarily representing the official policies, either expressed or implied, of the National Science Foundation or the United States Government.

Some of the material in this paper was contained in a communication to the 1980 meetings of the International Federation of Information Processors in Tokyo, Japan. I wish to thank the participants in that meeting for very valuable, critical discussions.
Putting Facts Together: A Study of Scientific Persuasion
Authors: Law John , Williams R. J.
Published: March 2007

This paper is an empirical analysis of the way in which a group of scientists sought to maximize the attractiveness of one of their papers. It records negotiations about the title, the introduction, and the second paragraph (in which a polymer was characterized). The analysis suggests that scientists array or `network' particulars in a way which they hope will allocate appropriate relative value to elements of that array. In doing so, three factors — the citation of colleagues, the display of facts, and problems of syntax — have to be simultaneously juggled.
Scientific Enterprise and the Colonial `Model': Observations on Australian Experience in Historical Context
Authors: Inkster Ian
Published: March 2007

The subject of this paper is the nature and development of the scientific enterprise in Australia, with a particular focus on the period from the 1880s to 1916. At its beginning, this period was dominated by the formation of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science, and at its end it witnessed the formation of the Commonwealth Institute of Science and Industry. The `colonial' characteristics of Australian science are considered by means of a critical examination of George Basalla's analysis of the spread of Western science from its `centre' to peripheral regions. This is followed by a more detailed historical treatment of aspects of Australian science in the period 1888-1912. I argue that the nature of the Australian scientific enterprise of these years was increasingly conditioned by changing local economic imperatives, a reflection of the loosening of more established imperial relations.
Publication and Referencing Patterns in a Mexican Research Institute
Authors: Lomnitz Larissa Adler , Rees Martha W. , Cameo Leon
Published: March 2007

Reference and publication patterns in the Institute of Biomedical Research of the National University of Mexico have changed over a twenty-year period (1959-79), reflecting the emergence of a scientific community. This paper analyzes these changes in terms of the development of a `critical mass' and of increasing international visibility, and participation in invisible colleges. Our findings show that a critical mass of Mexican biomedical researchers did emerge, which resulted in greater productivity, and more horizontal collaboration between researchers in different institutions. International visibility, measured in terms of international publications, increased greatly. Finally, citations of Mexican researchers not in the immediate research group increased slightly.
Unruly Technology: Practical Rules, Impractical Discourses and Public Understanding
Authors: Wynne Brian
Published: March 2007

This paper examines technologies as rule-following behaviour, arguing that emerging practices define `rules', rather than rules controlling practices. With the aid of several examples, it suggests that technologies should be conceptualized as extensive, open-ended technical-social systems whose local behaviour is underdetermined by any overall rationality. Contextual normalization of working technologies takes place according to local rationalities, but this may fragment the overall technology, whilst evolving its informal practical `rules'. Expert and public discourses present a more rule-bound concept of technology than the more private, contingent world of practice. The implications for public decisions and social control of technology are examined.
The Emergence of Research Grants within the Prize System of the French Academy of Sciences, 1795-1914
Authors: Crosland Maurice , Gálvez Antonio
Published: March 2007

The French Academy of Sciences established many important precedents in the development of modern science. One of these was the prize system, which originally involved the conferral of a few highly prestigious prizes. Yet the advance of experimental science in the nineteenth century demanded the availability of funds to carry out future research, rather than the reward of a few successful examples of past research. This paper shows how the members of the Academy gradually transformed the traditional system of prizes awarded with great honour into a less prestigious but more widely shared system of monetary awards, which finally led to a system of grants for younger researchers of promise.
Jumping Frames: Reflexivity and Recursion in the Sociology of Science
Authors: Doran Chris
Published: March 2007

Recent work in the sociology of science has been characterized by a lively debate between the `reflexive' and the `strong' programmes. Mulkay's most noteworthy contribution to this debate is an attempt to show the recursive loops that `strong' programmers get into, because they fail to pay enough attention to the reflexive nature of their `scientific' accounts. He also `jumps frame' and utilizes the format of a play to display his results, so as to make it quite apparent that he is aware of the constructed nature of his own `scientific' account.

This paper aims to point out similar problems with the `reflexive' programme's agenda. Its `mini-play' attempts to show the recursive loops that `reflexive' programmers get into because they, too, have failed to pay enough attention to the subtly coercive nature of their scientific accounts. Like Mulkay, I conclude by realizing the necessity for `jumping frames'. However, I do not look to drama for help, but rather to modes of analysis which seek critically to analyze the more general social scientific framework.
Ecological Theory and Pest Control Practice: A Study of the Institutional and Conceptual Dimensions of a Scientific Debate
Authors: Palladino Paolo
Published: March 2007

During the 1960s, the relationship between ecological theory and pest control practice was the subject of controversy between two groups of entomologists, one based in California and the other in Canada. Both groups were committed to the development of an `ecological' pest control strategy based on the integration of `biological control' — the use of predators and parasites to control pest populations — and the dominant chemical approach. Yet, they disagreed on the precise details of the relationship between ecological theory and the formulation of guidelines for the development of this integrated strategy. Consideration of institutional and conceptual problems shows that these different perspectives were shaped, but not necessarily determined, by the institutional context within which they were articulated. Attention is therefore drawn to the complexity of the relationship between ideas and institutions, and to the need for a broader approach to historiographical practice.
Comments on Turnbull's `Push for a Malaria Vaccine'
Authors: Daly John A.
Published: March 2007

David Turnbull's article on malaria is challenged on a number of grounds. It is based on too narrow an example, too dependent on a North-South confrontational framework, and epistemologically flawed by its over-identification with the currently-dominant paradigm for malariology. An alternative approach based on analysis of the succession of antimalarial programmes is offered. Turnbull's thesis is applauded, however.

Understanding of political and social forces is necessary to assure that the poor will benefit from improved malaria technology.
The Scope for Social Impact in Engineering Outcomes: A Diagrammatic Aid to Analysis
Authors: Vincenti Walter G.
Published: March 2007

This Note presents ideas, and a resulting diagram, for use in analysis of social impact in the outcomes of engineering design. The diagram shows the degree of technical constraint in a design problem as a function of the independent variables type of design (radical to normal) and level of hierarchy within a systematic device (upper to lower). It is argued that technical constraint is greatest in normal design at the lower levels of hierarchy. On the (plausible) assumption that scope for social impact tends to decrease as technical constraint increases, these ideas have implications for the social study of technology.
Turning a Practice into a Science: Reconceptualizing Postwar Medical Practice
Authors: Berg Marc
Published: March 2007

In recent years, many editorials in leading North American medical journals have argued that medical practice is seriously flawed. Often, decision-support techniques are mentioned as a potential solution to this problem. I argue that these recent calls embody a specific reconceptualization of medical practice and its problems. Within the postwar medical literature, divergent discourses on the virtues and troubles of postwar medical practice can be found. Through a focus on medical editorials, I demonstrate the existence of several different notions of the `scientific nature' of medical action. Comparing the more recent of these images to those dominating earlier medical journals, one main shift is apparent. While, earlier, medical action was often described as an artful application of scientific knowledge, only mildly tainted by external, social problems, recent conceptualizations often locate both the scientific nature of medicine and the causes of its problems in the physician's brain.

Even within this new discourse, however, scientific rationality does not always speak with the same voice, as reflected in the existence of different decision-support techniques. I argue that these different techniques, which are presented as solutions to the flaws of medical practice, lay at the root of the development of the cognitivist image(s) in the first place.
Industrial Research in Hungary: A Victim of Structural Change
Authors: Mosoni-Fried Judith
Published: March 2007

In Hungary, industrial R&D capacity decreased by about 70% between 1989 and 1993. This is closely related to declines of 20% in GDP and almost 30% in industrial production. Substantial structural and ownership changes were experienced. The newly-established private firms are mainly small enterprises. As yet, they are uninterested in, and incapable of, technological development.

The earlier strong and large network of industrial R&D institutes seems to have disappeared. The organizations concerned have been transformed into small- and medium-sized corporations, or have been wound up by the State Assets Management Company. Their original function has been considerably modified. There are now only a few customers (including the government) who visit them to apply for new technologies or products. An awkward structural change is going on in this transitional period. Industrial R&D institutes have already been effectively eliminated, at the start.
Social Worlds, Actor-Networks and Controversy: The Case of Cholesterol, Dietary Fat and Heart Disease
Authors: Garrety Karin
Published: March 2007

Knowledge which links dietary fat and cholesterol to coronary heart disease (CHD) has been controversial for more than forty years. While policies advocating fat and cholesterol restriction are now deeply ingrained in affluent western societies, the scientific `facts' on which they are supposedly based are highly contested. Applying concepts from actor-network theory and the symbolic interactionist social worlds approach, I argue that knowledge and dietary recommendations relating to cholesterol, fat and CHD are the outcome of complex social negotiations which can only be understood in their cultural, commercial and political contexts. Policies were framed in the 1960s before `proof' of their efficacy was available. Since then, ambiguous experimental results have been shaped to support the policies. I argue that, despite its many attractive features, actor-network theory cannot adequately deal with protracted controversies. Social worlds theory provides a much more useful framework for investigating long debates in which the `facts' remain elusive.
The Eye of Everyman
Authors: Jasanoff Sheila
Published: March 2007

Science was supposed to clinch OJ Simpson's guilt in the criminal trial that entranced both press and public in the United States for ten months in 1995. Prosecutors mistakenly expected the powerful technique of DNA fingerprinting, or `DNA typing', to establish Simpson's presence at the crime scene and to confirm his subsequent flight to his own estate. By acquitting Simpson after less than four hours of deliberation, the jury sensationally rebuffed the prosecutors' expectations. Fifteen months later, it was the mundane evidence of bloody shoeprints, not scientific authority, that prompted a civil judgment against Simpson for the same killings. In exploring science's failure to persuade the first Simpson jury, this paper focuses on the trial as an arena in which visual authority had to be created and defended. Scientific evidence must be seen to be believed; yet, a trial is also a proceeding in which visual authority is deeply contested. The paper suggests that the judge's rôle in constructing authorized lines of sight has not received sufficient attention in legal analysis and procedural reform. In the Simpson trial, as in other cases involving expert witnesses, the judge's uncontested remarks and rulings established at many crucial points whose vision would be authorized as expert, and in what circumstances lay vision could take precedence over expert sight.
Neurosis and Delinquency in Children
Authors: Plutchik Robert
Published: March 2007

A discussion of the problems of neurotic and delin quent children. Their reactions are normally the opposite ends of the spectrum, with the "normal" child fitting in between. How to help both extremes to normalize.
Trends in Programs for Female Offenders: The Use of Private Agencies as Service Providers
Authors: Weisheit Ralph A.
Published: March 2007

A national survey of state-run prisons for women indicates that a growing number of nontraditional programs are being offered for female offenders. There was a surprisingly small role played by private agencies as service providers, despite a generally positive attitude toward such agencies by prison administrators and reported efforts by administrators to locate private agencies interested in providing programs. Reasons for this contradiction are discussed.
Treatment Environments in Secure Psychiatric Units: A Case Study
Authors: Fuller Julian R.
Published: March 2007

The recent development of regionally based interim andpurposebuilt secure psychiatric units in England and Wales is described, highlighting certain factors which are expected to influence their mode of operation. A case study of one such Interim Secure Unit is reported, using questionnaire measures of "social climate" to describe the evolving milieu in the new Unit from both staffs' and patients' perspectives. Comparisons across time, within staff and patient groups, and between secure settings, are effected to reveal the "character" of the treatment environment and discern practical implications for the operation of the Unit. It is argued that social climate measures offer a salient method for studying the evolution of these new forensic psychiatric facilities, whose idealform and comparative efficacy are as yet uncertain.
Reformatory Education in Chinese Society
Authors: Epstein Irving I.
Published: March 2007

This paper analyzes institutional procedures in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan and Hong Kong with respect to issues of offender and relative stigmatization, organizational rationality and educational quality. It argues that while current political orientations sharply influence the institutional culture in each of the areas surveyed, constructive solutions to common institutional problems remain elusive.
The Effectiveness of the Child Behavior Checklist in Identifying the Behavioral Patterns and Security Requirements of Juvenile Offenders
Authors: Brannon James M. , Williams Deborah
Published: March 2007

Since its publication the Child Behavior Checklist (Achenbach and Edelbrock, 1983) has been presented as a behavioral assessment helpful in distinguishing delinquency and emotional disturbance. This study investigated: 1) the capacity of this scale to profile the behavior of adolescent offenders; and 2) the relationship between the security of an individual's placement and the severity of their behavior. Statistical analysis of 244 behavioral ratings indicated the Checklist was successful in identifying behaviorally different subgroups of delinquent youth. The severity scores were not effective in differentiating the level of security to which the offenders were classified. The results are discussed in relation to both the treatment of individual youth and the adequacy of an agency's classification system.
A Typology of Presentence Probation Investigators
Authors: Rosecrance John
Published: March 2007

There is a lack of knowledge concerning the most basic of probation services-the presentence investigation. In order to develop an understanding of this service, a typology of probation officers who conduct these investigations is presented. An analysis of data, drawn from fifteen years of probation experience and qualitative interviewing of court personnel, revealed that officers use presentence reports to advance personal careers and individual perspectives. The usefulness of presentence investigations is questioned, as well as the willingness of the probation bureaucracy to provide an environment conducive to objective reporting.