bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Escherichia coli HtpG
Authors: Jakob U , Bardwell J C A
Published: November 2023

htpG was originally isolated based on hybridization to Drosophila hsp90 probes (Bardwell and Craig, 1987). htpG is located at 10.7 minutes on the E. coli chromosome. The nucleotide sequence of htpG (GenBank accession number M38777) predicts a protein that shares 40% amino acid identity with the eukaryotic members of the HSP90 family (Bardwell and Craig, 1987).
Saccharomyces cerevisiae Hsp90
Authors: Kimura Y , Lindquist S
Published: November 2023

The HSP90 gene family of Saccharomyces cerevisiae consists of two members, HSC82 (GenBank accession number M26044), HSP82 (GenBank accession number K01387) (Farrelly, Finkelstein, 1984; Borkovich et al., 1989). The genes encode products that are 97% identical to each other at the amino acid level, share 62% amino acid identity with human Hsp90. Although the genes are regulated differently, the Hsp82, Hsc82 proteins appear to have interchangeable functions (Borkovich et al., 1989).
Bacteriophage T4 Gp31 protein
Authors: Vies S M van der
Published: November 2023

The nucleotide sequence of the bacteriophage-encoded gene 31 (GenBank accession numbers M34502, X17657, X54536, M37882) predicts a polypeptide of 111 amino acids, with a calculated Mr of 12 064 daltons, a pl of 4.88 (Nivinskas, Black, 1988; Keppel et al., 1990; Prilipov, et al., 1990; Raudonikiene, Nivinskas, 1990).
Diacylglycerol kinase
Authors: Celio Marco R
Published: November 2023

Diacylglycerol kinase (DGK) reverses the normal flow of phospholipid biosynthesis by phosphory/ating diacylglycerol back to phosphatidic acid. DGK consists of a number of isozymes with different enzymological properties. The three isozymes so far sequenced, however, share highly conserved regions including two sets each of EF-hand and zinc finger structures. Despite structural similarities these isozymes are expressed markedly differently, depending on the cell types.
Grancalcin
Authors: Celio Marco R
Published: November 2023

Grancalcin is a 28 kDa EF-hand Ca2+-binding protein abundant in neutrophils and monocytes, and also present in Band T lymphocytes and the promyelocytic eel/ line HL60s. It is a cytoso/ic protein, but displays a Ca2+-dependent translocation to the granules and plasma membrane of neutrophils, suggesting that it might play an effector role in the specialized function of these cells.
Parvalbumin
Authors: Celio Marco R
Published: November 2023

Parvalbumin (PV) is a soluble Ca2+-binding protein found at highest concentration in fast contracting/re/axing muscle fibers of vertebrates. In the muscle PV is believed to facilitate the transfer of Ca2+from the myofibrils to the sarcop/asmic reticulum. PV is also found in certain neurons and subpopulations of cells in endocrine glands where its function has not been established.
Reticulocalbin
Authors: Celio Marco R
Published: November 2023

Reticulocalbin (RCN) is an endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-resident Ca2+-binding protein with six ff-hand motifs. In mouse and human it shows a ubiquitous expression pattern. Its hypothetical function in cells includes the regulation of Ca2+-dependent activities in the lumen of the ER or post-ER compartment.
Troponin C
Authors: Celio Marco R
Published: November 2023

Troponin C (TnC) is an EF-hand Cal+-binding protein that is a constitutive subunit of the troponin complex on the thin filament of striated muscle. Cyclic binding and release of Cal• from the N-terminal Cal•-binding sites of TnC regulates muscle contraction. There are two isoforms of TnC (see Fig. 1); one is expressed in fast skeletal muscle (sTnC), while another is expressed in cardiac and slow skeletal muscle (cTnC) (for reviews see Leavis and Gergely 1984; Collins 1991; Gergely et al. 1993). The molecular weights of human sTnC and cTnC are 18,102 and 18,382, respectively, with isoelectric points between 4.1 and 4.6. Troponin C, together with troponin I (Tnl) and troponin T (TnT), form the heterotrimer troponin complex which is bound to the thin filament of striated muscle near the overlap region between adjacent tropomyosin dimers.
Calmegin
Authors: Celio Marco R
Published: November 2023

Calmegin is a cytosolic Ca2+-binding protein abundant in specific stages of the development of male germ cells. Hypothetical functions in germ cells include Ca2+storage and molecular chaperoning. Mouse calmegin has a calculated molecular mass of 69 kDa, migrates on SOS-gels with an apparent molecular mass of 93 kDa and has an isoelectric point of 5.2. Calmegin has two sets of highly conserved repetitive amino acid sequences. One of them consists of four repeats of IPDPSAVKPEDWDD, and the other consists of four repeats of GEWXPPMIPNPXYQ. These repetitive sequences are also conserved in calnexin and calreticulin. Calmegin does not have domains containing EF-hand motifs.
Streptolysin (Streptococcus pyogenes)
Authors: Bhakdi S , Kehoe M , Valeva A , Weller U , Palmer M
Published: November 2023

Streptolysin O (SLO) is produced by beta-hemolytic streptococci. It belongs to the group of thiol-activated toxins, a large family of homologous cytolysins which are secreted by gram-positive bacteria and share extensive homology (Alouf and Geoffroy 1991). All of these toxins bind to cell membranes containing cholesterol and then polymerize to form pores of up to 35 nm diameter (Bhakdi et al. 1985). The largest stretch of homology among all known thiol-activated toxins is situated about 40 amino acids upstream of the (-terminus and contains the single cysteine residue of the molecule. Chemical modification of this cysteine residue abrogates the ability of the toxins to bind to cell membranes (Iwamoto et al. 1987); thus the (-terminus plays an essential role in binding. At present, no other features of toxin function could be clearly assigned to parts of the protein sequence. The SLO gene has been cloned and sequenced (Kehoe et al. 1987; data bank accession numbers: M18638, P21131).
Cholera toxin (Vibrio cholerae)
Authors: Pizza M , Fontana M R , Rappuoli R
Published: November 2023

CT is composed of two subunits, A and B, of 27 and 57.5 kDa respectively, held together by noncovalent interactions. The B subunit which contains the receptor binding site, is formed by five identical monomers, each of 11.5 kDa which assemble into a ring like oligomeric structure having a central hole. The CT receptor is the glycosfingolipid, GM1 ganglioside. The A subunit is composed of the enzymatically active A1 domain that is connected to the B subunit through the A2 domain, a long alpha helix inserted into the central hole of the B subunit (Fig. 1) (Rappuoli and Pizza 1991; Sixma et al. 1991a; Sixma et al. 1993; Merritt et al. 1994).
Heat-labile enterotoxins (Escherichia coli)
Authors: Holmes R K
Published: November 2023

The structure, function, and role in disease of the heatlabile enterotoxins (LT) of Escherichia coli have been recently reviewed (Hirst 1995; Hol et al. 1995; Holmes et al. 1995). Enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) that cause acute diarrhea in humans and animals produce plasmid¬ encoded LT-I, heat-stable toxin (ST), or both. ETEC from pigs and humans produce different antigenic variants of LT-I, respectively called LTp-I and LTh-1. LT-II-producing ETEC are isolated from animals and food but rarely from humans, and they have not yet been shown to cause diarrheal disease. Two antigenic variants of LT-II, designated LT-Ila and LT-llb have been characterized. A comparative analysis of database entries for the amino acid sequences of the A and B polypeptides of the recognized LT-I, LT-II, and CT variants, including correction of known errors in the published sequences, was recently reported (Domenighini et al. 1995). Original sources for the nucleotide sequences of genes that encode these toxins are cited in the same publication.
Exoenzyme C3 (Clostridium botulinum)
Authors: Lemichez E , Boquet P , Popoff M R
Published: November 2023

ADP-ribosylating toxins have proved to be valuable tools for studying their target proteins. The targets generally suffer important changes in function upon modification, and they become labelled when radioactive NAD is used. In this respect C3 has proved to be extremely useful in understanding the physiological role of the small GTP-binding protein Rho (Narumiya and Morii 1993; Hall 1994).
Introduction
Authors: Murphy J R
Published: November 2023

During the past decade there has been an enormous increase in our understanding of the structure-function relationships and molecular mechanism of action of many of the toxins that affect protein synthesis. The toxins considered in this section inhibit eukaryotic cellular protein synthesis either by the NAO+ dependent adenosine diphosphate ribosylation of elongation factor 2 or function as an N-glycosidase to remove adenine 4324 (A4324) from 28S rRNA which leads to an impaired ability of the ribosome to bind elongation factors. The X-ray crystal structure of ricin (Montfort et al. 1987; Rutenber et al. 1991), Pseudomonas exotoxin A (Allured et al. 1986), diphtheria toxin (Choe et al. 1992; Bennett et al. 1994), and Shiga toxin (Fraser et al. 1994) have been solved. Both crystallographic and biochemical genetic analysis have led to a detailed understanding of the adenosine diphosphate ribosyltransferase activity of diphtheria toxin and Pseudomonas exotoxin A (Collier 1990; Wick and lglewski 1990) and the N-glycosidase activity of ricin, Shiga toxin, and the plant derived ribosome-inactivating proteins (Jimenez and Vasquez 1985; Stirpe and Barbieri 1986). Most all of these toxins have been highly purified, and their respective genes have been cloned and sequenced. In addition, many of their respective enzymatically active fragments or chains have been employed in the assembly of immunotoxins by the chemical crosslinking of the catalytic domains of either a bacterial or plant toxin to a monoclonal antibody (Ghetie and Vitetta 1994). More recently, recombinant DNA and protein engineering methods have been used to create chimeric genes in which the native receptor binding domain of either diphtheria toxin or Pseudomonas exotoxin A have been genetically substituted with one of a variety of genes encoding a polypeptide ligand that is directed toward a specific cell surface receptor or antigenic determinant on the target cell surface (for reviews see Kreitman and Pastan 1994; Murphy et al. 1995).
Shiga toxins (Shigella dysenteriae serotype 1, Escherichia coli)
Authors: Melton-Cels A R , O’Brien A
Published: November 2023

The Shiga toxins (also known as verotoxins) comprise a family of toxins that inhibit protein synthesis in intoxicated cells (for reviews see O’Brien and Holmes 1987; O’Brien et al. 1992; Obrig 1994). The holotoxin consists of an A polypeptide (Mr 32 000) that has N-glycosidase activity which removes a single adenine residue from the 28 S rRNA (the same mode of action is found in the plant toxin ricin), and a pentamer of B polypeptides (Mr 7700 each) that confers specificity for the eukaryotic cell receptor, globotriaosylceramide or Gb3 (Lingwood 1993). Toxin entry into the eukaryotic cell occurs via receptor-mediated endocytosis with subsequent routing of the toxin from the transgolgi through the endoplasmic reticulum to the cytosol (Sandvig and Deurs 1994). The A subunit contains a trypsin cleavage site near the (-terminus, but the importance of this nicking site for cytotoxicity is still under investigation.
Ricin (Ricinus communis)
Authors: Sandvig K
Published: November 2023

Ricin is synthesized in the endosperm cells of Ricinus communis seeds, and there are various isoforms with molecular weights of 63-66 kDa. The molecule is glycosylated (for review, see Barbieri et al. 1993; Lord et al. 1994). The ricin gene codes for a preprotoxin molecule which is processed in the plant (preproricin D: 576 amino acids, GenBank accession no. X52908). The leader sequence of ricin D has 35 amino acid residues, and the interchain linker between the two chains has 12 amino acids (Lord et al. 1994). The mature form of ricin D (Fig. 1) has an A-chain with 267 amino acids and a B-chain with 262 residues.
α-Sarcin and related toxins (Aspergillus)
Authors: Gasset M
Published: November 2023

Aspergillins are a family of toxic extracellular fungal ribonucleases displaying a high amino acid sequence homology (Table 1). a-Sarcin, mitogillin, and restrictocin were discovered and characterized as antitumoral agents displaying in vivo cytotoxity (Olson and Goerner 1965; Goldin et al. 1966). However, their clinical use was hampered since they revealed to be too toxic (Roga et al. 1971). Asp fl was recently discovered as an lgE-binding protein involved in the pathogenesis of invasive aspergillosis (Arruda et al. 1990; Lamy et al. 1991).
Anthrax lethal toxin (Bacillus anthracis)
Authors: Hanna P C , Collier R J
Published: November 2023

Anthrax lethal toxin (LeTx) induces shock and sudden death in test animals, mimicking the symptoms of systemic anthrax infections (eppla 1991; Hanna et al. 1993). Bacterial strains lacking either of the two LeTx components are highly attenuated, and immunization against the toxin protects animals from 8. anthracis challenge (Cataldi et al. 1990; Pezard et al. 1991; Turnbull 1991).
Botulinum neurotoxin type C (Clostridium botulinum)
Authors: Herreros J , Blasi J
Published: November 2023

Botulinum neurotoxin C (BoNT/C} is one of the seven neurotoxins produced by the anaerobic bacteria Clostridium botulinum, and are responsible for the flaccid paralysis characteristic of botulism. Its structural gene is located on the genome of bacteriophages (GenBank accession number X53751), which produce a 150 kDa protein of 1290 amino acids (Swiss-Prot accession number P18640) responsible for the neurotoxigenicity of the strain (Eklund et al. 1989).
μ-Conotoxins (Conus geographus)
Authors: Cruz L J
Published: November 2023

μ-Conotoxins are small basic peptides that inhibit the action potential of skeletal muscle by blocking voltagegated sodium channels (Cruz et al. 1985; Gray et al. 1988). Three major homologues and four minor under hydroxylated forms (see Table 1) have been found in the venom of the most dangerous Conus species, C. geographus (Sato et al. 1983; Cruz et al. 1985). The peptides contain 22 amino acid residues including three hydroxyprolines and six cysteines. The presence of several Lys and Arg residues renders μ-conotoxins highly positive: a charge of +6 in GIIIA and +7 in GIIIB and GIIIC. The major peptide is μ-conotoxin GIIIA or geographutoxin I; μ-conotoxin GIIIB (geographutoxin II) and μ-conotoxin GIIIC occur in smaller amounts. The minor forms appear to be the post-translational processing intermediates of GIIIA and GIIIB, which contain proline instead of hydroxyproline at either position 6 or 7.
Anemone toxins (type II)
Authors: Norton R S
Published: November 2023

Sea anemones produce a family of closely related cardioactive and neurotoxic polypeptides having molecular masses of approximately 5 kDa. These toxins have been classified into two groups, type I toxins from the family Actiniidae (Actinia sp. and Anthopleura sp.) and type II toxins from the family Stichodactylidae (Heteractis sp. and Stichodactyla sp.) (Kem 1988). The amino acid sequences of several type II toxins are shown in Fig. 1.These two classes of toxin are similar with respect to the locations of their disulfide bridges and a number of residues thought to play a role in biological activity or maintenance of the tertiary structure, but they are distinguishable on the basis of sequence similarity (> 60 per cent within each type, but < 30 per cent between the two types) and immunological crossreactivity. Some of the distinguishing features of the type II toxins are a triplet of acidic residues at positions 6-8, an extension of basic residues at the (-terminus, and the substitution of acidic or polar residues for the aromatic residues at positions 22 and 42 in the type I toxins. Other toxins have been isolated which do not fall neatly into either class.
Sea anemone potassium channel toxins
Authors: Pennington M W , Kem W R , Karlsson E
Published: November 2023

During screening for dendrotoxin-like compounds in marine organisms, extracts of several sea anemones were found to inhibit the binding of 125I-dendrotoxin I, a probe for voltage dependent potassium channels, to rat brain synaptosomal membranes (Harvey et al. 1991; Karlsson et al. 1991). Two toxins were later isolated from Carib¬ bean sea anemones, ShK toxin from Stichodactyla helianthus (Karlsson et al. 1992; Aneiros et al. 1993; Castaneda et al. 1995) and BgK toxin from Bunodosoma granulifera (Karlsson et al. 1992). More recently, another toxin has been isolated from Anemonia sulcata, which we refer to here as AsK toxin (Schweitz et al. 1995). These toxins are known to block voltage-dependent potassium channels.
ω-Agatoxins (Agelenopsis aperta)
Authors: Norris T M , Adams M E
Published: November 2023

ω-Aga-lA (7791 Da) is a 69 amino acid (Table 1) heterodimeric peptide composed of a 66 amino acid major chain and a three amino acid minor chain connected by a disulfide bond (Adams et al. 1990; Santos et al. 1992). The major chain contains four internal disulfide bonds. N-terminal amino acid sequences of ω-Aga-1B and IC indicate that they have related structures (Adams et al. 1990). ω-Aga-lA blocks presynaptic calcium channels at the insect neuromuscular junction and calcium action potentials in insect neurosecretory neurons (Bindokas and Adams 1989; Bindokas et al. 1991). Calcium channel currents in rat dorsal root ganglion neurons are also blocked by ω-Aga-lA (Scott et al. 1990).
Taicatoxin (Oxyuranus scutelatus scutelatus)
Authors: possani L D
Published: November 2023

Taicatoxin (TCX) is a complex oligomeric toxin isolated from the venom of the Australian taipan snake Oxyuranus scutelatus scutelatus. It contains three different active components: an a-neurotoxin-like peptide with a mol. wt of 8 kDa, a phospholipase of mol. wt 16 kDa, and a serine protease inhibitor of mol. wt 7 kDa, joined by noncovalent bonds, at an approximate stoichiometry of 1:1:4, respectively. The most active form is composed of these three peptides, although the phospholipase and the neurotoxin-like peptides are toxic by themselves.
α-Cobratoxin (Naja kaouthia)
Authors: Menez A , Servent D
Published: November 2023

The cobras (Elapidae) form a group of snakes that are wide-spread in Africa and Asia (Harding and Welsh 1980). Their venoms contain various types of toxins to subdue prey. These include toxins, called α-neurotoxins or curaremimetic toxins, that recognize the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (AchRs), causing flaccid paralysis and hence respiratory failure. They are basic proteins classified as long-chain toxins with 66-72 amino acids and 4/5 disulfides, and short-chain toxins with 60-62 amino acids and four disulfides. The snake Naja kaouthia, previously named Naja naja kaouthia or Naja naja siamensis, is largely distributed in India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Burma, Thailand, Vietnam, and south-west China.
Helothermine (Heloderma horridum horridum)
Authors: Becerril B , Pardo L , Possani L D
Published: November 2023

Helothermine (HLTX) is a toxin isolated from the venom of the Mexican beaded lizard He/oderma horridum horridum (Mochca-Morales et al. 1990). It is synthesized as a single chain polypeptide precursor of 242 amino acid residues including a signal peptide of 19 residues (Morrissette et al. 1995). One of its remarkable characteristics (mature toxin of 223 residues and a mol. wt of 25.5 kDa) is the high content of cysteine residues (16, with 10 of them located within the last 54 carboxy-terminal residues). It has an isoelectric point (pl) of 6.8, and among the observed effects in mice injected with this toxin are: lethargy, partial paralysis of rear limbs, and lowering of body temperature (Mochca-Morales et al. 1990). This hypothermic effect gave us the idea to call it helothermine, from Heloderma and hypothermic.
Palytoxin (Corals of the spp. Palythoa)
Authors: Habermann E
Published: November 2023

Palytoxin (MW about 2670) occurs in several Pa/ythoa species. It is unknown whether they produce the toxin or acquire it from symbiotic organisms. The heat-resistant toxin is also found in crabs and fish, which possibly take it up with their food. Its unique structure (Cha et al. 1982) has been synthesized (Armstrong et al. 1989) and its stereochemistry (Moore et al. 1982) determined (Fig.1).
α-Actinins
Authors: Flood David R Critchley,Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

α-Actinin displays homology with erythroid and non-erythroid spectrins, dystrophin, and utrophin. These proteins all share a similar domain structure, with an N-terminal actin-binding domain, a variable number of triple α-helical spectrin-like repeats, and a pair of C-terminal EF hands. The actin-binding domain of α-actinin is homologous to that in filamin, fimbrin, and ABP 120, and there is a more limited match with the N-terminal domain of calponin.
Actolinkin
Authors: Mabuchi I
Published: November 2023

Actolinkin has an amino acid sequence very similar but not identical to 45 kDa actin-severing protein of seaurchin eggs which belongs to the fragmin/gelsolin family of proteins.
IFAP 300
Authors: Skalli Omar
Published: November 2023

IFAP 300 is a 300 kDa intermediate filament-associated protein which, in vitro, binds to and cross-links intermediate filaments (IF). In fibroblasts, the distribution of IFAP 300 is similar to that of vimentin IF, while in epithelial cells IFAP 300 associates with keratin IF at the site where they anchor into desmosomes and hemidesmosomes. This suggests that IFAP 300 serves cell-type specific functions, such as organizing IF into a three-dimensional network in fibroblasts, and connecting IF to desmosomes and hemidesmosomes in epithelial cells.
Kinesin, bipolar
Authors: Ray Krishanu , Goldstein Lawrence S B
Published: November 2023

Members of the Kin N bipolar class of kinesin motors have been identified from a variety of species including yeasts, Aspergillus, Drosophila, and Xenopus. All of these proteins have the motor domain at the N terminus, associate with spindle microtubules during mitosis, and appear to be involved in centrosome movement and spindle formation. A native Drosophila homologue (KRP130) has been purified as a bipolar homotetramer and moves towards the plus end of microtubules.
Kinesin, orphan
Authors: Philp Alastair Valentine , Goldstein Lawrence S B
Published: November 2023

‘Orphan’ kinesin refers to members of the kinesin superfamily which do not align closely to other kinesin classes based upon their motor domain sequences. Here, four kinesin orphans CENP-E, MKLP-1, nod, and kid are described, all of which appear to have important functions in chromosome segregation during mitosis or meiosis. Proposed sites of action for each of these four proteins are shown in Fig. 1.
Myosin IX
Authors: Bahler Martin
Published: November 2023

Class IX myosins have been implicated in the negative regulation of signal transduction by Rho, a Ras-related GTPase. Their myosin head domains exhibit, in comparison to other myosins, an N-terminal extension and an insertion at a myosin-actin contact site.
Myosin heavy chain kinases
Authors: Egelhoff Thomas T , Coté Graham P
Published: November 2023

Several classes of myosin heavy chain (MHC) kinases have been identified in various systems. For this review, we will focus on two distinct groups of myosin kinases, myosin II heavy chain kinase A (MHCK A} from Dictyostelium and related enzymes, and myosin I heavy chain kinase (MIHCK), identified in Dictyostelium and other systems. The interactions of broad specificity kinases such as protein kinase C (PKC) and CAM kinase ti with myosin have been reviewed elsewhere1 and will not be addressed here. Another myosin kinase not discussed here is the ‘PKC-MHCK’ from Dictyostelium, which appears to contain a catalytic domain related to PKC and a distinct catalytic domain related to diacylglycerol kinases. This latter enzyme appears to participate in myosin localization control during Dictyostelium chemotaxis.
Kinectin
Authors: McGoldrick Carol , Sheetz Michael
Published: November 2023

Kinectin is a protein found on the surface of vesicles that interacts with the intracellular motor kinesin. Monoclonal antibodies directed against kinectin inhibit microtubule-based motility in vitro. By linking microsomal membranes to the microtubule-motor system via its interaction with kinesin, kinectin may be responsible for the maintenance of organelle location and function within the cell.
Comitin
Authors: Noegel Angelika A
Published: November 2023

Comitin was first purified from Dictyostelium discoideum membranes based on its ability to bind to radiolabelled F- and G-actin. It is a highly basic protein (p/ = 9.6) encompassing 185 amino acids with a calculated molecular mass of 20 697 Da and does not contain a transmembrane domain nor extended hydrophobic regions.
Gephyrin
Authors: Kirsch Joachim , Betz Heinrich
Published: November 2023

Gephyrin was originally identified as a peripheral membrane protein of 93 kDa, which copurifies with the -mammalian inhibitory glycine receptor upon affinity chromatography.8-10 lmmunoelectron microscopy locates gephyrin to the cytoplasmic face of glycinergic postsynaptic membranes in spinal cord, brain, and retina.
α-Catenin
Authors: Kemler Rolf
Published: November 2023

Originally a-catenin was identified in immunoprecipitation experiments as a 102 kDa protein coprecipitating with antibodies against E-cadherin. Primary structure analysis of α-catenin revealed homology to vinculin, a protein first described as a component of focal adhesions, and suggested the existence of a vinculin-related family of proteins that mediates cytoplasmic anchorage of cell—cell and cell-substrate adhesion molecules to the cytoskeleton. There are three regions of homology, an N-terminal, a central and a C-terminal domain; in vinculin these domains have been shown to contain binding sites for talin, α-actinin, paxillin, and actin. Initial biochemical analysis has already indicated that α-catenin represents the key component for linking the cadherin adhesion complex to the actin filament network.
Drosophila actin-associated proteins: Bottleneck, Nullo, and Serendipity-α
Authors: Hunter C , Wieschaus E
Published: November 2023

Bottleneck (Bnk) is a 303 amino acid basic (p/ = 10.7) protein, with no striking motifs or homologies. It is expressed during early stages of Drosophila embryogenesis, when it is required during cellularization.1 Prior to cellularization, Bnk protein is found at the surface of the embryo, and localizes to the transient furrows formed during mitosis. In the early stages of cellularization, Bnk colocalizes with the hexagonal actin array which forms at the cellularization front. During this stage, weak cytoplasmic staining is also detectable. Bnk protein is lost from the cellularization front as the actin network rearranges to form an array of rings during the late stages of cellularization. No Bnk protein is detectable by the completion of cellularization.
Fascin
Authors: Tubb Benjamin , Bryan Joseph
Published: November 2023

55 kDa actin-bundling protein, hsn (human fascin). Retinal fascin is a closely related photoreceptor-specific isoform of fascin identified in rat, bovine, and human tissue. A distantly related, testis-specific fascin homologue has also been identified.
Hisactophilin
Authors: Schleicher Michael
Published: November 2023

Hisactophilin was detected by the gel overlay technique with iodinated actin using a Dictyostelium extract that was enriched in plasma membranes. About 50 per cent of hisactophilin molecules are bound to the inner surface of the plasma membrane, the other half is found in the cytoplasm. The binding of the protein to F-actin is pH dependent, which is in good agreement with the peculiar amino acid sequences that contain more than 30 mol per cent of histidine residues.
Small actin cross-linking proteins
Authors: Fechheimer Marcus
Published: November 2023

Small actin cross-linking proteins are polypeptides with Mr <35 000 that cross-fink actin filaments into either isotropic (gel) or anisotropic (bundle) arrays. These proteins are found in Dictyostefium and Physarum as well as in higher eukaryotes. Localization in the cortical cytoskeleton, phagocytic cup, cleavage furrow, and cell contact sites suggests a general role in control of actin filament arrays. Initial results from gene disruption experiments in Dictyostelium suggests partial redundancy among distinct highly conserved families of actin cross-linking proteins.
Talin
Authors: Critchley David R
Published: November 2023

Talin is a high molecular weight protein localized in adherens-type junctions with the extracellular matrix (ECM), although it is also localized at the junctions between T-he/per and antigen presenting cells. Ta/in binds in vitro to the cytoplasmic domains of the integrin family of extracellular matrix receptors, to vinculin, actin, and the protein tyrosine kinase pp 125FAK.It has been proposed to be one of several proteins linking actin filament bundles to the cytoplasmic face of integrins.
Thymosin β4
Authors: Safer Daniel , Nachmias Vivianne T
Published: November 2023

There is good agreement that increasing T,β4 by microinjection or by transient transfection leads to disassembly of stress fibre bundles in NRK, PtK2, and CV1 cells (see Fig. 1 for a living PtK2 cell), and micro-injection at high concentrations also leads to disappearance of submembranous F-actin and relaxation of the cytokinetic furrow,15 This is what would be expected if the added β4 thymosin were acting in vivo to further sequester G-actin.
Transgelin
Authors: Lawson Durward
Published: November 2023

Transgelin (Tg) is a transformation and shape-change sensitive actin-associated protein found uniformly distributed on actin filament bundles in normal mesenchymal cells. Tg is evolutionarily conserved as far back as yeast but is absent in erythrocytes, skeletal muscle, motile cells such as lymphocytes, and transformed mesenchymal cells.
Tropomodulin
Authors: Fowler Velia M , Conley Catharine A
Published: November 2023

Tropomodulin (Tmod) is a ∼40 kDa tropomyosin- and actin-binding protein that is associated with the slow growing (pointed) ends of stable, tropomyosin-coated actin filaments in muscle and non-muscle cells. In vitro and in vivo data indicate that Tmod functions to cap the pointed ends of tropomyosin-actin filaments and prevent them from growing or shrinking. In vertebrates, at least three Tmod isotypes and one Tmod-related protein exist which are expressed in a tissue-specific and developmentally regulated fashion. Tmod is a member of a new and rapidly growing family of related proteins with representatives in vertebrates, flies, and worms.
Troponin
Authors: Gergely John , Grabarek Zenon , Tao Terence
Published: November 2023

Troponin (Tn) (for reviews see refs 1-6) is a complex of three subunits: troponin C (TnC), troponin I (Tnl), and troponin T (TnT); together with tropomyosin (TM) it constitutes the Ca2+- dependent regulatory machinery located in the actin filaments of striated muscle. The binding of Ca2+, released in vivo from the sarcoplasmic reticulum upon stimulation of the muscle, to TnC induces conformational change in that subunit, and the effect is transmitted to the other thin filament components. This results in the activation of actomyosin ATPase and, in vivo, force development and shortening of muscle fibres.
MAP4
Authors: Olmsted Joanna B
Published: November 2023

Moderate overall sequence similarity; similar acididbasic amino acid profile; strong sequence similarity with the highly conserved amino terminus and with one repeat within the basic domain; widespread distribution in chicken tissues.
Radial spoke proteins
Authors: Diener Dennis R , Rosenbaum Joel L
Published: November 2023

Much of the analysis of radial spokes has been carried out in the biflagellate alga Chlamydomonas, in which several mutants with immotile flagella have been found to be deficient in radial spokes.
α/β-Tubulins
Authors: Caplow Michael , Nogales, Eva , Downing Kenneth H
Published: November 2023

Microtubule protein refers to the mixture of tubulin and proteins that bind to microtubules (MAPs) and copurify with tubulin.

There is no clear homology between tubulin and any known eukaryotic protein, but there is limited sequence homology with bacterial FtsZ, a protein that assembles into protofilament-like structures in vitro.
Tubulin-specific chaperones
Authors: Lewis Sally A , Cowan Nicholas J
Published: November 2023

Tubulin-specific chaperone A has also been termed p14.11 Homologues of chaperones A (RBL2), 12 B (ALF1), 8 D (CIN1), 13 and E (PAC2)14 exist in S. cerevisiae. There is no discernable homologue of chaperone C in S. cerevisiae, although homologues of this chaperone exist in distantly related eukaryotes (e.g. Arabidopsis, C. elegans).
XMAP215
Authors: Cassimeris Lynne , Gard David L
Published: November 2023

Gel filtration and ultracentrifugation indicate that purified XMAP215 is an elongated monomer, with a sedimentation coefficient of approximately 5 S.
XMAP310
Authors: Andersen Søren S L
Published: November 2023

XMAP310 was identified as a high-molecular weight MAP copurifying with XMAP230 (see Fig. 1 in the chapter about XMAP230). The relative molecular weight of 31 O kDa was determined on 4 per cent SDS-polyacrylamide gels on the basis of the migration properties of brain MAP1 B (325 kDa) and XMAP230.
CP190/CP60
Authors: Oegema Karen , Alberts Bruce M
Published: November 2023

Consistent with its double identity as both a nuclear and a centrosomal protein, CP190 was independently identified as the antigen recognized by a monoclonal antibody from a bank raised to Drosophila nuclei,7,8 and as a microtubule-binding protein that localizes to Drosophila centrosomes.
Evolutionary aspects of IF proteins
Authors: Weber Klaus
Published: November 2023

Extensive work on cytoplasmic intermediate filament (IF) proteins of vertebrates has established a very complex multigene family with close to 50 members in a mammal. These proteins include IF types I to IV as well as additional species. Variability arises primarily from the N- and C-terminal head and tail domains but also from the central α-helical rod domain, which, except for its ends, preserves sequence principles rather than actual sequences. In spite of such differences the helix 1B subdomain keeps a constant length in all cytoplasmic IF proteins so far characterized from vertebrates. In contrast, in nuclear lamins, a special subtype (type V) of IF proteins, from both vertebrates and invertebrates, the length of helix 1B is increased by six heptads or 42 residues. Recent evidence shows that the long helix 1B form is also characteristic of the cytoplasmic IF proteins of various protostomic animals.H Thus in metazoan evolution the long helix 1B form was changed by a deletion to the short helix 1B version prior to the diversification into types I to IV. Current results suggest that this deletion occurred either with the deuterostomic branch or prior to the chordates. Sequence comparisons further suggest that cytoplasmic IF proteins arose possibly from a mutated lamin early in evolution.
World Travel
Authors: Higgins Peter M
Published: November 2023

The story of mathematics is a big story that began thousands of years ago when people first began to count their livestock or measure the extent of a field. Since that time the mathematical character of the world has revealed itself at every turn. For those who seek the truth, mathematics opens a doorway to understanding that is both deep and undeniable and those trying to comprehend the physical world cannot but be impressed by its effectiveness. All of us are naturally intrigued by anything genuinely interesting or surprising and mathematics will always score highly in that regard. At the same time however we can be intimidated by the uncompromising nature of the subject but, be assured, this is everyone’s experience. One of the bonuses of living in our own age is that it is possible to understand matters that were a complete mystery to even the most learned and brilliant of our ancestors. The mind of a modern person can be much more powerful than the minds of past generations because we have at our disposal enlightening ideas and techniques that let us comprehend all manner of subjects, not only in broad principle but often in fine, practical detail. This is a rewarding privilege and one that is well worth making use of from time to time.
For Connoisseurs
Authors: Higgins Peter M
Published: November 2023

This final chapter gives some of the mathematical details that do not appear in the body of the text. Repetition of core school and university mathematics is not the purpose of a book like this one but some of these details are interesting and may not be quite so easy to find in a standard textbook, so they are outlined here for the benefit of readers who want a hard look. This is not meant to be only for experts though. There is some variability in the level of difficulty of the explanation and any interested reader should be able to gain by sampling from this chapter.
Explaining the universe
Authors: Rees Martin
Published: November 2023

In August 1999, a solar total eclipse was visible from England – the first such event since 1927. I viewed it from Cornwall, through intermittent cloud. It was an ‘environmental’ experience shared with thousands of new age cultists, astrologers, and the like – I wasn’t carrying out any scientific measurements. But it set me thinking about the scope and limits of science, and particularly the distinction between prediction, explanation, and understanding.

Eclipses could be predicted (at least approximately) even in ancient times. Throughout most of the first millennium bc, the Babylonians systematically recorded celestial events on cuneiform tablets, thousands of which are now in the British Museum. These records stretched over a long enough timespan to reveal subtle patterns – particularly the 18-year Saros cycle – which could be extrapolated forward to yield the dates when future eclipses were likely. This feat required no insight into how the sun and moon actually moved – only a faith in the regularity of nature.
What is it not like to be a brain?
Authors: McGinn Colin
Published: November 2023

Materialism is the thesis that facts about the mind are entirely reducible to facts about the brain. To be in pain, say, is to have one’s C-fibres firing or for this brain state to realize a physically defined functional role. The usual objection to materialism, expressed in many different forms, is that it fails to do justice to the nature of the mind; it omits or distorts the distinctive character of mental phenomena. In this paper I shall not be pressing this objection to materialism. Instead, I shall invert the standard objection and argue that materialism fails to do justice to the nature of matter; it omits or distorts the distinctive character of physical phenomena. The symmetry of identity will play a crucial role in this argument.
From explanation to interpretation in social anthropology
Authors: Goody Jack
Published: November 2023

Let me begin by posing the question of the difference between explanation and interpretation. Explanation attempts to answer the ‘why’ question. That seems to me a general question posed in all human societies as a result of the interaction between language-using animals and their environment; answers differ, some we call myth, others history, others explanation, but the questioning remains. Interpretation involves finding an alternative way of putting things, often attempting to interpret events from the standpoint of the actors. A whole school of sociology, that associated with the name of the great German sociologist, Max Weber, and called by him verstehen, claims to be involved in ‘interpretative sociology’, in understanding what the actor meant, in intentionality, rather than in seeking explanations (even as a preliminary). There was, if you like, a shift from science to ethnoscience, validated in its own terms.
Renaissance and Reformation: Literature 1510—1620
Authors: Sanders Andrew
Published: November 2023

Although not one of them spoke Welsh, the five English monarchs of the Tudor dynasty were inclined to insist on the significance of their Welsh origins. For propaganda purposes they were pronounced to be princes of ancient British descent who had returned to claim King Arthur’s throne and to restore the promised dignity and prestige of Camelot. It was, however, under the Tudor dynasty (1485-16o3) that the modem English language emerged and with it a firm sense of England as a nation state. With the accession of James VI of Scotland as James I of England in 1603 that sense of national consciousness was extended to embrace the entire island of Britain. When Calais, the last relic of English domination of France and the symbol of Edward Ill’s victory at Crecy and Henry V’s at Agincourt, fell in January 1558 its loss finally exposed the hollowness of the Plantagenet claim to the French Crown. It also, willingly, enforced the idea of the insular sovereignty of the Tudors and of their Stuart successors.
The Literature of the Romantic Period 1780—1830
Authors: Sanders Andrew
Published: November 2023

‘MY temper is not very susceptible of enthusiasm, and the enthusiasm which I do not feel I have ever scorned to affect’, Edward Gibbon noted of himself in his Memoirs of My Life and Writings (posthumously printed in 1827). Never the less, when Gibbon (1737-94) recalled his first sight of the city of Rome some twenty-five years after the event, he admitted to having been troubled by strong emotions which had agitated his mind and which had led to a sleepless night and to ‘several days of intoxication’ before he could bring himself ‘to descend to a cool and minute investigation’ of the historic objects that he had come to Rome to study. Gibbon, the greatest English historian of the eighteenth century and the supremely reasonable and sceptical product of the European Enlightenment, felt obliged to confess to the kind of ‘enthusiasm’ which he scorned. His emotional excitement on seeing Rome may also suggest the degree to which he was the product of a culture which had come, not simply to appreciate the significance of’ sensibility’, but actively to indulge it.
High Victorian Literature 1830—1880
Authors: Sanders Andrew
Published: November 2023

A Great deal of Victorian intellectual effort was spent in trying to hold together a universe which was exploding. It was an age of conflicting explanations and theories, of scientific and economic confidence and of social and spiritual pessimism, of a sharpened awareness of the inevitability of progress and of deep disquiet as to the nature of the present. Traditional solutions, universally acknowledged truths, and panaceas were generally dis covered to be wanting, and the resultant philosophical and ideological tensions are evident in the literature of the period from Carlyle’s diatribes of the 1830s and Dickens’s social novels of the 1840s to Arnold’s speculations of the 1870s and Morris’s socialist prophecies of the 1880s, from the troubled early poetry of Tennyson to the often dazzled theology of Hopkins.
Rural Settlement in Europe, 400—1500
Authors: Roberts B K
Published: November 2023

Within the complex demographic, historical, and environmental forces which have swept the continent since the collapse of Roman power in the west four principal themes can be defined, namely: continuity, the sustaining of elements derived from older orders into new arrangements; colonization, involving folk movements, the intaking of new lands, and state-building; cataclysm, the impact of rapid and sometimes devastating changes; and finally the emergence of new economic systems as population increased and as trade and other linkages expanded and strengthened, processes involving the transition from economies heavily based upon subsistence to others incorporating a large amount of industry and trade. within these immense contexts, all European settlement patterns and forms have been subject to long-sustained mechanisms of generation, usage, change, and destruction. Across the broad face of a whole continent and throughout the thousand years before 1500 we are faced with almost unimaginable complexity resulting from interactions between these four themes. They underlie the elements of the distribution map appearing as Fig. 4.1, a map which will be used to bind the discussion together.
The Changing Cultural Geography of Europe since 1500
Authors: Mead W R
Published: November 2023

The outward and visible signs of European civilization are in its cultural features—its arts, learning, architecture, institutions. The inner and spiritual signs are in their values and meanings. Major changes in the character of these features throughout most of Europe date from about 1500—the time of the High Renaissance. New concepts of the natural world, new technologies, and new means of expression modified the intellectual climate. Changes took place against the background of a Europe which consisted of an old-established mosaic of relatively small political units—city-states, principalities, and countries (or provinces) which were in general identified by the names of their inhabitants and by the languages which they spoke rather than by the precise territories which they occupied. It was a Europe with few formal political boundaries and in which the concept of the nation had yet to develop.
Rural Europe since 1500: Areas of Retardation and Tradition
Authors: Whyte I D
Published: November 2023

This chapter considers areas of retardation and tradition in Europe where change occurred belatedly and often incompletely compared with the regions discussed in Chapter 10. Indeed, the belated modernization in many such areas necessitates a different focus from Chapter 10, giving greater consideration to the period after 1914. Although they were disadvantaged in terms of remote locations and harsh, limiting physical environments, defining them is not easy as such criteria were relative rather than absolute (Fig. One dear group of regions were those of northern Europe: Iceland, Finland, and most of Norway and Sweden. Another forms the Atlantic periphery of Europe: the Faeroes, the west Iiighlands and Islands of Scotland, western Ireland, Brittany, and north-western Iberia. Here, climate and topography are often less harsh but maritime conditions generally favour livestock-rearing rather than cereal cultivation. A third category compri5es the mountain environments of continental Europe ranging from the Spanish sierras through the Pyrenees and the Alps to the Apennines and the ranges of eastern Europe. Finally, there are the problem regions of the Mediterranean.
Multidimensional Environmental Information Systems
Authors: Camara Anrfonio S
Published: November 2023

As shin in Chapter 2, environmental data have distinct features. Gunther (1998) discussed some of these features in the context of environmental data management: Environmental data have large storage requirements. Just the environ mentally related satellite data produced vmrldwide alone is at the level of a terabyte a day.
Towards Interactive Environmental Movies
Authors: Camara Anrfonio S
Published: November 2023

Korolenko (1997) maintains there is no such thing as an interactive movie. No one is interested in sitting in a theatre and pressing a button whenever there is a menu of choices. Traditional movies are, for Korolenko, a much more attractive proposition. However, Altman and Nakatsu (1997), in their introduction to interactive movies, lead one to believe that there may be successful interactive movies on environmental problems. Interactive movies, in Altman and Nakatsu terms, are viewed as being interactive stories, interactive experiences bet,veen actors and audience and/or as having interactive movie actors.
Robert Schumann (1810–1856)
Authors: Phillips Lois
Published: November 2023

Each morning I rise and ask: Will my sweetheart come today? Each evening I sink into bed downcast: today, too, she stayed away.

All night I lie awake, sleepless with sorrow. All day I wander in a dream, half in sleep.

I am driven here, driven there—in a few hours I will see her, the fairest of the fair! Poor heart, how violently you throb!

The hours are such a lazy crowd; dawdling in their comfortable and idle way, they creep along yawning. Hurry yourselves, you laggards!