bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Metaphysics for the Mob
Authors: Roberts John Russell
Published: May 2007

George Berkeley notoriously claimed that his immaterialist metaphysics was not only consistent with common sense, but that it was also integral to its defense. This book argues that understanding the basic connection between Berkeley's philosophy and common sense requires a better understanding of the four principle components of Berkeley's positive metaphysics: the nature of being, the divine language thesis, the active/passive distinction, and the nature of spirits. This book begins by focusing on Berkeley's view of the nature of being. It elucidates Berkeley's view on Locke and the Cartesians, and examines Berkeley's views about related concepts such as unity and simplicity. From there, it moves on to Berkeley's philosophy of language, arguing that scrutiny of the famous Introduction to the Principles of Human Knowledge reveals that Berkeley identified the ideational theory of meaning and understanding as the root cause of some of the worst of humanity's intellectual errors, not abstract ideas. Abstract ideas are, rather, the most debilitating symptom of this underlying ailment. In place of the ideational theory, Berkeley defends a rudimentary use theory of meaning. This understanding of Berkeley's approach to semantics is then applied to the divine language thesis and is shown to have important consequences for Berkeley's pragmatic approach to the ontology of natural objects and for his approach to our knowledge of, and relation to, other minds, including God's. Turning next to Berkeley's much maligned account of spirits, the book defends the coherence of Berkeley's view of spirits by way of providing an interpretation of the active/passive distinction as marking a normative distinction and by focusing on the role that divine language plays in letting Berkeley identify the soul with the will. With these four principles of Berkeley's philosophy in hand, the book returns to the topic of common sense and offers a defense of Berkeley's philosophy as built upon, and expressive of, the deepest metaphysical commitments of mainstream Christianity.
Agency and Occasionalism
Authors: Roberts John Russell
Published: May 2007

This chapter applies the various interpretive tools developed in the previous chapters to the question of the relationship between Berkeley's metaphysics and occasionalism. It is widely believed that Berkeley's own views on human and divine agency imply a commitment to some form of occasionalism. This chapter makes plain just how deeply incompatible Berkeley's views and occasionalism are, and shows how difficult it is within Berkeley's metaphysics to raise the sort of problems that motivate occasionalism in the first place.
Prophecy and Sociology of Religion
Authors: Hvidt Niels Christian
Published: May 2007

The reality and truth of divine revelation is realized most of all in the lived faith of the church. It is here that prophecy has played its most significant role. Prophets are not called mainly to change tradition but to enliven it. Alessandro Toniolo's reception of the works of Victor Turner provides a deeper insight in the way this occurs. According to the modality of structure, antistructure, and restructurization, the inner dynamism of prophecy is such that it may lead people to new ways of realizing and living the core of Christian faith. In doing so, they may appear as marginal and as if departing from the core of the church, but in reality they are rearranging the way they live the Christian mystery in ways that better fit their times. The inner power of true prophecy is not centrifugal but centripetal, leading anew towards the core of faith.
Clausewitz's Puzzle
Authors: Herberg-Rothe Andreas
Published: May 2007

This book argues that Clausewitz developed a wide-ranging political theory of war by reflecting not only on the success, but also on the limitations and the failure of Napoleon's method of waging war. Successes, failures, and defeats of Napoleon forced Clausewitz to reflect on questions that went beyond purely military matters and led him to develop a political theory of war. Analyses of three paradigmatic campaigns — which are symbolized by Jena, Moscow, and Waterloo — are placed at the center of understanding surrounding Clausewitz's On War and it's inherent problems, like the relation of absolute and real war, theory and practice, the primacy of politics, the enigma of the first chapter, and the dialectics of attack and defense. Clausewitz's analysis of these war campaigns are the cornerstones of On War and redounded to the ‘wondrous trinity’, which is the basis for a general theory of war and which is quite different from the so-called trinitarian war.
4 Clausewitz's Legacy: The Trinity
Authors: Herberg‐Rothe Andreas
Published: May 2007

This chapter introduces the trinity as Clausewitz's attempt to summarize his different war experiences. The internal development of the first chapter with the trinity at its end follows an immanent logic of action and (symmetrical as well as asymmetrical) counter-action, which is explained in a detailed interpretation of all consequent paragraphs. Clausewitz's various preliminary efforts to conceptualize warfare (like his definition, his concept of war, and even his world-renowned formula) finally result in the wondrous trinity, which he himself called his result for theory. Clausewitz therefore introduces the trinity at the end of the first chapter, because it integrates methodologically all previous concepts. By making the trinity a basis for the whole interpretation, it is possible to combine all of Clausewitz's various conceptualizations into one comprehensive theory.
The Changing Role of Education in Economic Analysis
Authors: Mincer Jacob
Published: May 2007

The idea that education can provide benefits, even economic ones, is certainly an old one. At least by the late 18th century, some people started thinking about skilled individuals as a kind of expensive instrument and machine, a kind of capital whose long-term benefit would compensate the efforts and expenditures of years of early personal and intellectual development. These metaphors about the economic potential of education and training coalesced in the late 1950s becoming one of the most popular research programs of contemporary economics. It is nevertheless rather peculiar that it took so much time for economists to pick-up on those metaphors and turn them into a fully-fledged theoretical framework. Likewise, it is quite interesting to investigate the way prior resistances or lack of attention gave way to subsequent popularity within the discipline. This chapter analyzes the early lack of attention and the increasing attention in the postwar period to the economic value of education.
Appraising the Impact of the Human Capital Research Program
Authors: Mincer Jacob
Published: May 2007

Despite fruitful collaborations and developments, human capital analysis was increasingly challenged. The criticisms became more noticeable in the mid-1970s when the private returns to education started falling rapidly. It was argued that because earlier estimates of returns to education had been based on cross-sectional data, they had overestimated the returns to education, and with the progressive expansion of educated labor the returns would diminish steadily. The effect of the arrival of the college-educated, post-World War II baby boomers on the labor market seemed to fulfill this prophecy. The contribution of human capital in understanding inequality and labor market outcomes came under severe scrutiny from the early 1970s onwards. This chapter examines the major criticisms of the human capital approach to the labor market and the way human capital dealt with these will be scrutinized. Moreover, it assesses Mincer's contribution to these debates and to what extent his research endured through those controversies.
Human Capital and the Long‐Term View of the Labor Market
Authors: Mincer Jacob
Published: May 2007

This chapter starts by making a brief portrait of labor economics in the decades preceding Mincer's work. When Jacob Mincer started his academic career, labor economics was finishing a long process of change that marked the postwar years. This transformation, crucial for understanding the emergence of human capital theory, was generally characterized by the increasing pervasiveness of neoclassical economic theory in a field traditionally more attached to an empirical and institutionalist research agenda. Under the stimulus of some prominent labor researchers, Mincer became increasingly interested in labor issues, namely in labor supply behavior. This chapter analyzes some of his major pieces of research around the theme of labor supply and lifetime labor income, and the way these differed from previous labor research. This work is also presented in a way that shows the close links between Mincer's research on human capital and the long-term behavior of labor supply.
Human Capital and Labor Market Dynamics
Authors: Mincer Jacob
Published: May 2007

Although Jacob Mincer is well known for his work on income distribution and the labor supply phenomena, he also explored other important topics in labor research. This chapter explores his efforts to understand better the dynamic nature of the labor market, especially with regard to workers' mobility and unemployment. The chapter also analyzes Mincer's work on the impact of some labor market regulations and on the employment effects of economic growth. The analysis of that part of his research provides a better understanding of the main characteristics of Mincer's work and helps to grasp fully his influence on contemporary labor research. It also reveals that underlying and unifying his research was a persistent aim at exploring the explanatory power of human capital analysis and its implications for the dynamics of the labor market.
The Influence of Jacob Mincer on Modern Labor Economics
Authors: Mincer Jacob
Published: May 2007

This chapter appraises the role played by Jacob Mincer in labor economics during his long and prolific career. Mincer is certainly a good example of the capacity that many academics have to attract the attention of those around them and to interest them in pursuing similar lines of research. His ability to lure students and colleagues to human capital research was extremely relevant for the development of the human capital research program, especially in the early crucial years. Moreover, his persistent and methodic interest in the analysis of the implications of human capital for labor market analysis had a lasting influence on several generations of labor economists, and contributed to the strengthening of the position human capital came to occupy in labor economics during the last forty years. This chapter analyzes the impact Mincer had through his publications, as a teacher, and especially as a mentor of several emerging leading labor economists. The impact this relationship with his students had on the development of the human capital research agenda is explored.
Norms and the Philosophy of Law
Authors: Priest Graham
Published: May 2007

The last two chapters were devoted to empirical dialetheias produced by the natural world. This chapter discusses some produced by the social world, in particular, dialetheias that are produced by systems of norms or rules. Legal dilemmas and dialetheias, in particular, are discussed in detail. A dialetheic deontic logic is described. The chapter ends with some comments on rule-following, and in particular on Wittgenstein's remarks on the subject.
Levelling the Playing Field
Authors: Mason Andrew
Published: May 2007

‘Equality of opportunity for all’ is a fine piece of political rhetoric but the ideal that lies behind it is slippery. Some see it as an alternative to a more robust form of egalitarianism, whilst others think that when it is properly understood it provides us with a real radical vision of what it is to level the playing field. This book combines a meritocratic conception of equality of opportunity that governs access to advantaged social positions, with redistributive principles that seek to mitigate the effects of differences in people's circumstances. Taken together, these spell out what it is to level the playing field in the way that justice requires.
Equality, Priority, and Sufficiency
Authors: Mason Andrew
Published: May 2007

This chapter argues that particular versions of the mitigation approach may also incorporate ‘quasi-egalitarian principles’ — principles which hold that certain kinds or degrees of inequality are objectionable. It is also maintained here that a defensible version of the mitigation approach might incorporate more than one kind of principle — it need not consist entirely of quasi-egalitarian principles, nor need it be exhausted by a prioritarian or sufficiency principle — and, furthermore, that different kinds of principles might be appropriate for different goods or different aspects of people's circumstances.
A Responsible Egalitarianism
Authors: Mason Andrew
Published: May 2007

This chapter explores this form of egalitarianism further by asking when justice requires us to hold people responsible for their behaviour by requiring them to bear its costs. Some maintain that people can legitimately be required to bear the costs of their behaviour if and only if they could have acted otherwise and no excusing conditions apply. Against this formulation, some would argue that what matters is whether an agent's behaviour is responsive to his reasons in the right way, and whether there are any excusing conditions, but not whether he could have acted otherwise. It is argued that both of these accounts are inadequate because they do not recognize the full range of reasons we might have for not requiring a person to bear the full costs of his behaviour.
1 Reconstructing Jovinian
Authors: Hunter David G.
Published: May 2007

The main outlines of the teaching of Jovinian can be reconstructed from the reports of Siricius, Ambrose, and Jerome. Condemned at Rome and Milan in spring of 393, Jovinian acquired a considerable following by denying that celibate Christians were, ipso facto, superior to married Christians. He also appears to have accused his opponents of heresy, especially ‘Manichaeism’. For example, he charged that Ambrose was guilty of heresy for teaching that Mary the mother of Jesus remained physically intact in the process of giving birth (virginitas in partu). Jovinian stressed the power of baptism to overcome evil and to guarantee salvation for all Christians.
2 Jovinian and Christian Rome
Authors: Hunter David G.
Published: May 2007

In the background of the Jovinianist controversy there is plentiful evidence of Christian opposition to asceticism, especially at Rome. One reason for this is that by the mid‐fourth century a Christian aristocratic culture had begun to develop, in which ‘assimilation and accommodation’ (Salzman) to traditional aristocratic values was the norm. Even when late Roman aristocrats adopted asceticism, they often did so in line with traditional aristocratic expectations of their class and without significant disruption of lifestyle. The adoption of asceticism by female members of the gens Anicii is a notable example.
6 Against Jovinian: From Siricius to Jerome
Authors: Hunter David G.
Published: May 2007

Although they all concurred in condemning Jovinian, Pope Siricius, Ambrose, and Jerome had different views of asceticism and clerical office. Siricius had long been lukewarm towards ascetic piety; he insisted that monks had to work their way through the ranks of the clergy before becoming presbyters or bishops, at the same time as he insisted on sexual continence for the higher clergy. Ambrose, by contrast, saw monks as the ideal candidates for the episcopacy, and he encouraged the ascetical life, especially in the form of consecrated female virginity. Jerome favoured the ascetic life and looked down on most of the clergy. He also was overtly hostile towards both Siricius and Ambrose. All of these different dynamics came into play in the course of the Jovinianist Controversy
Intellectual Virtues
Authors: Roberts Robert C. , Wood W. Jay
Published: May 2007

Some of the most interesting work in late-20th-century epistemology reintroduced, from ancient and medieval philosophy, the idea of an intellectual virtue and the related idea of proper epistemic function. But most of that work employed such concepts, with questionable success, in the interest of defining justification, warrant, or knowledge; and little or none of it offered detailed analyses of intellectual virtues. This book proposes and illustrates a different purpose for epistemology, one that we see in early modern thinkers, especially John Locke — namely that of guiding, refining, and informing the epistemic practices of the intellectual segment of the population. One important aspect of the project of such a ‘regulative epistemology’ is the intellectual character of the epistemic agent. For this purpose, fairly detailed sketches of particular intellectual virtues and of virtues' relations to epistemic goods, epistemic faculties, and epistemic practices, gain special importance. An underlying thesis is that a strict dichotomy between the intellectual virtues and the moral virtues is a mistake.
Epistemology
Authors: Roberts Robert C. , Wood W. Jay
Published: May 2007

Because of the importance of knowledge in human life, epistemology (the study of knowledge) ought to be a core-curriculum subject; but it isn't. The reason is because it has been preoccupied with scepticism and with arcane efforts to define knowledge. The recent turn to the virtues in epistemology has so far yielded only unsuccessful efforts to supply the logically necessary and sufficient conditions for anything being a case of knowledge. Greco's and Zagzebski's definitions are examined. Wolterstorff has distinguished analytic from regulative epistemology and attributed the latter project to John Locke. This chapter proposes a regulative virtues epistemology — an epistemology that does not aim to define justification, warrant, or knowledge except roughly and for present purposes, but instead aspires to deepen our understanding of intellectual character traits, and thus provide a guide for intellectual life.
Goods
Authors: Roberts Robert C. , Wood W. Jay
Published: May 2007

Recent Anglo-American epistemology has largely focused on propositional knowledge: true belief with a third, good-making property (justification, warrant). This chapter proposes a broadened conception of knowledge of which propositional knowledge is an aspect. The other two aspects are understanding (a grasping of connections between things) and acquaintance (immediate experience of something). High-functioning knowers use ‘knowledge’ for all of these, and are justified in doing so by the intimate links between them. For example, in many cases where a belief is properly basic, the belief is generated by an acquaintance (say, the perception of a bird in a tree), an acquaintance which could not function in that way were it not in some sense understood; and if one's knowledge of a proposition is justified by evidence, one must understand the evidence as supporting the belief. The chapter sketches how all of these aspects of knowledge are served by intellectual virtues.
Faculties
Authors: Roberts Robert C. , Wood W. Jay
Published: May 2007

Faculties are the innate basis of our powers to do things; intellectual faculties are the innate basis of our intellectual powers — our abilities to acquire, refine, and transmit intellectual goods. Virtues and skills, by contrast, are acquired traits, powers that exploit the faculties and/or are mature realizations of them. Properly functioning faculties may be sufficient for the acquisition of simple kinds of knowledge, but they are not sufficient for the acquisition of high-level moral, scientific, scholarly, and religious knowledge. With special attention to the work of Ernest Sosa and Alvin Plantinga, this chapter examines the relations of non-epistemic faculties, and those of self-knowledge and testimonial credulity, to intellectual virtues.
Practices
Authors: Roberts Robert C. , Wood W. Jay
Published: May 2007

Knowledge and related intellectual goods are discovered, refined, preserved, transmitted, and received by an enormous variety of activities of data collection, observation, concept clarification, hypothesis invention, hypothesis testing, critical discussion, teaching, and textual reading and interpretation. Most intellectual practices have a strongly social dimension. Some are highly specialized, while others are widely shared; they are a cultural inheritance. To practice them well requires far more than properly functioning faculties; these need to be integrated into skills and employed by whole people with at least minimally well integrated character. For the achievement of high level epistemic goods, virtues such as tenacity, love of knowledge, courage, and truthfulness are needed. The social dimensions of the intellectual practices are served by humility and generosity, and supporting all of the epistemic virtues is intellectual practical wisdom.
Love of Knowledge
Authors: Roberts Robert C. , Wood W. Jay
Published: May 2007

A background of all the other intellectual virtues is an epistemically right orientation of the will: a discriminating concern for propositional knowledge, understanding, and acquaintance. The standards of discrimination here are significance, relevance, and worthiness. Worthiness of knowledge is sometimes parasitic on ‘practical’ concerns, and sometimes is determined by the intrinsic value of the object of knowledge. The virtue under discussion is not only a concern to have knowledge, but also a concern to purvey it to others; thus it includes truthfulness and epistemic philanthropy. The chapter examines various forms of faulty epistemic will: failure of concern to know, unvirtuous concerns to know, failures of concern not to know, and unvirtuous concerns not to know. It ends with comments on how the particular structure that one attributes to a virtue of the love of knowledge varies with metaphysical beliefs.
Humility
Authors: Roberts Robert C. , Wood W. Jay
Published: May 2007

Humility as an intellectual virtue is the absence of intellectual vanity, arrogance, and domination (among other vices of the same family). As such, intellectual humility is a low level of concern to be well regarded by other people for one's intellectual accomplishments or prowess, where the concern for others' good opinion is swamped in a higher concern for intellectual goods. Humility is a disposition not to ‘infer’ some illicit entitlement from one's (perhaps genuine) intellectual superiority. It is a low level of concern to have the personal importance that derives from power or influence over others' minds. The concerns of which humility is the relative absence are extraneous to the pursuit of intellectual goods, and so may erect various stumbling blocks to intellectual success.
Generosity
Authors: Roberts Robert C. , Wood W. Jay
Published: May 2007

Generosity is a disposition freely to give good things to others for others' sake. (Variants of the trait that don't fit all these qualifications can be found in Aristotle and Nietzsche.) Intellectual generosity is such freedom with intellectual goods. A chief reason for stinginess or greed with intellectual goods is the extrinsic rewards that can accrue from them: positions, prestige, and money. Thus, intellectually generous persons tend to care more about the goods internal to intellectual practices than about the goods external to them. As promoting the free transfer of intellectual goods among members of the intellectual community, as well as good will among them, generosity promotes the discovery of knowledge and other epistemic goods.
Hegel and the Transformation of Philosophical Critique
Authors: Bristow William F.
Published: May 2007

This book presents a study of Hegel's hugely influential but notoriously difficult Phenomenology of Spirit. Hegel describes the method of this work as a ‘way of despair’, meaning that the reader who undertakes its inquiry must be open to the experience of self-loss through it. Whereas the existential dimension of Hegel's work has often been either ignored or regarded as romantic ornamentation, this book argues that it belongs centrally to Hegel's attempt to fulfil a demanding epistemological ambition. With his Critique of Pure Reason, Kant expressed a new epistemological demand with respect to rational knowledge and presented a new method for meeting this demand. This book reconstructs Hegel's objection to Kant's Critical Philosophy, according to which Kant's way of meeting the epistemological demand of philosophical critique presupposes subjectivism, that is, presupposes the restriction of our knowledge to things as they are merely for us. Whereas Hegel in his early Jena writings rejects Kant's critical project altogether on this basis, he comes to see that the epistemological demand expressed in Kant's project must be met. This book argues that Hegel's method in the Phenomenology of Spirit takes shape as his attempt to meet the epistemological demand of Kantian critique without presupposing subjectivism. The key to Hegel's transformation of Kant's critical procedure, by virtue of which subjectivism is to be avoided, is precisely the existential or self-transformational dimension of Hegel's criticism, the openness of the criticizing subject to being transformed through the epistemological procedure.
Introduction
Authors: Bristow William F.
Published: May 2007

This introductory chapter begins with a discussion of Hegel's thought and the renaissance of Hegel studies in English language scholarship. It then analyses Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit, arguing that it is, in its epistemological aims and methodology, thoroughly shaped by Hegel's response to Kant's philosophical criticism. An overview of the chapters included in this volume is presented.
Is Kant's Idealism Subjective?
Authors: Bristow William F.
Published: May 2007

Hegel consistently characterizes Kant's transcendental idealism as ‘subjectivism’. This chapter develops Hegel's interpretation of Kant's idealism as subjectivism, and provides a limited defence of it. It is argued that Kant's relativization (and corresponding restriction) of our knowledge is primarily a consequence of his principle of apperception and of the role it plays in the transcendental deduction of the categories. The principle of apperception articulates the essential role of our epistemic agency in cognition. The identification of the essential role of our epistemic agency in cognition enables Kant to solve his main epistemological problem (the problem of the possibility of synthetic, a priori knowledge), but only at the cost of subjectivism, of the relativization of our knowledge to our standpoint. Kant's relativization of knowledge to our human standpoint follows from his articulation in the transcendental deduction of a normative structure according to which we, as knowing subjects, can understand ourselves to be bound by norms in the norm-governed activity of knowing only to the extent that the highest order norms of the activity have their source ultimately in us.
Hegel's Self‐transformational Criticism
Authors: Bristow William F.
Published: May 2007

This chapter argues that the method of the Phenomenology (the many contortions of that method) is determined by the effort to meet the epistemological demand of Kantian critique without implicitly presupposing subjectivism. This project turns out to require self-transformational criticism.
The ‘Foreign Woman’ and the Path Imagery
Authors: Weeks Stuart
Published: May 2007

‘Foreign woman’ would have been a familiar term in the post-exilic Jewish context, evoking ideas of corruption and apostasy central both to a recent controversy (described in Ezra and Nehemiah), and to the longstanding Deuteronomic/ Deuteronomistic theme that probably provoked the controversy. The presentation of this character in Proverbs 1-9 is consistent with an origin in such earlier ideas, and the motif of corruption is also linked with path imagery in other literature. There, we find associations between deviation from a path and apostasy, along with other detailed correspondences to the figure in Proverbs 1-9. It is difficult to ignore such materials when considering the origins of the characterizations and images in our work.
A New Phase of Charles Wesley's Ministry
Authors: Lloyd Gareth
Published: May 2007

After retiring from the itinerancy in 1756, Charles Wesley exercised a localized preaching and pastoral ministry in Bristol, and then from 1771, in London. He also established himself as the foremost member of an unofficial pro‐Anglican Church‐Methodist party that included some of the wealthiest and most influential lay people in the movement. The strength of this pro‐Anglican feeling, which has often been ignored by Methodist scholarship, can be seen to best effect by close examination of local reactions in London and Yorkshire to the Norwich sacramental dispute of 1760.
Charles Wesley—His Final Years and Legacy
Authors: Lloyd Gareth
Published: May 2007

By the time of Charles Wesley's death in 1788 his public and Methodist profile outside London and Bristol was greatly diminished. His relationship with his brother had been strained since the beginning of the 1750s, while some important preachers expressed little sadness at his death. Charles Wesley's Church‐Methodist viewpoint did not, however, die with him; many lay people and some preachers retained a dual loyalty to both Methodism and the Church of England and carried on the struggle into the 1790s and after. The legacy of Church Methodism was an inclusive 19th century Wesleyan denomination whose members were at liberty also to regard themselves as Anglicans if they wished. Also, as late as the 1880s, important features of Wesleyan Methodist polity and worship referred back to the movement's origins within the Church of England.
International Legitimacy and World Society
Authors: Clark Ian
Published: May 2007

The conventional view of international society has it that it is interested only in co-existence and order amongst states. This creates a puzzle. When the historical record is examined, we discover that international society has repeatedly signed up to normative principles that go well beyond this purpose. When it has done so, it has built new normative constraints into international legitimacy, and this is most conspicuously so when it has espoused broadly humanitarian principles. This suggests that the norms adopted by international society might have been encouraged from the distinct constituency of world society. The book traces a series of historical case studies which issued in international affirmation of such principles: slave-trade abolition in 1815; the public conscience in 1899; social justice (but not racial equality) in 1919; human rights in 1945; and democracy as the only acceptable form of state in 1990. In each case, evidence is presented of world-society actors (transnational movements, advocacy networks, and INGOs) making the political running for a new principle, often in alliance with a leading state. At the same time, world society has mounted a normative case, and this can be seen as a degree of normative integration between international and world society. Collectively, the book contributes to the growing IR literature on the role of norms, and especially that written from a broadly English School or constructivist perspective.
3 The Hague and the Public Conscience, 1899–1907
Authors: Clark Ian
Published: May 2007

Unlike the other cases, the two conferences held at The Hague are not normally identified with a single normative principle. Nonetheless, the meetings were characterized by a great emphasis upon humanitarian concerns, and also upon the need for the acts of state representatives to be endorsed by a wider public. This was best captured by the language of the ‘public conscience’ employed during the conference and embodied in the famous Martens clause. The first conference was held in response to the Imperial Rescript of Tsar Nicholas II, and the subject matter covered disarmament, the laws of war, and international arbitration. The meetings were the subject of major attention from a variety of popular pressure groups, much of it orchestrated by the international peace movement, and publicists such as W. T. Stead. The long term significance, however, lay in the idea that there was a wider public constituency to which international legitimacy principles had to appeal.
4 Versailles and Racial Equality, 1919
Authors: Clark Ian
Published: May 2007

This is the exceptional case in that the proposal to include a racial equality clause in the League Covenant was rejected. On the other hand, this is another case where the norm was supported by a leading state (Japan), in conjunction with a wider world society movement. The drafting history casts doubts on Japanese motives for pressing the proposal, but the failure reflects the relative weakness of Japan as a normative sponsor. While opposition to the clause certainly came from Britain, in response to pressure from parts of the empire, President Wilson's own position was ambiguous, and he certainly was not prepared to risk the Treaty of Versailles (and the League Covenant) to include it. There was a widespread pressure to hold a Pan-African Congress at Paris to coincide with the settlement. However, the Japanese delegate Baron Makino expressed a number of interesting normative arguments in support of the clause, appealing to the blurring of the distinction between international and world society brought about by the principle of collective security.
8 Norms, International Legitimacy, and Contemporary World Society
Authors: Clark Ian
Published: May 2007

This chapter locates the discussion in the context of the theoretical literature on international norms, particularly that by Martha Finnemore and Katherine Sikkink. Much of this literature is interested in norm cycles, and the means by which norms come to be disseminated internationally. Building on this work, the chapter argues that the idea of dissemination does not quite capture what in fact have been a series of strategic negotiations between international and world society, often coming during the major peace settlements at the end of wars. Historically, this has often also arisen out of a coalition of interest between powerful state actors, and civil society groups. It is suggested that the framework of negotiation between international and world society allows us to understand this process in a particular way. It also demonstrates how the absorption of norms from world society into international society has complicated the latter's practices of consensus. It opens up major new issues about how consensus is to be developed within world society about changing principles of international legitimacy. These issues are explored in the context of the WTO and G7/8, and illustrated by the Ottawa Convention on Landmines and the formation of the International Criminal Court.
An extract of a Latin letter, written by the learned Signior Malpighi to the Publisher, concerning anatomical observations, about the structure the lungs of Froggs, Tortoises, &c. and perfecter animals; as also the texture of the Spleen, &c
Authors: Malpighi Marcello
Published: May 2007

Desideratissimus de Respiratione Doctissimi Thrustoni libellus tandem ad meas devenit manus; ubi propugnatam vidi meam, de Pulmonum substantia, sententiam
.
A further assertion of the proportions concerning the magnitude, &c. of London, contained in two essays in political arithmetick; mentioned in Philos. Transact. Numb. 183; together with a vindication of the said essays from the objections of some learned persons of the French nation
Authors: Petty William
Published: May 2007

It could not be expected that an assertion of Londons being bigger than Paris and Roven, or than Paris and Rome put together, and bigger than any city of the world, should scape uncontradicted
I. De monstris, quasi monstris & monstrosis; item de Serpentibus, &c. Philippensibus, ex M.S. R. P. Geo. Jos. Camelli. Communicavit D. Jac. Petiver. Pharmacop. Lond. & S. R. S
Authors: Cameli Georgij Josephi
Published: May 2007

1. Indi
Abayan
uxor enixa est puerum A.D. 1695. in Vico
Palo
insulæ Carigarae
Bysaiarum
, facie
Testudinis Marinœ
, & testæ ejusdem tessellis in cute expressis:
Anno
verò insequenti alterum similem dicto.
Probable direction of the postglacial colonization of rivers on northern slopes of the Carpathian Ridge by Barbus carpathicus (Teleostei: Cyprinidae) evidenced by cline of genetic variation
Authors: Konopiński M. K , Amirowicz A. , Kukuła K.
Published: May 2007

A cline in microsatellite diversity appeared among populations of Barbus carpathicus in four adjacent river basins on the northern slopes of the Carpathian Ridge, with western populations more variable than eastern ones (HS equals 0·45, 0·32, 0·23 and 0·13, respectively). Overall genetic variation was low, likely reflecting population bottlenecks during postglacial expansions through the Danube–Vistula watershed and eastward into Carpathian tributaries of the Vistula River. Genetic similarities between populations in the westernmost tributary of the Dniester (Strwiąż River) and those in the adjacent Vistula tributary (San River) suggest that at least the western part of the Dniester basin was colonized from the Vistula River system.
Trout Salmo spp. complex in Serbia and adjacent regions of the western Balkans: reconstruction of evolutionary history from external morphology
Authors: Simonović P. , Marić S. , Nikolić V.
Published: May 2007

The multivariate phenetic approach to the classification of Salmo spp. samples from Serbia and adjacent regions of western Balkans for 22 continuous external morphological characters suggests the occurrence of the following distinct stocks: West Danubian (Crno Osoje Stream and upper Zeta River) Salmo taleri, marble trout Salmo marmoratus (Trebuščica River), hatchery‐reared Atlantic Salmo trutta, Mlava River drainage (Mlava and Krupaja rivers and Buk Stream) trout Salmo cf. trutta, Velika Morava River system (Godljevača, Bela and Resava rivers) trout S. cf. trutta, Ohrid Lake belvica Salmo ohridana and Aegean coastal drainage Salmo macedonicus (Božica River). In contrast to the phenetic similarity, the phylogenetic reconstruction places the Lake Ohrid belvica as part of an unresolved polytomy with other trout groups. Salmo cf. trutta in the Mlava River appears to form the basal group for the trout species in the region. The position of marble trout implies its independent and more recent origin from the West Danubian trout stock.
Clinical trial of autologous formalin‐fixed tumor vaccine for glioblastoma multiforme patients
Authors: Ishikawa Eiichi , Tsuboi Koji , Yamamoto Tetsuya , Muroi Ai , Takano Shingo , Enomoto Takao , Matsumura Akira , Ohno Tadao
Published: May 2007

A pilot study was performed to investigate the safety and feasibility of autologous formalin‐fixed tumor vaccines (AFTV) and the clinical responses to these vaccines by glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) patients. Twelve primary GBM patients were recruited. Eight had recurrent disease while four had been treated for primary disease but retained a visible tumor mass. AFTV were prepared from formalin‐fixed and/or paraffin‐embedded tumor tissue obtained upon surgery and premixed with original adjuvant materials. The patients were given three five‐site intradermal inoculations at weekly intervals. A delayed‐type hypersensitivity test was performed before and after each vaccination. In addition, the tumor tissues were subjected to immunohistochemical analysis to determine whether MIB‐1, p53, and major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class‐I complex expression could predict the response to the treatment. The treatment was well tolerated, with only local erythema, induration, and low‐grade fever being reported. Of the 12 patients, one showed a complete response, one showed a partial response, two showed minor responses, one had stable disease, and seven exhibited progressive disease. The median survival period was 10.7 months from the initiation of the AFTV treatment but three of the five responders survived for 20 months or more after AFTV inoculation. Low p53 and high MHC class‐I expression by the tumor may help predict the efficacy of this therapy. Thus, the AFTV is safe and feasible, and could significantly improve the outcome of GBM. Further clinical investigations to confirm this are highly desirable. (Cancer Sci 2007; 98: 1226–1233)
Combined immunomodulating properties of 3,4‐methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and cannabis in humans
Authors: Pacifici Roberta , Zuccaro Piergiorgio , Farré Magí , Poudevida Sandra , Abanades Sergio , Pichini Simona , Langohr Klaus , Segura Jordi , De La Torre Rafael
Published: May 2007

Aims  Cell‐mediated immune function and the occurrence of mild infectious diseases was investigated.

Participants  Polydrug consumers of 3,4‐methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and cannabis (n = 37) compared to cannabis users only (n = 23) and control group (n = 34).

Design  A longitudinal prospective study with three cross‐sectional evaluations at time 0 and at 6 months and 1 year was performed.

Findings  At baseline, a significant decrease in interleukin (IL)‐2 and an increase in anti‐inflammatory transforming growth factor (TGF)‐β1, together with a decrease in the number of total lymphocytes, CD4 and natural killer (NK) cells were observed in the MDMA–cannabis group, with intermediate alterations in the cannabis group. Immune alterations observed at baseline were sustained over time. No differences were found between regular and occasional MDMA users. A significantly higher rate of mild infections in regular MDMA–cannabis users compared with occasional MDMA–cannabis users and the remaining groups was observed.

Conclusions  The present data confirm that long‐term alterations in immunological homeostasis may result in general health status impairment and subsequent increased susceptibility to infection and immune‐related disorders.
The Marijuana Check‐up: promoting change in ambivalent marijuana users
Authors: Stephens Robert S. , Roffman Roger A. , Fearer Stephanie A. , Williams Carl , Burke Randy S.
Published: May 2007

Aims  To evaluate the efficacy of a two‐session assessment and feedback intervention designed to reach and increase motivation for change in marijuana users who were experiencing negative consequences but were ambivalent about change.

Design  Random assignment to one of two types of feedback conditions or a delayed feedback control (DFC) with follow‐up assessments at 7 weeks, 6 months and 12 months.

Setting  University of Washington research center in Seattle, Washington.

Participants  A total of 188 adult male and female marijuana users who responded to advertisements.

Interventions  A personalized feedback (PF) condition utilizing motivational interviewing was compared to an educational control condition labeled multi‐media feedback (MMF).

Measurements  Marijuana use, dependence symptoms, other associated negative consequences and motivational constructs were assessed at all time‐points.

Findings  PF participants reported fewer days of use per week, fewer periods of use per day and fewer dependence symptoms at 7 weeks than those in the MMF and DFC conditions. PF participants also reported fewer days of use per week compared to MMF participants at the 12‐month follow‐up and fewer dependence symptoms at both the 6‐ and 12‐month follow‐ups compared to MMF participants.

Conclusions  The PF intervention, delivered in the context of a check‐up, shows potential as a way of reaching and motivating change in marijuana users with a diagnosable disorder who otherwise are not ready to approach treatment. Ways of augmenting the modest absolute levels of change are discussed.
Understanding the role of the tumour vasculature in the transport of drugs to solid cancer tumours
Authors: Wijeratne N. S. , Hoo K. A.
Published: May 2007

Abstract.  Objectives: The vasculature of tumours imposes certain barriers that transport of anti‐cancer drugs must overcome. Here follows an account of development of a general computational model that describes the mechanisms of drug transport to a solid tumour, with an emphasis on modelling the vasculature using solute transport concepts. Materials and methods: Investigation into the biological parameters that enhance/prevent anticancer drug transport to the tumour provides a means to evaluate the effects of these parameters on the treatment process. Sensitivity analysis of these provides useful insights concerning anticancer drug transport mechanisms from the vasculature to the solid tumour for a non‐specified drug and non‐specified solid tumour by revealing the conditions that promote or prevent effective drug transport. The effect of the vasculature on transport efficiency is studied using a parametric analysis of some of the transport and biological parameters. Understanding the various transport mechanisms provides a basis to evaluate the effectiveness of the drug treatment a priori. Results: It was found that increases in the capillary hydrostatic pressure, diffusive permeability coefficient and hydraulic conductivity all result in a decrease in tumour size. Similarly, decreases in the interstitium hydrostatic pressure and filtration constant result in a decrease in tumour size. Dependence of the change in the tumour size to changes in these parameters is non‐linear. These results demonstrate the potential of the integrated computational model of the tumour and its vasculature to estimate efficacy of a particular treatment process. Regardless of the dependency of the outcome on the assumed model parameters and the assumed kinetics, mathematical models of this type can provide more explanation on the issues related to the transport barriers, the efficacy of the treatment, and the development of effective anticancer drugs. A case study also is presented to demonstrate the model's flexibility to accommodate a two‐cell‐glioma population.
Organic carbon and total nitrogen variability in permafrost‐affected soils in a forest tundra ecotone
Authors: Rodionov A. , Flessa H. , Grabe M. , Kazansky O. A. , Shibistova O. , Guggenberger G.
Published: May 2007

Soils of the high latitudes are expected to respond sensitively to climate change, but still little is known about carbon and nitrogen variability in them. We investigated the 0.44‐km2 Little Grawijka Creek catchment of the forest tundra ecotone (northern Krasnoyarsk Krai, Russian Federation) in order (i) to relate the active‐layer thickness to controlling environmental factors, (ii) to quantify soil organic carbon (SOC) and total nitrogen (NT) stocks, and (iii) to assess their variability with respect to different landscape units. The catchment was mapped on a 50 × 50 m grid for topography, dominant tree and ground vegetation, organic‐layer and moss‐layer thickness, and active‐layer thickness. At each grid point, bulk density, and SOC and NT concentrations were determined for depth increments. At three selected plots, 2‐m deep soil cores were taken and analysed for SOC, NT and 14C. A shallow active layer was found in intact raised bogs at plateaux situations and in mineral soils of north‐northeast (NNE) aspect. Good drainage and greater solar insolation on the south‐southwest (SSW) slopes are reflected in deeper active layers or lack of permafrost. Organic carbon stocks to a soil depth of 90 cm varied between 5 and 95 kg m–2. The greatest stocks were found in the intact raised bogs and on the NNE slopes. Canonical correspondence analysis indicates the dominant role of active‐layer thickness for SOC and NT storage. The 2‐m soil cores suggest that permafrost soils store about the same amount of SOC from 90 to 200 cm as in the upper 90 cm. Most of this deep SOC pool was formed in the mid‐Holocene (organic soils) and the late Pleistocene (mineral soils). Our results showed that even within a small catchment of the forest tundra, active‐layer thickness and, hence, SOC and NT storage vary greatly within the landscape mosaic. This has to be taken into account when using upscaling methods such as remote sensing for assessing SOC and NT storage and cycling at a regional to continental level.