bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Value Added Tax: A Preliminary Look at Effects on the Agricultural Sector
Authors: Penn J. B. , Irwin G. D. , Richardson R. A.
Published: July 2016

Discussion of the possibility of a value added tax (VAT) has recently become a lively topic for the press, public, and politicians. The President's 1970 Task Force on Business Taxation recommended that the tax not be imposed immediately, but that the possibility of using the VAT in the future be given more exposure and discussion. A number of states have also considered enacting a VAT, and a few have done so.
Discussion: Producer Bargaining: Its Current Status and Distribution of Benefits
Authors: Harris H. M.
Published: July 2016

We should be indebted to Dr. Berry for his cogent observations on some key aspects of the producer bargaining issue. At the same time, however, I would be remiss in my role as discussant if I failed to point out two major shortcomings of his paper. First, the current status of producer bargaining is treated incompletely. Second, and more glaring, is the complete omission of any discussion of the distribution of benefits of agricultural bargaining.

It should be mentioned that both these shortcomings could be remedied simply by changing the title of the paper. For example, if the address was entitled, “Producer Bargaining: Its Present Status in the Dairy Industry,” these two criticisms would be largely unwarranted. I must also confess that if the assigned roles of Professor Berry and myself were reversed, he would very likely be levying the same comments about my presentation. For a complete analysis of the assigned topic involves a Herculean task – but a task with which we must come to grips in the near future.
Discussion: The Distribution of the Costs and Benefits of Public Schooling
Authors: Drummond H. Evan
Published: July 2016

David Holland has provided a basic contribution to the expanding literature concerned with the distributional effects of expenditures on education. He has ventured into the relatively untouched realm of measuring the distrubutional impact of tax costs and expenditure benefits of public elementary, secondary and higher education. Our fundamental ignorance of the equity issues involved in public education, coupled with the economic and social importance of its eventual product, provide ample justification for continued research in this field.

Even though a valuable literature review occupies a significant proportion of Holland's paper, I will limit my comments to that portion of the paper that is original. Reviewing briefly, Holland's goal is to determine the distribution by income class of net benefits resulting from education. To do this, he compares the average per family tax costs for the provision of education with the average per family expenditures made. The difference between the two is the net subsidy received. Holland's basic conclusion is that the net subsidies from lower (as opposed to higher) education are regressive.
Discussion: Alternatives to the Local Property Tax for Educational Finance
Authors: Stepp James M.
Published: July 2016

Dr. Hady's paper begins by noting why some practical alternatives to the local property tax may soon become very urgent in all parts of the United States. The California Supreme Court decision in the case of Serrano v. Priest, which Hady cites, constituted the first ruling by a major appellate court that disparities in the property tax bases of school districts render that tax invalid as a basis for financing public schools. The applicable constitutional provision is the “equal protection” clause of the Fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution, and similar provisions of State constitutions. The fact that the United States Supreme Court is reviewing a decision of a three-judge Federal court of appeals in a Texas case, Rodriquez v. San Antonio Independent School District, rather than the California case may be of considerable importance to possible future changes in educational finance.
An Analysis of Anticipatory Short Hedging Using Predicted Harvest Basis
Authors: Kenyon David E. , Kingsley Steven E.
Published: July 2016

The use of the futures market as an aid in marketing farm commodities has been gaining in popularity among producers. Current hedging practices are largely based on average basis or basis movement over some historical time period. The difficulty with this approach is that the year to year variation in the calculated basis is large and using the mean value to predict basis in a given year does not give a highly accurate estimate. The objectives of this study were: (1) to determine if regression analysis could be used to accurately predict the harvest basis at planting time, and (2) to evaluate the performance of alternative hedging strategies using historical average basis estimates versus basis estimates based on regression analysis.
Plant Location Models for a Honey Packer: Sensitivity of Findings to Some Alternative Specifications with Reference to the South
Authors: Holroyd W. M. , Lessley B. V.
Published: July 2016

This paper discusses plant location models applied to a honey processing-marketing cooperative firm with emphasis on sensitivity of findings to some alternative objectives and specifications. Though the study was nationwide in scope, the southern regions of the United States played a significant role in the analyses.

The first objective was to determine the number, size, and location of honey processing plants which would minimize total assembly, processing, and product shipment cost. In pursuit of the first objective, two of several questions receiving consideration were: 1. In comparing an optimizing least-cost result to an actual operating cost result, what is a valid specification of “actual” cost? 2. Is there a simple way of checking on the validity of a minimum cost solution?
Farm Land Prices: Explainable or Illogical?
Authors: Blase Melvin G. , Hesemann Clyde
Published: July 2016

Of all markets, the land market has been thought to be one of the most difficult to explain. Techniques for predicting land prices leave much to be desired. Nevertheless, the importance of this market continues to grow as fixed costs of commercial farm firms escalate, due to farm expansion and other factors.

Conventional techniques for building models to explain farm land prices have not been as useful as when similar statistical procedures have been used elsewhere. Data problems have been conspicuous. The heterogeneity of many populations has created difficulties. Clearly, additional refinement of models is needed.
Evaluation of a Quantitative Procedure to Select Among Alternative Marketing Strategies to Reduce Price Risks of Stocker Operators
Authors: Davis James H. , Franzmann John R.
Published: July 2016

Producers within the cattle industry are faced with three major types of risks: (1) risks of losses in quality; (2) risks of quantity losses; and (3) losses resulting from unfavorable changes in cash prices. Quality and quantity risks are physical risks that can be dealt with through managerial techniques, adoption of new technology, and the use of fire, storm, and theft insurance. The risk associated with unfavorable price changes does not lend itself to an insurance approach. Producers must, therefore, become speculators in the cash market or choose to employ marketing strategies designed to transfer price risks to other market functionaries.
Application of Multivariate Analysis to Determine Influence of Resource Base on Changes in Economic Activity 1960-70
Authors: Kerns Waldon R.
Published: July 2016

Public investments in natural resources have been used as a means to increase the economic base of specified areas and consequently to increase incomes and economic activity in affected areas. The proposed Principles for Planning Water and Land Resources makes explicit a national objective of natural resource development: To enhance regional development through increases in a region's income, increases in employment and improvement of the area's economic base.
Some Micro Aspects of Human Migration Activity
Authors: Osburn David D.
Published: July 2016

Only recently have economists emphasized the human agent as a resource and the significance of human migration in promoting economic growth. Advances in technology, increased per capita income and population have all emphasized the necessity of labor force adjustment in our economy. Due to dynamic shifts in aggregate demand and supply functions, labor must be mobile to receive the maximum return possible for its contribution to gross national product. All comparable resources would receive the same returns when factor markets are in equilibrium, regardless of their use. While a textbook equilibrium is not likely to be observed in the U.S. labor market, it can be presumed that human migration is an equilibrating phenomenon.
Wages, Mechanization, and Employment in Harvesting Florida Tomatoes
Authors: Zepp Glenn A.
Published: July 2016

Two events are occurring which could have a profound effect on the Florida tomato industry. One is the development of a technology for harvesting fresh-market tomatoes mechanically. The second is the development of wage legislation affecting farm workers. This paper is an attempt to evaluate the effect of different minimum wage levels on the rate of adoption of mechanical harvesting, and the subsequent effect on employment and earnings in the tomato industry.
Estimation of Agriculture-Forestry Transition Matrices from Aerial Photographs
Authors: Van Loock Harry J. , Hafley William L. , King Richard A.
Published: July 2016

The difficulties associated with improving forest management practices on land held by farmers and other small landowners have been well documented. In North Carolina roughly four-fifths of all forest area is to be found in such holdings. To evaluate alternative strategies for improving land management, it is important to have information concerning the rates of change in land use on existing units. Aerial photographs provide a valuable source of this information, especially when flights have been made over an area at regular intervals extending back over several decades. In general, such regularity of aerial photo flights does exist for the continental United States. This article describes the use of such photographic data to construct land-use transition matrices.
A Simulation Analysis of the Effects of a Product Tax on the Packaging Waste Output of Selected Food Products
Authors: Spillers Paul D. , Havlicek Joseph
Published: July 2016

This country is currently faced with an ever growing solid waste problem. A significant amount of total solid waste may be traced to origins in the packaging industry. Various policies aimed at rectifying this problem have been proposed. One policy alternative that is currently being given consideration is taxation of a product based upon the amount and type of packaging waste associated with that product. Taxation is believed to be a policy tool that could be used to internalize the cost of collection and disposal of each product's packaging waste. In effect, those that generate solid wastes would pay. The effects of such taxation implementation on various economic phenomena are unknown, but of critical importance to its feasibility.
Experiences with Recent Price Stabilization Programs for Agriculture
Authors: Mayer Leo V.
Published: July 2016

The stabilization of farm prices and incomes has been a goal of all farm legislation dating back to the establishment of the Farm Board in 1929. After the Farm Board concept failed in the wake of the great crash of 1929, price stabilization turned more and more toward price supports with prices set above market equilibrium. To absorb the differential quantities that arose, loan and storage programs were established for major commodities. Stocks of accumulated grain were used in times of war or world grain production shortfalls to even out the flow of food to consumers
The Need for the Systems Approach to Rural Development Research
Authors: Tweeten Luther
Published: July 2016

Problems of low income, high incidence of poverty, inadequate or expensive community services, net out-migration and high dependency rates in rural areas are now well documented and widely recognized. Not so well recognized is, “What can be done about these problems?” This paper suggests systems analysis to answer this question. Following a description of the systems approach to planning, a case is made for applying such an approach to rural development. Finally, some new observations are presented on the economic payoff from various public programs suitable for inclusion in systems planning.
Rural Development Research Programs of Southern 1862 and 1890 Land Grant Institutions: Characteristics, Needs, and Priorities for the 1970's
Authors: Davis Carlton G.
Published: July 2016

Acceptance and increased interest in rural development as a legitimate concern of land grant institutions is well documented. Although rural development research is not “new” for the discipline of agricultural economics, there is little doubt that the area has experienced renewed and greatly expanded interest at both the national and regional levels by the passage of the 1972 Rural Development Act.

While much has been written on the importance and need for a direct frontal attack on this traditionally underfunded and low priority research area, the sad fact is that the profession is still without a clear sense of direction regarding research and extension needs and priorities. The establishment of state and regional rural development centers is a positive step toward directing and coordinating the limited resources available in this area. Many southern states have demonstrated significant leadership roles in this first step, obviously recognizing the massive rural development problems of the region.
Urban Public Service Costs and Benefits of Rural-To-Urban Migration
Authors: Morgan Larry C. , Bordeaux A. Frank
Published: July 2016

In a recent article, Hildreth and Schaller suggest that researchers can make important contributions to community development programs by analyzing the trade-offs resulting from increasing economic activity in rural communities or moving the people to jobs in other communities, and the subsequent effects of these alternatives on the allocation of community services. Although they concentrate on the delivery of public services to rural communities, it is important to note that urban public service costs are a major factor influencing the current emphasis on “place development,” rather than encouraging rural-to-urban migration.
Migration and Return Migration: A New Look at the Eastern Kentucky Migration Stream
Authors: Deaton Brady J. , Anschel Kurt R.
Published: July 2016

Most studies of the economics of migration have implicitly assumed that migratory streams are homogeneous. However, migratory streams from one region to another consist of two distinct streams: a stream of first-time migrants and a stream of return migrants moving back to their area of origin. In fact, a substantial proportion of all U.S. migration is return migration, 14 percent from 1955 to 1960. Moreover, in states with histories of substantial out-migration, an even greater proportion of in-migrants are returnees, 35.4 percent between 1955 and 1960. Yet, economists have largely ignored return migration in their attempts to explain changes in the labor force.
Agriculture in an Energy-Hungry World
Authors: Schneeberger K. C. , Breimyer Harold F.
Published: July 2016

Energy is a complex and pervasive subject, whose frontiers are still in the process of being defined. Many of the data are in dispute. Technical judgments do not agree. Conflicts of interest abound. The Nixon Administration, in its allocation plans for summer 1973 and January 1974, gave farmers top priority for fuel – ahead of hospitals, firemen, and police. Critics called this “cockeyed,” preferring to put other sectors of the economy ahead of agriculture.
A Predictive Model for Manpower Requirements in Georgia Agriculture
Authors: Drummond H. Evan , White Fred C.
Published: July 2016

Persistently high levels of unemployment among unskilled workers, as well as college graduates, have focused attention on manpower problems. High levels of unemployment may result from a deficiency of aggregate demand or from structural maladjustments in the manpower market. The latter problems generally emanate from changing technological patterns and shifts in the pattern of economic growth. While there are many socio-economic issues involved, it is generally recognized that problems of structural adjustment can be satisfactorily managed, in time, if a sufficiently high level of aggregate demand is maintained. Therefore, an initial concern in manpower planning is to accurately relate manpower requirements by occupation and level of education to anticipated levels of aggregate demand.
The Competitive Position of Major U.S. Potato Producing Regions
Authors: Levins Richard A. , Langham Max R.
Published: July 2016

This study utilizes a spatial equilibrium model to examine the equilibrium farm-level prices and production levels which may be expected for the major potato-producing regions in the United States, both in the short run and the long run under competitive conditions. The model encompasses both the temporal and spatial dimensions of the United States potato industry. The reactive programming algorithm was used to determine the equilibrium prices and quantities. Input requirements for the model include supply functions, demand functions, and intermediate marketing costs.
Demand Substitution Between Natural, Flavored, and Synthetic Citrus Juices
Authors: Chern Wen S.
Published: July 2016

Formulation of marketing policies often is based on the knowledge of various demand elasticities for the commodities under consideration. One important aspect of demand analysis is to inquire qualitatively or quantitatively into the extent of demand substitution between commodities. The Florida citrus growers and processors have been much concerned about the impact of flavored and synthetic citrus product substitutes for which the market, in terms of absolute sales, has doubled in less than one decade (Table 1).

The entry of a new product often takes place during the time when a dramatic leftward shift in supply occurs. A most recent example is the introduction of textured vegetable protein in ground beef when a severe shortage and a dramatic increase in the price of beef occurred in 1973. In the case of the citrus juice market, the introduction and market penetration of synthetic and partially natural citrus-flavored drinks were stimulated during the two Florida freezes in 1957 and 1962.
Changes in Level and Variation in Personal Income in Florida
Authors: McPherson W.W. , Yang Sarah Shu-Jen
Published: July 2016

A question of particular concern in recent years is: what happens to personal income distribution as the average level of income rises? The purpose of this study was to add knowledge to empirical answers to this question by way of estimates of changes in Florida-both within and between regions with different income levels.

Williamson suggests that as significant economic growth first occurs in one region, the absolute income differentials between rich and poor regions are expected to persist or even to increase; but sometime during the course of development, some or all of the disequilibrating tendencies diminish, and the regional differences in incomes decline. Labor migration, capital movements, government policy, geographic size, and labor participation rate were discussed by Williamson as important elements in the exploration of changes over time in incomes among regions.
An Analysis of Seasonal Household Waste Generation
Authors: Richardson Robert A. , Havlicek Joseph
Published: July 2016

Solid wastes that are residuals of production and consumption have steadily increased in quantity in recent years. Historically, many of these residuals have been discarded into the environment which appeared to have the capacity to handle them. However, now it is widely believed that these residuals are responsible for the degradation of environment quality by increasing air, water, and land pollution. Ecological considerations have increased the complexity of handling solid wastes and have stimulated the need for alternative methods of managing various types of wastes.

Local and municipal authorities and private industry provide waste collection and disposal services. Municipal services are generally financed out of taxation revenues, so it is in the public's interest to have an efficient, cost-minimizing operation at some publicly acceptable standard of quality of service.
Product Complementarity in Production: The By-product Case
Authors: Beattie Bruce , Thompson Stassen , Boehlje Michael
Published: July 2016

The product-product relationship has been a traditional subject of most production economics and farm management courses for the past two decades. Although the traditional examples of product-product optimization have come primarily from the agricultural production sector (e.g., legume-corn rotations and crop-livestock combinations), the concept is useful in analyzing the organization of any multi-product firm-including those firms which produce externalities in the form of environmental degradation.

Three concepts or ideas usually are offered as giving rise to a positively sloped or complementary range on the product transformation surface-(l) one production process uses as an input a by-product of another production process, (2) one process uses quantities of a factor that are “surplus” to another, or (3) technical interaction (production function shifts) occurs.
The Role of Agricultural Economics in a Changing Environment
Authors: Ewing John A.
Published: July 2016

The historical development of Agricultural Economics as a field of applied economics has been well-documented in books and journals by scholars within the profession. The relationship of Agricultural Economics to other social, biological and natural sciences has changed as the discipline has emerged and as forces of science and technology have been brought to bear on problems of our society.

The objective of this paper is to define or establish the parameters of Agricultural Economics but offer personal views on how economic forces within our economy have influenced program development in research involving many disciplines. In this process I will emphasize some of the areas where Agricultural Economics has made a major contribution and, in my judgement, can play an important role in the future.
An Examination of Major Crop Acreage Response
Authors: Walker R. L. , Penn J. B.
Published: July 2016

In recent years, several studies have examined acreage response of major crops to various economic, technical, and institutional stimuli. These studies focused primarily upon the influence of government farm programs on producers' production decisions. While the influence of government programs has recently diminished and market forces are more direct determinants, this less stable situation has likely increased informational needs on potential production response. Previously developed response models require updating, additional refinement, or reformulation for continued usefulness in the current situation.
The Significance of Capital Gains to Farmers and Some Effects of Eliminating Their Preferred Income Tax Treatment
Authors: Woods W. Fred , Sisson Charles A.
Published: July 2016

The American experience with income taxes began with the Act of 1913, but it was not until 1921 that capital gains were identified separately and taxed differently from other sources of income. This fundamental revision of the income tax was justified on equity grounds; proponents of the change argued that it was unfair to tax income accrued over many years in the year that income was realized [6, p. 192].

The present capital gains provisions have been and are now—strongly attacked alternately as being too lenient and too strict [5, p. 184]. Unfortunately, this symmetry in the opposition to present capital gains treatment does not imply the present provisions are near the optimum.
Effects of Trade Policies on Competition Between Florida and Mexico in the U.S. Winter Cucumber Market
Authors: Andrew C. O. , DeBoon Teunis , McPherson W. W.
Published: July 2016

Since the 1964 United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, less developed countries (LDCs) have been united in expressing concern over their trade problems and long-run balance of payment deficits. The LDCs feel that the more developed countries (MDCs) discriminate against their products by use of tariffs. Tariff relief sought by LDCs includes reduction of tariff rates as well as effective rates applied to raw materials and semiprocessed products.

Tariff relief for LDCs means that domestic industries in the MDSs face stronger competition from those imports that are less costly to produce in other countries, For U.S. growers of winter vegetables, this competition has become intense. Several vegetables produced in Mexico compete with Florida's in the U.S, winter market.
The Deletion of Variables From Regression Models Based on Tests of Significance: A Statistical and Moral Issue
Authors: Debertin David L. , Freund R. J.
Published: July 2016

The purpose of this paper is to illustrate some of the dangers inherent in use of statistical tests as a criterion for deleting variables from regression models. The deletion of variables from regression models based on t or F tests of regression coefficients has been a procedure widely followed by applied economists and other researchers. When economic theory does not provide an adequate conceptual basis for rigorousa priorispecification of the regression model, one approach to model specification has been to include in the regression equation all variables thought to be “somehow” related to the dependent variable of interest. Subsets of variables with statistically significant coefficients are identified, with the aid of a stepwise regression routine. Truncated models consisting of only those variables with statistically significant regression coefficients are sometimes presented in the published research without reference to the initial data dredging that took place.
The Hourly Labor Supply Response of Agricultural Workers
Authors: Emerson Robert D.
Published: July 2016

A number of economic policies are believed to influence an individual's decision of how many hours or weeks to work. Among these policies are welfare programs, income maintenance plans, and unemployment insurance. To date, questions of agricultural labor response to economic incentives have been analyzed by resorting to aggregate data and models, typically utilizing state or U.S. time series data. While this does provide needed information for analysis of some policies, aggregate data and models are deficient in isolating substitution and income effects. These are necessary for analysis of particular programs affecting only income or affecting the individual's budget constraint in a discontinuous way. In particular, aggregate models cannot approach the question of a backward bending supply curve, since aggregate data include not only variations in duration of employment but also variations in labor force participation.
Financing State and Local Services in a Cyclical Economy
Authors: White Fred C. , Musser Wesley N.
Published: July 2016

During the past six years, state-local government finance ranged from a situation of fiscal crisis in 1970, to a boom in 1972-73, and back to a crisis in 1974-75. This was far worse than any since the Great Depression. During the recession of 1970-71, rising state and local tax revenues and federal grants did not keep pace with increases in expenditures resulting primarily from inflation [21, p. 500]. More favorable conditions in 1972-73, though, saw researchers projecting large future surpluses for the remainder of the decade and calling for reductions in tax rates and increases in expenditures [11, pp. 364-366].
The Effects of Recession on the Rural-Farm Economy
Authors: Gardner Bruce L.
Published: July 2016

This paper consists of two parts. The first is a general view of the consequences of recession, with reference to historical U.S. business downturns. The second considers more specifically the effect of rural industrialization on the sensitivity of the rural economy to general business conditions. Attempts are made to estimate effects of rural industrialization during the 1974-75 recession.
A Sequential Link Approach to Evaluating Transportation Facility Adjustments
Authors: Johnson Marc A.
Published: July 2016

Adjustments in the distribution system, as rapidly and as consistently as they occur, seldom fail to elicit substantial emotional reaction. Linking the production system with the consumption system, the distribution system is extremely pervasive. Small changes have widespread effects. Thorough, objective analysis of these changes is difficult and vulnerable, especially when public hearing procedures provide little time for intensive study.
Agricultural Economics and the Changing Structure of Higher Education
Authors: Coutu Arthur J.
Published: July 2016

This paper is another of many that looks into a hazy future. The overall purpose is to identify some possible departmental strategies for the agricultural economics profession. These strategies follow from a discussion of the status of higher education, a review of findings from the Carnegie Commission reports, and from a study on alternative organizational structures—particularly institutes and centers.

Strategies for the next decade relate to a serious set of issues particularly crucial to social science departments within universities. The issues seem related to clarifying the role of agricultural economics, to increased linkage of professional and political decision types, to greater balance of theory and empiricism on complex societal problems, and to increased concern for indirect effects of scientific and technological developments.
A Lancasterian Approach for Specifying Derived Demands for Recreational Activities
Authors: Batie Sandra S. , Jensen Robert B. , Hogue Linda G.
Published: July 2016

Accurate estimations of recreational demand schedules are important for projecting attendance at new facilities. Projecting future demand levels and calculating social benefits of additional facilities can be biased, however, if an analyst does not consider the influence of recreational opportunities. The Lancasterian theory of household behavior provides a framework for exploring implications of the influence of such recreational opportunities on demand estimations, projections, and consumer surplus measures. A case study of boating demand is presented to empirically investigate this framework.
The Market for Citrus Harvesting Labor
Authors: Emerson Robert D. , Walker Thomas S. , Andrew Chris O.
Published: July 2016

A number of aggregate agricultural labor market studies exist, typically concentrated on data at the national level. The Florida agricultural labor market, however, differs substantially from that of the rest of the nation, excepting California. In Florida, a large portion of the labor force is employed as harvesting labor. This is not only highly seasonal work, but also among the least demanding of skill. Also, over the period 1953-57 to 1967-69, the total number of farm workers declined in 49 states and by 43 percent nationally. During this time, Florida, however, experienced a 53 percent increase in hired labor usage, more than offsetting a 38 percent decline in family labor.
Evaluation of Turkey Litter Silage as a Feed Source for Replacement Dairy Heifers
Authors: Thompson C. Stassen , Borders W. Thomas , Cross Dee L. , Jenny Bruce F.
Published: July 2016

Record high grain and protein supplement prices in the early 1970s provided the impetus for developing lower priced substitutes for grains and concentrates in livestock rations. One promising substitute is animal wastes, since these are often of considerable nutritive value.

The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the technical and economic feasibility of feeding ensiled turkey litter to replacement dairy heifers. In addition, the implications to both dairy and poultry producers of using turkey litter as a feed are also discussed.
Vertical Integration for Risk Management: An Application to a Cattle Ranch
Authors: Whitson Robert E. , Barry Peter J. , Lacewell Ronald D.
Published: July 2016

Substantial variations in equity and income of cattle producers and feeders in highly leveraged operations have occurred during the early 1970s as the result of wide variations in prices of cattle and purchased feed. Moreover, severe losses in many commercial feedlots have resulted in greater forage inputs in beef production, with feeder cattle placed in feedlots at heavier weights and for shorter periods of time. The large price uncertainty, together with possible changes in the livestock production system, make cattle producers' search for effective methods of risk management more urgent.

The search is hampered, however, by a limited scope of choices in risk management. Forward price commitments in cattle production have received limited use at the producer level. Public programs of price support and supply management have never been available. Insurance choices are few, as are alternatives for diversifying use of grazing lands and other resources specialized to cattle production. Often, producers' primary methods of risk-bearing are reliance on financial reserves, including unused borrowing capacity, emergency loans provided by public programs and outside sources of income. However, effective opportunities for reduction of income variability may be offered by vertical integration expressed as retention of calf ownership through finishing stages either on pasture or by custom feeding in commercial feedlots.
Water Allocation Under Administrative Regulation: Some Economic Considerations
Authors: Kiker Clyde , Lynne Gary D.
Published: July 2016

Increased competition and conflict among users of water have caused eastern states to investigate alternatives to their common law doctrines dealing with water use, and the legislative trend is toward greater state administration in water management. As a part of this trend, Florida has enacted an administrative water law (Florida Water Resource Act of 1972) based upon a model water code suggested for eastern states. The economic efficiency implications of the allocation processes allowed by the code and the Florida act are examined herein to indicate how more effective use of basic economic principles could increase efficiency of water allocation under an administrative system. Since the present body-of-water law has evolved over time and any modifications must be consistent with this body of law, eastern surface and groundwater law is reviewed first. Then, water allocation under administrative water law, with a focus on the code and the Florida water act, is discussed. Alternative approaches to water allocation which have potential for improving economic efficiency are discussed last.
The Rural Town as a Producing Unit: An Empirical Analysis and Implications for Rural Development Policy
Authors: Ayer Harry W. , Weidman Joe
Published: July 2016

Emphasis at nearly all levels of government has been placed on rejuvenating rural areas in terms of their income and employment opportunities. Implicitly this rejuvenation is to occur in rural towns and not on farms, since employment opportunities in farming, while improving in the 1973-1976 time period, are not likely to expand greatly. Popular doctrine to stimulate economies of rural towns is fostered by the observed problems of pollution (air, water, noise), slums and human crowding, crime and traffic congestion associated with many large cities, and the concomitant problems of low income, poor consumer and producer services, and declining job opportunities in numerous rural towns. According to popular political opinion, a more desirable social state could be reached by reversing the migration flow, thereby relieving pressures of large cities and enhancing the standard of living potential in rural areas.
Application of the Transhipment Model to Development of the Seed Industry in Northeast Brazil
Authors: Tyner Fred H. , Campos Roberto G.
Published: July 2016

The importance of agriculture in developing economies is reflected in the share of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) originating in that sector and in the percent of population working in that sector. Brazil received 19 percent of its GDP from agriculture in 1968, and 60 percent of its population was in agriculture. In contrast, only three percent of GDP came from agriculture in the United States, and only six percent of the population was employed in agriculture.

Development of a country's agriculture is dependent on a multitude of factors—not the least of which is availability and use of good seed. Use of high quality seeds increases total yield; allows for more efficient use of fertilizers, pesticides and irrigation because of greater uniformity, better stands and more vigorous plants; usually results in higher quality produce; requires lower planting rates; and usually reduces weed, disease and soil insect problems. Other inputs such as fertilizers, pesticides, technical assistance and credit availability are necessary to achieving a sound agriculture.
Pricing Soybeans on the Basis of Oil and Protein Content
Authors: Updaw Nelson J. , Bullock J. Bruce , Nichols T. E.
Published: July 2016

Demand for soybeans consists of the derived demand for its use as an input in the production of soybean oil and meal. The marginal value product of any bushel is determined by its oil and protein content and the price of oil and meal. Until recently, traders have been forced to estimate the value of soybeans through a grading scheme based on visual inspection and measured moisture content. Instruments that provide a quick and accurate measurement of the protein and oil content of soybeans and other grains are becoming available. Their use will allow purchasers to adjust the price paid for soybeans that do not possess average protein and oil contents.

The purpose of this paper is to report the development of a system of discounts and premiums that would complement the use of these new instruments in the pricing of soybeans.
Price-Margin Movements in the Fluid Milk Industry
Authors: Beck Robert L. , Mather Loys L.
Published: July 2016

Accelerating food prices during the past few years have focused renewed attention on the food marketing system. In particular, concern has been expressed regarding increased costs of food marketing. Producers and consumers alike tend to point an accusing finger at the marketing system for extracting an undue portion of the food dollar.

As evidenced by activities of various consumer groups, the milk marketing system has not escaped this scrutiny. Recent research efforts have centered around attempts to evaluate the system's efficiency. In short, concerns are usually expressed in terms of trying to understand or evaluate pricing behavior and market performance.
Spatial and Temporal Water Allocation in the Kissimmee River Basin
Authors: Reynolds John E. , Conner J. Richard
Published: July 2016

In many areas of the country, there is strong competition among agricultural, municipal, industrial and other users of water. Water managers are faced with the problem of allocating available water among alternative uses.

The study [11] upon which this paper is based was a cooperative effort with the Central and Southern Florida Control District which is typical of many water management districts making decisions regarding allocation of a limited amount of water among uses and users. When the District was formed, it was developed with emphasis on facilities to provide relief from flooding. Water management responsibilities such as water supply, recreation and the preservation and enhancement of fish and wildlife have become important to the public and consequently have received recognition by those responsible for managing the water.
Grain Exports as a Source of Agricultural Instability
Authors: Trapp James N. , Thompson Stanley R.
Published: July 2016

Numerous recent articles have dealt with causes and implications of domestic agricultural market instability [2, 3, 4, 7]. In these articles large, unexpected and erratic grain exports since 1972 are hypothesized to be a primary contributor to recent agricultural market instability. More specifically, Seevers [4] and others have stated that recent severe instability in agriculture markets began in late 1972 with a combination of increased export demand and strong domestic economic expansion. These analyses have largely based their conclusions upon intuition rather than a thorough empirical investigation.
Solid Waste Disposal in Rural Areas: Economic Implications
Authors: Ayer Harry W. , Hogan David W.
Published: July 2016

Solid waste disposal is a significant problem. It has been estimated that almost a ton of solid waste is collected per year per capita in the United States. Solid waste disposal, especially in rural areas, is frequently done in an unsanitary, potentially dangerous and often unslightly manner. To cope with these solid waste problems, both state legislatures and the Environmental Protection Agency are now in the process of requiring communities which presently utilize unsanitary disposal practices to upgrade their facilities and management practices. A sanitary landfill operation1 is usually the least-cost method of accomplishing these requirements, especially in rural areas.2 Quality facilities and management practices are not costless, however. It is estimated that the U.S. spends more than $4.5 billion each year on solid waste management, and more than 80 percent of this amount is for collection.
River Basin Simulation: An Interactive Engineering-Economic Approach to Operational Policy Evaluation
Authors: Kiker Clyde
Published: July 2016

Traditionally man has used water for domestic needs, livestock, crop production and navigation; now he is also concerned with anesthetics, recreation, industrial production, waste disposal, power generation and aquatic ecological systems. He finds many of these uses incompatible and in conflict.

Florida is encountering similar conflicts and in many ways is typical of other humid eastern states. The situation is especially dramatic because of extreme oscillations in rainfall — torrential tropical storms to droughts lasting many months. Water management in Florida has been primarily for flood protection. More recently, the need for multi-purpose water management to increase usage benefits while decreasing potential damage from quantity extremes, has been recognized. Legislation, the Florida Water Resources Act of 1972 being foremost, has been enacted to create a governmental framework in which water problems can be addressed.
Classification of Contributions to the Southern Journal of Agricultural Economics: 1969-1976
Authors: Oursbourn Cecil D. , Hardin Daniel C. , Lacewell Ronald D.
Published: July 2016

Agricultural economists in the Southern region of the United States have met annually with the Southern Association of Agricultural Scientists (formerly known as Southern Agricultural Workers) for many years. In the 1960s, there was a growing awareness of the need for a reviewed professional outlet to reflect economic studies primarily applicable to the South. Through the Southern Agricultural Economics Association, the Southern Journal of Agricultural Economics (SJAE) was established.

The SJAE was established principally as an outlet for results of applied economic studies. First issues were comprised of the papers presented at annual meetings that were judged to be of journal quality. Dr. Rod Martin, ERS, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Texas A & M University, served as the first editor of the SJAE. Under the editorship of Dr. Martin, Dr. Gerald Doeksen, ERS, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Oklahoma State University, and Dr. John Nixon, University of Georgia, the Journal has emerged as an important professional agricultural economics publishing outlet.
Farm Real Estate Disinvestment Strategies
Authors: Forster D. Lynn , Duvick Richard D.
Published: July 2016

The combination of larger farms, rapidly increasing land values, and tax laws has resulted in increasing tax liabilities for the seller of farm real estate. After a real estate owner has made the decision to sell, he must choose the method of sale from several alternative selling strategies. Each selling strategy has a different impact on after-tax earnings. In the U.S., large numbers of farmers face this decision each year, as 4 to 5 percent of farms transfer annually. In addition, more than four-fifths of farm transfers are credit-financed. Sellers have been the predominant source of financing, providing more than two-fifths of all credit extended annually for farm real estate purchases.
Application of Price Elasticities to Farm Policy Analysis
Authors: Bateman W. Lanny , Stennis Earl A.
Published: July 2016

Much dialogue has been devoted to the “farm problem” by both the public and private sectors in recent months. Expressions of concern about chronic low farm income because of low prices received have again become common. Numerous proposals have been offered as solutions to the problem.

It is of concern to the authors that many of these proposals emphasize production control as means of maintaining adequate farm price levels. Economists routinely receive training in the concepts of demand and supply response which, although difficult to quantify, offer easily understood market principles. For example, elasticity of demand can be used to show U. S. farmers how actions taken to reduce domestic production could be less than beneficial to the producer. Perhaps economists have failed to apply some of these concepts in the evaluation of policy alternatives or have not clearly demonstrated the effects (particularly long-run) of unilateral actions taken by the United States.
Instability in U.S. Feed Grains Supply and Utilization
Authors: Simpson Scott , Tweeten Luther
Published: July 2016

Two basic economic problems that plague commercial agriculture are (1) a chronic cost-price squeeze brought about by input price inflation and other causes and (2) instability in economic outcomes brought about mainly by unpredictable weather which influences yields and production at home and abroad. The objective of this article is to estimate the sources of instability in U. S. feed grains supply and utilization. Because of the inelastic demand for feed grains, changes in the quantities produced, stored, and utilized, both domestically and abroad, are influential in determining price and income. Identifying past sources of instability provides background for possible future policy considerations to reduce price and income variation. The latter step is not considered here, although commodity stock levels necessary to offset variation in domestic production and export demand are estimated.
Network Flow Models: Use in Rural Freight Transportation Analysis and a Comparison with Linear Programming
Authors: Fuller Stephen , Shanmugham Chiyyarath
Published: July 2016

The logistical efficiency and viability of the rural transportation system is a growing concern of agricultural producers, transportation regulators, and policy makers. Railroad facility limitations, abandonment of railroad track, deterioration of the rural road system, and changing transportation rate structures are examples of issues for which solutions and evaluations are required. To plan and evaluate transportation alternatives, decision makers need a research tool with an ability to answer numerous “what if” types of questions. Often the model must include a spatial and/or temporal dimension, in addition to microscopic detail of the transportation and marketing system. Therefore, large models are needed and efficiency of computer solution procedures becomes a relevant consideration. The flexibility of the research tool to include necessary system realism may also become an important concern.