bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Natural Experiment of Industrial Policy
Authors: Gebreeyesus Mulu
Published: April 2017

Ethiopia represents an excellent case study of recent industrial policy experimentation in Africa. The country is well known for its successful promotion of the cut-flower industry through business–government coordination. What is less known is that, at almost the same time, it was also using coordination to promote the metal and engineering industry, albeit with little success. This study provides comparative analysis of the policy process and outcomes of the interventions in these two industries. Examining why one intervention worked and the other failed in the same political context and institutional setting provides a natural experiment from which to draw valuable lessons.
5. Populism and democracy
Authors: Mudde Cas , Kaltwasser Cristóbal Rovira
Published: April 2017

The relationship between populism and democracy has always been a topic of intense debate. Depending on its electoral power and the context in which it arises, populism can work as either a threat to or a corrective for democracy. To better understand this complex relationship, “Populism and democracy” presents a clear definition of (liberal) democracy, which helps to clarify how the latter is positively and negatively affected by populist forces. It then presents an original theoretical framework of the impact of populism on different political regimes, which allows us to distinguish the main effects of populism on the different stages of the process of both democratization and de-democratization.
3. Achievements and challenges
Authors: Bernstein R. B.
Published: April 2017

For seven decades, the founding fathers played pivotal roles in creating an American nation and its constitutional system. “Achievements and challenges: The history the founding fathers made” looks at the steps taken to achieve independence, nationhood, and constitutional government. It considers the creation of state and national constitutions; the drafting of the Bill of Rights; federalism and state sovereignty; the setting up of both federal and state courts and judicial power; the evolution of political parties; church-state relations; and issues of slavery and women’s rights. The founding fathers were human beings who dared greatly and achieved greatly, but they were also beset by flaws and failings common to humanity.
Epilogue
Authors: Bernstein R. B.
Published: April 2017

The “Epilogue” concludes that Americans’ contentious relationship with the founding fathers has unfolded within and been shaped by two linked questions: how much do the founding fathers resemble us and how much do they differ from us? To what extent must we keep faith with them, and to what extent must we challenge them or set them aside in the face of changing conditions and problems? The Preamble’s statement that the Constitution’s primary purpose is “to form a more perfect Union” offers a way to answer these questions. The idea of perfecting the Union has been a vital feature of American constitutional culture and, in particular, a key theme of African American constitutional thought.
1. Aristotle's quartet: the elements in antiquity
Authors: Ball Philip
Published: April 2017

‘Aristotle's quartet: the elements in antiquity’ outlines how the study of elements progressed from ancient Greece to the seventeenth century. The Aristotelian system of elements claimed that there were four types of matter — earth, wind, fire, and water. After the Dark Ages the medieval Western world held classical science in reverent awe, and differing views were treated as heretical. However, in this system metals were treated as ‘earth’. Alchemy provided a means of investigating metals, concentrating on turning metal into gold. By the end of the seventeenth century Aristotle's ideas were losing traction, and the work of Robert Boyle and John Dalton changed alchemy into chymistry, then into modern chemistry.
A Public Figure
Authors: Barnes Jonathan
Published: April 2017

‘A public figure‘ discusses Aristotle’s second period in Athens, the cultural capital of the Greek world. He taught regularly in the Lyceum, believing that knowledge and teaching were inseparable. His own researches were frequently carried out in a research team and his results communicated to his friends and pupils. By the 330s, he clearly had some reputation as a scholar since he was invited to draw up the victory lists at Delphi, a task requiring historical research. Other historical projects include the Constitutions of States, which included a brief constitutional history of Athens, and a descriptive survey of Athenian political institutions. In 322 BC Aristotle left Athens for political reasons.
Knowledge
Authors: Barnes Jonathan
Published: April 2017

Whereas the Prior Analytics derives the theorems of a science from its axioms, the Posterior Analytics is concerned with the nature of the axioms themselves, and hence the general form of an axiomatized deductive science. A science is meant to systematize our knowledge of its subject-matter, so its component axioms and theorems must be propositions which are known and satisfy the conditions set upon knowledge. ‘Knowledge’ reveals these. The first condition is one of causality. Clearly, the axioms must be true. Equally clearly, they must be ‘immediate and primary’. The axioms must be ‘more known’ than the theorems and, finally, they must be ‘prior to and causes of the conclusion’.
Teleology
Authors: Barnes Jonathan
Published: April 2017

Aristotle had a teleological view of nature. Natural behaviour and natural structure usually have final causes, but these are constrained by necessity: nature does the best she can ‘in the circumstances’. Aristotle’s teleology is sometimes summed up in the slogan ‘Nature does nothing in vain’, and he himself frequently uses similar aphorisms. ‘Nature does nothing in vain’ is a regulative principle for scientific enquiry. ‘Teleology’ asserts that, even though Aristotle knew that some aspects of nature are functionless, he recognized that a grasp of function is crucial to understanding nature. References to the prudence of nature are not childish superstition, but reminders of a central task of the natural scientist.
The Arts
Authors: Barnes Jonathan
Published: April 2017

The Poetics consists largely of the theory and criticism of tragic drama. Aristotle, however, saw the work as a contribution to ‘productive’ science, telling us how to produce a work of art. All art, Aristotle thought, is a matter of ‘imitation’ of human life, and, particularly, human action. ‘The Arts’ tells us that, of the six elements of tragedy Aristotle distinguished — plot, character, language, thought, spectacle, song — plot is the most important. It is through its plot that a tragedy will be ‘complete’, and will perform its purgative function. By its organic unity, and its implicit universality, the story works upon the feelings of the audience.
Take the strain: materials from molecules
Authors: Ball Philip
Published: April 2017

‘Take the strain: materials from molecules’ examines the molecular basis of materials science. Nature can perform countless tasks by employing many intricate molecular structures. This hierarchical structure allows the same molecules to display very different properties. In the human body, for example, collagen can be found as a tangle of fibres in the skin, or as a neatly ordered, uniform layer in the cornea. Spiders vary their silk to perform different tasks. Even at a cellular level, tubulin forms cytoskeletal superstructures involved in cell growth and division. Modern synthetic techniques are currently nowhere near nature's complexity, but research into carbon nanotubules may yield exciting results.
4. African American Christianity: The modern phase (1863–1935)
Authors: Glaude Eddie S.
Published: April 2017

‘African American Christianity: The Modern Phase (1863–1935)’ describes three distinctive moments: firstly, the nationalization of black Christianity, as the “invisible institution” of the slaveholding South became visible and as black denominations in the North extended their missions overtly into the South. Secondly, large numbers of African Americans migrated from the South to relocate in the North and the West, which changed the demographics of American cities as they confronted new forms of labor discipline and different social constraints. Finally, the modern phase was also characterized by American imperial ambition and the consolidation of a new racial regime called Jim Crow. Racial segregation and the extralegal violence that attended its implementation fundamentally shaped the expression of black Christianity during this period.
5. African American Christianity: The modern phase (1935–1980)
Authors: Glaude Eddie S.
Published: April 2017

The political dimension is important to any understanding of the modern phase of African American Christianity, and it is clearly expressed in the explosion of civic and religious energy in the middle of the twentieth century that fundamentally transformed the United States. ‘African American Christianity: The Modern Phase (1935–1980)’ describes the civil rights movement and the important role that black churches played. Martin Luther King Jr. drew on the language of the black church in his public ministry. Womanist theologies, James Cone's black liberation theology, and the centrality of black Christianity to the civil rights movement demonstrate how the social and political circumstances of black life shaped the form and content of black Christian expression in the United States.
Pharaoh: Alexander and Egypt
Authors: Bowden Hugh
Published: April 2017

‘Pharaoh: Alexander and Egypt’ chronicles Alexander's journey into Egypt, which was the first of the major Near Eastern kingdoms to come under his control. Egypt had a system of government that had been in existence for over two-and-a-half millennia. Two events are important for Alexander's time in Egypt: the foundation of the city of Alexandria and the visit to the oracle of Amun at Siwa. Ancient writers disagree about the relative chronology of the two events. This adds mystery to the first of the two stories. Ancient Alexander Historians all emphasize the personal involvement of Alexander in the construction of Alexandria. They also provide versions of a prophetic story about the foundation. What did the Egyptians think of their new ruler?
King of the world: Alexander and Persia
Authors: Bowden Hugh
Published: April 2017

‘King of the World: Alexander and Persia’ examines where the title ‘King of the World’ to describe Alexander came from and his image as a ‘King of the World’. It first appears in the narrative of Alexander's campaign in the story of the Gordian knot. Babylonians had no distinct concept of ‘Asia’, and ‘King of the World’ may have been a Babylonian way of rendering the term ‘King of Asia’. The issue that most concerned ancient writers, and many modern scholars, is the question of whether Alexander wanted his companions to prostrate themselves in his presence. Alexander historians seem to have believed that it was normal for Persians to do so, but in fact only defeated enemies were required to do this.
Doomed to die: Alexander in Babylon
Authors: Bowden Hugh
Published: April 2017

‘Doomed to Die: Alexander in Babylon’ looks at the final chapter in Alexander's life, which was set in Babylon. When Alexander entered Babylon after his victory at Gaugamela, he was following a long line of previous victors. None of the surviving narratives mentions a coronation of Alexander in Babylon, but he was definitely recognized as king from the point of his arrival and described as such since. What do we know about the end of Alexander's life? Plutarch and Arrian both give detailed accounts of the last days of his life. They describe how he caught a fever, his health gradually declined, he lost the power of speech, and died. He was only 32. Shortly after, stories circulated claiming that he was poisoned.
The spread of the Industrial Revolution abroad
Authors: Allen Robert C.
Published: April 2017

The Industrial Revolution may have ended for Britain in 1867, but it had only just begun elsewhere. ‘The spread of the Industrial Revolution abroad’ charts the different regions’ share of world manufacturing. The second industrial revolution was in Western Europe, whose share of world manufacturing increased from 12 per cent in the 18th century to 28 per cent in 1913. Even more dramatic was the rise of the North American share: from less than 1 per cent in the 18th century to a peak value of 47 per cent in 1953. Other regions experiencing industrial revolutions in the 20th century were the former USSR, East Asia, and China.
3. Sounds in harmony
Authors: Goldsmith Mike
Published: April 2017

The words ‘tone’ and ‘note’ reflect the subjective/objective nature of sound: a tone is a sound wave with a particular frequency, a note is its subjective impact, with a particular pitch. ‘Sounds in harmony’ looks at what makes a note. In addition to pitch, a note also has duration, loudness, and timbre. Unlike pitch, duration, and loudness, timbre is a dynamic quality that can change over time and it is the only thing unique to a particular instrument or person. Why do we like what we do? Auditory pleasantness—consonance—and harmony are explained along with octaves, the pentatonic scale, major and minor scales, melodies, tempo, and metre.
5. Electronic sound
Authors: Goldsmith Mike
Published: April 2017

‘Electronic sound’ explains the conversion of sound to electricity through the development of microphones, amplifiers, and loudspeakers. There are several types of microphones, but only three types in common use: the dynamic or moving coil microphone, the condenser microphone, and the piezoelectric microphone. Directionality is also important; an omnidirectional microphone is equally sensitive to sound from any direction, and is required to capture a full soundscape, whereas a unidirectional microphone picks up sound from one direction only—ideal for picking up speech or song in noisy environments. The development of sound storage from stereophonic phonographs, to analogue cassette tapes, compact discs, and now MP3 audio files is also described.
The religions of Abraham
Authors: Bowker John
Published: April 2017

‘The religions of Abraham: Christian understandings of God’ looks at Christianity beginning with its development from its Jewish Bible roots. Christianity began as one interpretation among many at that time of what it should mean to live in the Covenant relationship with God. Jesus' followers believed that Jesus, with whom they had lived and knew so well, was God in their midst. The Jewish understanding of God as One, the Creator of all things and of all people, did not change, but what did was their understanding of who God is and of how God is related to the world. The questions of Christology, Atonement, and the Trinity are then discussed.
Afterword
Authors: Crisp Richard J.
Published: April 2017

So that’s a very short introduction to social psychology. We’ve taken a tour of the social mind and seen the profound impact that our relationships have on attitudes, beliefs, and behaviour. Social psychology is there in every interaction, every attitude, every action we take. It tells us why we like some people and dislike others; why we’re confident, afraid, elated, and proud. It speaks to the most important issues we face, from immigration to economics to the environment....
2. Assyrian places
Authors: Radner Karen
Published: April 2017

‘Assyrian places’ considers the exploration of key sites that provide insight into Assyria’s rediscovery since the mid-19th century. Firstly, it looks at the city where everything started—Aššur, at the southern edge of the core region—where the empire of the first millennium first came together. Aššur and Kalhu (which replaced Aššur as capital city) are two of Iraq’s most significant archaeological sites. A glimpse at the trading colony at Kaneš in Central Turkey serves to investigate Assyrian history of the early second millennium bc further afield, while Dur-Katlimmu, an important provincial centre in Syria, serves to emphasize the impact of Assyria’s expansion from the 13th century bc onwards.
4. Assyrians abroad
Authors: Radner Karen
Published: April 2017

‘Assyrians abroad’ captures snapshots of Assyrian lives far away from the city of Aššur and Assyrian heartland through a range of primary sources from different periods. Accounts of Assyrian traders at the trading colony of Kaneš, c.1900 bc, are seen through letters excavated in the Assyrian quarter. Diplomatic relations between Assyrian ruler Aššur-uballit I and Pharaoh Akhenaten in c.1340 bc are described through the ‘Amarna Letters’ found among the state correspondence of the pharaohs of the later 18th Dynasty of Egypt. Details of the 1082 bc famine; Aššur-reṣuwa, the Assyrian ambassador for client state Kumme in c.710 bc; and the sibling rivalry between Aššurbanipal, king of Assyria, and Šamaš-šumu-ukin, king of Babylon, are also described.
6. Assyrian world domination: pathfinder empire
Authors: Radner Karen
Published: April 2017

‘Assyrian world domination: pathfinder empire’ considers the key aspects of governance and ideology that contributed to the Assyrian Empire’s control over its holdings for three centuries. Warfare is prominently reviewed in sources such as the Assyrian palace art, royal inscriptions, and the Bible. The ideology of absolute kingship, the innovative long-distance relay postal service, and the empire-wide resettlement programme provided powerful tools for the empire’s cohesion, and provided the basis and templates for successor states including the Persian and Roman Empires. The royal library that the Assyrian kings assembled and maintained since the 14th century bc has contributed much to our knowledge of Assyria’s cultural history.
Planet Earth
Authors: McGuire Bill
Published: April 2017

Earth is the most dynamic planet in our solar system, but the very same geophysical features that make our world so life-giving and life-preserving also make it dangerous. ‘Planet Earth: in a nutshell’ provides a potted biography of the Earth’s 4.6 billion years of history describing the major natural hazards—storms, floods, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides, and asteroid and comet collisions—that have assaulted our planet. Floods constitute the greatest of all natural hazards—at least 100 million people a year are affected—and this situation is likely to continue given a future of rising sea levels and more extreme precipitation.
Global warming
Authors: McGuire Bill
Published: April 2017

‘Global warming’ explains that the Earth is now warmer than it has been for over 90 per cent of its 4.6 billion year history and is heating up faster than at any time in the last 11,500 years. In 2013, atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide exceeded 400ppm, the highest level for at least 15 million years. The 2013 IPCC 5th Assessment Report forecasts that global average temperatures could be 5°C higher and sea levels 1m higher by 2100. No one can escape the effects of anthropogenic climate change, but unless there is a widespread adoption of sustainable development, urgent action to seriously tackle climate change may only happen if there is an Earth-shattering climate catastrophe that no one can ignore.
The enemy within
Authors: McGuire Bill
Published: April 2017

‘The Enemy Within’ begins with volcanic super-eruptions and their devastating consequences such as the 1815 eruption of volcano Tambora in Indonesia, and ancient eruptions in Yellowstone, USA, and Toba, northern Sumatra. Volcanic explositivity index, eruption magnitude, and eruption intensity are explained. Volcanic landslides in Hawaii and the Canary Islands will, in the future, result in giant tsunamis wreaking havoc around the Pacific and Atlantic Ocean rims. But when will they happen? Finally, the fate of industrial cities, such as Tokyo, located near active fault-lines and in earthquake zone, and the resultant effects on the world economy are considered.
2. The analysis of stuff
Authors: Brock William H.
Published: April 2017

The fundamental problem in chemistry is transmutation. How can two homogeneous stuffs with very different properties merge to form another homogeneous material whose properties are different from the reactants? ‘The analysis of stuff’ outlines the history of chemical analysis beginning in the early 16th century with Paracelsus, a deeply religious practising doctor who began to work with chemical remedies rather than those based on plants. The iatrochemistry movement promoted by Paracelsians meant that chemistry became part of the European medical curriculum. Other key characters in the chemical revolution are also discussed—Joan Baptista van Helmont, Daniel Sennert, and Robert Boyle—along with the documentation of elements by Antoine Lavoisier and Isaac Newton.
7. The future of criminal justice
Authors: Roberts Julian V.
Published: April 2017

‘The future of criminal justice’ proposes that a number of trends are set to continue. Budget cuts will mean more privatization along with greater public awareness and official scrutiny of police. It is likely that many countries will seek to reduce the use of imprisonment as a sanction, with more electronic monitoring replacing custody as a sentence. It is also likely that more offenders will be punished through financial penalties and asset seizure. A greater harmonization of effective criminal justice practices worldwide may result in the end of the death penalty. Finally, victims may be given even more rights throughout the criminal process.
8. Seasons of life
Authors: Foster Russell G. , Kreitzman Leon
Published: April 2017

With each season there are changes in day length, wind speed and direction, temperature, and rainfall, which dictate the optimal times for plants and animals to initiate growth, development, and reproduction. Plants are sessile and cannot escape or hide from seasonal change. Getting the timing right so that germination, bud burst, flowering, dormancy, and other critical processes are aligned with seasonal changes is essential for survival. Animals have more choices. They can migrate, hibernate, or, like plants, adapt their physiology and behaviour to cope with the changes. ‘Seasons of life’ explains that the most stable indicator of the time of year is photoperiod (day length) and considers the different light-detecting mechanisms in plants and animals.
What is climate change?
Authors: Maslin Mark
Published: April 2017

‘What is climate change?’ examines the role of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in moderating past global climate; why they have been rising since the industrial revolution; and why they are now considered dangerous pollutants. It considers which countries have produced the most GHGs and how this is changing with rapid global development. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change regularly collates and assesses the most recent key research and evidence for climate change. Its assessments have a profound influence on the negotiators of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). As more carbon is emitted into the atmosphere the effects of climate change will increase, which will threaten and challenge human society.
Politics of climate change
Authors: Maslin Mark
Published: April 2017

Climate change can only be solved by having binding international agreements to cut global greenhouse gas emissions. ‘Politics of climate change’ reviews the role of the UNFCC and the regular ‘Conference of the Parties’ (COPs) climate change negotiations beginning with the Kyoto Protocol, which was signed in 1997 by over 190 countries. Failures at COP15 in Copenhagen (2009) due to the introduction by the US and BASIC countries of voluntary pledges set back negotiations. COP18 in Doha (2012) reinstated the Kyoto mechanisms and accounting rules, and encouraged parties to review and, if possible, increase their commitments. It is hoped that a timetable for a binding climate agreement can be finalized at COP21 in Paris in 2015.
3. Atmospheric motion
Authors: Palmer Paul I.
Published: April 2017

Solar activity is the main driver for Earth’s large-scale atmospheric motion. Due to the Earth’s tilt, lower latitudes receive more energy from the Sun that they emit back to space, while the higher latitudes emit more radiation back to space than they receive directly from the Sun. The Earth is in approximate thermal equilibrium, suggesting that energy is being transported from low to high latitudes. The thermal gradient between the tropics and the poles drives the hemispheric circulation. But Earth is rotating and is composed of land and ocean. ‘Atmospheric motion’ outlines the effects of these factors on the atmosphere’s circulation patterns and describes key features such as jet streams and the Southern Oscillation.
6. Our future atmosphere
Authors: Palmer Paul I.
Published: April 2017

There is still much about Earth’s atmosphere we do not fully understand, which limits our ability to predict large-scale changes to the atmosphere. As Earth’s climate changes new scientific challenges will emerge that need to be addressed with new measurements and models. These challenges have implications for assessing the impact of future global economic growth and mitigating humanitarian risks. ‘Our future atmosphere’ outlines some of the future scientific, technical, and philosophical challenges we face. These include our responses to the changes in natural and anthropogenic-driven climate change, facing future unknown challenges, using improvements in technology to address the scientific challenges, and aiming for an international legally binding agreement on atmosphere policy.
6. BRICS as the recognition of states, not societies
Authors: Cooper Andrew F.
Published: April 2017

The BRICS, at its core, is a state-centric project. The emphasis is on the assertion—and granting—of a heightened degree of recognition within the global system. The motivations combine the symbolic elements, such as the aspirations for an enhanced status, and the instrumental, with respect to gaining additional policy leverage in global affairs. ‘BRICS as the recognition of states, not societies’ explains how societal issues are now being discussed at BRICS summits, but despite the formation of think tanks and trade unions, clear tensions persist between official BRICS cooperation at the governmental level and non-state actors.
4. A combinatorial zoo
Authors: Wilson Robin
Published: April 2017

‘A combinatorial zoo’ presents a menagerie of combinatorial topics, ranging from the box (or pigeonhole) principle, the inclusion–exclusion principle, the derangement problem, and the Tower of Hanoi problem that uses combinatorics to determine how soon the world will end to Fibonacci numbers, the marriage theorem, generators and enumerators, and counting chessboards, which involves symmetry. The method used to average the numbers of colourings that remain unchanged by each symmetry in this latter problem is often called ‘Burnside’s lemma’. This concept has since been developed into a much more powerful result, which has been used to count a wide range of objects with a degree of symmetry, such as graphs and chemical molecules.
1. Soils and crops
Authors: Brassley Paul , Soffe Richard
Published: April 2017

‘Soils and crops’ looks at what soils are, how they differ, how they are classified, and how farmers manage them. Soil anchors and feeds the crops and the type and depth of it is fundamental to the crops that can be grown. Plants get their major constituent elements—carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen—from the air they take in through their leaves and the water taken up by their roots. They also require several other nutrients, the most important being nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. How do plants grow? What prevents them from growing? How can we improve their growth? These questions are considered along with some of the major crops and cultivation systems used.
4. Is capitalism everywhere the same?
Authors: Fulcher James
Published: April 2017

‘Is capitalism everywhere the same?’ considers the diversity and/or uniformity of capitalist societies today by looking at the development and transformation of three systems of managed capitalism in Sweden, the United States, and Japan. In all three, capitalist industrialization generated class organization and conflict, and attempts by governments to manage its problems. Each created its own version of welfare capitalism. Each has recently tried to solve the problems generated by managed capitalism by allowing market forces greater freedom. Increased international competition and globalization have promoted remarketization in all three countries, but each country has remarketized at its own speed and in its own way.
5. Has capitalism gone global?
Authors: Fulcher James
Published: April 2017

What is ‘global capitalism?’ Economies no longer operate in isolation, producing goods at home for export abroad. Companies now run manufacturing operations in many different countries spread across the world. ‘Has capitalism gone global?’ explores four myths of global capitalism. Firstly, global capitalism is not new. The early capitalism of the 15th and 16th centuries was global in nature as it involved world-wide trading activities. Secondly, how global is global capitalism? In reality, most capital moves between a small group of rich countries. Thirdly, global organization of capital has not replaced its national organization. Finally, global capitalism has not integrated the world; inequalities increasingly divide it.
6. Crisis? What crisis?
Authors: Fulcher James
Published: April 2017

Is capitalism in a state of crisis? Crises are in fact a normal part of the functioning of a capitalist society. ‘Crisis? What Crisis?’ looks at crises in capitalism from ‘tulipomania’ in 17th-century Amsterdam through to the 2007–2008 financial crisis and ‘great recession’, the most serious crisis since the Great Depression of the 1930s. It considers the future of capitalism and argues that it may be shaped not by the institutions and structures of the static or declining countries of the West, but the countries of the East. It discusses whether there are alternatives to capitalism and argues that alternatives exist within capitalism rather than outside it.
Writing, scribes, and literature
Authors: Bryce Trevor
Published: April 2017

By the beginning of the Old Babylonian Kingdom, Sumerian and its cuneiform alphabet was a dead language, but it acquired a revered status in educated and cultured circles in Babylonian society. Young men were trained in the Sumerian language at scribal schools and often progressed to careers in palace administration or divination, which played a major role in shaping the lives, the plans, and the activities of the peoples who inhabited the Babylonian world. ‘Writing, scribes, and literature’ considers three of the most important surviving examples of Babylonian literature, copied and sometimes adapted by many generations of scribes: the Epic of Gilgamesh, the Epic of Creation, and the Atrahasis Epic.
How HIV and AIDS work and scientific responses
Authors: Whiteside Alan
Published: April 2017

‘How HIV and AIDS work and scientific responses’ explains how HIV operates and is transmitted, and how science has progressed in the discovery and delivery of practical treatments and prevention measures. HIV attacks the immune system, leaving the victim susceptible to other illnesses. The WHO outlines four stages of HIV from asymptomatic infection to full blown AIDS. Transmission occurs through all bodily fluids—with blood carrying the most risk—and most commonly during sexual intercourse. The gap between infection and illness is around eight years, but healthy lifestyles can prolong this. Antiretroviral therapy is expensive, the drugs complex and toxic. Affordability and access remain a life or death issue.
6. Frontiers of gravitational physics
Authors: Clifton Timothy
Published: April 2017

‘Frontiers of gravitational physics’ considers some of the issues involved in the theoretical description of gravity. Since 1915, it has been Einstein’s theory that has shaped our understanding of the gravitational interaction, but a lot has happened in the world of theoretical physics since then. Quantum mechanics, devised by Bohr, Heisenberg, and Schrödinger, is incompatible with gravity and so has raised numerous questions. Several theories, including String Theory and Loop Quantum Gravity, have been proposed with some success. The concepts of cosmic inflation, the cosmological constant, and the possibility of multiple universes are also discussed. It concludes that with further astrophysical studies a new fundamental theory may explain it all.
2. ‘Slang’ as a linguistic register
Authors: Green Jonathon
Published: April 2017

‘“Slang” as a linguistic register’ considers the definitions of slang and asks what qualifies as slang and what does not. Slang indicates a marginal, contrarian lexis, created and largely used by those beyond the social—and by extension—linguistic pale. Its use may have become more extensive alongside the more relaxed social mores of contemporary speech, but it continues to offend language purists and slang remains tainted by its criminal and underclass associations. The various types of slang are considered: cant (criminal jargon), rhyming slang (including Cockney language), backslang, occupational slang, and obscenities.
3. Is slang a language?
Authors: Green Jonathon
Published: April 2017

‘Is slang a language?’ suggests that if a means of communication is a language, then slang is surely a part of the overarching English language as much as any other lexical subset such as jargon, technicalities, and regionalisms. But is it a language or no more than an aggregation of words—a lexis or vocabulary? The different definitions and concepts of slang are considered: as a ‘counter-language’ describing slang’s role not as a collection of obscenities, but as a subversive language in opposition to standard English; as a secret language, keeping things dark other than for a small band of privileged initiates; or simply as part of a local dialect.
1. Numbers and algebra
Authors: Higgins Peter M.
Published: April 2017

‘Numbers and algebra’ introduces the number system and explains several terms used in algebra, including natural numbers, positive and negative integers, rational numbers, number factorization, the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic, Euclid’s Lemma, the Division Algorithm, and the Euclidean Algorithm. It proves that any common factor c of a and b is also a factor of any number of the form ax + by, and since the greatest common divisor (gcd) of a and b has this form, which may be found by reversing the steps of the Euclidean Algorithm, it follows that any common factor c of a and b divides their gcd d.
4. Quadratic equations
Authors: Higgins Peter M.
Published: April 2017

A quadratic equation is one involving a squared term and takes on the form ax2 + bx + c = 0. Quadratic expressions are central to mathematics, and quadratic approximations are extremely useful in describing processes that are changing in direction from moment to moment. ‘Quadratic equations’ outlines the three-stage solution process. Firstly, the quadratic expression is factorized into two linear factors, allowing two solutions to be written down. Next is completing the square, which allows solution of any particular quadratic. Finally, completing the square is applied to the general equation to derive the quadratic formula that allows the three coefficients to be put into the associated expression, which then provides the solutions.
5. The algebra of polynomials and cubic equations
Authors: Higgins Peter M.
Published: April 2017

Polynomials are expressions of the form p(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + ... + anxn; the number ai is the coefficient of xi, a
0 is the constant term of p(x), and an is the leading coefficient. The underlying algebra of polynomials mirrors that of the integers. Polynomials can be added, subtracted, and multiplied, and the laws of associativity and commutativity and the distributive law of addition over multiplication all hold. Division is more complicated. ‘The algebra of polynomials and cubic equations’ outlines the Remainder and Factor Theorems along with complex numbers in the Argand plane. The factorization of polynomials, the Rational Root Theorem, the Conjugate Root Theorem, and solution of cubic equations are also discussed.
6. Algebra and the arithmetic of remainders
Authors: Higgins Peter M.
Published: April 2017

‘Algebra and the arithmetic of remainders’ considers a new type of algebra, which is both an ancient topic and one that has found major contemporary application in Internet cryptography. It begins with an outline of abstract algebra, including groups, rings, and fields. Semigroups and groups are algebras with a single associative operation, while rings and fields are algebras with two operations linked via the distributive law. Lattices are algebras with an ordered structure, while vector spaces and modules are algebras where the members can be multiplied by scalar quantities from other fields or rings. The rules of modular arithmetic (or clock arithmetic) and solving linear congruences are also described.
4. The art, science, and engineering of programming
Authors: Dasgupta Subrata
Published: April 2017

Algorithmic thinking is sometimes not enough—programming is also required. A computer program is the specification of a desired computation in a language communicable to physical computers. The act of constructing such computations is called programming and the languages for specifying programs are called programming languages. Programs are liminal artefacts and the consequences of this liminality are both huge and controversial, including the development of artificial intelligence (AI) and cognitive science. ‘The art, science, and engineering of programming’ explains language, thought, and reality in programming; the concepts and categories of programming languages; and programming as art, as a mathematical science, and as software engineering.
Epilogue
Authors: Dasgupta Subrata
Published: April 2017

The Epilogue concludes that although computer science is a science of the artificial, one centred on symbol processing, it also serves as a bridge between the world of computational artefacts and the natural world, specifically, that of biological molecules, human cognition, and neuronal processes. Could it be that computation embraces both the natural and artificial and is, therefore, a universal science? What is certain is that computer science has given us a remarkably distinctive way of perceiving, thinking about, and solving a breathtakingly broad spectrum of problems—spanning natural, social, cultural, technological, and economic realms.
6. The electronic age
Authors: Bennett Jim
Published: April 2017

The application of radio waves triggered a wholly new approach to navigation at sea. ‘The electronic age’ begins with Radio Direction Finding introduced at the start of the 20th century with radio beacons established to transmit signals, so that a direction-finding antenna could determine a bearing to a known transmitter on shore. Examples of this technology were the short-distance Decca Navigator System and Loran (long-range aids to navigation). Radio detecting and ranging (radar), using shortwave radio signals, is also discussed along with the development of the inertial navigation system. Global satellite navigation systems have transformed the art of navigation, yet there is no immediate prospect of old techniques being abandoned.
Introduction
Authors: Gidley Jennifer M.
Published: April 2017

The Introduction highlights some of the tensions one might expect when reading about the future, most notably between scientific prediction and ungrounded speculation. It discusses the many ways to name the study of the future, whether the future is a time or a place, and the quest to tame time through clocks and calendars. It steers a course between Malthusian doomsday catastrophes and the panorama of Cornucopian techno-optimism. While we may feel we are locked into a worrying future that we cannot escape from, learning about different ways to think about the future gives us more choice and empowers us to create alternative futures from the myriad possibilities out there.
2. Sexed bodies
Authors: Shilling Chris
Published: April 2017

‘Sexed bodies’ reviews how sexed bodies have been classified historically, which provides useful insights into cultural perceptions of men and women. If social prejudices and practices can shape physical development, amplifying or creating differences between the sexes, recent developments in neuroscience suggest that the brain is also likely to be affected by these processes. Advances in endocrinology have also promoted a significantly different view of the relationship between the body and sex. It concludes with the views of the contemporary feminist, Judith Butler, who has argued that the sexed body attains its social significance and appearance of substance as a result of the performances people engage in.
3. Understanding the self
Authors: Knott Kim
Published: April 2017

Twenty-first century gurus continue to guide by traditional methods while also using up-to-date communications technology. A number of gurus keep up an international following in this way. ‘Understanding the self’ looks at Hindu ideas of the self and especially the philosophical system known as vedanta, which was one of the six orthodox systems within Hinduism. Shankara, Ramanuja, and Madhva were south Indian brahmins who were acknowledged for their skill in philosophical exposition. They became known for their differing approaches to vedanta and their ideas continue to be significant for modern Hindu movements. How are they relevant for contemporary Hinduism? How did they describe the relationship between the self and the ‘supreme person’?
1. Introduction
Authors: Knight Alan
Published: April 2017

The Mexican Revolution deserves to be included among the world’s ‘great’ or ‘social’ revolutions for the scale of the fighting, the intense popular mobilization it involved, and the changes it brought about. The outcome profoundly affected Mexico politically, socially, economically, and culturally. The Introduction explains that the Revolution is seen as the work of a generation (1910–40) who first destroyed the old regime, then built a new state apparatus, and, finally, carried through social reforms unprecedented in Latin America at the time. The opposing views of the Revolution are also explained: the old orthodoxy that sees the Revolution as popular, progressive, and patriotic, and the revisionist and post-revisionist interpretations.
3. The Madero revolt and regime (1910–1913)
Authors: Knight Alan
Published: April 2017

Francisco Madero, scion of one of northern Mexico’s richest families, had led the unsuccessful opposition of early 1910 in the liberal-democratic tradition. ‘The Madero revolt and regime’ explains how the Díaz victory in the 1910 election provided the impetus for armed revolt in rural areas. The Treaty of Ciudad Juárez in early 1911 ended the Maderista revolution as well as the Porfirian regime, but the deal was not well received by rebel leaders: Orozco in the north and Zapata in the centre. Madero’s presidency saw opposition both from the Right and Left, but it was the rebellious insurgency of Zapatismo and Orozquismo looking for social reform that led to Madero’s downfall.
1. Introduction
Authors: Cottrell Geoff
Published: April 2017

A telescope is defined as a ‘far-seeing’ optical instrument used to make distant objects appear to be nearer and larger, but this fails to capture the scope and significance of modern telescopes. The tremendous sensitivity and range of wavelengths with which telescopes now operate has transformed our knowledge of the Universe. The ‘Introduction’ outlines the aims of this VSI as a journey from Galileo Galilei’s telescope to telescopes of the future that will generate so much data that it will far exceed the current capacity of the Internet. It is about the science of telescopes: what they do, how they work, what we have learned by using them, and where they are going next.
4. Windows in the sky
Authors: Cottrell Geoff
Published: April 2017

The atmosphere influences much of what can be seen through a telescope. Most of the atmosphere lies within 16 km from the Earth’s surface. Further out, the air becomes thinner until it merges with outer space. In the ionosphere—a layer 75–1000 km high—neutral atoms are ionized by solar radiation and high-energy cosmic ray particles arriving from distant parts of the Universe. ‘Windows in the sky’ explains electromagnetic radiation and the electromagnetic spectrum from gamma rays through to visible light and radio waves. Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves that can be polarized. The atmosphere acts as a filter and blocks cosmic electromagnetic radiation. Atmospheric turbulence distorts starlight resulting in ‘twinkling’ stars.
6. Home politics
Authors: Fox Michael Allen
Published: April 2017

Home politics affects anyone who lives with other people, because transforming a space into a home involves negotiations of various sorts. Wherever people live together, there is bound to be a regime for gaining power and advantage or agreeing to share them. ‘Home politics’ outlines how the boundaries between public and private life are blurred by utilities and electronic technologies and also considers how roles in the home are negotiated and how they have changed over time. Reconciliation of interests and harmonious cohabitation are challenging projects. The issue of domestic abuse is discussed along with the lasting effects of colonization and the politics relating to homelands and home occupancy.
7. Homelessness and uprootedness
Authors: Fox Michael Allen
Published: April 2017

No discussion of home is complete without taking account of homelessness. ‘Homelessness and uprootedness’ discusses the different categories of homelessness: those who chronically have no home; those who no longer have a place to call home because of circumstances; migrants who have had more than one place to call home, but confront issues of who they are and where they truly belong; and those who are spiritually homeless. It also considers the ‘unmooring’ of modern culture: how much of present-day life is characterized by fragmentation of interests, cynicism, a sense of exile, alienation and disillusionment, and lack of faith in authorities. Having a home can never be taken for granted.
5. Planetary systems
Authors: Binney James
Published: April 2017

Since 1995, roughly a thousand extra-solar planetary systems have been discovered, and the process of understanding how these systems formed and evolved to their present states is having a profound impact on how we think about our own planetary system. ‘Planetary systems’ explains the dynamics of planetary systems, including perturbation theory, and how planets form by the collision of asteroids to form bigger and bigger asteroids. The evolution of planetary systems is also discussed with details of the young solar system. It concludes that were it not for Einstein’s absolutely tiny corrections to Newton’s equations, planet Earth would almost certainly not be in a position to offer us shelter.
6. Relativistic astrophysics
Authors: Binney James
Published: April 2017

‘Relativistic astrophysics’ outlines the relativity theory and lists some situations where this theory is needed: radio galaxies, micro-quasars, gamma rays, cosmic rays, neutron stars, x-ray sources, the solar system, and the universe. It goes on to explain muon lifetimes, rest-mass energy, plasma jets, shocks and particle acceleration, and synchrotron radiation. Einstein’s theory of general relativity is dependent on non-linear equations and the only exact solutions of Einstein’s equations that we have are ones with special symmetries. The phenomena of gravitational redshift, gravitational lensing, gravitational microlensing, deflection of light by the Sun, Shapiro delays, and pulsars and gravitational waves are then discussed.