bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Genomics, Functional Genomics, and Epigenetics: Relevance to Mental Retardation
Authors: Smith Moyra
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we will consider how information obtained through genomic analysis will continue to impact research into the etiology of developmental delay and mental retardation. A genome is defined as the total genetic information present in an organism. The human genome has been almost completely sequenced through research conducted as part of the Human Genome Project. The next phase of genomic analysis will involve research on functional genomics and analysis of factors that control gene expression. This will include identification of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) sequence elements that may be located at some distance from the genes they control. It will also include analysis of the complete array of messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) transcripts that are derived from a particular gene (The Transcriptome Project) and definition of the proteins that are translated from these transcripts (The Proteome Project). Other research efforts under way include in-depth analysis of the relationship between variations in expression of specific genes and the metabolic state of the cell or organism (Metabolomics).
Toll-Like Receptor Genes
Authors: Beutler Bruce
Published: November 2023

A total of 10 Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are encoded in the human genome, while 12 TLRs are encoded in the mouse genome, and perhaps different numbers in other mammalian genomes. These paralogous proteins (i.e., proteins that diverged from an ancestral sequence to form a clade within a single species) represent the principal sensors of microbial infections in the mammalian host. They discriminate between self and nonself and are ultimately responsible for most of the alterations in host physiology that occur during infection. Hence, fever, shock, metabolic disturbances, and indeed, most phenomena that occur during severe infections are ultimately traceable to the TLRs, but so are most beneficial aspects of the host immune response.
Metal Transport Genes
Authors: Marquis Jean-Francois , Forbes John R , Canonne-Hergaux Francois , Horth Cynthia , Gros Philippe
Published: November 2023

Susceptibility to infections, with respect to initial onset, progression, and ultimate outcome of disease, is influenced by a number of factors, including pathogenencoded virulence determinants, the genetic makeup of the host, and environmental factors that can modulate the expression of both. The laboratory mouse has been a valuable model for the genetic analysis of host susceptibility determinants and pathogen-encoded virulence factors. The discovery of a mutation in a macrophage-specific metal transporter that causes susceptibility to infection by several unrelated intracellular pathogens has suggested that metal deprivation is a critical mechanism by which macrophages restrict replication of intracellular pathogens. Likewise, the observation that pathogens possess a number of metal acquisition systems, some of which are essential for virulence in vivo, has confirmed the critical importance of divalent metals in the outcome of host–pathogen interaction. Metals may be required for the basic metabolic activity necessary for expression of intracellular survival strategies, including the modulation of phagosome maturation, and=or may be required for the activity of microbial enzymes essential for detoxification of the phagosomal environment. This review discusses two families of mammalian metal transporters expressed in macrophages, Nramp (Slc11a1, Slc11a2) and ferroportin (Slc40a1), and the possible roles these proteins play in the antimicrobial properties of these cells. Recent studies characterizing the biochemical content of bacterial phagosomes formed in macrophages, and the transcriptional responses of bacteria exposed to this environment are also reviewed.
Immune Deficiency Disorders
Authors: Schroeder Harry W , McNicholl Janet M
Published: November 2023

More than 100 primary immunodeficiency syndromes are currently recognized (Rosen, 2001; Glanzmann & Riniker, 1950; Bruton, 1952; Ochs et al, 1999; Buckley, 2002; Conley, 1999). The majority of these disorders result from single gene defects that affect the function of one or more components of the immune system, which includes B cells, T cells, natural killer (NK) cells, phagocytes, complement, and other elements of innate immune system. The presenting complaint is typically a history of recurrent infection, often early in life. Useful Web sites with information on genetic aspects of immunodeficiencies include the Human Gene Mutation Database (www.hgmd.cf.ac.uk) and the Online Mendelian Inheritance of Man database (www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov=entrez). Other links can be found at these Web sites and at other sites listed in appendix 1.
Hepatitis B and Hepatitis C Infection
Authors: Yee Leland J , Thursz Mark R
Published: November 2023

Infection with the hepatitis B or hepatitis C viruses may result in a number of different outcomes, ranging from asymptomatic self-limited (‘‘acute’’) infection to persistent (‘‘chronic’’) infection with liver cirrhosis, liver failure, or hepatocellular carcinoma. Therapeutic intervention in patients with persistent viral infection may lead to complete resolution of the infection and the associated liver disease, may fail, or may even exacerbate the liver disease. While it is clear that environmental and viral variables play an important role in determining some of these outcomes, it is also evident that host genetic background is a major factor particularly in determining which individuals develop persistent infection.
Spiritual Care Interventions
Authors: Kemp Charles
Published: November 2023

This chapter addresses the challenges of providing effective spiritual care to patients with terminal illness. The chapter is structured around the basic spiritual needs and is based on the certainty that there often is no one in a better position to provide spiritual care than the informed and committed nurse.
Candidate Neuronal Circuits
Authors: Williamson Peter
Published: November 2023

Although schizophrenia and other neuropsychiatric disorders are now clearly viewed as brain disorders, psychiatrists do not spend a lot of time thinking about the brain in the same way that neurologists think about the brain or cardiologists think about the heart. This is understandable to some extent in that we have not understood much about the brain until recent decades.
When Does Schizophrenia Begin?
Authors: Williamson Peter
Published: November 2023

While the hallucinations, delusions, and other symptoms of schizophrenia begin in most patients by the end of adolescence or early adulthood, there is evidence to suggest that the illness actually begins long before this. This chapter will review some of the observations leading us to believe that schizophrenia arises from defects in early brain development in the womb or in later brain development perhaps involving cortical pruning at adolescence. Some of the arguments for an early neurodevelopmental origin will be reviewed, followed by a discussion of likely locations for the defect and some of the possible causes.
Clues from Drugs That Affect Dopamine, Glutamate, and Other Neurotransmitters
Authors: Williamson Peter
Published: November 2023

Although it is difficult to imagine a time when dopamine was not associated with schizophrenia, our understanding of dopamine’s role in the disorder is relatively new. Most of the fundamental work on the metabolism of norepinephrine and dopamine was done in the 1950s. About this time, the first amino acid neurotransmitter, GABA, was discovered, followed by glutamate. But it was not until 1976 that it was demonstrated that the relative potencies antipsychotic medication were directly related to their ability to block dopamine receptors (Snyder, 2002).
Some Clues from Psychophysiology
Authors: Williamson Peter
Published: November 2023

In the age of brain imaging, we sometimes forget the insights of investigators who carefully applied the technology of their day. Not long after Kraepelin described dementia praecox, Diefendorf and Dodge (1908) described eye movement abnormalities in these patients. This chapter will look at some findings from studies of eye movements, as well as studies of olfaction, electroencephalography (EEG), and event-related potentials (ERP). More recent innovations such as magnetoencephalography (MEG) will also be considered in this section because of the similarities to EEG.
Imaging Brain Structure in Living Patients
Authors: Williamson Peter
Published: November 2023

It is usually assumed that structural brain-imaging studies began with the computerized tomography (CT) studies in the 1970s but this is not the case. Almost 50 years before this, pneumoencephalography was used to outline the ventricular system and cortex with X-rays of the head after air had been injected into the lumbar subarachnoid space (Dandy, 1919). These studies demonstrated enlarged lateral and third ventricles as well as cortical sulci atrophy, which to some extent correlated with poor outcome (Haug, 1962; Jacobi and Winkler, 1927). However, the technique was somewhat invasive and difficult to use in psychiatric patients, so it was not until the development of CT that brain structure was examined systematically in schizophrenia.
Imaging Brain Chemistry and the Question of Neuronal Degeneration
Authors: Williamson Peter
Published: November 2023

In recent years, there has been a renewed interest in neuronal degeneration in schizophrenia (Deutsch et al., 2001; Keshavan, 1999; Knoll et al., 1998; Miller, 1989; Woods, 1998). This is not surprising, as marked deterioration in functioning led Kraepelin to separate dementia praecox from the manic-depressive psychoses. In fact, marked deterioration in social and occupational functioning remains a key criterion for schizophrenia in the DSM-IV. It is a difficult and all-too-common experience for a clinician to watch a patient deteriorate more and more with each breakdown until they are no longer the same person. In my own practice, I have watched high-functioning accountants, lawyers, and doctors become totally disabled and, in some cases, become chronic inpatients, incapable of relating to others in the community.
Pieces of the Puzzle: Likely Components of the Final Common Pathway
Authors: Williamson Peter
Published: November 2023

Have the brain imagers joined the neuropathologists and molecular biologists in the graveyard? One could conclude that this is indeed the case from the meta-analyses of both structural and functional findings in schizophrenic patients. Why do we see so many different patterns of findings in patients who presumably suffer from the same disorder? If there is a final common pathway, why do all patients not have the same findings? These are not easy questions to answer. Part of the answer has to be that multiple regions are affected in schizophrenia and these regions are interconnected in functional circuits. Damage to any part of the circuit would cause the entire circuit to fail.
Early Models of the Final Common Pathway I. Disconnection and Coordination
Authors: Williamson Peter
Published: November 2023

It is clear from the previous chapter that many brain regions are involved in schizophrenia. This chapter and Chapter 12 will examine some of the early attempts to put the clues together into a coherent whole, just as Harvey did when he realized that with venous valves, blood flowed not away from but back to the liver, thus raising the possibility of a circulatory system. Models that involve disconnection and coordination of information processing will be considered in this chapter, and the next chapter will examine models that depend on basal ganglia-thalamocortical circuits.
Do the Models Fit with What We Know about Schizophrenia?
Authors: Williamson Peter
Published: November 2023

Despite often conflicting data, we have learned a lot about schizophrenia since Kraepelin’s description of the condition over a hundred years ago. There is considerable evidence that something goes wrong early in brain development. We are still arguing about whether dopamine receptors are increased or not, but there is agreement that there is dopaminergic hyperresponsivity. There seems to be some consensus that glutamate might be involved because patients given NMDA blockers experience an exacerbation of their symptoms.
1800-1846
Authors: Ellis Katharine
Published: November 2023

The story of early music performance in nineteenth-century France has no clear beginning. Instead, it arises from eighteenth-century traditions that persisted despite changing ideologies brought by the Revolution, the Empire, the Restoration, and the July Monarchy. The new century saw a small number of works between 2 5 and 65 years old by Pergolesi, Durante, Jommelli, Rousseau, and Rameau (the latter heavily diluted)-survive the turmoil of the 1790s and achieve a place in the repertories of Paris’s leading musical institutions: the recently opened Conservatoire, the concerts spirituels, and the Opera.
Realism and Empiricism The Key Question
Authors: Salmon Wesley C
Published: November 2023

What is our chief inheritance from logical positivism? The answer is simple— logical empiricism. Rudolf Carnap and Hans Reichenbach were two of the most prominent early exponents of logical empiricism. Indeed, the volume de- voted to Carnap in The Library of Living Philosophers (Schilpp 1963) was originally planned as a volume on logical empiricism, which would have dealt with Carnap and Reichenbach. This plan had to be abandoned because of Reichenbach’s untimely death in 1953. Given the degree to which formal logic has flourished in the twentieth century, I think we can say that the logical part—at least the deductive logical part—of logical empiricism is alive and well. The empiricism part is another story, and that is what I intend to discuss in this chapter.
Scientific Realism in the Empiricist Tradition
Authors: Salmon Wesley C
Published: November 2023

Contemporary empiricism owes a significant debt to the logical empiricists Carnap, Hempel, and Reichenbach. Their contribution deserves careful consideration. All three were born in Germany, and each attended several major German universities. Although they began their work in philosophy at a time when metaphysics was rampant, they studied with some of the greatest mathematicians and scientists of that time. They had both deep knowledge and profound appreciation of the substantive content of mathematics and empirical science. They helped to lay the foundation and to erect the superstructure of what we can now recognize in retrospect as twentieth-century scientific philosophy. This movement grew chiefly out of the logical positivism of the Vienna Circle (with which Rudolf Carnap was mainly associated) and the logical empiricism of the Berlin Group (with which Hans Reichenbach was connected). Carl Hempel worked closely with both groups. What all had in common was a devotion to the aims and methods of empirical science and an appreciation of the techniques of mathematical logic. By midcentury virtually every important figure in the movement had relinquished some of the more extreme views of early logical positivism, abandoned the designation of “logical positivist,” and adopted “logical empiricism” as the name of their movement. After that, logical positivism no longer existed.
Introduction
Authors: Salmon Wesley C
Published: November 2023

Thomas Kuhn’s (1962) The Structure of Scientific Revolutions had a profound effect on philosophy of science in the second half of the twentieth century. Reactions were mixed. My main impression was that Kuhn based much of his argument upon a defective conception of scientific confirmation—something akin to the traditional hypothetico-deductive (H-D ) method. His claim that the choice among scientific theories goes beyond empirical evidence and logic, even when logic is taken to include both deduction and inductive confirmation, resulted from overlooking certain important aspects of confirmation that are revealed by a Bayesian analysis. His insistence that judgment and persuasion play indispensable roles in theory choice suggests that plausibility considerations are involved. His rejection of the distinction between the context of discovery and the context of justification hints strongly that his conception of justification (which surely involves confirmation) is inadequate. Despite these views, Kuhn unequivocally rejects the notion that science is irrational. This denial cries out for a clarification of the concept of scientific rationality itself.
Revisions of Scientific Convictions
Authors: Salmon Wesley C
Published: November 2023

As the title of The Structure of Scientific Revolutions suggests, a chief focus— perhaps the chief focus—of Kuhn’s (1962) book is the nature of scientific change. It is also the chief focus of most philosophers who adopt a historical orientation. Sir Karl Popper and his followers have seen the problem of growth of scientific knowledge as a major issue in philosophy of science. Logical positivists and logical empiricists have often been accused of holding a totally unrealistic view of the nature of scientific development. Bayesians have devoted considerable attention to the ways in which degrees of conviction should be modified, but they have encountered fundamental troubles along the way. This chapter attempts to resolve some of most important and difficult ones.
On The (So-Called) Puzzle of Imaginative Resistance
Authors: Walton Kendall L
Published: November 2023

In Mimesis as Make-Believe, I happened upon a surprising peculiarity in interpretive practice, a curious reluctance to allow fictional worlds to differ in fundamental moral respects from the real world as we understand it.1 It seemed to me that this might have been what David Hume was getting at in the final five paragraphs of “On the Standard of Taste,” although this attribution now strikes me as highly questionable. Revisiting the topic in a later essay, “Morals in Fiction and Fictional Morality,” I emphasized that there is actually a tangled nest of importantly distinct but easily confused puzzles in the vicinity, several of which can be traced uncertainly to Hume ‘s observations. My strategy in addressing them was disentangle-and-conquer. I do not claim to have successfully completed the conquest in my previous forays, nor will I do so now. But I did do
Pictures and Hobby Horses
Authors: Walton Kendall L
Published: November 2023

Make-believe is not just for children. Many adult activities are best understood as continuations of children ‘s make-believe, and can be illuminated by comparing them with games of dolls, cops and robbers, and hobby horses. One adult activity that involves make-believe is that of making and looking at pictures. Verbal texts also involve make-believe, in some instances. But to be a picture is essentially, I claim, to have a role of a certain kind in certain sorts of games of make-believe.
Transparent Pictures
Authors: Walton Kendall L
Published: November 2023

Photographs and pictures of other kinds have various strengths and weaknesses. But photography is commonly thought to excel in one dimension especially, that of realism. André Bazin and many others consider photographs to be extraordinarily realistic, realistic in a way or to an extent which is beyond the reach of paintings, drawings, and other “handmade” pictures.
A Public Health Approach to Intimate Partner Violence
Authors: Howe Meghan E , Alpert Elaine J
Published: November 2023

Public health is a multidisciplinary, collaborative, science-based, and advocacy-oriented approach to the health of populations. Intimate partner violence (IPV) impacts the mental and physical well-being of many individuals, which in turn impacts the health, safety, and economy of communities. There-fore, it is a public health problem. The public health approach involves four steps: surveillance, risk factor identification, intervention, and dissemination of effective interventions. An effective public health response to IPV occurs on three levels: a primary approach to prevent IPV, a secondary approach to minimize the chronic impact of IPV, and a tertiary approach to respond to critical cases.
Developing a Health System Response to Intimate Partner Violence
Authors: McCaw Brigid , Kotz Krista
Published: November 2023

The most successful strategies for improving intimate partner violence (IPV) services draw more on the strength and opportunities available in the healthcare setting as a “system” than on clinician training alone. The 2001 Institute of Medicine (IOM) report concluded that available evidence supports a multifaceted “systems change model” approach for IPV identification and management. Implementation challenges include coordination within the healthcare system, and between the healthcare system and community advocacy organizations. Quality improvement processes can be used to improve and sustain IPV services and ensure that these become an expected part of everyday care.
Issues in Adverbial Syntax
Authors: Cinque Guglielmo
Published: November 2023

The question how adverbs (and adverbials, more generally)1 integrate into the structure of the clause has been, and continues to be, a moot question. In work of the early 1990s, later merged into Cinque (l 999), I suggested that adverbs should not be seen as accessory appendices to clause structure (as the traditional notion of “adjunct” would suggest) but rather as an integral part of it, despite their general optionality. Much as inflectional morphology, functional particles, and auxiliaries were at the time considered to be the overt manifestation, in head format, of the functional portion of the clause, AdvPs, I argued, could be seen as the overt manifestation of the same functional distinctions in specifier format. The main evidence for their belonging to the functional makeup of the clause was the observation that cross-linguistically the number and type of the different classes of AdvPs and their relative order appears to exactly match the number, type, and relative order of functional heads morphemes (see Cinque 1999: chaps. 2, 3, and 4).2 Recently a number of works have appeared that argue for a return to the traditional “adjunct” approach, and against what we might call the functional specifier approach.3 These works notwithstanding, there are, I think, reasons to retain the “functional specifier” approach. Before considering such reasons, let me mention two additional clues in favor of the functional nature of adverbs. They come from the study of sign languages and language acquisition.
Transfer Principles And Moral Responsibility
Authors: Fischer John Martin
Published: November 2023

It is useful to divide contemporary arguments for the incompatibility of causal determinism and moral responsibility into two types: indirect and direct. The indirect arguments present reasons why causal determinism is incompatible with the possession of the relevant kind of alternative possibilities and conclude from this that causal determinism is incompatible with moral responsibility. It is, of course, a presupposition of the indirect arguments that moral responsibility requires alternative possibilities. The direct arguments contain no such presupposition, although some of their proponents may believe that moral responsibility does indeed require alternative possibilities.
Poly(butylene terephthalate)
Authors: Iroh Jude O
Published: November 2023

Major Applications Molding plastic, molecular component of polyether ester thermoplastic block copolymer elastomer, fiber and plastic forming, used in tooth and paint brush and in bristles and filler fabrics. Properties of Special Interest Mostly synthesized as flexible semi-crystalline thermoplastic, PBT has outstanding resilience and toughness. High toughness and resilience is due to improved chain flexibility derived from the four methylene units. Used in thermoplastic matrix composites for gears, machine parts, small pump housings, and insulators.
Poly(cyclohexyl methacrylate)
Authors: Wen Jianye
Published: November 2023

Major Applications Adhesives and binders, coatings, optical waveguides, blends with other polymers for various applications. Properties of Special Interest Hard, Tg similar to poly(methyl methacrylate) but much higher than its n-hexyl isomer due to the bulkiness of cyclohexyl group.
Poly(di-n-hexylsilylene)
Authors: West Robert
Published: November 2023

Properties of Special Interest Transition from crystalline phase to columnar mesophase at 42◦C. That is, PDHS is crystalline with an all-trans arrangement of the polysilane chain below the disordering temperature of 42 above this temperature the polymer exists in a hexagonal columnar liquid crystalline phase.
Poly(diphenylsiloxane)
Authors: Meier Dale J
Published: November 2023

Major Applications PDPS is not a commercial polymer. Diphenylsiloxane is a component in various copolymers. Properties of Special Interest Highly crystalline, high melting point, excellent thermal stability, mesomophic state at high temperatures.
Poly(ester-co-anhydride) of Ricinoleic Acid and Sebacic Acid
Authors: Vaisman Boris , Shikanov Ariella , Domb Abraham J , Langer R
Published: November 2023

Major Applications Biodegradable polymers for controlled drug delivery in a form of implant or injectable implant (e.g. for the treatment of solid tumors, delivery of local anesthetics, and delivery of antibiotics). Properties of Special Interest Polyester-anhydride of ricinoleic acid (RA) with aliphatic diacids such as sebacic acid (SA) are viscous liquids at low contents of sebacic acid, <40% w/w, (pasty polymers). Pasty polymers that can be mixed with drugs at room temperature and injected into tissue as neat composition are advantageous as they allow simple preparation of delivery systems, particularly for heat-sensitive drugs. The formulation gels at the site of injection to form a depot of the drug protected in the hydrophobic gel polymer. The drug-loaded pasty polymer releases the drugs for a few weeks while being degraded in vitro and in vivo to short oligomers which future degrade to fatty acids.
Poly(ether imide)
Authors: Tan Loon-Seng
Published: November 2023

Synthesis Aromatic polyetherimides are usually prepared from: (a) bisphenoxide salts and aromatic dinitrobisimides via nucleophilic nitro-displacement reactions (b) bisphenoxide salt and a bis(N -chlorophthalimido) compound via nucleophilic chloro-displacement reactions in a solvent of low polarity (e.g. o-dichlorobenzene), and in the presence of a thermally stable, phase transfer catalyst stable at the polymerization temperatures, e.g. hexaalkylguanidinium chloride; microwave irradiation accelerated polymerization process; (c) two-step polycondensation of aromatic diamines and ether-dianhydrides in a polar aprotic solvent, followed by thermal6 or chemical cyclodehydration of the polyamic acid precursors, (d) one-step, high temperature solution polymerization of aromatic diamines and ether-dianhydrides in a phenolic solvent, removing water of condensation azeotropically. Certain polyetherimides can also be synthesized via direct melt polymerization.
Poly(n-hexyl isocyanate)
Authors: Premachandra Jagath K , Kumudinie Chandima , Masamoto Junzo
Published: November 2023

Major Applications An ideal example of a polymer model for a semi-rigid macromolecular chain material amenable to physical studies. Properties of Special Interest Polymer model for a semi-flexible macromolecular chain material. Stiff-chain solution characteristics due to helical configuration; (1,2) liquid crystalline properties(3) and molecular weight dependent chain dimensions in solution. (4) Other Polymers Showing this Special Property Poly(n-butyl isocyanate), poly(γ -benzyl-L-glutamate)
Poly(lactic acid)
Authors: Lu Lichun , Mikos Antonios G
Published: November 2023

Major Applications L-PLA is used as sutures and dental, orthopaedic, and drug delivery devices. D,L-PLA is used mainly for drug delivery. Both are of interest in the area of tissue engineering. Properties of Special Interest Good biocompatibility; biodegradable mainly by simple hydrolysis; bioresorbable; very good processability; a wide range of degradation rates, physical, mechanical, and other properties can be achieved by PLA of various molecular weights and its copolymers.
Poly(methacrylic acid)
Authors: Wen Jianye
Published: November 2023

Major Applications Various applications in the fields of mining, textile manufacture, cosmetics, oil recovery, agriculture, and water clarification as thickening agent for latices and adhesives, ion-exchange resins, adhesives, binders, dispersants, and floculating agents
Poly(p-methylstyrene)
Authors: Ozcam Ali E , Smith Archie P , Spontak Richard J
Published: November 2023

Major Applications Similar to polystyrene (PS) (for example, molded objects, foam drinking cups, and packaging materials). Has a higher deformation temperature and flame resistance than PS. Functionalization of the methyl group of homopolymers/copolymers yields graft polymers and copolymers that are used to prepare new variants of butyl rubber. Specific syndiotactic forms of PpMS can be used as polymeric molecular sieves.
Poly(p-phenylene sulfide)
Authors: Masamoto Junzo
Published: November 2023

Major Applications Poly(p-phenylene sulfide) (PPS) is mainly used in the reinforced form with glass fiber or mineral fillers as a high-performance thermoplastic. It is used for electrical and electronic parts (e.g., plugs and multipoint connectors, bobbins, relays, switches, encapsulation of electronic component, etc.), automobile parts (air intake systems, pumps, valves, gaskets, components for exhaust gas recirculation systems, etc.), and as components for mechanical and precision engineering. Nonfiller PPS is used for fiber, film, sheet, nonwoven fabric, etc.
Poly(rotaxane), Example 1
Authors: Harada Akira
Published: November 2023

Major Applications Starting materials for tubular polymers. Potential use for curing of PEG. Properties of Special Interest Stable under ambient conditions. Relatively low cost.
Poly(trimethylene oxide)
Authors: Yuan-Huffman Qingwen Wendy
Published: November 2023

Polymerization None – Ring-opening polymerization (1) Theta temperature K Cyclohexane, phase equilibria method 299.5 (2, 3)
Poly(vinyl acetate)
Authors: Wen Jianye
Published: November 2023

Major Applications Adhesive applications in packaging and wood gluing; chewing-gum bases; PVAC emulsions and resins are used as binder in coatings for paper and as textile finishes. Properties of Special Interest Tasteless, odorless, and nontoxic
Poly(vinyl chloride)
Authors: Andrady Anthony L , Sen Taner Z , Ahunbay M Göktuğ
Published: November 2023

Major Applications Poly(vinyl chloride) is used in building applications as rigid formulations in water and sewage pipes, siding, gutters, and downspouts, conduits, and cable coverings. Pipe and conduit application are by far the major use of PVC. It is also used as a plasticized material in membrane roofing, and flooring applications. PVC films are used in packaging of consumer goods.
Poly(vinylidene fluoride)
Authors: Uschold Ronald E , Kilaru Murali K
Published: November 2023

Major Applications As a protective surfacing material for: aircraft interior wall and ceiling panels, architectural fabrics, exterior building panels, wall coverings, reinforced vinyl sheeting for signs and awnings, automotive tubing, thermoformed plastic laminates, truck body panels, solar panels, and green house glazing. As a release sheet for curing: epoxy circuit boards and composite panels.
Poly(vinyl methyl ether)
Authors: Wen Jianye
Published: November 2023

Major Applications Plasticizer for coatings; aqueous tackifier; adhesion promoter of nonadhering materials to glass, metal, and plastics; copolymers used in pharmaceuticals, lens arrays for optical device (as thermographic copying material). Properties of Special Interest Viscous and balsamlike; high adhesion to high and low surface-energy free substrates.
Poly(p-xylylene)
Authors: Kulkarni Amit S , Rane Shrish , Beaucage Gregory
Published: November 2023

Major Applications Films and coatings on electronic components; insulating applications. Special Properties High thermal stability; excellent dielectric and barrier properties; high resistance to electronic irradiation, solvent resistance, high degree of crystallinity.(1,2)
Silk protein
Authors: Fossey Stephen A , Cebe Peggy , Kaplan David L
Published: November 2023

Introduction All three known siloxane dendrimer structures are based on methylsilsesquioxane core and branching units. The first siloxane dendrimer was synthesized in 19891 as pure PMSQ structure. Two other approaches appeared in 19902 and 19913. They used D-units to decrease the density of the molecular structure. Since then, hybrid-type dendrimers combining siloxane units with links of other chemical nature were the focus of interest due to simplification of chemical technique in that case. At the same time, the benefits of pure siloxane structure leave no doubt in further progress of this area.
Styrene-methylmethacrylate Copolymer
Authors: Wang Shuhong
Published: November 2023

Major Applications Blend with other polymers to produce a variety of products. Blends normally have both transparency and impact resistance. Typical uses include household goods, building materials, optical, toy and food-packing applications. Properties of Special Interest Transparency, weather resistance, low water absorption, low residuals. Better weatherability and solvent resistance comparing to polystyrene homopolymer. Properties fall between those of the individual homopolymers.
Vinylidene fluoride-hexafluoropropylene elastomers
Authors: Patil Rahul D , Vogt Andrew D
Published: November 2023

Major Applications Poly(vdf-hfp) is a synthetic, noncrystalline polymer that exhibits elastomeric properties when cross-linked. Known to be chemically inert, it is designed for demanding service applications in hostile environments and commonly used as a sealant in hot and corrosive environments,(1,3) such as used in aircraft, aerospace, chemical and petroleum industries. Also used for biomedical applications as coatings.(4)
Introduction
Authors: Batstone William W , Damon Cynthia
Published: November 2023

Caesar’;s Civil War is an unfinished masterpiece. It is incomplete not owing to untimely death, however, but was abandoned by an author who found himself living in a different world than that which saw the work’;s commencement. It might thus seem an odd candidate for a literary appreciation. But it deserves one. The Civil War is the story of Caesar’;s contest with the Pompeian party through nineteen months of civil war; it ends, after Pompey’;s death, amid the preliminaries to a foreign war fought to impose a Roman settlement on the kingdom of Egypt. The work shows the brilliance for which Caesar’;s oratory, like his generalship, was known—in the eyes of Quintilian, no mean judge, he was second only to Cicero (Education of an Orator 10.1.114)—and it was a political judgment that relegated the Civil War to the file drawer, not a literary one. The five chapters of this book explore the various components of Caesar’;s literary achievement in the Civil War. We supply here in the introduction the necessary historical background, and in the epilogue the aftermath.
Organizing Knowledge about the World Frames in the Mind
Authors: Koller Bálint , Endrődi Noémi , Komlósi Sarolta , Tóth Rita , Kövecses Zoltán
Published: November 2023

So far we have taken concepts to be lists of features. In other words, we have assumed that categories can be adequately described as feature lists¬ either as lists of essential features (as in “classical” approaches) or as lists of features that represent the central examples of concepts (as in prototype approaches). Such feature lists represent what we know about concepts. But the question is: Do feature lists represent all the contents of concepts at our disposal? The answer is clearly no. We possess a great deal more knowledge about concepts than what feature lists reveal (see, for example, Barsalou, 1992). Frames are representations of this large amount of underlying knowledge. As matter of fact, we can think of frames as including feature lists as well¬ feature lists that serve the representation of just the “tip” of a conceptual “iceberg” associated with a particular domain of experience.
The Human Genome: Structure and Organization
Authors: Read Andrew
Published: November 2023

Humans have two genomes, nuclear and mitochondrial. Normal cells contain two copies of the nuclear genome and a much larger but variable number of copies of the mitochondrial genome. The nuclear genome is approximately 2 105 times larger than the mitochondrial genome (3 109 vs. 16,659 bp), and contains more than 500 times the number of genes (approximately 24,000 vs. 37), including many required for mitochondrial functions. Understandably, the phrase ‘‘the human genome’’ normally refers to the nuclear genome. The structure and organization of the mitochondrial genome is described separately in the following section.
Human Functional Genomics and Proteomics
Authors: Yamada Yoshiji , Ichihara Sahoko , Takemura Masaharu
Published: November 2023

Genomics offers a new opportunity to determine how diseases develop by allowing researchers to take advantage of experiments of nature and by providing them with a growing array of sophisticated tools with which to identify the molecular abnormalities that underlie disease processes (Guttmacher and Collins, 2002; Burke, 2003). As shown by the recent completion of the draft sequence (Lander et al., 2001; Venter et al., 2001), one characteristic of the human genome with both medical and societal relevance is that, on average, the DNA sequences of two unrelated individuals are more than 99.9% identical. However, this still means that the DNA sequences of two such individuals differ at more than 3 million base positions, given that the human genome consists of approximately 3 billion base pairs. This is commonly referred to as single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). Intensive efforts are currently under way, in both the academic and commercial sectors, to catalog these differences and correlate them with phenotypic variations relevant to health and disease (Guttmacher and Collins, 2002).
Complex Cardiovascular Disorders
Authors: Arking Dan E
Published: November 2023

The genomics revolution, including mapping of the complete sequence of the human genome, has greatly advanced our understanding of the molecular basis of Mendelian diseases, which are largely the result of necessary and sufficient mutations that are individually rare. However, despite all our advances, we know almost nothing about the genetic architecture of traits with complex inheritance. These traits are governed by the interplay between genes, epigenetic factors, and the environment. Under this scenario, complex traits are likely modulated by multiple genes (and possibly multiple genetic variants within a gene), which are individually neither necessary nor sufficient. Thus, reproducibly identifying genetic variants that impact these traits has been a daunting task. In cardiovascular genetics, this has been further complicated by the multitude of different outcomes assessed, often using slightly different definitions of the phenotype in question. Genetic studies of cardiovascular disease (CVD) are largely dichotomized into studies of genes that influence CVD risk factors, such as lipids and blood pressure and studies that focus on clinical outcomes. This chapter focuses on three specific CVD events [myocardial infarction (MI), stroke, and sudden cardiac death (SCD)], with the idea that genetic variants that directly impact clinical outcomes would not necessarily be identified through studies of CVD risk factors and are likely to have the most direct clinical relevance, allowing for more accurate risk stratification. This is particularly important in SCD, where twothird of victims do not have CVD risk profiles that would warrant intervention undercurrent guidelines. These results are summarized in Table 11–1.
Rheumatoid Arthritis and Related Arthropathies
Authors: Harrison Pille , Wordsworth Paul
Published: November 2023

Chronic inflammatory joint diseases of noninfective origin are common and cause significant long-term morbidity. Their etiology is not entirely clear but genetic factors have been suspected for a long time. Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and most of the related forms of inflammatory arthritis are multifactorial diseases. Although they are often referred to as ‘‘autoimmune disorders,’’ it is far from clear what triggers the abnormal inflammatory processes that characterize these conditions. In contrast, there has been substantial progress in determining the nature of genetic susceptibility to these potentially crippling disorders. After 30 years in which the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) genes have stood out as the only oasis in a genetic desert the application of genome-wide linkage and association techniques is beginning to bear fruit. The striking recent example of the association of the protein tyrosine phosphatase, PTPN22, with RA and several related autoimmune diseases seems likely to herald a wealth of new genetic information to inform our knowledge of the etiology and pathogenesis of these conditions.
Immunological Disorders
Authors: Kraan Tineke CMT van der Pouw , Verweij Cornelis L
Published: November 2023

The analysis of gene expression in tissues, cells, and biological systems has evolved in the past decade from the analysis of a selected set of genes to an efficient high-throughput whole-genome screening approach of potentially all genes expressed in a tissue or cell sample. This development allows an open-ended survey to identify comprehensively the fraction of genes that define the sample’s unique biology. This discovery-based research provides the opportunity to characterize either new genes with unknown function or genes not previously known to be involved in a biological process. The latter category may hold surprises that sometimes urge us to redirect our thinking. Besides a more detailed understanding in basic processes in immunology, microarray studies have increased our insight in the immunological mechanisms that contribute to chronic immune-related diseases. Of particular interest is the overlap of genes identified in these diseases with the genes that are induced in response to a microbial stimulus. Moreover, genomics studies have provided evidence for the existence of genetically determined differences in immune activity that might have consequences for susceptibility and/or outcome of immune-related diseases.
Applications in Audiological Medicine
Authors: Laer Lut Van , Camp Guy Van
Published: November 2023

The hearing apparatus is a complex system that requires the interaction of many different proteins. It is therefore not unexpected that defects in many genes can lead to hearing loss (HL). HL is the most common sensory handicap. One in six hundred and fifty children is born permanently hearing impaired, or will develop severe-to-profound HL before speech is acquired (Mehl and Thomson, 2002). In addition, 1 in 1000 children will become permanently or severely hearing impaired before adulthood (Morton, 1991). In developed countries, at least 50% of permanent childhood HL is attributable to genetic causes (Marazita et al., 1993). The remaining cases are due to environmental factors that lead to HL: for example, prenatal and postnatal infectious diseases, hypoxia, ototoxic drugs, and acoustic trauma. It is estimated that approximately 30% of inherited childhood HL is syndromic, whereas the remaining 70% is nonsyndromic (Gorlin et al., 1990; Cohen and Gorlin, 1995; Gorlin et al., 1995). The most common mode of transmission of permanent childhood hereditary HL is autosomal recessive (80%). Only 15% of the cases are estimated to have an autosomal dominant mode of inheritance, whereas 2%–3% of the cases show an X-linked inheritance pattern (Newton, 1985; Morton, 1991).
Diseases of the Epidermis and Appendages, Skin Pigmentation, and Skin Cancer
Authors: Healy Eugene , Irvine Alan D , Lear John T , Munro Colin S
Published: November 2023

Skin, the largest organ in the body, has multiple functions. It forms a physical envelope that is tough but flexible and capable of self-repair; it facilitates touch and other sensory inputs, and enables grip, friction, and dexterity; it has major roles in homeostasis of water and heat; it must defend itself and the body against physical and chemical attack and ultraviolet radiation (UVR); it functions in both innate and acquired immunity; and it manufactures vitamin D on exposure to UV light. Finally, skin, its appendages, and vasculature play important roles in nonverbal communication.
Epidemiology
Authors: Prokopowicz Gregory P
Published: November 2023

Epidemiology is the study of the distribution of clinical phenomena in human populations. Clinical epidemiology is the application of epidemiologic methods to the care of the patient. The fruits of clinical epidemiology include: Identification of the causes of disease, prediction of the development of disease and its clinical outcomes, rational use of clinical tests, assessment of the risks and benefits of therapies, and evaluation of screening technologies.
Biochemistry
Authors: Sisson Stephen D
Published: November 2023

Laboratory medicine reduces our patients to a few easy-to-handle numbers: this is the discipline’s great attraction—and its greatest danger. The normal range (reference interval) is usually that which includes 95% of patients. If variation is randomly distributed, 2.5% of our results will be ‘too high’, and 2.5% ‘too low’ on an average day, when dealing with apparently normal people.
Emergency medicine
Authors: Chanmugam Arjun S , Vibhaker Neel
Published: November 2023

Patients that present with an emergency condition generally fall into two categories. They will either have a life-threatening condition or an organ- threatening condition. Knowledge of some basic disease processes and an understanding of how to approach patients who may be critically ill is of importance in managing their care. Recognizing that an emergent condition is present is the key first step, and the second step is to activate the appropriate resources as quickly as possible. Remember, if you suspect an emergent condition, ask for help as soon as possible, even if you are not sure whether there is an emergency.
Introduction
Authors: Cohen M Michael
Published: November 2023

Faces, like images seen in a kaleidoscope, are infinitely complex and beautiful. Together with their associated structures, they “allow us to speak and smile; sigh and kiss; smell, touch, chew, and swallow; cry out in pain; and convey a world of feelings and emotions through facial expression” (16). However, faces are also found in a variety of different animals (20) (Fig. 1-1). What constitutes a face depends on how the question is framed. There are three general ways to look at faces-structurally, behaviorally, and symbolically. If two eyes, nostrils,a and a mouth define a face, then fish have faces (10). They may have one or two nostrils, which are not connected to the mouth. However, water entering the nostrils does bathe the olfactory mucosa. Fish lack an ear canal, but the inner ear is present. In some fish, Weber’s bones connect the swim bladder to the inner ear, and sound is transmitted.
Artistic Perspective
Authors: Cohen M Michael
Published: November 2023

There is often a tendency to think that a portrait should be as lifelike as possible. Although this has been true during certain periods of art history, it cannot be said to represent a general tendency (vide infra). Two arguments have been used against true likeness. First, a portrait is timeless long after the sitter dies. What the sitter really looked like is not remembered, but the artist’s rendition. When it was remarked that Michelangelo’s Medici portraits in the Sagrestia Nuova were not good likenesses, Michelangelo said that in a thousand years, it won’t matter what these men looked like (5). It was said that the 1906 portrait of Gertrude Stein by Picasso was not a true likeness when it was painted. Picasso observed that, “in time, she will come to look like my painting.” Gertrude herself liked the portrait from the beginning, stating “For me, it is I” (17).