bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Nomenclature, Classifications, and Systematic Databases
Authors: Brower Andrew V. Z. , Schuh Randall T.
Published: September 2021

This chapter reviews the principles and rules governing biological nomenclature. Biological nomenclature serves as the language by which systematists name organisms and groups of organisms and communicate their knowledge about them. Indeed, a taxon's name is the critical semiotic link between specimens, taxonomic concepts, literature, and all other information pertaining to that taxon. To preserve its clarity and stability of meaning, biological nomenclature is governed by rather elaborate and detailed rules, rooted in the system of binominal nomenclature, which have been evolving since they were first proposed in the mid-nineteenth century. Nomenclature is not an end unto itself but rather a necessary adjunct for the organization and conveyance of information on biological diversity. The chapter then explores two areas that represent the most practical results of descriptive taxonomy and phylogenetic analysis: formal classifications and systematic databases.
The Integration of Phylogenetics, Historical Biogeography, and Host-Parasite Coevolution
Authors: Brower Andrew V. Z. , Schuh Randall T.
Published: September 2021

This chapter highlights the use of consensus techniques and other approaches for understanding historical biogeographic relationships and patterns of associations between parasites and their hosts. It deals primarily with analyses that are often placed under the heading of cospeciation or codivergence, situations in which hosts and their parasites appear to have intimate, long-standing historical connections and in which speciation in the host may result in speciation in the parasite. This type of association appears to obtain for many internal parasites and for certain external parasites, such as lice. In addition, or on the other hand, there is a whole class of host associations, such as those between herbivorous insects and their food plants, in which the relationship of the parasite and the host generally does not show such long-term fidelity but involves many apparent host shifts. These latter situations are often referred to under the more liberal heading of coevolution.
Understanding Molecular Clocks and Time Trees
Authors: Brower Andrew V. Z. , Schuh Randall T.
Published: September 2021

This chapter examines molecular clocks and time trees. Although laden with numerous process assumptions that may or may not be true (or knowable), the idea is appealingly straightforward: if amino acid substitutions in proteins occurred at a relatively steady pace that were more or less constant both over time and along each of the branches of a diverging evolutionary tree, then the number of substitutions would be directly related to the time since the taxa in question diverged from one another. However, evidence does not support a universal molecular clock. Evidence might or might not support “local” clocklike evolution among closely related taxa over relatively short time spans. Although absolute minimum ages for clades may be inferred from fossils, from biogeographical patterns, or extrapolated from secondary calibrations, such age estimates are subject to potentially significant error due to vagaries of geological dating as well as ambiguities of fossil identity. The test of a time tree hypothesis is to discover new fossil evidence that corroborates or falsifies it.
Plus c’est la même chose
Authors: Wang Y. Yvon
Published: September 2021

This chapter shows that despite — indeed, because of — the democratization of desire and access to sexual representations, individuals continued seeking authoritative positions from which to pronounce judgments on the desires of others. The chapter revisits examples raised as new developments in the previous chapters: depictions of women in public, nationalistic commentaries on The Plum in the Golden Vase (hereafter Plum), campaigns to rescue folk songs and lyric books, the furor around female nudes, and elite consumption of sexology as a status symbol. In each case, the chapter shows how new classifications worked and addresses why it seemed so necessary to continue excluding certain categories of desire and their bearers from legitimacy. It also explains why attempts to replace the hierarchy of licentiousness with a new order were vulnerable as never before. Ultimately, the chapter presents another view of Zhang Jingsheng's publications on sex, showing that his peers attacked these works to defend themselves from the former ally they increasingly saw as a threat to their own expertise.
Introduction
Authors: Cury Emily
Published: September 2021

This chapter explains how organizations and institutions that represent the interests of Muslims in the United States remain visible, engaged, and assertive despite the great odds they face. It discusses what motivates Muslim advocacy organizations to participate in the policy process when their ability to exert an influence in the current political climate seems limited. It also addresses why Muslims continue to mobilize around contentious foreign policy issues, such as the Palestinian—Israeli conflict, when it seems to be against their interests to do so. The chapter mentions Namira Islam's critique, which placed great emphasis on the need for cross-sectional coalition building, particularly with other communities of color. It describes the leadership and upper echelons of the national-level organizations as open and self-reflective with regard to criticism and their record of embracing Black, working-class, and inner-city Muslims.
Youth Volunteers to the Frontier
Authors: Beban Alice
Published: September 2021

This chapter refers to the volunteer university student land surveyors who formed the front line of the state in the land titling reform. It discusses the prime minister's ability to sidestep local officials and gain the trust of rural land claimants, which depended on the mobilization of the student volunteers. It also draws on interviews with the volunteer students to argue that they were central to the way the land reform reproduced Hun Sen's personal power. The chapter agues that the unusual power of university volunteers to make decisions and bypass local officials lay in their position as the prime minister's youth. It explains that the student volunteers' power arose from their “in-between-ness” and their category as both youth and soldier since they have the technological sophistication and militarized garb to clarify the political power and threat they embodied.
Master Nicolau Laurens and the Mercenary Invasion of 1357–1358
Authors: Archambeau Nicole
Published: September 2021

This chapter recounts the second chronological moment of danger that emerged from witness testimony, in which thousands of mercenaries entered Provence, captured towns, and laid siege to Marseille and Aix-en-Provence. It describes the moment as a continuation of political wrangling for the Crown of Naples and the strained relationship of Queen Johanna and King Louis with the lords of Provence. It also explains how Countess Delphine’s witnesses viewed the moment as an event of danger and confusion as they did not have a consistent way to refer to the new kind of warfare. The chapter examines how several witnesses refer to the second chronological moment as “the war with the Gascons,” as the invasion was led by the Gascon mercenary leader Arnau de Cervole. It investigates how the phrase “war with the Gascons” explains how witnesses tried to put a new kind of violence into a familiar frame of reference.
Sister Resens de Insula and the Desire for Certainty
Authors: Archambeau Nicole
Published: September 2021

This chapter covers the experience of Sister Resens de Insula, a thirty-seven-year-old nun at the Holy Cross convent, who captured the limitations of the sacrament of penance succinctly. It reviews how Resens has lived through the first and second mortalities, the mercenary invasions, and manifestations of the political unrest linked to the transfer of power from King Robert I of Naples to Queen Johanna I. It also looks at the turbulent decades of the fourteenth century, from 1343 to 1363, when women like Resens found that Countess Delphine’s words resonated with the people who gathered to listen at the Holy Cross convent. The chapter talks about Resens’ memory of being present when Delphine spoke divine words at the Holy Cross convent in 1351. It discusses Resens’s description of her experience, which shows that she expected not to feel doubts of conscience after completing the sacrament.
Ground Fictions
Authors: Morris Meghan L.
Published: September 2021

This chapter analyzes a context where the material fixity of land has been repeatedly called into question, examining how stories about soil's materiality become key factors in bringing new forms of property into being in post-conflict Colombia. The chapter demonstrates how soil's actual fluidity makes what it calls “ground fictions” central to many land claims. Building on long-term fieldwork in both rural Urabá and urban Medellín, it reveals that legal moves, such as land titling and the establishment of protected land reserves, are only part of market making. Surface water flows expand and dry up seasonally, making fictions of soil's dryness via alluvial accession central to encroaching claims to “new land” on Urabá's floodplains. Similarly, fictions about land's physical instability and landslide risk first became central to squatters' ability to access peripheral, nonmarket land in Medellín but subsequently undermined their ownership claims once the state sought to protect these long-neglected urban residents from their own risky soils. Ultimately, the juxtaposition of these two sites in the chapter sheds light on the ways that the soil becomes a crucial player in war and peace through its foundational role in the property rules that come to redefine both rural and urban land markets in the unfolding of the conflict and attempts to bring it to a close.
Regularization and the Fictions of Planning “Unauthorized Delhi”
Authors: Ghertner D. Asher
Published: September 2021

This chapter explores mimicry as a planning practice central to the development and occupation of what is rapidly becoming the most popular neighborhood form in Delhi, and indeed much of metropolitan India — the unauthorized colony. The chapter describes “unauthorized colonies” as the peripheral neighborhoods located outside the city's master-planned areas that have long been denied state services. As the population and electoral influence of unauthorized colonies have grown, the planning authorities have introduced rules for regularizing these areas, which allows them to be retroactively incorporated into the plan and subsequently supplied with state water, sewerage, and related services. The chapter then shifts to present the three planning spaces — the town planning, water infrastructure, and the unauthorized building — which shows how practices of mimicry build material planned-ness into the core of supposedly unplanned spaces.
The Sanctuary of the Collective
Authors: Shih Mi
Published: September 2021

This chapter focuses on a village in peri-urban Guangzhou that stubbornly refused to be relocated to state commodity housing. It examines how the regulatory equation of “urban” with “state ownership” in China entrenches a social fiction that occupants of collective land suffer from an innate rurality ill-suited to the conditions of modern living. The chapter's account shows how villagers, without directly challenging state policy, mobilize a quality-driven language emphasizing “the sanctuary of the collective” (jitidebihu) as a communal way of being that fosters a vitality (renqi) that villagers and other urban outcasts otherwise consider absent from the homogenized commodity world taking over the city. Refusing to become urban — despite the economic and environmental hardships associated with this refusal — reinforces the fiction that collective land holds back China's modern future but also enacts a critique of the glass towers now symbolically dominating the urbanizing landscape. Ultimately, the chapter argues that the moments of debate, negotiation, and struggle in this section clearly reveal the absurdity of the idea that urbanization and marketization are capable substitutes for collective landownership and relationships.
Affectation
Authors: Agathocleous Tanya
Published: September 2021

This chapter lays the groundwork for the exploration of disaffection and critique in India by examining the relationship between the Oscar Wilde trials and the trial of the Bangavasi: the first newspaper trial in India to introduce disaffection as a disciplinary strategy. It demonstrates how and why both trials were centrally concerned with sexuality, excessive affect, and the artifice of affectation, and shows how the key terms operating in each trial circulated between Britain and India in the Anglophone press. The chapter also explores at length the way the discursive nexus worked in the representation of so-called babu writers, who were sexually pathologized so as to simultaneously place them under political suspicion and discredit their politics. Ultimately, the chapter focuses on the critical tactic of the book — affectation — since this was the first moment when disaffection became a central term in the prosecution of sedition and was redefined specifically to address the colonial context.
The Academy and the Tsugaru Disciples
Authors: Fujiwara Gideon
Published: September 2021

This chapter chronicles the formation of the Tsugaru group of posthumous Hirata disciples and highlights Tsuruya Ariyo's efforts as a leader. This circle was devoted to poetry composition, the study of the Ancient Way, and worship of their late teacher's spirit, while retaining some scholarly autonomy. It explores the local intellectuals' association of their own “country” of Tsugaru to a larger nation of Japan by both engaging Hirata kokugaku and joining a national network. The chapter also details Ariyos' debate with Kikuchi Masahisa, a senior member of the academy from the neighboring rival domain of Morioka, on how to correctly interpret Japan's myths and Master Hirata Atsutane's teachings. Ultimately, the chapter explains how Ariyo was regarded within the Hirosaki domain as a townsperson of relatively low social standing, albeit, one of considerable cultural achievement.
Umschlagplatz
Authors: Person Katarzyna
Published: September 2021

This chapter refers to SS Sturmbannführer Hermann Höfle, the head of Operation Reinhard in Warsaw, who read out the order for displacement of Jews from the ghetto on July 22, 1942. It discusses how the order contains the task for the Jewish Order Service to serve as the executive organ of the Judenrat responsible for carrying out the deportations. It also mentions the few hundred prisoners from Gesia Street who joined the group of deportees from Dzika Street and were led into custody in front of despairing family members. The chapter notes how the Jewish Order Service did not give any explanation as to why they included children in the deportation, but it was speculated that the roundup of beggar children was intended for taking them to the Jewish prison. From the day of the deportation, the Jewish Order Service was then tasked to bring six thousand people to the Umschlagplatz every day.
Welcome to These Shores
Authors: Schweid Richard
Published: September 2021

This chapter explains that while immigrants play an important role across the health care spectrum, a federally funded 2004 report found that their numbers were greatest among home care workers. Sensitivity to cultural differences will likely need to be applied to various aspects of a home health aide's (HHA) daily tasks. In addition, aides need to leave their own cultural attitudes at the door and communicate plainly and directly with the care recipient. The chapter then looks at the effects of the Trump administration's immigration program on immigrant HHAs. It is important to acknowledge that these immigrants are as important to the economy as the immigrant physicists and software engineers. In addition to increasing wages and benefits for HHAs, efforts could be made to recruit immigrants by facilitating a visa process for those women willing to commit to working as HHAs for a certain length of time.
Russia’s “Fascism” or “Illiberalism”?
Authors: Laruelle Marlene
Published: September 2021

This chapter explores the literature on generic fascism, on a supposed specific “Russian fascism,” and on the rise of illiberalism to posit the conceptual frames needed for the analysis of Russia. It also discusses the placement of fascism within the more general phenomenon of nationalism. The chapter views the primacy of a myth of regeneration as the driving engine that makes a vision of the world and society “fascist.” With such perspective, the chapter allows us to take into account the metapolitical dimension of fascism, which is critical for recognizing the phenomenon and dissociating it from other ideologies. It defines fascism as a metapolitical ideology that calls for the total destruction of modernity by creating an alternative world based on ancient values reconstructed with violent means. The chapter then shares the definition proposed by one of the main Russian scholars of fascism, Aleksandr A. Galkin, who characterized fascism as “rightist-conservative revolutionarism” (pravokonservativnyi revoliutsionarizm), emphasizing the revolutionary aspect more than the nationalist one. Ultimately, the chapter asserts that the terminological inflation of fascism that we currently observe obscures more than explains the structural transformations of our societies: the term illiberalism offers a significantly more heuristically helpful approach to capture the evolutions.
Antifascism as the Renewed Social Consensus Under Putin
Authors: Laruelle Marlene
Published: September 2021

This chapter delves into Russia's positioning as the antifascism power par excellence toward its domestic audience. It cultivates the memory of the Great Patriotic War as the cornerstone of social consensus, a powerful reservoir of meaning that allows celebrations of individuals' adhesion to the nation and its myths. The chapter argues that the memory of the war epitomized the good sides of the Soviet Union and integrated well within the current nostalgia for late Soviet culture and daily life. It then discusses how Vladimir Putin's policy of rehabilitating Soviet symbols contributed to relegitimizing the war as a critical moment in the nation's history. The chapter highlights the emergence of new commemorative practices and invented traditions, such as the Immortal Regiment and the St. George's Ribbon, as genuine grassroots initiatives. It analyses how the narrative on the war gradually coalesced, reinforced by legislative activity aimed to erase any questions about the state's historical legitimacy. The chapter also evaluates why textbooks, which seek to shape future citizens rather than build critical thinking skills, remain quite traditional in their analysis, even if some historically ambivalent moments such as collaborationism are briefly described. Ultimately, the chapter assesses the other consequence of the war's role as a foundational memory myth for Russia.
Alcohol and the Masculine Ideal
Authors: Westermann Edward B.
Published: September 2021

This chapter explores the connections between the perpetrators' consumption of alcohol, their acts of violence, and the use of celebratory ritual as expressions of camaraderie and manifestations of masculinity. It investigates how membership in paramilitary organizations like the SS, the SA, and the police shaped and informed masculinity constructs. The chapter also discusses how the relationship between alcohol, martial identity, and entry into manhood was anchored in “leave-taking rituals.” The glorification of martial virtues and violence as “the highest manifestation of manhood” emerged as defining characteristics of the National Socialist ideal of hypermasculinity, especially within the SS and the police complex. For this reason, the chapter highlights the linkage between hypermasculinity and militarism. It analyses the concept of martial masculinity or an exaggerated belief in the necessity for merciless brutality against one's enemies, and it defines the concept of radicalized hypermasculinity by the practice of racial war. Ultimately, the chapter discusses the importance of masculinity as a cultural ideal within political and social organizations.
Conclusion
Authors: Westermann Edward B.
Published: September 2021

This concluding chapter starts by describing SS and SA men who had become addicted to violence and intoxicated by murder. Even in its final weeks, as the Third Reich crumbled into ruins, these men continued to murder their racial and political enemies and even their own colleagues. As the fighting fronts collapsed in the spring of 1945, SS and policemen now reached for the bottle in order to escape the reality of the impending German defeat. The chapter then takes a look at how these perpetrators cited alcohol use as simply an alibi to excuse their behavior during the trial of the major war criminals at Nuremberg. Heavy drinking as a psychological defense mechanism and excuse for their actions became a prevalent alibi in postwar statements and testimony by those involved in genocide. Ultimately, the chapter argues that the correlation between alcohol, celebratory ritual, and acts of mass killing or sexual assault was not simply a Nazi phenomenon.
She Must Have Done Something
Authors: Krasas Jackie
Published: September 2021

This chapter emphasizes that noncustodial mothers, whether voluntarily or not, often experience some form of stigma in relation to their status as mothers without primary custody of their children. It explains stigma as a robust subject of sociological and psychological inquiry, in which sociological literature is replete with studies of mental health, sexual orientation, and teenage pregnancy. It also cites Bernice Pescosolido and Jack Martin's extensive review of the theoretical developments and widening scope of the application of the concept of stigma, such as to singlehood, gambling, and stripping. The chapter describes noncustodial mothers that experience a spoiled identity, a “blemish of individual character.” It investigates how spoiled identities operate, which in turn confer a whole host of additional negative traits to the stigmatized person while searching for a reason to explain the blemish.
Lessons Learned
Authors: Krasas Jackie
Published: September 2021

This chapter recounts societal aspirations for families as postfeminist, gender-neutral spaces at the beginning of the twenty-first century that have outpaced the actual rate of social change, particularly in heterosexual families. It points out how gendered patterns in the division of household labor and workplace disadvantage remain stubbornly entrenched. It also confirms parenting as the increasingly preferred gender-neutral label for the multifaceted work of providing care to children. The chapter explores how navigating contemporary motherhood meant navigating a discursively gender-neutral space as a person whose lived experience and interactions with social institutions are in fact quite gendered. It discusses the tensions between gender-neutral aspirations and discourse and gendered institutions, which shape the experiences of mothers without primary custody of their children.
The Inner Tradition of Helü
Authors: He Jianjun
Published: September 2021

This chapter suggests that Helü was considered a legitimate ruler in the Wu royal linage as he inherited the authority passed down from the founder Taibo and King Shoumeng. It recounts the reign of King Liao, which was treated as a transitional period much like the short-lived Qin dynasty. It also notes that the traditions of the Wu king Helü and his successor Fuchai are titled as the “inner tradition,” while the two kings from Yue, Wuyu, and Goujian, are identified as “outer tradition.” The chapter follows the chronology of King Helü's rule, wherein the structure continues the Shiji tradition and provides a comprehensive picture of the time. It examines a considerable number of stories that are supernatural nature or reflect strong yinyang and chenwei influences that were typical during the Eastern Han time, such as the Ganjiang casting swords.
The Outer Tradition of King Wuyu of Yue
Authors: He Jianjun
Published: September 2021

This chapter delves into the histories and stories of Yue, particularly the legends of the Yue king Goujian. It talks about King Wuyue of Yue, which includes the myths and tales of Yu, the legendary ruler from high antiquity, and the ancestor of the Yue people. It also reviews the mythical birth of Yu, whose mother was impregnated by swallowing a pearl barley grain and gave birth to Yu by opening her side. The chapter looks at lost Han chenwei writings that adopted stories about Yu's dream of a spirit that told him the location of the mountain god's text for regulating flooding, and the nine-tailed white fox who helped Yu make his marriage decision. It examines Sima Qian's record of Yu, in which the author relied heavily upon Shangshu and The Book of Antiquity.
The Outer Tradition of Goujian's Secret Plots
Authors: He Jianjun
Published: September 2021

This chapter recounts Goujian's chain of actions aimed at retaliating and destroying Wu, detailing the many strategies and schemes he applied for the purpose of weakening the state and for preparing his final attack against his enemy. It elaborates Goujian's pursuit of advice from worthy men and woman of different areas of expertise, particularly Wen Zhong's Nine Schemes that were designed to strengthen Yue and weaken Wu. It also details how three of the Nine Schemes were adopted by Goujian, causing the king of Wu to indulge himself in women and a lavish lifestyle while neglecting his state. It presents a sharp contrast between Goujian and Fuchai in their ability to listen to suggestions and criticisms. While Goujian sought worthy people and used their talents, Fuchai repeatedly rejected Wu Zixu's loyal admonishments, making himself a victim of Yue's tricks.
Prologue
Authors: Garodnick Daniel R.
Published: September 2021

This chapter introduces the development of Stuyvesant Town by MetLife, with the strong support of Mayor Fiorello La Guardia and Robert Moses. It shows how the tenants of Stuy Town used their organizing mettle to successfully push back against MetLife's racism and to integrate the community. It also recounts how the tenants organized again several years later to resist the impacts of an immediate rent hike when MetLife's tax abatement was set to end. The chapter highlights the formation of the modern Tenants Association, which won a critical victory by getting their rent protections extended. It focuses primarily on the period from the 2006 sale to the uncertain years following Tishman Speyer's default in 2010 and the negotiated sale to the Blackstone Group in 2015.
Finding a Partner
Authors: Garodnick Daniel R.
Published: September 2021

This chapter delves into Adam Rose's eagerness to find ways to make his mark on the quality of life in the community of Stuyvesant Town and show how he could do a better job than the hated Tishman Speyer. It discusses Rose's first three months as the person in charge, including how he increased the public safety force by 12 percent and promised to reduce on-hold times for maintenance requests. It also highlights the appointment of Jim Yasser as the property's managing director and Charles Bagli, who was writing another piece on what would happen next to Stuy town. The chapter discusses Daniel Garodnick's ongoing intention to pursue a home ownership plan, which would include rules to keep the community affordable for middle-class people into the future. It recounts how new board members of the Tenants Association challenged Garodnick on the contents of Bagli's article.
Under Water, Actual Water
Authors: Garodnick Daniel R.
Published: September 2021

This chapter talks about Hurricane Sandy, which charged toward the East Coast in the final days of October 2012. It emphasizes how residents of Peter Cooper Village and Stuyvesant Town were encouraged to shelter in place as the area was not officially in an evacuation zone, despite being only one hundred yards from the East River. It also recounts how Hurrican Sandy caused to shut off power and water to Stuy Town and Peter Cooper and about a quarter of New York City's homes and businesses. The chapter describes the traffic into Manhattan after the hurricane cane, which was so severe that the mayor announced restrictions on single-occupancy cars entering Manhattan. It highlights the severe damages residents saw as they slowly returned to the affected buildings, such as destroyed basements and unsightly recycling bins now located right in front of their front doors.
The Mayor Comes Over for Cannoli
Authors: Garodnick Daniel R.
Published: September 2021

This chapter looks at the de Blasio administration's active opposition to Daniel Garodnick's plan of homeownership for Stuyvesant Town. It emphasizes Garodnick's effort to persuade the mayor and his team that his plan of ownership made the most sense for the city. It also recounts how Mayor Bloomberg stayed on the sidelines back in 2006, signaling to MetLife and prospective bidders that it was simply a private transaction with no role for the city to play. The chapter details Garodnick's conversation with Emma Wolfe, one of the mayor's senior advisers, where he explained why it was important for the new mayor to do something in support of the tenants of Stuy Town in a more public way. It mentions Garodnick's hope that the new mayor connects his initiative with the plight of Stuy Town and the fight to save the largest middle-class rental property in America.
Practice Multiplicity in the Implementation of Private Regulation Programs
Authors: Kuruvilla Sarosh
Published: September 2021

This chapter discusses practice multiplicity in the implementation of private regulation programs. As private regulation unfolded through the 1990s and early 2000s, the number of codes of conduct also proliferated — and there are now likely numerous different codes across different companies, each with some degree of variation. While codes relating to labor standards were initially quite diverse, individual company codes have gradually coalesced into multi stakeholder institution (MSI) codes or industrywide codes. Nevertheless, wide variations remain. All this variation is a problem: it “complicates the work that industry players have to do to implement policies” and “contributes to a sense of confusion among an external audience of consumers, governments, and activists groups.” This confusion and debate is the result of practice multiplicity and is a fundamental cause of the decoupling between private regulation policies and positive outcomes for workers. For a more detailed view of practice multiplicity in action, the chapter turns to an empirical investigation regarding multiplicity in the implementation of private regulation approaches by different companies sourcing from the same supplier.
Causal Complexity
Authors: Li Chunyun
Published: September 2021

This chapter examines causal complexity. The determinants of improvement in working conditions in supplier factories in global supply chains are complex. The complexity arises from the interaction between heterogeneous actors (companies, auditing firms, suppliers) following a multiplicity of practices, combined with the effect of local institutional conditions and industry and workplace context. Along with the general lack of transparency in private regulation, this combination of causal factors leads to uncertainty with respect to cause–effect relationships. The central assumption of the private regulation model is that if standards are set by codes of conduct (whether based on international conventions or local laws), and if supplier factories comply with the codes, sweatshop conditions will be avoided and improvements will be made in the lives of workers in global supply chains. But this assumption may not be warranted; buyers and brands may not have the power to force suppliers to compel compliance. And within the businesses of most global buyers and retailers, sourcing may not be sufficiently well integrated with compliance, so the incentive effects of rewarding good factories that are making improvements in compliance are not realized in practice — even though such incentives are the very basis for the model of private regulation of first-tier supplier factories.
Freedom of Association and Collective Bargaining in Global Supply Chains
Authors: Fischer-Daly Matt , Raymond Christopher
Published: September 2021

This chapter addresses freedom of association (FOA) and collective bargaining (CB) in global supply chains. FOA and CB rights are internationally recognized as core and fundamental human rights of global citizens. Thus, in 1998 when the International Labour Organization recast its objectives to promote “decent work,” FOA and CB were among the “core labor rights,” along with the freedom from child and forced labor and freedom from discrimination. The chapter uses diverse datasets from brands, auditing firms, multi stakeholder institutions (MSIs), and Better Work to assess FOA and CB in the global apparel industry and substantiate the arguments. The breadth of the data permits systematic and comprehensive analysis of the incidence and nature of FOA violations and the influence of FOA and CB on overall labor standards in the industry. FOA and CB show great promise for improving compliance with codes of conduct overall — the expressed goal of private regulation — but FOA and CB are the least supported rights in current private regulation efforts. In other words, most companies with private regulation programs are eschewing the very rights that could potentially improve the functioning of their private regulation programs.
The Entente Realigns Italy, 1915
Authors: Crawford Timothy W.
Published: September 2021

This chapter investigates the entente's successful attempt in 1915 to promote Italy's defection from and intervention against the Central powers. First, the entente sought to achieve a high degree of alignment change: to convert Italy from a hedged neutral into a cobelligerent against its former allies. The theory expects that this would be a difficult alignment goal to achieve, because Italy would face high costs both for reneging on its alliance and for entering the war. To achieve this goal, then, the entente needed to provide strong rewards to offset those costs and outbid Italy's erstwhile allies. Yet, the entente allies faced high alliance constraints, which, if they disagreed about Italy's strategic weight, would make it hard for them to concert such rewards. Despite initial differences, the entente allies did come to agree that Italy had war-tipping potential, and as the theory expects, they struck side bargains with each other in order to coordinate a powerful bid that well exceeded the bribes offered by Italy's erstwhile allies. This enabled the Italian government to defend a decision to intervene despite significant neutralist opposition, thus giving the entente what it sought.
Germany Divides the USSR from Britain and France, 1939
Authors: Crawford Timothy W.
Published: September 2021

This chapter describes Germany's successful attempt to stop the USSR from allying with Britain and France in 1939. Adolf Hitler's policy was informed by two beliefs about Soviet strategic weight. The first was that Soviet neutrality was necessary for victory in a war against Poland that included British and French intervention. Soviet neutrality would diminish the effects of the allied strategy of economic blockade and punishment. The second was that the shock of Moscow's neutralization would likely compel Britain and France to abandon their commitments to Poland and thus allow Germany to attack it isolated. As German leaders foresaw, despite the apparent long odds, their policy to accommodate the Soviet Union might work because they could extend strategic benefits to Moscow that the Allies' alliance plans could not. Other conditions, captured in the theory, strongly favored success. First, Germany's policy tried to induce a low degree of alignment change. The Soviet Union was uncommitted; the German goal was to solidify this in a formal arrangement. Second, Germany faced low alliance constraints at the time. Its closest (and only formal) military ally, Italy, was weak relative to Germany and had little direct influence or interests at stake in the elements of the bargain, and it favored compromise with USSR for the same general reasons Germany did.
Germany Fails to Realign Turkey, 1941
Authors: Crawford Timothy W.
Published: September 2021

This chapter studies Germany's failure to induce Turkey to defect from the British alliance and join the Axis in 1941. If Berlin were to convince Ankara to break its alliance with Britain and become a German ally, it had to deliver a handsome and credible package of rewards that advanced Turkey's most important revisionist aims in the region — namely, the (re)acquisition of territory in Bulgaria, the Dodecanese Islands, Syria, and Iraq. In seeking to divorce Turkey from Britain — and to use it as a pass-through for moving men and arms against British forces in the Middle East — Berlin intimated that such rewards were obtainable and initiated secret negotiations to find a bargain. But the negotiations ran into a wall. Ankara's price for realignment would require Germany to make promises that challenged important interests of its key allies at that time — Italy, Vichy France, and Japan. About to start a war against the Soviet Union, Berlin would not risk alienating those partners, so it abandoned the attempt. Its decision to retreat was made easier because German leaders did not then perceive Turkey to have high strategic weight.
The Squandered Brilliance of Our Disposable Youth
Authors: Freeman Jim
Published: September 2021

This chapter addresses the education inequities in the United States, and distinguishes between “public schools” and “charter schools.” Though the chapter recognizes that this is itself controversial, and charter schools have taken to referring themselves as public schools, for the sake of clarity it is important to be able to distinguish between the two. While the charter schools' efforts have been primarily directed at Black and Brown communities thus far, the chapter unveils the school privatizers' ultimate targets, which are set much more broadly than that. It examines the impact of school privatization on public school systems and the harms caused by school privatization in communities of color. The chapter then takes a look at Corporate America and Wall Street, and analyses how they can always profit from new markets and expandable markets. Ultimately, it reveals how the ultra-wealthy maintain education inequities to ensure that there will be millions of poorly educated, low-skill individuals who are essentially forced to accept the low wages to survive.
Newspapers, Rallies, Strikes
Authors: Sidel John T.
Published: September 2021

This chapter focuses on the early decades of the twentieth century across the Indies, which saw major shifts in the public sphere, from experiments in fiction, publishing, and dramatic acting to unprecedented initiatives in associational activity and, in due course, revolutionary political action. It introduces the pioneering newspaperman Tirto Adhi Soerjo, who played a prominent role in the founding of the first mass movement in the Indies, the Sarekat Islam (SI), and his fellow journalist and SI activist Marco Kartodikromo. The chapter then highlights the first decades of the twentieth century, in which enterprising Europeans and Eurasian Indos, Hadhrami Arabs, and both totok and peranakan Chinese engaged in unprecedented initiatives in the realm of associational activity, founding modern schools and organizations that challenged established hierarchies of “traditional” education, authority, and identity among the small minority communities. The chapter also discusses the important consequences of reformist and revolutionary republican organizing efforts of the 1900s for the communities of the Chinese diaspora, especially in the Netherlands East Indies. Ultimately, the chapter investigates how the shift in the direction of labor mobilization, union organizing, and strike activity in the Indies in 1917–1918 coincided with developments around the world to encourage and inspire an escalation of social activism and political action by the SI in the late 1910s and early-mid 1920s.
Soekarno and the Promise of Nasakom
Authors: Sidel John T.
Published: September 2021

This chapter begins by introducing an article titled “Nationalism, Religion, and Marxism” by the twenty-five-year-old, Dutch-educated ingenieur named Soekarno. It discusses the conflicts, tensions, and mistakes that had come to divide the variously Islamic- and Marxist-oriented leaders of the Sarekat Islam and the broader field of political and social action in the Indies, now described, as the title of the journal indicated, as Indonesia. The chapter details Soekarno's rallying call for unity among Muslims and Marxists and for Indonesian independence in 1926, which represented the rise of classically Andersonian nationalism among the bilingual Dutch educated elite stratum of society in the late colonial Indies. The chapter also argues that the late interwar era in Indonesia helped to lay the groundwork for communist and Islamic revolution making by sustaining transoceanic connections to diverse sources of real, imagined, and potential solidarity and support across the world, and by maintaining or (re)building discursive and institutional structures for popular mobilization in the name of communism and Islam. Ultimately, the chapter contends that the Japanese occupation period severely constrained opportunities for organization and mobilization by activists inspired by communism and other strains of revolutionary socialism in the Indonesian archipelago.
Republicanism, Communism, Islam
Authors: Sidel John T.
Published: September 2021

This chapter highlights the proclamation of Indonesian independence in August 1945. It details the emergence of a process of revolutionary mobilization, with armed groups surfacing in villages, towns, and cities across Java, Sumatra, and elsewhere to proclaim independence, to assert new forms of authority and, in some areas, to carry out local social revolutions of their own. The chapter then examines the impacts of the surge of revolutionary mobilization unfolding across Java and Sumatra with such strong support from Communist and Islamic networks, and such demonstrations of solidarity from beyond the archipelago. In the face of the external constraints and internal challenges, this chapter outlines how Republik Indonesia moved quickly to establish recognizable institutions of republican, representative government through which to absorb and appropriate for itself the popular energies and aspirations embodied in the slogan kedaulatan rakyat (popular sovereignty). Ultimately, the chapter illustrates the Indonesian Revolusi's immediate outcome and the successful subordination of communism and Islam to the republicanism of Soekarno and Mohammad Hatta's Republik Indonesia.
From Guangzhou, Porto Novo, and Antananarivo toward Điện Biên Phủ
Authors: Sidel John T.
Published: September 2021

This chapter looks at the southern Chinese coastal metropolis of Guangzhou, which suggests itself as an obvious and potentially interesting vantage point from which the Việtnamese Revolution can be resituated and revisited. It argues that Guangzhou was destined to play a much more decisive and much more direct role in the making of the Việtnamese Revolution as compared with that of Litoměřice for the Philippine Revolution, or even Baku for the Indonesian Revolusi. The chapter also discusses the relevance of far-flung and seemingly obscure African cities as Porto Novo and Antananarivo, and analyses the relationship of Paris to Guangzhou in terms of the diverse points of influence and interlinkage for Việtnamese revolutionaries. The chapter then shifts to the battle of Điện Biên Phủ in 1954, and investigates how the battle serves as a signifier of both the more impressive military trajectory of the Việtnamese Revolution as compared with its Philippine and Indonesian counterparts, and, crucially, the broader ethnic, institutional, and geographical context of Indochina within which the Việtnamese revolutionary struggle was embedded. Ultimately, the chapter highlights the subsequent developments in Sinographic cosmopolitanism in the Đại Việt realm and outlines the dramatic transformation of Cochinchina, Annam, and Tonkin under the auspices of French colonial rule.
All Societies Die
Authors: Cohn Samuel
Published: September 2021

This chapter provides an overview of societal growth and decline. How long will our current civilization live? By historical comparative standards, European–American civilization is middle aged. One can get a sense of the lifespans of civilizations by seeing how long other civilizations survived. If one looks at the Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire, the various dynasties of China, and the Old, Middle, and New kingdoms of Egypt, these empires lasted an average of a little over 550 years. Where do we stand in all of this? The modern world system dates from 1350, making us 650–700 years old. That would give us the average length of age of an empire when it falls — although many empires last much longer. The chapter then outlines things which have occurred during feudal chaotic periods: standards of living collapse; technology disappears; and crime, warfare, and violence increase.
The French Revolution
Authors: Cohn Samuel
Published: September 2021

This chapter evaluates the causes of the French Revolution. The problem was not that Louis XVI was particularly wasteful, although he had a lavish lifestyle at Versailles. The issue was instead one of crushing military necessity. Before the revolution, France was dealing with invasion threats from Spain and England and was spending over twice as much as had been spent on the Seven Years' War. However, France was fiscally crippled by the fact that a substantial proportion of its financial base was exempt from paying taxes. The disputes within the elite about who was going to come up with the money to pay for extra military expenses led to revolution. The revolutionaries found divided conservative forces, as well as members of the elite willing to oppose the king if this would help them win their battles about future tax obligations. The result was the overthrow of the king and the entire noble class. But taxes were not the whole story: there was also a rising capitalist middle class resentful of the superior status of the aristocracy.
Somalia after the Fall
Authors: Cohn Samuel
Published: September 2021

This chapter focuses on the process of government death in Somalia. As conditions got worse, there was increased political dissent and the government responded with an iron fist. In response, the entire country armed itself in self-defense. This widespread mobilization was enough to force Siad Barre from power, but the opposition was too divided to create a new administration and the whole country splintered along clan lines. The result was a Hobbesian war of all against all. The collapse of a functioning Somali state also meant the collapse of the Somali navy and this led to the rise of Somali piracy. As of 2020, the civil war continues in Somalia. Much of the fighting is between a somewhat restored government and a terrorist group, Al-Shabaab. Interclan violence exists as well. Modest economic growth and some government functioning have returned to Somalia, but its overall prospects are as weak as ever.