bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Forms of Governmental Action: Internal and External Perspectives
Authors: Rubini Luca
Published: May 2010

This chapter begins by providing a conclusive critical assessment of the state of the law with respect to the forms of governmental action that constitute a subsidy or a State aid in the WTO and EC, and provides suggestions about whether the law, or its interpretation, should be changed. This critical assessment is carried out from a marked comparative standpoint. The analysis of the similarities and differences between the two disciplines, and the two legal systems as a whole, will help us to better evaluate the correctness of the solutions adopted in each legal system. The analysis is twofold, adopting two different viewpoints. On the one hand, it assesses the regulation of subsidies and State aids ‘in itself’ (which is called ‘internal perspective’), focusing in particular on the concerns about the expansiveness of the definition in terms of forms of governmental actions covered. On the other hand, taking an ‘external perspective’, the chapter briefly looks at the ‘other rules’ that in the two legal systems might apply to the same or similar forms of governmental action and address possible worries about system coherency.
Conclusions
Authors: Rubini Luca
Published: May 2010

This book sought ‘to provide an analytical and conceptual framework’ of the legal definitions of WTO subsidy and EC State aid. It develops a subsidy language, made of issues and tests, concepts and categories. Most importantly, some general elements have emerged as essential characteristics, and useful tools of interpretation, of a more abstract concept of subsidy, transcending, but always connected to, the actual definitions posited in WTO and EC law. The first is a form of public action; the second the conferral of an economic advantage; and the third an impact on the competitive process. These constitute the subject of the analysis in the three main parts of the book (respectively Parts II, III and V). It is hoped that with this packaged conceptual toolbox the ‘interpreter and policy-maker’ may have a better understanding of the topic. This chapter outlines the main conclusions that the use of that conceptual framework has allowed us to reach.
5 The Lexical Encoding of Idioms
Authors: Everaert Martin
Published: May 2010

This chapter addresses the question how idioms are lexically represented, and the consequences that this has for a theory about the computational system. It argues that there is no straightforward way to use compositionality as a way to make a distinction between expressions that are idiomatic and expressions that are not idiomatic, and that only convention determines which phrases can be called an idiom.
9 On the Morphosyntax of (Anti) Causative Verbs
Authors: Alexiadou Artemis
Published: May 2010

The chapter investigates the variation at the level of morphology and at the level of productivity in the anti‐causative alternation on the basis of a non‐derivational approach to the alternation. It proposes to correlate the differences in productivity with the differences in the way languages morphologically mark the alternation. Two main groups of languages are identified. The behaviour of both groups will be shown to be related to properties of their (in)transitive syntax. The main claim of the chapter is that the morphology we see in the alternation should be taken seriously and is the device that helps us explain why anticausative and causative formation is freer in some languages than others. It is shown, first, that if a language lacks special morphological marking for de‐transitivization processes, this language will allow fewer roots to ender the anticausative alternation. Second, it is argued that certain languages are more productive than others in forming causatives, as they have a smaller root inventory, but have a number of functional morphemes to express causation/becoming.
14 Morphological Aspect and the Function and Distribution of Cognate Objects Across Languages
Authors: Horrocks Geoffrey , Stavrou Melita
Published: May 2010

We identify different functions of cognate objects cross‐linguistically, and analyse cognate object constructions as ‘lexicalized’ light verb constructions. In Greek etc. these involve no shift of aspectual character vis‐à‐vis the simple verb. But COCs in English etc. provide terminative equivalents to non‐terminative unergatives (the relevant VPs denoting telic, rather then atelic, eventualities). Such shifts correlate with the absence of grammaticalized aspect.
Greek Prepositions
Authors: Bortone Pietro
Published: May 2010

New prepositions in Greek express solely spatial meanings, simultaneously lost by their older synonyms, whose use becomes restricted to non‐spatial senses—unless a recent synonym is not available. In time, new prepositions too develop non‐spatial meanings, eventually losing their spatial ones completely, repeating the life‐cycle of their predecessors.
Health and social services for drug users
Authors: Babor Thomas , Caulkins Jonathan , Edwards Griffith , Fischer Benedikt , Foxcroft David , Humphreys Keith , Obot Isidore , Rehm Jürgen , Reuter Peter , Room Robin , Rossow Ingeborg , Strang John
Published: May 2010

This chapter describes services designed to change the behaviour of drug users, with the aim of benefiting them and those people around them. The goals of such services are diverse, and may include initiating or maintaining abstinence from drugs, reducing the amount or frequency of drug use, or changing behaviours other than drug use (e.g. criminal activity, needle sharing). The chapter focuses on the outcomes of various types of health and social services.
Criminalization and decriminalization of drug use or possession
Authors: Babor Thomas , Caulkins Jonathan , Edwards Griffith , Fischer Benedikt , Foxcroft David , Humphreys Keith , Obot Isidore , Rehm Jürgen , Reuter Peter , Room Robin , Rossow Ingeborg , Strang John
Published: May 2010

This chapter reviews policies designed to deter drug use, through criminal sanctions on the possession and use of psychoactive substances. It shows that enforcement can reduce demand via deterrence, incapacitation, and/or rehabilitation.
2 The Debate on Globalization, Poverty, and Inequality: Why Measurement Matters1
Authors: Ravallion Martin
Published: May 2010

Markedly different claims have been heard within the development community about how much progress is being made against poverty and inequality in the current period of globalization. This chapter provides a nontechnical overview of the conceptual and methodological issues underlying these conflicting claims. It argues that the dramatically differing positions taken in this debate often stem from differences in the concepts and definitions used, and differences in data sources and measurement assumptions. These differences are often hidden from view in the debate, but they need to be considered carefully if one is to properly interpret the evidence. The best available evidence suggests that if the rate of progress against absolute poverty in the developing world in the 1990s is maintained, then the Millennium Development Goal of halving the 1990 aggregate poverty rate by 2015 will be achieved on time in the aggregate, though not in all regions. The chapter concludes with some observations on the implications for the more policy-oriented debates on globalization and pro-poor growth.
6 Use of Country Purchasing Power Parities for International Comparisons of Poverty Levels: Potential and Limitations
Authors: Aten Bettina , Heston Alan
Published: May 2010

This chapter takes up two interrelated issues of monetary measures of poverty: what prices and what expenditure weights should be used when comparing the purchasing power parity of currencies. The first section evaluates methods of estimating poverty through the late 1990s. The second looks at the sensitivity of an international poverty PPP to alternative aggregation and weighting methods. Some of the conclusions are that a consumption-based PPP is preferable to any GDP-based PPP, as are percentage weights rather than actual weights for expenditure distributions. The latter should be adjusted using an iterative approach that combines own country average-income shares and low-income household expenditure shares, or at least representative shares of a low-income country. Lastly, references to these methods are made with respect to the differences in the poverty PPPs, and global poverty counts of the World Bank and of Deaton and Dupriez (2009).
7 Measuring Poverty in a Growing World (or Measuring Growth in a Poor World)1
Authors: Deaton Angus
Published: May 2010

The extent to which growth reduces global poverty has been disputed for several decades. Although there are better data than ever before, controversies are not resolved. A major problem is that consumption measured from household surveys, which is used to measure poverty, grows less rapidly than consumption measured in national accounts, in the world as a whole and in large countries, particularly India, China, and the United States. As a consequence, measured poverty has fallen less rapidly than appears warranted by measured growth in poor countries. One plausible cause is that richer households are less likely to participate in surveys. But growth in the national accounts is also upward biased, and consumption in the national accounts contains large and rapidly growing items that are not consumed by the poor and not included in surveys. So it is possible for consumption of the poor to grow less rapidly than national consumption, without any increase in measured inequality. Current statistical procedures in poor countries understate the rate of global poverty reduction and overstate growth in the world.
8 Poverty or Income Distribution: Which Do We Want to Measure?1
Authors: Johnston Robert
Published: May 2010

This chapter compares concepts of poverty and deprivation used in the pioneering slum surveys in London in the late nineteenth century with income and consumption concepts today. These are found to be rather similar and better suited to measurement of the poor and very poor than income distribution measures. The close apparent relation between these concepts and the World Bank's international $1.25/day poverty line led to the adoption of the Bank's method for measuring progress in reducing poverty in the first Millennium Development Goal. Concepts and methods in national accounting and household surveys have proven reasonably satisfactory for this purpose but are still only partially implemented in developing regions, and have yielded limited insights on desirable and successful anti-poverty policies.
9 A Note on the Mis(Use) of National Accounts for Estimation of Household Final Consumption Expenditures for Poverty Measures
Authors: Havinga Ivo , Kamanou Gisèle , Viet Vu Quang
Published: May 2010

This chapter examines, from a global perspective, why poverty counts at different points in time generate marked and growing discrepancies when estimated from national accounts aggregated statistics (NA) as opposed to household surveys data (HS). It argues that NA and HS are not only designed to serve different purposes, but are fundamentally different in terms of statistical concepts and methods. The illustration of the NA concepts of ‘disposable income by individual household’ and ‘actual household final consumption’ indicates that the use of NA for poverty measurement is inadequate both conceptually and empirically. The chapter reiterates the importance of developing internationally harmonized standards for HS, seeking to accomplish improved poverty estimation as well as direct measure of household consumption in NA.
10 Unequal Development in the 1990s: Growing Gaps in Human Capabilities1
Authors: Fukuda-Parr Sakiko , Stewart David
Published: May 2010

This chapter assesses poverty trends by using human development outcomes rather than by using income measures alone. It shows that the the 1990s was a decade of prosperity and progress for the world but also of development disaster for many of the world's poorest countries, where key indicators of human development not only failed to progress but began to register reversals based on both income and capability indicators. The chapter identifies the poorest performing countries and examines their characteristics. These characteristics suggest common constraints that they face, constraints which merit attention in the fight against global poverty.
Scipio the Matchmaker
Authors: Chaplin Jane D.
Published: May 2010

This chapter explores why Livy chose to shape Scipio Africanus' encounter with the Spanish maiden in Book 26 as a positive variant on the Lucretia narrative. Where the rape of Lucretia triggers the overthrow of the monarchy, Scipio's restrained behaviour towards the Spanish maiden leads to local alliances and military support. Comparison with Polybius illuminates Livy's emphasis on the connection between abstinence and diplomatic success. Further, the revisiting and amplification of the episode when Scipio rebukes Masinissa for trying to protect Sophoniba show the centrality of this theme to Livy's conception of Scipio. The chapter then uses the trials of the Scipios to consider the similarities and differences between Scipio and 1st-century warlords, and argues that Scipio's failure to capitalize on his extra-constitutional status distinguishes him from Marius, Sulla, Pompey, and Caesar, and explains his value for a reversal of Lucretia's story.
Allusion and Contrast in the Letters of Nicias (Thuc. 7.11–15) and Pompey (Sall.Hist.2.98M)
Authors: Meyer Elizabeth A.
Published: May 2010

Similarities and verbal allusions that link the letters of Nicias in Thucydides (7.11-15) and Pompey in Sallust (Hist. 2.98M) prompt a comparison of the two men and their situations; but the contrasts that emerge from this comparison also invite the reader to observe how different the men were, and then to read through these differences to note the similarities between Pompey and Nicias's rival Alcibiades, who turned against his own city. The subsequent comparison of the recipients of the letters and their responses — Athenian democrats and Roman senators — shows a contrast even more extreme, for the former were united, strong, and public-spirited; the latter fracturing, weak, and self-centred. The contrasts that finally emerge from both comparisons suggest a fundamental parallel intended by both authors: the impending death of language, descent into ferocious action, and doom of civil war for both polities.
Amores1.1–5
Authors: West David
Published: May 2010

‘There's a certain ... if anyone here will wish to know ... madam. Her name is Mrs Thirsty’. Comic scripts need a comic to perform them. Read silently they are dead. For this opening to Amores 1.8 the epexegete has to imagine a brilliant performer carrying it off: his timing, gesture, pitch and pace of voice, play of features (leer? or frown?), pregnant pause while the listeners realize they are being mocked. Ovid was a brilliant performer. It was a great sorrow to him in exile that if he were to recite his poems, nobody would understand him (Tristia 3.14.39-40). Composing a poem which you can't read to anyone is the same thing as performing rhythmic gestures in the dark (Pont. 4.2.33). This chapter attempts to imagine Ovid's recitation of Amores 1.1-6 to track the flight of the performing flea of Latin poetry: risisse Cupido dicitur.
Fathers and Sons: The Manlii Torquati and Family Continuity in Catullus and Horace
Authors: Feeney Denis
Published: May 2010

This chapter investigates the historiographical traditions concerning the patrician family of the Manlii Torquati, and the use made of those traditions by the two Roman poets Catullus and Horace. The family of the Manlii Torquati are marked in Roman historiography for the template of a father killing his son, and the historians treat the family as a hard test case for the survival of aristocratic tradition: how can a family perpetuate a family tradition if the tradition says you have to kill your inheritor? The chapter demonstrates how three major poems — Catullus Poem 61, Horace Epistles 1.5, and Odes 4.7 — all capitalize on the family traditions as they address two members of this family; who are, it is argued, father and son. Both Catullus and Horace are interested in the precarious nature of family continuity in the Roman aristocracy.
Seven Passages of theAnnals(and One of Manilius)
Authors: Courtney Edward
Published: May 2010

This chapter offers corrections of Tacitus, Annals 11.14, 11.23, 12.5, 12.65, 14.61, 15.63, 15.65, and, incidentally, of Manilius 2.898; places in which the transmitted text appears to be corrupt.
The Great Escape: Tacitus on the Mutiny of the Usipi (Agricola28)
Authors: Ash Rhiannon
Published: May 2010

This chapter considers an extraordinary passage from Tacitus's Agricola, his excursus on the mutinous adventures of a disaffected auxiliary cohort of Usipi. While accidentally circumnavigating Britain, they are reduced to cannibalism and the survivors are captured and sold as slaves (Agricola 28). The episode forms a lively hiatus between Agricola's sixth season of campaigning (Agricola 25-7) and the climactic campaign of Mons Graupius (Agricola 29-38), but there is more at stake here than entertainment: Tacitus makes some telling points about imperial power and establishes some suggestive interconnections between this incident of cannibalism on the margins and the violent, self-destructive activities happening in Rome under the bloodthirsty Domitian. On the margins, these one-time auxiliaries are driven to cannibalism, but still retain some degree of integrity. Yet the Roman princeps at the centre seems to relish the taste of aristocratic blood (even if this serves as a prelude to his own assassination).
Voices of Resistance
Authors: Rutherford Richard
Published: May 2010

This chapter makes a sustained comparison between the speeches of Calgacus and Agricola in Tacitus's Agricola, and the longer sequence in the narrative of the Batavian revolt in Tacitus, Histories iv, involving orations by Julius Civilis, Petilius Cerealis, and others. Both works use rhetorical topoi current in the tradition of criticism of Roman imperialism; something is also said by way of defence of empire. These rhetorical arguments are deployed in complicated ways and as always, the speeches must be seen in relation to the narrative. The aim is not to reach facile conclusions about Tacitus's view of empire, but to examine the complexities of conflicting views in the texts, both in the speeches and in the authorial narrative.
Chapter 1 The Problem of Biological Invasions
Authors: Perrings Charles , Mooney Harold , Mark Williamson
Published: May 2010

This chapter begins with a discussion of the impact of invasive species throughout human history, and the role of trade, transport, and travel in species introductions. It then considers the ecological and economic dimensions of the problem of invasive species, and policy and management options. The need to recognize the global dimension of the problem is discussed.
Chapter 2 Climate Change and Species' Distributions: An Alien Future?
Authors: Thomas Chris D. , Ohlemüller Ralf
Published: May 2010

This chapter presents analyses that suggest increasing levels of invasion will be observed with increasing climate change, and that invasions of species from far away will increase disproportionately. It suggests that climate change will require us to reconsider our attitudes to the distinction between native and non-native species, because many species are only expected to survive climate change by establishing in new regions, outside their historical ranges.
Chapter 4 Globalization and Invasive Alien Species: Trade, Pests, and Pathogens
Authors: Perrings Charles , Fenichel Eli , Kinzig Ann
Published: May 2010

The risk posed by an introduced species depends on a number of factors, some of which are within the control of regulatory authorities and some of which are not. It is a product of the probability that imports will introduce new species and the expected damage done by those species. Among the risk factors taken as exogenous by the regulatory authorities are the invasiveness of the species itself (whether it is a generalist or a specialist, its plasticity, and so on), the bioclimatic similarity between the trading partners, the volume and composition of trade, and the vulnerability of the host (economic and ecological) system. The sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) measures taken by the exporter may or may not be taken as exogenous. These together determine both the likelihood that a unit of trade will introduce species of different types and the expected damage if a particular species (or class of species) is introduced. This chapter focuses on the nature of the SPS response to the invasive species risks of international trade, and the effect this has on the dispersion of species. More particularly, it asks what determines current country-level decisions to mitigate the risks of species introductions or to adapt to the consequences of establishment and spread, and how these are reflected in the dispersion data.
Chapter 6 Habitats and Land Use as Determinants of Plant Invasions in the Temperate Zone of Europe
Authors: Pyšek Petr , Chytrý Milan , Jarošík Vojtĕch
Published: May 2010

This chapter reviews studies dealing with invasions in habitats and, by using an extensive dataset from the Czech Republic, demonstrates differences between the level of invasion (defined as the actual representation of alien species) and invasibility (defined as the inherent vulnerability of habitats to invasion). Individual habitats are classified according to these two measures, and the relative importance of factors that determine both the level of invasion and invisibility is explored. Two traditional groups of European aliens are considered in the analyses, distinguished on the basis of residence time: archaeophytes (arrived before 1500 AD, mainly from the Middle East and Mediterranean), and neophytes (arrived after 1500 AD, mainly from North America and Asia). Finally, the potential for application of the knowledge of invasion in individual habitats is discussed, and possibilities of using it in risk assessment outlined.
Chapter 12 The Impact of Invasive Alien Species on Ecosystem Services and Human Well‐being
Authors: Pejchar Liba , Mooney Harold
Published: May 2010

This chapter reviews the literature to understand the significance of making decisions about the prevention and/or control of invasive alien species (IAS) that ignore impacts on ecosystem services. It reports damage costs associated with IAS in monetary terms. The costs presented for various provisioning, regulating, and cultural services may be roughly comparable since most of the literature mostly clusters around the early 2000s. Whether damage costs of any magnitude will change the way IAS is managed will naturally depend on the benefits of the activities that lead to the introduction and spread of each species. Identifying potential damage costs and estimating their magnitude is a positive first step towards properly accounting for the full impact of IAS.
Chapter 13 Current and Future Consequences of Invasion by Alien Species: A Case Study from South Africa
Authors: Wilgen B.W. van , Richardson D.M.
Published: May 2010

This chapter reviews what is known about those invasive alien species that impact on the terrestrial, freshwater, and marine ecosystems of South Africa. It briefly reviews the pathways by which these species have arrived, how these pathways have changed over time, and how many have become invasive. It then considers the current levels of understanding with respect to impacts, both ecological and economic. This is followed by an account of the prognosis for the growth in these impacts should current trends continue.
Chapter 15 Prevention: Designing and Implementing National Policy and Management Programs to Reduce the Risks from Invasive Species
Authors: Keller Reuben P. , Lodge David M.
Published: May 2010

This chapter describes and critically evaluates the ‘state-of-the-art’ for national policy and management efforts designed to prevent the arrival of invasive species. Preventing the introduction of invasive species will almost always be less costly than managing and adapting to species once they arrive. Although this is widely recognized by biologists and economists, only a handful of countries have embraced this approach in their policies for environmental invaders. As nations work to meet their obligations under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), it is likely that the number of countries with programs for preventing invasive species will grow.
Love, Friendship, and the Self
Authors: Helm Bennett W.
Published: May 2010

Recent Western thought has consistently emphasized the individualistic strand in our understanding of persons at the expense of the social strand. Thus, it is generally thought that persons are self-determining and autonomous, where these are understood to be capacities we exercise most fully on our own, apart from others, whose influence on us tends to undermine that autonomy. This book argues that we must reject a strongly individualistic conception of persons if we are to make sense of significant interpersonal relationships and the importance they can have in our lives. It presents a new account of love as intimate identification and of friendship as a kind of plural agency, in each case grounding and analyzing these notions in terms of interpersonal emotions. At the centre of this account is an analysis of how our emotional connectedness with others is essential to our very capacities for autonomy and self-determination: we are rational and autonomous only because of and through our inherently social nature. By focusing on the role that relationships of love and friendship have, both in the initial formation of our selves and in the on-going development and maturation of adult persons, the book significantly alters our understanding of persons and the kind of psychology we persons have as moral and social beings.
Introduction
Authors: Helm Bennett W.
Published: May 2010

This introductory chapter begins by defining the meaning of the terms ‘love’ and ‘friendship’ followed by a discussion of the importance of a philosophical account of love and friendship. It divides the most prominent accounts of love into three basic types (love as union, as robust concern, and as valuing), showing how each implicitly presupposes the egocentric conception of personal concerns or the cognitive-conative divide. It is ultimately these presuppositions that lead the union and robust concern accounts to an unsatisfactory account of the kind of intimacy that love involves. Accounts of love that accept the cognitive-conative divide, including accounts of love as valuing, force us to choose — unacceptably’ between rejecting the idea that love can be justified for better or worse reasons and rejecting the idea that our loves are central to who we are and so are partly a matter for self-determination. Finally, the chapter examines the nature of friendship and social action, arguing that alternative accounts of friendship are unable to make sense of the distinctively social relationship that it is because they implicitly presuppose the individualistic conception of autonomy, for it is only by giving up on this presupposition that we can make sense of the kind of social shared activity and shared lives that are possible within friendship. An overview of the subsequent chapters is presented.
Values: Loving Oneself
Authors: Helm Bennett W.
Published: May 2010

This chapter argues that an account of valuing should be modeled on the account of caring provided: valuing (the evaluative attitude) and values (the relevant kind of import) are constituted by a projectible, rational pattern of felt evaluations and evaluative judgments. The difference between values and cares lies in the distinctive kind of felt evaluations and evaluative judgments at issue in each. In particular, valuing is constituted by a pattern of emotions like pride and shame, for it is these emotions that serve to identify one with their objects, thereby making sense of the intuitive ‘depth’ of values. Establishing this thesis will require providing an account not merely of pride and shame but also of the more general kind of which these are instances, such that a projectible pattern of felt evaluations of this kind is intelligible as constitutive of values.
The Possibility of Partial Definition
Authors: Soames Scott
Published: May 2010

The chapter rebuts arguments against the view that partial definition for predicates is impossible, in the sense of partial definition in which it leads to sentences that cannot correctly be characterized as true, or as not true. Next, it gives a positive account of how partially-defined predicates might arise. After context sensitivity is added to the model, the resulting predicates are compared to, and contrasted with, vague predicates in natural language. A strategy is suggested for treating apparent penumbral truths of concern to theories of vagueness, and for explaining why instances of some logical laws seem transparently to be true (when according to these theories, they are, in fact, undefined); whereas instances of other logical laws lack the appearance of undeniable truth.
Vagueness and Second‐Level Indeterminacy
Authors: Eklund Matti
Published: May 2010

Many theorists of vagueness take vagueness to be bound up with indeterminacy in a way that conflicts with classical logic and bivalence. Others, epistemicists like Timothy Williamson, hold that the only indeterminacy bound up with vagueness is epistemic — vagueness is just bound up with a certain kind of ignorance — and that vagueness does not conflict with classical logic and bivalence. Both types of view face well-known problems. This chapter presents a view on vagueness that sidesteps them. Let a sentence be first-level indeterminate if there are acceptable assignments of semantic values under which it lacks a classical, determinate truth-value; and let a sentence be second-level indeterminate if it has different truth-values under different assignments of semantic values. What this chapter proposes is that vagueness is primarily bound up with second-level indeterminacy, rather than first-level indeterminacy. In the course of defending this proposal, the chapter compares it to supervaluationism, which superficially can appear similar.
Vagueness as Indeterminacy
Authors: Weatherson Brian
Published: May 2010

This chapter argues that a term is vague if it is indeterminate. As a special case of this, it argues that a predicate is vague if it has borderline cases. This was until recently the standard account of vagueness, but it has become quickly unpopular. A common objection has been that indeterminate terms with clearly demarcated boundaries of indeterminacy are not vague, and that it is better to identify vagueness in predicates with some kind of Sorites-sensitivity. Proposals of how to do this have been offered by Matti Eklund, Patrick Greenough, and Nicholas J. J. Smith. The chapter argues that this was a step backwards for several reasons. Some vague predicates are not Sorites-sensitive. And non-predicates are not Sorites-sensitive, although they can be vague. Moreover, if we have an epistemic understanding of the Sorites, then we will end up classifying some non-vague terms as vague, unless we assume that speakers know much more about the metaphysics underlying their language than they actually do.
Sorensen on Vagueness and Contradiction
Authors: Edgington Dorothy
Published: May 2010

This chapter discusses some themes from Roy Sorensen's book Vagueness and Contradiction. While agreeing with Sorensen that the major premise in a Sorites argument must be false, it rejects the consequences that Sorensen draws from this: that vague predicates have sharp boundaries, and that the phenomenon is to be explained in terms of ‘truthmaker gaps’. It is argued that ‘gappy’ theories of a variety of kinds, including McGee and McLaughlin's theory, misrepresent the phenomenon of vagueness. Further, some of the problems Sorensen raises disappear on a degree-theoretic approach to vagueness.
Vagaries about Vagueness
Authors: Salmon Nathan
Published: May 2010

This chapter distinguishes two approaches to vagueness. The vagueness-in-language approach sees the world as exact, and all vagueness as inherent in our means of representing the world. By contrast, the vagueness-in-the-world approach sees the world itself as fuzzy, in the sense that for some things and some attributes of things, there is allegedly no fact of the matter whether those things possess or lack those attributes. The former approach is criticized on several grounds. The vagueness-in-language approach is either incoherent or collapses into vagueness-in-the-world. A recent objection to direct-reference theory, based upon the criticized approach, is shown to be fundamentally mistaken.
Agnosticism and Vagueness
Authors: Rosenkranz Sven
Published: May 2010

Epistemicism incorporates the thesis that vague discourse is governed by classical logic and bivalence. This classicist thesis has implications for the theory of reference. A natural response to the Sorites is that the classicist thesis should be rejected unless it is shown how those theoretical commitments can be redeemed. If this cannot be shown directly by appeal to the mechanisms of reference determination, epistemicism can only hope to be warranted indirectly by elimination of alternatives. Failure to achieve the former invites agnosticism about the existence of sharp boundaries. If such an agnosticism yields a coherent account of borderline cases and sustains a non-classical solution to the Sorites, this will also imply failure to achieve the latter. But then agnosticism about sharp boundaries is vindicated and epistemicism must be rejected. This chapter argues for this conclusion by devising an agnostic account of vagueness and by showing that epistemicism fails on both counts.
This Magic Moment: Horwich on the Boundaries of Vague Terms
Authors: Field Hartry
Published: May 2010

This chapter argues that the counter-intuitive aspects of the epistemic theory of vagueness run deeper than is sometimes appreciated, and that Horwich's variant of epistemicism does not help with them. It considers the suggestion that we escape the problems with the epistemic theory by weakening the law of excluded middle as applied to vague language. It argues that standard ‘fuzzy logics’ are ultimately of no help with vagueness because they generate operators that draw sharp lines. But there are alternative ‘fuzzy logics’ that avoid these problems. Moreover, there are intuitive connections between the semantic paradoxes and the paradoxes of vagueness, and the fuzzy logics that avoid sharp lines seem to be just the ones that are compatible with making True() equivalent to p even in face of the semantic paradoxes. This chapter tentatively recommends treating vagueness and the semantic paradoxes together, using the same non-classical logic for both.
The Sorites, Linguistic Preconceptions, and the Dual Picture of Vagueness
Authors: Gómez‐Torrente Mario
Published: May 2010

This chapter postulates that the extension of a degree adjective is fixed by implicitly accepted non-analytic reference-fixing principles (‘preconceptions’) that combine appeals to paradigmatic cases with generic principles designed to expand the extension of the adjective beyond the paradigmatic range. In regular occasions of use, the paradigm and generic preconceptions are jointly satisfied and determine the existence of an extension/anti-extension pair dividing the adjective's comparison class into two mutually exclusive and jointly exhaustive subclasses. Sorites paradoxical occasions of use are irregular occasions of use in which the paradigm and generic preconceptions are not jointly satisfied. In them, the relevant degree adjective lacks an extension, and utterances of sentences containing it appearing in Sorites arguments do not have truth conditions. The chapter also postulates a probable psychology of paradigm intuitions, used in a psychological explanation of the preference for solutions of the Sorites paradox on which paradigm preconceptions retain their intuitive truth-values.
Hold the Context Fixed—Vagueness Still Remains
Authors: Åkerman Jonas , Greenough Patrick
Published: May 2010

Contextualism about vagueness is the view that vagueness consists in a particular species of context-sensitivity, and that accommodating this fact will yield a plausible solution to the Sorites paradox. As many commentators have noted, this view faces the following objection: if the context is held fixed, vagueness still remains, therefore vagueness is not a species of context-sensitivity. This chapter sketches two replies to this objection, which result in two very different kinds of contextualism.
Saying More (or Less) Than One Thing
Authors: Iacona Andrea
Published: May 2010

This chapter is based on the idea that there is an important sense in which the things we say may involve a degree of specificity that goes beyond what we have in mind when we say them. In that sense, the things we say are interpretations of the sentences we use that are sufficiently specific for the purpose of ascribing truth or falsity to those sentences. This chapter explains how the relation between logic and natural language can be elucidated on the basis of this idea, and shows how some fundamental issues concerning vagueness can be handled accordingly.
How to Respond to Borderline Cases
Authors: López De Sa Dan
Published: May 2010

Some philosophers seem to think that borderline cases provide further cases of apparent faultless disagreement. This chapter argues against such a suggestion. It contends that with respect to borderline cases, people typically do not respond by taking a view, in contrast to what is the case in genuine cases of apparent faultless disagreement. It shows that the claim of the chapter is indeed respected, and is accounted for by paradigm cases of semantic and epistemic views on the nature of vagueness. It is also argued that this claim turns out to be, initial appearances notwithstanding, compatible with other claims in the literature; to the effect that in appropriate circumstances, there are indeed, or there might well be, ‘macho’, admissible, forced, and hesitant responses to borderline cases.
Scope Confusions and Unsatisfiable Disjuncts: Two Problems for Supervaluationism
Authors: Graff Fara Delia
Published: May 2010

This chapter considers two problems for supervaluationist accounts of vagueness. First is that the best (canonical-supervaluationist) explanation of our inclination to accept Sorites premises attributes to us a tendency to confuse the scopes of a Truth operator with the existential quantifier. This explanation is shown to be incorrect as well as incomplete. Second, a well-known complaint against supervaluation semantics is that it allows for a disjunction to be true even though none of its disjuncts is in fact true. A new, related complaint is developed: supervaluation semantics allows for a disjunction to be true even though none of its disjuncts could be true.
Indeterminacy and Truth Value Gaps
Authors: Richard Mark
Published: May 2010

This chapter argues for the following theses. There are perfectly possible meanings (ones of a sort one would think are possessed by many vague predicates) which would necessitate a predicate's being gappy. Many arguments against the coherence of truth value gaps depend on a very narrow picture of saying, which ignores the possibility of such things as sui generis denial. Frege/Geach objections to things like sui generis denial dissolve once we observe that ‘not’ and other sentence compounding devices lead a double life, sometimes contributing to sense, sometimes to force. There is a simple compositional story about how (for instance) embedding a denial operator within a ‘force conditional’ makes if not A, then B fit to perform a sort of speech act which, when combined with B's denial, commits one to the aptness of asserting A. The trisection thesis — predicates trisect their domains into three groups, those they are true of, those they are false of, and the rest — is correct. The objection to the trisection thesis —that it is inconsistent with the idea that there are no sharp boundaries in a Sorites series — is not compelling: there is no conception of a ‘sharp boundary’ on which it's plausible, both that there are no sharp boundaries in a Sorites series, and that trisection involves the creation of sharp boundaries. Once we recognize that talk of indeterminacy is contrastive, we also recognize that higher order vagueness is not inconsistent with trisection. We also, once we think of indeterminacy as contrastive, come to see that indeterminacy itself is indeterminate: if it is indeterminate whether p, that indeterminacy itself is not something that is settled, but is itself indeterminate.
Demoting Higher‐Order Vagueness
Authors: Raffman Diana
Published: May 2010

Higher-order vagueness is widely thought to be a feature of vague predicates that any adequate theory of vagueness must accommodate. It takes a variety of forms. Perhaps the most familiar is the supposed existence, or at least possibility, of higher-order borderline cases: borderline borderline cases, borderline borderline borderline cases, and so forth. A second form of higher-order vagueness, what this chapter calls ‘prescriptive’ higher-order vagueness, is thought to characterize complex predicates constructed from vague predicates by attaching operators having to do with the predicates' proper application. For example, the predicates ‘mandates application of old’ and ‘can competently be called old’ are prescriptively higher-order vague. Higher-order vagueness appears in other guises as well, but these two have been of particular interest to philosophers and are the target here. This chapter exposes some misconceptions about them, and shows that higher-order vagueness is less prevalent and less important theoretically than is usually supposed.
Sensory Hedonism about Happiness
Authors: Feldman Fred
Published: May 2010

Bentham, Mill, and Sidgwick say things that strongly suggest sensory hedonism about happiness. This is the view that a person's level of happiness is equal to the total amount of sensory pleasure he is feeling at that moment, minus the total amount of sensory pain he is feeling at that moment. Daniel Haybron presented a series of arguments against sensory hedonism about happiness. These arguments are explained and criticized. More successful arguments against sensory hedonism are then presented. One of these is based on the case of the New Mother. At the moment when she gives birth the New Mother (a) is experiencing very severe sensory pain (and no sensory pleasure) but at the same time (b) is profoundly happy. Thus, a person's level of happiness at a time cannot be identified with the net amount of sensory pleasure she is feeling at that time.
Kahneman's “Objective Happiness”
Authors: Feldman Fred
Published: May 2010

In ‘Objective Happiness', Daniel Kahneman apparently means to offer an account of the nature of happiness. A person's objective happiness level at a moment (or “instant utility”) is defined as the extent to which he wants the experience he is having at that moment to continue. Objective happiness during an interval is the temporal integral of instant utilities for all the moments during the interval. Kahneman suggests that objective happiness is worth recording because it indicates happiness; and the welfare levels of citizens track their happiness so understood. However, arguments are presented that show it is doubtful that “objective happiness” is tightly related to anything we would ordinarily call happiness. It is also doubtful that it is related in any interesting way to welfare. A person can be very happy and doing well at a time even though she does not want her experience to continue.
What is This Thing Called Happiness?
Authors: Feldman Fred
Published: May 2010

Chapter 2 contained criticism of sensory hedonism. Chapter 6 contains a defense of attitudinal hedonism about happiness. According to this theory, the atoms of happiness are episodes in which a person takes attitudinal pleasure in some state of affairs. Principles about attitudinal pleasure are presented, emphasizing how it differs from sensory pleasure. Attitudinal Hedonism about Happiness is explained and defended. Many writers seem to assume that ‘happy’ in ordinary English is multiply ambiguous. In Appendix C some typical claims of ambiguity are reviewed. In fact, there is not much evidence to support the claim that ‘happy’ is ambiguous. It appears that in its central uses in ordinary English, ‘happy’ is vague, but fundamentally univocal. To say that a person is happy means—roughly—that he takes on balance more attitudinal pleasure than displeasure in things.
Attitudinal Hedonism about Happiness
Authors: Feldman Fred
Published: May 2010

According to Attitudinal Hedonism about Happiness (AHH), to be happy at a time is to have a positive net balance of intrinsic occurrent attitudinal pleasure at that time. Happiness in an interval is the integral of happiness at moments within the interval. Happiness in a domain of life is happiness taken in objects suitably associated with the domain. Happiness in life as a whole is happiness in the interval that is your whole life. Chapter 7 contains discussion of some objections to AHH. One of these objections involves the claim that AHH goes wrong in the case of “objectless moods”. The second is based on the idea that AHH ignores the “cheery feelings” that some think are a crucial element in happiness. Cases that were introduced earlier in connection with competing theories of happiness are revisited. The aim is to clarify AHH as well as to show that it is an attractive theory of happiness.
Eudaimonism
Authors: Feldman Fred
Published: May 2010

Eudaimonism is the doctrine that welfare tracks happiness. Section 8.2 contains critical discussion of several proposed tests designed to help us to focus on the concept of welfare. The Crib Test and the Sympathy Test are not entirely decisive. Alternatively, we may be able to identify welfare by noting how it fits into a web including such concepts as benefit, harm, self‐interest, prudence, selflessness, altruism, and quality of life. Amartya Sen suggested that when a person's happiness depends upon “desperate survival strategies”, his welfare may be lower than his happiness level. In section 8.3 the objection is critically examined. Another problem for eudaimonism arises in the case of a person whose happiness is “fragmented”. The extent to which the fragmented happiness of such a person constitutes a difficulty for eudaimonism is discussed in section 8.4. Appendix D distinguishes among several different theories that may go by the name ‘eudaimonism’.
Disgusting Happiness
Authors: Feldman Fred
Published: May 2010

An ancient objection to eudaimonism is based on the idea of “disgusting happiness”. Steven Cahn developed an interesting version of this objection based on a fictional character—Judah Rosenthal, from the Woody Allen film Crimes and Misdemeanors. Judah passes all popular tests for happiness but is utterly morally corrupt. His case casts doubt on the naive identification of happiness with welfare. It's not clear that the case is decisive. Nevertheless, a form of eudaimonism that is intended to circumvent this problem can be developed. According to this novel form of the theory, the welfare value of each episode of happiness must be adjusted so as to reflect the extent to which the object of that happiness deserves to be enjoyed. It is left to the interested reader to determine whether the modification is really needed.