bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Impact of antitrust laws on physician networking and rural communities
Authors: Ross-Lee Barbara , Kiss Lois E. , Bfa Michael Weiser, A.
Published: October 2018

Mter reviewing the history of antitrust legislation and established zones of safety for providers and the application of antitrust laws to the healthcare industry in two earlier installments, the authors explore the consequences of the vigorous application of antitrust laws to physician networking, with an emphasis on rural communities. They review common exemptions to antitrust laws that maintain the uneven distribution of power in the evolving healthcare market. Acknowledging the tenuous ground that providers hold in the struggle for control of the healthcare industry, the authors argue for greater consideration of the unique circumstances and barriers that tend to prohibit the formation of strong, physician-sponsored, integrated healthcare networks. The authors have tested the climate for relief from the antitrust enforcement agencies in Washington, DC, and have found no easing of antitrust legislation forthcoming. However, following the resolution of several antitrust cases in recent months, barriers to physician-led organizations appear to be lessening. The authors close with a review of several strategies to minimize the risk of antitrust challenges.
A trek to the top: a review of acute mountain sickness
Authors: Porcelli M. Jay , Gugelhcuk Gary M.
Published: October 2018

Acute mountain sickness (AMS) affects, to varying degrees, all travelers to high altitudes (elevations greater than 5280 feet). In a small percentage of patients, AMS can lead to high-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) or high-altitude cerebral edema (HACE). Symptoms of AMS range from a combination of headache, insomnia, anorexia, nausea, and dizziness, to more serious manifestations, such as vomiting, dyspnea, muscle weakness, oliguria, peripheral edema, and retinal hemorrhage. Although the primary cause of these symptoms is related to the reduced oxygen content and humidity of the ambient air at high altitudes, the physiologic pathway relating hypoxemia to AMS and its sequelae remains unclear. Tips on self-diagnosis and symptom recognition are critical elements to be included in educating patients who are contemplating a trip to high altitudes. Preventive strategies include allowing 2 days of acclimatization before engaging in strenuous exercise at high altitudes, avoiding alcohol, and increasing fluid intake. Conditioning exercise for patients older than 35 years is also recommended before departure. A high-carbohydrate, low-fat, lowsalt diet can also aid in preventing the onset of AMS. Acetazolamide (125 mg two or three times daily, or once at bedtime) has also been shown to reduce susceptibility to AMS and the incidence of HAPE and HACE. Although effective in treating cerebral symptoms of AMS, dexamethasone is not routinely recommended as a prophylactic agent for AMS.
Bilateral subclavian vein thrombosis in a patient with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
Authors: Bayer Deborah D. , Sorbello Alfred F. , Condoluci David V.
Published: October 2018

Bilateral subclavian vein thrombi developed, in the presence of a Groshong catheter, in a patient with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and disseminated cytomegalovirus infection. Thrombosis is an uncommon complication of AIDS, and bilateral subclavian thrombi are rare. Although localized, unilateral thrombi occur in patients with indwelling central venous catheters, unexpectedly extensive bilateral clot formation is seen to develop in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Potentially predisposing factors for thrombosis in AIDS include central venous catheterization, malignancy, elevated anticardiolipin antibodies, alteration of vascular endothelial cell function reflected in low free protein S levels, and enhanced endothelial procoagulant activity related to cytomegalovirus. Anecdotal data strongly suggest that cytomegalovirus enhances the risk for thrombosis, but studies are needed to confirm the association. Physicians should be aware of the enhanced risk for extensive thrombi in AIDS, especially in patients with disseminated cytomegalovirus infection.
Making sense of federal GME reforms: The need for secondary reforms
Authors: Meyer Christopher T.
Published: October 2018

Physician workforce issues in the healthcare reform debate have led to considerable agreement on the need to reform graduate medical education (GME) in order to control the cost, mix and supply of physician manpower. The osteopathic medical profession's infrastructure is ill-prepared to respond to many of the changes that policymakers are suggesting. In last month's issue, the author reviewed the Gephardt and Mitchell bills, which emerged during the last Congress, identified the reforms recommended for GME, and examined the elements of agreement between the bills. The position of osteopathic medicine vis-a-vis healthcare reform was explored and distinctions between the two bills were drawn. In this article, the author recommends comprehensive secondary reforms in the osteopathic medical profession's three institutions-its colleges, its hospitals, and its political organization, the American Osteopathic Association.
Antitrust laws and zones of safety
Authors: Ross-Lee Barbara , Kiss Lois E. , Weiser Michael A.
Published: October 2018

As physicians explore areas of diversification and networking that can position them favorably for the changing healthcare environment, their fear of running afoul of antitrust legislation handicaps them. A basic understanding of the intent of antitrust legislation and its application to healthcare is essential to physicians' strategic planning. This article traces the development of antitrust legislation and the regulatory agencies charged with its oversight. The authors review the first application of this legislation to the professions; distinguish per se violations from the rule-of-reason process; and summarize recent attempts by the Department of Justice and the Federal Trade Commission to provide useful guidance to healthcare providers in the market revolution.
Hypothyroidism with concurrent Lyme disease
Authors: Paparone Philip W.
Published: October 2018

Lyme disease can be seen as localized, disseminated, acute, or chronic and can mimic other, more serious diseases. Even though it is a multi systemic illness, very few spirochetes are present; yet, once established in the host, it can persist for years. The antibody response is slow and variable, and the spirochete is difficult to isolate from clinical specimens, even those obtained from the pathognomonic skin lesion. These variables, together with nonspecific symptoms, make the diagnosis of Lyme disease difficult. The author describes an unusual case of Lyme disease superimposed on severe primary hypothyroidism in which the thyroid disorder was so advanced and pronounced that the diagnosis of Borrelia infection could easily have been missed.
Palpatory diagnosis and manipulative management of carpal tunnel syndrome: Part 2. 'Double crush' and thoracic outlet syndrome
Authors: Sucher Benjamin M.
Published: October 2018

The physician treating carpal tunnel syndrome needs to be aware of the possible concomitant occurrence of thoracic outlet syndrome, the so-called double crush syndrome. Palpation is used to differentiate carpal tunnel syndrome from thoracic outlet syndrome. Such palpatory examination assists the physician in planning the initial treatment, including osteopathic manipulation and self-stretching maneuvers, targeted specifically at the most clinically significant pathologic region. Supplemental physical medicine modalities such as ultrasound may enhance the treatment response. Some illustrative cases are reported.
Eustrongylidiasis--A parasitic infection acquired by eating live minnows
Authors: Narr Lois Lucente , O’Donnell James G. , Libster Boris , Alessi Paul , Abraham David
Published: October 2018

The objective of this study was to heighten physician awareness of eustrongylidiasis by investigating the epidemiology of this parasitic infection. The nematode Eustrongylides ignotus was recovered surgically from our patient, in whom eustrongylidiasis simulated acute appendicitis. The patient had consumed two live minnows obtained from Big Timber Creek of Belmawr, NJ. The authors determined the E ignotus infestation rate of free-living minnows at this creek. With this data, they approximate the probability of human infection with E ignotus after eating live minnows and attempt to evaluate the hypothesis that eating live minnows may lead to eustrongylidiasis.
Use of computed tomography guidance and mammographic hook wires to remove displaced, embedded contraceptive rods
Authors: Weiner Harvey M. , DiMarcangelo Mark T. , Heim John A. , Principato Robert
Published: October 2018

Because of dysfunctional uterine bleeding, a patient requested removal of levonorgestrel contraceptive rods. The patient was referred to a general surgeon by her gynecologist who was unable to palpate the rods in the region of implantation in her left upper arm. Initially, the surgeon was able to locate and remove four of the six previously implanted rods. Because these implants are not visible under convention radiography or fluoroscopy, computed tomography was used to locate the remaining two rods. After localization by use of mammographic hook wires, the remaining two rods were successfully removed surgically.
Measuring Open Access Policy Compliance: Results of a Survey
Authors: Kipphut-Smith Shannon , Boock Michael , Chapman Kimberly , Willi Hooper Michaela
Published: October 2018

INTRODUCTION In the last decade, a significant number of institutions have adopted open access (OA) policies. Many of those working with OA policies are tasked with measuring policy compliance. This article reports on a survey of Coalition of Open Access Policy Institutions (COAPI) members designed to better understand the methods currently used for measuring and communicating OA policy success. METHODS This electronic survey was distributed to the COAPI member listserv, inviting both institutions who have passed an implemented policies and those who are still developing policies to participate. RESULTS The results to a number of questions related to topics such as policy workflows, quantitative and qualitative measurement activities and related tools, and challenges showed a wide range of responses, which are shared here. DISCUSSION It is clear that a number of COAPI members struggle with identifying what should be measured and what tools and methods are appropriate. The survey illustrates how each institution measures compliance differently, making it difficult to benchmark against peer institutions. CONCLUSION As a result of this survey, we recommend that institutions working with OA policies be as transparent as possible about their data sources and methods when calculating deposit rates and other quantitative measures. It is hoped that this transparency will result in the development of a set of qualitative and quantitative best practices for assessing OA policies that standardizes assessment terminology and articulates why institutions may want to measure policies.
Ultraconserved elements (UCEs) illuminate the population genomics of a recent, high-latitude avian speciation event
Authors: Winker Kevin , Glenn Travis C. , Faircloth Brant C.
Published: October 2018

Using a large, consistent set of loci shared by descent (orthologous) to study relationships among taxa would revolutionize among-lineage comparisons of divergence and speciation processes. Ultraconserved elements (UCEs), highly conserved regions of the genome, offer such genomic markers. The utility of UCEs for deep phylogenetics is clearly established and there are mature analytical frameworks available, but fewer studies apply UCEs to recent evolutionary events, creating a need for additional example datasets and analytical approaches. We used UCEs to study population genomics in snow and McKay’s buntings (Plectrophenax nivalisandP. hyperboreus). Prior work suggested divergence of these sister species during the last glacial maximum (∼18–74 Kya). With a sequencing depth of ∼30× from four individuals of each species, we used a series of analysis tools to genotype both alleles, obtaining a complete dataset of 2,635 variable loci (∼3.6 single nucleotide polymorphisms/locus) and 796 invariable loci. We found no fixed allelic differences between the lineages, and few loci had large allele frequency differences. Nevertheless, individuals were 100% diagnosable to species, and the two taxa were different genetically (FST= 0.034;P= 0.03). The demographic model best fitting the data was one of divergence with gene flow. Estimates of demographic parameters differed from published mtDNA research, with UCE data suggesting lower effective population sizes (∼92,500–240,500 individuals), a deeper divergence time (∼241,000 years), and lower gene flow (2.8–5.2 individuals per generation). Our methods provide a framework for future population studies using UCEs, and our results provide additional evidence that UCEs are useful for answering questions at shallow evolutionary depths.
ЦЕПОЧКИ КАТАСТРОФИЧЕСКИХ ГЕОМОРФОЛОГИЧЕСКИХ ПРОЦЕССОВ В РЕЧНЫХ ДОЛИНАХ ВУЛКАНИЧЕСКИХ РЕГИОНОВ, "Геоморфология"
Authors: Лебедева Е. В.
Published: October 2018

В долинах рек вулканических регионов помимо экзогенных причин катализатором катастрофических процессов являются эндогенные факторы - в первую очередь, извержения, которые часто вызывают сходы вулканических селей - лахаров, обусловленных таянием покрывающих вулканы ледников, снега или выпадением ливневых осадков непосредственно после извержения. Эта последовательность катастрофических событий “извержение - сход вулканического селя” достаточно распространена и хорошо изучена, но при детальном рассмотрении очевидно, что образование грязекаменных потоков в долинах вулканически активных регионов обусловлено весьма разнообразными причинами и в этой цепочке может быть задействовано еще много факторов и агентов. Часто извержение провоцирует серию из 2-3 взаимосвязанных и последовательно развивающихся катастроф, т.е. формируется каскад катастрофических процессов. Опираясь на конкретные примеры, выделены и рассмотрены 15 цепочек катастрофических процессов в долинах вулканических регионов, обусловленных разноплановой вулканической деятельностью и сопутствующими событиями - сейсмическими толчками, изменением топографии местности, гидротермальной активностью, эрозией. Завершающими звеньями цепочек, как правило, являются сходы селей, причем иногда неоднократные. Их формирование обусловлено размывом водотоками поступившего в долины рыхлого материала или же прорывами плотин возникших подпрудных озер. Время реализации всех событий подобной цепочки может превышать несколько десятилетий и даже столетий.
ГЕОМОРФОЛОГИЧЕСКОЕ РАЙОНИРОВАНИЕ ТЕРРИТОРИИ МОСКВЫ В НОВЫХ ГРАНИЦАХ, "Геоморфология"
Authors: Макарова Н.В. , Григорьева С.В.
Published: October 2018

Составлена карта геоморфологического районирования территории Москвы в новых границах. На основании проведенного авторами геоморфологического анализа и, используя данные предшествующих исследователей, территория Москвы разделена на геоморфологические области, районы и подрайоны, представляющие собой разноранговые формы рельефа, отражающие новейшие структуры. Они различаются геологическим строением, в том числе генезисом, составом и мощностью четвертичного покрова, набором морфогенетических и возрастных комплексов рельефа, характером новейших тектонических движений. Все эти особенности влияют на развитые в их пределах геолого-геоморфологические процессы, особенно осложняющие хозяйственное освоение территории. В категорию самого высокого ранга входят две крупные геоморфологические области, резко отличающиеся по морфологии рельефа и новейшему тектоническому строению. 1. Смоленско-Московская возвышенность, в пределы которой, как районы входят Клинско-Дмитровская возвышенность и Москворецко-Окская равнина. 2. В Мещерскую низменность входят Центрально-Московская возвышенность, Лосиноостровско-Измайловская и Москворецко-Яузская равнины. Они, в свою очередь, разделены на районы и подрайоны. Долинный комплекс рельефа выделен как самостоятельный и развит во всех областях. Это долины наиболее крупных рек - Москвы восточнее Звенигорода, Десны, Пахры и Мочи. Практически все они приурочены к новейшим эрозионно-тектоническим понижениям, возможно, разрывным зонам и зонам трещиноватости. Карта может быть использована для изучения новейшей структуры и современной активности тектонических движений, а также в инженерно-геологических целях.
Aging/senescence
Authors: Crews Douglas E.
Published: October 2018

With increasing age, cellular senescence and physiological dysregulation proceed, reducing somatic resilience, increasing frailty, and leading to increased physical disability, morbidity, and mortality. By promoting variability in somatic outcomes, developmental processes and environmental and ecological settings set the stage for senescent biology and variable lifespans. Early life adversity forces organisms to expend more physiological capacity resisting stressors, while environments limiting stressor exposures promote greater physiological reserve and resilience. At reproductive maturity, somatic resources are reallocated toward reproductive effort. Individual and familial patterns of morbidity and longevity attest to genetic influences on lifespan, but few specific alleles and haplotypes are associated with human lifespan. Stressor exposures are a major contributor to age‐related losses of functional abilities (frailty) and physiological dysfunction (allostatic load). Reduced physical activity at older ages promotes osteopenia and sarcopenia, twin biomarkers of frailty, and frailty indices reflect age‐related senescent losses. Age‐related physiological dysregulation and frailty are inherent to living systems as life cannot simultaneously optimize all physiological functions, protect their somas from all environmental insults, and still be reproductively successful.
B
aker,
P
aul
T
Authors: Crews Douglas E.
Published: October 2018

Paul T. Baker (1927–2007) was a leader in transforming biological anthropology and human biology from descriptive endeavors to a comparative biology of humans on the basis of evolutionary principles. He was a Professor of Anthropology at The Pennsylvania State University from 1958 to 1996, where his major scientific interest was how human biological and physiological variation is structured by responses to environmental and sociocultural stressors. Exploring responses to climatic and social stressors at the population level, early in his career Baker integrated ecological and evolutionary theory and later defined the subdiscipline of human population biology as a transdisciplinary science with the goal of understanding how human variation is patterned in modern populations. On the basis of his multiple contributions to elucidating genetic, environmental, and sociocultural inputs to human variability in health, physical function, and longevity and his leadership in multiple transdisciplinary research projects, including the International Biological Programme, in 1980 Baker was elected a member of the National Academy of Sciences.
Basal metabolic rate (human)
Authors: Piperata Barbara A.
Published: October 2018

Basal metabolic rate (BMR) is an important component of an individual's daily energy expenditure, making the measurement of BMR a critical component of anthropological investigations of human nutrition, growth and development, reproduction, and adaptation to climate and disease burden. Indirect calorimetry and standardized equations allow anthropologists to estimate BMR at the individual and population levels in a range of settings. Body size and composition are two of the most important factors predicting variation in BMR both within and between populations. However, research also demonstrates the role of climate and disease in altering the BMR.
B
ordes,
F
rançois
Authors: Coppens Yves
Published: October 2018

François Bordes (1919–81) was a French archaeologist, and professor at the University of Bordeaux. Particularly interested in the evolution of stone‐tool assemblages and flaking techniques, he developed more precise methods of excavation, and more quantitative approaches to classification and experimental work, to better understand the evolution of how tools are made and used. He worked mostly in France but also in Australia. His influence has been important, not only because of the quality of his work but also because of his strong personality and his international network of students and collaborators.
Boule,Marcellin
Authors: Coppens Yves
Published: October 2018

Marcellin Boule (1861–1942) was a French paleoanthropologist, a professor at the National Museum of Natural History and first director of the Institute of Human Paleontology in Paris. Interested at first in geology, he did the first geological map of Madagascar; but after doing excavations in Liguria that unearthed important remains of earlyHomo sapiens(Grimaldi), he redirected his research toward paleoanthropology. He is especially known for his monographic study of the first complete skeleton of a Neandertal, the “Old Man” from La Chapelle‐aux‐Saints, about 60,000 years old. Boule's anatomical work on La Chapelle was exemplary, but his interpretations reflected the preconceptions of his epoch.
Boyd,WilliamC.
Authors: Schanfield Moses
Published: October 2018

William C. Boyd (1903–1983), an immunochemist by training, through a worldwide survey of available blood group data, was one of the first individuals to apply discrete genetic traits to the racial classification of humans and set up criteria for the choice of genetic markers to use, creating the beginning of anthropological genetics within biological anthropology.
Climate change and primate conservation
Authors: Meyer Andreas Luiz Schwarz
Published: October 2018

Climate change is likely to pose serious consequences for biodiversity in the coming decades. Impacts on nonhuman primates are of particular concern given that several species exhibit attributes associated with high vulnerability to climate change. Moreover, most species inhabit forests degraded by human activities, exposing them to additional threat due to synergistic effects between climate change and habitat fragmentation. As a result, many species are likely to experience increased extinction risk if emissions of greenhouse gases continue unabated. Conservation efforts will be crucial, but they may not succeed without effective policies to curb climate change itself.
Coalescent theory
Authors: Bohlender Ryan J.
Published: October 2018

For all life on earth, reproduction – and the resulting genealogy – structures the variation we observe in the genome. Patterns within that variation carry information about the history of the population: the size of the population, migration within and between populations, and selective forces that acted on those populations. The study of this variation is the purpose of population geneticists. Coalescent theory provides a means of thinking about how that variation came to be, through consideration of the genealogical process. John Kingman formalized coalescent theory in 1982, and from then on coalescent theory has been an integral part of population genetics (Kingman 1982a,b).
Dental caries and other dental diseases
Authors: Lukacs John R.
Published: October 2018

Dental caries is an infectious disease resulting in the destruction of enamel and dentine by acids produced by bacteria. Caries are associated with other pathological dental lesions that may promote caries formation (enamel hypoplasia, periodontal disease), or occur subsequent to severe caries (exposure and infection of the pulp chamber, abscess cavity formation, and antemortem tooth loss). Anthropological interest in dental caries and associated dental diseases is motivated by the complex biological and cultural factors that influence their frequency and distribution in human populations. Mode of subsistence, biological and cultural components of sex, and differences in social status all have an impact on the distribution of dental diseases in prehistoric and living human populations.
Dental morphology (primate)
Authors: Strait Suzanne G.
Published: October 2018

Primate teeth are composed of three different kinds of tissue: dentin, enamel, and cementum. Most of the tooth is cementum covered with a layer of enamel on the crown and a layer of cementum on the root. Primates are heterodonts with four kinds of teeth: incisors, canines, premolars, and molars. The numbers of each kind of tooth vary by species. Humans, for example, have 8 incisors, 4 canines, 8 premolars, and 12 molars, for a total of 32 teeth. Shapes and sizes of the teeth are related to diet.
DeVore,Irven
Authors: Fleagle John
Published: October 2018

Irven DeVore (1934–2014), a professor at Harvard over five decades, was a pioneer in field studies of living primates and extant hunter‐gatherers. His research with Sherwood Washburn on baboon behavior was largely responsible for establishing primatology as a part of anthropology. Later projects on the !Kung San (Bushmen) of Botswana and the people of the Ituri rainforest pioneered multidisciplinary research on living hunter‐gatherers. He was a prominent supporter of sociobiology from its beginnings.
D
manisi
Authors: Lordkipanidze David
Published: October 2018

Our excavations of the site of Dmanisi, Georgia, bring new knowledge about the evolutionary history of early
Homo
. Over the past decade, this site has yielded a treasure of a unique series of 1.8‐million‐year‐old cranial and postcranial hominin fossils, along with many well‐preserved animal fossils and quantities of primitive stone artifacts. This is the richest and most complete collection of indisputable early
Homo
remains from any single site with a comparable stratigraphic context. The discoveries document the first expansions of hominins out of Africa and into Eurasia and demonstrate that this phenomenon was due neither to increased brain size nor to improved technology. Dmanisi reshaped many hypotheses on early hominin phylogeny, paleoecology, and biogeography. Despite certain anatomical differences between the Dmanisi specimens, we do not presently see sufficient grounds to assign them to more than one hominin taxon. Thus the Dmanisi assemblage offers a unique opportunity to study variability within an early
Homo
population. The research presents new evidence on the evolutionary biology of early
Homo
and challenges the existence of different
Homo
lineages in Africa.
Dominance (social)
Authors: Majolo Bonaventura
Published: October 2018

Dominance describes the likelihood of an individual (or group) to win an agonistic interaction with another individual/group. Differences in dominance rank emerge when ecological conditions force individuals to compete over valuable, limited resources, and attaining a dominant position gives fitness‐related benefits (e.g., resource monopolization). The dominance rank position of an individual depends on their fighting ability, which in turn may depend on their age, body size, physical strength, network of allies, and kin. Large differences in dominance style exist, within and between species, in relation to, for example, frequency and intensity of agonistic interactions or the steepness of the dominance hierarchy.
Effective population size
Authors: Torres Jada Benn
Published: October 2018

Effective population size is a population genetic parameter that is used to assess the impact of genetic drift on allele frequencies within a finite population. It is the number of breeding individuals within an idealized (Wright–Fisher) population. Within human populations, effective population size is generally smaller than the census size of adults. Effective population size is affected by a number of demographic factors including fluctuations in population size, variability in the number of offspring, and unequal sex proportions. The long‐term effective population size for humans, beginning in the Pleistocene, is estimated to include only 1,000–10,000 individuals.
Electrophoresis
Authors: Tackney Justin C.
Published: October 2018

Electrophoresis is a general term referring to the migration of charged particles in an electric field. In anthropological genetics this usually refers to the separation of DNA, RNA, or proteins via various methods of gel electrophoresis. This simple, but versatile, technique has been utilized, and incrementally updated, since the 1950s and is now an essential tool in molecular biology. There are numerous theoretical and practical considerations to keep in mind when selecting and modifying gel electrophoresis experiments, which are summarized in this article.
Encephalization
Authors: Holloway Ralph L.
Published: October 2018

Encephalization refers to brain and body weight relationships, such as relative brain size, that differ quantitatively in different taxonomic groups and which change through evolutionary time, and in which the brain becomes larger relative to body mass. The encephalization quotient (EQ) is derived from plotting brain size against body weight within a taxonomic group above the species level, using the exponent and constant derived from the regression line best fitting the data. EQ is obtained by dividing an animal's brain weight by the derived equation, which includes the animal's body weight, and is thus wholly dependent on the dataset used to derive the equation. Humans have the largest EQ, and fossil hominins have EQs intermediate to chimpanzees and humans, increasing in a curvilinear pattern through time.
Growth hormones
Authors: Thompson Amanda L. , Barrett Katherine
Published: October 2018

Although a multitude of hormones influence human growth, hormones that regulate the somatotropic axis and metabolism are among the best understood. Along the somatotropic axis, growth hormone and insulin‐like growth factors regulate linear growth, weight, and energy metabolism. Metabolic hormones such as ghrelin, leptin, and adiponectin influence energy intake, expenditure, and storage. These hormones represent important biomarkers for anthropologists who study human growth.
Growth, genetics of
Authors: Laron Zvi
Published: October 2018

Short stature is defined as body length or height two standard deviations below the mean for age and sex in the specific population. It can be diagnosed in utero, at birth, or postnatally. Prenatal causes of short stature may be genetic or environmental (endocrine, chromosomal, metabolic) or of maternal or placental origin. Postnatal development of short stature is mostly due to an acquired hormone deficiency or hypersecretion leading to premature closure of the epiphyseal growth plate. A correct diagnosis is important to distinguish between treatable and untreatable conditions.
Primate color vision, genetics of
Authors: Veilleux Carrie C.
Published: October 2018

Color vision, or the ability to discriminate between different wavelengths of light, is uniquely variable across primates compared with other Mammal Orders. Substantial research has focused on identifying the extent of variation in primate opsin genes, which control color vision ability. Although several primates retain the ancestral mammalian complement of a short‐wavelength‐sensitive (
SWS1
) opsin gene and medium‐/long‐wavelength‐sensitive (
LWS
) opsin gene and dichromatic color vision, the Primate Order has experienced multiple episodes of gene duplication, evolution of allelic variation, and loss of gene function throughout its evolutionary history. A major area of current research is focused on using a variety of approaches to explore ecological factors influencing the evolution of primate opsin gene variation.
G
regory,
W
illiam
K
ing
Authors: Tuttle Russell H.
Published: October 2018

William King Gregory (1876–1970) was a principal US founder of comparative vertebrate functional morphology, whose research informed our understanding of evolutionary adaptations and taxonomic relationships from fish to humans. His training and academic posts were predominantly with Columbia University and the American Museum of Natural History, New York. Among many international honors, he was the first editor of
Natural History
(originally
American Museum Journal
) and seventh president of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists. His identification of a common arrangement of lower molar cusps plays a major role in identifying fossil and extant hominoid primates. He correctly determined that the Piltdown jaw was that of an ape and that the Taung skull was hominid. His palimpsest metaphor stimulated others to further develop the theory of mosaic evolution.
Growth references and standards
Authors: Hermanussen Michael
Published: October 2018

Growth references are statistical summaries of anthropometry, conditioned (usually) on age and sex. References describe how children do grow. Growth standards describe how children should grow. Growth charts are graphic designs. They present growth references or standards as visual displays for clinical assessments. Centiles denominate how many percent of all children are shorter or taller, or lighter or heavier than a particular child. Centiles are not equally spaced. The central centiles (around the median) are closer together than the outer centiles. The LMS method provides growth tables that are corrected for skewness in the data distribution. Serial measurements of standard deviation scores (SDS) are equivalent to plotting growth velocity. Synthetic growth references are practicable and less demanding alternatives and they show excellent statistical agreement with growth charts that were constructed by conventional methods.
Haldane, J. B. S.
Authors: Majumder Partha P.
Published: October 2018

J. B. S. Haldane was one of the founders of the science of population genetics. He also made important contributions to the study of evolution and evolutionary processes. He was born in 1892. He was precocious and later grew to be a polymath. He worked at University College London. Later he renounced his British citizenship and became an Indian. In India, he spent most of his active academic time working in the Indian Statistical Institute, Calcutta (now Kolkata). He died in Bhubaneswar, India, in 1964.
H
ill,
W
illiam
C
harles
O
sman
Authors: Cartmill Matt
Published: October 2018

W. C. Osman Hill (1901–75) was a British anatomist who wrote extensively on the comparative anatomy of primates. Hill devoted the last 20 years of his life to compiling his observations into a huge eight‐volume treatise on primate anatomy and classification. Intended to encompass all living and extinct primates then known, Hill's treatise was left incomplete at his death but nevertheless remains a unique and valuable reference work.
Hominidae: conceptual history
Authors: Cartmill Matt
Published: October 2018

If human beings are animals and animals are to be classified into nested groups (phyla, classes, orders, families, etc.), then humans must at some level be grouped together with certain nonhuman animals. Systematists who classify on the basis of essential properties have tended to stress human difference from other animals, separating humans off at the family level or higher, while those who classify exclusively on the basis of phylogeny have been compelled to push the human–animal boundary down to a lower level of the taxonomic hierarchy. Over most of the past hundred years, essentialist practices prevailed and humans were usually set off from the apes at levels ranging from a separate family (Hominidae) to a separate suborder. Since the 1970s, the predominance of cladistic practices has induced systematists to include our closest ape relatives in the family Hominidae. The specifically human branch of the primate family tree has accordingly been downgraded in rank. In the older practice, still preferred by some, humans and their extinct bipedal relatives are called “hominids.” In the currently dominant usage, they are reduced in rank to a tribe or subtribe (Hominini or Hominina) and called “hominins.”
Growth curve, human
Authors: Little Michael A.
Published: October 2018

Growth curves are important analytical and conceptual tools, and they provide references or standards for normal growth. There is substantial variation around the world in growth of infants, children, and adolescents. Some of the variation is based on genetic differences, but the greater part of the variation is a function of the environment through nutrition, disease, climate, cultural practices, and other environmental influences. The basic pattern of growth as represented by distance or velocity curves is the same for all normal humans and human populations.
Intelligent design
Authors: Pobiner Briana , Terry Mark
Published: October 2018

Intelligent design (ID) is a nonscientific idea that holds certain features of the universe and living things as too complex to have arisen through undirected, chance processes such as evolution by natural selection. Instead, proponents claim these features are evidence of design in nature and best explained by an unspecified intelligent cause or agent. The modern ID movement, which seeks to include ID content in science classrooms, distances itself from its clear Christian creationist roots by deliberately not referencing a supernatural designer.
I
shida,
H
idemi
Authors: Tuttle Russell H.
Published: October 2018

Hidemi Ishida (1939–) played a major role in establishing Japan as a center for the study of primate locomotion and evolutionary biology. Although his initial training and academic posts were in Japan, he conducted postdoctoral research with Russell Tuttle at the University of Chicago and Yerkes Regional Primate Research Center, Atlanta, Georgia. He organized several informative international conferences and led paleontological expeditions in Kenya that produced novel Miocene primate taxa:
Samburupithecus kiptalami
and
Nacholapithecus kerioi
.
Klaatsch,Hermann
Authors: Smith Fred H.
Published: October 2018

Hermann Klaatsch (1863–1916) was a leading German biological anthropologist of the early twentieth century. Although he did some significant work in the comparative anatomy of the human hand and foot as well as in dermatoglyphics, Klaatsch is best known for his paleoanthropological work. This included comparative descriptions of European fossil humans, cranial and postcranial studies of Neandertals and Australian Aborigines, and some rather fanciful ideas about the course of human evolution. Klaatch's ideas were often controversial, but he was well respected and the recipient of several awards during his career.
Longevity
Authors: Lee Sang‐Hee
Published: October 2018

Humans are characterized by longevity. Their lifespans are within what is expected for mammals of their brain and body size. Maximum lifespan is thought to be biologically set and not changing for a species, while life expectancy reflects history and adaptation and can vary for different populations. Human longevity is uniquely characterized by an extended post‐reproductive lifespan. Although human longevity increased steadily over time through human evolutionary history, fossil data show that the significant increase in older adults in proportion to younger adults has a recent origin of 30,000 years ago, coinciding in Europe with the Upper Paleolithic.
Growth, measuring
Authors: Hermanussen Michael
Published: October 2018

Infant body length is usually determined in supine position by infantometer, body height is determined in standing position by stadiometer, or freely standing by anthropometer. Body proportions are commonly assessed by sitting height, leg length, arm span, and should also include an estimate of skeletal shape. Assessing developmental tempo can be done by skeletal maturity, state of pubertal maturity, and multiple records of height standard deviation score (SDS). Cross‐sectional data on height, weight, circumferences, and signs of maturity can be used as a reference to compare an individual's height and growth pattern with their peer group. Longitudinal data are serial data of the same individual. The measurement of growth at short intervals (short‐term growth) either requires measurements at high accuracy (e.g. knemometry), or very frequent measurements. Very frequent (daily) home‐made measurements can be obtained by nonprofessional personnel, even by parents, and are ideal for determining growth patterns under field conditions.
Mechanostat
Authors: Hubbell Zachariah R.
Published: October 2018

The mechanostat hypothesis, first proposed by Harold Frost in 1987, describes a regulatory mechanism within bone that functions to maintain bone tissue mass and organization via metabolic action in response to mechanical stimuli. The mechanostat operates like a home thermostat, with minimum and maximum strain thresholds serving as triggers to stimulate bone formation or resorption; this allows bone to maintain its own tissue mass and distribution appropriate to the mechanical demands it habitually experiences. The mechanostat is a critical element of bone functional adaptation theory, serving as the mechanism that allows bone to sense and respond to its strain environment.
Mitochondrial
DNA
Authors: Stoneking Mark
Published: October 2018

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is the only DNA found outside the nucleus of the cell. It has a number of useful properties for anthropological studies, including a rapid rate of evolution, maternal mode of inheritance, and being present in hundreds to thousands of copies per cell. Despite being a single genetic locus, mtDNA has contributed enormously to anthropology: it provided the first compelling genetic evidence that favored a recent African origin of our species; when combined with studies of the paternally inherited Y‐chromosome, it provides insights into sex‐specific features of human populations; and it is particularly useful in studies of ancient DNA.
Morphometrics, humans
Authors: von Cramon‐Taubadel Noreen
Published: October 2018

Morphometrics is the study of the size and shape of objects in two or three dimensions. Traditional morphometrics usually involves analysis of linear measurements that accurately describe the overall form of similar objects in repeatable ways. These measurements contain scaling information (size) and, when compared to other dimensions, information about shape. In recent decades, biological anthropologists have increasingly turned to geometric morphometrics (GM) as a means of analyzing and visualizing shape variation among primate specimens. GM operates on the geometric comparison of configurations of landmarks (Cartesian coordinates). Such methods are routinely used to describe and analyze skeletal variation in anthropology, and provide data for more complex analyses of biodistance, taxonomy, phylogenetics, and mechanobiology.
Neolithic
Authors: Stock Jay T.
Published: October 2018

The Neolithic, the prehistoric period of the initial domestication of plants and animals, occurred independently in many parts of the world. The transition to agriculture had a profound impact on human social organization, demography, health and disease, and behavior. As a process through which human populations dramatically changed the local environment, the Neolithic also changed the human adaptive landscape and became a primary driver of evolutionary change within our species.
Nutrition and growth
Authors: Hruschka Daniel J. , Hadley Craig
Published: October 2018

Nutrition is the process of obtaining food necessary for survival, health, and growth, and is a key factor shaping human biology. For a century, biological anthropologists have leveraged worldwide biological diversity in humans and nonhuman primates to examine how nutrition shapes physical growth. Among other things, they have studied how infection, reproduction, and physical activity can modify the effect of nutrition on growth, how early nutritional deprivation can shape later life growth trajectories, and how social inequalities can lead to disparities in growth.
Paleodemography
Authors: De Witte Sharon N.
Published: October 2018

Paleodemography is the study of human population patterns in the past using skeletal samples excavated from archaeological sites. Paleodemographic reconstructions are crucial for understanding the causes and consequences of shifts in subsistence strategies, changes in environmental conditions, increased social complexity, colonial contact, and many other phenomena of interest to anthropologists. The skeletal samples and the data they provide are, however, imperfect representations of living populations. This entry summarizes the fundamental analytical and methodological issues associated with the field and the ways in which paleodemographers contend with them in order to make meaningful statements about life in the past from biased samples of the dead.
Physiological adaptation
Authors: Weitz Charles A.
Published: October 2018

Populations living at high altitude or in cold and hot climates have shown an array of apparently unique physiological responses. For the most part, however, these responses have turned out to be the result of either long‐term (developmental) or short‐termacclimatization. To date, the only clear example of a genetically determined physiologicaladaptationis the hypoxic response of high‐altitude Tibetan populations.
Platyrrhine evolution
Authors: Fleagle John
Published: October 2018

The primates in the Neotropics of South, Central, and North America are the platyrrhines, or New World monkeys. They are the sister taxon of the catarrhines (Old World monkeys, apes, and humans) of Africa and Eurasia. Platyrrhine monkeys first appeared in the Neotropics in the latest Eocene or Oligocene, apparently by overwater dispersal from Africa. They have subsequently evolved into a broad diversity of families and subfamilies. The fossil record documents species clearly related to living clades in the Middle to Late Miocene, but the relationships of earlier taxa are debated. From the fossil record, we know that there were extensive radiations of monkeys in southernmost South America (Patagonia) in the Early to Middle Miocene, and in the Caribbean until very recently. Also there are fossils from the Pleistocene of Brazil that were twice as large as any living platyrrhines.
Polymorphism
Authors: Schurr Theodore G.
Published: October 2018

For many decades, the term “polymorphism” has been used to describe genetic variants in population genetic studies. A number of different kinds of polymorphisms have been identified during this time, both protein and DNA forms, largely driven by advances in methods for assessing genetic sequence variation. This entry briefly summarizes the history and results of efforts to evaluate polymorphisms in human and primate populations. Our knowledge of the sequence composition and functional features of the human genome continue to grow with new approaches to understanding its sources of variation and their phenotypic consequences.
Population structure
Authors: Crawford Michael H.
Published: October 2018

Population structure is the makeup or composition of individuals in a population. Structure in populations can be characterized either by their demographic parameters (such as gender, age, fertility, mortality, and migration), or genetic markers (uniparental DNA, genomic sequences, gene products) or both. The genetic structure of populations can be characterized as the distribution of genes and DNA sequences within an aggregate (intrapopulation) or among populations (interpopulation). Social and cultural factors that impact on the distribution of genes within populations include: inbreeding, patterns of mate selection, hierarchical subdivisions such as extended families, clans, castes, villages, and geographic regions. Interpopulation characterizations include genetic distances, phylogenetic trees, spatial autocorrelations, and various cluster analyses. Understanding the structure of populations is essential for the mapping of genes of the genome, the characterization of gene–environmental interactions, and the processes of evolution.
Primate taxonomy
Authors: Groves† Colin
Published: October 2018

This article asks the questions: What is taxonomy? What is a species? What are higher categories? and What is nomenclature? A brief classification of primates is presented, with special sections on the taxonomy of the strepsirrhines, tarsiers, platyrrhines, cercopithecoids, and hominoids, and a note on fossils.