bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Party Competition in Interlinked Political Markets: The European Union and its Member States
Authors: Maor Moshe
Published: November 2023

The institutional development of the European Union (EU) will affect the interplay of government and opposition in each of the Member States. The interplay—par excellence one of interaction—is a feature of party systems. Surprisingly, it is entirely absent from the literature on systemic properties used to characterize and differentiate party systems. Party systems are characterized by the number of parties and their relative size, the extent of polarization, movement in party support, and societal cleavages as they are reflected by the parties. These characteristics do not necessarily reveal the nature of government-opposition interaction, although the extent of polarization in the party system may be an approximate guide.
Rational Decision in International Crises: A Rationalization
Authors: Nicholson Michael
Published: November 2023

Decision-making in international crises has been widely discussed for thirty years and is a perennial topic of interest for students of foreign policy decision-making. This is not surprising. Wars are often preceded by crises and why some crises result in wars and others do not is not clearly understood despite much study. Furthermore, crises can be looked at as a reasonably self-contained phenomenon as compared with most issues in international relations and hence one for which one might hope to formulate a reasonably simple theory.
The Buck in Your Bank is not a Vote for Free Trade: Financial Intermediation and Trade Preferences in the United States and Germany
Authors: Schonhardt-Bailey Cheryl , Bailey Andrew
Published: November 2023

This chapter examines the relationship between asset holdings and trade-policy preferences. We examine the interests and the incentives of share owners, who are the residual owners of firms that are directly affected by trade policies, to act collectively. Specifically, we examine characteristics of share ownership that affect the propensity of investors to form interests, around which they may mobilize, and in particular the institutional framework of national financial markets and the incentives embedded (accidentally or deliberately) in government policy.
The Dismal Vision
Authors: Bruce Steve
Published: November 2023

THE dual purpose of this book is to assess loyalists’ thinking about their position and to offer a corrective to much of our thinking about loyalists. To lay the foundations for what follows in this chapter, I want to begin by establishing what the rest of the chapter then attempts to explain: the extent of loyalist unhappiness with the recent past and the present. To do this I will draw attention to what seem the most significant facts from the loyalist world of 1993: the high level of loyalist paramilitary violence and the strength of the DUP vote.
Talks
Authors: Bruce Steve
Published: November 2023

THE previous chapter was intended to explain what the world now looks like to working-class loyalists, to the unionists of the DUP, and to an increasing number of Ulster Protestants beyond those two circles. I now want to examine in some detail the political situation of the period from l991 to the end of 1993—a time when the increasing tempo of political murder stimulated a revival of political debates and initiatives.

Since 1986 the British government has been looking for some internal progress in Northern Ireland to complement the Anglo Irish accord and to break the deadlock of the unionist boycott. In 1988 Secretary of State Tom King held a series of meetings with party leaders to talk about what it would take to make them talk. These were continued by King’s successor, Peter Brooke. Despite the SDLP being none too keen to negotiate an alternative to the accord and the unionists refusing to talk except in the context of replacing the hated agreement, the parties agreed to begin formal talks in the spring of I991.
The Politics of Ethnic Identity
Authors: Bruce Steve
Published: November 2023

MOST social-science writing on Northern Ireland fails to convey the bitter nature of the conflict and ils residues. There is a good and a bad reason for this. The good reason is that social scientists are trying to illuminate and explain, not to shock. If we want a sense of what it feels like to hate and be hated, to threaten and feel threatened, then we should tum to fiction or to more journalistic accounts: Beanie’s We are the People is a good example. But there is a bad reason for 1he bloodlessness (and I choose that term deliberately) of much academic writing about Ulster and that is that many authors are committed to particular explanations of the Northern Ireland conflict which either play down sectarianism. or make it a property solely of loyalists, or both. In this chapter I will argue for the deeply sectarian nature of the conflict, consider the weaknesses of some popular approaches to the problem, and then offer an alternative and more realistically dismal portrayal of the Troubles.
The Historical Setting: Dialogue and Conflict between Two Nationalist Movements
Authors: Ma’oz Moshe
Published: November 2023

The Jewish-Zionist national movement, which launched its activities in the early 1880s, aroused vehement opposition among most Arabs in Palestine from the turn of the century onwards. At about the same time, however, Arab leaders in Syria, the emerging centre of the Arab national movement, conducted talks and reached agreements with the Zionist movement which indicated their recognition of Jewish national aspirations in Palestine.
Israel Confronts the USSR, the USA, and the UAR
Authors: Ma’oz Moshe
Published: November 2023

Indeed, since late 1956 Ben Gurion and Dayan were becoming more and more concerned about the growing military threat from Syria, not only in conjunction with Egypt, but also in view of increasing Soviet military assistance to Syria, as well as to Egypt. Moreover, they were worried not merely about the continued supply of modern Soviet weapons to Syria, but more particularly about the possibility of the direct involvement of Soviet troops, disguised as volunteers, in a Syrian/ Arab attack on Israel.
From War (1967) to War (1973)
Authors: Ma’oz Moshe
Published: November 2023

The further intensification of the Syrian-Israeli conflict following the June 1967 war planted inter alia the seeds of the October 1973 war between Egypt and Syria, and Israel. Israel, faced with continued Syrian belligerency and influenced by domestic pressures, abandoned its initial flexible post-1967 policy advocating the return of the Golan in exchange for a peace treaty, in favour of a status quo line: keeping the Golan and establishing new settlements there. Syria, meanwhile, attempted to undermine and destroy this status quo by means of Palestinian guerrilla warfare, mainly through Lebanese territory, and subsequently also by preparing its army for another war against Israel. Other factors which contributed to the aggravation of the Syrian-Israeli dispute and indeed to the outbreak of the 1973 war were Soviet and American backing of Syria and Israel respectively, and, crucially, the failure of Israel and Egypt to reach a political settlement despite American and United Nations diplomatic efforts.
Asad’s Strategic Design
Authors: Ma’oz Moshe
Published: November 2023

Since coming to power, Asad has been gripped, perhaps obsessed, by the need to achieve a balance of power with Israel. Apart from his declared ideological commitment to fight and destroy the ‘Zionist entity’, Asad’s practical political attitude towards Israel has largely derived from his strategic thinking. Considering the Jewish state as a predominant regional power, Asad has sought to counterbalance Israel’s superiority as a pre requisite for either a military confrontation or a political settlement between the Arab world/Syria and Israel. As he stated in 1981: ‘If the military balance is needed to liberate the land and repel the aggression, it is equally needed to implement a just peace ... peace could never be established between the strong and the weak.’
Syria, Israel, and the Peace Process
Authors: Ma’oz Moshe
Published: November 2023

Whereas Israel persisted in its status quo policy regarding Syria and the Golan until mid-1992, from 1988 Syria revived and expanded its strategy of achieving a political settlement of the Arab/Syrian-Israeli conflict, albeit on its terms, and without renouncing its military reinforcement. Indeed, in certain respects this policy represented the continuation of the two-track strategy that Asad had initiated since his rise to power in 1970, and particularly after the 1973 war, the simultaneous development of military option and the use of diplomacy in order to regain the Golan Heights as well as other occupied Arab territories, and also implement the national rights of the Palestinian people.
Conclusion and Prospects
Authors: Randall Vicky
Published: November 2023

The central issue running through this study has been the meagerness of child daycare provision, especially of publicly run or funded provision, in Britain—both the why and the how. Successive chapters have examined the historical legacy, the development of policy in the postwar period to the transition from Conservative rule in 1997, the demand from mothers for childcare and the feminist response, and the experience of childcare policy in other western democracies. This concluding chapter will firstly try to draw together the strands of the argument up to this point in order to suggest some of the main reasons why childcare policy in Britain has been as it has. Second, it will consider the policy changes, in some respects quite remarkable, under the Labour government from 1997, drawing on the earlier analysis to assess their significance and likelihood of success. The final section will argue that for all its complexities and ambiguities, the issue of childcare remains crucial for equality in this country, both gender equality and equality amongst women.
The Gang of Three
Authors: Crewe Ivor , King Anthony
Published: November 2023

Members of the Labour party expected a period of acute controversy following the May 19 79 election defeat. What they got was more like civil war. No one in the party who lived through the years 1979–81 remembers them with pleasure. The struggle between right and left, fought without mercy on either side, was passionate, relentless and sometimes degrading. to the right, the left wing of the party seemed a hate-filled lynch mob. To the left, the right wing, especially MPs and former ministers, were traitors, men and women who, out of a mixture of cowardice, dishonesty and incompetence, were undermining both the party and the socialist cause. In an atmosphere of unreason, words changed their meanings, former colleagues became sworn enemies, and every issue, however trivial, became a test of socialist virtue. The few who refused to throw in their lot with either side were viewed with ntempt by both. The SDP broke away in March 1981 in the midst of this tumult, but Labour’s civil war continued.
Anguish: ‘Severe Mental Pain’
Authors: Crewe Ivor , King Anthony
Published: November 2023

The right-winger who drove down the M6 from Blackpool following the 1980 Labour conference and who found himself thinking about what a new party might be called had, without having previously realized it, ‘resigned psychologically’ from the Labour party. He had taken no positive action, but an emotional tie had been broken. How many Labour MPs at the beginning of October 1980 were in a similar position, assuming already that sooner or later they would leave Labour and join some new political grouping? The short answer is: almost none. Probably the only ones who had already made the break in their own minds were the Jenkinsite MPs mentioned in Chapter 3, together with Richard Crawshaw, the moderate MP for Liverpool Toxteth. Few others, if any, had travelled that far—certainly not any of the Gang of Three. One reason was that the total rout of the right at Blackpool had come as a complete surprise as well as a shock, and it was going to take some time for its full implications to sink in. But a far more important reason was that most Labour MPs, however right wing, could hardly bring themselves to contemplate leaving the party they loved.
Born in Despair
Authors: Crewe Ivor , King Anthony
Published: November 2023

The Gang of Three and their supporters felt they were being driven out of the party; but, as we saw in the last chapter, they were anxious, before making their final move, to.make sure that they could take as many Labour MPs as possible with them. For obvious reasons, they were also anxious to find out what a new party’s electoral prospects might be like. Would a breakaway group of the kind they were envisaging be committing electoral suicide? Or would it have some chance, however slight, of getting off the ground and winning at least a degree of electoral support?
Defectors and Loyalists
Authors: Crewe Ivor , King Anthony
Published: November 2023

Thirteen ex-Labour MPs and one ex-Conservative were among the founders of the SDP in March 1981. Thirteen more ex-Labour members joined during the remainder of 1981, and two more came over in 1982, making a grand total of twenty-nine SDP MPs. As we shall see in Chapter 8, the spectacle of a steady progression of members of parliament out of the Labour party’s ranks and into those of the SDP was one of the major factors giving the new party its early momentum.
What Kind of Party, and Whose?
Authors: Crewe Ivor , King Anthony
Published: November 2023

The events that led twenty-eight Labour MPs to break with their party in 1981–2 were as dramatic as any that British domestic politics is likely to provide; they inflicted heavy damage on the Labour party and in the end destroyed the careers of some of Britain’s most promising politicians. That being so, a number of important questions need to be asked and answered—more explicitly than they have been so far. Why did the Gang of Four leave the Labour party? Why did they found a new party? What kind of party did they think their new party was going to be? There are also a number of intriguing ‘what-if?’ questions which it is at least worth attempting to answer.
The Golden Age: March–December 1981
Authors: Crewe Ivor , King Anthony
Published: November 2023

The SOP was launched in late March 19 81, and during most of its first year the party had quite astonishing momentum. Everything seemed to go right for it and wrong for its rivals. Success inspired favourable publicity; favourable publicity in turn inspired continuing success. The experience reminded one observer of a giant Saturn rocket lifting off from Cape Canaveral, another of the massive explosion of Mount St Helen’s in the American state of Washington that had taken place in the previous year. The whole British party system seemed to be tearing itself apart. Such momentum could not, of course, be sustained, and the let-down, when it came, was severe; but in the meantime all those involved with the SOP hugely enjoyed themselves.
Disappointment: June 1983
Authors: Crewe Ivor , King Anthony
Published: November 2023

Despite the forging of the Alliance, it was a chastened SOP that Roy Jenkins led into 1983. The seats negotiations with the Liberals had reached a largely satisfactory conclusion, but electorally the Alliance was in the doldrums. The by-elections in the latter half of 1982 had not gone well, and the first Gallup poll of 1983 showed that only 22.5 per cent of the electorate thought they would vote Liberal or SDP at an early general election, leaving the Alliance well behind Labour and even further behind the Conservatives. The Conservatives’ commanding lead in all the polls made it look increasingly as though the next general election would come within a few months and not in 1984 as had previously been supposed. Conscious of the need to try to attract new publicity and raise morale, the Alliance organized a big rally in Central Hall, Westminster, towards the end of January. The fact that the press insisted on dubbing the rally an Alliance ‘relaunch’ was a measure of how far the two parties’ fortunes had fallen. Predictably, the rally attracted little attention.
Machinery, Members and Money
Authors: Crewe Ivor , King Anthony
Published: November 2023

In creating the party’s constitution the SDP’s leaders were constrained to some extent by personal differences and also by what the members would accept. In building the party organization they enjoyed a much freer hand. Overnight the launch produced nearly 50,000 members, an abundance of volunteers and £500,000 in the bank. There were no major financial backers to humour or established organizations to incorporate. The only existing organization on the ground was the Social Democratic Alliance, from which the SOP leadership warily kept its distance. With only a few active branches, the SDA was too weak to claim a reserved place in the SDP’s structure.
The Party of a New Class?
Authors: Crewe Ivor , King Anthony
Published: November 2023

We have discussed whether the SDP was a new class of party. It is now time to consider a different question: whether it was the party of a new class. The formation of the SDP, one social historian wrote, was a ‘delighted act of self-recognition by a new class coming out and discovering its common identity’.1 But what new class? Answers at the time were not couched in terms of enduring economic or political intuests but in terms of life-style and culture (‘their homes are imitation farmhouses rather than miniature stately homes, with stripped pine rather than period furniture’, and so on). Social Democrats, it was alleged, usually without a shred of evidence, were trendy and ‘progressive’ professional people, the advance guard of the claret-drinking, chattering classes, whose native habitat, as is well known, was NW3.
The Owen Ascendancy II: 1985–1987
Authors: Crewe Ivor , King Anthony
Published: November 2023

The afterglow of the successful Torquay conference lingered on for several months. Between a quarter and a third of the electorate continued to tell the opinion polls that they would vote for the Alliance at an early election, and personal relations among the old Gang of Four, while still strained, gradually became less fraught and more businesslike. Moreover, despite the disagreements within the SDP that surfaced at Torquay and despite Owen’s apparent shift to the right, relations between the SDP and the Liberals improved and showed every sign of going on improving.
The SOP Disintegrates: 1987–1988
Authors: Crewe Ivor , King Anthony
Published: November 2023

Politicians are seldom at their best following election defeats. They are tired and disappointed and their thoughts almost inevitably turn to the question of who or what was to blame. The leaders of the Liberal—SOP Alliance—especially the leaders of the SDP—had additional reasons for despair on 12 June 1987. In the pale light of that summer morning, with television screens still flickering manically in the background, all their dreams of forming an Alliance government, of holding the balance of power, of replacing Labour as the main opposition to the Conservatives, even of gaining a significant number of seats in the House of Commons, were coldly revealed as having been only dreams. The great SDP project had failed. The could of British politics remained unbroken.
Who Was to Blame?
Authors: Crewe Ivor , King Anthony
Published: November 2023

One thing was clear by the time the Liberals and Social Democrats finally merged in March 1988 and became still clearer during the ensuing years. Whatever else the debate over merger and the subsequent negotiations had done, they had inflicted substantial damage on the cause of British centre-party politics. The farce of the dead parrot was merely the final episode in a process that had already gone badly wrong.
Making and Enforcing Regulatory Policy in the Single Market
Authors: Previdi Ernesto
Published: November 2023

The procedures required to ensure the correct and effective application of the regulatory framework that underpins the single market are difficult to understand. To do so requires an understanding of the unique and complex characteristics of the European Union’s (EU) regulatory framework. The following factors define its atypical character, which differs from the classic properties of national regulatory systems, whether they are centralized or federal.
A Pattern of Islands
Authors: Cliff A D , Haggett P , Smallman-Raynor M R
Published: November 2023

The rest of the Ocean Island European staff consisted of a doctor employed by the company …, another doctor in charge of a government hospital at Tarawa, 250 miles to eastward; and four district officers scat tered singly, at distances ranging from three to five hundred miles away from us, scattered up and down the chain of the Gilbert and Ellice islands.
Island Populations: The Threshold Question
Authors: Cliff A D , Haggett P , Smallman-Raynor M R
Published: November 2023

In spite of the fact that this problem of determining critical community size in terms of the relevant epidemiological parameters has now been around for more than 30 years there is still no satisfactory solution …. The concept of critical community size becomes extremely important in the context of global eradication projects….
Island Populations: The Virgin Soil Question
Authors: Cliff A D , Haggett P , Smallman-Raynor M R
Published: November 2023

The Revd J. Williams, in his interesting work, says that the first intercourse between natives and Europeans, ‘is invariably attended with the introduction of fever, dysentery, or some other disease, which carries off numbers of people.  Again he affirms, ‘It is certainly a fact, which cannot be controverted, that most of the diseases which have raged in the islands during my residence there, have been introduced by ships; and what renders this fact remarkable is, that there might be no appearance of disease among the crew of the ship which conveyed this destructive importation.
The Changing Accessibility of Islands
Authors: Cliff A D , Haggett P , Smallman-Raynor M R
Published: November 2023

No man is an Iland, intire of it selfe; Every man is a peece of the Continent, A part of the maine.

Islands are part of a shrinking world. It was the isolation of islands, linked to their relatively small populations, which historically brought about the sepa ration of epidemics of infectious diseases in time and space. This characteristic of island epidemics contrasts with continental areas where large populations sustain multiple endemic infections which manifest themselves as overlapping waves of disease. But, over the 150-year period considered in this book, the geographical isolation of islands has been broken down by the profound changes in travel behaviour brought about by the transition from sail to steam in shipping, and from ship to air as principal carrier. In previous centuries, cir cumnavigation of the globe could take years; modern aircraft span the world in 24 hours. The slow and infrequent travel of previous generations meant that diseases spread only slowly between geographical areas, and quarantine of infection was relatively straightforward. The mass travel at the dawn of the twenty-first century, coupled with increased speed of transfer, implies that infection can be moved from one area to another before carriers are even aware that they are infectious.
Old chemical munitions and warfare agents: detoxification and degradation
Authors: Stock Thomas , Lohs Karlheinz
Published: November 2023

Knowledge about old chemical munitions and toxic armament wastes that remain from activities in the first half of the 20th century can be valuable to those involved in the investigation of contaminated areas and old compunction finds and in the redevelopment of sites previously used for the production, filling or storage of such munitions and agents. This chapter discusses the problems and risks of dealing with old munitions and toxic armament wastes. In addition, the chapter provides information on the detoxification of water and soil contaminated by these materials.
The history of chemical weapons in Poland
Authors: Witkiewicz Zygfryd , Szarski* Kazimierz
Published: November 2023

Chemical warfare agents were used in Poland in World War I by the German Army against Russian troops. During World War II large-scale German manufacture of chemical weapons was carried out in Poland. Prior to World War II Poland conducted research on protection against chemical weapons and this work continued after the war. A number of chemical warfare agents were studied, and some of these were manufactured. However, the manufacture of chemical warfare agents in Poland was never sufficiently large to have military significance.
Chemical munitions in the Commonwealth of Independent States and the surrounding seas
Authors: Perera Judith
Published: November 2023

In 1987 the USSR announced it had stopped producing chemical weapons, and in 1989 it declared that its CW stockpile was 40 000 tonnes. Russia, the member of the Commonwealth of Independent States which assumed control of the Soviet CW stockpile, now faces the enormous task of destroying these stocks in accordance with the Chemical Weapons Convention. Responsibility for this and for all future planning rests with the Presidential Committee on Matters Pertaining to the Chemical and Biological Weapons Conventions, which was set up in April 1992.
The destruction of old and obsolete chemical weapons: past experience
Authors: Sutherland Ronald G
Published: November 2023

The discovery, dismantling and safe destruction of chemical weapons has been a significant problem since the time of their first use in World War I. Until 1969 both agents and munitions were destroyed by methods now considered to be environmentally unsound. These included open-pit burning, land burial and ocean dumping, all of which are now no longer in use owing to a variety of environmental and safety legislation.
The technical challenge of dismantling and destroying old and abandoned chemical weapons
Authors: Guir Frederic
Published: November 2023

The destruction of the existing chemical weapon stockpiles was one of the most difficult issues in the final stages of the negotiations on the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction (the CWC). In hope of totally removing the CW threat an obligation was incorporated into the Convention (Article IV and Part IV(A) and (B) of the Verification Annex) to destroy all kinds of CW of whatever vintage, including so-called ‘old and abandoned’ chemical weapons.
UNSCOM’s experience with chemical warfare agents and munitions in Iraq
Authors: Manley Ron G
Published: November 2023

With its adoption of Resolution 687 (1991) of 3 April 1991 the United Nations Security Council established the terms and conditions for the formal cease-fire between Iraq and the Coalition of member states co-operating with Kuwait, thereby ending the 1991 Persian Gulf War. Part C of Resolution 687 addresses Iraq’s weapons of mass destruction (i.e., biological, chemical and nuclear weapons and ballistic missiles with a range greater than 150 km). It requires their identification, location and disposal and the establishment of a monitoring regime to ensure that Iraq does not reacquire these weapons.
The legal problems associated with sites contaminated by chemical warfare agents in Germany
Authors: Kurzidem Thomas
Published: November 2023

The general problem of contaminated sites and of sites contaminated by chemical warfare agents, in particular, has led to increased public interest and debate in recent years. After the reunification of Germany in 1990 and the subsequent reduction of military forces in Germany land was transferred from military to civil use, and it became apparent that there were environmental problems related to the former and current military use of land.
How to Think about Electoral Systems
Authors: Dummett Michael
Published: November 2023

The problem of choosing an electoral system splits into two; we saw in Chapter 1 that we have two distinct questions to answer. The first is this: (1) Given the preferences of the electors in a constituency between the candidates, (A) which of those candidates will best represent that constituency, and (B) what system will as often as possible bring about the election of such candidates? The second question is: (2)Given the preferences of the electors in the nation at largebetween the political parties, (A) what should be the distribution of seats within Parliament among those parties, and (B)what electoral system will as often as possible bring about sucha distribution? As indicated, each of our two questions (1) and (2) is a double question and splits in turn into two.
Systems Based on Criteria
Authors: Dummett Michael
Published: November 2023

In the last chapter, we considered an extension of Condorcet’s criterion for the most representative single candidate, using the notion of a candidate’s Copeland number, and also a new criterion, that proposed by Borda, either to supplement Condorcet’s criterion or its extension, or else for use as the sole criterion. There are three electoral systems corresponding to these three criteria; under each of them, when all vote sincerely, the victory will go to the candidate satisfying the chosen criterion.
The Alternative Vote
Authors: Dummett Michael
Published: November 2023

What in Britain is usually called ‘the Alternative Vote’ is a system for electing to single-member constituencies. In Australia it is called ‘preferential voting’; but in this book we may refer to it by the abbreviation AV. It is an adaptation for a single ballot of an elimination system in which successive ballots are held, each requiring the electors to vote for just one candidate. If, in the first ballot, no candidate secures an absolute majority, the candidate obtaining the fewest votes is eliminated, and a second ballot held between the remainder. If still no candidate secures an absolute majority, the candidate obtaining the fewest votes in this ballot is now eliminated, and a third ballot is held; the ballots continue in this way until some candidate does obtain an absolute majority of the votes, when he is declared elected.
The Principles of Electoral Reform
Authors: Dummett Michael
Published: November 2023

There is always a danger in devoting the last chapter of a book to summarizing its whole argument, namely that readers who think their time too valuable to waste on reading the book from cover to cover will content themselves with skimming the final chapter, confident that no author can have anything to tell them that they cannot extract in this economical manner. Such readers usually only half-understand the little that they thus glance at. This chapter cannot serve as a substitute for reading the book; it is meant only as a reminder.
The Strategy of Coercive Diplon1acy: Refining Existing Theory to Post-Cold War Realities*
Authors: Jakobsen Peter Vlggo
Published: November 2023

Since the passing of the cold war the demand for international action against threats to international peace and security has increased sharply. The list of ongoing conflicts is depressingly long and despite a dramatic increase in United Nations operations the demand exceeds the supply by far. This situation is anything but new. Historically, the demand for international action to stop armed conflicts has always exceeded the supply because states have based their foreign policies on national interests rather than on considerations of international peace and law. What is new, however, is the fact that the problem of stopping armed conflict or violent repression of minorities occuring far away from home time and again is placed on the political agenda in the West.
Strategic Coercion, Democracy, and Free Markets in Latin America*
Authors: Hirst Monica
Published: November 2023

As US military and economic pre-eminence was imposed in Latin America, the United States consolidated its status as a hegemonic power in the region by utilizing unilateral coercive practices. Since the end of the Second World War, political and economic motives have led the USA to use different instruments of pressure to induce Latin American states to adjust and/or change their options in foreign and/or domestic policies. In the past these motives were connected either to cold war concerns or to unilateral political and economic incompatibilities. In all cases these practices have underlined the asymmetric power structure of inter-American relations, as well as the characterization of Latin America as a US sphere of influence.
South Asia: The Perils of Covert Coercion
Authors: Ali Syed
Published: November 2023

The regional politics of post-colonial South Asia1 has often reflected the turbulence of domestic politics within the successor states.2 Both have been characterized by coercive elements, sometimes taken to their violent extreme. Coercion has been a key feature not only of interstate relations but also of the interaction between the states of the region and sub-state actors at one level and extraregional powers at another. The sub/protostate actors have resorted to strategic coercion not only against the central authority but also against other, perhaps rival, sub-state players.
Coercive Cadences: The Yugoslav War of Dissolution
Authors: Gow James
Published: November 2023

Coercion was the primary characteristic of the Yugoslav War of Dissolution. This was as true for the Serbian forces which initiated the conflict, as it was for the other former Yugoslav parties to the conflict and those elements of the international community which became involved in its management. For all concerned the essence of the conflict was to secure strategic, tactical, and political objectives through the use of coercion, rather than through direct combat. For the former Yugoslav protagonists this meant the use of limited resources to achieve political and territorial aims, in the case of the Serbs especially, using the practice of ethnic cleansing (see below).
Forrns of the Democratic Developmental State Democratic Practices and Development Capacity
Authors: Leftwich Adrian
Published: November 2023

Few states in the developing world have been able to sustain even the most basic elements of democracy. Those which have been able to do so include Venezuela, Costa Rica, Jamaica, Botswana, Mauritius, Malaysia, Singapore, and India. Even so, many analysts balk at call¬ ing Singapore and Malaysia ‘democratic’ (Ahmad, 1989) and hence refer to them as only ‘partially democratic’ states (Potter 1997: 38).
Democratic Institutions and Development in Post-apartheid South Africa
Authors: Nattrass Nicoli , Seekings Jeremy
Published: November 2023

In the last years of apartheid South Africa was distinguished not only by a political system based on racial discrimination against the majority of the population, but also by a very high level of economic inequality. Extensive poverty existed amidst considerable wealth. The open, democratic general election of April 1994 marked the achieve¬ment of representative democracy-and transferred responsibility for development to the new, democratically elected government. The developmental challenge facing the new democracy is twofold: to bring about sustainable growth and to facilitate redistribution-in part through job creation, and in part through the redirection of state ex¬ penditure. Both goals require an efficient and appropriate institutional framework to succeed.
Introduction: Uneasy Allies or Genuine Partners? Britain, Germany, and European Integration
Authors: Larres Klaus
Published: November 2023

Throughout the twentieth century British—German relations have been of fundamental importance in shaping the course of European and world history. Often those relations were strained and hostile, no more so than during the Second World War. Having conquered and then governed Germany as one of the four occupation powers between 1945 and 1949, Britain became the FRG’s formal ally when West Germany joined NATO in May 1955. However, it was only in the 1970s, when the UK was under great pressure from its increasing economic problems, that London began to view the British—German relationship as a partnership between equals. When Britain became a member of the then European Economic Community (EEC) in 1973, the bilateral British— (West) German relationship gradually intensified. At the same time this relationship began to include an ever greater number of other partners and developed into a truly multinational framework. Although bilateral British—German relations before and after World War II had always been strongly influenced by third parties, with the increasing importance of the European integration factor this tendency intensified. Not least in view of the dramatic redistribution of world power status away from Europe since the end of the Second World War, it made increasingly less sense to focus on bilateral instead of multilateral relations. Moreover, throughout the entire post-1945 era neither London nor Bonn regarded their bilateral relationship as of prime importance; relations with the USA and France appeared to be much more crucial.
European Union Social Policy: German and British Perspectives on Industrial Citizenship
Authors: Meehan Elizabeth
Published: November 2023

European Union (EU) social policy is not, as it is in states, directly redistributive. EU policy instruments provide a regulatory framework for the operation of state social policies in certain fields. This framework has come about for reasons specific to integration and does not cover the normal spectrum of intervention. These reasons include the needs to: reduce impediments, including nationality-based discrimination, to the free movement of labour; make integration more attractive to ordinary people; and reconcile the goal of economic and social cohesion with dislocations arising from the creation of a single European market.
The Creation of the Single Market and Britain’s Withdrawal from the EMS
Authors: Begg Iain , Wood Michael
Published: November 2023

Britain’s uneasy relations with its EU partners, especially Germany and France, have noticeably improved since the election of the Labour government in May 1997. The subsequent decision by Britain to forego entry into the European Monetary Union (EMU) in the first wave has, apparently, been accepted without acrimony by the other member states, and British support for European employment initiatives, and its adoption of the social chapter have been welcomed. All of this suggests that what has often been a fractious relationship is in one of its more constructive phases. There have, however, also been dire periods when antagonism to Europe has been pervasive. British ambivalence about the EU is captured in the possibly apocryphal comments attributed to Russell Bretherton, the Board of Trade representative at the 1955 Messina conference which paved the way for the Treaty of Rome.
Financial Reporting and Accounting Harmonization in Germany and the UK: A Comparative Analysis
Authors: Mccourt Patricia , Radcliffe George W
Published: November 2023

Divergence in financial reporting practice between Germany and the UK would not be regarded by many as a contentious issue or an important source of friction between the two countries either in public debate or in negotiation within the institutions of the European Union. In fact, however, the financial statements of enterprises have also been a significant and fundamental determinant of two variables which have been the subject of widespread and sometimes acrimonious debate in recent years, namely levels of investment and corporate taxation.
Negotiating the Intergovernmental Conferences: Maastricht, Amsterdam, and Beyond
Authors: Harmsen Robert , Reinhardt Nickolas
Published: November 2023

The 1990s have seen the adoption of two treaties marking, to varying degrees, the continued development of the European integration project. The Maastricht Treaty or Treaty on European Union was agreed in December 1991 and entered into force, after a turbulent ratification process, in November 1993. The Amsterdam Treaty was agreed in June 1997. Following a protracted but uneventful ratification process, this later treaty entered into force in May 1999. Both Treaties were the product of Intergovernmental Conferences or ‘IGCs’.
Social Cleavages and American Politics
Authors: Manza Jeff , Brooks Clem
Published: November 2023

This chapter introduces the concepts and strategies of inquiry we employ in the rest of this study. It considers a range of methodological and statistical issues involved in our study of social cleavages. We also present the theoretical interpretations that we use as a guide to analyzing patterns of change over time.
From Marxism to Anti-Communism: The Sources and Evolution of the Political Beliefs of Russian ‘Democrats’
Authors: Lukin Alexander
Published: November 2023

This chapter studies the evolution of the political beliefs of Russian ‘democrats’ and the relative influence of various sources and influences on this process. The research for this study made it possible to identify the following kinds of sources:

official Soviet ideology;
The Political Culture of Russian ‘Democrats’: the New and the Old
Authors: Lukin Alexander
Published: November 2023

The aim of this concluding chapter is to put the political culture of Russian ‘democrats’ into a broader context by analysing its similarities to, and differences from, political concepts and beliefs in the West (above all those which form the basis of modern political science as an academic discipline); and also by comparing it with Russian and Soviet political theories of earlier periods and the political culture of the Soviet Union as a whole. This will permit a more precise definition to be made of the elements of continuity and innovation in the political subculture of Russian ‘democrats’, in order to determine the mechanism of innovation and of the maintenance of tradition, and to see how Western ideas were reinterpreted on Russian soil. It should be noted that some of this comparison will necessarily be preliminary given the contemporary state of the study of Western and, particularly, Russian and Soviet political cultures and political thought, which leaves much to be desired.
Information Needs and Methods of Resource Assessment
Authors: Dalal-Clayton Barry , Dent David
Published: November 2023

A similar pattern of methodological development may be seen in various parts of the world and in different natural resources disciplines. Early surveys were casual though often perceptive descriptions by amateurs, but a few were based on careful, systematic work—for instance Packet‘s charts of east Kent, prepared over nine years and published in 1743, delineated landforms and distinguished coastal sands, stony land and woods at a scale of 1 :42240 (Packet 1743).
Land valuation
Authors: Dalal-Clayton Barry , Dent David
Published: November 2023

Over the last thirty years, there has been a shift of emphasis in the work of natural resources professionals and institutions. Initially they concentrated on the collection of basic, specialist data: topographic surveys produced topographic maps, geological surveys produced geological maps, soil surveys produced soil maps, and their responsibilities seemed to end there. In other words, they saw ‘the land, what it is’. But these basic data do not answer the next, more complex and difficult question faced by policy makers, land use planners and managers. ‘What is it good for?’ Indeed, there are sequences of questions. Planners and policymakers at national level might ask:
Planning in Tanzania
Authors: Dalal-Clayton Barry , Dent David
Published: November 2023

Tanzania is a big country of 883449km (Fig. 9.1), which includes both the highest and lowest land in Africa-the summit of Kilimanjaro at 5895 m and the floor of Lake Tanganyika at 358 m below sea level. Its population is about 30 million (projection from 1988 census), growing at 2.8 per cent per year (Bureau of Statistics 1992), giving a sparse overall density of some 3 ha/person. However, the density is much higher (<0.5 ha/person) in some rural areas where rainfall is more reliable and soils relatively fertile. The movement of farmers and pastoralists to those well-endowed areas that still have relatively low population densities is bringing increasing conflicts over land ownership. Tanzania is also a poor country. GDP per caput in 1995 was US $120 and 90 per cent of the population is supported directly or indirectly by agriculture, which contributes half of the GDP.
The Academic Formulations: Explanations for the Partitioned City
Authors: Kempen Ronald van
Published: November 2023

As has become clear from the previous chapter, situations and processes of spatial segregation and spatial concentration of population groups, as well as lines of partitioning are as old as the hills. Benevolo (1980; cited in Van Kempen and 6ziiekren 1998) goes back to Babylon in 2000 BC. Here already distinct quarters could be described. Quarters in the inner city were reserved as residential places for kings and priests, for those who were in power; outer quarters were accessible to everyone. The same structure can be seen in most medieval cities in Europe.
From Danube to Isis: A Career in Two Cultures
Authors: Pulzer Peter
Published: November 2023

Most historical writing-at any rate writing on modern history-is also autobiography. Often this works indirectly. The writing may be entirely impersonal and drily objective, with no visible connection to the author’s life-story. The details may be derived from archives, newspapers, or inter views, and therefore not part of the author’s own experience. But what about the choice of subject itself, the agenda, the questions to be addressed, and the conclusions to be formulated? Are they chosen at random? Do they derive from some purely external stimulus? Or do they come from inside the scholar, because something that once happened to him goes on growing inside, because the world as he has experienced it has features that cry out for an explanation?
Peter Pulzer’s Writing on Political Anti-Semitism and the Jewish Question in Germany and Austria: An Assessment
Authors: Markovits Andrei S
Published: November 2023

I remember it well. It was in the fall of 1968-as a 20-year-old senior in Columbia University’s College-that I first encountered Peter Pulzer’s The Rise of Political Anti-Semitism in Germany and Austria. I had never heard of Peter Pulzer but I found the title of the book not only intellectually intriguing but also profoundly compelling on a deeper, autobiographical level. This, after all, was precisely the time that I had first begun to learn in a systematic and serious way about the absolutely crucial role that anti-Semitism had played in Austria’s and Central Europe’s political history during the first half of the twentieth century.
Liberalism as a Minority Subculture: The Case of Italy
Authors: Hine David
Published: November 2023

Until the 1990s, it was traditional to see the Italian political system as distinctive, in comparative European terms, for the persistence of ideological polarization and subcultural fragmentation. Both the Marxist/socialist subculture and the Catholic subculture remained largely intact until as recently as the mid-l 980s, despite the revisionism of the Communist Party and the long term secularization of Christian Democracy. The effects on the party system of this mutually hostile subcultural confrontation were paralysing: the Communist Party was condemned to permanent opposition, and the Christian Democrat Party was permanently in power at the heart of an unstable centrist coalition. The end of the cold war dismantled that system over a decade ago. Today the Communists have completed their transition to social-democratic status, and the Christian Democrat Party has broken into pieces, though catholic influence is still strongly felt across the party spectrum.