bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
B
eauvoir,
S
imone de
Authors: Reineke Sandra
Published: December 2017

Simone de Beauvoir (1908–1986) is perhaps best known today as the author of the path‐breaking study
Le Deuxième sexe
[
The Second Sex
], published in 1949, and as an icon of postwar French feminism. Yet Beauvoir's impressive intellectual ability to diagnose and write about women's status in
The Second Sex
had far‐reaching consequences for the study of social power structures and institutions beyond her time and place in postwar France.
Berlin,Isaiah
Authors: Crowder George
Published: December 2017

Isaiah Berlin (1909–1997) was a British philosopher, historian of ideas, and political theorist. He lectured and published on many subjects, including rival conceptions of liberty, the plurality of values, the nature of history, Enlightenment versus Counter‐Enlightenment, Russian thinkers of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, nationalism, and cultural belonging. Today, he is still best known for his lecture, “Two Concepts of Liberty” (1958), in which he sets out his version of the distinction between negative and positive liberty, attacking the positive notion in the context of the Cold War. Increasingly, though, discussion of Berlin's work has turned to his understanding of the plurality and incommensurability of basic human values and the implications of this for ethics and politics.
Coser,RoseLaub
Authors: Fuchs Epstein Cynthia
Published: December 2017

Rose Laub Coser's (1916–1994) work addressed various aspects of role and status theory. She utilized concepts of status‐sets and role‐sets (defined by Robert K. Merton) to show how, in modern society, people take on multiple statuses and roles giving them a social repertoire that not only provides flexibility but gives them multiple bases for connection. She noted, however, that structural accumulation could be constraining or emancipating, observing how women have been (and are) more restricted than men and thus limited in their political and occupational opportunities. In particular (with Lewis Coser), she showed how the “greedy institution” of the family has limited women's participation in public life. Coser noted that although women constitute at least half of most societies' workforce, they are often socially invisible as workers and typically have few institutional resources to help them manage their multiple roles.
Chicago School of Sociology
Authors: Turner Bryan S.
Published: December 2017

The Chicago School was one of the first and most influential centers of sociological research in North America. The University of Chicago was founded in 1890 with a commitment to research, graduate training, and service to the city of Chicago. The emerging social sciences had close connections with reformism, Christian socialism, local philanthropy such as the Settlement movement, and Hull House which was associated with Jane Addams. The school emerged around 1915 and Albion Small was appointed as its sociologist. Research methods were based on the social surveys undertaken by British urban reformers like Charles Booth. The research emphasis was on poverty, city life, urban slums, marginal men, migration, deviance, and crime. Over time, the Chicago School included many of the founding fathers of American sociology: Albion Small, W. I. Thomas, Florian Znianecki, Robert Park, and Ernest Burgess.
Citizenship
Authors: Faist Thomas
Published: December 2017

Citizenship defines membership in bounded political communities, above all national states, but also cities and supranational entities such as the European Union. Cross‐border transactions such as international migration or environmental degradation caused, for example, by climate change, raises the question of who is (entitled to be) a member? Who takes decisions within the respective polity? What are the rights and duties of citizenship? What are the socio‐moral foundations of entitlements in civil society?
City
Authors: Nielsen Greg M.
Published: December 2017

City(civitas)‐based definitions of the urban that emphasize uniqueness and urban(urbs)‐based definitions of the city that highlight similarity between cities are used interchangeably in social theory. A variety of schools or individual scholars who write from the point of view of various cultures (German, French, Indian, Asian, African, South American) or cities (Chicago, New York, Los Angeles, Paris, Berlin), as well as multiple disciplines and fields of study (geography, sociology, anthropology, urban planning, political science, cultural studies) have contributed to this fusion of meanings that define the city. Both sets of terms focus definitions on size, periodization and explaining conflicts that arise from planning and macro‐transitions between traditional, modern, and global forms of urbanization. This can be seen across classical sociological theory, recent globalization theory, the contemporary Los Angeles School of critical geography, older Chicago and New York based urban studies, as well as research on the explosion of informal or squatter cities and the implications for the future of the city.
Civil Society
Authors: Adloff Frank
Published: December 2017

Civil society is both a political and a social‐science term with a long tradition. Usually civil society is defined as the plurality of public associations, organizations, and encounters that rest on the voluntary actions of its citizens. These associations go beyond intimate relationships and are independent from the state and from interests in economic profit. Often some standards of civility, such as tolerance and nonviolence, are also considered to be constitutive of civil society. A utopian element exists to some extent in many theories of civil society that envision self‐government and true democracy. The entry describes how civil societies in Western societies evolved and briefly outlines central theories of civil society (Tocqueville, Gramsci. Habermas, Putnam, Shils, Alexander).
C
lark,
K
enneth and
M
amie
Authors: Cross William E.
Published: December 2017

Kenneth Clark (1914–2005) and Mamie Clark (1917–1983) provided the crucial social scientific evidence that helped the US Supreme Court reach its historic 1954
Brown v. Board of Education
school desegregation decision. Mamie Clark went on to an illustrious career in community mental health, and directed one of the few mental‐health centers serving the community of Harlem, New York. Kenneth Clark became a tenured professor of psychology at the City College of New York. Kenneth Clark achieved public fame and was the recipient of numerous awards; however, he died disillusioned by the United States' failure to achieve meaningful racial integration.
Collective Behavior
Authors: Martin Greg
Published: December 2017

Early theories of collective behavior tended to regard it as negative, associating it with the rise of fascism and communism in Europe during the 1930s. Crowd behavior was seen as irrational and dangerous because it suppressed individual will, and posed a threat to the democratic political order and established ways of life. Other theories have regarded collective movements as meaningful acts striving to affect positive social change. Hence, collective behavior theory has influenced social movement research. For instance, by treating social movements as rational, strategically calculating political phenomena, resource mobilization theory embraces the rationalism implied in the collective behavior perspective. Other scholars, by contrast, focus on the supposedly irrational aspects of social movement activity, such as emotional expression and feelings of anger, injustice, and indignation, which help explain not only why people become involved in collective action in the first place, but also why they continue to participate over time.
Detroit Area Study
Authors: Turner Bryan S.
Published: December 2017

The Detroit Area Study (DAS) was established in 1951 at the University of Michigan with the purpose of creating a training and research laboratory. The aim was to carry out a social survey every year in the Detroit area in which students participated through a two‐semester graduate‐level course. It was housed in the Survey Research Center and financed by the Ford Foundation until 1958 when the university took over responsibility for the budget. DAS produced a large number of books, articles, and reports on family and marriage, voluntary associations, race, crime, and religion. It played a major role in the development of the social survey as a basic tool in social science research.
Domestic Sphere
Authors: Crow Graham
Published: December 2017

The domestic sphere is associated with privacy, family, intimacy and self‐expression. Domestic life takes place away from the public gaze but is nevertheless associated with public issues of gender, work, and safety. The history of domestic life reveals that a variety of social and economic forces have prompted significant change over time in what home life involves and the types of people who participate in it.
Domestic Violence/Violence Against Women
Authors: Moghadam Valentine M. , Ferreira‐Fahlberg Anjuli
Published: December 2017

Violence against women is present across cultures, historical periods, and political systems; it occurs in contexts of the politicization of ethnicity, wars, and criminal activity, as well as in the private sphere of the home and family. Feminist social theory locates it in (gendered) power asymmetries that manifest themselves at both micro‐ and macro‐ levels. Many scholars regard the varied manifestations of violence against women as examples ofstructural violence; that is, rooted in unequal gender relations, patriarchal laws and norms, economic difficulties, and geopolitics, rather than solely in individual pathology. This entry provides an overview of the literature on violence against women, the theories that frame the issue, and collective action to end violence against women in all its forms.
Ecofeminism
Authors: Belmont Cynthia
Published: December 2017

Ecofeminism is a worldwide academic and activist effort to address the complex inherent connections between environmental degradation and social injustice, principally regarding the construction of gender as it intersects with multiple categories of marginalization and the oppression of women under patriarchy. Ecofeminism is based on the belief that because of the many conceptual and practical links between women and nature as they are conceived in the West, feminism must in both theory and practice include consideration of ecological perspectives, and likewise, environmentalism must include consideration of feminist perspectives. Most branches of feminism and many forms of environmentalism are represented in the spectrum of ecofeminist endeavors that bring these two movements together toward a thoroughly intersectional transformative politics.
Friedan,Betty
Authors: Epstein Cynthia Fuchs
Published: December 2017

Betty Friedan (1921–2006), credited as a leader of second‐wave feminism, highlighted inThe Feminine Mystique(1963) the discontent women experienced as a result of stereotyping that positioned them in the home or resulted in policies that located working women in dead‐end jobs. Her work critiqued both functionalist analyses of gender and the family and the psychoanalytic establishment for its view that women were psychologically unsuited for professional careers. Friedan challenged the stereotyping of women embedded in theories then popular in the academy and exposed the flaws in the paradigms that provided a rationale for women's subordination in society. Friedan founded the National Organization for Women (NOW) and was involved in many other organizations devoted to women's equality within and outside the academy.
Gender Identity
Authors: Bauer J. Edgar
Published: December 2017

Given the possible discrepancy between the culturally conditioned gender of an individual and his or her biological sex assigned at birth,
gender identity
refers to the individual's self‐understanding as being male, female, or otherwise, without positing any necessary nexus to the initial sexual assignment. Widely deployed in contexts that describe the complex self‐perception of individuals who elude subsumption under heteronormative categories,
gender identity
has become a key concept in legal forms of discourse aiming at defining and protecting the human rights of individuals characterized by dissident sexualities. Since
gender identity
is not a necessary result of biological determination, the concept constitutes a privileged point of departure for scrutinizing and critiquing the alleged naturalness of the two mutually exclusive sexes. Considering the alienating consequences of identity fixation within or without the heteronormative paradigm, transgender and transsexual authors have advanced arguments to reject the
gender identity
category altogether.
Gender Segregation in Work
Authors: Harcey Sela , Prokos Anastasia
Published: December 2017

Gender segregation in work (sometimes discussed as sex segregation in work) has been studied from a variety of foci. Foci include micro, meso, and macro levels. All of these levels have different components that perpetuate gender segregation in work. Many influential works expanded during the second‐wave feminist movement to provide researchers the foundation for understanding gender segregation in work currently and for the future.
Geography (Human and Urban)
Authors: Simandan Dragos
Published: December 2017

The entry begins with a definition of geography and with a description of what the discipline shares with the other social sciences and what makes it distinctive among them. Terminological clarifications are provided with regard to the relationship between human geography and physical geography, and between human geography and urban geography. After, a brief history and overview of human geography's engagement with social theory, the entry offers a discussion of the politicization of contemporary human geography and of how this phenomenon is reflected in theory building and concept development.
Glass Ceiling
Authors: Clott Alec
Published: December 2017

The “glass ceiling” illustrates a pattern of institutionalized sexism observed in the workplace, particularly among upper‐level management positions. Historically, men have had disproportionate access to upper‐level management positions. The glass ceiling describes the invisible barrier hindering women from entering high management positions that is not based in any differences of credentials or merits. Instead, the glass ceiling results from individualized sexism, exclusion from informal social networks, and the perpetuation of patriarchal culture.
Group Processes
Authors: Losh Susan Carol
Published: December 2017

Group processes study the structure, properties, and courses of action existing in collectivities in which members interact to achieve common and interdependent goals. A group is a collection of individuals who define themselves and are defined by others as members, marked by common goals and specialized tasks related to those goals, requiring cooperative interaction among members. Group structure depicts the relatively enduring characteristics or properties of the group itself, rather than its individual members, such as group size, established social roles, and procedures. Group processes include examining formal and informal settings, interaction among peers and between leaders and group members, and how organizational roles or status hierarchies influence intra‐ and intergroup relations. Popular topics include cohesion and teamwork, social identity theory, “groupthink,” group decision‐making, conformity and persuasion, leadership, communication, how groups affect achievement, and how groups influence organizational, social, and individual change.
Hegel,GeorgWilhelmFriedrich
Authors: Stone Alison
Published: December 2017

This entry introduces the social and political thought of G. W. F. Hegel. Once viewed by critics such as Karl Popper as totalitarian, Hegel's political philosophy is now widely recognized as based on the core liberal value of individual freedom. Yet Hegel sets out to reconcile individual freedom with social membership. He does so by arguing that the central modern social institutions of family, civil society, and state enable individuals both to realize their freedom and to be at home in the social world.
Household Production
Authors: Spencer‐Wood Suzanne M.
Published: December 2017

Prior to the Industrial Revolution, most goods for exchange, as well as for immediate use, were produced in households by a family economy that included servants or slaves in wealthy households. Households in a community also cooperated in some production and exchange, called “neighboring.” Starting in the late eighteenth century, religious utopians and utopian communitarian socialists theorized that gender equality was created through community cooperative housekeeping by women, because it ended each wife's drudgery in household production and maintaining her nuclear family home. In 1884 Engels initiated Marxist‐feminist theories that reproduction is a form of production, and women's household production is appropriated by husbands who own the means of production, in analogy with capitalists. This theorizing led to feminist pay‐for‐housework theories. The Home Economics and New Home Economics theorists developed the field of family economics.
Housing Classes
Authors: Freeman Lisa
Published: December 2017

Housing classes is a theoretical concept that enables researchers and scholars to explore how housing tenure is linked to societal class divides. It is based on a Weberian idea that domestic homeownership is a basis for class divisions. This concept has been used widely in the discipline of sociology. However, many scholars, many from Marxist perspectives have contested the term and its conceptual foundations.
H
oward,
E
benezer
Authors: Ward Stephen V.
Published: December 2017

Ebenezer Howard (1850–1928) originally developed the concept of the garden city, first published in 1898 in his book
To‐morrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform
, though better known through the retitled and slightly amended second edition of 1902,
Garden Cities of To‐morrow
. He founded the Garden City Association (the present Town and Country Planning Association) in 1899 and played a central role in the foundation of the two garden cities at Letchworth (1903) and Welwyn Garden City (1920) in Hertfordshire, England. He also promoted the garden city as a model for urban living throughout the world and adapted versions of his ideas came to have a major impact on twentieth‐century urban planning policies, especially in the United Kingdom.
H
ume,
D
avid
Authors: Turner Bryan S.
Published: December 2017

David Hume (1711–1776) was a Scottish philosopher who as an empiricist made significant contributions to the theory of knowledge, language, and experience. He developed skepticism in arguing that valid knowledge could only arise from our empirical experience of reality. This empirical approach was the basis of his argument that causality was not a necessary and permanent relationship since all we can observe is constant conjunction between phenomena. Nevertheless we act and believe as if there were such necessary causal connections. His skepticism was also famously directed at religion. He based his criticism on belief in miracles, which he argued were claims about certain events that were used to justify commitment to creeds. He was also critical of the design theory of God's existence as well as arguing that polytheism was more consistent with our experiences. Hume's work has been much debated by philosophers but this entry will only consider his philosophical works insofar as they are contributions to social theory.
L
aski,
H
arold
Authors: Barker Rodney
Published: December 2017

Harold Laski's account of pluralism attacked the claims of the national state and the theory of sovereignty, and asserted the personalities, rights, and functions of groups and associations both within and across the boundaries of the territorial state, rights, and functions that derived from those groups and associations, and were not derived from the state but were an empirical feature of pluralism in society and politics. His later work illustrates the difficulties of a public intellectual in constructing a working balance between popular accessibility and academic rigor.
MaoZedong
Authors: Bideleux Robert
Published: December 2017

Mao Zedong (1893–1976) served as the leader of the Communist Party of China (CPC) from 1935 until his death, and became the principal founder of the People's Republic of China (PRC). Mao became famous for his mobilization of the massive revolutionary potential of the Chinese peasantry. However, the regime directed the lion's share of Chinese state investment and resources toward the urban sector and, as a result, the rural/peasant population suffered colossal privations, malnutrition, and loss of life. It is now widely accepted that Mao's “Great Leap Forward” brought about the biggest demographic disaster of the twentieth century. Between 1.5 and 2 million people were killed as a result of his “Cultural Revolution.” Growing recognition of the enormity of these human catastrophes has severely discredited the more idealized and sanitized accounts of Mao's regime and his policies, strategies, and thinking.
M
ead,
M
argaret
Authors: Bauer J. Edgar
Published: December 2017

Cultural anthropologist Margaret Mead (1901–1976) was mentored by Franz Boas and Ruth Benedict in the early stages of her career. She eventually became a leading authority in her field, an inspiring influence on the feminist and sexual liberation movements of the 1960s, and one of the preeminent women intellectuals in American history. Among her most relevant early publications are
Coming of Age in Samoa
(1928) and
Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies
(1935), both of which stress the role of culture in constructing what is generally taken to be human nature. While maintaining the validity of the male/female dichotomy, Mead pleaded for a culture capable of promoting the development of individualized forms of sexual behavior beyond the constrictions of “biological self‐replication.”
Montesquieu,Charles‐Louis deSecondat,Baron de
Authors: Bauer J. Edgar
Published: December 2017

Charles‐Louis de Secondat, Baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu (1689–1755) was a French political thinker and writer who anticipated sociology and cultural anthropology. His epistolary novelLettres persanes[Persian letters] (1721) and his chief workDe l'Esprit des loix[On the spirit of the laws] (1748) belong to the classic corpus of writings published during the Enlightenment. Mostly known for his theory of the separation of powers in the state, and his typology of governments opposing despotism, Montesquieu has been acknowledged as having initiated the “sociological revolution” in the humanities. Taken as a whole, Montesquieu's oeuvre seeks to theorize a new relationship between the universal imperatives of Reason and their concrete implementation through political and civil laws in a social world resistant to unmitigated rationality.
M
oses,
R
obert
Authors: Salerno Roger A.
Published: December 2017

Robert Moses (1888–1981) was an urban planner who helped change the face of New York City in the mid‐twentieth century. His public works and slum clearance projects destroyed old neighborhoods while creating new highways and urban renewal projects that were often extremely controversial. This entry looks at his work as an example of Corbusian modernism.
Iron Law of Oligarchy
Authors: Stolting Erhard
Published: December 2017

The “iron law of oligarchy,” as it was formulated by Robert Michels, contradicts intentions to create democratic organizations. Because of structural constraints, oligarchies take power and use it for securing stability which, in turn, furthers their particular interests. In public, oligarchic strategies are presented as serving the common good so that the ruled continue to support their rulers. The struggle for dominance is not motivated by morally evil intentions, although cunning persons with few inhibitions have more chances to reach the top. The ruling elites are not better or worse in any sense, but simply in place. The pretense that the emotional unity of rulers and ruled could be a suspension of the “iron law” was debated on the right and left of the political spectrum. In empirical research in political and organizational sociology, the “iron law” was a starting point for important differentiations and specifications.
P
ark,
R
obert
E
.
Authors: West Mark Douglas
Published: December 2017

Robert E. Park (1864–1944) played a major role in the development of the University of Chicago's School of Sociology, which set the tone of much of sociological research in the United States for the last part of the twentieth century. Park worked for Booker T. Washington at the Tuskegee Institute, then educated several generations of sociologists at the University of Chicago, where he was particularly interested in what he defined as three fields: “collective behavior, human ecology, and race relations.” Park's textbook,
Introduction to the Science of Sociology
, was written with E. W. Burgess, and was a standard in the field for years. Park's understanding of the need for the empirical study of real‐world data was coupled with a democratic social psychology, and was spread both through Park's many students and his widely read texts.
Phalanstery
Authors: Cunningham Frank
Published: December 2017

The phalanstery is the utopian living and working complex proposed by Charles Fourier (1772–1837), whose vision was derived from a theory of the passions. He projected lives free of repression where work was pleasurable. Though not technically a socialist, Fourier's thought influenced nineteenth‐century socialism. The phalanstery occupies an ambiguous place in approaches to urban planning and architecture, being at once tightly ordered and providing for individual experimentation.
Plural Society
Authors: Abbas Tahir
Published: December 2017

The origins of the term “plural society” are found in the anthropological writings of Fredrik Barth and J. S. Furnivall. Barth and Furnivall argued that an ethnic group is composed of economic and ecological constituents. Boundaries between groups moderate when diverse specializations are found within a particular political unit.
Politics
Authors: Frazer Elizabeth
Published: December 2017

This entry analyzes the meanings of the term politics as it has made its way from its ancient Greek and Latin origins into modern usage. It sets out the conceptual complexity of a term that carries connotations both of openness and publicity, and of closure and secrecy. These ambiguities in the uses of the concept are related to disagreements about the values of politics, about the proper domains of the use of the concept, and about the alternatives to political modes of conduct, and political institutions of government.
Postindustrial Cities
Authors: Reiffenstein Tim
Published: December 2017

The adjective “postindustrial” was first employed by Daniel Bell in
The Coming of Post‐Industrial Society
. Bell argued that, by the late twentieth century, North American and Western European societies had undergone a fundamental shift driven by a transition of the economic base away from manufacturing employment toward employment in service occupations. In this context, knowledge had become the primary driver of economic growth and change. The form and character of postindustrial cities stem from the changes wrought by these profound structural transformations. On the one hand, there are changes forced by deindustrialization while, on the other, there are the adaptations reflecting the emergence of new industries and forms of work.
Power
Authors: Hearn Jonathan
Published: December 2017

Power is a core concept in social theory. This entry examines definitions of the concept, starting with Max Weber, and emphasizing the importance of analyzing power in terms of key constituent concepts of domination, authority, and legitimacy. It further explores some of the key puzzles that have characterized the study of power: the relationship between power “over” and power “to,” the connections between physical and social power, the significance of distribution for its analysis, its relationship to structure and agency, and what suffices as evidence of power. The final section provides a brief history of the idea, from Machiavelli and Hobbes up to Michel Foucault and Michael Mann, stressing the divergence in theoretical approaches to power in recent decades.
Public Interest
Authors: Holden Meg
Published: December 2017

The public interest was defined by Walter Lippman, a founder of the discipline of policy studies, as “what men [sic] would choose if they saw clearly, thought rationally, acted disinterestedly and benevolently.” Building upon this definition, the necessity and utility of assuming such a public‐serving rationality as either a base or ideal condition is a central debate within policy studies. The operationalization of such a condition is critical to the success of participatory democracy, yet the fact that participants cannot be expected to behave in the public interest in contemporary contexts weighs against hope that such an ideal could ever be approached.
Rhetoric
Authors: Scalambrino Frank
Published: December 2017

Rhetoric should be understood not as referring to propaganda but to a strategy for persuasion. Aristotle thought its motor force to be wider in scope than the persuasiveness of dialectic or purely logic‐based argumentation. In contemporary social theory rhetorical analysis is highly effective at uncovering strategic aspects of objects and hidden agencies at work in relation to human freedom, an excellent example of such uncovering being Jean Baudrillard's
The System of Objects
.
R
ossi,
A
lice
Authors: Epstein Cynthia Fuchs
Published: December 2017

Alice Schaerr Rossi (1922–2009), a sociologist and educator, was an early analyst of the role of women in modern American society and a major researcher on life‐course issues. Her research considered the interstices of social and biological factors in such areas as stages of parenting, sexuality, and aging. Her earlier works included pathbreaking analyses of the social restrictions placed upon women's access to male‐dominated occupations.
Rural Urbanization
Authors: Ofori‐Amoah Benjamin
Published: December 2017

Rural urbanization is a process by which rural areas become urbanized. As a process it has evolved throughout human history from ancient times to the present day under different names and approaches. This evolution has followed two paths: planned rural urbanization (PRU) and unplanned rural urbanization (URU). PRU derives from direct interventions from government and private interests, and has been implemented through planned city, garden city, and growth center approaches. In contrast, URU works through spontaneous and random corporate and individual behaviors that cumulatively transform the rural landscape. Examples of URU are the suburbanization, nonmetropolitan industrialization, urban sprawl and counterurbanization processes that occurred in the United States beginning in the 1970s and the activities of diaspora migrants and hometown associations especially in Africa and Latin America. The importance of rural urbanization in national economic development is widely recognized; what is not clear is how to achieve it.
S
chmitt,
C
arl
Authors: Turner Stephen
Published: December 2017

Carl Schmitt was a lawyer and philosopher of law whose writings on politics and social theory led to his being known as the Hobbes of the twentieth century. His criticisms of liberalism and naive humanitarianism and secularism were startlingly original and extreme, and attracted intellectuals on the Left as well as on the Right. His basic ideas about society revolved around the problem of the location and sources of the power of the state, which he styled as a mortal god. His most influential ideas included his account of the concept of the political in terms of the possibility of war and the friend–enemy distinction.
Second‐Wave Feminism
Authors: Spencer‐Wood Suzanne M.
Published: December 2017

Second‐stage feminism is interpreted to mean second‐wave structural feminist theories, including Betty Friedan's book entitled
The Second Stage
. Second‐wave feminist theories analyze the social structures of patriarchy that enforce women's subordination and male domination. These theories supported the creation of new laws that have increased gender equality. Some structural feminist theories also argue for separatist women's workplaces and culture to counteract patriarchy.
Social Inclusion/Exclusion
Authors: Picker Giovanni
Published: December 2017

Social exclusion and social inclusion refer to material, symbolic, and existential deprivation (social exclusion) or absence thereof (social inclusion), although no comprehensive theoretical framework encompasses them. In contrast with the notion of poverty, which largely refers to a lack of material resources, social exclusion is more relational and multidimensional. Its origins are in the French 1960s social Catholicism and 1970s French policy discourse. A more complex view of inclusionary exclusion and exclusionary inclusion has been elaborated in relation to spatiality. The other two main phenomena in relation to which social exclusion and inclusion have been analyzed are race and ethnicity, and gender. Criticism addresses both phenomena's dichotomic nature, their potential of obscuring class struggle, and their exclusively state‐centered orientation, such that the concepts cannot capture global injustice.
Spatial Turn
Authors: Warf Barney
Published: December 2017

While the discipline of geography takes as its point of departure the analysis of spatiality, issues of location, mapping, distance, context, and place have shaped a wide variety of fields. Inspired by understandings of space as made, not given, spatially sensitive analyses in studies as varied as communications and religion have paid mounting attention to geographic unevenness and local contexts. This entry notes the traditional significance of historicism, which privileged time over space, and its recent decline. Intellectual changes regarding the significance of spatiality are held to reflect several ontological processes, notably globalization, environmental crises, and the role of cyberspace.
Stoicism
Authors: Scalambrino Frank , Johnson Nicole L.
Published: December 2017

With special emphasis in regard to social theory, this entry discusses Stoic ethics, rather than Stoic physics or logic.
T
itmuss,
R
ichard
M
.
Authors: Turner Bryan S.
Published: December 2017

Richard M. Titmuss (1907–1973) was an English social scientist who played a large role in the sociology of the welfare state and in the creation of social administration as an academic discipline. He was the founding chair of the new discipline at the London School of Economics and on his death the school created the Richard Titmuss Professorship of Social Policy in his honor. He made important contributions to the study of income distribution, welfare studies, insurance, and collective provision of services through the study of the gift relationship.
Urban Design
Authors: Cuthbert Alexander R.
Published: December 2017

While the design of cities has been part of social life for at least 7,000 years, thedisciplineof urban design has only existed for approximately the last century. Herein lies the hiatus. On the one hand it can be argued that urban design originated with the evolution of urban life. Or alternatively, that urban design is an invention of modernity since it was part of the commodification of knowledge within professions and universities. Unequivocally, the form of cities reflects the political economy of nations. But urban design has been weakly developed in this regard. Recently and in consequence, traditional ormainstreamurban design has been challenged by thenew urban design, one that seeks to merge social science with design issues.
Urban Managerialism/Entrepreneurialism
Authors: Lauermann John
Published: December 2017

Urban managerialism/entrepreneurialism explores urban politics from the perspective of city managers (bureaucrats and political leaders). Urban managerialism refers to bureaucratic forms of urban management and planning, in which municipalities often derive their funding from an external government source. Urban entrepreneurialism refers to urban management practices which use public resources to pursue profit‐earning ventures: the strategies which city managers adopted in the fiscal and regulatory vacuum left in the wake of post‐Fordist deindustrialization and the neoliberalization of urban governance.
Urban Planning
Authors: Moloney Susie
Published: December 2017

Urban planning has been described as having two coexisting dimensions: the purposive or ideological function and the procedural or regulatory function. The former, with its origins in the social reformist ideas of the early twentieth century, is about planning as a visionary exercise capable of imagining the kinds of places in which people want to live and work. The latter is the outcome of the institutionalization and professionalization of planning, which focuses on resolving conflict between different interests over the use and development of space. This entry highlights some of the key debates, theorists, and visionaries that have influenced the philosophy and practice of urban planning, from shaping the “pillars” of modernist state‐led planning to challenging that legitimacy in the 1960s and 1970s to more recent debates confronting a range of social, economic, and environmental challenges in cities today and the role of planning and development in both exacerbating and addressing them.
Urban Regime Theory
Authors: Davies Jonathan S.
Published: December 2017

Urban regime theory developed during the 1980s in response to economic determinism and structuralist readings of city politics. This contribution explores the regime‐theoretical focus on the need for businesses and city governments to cooperate in order to deliver their respective agendas, and the agency required for them to collaborate successfully in sustainable coalitions. It assesses the strengths and weaknesses of the approach and considers areas for further development.
Urban Resilience
Authors: Hommels Anique
Published: December 2017

Resilience is a booming concept. It has been used in a variety of disciplines and has now also been adopted by planners and urban scholars to analyze how cities cope with vulnerabilities and threats. Engineering resilience and ecological resilience are discussed as early approaches to resilience. Current views on urban resilience emphasize the nonlinear, complex, and unpredictable character of urban systems and pay attention to the normative and political aspects involved in dealing with urban resilience.
Urban Slum
Authors: Suartika Gusti Ayu Made , Cuthbert Alexander R.
Published: December 2017

The term “slum” has been used in a derogatory fashion for at least half a century, since it bonds the occupant's existential state within the same category as their accommodation and wider neighborhood. There is arguably no nation free of slum development of some kind. So the concept has relative qualities that make generalized statements prone to error, even within the same slum environment. While statistical information on slums is vital, it stresses the material over the psychological, symbolic, and creative dimensions of human life. Recent research has focused on causes rather than effects. In the process the dignity of the poor is not undermined. The idea that the poor are not the source of their own misfortune is implicit in two singular dimensions. First, subaltern studies investigate the causes of slum development in the Global South, concentrating on systems and forms of oppression of subaltern classes. Second, the concept of development has come under serious scrutiny, particularly imperialism in its current manifestations. Critical to such understanding is the acceptance that scarcity is not determined absolutely but is socially manufactured. Hence the key to understanding slum development beyond the material lies in the construction of poverty, and of the global and national institutions that engender it.
War and Warlordism
Authors: Malešević Siniša , Scriver Stacey
Published: December 2017

Warfare has been a highly significant factor in the formation of modernity. The long‐term impact of war on society has been analyzed by different approaches including the neo‐Durkheimian, comparative historical‐sociological, and economistic approaches. Recent debates have focused on the transformation of warfare and the emergence of new wars and warlordism.
Wells‐Barnett, Ida B.
Authors: Vujnovic Marina
Published: December 2017

Ida B. Wells was a notable African American journalist, editor, and activist. She is best recognized for her anti‐lynching campaigns after her investigative journalism led her into collecting evidence of lynching across the South of the United States in the late 1890s. Her most famous writings are on lynching accounts that she published in a pamphlet titled
Southern Horrors: Lynch Law in All of Its Phases
, a personal account of what she witnessed in the South,
A Red Record,
and an account of the lynching murder of Robert Charles which she published under the title
Mob Rule in New Orleans
.
Anarchism
Authors: Pauli Benjamin J.
Published: December 2017

Anarchism is distinguished by its rejection of the state as a mode of social organization and its emphasis on small, self‐governing communities linked through voluntary federation. Anarchism has its roots in radical strains of Enlightenment thought. From the 1860s on, the evolution of anarchist thought was closely tied to the history and ideas of the revolutionary socialist movement. Although the period of “classical” anarchist thought came to an end with the effective dissolution of the international anarchist movement in the 1930s and 1940s, in the wake of the 1960s, a new “wave” of anarchist thinkers has helped to revitalize anarchist thought and develop it in new directions.
Anomie
Authors: Bernburg Jón Gunnar
Published: December 2017

Anomie refers to situations where shared regulatory codes – social norms – fail to regulate behaviors and aspirations of individuals, resulting in unstable cooperation, widespread unhappiness, and higher crime rates. Sociologists have discussed the main causes of anomie in modern society. These include the weakening of traditional institutions (e.g., family, religion, polity) and dominance of economic values (emphasizing individual achievement), unequal opportunity and high inequality, and abrupt social change. Anomie has shaped both macro‐ and micro‐level criminology. Macro‐level research uses the concept of anomie to identify the societal conditions conducive to high crime rates. Micro‐level research uses the concept to identify strains explaining individual differences in delinquency.
B
audrillard,
J
ean
Authors: Campbell Elaine
Published: December 2017

Despite his numerous attempts to dismiss and distance himself from postmodernism, Jean Baudrillard (1929–2007) is repeatedly hailed, often pejoratively, as its “high priest.” Described as a nihilistic “philosopher of ends” and a “theorist of eschatologies,” there is much about Baudrillard's work that aligns it with postmodernism and its rejection of truth, reality, and metanarratives. However, this characterization glosses over his significant contributions to social and cultural theory and his intellectual standing as a theorist of consumer culture, media and communication, techno‐culture, and everyday life. Baudrillard's work resonates across the arts, humanities, and social sciences, and his original and provocative analyses are a point of reference for disciplines as diverse as photography, design studies, human geography, fine and digital arts, media studies, international relations, cultural studies, and sociology.
Benjamin,Walter
Authors: Mele Vincenzo
Published: December 2017

Called “the most important critic of his time” by Hannah Arendt, Walter Benjamin (1892–1940) has become more influential over the years, as his work has assumed a crucial place in current debates on the interactions of art, culture, and technology. His efforts to develop a politically oriented, materialist aesthetic theory proved to be an important stimulus for the Frankfurt School. His essayThe Work of Art in the Age of Its Technical Reproducibilityremains a fundamental work for film theory. The notes for his unfinished research project on nineteenth‐century Paris (The Arcades Project) provide a philosophical representation of modernity and postmodernity centered on the concept of commodity fetishism. Benjamin's paradoxical understanding of history, which includes elements of materialism and Jewish messianism, has been an enduring source of theoretical fascination for contemporary thinkers, including Jacques Derrida, Jürgen Habermas, and Giorgio Agamben.
Birmingham Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies
Authors: Rowe David
Published: December 2017

The Birmingham Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies (CCCS) (1964–2002) was a maverick interdisciplinary research‐based unit within the University of Birmingham, United Kingdom. It had a profound effect on sociocultural analysis, the spread of interdisciplinarity, and the engaged intellectual practices of academics in the humanities and social sciences that registered well outside the field of cultural studies. Founded by Richard Hoggart (renowned author of
The Uses of Literacy
), the CCCS produced many well‐known researchers in its interdisciplinary field, the best known being Stuart Hall, who succeeded Hoggart as director. The work of the Centre was characterized by a radical, New Left‐influenced anti‐elitist approach to culture and ideology, focusing, for example, on subcultures, the media, and the state. Although it closed in 2002, the extraordinary ripple effect of the CCCS on interdisciplinary, reflexive social theory within and beyond Britain, and cultural studies is undeniable.
Blackcoated Worker
Authors: Zhang Wenquan
Published: December 2017

Blackcoated worker refers to workers who engage in non‐manual work, in which people exercise their
brain
instead of
brawn
. These workers form an important occupational group that comprises different levels of professionals, clerks, managerial, and administrative staff in a wide variety of office settings spread across many sectors of society, such as civil service, commercial, and industrial. Also known as “white‐collar proletariat,” “pencil pusher,” and “pen driver,” these workers display unique economic characteristics, social attributes, and status marks, which carry special implications on their position in the class stratification of society. It is also the title and subject of a seminal study of class position and class consciousness by British sociologist David Lockwood.
B
ourdieu,
P
ierre
Authors: Grenfell Michael
Published: December 2017

Bourdieu's intellectual biography is tracked through his main research studies – Algeria, education, and culture – and his theory of practice is presented. Key concepts – habitus, field, capital – are explained. Stages in research from a Bourdieusian perspective are set out together with how to carry out field analysis. There is reference to Bourdieu's political stance and salient publications.
Canguilhem,Georges
Authors: Hamati‐Ataya Inanna
Published: December 2017

Georges Canguilhem was a major French philosopher and one of the three main contributors to the French tradition of “historical epistemology” established by Gaston Bachelard and developed, under Canguilhem's direct influence, by Michel Foucault. It is often said, following Foucault, that Canguilhem's oeuvre shaped all the major intellectual movements emerging in France in the 1960s, from Althusserian Marxism to Lacanian psychoanalysis and Bourdieusian critical sociology. Developed against what Bachelard called “the philosophy of philosophers,” historical epistemology is grounded in a non‐positivist and non‐idealist history of the sciences (in the plural) that rejects the notion of a universal and uniform science, and rather focuses on the specific historical trajectories, genealogies, and evolutions of scientific knowledges, concepts, and practices that pertain to specific scientific disciplines.