bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Normal Sonographic Anatomy of the Wrist With Emphasis on Assessment of Tendons, Nerves, and Ligaments
Authors: Gitto Salvatore , Draghi Ferdinando
Published: April 2016

Sonography allows for rapid, cost‐effective, noninvasive, and dynamic evaluation of soft tissue structures, thus representing a valuable tool for ruling out musculoskeletal disorders of the wrist. Because of the complexity of the wrist joint, sonographic training and familiarity with normal and variant anatomy are needed to avoid misdiagnosis and improper treatment. The aim of this article is to enlighten readers about the structures representing normal findings or common variants during sonographic evaluations of the wrist. The main text reviews the pertinent gross anatomy and procedures that are recommended to assess the soft tissue structures of the wrist, with particular emphasis given to tendons, nerves, and ligaments. Detailed explanations of the scanning techniques and sonographic appearance of the wrist structures are provided in the figure legends.
Comparison of 2‐ and 3‐Dimensional Sonography for Estimation of Birth Weight and Neonatal Adiposity in the Setting of Suspected Fetal Macrosomia
Authors: Gibson Kelly S. , Stetzer Bradley , Catalano Patrick M. , Myers Stephen A.
Published: April 2016

Objectives

To compare the accuracy of 2‐dimensional (2D) and 3‐dimensional (3D) fetal measurements for prediction of birth weight Z score and neonatal adiposity (percent body fat) in the setting of suspected fetal macrosomia.

Methods

We conducted a prospective observational study of term singleton pregnancies with suspected macrosomia. Patients were enrolled on admission to labor and delivery and underwent sonographic examinations. Within 48 hours of delivery, neonatal anthropometric measurements were obtained.

Results

Thirty‐four neonates were included in the analysis. Mothers were very obese (mean body mass index ± SD, 39.1 ± 7.8 kg/m2); 56.5% were white; and 39.1% had diabetes. Neonates were 38% female and had a mean birth weight of 3940.0 ± 496.8 g, percent body fat of 18.5% ± 4.0%, and Ponderal index of 2.8 ± 0.3 g/cm3. Mean 2D estimated fetal weight was 3973 ± 443 g; mean 3D estimated fetal weight was 3803 ± 528 g; and mean thigh volume was 102.5 ± 19.6 cm3. Both 2D and 3D measurements accounted for about half the variance in predicted birth weight (R2 for 2D = 0.53, 71% within 10% of birth weight; R2 for 3D = 0.47, 65% within 10% of birth weight). Thigh volume Z score was the prenatal parameter most highly correlated with both birth weight Z score (R2 = 0.52; r = 0.72; 95% confidence interval, 0.54–0.84; P < .001) and percent body fat (R2 = 0.22; r = 0.47; 95% confidence interval, 0.17–0.69; P = .04).

Conclusions

In our population of fetuses with suspected macrosomia, fractional thigh volume was the best sonographic estimate of neonatal percent body fat and birth weight Z score. Future research on prediction of neonatal weight and adiposity in macrosomic fetuses should include an estimate of fetal soft tissue given the generalized increase in body fat of these fetuses.
Compression Real‐time Elastography for Evaluation of Salivary Gland Lesions
Authors: Li Changtian , Zhang Changsheng , Li Nan , Li Junlai
Published: April 2016

Objectives

To evaluate the performance of compression real‐time elastography for differentiation between benign and malignant salivary gland lesions.

Methods

A systematic literature database search was conducted. Pooled sensitivity, specificity, positive likelihood ratio (LR+), and negative likelihood ratio (LR−) values for real‐time elastography were analyzed. Summary receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves were also constructed. Heterogeneity was evaluated by χ2 and I2 tests. I2 > 50% or P < .05 indicated heterogeneity, and then a random‐effects model was applied. A Deek funnel plot was used to assess publication bias. Fagan plot analysis was performed to evaluate the clinical utility of real‐time elastography. When heterogeneity was found, subgroup analyses were used to explore the sources of heterogeneity. A sensitivity analysis was conducted by omitting 1 study at a time and examining the influence of each individual study on the overall results.

Results

Nine articles with 581 lesions were included. The pooled sensitivity and specificity of real‐time elastography for differentiation between benign and malignant lesions were 76% (95% confidence interval [CI], 65%–85%; 95% prediction interval [PI], 29%–95%) and 73% (95% CI, 62%–81%; 95% PI, 24%–96%), respectively. The LR+ and LR− were 2.81 (95% CI, 1.79–4.39; 95% PI, 0.65–12.16) and 0.33 (95% CI, 0.20–0.55; 95% PI, 0.07–1.69). The area under the ROC curve was 0.81 (95% CI, 0.77–0.84). No publication bias was detected, according to the Deek funnel plot (P = .51). The Fagan plot showed that when pretest probabilities were 25%, 50%, and 75%, positive posttest probabilities were 48%, 74%, and 89%, and negative probabilities were 10%, 25%, and 50%.

Conclusions

Real‐time elastography is a novel supplementary adjunct to conventional sonography for evaluation of salivary gland lesions. However, its overall accuracy is less promising, and biopsy may still be necessary in routine clinical practice.
Transient receptor potential A1 channels regulate epithelial cell barriers formed by MDCK cells
Authors: Dembla Sandeep , Hasan Nouma , Becker Alexander , Beck Andreas , Philipp Stephan Ernst
Published: April 2016

Transient receptor potential A1 channels are well‐known as chemosensors in neuronal cells. However, recent studies also point to non‐neuronal functions in epithelia. Here, we show that TRPA1 channels are expressed in epithelial MDCK II cells and contribute to Ca2+ influx and whole‐cell currents after stimulation with AITC. Stimulation of TRPA1 channels induced an immediate reduction of the transepithelial resistance of MDCK II cell layers that was blocked by the TRPA1 antagonist HC‐030031. The present data provide strong evidence for a new role of TRPA1 channels in regulating the tightness of epithelial cell barriers.
Sea ice circulation around the Beaufort Gyre: The changing role of wind forcing and the sea ice state
Authors: Petty Alek A. , Hutchings Jennifer K. , Richter‐Menge Jacqueline A. , Tschudi Mark A.
Published: April 2016

Sea ice drift estimates from feature tracking of satellite passive microwave data are used to investigate seasonal trends and variability in the ice circulation around the Beaufort Gyre, over the multidecadal period 1980–2013. Our results suggest an amplified response of the Beaufort Gyre ice circulation to wind forcing, especially during the late 2000s. We find increasing anticyclonic ice drift across all seasons, with the strongest trend in autumn, associated with increased ice export out of the southern Beaufort Sea (into the Chukchi Sea). A flux gate analysis highlights consistency across a suite of drift products. Despite these seasonal anticyclonic ice drift trends, a significant anticyclonic wind trend occurs in summer only, driven, in‐part, by anomalously anticyclonic winds in 2007. Across all seasons, the ice drift curl is more anticyclonic than predicted from a linear relationship to the wind curl in the 2000s, compared to the 1980s/1990s. The strength of this anticyclonic ice drift curl amplification is strongest in autumn and appears to have increased since the 1980s (up to 2010). In spring and summer, the ice drift curl amplification occurs mainly between 2007 and 2010. These results suggest nonlinear ice interaction feedbacks (e.g., a weaker, more mobile sea ice pack), enhanced atmospheric drag, and/or an increased role of the ocean. The results also show a weakening of the anticyclonic wind and ice circulation since 2010.
Nonlinear effects of anthropogenic aerosol and urban land surface forcing on spring climate in eastern China
Authors: Deng Jiechun , Xu Haiming , Zhang Leying
Published: April 2016

Anthropogenic aerosols and urban land cover change induce opposite thermal effects on the atmosphere near surface as well as in the troposphere. One can think of these anthropogenic effects as composed of two parts: the individual effect due to an individual anthropogenic forcing and the nonlinear effects resulting from the coexistence of two forcing factors. In this study, we explored the role of such nonlinear effects in affecting East Asian climate, as well as individual forcing effects, using the Community Atmosphere Model version 5.1 coupled with the Community Land Model version 4. Atmospheric responses were simulated by including anthropogenic aerosol emission only, urban cover only, or the combination of the two, over eastern China. Results showed that nonlinear responses were different from any effects by an individual forcing or the linear combination of individual responses. The nonlinear interaction could generate cold horizontal temperature advection to cool the troposphere, which induced anomalous subsidence along the Yangtze River Valley (YRV). This anomalous vertical motion, together with a weakened low‐level southwesterly, favored below‐normal (above‐normal) rainfall over the YRV (southern China), shifting the spring rain belt southward. The resultant diabatic cooling, in turn, amplified the anomalous descent and further decreased tropospheric temperature over the YRV, forming a positive feedback loop to maintain the nonlinear effects. Consequently, the nonlinear effects acted to reduce the climate anomalies from a simple linear combination of two individual effects and played an important role in regional responses to one anthropogenic forcing when the other is prescribed.
Impact of physics parameterizations on high‐resolution weather prediction over two Chinese megacities
Authors: Barlage Michael , Miao Shiguang , Chen Fei
Published: April 2016

The 1 km Institute of Urban Meteorology (IUM) operational model has a high‐temperature bias, especially at night, and a high wind speed bias in urbanized areas, limiting the ability of IUM to provide accurate, high‐resolution prediction of thermal stress and air quality for the densely populated Beijing‐Tianjin metro region. This study provides an assessment of the IUM WRF‐based operational model setups and performs a diagnostic analysis to isolate the contributions of model physics parameterization schemes to operational forecast bias over complex urban regions. Results show that non‐turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) planetary boundary layers (PBL) schemes perform better than their counterpart TKE‐based schemes at night, reducing the warm bias by about 1°C in nonurban areas. However, the best performing urban PBL scheme still produces ~2°C warm bias. Considering aerosol effects in the solar radiation scheme improves downward solar radiation and surface energy budgets but has negligible effect on the simulated temperature. Urban canopy models and the specification of various urban model parameters have comparable or even more significant contributions to forecast biases in temperature and wind speed than PBL schemes. The predicted PBL height using an optimized urban parameter table is lower by about 100–200 m, which is about 50–100% of the interurban scheme effect on the PBL height. Overall, the Building Effect Parameterization urban scheme with the default parameter table, or a parameter table with less urban heat storage, is recommended for the best results in urban areas and shows that most of the urban areas of Beijing and Tianjin have a greater than 4°C improvement in absolute temperature bias and more than 1 m s−1 improvement in absolute wind speed bias.
Characterization of organic residues of size‐resolved fog droplets and their atmospheric implications
Authors: Chakraborty Abhishek , Ervens Barbara , Gupta Tarun , Tripathi Sachchida N.
Published: April 2016

Size‐resolved fog water samples were collected in two consecutive winters at Kanpur, a heavily polluted urban area of India. Samples were analyzed by an aerosol mass spectrometer after drying and directly in other instruments. Residues of fine fog droplets (diameter: 4–16 µm) are found to be more enriched with oxidized (oxygen to carbon ratio, O/C = 0.88) and low volatility organics than residues of coarse (diameter > 22 µm) and medium size (diameter: 16–22 µm) droplets with O/C of 0.68 and 0.74, respectively. These O/C ratios are much higher than those observed for background ambient organic aerosols, indicating efficient oxidation in fog water. Accompanying box model simulations reveal that longer residence times, together with high aqueous OH concentrations in fine droplets, can explain these trends. High aqueous OH concentrations in smaller droplets are caused by their highest surface‐volume ratio and high Fe and Cu concentrations, allowing more uptake of gas phase OH and enhanced Fenton reaction rates, respectively. Although some volatile organic species may have escaped during droplet evaporation, these findings indicate that aqueous processing of dissolved organics varies with droplet size. Therefore, large (regional, global)‐scale models need to consider the variable reaction rates, together with metal‐catalyzed radical formation throughout droplet populations for accurately predicting aqueous secondary organic aerosol formation.
Retrieval of ice cloud properties using an optimal estimation algorithm and MODIS infrared observations: 1. Forward model, error analysis, and information content
Authors: Wang Chenxi , Platnick Steven , Zhang Zhibo , Meyer Kerry , Yang Ping
Published: April 2016

An optimal estimation (OE) retrieval method is developed to infer three ice cloud properties simultaneously: optical thickness (τ), effective radius (reff), and cloud top height (h). This method is based on a fast radiative transfer (RT) model and infrared (IR) observations from the MODerate resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS). This study conducts thorough error and information content analyses to understand the error propagation and performance of retrievals from various MODIS band combinations under different cloud/atmosphere states. Specifically, the algorithm takes into account four error sources: measurement uncertainty, fast RT model uncertainty, uncertainties in ancillary data sets (e.g., atmospheric state), and assumed ice crystal habit uncertainties. It is found that the ancillary and ice crystal habit error sources dominate the MODIS IR retrieval uncertainty and cannot be ignored. The information content analysis shows that for a given ice cloud, the use of four MODIS IR observations is sufficient to retrieve the three cloud properties. However, the selection of MODIS IR bands that provide the most information and their order of importance varies with both the ice cloud properties and the ambient atmospheric and the surface states. As a result, this study suggests the inclusion of all MODIS IR bands in practice since little a priori information is available.
Retrieval of ice cloud properties using an optimal estimation algorithm and MODIS infrared observations: 2. Retrieval evaluation
Authors: Wang Chenxi , Platnick Steven , Zhang Zhibo , Meyer Kerry , Wind Gala , Yang Ping
Published: April 2016

An infrared‐based optimal estimation (OE‐IR) algorithm for retrieving ice cloud properties is evaluated. Specifically, the implementation of the algorithm with MODerate resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) observations is assessed in comparison with the operational retrieval products from MODIS on the Aqua satellite (MYD06), Cloud‐Aerosol Lidar with Orthogonal Polarization (CALIOP), and the Imaging Infrared Radiometer (IIR); the latter two instruments fly on the Cloud‐Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observation (CALIPSO) satellite in the Afternoon Constellation (A‐Train) with Aqua. The results show that OE‐IR cloud optical thickness (τ) and effective radius (reff) retrievals perform best for ice clouds having 0.5 < τ < 7 and reff < 50 µm. For global ice clouds, the averaged retrieval uncertainties of τ and reff are 19% and 33%, respectively. For optically thick ice clouds with τ larger than 10, however, the τ and reff retrieval uncertainties can exceed 30% and 50%, respectively. For ice cloud top height (h), the averaged global uncertainty is 0.48 km. Relatively large h uncertainty (e.g., > 1 km) occurs for τ < 0.5. Analysis of 1 month of the OE‐IR retrievals shows large τ and reff uncertainties in storm track regions and the southern oceans where convective clouds are frequently observed, as well as in high‐latitude regions where temperature differences between the surface and cloud top are more ambiguous. Generally, comparisons between the OE‐IR and the operational products show consistent τ and h retrievals. However, obvious differences between the OE‐IR and the MODIS Collection 6 reff are found.
Assessment of MODIS RSB detector uniformity using deep convective clouds
Authors: Chang Tiejun , Xiong Xiaoxiong (Jack) , Angal Amit , Mu Qiaozhen
Published: April 2016

For satellite sensor, the striping observed in images is typically associated with the relative multiple detector gain difference derived from the calibration. A method using deep convective cloud (DCC) measurements to assess the difference among detectors after calibration is proposed and demonstrated for select reflective solar bands (RSBs) of the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS). Each detector of MODIS RSB is calibrated independently using a solar diffuser (SD). Although the SD is expected to accurately characterize detector response, the uncertainties associated with the SD degradation and characterization result in inadequacies in the estimation of each detector's gain. This work takes advantage of the DCC technique to assess detector uniformity and scan mirror side difference for RSB. The detector differences for Terra MODIS Collection 6 are less than 1% for bands 1, 3–5, and 18 and up to 2% for bands 6, 19, and 26. The largest difference is up to 4% for band 7. Most Aqua bands have detector differences less than 0.5% except bands 19 and 26 with up to 1.5%. Normally, large differences occur for edge detectors. The long‐term trending shows seasonal oscillations in detector differences for some bands, which are correlated with the instrument temperature. The detector uniformities were evaluated for both unaggregated and aggregated detectors for MODIS band 1 and bands 3–7, and their consistencies are verified. The assessment results were validated by applying a direct correction to reflectance images. These assessments can lead to improvements to the calibration algorithm and therefore a reduction in striping observed in the calibrated imagery.
An overview of the CATS level 1 processing algorithms and data products
Authors: Yorks J. E. , McGill M. J. , Palm S. P. , Hlavka D. L. , Selmer P. A. , Nowottnick E. P. , Vaughan M. A. , Rodier S. D. , Hart W. D.
Published: April 2016

The Cloud‐Aerosol Transport System (CATS) is an elastic backscatter lidar that was launched on 10 January 2015 to the International Space Station (ISS). CATS provides both space‐based technology demonstrations for future Earth Science missions and operational science measurements. This paper outlines the CATS Level 1 data products and processing algorithms. Initial results and validation data demonstrate the ability to accurately detect optically thin atmospheric layers with 1064 nm nighttime backscatter as low as 5.0E−5 km−1 sr−1. This sensitivity, along with the orbital characteristics of the ISS, enables the use of CATS data for cloud and aerosol climate studies. The near‐real‐time downlinking and processing of CATS data are unprecedented capabilities and provide data that have applications such as forecasting of volcanic plume transport for aviation safety and aerosol vertical structure that will improve air quality health alerts globally.
Joint modeling of teleseismic and tsunami wave observations to constrain the 16 September 2015 Illapel, Chile, Mw 8.3 earthquake rupture process
Authors: Li Linyan , Lay Thorne , Cheung Kwok Fai , Ye Lingling
Published: April 2016

The 16 September 2015 Illapel, Chile, Mw 8.3 earthquake ruptured ~170 km along the plate boundary megathrust fault from 30.0°S to 31.6°S. A patch of offshore slip of up to 10 m extended to near the trench, and a patch of ~3 m slip occurred downdip below the coast. Aftershocks fringe the large‐slip zone, extending along the coast from 29.5°S to 32.5°S between the 1922 and 1971/1985 ruptures. The coseismic slip distribution is determined by iterative modeling of teleseismic body waves as well as tsunami signals recorded at three regional DART stations and tide gauges immediately north and south of the rupture. The tsunami observations tightly delimit the rupture length, suppressing bilateral southward extension of slip found in unconstrained teleseismic‐wave inversions. The spatially concentrated rupture area, with a stress drop of ~3.2 MPa, is validated by modeling DART and tide gauge observations in Hawaii, which also prove sensitive to the along‐strike length of the rupture.
Statistical study of the GNSS phase scintillation associated with two types of auroral blobs
Authors: Jin Yaqi , Moen Jøran I. , Miloch Wojciech J. , Clausen Lasse B. N. , Oksavik Kjellmar
Published: April 2016

This study surveys space weather effects on GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) signals in the nighttime auroral and polar cap ionosphere using scintillation receivers, all‐sky imagers, and the European Incoherent Scatter Svalbard radar. We differentiate between two types of auroral blobs: blob type 1 (BT 1) which is formed when islands of high‐density F region plasma (polar cap patches) enter the nightside auroral oval, and blob type 2 (BT 2) which are generated locally in the auroral oval by intense particle precipitation. For BT 1 blobs we have studied 41.4 h of data between November 2010 and February 2014. We find that BT 1 blobs have significantly higher scintillation levels than their corresponding polar cap patch; however, there is no clear relationship between the scintillation levels of the preexisting polar cap patch and the resulting BT 1 blob. For BT 2 blobs we find that they are associated with much weaker scintillations than BT 1 blobs, based on 20 h of data. Compared to patches and BT 2 blobs, the significantly higher scintillation level for BT 1 blobs implies that auroral dynamics plays an important role in structuring of BT 1 blobs.
Raman spectra of Martian glass analogues: A tool to approximate their chemical composition
Authors: Di Genova Danilo , Kolzenburg Stephan , Vona Alessandro , Chevrel Magdalena Oryaëlle , Hess Kai‐Uwe , Neuville Daniel R. , Ertel‐Ingrisch Werner , Romano Claudia , Dingwell Donald B.
Published: April 2016

Raman spectrometers will form a key component of the analytical suite of future planetary rovers intended to investigate geological processes on Mars. In order to expand the applicability of these spectrometers and use them as analytical tools for the investigation of silicate glasses, a database correlating Raman spectra to glass composition is crucial. Here we investigate the effect of the chemical composition of reduced silicate glasses on their Raman spectra. A range of compositions was generated in a diffusion experiment between two distinct, iron‐rich end‐members (a basalt and a peralkaline rhyolite), which are representative of the anticipated compositions of Martian rocks. Our results show that for silica‐poor (depolymerized) compositions the band intensity increases dramatically in the regions between 550–780 cm−1 and 820–980 cm−1. On the other hand, Raman spectra regions between 250–550 cm−1 and 1000–1250 cm−1 are well developed in silica‐rich (highly polymerized) systems. Further, spectral intensity increases at ~965 cm−1 related to the high iron content of these glasses (~7–17 wt % of FeOtot). Based on the acquired Raman spectra and an ideal mixing equation between the two end‐members we present an empirical parameterization that enables the estimation of the chemical compositions of silicate glasses within this range. The model is validated using external samples for which chemical composition and Raman spectra were characterized independently. Applications of this model range from microanalysis of dry and hydrous silicate glasses (e.g., melt inclusions) to in situ field investigations and studies under extreme conditions such as extraterrestrial (i.e., Mars) and submarine volcanic environments.
Heteronormativity and Homonormativity
Authors: Robinson Brandon Andrew
Published: April 2016

Heteronormativity is a hegemonic social system of norms, discourses, and practices that constructs heterosexuality as natural and superior to all other expressions of sexuality. Heteronormativity is based on a dichotomous understanding of complementary gender roles, and a belief that sexual relations should be relegated entirely to the private sphere. Homonormativity, then, refers to the belief that sexual minorities can and should conform to heteronormative institutions and mores in order to achieve greater acceptance into dominant society. Homonationalism is the granting of rights to homonormative sexual minorities within a nationalistic, ideological framework. Homonormativity is criticized because those who can assimilate into heteronormative structures and conform to the congruent gender roles receive more rights and privileges than those who do not or cannot assimilate. Queer scholarship explores how heteronormativity and homonormativity are implicated in the continuing discrimination against sexual and gender minorities.
Immigration, Colonialism, and Globalization
Authors: Raj Senthorun
Published: April 2016

Debates on immigration and sexuality traverse a number of academic, activist, and political landscapes. Cleaving together sexuality and immigration invites us to think about the dynamic nature of sexual citizenship, kinship attachments, and emerging cosmopolitanisms. Such a focus allows us to consider the nature of precarious transnational movement, the changing features of refugee recognition, the enduring legacies of colonialism, and the disparate articulations of the “home.” Specifically, an increasingly globalized landscape combined with the fractured movement of knowledges, objects, and bodies work to problematize the notion of a universal sexual identity or static immigration status. Challenging these normative assumptions brings to the fore the complex lives and experiences of queer diasporas: refugees, sex workers, migrants, people living with HIV, same‐sex partners, and adopted children. By reflecting on these issues, this entry outlines some of key intersections of immigration and sexuality scholarship and the methodological challenges of such work.
Mormonism
Authors: Bushman Claudia L.
Published: April 2016

The Mormon Church teaches and practices conservative gender relationships in which total marital fidelity is encouraged and the family unit may last forever through temple ordinances. The church is traditionally patriarchal, with males leading all ecclesiastical units. However, Mormon family life tends to be more egalitarian.
Sexism
Authors: Becker Julia C.
Published: April 2016

This entry describes the concepts of modern sexism, neosexism, and ambivalent sexism. Modern and neosexism are comprised of denial of discrimination, negative reaction to complaints about inequality, and resistance to efforts addressing sexism. Ambivalent sexism is composed of hostile and benevolent sexism. Although benevolent sexism appears to be subjectively positive, it has insidious negative consequences.
Feminization of Labor
Authors: Akorsu Angela Dziedzom
Published: April 2016

Differences between female and male work are hardly informed by biological factors but are socially created. Traditionally, certain activities such as domestic work and informal rural and urban work have been associated with females. Often these activities were not considered as typical work and therefore were undervalued as unproductive work. With the current wave of global capitalism, with its flexibility in work organization, the gender composition of the labor force has changed worldwide. Certain features of female work in traditional sectors have become more desirable and appropriate for the way production processes are structured. As a result, women's productive resources are being strategically engaged economically. However, women continue to be disadvantaged as unequal partners to capitalists since they do not dictate the rules of the game.
Feminisms and Argumentation
Authors: Palczewski Catherine Helen
Published: April 2016

Feminisms and argumentation intersect around three questions. Is argument inherently patriarchal? If not, then what models of feminist argumentation exist and in what ways do feminist theories inform argumentation analyses? Although feminists are right to critique the masculinist assumptions of most argument styles and forms, argumentation is necessary for productive feminist politics, and feminisms can be productive for the analysis of argumentation.
Feminist Studies of Science
Authors: Meynell Letitia
Published: April 2016

Feminist studies of science draw from roughly four disciplinary orientations: philosophy of science, science and technology studies, the history of science, and the actual practice of the sciences themselves. The interplay between these orientations has produced a literature that is diverse, brimming with various theoretical tensions and fascinating connections. Common topics and themes include the struggles and successes of women scientists, research on sex differences, the character of science itself, and the connection of science with environmental and biomedical issues. In more than three decades of concerted academic work in feminist studies of science, a critically pro‐science perspective has emerged that is both optimistic about the power of scientific methods to produce knowledge under the right conditions and at the same time critical, fully aware of the tendencies of scientific projects to be tainted with sexist (and other regressive) biases and implicated in maintaining oppressive power structures.
Gender Analysis
Authors: Galano Maria M. , Graham‐Bermann Sandra A.
Published: April 2016

Gender analysis is designed for the evaluation of elements of gender disparity in a variety of contexts with the goal of identifying underlying causes and contributions to gender inequality in order to locate areas for change. A number of gender analysis frameworks are described, as well as diverse methods that have been employed in such research. Two examples of studies that relied on gender analysis are presented.
Individualism and Collectivism, Critical Feminist Perspectives on
Authors: Qin Dongxiao
Published: April 2016

The constructs of individualism and collectivism are theoretically analyzed from critical feminist perspectives. This entry explores the relationship between culture and self and provides critiques on cultural relativist assumptions of generalized cultural differences in shaping self constructions. The concept of culture is redefined from a critical and local perspective and various facets of self constructions are examined from critical feminist perspectives. The implications for feminist psychological theories and practices are discussed.
Digital Divide
Authors: Miller B. Paige , Norris Claire M.
Published: April 2016

This entry provides a general overview of the digital divide in terms of access to and use of a variety of information and communication technologies (ICTs) by highlighting a number of shifts in thinking on the digital divide. Specifically, this entry summarizes the changing characterization and assessment of the concept from one that employs a simple dichotomy comparing the technological haves to the technological have‐nots, to one that sees the divide as a gradation of inclusion, which is mapped along the intersections of gender, race/ethnicity, age, education, socioeconomic class, and geography, i.e., rural versus urban and industrialized versus low‐income countries. Additionally, this entry examines attempts to account for the existence of the divide, focusing on the social construction of technology perspective, and also the broader social, political, and economic implications of the digital divide.
Sexually Transmitted Infections
Authors: Holt Martin
Published: April 2016

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are bacteria and viruses passed from person to person during sex. Their association with sexual activity and marginalized activities (such as commercial sex work and homosexuality) means that STIs are often highly stigmatized. Public health responses continue to be hampered by gender inequalities, moral outrage, and public condemnation.
Women's and Feminist Organizations inSouthAsia
Authors: Ruwanpura Kanchana N.
Published: April 2016

Non‐governmental organizations (NGOs) are the fashionable architects of the development world, with global development agencies electing to work via NGOs rather than state authorities. This shift to NGO‐led development coincides with the neoliberal turn in the global economy, where reducing state intervention is an aspiration. Ironically these liberal ambitions toward governance of the global economy through a conservative prism also came together with feminist activists' calls for social engagement and state accountability. The upshot was that unlikely bedfellows became evangelical about NGOs. However, there is increasing acknowledgment that some NGOs may be prone to the problems that have been conventionally leveled against the state. Or more specifically, where NGOs have failed to appreciate and account for the local spatial politics, their status as a surrogate development arm unravels. This entry outlines the evolution of NGO activity, why feminists were enthusiastic about its early promises, and what the more recent critical evaluations reveal about the promises and pitfalls of NGOs for feminist politics.
Fairy Tales
Authors: Greenhill Pauline
Published: April 2016

Fairy tales can be oral and/or literary and concern the fantastic and the wonderful. People of all genders and sexualities are fairy‐tale tellers and audiences, and the genders and sexualities represented in these stories are more diverse than many presume. “Little Red Riding Hood” and “Belle Belle or the Knight Fortuné” are fairy tales exploring rape, incest, pedophilia, LGBTQ sexualities, transgender, and transbiology.
Scientific Motherhood
Authors: Livingston Taylor
Published: April 2016

Scientific motherhood is the belief that mothers need to follow expert scientific or medical advice in order to rear healthy children. The belief became a guiding principle of motherhood in the United States during the late eighteenth century with the rise of germ theory, pediatricians, hospital births, and formula companies. One of the main outcomes of the popularity of this belief is the movement from breastfeeding to pediatrician‐promoted bottle‐feeding.
Lesbian and Gay Movements
Authors: Tremblay Manon
Published: April 2016

This entry draws a general portrait of the lesbian and gay (LG) movement after the late 1960s. The American movement is the main focus, both because it initiated the contemporary LG movement and because today it is the largest in the world in terms of resources and influence. The main thrust is that the LG movement evolved from a revolutionary (or liberationist) project in the early 1970s to relatively assimilationist and respectability‐oriented homonormative activism today.
Maternalism
Authors: Due Clemence
Published: April 2016

Maternalism refers to the concept that women possess particular characteristics that make them uniquely suitable to care for children as well as to a movement going by the same name that sought to enhance state care for women and children while also increasing women's participation in the paid workforce. Maternalism is therefore primarily concerned with women's ability to mother. However, the movement contained contradictions that impacted upon its ability to push for reforms for the welfare of women and children.
Women's and Feminist Activism in
E
astern and
C
entral
E
urope
Authors: Gabbard Sonnet D. , Bystydzienski Jill M.
Published: April 2016

The past 60 years have brought significant changes in the lives of women living in Eastern and Central Europe. The rise of socialism in the region ushered in certain rights that women in the West would not see for decades. Despite the gains made behind the Iron Curtain during this era, independent women's organizations struggled to gain political recognition. The fall of socialism created new opportunities and challenges for women's and feminist organizations. Economic and political transitions and European Union mandates constitute the broad context within which women's organizations have proliferated in the past two decades in this region. These organizations have provided much needed social services, fought for women's reproductive and employment rights, aided survivors of violence, including war victims of rape and torture, and worked for peace in war‐torn areas.
Division of Labor, Domestic
Authors: Sullivan Oriel
Published: April 2016

The division of domestic labor refers to the division of unpaid household work and care between household or family members. The origin of the term lies in the feminist interrogation of the “black box” of the family, and the main sociological theories associated with it are marital power and doing gender. Empirical findings show that women are consistently found to perform the bulk of household work and care, despite substantial long‐term decreases in the time they spend on household domestic labor and some recent increases in men's contributions. Other individual and institutional factors found to be associated with the division of domestic labor and care are educational level, family status, and welfare state regime. Current trends indicate the potential for continuing change, which will ultimately depend on men's contributions continuing to increase, coupled with a strong institutional commitment to greater gender equality.
Sexual Citizenship in the
C
aribbean
Authors: Nina‐Estrella Ruth
Published: April 2016

Little is known about sexual citizenship in the Caribbean. Sexual rights of vulnerable groups vary across the countries that compose the region. In the Caribbean the heteronormative model predominates, influenced greatly by religious fundamentalist groups that come to represent an inhibiting factor in sexual and reproductive rights. In spite of this, the struggles for the democratization of sexuality have evolved particularly in the last decade, gaining various social achievements, while recognizing sexual rights in public policy. A review on the situation of sexual rights, the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) community, sex education, and the prevention of HIV/AIDS is presented here.
Non‐Sexist Language Use
Authors: Weatherall Ann
Published: April 2016

Non‐sexist language use is about changing and raising awareness about the unequal ways language represents women and men. There is a lot of variability in the ways that gender is encoded across different languages. As a result the strategies to promote non‐sexist language differ. Linguistic activists have employed a range of creative strategies to highlight gender issues. For example, feminists coined
herstory
to highlight male dominance in historical accounts and queer activists have promoted terms such as
female bodied
as a way of challenging a dominant assumption that gender identity matches biological sex.
Military Masculinity
Authors: Ogilvy Ryan S.
Published: April 2016

Military masculinity finds itself closely aligned to hegemonic definitions of masculinity. Its uniqueness is found in the role of the military member, where attributes of bravery, violence, and service before self create a uniqueness found only in military masculinity. The role of military members are unique and it is important to consider that when examined across gender, sexuality, and service contexts, the definition of military masculinity becomes dynamic.
Ethics, Moral Development, and Gender
Authors: Brabeck Mary , Fry Sara
Published: April 2016

This entry reviews the claims of feminist ethicists and describes five themes of feminist ethical theory. The empirical findings regarding gender differences in morality are summarized. Rest's four‐component model for morality is used as an organizing framework for discussing gender differences. Results indicate small differences in ethical sensitivity, no gender differences in moral reasoning (care or justice), slight differences in moral motivation/identity, and while studies vary greatly, some gender differences in moral behavior.
Eugenics, Historical and Ethical Aspects of
Authors: Weingarten Karen
Published: April 2016

Eugenics emerged in the early twentieth century as an ideology and practice that divided the human race as “fit” or “unfit” based on IQ, race, ethnicity, sexuality, and class. Eugenicists believed that they sought to improve humanity by encouraging those deemed fit to reproduce more and lobbying for measures like forced sterilization for those deemed unfit. Today the impact of eugenics can be seen in discussions about prenatal testing, access to birth control, welfare distribution, and immigration quotas.
Sex Education in theUnitedKingdom andUnitedStates
Authors: Measor Lynda
Published: April 2016

Sex education is defined in different ways at different times and remains controversial in the education systems of many countries. What it should contain is contested and the aims of sex education are not agreed upon. This entry aims to outline the areas of controversy and indicate what academic research can contribute to our knowledge of adolescent sexual cultures and the needs young people have for both sexuality and relationships education. It argues that research can shed light on the controversies that limit sex education schemes. It finally considers the implications of accessible pornography for sex education schemes.
Double Standard
Authors: Faulkner Sandra L. , Jiang Jing
Published: April 2016

Traditional double standards expect women to be conservative and to set limits for or even refuse sex, while men have more liberty to initiate a date and sexual intercourse and to be sexually experienced. Those who adhere to a sexual double standard endorse different sexual behavior for women and men, whereby women are expected to confine sexual behavior to the context of a committed relationship and men are expected to engage in sexual behavior in all kinds of relationships. Sexual double standards are influenced by situational and interpersonal factors and are local constructions, differing across ethnic and cultural groups and peer groups.
Self‐Help Movements
Authors: Hurwitz Heather McKee
Published: April 2016

The goals that define self‐help movements include personal transformation, mental health, economic empowerment, and cultural and institutional change. Self‐help movements achieve their goals using the strategies of support groups and self‐help organizations. Support groups form around a shared problem or organizational purpose, such as providing therapy for rape victims, counseling women who have suffered postpartum depression, or generating microcredit and savings. Sometimes support groups have formed around shared gender or sexual identities, such as motherhood, bisexuality, gay men, and transgender identity. Some scholars have argued that women's cultures of caring and feminist values have inspired the development of self‐help movements, although participation in self‐help movements has not been confined to women.
LGBT
Activism in
S
outhern
A
frica
Authors: Hames Mary
Published: April 2016

This entry provides an overview of several lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and intersex organizations in the Southern African region. The organizations claim the right to dignity and social justice and challenge governments to review and repeal discriminatory and oppressive laws. The entry draws attention to the tension between universal human rights and the remnants of colonial laws. It provides information with regard to organizations working within the areas of sexual orientation, gender identity and performativity, sexual refugees, transgender and intersex persons, as well as gender non‐conforming people. It draws attention to how new laws have been created to criminalize lesbian same‐sex activities.
Feminism, Lesbian
Authors: Browne Kath , Olasik Marta
Published: April 2016

Lesbian feminism emerged in the 1970s to counter the heterosexism and lesbophobia in feminism on the one hand, and the ways in which sexual identities/lives/politics can be dominated by gay men on the other. Women in question were driven by anger regarding decades of obvious lack of representation and support from male gay movements and (heterosexual) feminism as a whole. As a strand of radical feminism, some lesbian feminists have taken staunch positions in relation to trans women and bisexualities. These are not inherent to the positioning of lesbian feminisms, but this is often how they are presented.
Political Participation in
W
estern Democracies
Authors: Wängnerud Lena
Published: April 2016

An important result from empirical research is that when women become more equal to men in political participation, they will not necessarily behave the same way as men when it comes to political substance. Results from Sweden, an international forerunner in gender equality, are used to illustrate that one cannot expect a linear process toward a uniform closure of politically relevant gender gaps. This entry highlights modernization theories as well as actor‐oriented theories.
Traditional Healing
Authors: Moodley Roy
Published: April 2016

Immigrant and ethnic minority groups have been accessing and practicing traditional healing since the days of slavery and colonialism, using healing practices such as animism, Ayurveda, Christian Pentecostal, Espiritismo, Maat, Orisha, Santeria, shamanism, Sidda, Spiritual Baptist, Voodoo, and many others to support their physical and mental health and well‐being. Research and practice in these areas are now becoming mainstream, for example yoga, acupuncture, and mindfulness. The connection between traditional healing and contemporary healing practices results in a unique blend of healing practices that constructs itself as a form of resistance and empowerment in the midst of marginalization, medicalization, and cultural imperialism.
Queer Methods and Methodologies
Authors: Browne Kath , Nash Catherine
Published: April 2016

This entry explores the notion of queer methods and methodologies and how they have been taken up in both the humanities and the social sciences. It begins with a brief overview of what we might mean by the notion of “queer,” its theoretical and conceptual uses, and how researchers have deployed the notion of queer in thinking about ontology, epistemology, and the queer of research methods and methodologies. It then considers the specificities of queer engagements in the humanities and the social sciences as well as various critiques of queer approaches that themselves lead to various erasures and exclusions. The discussion concludes with a focus on how queer methods and methodologies have been used to address limitations and possibilities in how we design and undertake research and the ways in which the knowledges created can address invisibilities, inequalities, and exclusions.
Postfeminism
Authors: Nurka Camille
Published: April 2016

This entry provides an outline of the various definitions of postfeminism and discusses its political and cultural dimensions. In its broadest sense, “postfeminism” means “after” or “beyond” feminism. It references feminism as a historical legacy at the same time as it distances itself from that political identity. The entry covers the relationship between postfeminism and the third wave; how postfeminism signifies as a contradictory space between acknowledgment and disavowal of feminism; how postfeminism functions as a site of identification under conditions of intensified sexualization; how postfeminism resuscitates the heteronormative ideology of romance; and how postfeminism works to construct a female neoliberal subject.