bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Forced simulation
Authors: Roop Partha S. , Sowmya A. , Ramesh S.
Published: July 2002

Component reuse techniques have been a recent focus of research because they are seen as the next-generation techniques to handle increasing system complexities. However, there are several unresolved issues to be addressed and prominent among them is the issue of
component matching
. As the number of reusable components in a component database grows, the task of manually matching a component to the user requirements becomes infeasible. Automating this matching can help in rapid system prototyping, improving quality and reducing cost. In addition, if the matching algorithm is sound, this approach can also reduce precious validation effort.In this article, we propose an algorithm for automatic matching of a design function to a device from a component database. The distinguishing feature of the algorithm is that when successful, it generates an
interface
that can automatically adapt the device to behave as the function. The algorithm is based on a new simulation relation called
forced simulation
that is shown to be a necessary and sufficient condition for component matching to be possible for a given pair of function and device. We demonstrate the application of the algorithm by reusing on some programmable components of the Intel family.
Solutions-driven marketing
Authors: Grenci Richard T. , Todd Peter A.
Published: July 2002

Navigating the maze of options and providing a link between product customization and e-commerce.
A sound and sometimes complete query evaluation algorithm for relational databases with null values
Authors: Reiter Raymond
Published: July 2002

A sound and, in certain cases, complete method is described for evaluating queries in relational databases with null values where these nulls represent existing but unknown individuals. The soundness and completeness results are proved relative to a formalization of such databases as suitable theories of first-order logic. Because the algorithm conforms to the relational algebra, it may easily be incorporated into existing relational systems.
Probabilistic and genetic algorithms in document retrieval
Authors: Gordon M.
Published: July 2002

Document retrieval systems are built to provide inquirers with computerized access to relevant documents. Such systems often miss many relevant documents while falsely identifying many non-relevant documents. Here, competing document descriptions are associated with a document and altered over time by a genetic algorithm according to the queries used and relevance judgments made during retrieval.
Intelligent interactive video simulation of a code inspection
Authors: Stevens Scott M.
Published: July 2002

The need for technological solutions to learning, in the software engineering field is increasing. The Advanced Learning Technologies Project (ALT) has developed a highly interactive, high-fidelity simulation of group process communication. The first course demonstrating these techniques is on the formal technical review known as code inspection.
Optimum lopsided binary trees
Authors: Kapoor Sanjiv , Reingold Edward M.
Published: July 2002

Binary search trees with costs α and β, respectively, on the left and right edges (lopsided search trees) are considered. The exact shape, minimum worst-case cost, and minimum average cost of lopsided trees ofninternal nodes are determined for nonnegative α and β; the costs are both roughly logp(n+ 1) wherepis the unique real number in the interval (1. 2] satisfying 1/pα+ 1/pβ= 1. Search procedures are given that come within a small additive constant of the lower bounds. Almost-optimum algorithms for the lopsided case of unbounded searching are also obtained. Some extensions to nonconstant costs are briefly sketched.
Programming languages for distributed computing systems
Authors: Bal Henri E. , Steiner Jennifer G. , Tanenbaum Andrew S.
Published: July 2002

When distributed systems first appeared, they were programmed in traditional sequential languages, usually with the addition of a few library procedures for sending and receiving messages. As distributed applications became more commonplace and more sophisticated, this ad hoc approach became less satisfactory. Researchers all over the world began designing new programming languages specifically for implementing distributed applications. These languages and their history, their underlying principles, their design, and their use are the subject of this paper.

We begin by giving our view of what a distributed system is, illustrating with examples to avoid confusion on this important and controversial point. We then describe the three main characteristics that distinguish distributed programming languages from traditional sequential languages, namely, how they deal with parallelism, communication, and partial failures. Finally, we discuss 15 representative distributed languages to give the flavor of each. These examples include languages based on message passing, rendezvous, remote procedure call, objects, and atomic transactions, as well as functional languages, logic languages, and distributed data structure languages. The paper concludes with a comprehensive bibliography listing over 200 papers on nearly 100 distributed programming languages.
Nonclausal deduction in first-order temporal logic
Authors: Abadi Martín , Manna Zohar
Published: July 2002

This paper presents a proof system for first-order temporal logic. The system extends the nonclausal resolution method for ordinary first-order logic with equality, to handle quantifiers and temporal operators. Soundness and completeness issues are considered. The use of the system for verifying concurrent programs is discussed and variants of the system for other modal logics are also described.
Traditional dialogue design applied to modern user interfaces
Authors: Nielsen Jakob
Published: July 2002

Several examples show that principles for the design of usable dialogues are just as important for modern graphical user interfaces as they are for traditional text-based interfaces.
Patricia tries again revisited
Authors: Szpankowski Wojciech
Published: July 2002

The Patricia trie is a simple modification of a regular trie. By eliminating unary branching nodes, the Patricia achieves better performance than regular tries. However, the question is: how much on the average is the Patricia better? This paper offers a thorough answer to this question by considering some statistics of the number of nodes examined in a
successful search
and an
unsuccessful search
in the Patricia tries. It is shown that for the Patricia containing
n
records the average of the successful search length

S
n

asymptotically becomes 1/
h
1
· ln
n
+
O
(1), and the variance of

S
n

is either var

S
n

=
c
· ln
n
+
0
(1) for an asymmetric Patricia or var

S
n

=
0
(1) for a symmetric Patricia, where
h
1
is the entropy of the alphabet over which the Patricia is built and
c
is an explicit constant. Higher moments of

S
n

are also assessed. The number of nodes examined in an unsuccessful search

U
n

is studied only for binary symmetric Patricia tries. We prove that the
m
th moment of the unsuccessful search length

EU
m
n

satisfies lim

n
→∞

EU
m
n

/log

m

2
n
= 1, and the variance of

U
n

is var

U
n

= 0.87907. These results suggest that Patricia tries are very well balanced trees in the sense that a random shape of Patriciatries resembles the shape of complete trees that are ultimately balanced trees.
THE ANTHROPOLOGY OF PHARMACEUTICALS: A Biographical Approach
Authors: Geest Sjaak van der , Whyte Susan Reynolds , Hardon Anita
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  This review discusses pharmaceuticals as social and cultural phenomena by following their “life cycle” from production, marketing, and prescription to distribution, purchasing, consumption, and finally their efficacy. Each phase has its own particular context, actors, and transactions and is characterized by different sets of values and ideas. The anthropology of pharmaceuticals is relevant to medical anthropology and health policy. It also touches the heart of general anthropology with its long-time interest in the concepts of culture vs nature, symbolization and social transformation, and its more recent concerns with the cultural construction of the body and processes of globalization and localization. The study of transactions and meanings of pharmaceuticals in diverse social settings provides a particularly appropriate empirical base for addressing these new theoretical issues.
SUDDEN INFANT DEATH SYNDROME IN CROSS-CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE: Is Infant-Parent Cosleeping Protective?
Authors: McKenna James J.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  This chapter reviews what is presently known about the sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) and examines the role that infant sleeping arrangements may play in reducing SIDS risks. Alongside sleep laboratory-based experimental evidence comparing bedsharing and solitary sleeping mother-infant pairs, an evolutionary and cross-cultural framework is used to argue that infant-parent cosleeping is biologically, psychologically, and socially the most appropriate context for the development of healthy infant sleep physiology. It is also the context within which potentially more optimal breastfeeding activities for both the mother and infant are most likely to emerge. A survey of cross-cultural data and laboratory findings suggest that where infant-parent cosleeping and breastfeeding are practiced in tandem in nonsmoking households, and are practiced by parents specifically to promote infant health, the chances of an infant dying from SIDS should be reduced.
Religious Language
Authors: Keane Webb
Published: July 2002

The effort to know and interact with an otherworld tends to demand highly marked uses of linguistic resources. In contrast to less marked speech situations, in religious contexts the sources of words, as well as the identity, agency, authority, and even the very presence of participants in an interaction, can be especially problematic. Different religious practices alter any of a variety of formal and pragmatic features of everyday language in response to their distinctive assumptions about the world, otherworlds, and the beings they contain. These practices are also mediated by speakers' assumptions about the nature and workings of language. Because such assumptions bear on the presumed nature of human and nonhuman subjects, religious debates often dwell on details of verbal and textual practice. The study of religious language touches on more general problems concerning relations among performance, text, and context. It also reveals chronic tensions between transcendence and the situated nature of practices, with implications for the nature of agency and belief.
RECENT ADVANCES IN METHOD AND THEORY IN PALEODEMOGRAPHY
Authors: Meindl Richard S. , Russell Katherine F.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Current methods in skeletal biology have improved significantly our ability to estimate the demographic parameters of extinct populations. Gross morphological and histological age indicators have been developed and tested in a variety of contexts, revealing great variation in the levels of accuracy of age prediction of each indicator. Primary attention is given here to the best-performing hard-tissue indicators of age and to composite methods of recovering the age and sex distribution of a cemetery. It is becoming increasingly apparent that some cemetaries should not be used for demographic reconstruction. Such collections have no bearing on the feasibility of paleodemographic research. Our review concludes with discussions about the role of comparing modern mortality patterns to those of paleodemography, and the issue and impact of departures from stationary demographic conditions during prehistoric times.
The Chemical Ecology of Human Ingestive Behaviors
Authors: Johns Timothy
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Ingested nutrients and nonnutrients are presented as determinants in human evolution. The amount and quality of energy, including fat, various foods supply are important criteria in governing selection. Oxidative stress associated with respiration of energy is a factor in the etiology of dietary diseases, such as cardiovascular disease and cancer, and in aging. Evolutionary trends such as gains in brain and body sizes, greater ingestion of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids and cholesterol, heating of fatty food, and greater longevity increased oxidative stress while greater reliance on animals foods and less on plants decreased ingestion of exogenous antioxidants. The hypothesis that selection for nonnutrient ingestive behaviors was a compensatory mechanism for increasing antioxidants is presented within the context of a four-factor model on the origins of human medicine.
War: Back to the Future
Authors: Simons Anna
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  War is a fraught subject. Those who study it often fight about it. This chapter examines the current state of the study of war, described and analyzed by anthropologists and nonanthropologists who employ concepts like culture in writing about the future of war. Warfare seems bound to keep us revisiting certain aspects of the past. At the same time, nothing induces change quite like conflict. Does war have a future? The preponderance of evidence—biological, archeological, ethnological—suggests that it does. But not all anthropologists agree. This in and of itself represents one of a series of gaps that begs further consideration.
Social Movements: Changing Paradigms and Forms of Politics
Authors: Edelman Marc
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Theories of collective action have undergone a number of paradigm shifts, from “mass behavior” to “resource mobilization,” “political process,” and “new social movements.” Debates have centered on the applicability of these frameworks in diverse settings, on the periodization of collective action, on the divisive or unifying impact of identity politics, and on the appropriateness of political engagement by researchers. Transnational activist networks are developing new protest repertoires that challenge anthropologists and other scholars to rethink conventional approaches to social movements.
International AIDS Research in Anthropology: Taking a Critical Perspective on the Crisis
Authors: Schoepf Brooke G.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Anthropological literature on AIDS in the international arena from the 1990s shows researchers' increasing attention to linkages between local sociocultural processes that create risk of infection and the lifeworlds of sufferers to the global political economy. Focus on Africa, where the heterosexual epidemic has attained catastrophic proportions, reveals some cultural particularisms but many more regularities in the social production of disease. Global inequalities of class, gender, and ethnicity are revealed, as poverty, powerlessness, and stigma propel the spread of HIV. Anthropologists' witness to suffering, their concern and engagement, are potent elements in the research process and in advocacy in national and international arenas. The combined strength of theory and practice in the field of international research on AIDS is a significant contribution to anthropology in the twenty-first century.
Toward an Anthropology of Prisons
Authors: Rhodes Lorna A.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The late twentieth century saw an intense expansion of the prison system in the United States during the same period in which Foucault's Discipline and Punish influenced academic approaches to power and subjection. This article reviews the history, sociology, and anthropology of the prison, as well as some recent popular critiques of the current situation. It highlights critical perspectives on modern forms of punishment and reform and suggests areas in which an anthropology of prisons might take up questions of modernity, subjection, classification, social suffering, and ethnographic possibility in the context of an increasingly politicized and racialized system of incarceration.
High-Energy Processes in Young Stellar Objects
Authors: Feigelson Eric D. , Montmerle Thierry
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Observational studies of low-mass stars during their early stages of evolution, from protostars through the zero-age main sequence, show highly elevated levels of magnetic activity. This activity includes strong fields covering much of the stellar surface and powerful magnetic reconnection flares seen in the X-ray and radio bands. The flaring may occur in the stellar magnetosphere, at the star-disk interface, or above the circumstellar disk. Ionization from the resulting high-energy radiation may have important effects on the astrophysics of the disk, such as promotion of accretion and coupling to outflows, and on the surrounding interstellar medium. The bombardment of solids in the solar nebula by flare shocks and energetic particles may account for various properties of meteorites, such as chondrule melting and spallogenic isotopes. X-ray surveys also improve our samples of young stars, particularly in the weak-lined T Tauri phase after disks have dissipated, with implications for our understanding of star formation in the solar neighborhood.
PROTEIN IMPORT INTO MITOCHONDRIA
Authors: Neupert Walter
Published: July 2002

Mitochondria import many hundreds of different proteins that are encoded by nuclear genes. These proteins are targeted to the mitochondria, translocated through the mitochondrial membranes, and sorted to the different mitochondrial subcompartments. Separate translocases in the mitochondrial outer membrane (TOM complex) and in the inner membrane (TIM complex) facilitate recognition of preproteins and transport across the two membranes. Factors in the cytosol assist in targeting of preproteins. Protein components in the matrix partake in energetically driving translocation in a reaction that depends on the membrane potential and matrix-ATP. Molecular chaperones in the matrix exert multiple functions in translocation, sorting, folding, and assembly of newly imported proteins.
Initiation of Base Excision Repair: Glycosylase Mechanisms and Structures
Authors: McCullough Amanda K. , Dodson M. L. , Lloyd R. Stephen
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The base excision repair pathway is an organism's primary defense against mutations induced by oxidative, alkylating, and other DNA-damaging agents. This pathway is initiated by DNA glycosylases that excise the damaged base by cleavage of the glycosidic bond between the base and the DNA sugar-phosphate backbone. A subset of glycosylases has an associated apurinic/apyrimidinic (AP) lyase activity that further processes the AP site to generate cleavage of the DNA phosphate backbone. Chemical mechanisms that are supported by biochemical and structural data have been proposed for several glycosylases and glycosylase/AP lyases. This review focuses on the chemical mechanisms of catalysis in the context of recent structural information, with emphasis on the catalytic residues and the active site conformations of several cocrystal structures of glycosylases with their substrate DNAs. Common structural motifs for DNA binding and damage specificity as well as conservation of acidic residues and amino groups for catalysis are discussed.
Great Metalloclusters in Enzymology
Authors: Rees Douglas C.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Metallocluster-containing enzymes catalyze some of the most basic redox transformations in the biosphere. The reactions catalyzed by these enzymes typically involve small molecules such as N2, CO, and H2that are used to generate both chemical building blocks and energy for metabolic purposes. During the past decade, structures have been established for the iron-sulfur-based metalloclusters present in the molybdenum nitrogenase, the iron-only hydrogenase, and the nickel-carbon monoxide dehydrogenase, and for the copper-sulfide-based cluster in nitrous oxide reductase. Although these clusters are built from interactions observed in simpler metalloproteins, they contain novel features that may be relevant for their catalytic function. The mechanisms of metallocluster-containing enzymes are still poorly defined, and represent substantial and continuing challenges to biochemists, biophysicists, and synthetic chemists. These proteins also provide a window into the union of the biological and inorganic worlds that may have been relevant to the early evolution of biochemical catalysis.
Injectable Electronic Identification, Monitoring, and Stimulation Systems
Authors: Troyk Philip R.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Historically, electronic devices such as pacemakers and neuromuscular stimulators have been surgically implanted into animals and humans. A new class of implants made possible by advances in monolithic electronic design and implant packaging is small enough to be implanted by percutaneous injection through large-gauge hypodermic needles and does not require surgical implantation. Among these, commercially available implants, known as radio frequency identification (RFID) tags, are used for livestock, pet, laboratory animal, and endangered-species identification. The RFID tag is a subminiature glass capsule containing a solenoidal coil and an integrated circuit. Acting as the implanted half of a transcutaneous magnetic link, the RFID tag is powered by and communicates with an extracorporeal magnetic reader. The tag transmits a unique identification code that serves the function of identifying the animal. Millions of RFID tags have been sold since the early 1980s. Based on the success of the RFID tags, research laboratories have developed injectable medical implants, known as micromodules. One type of micromodule, the microstimulator, is designed for use in functional-neuromuscular stimulation. Each microstimulator is uniquely addressable and could comprise one channel of a multichannel functional-neuromuscular stimulation system. Using bidirectional telemetry and commands, from a single extracorporeal transmitter, as many as 256 microstimulators could form the hardware basis for a complex functional-neuromuscular stimulation feedback-control system. Uses include stimulation of paralyzed muscle, therapeutic functional-neuromuscular stimulation, and neuromodulatory functions such as laryngeal stimulation and sleep apnea.
Microdevices in Medicine
Authors: Polla Dennis L. , Erdman Arthur G. , Robbins William P. , Markus David T. , Diaz-Diaz Jorge , Rizq Raed , Nam Yunwoo , Brickner Hui Tao , Wang Amy , Krulevitch Peter
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The application of microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) to medicine is described. Three types of biomedical devices are considered, including diagnostic microsystems, surgical microsystems, and therapeutic microsystems. The opportunities of MEMS miniaturization in these emerging disciplines are considered, with emphasis placed on the importance of the technology in providing a better outcome for the patient and a lower overall health care cost. Several case examples in each of these areas are described. Key aspects of MEMS technology as it is applied to these three areas are described, along with some of the fabrication challenges.
Interpreting the Effects of Small Uncharged Solutes on Protein-Folding Equilibria
Authors: Davis-Searles Paula R. , Saunders Aleister J. , Erie Dorothy A. , Winzor Donald J. , Pielak Gary J.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Proteins are designed to function in environments crowded by cosolutes, but most studies of protein equilibria are conducted in dilute solution. While there is no doubt that crowding changes protein equilibria, interpretations of the changes remain controversial. This review combines experimental observations on the effect of small uncharged cosolutes (mostly sugars) on protein stability with a discussion of the thermodynamics of cosolute-induced nonideality and critical assessments of the most commonly applied interpretations. Despite the controversy surrounding the most appropriate manner for interpreting these effects of thermodynamic nonideality arising from the presence of small cosolutes, experimental advantage may still be taken of the ability of the cosolute effect to promote not only protein stabilization but also protein self-association and complex formation between dissimilar reactants. This phenomenon clearly has potential ramifications in the cell, where the crowded environment could well induce the same effects.
Visual Transduction in Drosophila
Authors: Montell Craig
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The Drosophila phototransduction cascade has emerged as an attractive paradigm for understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying visual transduction, as well as other G protein–coupled signaling cascades that are activated and terminated with great rapidity. A large collection of mutants affecting the fly visual cascade have been isolated, and the nature and function of many of the affected gene products have been identified. Virtually all of the proteins, including those that were initially classified as novel, are highly related to vertebrate homologs. Recently, it has become apparent that most of the proteins central to Drosophila phototransduction are coupled into a supramolecular signaling complex, signalplex, through association with a PDZ-containing scaffold protein. The characterization of this complex has led to a re-evaluation of the mechanisms underlying the activation and deactivation of the phototransduction cascade.
Epithelial M Cells: Differentiation and Function
Authors: Kraehenbuhl Jean-Pierre , Neutra Marian R.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  M cells are distinctive epithelial cells that occur only in the follicle-associated epithelia that overlie organized mucosa-associated lymphoid tissues. They are structurally and functionally specialized for transepithelial transport, delivering foreign antigens and microorganisms to organized lymphoid tissues within the mucosae of the small and large intestines, tonsils and adenoids, and airways. M cell transport is a double-edged sword: Certain pathogens exploit the features of M cells that are intended to promote uptake for the purpose of immunological sampling. Eludication of the molecular architecture of M cell apical surfaces is important for understanding the strategies that pathogens use to exploit this pathway and for utilizing M cell transport for delivery of vaccines to the mucosal immune system. This article reviews the functional and biochemical features that distinguish M cells from other intestinal cell types. In addition it synthesizes the available information on development and differentiation of organized lymphoid tissues and the specialized epithelium associated with these immune inductive sites.
Conservation Issues in New Zealand
Authors: Craig John , Anderson Sandra , Clout Mick , Creese Bob , Mitchell Neil , Ogden John , Roberts Mere , Ussher Graham
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Conservation in New Zealand is failing to halt an ongoing decline in biodiversity. Classical problems of ecosystem loss and fragmentation have largely been countered in some regions by reservation of 30% of total land area. Unsustainable harvesting of native biodiversity has stopped; indeed harvesting of terrestrial species is rare. In contrast, marine reserves do not cover even 1% of the managed area, and harvest of native species, some of it unsustainable, are a major industry. Introduced pests, especially mammals, are the overwhelming conservation problem. Legislation, management, and considerable public opinion is based on preservationist ideals that demand the sanctity of native land biodiversity. Considerable success in threatened species management, island eradications, and mainland control of pests is increasing opportunities for restoration. New legislation is increasingly built on concepts of sustainability and offers the opportunity for integrating conservation, use, and development. Realization of these opportunities requires greater understanding of the relative merits of preservation versus sustainability, the dynamics and costs of pest control, the need for ecosystem processes in addition to individual species, and the involvement of people, especially the rights of indigenous Maori. Understanding marine environments and linking attitudes to land and sea is also a challenge.
DIPTERA AS PARASITOIDS
Authors: Feener Jr Donald H. , Brown Brian V.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Parasitoids in the insect order Diptera include an estimated 16,000 species, or approximately 20% of the total number of species with this life-style. Parasitoids in this order are exceedingly diverse in both their habits and evolutionary origins, which makes them an underutilized but highly suitable group for quantitative studies of character convergence and adaptive radiation. This review focuses on several aspects of the bionomics of dipteran parasitoids that have received little comprehensive treatment, including processes associated with host location and attack, patterns of host use, and the evolutionary and ecological consequences of host-parasitoid interactions. Throughout the review we contrast the patterns found within the parasitic Diptera against those found in the better studied parasitic Hymenoptera. We conclude that more intensive study of dipteran parasitoids is required before we can understand the general conditions that favor the evolution of insect parasitoids and the truly magnifying themes of their behavior and ecology.
ODOR-MEDIATED BEHAVIOR OF AFROTROPICAL MALARIA MOSQUITOES
Authors: Takken Willem , Knols Bart G. J.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The African mosquito species Anopheles gambiae sensu lato s.l. and Anopheles funestus rank among the world's most efficient vectors of human malaria. Their unique bionomics, particularly their anthropophilic, endophagic and endophilic characters, guarantee a strong mosquito-host interaction, favorable to malaria transmission. Olfactory cues govern the various behaviors of female mosquitoes and here we review the role of semiochemicals in the life history of African malaria vectors. Recent evidence points towards the existence of human-specific kairomones affecting host-seeking A. gambiae s.l., and efforts are under way to identify the volatiles mediating this behavior. Based on examples from other Culicidae spp., it is argued that there is good reason to assume that mating, sugar feeding, and oviposition behavior in Afrotropical malaria vectors may also be mediated by semiochemicals. It is foreseen that increased knowledge of odor-mediated behaviors will be applied in the development of novel sampling techniques and possibly alternative methods of intervention to control malaria.
The Current State Of Insect Molecular Systematics: A Thriving Tower of Babel
Authors: Caterino Michael S. , Cho Soowon , Sperling Felix A. H.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Insect molecular systematics has undergone remarkable recent growth. Advances in methods of data generation and analysis have led to the accumulation of large amounts of DNA sequence data from most major insect groups. In addition to reviewing theoretical and methodological advances, we have compiled information on the taxa and regions sequenced from all available phylogenetic studies of insects. It is evident that investigators have not usually coordinated their efforts. The genes and regions that have been sequenced differ substantially among studies and the whole of our efforts is thus little greater than the sum of its parts. The cytochrome oxidase I, 16S, 18S, and elongation factor-1α genes have been widely used and are informative across a broad range of divergences in insects. We advocate their use as standards for insect phylogenetics. Insect molecular systematics has complemented and enhanced the value of morphological and ecological data, making substantial contributions to evolutionary biology in the process. A more coordinated approach focused on gathering homologous sequence data will greatly facilitate such efforts.
Ross River Virus: Ecology and Distribution
Authors: Russell Richard C.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Ross River virus is the most common mosquito-borne pathogen in Australia, and approximately 5000 human cases are reported annually. The infection is not fatal, but there is considerable morbidity associated with a debilitating polyarthritis that is the major symptom. The virus is annually active in most regions of Australia, but exists as strains that vary in virulence. Native macropods are thought to be the natural vertebrate hosts, although horses and humans may be involved during epidemic activity, and vertical transmission of the virus occurs in mosquitoes. Different mosquito species are involved as vectors in various regions and in different seasonal and environmental conditions. In coastal areas the saltmarsh mosquitoes Aedes camptorhynchus and Ae. vigilax are the most important vectors in southern and northern regions, respectively, whereas in inland areas Culex annulirostris is the most important vector, although various Aedes species can be involved depending on region and conditions, and the epidemiology of the disease and vector control imperatives vary with circumstance concomitantly.
LIQUID AND VAPOR FLOW IN SUPERHEATED ROCK
Authors: Woods Andrew W.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  In this review, we describe the dynamics and thermodynamics of liquid and vapor flow through hot fractured rock. Such flows occur in geothermal reservoirs and have important implications for geothermal power generation; we describe both forced flows associated with liquid injection into such systems, and natural convective flows associated with the vertical heat transfer through such systems. First we focus on permeable media and describe the heat transfer of single-phase liquid or vapor flow through a medium of different temperature. Then we consider the dynamics and thermodynamics of a liquid front as it advances into a superheated region and boils. The morphological stability of such an interface is discussed, and we describe conditions under which the interface breaks down to form a two-phase zone between the liquid and vapor. We next examine the heat transfer and boiling in gravity-driven flows advancing through a superheated permeable rock, identifying that at large times such currents asymptote to a family of similarity solutions. In the second part of the review, we describe the analogous heat transfer and boiling processes associated with liquid flow along a fracture embedded in an impermeable rock. We describe some simple asymptotic solutions for the temperature distribution in the bounding rock, which reveal that in the fracture, a two-phase boiling region develops between the purely liquid and purely vapor zones. Model predictions are successfully tested with laboratory experiments. In the final section of the review, we briefly discuss natural convective flows, illustrating how single-phase and two-phase convective regions interact and in some cases produce instability.
MECHANICS OFCOASTALFORMS
Authors: Blondeaux Paolo
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Recent studies of the morphodynamics of the coastal region are reviewed. Emphasis is given to idealized models that consider a morphological pattern in isolation from the others, to obtain indications on the physical processes controlling its appearance and development. In particular, attention focuses on morphodynamic stability analyses that allow understanding of the behavior of morphological features that are repetitive in both space and time. Indeed rhythmic patterns are commonly observed both in the continental shelf far from the coast and in the near-shore region.
Messenger RNA Stability and Its Role in Control of Gene Expression in Bacteria and Phages
Authors: Grunberg-Manago Marianne
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The stability of mRNA in prokaryotes depends on multiple factors and it has not yet been possible to describe the process of mRNA degradation in terms of a unique pathway. However, important advances have been made in the past 10 years with the characterization of the cis-acting RNA elements and the trans-acting cellular proteins that control mRNA decay. The trans-acting proteins are mainly four nucleases, two endo- (RNase E and RNase III) and two exonucleases (PNPase and RNase II), and poly(A) polymerase. RNase E and PNPase are found in a multienzyme complex called the degradosome. In addition to the host nucleases, phage T4 encodes a specific endonuclease called RegB. The cis-acting elements that protect mRNA from degradation are stable stem-loops at the 5′ end of the transcript and terminators or REP sequences at their 3′ end. The rate-limiting step in mRNA decay is usually an initial endonucleolytic cleavage that often occurs at the 5′ extremity. This initial step is followed by directional 3′ to 5′ degradation by the two exonucleases. Several examples, reviewed here, indicate that mRNA degradation is an important step at which gene expression can be controlled. This regulation can be either global, as in the case of growth rate–dependent control, or specific, in response to changes in the environmental conditions.
Identification of Epilepsy Genes in Human and Mouse
Authors: Meisler Miriam H. , Kearney Jennifer , Ottman Ruth , Escayg Andrew
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The development of molecular markers and genomic resources has facilitated the isolation of genes responsible for rare monogenic epilepsies in human and mouse. Many of the identified genes encode ion channels or other components of neuronal signaling. The electrophysiological properties of mutant alleles indicate that neuronal hyperexcitability is one cellular mechanism underlying seizures. Genetic heterogeneity and allelic variability are hallmarks of human epilepsy. For example, mutations in three different sodium channel genes can produce the same syndrome, GEFS+, while individuals with the same allele can experience different types of seizures. Haploinsufficiency for the sodium channel SCN1A has been demonstrated by the severe infantile epilepsy and cognitive deficits in heterozygotes for de novo null mutations. Large-scale patient screening is in progress to determine whether less severe alleles of the genes responsible for monogenic epilepsy may contribute to the common types of epilepsy in the human population. The development of pharmaceuticals directed towards specific epilepsy genotypes can be anticipated, and the introduction of patient mutations into the mouse genome will provide models for testing these targeted therapies.
ANTIGEN SAMPLING ACROSS EPITHELIAL BARRIERS AND INDUCTION OF MUCOSAL IMMUNE RESPONSES
Authors: Neutra Marian R. , Pringault Eric , Kraehenbuhl Jean-Pierre
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Epithelial barriers on mucosal surfaces at different sites in the body differ dramatically in their cellular organization, and antigen sampling strategies at diverse mucosal sites are adapted accordingly. In stratified and pseudostratified epithelia, dendritic cells migrate to the outer limit of the epithelium, where they sample antigens for subsequent presentation in local or distant organized lymphoid tissues. In simple epithelia, specialized epithelial M cells (a phenotype that occurs only in the epithelium over organized lymphoid follicles) deliver samples of foreign material by transepithelial transport from the lumen to organized lymphoid tissues within the mucosa. Certain pathogens exploit the M cell transport process to cross the epithelial barrier and invade the mucosa. Here we review the features of M cells that determine antigen and pathogen adherence and transport into mucosal lymphoid tissues.
BINDER REMOVAL FROM CERAMICS
Authors: Lewis Jennifer A.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The physico-chemical processes that occur during binder thermolysis of porous ceramic bodies are reviewed. The discussion initially focuses on intrinsic and extrinsic mechanisms of polymer degradation, with emphasis on the formation of volatile degradation products and involatile carbonaceous residue. The transport of volatile species (e.g. residual solvents, plasticizers, etc) and degradation products through both empty and binder-filled pores is then considered. The particular case of debinding highly loaded ceramic bodies is addressed in detail. Recent developments in modeling the onset of defect formation and the effects of capillary redistribution of thermoplastic binders on removal kinetics are outlined. On the basis of this fundamental knowledge, the criteria for optimizing binder removal processes is established.
RECENT ADVANCES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF PROCESSABLE HIGH-TEMPERATURE POLYMERS
Authors: Meador Michael A.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  High-temperature polymers have found widespread use in aerospace and electronics applications. This review deals with recent developments in the chemistry of these materials that have led to improvements in processability and high-temperature stability.
Development in Understanding and Controlling the Staebler-Wronski Effect in a-Si:H
Authors: Fritzsche Hellmut
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) exhibits a metastable light-induced degradation of its optoelectronic properties that is called the Staebler-Wronski effect, after its discoverers. This degradation effect is associated with the relatively high diffusion coefficient of hydrogen and the changes in local bonding coordination promoted by hydrogen. Reviewed are the fundamental aspects of the interplay between hydrogen and electronic energy states that form the basis of competing microscopic models for explaining the degradation effect. These models are tested against the latest experimental observations, and material and preparation parameters that reduce the Staebler-Wronski effect are discussed.
CLASSIFICATION OF EPSTEIN-BARR VIRUS-ASSOCIATED POSTTRANSPLANT LYMPHOPROLIFERATIVE DISEASES: Implications for Understanding their Pathogenesis and Developing Rational Treatment Strategies
Authors: Hanto, M.D., Ph.D Douglas W.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is associated with a spectrum of B-cell lymphoproliferative diseases (LPD) that develop following organ transplantation. A classification scheme for these disorders has been developed based on the clinical, histologic, immunologic cell-typing, cytogenetic, immunoglobulin gene-rearrangement, and virologic characteristics of these LPD. Four disease groups have been identified: (a) uncomplicated posttransplant infectious mononucleosis, (b) benign polyclonal polymorphic B-cell hyperplasia, (c) early malignant transformation in polyclonal polymorphic B-cell lymphoma, and (d) monoclonal polymorphic B-cell lymphoma. This classification has furthered our understanding of the pathogenesis of these diverse LPD and has allowed the development of rational treatment protocols.
THE ROLE OF ANTI-INFLAMMATORY DRUGS IN THE PREVENTION AND TREATMENT OF ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE
Authors: Breitner, M.D., M.P.H John C. S.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Risk factor intervention is a useful strategy for prevention of poorly understood diseases. Fifteen studies have examined the relation of glucocorticoid and nonsteroid antiinflammatory treatments and onset or progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Fourteen of these studies suggest that such treatments (especially nonsteroidal agents) prevent or ameliorate symptoms of AD. Abundant circumstantial evidence implicates inflammation in the pathogenesis of AD. Inhibition of cyclooxygenases, the central action of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (but not a prominent effect of steroids), limits inflammation, but it may also alter neural metabolic pathways, resulting in cell death from excitotoxicity or oxidative stress. Randomized controlled trials are needed to determine whether steroids, nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs, or both can prevent or treat the symptoms of AD.
New Transfusion Strategies: Red Cell Substitutes
Authors: Winslow, MD Robert M.
Published: July 2002

Red cell substitutes are solutions that can potentially be used in emergencies or during surgery when rapid expansion of the blood volume with an oxygen carrier is needed. The three main types of products in development are based on cell-free hemoglobin, perfluorocarbon emulsions, or liposome-encapsulated hemoglobin. None is currently approved for clinical use, but several are in advanced clinical trials. Outside the red blood cell, hemoglobin is subject to degradation and heme loss. It readily diffuses in the plasma space and effectively scavenges nitric oxide. These properties must be understood and controlled if hemoglobin-based products are to fulfill their promise. The development of red cell substitutes affords us a deeper insight into how oxygen is delivered to tissues in the microcirculation and how blood-flow distribution is regulated within and between organs. As red cell substitutes become available to clinicians and scientists, clinical applications are expected to expand.
Genetic Disorders Affecting Proteins of Iron Metabolism: Clinical Implications
Authors: Sheth Sujit , Brittenham Gary M.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Remarkable progress is being made in understanding the molecular basis of disorders of human iron metabolism. Recent work has uncovered unanticipated relationships with the immune and nervous systems, intricate interconnections with copper metabolism, and striking homologies between yeast and human genes involved in the transport of transition metals. This review examines the clinical consequences of new insights into the pathophysiology of genetic abnormalities affecting iron metabolism. The proteins recently found to be involved in the absorption, transport, utilization, and storage of iron are briefly described, and the clinical manifestations of genetic disorders that affect these proteins are discussed. This chapter considers the most common inherited disorder in individuals of European ancestry (hereditary hemochromatosis), a widespread disease in sub-Saharan populations for which the genetic basis is still uncertain (African dietary iron overload), and several less frequent or rare disorders (juvenile hemochromatosis, atransferrinemia, aceruloplasminemia, hyperferritinemia with autosomal dominant congenital cataract, Friedreich’s ataxia, and X-linked sideroblastic anemia with ataxia).
MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF MYCOPLASMAS
Authors: Dybvig Kevin , Voelker LeRoy L.
Published: July 2002

Although mycoplasmas lack cell walls, they are in many respects similar to the gram-positive bacteria with which they share a common ancestor. The molecular biology of mycoplasmas is intriguing because the chromosome is uniquely small (<600 kb in some species) and extremely A-T rich (as high as 75 mol% in some species). Perhaps to accommodate DNA with a lower G + C content, most mycoplasmas do not have the “universal” genetic code. In these species, TGA is not a stop codon; instead it encodes tryptophan at a frequency 10 times greater than TGG, the usual codon for this amino acid. Because of the presence of TGA codons, the translation of mycoplasmal proteins terminates prematurely when cloned genes are expressed in other eubacteria, such as Escherichia coli. Many mycoplasmas possess strikingly dynamic chromosomes in which high-frequency changes result from errors in DNA repair or replication and from highly active recombination systems. Often, high-frequency changes in the mycoplasmal chromosome are associated with antigenic and phase variation, which regulate the production of factors critical to disease pathogenesis.