bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Removal of micro-organisms by filtration through unwoven cloth coated with a pyridinium-type polymer
Authors: Kawabata N. , Inoue T. , Tomita H.
Published: May 2009

Unwoven cloth coated with 32 mg/g of a copolymer ofN-benzyl-4-vinyl-pyridinium chloride and styrene was found to be effective in removing micro-organisms from water. In experiments demonstrating removal of Escherichia coli by filtration through ten sheets of the unwoven cloth, the rate of removal was 99·99% at a filtration rate of 2·6 cm/h, and remained at 99% even at a high filtration rate of 300 cm/h and a low influent concentration of the bacterial cells such as 10 cells/ml. The rate of removal tended to increase with a decrease in the influent bacterial concentration. Seven other bacteria and two yeasts were effectively removed by filtration through the unwoven cloth. Filtration through the unwoven cloth was also effective in removing spores of fungi from water but was not very effective in removing bacteriophage T4 from aqueous solution.
Patterns of Rift Valley fever activity in Zambia
Authors: Davies F. G. , Kilelu E. , Linthicum K. J. , Pegram R. G.
Published: May 2009

Summary An hypothesis that there was an annual emergence of Rift Valley fever virus in Zambia, during or after the seasonal rains, was examined with the aid of sentinel cattle. Serum samples taken during 1974 and 1978 showed evidence of epizootic Rift Valley fever in Zambia, with more than 80% positive. A sentinel herd exposed from 1982 to 1986 showed that some Rift Valley fever occurred each year. This was usually at a low level, with 3–8% of the susceptible cattle seroconverting. In 1985–6 more than 20% of the animals seroconverted, and this greater activity was associated with vegetational changes - which could be detected by remote-sensing satellite imagery-which have also been associated with greater virus activity in Kenya.
Persistence of contamination of hens' egg albumen in vitro with Salmonella serotypes
Authors: Lock J. L. , Board R. G.
Published: May 2009

A study was made of the persistence of different Salmonella serotypes in hens' egg albumen in vitro at 4, 20 and 30 °C. The majority of serotypes remained viable but did not increase in numbers at 20 and 30 °C for 42 days. At 4 °C many of the serotypes died out.

The addition of ferric ammonium citrate on the 42nd day of incubation induced multiplication of organisms incubated at 20 and 30 °C, but not at 4 °C. The pH and glucose concentration of the albumen diminished only when heavy growth occurred.

Salmonella enteritidis remained viable on the air cell membrane in vitro for 17 days at 4, 20 and 30 °C. Thirty percent of the organisms also remained motile in albumen for 42 days at 25 °C and up to 5% of the cells remained motile for up to 20 days at 4 °C.
Antibiotic sensitivities ofNeisseria meningitidisisolates from patients and carriers in Greece
Authors: Tzanakaki G. , Blackwell C. C. , Kremastinou J. , Kallergi C. , Kouppari G. , Weir D. M.
Published: May 2009

Usage of antibiotics in southern Europe is less well regulated than in northern countries. The proportion (48%) of meningococci in Spain insensitive to penicillin (MIC ≥ 0·1 mg/l) prompted this investigation of antibiotic sensitivities of isolates from Greek patients with meningitis (31) and carriers (47 school-children and 472 recruits). The agar dilution method was used to determine MIC to penicillin G (PN), sulphamethoxazole (SU), rifampicin (RF), cefaclor (CF) and ciprofloxacin (CP).

The proportion of isolates insensitive to PN was 48% for isolates from patients, 19% from school-children and 36·6% from recruits. Resistance to SU (MIC ≥ 16 mg/l) was found in 16% of those from patients, 10·6% from children and 40% from recruits. None of the isolates from patients was resistant to RF (≥ 1 mg/l) but 6% of those from carriers were. Resistance to CF (≥ 4 mg/l) was found in 9·2% of patient isolates, 6·4% from children and 23·7% from recruits. All isolates except one were sensitive to CP (MIC range < 0·0015–0·125 mg/l).

Resistances to PN, SU and RF were analysed by serogroup, serotype and subtype of the bacteria. The proportion of resistant isolates showed some variation between different areas of Greece, but it was not statistically significant.
Selective decontamination in neutropenic patients
Authors: Kurrle E. , Schmeiser T. , Kern W.
Published: May 2009

It is well known that severe neutropenia, as usually seen in patients with acute leukaemia, aplastic anaemia or secondary to aggressive chemotherapy, predisposes to infections with Gram-negative enteric bacilli,Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, and to fungal infections. Infection with anaerobes, in contrast, is rare in patients with haematologic malignancy [1]. The spectrum of bacterial pathogens in this patient population has recently broadened, and now includes coagulase-negative staphylococci, viridans group streptococci, and, occasionally, coryneforms and other rather unusual opportunistic organisms. All these microorganisms originate either from the patient's own microflora, especially from the digestive tract, or from the hospital environment after having colonized the patient during the hospital stay [2]. Studies have shown that the incidence of fever during periods of severe neutropenia approaches 100%, and most of these fever episodes actually represent bacterial infection. For more than 20 years, methods for the prevention of bacterial and fungal infections have been under investigation in patients with profound neutropenia. These included decontamination trails, oral or systemic antimicrobial prophylaxis, strict reverse isolation and maintenance of germ-free conditions [3–8], prophylactic granulocyte transfusions [9], and, more recently, the application of haemopoietic growth factors [10, 11]. The method which remains the most widely used is oral antimicrobial prophylaxis, especially with agents for so-called selective decontamination of the intestinal tract.
Selective decontamination in bone marrow transplant recipients
Authors: Guiot H. F. L. , Furth R. Van
Published: May 2009

Patients undergoing bone marrow transplantation become immuno-compromised for various reasons. Deep granulocytopenia, induced by conditioning (chemotherapy and total body irradiation), renders the patient at risk for serious bacterial and fungal infections. Our strategy for prevention of these infections by selective decontamination (SD) is the result of more than 15 years of clinical experience and research. The combination of antibiotics, used as standard SD (neomycin, polymyxin B, pipemidic acid and amphotericin B), with the application of local antimicrobial agents eliminates aerobic Gram-negative rods, Staphylococcus aureus and Candida spp. from the mucosal surfaces of the digestive tract, while the majority of the anaerobic flora persist and support colonization resistance (CR). The antibiotics used either are not resorbed or do not yield therapeutic serum concentrations. Antibiotics which induce therapeutic serum concentrations, such as ciprofloxacin and cotrimoxazole, are only used for SD on a limited scale. When Gram-negative rods persist despite intake of the standard regimen, ciprofloxacin is given until these persisting rods are eliminated. If the patients cannot swallow the oral regimen, i.v. cotrimoxazole is given temporarily. Streptococcal infections are prevented by the i.v. adminstration of penicillin for 14 days starting on the first day after cytotoxic treatment (conditioning for bone marrow transplantation). The combination of SD and systemic prophylaxis has been shown to be adequate; the major problem then remaining is a relatively mild catheter-associated infection with coagulase-negative staphylococci.
ELISAs and the serological analysis of salmonella infections in poultry: a review
Authors: Barrow P. A.
Published: May 2009

Large increases in the number of cases of human food-poisoning caused by salmonella have occurred in several countries in recent years. In England and Wales the annual number of bacteriologically confirmed cases rose from 10665 in 1981 to 30112 in 1990 and it is generally accepted that these figures are underestimates. The reasons for the unprecedented increase are largely unknown but may include increases in the consumption of convenience foods, poultry, and poultry products, together with a dramatic increase inSalmonella enteritidisinfections in poultry.S. enteritidisandS. typhimuriumare now the predominant serotypes both in human disease and in poultry.
Epidemiology of enteric adenovirus infection in prospectively monitored Argentine families
Authors: Mistchenko A. S. , Huberman K. H. , Gomez J. A. , Grinstein S.
Published: May 2009

To examine the role of enteric adenoviruses (EAV) in an urban area of Buenos Aires (Argentina), we prospectively studied faecal samples from 49 families of newborns. These were monitored weekly for diarrhoea for 2 years.

A total of 180 samples from cases of diarrhoea and 766 samples obtained during diarrhoea-free periods were studied by dot-blot hybridization with an EAV-specific DNA probe. EAV were found in 6/180 (3·3%) cases of diarrhoea and 6/766 (0·8%) asymptomatic samples (P < 0·015). Incidence of EAV was 3·9 cases per 100 person-years in children < 60 months old. EAV-related diarrhoeas were slight and of short duration. In addition, 129 faeces from hospital out-patients, 1–30 months old, were also studied. EAV was identified in 7/129 cases (5·4%). These cases were 9·5 ±3·5 months old and the diarrhoea was mild or severe, of 3±1·5 days of duration.

We suggest that EAV are low-risk causes of diarrhoea under natural conditions, although a few children may develop more severe diarrhoea. The diagnosis of EAV needs to be considered in these patients.
Genetic relationships between southern African SAT-2 isolates of foot-and-mouth-disease virus
Authors: Vosloo W. , Knowles N. J. , Thomson G. R.
Published: May 2009

Sequencing of part of the 1D gene of foot-and-mouth disease virus was used to determine the relationships between SAT-2 viruses isolated from outbreaks which occurred in cattle in Zimbabwe and Namibia and in impala in South Africa between 1979 and 1989. The results demonstrated that the outbreaks in different countries were unrelated. Surprisingly close relationships were shown between all SAT-2 viruses isolated from cattle in Zimbabwe since 1983 but the two major epizootics which occurred in 1989 were caused by viruses which were clearly different. Conversely, two apparently unrelated outbreaks in impala in South Africa were caused by viruses which could not be distinguished.
Diarrhoea in close contacts as a risk factor for childhood haemolytic uraemic syndrome
Authors: Rowe P. C. , Orrbine E. , Lior H. , Wells G. A. , McLaine P. N.
Published: May 2009

To determine whether the risk factors for childhood haemolytic uraemic syndrome (HUS) are similar to risk factors previously reported forEscherichia coliO 157. H7 gastroenteritis, we conducted a case-control study at eight paediatric hospitals in the summer of 1990. Thirty-four consecutive children with HUS were prospectively enrolled; all had diarrhoea and 88% had laboratory evidence of exposure to verotoxin-producingE. coli(VTEC). The 102 controls were otherwise healthy children with minor acute injuries. Parents of all subjects responded to a questionnaire about each child's exposure to various foods, methods of food preparation, sources of water, travel, and individuals with diarrhoea.

Children with HUS were significantly more likely than controls to have had close contact with an individual with diarrhoea in the 2 weeks before the onset of illness (74 υ. 29%, P < 0.00001; odds ratio 7·0. 95% CI 2.7–18.5). The onset of diarrhoea in the contacts occurred a median of 6 days (range, 1− > 14 days) before the onset of diarrhoea in the HUS patients. Exposure to undercooked ground meat was not significantly more common in the patients with HUS (15 υ. 8%; P=0.05). These data provide evidence consistent with person-to-person transmission of VTEC in a substantial proportion of episodes of childhood HUS.
Molecular epidemiology ofPseudomonas aeruginosain an intensive care unit
Authors: Döring G. , Hörz M. , Ortelt J. , Grupp H. , Wolz C.
Published: May 2009

Genotyping was used to analysePseudomonas aeruginosaisolates from sink drains and 15 intubated patients as part of a 3-month prospective study of strain transmission in a medical-surgical intensive care unit. Ninety percent of all washbasin drains were persistently contaminated with severalP. aeruginosagenotypes. In 60% (9/15) of the patients,P. aeruginosacolonization or infection was hospital-acquired:P. aeruginosastrains isolated from these patients were present in hospital sinks or in other patients before their admission. Since all patients were immobile, personnel were the probable route of transmission ofP. aeruginosain the hospital. The mechanism of strain transmission from sinks to hands during hand washing was investigated in a children's hospital. WhenP. aeruginosawas present at densities of > 105/c.f.u. per ml in sink drains, hand washing resulted in hand contamination withP. aeruginosavia aerosol generation in the majority of experiments orP. aeruginosawas detected using an air sampler above the washing basin. HighP. aeruginosacfu were present at 4.30 h in the eight sinks (5.4 × 105−7.0 × 1010c.f.u./ml), whereas at 13.00 hP. aeruginosac.f.u. were significantly lower (3.1 × 102−8.0 × 105c.f.u. / ml). These data reveal that the danger of bacterial contamination of hands during hand washing is highest in the morning. The identified transmission routes demand more effective hygienic measures in hospital settings particularly concerning personnel hands and sink drains.
Staphylococcal food poisoning in the United Kingdom, 1969–90
Authors: Wieneke A. A. , Roberts D. , Gilbert R. J.
Published: May 2009

Between 1969 and 1990 strains ofStaphylococcus aureusfrom 359 outbreaks and sporadic cases of staphylococcal food poisoning in the United Kingdom were examined in the PHLS Food Hygiene Laboratory for the production of enterotoxin. In a number of instances the incriminated foods were also examined for the presence of enterotoxin. Strains from 79% of incidents produced enterotoxin A alone or together with another enterotoxin. The level ofS. aureuspresent in the foods ranged from no viableS. aureusdetected to 1.5 × 1010c.f.u./g with a median of 3.0 × 107c.f.u./g. Enterotoxin was detected in foods in the absence of viableS. aureusin only two outbreaks and in both cheese was the implicated food. Meat. poultry or their products were the vehicle in 75% of incidents with ham and chicken most frequently implicated. Other foods included fish and shellfish (7%) and milk and milk products (8%). Most contamination took place in the home followed by restaurants and shops. Seventy-one percent of the incident strains were lysed by phages of group III or I/III.
Vero cytotoxin-producingEscherichia coli, particularly serogroup O 157, associated with human infections in the United Kingdom: 1989–91
Authors: Thomas A. , Chart H. , Cheasty T. , Smith H. R. , Frost J. A. , Rowe B.
Published: May 2009

This survey reports the results of investigations performed by the Laboratory of Enteric Pathogens (LEP), to identify evidence of human infection with Vero cytotoxin-producingEscherichia coli(VTEC) in the UK during the period 1989–91. Bacterial isolates, faecal specimens and serum samples were received from patients suffering from diarrhoea, bloody diarrhoea and haemolytic uraemic syndrome. Using serotyping, Vero cytotoxin gene probing and an ELISA for serum antibodies toE. coli0 157, evidence of infection was detected in 232, 428 and 615 individuals in 1989. 1990 and 1991 respectively. Of these individuals, 15% were reported as having HUS. Vero cytotoxin-producingE. coliO 157 was the most frequently encountered serogroup. with isolations from a total of 1092 individuals over the 3-year period. The incidence of VTEC infection increased from 0·41/ 100000 in 1989 to 1· 07/100000 in 1991. The area with the highest rate of infection in each year was Scotland, increasing from 1–37/100000 in 1989 to 3·97/ 100000 in 1991.
An investigation of colonization of the conjunctival sac of sheep by bacteria and mycoplasmas
Authors: Dagnall G. J. R.
Published: May 2009

The conjunctival sacs of 100 healthy adult ewes and 20 lambs and 76 adult ewes affected by ovine keratoconjunctivitis (OKC) were examined microbiologically.Branhamella oviswas the only organism regularly isolated from healthy ewes and lambs.Mycoplasma conjunctivaewas isolated from the conjunctival sac of nine ewes but its occurrence was not associated with clinical signs of ovine keratoconjunctivitis.Mycoplasma conjunctivaeandBranhamella oviswere isolated significantly more often from eyes affected by OKC than from unaffected eyes.
Risk factors for hepatitis C virus infection. A case-control study of blood donors in the Trent Region (UK)
Authors: Neal K. R. , Jones D. A. , Killey D. , James V.
Published: May 2009

The introduction of screening for hepatitis C virus (HCV) by the National Blood Transfusion Service identified donors who had acquired HCV infection. We undertook a case-control study amongst blood donors in the Trent Region to determine risks for HCV infection. A total of 74 blood donors confirmed positive for hepatitis C infection and 150 age, sex and donor venue matched controls were included in the study. Fifty-three percent of hepatitis C infected blood donors reported previous use of injected drugs compared to no controls; relative risk (RR) not estimatable (lower limit 95% CI = 20). Other risk factors were a history of: receipt of a blood transfusion or blood products RR = 3·6 (95% CI 1·5–8·3), having been a ‘health care worker’ RR = 2·8 (95% CI 1·1–7·6), tattooing RR = 3·3 (95% CI 1·2–8·7), and an association with having been born abroad RR = 3·2 (95% CI 1·1–9·5). No risk was shown for a history of multiple sexual partners, ear piercing or acupuncture. Injecting drug use explains more than 50% of hepatitis C infections in blood donors, a group who are less likely to have injected drugs than the general population.
Identification of outbreak-associated and other strains ofClostridium difficileby numerical analysis of SDS-PAGE protein patterns
Authors: Costas M. , Holmes B. , Ganner M. , On S. L. W. , Hoffman P. N. , Worsley M. A. , Panigrahi H.
Published: May 2009

Seventy-three cultures ofClostridium difficileisolated both during, and in the period immediately following, an outbreak of infection in a group of three hospitals, were characterized by one-dimensional sodium dodecyl sulphate–polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS–PAGE) of whole-cell proteins. Each protein pattern was characterized by the presence of one or two dense bands which were highly reproducible. The protein patterns were used as the basis for a numerical analysis which divided the strains into five phenons (electrophoretic or EP types). The majority, 60 of the 73 cultures, belonged to a single phenon which included strains from both patients and the environment. We conclude that high-resolution SDS–PAGE of proteins provides an effective method for typingC. difficileand therefore for tracing the possible spread of epidemic strains in hospitals and other institutions, thereby allowing a better understanding of the epidemiology of the organism.
The frequency of culturing stools from adults with diarrhoea in Great Britain
Authors: Feldman R. A. , Banatvala N.
Published: May 2009

Utilizing the Office of Population Censuses and Surveys (OPCS) Omnibus Survey, it was possible to measure the frequency with which a stool culture was obtained following episodes of diarrhoea in adults. Interviewing over 8000 adults, over a 4-month period between October 1992 and January 1993, 633 persons (7·9%) reported one episode of diarrhoea in the previous month, and 5·4 % of these individuals with diarrhoea reported that a stool had been requested for examination. No significant regional differences were observed with the sample size available. The estimate of the rate of diarrhoea in adults was just under one episode per person per year.
Prevalence of hepatitis A virus infection among sewage workers in Singapore
Authors: Heng B. H. , Goh K. T. , Doraisingham S. , Quek G. H.
Published: May 2009

To determine whether or not occupational exposure to sewage is associated with a higher seroprevalence of hepatitis A virus (HAV) infection, 600 sewage workers in Singapore were tested for total (IgG and IgM) antibody to HAV by enzyme immunoassay. Using logistic regression with stepwise procedure, the adjusted seroprevalence of sewage workers was 2·2 times higher than that of another non-occupationally exposed population group. Seroprevalence was significantly correlated with age and educational levels, the association being independent of the occupational association. The epidemiological data in the study show that sewage workers have an increased occupational risk of acquiring HAV infection and should be protected by active immunization.
Identification of astrovirus serotypes from children treated at the Hospitals for Sick Children, London 1981–93
Authors: Noel J. , Cubitt D.
Published: May 2009

An enzyme immunoassay (EIA) for astrovirus type 1 together with immune electronmicroscopy (IBM) was used to type a collection of 162 astroviruses obtained from 1981–93 from children with diarrhoea. The EIA was found to be specific for astrovirus type 1. Astrovirus types 2–4 were typed by IEM.

Astrovirus type 1 was the prevalent serotype 107/125 (86%), followed by type 3 (8%), type 4 (6%) and type 2 (1 %). Six samples containing astrovirus could not be typed or detected by EIA because they were coated with coproantibodies; 11 others were not identified. Virus particles could no longer be detected in 15/162 (9%) samples following storage for≥2 years.

Selected samples containing astrovirus types 1–4 were passaged in CaCO2cells and their identity confirmed by one or both assays. One sample was shown to have remained viable for 10 years when stored as an aqueous suspension at −20 °C.

Two patients with severe combined immune deficiency disease (SCID) were shown to be excreting astrovirus type 1 for 32 and 102 days respectively. One child was simultaneously shedding rotavirus and the other child was excreting adenovirus.
Rubella seroepidemiology in a non-immunized population of São Paulo State, Brazil
Authors: De Azevedo Neto R. S. , Silveira A. S. B. , Nokes D. J. , Yang H. M. , Passos S. D. , Cardoso M. R. A. , Massad E.
Published: May 2009

A rubella serological survey of 476 individuals selected by cluster sampling technique from Caieiras, a small town located in the outskirts of São Paulo city, southeastern Brazil, was carried out over the period November 1990–January 1991. The aim of the study was to characterize rubella epidemiology in a representative non-immunized community in south east Brazil. The survey comprised a seroprevalence study, stratified by age (0–40 years) and a seroconversion study of rubella vaccine in non-infected children below 2 years of age. Mathematical techniques were applied to resultant data sets to determine the age dependent rates of decay in the proportion of individuals with maternally derived antibodies, vaccine seroconversion, and infection of susceptibles, termed the force of infection, and to estimate the average age at first infection.
Pseudomonas pseudomalleiisolates collected over 25 years from a non-tropical endemic focus show clonality on the basis of ribotyping
Authors: Currie B. , Smith-Vaughan H. , Golledge C. , Buller N. , Sriprakash K. S. , Kemp D. J.
Published: May 2009

Between 1966 and 1991, melioidosis, a disease caused byPseudomonas pseudomalleithat is mostly confined to tropical regions, occurred in farm animals and a farmer in temperate south-west Western Australia. Using anEscherichia coliprobe containing a ribosomal RNA operon,P. pseudomalleiDNA from isolates from 8 animals, a soil sample and the human case showed an identical ribotype on Southern blotting. The ribotype was different from the 3 commonest ribotypes seen in tropical Australia. This molecular typing supports the theory of clonal introduction ofP. pseudomalleiinto a non-endemic region, with environmental contamination, local dissemination and persistence over 25 years. As melioidosis is often fatal in humans, such persistence in a temperate region is cause for concern.
The production of Clostridium botulinum type A, B and D toxin in rotting carcasses
Authors: Ortiz N. E. , Smith G. R.
Published: May 2009

Carrion is a major source of botulinal toxin for animals. A type D strain of Clostridium botulinum differed from type A and B strains in producing (1) much higher concentrations of toxin in putrefying mouse carcasses at several different temperatures over a period of 35 days, (2) toxicity that sometimes persisted in mouse carcasses for at least a year, and (3) mouse carcasses with exceptionally high oral toxicity. Fish carcasses were much less favourable than mouse carcasses for type D toxigenesis.

The study, together with earlier studies on types C and E, indicated that carrion contaminated with C. botulinum type C or D is likely to be particularly dangerous for animals that may ingest it. This accords with the observation that carrion-transmitted botulism in animals is usually caused by type C or D.
Genotypic evaluation of rickettsial isolates recovered from various species of ticks in Portugal
Authors: Bacellar F. , Regnery R. L. , Núncio M. S. , Filipe A. R.
Published: May 2009

Twelve rickettsial isolates, fromRhipicephalus sanguineus, R. turanicus, Dermacentor marginatusandHyalomma marginatus, were subjected to genotypic analysis. Amplification of specific DNA sequences, restriction endonuclease digestion of amplified DNA products, and gel electrophoresis were used to identify specific DNA fragment-banding patterns. Five patterns were resolved. Four were homologous with those of previously described rickettsial genotypes,R. conorii, R. slovaca, R. rhipicephaliandR. massiliae. The fifth pattern differed by only a single altered restriction endonuclease cleavage site. For the first time in Portugal a widely distributed spectrum of spotted fever group rickettsia was found among potential vector species stressing the need to determine their potential for human and domestic animals infection.
An investigation of possible routes of transmission of lumpy skin disease virus (Neethling)
Authors: Carn V. M. , Kitching R. P.
Published: May 2009

British cattle were infected with the South African (Neethling) strain of lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) and their clinical signs monitored over a 3-week period. Different routes of infection were assessed for effect on the clinical characteristics of the disease by using a clinical scoring system. Neither of 2 animals inoculated onto the conjunctival sac showed clinical signs or seroconverted. The intradermal route produced local lesions in 21 of 25 animals, and generalized infection in 4. In contrast the intravenous route produced generalized lesions in 8 of 11 animals. Seven uninfected animals were housed in contact with infected animals for 1 month. None developed clinical signs or produced detectable serum neutralizing antibodies. Six of seven of these animals were then challenged and were fully susceptible to infection. The results suggest that the transmission of LSDV between animals by contagion is extremely inefficient, and that parenteral inoculation of virus is required to establish infection. The high proportion of animals with generalized disease following intravenous inoculation implies that naturally occurring cases of generalized LSD may follow spread by intravenously feeding arthropods.
Serosurvey and laboratory diagnosis of imported sandfly fever virus, serotype Toscana, infection in Germany
Authors: Schwarz T. F. , Jäger G. , Gilch S. , Pauli C.
Published: May 2009

Of eight acute infections in German tourists caused by sandfly fever virus, serotype Toscana (TOS). and diagnosed clinically and serologically, seven were acquired during visits to Tuscany, Italy, and one to Coimbra, Portugal. An indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA) using infected cells, and a newly developed enzyme-immunoassay (EIA) using crude virus antigen prepared from infected Vero-E6 cells was used to detect anti-TOS IgM and IgG. In a seroepidemiological survey of 859 health care workers and medical students, anti-TOS IgG was detected in 1·0% by IFA, and in 0·7% by EIA. In 2034 German patients hospitalized for various diseases, 1·6% were positive for anti-TOS IgG by IFA, and 0·8% by EIA. Anti-TOS IgG was detected in 43 samples of commercial immunoglobulins at titres of 10–1000 by EIA. Although the seroprevalence of antibodies to TOS is low in Germany, TOS infection should be considered in patients returning from endemic areas who complain of fever, and headaches, and have symptoms of meningitis.
Estimating the economic benefits of avoiding food-borne risk: is ‘willingness to pay’ feasible?
Authors: Donaldson C. , Mapp T. , Ryan M. , Curtin K.
Published: May 2009

In this paper, the results of a pilot study of willingness to pay (WTP) to avoid poultry-borne illness are reported. Through this, the problems of devising an economic measure of the ‘intangible’ benefits of prevention of food-borne risk are explored. The study is the first to allow those against a prevention policy (irradiation of poultry-meat) to register their WTP not to have the policy implemented. The study demonstrates that it is feasible to obtain answers to WTP questions from a self-selected sample. Future studies should ensure greater representativeness of respondents, that better information about benefits is provided to respondents and that an appropriate method of aggregation of benefits is used.
Thermal sensitivity ofClostridium botulinumtype C toxin
Authors: Hubálek Z. , Halouzka J.
Published: May 2009

A sterile suspension containing 950 mouse LD50 per ml of type C botulinum toxin was exposed for various periods to different temperatures. The time required for the 99% (hundred-fold) reduction of toxicity was more than 5 years at -70°C or -20°C, 6 montha at +5 °C, 3 weeks at +20 °C, 2 weeks at +28 °C, 2 days at +37 °C, 9h at +42°C, less than 30 min at 56 °C, less than 20 min at +60 °C, and below 5 min at +80 °C. The results suggest thatClostridium botulinumtype C toxin, if produced in an ecosystem of the mild climatic zone, might persist there over the winter season and cause the intoxication of vertebrates next carly spring in the absence of further microbial toxigenesis.
The growth of salmonella in rumen fluid from cattle at slaughter
Authors: Mattila T. , Frost A. J. , O'Boyle D.
Published: May 2009

The pH of the rument contents of cattle was recorded at slaughter; pH ranged from 5.5 to 7–8 and was not correlated with the period from saleyard to slaughter. Volatile fatty acids (VFA) were measured in 43 rumen samples; acetic, propionic and butyric were the major acids present, and the total VFA ranged from 75·9 mM/1 for samples between pH 6–7, to 7·1 mM/1 for samples of pH 8–9. TenSalmonellastrains belonging to 8 serotypes were grown in these 43 rumen samples. Where acid levels of these samples were high and pH low, mostSalmonellasp. were inhibited: as the pH rose (pH 7–8) allSalmonellaserotypes grew, some vigorously; as the total acid declined and pH continued to rise, growth of salmonella ceased. Serotypes and strains of the same serotype differed in their ability to grow in rumen contents, particularly when the pH was low.
Epidemiological aspects of human cryptosporidiosis
Authors: Casemore D. P.
Published: May 2009

The coccidian protozoan parasiteCryptosporidiumhas been described in many host species since its discovery in the early part of the century, but it remained obscure until the recognition by veterinary workers in the 1970s of its importance as a cause of scours in young livestock animals [1–4].
Experimental observations on the pathogenesis of necrobacillosis
Authors: Smith G. R. , Wallace L. M. , Noakes D. E.
Published: May 2009

Earlier studies showed that the minimum infective dose (>106organisms) of a virulent strain ofFusobacterium necrophorumcould be greatly reduced by suspending the fusobacteria in sub-lethal doses of cultures of other bacteria such asEscherichia colibefore inoculating mice subcutaneously.

In the present study the infective dose of the same strain ofF. necrophorumwas reduced by a factor of >103by suspending the fusobacteria in sub-lethal doses of 5% homogenate of gaur or wallaby faeces. Sterile faecal filtrate had no such effect. The sites of low grade infection produced by the prior subcutaneous injection ofE. coliculture or gaur faecal suspension were susceptible to superinfection by doses ofF. necrophorumfar below those required to infect normal tissue.

This work helps to explain the production of necrobacillosis by the faecal contamination of small wounds. It proved impossible, however, to produce necrobacillosis in mice by the subcutaneous injection of faecal suspensions from 33 farm cattle. This suggests that the proportion of cattle with virulentF. necrophorumin their faeces is low.
Horizontal transmission ofCampylobacter jejuniamongst broiler chicks: experimental studies
Authors: Shanker S. , Lee A. , Sorrell T. C.
Published: May 2009

Horizontal transmission ofCampylobacter jejuniwas investigated in campylobactor–free broiler chicks. One hundred and twenty chicks housed individually, were provided with water containing 102−109c.f.u./mlC. jejuni. Colonization was rapid [47 of 73 (64 %) positive cloacal cultures within 3 days and 65 of 73 (89 %) within 7 days], depenedent onC. jejuni–contaminated water or colonized seeder chicks. Transmission occurred in 2–7 days concurrent with a gradual increase ofC. jejuniin litter, water and feed. Environmental samples were culture–negative within 3 days following removal of colonized chicks. Treatment of 1–day–old chicks with adult caecal microbiota did not affect colonization. Treated and control chicks were allC. jejuni–positive within 3 days of seeder challenge.
The epidemiology of beta-haemolytic non-Group A streptococci isolated from the throats of children over a one-year period
Authors: Cimolai N. , MacCulloch L. , Damm S.
Published: May 2009

The incidence of beta-haemolytic non-Group A streptococci (BHNAS) in the throats of a paediatric population was examined over a 1-year period. There was minimal seasonal fluctuation of Lancefield groups including species and biotypes within Groups C and G streptococci. A trend of increasing incidence with age ofStreptococcus anginosus(‘Streptococcus milleri’) (possessing Groups C and G Lancefield antigens) was evident. A clinical impression of streptococcal pharyngitis was more common in patients with large-colony Groups C or G streptococci isolated from their throats compared with those patients where other BHNAS were isolated. This study is requisite to the planning of case control studies which are required to test the association of BHNAS (especially Groups C and G subgroups) and pharyngitis.
The epidemiological relationship between salmonella isolated from poultry meat and sewage effluents at a long-stay hospital
Authors: Reilly W. J. , Oboegbulem S. I. , Munro D. S. , Forbes G. I.
Published: May 2009

Between February 1988 and March 1989 chicken carcases delivered to the kitchen of a long stay psycho–geriatric hospital were screened every week for salmonella contamination. While 214 of 477 (45▒) individual carcases carried one or more salmonella types, every single consignment examined contained affected carcases.

Simultaneously sewers draining the residential accommodation and excluding kitchen effluent, were also monitored. Thirty out of 79 (38▒) of Moore's swabs were positive for salmonella. There was a statistically significant association between the salmonella types isolated from chicken and those isolated from sewers the following week.

Following a change in kitchen policy to order only cooked chicken there was a significant reduction in the isolation of salmonella from the sewers.
The influence of age on the response of SPF hens to infection with Salmonella enteritidis PT4
Authors: Humphrey T. J. , Chart H. , Baskerville A. , Rowe B.
Published: May 2009

When Specific Pathogen–Free hens were infected with Salmonella enteritidis PT4 by direct administration into the crop, the age of the bird at infection was found to have an effect on both pathogenesis and antibody response. Birds at 20 weeks of age showed no adverse signs and developed high titres of antibodies of the IgM class, while those which were 1 year old at infection developed relatively little antibody arid had acute septicaemia, with 6 of 10 birds either dying or having to be humanely destroyed. The implication of these results for the control of salmonella infections in poultry is discussed.
Meningococcal carriage in close contacts of cases
Authors: Cartwright K. A. V. , Stuart J. M. , Robinson P. M.
Published: May 2009

Between 1 October 1986 and 31 March 1987, 55 cases of meningococcal disease were identified in the South-West of England, an attack rate of 1·54 per 100000 during the study period. Antibiotics used in the treatment of the disease successfully eliminated nasopharyngeal carriage of meningococci in 13 out of 14 cases without use of rifampicin. The overall meningococcal carriage rate in 384 close contacts was 18·2% and the carriage rate of strains indistinguishable from the associated case strain was 11·1%. The carriage rate of indistinguishable strains in household contacts (16·0%) was higher than the carriage rate in contacts living at other addresses (7·0%, P > 0·05). A 2·day course of rifampicin successfully eradicated meningococci from 46 (98%) of 47 colonized contacts.

In one third of cases groupable meningococci were isolated from at least one household contact; 92% of these isolates were of the same serogroup as the associated case strain. When a meningococcus is not isolated from a deep site in a clinical case of meningococcal disease, culture of serogroup A or C strains from nasopharyngeal swabs of the case or of household contacts is an indication that the close contact group should be offered meningococcal A + C vaccine in addition to chemoprophylaxis. The failure in this and other studies to isolate meningococci from any household contact in the majority of cases may be due either to the relative insensitivity of nasopharyngeal swabbing in detecting meningococcal carriage or to the acquisition of meningococci by most index cases from sources outside the household.
Social and geographical risk factors inHelicobacter pyloriinfection
Authors: Whitaker C. J. , Dubiel A. J. , Galpin O. P.
Published: May 2009

A correlation between childhood crowding and the later development of gastric cancer has been demonstrated by Barker and colleagues, who proposed that the relationship was the consequence of infection by an organism such asHelicobacter pylori. In order to test this hypothesis the presence of IgG antibodies toH. pyloriin sera from blood donors in North Wales has been investigated. During donation sessions, donors answered questions relating to social conditions and domicile in childhood (at age 10 years) and adult life (the preceding 2 years).

A stepwise logistic regression analysis of the data demonstrated significant independent relationships between seropositivity and the following factors: sharing a bed in childhood, housing density, locality of birth, adult social class and age.
An analysis of the diversity ofHaemophilus parainfluenzaein the adult human respiratory tract by genomic DNA fingerprinting
Authors: Kerr G. R. D. , Forbes K. J. , Williams A. , Pennington T. H.
Published: May 2009

A method for typingHaemophilusspecies is described, based on the analysis of genomic DNA fromHaemophilus parainfluenzae. The DNA was extracted by a rapid method and digested with the restriction enzymeBamHI to provide a characteristic ‘fingerprint’. The pattern of fragments in the ranges 1–1·6 kb, 1·6–2 kb and 2–3 kb were used to produce a numerical profile of each isolate. In total 97 isolates were examined; 88 from throat swab material isolated from the 15 members of a British Antarctic Survey base and 9 type strains. Seventy-two of the 88 antarctic isolates wereH. parainfluenzaeand were found to be very diverse, comprising 41 identifiable strains with up to 5 strains being isolated from a single throat swab sample. There was evidence for both carriage and transmission within the isolated community. The technique provided a highly discriminatory method for characterizingHaemophilusstrains which is suitable for epidemiological studies.
Factors associated withParacoccidiodes brasiliensisinfection among permanent residents of three endemic areas in Colombia
Authors: Cadavid D. , Restrepo A.
Published: May 2009

The natural habitat ofParacoccidioides brasiliensis, the aetiologic agent of paracoccidioidomycosis, has not been determined. Consequently, the events leading to the acquisition of infection remain controversial. To identify factors associated with infection in endemic areas we conducted a survey in three rural communities in Colombia where we had previously diagnosed paracoccidioidomycosis in children. Permanent residents were surveyed taking into consideration environmental and occupational variables. Skin tests were used to classify subjects as infected or non-infected. Variables found associated with infection were: (i) community A: previous residence around Porce river and agriculture in vegetable gardens; (ii) community C: frequent use of specific water sources; (iii) community V: housekeeping activities, and (iv) total group: age > 25 years and contact with bats. Residents in communities with higher prevalence of infection were older, had more complex residence history, and referred more contact with armadillos than residents of communities with lower infection.
Outbreak of SRSV gastroenteritis at an international conference traced to food handled by a post-symptomatic caterer
Authors: Patterson T. , Hutchings P. , Palmer S.
Published: May 2009

In an outbreak of small round structured virus (SRSV) gastroenteritis at an international AIDS conference 67 people were ill with diarrhoea or vomiting, one requiring admission to hospital. Epidemiological investigations demonstrated that the vehicle of infection was food prepared by a foodhandler who was recovering from a mild gastrointestinal illness. The food most strongly associated with illness, coronation chicken, was prepared by the food handler on the second day after symptoms ceased.

The investigation confirms the view that foodhandlers may contaminate food with SRSV after cessation of symptoms and should remain off work until at least 48 h after recovery.
Verotoxin producing Escherichia coli O 157 infections associated with the consumption of yoghurt
Authors: Morgan D. , Newman C.P. , Hutchinson D.N. , Walker A. M. , Rowe B. , Majid F.
Published: May 2009

Sixteen cases of verotoxin producing Escherichia coli (VTEC) O 157:H7 Phage Type 49 infection were identified in the North West of England from 1 September to 1 November 1991, eight of whom lived in or around the same large town. Eleven of the cases were aged 10 years or less, and five of the affected children developed haemolytic uraemic syndrome. A case control study demonstrated a strong association between VTEC O 157: H7 PT 49 infection and the consumption of a locally produced live yoghurt. This is the first time that an outbreak of VTEC O 157 infection has been linked to the consumption of yoghurt and this vehicle of infection should be considered when investigating such outbreaks in future.
Egg age and the growth ofSalmonella enteritidisPT4 in egg contents
Authors: Humphrey T. J. , Whitehead A.
Published: May 2009

The growth ofSalmonella enteritidisPT4 in albumen around an intact yolk was governed by the age of the egg on inoculation. In the majority of eggs, held at 20° C, the bacterium was unable to grow rapidly until eggs had been stored for approximately 3 weeks. The multiplication ofS. enteritidisin stored eggs appeared to be associated with alterations to the yolk membrane which allowed the bacterium to either invade the yolk or obtain nutrients from it. The rate at which egg contents change to permit the growth ofS. enteritidiswould appear to be temperature related and took place more rapidly when eggs were stored under conditions where temperatures fluctuated and, on occasions, reached 30° C.
Epidemiological investigation of risk factors for Campylobacter colonization in Norwegian broiler flocks
Authors: Kapperud G. , Skjerve E. , Vik L. , Hauge K. , Lysaker A. , Aalmen I. , Ostroff S. M. , Potter M.
Published: May 2009

An epidemiological investigation was conducted to identify risk factors related to hygiene and husbandry practices which determine the introduction ofCampylobacterspp. into broiler chicken flocks. All 176 broiler farms in an area in southeastern Norway participated in the study. Each farm was represented by one flock selected at random during a one-year period. The flocks were examined for Campylobacter colonization at slaughter, and the flock managers were sub-sequently interviewed about hygiene and husbandry practices.Campylobacterspp. were recovered from 32 (18%) of the flocks. The proportion of colonized flocks varied geographically and seasonally with a peak in the autumn. The following variables were found to be independently associated with an increased risk of Campylobacter colonization using logistic regression analysis: (i) feeding the broilers undisinfected water (odds ratio (OR) = 3·42,P= 0·045), (ii) tending other poultry prior to entering the broiler house (OR = 6·43,P= 0·007), (iii) tending pigs before entering the house (OR = 4·86,P= 0·037), (iv) geographic region (Hedmark versus Østfold county) (OR = 2·91),P= 0·023, (v) season (autumn versus other seasons) (OR = 3·43,P= 0·008). Presence of rats on the farm was associated with an increased risk, but this factor did not reach statistical significance (OR = 3·96,P= 0·083). Preventive measures should include dis-infection of drinking water and strict hygienic routines when the farm workers enter the rearing room. The results indicated that disinfection of drinking water is the preventive measure most likely to have the greatest impact on the prevalence of Campylobacter among broiler chicken flocks in the study area (population attributable fraction = 0·53).
A molecular characterization ofClostridium difficileisolates from humans, animals and their environments
Authors: O'Neill G. , Adams J. E. , Bowman R. A. , Riley T. V.
Published: May 2009

It is generally accepted that most patients withClostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea acquire the organism from the environment. Recently we demonstrated that household pets may constitute a significant reservoir ofC. difficilethrough gastrointestinal carriage in up to 39% of cats and dogs. These findings suggested that direct transmission from household pets, or contamination of the environment by them, may be a factor in the pathogenesis ofC. difficile-associated diarrhoea. To investigate this possibility, we examined isolates ofC. difficilefrom humans, pets and the environment by restriction enzyme analysis (REA) and restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) typing using enhanced chemiluminescence. Both REA and RFLP typing methods usedHindIII digests of chromosomal DNA. A total of 116 isolates ofC. difficilefrom pets (26), veterinary clinic environmental sites (33), humans (37) and hospital environmental sites (20) was examined. REA was far more discriminatory than RFLP typing and for all isolates there were 34 REA types versus 6 RFLP types. There was good correlation between the REA types found in isolates from pets and from the veterinary clinic environment, and between isolates from humans and from those found in the hospital environment. There was, however, no correlation between REA type ofC. difficilefound in pets and isolates of human origin. We conclude that there may still be a risk of humans acquiringC. difficilefrom domestic pets as these findings may be the result of geographical variation.