bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Supporting Trace: Images and Scores
Authors: Pouillaude Frédéric
Published: June 2017

This chapter explores the modalities of work survival dependent on material traces. These traces linger in the form of fragments of pottery, inscriptions, photos, films, and also scores. The function of museums and libraries is to preserve these trace-objects and make them accessible. There is significant research to do analyzing the role of such institutions within the choreographic field and explaining the likely specificity of the dance archive. Here the chapter mentions only the significance of the project begun by Rolf de Maré during the 1930s. This project was called the “Archives Internationales de la Danse.” The chapter puts aside the general question of the dance archive and its institutional management to focus solely on the different types of restaging, revival, and reconstruction that it makes possible.
Lack of Tools as Loss of Memory
Authors: Pouillaude Frédéric
Published: June 2017

This chapter bases its discussion on Bernard Stiegler’s analysis in Technics and Time (1998). He argues that every technique externalized in material objects simultaneously exteriorizes memory. Every object produced or used by a technique both houses and relays the memory of the living actions and gestures which produced or used it. Not every technique is a mnemotechnique like writing or mechanical recording; but every technique involves a process of memory insofar as it passes via object mediation. Stiegler calls this process of exteriorizing memory a form of “tertiary retention,” invoking the vocabulary used by Husserl in The Phenomenology of Internal Time Consciousness (1964).
Desire and the Good
Authors: Oddie Graham
Published: June 2017

This essay argues for an evaluative theory of desire—specifically, that to desire something is for it to appear, in some way or other, good. If a desire is a non-doxastic appearance of value then it is no mystery how it can rationalize as well as cause action. The theory is metaphysically neutral—it is compatible with value idealism (that value reduces to desire), with value realism (that it is not so reducible), and with value nihilism (all appearances of value are illusory). Despite this metaphysical neutrality the thesis opens up an epistemological gold mine. Non-doxastic value appearances can provide defeasible reasons for value judgments in roughly the same way that perceptual appearances provide defeasible reasons for perceptual judgments. The paper presents a new line of argument for the evaluative theory—drawing on recent work on fitting attitudes—and rebuts some of the most pressing criticisms.
Desire, Mental Force and Desirous Experience
Authors: Friedrich Daniel
Published: June 2017

This paper introduces the distinction between mental content and mental force. It argues that desire involves a mental force that is itself tied to a distinctive kind of desirous experience, an experience of felt need. Conceiving of desire in this manner, it is argued, can not only be defended against a number of prima facie objections, but also offers the best explanation of the truism that desire plays a crucial role in the rationalization of action insofar as desiring p and believing X-ing to promote p does make it at least minimally rational to X.
Desires, Values and Norms
Authors: Massin Olivier
Published: June 2017

The thesis defended in this essay, the “guise of the ought,” is that the formal objects of desires are norms (oughts-to-be or oughts-to-do) rather than values (as the “guise of the good” thesis has it). It is impossible, in virtue of the nature of desire, to desire something without it being presented as something that ought to be or that one ought to do. This view is defended by pointing to a key distinction between values and norms: positive and negative norms (obligation and interdiction) are interdefinable through negation; positive and negative values aren’t. This contrast between norms and values, it is argued, is mirrored within the psychological realm by the contrast between desires and emotions. Positive and negative desires are interdefinable through negation, but positive and negative emotions aren’t. The overall, Meinongian picture suggested is that norms are to desires what values are to emotions.
Might Desires Be Beliefs about Normative Reasons for Action?
Authors: Gregory Alex
Published: June 2017

This paper examines the view that desires are beliefs about normative reasons for action. It describes the view, and briefly sketches three arguments for it. But the focus of the paper is defending the view from objections. The paper argues that the view is consistent with the distinction between the direction of fit of beliefs and desires, that it is consistent with the existence of appetites such as hunger, that it can account for counterexamples that aim to show that beliefs about reasons are not sufficient for desire, such as weakness of will, and that it can account for counterexamples that aim to show that beliefs about reasons are not necessary for desire, such as addiction. The paper also shows how it is superior to the view that desires are appearances of the good.
Deliberation and Desire
Authors: Schueler G. F.
Published: June 2017

It seems very plausible that actions are done as a result of the agent’s desire for something. At the same time we sometimes act on the basis of our practical deliberation. But it is hard to fit these thoughts together. Reasoning on the basis of the thought “I want phi” can take place whether or not this premise is true. It would be the same even if this thought were false, in which case the explanation of the resulting action would be the same even if the agent did not actually want phi. At the same time, if one acts on the basis of one’s deliberation it seems to follow that one wanted whatever it was one was aiming at. So apparently in this case the thought “I want phi” must be true, even self-verifying. This paper proposes a solution to these puzzles.
Cross-Cultural Competence as a 21st Century Skill
Authors: Klafehn Jennifer
Published: June 2017

Cross-cultural competence (3C) is one 21st century skill that employers have deemed important for employees to develop prior to entering the workforce. Despite the relevance of 3C to pre-professional populations, however, research in this area has primarily focused on the influence of 3C as it pertains to professional populations, such as expatriates and the military, for whom cross-cultural performance plays a critical role. Similarly, research exploring the development of 3C has been directed almost exclusively toward validating the effectiveness of interventions, many of which are implemented only after individuals are hired. The aim of this chapter is to address this gap in the cross-cultural literature by exploring how 3C may be developed in individuals prior to their entering the workforce. This chapter presents four 3C-relevant skills and discusses how the development of these skills may be facilitated in children and adolescents via activities or strategies that are readily incorporated into classroom curricula.
Rethinking How We Prepare Students for the Workforce
Authors: Clarke Indako E. , Double Kit S. , MacCann Carolyn
Published: June 2017

The 21st century has heralded many changes to the nature of work, and to contemporary workplaces. These changes demand workers who can adapt and thrive in dynamic environments and roles. It is the role of educational institutions to cultivate these future workers and foster a range of cognitive and noncognitive skills that are easily transferrable between careers and workplaces. This chapter outlines four noncognitive graduate attributes discussed in previous chapters—respect for diversity, entrepreneurship, interest, and conscientiousness. Each attribute is discussed in terms of its importance to contemporary workplaces and employers, how potential employers or educational institutions may be able to identify the attribute, and how educational institutions can better prepare students for the workforce. In a rapidly changing economy in which individuals are expected to change careers multiple times, widely applicable knowledge, skills, and abilities are becoming far more valuable to employers, and more central to educational programs.
The Future of Workforce Readiness
Authors: Naemi Bobby D. , Mattern Krista D. , Burrus Jeremy , Roberts Richard D.
Published: June 2017

In this final concluding chapter, we synthesize the running themes across previous chapters in the book to arrive at a broad taxonomy and working definition of workforce readiness. Next, we look to the future of workforce readiness research by examining the global trends that will influence readiness over time, examining the impact both on workforce research across academic disciplines and workforce practice in the field at the workplace. Finally, we integrate the themes and models presented and propose a path forward that involves a programmatic outline of topics for research and dissemination.
Dignity in Homer and Classical Greece
Authors: Rankine Patrice
Published: June 2017

A universal or formal claim to human dignity is absent from Homer and later Greek literature. Indeed, the period lacks the language to support a formal claim. Notwithstanding this assertion, it would be a mistake to dismiss the overwhelming evidence suggesting that the substance of a concept of dignity existed in Homeric and later Greece. Dignity is a concept similar to what Orlando Patterson argues regarding "freedom," in Freedom in the Making of Western Civilization: it is a widespread human value that does not have to be articulated, argued for, or formalized until extensive threats to it appear, along with the possibility of its loss. Interactions between and among Homeric characters support a deep awe and reverence that raises individuals above a price, whether they be slave or free, and this treatment extends to animals and nature in Homer, as the evidence shows.
Taking Refuge from History in Morality
Authors: Varga Somogy
Published: June 2017

Reading Marx’s work on central issues such as alienation and class struggle, one is often under the impression that the concept of dignity serves as a normative framework underpinning his diagnosis and criticism—especially in his early work. However, Marx also vehemently opposes concepts like “human dignity,” suggesting that moral terms like dignity are little more than “empty phrases.” To provide a better understanding of this tension, this reflection takes a closer look at the general understanding of morality within historical materialism, and the specific character of the Kantian notion of dignity that fuels Marx’s critical attitude.
Why Bioethics Isn’t Ready for Human Dignity
Authors: Düwell Marcus
Published: June 2017

Discussions in bioethics were perhaps the main reason why human dignity was so intensely debated over the last years. However, the role of human dignity in bioethics is unclear. But the reason is not that the concept is “useless”—as some have claimed—but rather that the dominant methodologies in bioethics (such as principlism) are not sufficiently prepared to deal with this concept. Moreover, bioethical debates are often overshadowed by ideological and religious attempts to monopolize the notion. The result is that most bioethical methodologies are not well suited to appreciate the specific function of human dignity as a foundation of the entire human rights framework.
The Waldock Report and After, 1970–1974
Authors: Nicholls C. S.
Published: June 2017

This chapter considers the structure of the Press as revealed by the investigations of the Committee on the University Press and published in the ‘Waldock Report’ of 1970. The operations of OUP included two manufacturing divisions (printing and papermaking) and three publishing divisions located in Oxford, London, and New York. The Press in Oxford operated as the Clarendon Press and specialized in academic publishing; the London Business concentrated on general trade publishing, including children’s books, bibles, and prayer books, and managed the network of overseas branches. The chapter then assesses the reforms suggested by the Waldock Report, the extent to which the Press implemented them, and their effectiveness in modernizing the business. The finances and leadership of the Press are also investigated and analysed in the context of the economic difficulties of the 1970s.
Business Performance 1975–2004
Authors: Cox Howard , Raff Daniel
Published: June 2017

After the Waldock Report, OUP began a process of gradual modernization that resulted in changes to its systems of business administration and corporate structure. Manufacturing and in-house printing became less profitable and were eventually discontinued, and emphasis shifted to product marketing, international business, and corporate management. The Press maintained throughout this change its traditional learned values in academic and trade publishing and the Delegates continued to play a significant role in decision-making. By the 1990s OUP had reinvented itself as a modern publishing enterprise and was able to exploit new opportunities in digital publishing and the global book trade. The chapter considers in detail the process of modernization through an analysis of business structure, annual surpluses, and book sales, and the contribution of key individuals, while placing OUP in the context of the wider UK and international publishing world.
The Press and the Wider University
Authors: Goldman Lawrence
Published: June 2017

Oxford University Press operates as a department of the University of Oxford and, along with its Board of Delegates, draws many of its staff, authors, editors, and advisers from the graduates and scholars of that institution. Financial contributions from a successful and expanding Press have sustained the University during an era of decreasing state funding. The publications of the Press have enhanced and extended the scholarly reputation of the University and advertised Oxford University as a leader in education and research around the world. The Press relies upon the University for governance and a home in an academic culture that lends authority to all its publications. As a successful business located within an educational institution, the legal and fiscal status of the Press has sometimes been challenged, but the unique relationship has persisted. This chapter surveys the academic, financial, and administrative links between the two institutions.
Changing Focus, 1973–1989
Authors: Bullock Adrian
Published: June 2017

The Waldock Report revealed the London Business of OUP as an enormous organization that published a significant list that included bibles, music, children’s books, English Language Teaching, and general trade books, and undertook the advertising, marketing, warehousing, and distribution of all Press books. The London Business, located at Ely House, also administered the large and growing network of international branches. Relations between London and Oxford were strained, however, by a mixture of structural, financial, and personal problems. Attempts were made to rectify these problems, including the introduction of a Joint Management Committee, but in 1973 the Secretary and Delegates decided to restructure the Press entirely by removing the London Business to Oxford and merging the publishing functions into a more coherent organization. The chapter considers the logistics and financial costs of the move as well as the impact on the staff of London and Oxford.
Sales and Marketing
Authors: Wratten Simon
Published: June 2017

Traditionally OUP relied on travellers to promote and sell its books in the UK and branch staff to do so overseas; these activities were managed from the Sales Department at Ely House. Feedback from the branches and UK travellers on customer preferences did not reliably reach editors in Oxford and London. Following the reorganization of the Press in the 1970s, publishing divisions took control of marketing their own books and a greater priority was given to market preferences in decisions about design, format, pricing, timing of publication, and projected sales. The chapter chronicles the changes in marketing policy and sales techniques, offering examples of the impact of market analysis, customer feedback, and promotional campaigns on particular titles. The chapter also considers the way the Press reacted to changes in the retail book sales with the growth of chain stores, book clubs, and the online marketplace.
Working Life in Oxford
Authors: Wilson Nick
Published: June 2017

The chapter relates the developments in the working environment of OUP staff, concentrating on the Oxford buildings, and assessing what impact the alterations and expansions to the physical space of the Press had on the people who worked there. New buildings allowed the concentration of publishing activities in one location after the closure of the London Business and the Printing House; the redevelopment of Walton Street introduced a new staff restaurant, museum, library, and conference facilities as well as new offices, making the site a showplace for visitors and providing staff with a large democratic space. These changes were paralleled by changes to the structure of the Press, which required and were driven by the growing professionalism of the staff, particularly within administration, human resources, and marketing. OUP has always encouraged an active social life for its staff and the chapter highlights some of their sporting, musical, and dramatic activities.
Journals
Authors: Richardson Martin
Published: June 2017

Oxford University Press, although it had for many years published a select collection of scholarly journals, did not seriously enter the journals market until the 1980s, for intense competition, unfamiliar editorial and production practices, and complicated distribution methods had impeded growth. From the 1960s developments in scientific research and reporting led to an expanded journals market in the sciences; by publishing journals OUP could fulfil the requirement of the Waldock Report to increase its science publication. Journal publication also offered a different business model with positive cash flow and opportunities to develop ties with academic faculties and learned societies. By 2004 the journals market was the fastest growing sector of the publishing industry, benefiting from internet distribution, price increases, and the increasing demand that academics publish regularly. The chapter considers the growth of the OUP journals list, the profitability of its titles, and the range of academic subjects covered.
The Poetry Question
Authors: Foster Roy
Published: June 2017

Oxford University Press, with a long tradition of publishing scholarly books on English literature, canonical authors, and anthologies of poetry, did not introduce a contemporary poetry list until the 1960s. Under the direction of Jon Stallworthy, himself a noted poet, and with the support of the Delegates, the Press developed a vibrant list that included the work of poets from Britain, Ireland, America, Australia, and New Zealand, as well as English poetic translations of European titles. Despite its critical success the poetry list was not profitable, and, facing serious financial constraints across the business, the Finance Committee decided to discontinue the list in 1998. The chapter discusses the financial considerations behind the decision, the heated debate it provoked both within the University and in the media, and the lasting impact of the controversy on the Press.
Australia, Canada, and New Zealand
Authors: Tritter Thorin
Published: June 2017

The Australian and Canadian branches of OUP were among the first founded and their histories in the later twentieth century have similar trajectories. Both engaged in significant trade publishing, unlike other branches, and both developed successful local educational and reference lists. The New Zealand branch was a more precarious investment and eventually merged into the Australian branch. The Canadian and Australian branches both responded to powerful nationalist movements in education and publishing by embracing local authors and developing reference titles and textbooks. The chapter considers these developments and compares the publishing lists, leadership, and growth of the Australian and Canadian branches. The chapter carefully examines and compares the relationship between these branches and Oxford, particularly noting how the branches and the Press perceived and reacted to changes in financial position, sales figures of local titles and UK imports, and the autonomy of branch managers.
East Asia
Authors: Myerson Atalanta
Published: June 2017

The East Asian region encompassed OUP operations in Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, Indonesia, China, and Japan, and each country presented distinct challenges for the Press. Asian markets were complicated by changing attitudes to the status of English—its commercial utility as well as its political implications—and to the tolerance of foreign-owned companies. The chapter considers the political and economic situations in East Asia as they affected OUP and assesses the different policies governing publishing in English and, more importantly, vernacular languages. Educational publishing remained a strength in Malaysia, while Japan emerged as a successful academic and English Language Teaching market. The region required a flexible approach and each branch operated with some independence in order to best address the local market conditions. The chapter considers the different approaches adopted by each branch, describes their relations with Oxford, and assesses branch leadership and sales figures.
Africa
Authors: Nell Dawn D’Arcy
Published: June 2017

With branches in South Africa, Nigeria, Kenya, and several smaller offices in other countries, OUP books were marketed and distributed throughout the African continent. A number of challenges, differing in scope and essence, confronted publishers operating in Africa, but the enormous potential of the market, especially for schoolbooks, offered the opportunity for significant growth. The African branches developed some innovative programmes of general and academic publishing and represented some high-profile authors, but their primary and continuing mission was to anticipate and supply the demand for schoolbooks. The chapter considers the individual branches’ publications, sales, distribution, financial positions, and management, as well as their interactions with one another and with Oxford. The chapter also assesses the responses of the Press and its African branches to regime change, corruption, government educational policies, currency fluctuations, and indigenization movements.
Conclusion
Authors: Robbins Keith
Published: June 2017

Over the course of its five centuries OUP has achieved and sustained its position as the largest university press in the world. The story since 1970 has been one of success, whether measured in terms of financial returns and monetary contributions to the University; by the quality, quantity, and variety of titles published around the world; or by the intellectual and cultural reputation of an OUP book. But the history of the Press was not one of inexorable advance, and the chapter mentions some failures in leadership, quality of production, and communication. The backgrounds and relationships between managers of the Press in Oxford and its international branches are considered, as is the role of women in leadership positions. The chapter suggests that it was perhaps OUP’s adaptable approach to challenges—new technologies, developments in education, changing economic and political stresses—that underpinned the overall growth and success of the Press.
The Divergent Jurisprudential Paths of the Andean Tribunal of Justice and the European Court of Justice
Authors: Alter Karen J. , Helfer Laurence R.
Published: June 2017

This chapter explains how the Andean Tribunal of Justice (ATJ) has significantly diverged from several foundational integration law doctrines developed by the European Union's Court of Justice (ECJ). As such, this updated analysis discusses how the ATJ refined the complemento indispensable principle to more clearly delineate the boundary between Community and national legal authority and to uphold the primacy of clear Andean rules. This principle is a doctrine that permits national laws and regulations to implement and fill gaps in Andean secondary legislation (known as Decisiones). The ATJ has also asserted the supremacy of Andean law over conflicting bilateral and multilateral treaties, and accepted preliminary references from administrative agencies and arbitral panels. In addition, the ATJ has for the first time addressed human rights, stating, albeit in dictum, that governments must prioritize the socio-economic rights of Community citizens over free trade and integration rules.
Jurist Advocacy Movements in Europe and the Andes
Authors: Alter Karen J. , Helfer Laurence R.
Published: June 2017

This chapter reinvestigates the history and early decisions of the European Union's Court of Justice (ECJ) to explore how context shapes international judicial lawmaking. It does so by comparing the ECJ with its Andean counterpart — the Andean Tribunal of Justice (ATJ). The two courts have nearly identical designs; they were both tasked with interpreting very similar framework agreements; and they were created to help further ambitious regional integration projects. Although there are important differences between the two judicial bodies, the many legal and structural parallels allows us to examine how the political context shapes the behavior of similarly designed institutions with similar legal and political mandates. The focus here is on the strikingly more modest judicial lawmaking of the ATJ as compared to the ECJ.
Reconsidering What Makes International Courts Effective
Authors: Alter Karen J. , Helfer Laurence R.
Published: June 2017

This chapter revisits the arguments and predictions in Toward a Theory of Effective Supranational Adjudication, the 1997 study by Laurence Helfer and Anne-Marie Slaughter. The article was among the first to analyze the rise of international courts as a global phenomenon and to theorize about the factors contributing to their effectiveness. Helfer and Slaughter were motivated to write the article by the expanding legal and political footprint of two European tribunals — the European Union's Court of Justice (ECJ) and the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR). Hence the first part of this chapter revisits several propositions asserted in the 1997 article, considers how well they have survived the test of time, and offers new conjectures about the future. The second part considers what the relative success of the Andean Tribunal of Justice (ATJ) reveals about the limits of the effectiveness of international courts.
Early History of Illusions
Authors: Wade Nicholas J.
Published: June 2017

Illusions are considered in the context of the history of vision rather than the history of psychology. For much of its long history, the study of vision has been confined to naturalistic observation, and many motion illusions were observed in the natural world. With the move to the laboratory, the oddities of visual perception multiplied, and they received ever more detailed scrutiny. This survey examines the origins of research on visual illusions in both the natural world and the laboratory. It commences with celestial illusions and pictorial representation then proceeds to subjective visual phenomena and spatial illusions like ambiguous figures and geometrical optical illusions. However, most attention is paid to motion illusions; these include visual persistence and stroboscopic motion, induced motion, motion aftereffects, visual vertigo, and autokinetic sensations. The basis for the explosion of research on visual illusions in the nineteenth century is speculated upon.
Cross-Cultural Studies of Illusions
Authors: Deręgowski J. B.
Published: June 2017

Cross-cultural studies are of interest primarily because they demonstrate the extent of perceptual variation that would not be observable if the samples were derived from a single population. They are also of interest because they show how variation of factors such as age, gender, environment, cultural background, and genetics affects perception. Topics addressed include horizontal-vertical illusions, the Muller-Lyer illusion, and the Sander parallelogram. Perceptual processes are explored including perception of depth.
An Analysis of Theoretical Approaches to Geometrical-Optical Illusions
Authors: Gillam Barbara
Published: June 2017

The geometrical optical illusions, such as the Müller-Lyer and the Poggendorff, are simple line drawings, which demonstrate errors as large as 25% when people are asked to match their properties such as size, angles, and line collinearity. They have been tantalizing people for at least 150 years and are still not really understood. Illusion figures have been used to probe the consistency of different perceptual properties and also of perception and action with implications for the theory of two visual systems. Explanations of geometrical illusions tend to invoke either physiological processes or the functional role illusion responses may have when viewing a 3D scene. This chapter examines all of these theoretical issues, discussing evidence for and against the major theories.
Weighted Positional Averaging in the Illusions of the Müller-Lyer Type
Authors: Bulatov Aleksandr
Published: June 2017

The limited ability to estimate properly the linear extent or spatial separation of objects is one of the well-tested and documented features of visual perception. However, despite a large amount of experimental data collected in various studies of the Müller-Lyer illusion and related visual illusions of extent, the generally accepted view concerning the origin of this phenomenon is still absent. This chapter addresses a possible role of the perceptual positional shifts of the stimulus parts in occurrence of the illusions. It also discusses the most important features of the computational model based on the hypothesis of positional coding via centroids.
Three-Dimensional Müller-Lyer Illusion
Authors: DeLucia Patricia R.
Published: June 2017

Since its introduction in 1889, the Müller-Lyer illusion has incited numerous studies and explanations. Most rely on two-dimensional stimuli such as line drawings, subject to the criticism that illusions are restricted to impoverished, artificial stimuli and have little relevance to understanding of ordinary perception. The three-dimensional Müller-Lyer illusion occurs with familiar solid objects and moving observers and has been used to evaluate misapplied constancy theories, perception–action dissociations, and level of processing. The occurrence of illusions in real-world contexts, and in two-dimensional displays upon which people rely increasingly, makes them essential to understand and predict. The three-dimensional Müller-Lyer illusion has significant theoretical and practical implications and continues to be an important concern for visual science.
Why Do Hills Look So Steep?
Authors: Durgin Frank H. , Li Zhi
Published: June 2017

This chapter discusses the visual perception of hills. Hills look much steeper than they are. This chapter reviews current knowledge of the phenomenology of slant perception in relation to both functionalist and mechanistic accounts of this perceptual bias. Recent discoveries suggest that this misperception of the geometry of our environment may be related to useful biological information coding strategies with respect to not only slant but also other angular variables relevant to the biological measurement of surface layout. Even in the absence of hills, people misperceive the angular declination of their gaze systematically in ways that seem to contribute to the vertical expansion of the perceived environment.
A Layered Experience of Lightness and Color
Authors: Anderson Barton L.
Published: June 2017

One of the fundamental debates about our experience of lightness and color involves their representational format. Some theories assert that the visual system decomposes the input into a layered representation of separated causes, whereas other theories do not. This chapter presents a variety of phenomena that directly demonstrate that layered image decompositions can play a causal role in our experience of lightness and color and discusses the theoretical implications and unresolved issues that are raised by these effects. The issue of the relationship between transparency and occlusion is discussed, as is relevance of the transparency phenomena to the problem of lightness and color perception more generally, which is an ongoing research problem and unresolved issue.
The Reversed Contrast Necker Cube
Authors: Galmonte Alessandra , Agostini Tiziano
Published: June 2017

Agostini and Galmonte reported a configuration showing that when grouping factors are optimized, a grey target totally surrounded by black appears darker than an equal grey target totally surrounded by white. This is called the simultaneous contrast. The theoretical assumption is that, when higher-level factors act simultaneously with lower-level factors, the former prevails over the latter. Specifically, it is assumed that the lightness induction produced by the global organization principle of perceptual belongingness prevails over retinal lateral inhibition. A reversed contrast Necker cube display with two middle grey dashed cubes is used to illustrate the effect. The first one had dark inducer corners and was placed on a light inducer background, and the second one, which had light inducer corners, was placed on a dark inducer background.lightness induction, grouping, perceptual belongingness, lateral inhibition, organization principles
The Curved Grid Non-Illusions
Authors: Geier János , Hudák Mariann
Published: June 2017

The generally accepted explanation of the Hermann grid illusion is Baumgartner’s hypothesis that the illusory effect is generated by the response of retinal ganglion cells with concentric ON-OFF or OFF-ON receptive fields. To challenge this explanation, some simple distortions to the grid lines were introduced that make the illusion disappear totally, while all preconditions of Baumgartner’s hypothesis remained unchanged. Psychophysical experiments in which the distortion tolerance was measured showed the level of distortion at which the illusion disappears at a given type of distortion for a given subject. Statistical analysis shows that the distortion tolerance is independent of grid-line width within a wide range and of the type of distortion, except when one side of each line remains straight. The conclusion is the main cause of the Hermann grid illusion is the straightness of the edges of the grid lines. Similar results have been obtained in the scintillating grid.
Color Assimilation
Authors: Kingdom Frederick A. A.
Published: June 2017

Color assimilation, also known as the Von Bezold spreading effect, is the phenomenon in which the perceived color of a region shifts toward that of its neighbor. This chapter describes the traditional form of color assimilation as well as three “special cases” where the effects are particularly dramatic: the chromatic White’s Effect, Monnier and Shevell’s ring patterns, and neon-color spreading. Three potential causes of color assimilation are discussed: neural blurring, contrast normalization, and perceptual layer decomposition. All three of these could contribute to White’s Effect, and their relation to the other two cases are also discussed. Discussion on assimilation versus contrast and the effect of simulation contrast is included, and several figures are provided that illustrate the concepts.
Second-Order Mach Bands, Chevreul, and Craik-O’Brien-Cornsweet Illusions
Authors: Lu Zhong-Lin , Sperling George
Published: June 2017

Second-order texture illusions, corresponding to Mach bands, Chevreul, and Craik-O’Brien-Cornsweet illusions in brightness perception, are generated by replacing luminance modulations in the classic stimuli with modulations of texture contrast. Whereas the classic (first-order) illusions exhibit changes in lightness or darkness near boundaries, the second-order stimuli exhibit analogous perceptual effects that are increases or decreases in apparent texture contrast with no concomitant change in apparent brightness. The magnitudes of the second-order texture-contrast changes are comparable to brightness changes in the classic first-order illusions. These results indicate that second-order (texture) illusions involve spatial interactions that are remarkably similar to those in first-order (luminance) processing.
The Freezing Rotation Illusion
Authors: Lorincz Erika N. , Dürsteler Max R.
Published: June 2017

A continuously rotating central texture (center) is presented together with a patterned surround oscillating back and forth. Generally, rotation of the surround induces misperceptions of the center’s angular velocity, which are known as induced rotational motion: a physically rotating center is perceived as turning faster when counterrotating with its surround and turning slower when co-rotating. However, during co-rotation, additional velocity misperceptions are observed: (a) a percept of motionless center (freezing rotation illusion) arises when the average angular velocity of the surround is fixed to a much higher value than that of the center and the appropriate oscillation frequency is set, and (b) a percept of the center sticking to its surround (rotational motion capture) arises when the average angular velocity of the surround is lower than the center velocity but higher than a given fraction of it.
The Aperture Problem
Authors: Shiffrar Maggie
Published: June 2017

The accurate visual perception of an object’s motion requires the simultaneous integration of motion information arising from that object along with the segmentation of motion information from other objects. When moving objects are seen through apertures, or viewing windows, the resultant illusions highlight some of the challenges that the visual system faces as it balances motion segmentation with motion integration. One example is the barber pole Illusion, in which lines appear to translate orthogonally to their true direction of emotion. Another is the illusory perception of incoherence when simple rectilinear objects translate or rotate behind disconnected apertures. Studies of these illusions suggest that visual motion processes frequently rely on simple form cues.
Motion Illusions in Static Patterns
Authors: Zanker Johannes M.
Published: June 2017

Some paintings, and other art forms, create vivid sensations of shimmering and movement, despite the fact that they are nothing more than simple static patterns of paint on a static canvas. This is known as a motion illusion. This chapter explores this type of visual illusion and explains why such motion sensations exist in static images. Understanding such phenomena requires the careful definition of stimulus conditions in terms of space and time, consideration of the visuomotor interaction, and the resulting space-time characteristics of the input to cortical processing networks, through modeling of a quantitative model for the neural networks that generate (in this case, illusory) perception
The Hollow-Mask Illusion and Variations
Authors: Papathomas Thomas V.
Published: June 2017

When viewers see a hollow mask, they misperceive it as a regular convex face. This is the basic form of the hollow-mask illusion, but the illusion involves misperceived motion as well. Namely, when stationary observers view a rotating hollow mask, they perceive a convex face that appears to rotate in the opposite direction; in a dual situation, moving observers perceive a stationary hollow mask as a convex face that appears to rotate as if to “follow” them. This chapter reviews the hollow-mask illusion and examines factors that enhance or weaken it, pathological responses to it, developmental and computational issues, some variants of the illusion, as well its significance in brain research.
The Bogart Effect
Authors: Gilad-Gutnick Sharon , Varma Rohan , Sinha Pawan
Published: June 2017

While a geometry-based eye-gaze estimation strategy has been the basis of many theories regarding the direction of one’s gaze, such a strategy relies on relatively detailed curvature information and therefore functions suboptimally under low-resolution viewing conditions. Partly in response to this concern, the past decade has seen the rise of luminance-based theories of eye-gaze estimation. The idea of luminance-based estimation of gaze direction arose from the observation that contrast negation affects eye-gaze perception, and an early demonstration and possible explanation for this phenomenon was offered by Sinha and named the “Bogart effect.” The Bogart Effect is an illusion of perceived gaze reversal in contrast negated images. It provides clues regarding the heuristics the visual system uses to robustly estimate gaze in real-world settings. This chapter discusses this illusion and related concepts.
Ambiguous Figures Moving Forward
Authors: Bernstein Lori J.
Published: June 2017

There is inherent ambiguity in visual proximal stimuli, yet only under special circumstances is this obvious. There are many explanations for how we so effortlessly disambiguate inherently ambiguous shape information. An ambiguous figure is a type of optical illusion in that it can give rise to multistable interpretations. Some famous examples of these types of two-dimensional figures include the face/vase and the Necker wire cube. This chapter reviews evidence showing that direction of motion impacts this process. Specifically, a moving ambiguous figure is more likely to be “seen” as the object that faces in the direction of perceived motion. This “heading effect” appears to hold up even when the motion is nonoptimal and is far from biologically accurate, as the accompanying demonstration shows. Some possible explanations for this effect are presented and insights from basic neuroscience, neuropsychological cases, and other behavioral studies are discussed.
The Scramble Illusion
Authors: Chubb Charles , Darcy Joseph , Landy Michael S. , Econopouly John , Jong-Ho Nam Dan Bindman , Sperling George
Published: June 2017

A “scramble” is a visual texture in which different gray levels are randomly mixed together. Past research has demonstrated that human vision has three dimensions of sensitivity to the different sorts of scrambles that can be created by varying the proportions of different gray levels included in the scramble. This chapter demonstrates two scrambles with dramatically different gray level histograms that appear identical unless the observer is specifically instructed to scrutinize each of them individually. It is argued that people fail to notice any difference between these two scrambles because there exist only three distinct classes of texture-sensitive neurons in the human brain that are differentially sensitive to scrambles, and in each of them these two scrambles produce identical levels of activation.
Subjective Contours
Authors: Gillam Barbara
Published: June 2017

Subjective contours are perceived edges of surfaces in locations where there is no physical contour in the image. They cannot be regarded as a general neural filling-in process because they only occur as the edges of apparently occluding surfaces (surfaces in a scene that hide other surfaces or contours). This chapter shows how subjective contours are elicited by contextual evidence for surface stratification especially by “inducers” that signal in various ways that they are occluded in the location where the subjective contour appears. This can be two-dimensional information about figure shapes and alignments or three-dimensional information about depth relationships.
Binocular Rivalry
Authors: Blake Randolph
Published: June 2017

: Binocular rivalry epitomizes the essence of a perceptual illusion in that it involves a compelling dissociation of retinal stimulation and visual experience: dissimilar monocular stimuli appear and disappear reciprocally and unpredictably over time, even though retinal images of both stimuli remain unchanged. Thus binocular rivalry is instigated when dissimilar visual stimuli are imaged on corresponding areas of the two eyes. These dissimilarities can arise from differences in form (both simple and complex), color, or direction of motion. This beguiling phenomenon—binocular rivalry—affords the psychologist a potent means for probing visual processing outside of awareness and the neurophysiologist a strategy for studying neural dynamics. Related concepts including bistable perception, interocular suppression, and neural dynamics are explored.
Blur Adaptation and Induction
Authors: Webster Michael A.
Published: June 2017

The image on the retina is always blurred because of optical aberrations of the eye. Yet typically the world does not “look” blurred, and although the acuity of the eye varies dramatically from the center of gaze to the periphery, the outside world generally “feels” focused throughout the visual field. This perception of focus is one of many illusions where the brain appears unaware of its own imperfections. The perceived focus of an image can be strongly biased by prior adaptation to a blurred or sharpened image or by simultaneous contrast from a blurred or sharpened surround. Adaptation to blur can selectively adjust to the patterns of blur introduced by different optical aberrations and may reflect adjustments that help compensate spatial perception for the optical and neural sensitivity limits of the visual system.
Sacramental Theology
Authors: Givens Terryl L.
Published: June 2017

Smith returns to a sacramentalist view, seeing ordinances as indispensable. Temples are central to this practice. Though often employed by Smith and his contemporaries in the generic sense to denote God’s laws and statutes as well as divinely prescribed rites and ceremonies, ordinances gradually came to signify for Mormons what other Christians would call sacraments. Sacraments (ordinances) provide moral reinforcement, are a counter to cosmic entropy, and themselves constitute eternal relationships, which are the essence of Mormonism’s heaven. Believing in a universal salvation requires the administration of vicarious ordinances, or temple work “for the dead.” Like Catholics, the membrane between the living and dead is therefore permeable for Mormons. This explains Mormonism’s genealogical program. The temple is the locus of Mormon sacramentalism, which has echoes of Masonic practice, but in a radically different framework.
Priesthood
Authors: Givens Terryl L.
Published: June 2017

Smith bases the church on authority, which for him means priesthood and apostolic succession. He merges prophetic and ecclesiastical modes of authority based on the Book of Mormon. Principle of Common Consent was instituted as a hedge against priesthood abuse. But the tension between prophetic, hierarchical authority and personal revelation persist. In addition to administrative functions, priesthood has actual salvific power and is of eternal rather than temporal duration. It is the power by which worlds were and are created and by which individuals are initiated into the divine family. Priesthood comprises two orders, Aaronic (bishops, priests, teachers, and deacons) and Melchizedek (apostles, patriarch, high priests, elders, and seventies).
Ecclesiastical Structure
Authors: Givens Terryl L.
Published: June 2017

The Mormon ecclesiastical structure developed as the early church grew. Bishops, high councils, and a first presidency were the earliest administrators. The next major development was the quorum of the twelve apostles, modeled on the New Testament. Smith increasingly dispersed his charismatic authority onto councils. The quorum of seventy was also envisioned as a governing quorum but more than a century was required for it to function that way. More locally, the church is administered by a stake president at the stake (diocese) level, and a bishop at the local level. The women’s Relief Society was organized as a counterpart to male priesthood, but women do not occupy offices in the priesthood which they hold or do not actually hold priesthood at all, depending on interpretation.