bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
“Extreme” Electoral Systems and the Appeal of the Mixed‐Member Alternative
Authors: Shugart Matthew Soberg
Published: October 2003

This develops an argument applicable primarily to reform in established democracies, but potentially offering insight into choices in new democracies as well: that there are certain electoral systems that may be seen as extreme on one (or both) of two dimensions—interparty and intraparty. The interparty dimension refers to the degree to which, on the one hand, a single party forms a majority government on well under a majority of votes, or, on the other hand, coalitions are formed among several parties; the intraparty dimension refers to a continuum of electoral systems from those in which legislators depend exclusively on their own personal votes to those in which votes are given exclusively to parties such that legislators have no direct ties to voters. Suggests that electoral systems that are extreme on one or both of these dimensions are inherently prone to reformist pressures, and also shows that much of the appeal of mixed‐member systems derives from how they appear to balance the extremes on each of these dimensions: the trade‐off on the interparty dimension, which is between majoritarian and proportional forms of representation; and the trade‐off on the intraparty dimension, which is between ‘strong candidates’ and ‘strong parties’. Brief studies are presented of five cases of reform from extreme electoral systems to mixed‐member systems: New Zealand (formerly a pluralitarian system); Italy and Israel (formerly hyper‐representative systems); Japan (formerly a hyper‐personalistic system); and Venezuela (formerly a hyper‐centralized system). The ideas presented in the chapter form the basis for the set of key questions presented to the authors of the country chapters in Part II of the book.
Choosing MMP in New Zealand: Explaining the 1993 Electoral Reform
Authors: Denemark David
Published: October 2003

Explores several of the factors that significantly affected the transition of New Zealand's political system from a pluralitarian (extreme majoritarian) system famous for its tranquil efficacy to an MMP (mixed‐member proportional) system renowned for its vengeful reformism. These factors include: (1) dealignment; (2) minor party under‐representation; (3) the under‐representation of minority groups in an era of increasing multiculturalism; (4) radical, unpopular economic reform by successive Labour and National party governments; and (5) the parliamentary ‘other side’ of the calculus—the provision of both a Royal Commission, which highlighted representational failings of the Westminster system while legitimating MMP specifically as an alternative electoral system, and indicative and binding referendums, which gave New Zealand's voters the final say in determining the fate of the country's electoral system. The extent to which these issues were important in vote choices of electors in the 1993 referendum is also considered. A last section considers the overall explanations for New Zealand's turn to MMP, and the chapter includes a table that shows a timeline of electoral change in New Zealand since 1985 (the period immediately preceding the reform of 1993) and an appendix giving a sketch of the MMP system in New Zealand.
The Sources of Electoral Reform in Venezuela
Authors: Crisp Brian F. , Rey Juan Carlos
Published: October 2003

Recent electoral reform in Venezuela, including the adoption of a mixed‐member proportional (MMP) system, has occurred in the context of crisis. Recounts the history leading from the situation of an extreme electoral system with a very dominant party leadership (a hyper‐centralized system) to the adoption of the MMP system in 1993—in which it was hoped that legislators would be more accountable to voters in the newly created single‐seat geographic constituencies; the system adopted is described as the result of compromise. The first section describes the electoral system and how it has evolved, emphasizing issues of ‘electoral efficiency’. The next section analyzes the reform process and the role/motivations of various actors in the move to an MMP system. With these historical data in hand, the chapter concludes by putting the system for electing congress in the context of wider systemic, institutional issues.
Electoral Reform in Bolivia: Origins of the Mixed‐Member Proportional System
Authors: Mayorga René Antonio
Published: October 2003

In 1994, Bolivia undertook a major constitutional and electoral reform, in which a closed‐list proportional representation (PR) system for the Lower House of the Congress was replaced by a mixed‐member proportional (MMP) system. Article 60 of the reformed constitution establishes that 68 deputies out of a constitutionally fixed number of 130 will be chosen by plurality rule in single‐seat districts, while the remaining 62 will be chosen by party‐list voting according to proportional representation in nine regional multi‐seat districts. This new electoral system establishes seats linkage between the two tiers such that the overall allocation of seats is determined proportionally according to list votes at the level of each multi‐seat district. In analyzing the underlying causes of the electoral reform in 1994, Mayorga first deals with the widely perceived fundamental problems and flaws of the traditional PR system and, second, addresses the main causes leading to the adoption of an MMP system, focusing on the context in which the politics of electoral reform was carried out.
Reforming Electoral Systems in Mexico
Authors: Horcasitas Juan Molinar , Weldon Jeffrey A.
Published: October 2003

Mexico has a long experience with highly majoritarian variants of mixed‐member systems, but has recently been made more proportional in a process of democratization. Electoral reform has developed along two major axes: the degree of proportionality, and the composition of the electoral authority, with the parties often trading openness on one axis for closure on the other. Sometimes trade‐offs in reform negotiations followed a third dimension—the registration requirements for new parties. This chapter first describes the evolution of the Mexican electoral formulae from 1963 to today, explaining the rationale of each phase of reform either as a majority party decision or as a trade‐off between government and opposition; the phases described are the plurality party deputy system (1963–1976), the mixed‐member majoritarian (MMM) minority representation system (1979–1985), the governability clause of the 1988 law, the governability clause with ‘moving escalator’ of the 1991 law, and the abandonment of the governability clause in the 1994 law. The last part of the chapter focuses on the last round of electoral reforms (the 1997 law), in which the mixed‐member majoritarian (MMM) system reintroduced in 1994 (after the earlier brief interludes of systems that combined MMM with mixed‐member proportional (MMP) arrangements under the 1988 and 1991 laws), was further reformed to result in a more proportional allocation of seats, with the dominant principle depending on the vote distribution.
Hedging Against Uncertainty: Regime Change and the Origins of Hungary's Mixed‐Member System
Authors: Schiemann John W.
Published: October 2003

This examines why Hungary adopted a mixed‐member (MM) electoral system by analyzing the bargaining process that produced it. The discussion of Hungary's negotiated transition to democracy from communism in 1989 shows that the country's MM system emerged as the result of a patchwork grafting of different components rather than a systematically conceived and coherently designed grand plan to meet broad societal needs. The coalition of opposition parties and the ruling Hungarian Socialist Workers’ Party that negotiated the electoral law in National Roundtable talks attempted to design a system that would both maximize the seat shares of their individual parties and allocate those seats to top‐party elites. They pursued these objectives, however, under a thickening veil of ex ante uncertainty about ex post electoral outcomes, and indeed, the thickening of the veil during the Roundtable talks caused the ruling Socialists to hedge their bets on the global features of the system, combining different sets of rules in order to allocate seats in multiple ways. The chapter proceeds as follows: the first section provides some necessary historical background, discussing previous electoral systems in Hungary's fleeting periods of democratic rule and under communism, as well as the struggles over the reform of the law leading up to the National Trilateral (Roundtable) talks that produced the system in use today; the second section briefly describes the electoral system resulting from the electoral law of 1989, identifying the significant elements of the law and disaggregating the institution into its individual components; the third section discusses the background to the National Roundtable talks, and the fourth turns to the negotiated design of the 1989 law in order to explain the origin of the significant components of the Hungarian electoral system; the last section summarizes the discussion.
Compromise Amidst Political Conflict: The Origins of Russia's Mixed‐Member System
Authors: Moser Robert G. , Thames Frank C.
Published: October 2003

The introduction of a mixed‐member majoritarian (MMM) electoral system in Russia came in the midst of a violent struggle between President Boris Yeltsin and a communist and nationalist opposition, after which Yeltsin was left to construct a new electoral system and a new constitutional order unopposed. Explains the development and maintenance of the MMM system in Russia as a compromise between competing intraparty and interparty goals, first within the small circle drafting the executive decree in 1993, and then between competing institutions in the struggle over the electoral law in 1995. The designers of the presidential decree that implemented the system saw a mixed‐member system as being able to promote the formation of national parties while maintaining regional representation, and despite the preponderance of power that Yeltsin held throughout this process, the system was not crafted exclusively for the interests of a particular party or ideological camp. It is argued that the system that eventually emerged was a product of competing goals, uncertainty over future electoral outcomes, and compromise between competing institutions. The chapter proceeds as follows: the first section briefly examines the historical background of elections in Russia and provides an overview of the MMM system adopted in 1993; the second describes the process surrounding Yeltsin's executive decree establishing the electoral system for the 1993 election; the third looks at the adoption of the electoral law in 1995; the final section draws some conclusions.
An Initial Assessment of the Consequences of MMP in New Zealand
Authors: Barker Fiona , Boston Jonathan , Levine Stephen , McLeay Elizabeth , Roberts Nigel S.
Published: October 2003

The purpose is to provide an initial assessment of the impact of the introduction of the mixed‐member proportional (MMP) electoral system on the New Zealand political system, especially with regard to the normative criteria established by the New Zealand Royal Commission on the Electoral System. However, since the normative nature of these criteria may limit the breadth of any analysis (they are not necessarily comprehensive and unambiguous, nor do they provide a watertight framework for evaluation), this particular discussion of the impact of MMP on the New Zealand political system is left until the last section. The bulk of the chapter instead employs the findings of political scientists on the relationships between electoral systems, political behavior, and political institutions. These are presented in 10 sections: Anticipating the New Electoral System; The Election and Government Formation; The Political Parties and the Party System; Political Recruitment and Careers; Voting Behavior; Parliament; Government Transition and Durability; Government and the Policy Process; The Future of the New Electoral System; and Winners and Losers. The authors make the point that (as in Germany) personalized geographic representation has continued even as the overall system has been made more proportional.
The Israeli Mixed Electoral System: Unexpected Reciprocal and Cumulative Consequences
Authors: Hazan Reuven Y.
Published: October 2003

This analyzes the consequences of the Israeli version of a mixed electoral system, in which a majoritarian method of electing the head of the executive branch was grafted onto an extremely proportional system of electing the legislature. Focuses on the first two elections in which this mixed system was implemented, 1996 and 1999, and in doing so, concentrates on two aspects of the elections: the election results, i.e., the decimation of the two main parties and the rise of sectarian parties (fragmentation of the parliamentary system); and the electoral dynamics, i.e., the convergence toward the center in both the executive and the legislative elections. The most significant ramifications of the implementation of the direct popular election of the prime minister have been a significant shift in the electoral strength of the parties and a dramatic change in the competitive electoral orientation of the Israeli party system. Neither result was expected by those who initiated and propelled the electoral reform, while many of the actual expectations of the reform were not met. Arranged in the following sections: The Israeli Version of a Mixed Electoral System and Resulting Hybrid Political System; and The Consequences of the Mixed Electoral System for (1) Electoral Competition, (2) Political Representation, and (3) Electoral Efficiency.
The Consequences of Electoral Reform in Japan
Authors: Reed Steven R. , Thies Michael F.
Published: October 2003

In January 1994, the Japanese Diet (Parliament) passed two major political reform laws, the first changing the system used to elect its Lower House (the House of Representatives) and the second aimed at cleaning up campaign finance practices. After this, Japanese parties, candidates, and voters were faced with a completely new set of rules for Lower House elections, and the purpose of this chapter is to assess the effects of this electoral system revision. First describes the old electoral system, in which the members of the Lower House were elected by single, non‐transferable vote (SNTV) from multi‐member districts, and the new one, which is a mixed‐member majoritarian (MMM) system; key changes are pointed out. The following two sections describe the political changes that seem to have followed from the electoral reform, discussing first the interparty dimension (party‐system consequences) and second, the intraparty dimension (party organization and personalistic politics), with specific reference to whether or not the MMM system has solved the problems of the SNTV system (intraparty competition and its personalistic consequences) and thereby increased the efficiency of the electoral system. The last part briefly discusses the inadequacy of equilibrium‐based analyses for the study of dynamic processes.
The Legislative Consequences of MMP Electoral Rules in Venezuela
Authors: Kulisheck Michael R. , Crisp Brian F.
Published: October 2003

The inaugural mixed‐member proportional (MMP) elections were held in Venezuela in 1993. According to the MMP electoral rules in Venezuela, approximately half of the Chamber of Deputies is elected from single‐seat districts in the nominal tier of the system, and half is elected from closed party lists in the list tier. Analyzes how electoral incentives associated with the two tiers affect campaigns, elections, legislative entrepreneurship, and representation, and considers political behaviour and attitudes to be responses both to the institutional incentives associated with electoral rules and party structures, and to the actions of politically active citizens and interest organizations. The chapter has three sections: the first discusses the effects of MMP on the interparty dimension, examining proportionality and the effective number of parties, and analyzing party strategies for joining pre‐election coalitions in the nominal and list tier elections; the second and third sections look at the intraparty dimension, analyzing distinctions between the incentives and behaviour of members elected in each tier. The second section analyzes legislative entrepreneurship in the Chamber of Deputies before and after the adoption of the MMP system; the third section (Legislators, Parties and Representation) shows that legislators elected in the nominal and list tiers view campaigns and legislative representation differently, but that the adoption of MMP rules has not altered the strong relationships between established interest organizations and representatives in the Congress.
The Consequences of Mexico's Mixed‐Member Electoral System, 1988–1997
Authors: Weldon Jeffrey A.
Published: October 2003

Mexico has experimented with mixed‐member electoral systems for many years, is probably the second oldest mixed‐member system after Germany, and has modified its mixed system more than any other country. The purpose behind the electoral reforms has always been the same: to open up the system enough to satisfy political demands, but not so much that the hegemonic party loses control. Although the latter could to a large extent be controlled by electoral fraud, the former objective still had to be addressed, and over the last 35 years Mexico has seen a gradual but consistent expansion of proportional representation, so that by 1997, the electoral laws, together with electoral preferences and the general democratization of the country, had led to the end of majority control by the official party in the Chamber of Deputies, and Mexico now has a strong two‐ or three‐party system. However, there have been seven fundamentally different electoral systems in Mexico this century, with a different electoral system for each of the last five elections, which makes it impossible to distinguish the effects of electoral rules from those of voter preference; furthermore, most of the reforms are highly endogenous with the party system. Discusses reforms from 1964 onwards, and is arranged as follows: it first describes the party (minority) deputy system that operated under single‐seat district plurality rules in the period 1964–1976, and then the minority representation system of 1979–1985 (mixed‐member majoritarian (MMM) rules were introduced for the 1979 election); next it gives accounts of the 1988, 1991, 1994 and 1997 mixed‐member electoral laws, and details of the senate formulas for the period 1994–2000; it then discusses the consequences of the four mixed‐member electoral laws (effects on party competition and Duvergerian effects), the effects of the change to an MMM system on legislative behavior, and the prospects for future electoral reform.
Electoral Rules and Electoral Reform in Canada
Authors: Weaver R. Kent
Published: October 2003

The puzzle addressed by this chapter is why electoral reform for the Canadian House of Commons has so rarely made it to the agenda, let alone to adoption, despite the existence of widely recognized problems with the current electoral system, the experience of several rounds of constitutional reform in which the issue could have been raised, and relatively weak constitutional barriers to reform. The first section, ‘Electoral Rules and the Party System’, provides background on how the Canadian party system has evolved under the current set of single‐seat district (SSD) plurality electoral rules. The second section, ‘Explaining the Limited Electoral Reform Agenda in Canada’, examines why electoral reform for the Canadian House of Commons has so rarely been on the political agenda. The final section, ‘Prospects for Electoral Reform in the Future’,discusses conditions under which electoral reform might come onto the agenda in the near future, and whether it is likely to do so.
The New Economy: A European Perspective
Authors: Soete Luc
Published: October 2003

In this chapter, the account of the emergence of the new learning economy is based on research carried out within the framework of the European Commission's Targeted Socio–Economic Research (TSER) project ‘Technology and Employment’. In the first section, some aggregate economic evidence is briefly reviewed that shows a remarkable divergence in growth pattern between the USA, and Europe and Japan over the last decade. In the second section, some of the main new features of the economy as identified by Business Week (globalization and digitization) are reviewed. The third section discusses the challenges posed to traditional economic concepts, and in particular, to the functioning of markets by a more open, immaterial economy in which value generation is less related to material production than to information content, distribution, and consumer interaction. Lastly, some policy conclusions are drawn.
Europe at the Crossroads: The Challenge from Innovation‐Based Growth
Authors: Fagerberg Jan
Published: October 2003

Europe's performance relative to the USA and countries in Asia is a topic that greatly preoccupies policy makers who are concerned that the European Union (EU) is losing ground compared with other, more dynamic parts of the world. This chapter points to disconcerting trends in EU performance: productivity growth has slowed down relative to competitors; export competitiveness has deteriorated in all areas except agriculture and raw materials; losses have been manifest in the technologically most sophisticated industries, particularly in ICT (information and communication technology), which requires innovation‐based growth; and a failure to create employment on a scale at all comparable with that of the USA or Japan, with obvious repercussions for unemployment. While until recently there was a tendency towards convergence in productivity and income between European regions, there are now signs of a reversal of this trend. These issues are discussed including the possible role of European economic integration in lack of market competitiveness.
The Production of Technological Knowledge: New Issues in a Learning Economy
Authors: Cohendet Patrick , Joly Pierre‐Benoît
Published: October 2003

Investigates the new ways of producing technological knowledge that are now operating in society. Beyond understanding the mechanisms at stake in transformation, major conclusions can be drawn for the science and technology policy, particularly for the organization, and incentives within the public research domain. From this perspective, in the first part of the chapter, the main features of the traditional vision of knowledge production are briefly recalled; these are based on the distinction between science and technology on the one hand, and public and private research on the other. The second part is devoted to an analysis of the new mode of production of knowledge, which involves (1) increased ways of codifying knowledge that increase the level of externalities, (2) changes in the role and behaviour of private (industrial) and public research, and (3) a reconsideration of incentive mechanisms towards coordination. The last part deduces the consequences of the change of paradigm on public policy.
Universities in the Learning Economy: Balancing Institutional Integrity With Organizational Diversity
Authors: Conceição Pedro , Heitor Manuel
Published: October 2003

Suggests two important ideas: first, it is proposed that the institutional integrity of the university needs to be preserved, since universities are a special type of learning organization specialized in producing and diffusing knowledge in unique ways; second, it is argued that, important as universities are, they are not enough to guarantee prosperity, and there is a need to promote a diversity of organizational arrangements, even at the higher education level, which could then be a major contributor to ensuring the institutional integrity of the university. The analysis is based on the way organizations deal with knowledge, i.e. the way they promote ‘learning’, where learning is understood as the mechanisms through which knowledge is produced and diffused. Hence, the chapter starts by describing a conceptual framework where the understanding of learning as a process of knowledge accumulation is made explicit. Next, the application of this model to the context of the university is discussed. The concluding section summarizes the main arguments of the chapter.
A New Role for Business Services in Economic Growth
Authors: Tomlinson Mark
Published: October 2003

Attempts to synthesize and summarize the main results of some recent quantitative macroeconomic analyses of the impact of business services (and knowledge‐intensive business services, in particular) on economic performance. Some background explanations are provided of the phenomena considered and some policy issues adumbrated that arise from this new research. It has been shown that although there are differing levels of knowledge‐intensive service activity in different countries, the impact that these services have on economic performance is highly significant in all the countries studied so far; this has several implications regarding the way in which services are viewed vis‐à‐vis manufacturing, and it also has important consequences for industrial policy. The chapter begins with a brief discussion of the traditional role of services in economic development and of how the theoretical underpinnings of older debates are now being challenged. A selection of the results of analysing knowledge‐intensive services from more recent literature at the macroeconomic level is then discussed, and conclusions drawn.
The Globalization of Technology and National Policies
Authors: Archibugi Daniele , Iammarino Simona
Published: October 2003

In the last few years, many heterogeneous phenomena have been put together under the label ‘technological globalization’ and the concept has thus lost much of its original clarity. This chapter aims to identify three different categories that compose the globalization of technology, with a view to understanding what the impact of each is on national economies, and what public policies can do to exploit the available technological knowledge for welfare and growth. The first section analyses the effects of globalization of innovation for single nations according to a taxonomy that breaks down into three categories: the international exploitation of technology, the global generation of innovations, and global technical collaborations. The next section explores the implications of each of these three typologies of the globalization of technology for public policies, and suggests that no single strategy can be used to address all three globalization processes. However, contrary to what is held to be the dominant laissez‐faire view, it is argued that the dynamics of globalization need a more active role of governments and a much broader battery of public policy instruments to allow national economies to exploit the available opportunities.
Social Exclusion in the Learning Economy
Authors: Schienstock Gerd
Published: October 2003

An analysis is made of the impact that the emerging learning economy may have on the processes of social exclusion with the focus on the sphere of work, since employment is seen as the core of the social tie that links individuals within society. The first section of the chapter discusses globalization and the learning economy. Next, the changing patterns of (un)employment (flexible employment, as exemplified by part‐time work, temporary work, home‐working, and self employment) and career structure are addressed that are caused by global competition, moves towards a learning economy, individualization of work in the labour process, and restructuring. The next two sections address first, regional exclusion, and second, social exclusion arising directly from the learning economy as the result of the formation of a new underclass of workers whose knowledge can be codified and automated, so that they become unnecessary. The last three sections address the policy implications of social security, and individual‐targeted and general strategies for combating social exclusion.
Innovation Policy in the Globalizing Learning Economy
Authors: Lundvall Bengt‐Åke
Published: October 2003

In the introductory chapter, it was argued that an even broader set of policies needs to be integrated in a strategy to cope with the challenges of the learning economy. In this concluding chapter, the focus is on policies aiming directly at enhancing the capability to adapt and innovate. The first section discusses a new theoretical rationale for innovation policy by analysing different sources of competence building at the firm level. In doing so, it locates five areas where there is a special need to intervene in order to enhance the learning capability of the economy (human resource development, creating new forms of organization, building innovative networks, reorienting innovation policy towards service sectors, and integrating universities in the innovation process); these are discussed in the second section. The last two sections of the chapter address innovation policy in a wider perspective, and a European agenda for innovative policy.
The Material Conditional: Grice
Authors: Bennett Jonathan
Published: October 2003

Discussion of Grice's view that indicative conditionals are material conditionals, and his attempt to explain away apparent counter‐evidence by appeal to his excellent theory of conversational implicature. Discusses failure of this attempt: indicatives obey the so‐called ‘Ramsey test’, and Grice's theory cannot explain this.
The Equation Attacked
Authors: Bennett Jonathan
Published: October 2003

Presents and evaluates a series of attacks on The Equation, i.e. the view that an indicative conditional ‘If A, C’ is a proposition whose subjective probability for you is always your conditional probability for C given A. Work by Lewis, Carlstrom and Hill, Stalnaker, Edgington, and Hájek is considered. The attacks succeed, but only if indicative conditionals are propositions with truth values.
Indicative Conditionals Lack Truth Values
Authors: Bennett Jonathan
Published: October 2003

Defence of Adams's thesis that indicative conditionals with false antecedents lack truth values. Comparison of this with the analogous thesis about moral judgements; discussion of the difference between expressing and asserting in the context of Gricean ideas about meaning.
The Competition for ‘Closest’
Authors: Bennett Jonathan
Published: October 2003

Discussion of the idea that there is never a closest antecedent world, and the opposing ‘limit assumption’ that says that there are limits to how fine grained a respect of world comparison can be. Relation of all this to conditional excluded middle for subjunctive conditionals. The meaning of ‘might’ in such conditionals.
Forks
Authors: Bennett Jonathan
Published: October 2003

Unless something to the contrary is explicitly said in a given subjunctive conditional, the closest antecedent worlds are ones that are exactly like the actual world until shortly before the time of the antecedent and then fork away from such likeness in some inconspicuous manner. The alternatives are: the closest world is unlike the actual world through all pre‐antecedent time; at the closest world, the antecedent comes to be true with a ‘bump’. This chapter discusses what goes on at a fork and the temporal locations of forks.
Truth at the Actual World
Authors: Bennett Jonathan
Published: October 2003

Discussion of a range of problems about subjunctive ‘If P, Q’ in cases when P is actually true and in cases when Q is actually true. The particular‐fact problem concerning subjunctives about indeterministic events (‘If you had bet heads, you would have won’); its solution, involving notion of ‘same causal chain’. Independent subjunctives are identified and snubbed.
Subjunctive Conditionals and Probability
Authors: Bennett Jonathan
Published: October 2003

By Lewis's account, it may be unduly hard for subjunctive conditionals to be outright true. We could weaken them by deeming each one to be true if its antecedent makes its consequent highly probable. Or we could follow Edgington's proposal that subjunctive conditionals should not be thought of in terms of truth at all but only of probability. It is shown here that adopting this proposal would not significantly narrow the chasm between subjunctives and indicatives.
Subjunctive Conditionals and Time's Arrow
Authors: Bennett Jonathan
Published: October 2003

Lewis tried to use his analysis of subjunctive conditionals to explain time's arrow: our sense of the fixity of the past and non‐fixity of the future. This required him to state his analysis—and thus his conditions for closeness of worlds—without using any temporal‐order concepts, only temporal‐metric ones. Criticism of his ingenious attempt to do this, especially his thesis about what it takes for there to be a convergence of two previously unalike worlds.
Support Theories
Authors: Bennett Jonathan
Published: October 2003

Detailed exposition and evaluation of Goodman's approach to subjunctive conditionals. The cotenability problem is shown to be an amalgam of two problems: about causal contraposition and about logical cleansing. Solutions by Parry are expounded, with help from Pollock's notion of a simple proposition.
The Need for Worlds
Authors: Bennett Jonathan
Published: October 2003

Comparison between the ‘worlds’ approach to subjunctive conditionals and the Goodman approach. Much of each of them can be restated in terms of the other; but some requirements for a plausible account of subjunctives can be satisfied in terms of worlds but not in Goodman's terms. Also, Goodman's vexatious cotenability problem dissolves in the world's framework. A special feature of Pollock's account subjunctives is discussed.
Relating the Two Kinds of Conditional
Authors: Bennett Jonathan
Published: October 2003

Presents Bennett's theory about the different kinds of bases upon which indicative conditionals may be accepted; bases that enable one to explain the antecedent, or the consequent, or some other fact not expressed in the conditional. It is shown that bases of two of these kinds also support the corresponding subjunctive, while bases of the third kind do not; and that the classification of bases does not yield a classification of conditionals. This destroys the only persuasive reason for accepting the relocation thesis, according to which subjunctives should be grouped with indicatives of the type ‘If it rains tonight, the roads will be wet in the morning’.
Introduction
Authors: Heil John
Published: October 2003

Ontology is inescapable: even anti‐realists must be realists about something (minds, language, theories). Contemporary ontology has suffered from allegiance to an implicit Picture Theory of language according to which we can ‘read off’ features of the world from our ways of talking about it. One result is the widespread popularity of ‘levels’ of reality.
Abandoning the Levels Conception: First Steps
Authors: Heil John
Published: October 2003

Proponents of the idea that reality is hierarchical appeal to the ‘multiple realizability’ of higher‐level properties. The ontology of multiple realizability is fuzzy, however, and in any case, we can accommodate putative examples of multiple realizability without positing higher‐level properties. Predicates taken to name such properties are better understood as being satisfied by diverse but similar properties. Ontological reduction does not imply analytical or explanatory reduction.
Truth Making
Authors: Heil John
Published: October 2003

Truths require truth‐makers; but what is it to be ‘made true’? One possibility: truth‐makers entail truths. I reject this account, arguing that entailment is a relation holding among representations, and suggesting that the entailment model owes its plausibility to an implicit acceptance of the Picture Theory.
Properties as Pure Powers
Authors: Heil John
Published: October 2003

Properties are powers, but not pure powers. A world comprising objects, properties of which are exclusively dispositional, like a purely relational world, is indistinguishable from an empty world. If there are such worlds, they are bad models for ours. Powers and qualities go hand in hand.
Universals
Authors: Heil John
Published: October 2003

An ontology that admits properties can treat properties as universals or particulars. Universals can be transcendent Platonic entities or in rebus: wholly present in each of their instances (and nowhere else). If properties are universals, similarity is reducible to identity: objects are similar by virtue of sharing constituents. This advantage is not enough to compensate for striking disadvantages, however.
Modes
Authors: Heil John
Published: October 2003

Suppose Locke were right: ‘All things that exist are only particulars’. Properties are modes; modes (tropes, abstract particulars), particularized ways objects are. Objects ‘share’ or possess ‘the same’ property in the way two brokers can wear the same tie to work. Objects are similar by virtue of possessing similar modes; modes are similar tout court.
Imperfect Similarity
Authors: Heil John
Published: October 2003

Universals provide an explanation of similarity: similar objects share properties. Imperfect similarity among complex properties is explained by ‘partial identity’ of their constituents. What if simple properties could be imperfectly similar? This manifest possibility suggests that even proponents of universals require brute (imperfect) similarities, and a principal advantage of universals over modes evaporates.
The Seventh Sense
Authors: Kivy Peter
Published: October 2003

I have tried to do two things in this book: first, to make an analytic study of Francis Hutcheson's Inquiry Concerning Beauty, Order, Harmony, and Design, in some detail and completeness; second, to trace the development in Britain of its leading idea, the sense of beauty, to its decline at the close of the eighteenth century.
The Sense of “Beauty”
Authors: Kivy Peter
Published: October 2003

Concerns Hutcheson's theory of the nature of beauty.
Varieties of Aesthetic Experience
Authors: Kivy Peter
Published: October 2003

Deals with the proliferation of aesthetic categories, and its implications for Hutcheson's theory of the sense of beauty.
God and Aesthetics
Authors: Kivy Peter
Published: October 2003

Concerns Hutcheson's theological explanation for the existence of the sense of beauty in human beings.
The Rise of Association
Authors: Kivy Peter
Published: October 2003

Concerns the concept of the association of ideas, and its effect on the concept of the sense of beauty.
The Triumph of Association
Authors: Kivy Peter
Published: October 2003

Concerns the displacement of the aesthetic sense theory by the doctrine of the association of ideas, as propounded by Archibald Alison.
The Logic of Taste: The First Fifty Years
Authors: Kivy Peter
Published: October 2003

Deals with how the perception of beauty was conceived of, what its ‘logic’ was, in the first fifty years of modern aesthetic theory, or, rather, how it evolved, from Joseph Addison to David Hume.
Hume's Neighbour's Wife: An Essay on the Evolution of Hume's Aesthetics
Authors: Kivy Peter
Published: October 2003

Traces the evolution of Hume's theory of taste and beauty from the Treatise to the essay ‘Of the Standard of Taste’, with special emphasis on the advantages of his ‘epistemic’ stance over Hutcheson's ‘non‐epistemic’ one.
Hume's “Sentiments” In the Essay on Taste
Authors: Kivy Peter
Published: October 2003

Deals with Hume's two meanings of the word ‘sentiment’ in the essay ‘Of the Standard of Taste’, and the danger of conflating them.
The Logic of Taste: Reid and the Second Fifty Years
Authors: Kivy Peter
Published: October 2003

Traces the changes in the logic of aesthetic perception in the second half of the eighteenth century, culminating in Thomas Reid's theory of taste and beauty.
Philosophy and Politics
Authors: Kuklick Bruce
Published: October 2003

During the Revolutionary and Constitutional period, politics dominated the intellectual elite in a way that almost excluded religious claims. After this time, social and political thought developed in their own more practical, less philosophical tradition, oriented to the secular concerns of the Founding Fathers and following the interests of Benjamin Franklin. The tradition of philosophical theology, dominated by students of Jonathan Edwards only studied politics and society as a study derivative of its ideas about religious knowledge, and this tradition was eventually critical in American philosophy.
Theological Dispute, 1750–1858
Authors: Kuklick Bruce
Published: October 2003

From 1750–1850, a philosophical theology rooted in the work of Jonathan Edwards dominated speculative thought in America. A group of Edwards's students, followers of ‘New Divinity,’ were led by Joseph Bellamy, Samuel Hopkins, and Nathaniel Emmons, who defended both God's sovereignty and human free will. They eventually professionalized in schools of theology led by Charles Hodge at Princeton, and, at Yale by Nathaniel William Taylor, a brilliant innovator and expositor of ideas that injected Scottish realism into theological debate.
Pragmatism in Cambridge, 1867–1923
Authors: Kuklick Bruce
Published: October 2003

The most successful idealistic response to Darwin occurred in Cambridge, Massachusetts and, soon thereafter, at Harvard University. At first promoted by a group of amateurs in ‘the Metaphysical Club’, this version of idealism was called pragmatism, and its first champion was Charles Peirce. Pragmatism defined the mental as a form of behaviour, allowed for a religious dimension to exist, and (for Peirce) looked to the practice of natural scientists and logicians for the paradigms of knowledge.
Cartesian Explanation
Authors: Clarke Desmond M.
Published: October 2003

Descartes argued that the model for genuine explanation is provided by natural philosophy and that scholastic theories that appeal to substantial forms or real qualities are pseudo‐explanations. Thus, one cannot explain mental acts by reference to a mental substance. The intractability of mind–body interaction illustrates the limits of our explanatory success to date.
Passions of the Soul
Authors: Clarke Desmond M.
Published: October 2003

The Cartesian explanation of emotions relies on the theory of animal spirits that is central to his account of sensation and a hypothesis about innate desires and aversions. Emotions are the distinctive feelings we experience in response to the apparent perception of things that satisfy or frustrate our natural desires. These feelings, similar to internal sensations, correspond systematically to patterns in the flow of animal spirits from the heart to the brain.
Human Language
Authors: Clarke Desmond M.
Published: October 2003

Natural signs that express emotions, such as laughing or crying, are not limited to human animals. For Descartes, even machines could learn and use a limited language for responding, predictably, to stimuli. The flexibility provided by conventional signs, by abstraction, and by its associated rationality allows for unpredictable responses to stimuli.
Describing Thought: The Subjective View
Authors: Clarke Desmond M.
Published: October 2003

Any explanation of human mental operations requires an adequate description of what is to be explained. Descartes devotes much of his work to describing characteristic features of human mental activity, such as the transparency of consciousness, the intentionality of thought, and the human capacity for abstraction that makes possible a form of thinking that is so independent of images that it may be called ‘pure’.
US–UN Relations in the UN Security Council in the Post‐Cold War Era
Authors: Malone David M.
Published: October 2003

An examination is made of the evolution of US behaviour in the United Nations Security Council since the 1990s; this behaviour shows an inconsistency born out of a general suspicion of the organization, particularly of its General Assembly, and the author demonstrates that US historical experience of the UN largely explains that suspicion. First provides some evidence of this US inconsistency of behaviour, with reference both to conflict resolution and humanitarian issues. Then goes on to explain the primary influences on this behaviour, arguing that US ambivalence towards the UN has been more affected by struggles over a New International Economic Order in the 1970s and US perceptions of unbalanced UN approaches to the Arab–Israeli dispute than by the end of the cold war. Having made special reference to America's chequered historical experience of the UN, the chapter examines the ways in which negative perceptions of the UN have played out in US domestic politics, particularly since the late 1990s. Finally, America's experience of the UN's expanded post‐cold‐war security agenda is reviewed, noting that the inherent tensions between the promotion of values and the promotion of interests, and the difficulties of relating means to ends, have come sharply to the fore during this period.
The United States and the International Financial Institutions: Power and Influence Within the World Bank and the IMF
Authors: Woods Ngaire
Published: October 2003

Examines the role of the US in international financial institutions with particular reference to the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Describes the extraordinary influence of the US on these institutions as a function of both formal means (e.g., US financial contributions) and informal practices and conventions that have developed over time, with the informal mechanisms of influence often being more important than the formal ones. However, it is also argued that, notwithstanding the weight of US influence, it would be inaccurate to consider the World Bank and the IMF as mere instruments of US power and policy, and that their remaining credibility and legitimacy rest in part on their ability to create some political distance between themselves and their most powerful state patron. US domestic political conditions are also important. Within the country, the division of authority between Executive and Congress sometimes enhances and at other times constrains US influence; the effective exercise of US power also requires interlocutors in host governments who share the technical mind‐set and ideological predispositions of the US and international financial institutions. The different sections of the chapter: analyse the formal and informal structures of power in the World Bank and IMF; look at the US in relation to the financing, lending decisions, staffing and management of these institutions; and discuss formal power structures and informal exercises of influence.