bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Communist Uprisings of 1926–27 in Indonesia: A Re-interpretation
Authors: Stromquist Shelton
Published: August 2009

It is the thesis of this paper that the Communist Uprisings of 1926–27 in Indonesia were neither “proto-nationalist” nor a “revolution of hope”, as they have been called by two historians. I shall try to show that there were decidedly nationalist characteristics in the demands which the Communists made, in the objects against which the revolt was directed, and in the makeup of the Communist leadership at both the highest and secondary levels; furthermore, that, despite the era of prosperity which the colony was enjoying, the situation of the peasant was worsening.
Australia and Indonesian Independence
Authors: Hudson W. J.
Published: August 2009

Relations between Australia and Indonesia became strained within months of Indonesia's attainment of independence, deteriorating as conflict developed first on the question of West Irian and then as a result of Indonesia's hostility towards Malaysia. For many years, it seemed ironical that Australia should have played a major part in the emergence of a neighbour whose external policies and internal trends endangered rather than safeguarded Australian interests. But there is more involved here than historical irony in the context of Australian-Indonesian relations. Sufficient time has now elapsed for Australian policy on the Indonesian independence question to be seen in the wider context of the whole postwar phenomenon of decolonisation. For it is not merely of interest that Australia should have assisted neighbouring Asian rebels against a European colonial Power (remembering that Australia herself was, and is, a European colonial Power) and should then have been embarrassed by the activities of the rebels coming to office. It is of greater interest that, of the immense number of colonial issues anxiously engaging the attention of international society in the 1940s and 1950s, the years which saw the virtual demise of western colonialism, this was the one issue on which Australia took up the rebel cause. Throughout this period and irrespective of the complexion of the parties in power in Canberra, Australia persistently jeopardised her regional objective of friendly relations with anti-colonial Asia by opposing strongly and, at times, bitterly the anti-colonial cause in the United Nations. If nothing else, the United Nations has provided a forum in which each year Australia and other members have been forced to declare themselves on colonial questions. And, until the 1960s when Australia switched policy, Australia fought against all the anti-colonial Powers' largely successful attempts to have developed a system of international control over colonies under the authority of Chapter XI (“Declaration Regarding Non-Self-Governing Territories”) of the United Nations charter, to tighten the trusteeship system of supervision erected under Chapters XII and XIII of the charter, and to involve the United Nations in particular disputes so as to meet alleged threats to peace — all of them being attempts, however indirectly, to hasten the attainment of independence by dependent territories. Thus, Australia supported South Africa on South-West Africa, the Netherlands on West New Guinea, the British on Southern Rhodesia and Oman, the Portuguese on their African territories, the French on Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria. But Australia opposed the Netherlands on the Indonesian question.
Malaysia-Singapore Relations: Crisis of Adjustment, 1965–68
Authors: Soon Lau Teik
Published: August 2009

Ever since the Separation on 9th August 1965, the principal leaders of Malaysia and Singapore have expressed the view that their separated states would be compelled by the forces of historical, geographical, economic and social ties to reunite some day. When this would be accomplished has not been clearly defined nor has the manner of their reunification been suggested. Tengku Abdul Rahman, the Prime Minister of Malaysia, merely stated that Singapore would be welcomed back sometime in the future, while Lee Kuan Yew, the Singapore Prime Minister, admitted that it could be a task for the next generation to seek reunification. However, both were hopeful that at some future date circumstances would be more conducive than they were prior to 1965, for another attempt at merger. It is generally agreed that the Separation was a political separation arising from the incompatibility of the political views of the Alliance-controlled central government and the state government of Singapore in the hands of the People's Action Party (PAP). It has also been implied that the fact of their interdependency in several basic fields even after Separation could well provide a strong basis for some form of reunification.
The Debate on a Legal Code for colonial Cochinchina: The 1869 Commission
Authors: Osborne Milton E.
Published: August 2009

Historians have long recognised the fundamental importance of the withdrawal of Vietnamese mandarins from Cochinchina following the French colonial invasion. The departure of these scholar officials, first from the eastern provinces in the initial phase of the French advance which ended in 1862 and then from the western provinces after these were occupied in 1867, forced the French colonial administration to adopt a policy of direct rule. There has been some confusion over the nature of this rule, not least because various French officials in the eighteen sixties were able to convince themselves that the use of Vietnamese names for the positions filled by French administrators somehow represented a continuation of the Vietnamese pattern of administration. In particular the impression has remained that Vietnamese officials continued to play an important part in the administration of justice in Cochinchina until the advent of civil government for the colony in 1879.
Dilemma of the British Representative to the Burmese Court after the Outbreak of a Palace Revolution in 1866
Authors: Blackmore Thaung
Published: August 2009

By the middle of the nineteenth century, Britain had established a firm foothold in Burma. As a result of the Second Anglo-Burmese War which broke out in 1852, Britain acquired the delta area of the country's most important river, the Irrawaddy. This, added to what she had previously gained from the First Anglo-Burmese War of 1824, had placed under her control, the entire Burmese seaboard.
Britain's Search for Security in North Malaya, 1886–1897
Authors: Thio Eunice
Published: August 2009

In the last quarter of the nineteenth century Britain converted her paramountcy into effective control in the central and southern states of the Malay Peninsula (except Johore) through the device of British Residents whose advice the several Malay rulers were obliged to accept in “all matters of administration”. But strong local pressure for the extension of this system northwards into the Siamese part of the Peninsula was neutralized by the Foreign Office which sought alternative means of safeguarding British interests there. This paper examines the various arrangements considered when the intrusion of another European power appeared likely, culminating in a secret convention between Britain and Stem signed in April 1897.
The 1940 Franco-Thai Border Dispute and Phibuun Sonkhraam's Commitment to Japan
Authors: Flood E. Thadeus
Published: August 2009

Few areas of recent Thai history have been the target of as much guesswork as have Thailand's foreign relations in the years immediately preceeding the Pacific War. The educated guess has been the only resort of the historian who would venture into this field, for vernacular documentation has gone unexploited. As a result, the usual treatments of the Thai role in the 1940 Franco-Thai border dispute have followed unreliable or hostile Western sources and the Thai policies of the time have been viewed in an unfavourable light. In a real sense, the French view of the affair has been adopted, for lack of other alternatives.
The Rise and Demise of Kadazan Nationalism
Authors: Roff Margaret
Published: August 2009

Writing in June 1960 Donald Stephens, editor of the North Borneo News and Sabah Times, remarked that “… the Penampang Kadazans have seldom found much favour in official circles because of the bit of education they possess and because of the courage they have in fighting for their rights.” Certainly the observations of British North Borneo Chartered Company officials and others in the past often included disparaging comparisons between the then-called “Dusun” people of the Penampang, Papar and Membakut areas south of Jesselton (now Kota Kinabalu), and the more tractable people of Tuaran to the north. Owen Rutter, for instance, delivered himself in 1922 of the opinion that “The Dusuns of Tuaran … are … the pleasantest of the lowland Dusuns, just as the people of Papar and Membakut are the most objectionable.” He went on to describe an incident occurring in 1910 in which the people of Papar led a protest movement against the sale of land by the Chartered Company to rubber companies. They contended that such compensation as they had received for fruit trees and ancestral graves was inadequate, and that the land itself was their heritage for which they should also be paid. “At one time”, wrote Rutter, “the agitation movement threatened to spread to Tuaran, but the good people of the district did not appreciate squandering on legal charges the comfortable sum they had extracted from the Tuaran Rubber Estate for their fruit trees, and the Papar envoys went home practically empty-handed.” K. G. Tregonning, alluding to the same incident, merely says “At Papar, a notorious trouble-maker, strongly influenced by the long-established Roman Catholic mission there, found for the Christian Dusuns imaginary faults in the change from traditional tenure.”
The Kelantan Rising of 1915: Some Thoughts on the Concept of Resistance in British Malayan History
Authors: Allen J. de V.
Published: August 2009

This does not claim to be an adequate account of the 1915 Kelantan Rising. On the contrary, it is designed to show how little we yet know about it. It is not even mentioned in most English-language histories of Malaya. There is a certain amount about it in the Colonial Office files, but it will be an important part of my argument that these do not reveal what we most want to learn. My main intention is to suggest that a fuller study of it would make as good a starting-point as any for a more general review of the role played by armed Malay resistance in the history of the British period in Malaya. I shall further suggest certain lines which thinking on this subject might follow, but only very tentatively. If this article stimulates such new thinking along any lines at all, it will have achieved its purpose.
A Note on Portuguese Reactions to the Revival of the Red Sea Spice Trade and the Rise of Atjeh, 1540–1600
Authors: Boxer C. R.
Published: August 2009

No reputable historian nowadays maintains that the Portuguese 16th- century thalassocracy in the Indian Ocean was always and everywhere completely effective. In particular, it is widely accepted that there was a marked if erratic revival in the Red Sea spice-trade shortly after the first Turkish occupation of Aden in 1538, though much work remains to be done on the causes and effects of this development. The Portuguese reactions to the rise of Atjeh have been studied chiefly in connection with the frequent fighting in the Straits of Malacca; and the economic side of the struggle has been less considered. The connection of Atjeh with the revival of the Red Sea spice-trade has been insufficiently stressed; though Mrs. Meilink-Roelofsz and Dr. V. Magalhaes Godinho have some relevant observations on this point in their recent and well documented works (Asian Trade and European Influence in the Indonesian Archipelago, 1500–1630, The Hague, 1962, pp. 142–46; Os Descobrimentos e a Economia Mundial, Vol. II, Lisboa, 1967, pp. 111–171). The purpose of this paper is to amplify the facts and figures which they give there, in the hope that someone with the necessary linguistic qualifications will be incited to make complementary researches in the relevant Indonesian, Arabian, or Turkish sources.
First Philippine Expedition to Indo-china
Authors: Quirino Carlos
Published: August 2009

The Philippines today has a battalion of soldiers in Vietnam, popularly known as the Philippines Civil Action Group or PHILCAG for short, and a controversy has risen as to whether or not it is justified to have done so. This is the third Philippine expedition to Indo-China. The second was sent in 1858, and the first late in the sixteenth century.
Malacca and Goa and the Question of Race Relations in the Portuguese Overseas Provinces
Authors: Jack-Hinton Colin
Published: August 2009

Over recent years some Portuguese politicians and historians have been very concerned to argue, with undoubted sincerity, as Armando Cortesão has argued, that:

‘The Portuguese never had any preconceived notions of race or colour. They always dealt and still do deal with Christian brotherhood towards all peoples, whether they are white, black, khaki or yellow’. and ‘they have always treated indigenes with humanity and, when civilized, as equals amongst equals,’

The expression of this viewpoint has taken a variety of forms, often expressed quite categorically and without any qualification whatsoever, and has been supported by official policy and, academically in particular, by the distinguished Brazilian socio-historian Gilberto Freyre. More recently it has been attacked by Professor Charles Boxer in his Race Relations in the Portuguese Colonial Empire, 1415–1825 (Clarendon, 1963), where the author has presented a substantial body of entirely reliable historical evidence of actual discrimination against indigenes and mestiços within the Portuguese Empire and Provinces, and has argued that whilst this viewpoint is sincerely held it is substantially incorrect in its extreme and bald form.
Antonio De Morga and his Sucesos De Las Islas Filipinas
Authors: Cummins J. S.
Published: August 2009

The value of Antonio de Morga's Sucesos de las Islas has long been recognised. A first-hand account of the early Spanish colonial venture into Asia, it was published in Mexico in 1609 and has since been re-edited on a number of occasions. It attracted the attention of the Hakluyt Society in 1851, although the edition prepared for the Society by H. E. J. Stanley was not published until 1868. Morga's work is based on personal experiences, or on documentation from eye-witnesses of the events described. Moreover, as he tells us himself, survivors from Legazpi's expedition were still alive while he was preparing his book in Manila, and these too he could consult. As a lawyer, it is obvious that he would hardly fail to seek such evidence. The Sucesos is the work of an honest observer, himself a major actor in the drama of his time, a versatile bureaucrat, who knew the workings of the administration from the inside.It is also the first history of the Spanish Philippines to be written by a layman, as opposed to the religious chroniclers. Morga's book was praised, quoted, and plagiarized, by contemporaries or successors. Filipinos have found it a useful account of the state of their native culture upon the coming of the conquistadors; Spaniards have regarded it as a work to admire or condemn, according to their views and the context of their times; some other Europeans, such as Stanley, found it full of lessons and examples.
THE DISSEMINATION AND USE OF EUROPEAN MUSIC BOOKS IN EARLY MODERN ASIA
Authors: Irving David R. M.
Published: August 2009

Musical commodities frequently accompanied European explorers, soldiers, merchants and missionaries who travelled to Asia in the early modern period. During this time, numerous theoretical treatises and musical scores – both printed and manuscript – were disseminated throughout Asia. This article examines the dissemination and use of European musical works in early modern China, Japan and the Philippines, before identifying the titles of scores and treatises so far known to have been present in these territories. In order to measure the relative success of European missionaries in transplanting music to early modern Asia, it then takes as case studies the local production of three significant sources of European music during the seventeenth century: (1) the earliest example of printed European music from Asia, produced by the Jesuit press at Nagasaki in 1605; (2) a Chinese treatise on European music that was commissioned by the Kangxi Emperor in 1713 and printed the following decade; and (3) a 116-page manuscript treatise, compiled by an unidentified Jesuit in late seventeenth-century Manila, which synthesises the most current European music theory as well as commenting on local musical practices.
SCOLICA ENCHIRIADIS AND THE ‘NON-DIATONIC’ PLAINSONG TRADITION
Authors: Maloy Rebecca
Published: August 2009

Although medieval plainsong is known as a primarily diatonic repertory, the presence of a ‘non-diatonic’ tradition was brought to light long ago in the work of Jacobsthal, Delalande and others. This essay considers some aspects of this practice that have not been fully examined in previous studies and explores their relationship to early medieval theory and pedagogy. In the solo verses of the offertory chants, large sections are displaced from the diatonic background scale, sometimes permanently. The conception of irregular semitones presented in Scolica enchiriadis yields insight into this extensive ‘non-diatonic’ practice and has implications for interpreting variant readings of these problem spots. The final section of the essay explores some aspects of the Enchiriadis reception that point to changes in tone-system and pitch conception, shedding light on the contexts surrounding the suppression of irregular semitones.
THE MADRIGAL AQUIL'ALTERA BY JACOPO DA BOLOGNA AND INTERTEXTUAL RELATIONSHIPS IN THE MUSICAL REPERTORY OF THE ITALIAN TRECENTO
Authors: Abramov-van Rijk Elena
Published: August 2009

One difficulty in understanding the poetic texts of Trecento madrigals is that the language they use is often that of allegories and symbols, which requires a key for deciphering their true meaning. It is widely accepted, based on the interpretation of birds as heraldic symbols, that the madrigal Aquil'altera (Proud eagle) by Jacopo da Bologna was written either for a wedding or for a coronation ceremony. In this essay, however, I show that Aquila's content and literary style echo ideas and images that were circulating in the literature of the time, and especially in bestiaries and bestiary-inspired Italian poetry. Since these sources were well known to every educated person of the time, we may assume that its symbolic content, which is actually a praise of the human intellect, would have been understood by listeners and readers. This madrigal in turn provides a stimulus for tracing its ideas in other musical compositions of the Trecento, the madrigals Musica son by Francesco Landini and Se premio di virtù by Bartolino da Padova. These compositions are examined in the context of a specific cultural phenomenon in Italy of this period, namely, tenzoni, or correspondence in poetic forms – a practice that was the natural domain of the phenomenon we know as intertextuality.
LUZZASCHI'S SETTING OF DANTE: ‘QUIVI SOSPIRI, PIANTI, ED ALTI GUAI’
Authors: Newcomb Anthony
Published: August 2009

This article examines the Ferrarese cultural context surrounding the virtually unprecedented choice of a text from Dante's Commedia for setting in Luzzaschi's Second Book of Madrigals of 1576. A particular focus is the quarrel in literary criticism of the early years of the 1570s over the place of Dante in the Italian literary firmament, and the position of the influential Modenese critic and philologist Lodovico Castelvetro in this quarrel. I speculate that Castelvetro, a subject of the duke of Ferrara, may have had a role in the choice of text. I also speculate that the disastrous Ferrarese earthquakes of the early years of the decade may have resounded for Ferrarese culture in the particular lines from the Commedia. Finally, I propose that the musical style chosen by Luzzaschi for this setting was an extraordinary and retrospective homage to the late style of his teacher Cipriano de Rore, another artistic figure intimately connected with the Este court. Both Rore and Castelvetro may be seen as icons of Ferrarese cultural prestige in the ongoing battle for precedence between the Este and the Medici.
Tense and aspect in sentence interpretation by children with specific language impairment
Authors: LEONARD LAURENCE B. , DEEVY PATRICIA
Published: August 2009

The aim of this study was to determine whether children with specific language impairment (SLI) are sensitive to completion cues in their comprehension of tense. In two experiments, children with SLI (ages 4 ; 1 to 6 ; 4) and typically developing (TD) children (ages 3 ; 5 to 6 ; 5) participated in a sentence-to-scene matching task adapted from Wagner (2001). Sentences were in either present or past progressive and used telic predicates. Actions were performed twice in succession; the action was either completed or not completed in the first instance. In both experiments, the children with SLI were less accurate than the TD children, showing more difficulty with past than present progressive, regardless of completion cues. The TD children were less accurate with past than present progressive requests only when the past actions were incomplete. These findings suggest that children with SLI may be relatively insensitive to cues pertaining to event completion in past tense contexts.
Suburban Gardens: England's Most Important Nature Reserve?
Authors: Owen Jennifer , Owen D. F.
Published: August 2009

Systematic sampling of hoverflies, ichneumonid wasps, and butterflies, in a suburban garden at Leicester, England, has revealed a remarkable diversity of species. Suburban gardens, which support an enormous variety of plants, now cover at least a million acres (405,000 ha) of England and Wales (about 1/37 of the total land area), and if the diversity of insects found in one garden reflects the situation elsewhere, gardens are collectively the most important nature reserve in the country. They are, moreover, in no danger of disappearing; on the contrary they are spreading, yet their potential for conservation has been neglected.
Industrial Development and Wildlife Conservation
Authors: Kelcey John G.
Published: August 2009

The general situation concerning the contribution that industrial development has made to the conservation of wildlife in Britain is reviewed. Two major types of site have been identified, namely discrete and linear, each being divided into a number of categories, with further subdivisions depending upon the nature of the site: for example, used or disused (canals, railways, etc.) or wet or dry (gravel pits, clay pits, etc.).

The wildlife value of a representative sample of sites of each type is described qualitatively. It is argued that industrial development produces areas which are often richer in wildlife than much of the remaining rural or urban environment. This results from the existence of ‘wilderness areas’ within industrial complexes, from the creation of new habitats, from the passage of time, and from the protection given against public access and against intensive agricultural, forestry, and landscape, management. The linear systems are seen as forming a network of ‘wildlife corridors’ linking together discrete sites, thus providing reservoirs for the colonization of new habitats and enabling wildlife to survive in close proximity to intensively used urban and rural land. Many ‘industrial sites’ provide facilities for field studies, environmental trails, and environmental education, as well as forming the basis of country or linear parks. They also enable many rare species to survive, and probably prevent many of the common species from becoming less frequent.
Pressures on Australian Rain-forests
Authors: Douglas Ian
Published: August 2009

Australian rain-forests range from tropical to temperate types and offer a great variety of habitats for diverse life-forms. Early colonial descriptions of the rain-forests saw them as a source of timber and an indicator of fertile land. In the nineteenth century, rain-forests were cleared rapidly, without the true nature of their ecosystems being understood. However, at the peak of the period of rain-forest logging and clearance, the National Parks concept began to influence Australia, and National Parks were established in New South Wales and Queensland, starting in 1879. Much of the land cleared from rain-forest is now of little agricultural value, but the exploitation of the rain-forest continues. Forestry policies are directed primarily at increased timber production, and many local communities depend on continued access to rain-forest logging areas for their survival.

The debate on the future of Australia's rain-forests has been heightened by the April 1974 Forwood Conference on the development of forestry and wood-based industries. The Conference wisely recommended multiple-use of rain-forests, and the presservation of representative rain-forest sites, as standard forestry policy; but conservation groups are not satisfied that values other than timber production will be given sufficient weight. More thorough consideration of all the factors involved in environmental management is needed for the successful planning of the use of Australia's rain-forest lands.
Objective and Subjective Judgements in Environmental Impact Analysis
Authors: Matthews William H.
Published: August 2009

Analyses of environmental impacts, and descriptions of methodologies for conducting them, have not always been explicitly cognizant of the subjective value-judgements that must be made in the process of collecting, refining, assessing, and presenting, objective scientific information. This paper has outlined the types of objective and subjective judgements that are made in each of the following major steps of the analysis: identifying major activities; selecting environmental components; selecting types of impacts; assessing the possibilities and/or probabilities of occurrences; determining the degree of the impacts; determining the time-frame of impacts; designating impacts as positive, neutral, or negative; and determining trade-offs among activities and impacts.

The subjective judgements that must be made are based on values, feelings, beliefs, and prejudices, and are functions of the personal, institutional, professional, and societal, contexts of the analyst. If great care is not taken in making these judgements, and in making very explicit the value-framework used, the effectiveness and credibility of the analyst may be sharply reduced. There is also the danger that society and its decision-makers will be presented with an analysis having so many built-in biases that the legitimate role of the decision-makers in assessing the analysis and then making important value trade-offs is seriously compromised. This paper has attempted to make the nature of the process of analysis explicit with respect to the introduction and treatment of values, so that these problems can be understood and, it is hoped, properly managed by both scientists and decision-makers.
Guideline Principles to Govern the Importation of Hoofed Animals
Authors: Petrides George A.
Published: August 2009

Imported species of plants or animals tend either to fail or to flourish in a new environment, and it is nearly inevitable that ranch-fenced exotic ungulates will escape to the wild. Successful introduced species tend to spread into all suitable areas, and the likelihood that exotic species will be damaging is great. Prior study of prospective imported species cannot insure either a successful importation or a beneficial result. Yet a thorough preceding review by qualified ecologists and the effective regulation of ungulate importations by national and international agencies, are the only present safeguards against serious economic and environmental damage. Some general truths are proposed to serve as guiding principles for the future.
Ecology and Environmental Issues of the Sierra Redwood (Sequoiadendron giganteum), Now Restricted to California
Authors: Vale Thomas R.
Published: August 2009

Although they were widely distributed during Cainozoic times, both the Sierra Redwood (Sequoiadendron giganteum) and the Coast Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) became restricted to greatly reduced ranges in California (and, in the latter instance, southernmost Oregon) during the late Tertiary and Quaternary periods. Today, the Sierra Redwood occurs in about 70 scattered groves, occupying an aggregate of 144 km2 on the west slope of the Sierra Nevada; about 66% of the areas of these groves remain unlogged, and most of these virgin stands are protected within national parks.

Fire suppression policies of the National Park Service and other government land agencies have created conditions that are both unsuited for Sierra Redwood reproduction and hazardous to existing trees. Successful seed germination requires a mineral seed-bed, such as is usually exposed through fire. Burned sites also enhance seedling survival through increased sunlight penetration, reduced competition, and improved soil-moisture content. Fire suppression has, however, allowed the accumulation of large volumes of combustible fuels, increasing the probability of destructive crown-fires. In order to rectify these problems, the National Park Service has begun a programme of prescribed burning in Sequoia–Kings Canyon National Parks; to date, about 3.4 km2 have been treated. Thus, the environmental issues facing the Sierra Redwood involve perpetuating the tree within parks that are secure from commercial utilization.
An Environmentally-oriented Mode of Industrial Project Planning
Authors: Gladwin Thomas N. , Royston Michael G.
Published: August 2009

Recent research has shown that many industrial projects are not being designed with the environment in mind. The intellectual exercise of thinking ‘what impact does this project have on the environment?’ has not yet been made an integral part of industrial project-planning. More thoughtful and informed planning is needed, for reasons of both sound environmental management and, increasingly, sound project economics. An environmentally-oriented mode of planning, in which inputs and means related to environmental concerns are carefully taken into account during the planning, is discussed. This mode represents a tentative summary statement of an emerging consensus. Its objective is to facilitate informed and socially desirable choice among alternative actions in such a manner that adverse environmental consequences will be avoided or at least minimized.

Environmentally-oriented planning requires that a new methodology, that of impact assessment, be fully integrated into the very fabric of planning. Impact assessment consists of three analytical functions: description, prediction, and evaluation. These functions can be translated into a series of tasks, which in their entirety constitute the full process of impact assessment. The process can be achieved operationally by incorporating environmental considerations into planning via five dimensions: multidisciplinary professional involvement, broad public participation, holistic thinking, systematic analysis, and continuous integration. Adoption and application of the process can be encouraged and/or facilitated by a number of internal organizational adjustments, or by external public-policy adjustments.
Discount Rates and Environmental Conservation
Authors: Helliwell D. R.
Published: August 2009

The use of current money-lending rates as the basis for economic calculations involving long-term assets such as growing timber, agricultural land, or species of wildlife, is unrealistic and can be very damaging to the interests of the environment. An alternative method, using an assessment of risks together with an assessment of the expected ratio of investment: income, is proposed.
Further Comments on Hazards of Nuclear Power and the Choice of Alternatives
Authors: Edsall John T.
Published: August 2009

This paper continues an earlier discussion of the hazards of nuclear fission, and of the choice of alternatives (Edsall, 1974), inEnvironmental Conservation, 1(1), pp. 21–30. Important changes have recently occurred in energy policy in the United States. The Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA), whose mission is to promote the development of all promising forms of energy production, has replaced the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC). A Nuclear Regulatory Commission, independent of ERDA, has been set up. The proposed ERDA budget, however, is largely dominated by the very heavy costs of research and development for the liquidmetal fast breeder reactor (LMFBR). The AEC, in one of its last acts, produced a voluminous environmental impact statement on the LMFBR. A preliminary version of this statement (spring 1974) was sharply and widely criticized as inadequate, and as highly biased in favour of the breeder. The revised statement is now under critical review (March 1975). The AEC has also produced a comprehensive report (the Rasmussen report) on the safety of the current light-water reactors in use in the U.S.A., with the conclusion that a major accident in a nuclear power-plant is so unlikely as to be almost negligible by comparison with other hazards of daily life. It does not consider the hazards of radioactive waste disposal, or of theft and sabotage. Critics have pointed to what they consider grave flaws in the reasoning of the Rasmussen report, so the matter is still highly controversial.
Conservation and the Tropical Marine Aquarium Trade
Authors: Lubbock H. R. , Polunin N. V. C.
Published: August 2009

Although mainly developed in the last ten years, the international trade in tropical marine aquarium fishes has now reached remarkable proportions; in the U. S. A. the annual sales of aquaria, aquarium supplies, and aquarium fishes, probably approach US$ 600 millions, while estimates of the numbers of marine aquarium fishes exported each year from the Philippines alone range from about 3 to over 30 millions, valued at approximately US$ 1.25 million to over 6 millions. The exporting areas include the Philippines, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Thailand, Singapore, Indonesia, Australia, Sri Lanka, Ethiopia, Saudi Arabia, Kenya, Mauritius, the U.S.A. (Hawaii and Florida), and several Caribbean islands. The main importing countries are the U.S.A., Hong Kong, West Germany, Japan, U.K., Italy, Belgium, Canada, Australia, France, Holland, and Switzerland.

Species extermination through this trade alone is scarcely conceivable, but local extinctions may occur, and indirect effects of collection of these fishes include accompanying destruction of the coral-reef habitat, changes in natural ecosystems, and the possibility of successful introduction of exotic species into areas where they did not occur previously (notably, Indo-Pacific species into the Caribbean). Clearly the trade will continue; but the current exploitation is inefficient, and controls must be applied both towards rational utilization of the resource and, as the most accessible and richest reefs are the most heavily exploited, towards a reduction of conflict between different uses of the resource.
Conservation and Development
Authors: Poore Duncan
Published: August 2009

Nations face three challenges in the modern world: to ensure the greatest welfare for their people; to make wise use of natural resources; and to do these things in such a way that they contribute to a solution that makes sense for the whole world. To face these challenges requires a high degree of international cooperation and a clear-thinking, unemotional approach.

Hitherto the bank of natural capital has been treated as though it were income; this is the antithesis of wisdom. In the future, natural resources should be used so as to get the greatest immediate benefit that is consistent with keeping open a range of choices and maintaining natural capital intact.

To be successful in this endeavour, ecological guidelines must be applied in the planning and use of natural resources. The depletion, or restoration, of natural capital, should be fully represented in calculations of costs and benefits, in order that what is good land-use is also seen to be profitable. Where the link between these two qualities is not evident, great political skill may be necessary in presenting proposals for the use or rehabilitation of natural resources. The final challenge is to reassess the values of societies and not to accept blindly those which have become customary—particularly if this has happened through their provision of short-term benefits.
Floods as Man-made Disasters
Authors: Arnold Maurice D.
Published: August 2009

In the United States, the numbers of humans living on floodplains seem recently to have increased, and so probably have the annual costs of flood damage. This is despite expenditures of many millions of dollars on flood-control devices in the United States alone.

The means which we use to control or contain excessive water-energy are the dam, channel, levee, sea-wall, and floodplain management. Logic and evidence, although incomplete, seem to argue against employing only structures; indeed there now seems good reason to think that structures should rarely be employed for flood-control. The case against relying solely on a structural strategy to abate floods rests on four main arguments: it is often counter-productive in that it encourages human occupation of the floodplain, thus introducing the elements of future disaster that may be more serious than if nothing had been done; it causes severe and unnecessary losses of resources; it discourages the economic use of land; and it is not cost-effective.

Floodplain management, keeping the floodplain generally free from flood-control structures, is the only method which is effective in the long run. If it is planned adequately, its life is not as dependent on maintenance and upstream activity as are the structural alternatives. Moreover floodplains, when left undeveloped, are ideal and highly productive for a wide range of conservation and allied uses—including farming, parklands, open spaces, and habitats for wildlife.
The Concept of ‘Waste’ and the Conservation of Nature
Authors: Helliwell D. R.
Published: August 2009

Although nature conservation may appear to be ‘wasteful’ to many people, it can only be truly described as such if one's sole purpose is mere survival for a short period of years. Longer time-horizons or other purposes require at least some level of nature conservation. The exact amount, in terms of land set aside mainly for this purpose, is difficult to determine precisely, but some general indications are given. Taking the world as a whole, it is concluded that something in the order of 20 per cent of each country should be devoted mainly to nature conservation (with countries having less than this amount contributing to the maintenance of reserves in countries with more than 20 per cent), if nature conservation is to be placed on an equal footing with alternative intensive forms of land-use.
Biogeographic Theory as a Management Tool
Authors: Goeden Gerald B.
Published: August 2009

Investigations into the relationship between the number of fish species in small coral communities and the area of those communities have suggested ties between the theories of terrestrial island biogeography and the functioning of the closely-spaced archipelagos of ‘underwater islands’ that make up the Great Barrier Reef of Australia. The value of these theories to the marine park planner and resource manager may be considerable where quantitative information on minimum reserve size and the degree of isolation and exchange are needed in the decision-making process. There also follow a number of biogeographic principles which can form a set of practices for the establishment and management of marine reserves wherever the marine ecosystem is subdivided into collections of isolated or semiisolated parts.
Use of Public Rangelands in the American West
Authors: Vale Thomas R.
Published: August 2009

The Bureau of Land Management, the land agency that administers much of the federal rangeland in the American West, has frequently been characterized as excessively responsive to the desires of ranchers, with resulting land deterioration and loss of resource values. Both the generally poor condition of the public domain, and the Bureau's attempt to maintain stocking levels while improving the range, support this characterization.

Several policies and programmes over the last decade, however, suggest that the Bureau today is less strongly tied to the livestock industry, and certainly its lands are being increasingly coveted by groups other than grazers. This recent trend towards a more ‘multiple use’ agency has been strengthened by Congressional passage of the Federal Land Policy and Management Act in 1976. Whether or not diversification of land policies will continue into the future is, however, at present unclear.
Reflections on the Role of Science and Technology in Development
Authors: Malone Thomas F.
Published: August 2009

The International Symposium on Science and Technology for Development, held in Singapore from 22–26 January 1979:

(1) Demonstrated that cooperative action could be taken by international nongovernmental organizations which are concerned about the role of science and technology in the UN Conference on Science and Technology for Development (UNCSTD);

(2) Caused a coalescing of these concerns in a commitment to bring the resources of science and technology to bear on Third-World problems;

(3) Resulted in a strengthened commitment to revitalize the patterns of cooperation of nongovernmental scientific and technical (S&T) organizations to expand their ties to intergovernmental agencies; and

(4) Led to an advised framework of action involving four groups, proposing: a) a network of institutions in developing countries to identify problems from the perspective of the developing countries themselves; b) a ‘switching mechanism’ in the nongovernmental sector to link the less developed countries (LDCs) with the resources of scientific and technological talent in industrialized nations; c) a multiplication of the collaboration of donor institutions; and d) a revitalization of the UN system for due application of S&T to development, accompanied by a more active working partnership with international nongovernmental organizations.
A Programme of Ecological Stations for Brazil
Authors: Nogueira-Neto Paulo , de Melo Carvalho José Candido
Published: August 2009

This paper deals with a Programme of Ecological Stations for Brazil that is being carried out by the Special Environmental Agency (SEMA), of the Ministry of the Interior, Brasilia. The main objective of the Programme, which is linked with the Second Plan for National Development of Brazil (National Council for the Development of Science and Technology), is to protect natural environments that are representative of the main natural ecosystems, and to provide the Ecological Stations with such a substructure as will permit Universities and research organizations to pursue ecological studies in connection with areas nearby that are inhabited by Man.
Improvements in Policy Planning for Resource Recovery
Authors: Harris Glenn R.
Published: August 2009

Global shortages of raw materials and growing problems of solid-waste management have made resource recovery a pressing concern of public policy for many governments. The purpose of this paper is to review policy planning for resource recovery. Planning in this as well as related arenas appears to suffer from several interrelated difficulties. One difficulty of public-policy planning is the inaccurate modelling in policy analysis; another is the common resistance to uniform implementation guidelines. Both of these difficulties appear to hinge on the problem of behavioural change.
Biological Effects of Power-plant Thermal Effluents in Card Sound, Florida
Authors: Thorhaug Anitra , Roessler Martin A. , Bach Steven D. , Hixon Raymond , Brook Iver M. , Josselyn Michael N.
Published: August 2009

Few studies have been reported of the effects of power-plant discharges on tropical and semi-tropical marine environments where plants and animals in non-stressed conditions live close to their upper lethal thermal limits. This paper describes a multidisciplinary three-years' study made in Card Sound, Florida, before, during, and after, thermal effluents were released from a power-plant. Biomass, growth, and production, of Thalassia and macroalgae, were estimated. Animals were collected by trawl, drop-net, suction dredge, in artifical habitats, and on mesh-panels. Except in an area of 2–3 ha adjacent to the canal mouth, little damage to the benthic community was observed. This was very different from the effect of the first canal emanating from the same power-plant at Turkey Point, where a large area had been affected by heated effluents.
Conservation of the Mountain Gorilla and its Habitat in Rwanda
Authors: Harcourt Alexander H. , Curry-Lindahl Kai
Published: August 2009

Over the last twenty years, the population of Mountain Gorilla (Gorilla gorilla beringei) in the Virunga Volcanoes region of Rwanda, Uganda, and Zaire, has halved from an estimated 400–500 to fewer than 250. The major cause of this decline is loss of habitat through large-scale appropriation of National Park land in Rwanda for agriculture, and through encroachment by local people and their cattle which causes extensive damage to vegetation within the protected area.
Annual Variation in the Dynamics of a Woodland Plant Community
Authors: Treshow Michael , Allan John
Published: August 2009

The dynamics of a Pinyon Pine-Utah Juniper woodlands community were studied to determine the baseline conditions and the annual variation in the major plant components. Understanding the normal baseline community status and its annual variation is paramount to evaluating the possible impact of an air pollutant on the system. Environmental impact assessments rarely concern data from more than one or two years, yet results of the present study show that annual variation is such that data from several years are necessary to establish a valid baseline for community structure.
Recreational Activity Patterns on the Uplands of an English National Park
Authors: Haffey David
Published: August 2009

From early in August 1976 to late in July 1977, monthly surveys were carried out of the total recreational use of an area comprising 42 km2 of unenclosed moorland in the North York Moors National Park, England. Data were recorded on the following five variables for every person who was not either in or on a moving vehicle, with the exception of pedal cyclists and motor-cycle scramblers: location, age and sex, recreational activity, site type, and distance from the nearest road. A total of 2,506 individuals were recorded. Data from the surveys were grouped to represent the four seasons.
Science, Technology, Development, and Environment: The Emerging Synthesis
Authors: Tolba Mostafa Kamal
Published: August 2009

Technology is an essential instrument for the achievement of sustainable and environmentally sound development. But it is also through the application of such technology that Man has most impact on the environment.
Management of Traditional Resource Systems in Marginal Areas
Authors: Biswas Asit K.
Published: August 2009

With an ever-increasing world population and the resultant pressure to grow more and more food, marginal areas in many Third World and other countries are coming under intensive pressure towards expanding agricultural production. The ecosystems of marginal areas are often fragile, and thus particular care has to be taken in developing such lands for farming or grazing.
Rural, Non-agricultural Land-use and Rates of Erosion in the Natal Drakensberg
Authors: Garland Gerald G.
Published: August 2009

Land erosion in wilderness, conservation, and recreational, areas may be accelerated by certain non-agricultural land management practices. Examples from the Natal Drakensberg are used to demonstrate how certain types of land modification—such as burning, the construction of unpaved access roads, and the creation of paths and tracks—may result in rapid acceleration of erosion rates.