bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
social Learning and Culture
Authors: Tomasello Michael , Call Josep
Published: November 2023

As manifest in the domains of activity reviewed in the previous two chapters, the social interaction of primates depends on individuals’ abilities to learn about other members of their groups and how they are likely to behave in certain situations and to learn various social and communicative strategies for manipulating those groupmates for their own ends. In both of these cases the processes of learning involved may be broadly construed as social in the sense that the learning is about social interaction. However, most psychologists typically use a somewhat narrower definition of social learning to indicate situations in which one individual attempts to actually reproduce or match the behavior of another (e.g., Bandura, 1986). This narrower definition thus does not include interactions in which an individual learns a new behavior or behavioral strategy through reciprocal social interaction: an individual does A and a groupmate responds with B, as happens in the learning of a social strategy or the ritualization of a communicative gesture. Rather, in the narrower definition of social learning, the individual learns a new behavior or behavioral strategy by observing and attempting to reproduce a conspecific’s behavior in situations in which they are both aiming toward a similar goal, either physical or social. The complement of social learning narrowly defined is the process by which an individual attempts to demonstrate for another, or to teach another, how some common goal might be accomplished.
Theory of Mind
Authors: Tomasello Michael , Call Josep
Published: November 2023

Many of the social cognitive skills reviewed in the previous three chapters shed light on what different species of primates understand about the behavior of conspecifics. In chapter 7 it was established that most primates recognize familiar individuals and their relationships to one another and use this information, along with general skills in “reading” behavioral cues, to predict the behavior of conspecifics. In chapter 8 it was established that most primates formulate social strategies and communicate with one another intentionally not just in order to predict, but also in order to influence and manipulate, the behavior of conspecifics. In chapter 9 it was established that primates are capable of learning from the behavior of conspecifics many things about both their physical and social environments. The question posed in this chapter is whether in addition to this knowledge of the behavior of conspecifics, primates also have knowledge of their psychological states-their minds. On most accounts, an understanding of the psychological states of others would allow for more accurate and flexible social predictions and manipulations, especially in novel contexts in which there has been no opportunity to learn particular behavioral sequences. There is no question that primates behave intentionally; the question is whether they also understand the behavior of others as intentional.
Theories of Primate social cognition
Authors: Tomasello Michael , Call Josep
Published: November 2023

Most primate species live in complex and dynamic social groups that present them with difficult cognitive problems on a continuing basis. All theories of primate social cognition assume this fact, although whether and in what ways primate social life is more complex than that of other mammalian species is a difficult question. Cheney et al. (1987) noted that although differences between primates and other mammals are not especially obvious, there are three characteristics of primate social life that together may make for special complexities. First, in a purely quantitative sense, most primates live in complex social groups that result in “a complex network of interactions, with many alternative strategies for survival and reproduction.” Second, primates form various types of long-term social relationships with others involving kinship, dominance, and short-term coalitions, and these may change over the life cycle. Third, primates have an extremely varied repertoire of means for expressing themselves socially in terms of species-typical displays that make manifest their emotional states and behavioral intentions. Although it would be difficult to document primate uniqueness in any one of these characteristics, together they make for a highly complex form of sociality that may encourage the development of all kinds of social knowledge, social strategies, and social learning (see Cords, in press, for a review).
Conclusion
Authors: Tomasello Michael , Call Josep
Published: November 2023

We cannot say that Darwin’s dream of understanding the human mind by studying the nonhuman primate mind has become a reality, but, as we have documented in this book, progress is being made. As we look to the future, there are important issues of three types that will affect our prospects. These issues concern, first, the kinds of theories we need to guide our future research, second, the kinds of methodological considerations we should take into account in future research, and third, the kinds of efforts we need to ensure that primate research may continue, given the precarious futures of many primate species. We conclude our investigation into primate cognition by briefly discussing each of these.
Where Do Stories Come From, and Where Can They Go?
Authors: Sternberg Robert J
Published: November 2023

Where do our stories come from? We take our perceptions and construct them into what we may believe to be considered an accurate story. But our experiences, emotions, motives, and cognitions affect our stories. Our individual personality traits may also lead us to perceive things in different ways. This background serves as the basis for the themes in our stories, and it very much affects the kind of story (happy or sad, long or short, heroic or villainous) that we put together.
Changing the Face of Science and Engineering
Authors: Bissell Joan
Published: November 2023

As we enter the twenty-first century, this essay presents an overview of key issues concerning minority children’s experiences in science, mathematics, engineering, and technology dnring the elementary grades. It discusses new opportunities provided by extended day after-school programs, college and university summer camps, and telecommunications projects to strengthen and expand minority students’ learning experiences. It d isc11sses research and pol icy implications for identifying and evalating new avenues to enhance minority children’s early experiences and create a snhstrate for their fntnre participation and success in the science and engineering work force.
Introduction
Authors: Beutler Larry E , Bongar Bruce , Shurkin Joel N
Published: November 2023

A patient sat in my office. Fifty-three years old, she is a veteran of our outpatient clinic, having come there for the last seven years. I am seeing her for the first time. Every July 1, a new crop of psychiatry and psychology students enters the clinic and an old group of graduates moves out into practice after their seven years of postgraduate training. As the Director of Outpatient Services, I [LB] was personally evaluating all patients being transferred to new therapists at the beginning of a new training year and was interested in Mrs. T because her medical record showed no substantial symptoms of emotional disorder for six years.
Animation
Authors: Orme Nigel
Published: November 2023

Scene One: The great, hulking predator brooded silently in the dim light, waiting for some signal that prey had blundered into its vicinity. The beast had roamed far in recent days but its hunts had failed. It had been many days since the creature fed. Now it seemed unable to decide where to go next. Such an amorphous blob of an organism—it has no discernable brain—could not be “thinking” what to do, but it definitely looked indecisive. First it would push a flattish, gelatinous tongue out from its central mass, as if to test the possibility of heading in one direction. But then the protrusion would shrink back, disappearing like a wrinkle on a pulled bed sheet, and another lobe of jelly would extrude itself in a different direction. But it, too, would fall back.
Two Lives Become One
Authors: Orme Nigel
Published: November 2023

The creation of a new human being neither begins at “conception” nor ends at birth. Although often obscured by the emotionalism of the abortion debate, these facts are becoming inescapably obvious as biomedical researchers battle against unwanted pregnancy and against birth defects. Scientists searching for better contraceptives, for example, are finding that the creation of a human embryo is not an instantaneous event but a process of many steps over a period of more than a week and, depending on how the embryo is defined, up to two weeks. Each step is, at least theoretically, a moment when some form of intervention could prevent pregnancy.
Pumping Protein
Authors: Orme Nigel
Published: November 2023

Read this first paragraph and then put down this book and try the experiment it suggests. Look at the inside of your wrist. Now clench and unclench your fingers repeatedly. You should be able to see the skin rise in places and fall in others. If you unroll your sleeve and look farther up the arm near the elbow while doing the same exercise, you can probably see motions there also.
Revolution
Authors: Orme Nigel
Published: November 2023

Cancer is one of life’s most fascinating phenomena. To be sure, it is a fearsome threat, but as cell and molecular biologists learn more about how the disease starts and develops, they are learning that cancer has an extraordinary natural history, one that is shedding light on the most fundamental workings of life itself, even as it moves medicine closer to the conquest-if such a thing is possible—of cancer.
The Absorption Spectrum and Radiation Transport
Authors: Salzmann David
Published: November 2023

The radiation field in an infinitesimal volume in space, at any given moment, is characterized by three parameters: (a) the direction of the propagation of the radiation, (b) the energy spectrum of the photons (equivalently, one can characterize the spectrum by means of the frequency, or the wavelength, or the wavenumber), (c) the polarization of the radiation. In the case of unpolarized radiation, which we shall assume in the following, only the first two of these parameters are meaningful.
Figurative Language and Figurative Thought: A Review
Authors: Katz Albert N
Published: November 2023

Imagine a race of creatures with the head of a human and the body of a light-house. As far as I am aware no such creature exits, and there is no noun, in any language, to label that race. And yet we know that people can, with little effort, create such concepts. Analogous (albeit equally fictional) creatures have been conceptualized-and labeled-in the past: the sphinx (head of man/body of lion), the centaur (head of man/body of horse), or, in more recent years, transformers (toys that turned into half-person, half-killing machine).
Nationalism and Group Loyalty
Authors: Baron Jonathan
Published: November 2023

Where should we draw the line in our moral concerns? Most of us think about our concerns in terms of expanding circles. We care first about ourselves and our families, then about various communities that we identify with—our friends, our professions, our towns, our ethnic groups then perhaps our nation. Some people go further. They think about people in other nations, animals, perhaps even trees, as having the right to moral consideration.
My-side Bias and Violent Conflict
Authors: Baron Jonathan
Published: November 2023

In Central Africa, Sri Lanka, India, Ireland, the Middle East, the Balkans, and elsewhere we have seen conflicts in which people on both sides are willing to kill and die because they believe that they are morally right. Many of these conflicts are religious, so part of the problem is differing beliefs about what is natural or morally required. I shall discuss this in chapters 8 and 9. Here, I turn to the nature of the bias that preserves beliefs from challenge, even when the evidence for them is weak and the evidence against them strong.
Horn of Darkness
Authors: Cunningham Carol , Berger Joel
Published: November 2023

The worlds rhinoceroses face extinction because a part of their anatomy is valued too much. Poachers hunt and slaughter them because their horns are treasured. Once an estimated 100,000 black rhinos roamed from the Sahara to the Cape of Good Hope but now less than 3% remain. In all of Africa, there is but a single infenced population numbering more than 100 individuals, in the inhospitable barrens of the Namib Desert. The hunger for money has resulted in the deaths of more than 160 Zimbabwean poachers as they tried to kill fro the valuable horns, Few options remain to stop the deadly harvest, Although guarded sanctuaries may now be working in Kenya, elsewhere foot patrols, helicopters, and high tech solutions have been tried and most have failed. In 1989 a radical strategy has developed - cutting the horns, The rationale is simple. If a rhino has no horns, the incentive to kill it should disappear. What has since unfolded is a biological and political drama, Carol Cunningham and Joel Berger describe their passionate quest to help conserve Africa's black rhinos. Arriving with their 19 month old daughter in the fiercely independent country of Namibia, they undertook a fascinating study to understand how horns are involved in the social lives of this charismatic species. This book blends natural history and biology, adventure and adrenaline. Africans and local attitudes. It moves beyond the typical nature study by bringing in real world components of conservation - the delicate mix of western science, politics and economics, and personal despair and hope.
In the Rhino’s Path
Authors: Cunningham Carol , Berger Joel
Published: November 2023

he black rhino is nature’s tank. A charging rhino can gallop at 50 kilometers per hour, chug through dense thornbush, an’d scatter a herd of elephants. Adult black rhinos have no predators. All animals fear them. Stalking lions will break off a hunt to detour around them. Black rhinos have been amazingly successful. At the turn of the century, there may have been I 00,000 in Africa, scattered from below the Sahara to the Cape. Now, in the entire continent, only one unfenced population of more than 100 animals remains. This remnant roams one of the least hospitable spots on earththe Namib Desert in northwest Namibia. But even this last refuge is not safe.
It Depends on Your Perspective
Authors: Cunningham Carol , Berger Joel
Published: November 2023

We returned to Doros Crater and the Ugab River. During the next few weeks we would try to find rhinos on our own. Here rhino densities were lowest, the heat most extreme, the tracking most treacherous. Volcanic extrusions, blackened domes, and canyons brindled with ancient gneiss offered dreary reminders of past days with no rhinos. Our first camp was in the bed of a canyon we named San Cave, the spot with Bushman paintings that we’d hiked to when we first arrived in Namibia. Joel and I unloaded the Land Rover and secured shade netting to the ground. Then JB hiked with a full backpack to the cave, where he planned to keep watch for three nights to see rhinos as they came to drink. Soni and I waited at the vehicle. Each day Joel hiked back out to us and reported his observations. One night he saw a klipspringer, a small monogamous antelope, thick in the hindquarters with small pointed hornsanother night, a band of mountain zebras. He asked anxiously about our nights.
The Zimbabwe Massacre
Authors: Cunningham Carol , Berger Joel
Published: November 2023

Just after dark a gray shape with a long regal horn strolled across the vlei. I had been reading to Sonja from the front seat of the Land Rover and clicked off the flashlight. Why the Ostrich Can’t Fly would have to wait for a few minutes. “Was that the daddy or mommy ostrich?” “Whisper, Sonja, we don’t want to scare this rhino. Maybe it’s one we know.” Slowly, I lifted my binoculars. “Who is it, Mommy? Is it Tina?” Before I could answer, a hairy face appeared at the window. Hanging upside down from the rack above, Joel hissed a quiet order. “Shhh.”
The Witch Doctor’s Revenge
Authors: Cunningham Carol , Berger Joel
Published: November 2023

he familiar sound of rock against rubber, shrub against chassis, returned as we left bthe gravel road. The red sandstone at Twyfelfontein was behind us. Soon mud and stick huts appeared near the site where, three years earlier, several men had stoned a rhino calf and eaten some of its meat.
The Detection And Measurement Of Maternal Effects
Authors: Roff Derek A
Published: November 2023

While the existence of maternal effects is no longer doubted, their detection and most particularly their quantitative measurement still present serious statistical and logistical problems. Maternal effects may be defined broadly as any phenotypic variation in offspring that is a consequence of the mother’s phenotype rather than the genetic constitution of the offspring. Such effects may have a genetic basis or be entirely environmental; for example, offspring growth may be a function of the size of the mother, which itself may be inherited or entirely determined by environmental conditions during development (i.e., the size of the grandmother plus other environmental influences). The phenotypic response of the off spring may itself be a function of the offspring’s genotype, and there may even be an interaction between the genes controlling the maternal effect and the response of the offspring. Because of the complexity of the interaction between parental and offspring phenotypes, both theoretical and empirical studies of the significance of maternal effects have been slow in development. The general view has been that maternal (or paternal) effects are nuisances to be experimentally eliminated.
Cognition/Emotion Interactions
Authors: Eich Eric , Schooler Jonathan W
Published: November 2023

Recent years have witnessed a revival of research interest in the interplay be tween cognition and emotion—a subject that stimulated much debate and discussion among psychologists in the nineteenth century, but was shunned throughout most of the twentieth. As other writers have remarked (Izard, Kagan, & Zajonc 1984; Kitayama & Niedenthal, 1994; LeDoux, 1996; Watts, 1987), the reasons for this renaissance are several and varied. In the first place, emotion theorists have come to recognize the pivotal role that appraisal, expectations, and other cognitive constructs play in the experience of emotion and to rely on basic cognitive concepts and methods for insight in creating new models of affective space. Also, the successful application of cognitive therapies to the affective disorders has prompted clinical psychologists to work toward a clearer understanding of the connections between cognitive processes and emotional problems. Social psychologists, for their part, have shown how moods influence people’s perceptions of both themselves and others. And whereas most cognitive revolutionaries of the 1960s regarded emotions with suspicion, viewing them as nagging sources of “hot” noise in an otherwise coolly rational and computer like system of information processing, cognitive researchers of the 1990s regard emotions with respect, owing to their potent and predictable effects on tasks as diverse as episodic recall, word recognition, and risk assessment. These intersecting lines of interest have made cognition and emotion one of the most active and rapidly developing areas within psychological science. This same convergence makes Cognition and Emotion a prime candidate for inclusion in the Counterpoints series of texts published by Oxford University Press.
The Emotional Unconscious
Authors: Kihlstrom John F , Mulvaney Shelagh , Tobias Betsy A , Tobis Irene P
Published: November 2023

One of the earliest marks of the cognitive revolution in psychology was a revival of interest in consciousness, rather than behavior. The cognitive psychology that emerged immediately after World War II to replace functional behaviorism focused on the span of apprehension, primary memory, attention, and imagery. Now, as we approach the twenty-first century, cognitive psychology has begun to seriously explore unconscious mental life and the psychological unconscious: the idea that conscious experience, thought, and action is influenced by percepts, memories, and other mental states that are inaccessible to phenomenal awareness and somehow independent of voluntary control.

In the modern history of cognitive psychology, one can discern four early stages in the conceptualization of the psychological unconscious (Kihlstrom, 1995b, 1999). The first of these might be called the wastebasket view: that the unconscious includes unattended and unrehearsed events and memories lost through decay or displacement. There is also the file cabinet view: that the unconscious includes passively stored memories that must be actively retrieved into short term or working memory in order to play any role in cognitive processing. Neither view allows dynamically active unconscious percepts, thoughts, and memories. Thus, they do not really satisfy the definition of the psychological unconscious.
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Adults
Authors: Wender Paul H
Published: November 2023

When the previous edition of this book appeared in 1987, I advanced the reasons why I believed that ADHD in adulthood was common, diagnosable, and treatable. Those reasons were based on research that my collaborators, Dirs. Frederick Reamer and David Wood, and I had conducted (and published on) since 1976. We undertook controlled experiments on the effects of various drug treatments on approximately 200 patients whom we diagnosed as ADHD children “grown up”-that is, adults with continuing problems of ADHD. In addition, we conducted experiments on metabolism and drug responsively in an effort to elucidate the mechanisms of the presumed underlying chemical abnormalities in nearly one hundred patients with ADHD, and we treated scores of patients clinically. Our experience is therefore based on the treatment of several hundred ADHD adults. (It has been a tremendous scientific advantage to be able to work with adults. They can provide information about the inner experience of being ADHD-something children cannot do-and we have been able to learn about the feelings, reactions, and lives of ADHD adults in a way we never could from our studies of children. We can ask them to give informed consent to allow us to conduct nontherapeutic experiments-something one cannot do with children who cannot give truly informed consent.)
Integrating Leadership in State Legislatures
Authors: Rosenthal Cindy Simon
Published: November 2023

When Donna Sytek was elected by a unanimous vote to the speakership of the 400-member New Hampshire House in December 1996, she brought with her a reputation as a consensus builder who does her homework. She developed the skills and reputation by following the usual path to leadership: She served as a committee chair (Ways and Means and later Criminal Justice), worked her way up, and paid her dues. As a committee chair, Speaker Sytek learned and perfected a style of leadership that stresses community and collaboration. Though New Hampshire is a small (just under 1.2 million residents) and racially homogeneous (98 percent white) state, Sytek knows from experience that issues can be divisive. She believes that decisions are best made when all stakeholders get involved, when ownership of a policy develops among all the participants, and when people are persuaded of the merits of an issue. Sytek favors this approach for a simple reason: “It works.” Even if she were inclined toward a more “command” style, the speaker has few perquisites to entice votes or enforce loyalty among her independentminded Republican colleagues. Her most tangible rewards and punishments are the distribution or withholding of sixty Capitol-area parking spaces and the more comfortable aisle seats in the House’s auditorium-like chamber.
Gender, Leadership, and Legislatures: Theoretical Roots
Authors: Rosenthal Cindy Simon
Published: November 2023

Aggregative or distributive theories have dominated the literature on legislative politics beginning with Lasswell’s dictum of”who gets what” and its corollary “at whose expense.”1This perspective assumes that legislators compete with each other to secure the advantages (principally electoral) of scarce policy goods. In their simplest form, legislative decisions are “divide-thedollar” competitions in which particular interests overshadow the broader common good and decision outcomes are reduced to three options: win, lose, or compromise to protect your interests. The distributive paradigm applies not only to individual-level behavior but also to the logic of institutions. March and Olsen call this dominant ideology “the logic of consequentiality” or rational calculation of preferences and consequences. The kind of institution that results from this view is “aggregative,” based on the processes of interests, power, and exchange.
The Motor Component Is Not Crucial!
Authors: Kormi-Nouri Reza , Nilsson Lars-Goran
Published: November 2023

In his multiple memory systems view, Tulving (1983) has described episodic memory as unique, concrete, and concerned with personal in the rememberer’s past. Episodic memory involves the encoding and subsequent retrieval of memories of personal events. The general framework for episodic memory begins with the witnessing or experiencing of an event and ends with its subjective rememberence. An event that is recorded in the episodic memory system always involves the rememberer, either as one of the actors or as an observer of the event. Episodic memory is characterized by temporal and spatial organization, experiential registration (firsthand or immediate knowledge), deliberate access (conscious effort), self-knowing (aware of his/her identity and existence), and a remembering process (to-be-remembered items).
Why Do Actions Speak Louder than Words? Action Memory as a Variant of Encoding Manipulations or the Result of a Specific Memory System?
Authors: Zimmer Hubert D
Published: November 2023

In the preceding chapters of this book, a long series of empirical data was presented that provided grounds for the suspicion that action memory is something specific. Most of the reported experiments demonstrated excellent memory performances for actions when they were self-performed, and such performance levels were usually not achieved with other types of encoding. Furthermore, some manipulations of the encoding conditions, known for being effective in verbal memory, did not show similar effects in SPT, whereas some other effects occurred only if the actions were performed during study. Taking these results as a whole, performing actions during study must be considered a specific encoding condition that differs from standard verbal encoding. However, considering performance as a unique encoding operation does not necessarily take into consideration that actions are remembered by a specific memory system; on the contrary, this point is controversial, as demonstrated by the contributions to this book.
Introduction
Authors: Seitel Peter
Published: November 2023

The goal of the analytic approach described and illustrated in this book is a kind of literary interpretation. Its procedures and perspectives aim at nurturing creative understandings of verbal art-readings that are culturally and historically specific yet have the richness of abstraction and allegory; that place a single work within the “community discourse history” from which it emerged; that attend to the creator and his or her work with a deep and complex critical gaze; and that provide a framework within which indigenous and outsider knowledge can engage in an always unfinished dialogue about form and significance. This system of interpretation is based on the idea of genre as a specific, concrete, yet often changing body of texts, as a framework for creating and interpreting them, and as a “form-shaping ideology” through which both creator and critic enter into dialogue with the collective wisdom of a tradition. An analysis that harnesses the conceptual powers of genre aims at interpretations on several levels. These include the four levels of reading described by Henri De Lubac and cited by Fredric Jameson (1981) in formulating his own critical approach. The levels are: (1) the literal (i.e., attending to and making interpretive use of cultural and historical referents in the texts); (2) the allegorical (i.e., uncovering symbolic codes in the text that are forms of cultural knowledge); (3) the moral (i.e., discovering the cultural rules for individual action in the text); and (4) the anagogic (i.e., reading the text politically, as societal envisionings of the collective “meaning” of history; as Greek epics sing of the heroic age that underlies the development of nations, and as the Bible tells of both the beginning and the end of days).
Stanzas Need No Rhyme
Authors: Seitel Peter
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, the interpretive power of genre is applied inwardly, from the collectivity of classic epic balladry to an individual performance text. Reading outwardly in chapter 4 from genre to social organization revealed the ethical construct known as heroic society. Here, the inward application of genre’s power reveals an unexpected and valuable insight: the existence of stanzaic patterns. In applying the power of genre in either direction, the fulcrum that provides interpretive leverage is compositional finalization.
Introduction
Authors: Benson Donald C
Published: November 2023

I hope in this book to communicate something of the experience and the joy of mathematical discovery. One need not be the firstto make a discovery to experience this pleasure. Being first is only important if one is concerned with fame, but the joy of discovery can be just as intense even if one is not the first. For example, we can still feel the pleasure that Euclid (c. 300 B.C.) experienced when he discovered that there are infinitely many prime numbers. In the popular literature of science, it is usual to tell whatis true rather than whyit is true. For example, a mathematician can tell us that there are infinitely many prime numbers. It is interesting to know that this is true, but it is much more exciting to learn why. A preoccupation with mathematics could even be dangerous. Archimedes (287- 212 B.C.) lost his life when a Roman soldier ran a sword through him because he was so absorbed with his mathematics that he failed to respond to a command. Warning: Some readers may become similarly engrossed.
Reflections
Authors: Benson Donald C
Published: November 2023

Before we offer the main course, we present four mathematical appetizers. In each of the following four examples, based mainly on the Law of Reflection, the solutions depend on surprising geometric insights that lie just below the surface. The Color of the Bear Ada tells Ben about a puzzle that she read in the newspaper, but Ben’s solution jumps to a conclusion. Ada: A hunter leaves his cabin and walks 1 mile south. Then he walks 1 mile east, and, finally, he walks 1 mile north to end up where he started, at his cabin. To his surprise, he finds a bear inside. What is the color of the bear? Ben: The bear must be a white polar bear because the hunter returns to his initial point after traveling 1 mile south, 1 mile east, and 1 mile north. Thisis possible only if the hunter starts his journey at the North Pole.
Divide and Conquer
Authors: Benson Donald C
Published: November 2023

We will consider a few aspects of the computer, but we do not intend to give a complete introduction to computers. Our goal is the discussion of algorithms that are used on the computer for sorting a list of items alphabetically or numerically. We will look at these algorithms as they might be applied to sort playing cards by hand. The most elegant and powerful of the sorting algorithms employ a technique known as divide and conquer. Computers Digital computers are huge assemblages of interdependent on-off switches. Today’s computers are electronic, but more than 100 years ago, Charles Babbage (1792-1871) designed a mechanical digital computer; the future may bring still another technology. The state (on-off) of each switch is determined by the states of other switches in the computer or by external input devices. The switch settings are used to represent numbers as sequences of binary digits, and arithmetic operations can be carried out by arranging suitable connections and dependencies among the switches. Computers carry out an extensive computation by following a sequence of coded instructions. Prior to 1945, computers received instructions from an external source such as paper tape or punched cards, but a crucial advance occurred when mathematician John von Neumann (1903-57) conceived of a digital computer with a flexible internally stored program of instructions. The internal program is flexible because any desired sequence of instructions can be entered into the computer. The computer then interprets a particular configuration of switches, as needed, either as a number or as an instruction.
Two Pearls
Authors: Benson Donald C
Published: November 2023

Cicero does’t tell what the verses on Archimedes’ tomb said-even the legible part-but, as a substitute, we discuss two of Archimedes’ mathematical pearls. It is appropriate to refer to these two results of Archimedes-the volume and surface area of a sphere-as pearlsbecause pearls are generally spherical. Furthermore, pearls are not as hard as some other gems. Mathematical gems are generally brilliant and diamond-hard-thehardness of terse, immutable logic. The softness in the present case comes from the fact that these are pearls of heuristicmathematics-the mathematics of meaning and discovery in contrast to the mathematics of rigorous proof. Nevertheless, these mathematical pearls proved more lasting than the stone column of Archimedes’ tomb.
Secret Messages
Authors: Benson Donald C
Published: November 2023

When Winston Churchill said, “Never in the course of human events have so many owed so much to so few,” he was referring to the airmen who died in the Battle of Britain. However, he could very well have added his own name to the list. Another name that might be added is that of mathematician Alan Turing (1912-54)—forthe course of World War II might have been quite different if Turing had not broken the Enigma cipher, which Nazi Germany used to communicate with U-boats in the North Atlantic. Today cryptography is at the center of a debate over national security and individual liberty.
The Play’s the Thing
Authors: Benson Donald C
Published: November 2023

In any game, the players are given choices of actions to take. Sometimes these choices are very complex. In actual cases, these choices might be made over a considerable time period, and frequently choices are not made until a player sees choices made by the other player(s). For example, in chess the players move by turns in ways that may not have been planned at the start of the game. Nevertheless, a strategyof a player is defined as a list of what that player will do in every possible contingency of the game. A strategy in this sense is also called a pure strategyin contrast to a mixed strategy,which will be defined shortly. We will consider games in which the number of possible strategies is finite, but for many games this number is extremely large. For example, in the case of chess, a strategy is a purely theoretical object because it ’t feasible to list every contingency of a game of chess. At the opposite extreme of complexity, “Bet two dollars on Blue Lightning in the third race” is a strategy. If a player makes his strategy known to an assistant, then that person can function as the player’s proxy without further consultation with the player.
Development and Learning in Infancy
Authors: Gibson Eleanor J , Pick Anne D
Published: November 2023

The next three chapters are concerned with the three major, extensive tasks of infancy: learning to communicate with others, learning about objects and what they afford, and learning to move around in the world. These tasks have a nat ural order for their beginning. Communication comes first, because newborns are ready to look at and listen to their companions, and they are able and motivated to respond appropriately in limited ways; they can activate their facial musculature responsively, and they can vocalize. Attending to and learning about objects begins about 4 months later, when the action systems for reaching and manipulation are ready to go. Locomotion only begins at the half-year mark or later, when growth of the lower limbs makes crawling possible. Readiness of action systems promotes readiness to learn about new affordances. There are other constraints that combine to influence these processes, but babies are pre pared to seek and attend to new information as it becomes available, and to learn to control their emerging action systems adaptively. Action systems lag behind sensory systems, so order of perceptual development during the first year is strongly influenced by the development of new possibilities for action.
The Learning Process in Infancy
Authors: Gibson Eleanor J , Pick Anne D
Published: November 2023

This chapter presents a theoretical approach to perceptual learning as it functions in development. The first question for any learning theory is what is learned. For what phenomena, cognitive accomplishments, or behavioral changes does this theory offer an explanation? One general, fairly abstract answer for perceptual learning is that infants learn to perceive affordances: that is, to perceive what the events, objects, and layout of the environment offer that relates to and may be controlled by the infant, a relation that can be referred to as an organism environment fit. Learning about affordances is learning meanings for what can be perceived.

Perceptual learning is also the way developing organisms discover invariants of events, things, and the layout of the world. Invariants characterize the total event. In reaching out for an object, the arm moves away from the body, ap proaching closer and closer to the object, closing in as it begins to make contact. Momentary segments of this event, like still shots from a film, do not characterize the event at all and could vary in a number of ways without changing what is invariant about the event. The event can be characterized as a whole and is meaningful to infants long before they can describe it linguistically.
Recognizing Emotions by Ear and by Eye
Authors: Gelder Beatrice De
Published: November 2023

Facial expression and tone of voice occupy prominent positions in the behavioral repertoires of higher animals. The production and perception of a whole range of facial and vocal emotional behaviors constitute an essential part of the communicative competence that complex social interactions in animals and humans are based upon. A wealth of studies has already documented the instrumental role of such facial and vocal cues in regulating social behavior. The goal of this chapter is to present a new domain of investigations dealing with a novel but specific question: How does the organism deal with the perceptual problem of multiple cues when each separately contains an emotional signal and when the two are present at the same time? The specific case I will look at is that of a facial expression present together with a tone of voice.
Cognitive-Emotional Interactions: Listen to the Brain
Authors: Ledoux Joseph
Published: November 2023

Through the ages, cognition and emotion have been viewed as separate but equal aspects of the mind. The goal of a theory of mind was traditionally to understand how cognition, emotion, and other mental processes contribute to and interact in the maldng of the mind. But around the middle of the twentieth century, an intellectual hegemony, now called cognitive science, began that ultimately led to an approach to the mind that intentionally left the study of emotion out (see LeDoux, 1996). Recently, there have been a number of attempts to reunite emotion and cognition in the mind, usually by inserting emotion into the cognitive view of the mind (see Ekman & Davidson, 1994). These have not succeeded, as there is still more confusion than consensus about the relation between emotion and cognition and the place of these two concepts in a theory of mind.
Positron Emission Tomography in the Study of Emotion, Anxiety, and Anxiety Disorders
Authors: Reiman Eric M , Lane Richard D , Ahern Geoffrey L , Schwartz Gary E , Davidson Richard J
Published: November 2023

This chapter reviews six studies in which we used positron emission tomography (PET) measurements of regional cerebral blood flow (CBF), a marker of local neuronal activity, to investigate regions of the brain that participate in emotion, anxiety, and anxiety disorders. Along the way, we consider how these brain regions are related to different kinds of emotional stimuli, different types of emotion, emotional valence, and different forms of emotional pathology.
Infectious Disease Protocols
Authors: Harris Eva
Published: November 2023

PCR Protocols

Overview

The second part of this book contains a number of protocols for the PCR amplification of nucleic acids from selected pathogenic organisms, each of which has been developed, tested, and applied in the field during workshops and collaborative projects over the past 10 years. Each protocol is preceded by an introduction to the clinical manifestations and epidemiology of the disease caused by the pathogen, classical methods of diagnosis, PCR-based procedures reported to date, and points to consider in using PCR. It is important to keep in mind when reviewing published PCR protocols that some have been assessed only in research laboratories. Therefore, continuous review of the literature for reports of field evaluations of these techniques is recommended.
Introduction
Authors: Fernald Theodore B , Platero Paul R
Published: November 2023

The Athabaskan language family stretches from Alaska through northwestern Canada and also appears in the American Southwest and in isolated regions of Washington, Oregon, and California. Navajo is currently the most widely used with somewhere between 90,000 and 150,000 speakers. The reason for the high margin of error in the estimated number of speakers is easily imagined by people who are familiar with what happens with endangered languages. In the case of Navajo, it is difficult to decide whom to count as a Navajo speaker: many people spoke it fluently when they were children but no longer do.
Letter To Betty Jane Holder (February 9, 1952)
Authors: Armstrong Louis
Published: November 2023

In this letter Armstrong writes about his infamous experience as King of the Zulus in 1949. During Mardi Gras festivities, he rode the float sponsored by the Zulu Aid and Pleasure Club, dressed outrageously in black-faced makeup and a parody of tribal garb. James Collier (1983: 311) suggests that the publicity generated from this incident served as a turning point in Armstrong’s career. On the one hand, he became a genuine media “star.” On the other hand, he was criticized for promoting vestiges of minstrelsy which, no matter how firmly grounded in New Orleanian tradition, seemed to outsiders like an embarrassing retreat from racial progress. As Dizzy Gillespie put it, “Louis is the plantation character that so many of us ... younger men ... resent” (Down Beat, July I, 1949: 13).
Cognitive Skill Acquisition, Maintenance, and Transfer in the Elderly
Authors: Gardner Michael K , Strayer David L , Woltz Dan J , Hill Robert D
Published: November 2023

Skills refer to knowledge of “how to” perform some action rather than “knowledge of” some facts or events (Schmidt & Bjork, 1992). These two forms of knowledge are in some cases independent of one another. A person can know how to drive an automobile without factual knowledge of how the automobile works. Conversely, a person could study technical manuals and learn about how the various components of an automobile function, but this knowledge would not be of much help in driving if that person had not practiced the skill of driving. People often do not think of everyday skills as knowledge, and older individuals may be much more conscious of their memory for factual information than of their memory for skills (see Kausler, 1991). Yet, it is likely that their proficiency in relatively simple cognitive skills is a greater determinant of their life satisfaction than is the extent of their factual knowledge base.
Multifactorial Memory Training in Normal Aging
Authors: Neely Anna Stigsdotter
Published: November 2023

From everyday functioning (“Where did I put those car keys?”) to the fundamentals of existence (“Who am I?), our ability to remember a previous episode is perhaps one of the most important cognitive assets we have. Throughout human history, possession of a proficient memory has been treasured. The ancient Greeks were devoted to memory improvement, an interest that led to the development of the first memory techniques (Yates, 1966). In addition to the practical advantages of having good memory skills, the fact is that rapid and accurate retrieval of information almost always impresses, whether it is the slick car salesperson who remembers you from an earlier visit or your grandmother who can rattle off the name of nearly every plant and tree in the forest. Good memory can be an important social tool. Thus, it is no wonder that concerns about memory decrements are raised as we get older and begin to experience changes in memory functioning. This concern, in turn, often triggers an interest in what can be done to improve remembering.
The Role of Physical Exercise as a Rehabilitative Aid for Cognitive Loss in Healthy and Chronically III Older Adults
Authors: Emery Charles F
Published: November 2023

Older adults are frequently encouraged to participate in physical exercise due to the cumulative evidence indicating physiological benefits of exercise such as enhanced cardiovascular function, physical stamina, and muscle strength (Aniansson, Grirnby, Rundgren, Svanborg, & Orlander, 1980; Pyka, Lindenberger, Charette, & Marcus, 1994), weight loss (Evans & Cyr-Campbell, 1997), prevention of osteoporosis (Bachmann & Grill, 1987), and enhanced glucose metabolism (Raz, Hauser, & Bursztyn, 1994). In addition, data suggest that exercise among older adults may be associated with improved quality of life (Singh, Clements, & Fiatarone, 1997), reduced psychological distress (McMurdo & Rennie, 1994), and improved neuropsychological or cognitive performance (Dustman et al., 1984). The potential for exercise-related improvements in cognitive functioning is of particular interest due to the increased prevalence of cognitive deficits among older adults and the widespread inclusion of exercise programs for older adults in a variety of settings (e.g., senior centers, assisted-care living facilities, hospital inpatient units, rehabilitation settings). The purpose of this chapter is (a) to describe briefly the age-related physical and cognitive changes that have been a focus of research in this area, (b) to discuss the physical and cognitive changes associated with exercise among older adults, and (c) to describe the relevance of these research findings for cognitive rehabilitation among older adults.
Smoking and Cognitive Function
Authors: Hill Robert D , Seelert Karen Rothballer
Published: November 2023

Cigarette smoking is a pervasive high-risk behavior that has been linked to the early emergence and rapid progression of chronic disease in middle and late life. The mechanisms through which smoking impairs healthy functioning and predisposes older adults to chronic illness has been well documented (Fielding, 1985; La Croix et al., 1991). The vast majority of this research points to the deleterious effects of chronic smoking on both physiological capacity and efficiency as it relates to specific organ systems (Jenkins, Rosenman, & Zyzanski, 1968; Lange et al., 1989; Shin ton & Beevers, 1989). What is less well understood about cigarette smoking is its potential to interact with cognitive processes in both normal and diseased aging.