bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Understanding risk and resilience in maltreated children:
Authors: Kaufman Joan , Montalvo-Ortiz Janitza L , Lee Richard S
Published: June 2019

Individuals with a history of child abuse are at high risk for a broad range of psychiatric and substance use disorders. This chapter reviews key findings from research on the genetics of child abuse-related psychiatric disorders, neuroimaging investigations with maltreated youth, and resiliency studies. Relevant empirical work in the field was reviewed, with an emphasis on prior reviews, meta-analytic studies, and recent publications. Genetic factors are not associated with distinct psychiatric disorders but rather diverse clinical phenotypes, and a history of abuse is frequently associated with alterations in structural and functional brain changes across multiple brain regions and circuits that mediate a wide variety of emotional and cognitive processes. Heterogeneity in clinical outcome and brain measures varies as a function of a wide range of factors, and emerging findings on genetic and neural plasticity offers significant promise in understanding risk and resilience in maltreated youth. Child maltreatment is a strong predictor of early onset of psychiatric illness, increased comorbidity, and poor treatment response; however, a history of abuse need not lead to the development of psychiatric problems. Risk is altered by genetic factors, and can be ameliorated by positive factors in the environment—including the availability of positive support, enrichment experiences, and the delivery of evidence-based psychotherapeutic clinical interventions. Future multidisciplinary and translational studies will help to further delineate the mechanisms by which experiences of maltreatment confers risk for psychopathology, as well as help to further delineate factors associated with resiliency.
Genetics of impulsivity, anger, and aggression as risk factors for suicidal behavior
Authors: Rujescu Dan , Giegling Ina
Published: June 2019

Suicidal behavior is a major health problem causing more than 1 million deaths worldwide each year. The risk of suicide-related behavior is supposed to be determined by a complex interplay of sociocultural factors, psychiatric history, personality traits, and genetic as well as neurobiological vulnerability. Personality traits like impulsivity, anger or aggression are valuable intermediate phenotypes in the search for the genetics of such a complex trait. This review will summarize genetic factors of phenotypes as risk factors for suicidal behavior. There is hope that simpler, quantifiable measures will be more elementary compared to clinical phenotypes. It is assumed that the number of genes required to produce variations in these traits may be fewer than those involved in producing a diagnostic entity. Further understanding of the genetics and pathophysiology of suicidal behavior is therefore very important.
Therapygenetics:
Authors: Coleman Jonathan RI , Lester Kathryn J , Eley Thalia C
Published: June 2019

Therapygenetics refers to the prediction of psychological therapy outcomes from genetic markers. The rationale for this research derives from the gene–environment interaction literature, which has shown that individual differences in susceptibility to the environment are at least partly due to genetic variation for a wide range of phenotypes. While initially framed within the context of the diathesis-stress model, this idea has since been developed in a number of ways. Most notably, some genetic markers that place an individual at risk of a poor outcome following a stressful event may reflect environmental susceptibility markers, and thus may also enhance the likelihood of an individual benefiting from a positive environment, including psychological intervention. This chapter reviews the current evidence from candidate gene and genome-wide association studies that genetic factors can explain individual differences in response to psychological therapy. As this is a field in its infancy, future directions and opportunities are outlined. Following an initial discussion on the need to move toward a “therapygenomics” approach utilizing genome-wide methodologies, the importance of identifying mechanisms underlying associations between genes and psychological therapy outcomes is outlined. Finally, the possible future clinical implications of therapygenetics work, both scientific and ethical, are considered.
Eusebius’ Canon Tables as a Paratext for Ordering Textual Knowledge
Authors: Crawford Matthew R.
Published: June 2019

This chapter situates the Eusebian apparatus against the backdrop of the theory and history of paratexts and the theory and history of information visualization. It argues that Eusebius’ Canon Tables were a highly original paratext and a remarkably sophisticated instance of information visualization when compared to what preceded them. The closest formal analogue to the Canon Tables is shown to be the astronomical tables composed by Ptolemy in the second century. When seen in relation to the fourfold gospel, the Canon Tables are a paratext that orders the textual material of the gospels by organizing it into relational categories and providing the user with a navigational system when reading the corpus.
The Origins of Scholarship on the Fourfold Gospel
Authors: Crawford Matthew R.
Published: June 2019

In his Letter to Carpianus Eusebius refers to an earlier author named Ammonius of Alexandria who, he says, left to posterity the Diatessaron-Gospel. This chapter first identifies the Ammonius in question and proposes that he was a philosopher well-known for his philological scholarship. It also elucidates the title and significance of his work through a comparison with Origen’s Hexapla. The second half of the chapter turns to Eusebius’ adaptation of Ammonius’ composition and argues that it provided him with the ‘starting points’ that he reworked to produce his marginal apparatus. Eusebius’ experimentations with information visualization and textual organization in his Chronicle and Pinax for the Psalms provided him with the insights he needed to accomplish this reworking. Finally, this chapter argues that the ten Canon Tables possessed cosmological resonances in the light of Eusebius’ comments elsewhere about the theology of numbers and creation.
What Do Police Community Support Officers Do?
Authors: O'Neill Megan
Published: June 2019

Chapter 3 presents a detailed account of what Police Community Support Officers (PCSOs) do in their daily work, and the skills seen as essential in these tasks. It begins with a discussion of a ‘typical’ day for a PCSO in terms of its overall structure. It then considers the types of activities in which PCSOs engaged during the research, such as crime control or enforcement-related tasks, community engagement tasks, administrative tasks, and finally emergency-related work. The chapter then moves to the skills which were the most important for PCSOs to master: communication and the development of local knowledge. These analyses identify the ideal PCSO ‘performance’ which PCSOs will learn upon joining the organization and present and defend to their police officer colleagues and to the community members with whom they interact. This discussion utilizes observations and interviews from the staff and officers of the six neighbourhood teams who participated in this study.
Police Family Dynamics
Authors: O'Neill Megan
Published: June 2019

Chapter 5 describes and analyses the day-to-day encounters between Police Community Support Officers (PCSOs) and police officer colleagues. These encounters are important to consider in order to understand fully PCSOs’ occupational experiences. The pluralized public police in England and Wales are often described as a police ‘family’. However, just how functional and harmonious a family this is is shown to be variable between and within police forces. The chapter considers the reasons for this from within a dramaturgical framework, to appreciate fully the nature and organization of these face-to-face interactions. In particular, Goffman’s concepts of performances, teamwork, and regions will be used. The chapter argues that police officers and PCSOs operate as separate performance teams, rather than as one unified one, and that the relationships between these teams varies. In some areas, the teams worked in a complementary way, whereas in others, the relationship was competitive.
Police Community Support Officer Culture in a Pluralized Field
Authors: O'Neill Megan
Published: June 2019

This penultimate chapter of the book brings together the research described so far and analyses its significance for an understanding of the occupational culture of Police Community Support Officers (PCSOs) within the pluralized field of public policing. The two phenomena of institutional undermining and complementary/competitive teams discussed previously in the book are combined through a theoretical framework developed by Chan (1997) to analyse police officer and PCSO culture. This highlights the processes of developing and enacting an occupational culture through storytelling, and it highlights its artefacts (two distinct aspects of occupational culture which are often conflated). Both PCSOs and police officers experience these processes and generate cultural artefacts. The chapter explores how these processes and artefacts for the two groups, while at times appearing similar, have significant differences, which reveals a unique PCSO occupational culture.
Conceptualizing Peace
Authors: Caplan Richard
Published: June 2019

Different conceptions of peace have different implications for devising strategies of peacebuilding and peace maintenance. What it takes to achieve a negative peace is very different from what is required to achieve a positive peace. This chapter explores how the conceptual distinctions discussed in the Introduction map onto actual practice, with reference to the principal relevant peacebuilding actors: the United Nations, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, the African Union, the World Bank, and leading non-governmental organizations. What are the primary features of these organizations’ approaches to peacebuilding? How do they differ, if at all, in their understandings of the characteristics of, and requirements for, a stable peace?
Introduction
Authors: Caplan Richard
Published: June 2019

Countries that have suffered civil war are at high risk of conflict relapse. While the international community expends billions of dollars and deploys thousands of personnel each year to help build peace in countries emerging from violent conflict, these efforts are hampered by the lack of effective means of assessing progress towards the achievement of a consolidated peace. Better assessment can inform peacebuilding actors in the reconfiguration and reprioritization of their operations in cases where conditions on the ground have deteriorated (or improved). We cannot know with certainty that a peace is stable but it is possible to ascertain the quality of a peace, and the vulnerability of that peace to conflict relapse, with higher levels of confidence.
The Canonical Nine on the Comic Stage
Authors: Hadjimichael Theodora A.
Published: June 2019

Chapter 2 looks at the comic genre as a source of information about the Athenian audience’s knowledge and recognition of the lyric poets and their compositions. Comedy makes use of biographical and anecdotal features of several lyric poets who are parodied on stage, and demonstrates a profound awareness of generic features and also of cultic and performative characteristics of various lyric song-types. Lyric poets are contextualized in several comic symposia that are depicted as settings of lyric reception and as possible contexts of the survival of lyric poetry in Athens. In several cases one observes how comedy reflects the evolutionary process of canonization and the emerging distinction between the old and the popular new in lyric poetry, a distinction that eventually led to the formation of the Lyric Canon. The evidence suggests that canonizing process of lyric is obvious already in the fifth-century Athenian literary background.
Fundamental Equations
Authors: Shinbrot Troy
Published: June 2019

This chapter introduces the topic of fluid transport. The opening section provides a motivational allegory based on the sinking of the SS Edmund Fitzgerald on Lake Superior in 1975. Although the connection between the sinking of a steam ship and flow of blood in an artery is not obvious, the chapter describes how “apparently different systems, sharing little in scale, scope, or appearance, in fact share the same features, can be described by the same equations, and exhibit the same phenomenology.” The continuity and Navier–Stokes equations are then derived, and are applied to Poiseuille flow in a rigid tube.
Intermezzo: Effects of Increasing Reynolds Number
Authors: Shinbrot Troy
Published: June 2019

Effects of increasing fluid speed are analyzed. The Bernouilli and vorticity equations are derived, and the method of matching solutions is described for the Rankine vortex. Cases in which rotational flow is mandatory are explained, and bifurcations, hydraulic jumps, and transitions between stable and unstable behaviors are introduced. The ethical views of Hans Bethe and Edward Teller are contrasted. Other topics include potential flow around both cylinders and spheres and lessons that can be learnt about flow over a wavy streambed.
Inviscid Flows
Authors: Shinbrot Troy
Published: June 2019

Remarkable changes in drag are described as fluid speed is increased, and methods to reduce drag at high speed are described. The Stokes paradox is considered, as are the effects of Reynolds number and roughness on drag. The use of conformal mappings to obtain flow streamlines is defined for problems including flow past an airfoil, flow past a step, and over a cavity.
Rheology in Complex Fluids 1
Authors: Shinbrot Troy
Published: June 2019

Complex flows are described, including shear thinning, shear thickening, and yield-stress. Mechanisms of changing viscosity in dense suspensions are explored, including the relevance of the lubrication approximation, dilatency, and the spaghetti model of polymers. Liquid crystal alignment is discussed, and model equations are introduced for flows in packed beds. The viscosity of synovial fluid is described, and equations to combine viscous and elastic behaviors are obtained.
Law and Custom before 1066
Authors: Baker John
Published: June 2019

This chapter prepares the ground by exploring the character of law and custom in England before the emergence of the common law. The so-called codes issued by some of the Anglo-Saxon kings, especially the great doom-book of King Alfred, were not comprehensive bodies of law. Disputes were settled by customary methods, mostly in local assemblies, in the county and hundred. There were no lawyers or juries. Disputes of fact were tried by putting a party on oath, and in the most serious cases requiring the oath to be supported by a physical ‘ordeal’. Some features of the common-law system were in place before 1066, particularly the concepts of royal and seignorial jurisdiction, the pleas of the Crown, the delegation of royal authority to sheriffs and franchise-holders, and the use of writing as an exercise of authority.
The Court of Chancery and Equity
Authors: Baker John
Published: June 2019

This chapter traces the history of the Court of Chancery and equity. The equitable jurisdiction derived from the extraordinary jurisdiction of the king’s council. By 1400 the chancellor had his own court and was issuing decrees in his own name. It was not tied to law but could coerce the conscience of a defendant, for instance to desist from an unconscionable suit at law. Equity was not in conflict with the law, but there was a dispute between Coke and Ellesmere in 1615 over injunctions after judgment. Most equitable principles began with relief given on the facts of individual cases, but the multitude of suits generated common principles, many of which were elucidated by Lord Nottingham. The court’s initially informal procedure became unmanageably complex as more suitors resorted to it. The later Chancery was a byword for delay and despair; the chapter ends with an account of its reform.
Real Property
Authors: Baker John
Published: June 2019

This chapter traces the origins of real property law in the context of feudal tenure. In the feudal world of the twelfth century much discretion rested in the lord and his court, guided by custom, but the promise of Henry II to redress the injustices which had occurred during the reign of Stephen led to the establishment of remedies in the king’s courts which altered the nature of seisin and inheritance. A brief account is given of the writ of right, the assizes of novel disseisin and mort d’ancestor, and writs of entry. The latter part of the chapter examines the incidents of tenure, especially wardship and marriage, and explains how they gained importance as feudal services dwindled in value. The statute Quia Emptores 1290 put an end to the creation of tenures in fee simple, but tenure retained its importance because of its valuable incidents.
Real Property
Authors: Baker John
Published: June 2019

This chapter is concerned with the history of settlements of land, the means whereby landowners could control the devolution of their real property in the future. The fee tail seemed at first to allow land to be tied to a family so long as it lasted, but means were found of ‘barring the entail’ by common recovery or final concord. Much confusion was caused by the operation of the Statutes of Uses and Wills on future interests, but the principal outcomes were the ‘executory interest’ and the legal power. Equitable interests also resurfaced in the form of trusts. Conveyancers sought to use the new statutory magic to create perpetuities, but eventually the courts struck down perpetuity clauses as contrary to public policy. The resulting doctrines were utilized to fashion the strict settlement, employed in most landed families for three centuries; its workings are here described.
Other Interests in Land
Authors: Baker John
Published: June 2019

This chapter is concerned with the history of interests in land not already dealt with. The term of years, or leasehold, began as a chattel interest but changed character when it was used as a substitute for subinfeudation after 1290. The 1499 decision that possession could be recovered in the action of ejectment turned it into a ‘chattel real’. Villein tenure, renamed ‘copyhold’ in the fourteenth century, existed beyond the common law, in that it was regulated and protected by manorial custom; but the availability of ejectment to copyholders brought it within the common-law scheme of estates in the sixteenth century. The trust also became an ‘equitable estate’ in land, with different purposes from the medieval use. Mortgages were of considerable practical importance, though not until modern times as a device for buying property; the various forms are here outlined.
Quasi-Contract
Authors: Baker John
Published: June 2019

This chapter traces the history of what used to be called quasi-contract but is now part of the law of restitution. It was principally concerned with the receipt of money which belonged in justice to someone else. The earliest relevant action was account, at first limited to agents and then extended to all receivers of money; this was an impracticable action and went into disuse. Actions on the case came to the rescue, particularly the action for money had and received (a species of indebitatus assumpsit). The latter action was used not only in traditional cases of accountability but also where money was received by mistake or compulsion, where income from property was taken by an interloper, or where a party to a failed contract sought rescission. Much of the history is hidden from view by fictions, but Lord Mansfield declared a general principle based on the equity of the common law.
Nuisance
Authors: Baker John
Published: June 2019

This chapter traces the history of the law of nuisance. The medieval assize of nuisance and the action quod permittat were not comprehensive, because minor complaints of nuisance were supposed to go to local courts. The central courts acquired a wider and more effective jurisdiction through the use of actions on the case. It became necessary to distinguish between the protection of easements and profits, which were property rights, and the protection of natural rights such as freedom from noise and smell, which depended on balancing interests and reasonable compromises. Case also lay for isolated escapes of harmful matter, though the older cases were misunderstood by the Lords in Rylands v. Fletcher (1868) to rest on strict liability. Another misunderstanding concerned public nuisance, which was not a cause of action but a bar to actions by plaintiffs who could not show special loss.
Persons
Authors: Baker John
Published: June 2019

This chapter, after some initial remarks about the legal status of women, aliens, and monks, is concerned with the history of personal liberty. Early law recognized the unfree status of villeins, but numerous means of escape brought villeinage to a de facto end by 1600. The law relating to imprisonment became controversial with the development of habeas corpus, relying on Magna Carta, as a remedy against arbitrary imprisonment under the royal prerogative. The controversy culminated in the debates on the liberty of the subject in 1628 and the Petition of Right. Religious freedom is considered next, beginning with the intolerant medieval heresy jurisdiction and its virtual extinction under Elizabeth I. But freedom of thought was not the same as freedom of worship, political expression, or assembly, which were constrained in various ways. The final section examines how far the English courts accepted black slavery, and how slavery was eventually abolished.
A Stalled Revolution and the Gender-Egalitarian Policy Agenda
Authors: Schouten Gina
Published: June 2019

This chapter reviews the empirical literature on the gendered division of labor, demonstrating that paid work and unpaid caregiving labor remain unequally distributed according to gender and that political interventions can be effective in inducing families to share work more equally. The main goal in this review of the empirical literature is to motivate the project. I then set out the menu of gender-egalitarian interventions that would be, if implemented, promising strategies for eroding the gendered division of labor. Finally, I explore political liberalism’s commitment to mutual respect, working to get more precise about what the gender-egalitarian interventions in question do, why they are appropriately regarded as subsidies for gender-egalitarian lifestyles, and why subsidizing gender egalitarianism seems, intuitively, to be at odds with mutual respect. The goal here is to build a rough understanding of the reciprocity considerations embedded in the ideal of mutual respect.
The Challenge of Liberal Legitimacy
Authors: Schouten Gina
Published: June 2019

There are a few “easy fixes” or “work-arounds” that may appear to dispel the tension between the gender-egalitarian political agenda and a commitment to politically liberal legitimacy. First, we might argue that those who oppose gender egalitarianism are unreasonable, and thus fall outside the justificatory community that liberalism is committed to respecting. Second, we might argue that gender-norm-compliant choices are non-voluntary, and so need not be respected within liberal political institutions. Finally, we might argue that the gendered division of labor violates basic liberties, and so can be politically remediated on those grounds, even if the means of remediation are controversial. This chapter addresses each possibility and shows why they are not promising fixes. The main goals are to show that the problem is genuine and cannot be easily dispelled by some tempting quick fixes, and in so doing to clear the way for consideration of more promising solutions.
The Mal-Distribution Strategy
Authors: Schouten Gina
Published: June 2019

This chapter critiques the prevailing strategy for defending gender-egalitarian political interventions as legitimate exercises of political power compliant with the neutrality constraint. According to this strategy, the gendered division of labor constitutes or causes unjust distributions of goods, and gender-egalitarian interventions can be legitimate means to remedy those unjust distributions. This strategy is appealing because of its apparent promise of justifying gender-egalitarian policies without making any judgments as to the relative value of gender-egalitarian and gender-inegalitarian lifestyles. I argue that, despite its appeal, this strategy is inadequate. First, the distributional strategy is not compliant with the neutrality constraint in the way that its proponents have claimed; second, independently of liberal legitimacy, the injustice of the gendered division of labor is not best diagnosed as distributional.
The Family and the Basic Structure
Authors: Schouten Gina
Published: June 2019

This chapter begins the work of defending my own approach to justifying gender-egalitarian interventions. The first step is to defend against a line of thought according to which the interventions are categorically illegitimate due to the restriction of justice to institutions. The traditional liberal view holds that institutions and structural features of society are the primary subject matter of justice, and that principles of justice apply to individuals’ behavior only derivatively. Critics of this “basic structure” view maintain that it too narrowly construes the purview of justice, and that principles of justice can also apply directly to the behaviors of individual agents. If the basic structure view is vindicated, that would apparently condemn gender-egalitarian interventions as illegitimate on their face. I argue that some version of the restricted view is defensible, but that such a version will not categorically classify gender-egalitarian interventions as illegitimate.
Case functions
Authors: Miller D. Gary
Published: June 2019

Nominative is the case of most subjects but not all subjects are nominative. So-called quirky subjects (as in dative absolutes) serve as binders for anaphors. There is no special case for topics, which are generally indicated by movement of some constituent to the left periphery. Although the vocative was largely lost as a morphological category, it remained syntactically distinct. The accusative is used for direct objects, cognate objects, secondary predicates, perlatives, and allatives. The genitive is plurifunctional. Adverbal and partitive genitives pattern together, as do adnominal and relational. The polyfunctional dative syncretizes the Indo-European dative, locative, ablative, and instrumental. Verbs with oblique case complements generally passivize with nominative subjects, but with double object verbs, the oblique case remains in passive structures.
Compounding
Authors: Miller D. Gary
Published: June 2019

Gothic is rich in endocentric N+N compounds. Except for V+N, other kinds of nominal endocentrics are also plentiful. Less frequent are adjectival endocentrics. Most productive of the exocentric compounds is the adjectival type (bahuvrihis). Predominant among the synthetic type are those with -(j)an- and participial heads. Gothic has identificational compounds but possibly no dvandvas. These are difficult to identify due to uncertainties in the meaning of the constituents. Several compounding heads were grammaticalized as suffixes, most notably -laus (free from, deprived of) and -leiks ((a)like, -ly). A composition vowel is normal in endocentrics. Bahuvrihis with a non-n-stem adjectival first component have no juncture -a-, nor do compounds beginning with a P-word or indeclinable numeral. No compound types are shared exclusively by Gothic and North Germanic.
Linearization and typology
Authors: Miller D. Gary
Published: June 2019

This chapter focuses on the linear order of phrasal constituents. Subject pronouns preferentially precede the verb directly. Object pronouns generally follow the verb. Reflexives with few exceptions follow the verb and precede non-reflexives. D-words generally precede nouns and adjectives. Only prepositional phrases occur, from which non-deictic Ds are excluded. Attributive and possessive adjectives tend to follow the noun, quantifiers to precede. The default position for genitives is postnominal. Partitive genitives are nearly always postposed. Discourse particles belong to the left periphery. Some force their host to sentence-initial, especially V1, position. In native Gothic, verbs follow predicate adjectives and auxiliaries follow verbs, as is typical of verb-final languages. Imperatives raise to the left periphery. The negator ni forms a tight constituent with the verb. The chapter closes with a brief overview of Gothic in the context of Germanic word order typology.
Behavioral perspectives
Authors: Child John , Faulkner David , Tallman Stephen , Hsieh Linda
Published: June 2019

Chapter 4 presents behavioral perspectives relevant to cooperative strategy. These perspectives are relational signaling theory, attention-based view, justice theory, and sociological views (social network, social exchange). They complement the more traditional economic, organizational, and managerial perspectives by explaining the effects of a set of relational, cognitive, and social-psychological factors on the formation, governance, and management of strategic alliances. A major theme is that trust is an essential component of social order in cooperation. Trust between partner firms facilitates social exchange, and its value is widely appreciated by the managers of strategic alliances. This chapter examines the significance of trust, its multi-level nature and foundations, followed by a discussion of how trust evolves with alliance development. The chapter closes with a discussion of practical ways through which trust can be enhanced in alliances.
Types of cooperation and networks
Authors: Child John , Faulkner David , Tallman Stephen , Hsieh Linda
Published: June 2019

Chapter 5 reviews the traditional forms of strategic alliance and network. It shows that there are many different types, ranging from supplier contracts to equity joint ventures, and all have different levels of interaction and independence. Networks are another well-established form of cooperation; these can embrace several, sometimes many, firms and other partners. This chapter discusses dominated, equal partner, and coordinated networks. This chapter also describes a variety of taxonomies proposed for classifying alliances. It notes that Yoshino and Rangan (1995) and Dussauge and Garrette (1999) have perhaps the most attractive typologies of alliance forms among the many on offer. Yoshino and Rangan categorize alliances into non-traditional contracts, equity alliances, and joint ventures. Dussauge and Garrette identify international expansion joint ventures, vertical partnerships, diversification alliances, complementary alliances, shared supply alliances, and quasi-concentration alliances. The chapter concludes with some suggestions as to which forms may be most appropriate for which situations.
Cooperative strategies in the platform economy
Authors: Child John , Faulkner David , Tallman Stephen , Hsieh Linda
Published: June 2019

Chapter 6 analyzes a new form of economy, enabled by ICTs, digital platforms, and smart devices to connect transactors (sharers or buyers and sellers) who may not have been able to cooperate otherwise. It provides an overview of the phenomenon of “the platform revolution” (from classic value chain logic to platform business logic). It goes on to explain different types of platform (innovation platform, transaction platform, integration platform), the principles of platform business (network effects, the distribution power law, asymmetric growth and competition) and the tacit cooperative strategies of suppliers, platform providers, and customers. Cooperation is tacit—providers do not interact and customers do not interact, except through ratings. The platform system is set up to maintain this condition. The chapter concludes with an overview of platform governance.
Cooperation in non-financial services
Authors: Child John , Faulkner David , Tallman Stephen , Hsieh Linda
Published: June 2019

Chapter 18 focuses on the non-financial service sector and the professional service firm in particular. It describes how professional service firms bent on expansion are increasingly developing characteristics similar to manufacturing firms, enabling them to take advantage of economies of scale and scope, thereby commoditizing their products/services. They are also digitizing back offices. As such they are making themselves good candidates for globalization by means of cooperative strategy. The chapter also considers the position of the smaller professional service firm, which it views as having more limited opportunities due to the weakness of its brand name in terms of international recognition. However, if the smaller firm focuses on bespoke products and developing a good unique selling proposition (USP), it too may use cooperative strategy successfully to aid its international expansion. Finally the chapter discusses how the collaborative movement has impacted on three specific service sectors, aviation, tourism, and academia.
Performance criteria and drivers in cooperative ventures
Authors: Child John , Faulkner David , Tallman Stephen , Hsieh Linda
Published: June 2019

Chapter 23 examines performance in cooperative ventures, a complex issue. The question of performance must be addressed from at least three perspectives; those of the two or more parents and the cooperative entity. Because cooperative ventures are either contractual arrangements between various operational units in the parents or are independent organizations with their equity closely held by the parents, classic measures of firm performance often are not reported publicly and may not even be collected systematically by the parents. The performance of an alliance as a functioning entity may not equate to its performance for its partner or parent companies. For example, it may be subject to a variety of payments such as franchising fees and royalties that benefit one or the other parent, hurt the financial performance of the alliance, but benefit the system as a whole.
The genomic architecture of eukaryotes
Authors: Hill Geoffrey E.
Published: June 2019

Eukaryotes are chimeras—the product of an ancient fusion of a bacterium and an archaeon. Mitochondrial genomes only code for a few dozen products, so more than 1000 nuclear genes create most of the phenotype of a mitochondrion. Consequently, to produce a functional electron transport system and enable oxidative phosphorylation within an organism, every gene product of the mitochondrion must function in close association with products of the nuclear genome. This genomic architecture, with some mitochondrial autonomy, is proposed to be necessary to allow local regulation of the electron transport system within mitochondria. A two-genome architecture of eukaryotes sets up the fundamental necessity of mitonuclear coadaptation and has enormous implications for characteristics of complex life.
Compensatory coevolution
Authors: Hill Geoffrey E.
Published: June 2019

In most eukaryotes, mitochondrial genes mutate at a higher rate than nuclear genes. In addition, mitochondrial genes are transmitted without recombination, so slightly deleterious mutations are predicted to perpetually accumulate in mt genes. Accumulation of deleterious mutations in mt genes can potentially lead to loss of mitonuclear coadaptation. There is growing evidence that variant nuclear genes evolve so as to compensate for mitochondrial mutations and restore mitochondrial function. This is compensatory coevolution and is the focus of this chapter. The chapter also explores the idea that the many nuclear-encoded subunits in eukaryotic electron transport system enzymes were recruited to regulate and control the core catalytic reactions undertaken by the core mitochondrial subunits. It will also consider the evidence that when mutational erosion occurs, corrupted mitochondrial genotypes can be rescued by introgression of entire mitochondrial genomes. Compensatory coevolution has important implications for speciation, sexual selection, and adaptation.
The evolution of sex and two sexes
Authors: Hill Geoffrey E.
Published: June 2019

Sexual reproduction has proven so formidable a challenge for evolutionary biologists that it is commonly spoken of as “the paradox of sex.” Stated simply, individuals forsake one-half of their genetic representation in offspring by engaging in sexual versus asexual reproduction. There must be substantial benefits to compensate for so great a cost. Recent theory proposes that the primary benefit of sex is the tremendous diversity of genotypes produced via recombination during sexual reproduction that provides the raw material necessary to compensate for mutational erosion of mitochondrial genes. Another line of new thinking proposes that the reason that virtually all eukaryotes have two mating types rather than multiple mating types is that the existence of two mating types enables single mitochondrial genotypes to be vetted for compatibility with nuclear genotype. This chapter considers the implications and evidence for these new mitonuclear-based theories of key evolutionary ideas.
Mitonuclear mate choice
Authors: Hill Geoffrey E.
Published: June 2019

At each new generation, sexual reproduction creates new combinations of nuclear and mitochondrial genes, and the potential arises for mitonuclear incompatibilities and reduced fitness. Sexual selection plays a key role in maintaining mitonuclear coadaptation across generations because it enables pre-zygotic sorting for coadapted mitonuclear genotypes. In this chapter, I present data that individuals engaged in mate choice select partners with correct species-typical mitochondrial and nuclear genotypes as well as individuals with highly functional cellular respiration. The implication is that mate choice for compatible nuclear and mitochondrial genes can play a significant role in generating the patterns of ornamentation and preferences observed in animals.
German Responses to Food Scarcity
Authors: Cox Mary Elisabeth
Published: June 2019

Germany was highly susceptible to a blockade that prevented food and fertilizer from entering the country. In addition to importing between 25 and 30 per cent of its foodstuffs, Germany was increasingly reliant on the import of foreign fertilizer to increase yields. As a result of this national vulnerability to the blockade, the state and individuals responded in different ways to address food insecurity. These responses had mixed success, and changed over time. This chapter examines some of the policies and institutions put in place in Germany aimed at providing sufficient food for civilians. It also suggests some of the ways individuals responded to food insecurity, including participation in the black market.
Nutritional Deprivation in Urban Leipzig
Authors: Cox Mary Elisabeth
Published: June 2019

This chapter describes how statisticians and nutritionists did their best to calculate the total number of raw calories available in Germany before, during, and immediately following the war. Given their estimates, if calories had been distributed equally among the population there should have been enough calories for everyone in Germany. Yet it was recognized that distribution was not equal, and that some groups of people probably suffered more than others. Because of the unique data that survives for urban Leipzig, it is now possible to examine more closely caloric distribution across Leipzig society (intrahousehold allocation) and inequalities within families (interhousehold allocation). Through a study of the amount of calories that were available to specific households in Leipzig, physical activity levels (PAL) are estimated, as well as individual measures of chronic energy deficiency (CED) as defined by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and World Health Organization (WHO). With these analyses it is now possible to see more specifically how different groups and households were impacted by reduced food supplies.
Were Rural Germans Better Off Than Urban Citizens During the War? The Case of Straß‎burg
Authors: Cox Mary Elisabeth
Published: June 2019

Urban Germans believed that civilians in rural areas had a more plentiful and varied diet than city dwellers. There was widespread suspicion that agricultural workers were deliberately cheating the rest of society by hoarding food for themselves or selling it illegally for exorbitant prices. There certainly were thriving black markets, yet differences in the nutritional status of urban and rural civilians may not have been significant. Poor farmers often had limited control of their own foodstuffs. Military action also impacted civilian food supplies, though this was rarely recognized in the cities. This chapter uses newly discovered anthropometric data of school boys from Straβ‎burg and the surrounding rural areas to measure differences in the nutritional status of urban and rural civilians. These analyses are matched alongside the qualitative evidence and together they indicate a more complicated story between the supposed urban and rural divide.
Epilogue
Authors: Cox Mary Elisabeth
Published: June 2019

Out of the air a voice without a face

Proved by statistics that some cause was just

In tones as dry and level as the place.1

~ W. H. Auden, ‘The Shield of Achilles’, 1952.

1 W.H. Auden, ‘The Shield of Achilles’, Poetry, 81/1 (1952), 3....
Sources of Energy in Subterranean Environments
Authors: Culver David C. , Pipan Tanja
Published: June 2019

Although subterranean habitats in general and caves in particular are often held to be extremely energy-poor (oligotrophic) environments, not all are. Compared to surface habitats, subterranean habitats are nutrient-poor, especially because there is no photo-autotrophic production and chemoautotrophy appears to be uncommon. On the other hand, these differences are not always pronounced. For example, the quantities of carbon fluxes in cave streams are in the range of those reported from surface streams. In some subterranean systems, chemoautotrophy is the main source of energy, but more typically subterranean communities depend on allochthonous sources of organic carbon. The major source of carbon in interstitial habitats is Dissolved Organic Matter (DOM) from surface waters. The major sources of carbon for cave communities are (1) water percolating from the surface, (2) sinking streams that enter caves, and (3) activities of animals moving in and out of caves.
Colonization and Speciation in Subterranean Environments
Authors: Culver David C. , Pipan Tanja
Published: June 2019

Colonization and speciation in subterranean environments can be conveniently divided into four stages. The first step is colonization of subsurface environments. There is a constant flux of colonists into most subterranean habitats. The second step is the success (or failure) of these colonizations. The third step is speciation. Under the Climate Relict Hypothesis (CRH) surface populations go extinct but under the Adaptive Shift Hypothesis (ASH) they do not necessarily do so, and speciation can be parapatric. There is strong evidence for the CRH among temperate zone fauna, and growing evidence for the ASH in tropical caves, especially lava tubes. The final step is possible further speciation as a result of subsurface dispersal. Detailed analysis of the evolutionary history of the isopod A. aquaticus in the Dinaric karst, diving beetles Paroster in a calcrete aquifer in Western Australia, and trogloxenic Leopoldamys neilli in Thailand reveal some of the complexities of species’ phylogeography.
Nietzsche on the Decadence and Flourishing of Culture
Authors: Huddleston Andrew
Published: June 2019

In Nietzsche’s first book The Birth of Tragedy (1872), cultural renewal is paramount among his concerns. The standard story about Nietzsche’s philosophical development is that he soon becomes disillusioned with this project, and his mature philosophy undergoes a radical shift. Instead of reposing his hopes in a broader culture, he comes to occupy himself instead with the fate of a few great individuals, or, at the extreme, perhaps mainly with his own quasi-artistic self-cultivation. The book questions this individualist reading that has become prevalent, and develops an alternative reading of Nietzsche as a more social thinker, whose sees cultural excellence as no less important. Nietzsche, on this reading, does not think that great individuals are all that ultimately matter. What matter too are whole cultures, understood not just as sources of artistic stimulation or existential succor, but, like great individuals, as ends in themselves: namely, as the collective manifestation of powerful, beautiful, and admirable forms of human life. The best cultures, as Nietzsche will repeatedly suggest, are like great artworks. The book develops this analogy, one with a heritage in the German Romantics, and explores its philosophical implications. It uses Nietzsche’s perfectionistic ideal of a flourishing culture, and his diagnostics of cultural malaise, as a point of departure for reconsidering many of the central themes in his ethics and social philosophy, as well as for understanding the interconnections with the form of cultural criticism that was part and parcel of his distinctive philosophical enterprise.
The Uses and Disadvantages of Bildung for Culture
Authors: Huddleston Andrew
Published: June 2019

Chapter 2 discusses Nietzsche’s relationship to the Bildung tradition in German thought, a tradition running, in its heyday, from Weimar classicism through the German Romantics and beyond. The chapter investigates two texts primarily, Nietzsche’s “David Strauss” essay and his lectures “On the Future of Our Educational Institutions.” A key theme from the “David Strauss” essay, and elsewhere in the Untimely Meditations, is that true Bildung will not be a mere accumulation of cultural experiences, but rather will involve a kind of inner transformation. The chapter charts the way this ideal continues into Nietzsche’s later work as a model of self-shaping for individuals to undertake. Nietzsche, in “On the Future of Our Educational Institutions,” is pessimistic that such genuine Bildung is possible for most people.
Nietzsche on the Decadence of Individuals and Cultures
Authors: Huddleston Andrew
Published: June 2019

Chapter 5 explores Nietzsche’s discussion of decadence. In addition to the encompassing and vague notion of decadence that amounts to a state of decline or the failure to flourish, Nietzsche also uses the idea, especially in his late works in connection with the French term décadence, to pinpoint a particular kind of malady. After explicating this quasi-technical notion, the chapter discusses the relationship that Nietzsche sees between the décadence of individuals and the decadence of whole cultures. It suggests that the connection should not be seen as simply aggregative, but is rather a relation of microcosm to macrocosm. The analogy to individual décadence suggests that when a culture seeks to remedy decadence through extremist measures, that may in fact itself be a telling sign of the culture’s decadence. The great culture can, on the contrary, integrate its decadents, not eliminate them.