bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Electric Attraction
Authors: Stevens Martin
Published: July 2021

This chapter assesses the ability of animals to detect and interpret electric information. While sharks often use chemical information to track down prey from a long distance, many species enlist their electric sense to detect electric cues and determine the prey’s precise location and direct their attacks. Although it is normally used for prey detection, the electric sense can sometimes be used in defence too. The chapter then explores the diversity of ways electricity is produced and used by weakly electric fish. Meanwhile, the platypus can use their electric sense both to avoid objects in the water and to locate small prey items. The echidna also has receptors on the tip of its snout that respond to electric information, but its electric sense seems quite limited. Finally, the chapter considers how bees are able to detect electric fields associated with flowers.
Human Rights in EU External Action
Authors: Wouters Jan , Ovádek Michal
Published: July 2021

This chapter describes the central aspects of human rights in EU external policies and representation. As such, it focuses on the second prong of the EU's relationship with human rights — their external promotion (as opposed to their internal protection). The general principles and objectives of EU external action are unsurprisingly enshrined in the EU Treaties. The most important provisions in this regard are Articles 3(5) and 21 TEU, although Article 49 TEU (enlargement) and Article 8 TEU (neighbourhood) in conjunction with Article 2 TEU (EU values) are also of relevance for the respective policy domains. When it comes to the specific objective of promoting human rights, the policy is elaborated in the EU Strategic Framework on Human Rights and Democracy, which constitutes the central reference point in EU human rights policy. It is complemented and operationalized by more specific policy documents (notably the EU Action Plan on Human Rights and Democracy) and instruments. The chapter also discusses the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP).
Imperialism and Irredentism in Liberal Italy
Authors: Wilcox Vanda
Published: July 2021

For Italian nationalists, the nation was still incomplete after unification in 1861; they embraced the irredentist goal of incorporating Trento and Trieste, still in Austrian hands. The Triple Alliance which tied Italy to Germany and Austria-Hungary in a defensive pact made it hard to directly pursue this objective. Meanwhile, Italian ambitions to build a colonial empire began in the 1870s with the acquisition of Eritrea and Somalia in East Africa, before meeting a set-back with the crushing defeat by Ethiopia at Adwa in 1896. Liberals embraced an alternate, uniquely Italian vision of empire, built on emigrant colonies around the world. Advocates of traditional settler colonialism instead turned their attention to the Mediterranean and specifically to the so-called ‘Fourth Shore’ of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica. Considerable consensus emerged around attacking the Ottoman Empire in 1911; after a year of war, Italy officially acquired Libya and the Dodecanese Islands. But irredentist hopes, and ambitions in the Balkans, were not sated by this expansion.
War in the Italian Colonies
Authors: Wilcox Vanda
Published: July 2021

In August 1915 Italy declared war on the Ottoman Empire. While it sent no troops to the main Allied fronts against the Ottomans, it fought this enemy both at sea and on land, in a form of proxy conflict. Turkey, Germany, and Austria sent funds and army officers to support anti-Italian insurrections both in Cyrenaica and Tripolitania, with varying results; a combination of religious and political motives encouraged the indigenous peoples of Libya to resist Italian control vigorously, in what should be understood as another theatre of the First World War. Examining the actions and objectives of anti-colonial leaders as well as Italian policies and practices help explain the weakness of Italian colonial control in Libya. At one stage Italy feared an Islamic insurrection might also break out in their East African colonies. Anti-colonial resistance, real or feared, placed a great strain on relatively scarce Italian resources which were needed in other theatres.
The War Beyond Italy
Authors: Wilcox Vanda
Published: July 2021

Italy entered the war to cement its great power status. To convince its Entente partners it was actively contributing to the global struggle, it sent troops first to Albania and later Macedonia, both in pursuit of territorial goals and to support the allies. As the conflict expanded in scope and scale, Italian war aims grew correspondingly: in 1917 a new allied agreement promised Italy territorial compensation in Asia Minor. The St Jean de Maurienne Agreement also enabled Italy to send a tiny expeditionary force to Palestine. By 1918 the need to demonstrate a global commitment led to even more overseas deployment for Italian forces: units were sent to France to the Western Front and to both Murmansk and Manchuria to fight in the Russian Civil War. Despite all these far-flung missions, however, only in Albania was there any intention to remain after the war’s end.
Interorganizational Diffusion in International Relations
Authors: Lenz Tobias
Published: July 2021

How and under what conditions does the European Union (EU) shape processes of institution building in other regional organizations? This book develops and tests a theory of interorganizational diffusion in international relations that explains how successful pioneer organizations shape institutional choices in other organizations by affecting the institutional preferences and bargaining strategies of national governments. The author argues that Europe’s foremost regional organization systematically affects institution building abroad, but that such influence varies across different types of organization. Mixing quantitative and qualitative methods, it shows how the EU institutionally strengthens regional organizations through active engagement and by building its own institutions at home. Yet the contractual nature of other regional organizations bounds this causal influence: EU influence makes an identifiable difference primarily in those organizations that, like the EU itself, rest on an open-ended contract. Evidence for these claims is drawn from the statistical analysis of a dataset on the institutionalization of 35 regional organizations in the period from 1950 to 2017, as well as from detailed single and comparative case studies on institutional creation and (non-)change in the Southern African Development Community, Mercosur, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, and the North American Free Trade Agreement.
Introduction
Authors: Lenz Tobias
Published: July 2021

This chapter introduces the main puzzle and argument of the book, and describes the research approach. It shows that authority-enhancing institutional change is frequent in regional organizations, yet existing theories expect international institutions to be fairly stable due to high institutional barriers to change and concerns about the sovereignty costs of independent international institutions. It is argued that one important driver of institutional creation and change is diffusion from the European Union, both as an active supporter of regional institution building and as a successful model of regional cooperation. This argument is tested through a mixed-methods design that includes large-N statistical analysis and several single and comparative case studies. The chapter also summarizes the main implications of the argument for theories of regional organization and for debates about international institutional design and diffusion.
The Scope of European Union Influence
Authors: Lenz Tobias
Published: July 2021

This chapter examines the scope of European Union influence by combining quantitative and qualitative evidence. It argues that active and passive EU influence are likely to be discernible specifically in those regional organizations that rest on open-ended contracts because these require more frequent institutional change, multiplying opportunities for EU influence, and they allow local actors to construct similarities with the EU, thereby rendering claims for EU-type institutional more likely and more credible. The chapter probes these arguments, first, with quantitative evidence, showing descriptive associations between contractual open-endedness and both the frequency of institutional change and active EU engagement. It presents, second, a paired comparison of the establishment of a parliamentary institution in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations and its non-establishment in the North American Free Trade Agreement, to show how the contractually open-ended nature of cooperation in the former facilitated EU influence while the fixed nature of the contract in the latter hampered it.
European Union Diffusion and Other Regional Organizations
Authors: Lenz Tobias
Published: July 2021

This chapter summarizes the book’s main arguments and explicates its theoretical implications for theories of regional organization and debates about international institutional design and diffusion. It reviews the evidence to support the claim that the EU systematically shapes processes of institution building in other regional organizations both actively and passively, and that this influence is bounded by the contractual nature of regional organizations. An important implication of the argument advanced in this book is that existing theories of regional organization are seriously incomplete due to their inattention to processes of diffusion and, in particular, the role of prominent organizational pioneers.
Hostage and Peace
Authors: Zhang Angela Huyue
Published: July 2021

This concluding chapter provides a summary of this book’s findings and assesses whether there are any feasible solutions to diffuse the conflict between China and Western liberal democracies, aside from the strategy of disengaging and containing China. It argues for greater economic integration. Economic interdependence raises the costs of conflict and increases the incentives for countries to cooperate. Indeed, there is a preponderance of economic evidence showing that trade can reduce conflict between countries. Thus the expansion of Chinese firms into foreign markets should not be seen as something to be blocked but instead welcomed as an important step towards a more prosperous and peaceful relationship between China and the rest of the world. Conversely, if Chinese firms are discouraged from participation in or even excluded from Western markets, then foreign governments will have less leverage over China. In fact, the policy of decoupling the Chinese economy from Western economies, while a seemingly straightforward response to rising political tensions, is eroding trust and making conflict more likely.
Conclusion
Authors: Howard-Johnston James
Published: July 2021

News about the war and its outcome percolated into the surrounding world, with dramatic effect in the Far East and Arabia. Explanations for Persian success and Roman resilience in the first two phases are not hard to find (in the spheres of material and ideological resources), but the sudden reversal of fortunes in the 620s is more problematic. Persian overstretch and war-weariness, brought to a head when the Turks intervened in the north, were a key factor, but greater weight should probably be placed on the generalship of Heraclius and the military qualities of his highly trained troops. As for the effects of the war, neither of the great powers was so debilitated as to become easy prey for the rising power of Islam. Hard-fought set-piece battles were needed to bring about the destruction of the one and the amputation of the Levant and Egypt from the other.
Introduction to Materials Characterization, Analysis, and Metrology
Authors: Krishnan Kannan M.
Published: July 2021

Tailoring microstructures is central to materials development for any technological application. Microstructure includes information on the atomic, mesoscopic, and microscopic length scales, and its tailoring is enabled by characterization, which relates synthesis and processing of materials to their structure, properties, and performance. Typically, probe and signal radiations are used to characterize a specimen and their interactions may be elastic or inelastic, and coherent or incoherent. Probes are based on the electromagnetic spectrum, and their characteristics (e.g. energy, wavelength, momentum, polarization) define their interaction with matter, and determine the nature, scope, and details of any characterization method. Probes or signals, can also be electrons, ions, or neutrons. Characterization techniques are classified as spectroscopy, diffraction and scattering, and imaging and microscopy. Principal features of the materials, i.e. details of their electronic structure, including atomic mass, their crystallography, composition, phase, and morphology contribute to the observable signals. Criteria for technique selection also include penetration depth and mean free path, resolution, detection limits, potential damage to the specimen, and specimen preparation requirements; our goal is to maximize information while minimizing damage. Characterization methods find wide use across many disciplines including engineering, scinces, and art conservation.
Bonding and Spectra of Molecules and Solids
Authors: Krishnan Kannan M.
Published: July 2021

The electronic structure of molecules includes electronic (2-10 eV, UV-Vis absorption), vibrational (10-2 - 2 eV, infrared spectroscopy & Raman scattering), and rotational (10–5 – 10–3 eV, microwave spectroscopy) energy levels that are probed by appropriate spectroscopy methods. Light, incident on a molecule or molecular solid, is either absorbed (IR, single photon, non-zero derivative of dipole moment), or elastically (Rayleigh) or inelastically (Raman, two-photon, non-zero derivative of the polarizability) scattered. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy finds much use in materials characterization, including in studying the curing of polymer composites now incorporated in aircraft structures. When atoms form solids their electronic structure, particularly the energy levels of the outer electrons involved in the bonding, are significantly altered. Both occupied and unoccupied levels in solids are probed. Photoemission spectroscopy (PES) with X-rays (XPS) or ultraviolet light (UPS) incidence, and inverse PES probe occupied and unoccupied energy levels of surfaces, respectively. X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) complements XPS, and probes unoccupied energy levels of solids. X-ray absorption near-edge structure (XANES) provides information on the final density of unoccupied states, the transition probabilities, and many body effects. Extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) provides element-specific nearest neighbor distances and their coordination number.
Scanning Probe Microscopy
Authors: Krishnan Kannan M.
Published: July 2021

Scanning probe microscopy (SPM) scans a fine tip close to a surface and measures the tunneling current (STM) or force (SFM), based on many possible tip-surface interactions. STM provides atomic resolution imaging, or the local electronic structure (spectroscopy) as a function of bias voltage, and is also used to manipulate adsorbed atoms on a clean surface. STM operates in two modes— constant current or height—and requires a conducting specimen. SFM uses a cantilever (force sensor) to measure short range (< 1 nm) chemical, and a variety of long-range (< 100 nm) forces, depending on the tip and the specimen; a conducting specimen is not required. In static mode, the tip height is controlled to maintain a constant force, and measure surface topography. In dynamic mode, changes in the vibrational properties of the cantilever are measured using frequency, amplitude, or phase modulation as feedback to control the tip-surface distance and form the image. Dynamic imaging includes contact and non-contact modes, but intermittent contact or tapping mode is common. SPMs measure properties (optical, acoustic, conductance, electrochemical, capacitance, thermal, magnetic, etc.) using appropriate tips, and find applications in the physical and life sciences. They are also used for nanoscale lithography.
Damages for Breach of Contract
Authors: Benedyk Daniel , Keating Ruth
Published: July 2021

This chapter analyses the basic rule governing the assessment of damages for breach of contract, which emphasizes that no special or different rules apply to construction contracts. It explains that the basic rules have no limits to its application to the amount of loss that can be recovered. It also discusses how limits involve a set of rules which go back to the famous and ancient case of Hadley v Baxendale. This chapter describes the categories of recoverable loss, such as the damages which the other party ought to receive in respect of a breach of contract. It analyses the second limb of the rule in Hadley v Baxendale that relates to special circumstances known to the parties at the time the contract was made.
Mediation and Alternative Dispute Resolution
Authors: Glasgow QC Edwin , Smith QC Marion
Published: July 2021

This chapter focuses on alternative dispute resolution (ADR), which is used as a collective description of various methods of resolving disputes other than through the formal adversarial processes of litigation or arbitration. It emphasizes how ADR is now recognized in construction industry standard form contracts that provide for dispute resolution processes. It also mentions courts in the UK and throughout the world that support and actively encourage ADR, specifically in England and Wales that includes ADR as part of the Civil Procedure Rules (CPR). This chapter considers the use of ADR to assist in resolving disputes in the construction industry. It concentrates on mediation but also looks at negotiation and early neutral evaluation.
Germanic and Romance
Authors: Wolfe Sam , Meklenborg Christine
Published: July 2021

This introductory chapters outlines the core background to the volume. It highlights points of major similarity between Germanic and Romance linguistics methodologically in continuing importance of neogrammarian dialect atlases, established links between synchronic and diachronic work, and the emergence in recent years of large-scale electronic corpora. Theoretical background informing the volume’s chapters is also discussed, including sociolinguistics, generative grammar, and the field’s increasing focus on microvariation. Each chapter’s contents is discussed and set in its broader context.
Functional and lexical prepositions across Germanic and Romance
Authors: Garzonio Jacopo , Rossi Silvia
Published: July 2021

In this chapter, lexical and functional prepositions (see van Riemsdijk 1990 and the papers in Cinque and Rizzi 2010) are compared in Germanic and Romance, in the light of a broad cartographic/nanosyntactic approach, in which all prepositional items have a complex internal structure. Such an approach offers a powerful tool not only for better describing and analyzing the complex (micro-)comparative data, but also for tracing the grammaticalization paths leading to the formation of new (lexical) Ps, which eventually could further functionalize into case marking items. The lexical and syntactic properties of both types of prepositions are considered, highlighting their differences and similarities. When considering functional prepositions, the English to and the Italian a ‘to, at’ will be considered.
British General Elections Since 1964
Authors: Denver David , Garnett Mark
Published: July 2021

This book provides a concise account of general elections during more than five tumultuous decades in British politics. Beginning in 1964, when partisan allegiances in the UK were relatively stable, it ends in 2019 when the volatility of voters was illustrated by the success of Conservative Party candidates in constituencies which had previously been ‘safe’ for Labour. The book describes the changing influences on voting behaviour—from the early 1960s, when allegiances were largely based on social class, to the 2020s when factors such as impressions of party leaders and new media outlets such as Facebook seem far more important. The electoral contests of these years produced dramatic results, ranging from Labour’s landslide victory in 1997 to the three closely fought battles of 2010, 2015, and 2017. These elections have taken place against a background of concern arising from the low turnout of voters, reaching its nadir in 2001 when less than 60 per cent of the electorate participated. Yet, in recent years, competition for the support of volatile voters has been complicated by issues like devolution to Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland—not to mention the question of EU membership, which cut across long-established party lines and has helped to raise political passions to unprecedented levels. Apart from its analysis of electoral campaigns and outcomes, the book describes the most relevant developments between elections (including the EU referendum of 2016) which help to explain the dilemmas facing the system of liberal democracy in contemporary Britain.
The Triumph of New Labour
Authors: Denver David , Garnett Mark
Published: July 2021

This chapter covers the three consecutive election victories recorded by ‘New’ Labour, under Tony Blair, and assesses the reasons for the party’s remarkable run of success after almost two decades in opposition. The key events of the 1992–7 parliament are recorded, showing how John Major’s Conservatives lost their reputation for economic competence shortly after the 1992 contest and never recovered from the blow of ‘Black Wednesday’. The chapter shows that the Conservatives were also seriously divided in the wake of the Maastricht Treaty (1992), and their prospects were impaired by allegations of ‘sleaze’. By contrast, Labour under Blair seemed fresh and relatively united. Apart from recounting the party’s successful campaigns in 1997, 2001, and 2005, the chapter also examines the reasons for the eventual decline of New Labour, in particular the feud between Blair and his Chancellor, Gordon Brown, but also the decision to support the USA in its war against Saddam Hussein’s Iraq (beginning in 2003). As a consequence of these troubles, New Labour’s landslide margin of victory in 1997 and 2001 was reduced significantly in 2005, despite the continuing unpopularity of the Conservatives. The anti-war Liberal Democrats emerged as a serious threat on Labour’s left. Changes in voting behaviour are also noted, in particular the continuing decline of social class as a factor in electoral outcomes.
Conclusion
Authors: Denver David , Garnett Mark
Published: July 2021

This chapter sums up the preceding discussion and examines the radical changes in the nature of electoral competition in the UK since 1964. In particular, it assesses the impact on campaigning of social media and the Internet. It also discusses the impact of social change on voting behaviour over the years, as well as the transformation of political parties and the very different composition of the House of Commons. These various changes had occurred while UK-wide elections are still conducted under the Simple Plurality (‘first-past-the-post’) electoral system, although a variety of different systems have been adopted for virtually all other elections. Thus, by 2021, almost the only factor in UK elections which has remained constant since 1964 is the voting system. In other respects, the volatility which has become increasingly marked since the 1960s looks set to continue.
The culture of conveniences
Authors: Dye Christopher
Published: July 2021

Despite thousands of years of toilet culture and technology, and despite the obvious benefits of sanitation for health and well-being, the great majority of people alive today do not have access to a safe system for removing human waste. The installation of safe sanitary systems depends on cooperation among many kinds of providers and users. Their collective goal is to align the benefits for health with personal and social preferences for toilet use and hygiene, while exploiting other benefits from agriculture, energy, education, environmental protection, housing, and flood protection. For individuals, families, and communities, toilets are not merely, or even mainly, to protect health. Rather, their acceptability hinges on convenience, privacy, personal safety, and dignity, where preferences are rooted in societal norms. Providing safe sanitation for all is not merely a health intervention: it is one of the mutually reinforcing processes of cultural, social, and economic development.
Future positive
Authors: Dye Christopher
Published: July 2021

The argument in this book rests on a simple proposition: understanding the reason why people prefer to take a chance on sickness and cure is the key to persuading them when and why they should choose prevention instead. This final chapter summarizes the means of persuasion: investigate rather than presuppose which criteria are used to make health choices; build systems for accounting (inclusive costs and benefits of prevention) and for accountability (liability and responsibility); offer ways to improve health, not merely ways to avoid losing it; evaluate, in order to manage, the perceptions linked to health hazards; exploit the logic of choice to insure against the risk of unlikely disasters, to increase the present value of future threats, to foster cooperation as a basis for prevention, to map out the practical pathways to prevention, and to remedy the under-investment in prevention research. The tools of prevention are the means to a greater end—health as a ‘state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being’.
Remembered Words
Authors: Fowler Alastair
Published: July 2021

This text is a collection of chapters on genre, realism, and the emblem (three interrelated subjects), published over six decades. It offers a way to arrive at a sense of how approaches to these subjects have changed over that period. Specifically, it shows how genre has come to be understood in terms of family resemblance theory. The book argues that realism can be seen as altering historically, so that Renaissance realism, for example, differs from those of later periods. Similar changes are traced in the emblem, which the text shows to be not only a particular genre, but an element of various kinds of realism. Famous passages in ancient literature are remembered in the familiar emblems of the Renaissance; and Renaissance emblems form the basis of metaphors in later literature. Meanwhile, the general approach of the critic and the reader has been altering over the years—as becomes evident when the timescale of sixty years (an unusually long working life for a critic) is taken into account. Modern theoretical approaches—which are often casually regarded as self-evident—may appear less inevitable and more arbitrary. This is not to say that they are necessarily wrong, just that they need to be argued for.
Emblems of Temperance in The Faerie Queene, Book II
Authors: Fowler Alastair
Published: July 2021

This chapter discusses the emblems of temperance in Edmund Spenser’s The Faerie Queene, Book II. It was Spenser’s invariable practice to build into the imagery of The Faerie Queene, at strategic points, the traditional emblems of the virtue whose legend he was writing. These emblems must once have helped to make at least the main drift of his allegory widely intelligible; but unfortunately it no longer works like that. In Book II, where emblems are heavily relied on for structure as well as for imagery, either their existence is now not even noticed, or else they are treated as mere surface decoration. Yet they are essential to Spenser’s method, which is oblique, working indirectly through details. The chapter focuses on perhaps the most common emblem of temperance in The Faerie Queene: the pouring of water into wine. This emblem makes the least obvious appearance, but only because it is developed on a scale not expected; it is hidden, only because it is most deeply structural.
Anagrams
Authors: Fowler Alastair
Published: July 2021

This chapter focuses on anagrams and acrostics. The anagram’s heyday must still be considered the seventeenth or even the sixteenth century. Then, anagrams were ‘divine notes’ in which providence and destiny might be discovered. Considered as mysterious texts, they might conceal great matters. By far, their commonest appearance was in names, especially the names of the great. Good anagrams, however, were difficult to find. The anagram passion succeeded an earlier rage for acrostic order, which came to be thought much inferior. The chapter then explores the various types of the acrostic order, including simple acrostic, mesostich, letters before and after caesuras, telestich, double acrostic, triple acrostic, and progressive or diagonal acrostic. Unruly anagram acrostics were a staple of the Baconians, whose enthusiasm tempted them to break the rules of the game or invent others at whim.
The Mismeasure of the Self
Authors: Tanesini Alessandra
Published: July 2021

The aim of this book is to offer detailed characterizations of some intellectual virtues and vices of self-evaluation, to highlight the epistemic harms and moral wrongs that flow from them, to explain their psychological bases and to suggest that some interventions that inhibit vicious behaviour and promote intellectual virtue. The first chapter introduces the virtues and vices of intellectual self-evaluation that are the main topic of the book. The second chapter offers a detailed account of three kinds of intellectual vices: character traits, thinking styles, and sensibilities. The chapter includes a defence of the view that motivations play a crucial role in the development and preservation of these psychological features. The third chapter introduces attitude psychology which supplies the framework for detailed accounts of virtue and vices. These accounts are provided in Chapters 4–6. Chapter 4 discusses humility, pride, and concern for one’s intellectual reputation. Chapter 5 details superbia, arrogance, servility, and self-abasement. Chapter 6 is dedicated to vanity, narcissism, timidity, and fatalism. Chapter 7 analyses the epistemic harms and moral wrongs that flow from these intellectual vices. Chapter 8 argues individuals are morally and epistemically responsible for their epistemic vices and the bad believing that flows from them, but raises questions about the wisdom and morality of blaming people for these psychological features. Finally, Chapter 9 evaluates some interventions designed to promote virtue and reduce vice.
Taking Care with Statistical Terms
Authors: Nolan Deborah , Stoudt Sara
Published: July 2021

This chapter addresses writing challenges specific to summarizing a data analysis. The aim is to provide guidance on how to craft clear sentences, choose appropriate words, and convey findings in a compelling manner that is faithful to the data and avoids overstating any implications. This chapter offers advice on how to differentiate statistical terminology from everyday language, represent numbers in text, write mathematical expressions, and choose the correct quantitative nouns and adjectives (e.g., fewer or less, percent or percentage).
Revising: Drafts #2 Through…
Authors: Nolan Deborah , Stoudt Sara
Published: July 2021

This chapter discusses the revision process. Particular emphasis is placed on revision, with both the statistical argument and intended audience in mind. The chapter provides advice for revising effectively, including strategies for targeted revision. Example guideliness for both giving and receiving feedback during the peer-review process are included.
Myth-Historical CRISPR Edits
Authors: Perillán José G.
Published: July 2021

History is not always written by the victors. Competing histories often become ssbattlegrounds for those who want to declare themselves victors. Emerging from the frontiers of molecular biology, today’s caustic patent dispute over gene-editing technology is being waged partly through published myth-histories. The revolutionary gene-editing technology CRISPR-Cas9 has quickly become a vehicle for patent and priority controversies to determine who cashes in on billions of dollars in licensing fees, a Nobel Prize, and scientific immortality. This chapter examines competing myth-histories in the context of larger socioeconomic forces, as well as the lack of an international regime of ethical guidelines for this work. Careful study is necessary to grasp the background and impact of these narratives.
Found in Translation
Authors: Bobzien Susanne
Published: July 2021

This chapter researches the reception of the crucial sentence in Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics 3.5, 1113b7–8 about that which is up to us (eph’hēmin), the philosophical significance of which is the topic of the previous chapter. This sentence has markedly shaped both scholarly and general opinion with regard to Aristotle’s theory of free will. In addition, it has taken on a curious life of its own. Part One of the chapter examines the text itself. Part Two explores its reception from antiquity to the present day, including present-day popular culture, later ancient, Byzantine, Arabic, Latin Medieval, Renaissance, Victorian, and contemporary scholarship, and how it influenced the interpretation of Aristotle’s view on free will. There are some surprises on the way. (The paper also serves as an introduction to the reception of the Nicomachean Ethics from its beginnings to the present.)
Chrysippus’ Theory of Causes
Authors: Bobzien Susanne
Published: July 2021

This chapter combines an in-depth analysis of Chrysippus’ defence of his determinism in Cicero’s On Fate with a systematic reconstruction of his theory of causes. It shows that our evidence does not support the standard view that Chrysippus’ distinction between proximate and auxiliary causes and perfect and principal causes corresponds to one between internal and external determining factors. Causes of the two types were not thought to cooperate, but were conceived as alternatives. The chapter suggests that Chrysippus neither developed a full taxonomy of causes nor had a set of technical terms for mutually exclusive classes of causes. Instead, the various adjectives he used functioned to describe or explain particular features of certain causes in particular philosophical contexts. Chrysippus’ basic theory of causes was grounded on the Stoic tenets that causes are bodies and relatives, and that all causation can ultimately be traced back to the ‘active principle’ which pervades everything.
The Purpose of Equity
Authors: Titi Catharine
Published: July 2021

‘The way is equity, the end is justice’, wrote the umpire in the Aroa Mines case. The chapter probes the ethical foundations of equity in international law and argues that the overarching purpose of equity is to do justice. In this light, it surveys equity as corrective, distributive, and supplementary justice. Under the heading of corrective justice, the chapter canvasses equity as individualised justice and as justice that tempers the rigour of the law. Distributive justice is conceptualised in relation to the allocation of resources and the sharing of benefits and burdens, the common heritage of mankind, intergenerational equity, and equitable representation in the composition of international bodies. The chapter further reviews equity as supplementary justice, when legal rules are absent. The analysis shows that the different roles of equity as justice overlap and stresses that justice provides the backbone and rationale for the broader need for equity.
Traditional Typology of Equity
Authors: Titi Catharine
Published: July 2021

The chapter critically assesses the traditional distinction between three types of equity: equity infra, praeter, and contra legem. It argues that while this taxonomy offers a conceptual framework to help comprehend three roles that equity can assume, it remains a heuristic construct; strict divisions between different kinds of equity are unsustainable. In addition, the traditional breakdown of equity fails to account properly for the relationship between contra legem equity and law. Against this background, the chapter reviews a classic example of contra legem equity in Antigone and revisits the concept. It concludes that ultimately the most important limitation of the tripartite typology is that it does not account for the fact that equity may never truly function contra legem, since equity is an element of law.
Variations on Equity and Related Concepts
Authors: Titi Catharine
Published: July 2021

The chapter analyses variations on equity and related concepts that originate in equity. In particular, it studies equality, reasonableness, estoppel, acquiescence, good faith, unjust enrichment, the clean hands doctrine, abuse of rights, and proportionality. The chapter probes these concepts to demonstrate that equity lies deep in the international law mainstream and is applied even if we are not constantly aware of this. The chapter further aims to topple the myth that some forms of equity, notably contra legem equity, are only applied if the parties agree. It suggests that some such variations on equity or equitable principles, notably the clean hands doctrine and abuse of rights, can be seen as permissible applications of contra legem equity without the parties’ agreement – with the caveat that equity cannot truly exist contra legem.
Strokes of Luck
Authors: Lang Gerald
Published: July 2021

Strokes of Luck offers a large-scale treatment of the role of luck in our judgements about blameworthiness and responsibility, in moral philosophy, and in principles of distributive justice, in political philosophy. It takes an ‘anti-anti-luckist’ stance on these matters, and is opposed to the influential ‘anti-luckist’ views which hold that judgements of blameworthiness, or distributive relations, should be adjusted to annul or neutralize differential luck. It provides a new reading of Bernard Williams’s famous essay ‘Moral Luck’ which emphasizes the dissimilarity of Williams’s aims from the aims of Thomas Nagel and his intellectual descendants. It contends that luck egalitarianism is a structurally flawed programme, and it argues for a revised understanding of John Rawls’s justice as fairness that interprets Rawls’s hostility to factors that are ‘arbitrary from a moral point of view’ in a novel way stationed more closely to his contractarian apparatus, and less closely to luck egalitarian concerns.
Confessionalism and Mobility in Early Modern Ireland
Authors: Ó hAnnracháin Tadhg
Published: July 2021

This is a book about the intersection between processes of mobility and religious identity and practice in Early Modern Ireland. The period between c.1580 and c.1685 was one of momentous importance in terms of the establishment of different confessional identities in the island, and various typesof mobility played a key role in the development, articulation, and maintenance of separate religious communities. Part I examines the dialectic between migration and religious adherence, paying particular attention to the transnational dimension of clerical formation which played a vital role in shaping the competing Catholic, Church of Ireland, and non-conformist clergies. Part II investigates how more quotidian practices of mobility such as pilgrimage and interparochial communions helped to elaborate religious identities and the central role of figurative images of movement in structuring Christians’ understanding of their lives. The final chapters of the book analyze the extraordinary importance of migratory experience in shaping the lives and writings of the authors of key confessional identity texts. Hitherto underestimated or taken for granted, the book argues that migrants and exiles were of crucial significance in forging the self-understanding of the different religious communities of the island.
Professionalization Abroad
Authors: Ó hAnnracháin Tadhg
Published: July 2021

Chapter 1 analyzes the profound importance of continental education in shaping the clerical leadership of Irish Catholicism in the Early Modern period. While not all clergy were educated abroad, formation in continental seminaries emerged as a key aspect of both the Catholic hierarchy and the guardians and preachers of the regular clergy. This system of clerical provision was based on the evolution of a somewhat haphazard network of continental colleges, but the decentralized nature of the system may in fact have conferred significant advantages. While impossible to determine the precise influence of this development, the evidence suggest that it was of profound importance in confirming the nature of the Catholic identity of most of the population.
Practices of Religious Mobility
Authors: Ó hAnnracháin Tadhg
Published: July 2021

Chapter 7 analyzes the importance of quotidian patterns of mobility in sustaining and elaborating confessional identities. Of central importance in this regard was regular Sabbath worship, and the decline of many non-conformist sects in the island can be linked to the sheer difficulties which they experienced in this regard post-1660. The chapter also argues that the different confessions produced particular rituals of mobility which helped both to buttress the sense of internal cohesion within the community and which operated as an important signifier of group identity to outsiders. In this regard, pilgrimage emerged as a key constituent of Catholic practice and experience, while Covenant-swearing and interparochial communions may have had a similar function for Ulster Presbyterians.
Magnetic Frustration
Authors: Cao Gang , DeLong Lance E.
Published: July 2021

Spins often prefer to anti-align with their neighbors in antiferromagnetic correlation. Materials with triangle lattices exhibit energetic degeneracy among the possible rearrangements of anti-aligned spins, which is denoted geometric frustration that is associated with strongly depressed transitions to magnetic order. Honeycomb iridates and ruthenates, pyrochlore systems, and double-perovskite iridates all feature triangular lattices as primary building blocks of their structures. Another frustration mechanism evolves from the Kitaev’s exact solution of a spin-liquid model on a honeycomb lattice with strong spin-orbit interactions. The protracted search for a Kitaev spin liquid has recently focused on the honeycomb itidates Na2IrO3 and Li2IrO3. A newer kind of quantum liquid has been identified in the magnetic insulator Ba4Ir3O10, where Ir3O12 trimers form an unfrustrated square lattice.
Current Control of Structural and Physical Properties in Spin-Orbit- Coupled Mott Insulators
Authors: Cao Gang , DeLong Lance E.
Published: July 2021

Electrical current as a means to control structural and related physical properties has been recognized only recently. The application of small electrical currents in sensitive detector and control applications, and in information technologies, is often preferable to other external stimuli. However, until recently it has not been widely accepted that electrical current can readily couple to the lattice, orbital, and spin degrees of freedom. Mounting experimental evidence has indicated that a combination of strong spin-orbit interactions and a distorted crystal structure in magnetic Mott insulators may be sufficient for electrical current to control structural and related properties. Current control of quantum states in 4d- and 5d-transition metal oxides has therefore rapidly expanded as a key research topic. This chapter presents two model systems, Ca2RuO4 and Sr2IrO4, in which applied current effectively controls the lattice, and thus the physical properties.
Identification of the unique molecular framework of heterophylly in the amphibious plantCallitriche palustrisL
Authors: Koga Hiroyuki , Kojima Mikiko , Takebayashi Yumiko , Sakakibara Hitoshi , Tsukaya Hirokazu
Published: July 2021

Heterophylly is the development of different leaf forms in a single plant depending on the environmental conditions. It is often observed in amphibious aquatic plants that can grow under both aerial and submerged conditions. Although heterophylly is well recognized in aquatic plants, the associated developmental mechanisms and the molecular basis remain unclear. To clarify these underlying developmental and molecular mechanisms, we analyzed heterophyllous leaf formation in an aquatic plant, Callitriche palustris. Morphological analyses revealed extensive cell elongation and the rearrangement of cortical microtubules in the elongated submerged leaves of C. palustris. Our observations also suggested that gibberellin, ethylene, and abscisic acid all regulate the formation of submerged leaves. However, the perturbation of one or more of the hormones was insufficient to induce the formation of submerged leaves under aerial conditions. Finally, we analyzed gene expression changes during aerial and submerged leaf development and narrowed down the candidate genes controlling heterophylly via transcriptomic comparisons, including a comparison with a closely related terrestrial species. We discovered that the molecular mechanism regulating heterophylly in C. palustris is associated with hormonal changes and diverse transcription factor gene expression profiles, suggesting differences from the corresponding mechanisms in previously investigated amphibious plants.
Intracellular phosphate sensing and regulation of phosphate transport systems in plants
Authors: Wang Zhengrui , Kuo Hui-Fen , Chiou Tzyy-Jen
Published: July 2021

Recent research on the regulation of cellular phosphate (Pi) homeostasis in eukaryotes has collectively made substantial advances in elucidating inositol pyrophosphates (PP-InsP) as Pi signaling molecules that are perceived by the SPX (Syg1, Pho81, and Xpr1) domains residing in multiple proteins involved in Pi transport and signaling. The PP-InsP-SPX signaling module is evolutionarily conserved across eukaryotes and has been elaborately adopted in plant Pi transport and signaling systems. In this review, we have integrated these advances with prior established knowledge of Pi and PP-InsP metabolism, intracellular Pi sensing, and transcriptional responses according to the dynamics of cellular Pi status in plants. Anticipated challenges and pending questions as well as prospects are also discussed.