bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Theoria and Theatre at Samothrace: The Dardanos by Dymas of Iasos*
Authors: Rutherfordv Ian
Published: November 2023

Around 200 BC, the island state of Samothrace, at this time a popular sanctuary for cities in the North and East Aegean, passed two decrees in honour of a certain Dymas, son of Antipatros, a poet of tragedies whose home was Iasos in Karia. In the first decree, passed when Sosiphanes was basileus (‘king’ or chief magistrate), Dymas is granted a golden crown, and citizenship of Samothrace.
Material Reading
Authors: Fowler Alastair
Published: November 2023

To write, you need first to read; ‘writing is an offshoot of reading’, says Anita Brookner. Or writing can be thought of as conversation with people who are absent: when your turn to speak comes, it helps to remind yourself of what they have said. Besides, ‘it’s always easier to draw from the storehouse of memory than to think up something original’ (Montaigne). To have ideas and words in memory, however, you must at some time have read or heard them.
Drafts
Authors: Fowler Alastair
Published: November 2023

Amateurs try to write in one go; professionals draft and draft again. Great exceptions come to mind, of course, like Joseph Conrad. Besides, pursuing a steady progress through drafts won’t always exempt you from having to wrestle with the material. But in ordinary writing it should free you from being immobilized: being stuck in front of an empty screen or page. After all, you are not Conrad.
Paragraph Types
Authors: Fowler Alastair
Published: November 2023

In practice, paragraphs take as many shapes as there are matters to communicate. So you may feel like going it alone and discovering for yourself, in each instance, which shape of paragraph your paragraph needs. On the other hand, you may find it helps to know in advance a few common patterns, if only to use them as points of departure.
Arguments
Authors: Fowler Alastair
Published: November 2023

It is easy to begin simply by asserting what you want to argue. But what then? Many continue with bald assertion after bald assertion; which is unlikely to convince people, unless they agree with you already. The first thing to do in support of your assertion is to restate it in different words. Refreshing its verbal expression gives readers a chance to take up your meaning more exactly, from words that follow a different route or that may be more familiar to them.
Punctuation
Authors: Fowler Alastair
Published: November 2023

Punctuation should not be thought of as surface decoration applied to the final draft. On the contrary it is a vital element of construction, clarifying the sense and displaying grammatical structure. It can signal parts of a sentence, announce the tone (interrogative, exclamatory), and show where the chain of discourse is leading. To omit punctuation, to insert it carelessly, to use commas monotonously: all these imply indifference to the reader.
Originality
Authors: Fowler Alastair
Published: November 2023

How do you find what to say? Obviously by reading and thinking and note-taking. But the doubt may arise whether ideas from books are truly your own ideas. Someone is sure to ask nervously ‘Shouldn’t I be writing original ideas?’ Well, very few if any of our ideas and words can be called our own. We came into the world without them, and have unconsciously taken them over from forgotten sources: parents, teachers, role models, books, and the Internet.
Readers
Authors: Fowler Alastair
Published: November 2023

Writing comes more easily if the piece is for a group you know, perhaps even belong to; who will be receptive, you hope—or, at worst, who are likely to object in ways you can anticipate and prepare for. When you don’t know your audience it is harder to imagine them. This difficult stretch of the imagination is best left until you have finished a few drafts. Until then, forget about readers: the attempt to realize them can be daunting, if not inhibiting.
Words
Authors: Fowler Alastair
Published: November 2023

In your earliest drafts you may not have thought much about words—using shorthand instead, abbreviations, symbols, and other temporary stand-ins. Those drafts were private, unintelligible to anyone but yourself. Now you can write a draft using actual words, to work out your thinking in detail and body it into language. This draft is still private, so you are free to use any words you like.
Metaphors
Authors: Fowler Alastair
Published: November 2023

Metaphors describe one thing in terms of another. To write a sentence free from metaphor of any kind would be almost impossible: it underlies every idiom. These answers fall into two groups does not mean the answers literally take a tumble. The most prosaic utterances are likely to abound in figures of this vestigial sort: She soon changed her tune when I won the lottery. His manager warned him not to rock the boat.
Revising
Authors: Fowler Alastair
Published: November 2023

Many people who don’t write well have simply not revised enough. Students, for example: many students could improve their grades by revising their essays yet have a great reluctance to do so. This may be due to an impatient desire to finish with the task and move on. Or it may come from a sense of failure—the piece is no good and they want nothing more to do with it. Such feelings should be resisted.
Correctness
Authors: Fowler Alastair
Published: November 2023

Writing aims to communicate, not to be correct. In any case one can never be perfectly correct in every respect, for there are many sorts of correctness, according to the readership, the kind of writing, and the variety of language. The requirements of one correctness may not be compatible with those of another. For example the demands of formal precision conflict with the requirements of informality: informal, colloquial language is fine for a private letter or email but won’t do for a learned journal.
Reference Books
Authors: Fowler Alastair
Published: November 2023

‘For a desert island, one would choose a good dictionary rather than the greatest literary masterpiece imaginable’ (W. H. Auden). Many love reference books because they lead on from entry to entry in an unexpected way and arrive at marvellous serendipities. Besides, you don’t have to read them through. You can get by with very few reference books on your shelves, so long as you have easy access to a large library or to the Internet. For the latter, Jennifer Rowley’s The Electronic Library, 4th edn. (London: Facet, 2003), is indispensable.
Recapitulation
Authors: Fowler Alastair
Published: November 2023

In this book I try to meet the needs of so many different sorts of writers—students, graduate students, mature students, beginners, and professional people—that I can’t possibly issue a single prescription for all. Yet it seems many would-be writers run into much the same difficulties. Not all of these arise from faulty education: some who know a good deal of grammar still struggle to write, and so have come to dislike writing.
Greek Athletics in the Heart of Rome
Authors: Newby Zahra
Published: November 2023

It has been a truism of past scholarship that the Romans had no time for Greek athletics, attacking the immorality and lewdness of the Greek gymnasium and pre- ferring the violent contests of the arena and the circus to athletics in the stadium. Plentiful quotations from Latin literature have been used to support these claims and, for the most part, scholars have been content to ignore or underplay the liter- ary, epigraphical, and visual evidence which attests to Greek athletic activities in the heart of Rome. This can be seen especially clearly in the scholarship on Roman spectacle culture, which has long been dominated instead by the study of gladiator- ial contests and chariot races. Yet the interest in Roman spectacles which is attested by these studies suggests that an examination of other types of public spectacle and performance should indeed be a welcome addition to the Weld. In this chapter I intend to study the literary and archaeological evidence for the introduction of Greek athletic festivals and training to Rome, and thus to set some of the most-cited criticisms of Greek athletics more Wrmly into their cultural con- texts. The following chapters in this section will look more closely at the visual evidence, suggesting that this shows a strong interest in contemporary athletic festivals as well as the broader cultural ideals of the Greek gymnasium, both in Rome and elsewhere around the western provinces of the empire.
Visualizing Athletics in the Roman Baths
Authors: Newby Zahra
Published: November 2023

In the previous chapter I argued that over the course of the Wrst three centuries ad Greek athletics came to occupy an increasingly prominent place in Roman society, both through the gradual introduction of Greek festivals to Rome and through the adoption of Greek athletic training by the Romans themselves. While the literary sources are often hostile to Greek-style athletics, their very attacks also suggest its popularity. In this chapter I will examine the evidence presented by Wgural mosaics from bath complexes in Rome, Ostia, and elsewhere in the western provinces to show how they reXect the impact of Greek athletics both as a public spectacle and as a form of personal bodily training.1 In recent years a number of scholars have highlighted the important role which public bathing played within Roman culture, and have examined the development of bath complexes and their spread throughout the Roman empire.2 The public baths were a place where those at all levels of Roman society went to socialize and advertise themselves, perhaps hoping to gain an invitation to dinner or Wnd an audience for their poetry.
The Athenian Ephēbeia Performing the Past
Authors: Newby Zahra
Published: November 2023

The Athenian ephEbeia in the Roman period has not received much attention, despite the fact that most of our epigraphic evidence dates to the Wrst to third cen- turies ad. So, Pelekides’ 1962 study ends with 31 bc, with only minimal discussion of the later evidence. Where the inscriptions have received attention, it has been primarily in the interests of prosopography and chronology, though Graindor also looked at ephebic festivals and the honoriWc portraits. This is perhaps due to the lack of attention paid to the Athenian ephEbeia in the literary sources of the Roman period. While the ephebes of Athens do Wnd occasional mention, particularly in Philostratus’ account of Herodes Atticus in The Lives of the Sophists, their pursuits do not appear to have excited the same literary interest as those of Sparta. How- ever, the epigraphic record suggests that the ephEbeia was indeed thriving in Roman Athens and that ephebes would have been prominent in both ephebic and civic festivals. While the literary sources are relatively quiet here, inscriptions, reliefs, and portraits present persuasive material evidence of the importance of the ephEbeia in Athenian cultural life.
Olympia and Pausanias’ Construction of Greece
Authors: Newby Zahra
Published: November 2023

The previous two chapters have shown the enduring importance of the ephebic institutions of Athens and Sparta in the creation of civic identities during the Roman period. It is likely that an exploration of the educational systems of other Greek cities would reveal a similar picture, though tailored to the speci Wcrepres- entational needs of individual cities. In the next two chapters, I wish to turn from athletic education to the commemoration of athletic victories won in public fest- ivals, and the importance of these in civic self-representation. Some of the themes raised above, particularly concerning the linkage between athletic and military victories, also reappear here, yet I will also show the crucial importance which agonistic festivals had as a symbol of Greek culture. First, I will focus upon the Olympic games, central to any discussion of athletics in the Roman world, just as they are to sport today. This can be clearly seen in Philostratus’ treatise on athletics, the Gymnasticus, which explicitly takes Olympia as its model: ‘in all this the cus- toms of the Eleans lie at hand, for it is necessary to describe such things from the most accurate sources’ (Gym. 2). While the previous two chapters have focused on the ways in which the values of the past were re-experienced through contempor- ary ephebic activities, I will here concentrate instead on the enduring impact that past Olympic victories continued to play in assertions of civic identity and prestige. In order to evaluate the signiWcance that the games at Olympia continued to hold in the Roman period, and especially the role of statues and monuments which commemorated Olympic victories, I propose to take as my guide the second-century travel writer Pausanias. In recent years, Pausanias’ Guide to Greece has come to be seen as a work Wrmly enmeshed in the cultural concerns of its time, the second half of the second century ad.
Conclusions
Authors: Newby Zahra
Published: November 2023

The monuments, texts, and inscriptions discussed here all serve to prove the con- tinuing vitality and relevance of Greek athletic culture within the world of the Roman empire. Yet this culture was also experienced and appropriated in diVering ways across east and west, and over the course of time. Within the city of Rome and other western cities, Greek athletics found its place largely in the realms of leisure and entertainment, spectacles and bathing, whereas in the east it continued to play a more signiWcant role in the creation and maintenance of civic and personal senses of identity. In this Wnal chapter I will brieXy expand on some of these issues, to consider how an examination of the uses of Greek athletics aVects our wider picture of Roman attitudes to Greek culture, the Greeks’ relationship with their own cultural past, and the negotiation between the two.
General Bibliographies Of And Guides To British Literature
Authors: Howard-Hill T H
Published: November 2023

Van Anglen, Kevin P., ed. A tutorial bibliography of English literature. Selected by the Tutorial board, Dept. of English and American literature & language in the faculty of arts and sciences of Harvard university [4th ed.] [Cambridge, Mass., Harvard university], [1983]. (First publ. 1938; 2d ed. 194:7; 3d ed. 1982). 95p. 20cm. Baker, Nancy L. A research guide for undergraduate student5: English and American literature. 2d ed. New York, Modern language association of America, 1985. (First publ. 1982). 61p. illus. 23cm.
Bibliography And Textual Criticism
Authors: Howard-Hill T H
Published: November 2023

Roochvarg, Alida. The Alida Roochvarg collection of books about books; six catalogues and index. With an introduction and an envoi by Lawrence Clark Powell. New Castle, Del., Oak Knoll books, 1981. 6v.(viii,63,65,63,55,55,59,58p.). illus., facsims. 22cm. (Ltd. to 350 copies). Dawson book service, FoLKESTONE. Bibliography and other reference books. Folkestone, Kent, [1982]. 148p. 22cm. (Catalogue 21). Covertitle. r866 items. History of the book trade in the north: List of publications. [Newcastle-upon-Tyne], History of the book trade in the north, 1983. (History of the book trade in the north. Working papers, PH37). Duplicated typescript. (Not seen).
Family Resemblances
Authors: McGuinness Brian
Published: November 2023

The house of Wittgenstein with which we are concerned took its rise at the end of the eighteenth century in the village of Laasphe in the county of Wittgenstein not far from the castle of the princely family of that name. In some year unknown, or perhaps in no definite year, Moses Meier, the son of Meyer Moses of Laasphe and the prince’s factor, adopted the name of the county as his surname. The love of legend, the need to fit every event into a familiar category, and later, perhaps, the desire not so much for a princely ancestor as for one who was not a Jew have surrounded the assumption of this name with incident and motive.
Cambridge 1912–13
Authors: McGuinness Brian
Published: November 2023

Wiittgekstein took up residence in his new rooms on about 12 October 1912, Pinsent helping him to move in his furniture, and began his first complete year of residence in the Cambridge in which he was already a legend. Naomi Bentwich, a pupil of Johnson’s, recalledI that he was generally supposed to live the life of a rich man, going up to London for all the good concerts and decorating his rooms in his own individual style (he was said to have painted the walls black).
Introduction
Authors: Mullan John
Published: November 2023

Some books we read once, but some we go back to. The literature we most value is what we revisit. For special kinds of writing, repetition can be the whole point. The intense pleasures of poetry are usually understood as coming from rereadings. Popular poetry anthologies and radio programmes enact these pleasures, reminding us of what we already knew as much as introducing us to what is yet unknown. In the ultimate example of being able to return to what we once read, we may even have poems or parts of poems by heart, in store. In rare cases, readers will have fragments
Beginning
Authors: Mullan John
Published: November 2023

The Novel, that most accessible, democratic of literary forms, must establish its contract with its reader. It may be helped or hindered by all sorts of extraneous influnce: cover design, encrustations of quotation from admiring reviewers, and the like. But it must also make its own way in the world. For the first half-century and more of its self-conscious existence, the Novel acknowledged its novelty as a type of writing. Samuel Richardson did this in anxious earnest, prefacing the first edition of his first novel, Pamela (1740), with a letter from an admirer declaring that the work that followed would ‘infallibly be looked upon as the hitherto much-wanted Standard or Pattern for this Kind of Writing’. In the preface to Joseph Andrews (1742),
Narrating
Authors: Mullan John
Published: November 2023

How is a story told? There are two ways of thinking about this. One involves looking at a narrative from a distance to see its structure. We ask how it is arranged—in what sequence, with what divisions, and so on. This is the subject of Chapter 6. The second way of tackling the question is to ask, Who is speaking? From what viewpoint? In what voice? This is the subject of this chapter. One basic distinction is between first-person narration and third-person narration. Novelists are themselves often conscious of this as a choice to be made when they sit down to a new work. The English novel begins with the first person.
People
Authors: Mullan John
Published: November 2023

Nothing is stranger or more important in our reading of novels than the sense that we are encountering real people in them. Academic critics tend to steer away from the business of characterization, even though it is invariably the ordinary measure of a novelist’s achievement. It is as if succumbing to the illusion that a ‘character’ in a book is a person implies losing your critical faculties. Long ago, in a famous essay called ‘How Many Children Had Lady Macbeth?’, the critic L. C. Knights made it clear that the discerning reader should resist this weakness.
Genre
Authors: Mullan John
Published: November 2023

‘Genre’ is a word for types of writing; it is also therefore a word for habits of reading. Though novelists might like to cheat expectations, they need readers to have expectations that can be cheated. Genre alerts us to the readerly expectations learned from similar books. Imaginative literature relies on readers’ knowledge of the generic conventions that it challenges or gr even if this knowledge is often hardly conscious.
Voices
Authors: Mullan John
Published: November 2023

In one respect, speech in used to be closer to speech in drama that it now is. There is plentiful evidence of novels being read aloud to family and friends in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries; Jane Austen’s letters, for instance, are full of references to this habit. So still in the early decades of the twentieth century. To take one example, Evelyn Waugh’s Brideshead Revisited (1945) describes how it was the custom in Sebastian Flyte’s family to ask his mother, Lady Marchmain, to read aloud ‘on evenings of family tension’ (ch. 5, 128). Waugh’s narrator, Charles Ryder, tells us how she did so on the evening when Sebastian’s chronic drunkenness became embarrassingly apparent. ‘She had a beautiful voice and great humour of expression.
Structure
Authors: Mullan John
Published: November 2023

Books of narratology often contain diagrams of the narratives they analyse. Though these do not convey the literary qualities of a work that make it memorable to any reader, they can be useful. They often display clearly how the telling of a story has been arranged by its author—how a given narrative might be thought of structurally. This does not only apply to novels. A diagram is a rather good way of showing how the narratives of, say, The Odyssey or Paradise Lost, with their elaborate patterns of retrospect and inset narration, are structured. These epic narratives begin in medias res, telling us only later what happened earlier.
Detail
Authors: Mullan John
Published: November 2023

In David Lodge’s novel Small World (1984), two characters whom we have first met in his novel Changing Places (1975) encounter each other once again. The academics Philip Swallow and Morris Zapp are on a plane together and Philip is about to tell Morris the story of the one time in recent years that he has known ‘intensity of experience’ (67). Morris, a high-powered American literary professor, throws in comments on the logic of Philip’s narrative.
Style
Authors: Mullan John
Published: November 2023

Here we are at the heart of what makes a novel or a novelist distinctive. The way that a book is written is sometimes called a novelist’s ‘tone of voice’. An author’s particular tone can be what makes the telling of the story seem unmanufactured, inimitable—in Henry James’s highest term of praise, ‘sincere’. With some novelists, tone is all; it is the hardest thing to catch, yet what often matters most to readers. It is what makes you think that a Jane Austen sentence could not have been written by anyone else, as if, like stylistic DNA, the smallest element of a writer’s prose carried within it the essence of his or her singularity.
Devices
Authors: Mullan John
Published: November 2023

Near the beginning of Daniel Defoe’s novel A Journal of the Plague Year (1722)—on the third page in modern editions—the narrator, H.F., introduces evidence of the arrival of the Plague in London. Late in 1664 rumours of deaths from the deadly disease had begun to spread, he recalls, and it was observed that, in four central parishes, ‘the ordinary Burials encreased in Number considerably’ (3). He then sets out on the page a Bill of Mortality: that is, a table with the numbers of deaths recorded in particular parishes, week by week. Several of these tables appear at different places in the Journal. They are provided as if they were real documents, diligently transcribed
Introduction: Understanding Jesus the Christ as Human and Divine
Authors: Evans C Stephen
Published: November 2023

From the earliest days of the Christian Church, the followers of Jesus of Nazareth have struggled to understand the special status of their founder. That Jesus was genuinely human-that he in fact died after being crucified by Pontius Pilate--was recognized from the beginning. But Jesus seemed to those early followers not to be merely human. Already in the writings of the New Testament this special status is affirmed: the author of the Fourth Gospel acclaims Jesus as the ‘Word’ who was not only ‘with God’ in the beginning but simply ‘was God’.

The affirmation of Jesus as both human and divine of course achieved its classical formulation at the Council of Chalcedon, which affirmed that Christ is ‘truly God and truly man’, because he possesses both a divine nature and a human nature. The two natures are distinct and not confused, but nevertheless the Christ who possesses those two natures is only ‘one person and subsistence 1 This formulation at Chalcedon does not attempt a theoretical understanding of what it means for Jesus of Nazareth to be God Incarnate; it simply lays down some boundaries for what is to count as an orthodox Christian understanding of Jesus’ status.
A Kenotic Christological Method for Understanding the Divine Attributes
Authors: Feenstra Ronald J
Published: November 2023

Although kenotic Christology comes in many forms, the versions that seem most promising attempt to articulate an orthodox (Chalcedonian) view of Jesus Christ: that he is one person, truly divine and truly human. This chapter will outline elements of orthodox Christology and then develop a version of kenotic Christology that attempts to adhere to Christological orthodoxy, arguing that such a kenotic Christology can account for perplexing biblical claims such as that the Word humbled himself or emptied himself in the Incarnation (Phil. 2:7), that he grew in wisdom (Luke 2:52), and that the Incarnate Son did not know the time of the end of the world (Mark 13:32). Against this background, the chapter will take note of some recent criticisms of kenotic approaches to Christology and consider the important methodological point these criticisms raise about how our understanding of the divine attributes should be formed. The chapter will conclude with observations about how the method employed by kenotic Christology can help to correct or supplement our view of the attributes of God. In sum, this chapter argues that an orthodox kenotic Christology not only can account for some perplexing biblical claims about Jesus Christ but also offers a fruitful method for deepening our understanding of the divine attributes.
Does Kenosis Rest on a Mistake? Three Kenotic Models in Patristic Exegesis
Authors: Coakley Sarah
Published: November 2023

1. Introduction And Outline Of Thesis It is a feature of contemporary philosophical analysis of ‘kenotic’ Christology (as witnessed by the contributions of C. Stephen Evans and Stephen Davis to this volume), to emphasize the particular problems of coherence caused by the notion of divine ‘self-emptying’. ‘Orthodox’ or ‘Chalcedonian’ Incarnationalism is taken (not unreasonably, given the normative interpretation of Chalcedon from the time of Constantinople IJl) to imply an assumption that the subject of such ‘Incarnation’simply is the divine, pre-existent Logos, who had an existence in some sense ‘prior’ to the taking of humanity, but who, in becoming human must-according to this reading ofkenosi5--have undergone some modification, or ‘retraction’, of divine characteristics such as impassibility, omniscience, and omnipotence.
Robert Bellarmine, Christian Hebraist and Censor
Authors: Boxel Piet van
Published: November 2023

A list of Christian hebraists compiled by Raphael Loewe1 includes the name of Robert Bellarmine (1542–1621). At first glance, the inclusion of Bellarmine seems puzzling. After all, it is usually not with Hebrew studies, but rather with the Counter-Reformation that Bellarmine is associated. Indeed, he is regarded as the architect of controversy theology. A chair was already established in 1561 at the Collegio Romano, the most prestigious college of the Jesuits founded by Ignatius of Loyola in 1551. But a coherent theological system as an adequate tool in the controversies with the heretics was not produced until Bellarmine was appointed professor at the College, holding the chair from 1576 until 1586.
Pierre Des Maizeaux: History, Toleration, and Scholarship
Authors: Mandelbrote Scott
Published: November 2023

Pierre Des Maizeaux was born in 1673 at Paillat in Auvergne, the only child of Louis Des Maizeaux and Marie Dumonteil. By the time of his death in London, in 1745, the world in which he had grown up, as the son of a poor Huguenot pastor in the French countryside, had been swept away, and the world in which he had made his career, the cosmopolitan republic of letters of the Refuge, was facing profound change. The life of Pierre Des Maizeaux allows us to consider several aspects of the experience of the late seventeenth- or early eighteenth-century Huguenot diaspora that may be relevant to the themes of toleration and scholarship. It encourages us to evaluate the extent to which persecution, and the disillusionment which it brought, may have acted as solvents to break down extreme religious conviction and to promote particular kinds of intellectual endeavour.
The Pre-adamites: An Abortive Attempt to Invent Pre-history in the Seventeenth Century?
Authors: Schnapp Alain
Published: November 2023

In February 1656 a Calvinist érudit in the service of the Prince de Condé was arrested in Brussels. He had just published in Amsterdam an explosive book: Praeadamitae, sive exercitatio super versibus duodecimo, decimotertio & decimoquarto, capitis quinti Epistolae D. Pauli ad Romanos, quibus inducuntur primi homines ante Adamum conditi.1 The author, Isaac Lapeyrére,2 moved in érudit and libertin circles. He was in his sixties and had lobbied statesmen and scholars, promoting a scandalous hypothesis: that human beings had existed before Adam. Lapeyrére was not the first in a long line of free and adventurous spirits to concern himself with the question, but the enthusiasm with which he expounded his theory, and the interest and curiosity it aroused among Calvinist ministers, Anglican pastors, and Catholic bishops and monks, brought him to the attention of the learned, the powerful—and the Inquisition.
Hamann and the History of Philosophy
Authors: Thouard Denis
Published: November 2023

As is well known, it is a trip to London that determined the course of Hamann’s life.1 Leaving Königsberg at the age of 26 after a period of desultory study, he arrived in London, having on the way visited Holland, in the late evening of 17 April 1757. He was under instructions from the Berens brothers to negotiate a business deal, an unlikely role for him, so much so that his opening moves provoked barely concealed amusement, while his taskmasters were pitied for having chosen so inept an emissary. One can also imagine Hamann’s bewilderment at his initial experiences. Still a ‘good-for-nothing’ (but will he not deliberately remain one for the rest of his life?), he engaged the services of an Islington market-crier to improve his English, paying high fees for a doubtful return.2 Realizing his lack of commercial talent, he spent the rest of the year feeling depressed and guilty. He was spending his German friends’ money without achieving any results.
Theory and Methodology of History from Chladenius to Droysen: A Historiographical Essay
Authors: Escudier Alexandre
Published: November 2023

The present essay is more in the nature of a survey than an exhaustive study (even though the literature it is based on can lay claim to a fairly extensive coverage).1 It will attempt to outline developments in the theory and methodology of history2 in Germany3 between 1750 and 1860, beginning with Johann Martin Chladenius (1710–59) and concluding with Johann Gustav Droysen (1808–84).
C. Hatakeyama and W.E.
Authors: Robinson Peter
Published: November 2023

When the facsimile edition of The Waste Land drafts was published in 1971, William Empson remarked in his review that ‘The poem is inherently a mystery; I would never have believed that the Symbolist programme could be made to work at all, if it had not scored a few resounding triumphs, such as this’ ( UB 189). His problem of belief about French poetic theories from the later nineteenth century was fed by other beliefs about justifying critical or satirical views in literature. He explained: ‘Being thus dubious about symbolism, I was one of the mugs who hoped that the story of the poem would be unveiled when the lost bits were restored; and I do find that the Introduction to this edition of the bits lets the story peep out’ (189). Why the occluded story should be of importance to Empson is clarified later when, commenting on ‘What are the roots that clutch, what branches grow ¦ Out of this stony rubblish?’,1he notes: a touch of the craving to scoldmay be observed in the poem here, with its assumption that the poet is nobler and purer than anything he contemplates.
Empson’s Pregnancy
Authors: Wolfson Susan J
Published: November 2023

‘I am going on steadily with Intraverbal Structure but keep running into puzzles, in fact I am only inventing the theory after tidying up the literary evidence for it, so I don’t know how long I shall still take,’ confessed William Empson to his Cambridge friend Ian Parsons ( SL 153). In the book gestating, The Structure of Complex Words , he kept faith with the genetic priority of literary evidence: ‘I find it hard to choose between theories at all in this field,’ he admitted (or boasted), ‘except by coming across examples in which one theory works better than another’ ( SCW 368). For Empson, literary evidence is the proof of theory, not the other way around. ‘Pregnancy’, a chapter-title in Structure of Complex Words , concerns one model for how words play across structures, setting various possibilities vibrating as the syntax labors to deliver: as we listen to a sentence, we often cannot fix the required shade of meaning on the words near the beginning till we have heard the end; we are regularly exercised in the partial process, therefore, even when the final meaning appears single and definite, and this is why the alternative meanings are often less fully cut out at the end than we think.
Invitation to an Orgy
Authors: Eagleton Terry
Published: November 2023

LIKE many a supposedly antique phenomenon, terrorism is in fact a modern invention. As a political idea, it first emerged with the French Revolution—which is to say, in effect, that terrorism and the modern democratic state were twinned at birth. In the era of Danton and Robespierre, terrorism began life as state terrorism. It was a violence visited by the state on its enemies, not a strike against sovereignty by its faceless foes.
Fear and Freedom
Authors: Eagleton Terry
Published: November 2023

FOR the modern age, the most sublime phenomenon of all is freedom, which like the god Dionysus is both angel and demon, beauty and terror. If there is something sacred about liberty it is not only because it is precious, but because it can destroy as well as create. In answer to the query ‘Where does freedom come from?’ modernity has tended to reply: ‘From itself’. If freedom is to be an absolute value, then it must go all the way down and be founded in nothing but its own ifinite plenitude.
Childhood
Authors: Campbell Gordon , Corns Thomas N
Published: November 2023

John Milton was born at 6.30 a.m. on Friday 9 December 1608 in the house at the sign of the Spread Eagle, Bread Street, London, and on 20 December was baptized in nearby All Hallows Church. He was the second surviving child (after a sister called Anne) of a scrivener and composer also called John Milton, and his wife Sara. The future poet’s paternal roots lay in Oxfordshire. His paternal great-grandfather, Henry Milton (d. 1559), had lived in the village of Stanton St John with his wife Agnes.
Cambridge: The Undergraduate Years
Authors: Campbell Gordon , Corns Thomas N
Published: November 2023

In December 1624 Milton turned 16, and this may have been the month in which he finished his education at St Paul’s School. Milton’s friend Charles Diodati had gone to Oxford two years earlier (aged 11 or 12), but the time when students would choose universities on the basis of friendships or other personal preferences lay centuries ahead. In the seventeenth century choice lay with the father rather than the son, and the most important choice was not that of university or college, but rather of tutor.
Hammersmith
Authors: Campbell Gordon , Corns Thomas N
Published: November 2023

For centuries it was assumed that in the course of Milton’s final year at Cambridge his father retired and the family moved in 1632 to the village of Horton, a few miles from Windsor, where Milton was said to have lived until he left for Italy in 1638. Two discoveries have obliged biographers to reconfigure this period. In 1949 the discovery of four Chancery dispositions in the Public Record Office made it clear that from 14 September 1632 (and perhaps earlier) to 8 January 1635 (and perhaps later), the Miltons lived not at Horton, but at Hammersmith.
Horton
Authors: Campbell Gordon , Corns Thomas N
Published: November 2023

On 12 May 1636 Milton’s father was discharged at his own request as Assistant to the Company of Scriveners because of his ‘removal to inhabit in the country’. A few months earlier, the family had moved to the village of Horton, which is now in Berkshire (near Heathrow Airport) but was until 1974 in Buckinghamshire. The motive for the move is not known, but it may be related to a lawsuit that had been lodged against Milton’s father, and may have been prompted by plague in Hammersmith.
Surviving the Restoration
Authors: Campbell Gordon , Corns Thomas N
Published: November 2023

Ronald Hutton has argued persuasively that two separate Restoration settlements are to be distinguished, ‘of different character and produced by different groups of men working in different circumstances’: the first, during which a relatively irenic policy was developed under the Convention Parliament; the second, a regime of more extensive persecution under the Cavalier Parliament. The distinction helps in understanding Milton’s conduct and experiences from May 1660 to the end of 1662. The sequence broadly accords with Nedham’s speculation in Newes from Brussels, that cavaliers would deal first with the kitlings and then with their dam.
Touching Forms: Tennyson and Aestheticism
Authors: Leighton Angela
Published: November 2023

‘Art for Art’s sake! Hail, truest Lord of Hell!’ (III. 12. 1)1 Tennyson’s uninspired squib is a rare outburst on a subject which engrossed many of his contemporaries. Between Victorian aestheticism and Victoria’s Laureate there is a marked stand-off, a silence broken only here and there by skirmishes on both sides. Tennyson never refers to Pater in his letters, owned none of his books, though he certainly read and marked some of his essays in journals.2 Pater, for his part, is oddly circumspect about Tennyson.
Overview Of The Religious Specialists Covered
Authors: Rüpke Jörg
Published: November 2023

This post, held for life and in the Republican Period by patricians—the wife assumed the role of ‘queen’ was the subject of historical speculation as to the religious role of the old Roman kings, and in Festus’ lexicon was established as taking first place in the protocol of the pontifical college. In the Imperial Period the office is also attested in other Italian cities; this makes attribution in individual cases problematic.
Literature and the academy
Authors: Baldick Chris
Published: November 2023

The early twentieth century was an exceptionally fertile period for the generation of new literary-critical ideas and debates, as the chapters that follow in this part and the next show. The same period also witnessed a momentous transformation in criticism, one that proceeded more or less silently behind the scenes of intellectual controversy. This development was the steady and, from the 1930s, irresistible incorporation of criticism into the formal structures of academic education, and of critics into the professional obligations of university teaching. This chapter will offer a brief account of how and why such a transformation occurred, and what its impact has meant for the purposes, methods, languages, and audiences of modern criticism.
F. R. Leavis: criticism and culture
Authors: Day Gary
Published: November 2023

Why include F. R. Leavis in a history of criticism and theory? Because he was the most influential critic of his day. It is no exaggeration to say that, in a career spanning more than forty years, from the late 1920s to the mid-1970s, Leavis changed the perception of English literature and professionalized its study. Following T. S. Eliot’s lead, he redefined English poetry in terms of the seventeenth-century metaphysical tradition of John Donne rather than the nineteenth-century Romantic one of Wordsworth. In typically robust fashion, Leavis also proposed a ‘great tradition’ of novelists—Jane Austen, George Eliot, Henry James, and Joseph Conrad—that critics have often used as evidence for their claim that Leavis was a dogmatic figure with only a limited view of literature.
Marxist aesthetics
Authors: Davies Tony
Published: November 2023

Karl Marx’s world-wide reputation and influence rest principally on the Communist Manifesto of 1848, probably the most eloquent and undoubtedly the most influential political pamphlet ever published, and on his writings on what the nineteenth century called ‘political economy’: the investigation of the structure and nature of contemporary society, and of the role of economic and productive processes within it. In particular, he is remembered as the author of an unfinished but still monumental analysis of nineteenth-century capitalism, Das Kapital (1867) and its satellite texts, such as the Critique of Political Economy (1859) and the posthumously published Theories of Surplus Value.
The intentional fallacy
Authors: Lamarque Peter
Published: November 2023

The expression ‘The Intentional Fallacy’ was coined by the literary critic William K. Wimsatt and the philosopher Monroe C. Beardsley in a jointly authored article with that title, published in 1946. A fallacy is an invalid mode of reasoning, and Wimsatt and Beardsley claimed that it is fallacious to base a critical judgement about the meaning or value of a literary work on ‘external evidence’ concerning the author’s intentions. In another paper, they described the fallacy as ‘a confusion between the poem and its origins, a special case of . . . the Genetic Fallacy’. Their own position, in contrast, held that ‘the design or intention of the author is neither available nor desirable as a standard for judging the success of a work of literary art’.
Bakhtin and the dialogic principle
Authors: Pearce Lynne
Published: November 2023

Although Bakhtin’s writings originate in Russia in the 1920s, it was the 1980s before his work became popular in the West; this was largely due to the new translations of Katerina Clark, Michael Holquist, Caryl Emerson, and others who had seized upon his contemporary relevance. Looking back over this period of his ‘canonization’ by Western scholars, it is fascinating to see just how much has changed, and just how much survives, from that moment of first reception. What survives most indisputably is that set of key concepts—polyphony, heteroglossia, carnival, and, of course, dialogism itself—that Bakthin brought into the world via his classic texts, Problems of Dostoevsky’s Poetics (1929), The Dialogic Imagination (1934–5), and Rabelais and His World (1965). What has changed is how scholars now regard the meaning and status of those concepts, the authorship and ‘mission’ of Bakhtin’s work more generally, and—in particular—which disciplines/scholarly approaches best do justice to ‘the soul and legacy of Bakhtin’.
Structuralism and narrative poetics
Authors: Onega Susana
Published: November 2023

The word ‘structuralism’ is equally applicable to work carried out in the social sciences, philosophy, and the humanities. Its birth is associated with a general movement in the history of ideas involving the attempt to give the status of science to humanistic areas of knowledge which were traditionally considered to lie outside the scope of science. Born in Russia and Switzerland and confirmed in Prague, it found fertile soil in France in marginal academic institutions outside the university, coming to fruition in the 1960s in the work of intellectuals such as the anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss, the philosophers Michel Foucault and Louis Althusser, the psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan, and the literary critics Roland Barthes, Algirdas J. Greimas, Tzvetan Todorov, and Gérard Genette.
Virtue and Rights in Aristotle’s Best Regime
Authors: Jun. Fred D Miller
Published: November 2023

Virtue ethics, as a theory of moral obligation, holds that an action is morally correct in so far as it is an expression of moral virtue, for example, in so far as it is courageous, generous, or just. Virtue has an irreducible role in moral theory in that the correctness of a virtuous action cannot be explained on a more basic level, that is, in terms of duties derived independently of virtue (for example, from the categorical imperative or the principle of utility). A serious issue for modern virtue ethics is whether it can justify the respect for individual rights. If it cannot, this would seem to be a crucial lacuna for a theory of moral obligation. Moreover, it would present the disturbing prospect that an agent could act in a completely virtuous way yet disregard the rights of others. This essay attempts to make a start on addressing this issue by examining the relation between virtue and rights in Aristotle. It argues that Aristotle’s virtue ethics serves as the basis for a system of political rights, the most perfect embodiment of which is the best regime.
Habituation as Mimesis
Authors: Fossheim Hallvard J
Published: November 2023

I shall be asking what motivation there might be to become virtuous; or, to put it as Myles Burnyeat and John Cooper have put it, what motivation there might be to become responsive to the noble. I believe that the most important single clue to understanding this motivation is provided not in the Ethics but in the Poetics . My point of departure is Aristotle’s first condition on action that is good or noble: namely, that it be done for its own sake. I shall end by showing how my interpretation fits in with what Aristotle says about the educational formation of the child, in the Nicomachean Ethics and in the Politics .
The Variety of Life and the Unity of Practical Wisdom
Authors: Chappell Timothy
Published: November 2023

It can seem that there is no such thing as the virtue of practical wisdom. For virtues are particular dispositions, with particular fields of operation. So, for example, courage is a particular disposition— the disposition that makes you stand firm in ta tharralea , tight corners and frightening crises— and it has a particular field of operation: tight corners and frightening crises. Again temperance is a particular disposition— the disposition whereby you resist when the lures of pleasure or the goads of pain tempt you beyond propriety— and it has a particular field of operation: dealing with the lures of pleasure and the goads of pain.
Introduction
Authors: Moi Toril
Published: November 2023

In this book I first explain how Ibsen became a modernist (Parts I and II), and then I analyze the kind of modernism that was uniquely his (Part III). To show that Ibsen actually was a modernist, it has been necessary to expose a theoretical rigidity, uncover a case of historical amnesia, and develop a historically and culturally grounded understanding of Ibsens aesthetic development.
Ibsen and the Ideology of Modernism
Authors: Moi Toril
Published: November 2023

Ibsen is the most important playwright writing after Shakespeare. He is the founder of modern theater. His plays are world classics, staged on every continent, and studied in classrooms everywhere. In any given year, there are hundreds of Ibsen productions in the world. A 1998 Bangladeshi adaptation of Ghosts directed by Kamaluddin Nilu drew crowds to village squares all over the country. The same year a Hebrew production of The Lady from the Sea filled a theater a stone’s throw from the Temple Mount in Jerusalem. In 1999 Mitsuya Mori staged a Japanese version of An Enemy of the People in the manner of a Kabuki play, while the 2002 Ibsen festival in Oslo presented a production of the same play from Upper Volta.