bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Publius among the fishes
Authors: Stothard Peter
Published: April 2023

A year after Augustus’s death, while one of the Vitellii brothers, the courtly Lucius Vitellius, was at the slow shifting centre of the empire, the other, Publius, was at its northernmost edge facing clearer and more present danger. Lucius was in Rome with his wife and their son, the future emperor Aulus, who the augurs said should never be in charge of an army. Publius, whose birth auguries were unrecorded, was in Germany proving that the family prophets might have got the wrong man. In temporary command of two legions, he was leading an unnecessary march that had become a mass drowning.
Words for a palace
Authors: Stothard Peter
Published: April 2023

As the courtiers of Tiberius adjusted to his power, outside the gates of the Palatine, were ever more parades of gifts to him from abroad. A wise diplomat kept his flattery short and his offerings effusive. The mass of the Roman people appreciated the respect shown to their emperor by exotic slaves and animals, a man who was nine feet tall, a hunchback, a dwarf, a giraffe or a giant fish. Monsters massaged the egos of those citizens who, if not wealthy or well fed, could at least feel comfortingly normal. In the absence of regular gladiatorial games, generous feasts and other necessities of electoral politics, this was flattery to the whole city population. Dead monsters were popular too, massive bones and tusks which, at an age long before the knowledge of dinosaurs, might be relics of beasts killed by Hercules.
Pen and knives
Authors: Stothard Peter
Published: April 2023

The coming man was a courtier soldier, Lucius Aelius Sejanus. His unique source of power was the Praetorian guard, an elite force that he had taken over from his father, a pioneer of foie gras, and hugely enhanced. Sejanus’s power was military but his skills were courtly, not confrontational in the conventional warrior way. He was a soldier trained in household service, more adept than those who burnished their independent pasts, a soldier whose command was not over imperial expansion but over the Palatine. When the emperor said that he hated flatterers, Sejanus was there to be the military man, the type of straight-dealing officer that Tiberius had admired on manoeuvres. When it was time for a banquet of congratulation, Sejanus ruled the tables.
Profits from propinquity
Authors: Stothard Peter
Published: April 2023

What was worrying to the members of the court left behind was not Tiberius’s retreat to Capri but the length of his stay there. Without regular sightings of the man from whom authority fell, fewer knew where it was falling. Courtiers needed to show that they were in the inner circle. If a man was deemed down and out of favour, there was only a short step to his prosecution for treason, the simple charge of no longer being the emperor’s friend. Succession was again the story. In 31 CE the order came from Capri that Agrippina’s youngest son, 19-year-old Caligula, should be sent to join the boys in Tiberius’s entourage. Thrasyllus joked that the newcomer had as much chance of becoming emperor as of riding on water over the bay of Naples. But the last male heir to Germanicus stayed in the race. Aulus Vitellius became his friend.
Torture of an actress
Authors: Stothard Peter
Published: April 2023

Cassius Chaerea was a guardsman softened by court life whom Caligula enjoyed mocking as effeminate, giving him erotic daily passwords to hand on to his men, turning his own security into a sexual comedy. Quintilia was an actress, suspected of knowledge of an assassination plot. Caligula hoped that Chaerea would be so determined to prove his masculinity that he would be her especially brutal torturer. Chaerea did what he was told to do. Quintilia revealed nothing. Maybe she had not known much. Chaerea so wrecked her body and face that even Caligula himself felt guilty. When the emperor ordered compensation for the no longer beautiful actress, Chaerea was ridden by guilt. He followed Caligula into a corridor and hacked him with his sword. Others added blows. Loyal bodyguards briefly fought the assassins but there was little loyalty to Caligula once he was dead.
Garden ornaments
Authors: Stothard Peter
Published: April 2023

The new emperor Claudius was content with the household being a government. He had few links to the clubs of Roman life. His nervousness in speech separated him from the senate. At key moments he had been deemed too weak to be even worth killing. The weapons of the weak, insincerity and flattery, were his own. Freed slaves, scribes and cooks, eunuchs for food-tasting or sex, were his people. Claudius gave out gold rings with his own portrait to designate those who had free access to him. In Lucius Vitellius’s garden, among the traditional household gods in stone and wood, were now others in gold, recognisable as Pallas the accountant, Narcissus the master of the post, Callistus the sifter of petitions and Polybius the speechwriter, all former slaves themselves. Their statues were a reminder that courtiers could grant favours just as could gods.
Oedipus and actors
Authors: Stothard Peter
Published: April 2023

As a former consul, Aulus remained a senator. Early in Nero’s reign it became even easier to combine the roles of senator and courtier. A senate meeting was held at the palace so that Agrippina could listen from behind a curtain. When the senators used coins, they saw Agrippina on the obverse and Nero relegated to the back, sometimes together like a kissing couple. But like Seneca, Agrippina began running out of ways to control Nero. She looked for others who might keep him in line, perhaps Rubellius Plautus, descendent of Augustus and son of Tiberius’s friend, Blandus of Tibur. As her influence further waned, the mother was reduced to seeking any affection from her son that she could. She played the seductress. Whether by sex or heavy flirtation, few could certainly say.
Dish of Minerva
Authors: Stothard Peter
Published: April 2023

The scenes of Nero at dinner were all familiar, Halotus the food-taster, still hovering, two of Nero’s childhood tutors present, Anicetus and Seneca, Nero’s mistress, Poppaea, on the couch where Agrippina would have been if Anicetus had not run his sword through her womb and Seneca were not left with the task of explaining the murder. Nero himself, more panicked than liberated, was still seeing his mother with him as a very angry ghost. Not even the dining room’s keenest flatterers could persuade Nero that his plan to rid himself of Agrippina on a boat after a party had gone well. A poisoning in public had seemed impossible. Seneca had been a determined protector of the empress who had rescued him from Corsica. Burrus, the Praetorian guard commander, had backed Seneca. They had seen Agrippina as the only brake on Nero’s worst ambitions. Now Agrippina was gone.
Blackened tables
Authors: Stothard Peter
Published: April 2023

Seneca saw his advice as far superior to anything in the past from Lucius Vitellius. The man celebrated for loyalty had, he thought, indulged his patrons too much. He had encouraged Caligula to see himself talking to the moon. Even more importantly, Lucius was dead. His son might as well have been dead too for all the good he did. Seneca’s advice was subtle, vulnerable to being overturned in his absences. Then a new argument came from the sky. A night of lightning lit the road from Rome, illuminating the temples of Tibur beside Plautus’s home. In the morning Nero’s tables were smouldering. No one could see the message as anything but a mark of heavenly approval for Rubellius Plautus. Nero ordered a letter sent to Rome advising that his reluctant rival would be safer in the fields of Asia that he had inherited through his imperial wife.
A hard man to flatter
Authors: Stothard Peter
Published: April 2023

Otho understood Galba’s mistakes. The senate was successfully flattered. Otho was happy to appear as an old Palatine servant when he was, in fact, the new master. That was easy deception for a veteran. In Germany early news from Rome suggested that there would be no purge of Galba’s supporters, more a realistic acceptance that men and women had to make their peace with power. Crispinilla was surviving the calls from the mob that she be executed for her stewardship of Nero’s orgies. Galba’s lover, Icelus, did less well. He was crucified as a slave even though he was a freedman. There was no great concern at Rome for a freed slave, however rich he had become by Galba’s side, more rapidly richer than any freedman of Claudius or Nero.
The Shield of Minerva
Authors: Stothard Peter
Published: April 2023

Lucius, newly and aggressively loyal to his brother, began preparation for Aulus’s welcoming banquet in Rome. The finest fish needed the finest plate. Silver was the favoured metal from which the rich should eat. Connoisseurs collected examples, decorated with exotic fish from the whole empire. The Vitellii had not extended the empire, nor even visited very much of it, but on their ‘Shield of Minerva’, a gleaming dish of epic name and proportions, would lie the produce of everywhere from Parthia, still unconquered, to the Pillars of Hercules between the Mediterranean and the Atlantic. Aulus and his new court would dine off Spanish silver on pikes’ livers streaked in red and yellow, sperm of lampreys, brains of pheasant and peacock, tongues of flamingos.
Emperor Vitellius
Authors: Stothard Peter
Published: April 2023

Aulus Vitellius found the same easy popularity with the people of Rome as he had with the troops of Cologne. He discovered that the memory of Nero, his long-time companion of the streets, was still warm in the places where they had played together. He ordered that an altar be built to the last Caesar in the Campus Martius behind the Capitol. Nero’s priests were to come from the order that Tiberius had established in memory of Augustus. Caecina and Valens were as loyal to Aulus as they had been before even though this did not make them loyal in the way that Augustus would have expected. Both were consuls but neither was the most reliable of aides to an emperor still finding his way. Each hated the other much more than they loved anyone else. Soon came the news that Vespasian, another of Nero’s generals, was also seeking the throne.
Out of the doghouse
Authors: Stothard Peter
Published: April 2023

Vespasian’s troops were in Rome. Vitellius found a Palatine room where the guards once kept their dogs. He heard clanking from down below. There was the smell of burnt marble. He would not be found dead. He had neither the will nor the sword. There was a crash against the door. Aulus felt the tying of his hands and the bite of an emboldened dog. Soon there were more captors and a climb to the remains of the ancient temple. The descent was shorter. The soldiers did not sever his head at the top of the Groaning Steps. They placed a cord around his neck. He was led like the companion of his kennel. He died slowly, torn to fleshy pieces, tumbling towards the memorial to his father, a sword under his chin, his belly protruding forever to stand for his failure to control his appetites, his opportunities and himself.
Conclusion
Authors: Stone Nora
Published: April 2023

The conclusion points toward events in the documentary film industry that are too new to historicize. For example, the coronavirus pandemic prompted many documentary filmmakers to start new projects on the subject, and the Black Lives Matter movement prompted documentary filmmakers to share relevant documentaries more freely. But it is uncertain whether these world events will fundamentally alter the documentary film world or only accelerate current trends. The conclusion gestures to the fact that changes in the status of documentary have led to more sustainable careers and more attention to labor practices in the industry. The conclusion also draws attention to areas where more scholarly work is needed, such as on documentary funding models, documentarians’ work in advertising and industrial film, and connections between documentary and the contemporary art world.
Taking offence
Authors: McTernan Emily
Published: April 2023

This chapter offers an analysis of a distinctive emotion of offence, contrasting both to Joel Feinberg’s disunified account, where any disliked state resented and wrongfully caused in us counts, and to the abstract account in philosophy of language on slurs, which gives us little sense of what feeling offended is like. On the account defended in this chapter, offence is taken at affronts to social standing, and results in a tendency towards acts expressing one’s withdrawal. Offence is contrasted with nearby emotions—of anger, pride, disgust, and contempt—to outline its unusual place as both an other-condemning emotion and an emotion of self-assessment. This analysis has implications not only for how we conceptualise offence but also for what we think about those who take it. Offence tends to be a smaller-scale and a more everyday emotion than those who make claims about its threat to society suppose, and one ripe for moral reassessment.
What taking offence does
Authors: McTernan Emily
Published: April 2023

Taking offence has been regarded as a useless reaction borne of emotional fragility, or a manifestation of ‘victimhood’. Against popular opinion, this chapter defends taking offence on the grounds of its social function. First, the chapter examines how the social norms that let us convey our respect and regard to others are also one way in which social hierarchies are constructed through the pattern of our social interactions. Second, taking offence is defended on the grounds that it is an appropriate way to stand up for one’s social standing, and that of one’s group, through negotiating these social norms. Third, the chapter justifies such a negotiation of social norms against both those sceptical of the role of social norms in our lives and those who would object to the role of offence in particular as a tactic in that negotiation.
A social approach, our lives online, and the social emotions
Authors: McTernan Emily
Published: April 2023

This chapter addresses a contemporary issue, of offence-taking online and, especially, on social media. First, it contrasts the move towards regulation of offensive content with the potentially greater advantages of leaving the dynamics of offence and repair to play out in cases that fall short of hate speech. Second, this chapter suggests that, while the difference between our online and offline lives is often exaggerated, our practices of offence-taking may translate poorly in online interactions that are publicly visible and that take place among fleetingly connected strangers. The way in which offence can then spiral online also reveals the importance of the background of continuing relations and social norms that, ordinarily, constrain our gestures of offence. Closing, the chapter points to the wider significance of the social emotions within in moral and political philosophy, beyond offence.
Surveillance
Authors: Chamberland Mary E. , Miller Bess
Published: April 2023

This chapter describes CDC’s efforts to detect similar cases in areas beyond Los Angeles, San Francisco, and New York City and in other populations. To conduct national surveillance, CDC first developed a case definition for Kaposi’s sarcoma and opportunistic infections (KS/OI) and surveyed physicians in eighteen major metropolitan areas in the United States to identify cases meeting this definition. Cancer registries were queried for cases of Kaposi’s sarcoma, and requests for the drug pentamidine were reviewed to ascertain cases of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP). It subsequently became apparent that cases were occurring in additional cities and that not all cases were in homosexual men. CDC also began receiving reports of unexplained lymph node enlargement and findings such as fever and weight loss in homosexual men. Investigations of these cases suggested that they were part of a spectrum of illness likely related to KS/OI.
Confucian Constitutionalism
Authors: Kim Sungmoon
Published: April 2023

This book aims to present a constitutional theory of democratic self-government that is normatively appealing and politically practicable in East Asia’s historically Confucian societies that are increasingly pluralist, multicultural, and rights sensitive—namely, Confucian democratic constitutionalism. Inspired by early twentieth-century Confucian constitutionalists such as Liang Qichao and Liang Shuming who explored the Chinese people’s self-government in the Confucian soil, this book constructs a political theory in which democratic self-government and constitutional protection of rights are mutually constitutive and reinforcing. First, it presents egalitarian human dignity as the underlying moral value of Confucian constitutionalism. Then, it derives two foundational rights from Confucian egalitarian dignity—the equal right to political participation and the equal right to constitutional protection of civil and political rights—and shows how each of these rights justifies the establishment of the legislature and the judiciary, respectively, as two independent constitutional institutions equally committed to the protection and promotion of the people’s moral and material well-being, now reformulated in terms of rights. Promoting active dialogue between the legislature and the constitutional court in mediation of Confucian public reason, Confucian democratic constitutionalism is distinguished not only from Confucian meritocratic constitutionalism, which rejects the ideal of democratic self-government, but also from two dominant Western models of constitutionalism—liberal legal constitutionalism and political constitutionalism.
Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions. III. Stereochemistry
Authors: Bachrach Steven M.
Published: April 2023

The tetrahedral geometry of carbon atoms that bond to four different atoms is used to explain their chiral properties. The major chemical distinction between the SN1 and SN2 reaction is that the latter proceeds with inversion of stereochemistry, while the former leads to loss of stereochemistry.
The Truth about Substitution and Elimination Reactions
Authors: Bachrach Steven M.
Published: April 2023

Closer examination of experiments reveal that the SN1, Sn2, E1, and E2 mechanisms oversimplify the true richness of substitution and elimination reactions. Examples include the fact that a backside attack can take place at tertiary atoms, that ion pairs intervene, providing the means for both retention and inversion of stereochemistry to take place, and that elimination occurs along a spectrum of pathways.
Aromaticity
Authors: Bachrach Steven M.
Published: April 2023

A major category in organic chemistry is aromaticity, which has to do with compounds that express special stability. Aromaticity is discussed in terms of this stabilization, Hückel’s rule, and the propensity of some compounds to undergo substitution reactions over addition reactions.
Mining Friendly
Authors: Spalding Rose J.
Published: April 2023

This chapter maps the advance of gold mining in Nicaragua. It describes the nationalization and collapse of the industry during the Sandinista Revolution, traces the halting transitions during the post-revolutionary era of privatization and rebuilding, and concludes with discussion of foreign investment promotion practices following the 2007 return to power of Sandinista leader Daniel Ortega. This chapter demonstrates how elite cohesion in support of foreign investment combined with the fragmentation of oppositional social movements and institutional deterioration during the period of de-democratization to facilitate the consolidation of mining-friendly policies in Nicaragua. Mining-friendly policies included fiscal incentives, infrastructure construction, accelerated application processing, thin regulation, legal guarantees, high-level access to officials, and the active deployment of party and security forces to keep resistance at bay. Already the regional leader in gold mining, Nicaragua was primed to expand production as the extractivist model became entrenched.
Prison Criminal Law Enforcement
Authors: Mironova Vera
Published: April 2023

The job of the criminal leadership in prison is to maintain law and order. On one side, they have to ensure peace among the prison population. And on the other side, it is also their job to make sure that agreements with prison authorities (in exchange for inmate privileges) are honored on the side of inmates. So they have to manage control of inmates who could decrease their bargaining power vis-à-vis prison authorities. In this chapter, I will talk about how prison leadership tries to minimize conflicts inside the inmate population and deal with agreement violations. I will also talk about what punishment tools vory leadership has at its disposal to deter future violations.
Prison Criminal Economy
Authors: Mironova Vera
Published: April 2023

In addition to three main components of any legitimate government—executive, legislative, and judicial—there are several other provisional functions a government has to perform. A government is in charge of the economy, goods import and export, social security, and the provision of public goods, all of which ensure the comfort of its citizens. Prison criminal leadership is no different in that they also perform these tasks on a smaller scale. But smaller does not necessarily mean easier. Prison leadership operates from behind bars, which makes a difficult job even harder. So in this chapter, I will talk about the prison criminal budget and its main income sources and expenses.
Conflict with Prison Authorities
Authors: Mironova Vera
Published: April 2023

Since it is possible to change a prison regime from dictatorial prison authority controlled to more liberal and democratic vory criminal organization run, it is also possible to move in the opposite direction. Prison administration could tighten the screws and bring a criminal controlled prison under their total control. So in this chapter, I will talk about this process and, in particular, how prison authorities could decrease the power of criminal leadership and what tools criminal leadership has at their disposal to resist such a negative development. While strict vory criminal ideology was a group’s strength when they were taking power from prison authorities, in this chapter, I show how it becomes a weakness when an ideological organization must defend itself from an outside force.
Vory Criminal Organization Resurgence
Authors: Mironova Vera
Published: April 2023

Can vory save their prisons and decrease the role of jamaats, especially if a prison is already under control of Islamists? The answer is yes; theoretically, it is possible. But practically, recovering lost power is both difficult and dangerous. So in this chapter, I will talk about what problems criminal leadership faces trying to decrease jamaat power by using the example of one particular prison, not only because such cases of success are very rare, but also because of its geographic location. The prison is located in Kalmykia, on the border between majority Muslim and majority non-Muslim regions of Russia, and, as a result, the inmate population is mixed. This makes it a clear example of the life and death dynamics of a jamaat in a religiously mixed prison.
Neo-Nazis behind Bars
Authors: Mironova Vera
Published: April 2023

In 2009, a new twist on an old ideology sprung up on Russian soil, an opposition movement known as neo-Nazism. The main motivation of members of neo-Nazi groups is like that of radical Islamist forces—opposing the Russian government. As expected, it was not long after inception that many of those group members were arrested and entered the prison system. But their prison experience is very different from that of Islamists. Not only are they not able to do what Islamists did in terms of taking power, but they actually lost members to the vory criminal organization, the jamaats, and even prison administration if they become collaborators. So in this chapter, I will talk about why neo-Nazis, when compared to Islamists, are not able to increase their ranks in prison and actually end up losing members during incarceration.
Elizabeth Stuart Phelps (1844–1911)
Authors: Hederman Robyn
Published: April 2023

The scope of the nineteenth-century writer and activist Elizabeth Stuart Phelps’s social commentary is vast. In her later years, she sought to expose the plight of animals used in medical labs. She described the cruelties of vivisection and addressed the Massachusetts State Legislature to obtain laws restricting the practice. Phelps’s spiritual and religious beliefs motivated her to unmask what she described as “the infliction of avoidable torture by the powerful upon the weak.” Phelps believed that animal experimentation was “the ‘next’ great moral question.” She pondered the question of animal immortality in Gates Ajar, her 1868 book depicting heaven. In her novel Trixy, she recounts the story of a beloved dog kidnapped for vivisection. Phelps’s writings demonstrate that her social activism developed from a deeply religious point of view, which extended to the treatment of animals.
Mohandas K. Gandhi (1869–1948)
Authors: Valpey Kenneth R. , Swami Krishna Kshetra
Published: April 2023

Mohandas K. (Mahatma) Gandhi placed high priority on the application of ahiṁsā (nonviolence) in relation to animals. This chapter maps Gandhi’s thought and practice with respect to animals onto his overall vision for human well-being. A fourfold foundation of Gandhi’s thought—the principles of truth, nonviolence, austerity, and self-governance—points to the breadth and depth of his concern for animal care, with implications for the whole range of his vision for human and world flourishing. Such flourishing may come especially through the specific practical process of caring for and protecting bovines. Through this practice, humans put themselves in the most favorable position to act rightly in relation to all living beings, with the environment as a whole, and in service to God. This understanding and vision is sustained in a conception of ahiṁsā as an affirmative practice that all human beings are called upon to undertake.
Isaac Bashevis Singer (1904–1991)
Authors: Wiegand Beruriah
Published: April 2023

The acclaimed Yiddish writer Isaac Bashevis Singer was well known for his vegetarianism, which also finds its expression in some of his works. This study examines two extreme examples of Bashevis’s treatment of animals. The short story “Der shoykhet” (“The Slaughterer”) presents a negative image of a small Jewish community in an Eastern European shtetl, where animal slaughter is very much part of daily life and where there is little sensitivity to the suffering of animals. Bashevis’s novel Der knekht (The Slave), on the other hand, entails a positive vision of a Jewish life in harmony with the world of nature, in which all the boundaries between Jew and Gentile and between human and animal can be overcome. The main character’s relationship with the world of nature in this novel parallels Bashevis’s own personal vegetarianism and criticism of animal abuse, which is evident throughout his works.
Justice Is Not a Peak
Authors: Schmidtz David
Published: April 2023

Suppose philosophers define a perfectly just world as one that could not be more just. What else would it be? Utopian idealism, imagining a world so perfect that nothing remains for justice to demand, is one alternative. Another aspect can be added to previous characterizations by saying realistic idealism is theorizing about an ongoing process, whereas utopian idealism is theorizing about an outcome: a “peak” where the process stops and from which further progress is inconceivable. That may sound fine. But what if (as utopians would admit) utopian peaks are imaginary theoretical constructs while pits of injustice are historically situated observable realities? The biggest problem with current utopian thought is not that it ignores how hard it is to achieve ideals but that it ignores how hard it is to identify them.
High Standards
Authors: Schmidtz David
Published: April 2023

Imagine a person saying in traffic court, “Your Honor, ideally we would not need to drive defensively. Admittedly, my driving looks incompetent in this world, but that’s because my standards are too high. The world isn’t ready for them.” A judge might respond, “Sir, the existence of drivers like you is precisely the reason why this world’s ideal is to drive defensively.” The point is that utopians worry that realists make concessions to the reality of the human condition that are premature when the task is to articulate ideals. This worry is misguided. People need higher standards for what to call a high standard.
Mirror Models of Consciousness in Early Sources and Indian Philosophical Systems
Authors: Shevchenko Dimitry
Published: April 2023

This chapter presents a historical background of mirror models of consciousness in Indian philosophy. The point of departure is the early Vedic theory of resemblances between human and divine realms. I argue that later theories of reflection preserve the general structure of the Vedic model of formal causation. After that, I turn to the early theory of reflection in the Chāndogya Upaniṣad in the famous story of Prajāpati’s instruction to Indra and Virocana. The following sections of this chapter survey reductionist mirror models in Buddhism, as well as mirror models in Nyāya, Mīmāṃsā, and Kaśmiri Śaivism. These sections are dedicated to mapping various positions, differing on the interpretation of the optical process involved in reflection in a mirror, and its implications for the phenomenon of consciousness and its relations with mental processes and the objects of cognition.
The Constraints and Enablements Framework
Authors: Jenkins Katharine
Published: April 2023

This chapter develops a pluralist framework for theorising human social kinds, the ‘constraints and enablements framework’, which holds that a given human social kind is an explanatory kind that is unified by a particular bundle of social constraints and enablements. The chapter begins by giving some general background to the idea of a social kind. Then the constraints and enablements framework is presented in detail. Each of the three main components of the framework—‘scope’, ‘breadth’, and ‘granularity’—is introduced and defended, and these components are shown to jointly enable a range of different sorts of social kinds to be theorised. Finally, the chapter illustrates some of the benefits of the constraints and enablements framework.
The Constraints and Enablements Framework Revisited
Authors: Jenkins Katharine
Published: April 2023

This chapter outlines some benefits of integrating the three different varieties of race and gender kinds discussed in the preceding chapter into a unifying framework. Then it summarises and responds to four potential objections to the account. The first objection concerns the proliferation of social kinds. The second objection concerns the question of which constraints and enablements are taken to unify race and gender kinds. The third objection concerns the direction of explanation between constraints and enablements, on the one hand, and kinds, on the other. The fourth objection concerns whether the account sanctions the misgendering of trans individuals. In each case, the chapter argues that the account can be successfully defended from the objection.
Defensive Nationalism
Authors: Rabinowitz B. S.
Published: April 2023

Why have atavistic political ideologies taken hold in the most technologically advanced societies? Defensive Nationalism argues that the irrationalism and hatred that marked the early 20th is recurring in the 21st centuries, and for the same reasons. Combining Karl Polanyi’s concept of the “double movement” with Joseph Schumpeter’s theory of innovation, the book traces how the explosive politics of both eras stem from the very technological changes that brought humankind to its highest levels of sophistication. In the mid-19th century, it was railroads, steam ships, automated printing presses, and telegraphy; in the mid-20th century, turbo jets, container ships, satellites, and computers. These magical modern innovations seemed to hold the promise of global peace and prosperity. But the mid-century liberal trust in international cooperation was quickly eclipsed by something much darker. The new economies of speed and scale created by the Industrial and Digital Revolutions dislodged the moorings of societies. Countries were made vulnerable to global economic crises, existing systems of production were uprooted, mass migrations accelerated, and uniquely modern forms of mass media threatened the social and political order. These same changes also produced never-before-seen modes of international terrorism—anarchist bombings and assassinations in the late-eighteen hundreds, and Islamist suicide bombings and beheadings in the late-nineteen hundreds. Political actors were able to capitalize on the growing disorientation and fear. Nations began to turn inward as left-wing populist and right-wing proto-fascist movements took hold across the United States and Europe. An era of “defensive nationalism” had commenced.
Introduction
Authors: Martin Lucy E. S.
Published: April 2023

Chapter 1 provides an introduction to the book. While African economies are developing rapidly, government fiscal capacity, particularly taxation, has not kept pace. To continue to develop, governments need more revenue to fund infrastructure and public goods. Existing theories do not explain why governments fail to tax more. This chapter introduces the argument of the book. Taxation makes citizens more politically engaged, and increases the demands they make of government. Governments’ willingness to tax will depend on the extent to which they can satisfy citizens’ demands while maintaining rent extraction. When taxation increases the demands leaders face from citizens, rent-seeking leaders of low-capacity states will strategically underinvest in fiscal capacity in order to minimize citizens’ demands. The chapter then outlines the structure of the book and discusses implications.
Understanding Fiscal Capacity
Authors: Martin Lucy E. S.
Published: April 2023

Chapter 2 provides an overview of previous research on taxation, state capacity, and accountability and argues the need for a new theory. Existing literature is primarily based on the experience of European state development, in which the threat of war drove state development. African countries had a similar trajectory before colonization, but at the time of independence in the twentieth century faced very different dynamics. First, the threat of international war was much lower. Second, governments had access to more revenue sources, including foreign aid and natural resources. Third, democracy in many African countries preceded both economic development and building state capacity. Combined, these differences highlight the need to revise our understanding of the relationship between taxation, state-building, and democracy.
The Need for Restatement of the Common Law
Authors: Seipp David J.
Published: April 2023

Restatements of the common law, the chief achievements of the American Law Institute (ALI), fulfilled a need that had long been expressed by lawyers and judges in England and America. Supreme Court Justice Joseph Story, responding in 1837 to the Massachusetts state legislature’s inquiry whether common law should and could be codified, reported that there could be tremendous saving of effort and time by lawyers and judges if a group of experts set out in written form the agreed principles and doctrines of common law. Story did not advise that the legislature should enact this written text of common law, but rather that it be adopted by judges as a source of common law decision-making. Many centuries before Story’s report, lawyers in England had described their common law as “unwritten,” viewing this sometimes as a defect, sometimes as an advantage compared to Roman and canon law’s fixed texts. Complexity, uncertainty, inconsistency, and the ever-increasing volume of judicial case reports presented problems that were addressed in many ways over the centuries. One proposal, codification, provoked defenses of the common law as something that should not and could not be reduced to written form because that would eliminate the essence of the common law process. In the early twentieth century, American bar leaders and legal academics, weary of fighting about codification, coalesced around the ALI as a solution to the need for restatement of the common law.
The Restatement of Property
Authors: Merrill Thomas W.
Published: April 2023

The central feature of the American Law Institute’s Restatement of Property is that it remains incomplete after nearly seventeen volumes produced over nearly ninety years. The principal explanation for this is the proclivities of the Reporters who have been responsible for the first three iterations of this effort. Some of these proclivities, such as a commitment to meticulous research, have been commendable. But the incompleteness of the effort has reduced the influence of the property Restatement, relative to other Restatements like contracts and torts. The chapter concludes with a description of the Fourth Restatement of Property, now underway, and the organizational structure it has adopted in an effort to produce, at long last, a complete Restatement of Property.
The Restatements as Law
Authors: Schauer Frederick
Published: April 2023

A widespread view understands the Restatements as summaries of existing legal principles coupled with largely interstitial recommendations as to how the existing law could be improved. That view, however, understates both the jurisprudential and empirical significance of the Restatements. As H.L.A. Hart and scores of his jurisprudential followers have established, what counts as a legal authority—and thus what counts as law—is based on the empirical determination of what sources judges and other legal officials take as authoritative in reaching their decisions. For Hart and those properly influenced by his analysis, there is no substantive constraint on what can count as law. All that matters for some source being law is that legal officials internalize it as authoritative and thus take it as a not necessarily conclusive reason for a decision. From this perspective, there is no reason that the Restatements, or at least parts of some of the Restatements, cannot be law. And empirically, American courts do treat some parts of some of the Restatements as authoritative. When this is so, those parts of those Restatements are more than summaries of the law and more than prescriptions of what the law should be. They are the law.
Origins
Authors: Rowe M. W.
Published: April 2023

This chapter examines Austin’s ancestry and social background, tracing the origins of Austin’s parents: Geoffrey Langshaw Austin and Mary Bowes-Wilson. A contrast is drawn between the Austins (who tended to be unsocial, intellectual, and belong to the professions), and the Bowes-Wilsons (who tended to be extravert, aspirational, and entrepreneurial). Particular attention is paid to the Austins’ links with Jane Austen and the musical Langshaw family; and to Geoffrey’s father, Hubert Austin, who was a founder member of the famous firm, Sharpe, Paley and Austin, and one of the outstanding architects of the Victorian age.
California, Semantics, and Sound Symbolism
Authors: Rowe M. W.
Published: April 2023

This chapter starts by considering why Austin was invited to spend a semester in Berkeley, the lavish terms he was offered, and why he decided to take three members of his family with him. The impact of his seminars is described, as are his relations with members of the faculty and three Norwegian semanticists in the Department of Speech. Particular attention is paid to the different approaches to semantics taken by Austin and Arne Naess. The second half of the chapter investigates and reconstructs Austin’s work on sound symbolism. The reasons for Austin’s fascination with this topic are examined, and also its connections with his pre-war interest in Leibniz and Plato’s Cratylus.
Routes to Reform
Authors: Kuehn David , Croissant Aurel
Published: April 2023

This book examines the conditions under which new democracies succeed or fail in establishing firm and lasting civilian control of the military. It introduces a multidimensional conceptual framework to evaluate the degree of civilian control in new democracies and to trace developments over time. The theory of civilian control in new democracies proposed in this book integrates rationalist, structuralist, and institutionalist arguments into a coherent model to explain when, how, and through which causal mechanism new democracies succeed or fail in establishing and sustaining civilian control over the military. This theory is tested on an original dataset on civilian control over the military in 66 countries that have undergone a democratization from authoritarianism at least once in the period from 1974 to 2010. The study traces the effects of different degrees of civilian control on the survival and democratic quality of third wave democracies. In a multi-method design, we combine large-N statistical analyses with detailed case study narratives of several countries. The study establishes a comprehensive understanding of the conditions and processes under which third wave democracies succeeded or failed in establishing firm and lasting civilian control of the military—and its consequences for the survival and quality of the new democratic structures, processes, and practices.
Further steps to quantum mechanics: Louis de Broglie and the world’s most important PhD thesis
Authors: Golub Robert , Lamoreaux Steven K.
Published: April 2023

Working on his Ph.D. thesis, Louis de Broglie asked himself this question: If light, thought to be a wave motion because of observed interference and diffraction effects, could behave like a particle, might particles exhibit some wave-like properties? He justified this idea with several arguments which are highly relevant to an understanding of quantum theory. Among these was the fact that the Bohr-Sommerfeld condition can be derived from the association of a wave with particle motion. This was a critically significant step in the development of quantum mechanics. This work was presented in a relatively short Ph.D. dissertation.
Genealogical implications and Germanic phylogeny
Authors: Hartmann Frederik
Published: April 2023

This chapter focuses on the findings of both preceding modelling parts as well as previous literature on Germanic. This part aims to detail the history of the dissolution of Germanic unity as completely and methodologically accurately as possible. The main line of argumentation is that the breakup of Proto-Germanic was a gradual diversification process in which tree-like split events were rare. East Germanic as a group cannot be seen as a proper subgroup on its own, at least in the genetic context, since the languages there dissociate from the core area independently, but maintaining contact thereafter. Further, West Germanic is a homogeneous group of varieties that remain in close contact throughout the centuries following the beginning of the disintegration of Proto-Germanic. Lower-level discretizations of West Germanic such as Anglo-Frisian or Ingvaeonic are found to be unjustified due to the nature of the diversification process to which they are subject.
City of Refuge
Authors: Watts A.G.
Published: April 2023

This chapter discusses the evacuation of universities in London to the provinces during the Second World War. The largest number of students went to Cambridge, from universities such as the London School of Economics (LSE), Queen Mary College (QMC), the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS), Bedford College, St Bartholomew’s Hospital Medical College (Barts), the London Hospital Medical College, and the Bartlett School of Architecture. The looks at the awareness of students of the differences between their lives in Cambridge and in London. Even with the severe dislocation, both London and Cambridge colleges benefited from this relationship. The chapter references how the LSE learned the benefits of residential accommodation, and Cambridge colleges received access to new subjects such as sociology.
Field Theory and Expertise: Analytical Approaches and the Question of Autonomy
Authors: Griffen Zachary , Panofsky Aaron
Published: April 2023

This chapter examines the use of field theory in the study of expertise. First, it considers a tension between approaches that either conceptualize fields as heuristics for explaining social action among experts or that focus on the distinctive, field-specific authority expertise has acquired in differentiated capitalist societies. This tension in the literature is not fully resolved, but it points to another issue for field theory: a normative concern with how to preserve field autonomy in the context of political battles over expert legitimacy. The second part of the chapter examines different approaches to the problem of relative autonomy over work in fields of expertise, and it argues via empirical examples that the politics of expertise should be distinguished from the political views of individual experts. Finally, it concludes with ideas for how field theory might be applied to expertise in the future.
Trust and Distrust of Scientific Experts and the Challenges of the Democratization of Science
Authors: Weingart Peter
Published: April 2023

The chapter analyses the challenges posed to the trust of scientists as experts by a secular development: the end of the “exceptionalism” of science as an institution. Certified knowledge as the basis of expert advice (expertise) has a legitimating function, alongside the popular vote, but because of its instrumental value in political decision-making is always in danger of being politicized. This is exacerbated by a general movement toward the “democratization” of expertise, the recourse to expertise and “counterexpertise.” The pressure on science to be accountable has triggered an orientation toward public attention and the media (medialization), which, in turn, has initiated widespread “science communication” activities. Not least, digitization has created new opportunities and pressures. We are witnessing a self-reinforcing dynamic of continued dependence on the knowledge produced and represented by experts, triggering growing skepticism of the experts and their knowledge.
(In)expertise and the Paradox of Therapeutic Governance
Authors: Carr E. Summerson
Published: April 2023

American experts of many stripes have long worked to manage public mistrust. At the heart of this mistrust are culturally saturated anxieties about the external direction of and authority over ostensibly autonomous, self-governing subjects. Although these anxieties have haunted and shaped the project of American democratic governance writ large, they are heightened when small-d democrats and experts take human subjectivity and behavior to be their areas of expertise. This chapter tracks how proponents of an American behavioral therapy—which has enjoyed broad institutional uptake in the United States and beyond—take on and manage the question of expert direction of American automatons, in part by training professionals to perform (in)expertise. In their pronounced and unusually explicit formulations of (in)expertise, we can decipher a prominent and telling way that American expertise and American democratic ideals have been ideologically and practically reconciled.