bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF DISPERSED OIL DROPLET SIZE IN DETERMINING DISPERSANT EFFECTIVENESS UNDER VARIOUS CONDITIONS
Authors: Lewis A. , Byford D. C. , Laskey P. R.
Published: January 2013

Oil spill dispersants speed up the rate of natural dispersion by enabling the prevailing energy of the wind and waves to convert an oil slick into droplets. The droplets are then dispersed horizontally and vertically by the mixing action of the sea. Vertical dispersion is countered by the buoyancy of the droplets, which depends on oil density and droplet size. The magnitude of the forces available in the sea to create and disperse droplets varies with sea state.

A variety of test methods are used to assess the effectiveness of dispersants. Many of these methods attempt to simulate the shearing and mixing action of the sea. The validity of these simulations is difficult to quantify. The oil droplet size distributions of dispersions produced in the Labofina (inverting flask), MNS (Mackay-Nadeau-Steelman), and Oscillating Hoop tests have been determined. An estimate of the relative magnitude of the forces generated in each method has been deduced from data on oil droplet size. The effects of varying dispersant composition, energy input, dispersant to oil ratio and temperature, are discussed. The lack of correlation between results obtained from the different tests is explained by identifying the predominant processes occurring in each method.
THE EFFECT OF CRUDE OIL COMPOSITION ON DISPERSANT PERFORMANCE
Authors: Canevari Gerard P.
Published: January 2013

Previously, anomalous results from various laboratory dispersant effectiveness tests were believed due to the historic difficulties of replicating field conditions in the laboratory. Some variables were reported to cause differences in dispersant performance, such as the oil viscosity—i.e., both dispersant A and dispersant B exhibited poorer performance as the oil viscosity increased. Other test results showed an opposite trend. For example, dispersant A performed more effectively than dispersant B for Murban crude oil but B was better than A for the more viscous La Rosa crude oil. It is now believed that these inconsistent results are actually due to the chemical compositions of the crude oils.

Various factors influence dispersant performance and some initial research directed at determining the mechanism of water-in-oil emulsion (mousse) formation has identified naturally occurring surfactants in the various crude oils. This will provide insight as to how these indigenous agents interacted with the surfactant package in the test dispersant to affect overall performance.

Variations in dispersant performance for different crude oils are thus likely to be related to the water-in-oil emulsion formation of the particular crude oil. The results of this work indicate that dispersant treatment should be evaluated during spill situations even if the crude oil physical properties, such as high viscosity, might suggest that dispersant treatment would not be effective.
DISPERSANT TESTS IN A WAVE BASIN
Authors: MacNeill M. R. , Goodman R. H. , Bodeux J. B. , Corry K. E. , Paddison B. A.
Published: January 2013

Using dispersants to mitigate oil spills has remained controversial, despite considerable testing, in both the laboratory and the field. One of the major concerns, which has not been satisfactorily resolved, is how effective various dispersants are on different oils over a range of environmental conditions. Laboratory experiments cannot accurately simulate the real world, while field experiments are difficult to monitor and control. To eliminate some of the problems previously encountered when testing dispersants, an experiment was conducted in a large (approximately 30 m × 55 m × 2.5 m deep) outdoor wave test basin.

The main objective of the experiment was to test the action of Corexit 9527 on unweathered Issungnak crude oil in low energy, nonbreaking waves. Eight tests were conducted, four on control oil slicks and four on treated slicks. The oil was contained in a 4.6 m diameter boom with a 1.85 m deep skirt. The boom was moored at one end of the test basin 6 m from a wave generator, which could generate waves up to 0.4 m high. At the opposite (shallow) end of the wave basin, a gravel beach absorbed the energy of the waves. For each test, the wave generator was run for about 4 hours, with a constant wave height (set from 10 to 28 cm) and period (1.6 s). During this time, water samples were drawn at regular intervals from various depths for measuring oil concentrations in the water column.

The data indicated that, in 10 and 20 cm nonbreaking waves, dispersion of oil into the water column from an untreated oil slick was negligible. During all the experiments for treated slicks, concentrations of oil in the boom were dramatically higher than for untreated slicks. Even in quiescent conditions, concentrations as high as 4 ppm were observed at 50 cm after 24 hours under a treated slick. Concentrations of up to 60 ppm were observed at 50 cm in the water column in 10 cm waves. Investigations of oil drop size showed that under the treated slicks the oil droplet diameters ranged from 1 µm to 8 µm diameter. Overall, the results showed that, even in low energy waves, there was a significant increase in dispersion from a surface slick of unweathered Issungnak oil when it was treated with Corexit 9527, and the oil in water emulsion formed was more stable than that from an untreated slick.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR A LARGE SWEEP WIDTH SKIMMING SYSTEM
Authors: Crocker Marshall J.
Published: January 2013

Interfacing a skimmer with boom involves more than simply bolting a skimmer between boom sections. Problems arise in skimmer/boom dynamics, fluid transfer, and boom tow forces. In a new two tow vessel skimming system 300 foot (92 meter) sweep width boom catenary is bridled to form a nozzle, which feeds into a weir skimmer. The skimmer's suction hoses lead to a catamaran mounted pump which is powered hydraulically from the main tow vessel. Problems in design arose because of the placement of the pump 500–600 ft (150–180 m) away from its power source. Design considerations for the system also involved emphasis on the boom shape and forces, bridle design, and pumping system design. The bridled boom shape and forces were analyzed with a computer.
EXPERIMENTS ON NATURAL AND CHEMICAL DISPERSION OF OIL IN LABORATORY AND FIELD CIRCUMSTANCES
Authors: Delvigne Gerard A. L.
Published: January 2013

At the Delft Hydraulics Laboratory a laboratory flume has been constructed to aid research into natural and chemically induced dispersion processes as well as to test the effectiveness of dispersant in specific conditions. The flume allows the selection of variables and conditions, for instance, the generation of nonbreaking and breaking waves and currents, the variation of temperature, salinity, oil layer thickness, dispersant spray droplet size, and the droplet impact on the slick surface.

The flume has been verified with empirical data gathered from an extensive sea survey on the natural and chemical dispersion of a number of oil slicks. The field experiments on natural dispersion can be modeled satisfactorily in the flume with respect to the formation of oil droplets from the oil slick and the initial intrusion in the water column. The further mixing of oil droplets in the water mass are to be calculated from diffusion theories and other transport processes.

Field experiments on the natural and chemical dispersion of 10 artificial oil spills in the North Sea led to the remarkable conclusion that spraying an oil slick with chemical dispersant did not enhance the (natural) dispersion process, while a premixed dispersant in oil was very effective. The ineffectiveness of sprayed dispersant could not be explained from a limited series of experiments performed in the laboratory flume on the effects of evaporation, photo-oxidation, emulsification, and layer thickness on natural and chemical dispersion.
COMPOSITIONAL CHANGES IN DISPERSED CRUDE OIL IN THE WATER COLUMN DURING A NEARSHORE TEST SPILL
Authors: Page David S. , Gilfillan Edward S. , Foster Judith C. , Pendergast Erin , Gonzalez Linda , Vallas Donna
Published: January 2013

As part of the American Petroleum Institute sponsored tidal area dispersant project involving two test spills of Murban crude oil in Long Cove, Searsport, Maine in August, 1981, water samples were collected. This paper deals with the analytical results for the analyses of water samples collected for analysis of non-volatile hydrocarbons by: infrared spectrophotometric quantitation of total CCl4 extractables, and gravimetric analysis of aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbon fractions followed by capillary gas chromatography.

In the dispersant-treated oil discharge area, there were two primary water sampling locations during the discharge phase of the experiment: an upper intertidal area (maximum depth = 2 meters) and a lower intertidal area (maximum depth = 3.5 meters). The gas chromatographic data for the water samples were treated numerically to obtain parameters whose values reflect the extent of dispersed oil weathering. For the aliphatics, the peak area ratio for n C14/n C18 was calculated for each sample. For the aromatics, the ratio for the peak area sum of the mono, di, and trimethyl naphthalenes to that for the mono, di, tri, and tetramethyl dibenzothiophenes was determined for each sample. At both sampling locations, dispersed oil in water sampled 10 cm off the bottom consistently had a smaller fraction of lower boiling aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons than water sampled at the same place and the same time ½ meter below the surface. In addition, the data show that there is a 12–50 fold decrease in hydrocarbon concentration on going from near surface to near bottom at any given time, even in water as shallow as 2 meters. The data indicate that the primary mechanism for hydrocarbon loss involves volatilization of hydrocarbon fractions. Analyses of water samples taken from submerged plumes of dispersed oil outside the sampling areas demonstrated slower loss of low boiling components consistent with the importance of atmospheric exchange in the weathering process.

In the chemical dispersal of an oil spill, it may be most advantageous to use mixing methods that minimize vertical mixing in order to maintain a high concentration of emulsified oil in the upper ½ meter water layer. This will maximize the extent of loss of lower boiling hydrocarbon components into the atmosphere and thus minimize the toxicity of any dispersed oil fractions that diffuse downward and interact with benthic communities.
PROTECTION OF THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT FROM HYDROCARBON POLLUTION—AN INTEGRATED PLANNING APPROACH FOR OIL TERMINALS
Authors: Sann Alan , Wayment Edward C.
Published: January 2013

In South Australia, the newest Australian liquid hydrocarbon marine export terminal has been completed in record time. The terminal services domestic and export trade in crude oil, condensate and liquified petroleum gases while operating within a gulf which supports a major shellfish and scalefish industry, and a small but growing recreation market.

The Terminal Operator has undertaken an integrated, rational, and cost-effective environmental protection strategy based on planning studies designed to ensure government and community approval for the facility. The study subject areas include: oil slick trajectory forecasting, ballast water diffuser outfall performance, prawn taint testing, coastal habitat sensitivity rating and mapping, oil spill response equipment selection and deployment strategies, equipment field trials, and industry-government consultative groups.
SPECIAL SKIMMER FOR SUB-SURFACE OIL RECOVERY
Authors: Hann Roy W. , Malter Paul L.
Published: January 2013

Control, cost and logistical considerations led to the conclusion that existing oil removal systems were not considered appropriate for removing sub-surface oil from a major pipeline spill in West Texas.

A new skimmer was designed using off-the-shelf components. A pilot unit and six prototype units were built and used successfully. The system was constructed at a cost of approximately one-half of commercial equipment cost and was able to be deployed in a well of only 8 in diameter. The system made use of a weighted plastic pipe core from which a water pump is suspended. A set of controls on the outside of the pipe controls the water cone of depression. An oil pump is located inside the pipe with a second set of controls. Oil enters the inner chamber through screened weirs and is pumped to the surface. A major system advantage is that all components for pumping both water and oil are in one sub-surface package. A simple surface control panel contains both pump starters and both control system electrical components.

The six prototype systems were used on two sites on the Chadbourne Ranch near Bronte, Texas where over 42,000 gallons of crude oil was recovered.
VENEZUELAN NATIONAL OIL SPILL TRAINING PROGRAM
Authors: Sordelli Carlos , Garcia Nelson
Published: January 2013

This paper describes the development of an oil spill training program for the Venezuelan National Oil Spill Contingency Plan. The courses in the program will be offered to the different personnel levels of the Venezuelan oil industry which will be assigned to the national, regional, and local response teams. Training details will vary with the type of oil installation (drilling platform, refinery, terminal, etc.), the geographical location (Lake Maracaibo, mangroves, coral islands, etc.), the type of organization (regional, local, etc.), and the level of the personnel involved (supervisory, operational, etc.).

The course objective will be to train 200 individuals a year from the Venezuelan oil industry, and will be open to other non-industry organizations with involvement in the National Contingency Plan (such as the armed forces, and transportation and environmental agencies).

The program emphasizes practical hands-on training using the containment, cleanup, and dispersant applications equipment acquired for the national plan. The courses also will give the participants practical experience in other pertinent aspects such as: legal, organizational, reporting, and use of decision support aids available to the plan. The program also includes at the end of the year an exercise/drill which will be hosted by the regional areas in order to review the previous instructions and/or detect operational problems in the current national plan.
AN ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT AND OIL SPILL RESPONSE PLAN FOR THE HUMBER ESTUARY, UNITED KINGDOM
Authors: Appelbee Jane F.
Published: January 2013

The Humber is one of Britain's major estuaries, the water catchment area being some 20 percent of England, including a major proportion of British industrial activity. Despite this the Humber is not severely polluted, indeed large areas of the shoreline are designated sites of scientific interest while other areas are nature reserves. The extensive mudflats and salt marsh areas within the Humber estuary are of international importance for a number of bird species, particularly during the winter months. In addition there are areas of high amenity value.

Two main oil terminals are operated within the estuary, the Tetney Monobuoy and the Immingham Oil Terminal. Both receive crude oil from tankers while the latter exports petroleum products. Both these sites are potential sources of oil spills, as was highlighted by the Sivand incident in September 1983.

The paper identifies the sensitive areas of the Humber in terms of biological and amenity/commerical values, to produce an environmental contingency/oil spill response plan. The basis of the plan was to obtain samples for the assessment of sediment chemistry and biology if an incident occurred, prior to oil beaching, with a view to updating the present data base. The updated assessment can then be used to produce a detailed appraisal of any damage to the Humber environment.

The paper includes an overview of the response plan structure.
ACCIDENTAL MARINE OIL POLLUTION: FRENCH POLICY AND RESPONSE
Authors: Beraud Alain , Sainlos Jean-Claude
Published: January 2013

To avoid large-scale marine oil pollution, France took certain legal and technical measures to protect its coastline and to implement an organization specifically to respond to oil slicks. These measures emphasize the prevention of accidents. They entail, on one hand, a legal basis integrated with international maritime regulations, and, on the other, methods for surveillance of navigation and for intervention.

The organization for marine pollution control distinguishes pollution at sea from pollution on land and allocates responsibilities accordingly.

On the local level, unity of action is based on the competences of the two authorities who have state authority for civilian action, at sea for one, and on land for the other (the “Préfet Maritime” at sea and the “Commissaire de la République du Département” on land).
CONVERSION OF A U.S. COAST GUARD SKIMMING BARRIER INTO A SINGLE-VESSEL SKIMMING SYSTEM1
Authors: McManus Kevin R.
Published: January 2013

This paper proposes a pilot program to convert one or more U.S. Coast Guard open water oil containment and recovery systems, or skimming barriers, into single-vessel skimming systems, and a three-year period of testing and evaluation, using both drills and actual spills of opportunity. This paper describes and evaluates the performance of the proposed single-ship unit, and proposes a conversion plan and a means to evaluate this pilot program.
ROYAL NAVY OIL SPILL RESPONSE POSTURE—DEVELOPMENTS SINCE THE MID 1970s1
Authors: Teasdale Geoffrey
Published: January 2013

Parameters for the Royal Navy's current spill response postures and the associated required equipment are given, followed by discussion of ballast water problems resulting from the development of the modern warship. Equipment development is traced over the past decade in the three areas of dispersal, containment, and recovery: this is followed by detail of Royal Navy oil spill equipment, current holdings, and performance. The factors which have influenced oil spill response postures and equipment development during the past decade, are reviewed with indications given for the way ahead.
ADAPTING TECHNIQUES TO CONDITIONS: CLEANUP OF A WASTE OIL SPILL
Authors: Smith Joseph B. H.
Published: January 2013

Waste oil from an oil recycling facility in Portland, Oregon, was discharged accidentally into nearby Smith Lake. The cleanup effort was hampered by a number of factors, including vegetation in the lake and subfreezing temperatures. The recovery method that proved most successful consisted of washing the oil toward the shore, where it was picked up by rope mop and belt mop skimmers. Approximately 10,000 gal of emulsified oil were eventually recovered.

Topsoil was removed along the shoreline to a depth of 2 in. The property owner (the Port of Portland) also required that 18 in. of soil be removed in the area where the oil had entered the lake. New topsoil was installed and seeded.
TOXICITY OF DISPERSED AND UNDISPERSED PRUDHOE BAY CRUDE OIL FRACTIONS TO SHRIMP AND FISH
Authors: Anderson Jack W. , Riley Robert , Kiesser Steve , Gurtisen James
Published: January 2013

Many previous studies of oil toxicity used high oil concentrations and water soluble fractions (WSF). The aim of this study was to approximate field conditions, in which weathering and chemical dispersions reduce the volatile fractions of spilled crude oil. The objective was to determine the extent of toxicity reduction produced by decreased concentrations of monoaromatics and diaromatics.

The study measured the relative toxicity of fresh Prudhoe Bay crude (PBC) oil and two distillation fractions (Stage I and Stage II) and their chemical dispersions to the shrimp Pandalus danae and the fish Ammodytes hexapterus (sand lance). The hydrocarbon composition of the three oils, the WSF of the oils, and the chemical dispersions were measured.

Distillation of fresh PBC oil produced a Stage I oil containing very low amounts of monoaromatics (benzene and alkylbenzenes) but with the diaromatics relatively unchanged. Further distillation produced a Stage II oil which contained only higher molecular weight aromatics of three rings (phenanthrenes) and greater. Saturate hydrocarbons with corresponding boiling points also were removed.

Bioassays on shrimp with dispersed oils showed that the removal of monoaromatics (Stage I) reduced toxicity about sevenfold. The WSF of Stage I oil and both WSF and dispersions of Stage II oil were not toxic to shrimp. Toxicity from fresh PBC oil WSF and dispersions was likely the result of the combination of monoaromatic and diaromatic compounds.

Sand lance (Ammodytes hexapterus) mortality did not correlate with the aromatic content of the oils, but appeared to be affected by dispersed oil droplets of all three oils to about the same degree. The fish were more resistant to dispersed oil than the shrimp (higher toxicity index). However, when latent mortality is considered, the data show that the fish may be more sensitive than shrimp to dispersed oil.
USE OF HIGH-PRESSURE WATER MIXING FOR SHIP-BASED OIL SPILL DISPERSING
Authors: Belore R.
Published: January 2013

This paper discusses a project funded by Canada's Environmental Studies Revolving Fund to assess the potential of high-pressure water jets in assisting the chemical dispersion of oil at sea. Full-scale laboratory tests were conducted using 0.5-mm thick, fresh Alberta Sweet Mixed Blend crude oil treated with Corexit 9527 dispersant applied from an overhead spray boom at a dispersant-to-oil ratio of 1: 100. The effects on dispersion efficiency of mixing jet pressure, mixing jet flow rate, jet standoff distance, and vessel speed were evaluated. Based on the test results, specifications for a practical high-pressure water jet system have been suggested. The system would operate with a nozzle pressure of 7,000 kPa, a flow rate of 55 L/min per nozzle, and nozzles positioned about 0.6 m from the water surface. In laboratory tests such a system was capable of dispersing 80 to 100 percent of the surface slick, whereas similar tests with the well-known Warren Spring Laboratory breaker board system resulted in only a 10 percent dispersion.
OPERATIONAL ASPECTS OF THE RESPONSE TO THE ARCO ANCHORAGE OIL SPILL, PORT ANGELES, WASHINGTON1
Authors: Levine Robert A.
Published: January 2013

On December 21, 1985, at approximately 4:25 p.m. PST, the Arco Anchorage ran aground in Port Angeles Harbor. Two holes were torn in the ship's bottom, resulting in a spill of 5,690 barrels (239,000 gallons) of Alaska North Slope crude oil.

This paper describes the Arco Marine response procedure during this spill, and the philosophies and methods used during the spill cleanup. The primary offshore cleanup method was recovery using booms and skimmers. Weather conditions permitted their effective operation. Removal of oiled debris was the primary onshore cleanup method. Port Angeles Harbor is a major timber storage area; log bundles are stored in the harbor awaiting pickup by ships. When log bundles were oiled during the spill, a method was devised to clean them. Oil percolated into coarse sediments on Ediz Hook, the most heavily oiled area. It was determined that large enough quantities of oil were trapped in the sediments to warrant removal. A cleanup method incorporating a combination of physical agitation to a depth of approximately 12 inches and high-pressure water jets effectively removed most of the entrained oil. The paper also describes the waste management plan that was developed.
STRATEGY FOR MONITORING THE SHORT-TERM DISTRIBUTION OF DISPERSED OILS
Authors: Railsback Steven F. , Robilliard Gordon A. , Mortenson Jack R.
Published: January 2013

An experimental program for monitoring the short-term distribution and concentration of chemically dispersed oil slicks has been developed for Clean Bay, the San Francisco area oil spill cleanup cooperative. The methods used in the program are experimental and still under development. The objectives of the program are to (1) document the surface area and volume of water affected by dispersed oil, (2) estimate the effectiveness of the dispersant, (3) determine the peak oil-dispersant concentration, and (4) determine the range of oil-dispersant concentrations in the affected water. Additional objectives that may be attained if field conditions are acceptable are to (5) estimate the rate at which oil disperses downward, and (6) estimate what fraction of the light-molecular-weight hydrocarbons are evaporated after application of the dispersant. The program includes oil concentration measurements made with a field fluorometer and by laboratory analysis. The program is flexibly designed so that it can be adapted to a variety of field conditions.
THE LASER IGNITION DEVICE AND ITS APPLICATION TO OIL SPILLS
Authors: Waterworth Michael D.
Published: January 2013

A laser ignition device, intended initially for the controlled burning of forest logging slash, has been developed and successfully tested, for this and other applications. The device employs a kilowatt class carbon dioxide laser, the output of which is beam expanded and then focused to give a small, intense spot of heat at distances from approximately 50 to 1,500 m. Acquisition and precise focus control are achieved by the use of a laser rangefinder and acquisition telescope. The device is fully steerable, can be ground based, airborne, or mounted on seacraft.
ENHANCED BIODEGRADATION OF A LIGHT CRUDE OIL IN SANDY BEACHES
Authors: Lee Kenneth , Levy Eric M.
Published: January 2013

Laboratory tests conducted at 3° C and 20° C indicate that biodegradation of a light crude oil (condensate) by indigenous microflora of sandy beach environments can be enhanced by the addition of an oleophilic nutrient. However, field trials conducted over a 204 day period in the intertidal zone of a sandy beach in Atlantic Canada demonstrated an acute toxic response by natural microflora to the “unweathered” condensate, and bacterial growth in the oiled sediments did not increase until the concentration of toxic low molecular weight aromatic compounds had been reduced by evaporation and/or dissolution. Chemical and bacteriological data suggest that this increase in bacterial numbers within the oiled enclosures may not be a direct consequence of condensate utilization. Although biodegradation of condensate stranded in beaches may be limited by the availability of nutrients, a single application of an oleophilic nutrient immediately following the addition of the crude oil did not enhance biodegradation. While limited biodegradation of the oil was observed in sediments seeded with bacteria, evidence shows that such allochthonous microorganisms were not sustained in the natural environment. This work suggests that the most promising approach to enhancing the biodegradation of oil stranded in sandy beach environments is through periodic replenishment of nutrients after the indigenous microflora have adapted to the contaminated sediments.
RECOVERY OF BRITTANY COASTAL MARSHES IN THE EIGHT YEARS FOLLOWING THE AMOCO CADIZ INCIDENT
Authors: Baca Bart J. , Lankford Thomas E. , Gundlach Erich R.
Published: January 2013

The salt marshes on the Brittany coast of France have undergone a number of changes and have been influenced by man-made and natural factors since the Amoco Cadiz spill of March 1978. This work catalogs the ecological changes which have occurred over the past eight years and presents original data on the present state of these marshes.

The recovery of Brittany coastal marshes began following cleanup operations which were often damaging to marsh and marsh substrate. The physical and toxicological properties of the oil also were damaging in the short term, especially to annual species. Natural recovery began primarily by invasion of exposed areas with annuals and rhizome spreading of perennials. Within four years, an almost logarithmic recruitment process was begun by annuals followed by perennials. Pioneer and opportunistic species increased, facilitated by partially vegetated substrates available for seed and seedling retention and by increased seed and rhizome production. Man-induced restoration was also important and was done largely by planting wild or cultured stock. The final stage of marsh recovery, as existing today, is the emergence of perennial species of high and low marsh at elevations and tidal exposures typical for their growth.

These successional changes in a marsh following a major oil spill (and various other man-made impacts) provide an understanding of the complex processes involved in marsh recovery. This understanding allows the formulation of planning guidelines to predict the long-term impacts of future incidents and to make proper recommendations for cleanup and restoration to aid the recovery process.
THE FATE OF STRANDED OIL FOUR YEARS AFTER AN EXPERIMENTAL SPILL ON A SHELTERED GRAVEL BEACH
Authors: Owens Edward H. , Humphrey Blair , Hope Dave , Robson Wishart , Harper John R.
Published: January 2013

Field studies on a remote, sheltered gravel beach have monitored the fate of 15 m3 of aged medium crude oil that was released onto the water surface and allowed to strand. The initial volume of oil (5.3 m3) retained on the shore in August 1981 was reduced to 1.3 m3 by August 1985, but oil that had been contained within an intertidal asphalt pavement remained relatively unweathered. By 1985, the pavement accounted for almost 30% of the oil remaining on the beach, even though it covered only 5% of the contaminated area. Oil-in-sediment concentrations remained high in the pavement samples (19,000 mg/kg); elsewhere on the beach, the concentrations in surface sediment samples ranged between 50 and 4,000 mg/kg, and the oils had undergone considerably greater evaporative weathering and biodegradation.
THE ROLE OF JUNCUS ROEMERIANUS IN CLEANUP OF OIL-POLLUTED SEDIMENTS
Authors: Lytle Julia S. , Lytle Thomas F.
Published: January 2013

Several locations in the Mississippi Sound of the Central Gulf of Mexico have been sites of accidental and simulated oil spills over the past decade, providing excellent testing grounds for detecting interactions of indigenous marsh vegetation with petroleum pollutants. Spartina alterniflora and Juncus roemerianus, dominant marsh plants of this region, show resilience in the face of acute oil spills, with J. roemerianus decidedly more resilient in chronic exposures. More important, J. roemerianus can remove large amounts of petroleum hydrocarbons from the underlying sediments and from the water column. Collections of Juncus and underlying sediment from five estuarine environments showed levels and distributions of petroleum hydrocarbons in the aerial leaf portions that mirrored those found in the sediment substrate. Up to 9,000 ppm total hydrocarbons were found in J. roemerianus growing in oil-contaminated sediments. In two different studies, salt marsh plots of Juncus roemerianus and Spartina alterniflora were exposed to sediments inoculated with three different crude oils, an alkene, chrysene, and naphthalene, and uptake was monitored with time. Juncus was able to take up hydrocarbons unaltered within 10 days. Spartina showed no evidence of uptake, though it did show relative increases in lipid fractions.
THE IMPORTANCE OF USING APPROPRIATE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS IN OIL SPILL IMPACT STUDIES: AN EXAMPLE FROM THE AMOCO CADIZ OIL SPILL IMPACT ZONE
Authors: Gilfillan Edward S. , Page David S. , Griffin Barbara , Hanson Sherry A. , Foster Judith C.
Published: January 2013

On March 16, 1978, the tanker Amoco Cadiz ran aground off the coast of North Brittany. Her cargo of 221,000 tons of light crude oil was released into the sea. More than 126 miles of coastline were oiled, including a number of oyster (Crassostrea gigas) growing establishments. The North Brittany coastline already was stressed by earlier additions of oil and metals.

In December 1979, 21 months after the oil spill, measurements of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase activity, aspartate aminotransferase activity, and condition index were made in 14 populations of C. gigas. Five of the populations were outside the oil spill impact zone; nine populations were within it. At the same time the body burden of Cr, Ag, Pd, Zn, Cu, Cd, and Hg, as well as the body burden of aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, was determined. Also at the same time, the numbers of total and fecal coliform bacteria in the ambient water were determined.

Results of stepwise multiple regression have shown that 21 months after the Amoco Cadiz oil spill, aromatic hydrocarbons were only one of three factors adversely affecting C. gigas populations in North Brittany. Multiple regression techniques can be extremely useful in identifying those stressors associated with physiological effects in populations of animals.
THE NOTION OF “POLLUTION DAMAGE,” WITH PARTICULAR REGARD TO DAMAGE TO THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT
Authors: Jacobsson Måns
Published: January 2013

Oil spill incidents may cause damage of several different types: damage to property, consequential loss, pure economic loss, and damage to the environment. The last type presents the greatest problems in connection with liability and compensation, because it is not easily assessed in monetary terms.

This paper focuses on the problems relating to non-economic damage to the marine environment and economic loss as a consequence of damage to the environment. Some leading court cases are used to illustrate some of the problems.

The definition of “pollution damage” in the international conventions, i.e., the 1969 Civil Liability Convention and the 1971 Fund Convention, is discussed. The position taken by the International Oil Pollution Compensation Fund in respect to claims for non-economic damage to the environment as well as claims for pure economic loss is described. The impact the new definition of this notion in the 1984 protocol to the Civil Liability Convention would have on the law of contracting states is examined.
UNITED STATES PROGRESS TOWARD ENACTMENT OF COMPREHENSIVE OIL SPILL LIABILITY AND COMPENSATION LEGISLATION
Authors: Corbett Charles R.
Published: January 2013

Comprehensive oil spill liability and compensation legislation, including adoption of two important international oil spill treaties, has eluded the United States for too long. Although there is broad agreement in the Administration, both houses of Congress, oil and shipping interests, state governments and the environmental community that we need comprehensive oil spill legislation, these often divergent interests have not been able, at least as of this writing (December 1986), to agree on a compromise package.

Both houses of Congress passed bills during the 99th Congress, the latest House versions in Titles VI and VIII of H.R. 5300 and, in the Senate, S. 2799. These bills were dissimilar in several ways. However, most informed interests suggested that, had a compromise House bill emerged near the end of the Congress, a Senate-House conference committee could have reached agreement between the House offer and S. 2799. Unfortunately this did not occur. Also, the Senate Foreign Relations Committee reported out favorably (to the full Senate), the ratification of the 1984 protocols to the 1969 Civil Liability Convention and the 1971 Fund Convention (CLC and Fund), with a “reservation” and a number of “understandings.”

The need for appropriate legislation arises from deficiencies in and the patchwork approach of current U.S. legislation.
ON-SCENE COORDINATORS CAN EFFECTIVELY INFORM THE PUBLIC THROUGH THE NEWS MEDIA
Authors: Meidt Richard M.
Published: January 2013

The news media influence public perceptions of environmental damage and response effectiveness during oil spills. Successful federal On-Scene Coordinators (OSC) recognize this fact, manage active public information efforts during major oil spills, and take active roles in media relations during spills' critical initial phases. The interests of the public, the news media, and the responder are best served by OSCs whose public information efforts are based on a program of accuracy, courtesy, and thrust of message. Such a program establishes the OSC as a credible source of information to outline the federal action being taken, counter speculation, and avoid inaccuracies. The Public Information Assist Team is a Coast Guard resource, ready to help federal OSCs meet the goals of public information and positive media relations during oil spills.
BEACH AGITATION FOR CRUDE OIL REMOVAL FROM INTERTIDAL BEACH SEDIMENTS1
Authors: Miller James A.
Published: January 2013

The Arco Anchorage crude oil spill in Port Angeles Harbor, Washington, on December 21, 1985 resulted in oil contamination of approximately 7,000 feet of sheltered beach along the south side of Ediz Hook. The oil penetrated into coarse-grained beach sediments within much of the intertidal zone. Typical oil penetration depths ranged from 2 to 12 inches, Hydrocarbon concentrations in beach sediments six weeks after the spill ranged from 50 to 20,000 ppm with a mean of 2,900 ppm (total weight basis).

A beach agitation program was implemented to remove the oil trapped within pore spaces in the beach sediments. Various equipment was evaluated for beach agitation purposes, including raking machinery, rippers, and jetting apparatus. A bulldozer operating in shallow water with ripper teeth and a water jet system was found to be most effective.

Beach agitation was accomplished in segments with each work area isolated by containment booms and sorbent materials. Oil liberated by beach agitation was recovered by sorbents, rope skimmers, and a vacuum truck. By this method, the entire 7,000 feet of affected beach was treated in six weeks.

Chemical analysis of beach sediments before and after the beach agitation program indicated that the technique was very successful in removing the oil held in soil pore spaces. More than 74 percent of the crude oil was removed from areas of heavy beach contamination. Residual oil concentrations from less than 50 to 7,500 ppm remained following the beach agitation program, with a mean post-agitation oil concentration of 550 ppm. This oil, mostly adsorbed to soil particles, is not readily removed by agitation and is expected to decrease in concentration over time.
DEVELOPMENT OF AN OIL SKIMMING SYSTEM TO MEET NAVY SPECIFICATIONS1
Authors: Smith Joseph B. H. , McLellan Charles , Pintler Larry R.
Published: January 2013

Having determined that the Navy's small and medium oil skimmers should be replaced, the Naval Facilities Engineering Command issued a request for proposal for an oil skimming system. Requirements and selection criteria were developed by the Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory.

Six technical proposals were found to meet Navy requirements. Of the manufacturers who were asked to submit prices for their systems, Crowley Environmental Services (CES) was the lowest bidder. The proposal submitted by CES was for a floating belt mop skimmer system.

The contract awarded to CES was conditional on the successful completion of two series of tests. In all the tests, the skimmer's performance confirmed the data submitted in the technical proposal.
SHIPBOARD NAVIGATIONAL RADAR AS AN OIL SPILL TRACKING TOOL1
Authors: Tennyson E. J.
Published: January 2013

The utility of shipboard navigational radar as an oil spill tracking tool was evaluated in a wide range of sea states during an intentional oil spill exercise off Nova Scotia in September 1987. Specially tuned ship's radar onboard the Canadian Coast Guard Cutter Mary Hitchens was able to detect slicks of five barrels of spilled crude oil during periods of fog, rain, and darkness. Slicks were detectable in winds ranging from less than 10 knots up to more than 30 knots. There appeared to be a correlation between slick thickness and the capability for radar detection. This paper explores the observed limits of radar for detection during the exercise.
THE RECOVERY OF SPILLED HEAVY OIL WITH FISH NETTING
Authors: Brown H. M. , Goodman R. H.
Published: January 2013

Most oil spill containment and recovery equipment is not suitable for use with heavy viscous crude oils. For these oils, nets have been suggested as a containment device, and some laboratory and open sea studies of their suitability have been conducted. We have used a trolley system in a large outdoor pool to measure net loading and to observe the behavior of nets in containing heavy neutrally buoyant oil (viscosity of 3 × 105 cSt at 10° C). For moderate towing speeds of about 0.3 meters per second, inexpensive ¼ inch mesh fish netting was found to be a suitable containment device.
INTEGRATED REMOTE SENSING SYSTEM FOR MARITIME SURVEILLANCE OPERATIONAL IN ITALY
Authors: Geraci Alberto L. , Lolli Ferdinando
Published: January 2013

A multisensor system was integrated into the P.166-DL3 Piaggio aircraft that was selected for maritime surveillance by the Italian Merchant Marine Ministry for the Coast Guard. Four aircraft equipped with such a system are now operational in Italy. Sensors include bispectral scanner, FLIR system, aerial camera system, surveillance system operator console, and related facilities. In addition, four more aircraft have been purchased, and will be in operational use in the very near future with an improved sensor system. Current Coast Guard plans are to have 12 aircraft operational for maritime surveillance; further development will include in-flight data transmission and ground data processing capabilities.
SALVAGE TECHNIQUES: CASE HISTORIES OF SPECIFIC SPILLS
Authors: Noble John M.
Published: January 2013

When conducting salvage or wreck removal operations, salvors must take into account the threat of oil pollution and instigate measures to minimize the effect of any pollution which may occur during salvage operations. Modern salvage techniques involve measures specifically aimed at coping with the problems raised by current pollution awareness.

Each incident develops a character of its own; the level of success in achieving a satisfactory outcome very often depends on the relationships formed among the parties involved. Salvors usually reach the scene of a casualty after the initial oil spill and are faced with having to enter a highly charged atmosphere where the slightest “metaphoric” spark can result in mistrust and misunderstanding between participants.
BARRIER FAILURE BY CRITICAL ACCUMULATION OF VISCOUS OIL
Authors: Delvigne Gerard A. L.
Published: January 2013

A barrier may fail to contain an oil slick because of drainage failure, droplet entrainment failure, or critical accumulation. Drainage and entrainment failure are well known. The present paper introduces the phenomenon of critical accumulation, that is, the unstable reduction of the slick to an infinitely small length when a layer of highly viscous oil is exposed to a relative oil-water flow velocity exceeding a certain critical velocity Uca. The reduction to an infinitely small slick length causes all the oil to pass underneath the barrier independent of the barrier draft.

Experiments on barrier failure were performed in two laboratory flumes using a wide range of oil types and oil viscosities. Critical accumulation always occurred with oil viscosities v0 ≤ 3,000 cs. The critical relative velocity was Uca ≃ 0.15 m/s for oil with 3,000 cs < v0 < 20,000 cs, with a slight increase in Uca for higher viscosities. Uca is independent of other oil and hydrodynamic parameters.

The findings of the study have practical value since infield conditions the viscosity of oil on the water surface quickly increases above the critical value of 3,000 cs under the effects of weathering and emulsification. Moreover, relative velocities of 0.15 m/s are easily exceeded in field conditions.
OPERATIONAL USE OF A MOBILE SAND-WASHING PLANT FOR CLEANING PEBBLES: THE AMAZZONE OIL SPILL
Authors: Huet Jean-Yves , Naour Yannick , Belluteau Jean-Pierre , Bocard Christian , Such Christian , Vaillant Daniel
Published: January 2013

On January 31, 1988, the Amazzone spilled about 1,500 tons of a highly paraffinic medium fuel oil (having a pour point of 36°C) along a distance of 300 km off the coast of Brittany. Due to very rough sea conditions, no offshore recovery operation could be carried out. Most of the pollution was beached as scattered patches on numerous sites, including pebble beaches in south Finistère, which had been especially difficult to clean during previous spills.

In this area, the pebble banks that protect the dunes are relatively exposed to erosion. It was therefore decided to try cleaning these pebbles on site using the mobile plant that was designed for washing polluted sands and tested in 1985.

The plant prototype was put in working order and conveyed to the site on the Baie d'Audierne. The equipment was very easily adapted to washing the pebbles polluted by a mixture of sand and fuel oil emulsion. A total of 1,400 m3 was cleaned during 10 days at the end of March. The plant worked smoothly with a load of 20 to 25 m3 of pebbles per hour and using a petroleum solvent as a washing agent. Because the ambient temperature was rather low (around 5°C), cleaning was performed with warmed water.

Compared to other techniques that could be used to clean polluted pebble beaches, the washing plant proved very effective (providing good cleaning and high throughput) and competitive (costing less than quicklime treatment, for instance). Another advantage of this technique is that cleaned pebbles are returned to the beach, helping the pebble bank to keep its anti-erosion function.
SORBENT PERFORMANCE STUDY FOR CRUDE AND REFINED PETROLEUM PRODUCTS
Authors: Flaherty L. Michael , Jordan Julie M.
Published: January 2013

This paper presents information on the use of sorbents to contain and clean up crude oil and refined petroleum product spills on water and land. Sorbent literature sources have been reviewed, and information has been consolidated under contract to the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). This paper addresses types of sorbents, sorbent performance criteria, tests performed in previous studies, guidance on sorbent application, and profiles of generic types of organic, inorganic, and synthetic sorbents. It also considers, to a lesser degree, the use of sorbents on hazardous substances.
FACILITY-SPECIFIC CONTINGENCY PLANNING UNDER THE OIL SPCC REGULATIONS
Authors: Smith Donald P. , Novotny Sandra K. , Wendel Thearin R.
Published: January 2013

Under the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Oil Spill Prevention, Control, and Countermeasures (SPCC) program, facilities must complete an oil spill prevention and control plan. If a facility is unable to complete a control plan, a contingency plan must be completed in accordance with the SPCC regulations. A recent EPA SPCC Program Task Force found these regulations to be inadequate in several areas, including mandatory facility-specific contingency planning.

Contingency planning should be conducted in a three-phase approach: completing risk assessment of the specific facility, determining the manner in which identified risks will be managed, and preparing for the execution of contingency plans during a spill emergency. A risk assessment of a facility subject to the SPCC regulations consists of hazard identification, vulnerability and exposure analysis, and event and fault tree analysis. Risk management consists of various components, including the identification of personnel, equipment, emergency procedures, and waste disposal options. The execution of a contingency plan depends upon accessibility of the appropriate equipment, which may include trucks, boats, communication systems, booms, and dispersants. Contingency plans for facilities covered under the SPCC regulations should provide specific information related to notification procedures, spill response, and mitigation.