bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Clinical Geropsychology
Authors: Feng Michelle C. , Davison Gerald C.
Published: January 2015

Clinical geropsychology is a growing specialty field that focuses on the psychological aspects of aging, specifically the assessment and treatment of psychological disorders in older adults. Ageist assumptions about older adults being incapable of psychological change or its not being worth the time and effort to work towards such change have been replaced by a more optimistic view of the senior years and of the capacity for growth and continuing contributions to society. There is a growing body of evidence that certain forms of psychological intervention can help older people cope with depression, anxiety, substance abuse, chronic illness, caregiving, and cognitive impairment. Educational and professional issues include evaluation of competency as well as the position of this new specialization in the workforce.
Paraphilias
Authors: Thibaut Florence
Published: January 2015

Paraphilias are deviant sexual behaviors that cause significant distress or impairment in functioning. Some paraphiliac behaviors may lead to sex offenses. The diagnosis of paraphilia must be carefully established. In order to control paraphiliac fantasies and behaviors, as well as the level of distress of the paraphiliac individual, a comprehensive treatment plan may include psychotherapy, in most cases cognitive behavioral therapy, in association with pharmacological treatment if necessary. The treatment will depend on the type and intensity of paraphiliac sexual fantasies and the risk of sexual violence. Paraphilias characterized by intense and frequent deviant sexual desire and arousal highly predispose individuals to severe paraphiliac behavior (such as pedophilia or serial rapes). In such cases, hormonal intervention may be needed.
World War
I
and Clinical Psychology
Authors: Bazar Jennifer L.
Published: January 2015

World War I served as a critical period in the development of the discipline of psychology. Psychologists' contributions to the war effort, particularly through the development and administration of intelligence, vocational, and personality tests to Army recruits and soldiers, resulted in widespread recognition of the specialized expertise and applied usefulness of psychology. In the years immediately following the end of World War I, psychologists were found in increasingly diversified work environments, including business, education, and medicine.
Scientific Reductionism
Authors: Thornton Tim
Published: January 2015

Reductionism has been an influential view of the nature and aims of science, and the relations between different scientific theories, since the early part of the twentieth century. It holds that higher level theories should be explained using the terms of lower level theories that describe more basic entities. Reductionism faces principled challenges in the context of clinical psychology, however, both in reducing mental phenomena to more basic biological processes and in reducing facts about illness to more basic value‐free biological facts.
Schizoaffective Disorder
Authors: Tsuang Ming T. , Iguchi Lisa , Stone William S.
Published: January 2015

Schizoaffective disorder is a serious and complex condition that includes symptoms of both schizophrenia and mood disorders. The complexity of schizoaffective disorder poses diagnostic challenges, but systematic study has yielded evidence regarding important clinical features, epidemiology, classification issues, and implications for treatment.
Bulimia Nervosa
Authors: Keel Pamela K.
Published: January 2015

Bulimia nervosa is an eating disorder characterized by binge‐eating episodes coupled with inappropriate compensatory behaviors (e.g., vomiting) and body image disturbance. Bulimia nervosa is more common in women than men, in Western than non‐Western cultures, and in urban than rural settings. The disorder has become more common in adolescent and young adult women during a time of increasing idealization of thinness; indeed, weight concerns represent a risk factor for the development of bulimia nervosa. In addition, genetic makeup, physiology, personality, and peer environment influence the development of bulimia nervosa. Both cognitive behavioral therapy and fluoxetine have demonstrated treatment efficacy. Most individuals achieve recovery from bulimia nervosa 5 to 10 years following diagnosis; however, the eating disorder follows a chronic course in approximately 20% of women. In addition, bulimia nervosa is associated with increased risk of death, particularly death by suicide, underscoring the importance of research on prevention and treatment.
Classification of Disorders versus Individuals
Authors: Blashfield Roger K.
Published: January 2015

The issue of whether a psychiatric classification focuses on individuals or on disorders is a fundamental conceptual problem that has significant implications for how the classification is both used and interpreted. Both positions have specific merits, which are outlined in this entry.
Professional Psychology: Research and Practice
Authors: Roberts Michael C. , Canter Kimberly S.
Published: January 2015

Professional Psychology: Research and Practice
is a professional and scientific journal published by the American Psychological Association with a focus on the informational needs of the psychological practice community. The journal publishes articles of interest to independent practitioners and psychologists in institutional practice as well as educators and trainees. Literature reviews, surveys, empirical research, and policy pieces form the journal content, covering the science of psychology and integrating science into practice through evidence‐based practice concepts.
Psychoanalytic and Psychodynamic Therapies: Long Term and Short Term
Authors: Messer Stanley B.
Published: January 2015

Psychoanalytic or psychodynamic therapy is a form of psychological treatment that attends to the playing out of transference and countertransference; the centrality of the therapeutic relationship or alliance as a key feature that allows therapy to progress and influences its outcome; the clarification and interpretation of resistance and defense; and the attainment of insight through the exploration of feelings, fantasies, and behavior. It can be open‐ended and long term or time‐limited and relatively brief. Techniques to make it briefer include a psychodynamic focus, a specified time limit, therapist activity, and goal setting. Empirical research has supported the efficacy of psychoanalytic therapy, especially the brief to medium‐length varieties, for several disorders, such as depression and borderline personality disorder.
Beck Depression Inventory (
BDI
)
Authors: Rosner Rachael I.
Published: January 2015

The Beck Depression Inventory (
BDI
) is a 21‐item self‐report assessment of the intensity of depression for use in both psychiatric and nonpsychiatric clinical populations. First created by the psychiatrist Aaron T. Beck in 1961, the
BDI
is now in its third iteration (
BDI‐II
) and remains one of the most widely used tests of the severity of depression. The
BDI‐II
has been tested extensively for convergent and discriminant (construct) validities, concurrent validity, and factorial validity, and it has been translated into over 20 languages. Short forms of the
BDI
have been constructed for use in screening for major depressive disorders in nonpsychiatric clinical populations and for use with children and adolescents. The
BDI
is not a tool for
diagnosing
depression but rather is an assessment of the
intensity
or
severity
of depressive symptoms.
Common (Nonspecific) Factors in Psychotherapy
Authors: Huibers Marcus J. H. , Cuijpers Pim
Published: January 2015

Common factors, factors that are common to all forms of psychotherapy, such as the relationship between patient and therapist (alliance), have been much discussed as potential mechanisms that explain how psychotherapy works. Fueled by the dodo bird verdict (the finding that many psychotherapies produce equivalent outcomes), this debate continues to date. Opponents of the common factor theory point to the correlational designs of common factor studies that do not allow causal inferences, whereas the proponents claim that the fact that most psychotherapies produce equivalent results shows that common factors must be responsible for the effects. In reality, there is little evidence that pleads for or against the common factor theory. Recent studies have begun to disentangle the temporal relation between therapeutic alliance and outcome (i.e., what changes first), but the findings are mixed. New lines of research are needed to resolve the debate. The question of which factors are responsible for the benefits of psychotherapy remains an empirical one.
Polygenic Transmission
Authors: Hall Rosine W. , Thomson Mary S.
Published: January 2015

Trait expression is due to the actions of many genes, influenced by environment and contingent upon historical and other factors within the organism. Thus, for most traits, transmission is non‐Mendelian. Human behaviors, in particular, result from the interplay of genetic influences and environmental factors. As such, the probability of occurrence of a behavioral trait given the presence of an associated gene mutation is much less than 100%. Research on the best studied psychiatric disorders has confirmed that all are polygenic. The implications of this include complexity of etiology, and the involvement of many, perhaps hundreds of genes.
Clinical Competencies
Authors: Kaslow Nadine J. , Graves Chanda C.
Published: January 2015

Competency‐based approaches increasingly are being incorporated to inform training efforts and guarantee the accountability and outcomes in the educational process. They also increasingly are driving credentialing at the generic and specialty levels. This chapter offers an overview of the state of competency development in professional psychology within the context of other health professions. Specifically, we identify the key activities that have advanced our understanding of the core competencies within professional psychology, summarize current efforts related to the assessment of competence for both trainees and professionals, review the relevant literature on competency‐based training, and underscore obstacles and future directions for such initiatives.
T
erman,
L
ewis
M
. (1877–1956)
Authors: Hogan John D. , Sy Megan
Published: January 2015

Lewis M. Terman (1877–1956) was a pioneer of intelligence testing in the United States. While a professor at Stanford University, he developed the Stanford Revision of the Binet–Simon Scales (known simply as the Stanford‐Binet), a measure of intelligence that became the standard against which other intelligence tests were measured for decades. He continued to play a central role in promoting psychological testing throughout his lifetime. In 1921, he began a longitudinal study of intellectually gifted young people that ultimately followed them through their lifetimes. The data collected on them are still being mined for insights on development. Terman also made significant contributions to the study of marital happiness. His leadership helped his department at Stanford grow into one of the most powerful and respected psychology departments in the country. In 1922, he served as president of the American Psychological Association.
Kuhn,ThomasS. (1922–96)
Authors: Blease Charlotte , Cooper Rachel
Published: January 2015

Thomas Kuhn (1922–96) is most famous forThe structure of scientific revolutions(Kuhn, 1962), one of the most influential books in twentieth‐century philosophy of science. Here Kuhn argues that scientists normally work within “paradigms.” On his view, science is essentially noncumulative; during a period of “normal science” members of a subdiscipline will structure their work according to some particular paradigm, but sooner or later this paradigm will come to be replaced by some incommensurable successor.
Kuhnian Paradigms
Authors: Blease Charlotte , Cooper Rachel
Published: January 2015

InThe structure of scientific revolutionsThomas Kuhn sketches an account of the history of science according to which scientists normally work withinparadigms. Scientists who work within the same paradigm share certain tacit and explicit knowledge that enables them to conduct their research. Kuhn understood science to be cyclical in nature; a period of “normal” scientific research, would give way to uncertainty and then revolution, with a new period of normal science emerging with the advent of a new “incommensurable” successor paradigm.
Personality Assessment Inventory (
PAI
)
Authors: Morey Leslie C.
Published: January 2015

The Personality Assessment Inventory (
PAI
) is a multiscale personality inventory that measures a variety of constructs relevant to clinical diagnosis and decision making. The
PAI
is a questionnaire that has 344 self‐reported items arranged into 22 full scales, with various subscales and supplemental indices available to refine interpretation. First published in 1991, the
PAI
was developed using a construct‐validation approach that sought to incorporate modern developments in psychometric theory. It has been widely used in clinical, forensic, and selection settings, and it has been translated into numerous different languages. Extensive empirical research has been conducted using the
PAI
for various applications, providing information about norms, reliability, and validity in different contexts.
Gambling Disorder/Pathological Gambling
Authors: Bullock Scott A. , Potenza Marc N.
Published: January 2015

Pathological gambling (PG), characterized by “recurrent maladaptive gambling behavior that disrupts personal, family, or vocational pursuits,” affects about 0.2–2.0% of the adult population. AsPGmay affect family members, employers, and society as a whole,PGis important to understand within a public health framework. Similarities have been identified between the pathophysiologies ofPGand substance use disorders. This has led to a proposal to conceptualize and categorizePGas a nonsubstance or “behavioral” addiction. Both substance and nonsubstance addictions are associated with alterations in brain structure and function, can be treated with behavioral and pharmacological therapies, and, if left untreated, may lead to devastating consequences.
J
anet,
P
ierre (1859–1947)
Authors: Hummer Justin F. , Davison Gerald C.
Published: January 2015

As a highly trained French scientist with educational roots in philosophy and medicine, Pierre Janet (1859–1947) was uniquely positioned to influence the early formation of psychology during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. He developed a form of psychotherapy called psychological analysis, which predated the psychoanalysis of Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), yet was more akin to a form of cognitive behavioral therapy rather than to the predominant psychodynamic and behaviorist viewpoints of the time. Janet was instrumental in the development of theories regarding dissociative, somatoform, and conversion disorders, and he was among the first to devise a systematic therapeutic approach to posttraumatic psychopathology.
Illness Anxiety Disorder/Hypochondriasis
Authors: Shikatani (née Gee) Bethany , Nowakowski Matilda E. , Antony Martin M.
Published: January 2015

Illness anxiety disorder refers to an intense fear of having or acquiring a serious illness, based on the misinterpretation of bodily symptoms. It is a relatively common psychological disorder, with a 1‐ to 2‐year prevalence of 1.3% to 10% in the general population. Assessment of illness anxiety disorder can be conducted through self‐report measures, clinical interviews, and self‐monitoring of symptoms. Effective treatments for this disorder include psychoeducation, behavioral stress management, exposure and response prevention, and cognitive behavioral therapy. Pharmacological treatments, such as fluoxetine, have also demonstrated effectiveness for the treatment of illness anxiety disorder.
Pathoplasticity
Authors: Boroughs Michael S. , O'Cleirigh Conall
Published: January 2015

Pathoplasticity, or the influence personality style has on mental health disorders, is a burgeoning area of research among a variety of highly prevalent psychological disorders including major depression, anxiety disorders, and eating disorders, particularly bulimia nervosa. The principles supporting further development of this theoretical model include an examination of cultural factors on an individual's personality and how these factors might predict and explain differential response to psychological intervention. This principle is furthered by studies that support tailored treatment, based upon an assessment of both a major mental disorder and a known pathoplastic feature, thought to influence the treatment outcome.
Prognosis
Authors: Samuel Winer E. , Salem Taban , Nadorff Michael R.
Published: January 2015

A prognosis is a prediction about how (a) a particular patient is likely to fare over time or (b) patients with a particular diagnosis tend to fare, on average. Prognosis is a tool to be used carefully to inform patients of the expected course of treatment. Used wisely, and with important caveats, it can bring great relief. Used recklessly, it can make an already difficult path seem impassible.
Pyromania
Authors: Ward Ashley K. , Ruttle Erin M. , MacKay Sherri
Published: January 2015

Pyromania has remained a contentious mental disorder and diagnosis since its original debut in biomedical and medicolegal literature during the early nineteenth century. The validity and utility of this diagnosis have yet to be clearly established. The entry below provides an overview of its historical and present‐day social context, major issues and debates in the field, and possible research avenues for nosological clarification.
DSM

‐
5
Authors: Marty Meghan A. , Segal Daniel L.
Published: January 2015

The

Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (
DSM
)

, published by the American Psychiatric Association, is a compendium of mental disorders, a listing of the diagnostic criteria used to diagnose them, and a detailed system for their definition, organization, and classification. This entry includes information on: (a) the planning and development of the fifth edition of the manual (

DSM
‐5

), (b) the general features of the

DSM
‐5

and changes from previous editions, (c) multicultural and diversity issues in the

DSM
‐5

, and (d) limitations and criticisms of the

DSM
‐5

.
Doctor of Psychology Degree (PsyD)
Authors: Gardner Frank L.
Published: January 2015

The Doctor of Psychology (PsyD) degree is the doctoral degree that was developed for individuals whose career ambitions were to provide direct clinical services. Affirmed at the Vail Conference in 1973,PsyDtraining is primarily focused on the development of skilled clinical practitioners who can effectively use scientific research in their psychology practice. Based on the scholar‐practitioner model,PsyDpractitioners are trained to provide competent assessment, intervention, consultation, and supervisory‐management related psychological services while effectively applying the findings of current psychological science research to their daily practice endeavors.
Mediation Analysis
Authors: MacKinnon David P.
Published: January 2015

Mediating variables are common in clinical research because they help explain how a mediator transmits the effects of an independent variable to an outcome variable. In clinical treatment research, theoretical mediating variables are targeted for change because they are causally related to the outcome variable. If the mediators are causally related to the outcome variable, then a treatment that changes the mediator will change the outcome. First, the single mediator model is described in detail both statistically and conceptually. Second, more complicated models and recent advances in mediation methods are outlined. The importance of a sustained research program that includes information from many sources is emphasized.
Malingering
Authors: Pierson Ashley , Rosenfeld Barry
Published: January 2015

Malingering is defined as the exaggeration or fabrication of symptoms in order to achieve some type of external gain. In clinical settings, malingering must be distinguished from factitious disorders, in which deliberate symptom exaggeration is believed to be motivated by an internal, or psychological drive—a desire to assume the “sick role.” In mental health settings, symptom exaggeration might focus predominantly on “psychiatric” symptoms (e.g., psychotic symptoms, depression), exaggerated cognitive impairment (e.g., memory or concentration impairments), or a combination of the two. Because identifying the motivation behind symptom exaggeration can be challenging, clinicians often presume malingering whether a clear external incentive is present, such as in forensic settings (e.g., criminal prosecution, civil litigation, vocational disability/workman's compensation). Although malingering is estimated to occur in 15–20% of forensic settings, factitious disorders are thought to be rare (e.g., roughly 1% in clinical settings).
Trichotillomania/Hair Pulling Disorder
Authors: Zickgraf Hana F. , Franklin Martin E.
Published: January 2015

Trichotillomania (TTM) is characterized by an inability to resist urges to pull hair from the scalp, eyebrows, eyelashes, pubic region, or other bodily regions, resulting in noticeable hair loss. Episodes of pulling are often linked to stress. TTM is associated with psychiatric comorbidity and significant functional impairment. Habit reversal training, a form of cognitive behavioral therapy, is recognized as an empirically supported treatment for TTM in adults; several pharmacotherapy options appear to hold promise as well. Although pediatric onset appears to be the norm, the literature on treatment for TTM in children and adolescents remains sparse. Initial indications suggest that habit reversal training is efficacious for this age group, and relapse may be less common in youth than it appears to be in adults. Treatment in the community is often inadequate; dissemination of habit reversal training remains a public health priority.
Therapist Self‐Care
Authors: Derthick Annie O. , Ivanovic Mariana , Swift Joshua K.
Published: January 2015

Developing healthy habits of self‐care is essential to the work of psychotherapy. Self‐care has been linked to decreased burnout and increased job satisfaction for therapists. It includes a holistic integration and as such should include cultivating healthy living habits in each the following six domains: maintaining balance, intrapersonal experiences, interpersonal relationships, the professional realm, physical health, and recreation.
Accreditation of Clinical Psychology Training Programs
Authors: Seime Richard J. , Klonoff Elizabeth A.
Published: January 2015

Professional psychology has responded to both governmental and the public's need for assuring quality of clinical psychology training. Accreditation criteria are the only recognized mechanisms to assure quality and essential for professional psychology and clinical psychology to remain on equal footing with other health professions. The American Psychological Association's Commission on Accreditation (CoA) accredits doctoral programs of various models, internships, and postdoctoral programs. The Psychological Clinical Science Accreditation System accredits exclusively clinical psychological science programs. Challenges for accreditation reflect the conflict in higher education based upon friction between academic freedom and mandated standards for quality. There is increased emphasis in accreditation on the achievement of outcomes that are consistent with quality professional practice. TheCoAis addressing current challenges and dissatisfactions with accreditation and embarking upon a revision of theGuidelines and Principles for Accreditationto address the increased emphasis on competencies among many contemporary forces impacting clinical psychology training.
Small Sample Failure of Random Assignment
Authors: Strube Michael J
Published: January 2015

When small samples of participants are randomly assigned to experimental conditions, it is not usual for the resulting groups to be unequal in their distributions of individual differences (e.g., some groups having more men than women). The resulting correlation between individual‐difference variables and treatment makes it possible for individual differences to masquerade as treatment effects. The conditions under which erroneous inferences are most likely to occur, however, either are rare (e.g., very high correlations between the confounding variable and the outcome) or involve samples so small that the resulting low power prevents the biased effect from being statistically significant. Furthermore, any bias is random and cancels across studies. When confounding variables are likely, it is better to control them more aggressively (e.g., with matched random assignment) and to include them explicitly in the statistical analyses so their effects can be separated from those due to treatment.
Electroconvulsive Therapy (
ECT
) and Other Neuromodulation Therapies
Authors: Mantini Andrew Michael , McCall Vaughn
Published: January 2015

Electroconvulsive therapy (
ECT
) has been used effectively to treat severe psychiatric disorders by electrically inducing seizures. It was introduced in the United States in the 1940s and continues to gain acceptance by patients and practitioners. The process of
ECT
has been refined over several years to maximize constructive results while minimizing harmful side effects. Additional neuromodulator therapies, including vagus nerve stimulation, transcranial magnetic stimulation, deep brain stimulation, and psychosurgery, have been used to treat mental illness with varying results. This entry examines the positive attributes and adverse effects, and clinical utility of those therapies for refractory major depressive disorder and obsessive‐compulsive disorder.
Trait‐State‐Occasion Models
Authors: Prenoveau Jason M.
Published: January 2015

The trait‐state‐occasion (TSO) structural equation model is one of a class of latent trait‐state models designed to represent the expression of relative stability of psychological constructs over time. TSO models are applied to longitudinal data where multiple measures of a construct are administered at multiple time points. The TSO model partitions state variance of the construct at each time point into a time‐invariant portion, the trait factor, and a time‐varying component, that time point's occasion factor. The relations among psychological constructs can be obscured or misrepresented if their time‐invariant and time‐varying components are not separated. Therefore, TSO modeling can be used to improve psychopathology risk outcome research by properly accounting for the time‐invariant and time‐varying components of psychopathological constructs. Additional uses of the TSO model, as well as its strengths, limitations, and model specifications, are discussed.
Diagnostic Essentialism
Authors: Raley Kristin
Published: January 2015

Diagnostic essentialism is a term used to describe a conceptual framework for understanding diagnostic categories, a framework that assumes each of these categories to have inherent properties that make them what they are, i.e., an underlying “essence.” The current diagnostic system operates within a medical model of mental illness, which many argue perpetuates the belief that mental disorders are discoverable entities that are naturally occurring kinds. This view of mental illness has been widely criticized as insufficient to address the complexity of psychopathology.
National Register
Authors: Hall Judy E. , Boucher Andrew P.
Published: January 2015

In 1974, the National Register of Health Service Providers in Psychology was created to position specially trained psychologists—both independent practitioners and those in organized settings—within an emerging national health‐care system. Although the health‐care system did not materialize in the 1970, the National Register credential quickly developed into a valuable identification for psychologists specially trained in health service provision. Through almost 40 years of existence, the National Register has thrived by adapting to marketplace shifts and being responsive to the needs of its credentialed psychologists. Recently renamed the National Register of Health Service Psychologists, the organization is once again ready to position its credentialed psychologists within the emerging health‐care market.
Healy, William (1869–1963)
Authors: Jones Kathleen W.
Published: January 2015

William Healy (1869–1963) worked as a psychiatrist, psychologist, and criminologist during the first half of the twentieth century, providing psychological evaluations of juvenile delinquents to juvenile courts in Chicago and Boston. Although interested in Freudian psychology and convinced that mental conflicts lay behind most delinquencies, Healy argued in his most important publication,
The Individual Delinquent
, that the causes of delinquency were multifaceted and that each youth represented a unique, individual combination of causative factors. Healy's research and clinical work influenced a generation of juvenile justice reformers, and the two institutions he directed served as models for child guidance clinics established in the 1920s and 1930s.
Humanistic/Existential/Phenomenological Psychotherapy
Authors: Watson Jeanne C. , Bohart Arthur
Published: January 2015

This entry reviews humanistic, existential, and phenomenological approaches to psychotherapy. The emergence of these approaches is described as well as the influence and work of major contributors. Developments in theory and practice of humanistic and experiential psychotherapy are presented, including the ideas of Carl R. Rogers (1902–87), Eugene Gendlin (b. 1926), Fritz Perls (1893–1970), and colleagues. This is followed by an overview of existential and phenomenological psychotherapy. The main philosophical ideas of existentialism are described, and their translation into psychotherapeutic practice is explicated. Other notable psychiatrists who were influenced by existential and phenomenological thought include R. D. Laing (1927–89) and Victor Frankl (1905–97).
Behavioral (Reaction Time) Studies of Cognition
Authors: Atkins Louise , Yiend Jenny
Published: January 2015

The cognitive psychology revolution inspired the information‐processing framework, within which reaction time studies became key measures of underlying cognitive processes. Informing both theory and treatment, methodologically rigorous behavioral studies of cognition can uncover cognitive‐processing differences among different psychological disorders that differ from those of healthy controls. These so‐called cognitive biases are known to cause and maintain psychological disorders by encouraging the processing of symptom‐congruent information. The emotional Stroop, attentional probe, and visual search tasks all measure reaction time to investigate attentional processes and have revealed increased attention to disorder‐specific information in many psychological disorders. Reaction time studies, such as the homograph primed lexical decision task and ambiguous text tasks, have been used to assess interpretation biases. Those with psychological disorders tend to make negative interpretations of emotional ambiguity. The future for reaction time tasks is bright, especially with continuing convergence with newer technologies.
McFall,Richard M. (b. 1939)
Authors: Treat Teresa A. , Bootzin Richard R.
Published: January 2015

Richard M.McFall(b. 1939) is an eminent psychological scientist at Indiana University whose integrative research bridges clinical, cognitive, and neural science and whose professional contributions have advanced both clinical science and psychological science immeasurably. His research contributions include documenting the effect of self‐monitoring on behavior; examining the components of social skills training; evaluating the role of social competence in clinical phenomena; developing the social information‐processing model; and conducting integrative research that bridges clinical, cognitive, and neural science. Professionally,McFallauthored a “Manifesto for a science of clinical psychology,” developed the clinical science training model in clinical psychology, chaired the conference that led to the founding of the Academy of Psychological Clinical Science, and developed the firstNIMH‐funded training program in integrative psychological science at Indiana University. Currently, he is the executive director of the Psychological Clinical Science Accreditation System.
Termination of Psychotherapy
Authors: O'Donohue William , Snipes Cassandra
Published: January 2015

Termination refers to the ending of a period of psychotherapy. There has been a wide variety of views on its significance and how it ought to be conducted. Most termination seems to be patient initiated (i.e., the result of the client not showing up for a scheduled session). Termination can also depend on a number of variables, such as the theoretical orientation of the therapist, nature of the client problem, length of treatment, degree of success of therapy, personality characteristics of the client and therapist, and cost considerations. In addition, termination is sometimes associated with the need for relapse prevention and appropriate attention to continuity of care. Finally, the APA Ethical Principles require that termination occur when therapy is not beneficial or likely to be beneficial, when therapy is harming the client, or when there is harm or threat of harm to the therapist.
Anxiety Disorders
Authors: Neer Sandra M. , Beidel Deborah C.
Published: January 2015

Most people experience anxiety in some situations. Anxiety that is disproportionate to the actual situation may be called an anxiety disorder if the person also experiences feelings of distress and social or occupational dysfunction. Anxiety is usually thought of as a “What if?” phenomenon, which is also described as
anticipatory anxiety
. Patients typically avoid the feared stimulus and their anxiety decreases, setting up a pattern whereby avoidance negatively reinforces the fear. This pattern of avoidance strengthens the fear until the patient feels he or she “can't” engage in the feared behavior. Treatment typically involves exposure to the feared object, situation, or event, with therapist assistance, so that the patient learns to be in the presence of the feared situation without heightened anxiety. This treatment response is called
habituation
. Future treatment may use newer technology, such as virtual reality, to augment effectiveness.
Structured Clinical Interview for the

DSM

(
SCID
)
Authors: First Michael B.
Published: January 2015

The Structured Clinical Interview for

DSM
‐5

(
SCID
‐5) is the most widely used structured diagnostic instrument for assessing

DSM

‐5 disorders. The
SCID‐PD
(formerly
SCID‐II
) is used for the evaluation of the

DSM
‐5

personality disorders. The
SCID
‐5 is organized into diagnostic modules, and it assesses mood disorders, psychotic disorders, substance use disorders, anxiety disorders, obsessive–compulsive and related disorders, eating disorders, somatic symptom disorders, some sleep disorders (i.e., insomnia and hypersomnolence disorders), “externalizing disorders” (i.e., intermittent explosive disorder, gambling disorder, and adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder), and trauma‐ and stressor‐related disorders. It has been published in various forms, including a version for clinicians (
SCID‐CV
) and a version for clinical trials (
SCID‐CT
).
Intelligence Testing
Authors: Willis John O. , Dumont Ron , Kaufman Alan S.
Published: January 2015

The history of intelligence testing extends over nearly 4,000 years with major breakthroughs in the first part of the twentieth century by Alfred Binet (1857–1911), Lewis Terman (1877–1956), and David Wechsler (1896–1981). Despite steady improvement bringing together earlier, diverse efforts, intelligence testing remains controversial. Although psychologists have never agreed on a single definition of intelligence, recent intelligence tests have been developed on the basis of several evolving psychological theories and models of intelligence. There is a continuing tension between theories and tests that emphasize a single measure of global, general ability, or psychometric
g
, and those that focus on separate cognitive abilities. Recent psychometric tests demonstrate significantly improved technical characteristics, such as norms, reliability, and validity. Psychologists attempting to carry out “intelligent testing” face practical challenges of test selection, administration, scoring and interpretation.
Licensed Professional Counselor (
LPC
)
Authors: Cohen‐Filipic Jessye
Published: January 2015

Licensed professional counselors (LPCs) are master's level mental‐health professionals. Known by a variety of other terms, depending on jurisdiction, professional counselors can now be licensed in all 50 states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico. The path to licensure includes completion of a master's degree program in counseling, supervised postmaster's counseling experience, and passing a licensure examination. Licensed professional counselors provide a variety of mental health services in a wide array of settings, with each state specifying the scope of practice for professional counselors. Licensed professional counselors are diverse in their training programs and specializations. As a result, developing a cohesive professional identity has been challenging. However, the profession is expected to grow rapidly and LPCs provide many needed mental health services in communities.
Response Style and Malingering
Authors: Bender Scott D.
Published: January 2015

Accurate assessment of an individual's mental health is predicated on the acquisition of valid and reliable information. Response styles and malingering are threats to validity and to the evaluation process. Malingering is the intentional production of false or grossly exaggerated symptoms, motivated by external incentives, and it often poses ethical and professional challenges to the clinician. Deception develops fairly early in childhood, at a time when intentionality is questionable. Attempts to deceive are usually not credible until adolescence. Incentives to malinger can be substantial in both criminal and civil courts. Modern malingering detection is multidimensional and specific to the type of malingering in question (e.g., cognitive versus psychiatric). Tremendous gains have been made in the science of detection, but problems and pitfalls remain.
Intentionality and Psychological Explanation
Authors: Kimball Robert
Published: January 2015

Intentionality is a property of some mental states and of linguistic expressions, according to which they are directed onto or are
about
things other than themselves. Beliefs, desires, and other internal representations are intentional states. Intentional psychological explanation consists in discovering and citing law‐like regularities between internal representations and types of behavior. Such law‐like regularities are not to be found either between stimulus and response or between behavior and specific types of brain states (characterized at neuron‐type level). Rather the regularities that would explain human behavior are to be found by subsuming representations—intentional states—and behavior under general laws. An appealing consequence of this theory is that it allows ordinary psychological explanations in terms of the agent's beliefs and desires, on the one hand, and neurological and pharmaceutical explanations, on the other, to be compatible and even complementary.
Positivism and Logical Positivism
Authors: Bluhm Robyn
Published: January 2015

Positivism claims that science is the best approach to understanding the world and/or to addressing social issues. It also emphasizes the role of observation over the development of explanatory theories. This entry discusses several approaches to positivism that have been influential in the philosophy of science, beginning with the theories of August Comte (1798–1857) and Ernst Mach (1838–1916). Contemporary philosophy of science has been particularly influenced by logical positivism, especially its views on the meaningfulness of and evidence for scientific statements, and its understanding of the unity of science.
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Authors: Norman Meredith , Wallace Nancy , Nunley Sarah , McNeil Cheryl B.
Published: January 2015

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a psychiatric disorder characterized by problems related to inattention, hyperactivity–impulsivity, or a combination of the two. Research suggests that there is a neurological origin toADHDand that the disorder is highly heritable. Associated features ofADHDinclude motor coordination problems, impaired academic functioning, cognitive impairments, and problems with peer and parent interactions. Clinical interviews, parent and teacher rating scales, and medical examinations are commonly used inADHDevaluations. Treatment ofADHDsymptoms may include central nervous system stimulant medication and/or behavioral intervention.
Pica
Authors: Kostro Katrina Brody , Attia Evelyn
Published: January 2015

Pica is a behavioral disturbance characterized by persistent consumption of non‐nutritive, nonfood substances. According to
DSM‐5
, a diagnosis of pica requires symptoms to occur, at minimum, for a 1‐month period. Pica behaviors are inappropriate to the individual's developmental level and not part of a social or cultural practice. When the symptoms occur within the course of another mental disorder or medical condition, a diagnosis of pica is made only if the eating behaviors require clinical attention or significantly interrupt social functioning. Pica can be dangerous, depending on the amounts and types of substances consumed and the degree of nutritional deficiency that may be present. Although pica is an old illness, little is known about its prevalence and course because it has not been formally studied in high‐risk populations, and treatment is difficult to assess.
Parasomnias
Authors: Nadorff Michael R. , Rose Mary W.
Published: January 2015

Parasomnias are sleep disorders that involve abnormal actions or experiences during sleep, often due to dissociated states in which there is a simultaneous coexistence of sleep and wake. Parasomnias are divided into two categories: those that occur during nonrapid eye movement sleep (NREM) and those occurring during rapid eye movement sleep (REM). NREM parasomnias include sleepwalking and night terrors. Examples of REM parasomnias are nightmares, hypnogogic hallucinations, and REM behavior disorder. Although many parasomnias in themselves are considered benign, they are clinically relevant as some have been shown to be associated with psychiatric illness (e.g., nightmare disorder) and neurodegenerative diseases (e.g., REM behavior disorder).
Structural Equation Modeling
Authors: Tomarken Andrew J.
Published: January 2015

Structural equation modeling (
SEM
) has become a popular statistical approach for addressing questions of relevance to clinical scientists. It is commonly used to assess questions related to measurement structure and construct validity, mediation and causality, and the structure of change. The popularity of
SEM
is due to both recent developments in software and its strengths as a model‐testing technique. The latter include the provision of overall tests of fit applicable to highly complex models, the ability to model latent constructs, and an overarching structure with sufficient flexibility to accommodate a wide variety of models and data structures. Although
SEM
is a powerful data‐analytic technique, it is especially important for users to understand its limitations and ambiguities. Several limitations and misconceptions associated with the assessment of model fit are discussed in detail.
Sexual Harassment
Authors: Levett Lora M.
Published: January 2015

Legally, sexual harassment in the workplace is defined as unwelcome advances, requests for sexual favors, or other conduct of a sexual nature. Sexual harassment occurs with some frequency in the workplace. Women are more likely to experience sexual harassment than men, and certain working environments may make sexual harassment more or less probable. Victims of sexual harassment vary in damage experienced as a result of the harassment. In the courtroom, female jurors are more likely than men to find more types of sociosexual behavior as harassing, and there are several mediators between the relationship between gender and juror decisions in sexual harassment cases.
Psychoneuroendocrinology
Authors: Allison Amber , Lawing Kathryn , Hayes Jill
Published: January 2015

The endocrine system is a complex network that utilizes chemical messengers (i.e., hormones) to promote or maintain various functions, such as growth, development, metabolism, and tissue function. In addition, the endocrine system is vital to psychological functioning, through both baseline and reactive patterns of hormone release. Cortisol, testosterone, and oxytocin are three hormones integrally tied to behavior, cognition, and emotion. The ability to draw conclusions about these hormones' effect on psychological functioning requires an understanding of the biological (i.e., circadian rhythmicity, age, gender) and environmental (i.e., stress, sleep, exercise) factors that influence hormone levels, as well as the procedural (i.e., saliva and urine collection) protocols used to collect these hormones. This entry is intended to provide the reader with information from current literature regarding these hormonal systems, the internal and extrinsic factors that affect them, and the methodology used to collect and interpret them.
Multitrait–Multimethod Analysis
Authors: Widaman Keith F. , Castro‐Schilo Laura
Published: January 2015

Multitrait–multimethod (
MTMM
) analysis is based on the assumption that every measurement in psychology is a trait–method unit, and so contains both trait‐related and method‐related variance. If each of a set of traits is measured using each of a set of methods, an
MTMM
matrix of correlations among measures can be calculated. Convergent validation is supported if measures of purportedly the same trait correlate highly across different methods of measurement, discriminant validation is supported if measures of different traits correlate at relatively low levels, and method variance is shown if measures obtained with the same method of measurement correlate highly. Initially, informal rules involving comparisons of correlations within an
MTMM
were employed to evaluate convergent and discriminant validation. These methods have been supplanted by statistical approaches using confirmatory factor analysis to represent and test patterns of relations among measures.
Eugenics
Authors: Mostert Mark P.
Published: January 2015

Eugenics espouses the improvement of the human species by emphasizing more prized characteristics at the expense of other human characteristics deemed less positive or desirable. Eugenics also influenced social policy via the application of intelligence testing as a means of identifying and segregating those viewed as having lesser rather than greater intellectual ability.
S
pitzer,
R
obert (
b
. 1932)
Authors: Williams Janet B. W.
Published: January 2015

Robert L. Spitzer (b. 1932) is often described as the most influential psychiatrist of the twentieth century. He led the task force that developed

DSM‐III

, which revolutionized diagnosis and assessment in psychiatry. In addition, Spitzer made major contributions to psychiatric research, and his legacy includes several of the most widely used assessment tools, including the Structured Clinical Interview for
DSM
Disorders and the Patient Health Questionnaire.