bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Developing an Understanding of Brand Associations in Team Sport: Empirical Evidence from Consumers of Professional Sport
Authors: Gladden James M. , Funk Daniel C.
Published: August 2016

This study broadens the understanding of brand management in sport by creating the Team Association Model, a scale that identifies dimensions of brand associations, a major contributor to the creation of brand equity. Utilizing Keller’s (1993) theoretical framework of consumer-based brand equity, a thorough review of the sport literature was conducted which identified 16 potential dimensions. These 16 dimensions are derived with reference to Keller’s categorization of brand associations into ATTRIBUTE (success, head coach, star player, management, stadium, logo design, product delivery, and tradition), BENEFIT (identification, nostalgia, pride in place, escape, and peer group acceptance), and ATTITUDE (importance, knowledge, and affect). In order to evaluate the applicability of each potential dimension, a scale is developed, pre-tested, and tested on a national sample of sport consumers. Results of the confirmatory factor analysis of provided support for this paper’s theoretical notion that 16 distinct constructs underlie brand associations in sports.
The Gender Gap in Student Attitudes Toward Sexist/Nonsexist Language: Implications for Sport Management Education
Authors: Parks Janet B. , Roberton Mary Ann
Published: August 2016

This paper discusses three studies on changing people's attitudes toward sexist/nonsexist language. In Study 1, sport management students(N=164) were asked how to persuade others to use nonsexist language. Many suggested education. Study 2 participants(N= 201) were asked if they had ever discussed sexist language in instructional settings. Analysis of their attitudes revealed an interaction between gender and instruction. Study 3(N =248) tested the effects of 3 types of instruction on student attitudes about sexist/nonsexist language. After a 50-minute intervention, Study 3 participants were generally undecided about sexist/nonsexist language, and their attitudes did not differ across instructional strategies(p >.01). In all conditions, males were significantly less receptive to nonsexist language than females(p <.01). This “gender gap” was magnified by a combination of direct and indirect instruction. Until more is known, the authors propose (a) modeling and (b) instruction grounded in empathy as initial strategies for teaching inclusive language.
Generation Y’s Perceptions of the Action Sports Industry Segment
Authors: Bennett Gregg , Henson Robin K. , Zhang James
Published: August 2016

The rise in consumer and corporate interest in action sports, also known as extreme sports, has been phenomenal. The apparent popularity of action sports, when combined with the sponsorships, endorsements, and advertising dollars they have quickly garnered, lends itself to scientific inquiry regarding the level and nature of public interest. The purpose of this study was to examine Generation Y's perceptions of action sports, with a specific focus on the expressed popularity of action sports and the relationship between action sports interest and use of the media. The 39-item Action Sports Questionnaire (ESQ) was constructed to examine Generation Y perceptions of action sports, sports related viewing preferences, and sports related media usage among middle and high school aged students. The present findings suggested that these members of the Generation Y (n = 367) niche market preferred action sports over the traditional sports of basketball and baseball. Respondents also indicated stronger preference for soccer, but would prefer to watch the X-Games over the World Cup. There is an indication that soccer and action sports are more popular among the younger generation than some traditional team sports. Males were slightly more supportive that action sports would become more popular in the future, and the male respondents were likewise more familiar with action sports. More members of Generation Y watch action sports than their predecessors, and they likewise tend to be optimistic about the future of action sports if they watch events on television.
An Analysis of Change in an Organizational Field: The Professionalization of English Rugby Union
Authors: O'Brien Danny , Slack Trevor
Published: August 2016

Since 1995, the organizational field that constitutes English rugby union has undergone considerable transformation. Utilizing ideas about changes in actors, changes in exchange processes and interorganizational linkages, changes in the legitimized forms of capital in the field, and changes in regulatory structures, this paper explores the nature of this transformation in English rugby union. Data from 43 interviews with key individuals in the English game form the main data source for the study. The results show that changes in the communities of actors composing the field hastened change in other areas. Powerful new actors with strong ties to business environments brought with them professionally oriented values and a new institutional logic. Having made significant financial investments in the field, these actors collectively took measures to protect their economic interests. These measures took the form of political activity and coalition building, which, ultimately, reconfigured the field's regulatory structure. The new emphasis on economic capital prompted significant shifts in key actors' exchange relationships, in that clubs' strategies and structures were reoriented in order to gain access to this important network resource.
Group Diversity, Occupational Commitment, and Occupational Turnover Intentions among NCAA Division IA Football Coaching Staffs
Authors: Cunningham George B. , Sagas Michael
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of age, ethnic, and organizational tenure diversity on occupational commitment and occupational turnover intent among coaching staffs. Data were gathered via questionnaire from coaches in 48 NCAA Division IA football coaching staffs (235 coaches). Hierarchical regression analyses, controlling for the success of the team and the number of respondents per team, indicated that the block of diversity variables accounted for 18% (p < .05) of the variance in occupational commitment and 16% (p < .05) of the variance in occupational turnover intentions. Tenure and ethnic diversity were significant predictors in both analyses, although age diversity was not. Implications are discussed in relation to the complexity of diversity and strategies to mitigate the negative effects of group diversity on group-level outcomes.
NBA Expansion and Relocation: A Viability Study of Various Cities
Authors: Rascher Daniel , Rascher Heather
Published: August 2016

An examination of possible expansion or relocation sites for the NBA is undertaken using a two-equation system requiring two-stage probit least squares to estimate. The location model forecasts the best cities for an NBA team based on the underlying characteristics of current NBA teams. The results suggest that Louisville, San Diego, Baltimore, St. Louis, and Norfolk appear to be the most promising candidates for relocation or expansion.
Getting Past the Red Tees: Constraints Women Face in Golf and Strategies to Help Them Stay
Authors: McGinnis Lee Phillip , Gentry James W.
Published: August 2016

The golf industry is currently undergoing a “churning effect” whereby players are leaving nearly as quickly as they enter; this effect is especially prevalent among women. We examine interviews from male and female golf professionals, as well as transcripts from interviews with female participants of various playing levels and experience, in order to determine the reasons women not only leave golf, but more importantly, why they stay. Our data indicate that once golfers have become hooked on the game, interpersonal and structural constraints have more influence on participation than intrapersonal constraints, whereas women new to golf face intrapersonal constraints (mainly related to ability) and structural constraints (but ones somewhat different from frequent participants). We suggest strategies that might reduce the intrapersonal (helping new players of both sexes achieve a minimal level of mastery), interpersonal (development of a more gender neutral environment to reduce the likelihood of “differentness” being noted), and structural (provision of child care facilities at the course, reducing the 18-hole mentality) constraints.
Differential Effects of Television Commercials, Athlete Endorsements, and Venue Signage during a Televised Action Sports Event
Authors: Cianfrone Beth A. , Zhang James J.
Published: August 2016

This study examined the differential effectiveness of television commercials, athlete endorsements, venue signage, and combined promotions as assessed by Generation Y consumers. A 2 × 4 independent-group experimental design was conducted, consisting of two experimental conditions (experimental and control) and four video footage interventions with different promotional procedures (television commercial, athlete endorsement, venue signage, and combined promotion). A total of 253 subjects were randomly assigned into the eight groups. The subjects responded to a questionnaire that measured brand awareness in terms of unaided recall, aided recall, and recognition. A factorial MANCOVA revealed that after controlling for differences in the consumption backgrounds of action sports among the subjects, all four promotional procedures effectively increased brand awareness during a televised action sports event. Television commercials were the most effective, followed by combined promotion, athlete endorsement, and venue signage.
Sport Management Must Show Social Concern as It Develops Tenable Theory
Authors: Zeigler Earle F.
Published: August 2016

Today sport and all other social institutions (e.g., religion, politics, finance) are confronted with the need to demonstrate that they are worthwhile and responsible. Sport managers should understand what sport’s status is and how and why such standing occurred. Difficult decisions, often ethical in nature, will have to be made as members of the sport management societies worldwide strive to continue developing this profession and discipline. These professionals need to decide to what extent they wish to live up to the broad ideals of the programs being promoted by public, semipublic, and private agencies for people of all types and ages. Those involved with professional preparation and scholarly endeavor urgently need a theory and a disciplinary model for administrative or managerial leadership of sport on a gradually improving, sound academic basis. Practitioners need an online service that provides them with scholarly applied findings as they seek to serve in the behaviorally oriented environment of today’s world.
Much Adieu about Freddy: Freddy Adu and Attendance in Major League Soccer
Authors: DeSchriver Timothy D.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to analyze the relationship between game-specific attendance in Major League Soccer (MLS) and the presence of Freddy Adu in matches during the 2004 season. A demand model for attendance during Adu’s first year in MLS was estimated using ordinary least squares and fixed-effects multiple-regression analysis. The regression equation explained 67% of the variation in game-specific attendance and 9 of the 22 explanatory variables were statistically significant at the .05 level. It was found that an additional 10,958 spectators attended games in which Freddy Adu was playing, holding all else constant. Furthermore, it was estimated that these additional spectators generated about $3.25 million in revenue from ticket, concession, and merchandise sales in the 2004 season. This amount is far greater than the $500,000 annual salary paid to Adu, and the findings support the claim that from a financial perspective the signing of the 14-year old Adu was highly beneficial to MLS.
Institutional Contradictions and Struggles in the Formation of U.S. Collegiate Basketball, 1880–1938
Authors: Washington Marvin , Ventresca Marc J.
Published: August 2016

The prominence of collegiate athletics in amateur athletics is a historically specific outcome. Research in institutional theory is extended by developing an institutional-conflict-based approach to studying institutional changes of U.S. collegiate athletics. Available secondary sources and extensive original data demonstrate how the NCAA came to dominate the governance structure of U.S. amateur basketball. Discourse about the NCAA came to represent the dominant discourse in amateur basketball, and colleges and universities eliminated the noncolleges and nonuniversities from their play schedules. The NCAA developed a set of institutional strategies aimed at increasing its power in U.S. basketball. An institutional-conflict-based approach is useful for analyzing changes in the institutional structure of sports and demonstrates how governance systems and institutional conflicts impact organizational actions. Sport policy makers and managers should consider the historical context and institutional environment of their sport when making decisions.
Give the Bench the Boot! Using Manning Theory to Design Youth-Sport Programs
Authors: Hill Brad , Green B. Christine
Published: August 2016

Modified children’s sport programs are intended to increase opportunities for participation, skill acquisition, satisfaction, and enjoyment. Unfortunately, teams in modified programs sometimes consist of more players than can participate at any one time. Barker and Gump’s (1964) manning theory is used to analyze the effects of a modified children’s soccer program that excludes children from game participation by relegating them to the role of substitutes. Participant observation and interviews with coaches, parents, and players were conducted over 2 seasons. Findings are consistent with propositions from manning theory. Children’s teams provide a better social climate, more skill development, and greater enjoyment and satisfaction when teams are not allocated substitutes. These advantages are not reduced, and are sometimes elevated, when teams must sometimes play short handed. Administrative concerns about the potential risks of fielding teams without substitutes are found to be unwarranted, and the presence of substitutes restricts opportunities for youth-sport organizations to attract and retain members. These findings suggest a framework for the design and maintenance of modified children’s sport.
Social Network Theory and Analysis: A Complementary Lens for Inquiry
Authors: Quatman Catherine , Chelladurai Packianathan
Published: August 2016

As an emerging research approach, social network theory and analysis has been embraced and effectively applied in disciplines that have overlapping interests with sport management researchers including such fields as organizational behavior and sport sociology. Although a number of sport management scholars have investigated network-related concepts, to date no sport management studies have fully utilized the analytical tools that social network theory and analysis have to offer. In conjunction with a discussion about the ontological, epistemological, and methodological perspectives associated with network analysis, this article uses several examples from the sport management and organizational behavior bodies of literature to illustrate a number of the advantageous techniques and insights social network theory and analysis can offer. These examples are meant to provide a general understanding of the utility and applicability of the social network theory and analysis and potentially inspire sport management researchers to adopt a social network lens in their future research endeavors.
Mega-Special-Event Promotions and Intent to Purchase: A Longitudinal Analysis of the Super Bowl
Authors: O’Reilly Norm , Lyberger Mark , McCarthy Larry , Séguin Benoît , Nadeau John
Published: August 2016

Mega-special-event properties (sponsees) have the ability to attain significant resources through sponsorship by offering exclusive promotional opportunities that target sizeable consumer markets and attract sponsors. The Super Bowl, one of the most watched television programs in the world, was selected as the mega-special-event for this study as it provides a rare environment where a portion of the television audience tunes in specifically for the purpose of watching new and entertaining commercials. A longitudinal analysis of consumer opinion related to the 1998, 2000, 2002, 2004, and 2006 Super Bowls provides empirical evidence that questions the ability of Super Bowl sponsorship to influence the sales of sponsor offerings. Results pertaining to consumers’ intent to purchase sponsors’ products—one of the most sought after metrics in relating sponsorship effectiveness to sales—demonstrate that levels of intent-to-purchase inspired by sponsorship of the Super Bowl is relatively low and, most importantly, that increases are not being achieved over time. These findings have implications for both mega-sponsees and their sponsors as well as media enterprise diffusing mega-special-events.
Sponsorship Program Protection Strategies for Special Sport Events: Are Event Organizers Outmaneuvering Ambush Marketers?
Authors: McKelvey Steve , Grady John
Published: August 2016

Companies invest millions of dollars to become “official sponsors” of major global sporting events. The tremendous publicity and consumer audiences generated by such events provide an attractive marketing opportunity for companies other than the event’s official sponsors who seek to associate themselves in the minds of the public with the goodwill and popularity of these events. This activity, known as ambush marketing, poses significant legal and business challenges for sport event organizers seeking to protect both the financial investment of official sponsors and the integrity of their sponsorship programs. With rising sponsorship stakes, event organizers have become increasingly proactive in their efforts to combat ambush marketing. This article examines the implementation and effectiveness of a variety of evolving sponsorship program protection strategies including: pre-event education and public relations initiatives; on-site policing tactics; contractual language in athlete participation and spectator ticket agreements; and the enactment and enforcement of special trademark protection legislation.
Exploring Brand Positioning in a Sponsorship Context: A Correspondence Analysis of the Dew Action Sports Tour
Authors: Ferreira Mauricio , Hall Todd K. , Bennett Gregg
Published: August 2016

In this study, we used correspondence analysis (Greenacre, 1984; Hoffman & Franke, 1986) to examine connections between the title sponsor, brand competitors, and consumer targets exposed to a sponsorship. Demographic characteristics and self-reported use of 20 soft drink brands were collected from 1,138 attendees of four of the five inaugural events of the Dew Action Sports Tour. The analyses consisted of decomposing the cross-tabulated data into latent dimensions and graphically portraying brands and consumer targets in joint preference maps. Results revealed that consumers differentiated the 20 soft drink brands based on two latent dimensions: energy/diet and convenience. Furthermore, based on proximity of the target market to the title sponsor in the maps, it appears that Mountain Dew has been relatively effective in positioning the brand for key target markets in only one of the four cities examined. Theoretical and managerial implications of the findings are discussed.
Off-Field Behavior of Athletes and Team Identification: Using Social Identity Theory and Balance Theory to Explain Fan Reactions
Authors: Fink Janet S. , Parker Heidi M. , Brett Martin , Higgins Julie
Published: August 2016

In the current article, we extend the literature on fan identification and social identity theory by examining the effects of unscrupulous off-field behaviors of athletes. In doing so, we drew from both social identity theory and Heider’s balance theory to hypothesize a significant interaction between fan identification level and leadership response on fans’ subsequent levels of identification. An experimental study was performed and a 2 (high, low identification) × 2 (weak, strong leadership response) ANOVA was conducted with the pre to post difference score in team identification as the dependent variable. There was a significant interaction effect (F (2, 80) = 23.71, p < .001) which explained 23% of the variance in the difference between prepost test scores. The results provide evidence that unscrupulous acts by athletes off the field of play can impact levels of team identification, particularly for highly identified fans exposed to a weak leadership response. The results are discussed relative to appropriate theory. Practical implications and suggestions for future research are also forwarded.
Using Optimal Distinctiveness Theory to Understand Identification with a Nonlocal Professional Hockey Team
Authors: Andrijiw Andre M. , Hyatt Craig G.
Published: August 2016

In an attempt to understand the lived experiences of those individuals who grew up within the fan region of one professional hockey team yet chose instead to identify with a nonlocal alternative, the authors interviewed 20 Ontario (Canada) based fans of distant National Hockey League teams. Utilizing Brewer’s (1991, 2003) theory of optimal distinctiveness to examine the stories of participants, it was found that these fans maintained their team allegiances over time because doing so allowed them to achieve feelings of both uniqueness and belongingness. Sport managers can help facilitate feelings of belongingness by utilizing various communication and marketing strategies to better recognize and include their distant fans. Such strategies should ultimately result in the strengthening of the fan-team bond.
Investigating Factors Affecting Brand Awareness of Virtual Advertising
Authors: Tsuji Yosuke , Bennett Gregg , Leigh James H.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to investigate factors affecting brand awareness of virtual advertising in sports. Specifically, the study tested the effects of animation, repetition, baseball involvement, and team identification. An experiment using two Latin square designs was conducted to assess the effects of these factors on awareness levels. Results indicated no effect of animation, while effects of repetition, baseball involvement, and team identification were found to affect viewers’ cognitive responses. Managerial implications, limitations, and future research are discussed.
Sport Delivery in a Highly Socialized Environment: A Case Study of Embeddedness
Authors: Cousens Laura , Barnes Martha L.
Published: August 2016

The social embeddedness of economic interaction has emerged at the forefront of economic sociology over the last 15 years. In the context of sport, however, little research has been undertaken to enhance our understanding of how the socialized context surrounding sport organizers, local governments, and corporate sponsors impact decisions affecting sport delivery. Therefore, the purpose of this case study is to explore the social embeddedness of decision makers in sport organizations and the local government that shape sport delivery in one community. An embedded perspective of economic interactions considers the continuity of relationships that generate particular behaviors, norms, and expectations. In-depth interviews with the leaders of this community’s sport organizations and the members of its local government were undertaken to gain insight into the nature of how decisions pertaining to sport delivery were shaped and constrained by the social context in which they were bounded. The results of this research suggest that the informal interaction among community leaders in sport and politics served to inhibit change in the way sport programs were delivered in this community. Further, taken for granted assumptions of city leaders about the type, number, and quality of sports delivered to the residents resulted in fewer opportunities for sport participation, despite an awareness of the limitations of the existing programs.
A Day in the Life of a Male College Athlete: A Public Perception and Qualitative Campus Investigation
Authors: Lawrence Suzanne Malia , Harrison C. Keith , Stone Jeff
Published: August 2016

Perceptual confirmation paradigm (PCP) rooted in social psychology, can be implemented to frame sport science research questions (Stone, Perry, & Darley, 1997). Public perception of college athletes’ lives has been scarcely investigated in the sport sciences (Keels, 2005) using the PCP to prime stereotypes. The purpose of this study was to prime stereotypes about a day in the life of a college athlete by using qualitative inquiry to assess college students’ (N= 87) perceptions. Participants provided written responses about a day in the life of a college athlete. Two different college athlete targets were used “Tyrone Walker” (n= 44) and “Erik Walker” (n= 43). Four major themes and one minor theme emerged which are descriptive of the participants’ perceptions. Findings were related to the leadership responsibilities of sport management practitioners in higher education. Future research inquiries and relevant suggestions were articulated for sport management scholars in the 21st century.
NCAA Athlete Graduation Rates: Less Than Meets the Eye
Authors: Eckard E. Woodrow
Published: August 2016

The standard evaluations of NCAA student-athlete graduation rates involve comparisons with rates for the general student body. The latter rates as actually calculated, however, include a significant number of part-time students at many schools. This is problematic because athletes must be full-time, and should be compared with other full-time students. The downward “part-timer bias” in the student body rate distorts the comparison, making the relative graduation rates for athletes appear more favorable. Example calculations demonstrate that relative rates for major college football and men’s basketball players are substantially worse when the bias is removed.
“I Was Banging My Head Against a Brick Wall”: Exclusionary Power and the Gendering of Sport Organizations
Authors: Sibson Ruth
Published: August 2016

The under-representation of women in sport management has increasingly been recognized by government and nongovernment organizations, and there has been some attempt to redress the imbalance. Research has indicated, however, that the gendering of sport organizations is not simply a numbers’ game. The purpose of this study was to analyze the exercise of exclusionary power as an aspect of gender relations within a six member volunteer Board of Directors of an Australian local, grass-roots sport organization. Data were gathered using semistructured interviews, participant observation and documentary evidence over a 15-month period. This study identified that, although numerical underrepresentation of men or women on this Board was not an issue for either sex, exclusionary power was exercised in a number of overlapping ways which ultimately limited the participation, input, and influence of its female members.
Developing a Method for Comparing the Elite Sport Systems and Policies of Nations: A Mixed Research Methods Approach
Authors: Bosscher Veerle De , Shibli Simon , Bottenburg Maarten van , Knop Paul De , Truyens Jasper
Published: August 2016

This article aims to make a contribution to comparative sport research and details a method for comparing nations’ elite sport systems less descriptively by measuring and comparing determinants of national competitiveness quantitatively. A mixed methods exploratory sequential design is used, consisting of two distinct phases. After qualitative exploration, a conceptual model was developed, revealing that there are nine sport policy dimensions or ‘pillars’ that are important for international sporting success. This article focuses on a second quantitative phase, where the model was tested in a pilot study with six sample nations to develop a scoring system. Data from each nation were collected through an overall sport policy questionnaire completed in each country, and through a survey with the main stakeholders in elite sport, namely athletes (n = 1090), coaches (n = 253), and performance directors (n = 71). Reflecting recognized principles of economic competitiveness measurement, this article demonstrates how 103 critical success factors containing quantitative and qualitative data can be aggregated into a final percentage score for the sample nations on each pillar. The findings suggest that the method is a useful way for objective comparison of nations, but it should not be isolated from qualitative descriptions and from a broader understanding of elite sport systems.
Athletic Giving and Academic Giving: Exploring the Value of SPLIT Donors
Authors: Stinson Jeffrey , Howard Dennis
Published: August 2016

This study introduces and explores the value of SPLIT donors (donors making gifts to both academic and athletic programs at educational institutions). Detailed empirical records of donor giving to three NCAA Division I institutions establish that significant value of SPLIT donors to educational institutions. In the short term, SPLIT donors give higher total average gifts than donors making athletics-only gifts. In the long-term, SPLIT donors are retained at a higher rate than donors making academics-only gifts. The combination of gift size and retention rate maximizes the lifetime value of SPLIT donors to the institution. However, despite having higher lifetime value to the institution, there may be a disincentive for athletic programs to cultivate SPLIT donors. While the average total gifts of SPLIT donors are higher than the average gifts of their counterparts supporting only athletic programs, their average gift to athletics is lower.
A Bibliometric Study of Citations to Sport Management and Marketing Journals
Authors: Shilbury David
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of seven sport management and marketing journals on sport-related research published in 20 top tier generic management and marketing journals. Ten top tier management and 10 top tier marketing journals were inventoried to ascertain the number of sport-related management and marketing manuscripts published in those journals from 1987 to 2007. Twenty-five sport management and 51 sport marketing-related manuscripts were identified in the generic journals. From these manuscripts, twelve citations to the seven sport journals were identified in the management publications and 98 citations to the seven sport journals were found in the marketing publications. Sport Marketing Quarterly (62) was the most cited sport management and marketing journal followed by the Journal of Sport Management (28). Results also identify citation frequency by year, first citations and time taken for the seven sport journals to record first citations, author citation frequency and field of author affiliation and its impact on citation patterns. Implications for sport journal focus and editorial policies are discussed as well as the impact of citations in the generic marketing journals compared with the generic management journals.
Juggling Balls and Roles, Working Mother-Coaches in Youth Sport: Beyond the Dualistic Worker-Mother Identity
Authors: Leberman Sarah I. , LaVoi Nicole M.
Published: August 2016

Despite the ubiquitous presence of mothers in sport contexts, mothers’ voices are often absent in the sport literature, particularly at the youth sport level. A phenomenological approach was used to explore the experiences of working mother volunteer youth sport coaches. A role-triad model based on the work-family enrichment and role enhancement literature provided the theoretical framework. The purpose was to understand how and why working mother-coaches mange this role triad and to identify mother-worker skills which may transfer to youth coaching and vice versa. Semistructured interviews were conducted with eight working mother-coaches and analyzed for themes. Findings suggest that notions of being a good mother and reasons for coaching are very similar, including spending time together, developing life skills and role modeling. Participants negotiated multiple roles using cognitive tools, such as reframing and separation of roles. The reciprocal benefits of motherhood, working and coaching for themselves and others were highlighted.
The Effect of Associated Group Identities on Team Identity
Authors: Heere Bob , James Jeffrey , Yoshida Masayuki , Scremin Glaucio
Published: August 2016

The primary purpose of this study was to assess the proposition that identification with a university, city and/ or state could affect an individual’s identification process with a sport team (Heere & James, 2007a). The team identity scale was modified and used to measure multiple group identities. A secondary purpose was to provide further evidence of the reliability and validity of the multidimensional group identity instrument. The results provide some evidence that the group identity instrument is reliable and valid in four settings: team, university, city, and state. For this particular sample, team identity was positively influenced by the associated group identities. The findings support the use of a group identity scale to test different group identities and support the proposition that identification with a focal group such as a sport team does not exist in a vacuum and may be influenced by an individual’s relationship with other groups.
HRM Practices, Organizational Citizenship Behaviors, and Perceived Service Quality in Golf Courses
Authors: Husin Solha , Chelladurai Packianathan , Musa Ghazali
Published: August 2016

Three hundred and twenty five employees of 68 golf courses in Malaysia participated in this study investigating the proposed model wherein selected HRM practices (Support at Work, Training, Reward System, Supervisory Assistance, and Performance Appraisal) were seen as influencing organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) which, in turn, was associated with Perceived Service Quality. The results showed that the measurement model and the structural model fit the data very well. Further, all of the paths specified in the model except the one linking Training to OCB were significant with OCB explaining more than 50% of the variance in Perceived Service Quality. Increased support at work, Reward System, Supervisory Assistance, and Performance Appraisal resulted in higher levels of Perceived Service Quality.
Toward Team or Player? How Trust, Vicarious Achievement Motive, and Identification Affect Fan Loyalty
Authors: Wu Shih-Hao , Tsai Ching-Yi Daphne , Hung Chung-Chieh
Published: August 2016

This study extends literature on the effects of fan identification on fan loyalty, and antecedents that trigger such effects. This study incorporates trust, a key relationship marketing construct, in the sport industry. The relationship between trust and two other critical antecedents of sport fan loyalty, identification and vicarious achievement motive, is examined from the perspectives of both fan-player and fan-team. The results show that antecedents from distinct perspectives influence loyalty differently. Team identification (fan-team level) is the major determinant of fans’ repatronage intention, with trust in the team as the key driver. However, player identification (fan-player level) has an indirect effect, which must go through team identification to repatronage intention. Therefore, sport organizations are recommended to invest a substantial part of their resources on activities that generate long-term effects, such as trust in the team and team identification, rather than on short-term strategies such as attracting star players.
Factors Affecting the Price of Luxury Suites in Major North American Sports Facilities
Authors: Shapiro Stephen L. , DeSchriver Tim , Rascher Daniel A.
Published: August 2016

Luxury suites have become a key revenue source and an important element of sport facility design for professional sport organizations. There are a variety of factors influencing the pricing of luxury suites; however, the recent recession has impacted the premium seat sales market significantly. The current investigation was the first empirical examination of luxury suite pricing determinants for professional sport facilities. An economic model, utilizing multiple regression analysis, was constructed to examine the relationship between the current price of luxury suites for major North American professional sports facilities and selected demographic, economic, and team/facility/league-specific explanatory variables, in a uncertain economic climate. The final economic models were found to be significant, explaining 57% and 60% of the variability in luxury suite prices, respectively. Significant variables of interest included team performance and league affiliation, which had a positive influence and the number of competing venues, which had a negative influence on luxury suite prices. The current findings further the body of knowledge in the pricing of admissions to sporting events though the development of the first pricing determinants models for luxury suites, which take into consideration the tenuous economic environment.
Sponsorship Linked Internal Marketing (SLIM): A Strategic Platform for Employee Engagement and Business Performance
Authors: Farrelly Francis , Greyser Stephen , Rogan Matt
Published: August 2016

This paper advances our understanding of sponsorship linked internal marketing (SLIM). Based on a comprehensive qualitative investigation of major sponsors, this research examines the use of sponsorship linked internal marketing to conceptualize, communicate and implement corporate identity development and employee performance. Sport (by way of an investment in sponsorship) provides a rich opportunity to build employee identification with corporate identity; to establish a fit between how the identity of the firm is positioned internally and externally; and to inspire employee engagement to drive business performance. Moreover, it helps to foster a collaborative culture. The research furthers our understanding of the value of sport sponsorship, sponsorship fit, and sponsorship leveraging.
A New Age of Demand-Based Pricing: An Examination of Dynamic Ticket Pricing and Secondary Market Prices in Major League Baseball
Authors: Shapiro Stephen L. , Drayer Joris
Published: August 2016

In 2010, the San Francisco Giants became the first professional team to implement a comprehensive demand-based ticket pricing strategy called dynamic ticket pricing (DTP). In an effort to understand DTP as a price setting strategy, the current investigation explored Giants’ ticket prices during the 2010 season. First, the relationship between fixed ticket prices, dynamic ticket prices, and secondary market ticket prices for comparable seats were examined. In addition, seat location and price changes over time were examined to identify potential effects on ticket price in the primary and secondary market. Giants’ ticket price data were collected for various games throughout the 2010 season. A purposive selection of 12 games, which included (N = 1,316) ticket price observations, were chosen in an effort to include a multitude of game settings. Two ANOVA models were developed to examine price differences based on pricing structure, market, section, and time. Findings showed significant differences between fixed ticket prices, dynamic ticket prices, and secondary market ticket prices, with fixed ticket prices on the low end and secondary market ticket prices on the high end of the pricing spectrum. Furthermore, time was found to have a significant influence on ticket price; however, the influence of time varied by market and seat location. These findings are discussed and both theoretical and practical implications are considered.
Sport Fans and Their Teams’ Redesigned Logos: An Examination of the Moderating Effect of Team Identification on Attitude and Purchase Intention of Team-Logoed Merchandise
Authors: Ahn Taesoo , Suh Young Ik , Lee Jin Kyun , Pedersen Paul M.
Published: August 2016

The current study sought to identify the effect of team identification on brand attitude and purchase intention in terms of team logo changes. Doubly Multivariate Analysis of repeated measures, 2 (logo change: original and redesigned logo) × 3 (team identification: high, moderate, and low), was conducted on attitude toward the brand and purchase intention of team-logoed merchandise. The results showed that there were significant differences between fans with high identification and fans with low identification. The findings of this study can be beneficial for both sport industry practitioners and marketing scholars by providing an understanding of brand attitude and purchase intention related to new redesigned logos based upon different levels of team identification.
Human Brands in Sport: Athlete Brand Personality and Identification
Authors: Carlson Brad D. , Donavan D. Todd
Published: August 2016

By integrating social identity theory with brand personality, the authors test a model of how perceptions of human brands affect consumer’s level of cognitive identification. The findings suggest that consumers view athletes as human brands with unique personalities. Additional findings demonstrate that athlete prestige and distinctiveness leads to the evaluation of athlete identification. Once consumers identified with the athlete, they were more likely to feel an emotional attachment to the athlete, identify with the athlete’s team, purchase team-related paraphernalia and increase their team-related viewership habits. The findings extend previous research on human brands and brand personalities in sports. Marketers can use the information gleaned from this study to better promote products that are closely associated with well-recognized and attractive athletes, thereby increasing consumer retail spending. In addition, the findings offer new insights to sports marketers seeking to increase team-related spectatorship by promoting the image of easily recognizable athletes.
The Introduction of Drive-in Sport in Community Sport Organizations as an Example of Organizational Non-Change
Authors: Stenling Cecilia
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this article is to understand change in community sport organizations (CSOs) by examining the introduction of spontaneous sport activities labeled “drive-in sport” in six Swedish CSOs. Drawing on the theoretical concepts of translation and organizational identity, data from 10 interviews were analyzed to answer how, why, and with what consequences, in terms of organizational change, the focal CSOs interpreted and acted upon the idea of drive-in sport. The findings show that while drive-in sport initially may seem to have changed the CSOs, a closer examination reveals a reproduction of their organizational identities. The findings are discussed in relation to the alignment of the drive-in sport idea with the CSOs’ core purpose and practices and with wider processes of change in the CSOs’ institutional context.
Some Contributions of Sport Sociology to the Marketing of Sport and Leisure Organizations
Authors: Yiannakis Andrew
Published: August 2016

This paper presents a detailed analysis of the contributions of sport sociology to the marketing of sport and leisure organizations. In particular, the major steps that comprise the marketing enterprise are reviewed, from the identification of product marketing features to the monitoring of the marketing environment, and the potential contributions of sport sociology at each phase of the process are discussed.
Overcoming Discrimination in Sport Management: A Systematic Approach to Affirmative Action
Authors: Friend Jed , LeUnes Arnold
Published: August 2016

Recently the issue of fairness in the recruitment, selection, and placement aspects of personnel management for professional baseball teams has been questioned. The only seemingly correct solution to the lack of minorities in sport management positions has been oriented toward developing and implementing affirmative action programs. This paper discusses an approach to affirmative action that emphasizes (a) job analysis, (b) job descriptions, and (c) prediction of managerial performance. It therefore serves as a caveat for those organizations that feel an adequate affirmative action policy, as a single entity, is the proper remedy for correcting past discriminatory hiring decisions.
Photo Elicitation: A Methodological Technique for Studying Sport
Authors: Snyder Eldon E. , Kane Mary Jo
Published: August 2016

Previous research has identified gender appropriate and inappropriate sports for females. The present study uses a photo elicitation technique to study respondents’ attitudes toward two women’s sports: college basketball and gymnastics, Interestingly, this methodology manifests different results from more traditional techniques. Contrary to the expected results based on previous studies, the photo elicitation technique indicates that the perceptions of female participation in basketball were similar to gymnastics. This method of gathering data as well as the results of this study have several important implications for the field of sport management.
Research Design in Sport Management: What’s Missing, What’s Needed?
Authors: Olafson Gordon A.
Published: August 2016

Although concern for the lack of empirically based research and for the types of methodologies used continues, few if any sport management articles have quantified the extent of such criticism. Selected volumes of the Academy of Management Journal, Administrative Science Quarterly, Journal of Applied Psychology, Canadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences, Dissertation Abstracts, Journal of Sport Management, and Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport were content analyzed employing 13 dimensions to determine, on a comparative basis, the patterns of research design in organizational studies and sport management research. Based upon this analysis, sport management researchers should explore the variety of methods and analyses evident in the organizational studies literature. The basis for these results and suggestions for change are discussed.
Influence in and around Interuniversity Athletics
Authors: Inglis Sue
Published: August 2016

This paper addresses the degree of influence exerted on athletic programs from internal and external sources. Using survey data, internal influence was assessed by the athletic administrators indicating their perceptions of their influence in decision-making activities. Factor analysis yielded three factors (administrative, strategic, and marketing decision types) that were used in repeated-measures ANOVA procedures with administrative level as the independent measure and decision types as the dependent measures. Significant results are discussed in relation to the theoretical concepts of decision types, gender, and hierarchical position. External influence was assessed by the athletic administrators and university presidents indicating their perceptions of the degree of influence exerted by external groups on the athletic program. Repeated-measures ANOVA procedures with subsequent Scheffé post hoc analyses where appropriate were used. The results are discussed in relation to the hierarchical position of the respondents and levels of influence exerted by the external groups.