bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Wastewood as a source of woodfuel
Authors: Teplitz‐Sembitzky W.
Published: October 2009

Land clearing and forest sector residues, notably the wastewood generated on large timber plantations, can provide a sizeable and hitherto neglected source of woodfuel. This article highlights experience in Malawi where wastewood from pine plantations is converted into charcoal that is sold to residential, industrial and agro‐industrial users. Similar initiatives proposed in other countries of sub‐Saharan Africa indicate that comprehensive utilization of wastewood resources could help to reduce regional and local imbalances.
Scarcity of natural resources and the implications for sustainable development
Authors: Pearse Peter H.
Published: October 2009

The idea of sustainable development has much popular appeal, but conflicts with centuries of economic theory about how limited land and natural resources constrain the growth of economies and populations. Much of that doctrine, especially that in the Malthusian tradition, is contradicted by historical experience, but the modern threat of environmental degradation raises new questions about whether growth can be sustained. Many of those new problems result from biases in economic organization and institutions against so‐called environmental resources. Marketed resource commodities like minerals and timber are protected by the incentives of owners and suppliers to conserve them, enhance them and find new sources, and by the incentives of users to economize on their demands and find cheaper substitutes. Together, these forces have been sufficient to offset depletion and render resources less scarce over time. The same forces are not at work on environmental resources like water and air, so they are over‐used and degraded as demands grow. However, promising opportunities exist to develop property rights and economic incentives to encourage users of environmental resources to protect and husband them, and these are likely to be more effective in harmonizing economic activity with the environment than purely regulatory policies.
Green taxes, blue taxes
Authors: Shaw Christopher L.
Published: October 2009

Central governments are facing increasingly stringent demands to lead the clean‐up of public resources. Historically, governments have chosen legislation and regulation to address these concerns and achieved mixed results, but another tool of public policy holds significant promise and is gaining ground in the policy debate: ‘green’ taxes. The potential of a tax system to mitigate environmental externalities is explored. The theory of pollution tax is reviewed and a comparison of two country cases where taxes have been designed explicitly to reduce industrial effluents and improve the quality of fresh water resources is presented. If structures to approximate social costs are federally mandated and regionally implemented, a comprehensive tax system can constitute an integral part of an effective response to private spoliation of the commons.
Fuelwood use by different tribal and non‐tribal communities in north‐east India
Authors: Maikhuri R. K. , Gangwar A. K.
Published: October 2009

This paper analyses the fuelwood consumption pattern by different tribal and non‐tribal communities ofMeghalaya in north‐east India. The total fuelwood consumption including all activities such as cooking, rice beer preparation, room and water heating and festival celebration, ranged from 4.7 kg/capita/day for the Garos to 2.1 kg/capita/day for the Nepalese. The total energy expended for fuelwood collection was highest for the Nepalese (0.23 MJ/capital day) and least for the Garos (0.12 MJ/capital day). The present information on fuelwood consumption patterns by different tribal and non‐tribal communities could form the basis for designing appropriate technologies for energy plantations in the region. Besides this, some other technologies such as the introduction of fuel efficient devices at the village level and recycling of resources through biogas could be appropriate.
Alternative natural gas contract and pricing structures and incentives for the LNG industry
Authors: Attanasi Emil D.
Published: October 2009

Gas conversion to liquefied gas (LNG) and transport by LNG tankers is one option for meeting expanding gas consumption and for gas traded internationally. This paper examines the impact of the traditional gas contract provisions of indefinite pricing, market out price ceilings, and take‐or‐pay requirements on the profitability of LNG projects in the context of markets characterized by price and quantity uncertainty. Simulation experiments are used to examine and calibrate the effects of those provisions. The results provide guidance to operators, host countries and purchasers in structuring such contracts. The paper also assesses prospects of future expansion of world LNG capacity.
Libya's Great Manmade River Project
Authors: McLoughlin Peter F. M.
Published: October 2009

When completed, Libya's Great Manmade River Project will transport through a system of pipelines 12–14 million m3 of water per day from the southern region of the country to the northern coastal areas. The system will provide water for municipal, industrial and agricultural users. This paper describes the project, the uses to which its water will be put and the institutional issues which need to be addressed when the Great Manmade River Project delivers vast quantities of water to the coastal areas. The biggest problem for Libya could be finding and training the vast numbers of technical people needed to manage and operate the system.
Conference Report on United Nations Interregional Seminar on Computerized Mineral Title Management and Associated Databases
Authors: Handelsman Simon D. , Gemerts Glenn
Published: October 2009

The United Nations Interregional Seminar on Computerized Mineral Title Management and Associated Databases which was held in North Africa from 26 November‐7 December 1990, was convened by the United Nations Department of Technical Cooperation for Development (UN/DTCD), in conjunction with the United Nations Development Programme. The seminar was hosted by the Government of Morocco. More than forty participants from thirty‐one developing countries in Africa, Asia, the Middle East, Central and Latin America, as well as international lecturers took part in the seminar. Representatives of government agencies, industry, universities, consultancy organizations and other United Nations agencies were also present as observers.
International renegotiations: the case of the Dominican Republic and Falconbridge
Authors: Dunbar Roger L. M.
Published: October 2009

In 1969, Falconbridge Ltd agreed to expand greatly the facilities operated by its subsidiary in the Dominican Republic. Over the succeeding years, the company mined, processed and exported a large proportion of the country's nickel reserves. Due to worldwide market conditions, however, the company made losses rather than profits, and the Dominican government received little financial benefit from the company's operations. Matters came to a head in November 1987 when President Balaguer of the Dominican Republic unilaterally imposed taxes on company imports and exports. This action was significant because under a long‐standing agreement with the Dominican government, Falconbridge was only obligated to pay income taxes and had an exemption in perpetuity from all other taxes. When the company refused to pay the new taxes, the government began to curtail nickel exports. Meanwhile, on world markets, the price of nickel soared. This paper briefly describes how the world nickel market has evolved, and then focuses attention on the relationship between Falconbridge and the Dominican Republic. It outlines the issues that arose, describes the renegotiation process itself and analyses how matters were resolved.
Bauxite and alumina: trends and prospects
Authors: Clark Gerald
Published: October 2009

During the past 25 years the bauxite and alumina industry has grown threefold creating major change in the industry structure and reducing the dominance of the majors. Australia has emerged as the leading producer with a major third party alumina market developed principally by Alcoa of Australia. Future growth while, less dramatic, is likely to be substantial requiring US$50 billion to fund new projects which will be concentrated in developing countries with large bauxite reserves and developed infrastructure.
Petroleum prospects and the need for international cooperation
Authors: Constantinou C.
Published: October 2009

A review of the world energy situation prior to the Persian Gulf War of 1990‐91 shows that periods of oil price instability have distorted the decision‐making process. During periods of high prices, investments were made in uneconomic energy sources and in periods of low prices few investments were made at all. To create a rational investment climate, international cooperation between consumers and producers of petroleum is essential. Such cooperation in the form of a forum could help to stabilize prices and assure that the economic decisions needed to meet future demand would be made in a secure framework.
Price prospects in Western Europe for internationally traded fossil fuels until 2000
Authors: Radetzki Marian
Published: October 2009

A methodology for the long‐term assessment of prices is designed and applied to the international markets for coal, oil and natural gas and likely price developments between 1990 and 2000 are explored. The coal market will remain competitive, and the long‐term price will be determined by the total cost of marginal supply. The oil price will be set, even in the long term, substantially above the competitive level, by those who control the exceptional Middle East resource base. The traditional link between gas and oil prices will erode in the 1990s, and gas will be independently and competively priced by the turn of the century. Resource constraints are not expected to push prices upwards within the time horizon of the study. The relative price of gas will fall over the forecast period, and its market share will increase as a consequence.
Integrated water resources planning
Authors: Goodman A. S. , Edwards K. A.
Published: October 2009

A water resources plan should consider the missions of various governmental units and the interests of those affected beneficially or adversely by the plan. Its development should involve many professional disciplines and should take account of institutional, economic, environmental, social and other effects. For developing countries, water resources development and management should contribute as much as possible to the amelioration of the basic problems of the human condition, while avoiding serious damage to ecological populations and environmental quality. This paper outlines what has and has not worked in the planning of water resources, based on published literature and the unpublished views of United Nations and World Bank staff, and discusses the characteristics of effective integrated water resources planning.
Environmental accounting and statistics
Authors: Bartelmus Peter L. P.
Published: October 2009

The views expressed here are the author's and do not necessarily reflect an expression of opinion on the part of the United Nations. The objective of sustainable development is to integrate environmental concerns with mainstream socio‐economic policies. Integrated policies need to be supported by integrated data. Environmental accounting achieves this integration by incorporating environmental costs and benefits into conventional national accounts. Modified accounting aggregates can thus be used in defining and measuring environmentally sound and sustainable economic growth. Further development objectives need to be assessed by more comprehensive, though necessarily less integrative, systems of environment statistics and indicators. Integrative frameworks for the different statistical systems in the fields of economy, environment and population would facilitate the provision of comparable data for the analysis of integrated development.
Non‐South African ferrochrome prospects
Authors: Lennon Jim
Published: October 2009

In 1990, South Africa accounted for 43% of the 2 405 000t of ferrochrome produced worldwide. Even though world production has been very close to that level for more than five years, there is still approximately 1 million tlyear of excess capacity in the world today. Despite that huge overhang, when capacity closures are deducted from capacity additions, there was a net increase in capacity of approximately 450 000 t/year during the period 1989–91. Some of this additional capacity is intended to serve a domestic market and some to take advantage of very low production costs. Nevertheless, with so much excess capacity, the price of ferrochrome will remain under pressure for some time to come.
Alumina market trends in the 1990s
Authors: Oosterbeek M. A.
Published: October 2009

During the past decade, alumina prices have been highly volatile, so much so that it has endangered the existence of some producers, and limited the ability of some smelters to benefit from higher aluminium prices. Although certain trends can be identified for the 1990s, some factors could again result in large price fluctuations in the alumina market. After a review of those identified trends and factors, this paper attempts to focus on ways to limit the effect of fluctuations in the non‐integrated alumina market.
Water management since the adoption of the Mar del Plata Action Plan
Authors: Lee Terence
Published: October 2009

In the 13 years since the United Nations Water Conference, the policies applied to the administration of water resources have undergone considerable modification in most countries. For most of this period no overall trend in the direction of change can be easily seen. Recently, however, with the general adoption of policies decentralizing water management responsibilities away from central governments, an opportunity has been presented for the general application of some of the basic management principles enunciated in the Mar del Plata Action Plan. This paper presents a review of current water administration policies and of water management problems in Africa, Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean.
Constraints to improved energy efficiency in agricultural pumpsets: the case of India
Authors: Sadaphal P. M. , Natarajan Bhaskar
Published: October 2009

Supply to electrical pumpsets for irrigation purposes accounts for about 25% of the total electricity sold in India. The number of electrical pumpsets is expected to increase from 8.5 million in 1989–90 to 10.5 million in 1994–95. Low load factors (10–12%) and low densities (1–4 pumpsets/km2) mean large investments for the electric utility in order to supply electricity for irrigation. It is reported that there exists a potential to save at least 10% of the electricity supplied to this sector by means of simple retrofit measures. However, conditions in the field pose constraints to such retrofits. Some of those constraints are highlighted in this paper. It is also suggested that immediate attempts be made to ensure that all new connections are energy efficient. This paper suggests that the additional cost incurred to ensure new energy efficient connections and to maintain retrofit energy efficient pumpsets must be looked on as a necessary cost for energy efficiency.
Conference report on United Nations Interregional Seminar on Applied Finance for Natural Resources
Authors: Handelsman Simon D. , Cheng Dai Dong
Published: October 2009

More than 28 participants from 17 developing countries in Africa, Asia and the Pacific, Europe, Central and South America took part in the Seminar. International lecturers, including senior officials of financial institutions, served as resource persons for the Seminar and led the discussions. Representatives of government agencies, industry, universities, consultancy organizations and other international agencies were also present as observers. The Seminar framework was developed as a series of case study presentations, supplemented by lectures and discussions, which enabled participants to gain an appreciation of project finance requirements. The principal elements of the technical programme were Perspective, Concepts and Fundamentals of Project Analysis and Financial Evaluation, Project Finance Sources, Structure and Implementation, Identification, Minimization and Assignment of Risks, a Workshop Project, Case Studies and Developing Country Problems, Training Requirements and Methods of Implementation, and Recommendations for United Nations and Bilateral Cooperation with Developing Countries.
The metal mining industry in Eastern Europe
Authors: Bomsel Olivier , von Hirschhausen Christian
Published: October 2009

The mining industry has been one of the backbones of the socialist countries of Eastern Europe, not only in economic, but also in political, terms. Three years after the beginning of economic reforms, the mining industry in all the Eastern European countries is facing dramatic changes. Most mines are mining ores below acceptable cut‐off grades, and there is no hope of finding new, richer deposits. Downstream metallurgical industries will need to replace their former suppliers. In addition, the social contract that had been maintained under the socialist governments is about to be undone and a new form of internal organization must be found. The success of the economic reforms in Eastern Europe depends upon the capacity to develop new industrial relations: the large mining combinates will have to be transformed into competitive capitalist enterprises and the role of the state must be redefined. Prospects for this transformation vary greatly, from metal to metal and from country to country. Finally, restructuring in Eastern Europe will also affect European and world markets, both on the supply and demand sides. The integration of the Eastern European mining industries into the international mining community should be the medium‐term goal of all the participants.
Regulation of the environmental impacts of coal mining in the USA
Authors: McGinley Patrick C.
Published: October 2009

Decades of environmentally unregulated coal mining in the USA have resulted in thousands of polluted streams, contaminated groundwater aquifers, subsidence effects, scarred hill sides and massive waste dumps. Similar environmental damage due to coal mining has occurred in Eastern Europe. In the USA, to correct the environmental damage due to coal mining, the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act was passed in 1977. This paper examines the provisions of the Act in detail and ends with a warning to the Eastern European countries. ‘The lessons to he learned from the US experience may be reduced to one essential observation: unregulated coal mining in a free market economy can cause extremely serious environmental harm with attendant adverse social and economic impacts which cannot be effectively resolved without comprehensive and strict governmental regulation’.
Influence of production costs and inventories on mineral prices
Authors: Moison David L. , Sperry D. Robert
Published: October 2009

The purpose of this article is to broaden understanding of the factors which exert major influences on prices for industrial metals beyond the widely recognized tendency for prices and inventories to move in opposite directions. Specifically, the relationship between inventory levels and price volatility is examined. In addition, the relationship between prices and production costs is also examined. A few thoughts are expressed on the relationship between prices and industry structure. The paper includes a qualitative discussion about why a link should exist between prices and production costs, a graph illustrating the relationship between prices and inventories, and econometric equations quantifying the relationship between prices, production costs and inventories.
Enhancing biomass energy use in Kenya
Authors: Banwell Peter S. , Harriss Robert C.
Published: October 2009

This paper argues that in Kenya, environmental and economic factors will favour the continued use of biomass as a primary fuel for household and institutional cooking for the next decade or longer. The paper describes several successful projects which have improved the efficiency of urban charcoal use and of rural woodfuel use. The Kenya Ceramic Jiko, a more efficient version of the traditional charcoal stove, is a model programme sustained by free market competition, artisans participation, and widespread public acceptance. The Maendeleo stove is the best example of a successful rural woodstove project. The performance attributes of the stove, and its promotion through Kenya's largest women's organization, have resulted in the distribution of an estimated 26 000 Maendeleo stoves. Rural stove efficiency will become important as the cash‐based economy expands in those areas. Agroforestry will also be critical to an enhanced use of biomass energy in Kenya. Experience to date shows that successful agroforestry programmes will have to be appropriate to local conditions and crops.
Impact of market reforms on future patterns of non‐ferrous metal consumption of the former Soviet Union
Authors: Dobozi Istvan
Published: October 2009

The study examines the implications of market‐oriented reforms on the prospects of non‐ferrous metal use in the former USSR. Past metal consumption behaviour of the USSR is found to differ considerably from prevailing patterns of the advanced market economies. The study estimates a large ‘intensity‐ of‐use’ gap across metals, which can be taken as a relatively easily mobilizable source for efficiency improvements via market reforms. Two scenarios for economic reforms are modelled, notably radical and gradual. Both are shown to cause a collapse of varying intensity in domestic metal demand lasting until the mid‐1990s. For the subsequent period, a turnaround in consumption trends is projected, which is sharper under the radical reform scenario. The projected collapse of domestic demand argues for an increasing exportable surplus in the former Soviet Union for a range of non‐ferrous metals, with potentially severe depressive effect on world prices.
Integrated urban water resources management
Authors: Rogers Peter
Published: October 2009

The paper focuses on the organizational and institutional issues of water resources management strategies. It considers both as cross‐sectoral issues, and in terms of the communication and coordination of activities among all levels of sector agencies. It concentrates heavily on the economic aspects of planning for urban and other water use. Over the past few decades tremendous progress has been made in providing basic water supply and sanitation to the people of the world. Nevertheless, much remains to be accomplished. The only way of resolving this problem appears to be to make the current utilities more effective economically. The single most important policy improvement would be to ensure that each utility covers its operating costs as well as its capital costs by the economic pricing of water use.
Climate targets and comprehensive greenhouse gas emissions trading
Authors: Swart Robert J.
Published: October 2009

In June 1992 a Framework on Climate Change Convention was signed in Rio de Janeiro, calling for the control of greenhouse gases, notably in the industrialized countries. Its formulation allows for joint implementation of measures to reach emission targets for greenhouse gases. Such joint implementation covering all greenhouse gases could form the first step towards a system of comprehensive emissions trading. This paper addresses both advantages and disadvantages of comprehensive emissions trading across different gases, sinks and sources. It concludes that in addition to carbon dioxide from fossil fuels, the inclusion of biotic carbon emissions and selected sources of methane is attractive from both the economic and environmental viewpoint. The uncertainties associated with emissions can be overcome by requiring a thorough review of trade proposals by a broad‐based international supervisory body, utilizing a consistent methodology such as that being developed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Finally, the paper addresses the central objective of the Climate Convention, which implicity sets a limit to greenhouse gases emissions and thus provides a guideline for the total amount of permits that may be made available in a tradeable permit system.
Water, environment and development
Authors: Edwards K. A.
Published: October 2009

This paper for the most part constitutes the address which was made to the Consortium for International Development at their recent Presidential Symposium at Colorado State University on 30 July 1992. It raises some of the global issues in water resources development and management which are likely to confront the international community in the 1990s and beyond. The issues pose the challenge to institutions involved in the water resources field in both developed and developing countries.
The application of charging schemes for the management of water pollution
Authors: Sunman Hilary
Published: October 2009

This paper examines lessons from the experience in the use of charges for water resource management, considers how charges have been used in Europe, and how a new charging system could be developed. It focuses particularly on the case for pollution charges, or charges for using a river for the disposal of waste. The paper falls into four sections. The first reviews briefly the case for pollution charges, both theoretical and practical, and shows how they can complement regulatory systems. The experience of pollution charging schemes in the Netherlands, Germany and France, where charges have been used as a major mechanism for environmental and water resource management for upwards of 10 years are examined. The basis for charge schemes, their effectiveness as policy instruments and the institutional framework within which they operate are discussed. The paper addresses some questions which are central to the definition and development of charge schemes‐ the objectives, the problems and constraints. A case study is used to establish the feasibility of introducing emission charges for water resource management. How the charge could be designed and administered and how the charge level could be set is also described. Finally, some broad recommendations on the effectiveness and issues associated with charge schemes are presented.
Changing patterns in aluminium production costs
Authors: Bird Anthony
Published: October 2009

The average cost of producing aluminium fell slightly in nominal terms between 1982 and 1992, and there has thus been a sharp fall in real terms. The average cost also shows a marked cyclical fluctuation during individual years, partly as a result of the feedback effect from final metal prices to the cost curve. Between 1985 and 1992, exchange rate fluctuations produced a sharp change in the relative position of US and European smelters. During the next eight years, costs are likely to rise gradually in real terms, reversing the historical trend, and unless the higher cost European smelters can cut costs significantly, they may face a bleak future.
Environmental legislation, economic growth and risk in minerals development The Bolivian case
Authors: Blacutt‐Mercado William P.
Published: October 2009

This paper examines the General Environmental Law of Bolivia which was recently passed by its Congress. It is a multi‐purpose law with two primary objectives: (i) the protection and conservation of the environment; and (ii) the promotion of sustainable development. In this law, environmental benefits are emphasized by stating general principles, not by attempting to define the means. Regulations setting forth the means are left to the writing of subsequent complementary codes. This paper shows that much of the controversy surrounding the legislation disappears when it is seen as a guideline rather than an operational part of Bolivia's industrial policy. In essence, the law addresses environmental awareness in a region that is more anxious than ever to speed economic growth.
The role of new technologies in reducing energy demand
Authors: Lees E.W.
Published: October 2009

Energy efficiency is often stated to be the most cost‐effective measure for satisfying our energy demand with minimal environmental damage. However, the potential energy savings attainable in ‘the real world’ are frequently overestimated, as is shown in an industrial case study of the glass industry. Nevertheless, there are significant energy savings to be realized, and the role of new technologies in this is important. However, the key to the effective use of new technology for improved energy efficiency is good management and. for best effect, it must be integrated into the normal resource management activities of a company.
The transformation and successful development of small‐scale mining enterprises in developing countries
Authors: Davidson Jeffrey
Published: October 2009

Proponents have long argued that small‐scale mining, given proper direction and support, can contribute substantively to the socioeconomic development of rural areas in developing countries. The attitudes of governments, commercial mining companies and donor agencies have been coloured by the haphazard, informal, often dangerous and seemingly wasteful character of much local mining activity, especially at the smallest scale. Yet this ‘artisanal’ activity has come to assume a critical economic welfare function in many countries, especially those which have suffered through extended periods of environmental and economic stress. This paper argues that this type of mining, because of both its upside potential and its problematic nature, cannot be ignored: neither can it be eradicated. Instead, explicit and sustained attention from governments, non‐government organizations, the private sector and donor agencies is advocated for an effort to rationalize and formalize this type of mining, to increase its economic and technical efficiency, and to maximize its social benefits and minimize its disadvantages.
The Commission on Sustainable Development
Authors: Waller‐Hunter Joke H
Published: October 2009

Two years after Rio, the Commission on Sustainable Development is taking shape. The broad terms of its mandate allow for a policy discussion that brings new developments to the forefront and that may assist the world community in taking the road to sustainable development.
Sustainability implications for water resources planning and management
Authors: Loucks Daniel P
Published: October 2009

Sustainability has proved to be a unifying concept that emphasizes the need for us to consider the impacts of what we do in our generation on those who follow us in future generations. While we cannot know with certainty what these impacts may be, or what future generations will want or value, we can attempt to include what we think they will want or value in our current planning and management models. In this way we may at least estimate what they would like us to do today to allow them to better satisfy their needs and desires in the future. This then becomes a multiple objective planning problem, where if conflicts exist, trade offs can be identified and debated. This paper presents some approaches for doing this, and discusses how they may be applied in practice in the water resources sector.
Environmental policy for sustainable development of natural resources
Authors: Dias Ayesha K , Begg Mary
Published: October 2009

This paper describes new environmental policies and expanded administrative agencies which in recent years have been adopted by many governments faced with a continuing decline in the quality of their environments. In a number of developed and developing countries, devising a far reaching environmental policy for sustainable development of the natural resources sector is a national priority. Specific environmental policies may be classified according to objectives, timeframe, mechanisms for implementation, whether or not they are binding, and the nature of sanction. This paper provides some generalizations about certain features common to most environmental policies. In the first section an examination is made of some of the most pressing problems which environmental policies relating to natural resources seek to address. The second section discusses environmental policies themselves. The third section, which makes up the main body of the paper, assesses the strengths and weaknesses of a variety of mechanisms available for implementing environmental policies to promote sustainable development in the natural resources sector.
The Energy Efficiency 2000 Project and energy‐efficiency demonstration zones in Eastern and Central Europe
Authors: Romig Frederic
Published: October 2009

Energy economy and efficiency are the two most common energy priorities of EC member states. Increasing energy efficiency is also a way of making EC technical assistance to Central and Eastern Europe more effective. The Energy Efficiency 2000 project, and in particular the establishment of energy‐efficiency demonstration zones, are key features in this process.
Facing limits in oceanic fisheries
Authors: Weber Peter
Published: October 2009

Research from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and fishery scientists indicates that the wild catch offish and other marine life from the oceans will not be able to increase significantly in the future, except through rehabilitation and better management of stocks. Despite the limited potential for bigger catches, fishing fleets have expanded rapidly in recent decades under government subsidies. Fishers now have approximately twice the capacity necessary to make the annual catch from the oceans. The juxtaposition of natural limits and overinvestment has created a crisis situation for the world's fishers, fishing communities and traditional fishing cultures. Part I of this article discusses policy responses at the national and international level. How policy makers respond to the overextension of the marine fishing industry will determine the extent of job loss, hunger and dislocation that will result. Part II, to be published in the Forum's next issue (February 1995), will examine the social aspects of the world's fishing industry, including the demography of fishers, utilization of fisheries products, the relative social contribution of aquaculture and policy responses to overcapacity. Policy makers could enhance the social benefits of marine fisheries — both jobs and food — through a combination of government oversight and community based management.
Urban water demand and climate change
Authors: Hartley Suzanne , Harriss Robert C. , Blanchard Tom
Published: October 2009

This paper presents a methodology for improved understanding of options for managing urban water demands under the uncertainties associated with climate change. It combines a sensitivity analysis of water supply with forecasts of water demand and examines how conservation efforts may offset deficits which result from climate change. It presents a case study of Nassau County, New York State, USA, that concludes that deficits projected for warmer climate scenarios can probably be alleviated by increased conservation. For scenarios of decreased precipitation, more extreme measures (eg rationing) may be necessary, illustrating the prudence of considering climate change in planning studies for communities which already experience water supply problems.
Recent experiences with river basin development in the tropics and subtropics
Authors: Scudder Thayer
Published: October 2009

This paper utilizes experiences gained since the first United Nations studies were prepared on river basin planning and development in 1958. The author's experiences, mainly in the tropical and subtropical areas of Africa and Asia, set the stage for a brief consideration of the role of institutions in achieving a process of integrated river basin development. In emphasizing these experiences, this paper has three purposes. First, the author assesses the influence and adequacy of the vision expressed in the earlier United Nations reports. Second, he examines the experience with attempts to implement river basin development, including resettlement problems. Third, he suggests ways in which lessons learned can be applied to future development. The case studies utilized in this paper draw more on the author's experience than on the literature. While the focus is on transnational river basin development, experiences within states are also included when they provide relevant insights.
A framework for integrated resource planning in the electric power sector
Authors: Rahman Saifur , de Castro Arnulfo
Published: October 2009

A framework is presented showing the process of integrated resource planning in the electric power sector. This takes into account the traditional utility planning process, and shows how the use of advanced decision analysis tools would facilitate the integration of demand‐side management (DSM) and environmental factors. The concept of influence diagram is introduced in the utility planning arena. Using the interdependent data analysis (IDA) technique, a way is shown to provide the probability estimates necessary for the influence diagram. The IDA technique allows the use of expert opinions and intuitive judgements to develop the necessary probability estimates. A sample case study is presented where the issue of environmental impact from stack emissions is incorporated. A base case coal option is compared against a gas turbine combined cycle (GTCC) alternative. Energy costs from these two options are compared by taking into account the capital, licensing, fuel, operation and maintenance, and emissions related costs.
Protection and use of transboundary watercourses and international lakes in Europe
Authors:   Secretariat of the United Nations Commission for Europe
Published: October 2009

This paper analyses recent developments in national strategies and policies in Europe for the protection and use of transboundary waters, and describes progress made by European states in cooperating on these issues, in particular under the Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes (Helsinki, 1992) pending its entry into force.
Government environmental regulations and implementation in the mining sector
Authors: Acquah Peter C.
Published: October 2009

The paper describes the evolution of interest in the environment, especially in relation to the mining industry. The author uses detailed examples from Ghana and other developing countries as well as from the European Union/Community. The paper describes trends leading to the adoption of the concept of sustainable development by most of the countries of the world at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (Rio, June 1992).
Constraints on small‐scale mining in Africa
Authors: Traore Pierre A.
Published: October 2009

Contrary to expectations, small‐scale mining has had little impact on the development of Africa, despite the relative scale of activities in that field. This situation is due to the fact that the sector is facing various constraints and deficiencies, some structural in nature and others technical. However, the analysis of constraints and weaknesses shows that their impact differs according to the country and to the extent to which the government is involved in small‐scale mining as well as to its efforts to strengthen this sector. While some drastic and immediate measures could be taken now, in depth scientific research will also be required.
Biomass resources as energy in Nepal
Authors: Pokharel S. , Chandrashekar M.
Published: October 2009

Nepal's economic activity is dominated by agriculture. The volume of exports is small. About a quarter of the foreign exchange earned from export is required to cover costs of imported fossil fuels. Fossil fuels supply less than 7% of total energy consumption. More than 90% of primary energy consumption is supplied by biomass resources, and forests are the major source of biomass. The sustainable fuelwood yield of forest is far less than the total consumption, which has caused severe forest denudation. Consumption of crop residues and animal dung for fuel are increasing because of fuelwood shortage. The paper outlines the consequences of biomass consumption in Nepal and past efforts at biomass resources management and indicates their effectiveness. A few major practical policy measures have been suggested to correct the situation. The experiences and measures for biomass resources management explained in this paper are expected to be useful to other countries facing a similar situation.
Beyond conservation ideology and the wilderness
Authors: Pretty Jules N , Pimbert Michel P
Published: October 2009

There are close to 8500 major protected areas, covering some 5% of the world's land area. Many countries have more than 10% of their area set aside for conservation purposes. But this increase in designated conservation has been accompanied by a strong ideology that people are bad for natural resources. Policies and practice have, therefore, both encouraged exclusion and discouraged local participation. As a result, social conflicts have grown in and around protected areas, and conservation goals themselves have been threatened. Conservation science itself needs rethinking. It has been dominated by the positivist and rationalist paradigm, in which professionals assume they know best and so can analyse and influence natural resources in the ways they desire. But if natural resources are to be conserved, then the skills, knowledge and needs of local people will have to be built upon. This will require radical reversals in current professional thinking and practice.
International mining taxation issues and comparisons
Authors: Hull Dale L , Bergevin Gilles , Lauer James
Published: October 2009

This paper presents the quantitative results of recent research on Canada's minerals and metals industry, and its international competitiveness for mineral investment. The information and analysis presented are derived from the work of a Canadian government‐industry task force that was created in 1991, under the auspices of the Intergovernmental Working Group on the Mineral Industry (IGWG). Much of this work deals with mining taxation in several Canadian provinces. More importantly, an attempt is made to evaluate the total tax burden that the mining industry must bear, on a project basis, at all levels from exploration through refining operations in many important competitor countries. While the focus of the paper is on an international comparison of mining taxation, some non‐tax issues relating to Canada's competitiveness for mineral investment are addressed.
Facing limits in oceanic fisheries
Authors: Weber Peter
Published: October 2009

Research from the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization and fishery scientists indicates that the wild catch of fish and other marine life from the oceans will not be able to increase significantly in the future, except through rehabilitation and better management of stocks. Despite the limited potential for bigger catches, fishing fleets have expanded rapidly in recent decades under government subsidies. Fishers now have approximately twice the capacity necessary to make the annual catch from the oceans. The juxtaposition of natural limits and overinvestment has created a crisis situation for the world's fishers, fishing communities, and traditional fishing cultures. Part I of this article (Natural Resources Forum, November 1994) discussed policy responses at the national and international level. How policy makers respond to the overextension of the marine fishing industry will determine the extent of job loss, hunger and dislocation that will result. Part II examines the social aspects of the world's fishing industry, including the demography of fishers, utilization of fisheries products, the relative social contribution of aquaculture and policy responses to overcapacity. Policy makers could enhance the social benefits of marine fisheries – both jobs and food – through a combination of government oversight and community‐based management.
Financing water supply and sanitation under Agenda 21
Authors: Briscoe John , Garn Harvey A
Published: October 2009

This paper assesses the financing challenges which have to be met by developing countries if water resources are to be managed efficiently, if the quality of the aquatic environment is to be improved and if water related services are to be delivered in a responsive, efficient and equitable way. This paper takes the view that attaching ‘price tags’ to water supply and sanitation, as was tentatively done in Agenda 21, is a misguided approach and that what is needed is articulation of clear principles which should underpin the financing of water supply and sanitation investments. To illustrate the approach the paper focuses heavily on experiences from World Bank water supply, sanitation and urban development projects over the past 30 years. The challenge is to develop appropriate institutional and financial arrangements. The essence of such arrangements is that they ensure that societies mobilize appropriate levels of resources for providing water related environmental services and that these resources are used in the most efficient and effective way possible.
Legal and regulatory aspects of financing commodity exporters and the provision of bank hedging line credit in developing countries
Authors: Budd Nicholas
Published: October 2009

Exporters of raw materials and commodities in developing countries depend on the availability of hard currency pre‐export financing and the adoption of pricing policies which meet the requirements of the international marketplace to produce and market their products in an efficient manner. The author has identified a number of structural obstacles which impede access both to international financing and to price risk management tools which could be overcome through relatively simple modifications in export regulations, currency controls, insurance regulations and in laws concerning title to goods.
The illegal trading of high unit value minerals in developing countries
Authors: Kambani Stephens M
Published: October 2009

Attracted by the high unit value and low barriers to entry in terms of capital requirements, technology, infrastructure, minimum reserves and implementation time, the artisanal and small‐scale mining of high unit value minerals, such as gemstones, diamonds and gold, has grown to significant proportions in developing countries. This is manifested by the value of output and large numbers of miners engaged in this activity. Despite the expansion of the subsector, its national economic role in many developing countries has largely been disappointing, primarily due to high levels of illegal trading activity. The objectives of this paper are to identify major factors responsible for the declaration problem. The economic impact of such activities is pointed out. To conclude the discussion, options are presented that provide a basis for eliminating illegal marketing practices and thereby strengthening the economic role of the subsector in meeting national development objectives of developing countries.
Urban household energy use patterns in Nigeria
Authors: Adegbulugbe A O , Akinbami J F K
Published: October 2009

Urban household energy use accounts for a large proportion of commercial fuel consumption in Nigeria. As population and urbanization increase, consumption is expected to rise rapidly in the future. It is therefore important to have information on the utilization pattern and factors driving consumption of urban household energy. Such information will be useful within the national energy planning framework for deriving strategies for a more rational energy utilization and increased reliability of energy supply to the urban household. In this paper, the major results from an urban household survey are presented. In the survey, data on various factors including energy consumption by income group, fuel preferences, sources and reliability of energy supply, and expenditure on energy are collected and analysed. Major conclusions are drawn on the possibilities for fuel supply/demand balance, and strategies for efficient energy utilization in the urban household.