bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Outbreak investigations
Authors: Nelson Kenrad E.
Published: September 2009

This chapter illustrates the developments that have taken place in the investigation of outbreaks of infectious disease. It describes the advances that have occurred as a result of the use of molecular tests and of the development of surveillance now possible with the use of computers. Much modern technology has yet to be implemented on a large scale and at a more rapid rate. It has to be linked to population monitoring both humans and animals worldwide, as illustrated by the current epidemic of bird flu.
Development of modern epidemiology: clinical epidemiology
Authors: Heller Richard F.
Published: September 2009

This chapter discusses the development of clinical epidemiology. It shows that the population approach, through epidemiological theory and practice, has found a ready and sustained application in clinical practice through clinical epidemiology and evidence-based medicine. The challenge to epidemiologists is to build on the success of clinical epidemiology, and build and institutionalize epidemiology as key to the development and implementation of an evidence base for population health.
Epidemiological methods: a view from the Americas
Authors: Franco Eduardo L. , Mahmud Salaheddin M. , Dean Andrew G.
Published: September 2009

This chapter discusses the history of epidemiological methods. It provides a personal account of how the three authors view the evolution of study designs, statistical methodology, and the development of epidemiological computer software that aided progress in the field. Whenever appropriate, emphasis is given to the view from the Americas. However, in the interest of providing a seamless historical perspective, key scientific developments from other continents are also included.
Epidemiological methods: a view from the East Mediterranean
Authors: Wahdan Mohamed H. , Mandil Ahmed , Wahdan Mohamed H.
Published: September 2009

This chapter presents an account of obstacles to epidemiology and the difficulty of coping with disease outbreaks with political implications. It illustrates that epidemiology needs an official ‘code of conduct’ to prevent the suppression and manipulation of research findings. It demonstrates the importance of the support of the WHO in disease control in developing countries and the need for coordination and cooperation.
The development of modern epidemiology in the East
Authors: Sitthi-amorn Chitr
Published: September 2009

This chapter discusses the role of epidemiology in the control of malaria, tuberculosis, HIV/AIDS, and emerging infections such as SARS and avian flu in Asia and Thailand. It argues that epidemiology as a means for providing information for action will be increasingly important in influencing policy and practices both nationally and internationally because of new threats from emerging diseases, ethnic conflicts, environmental pollution, and other risks including trade in agricultural products. Lessons learned from the epidemics of HIV/AIDS, SARS, and avian influenza A in Asia, and in particular in Thailand, have shown that epidemiology informing policy and practices can be effective despite the complexity.
Epidemiological methods: a view from north Asia/Japan
Authors: Aoki Kunio , Shigematsu Itsuzo
Published: September 2009

This chapter traces the development of epidemiology in Japan. One of the main drivers to the growth in importance of epidemiology and its involvement in health policy was partly the investigation of a number of major environmental disasters, such as cadmium and mercury poisoning, and the need to follow up the survivors of the atom bombs in Hiroshima and Nagasaki to better understand the long-term effects of radiation exposure. Japan also showed the way in the exploitation of disease registers — and now demonstrates the ability to investigate the cause of rare diseases through nationally coordinated studies.
The development of epidemiology: the United States of America
Authors: Winkelstein Jr Warren , Barrett-Connor Elizabeth
Published: September 2009

This chapter discusses the development of epidemiology in North America. It suggests that one of the most important reasons for the growth in funding of epidemiology in the USA after the Second World War was concern with germ warfare (later biological warfare) and the Cold War. The chapter illustrates the importance of Joseph Goldberger's work on the identification of the causes of pellagra and its control, the analysis and determination of cause and effect in lung cancer and smoking, and the epidemiology of cervical cancer as major stimuli in the development of epidemiology in the USA.
Poland
Authors: Magdzik Wieslaw , Wysocki Miroslaw J. , Zejda Jan E.
Published: September 2009

This chapter traces the development of epidemiology in Poland. It demonstrates the improvement in health in Poland (and Eastern Europe) due to the control of communicable disease and shows that in the past forty years there have been major advances in the study of chronic respiratory diseases, cancer, and diabetes which have led to better methods of control. It highlights the emergence of studies in children and environmental hazards to illustrate how epidemiological research has attempted to develop methods for the prevention and control of chronic disease.
Information, Physics, and Computation
Authors: Mézard Marc , Montanari Andrea
Published: September 2009

This book presents a unified approach to a rich and rapidly evolving research domain at the interface between statistical physics, theoretical computer science/discrete mathematics, and coding/information theory. The topics which have been selected, including spin glasses, error correcting codes, satisfiability, are central to each field. The approach focuses on the limit of large random instances, adopting a common formulation in terms of graphical models. It presents message passing algorithms like belief propagation and survey propagation, and their use in decoding and constraint satisfaction solving. It also explains analysis techniques like density evolution and the cavity method, and uses them to derive phase diagrams and study phase transitions.
Introduction to combinatorial optimization
Authors: Mézard Marc , Montanari Andrea
Published: September 2009

This chapter provides an elementary introduction to some basic concepts in theoretical computer science. It includes basic notions of graph theory and an informal introduction to computational complexity, presenting the basic classes P, NP, and NP-complete. These notions are illustrated by discussions of the minimal spanning tree and satisfiability problems, and by applications from statistical physics (spin glasses and maximum cuts), and from coding theory (decoding complexity).
The random code ensemble
Authors: Mézard Marc , Montanari Andrea
Published: September 2009

This chapter studies the simplest error correcting code ensemble, introduced by Shannon, in which codewords are independent random points on the hypercube. This code achieves optimal error correcting performances, and offers a constructive proof of the ‘direct’ part of the channel coding theorem: it is possible to communicate with vanishing error probability as long as the communication rate is smaller than the channel capacity. It is also very closely related to the Random Energy Model.
Introduction to replica theory
Authors: Mézard Marc , Montanari Andrea
Published: September 2009

In the past twenty-five years, the replica method has evolved into a rather sophisticated tool for attacking theoretical problems as diverse as spin glasses, protein folding, vortices in superconductors, combinatorial optimization, etc. Although it is not be the main tool of this book, it is nevertheless instructive to have some knowledge of replicas: the replica method is a non-trivial construction which is surprisingly powerful. Several of its most important predictions have been confirmed rigorously through alternative approaches. This chapter gives a compact account of the replica method. It describes the close connection between replica symmetry breaking and the Poisson–Dirichlet process, and it emphasizes the role played by ‘overlaps’ between replicas.
Spin glasses
Authors: Mézard Marc , Montanari Andrea
Published: September 2009

This chapter describes random magnetic systems, ‘spin glasses’, by special random ensembles of factor graphs. It also studies the glass phase, characterized by a freezing of the spins, in the framework of equilibrium statistical physics. It describes the two types of spin glass phase transitions that have been encountered in mean field models, and introduces the relevant order parameters to describe them based on the notion of overlap. Special attention is given to the concept of frustration — a basic ingredient of spin glasses — which is discussed in conjunction with gauge transformations.
Decoding with belief propagation
Authors: Mézard Marc , Montanari Andrea
Published: September 2009

This chapter revisits the problem of decoding low density parity check (LDPC) codes. The maximum a posteriori probability (MAP) decoding of a bit is described as a statistical inference problem, and belief propagation is applied to its solution. The corresponding message passing procedure is analyzed in details, and the threshold noise level below which this ‘iterative decoding’ achieves perfect decoding is derived. The chapter ends with a general discussion of the relation between message passing and optimal (exact symbol MAP) decoding.
Ising models on random graph
Authors: Mézard Marc , Montanari Andrea
Published: September 2009

This chapter studies two problems of statistical physics: the ferromagnet and the spin glass, on large random graphs with fixed degree profile. It describes the use of the replica symmetric cavity method in this context, and studies its stability. The analysis relies on physicists methods, without any attempt at being rigorous. It provides a complete solution of the ferromagnetic problem at all temperatures. In the spin glass case, the replica symmetric solution is asymptotically correct in the high temperature ‘paramagnetic’ phase, but it turns out to be wrong in the spin glass phase. The phase transition temperature can be computed exactly.
Random K-satisfiability
Authors: Mézard Marc , Montanari Andrea
Published: September 2009

This chapter studies an ensemble of random satisfiability problems, ‘random K-satisfiability’ (K-SAT). Applying the 1RSB cavity method, it first derives the phase diagram in the limit of large N, in particular the location of the SAT-UNSAT threshold. Within the SAT phase, the chapter focuses on the intermediate clustered phase close, and computes the number of clusters to leading exponential order in N. The application of survey propagation to this problem is then described. Combined with a simple decimation procedure, the chapter provides an efficient method for finding satisfiable assignments in the clustered phase. The whole chapter is based on heuristic arguments. There is not yet any rigorous proof of the results presented, neither concerning the phase diagram, nor the convergence properties of message passing algorithms and their use in decimation procedures.
Glassy states in coding theory
Authors: Mézard Marc , Montanari Andrea
Published: September 2009

In the limit of large block-length, iteratively decoded low density parity check (LDPC) codes exhibit two phase transitions. At low noise, the bit error rate under belief propagation decoding vanishes. In a second regime belief propagation decoding fails but maximum a posteriori probability (MAP) decoding succeeds. Finally above a second noise threshold decoding is impossible even with unbounded computational power. This chapter develops a common approach to these two transitions, through the study of ‘metastable’ configurations of the bits that are not codewords. It identifies the belief propagation phase transition with the onset of a dynamical glass phase, detected through the one step replica symmetry breaking approach. This is a structural phenomenon that spoils the performance of a large variety of decoders, from general iterative message passing schemes to simulated annealing.
Life course approaches to socioeconomic differentials in health
Authors: Kuh Diana , Ben-Shlomo Yoav
Published: September 2009

This chapter considers how influences acting at different stages of life course contribute to the social distribution of risk factors that help determine socioeconomic differences in health. Evidence suggests a strong case for the contribution of socioeconomic conditions at different stages of the life course to health differentials in adulthood. However, the specific weights of the contribution of early and later life socioeconomic conditions differ according to the outcome, time period, and population being studied. For cardiovascular diseases, poor socioeconomic conditions in early life appear to make a significant contribution to disease risk in adult life independent of, and through influences on, adult risk factors. There is also growing evidence that the effect of early life socioeconomic conditions may depend on interactions with other risk factors in later life.
Ischaemic heart disease and cerebrovascular disease mortality trends with special reference to England and Wales; are there cohort effects?
Authors: Kuh Diana , Ben-Shlomo Yoav
Published: September 2009

It is widely believed that trends in ischemic heart disease (IHD) death rates in many countries have risen to a synchronized peak at every age and then declined. This has been taken as evidence that the factors responsible for the rise and fall in rates have acted in adult life. It has also been taken as evidence against the important influence of early life factors on the incidence of disease. The argument is that early life factors would produce cohort effects, that is, changes in the rates that were synchronized according to year of birth rather than year of death. This chapter examines trends in IHD rates in England and Wales to assess whether this popular belief is true. It also analyzes cerebrovascular disease rates in England and Wales.
A life course approach to respiratory and allergic diseases
Authors: Kuh Diana , Ben-Shlomo Yoav
Published: September 2009

This chapter examines the independent and combined effects of perinatal or childhood exposures and adult lifestyle on the development of both allergic and non-allergic lung disease. Topics discussed include the development of ventilary function, effects of childhood chest illness on lung function and respiratory disease, allergic sensitization, and later influences on adult respiratory disease. It also reviews trends in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, and allergy.
Should we intervene to improve fetal and infant growth?
Authors: Kuh Diana , Ben-Shlomo Yoav
Published: September 2009

This chapter examines the potential impact that interventions in pregnancy and early childhood may have on diseases in adult life. It begins by reviewing current literature with regard to the efficacy of interventions for improving fetal growth. It describes the possible unintended effects that such may have on the mother and infant. Findings from the Hertfordshire (UK) studies and more recent studies from Finland are then used to estimate the magnitude of coronary heart disease that could be prevented by improving fetal growth.
Conclusions
Authors: Kuh Diana , Ben-Shlomo Yoav
Published: September 2009

This chapter begins with a brief summary of the preceding chapters. It then discusses emerging and common themes in life course research, methodological challenges, and policy implications. It concludes with a positive future for a life course approach to chronic disease epidemiology.
A world ravaged by a disease without HAART
Authors: Zuniga José M. , Ghaziani Amin
Published: September 2009

This chapter begins with a recollection of the early days of HIV and AIDS, prior to the advent of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). It chronicles the so-called ‘dark ages’ of HIV/AIDS treatment, which focused on the treatment of patients with chemical agents already in use. It describes the advent and evolution of HAART and its extension of and enhancement of life with HIV.
Turning the world on its ear: defining milestones on the road to HAART
Authors: Kazatchkine Michel D. , Fransen Lieve
Published: September 2009

This chapter looks back at some of the milestones on the road to highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) in the developed and developing world, recognizing the remarkable progress that has been achieved. It also acknowledges that the accumulated short-term experience may be neither sufficient nor appropriate when facing the long-term challenges raised by the epidemic, and the need for effective large-scale access to prevention, treatment, and care for all those in need worldwide.
Country review: Australia
Authors: Glenday Kathleen , Petoumenos Kathy , Law Matthew G. , Cooper David A.
Published: September 2009

This chapter discusses HIV in Australia. Topics covered include epidemiology of HIV infection in Australia, primary and newly diagnosed HIV infection in Australia, treatment strategies during the era of HAART in Australia, and the impact of HAART in Australia.
Country review: Italy
Authors: Maserati Renato
Published: September 2009

This chapter begins with a discussion of the HIV epidemic in Italy. It then discusses the management of people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA) and patients' perceptions of the aims and perils of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART).
Country review: United States of America
Authors: Sherer Renslow
Published: September 2009

This chapter considers selected aspects of the first decade of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) in the United States. It begins with a review of the epidemiology and the scientific understanding of the pathogenesis of HIV disease in 1994. It then considers the societal impact of AIDS and the role of community activists, and turns to the state of treatment in 1994 and the early HAART era that followed, with emphasis on rapid access to treatment and early lessons with treatment adherence and toxicity. To better describe the impact of HAART at the local level, the chapter considers this era in Chicago with an emphasis on the public sector. It examines the issues that emerged in the early HAART era — particularly adherence, treatment toxicity, and drug resistance — that have greatly influenced trends in treatment outcomes. The chapter concludes with some observations for the coming decade of HIV/AIDS in the United States.
EuroSIDA: a prospective observational study of chronic HIV infection across the European continent
Authors: Lundgren Jens D. , Kirk Ole , Mocroft Amanda
Published: September 2009

This chapter reviews the EurSIDA. The EuroSIDA study was initiated in 1994 to study the clinical implications of the HIV epidemic in Europe and provide a continued surveillance mechanism for detection of emerging problems at a European level. The study's primary objective remains to prospectively study demographic, clinical, therapeutic, virologic, and laboratory data from those infected with HIV across Europe in order to determine the long-term virologic, immunologic, and clinical outcomes.
The Swiss HIV Cohort Study (SHCS)
Authors: Günthard Huldrych F. , Hirschel Bernard
Published: September 2009

This chapter reviews the Swiss HIV Cohort Study (SHCS). The SHCS is an ongoing multi-centre research project dealing with HIV-infected adults aged sixteen years or older. Established in 1988, the SHCS adopted its present structure and mode of operation in 1995: separation between infrastructure and research budgets; performance-based remuneration towards infrastructure allocated to each centre; implementation of a quality control programme; and research targeting specific focus areas.
Country review: South Africa
Authors: Wood Robin , Martin Des
Published: September 2009

This chapter begins with a description of the epidemiology of HIV in South Africa. It then discusses government policy on universal access to ART, treatment access in South Africa, the Southern African HIV Clinicians Society, and the importance of HAART on control of viraemia, opportunistic infections, and survival.
The HIV Netherlands-Australia-Thailand research collaboration (HIV-NAT)
Authors: Ruxrungtham Kiat
Published: September 2009

This chapter reviews the HIV Netherlands-Australia-Thailand Research Collaboration (HIV-NAT). HIV-NAT is an HIV-related clinical trials research centre under the aegis of the Thai Red Cross AIDS Research Centre (TRC-ARC). It was established in 1996 by collaboration between three organizations: the Thai Red Cross AIDS Research Centre in Bangkok; the National Centre in HIV Epidemiology and Clinical Research (NCHECR) in Sydney; and the International Antiviral Therapy Evaluation Centre (IATEC) in Amsterdam. The main missions of HIV-NAT are to conduct clinical trials of antiretroviral drugs according to the International Conference on Harmonisation/WHO Good Clinical Practice (ICH GCP) standards and to address research questions that are relevant and have a high impact on developing countries.
Country review: Malawi
Authors: Schouten Erik J. , Makombe Simon D. , Harries Anthony D. , Kamoto Kelita
Published: September 2009

This chapter describes the epidemiological characteristics of HIV infection in Malawi. It then presents the antiretroviral therapy (ART) scale-up programme and analyses the reasons why the country was able to achieve a good degree of success and to discuss challenges of the programme.
Closing the gap in the next decade of HAART: one world, one standard
Authors: Piot Peter , Fleet Julian , Dube Siddharth
Published: September 2009

This chapter presents a vision of the outcomes that must be achieved in the next decade of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). It argues that the massive efforts and investments needed to achieve these outcomes are justified by the present and future threat posed by AIDS, and that these outcomes are feasible, as demonstrated by the equally unprecedented advances made in the first decade of HAART. It recommends strategies to help ensure that these vital outcomes are realized in the decade ahead.
Simple Models of the Casimir Effect
Authors: Bordag M. , Klimchitskaya G. L. , Mohideen U. , Mostepanenko V. M.
Published: September 2009

This chapter discusses several basic ideas and methods related to the calculation of the Casimir energies and forces using some simple models. The simplicity of these models means that cumbersome mathematical calculations can be avoided and they demonstrate the basic problems that will be repeatedly considered in the following chapters in a more sophisticated context. Important procedures such as regularization and renormalization of infinite quantities are illustrated, both physically and mathematically. Despite the elementary character of the chapter, the main physical situations where the Casimir effect arises (i.e., in regions with boundaries and in spaces with nontrivial topology) are discussed. Local and global approaches to the Casimir effect, and well-known formulas for the electromagnetic Casimir pressure and energy per unit area between two parallel ideal-metal planes are derived.
Field Quantization and Vacuum Energy in the Presence of Boundaries
Authors: Bordag M. , Klimchitskaya G. L. , Mohideen U. , Mostepanenko V. M.
Published: September 2009

From the standpoint of quantum field theory, the Casimir effect is related to the vacuum polarization that arises in quantization volumes restricted by boundaries or in spaces with nontrivial topology. Both boundaries and the nontrivial topology of space-time can be considered as classical external conditions, on which background the field quantization should be performed. This chapter presents the basic facts related to the quantization procedure for fields of various spins obeying boundary (or identification) conditions. It starts with the classical wave equations and then considers various boundary conditions. The rest of the chapter is devoted to both the canonical and path-integral field quantization procedures in the presence of boundaries and to different representations for the vacuum energy. Propagators with boundary conditions are also introduced. Although fields of different spin are touched upon, the presentation is primarily devoted to the case of the electromagnetic field in the presence of material boundaries.
The Casimir Effect at Nonzero Temperature
Authors: Bordag M. , Klimchitskaya G. L. , Mohideen U. , Mostepanenko V. M.
Published: September 2009

This chapter considers Casimir energy not in the vacuum state of a quantum field in the presence of boundaries but in a state containing real particles in thermal equilibrium. In fact, an ensemble of states characterized by a temperature T and a probability distribution is considered. In quantum field theory there exist several methods to treat a system at nonzero temperature. The easiest and most frequently used method is the imaginary-time Matsubara formalism. It is applied to find a general finite expression for Casimir free energy. Asymptotic expressions for the Casimir free energy are obtained in the cases of low and high temperature. The coefficients of the high-temperature expansion are expressed in terms of the heat kernel coefficients.
The Casimir Effect in Rectangular Boxes
Authors: Bordag M. , Klimchitskaya G. L. , Mohideen U. , Mostepanenko V. M.
Published: September 2009

This chapter demonstrates that the Casimir force inside a rectangular box can be both attractive and repulsive. A detailed investigation of the Casimir energy and force for fields of various spins, when it may be positive or negative, as a function of the box dimensions and the type of boundary conditions is performed. In particular, the analytical results for two- and three-dimensional boxes are obtained by repeated application of the Abel–Plana formula and using the Epstein zeta function. The problem of isolation of the divergent terms in the vacuum energy and their interpretation is discussed in connection with the problem of a rectangular box divided into two sections by a movable partition (piston). Both the old classical results and recent results related to boxes with a piston at zero and nonzero temperatures are presented. As shown in the chapter, the two sets of results are in mutual agreement.
Spaces With Non-Euclidean Topology
Authors: Bordag M. , Klimchitskaya G. L. , Mohideen U. , Mostepanenko V. M.
Published: September 2009

This chapter presents a brief review of the Casimir effect in spaces with nontrivial topology (both flat and curved). As an important application of the numerous results obtained in this field, the vacuum energy-momentum tensor due to the Casimir effect in the closed Friedmann model is considered. A related subject is the role of the Casimir effect in multidimensional Kaluza–Klein theories, where it provides one of the mechanisms for compactification of extra spatial dimensions. This is also reflected in the chapter, which is concluded with a brief discussion of the Casimir effect for topological defects, such as cosmic strings and domain walls. This problem is of interest for cosmology because some grand unification theories predict the formation of such defects in the early Universe.
The Casimir Force Between Rough Surfaces and Corrugated Surfaces
Authors: Bordag M. , Klimchitskaya G. L. , Mohideen U. , Mostepanenko V. M.
Published: September 2009

This chapter considers the Casimir force, including the effect of surface roughness, emphasizing those approaches that can be used for comparison between experiment and theory. Thus, the method of pairwise summation allows for the calculation of roughness corrections for large scale roughness. The method of geometrical averaging, based on the proximity force approximation, is discussed in connection with the limits of its validity. The relationship between these phenomenological methods is investigated with the example of two nonparallel plates. The more fundamental approaches suggested in the literature, which are needed for the description of short-scale roughness, are presented. At the end of the chapter various approaches to the theoretical description of both the normal and the lateral Casimir force between sinusoidally corrugated surfaces are examined. The influence of sinusoidal corrugations on atom-wall interactions is also considered.
General Requirements for Casimir Force Measurements
Authors: Bordag M. , Klimchitskaya G. L. , Mohideen U. , Mostepanenko V. M.
Published: September 2009

Given that the Casimir force is very small and has a strong dependence on the separation distance and on the geometrical and material properties of the boundary surfaces, the measurement of this force is a challenging task. This chapter briefly considers older measurements of the Casimir force and formulates the general experimental requirements and best practices which follow from these measurements. Next, rigorous procedures for comparison of experiment with theory in relation to the force-distance measurements are discussed. Specifically, the presentation of the experimental errors and precision and the theoretical uncertainties for real materials are elaborated on. The statistical framework for the comparison between experiment and theory is also discussed. The concepts introduced in the chapter are used in Chapters 19–25, where the main experiments on the measurement of the Casimir force are considered.
Measurements of the Casimir Force in Configurations with Corrugated Boundaries
Authors: Bordag M. , Klimchitskaya G. L. , Mohideen U. , Mostepanenko V. M.
Published: September 2009

Configurations with corrugated boundaries present opportunities for the observation of a new phenomenon, the lateral Casimir force. This chapter considers the results of three experiments performed to date, where the Casimir force due to corrugated boundaries has been measured. In the first experiment, the normal Casimir force between a sinusoidally corrugated plate and a smooth sphere was measured. The second experiment demonstrated for the first time the phenomenon of the lateral Casimir force in the sphere-plate configuration, where both bodies were covered with uniaxial sinusoidal corrugations. In the third experiment, the normal Casimir force between a plate with rectangular corrugations and a smooth sphere was measured. The corresponding theoretical approaches are also considered, and the possibility to control the lateral Casimir force by use of uniaxial corrugations of arbitrary shape is discussed.
Constraints on Hypothetical Interactions from the Casimir Effect
Authors: Bordag M. , Klimchitskaya G. L. , Mohideen U. , Mostepanenko V. M.
Published: September 2009

Many extensions to the Standard Model of elementary particles predict the existence of long-range interactions between neutral macrobodies in addition to Newtonian gravity. This chapter summarizes the constraints on these interactions obtained from the Casimir effect and compares them with the parallel progress in gravitational measurements. The availability of new precise measurements of the Casimir force, considered in Chapter 19, has provided further impetus for rapid progress in this direction. As a result, in the last few years, the previously known constraints on Yukawa interactions in the submicrometer range have been strengthened by up to ten thousand times. As shown in the chapter, the strongest constraints at the shortest separations follow from measurements of the Casimir force.
How is Hegelian Metaphysics Possible?
Authors: Stern Robert
Published: September 2009

This chapter considers what makes the Hegel's enterprise in metaphysics distinctive, and in particular how it differs from that of his great predecessor, Immanuel Kant. It is argued that while Hegel should be understood as going further in his metaphysical enterprise than Kant's critical approach would warrant, Hegel has good internal reasons for thinking that Kant's position was unstable, and thus that a more ambitious project could be vindicated, of a more traditionally ontological kind. On the other hand, it is also argued that Hegel did not go as far as offering a metaphysics of ‘the absolute’ along transcendent lines. The chapter also lays out the connecting threads that link the chapters that follow.
Hegel's Idealism
Authors: Stern Robert
Published: September 2009

The nature of Hegel's idealism has been much disputed, and this chapter offers an account of it that is distinctive. Against recent commentators such as Robert Pippin, it is argued that Hegel was not a Kantian or transcendental idealist. It is also argued that Hegel was not a mentalistic idealist, offering a kind of ‘spirit monism’ that reduced the world to mind. Instead Hegel understood idealism to be the view that ‘the finite has no veritable being’, where this leads to a position according to which thought cannot grasp what truly exists through experience but only through a kind of rationalist theorizing, and that this in turn requires us to accept a form of realism about concepts. This conceptual realism makes up the core of Hegel's idealism, understood as the anti-nominalist doctrine that reality is structured by concepts that render it accessible to thought.
Did Hegel Hold an Identity Theory of Truth?
Authors: Stern Robert
Published: September 2009

The aim of this chapter is to criticize Thomas Baldwin's claim that in developing an identity theory of truth F. H. Bradley was following Hegel. It is argued that Baldwin has incorrectly understood certain passages from Hegel which he cites in defense of this view, and that Hegel's conception of truth in these passages was material, not propositional — that is, it concerned the identity of an object and its concept, not a proposition and object being referred to in that proposition.
Hegel'sDoppelsatz: A Neutral Reading
Authors: Stern Robert
Published: September 2009

In the Preface to the Philosophy of Right, Hegel writes that ‘what is rational is actual; and what is actual is rational’. This so-called Doppelsatz has been much discussed, with commentators offering both conservative and progressive readings of Hegel's meaning. This chapter takes a different approach, arguing that the Doppelsatz should be understood in a normatively neutral way, claiming instead that it is a defense of Hegel's philosophical rationalism, and his belief that the political world is amenable to the sort of rational investigation he offers in the Philosophy of Right.
British Hegelianism: A Non‐Metaphysical View?
Authors: Stern Robert
Published: September 2009

This chapter puts forward a revisionary reading of Hegel's reception in Britain at the turn of the 19th century, in suggesting that the stance of the British Hegelians is very close to the sort of non-metaphysical or category theory interpretations that have been in vogue amongst contemporary commentators. It is shown that the British Hegelians arrived at this position as a way of responding to the hostile existentialist reaction to Hegel begun by F. W. J. Schelling in the 1840s, which led them to abandon the standard Neoplatonic reading of his idealism, and arrive at the sort of non-metaphysical account which is most fully developed by J. M. E. McTaggart in his interpretation of Hegel's Logic.
Peirce on Hegel: Nominalist or Realist?
Authors: Stern Robert
Published: September 2009

This chapter considers one of Peirce's criticisms of Hegel, namely, that Hegel was a nominalist. The nature of this criticism is explored, particularly in the light of another of Peirce's claims about Hegel, viz. that he was overcommitted to what Peirce calls ‘Thirdness’, where it is then prima facie puzzling how Hegel can have both faults, as the latter involves a kind of realism about generality or universals which nominalists characteristically reject. The chapter then considers the justice of Peirce's criticism, where it is argued that the criticism is unwarranted, and that in some respects it is curious to find Peirce making it at all, when he could just as easily have treated Hegel as an ally in his struggle against nominalism.
Peirce, Hegel, and the Category of Secondness
Authors: Stern Robert
Published: September 2009

This chapter focuses on Peirce's criticism that Hegel neglected to give sufficient weight to what Peirce calls ‘Secondness’, in a way that put his philosophical system out of touch with reality. The nature of this criticism is explored, together with its relevant philosophical background. It is argued that while the issues Peirce raises go deep, nonetheless in some respects Hegel's position is closer to his own than he may have realised, whilst in others that criticism can be resisted by the Hegelian.
James and Bradley on the Limits of Human Understanding
Authors: Stern Robert
Published: September 2009

This chapter offers a comparative assessment of the views of William James and F. H. Bradley on the topic of human understanding and its limits. It is argued that while both have a distrust of the conceptual aspects of thought, and so share the view that the human intellect will always fail to gain absolute knowledge, they develop this idea very differently, thanks to the divergence in their respective philosophical outlooks: whereas Bradley developed it in the context of a post-Hegelian intellectualist rationalism, James did so in the context of his pragmatic humanism. The nature of the dispute between James and Bradley on this issue is explored, as an important turning point in the philosophical ‘Weltbild’ of the 20th century.
A Contract on Future Generations?
Authors: Gardiner Stephen M.
Published: September 2009

Contract theories — such as contractarianism and contractualism — seek to justify (and sometimes to explain) moral and political ideals and principles through the notion of ‘mutually agreeable reciprocity or cooperation between equals’ (Darwall 2002). This chapter argues that such theories face fundamental difficulties in the intergenerational setting. Most prominently, the standard understanding of cooperation appears not to apply, and the intergenerational setting brings on a more severe collective action problem than the traditional prisoner's dilemma. Mainstream contract theorists (such as Gauthier and Rawls) have tried to overcome such difficulties by postulating some kind of chain of connection between generations. However, as this chapter maintains, thus far such attempts have proven inadequate. Given this, it seems either that mainstream contract theory needs to be rethought, or that a new, specifically intergenerational, contract theory is needed.
Three Models of Intergenerational Reciprocity
Authors: Gosseries Axel
Published: September 2009

This chapter explores the specificities, strengths, and weaknesses of the idea of reciprocity as a basis for intergenerational obligations. Three models are presented: descending, ascending, and double reciprocity. Each of these three models is tested against three objections. The first objection asks why having received something from someone would necessarily entail the obligation to give back. The second objection questions the ability of each model to justify the direction of reciprocation. A final objection looks at the extent to which reciprocity-based views adjust the content of our obligation to the fluctuations in population size.
A Value or an Obligation? Rawls on Justice to Future Generations
Authors: Heyd David
Published: September 2009

This chapter reviews Rawls' attempt to address the theoretical problem of extending the principles of justice to future generations. It examines the two options suggested by Rawls for solving the problem: the ‘general assembly’ and ‘the present-time-of-entry’. It argues that Rawls does not directly address the problem of the identity of future (possible) people, which means that the conditions for the inclusion of future people in the original position cannot be fully determined. Rawls wishes to offer a theory of just intergenerational distributions but it turns out that such a theory is logically dependent on the number and identity of future people, an issue which cannot itself be fixed in terms of an ideal contract under a veil of ignorance. The conclusion of the article is that the scope of the group in which the principles of justice are decided and implemented cannot itself be determined by a contractarian method.
What Motivates Us to Care for the (Distant) Future?
Authors: Birnbacher Dieter
Published: September 2009

Recognising moral responsibility in the abstract is generally not causally sufficient for complying with it in relevant situations, not even in the absence of strong conflicting motives. In the case of responsibility towards future generations this gap widens, for many reasons: prognostic uncertainty, anonymity of ‘moral patients’, lack of reciprocity, and sheer temporal distance. The chapter discusses how far these deficiencies in direct motivation to responsibility to future generations can be compensated by indirect motivations such as those postulated by the ‘chain-of-love’ model, by community ties, and by the wish to preserve what one values. The chapter also considers the role institutions might play in the channelling of indirect motivations and in internal and external self-binding, such as constitutional and other legal norms and the setting up of national and supranational councils capable of correcting the short term orientation of legislative bodies.
Preference‐formation and Intergenerational Justice
Authors: Bykvist Krister
Published: September 2009

It has been proved to be extremely difficult to find a theory of beneficence that would provide both a coherent and plausible account of our responsibilities to future generations. Matters seem to be even worse if we adopt a desire-based theory of well-being. If we assume that the well-being of a person crucially depends on how well her preferences are satisfied, then we need to worry not only about which persons to create, but also which desires to create. A satisfactory desire-theory, it is argue here, must define what is better for a person in terms of his absolute desires, not his comparative ones, and discriminate between desires on the basis of the values of their objects.
Egalitarianism and Population Change
Authors: Arrhenius Gustaf
Published: September 2009

What is the role of equality in the evaluation of populations of different sizes in respect to their goodness? The field of population ethics has been riddled with paradoxes which purport to show that our considered beliefs are inconsistent in cases where the number of people and their welfare varies. Parfit's well-known Mere Addition Paradox is a case in point. These paradoxes challenge at a fundamental level the existence of a satisfactory theory of our duties to future generations and intergenerational justice. This chapter discusses whether egalitarian concerns can help us solve these paradoxes. It is claimed that whereas egalitarian considerations are applicable in different number cases and can help us solve the Mere Addition Paradox, such considerations are not of much help in another paradox. The implications of the Priority View in different number cases are also examined.
Intergenerational Justice, Human Needs, and Climate Policy
Authors: Wolf Clark
Published: September 2009

Anthropogenic climate change policy involves tradeoffs between the rights and welfare of present and future people. A theory of justice should provide guidance to help make these tradeoffs appropriately and fairly. This chapter develops a revised Rawlsian theory of intergenerational justice, and applies it to the problem of climate policy. But unlike the received Rawlsian view, the view developed in this chapter considers the incorporation of a ‘needs principle’ as a first principle of justice. This principle specifies that meeting basic needs is the first priority of justice, prior even to the principle protecting fundamental liberties.
The Problem of a Perpetual Constitution
Authors: Muñiz‐Fraticelli Víctor M.
Published: September 2009

This chapter critically assesses the argument that it is unjust for one generation to bind subsequent ones to a certain political structure through a perpetual constitution, that is, one intended to govern a society for an indefinite period of time, without requiring periodic re-enactment or ratification. In the context of Thomas Jefferson's protest against constitutional perpetuity, and James Madison reply, it argues that the Madisonian position provides better reasons of both prudence and justice in favour of a perpetual constitution. Against Michael Otsuka's more recent objections, it defends a perpetual constitution on a combination of instrumental, consensual, and ontological grounds. Finally, it discusses the implications of interpretation and amendment on constitutional perpetuity, and the instances in which there might be good reasons to abandon perpetuity and reconstitute political society.
Global Frameworks or State-based Insolvencies—the Problem of Cross-border Insolvency
Authors: Mevorach Irit
Published: September 2009

Whereas the previous chapter considered the extent to which we should link between group members when resolving legal problems associated with groups, this chapter asks how to deal with the international element of the MEG insolvency, i.e., whether we should aim to unify insolvency process across borders. It considers the main schools of thought in cross-border insolvency, mainly the universality-territoriality dilemma, as well as the application of these theories in practice — examining different frameworks for cross-border insolvency including international initiatives at harmonization of insolvency laws. The chapter concludes with suggesting that both universalism and territorialism have a role to play in resolving the group insolvency problem. In deciding whether to apply universalism or territorialism based solutions consideration should be given to the degree to which the solution will achieve the goals of insolvency, but also to the type of MEG in default and the level of interference with state separateness which is invoked.
Equitable Distribution and Accountability
Authors: Mevorach Irit
Published: September 2009

This chapter focuses on pursuing fairness (substantive and procedural). It examines the compatibility of global consolidation mechanisms in light of these goals. It suggests that fairness in distribution requires that in ‘business integrated’ insolvent MEG cases, coordinated solutions should be pursued if this will benefit the group as a whole while not significantly harming certain entities. The system should otherwise respect rights of creditors vis-à-vis the entity to which they belong, and not mix assets and debts across the MEG (with ‘asset integration’ cases an exception). It also asks whether possible changes in the law applicable (following a change in the forum as a result of applying consolidation on a global level) fit with fairness in distribution, and suggests that it is indeed the case contingent on the application of certain safeguards. Global consolidation in appropriate cases also ensures accountability provided that mechanisms are in place to encourage participation, and that those in charge of global consolidation posses sufficient expertise.
The inherited microbiota of arthropods, and their importance in understanding resistance and immunity
Authors: Hurst Gregory D.D. , Darby Alistair C.
Published: September 2009

This chapter begins with a brief review of the diversity of insect–symbiont interactions. It then proposes that symbionts are similar to constitutive defences: the insect always pays a metabolic cost. However, secondary symbionts can be lost easily if the selection pressure exerted by a parasitoid relaxes, for example. Aside from protection, there is another twist to the story. In most cases, these symbionts will be expressing pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) similar to, or the same as, those of the pathogen. Moreover, the host needs to ensure that the symbionts cooperate. This establishes a very interesting perspective on the evolution of the insect's immune system: maintaining and managing symbionts could constitute a formidable selection pressure for the evolution of a policing system, such as immunity.