bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Additive Manufacturing in Powertrain Development – From Prototyping to Dedicated Production Design
Authors: Schoeffmann Wolfgang , Knollmayr Christof , Mehrabi Kambiz
Published: April 2024

Upcoming, increasingly stringent greenhouse gas (GHG) as well as emission limits demand for powertrain electrification throughout all vehicle applications. Increasing complexity of electrified powertrain architectures require an overall system approach combining modular component technology with integration and industrialization requirements when heading for further significant efficiency optimization.

At the same time focus on reduced development time, product cost and minimized additional investment demand reuse of current production, machining, and assembly facilities as far as possible.

Up to date additive manufacturing (AM) is an established prototype component, as well as tooling technology in the powertrain development process, accelerating procurement time and cost, as well as allowing to validate a significantly increased number of variants.

The production applications of optimized, dedicated AM-based component design however are still limited. There are several dependencies in the decision which components are suitable and whether it is economically beneficial to implement an AM solution. The traditional economy-of-scale model is not relevant, so the selection of components is preferably on applications with low annual volumes, or high number of different variants with volatile volume distribution, where traditional manufacturing methods are barely cost effective and AM specific processes allow considerable functional benefits such as component optimization, weight and size reduction, function integration.

Future cost competitive AM applications will include complex components in combination with high grade materials, such as high temperature and hydrogen resistant steel and nickel alloys, for low and medium volume production.

New multi-material AM processes, combining multi-metal manufacturing, as well as specific material properties, are subject of research programs and will support the mobility change by extending the applications to E-Motors, Fuel Cell systems and battery components.

Focus of the paper is on the application of metal-AM for prototype and small series of appropriate powertrain components on internal combustion engines, as well as electric and fuel cell applications. The motivation for the conversion from conventional to additive manufacturing is explained application specific in regard of functional optimization with AM-process related production design architecture, as well as economically to achieve higher profitability.
Analysis of Thermal Stress on Silicon Nitride Surface Caused by Drop-Wall Interaction at Engine Conditions
Authors: Ahamed Sheikh , Kong Song-Charng
Published: April 2024

The phenomenon of drop-wall interaction plays a crucial role in a wide range of industrial applications. When liquid droplets come into contact with a high-temperature surface, it can lead to thermal shock due to rapid temperature fluctuations. This abrupt temperature change can generate thermal stress within the solid wall material. If the thermal stress exceeds the material's strength in that specific stress mode, it can result in material failure. Therefore, it is imperative to delve into the evolving temperature patterns on high-temperature surfaces to optimize material durability. This study focuses on investigating drop-wall interactions within the context of engine environments. To achieve this, the Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) method is employed to simulate the impact of fuel droplets on a silicon nitride wall. The goal is to understand the heat transfer mechanisms, thermal penetration depths, and temperature distributions within the heated wall. Furthermore, this research explores the performance of ceramic materials, specifically silicon nitride, in terms of thermal stress. Thermal stress calculations are derived from temperature gradients and material properties. Results show that the silicon nitride glow plug can operate for infinite engine cycles if it is run under the relevant engine conditions.
Waste Heat Recovery via Inverted Brayton Cycle Bottoming a Twin-Turbo Gasoline Engine
Authors: Salek Farhad , Babaie Meisam , Zare Ali , Yang Junfeng , Bonatesta Fabrizio
Published: April 2024

Air pollution from internal combustion engines poses a significant apprehension for both global warming and public health on a worldwide scale. The adoption of hybridization and electrification within the vehicular fleet can help to tackle these challenges. This study evaluates a waste heat recovery system for electric power generation, based on the Inverted Brayton Cycle (IBC) coupled with a high-performance gasoline engine. The Mercedes-Benz CLS 350 CGI engine platform was modelled in AVL Boost software and validated against the reference published experimental data. The engine model was then modified to incorporate the IBC to study the performance of the proposed hybrid propulsion system. The IBC power output was calculated at a wide range of engine speed and load, and results showed that up to 18 kW of extra power output can be generated by the IBC system. Compared to the IC engine in isolation, by employing the IBC in hybrid series powertrain configuration, electrical power output increased by up to 20% at high speed and load. Moreover, IBC coupling in a parallel hybrid configuration decreased the main engine fuel consumption by 10-20% at high engine load.
Optimization of the IC Engine Piston Skirt Design Via Neural Network Surrogate and Genetic Algorithms
Authors: Zhong Xinlin , Yang Tsung-Yu , Tian Tian
Published: April 2024

Internal combustion (IC) engines still power most of the vehicles on road and will likely to remain so in the near future, especially for heavy duty applications in which electrification is typically more challenging. Therefore, continued improvements on IC engines in terms of efficiency and longevity are necessary for a more sustainable transportation sector. Two important design objectives for heavy duty engines with wet liners are to reduce friction loss and to lower the risks of cavitation damages, both of which can be greatly influenced by the piston-liner clearance and the design of the piston skirt. However, engine design optimization is difficult due to the nonlinear interactions between the key design variables and the design objectives, as well as the multi-physics and multi-scale nature of the mechanisms that are relevant to the design objectives. In this work, an efficient optimization method is proposed to optimize the piston skirt design and the piston-liner warm clearance with respect to the aforementioned objectives, subject to design constraints. The method couples a neural network surrogate of a high-fidelity numerical model for piston secondary motion, which can accurately predict the objective values corresponding to different piston skirt designs and piston-liner clearances, with genetic algorithms to seek designs that can achieve a good tradeoff between the two objectives, while having a reasonable computation cost. Results show that with the proposed method, the optimal skirt design can have up to 62% lower risk of cavitation damage and up to 42% lower friction loss compared to the baseline design while satisfying important design constraints.
System Level Simulation of H2 ICE after Treatment System
Authors: Chundru Venkata Rajesh , Sharp Christopher , Rahman Mohammed Mustafizur , Balakrishnan Arun
Published: April 2024

Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engines (H2 ICE) are gaining recognition as a nearly emission-free alternative to traditional ICE engines. However, H2 ICE systems face challenges related to thermal management, N2O emissions, and reduced SCR efficiency in high humidity conditions (15% H2O). This study assesses how hydrogen in the exhaust affects after-treatment system components for H2 ICE engines, such as Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR), Hydrogen Oxidation Catalyst (HOC), and Ammonia Slip Catalyst (ASC). Steady-state experiments with inlet H2 inlet concentrations of 0.25% to 1% and gas stream moisture levels of up to 15% H2O were conducted to characterize the catalyst response to H2 ICE exhaust. The data was used to calibrate and validate system component models, forming the basis for a system simulation. System model validation involved comparing the model against real-world data from production diesel engine after-treatment systems for transient cycles, including Federal Test Procedure (FTP) and Ramp model cycle (RMC) data. Subsequent simulations replicated H2 ICE exhaust conditions for steady-state and transient scenarios, yielding insights for optimizing H2 ICE applications. The paper’s final section presents results from an improved system comprising of HOC, SCR, ASC, and Hydrogen Particulate Filter (HPF), offering a potential pathway to achieving ultra-low NOx emissions in H2 ICE engines while addressing challenges like thermal management, N2O formation, and reduced SCR activity in high humidity conditions (15% H2O).
Representative Cyclist Collision Injury Risk Distributions for a Dense-Urban US ODD Using Naturalistic Dash Camera Data
Authors: Campolettano Eamon T. , Scanlon John M. , Kusano Kristofer D.
Published: April 2024

Automated driving systems (ADS) are designed toward safely navigating the roadway environment, which also includes consideration of potential conflict with other road users. Of particular concern is understanding the cumulative risk associated with vulnerable road users (VRUs) conflicts and collisions. VRUs represent a population of road users that have limited protection compared to vehicle occupants. These severity distributions are particularly useful in evaluating ADS real-world performance with respect to the existing fleet of vehicles. The objective of this study was to present event severity distributions associated with vehicle-cyclist collisions within an urban naturalistic driving environment by leveraging data from third-party vehicles instrumented with forward-facing cameras and a sensor suite (accelerometer sampling at 20 Hz and GPS [variable sampling frequency]). From over 66 million miles of driving, 30 collision events were identified. A global optimization routine was used on the accelerometer and GPS data to correct for sensor orientation and asynchronicity in data sampling. For each event, two key video frames were identified: the frame associated with impact and a frame associated with key vehicle kinematics (e.g. vehicle start/stop). These key frames were then mapped to the accelerometer and GPS data to determine vehicle speed at impact. For the events included in this dataset, impact speeds ranged from approximately 3.2 kph (2 mph) to 53.1 kph (33 mph). In 82% of events, the front of the vehicle struck the cyclist. Existing cyclist injury risk curves were then used to calculate the level of risk associated with the reconstructed impacts, and the probability of AIS3+ injury risk was observed to vary from minimal risk to approximately 30%. These data highlight the wide range of impact speeds and injury risk that may occur during vehicle-cyclist collisions.
Comparison of the Responses of the Thorax and Pelvis of the GHBMC M50 -O Using Two Different Foam Materials in a High-Speed Rear Facing Frontal Impact Scenario
Authors: Pradhan Vikram , Ramachandra Rakshit , Kang Yun Seok
Published: April 2024

Due to the lack of biofidelity seen in GHBMC M50-O in rear-facing impact simulations involving interaction with the seat back in an OEM seat, it is important to explore how the boundary conditions might be affecting the biofidelity and potentially formulate methods to improve biofidelity of different occupant models in the future while also maintaining seat validity. This study investigated the influence of one such boundary condition, which is the seat back foam material properties, on the thorax and pelvis kinematics and injury outcomes of the GHBMC 50th M50-O model in a high-speed rear-facing frontal impact scenario, which involves severe occupant loading of the seat back. Two different seat back foam materials were used – a stiff foam with high densification and a soft foam with low densification. The peak magnitudes of the T-spine resultant accelerations of the GHBMC M50-O increased with the use of soft foam as compared to stiff foam. However, the change in the average biofidelity of T-spine kinematics, as quantified through both BRS and CORA, was not significant. With an increased rearward excursion of the thorax in the case of the simulation with the soft foam, posterior rib fractures that matched PMHS rib fracture locations were predicted in the GHBMC M50-O, unlike the simulation with stiff foam. Pelvis kinematics of the GHBMC M50-O trended towards PMHS kinematics using soft foam, which was supported by a significant improvement in the average biofidelity as quantified through both BRS and CORA. However, pubic rami fractures were predicted in the GHBMC M50-O pelvis with the use of soft foam, unlike the PMHS. This study found that the peak magnitudes, shape of GHBMC M50-O kinematics and injuries are sensitive to foam material. However, a significant improvement in biofidelity of the kinematics and injury prediction of the GHBMC M50-O would require testing of foam materials at a compression rate that can be obtained from the PMHS tests, to accurately represent the seat foam in the rear-facing simulations, as well as age- and anthropometry-specific modifications to the GHBMC M50-O to capture PMHS characteristics more closely.
Enhancing Battery Thermal Management in Electric Vehicles through Reduced Order Modeling and Predictive Control for Quick Charging
Authors: Hu Qiuhao , Ding Peiran , Jiang Weiran , Fung Kenny
Published: April 2024

In the realm of electric vehicles (EVs), effective battery thermal management is critical to avert thermal runaway, overheating, and extend the operational lifespan of batteries. The process of designing thermal management systems can be substantially expedited through the utilization of modeling and simulation techniques. However, the high-fidelity 3D computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations often demand significant computational resources to provide comprehensive results under varying conditions. In this paper, we develop a reduced order model (ROM) to capture the battery thermal dynamics employing a sub-space method. To construct this ROM, we use high-fidelity CFD simulations to generate step responses of battery temperature with respect to the heat generation and cooling power. These step responses are subsequently used as training data for the ROM. To minimize computational expenses while preserving accuracy, we determine the minimal dimensionality of the ROM through the analysis of the singular values of the oblique projection matrix. To assess the accuracy and reliability of the developed ROM, a comprehensive comparison is conducted between ROM results and both CFD solutions and experimental data, specifically in a quick charge scenario. The ROM exhibits good agreement with both CFD and experimental results. Furthermore, a novel predictive control strategy is developed to enhance battery thermal management by leveraging the ROM-derived predictive information for real-time adjustments to the cooling setpoint. The predictive control approach leads to a reduction in total charging time, achieving an improvement of up to 16.2% compared to a baseline case with a constant cooling setpoint. Furthermore, the developed predictive control strategy outperforms traditional feedback control systems that rely solely on current state information.
Thermal Characterization of Lithium-Ion Batteries under Varying Operating Conditions
Authors: Adeyinka Adekanmi M. , Yu Kyungjin , Choe Song-Yul , Lee Wooju
Published: April 2024

Despite the widespread adoption of lithium-ion batteries in various applications such as energy storage, concerns related to thermal management have been persisting, primarily due to the heat generated during their operation and the associated adverse effects on its efficiency, safety, and lifetime. Hence, the thermal characterization of lithium-ion batteries is essential for optimizing the layout of the battery cells for a pack design and the corresponding thermal management system. This study focuses on an experimental investigation of heat generation of Li-ion batteries under different operating conditions, including charge-discharge rates, ambient temperatures, states of charge, and compressive pressure. The experiments were conducted using a custom-designed multifunctional calorimeter, enabling precise measurement of the heat generation rate of the battery and the entropy coefficient. The measured results have shown a good match with the calculated heat generation rate. Additionally, heat maps that show the influence of the operating conditions on the cell’s thermal performance are proposed. By offering a detailed and intuitive visualization of how different parameters impact heat generation and dissipation, these maps serve as a vital tool for battery pack engineers to optimize the design of thermal management systems.
Modeling the Impact of Thermal Management on Time and Space-Resolved Battery Degradation Rate
Authors: Koltsakis Grigorios , Besinas Dimitrios , Kanatas Apostolos , Spyridopoulos Spyridon , Lampropoulos Zisis , Koutsokeras Odysseas
Published: April 2024

The degradation rate of a Li-ion battery is a complex function of temperature and charge/discharge rates over its lifetime. There is obviously a keen interest in predictive electrochemical ageing models that account for known degradation mechanisms, primarily linked with the Solid Electrolyte Interface (SEI) formation and Li-plating, which are highly dependent on the cell temperature. Typically, such ageing models are formulated and employed at pack or cell level, neglecting intra-cell and cell-to-cell thermal and electrical non-uniformities. On the other hand, thermal management techniques can mitigate ageing by maintaining the battery pack within the desired temperature window either by cooling or heating. Inevitably, the cooling of the battery pack by conventional heat exchangers will introduce temperature non-uniformities that may in turn result in undesired intra-cell and/or cell-to-cell health non-uniformities. In this work, an extended multi-dimensional modeling approach is adopted to address intra-cell and cell-to-cell non-uniformities in terms of localized temperature and current. This extension is a key enabler for the prediction of localized temperature and overpotential that determine the rate of the anode deterioration via the formation of Li-plating and SEI. The electrochemical and ageing model parameters are obtained by a combination of literature data and in-house electro-thermal measurements of a pouch cell and a battery module. The model is developed within a commercial software. The study covers thermal management for both active cooling and active heating during battery fast-charging. The results show that inevitable temperature gradients are likely to result in degradation rates that are strongly non-uniform leading to unexpectedly high-capacity loss and resistance increase. The proposed methodology could eventually support the prediction of the battery lifespan as function of thermal design and control parameters at an early development phase.
Exploring Mechanical Impact Properties of 3D Printing Filaments: A Comprehensive Study of Brazilian Market Products
Authors: Freitas Leonardo Cardoso de , Goncalves Ana Paula , Polkowski Katielly , De Andrade Marina , Polkowski Rodrigo
Published: April 2024

As additive manufacturing continues to establish its position within the automotive sector, there is a need for a comprehensive exploration of the mechanical attributes exhibited by locally sourced filaments. Such investigation is extremely important, as it is intrinsically linked to ensuring the reliability and security of components manufactured through 3D printing. This research delves into an examination of the impact resistance properties demonstrated by 3D-printed specimens, employing filaments from three prominent Brazilian manufacturers. The main objective is to elucidate the suitability and potential applications of these filament materials (Polylactic Acid (PLA), Polyethylene Terephthalate Glycol (PETG), and Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS)) within the field of automotive engineering, thus contributing to the evolving landscape of additive manufacturing within this industry. This investigation encompasses the production of test specimens utilizing individual filaments into two distinct printing orientations (0°/90°), intended to mimic real-world scenarios commonly found on automotive components. Subsequently, we subject these specimens to standardized Izod impact tests conducted under carefully controlled temperature and humidity conditions. By analyzing the results, this research provides practical insights into the suitability of PLA, PETG, and ABS filaments for automotive 3D printing. This information will aid automotive engineers and manufacturers in selecting the most suitable filament material and print orientation to optimize the impact resistance of 3D printed parts, thus enhancing vehicle safety and longevity. This work contributes to the field of automotive engineering and additive manufacturing by addressing the specific needs of the market and showcasing the potential of locally sourced filament materials for creating robust 3D printed components in the automotive sector.
The Influence of Fundamental Processing Parameters of Ultrasonic Shot Peening on Surface Characteristics of 7B50-T7751 Alloy
Authors: Adeel Muhammad , Azeem Naqash , Xue Hongqian
Published: April 2024

Aluminum alloy has become an indispensable part of the automotive industry because of its excellent mechanical properties such as lightweight, high strength, high reliability, maintainability, and low cost. Aluminum alloy is used in automobiles, such as engine blocks, cylinder heads, intake manifolds, brake components, and fuel tanks. Fatigue and fracture are the main reasons for its engineering failure. Surface strengthening techniques, such as ultrasonic shot peening (USP), are often used to improve the fatigue resistance of aluminum alloys. This article expounds on the working principle of USP and elucidates the influence of USP process parameters on the surface characteristics of aluminum alloy. Experimental results observed the effects of USP parameters on surface properties such as surface roughness, microhardness, and surface morphology. The effects of shot peening (SP) diameter, vibration amplitude of ultrasonic vibrating head, and sample placement angle on the surface state of shot-peened materials were studied. Two different shot sizes of 2 mm and 4 mm shot diameter are utilized with two specimen angles at 90° and 0°, having three vibrational amplitudes of 25 μm, 40 μm, and 60 μm for a peening duration of 5 minutes each. The experimental analysis shows that when the SP time is 5 minutes, the surface grain size is significantly refined to the nanoscale. Compared with untreated samples, the surface roughness of treated samples decreases gradually for lower surface coverage. In addition, SP can effectively improve the hardness of the material. In USP treatment, the maximum microhardness increases, and the crack growth rate decreases by increasing the SP diameter and ultrasonic vibration amplitude).
Advanced Material Characterization of Hood Insulator Foams for Pedestrian Head Impact
Authors: M Gokula Krishnan , Savic Vesna , V S Rajamanickam , Kavi Swaroop
Published: April 2024

Hood insulators are widely used in automotive industry to improve noise insulation, pedestrian impact protection and to provide aesthetic appeal. They are attached below the hood panel and are often complex in shape and size. Pedestrian head impacts are highly dynamic events with a compressive strain rate experienced by the insulator exceeding 300/s. The energy generated by the impact is partly absorbed by the hood insulators thus reducing the head injury to the pedestrian. During this process, the insulator experiences multi-axial stress states. The insulators are usually made of soft multi-layered materials, such as polyurethane or fiberglass, and have a thin scrim layer on either side. These materials are foamed to their nominal thickness and are compression molded to take the required shape of the hood. During this process they undergo thickness reduction, thereby increasing their density. Hence, the material properties vary greatly based on the thickness and strain rate experienced by the material. This paper presents a methodology for characterization of hood insulator materials at strain rates ranging from 0.01/s to 300/s for use in finite element (FE) simulations. A rate dependent material model is validated against the results of hemispherical punch tests. Unique tensile response of the hood insulator materials at high strain rates and the challenges it poses for material modeling is discussed in detail. In addition, challenges with specimen extraction and tensile testing of soft multilayer materials are presented, and the improved tensile testing procedure is proposed.
Performance Comparison Analysis between Biodiesel and Diesel over a Commercial DOC Catalyst
Authors: Xi Yuanzhou , Ottinger Nathan , Liu Z. Gerald
Published: April 2024

Biodiesel is a promising alternative to traditional diesel fuel due to its similar combustion properties to diesel and lower carbon emissions on a well-to-wheel basis. However, combusting biodiesel still generates hydrocarbon (HC), CO, NOx and particulate matter (PM) emissions, similar to those from traditional diesel fuel usage. Therefore, aftertreatment systems will be required to reduce these emissions to meet increasingly stringent emission regulations to minimize the impact to the environment. Diesel oxidation catalysts (DOC) are widely used in modern aftertreatment systems to convert unburned HC and CO, to partially convert NO to NO2 to enhance downstream selective catalytic reaction (SCR) catalyst efficiency via fast SCR and to periodically clean-up DPF via controlled soot oxidation. In this work, we focus on the performance difference between biodiesel and diesel over a commercial DOC catalyst to identify the knowledge gap during the transition from diesel fuel to biodiesel. The results indicate that the tested biodiesel is harder to light-off than diesel. The biodiesel light-off over the DOC in the low temperature range is significantly impacted by its adsorption and condensation process over the DOC due to its high boiling temperature range. These observations are confirmed via carbon balance analysis as well as HC adsorption and temperature programmed oxidation (TPO) experimental results.
1D Modeling Approach for Prediction of Heat Transfer in Exhaust Aftertreatment System and Sensors Module
Authors: Singh Mukesh K
Published: April 2024

The study of temperature distribution and heat transfer over non-uniform geometry is of great importance to engineers because of universal occurrence in many engineering applications such as diesel engine, boilers, heaters, radiators, dosers, etc. Performance of engine and its components (mechanical and electronic) is highly depending upon efficient thermal management. An accurate heat transfer analysis is necessary in automotive application and power plant. This study presents one dimensional model for prediction of conjugate heat transfer in Aftertreatment system and Sensors Module (Nox Sensor, PM Sensor, EGTS etc..) for diesel engine. Three-dimensional conductive, convective and radiative thermal analysis is computationally expensive as underhood models are of complex shape in nature and total turnaround time for product development project is also significantly high. Hence 1-D analysis has great importance in any automobile industry for prediction of heat loss and skin temperature. Nowadays numerical flow & heat transfer prediction has reached to the acceptable band of requirement of engineering using commercial 1D software like MATLAB & Simulink. Efforts are made to explain the physics of dominant mode of heat transfer from basic principles of natural convection, conjugate heat transfer & radiation (i.e.) Regression based model was developed by conducting Design of Experiments through CFD and results are validated with experimental data. Validation of CFD result with experimental data depends upon various parameters (Modeling strategy, mesh scheme, solution scheme, convergence, etc.) Flow and Thermal boundary layer, wall effect, effect of recirculation, flow separation and other parameters need to be captured accurately. Some correlation was developed between skin temperature and critical parameters then implemented in 1-D modeling analysis.
Compatibility between Handling Agility and Stability of Vehicle using Rear Wheel Steering with Dual-Link Actuators
Authors: Park Jaeyong , Na Sungsoo
Published: April 2024

The experimental control findings of increasing the handling performance so that the yaw motion of the vehicle is nimble and stable utilizing the upgraded rear wheel steering system equipped with dual-link actuators are shown in this work. In most automobiles, the steering axis is well defined in front suspension. However, unless the vehicle's rear suspension is a sort of double wishbone, the steering axis is not clearly defined in regular multi-link rear suspensions. As a result, most current automobiles have a suspension geometry feature in which the camber and toe angles change at the same time when the assist link is changed to steer the back wheels. To create lateral force from the rear tire while preserving maximum tire grip, the dual-link actuators control for modifying the strokes of suspension links must keep the camber angle constant and adjust only the toe angle. The relationship between the motion of two suspension link actuators and the camber angle/toe angle is found in this study, and the practicality of the control is validated by test vehicle experiments using an advanced rear-wheel steering system.
Process Improvements for Determining Fault Tolerant Time Intervals
Authors: Jones Darren , Gangadhar Pavankumar , McGrail Randall , Pati Sudipta , Antonsson Erik , Patel Ravi
Published: April 2024

ISO 26262-1:2018 defines the fault tolerant time interval (FTTI) as the minimum time span from the occurrence of a fault within an electrical / electronic system to a possible occurrence of a hazardous event. FTTI provides a time limit within which compliant vehicle safety mechanisms must detect and react to faults capable of posing risk of harm to persons. This makes FTTI a vital safety characteristic for system design. Common automotive industry practice accommodates recording fault times of occurrence definitively. However, current practice for defining the time of hazardous event onset relies upon subjective judgements.

This paper presents a novel method to define hazardous event onset more objectively. The method introduces the Streetscope Collision Hazard Measure (SHMTM) and a refined approach to hazardous event classification. SHM inputs kinematic factors such as proximity, relative speed, and acceleration as well as environmental characteristics like traffic patterns, visibility, and road conditions. SHM utilizes these inputs to calculate a time-stamped, 0-to-100 normalized, hazard metric for the subject, or ego, vehicle. SAE J2980 exemplifies the industry standard practice for hazard and operability analysis (HAZOP) and hazard analysis and risk assessment (HARA). This paper adds an extensive operational situations (OpSit) catalog and hazard effect descriptors to further objectify definition of applicable, vehicle-level hazardous events. The OpSit catalog describes numerous driving scenarios that span the road vehicle operational design domain (ODD). Hazard effect descriptors like side collision, pedestrian impact, and strike stationary object support refined onset determinations.

This method allows stakeholders to assign a SHM threshold for hazardous event onset for every applicable combination of malfunction, hazard, operational situation, and hazard effect. Test vehicle dash cameras and simulation data sets demonstrate robust measurement of the time interval between fault injection and exceeding the SHM threshold. The minimum time intervals identified for each hazard becomes its FTTI. Incorporating novel SHM, OpSit catalog, and hazard effect descriptors into industry standard recommended practices improves FTTI determinations.
Development of Ammonia Direct Injection 4-Cylinder Spark-Ignition Engine
Authors: Min Chan ki , Lee Seung Woo , Baek Hong-Kil
Published: April 2024

As the carbon neutrality to reduce greenhouse gas emissions has become a global movement, the development of power sources using carbon-free fuels is an essential task for the industry. Accordingly, many companies in various fields that need carbon reduction are striving to develop power sources and build energy value chains using carbon-free or carbon-neutral fuels such as hydrogen and E-fuel. Ammonia, which is also a carbon-free fuel, stands as an efficient energy vector delivering high energy density and flexibility in transportation and storage, capable of mitigating hydrogen’s key drawbacks. However, difficulty of controlling combustion of ammonia due to its fuel characteristics limited the development of internal combustion engines using ammonia to the basic research stage in the limited operating conditions. Hyundai Motor Company presents the development of ammonia fueled 4-cylinder SI engine using direct injection strategy, designed based on 2.5L LPG T-DI engine. It is the first multi-cylinder engine using liquefied ammonia direct injection fuel system (DI), making it possible to meet the performance and efficiency targets by overcoming the low air-fuel ratio characteristic of ammonia. Many other improvements were also carried out by design changes, hydrogen addition, and control optimization to overcome the low flame propagation speed of ammonia. Basic performance evaluation was carried out in all operating ranges of the engine, showing the potential of ammonia fueled carbon-free internal combustion engine as an alternative energy source for vehicles and power generations.
Simulator Development for Vehicle Localization Using Low Earth Orbit Satellites
Authors: Meng Jingxiong , Chen Yan , Zhao Junfeng
Published: April 2024

This paper investigates the utilization of Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites for vehicle localization and conducts a comparative analysis with traditional Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS)-based methods. With the rise of LEO satellite constellations, such as Starlink, LEO-based vehicle localization may offer solutions to GNSS-related challenges. With a large number of satellites and short communication distance, the LEO-based method has great potential to improve accuracy, reduce warm-up time, and provide a robust localization solution for vehicle applications. In this paper, a dedicated LEO satellite simulator is presented, adaptable to various LEO constellations, making it relevant for evolving technologies beyond older LEO systems like Orbcomm or Iridium. The simulator includes satellite trajectory generation, observable satellite identification, and vehicle localization. The LEO simulator was also seamlessly integrated with the Carla simulator for real-time online vehicle localization assessments. Comprehensive tests were conducted with the simulation tools to evaluate LEO satellite-based vehicle localization performance across different satellite counts. Results indicate the potential of LEO satellites for precise and reliable vehicle localization, even in challenging environments. Additionally, the discussion revolves around integrating diverse GNSS-based methods into the LEO simulator, offering a versatile platform for hybrid satellite-based localization research. This study underscores the promise of LEO satellites in enhancing vehicle localization accuracy and stability, contributing to autonomous driving technology and safety advancements.
Beyond Digital Twin, Innovative Use of AI/ML Technology from Ideation to Design of Next Generation Electric Drive Systems
Authors: David Pascal , Oueslati Skander , Bourniche Eric , Nanjundaswamy Harsha
Published: April 2024

Accelerated adoption of electric propulsion system in mobility industry has stressed the time and iterations of product development cycle which was traditionally known to go over multiple iterations and phases. Current market demands a timely introduction of compelling products that brings high value to end user. Further, a growing emphasis over reducing mineral content using sustainable options and process, adds further complexity to multi-objective-optimization of electric drive systems. At BorgWarner our engineers use Digital-Twins, physics-based models which closely represent BorgWarner products in greater dept (physics) thus allowing an improved assessment of product design (components and systems) to target application at very early stage in product development. The spring success with Digital-Twin, BorgWarner furthered enhanced the model through introducing Artificial Intelligent (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) technologies in both modelling and virtual sensing.

This paper will provide reader an in-depth view of technology aspects with Digital-Twin and introduce AI and ML algorithms within Digital-Twin, beginning with a brief introduction on AI and ML technologies, the paper will also go in depth on in-use applications of these technologies at BorgWarner, such as, Deep learning virtual sensors usage. The paper will include a clear description of specialty tools and methods adopted by BorgWarner for data cleaning, model training and validation. The paper will provide reader an insight into how such trained AI-ML models were developed and trained using data provided by validated 1D and high-fidelity models from Amesim and COMSOL respectively, where each of those reference datasets were verified using real hardware tested in a vehicle environment. Although scope within BorgWarner product development was surrounding integrated drive module, for the purpose of showcasing an example the paper will provide technical insight to “Deep Learning Virtual Sensor for Power Module”. Towards conclusion, our goal is to showcase the method of integrating AI-ML models in Digital Twin and how those learnings can be translated into a product feature which could minimize controls complexity while enhancing accuracy and safety of the electrified propulsion system.
A Mapless Trajectory Prediction Model with Enhanced Temporal Modeling
Authors: Wei Zhao , Wu Xiaodong
Published: April 2024

The prediction of agents' future trajectory is a crucial task in supporting advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS) and plays a vital role in ensuring safe decisions for autonomous driving (AD). Currently, prevailing trajectory prediction methods heavily rely on high-definition maps (HD maps) as a source of prior knowledge. While HD maps enhance the accuracy of trajectory prediction by providing information about the surrounding environment, their widespread use is limited due to their high cost and legal restrictions. Furthermore, due to object occlusion, limited field of view, and other factors, the historical trajectory of the target agent is often incomplete This limitation significantly reduces the accuracy of trajectory prediction. Therefore, this paper proposes ETSA-Pred, a mapless trajectory prediction model that incorporates enhanced temporal modeling and spatial self-attention. The novel enhanced temporal modeling is based on neural controlled differential equations (NCDEs) and vanilla temporal self-attention mechanism to learn temporal features from incomplete historical trajectories. By combining this enhanced temporal modeling and spatial self-attention, our model fully captures spatio-temporal features within the scene. Experiments results on the nuScenes dataset demonstrate the superior performance of our model compared to existing mapless trajectory prediction models. Comprehensive ablation studies further confirm the effectiveness of each proposed module in our model.
New Solution for Material Damage Characterization of CFRP Laminate with Filament Winding Structure Using a Hexagonal-Shaped Mandrel
Authors: Watanabe Takeshi , Bruyneel Michael , Anantharaju Rajaneesh , Tsuchiyama Yusuke , Huang Hsumin , Urushiyama Yuta
Published: April 2024

We are in the context of the analysis of carbon fiber reinforced plastics (CFRP) high-pressure vessel (COPV - Composite Overwrapped Pressure Vessel) manufactured by filament winding (FW). Classically, the parameters of material models are identified based on flat laminate coupons with specific predetermined fiber orientations, and based on standards like the ones of ASTM relevant for flat coupons. CFRP manufactured by FW has a unique and complex laminate structure, which presents curvatures and ply interlacements. In practice, it is important to use coupons produced with the final manufacturing process for the parameter identification of the material models; if classical coupons produced by e.g. ply lamination are used, the effect of FW structure cannot be accounted for, and cannot be introduced in the material models. It is therefore essential to develop an approach to create representative flat coupons based on the FW process.

In this study, a new hexagonal-shaped mandrel including flat faces in the cylindrical and dome regions is devised and a procedure for defining and testing representative flat coupons with a FW structure is proposed. The hexagonal-shaped mandrel is called “soccer-ball mandrel”. The FW structure obtained on the flat regions by this method matches well with that on the curved region of actual vessel. In addition, the parameters of a material damage model are identified based on physical tests conducted on flat coupons extracted from the flat faces of the soccer-ball COPV and computation results reproduce he experimental ones well.
Comparing Event Data Recorder Data (EDR) in Front/Rear Collisions from the Crash Investigation Sampling System (CISS) Database
Authors: Fix Ryan , Wilkinson Craig , Siegmund Gunter P.
Published: April 2024

The accuracy of collision severity data recorded by event data recorders (EDRs) has been previously measured primarily using barrier impact data from compliance tests and experimental low-speed impacts. There has been less study of the accuracy of EDR-based collision severity data in real-world, vehicle-to-vehicle collisions. Here we used 189 real-world front-into-rear collisions from the Crash Investigating Sampling System (CISS) database where the EDR from both vehicles recorded a severity to examine the accuracy of the EDR-reported speed changes. We calculated relative error between the EDR-reported speed change of each vehicle and a speed change predicted for that same vehicle using the EDR-reported speed change of the other vehicle and conservation of momentum. We also examined the effect of vehicle-type, mass ratio, and pre-impact braking on the relative error in the speed changes. Overall, we found that the common practice of using the bullet vehicle’s EDR-reported speed change to estimate the target vehicle’s speed change is reliable and can be adjusted for some vehicle types and mass ratios to improve the accuracy of the target vehicle’s estimated speed change. We also found that about 10-13% of EDR-reported speed changes may have errors larger than ±10%.
Comparison Of Criminal Sanctions Against Sexual Harassers In Indonesia And Malaysia
Authors: Satar Abdul , Surnada Surnada , Sitompul Ariman
Published: April 2024

State on sexual harassment. This article uses normative research methods with a legislative approach and a comparative approach to the laws of Indonesia and Malaysia. Based on the results of the analysis conducted by the state of Indonesia and Malaysia have similarities in defining sexual harassment. Sexual harassment is part of sexual violence in the form of sexual acts through physical and non-physical touch with the target sexual organs or sexuality of the victim. Sexual harassment through physical touch in the form of poking or touching parts of the body. Sexual harassment in Indonesia is regulated by Law Number 12 of 2022 concerning the crime of sexual violence, while the criminal law on sexual harassment in Malaysia is regulated by the Anti-Sexual Harassment Law 2022. The threat of punishment for perpetrators of sexual violence in Indonesia is the highest 12 (twelve years) and/ or a maximum fine of Rp300, 000, 000.00 (three hundred million rupiah). While the threat of punishment for perpetrators of sexual violence in Malaysia is the highest 10 years or a fine or both.
Legal Principles Against Gambling Establishments
Authors: Darma Mospa
Published: April 2024

Gambling establishments are the root of the problem of gambling and become a source of other violations of the law.by the rules of criminal law with law No. 7 of 1974 on the control of gambling, gambling is a very clear action in the rule of Law Article 303 of the Criminal Code as a complement by its implementing regulations such as Government Regulation No. 9 of 1981 on the implementation of Law No. 7 of 1974 on the regulation of gambling. so that all actions related to gambling are strictly prohibited in Indonesian law, whether carried out by legal entities or government and private.Decisive action is the right step in the handling of gambling facilities and infrastructure. This research method using normative juridical methods.
Comparison of Transfer Pricing methods and their application in disputed tax cases in Indonesian courts
Authors: Besdy Besdy , Pony Pony , Abraham Abraham , Sitompul Ariman
Published: April 2024

Transfer pricing is a trending topic of taxation in various worlds, not least in Indonesia. Directorate General of Taxation  is very aggressive to supervise and monitor the practices of transfer pricing conducted by the taxpayer, because it is not just a case of fictitious tax refunds and tax realtor practices that erode the potential for state revenue from taxes, but the practice of tax evasion in the process transfer pricing is also considered a lot of harm to tax revenue. Transfer pricing practice is actually a common practice and commonly practiced by companies group companies. However, this can be a crucial issue when setting transfer prices is not in accordance with the principle of fairness and business prevalence (PKKU / arm's length principle) which regulated in the Indonesian transfer pricing regulations.. The taxpayer is given the freedom to use their own discretion in deciding the most appropriate method of measuring the transfer price. However, this leads to inconsistencies in the methods applied to arm's length transactions similar by entities from similar industries. Loopholes in this area are vulnerable to tax evasion practices since decades ago. This paper aims to compare the available methods for measurement transfer pricing.