bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Temper Embrittlement in High Purity 3.5Ni, 1.75Cr, 0.20C Steel
Authors: Gould G. C.
Published: August 2009

A number of trace elements and some intentional steelmaking additions are known to contribute to the temper embrittlement of susceptible steels. Most of the work done to date has been on individual elements in tempered martensitic steels. This work is concerned with steels in a tempered bainitic condition whose heat treatment and final structure simulate closely that of a large forging, and is designed to study some solute element interactions that were thought to exist. The effects of manganese and molybdenum on embrittlement by phosphorus are investigated as well as that of manganese in combination with silicon. A series of 18 heats of 3.5 nickel, 1.75 chromium, 0.20 carbon steel were made by vacuum-induction melting using high purity components. The levels of phosphorus, manganese, silicon, and molybdenum were varied to measure their influence on temper embrittlement. Embrittlement was measured as a shift in the transition temperature determined from the conventional V-notch Charpy impact tests. Both a step-cooling heat treatment and isothermal exposures at 750, 850, and 950 F were used as embrittling treatments. Isothermal exposures were run to 3500 h with embrittlement measured at 100, 1000, and 3500-h exposure. It was found that manganese contributes to temper embrittlement and magnifies or interacts with the effect of phosphorus. Molybdenum varying between 0.2 and 0.84 per cent is demonstrated to curtail embrittlement by phosphorus and not contribute to temper embrittlement itself. Silicon alone or with manganese is shown to contribute to temper embrittlement both during isothermal exposures and slow cooling through the critical temperature range. Limits on solutes may be placed so that a Ni-Cr-Mo-V steel will show no significant temper embrittlement during slow cooling or subsequent isothermal exposure.
Statistical Study of Factors Influencing Impact Strength of Turbine Generator Rotors—Influence of Temper Embrittlement
Authors: Comon J. , Martin P. F. , Bastien P. G.
Published: August 2009

The authors present a statistical analysis of the results of Charpy V-notch transition temperature obtained on 115 Ni-Cr-Mo-V, Cr-Mo, and Cr-Mo-V rotors. Because heat treatment of these forgings includes a slow cooling after tempering, a particular study or reversible temper embrittlement is made separately. The lowest transition temperature in the regenerated state (without embrittlement) is achieved by lowering the phosphorus and carbon contents, raising alloying element percentages, and accelerating the quench rate. The embrittlement is reduced by keeping phosphorus and arsenic contents to a minimum, and tempering temperature to a maximum, and replacing chromium, nickel, molybdenum, and especially manganese by carbon and vanadium. The tin and antimony contents do not vary sufficiently to enable the authors to determine their effect.
Long Time Isothermal Embrittlement in 3.5Ni, 1.75Cr, 0.50Mo, 0.20C Steel
Authors: Gould G. C.
Published: August 2009

Eighteen commercial heats of Ni-Cr-Mo-V steel have been subjected to both step-cooling embrittling heat treatments and isothermal exposures at 750, 850, 950, and 1050 F for times up to 40,000 h. Embrittlement was measured in the as-heat treated condition on both rotor forgings and bucket wheel forgings, as well as in a deembrittled condition after water quenching from 1100 F. The steels were heat treated to a bainitic structure and tempered for a minimum of 24 h at 1100 F. The composition, including antimony, arsenic, and tin, along with the mechanical properties of each steel in the specimen, are included in the data. The temper embrittlement was measured as a shift in transition temperature as determined by the conventional V-notch Charpy test. The materials studied include both silicon and vacuumcarbon deoxidized steels, and a difference in rate of isothermal embrittlement is noted. The silicon deoxidized steels show a greater rate of embrittlement, and total embrittlement, at 850 F than at 750 F; vacuum-carbon deoxidized heats do not show this difference. The maximum amount of embrittlement during isothermal exposure is shown to decrease with increasing exposure temperature, with embrittlement very small at 1050 F exposures. The reversibility of the embrittling reaction is demonstrated using material that had been isothermally embrittled for 4800 h at 850 F. Removal of most of the embrittlement was accomplished by 20-h exposure at 1050 F, and embrittlement was measured again after isothermal exposure for 100, 1000, and 2800 h at 850 F. The reaction is shown to be fully reversible, but little insight into the mechanism is gained. In addition, it is demonstrated that exposures of both embrittlement and nonembrittled steels at higher temperatures in the embrittling temperature range (1000 to 1100 F) cause the transition temperature to shift to a common value; the nonembrittled steel demonstrating rapid embrittlement, while the embrittled steel de-embrittles to the same transition temperature which is apparently characteristic of the final exposure temperature. It can be shown that temper embrittlement, measured as an increase in transition temperature by the conventional V-notch Charpy test, can be suppressed by avoiding long exposure in the temperature range 750 to 1000 F during heat treatment. However, if long exposures in the 750 to 1000 F temperature range do occur either during heat treatment, fabrication, or subsequent service, it appears that temper embrittlement of present commercial Ni-Cr-Mo-V steels is unavoidable.
Temper Embrittlement of Rotor Steels
Authors: Newhouse D. L. , Holtz H. G.
Published: August 2009

The susceptiblity to temper embrittlement during heat treatment of several large steam turbine generator rotor steels was investigated. Tests were performed on laboratory heats and on material from test prolongations and center core trepans from a number of rotor forgings. Chemical compositions, tensile, and Charpy impact properties were determined and are included for a number of Ni-Mo-V, Cr-Mo-V, and Ni-Cr-Mo-V steels. The latter included some which were silicon deoxidized (silicon 0.15 to 0.35 percent) and others which were vacuum-carbon deoxidized (silicon 0.10 percent max) by vacuum degassing without addition of metallic deoxidizers. Charpy fracture appearance transition temperatures are given for the as-received condition, after deembrittlement by water quenching from 1100 F (594 C), and after embrittlement by slow step cooling from 1100 F (TTSC). The results of computer analyses of the relationship between properties, temper embrittlement, and chemical composition are presented and discussed. It was found that embrittlement susceptibility varies greatly with composition. These differences in susceptibility are associated with the presence of the known embrittling elements, phosphorus, silicon, arsenic, antimony, and tin. The balance of major elements such as nickel, manganese, molybdenum, and chromium also affects the degree of embrittlement. The presence of both nickel and chromium sharply increases the embrittling effect of phosphorus and perhaps of other elements as compared with compositions which contain only one or the other. Restrictions on manganese and molybdenum also appear beneficial. From as-received fracture appearance transition temperature and as-received embrittlement data it is apparent that temper embrittlement produced during heat treatment limits the fracture toughness attainable in massive sections of these steels and makes the control of temper embrittlement susceptibility of great value in components which must be heated within, or cooled slowly through, the range of embrittlement. Improved control of the residual elements to attain the low levels which appear desirable will require further advances in melting practice and selection of raw materials, in analytical procedures, testing, and specification of materials.
Effect of Thermal and Thermomechanical Treatments on the Temper Embrittlement of Low-Alloy Steels
Authors: Irani J. J. , May M. J. , Elliott D.
Published: August 2009

The effects of rapid heating and ausforming on the phenomenon of temper embrittlement were examined in two alloy martensitic steels (BS 970 En 30B and En 40C), and the results contrasted with those for conventionally treated material. Standard Charpy V-notch impact tests and tensile data were supplemented by plane strain fracture toughness (KIc) measurements. A deailed structural and fractographic examination was carried out in order to correlate the microstructural changes with the mechanical properties. The results are discussed in the light of current theories. The experimental results indicate that several mechanisms can be responsible for temper embrittlement. A tentative model is proposed to explain the temper embrittlement trough observed in low-alloy steels, which is based on a combination of two mechanisms involving coarse carbide precipitation and high dislocation density resulting from dislocation pinning.
Introduction
Authors: Shobert Erle I.
Published: August 2009

There has been a continuous growth of approximately 10 per cent per year in the size of the yearly supplement to this bibliography. This growth indicates that the basic scientific and technical work in this field is keeping pace with the developments in other fields of activity. During the past year, there have been two important books published in the general field of electrical contacts. The first was by F. Llewellyn Jones, “The Physics of Electrical Contacts,” published early in the year. Late in 1957, Ragnar Holm's new “Electric Contacts Handbook,” appeared. These two books are important milestones in the development of this field and give further emphasis to its importance. There are a few additional errata, which have been called to our attention, and which are listed in the following pages.
Introduction
Authors: Shobert Erle I.
Published: August 2009

We continue to list the titles and authors of papers given at the Symposium on Electromagnetic Relays, held at Oklahoma State University under the direction of Professor C. F. Cameron, in association with the National Association of Relay Manufacturers. Also listed are the titles and authors of papers presented at the Engineering Seminar on Electrical Contacts, conducted at the Pennsylvania State University. We would like to make special mention of the following books and symposia: “Bibliography of Relay Literature.” See Abstract No. 3035k. “London Symposium on Electrical Contacts.” See Abstract No. 3255. “Ninth National Conference on Electromagnetic Relays.” See Abstract 3259. “Electrical Contacts in Space Environment. An annotated Bibliography.” See Abstract No. 3263. “Engineering Seminar on Electrical Contacts.” See Abstract No. 3273. “Bibliography on Electrical Contacts Made Public in Japan.” See Abstract No. 3278. “International Research Symposium on Electric Contact Phenomena.” See Abstract No. 3279. “Bibliography on Extra High Voltage Systems—First Supplement.” See Abstract No. 3281. These are noted specially since they cover a broad range of contact applications and might otherwise be lost in the large list of references which is being presented this year.
Introduction
Authors: Johnson Robert J. , Mote C. Daniel
Published: August 2009

The papers in this volume address a broad range of topics relating to skiing injuries. The topics discussed include the development of standards for safety; biomechanics of skiing and skiing injury; the relationship of skis, ski boots, and ski release bindings to skiing injuries; epidemiology of injury in different parts of the world; treatment of skiing injuries; injuries occurring in crosscountry skiing; rescue and first-aid practices and equipment; and cold injuries. These papers were presented, along with more than 30 others, at the Fifth International Symposium on Skiing Trauma and Skiing Safety held in Keystone, Colorado, on 1–6 May 1983. The meeting was co-sponsored by ASTM Committee F-27 on Snow Skiing and the International Society for Skiing Safety (ISSS). The attention of ASTM to standards for skiing began in 1972 with the formation of a subcommittee—Subcommittee F08.14 on Snow Skiing—to ASTM Committee F-8 on Sports Equipment and Facilities. The ISSS was founded in 1974 to provide a forum for presentation of original findings, studies, research, and the like relating to safety in skiing in the broadest context. The first meeting of the ISSS was held at the time of the midnight sun in June 1974 at Riksgränsen, on the border of Norway and Sweden 240 km (150 miles) north of the Arctic Circle. The organizer of the meeting and the first president of the ISSS was Ejnar Eriksson, of the Karolinska Hospital in Stockholm. The subsequent conferences were held approximately every two years, continuing the tradition established by the first meeting of having a five-day meeting, which permits adequate time for paper presentation and technical interchange. The second through fourth symposia were held in the Sierra Nevada, Spain, in April 1977; in Queenstown, New Zealand, July 1979; and in Bormio, Italy, June 1981, respectively. The proceedings of the first four ISSS symposia were published and form the primary body of permanent literature on skiing safety; they can be located through the ISSS, and can be found liberally referenced in this volume. The first symposium was published in Orthopedic Clinics of North America, January 1976. The proceedings of the second were entitled Skiing Safety II, and were published by University Park Press, Baltimore, 1977. The proceedings of the third and fourth, entitled Ski Trauma and Skiing Safety III and IV, respectively, were published by Technischer Überwachungs-Verein Bayern of Munich, 1982. This current volume represents the first technical publication of ASTM in the skiing injury field. It is a refereed publication building on the tradition of the earlier proceedings volumes, and is the first of a series of volumes to be published by ASTM through cooperation with the ISSS.
The Work of the IAS in Skiing Safety
Authors: Asang Ernst
Published: August 2009

The Internationaler Arbeitskreis Sicherheit beim Skilauf (IAS) is a private association of skiers, independent of industry, standards organizations, or government legislation. Basic research on practical preventive measures and other activities in skiing safety are financed by the organization itself and by public sponsors. Investigations into the individual trauma forces and skiing forces have been done to define requirements for ski bindings designed to protect skiers from typical skiing injuries. Technical specifications and test regulations for skiing equipment have been published to initiate the progress necessary. The properties and release characteristics of bindings (IAS-Specification 100) need to be known before any individual binding setting (IAS Adjustment Specification 80) can be effective. The binding's qualities also have to be tested against standards for qualification for the IAS test emblem. Specifications for ski brakes and their interface with the bindings have been developed, as well as specifications for ski boots, setting devices, and other skiing equipment. Nevertheless, instructions given to sales staffs in sport shops in the mounting and setting of bindings and information given to skiers themselves are also necessary prerequisites of skiing safety.
Prevention of Ski Accidents in Switzerland
Authors: Bally Alexis
Published: August 2009

This paper reviews activities in the field of prevention of ski accidents in Switzerland. The use of statistical studies of accidents, measurements of loads during skiing and falling, case studies of accidents, laboratory tests, the development of testing programs, and setting tables for release bindings are discussed. The author believes that these efforts have contributed to the reduction in skiing risk and the improvement of equipment observed during recent years.
A Laboratory for Biomechanical Analysis of the Traumatology of Ski Falls
Authors: Bodem Friedrich , Menke Wolfgang , Casel Josef
Published: August 2009

In an attempt to obtain data on the action of the muscles in the lower extremity in the course of a ski fall, in particular during the release phase of safety bindings, we have implemented a measuring system for the combined measurement and recording of electromyographic activities, binding reaction forces, and the kinematic aspect of the body motion of a test skier during a controlled fall. The electromyographic activities are processed by a computer to obtain approximate force curves of the investigated muscles by a suitable digital signal analysis. The kinematic data are processed by a computer-assisted motion analysis system to obtain the angles, the angular velocities, and the angular accelerations of the joint motions of the lower extremity in their sagittal aspect. The system has been applied in a first series of 120 controlled frontal falls with varying initial conditions. The data thus obtained are currently being analyzed.
Mechanics of the Turning Snow Ski
Authors: Lieu Dennis K. , Mote C. D.
Published: August 2009

A snow ski turning at a constant radius and a constant speed is analyzed through a model of the skier/snow/ski dynamic system. The skier is modeled as a rigid body pivoted at the ski; the cutting properties of the snow are empirically modeled from ice cutting data; the ski is represented as a Euler-Bernoulli beam. The force of interaction between the ski and the snow at each longitudinal section of the ski is a function of the angle between the ski and the snow surface and the depth of ski penetration into the snow. Solutions to the equations of motion of the turning skier/ski system are obtained by specification of the trajectory of the ski center and then computation of the ski/skier system orientation and the forces required to obtain that trajectory. There is no unique relationship between the system orientation and the trajectory. A “tangential compensation force,” F, directed tangent to the ski trajectory at the ski center, is imposed to minimize the error in the equations of motion in a least-squares sense. The increasing efficiency of each trajectory is predicted by decreasing this tangential compensation force. The closer the tangent to the ski at the midpoint in length is to the tangent to the trajectory, the more efficient the turn. A state of “carving” in a turn, in which segments of the ski length ride in the track in the snow created by preceding ski segments, occurs when the skew angle between the ski longitudinal axis at the midpoint and the ski trajectory is less than approximately 0.15 rad, in the skis examined in this study, and when the ski tail is pressed into the snow. A ski with a softer afterbody carves a turn at larger skew angles, but with less efficiency, than a ski with a stiffer afterbody.
Basic Mechanics of Boot/Skier Interaction
Authors: Schattner Ruprecht , Hauser Wolfhart , Asang Ernst
Published: August 2009

A two-dimensional point mass model of a skier with three plus one degrees of freedom has been developed. A general method for obtaining the equations of motion and of the constraint forces (muscle forces and forces between the ski and soil) in such models is described (by the method of undetermined Lagrangian multipliers). The force and torque transduced from skier to ski by the boot and the biological components of the system are calculated. The results provide a theoretical basis for recommendations that the important parameters for ski boots should include the size, weight, and skill of the skier.
Influence of Ski Boot Design on Skiing Safety and Skiing Performance
Authors: Hauser Wolfhart , Asang Ernst , Schaff Peter
Published: August 2009

Different representative ski boots were examined by a new measurement device. The pressure distribution at the front of the lower extremity, the force at the heel, and the angle between the lower leg and the foot were measured, and the interactions are discussed. Different boot shaft designs lead to completely different pressure distributions in the lower leg. At the same foot/leg angle, the force at the heel of today's bindings varies widely. The results of the learning process for skiers randomly equipped with different stiffnesses of ski boot shafts, and the variations in their individual pain levels at the front of the lower leg lead to suggestions for requirements for modern boot shafts.
Optimal Ski Boot Stiffness for the Prevention of Boot-Top Fracture
Authors: Lyle Carol , Hubbard Mont
Published: August 2009

Ski boot stiffness distribution was studied to determine an optimal boot for the prevention of boot-top fracture (tibia fracture near the boot top). This injury, while formerly infrequent with old-fashioned, low-cut boots, has become common with the use of modern, high-topped, stiff alpine boots. This paper describes a study of boot bending loads, with the intention of minimizing the maximum bending moment or maximum stress on the tibia. Three tibia models are investigated: a one-dimensional beam model, a three-dimensional finite element model, and a two-dimensional beam model. The optimal boot should be high, applying a load as close to the knee as possible to reduce the bending moment, and it should be shaped as a band only wide enough to reduce the effects of concentrated loading.
A Device for Measuring the Influence of Ski Boot Design on the Pressure Distribution in the Lower Leg
Authors: Schattner Ruprecht , Asang Ernst , Hauser Wolfhart , Velho Francisco
Published: August 2009

The length of the shaft of a ski boot drastically influences the locations and values of the maxima of force exerted by the boot on the leg. A device has been developed to measure the actual two-dimensional pressure distribution on the lower leg. It consists of an array of a maximum of 192 sensors in the form of a silicon rubber mat coated with 24 horizontal and up to 8 vertical conductive paths. The paths are linked by a multiplexer to a microprocessor that transforms the data into both digital information for on-line data analysis or output on a digital printer and a TV signal for instant information or storage on a video tape. The time resolution is up to 25 measuring cycles per second. The TV signal may be used for telemetric studies, so that dynamic pressure distributions in real downhill skiing can be measured.
More Safety in Skiing Through Training the Personnel of the Sport Shops
Authors: Nagel Alfred , Reuleaux Michael
Published: August 2009

During the last 15 years the equipment for alpine skiing has been essentially improved through research, standardization, and testing. Unfortunately, the number of typical skiing injuries has not decreased in the same proportion. Statistical analyses carried out by the Deutscher Skiverband e. V. (DSV) (the German Ski Federation) show that, still, every second skier in the Federal Republic of Germany does not take advantage of the opportunity presented to him by the modern functional unit—the ski/binding/brake/boot system—or he may even neglect that chance. Therefore, during the last several years the Technischer Überwachungs-Verein Bayern e. V. (TÜV Bayern) has developed a common training program for the personnel of the sport shops, in cooperation with DSV, the Internationaler Arbeitskreis Sicherheit beim Skilauf e. V. (IAS), and the Bayerisches Landesinstitut für Arbeitsschutz (LAS). Those who have attended the seminars of this program receive a diploma after having passed the examination. The purpose of these seminars is, beyond the specific arrangements of the manufacturers, to give the personnel an all-round expertise in the safety properties of skiing equipment. With this knowledge, the ski shops are supposed to be able to enhance the already available safety properties of the equipment more effectively for the benefit of the skier. In addition, the diploma also informs the skier that competent personnel are working in the ski shops. These efforts toward accurate choice of the equipment, a better mounting of the binding, and flawless, individual binding adjustment seem to be of greater importance than the improvement of the functional unit (the ski/binding/brake/boot system) itself in the reduction of the risk of injury in alpine skiing over the next several years.
Binding Adjustment and Binding Release for Alpine Ski Racers
Authors: Ekeland Arne , Lund Øyvind
Published: August 2009

The release bindings of 376 ski racers have been examined. The racers were randomly selected from the participants in seven alpine competitions arranged in Norway during the winters of 1982 (March through May) and 1983 (March). The mean lateral toe release torques of the bindings were about 50% higher than those recommended for fast and well-trained skiers. Only 10% of the racers had bindings that released at the recommended (±10%) values, and 13% had bindings adjusted twice as tightly as recommended. Skiers between the ages of 14 and 29 and those participating in downhill or international racing competitions had tighter bindings than the mean of the racing population. This was also observed for skiers with prior skiing injuries, for skiers who had adjusted their bindings themselves, and for skiers with untested bindings or bindings with insufficient lug clearance at the toepiece (the binding front safe was mounted too low). It is likely that tight bindings may increase the risk of skiing injuries. Release bindings should therefore be tested frequently to control the release torques.
A One-Year Study of Alpine Ski Injuries in Hemsedal, Norway
Authors: Lystad Harald
Published: August 2009

A controlled study of alpine ski injuries in Hemsedal, Norway, is presented. Accident data for the 1981/82 season were analyzed. A total of 143 injuries and 126 controls were compared for epidemiological data. The injury rate was 0.91 per 1000 skier days. Children under 15 years of age, women, and beginners who had skied for less than three seasons and for less than four days within that season were most at risk. Twenty percent of the injuries were due to collisions; 24% of the injured skiers had a fracture. About 10% of all the skiers had their bindings adjusted to values within ±10% of the recommended values in the reference systems of the Schweizerische Beratungsstelle für Unfallverhütung (BfU) and Internationaler Arbeitskreis Sicherheit beim Skilauf (IAS).
Injuries from T-Bar Ski Lifts
Authors: Lindsjö Ulf , Hellquist Einar , Engkvist Ove , Balkfors Bengt
Published: August 2009

This is a report on injuries sustained from T-bar ski lifts during three seasons at the Lindvallen and Granfjällsstöten ski centers in Sälen, Sweden. The number of cases was 168, or 7.5% of all treated skiing injuries. The risk of sustaining an injury was about 1/80 000 runs. Most of the injuries were not serious and could be treated at the local emergency room. Only 4 patients were referred for hospital care. The most common injuries were wounds of the head and face caused by blows from swinging T-bars. Most of the patients injured by falls in the lift track were women. The most common injury from a fall was a knee sprain. The injury panorama was more varied among patients who had gotten caught by the T-bar. Suggested measures for improving the safety of T-bar ski lifts include information on and training in the T-bar lift technique at ski school classes for beginners, intensified supervision of the lift tracks with a high preparedness for shutting off the machinery, a lower speed for nonmanned lifts, safer alighting ramps which push the skiers away from the lift track, and better padding of the T-bars.
Thumbs Up: The Changing Pattern of Ski Injuries
Authors: Young Laurence R. , Crane Henry D.
Published: August 2009

Thumb injuries have climbed to nearly 16% of the total number of injuries reported to the ski patrol at Waterville Valley, New Hampshire, and were second only to knee injuries (23.5%) during the 1981/82 season. Lower leg injuries, in contrast, have remained at 11%, and ankle injuries have dropped to less than 10% of all reported injuries. Thumb injuries are especially prevalent among advanced skiers and are significantly more likely to occur when skiing in powder or wet snow. They are also more likely to occur to beginning and intermediate skiers than to advanced skiers. Accidents in which a binding did not release are highly correlated with the occurrence of knee injuries. This study also shows a tendency for females to have a higher incidence of knee injuries than males. It confirms earlier findings relating injury rates to crowd size, skier characteristics, and equipment-related factors.
Cross-Country Skiing Injuries
Authors: Boyle John J. , Johnson Robert J. , Pope Malcolm H. , Pierce Javin C. , Brady M. Michael
Published: August 2009

A controlled, prospective study of the incidence of injury in cross-country skiing was carried out at various ski touring centers in northern Vermont. The rate of injury was determined to be 0.72 per 1000 skier days. Most injuries occurred in beginners or intermediate skiers on downhill terrain. Forty-nine injuries sustained by 43 skiers were evaluated. Of these injuries, 41 % involved the upper extremities, 49% the lower extremities, and 10% the head, face, or trunk. The heel plate design may be implicated in injury, although results at this time remain inconclusive.
Future Developments in Cross-Country Skiing Equipment
Authors: Ekström Hans
Published: August 2009

Skiing can be described as a relationship between man, equipment, and the environment. Different skiing techniques require different performance in a ski. Comparisons of the horizontal force and the maximum speed for the three basic methods of skiing are shown. New designs for cross-country ski bindings with release functions, which are also adjustable longitudinally to the ski, and test equipment for measuring the ski's quality of friction are discussed.
Infrared Thermal Imaging and Skiing Safety
Authors: Roberts Charles C.
Published: August 2009

Infrared thermography is the science of detecting infrared radiation and relating it to temperature. Infrared thermography has many potential uses in skiing safety. Several applications are presented in the areas of thermal analysis of clothing, thermal analysis of ski boots, analysis of composite materials, impact testing, and search and rescue.
Comparative Calorimetric Measurements of Chemical Heat Packs
Authors: Ennemoser Oswald , Ambach Walter , Flora Gerhard
Published: August 2009

Rescue teams use chemical heat packs to warm up persons in a state of accidental hypothermia or to warm up infusion tubes at low outdoor temperatures. The results of calorimetric measurements of four different chemical heat packs have made possible calculation of the following quantities: (a) the total amount of heat produced by each chemical heat pack, and (b) the time course of the heat output of each chemical heat pack. The results are discussed in relation to the application of chemical heat packs to persons in a state of accidental hypothermia.
Introduction
Authors: Evans C. T.
Published: August 2009

This Symposium was sponsored by the Gas Turbine Panel of the ASTM-ASME Joint Committee on the Effect of Temperature on the Properties of Metals. It resulted from an increasing awareness on the part of metallurgists and designers that the atmosphere in which a high-temperature component will operate must be carefully considered before a suitable material can be selected. In many cases, the corrosive aspects of the service will far outweigh the mechanical factors, such as creep and stress-to-rupture. The work presented herein demonstrates forcibly that creep and stress-rupture data obtained in the conventional air atmosphere may be disastrously misleading. Oxidation from air is shown to be a more favorable condition than was commonly supposed. This calls for a re-evaluation of many design Criteria, and suggests that testing in atmospheres other than air should be more general than is now the case. Temperatures are going up, not only in the relatively new gas-turbine fields, but also in steam turbines, boilers, oil refining and many allied activities. Some of these industries have been relatively free of corrosion troubles for many years. However, the dependence of corrosion on temperature is well known, and it is not surprising that increases of only a few degrees in a given atmosphere have made all the difference between success and failure in some instances.
Coal-Ash Corrosion of Metals at Elevated Temperatures
Authors: Evans C. T.
Published: August 2009

A cooperative study with the Locomotive Development Committee of the Bituminous Coal Research Association and the Crucible Steel Company of America was conducted with S-588 heat-resisting alloy at 1350 F. In order to observe the possible stress-corrosion effects of coal ash on this material, stress-rupture tests of specimens in contact with raw coal ash from representative Illinois coal and specimens coated with separated Illinois coal ash were compared with “blank” specimens. In addition to S-588, several other metals of interest to the builders of gas turbines for locomotive service were also tested in unstressed condition at 1000, 1350, and 1500 F. in contact with representative Ohio coal ash. In these tests, specimens cut from flat sheet or bar stock were grouped in a casserole with only about one-half of the specimens underneath the ash. The tests demonstrate that these coal ashes or coatings from coal ash are inert to these alloys at these temperatures.
Viscosity-Shear Behavior of Two Non-Newtonian Polymer-Blended Oils
Authors: Fenske M. R. , Klaus E. E. , Dannenbrink R. W.
Published: August 2009

For the past eight years the Petroleum Refining Laboratory has been engaged in preparing and studying the properties of special oils, lubricants and hydraulic fluids containing polymers to improve the viscosity-temperature characteristics of the fluid. In investigating these polymer-containing fluids, (Table I) it became necessary to study two viscosity properties not normally encountered in conventional types of mineral oils. In one case in this study it was found that the viscosity of a polymer-containing oil could be permanently lowered if the solution of polymer in oil were subjected to an intense and prolonged shearing action under conditions where there was extreme attrition and turbulence in the oil. In the second case, it was found, when the oil containing the polymer was subjected to high rates of shear in streamline flow, that there was a temporary loss in viscosity which reappeared when the shearing stress was removed. These two effects have been measured separately in various types of test apparatus as well as under simulated service conditions. The permanent viscosity loss induced by shear has been produced for quantitative measurement by using piston, gear, and vane types of hydraulic pumps which were equipped with various pressure loading devices such as balanced relief valves, orifices, and capillaries. A standard procedure that has evolved from this work is the Army-Navy Specification AN-0-366 shear stability test that is used to measure permanent viscosity loss in aircraft hydraulic fluids. Several methods have been used for measuring temporary viscosity loss due to shear. For this investigation the viscosity loss was determined by measuring flow through calibrated metal capillaries using a hydraulic pump to attain extremely high rates of shear while maintaining streamline flow. The device used for this work is designated as the PRL high shear viscometer.
The Kingsbury Tapered-Plug Viscometer for Determining Viscosity Variation with Temperature and Rate of Shear
Authors: Needs Sydney J.
Published: August 2009

As part of a study of methods for measuring the viscosity of fluids, the API Subcommittee on Viscosity at High Rates of Shear requested the author to determine the viscosities of four oils at various rates of shear.
Measurement of the Adsorption of Anion-Active Detergents by Materials Commonly Washed
Authors: Fessler William A.
Published: August 2009

Aqueous solutions containing surface-active ions can be titrated with an aqueous solution containing surface-active ions of opposite charge. The end point, or point at which the solution contains an equal number of positive and negative charges on surface-active ions, is manifest by a minimum in the surface tension (1) and by a maximum in turbidity (2). If a layer of chloroform and an ionized organic dye are present, the end point is marked by sudden migration of color from one liquid phase to the other (3). Bromphenol blue has given sharp end points in this titration (4) and we have adapted the procedure using this dye to the determination of the adsorption of anion-active detergents on several surfaces commonly washed. The procedure could also readily be adapted to measurement of the adsorption of cation-active detergents. A different type of test would be required for measuring the adsorption of nonionic detergents. McLaren (5) has measured the adsorption of a nonionic surface-active agent on wool, titrating the detergent with phosphomolybdic acid according to a procedure of Oliver and Preston (6). Above a pH of about 4.6, bromphenol blue exists in aqueous solutions as a salt whose negative ion is an intensely blue complex organic structure. In a system with two liquid phases, water and chloroform, it will be found in the water layer. If positively charged surface-active ions, such as those provided by cetylpyridinium bromide, are added, they combine with the negative dye ions and the combination migrates to the chloroform layer coloring it blue. If surface-active negative ions are present in the aqueous phase, the cetylpyridinium ions combine with these before combining with the dye ions, hence the amount of surface-active negative ions in an aqueous solution can be determined by adding chloroform and a little bromphenol blue, and adding a standardized solution of cetylpyridinium bromide until the blue color starts to migrate to the chloroform layer. The reactions are shown in Fig. 1. The reaction on the left hand of the diagram proceeds essentially to completion before the reaction on the right hand begins. Bromphenol blue is usually sold as the water-insoluble acid form. To make a 0.4 per cent solution of the indicator from this form, 1 g is added to a mortar along with 14.9 ml of 0.1 N sodium hydroxide solution. The solution and solid are ground together until the bromphenol blue dissolves and the solution is then diluted to 250 ml with distilled water.
Laboratory Performance Test for Detergents in Continuous Wool Scouring
Authors: Leonard E. A.
Published: August 2009

Wool scouring on a large scale involves feeding a continuous stream of loose wool successively through a line of bowls containing steeping, detergent, and rinsing solutions. After each bowl the wool passes through squeeze rolls which expel excess liquid. Scouring lines commonly have four or five bowls, of which the first is used for steeping, the second and third contain solutions of detergent and builders for scouring, and the last two may be rinse bowls. The immersion time of wool in any one bowl runs about 30 sec; the whole scouring operation is therefore done in about three minutes. Many details of equipment and operation are described in the American Wool Handbook (1). Comparative evaluation of detergent performance in plant scale test is complicated by several factors: 1. Raw wool is very heterogeneous as to dirt content from lot to lot and even from fleece to fleece. 2. The rate of wool fed through the washing line is variable. 3. The quality of labor is such as to render conduct of tests by plant personnel undesirable. Technical personnel must, therefore, be in attendence. 4. Plant requirements rather than the conduct of a scouring test take first consideration, and the latter is therefore subject to interruptions for routine cleaning, changes in wool mix, etc. The usual criterion for cleanliness of scoured wool is residual wool grease content, determined by solvent extraction. Random samples of wool extracted over a period of time provide data that conform to the normal law of variation. These data, if plotted on a tri-sigma control chart, would look like Fig. 1, Under a system of this type, the comparison of detergents can be made only by (1) determining the average level and variability of results under standard conditions, and (2) running the detergent under test for sufficient time to re-determine mean level and variability under this new condition.
A Metal Cleaning Test Using Radioactive Stearic Acid as Soil
Authors: Hensley J. W. , Skinner H. A. , Suter H. R.
Published: August 2009

A metal cleaning test method, in which radioactive stearic acid is used as the soil, is described. Procedures are given for producing a uniform, reproducible, abraded surface on steel test pieces, and for applying very thin, uniform reproducible films of tagged stearic acid to the surface of metal test disks. Descriptions are given of special apparatus used in preparation and coating of metal test pieces. Test data are given showing the removal from steel of the stearic acid soil by single-component alkali solutions, with variation in cleaning time and solution concentration, and by one organic detergent solution, with variation in cleaning time. Distinct differences were found in the rate of soil removal and the amount of residual soil left by the different cleaning solutions when used for still cleaning at 90 C. With each cleaning solution, the residual soil on a test specimen tended to reach an equilibrium value after a certain period of cleaning and did not decrease further with increased cleaning times. With a particular alkali solution, variation of the concentration over the range 0.1 to 1.0 per cent Na2O had little effect on cleaning results (2 min immersion at 90 C), but increasing the concentration above 1.0 per cent Na2O caused a very pronounced decrease in cleaning efficiency.
The Mechanism of the Wetting of Textiles
Authors: Gruntfest I. J.
Published: August 2009

Consideration is given to the implications of the data on the wetting of textiles that is obtained by the use of a hydrometer method. This method permits a much more detailed study of the wetting process than is possible by the more usual methods. Some effects of rate of immersion of skeins of gray cotton yarn, skein density, solution temperature, and mechanical action are described. This work suggests a resolution of the wetting of textiles into two independent processes. One of these, the escape of occluded gas, is essentially mechanical. The other, the rate of advance of the liquid phase into the mass to be wet, is a physico-chemical problem. Some studies of the time dependence of the surface tension of solutions of surface active agents are also described and discussed. It appears that the rates of surface tension lowering correlate quite well with wetting agent performance.
Introduction
Authors: Harris Jay C.
Published: August 2009

Industrial thinking on detergent evaluation, particularly for soaps and alkaline builders, has been largely directed to analytical methods. That this reasoning was sound, for soaps and the alkalies, is evidenced by the available methods and specifications. With literally thousands of surface active agents developed over the years, and of such diverse chemical structure and character, generally satisfactory analytical methods remain to be devised for these increasingly important agents. Consequently, performance tests are resorted to for comparison of their important physicochemical properties, such as lather, wetting capacity, and soil-removing ability. These are complex phenomena, and tests devised to measure them are arbitrary, involve many operations, and are directly subject to the personal equation. For this reason, replication of test is necessary, but this in turn suggests a reasonable treatment of the developed data. The very nature of the surfaces which detergents must clean and the possible conditions which might be used during cleansing make agreement on the conditions for any single test a task of considerable proportions. Laboratory detergency tests have been used for almost a decade, without as yet any exact agreement as to how, and with what soiling media, these tests shall be conducted. There seems to exist a fear that a suggested method, even though agreed upon by producer and consumer, might unfairly harness both thinking and progress. Much of the performance research testing already reported is felt by many to be so specific and narrow as to be of limited value. Many will claim to disregard laboratory performance tests completely and further claim that actual trial is the sole criterion for successful evaluation. Granted that present methods may lack control or be very narrow in scope, what is needed is knowledge of the reproducibility and significance of these methods and especially their correlation with practice. The agricultural and biological fields were probably the first to recognize the difficulties inherent in methods subject to chance variation, or which must be correlated with practice, and they accepted, if they did not actually develop, the practice of statistical analysis. Any “tool” which will speed production, aid in uniformity of product, or increase the knowledge about some chosen subject is a useful one to borrow. Our need to use statistical methods became apparent and in line with our policy of keeping abreast of and influencing current thinking, this Symposium on Statistical Methods for the Detergent Laboratory was established.
Graphical Methods of Statistical Analysis and Tests for Significance
Authors: Schmidt P. L.
Published: August 2009

The concept that individual differences exist in all manufactured and natural products is not new, but a convenient method of studying, controlling, and predicting these differences has not been generally adopted in most engineering design and manufacturing. We have gradually been forced to accept the fact that our products cannot all be exactly alike, and we have therefore established limits or ranges within which the characteristics of the manufactured product will vary when the product is used or operated under a given set of conditions. For instance, we say that the temperature rise of a motor will be no greater than 55 C when operated at full load, or that the minimum life of an incandescent lamp will be 1000 hr. Since it is the variation in individual properties which determines such factors as average, minimum, and maximum values, it is obvious that some generally recognized scheme for describing variations is extremely useful in engineering, manufacturing, and testing. Various schemes have been and are currently being used for the description of variation. One widely used system merely states the approximate maximum and minimum values which a product may have. Another scheme states the average difference between the individual values and the numerical average. The most generally used scheme defines the variation as the root mean square of the individual deviations from the average, this being preferred over other schemes since it can be used to advantage in predicting the number of values which will be found between two specified limits and furnishes a basis for accurate estimates of the error one makes when sampling or inspecting only a small part of the total population. This measure of variation is called the standard deviation of the values from the average and is usually represented by the Greek letter sigma, σ. Since the arithmetic calculation of sigma is usually rather time consuming, graphical methods are faster and will be discussed to show their general usefulness in engineering and test work. Another important use of the graphical method has to do with the basic idea that all data which one may collect by tests on a manufactured product, or on almost any other activity one might choose to examine, are merely samples. The information which may be obtained from this sample is limited in its exactness due to sampling variations or error but may be made more exact as the size of the sample is increased. Unfortunately this increase in information is not proportional to the amount of data collected. The use of the graphical method enables one to determine easily and quickly the error between the sample and the true situation and gives a basis for determining whether the cost of additional sampling is commensurate with the increase in accuracy.