bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Changes in the Banking Industry and the Challenge of 1992
Authors: Canals Jordi
Published: October 2011

This chapter intends to pinpoint two aspects of this process of change in the banking industry. It notes that the first makes reference to the recommendation to the governments in preparation for the process of banking universalization and the concentration of the industry. The chapter explains that this point is crucial, since financial authorities' definitions of legal framework and operating norms condition to a great extent banking activity. The second aspect relates to the transformation of the banking industry and the subsequent urgency of respective corporate strategies.
Resilience and bereaved children: helping a child to develop a resilient mind-set following the death of a parent
Authors: Stokes Julie
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines a variety of factors that can help a bereaved child to develop a resilient mind-set. These interrelated factors come from within the individual child, their parents, and their community. This chapter discusses resilience in relation to children with a focus on the cognitive processes involved in building a resilient mind-set and identifies the spectrum of risk factors that can complicate a child's response to a parental death.
Resilience and creativity
Authors: Hartley Nigel
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines the role of creativity in resilience in the palliative care setting. It discusses the common knowledge that many famous artists create in order to survive and highlights the stories regarding a myriad of great artworks relating their creation to the darkest of times for their creators. Examples of these are the second piano Concerto of Serge Rachmaninov and Vincent Van Gogh's paintings. This chapter suggests that this same process of creative thinking can be applied to cope with a loss, trauma, or bereavement.
The Drafting of the Convention by the Governments of the Council of Europe (February–November 1950)
Authors: Bates Ed
Published: October 2011

This chapter addresses the drafting of the ECHR by the governments of the Council of Europe. It starts with an examination of the approach to the ECHR taken by the Committee of Ministers in late 1949, and then looks at the work of the Committee of Legal Experts and the Conference of Senior Officials. It then turns to how the drafting of the ECHR proceeded when before the Committee of Ministers, and the important compromise that was made as regards the right of individual petition. A further section examines how the Convention was viewed by academics and others when it was opened for signature in 1950 and in the years after. The mood was one of disappointment and frustration at the lack of achievement. In the final section the theme is the ambivalent nature of the ECHR as it stood in 1950: was it merely a collective pact against totalitarianism or was it a European Bill of Rights?
The Convention’s Evolution 1973–1976: The Awakening of the ‘Sleeping Beauty’
Authors: Bates Ed
Published: October 2011

This chapter focuses on the situation of the Convention in the mid-1970s, when there were growing tensions between the British government and the Strasbourg Commission. It begins by examining how a number of States accepted the Convention's optional clauses over 1973–4. It then turns to the growing frustration seen at Whitehall with respect to the approach to interpretation of the ECHR adopted by the European Commission of Human Rights. The chapter then gives an in-depth examination of the Commission's handling of the case of Golder v United Kingdom, which proved to be a landmark in Strasbourg jurisprudence. Golder was referred to the Court by the UK government and the chapter examines the debates that were presented to the Court as to the proper approach to the interpretation of the Convention. The judgment in Golder v United Kingdom is examined in detail, and the approach to interpretation adopted in cases immediately following is also examined. The final section of this chapter addresses the British approach to the ECHR through the 1980s and early 1990s, in the aftermath of the Golder case.
Reflecting on the Convention’s Evolution (From a Safeguard against Totalitarianism to Europe’s Bill of Rights)
Authors: Bates Ed
Published: October 2011

This chapter builds upon previous chapters, and is reflective in its approach. It begins by examining the views of Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice, the ‘British’ judge on the Court in the late 1970s. He was hostile to the idea that the ECHR might be developed into a European Bill of Rights and took a very restrictive view as to the scope of Convention rights. The remainder of the chapter describes how this view of the Convention was never accepted by the Strasbourg institutions. It does so by reflecting on the early perspectives on the ECHR as demonstrated by the Convention institutions and by key spokespersons for the institutions such as Sir Humphrey Waldock and Pierre-Henri Teitgen. It looks at how the Convention was viewed ‘at Strasbourg’ from the late 1970s onwards, when it became clearer to see that the Convention was regarded there as destined to become Europe's Bill of Rights.
After 1998: The Challenges Facing the ‘New’ European Court of Human Rights
Authors: Bates Ed
Published: October 2011

This chapter begins by discussing the crisis of workload that has faced the new European Court of Human Rights since 1998. It then identifies new trends in the case law since that year, serious violations of human rights, post ‘enlargement’ case law, and repetitive violations of the Convention. The third part of the chapter assesses how the Strasbourg Court has adapted to meet these new challenges, which includes an analysis of its general working methods, and of new initiatives such as the pilot judgment procedure. It discusses the process of formal reform of the Convention, the relevant section chronicling the work of the Evaluation Group, the drafting of Protocol 14, the 2004 ‘reform package’, and the Group of Wise Persons. Russia's delayed ratification of Protocol 14 is discussed. Finally, the Interlaken Declaration of 2010 is examined.
‘Shopping is a Place to Go’: Fashion, Shopping, and Advertising
Authors: Berg Maxine
Published: October 2011

British historians who have addressed consumerism have identified fashion as a key transformation of the 18th century, and as significant to the British as it was to the French. Fashion theory focuses not on the unique product, but on collections, imitation, seriality, ornament, and commodity groupings. The fashion of these products was conveyed through astute attention to advertising. The illustrated commercial trade catalogue and the trade card allowed producers and merchants to picture their goods, not just in isolation, but in association with other complementary products, and in settings and literary contexts conveying good taste. This particular group of new consumer goods led the way in innovative selling.
Introduction
Authors: Berg Maxine
Published: October 2011

This book provides a history of new consumer goods. Three sections of the book, ‘Luxury, Quality and Delight’, ‘How it was Made’, and ‘A Nation of Shoppers’, explore the cultural discourse and invention of the new goods, their manufacture and marketing, and who consumed them and how. The chapter tells the stories and analyses the historical development that led from a global trade in Eastern luxuries in the sixteenth to 18th centuries to a new global trade in British new consumer goods by the end of the 18th century.
Has a Trinitarian God Deceived Us?
Authors: Hasker William
Published: October 2011

This chapter defends Social Trinitarianism (ST) by responding to some of Dale Tuggy's criticisms. After describing Tuggy's primary objections in some detail, it challenges some of the methodological assumptions that seem to motivate Tuggy's concerns and engages Tuggy's claim that ST would amount to a case of malevolent divine deception. By taking seriously the concept of ‘progressive revelation’, and the development of doctrine, it concludes that Tuggy's main problem with Social Trinitarianism is more illusory than substantial.
Relative Identity and the Doctrine of the Trinity
Authors: Rea Michael C.
Published: October 2011

This chapter begins by describing the doctrine of relative identity (RI) in some detail. It then identifies and describes two versions of the relative identity strategy — the pure RI strategy and the impure RI strategy. It briefly discusses the standard criticisms of the RI strategy. It also presents the objections to that strategy. The chapter argues that invoking the pure doctrine of relative identity as a solution to the problem of the Trinity implies that the difference between the divine persons is theory-dependent, thus forcing either modalism or anti-realism — two equally unpalatable alternatives. It concludes that the RI solution to the problem of the Trinity, taken as a stand-alone solution to that problem, is unsuccessful.
National Cascades
Authors: Laitin David D.
Published: October 2011

This chapter argues that when it comes to national identities, we are not in competition with our neighbours but rather in coordination with them. Coordination among large numbers of people, however, is not easy to accomplish, even if all the people agree on a preferred outcome. Thus, the role of ethnic entrepreneurs. It is the social reality of interdependent choice and the desire for coordination that makes nations seem natural—since they represent votes that are very difficult to reverse. But at certain historical moments change can be rapid, as in a cascade. The tipping model illustrates both the sense of permanence and the fragility of national identifications. More important, it illustrates that the primordial image of society, where class is dynamic due to opportunities for social mobility while nationality is static without any expectations of cultural mobility, is flawed.
Exploiting Globalization Drivers and Potential
Authors: Yip George S. , Bink Audrey J. M.
Published: October 2011

This chapter addresses the following questions: Should a company develop a global customer management (GCM) programme? How can it determine whether to do so? What are the potential benefits and costs? It begins by examining four types of drivers of GCM: customer drivers, financial drivers, market drivers, and technology drivers. It then discusses what managers need to do to attain the benefits from the four types of drivers.
Empowering Global Account Managers
Authors: Yip George S. , Bink Audrey J. M.
Published: October 2011

After selecting which accounts are to be global, the next key choice is who should be the manager for each account. The global account manager (gam) is the most important person in the account relationship. Therefore, it is important to have a clear view of what the responsibilities of the gam will be, and make sure these are known to all involved. Furthermore, it is important to know what characteristics a good gam should have, and choose a person who has these characteristics. This chapter discusses the most common responsibilities and characteristics of a gam.
Winning with Critical Success Factors
Authors: Yip George S. , Bink Audrey J. M.
Published: October 2011

The previous chapters discussed many different features that affected the success of global account management (GAM). In addition, these covered how to use these features to progress from a GAM programme to a more beneficial global customer management (GCM) programme. This final chapter combines the most important of these features into an overview of the most important critical success factors. They fall into four main areas: the infrastructure of the company and the GCM programme; GCM roles; the relationship with the customer; and an integrated approach.
Disciplines of Discipleship in Late Antique Education: Augustine and Gregory Nazianzen
Authors: McLynn Neil
Published: October 2011

This chapter presents a peculiarity of Augustine's case in reading the Confessions and the equally unreliable memoirs of Gregory Nazianzen and his student fraternity in Athens. The prevailing impression obtained from these student reminiscences is of disorder rather than discipline. It argues that Augustine may have designed his ‘disciplinarum libri’ to mark a decisive break with the day-to-day untidiness of the schoolroom. In viewing thePhilocalia, it suggests a more lasting analogy between East and West containing encouraging intimations of the possibility of an authentically Christian paideia.
The Vocabulary of the Liberal Arts in Augustine'sConfessions
Authors: Burton Philip
Published: October 2011

This chapter completes the review of plenary lists of liberal arts by considering Augustine's Latin vocabulary for the canon, especially as presented by the Confessions. Augustine proceeded to give an account of his own education, in which the contours of disciplinary knowledge were blurred. The chapter demonstrates that the idiom of intellectual activity and accomplishment found in the Confessions strongly favours Latin translations or near-equivalents of Greek loan-words. It suggests that Augustine was attempting to revalorise liberal arts for a Latin Christian readership. This recoding aims at more than just the effacement of antiquated institutions of non-Christian learning. It also promotes the idea, explicitly formulated in De Doctrina Christiana, that the useful and salutary practice of arts otherwise known as liberal is already exemplified in the sacred texts of Christianity.
Augustine's Hermeneutics as a Universal Discipline!?
Authors: Pollmann Karla
Published: October 2011

This chapter explores the possibilities of Augustine's hermeneutics as a universal discipline. As an account of De Doctrina Christiana, set against the backdrop of ancient theorising on language, the interpretation of texts, and the relation of human to divine knowledge, and with an eye to Augustine's earlier initiatives from Cassiciacum onwards and to the related work of his Confessions, the chapter draws together the main threads of the collective inquiry. It notes that despite whatever partial models and analogues can be suggested for it, the hermeneutic ‘discipline’ announced by Augustine in De Doctrina Christiana is perhaps most impressive in the end for its singularity — its strange, historical eventfulness.
Concepts and Principles of Extensional Mereology
Authors: SIMONS PETER
Published: October 2011

Although Stanislaw Leśniewski's Mereology was the first extensional part—whole theory to be rigorously developed, it is expressed in the formal language of the general logic Leśniewski called ‘Ontology’, and which is sometimes called his calculus of names. This language is, by comparison with those of predicate logic and set theory, still relatively little known, so mereological concepts and principles are first introduced. Leśniewski's notation can then be introduced without any great difficulty in its intended meaning. As far as the narrower issues of extensional mereology are concerned, there is no important difference between Leśniewski and other writers. This chapter discusses meteorological principles, classical extensional meteorology, and the questions of atomism.
General-Purpose Content
Authors: Price Carolyn
Published: October 2011

This chapter investigates how a teleologist might go about assigning content to the representations produced by a general-purpose system. It explains that the content of the devices produced by a general-purpose, doxastic system cannot be determined by considering the interests that they are supposed to serve because there is no such set of interests. It also discusses the four problems about general-purpose content and the impossibility of providing a teleological account of doxastic content.
Miller, Nationality, and Distributive Justice
Authors: Jones Charles
Published: October 2011

This chapter considers the implications for questions of distributive justice of theories attaching fundamental ethical significance to nations, and analyses David Miller's contribution. National communities figure prominently in Miller's version of communitarianism, where special obligations to co-nationals are founded on the ethically valuable national community. There are basically four parts of analysis here: first, an outline of Miller's characterisation of nationality; second, a closer look at some arguments purporting to show the ethical relevance of national commitments; third, discussion of reasons for rejecting the ethically foundational character of nations; and finally, a scrutiny of what obligations go along with national allegiance. Overall, this chapter shows how the ethical importance of such a view does not fundamentally alter the duties persons owe to one another as human beings.
Relations and Intrinsic Properties
Authors: Cross Richard
Published: October 2011

This chapter focuses on the medieval theory in its application to the Incarnation. It begins by discussing the theories of relations of Bonaventure, Aquinas, and Duns Scotus. It then argues that the medievals used the theories to try to show how the Incarnation — which requires mutability, temporality, and possibility — could be consistent with a doctrine of God that requires immutability, timelessness, and impossibility. The chapter considers what this medieval strategy can achieve and what its limitations might be, and concludes that the strategy should be assigned a low value.
Politicians and Bureaucrats in the Policy-Making Processes
Authors: Wright Maurice
Published: October 2011

The reversal in Japan's economic fortunes after the collapse of the bubble economy, combined with the end of the Liberal Democratic Party's 38-year rule in 1993 and the political turbulence that ensued, raised, and continues to raise, questions about the continuing effectiveness of Japanese institutions, as well as the relationships between politicians, bureaucrats, and businessmen in the organizations that underpinned those institutions. This chapter examines the continuing academic debate about the policy-making processes in Japan, beginning with the concept of the ‘developmental state’ in which bureaucrats are accorded the pre-eminent role in policy-making. The recent work of the ‘new institutionalists’ is also considered. Adopting and adapting theories of rational choice, they have attacked both revisionists and counter-revisionists, arguing that the relationship between politicians and bureaucrats is one of principal and agent, bureaucrats acting merely as the instruments of politicians.
The Spending Ministries and Agencies
Authors: Wright Maurice
Published: October 2011

This chapter provides an organizational map of the terrain inhabited by Japan's Spending Ministries and Agencies before the implementation in January 2001 of the reforms to the central government enacted in 1998–99. It begins with a brief historical review of the origins and development of ministries and agencies from the foundation of the modern state to the present day, to illustrate and emphasize the importance of stability, continuity, and evolutionary change in the structure of Japan's central government. Their hierarchical status is also discussed, together with the government enterprises and public corporations that they supervised. This chapter also looks inside the ministries and agencies, drawing attention to the key role played by the Minister's Secretariat generally in the policy-making processes, and to its Budget and Accounts Division more narrowly in the budgetary processes. The chapter concludes by explaining and assessing the proposals for the reconstruction of the central government in the legislation enacted by the second Hashimoto government in 1998, and that of Prime Minister Keizo Obuchi in the following year, implemented on January 6, 2001.
Ministerial Autonomy and Territorial Boundaries: Coordination, Competition, and Conflict in the Policy-Making Processes
Authors: Wright Maurice
Published: October 2011

The most difficult problem of governmental organization in Japan since the restoration of the Meiji has been the need to coordinate the sectional interests of the central ministries. Throughout the last quarter of the 20th century, Japan's ministries and agencies were often deeply divided over the making and carrying out of many policies that were related or inter-departmental. Jurisdictional competition, derived from and fostered by the verticalized structure of the central administration, was the principal cause of that division. Bureaucratic insularity was reflected and reinforced by the particularistic interest of politicians focused more on discrete policy issues than comprehensive policy or collective good government. This chapter examines the governmental and party structures through which attempts were made to coordinate the interests, functions, and responsibilities of ministries and agencies in Japan, as well as the informal processes, procedures, and behavioural rules-of-the-game that supported them. It argues that the latter provided more coordination in practice than an inspection of formal structures suggests.
MOF's Elite Administrators
Authors: Wright Maurice
Published: October 2011

Japan's elite bureaucrats have five defining characteristics. First, their recruitment is open and competitive, but those appointed are drawn predominantly from among the graduates of Tokyo University's Law Faculty. Second, those recruited are generalists who dominate the elite bureaucracy in headquarters ministries. Third, bureau and ministry interests are stronger than national, centralizing tendencies; most bureaucrats serve the whole of their official life in the same ministry or agency. Fourth, behavioural norms of seniority, and rotation of posts, provide for the strictly regulated progression of class-cohorts with broadly based experience, mainly within ministries, up to the level of deputy director of division. Fifth, officials passed over for promotion at more senior levels in headquarters ministries resign; most, together with some other retirees, seek (with the assistance of their ministry) ‘second careers’ elsewhere in the public and private sectors, and in the Diet. This chapter looks at the recruitment, socialization, career progression, and retirement of the Ministry of Finance's elite administrators, within the context of those five broad characteristics.
Deficits and Debt
Authors: Wright Maurice
Published: October 2011

In 1978, Japan adopted the new System of National Accounts (SNA) which it integrates five major consumption accounts of the national economy, of which the income and outlay accounts for various institutional sectors include those for ‘General Government’. This concept provides a common framework and criteria by which to measure, assess, and compare national and international fiscal and financial performance. It includes all producers providing but not selling government services to the community in three main categories: central government, local government, and social security funds. Using General Government, this chapter analyses the trends of spending in those three categories in Japan throughout the period 1975–2000 and compares Japan's fiscal performance with other G7 countries. There are three main performance indicators of General Government: outlays, fiscal balance, and the balance of assets and liabilities (gross and net debt). The results from using them are compared with those obtained by applying the Ministry of Finance's own preferred narrower definition of fiscal balance and debt, which excluded social security funds and included the accounts of public corporations.
FILP under Stress
Authors: Wright Maurice
Published: October 2011

The original purpose of Japan's Fiscal Investment Loan Programme (FILP) was to contribute to fixed capital formation by allocating funds to dedicated functional organizations at the national, regional, and local levels to enable them to provide finance for capital investment and loans for mainly three types of public sector projects. The first of those was for projects where loan periods were too long for private-sector institutions to bear the interest-rate risk. Second, FILP finance was intended to finance those projects whose potential profitability was too uncertain for private-sector institutions to bear the risk. The third main type was projects where low-interest loans were offered for purposes of income redistribution, and the interest rates were too low to be handled by private-sector financial institutions. While few inside Japan advocated the outright abolition of FILP, the need to redefine its purpose, scope, and operational criteria became urgent as tensions arose in the system. This chapter discusses the background to the reform process initiated for FILP in 1997 and examines the principles of ‘New FILP’ introduced in April 2001.
Budget Institutions, Deficits, and Debts
Authors: Wright Maurice
Published: October 2011

According to ‘fiscal institutionalists’, budget institutions at the governmental (as opposed to parliamentary) level, which lead participants in the budget process to internalize the costs of budget deficits, result in smaller deficits. Internalization is more likely where budget institutions are centralized, hierarchical, and transparent. Conversely, the more fragmented, the less transparent, and the more collegial those institutions, the more likely are the occurrence and persistence of fiscal deficits and debts. This chapter examines each of these elements and looks at the United Kingdom's experience with a fiscal code. It then considers the extent to which proposals for the reform of the central executive, the Fiscal Investment Loan Programme, and the formal rules of the central budgetary system might contribute to a reconfiguration of budget institutions and processes more conducive to low or declining deficits in the 21st century. The experience of Japan is compared with some other G7 countries that have been more successful in controlling their public spending, eliminating deficits, and reducing the level of central/federal debt.
2 Colin Matthew (1941–1999)
Authors: Hilton Boyd
Published: October 2011

This chapter describes Colin Matthew's early life and his career as a professional historian. The youth who went up to Oxford in 1960 was independent minded and resilient but still reserved, and at times even tongue-tied. In 1978 he had been elected to a Tutorial Fellowship at St Hugh's College. Colin's two-volume analytical biography of Gladstone, based for the most part on his successive Introductions, was published in 1986 and 1995 and won him the Wolfson Prize for History. Colin was active in helping the University to meet some of the challenges of recent years. He stood for pragmatism and common sense, and yet he remained at heart an idealist. Fully alive to what he once called ‘the charm and the danger of Oxford’, he was preoccupied in a wholly Gladstonian way with how such institutions might evolve organically to perform newly required duties, without sacrifice of their fundamental purposes.
3 Colin Matthew: A Memoir
Authors: McKibbin Ross
Published: October 2011

Working on the franchise and on Gladstone had the paradoxical effect of making Collin Matthew more ‘European’. Colin was not a ‘little Englander’ — he was not after all English — but he had a very strong sense of the uniqueness of British institutions, and the unique value of these institutions. He had voted in favour of leaving the Common Market in the 1975 referendum. ‘Franchise Factor’ is explicitly comparative simply to emphasize just how undemocratic the British franchise was in comparison with most other ‘comparable’ countries — including France and Germany. This suggested a less attractive aspect of the uniqueness of British institutions. Furthermore, Colin himself demonstrated, as no previous historian had done, how intellectually and ideologically embedded in European culture Gladstone was. Colin was also required to teach late nineteenth- and twentieth-century European history for the Oxford history syllabus and this again suggested to him how far Britain was in fact a European state.
8 The Defection of the Middle Class: The Endowed Schools Act, the Liberal Party, and the 1874 Election
Authors: Goldman Lawrence
Published: October 2011

This chapter focuses on the Liberal's defeat in 1874 and the disaffection of crucial sections of Liberal support. Nonconformists were opposed to the 1870 Education Act, the trade unions were hostile to the 1871 trade union legislation, and brewers and landlords were in uproar over the 1872 Licensing Act. In many ways this was closer to a later twentieth-century conception of politics as the reflection of the material interests of groups demanding favours from governments as the price of electoral support, than the more nuanced nature of mid-Victorian politics where the vote was not a bargaining chip but a badge of status, manhood, and independence. Disaffection rather than defections by organized labour accounted for the defeat of the Liberals, who actually managed to retain much of their strength in the Northern boroughs. It was not in the North, but in the southern shires and London that the Liberals lost the election.
12 Roman Candles: Catholic Converts among Authors in Late-Victorian and Edwardian England
Authors: Waller Philip
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses the Catholic converts among authors in late-Victorian and Edwardian England and their contribution to literature. It was Anglicism, whether commonplace or eccentric, which continued generally to mark the miscellany of converts among authors in this period. Especially, many shared objections to the Roman organization of Catholicism that typified their Protestant countrymen. The period of Catholic aggression against modernism and materialism also explains its allure to writers of a certain disposition drawn to salute authority on spiritual and ethical questions and to cherish beauty and tradition.
The Bretton Woods Institutions: Evolution, Reform, and Change
Authors: You Jong-Il
Published: October 2011

The Bretton Woods institutions (BWIs), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the World Bank were created to bring about orderly development of the world economy in the post-World War II era. This chapter makes an attempt to suggest broad directions of reform. It employs historical and institutional approaches in trying to understand the sources of failures and limitations of the BWIs. A detailed blueprint for reform would require much technical and analytical work on specific issues, but at this stage, it is more important to forge a consensus on the direction of reform. The chapter reviews the evolution of the BWIs, identifying the main driving forces behind the changes in the role and functions of the system, and discusses institutional reform, including the reform of governance and conditionality. In addition, the chapter discusses how to redefine the roles of the BWIs.
Parameterisation
Authors: Priest Graham
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines the relevance of mathematician Frank Ramsey's essay The Foundations of Mathematics to the contradictions in the limits of thought. Ramsey has provided the most acute early critical commentary on Bertrand Russell's ideas on paradox and he suggested that the paradoxes of self-reference are of two kinds. This chapter analyses several modern solutions to the paradoxes of Ramsey's Group B and finds that they have the same general failings as Ramsey's own solution.
Market Opportunities: Finding and Filling Them
Authors: Dowling Grahame R.
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses market opportunities, outlining how to identify market opportunities and to create new products and services to respond to customer needs. Part A reviews the main factor that triggers this search, namely, the need to grow. It explores various possibilities for growth. Two key growth-related issues bedevil marketing managers. One is that growth often leads to a blurring of focus. The second issue is the organization's capability to create new products or services. Part B discusses new product development (NPD), a proven way to drive markets and respond to the increasing expectations of customers. Part C provides a brief review of how consumers adopt new products and services. This discussion provides the first detailed look at one of the foundation concepts of marketing — market segmentation.
The theory of sets
Authors: Potter Michael
Published: October 2011

Quite a lot is now known about sets, but one thing that as of yet cannot be proved is that there are any. The reason for this is that all the axioms committed to so far, the instances of separation, take the form of universal generalizations and are therefore vacuously satisfied if there are no levels to instantiate them. This chapter attempts to rescue the theory from this vacuity. Doing so requires the chapter to enter into some ontological commitments concerning levels.
Basic cardinal arithmetic
Authors: Potter Michael
Published: October 2011

This chapter studies the elementary consequences of the following definitions: If a = card(A) and b = card(B), we let a + b = card(A ? B); ab = card(A x B); ab = card(BPA). The definitions are formally consistent, but this does not explain why they have been chosen. A partial explanation is supplied in this chapter, where it is shown that for finite cardinals they simply reproduce the everyday operations of addition, multiplication, and exponentiation which are already familiar. But this is only a partial explanation: other definitions are no doubt possible which coincide with these ones for finite cardinals but come apart from them in the infinite case. The fruitfulness of the definitions that has been given is thus not something that can be judged straightaway but emerges only once the theory to which they give rise has been developed.
Orders of infinity
Authors: Potter Michael
Published: October 2011

The theory of levels developed in Chapter 3 was wholly neutral as to how many levels there are in the hierarchy, since it was based solely on the axiom scheme of separation. Chapter 4 added the assumptions — the axioms of creation and infinity — which can be thought of as saying that the hierarchy extends to a certain height. But there are evidently other ways of extending the theory so as to assert that the hierarchy goes to other heights. Such assertions are called axioms of infinity. This chapter is concerned with whether there is a limit to the strength of axioms of infinity that are true and, if so, what it is.
The axiom of choice
Authors: Potter Michael
Published: October 2011

In § 9.4 a principle — the axiom of countable choice — was introduced which differed from the axioms of this book's default theory because it asserted the existence of a set of a particular sort (actually, in this case, a sequence) without supplying a condition that characterizes it uniquely. This chapter investigates some generalizations of the axiom of countable choice that share this feature, and enquires a little further into whether the lack of uniqueness in such specifications should be regarded as troubling.
Of Liberty and Necessity
Authors: Buckle Stephen
Published: October 2011

In this section, David Hume defends a compatibilist account of the relation between human freedom and necessary laws of human nature. The compatibilism itself is entirely unremarkable for a thinker influenced by the mechanist tradition; compatibilist interpretations of one form or another are offered by many mechanical philosophers, especially of course by materialists, such as Thomas Hobbes, or by those prepared to regard materialism as possible, such as John Locke. It is unlikely then that Hume's readers would have found anything novel or startling in the broad commitments expressed here. It is reasonable now to expect that the point of this section lies in the details, rather than in the compatibilist conclusion itself. Hume's purposes, then, are metaphysical, moral, and religious: a consistent experimentalism will teach people their place in the world.
Hume's Enlightenment Tract
Authors: Buckle Stephen
Published: October 2011

The best explanations of the physical world are provided by experimental philosophy. This philosophy denies knowledge to make room for enquiry. That is, it rejects the extravagant claims made on behalf of human reason by the dogmatic philosophers, and therefore also of the knowledge of the essences of objects derived from rational insight into their natures, or delivered a priori by alleged innate principles in the mind. Without such knowledge, people must make do with experience and what can be gleamed from it. The explanations that best fit the experimental evidence are that the world works according to mechanical principles: most simply, that change occurs because objects in motion collide with other objects, and impart motion to them. Although the nature of the mind is not revealed by this philosophy, it is not the case that mechanical explanations cannot illuminate mental capacities and processes.
The Powers of the Victorian State
Authors: Harling Philip
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines five points about the powers of the Victorian State. The first is that the remarkably deep and broad legitimacy that Victorian Britons conferred on their agencies of government was largely predicated on what those agencies did not do: spend too much of the taxpayers' money, or blatantly privilege some sectional interests at the expense of others. The second point is that the ostensibly ‘minimal’ Victorian State was nevertheless a strict moral disciplinarian that was armed with formidable powers to force self-reliance, sobriety, orderliness, and sexual decency on the reprobate, most notably paupers, prisoners, and prostitutes. The third point is that the Victorian State's attempts to impose market discipline on the poor obliged it occasionally to intervene in the market itself in an effort to make the living and working conditions of the poor broadly tolerable. The fourth point is the centrality of the local agencies of the state in the delivery of non-military services. The last point is that the imperial and social crises of the fin-de-siècle challenged traditional notions of the proper limits of government and triggered the rapid expansion of the responsibilities and fiscal capacities of the state. The end result was an Edwardian State that possessed broader powers than its Victorian predecessor, not only to promote a more capacious notion of the ‘common good’ but to punish those who were thought to pose a threat to it.
The Authority of the Law
Authors: Finn Margot C.
Published: October 2011

This chapter re-examines the transition from status to contract and from contractual individualism to legal collectivism by scrutinizing the authority of the law from three successive vantage points. It begins by surveying English criminal law reform, then considers English civil law reform, and concludes by exploring the evolution of ‘British’ law in the empire. The goal of the chapter is to suggest ways in which attention to place, personnel, and process can illuminate the broad patterns of legal change in the Victorian era in new ways. The interpretation is framed by the overarching question: ‘where should we look to find the authority of the Victorian law?’ That is, where should we seek the Victorian law in terms of its physical and administrative locations — inside English territorial borders or outside them, inside criminal or civil tribunals, within the superior or within the inferior court systems?.
Propositionalism
Authors: Forbes Graeme
Published: October 2011

The discussion of the previous chapter intimates that the central problem raised by intensional transitive verbs is that of accounting for notional readings of verb phrases (vp's) they head, in particular, for vp's in which the complement of the itv is a quantified noun phrase. If first-order logical formalisms are unusable given the overt structure of intensional transitive vp's, two strategies suggest themselves. One is to use higher-order logical formalisms. The other, to be examined in this chapter, is to uncover enough covert material in the vp to allow the explicit quantified noun phrase (qnp) to function as a first-order quantifier.
Substitutivity
Authors: Forbes Graeme
Published: October 2011

Referential opacity is the term commonly used for the phenomenon of substitution-failure, for example, the failure of ‘seek/fear/caricature Hyde’ to entail ‘seek/fear/caricature Jekyll’. Richard (2001) remarks that a treatment of intensional transitives that does not examine referential opacity could seem like a critical discussion of Paradise Lost that ignores the Prince of Darkness. This chapter presents a ‘hidden indexical’ theory of opacity and discusses how it is to be integrated into the semantics for itv's that has been developed here.
The Production of Knowledge
Authors: Starbuck William H.
Published: October 2011

This book reflects on a number of challenges associated with management and social science research — the search for a ‘behavioral science’, the limits of rationality, the unreliability of many research findings, the social shaping of research agendas, cultures, and judgements. The book is chronologically structured and includes discussions of research projects and various methodological debates. This is a feisty argument based on all aspects of research — carrying out research programmes, evaluating research, tirelessly questioning the assumptions and claims of social science research, and never avoiding the awkward theoretical or practical challenges that face organizational researchers.
Creating Better Social Science
Authors: Starbuck William H.
Published: October 2011

As some questions cannot be answered by traditional theories alone, this book asserts that there are research tactics do not help humans in understanding themselves and their environments. As a consequence social scientists have found a need to come up with alternative research methods. Such reforms attempt to point out inappropriate statistical technique, faults in the assumption that social systems and people are stable and nonreactive, and that research should consider environmental circumstance and not just logic and human physiology alone. Researchers must be able to set higher standards for the credibility of their findings so that social science research can better account for features in society and bring greater respect to the researchers. This chapter introduces the structure of the book and shows an autobiographical approach in an attempt to explain views through research experiences.
The Production of Knowledge
Authors: Starbuck William H.
Published: October 2011

Because social science research has a low utilitarian value, little attention is given to such research and social scientists are probably receiving a lot less respect than they deserve. Higher standards for reliability should then be set for social science research so that more respect would be given to the researchers and the findings would have more value for society. This chapter presents some research tactics that will hopefully improve the results of social science research or at least filter unnecessary noise. The chapter encourages researchers to challenge their own thinking to be able to demonstrate the validity of their knowledge through observation and displacing situations from equilibria. Also, the chapter introduces statistical methods that would yield the production of reliable knowledge. Lastly, researchers should be able to create consensus about what they know.
Formalization: Expressibility, Definability, Compositionality
Authors: Peters Stanley
Published: October 2011

This chapter discusses logical equivalence across languages in terms of the concept of a lexical mapping and addresses the issue of compositionality. Compositionality is perhaps the first extra condition for translation, and it is considered in an abstract setting. However, it is considered in this chapter with a twist, in that a distinction is made between compositionality of a language and compositionality of a translation. Conditions on the grammars of the respective languages are examined to extend a lexical mapping to a compositional translation. The main condition is that the syntactic rules of the source language should be definable in the target language. A notion of definability closely related to uniform translation is explored. The chapter concludes with a detailed and coherent picture of the relation between expressivity issues for both formal and natural languages.
Bureaucratic rationality
Authors: Townley Barbara
Published: October 2011

This chapter considers the early work on bureaucracy before examining the foundations of a bureaucratic rationality. It strongly distinguishes between the bureaucratic form and a bureaucratic rationality that underpins it. Bureaucratic rationality is identified as domination through knowledge, or that which allows things to be known. It is the mundane, seemingly insignificant acts of semantics, drawing definitional boundaries, rules, procedures, codes, protocols, and writing the world in formalized terms, that enables it to be known, become predictable, and be acted upon. As such, bureaucratic rationality is the underlabourer allowing bureaucratic structures to function. And it is this bureaucratic rationality that persists, if not more so, when the organizational form identified as bureaucracy undergoes many changes.
Who should decide? Developing strategy-making capabilities
Authors: Venzin Markus
Published: October 2011

Strategy making in many financial services firms is dominated by the desire to control risks, steer resources into profitable areas, and make incremental adjustments to the existing business model. Innovative strategic thinking that penetrates the organization from the lower ranks of the firm is rare. The narrow regulatory framework and inflexible IT systems often contribute to a fairly centralized approach to strategic decision-making in financial services firms. This chapter describes how financial services firms can accelerate their strategic metabolisms and fuel strategic thinking processes with energy. It shows how strategy processes should be designed for firms to lead to unique strategic positions.
How to enter? The choice of the market entry mode
Authors: Venzin Markus
Published: October 2011

While deciding on the timing and speed of market entry, financial services firms have to choose the most appropriate market entry mode among the available alternatives. Strategic objectives such as timing and speed of market entry certainly influence the choice of market entry mode. Acquisitions allow for an immediate and quick entry but are risky. Organic growth is slower but easier to control. This chapter reviews the strategies companies in the financial services sector pursue to enter foreign markets. In general, firms can internationalize in a number of ways, including through exports, contractual agreements, and foreign direct investment (FDI). International financial services markets have traditionally been entered using equity modes such as mergers and acquisitions or FDI.
How to organize? International organizational architectures
Authors: Venzin Markus
Published: October 2011

This chapter focuses on what corporate headquarters do to add value to their family of international business units. The primary purpose is to provide an understanding of the potential to add value through a brief synopsis of a selected sample of the corporate strategy literature and an exploration of the complex and delicate relationship between MNC headquarters and subsidiaries. A description of the key pillars for corporate headquarters' roles and functions in the modern international financial services firm is followed by case examples of the organizational structures of UniCredit Group and Erste Bank. The chapter concludes with reflections on how to balance the trade-off between local responsiveness and global efficiency.
Madness and Discord, 1788–1789
Authors: Lock F.P.
Published: October 2011

This chapter examines the activities and career of British politician Edmund Burke during the period from 1788 to 1789. According to his letters and writings, Burke spent 1788 mostly on farming and writing correspondence. During this period, for various political reasons, Burke lost favour with the king, the public, and even many of his own associates. He was particularly hurt by the disregard of this because his entire political career had been devoted to its service.