bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Sexually transmitted diseases of insects: distribution, evolution, ecology and host behaviour
Authors: Knell Robert J. , Webberley K. Mary
Published: October 2004

Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) of insects are known from the mites, nematodes, fungi, protists and viruses. In total 73 species of parasite and pathogen from approximately 182 species of host have been reported. Whereas nearly all vertebrate STDs are viruses or bacteria, the majority of insect STDs are multicellular ectoparasites, protistans or fungi. Insect STDs display a range of transmission modes, with‘ pure’sexual transmission only described from ectoparasites, all of which are mites, fungi or nematodes, whereas the microparasitic endo‐parasites tend to show vertical as well as sexual transmission. The distribution of STDs within taxa of insect hosts appears to be related to the life histories of the hosts. In particular, STDs will not be able to persist if host adult generations do not overlap unless they are also transmitted by some alternative route. This explains the observation that the Coleoptera seem to suffer from more STDs than other insect orders, since they tend to diapause as adults and are therefore more likely to have overlapping generations of adults in temperate regions.

STDs of insects are often highly pathogenic, and are frequently responsible for sterilizing their hosts, a feature which is also found in mammalian STDs. This, combined with high prevalences indicates that STDs can be important in the evolution and ecology of their hosts. Although attempts to demonstrate mate choice for unin‐fected partners have so far failed it is likely that STDs have other effects on host mating behaviour, and there is evidence from a few systems that they might manipulate their hosts to cause them to mate more frequently. STDs may also play a part in sexual conflict, with males in some systems possibly gaining a selective advantage from transmitting certain STDs to females.

STDs may well be important factors in host population dynamics, and some have the potential to be useful biological control agents, but empirical studies on these subjects are lacking.
Vision in the deep sea
Authors: Warrant Eric J. , Locket N. Adam
Published: October 2004

The deep sea is the largest habitat on earth. Its three great faunal environments – the twilight mesopelagic zone, the dark bathypelagic zone and the vast flat expanses of the benthic habitat – are home to a rich fauna of vertebrates and invertebrates. In the mesopelagic zone (150–1000 m), the down‐welling daylight creates an extended scene that becomes increasingly dimmer and bluer with depth. The available daylight also originates increasingly from vertically above, and bioluminescent point‐source flashes, well contrasted against the dim background daylight, become increasingly visible. In the bathypelagic zone below 1000 m no daylight remains, and the scene becomes entirely dominated by point‐like bioluminescence. This changing nature of visual scenes with depth – from extended source to point source – has had a profound effect on the designs of deep‐sea eyes, both optically and neurally, a fact that until recently was not fully appreciated. Recent measurements of the sensitivity and spatial resolution of deep‐sea eyes – particularly from the camera eyes of fishes and cephalopods and the compound eyes of crustaceans – reveal that ocular designs are well matched to the nature of the visual scene at any given depth. This match between eye design and visual scene is the subject of this review. The greatest variation in eye design is found in the mesopelagic zone, where dim down‐welling daylight and bioluminescent point sources may be visible simultaneously. Some mesopelagic eyes rely on spatial and temporal summation to increase sensitivity to a dim extended scene, while others sacrifice this sensitivity to localise pinpoints of bright bioluminescence. Yet other eyes have retinal regions separately specialised for each type of light. In the bathypelagic zone, eyes generally get smaller and therefore less sensitive to point sources with increasing depth. In fishes, this insensitivity, combined with surprisingly high spatial resolution, is very well adapted to the detection and localisation of point‐source bioluminescence at ecologically meaningful distances. At all depths, the eyes of animals active on and over the nutrient‐rich sea floor are generally larger than the eyes of pelagic species. In fishes, the retinal ganglion cells are also frequently arranged in a horizontal visual streak, an adaptation for viewing the wide flat horizon of the sea floor, and all animals living there. These and many other aspects of light and vision in the deep sea are reviewed in support of the following conclusion: it is not only the intensity of light at different depths, but also its distribution in space, which has been a major force in the evolution of deep‐sea vision.
Diversification and Energy Security Risks: The Japanese Case
Authors: LESBIREL S. HAYDEN
Published: October 2004

This article explores the relationship between diversification and energy security risks. It uses portfolio theory to conceptualise energy security as an insurance mechanism against disruptions to energy import markets. It provides quantitative measures of systematic and specific risks associated with Japanese energy imports during the period 1970—99. It suggests that Japan's policy of diversification of energy import sources has reduced specific risks, although fundamental changes in the political and economic structure of international energy and, in particular, oil markets have also significantly reduced systematic risks. The article concludes that, despite their limitations, portfolio measures provide a much more theoretically and methodologically robust indicator of energy import security than traditional measures of dependence.
Global Environmental Issues: Responses from Japan
Authors: YU-JOSE LYDIA N.
Published: October 2004

The timing of the Japanese Government's acceptance of the United Nations multilateral treaties governing several environmental concerns indicates Japan's priorities: biodiversity, global warming, and depletion of the ozone layer. Banning transboundary movement of hazardous wastes is the least prioritized, as indicated by Japan's failure to accept the Ban Amendment to the Basel Convention. The Japanese Environment Agency's policy statements and budget allocations between 1985 and 2000, as well as other official statements and programs, likewise indicate the same priorities. Moreover, of the three priorities, global warming is the top.

Japan, which has been looking for a niche in world leadership, has found it in global warming concerns. However, it would be hard for it to maintain a leadership role in global environmental concerns if it would not be able to play a proactive role in the more technologically, economically and politically difficult task of banning transboundary movement of hazardous wastes.
Urban Elites and Income Differential in China: 1988–1995
Authors: BIAN YANJIE , ZHANG ZHANXIN
Published: October 2004

Urban elites and their relative income levels are windows on the emerging socioeconomic order in China. We add to the research literature a new view that economic sectors are the institutional contexts in which different elites seek their material gains. Conducting a trend analysis with 1988 and 1995 national surveys of urban China, we found that political, administrative, and managerial elites maintained consistently higher levels of income relative to professional elites, but this applied mainly to a monopoly sector of industries that were restricted to state operation. Managers in the open industry sector that allowed for free entry and exile experienced income declines relative to professionals within the sector, even though the former had moderately higher income levels than the latter in 1988 and 1995. All elite groups in the monopoly sector retained higher incomes than their counterparts in the open sector in 1995, but not necessarily in 1988.
Political Cynicism, Public Interest Blackballing and Voter Turnout: The Case of South Korea's 2000 National Assembly Elections
Authors: KIM SUNWOONG , CHO KISUK
Published: October 2004

In the South Korea's 16th National Assembly (NA) elections held on 13 April 2000, there was widespread speculation that the Citizens Alliance's (CA's) public interest blackballing campaign against ‘unfit’ candidates increased voter cynicism and decreased voter turnout, as it was the lowest ever for NA elections. We empirically evaluate this speculation by conducting logit analyses of individual voter survey data as well as regression analyses on district-wide aggregated data on turnout. Although we find that cynical voters are likely to be more sympathetic to CA's blackballing campaign, we do not find any evidence that the campaign decreases voter turnout. These findings are consistent with Kahn and Kenny (1999) who argue that voters respond well to the negative information if it is presented in an appropriate manner.
The Impact of the Electoral System on Government Formation: The Case of Post-Communist Hungary
Authors: NIKOLENYI CSABA
Published: October 2004

Conventional theories of government formation have assumed that the coalition formation process starts after legislative elections are over and the distribution of parliamentary seats becomes common knowledge. This perspective, however, ignores the important constraints that the formation of electoral coalitions may exert on the formation of the government. This article argues that the electoral system of Hungary provides very strong incentives for political parties to build electoral coalitions, which are also identified as alternative governments before the electorate.
The AsiaBarometer: Its Aim, Its Scope, Its Strength
Authors: INOGUCHI TAKASHI
Published: October 2004

The Asia Barometer was launched on 6 May 2003 with an international symposium held at the University of Tokyo. It was executed in ten Asian societies in summer 2003. With the first AsiaBarometer survey data in their hands, Asian social scientists got together at the University of Tokyo in January 2004 to present and discuss their papers and discuss the second AsiaBarometer survey to be conducted in summer 2004. In March 2004 discussion papers came out from the Institute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo. By the end of 2004 the AsiaBarometer Sourcebook will come out also. This research note summarizes the AsiaBarometer's aims, scope and strength.
Confirmation of the presence of viable but non-cultureable bacteria in the stratosphere
Authors: Wainwright M. , Wickramasinghe N.C. , Narlikar J.V. , Rajaratnam P. , Perkins Joy
Published: October 2004

The presence of viable, but non-cultureable, bacteria on membranes through which stratospheric air samples were passed has been confirmed using viable fluorescent staining.
Protective effect of clay minerals on adsorbed nucleic acid against UV radiation: possible role in the origin of life
Authors: Scappini F. , Casadei F. , Zamboni R. , Franchi M. , Gallori E. , Monti S.
Published: October 2004

The effect of UV radiation on solutions of free and clay-adsorbed DNA has been investigated. It turns out that clay (montmorillonite/kaolinite) adsorbed nucleic acid undergoes less radiation damage than free nucleic acid. Our laboratory experiments have an astronomical counterpart in terms of solar irradiance on the Earth. An origin of life scenario is proposed where ubiquitous clay minerals lead the surface chemistry of the molecules relevant to the biological evolution and at the same time protect them from the deadly rainfall of UV photons.
Physiological characteristics of bacteria isolated from water brines within permafrost
Authors: Shcherbakova V. , Rivkina E. , Laurinavichuis K. , Pecheritsina S. , Gilichinsky D.
Published: October 2004

In the Arctic there are lenses of overcooled water brines (cryopegs) sandwiched within permafrost marine sediments 100–120 thousand years old. We have investigated the physiological properties of the pure cultures of anaerobic Clostridium sp. strain 14D1 and two strains of aerobic bacteria Psychrobacter sp. isolated from these cryopegs. The structural and physiological characteristics of new bacteria from water brines have shown their ability to survive and develop under harsh conditions, such as subzero temperatures and high salinity.
The preservation of fluid inclusions in diverse surface precipitates: the potential for sampling palaeo-water from surface deposits on Mars
Authors: Parnell John , Baron Martin
Published: October 2004

A wide range of surface deposits have been suggested as targets for the search for evidence of life on the surface of Mars. We show that duricrusts, biogenic lacustrine precipitates, hydrothermal and chemosynthetic precipitates, speleothems, travertines and evaporites all contain low-temperature fluid inclusions which represent surface/very-near-surface fluids. These fluid inclusions have good preservation potential. The recording of abundant inclusions in sulphate crusts is particularly important as they may be widespread on Mars. The inclusion fluids represent the surface waters from which the precipitates were deposited, so they may contain biomolecules from any ambient life in the surface environment. As problems of analytical sensitivity and contamination are overcome, such surface deposits have the potential to yield samples of Martian palaeo-water and any entrained biomolecules.
DNA signature of thermophilic bacteria from the aged accretion ice of Lake Vostok, Antarctica: implications for searching for life in extreme icy environments
Authors: Bulat Sergey A. , Alekhina Irina A. , Blot Michel , Petit Jean-Robert , de Angelis Martine , Wagenbach Dietmar , Lipenkov Vladimir Ya. , Vasilyeva Lada P. , Wloch Dominika M. , Raynaud Dominique , Lukin Valery V.
Published: October 2004

We have used 16S ribosomal genes to estimate the bacterial contents of Lake Vostok accretion ice samples at 3551 m and 3607 m, both containing sediment inclusions and formed 20000–15000 yr ago. Decontamination proved to be a critical issue, and we used stringent ice chemistry-based procedures and comprehensive biological controls in order to restrain contamination. As a result, up to now we have only recognized one 16S rDNA bacterial phylotype with confident relevance to the lake environment. It was found in one sample at 3607 m depth and represents the extant thermophilic facultative chemolithoautotroph Hydrogenophilus thermoluteolus of beta-Proteobacteria, and until now had only been found in hot springs. No confident findings were detected in the sample at 3551 m, and all other phylotypes revealed (a total of 16 phylotypes, 336 clones including controls) are presumed to be contaminants. It seems that the Lake Vostok accretion ice is actually microbe-free, indicating that the water body should also be hosting a highly sparse life. The message of thermophilic bacteria suggests that a geothermal system exists beneath the cold water body of Lake Vostok, what is supported by the geological setting, the long-term seismotectonic evidence from 4He degassing and the ‘18O shift’ of the Vostok accretion ice. The seismotectonic activity that seems to operate in deep faults beneath the lake could sustain thermophilic chemolithoautotrophic microbial communities. Such a primary production scenario for Lake Vostok may have relevance for icy planets and the approaches used for estimating microbial contents in accretion ice are clearly relevant for searching for extraterrestrial life.
Role of clays in protecting adsorbed DNA against X-ray radiation
Authors: Ciaravella Angela , Scappini Flavio , Franchi Marco , Cecchi-Pestellini Cesare , Barbera Marco , Candia Roberto , Gallori Enzo , Micela Giuseppina
Published: October 2004

We studied the effects of soft X-rays radiation on free and clay (montmorillonite, kaolinite) adsorbed DNA. The DNA samples were exposed to X-rays of 1.49, 4.51 and 8.04 keV for exposure times ranging from 2 min up to 16 h. The biological transformation technique was used to estimate the damage of the DNA molecules. Free and clay adsorbed DNA are differently affected by X-rays. The former is damaged by X-rays and the level of damage depends on the energy dose rather than the hardness of the radiation. The clay adsorbed DNA is not damaged by X-rays for energy doses up to 5.8×104 erg. Clays materials could have protected the building blocks of life on the primordial Earth when the solar X-ray emission was much stronger than today.
Gender differences in retirement savings decisions
Authors: GERRANS PAUL , CLARK-MURPHY MARILYN
Published: October 2004

As members of the Australian workforce approach retirement, they are being presented with increased choice in their superannuation investments. With increased choice has come greater personal responsibility for ensuring adequate retirement savings. This paper explores gender differences in superannuation investment choices through a range of interactions with individual demographics and in doing so a gender effect can be further refined than previous research has identified. The data for this paper comes from a survey of members of the Superannuation Scheme for Australian Universities (SSAU).
Household annuitization decisions: simulations and empirical analyses
Authors: DUSHI IRENA , WEBB ANTHONY
Published: October 2004

Annuities provide insurance against outliving one's wealth. Previous studies have indicated that, for many households, the value of the longevity insurance should outweigh the actuarial unfairness of prices in the voluntary annuity market. Nonetheless, voluntary annuitization rates are extremely low.

Previous research on the value of annuitization has compared an optimal decumulation of unannuitized wealth with the alternative of annuitizing all unannuitized wealth at age 65. We relax these assumptions, allowing households to annuitize any part of their unannuitized wealth at any age and to return to the annuity market as many times as they wish.

Using numerical optimization techniques, assuming the levels of actuarial unfairness of annuities calculated in previous research, and retaining the assumption made in previous research that one half of household wealth is pre-annuitized, we conclude that it is optimal for couples to delay annuitization until they are aged 73–82, and in some cases never to annuitize. It is usually optimal for single men and women to annuitize at substantially younger ages, between 65 and 70. Households that annuitize will generally wish to annuitize only part of their unannuitized wealth.

Using data from the Asset and Health Dynamics Among the Oldest Old and Health and Retirement Study panels, we show that much of the failure of the average currently retired household to annuitize can be attributed to the exceptionally high proportions of the wealth of these cohorts that is pre-annuitized. We expect younger cohorts to have smaller proportions of pre-annuitized wealth and project increasing demand for annuitization as successive cohorts age.
Overview of the Issue
Authors: BROWN JEFFREY , HABERMAN STEVEN , MILEVSKY MOSHE , ORSZAG MIKE
Published: October 2004

Within the global debate regarding the provision and management of retirement pensions, two issues continue to attract the attention of academics and practitioners alike. They are the role of payout annuities in a well-balanced portfolio and the corporate governance of pension plans. We are happy to present the current issue of the JPEF which addresses both of these topics and provides a number of interesting and important conclusions.
Biofilms fouling ancient limestone Mayan monuments in Uxmal, Mexico: a cultivation-independent analysis
Authors: Ortega-Morales B. O. , Narváez-Zapata J. A. , Schmalenberger A. , Sosa-López A. , Tebbe C. C.
Published: October 2004

Biofilms colonizing ancient limestone Mayan monuments in Uxmal (Yucatán, Mexico) were characterized for their microbial composition and differences using phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) analysis and single-strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP) of polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-amplified genes of the rRNA small subunit. Biofilms 1–7, displaying different macroscopic characteristics, were drawn from interior and exterior limestone walls, which were characterized by different microenvironmental conditions. Inner surfaces that were exposed to low light intensity and higher water availability supported a higher biofilm biomass, probably indicating that these environmental conditions are more suitable for biofilm growth and development. Sequencing of SSCP profiles from the biofilms showed that bacteria affiliated with the phyla Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes and Cyanobacteria colonized both internal and external surfaces, although certain Nevskia and Salinibacter were particularly associated with internal biofilms. In contrast, a particular biofilm community composed almost exclusively of Rubrobacter-related bacteria was found in only one exterior partially shaded sample (biofilm 3), characterized by high illumination and low water content. No specific organisms were detected in biofilm 7. The PLFA profiles suggested that cyanobacteria were the biomass-dominant group in most biofilms, except for biofilm 3 (exterior) where actinobacterial markers were detected in significant proportions. Interestingly, most of the detected sequences were related to halophylic bacteria, although the similarity of these clones to known sequences in databases was low (< 94%). This finding suggests that much bacterial novelty, probably of halophylic nature, remains to be identified in these biofilms. Our study suggests that water availability and light regime appear to be the main environmental determinants defining boundaries for biofilm formation, while substratum salinity appears to be an important abiotic factor that influences biofilm community structure in these specialized microbial habitats.
Transcriptional activity of icaADBC is not correlated to the degree of biofilm formation in clinical ica-positive Staphylococcus epidermidis strains
Authors: Dobinsky S. , Rohde H. , Knobloch J. K.-M. , Horstkotte M. A. , Mack D.
Published: October 2004

Biofilm-formation in Staphylococcus epidermidis depends on the expression of the icaADBC operon encoding the enzymes required for the synthesis of polysaccharide intercellular adhesin (PIA). Different S. epidermidis strains vary widely in the degree of PIA and biofilm that they produce. In 11 clinical S. epidermidis strains we analyzed the biofilm-forming capacity in relation to the amount of ica expressed in static biofilm cultures. In mid-exponential growth phase no correlation could be detected between the level of ica transcription and the biofilm-forming phenotype. When the different strains were grown under conditions leading to a biofilm-negative phenotype, ica-expression was highly upregulated. Sequence analysis demonstrated that the observed differences were not due to major mutations in the ica promoter region but apparently to other strain-specific regulators.
Listeria monocytogenes: biofilm formation and persistence in food-processing environments
Authors: Møretrø T. , Langsrud S.
Published: October 2004

Listeria monocytogenes is ubiquitous in nature and a major concern for the food industry, since it is the causal agent of the serious foodborne illness listeriosis. This organism can be introduced through many routes to food-processing environments and may become established on food-processing equipment. Subsequently, food products may become contaminated during processing. In addition, the bacterium can grow at refrigeration temperatures. Biofilms are regarded as important with respect to the survival and growth of microorganisms in the food industry. Microorganisms growing in biofilms are protected against cleaning and disinfection and are difficult to eradicate. Listeria monocytogenes may grow in biofilms that protect them against environmental stress and can be isolated from surfaces after cleaning and disinfection. For each individual food-processing plant, a limited number of clones of L. monocytogenes may become established and persist for years. Persistent strains adhere to surfaces and form biofilms more readily compared to sporadically found strains, suggesting that adherence to surfaces is important for survival and persistence of L. monocytogenes in food-processing environments. Listeria monocytogenes can adhere to all the materials commonly used in the food industry. In biofilms L. monocytogenes is significantly more resistant to disinfection than its free-living counterparts and thick, complex biofilms are more difficult to remove than adherent single cells of L. monocytogenes. Several novel approaches to avoid adhesion of L. monocytogenes have been proposed, but high costs, practical difficulties or resistance problems limit their practical use. Despite considerable research on the adhesive properties and resistance of L. monocytogenes enabling its survival in the food production environment, a final solution for avoiding establishment of the bacterium has not yet been found.
Igniting the Spirits
Authors: Duhamel Olivier
Published: October 2004

‘The Cypriot Minister for Foreign Affairs, George Iacavou, asked in Luxembourg to maintain in the European Constitution project the quotation of the Greek historian Thucydides which had been crossed out in the last document of the Irish Presidency. According to AFP, Hellenists affirmed that the sentence (“our Constitution... is called a democracy because the power is in the hands not of a minority, but of the greatest number”) was badly translated and also that Thucydides was a disputed personality’.

Let us note that the translation was already modified by the Convention. The first version evoked ‘the whole people’, the ‘ultimate’, ‘the greatest number’.
Until the last minute, the Preamble had been discussed. In the Convention, Robert Badinter, former president of the French constitutional Council, had already co-signed, on 3 June 2003, with the author of these lines and Pervenche Berès, a proposal for an amendment to the Preamble to remove the quotation of Thucydides. It did not seem suitable to us to place the Union under the auspices of the founder of realistic geopolitics, a kind of Kissinger of ancient Greece. Others say that they oppose this quotation because it refers to the power of the people, not that of States. The quotation finally disappeared during the Brussels summit on 17 and 18 June 2004. As we see, no word of the Preamble is left aside.
Loyalty and Solidarity
Authors: Xuereb Peter G.
Published: October 2004

While the Union's powers and responsibilities are ever on the increase and co-operation deepens as the Union begins to take positions more easily in the areas of freedom, security, justice and defense, it is seeking to keep the Member States and the Union together via the duties of loyalty. These are spelled out in general terms in Article I-5, and in more specific terms in specific contexts, such as those of the Common Foreign and Security Policy [Article I-15(2)]. Article I-5 is entitled ‘Relations between the Union and the Member States’, but it is also central to the relations between the Member States themselves in terms, for example, of the exercise of their voting rights in the Council of Ministers. The Article consolidates provisions that are currently scattered over various Treaties but not without adding some novelties.
Defence: Old Problems in a New Guise?
Authors: Besselink Leonard F.M.
Published: October 2004

While the Nice Treaty cast a shadow over the Convention's work on the institutions and led to the project's first failure in the Brussels Summit, the war in Iraq cast shadows over the common foreign and security agenda. On the one hand, it proved the extent to which Europe is divided over substantive positions and over the means to act, particularly the resort to war. On the other hand, there is an increased popular sense that Europe should play a role (reflected in Eurobarometer polls, including one especially commissioned by Giscard). Article I-40 of the Draft Constitution on defence reflects that ambition. It remains to be seen whether this facilitates Europe to unite when it comes to giving foreign policy teeth in the form of a real and effective common ‘defence’ policy.

As with most other provisions of the Constitution, Article I-40 in the main builds on and consolidates the texts as we already have them in the existing Treaties, but at the same time, it innovates.
Social rights: A Wide Agenda
Authors: Sajó András
Published: October 2004

There is considerable flexibility in the use of the term ‘social rights’. The list of such rights varies in international documents, and it is difficult to find a common denominator or ground for classification for what are called social rights. A further standard problem is that not all social rights have the legal nature of more traditional civil and political rights. Social rights entail claims that are neither necessarily individual nor necessarily enforceable in court, at least not in the sense that they will result in remedies available to identifiable rights holders. Hereinafter, social rights refer to rights that are related to social status, including status rights that are applicable to the economic sphere (rights related to work are often discussed as economic rights, i.e., rights in the economy). Such status rights might apply to all in a given circumstance (e.g., a social subsistence minimum that applies to all who are in need) or they might be specific. In the latter case, the social status is related to a condition that one cannot change voluntarily, at least not in the short run (e.g., motherhood, or being a child, an orphan, or handicapped).
Citizenship in Abeyance
Authors: Rousseau Dominique
Published: October 2004

In a text which claims constitutional rank the principle of citizenship, in all meanings of the term, is fundamental. If a treaty has as its first reference the State, a constitution naturally has as a reference also the citizen. Indeed in the European Constitution provisions abound referring to the citizen. In Part I they are to be found in Titles II and VI; in Part II there is the whole Title V and in Part III there is Title II. As citizenship is everywhere in the Draft, this would deserve it the rank of Constitution that it claims.

This first impression, however, is not supported by reading the different actual provisions in the Draft Constitution concerning citizenship. They fall short on three grounds.
The European President
Authors: Sap John W.
Published: October 2004

The European Council's personal, elected and mandated presidency is without a doubt one of the major innovations in the Constitution. It is also its most fought over and precarious novelty. Until the last stages of the Convention, the great majority of small Member States' representatives maintained staunch opposition against the idea. In the end, however, they all reluctantly dropped resistance in the face of the praesidium's intransigence, supported by the major Member States. With its new chairman, the European Council can be considered the great winner among the Union institutions. Apart from becoming a full European institution (Article I-18), it is getting structured leadership. Article I-21 of the Draft European Constitution states that the European President is to be elected by the European Council, by a qualified majority for a term of two and a half years, and cannot serve more than two terms. The President may not hold a national mandate. In order to understand this new function, one needs to look into its origin, powers, strengths and weaknesses.
Voting in the Councils: A Compromise, No Revolution
Authors: Zemanek Jiri
Published: October 2004

The European Council actually, as a rule, takes decisions by consensus, as its major function is to bring a primary political impetus into the integration process through ‘conclusions’, ‘principles’, ‘guidelines’, and ‘joint strategies’ or ‘recommendations’ not having the force of a legal act. This is a customary rule; it is not stipulated in Article 4 EU. Consensus may be regarded as a ‘soft’ unanimity, reached without voting, in a silent way (no opposing statements), and allowing – within the framework of the common position – some divergences by individual Member States.
Limiting EU Powers
Authors: de Búrca Gráinne
Published: October 2004

One of the central issues arising during each of the Intergovernmental Conferences which has taken place since that of Maastricht, which inscribed the notion of limited conferred competences for the first time in the EC Treaty, has been the attempt to establish clear limits to the powers of the European Community and Union. The ‘delimitation of competences’ was placed on the initial post-Nice agenda of 2000 alongside only three other issues, and the ‘division and definition of competence’ was listed as the first of the pressing ‘challenges and reforms’ of the Laeken Declaration of 2001. No surprise, then, that this question was once again amongst the key questions for debate during the Convention on the Future of Europe, occupying the attention of at least two working groups (those on complementary competences and subsidiarity), and surfacing in many other political and academic debates on the proposed Constitution.
Judicial Protection Under the Constitution
Authors: Flogaitis Spyridon , Pottakis Andreas
Published: October 2004

The challenges for the system of judicial protection of the EU spring from two main developments: first, the enlargement of the EU, which inevitably affects all institutions of the Union, most notably their organisational structure and modus operandi, second, the deepening and widening of the areas falling within the scope of competences of the EU. Article I-28 Draft Constitution states that the Court of Justice of the EU shall include the ECJ, the High Court and specialised courts. These courts, together with the national courts of all levels, constitute the intricate nexus offering judicial protection in the EU. The issues that dominated debates on the reform of the system of judicial protection varied from the amendment of Article 230.4 EC on the locus standi of applicants, to the impact of the incorporation of the Charter of Human Rights and to the competences of the ECJ in the areas of the second and third pillar. They all relate to the deepening and widening of the Union through this Draft Constitution.
The Convention Method
Authors: Rasmussen Hjalte
Published: October 2004

Since the ratification of the Treaty of Maastricht, the ‘democratic deficit’ is used as a term to describe the democratic deficiencies of the European integration process. What is the influence of the citizens on the process of governmental and constitutional decision-making? Due to the distance between the powers of the Community and the nation state, the power of the executive over parliamentary bodies and the fact that a lot of decision-making takes place behind closed doors, greater democracy and transparency is needed.
Aerosol non‐sea‐salt sulfate in the remote marine boundary layer under clear‐sky and normal cloudiness conditions: Ocean‐derived biogenic alkalinity enhances sea‐salt sulfate production by ozone oxidation
Authors: Sievering H. , Cainey J. , Harvey M. , McGregor J. , Nichol S. , Quinn P.
Published: October 2004

Observations of remote marine boundary layer (RMBL) non‐sea‐salt sulfate (NSS) aerosols indicate a substantial NSS fraction may be found in coarse (supermicron diameter) sea‐salt aerosols. Aqueous phase mechanisms account for a portion of this coarse aerosol NSS. Aerosol samples were collected at Baring Head, New Zealand, during clear‐sky and normal cloudiness conditions to assess the contribution that the O3 oxidation mechanism may make to coarse NSS. Southern Ocean derived clear‐sky coarse aerosols had >8 nmol NSS m−3; the normal cloudiness coarse aerosols contained <3 nmol NSS m−3. Data were obtained during high wind speeds (U ∼ 11 m s−1), minimizing coarse aerosol lifetimes and thus cloud interaction. Both clear‐sky and normal cloudiness coarse aerosols contained Ca excesses that contributed >200 and 35–40 times, respectively, more alkalinity than did bulk seawater (equivalents basis). Consequently, aqueous phase, O3 oxidation in sea‐salt aerosols was markedly enhanced and may account for essentially all observed coarse aerosol NSS. Satellite data indicate the Southern Ocean upwind of Baring Head contains ∼3 times the annual primary productivity (with associated biogenic Ca enhancement) of open ocean surface waters. The large and variable upwind biogenic Ca source plus the high wind speeds encountered at Baring Head make this site atypical of many RMBL regions. More typical RMBL conditions, found during western Pacific Ocean shipboard measurements, indicate that ∼1 to ∼2.5 times additional alkalinity (beyond that from bulk seawater) is likely to be found in sea‐salt aerosols due to seawater biogenic sources. Coarse aerosols, laden with NSS, experience large dry deposition rates which results in rapid recycling of ocean‐derived sulfur. This process has been overlooked or understated in RMBL sulfur budget analyses and models. One major consequence is that new particle production from biogenically derived oceanic sulfur is severely limited in the RMBL since ubiquitous O3 oxidation in sea‐salt aerosols is energetically favored over homogeneous nucleation.
Can the state of mixing of black carbon aerosols explain the mystery of ‘excess’ atmospheric absorption?
Authors: Chandra Shekhar , Satheesh S. K. , Srinivasan J.
Published: October 2004

In order to understand the response of the Earth‐atmosphere system to anthropogenic aerosol forcing, it is essential to know the relative impact of various aerosol species on the radiative budget. Most of the models used for estimating the direct radiative forcing have assumed that the various aerosol species are mixed externally or internally. However, it is possible that one aerosol species may be coated over another species to form core‐shell structure and resulting radiative impact can be significantly different than those of the externally‐mixed or internally‐mixed aerosols. Our study suggests that changes in the state of mixing of black carbon aerosols may be one of the possible causes for ‘excess’ atmospheric absorption reported by many investigators. We show that past estimates of climate forcing due to anthropogenic black carbon aerosols represent the lower bound and that the actual values may be larger than the current estimates.
Modeling of lower mantle seismic anisotropy beneath subduction zones
Authors: Nippress S. E. J. , Kusznir N. J. , Kendall J.‐M.
Published: October 2004

Recent observations of up to 6 secs of shear‐wave splitting in deep focus earthquakes from the Tonga‐Kermadec subduction zone provide insights into mantle dynamics near the 660 km discontinuity. Modeling of subduction body force stresses predicts large deviatoric stress (∼40 MPa) in the topmost lower mantle below a viscosity increase at the 660 km discontinuity. Finite strain calculations produce significant amounts of natural strains (∼7) in the lower mantle, and coherently aligned strain ellipses. For a viscosity model with a viscosity increase at 660 km, 5–10 secs of shear‐wave splitting is predicted, compared to only 0–5 secs for uniform mantle viscosity. For a viscosity increase model, we predict that shear‐wave splitting reduces from 7–10 secs to 4–6 secs when deformation above 410 km is ignored, and further reduces to 2–3 secs when deformation above 660 km is zeroed. Various conversions from finite strain to anisotropy have been explored. Predicted shear‐wave splitting magnitudes are comparable to those observed from the Tonga‐Kermadec subduction zone.
Lithospheric anisotropy structure inferred from collocated teleseismic and magnetotelluric observations: Great Slave Lake shear zone, northern Canada
Authors: Eaton David W. , Jones Alan G. , Ferguson Ian J.
Published: October 2004

Accurate interpretation of SKS shear‐wave splitting observations requires inherently indeterminate depth information. Magnetotelluric electrical anisotropies are depth‐constrained, and thereby offer possible resolution of the SKS conundrum. MT and teleseismic instruments, deployed across the Great Slave Lake shear zone, northern Canada, investigated lithospheric anisotropy and tested a hypothesis that seismic and electrical anisotropy obliquity can infer mantle strain shear‐sense. Lithospheric mantle MT strike (N60°E) differs significantly from crustal MT strike (N30°E). SKS splitting vectors outside the shear zone exhibit single‐layer anisotropy with fast axis parallel to upper‐mantle MT strike and oblique to present‐day plate motion (N135°W). Back‐azimuth sensitivity at sites within the ∼30 km wide shear‐zone imply more complex layering, with two‐layer inversion yielding an upper layer of ∼N20°E and a lower layer of ∼N66°E. The MT data help to constrain the depth location of SKS anisotropy and, taken together, support a model of fossil lithospheric anisotropy.
Permeability of illite‐bearing shale: 1. Anisotropy and effects of clay content and loading
Authors: Kwon Ohmyoung , Kronenberg Andreas K. , Gangi Anthony F. , Johnson Brann , Herbert Bruce E.
Published: October 2004

Permeability of illite‐rich shale recovered from the Wilcox formation and saturated with 1 M NaCl solution varies from 3 × 10−22 to 3 × 10−19 m2, depending on flow direction relative to bedding, clay content (40–65%), and effective pressure Pe (2–12 MPa). Permeability k is anisotropic at low Pe; measured k values for flow parallel to bedding at Pe = 3 MPa exceed those for flow perpendicular to bedding by a factor of 10, both for low clay content (LC) and high clay content (HC) samples. With increasing Pe, k becomes increasingly isotropic, showing little directional dependence at 10–12 MPa. Permeability depends on clay content; k measured for LC samples exceed those of HC samples by a factor of 5. Permeability decreases irreversibly with the application of Pe, following a cubic law of the form k = k0 [1 − (Pe/P1)m]3, where k0 varies over 3 orders of magnitude, depending on orientation and clay content, m is dependent only on orientation (equal to 0.166 for bedding‐parallel flow and 0.52 for flow across bedding), and P1 (18–27 MPa) appears to be similar for all orientations and clay contents. Anisotropy and reductions in permeability with Pe are attributed to the presence of crack‐like voids parallel to bedding and their closure upon loading, respectively.
Permeability of illite‐bearing shale: 2. Influence of fluid chemistry on flow and functionally connected pores
Authors: Kwon Ohmyoung , Herbert Bruce E. , Kronenberg Andreas K.
Published: October 2004

Bedding‐parallel permeability of illite‐rich shale of the Wilcox formation has been investigated using distilled water and 1 M solutions of NaCl, KCl, and CaCl2 as pore fluids. Despite low modal concentrations of swelling clays, specimens expand upon fluid saturation and permeabilities depend on fluid composition. Permeabilities to flow of 1 M CaCl2 are 3–5 times greater than values measured for the other pore fluids, suggesting sensitivity to exchange of divalent cations for monovalent cations at clay mineral surfaces. Permeabilities of individual samples exhibit nonrecoverable changes with sequential changes in composition of incoming fluid. Permeabilities k at varying effective pressure Pe fit a cubic law k = k0 [1 − (Pe/P1)m]3, where m and P1 are independent of fluid composition, and k0 is greater for transport of 1 M CaCl2 than that for transport of the other pore fluids. Assuming that fluid conduits have crack‐like dimensions, the lack of sensitivity of m and P1 to fluid composition suggests that surface roughness and asperity stiffness of conduits are unaffected by cation exchange, while changes in k0 reflect changes in the clay‐fluid interfaces of the connected pore space.
A generalized mixture rule for estimating the viscosity of solid‐liquid suspensions and mechanical properties of polyphase rocks and composite materials
Authors: Ji Shaocheng
Published: October 2004

A simple phenomenological formula is proposed to predict the mechanical properties of isotropic multiphase materials in terms of component properties, volume fractions, and microstructures. The formula is regarded as a generalized mixture rule (GMR) because it works equally well for various mechanical properties (e.g., Young's modulus, viscosity, hardness, yield, and flow strengths) and for wide ranges of multiphase systems. The GMR can be readily utilized to polyphase systems having either weak‐phase supported structure (e.g., solid‐liquid suspensions) or strong‐phase supported structure (e.g., porous materials). Various well‐known expressions (e.g., Einstein, Roscoe, Voigt, Reuss, and geometrical mean) are special cases of the GMR and can be derived from the master equation using different values of the single microstructural coefficient J. It is believed that the GMR will facilitate further understanding of the statistical effects of arbitrarily complex microstructures (e.g., phase continuity and connectivity, particle shape, and size distribution) on the overall mechanical properties of composite materials including polymineralic and partially melted rocks. The formula has a particular advantage if it is desired to invert the mechanical data to the volume fractions of the composite constituent phases and microstructure.
Nonlinear acoustoelastic constants of dry and saturated rocks
Authors: Winkler Kenneth W. , McGowan Larry
Published: October 2004

Conventional descriptions of the stress dependence of acoustic velocities in rock are often based on microcrack models. A more general, model‐independent description that ignores microstructure is third‐order elasticity theory. This theory has had much success in metals and crystals, and has recently been applied to rocks as well. We measured third‐order elastic constants in several rocks both dry and water saturated. A five‐velocity‐measurement technique was used where a rock sample is stressed either hydrostatically or uniaxially, and compressional and shear velocities are measured as functions of stress. In dry rocks we find that third‐order elasticity theory provides a good description of velocity versus stress. However, in water‐saturated rocks, agreement between theoretical predictions and measurements is significantly worse than in dry rocks. This indicates that third‐order elasticity theory does not fully describe the stress dependence of velocities in water‐saturated rock under our experimental conditions. Detailed analysis of the velocity data suggests that rock dilatancy may be responsible for the discrepancies between theory and experiment.