bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Low α‐Amylase Starch Digestibility of Cooked Sorghum Flours and the Effect of Protein
Authors: Zhang Genyi , Hamaker Bruce R.
Published: June 2007

The comparably low starch digestibility of cooked sorghum flours was studied with reference to normal maize. Four sorghum cultivars that represent different types of endosperm were used. Starch digestibilities of 4% cooked sorghum flour suspensions, measured as reducing sugars liberated following α‐amylase digestion, were 15–25% lower than for cooked maize flour, but there were no differences among the cooked pure starches. After the flours were predigested with pepsin to remove some proteins, the starch digestibility of cooked sorghum flours increased 7–14%, while there was only 2% increase in normal maize; however, there was no effect of pepsin treatment on starch digestibility if the flours were first cooked and then digested. After cooking with reducing agent, 100 mM sodium metabisulfite, starch digestibility of sorghum flours increased significantly while no significant effect was observed for maize. Also, starch solubility of sorghum flours at 85 and 100°C was lower than in maize, and sodium metabisulfite increased solubility much more in sorghum than in maize. Differential scanning calorimetry results of the flour residue after α‐amylase digestion did not show any peaks over a temperature range of 20–120°C, indicating that sorghum starches had all undergone gelatinization. These findings indicate that the protein in cooked sorghum flour pastes plays an important role in making a slowly digesting starch.
Sensory Descriptive Texture Analyses of Cooked Rice and Its Correlation to Instrumental Parameters Using an Extrusion Cell
Authors: Meullenet Jean‐Francois C. , Gross Jason , Marks Bradley P. , Daniels Melissa
Published: June 2007

Sensory characteristics of cooked rice texture for three cultivars were evaluated using both descriptive sensory methods and an instrumental extrusion cell. Nine sensory textural characteristics were evaluated and five instrumental parameters were used to establish predictive models for the sensory characteristics evaluated. Multiple regression models with R2 ranging from 0.22 to 0.70 were obtained for seven of nine sensory attributes studied. Sensory characteristics most effectively predicted were hardness (R2 =0.62) and toothpack (R2 =0.70). Predictive models of textural sensory characteristics of cooked rice were also evaluated using partial least square regression techniques. Best results were obtained for hardness (relative ability of prediction [RAP] = 0.52), cohesiveness of mass (RAP = 0.60), toothpull (RAP = 0.73), and toothpack (RAP = 0.54).
Genotype and Environment Effects on Wheat Quality Traits in a Population Derived from a Soft by Hard Cross
Authors: Bergman C. J. , Gualberto D. G. , Campbell K. G. , Sorrells M. E. , Finney P. L.
Published: June 2007

Advances in understanding the biochemistry and genetics underlying wheat end‐use quality require that cereal chemistry research utilize lines grown in the same environments. It also requires that effects of linkage disequilibrium and small ranges in trait variation be avoided. Our objectives were to: 1) ascertain the effects of genotype and environment and their interactions on hard and soft wheat end‐use quality traits, and 2) examine relationships between traits and heritability, using recombinant inbred lines derived from a soft by hard wheat cross. All traits showed transgressive segregation. Kernel texture (KT) was not genetically correlated with mixograph traits, indicating the feasibility of producing soft‐textured genotypes with stronger mixing properties. KT was highly genetically correlated with alkaline water retention capacity (AWRC) and moderately genetically correlated with flour yield (FY). Protein content (PRO) was not genetically correlated with dough mixing time across lines, but was with dough mixing strength. KT, FY, and mixograph traits demonstrated higher heritabilities than did AWRC and PRO. Genotype and environment and their interactions affected all traits. Year caused the greatest environment effects, affecting primarily AWRC and PRO. Genotype affected mainly KT, FY, and peak time. The effect of environment on those traits supports the need to develop screening methods using genotype rather than phenotype.
Whey Protein Concentrate Treated with Heat or High Hydrostatic Pressure in Wheat‐Based Products
Authors: Kadharmestan Christy , Baik Byung‐Kee , Czuchajowska Zuzanna
Published: June 2007

Commercial whey protein concentrate (CWPC) treated with heat or with high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) was incorporated by replacement into wheat flour, and its effects on dough rheology and the quality of cookies, noodles, and bread were evaluated. Wheat flour fortified with heat‐ or HHP‐treated CWPC produced smaller cookies than those fortified with untreated CWPC. Increasing the fortification level of heat‐ or HHP‐treated CWPC from 5 to 10% further decreased cookie diameter. The water absorption for noodle dough decreased by 5% with 10% fortification of untreated CWPC. Both heat‐ and HHP‐treated CWPC increased water absorption from 33% in the control to 35.8%. Incorporation of untreated CWPC decreased the lightness (L*) value of Cantonese noodle dough, while dough fortified with heat‐ or HHP‐treated CWPC had higher L* values compared to those of the control. Yellowness (b*) was improved with incorporation of both untreated and treated CWPC. Cooking loss of Cantonese noodles fortified with untreated or heat‐ or HHP‐treated CWPC was comparable to or lower than that of the control. Incorporation of untreated CWPC increased hardness and cohesiveness of Cantonese noodles. Noodles fortified with heat‐ or HHP‐treated CWPC had similar hardness and were softer than the control and the noodles fortified with untreated CWPC. Wheat flour fortified with 10% untreated CWPC produced wet and sticky bread dough and a small loaf (730 mL). Handling properties of dough were improved and bread volume was increased by 50 mL when heat‐ or HHP‐treated CWPC was incorporated. Incorporation of 10% CWPC increased protein content of bread up to 20.2% and also increased the proportion of essential amino acids.
Baking Performance of Durum and Soft Wheat Flour in a Sponge‐Dough Breadmaking Procedure
Authors: Hareland Gary A. , Puhr Dehdra P.
Published: June 2007

Breadmaking properties were determined for formulations that included durum, soft, and spring wheat flour, using a pound‐loaf sponge‐dough baking procedure. Up to 60% durum or soft wheat flour plus 10% spring wheat flour could be incorporated at the sponge stage for optimum dough‐handling properties. At remix, the dough stage required 30% spring wheat flour. Bread made with 100% spring wheat flour was used as a standard for comparison. Bread made with 60% durum flour exhibited internal crumb color that was slightly yellow. When storing pound bread loaves for 72 hr, crumb moisture content remained unchanged. Crumb firmness and enthalpy increased the most in bread made with 60% soft wheat flour. Crumb firmness increased the least in bread made with 100% spring wheat flour. Enthalpy changed the least in bread made with 60% durum flour. Crumb moisture content was significantly correlated with crumb firmness (r = ‐0.82) and enthalpy (r = ‐0.65). However, crumb moisture content was specific for each type of flour and a function of flour water absorption; therefore, these correlations should be interpreted with caution. Crumb firmness and enthalpy were significantly correlated (r = 0.65). Ball‐milling flour resulted in an increase in water absorption of ≈2% and in crumb moisture content of ≈0.5% but had no effect on either crumb firmness or enthalpy.
Application of the Electron Paramagnetic Resonance Spin Probe Technique for Detection of Irradiated Wheat
Authors: Sünnetçioğlu M. Maral , Dadayli Dilek , Çelik Süeda , Köksel Hamit
Published: June 2007

The fast decay of free radicals makes application of traditional electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) techniques impractical for detection of irradiated wheats when the storage time is longer than 30 days. In this study, therefore, the effects of irradiation on wheat seeds were investigated by using the EPR spin probe technique. The technique is based on the ability of the spin probes to transfer valuable information related to the changes in the structural characteristics of embryo cell membranes caused by irradiation. As a result of irradiation, the enviroment of the spin probe is modified and this modification can be followed from the recorded spectra. The doses studied were 1.0, 2.5, 10.0, and 20.0 kGy. An aqueous solution of 16‐doxyl stearic acid (16‐DSA) was used The embryos were detached using a steel needle and kept in 16‐DSA solution for 2.5 hr and washed with distilled water. The spectra of the samples were recorded. The detection of irradiated wheats by this technique was possible at doses of ≥2.5 kGy. An important advantage of this approach is that it is applicable even after eight months of storage.
Glucagel, A Gelling β‐Glucan from Barley
Authors: Morgan Keith R. , Ofman Diana J.
Published: June 2007

A new form of the mixed‐linked (1→3),(1→4)‐β‐d‐glucan has been obtained from barley grains using a new extraction and purification process that involves two key steps. A hot‐water extraction of the β‐glucan from the grain followed by a freeze and thaw of the extract. The commercial product from this process, called Glucagel, forms as a gelatinous or fibrous precipitate, which can be dried. Glucagel has novel functional properties. It forms soft thermoreversible, translucent gels that melt and set at temperatures of ≈60°C.
Dynamic Rheological Properties of Wheat Starch‐Gluten Doughs
Authors: Miller K. A. , Hoseney R. C.
Published: June 2007

Flour‐water doughs made from strong and weak flours were tested using a dynamic rheometer with cone‐and‐plate geometry. Flour was fractionated to determine what component or components were responsible for the dynamic rheological properties (elastic modulus [G′], viscous modulus [G″], and tan δ [G′/G″]) values. Doughs made from strong flour had lower tan δ values than medium or weak flours. The isolated starch or gluten fraction was combined with vital wheat gluten or commercial wheat starch. Only Larned starch gave doughs that were significantly different in dynamic rheological properties from dough made with other starches. The gluten isolated from strong flours gave doughs that were significantly different from doughs made with gluten isolated from weak flours. Reconstituted flours containing starch, gluten, and various amounts of lyophilized water‐solubles were tested. Addition of water solubles decreased the elastic modulus and dramatically shortened optimum mixing time of the reconstituted flour.
Effects of Sampling and Wheat Grade on Precision and Accuracy of Kernel Features Determined by Digital Image Analysis
Authors: Sapirstein H. D. , Kohler J. M.
Published: June 2007

The effect of sampling on the precision and accuracy of digital image analysis of different commercial sample grades of Canada Western Red Spring (CWRS) wheat was investigated. Kernel perimeter, length, width, and area measurements were used to determine mean and dispersion statistics for composite railcar CWRS samples of No. 1, 2, and 3 grades; the numbers of railcars sampled were 27, 40, and 36, respectively. Sample sizes ranged from 10 to 2,000 kernels. Instrumental measurement precision was routinely better than 0.1 mm for macroview images, with a resolution of 0.0054 cm2 per pixel. Computed mean kernel feature measurements and dispersion statistics were highly dependent on sample size and grade. Comparative analysis of wheat samples by digital imaging of individual kernels required a sample of no less than 300–500 kernels, depending on sample grade, for accurate representation of the parent sample. This level of sampling resulted in detection of significant differences (P < 0.05) in mean kernel features that, on average, differed by <1%. Except for some samples containing low numbers of kernels, lower grade wheat had more variable kernel features compared with higher grade samples. In relative terms, for comparably sized samples (≥133 kernels), variance in No. 2 grade wheat was 6–11% higher that for No. 1 grade wheat, depending on kernel feature. Similarly, variance in No. 3 grade wheat was 13–23% higher than for No. 2 grade wheat and 20–37% higher than for No. 1 grade wheat, indicating that wheat grading has a predictable effect on and is influenced by the uniformity of kernel characteristics in a sample. The ability of digital image analysis to detect these effects reflects the potential of this technology for use in objective classification of wheat according to grade.
Variation in Grain Mass, Grain Nitrogen, and Starch B‐Granule Content Within Wheat Heads
Authors: Stoddard F. L.
Published: June 2007

Grain mass (mg) and grain nitrogen concentration (%) were determined in 3,278 individual grains from eight cultivars with reference to the position of the grain on the head (spikelet number and floret number). Selected grains were removed from certain heads at anthesis. Grain nitrogen content (mg) was determined as the product of grain nitrogen concentration and grain mass. Grain mass and starch B‐granule content were determined in 3,030 grains from a further 12 cultivars with reference to grain position, and selected grains were removed from certain heads at anthesis. Grains from distal florets were always smaller and had lower B‐granule contents, nitrogen contents, and nitrogen concentrations than those from the two proximal florets on each spikelet, which were not significantly different from each other. Grains in the basal two spikelets of the head were smaller with lower nitrogen contents and higher B‐granule contents than those in most of the head. Their nitrogen concentration, however, did not differ from that in the rest of the head. All four traits declined in the grains in the top four to five spikelets of the head. The differences in grain mass, nitrogen, and B‐granule content between florets within spikelets and between spikelets within the head varied with cultivar. Grains on treated heads were larger, higher in nitrogen and slightly lower in B‐granule content than those on untreated heads. The effects of floret and spikelet on grain mass and nitrogen were not significantly changed by the treatments. Grains from florets 1 and 2, excluding those from the bottom three and top five spikelets, therefore represented a particularly uniform population for grain mass, protein nitrogen and starch granule composition. Genetic analyses based on samples of these grains will be more robust and repeatable than those based on unselected samples. Implications for improving seedling vigor, plant yield, and grain protein concentration in breeding programs are discussed.
Lipase Activity and Lipid Metabolism During Oat Malting
Authors: Peterson David M.
Published: June 2007

Experiments were conducted to determine the relationship, if any, between lipase activity and the metabolism of lipids during malting (germination) of oat (Avena sativa L.) seed. During the course of malting, concentration of the free fatty acid fraction increased markedly at the expense of the neutral lipid fraction (predominantly triacylglycerides), while the initially high lipase activity (most of which is located in the surface layers of the grains) decreased by ≈40%. The fatty acid compositions of total and neutral lipid fractions were stable during malting, but there were marked changes in the free fatty acid and phospholipid fractions. In a comparison among 12 hulled and hull‐less genotypes, there were no significant regressions between the quantitative changes in lipid fractions and lipase activities. Brief treatments with chemicals or hot H2O that partially or completely inhibited lipase activity had various effects on subsequent quantitative changes in lipid fractions, but these changes were not consistent with the inhibitions in lipase activity observed. It was concluded that the degradation in triacylglycerides and increase in free fatty acids observed during oat malting were not controlled by the level of total lipase activity. Rather, it was suggested that oat may have another lipase present in the cells where the oil bodies are located that hydrolyzes triacylglycerides from the oil bodies during germination. Further research is needed to substantiate this hypothesis.
SDS‐Protein Gel Test for Prediction of Bread Loaf Volume
Authors: Sapirstein H. D. , Suchy J.
Published: June 2007

Flour dispersed in aqueous solutions of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) forms a proteinaceous gel when centrifuged at high speed. The conventional methodology for SDS gel testing was modified to develop a small‐scale (<1 g of flour or wheat meal) screening test for evaluation of the protein quality of wheat for breadmaking. The principal modification involved centrifugation with a swinging‐bucket rotor to facilitate direct measurement of gel height, which is the primary test parameter. The effects of suspension temperature and time, centrifugation speed, sample size, and sieving of ground wheat or flour on the efficacy of the test were examined. Gel height, wet weight, and protein content were assessed as test parameters. In the standard test procedure that was developed, 0.67 g of flour or ground whole wheat was dispersed in 13.5 mL of 1.5% SDS solution for 15 min at 20°C, followed by centrifugation at 80,000 × g for 30 min. The test was evaluated using seven Canadian commercial wheat flours with diverse breadmaking quality. For the samples, gel height was strongly related to loaf volume (R2 = 0.89 and 0.95 for flour and ground wheat, respectively). Sieving flour through a 75‐μm sieve slightly increased the predictive power of the test (R2 = 0.94). SDS gel height gave better discrimination of samples for prediction of loaf volume than did the traditional SDS sedimentation test. The performance of the sedimentation test improved when sieved ground wheat was used. The relationship between gel height or protein content and flour protein content was comparatively poor (R2 = 0.25). The SDS gel test appears to primarily measure the effects of flour protein quality.
Intestinal Contents Supernatant Viscosity of Rats Fed Oat‐Based Muffins and Cereal Products
Authors: Gallaher Daniel D. , Wood Kimberly J. , Gallaher Cynthia M. , Marquart Leonard F. , Engstrom Alta M.
Published: June 2007

The intestinal contents viscosities of oat‐based breakfast cereals and muffins were examined. Male Sprague‐Dawley rats were adapted for four days to a semipurified diet (AIN‐76A). Following an overnight fast, the animals were meal‐fed 5 g of either the AIN‐76A diet (containing 5% cellulose), the AIN‐76A diet containing 2% guar gum, whole‐grain oat flour, one of five cereals (corn flakes, cooked oatmeal, uncooked oatmeal, cooked oat bran, or Cheerios), or one of two types of muffins (containing whole‐grain oat flour or oatmeal). Two hours after presentation of the meal, the animals were killed, the small intestines removed, and the contents collected. The contents were centrifuged, and the viscosity values of the undiluted supernatants were determined. The supernatant viscosity from rats fed the AIN‐76A diet was negligible (<5 mPa·sec), whereas that from rats fed guar gum was high (396 ± 117 mPa·sec). Of the cereals fed, corn flakes resulted in the lowest viscosity (<5 mPa·sec). However, all oat‐based cereals resulted in high intestinal contents supernatant viscosity levels (cooked oatmeal 368 ± 128, uncooked oatmeal 307 ± 107, cooked oat bran 301 ± 85, Cheerios 199 ± 58, mPa·sec) with no statistically significant differences. The intestinal contents viscosity values for the whole‐grain oat flour muffin and oatmeal muffin were 233 ± 52 and 111 ± 26 mPa·sec, respectively, a statistically significant difference (P < 0.05). This suggests that the form of the oat within a food may influence the degree of viscosity produced within the small intestine after that food is consumed.
Kernel Properties and Pasta‐Making Quality of Five European Spelt Wheat (Triticum spelta L.) Cultivars
Authors: Marconi E. , Carcea M. , Graziano M. , Cubadda R.
Published: June 2007

The kernel characteristics and composition, milling performance, protein quality, and alveograph parameters of five spelt cultivars grown in European countries were determined in relation of their utilization in pasta products. Long pasta was manufactured and chemically characterized, and its quality was assessed by sensory and chemical tests. Protein and fat contents were high in the grains (15.7 and 4.4% db, mean value, respectively). Total fiber varied from 10.5 to 14.9% db. The average β‐glucan content was 1.2% db. The milling performance as determined by yield, damaged starch, ash, and particle‐size distribution in the flour was uniform among the five cultivars. The results of the SDS sedimentation and gluten index tests indicated that spelt gluten strength was low, and this was confirmed by the alveograph test. Sensory and chemical evaluations of the pastas, however, indicated that spelt is suitable for obtaining good‐quality pasta. The combination of the high protein content and the high‐temperature drying cycle adopted in pasta production could be responsible for these good results.
Single Wheat Kernel Size Effects on Near‐Infrared Reflectance Spectra and Color Classification
Authors: Wang D. , Dowell F. E. , Lacey R. E.
Published: June 2007

An optical radiation measurement system was used to measure reflectance spectra of single wheat kernels from 400 to 2,000 nm. Five classes of wheat were used for this study. Three kernel sizes (large, medium, and small) were used to determine how wheat kernel size affects visible and near‐infrared (NIR) reflectance spectra and single wheat kernel color classification. Mean kernel weights ranged from 35.6 to 57.2 mg for large kernels, from 26.9 to 45.0 mg for medium kernels, and from 17.6 to 31.4 mg for small kernels. The results showed that wheat kernel size significantly affects visible and NIR reflectance spectra. Determination of the color class of red kernels increased in accuracy and that of white kernels decreased in accuracy as kernel size decreased. Data pretreatments such as multiplicative scatter correction (MSC), first or second derivatives, and first or second derivatives with MSC reduced the effect of kernel size on reflectance spectra and color classification.
Effects of Processing Parameters on Physical Properties of Corn Starch Extrudates Expanded Using Supercritical CO2 Injection
Authors: Lee Eun Yong , Ryu Gi‐Hyung , Lim Seung‐Taik
Published: June 2007

Corn starch was extruded with a corotating twin‐screw extruder (24:1 L/D ratio, 31‐mm screw diameter) and supercritical CO2 was injected as a blowing agent. The effects of barrel temperature (80–90°C), screw speed (150–250 rpm), and water injection (30–54 g/min) on specific mechanical energy (SME) input for the process and the physical properties of extrudates, such as expansion ratio, water absorption (WA), water solubility (WS), breaking stress, and elastic modulus, were examined using a response surface methodology. Barrel temperature had the greatest effect on physical properties of extrudates but not on SME input, whereas screw speed and water injection had significant effects on SME input. Extrudates had a smooth surface, and air cells were uniform and closed, providing low WA and WS. Using superimposed contour plots, optimum barrel temperature, screw speed, and water injection rate, based on maximum expansion ratio and minimum SME input, were 94–96°C, 155–175 rpm, and 36–39 g/min, respectively.
β‐Glucanase Activity and Molecular Weight of β‐Glucans in Barley After Various Treatments
Authors: Knuckles Benny E. , Chiu Mei‐Chen M.
Published: June 2007

β‐Glucanase activity interferes with molecular characterization of mixed‐linkage (1→3)(1→4)‐β‐d‐glucans (β‐glucans). Reductions in β‐glucanase activity were determined after barley cvs. Azhul, Waxbar, and Baronesse were treated with autoclaving (120°C, 45 min), calcium chloride (0.05M, 1 hr), 70% ethanol (80°C, 4 hr), hydrochloric acid (0.1N, 1 hr), oven heating (120 and 140°C, 40 min), sodium hydroxide (0.0025M, 1 hr), and 5% trichloroacetic acid (TCA) (40°C, 1 hr). High‐performance size‐exclusion chromatography (HPSEC) of α‐amylase‐treated aqueous extracts was used to demonstrate the effects of treatments on the molecular weights of β‐glucans. The HPSEC system included multiple‐angle, laser light scattering, refractive index, and fluorescence detectors. β‐Glucanase activities, ranging from 52 to 65 U/kg of barley, were reduced by autoclaving (50–75%), hot alcohol (67–76%), oven heating (40–96%), CaCl2 (75–95%), NaOH (76–89%), and TCA (92–96%). Some malt β‐glucanase activity remained after most treatments. HCl and TCA treatments reduced extraction and molecular weights of β‐glucans. Weight‐average molecular weights (Mw) for β‐glucans extracted with water at 23°C were low (most <8 × 105). Base treatment (pH 9) and extraction at 100°C for 2.5 hr resulted in the greatest extraction of β‐glucans and highest Mw. As a result, the conditions seem appropriate for measurement of physical characteristics of β‐glucans in cereal products.
Thermal Properties of Starch in Corn Variants Isolated After Chemical Mutagenesis of Inbred Line B73
Authors: Yamin F. F. , Lee M. , Pollak L. M. , White P. J.
Published: June 2007

The starch from eight ethyl methanesulfonate (EMS) treated M4 families of the corn (Zea mays L.) inbred line B73 was analyzed using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), a Rapid Visco Analyser (RVA), a texture analyzer (TA), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) coupled with image analysis. The eight families were chosen from 144 families previously selected for having starch with unusual DSC parameters. Apparent amylose contents of the starch from the eight families generally were lower than that of the control. According to DSC, starches from mutagenized families tended to have lower onset temperature (T0) of gelatinization, enthalpy (ΔH) of gelatinization, and peak height index (PHI), but broader gelatinization range (R) than the B73 control. Their values for ΔH and percentage of retrograzdation (%R) were clustered around that of the control. Pasting properties from the RVA of the starches from the M4 families also were clustered around those of the control B73 starch, except for the setback values which were lower than B73 for M4 starches. Gel firmness values, as measured by TA, of all the M4 starches were generally lower than that of the B73 starch at storage treatments of one day at 25°C or seven days at 4°C. The stickiness of the gels of the M4 starches tended to be greater than that of B73 after seven days of storage at 4°C. These observations were consistent with the lower apparent amylose values for the M4 starches. SEM and image analysis data revealed no differences among the treatments in granule size and shape. Possibly, EMS treatment altered the genes, affecting internal structure of the starch granules. Starch from the mutagenized families likely had lower bonding forces among molecules and fewer long chains in the amylopectin molecules than did B73.
Effects of Temperature on Sorption of Water by Wheat Gluten Determined Using Deuterium Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
Authors: Grant A. , Belton P. S. , Colquhoun I. J. , Parker M. L. , Plijter J. J. , Shewry P. R. , Tatham A. S. , Wellner N.
Published: June 2007

The effects of lipids and residual starch components of wheat flour gluten on gluten hydration properties were investigated using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) techniques. Whole or native, lipid‐free, starch‐free, and lipid‐ and starch‐free gluten samples were prepared from wheat (Triticum aestivum) cv. Mercia. 2H NMR relaxation on gluten samples hydrated with deuterium oxide (D2O) was measured over a 278–363 K temperature range. FTIR spectra were recorded in dry and fully hydrated material. Transverse relaxation (T2) results indicated that all four gluten samples were hydrophilic in nature. There was little difference in relaxation behavior of whole and lipid‐free gluten samples. T2 values and populations of the relaxation components were very similar in each. The FTIR spectra of both samples showed an increase in extended β‐sheet secondary structures on hydration. These results suggest that lipid binding in gluten, if it occurs, has little effect on wheat gluten properties. Adding starch to the gluten matrix results in an increase in water sorption on heating that may be attributed to the effects of starch gelation. However, the whole water uptake of the gluten cannot be accounted for by the contribution of the residual starch, as estimated by the effects of added starch. Extraction of residual starch required solubilization of the protein, including breaking of the disulfide bonds. This process altered the gluten structure and properties. Light microscope investigation showed that glutens with residual starch extracted were unable to form fibrillar strands on hydration. NMR and FTIR results showed greater water sorption in both samples with extracted starch than in the unextracted samples.
Fate of Dwarf Bunt Fungus Teliospores During Milling of Wheat into Flour
Authors: Bechtel Donald B. , Wilson Jeff D. , Eustace W. D. , Behnke Keith C. , Whitaker Thomas , Peterson Gary L. , Sauer David B.
Published: June 2007

Wheat contaminated with teliospores of Tilletia controversa Kühn (TCK) was mixed with uncontaminated wheat and processed through the Kansas State University pilot mill. Two 50‐bu lots of the contaminated mixture were cleaned, tempered, and milled. Approximately 500 samples of wheat, cleanings, and mill fractions were collected and examined for the presence of intact and broken TCK teliospores. Whole wheat samples (50 g) were washed, sieved through a 60‐μm nylon sieve, and pelleted by centrifugation. Contents of the pellet were examined microscopically for the presence of TCK spores. The procedure was modified as needed to accommodate cleanings and mill fractions. Levels of spore contamination in whole wheat samples decreased at each step during the handling process, and large numbers of spores were found in materials that were sieved or aspirated from the grain. Very few spores were found in bran, germ, and shorts; none were detected in red dog or straight‐grade flour. The results showed that a high percentage of spores can be removed from wheat by mechanical cleaning but that it is not feasible to remove all of them.
Durum Wheat Lipoxygenase Activity and Other Quality Parameters that Affect Pasta Color
Authors: Borrelli G. M. , Troccoli A. , Di Fonzo N. , Fares C.
Published: June 2007

Pasta yellowness is affected by different factors, the most important of which are intrinsic to the quality of semolina (natural carotenoid pigments, protein, ash, and lipoxygenase [LOX] activity) and processing conditions. Because all the parameters involved in pasta color are under the control of varietal and environmental factors, the role of the genotype, environment, and the interaction between genotype and environment on color expression were studied. Although the analysis of variance showed the genotype‐by‐environment interaction to be significant, a nonorthogonal analysis attributed a higher weight to genotype on parameters directly involved in color expression: β‐carotene content, yellow index, and LOX activity. Furthermore, the loss of pigments and yellow index after milling and processing was evaluated and correlated with all the parameters involved in the determination of final pasta color. The phase mainly responsible for pigment loss was pasta processing. A decrease of 16.3% in semolina β‐carotene content during pasta processing versus a 7.9% loss during milling was determined. The isoenzymatic forms LOX‐2 and LOX‐3, active at the pH of dough, were responsible for the loss of color in pasta products. Simple correlations and the linear multiple regression corroborated this finding. Hydroperoxidation activity at pH 6.6, bleaching activity, and ash content were responsible for 87% (R2 adjusted) of total variance, with each variable accounting for 57, 61, and 22% of the variation, respectively. This confirms that LOX activity is the main factor involved in the loss of color, while a secondary and lesser role can be seen for ash content. Therefore, a high pigment content, located in the interior of the whole grain, and a lower LOX activity in semolina must be the selection characteristics by which breeding programs obtain a bright yellow pasta.
Soluble and Insoluble Dietary Fiber Content and Composition in Oat
Authors: Manthey Frank A. , Hareland Gary A. , Huseby Donna J.
Published: June 2007

Six oat genotypes were grown in nursery yield trials during 1989‐1992 at Lisbon, ND. Groats were analyzed for soluble and insoluble dietary fiber content and composition. Genotype‐by‐growing year interaction was not significant for soluble or insoluble dietary fiber. Soluble and insoluble dietary fiber differed with genotype (6.0–7.1% and 4.1– 4.9%, respectively) and with growing year (6.0–6.9% and 3.9–5.2%, respectively). The genotype‐by‐growing year interaction was significant for soluble β‐glucan content but not for total neutral sugar or uronic acid content of the soluble dietary fiber. Genotypes did vary in total neutral sugar content but not in uronic acid content. The genotype‐by‐growing year interaction was not significant for total neutral sugar, β‐glucan, uronic acid, or Klason lignin content of insoluble dietary fiber. Genotypes did vary in total neutral sugar, β‐glucan, and Klason lignin content but not in uronic acid content of insoluble dietary fiber. The neutral sugar content of soluble dietary fiber was composed of glucose, arabinose, xylose, and galactose. The neutral sugar content of insoluble fiber was composed of glucose, arabinose, and xylose. The content and composition of soluble and insoluble dietary fiber varied with oat genotype. Therefore, oat genotypes could be bred for specific dietary fiber content and composition.
Correlations Between Empirical and Fundamental Rheology Measurements and Baking Performance of Frozen Bread Dough
Authors: Kenny S. , Wehrle K. , Dennehy T. , Arendt E. K.
Published: June 2007

Empirical and fundamental rheology measurements were made on fresh and frozen dough to investigate the effects of freezing, frozen storage, and additives. These results were compared with results of a standard baking test. Four formulations were tested: a control dough, and doughs with additions of 100 ppm of ascorbic acid (AA), 0.5% sodium stearoyl lactylate (SSL), and 0.5% diacetyl tartaric acid esters of monoglycerides (DATEM). Rheological and baking tests were performed on fresh doughs and on doughs after two, five, and eight weeks of frozen storage. Resistance to extension was higher for doughs with additives in fresh and frozen doughs. There was a decrease in resistance to extension due to freezing. Complex modulus in fresh doughs was highest for doughs with SSL. There was a decrease complex modulus after freezing and thawing. In frozen doughs at 10 Hz, doughs with additives had higher complex modulus values and lower phase angle values when compared to the control. The additives used all had a positive effect on proof time, loaf volume, and crumb firmness, and all formulations deteriorated in quality during frozen storage. Resistance to extension and complex modulus were positively correlated with loaf volume (r = 0.86 and r = 0.64, P < 0.01). Phase angle was negatively correlated with loaf volume (r = ‐0.74, P < 0.01).
Effects of Rough Rice Drying and Storage Conditions on Sensory Profiles of Cooked Rice
Authors: Meullenet Jean‐Francois C. , Marks Bradley P. , Griffin Kaye , Daniels Melissa J.
Published: June 2007

In both domestic and international markets, the end‐use quality of rice affects its market value and acceptability to consumers. The effect of various postharvest processing treatments on sensory characteristics of cooked rice was investigated using sensory descriptive methods. Cooked rice quality was affected (P < 0.05) by rough rice wet holding, drying temperature, storage temperature, and storage duration. Cohesiveness of mass and hardness of sample were significantly affected by the temperature of drying. A higher storage temperature reduced the cohesiveness of mass and gluiness, while sample hardness, clumpiness, and geometry of slurry increased. Storage duration had more profound effects on the sensory attributes studied. Perceived starchy note, clumpiness, gluiness, and overall sensory impression decreased after four weeks of storage. Storage duration also influenced hardness, moisture absorption, sulfury notes, and cardboardy notes.
Quality of Flours from Waxy and Nonwaxy Barley for Production of Baked Products
Authors: Klamczynski Artur P. , Czuchajowska Zuzanna
Published: June 2007

One nonwaxy (covered) and two waxy (hull‐less) barleys, whole grain and commercially abraded, were milled to break flour, reduction flour, and the bran fraction with a roller mill under optimized conditions. The flour yield range was 55.3–61.8% in whole grain and increased by 9–11% by abrasion before milling. Break flours contained the highest starch content (≤85.8%) independent of type of barley and abrasion level. Reduction flours contained less starch, but more protein, ash, free lipids, and total β‐glucans than break flours. The bran fraction contained the highest content of ash, free lipids, protein, and total β‐glucans but the lowest content of starch. Break flours milled from whole grain contained 82–91% particles <106 μm, and reduction flours contained ≈80% particles <106 μm. Abrasion significantly increased the amount of particles <38 μm in break and reduction flours in both types of barley. Viscosity of hot paste prepared with barley flour or bran at 8% concentration was strongly affected by barley type and abrasion level. In cv. Waxbar, the viscosity in bran fractions increased from 428 to 1,770 BU, and in break flours viscosity increased from 408 to 725 BU due to abrasion. Sugar snap cookies made from nonwaxy barley had larger diameter than cookies prepared from waxy barley. Cookies made from break flours were larger than those made from reduction flours, independent of type of barley. Quick bread baked from nonwaxy barley had a loaf volume similar to that of wheat bread, whereas waxy barley bread had a smaller loaf volume. Replacement of 20% of wheat flour by both waxy and nonwaxy barley flour or bran did not significantly affect the loaf volume but did decrease the hardness of quick bread crumb.
Prediction of Starch Amylose Content Versus Total Grain Amylose Content in Corn by Near‐Infrared Transmittance Spectroscopy
Authors: Campbell M. R. , Mannis S. R. , Port H. A. , Zimmerman A. M. , Glover D. V.
Published: June 2007

A study was conducted to investigate methods of improving a near‐infrared transmittance spectroscopy (NITS) amylose calibration that could serve as a rapid, nondestructive alternative to traditional methods for determining amylose content in corn. Calibrations were developed using a set of genotypes possessing endosperm mutations in single‐ and double‐mutant combinations ranging in starch‐amylose content (SAC) from ‐8.5 to 76%, relative to a standard curve. The influence of three factors were examined including comparing calibrations made against SAC versus grain amylose content (GAC), developing calibrations using partial least squares (PLS) analysis versus artificial neural networking (ANN), and using all samples in the calibrations set versus using progressively narrower ranges of SAC or GAC in the calibration set. Grain samples were divided into calibration and validation sets for PLS analysis while samples used in ANN were assigned to a training set, test set, and validation set. Performance statistics of the validation sets that were considered were the coefficient of determination (R), the standard error of prediction (SEP), and the ratio of the standard deviation of amylose values to the SEP (RPD), which were used to compare all NITS models. The study revealed an NITS prediction model for SAC (R = 0.96, SEP = 5.1%, RDP = 3.8) of similar precision to the best GAC model (R = 0.96, SEP = 2.7%, RPD = 3.5). Narrowing the amylose range of the calibration set generally did not improve performance statistics except for PLS models for SAC in which a decrease in SEP values was observed. In one model, the SEP improved while R and RPD remained constant (R = 0.94, SEP = 4.2%, RPD = 2.8) when samples with SAC values <20% were removed from the calibration set. Although the NITS amylose calibrations in this study are of limited precision, they may be useful when a rough screening method is needed for SAC. For example, NITS may be useful to detect severe contamination during transport and storage of specialty grains or to aid breeders when selecting for amylose content from large numbers of grain samples.
Influence of Water Absorption on the Processing and Quality of Oriental Noodles
Authors: Hatcher D. W. , Kruger J. E. , Anderson M. J.
Published: June 2007

The influence of four water absorption levels at 28–34% was examined on the processing and quality attributes of alkaline and white salted noodles prepared from Canadian Western Red Spring (CWRS), Canadian Western Red Winter (CWRW), and Canadian Western Soft White Spring, (CWSWS) flours. A significant decline (>50%) in the work required to produce the noodles was observed over this absorption range for both types of noodles. Significant differences were detected at 2 hr in the alkaline noodle brightness (L*) on the basis of water absorption level between the classes. Within a class, only CWSWS differentiated L* each absorption level, while CWRS differed only at the 28% level. The L* values of the alkaline noodles decreased by 24 hr but maintained their significant differences due to absorption levels. Significant increases in alkaline noodle yellowness (b*) were observed in each class at 2 hr with increasing water absorption. Yellowness values increased over 24 hr with only minor loss in discrimination due to absorption level. Water absorption levels had only a marginal effect on alkaline noodle redness (a*) values at 2 or 24 hr. Although the cooking time within each class was significantly shortened with each increase in water absorption, minimal influence was detected in the textural attributes of cooked alkaline noodles. White salted noodle L* values were significantly higher at 28% absorption for all classes at 2 and 24 hr, but only CWSWS displayed any further influence due to absorption level. Textural characteristics, recovery, resistance to compression, and maximum cutting stress of the white salted noodles significantly declined with increasing absorption levels in all classes.
Effect of Environment and Genotype on Durum Wheat Gluten Strength and Pasta Viscoelasticity
Authors: Ames N. P. , Clarke J. M. , Marchylo B. A. , Dexter J. E. , Woods S. M.
Published: June 2007

Data on the quality of durum wheat genotypes grown under eight environments (site‐year combinations) were evaluated to determine the relative effects of genotype and environment on quality characteristics associated with gluten strength, protein content, and pasta texture. The 10 durum wheat genotypes assessed in this study represented a range of gluten strength types from the very strong U.S. desert durum genotype, Durex, to the medium strength Canadian genotype, Plenty. Considerable genetic variability was detected for all quality characteristics studied. Genotype‐environment interaction was significant for all quality parameters evaluated, with the exception of mixograph development time. Genotypeenvironment interaction was most important in determining protein content and least important in determining gluten index, gluten viscoelasticity, and SDS sedimentation volume. The nature of the genotype‐environment interaction was evaluated by determining the number of significant crossover (rank change) interactions. There was at least one significant crossover interaction between pairs of genotypes and environments for five of eight quality traits tested. Of 45 genotype pairs, eight and six showed significant crossover interactions for protein content and pasta disk viscoelasticity, respectively. Significant crossover interactions were at least partially due to the differential response of Canadian genotypes as compared with U.S. genotypes. With the exception of protein content and pasta disk viscoelasticity, our results suggest that among the selected sample of 10 genotypes, genotype‐environment interactions were minor and due primarily to changes in magnitude rather than changes in rank.
Gluten, Pasting, and Mixograph Parameters of Hard Winter Wheat Flours in Relation to Breadmaking
Authors: Ohm J. B. , Chung O. K.
Published: June 2007

Flour gluten, pasting, and mixogram characteristics of 12 hard winter wheat cultivars grown in six counties in Kansas were analyzed using the Glutomatic System, a Rapid Visco‐Analyser, and MIXSMART computer software, respectively, to investigate their relationships with breadmaking. Gluten contents and hydration amounts had significant correlations with water absorption. In addition, gluten parameters were significantly correlated to kernel hardness. One of the most difficult challenges in mixograph usage is to find the optimum water absorption of a given flour. Flour protein contents (FP) and near‐infrared hardness scores or FP and gluten parameters could predict mixograph water absorptions, showing R2 values of 0.842 or 0.814, respectively, by multiple regression analysis. For our set of 72 wheat samples, computer‐analyzed mixograph parameters were significantly correlated to conventional parameters. Computer‐analyzed mixograph midline peak times and bandwidths at 6 min were highly correlated to conventional mixograph mix times and mixing tolerances, respectively. Flour pasting temperatures complemented FP in predicting loaf volumes. The ratios of FP to pasting temperatures had a significant curvilinear relationship with loaf volumes showing an R2 of 0.725.
Effects of Prolonged Storage at Freezing Temperatures on Starch and Baking Quality of Frozen Doughs
Authors: Lu W. , Grant L. A.
Published: June 2007

The effects of prolonged frozen storage on the starch, rheological, and baking properties of doughs were investigated. Four hard red spring (HRS) wheat cultivars exhibiting consistently different gluten characteristics were used. Gelatinization properties of starches isolated from fresh and thawed frozen doughs over 16 weeks of frozen storage were examined using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Significance of results varied with cultivar, but all cultivars showed a significant increase in ΔH with increased frozen storage time, indicating water migration and ice crystallization. The amount of freezable water in frozen doughs increased for all cultivars with frozen storage, but the rate of increase varied. Glupro showed a consistent increase in freezable water during frozen storage (41.6%), which may be associated with its high protein content and strong gluten characteristics. Rheological strength of the frozen doughs which was determined by decreases in extensigraph resistance and storage modulus (G′), declined throughout frozen dough storage. Proofing time increased from 45 min for fresh doughs to an average of 342 min for frozen doughs stored 16 weeks. Concomitantly, loaf volumes decreased from an average of 912 cm3 for fresh doughs to an average of 738 cm3 for the frozen doughs. Longer proof times and greater loaf volume loss were obtained for the cultivars exhibiting greater gluten strength characteristics.