bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The management of tetanus in adults in an intensive care unit in Southern Vietnam
Authors: Hao Nguyen Van , Yen Lam Minh , Davies-Foote Rachel , Trung Truong Ngoc , Duoc Nguyen Van Thanh , Trang Vo Thi Nhu , Nhat Phung Tran Huy , Duc Du Hong , Anh Nguyen Thi Kim , Lieu Pham Thi , Thuy Tran Thi Diem , Thuy Duong Bich , Phong Nguyen Thanh , Truong Nguyen Thanh , Thanh Pham Ba , Tam Dong Thi Hoai , Puthucheary Zudin , Thwaites C Louise
Published: May 2021

Background: Tetanus remains common in many low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) yet the evidence base guiding management of this disease is extremely limited, particularly with respect to contemporary management options. Sharing knowledge about practice may facilitate improvement in outcomes elsewhere.

Methods: We describe clinical interventions and outcomes of 180 adult patients ≥16 years-old with tetanus enrolled in prospective observational studies at a specialist infectious diseases hospital in Southern Vietnam. Patients were treated according to a holistic management protocol encompassing wound-care, antitoxin, antibiotics, symptom control, airway management, nutrition and de-escalation criteria.

Results: Mortality rate in our cohort was 2.8%, with 90 (50%) patients requiring mechanical ventilation for a median 16 [IQR 12-24] days. Median [IQR] duration of ICU stay was 15 [8-23] days.  Autonomic nervous system dysfunction occurred in 45 (25%) patients. Hospital acquired infections occurred in 77 (43%) of patients.

Conclusion: We report favourable outcomes for patients with tetanus in a single centre LMIC ICU, treated according to a holistic protocol. Nevertheless, many patients required prolonged intensive care support and hospital acquired infections were common.
Use of low-frequency contact ultrasonic debridement with and without polyhexamethylene biguanide in hard-to-heal leg ulcers: an RCT protocol
Authors: Vallejo Alison , Wallis Marianne , McMillan David , Horton Eleanor
Published: May 2021

Objective:

The purpose of this research is to investigate the effect of low-frequency contact ultrasonic debridement therapy (LFCUD) in hard-to-heal wounds with suspected biofilm, and compare the effect with or without a surfactant antimicrobial on bacterial colony counts and wound healing rates.

Method:

A single-blinded randomised controlled trial (RCT) will investigate the combination of LFCUD and the antiseptic polyhexamethylene biguanide with a surfactant betaine (referred to in this paper as PHMB) as a topical solution post-treatment and in a sustained dressing, compared with use of LFCUD alone. Potential participants from a community wound clinic (n=50) will be invited to take part in the 12-week trial. Wound swabs and tissue samples will be analysed for bacterial type and quantity, before and after treatments, using traditional culture techniques and advanced molecular methods. Wound healing, pain, quality of life and biofilm (via a specifically designed tool) will also be measured.

Discussion:

Bacteria have the potential to cause a hard-to-heal wound, particularly when antibiotics are too frequently and unnecessarily prescribed, resulting in antibiotic-resistant microorganisms. Appropriate care is vital when caring for hard-to-heal wounds to avoid these scenarios. With no simple laboratory method available to identify or treat wound biofilm, clinicians rely on their expertise in wound management. This study aims to provide in vivo evidence on the effectiveness of PHMB, to prevent the reformation of biofilm when applied after LFCUD. The aim is to provide evidence-based and more cost-effective wound care.
A Review on Current Status of Riverine Pollution in India
Authors: Khan Ahmed Shabbir , Anavkar Ankur , Ali Ahmad , Patel Nimisha , Alim Hina
Published: May 2021

Water is one of the essential resources needed on Earth for the survival of humans. The Indian people consider rivers such as Ganga, Yamuna, and Sabarmati sacred, while the Mithi river had bio-diversified importance. Drinking and taking bath in the sacred rivers is a common practice.These rivers cover a total distance of 4272 kilometres. But the water quality of these rivers is compromised by the presence of various contaminants such as pesticides, heavy metals, organic waste, chemical waste, and direct discharge of sewage.The pollution levels have risen as a result of the chemical industry's output of 30984 metric tonnes in 2019-2020. Over the years, the agriculture sector has used 3,50,000 Mt of DDT.The water has become unfit for any human consumption, thus posing a possible threat of diseases outbreak. These rivers pass through the major urban cities of India like Delhi, major economic cities of Uttar Pradesh state, Ahmedabad, and Mumbai. There is a risk of certain lethal diseases due to the direct exposure of humans and other life forms to toxic chemicals and heavy metals through polluted river water. The objective of this study is to examine the causes of water contamination in major Indian rivers and their potential risk on human health.
Spore morphology of Selected Pteridophytes Found in the Western Ghats of India
Authors: Morajka Shaiesh , Sajeev Sudha , Hegde Smitha
Published: May 2021

The currents study evaluated the morphology (apperture, size, perine structures and surface ornamentation) of treated spores of 45 selected fern species from the Western Ghats of India, using Scanning Electron Microspcopy (SEM). Twenty-six species of fern spores were trilete type, while 19 of them had monolete aperture types. The size of the spore were found to be highly variable (20X20µm to 60X60µm) with an average mean spore size of 44 µmX38µm. Further more the spores were found to have a highly diverse perine ornementaion with 11 different types of perine structures. Gammate and psilatetype of perine ornamentation,and Globose and ellipsoidal spore shape were found to be the most common within the studies fern spore samples.The variability found in the spore ultra structure and perispore ornamentation of the selected pteridophytes species reflects the morphological differences observed in the sporophyte. The spores could be an important source of characteristics with systematic value in fern taxonomy.The spore morphology of the examined pteridophytes studied common, endemicor otherwise will find a significant role in future taxonomic surveys, and other morphology, Palynology, discrimination, and identification studies of pteridophytesin the Western Ghats.
Isolation of Fluoride Resistant Microorganisms from Fluoride Contaminated Ground Water Samples of Nalgonda District and their role in Bioremediation
Authors: Mothe Thirumala , Umashankar Patnam , Sultanpuram Vishnuvardhan Reddy
Published: May 2021

Consuming of water contaminated with high fluoride concentration for a very long time causes health problems such as, dental and skeletal fluorosis. Hence, defluoridation of water is essentially required before consumption, when water is contaminated with high fluoride concentration. In this present study, research was focussed on to isolate bacteria which are showing fluoride resistantance from samples of ground water from high fluoride affected regions of Nalgonda. After analysis of 10 samples from different areas of Nalgonda district, two samples of ground water from Narketpally and Nampally showed the high fluoride concentrations of 9.18 ppm and 7.55 ppm respectively. Hence, in the present study, Narketpally ground water sample with highest ppm was considered to isolate fluoride resistant bacteria. A total of eight fluoride resistant organisms were purified from this sample with varying fluoride resistance on Luria Bertani agar with varying fluoride concentraion from 25mg/L to 600mg/L at pH 7. Among the eight strains isolated, three strains MB1, F and G were showing high fluoride resistance (up to 500mg/L), which were further explored for their role in bioremediation of fluoride. In batch mode study, MB1 strain showed high fluoride degradation of 68%, whereas, F and G strains showed 57% and 44%fluoride removal, respectively, when fluoride concentration was present at 20 mgL-1 at 30 °C temperature and pH 7, with dextrose (10 g) utilised as source of carbon per 100 mL media after incubation of 8 days. Results indicate that, MB1 possibly a potential fluoride resistant bacterium with high fluoride bioremediation capacity.
B. Greenwood Gas Field, Kansas, Colorado, and Oklahoma
Authors: Wingerter H. R.
Published: May 2021

The Greenwood gas field of Morton County, Kansas, Baca County, Colorado, and Texas County, Oklahoma, is on the west flank of the Hugoton embayment of the Anadarko basin where porous Upper Pennsylvanian (Virgil) limestone beds grade westward to impermeable limestone and clastic rocks, creating a major stratigraphic trap for gas. The Greenwood gas field is on a monoclinal feature north of the Cimarron uplift. The shallow-water environment of deposition resulted in optimum conditions for the development of porosity and permeability in the limestone reservoir beds.

The field was discovered in October 1952 after seven tests through the Virgil gas zones had failed to find this major shallow accumulation. As of the end of 1963, 275 gas wells had been drilled, proving an area of about 214,000 acres (Hilpman et al., 1964, p. 152) and recoverable gas reserves of about 1 trillion cu ft.

Development drilling has been active from 1952, and lately new extensions in Texas County, Oklahoma, have shown significant enlargement of the Greenwood gas field into the Oklahoma Panhandle.
F. Nichols Field, Kiowa County, Kansas
Authors: Curtis Graham R.
Published: May 2021

Gas was discovered in the Nichols field, in south-central Kiowa County, Kansas, in 1955. Oil was discovered in 1956. The main reservoir is in Mississippian chert (Osage). Combination structural and stratigraphie trapping is responsible for the accumulations. Cumulative gas production to January 1,1967, was 17,401,647 Mcf. Cumulative oil production to that date was 5,192,455 bbls.
G. Geology of Otis-Albert Field, Rush and Barton Counties, Kansas
Authors: Miller Robert R.
Published: May 2021

The Otis-Albert oil and gas field is in central Kansas, in Rush and Barton Counties, approximately 15 mi northwest of Great Bend, Kansas. Gas first was discovered in the field in March 1930, and oil production was established in July 1934. No gas is being produced from the field because of depletion.

The “Basal” (Reagan?) sandstone and dolomite of the Arbuckle Group are the two productive units in the field. Both gas and oil were produced from the “Basal” sandstone; the Arbuckle is productive of only oil.

The geologic trap responsible for the accumulation of oil and gas in the “Basal” sandstone can be referred to best as a secondary stratigraphic trap. The basal Pennsylvanian conglomerate oversteps the truncated edges of the Arbuckle dolomite unit, the “Basal” sandstone, and the Precambrian crystalline rocks in the Otis-Albert field, and forms the cap rock for the “Basal sandstone” reservoir. The “Basal” sandstone pinches out updip against the Precambrian.

The greater Otis-Albert field, composed of Otis-Albert, Merten Northeast, and Merten Southwest, consisted of 215 oil wells and 1 shut-in gas well as of January 1, 1959. Total productive oil acreage was 14,520 acres. Cumulative oil production to January 1, 1959, was 12,499,279 bbls from the greater Otis-Albert field.

The difference between the quantity of metered gas (152.3 billion cu ft) and the quantity calculated as recoverable (173 billion cu ft) is approximately 20 billion cu ft. This difference probably is the result of gas being vented or otherwise not available for pipeline withdrawals in the early years of flush oil production.

In October 1943 the U.S. Bureau of Mines put into operation a helium extraction plant just north of the Otis-Albert field. Approximately 32.3 billion cu ft of gas (at 14.7 psia and 60°F) was processed at the Otis Helium Plant from March 1, 1945, to January 1, 1960. During that period about 321 million cu ft of helium was extracted (at 14.7 psia and 10°F).
I. Natural Gas in San Joaquin Valley, California
Authors: Rudkin George H.
Published: May 2021

The San Joaquin Valley is a small geosynclinal basin between the Sierra Nevada and Coast Ranges of California. The structural axis of the basin lies close to the western margin of the valley. Gas is found in a variety of structural and stratigraphic traps. Typical fields representing gas production from traps of different types and rocks of different ages are described.

The San Joaquin Valley natural gas reserves of approximately 4.7 trillion cu ft constitute about 46 per cent of the total gas reserves in California. Ninety per cent of the gas reserves of the San Joaquin Valley are in the form of wet or casinghead gas associated with oil reservoirs as a free natural gas cap or in solution with the petroleum. Some gas is recycled for pressure maintenance and storage. Gas is produced from rock units ranging in age from Late Cretaceous to Pleistocene. The wet gas comes mainly from Miocene rocks and the dry gas from Pliocene rocks.

California's gas industry began in 1910 when the first pipelines were laid from Buena Vista Hills to Bakersfield. Expansion has continued through a period of oversupply in the late 1920's to the present period of insufficient supply from local sources.

The search for and production of additional natural gas reserves continues in the San Joaquin Valley, but intensive efforts and important recent contributions to gas reserves of California also have been made in northern California and offshore.
Geology of Aetna Gas Field, Franklin and Logan Counties, Arkansas
Authors: Planalp Roger
Published: May 2021

The Aetna gas field is in Franklin and Logan Counties, Arkansas. In 1955, Athletic Mining and Smelting Company drilled the No. 1 Mantooth, Sec. 15, T. 8 N., R. 27 W., as the discovery well for the deep Atoka and Morrow gas reserves. The wildcat was drilled to 5,700 ft and was a triple-zone completion. As of September 1966, a total of 57 tests had been drilled. Drilling depths range from 1,800 ft in the upper Atoka to 8,800 ft in the Morrow. Multizone completions are common throughout the field. The field produced 12,755 million cu ft of gas during 1965 and the overall cumulative total was 70.8 billion cu ft. The natural gas from the Aetna field is almost 98 per cent methane. Reserves of individual wells range from 1 billion to more than 25 billion cu ft. The horizontal field limits are not defined fully, although production on the west and northwest now has merged with development drilling from Peter Pender (T. 8 N., R. 28 W.) and the vast Cecil field (T. 9 N., Rs. 27-29 W.). Trapping is effected by structure, faulting, and stratigraphic pinchouts. The pre-Mississippian rocks have not been tested on the crest of the Aetna anticline.
B. Illinois Glacial-Drift Gas
Authors: Meents W. F.
Published: May 2021

Glacial-drift gas in Illinois is found mainly in the northeast quarter of the state in 62 areas (shown in black in Fig. 1) in 27 counties. There are about 470 producing gas wells, of which 263 are flowing pressure wells and the rest are vacuum pumped (Meents, 1960). Some pressure wells have been tested for formation vacuum. More than 200 such gas wells had been abandoned before the testing series began in 1946; many of the wells tested were drilled before 1900. The average depth of the glacial-drift gas wells is 132 ft below the surface.

Approximately three-fourths of the glacial-drift gas wells in Illinois produce gas from the Sangamon Soil and the rest produce from the Sankoty Sand (Meents, 1960). The stages and substages of the Pleistocene are shown graphically in Figure 2. Numerous well-log records and sample studies by Horberg (1953) adequately cover the Pleistocene studies of the area.

Wells in certain areas are producing gas from both the Sangamon Soil and the Sankoty Sand, especially where end moraines pass over the buried valleys containing Sankoty Sand.
Gas in Michigan Basin
Authors: Vary J. A. , Elenbaas J. R. , Johnson M. A.
Published: May 2021

The first commercial quantities of natural gas were gathered and marketed in 1927 from the Muskegon field of southwestern Michigan. From this date to the present, gas production in Michigan has been from formations that range in geologic age from Mississippian to Ordovician. The total gas produced in the state and metered to market through December 1965 was 485.8 billion cu ft. The remaining recoverable reserve from known productive structures is approximately 236.6 billion cu ft.

The highly populated centers in Michigan demand far greater quantities of gas than can be produced in the state. Accordingly, Michigan must rely upon interstate pipeline facilities for adequate natural gas supplies. Because of weather variations, approximately one-third of such supplies must be stored in the summer months and withdrawn during the winter months from local underground gas-storage reservoirs. The quantity of gas imported into the state during 1965 was 546.7 billion cu ft, exceeding by about 61 billion cu ft the total quantity of gas produced throughout the history of the state. Certain gas fields in the Michigan basin have provided excellent underground storage reservoirs for the natural gas industry and are very important to the general economic welfare of the state.

Future gas reserves from within the state must come from areas and depths where there has been little or no exploratory drilling. Recent discoveries in the Trenton-Black River of south- central Michigan and the Salina-Niagara of southeastern Michigan have given impetus to the search for oil and gas in the state.
Natural Gas Transmission and Distribution
Authors: Hanley John M.
Published: May 2021

Energy in the 15.5 trillion cu ft of marketed natural gas production during 1964 exceeded the energy contained in any other mineral energy resource produced and was nearly 35 per cent of the total energy produced in the United States. The gross investment in natural gas gathering, transmission, and distribution pipelines and related facilities currently approximates $27 billion.

Modern transmission systems are constructed of solidly welded pipe, of 65,000 psi or more minimum yield, 30-42 in. in diameter, for operation at pressures ranging from 1,000 to 1,500 psig.

Many new natural gas distribution systems are utilizing thin-wall steel pipe and plastic pipe, which may have much wider application in the future.

The transmission of natural gas at minimum cost generally is attained by a system in which pipe diameter and operating pressure are maximum for the minimum wall thickness which will comply with safety standards. Future technological improvements probably will involve pipe with larger diameters and thinner walls, made of higher minimum-yield steel; operation at higher pressures; internal coatings; automatic welding of pipe joints; and greater utilization of gas-powered turbines and centrifugal compressors.
Storage of Gas in Water Sands
Authors: Ball Douglas , Geddes Burnett Peter
Published: May 2021

Underground gas storage is the only economical means today to provide enough storage to meet the seasonal demand peaks of space heating. Most of the present underground gas storages in the United States are in old gas and oil fields, but in the absence of natural gas or oil fields, artificial gas fields have been made where suitable combinations of reservoir beds, cap rocks, and geologic traps are known.

Finding a water-sand storage is a problem in geologic exploration like finding a new oil or gas field, and the same methods are used. Reservoir engineering studies generally are helpful in the evaluation of the suitability of a reservoir rock and cap rock before gas is injected, and can be used to equate the. potential storage volume and the well and field withdrawal capacities with the gas company's gas-use pattern. In the development of a water-sand storage, water is pushed away from the storage area by gas injection at a pressure higher than the existing hydrostatic pressure. The fill rate and the cushion-gas volume are important additional factors which influence the engineering design of a storage field.

In the United States more than 30 water-sand storages are now in operation and 14 others are under development. France has three in operation; Germany has two and a third, under development. England has two projects under investigation, exploratory work is being conducted near Tokyo, Japan, and Russia has five projects under investigation or development.
K. Gas in Los Angeles Basin, California
Authors: Brown James B.
Published: May 2021

Oil has been produced in the Los Angeles basin since 1880. Natural gas production and utilization began just prior to World War I. Production is from more than SO fields within an area of about 1,200 sq mi and mainly from upper Miocene and lower Pliocene clastic sedimentary rocks. Although the stratigraphic section is limited and the area is small, the Los Angeles basin has been one of the world's most prolific petroleum-producing regions.

In the Los Angeles basin, natural gas is produced with oil and, therefore, gas production is limited by both the gas-oil ratio and the ability of producers to market the oil. The ever-increasing demand for natural gas in the Los Angeles area has exceeded greatly the basin's producing ability, and necessitates the importation of tremendous volumes from other California areas and from out-of-state sources.

Strata in the Los Angeles basin range from pre-Cretaceous to Recent in age and consist mainly of clastic sedimentary rock and Miocene volcanic rock. The basin has undergone at least three different stages of deformation which produced large closed, complexly faulted, structures. The predominant structural features within the basin trend northwest-southeast; in many instances topographic expression reflects basement relief. Oil fields have been developed on most of the knolls and along the basin margins. The Wilmington field, the area's largest, is illustrative of the complexity within the basin; this field and the Playa del Rey (gas-storage) field are discussed in detail in the following papers.
Helium
Authors: Jodry R. L. , Henneman A. B.
Published: May 2021

Helium is one of the rare gases. It was discovered on the sun, and first was found on earth in quantity in natural gases from Kansas. It has unique properties which make it increasingly valuable to industry and science. Most helium on earth is believed to have originated from the decay of radioactive minerals. Although it is found in minute quantities in most rocks and minerals, the only important occurrences known in the world are associated with accumulations of hydrocarbon gases in the United States. These accumulations are centered mainly around Amarillo, Texas. A discovery in Saskatchewan, Canada, may be the first important helium accumulation found outside the United States. The geologic conditions optimum for the accumulation of helium in commercial quantities may be inferred from studies of known areas; ideas concerning the necessary conditions have changed in recent years. The discovery of additional helium reserves presents a challenge to the oil and gas producer. Under certain economic conditions helium may offer opportunity for additional profits to the petroleum industry
D. Justification for Using Combined Reserves, Partly Proved and Partly Potential, in Pipeline Financing
Authors: Arrington Louis , Davis Ralph E.
Published: May 2021

Many pipeline projects have been conceived, financed, and built partly on the basis of proved gas reserves and partly on the basis of additional reserves which would become available through further exploratory drilling that would be justified after a market outlet had been established. In a region where geologic prospects for additional discoveries of gas are very favorable, and where costs of exploration are exceptionally high, it may be necessary to provide a market for gas so as to encourage the continued drilling needed to meet the practical requirements of the time. The history of Westcoast Transmission Co. Ltd. of western Canada clearly illustrates the principles involved. In this example, the gas reserves found and developed, although substantial, would not alone have justified the inception of the company.
Estimation of Natural Gas Reserves
Authors: Stephenson Eugene A.
Published: May 2021

All estimates of reserves depend upon certain basic scientific principles, of which Boyle's law is fundamental, though not rigidly applicable to natural gases; a correction for deviation is required.

Several methods of estimation are described herein, and illustrated with equations, diagrams, and maps. Methods are:

1. Volumetric or porosity-pressure method, based on sand thickness, pressure factors, and area.

2. Pressure-production decline method.

3. Changes in density of gas during production.

4. Associated or solution gas-cap method.

5. Comparison between fields.

Condensate reservoirs and reservoirs under water drive offer particular problems. Other considerations that must be taken into account in estimating gas reserves are operation losses, compressibility of liquids, and availability of gas reserves.
Natural Gas in Uinta Basin, Utah
Authors: Osmond John C. , Locke Robert , Dillé Alan C. , Praetorious Walter , Wilkins James G.
Published: May 2021

Extended, but still very incomplete, exploration of the Uinta basin has resulted in discovery of numerous gas fields for which outlets gradually are becoming available. However, disappointing performance of some (mainly Wasatch Formation) fields after pipeline connection recently has reduced interest in exploration. Three Tertiary formations, one Cretaceous group, and one Jurassic formation are capable of production in the basin; seven other formations of Cretaceous to Pennsylvanian ages produce nearby and, therefore, have an indicated gas potential in the Uinta basin. A long history of oscillating marine transgressions coupled with several tectonic episodes has produced many good reservoir rocks as well as potential source rocks in this area. Most of the gas accumulations discovered are in lenticular sandstone of Late Cretaceous and Tertiary ages. It is notable that the Tertiary strata are of lacustrine and fluviatile origin and the gas traps are almost entirely stratigraphic.
Gas Accumulations in Nonmarine Strata, Cook Inlet Basin, Alaska
Authors: Kelly Thomas E.
Published: May 2021

In less than ten years the Cook Inlet basm of south-central Alaska has become one of this nation's most promising sources of oil and gas. From 1957 to 1966, significant discoveries include 5 major oil fields, 1 gas-condensate field, and 10 dry-gas fields with total proved reserves in excess of 500 million bbls of oil and 3 trillion cu ft of gas.

Rocks ranging in age from Late Triassic to Recent are present in the basin; however, commercial oil and gas accumulations have been found only in Tertiary rocks assigned to the Kenai Formation, a thick heterogeneous deposit composed of sandstone, siltstone, conglomerate, shale, and abundant coal beds. Lateral variation of individual beds within the Kenai Formation makes correlation difficult; however, three arbitrarily defined stratigraphic units comprising at least five distinct lithologic zones are recognizable on the Kenai Peninsula where adequate well control is available. The United States Geological Survey, as a result of recent paleobotanical studies, has subdivided the Kenai Formation into three provincial stages which correspond to time-stratigraphic units. Although subdivisions of the Kenai Formation used in this paper may be roughly correlative with the provincial stages on the basis of distribution, spatial occurrence of coal within the section, and degree of lithification, they were chosen arbitrarily.

The Cook Inlet basin is an elongate, deep, moderately asymmetrical structural depression which overlies much of the Matanuska geosyncline, a Mesozoic sedimentary trough. The structure of the basin is mainly a result of Late Cretaceous-early Tertiary deformation; however, the major tectonic features are a result of middle Jurassic orogeny. The principal structural features within the basin are narrow, elongate, complexly faulted anticlinal belts which trend north-northeast parallel with the grain of the major tectonic features which flank the basin. All of the oil and gas fields are located near the crest of local structural closures on the anticlinal belts.

Accumulation of oil in the Hemlock Zone, the principal oil reservoir in the lower part of the Kenai Formation, probably is related to old fold belts which were uplifted before Late Cretaceous time and remained positive until Tertiary time. Gas accumulations in the middle and upper parts of the Kenai Formation are indigenous, and were generated from coal and lignite in the section. Time of structural uplift, diagenesis of carbonaceous source rocks, and stratigraphic relations between coal and reservoir host rocks control the accumulation of gas in commercial quantities.

Most of the proved gas reserves of the basin are shut in because there is no market. Planned facilities for methane liquefaction, anhydrous ammonia production, and pressure maintenance of oil reservoirs soon will greatly increase the use of natural gas and the demand may exceed the supply.
Occurrence of Gas on Northwest Flank of South Liberty Dome, Liberty County, Texas
Authors: Craig Jack W.
Published: May 2021

Exploration for gas-condensate reserves on the flanks of piercement salt domes in the downdip Yegua-Cook Mountain trend has not been very active because development to date has been rather disappointing. However, the fact that a commercially profitable reserve of gas now has been found on the northwest flank of South Liberty dome might encourage geologists to re-evaluate and give closer scrutiny to similar possibilities on the flanks of other piercement salt domes in this trend.

There is a paucity of test wells drilled to the Yegua-Cook Mountain on the flanks of the other piercement domes in this trend, and in most wells only the Cockfield or upper Yegua sections have been tested. When more wells in the 15,000-20,000-ft depth range are drilled in this trend, there is a good possibility that large reserves of hydrocarbons, especially gas and condensate, will be discovered on the flanks of the domes.
Port Acres and Port Arthur Gas-Condensate Fields, Jefferson County, Texas
Authors: Halbouty Michel T. , Hardin, Jr. George C. , Barber Thomas D.
Published: May 2021

The Port Acres and Port Arthur gas-condensate fields offer a classic contrast between an anticlinal closure, the Port Arthur field, and an adjacent stratigraphic trap, the Port Acres field; the two fields are separated by a large normal fault.

An exploratory test well drilled in 1941 would have found the Port Acres field had it been drilled only 20 ft deeper; however, the field was not discovered till 1957. The Port Arthur field, discovered in 1958, would have been found in 1954 had an exploratory test well been drilled less than 2,000 ft deeper. The Port Acres field area is approximately 3,200 acres and 60 wells have been completed. The proved productive area of the Port Arthur field is approximately 1,700 acres, with 10 wells completed.

Faulting separating the two fields was contemporaneous with deposition, and structural configuration probably is a result of deep-seated salt movement. As much as 700 ft of displacement is evident along the two normal faults. Gas in the Port Acres field is trapped because of lensing out of the upper sandstone unit of the lower Hackberry against a southeast-plunging structural nose. Gas in the Port Arthur field is trapped because of a northeast-trending anticlinal closure dipping northwest into a fault in lower Hackberry sandstone. Both fields are in what is known generally as the downdip part of the Frio producing trend of the Gulf Coast. In the area of the two fields, the lower Hackberry zone consists primarily of sandstone, although in most of the Gulf Coast section it is predominantly shale. The lithologic character of the sandstone suggests that it was deposited as a seaward-building delta.

Reservoir characteristics in the lower Hackberry are varied but generally are excellent. The middle Frio, or Nodosaria zone, also produces gas at Port Arthur; its reservoir characteristics are not as good as those of the lower Hackberry. Production from an upper Frio sandstone has been found in five wells in Port Acres field, but reservoir characteristics are poor and production is not significant. Both fields produce condensate with gas. Condensate has averaged approximately 50 bbls per million cubic feet of gas. Gases from both fields are predominantly methane, with between 9 and 10 per cent heavier hydrocarbons. Inert gases constitute less than one-half of 1 per cent.

There are possibilities for deeper production in the lower Vicksburg and Jackson sections, neither of which has been tested.
Occurrence of Natural Gas in Mesozoic Rocks of Northern California: A. Natural Gas in Sacramento and Northern San Joaquin Valleys
Authors: Jones Vern
Published: May 2021

The tremendous growth in population and industry in California has created a strong demand for natural gas. Present estimates are that California as a state will rank first in gas consumption by 1970.

California has three general sources of gas— wet gas associated with oil in southern and central California, generally from Tertiary strata; dry gas in the Sacramento and northern San Joaquin Valleys, most of which is produced from Upper Cretaceous (Mesozoic) and Tertiary (Eocene and Pliocene) strata; and out-of-state gas. There appears to be little chance of a significant increase in wet-gas deliverability. Dry-gas production has a very bright future in the Sacramento and the northern San Joaquin Valleys. Transmission of gas to California from outside the state began in 1947, and by 1964 gas from outside the state was 64 per cent of the total gas consumption. A line has been constructed from Canada to northern California. It is inevitable that gas from outside the state will increase its share of the market. Proposals are under consideration for one or more lines from the Texas Gulf Coast.
D. Stratigraphy and Tectonics of Sacramento Valley
Authors: Safonov Anatole
Published: May 2021

The productive Upper Cretaceous-Eocene section is very complex. The principal tectonic factor is the progressive southward tilt of the Great Valley of California, broken by the transverse Stockton fault, which constitutes the southern boundary of the Sacramento Valley. This tilt is reflected in a general southerly thickening and shaling out of the section. Another factor is progressive uplift of the west side, which gradually caused isolation of the Sacramento basin. The axis of the valley is near the west side. The third major factor is differential movements within the valley, which resulted in three sub-basins somewhat different in sedimentation conditions—Rio Vista, Colusa, and Chico. The Diablo uplift in the southwest is a homocline complicated by faulting and folding.

The main source of sediments was at the east, but additional sediments came from the rising west side. The sediments were reworked and redeposited by vigorous currents in an intricate and commonly unpredictable pattern determined in part by local structures. The major Midland fault zone runs west of north, from the south end of the valley to Winters and possibly farther north. It diminishes above the Domengine Sandstone.

A peculiar feature of the valley is the presence of erosional channels—Princeton gorge in the north near the west side (Capay fill in Upper Cretaceous rocks); Markley gorge (Sacramento Canyon; Markley fill in contact with progressively older Eocene-Cretaceous beds); and the newly discovered Brentwood gorge in the Diablo slope. There is considerable controversy about the nature of Meganos “shaleways” east of the Midland fault and north and south of the River Island area. The writer's contention is that these are remnants of the original Rio Vista basin on both sides of a Meganos delta. The other view ascribes their origin to density currents, surface erosion, and other factors.
E. Corning and South Corning Gas Fields, Tehama County, California
Authors: Safonov Anatole
Published: May 2021

The Corning anticline is one of the major structural features of the Sacramento Valley basin. It is in the north-central part of the valley just east of the city of Corning, and about 4 mi west of the Sacramento River.

The Corning anticline was recognized early in the exploration history of the Sacramento Valley because its trend is marked by topographically high areas. The Corning Hills constitute two groups, one just northeast of the city, the other centered approximately mi southeast of the city. The maximum elevation of the hills is slightly more than 300 ft, and they rise about 50 ft above the surrounding alluvial plain.
Carbon Gas Field, Alberta
Authors: Workman L. E.
Published: May 2021

The Carbon gas field is in a north-northwest-trending lenticular quartz sandstone body in the lower part of the Mannville (Blairmore) Group of Early Cretaceous age at the depth of the “Glauconitic Sandstone,” or Bluesky Member of the Clearwater Formation, in south-central Alberta. The sandstone ranges from 20 to 82 ft in gross thickness. Regional dip is westward. The pool is contained in a stratigraphic trap. Sandstone thickness and porosity decrease eastward. A normal fault, with approximately 30 ft downward displacement on the east side, borders the eastern edge of the field. The thickness of sandstone above the gas-water contact is as much as 46 ft. Reserves are estimated to be 124.1 billion cu ft of sweet gas.
Medicine Hat-Hatton Gas Field, Alberta and Saskatchewan
Authors: Hancock W. P. , Glass D. J.
Published: May 2021

The Medicine Hat-Hatton field was the first gas field to be discovered and developed in western Canada. It has supplied the local market for more than 62 years, but greatest development and extension have been in recent years. Estimated initial recoverable reserves of 1,964 billion cu ft and a total productive area of 775,000 acres make it the largest gas field in volume and areal extent in western Canada. It also is among the shallowest producing areas, with an average depth to the productive zone of 1,500 ft. Gas is obtained from the Medicine Hat Sandstone, a thin, very lenticular, argillaceous sandstone member of the Upper Cretaceous Colorado Group. This sandstone is limited to a fairly small area in southeastern Alberta and an adjoining part of Saskatchewan. Gas is contained in the more porous and permeable parts of this sandstone body by what was originally an updip pinchout. The accumulation probably occurred before the final uplift of the Sweetgrass arch.
Geology of Wind River Basin of Wyoming and its Relationship to Natural Gas Accumulation
Authors: Paape Donald W.
Published: May 2021

Latest Cretaceous and Tertiary beds constitute almost two-thirds of the maximum of 33,000 ft of sedimentary rocks in the Wind River basin. The marine Upper Cretaceous Cody Shale is overlain, with intertonguing, by the Mesaverde Formation. The next-overlying Lewis Shale and Meeteetse Formation intertongue also. In the western part of the basin, an unconformity associated with Laramide tectonism separates the uppermost Cretaceous Lance Formation from beds beneath it. The Paleocene Fort Union Formation is of primarily terrestrial origin, but the upper part contains the Waltman Shale Member, which was deposited in a lacustrine or restricted marine environment in the northeast part of the basin. From Paleocene until Pliocene time, sediments poured from bordering mountains to fill the basin, but an exhuming process, still in progress, began in post-Pliocene time.

It is concluded that the development of Laramide structural features during Late Cretaceous to earliest Eocene time influenced the contemporaneous patterns of sedimentation in the Wind River basin. Thrusting on the eastern and northern basin flanks followed in earliest Eocene, and some later superficial deformation also is recorded.

Only recently has exploration for gas been active in the Wind River basin. The efforts are directed toward the latest Cretaceous and Tertiary beds in the deeper parts of the basin, and significant shows or production has been found in all of these formations. Four fields are producing gas, and favorable economic conditions exist for future gas development in the basin.
Geology and Occurrence of Gas, Wamsutter Arch, Sweetwater County, Wyoming
Authors: Ritzma Howard R.
Published: May 2021

The Wamsutter arch, an east extension of the Rock Springs uplift, is a gently east-plunging nose separating the Red Desert and Washakie basins.

During Late Cretaceous time two major cycles of marine transgression and regression occurred in this area, producing intertonguing relationships between the marine Baxter Shale to nonmarine Mesa- verde Group, and the marine Lewis Shale to nonmarine Lance Formation. Reservoir sandstone beds of the new gas and oil fields of the western Wamsutter arch are in the transition zone between the nonmarine Mesaverde (Almond) and marine Lewis Shale.

The Wamsutter arch was structurally inactive during most of Late Cretaceous time. A broad uplift occurred near the south end of the Rock Springs uplift during latest Cretaceous through Paleo- cene (Lance-Fort Union) time; middle Hiawatha (Eocene) rocks unconformably overlie the Ericson Sandstone (Upper Cretaceous) with absence of 5,000) ft of beds. A northeast extension of this uplift, the Table Rock platform, coincides with the present northeast bulge of the Rock Springs uplift and the western Wamsutter arch. Thin strata of Lance, Fort Union, and Hiawatha were deposited over the Table Rock platform. These beds thicken markedly basinward to the east. All of the new prolific gas and oil fields of the area have been found on the Table Rock platform. The folding of the Rock Springs uplift and Wamsutter arch took place in late Eocene through Oligocene times, and perhaps extended into Pleistocene time. The resulting eastward tilt has masked older structure and has caused significant updip migration and readjustment of gas and oil from original areas of accumulation.

Table Rock field is a compound stratigraphic-structural trap localized along a broad anticline. In Desert Springs, West Desert Springs, and Patrick Draw fields, accumulations are trapped stratigraphi- cally. Regionally, major gas fields have been found in lower structural positions than large oil-productive areas. Locally, within individual closed reservoirs, gas and oil are in their usual structural positions.

Shallow gas was discovered at Table Rock in 1946 and deeper production was found in 1954 in the Lewis and Almond. Desert Springs gas field was discovered in 1958, followed in 1959 by Arch, West Desert Springs, and Patrick Draw. The latter two are major oil fields with large reserves of gas. Table Rock, on production since late 1958, is the only gas field with a pipeline outlet. Production and marketing are in a very early stage of development.
Geology of Natural Gas Occurrence in Tertiary and Late Cretaceous Rocks of Sand Wash Basin, Colorado and Wyoming
Authors: Masters Charles D.
Published: May 2021

The Sand Wash basin of northwestern Colorado and south-central Wyoming yields natural gas from rocks of Tertiary and Cretaceous ages. The first discovery of gas was from the Tertiary in 1927, but because of market conditions, development has been slow. In recent years an active exploration program has resulted in markedly increased reserves which, as of 1965, exceeded 550 billion cu ft of high-methane gas.

The accumulation of hydrocarbons in the basin is controlled chiefly by structural closure, but only parts of the total Tertiary and Cretaceous stratigraphic column yield gas. A detailed knowledge of the distribution of selected reservoir rocks in relation to the structural configuration will be important in the discovery of new reserves within the basin.
Bethel Field, Anderson County, Texas
Authors: Krusekopf, Jr. H. H.
Published: May 2021

The Bethel field is in northern Anderson County. It encloses the Bethel salt dome; most production is from the west and east sides. The field was discovered by Texaco Inc. in 1956, when oil was found in the Woodbine Formation. In 1957 Texaco discovered gas in the Rodessa. The total gas reserve in the Rodessa at Bethel field is estimated to be about 95 billion cu ft.
Geology of Gas Accumulations in Paleozoic Rocks of Alberta Plains
Authors: Prather R. W. , McCourt G. B.
Published: May 2021

More than forty per cent of Canada's known natural gas resources, or 18.5 trillion cu ft of indicated gas reserves (Oil and Gas Conservation Board, Alberta, 1965), are contained in Paleozoic rocks of the Alberta Plains. The constant growth of Alberta's reserves since 1947 has encouraged the gas industry to seek extensive markets in Canada and the United States.

The Paleozoic rocks are predominantly shelf carbonates, limy marine shale, and evaporites. These strata are on the eastern flank of the Alberta syncline and dip southwestward at an average of 40 ft/mi. They form a wedge which is more than 5,000 ft thick near the Rocky Mountain Foothills and thins to the outcrop in the northeastern corner of the province. Emergence of the Alberta Plains between the end of Cambrian time and Middle Devonian time, plus periodic emergence and erosion between Missis- sippian time and Cretaceous time, resulted in the removal of considerable parts of the Paleozoic systems.

The major Paleozoic reservoirs are organic and clastic carbonates of the Devonian and Mississippian Systems. They form three types of stratigraphic traps—reefs, lithological pinchouts and unconformity traps. “Draped” anticlinal structure also aided in localizing accumulations in Nisku reefal reservoirs, which overlie Leduc bioherms.

The Devonian reefs of the Swan Hills, Leduc, and Nisku units mark the areas where shoaling occurred as the later Devonian seas transgressed the evaporite-filled Elk Point basin. The reef fields contain gas reserves of 8 trillion cu ft.

In the lithologic pinchout fields, gas accumulations of the Wabamun Group commonly include hydrogen sulfide gas up to 35 per cent by volume. The indicated reserves in these fields are 1.8 trillion cu ft of nonassociated residue gas and 35 million long tons of sulfur.

Gas accumulations associated with the post-Paleozoic unconformity have reserves of 8.2 trillion cu ft in Mississippian rock.

Production from Paleozoic gas reservoirs has been from both nonassociated-gas fields and dissolved gas from oil-producing areas. Paleozoic gas reserves are expected to increase considerably as exploration continues in the deeper drilling areas and in the more northerly areas of the Alberta Plains. An estimate of the ultimate potential gas resources in the Paleozoic rocks of the Alberta Plains, based on criteria similar to those used in recent forecasts for Canada and the United States, is 45 trillion cu ft.
Zentrum und Peripherie in der deutschen Syntax.
Authors: Näf Anton
Published: May 2021

In Linguistik online 2021, I presented a four-level centre-periphery model of German syntax (with the categories “prototype”, “variants”, “competitive forms” and “free stylistic variation”) and tested and refined it on the basis of two well-researched grammatical phenomena, conditionality and passive structures. In the present paper, this model is applied to the sentence types of German, with comparative side glances at English and French. The model proves to be particularly fruitful in the functional area of exclamation, where a great variety of forms can be observed. I argue here that scientific grammars should not only record the form inventory of sentence types but should supplement this with information on their frequency of occurrence, especially with key figures on the relative proportions of the individual structures in their functional field of competition, broken down by different communicative situations or text types. The motto for the grammar writing of the future should be: From the “structures” to the “structures in use”.