bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Origins of Democratic Rule
Authors: Stasavage David
Published: January 2021

This chapter discusses the culmination of democracy in the establishment of political systems based on competitive elections and universal suffrage. The chapter explores the early forms of democracy that existed in many regions and confirms why modern democracy emerged first in Europe and the United States. It traces the particular trajectory taken by Europe when compared with regions such as China and the Middle East. The chapter examines how Europe's backwardness laid the ground for the rise of modern democracy. It describes early democracy that existed in lieu of a state bureaucracy and as a system in which a ruler governed jointly with a council or assembly that composed of members of society who were themselves independent from the ruler.
Weak States Inherited Democracy
Authors: Stasavage David
Published: January 2021

This chapter argues that early democracy was more likely to prevail when rulers were uncertain about production, when people found it easy to exit, and when rulers needed their people more than their people needed them. It investigates evidence from multiple world regions at different points in time that supports claims that the practice of early democracy was one way for those who ruled to cope with challenges. It also looks into state bureaucracy as substitute for council governance. The chapter talks about Douglass North, the famous economic historian who defined the state as an entity that extracts revenue in exchange for protection. It explains that protection can be defense against outside invaders, insurance against events like famine, and involves certain types of “social protection.”
China as the Bureaucratic Alternative
Authors: Stasavage David
Published: January 2021

This chapter focuses on how China provides the starkest alternative to the western European experience in terms of political development. It discusses how Westerners have sometimes seen China as an aberration that carries the culturalist baggage of an older era, which is a case called “oriental despotism.” The chapter considers the evolution of the Chinese state from the earliest dynasties, the Xia and the Shang, to its final dynasty, the Qing. It emphasizes how the Shang dynasty set the stage for what would become China's bureaucratic alternative. It also describes the early development of intensive, high-yield agriculture that provided a better explanation for Chinese autocracy.
How Democracy Disappeared in the Islamic World
Authors: Stasavage David
Published: January 2021

This chapter assesses the compatibility of Islam with democracy and points out why modern democracy has a very weak track record in the Middle East. It explores the deep roots of governance in the Middle East and shows how early democracy was actually the norm in pre-Islamic Arabia until after the Islamic conquests. It also mentions the Koranic principle of shura that embodied the idea that rulers should be collectively selected and consult those they governed. The chapter shows how early practices of democracy died out under the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates for reasons that had little to do with religious doctrine. It describes Umayyad and Abbasid rulers that inherited a state bureaucracy, which allowed them to pursue the autocratic alternative.
The Ongoing Democratic Experiment
Authors: Stasavage David
Published: January 2021

This chapter describes the present day as an age of democratic anxiety. It talks about the palpable fear in the “advanced industrialized” world in which the anti-democratic reflexes not felt for many decades have suddenly reawakened. It also mentions comments by John Taylor and John Dunn, who pointed out that citizen participation is the first fracture point of modern democracy: citizen participation is very broad. The chapter looks at the second fracture point of modern democracy that concerns executive power. It clarifies that an elected leader at the helm of a modern democratic state can sometimes behave just as despotically as an autocrat.
The Relation between Political and Moral Philosophy
Authors: Larmore Charles
Published: January 2021

This chapter talks about the pervasive conflict on what should count as the terms of social cooperation, such as the need for authoritative, enforceable rules that constitute the elementary facts of political life. It discusses the disagreement about the nature of right and good, specific moral questions, and features of the good or just society as the most enduring and polarizing sources of social discord. It also characterizes one of the roles of a conception of justice that shows how to adjudicate conflicts among the members of society. The chapter also explains disagreements that often consist of one person merely holding different views. It illustrates a common experience in some parts of the world in which people enjoy freedom of thought and expression and reasoning about ethical matters that goes beyond platitudes.
Coerced Removal from the Great Depression through Operation Wetback
Authors: Goodman Adam
Published: January 2021

This chapter analyzes how and why voluntary departure and anti-immigrant fear campaigns became the dominant mechanisms of expulsion during the middle decades of the twentieth century. It also reviews how and why immigration officials came to target Mexicans through a fine-grained analysis of the repatriations of the 1930s and Operation Wetback of the mid-1950s. It looks into the voluntary departures between 1927 and 1964 that outnumbered formal deportations nearly nine to one, representing more than 90 percent of the nearly 6.4 million expulsions the federal government recorded. The chapter discusses the coercive mechanisms that enabled authorities to unilaterally execute mass expulsions on an unprecedented scale and on a shoestring budget, bolstering institutional legitimacy within the growing federal bureaucracy. It also describes the effective denial of due process rights to citizens and noncitizens and infliction of trauma on individuals, families, and communities.
Building a Social Movement?
Authors: Howes Anton
Published: January 2021

This chapter draws attention to the Special Activities Committee of the Royal Society of Arts. It mentions the institution of the Benjamin Franklin Medal, which was originally intended to be specifically awarded to younger people in order to draw them into the Society. It also talks about Freddie Williams, who had already been elected to a fellowship at the Royal Society and awarded the first Benjamin Franklin Medal. The chapter discusses the Society's expansion by forming regional committees, which started with Birmingham in 1960 that eventually became a West Midlands committee. It elaborates on the idea of the expansion of committees that would promote discussions across the country and lead to new ideas and initiatives for the Society to adopt on a national basis.
Mapping the Mind of a Voter
Authors: Bruter Michael , Harrison Sarah
Published: January 2021

This chapter describes where this book fits in the electoral science field. It starts by exploring the ambition of electoral psychology as a scholarly approach, and grounds the book theoretically and analytically in relation to the many disciplines that have puzzled over elections and electoral behaviour. The chapter then considers the contributions of models of electoral socialization (including early socialization and later habituation), research on electoral memory, the various attempts made at uncovering the effects of personality and the vote, and pscyho-political research on the impact of morality. It also looks at political-theory controversies regarding the function of elections, and at the analytical grounding of the concept of electoral ergonomics based on both general ergonomics research and studies of electoral management and administration. Finally, the chapter explains each component of the book's research design and methodology.
Electoral Ergonomics
Authors: Bruter Michael , Harrison Sarah
Published: January 2021

This chapter focuses on electoral ergonomics, defined as the interface between every aspect of electoral organization and the psychology of the voters. It argues that every small detail in the organization of the vote (electoral ergonomics) matters not only mechanically, but also because of the way it may trigger different psychological mechanisms and emotional reactions, and that as a result, the ergonomic interface will have different effects on different types of voter, such as ‘referees’ or ‘supporters’. Indeed, electoral ergonomics affects the way citizens experience the vote, their attitudes, their likeliness to vote in elections, and their actual electoral choice. The chapter then unpacks the theoretical and empirical logic behind the influence of electoral ergonomics, both in general and through specific case studies. These case studies include the impact of the use of remote voting on electoral experience in the general population, its influence on the electoral choice of young voters, and the effect of ballot-paper design (including paper vs electronic ballots) on the electoral experience.
Religion, Sovereignty, Messianism
Authors: Sutcliffe Adam
Published: January 2021

This chapter focuses on political theology in the seventeenth century through the language of scripture. It talks about the two most dynamic Protestant states of the early modern period, the Dutch Republic and England. It assesses how the identification with Jews provided the theological underpinning for the Dutch Republic and England's self-image as divinely chosen, as well as the theological grammar for the two nations' internal political arguments. The chapter discusses the “Mosaic Republic” as a key reference point of the Dutch Republic and England's polities in the seventeenth century. It also talks about the political fascination with the Jews as an important force in shaping more welcoming policies, such as the readmission of Jews to England in 1656.
The Resource and the Role of Statistics
Authors: Hieronymi Pamela
Published: January 2021

This chapter confirms whether the truth of determinism could, would, or should lead people to exercise the resource available to them and react normally in the way people characteristically react to the outliers. It explains P. F. Strawson's initial admission that it does not seem to be self-contradictory to suppose people would always use their resource. It also reflects on Strawson's thought, implying that to be engaged in anything like interpersonal relationships is to expect some sort of regard or goodwill from others. The chapter also analyzes how Strawson can and should allow expectations to change in their content and corresponding reactions to change in their tone. It speculates the thought of a human society in which there were no expectations of goodwill and no distinctive sort of reaction to failures of expectations.
The Further, Implicit Point
Authors: Hieronymi Pamela
Published: January 2021

This chapter focuses on P. F. Strawson's need to address the question of whether acceptance of the truth of determinism would, could, or should lead people to use their resource to exempt everyone. It analyzes Strawson's beliefs that some or another framework of moral and interpersonal demands and expectations will be given with the fact of human society. It surmises that the content of demands and expectations must be set by the actual abilities of those in the society. The chapter also emphasizes how statistics matter in determining resource. It assesses the actual abilities that help in determining the content of the demands and expectations, including what counts as disregard or ill will.
Introduction
Authors: De Vries Catherine E. , Hobolt Sara B.
Published: January 2021

This introductory chapter provides an overview of the radical change currently occurring in European politics. Recent years have witnessed the steady electoral decline of mainstream parties and the rise of political outsiders. These political entrepreneurs gained electoral traction through their attacks on the political establishment and their mobilization of new issues. What explains these upheavals in European politics? Political commentators and scholars provide a series of different interpretations. Much of the commentary has focused on the rise of right-wing populism, and many have pointed to structural changes to the economy, increasing globalization, and economic downturns as the root cause of this upsurge. This book argues that in order to understand change in European politics, one needs to account for the drivers of both the political upheavals observed recently and the decades of relative stability and dominance of the traditional mainstream parties. Rather than simply asking why political outsiders have been so successful recently, one also needs to query why mainstream parties have been able to maintain their grip on power for so long.
Voter Loyalty
Authors: De Vries Catherine E. , Hobolt Sara B.
Published: January 2021

This chapter focuses on voter loyalty, looking at the barriers to entry that challenger parties face, most notably the strength of party attachments to dominant parties. First, it explores the development of party membership, which is the most formal expression of an attachment to a party. Second, it considers subjective measures of party attachment, which show cross-national volatility, but also clear signs of loosening ties. Third, the chapter studies actual behavior—namely, voter volatility, which captures individual-level party switching between elections. Here one sees that voters in the countries examined have become much more willing to switch parties. Finally, the chapter highlights the importance of different barriers to entry by comparing British and Danish case studies. Overall, the evidence suggests that voters are becoming more like consumers and more willing to switch if there is something more appealing on offer.
Strategies of Dominance
Authors: De Vries Catherine E. , Hobolt Sara B.
Published: January 2021

This chapter examines the strategies employed by dominant parties to secure their long-term electoral success and control of office. The first of the dominant-party strategies is that of distinctive convergence, whereby dominant parties take positions closer to the center ground in order to appeal to the tastes of a larger share of the electorate. Second, dominant parties seek to keep challengers at bay by controlling the political agenda and avoiding issues that may be disadvantageous to them. The final strategy concerns the emphasis of dominant parties on their competence. In combination, the strategies of distinctive convergence, issue avoidance, and competence have kept the old center-right and center-left parties in a dominant position in most of Western Europe for decades. Yet, these strategies are not without risk. As dominant parties converge to the center, there is a real risk that voters perceive them as too similar and feel they lack a genuine alternative.
The Political Economy of the Special Relationship
Authors: Green Jeremy
Published: January 2021

This book studies how America's global financial power was created and shaped through its special relationship with Britain. The rise of global finance in the latter half of the twentieth century has long been understood as one chapter in a larger story about the postwar growth of the United States. This book challenges this popular narrative. Revealing the Anglo-American origins of financial globalization, the book sheds new light on Britain's hugely significant, but often overlooked, role in remaking international capitalism alongside America. Drawing from new archival research, the book questions the conventional view of international economic history as a series of cyclical transitions among hegemonic powers. Instead, it explores the longstanding interactive role of private and public financial institutions in Britain and the United States—most notably the close links between their financial markets, central banks, and monetary and fiscal policies. The book shows that America's unparalleled post-WWII financial power was facilitated, and in important ways constrained, by British capitalism, as the United States often had to work with and through British politicians, officials, and bankers to achieve its vision of a liberal economic order. Transatlantic integration and competition spurred the rise of the financial sector, an increased reliance on debt, a global easing of regulation, the ascendance of monetarism, and the transition to neoliberalism. From the gold standard to the recent global financial crisis and beyond, this book recasts the history of global finance through the prism of Anglo-American development.
The Great Reversal
Authors: Green Jeremy
Published: January 2021

This chapter examines Anglo-American development from the nineteenth century to World War II. It focuses on the “great reversal” in power that occurred as US development caught up to and closed the gap with the UK, after which leadership of the international monetary order came to depend increasingly upon their cooperative efforts, a process encapsulated by the ill-fated attempt to resuscitate the gold standard after World War I. The chapter emphasizes the nascent but insufficient foundations of Anglo-American financial integration as a central factor in the failure of the interwar gold standard. Anglo-American cooperation was ultimately undermined by the lack of US willingness and capacity to play a greater leadership role and respect its duties and obligations under the gold standard system, leading to the collapse of the gold standard and the increasing rivalry and protectionism of the 1930s. The failure of Anglo-American management of the international monetary system in the interwar years had a formative impact upon the priorities instituted at Bretton Woods during the 1940s.
Internalizing Discipline
Authors: Green Jeremy
Published: January 2021

This chapter argues that the radicalization of monetary policy, regulatory transformation, and central bank innovation in the US and the UK emerged out of institutional complementarities and interdependencies generated by Anglo-American development. The development of offshore markets in the City of London led bankers on both sides of the Atlantic to push for further domestic liberalization, as competition between London and New York intensified. US banks pressured regulators to replicate the City's offshore conditions, which gradually eroded New Deal-era financial regulations. These dynamics, alongside the Fed's failure to regulate the Euromarkets, demonstrated both the limits on US monetary policy autonomy and the importance of the transatlantic impetus to liberalization emerging from Anglo-American financial integration. Embracing monetarism, Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan made clear that price stability would be restored and that working-class solidarity would be broken. In the absence of the Bretton Woods framework, both states demonstrated their commitment to internalizing discipline through extreme applications of monetary policy and direct confrontations with the labor movement. Ultimately, developments in the UK and the US led the way for the broader adoption of neoliberalism within the global political economy and the further development of financialization.
A Crisis of Anglo-America
Authors: Green Jeremy
Published: January 2021

This chapter explains that the Anglo-American origins of the global financial crisis of 2007/8 had a deep historical-institutional lineage, rooted in the transatlantic transformation from the Keynesian order during the early 1980s. This transformation was itself enabled and conditioned by previous processes of postwar Anglo-American development. The continuation of long-term transatlantic financial liberalization and integration dynamics during the 1980s and beyond placed the markets in New York and London at the heart of the institutional infrastructure that transmitted the crisis globally. Anglo-American preeminence within international banking regulation ensured that the global financial system would accommodate the enormous leveraging-up of major banks. Politically, the conversion of both the UK's Labour Party and America's Democratic Party to the virtues of financial deregulation, as well as their acceptance of the epistemic omnipotence of financial markets, laid the basis for the profoundly misplaced complacence that generated economic vulnerability on an enormous scale. Viewing the events of 2007/8 from the perspective of the longue durée of Anglo-American finance allows one to more fully appreciate the role of the nexus between treasuries, central banks, and private bankers on both sides of the Atlantic in producing the crisis.
Nathalie Sarraute
Authors: Jefferson Ann
Published: January 2021

A leading exponent of the nouveau roman, Nathalia Sarraute (1900–1999) was also one of France's most cosmopolitan literary figures, and her life was bound up with the intellectual and political ferment of twentieth-century Europe. This book is the authoritative biography of this major writer. Sarraute's life spanned a century and a continent. Born in tsarist Russia to Jewish parents, she was soon uprooted and brought to the city that became her lifelong home, Paris. This dislocation presaged a life marked by ambiguity and ambivalence. A stepchild in two families, a Russian émigré in Paris, a Jew in bourgeois French society, and a woman in a man's literary world, Sarraute was educated at Oxford, Berlin, and the Sorbonne. She embarked on a career in law that was ended by the Nazi occupation of France, and she spent much of the war in hiding, under constant threat of exposure. Rising to literary eminence after the Liberation, she was initially associated with the existentialist circle of Beauvoir and Sartre, before becoming the principal theorist and practitioner of the avant-garde French novel of the 1950s and 1960s. Her tireless exploration of the deepest parts of our inner psychological life produced an oeuvre that remains daringly modern and resolutely unclassifiable. The book explores Sarraute's work and the intellectual, social, and political context from which it emerged. Drawing on newly available archival material and Sarraute's letters, this biography is the definitive account of a life lived between countries, families, languages, literary movements, and more.
England, 1919–21
Authors: Jefferson Ann
Published: January 2021

This chapter introduces England as a part of Natalia Ilyinichna Tcherniak's mental geography through the books “David Copperfield” and “The Prince and the Pauper.” It explains how England acquired a new reality for Natalia with the arrival of the nannies hired by her step-mother Vera Sheremetievskaya to teach English to her half-sister, Lili. It also points how keen Vera was to have Lili learn English in order to redress the unfair advantage that she saw Nathalia had since she already spoke three languages and excelled at school. The chapter recounts Nathalia's time in Oxford, England, which she considered the happiest time of her life. It also mentions Nathalia's abrupt return to Paris when her father, Ilya Evseevich Tcherniak, refused to approve of her plan of continuing her studies in history while giving private French lessons as he did not wish to see his daughter become a bluestocking.
Independence, 1922–25
Authors: Jefferson Ann
Published: January 2021

This chapter talks about Natalia Ilyinichna Tcherniak's enrollment as a law student at the Faculté de Droit. It explains Natalia's decision to choose law, associating it with the family atmosphere she was so keen to escape but had given her a powerful sense of natural justice and enjoyment to argument. It also points out how the acquisition of a law degree was not Nathalia's only aim at Faculté de Droit but as a path to independence as well. The chapter recounts Nathalia and her friend, Lena Liber's trip to La Bérarde, a centre for mountaineering in the Massif des écrins in the Rhône Alps. It mentions Raymond Sarraute who did not share Nathalia's passion for mountaineering but sent her a postcard from Winteregg in Switzerland, professing his respectful admiration for her extraordinary feats.
New Horizons, 1949–53
Authors: Jefferson Ann
Published: January 2021

This chapter mentions the long-delayed publication of Nathalie Sarraute's novel, “Portrait of an Unknown Man,” as well as the death of her father, Ilya Evseevich Tcherniak, on 23 August 1949. It discloses that Ilya read Nathalie's novel even while dying, which was in sharp contrast to her mother, Polina Osipovna's indifference to her writing. It also points out that after Nathalie's mother died, she discovered that Polina only bothered to read Jean-Paul Sartre's preface of “Portrait of an Unknown Man.” The chapter reviews the intensity of Nathalie's social activities that emerged very clearly from her engagement diaries of several years, giving the lie to the claims she habitually made about her social isolation. It also explains how Nathalie uses the diaries to record personal and domestic expenditures as well.
The Nouveau Roman, 1956–59
Authors: Jefferson Ann
Published: January 2021

This chapter draws attention to Nathalie Sarraute's publication of “The Age of Suspicion” in March 1956, which won her widespread recognition almost overnight. It reveals that a month after the Nathalie's novel appeared in bookshops, she was described in the accompanying publicity as “one of the most original and gifted writers of our time.” It also mentions that four of the six short texts which should have appeared in Volontés in 1939 and which Jean Paulhan had turned down for “Mesures,” were published under the title “Le cercle” in the December 1955 number of the Monde Nouveau. The chapter recounts the development of serious health problems for Nathalie in 1956, such as enduring a kidney stone operation. It discloses how Nathalie suffered a serious relapse of tuberculosis (TB) until she was referred to a specialist in drug-resistant strains of TB, Dr. Boris Kreis.
Nathalie Abroad, 1959–64
Authors: Jefferson Ann
Published: January 2021

This chapter describes the widespread foreign interest in Nathalie Sarraute's work after “The Planetarium” was published, including contracts for translation and invitations to give talks and lectures. It highlights Nathalie's distinctive profile on the English language and to Maria Jolas's links with publishers in the United States and the United Kingdom. It also mentions Nathalie's acquisition of a literary agent in the United States, Renée Spodheim, who reported that enquiries about a translation of “Portrait of an Unknown Man” had come from the London publisher, Peter Owen, and from George Braziller in the United States. The chapter details Nathalie's tour of the United States, where she was treated like royalty and taken to the best restaurants. It discloses Nathalie's enthusiasm for the United States, in which she made thirteen further visits over the course of the next thirty years.
Friendships
Authors: Jefferson Ann
Published: January 2021

This chapter explores how friendships had always mattered a great deal to Nathalie Sarraute and points out how it constituted the emotional focus of her life. It recounts Nathalie's feeling of enormous loss when Lena Liber died in March 1961, just as she was emerging from tuberculosis (TB) and her own brush with death. It also mentions how Nathalie took Lena's spectacles with her to the United States in 1964 and wore them to deliver her lectures as a kind of talisman. The chapter details how Nathalie was capable of offering a sympathetic ear to friends who found themselves in emotional distress. It references Tina Jolas, who described Nathalie as mysteriously benevolent and consoling.
The End and Afterlife of the Nouveau Roman, 1971–82
Authors: Jefferson Ann
Published: January 2021

This chapter talks about Nouveau Roman, which was once again given collective visibility in the form of a décade at the Château de Cerisy–la–Salle in July 1971. It details the event that was devoted to “Le Nouveau Roman: hier, aujourd'hui,” in which the organizers assembled five of the seven novelists who appeared on the famous photo of the Nouveau Roman: Robbe–Grillet, Claude Simon, Claude Ollier, Robert Pinget, and Nathalie Sarraute. It also recounts Nathalie's attendance at Gilbert Gadoffre's Rencontres in Loches, where she delivered a short paper titled “Is Proust Topical?” and took active part in the ensuing discussion. The chapter discusses the differences with the Nouveau Roman, structuralist theories of language, and the French left on the matter of Israel that revived Nathalie's long-standing resistance to arguments from authority. It mentions Nathalie's publication of “Fools Say” in 1976, which explores the politics of verbal categorisations.
A Life and a Death, 1983–89
Authors: Jefferson Ann
Published: January 2021

This chapter talks about Nathalie Sarraute's reputation that has been sealed by the publication of her book “Childhood” in April 1983. It explores the content of “Childhood,” which captures Nathalie's time as a child as she relives experiences that had nourished her writing. It also details how “Childhood” was written relatively quickly by Nathalie's usual standards, finishing it in a little over two years but nonetheless entailed a good deal of revision and redrafting. The chapter mentions the death of Nathalie's husband, Raymond Sarraute on 2 March 1985. It discloses how Nathalie found herself unable to write for the first time since the interruption to “tropisms” after her husband's death.
Conclusion
Authors: Wuthnow Robert
Published: January 2021

This chapter provided points about considering religion as a practice. It explains that the more people know about religion, the more they realize that its presence in the world is not only about tradition and belief but also about the messiness of everyday life that requires constant adaptation and recurrent improvisation. The chapter analyzes how religion is best understood as practice, profoundly challenging the notion that vast generalizations about religion can be attained from preconceived scientific investigations that seek to test variables and hypotheses. It also pays close attention to the details of religious practice in all its complexity and use of heuristic concepts in order the illuminate the particularities of those details. The chapter pulls together observations from the strands of empirical research that have been moving the study of religious practice in directions toward greater detail and with closer attention to the complexities and nuances involved.
The Tribes of Joshua Land
Authors: Havrelock Rachel
Published: January 2021

This chapter focuses on the conquest rhetoric that echoed in Israeli politics, institutions, and statistics that attempt to erase the presence of Palestinian people jointly inhabiting the land. It describes the post-1958 legacy of the Book of Joshua and its elaboration in David Ben-Gurion's study group in Israel. It also mentions the sociologist Baruch Kimmerling that described Israeli society as characterized by a strong central government and unified national culture until 1967, at which time differing responses to holding occupied territories fractured the culture into distinct and often oppositional camps. The chapter covers Moshe Dayan's appropriation of Joshua in order to describe the occupation of the West Bank as the fulfillment of the Bible and political Zionism. It also points out that after Dayan, the Book of Joshua became increasingly important to religious settlers in citing the biblical grant of the land as their charter.
Load Every Rift
Authors: Nicholson Catherine
Published: January 2021

This chapter evaluates book 2 of Edmund Spenser's The Faerie Queene: the Legend of Temperance. The trials of temperance—getting and spending, hunting and gathering, cultivating, preserving, hoarding, thieving, using, misusing, and laying waste—are the trials of a particular breed of reader: the avid reader. Insofar as it is an allegory, The Faerie Queene prohibits such vagrant uses, but in virtually every other respect, from its richly figurative language to its formal disposition into discrete stanzas and end-stopped lines of verse, it is an environment ripe for exploitation. The invitation Mammon extends to Guyon—to come and see, and to take what pleases him—is an invitation Spenser's poem makes to readers at every turn. And to one schooled in the humanist culture of extraction and imitation, the great obstacle to progress through it might lie not in confusion, boredom, or exhaustion, but in an excess of interest. Of course, the impulse to annotate, extract, copy, quote, or imitate is not necessarily at odds with the mandate to keep reading. On the contrary, such diversions can be a powerful mechanism for sustaining readerly engagement in the absence of more seemingly essential factors like narrative absorption or the desire for understanding.
Embeddings of the 1-3-1 lattice
Authors: Downey Rod , Greenberg Noam
Published: January 2021

This chapter studies embeddings of the 1–3–1 lattice, proving Theorem 1.6. One of the central and longstanding areas of classical computability theory concerns the structure of the degrees of unsolvability, and particularly the computably enumerable degrees. In the same way that studying symmetries in nature and solutions to equations leads to group theory, studies of the computational content of mathematics lead naturally to the structure of sets of integers under reducibilities. Understanding these structures should lead to insights into relative computability. Notable in these studies is the question of embeddability into the c.e. degrees. There are nondistributive lattices that can be embedded. Ultimately, the embedding of the 1–3–1 lattice was an amazing result, and introduced the “continuous tracing” technique into computability theory.
Prompt permissions
Authors: Downey Rod , Greenberg Noam
Published: January 2021

This chapter explores prompt versions of all levels in the hierarchy. This generalises the already familiar notion of prompt permitting, which is the prompt version of simple permitting. Prompt array noncomputable permission, for example, allows one to construct a pair of separating classes whose elements form minimal pairs (Theorem 8.22). Meanwhile, traditional (non-prompt) array noncomputable permission only gives Turing incomparability. There are at least two ways to get such an embedding: either by quickly getting the precise number of permissions required; or by getting many permissions (cofinitely many), in which case one can wait for the permissions and do not need them promptly.
After Utopia
Authors: Shklar Judith N.
Published: January 2021

After Utopia was the author's first book, a harbinger of her renowned career in political philosophy. Throughout the many changes in political thought during the last half century, this important work has withstood the test of time. The book explores the decline of political philosophy, from Enlightenment optimism to modern cultural despair, and offers a critical, creative analysis of this downward trend. It looks at Romantic and Christian social thought, and shows that while the present political fatalism may be unavoidable, the prophets of despair have failed to explain the world they so dislike, leaving the possibility of a new and vigorous political philosophy. With a foreword examining the book's continued relevance, this current edition introduces a remarkable synthesis of ideas to a new generation of readers.
The Unhappy Consciousness in Society
Authors: Shklar Judith N.
Published: January 2021

This chapter points out how the “unhappy consciousness” does not just assert itself against the laws of reason and nature. It mentions the struggles of Prometheus that are part of the revolt of Romanticism against “things as they are.” It also explains the restless longing of Romanticism that finds its most vehement expression in its opposition to all historical and social optimism. The chapter describes romantics that were brought to self-recognition as a result of their radical dissatisfaction with their social environment. It recounts the prevalence of utilitarianism as first target of Romanticism, which of all attitudes is the most repulsive to poetry.
Rights on the Other Side of the Cold War Divide
Authors: Neier Aryeh
Published: January 2021

This chapter distinguishes Americans that took part in the struggles for rights during the period from the mid-1950s to the mid-1970s. It mentions the governments of the world that joined together in committing themselves to protect rights by adopting the United Nations Charter, the Genocide Convention, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and the 1949 Geneva Conventions. It also points out how Americans did not sustain internationalism and commit to protect rights through international law, which had been represented by Eleanor Roosevelt. The chapter analyzes Section 502B of the Foreign Assistance Act, which prevents the United States from providing security assistance to any country that engages in a consistent pattern of gross violations of internationally recognized human rights. It describes the period of the 1980s and the very beginning of the 1990s as the golden age in the history of human rights, in which several dictatorships collapsed.
Introduction
Authors: Irwin Douglas A.
Published: January 2021

This chapter provides a background on why free trade is considered to be a desirable policy. It explains whether the most frequently made criticisms of free trade, such as its adverse impact on workers and the environment, have merit. It discusses what is the World Trade Organization (WTO), as well as how world trade rules erode a country's sovereignty and undermine its health and environmental regulation. The chapter also introduces basic economic principles and empirical evidence regarding international trade and trade policy. It mentions the perspective on free trade that was originally developed by David Hume and Adam Smith in eighteenth-century Scotland.
Protectionism
Authors: Irwin Douglas A.
Published: January 2021

This chapter considers the flip side of the case on free trade, in which trade interventions are often misguided and costly. It analyzes tariffs and quotas on imports that inefficiently redistribute income from consumers to producers. It points out how trade barriers produce a net economic loss due to the costs of consumers exceeding the benefits to producers and reduce exports that harm downstream user industries. The chapter also addresses the question of why trade protectionism is often politically attractive. It examines situations in which protection may be justified in theory, even if governments might be ineffective in trying to take advantage of those situations.
Family and Friendship
Authors: Kaell Hillary
Published: January 2021

This chapter assesses the promise of intimacy by exploring the intersection of kin-like relations and racial ideologies in the 1950s and 1960s. It focuses on mainline Protestant Christian Children's Fund (CCF), founded in 1938 and the largest organization of its type at the time, along with two of its evangelical competitors, World Vision and Compassion, founded in 1950 and 1952, respectively. These organizations are exemplary of a major shift in twentieth-century sponsorship from emergency relief into a form of permanent fundraising. The chapter then considers the role of race in sponsorship's promise of kin-like relations. Unlike their First World War antecedents, which principally focused on white children in need of wartime relief, mid-century sponsorship organizations solidified a pattern that continues today: the presumed white sponsor of the non-white child. The chapter also studies how organizations shaped children's letter-writing and the dynamics of U.S. family life in which the letters played a part.
Synchrony and Territory
Authors: Kaell Hillary
Published: January 2021

This chapter looks at some of the boundaries and intervals that shape Christian globalism. It focuses on three key technologies and techniques that span the two centuries in which sponsorship has flourished: those associated with vocality (mainly songs and prayers), mapping (cartographic and conceptual), and long-distance communication (particularly social media). The chapter's first sections focus on the Anglo-Protestant use of choral singing and “concerts of prayer.” As the last section about online technologies shows, U.S. Protestants continue to hone such techniques today. Harmonized hymnody and unified prayer are powerful tools because they extend space by constraining time when they bring far-flung Christians into imagined synchrony. Mapping also extends space by celebrating distant networks of influence, but it does so by constraining places and people through discrete categories (“nations”) and subsuming individuals into larger groupings to produce global sites of familiarity—be they allies or enemies. Often, though, it is the gaps in these maps that attest most eloquently to how U.S. Christians live in the world.
The University as a World Institution
Authors: Frank David John , Meyer John W.
Published: January 2021

This chapter reflects on the university's sweeping expansion and its centrality in a contemporary global society built on liberal and neoliberal institutions. It delineates multiple dimensions of expansion, giving special attention to the growing cultural content included in the university and in a public society deeply intertwined with the university. It also talks about entities that claim explicit university status and to those whose credentials and content are clearly oriented to the university world. The chapter assesses how local organizations gain their authority and credibility through their membership in a great imagined and now global institution known as the university. It also discusses how extraordinary expansion characterized the relationships between the university and society.
The Societal Culture of University Knowledge
Authors: Frank David John , Meyer John W.
Published: January 2021

This chapter focuses on cultural contents claimed and carried by the university. It discusses the nature of academic knowledge, stressing above all its universalistic and rationalistic properties. It analyzes the worldwide expansion and triumph of academic knowledge throughout everyday life. The chapter also highlights the worldwide expansion of academic knowledge within the university proper, such as its teaching and research curricula. It presents the expanding bases for academic knowledge, including the reconstruction of existing matter and the construction of new matter. It also talks about the hyper-curriculum that emerges from the new world of academic understandings, which is above and beyond material reality.
Perfectoid rings
Authors: Scholze Peter , Weinstein Jared
Published: January 2021

This chapter examines perfectoid spaces. A Huber ring R is Tate if it contains a topologically nilpotent unit; such elements are called pseudo-uniformizers. One can more generally define when an analytic Huber ring is perfectoid. There are also notions of integral perfectoid rings which are not analytic. In this course, the perfectoid rings are all Tate. It would have been possible to proceed with the more general definition of perfectoid ring as a kind of analytic Huber ring. However, being analytic is critical for the purposes of the course. The chapter then looks at tilting and sousperfectoid rings. The class of sousperfectoid rings has good stability properties.
Moduli spaces of shtukas
Authors: Scholze Peter , Weinstein Jared
Published: January 2021

This chapter examines the moduli spaces of mixed-characteristic local G-shtukas and shows that they are representable by locally spatial diamonds. These will be the mixed-characteristic local analogues of the moduli spaces of global equal-characteristic shtukas introduced by Varshavsky. It may be helpful to briefly review the construction in the latter setting. The ingredients are a smooth projective geometrically connected curve X defined over a finite field Fq and a reductive group G/Fq. Each connected component is a quotient of a quasi-projective scheme by a finite group. From there, it is possible to add level structures to the spaces of shtukas, to obtain a tower of moduli spaces admitting an action of the adelic group. The cohomology of these towers of moduli spaces is the primary means by which V. Lafforgue constructs the “automorphic to Galois” direction of the Langlands correspondence for G over F.
Fist
Authors: Inman Robert P. , Rubinfeld Daniel L.
Published: January 2021

This chapter discusses the guidelines for the needed federalism debate by outlining a sequence of evaluative questions that national policy-makers should consider before the passage of any national law that affects one or more of the three institutions of federalism: assignment as to who does what, the number of lower-tier governments, and representation of those governments to the national legislature. The proposed evaluation provides citizens with a Federalism Impact Statement, or FIST, for the proposed policy. As implemented, FIST begins with an analysis of the economic implications of each proposed central government policy by asking whether the national benefits of the policy outweigh its national costs, and whether there might be an alternative policy that is plausibly more efficient. If the proposed policy is viewed as inefficient, by itself or relative to alternative policies, then FIST asks whether there is evidence of, or plausible argument for, compensating benefits from improved local political participation, improved economic fairness, or increased protection of individual rights or liberties. If so, then FIST asks whether these noneconomic benefits can be achieved more efficiently. The execution of FIST would be by an independent agency, such as the Congressional Budget Office or the European Commission, while a national court could ensure that all relevant central government legislation acknowledge, though not necessarily accept, the content and conclusions of the FIST analysis.
Fiscal Policy in the Federal Union
Authors: Inman Robert P. , Rubinfeld Daniel L.
Published: January 2021

This chapter presents the guidelines for efficient taxation and debt financing. It also outlines the principles for efficient federal government spending within a federal public economy. Efficient tax policy should seek to minimize horizontal spillovers between local and provincial economies and vertical spillovers between the central and provincial and local governments. Efficient debt policy should seek to align debt payment to future benefits and control possible abuses of local borrowing via balanced-budget rules. Efficient spending focuses on the essential federal task of designing intergovernmental transfers, stressing when matching and lump-sum grants-in-aid are most appropriate to manage public goods, spillovers between states, and the provision of social insurance for differential income shocks across regions, states, or localities.
The European Union
Authors: Inman Robert P. , Rubinfeld Daniel L.
Published: January 2021

This chapter traces the evolution of EU institutions from a simple six-nation pact to jointly manage the collective production of coal and steel to a 2020 union of twenty-eight members setting common agricultural policies, economic development investments, competition and trade policies, and for nineteen member states, monetary policies and financial regulations. As an economic union regulating market policies, there is little doubt that the union has been a success, particularly for the residents of the originally less economically developed member states. As a monetary union and as a political union, perhaps less so. Politically, the union suffers from a “democratic deficit,” with citizens lacking a direct means to debate and collectively decide the direction of EU policies, and a “rights deficit,” with the union lacking a means to discipline member states that threaten the union's foundational commitment to individual rights and the rule of law. The EU is at a crossroads. One path involves modest reforms within the structure of current institutions. The other would entail a full commitment to Democratic Federalism. To be successful, such a commitment must begin with a union polity willing to view EU policies as European policies, not member state policies for the benefit of each member state alone.