bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Family Fugues
Authors: Rice Alison
Published: December 2021

Chapter 5 identifies a compelling new tendency in contemporary written works to represent locations that are found beyond the author’s homeland or France. While many of their texts depict either their birthplace or their adopted location, some of the more recent works by worldwide women writers in Paris reflect first-hand knowledge of sites, languages, and customs that are neither native nor Parisian, and that provide enriching complements to the French-language literary corpus. Before reaching this stage in their writing careers, most of these women departed from all that was familiar, distancing themselves from their loved ones in a move that foreshadowed larger transnational movements to come, and that hinted at the promising potential of literary works that do not conform to expectations tied to geography or ethnicity.
The Terms of the Text
Authors: Rice Alison
Published: December 2021

Chapter 9 examines how unconventional written work is currently pushing the limits of our understanding of genre. Women from elsewhere are drawing from personal experience in order to disturb tired distinctions between “text” and “life” in imaginative fashions that reconfigure the reading experience. Their creative work is contributing to liberating these authors from overworked modes of expression and worn expectations, and allows them to break free from rigid definitions. It is significant that a number of worldwide women writers are now opting to compose works in a variety of creative forms ranging from the bande dessinée to the journal to the photo essay to récits of all sorts, expanding our conceptions of generic classification by playing with everything from titles to formats within the written work. This inventiveness includes a great deal of attention to visual arts and music, occasionally through the integration of works of art and musical notations in the text itself, and other times through allusions to artistic and musical pieces, or even through the construction of passages that liken literature to these other art forms. Authors are more and more impressively contributing to their own publishing profiles by writing “autobiographically” in variations that elude any clear categorization, but that reveal intimate details in texts that embody movement, progression, and development in exciting new terms.
The Institution
Authors: Paganini Mario C. D.
Published: December 2021

Attention is devoted to the diffusion, terminology, and foundation of the institution of the gymnasium in Ptolemaic Egypt, including the possible link with the army and the evidence from archaeology. The chapter shows how gymnasia in Egypt were introduced both in the three poleis of the country as well as in villages, throughout the Ptolemaic period. It highlights the close connection that the institution had with military settlers but stresses how the gymnasium was not a military institution but rather the by-product of the settlers’ residence habits, promoted by Ptolemaic policies. Finally, it offers an account of the first and so far only archaeologically attested Hellenistic gymnasium of Egypt, recently uncovered in the village of Philoteris in the Arsinoite nome.
Gymnasial Status
Authors: Paganini Mario C. D.
Published: December 2021

The status of the members of the gymnasium is investigated in this chapter, with special attention to the organization of the younger users, to the gymnasial community as a well-defined body, and to their involvement in local administration. Evidence concerning the procedures for admittance in the gymnasium is presented, together with the role of ephebes and other younger users of the gymnasium: it is argued that the ephebate represented a pivotal moment in the life of the gymnasium’s users and their members retained strong institutionalized connections with their fellow ephebes for many years after their youth. The members of the gymnasium, officially called ‘those from the gymnasium’, were a varied but well-defined and conscious group, with a strong sense of community and the ability to act as a body. The higher end of the gymnasial community often occupied a position of importance in the echelons of the Ptolemaic administration, thus showing how ‘those from the gymnasium’ were the prime candidates for the running of the administration and bureaucracy.
Honorification in Dzongkha
Authors: Watters Stephen
Published: December 2021

This chapter demonstrates that honorific vocabulary and constructions in Dzongkha function in multiple ways as points of integration between language and society. One function is overt, and is used as a linguistic expression of the importance of maintaining the cultural traditions of Bhutanese society. This function indexes the social hierarchy of clausal referents and encodes speaker politeness. Two verb types, honorific and humilific, are among the honorification strategies that are used to profile social hierarchy: honorific verbs focus on the elevated status of the referent whereas humilific verbs are inherently relative, and function to show the comparative social gap between clausal referents. The chapter demonstrates that another function of honorifics appears in natural conversation among social equals, and this is to mitigate the speaker’s perception of imposing on the interlocutor, rather than to profile distance in a social hierarchy. The chapter also shows that unlike many classification systems which are based on perceived physical characteristics of the referent, honorific nouns have a classificatory function that is based on body part or human utility.
Mandate matters: evaluating the effects of electoral mandates in Western Europe
Authors: Grossman Emiliano , Guinaudeau Isabelle
Published: December 2021

This chapter explores the implications of mandate theories of democracy through the lens of agenda-setting, looking at the impact of priorities emphasized in party manifestos on the legislative agenda. It examines the respective impact of the priorities in the manifesto of the party of the prime minister, the parties in the government coalition (where applicable), and all parliamentary parties (systemic attention). Using panel negative binomial regressions of legislative and electoral priorities, the conclusion is that mandate priorities do affect government policies to a greater extent than scholarship has so far acknowledged. And this does not seem to have changed over time. The agenda-setting impact of mandates is supported by qualitative observations on promises and policy in France and Germany. The only exception to this effect is the UK, which is surprising in view of arguments on institutional capacity, clarity of responsibility, and enhanced accountability in majoritarian systems—a paradox examined in Chapter 7.
Capacity, incentives, and mandate responsiveness
Authors: Grossman Emiliano , Guinaudeau Isabelle
Published: December 2021

The absence of significant agenda-setting effects of party platforms in the UK, as found in all other countries, seems counterintuitive: the comparative literature would predict the greatest impact in majoritarian systems, while counter-majoritarian institutions are meant to dilute governing parties’ policymaking powers. Comparing different political and institutional configurations in each country over time, we can confirm such a moderating impact of counter-majoritarian institutions and coalition constraints. We then show that party incentives may help to disentangle the British paradox. High incentives in electoral periods are associated with strong programme-to-policy linkages, in particular in the UK. We conclude that majoritarian systems provide governing parties with extended institutional powers to implement their mandate, although this may limit their incentives: opposition parties have less opportunity to pressurize them and scrutinize any drift away from mandate priorities. Consensual systems limit governing parties’ institutional power, but the ‘tunnel’ of attention may generate strong incentives to stick to campaign priorities.
Conclusions
Authors: Grossman Emiliano , Guinaudeau Isabelle
Published: December 2021

This chapter summarizes the book’s main findings, in particular the existence of “tunnels of attention” constraining campaign agendas and their implications with regard to mandate responsiveness and its institutional determinants. Coalition partners, as well as opposition parties, emerge as key forces incentivizing governments to stick to their progamme. Majoritarian systems provide governments with unique powers to shape policy, but excessive majoritarianism seems to limit their incentives to respect their mandate. In contrast, counter-majoritarian institutions generate hurdles on executive capacity, but also incentives to respond to ‘tunnel’ incentives. These conclusions have important implications for party competition, democratic representation, public policy and comparative institutions. They point to multiple intriguing directions for future research.
Introduction
Authors: Jackson Christine
Published: December 2021

The introduction presents Herbert as a noble courtier and county grandee and as the product of the late Elizabethan and early Jacobean eras in which he grew to manhood, but also foregrounds his concurrent career as a respected scholar and polymath whose writings reflected Renaissance influences but anticipated intellectual elements of the Enlightenment. It explores the reliability of his autobiography and engages with the historiographical assessment of his personality, career, and scholarship. It provides background and context for Herbert’s life and career and introduces themes and historiographical developments covered in the book. It traces Herbert’s Welsh and English descent and explores the significance of his county gentry status and the impact of his elevation to noble rank. It introduces an ambitious, intelligent, and impetuous man who placed a premium on integrity, honour, and scholarly learning and whose life and writings provide a prism through which to view the changing political, social, cultural, and religious climate of the early seventeenth century and the British elite’s complex response to Stuart kingship.
Philosopher and Theologian
Authors: Jackson Christine
Published: December 2021

The seventeenth century witnessed significant changes in the content and method of philosophical enquiry in the years between the Renaissance and Enlightenment. Chapter 10 examines Herbert’s principal philosophical and theological works, De veritate, De causis errorum, Religio laici, and De religione gentilium. It examines their purpose, key arguments, and characteristics, the extent of their originality, and their historical and intellectual context and reception. It briefly considers the authorship issues surrounding A dialogue between a tutor and his pupil. It presents Herbert as a serious and respected but controversial philosopher who sought to challenge the revival of scepticism by developing a methodology for assessing true knowledge, subjected both Christian and pagan religions to rational intellectual examination, and advocated the reduction of religion to essential tenets in order to combat religious confusion and conflict. It acknowledges his dependence upon earlier authors but also highlights ways in which he anticipated elements of Enlightenment thinking. It explores Herbert’s religious beliefs during the final two decades of his life, building upon his correspondence with Sir Robert Harley in Chapter 6 and drawing a comparison with George Herbert’s distinctly Elizabethan via media in religion. It emphasizes his commitment to the Church of England and examines his interest in Arminianism and Socinianism and the extent of his religious heterodoxy. It presents Herbert as an independent and liberal religious thinker but rejects claims that he was an early deist or atheist.
Royal Historian
Authors: Jackson Christine
Published: December 2021

The turn of the seventeenth century saw a growing interest in political history and a rising appreciation of its propagandist value. Chapter 11 examines Herbert’s acceptance of a commission from the duke of Buckingham to produce an apologia for his disastrous military command when waging war against France in The Expedition to the Isle of Rhé, and from Charles I to write a history of his controversial Tudor predecessor in The Life and Raigne of King Henry the Eighth. It explores the purpose, key arguments, and historical and intellectual context of the two works and compares the different approaches Herbert adopts to defend Buckingham and Henry VIII while preserving his integrity and objectivity as a historian. It highlights his careful and ground-breaking historical methodology based upon critical evaluation of a wide range of primary and secondary sources; his extensive coverage of people, policy, and events; and his use of the Life and Raigne to discreetly influence royal and public opinion and to publicize his irenic solution to religious division and conflict. It suggests that Herbert became a historian by invitation rather than design but that his detailed, wide-ranging, and authoritative account of Henry VIII’s kingship has informed and influenced studies of the reign over succeeding centuries and that he merits acknowledgement alongside William Camden for transforming the writing of British political history.
Role of Science and Technology Institutions in Limited Catch-up
Authors: Lee Keun
Published: December 2021

Chapter 4 analyzes China’s semiconductor industry from the sectoral systems of innovation perspective. The industry remained limited in terms of catch-up in market shares and technology. The chapter explains the reasons for the limited catch-up in terms of the characteristics of the technology regime of the industry. In the semiconductor industry, innovations are frequent and technologies are highly cumulative, which places the latecomer in a disadvantageous position in terms of entry possibility. Furthermore, the market for standard integrated circuit chips is not segmented but highly integrated, which implies no low-end niche market for latecomers to enter first. Therefore, latecomer firms encounter difficulty in seizing a market opportunity through differentiated marketing. The situation worsens with the continued increase of the required investment and shortening of life cycles. Furthermore, the existing practice of Western countries restricting the transfer of core technologies to Communist countries, such as China, amplifies the difficulties faced by Chinese firms.
Assessing China’s Economic Catch-up in a Comparative Perspective
Authors: Lee Keun
Published: December 2021

Chapter 5 assesses China’s catch-up model, often called the Beijing Consensus, in a comparative perspective. China’s model shares several elements of the East Asian model because it also pursued the export-oriented, outward-looking growth strategies. A further commonality lies in its emphasis on the elements missing from the Washington Consensus, namely, technology policy and higher education revolution. However, the Chinese catch-up model has several unique elements that are not found in that of Taiwan or Korea. These unique features include the following: first, parallel learning from foreign direct investment firms, followed by active promotion of indigenous firms; second, forward engineering (the role of university spin-off firms) in contrast to reverse engineering adopted in Korea and Taiwan; and third, acquisition of foreign technology and brands through international mergers and acquisitions. In general, these strategies help China achieve a “compressed catch-up” and avoid several of the risks involved, including that of the “liberalization trap,” where premature financial liberalization leads to macroeconomic instability.
Thucydides Trap, Global Value Chain, and Future of China
Authors: Lee Keun
Published: December 2021

Chapter 10 analyzes the issue of whether China would fall into the Thucydides trap, which is defined here as a situation where the US causes China to stop expanding as an economic power. Before the Trump administration, China was navigating steadily to grow beyond the middle-income trap (MIT), building its China-led global value chain (GVC) and localizing formerly imported goods into domestic production. However, it suddenly faced another trap, of Thucydides, because of the US measures for containing the further rise of China as a superpower. China will not collapse unless the US dares to wage an all-out war by taking drastic measures across various fronts of confrontation. The sudden emergence of this new trap disrupted the China-led GVC formed around Asia, which still relies on the West for key high-technology goods. Such disruption would have further repercussions on the prospect of China’s growth beyond the MIT because China must now reallocate resources away from economic competitiveness and “Made in China 2025” to socio-economic stabilization and job creation. China remains a developmental state. Its Asian neighbors have gone through their path of political democratization, but China now faces the challenge of crossing this unknown territory. This situation may be a more challenging trap compared with the MIT and the Thucydides trap. Thus, China now faces triple traps.
Why Do Informal Workers Organize?
Authors: Hummel Calla
Published: December 2021

Chapter 1 introduces the puzzle of organized street vendors with the stories of two street vendors: Rosa, the founding leader of a champagne ladies’ union in La Paz, and Renato, who works as an unorganized electronics vendor in São Paulo. The chapter then situates the puzzle within existing research on collective action, civil society, informal work, and state capacity. According to most scholars, informal workers do not organize, which makes Rosa’s union and its affiliation with a national street vendor confederation puzzling. The chapter outlines an explanation for why informal workers organize, assesses alternative explanations around grassroots activism and clientelism, and presents the research design for the book. Specifically, it finds that officials encourage informal workers to organize self-regulating groups. The chapter argues that this is most likely to happen where officials have governance goals and career ambitions but face capacity constraints and where informal workers have the know-how to organize self-regulating groups.
How to Make Money while Running from the Cops
Authors: Hummel Calla
Published: December 2021

Chapter 6 develops the theory in a comparative context, by adding case studies of organized and unorganized street vendors and the city governments that they interact with in El Alto, Bolivia and two districts in São Paulo, Brazil. The chapter is based on original interview, survey, participant observation, and ethnographic data that was collected during a total of three months in each city over four research trips in 2012, 2014 to 2015, 2018, and 2019. As part of the project, the author briefly sold selfie sticks as a street vendor in a central district of São Paulo in 2015. Comparing the city of La Paz to the neighboring city of El Alto holds many national-level features constant but varies city government enforcement capacity. Comparing two districts in São Paulo to each other and then La Paz and El Alto adds more variation on enforcement capacity. São Paulo, the large, modern metropolis of the region’s richest country, with many employment opportunities, services, stable laws, and a history of labor organizing, should have more organized street vendors than La Paz, according to resource- or political context-based theories of collective action. Instead, only 2 percent of São Paulo’s 100,000 vendors are organized, compared to 75 percent of La Paz’s 60,000. I explain this difference with the interaction between individual resources, official incentives, and local government enforcement capacity.
The Fitting-Attitude Analysis Revised
Authors: Rønnow-Rasmussen Toni
Published: December 2021

‘The Fitting-Attitude Analysis Revised’ is devoted to a challenge to the fitting-attitude analysis (FA analysis) that arises from the logical consequence argument (outlined in Chap. 7). This argument shows that the version of FA analysis defended in this work has the unwelcome consequence that whatever is good for someone is also, necessarily, non-relationally good. However, as the discussion evinces, an advocate of FA analysis can meet this challenge. In effect, what is needed is a modification of the standard way of formulating the FA analysis of final impersonal value. Combining this revised FA version of final impersonal value with a novel way of understanding final non-relational value provides a plausible way to handle the logical consequence argument. The chapter also discusses three related issues. (i) It outlines a reductio of the standard version of final goodness; (ii) it explains why combining a normative and an attitudinal approach does not, in the end, serve the needs of the FA advocate. Finally, it (iii) introduces a kind of case in which we would intuitively agree that something is good for person a, but which, intuitively, is such that few or no one would think they had a reason to favour what was considered good for a (except a). Such examples allegedly showcase why the book’s proposed analysis is incorrect. Eventually, it is explained why this kind of case does not have this implication.
‘Sake’
Authors: Rønnow-Rasmussen Toni
Published: December 2021

‘Sake’ tackles some problems to which the book’s analysis of Final Goodness and Final goodness-for gives rise. A core issue concerns how to understand the so-called sake-attitudes. The idiom ‘for someone’s sake’ plays a central role in the explanation of the distinction between impersonal and personal values—that is, between what is valuable (or good), period, and what is valuable (or good) for someone. There is a simple, in many ways naïve, objection to the involvement of ‘sake’ in the analysis. According to this, the ‘untranslatability objection’, the word ‘sake’ is, in many languages, untranslatable, and this ought to make us suspicious of its use in an analysis of ‘good for’. The objection is rejected, though. ‘Sake’ also identifies an ambiguity in fitting-attitude analysis (FA) deriving from the fact that ‘sake’ may be used either evaluatively or non-evaluatively (descriptively). This chapter culminates in a discussion of how ‘sake’ should be interpreted in FA analysis.
The Madness of Free Indirect Style
Authors: Hegele Arden
Published: December 2021

This chapter considers the emergence of moral therapy in early psychiatry in order to argue that the Romantic-era innovation of free indirect style shares an affinity with eighteenth-century psychiatric diagnosis and case records. While the origin of free indirect style is often ascribed to Jane Austen, the chapter finds emergent forms of free indirect style appearing in psychiatric notebooks by mad-doctors practicing moral management, as well as in the political literature of the 1790s and in Romantic-era realist prose fiction. Free indirect style has a monitory function that abetted the psychiatric practice of moral management in the late eighteenth century: as a strategy for mediating the voice of a speaker in a text, free indirect style allowed early psychiatrists, who believed madness was transmitted orally, to regulate their patients’ conditions by moderating their speech. Free indirect style continues to bear the traces of the madhouse in novels by Mary Wollstonecraft and Jane Austen. The chapter thus uncovers pathological traces underlying the representational device that has been called the novel’s most distinctive formal feature. Free indirect style also thus inaugurates the association of the novel with the patient’s narrative, anticipating modern discussions of “psycho-narration” as a medico-literary formal device. Ultimately, free indirect style allows the writer to intimate forms of pathology that the reader is invited to, in effect, diagnose.
Unreliable Semiology from Frankenstein to Freud
Authors: Hegele Arden
Published: December 2021

Examining how prose fiction and the case history share certain formal features, this chapter turns to the medical field of semiology to investigate how the Romantic-era case history models a diagnostic reading practice that extends from medicine to the novel. Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein (1818) is a notable, even parodic, literary case history informed by conventional protocols of medical reporting, visible both in Romantic-era case histories, and, at the end of the nineteenth century, in the case histories of Sigmund Freud. The Romantic case history captures fundamental tensions between the physician’s scientific report and the patient’s autobiography, which compromise the physician’s ability to trace a semiotic relationship between external symptom and underlying condition. The case history proves to be a site of disciplinary quarrel between literature and medicine: not only does it anticipate many of the epistemological problems that attend our modern attempts to read “symptomatically” or “deeply,” it also interrogates the notions of authority, personhood, and normality that continue to sustain modern medical discourse and literary criticism. As the case history reveals the unreliability of the diagnostician’s production of narrative, it also shows the limitations of interpretation in the emergent medical and literary fields of semiology.
Aftermath
Authors: Jenkins Lyndsey
Published: December 2021

The final chapter analyses the Kenneys’ lives after 1918 in terms of a shift from collective to individual identity. While recent historiography has rightly emphasized the diverse forms in which feminist activism flourished after partial enfranchisement, the Kenneys themselves took no part in the organized women’s movement. After identifying the many reasons why not, the chapter explores how they sought to construct new meaning and purpose in their lives. It analyses the place of family, faith, paid work, and autobiographical writing in their post-suffrage lives, suggesting that notions of service and duty remained central to their thinking and self-conception.
Homage
Authors: Wiedemann Benedict
Published: December 2021

The ceremony of homage has been seen as the central element of the traditional feudo-vassalic relationship: a vassal does homage to their lord and receives a fief in return for service. Because the Norman rulers of Sicily performed homage to the pope in the twelfth century—so the logic goes—they must have been vassals of the pope and the kingdom of Sicily a papal ‘fief’; land held only on papal sufferance. This chapter abandons those assumptions and examines the meaning and relevance of homages done to the pope within the chronicles and documents in which homage is mentioned. Homage fulfilled a wide range of possible meanings and uses.
Protection
Authors: Wiedemann Benedict
Published: December 2021

This chapter examines the extension of the ‘protection of St Peter’ to kingdoms in the twelfth century. When, following the Investiture Contest, kings ceased to be ‘given’ their realms by popes, rulers sought other forms of relationship with the successor of St Peter. Aragon and Portugal were received into the protection of the pope—a relationship analogous to certain monasteries and religious orders. The kings of Aragon even received rights of exemption from episcopal jurisdiction. In the mid-twelfth century, in Aragon, papal authority was weaponized by several of the contending parties in a succession dispute following the death of King Alfonso I. Papal authority thus emerges as tool of local parties, to be used to legitimize their own positions.
Vassalage
Authors: Wiedemann Benedict
Published: December 2021

In the early thirteenth century a new formal relationship between popes and kings appeared: kings might now be papal ‘vassals’ (vassalli) and their kingdoms ‘fiefs’ (feuda). Such language appeared in King John of England’s surrender to Pope Innocent III in 1213 and thence spread to other kingdoms, including the kingdom of Man, through a network of courtiers at the papal curia, all of whom had connections with the English royal court. The development and construction of these relationships was a two-way process in which both kings and popes participated; such relationships were not enforced on unwilling rulers by an over-mighty papal monarchy.
Humans, among Other Classical Animals
Authors: Clements Ashley
Published: December 2021

This book considers the question of how studying Classics can be relevant at the present moment of environmental and existential crisis. In a series of encounters from the European assimilation and destruction of the New World to our present environmental destruction of our shared world, it explores an answer by demonstrating how the Classics have been implicated in the structures of thought that have ultimately led us to our present historical moment. Telling the story of anthropology’s Classical entanglements from its inception to its growth to critical self-awareness, it demonstrates that Classical ideas have played a crucial—and often deleterious—role in the Western placing of the human and in the discipline that claimed the study of humanity as its own. Responses to our present crisis, it argues, should therefore include, as a prerequisite, considering the origins and implications of these Classical foundations because only by so doing can we attain the full self-awareness necessary to think beyond them and consider the alternatives we now need.
The Case against Non-Moral Blame
Authors: Matheson Benjamin , Milam Per-Erik
Published: December 2021

Non-moral blame seems to be widespread and widely accepted in everyday life—tolerated at least, but often embraced. We blame athletes for poor performance, artists for bad or boring art, scientists for faulty research, and voters for flawed reasoning. This chapter argues that non-moral blame is never justified, that is, it’s never a morally permissible response to a non-moral failure. Having explained what blame is and how non-moral blame differs from moral blame, the chapter presents the argument in four steps. First, it argues that many (perhaps most) apparent cases of non-moral blame are actually cases of moral blame. Second, it argues that even if non-moral blame is pro tanto permissible—because its target is blameworthy for their substandard performance—it often (perhaps usually) fails to meet other permissibility conditions, such as fairness or standing. Third, it goes further and challenges the claim that non-moral blame is ever even pro tanto permissible. Finally, it considers a number of arguments in support of non-moral obligations and argues that none of them succeeds.
Ethical Theories as Methods of Ethics
Authors: Suikkanen Jussi
Published: December 2021

This chapter presents a new argument for thinking of traditional ethical theories not as criteria of rightness and wrongness, but rather as methods that can be used in first-order moral inquiry. It begins from outlining how ethical theories such as consequentialism and contractualism are flexible frameworks in which different versions of these theories can be formulated to correspond to different first-order ethical views. This chapter then argues that, as a result, the traditional ethical theories cannot be evaluated in terms of their truth or correctness. Instead, it suggests that these theories should be understood as providing different kinds of ways of thinking about difficult moral problems. Finally, the chapter recommends a certain kind of an attitude of pragmatic pluralism as something that should guide our theory choice in normative ethics—it may well be that different moral problems are better approached through different ethical theories.
The Problem of Definites and Possessives
Authors: King Jeffrey C.
Published: December 2021

Arguably, definites (for our purposes, pronouns, and demonstratives) and possessives (‘Annie’s bike’) are associated with some sort of implication of uniqueness (for the latter, at least in some uses). That is, there is some sort of implication that these expressions have unique semantic values in context. I argue that this is in tension with these expressions being underspecified, with this tension leading to infelicity in some cases. Yet there are examples of felicitous underspecification involving these expressions. I argue that certain features are present in cases of felicitous underspecification involving these expressions that dampen the tension between their implications of uniqueness and being underspecified, paving the way for felicitous use.
Culturing Belief
Authors: Levy Neil
Published: December 2021

What kind of being are we? This of course is one of the oldest questions in philosophy. In earlier eras, answers were often non-naturalistic (we are animals with souls, for instance). Today, one of the oldest answers is also one of the most popular: with Aristotle, we often think we are distinguished from other animals by our rationality. This chapter suggests that another answer is at least as defensible: we are epistemically social animals. In making the case for this answer, it provides some of the background for the account of belief formation developed in the book. It highlights evidence from cultural evolution for our epistemic dependence on one another. Cultural evolution shows how human flourishing is due to cultural knowledge that escapes the grasp of individuals and that is the product of evolutionary processes. The chapter then turns to our central paradigm of a successful epistemic enterprise: modern science. It argues that science, too, owes its success to the way in which cognition is distributed across agents, groups, and even artifacts.
How Our Minds Are Made Up
Authors: Levy Neil
Published: December 2021

This chapter argues that epistemic dependence is a routine and rational part of ordinary life. It focuses on implicit deference, in particular deferring to others to learn what we should, or even already do, believe. Using the example of “never Trumpers”—Republicans who abjured Donald Trump but often came to embrace him—it argues that our belief representations are surprisingly fragile, because we rely on others and on the world to tell us what we believe. In this light, it argues, we should be less concerned than is sometimes thought by ordinary people’s ignorance about important questions: what matters is not whether they know, but whether they know how to find out.
Relativity Made Relatively Easy Volume 2
Authors: Steane Andrew M.
Published: December 2021

This is a textbook on general relativity and cosmology for a physics undergraduate or an entry-level graduate course. General relativity is the main subject; cosmology is also discussed in considerable detail (enough for a complete introductory course). Part 1 introduces concepts and deals with weak-field applications such as gravitation around ordinary stars, gravimagnetic effects and low-amplitude gravitational waves. The theory is derived in detail and the physical meaning explained. Sources, energy and detection of gravitational radiation are discussed. Part 2 develops the mathematics of differential geometry, along with physical applications, and discusses the exact treatment of curvature and the field equations. The electromagnetic field and fluid flow are treated, as well as geodesics, redshift, and so on. Part 3 then shows how the field equation is solved in standard cases such as Schwarzschild-Droste, Reissner-Nordstrom, Kerr, and internal stellar structure. Orbits and related phenomena are obtained. Black holes are described in detail, including horizons, wormholes, Penrose process and Hawking radiation. Part 4 covers cosmology, first in terms of metric, then dynamics, structure formation and observational methods. The meaning of cosmic expansion is explained at length. Recombination and last scattering are calculated, and the quantitative analysis of the CMB is sketched. Inflation is introduced briefly but quantitatively. Part 5 is a brief introduction to classical field theory, including spinors and the Dirac equation, proceeding as far as the Einstein-Hilbert action. Throughout the book the emphasis is on making the mathematics as clear as possible, and keeping in touch with physical observations.
Further useful ideas
Authors: Steane Andrew M.
Published: December 2021

The chapter discusses several further aspects of the physics and mathematics that prove very useful in practice. First we define 4-velocity, 4-momentum and 4-acceleration. Then we introduce the tetrad and show how it can be used to relate a given 4-momentum to the energy and momentum observed in a LIF (local inertial frame). Then we define covariant version of the vector operators div, grad, curl, and obtain simplified expressions for the divergence of a vector and an antisymmetric tensor. The generalized Gauss divergence theorem is then presented.
Schwarzschild–Droste solution
Authors: Steane Andrew M.
Published: December 2021

The spherically symmetric vacuum solution to the Einstein field equation (Schwarzschild-Droste solution) is derived and associated physical phenomena derived and explained. It is shown how to obtain the Christoffel symbols by the Euler-Lagrange method, and hence the metric for the general spherically symmetric vacuum. Equations for general orbits are presented, and their solution for radial motion and for circular motion. Geodetic (de Sitter) precession is calculated exactly for circular orbits. The null geodesics (photon worldlines) are obtained, and the gravitational redshift. Emission from an accretion disc is calculated.
Cosmology
Authors: Steane Andrew M.
Published: December 2021

The main features of the universe and its history, and the application of GR to the universe as a whole are presented. The observed near-isotropy and homogeneity of the universe are described, along with a survey of its history. The Saha equation is applied to the recombination process. Cosmic proper time and comoving coordinates are defined, and the form of the metric (Friedmann-Lemaitre-Robertson-Walker) applicable to such a universe is obtained. The main features of the resulting geometry are discussed at length, with a view to both accurate calculation and sound intuition. Redshift and the cosmic expansion are described from several perspectives. Distance measures (luminosity, angular diameter) are defined and the main elements of the observational cosmic distance ladder are outlined.
Multiscalar Architectures
Authors: Wilson Mark
Published: December 2021

Many of the great advances in modern computing are supplied by modeling architectures that practice a crucial division in descriptive labor by asking distinct forms of submodeling to work together in cooperative harmony without engaging in a straightforward amalgamation of conclusions. Commonly these distinct submodels are aligned with characteristic scale lengths within their target systems so that a preliminary modeling (Δ‎H) that calculates how a system normally behaves upon a macroscopic scale becomes subjected to corrective suggestions arising from a lower-scale modeling (Δ‎L) that focuses upon the local factors that occasionally upset the behavioral presumptions codified within the Δ‎H scheme. The syntactic safeguards within this technique that avert inconsistency and an unmanageable explosion in computational complexity keep their various levels of submodeling isolated from one another. They only pass corrective messages of a specialized character (called “homogenizations”) amongst themselves without attempting to fully amalgamate their localized conclusions into a shared narrative. The computational architecture merely demands that the various submodels reach accord with respect to the homogenization messages that they exchange amongst themselves. This book argues that unnoticed reasoning arrangements of this kind provide the proper diagnosis of the “Mystery of Physics 101” tensions that troubled Hertz (the distinct usages of “force” he noticed operate upon distinct size scales in the manner of a modern multiscalar scheme). It is then suggested that the natural development of many forms of linguistic attainment lead to reasoning architectures of this general character, although we often fail to recognize the subtle strategies that undergird their operations.
Exploring Concepts of Social Mobility
Authors: Fields Gary S.
Published: December 2021

This chapter has two purposes. The first is to define clearly different social mobility concepts and components. The second is to embed these concepts and components into a larger context of social mobility research. The core of the chapter develops six mobility concepts and their measures as well as six macromobility components and their measures. The next section relates these concepts and components to issues in the mobility literature. The chapter concludes with a checklist of suggestions for conducting and presenting social mobility research: being explicit about several preliminaries—outcome of interest, context, and level of analysis—and then four steps—question, mobility concept(s), mobility measure(s), and empirical findings.
Social Mobility in Developing Countries
Authors: Iversen Vegard
Published: December 2021

Limited attention has been paid to how well social mobility measures developed and used to study industrial countries perform in analysis of low-income settings. Following brief, selective reviews of the axiomatic, econometric and other relevant literature, three mobility concepts illustrate how properties that appear innocuous in industrial country analysis become problematic when downward mobility includes descents into destitution. For origin-independence measures—the most widely used in research on developing countries so far—axiomatic propriety and cognizance of co-residency-induced and other estimation bias are not enough. Adopting a variant of the ‘perverse fluidity’ concept from sociology to define the estimate bias attributable to intergenerational descents into poverty, we use experiments and data from India to find perverse fluidity biases in intergenerational mobility estimates of up to 50 per cent. Seemingly ‘good’ mobility news may thus be ‘bad’ with intergroup, regional and international mobility comparisons more precarious than acknowledged so far.
Economic Approach to Intergenerational Mobility
Authors: Emran M. Shahe , Shilpi Forhad
Published: December 2021

This chapter provides an analytical survey and synthesis of economic literature on intergenerational mobility in developing countries, with a focus on data and methodological challenges. Sample truncation from co-residency and measurement error cause substantial downward bias in intergenerational regression coefficient, whereas intergenerational correlation and intergenerational rank correlation are more robust to such data limitations. To understand heterogeneity, reliable estimates of both the intercept and the slope are necessary. The OLS estimate of the intercept is biased upward, but less so in the rank–rank regression. Sibling correlation is a broader measure of mobility, especially convenient with limited data. Estimating intergenerational causal effects is challenging as it requires long panel data. A promising alternative is to focus on the causal effects of policies on measurement of relative and absolute mobility, without disentangling the role of genetic inheritance.
Social Mobility in China
Authors: Li Yaojun
Published: December 2021

This chapter analyses intergenerational class mobility in China as a case study of a quantitative sociological approach to social mobility research in the Global South. Drawing on national representative surveys collected between 2010 and 2015 in China, the analysis focuses on absolute and relative mobility rates for men and women across four birth cohorts. With regard to absolute mobility, we find rising levels of mobility, with upward mobility prevailing over downward mobility. With regard to relative mobility, we find constancy for the older cohorts but a growing rigidity for the youngest cohort of men. The urban–rural divide is increasingly blurred, but class differences are becoming more salient, especially between the professional-managerial salariat and the rest of society in occupational and educational attainment.
Informalities, Volatility, and Precarious Social Mobility in Urban Slums
Authors: Rains Emily , Krishna Anirudh
Published: December 2021

As developing countries rapidly urbanize, the number of people living in ‘slums’—neighbourhoods lacking formal property rights and basic services—continues to increase. Whether slum residents will ultimately share in the benefits of the cities they help build or will remain trapped in poverty is not well understood. We review empirical evidence on the potential for social mobility in today’s urban slums in order to assess prospects for upward mobility in cities of the Global South, finding evidence for limited levels of upward mobility and high levels of volatility. We then discuss the substantial public sector interventions that accompanied urbanization in the Global North. We argue that urbanization will not automatically improve prospects for mobility for the urban poor. Instead, it will be critical to implement appropriately nuanced interventions to improve opportunities for the billions residing in today’s and tomorrow’s slums.
Knowledge as a Problem
Authors: Goldman Steven L.
Published: December 2021

From its pre-Socratic beginnings, Western philosophy has been riven by a battle over the natures of knowledge and Being. On one side were Parmenides, Plato, Aristotle, and their intellectual descendants, the rationalist philosophers; on the other, the sophists, among them Protagoras, Gorgias, Antiphon and their intellectual descendants, the skeptical philosophers. For the former, knowledge is essentially different from opinion and belief because it is universal, necessary, and certain, revealing truths about a reality external to and independent of the mind. For the latter, knowledge is opinions and beliefs for which supporting reasons drawn from experience can be given and has ever-changing experience as its object, not an unchanging reality beyond experience. Modern science internalized both sides of this battle.
Is There a Scientific Method?
Authors: Goldman Steven L.
Published: December 2021

Modern science relies largely on method or, rather, on the claim that by employing a systematic, impersonal method, human reasoning can transcend the mind’s subjective experience of reality and discover the true, external causes of experience. In the early stages of modern science’s emergence out of medieval and Renaissance nature philosophy, Francis Bacon argued that this method was to be based on induction and experiment, without a priori mental input and with a minimum of mathematics. Rene Descartes argued that the required method was to be based on deduction, mathematics, and a priori and innate ideas, with a minimum of experiment. For Descartes, experiment served primarily as a check on deductive reasoning; for Bacon, experiment was a source of knowledge and constrained our inductive reasoning about empirical facts. Despite their differing styles, Descartes and Bacon together concretized the idea that a systematic method of reasoning could give us knowledge of the world.
Was Galileo Right and the Catholic Church Wrong?
Authors: Goldman Steven L.
Published: December 2021

Galileo is an iconic founder of modern science, but his career and his contributions were far more complex than his reputation. He, too, championed a scientific method, but his thinking differed greatly from Bacon’s and Descartes’. Galileo’s method was based on Archimedes’ combination of experiment, mathematics, and deduction. This method allowed Galileo to claim certain knowledge of reality derived from mathematical accounts of natural phenomena. But he also claimed certain knowledge of reality derived directly from observation, as in his assertion that the Earth moved around the sun. While Galileo’s predictions were sometimes correct, he had no criterion for distinguishing between correct and incorrect inferences or for connecting his mathematical deductive reasoning about phenomena to the way they really were.