bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Swedish/European View of Bioterrorisma
Authors: SANDSTRÖM GUNNAR
Published: July 2010

Abstract: Bioterrorism includes possible use of Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD), preferably biological agents, by non‐state terrorist groups as well as criminal clusters. The threat from terrorists to utilize biological agents to achieve goals is not new, but the threshold to realize the threats seems to be lower than previously expected. It can be argued that as targets for bioterrorism Sweden and Europe are less likely than is the U.S. However, with the collapse of the former Soviet Union heavy mafia‐based groups have emerged in Russia with the intent to obtain and trade material and utilities for the creation of WMD. Such activities are reaching far beyond the borders and can thus be found in Sweden as well as the other countries of Europe. This together with the fact that groups of different shades of political opinion can come in open conflict in the most unexpected countries of Europe have given bioterrorism a face in Sweden, as well as in the rest of Europe.
Response to Bio‐terrorism Directed against Animals
Authors: WILLIAMS JOHN L. , SHEESLEY DAN
Published: July 2010

Abstract: The Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) has a long history of rapid direction, control, and eradication of devastating diseases. Our immediate response mechanisms to diseases such as avian influenza, Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis, and Newcastle disease, have long been recognized by the global emergency response community as models of control and eradication. APHIS and the U.S. livestock industries, in partnership with the Animal Agriculture Coalition, re‐evaluated the Nation's animal health emergency preparedness and response systems. The group identified areas that negatively impact, biologically and/or economically, the Nation's animal and food production industries. To counter the increased risks including bio‐terrorism, APHIS plans to establish a world‐class “Center of Excellence for Animal Health Emergency Management. “APHIS, Intelligence agencies, other Federal departments, State governments, and industries are working together to provide accurate information on the foreign and domestic threats posed to the U.S. agricultural sector by biological weapons. Additionally, the same agencies and organizations are evaluating, updating, and improving the coordination and training mechanisms necessary to respond in the even of a widespread pest or disease outbreak.
The Role of Diagnostic Laboratories in Disease Control
Authors: SALIKI JEREMIAH T.
Published: July 2010

Abstract: Recognition of disease is the foundation of disease control and prevention. In the process of disease recognition, the diagnostic laboratory forms the third (and last level) following the animal owner and the practitioner. The diagnostician's main role is determination of disease etiology. Secondary but equally important roles played by the diagnostic laboratory include: 1) consultative/advisory role; 2) interpretative role; and 3) disease surveillance role. This presentation will discuss these various roles and the interactions of the diagnostic laboratory with other players in the process of disease recognition.
Eradication and Surveillance of the Tropical Bont Tick in the Caribbean: An International Approach
Authors: PEGRAM RUPERT G. , HANSEN JORGEN W. , WILSON D. DAVID
Published: July 2010

Abstract: The Caribbean Amblyomma program (CAP) is a multidonor funded effort involving several technical organizations and national governments in the eradication of the tropical bont tick. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) is the lead technical agency, providing both technical and administrative support to the CAP Regional Coordination Unit (RCU) based in Barbados. All collaborating agencies, donors, and national representatives are members of the Amblyomma Program Council (APC), the overall governing body of the CAP. In addition to FAO, the other organizations involved are the Caribbean Community (CARICOM), the European Union (EU), the Inter‐American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture (IICA), the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), and the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Several agencies (EU, FAO, IFAD, and USDA) are also major donors. The CAP cooperates with the complementary Plan POSEIDOM Veterinaire Program in the French West Indies. The University of the West Indies (UWI), the International Institute for Biological Control (IIBC), and the Departement d'Elevage et de Medecine Veterinaire des Pays Tropicaux (EM‐VT) in Guadeloupe are other collaborators.
An International Approach to Laboratory Diagnosis of Animal Diseases
Authors: JEGGO M. H.
Published: July 2010

Abstract: During the past thirteen years, and as part of an overall support program for developing countries, the Joint FAO/IAEA Division has developed a series of standardized and internationally validated ELISA‐based systems for the diagnosis and surveillance of the major epizootics affecting livestock in the developing world. Linked to comprehensive internal and external quality assurance protocols and to the use of standardized equipment and data management software, veterinary laboratories in many developing countries are now able to provide quality assured results on the prevalence of the major diseases affecting their livestock. This internationally standardized approach can rapidly enable developing countries to both monitor the effectiveness of their disease control and eradication programs and to meet requirements for international disease status recognition and for trade in livestock and livestock products.
Future Perspectives on Veterinary Hemoparasite Research in the Tropics at the Start of this Century
Authors: MELENDEZ ROY D.
Published: July 2010

Abstract: This paper has two main objectives: (1) to promote discussion about the future of veterinary hemoparasite research at the start of the twenty‐first century and the third millennium, and (2) to stimulate young students to start research on parasitology, in particular in the field of veterinary tropical diseases. It is well known that in the twenty‐first century human society will be challenged by several major problems resulting from the demographic explosion, since the Earth's population for the year 2020 will reach 8.5 billion, or 10 billion for the year 2050, as long as the birth rate decreases from 2.8 births per woman today to 2.0 by the year 2030 (data released by the U.N. Population Fund, 1998). Since the food production rate, either from plant or animal origin, is lower than the human birth rate, the challenge ahead will be to produce enough food for ten billion people. Consequently, to deal with this problem, especially in developing nations, it is proposed: (1) to give priority status to scientific research in the agriculture and animal fields; (2) to concentrate financial support and efforts for research especially on hemoparasitic diseases (i.e., babesiosis, anaplasmosis, cowdriosis, ehrlichiosis, and trypanosomosis), in particular to apply biotechnology techniques to those animal diseases; and (3) to grant a better role to studies on veterinary and medical parasitology in universities of the Americas and Europe, since in these universities parasitology is currently considered a secondary subject.
The Epidemiology of Theileria parva Infections on Smallholder Dairy Farms in Kenya
Authors: GITAU G. K. , McDERMOTT J. J. , KATENDE J. M. , PERRY B. D.
Published: July 2010

Abstract: The purpose of the study was to characterize the differences in epidemiology (risks of infection, morbidity, mortality) and potential control of East Coast fever (ECF) between the selected strata. Evidence of Theileria parva infection was assessed by increased antibody levels as measured in an indirect ELISA test by the percent positivity (PP) of serum samples relative to a strong positive reference serum. A prospective cohort study was conducted in five purposively sampled agroecological zone (AEZ)‐grazing system strata in Murang'a District, Kenya, between March 1995 and June 1996. The study strata were selected to represent the widest range of ECF risks in the district and included, zero‐grazing and open‐grazing farms in the Upper Midlands (UM) one and four AEZs and zero‐grazing farms in the UM2 AEZ. In total, 225 calves from 188 smallholder farms were examined from birth to age six months. Calves were recruited into the study at birth and visited within the first two weeks of life and thereafter at biweekly intervals for up to 14 visits. Important differences were observed between the different AEZ‐grazing strata. Seroconversion risks of T. parva were highest in the UM4‐open grazing stratum. Antibody prevalence in adult cattle and ECF morbidity and mortality risks were also highest in this stratum. In the open‐grazing strata, particularly in the lower elevation AEZ, UM4, there was stronger challenge and a greater impact of ECF. There is likely to be an expansion of smallholder dairy farming into this area so that it is likely to be the most important target production system for ECF control in the central highlands of Kenya.
Phylogenetic Analysis by rRNA Comparison of the Highly Pathogenic Sheep‐Infecting Parasites Theileria lestoquardi and a Theileria Species Identified in China
Authors: SCHNITTGER L. , HONG Y. , JIANXUN L. , LUDWIG W. , SHAYAN P. , RAHBARI S. , VOSS‐HOLTMANN A. , AHMED J. S.
Published: July 2010

Abstract: In the Northwestern part of China there have been reports of clinical cases in small ruminants of a hæmoparasite with the characteristics of Theileria hirci (T. lestoquardi). However, some properties of this parasites argue against its classification as T. lestoquardi. In this paper, we present evidence that T. lestoquardi and the Chinese Theileria isolate are distinct parasite species. Phylogenetic analysis of determined nucleotide sequences of small subunit ribosomal RNA (srRNA) genes of T. lestoquardi and the Chinese Theileria parasite show that they belong to different clades within the phylogenetic tree of piroplasms. The srRNA sequence of the Chinese parasite was found to be most closely related to T. buffeli, which, with T. sergenti, belongs to an evolutionary lineage of non‐lymphoproliferative Theileria species. On the other hand, it was clearly divergent to a lineage of lymphoproliferative Theileria species: T. annulata, T. parva, T. taurotragi, and T. lestoquardi, the latter being most closely related to T. annulata.
Thermal Constant Estimation in Tropical Horse Tick, Anocentor nitens (Acari:Ixodidae)
Authors: de la VEGA RAFAEL , DÍAZ GRACIELLA
Published: July 2010

Abstract: Experience has demonstrated that the exclusive use of acaricides as a control method against cattle ticks causes several problems, and is not totally effective. Other methods need to be added in order to achieve better and more profitable control of these parasites. Groups of 12 to 15 engorged ticks, bred on bovines, were individually incubated at six temperatures (T= 24, 26, 28, 30, 32, and 34°C) and four relatives humidities (RH= 100, 80, 75.5, and 70%), creating 24 variants. The onset of oviposition and eclosion (emergence of larvae from eggs) was observed in all ticks, and preeclosion times (PET) were determined. A linear regression equation for the velocity of development with temperature as a function of the inverse of PET was calculated for each RH value. For each RH the minimum thermal threshold (MTT) was obtained by extrapolation and the effective temperature summation (ETS) calculated from the equation (incubation temperature − MTT) × PET. The four MTT values obtained were not significantly different; the mean value of MTT was 15.25°C. The thermal constants did not prove to be not statistically different over the range of RH values employed in the experiments, the mean being 354.04°C‐day.
Larval Survival of Anocentor nitens Under Simulated Natural Conditions
Authors: DÍAZ GRACIELLA , de la VEGA RAFAEL
Published: July 2010

Abstract: Basic knowledge about the survival of free living stages of ticks is of great importance as a practical tool to improve control methods. For Anocentor nitens there is little information on this subject. Eighty‐four engorged females were incubated at 30°C and 100% relative humidity. After 17 days, groups of 5,500 eggs each were collected and isolated in vials. Age zero was defined as 10 days after eclosion had begun. At this time vials with larvæ were attached to 40 Sorghum halepense plants sowed in clay pots, under outdoor conditions, and separated from one another by 30 cm in order to prevent the larvæ from mixing. Four hours later vials were retired and the larvæ remaining in the vials were counted. The next day four plants were sampled and this survival considered as 100%. Each week for eight weeks the same sampling procedure was performed. The remaining four plants were used to determine the maximum larval survival (MLS). Four repetitions of the procedure were performed, two in March 1989 and two in September 1989.
Artificial Feeding in Boophilus microplus (Acari:Ixodidae) through Micropipettes
Authors: de la VEGA RAFAEL , DÍAZ GRACIELLA , FINLAY LAURA
Published: July 2010

Abstract: Newly molted Boophilus microplus females obtained in a laboratory at 30°C and environmental relative humidity (RH) were employed. An original device was used to hold ticks during feeding. Three groups of 15 ticks each were created: unfed, fed with heparinized blood, and fed with defibrinated blood. Ticks were weighed before and after feeding. Females were restricted by group in three isolators attached on the skin of a bovine. Ten sexually competent males were added to each isolator. Time of coupling, tick mortality, time of detachment, and weight of engorged ticks were determined. Engorged females were incubated at 30°C and 100% RH. Periods of nonparasitic phase, laying efficiency, and fertility of eggs were noted. There were no statistical differences between the three groups. This means that feeding with micropipettes does not affect the non‐parasitic phase of B. microplus, the differences between heparinized and defibrinated blood are not significant.
Detection of Mucosally Delivered Antibody to Cryptosporidium parvum p23 in Infected Calves
Authors: WYATT CAROL R. , PERRYMAN LANCE E.
Published: July 2010

Abstract: We have developed an assay to detect mucosally delivered antibody to Cryptosporidium parvum sporozoite antigens. We absorbed a recombinant 23‐kD sporozoite protein to polystyrene microspheres, and used flow cytometry to detect, titer, and determine the isotype of antibody to p23 that was shed in the feces of experimentally infected calves. Noninoculated calves have low levels of mucosal antibody to p23, with IgG1 as the predominant isotype. Antibody titers rise in inoculated calves as the animals recover from cryptosporidiosis. A calf that was naturally protected from cryptosporidiosis had mucosal IgM and IgG1 isotype anti‐p23 antibodies prior to challenge with C. parvum oocysts. Ten days after challenge, the calf had high titers of IgM, IgA, IgG1, and IgG2 anti‐p23 antibodies. Together, the data show that this method can be used to assess mucosally delivered antibody to C. parvum.
Standardization of the Diagnostic Criteria for Canine Ehrlichiosis: Towards A Universal Case Definition
Authors: KAKOMA IBULAIMU , SAINZ ANGEL , TESOURO MIGUEL , AMUSATEGUI INMACULADA , KIM CHANG‐HYUN , BIGGERSTAFF JANE , McPEAK JOHN , LEVY M.G.
Published: July 2010

Abstract:Canine ehrlichiosis is a highly variable syndrome presenting a significant differential diagnostic difficulty. It imitates many metabolic and infectious diseases and lacks standardized diagnostic criteria, common reagents, and database resources. A clinical diagnosis of canine ehrlichiosis may be based on the manifestation of fever, thrombocytopenia, anorexia, nasolacrimal discharge, epistaxis, and exclusion of autoimmune and common canine vector borne diseases. These parameters are not invariably observed especially in the atypical form of the disease often caused by species other thanEhrlichia canis. A definitive diagnosis is based on the presence of specific antibodies to ehrlichial agent(s), the demonstration of the etiologic agent(s) itself, or specific amplicons by a strigently quality controlled PCR protocol. The relationship of the various clinical and laboratory parameters, the status of the currently available tests, and their real or presumed predictive value are discussed in the context of stimulating an effort to formulate an international standard for the diagnosis of this and related diseases of man and animals.
Ten Years of Research Activities on Tropical Parasitology of Dromedaries, Cattle, and Small Ruminants in Mauritania
Authors: DIA M. L. , JACQUIET P. , CHOLLET J. Y. , DIOP C. , THIAM A. , AMINÉTOU M. , AHMED SALEM C. B. , MRÉZIG A. , DIALLO B. C.
Published: July 2010

Abstract: In the past, the essential part of the activity of the parasitology laboratory of the Centre National d'Elevage et de Recherches Vétérinaires (CNERV) was represented by diagnostic work that enabled the construction of an inventory of local parasitic fauna and a good collection of specimens. However, the small and irregular number of samples each year, led us to switch our activities in 1990 toward work that could better justify the existence of CNERV. We started work on applied research topics, such as tick‐borne diseases, helminthology (nemathelminths and plathelminths), and trypanosomosis. These results were valorized through scientific publication and communication at international meetings. The most valuable information was conveyed to herders.
Longitudinal Studies in the Epidemiology of Vesicular Stomatitis on Costa Rican Dairy Farms
Authors: REMMERS LUCAS , PÉREZ ENRIQUE , JIMENEZ ANA , VARGAS FLOR , FRANKENA KLAAS , ROMERO J. J. , SALMAN MO , HERRERO MARCO V.
Published: July 2010

Abstract: Twenty‐three Costa Rican dairy herds from an vesicular stomatitis (VS) endemic area were under an active surveillance between April 1997 and March 1999. Ninety‐two confirmed cases of VS New Jersey were found. Factors associated with clinical cases of VS virus New Jersey were: Parity (animals of parity 4 or 5 were 5.3 times more likely to present a clinical case than animals of parity 3 and lower; on the other hand, animals of parity 6 and higher showed an odds 4.6 times greater than animals of parity 3 and lower.) Ecological life zone (animals in premountain moist forest were 7.4 times more likely to present clinical cases than animals in lower mountain rain forest). Factors associated with seropositivity at the time of birth were farm and breed (Jersey calves had an odds 14.7 times greater than Holstein calves). Seroconversion, defined as the first twofold increase in the titers of the blood, was associated with farm and showed four peaks during the study period, September (wet season) 1997, February (dry season) 1998, September 1998, and February 1999. Finally, time to event analysis showed difference between farms and age, older animals showed the first seroconversion earlier than younger animals.
VSV‐NJ on Ossabaw Island, Georgia: The Truth Is Out There
Authors: STALLKNECHT DAVID E.
Published: July 2010

Abstract:Ossabaw Island, Georgia, is the only recognized enzootic focus of vesicular stomatitis virus New Jersey (VSV‐NJ) in the United States and has been the subject of VSV‐NJ research since 1981. To date, VSV‐NJ antibodies have been detected only from feral swine, cattle, equines, deer, and raccoons. VSV‐NJ transmission occurs annually, is seasonal, and is associated with the maritime forest. Despite high transmission rates the clinical disease is rarely detected. A sand fly (Lutzomyia shannoni) occurs on the Island, and experimental and field data suggest that it is a biological vector of VSV‐NJ at this site. Many questions relating to the epidemiology of VSV‐NJ on Ossabaw remain. What is the maintenance cycle of VSV‐NJ? Is a vertebrate amplifying host(s) needed? Are other insect vectors involved in mechanical or biological transmission? Why do vesicular lesions develop on some but not all infected animals? Do native and domestic animals play the same role in the maintenance cycle? These questions challenge researchers in all areas where VSV‐NJ occurs. It is our hope that Ossabaw Island will provide a much needed model system for gaining insight into the epidemiology of this virus.
Laboratory Vector Competence of Black Flies (Diptera: Simuliidæ) for the Indiana Serotype of Vesicular Stomatitis Virus
Authors: MEAD DANIEL G. , RAMBERG FRANK B. , MARÉ C. JOHN
Published: July 2010

Abstract: In previous experiments we have demonstrated that colonized and wild black flies are competent laboratory vectors of different Mexican and Western USA isolates of vesicular stomatitis virus, serotype New Jersey (VSV‐NJ). We have recently demonstrated biological VSV‐NJ transmission by black flies using animal models. In the study described here, we tested the vector competence of colonized and wild black flies for the vesicular stomatitis virus, serotype Indiana (VSV‐IN). A 1998 equine isolate was used. After a 10 day incubation period, saliva from experimentally infected Simulium vittatum and S. notatum was individually collected and tested for the presence of infectious virus. Virus was detected in the saliva of both species following oral infection, indicating that they are competent laboratory vectors of VSV‐IN. In addition, the results suggest that the black fly gut may exert evolutionary pressures on the virus.
Pharmacological Factors in the Saliva of Blood‐Feeding Insects: Implications for Vesicular Stomatitis Epidemiology
Authors: TABACHNICK WALTER J.
Published: July 2010

Abstract:Vesicular stomatitis (VS) epizootics in the Western United States have caused substantial economic losses to U.S. livestock industries in 1995, 1997, and 1998. The role of arthropods in transmitting VS to U.S. livestock is unclear. In particular, the impact of arthropod salivary gland factors in VS infections in livestock needs study. Pharmacological effects of arthropod salivary gland factors on animals are reviewed. The potential effects of arthropod saliva on the transmission and spread of VS virus to livestock in the Western U.S. is presented with emphasis on the biting midge,Culicoides sonorensis. Information is discussed with attention to vector potential ofC. sonorensis, and its use as a model for evaluating insect salivary gland pharmacology on livestock response to VS.
Vaccines against Theileria parva
Authors: MORZARIA SUBHASH , NENE VISH , BISHOP RICHARD , MUSOKE ANTHONY
Published: July 2010

Abstract: Bovine theileriosis caused by Theileria parva continues to be a major economic problem in many parts of Eastern, Southern, and Central Africa. Due to the unsustainable nature of the present control method‐using toxic acaricides to kill ticks‐alternative control methods are being sought. Live vaccines are being used in many countries in the region. These vaccines are based on the infective sporozoite stage of the parasite. Sporozoites are inoculated in cattle with simultaneous administration of a long‐acting formulation of oxytetracycline. These vaccines are poorly adopted in the region, mainly because of problems associated with the use of live parasites. An experimental recombinant vaccine based on a sporozoite surface antigen (p67) has been developed. Immunization with this antigen induces neutralizing antibodies and, under laboratory conditions, this technique protects approximately 70% of the immunized cattle to a defined needle challenge. The efficacy of the vaccine is currently being evaluated under field challenge in Kenya. Since a vaccine based on a single antigen may not be sustainable under field conditions, a search for schizont antigens that induce protective cell‐mediated immune responses continues. It is expected that the ultimate vaccine against theileriosis will incorporate a mixture of several antigens derived from both sporozoite and schizont stages, contributing to robust immunity.
Anaplasmosis Control: Past, Present, and Future
Authors: KOCAN KATHERINE M. , BLOUIN EDMOUR F. , BARBET ANTHONY F.
Published: July 2010

Abstract:Control methods for anaplasmosis have not changed markedly during the past 50 years and include arthropod control, chemoprophylaxsis, vaccination, and maintenance of anAnaplasma‐free herd. Control measures implemented vary with geographic location, and depend on availability, cost, and the feasibility of application. Vaccination has been an effective means of preventing outbreaks of anaplasmosis, but these vaccines, both live and inactivated, are dependent on bovine blood as the source of infection or antigen. Blood‐derived vaccines are difficult to standardize and bear the risk of transmitting other bovine pathogens inapparent at the time of blood collection. Extensive purification is required to remove bovine cell membranes, which may cause side effects. Most importantly, geographic isolates ofA. marginaleare often not cross‐protective. Development of a tick cell culture system forA. marginaleshows promise as a source of antigen for development of an improved inactivated vaccine in the near future that is free from bovine pathogens. Development of an antigenically defined molecular vaccine appears to be a realistic goal, although further research is required to determine epitopes involved in both humoral and cellular immunity, to define antigenic variation during cyclic rickettsemia, and to develop effective delivery systems for optimization of the immune response.
Babesiosis (Babesia bovis) Stability in Unstable Environments
Authors: SMITH RONALD D. , EVANS DAVID E. , MARTINS JOÃO R. , CERESÉR VICTOR H. , CORREA BARTOLOMEU L. , PETRACCIA CARLOS , CARDOZO HERCULANO , SOLARI MARIA ANGÉLICA , NARI ARMANDO
Published: July 2010

Abstract: Enzootic stability (herd immunity) in bovine babesiosis occurs when the rate of transmission (inoculation rate) of Babesia spp by the tick vector is sufficient to immunize a majority of susceptible calves before the loss of calfhood resistance. The effect of three tick (Boophilus microplus) control strategies (none, threshold, and strategic) on enzootic stability and the likelihood of babesiosis (Babesia bovis) outbreaks was studied using a spreadsheet age‐class computer simulation model. The model was driven by weekly bovine tick counts from Brazil and Uruguay. The Eldorado do Sul, RS, Brazil bovine population (30°05′ South latitude) was found to be in a naturally occurring state of enzootic stability, corresponding to an inoculation rate exceeding 0.005 throughout the year. Threshold dipping strategies should not increase the risk of babesiosis in cattle so managed. Strategic dipping resulted in an extended period of enzootic instability lasting 30 weeks, which requires protection of the herd through immunization. Because of the more prolonged low winter temperature conditions, the Tacuarembó, Uruguay bovine population (31°40′ South latitude) was found to be in a naturally occurring state of enzootic instability, characterized by a 28 week period in which the inoculation rate was below 0.005. Strategic dipping should lead to eradication of the babesial parasite from tick and bovine populations, but would not result in eradication of the tick vector. This could lead to subsequent outbreaks if Babesia carrier animals were to be introduced into the herd. In both populations, strategic tick control could be accompanied by concurrent babesiosis vaccination.
Past and Present National Tick Control Programs: Why They Succeed or Fail
Authors: PEGRAM RUPERT G. , WILSON D. DAVID , HANSEN JORGEN W.
Published: July 2010

Abstract: The historical reasons for the introduction of tick control during the nineteenth century are reviewed. Background and concepts for the choice between long‐term tick control and tick eradication are compared. Case studies of large‐scale tick control or eradication programs in Africa, Australia, the United States, and the Caribbean are used to highlight successes and failures. The main reasons for lack of sustainability, or failure, of programs are discussed. These include the economic constraints that were faced in several African countries, or technical shortcomings such as were perceived as a major problem in Puerto Rico. The successes are generally associated with enforcement of appropriate legislation and good management, such as occurred in Zimbabwe. These case studies are analyzed to identify features that may assist in the implementation of the ongoing tropical bont tick eradication program in the Caribbean. The paper concludes with some practical suggestions for the future, and the need to reassess the economics of control and the potential additional animal health benefits derived from tick control programs.
Trials to Control South American Ticks with Entomopathogenic Fungi
Authors: BITTENCOURT VÂNIA R.E.P.
Published: July 2010

Abstract: Ticks are parasites of great importance to man, domestic, and wild animals. In spite of the progress of the science, thus far, ticks are controlled mainly by chemical acaricides and when this technique is used in an indiscriminate way it can lead to ambiental pollution and development of tick resistance to acaricides. The studies developed in the Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro demonstrate that some isolates of the fungi Metarhizium anisopliæ and Beauveria bassiana are pathogens for ticks and their action effects the mortality of ticks and reduces the populational levels in subsequent generations. In future, research needs to address the search of new pathogens; the association of biological with chemical products seeking an synergistic action; the search of formulations that propitiate increased stability, and careful studies on the safety of biological products for use in animals.
Biocontrol of Ticks by Entomopathogenic Nematodes: Research Update
Authors: SAMISH MICHAEL , ALEKSEEV EVGENY , GLAZER ITAMAR
Published: July 2010

Abstract:Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) are lethal to ticks even though they do not use their normal propagation cycle within tick cadavers. The tickBoophilus annulatuswas found to be far more susceptible to EPNs thanHyalomma excavatum, Rhipicephalus bursa, orRhipicephalus sanguineus. Ticks seem to be less susceptible to nematodes when feeding on a host. Preimaginal tick stages were less susceptible to nematodes than adult ticks. The mortality rate of unfed females was highest, followed by unfed males, and engorged females. The virulence of nematodes to ticks varied greatly among different nematode strains. In most cases, theHeterorhabditissp. strains were the most virulent strains tested in petri dishes. In buckets containing sandy soil sprayed with 50 nematodes/cm2and engorged B.annulatusfemales, the LT50of the ticks was less than five days. The addition of manure to soil or a manure extract to petri dishes reduced nematode virulence. Since ticks spend most of their life cycle in the upper humid layer of the ground, and many nematode strains share this same ecological niche, the use of EPNs for biocontrol of ticks appears promising.
Proliferation and Cytokine Profile of T. annulata‐Infected Ovine, Caprine, and Bovine Lymphoblastoid Cells
Authors: SCHNITTGER L. , HOLLMANN C. , DIEMER U. , BOGUSLAWSKI K. , AHMED J. S.
Published: July 2010

Abstract: T. annulata, the causative agent of tropical theileriosis in cattle, can also infect ovine and caprine leukocytes in vitro. In vivo studies showed that this parasite causes a mild infection in both these animal species, and in sheep merozoite stage development seems to be inhibited. Since the nature of T. annulata infected caprine and ovine cells is not known, all three cell lines were karyotyped and phenotypically characterized by flow cytometry. They all express mRNA of cytokines IL‐1α, IL‐1β, IL‐8, and TNF‐α, but not of IFN‐γ, IL‐2, and IL‐4. In contrast, IL‐6 mRNA was expressed in the cattle cell line only, while mRNA of IL‐10 was exclusively produced by the sheep cell line. The observed differences in cytokine mRNA expression may be responsible for the different pathogenesis of T. annulata infection in cattle and sheep.
The Role of Pro‐ and Antiinflammatory Cytokines in Neurodegeneration
Authors: ALLAN STUART M.
Published: July 2010

Abstract: Experimental and clinical damage to the brain leads to rapid upregulation of an array of cytokines predominantly by glia. These cytokines may exert neurotoxic or neuroprotective actions. This paper will focus on the pro‐inflammatory cytokine interleukin‐1 (IL‐1), which participates in diverse forms of brain damage including ischemia, brain trauma, and excitotoxic injury. Administration of low doses of IL‐1 markedly exacerbates these forms of brain damage, whereas blocking IL‐1 release or actions reduces neuronal death. IL‐1 receptor antagonist (IL‐1ra) is also upregulated by brain damage (mainly by neurons) and acts as an endogenous inhibitor of neurodegeneration, presumably by blocking IL‐1 actions on its receptor. We have studied the actions of both IL‐1 and IL‐1ra in experimental models of ischemic and neurotoxic injury in rats, and have found site‐specific effects within the striatum. On the basis of this and further work, we propose that IL‐1 can exacerbate cell death in these conditions by modifying polysynaptic anterograde pathways leading from the striatum to the cortex. The precise nature of these pathways remains undetermined, as do the underlying mechanisms by which IL‐1 can exert its effects, but appear to involve induction of IL‐1 in specific brain regions and activation of cortical glutamatergic pathways.
Genetic Regulation of Nerve Avulsion‐Induced Spinal Cord Inflammation
Authors: OLSSON TOMAS , LUNDBERG CECILIA , LIDMAN OLLE , PIEHL FREDRIK
Published: July 2010

Abstract: In the animal model for multiple sclerosis (MS), experimental autoimmune encephalitis (EAE), genetic loci correlating with incidence or severity of disease are located both within and outside of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC). Whereas polymorphisms within MHC class I and II molecules are likely to be a major determinant of MHC gene influence in rat EAE, it is still unclear how non‐MHC gene regions influence disease. Genetic control of inflammation can hypothetically be either general or specific for a particular target tissue. For the latter, gene regulation of pathomechanisms in the CNS could affect reactivity of microglia or astrocytes, local cytokine/chemokine production, or even neuronal vulnerability. We have obtained strong support for this notion by observations of rat strain‐dependent variation in the inflammatory response after ventral root avulsion, a model in which mainly non‐antigen‐specific elements of the immune system promote inflammation. A comparison of strains with similar MHC haplotypes on different backgrounds and strains with different MHC haplotypes on the same background, respectively, demonstrates that the inflammatory phenotype is regulated mainly by non‐MHC genes. Interestingly, different features of the inflammatory response, such as induction of MHC class II expression, glial activation, cytokine expression, and neuronal vulnerability, varied between rat strains and were largely independent of each other. The genetic control of several basic features of inflammation in the CNS is of great relevance not only for MS/EAE, but also for several other neurological conditions with inflammatory components such as cerebrovascular and neurogenerative dieases and trauma.
Natural Immunity and Neuroimmune Host Defense
Authors: BERCZI ISTVAN , BERTÓK LÓRÁND , CHOW DONNA A.
Published: July 2010

Abstract: Innate resistance is mediated by non‐immune defense and by natural immunity. Non‐immune defense includes diverse mechanisms (e.g., physico‐chemical defense by bile acids). Natural killer (NK) cells, γδ T lymphocytes and CD5+ B lymphocytes are key mediators of natural immunity. These cells utilize germ‐line coded receptors that recognize highly conserved, homologous epitopes (homotopes). Typically, it is not the antigen, but cytokines and hormones that regulate the level of NK‐mediated cytotoxicity. These include interleukin‐2, interferons, prolactin and growth hormone. Less is known about γδ T lymphocytes. CD5+ B lymphocytes produce germ‐line coded antibodies (predominantly IgM) that are polyspecific, and able to recognize a great variety of microorganisms, cancer cells and self‐components. Antigen is not an effective stimulus for natural antibody (NAb), but bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is. During the acute phase response (febrile illness) the T‐cell‐regulated adaptive immune response is switched off and natural immune mechanisms are amplified several hundred to a thousand times within 24‐48 hours (immunoconversion). This immunoconversion is initiated by immune‐derived cytokines, and involves profound neuroendocrine and metabolic changes, all in the interest of host defense. Immune recognition is assured by natural antibodies and by some liver‐derived acute phase proteins, such as C‐reactive protein or endotoxin‐binding protein, the level of which is elevated in the serum. Thus, natural immunity is essential for a first and last line of defense and the neuroendocrine system is an important promoter of this activity.
Nuclear Factor‐κB is Involved in the Catecholaminergic Suppression of Immunocompetent Cells
Authors: BERGQUIST JONAS , OHLSSON BERTIL , TARKOWSKI ANDREJ
Published: July 2010

Abstract: Catecholamines are known to exert a powerful impact on the immune system by downregulation of proliferation and differentiation, and induction of apoptosis. However, the mechanism for this regulatory route is still unclear. Therefore well established human monocytic cell‐lines and non‐transformed human monocytes, obtained from peripheral blood, were incubated with an optimal concentration of LPS and varying concentrations of the catecholamine dopamine. The proliferative response to LPS was determined by [3H]thymidine incorporation, and a significant suppressive effect by dopamine was obtained. LPS‐induced binding of NF‐κB to DNA, determined by electrophoretic mobility shift assay, was inhibited by extrinsic dopamine, leading to a decreased proliferation and cytokine expression. In contrast, the intracellular ceramide concentration was not affected by incubation of peripheral blood lymphocytes with dopamine. Our findings suggest that the NF‐κB‐I‐κB transcription machinery may well be involved in the catecholaminergic regulation of the immune system, while the ceramide‐SAPK/JNK cascade appears not to play a significant role in this suppression.
Neural Control of Ocular Immune Privilege
Authors: STREILEIN J. WAYNE , OKAMOTO SHIGEKI , SANO YOICHIRO , TAYLOR ANDREW W.
Published: July 2010

Abstract: Ocular immune privilege arises from interactions between the immune apparatus and the eye itself, thereby providing immune protection for the eye that is devoid of sight‐threatening inflammation. On the one hand, antigens injected intraocularly elicit deviant systemic immune responses that are devoid of immunogenic inflammation (Anterior Chamber‐Associated Immune Deviation, ACAID). On the other hand, the ocular microenvironment (aqueous humor, secreted by cells that surround this chamber) suppresses intraocular expression of immunogenic inflammation. Several lines of evidence indicate that ocular immune privilege is under neural control. First, aqueous humor contains neuropeptides (α‐MSH, VIP, CGRP) that inhibit and alter the functional properties of T lymphocytes and macrophages. Second, when corneal nerves are severed, the tissues surrounding the anterior chamber cease secreting immunosuppressive factors and ACAID fails‐until the nerves regrow. Third, light deprivation abolishes the capacity of the anterior chamber to support ACAID induction, a process that is sensitive to neuropeptides and melatonin. The photoreceptor(s) responsible for ACAID are connected to the nervous system and may reside in the anterior segment and/or the retina. Thus, neural elements from the central nervous system and within the eye help to shape both the induction and the expression of ocular immunity, thereby promoting immune privilege.
Feedsidewards: Intermodulation (Strictly) among Time Structures, Chronomes, in and around Us, and Cosmo‐vasculo‐neuroimmunity: About Ten‐yearly Changes: What Galileo Missed and Schwabe Found
Authors: HALBERG FRANZ , CORNÉLISSEN GERMAINE , KATINAS GEORGE , WATANABE YOSHIHIKO , OTSUKA KUNIAKI , MAGGIONI CRISTINA , PERFETTO FEDERICO , TARQUINI ROBERTO , SCHWARTZKOPFF OTHILD , BAKKEN EARL E.
Published: July 2010

Abstract: The spectrum of biological rhythms is extended far beyond circadians, circannuals, and ultradians, such as 1.5‐hourly melatonin and 8‐hourly endothelin‐1 (ET‐1) rhythms by statistics of natality, growth, morbidity, and mortality, some covering decades or centuries on millions of individuals. These reveal infradian cycles to be aligned with half‐weekly rhythms in ET‐1, weekly and half‐yearly ones in melatonin, and even longer‐about 50‐, about 20‐, and about 10‐year cycles found in birth statistics. About daily, weekly, yearly, and ten‐yearly patterns are also found in mortality from myocardial infarctions; the 10‐yearly ones are also in heart rate and its variability; in steroid excretion, an aspect of resistance, for example, to bacteria; and in the genetic changes of the bacteria themselves. Automatic physiological measurements cover years and, in one case, cover a decade; the latter reveal an about 10‐year (circadecennial) cycle. ECGs, covering months beat‐to‐beat, reveal circaseptans, gaining prominence in response to magnetic storms or after coronary artery bypass grafting. A spectrum including cycles from fractions of 1 Hz to circasemicentennians is just one element in biological time structures, chronomes. Chaos, trends, and any unresolved variability are the second to fourth elements of chronomes. Intermodulations, feedsidewards, account for rhythmically and thus predictably recurring quantitative differences and even for opposite treatment effects of the same total dose(s) of (1) immunomodulators inhibiting or stimulating DNA labeling of bone in health or speeding up versus slowing down a malignant growth and thus shortening or lengthening survival time, or (2) raising or lowering blood pressure or heart rate in the vascular aspect of the body's defense. Latitude‐dependent competing photic and nonphotic solar effects upon the pineal are gauged by alternating yearly (by daylight) and half‐yearly (by night) signatures of circulating melatonin at middle latitudes and by half‐yearly signatures at noon near the pole. These many (including novel near 10‐yearly) changes, for example, in 17‐ketosteroid excretion, heart rate, heart rate variability, and myocardial infarction in us and those galactic, solar, and geophysical ones around us have their own special signatures and contribute to a cosmo‐vasculo‐immunity and, if that fails, to a cosmo(immuno?) pathology.
Melatonin and Its Relation to the Immune System and Inflammation
Authors: REITER RUSSEL J. , CALVO JUAN R. , KARBOWNIK MALGORZATA , QI WENBO , TAN DUN XIAN
Published: July 2010

Abstract: Melatonin (N‐acetyl‐5‐methoxytryptamine) was initially thought to be produced exclusively in the pineal gland. Subsequently its synthesis was demonstrated in other organs, for example, the retinas, and very high concentrations of melatonin are found at other sites, for example, bone marrow cells and bile. The origin of the high level of melatonin in these locations has not been definitively established, but it is likely not exclusively of pineal origin. Melatonin has been shown to possess anti‐inflammatory effects, among a number of actions. Melatonin reduces tissue destruction during inflammatory reactions by a number of means. Thus melatonin, by virtue of its ability to directly scavenge toxic free radicals, reduces macromolecular damage in all organs. The free radicals and reactive oxygen and nitrogen species known to be scavenged by melatonin include the highly toxic hydroxyl radical (·OH), peroxynitrite anion (ONOO−), and hypochlorous acid (HOCl), among others. These agents all contribute to the inflammatory response and associated tissue destruction. Additionally, melatonin has other means to lower the damage resulting from inflammation. Thus, it prevents the translocation of nuclear factor‐kappa B (NF‐κB) to the nucleus and its binding to DNA, thereby reducing the upregulation of a variety of proinflammatory cytokines, for example, interleukins and tumor neurosis factor‐alpha. Finally, there is indirect evidence that melatonin inhibits the production of adhesion molecules that promote the sticking of leukocytes to endothelial cells. By this means melatonin attenuates transendothelial cell migration and edema, which contribute to tissue damage.
Gene Regulation by Melatonin
Authors: CARLBERG CARSTEN
Published: July 2010

Abstract: The physiological and neuroendocrine functions of the pineal gland hormone, melatonin, and its therapeutic potential critically depend on the understanding of its target sites and its mechanisms of action. This has progressed considerably in the last few years through the cloning of G protein‐coupled seven‐transmembrane melatonin receptors (Mel1a and Mel1b) as well as of nuclear receptors (RZR/RORα and RZRβ) that are associated with melatonin signaling. The transcription factor RZR/RORα appears to mediate a direct gene regulatory action of the hormone, and specific binding sites have been identified in promoter regions of a variety of genes, such as 5‐lipoxygenase (5‐LO), p21WAF1/CIP1, and bone sialoprotein (BSP). The membrane signaling pathway clearly shows higher ligand sensitivity than the nuclear signaling pathway, but details of its signal transduction cascade, and target genes are presently unknown. Membrane melatonin receptors are expressed mainly in the central nervous system, whereas RZR/RORα is prominently expressed both in the periphery and the brain. The action of membrane melatonin receptors and their specific agonists have been associated with circadian rhythmicity, whereas direct effects of melatonin in the periphery, such as immunomodulation, cellular growth, and bone differentiation, mainly appear to be mediated by RZR/RORα. It is hypothesized in this review that, in some cases, RZR/RORα may be a primary target of membrane melatonin receptors.
Melatonin Mediates Seasonal Changes in Immune Function
Authors: NELSON RANDY J. , DRAZEN DEBORAH L.
Published: July 2010

Abstract: Field studies indicate that immune function is compromised and the prevalence of many diseases are elevated during winter when energetic stressors are extensive. Presumably, individuals would enjoy a survival advantage if seasonally recurring stressors could be anticipated and countered by shunting energy reserves to bolster immune function. The primary environmental cue that permits physiological anticipation of season is daily photoperiod, a cue that is mediated by melatonin. However, other environmental factors, including low food availability and ambient temperatures, may interact with photoperiod to affect immune function and disease processes. This paper will review laboratory studies that consistently report enhanced immune function in short day lengths. Prolonged melatonin treatment mimics short days, and both in vitro and in vivo melatonin treatment enhances various aspects of immune function, especially cell‐mediated immune function, in non‐tropical rodents. Reproductive responsiveness to melatonin appears to affect immune function. In sum, melatonin may be part of an integrative system to coordinate reproductive, immunologic, and other physiological processes to cope successfully with energetic stressors during winter.