bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Permanent Translocation Heterozygosity
Authors: Levin Donald A
Published: November 2023

Translocation heterozygosis occurs independent of hybridization in some species, as described in chapter 2. These translocation heterozygotes typically have reduced fertility and are transient, in the sense that upon self-fertilization they generate chromosomal homozygotes as well as heterozygotes. Even if these translocation heterozygotes have some advantage over their homozygous counterparts, they have no mechanism to transmit this state to their progeny. They can be reconstituted only by crossing between plants with different chromosomal end arrangements.
Toni Morrison’s Beloved
Authors: Rody Caroline
Published: November 2023

On the back of the Plume edition of Toni Morrison’s Beloved, reviewer John Leonard proclaims, “I can’t imagine American literature without it!” Evidently intended as consummate praise, this remark would seem to congratulate Morrison for having written into the incomplete canon of American literature the very chapter of American history it had long lacked: the story of the African Americans who survived slavery. And in an important sense, Beloved is manifestly “about” the filling of historical gaps. “Sixty million and more” reads Morrison’s dedication, simply, suggesting at once the numerous ancestors the novel attempts to memorialize, and a vast absence its words could never fill.
Caribbean Women’s Literature and the Mother of History
Authors: Rody Caroline
Published: November 2023

In a recurrent scene of education in Caribbean fiction, children of the islands solemnly offer obeisance to a European nation they have never seen, reciting the absurd formulae of genealogy by which colonial authority teaches them to know themselves. African-Caribbean children of the French-speaking islands learn “to respect the flag of France our mother, to revere her greatness and majesty and the glory that went back to the beginning of time, when we were still monkeys with their tails cut off” (Schwarz-Bart 52), while in British Jamaica, a “class of multicolored boys” chants: “mulatto, offspring of African and white; sambo, offspring of African and mulatto; quadroon, offapring of mulatto and white; mestee, offspring of quadroon and white; mestefeen , offspring of mestee and white.” These boys are among the “fortunate,” as their teacher informs them, for “in the Spanish colonies there were 128 categories to be memorized” (Cliff, No Telephone 56).
Decolonizing Jamaica’s Daughter
Authors: Rody Caroline
Published: November 2023

“You taught me language, and my profit on’t / Is, I know how to curse” (The Tempest 1.2.363-64). For Jamaica-born novelist Michelle Cliff, the famous retort to Prospero that inspired a host of twentieth-century Caribbean Calibans “immediately brings to . . . mind the character of Bertha Rochester, wild and raving ragout, as Charlotte Brontë describes her.” Feminizing the New World rebel savage, Cliff claims mad Bertha as Caliban’s missing sister. To complete the mythic family tree, Cliff declares herself “Caliban’s Daughter” and “granddaughter of Sycorax.” & for Clare Savage, semiautobiographical heroine of Cliff’s first two novels, “Bertha Rochester is her ancestor.” And, she adds, “It takes a West Indian writer, Jean Rhys, to describe Bertha from the inside . . . “ (“Clare” 264-65). Consciously deriving from Rhys a tradition of West Indian women’s literary resistance, Cliff creates in Abeng (1984) and its sequel No Telephone to Heaven (1987) a heroine whose life story appropriates European “language”—in its genres of historiography, historical fiction, and the bildungsroman—in order to reclaim her maternal history.
Crossing Water
Authors: Rody Caroline
Published: November 2023

Because ghosts—so they say—do not cross water, the unhappy spirit of Great-Uncle Bert, who commits suicide in France in Maryse Condé’s Tree of Life (La Vie Scelerate, 1987), must spend eternity an ocean away from his family back in Guadeloupe. Likewise, Tituba and Hester, seventeenth century friends in Condé’s I, Tituba, Black Witch of Salem (Moi, Tituba, Sorcière . . . Noire de Salem, 1986), must endure separate afterlives because Tituba dies in her beloved Barbados, and Hester in Puritan New England.

The territorial fixity of the dead in the Caribbean maxim makes emotional sense; every ghost haunts his or her own land. Yet Condé’s plots consistently take her characters far from their homelands, creating unlikely attachments that must then be broken and unlikely separations that must be suffered eternally.
At the Bedside
Authors: Pierce Jessica , Jameton Andrew
Published: November 2023

One of the major problems of environmentalism is that its large concern for the fate of the earth seems to overwhelm concern for individual humans. The problems of those who are terminally ill, or facing an unexpected pregnancy or cancer, have an appeal and poignancy for most people that the hard statistics of global decline lack. What medical ethics discussion usually tries to do is to make connections between the local concerns of patients and clinicians and a general framework so that individuals can make decisions that make sense from a larger perspective.
Global Bioethics and Justice
Authors: Pierce Jessica , Jameton Andrew
Published: November 2023

When Van Potter first proposed the term bioethics in 1970, he described it as the “science of survival.” Worried about the unfolding global environmental crisis, he called for a coordinated response from science and the humanities (Potter 1971 ). By 1990, bioethics had become so strongly associated with the more narrowly focused field of medical ethics that Potter proposed the term global bioethics to describe-and encourage-an ethics of health care in the context of global survival and Earth care. A 1995 article cowritten with his daughter Lisa placed global survival on a continuum of acceptability: business as usual would result in a world of “mere” or “miserable” survival where the quality of human existence would be reduced to its lowest levels, largely as a result of excessive consumption and population growth. The Potters envisioned a culture based on global bioethics that would permit an “acceptable” level of survival and a stable state of human health and dignity worldwide. Such a world would be achieved in part by an ethics of restraint in consumption and reproduction (Potter and Potter 1995). In a world of limits, scarcity, and environmental constraints, the morally best world is one in which all people for many generations-can live with adequate health and quality of life without destroying the ecological basis of species diversity and meaningful community.
December 9 Swing!
Authors: Suskin Steven
Published: November 2023

A diminutive man with a ukulele, a small mustache, and a purple and blue pinstripe suit stepped downstage to the apron of the St. James, moving into a pool of light. “What good is music?” he sang. “What good is melody, if it ain’t got something sweet?” The lights came up on a bandstand lined with strips of chrome and neon, and a truly swinging band went into Duke Ellington’s “It Don’t Mean a Thing (If It Ain’t Got That Swing).” Now, we have heard this song before on Broadway, in just about every anthology revue that has come along recently (except Sondheim’s Putting It Together). It was hard, therefore, not to notice right off the bat that it sounded fresh and original and exciting. As the band continued, a dancing couple skittered on to do a short specialty; then another couple, then another. They were all dressed in whites and creams and beiges and coffees, all swinging their partners around the stage, and they all looked like they were enjoying themselves.
April 17 The Real Thing
Authors: Suskin Steven
Published: November 2023

One Indian summer afternoon I was sitting in the Chinese restaurant around the corner when my attention was engaged by a conversation from the next table. Facing me was an elderly, British colonel type, although he was dressed more like a college professor on recess. The woman I could not see, except for the back of some highly dignified white hair.

The woman was speaking in quiet but commanding tones, so I could hear only certain phrases. She was talking about some party to which she had been obliged to attend, despite clearly disliking such affairs. The colonel presumably knew as much, as he was clearly an old acquaintance. I heard something about “the cast”— which piqued my attention— and how “Jerry” was there and she spoke to “André.” This was obviously Lincoln Center Theater’s André Bishop and, presumably, director Gerry Gutierrez. Although I couldn’t hear enough to make much sense of the conversation— to which the colonel, incidentally, contributed not a word— I decided that I must figure out who the woman eating chicken with broccoli might be, so I put down my six-month-old copy of the New Yorker (I’m perennially way behind) and listened.
April 27 The Music Man
Authors: Suskin Steven
Published: November 2023

“But he doesn’t know the territory,” complains the bad guy in The Music Man. That’s pretty much what they said on Broadway back in 1957, not only about Professor Harold Hill (the hero) but also about second-rank Hollywood lead Robert Preston (the star) and composer-lyricist-librettist Meredith Willson as well. As it turned out, they knew the territory well enough. Harold got the girl; “Press” got a Tony and a new Broadway career; and Willson got two Tonys — beating out Leonard Bernstein, Stephen Sondheim, and Arthur Laurents for their work on West Side Story — and an Oscar as well.
April 30 Uncle Vanya
Authors: Suskin Steven
Published: November 2023

Part of the mission of most nonprofit theatres, for better or worse, is to provide modern-day audiences with the occasional classic. I speak not of modern classics, like Death of a Salesman, or modern nonclassics, like The Rainmaker; but of real, old, “classical” classics, those that more or less predate the twentieth century.
The Paradoxes of Irreversibility
Authors: Zwanzig Robert
Published: November 2023

For many years, certain “paradoxes,” usually called the reversibility paradox and the recurrence paradox, have plagued the development of nonequilibrium statistical mechanics. For some time, they led to the belief that there is a fundamental contradiction between Hamiltonian dynamics and the irreversibility that we see everywhere. Even now they are often taken seriously. The subject of this chapter is why there is no fundamental contradiction.
Edward and Charles
Authors: Bosco Ronald A , Myerson Joel
Published: November 2023

Writing to Lidian after his brother Charles’s death on 9 May 1836, Waldo lamented the literal and figurative darkness that had descended on his world. One of the greatest joys of his life, he told her, was that he “saw” the world through his brother’s eyes, so that now, with Charles gone, he felt his own sight and imagination had grown irreparably “dim.” What is more, he thought, “[a] soul is gone so costly & so rare” that no one could ever fix the price of its loss or repair the loneliness that he would now forever feel. With “the immense promise of[Charles’s] maturity . . . destroyed,” Waldo confessed to his wife, “I feel not only unfastened . . . and adrift,” “but a sort of shame at living at all” (12 May 1836, L, 2:19–20).
William and Waldo: Finances and Family
Authors: Bosco Ronald A , Myerson Joel
Published: November 2023

After Charles Chauncy Emerson’s death, Waldo and William Emerson settled into an easy and familiar relationship, the type that is typical of brothers who care for each other and who have gone through rough times together. There were other family members who needed care and assistance: Bulkeley was boarded out for the rest of his life and there were expenses associated with that; Ruth Haskins Emerson stayed with Waldo’s family from the mid-1830s onwards, visiting with William’s family in New York at regular intervals; and Mary Moody Emerson needed a great deal of help to extricate herself from a bad real estate deal. On a more positive note, there were visits the two families exchanged, and the road from Concord to New York was well traveled. But, as the years progressed, money became a major theme of the brothers’ correspondence, both in terms of William’s helping Waldo to arrange for lectures in New York and Waldo’s assisting (actually, bailing out) William with his real estate speculations on Staten Island.
A Born Pianist
Authors: Clark Walter Aaron
Published: November 2023

The medieval cathedral (Seu Vella) of Lleida, on the Segre River in Catalonia, sits high atop a hill overlooking the surrounding plain and the mountains beyond. It thus occupies a very defensible position, and the fortifications around it bear mute witness to the violent dramas that have taken place beneath their parapets. Whoever held Lleida held a large region around it. No army ever approached the town by surprise, though it has been besieged over the millennia by Romans, Goths, Moors, and French, as well as Catalans and Castilians. It has suﬀered its fair share of destruction, but the well-preserved Romanesque and Gothic churches and buildings throughout the city give evidence of a hearty longevity.
Teacher, Conductor, Organizer
Authors: Clark Walter Aaron
Published: November 2023

Had Granados devoted himself exclusively to performing and composing, his accomplishments would still merit a major biography. We can appreciate his achievements more fully, however, by surveying the many other activities that competed for his limited time and energy. Granados was very committed to teaching, and his con- tributions in the realm of pedagogy are of lasting significance. He was also active as a conductor and organizer of concerts. In fact, he became involved in most aspects of musical life in Barcelona. He undertook these responsibilities at least in part because he needed the income to support a growing family. We begin with his teaching.
Catalan Works with Texts by Apeles Mestres
Authors: Clark Walter Aaron
Published: November 2023

Granados wrote music for a total of five stage works with texts by Mestres: Petrarca, Picarol, Follet, Gaziel, and Liliana. Of these, only Follet and Petrarca are true operas; the others alternate various kinds of musical numbers with spoken dialogue. The em- phasis in all of their theatrical collaborations is not on dramatic interaction between the characters but rather on the characters themselves, fleshing out their individual- ity through musical means. In the opinion of Mas-López, “[h]is theater is predomi- nantly picturesque; conflicts and/or psychological analyses are not treated.”
A World of Ideas
Authors: Clark Walter Aaron
Published: November 2023

With the advent of Goyescas, Granados had arrived as a composer of transatlantic repu- tation. However, the last two years of his life found him at work on many projects that enhanced his stature in Spain and abroad, pointing toward an ever-brighter future.
Neurologic Manifestations of Bacterial Infection and Sepsis
Authors: Wijdicks Eelco F M
Published: November 2023

Community-acquired bacterial infections evolving into a sepsis syndrome are common reasons for admission to a medical intensive care unit (ICU). The nervous system is part of the cascade of multiorgan failure or is directly damaged by inflammation, septic emboli, or inflammation-related complications. Furthermore, endoscopic procedures, catheter placements, mechanical ventilation, and emergency surgical procedures may be sources for hospital-acquired infections. In susceptible patients, infection may directly involve the central nervous system.
Neurologic Complications of Cardiac Arrest
Authors: Wijdicks Eelco F M
Published: November 2023

The mortality and morbidity associated with cardiopulmonary resuscitation remain a major public health problem. Rapid defibrillation and intensive care admission may affect survival and the probability of intact neurologic function. Survivors of out-of-hospital arrest continue to overburden intensive care units (ICUs), and the neurologist plays a central role in assessment of coma. Cardiac arrest in critically ill patients is an even more disquieting event and devastating for some. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) during downward spiraling shock, sepsis, or cardiac failure may be considered futile to many intensive care specialists.
Neurologic Complications Associated with Disorders of Thrombosis and Hemostasis
Authors: Wijdicks Eelco F M
Published: November 2023

Epidemiologic studies of coagulopathies targeted to neurologic complications in critically ill patients are notably few, and even in these studies they appear uncommon. In one comprehensive study, for instance, 2 of 118 patients with disseminated intravascular coagulation had neurologic complications. Many unconfirmed clinical vignettes have been reported, and their significance in contributing to the spectrum of hematologic disorders in the intensive care unit (ICU) remains uncertain.
Neurologic Complications of Multisystem Trauma
Authors: Wijdicks Eelco F M
Published: November 2023

Patients with multiple injuries are often admitted to designated surgical or trauma units, mostly because many have had early hemodynamic deterioration or have become hypoxic from direct chest or airway trauma.
Outcome of Acute Injury to the Central Nervous System
Authors: Wijdicks Eelco F M
Published: November 2023

The delivery of care for critically ill patients has profoundly changed, and there is an incentive to control costs. A sudden major neurologic complication, often producing coma, typically prompts a reassessment of the level of care. In some, dropping all elements of support may be justified; in others, the original plan of critical care should remain unchanged because a functional outcome can be anticipated. Precision in determining outcome is necessary because finite intensive care unit (ICU) resources should not be sacrificed to patients with disorders that are inevitably disastrous.
Ornithological Exploration of Northern Melanesia
Authors: Mayr Ernst , Diamond Jared
Published: November 2023

Collections and observations of Northern Melanesian birds began in 1823 and are listed chronologically in appendix 4.1 As reflected in figure 6.1, which plots descriptions of new taxa by decade, the peak periods of discovery were 1875-94, 1900-25, and 1927-35. The first specimens were obtained by French expeditions on New Ireland in 1823 and 1827 and on Ysabel in 1838. A trickle of further specimens continued until the first peak at 1875-1894. During that peak G. Brown, E.L.C. Layard and G.E. Richards, and others obtained the first large collections from the Bismarcks (New Britain, Duke of York, and New Ireland) in 1875-81; the Challenger Expedition of 1875 made the first collection on Manus; many collectors operated in the eastern Solomons in 1878-82; C. M. Woodford made the first significant collections on the Shortlands and New Georgia in 1886-87; and H. Welchman collected on Ysabel in the early 1890s. F. Dahl lived on New Britain in 1896-97 and wrote what are still the most detailed published field observations of New Britain birds (Dahl 1889).
Level of Endemism, Habitat Preference, and Abundance of Each Species
Authors: Mayr Ernst , Diamond Jared
Published: November 2023

One of the main problems in understanding speciation of Northern Melanesian birds is to explain why different species differ greatly in their proneness to speciate. Much of this book is devoted to interpreting those differing pronenesses to speciate in terms of species differences in six ecological, evolutionary, and distributional characteristics, tabulated for each species in appendix 5. In this chapter we introduce three of these ecological and evolutionary characteristics: level of endemism, habitat preference, and abundance. Chapter 11 introduces the remaining ecological characteristic, overwater dispersal ability, and chapter 12 interprets the two tabulated distributional characteristics (number of islands occupied and incidence category) in terms of the four ecological and evolutionary characteristics.
Upstream Colonization and Faunal Dominance
Authors: Mayr Ernst , Diamond Jared
Published: November 2023

As we have seen in chapter 13, the main direction of avian colonization of Northern Melanesia has been from west to east: from Asia through New Guinea to the Bismarcks, and from the Bismarcks to the Solomons. Similarly, for tropical Southwest Pacific archipelagoes east of the Solomons, the main direction of colonization has been from west to east: from the Solomons to the New Hebrides to Fiji to Samoa (Diamond & Marshall 1976). This pattern is to be expected because land masses decrease in area and species richness from west to east, from giant, species-rich Asia to New Guinea to the Bismarcks to the Solomons to the New Hebrides. However, as discussed by Diamond and Marshall (1976), the asymmetry of fauna! exchanges between neighboring tropical Southwest Pacific archipelagoes is quantitatively greater than expected from the ratio of their areas or species numbers. This phenomenon appears to be essentially the same as the phenomenon of faunal dominance often discussed in the biogeographic literature—for instance, in connection with Asian/Australian faunal exchanges in Wallacea, Old World/New World exchanges across the Bering Strait, and North American/South American exchanges across the Isthmus of Panama. In addition, those eastern colonists that do succeed in spreading “upstream” from east to west in the Pacific fit a distinctive pattern of ecological distributions in the colonized archipelagoes to the west. The eastern invaders are concentrated in species-poor western communities, while western invaders establish themselves in species-rich as well as in species-poor eastern communities. We now discuss these asymmetrical faunal exchanges between the New Hebrides and Northern Melanesia, between the Solomons and Bismarcks, and between Northern Melanesia and New Guinea. We then suggest a probable reason for these asymmetries.
Ultimate Origins of Northern Melanesian Populations
Authors: Mayr Ernst , Diamond Jared
Published: November 2023

In chapter 13 we analyzed the proximate geographic origins of each Northern Melanesian bird population-the geographic source area from which colonizing individuals dispersed to reach Northern Melanesia. Not surprisingly, all three of the proximate source areas identified (New Guinea, Australia, and the New Hebrides) were regions near Northern Melanesia. However, we also noted the distinction between proximate origins and ultimate origins: while the colonizing individuals may have dispersed from some nearby area (e.g., New Guinea), that proximate source population may in turn have been ultimately derived, at some earlier geological time and higher taxonomic level, from a different area more distant from Northern Melanesia. In the present chapter we ask how many of the proximate source populations can be traced back ultimately to Asia, how many instead have had a long evolutionary history in the Australian region, and at what taxonomic level their ultimate origins can thus be traced to Asia or the Australian region. Mayr (1944a) previously sought to discriminate between proximate and ultimate origins of fauna! elementsin analyzing the avifauna of Timor and Wallacea.
Stages of Geographic Speciation Among the Birds of Northern Melanesia
Authors: Mayr Ernst , Diamond Jared
Published: November 2023

If speciation is an on-going process that is not closely synchronized among a region’s species, then it should be possible to find different stages of speciation represented among a region’s species. This expectation is confirmed for Northern Melanesian birds, as shown in tables 17.1-17.3, based on 191 out of the 195 breeding land and freshwater bird species of Northern Melanesia. Our unit is the “zoogeographic species,” or “species” for short (i.e., superspecies, plus species not belonging to superspecies). Thus, when a superspecies breaks up into several allospecies, we consider the superspecies (not each allospecies) as a single unit, comparable to an isolated species that does not belong to a superspecies.
Geographic Variation Allospecies
Authors: Mayr Ernst , Diamond Jared
Published: November 2023

Closely related allopatric populations are often so distinct that little doubt exists that they have passed from the subspecies to the species level. Such species are called “allospecies,” and a set of allospecies is called a “superspecies.” A superspecies is defined as a monophyletic group of closely related and largely or entirely allopatric species-that is, a group of taxa that have achieved reproductive isolation but little or no geographic overlap. Completely allopatric distributions suggest one of three possible interpretations: that colonists of one such taxon arrive too rarely at the geographic range of the other to become established; that the two taxa are still so similar ecologically that they cannot achieve sympatry by occupying distinct niches, and that arriving colonists are thus prevented by competitive exclusion from becoming established; or that arriving colonists hybridize with the resident population, and their genes thus become lost in the large gene pool of residents.
Barriers Within the Bismarcks
Authors: Mayr Ernst , Diamond Jared
Published: November 2023

Having discussed in the preceding chapter the barriers separating Northern Melanesia from the archipelagoes to the east and west, and the barrier dividing Northern Melanesia into the Bismarcks and Solomons, we now devote this chapter to barriers between Bismarck islands. In so doing, we initially treat as wholes those groups of islands that were connected to each other during Pleistocene drops of sea level, because the modern barriers between islands within each such group arose only within the last 10,000 years. For much of the Pleistocene, the barriers within the Bismarcks were those between such Pleistocene islands, not the barriers between modern islands. There were two major Pleistocene islands in the Bismarcks: the large island formed by the accretion of modern Umboi, Lolobau, and Duke of York islands to New Britain, and the large island formed by the accretion of modern New Hanover to New Ireland (fig. 3.3). In chapters 32 and 33 we discuss the post-Pleistocene barriers between the modern fragments of those former large islands.
Barriers Within the Solomons
Authors: Mayr Ernst , Diamond Jared
Published: November 2023

The preceding chapter having discussed barriers between Bismarck islands, we devote this chapter to barriers between Solomon islands. At Pleistocene times of low sea level, the Solomons consisted of four main islands or island groups, plus several, much smaller, isolated islands (fig. 1.3). The four main groups were 1) the Bukida group, consisting of the chain from Buka to Florida and Guadalcanal, which are the modern fragments of the Pleistocene island Greater Bukida; 2) the New Georgia group (from Vella Lavella to Gatukai), consisting of modern fragments of the three nearby Pleistocene islands Greater Vellonga, Greater Gatumbangra, and Greater Rendipari, plus Gizo and Simbo; 3) Malaita; and 4) San Cristobal. While all four of these groups or islands share most species and many widespread Solomon endemics, they differ from each other by local endemism and differences in species composition. This is illustrated by table 31.1, which shows how geographic borders between allospecies, mega subspecies, and distributional gaps for seven species that are geographically highly variable coincide with the division of the Solomons into these four major island groups.
Speciation on Fragmented Pleistocene Islands
Authors: Mayr Ernst , Diamond Jared
Published: November 2023

Having considered geographic variation across permanent water barriers in Chapters 29-31, we now consider geographic variation across fluctuating water barriers. Six pairs or groups of Northern Melanesian islands are surrounded today by shallow-water shelves that must have been dry land at Pleistocene times of low sea level. Hence these modern island pairs or groups must have been intermittently joined into enlarged Pleistocene islands at such times of low sea level (fig. 1.3). The six are Greater Bukida (now fragmented into the island chain from Buka to Florida and possibly Guadalcanal), Greater Gatumbangra (now fragmented into the chain from Kulambangra to Gatukai), Greater Vellonga (now Vella Lavella, Bagga, and Ganonga), Greater Rendipari (now Rendova and Tetipari), Greater New Ireland (now New Ireland and New Hanover), and Greater New Britain (now New Britain, Umboi, and Duke of York).
Species Differences, Taxon Cycles, and the Evolution of Dispersal
Authors: Mayr Ernst , Diamond Jared
Published: November 2023

Throughout this book we have noted many examples of colonizing species changing their habitat preference or dispersal ability in the course of their evolutionary history in Northern Melanesia. For example, many initially vagile species become sedentary (chapter 11), some open-country colonists shift into forest (chapter 10), and some lowland colonists shift into the mountains (chapter 24). Does the course of evolution in Northern Melanesian birds evince any general tendencies? How greatly do colonizing species differ in their evolutionary histories? We shall begin by summarizing Wilson’s (1959, 1961) influential study of these questions for Melanesian ants. Next, we systematically compare, for those bird species that colonized Northern Melanesia from New Guinea, their preferred habitat in New Guinea and Northern Melanesia. We then divide all Northern Melanesian species into four groups distinguished by level of endemism, habitat, and vagility, and we tabulate 12 features of the species in each group. These tabulations permit us to assess evolutionary trajectories and their variation for Northern Melanesian bird species. We specifically examine the origins of one of the most distinctive subsets of the Northern Melanesian avifauna, the montane avifauna. Finally, we reconsider the evolution of dispersal ability.
Promising Directions for Future Research
Authors: Mayr Ernst , Diamond Jared
Published: November 2023

In this final chapter we call attention to five promising sets of directions for future research. We begin with directions that depend on gathering new data: molecular evidence of relationships, bird fossils, archival searches for early European observations, refined measurements of vagility and abundance, searches for undiscovered bird populations and species, and surveys within the two longest Northern Melanesian islands. The second set involves improved analytical techniques for quantifying effects of island area, distance, and elevation. The third set consists of approaches for estimating the absolute time scale of speciation. Fourth is the effort to recognize which, among our attempts to explain bird distributions parsimoniously, are parsimonious but wrong, and to replace them with more complicated but correct explanations. Finally, generalizing about speciation will require comparing our study of Northern Melanesian birds with studies of other biotas, such as biotas of remote archipelagoes, continental biotas, temperate-zone biotas, and taxa other than birds.
Introduction
Authors: Tait William
Published: November 2023

The purpose of this introduction is not to systematically introduce the es­ says collected here, but rather to supplement them, filling in some gaps and commenting on particular deficiencies in them. With two exceptions, this introduction will be, at most, tangentially concerned with the his­ torical essays. One exception concerns Plato and what seems to be the crucial question for the validity of my reading of Plato in chapters 7 and 8. Wittgenstein’s later philosophical writings on the ideas of meaning, understanding and existence, my understanding of which is expounded in chapter 9, play a large, but background, role in the discussion of math­ ematical reasoning in, for example, chapters 3 and 4 and in section 1 of the introduction, and the writings of Plato, Cantor, Dedekind, and Hilbert very much inform my understanding of existence and truth in mathemat­ ics. This would seem to align Wittgenstein with Plato, Cantor, Dedekind, and Hilbert here; but this is certainly not because of his expressed views about mathematics, but because of his general analysis of the meaning of existential statements (e.g., see section 402 of Philosophical Investigations), which he fails to apply correctly in the case of mathematics. At any time during the writing of these essays, I would have included Frege with Plato, Cantor, Dedekind, and Hilbert here, because, in spite of his explicit opposi­ tion to the foundational views of Dedekind and Hilbert, I saw his so-called context principle as a license for their conception of mathematics. But I now believe that he understood the context principle in a very different way than I do, and that it is rather Wittgenstein’s development of it that lends a general support to their conception of mathematics-and this is the subject of the second exception to the avoidance of purely historical matters in this introduction. The opposition between the conceptions of Cantor and Dedekind (and Hilbert) and those of Frege that is discussed in chapter 10 seems to me now to be more of a surface manifestation of the deeper conflict, but I didn’t clearly understand that when I wrote it.
Finitism
Authors: Tait William
Published: November 2023

The crux to understanding Hilbert’s conception of finitist mathematics (Hilbert, 1925, 1927) and (Hilbert and Bernays, 1934) is this question: In what sense can we prove general propositions, such as Vxy(x+y=y+x) about the natural numbers, without assuming the infinitude of numbers or some other infinite totality? For, if there is to be nontrivial finitist mathematics, one must be able to prove such propositions. Indeed, Hilbert was concerned with consistency proofs for formal systems, which are proofs of just this sort. Moreover, the ‘finite’ in ‘finitism’ means precisely that all reference to infinite totalities should be rejected.This chapter is in the first instance an attempt to answer this question. That is, I shall explain a sense in which one can prove such general propositions without assuming infinite totalities. In so doing I shall also be explicating the concept of finitism.
Remarks on Finitism
Authors: Tait William
Published: November 2023

The background of these remarks is that in “Constructive reasoning” (Tait, 1968), I sketched an argument that finitist arithmetic coincides with primitive recursive arithmetic (PRA) and in “Finitism” (Tait, 1981), reprinted here as chapter 1, I expanded on the argument. But some recent discus­ sions and some of the more recent literature on the subject lead me to think that a few further remarks would be useful. The question “What is finitism?” is really two questions, which I did separate in Tait (1981), but perhaps not sufficiently clearly. First, and, in truth, for me most important, there is the conceptual problem of making sense of the idea of a ‘finitist’ function or ‘finitist’ proof of a finitist arithmetic proposition such as Vxy[x + y = y + x], which seems to refer to the infinite totality of numbers. And second, there is the historical question of what Hilbert-or perhaps better, Hilbert and Bernays1-meant by “finitism.” The two questions are not entirely independent, of course, since it was Hilbert and Bernays who originally marked out the conception of finitist mathematics. But, if we take as the central issue the question of the ‘finite’ in finitism, we may be led to reject some aspects of the Hilbert-Bernays account. Indeed, my analysis rejects the Kantian element in their discussions. Their account of finitist mathematics begins with the restriction to objects representable in intuition or obtained by ‘intu­ itive abstraction’-’formal objects’ as Bernays calls them (Hilbert, 1926; Bernays, 1930-31). For Bernays the finiteness of mathematical objects is a consequence of their representability in intuition. (See Bernays, 1976, p. 40.) But our problem is, of course, not the finiteness of a number, but the infinity of numbers. There is, I think, a difficulty with Bernays’s notion of formal object, where this is intended to extend to numbers so large as not only to be beyond processing by the human mind, but possibly to be beyond representability in the physical world (Bernays, 1976, p. 39). This difficulty ought to be discussed more adequately than I have so far done, but I won’t take it up here.
Truth and Proof: The Platonism of Mathematics
Authors: Tait William
Published: November 2023

What is the relation in mathematics between truth and proof? An arithmetical proposition A, for example, is about a certain structure, the system of natural numbers. It refers to numbers and relations among them. If it is true, it is so in virtue of a certain fact about this structure. And this fact may obtain even if we do not or (e.g., because of its relative complexity) cannot know that it does. This is a typical expression of what has come to be called the Platonist (or platonist or realist) point of view toward mathematics. On the other hand, we learn mathematics by learning how to do things­ for example, to count, compute, solve equations, and more generally, to prove. Moreover, we learn that the ultimate warrant for a mathematical proposition is a proof of it. In other words, we are justified in asserting A-and therefore, in any ordinary sense, the truth of A-precisely when we have a proof of it.
Noesis: Plato on Exact Science
Authors: Tait William
Published: November 2023

Dedicated to Howard Stein on the occasion of his 70th birthday . There are two places in Plato’s Dialogues in which he discusses his conception of scientific explanation: the passages on the ‘second-best method’ in the Phaedo and the passages on noesis in the Divided Line simile in Book VI of the Republic. I have written about the first of these in Tait (1986b), and I discuss the second of them here. The conception in question is of what we would call exact science. Some exact sciences, the so-called mathemata, were already in existence in the fourth century B.C. in Greece, and Plato was concerned to argue for a proper foundation for them. The reason why is part of my story of the Divided Line. The Line itself, I will argue, is a rhetorical argument for foundations.1 Plato was also concerned with extending the scope of exact science to other domains, including political science, but that is not part of my story, although it should be a substantial part of any accurate account of the Republic as a whole.
Pope’s Imitations of Horace and the Authority of Inconsistency
Authors: Noggle James
Published: November 2023

A skeptical current runs through Pope’s Imitations of Horace (published from 1733 to 1738) that determines their most complicated ideological functions, especially his presentation of himself as a poet at once aloof from and mixing in the bewildering cultural forces driving 1730s Robinocracy. Pope’s skepticism in the Horatian poems, equivocal as it is, elaborates on the desire expressed in An Essay on Man for his authority to disappear, no longer by losing himself in the neutral, unknowable structure of the universe but now by presenting a specific poetic voice that detaches him from his own beliefs and feelings through the very candor with which he expresses them. This detachment resembles skeptical attitudes discussed in earlier chapters, a modest rejection of the self-confidence and positivity of rationalist dogmatism, as Pope expresses it in his Thoughts on Various Subjects (1727): “Since ‘tis reasonable to doubt most things, we should most of all doubt that Reason of ours which wou’d demonstrate all things.”1 But though resembling the Anglo-Catholic fideism of Dryden, or Swift’s embrace of commonplaces of Anglican intellectual modesty, or the Pascalian humility modified by the Essay, Pope’s Horatian discursive world is shaped not so much by religious controversy as by the explorations of virtue modeled in the Hellenistic philosophical schools, among them Pyrrhonistic and Academic skepticism.
Prologue: Who Was Peter Mitchell?
Authors: Prebble John , Weber Bruce
Published: November 2023

The life of Peter Dennis Mitchell (19w-1992), like that of most people, is characterized by complexities, contradictions, and paradoxes. Giographers, to the extent that they succeed, can capture only partially the richness of the phenomenon of another human being and his or her action in the world. Our knowledge is limited, no matter how much detailed information is available. Thus this biography inevitably represents an interpretation of Mitchell’s life from Sf’Veral of the mmwrous perspectives possible. This problem is compounded by the fact that the subject was a scientist, and much of Mitchell’s creativity and passion were engaged in activities that required both a technical and a specialist knowledge.
The Early Cambridge Years 1939-1947
Authors: Prebble John , Weber Bruce
Published: November 2023

Peter Mitchell arrived, loaded Home Guard revolver in pocket, in time for the Michaelmas (first of three) term at Jesus College to a Cambridge1 already altered by the war. Although the colleges were still functioning, there was a reduction in numbers of both staff and students, while portions of the colleges and other facilities had been requisitioned for war-related use. A part of Jesus College was USE’d for pilot training, for instance. Although only one minor air raid actually occurred, the townlived under blackout conditions. Mitchell took up residence at the college and joined an ambulance service, spending one night a week on duty.Partway through the first year, Mitchell moved from the college to a rented room nearby in a quiet terrace house, built in 1810, at 58 Jesus Luw to enjoy a less commm1al lifestyle. Music was still an important aspect of his life. He played the violin unacunnpanied, as well as with Maurice Sugden, whom he met at Jesus and who lived just annmd the corner in Malcolm Lane. Sugden, a chemist, went on to become a fellow of the Royal Society and was ultinutely knighted. Together they played through the Bach, Mozart, and Beethoven violin sonatas. One of Mitchell’s zoology instructors, Cyril Smith, also accompanied him and introduced him to Brahms and the late Romantics, as well as teaching him more advanced interpretation.
The Creation of Glynn 1962-1965
Authors: Prebble John , Weber Bruce
Published: November 2023

Both Helen and Peter had a desire for a retreat further south. At Carrington they found the autumn and winter very lovely, Carrington being above the snow line for some three months in the year. However, they felt that there was no spring: winter simply dissolved into summer. More seriously, Helen feared that Pat Robertson might not allow Daniel and Vanessa, the children from her first marriage, to travel to Scotland, where the legal system is slightly different In October 19ri1, while PetE’rwas in the UnitE’d State’s for a meeting of the Society for Cell Biology, Helen saw an advertisement in the S1111dny Times offering two cottages for sale in Cornwall-Clynn Mill and Clynn Mill Cottage.
Testing the Theory 1965-1968
Authors: Prebble John , Weber Bruce
Published: November 2023

The period starting in 1965 marks a point when Mitchell’s life became dominated by the need to explore the dwmiosmotic theory. ln addition, putting Mitchell’s concept of the private reSf’arch institute into effect in the second half of the twentieth century was a formidable task. He had made a massive investment of time, money, and personal energy in Glynn. Could such a small institute’ operate, successfully in a world in which science was increasingly carried out in large university departments and research institutes many times the size of Clynn? The prospect does not seem to have daunted Mitchell, who appears to have had total confidence in his ability to make the project succeed. ft is true he regarded it as somewhat of an experiment-nevertheless, an experiment with an anticipated positive outcome. Among Mitchell’s interests, which still included fanning, was the refurbishment of old houses. He had carried out a major refurbishment of Carrington while dt Edinburgh and then had undE’ftaken the restoration of Glynn. These refurbishments SE’em to have given him an enthusiasm for this type of work, and he wantE’d another propE’fty to support this enthusiasm. He acquired Illisland Manor (now Illisland Mansion), where reputedly Queen Elizabeth l had stayed. The village of Blisland is some ten miles or so from Glynn on the western edge of Bodmin Moor. The property was in need of major renovation, which Mitchell undertook over a period approaching ten years, using some of the craftsmen employed on Glynn. On completion it was sold, although not without some difficulty. Mitchell’s concern was to restore the building
Exploring the Implications of the Theory 1969-1973
Authors: Prebble John , Weber Bruce
Published: November 2023

While Mitchell had put forward his dwmiosmotic theory with a feeling that it could well be proved wrong, by 1969 he had acquired a certain amount of confidence in its validity. lt is tnw that in conversation with others he openly discusstcd the importance of finding experiments that might prove the theory wrong. Nevertheless, there were indications at the annual gc 1wral meeting of Glynn Rese>arch Limite’d in Jmw 1919 that he believed he had solved the central issue of oxidative phosphorylation.
From Review to Nobel Prize 1977—1978
Authors: Prebble John , Weber Bruce
Published: November 2023

The arguments on the mechanism of oxidative phosphorylation became increasingly like stet pieces, with various workers having adopted entrenched positions between the chemiosnwtic viewpoint and the conformational viewpoint Although the chemical theory had never quite died, it was now a minor part of the debate. Some in the field felt unable to accept the physiological concepts underlying the chemiosmotic theory, concepts that had not been part of mainstream biochemical thinking. The importance of the debate was not just a question of understanding the mechanism of oxidative phosphorylation; in many cases it was the driving force for the design of experiments. lnevitably, Mitchell was in the center of the debate. He adopted a stance of forthright ddense of the chemiosmotic theory on the ground that no experiment had yet falsified it even though it had been put to the test extensively.
Rhythmic Pharmacology
Authors: Palmer John D
Published: November 2023

The fundamental rate at which chemical reactions proceed is a function of temperature: As heat is applied, chemical changes take place more rapidly. Heat increases the kinetic energy of atoms and molecules, causing them to collide more frequently, permitting them to react with one another. An obvious example is the time required to turn liquid pancake batter into a solid pancake; the conversion depends on how hot the griddle is. Looking at it the other way, we keep food in the refrigerator to slow down the reactions that cause rancidity and spoilage.

Our lives depend on the myriad chemical reactions that take place within our tissues and organs, beginning with the digestion of meals we consume and moving to the conversion of the digestive products into human tissue. The warmer our deep-body temperature, the faster our internal chemistry churns; and as discussed in the previous chapter how warm we are at any time of day is in part dictated by our living clocks. Thus, because of our temperature rhythms, other factors being constant, dinners are digested faster than breakfasts because our temperature rhythm peaks around dinner time. The temperature rhythm also contributes somewhat to the additional prowess we exhibit in athletic events that are scheduled in the late afternoon and early evening; the change is produced in part by the chemistry of muscle contraction being speeded up at the temperature-rhythms maximum.