bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Trait Bin and Trait Cluster Accounts of Human Nature
Authors: Ramsey Grant
Published: July 2018

Conceptions of human nature fall under two broad categories, trait bin accounts and trait cluster accounts. Trait bin accounts take there to be a special bin of traits, one composed of all and only those traits constituting our nature. For those arguing for a trait bin account of human nature, the challenge is to articulate what it is that marks a trait as being inside or outside the bin. I argue that trait bin approaches to human nature are misguided, that there is no good way of dividing human traits into those that are a part of our nature and those that are not. Instead, I argue for a trait cluster account, which sees human nature as the patterns of trait expression within and across human life histories and better aligns the concept of human nature with the human sciences.
A Developmental Systems Account of Human Nature
Authors: Stotz Karola , Griffiths Paul
Published: July 2018

We argue here that to understand human nature is to understand the plastic process of human development and the diversity it produces. Drawing on the framework of developmental systems theory and the idea of developmental niche construction, we argue that human nature is not embodied in only one input to development, such as the genome, and that it should not be confined to universal or typical human characteristics. Both similarities and certain classes of differences are explained by a human developmental system that reaches well out into the ‘environment’. We point to a significant overlap between our account and the ‘life history trait cluster’ account of Grant Ramsey, and defend the developmental systems account against the accusation that trying to encompass developmental plasticity and human diversity leads to an unmanageably complex account of human nature.
Order and Restoration
Authors: DeJonge Michael P.
Published: July 2018

This chapter first elaborates on the character of the extreme situation that Bonhoeffer thinks forces individual vocational action in the direction of the venture of free responsibility. This extreme situation develops when the state thoroughly undermines its own mandate, in the process threatening all the orders and, indeed, all order. The chapter then considers the moral difficulty and moral value of the free responsibility of Bonhoeffer’s conspiratorial resistance. Its moral difficulty rests in the fact that the need for responsible action arises when the orders fall under threat, but these orders provide the very framework for moral action. The moral value of free responsibility comes in its goal of restoring the orders to their proper function so that the coming generation can live.
Conclusion
Authors: DeJonge Michael P.
Published: July 2018

The Conclusion considers the distance between Bonhoeffer’s politics and ours. Our own thinking about political resistance in the West tends to begin with the idea of inviolable human rights, the protection of which is a chief duty of the state. If the state allows those rights to be violated or violates them itself, individual citizens ought to resist, and the church should lend its moral authority. As this book has shown, Bonhoeffer’s vision of resistance differs from ours in several important ways. His political thinking privileges not rights but the state’s mandate for preservation. And for him it is not the chief task of the church but rather humanitarian organizations to speak out against the state on moral grounds. This latter, consistently articulated distinction between humanitarian organizations and the church as the gospel community frequently sets Bonhoeffer’s politics at some distance from ours.
Darwinian Evolution
Authors: Steane Andrew
Published: July 2018

Having asserted what Darwinian evolution is not, we next consider what it is. The aim is to get a reasonable overall judgement of what sort of process and sequence of events is found. The existence and role of randomness or openness is discussed. The text looks briefly at animal aggression. It is argued that the metaphor of ‘eagerness’ is better than the metaphor of ‘selfisheness’ when thinking about genes. The journey undergone by life on Earth has not been a mere sequence of events, but a story of noteable and genuine increase in richness of expression. Nor has it been merely haphazard, because the very richness it came to express was itself shaped by the patterns that apply at the various levels, including, for example, the level of social existence. The judgement that this is a meaningful story is an intellectually substantial judgement.
Drawing Threads Together
Authors: Steane Andrew
Published: July 2018

This continues the theme opened up by the previous chapter, by showing how religious experience operates and how it informs human life. This includes the experience of mercy invoked by music, for example, and the notion that we are fundamentally called into a loving relationship, and given a role to play. This is not about providing further components to scientific explanations, but it does encourage us to do science.
Extraterrestrial Life
Authors: Steane Andrew
Published: July 2018

An overheard (fictional) conversation between a terrestrial speaker and a representative alien from some other planet orbiting some other star. The conversation touches on moral and spiritual issues. The main aim is to make the attempt not to be parochial.
Silence
Authors: Steane Andrew
Published: July 2018

This brief chapter presents a spiritual exercise, which is to contemplate an ordinary physical object in a way that does not involve assessing it but involves merely being in its presence and allowing it to impinge~on~one.
The Liberal Tradition and the Challenge from Behavioural Economics
Authors: Sugden Robert
Published: July 2018

Chapter 1 describes the liberal tradition of economics, encapsulated in John Stuart Mill’s account of the market as a ‘community of advantage’ in which individuals cooperate for mutual benefit, pursuing their respective interests, as they perceive them. This favourable view of economic freedom has often been presented in terms of ‘neoclassical’ theories that assume that individuals make rational choices based on stable, context-independent preferences. By calling this assumption into question, recent work in behavioural economics poses a challenge to accepted methods of doing normative analysis in economics and to the liberal tradition more generally. Chapter 1 introduces this challenge and gives a preliminary sketch of how the book will respond to it.
The Invisible Hand
Authors: Sugden Robert
Published: July 2018

Chapter 6 presents a new formulation of Adam Smith’s ‘invisible hand’ argument. The underlying idea is that markets are valuable because they provide opportunities for voluntary transactions (rather than because they satisfy preferences). I propose a ‘Strong Interactive Opportunity Criterion’ which requires that all opportunities for feasible and non-dominated transactions within groups of individuals are made available to those individuals. I define competitive equilibrium without making assumptions about the rationality of individuals’ choices and show that the Strong Interactive Opportunity Criterion is satisfied in every competitive equilibrium of an exchange economy. This result is analogous with the classic theorems that every competitive equilibrium is Pareto-efficient and is in the ‘core’ of the economy. I extend these results to ‘storage economies’ in which trade and consumption take place over time and in which individuals’ choices may be dynamically inconsistent.
Identifying Community Interests in International Law
Authors: Wolfrum Rüdiger
Published: July 2018

This chapter explores the general question of how to establish that the regulation of a certain matter constitutes a matter of community-wide concern, which is the necessary step for the recognition of community obligation. The hypothesis is that such a qualification must, first, be well founded factually and, secondly, accepted as such in a legal or political legitimizing process. On this basis, the chapter suggests that the governance of spaces beyond national jurisdiction constitutes a community interest and has to be guided by the interests of the international community. Exploring this question with respect to key common spaces and particular issues, the chapter notes the difficulty of most of the dispute settlement systems, which, being bilateral, are not fully adequate to address questions related to the management of global commons as well as for the protection of the environment. To avoid this difficulty, the chapter suggests greater reliance on advisory opinions where available.
What Role for International Organizations in the Promotion of Community Interests? Reflections on the Ideology of Functionalism
Authors: Klabbers Jan
Published: July 2018

This chapter examines the role of international organizations in promoting community interests. It describes ways in which international organizations contribute to formulating, maintaining, and enhancing community interests. Organizations can contribute to the community interest by serving as a platform for its formulation; through coercion of member states or others; by developing ideas and consensus concerning the community interest; and by relying on the ideology of functionalism. The notion of community interest does not exist in isolation from particular projects, and by definition assumes someone pouring meaning into it. Although this might seem a bad thing, it is not necessarily so. The term ideology is best seen as a methodological device for exposing aspects of reality that otherwise would remain hidden. The point is to recognize international organizations for what they are: Someone’s political project, dressed up in terms of the community interest and operated by the ideology of functionalist thought.
International Investment Law and Community Interests
Authors: Schill Stephan W. , Djanic Vladislav
Published: July 2018

In contemporary discourse, international investment law and investor-state dispute settlement (ISDS) are often perceived as threats to community interests in one-sidedly protecting foreign investors and undermining public policies that are to the benefit of the local population and the international community. The chapter promotes a different perspective. First, it argues that international investment law properly construed can be conceptualized as protecting community interests, because it is part of the legal infrastructure necessary for the functioning of the global economy under a rule of law framework. Aimed at supporting economic growth, this helps further economic and noneconomic community interests, including sustainable development. Second, the chapter argues that international investment law and ISDS do not turn a blind eye to the conflicts that can arise between economic and noneconomic community interests, such as environmental protection or human rights. Instead, international investment law and ISDS have numerous mechanisms at their disposal for alleviating tensions with noneconomic community interests.
Community Interests and the Right to Health in Trade and Investment Law
Authors: Voon Tania , Mitchell Andrew
Published: July 2018

The authors examine the interaction between international trade and investment law on the one hand and the right to health as a human right on the other. They argue that international economic law has the potential to make a profound impact on the realization of the right to health. Yet the relationship between international economic law, on the one hand, and international human rights law and the right to health, on the other, is rarely acknowledged explicitly in the primary sources of trade and investment law. The chapter considers the U.N. treatment of this relationship as well as the right to health and human rights in WTO agreements, preferential trade agreements, bilateral investment treaties, and international disputes. Using tobacco control as a case study, the chapter concludes that international economic law has the capacity to balance health interests, such that the objectives of health, trade, and investment can be aligned.
“Community Interests” and the Role of International Law in the Creation of a Global Market for Agricultural Land
Authors: von Bernstorff Jochen
Published: July 2018

The chapter explores the notion of “community interests” with regard to the global “land-grab” phenomenon. Over the last decade, a dramatic increase of foreign investment in agricultural land could be observed. Bilateral investment treaties protect around 75 per cent of these large-scale land acquisitions, many of which came with associated social problems, such as displaced local populations and negative consequences for food security in Third World countries receiving these large-scale foreign investments. Hence, two potentially conflicting areas of international law are relevant in this context: Economic, social, and cultural rights and the principles of permanent sovereignty over natural resources and “food sovereignty” challenging large-scale investments on the one hand, and specific norms of international economic law stabilizing them on the other. The contribution discusses the usefulness of the concept of “community interests” in cases where the two colliding sets of norms are both considered to protect such interests.
Community Interests in International Migration and Refugee Law
Authors: Kritzman-Amir Tally
Published: July 2018

This chapter takes a closer look at some of the main components of international refugee law and some of the recent European practices in order to see how they resonate the notion of community obligation and convey a commitment to the common protection of human rights, in a way that deviates from a purely consent-based conception of the norms. It addresses four main points: (1) a broad interpretation of the definition of refugee in the convention relating to the status of refugees as an expression of a notion of community obligation; (2) non-refoulement as an expression of a notion of community obligation; (3) the duty to refrain from rejecting asylum-seekers at the border as an expression of a notion of community obligation; and (4) responsibility sharing as an expression of a community obligation.
Human Rights Extraterritoriality
Authors: Bignami Francesca , Resta Giorgio
Published: July 2018

The chapter focuses on national security surveillance by spy agencies. The safeguards afforded for privacy under the law of national security surveillance in the U.S. and the EU appear to be motivated as much, if not more, by national self-interest as by a universal right to privacy. In the U.S., the law has traditionally protected the privacy rights of insiders far more assiduously than those of outsiders. In the EU, there is no power to act internally in the national security domain, but it has certain powers to regulate privacy externally, by setting the terms of intelligence-agency access to EU personal data. There are currently four such EU–U.S. agreements in place. Unsurprisingly, given the bilateral nature of these agreements, they reflect the traditional, self-interested logic of international law designed to further the interests of the parties to the agreement rather than the broader international community.
Toyota: Ohno’s Toyota Production System
Authors: Brooker Paul , Hayward Margaret
Published: July 2018

Taiichi Ohno was never CEO of Toyota—rather he was part of dual-leadership teams—but his pioneering version of ‘lean’ production made significant contributions to Toyota’s success and to global manufacturing. The chapter’s first section also describes the pioneering contribution of Toyota founder, Kiichiro Toyoda, who invented the notion of just-in-time production in the 1930s. In the 1950s–60s Ohno’s emphasis on innovative adaptation—his key rational method—to Japan’s distinctive car market and factory environments would lead to a new production system. It included the internationally famous ‘just-in-time’, ‘continuous flow’, and Kanban information-system aspects of his production system. Ohno also used both strategic and quantitative calculation, particularly in his grand strategy of reducing cost/waste in production. The final section on ‘Toyotaism versus Fordism’ echoes Chapter 2’s and describes a rivalry between the American and Japanese production systems.
McDonald’s: Kroc’s Grinding it Out
Authors: Brooker Paul , Hayward Margaret
Published: July 2018

Kroc established an iconic global fast-food empire even though he did not found his firm, McDonald’s, until in his fifties. An innovative franchising system was crucial to McDonald’s success, together with a two-dimensional marketing strategy which was quality and family oriented and stressed the formula QSC&V (Quality, Service, Cleanliness, and Value). While his emphasis was on innovative adaptation, strategic (marketing) calculation, and diverse deliberation, Kroc used all six of the rational methods. For example, he and his ‘numbers man’ Sonneborn created the leasing financial base for McDonald’s nation-wide expansion. Kroc’s emphasis on diverse deliberation included allowing his managers to argue with him as well as sell him policy proposals—often through informal deliberation. The final section describes his pioneering international joint-venture system that helped McDonald’s spread around the globe and be adapted to different cultures and markets worldwide.
GA: Armani’s Giorgio Armani
Authors: Brooker Paul , Hayward Margaret
Published: July 2018

The Armani high-fashion example illustrates the importance of adaptive rational methods in his founding and developing of an iconic high-fashion firm. Armani adapted stylistically to fashion’s new times in the 1970–80s by creating a new style catering for the career woman. His stylistic adaptation is compared with that of another famous Italian fashion designer, Versace, who instead modernized haute couture fashion and created a succession of glamourous styles. Both leaders exploited the same opportunity but in different ways. The third section compares these leaders’ legacies in the 1990s–2000s and assesses from a long-term perspective how capably they had used adaptive rational methods. The final section shifts the focus from fashion to the cosmetics industry and from Italy to the UK. Anita Roddick used adaptive rational methods to establish The Body Shop corporation in the 1970s–80s. However, she then abandoned rational methods with dire results for her corporation in the 1990s.
The Deed is Everything
Authors: Ridley Aaron
Published: July 2018

Nietzsche is often held to be an extreme sceptic about human agency, keen to debunk it along every dimension. He dismisses the ideas of freedom, autonomy, and morality, we are told, and even the very existence of agents or selves. This book sets out the opposite view. It does so by arguing that Nietzsche was committed to an ‘expressivist’ conception of agency, a conception that contrasts with the ‘empiricist’ orthodoxy and which—partly in virtue of that fact—allows him to develop highly distinctive accounts not only of freedom, autonomy, and morality, but also of selfhood. In the course of the argument, a variety of central Nietzschean themes are revisited—for example, self-creation, the sovereign individual, will to power, Kantian and Christian morality, amor fati—often to unexpected effect. The Nietzsche who emerges from this book has a clear, if demanding, conception of human agency and a robust commitment to the value of human excellencein all of its forms.
Conclusion
Authors: Ridley Aaron
Published: July 2018

I have underlined the modesty of what I have attempted in this book throughout. I’ve suggested that expressivism is an approach to the philosophy of agency rather than a fully fledged theory within it. I’ve suggested that Nietzsche draws upon that approach, indeed is sympathetic to it, without attributing to him any sort of unwavering investment in it. I’ve suggested that Nietzsche’s thoughts about freedom and autonomy respond well to being read in expressivist colours; that his thoughts about morality show some unexpected sides when read in those colours; and that such a reading adds nuance, at least, to his thoughts about selfhood, about what we are. But I’ve been careful all along to keep the soft pedal firmly to the floor....
Supplications to the Pope from the University of Cambridge in the Fourteenth Century
Authors: Courtenay William J.
Published: July 2018

This introductory chapter discusses supplications containing the petitions of university masters for benefices from the pope. The University of Cambridge is important in this discussion, since the archives of the University contain original drafts of three supplication rolls from the late fourteenth century, something that is extremely rare. The chapter then brings together evidence for the results of rotuli of supplication by the University of Cambridge from 1331 to 1371. All the rotuli discussed here show the importance of legal studies at Cambridge, particularly civil law, outweighing all other faculties save arts. That seems to have been in part a result of Edward II's founding of King's Hall, the first royal college at any English university and for a time the largest college at Cambridge, with the goal of preparing young scholars for positions in royal administration.
Studies on the Iconography of Universities in the Holy Roman Empire: Images on Seals and Maces
Authors: Kress Berthold
Published: July 2018

This chapter provides an iconographic overview on how the universities of the Holy Roman Empire displayed their authority. It will focus on two aspects. The first is the development of iconographic formulae that can convey the constitution and activity of a university or one of its faculties; and the second is the role of coats of arms or other political signs that indicate the relation between the university and the rulers of the territory in which it was situated. A seventeenth-century legal treatise on insignia gives a long list of the signs of the head of a university: maces (Sceptra), robe (Epomis), register (Matricula), the presence of bedells, seals, books of statutes and privileges, and the keys to consistory and prison. Of these objects, only the two that regularly bear images is discussed in this chapter: the seals and the maces.
Strenæ Natalitiæ
Authors: Gibson William
Published: July 2018

This chapter looks at Strenæ Natalitiæ, a volume of poems produced by the University of Oxford to celebrate the events of the birth of the Prince of Wales in 1688. The University of Oxford's Strenæ Natalitiæ was a volume of over a hundred poems, with an obligatory introductory poem contributed by vice-chancellor Gilbert Ironside. The contibutors to Strenæ Natalitiæ were not simply a cross-section of the university's membership and poetic talent, but also of its politics. In some respects, youthful naivety might have been a cause of some of the authors' willingness to embrace the birth of James Edward, despite the anxiety felt by some of their fellow authors. Some of the verse was simple, and naïve in tone. Other verses were marked by a more mystical and prophetic tone. Ultimately, the verses in Strenæ Natalitiæ were predictable in their expressions of congratulation and celebration, though some also contained carefully muted expressions of equivocation.
The Concept of the Individual and Its Scope
Authors: Renz Ursula
Published: July 2018

This chapter discusses the implications of Spinoza’s concept of individual bodies, as introduced in the definition of individuum in the physical digression. It begins by showing that this definition allows for an extremely wide application of the term; accordingly, very different sorts of physical entities can be described as Spinozistic individuals. Given the quite distinct use of the terms divisibilis and indivisibilis in his metaphysics, however, the chapter argues that the physical concept of individuality is not universally applied in the Ethics but reserved for physical or natural-philosophical considerations. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the problem of collective individuals. It is argued that, while societies or states are described as individual bodies, they do not constitute individual group minds in the strict sense of the term for Spinoza. This in turn indicates that minds are not individuated in the same way as bodies.
The Definition of the Human Mind in Its Derivation
Authors: Renz Ursula
Published: July 2018

This chapter analyzes the passages in which Spinoza develops his definition of the human mind. It begins by reading 2p11 as denying that the mind is something like a bearer of mental states. Next, the chapter argues that, in claiming that the mind is part of the infinite intellect, Spinoza is not referring to the mind’s activity but rather defending holism with respect to mental content. Through an examination of the wording of 2p12, the chapter shows that, contrary to most interpretations, Spinoza does not assume that the human mind perceives any affections of the body. The chapter concludes by showing how, by identifying the mind with the idea of the body, Spinoza solves the problem of the numerical difference between finite minds. Altogether, the chapter shows that, for Spinoza, the human mind is not an idea that God cognizes but the awareness by which we identify our own body.
Interlude
Authors: Renz Ursula
Published: July 2018

This interlude compares the role that the physical digression plays in the Ethics with the function of physics or neuropsychology in contemporary philosophy of mind. It is argued that, unlike in many contemporary approaches, Spinoza does not pursue a reductionist strategy. Instead, the introduction of the physical digression has two very specific functions. On the one hand, it serves as a model that allows Spinoza to conceptualize differences between specific minds, albeit in a preliminary manner. On the other hand, in support of his introduction of the concept of common notions, the digression also justifies his later claim that, by means of coining scientific concepts, humans are able to form adequate ideas of the properties of natural entities.
Emotions, or How to Explain Qualities of Experience
Authors: Renz Ursula
Published: July 2018

This chapter provides a reconstruction of the overall approach of Spinoza’s theory of the emotions. It shows that, by distinguishing between primary and secondary affects, Spinoza reconciles two seemingly opposed explanatory strategies, namely naturalism and culturalism or semanticism with respect to the emotions. It does so by discerning two layers of explanation in Spinoza’s approach. His treatment of the so-called primary affects, it is argued, is meant to account for the general nature of human affects as well as for the causes of our being subject to emotions. His derivation of various secondary affects, on the other hand, is meant to explain in detail why we have the particular emotions we, in fact, do. Thus, as with his theory of the imagination, Spinoza’s theory of affects shows that the explanation of human experiences is a realistic aim.
Democracy and the Cartelization of Political Parties
Authors: Katz Richard S. , Mair Peter
Published: July 2018

Political parties have long been recognized as essential institutions of democratic governance. Both the organization of parties, and their relationships with citizens, the state, and each other have evolved since the rise of liberal democracy in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Going into the twenty-first century, it appears that parties are losing popular support, putting both parties, and potentially democracy, in peril. This book traces the evolution of parties from the model of the mass party, through the catch-all party model, to argue that by the late twentieth century the principal governing parties (and their allied smaller parties—collectively the political “mainstream”) were effectively forming a cartel, in which the form of competition might remain, and indeed even appear to intensify, while its substance was increasingly hollowed out. The spoils of office were increasingly shared rather than restricted to the temporary winners; contentious policy questions were kept off the political agenda, and competition shifted from large questions of policy to minor questions of managerial competence. To support this cartel, the internal arrangements of parties changed to privilege the party in public office over the party on the ground. The unintended consequence has been to stimulate the rise of extra-cartel challengers to these cozy arrangements in the form of anti-party-system parties and populist oppositions on the left, but especially on the right.
The Locus of Power in Parties
Authors: Katz Richard S. , Mair Peter
Published: July 2018

Rather than being unitary actors, each party is a political system in itself, with three major “faces”: the party in public office; the party central office; and the party on the ground. Over time, the balance of power within parties has shifted, to support the dominance of the party in public office. This evolution has been accompanied by institutional changes, and it has been supported by the growing similarity of the positions of members of the party in public office (responsibilities of governing; exigencies of professional political careers) regardless of the political complexion of their parties or the demands of their members.
Parties and the State
Authors: Katz Richard S. , Mair Peter
Published: July 2018

For most of their history, political parties were understood to be external to the state. Particularly starting in the last quarter of the twentieth century, there has been an accelerating trend to redefine the relationships between parties and civil society on the one hand, and between parties and the state, on the other. Parties have been drawing away from society and moving toward the state. Parties often draw a large portion of their resources from the state in the form of subventions and are increasingly regulated by the state according to norms more generally associated with public entities than with private associations. The resulting similarity of regulatory and financial circumstances, and the expansion of partisan public offices shared by parties that are temporarily in office and temporarily out of office, both brings the mainstream parties closer to one another and blurs the boundary between parties and the state.
Christ’s Creed
Authors: Radde-Gallwitz Andrew
Published: July 2018

This chapter examines four works in which Gregory defends himself against charges of heterodoxy in his Trinitarian teaching: the confessions of faith known as Epistles 5 and 24, as well as the treatises To Eustathius—On the Holy Trinity and Against the Macedonians—On the Holy Spirit. The chapter first sets the works into the context of Gregory’s activities as an ambassador for the Council of Antioch in 379. Concerned Nicene allies prompted Gregory to write Epistles 5 and 24, and questions about those documents in turn prompted the two treatises examined in this chapter, as well as To Ablabius. Gregory’s reasoning in these works is centered on the interpretation of Matthew 28:19, which Gregory reads as Christ’s creed. In particular, Gregory grounds the unity of the Trinity on the activity of life-giving that comes in baptism from the Father, through the Son, and is perfected in the Holy Spirit.
Introduction
Authors: González Gabriela
Published: July 2018

Introduction: The introductory chapter considers how transborder activists opposed race-based discrimination and sought to “save” la raza by challenging their marginality in the United States. The quest for rights itself represented a modernist intervention in a racist society. However, their efforts at redemption were not limited to societal transformations. They also invested much energy into effecting individual and communal changes among Mexican-origin people. Activists such as Malpica de Munguía expressed faith in the tenets of modern society, believing that the best hope for the underprivileged lay in their adaptation to the best aspects of modernity. By lifting them out of their “state of intellectual, moral, and economic abandonment,” activists believed they could redeem la raza.
“Todo Por la Patria y el Hogar” (All for Country and Home)
Authors: González Gabriela
Published: July 2018

This chapter examines how Rómulo and Carolina Munguía were guided by a belief in the power of and potential for individual and social transformations, reflecting their coming of age during an era of revolution in Mexico and Progressive-era reforms on both sides of the border. In their public endeavors throughout their lives, they sought to rescue Mexican-origin people from social decay and cultural and intellectual abandonment. Over the course of their fifty years of service to the San Antonio community, they nurtured a concern for the plight of el méxico de afuera (Mexicans in the United States), pursuing a reform agenda that underscored their keen awareness of how much sociocultural and institutional systems needed to be modified to achieve true equity in society.
La Pasionaria (the Passionate One)
Authors: González Gabriela
Published: July 2018

This chapter explores how the organizational work of Mexican-origin people in Depression-era San Antonio reflected a diversity of ideas and strategies. Responses to the challenges of racial discrimination and severe poverty in the city’s Westside ran the gamut from Carolina Munguía’s maternalist and benevolent practices to Emma Tenayuca’s radical reform politics. Tenayuca believed that communism could serve as a means to strengthen labor—by organizing the unemployed so they would have rights. Although Tenayuca married during the height of her political activism, she did not arrange her activities around the mantle of domesticity. As an activist, she turned to the Communist Party and functioned as a worker, not as a mother, which often placed her at odds with gender and class conventions.
Lower- and Higher-Level Social Cognitive Factors Across Individuals With Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders and Healthy Controls: Relationship With Neurocognition and Functional Outcome
Authors: Oliver Lindsay D , Haltigan John D , Gold James M , Foussias George , DeRosse Pamela , Buchanan Robert W , Malhotra Anil K , Voineskos Aristotle N
Published: July 2018

Background

Schizophrenia spectrum disorders (SSDs) often feature social cognitive deficits. However, little work has focused on the factor structure of social cognition, and results have been inconsistent in schizophrenia. This study aimed to elucidate the factor structure of social cognition across people with SSDs and healthy controls. It was hypothesized that a 2-factor model, including lower-level “simulation” and higher-level “mentalizing” factors, would demonstrate the best fit across participants.

Methods

Participants with SSDs (N = 164) and healthy controls (N = 102) completed social cognitive tasks ranging from emotion recognition to complex mental state inference, as well as clinical and functional outcome, and neurocognitive measures. Structural equation modeling was used to test social cognitive models, models of social cognition and neurocognition, measurement invariance between cases and controls, and relationships with outcome measures.

Results

A 2-factor (simulation and mentalizing) model fit the social cognitive data best across participants and showed adequate measurement invariance in both SSD and control groups. Patients showed lower simulation and mentalizing scores than controls, but only mentalizing was significantly associated with negative symptoms and functional outcome. Social cognition also mediated the relationship between neurocognition and both negative symptoms and functional outcome.

Conclusions

These results uniquely indicate that distinct lower- and higher-level aspects of social cognition exist across SSDs and healthy controls. Further, mentalizing may be particularly linked to negative symptoms and functional outcome. This informs future studies of the neural circuitry underlying social cognition and the development of targeted treatment options for improving functional outcome.
Taxing the Good? Distortions, Misallocation, and Productivity in Sub-Saharan Africa
Authors: Cirera Xavier , Fattal-Jaef Roberto , Maemir Hibret
Published: July 2018

This paper uses comprehensive and comparable firm-level manufacturing censuses from four Sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries to examine the extent, costs, and nature of within-industry resource misallocation between heterogeneous production units. This paper finds evidence of severe misallocation in which resources are diverted away from high-productivity firms towards low-productivity ones, although the magnitude differs across countries. Estimated aggregate productivity gains from the hypothetical equalization of marginal returns range from 30 percent in Côte d’Ivoire to 160 percent in Kenya. The magnitude of reallocation gains appears considerably lower when performing the same counterfactual exercise based on the World Bank Enterprise Surveys once the value-added shares of industries are adjusted using the census data. This suggests that linking firm-level survey data to aggregate outcomes requires census-type data or sampling methods that take the true structure of production into account.
Identification of Virulences of the Rust FungusMelampsora larici-populinaOccurring in Chile
Authors: Albornoz Marta V. , Lolas Mauricio , Verdugo Jaime A. , Ramírez Claudio C.
Published: July 2018

Melampsora larici-populina Kleb. is a Eurasian species that causes leaf rust of many species of Populus from sections Tacamahaca and Aigeiros. This rust has been inadvertently introduced to many parts around the world affecting poplar species that grow naturally, which may be susceptible to this fungus. In Chile, early European settlers introduced poplars; rust, attributed to M. larici-populina, has been reported in these trees since 1918. However, a modern confirmation has been lacking, and pathogenic variation of the Chilean population of M. larici-populina has not been investigated. Using a morphological analysis of urediniospores and sequencing of internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions, we confirmed the presence of M. larici-populina in Chile. ITS regions exhibited 100% homology with M. larici-populina. Scanning electron microscopy showed that spores were 26 to 47 µm in length, 13 to 16 µm in width, and echinulate except for apices, which are smooth, characteristics described for this species of rust. The variability of M. larici-populina is characterized by the presence of pathotypes, which allows the fungus to infect despite the resistance of certain poplar hybrids. We concluded that the identified spores belong to M. larici-populina, with virulences 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. These results describe variation in virulence of M. larici-populina, which suggests the presence of a sexual stage in Chile.
miR‐132‐3p boosts caveolae‐mediated transcellular transport in glioma endothelial cells by targeting PTEN/PI3K/PKB/Src/Cav‐1 signaling pathway
Authors: Gu Yanting , Cai Ruiping , Zhang Cai , Xue Yixue , Pan Yali , Wang Jiahong , Zhang Zhou
Published: July 2018

Blood–brain tumor barrier (BTB) impedes the transportation of antitumor therapeutic drugs into brain tumors. Its mechanism is still unknown, but learning how to improve the BTB permeability is critical for drug intervention. Recently, microRNAs (miRNAs) have appeared as regulation factors of numerous biologic processes and therapeutic targets of diverse diseases. In this study, we have identified that miR‐132‐3p is an essential miRNA by increasing the transcellular transport through the BTB. We found that miR‐132‐3p expression was significantly up‐regulated in glioma endothelial cells (GECs). Furthermore we showed that miR132‐3p+ greatly induced the endocytosis of cholera toxin subunit B and FITC–bovine serum albumin and up‐regulated the expression of p‐PKB, p‐Src and Tyr14 phosphorylation of caveolin‐1 (p‐Cav‐1), while phosphatase and tensin homolog deleted on chromosome 10 (PTEN) expression was markedly down‐regulated in GECs. Our results identify PTEN as a direct and functional downstream target of miR‐132‐3p, which is involved in the regulation of p‐PKB, p‐Src, and p‐Cav‐1. The inhibitors for PI3K and Src significantly reversed the increase of p‐Cav‐1 induced by miR‐132‐3p. Moreover, overexpression of PTEN greatly reduced the endocytosis of cholera toxin subunit B and the up‐regulation of p‐Cav‐1 induced by agomiR132‐3p, suggesting that miR132‐3p+ increases the endothelial permeability by inhibition of PTEN expression. In addition, miR132‐3p+ significantly increased the delivery of doxorubicin across the BTB in vitro and contributed to the accumulation of doxorubicin within the brain tumor tissue. Our results show that miR‐132‐3p contributes to the increased permeability of BTB by targeting PTEN/PI3K/PKB/Src/Cav‐1, thereby revealing a novel drug target for the treatment of brain gliomas.—Gu, Y., Cai, R., Zhang, C., Xue, Y., Pan, Y., Wang, J., Zhang, Z. miR‐132‐3p boosts caveolae‐mediated transcellular transport in glioma endothelial cells by targeting PTEN/PI3K/PKB/Src/Cav‐1 signaling pathway. FASEB J. 33, 441–454 (2019). www.fasebj.org
Activity-Based Restorative Therapy and Skin Tears in Patients with Spinal Cord Injury
Authors: Catania Quyen Nguyen , Morgan Marjorie , Martin Rebecca
Published: July 2018

OBJECTIVES:

To determine the risk factors associated with skin tear development while participating in activity-based restorative therapy (ABRT), describe the possible consequences of skin tears incurred during therapy, and provide risk reduction strategies.

METHODS:

This was a retrospective review of electronic medical records from 2012 to 2015 in a spinal cord outpatient rehabilitation center; 21 of 54 patients who reported a wound at initial evaluation were diagnosed with skin tears. Nine of the 21 patients acquired skin tears during their course of ABRT. Of those 9, 7 were diagnosed with tetraplegia and 2 with paraplegia. All patients were treated by a wound care specialist 2 to 3 times per week while participating in therapy, with plan-of-care modifications to improve wound healing and maximize benefits of ABRT.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES:

Primary outcome measures were level of injury, International Standards for Neurological Classification of Spinal Cord Injury, age at initial evaluation, Spinal Cord Independence Measure, and International Skin Tear Advisory Panel skin tear classification.

MAIN RESULTS:

Six of 9 patients completed their full scheduled course of therapy with wounds closing within 30 days. Two patients’ treatments were discontinued, and 1 patient was discharged because of exacerbation of a preexisting pressure injury.

CONCLUSIONS:

Skin tears can affect therapy by altering patient outcomes. Patient and clinician education, policy modifications, and risk management plans improved skin protection and prevented skin tears in this patient population. Only 2 subsequent cases of therapy-related skin tears were recorded in 2016.
Adults and children with anaphylaxis in the emergency room: why it is not recognized?
Authors: Aun Marcelo V. , Kalil Jorge , Giavina-Bianchi Pedro
Published: July 2018

Purpose of review

Despite many international guidelines have been published in the last 10 years, anaphylaxis continues to be underdiagnosed, undernotified, and undertreated. Anaphylactic reactions in adults and children in emergency departments are frequently not recognized, leading to underutilization of epinephrine, and a higher risk of death.

Recent findings

A few studies have been recently published showing that educational intervention for both physicians and other healthcare professionals improve diagnosis and treatment of anaphylaxis. Moreover, the new International Classification of Diseases, 11th edition improved classification of anaphylaxis, making it easier to be notified.

Anaphylaxis is a life-threatening hypersensitivity reaction that is most frequently seen by emergency physicians and nurses than allergists or immunologists. Education seems to be best strategy to improve management of this severe condition.
The Evolution of the Clinician–Educator in the United States and Canada: Personal Reflections Over the Last 45 Years
Authors: Greenberg Larrie
Published: July 2018

The challenging and changing face of medicine over the last 45 years of the author’s career has dictated where faculty members’ primary interaction with patients occurs, how they teach trainees, and how they measure educational outcomes. The transfer of patient care from the inpatient to the ambulatory setting in the late 20th century was instrumental in creating a “new’ model for faculty—that is, the clinician–educator (CE). This individual has been defined as a faculty member whose primary responsibility as part of the academic mission is patient care and whose focus is on the theoretical constructs that inform excellent teaching and effective learning, applying these to create and inform educational scholarship. Three major forces have affected the CE over time—namely, faculty development, educational scholarship, and the advent of communities of learners. This Invited Commentary traces the evolvement of the CE from the perspective of the author.
Does Reducing Clerkship Lengths by 25% Affect Medical Student Performance and Perceptions?
Authors: Monrad Seetha U. , Zaidi Nikki L. Bibler , Gruppen Larry D. , Gelb Douglas J. , Grum Cyril , Morgan Helen K. , Daniel Michelle , Mangrulkar Rajesh S. , Santen Sally A.
Published: July 2018

Purpose

Transforming a medical school curriculum wherein students enter clerkships earlier could result in two cohorts in clerkships simultaneously during the transition. To avoid overlapping cohorts at the University of Michigan Medical School, the length of all required clerkships was decreased by 25% during the 2016–2017 academic year, without instituting other systematic structural changes. The authors hypothe sized that the reduction in clerkship duration would result in decreases in student perfor mance and changes in student perceptions.

Method

One-way analyses of variance and Tukey post hoc tests were used to compare the 2016–2017 shortened clerkship cohort with the preceding traditional clerkship cohorts (2014–2015 and 2015–2016) on the following student outcomes: National Board of Medical Examiners (NBME) subject exam scores, year-end clinical skills exam scores, evaluation of clerkships, perceived stress, resiliency, well-being, and perception of the learning environment.

Results

There were no significant differences in performance on NBME subject exams between the shortened clerkship cohort and the 2015–2016 traditional cohort, but scores declined significantly over the three years for one exam. Perceptions of clerkship quality improved for three shortened clerkships; there were no significant declines. Learning environment perceptions were not worse for the shortened clerkships. There were no significant differences in performance on the clinical skills exam or in perceived stress, resiliency, and well-being.

Conclusions

The optimal clerkship duration is a matter of strong opinion, supported by few empirical data. These results provide some evidence that accelerating clinical education may, for the studied outcomes, be feasible.