bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Recarving and Alteration of Maya Monuments
Authors: Baker Robert George
Published: April 2006

The common assumption that Maya stelae record contemporaneity of carving, style, erection, and calendar date is challenged by evidence that shows instances in which (1) stylistic inconsistencies have been caused by alterations of a monument during different periods of time; (2) the latest recorded glyphic date is not the date of erection but rather the date of the latest completed alteration of the monument; (3) the practice of recarving and the associated innovations served as determinants of change in stylistic development. Physical evidence of the removal of carved elements and recarving is reviewed for carved wooden lintels at Tikal and stelae at Xultún, Yaxchilán, Uaxactún, Quiriguá Tikal, Naranjo, Piedras Negras, and Copán. Details of substela chambers, the placement of caches, the presence of multiple floors, and the condition of stela bases at Copán, Quiriguá, and Uaxactún indicate that stelae were raised in position as well as recarved. It is suggested that the period of the original erection of a monument is most closely related to the earliest date present, while the latest date present refers only to the latest completed alteration of the monument.
The Beaver Creek Agricultural Community on the San Juan River, Utah
Authors: Lindsay Alexander J.
Published: April 2006

This prehistoric Pueblo III community consists of 14 sites with evidence of efforts to control water and soil on or near the delta formed by Beaver Creek, an intermittent tributary of the San Juan which flows through Cha Canyon draining a watershed of about 16 square miles on the northern slopes of Navajo Mountain. The small house units, kivas, terraces, linear and grid borders, ditches, windscreens, and possible cisterns or walled-in springs were built by Anasazi people of Kayenta affiliation from the adjacent Rainbow Plateau who occupied the canyon lands probably seasonally during the 12th century. The terraces and linear and grid borders are comparable to those found at Point of Pines in east-central Arizona. The stone-lined ditches span sandy surfaces between the steep gravel slopes and the arable alluvial sediments transporting water to areas which could not be farmed without irrigation. Notched stones set at right angles to the ditches served to keep the water in the ditches at grade so that it could be diverted through tapered-stone turn-out gates to terraced and stone-bordered fields. Rows of rock built on high ground and counter to prevailing winds deflected the wind, stopped blowing sand, protected soil moisture, and reduced sand-blasting of plants. This apparently successful use of the canyon lands which was based on careful exploitation of local ecological conditions lasted about 100 years. It was terminated by increasingly dry conditions which lowered the level of the San Juan and caused tributaries such as Beaver Creek to cut the alluvial sediments used for farming. About 1900 Paiute and Navajo groups moved into the area, using it for some farming during the 1930's, but currently only for forage and water.
A Colonial Button Mold
Authors: Olsen Stanley J.
Published: April 2006

Cast-pewter civilian and military buttons are commonly recovered from Colonial habitation sites, but little has been recorded regarding the manufacture of these necessary items of apparel. A Colonial brass-button mold and its use is described and figured.
The Description of Archaeological Data in Computer Language
Authors: Chenhall R. G.
Published: April 2006

The storage, retrieval, and analysis of archaeological data on electronic computers requires that artifacts be described in the framework of models which are: (a) sufficiently analogous to the “real world” of the data to be meaningful; (b) sufficiently expandable or open-ended to be usable in situations as yet undefined; and (c) sufficiently specific to be convertible into machine language. A model which meets these criteria is described, and samples of an artifact inventory prepared on an IBM 1440 computer are shown to illustrate the use of this descriptive system.
The Acceptance and Persistence of Ring Vessels and Stirrup Spout-Handles in the Southwest
Authors: Dixon Keith A.
Published: April 2006

The ring vessel (or “doughnut jar”) and the stirrup spout-handle concepts probably diffused together, not only from Peru to Mesoamerica during the pre-Classic, but also from Mesoamerica to the southwestern and eastern United States. In the Southwest they first appeared in the San Juan area aroundA.D.500; later they were accepted by other Anasazi and Anasazi-influenced cultures and persisted to the historic period. The apparent interest of the early Anasazi in odd vessel shapes may account for the acceptance of these two shape concepts by the Anasazi rather than by the Hohokam or Mogollon. The ring vessels and stirrup tubes may have continued into the historic period because, unlike most of the other odd forms, these had come to be traditional in certain persisting ceremonial contexts. However, before these suggestions can be adequately evaluated, more information from the Southwest is needed, and the meanings and associations of the two forms in Mesoamerica must be analyzed.
Reply to de Borhegyi's Review of Los Mayas Eternos
Authors: Girard Rafael
Published: April 2006

Some archaeologists make a partial or total confusion of Quiché and Maya culture and history during the Classic period. The historic developments of these two peoples are completely different. Borhegyi's criticism reveals the contradiction that may arise from this confusion. His review is primarily concerned with three paragraphs of my book and is refuted by citation of pertinent archaeological data.
A New Adena Site South of the Kentucky River
Authors: Rowlette Ralph M.
Published: April 2006

The western, eastern, and northern limits of the main area of Adena occupation are rather well determined, but the southern limits are less precisely known. Typical Adena Plain sherds and wide, flat-base, stemmed projectile points and other artifacts from village midden material near a low conical mound in southwestern Madison County, Kentucky, indicate that the Adena cultural manifestation, at least in a late phase, extended south of the Kentucky River and about 30 miles farther south than has been previously reported.
Paleo-Indian Discoidal Stones from Southern South America
Authors: Bird Junius B.
Published: April 2006

Four discoidal stone objects from southern Chile and Argentina can be attributed to the Paleo-Indian occupation of the region. Two were clearly associated with extinct horse and sloth and have a radiocarbon age of over 11,000 years. The other two are judged to be part of the same cultural complex.
Early Archaic in the Lower Mississippi Alluvial Valley
Authors: Brain Jeffrey P.
Published: April 2006

Scattered finds of Dalton, Quad, Plainview, and Scottsbluff projectile points in the Yazoo Basin of west-central Mississippi affirm the presence of an early Archaic occupation in at least that region of the Lower Mississippi Alluvial Valley. These finds are associated with present surfaces in the alluvial flood plain which are geologic relicts formed prior to the final stages of the post-Pleistocene filling of the valley.
An Archaeological Survey of Nankoweap Canyon, Grand Canyon National Park
Authors: Schwartz Douglas W.
Published: April 2006

A survey of previously unknown Nankoweap Canyon, in the extreme northeast section of Grand Canyon National Park, revealed 48 archaeological sites. These included sherd areas, cliff granaries, petroglyphs, rock alignments for water control purposes, and house outlines, the latter constituting the majority of the sites. The 34 house areas ranged from one to more than seven rooms, and from a single, simple, rectangular outline to complex multi-roomed units with adjacent kiva depressions. As has been found elsewhere on the north side of the Colorado River within Grand Canyon, the temporal range of the sites was quite short, with the occupation concentration occurring between A.D. 1050 and 1150. An attempt to arrive at some idea of the population change during the period of occupation resulted in a curve with a sharp increase prior to A.D. 1100, and a sharp decrease thereafter. A reconstruction of the culture history of this section of the canyon is added to serve as a hypothetical guide for further research in this and adjacent areas.
Observations on Archaeological Remains in Northeastern Bolivia
Authors: Plafker George
Published: April 2006

In the Department of Beni, northeastern Bolivia, there are remnants of cultivated fields, roadways, and canals that are distributed over an area of 15,000 square miles. These features are interpreted as indicating the former existence of a highly organized, populous, agrarian society that antedates the culture of the Indian tribes now in the area.
Oddities of Flint
Authors: Mewhinney H.
Published: April 2006

At variance with published opinion, worked flint sometimes shows pressure-flake scars two inches long, multiple eraillures, and hinge fractures curving as much as 180 degrees.
Worsaae's Law and the Use of Grave Lots for Archaeological Dating
Authors: Rowe John Howland
Published: April 2006

The principle that the objects accompanying a burial are in most cases things which were in use at the same time was first stated by J. J. A. Worsaae in 1843. This principle rests on several assumptions, among them that it was customary to place objects beside the dead only at the time of burial, and that the objects so placed were ones owned or used by the occupant or his friends at the time of his death. There is at least one area, the Andean sierra, where we have historical evidence for the renewal of offerings in tombs, and in some cases renewal may have continued periodically for as much as 200 years. In the light of this example it is clearly necessary to determine the burial customs prevailing in the area and period concerned before using grave associations as evidence for contemporaneity. There is also a number of special circumstances which may produce exceptions to the conditions assumed in Worsaae's Law, and to cover the possibility of such exceptions the archaeologist must work with a sufficient number of grave lots so that he can establish rules of consistent association and identify exceptions to them.

Worsaae's Law may be extended to state that the objects accompanying a burial were in most cases not only used at the same time but made within a few years of one another. Heirlooms and antiques, the kinds of objects which would not conform to this statement, can be expected to be rare enough so that they would be recognized as exceptions to the prevailing pattern of associations.

The evidence of contemporaneity which grave associations provide can be used in two ways. If no stylistic sequence has yet been established for an area, grave associations can serve to check hypothetical sequences suggested on the basis of external evidence. Grave associations provide no evidence of sequence as such, but they do provide a means of testing the validity of the stylistic units or phases which any sequence implies. If a stylistic sequence is already established, the evidence of grave lots can be used to extend it to kinds of materials not included in the original sequence. Fuller utilization of burial associations for both purposes could lead to the solution of many problems in archaeological dating.
Complex Society Archaeology
Authors: Mayer-Oakes William J.
Published: April 2006

Several currents of anthropological research specialization are historically important for the development of a modern approach to the study of ancient, complex societies. These currents are: (a) Taylor's conjunctive approach; (b) developmentalism; (c) settlement-pattern studies; (d) human ecology; and (e) urbanization studies. A case study of the writer's “dirt archaeology” approach in the Valley of Mexico indicates the nature of sampling, as well as typological and basic theory problems encountered in studying complex societies. This sort of field work and interpretation implies need for a new kind of basic field-observational work oriented to a theory of ancient social structure and utilizing techniques of intradisciplinary team research.
B.P.: Before Present, or Bad Policy?
Authors: Bird Junius B.
Published: April 2006

The difficulties of using B.P. for radiocarbon ages figures is discussed in terms of the contrast between an age and a date, and the abandonment of the B.P. method of expressing dates is urged.
Midden Circles versus Mescal Pits
Authors: Greer John W.
Published: April 2006

An important distinction is here made between two types of Southwestern sites, each of which appears on the surface as a doughnut-shaped midden of burned rock with a depressed ashy center. "Midden circles" are debris thrown back from a central hearth lying on the ground surface. "Mescal pits" have central pits dug below the natural ground surface and are the remains of earth ovens.
Quantifying Hallstatt: Some Initial Results
Authors: Hodson Frank Roy
Published: April 2006

Nine hundred eighty Early Iron Age graves at Hallstatt, Austria, were excavated between 1846 and 1863. Since then, no really comparable body of material has been discovered in temperate Europe. A report is presented on some initial attempts to reconsider this classic material using quantitative methods. The analyses reported attempt to determine from grave goods the sex, age, status, and the relative date of buried individuals. Graves are graded according to their likely integrity and are described by the types of object they contain. These descriptors are then subjected to some regular forms of data analysis and some provisional general conclusions are drawn.
Thermoluminescence Determinations on Early Ceramic Materials from Coastal Southern California
Authors: Drover Christopher E. , Taylor R. E. , Cairns Thomas , Ericson Jonathon E.
Published: April 2006

Radiocarbon determinations on marine shell have previously been used to provide evidence assigning a fourth to sixth millennium B.C. age to ceramic objects excavated at the Irvine site, an early Archaic period shell midden located in coastal southern California. Objections have been raised concerning the reliability of the stratigraphic association of ceramics and the radiocarbon-dated marine shell materials. An examination of the thermoluminescence responses of two ceramic samples resulted in minimum TL ages of ca. 1500 B.C. Evidence for a presumably indigenous California ceramic tradition may also be present at two additional sites. This suggests that the arrival of ceramic forms into southern and central California by way of the southern Great Basin and Colorado River may be seen as a separate, comparatively recent [ca. A.D. 1000] phenomenon.
Routes: Alternate Migration Corridors for Early Man in North America
Authors: Fladmark K. R.
Published: April 2006

This paper reviews the relative feasibility of interior and coastal routes for early man entering southern North America from Beringia during the late Pleistocene. Paleoenvironmental and archaeological data suggest that a chain of sea-level refugia around the North Pacific coast could have provided a real alternative to the interior “ice-free” corridor and that maritime cultural adaptations may have been among the first to arrive south of Canada.
Dating Paiute-Shoshoni Expansion in the Great Basin
Authors: Madsen David B.
Published: April 2006

Corroboration of linguistic evidence for the northward expansion of Numic speakers from the southwestern Great Basin around A.D. 1000 is provided by the dating of Paiute-Shoshoni pottery. At eight stratified eastern Great Basin sites, this distinctive pottery is associated with Anasazi and/or Fremont ceramics, supporting the hypothesis that competition with Numic speaking groups was partially responsible for the disappearance of the Fremont culture.
Limitations of Archaeological Inference: An Information-Theoretic Approach with Applications in Methodology
Authors: Justeson John S.
Published: April 2006

A framework is established for the application of information-theoretic concepts to the study of archaeological inference, ultimately to provide an estimate of the degree to which archaeologists, or anthropologists in general, can provide legitimate answers to the questions they investigate. Particular information-theoretic measures are applied to the design elements on the ceramics of a southwestern pueblo to show the methodological utility of information theory in helping to reach closer to that limit.
Freshwater Mussels as a Prehistoric Food Resource
Authors: Parmalee Paul W. , Klippel Walter E.
Published: April 2006

The explication of prehistoric subsistence economies has been of increasing interest to archaeologists. This emphasis is reflected, in part, by the considerable attention afforded faunal analyses in the recent archaeological literature. However, little effort has been made toward developing methods that permit meaningful comparisons of food resources at the interspecies level. Data pertinent to the calculation of both quantitative and qualitative food potential of many of the vertebrate animals represented in archaeological contexts are extant. These data are lacking for freshwater mussels, frequently found in archaeological sites in eastern North America. Information relevant to determining the food energy provided by freshwater mussels common to much of the Mississippi River drainage is presented. Results are applicable to more credible interpretations of prehistoric subsistence as related to animal food resources.
The Cuyamel Caves: Preclassic Sites in Northeast Honduras
Authors: Healy Paul F.
Published: April 2006

The southern border of Mesoamerica is traditionally drawn at the Ulua river of western Honduras, before dipping southward to include El Salvador, Pacific Nicaragua, and northwest Costa Rica. Recent work in the Department of Colón, Honduras, provides the earliest evidence of aboriginal occupation in the region and extends the established chronological sequence back more than a thousand years. A preliminary examination of the ceramics, and a comparison to other Preclassic sites, indicates that eastern Honduras, despite its later affiliation with Lower Central American cultural patterns, was probably participating in the cultural development and long-distance trade network of Early and Middle Preclassic Mesoamerican neighbors. Using ethnohistoric analogy, the possibility of cacao as a Preclassic trade commodity is raised. Finally, it is suggested that the cultural frontier of Mesoamerica in the southeast be extended for the Preclassic time horizon.
Economic and Social Stress and Material Culture Patterning
Authors: Hodder Ian
Published: April 2006

This article suggests that accepted interpretations of variability in nonlithic material culture are insufficient. Recent ethnographic fieldwork in Kenya and Zambia and anthropological studies of societies in Sudan and Nigeria demonstrate that culture may be used by groups to communicate within-group corporateness in reference to outsiders. The greater the competition between groups for resources, the greater the likelihood that material culture will play a part in the maintenance of internal cohesion. Distinctive types of distributions and associations of artifacts occur as strains develop between spatially or hierarchically defined groups. The relevance of this view to archaeology is shown by two examples. Finally, it is suggested that this type of approach will allow a better understanding of the underlying causes of social and cultural change.
Available Meat from Faunal Remains: A Consideration of Techniques
Authors: Lyman R. Lee
Published: April 2006

A common practice in faunal analysis is the estimation of diet. Review of the various techniques used reveals fallacies in each and a basic misconception about what was actually consumed. Explicit definitions of consumed meat and available meat and means of employing these concepts are presented. Use of the concepts in an example suggests that commonly used concepts provide estimates that are not realistic reflections of consumed meat amounts.
Nearest Neighbor Analysis of Pueblo I-III Settlement Patterns along the Rio Puerco of the East, New Mexico
Authors: Washburn Dorothy Koster
Published: April 2006

Nearest neighbor analysis, a method which quantifies the deviation of a body of data from a random toward either a clustered or an anticlustered distribution, was utilized to study aspects of a settlement system. Data from a surface survey of 241 Pueblo I-III sites on the middle Rio Puerco of the East, New Mexico, corroborated the hypothesis of a direct correlation between house location and presence of arable land, assuming use of akchin farming methods. A smooth curve of population growth and decline was correlated with a decrease, then increase, in site agglomeration. Presumably these changes reflected adjustment of site locations to a deteriorating environment resulting from the shift to a summer rainfall cycle. Statistical tests corroborated the validity of these observations. Arrangement of the ceramic types according to their corresponding degree of aggregation produced a tentative local ceramic chronology.
Maya-7: A Diagnostic Program for the Calendar Round
Authors: Ghandhi Sorab K.
Published: April 2006

This report describes a general purpose diagnostic program for the Maya Calendar Round. Taking as its input any or all of the components of the Calendar Round position, it displays all possible Long Count dates and their Gregorian day equivalents, commencing at any specified Long Count date. Provisions are made in this program to correct for a wide range of spelling errors and impossible combinations. In addition, a number of innovative programming techniques are used to provide fast execution.
Comment upon the Economic Potential of Fish Utilization in Riverine Environments and Potential Archaeological Biases
Authors: Garson Adam G.
Published: April 2006

New data from the South American lowland tropics are used in support of a recent argument extolling the potential of fish utilization in major floodplains. The discussion will cover five points: (1) major floodplains in general, and the Amazon and Orinoco floodplains in particular, have similar characteristics that make them biologically productive regions; (2) high fish productivity and the use of mass-fishing techniques in floodplain regions are characteristics of lowland South America; (3) the ecological dynamics of the seasonally inundated savanna are particularly productive and propitious for seasonal exploitation using mass-fishing techniques; (4) differences in species composition and fish size may have implications for seasonal and spatial variations in fish exploitation; and (5) substantial biases are apparent against the retrieval of small fish remains using traditional archaeological recovery techniques.
Site Surface Characteristics and Functional Inferences
Authors: Schlanger Sarah H. , Orcutt Janet D.
Published: April 2006

With the rise in importance of the archaeological survey as a major data-recovery tool has come greater concern over methods for making inferences about site subsurface characteristics from surface materials. One growing area of concern is the identification of site function using surface features and artifact assemblages. Here we examine the relations among architectural site types (defined using surface features), modeled functional site types, and surface artifact assemblage characteristics. Analysis proceeded in three stages, each one built on the previous stage. In the first stage we used site type models to predict surface assemblage differences between types and then tested these predictions with the surface assemblages from surveyed sites grouped by architecture type. The procedures involved analysis of variance, difference-of-means tests, and discriminant analysis. In the second stage, we used discriminant analysis to create a classification function for predicting site type on the basis of artifact assemblages. In the third stage of the analysis, we investigated possible reasons for the uneven classification results. We conclude our analyses by presenting an example of functional change that affects the ability of the discriminant analysis to distinguish between two of the site types.
An Osteological Test of Changes in Subsistence and Settlement Patterns at Casas Grandes, Chihuahua, Mexico
Authors: Weaver David S.
Published: April 2006

Infant and child skeletal remains from the site of Casas Grandes, Chihuahua, Mexico, were examined for particular skeletal pathologies. The observed frequencies of those pathologies do not support a hypothesis of a temporal shift in subsistence patterns. A hypothesized change in settlement pattern is supported by the increase of a particular class of skeletal lesions.
Aspartic Acid Racemization Ages of California Paleoindian Skeletons
Authors: Bada Jeffrey L.
Published: April 2006

The redating of the Laguna and Los Angeles Man skeletons by the accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) radiocarbon method has shown that the Upper Pleistocene dates for these skeletons determined previously by the conventional radiocarbon method are probably incorrect. Using the revised ages for these skeletons to calibrate the aspartic acid racemization rate yields racemization ages for the Del Mar and Sunnyvale skeletons that are compatible with their AMS radiocarbon ages, a point that Taylor et al. (1985) fail to discuss.
NTIS Reports on Contract Archaeology: Their Bibliographic Characteristics and Place in an Academic Library Collection
Authors: Schmidt Nancy J.
Published: April 2006

In recent years most archaeological excavation in North America has been done under contract to national, state or local governments or private agencies. There is no comprehensive bibliographic control over contract archaeology reports and most excavations remain unreported in the scholarly literature on archaeology. One hundred National Technical Information Service (NTIS) contract archaeology reports are discussed in relation to their bibliographic characteristics and criteria that are used for selecting materials for an academic library collection.
Fifty Years of Theory
Authors: Spaulding Albert C.
Published: April 2006

The fiftieth anniversaries of the Society for American Archaeology and of its journal are plainly occasions for stock-takings of various kinds. My assignment is to comment on the progress of the theory underlying archaeological activities during this time with particular attention to the situation at the outset. My principal qualification for this task is the simple fact that my period of participation in American archaeology coincides closely with this fifty-year span. I began graduate study at the University of Michigan in the autumn of 1936 and immediately developed a specialized interest in eastern and northern North America. Subsequent discussion reflects this interest; my basic concern is to describe and appraise the intellectual groundwork of archaeology as it was practiced by archaeologists working in this field.
Preservation of Archaeological Sites through Acquisition
Authors: Barnes Mark R.
Published: April 2006

Site acquisition or placing of preservation easements on archaeological sites are the best means currently available for insuring site preservation for future research. The examples presented are intended to inform the archaeological community about agencies involved in the acquisition of archaeological sites.
Status Distinction and Legitimation of Power as Reflected in Changing Patterns of Consumption in Late Prehispanic Peru
Authors: Costin Cathy Lynne , Earle Timothy
Published: April 2006

Patterns in household consumption reflect changing strategies of control, finance, and legitimation used by the Inka empire after their conquest of the northern Wanka of Central Peru. Changes in consumption reflect differential access to goods. In pre-Inka Wanka II, the evidence of social stratification was relatively marked; in Wanka III—under Inka domination—this difference continued but narrowed significantly. The symbolic referents of prestige wares that distinguished elites from commoners changed from local styles to those conforming to Inka stylistic canons. We also recognize changing participation in activities associated with economic control and legitimation. In Wanka II, elite households yielded evidence of greater involvement in storage and feasting. In Wanka III, the overall quantities of items associated with these activities fell and the difference between elites and commoners was diminished as the state co-opted local elite prerogatives of status and power.
Perspectives from the Old World on the Habitation of the New
Authors: Jelinek Arthur J.
Published: April 2006

Despite the much briefer period of research and many fewer archaeologists involved, there is now clear and incontrovertible evidence of human occupation in Australia at a period significantly earlier than can be documented with comparable evidence from the New World. An explanation of the differences in the present record between these two regions that relies on an insufficient study of situations favorable to the preservation of earlier material in the New World seems inadequate in light of the total accumulated evidence.
On Manos, Metates, and the History of Site Occupations
Authors: Schlanger Sarah H.
Published: April 2006

The contents of stratigraphically distinct archaeological proveniences, such as trash and fill, floor assemblages, and collections from the modern ground surface, ordinarily are treated separately during analysis and interpretation of assemblage variability. Once an interpretive framework has been constructed that integrates artifact use and discard with the formation of these various deposits, patterned differences in assemblage content can be exploited to yield information about site function, occupation duration, and abandonment processes. This approach is demonstrated through an analysis of the distribution of one-hand manos, two-hand manos, and trough metates at Anasazi sites in southwestern Colorado.
Archaeology in 1992: A Perspective on the Discipline from the Society for American Archaeology Annual Meeting Program
Authors: Feinman Gary M. , Nicholas Linda M. , Middleton William D.
Published: April 2006

A survey of presentations at recent Society for American Archaeology annual meetings (1983, 1991, and 1992) is taken to examine the state of American archaeology. Roughly 80 percent of the presentations focus on New World archaeology, and between 60 and 80 percent are concerned with the last 3,000 years. In the last 10 years, there has been a slight shift away from subsistence and production studies to a greater concern with settlement and regional systems, sociopolitical organization, and public archaeology. A major trend has been increased participation by women.
Update on Natchez Man
Authors: Cotter John L.
Published: April 2006

On October 6, 1846, M. W. Dickeson, a physician from Natchez, Mississippi, exhibited a collection of specimens of mastodon and sloth fossil bones that he had found in 1845 at the base of a bayou cut through the loess above the Mississippi River near his home. He had brought them to the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia to which he donated them. Among the specimens was a fragment of human pelvis, implicitly also fossil, from a deposit of blue clay 61 cm below the animal fossils, which included mylodon (now Glossotherium harlani) and Megalonyx jeffersoni. After 144 years of controversy over the antiquity of “Natchez Man,” a sample of the pelvis has been dated by accelerator mass spectrometry to 5580 ± 80 B.P.
A Phonetic Glyph for Zenith: Reply to Closs
Authors: Bricker Victoria R.
Published: April 2006

The recently discovered Tomb 12 at Rio Azul contains some evidence in support of my "zenith" reading for one of the collocations Closs reads as xaman, "north." A positionally literal reading of the astronomical glyphs associated with the directional collocations on the walls of that tomb is consistent with a directional system based on zenith and nadir, but not one based on north and south. Furthermore, Closs's reading does not account for the demonstrable na reading for the prefix in that collocation. On the other hand, his evidence for reading the second collocation as xaman is compelling, and the polyvalency of T566 seems well established.
Toward a Processual Understanding of the Initial Variant of the Middle Missouri Tradition: The Case of the Mill Creek Culture of Iowa
Authors: Anderson Duane C.
Published: April 2006

If research on the Initial Variant of the Middle Missouri tradition is to progress, more attention must be given to the development of a processual understanding of the groups represented. This article provides a discussion of the Mill Creek culture as it has been formulated through the culture-history approach. The background information is provided as a means of gaining insights into factors of processual significance that can be investigated deductively. The paper then presents a model of Mill Creek culture process and suggests hypotheses that are believed to have broad implications for understanding the causes of change and interaction within the Initial Variant.
Prehistoric Macaw Breeding in the North American Southwest
Authors: Minnis Paul E. , Whalen Michael E. , Kelley Jane H. , Stewart Joe D.
Published: April 2006

The scarlet macaw (Ara macao) was an important prehistoric trade item in northern Mexico and southwestern United States. Paquimé (or Casas Grandes) in northwestern Chihuahua has been assumed to have dominated or even monopolized the macaw trade. This conclusion is a result of the fact that Paquimé is the only site with evidence of substantial macaw-breeding facilities. Two recent archaeological projects in Chihuahua indicate that macaw production was not limited to Casas Grandes. Furthermore, the political relations of production for these ritually and economically important birds differed depending on whether or not the producers were part of the complex polity centered at Casas Grandes.
Robert McCormick Adams: An Archaeological Biography
Authors: Yoffee Norman
Published: April 2006

Robert Adams celebrated his 70th birthday on July 23, 1996. Forty years ago American Antiquity published his first journal article, which helped launch a remarkable career. Adams has influenced not only fundamental aspects of social evolutionary theory and archaeological reconnaissance surveys but also the structure of support for science in the United States and abroad. At the 1996 meetings of the Society for American Archaeology, Adams was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal. This essay traces the intellectual influences on Adams, the progress of his fieldwork, and the exposition and development of his ideas in his monographs and major essays. The significance of his work is assessed, and a bibliography of his principal archaeological writings is included.
Parasites, Porotic Hyperostosis, and the Implications of Changing Perspectives
Authors: Holland Thomas D. , O'Brien Michael J.
Published: April 2006

Cribra orbitalia and porotic hyperostosis traditionally have been viewed (at least by archaeologists) as indicators of chronic iron deficiency anemia resulting from a dependency upon maize. Recent interpretations, however, have sought to explain these conditions as an evolutionary, adaptive response to intestinal parasites rather than as a consequence of poor nutrition. Thus diet is eliminated as a contributing factor. This model, however, adopts too simplistic a view of evolution. Furthermore, it concomitantly severs the well-documented link that exists between cranial lesions and cereal-based subsistence. A more realistic approach would be to incorporate both diet and pathogens (bacterial as well as parasitic) into a symbiotic model that acknowledges the important role of parasites in the etiology of cribra orbitalia and porotic hyperostosis, while maintaining the diagnostic value of these conditions as hallmarks of early agriculture.
The Linguistic Situation in the Southern Sudan
Authors: Tucker A. N.
Published: April 2006

It is only of late years that the Sudan Government has laid particular stress on the language side of Southern administration. Hitherto all official intercourse with the natives had been through the medium of Arabic, the official language of the North. It became apparent after a while that the form of Arabic spoken in the Southern provinces was so debased as to be hardly practical. Unlike the Northerners, whose religion and culture is Islamic and who speak Arabic in the home side by side with the local dialects, the Southern tribes are pagan, and for the most part strongly opposed to outside culture, whether Islamic or otherwise, while only those who come into contact with governing officials or Northern traders can speak the jargon which passes for Arabic in the South.
X. Congo Belge, Ngbandi, Entre Banzyville et Yakoma
Authors: Yuma
Published: April 2006

1. Les véritables sorciers chez nous sont ceux qui ont la petite bête malfaisante dans le ventre. Elle peut s'introduire d'elle-même. Le plus souvent elle est transmise par un détenteur plus ancien de cette bête, qui a en vue de rendre un autre malheureux comme lui. Si votre père ou votre mère possède cette bête dans son ventre, vous, leur enfant, vous l'aurez également. Cette bête malfaisante s'appelle Li.
XVI. Glidyi Ewe
Authors: Foli B.
Published: April 2006

In Ewe, adzé, in eastern dialects azé, is a witch spirit, and adzétɔ a person possessed by a witch. To this word corresponds Yoruba adzé, and Ekoi ndze with the same meaning. According to the Ewe, a witch (spirit or person)is a being which takes its abode in persons, for preference in women. At night it or he (she) leaves its human body, as a snake casts its skin, and walks about emitting fire from its eyes, mouth, or nose; it likes to walk with its head on the ground or, when upright, with its feet turned backward. It kills people by sucking their blood at night or by taking away their shadow (‘soul’) at noon-time.
Themes and Variations in Early Canadian Legal Culture: Beamish Murdoch and hisEpitome of the Laws of Nova-Scotia
Authors: Girard Philip
Published: April 2006

Beamish Murdoch (1800–76) was a young man when the first of the four volumes of hisEpitome of the Laws of Nova-Scotiarolled off Joseph Howe's press at Halifax in the spring of 1832. He was an old man when the first installment of his three-volumeHistory of Nova-Scotia, or Acadieappeared under James Barnes's imprint in the spring of 1865. These two works have received surprisingly disparate attention in the century since Murdoch's death. Today it is Murdoch the historian who is well known: No treatment of nineteenth-century Canadian historiography would omit reference to hisHistory. Murdoch's contributions to literary and political life, as editor of theAcadian Magazineand member of the Nova Scotia House of Assembly from 1826 to 1830, have also attracted attention. Murdoch the lawyer and legal treatise-writer, by contrast, is virtually unknown in both professional and legal academic circles, even in his home province. Until recently the Epitome has attracted virtually no scholarly attention of any kind.
From Oracle to Echo: The Development of Law and Justice in Vico's Nuova Scienza
Authors: Hornstein Alan D.
Published: April 2006

Giambattista Vico was an eighteenth-century philosopher of history who provided a new and provocative account of the development of human institutions. His influence has been and continues to be significant. Yet, sadly, his work has been largely neglected by legal scholars. This neglect might be explained by the lack in Vico's principal work, Nuova Scienza, of any systematic account of the invention—or discovery—of the idea of justice. Given the scope of Vico's concern with human institutions, this failure is surprising. To be sure there are hints—more than hints—to be found throughout The New Science; nevertheless, his account of this important concept is fragmentary and scattered. This essay intends to demonstrate the value of Vico's work to the study of jurisprudence by tracing the roots and later development of the idea of justice as Vico might have elaborated them. [Bracketed references are to paragraph numbers in T. Bergin and M. Fisch (tr.), The New Science of Giambattista Vico (Cornell Univ. Press, 1968)].
After the Revolution: “Reform” of the Law of Inheritance
Authors: Orth John V.
Published: April 2006

The American victory in the Revolutionary War was followed by a spate of lawmaking, the silence that succeeded the clash of arms being promptly shattered by a legislative hubbub. One North Carolina judge in 1787 likened the colonists' legal situation after the Revolution to that of “a set of people shipwrecked and cast on a marooned island.” Like so many Robinson Crusoes, they were “without laws, without magistrates, without government, or any legal authority.” A new political order was urgently required, so constitutions were drafted and adopted in short order. Civil laws were needed as well, and rules of decision for the new state courts. By and large, English common law was maintained, a familiar system with which most people were satisfied and one, moreover, that had gained added luster from revolutionary arguments based on defense of the rights of “freeborn Englishmen.”
Influences of New England Law on the Middle Colonies
Authors: Haskins George L.
Published: April 2006

On October 3, 1881, William Henry Rawle, the distinguished Philadelphia lawyer and scholar, addressed students at the University of Pennsylvania Law School hoping to illustrate, ‘in a very general and elementary way,’ the differences between the growth of English and early Pennsylvania jurisprudence. ‘It would have been more interesting and more broadly useful,’ Rawle apologized to his audience, ‘if the attempt could have been extended to embrace the other colonies which afterwards became the United States, for there would have been not only the contrast between the mother country and her colonies, but the contrast between the colonies themselves.’ Rawle was confident that such an examination would have revealed how ‘in some cases, one colony followed or imitated another in its alteration of the law which each had brought over, and how, in others, the law was changed in one colony to suit its needs, all unconscious of similar changes in another.’ ‘Unhappily,’ Rawle explained, ‘this must be the History of the Future for the materials have as yet been sparingly given to the world.’
Joel Bishop's Orthodoxy
Authors: Siegel Stephen A.
Published: April 2006

In 1884, the University of Berne celebrated its fiftieth anniversary with ceremonies spanning three days, attended by delegates from the international diplomatic corps and many of the universities of Western Europe. As part of the ceremonies, the university awarded honorary doctorates in theology, philosophy, medicine, and law. Along with a number of Swiss and German scholars, one American was honored: Joel Prentiss Bishop. He was, the university thought, among those “who by their learning and their works rendered great service to their land and to the science of the law.”
Scots Law in Post-Revolutionary and Nineteenth-Century America: The Neglected Jurisprudence
Authors: Rogers C. Paul
Published: April 2006

Little scholarly attention has been paid to the role of Scots law in the development of the post-Revolutionary law and legal system of the United States. This neglect stems largely from the fact that Scots law has had little apparent permanent influence on American law. However, during the “formative era of American law” from the Revolution to the Civil War, a notable effort to introduce America to civil law concepts took place. Furthermore, the impact of the Scottish enlightenment on the fledgling United States in higher education, philosophy, and medicine is well documented. Scottish Enlightenment thought arguably had a significant impact on the Declaration of Independence, which was signed by at least two native-born Scots and an American who was a graduate of the University of Edinburgh.
Creating Order in the Wilderness: Transplanting the English Law to Rupert's Land, 1835–51
Authors: Baker H. Robert
Published: April 2006

The legal history of the western Canadian frontier has received renewed attention in recent years. Much of the work readdresses the question of “law and order,” challenging older assumptions about Canada's orderly frontier culture—orderly particularly in contrast to the United States’ violent settlement of the west. At issue is not just a revision of whether violence occurred on the Canadian frontier but a fundamental reinterpretation of what the concepts of “law” and “order” had really meant. Indeed, conflict between legal cultures has become a major theme as historians attempt to rewrite the history of the Canadian west. They understand that this conflict—whether violent or not—shaped the formation of Canada's legal culture before 1870. Methodological prescriptions for writing this type of history have emphasized the need for historians to widen their base of sources, particularly to exploit “nonlegal” sources (such as diaries, journals, and letters), and to consider the workings of what Lawrence Friedman has called the “cultural” component of a legal system: what suits were brought to court, what notions came into play there, what expectations people brought with them. Important studies on the colonial settlement of British Columbia in the nineteenth century have focused on the relationships between the Hudson's Bay Company, colonists, and Natives to demonstrate that conflict over resources and competing definitions of liberalism and law often shaped legal discourse. These rich accounts have, among other things, called into question the idea of an orderly, peaceful Canadian frontier. They have also provided a much more complex picture of the interactions between Native and European, and the uses of law and the legal system by settlers, Company men, and Aboriginals.
Law and History—A Need for Demarcation
Authors: Maoz Asher
Published: April 2006

I am grateful to David Abraham and Eben Moglen for their thoughtful comments that illuminate several aspects of my essay. I agree with many of their remarks.

Formally, it is indeed history with which the courts deal. This is so as courts are usually called to rule upon past events. Nevertheless, most of the events that are dealt with by the courts, just like most occurrences in life, do not attract historical interest. I am willing to accept the significance criterion proposed by Moglen for screening events of historical importance, yet it is the appropriateness criterion that tells us which of these events fits the judicial process. As for commissions of inquiry, both criteria apply. The event must be of significance (“a matter of vital public importance”) to justify the establishment of a commission. At the same time it must fit the nature of a commission.
Asserting One's Rights: Swedish Property Law in the Transition from Community Law to State Law
Authors: Ågren Maria
Published: April 2006

In 1685, the Swedish nobleman Per Sparre instituted legal proceedings against the printer Niclas Wankyf. The dispute had been triggered by Sparre having let his tenants erect houses for themselves on what Wankyf regarded as his private property. Wankyf had consequently torn down the buildings, causing Sparre to bring the case to court. However, Wankyf clearly saw himself as the aggrieved party and regarded Sparre as a trespasser. Arguing his case before the court, Wankyf emphasized that Sparre had never been able to prove that he held the contested area by virtue ofurminnes hävd(“immemorial prescription”). To this Sparre retorted—with some irritation—that Wankyf argued as if “there are no other means of defending one's legal property than to invoke immemorial prescription.”