bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Sex Determination
Authors: Simpson Joe Leigh
Published: September 2006

Sex determination is the process by which genes direct male and female embryos to become distinguishable from each other.
Genome Organization: Human
Authors: Kass David H , Batzer Mark A
Published: September 2006

The human nuclear genome is a highly complex arrangement of two sets of 23 chromosomes, or DNA molecules. There are various types of DNA sequences and chromosomal arrangements, including single‐copy protein‐encoding genes, repetitive sequences and spacer DNA.
Colon Cancer
Authors: Yeatman Timothy J
Published: September 2006

Colon cancer is a neoplastic disease of the large intestine, which can be derived from both inherited or somatic genetic alterations that develop over the course of a lifetime. Prevention together with early detection and treatment are the keys to a successful outcome for this very common disease.
Li–Fraumeni Syndrome
Authors: Portwine Carol , Malkin David
Published: September 2006

The Li–Fraumeni syndrome is a rare inherited predisposition to the development of multiple cancer phenotypes at an early age which is attributed primarily to germline mutations of the
p53
tumour suppressor gene. Identification of these families is important in the study of cancer and the development of ethical and appropriate screening modalities, prevention, early cancer detection, and treatment of individuals who harbour alterations of such cancer genes, in order that we may one day improve their prognosis.
Dyslexia
Authors: Pammer Kristen
Published: September 2006

Dyslexia is a disorder characterized by difficulty in learning to read that cannot be attributed to secondary organic, mechanical or social circumstances.
DNA Repair Disorders
Authors: Doetsch Paul W
Published: September 2006

Some human diseases are characterized by defects in the cellular machinery for either monitoring and eliciting an appropriate response to the presence of DNA damage or in the actual process of removing (repairing) or tolerating the damage via some type of DNA transaction. Many of the known disorders lead to a predisposition for developing cancer.
Macular Degeneration, Age Related
Authors: Duncan Jacque L , Berger Jeffrey W , Fine Stuart L
Published: September 2006

Macular degeneration comprises a group of diseases characterized by progressive deterioration of the central retina, retinal pigment epithelial cells and choriocapillaris, causing central vision loss. Advances in molecular biology have made possible the identification of the genetic basis for many types of hereditary macular degeneration, but the most common type, age‐related macular degeneration, is probably multifactorial.
Anthocyanins
Authors: Andersen Øyvind M
Published: September 2006

The anthocyanins are a group of pigments providing many red and blue colours in the plant kingdom. These glycosides belong to the flavonoid class and are based on different anthocyanidins.
Terpenoids: Lower
Authors: Harborne Jeffrey B
Published: September 2006

Lower terpenoids are formed in plants either from acetyl‐coenzyme A via mevalonate or more directly from glucose via 1‐deoxy‐
d
‐xylulose. Monoterpenoids are produced from the condensation of two isoprene units, and sesquiterpenoids from three. Lower terpenoids are secreted in glandular hairs on leaves or in the scent glands of flowers. They provide many of the fragrant odours of plants. The best‐known sesquiterpenoid is abscisic acid, an important plant hormone involved in the opening and closure of leaf stomata.
Plant Waxes
Authors: Hamilton RJ
Published: September 2006

Plant waxes help to prevent uncontrollable water loss; it is also believed that waxes protect plants from bacterial and fungal pathogens as well as minimizing damage by UV‐B radiation.
Cyanogenesis in Higher Plants and Insects
Authors: Lechtenberg Matthias
Published: September 2006

Cyanogenesis describes the ability of plants to store cyanogenic glycosides, which, on tissue damage, undergo hydrolysis with the release of toxic hydrogen cyanide. This defensive mechanism is widely distributed in plants and also occurs in some insects.
Evolution of Secondary Plant Metabolism
Authors: Waterman Peter G
Published: September 2006

The biosynthesis of secondary metabolites occurs universally in higher plants and shows very high structural diversity. Their evolution in higher plants rests on variation in the manipulation of a relatively small number of primary precursors.
Protozoology
Authors: Sleigh Michael A
Published: September 2006

Protozoa, most of which have long been considered as unicellular animals, have been studied for over 300 years, at first as microscopic curiosities, later as organisms causing disease, and more recently as important components of ecosystems. Protozoology, the study of protozoa, is a discipline with a substantial following throughout the world.
Protozoan Nutrition and Metabolism
Authors: Smith‐Somerville Harriett E , Ziemkiewicz Hope T , Ryals Phillip E
Published: September 2006

Protozoa are found in almost every type of moist habitat, a range that encompasses salt and fresh waters, soil, host organisms and environments with extremes in temperature. Their success is due in part to the ability of different protozoa to use diverse and often changing nutritional sources.
Protozoan Ecology
Authors: Anderson O Roger
Published: September 2006

Protozoan ecology is the interaction in space and time of protozoa (flagellates, amoeboid organisms and ciliates) with other living organisms and the physical environment. It encompasses, among other factors, sources of food and energy used to sustain life, food web dynamics, the role of protozoa in maintaining fertility of ecosystems, and adaptive strategies for survival in varying habitats.
Protozoan Organelles of Locomotion
Authors: Sleigh Michael A
Published: September 2006

Structures responsible for locomotion of single‐celled protozoa are referred to as organelles because they comprise only part of a cell that is performing all of the functions of a complete organism. Organelles that produce motion may move the whole organism from place to place, or may change the shape of the cell or the position of components within it.
Protozoan Symbioses
Authors: Lom Jiří
Published: September 2006

Protozoan symbiosis describes a condition of existence in which two protozoa or a protozoan with another partner – a virus, a prokaryote, another protist or a multicellular eukaryote – live together. It brings nutritional benefit to both symbionts or to only one of them, or it may be detrimental to one of them.
Protozoan Cysts and Spores
Authors: Corliss John O
Published: September 2006

Cysts are typically resting, dormant and/or resistant stages in the full life cycle of many protozoan species, sometimes playing a role in dispersal of the organism. Spores are a stage commonly associated with multiplication and propagation of a protozoan organism, sometimes having a resistant wall and often, in parasitic forms, serving as an obligate stage in the life cycle.
Toxoplasmosis
Authors: Kasper Lloyd H
Published: September 2006

Toxoplasmosis is the disease caused by infection with the obligate intracellular parasite,
Toxoplasma gondii
. Both acute and chronic toxoplasmosis are conditions in which the parasite is responsible for the development of clinically evident disease.
Protozoan Pathogens of Domestic and Companion Animals
Authors: Marquardt William C , Speer CA
Published: September 2006

Protozoa parasitize every species of animal that has been examined for them. Many are of economic importance in domestic animals and many species of wildlife have protozoan parasites that affect their health and serve to modulate populations. Companion animals such as dogs and cats also have parasitic protozoa that have detrimental effects on their health.
Trichomoniasis
Authors: Yarlett Nigel
Published: September 2006

Trichomoniasis is a sexually transmitted disease caused byTrichomonas vaginalisin humans, orTritrichomonas foetusin cattle.
Amoebiasis
Authors: Stanley Samuel L , Li Ellen
Published: September 2006

Amoebiasis is caused by the protozoan parasite
Entamoeba histolytica
, a human‐specific pathogen that thrives in areas of poor sanitation. The clinical manifestations of
E. histolytica
infection range from asymptomatic colonization to invasive disease manifest as amoebic dysentery or amoebic liver abscess.
Balantidiosis
Authors: Lom Jiří
Published: September 2006

Balantidiosis is a disease manifested by diarrhoea and due to the ciliate
Balantidium coli
. Humans can contract it under poor hygienic conditions. The main source of infection is pigs, in which the ciliate is a common endocommensal.
Coccidiosis
Authors: Barta John R
Published: September 2006

Coccidiosis is principally an enteric disease of vertebrates that results from infection with eimeriid parasites of the genus
Eimeria
or
Isospora
(Apicomplexa; Coccidia; Eimeriidae). Coccidiosis is a frequent cause of diarrhoea, morbidity and mortality in domesticated birds and mammals that can be alleviated by use of prophylactic or therapeutic antiparasitic drugs or, less commonly, by vaccination.
Cryptosporidiosis
Authors: Graczyk Thaddeus K
Published: September 2006

Cryptosporidiosis is a zoonotic enteric diarrhoeal disease which is a self‐limiting in immunocompetent humans and chronic in immunocompromised or immunosuppressed people. It is caused by ingestion of exogenous stages, the oocysts, of a protozoan,
Cryptosporidium parvum
.
Chromista
Authors: Maneveldt Gavin W , Keats Derek W
Published: September 2006

As a group, the chromists show a diverse range of forms from tiny unicellular, flagellates to the large brown algae known as kelp. Molecular studies have confirmed the inclusion of certain organisms once considered fungi, as well as some heterotrophic flagellates. Despite their diversity of form and feeding modes, a few unique characters group these organisms.
Eimeria
Authors: Duszynski Donald W
Published: September 2006

The genus
Eimeria
Schneider, 1875 (Protista: Apicomplexa: Eimeriidae) is a specious (more than 1700 species) lineage of obligate intracellular parasites found in all classes of vertebrates and some invertebrates. Some species are highly pathogenic, especially in domesticated animals.
Entamoeba
and
Entamoeba histolytica
Authors: Diamond Louis S , Clark C Graham
Published: September 2006

Entamoeba
are protozoa parasitizing all classes of vertebrates and a few invertebrates. Two species,
E. histolytica
, a parasite of humans, and
E. invadens
, a parasite of reptiles, are capable of causing severe illness and death of the host.
Euglena
Authors: Buetow Dennis E
Published: September 2006

Euglena
is a genus of single‐celled, free‐living, freshwater‐dwelling organisms that contain chloroplasts and show both plant‐like and animal‐like characteristics.
Gymnodinium
Authors: Heimann Kirsten , Hansen Gert , Roberts Keith R
Published: September 2006

The dinoflagellate genus
Gymnodinium
is a complex assemblage of species. Clearly, not all species are evolutionarily related but many representatives are providing valuable insight into fundamental phylogenetic and biochemical questions. Taxa assigned to this genus are known to be toxin producers of extreme importance to biomedicine.
Leishmania
Authors: Bates Paul A
Published: September 2006

Leishmaniaspecies are parasitic protozoa that cause the human tropical disease leishmaniasis. The parasites are transmitted by the bites of phlebotomine sandflies, and live as intracellular parasites inside macrophages.
Stentor
Authors: Foissner Wilhelm
Published: September 2006

Stentor, the trumpet animalcule, is a single‐celled organism (protist) belonging to the ciliates (Ciliophora). It is interesting because of its trumpet shape, commonness, comparatively large size (∼1 mm), attractive coloration and high regeneration capacity.
Foraminifera
Authors: Haynes John Roland
Published: September 2006

Foraminifera are marine protozoans that play a major role in the ecology of the oceans.
Haptomonads
Authors: Jordan Richard W
Published: September 2006

Haptomonads are a group of microalgae, mostly marine, usually phototrophic, that possess a unique organelle, the haptonema, situated close to the flagella. The group includes the calcified scale‐producing coccolithophorids, whose ancestors are partly responsible for the vast chalk deposits found in northern Europe.
Suctorians
Authors: Lanners H Norbert , Lanners Ellen B
Published: September 2006

The predatory or parasitic suctorians are sessile ciliates. However, adult stages do not bear cilia. The ciliated stage is a free‐swimming swarmer, which settles on a substrate or infects a new host organism, loses its cilia and undergoes metamorphosis into the adult form. Many species attach to the substrate by a stalk, or a lorica. Suctorians feed through straight tubular cell extensions called tentacles.
Antibacterial Agents: Basis of Action
Authors: Chopra Ian , Greenwood David
Published: September 2006

Antibacterial agents alleviate infection through a variety of modes of action including the inhibition of protein, nucleic acid and cell wall synthesis.
Staphylococcal Sepsis: Treatment
Authors: French G L
Published: September 2006

Staphylococcus aureus
is a virulent pathogen that causes both asymptomatic colonization and infection.
S. aureus
is the most common cause of skin and soft tissue infections. In hospitals,
S. aureus
is the most common cause of surgical site infection, and a common cause of bacteraemia. Epidemic strains of
Staphylococcus aureus
(and especially methicillin‐resistant
S. aureus
, MRSA) may spread in hospitals via dust and air, staff hands and contaminated medical devices and equipment.
Antimicrobials Against Fastidious Gram‐negative Rods
Authors: Sefton Armine M
Published: September 2006

Neisseria meningitides
,
N. gonorrhoeae
,
Haemophilus influenzae
,
Brucella
spp,
Bordetella
spp and
Legionella
spp are bacterial pathogens which can cause serious disease in humans.
N. meningitides
, for instance, is one of the commonest causes of bacterial meningitis. These bacteria can become resistant to antimicrobials by a variety of mechanisms and this is likely to impact on future management of infections caused by these organisms.
Antimycobacterial Drugs
Authors: Gillespie Stephen H
Published: September 2006

Antimycobacterial drugs are used in the treatment of members of the Mycobacterium genus that infect humans, including tuberculosis and leprosy. Combination therapy is essential to kill bacterial cells located in different conditions within the host, and to prevent the emergence of resistance.
Bone Homeostasis: Extracellular Calcium Levels and Their Control
Authors: McDonald Fraser
Published: September 2006

Calcium is an essential ion within the human body. It is responsible for the correct coordination of many functions and constitutes a large part of the skeleton. Calcium levels are kept within a specific range, regulated principally by three hormones – parathyroid hormone, calcitonin and cholecalciferol (vitamin D3) – although other paracrine substances can have a major effect.
Phenylketonuria
Authors: Jiang George C‐T , IV George J Yohrling , Vrana Kent E
Published: September 2006

Phenylketonuria is an autosomal recessive metabolic disorder resulting in increased phenylalanine concentrations. This treatable condition is a leading cause of mental retardation.
Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy
Authors: Michalak Marek , Opas Michal
Published: September 2006

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is an X‐linked recessive disorder that affects muscles and causes progressive weakness. Dystrophin, the product of the DMD gene, is one of several membrane proteins that form the dystrophin–glycoprotein complex, which helps to maintain the integrity of muscle cells; loss of these proteins leads to the wasting of muscle cells and to the pathology of DMD.
Familial Hypercholesterolaemia
Authors: Fisher Carl , Bernstein Bradley E , Blacklow Stephen C
Published: September 2006

Familial hypercholesterolaemia is a genetic disease, resulting from mutation of the low‐density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor, that is characterized clinically by elevation of LDL cholesterol in the blood and premature atherosclerosis.
Pharmacogenetics
Authors: Du Bert N La
Published: September 2006

Pharmacogenetics is the study of the genetic and biochemical bases for individual variation in metabolism and the response to drugs and environmental chemicals.
Functional Genomics in Plants
Authors: Bennetzen Jeffrey L
Published: September 2006

Functional genomics refers to a suite of genetic technologies that will contribute to a comprehensive understanding of plant gene function.
Seed Banks and Gene Banks
Authors: Bradbeer J William
Published: September 2006

Although the survival of plant genotypes
in situ
in their natural environment is by far the preferred method for the conservation of biodiversity, recent years have seen much activity in the fall‐back alternative of
ex situ
conservation. In such a strategy, plant germplasm is conserved in living plant collections backed up by seed storage in seed banks and/or the cryopreservation of plant cells or tissues.
Escherichia coli
as an Experimental Organism
Authors: Cronan John E
Published: September 2006

The bacterium,
Escherichia coli
, is presently the best‐understood organism. It is a paradigm organism in bacterial physiology and genetics as well as a key tool in molecular genetics.
Xenopus
as an Experimental Organism
Authors: Elinson Richard P
Published: September 2006

The South African clawed frog,
Xenopus laevis
, is used extensively as a model system to study development. Its advantages include the ease of maintaining a breeding colony of frogs and of obtaining and manipulating their embryos.
Gametogenesis
Authors: McCormick Sheila
Published: September 2006

Gametogenesis, the process of gamete formation, initiates after specialized cells in the sporophyte undergo meiosis; subsequent mitotic divisions yield the gametophyte phase of the plant life cycle. The gametes sperm and egg fuse to yield a zygote.
Stamen and Pollen Development
Authors: Chaudhury Abed
Published: September 2006

Stamen and pollen development is central to the male reproductive process in higher plants. A stamen consists of a tube‐like filament topped by an anther with sacs within which pollen grains develop. Haploid male spores produced in the anther develop into mature pollen grains.
Self‐incompatibility
Authors: Franklin Christopher
Published: September 2006

Self‐incompatibility (SI) is a genetically controlled cell–cell recognition system that acts as a barrier to self‐pollination in a wide range of flowering plant species. Several different SI mechanisms have been identified.
Seeds
Authors: Black Michael
Published: September 2006

In the seed‐bearing plants (angiosperms and gymnosperms) the embryo‐containing seeds develop from the fertilized ovule. The structural and physiological features that are laid down during development confer upon the seed properties that account for its greatly successful role in the life cycle of the dominant plants on Earth.
Vernalization
Authors: Finnegan E Jean , Bagnall David , Helliwell Chris , Rouse Dean , Sheldon Candice , Tadege Million , Peacock W James , Dennis Elizabeth
Published: September 2006

Vernalization is the promotion of flowering in response to a prolonged period of growth at low temperatures.
Meristems
Authors: Green Kirsten A , Clark Steven E
Published: September 2006

In the region designated the shoot meristem, undifferentiated cells are maintained throughout the life cycle of the plant, providing a source of cells from which plant organs are derived. Cells that are differentiating as they are channelled toward a particular developmental fate also reside in the shoot meristem, as do the resultant organ primordia.
Lateral Meristems
Authors: Turner Simon
Published: September 2006

Radial growth of plants is the result of activity of the lateral meristems. These meristems, known as the vascular and cork cambiums, are active in areas of the plant where primary growth has ceased and are therefore referred to as secondary meristems.
Leaf and Internode
Authors: Hudson Andrew , Jeffree Christopher
Published: September 2006

Leaves of different species show wide variation in morphology and anatomy, usually associated with specialized roles in photosynthesis. Formation of leaves, from naive meristematic cells at the growing shoot tip, differs subtly in monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants, although it appears to involve conserved gene functions.
Primary Root
Authors: Barlow Peter W
Published: September 2006

The primary root is an organ which forms at the root pole of the plant embryo.
Adventitious Roots
Authors: Neuman Dawn S , Hansberry Janis
Published: September 2006

New roots may arise from atypical locations; these are called adventitious roots. Most commonly, adventitious roots arise out of stems, beginning from stem cortex cell divisions or from buds buried in the bark. In some plants, adventitious roots form on leaves. The field of horticulture is based in large part on cloning plants from cuttings of stems or leaves that form adventitious roots. These roots are also common along rhizomes of ferns, clubmosses, and horsetails. Primary roots and adventitious roots have similar function and structure.
Sepals
Authors: Ingrouille Martin
Published: September 2006

Sepals are the outermost organs of a flower. They are sterile and leaf‐like and protect the flower in bud.
Petals
Authors: Martin Cathie
Published: September 2006

Petals are often the most obvious organ within a flower because they provide a visual signal and a landing platform for pollinators. They develop as a result of a regulatory cascade of meristem determining genes and organ identity genes. They show exquisite adaptions to different pollinator types ranging in form, colour, pattern, scent and oil production.
Stamens
Authors: Smyth David R
Published: September 2006

Stamens are the male reproductive organs of flowers. Their role is to produce pollen. Genes that control the developmental identity and cellular differentiation of stamens are now being identified.
Stamens evolved from microsporangia‐bearing organs of early seed plants.
Trichomes
Authors: Hülskamp Martin , Schwab Birgit
Published: September 2006

A ‘trichome’ (or hair) is an outgrowth derived from the shoot or root epidermis of a plant. The form and distribution of trichomes differs between plant species or genera, but recent molecular work reveals that there are common regulatory pathways for trichome development of different types within the same plant species and possibly also across plant species.
Regulatory Genes in Plant Development: Homeobox
Authors: Sinha Neelima R
Published: September 2006

The Knotted‐like homeobox (KNOX) genes play a profound role in shoot apical meristem organization, maintenance and leaf initiation. An MYB domain gene PHANTASTICA plays a role in regulating dorsal–ventral polarity in lateral organs and also downregulates a subset of the KNOX genes.
Stomata
Authors: Croxdale Judith
Published: September 2006

Stomata are specialized cells which respond to environmental and endogenous signals and change shape to allow gas exchange. The cells are structurally adapted for movement that occurs as the result of increasing osmotic potential and turgor pressure.
Xylem: Differentiation, Water Transport and Ecology
Authors: Sachs Tsvi
Published: September 2006

The xylem carries water from the roots to the leaves; it is also the major supporting tissue in large plants. Three major areas of current research are concerned with additional mechanisms for the ascent of water; patterning at the plant, tissue and cell levels and its molecular basis; and the ecological significance of xylem diversity.
Cork
Authors: Bernards Mark A
Published: September 2006

Cork is the name given to the plant tissue that derives from the phellogen (a type of cambium) and has suberized cell walls. Typically these are found in the ‘bark’ of roots and stems that undergo secondary growth. Suberization also occurs in the Casparian band and in cells immediately below wounds.
Parenchyma
Authors: Pruyn Michele L
Published: September 2006

In plants, the term parenchyma refers to a tissue composed of living cells, usually having only thin, primary cell walls and varying widely by morphology and metabolism. These cells are the oldest type of plant cells.
Pericycle
Authors: Dubrovsky Joseph G , Rost Thomas L
Published: September 2006

Pericycle is a primary tissue that maintains meristematic activity and is involved in lateral root initiation and development as well as in secondary root growth. As such it contributes to formation of the root system and gives rise to two secondary meristems in roots: vascular cambium and cork cambium (phellogen).
Endodermis
Authors: Schreiber Lukas
Published: September 2006

The endodermis of plant roots is a single layer of cells separating the cortex from the central cylinder. Owing to characteristic chemical modifications (suberin and lignin) of radial endodermal cell walls (Casparian bands) it forms an apoplastic barrier influencing radial nutrient and water transport in roots.
Heterochrony in Plants
Authors: Lord Elizabeth M
Published: September 2006

Heterochrony refers to a change in the relative timing or rate of development of morphological features that occur in the ancestor and the descendant. This is an evolutionary concept that invokes shifts in developmental timing as a major force in the evolution of new forms.
Plant Chimaeras and Mosaics
Authors: Bossinger Gerd
Published: September 2006

Plant chimaeras and mosaics are not only found in our gardens as variegated ornamentals. They also constitute valuable research tools with a range of applications in developmental and molecular biology.
Zebrafish as an Experimental Organism
Authors: Houart Corinne
Published: September 2006

The zebrafish became, in the last decade, a model organism of choice to study vertebrate development. Outstanding studies in cell biology coupled with an increasing wealth in mutants and genomic tools led to an explosion of contributions from the zebrafish research community in understanding formation of the brain, heart and main organs.
Acantharia
Authors: Febvre Jean , Febvre‐Chevalier Colette
Published: September 2006

Acantharia are marine planktonic protozoa related to Radiolaria. Their main distinctive features are the mineral skeletons of strontium sulfate, the radial cytoplasmic extensions known as axopods, the extracellular fibrillar network or periplasmic cortex and the contractile filament bundles known as myonemes.
Heliozoa
Authors: Febvre‐Chevalier Colette , Febvre Jean
Published: September 2006

Heliozoa are typically spherical aquatic protozoa bearing thin, sensitive and dynamic cellular extensions known as axopods. The axopods are stiffened by bundles of unstable microtubules that radiate from the cell body in all directions. The skeleton, when present, consists of dispersed elements covering the cell surface. No fossils of Heliozoa have been reported.
Malnutrition
Authors: Walker W Allan , Hadigan Colleen
Published: September 2006

Starvation and hunger remain a threat to health worldwide and, despite recent advances in prevention and treatment, malnutrition will continue to pose many challenges in the next millennium.
Vitamin D Deficiency
Authors: Kanis John A
Published: September 2006

Vitamin D is a secosteroid that must be metabolized before exerting biological effects. Vitamin D deficiency states may arise from inadequate supplies, defective metabolism or target tissue resistance. Privational vitamin D deficiency is treated with vitamin D, whereas vitamin D‐resistant states are treated with its hydroxylated derivatives.
Vitamin E Deficiency
Authors: Meydani Mohsen , Koga Takuro , Ali Samina
Published: September 2006

Vitamin E is essential for the integrity of cellular membranes and deficiency of it results in membrane lipid peroxidation, dysfunction and cell death. Nutritional vitamin E deficiency is rare in humans, but rare genetic defects lead to tissue deficiency despite normal intestinal absorption.
Trace Element Deficiency
Authors: Shenkin Alan
Published: September 2006

Small amounts of certain inorganic elements are essential for health. When the diet provides an insufficient amount of these, a deficiency state may occur with deleterious consequences.
Ischaemic Heart Disease
Authors: Lewis David , Wang Qing , Topol Eric
Published: September 2006

The clinical spectrum of ischaemic heart disease encompasses a variety of acute and chronic conditions including silent ischaemia, chronic stable angina, myocardial infarction, ischaemic cardiomyopathy and sudden cardiac death. Its pathogenesis and treatment is the subject of much ongoing research and debate.
Pulmonary Hypertension
Authors: Badesch David B
Published: September 2006

Pulmonary hypertension is an abnormal increase in blood pressure within the lung circulation. This potentially fatal disorder was previously associated with a poor prognosis, but long‐term survival is now possible with aggressive medical therapy and/or lung transplantation.
Altitude Sickness
Authors: Piantadosi Claude A
Published: September 2006

The physiological changes and medical problems that can be associated with exposure to high altitude by people accustomed to living at or below sea level.
Anaesthesia: Modern Approaches
Authors: Foëx Pierre
Published: September 2006

Anaesthesia, the single largest hospital medical speciality, has expanded to include anaesthesia, acute and chronic pain relief and intensive care. Over 60 per cent of hospital patients are in contact with anaesthetists. Developments over the past decades have increased its safety and its mechanisms have become clearer. Many anaesthetists are becoming perioperative physicians and take an increasing role in the delivery of postoperative care.
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
Authors: Stockley Robert A
Published: September 2006

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease is a group of conditions characterized by the presence of persistent air flow obstruction during expiration, primarily due to narrowing of the airways. Although classically associated with smoking, increasing pollution in the industrialized world also influences its prevalence.
Oral Disease
Authors: Scully Crispian
Published: September 2006

Health of the mouth, teeth, gums, mucosa, jaws and salivary glands is essential not only to eating and talking but also to general health.
Malabsorption
Authors: Losowsky Monty S
Published: September 2006

Malabsorption is impaired absorption of nutrients by the intestine, especially the small intestine, although much water and some nutrients can be absorbed by the large intestine (colon). The small intestine is virtually the only natural entry of nutrients to the body. Malabsorption may be generalized or of a single nutrient.
Preterm Labour: Mechanisms and Risks
Authors: Bernal Andrés López
Published: September 2006

Preterm labour (the occurrence of labour before 37 completed weeks of pregnancy) complicates millions of pregnancies throughout the world and accounts for a disproportionately high percentage of perinatal deaths and long‐term handicap of the surviving infants. Research efforts must focus on the prediction and accurate diagnosis of this condition and the development of better, more selective, therapy.
Population and Family Planning Programmes: Human Needs and Human Numbers
Authors: Potts Malcolm , Guillebaud John
Published: September 2006

Given a couple(woman)‐centred perspective, world population stabilization is possible without coercion. Meeting human needs is an endeavour that must include providing the means for women to control their fertility and realise the potential to bring human numbers down: so permitting sustainable development on a planet with finite resources.
Cold‐related and Heat‐related Medical Problems
Authors: Keatinge William
Published: September 2006

The great majority of illness and mortality caused by heat and cold is produced indirectly through promotion of various disease processes and injuries. Other complications of this nature are due directly to cooling or overheating of the body core (hypothermia or hyperthermia).
Cytokines as Mediators of Disease
Authors: Balkwill Frances R
Published: September 2006

Virtually all insults to the body involve cytokine responses, and nearly every type of disease has a cytokine component. An understanding of the cytokine component of diseases is leading to new approaches to treatment.
Immune Vasculitis
Authors: Johnson Patricia A
Published: September 2006

Vasculitis comprises a broad group of syndromes characterized by inflammation and necrosis in the walls of blood vessels, resulting in narrowing or occlusion of the lumen. The distribution of blood vessel involvement varies considerably and serves as the basis of classification of the vasculitic syndromes.
Complement: Deficiency Diseases
Authors: Winkelstein Jerry A , Sullivan Kathleen E
Published: September 2006

Genetically determined deficiencies of the complement system result in an increased susceptibility to infection, rheumatic disorders, or angio‐oedema.
Anaemia: Overview
Authors: Erslev Allan J
Published: September 2006

Anaemias are haematological disorders caused either by a decreased production of red cells, a bone marrow failure, or by an increased destruction of red cells, congenital or acquired. They impair the transport of oxygen from lungs to tissues and their symptoms are caused by tissue hypoxia and by compensatory efforts to correct this hypoxia. The design of an optimal treatment depends on understanding the dynamics of normal haematopoiesis and pinpointing their pathogenesis.
Immunodeficiency Disorders due to Antibody Deficiency (B‐lymphocyte Disorders)
Authors: Roberts Robert L
Published: September 2006

The majority of patients with primary immunodeficiency have a defect in their ability to make sufficient quantities of specific antibodies. This lack of specific antibodies is due to lack of B lymphocytes, defects in B‐lymphocyte function, or inability of B lymphocytes to interact with T lymphocytes.
Mixed T Lymphocyte and B Lymphocyte Deficiency Disorders
Authors: Vihinen Mauno
Published: September 2006

Mixed immunodeficiency diseases are intrinsic defects of the immune system affecting both B and T cells and the adaptive immune system. Mixed or combined immune deficiencies may also be associated with or secondary to other diseases. Patients have severe symptoms and the condition can be fatal unless properly treated.
Macrophage Function Disorders
Authors: Gordon Siamon
Published: September 2006

Macrophages respond to alterations in their microenvironment by producing a wide variety of products that mediate inflammation, immunity and tissue homeostasis or injury. While primary deficiencies of macrophage function in human disease are relatively uncommon, overactive macrophages contribute to, and play a central role in, many major disease processes.
Systemic Mast Cell Disease
Authors: Duffy Thomas P
Published: September 2006

Systemic mastocytosis represents an abnormal accumulation of mast cells in various sites throughout the body. The manifestations of this chronic multifaceted disorder have their origin in mast cell infiltration of organs and the systemic and local effects of the numerous pharmacologic mediators derived from mast cells. The rareness of the disorder and its multiplicity of presentations make it an often overlooked consideration in a differential diagnosis that may include asthma, diarrhoea, urticaria, syncope, peptic ulceration and angina.
Monoclonal Antibodies: Diagnostic Uses
Authors: Zola Heddy , Thomson Peter Roberts
Published: September 2006

Diagnosis of disease depends frequently on the identification, quantitation or localization of particular molecules, cells or organisms in tissue or body fluids. Antibodies, because of their exquisite specificity, are particularly useful reagents in this context, and monoclonal antibodies are often superior to polyclonal mixtures of antibodies. Monoclonal antibodies are used widely in the diagnostic laboratory.
Chronic Myeloid Leukaemia
Authors: Mughal Tariq I , Goldman John M
Published: September 2006

Chronic myeloid leukaemia (CML) is a malignant disorder that originates in a single abnormal haematopoietic stem cell. CML patients were once regarded as incurable, but more recent understanding of the molecular anatomy and pathophysiology of the disease provides important insights into the targeting of treatment to a specific molecular abnormality.
Chronic Granulomatous Disease and Other Disorders of Phagocytosis
Authors: Segal Anthony W , Thrasher Adrian
Published: September 2006

The phagocytic system is one of the first lines of defence against invading microorganisms. Diseases and disorders that impair phagocyte function can lead to a profound immunodeficiency.
Spleen: Disorders
Authors: Pearson Howard A
Published: September 2006

The spleen has a number of functions that are important in the immunological function of the body, and absence of the spleen poses a risk for serious and often fatal infections. This risk can be reduced by deferring splenectomy when possible and by the use of pneumococcal immunizations and prophylactic antibiotics.
Toxic Shock Syndrome
Authors: McCormick John K , Schlievert Patrick M
Published: September 2006

Toxic shock syndrome is a potentially life‐threatening, multisystem illness characterized by high fever, hypotension, rash and skin desquamation upon recovery. The illness is caused by superantigen toxins produced from
Staphylococcus
aureus
and group A streptococci.
Envenoming: Consequences and Management
Authors: Warrell David A
Published: September 2006

How animals, such as snakes, fish, arthropods, leeches and jellyfish can inject their venoms by biting and stinging; the composition and pathophysiological effects of these different venoms in humans; the prevention and first‐aid and medical treatment of these common accidents.
Imaging: An Overview
Authors: Isherwood Ian
Published: September 2006

The available phenomena that can now be detected or propagated through living tissue for diagnostic imaging purposes include electromagnetic and particulate radiations, electric and magnetic fields and ultrasound each with advantages, disadvantages and fundamental limits. Diagnostic imaging of the future, influenced by increasing computing speeds, advances in computing software and digital transmission will provide improved facilities for the demonstration of disordered function, molecular diagnosis, minimally invasive therapy and improved control of cancer treatment.
Epilepsy: Management
Authors: Bazil Carl W
Published: September 2006

Epilepsy is a common neurological disorder consisting of recurrent, unprovoked, sudden alterations in behaviour caused by abnormal electrical discharges in the brain (seizures).
Squint (Strabismus): Mechanisms and Significance
Authors: DeLarato Nicole H , Volpe Nicholas J , Edmond Jane C
Published: September 2006

Strabismus, or squint, is a misalignment of the eyes. As strabismus may result in lifelong patterns of defective vision, early detection and treatment are of great importance.
Cluster Headache
Authors: Jay Gary W
Published: September 2006

Cluster headache is an excruciatingly painful problem, a ‘suicide headache’. It is secondary to various manifestations of autonomic nervous system dysfunction. Correct diagnosis is clinically mandatory and must be followed with appropriate abortive and/or prophylactic medications.
Memory: Clinical Disorders
Authors: Budson Andrew E , Price Bruce H
Published: September 2006

There are different memory systems in the brain that use distinct anatomical structures to process various types of information in a variety of ways. Many disease processes can disrupt one or more of these memory systems.
Affective Disorders
Authors: Gartside Sarah
Published: September 2006

The affective disorders (e.g. depression and bipolar disorder) are a group of common psychiatric disorders in which pathological disturbance of mood is the primary symptom. Although the neuropathology of affective disorders is unclear, they can be treated successfully with antidepressant and mood‐stabilizing drugs.
Gastrointestinal Tract: Bacterial Infections
Authors: Conlon Christopher Peter
Published: September 2006

Bacterial infections of the gastrointestinal tract lead either to symptoms of vomiting and diarrhoea or to systemic disease with the gastrointestinal tract as the portal of entry.
Bacterial Meningitis
Authors: Hemsley Carolyn , Crook Derrick
Published: September 2006

Bacterial meningitis is bacterial infection of the cerebrospinal fluid within the subarachnoid space associated with inflammation of the meninges. It occurs in a number of clinical settings, each with a particular pattern of infecting organisms, presentation, management and outcome.
Infections in the Immunocompromised Host
Authors: Basarab Marina Gatward , Cohen Jonathan
Published: September 2006

If there is a deficiency in host defences, infections occur with greater frequency and may be unusual in their nature and presentation, so that diagnosis may be difficult. Fungal infections are still a major cause of death in some immunocompromised patients, and the emphasis is now on the prevention of infection.
Antibiotics
Authors: Chopra Ian
Published: September 2006

Antibiotics are natural and synthetic compounds with selective bactericidal or bacteriostatic effects that eliminate pathogens or slow their growth such that the host defence mechanisms can clear the infection. Antibiotics are classified mechanistically according to their site of action in the bacterial cell.
Enteroviruses in Humans
Authors: Romero José R
Published: September 2006

Enteroviruses are significant RNA viral pathogens of humans. Advances in technology are providing improved understanding of their taxonomy, epidemiology, means of detection and therapy.
Hepatitis: Clinical Features and Treatment
Authors: Wright Mark , Thomas Howard
Published: September 2006

Chronic viral hepatitis is defined as infection persisting more than 6 months. Of the hepatotropic viruses,
Hepatitis B virus
and
Hepatitis C virus
cause chronic infection resulting in chronic liver disease.
Influenza Epidemics
Authors: Kawaoka Yoshihiro
Published: September 2006

Influenza viruses can cause either limited or worldwide epidemics (pandemics). Most influenza epidemics are associated with excess mortality.
Parvovirus Infections in Humans
Authors: Blacklow Neil R
Published: September 2006

Parvoviruses are small, species‐specific DNA‐containing viruses that infect several animal species. The human parvoviruses include two agents,
B19 virus
and adeno‐associated virus;
B19 virus
causes several disease syndromes and is a medically important pathogen.
Rabies and Related Diseases
Authors: Gibbons Robert V
Published: September 2006

Rabies is an acute, fatal encephalitis that is caused by infection with the lyssaviruses. Although primarily a disease of bats and carnivorous mammals, it has afflicted humans since antiquity and continues to kill upwards of 50 000 people worldwide each year.
Syphilis
Authors: Wright David JM , Csonka George W
Published: September 2006

Syphilis is a sexually transmitted disease caused by the bacterium
Treponema pallidum
. It is usually classified as having an infectious phase, primary and secondary lesions, and the now less common noninfectious late stages.
Leptospirosis
Authors: Sitprija Visith
Published: September 2006

Leptospirosis is an important zoonotic disease caused by the spirochaete
Leptospira interrogans
. It is found worldwide but is commonly seen in tropical regions of heavy rainfall and neutral or alkaline soil.
Acid–Base Balance Disorders
Authors: DuBose Thomas D
Published: September 2006

Abnormalities in maintaining the pH of the blood in a range that is incompatible with sustaining metabolic processes are known as acid–base balance disorders.
Acute Haemostatic Failure
Authors: Radia Deepti , Hunt Beverley J
Published: September 2006

Various states, including disseminated intravascular coagulation, vitamin K deficiency, massive transfusion, renal and liver disease, and hyperfibrinolysis, can result in haemostatic failure.
Cholesterol and Vascular Disease
Authors: Wild SH , Byrne CD
Published: September 2006

Cholesterol is packaged into lipoprotein particles in the liver and intestine and transported to peripheral tissues for normal cellular function. Increased plasma concentrations of cholesterol contribute to atherosclerotic vascular disease that commonly affects the coronary, cerebral and peripheral vascular circulation.
Cholesterol‐lowering Agents and their Use
Authors: Packard Christopher J , Gaw Allan , Shepherd James
Published: September 2006

Increased cholesterol concentration in the bloodstream is an important risk factor in coronary heart disease. Clinical trials have demonstrated the benefit of lipid‐lowering medication in preventing morbidity and death from coronary heart disease.
Glycogen Storage Diseases
Authors: Cox TM
Published: September 2006

Glycogen is used as an almost universal energy store in animal tissues; its complex molecular structure requires the interaction of many biosynthetic and degradative enzymes, whose action is finely coordinated and subject to rigorous metabolic regulation. Numerous diseases, each with a particular clinical phenotype, result from inherited defects in the metabolism of glycogen; many of these lead to the storage of abnormal glycogen molecules.
Fructose Metabolism Disorders
Authors: Cox TM
Published: September 2006

Fructose is an important macronutrient and fructose esters participate critically in intermediary metabolism; thus, inherited defects of enzymes involved in handling of dietary fructose may have profound metabolic effects. Examples are essential fructosuria, hereditary fructose intolerance and fructose‐1,6‐bisphosphatase deficiency.
Iron Loading Anaemia
Authors: Benz Edward J Jr
Published: September 2006

This article outlines the key factors of the three major forms of anaemia capable of causing severe iron overload in patients, even without chronic transfusion therapy: the thalassemia syndromes, sideroblastic anaemias, and congenital dyserythropoietic anaemia.
Lipoproteins: Genetic Disorders
Authors: Soutar Anne K
Published: September 2006

Plasma lipoproteins transport water‐insoluble lipids in the blood circulation from sites of synthesis or absorption to sites of utilization or storage. Genetic disorders of lipoprotein metabolism can either increase or decrease the levels of normal lipoproteins in plasma or cause accumulation of abnormal lipoproteins. Many of the known gene defects result in a greatly increased risk of coronary heart disease or cause neurological symptoms, highlighting the importance of lipid transport and metabolism in these processes.
Red Cell Membrane and Transport Systems: Hereditary Disorders
Authors: Nagel Ronald L
Published: September 2006

The structure and function of the red cell membrane and associated ion transporters play an important role in the pathology of red cell genetic defects.
Cystinuria
Authors: Goldfarb David S
Published: September 2006

Cystinuria accounts for 1% of kidney stones. Two of the genes responsible for the disorder,SLC3A1andSLC7A9, have been identified. The identification ofSLC3A1made cystinuria the first disorder of amino acid transport with an identified gene.
Organic Acid Metabolism: Genetic Disorders
Authors: Barshop Bruce A
Published: September 2006

Disorders of organic acid metabolism result from deficiencies in enzymes involved in terminal steps of amino acid, fatty acid, and carbohydrate metabolism, causing a number of serious multi‐system symptoms. Management of these conditions may be life‐saving, and their study has yielded invaluable information about metabolic processes in man.
Kidney and Renal Tract: Developmental Disorders
Authors: Grünfeld Jean‐Pierre
Published: September 2006

Kidney and urinary tract developmental disorders represent one of the most common groups of malformations, corresponding to approximately 30% of all malformations detected by antenatal ultrasonography in humans.