bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Bintz Site
Authors: Maccord Howard A.
Published: April 2006

The Bintz site is a small village site located on the left bank of the Ohio River at the mouth of Twelve-Mile Creek, Campbell County, Kentucky, on property belonging to Mrs. William C. Bintz. The village consists of two parts – the “lower village,” at the immediate edge of the river, just downstream from the mouth of the creek, and the “upper village” about two hundred meters from the river and the creek on a terrace about four meters higher than the flood-plain where the “lower village” is located (Fig. 87). The cultural material found at both areas is identical, and it appears that both areas were occupied by the same people and at the same time. With the exception of a small amount of Woodland material found on the surface and in the excavations at the “upper village,” all the material is definitely of the Fort Ancient type. Since the pottery types link the site specifically with the Madisonville and Fox Farm sites, we classify the Bintz site as a component of the Madisonville focus (Griffin, 1943).
Lamellar Flakes versus Blades, a Reappraisal
Authors: Solecki Ralph S.
Published: April 2006

A body of literature has grown up on the archaeology of the American Arctic region in recent years concerning a core and blade industry. Nelson (1937) and Rainey (1939), who were among the first writers to note the evidences there of this industry, called attention to the occurrence of “prismatic flakes” in association with prepared flint cores. The first use in the Eskimo area of the equally singular term, “lamellar flake,” to my knowledge appears in Wintemberg's (1939: 89-91) paper on the Dorset Culture, wherein we find the term “lamellar flakes” used in ostensibly the same descriptive sense as “prismatic flakes.” Leechman (1943: 370) discusses “laminate blades” at a later date in the Cape Dorset sites under the heading “narrow flaked blades.” Although Johnson (1946) still later refers to “prismatic flakes,” the die was cast and the term “lamellar flake” was adopted and accepted by some in Arctic archaeology.
Answer to “Plaster Under the Tower“
Authors: Godfrey William S.
Published: April 2006

The criticisms from Pohl imply that he has refuted certain contentions which I have made concerning the Newport Tower. I have refrained from anything beyond comment on his various statements.

1. Only three of the columns (N, NE, E) rest on circular stones. The stone on which the SE column rests is only partially circular, the missing portion being chinked out with smaller stones. The other four columns rest on “plinths” (see point 3 below) which are composed of many small stones (Means, 1942, and personal observation).

2. The stones, and the column bases, are very close to 4’ in diameter, and probably were 4’ in diameter when the mortar coating which originally covered them was in place.

3. Pohl's discussion of plinths is completely immaterial. The columns did not stand on plinths, but on drums 18” high, which are now buried in the soil with the exception of their top stones. We were able to identify the original floor level in 1949, and to determine that the original floor surface was gravel (Godfrey, 1950b, 1951). The drums were mortared and plastered (or whitewashed) down to this floor.
Recent Publications on American Indian Physical Anthropology
Authors: Reed Erik K.
Published: April 2006

The six papers reviewed by T. D. Stewart in the July 1952 issue of American Antiquity (Vol. XVIII, No. 1, pp. 71-72; also reviewed in the American ]ournal of Archaeology, Vol. 56, No. 4, October 1952, pp. 234- 236, by E. K. Reed) were given in the symposium on new methods and techniques of interpretation of the physical anthropology of the American Indian constituting the second half of the Viking Fund's Fourth Summer Seminar in Physical Anthropology, August 29 to September 3, 1949 (the first half being devoted to the Australopithecinae of South Africa). Abstracts of all papers were published in the Yearbook of Physical Anthropology, Vol. 4, 1948, New York (Viking Fund), 1949. In addition to the six papers presented in full in Physical Anthropology of the American Indian (ed. W. S. Laughlin, published by the Viking Fund, New York, 1951), these were: Morris Steggerda, “Anthropometry of the living American Indian“; Charles E. Snow, “The Sequence of Physical Types in North America“; and T. D. McCown, “The sequence of physical types in California.” Final discussion, of methods and theoretical considerations, was presided over by Stewart as moderator.
Ceramic Sequences in El Salvador
Authors: Haberland Wolfgang
Published: April 2006

Field trips in 1953-54 and 1958 and the checking of about 150 sites provide the background for these preliminary sequences. El Salvador is divided into three cultural regions. Western El Salvador is strongly linked with Guatemala and Mesoamerica while the eastern region is basically Central American. The central part of the country is heavily influenced by both of the other regions with the Mesoamerican component predominating. In the western sequence the Atiquizaya phase is connected with the Las Charcas or Providencia phases in the Guatemalan Highlands and the Cuyagualo phase with the Full Classic material at Copán. The latest complex in the western region, the Majahual phase, possibly flourished during the conquest period on the western shore. The central sequence begins with the Tovar complex about 700 B.C. and ends with the Cihuatan phase which demonstrates the Pipil domination of this region in later times. In eastern El Salvador, where archaeological knowledge begins with the footprints of La Rama at about 1500 B.C., several complexes with wares made in the Usulutan technique developed. The eastern sequence culminates in the Lower Lempa culture about A.D. 1000.
Modoc Rock Shelter: An Early Archaic Site in Southern Illinois
Authors: Fowler Melvin L.
Published: April 2006

Archaeological sites to which the rather indefinite term Archaic has been applied have been known from various areas throughout the eastern United States for a good number of years. At the outset, these sites were defined as Archaic primarily by their lack of evidence for agricultural practices and pottery, although more positive traits were also used in such definitions. The term Archaic has now come to be used in two major ways: as a time period in a local sequence, and as a cultural stage in general preceding the development of agriculture and settled communities.
Quantitative Analysis of Shells from a Site in Goleta, California
Authors: Greenwood Roberta S.
Published: April 2006

This shell study was designed to test and perfect methods of quantitative analysis in addition to providing the usual identification of species. Experiments were performed to determine the optimum size of sample, dimension of screen, number of samples, and the practicability of rapid analysis in the field to guide the progress of excavation. Analysis of variance was used to measure up to five variables at once; differences were shown graphically with direction of change indicated by a least-squares regression line. The analysis of 69 excavation units revealed an overwhelming preference for mud-dwelling species which showed no change in horizontal distribu-give guidance to the excavation team. Used with dry-weight analysis, field sorting would also indicate areas of richer occupation debris in time for this information to be useful. The use of applied mathematics in midden analysis adds a precise tool to the archaeological inventory. The data compiled on screen size, sample size, horizontal and vertical distributions, and such, were subjected to the analysis of variance, and where significant difference was indicated, the statistics were fitted to a regression line by the least-squares method. By using standardized systems and quantitative analysis, the archaeologist may obtain convincing evidence to support his conclusions. These procedures would be equally applicable to the study of skeletal, artifactual, or other ecological remains, and would add authority to the theories derived from such analysis.
An Instance of the Transport of Artifacts by Migratory Animals in South America
Authors: Carneiro Robert L.
Published: April 2006

In an article in this journal some years ago, Heizer (1944) brought together a number of recorded instances of the transport of artifacts by migratory animals. These instances consisted entirely of cases in which a bird, a sea mammal, or a land mammal had been wounded by man and, surviving the wound, had carried part of the weapon imbedded in its flesh, to some area many miles away. The eventual killing of the animal elsewhere led to the discovery of an exotic arrowhead, spear point, or harpoon head in the old wound. The occurrence of undetected instances of this phenomenon would naturally result in the deposition of artifacts far from their native area where, on the basis of ethnographic and archaeological evidence, they would not be expected to occur.
The Type-Variety Concept as a Basis for the Analysis of Maya Pottery
Authors: Smith Robert E. , Willey Gordon R. , Gifford James C.
Published: April 2006

The method being used to analyze pottery from Uaxactún and Barton Ramie by the application of the type-variety concept is offered as an analytical approach well suited to the classification of Maya ceramics. Types and varieties are seen as the best archaeological approximation of the ceramic abstractions which existed in the prehistoric cultural configuration. The systematic application of the type-variety concept will make it possible to establish analytical ceramic units which will be comparable throughout the Maya territory, to undertake detailed chronological and areal studies, especially in areas away from the ceremonial centers, and to use ceramics as a step toward cultural interpretation. Considerable attention is given to the procedure of analysis and to the problem of naming the resulting analytical ceramic units. The most desirable nomenclature is illustrated by Aguacate Orange [type]: Holha Variety. Place names have been used for the primary type term and for the variety name, but a descriptive term is used for the second part of the type name. The desirability of keeping the variety flexible and free of bias or prejudice stemming from the nomenclature is stressed. The variety is the smallest meaningful unit of classification in the type-variety method. Sorting, naming, and tabulating begin with varieties which, in turn, lead to the recognition, naming and description of types.
The Little Sycamore Site and the Early Milling Stone Cultures of Southern California
Authors: Wallace William James
Published: April 2006

The Presence in the southern California coastal region of prehistoric cultures showing considerable use of milling stones has been recognized for some years. Attention was called to this fact by the publication in 1929 of David Banks Rogers’ Prehistoric Man of the Santa Barbara Coast. Rogers distinguished a sequence of three aboriginal cultures in the Santa Barbara area, the earliest of which (Oak Grove) was characterized by the employment of this form of grinding implement almost to the exclusion of other artifacts. In the same year Malcolm J. Rogers noted a somewhat analogous complex (now La Jolla) in western San Diego County (M. J. Rogers 1929: 456-7). Occurrences of similar assemblages have been reported upon since (Treganza and Malamud 1950; Walker 1952).

An investigation conducted at the Little Sycamore site (Ven 1) in Ventura County by a class in archaeological field methods from the University of Southern California uncovered evidence of yet another milling stone complex.
Ancient Koryak Culture
Authors: Vasil'evskii R. S.
Published: April 2006

The chronological position of the ancient Koryak culture and its ethnic affinities are discussed here with reference to three important archaeological investigations on the Okhotsk seacoast. In 1958 the Magadan Regional Museum excavated four previously unknown settlements on P'iagina Peninsula in Kip-Kich and Itkilan bays, on Cape Keitevan, and on Varganchik Spit. Several common traits, such as topography, dwelling types, and material elements, make it possible to speak of these settlements in terms of their relative chronological and ethnic positions. The economic base and permanent settlement patterns are generally similar to those of the ancient Eskimos. This similarity is due to influences from other cultures and to convergence. Material objects bear close resemblances to some found in the Punuk stage of the Bering Sea, the Neolithic and early Bronze Age cultures of eastern Siberia, and in the Neolithic of southeastern Asia. This evidence provides a basis for establishing the chronological position of the P'iagina material, which may be placed between the early Bronze Age sites of the Lena Basin and the Punuk stage of Eskimo culture. The settlements have been assigned a place in the Koryak culture complex as a new stage or a local variant. This placement is based upon dwelling types and material complex, for example, blubber lamps.

On the marine terraces of the IAma River on Cape Travianoi a settlement of two dwellings was discovered. The house remains are in the form of elongated knolls. There was good preservaiton of artifacts, which included many household utensils of wood and a few of bone and stone. The material complex shows that the inhabitants utilized metal instruments, and this indicates that the dwellings were constructed at a late date. It is concluded that they are protohistoric but preceding the arrival of the Russians.

The Atargan settlement excavated in 1959 has the largest number of dwellings of those now known on the Okhotsk coast. The report includes a detailed description of a Koryak dwelling structure. Examination of the Atargan excavations indicates that the local Koryak population knew the use of metal before the Russians arrived. Pottery types, bone artifacts, and decorated artifacts are very similar to materials from complexes of the first millennium A.D. in the Bering Sea area.

The material cited in this report introduces evidence which indicates that the diffusion of iron among people dwelling along the Okhotsk seacoast originated from the Yakutia districts, where the remains of the early Iron Age are known, and that during this time the local population of Koryaks was also receiving elements from the Bering Sea tribes of the Punuk stage.
Thorne Cave, Northeastern Utah: Geology
Authors: Malde Harold E. , Schick Asher P.
Published: April 2006

Geologic interest in Thorne Cave stems from its link with valley alluvium along Cliff Creek, which accumulated to a height of 48 ft., continued to build up another 13 ft. while men lived here, and then reached 30 ft. higher — sealing in the signs of man. Mineralogic study shows that ground water then circulated through the cave deposits for a considerable time. The alluvium is correlated with the lower part of the Tsegi Formation of the Navajo country. Cutting of a terrace at mid-depth in the valley alluvium reopened Thorne Cave, probably before the Christian era, and desert varnish then began to form on the cave brow. Radiocarbon dates from presumably correlative deposits suggest that the cave debris is about 4000 years old — a conclusion consistent with dates of 4230 and 4170 years from Thorne Cave.
Bifurcate-stemmed Projectile Points in the Eastern United States
Authors: Fitting James E.
Published: April 2006

In 1953 it was suggested that bifurcate-stemmed projectile points might serve as a horizon marker in the southwestern United States. Since then material has been reported which indicates that this is also true for the eastern United States. There are two types of bifurcate-stemmed points: a larger form which may be older than 5000B.C.and a smaller form which appears to be more recent.
A Summary of Excavation and Research at Tikal, Guatemala: 1956-61
Authors: Coe William R.
Published: April 2006

A long-term program of intensive excavation and study at the major lowland Maya center of Tikal is described in terms of procedure and results achieved to date. Work has centered on the principal ceremonial area of the site as well as on potential domestic areas. Considerable evidence of Postclassic activity has been encountered throughout a substantial portion of the site in the forms of disturbance of monuments positioned during the Classic, of “abnormal” re-use of monuments, both whole and fragmentary, of excavation for cached offerings and tombs, and of minor constructions for ceremonial purposes that were made probably of “robbed” masonry. The evidence is cited for Tikal having been a sort of pilgrimage center in probably still later times. A theme of “monument obsolescence” throughout much of Classic times is developed to account for the plentiful evidence of shattered, abandoned monuments of those times. Significant new monuments are discussed as to the contributions of their hieroglyphic texts while monuments are dealt with in general as to their changes in time, associations, and positional standards. Important patterns in burial and cache contents are handled as outstanding elements of Classic ceremonialism. The evidence of strong contact with Teotihuacán in late Early Classic times is discussed and in part illustrated. The scope and objectives of the excavations among ceremonial remains are contrasted with those carried out in contexts believed to be domestic. The difficulty of demonstrating residence is emphasized along with the problem of how to deal realistically with “settlement pattern” at a massive, culturally complex site like Tikal. Various other practical questions are cited which relate to the ambiguity of extant terms and concepts as they apply to the Maya area and to Tikal specifically.
A Conflict of Values in American Archaeology
Authors: King Thomas F.
Published: April 2006

As contract salvage programs have come to support more and more archaeological fieldwork and analysis, and as archaeologists have become increasingly concerned with the relevance of their sub-discipline to the larger explanatory goals of anthropology, a strategic conflict has arisen that threatens to severely limit the potential of American archaeology for long-range explanatory research. It is contended that this conflict has arisen because salvage-support agencies have been led to organize their contract procedures along lines amenable to inductive, laissez-faire research. These procedures have become canonized while archaeology has begun to drift toward deductive, interdisciplinary team methods. Proposed salvage programs in the North Coast Ranges of California are used to illustrate the self-defeating nature of present procedures, and reorganization is suggested to permit increased theoretical input and the integration of salvage operations into large-scale regional research programs.
Functional Interpretations from Microscopic Analysis
Authors: Nance J. D.
Published: April 2006

For many years, small, serrated, obsidian artifacts characteristic of late central California cultural manifestations (Late Horizon), have been regarded as projectile points (arrow and dart points). A functional analysis of a number of these tools based on examination with a binocular microscope revealed evidence of wear patterns including striations which makes it quite clear that these artifacts were used for other purposes. This brings the projectile point interpretation up for serious questioning, at least for the area under consideration. It is suggested that further investigation of artifact assemblages, using similar methods, will in all likelihood alter many existing ideas regarding the functional significance of many artifact types. It is further pointed out that many times discrepancies exist between ethnographic accounts and other sources of data relative to the functional significance of artifacts.
Canavalia Beans in American Prehistory
Authors: Sauer Jonathan , Kaplan Lawrence
Published: April 2006

The naturally pantropical genus Canavalia is the source of four domesticated species, of which C. plagiosperma and C. ensiformis evidently evolved under aboriginal New World cultivation. Their exact origins are uncertain because the archaeological record is concentrated in dry regions where they arrived as irrigated crops. Prehistoric cultivation of C. plagiosperma is known only from coastal Peru where it has been grown continuously for at least 4,000 years. The earliest secure record of C. ensiformis is from about A.D. 900 in Oaxaca, but charred seeds from about 300 B.C. in Yucatan probably belong to this species. Later archaeological records of C. ensiformis are available from a few Arizona sites and from Peruvian sites occupied in the early Colonial period. Canavalia and Phaseolus beans are generally associated in prehistoric cultures. Since the latter are rated as superior food, the role of Canavalia is puzzling. Meager historical and ethnographic evidence offers few clues.
Changing Site Designations: A Reply
Authors: McKusick Marshall
Published: April 2006

Heizer suggests that the trinominal system of site designation be modified, making all published citation obsolete and necessitating a major conversion in permanent catalogs, site files, and other records throughout the country. No new information would be gained by such a conversion. A simpler alternative is proposed to take care of the minor discrepancy of alphabetical additions; this system would also keep the existing system intact.
The Archaeological Significance of Mahamaes Cultivation on the Coast of Peru
Authors: Parsons Jeffrey R.
Published: April 2006

Recent observations on the Central and North Coasts of Peru indicate the previously unrealized importance of a prehispanic agricultural technique (mahamaes) which permits effective cultivation of sizable areas without canal irrigation. Mahamaes cultivation may well have been significant in the origins of agriculture on the coast, and as a supplement to canal irrigation in later prehispanic times. Its apparent ability to support relatively large, sophisticated political structures suggests some reorganization of our thinking about the utility of the hydraulic agriculture model for coastal Peru.
Correlations between Archaic Cultures of Southern California and Coquimbo, Chile
Authors: Iribarren Ch. Jorge
Published: April 2006

Cogged stones from preceramic sites on the coasts of California and Chile may reflect a north-to-south diffusion during the Archaic period with greater elaboration of the trait in Chile.
New Light on the End of Classic Maya Culture at Benque Viejo, British Honduras
Authors: MacKie Euan W.
Published: April 2006

The excavation of two structures in 1959 showed that the end of the Classic came suddenly at the end of Benque Viejo IIIb. One building, probably a palace, had completely collapsed and buried Benque Viejo IIIb pottery; the other, probably residential, was badly damaged at the end of Benque Viejo IIIb and its ruins were reoccupied in Benque Viejo IV, probably by local peasants. No attempt to reconstruct either building was made and this, with the nature of the post-destruction occupation of one of them, suggests that the whole of Period IV was Postclassic. The severe damage to both structures seems to imply that an earthquake hit this center at the end of Period IIIb and the geology of the area supports this idea. The fact that the Classic had disappeared after this event suggests that an earth tremor could actually have caused the collapse of the authority of the hierarchy at this site. At Uaxactún and San José the Classic continued well into the final phase at each site, equivalent to Benque Viejo IV, so it seems that the old order at Benque Viejo declined some time before that at the other two sites. It is therefore possible that the abrupt and unusual fashion of the decline at Benque Viejo, whatever its cause, played a significant part in the end of the Classic culture at some neighboring centers.
Pueblo Indian Migrations: An Evaluation of the Possible Physical and Cultural Determinants
Authors: Jett Stephen C.
Published: April 2006

The numerous theories that have been proposed to explain the abandonment of the San Juan and other areas by the Anasazi at the end of Pueblo III times are discussed.

The theory of the Great Drought of A.D. 1276-1299 is rejected as a total cause because the Chaco Canyon center was abandoned long before this “drought.” Drought in general is questioned because climatic data indicate that in some cases inhabitants of more favored areas migrated to less favored areas.

The theory of disastrous arroyo-cutting suffers from insufficient evidence. In addition, it does not seem to have taken place at Canyon de Chelly, and it would not have been able to affect the mesa-top farms at Mesa Verde.

The theory of Athapaskan raiders is favored by the defensive trend of Pueblo architecture. Although probably weaker militarily, the nomads could have caused abandonments by use of guerrilla tactics. Despite a lack of positive archaeological evidence, the possibility of a sufficiently early arrival of the Athapaskans is suggested by legend, glottochronology, and indirect archaeological evidence in the Largo-Gallina area.

Inter- and intra-village feuds would not cause large areas to be deserted, especially if land shortages were the cause of conflict, and the hypothesis of devastating disease fails to account for the population increases of Pueblo IV times and is not supported by historical data.

It is concluded that multiple causes will have to be cited to explain all the Pueblo abandonments but that nomadic raiders appear to be the best general explanation, given the available data.
Contemporary Tzotzil Cosmological Concepts as a Basis for Interpreting Prehistoric Maya Civilization
Authors: Holland William R.
Published: April 2006

A heretofore little-known aspect of Tzotzil religion centers around belief in sacred mountains, the mythological origin places of patrilineal groups. The companion animals of the corresponding kin groups are distributed throughout the 13 levels of the sacred mountain according to age and status. Ceremonial relations are maintained with the “spirit world” by means of periodic pilgrimages to the tops of these mountains. There are many suggestive analogies between these contemporary Tzotzil practices and those of the ancient Maya as recorded in the Popul Vuh and The Book of Chilam Balam of Chumayel and as inferred from archaeological studies. The sacred mountains of the Tzotzil are suggested as functional counterparts of some of the smaller pyramids in Classic Maya archaeological sites. These ancient pyramids may have been the centers of rule of patrilineal groups which, as progressive layers were added with lineage successions, may have become centers for ancestor worship where priest-rulers were buried.
The Construction and Uses of a Laboratory Archaeological Site
Authors: Chilcott John H. , Deetz James J.
Published: April 2006

In view of the demonstrated value of small-scale site replicas to archaeological field training, a full-scale experimental site was constructed and shown to be of value in training personnel in archaeological techniques and in investigating various problems of archaeological field procedure. This site, built on the Santa Barbara campus of the University of California, was excavated by student groups ranging from junior high school through college who had differing amounts of previous field experience. The effect of age and experience on recovery efficiency and depth of interpretation was studied, as well as the reactions of students to excavation of an artificial construct, and in the case of those with no previous experience, to archaeological field work in general.

In addition to that section of the site devoted to problems connected with instruction, a section was designed to investigate a series of relatively simple methodological problems. Problems of stratigraphy, seriation, and relationship between size of artifact, soil color and texture, and excavation technique were investigated, with successful results. Such a site has great utility in field instruction, where its superiority over certain natural sites can be demonstrated, and in controlled investigation of various excavation and interpretive techniques. Such a site is relatively easy to construct, and the Santa Barbara laboratory site is now a continuing project.
The Teotihuacan Mapping Project
Authors: Millon René
Published: April 2006

A detailed map of Teotihuacán is being prepared through the use of photogrammetry and ground survey. The city's maximum limits have been circumscribed, and it appears that they surround an area of more than 10 square miles. Part of this area was occupied only during the first phase of the occupation of Teotihuacán (Tzacualli) in the Pre-Classic period; Tzacualli phase Teotihuacán appears to have covered an area of approximately 3 square miles. The maximum area reached by the city during its later phases appears to be close to 9 square miles, but how much of this area was actually occupied during any one period of time remains to be determined. The central 4.5 square miles of the city seem to have been subject to extensive planning (grid pattern, streets, and blocks of uniform size). Teotihuacán appeared as a settlement of great size in the Pre-Classic period and grew to mammoth proportions during the Classic period. No population estimates are yet possible. The Ciudadela now appears to have occupied a central rather than a southerly position in the city. Several Early Classic period Maya pottery fragments were found near the city's eastern border in the immediate vicinity of Tlamimilolpa where similar fragments had previously been found by Linné.
The Destruction of Structure 5D-33-1st at Tikal
Authors: Berlin Heinrich
Published: April 2006

The validity of the reasons adduced by a group of excavators for the willful destruction of a temple pyramid at Tikal is questioned and a greater sense of responsibility among archaeologists is urged.
A Consideration of Archaeological Research Design
Authors: Binford Lewis R.
Published: April 2006

It is argued that the methodology most appropriate for the task of isolating and studying processes of cultural change and evolution is one which is regional in scope and executed with the aid of research designs based on the principles of probability sampling. The various types of observational populations which archaeologists must study are discussed, together with an evaluation of the methodological differences attendant upon adequate and reliable investigation of each. Two basic sampling universes are discussed, the region and the site, together with their methodological and research-design peculiarities. These are used as a basis for discussion and past and current research programs are evaluated in terms of what are believed to be major limitations in obtaining the "facts" pertinent to studies of cultural processes.
A Carved Wooden Ax Handle from Nicaragua
Authors: Stirling M. W.
Published: April 2006

A well-preserved carved wooden ax handle was recently found on the Chiltepe Peninsula, Lake Managua, Nicaragua. The upper portion is in the form of a king vulture. The specimen is unique, since wooden objects in this area are rarely preserved. It was probably the work of the pre-Columbian Mangue Indians.
The Nature of Charcoal Excavated at Archaeological Sites
Authors: Cook S. F.
Published: April 2006

Samples of charcoal recovered from excavated sites were treated with strong acid, followed by strong base. This process removes most of the inorganic carbonates and organic compounds, leaving highly condensed or elementary carbon. The fixed carbon content of the specimens from four sites varied widely and indicated different sources of organic matter. Each charcoal, therefore, has a characteristic chemical composition.
The Revolution in Archaeology
Authors: Martin Paul S.
Published: April 2006

In recent years, changes have occurred in the goals of archaeology due to recent advances in methodology, application of the rules of the logic of science, and the uses of sophisticated computer techniques. The author views these changes, placing them into historical context, and discusses not only the emergence of the new paradigm, but also its implications for the field.
Archaic and Poverty Point Zoomorphic Locust Beads
Authors: Webb Clarence H.
Published: April 2006

Zoomorphic beads of carved and polished hard stone, most often red jasper, have been found in Late Archaic, Poverty Point or unknown context across the southern states from western Louisiana and Arkansas to western Alabama. These beads have features that resemble locusts, specifically the grasshopper and the cyclical cicada. The most regularly accentuated feature is a midbody disc or projecting plate that is thought to represent the auditory organs or vibrating membranes of these insects and which participate in production of a relatively tremendous volume of sound. It is proposed that the locust bead concept, involving an element of magic, spread across the southern states in multicultural context at a time level near 1000 B.C.
Sabloff and Smith's “The Importance of Both Analytic and Taxonomic Classification in the Type-Variety System”
Authors: Dunnell Robert C.
Published: April 2006

The article recently published by Sabloff and Smith (AMER. ANT. 34:278-286, 1969) adds little beyond elaboration to archaeological classification and further tends to perpetuate some common and basic errors. Some of these flaws are noted along with their manifestation in the type-variety system as propounded by Sabloff and Smith, and a direction to solution is indicated.
Ceramic Sequence and Settlement Location in Pre-Hispanic Tlaxcala
Authors: Snow Dean R.
Published: April 2006

A site survey was conducted in the upper drainage basin of the Rio Zahuapan in north-central Tlaxcala, Mexico, during the 1964-65 season. Sixty-three ceramic collections from 59 sites were examined and eventually seriated. The resulting sequence of pottery types indicates that, in spite of its location near major pre-Hispanic centers, this area was apparently not in the mainstream of Mexican prehistory until Late Postclassic times. Moreover, the locations and sizes of the sites sampled indicate that the area never completely lost its rural character. However, Tlaxcalan influence increased significantly with the resistance to the expansion of the empire centered at Tenochititlán and the eventual alliance with Cortes.
Change in Preceramic Twined Textiles from the Central Peruvian Coast
Authors: Moseley M. Edward , Barrett Linda K.
Published: April 2006

For the period of ca. 2500 to 1700 B.C. a three-phase sequence in the development of twined cotton textiles is outlined. The phases represent divisions of a gradual change from the use of single-warp twining to the use of plural-warp twining as revealed in recent excavation at five sites in the Ancón-Chillón area of coastal Peru.
Archaeological Use of the Universal Transverse Mercator Grid
Authors: Edwards Robert L.
Published: April 2006

The Universal Transverse Mercator Grid is a rectangular grid system now used on all standard military maps. Archaeologists could use this system for site location, which would prove especially beneficial in areas where townships and range grids have not been drawn. The use of the series of numbers in the system would help eliminate duplication in state or regional site files.
An Archaeological “Restudy” of an Andean Ethnohistorical Account
Authors: Murra John V.
Published: April 2006

The recent publication in Lima of a detailed, house-to-house 16th-century census of the Huanuco region in the Andean highlands, suggests the possibility of an archaeological investigation retracing the 1562 survey. The archaeological expressions of the several ethnic groups should be identified. The degree and nature of the Inca influences in a peasant area could be revealed. Eventually it should be possible to clarify archaeologically a variety of moot points in Inca social organization.
Costs of Shell Analysis
Authors: Koloseike Alan
Published: April 2006

Excavation of a coastal site often involves the temptation to perform a quantitative analysis for mollusc shell present in the midden. A major factor in such an analysis is the time expense involved. This paper presents the minimal time costs for the sub-processes of standard shell analysis. Time costs for an actual shell analysis are reconstructed to illustrate the use of sub-process rates and as an independent check on the rates as reported. An adequate standard shell analysis is an expensive undertaking. The time and/or money involved might well be applied to more productive research.
The Shaft Tombs of Western Mexico: Problems in the Interpretation of Religious Function in Nonhistoric Archaeological Contexts
Authors: Taylor R. E.
Published: April 2006

The widely differing interpretations of the function of certain artifactual materials associated with the shaft-tomb complex of western Mexico are utilized to illustrate certain problems in the analysis of nonhistoric archaeological materials thought to be of religious significance. It is suggested that in the absence of some new model specifically designed to deal with the religious sub-system of nonhistoric societies and in the absence of interpretative data derived from relatively secure historical contexts, the only approach which seems justified, in light of our present level of knowledge, is to operate on the level of broad generalized statements of probability.
Escapable Errors in Employing Ethnohistory in Archaeology
Authors: Fletcher Charles S.
Published: April 2006

In a recent article which appeared in American Antiquity, Don E. Crabtree reported the results of his experiments in reproducing aboriginal prismatic flaked blades. In his excursion into the ethnohistory of obsidian blade making, Crabtree unfortunately relied on an inaccurate English translation of the Spanish Fr. Juan de Torquemada's account of the process. As a supplement to Crabtree's otherwise excellent article, Torquemada's original Spanish text is presented herein, along with a translation and comments on Crabtree's interpretation of the faulty translation.
Validity of Radiocarbon Dates on Terrestrial Snail Shells
Authors: Tamers M. A.
Published: April 2006

Radiocarbon dating of terrestrial snail shells is examined. Three groups of samples, two from archaeological sites of Venezuela and one from the state of Texas, were taken as examples. The true ages were determined from radiocarbon dates on associated charcoal, and measurements on the snail shells allowed the errors to be determined. The groups showed completely different characteristics: 15 samples from Texas all had ages falsely old, 12 specimens of one Venezuelan group produced all correct dates, and another Venezuelan type with five samples gave dates all too recent. This study defines the directions and extents of errors for each group of snail shells, permitting them to be used as relatively reliable datable objectives in excavations where better materials are not available.

The possibility of correcting the radiocarbon dates using carbon-13 concentrations is considered, and 24 measurements are presented. It is concluded that more than one factor can influence the stable isotope concentrations in each case, and, therefore, carbon-13 is not useful for the improvement of the accuracy of snail shell dates.
Archaeology in the Arctic, 1935-60
Authors: Larsen Helge
Published: April 2006

Archaeological activities in the North American Arctic are reviewed in terms of the sequences and cultures which have been identified in three major culture areas: the coastal zone from St. Lawrence Island to eastern Greenland, the central area around Hudson Bay with extensions to northern Greenland and Newfoundland, and southwestern Alaska including the Aleutian Islands. Three broad culture horizons are suggested for organizing the data for the first two of these areas. The earliest horizon which cannot be surely identified as either Pre-Eskimo or Proto-Eskimo is tentatively called the Denbigh Flint horizon. It is characterized by fine chipping, micro-cores, micro-blades, burins, and the absence of pottery. These traits occur in the Denbigh Flint and New Mountain complexes and in other assemblages perhaps as far east as the Sarqaq of Greenland. The second or Paleo-Eskimo horizon which also emphasized fine chipping is found in two forms, one with pottery, such as the Choris, Norton, Near Ipiutak, and related cultures in northwestern Canada, and the other without pottery represented by Ipiutak and Dorset. The latest or Neo-Eskimo horizon is the northern maritime tradition of the Okvik to Inugsuk range of cultures. Other approaches to the interpretation of northern archaeology are summarized.
An Old World View of New World Prehistory
Authors: Bushnell Geoffrey
Published: April 2006

A review of problems in American archaeology is organized around the Lithic, Archaic, Formative, Classic, and Postclassic stages of Willey and Phillips. Among the problems raised and discussed are: the inadequacy of the Early Lithic or generalized gathering tool stage, the need for a better definition of the Archaic concept, the difficulty in extending the Archaic stage into South America, the dating and interpretation of the Peruvian Preceramic period, the origin of New World cotton, the possibility of trans-Pacific contacts and the feasibility of ocean travel, the Mesoamerican origin of the Formative stage, the dating of Valdivia culture and the Formative in general in South America, the relationship between Chavin and the comparable cultures in south coastal Peru, the inappropriateness of identifying most of the Mesoamerican centers as cities, the Aztec state as an empire, and the Classic stage as essentially urban, and the possibility of yet finding a Siberian origin for the pressure-flaked bifacial projectile points of the paleo-Indians.
Recent Discoveries in the Atacama Desert and the Bolivian Altiplano
Authors: Barfield Lawrence
Published: April 2006

Recently discovered paleo-Indian sites on the shores of Salar de San Martin in Chile and Laguna Colorada and Laguna Hedionda in Bolivia are described. A cave at Laguna Hedionda is stratified. Comparisons are made with Ayampitin in Argentina and Le Paige's sequence for sites around Salar de Atacama in Chile. Pottery from the Hedionda sites is compared with post-Tiahuanaco to Inca styles in nearby areas of Bolivia. Le Paige's sequence (Puripica, Tulan-Cebollar, Tambillo) is criticized and a revision (Puripica-Tulan, Tambillo-Cebollar) proposed.
Administration of Contract Emergency Archaeological Programs
Authors: Jennings Jesse D.
Published: April 2006

Contract emergency research is seen as sharing essentially the same limitations as other emergency work. These are: the pressure of time; an arbitrary restriction of geographic area of study; the obligation to sample adequately the full range of cultures represented; and the possible problem of dealing with a large volume of data. The contract also carries with it a stipulated deadline for the completion of an acceptable report. All of these limitations are seen as advantageous.
A Doughnut-shaped Vessel from Kaminaljuyú, with a Distributional Analysis of This Unusual Form
Authors: Parsons Lee A.
Published: April 2006

A rare ceramic form commonly called the doughnut-shape is reported for Kaminaljuyú, Guatemala, Miraflores phase. This specimen provides another example of the stucco technique on Pre-Classic pottery. A trial distribution of doughnut-shaped vessels is plotted for the Americas. Although this chart is based upon only a few published illustrations, certain deductions can be made as to the value of this form as a horizon marker. The horizontal variety of doughnut vessel may be a good marker for the Late Pre-Classic horizon in Mesoamerica.
Apache Archaeology in Northeastern New Mexico
Authors: Gunnerson James H.
Published: April 2006

Excavations in northeastern New Mexico have confirmed the presence of a variety of Jicarilla Apache house types mentioned in Spanish documents of ca. 1700. Associated with a 7-room adobe structure and a pit house was an artifact complex closely resembling that of the Plains Apaches represented by the Dismal River aspect. The predominant pottery, however, is a thin micaceous ware, herein described as Ocate Micaceous, accompanied by trade sherds of Tewa Polychrome, plain black Pueblo ware, and Puebla (Mexico) blue and white majolica. Mid-19th-century Apache sites in the area are “tipi-ring” sites yielding a thicker micaceous ware, herein described as Cimarron Micaceous, White man’s trade goods, and a few stone artifacts. The relationship between Apache micaceous pottery, made from ca. 1600 (or earlier) until the early 1900’s, and that made at Taos and Picuris is still not clear.
Texcoco Fabric-Marked Pottery,Tlateles, and Salt-Making
Authors: Charlton Thomas H.
Published: April 2006

An examination of the data used to support Nunley’s hypothesis (1967) that Texcoco Fabric-marked pottery vessels functioned as flowerpots to adapt chinampa agriculture to saline Lake Texcoco does not confirm his conclusions. The distribution of the ware andtlatelescoincides not with chinampa agriculture but with salt-producing communities of the 16th century. Aboriginal salt-making produced large mounds of washed or leached soils which are thetlateles. Texcoco Fabric-marked ware is suited for the rapid heating of saline solutions. It is concluded that the sherds and thetlatelesare the archaeological remains of Aztec salt-making activities.
A Massacre at Hopi
Authors: Turner Christy G. , Morris Nancy T.
Published: April 2006

Thirty Hopi Indians of both sexes and all ages were killed, crudely dismembered, violently mutilated, and probably cannibalized about 370 years ago. This massacre occurred on the left bank of Polacca Wash ten miles south of the Hopi villages. The location of, dismemberment of bodies in, and radiocarbon age of this mass burial suggest the bodies were once the few live villagers, taken captive by other Hopi warriors, referred to in the legendary account of the destruction of Awatobi pueblo that occurred ten to twelve generations ago.
Weathering Cracks and Split-Line Patterns in Archaeological Bone
Authors: Tappen N. C. , Peske G. Richard
Published: April 2006

Post mortem cracks in bone produced by action of weather or other agencies which cause shrinkage have been shown to be oriented in the same direction as split-lines produced by decalcification and punctures with a needle. Archaeological bone also shows split-lines parallel to weathering cracks in cases where preservation of the collagenous matrix is good. Limb bones of birds tend to have better preservation than mammal bones in the Lasley"s Point site in Wisconsin. Considerable microscopic structure of bone is preserved where decalcification and split-line processing are possible.
The Restoration and Preservation of Some Objects from Etowah
Authors: Byers Douglas S.
Published: April 2006

Steps taken to clean copper objects from the Etowah site, and to eliminate malignant patina or “bronze disease,” are discussed. The objects are considered in terms of paraphernalia attributed to the Southern Cult. One bilobed hair emblem bears representations of figures in ceremonial dress. One of the figures may be an impersonator of the Long-Nosed God.