bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Flaviviruses have imperfect icosahedral symmetry
Authors: Therkelsen Matthew D. , Klose Thomas , Vago Frank , Jiang Wen , Rossmann Michael G. , Kuhn Richard J.
Published: October 2018

Flaviviruses assemble initially in an immature, noninfectious state and undergo extensive conformational rearrangements to generate mature virus. Previous cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) structural studies of flaviviruses assumed icosahedral symmetry and showed the concentric organization of the external glycoprotein shell, the lipid membrane, and the internal nucleocapsid core. We show here that when icosahedral symmetry constraints were excluded in calculating the cryo-EM reconstruction of an immature flavivirus, the nucleocapsid core was positioned asymmetrically with respect to the glycoprotein shell. The core was positioned closer to the lipid membrane at the proximal pole, and at the distal pole, the outer glycoprotein spikes and inner membrane leaflet were either perturbed or missing. In contrast, in the asymmetric reconstruction of a mature flavivirus, the core was positioned concentric with the glycoprotein shell. The deviations from icosahedral symmetry demonstrated that the core and glycoproteins have varied interactions, which likely promotes viral assembly and budding.
VCPA: genomic variant calling pipeline and data management tool for Alzheimer’s Disease Sequencing Project
Authors: Leung Yuk Yee , Valladares Otto , Chou Yi-Fan , Lin Han-Jen , Kuzma Amanda B , Cantwell Laura , Qu Liming , Gangadharan Prabhakaran , Salerno William J , Schellenberg Gerard D , Wang Li-San
Published: October 2018

We report VCPA, our SNP/Indel Variant Calling Pipeline and data management tool used for the analysis of whole genome and exome sequencing (WGS/WES) for the Alzheimer’s Disease Sequencing Project. VCPA consists of two independent but linkable components: pipeline and tracking database. The pipeline, implemented using the Workflow Description Language and fully optimized for the Amazon elastic compute cloud environment, includes steps from aligning raw sequence reads to variant calling using GATK. The tracking database allows users to view job running status in real time and visualize >100 quality metrics per genome. VCPA is functionally equivalent to the CCDG/TOPMed pipeline. Users can use the pipeline and the dockerized database to process large WGS/WES datasets on Amazon cloud with minimal configuration.

Availability and implementation

VCPA is released under the MIT license and is available for academic and nonprofit use for free. The pipeline source code and step-by-step instructions are available from the National Institute on Aging Genetics of Alzheimer’s Disease Data Storage Site (http://www.niagads.org/VCPA).

Supplementary information

Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.
Detecting trends in body size: empirical and statistical requirements for intraspecific analyses
Authors: Gienger C M , Dochtermann Ned A , Tracy C Richard
Published: October 2018

Attributing biological explanations to observed ecogeographical and ecological patterns require eliminating potential statistical and sampling artifacts as alternative explanations of the observed patterns. Here, we assess the role of sample size, statistical power, and geographic inclusivity on the general validity and statistical significance of relationships between body size and latitude for 3 well-studied species of turtles. We extend those analyses to emphasize the importance of using statistically robust data in determining macroecological patterns. We examined intraspecific trends in body size with latitude in Chelydra serpentina, Chrysemys picta, and Trachemys scripta using Pearson’s correlations, diagnostic tests for influential points, and resampling. Existing data were insufficient to ascertain a latitudinal trend in body size for C. serpentina or T. scripta. There was a significant relationship for C. picta, however, resampling analyses show that, on average, 16 of the 23 available independent populations were needed to demonstrate a significant relationship and that at least 20 of 23 populations were required to obtain a statistically powerful correlation between body size and latitude. Furthermore, restricting the latitudes of populations resampled shows that body size trends of C. picta were largely due to leveraging effects of populations at the edge of the species range. Our results suggest that broad inferences regarding ecological trends in body size should be made with caution until underlying (intraspecific) patterns in body size can be statistically and conclusively demonstrated.
Coping with abrupt environmental change: the impact of the coastal El Niño 2017 on artisanal fisheries and mariculture in North Peru
Authors: Kluger Lotta Clara , Kochalski Sophia , Aguirre-Velarde Arturo , Vivar Ivonne , Wolff Matthias
Published: October 2018

In February and March 2017, a coastal El Niño caused extraordinary heavy rains and a rise in water temperatures along the coast of northern Peru. In this work, we document the impacts of this phenomenon on the artisanal fisheries and the scallop aquaculture sector, both of which represent important socio-economic activities for the province of Sechura. Despite the perceived absence of effective disaster management and rehabilitation policies, resource users opted for a wide range of different adaptation strategies and are currently striving towards recovery. One year after the event, the artisanal fisheries fleet has returned to operating almost on a normal scale, while the aquaculture sector is still drastically impacted, with many people continuing to work in different economic sectors and even in other regions of the country. Recovery of the social-ecological system of Sechura likely depends on the occurrence of scallop seed and the financial capacity of small-scale producers to reinitiate scallop cultures. Long-term consequences of this coastal El Niño are yet to be studied, though the need to develop trans-local and trans-sectoral management strategies for coping with disturbance events of this scale is emphasized.
Rule of Law
Authors: Hayne Kenneth
Published: October 2018

This chapter examines how, and to what extent, the Constitution in Australia, and the system of law and governance for which it provides, restrains the exercise of power. The Constitution of the Commonwealth is the basic law of the nation, and all laws made by the federal Parliament are ‘binding on the courts, judges and people of every State and every part of the Commonwealth, notwithstanding anything in the law of any State’. As it deals with government and governmental powers, the Constitution thus serves as a political instrument. Moreover, the foundation of the Constitution is ‘the conception of a central government and a number of State governments separately organised’. It distributes powers of governing the country among those integers of the federation. In short, the chapter discusses the effect given to a notion of ‘the rule of law’.
Judicial Reasoning
Authors: Stone Adrienne
Published: October 2018

This chapter identifies the methods and techniques that characterize judicial reasoning about constitutional law in Australia, as well as significant points of agreement and disagreement thereof. Here, ‘constitutional reasoning’ refers to the explanation and justification given to the application of constitutional principles to specific circumstances. In common law systems, constitutional reasoning is most commonly understood as ‘judicial reasoning’. In Australia, its focus is usually the Constitution of the Commonwealth. However, not all constitutional reasoning takes this form. In particular, the chapter focuses only on the narrower conception of constitutional reasoning as judicial reasoning. This focus is justified partly by central tenets of Australian constitutionalism itself. Unlike the in the United States, the courts' power to interpret and enforce the Constitution has never been the subject of serious controversy.
Standards of Review in Constitutional Review of Legislation
Authors: Kiefel Susan
Published: October 2018

This chapter explores the High Court's jurisdiction in Australia to review legislation for constitutional validity. Every Australian court of competent jurisdiction has the power to declare a law of the Commonwealth or of a State void because of transgressing the Constitution. The High Court, which is the ultimate court of appeal in Australia, is the authoritative and final interpreter of the Constitution. Though this authority is not expressly stated in the Constitution, it can be discerned through various sources. Furthermore, the methods of review vary according to both the nature of the constitutional head of power under which legislation is said to have been enacted, as well as whether the challenge to the validity of the legislation is based upon its restrictive effect upon a constitutionally protected freedom. These freedoms are not individual rights or freedoms, but instead effect a restriction or limitation on the legislative power of the Commonwealth.
Executives
Authors: Daintith Terence , Ng Yee-Fui
Published: October 2018

This chapter discusses the executive branch in Australia. It demonstrates the relationship between the explicit terms of the Australian Constitution and the way the Executive is actually organized. It also identifies the unwritten but constitutionally salient features of executive organization, and how they relate to broader constitutional values such as responsible government, effectiveness, and legality. The chapter highlights the various ways of controlling Executive action, from the traditional parliamentary and judicial channels, to mechanisms such as party structures, departmental reporting, and accounting obligations, and centrally imposed budgetary and financial disciplines, alongside scrutiny by integrity bodies.
Part I Investment Treaties and the Settlement of Investment Disputes: The Framework, 1 Bilateral Investment Treaties and Investment Provisions in Preferential Trade Agreements: Recent Developments in Investment Rule-making
Authors: Roberto Echandi
Published: October 2018

This chapter argues that investment disputes, particularly those that have arisen in the context of the implementation of NAFTA, have influenced the refinement of the provisions of new generation international investment agreements (IIAs) as well as the inclusion of a series of procedural and substantive innovations. It addresses the main distinction between BITs and investment chapters in preferential trade agreements (PTAs), focusing on the evolution of their respective rationales. It looks at the main features of the new generation of IIAs and explains how such features respond to challenges derived from the interpretation of substantive and procedural provisions included in previous agreements. The discussion is organized under two themes: (i) moving from the original exclusive focus on investment protection towards also promoting liberalization of investment flows; and (ii) the impact of investor-state dispute settlement on investment rule-making.
Part III Guide to Key Jurisdictional Issues, 14 Attribution: State Organs and Entities Exercising Elements of Governmental Authority
Authors: Georgios Petrochilos
Published: October 2018

This chapter discusses the issue of attribution in investment treaties. Attribution is the legal operation by which the allegedly wrongful deed is connected to the State as the doer. This is a necessary operation, serving as it does the needs of the unitary conception of the State in international law: the conduct of the multitude of persons and entities through whom the State in fact operates must be funnelled through the rules on attribution. The vast majority of investment treaties do not contain special rules of attribution, so they are to be read in the light of general international law in that respect. Arguably, however, exceptions setting forth a lex specialis may be found in the NAFTA Agreement, the Energy Charter Treaty, and certain U.S. bilateral investment treaties which contain provisions in respect of State enterprises and monopolies.
Part IV Guide to Key Substantive Issues, 20 Fair and Equitable Treatment: Have Its Contours Fully Evolved?
Authors: Katia Yannaca-Small
Published: October 2018

The fair and equitable treatment (FET) standard is an ‘absolute’, or ‘non-contingent’, standard of treatment, i.e. a standard that states the treatment to be accorded in terms that have their own normative content, as contrasted with the ‘relative’ standards embodied in the ‘national treatment’ and ‘most-favoured-nation’ principles, which define the required treatment by reference to the treatment accorded to other investments in similar circumstances. The FET is the most often invoked treaty standard in investor-state arbitration, present in almost every single claim brought by foreign investors against host States. This chapter tackles the FET standard from two angles: its position in the international law context and the elements identified by arbitral tribunals as forming part of this standard (and their balance).
Part IV Guide to Key Substantive Issues, 23 The MFN Clause and Its Evolving Boundaries
Authors: Abby Cohen Smutny , Petr Polášek , Chad Farrell
Published: October 2018

This chapter discusses most-favoured-nation (MFN) clauses from early references in trade agreements to contemporary references in investor-state arbitrations. MFN clauses originated in early international trade practice and have continued to be incorporated in modern trade and investment treaties, both bilateral and multilateral. Their intended purpose is to lessen discrimination and encourage the growth of trade and foreign investment by ensuring that certain defined benefits accorded to one set of States (or their nationals, investments, goods, etc.) are extended to other States (or their nationals, investments, goods, etc.). In the investment treaty context, some commentators have observed that the right to a favourable dispute settlement mechanism is the primary concern of foreign investors, and investors often invoke MFN clauses to secure procedural rights that might otherwise be unavailable to them.
Part VI The Post-Award Phase, 28 Review of non-ICSID Awards by National Courts
Authors: Kaj Hobér , Nils Eliasson
Published: October 2018

In investment arbitration, just as in private commercial, the final award is often merely the starting shot for challenge and/or enforcement proceedings that may take as long as, or even longer than, the prior proceedings. This chapter discusses the challenge and review of investment treaty awards in municipal courts, based on 38 cases from 12 different jurisdictions: Belgium, Canada, Czech Republic, England, France, Germany, The Netherlands, Russia, Sweden, Switzerland, Singapore, and the United States. Most Canadian and US cases challenge NAFTA awards, whereas most European cases challenge bilateral investment treaty awards. The remaining cases challenge awards under the Energy Charter Treaty, one challenge of a decision on jurisdiction under the Kyrgyz Foreign Investment Law, and two challenges of awards under the CIS Convention for the Protection of Investors Rights. These jurisdictions are frequently chosen as the seat of non-ICSID arbitrations.
Basel and International Bank Regulation
Authors: Gleeson Simon
Published: October 2018

This chapter begins by discussing the Basel committee and the Basel Accord. It details how the Basel committee, an organization with no powers, constitution, or even legal existence, became the dominant power in bank regulation. The Basel Capital Accord of 1988 set out a simple weighting system for different types of assets and standardized the rules as to what should count as capital. While the 1988 Accord was applied initially only to internationally active banks in the G10 countries, it quickly became acknowledged as a benchmark measure of a bank's solvency and is believed to have been adopted in some form by more than 100 countries. The remainder of the chapter covers policy responses to the recent financial crisis, Basel 2.5, Basel 3 framework document, and other initiatives.
Bank Capital Requirements
Authors: Gleeson Simon
Published: October 2018

This chapter begins by discussing the three overlapping capital requirements that banks are subject to. The first is the orthodox Basel capital requirement. The second is the Leverage Ratio, which is simply a non-risk-weighted capital requirement. The third is the stress test requirement. This has historically been the largest of the three. Stress testing identifies a particular probable state of the world, estimates the total loss which would occur if that state of the world were to eventuate, and requires capital sufficient to ensure that the bank retains sufficient capital after suffering the projected losses. The remainder of the chapter covers Pillar 2 assessment, capital floor, and capital buffers.
Credit Risk
Authors: Gleeson Simon
Published: October 2018

This chapter discusses the concept of credit risk. Of all the risks that banks are exposed to, credit risk is the most important and the most intuitively obvious. It is important to remember that credit means more than simply loans. At the heart of financial transactions are credit exposures. For an economist, the function of a bank is maturity transformation and intertemporal transfers of resources. But in a world where debts were always repaid, these functions would be as mechanical as the transmission of water or electricity. It is the unpredictability of credit that differentiates banking from other businesses. The remainder of the chapter covers risk weighting of assets, valuation of exposures, and provisioning and expected loss.
The Standardized Approach
Authors: Gleeson Simon
Published: October 2018

This chapter focuses on the standardized approach, which is the bedrock of the Basel system. Although many of the largest banks are internal ratings-based banks, there is probably no bank currently existing which does not use some elements of the standardized approach as part of its overall capital calculation. The discussions cover classification of exposures, credit conversion factors, and credit risk mitigation; ratings and rating agencies; exposures to sovereigns; multilateral development banks; exposures to banks and financial institutions; exposures to corporates; exposures to retail customers; commercial mortgage exposures; overdue undefaulted exposures; high-risk exposures; covered bonds; securitization exposures; short-term claims on financial institutions and corporates; fund exposures: and off-balance sheet items.
Model-Based Approaches to Risk Weighting
Authors: Gleeson Simon
Published: October 2018

This chapter discusses the Basel risk model. Every financial institution expects to suffer some level of default. Consequently, all properly run banks make provisions for some level of default on their existing assets. This is known as expected loss. At some points losses will be lower than those expected, and at some points they will be higher. The task of the regulator is to set a capital requirement which just skims the top of the actual loss experience curve. If the capital requirement is set significantly higher than this, then banks will be penalized by being required to hold excessive capital, if it is set lower, then the risk of bank failure increases. The remainder of the chapter covers Value at Risk and the Basel framework; the basic Basel formula; specific amendments for different classes; translating between capital requirements and risk weightings; illustrative risk weights; and variations in credit risk weightings between firms.
The Internal Ratings-Based Approach
Authors: Gleeson Simon
Published: October 2018

This chapter discusses the internal ratings-based approach (IRB). The IRB permits a bank to use its internal models to derive risk weights for particular exposures. There are two available bases for the IRB: foundation (F-IRB), which permits the bank to model Probability of Default (PD), but relies on regulatory standard figures to determine Loss Given Default (LGD) and Exposure at Default (EAD); and advanced (A-IRB), in which all three of these are modelled. The A-IRB IRB approach models PD, LGD, EAD, and M. Both IRB approaches model both expected loss (EL) and unexpected loss (UL), and IRB banks are expected to recognise the EL derived from their models in their capital calculations. Consequently, a bank using an IRB approach will generally have a different total capital level from that which it would have if it were an SA bank.
Netting, Collateral, and Credit Risk Mitigation
Authors: Gleeson Simon
Published: October 2018

Credit risk mitigation is the umbrella term that covers the various different ways in which an exposure can be reduced for regulatory reporting purposes. This chapter discusses the three ways of doing this: netting against an existing exposure owed by the bank to the borrower; taking (certain types of) collateral; and obtaining cover from third parties in the form of guarantees or similar contracts. Banks use a several techniques to improve their position as lenders which are simply disregarded by the regulatory system, of which the most important are probably loan covenants. No matter how restrictive the undertakings which a borrower gives a bank as to the way in which it manages its business, or the way in which it will repay its loan, this protection will not be recognized for regulatory purposes.
Derivatives, Clearing, and Exposures to CCPs
Authors: Gleeson Simon
Published: October 2018

This chapter discusses requirements for derivatives, clearing and exposures to CCPs. In September 2009, as one of the primary policy responses to the crisis, G20 leaders at the Pittsburgh summit decided to promote central clearing of derivatives, and legislation is now in place to provide a framework for compelling banks to do this. However, clearing increases the risk exposures of banks providing that clearing service, since the bank retains the risks arising from the original derivative transaction, and adds to them any risks arising from the clearing process. In general, a bank will measure its derivative exposures using one of three methods: the Internal Model Method; the Standardized Method; or the Current Exposure Method. The risk weight is that which applies to the counterparty under the Standardized Approach (SA) or internal ratings-based approach for credit risk. However, these approaches will be replaced by the SA-CCR under Basel 3.
Securitization and Repackaging
Authors: Gleeson Simon
Published: October 2018

This chapter discusses securitization requirements under Basel 3. The Basel 3 reforms have rewritten the capital treatment of securitisations. However this rewriting sits on top of some major restructuring of the regime effected by Basel 2.5. Given that the Basel Accord is intended to reflect credit risk, it might be expected that the rationale for a separate treatment of securitization exposures would have disappeared, and that exposures to securitization vehicles would be evaluated in exactly the same way as exposures to other types of vehicles, based on credit characteristics. However, the opposite is the case. The chapter begins with an explanation of securitization. It then discusses true sale and derecognition of assets, risk weighting of securitization exposures, weighting holdings of securitization positions, the internal ratings-based approach approach, and revolving credit securitizations.
The Leverage Ratio
Authors: Gleeson Simon
Published: October 2018

This chapter discusses the leverage ratio under Basel 3. The leverage ratio was initially implemented as a disclosure standard, with the aim of becoming a mandatory requirement as from 1 January 2018. Basel 3 provides that the original 2014 standard should become binding as a requirement from 2018 to 2021, with the revised Basel 3 requirement taking effect as from 1 January 2022. All banks are required to maintain a leverage ratio of 3 per cent at all times. However, in addition to the 3 per cent requirement, they must also meet a leverage ratio buffer requirement. Both of these requirements must be met with tier 1 capital. The leverage ratio buffer will be set at 50 per cent of a bank's G-SIB buffer.
Cross-Border Supervision of Bank Groups
Authors: Gleeson Simon
Published: October 2018

This chapter discusses the cross-border supervision of banks. A currently popular method is ‘colleges’ of supervisors. The basic idea is that in order to regulate an international bank you convene a meeting of all of the regulators who regulate different parts of that bank (in jurisdictions which have different regulators for different financial activities there may be several regulators present from one jurisdiction), and discuss in a concerted fashion the progress and performance of the bank as a whole. However, the main problem with this approach is the conflicting views stemming from the different priorities of different regulators, driven generally by national considerations. The EU has adopted a lead supervisor approach in which a single supervisor is appointed as responsible for overseeing the affairs of any group which straddles more than one member state. Since the EU architecture does not, by and large, give national supervisors any actual powers outside their home jurisdictions, the role of EU lead supervisor is broadly confined to consolidated supervision.
Pillar 3—Disclosure Requirements
Authors: Gleeson Simon
Published: October 2018

The Basel pillar 3 regime constitutes a disclosure regime for regulated banks. The aim is to provide sufficient transparency for investors to ensure that the price which banks pay to raise capital in the market reflects the level of risk undertaken by the bank. The pillar 3 regime was restructured in 2015, and is in the process of being further restructured. This chapter discusses the March 2017 standards which were broadly brought into force as from 2017. The most important change introduced by the 2017 standards is the formalisation of the disclosure templates. Regulators have struggled with banks over pillar 3 disclosures for many years — in effect, each bank sought to present information in a way which is most relevant to oits particular business and structure, whereas regulators seek to achieve comparability across banks with different businesses and structures. This process has resulted in a tightening of disclosure standards applicable to pillar three disclosures, to the extent that the regulators now provide detailed disclosure templates for each subdivision of required disclosure.
The IMO: Working within the UNCLOS Framework and Global Ocean Governance
Authors: Blanco-Bazán Agustín
Published: October 2018

This chapter explains the main features of the interface between the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and International Maritime Organization (IMO) regulations. Since its adoption the UNCLOS, and in particular its jurisdictional principles, has remained a reference point for much of the IMO’s work. The chapter suggests that greater use could be made by flag and coastal administrations of the powers afforded them under UNCLOS and IMO treaties to ensure that the high seas do not become a ‘dustbin’ for the spill of polluting substances from ships. Flag states have the power to investigate incidents on the high seas involving its ships. Likewise, coastal states have the power in certain defined circumstances to intercept foreign vessels in their exclusive economic zones (EEZs) and territorial seas, as well as to undertake physical inspection and to detain such vessels.
The IMO: Liability, Compensation, and Global Ocean Governance
Authors: Jacobsson Måns
Published: October 2018

This chapter analyses those International Maritime Organization (IMO) conventions which establish liability and compensation regimes for pollution damage from ships. The International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage (CLC) and the International Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage (IOPC), which together deal with pollution from oil tankers, have been in place for many years. The system is administered by an international organization, the IOPC Funds, expressly established for this purpose. Their activities are overseen by the Funds’ Assemblies. Over the years the Funds, working with the International Group of Professional and Indemnity (P&I) Clubs, have developed procedures to facilitate the assessment of damages in major incidents giving rise to a large number of claims, often for relatively small amounts and in circumstances where claimants are unable to prove their losses.
The FAO and Ocean Governance
Authors: Henriksen Tore
Published: October 2018

This chapter examines the role of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) in ocean governance, not only in the conservation and management of living marine resources but also in other activities impacting fisheries management, such as regulating subsidies, the relationship with trade-related measures and ensuring compliance with fisheries legislation. After providing a background on FAO, including its membership and structure, the chapter discusses two of the organisation’s main functions: as a forum for developing international instruments, norm and standards; and collecting, analysing and disseminating information and statistics to its members. It then considers three concepts or principles either introduced by or detailed through the work of FAO before concluding with an overview of FAO legal and policy instruments.
The Work of the UNESCO-IOC in Respect of Global Ocean Governance
Authors: Ehlers Peter
Published: October 2018

This chapter focuses on the work of the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC), a separate unit of UNESCO, in respect to global ocean governance. The functions of IOC are part of the system of ocean governance, based on 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). Its purpose is to promote international cooperation and to coordinate programmes in research, services and capacity building, in order to learn more about the nature and resources of the ocean and coastal areas and to apply that knowledge for the improvement of management, sustainable development, the protection of the marine environment, and the decision-making processes of its Member States. The chapter first provides an overview of IOC’s purpose and organisational structure, its collaboration with international organizations with regard to ocean governance, and its ocean governance-related activities before discussing the ways in which it contributes to capacity building and enhancing ocean governance.
The UNDP and Ocean Governance
Authors: Kirk Elizabeth A
Published: October 2018

This chapter discusses the role of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in ocean governance. It first provides a background on the history of the UNDP and its basic approach to ocean governance, with emphasis on how its history has shaped the UNDP’s relationship with ocean governance. It then considers the UNDP’s current and former activities relating to ocean governance, noting that many of the initiatives it supports appear to focus on the concept of Large Marine Ecosystems (LMEs) or on integrated coastal zone management. It also describes the UNDP’s regime building approach to the development of oceans governance regimes and concludes with an assessment of areas in which UNDP’s activities fit with global ocean governance objectives.
Part I Assessing the UN Institutional Structure for Global Ocean Governance: The UN’s Role in Global Ocean Governance, 4 The Role of the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf in the Governance of the Seas and Oceans
Authors: Surya P Subedi
Published: October 2018

This chapter discusses the role of the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf, established under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), in the governance of the seas and oceans. It first considers the competition for the resources of the seas and oceans among States before providing an overview of the functions of the Commission. It then outlines the criteria for the establishment of the outer limits of the continental shelf and proceeds by analysing the challenges for the Commission in dealing with claims by coastal States for the extension of their continental shelves beyond 200 nautical miles. It also examines issues such as ambiguity in the law itself, the workload of the Commission, problems of enforcement, questions of transparency and accountability, financial resources, and independence of the Commissioners.
Part V Regional Perspectives on Global Ocean Governance, 13 The Latin American Perspective on Global Ocean Governance
Authors: Ximena Hinrichs Oyarce
Published: October 2018

This chapter examines issues of global ocean governance from a Latin American perspective and how the region may contribute in assisting the United Nations to deal with ocean governance issues at a global level in the coming years. It begins with a discussion of the role played by several Latin American States acting in concert during the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS III), 1973–1982 to make extended maritime jurisdiction claims. It then considers the main reasons for the Latin American interest in extending their maritime jurisdiction limits, in the form of fisheries, offshore hydrocarbon development, and shipping. It suggests that Latin America has a slightly patchy record of official adherence to UNCLOS, but paints a picture of general compliance by the continent with the normative regime established by the Convention, in particular for its dispute settlement regime.
Circulating let-7 Levels in Serum Correlate With the Severity of Hepatic Fibrosis in Chronic Hepatitis C
Authors: Matsuura Kentaro , Aizawa Nobuhiro , Enomoto Hirayuki , Nishiguchi Shuhei , Toyoda Hidenori , Kumada Takashi , Iio Etsuko , Ito Kyoko , Ogawa Shintaro , Isogawa Masanori , Alter Harvey J , Tanaka Yasuhito
Published: October 2018

Background

Evaluating the progression of hepatic fibrosis in chronic hepatitis C (CHC) is critical, and identifying a predictive biomarker for fibrosis will be helpful for implementing personalized surveillance of hepatocellular carcinoma after the elimination of hepatitis C virus by antiviral therapy. This study aimed to investigate the association of circulating let-7a-5p levels with severity of hepatic fibrosis.

Methods

We analyzed circulating let-7a-5p levels in serum and serum-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) in 84 Japanese CHC patients who underwent a liver biopsy by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction, and investigated the association of its levels with histological hepatic fibrotic stage, liver stiffness, and several hepatic fibrotic markers.

Results

The levels of let-7a-5p in serum and EVs were significantly lower in patients with liver cirrhosis. Additionally, the serum let-7a-5p level correlated significantly with hepatic fibrotic markers, Mac-2 binding protein glycan isomer (M2BPGi), fibrosis-4 (FIB-4) index, aspartate aminotransferase-to-platelet ratio index (APRI), and liver stiffness, evaluated by transient elastography. Furthermore, the serum let-7a-5p level was superior to M2BPGi, FIB-4, and APRI and was comparable to liver stiffness in discriminating liver cirrhosis.

Conclusions

These results provide evidence that circulating let-7a-5p in serum may serve as a surrogate marker for severity of hepatic fibrosis in CHC.
Solar jet-like features rooted in flare ribbons
Authors: Li Xiaohong , Zhang Jun , Yang Shuhong , Hou Yijun
Published: October 2018

Employing the high spatio-temporal Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph 1330 Å observations, we investigated the jet-like features that occurred during the X8.2 class flare in NOAA active region (AR) 12673 on 2017 September 10. These jet-like features were rooted in the flare ribbons. We examined 15 features, and the mean values of the lifetimes, projected widths, lengths, and velocities of these features were 87 s, 890 km, 2.7 Mm, and 70 km s−1, respectively. We also observed many jet-like features which happened during the X1.0 class flare on 2014 October 25. We studied the spectra at the base of a jet-like feature during its development. The Fe xxi 1354.08 Å line in the corona displays blueshift, while the Si iv 1402.77 Å line in the transition region exhibits redshift, which indicates the chromospheric evaporation. This is the first time that the jet-like features are reported to be rooted in the flare ribbons, and we suggest that these jet-like features were driven by the mechanism of chromospheric evaporation.
THERMOLUMINESCENCE OF NEWLY DEVELOPED HIGHLY SENSITIVE α-Al2O3:C BY THE VERTICAL GRADIENT FREEZING METHOD
Authors: Sun T , Tang K , Cui H , Fan H
Published: October 2018

A highly sensitive α-Al2O3:C crystal was directly grown by the vertical gradient freezing (VGF) method using Al2O3 and graphite powder as the raw materials. The main thermoluminescence (TL) characteristics of α-Al2O3:C detectors grown by the VGF method and TLD-500K detectors were compared. The α-Al2O3:C grown by the VGF method shows good dosimetric properties, such as high TL sensitivity (152 times higher than that of the TLD-100 at heating rate of 1°C/s), an extremely low residual signal of 0.03%, a minimum measurable dose of 0.12 μGy and an excellent linear response within the dose range studied from 1 μGy to 10 Gy. The α-Al2O3:C detectors grown by the VGF method have a higher sensitivity and a better linear response compared to the TLD-500K detectors. Both kinds of α-Al2O3:C can be used in an unannealed form and to measure the very low dose in environmental monitoring and personnel dosimetry.
Capturing Social Health Data in Electronic Systems
Authors: Venzon Aldreen , Le Thuy Bich , Kim Katherine
Published: October 2018

This systematic review explored the current state of social determinants of health data in electronic systems in the literature, specifically (1) how the data are currently collected, captured, and coded; (2) the modes employed to capture these data; and (3) the electronic systems used to acquire data. This assessment serves as a precursor to an actual survey of healthcare organizations, which will be a national-level effort for evaluating a real-time collection of social health data. By evaluating published information on electronic social determinants of health, we get baseline evidence on the state of these data in the literature as used by nurses, physicians, administrators, researchers, and educators. Two reviewers systematically evaluated articles on social determinants of health and electronic systems. Five data elements were abstracted and analyzed, including the type of social determinants of health data, data capture method, data structure, data standard, and source of data. Forty-two articles were included in the final review. The most common social health data domains were neighborhood and community compositional characteristics. Social health data were rarely found in electronic health records. When these data were captured, they were often manually captured in a structured format.
Mycobacterium chimaera Hepatitis
Authors: Shafizadeh Nafis , Hale Gillian , Bhatnagar Julu , Alshak Najeeb S. , Nomura Jim
Published: October 2018

Mycobacterium chimaera was identified as a species within the Mycobacterium avium complex in 2004. Until recently, it was predominantly seen in immunocompromised patients. In 2015, an outbreak of disseminated M. chimaera disease was described in European patients after undergoing open-heart surgery in which contaminated heater-cooler water units were used. Using whole genomic sequencing and phylogenetic analysis, investigators found a highly clonal outbreak from the German manufacturing site of the heater-cooler water units. This outbreak has now proven to be world-wide. Patients present with fever, fatigue, and weight loss months to many years after surgery. They are found to have systemic manifestations, including endocarditis, pancytopenia, renal dysfunction, chorioretinitis, and hepatitis. Preliminary reports suggest a high mortality rate despite aggressive treatment. In some patients, the predominant laboratory abnormalities are elevations in liver function tests, leading to diagnostic hepatobiliary work-ups, including liver biopsy. The pathologic changes in the liver have not yet been described. Herein, we report the clinicopathologic findings of the largest series of M. chimaera liver disease in the United States to date: 7 cases within a large, multihospital health care network. Five (71%) patients died of disease, despite aggressive treatment. Liver function test abnormalities were predominantly biliary: mean values of alkaline phosphate 288 U/L, aspartate aminotransferase 79 U/L, alanine aminotransferase 64 U/L. All 7 biopsies showed a consistent and characteristic dual pattern of injury: small, ill-formed collections of sinusoidal histiocytes with rare multinucleated giant cells, and scattered architectural changes of venous outflow obstruction. Two (29%) cases showed mild pericellular fibrosis. Nodular regenerative hyperplasia was seen in 2 (29%) cases, consistent with a sinusoidal/venous obstructive pattern of injury. We postulate that the sinusoidal location of the granulomas contributes to the venous obstructive changes. Recognition of this characteristic dual pattern of injury can allow pathologists to suggest the diagnosis and prompt the appropriate diagnostic and therapeutic interventions.
Efficacy of Continuation/Maintenance Electroconvulsive Therapy in the Treatment of Patients With Mood Disorders
Authors: Hausmann Armand , Post Thomas , Post Fabienne , Dehning Julia , Kemmler Georg , Grunze Heinz
Published: October 2018

Objective

The aim of the study was to contribute evidence for the efficacy of continuation and maintenance electroconvulsive therapy (c/mECT) going beyond the existing literature by examining longer-term outcomes from a single center.

Methods

We conducted a retrospective observational cohort study for a 14-year period, in which a group of 27 individuals with mood disorders, as defined by International Classification of Diseases-10, were examined and received acute ECT, followed by c/mECT. Mirror-image comparison of individual data sets, 5 years before and after c/mECT, was conducted for the number and mean duration of hospitalizations, as well as inpatient days per year. Statistical analysis was performed using general equation estimation modeling.

Results

In 27 patients (63% female, mean ± SD age = 54.3 ± 11.7 years) experiencing either from bipolar (41%) or unipolar (59%) mood disorder, with most patients presenting with a depressive episode at hospital admission (93%), c/mECT was initiated after a successful course of acute ECT in addition to treatment as usual. In a 5-year period before and after starting c/mECT, we observed a significant decline in the mean number of hospitalizations per year (0.64 vs 0.32,P= 0.031), the average number of inpatient days per year (23.7 vs 6.1 days,P< 0.001), and the mean duration of hospital stays (41.6 vs 22.1 days,P= 0.031).

Conclusions

The findings provide further support for the efficacy of c/mECT as an augmentation therapy to psychopharmacological treatment in patients experiencing mood disorders, who have responded to acute ECT. Further studies, however, using a controlled study design and larger sample sizes are needed.
Perspectives on grassland conservation efforts: should we rewild to the past or conserve for the future?
Authors: Fuhlendorf Samuel D. , Davis Craig A. , Elmore R. Dwayne , Goodman Laura E. , Hamilton Robert G.
Published: October 2018

Grasslands are among the most imperilled biomes of the world. Identifying the most appropriate framework for restoring grasslands is dependent on the objectives of restoration, which is inherently determined by human priorities. Debates over the appropriate conservation model for grasslands have often focused on which species of herbivores should be the focus of restoration efforts. Here we discuss three perspectives of herbivore-based conservation in North American grasslands. First, the Pleistocene rewilding perspective is based upon the idea that early humans contributed to the demise of megafauna that were important to the evolution and development of many of North America's grasslands; therefore, their aim of restoration is rewilding of landscapes to pre-human times. Second, the bison rewilding perspective considers American bison a keystone herbivore that is culturally and ecologically important to North American grasslands. A third perspective focuses on restoring the pattern and processes of herbivory on grasslands and is less concerned about which herbivore is introduced to the landscape. We evaluate each of these three conservation perspectives in terms of a framework that includes a human domain, an herbivore domain and a biophysical domain. While all conservation perspectives partly address the three domains, they all fall short in key areas. Specifically, they fail to recognize that past, current and future humans are intimately linked to grassland patterns and processes and will continue to play a role in structuring grasslands. Furthermore, these perspectives seem to only superficially consider the role of fragmentation and climate change in influencing grassland patterns and processes. As such, we argue that future grassland conservation efforts must depend on the development of a model that better integrates societal, economic and policy objectives and recognizes climate change, fragmentation and humans as an integral part of these ecosystems.

This article is part of the theme issue ‘Trophic rewilding: consequences for ecosystems under global change’.
Rewilding wetlands: beaver as agents of within-habitat heterogeneity and the responses of contrasting biota
Authors: Willby Nigel J. , Law Alan , Levanoni Oded , Foster Garth , Ecke Frauke
Published: October 2018

Ecosystem engineers can increase biodiversity by creating novel habitat supporting species that would otherwise be absent. Their more routine activities further influence the biota occupying engineered habitats. Beavers are well-known for transforming ecosystems through dam building and are therefore increasingly being used for habitat restoration, adaptation to climate extremes and in long-term rewilding. Abandoned beaver ponds (BP) develop into meadows or forested wetlands that differ fundamentally from other terrestrial habitats and thus increase landscape diversity. Active BP, by contrast, are superficially similar to other non-engineered shallow wetlands, but ongoing use and maintenance might affect how BP contribute to aquatic biodiversity. We explored the ‘within-habitat’ effect of an ecosystem engineer by comparing active BP in southern Sweden with coexisting other wetlands (OW), using sedentary (plants) and mobile (water beetles) organisms as indicators. BP differed predictably from OW in environmental characteristics and were more heterogeneous. BP supported more plant species at plot (+15%) and site (+33%) scales, and plant beta diversity, based on turnover between plots, was 17% higher than in OW, contributing to a significantly larger species pool in BP (+17%). Beetles were not differentiated between BP and OW based on diversity measures but were 26% more abundant in BP. Independent of habitat creation beaver are thus significant agents of within-habitat heterogeneity that differentiates BP from other standing water habitat; as an integral component of the rewilding of wetlands re-establishing beaver should benefit aquatic biodiversity across multiple scales.

This article is part of the theme issue ‘Trophic rewilding: consequences for ecosystems under global change’.