bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
On the Genealogy of Universals
Authors: MacBride Fraser
Published: April 2018

This book provides new insights into the origins and development of analytic philosophy by undertaking a genealogy of universals in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. Examining neglected texts and figures—the early writings of Moore and Russell, the philosophies of Whitehead and Stout—it describes a forgotten narrative that runs from Moore’s engagement with Kant and culminates in Wittgenstein’s Tractatus and Ramsey’s work influenced by it. Following Hume’s lead on causation, Kant had problematized the particular–universal distinction. Early Moore took Kant’s lesson on board, but overthrew Kant’s transcendental justification of the distinction. Wittgenstein and Ramsey bore out Moore’s scepticism about the particular–universal distinction when they realized the consequences of their pictorial doctrine of representation and their correlative account of the unity of the fact—a form of naturalism which means only the world can disclose its categories to us in experience. Between the beginning and end of this narrative, this book uncovers previously overlooked contributions to the conversation about universals central to analytic philosophy. First, Russell’s initial steps from Kantianism into analytic philosophy and the subsequent metaphysics revealed in the interstices of his commentary on Leibniz. Then the interweaving development of Russell’s multiple relation theory of judgement and his theory of relations which shows Wittgenstein never refuted the multiple relation theory. Finally, Russell’s own anticipation of Wittgenstein’s picture theory, Stout’s doctrine of abstract particulars as a category superseding particulars and universals and Whitehead’s theory of objects and events as a prelude to Ramsey’s scepticism about the particular–universal distinction.
Early Moore against the Particular–Universal Distinction
Authors: MacBride Fraser
Published: April 2018

This chapter argues that the early G.E. Moore went beyond realism and nominalism by advancing a form of categorial monism that was committed only to concepts, where concepts are the constituents of mind independent propositions but concepts are neither substances nor attributes. Moore’s outlook was a consequence of his doctrine that existential propositions have a primary role in constituting reality but lack subject–predicate form, the form of discourse required to articulate the notions of substance and attribute as Kant had done. Moore’s concepts have a family resemblance to Strawson’s features. The chapter concludes by addressing the (alleged) influence of Bradley and Brentano.
Ramsey
Authors: MacBride Fraser
Published: April 2018

This chapter provides a novel interpretation of Ramsey’s ‘Universals’ (1925a). Ramsey famously concluded that the particular–universal distinction cannot be a piece of a priori knowledge. This chapter argues that Ramsey’s conclusion in ‘Universals’ is the result of his deep engagement with the general themes of Wittgenstein’s Tractatus—that language disguises thought and that representation is pictorial. This chapter also argues, however, that to understand the details of Ramsey’s ‘Universals’, which have hitherto baffled commentators, we also need to look to Wittgenstein’s philosophy of logic, Whitehead’s philosophy of nature, and Russell’s introduction to the second edition of Principia Mathematica.
Nicanor’s Defeat
Authors: Noam Vered
Published: April 2018

Preserved in Josephus, rabbinic literature, and the books of Maccabees, the story of Nicanor’s defeat involves the first generation of the Hasmonean dynasty. Its preservation in 1 Maccabees sheds light on how each corpus adapted this story, for example how Josephus reworked what was originally a flowery Hebrew narrative, replete with biblical allusions. It also demonstrates a strong contrast between the treatment the hero of the campaign against Nicanor—Judas Maccabeus—in the different corpora: aggrandizement by Maccabees and Josephus and the surprising erasure of his name from rabbinic literature.
Alexander Janneus’s Instructions to His Wife
Authors: Noam Vered
Published: April 2018

The story at the center of this chapter concerns the Pharisees’ return to power with the accession of Janneus’s widow Alexandra (Shelamzion). The chapter demonstrates the close links between this tradition and the story of the rupture between Janneus and the Pharisees (Chapter 3), and suggests that both originated in a unique pool of apologetic Pharisaic sources that addressed the Pharisaic–Hasmonean relationship. In their talmudic versions, both stories share the comparison of the political situation to a biblical pericope from the book of Numbers. In both, the Pharisees are identified with a positive biblical protagonist—Moses and Aaron or Phinehas—and their rivals with a scheming rebel—Korah or Zimri. These Pharisaic sources attributed the conflict with the Hasmoneans to others: quarrel-mongering Sadducees; hypocrites who ape the Pharisees; and even the ruler himself.
The Image of the Hasmoneans: A New Perspective
Authors: Noam Vered
Published: April 2018

In attempting to characterize Second Temple legends of the Hasmoneans, the concluding chapter identifies several distinct genres: fragments from Aramaic chronicles, priestly temple legends, Pharisaic legends, and theodicean legends explaining the fall of the Hasmonean dynasty. The chapter then examines, by generation, how Josephus on the one hand, and the rabbis on the other, reworked these embedded stories. The Josephan treatment aimed to reduce the hostility of the early traditions toward the Hasmoneans by imposing a contrasting accusatory framework that blames the Pharisees and justifies the Hasmonean ruler. The rabbinic treatment of the last three generations exemplifies the processes of rabbinization and the creation of archetypal figures. With respect to the first generation, the deliberate erasure of Judas Maccabeus’s name from the tradition of Nicanor’s defeat indicates that they chose to celebrate the Hasmonean victory but concealed its protagonists, the Maccabees, simply because no way was found to bring them into the rabbinic camp.
The IMF and the Politics of Austerity in the Wake of the Global Financial Crisis
Authors: Clift Ben
Published: April 2018

The book provides a path-breaking comprehensive analysis of how the IMF approach to fiscal policy has evolved since 2008, the Fund’s role within the politics of austerity, and how it worked to shape advanced economy policy responses to the global financial crisis (GFC) and the Eurozone crisis. The book aligns with and advances cutting-edge ideational scholarship in international political economy (IPE) and comparative political economy (CPE) to build an innovative theorizing of how ideational change operates in international organizations (IOs). The construction of economic policy knowledge is understood here as a social process, wherein the IMF works to impress its interpretation of sound policy upon member countries through surveillance and other interactions. It updates and refines our understanding of how the IMF seeks to wield ideational power by analysing the Fund’s post-crash ability to influence what constitutes legitimate knowledge, and their ability to fix meanings attached to economic policies. This book is interested in the politics of economic ideas, focused on the assumptive foundations of different approaches to economic policy, and how the interpretive framework through which authoritative voices evaluate economic policy is an important site of power in world politics. After establishing the internal conditions of possibility for new fiscal policy thinking to emerge and prevail, detailed case studies of IMF interactions with the UK and French governments during the Great Recession drill down into how the Fund seeks to shape the policy possibilities of advanced economy policymakers and account for the scope and limits of Fund influence.
The IMF, Economic Schools of Thought, and Their Normative Underpinnings
Authors: Clift Ben
Published: April 2018

This chapter places the IMF’s recent and longer-term evolution within the context of evolving prevailing approaches in economics on macroeconomic and fiscal policy. It outlines briefly the intellectual underpinnings of these economic ideas, their significance, and their coexistence alongside each other within Fund thinking and practice. The view that ‘New Consensus Macroeconomics’ had solved economic stabilization problems was demolished by the GFC and the deep recession that followed. The chapter charts how parallel re-evaluations were helpful to those within the Fund seeking to shift positions and priorities, since they could draw on the views of leading economists evolving in a similar direction. A key finding of the chapter and the book is the breadth of the policy approaches reconcilable to mainstream economic thinking. Provided certain form conditions are met, the content of acceptable new economic thinking is surprisingly open.
Analysing the IMF Surveillance of Advanced Economies
Authors: Clift Ben
Published: April 2018

After addressing the scope and limits of Fund autonomy, this chapter identifies the sources of the IMF’s power to speak with intellectual authority about economic policy. It then analyses conditions of possibility for the Fund’s exercising intellectual authority and influencing advanced economies. It finds that the institution’s ability to achieve this is contingent upon the Fund’s ability to frame policy advice in a way which resonates with policymakers, as well as its ability to mobilize its scientific expertise, knowledge bank, and mandate in a given policy context. Between 2007 and 2009, the Fund’s crisis (and crisis legacy) narrative resonated widely with national authorities. Yet from 2010 onwards the Fund proved something of an outlier in contemporary fiscal policy thinking. Many advanced economies chose not to take up the growth-supporting fiscal policy opportunities the Fund sought to carve out.
Conclusion—IMF Intellectual Authority and the Politics of Economic Ideas after the Crash
Authors: Clift Ben
Published: April 2018

The conclusion reflects on how the IMF’s post-crash rethink has sought to alter the contours of ‘sound’ economic policy. It reflects on the implications of the argument of the book as a whole about malleability of economic orthodoxy. It considers the scope and limits of the IMF authority in its dealings with advanced economies and how this authority can be constrained. Recalling the key role played in the social construction of economic orthodoxy by authoritative voices like the IMF, it considers the potential for advancing new research agendas in ideational political economy, the study of international organizations, and the politics of austerity.
The Peculiarities of Tracing
Authors: Nair Aruna
Published: April 2018

This chapter introduces the concept of transactional ‘tracing’, and identifies some characteristics of the law of tracing that do not make immediate sense on a first encounter with the cases. It argues that there are three related aspects of the law that call for explanation. First, it is not clear why tracing is necessary in the first place; rival methods for identifying the proceeds of a defendant's wrongdoing, such as causal or ‘swollen assets’ methods of identifying gain, seem to have more rational appeal. Secondly, the principled basis of specific rules of tracing is not obvious from the case law. Thirdly, both problems are shown to be underpinned by a third and more fundamental problem; this is the absence of any settled definition of the concept of a ‘substitution’, on which the whole concept of tracing in the modern law turns.
Property Rights, Fiduciary Duties, and the Control of Assets
Authors: Nair Aruna
Published: April 2018

This chapter examines the law governing the availability of claims to traceable proceeds. It argues that the language used in the case law—which uses the terminology of property rights and of fiduciary relationships—cannot fully explain the law, since such claims are often available in the absence of fiduciary duties and are not available to holders of many types of property right. It argues that such claims instead presuppose a relationship of ‘control of assets’: where the defendant has a legal power to deal with some asset, correlating to a vulnerability to a loss of rights in that asset on the part of the claimant, and coupled with a duty not to exercise the power. It argues that relationships that have this formal structure also share normative characteristics that justify the subordination of defendant autonomy that has been shown to be at the heart of the tracing concept.
Introduction
Authors: Jäger Agnes , Ferraresi Gisella , Weiß Helmut
Published: April 2018

The introductory chapter provides important background information for the readers of the volume. It describes the aims of the volume, which is the first comprehensive and concise generative historical syntax of German. However, the contributions are not only aimed at researchers in the field, but in giving a basic overview of the respective topics and relating them to more descriptive and traditional accounts, the book is also suited for academic teaching, e.g. as a central text book in courses on historical German syntax. The chapter then gives an overview of the syntax of German, introducing the topological model widely used in more traditional accounts and the generative analysis of German clause structure. Finally, it provides an overview of the history of High and Low German including information on basic grammatical features, the textual evidence and central reference books and digital corpora for each period.
The prefield after the Old High German period
Authors: Speyer Augustin , Weiß Helmut
Published: April 2018

The filling of the prefield in Modern German is determined by information-structural constraints such as scene-setting, contrastiveness, and topichood. While OHG does not yet show competition between these constraints, competition arises from MHG onward. This has to do with the generalization of the V2 constraint (i.e. the one-constituent property of the prefield) for declarative clauses, in which context the information-structural constraints are loosened. The syntactic change whose result eventually was the loss of multiple XP fronting comprised a change of the feature endowment of C because the fronting of expletive thô (roughly in the OHG of the ninth century) led to the reanalysis of XP fronting as a semantically vacuous movement whose only function is to check the EPP feature of C. Data from doubly filled prefields in ENHG and post-initial connectives indicate that an articulated split CP-structure, as proposed within the cartographic approach, is also at play in German.
History of negation in High and Low German
Authors: Breitbarth Anne , Jäger Agnes
Published: April 2018

The expression of sentential negation follows Jespersen’s Cycle in the history of High and Low German, from a verbal clitic neg-particle (stage I) in the earliest stages of attestation via a bi-partite expression (stage II) to a free adverbial negator (stage III) in the present-day languages. Besides the expression of negation, also the interaction between sentential negation and indefinites in its scope changes, from the original verbal neg-particle co-occurring with n-free indefinites and the neg-particle co-occurring with neg-marked indefinites (Negative Concord) to neg-marked indefinites without a sentential negator, in the wake of the loss of the old neg-particle. Though these developments are largely similar, they happen at different speeds, and differ in points of detail.
Behemoth and Beyond
Authors: Meierhenrich Jens
Published: April 2018

Few issues in the historiography of the “Third Reich” have provoked as much acrimony in the academy as the debate over the nature of the Nazi state. To enable readers to appreciate Fraenkel’s contribution to this debate, this chapter provides a critical review of contending theories of the Nazi state, with particular reference to Franz Neumann’s Behemoth, first published in 1942, and in an enlarged edition in 1944, which has inspired much scholarship on the racial state. The rise of Behemoth corresponded directly with the decline of The Dual State in the final war and early postwar years. Neumann’s Behemoth, which has never gone out of print, exemplifies major shortcomings—theoretical, empirical, methodological—in early studies of Nazi rule. I argue that it gave rise in the 1950s and 1960s to an intellectual trajectory in scholarship on the Third Reich that has done a fair amount to obscure—rather than illuminate—the logic of Nazi dictatorship, including law’s role in it.
The Debate about the Rechtsstaat in Nazi Germany, 1933–1936
Authors: Meierhenrich Jens
Published: April 2018

This chapter provides the legal and historical context necessary for appreciating the contribution of Fraenkel’s ethnography of Nazi law. I begin with a brief history of the idea of the Rechtsstaat in Germany. I trace the term’s evolution from its emergence in the early nineteenth century until 1933. In the second section I overview the most important Nazi critiques of the liberal Rechtsstaat, with a particular focus on the theoretical study of public law. The focus is on the major intellectual faultlines in the legal subfield of Staatsrechtslehre, from which Jewish protagonists were purged. In the third section, I focus on intellectual efforts inside the Nazi academy to “racialize” the Rechtsstaat, to bring it in line with the racial imaginary. The final section explains why, and when, the concept of Rechtsstaat was abandoned by legal theorists in the “Third Reich,” and the consequences for the practice of law.
Authoritarian Rule of Law
Authors: Meierhenrich Jens
Published: April 2018

What for many years was seen as an oxymoron—the notion of an authoritarian rule of law—no longer is. Instead, the phenomenon has become a cutting edge concern in law-and-society research. In this concluding chapter, I situate Fraenkel’s theory of dictatorship in this emerging research program. In the first section, I turn the notion of an authoritarian rule of law into a social science concept. In the second section, I relate this concept to that of the dual state and both to the political science literature on so-called hybrid regimes. Drawing on this synthesis, the third section makes the concept of the dual state usable for comparative-historical analysis. Through a series of empirical vignettes, I demonstrate the contemporary relevance of Fraenkel’s institutional analysis of the Nazi state. I show why it is essential reading for anyone trying to understand the legal origins of dictatorship, then and now.
Les Cahiers d’André Walter
Authors: Ferguson Sam
Published: April 2018

Gide’s first publication of diary-writing, Les Cahiers d’André Walter, explores the potential of the journal intime to contribute to an author’s literary œuvre, and help construct their textual author-figure. It was initially presented as the real diary of a real André Walter (an ‘auteur supposé’ rather than a mere pseudonym). When read as if it were a real journal intime, it appears as an innovative, partly literary diary-writing project, and manifests a new concept of the intime. André Walter’s own theoretical deliberations in this work explore themes of contingency (associated with the journal intime) and necessity (associated with literature), and anticipate his own actual transition from supposedly real author to fictional character. Once the illusion of the auteur supposé is revealed, and the work is read as fiction, Walter’s desires and diary-writing project are viewed ironically as a partial failure, and call for further experiments with diary-writing.
Paludes
Authors: Ferguson Sam
Published: April 2018

Gide’s experimentation with diary-writing continues in Paludes. Like Les Cahiers d’André Walter, it is the diary (journal intime) of a character writing a novel (in this case also entitled ‘Paludes’, creating a structure of mise en abyme). The work’s exploration of diary-writing depends on a dizzying, comical instability in the text’s structure: first, the status of the main narrative (as a diary or some other sort of narrative) is never resolved; secondly, the relation between the main narrative and the narrator’s own literary creation (‘Paludes’) remains unclear. Paludes continues some of the theoretical themes from Les Cahiers d’André Walter, but the narrator of Paludes is more focused on embracing the contingency of diary-writing, as a way to escape the deterministic necessity of existence and achieve some sort of action and freedom in writing. The work calls for a new form of literary œuvre that can accommodate this diaristic contingency.
Le Journal des Faux-monnayeurs
Authors: Ferguson Sam
Published: April 2018

This chapter discusses the complex relationship between Gide’s 1925 novel Les Faux-monnayeurs (in which a fictional character, who is also an author, writes a diary) and Gide’s own diary of the composition of this novel, Le Journal des faux-monnayeurs. This relationship demonstrates the diary’s potential role as a supplement to the literary œuvre (in the sense discussed in the Introduction with reference to Derrida), which functions as follows: the novel Les Faux-monnayeurs presents itself as a total, self-sufficient literary œuvre; Le Journal des faux-monnayeurs is partly conceived as an independent work, but this diary itself deliberates on its relation to the novel, and constructs a model of a composite structure encompassing both works, which is more complete than the novel alone. This greater, composite structure simultaneously critiques the supposed self-sufficiency of the novel and leads to a more open kind of œuvre, with the capacity for endless reinterpretation by readers.
Annie Ernaux
Authors: Ferguson Sam
Published: April 2018

This chapter examines the place of the diary in the context of considerable growth in all forms of life-writing since the 1970s, through a reading of diaries published by Annie Ernaux. The diary has shared in the broader success of life-writing, but also remained marginal. This marginality is apparent within Ernaux’s overall writing project, broadly associated with the aims of autobiography, and even inimical to the diary. Her first diary publication, Journal du dehors, is positioned as an alternative to the journal intime by its focus on strangers and the outside world, but still points cautiously towards a diaristic authorial posture. Ernaux’s later publications of actual journaux intimes (including “Je ne suis pas sortie de ma nuit”) establish a complex relationship with Ernaux’s autobiographical works, acting as a supplement. L’Atelier noir, Ernaux’s writing diary (journal d’écriture), again acts as a supplement to her volume of complete works Écrire la vie.
Markets, Organizations, and Organization
Authors: Brunsson Nils , Jutterström Mats
Published: April 2018

Formal organizations and markets constitute the basic forms of the economy. In social science a sharp distinction has usually been made between these forms, even treating them as opposites, and the study of them has been concentrated in different disciplines. We argue that such a perspective is rarely useful. Markets and organizations share at least one characteristic: they are both organized. We define market and organization and describe how markets and formal organizations are connected and similar in several respects. We present questions about the organization and reorganization of markets that will be discussed in the book, and the way we have used empirical examples in our analyses. Finally, we provide an overview of the rest of the book.
Primary Healthcare
Authors: Forssell Anders , Norén Lars
Published: April 2018

In this chapter, we analyse how former healthcare monopolies run by counties were abolished so that all healthcare centres that meet basic medical requirements are allowed to compete for patients, who are free to choose their provider. We use theories from the field of marketing for analysing this reorganization and demonstrate that it can be seen as the creation of a new consumer market or a reorganization of the counties; it is equally accurate to describe the result as an organized market or a marketized organization. We argue that terms such as ‘quasi-markets’ and ‘quasi-organization’ are misleading, as they are based on the assumption that markets and organizations are pure and distinct opposites. Rather, we argue that almost all markets are more or less organized and that many organizations are more or less marketized.
Shaping the Consumer: A Century of Consumer Guidance
Authors: Alexius Susanna , Löwenberg Leina
Published: April 2018

Through a historical account of a century of Swedish consumer guidance (1900–2012), this chapter provides insights into the development and organizational practices aimed at shaping buyers. The analysis reveals a great variety of organizations acting as guides to consumers, from agricultural societies, savings banks, cooperatives, municipalities, and government agencies to private businesses recently supplemented by private persons acting as bloggers. We scrutinize their methods, ranging from market chats at the kitchen table, teachers’ manuals, and cooperative member magazines, to kitchen standards and monitoring, product labelling, television shows, and blogs. In recent times consumers have been faced with a plethora of advisers and a multitude of advice about how to act in markets. They must know not only how to choose between and within product categories, but also how to choose among consumer guides—a type of ‘meta-advice’—as consumer guidance has turned into a service category in itself.
When Market Organization Does Not Help: High Ambitions and Challenges in the Market for Eldercare
Authors: Hagbjer Eva , Krohwinkel Anna
Published: April 2018

In this chapter, we discuss the organization of markets for publicly financed services, inspired by the model of the ‘perfect market’, with the Swedish eldercare sector as our example. We demonstrate how market organizers try to compensate for a malfunctioning price mechanism by gathering and disseminating information through the use of rules, membership, and monitoring. In trying to imitate the perfect market as closely as possible, regardless of the preferences of buyers and sellers, market organizers emphasized simplified and, most notably, comparable information. These attempts contributed to greater homogenization of eldercare services, thereby counteracting the greater diversity and customization that was an original aim of the marketization reform. The result is a market that satisfies neither its creators nor the eldercare users it was meant to serve.
Reform and Rescue
Authors: Dahl Matilda
Published: April 2018

Describing the transition to a market economy in the 1990s and recovery from the financial crisis after 2008 in the Baltic states, particularly in Latvia, we explore the various roles that international organizations (IOs) can assume in order to influence market organization. IOs see states as independent decision makers in control of markets through organization. Paradoxically, however, the practice of IOs and the advice they offer undermine the independent decisions of states, because states are expected to reform in accordance with the IOs’ ideas—ideas that further build on decontextualized notions that may not fit the situation of individual states. Recovering from crises, the Baltic states succeeded in regaining control over markets by not conforming to IO ideas.
Organizing Marketplaces
Authors: Aspers Patrik , Darr Asaf
Published: April 2018

What if potential buyers don’t know about our market and its specific elements? This chapter deals with one way of tackling that problem: the organization of trade fairs. Although the central attempted activity in the marketplace is the transaction, trade fairs are mainly about presenting products to potential buyers. Based on the study of a trade fair for computer software in the USA, we discuss the reasons for organizing a trade fair, illustrate the process of trade fair organization, and describe the effects of the trade fair on the emergent market. The trade fair organization has led to several effects on the market other than increasing buyer awareness: cooperation among competitors, product innovation in buyer–seller relationships, and industrial espionage.
Handling Opposing Market Logics
Authors: Furusten Staffan
Published: April 2018

The EU’s Public Procurement Act builds on the assumptions that the customer has no long-lasting relationship with sellers, that it has a clear idea of what it needs and prefers before the buying decision, and that it is easy to compare offers from various sellers. Such conditions apply to some markets but not to others. According to procurement theories, different types of markets require different procurement strategies. Based on a study of the procurement of management consulting and using procurement theories, we analyse how public procurement officials and their customers handle market situations that do not fit the laws for public procurement. Buyers and sellers of services avoid market rules in various ways: they are able to find compromises and decoupling strategies that lead to reasonably useful deals for both parties. On the other hand, the success of these strategies reduces the incentive to try to change the laws to fit this type of market.
Introduction
Authors: Crossland Rachel
Published: April 2018

Drawing on Gillian Beer’s suggestion that literature and science ‘share the moment’s discourse’, the Introduction sets out the approach adopted across this study as a whole as one which will combine, but also distinguish between, the two standard approaches within the field of literature and science: direct influence and the zeitgeist. Rejecting the previous critical focus on 1919 in studies of Albert Einstein’s cultural impact in favour of 1905, it argues for a more precise engagement with the scientific ideas, as well as a clearer acknowledgement of similar ideas across a broader range of disciplines in the early twentieth century. It also highlights Virginia Woolf and D. H. Lawrence as particularly apt literary figures for such a study, given their complicated individual relationships with the science of their day, relationships which combine a dislike of science in general with more positive responses to the new physics.
‘Orlando the Man and Orlando the Woman’
Authors: Crossland Rachel
Published: April 2018

Chapter 2 looks at Woolf’s writings from 1926 onwards in relation to both Louis de Broglie’s work on the wave-particle duality of radiation and matter and, more significantly, Niels Bohr’s development of the principle of complementarity in 1927. The chapter argues for Woolf’s increasing interest in, attempts at, and ease in writing complementary models, linking this to contemporary scientific developments, but also exploring a broader early twentieth-century interest in complementary approaches, including in psychology. It distinguishes between duality and complementarity, arguing that Woolf can usefully be understood as a complementary writer. Woolf’s conjunctions and pronouns are explored in detail, as are her ideas on androgyny and her writing of light, and the form of her writings is also considered, in particular her inclusion of what she herself called ‘facts’ and ‘vision’ in the same works. Among other texts, this chapter focuses on Orlando, The Waves, and The Years.
D. H. Lawrence’s ‘Theory of Human Relativity’
Authors: Crossland Rachel
Published: April 2018

Chapter 3 begins with Lawrence’s 1921 request for ‘a simple book on Einstein’s relativity’, exploring Lawrence’s immediate response to the ideas he would have found therein in his 1922 work Fantasia of the Unconscious. The chapter pays particular attention to Lawrence’s suggestion in Fantasia that ‘we are in sad need of a theory of human relativity’, exploring what such a theory may consist of and arguing for its relevance to his concern with and writing of human relationships in his works up to 1921. The importance to Lawrence of the absolute nature of the individual is considered, as is his recognition of the similarly vital move towards relationship. His background as a student and teacher of science is also explored. Alongside a close focus on Fantasia, this chapter also considers The Trespasser, Sons and Lovers, The Rainbow, and Women in Love, as well as some of Lawrence’s essays.
D. H. Lawrence and ‘Living Relativity’
Authors: Crossland Rachel
Published: April 2018

Chapter 4 explores Lawrence’s writing of relationships after his direct engagements with Einsteinian ideas in 1921, seeking to ascertain both the extent and the nature of the impact which Einsteinian relativity had on his thinking. Other possible sources for Lawrence’s relativistic ideas are considered, in particular William James’s relativism. However, ultimately the chapter argues that Einstein’s direct impact can be seen in terms of both the language adopted by Lawrence and the theoretical framework behind his ‘theory of human relativity’. Although Lawrence’s writing of relationships does not change much after reading about Einsteinian relativity, he seems more inclined to theorize on this topic after 1921, as a consideration of his novels Kangaroo and Aaron’s Rod emphasizes. Lawrence’s engagement with relativity is also shown to be significantly different from that of other modernist writers, in that he uses relativity in order to explore the issue that interested him most: human relationships.
Conclusion
Authors: Crossland Rachel
Published: April 2018

The conclusion returns to some of the ideas raised in the Introduction, specifically Gillian Beer’s suggestion that literature and science ‘share the moment’s discourse’. It argues for the relevance of this model to different periods and disciplines, while also suggesting some specific potential areas for further development in relation to the present study, including generalist periodicals. It also considers some of the evaluative criteria that have previously been suggested for studies in the field of literature and science, and raises some questions as to the direction in which that field of research should now move. The study concludes finally by suggesting that literature and science, as well as a range of other disciplines, some of which are included here, do more than share the moment’s discourse—they share in the creation, development, and modification of that discourse because they share the moment itself.
The Jansenist Critique
Authors: Palmer Thomas
Published: April 2018

This chapter provides an introduction to the reforming critique of a group of Catholic thinkers associated materially with the convents of Port-Royal in France, and intellectually with the views of the Dutch theologian Cornelius Jansen. The most notorious aspect of this Jansenist critique was the attack on moral laxity, and its supposed sponsors, the Society of Jesus, which Blaise Pascal articulated in the satirical Lettres Provinciales of 1656–7. Pascal and his associates identified the root cause of laxism in a moral doctrine now known as probabilism. After sketching the historical background, the chapter outlines the development of probabilism, and analyses the substance of the anti-probabilist arguments of the Jansenists. Criticizing the probabilists’ reliance on natural reason, these arguments are often connected with the Jansenists’ Augustinian views about fallen nature and their predestinarian theology to complete a picture of an anti-rational, pessimistic theological outlook. A reassessment is offered here.
Anglican Anti-Augustinianism and the Theology of Holy Living
Authors: Palmer Thomas
Published: April 2018

This chapter examines the theological project of an influential group of mid-century apologists for the disestablished episcopal Church of England. These theologians were in reaction against the Calvinist tradition in English theology, whose determinist shape they regarded as removing all incentive to moral endeavour. Their work cohered around an emphasis on the moral responsibility of the individual; in contrast to a doctrine which asserted the utter depravity of fallen nature, they assumed that Christians are obliged to make use of their valuable moral faculties by striving sincerely after ‘holy living’. The chapter outlines the soteriological basis of this holy living theology, and challenges critical accounts which see in its more liberal attitude to human nature the germ of a heretical neo-Pelagianism.
Two Case Studies
Authors: Palmer Thomas
Published: April 2018

Chapter 7 continues the argument of chapter 6 into two central topics which constitute tests for the apparent movement among mid- and later seventeenth-century Anglicans away from an Augustinian theological framework. Jeremy Taylor has been charged with abandoning the traditional doctrine of original sin, and by consequence that of the atonement. Section II analyses his teaching, and shows that attempts to identify his doctrine with that of Socinian thinkers should be rejected. Section III analyses Herbert Thorndike’s discussion of Jansen’s teaching on liberty in the Augustinus. Thorndike adopted an understanding of human liberty which seems to resemble that of Molina, but his surprisingly sympathetic treatment of Jansen reflects his admiration for Augustine’s analysis of original sin and its effects, and his continued commitment to the understanding of conversion which it underwrites.
Conclusion
Authors: Palmer Thomas
Published: April 2018

The Conclusion challenges the role assigned to the mid-seventeenth-century theology of holy living in a well-worn narrative of decline in English theology. Here the ‘moralism’ of the mid-century anti-Calvinist theologians and the ‘rationalism’ of their latitudinarian successors are held responsible for an impoverished form of theology, whose elision of revelation and grace with nature and moral virtue promoted the secularism and indifferentism of a stereotypically lukewarm eighteenth-century Church. The doctrinal premises and the rigorist shape of the holy living theology, as analysed here, cannot easily be reconciled with such a narrative, and are better understood in terms of the aims and intentions with which it was developed in response to contemporary theological problems. In this perspective the Jansenists, whose thought, despite their commitment to some fundamentally different theological premises, also focused on the individual’s experience of and responsibility for his own moral transformation, constitute an interesting comparison.
Athletics and Citizenship
Authors: Fisher Nick
Published: April 2018

A defining feature of archaic Greece was the explosion of athletic competitions at many levels up to the great Panhellenic games. Panhellenic victories brought prestige to the cities, who offered their victors considerable honours and material rewards. This chapter seeks to identify diverse connections, in different cities, between athletic training and competition and the regulation of membership in these developing communities. It suggests that in some places (Sparta, Cretan cities) athletic performance was used as part of complex socialization procedures and as a qualification for community membership via small-scale commensality associations. At Athens, athletic prowess was encouraged but not imposed, and citizenship was probably opened, through pseudo-kinship subgroups, to athletes along with other skilled immigrants; comparable practices may be suspected in other athletically ambitious cities (Corinth, Argos, and Aegina). In wealthy cities in Sicily and South Italy, desperate for Panhellenic success, athletic achievement inspired the positive recruitment of new citizens.
Conclusion
Authors: Brock Roger
Published: April 2018

The conclusion emphasizes the diversity both of the criteria for citizenship attested in the preceding chapters and of the conceptions which they imply of the archaic polis and its organization, in terms of centralized authority and inclusiveness. Although it is therefore unlikely that classical citizenship simply evolved from archaic citizenship, the persistence of characteristic early features such as performative aspects and the major role of civic subdivisions should be noted. Areas for future study are sketched out, notably the emergence of the sense of community, and archaic Greek citizenship is briefly compared with community membership in the wider Mediterranean and Near Eastern world.
Introduction
Authors: Boucher David
Published: April 2018

The introduction contends that text and context are inseparable and that Hobbes takes on the character and persona of those who appropriate him for purposes of exploitation, or denigration. It begins with a brief introduction to Hobbes’s immediate historical context and the controversies to which he responded and contributed. For the justification of the approach taken reference is made to the body of literature broadly termed hermeneutics. The contention, in brief, is that epistemological hermeneutics does not adequately account for the situatedness of the interpreter and, like Hobbes himself, holds out the hope of overcoming the difficulties of attaching the meaning of a text to the psychology of the author. Referring to Dewey, Heidegger, Gadamer, his disciple Koselleck, and Ricoeur, it is contended that the inevitable distancing of the text from its author, context, and time facilitates appropriation, but also acts as an impediment to retrieving authorial intentions.
Hobbes among the Classic Jurists
Authors: Boucher David
Published: April 2018

The classic foundational status that Hobbes has been afforded by contemporary international relations theorists is largely the work of Hans Morgenthau, Martin Wight, and Hedley Bull. They were not unaware that they were to some extent creating a convenient fiction, an emblematic realist, a shorthand for all of the features encapsulated in the term. The detachment of international law from the law of nature by nineteenth-century positivists opened Hobbes up, even among international jurists, to be portrayed as almost exclusively a mechanistic theorist of absolute state sovereignty. If we are to endow him with a foundational place at all it is not because he was an uncompromising realist equating might with right, on the analogy of the state of nature, but instead to his complete identification of natural law with the law of nations. It was simply a matter of subject that distinguished them, the individual and the state.
Conclusion
Authors: Boucher David
Published: April 2018

The conclusion returns to the question of hermeneutics and interpreting Hobbes in different contexts, Hobbes is constituted by the interpretation imposed on him, making text and interpretation inseparable. That is not to say, again agreeing with Gadamer and Ricoeur, that we are compelled to accept that one interpretation is as good as another. Because we belong to a tradition of interpretation, and have no option but to begin with certain prejudices which we may modify, but not so completely that no one recognizes the activity in which we are engaged. There are limits to what, as an intellectual community compelled to adhere to some standards, we are willing to accept as an interpretation, rather than a fabrication. There are contestations of interpretation and the possibility through them of the equivalent of Popper’s refutations.
The 1960s
Authors: Wangwe Samuel , Kawamura Hiroshi
Published: April 2018

The global climate in the 1960s was one of excitement and hope brought by the independence of many countries from colonialism, the UN declaration of the First Development Decade, and unprecedented economic growth. Against this background, the Survey reminded developed countries about their responsibilities to assist broader economic growth and industrialization in developing countries in support of social development. The Survey contributed to identifying development challenges and to enhancing creative thinking to development policy and practices. It also provided analytical rationale for establishing specialized UN entities such as UNCTAD and UNIDO. Behind the excitement, however, the Survey expressed concerned about the sustainability of the international monetary system, a prelude to the turbulent 1970s and 1980s following the collapse of the Bretton Woods system.
International Financial Regulation
Authors: Newman Abraham L. , Posner Elliot
Published: April 2018

Chapter 3 describes the international financial regulatory architecture, providing necessary background for the substantive studies that follow. It gives special attention to the architecture’s two defining aspects: the soft law character of the rules it produces and the fragmentation of rule-making by subsectors. A matrix of forums develops advisory prescriptions for specific financial policy areas. The chapter traces the architecture’s origins and evolution, including how policy-makers and standard-setting organizations dealt with the breakdown of traditional boundaries between markets and subsectors. It provides background on the book’s featured causal variable: international soft law. It also offers an original explanation for the architecture’s key features. The chapter highlights the prominent role of domestic institutional arrangements within the United States and other jurisdictions with important markets for the early development of soft law-creating organizations and establishes the role of contingency, sequence, and endogeneity (with reference to domestic institutions) in the architecture’s evolution.
Legitimacy Claims and Pre-Crisis Transatlantic Alignment
Authors: Newman Abraham L. , Posner Elliot
Published: April 2018

Chapter 4 focuses on soft law’s second-order consequences for rising regulatory powers. One of the key puzzles in the international regulation of finance is the persistence of cooperation even as the number of economic great powers increases. The emergence of the European Union as a financial rule-maker in the late 1990s and early 2000s, roughly on par with the United States, resulted in a transatlantic alignment of regulatory approaches, not conflict over the fundamentals. This chapter demonstrates how soft law was used by reform-minded factions in Europe to legitimize their claims and tip in their favor political contests over the modernization of internal regulation. International soft law served as a mechanism of endogenous change, helping to foster a great power preference alignment along market-friendly paths and setting the stage for the financial crisis.
Arena Expansion and the Transnationalization of Business Advocacy
Authors: Newman Abraham L. , Posner Elliot
Published: April 2018

Chapter 5 shifts the focus from soft law’s effects on great powers to its impact on influential business groups. It argues that by expanding arenas of contestation to the transnational level, soft law transforms business representation as well as individual industry associations. The chapter’s empirical focus is on banking regulation from the 1980s to the 2000s. Much of the literature on transnational banking standards centers on the role of industry associations and, in particular, on the Institute of International Finance. In this chapter, the authors explain the rise of direct industry participation in and influence over Basel-based standard setting. They show that the orientation and priorities of the IIF as well as its membership and internal structure were deeply conditioned by 1980s international soft law. The IIF’s transformation subsequently set off a series of changes to the ecology of financial industry associations and the politics of financial regulation.