bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
COAL SEAM GAS IN THE SOUTHERN SYDNEY BASIN, NEW SOUTH WALES
Authors: Faiz M.M. , Hutton A.C.
Published: August 2017

The coal seam gas content of the Late Permian Illawarra Coal Measures ranges from Methane that occurs within the basin was mainly derived as a by-product of coalification. Most of the CO2 was derived from intermittent magmatic activity between the Triassic and the Tertiary. This gas has subsequently migrated, mainly in solution, towards structural highs and accumulated in anticlines and near sealed faults.The total desorbable gas content of the coal seams is mainly related to depth, gas composition and geological structure. At depths
COAL SEAM GAS—PETROLEUM OR MINERAL
Authors: Gately D.J.
Published: August 2017

1996 was a watershed year for gas exploration in Queensland: the increasing private sector investment in the search for and commercial use of methane gas from coal seams received legislative endorsement. Coal seam gas (CSG), also known as coalbed methane or CBM, was officially designated as petroleum, with exploration for and production of CSG to be administered under the Petroleum Act.The paper traces the history of exploration for CSG in Queensland since 1976, culminating in a policy shift in 1996. In Queensland there is now potential for overlapping titles and competitive resource development.
CONTRACTOR SAFETY
Authors: Thackray M.A.
Published: August 2017

This paper deals with the efforts and results of a Management driven campaign to improve contractor safety performance in WAPET's operations.WAPET Management identified Contractor safety performance as one of four key safety focus areas in their 1995 Business Plan. The other focus areas were Hazard Analysis, Training and Audit and Review.Strategies adopted for achieving improvements in contractor safety included:aligning Contractor Goals and Objectives with WAPET's by involving major contractors in 'Best Practices' workshops. The workshops specifically addressed the Business Plan focus areas and the identification and measurement of performance indicators. The workshops provided contractors with an open forum to express their views and efforts in these areas;holding follow-up meetings with individual contractors and contractor groups with common areas of work. Both contractors and WAPET management detailed the status and efforts being put into these areas. These meetings identified improvement opportunities and opened up communication links both with WAPET personnel and between contractors; andimplementing the results of the workshop and meetings by upgrading WAPET's Safety Management System particularly in the areas of pre-qualification, contracting philosophies and contractor management philosophies.Feedback on each stage of the 1995 program was used to determine the strategies for the 1996 program. The workshops and meetings highlighted process improvement opportunities particularly in areas of industry standardisation, development of contractor Safety Management Systems, lines of communication/accountability, employee involvement and performance indicators. These opportunities were documented in a 'Contractor Best Practice* manual of which over 350 have been distributed.Conventional safety measures indicate a 50 per cent improvement in both LTI and Total Reportable frequency rates for WAPET's contractors in the past 12 months. The success of the program was also demonstrated by other indicators such as greater openness in communications, greater participation in safety meetings and a closer working relationship with WAPET.
ENVIRONMENTALLY SUSTAINABLE ENERGY FOR THE EAST ASIA/PACIFIC REGION: IMPLICATIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR AUSTRALIAN OIL AND GAS EXPLORERS AND PRODUCERS
Authors: Grollman N.G.
Published: August 2017

The oil and gas reserves of Australia and the East Asian region fall well short of the region's long-term requirements, even for a scenario that phases out all fossil fuels by the end of the 21st century. There is, therefore, no contradiction between vigorous exploration for oil and gas and the process of transition to renewable energy sources. However, to be an independent player in environmental policy-making, the Australian petroleum exploration industry should focus on its particular role within the energy sector as a whole, whose nature will change radically over the next several decades. This role will combine concerns over long term oil supply security with, in particular, the objective of reducing greenhouse gas emissions from oil and gas consumption to levels commensurate with Australia's international obligations. The role extends to Australian involvement in the region as a whole through the accrual of emissions credits from projects implemented jointly with developing countries. It also envisages that Australian explorers, especially those focussed on gas, will form alliances with downstream companies, power generators, appliance manufacturers and energy marketers as links in an integrated chain of operations with value added and emissions reduced at each stage. This re-orientation should lead the industry to question the extent to which its interests correspond with those of the coal and mineral industries, which do not face the same resource limitations.
PETROLEUM EXPLORATION AND PRODUCTION- WHAT ARE THE ENVIRONMENTAL OBLIGATIONS OF JOINT VENTURE PARTICIPANTS?
Authors: Martin J. H.
Published: August 2017

Participants in joint venture operating agreements in Australia are potentially liable for environmental offences under State environmental statutes as well as Petroleum (Submerged Lands) Acts and State Petroleum Acts. In addition, adverse environmental impacts can affect an array of other commercial factors, including the future costs of obtaining finance, insurance cover and access to new acreage.The nature of potential risks and liabilities are such that environmental management must be regarded as an on-going risk management activity, integrated into all planning and day-to-day operations in the same way that health and safety management is now being widely incorporated in petroleum industry activities. Joint venture participants generally pay considerable attention to the calibre of the technical (geological and engineering) advice provided by the operator. It follows that they should also place considerable importance on the calibre of environmental management expertise provided by the operator and its contractors.A successful system of management should be modelled on a due diligence defence, which requires that those who are directing joint venture activities exercise due diligence, requiring the establishment of a proper system to prevent violations of the law and the effective operation of that system, including supervision, maintenance and improvements in business methods.
BASS STRAIT'S BREAM B RESERVOIR DEVELOPMENT: SUCCESS THROUGH A MULTI-FUNCTIONAL TEAM APPROACH
Authors: McKerron A.J. , Dunn V.L. , Fish R.M. , Mills C.R. , Linden-Dhont S.K. van der
Published: August 2017

The effective development of thin oil columns in areas of complex stratigraphy, sparse well control and offset from existing production presents a diverse range of challenges. The success of the Bream B reservoir development can be attributed in part to the formation of a multi-functional development team. This team defined pre-development planning processes and analysis tools which were used to meet the challenges of the project. This paper discusses the Bream B development and the pivotal role the team played in its evolution.The Bream Field is an anticlinal structure with a series of retrogradationally-stacked clastic reservoir sequences. A large gas cap overlies a 13.5 m oil column in a reservoir that has strong aquifer support. The Bream A platform was installed in 1987 to develop the western and northern lobes of the field. The 18-slot Bream B concrete gravity structure was installed in October 1996 to develop the eastern half of the field.Geotechnical and engineering uncertainties, as well as a fast-paced drilling program required thorough planning by the team of geoscientists, engineers and petrophysicists. ThIS included the development of detailed contingency and well sequencing plans, the quantification of pre-drill technical uncertainties and the implementation of fully interactive remapping capabilities. During the program, application of geophysical amplitude and modelling analysis, sequence stratigraphy, petrophysics, and reservoir simulation were all used to interpret results and optimise the placement of remaining development wells.The success of the multi-functional pre-development planning processes and analysis tools was demonstrated by the requirement of only a single geological sidetrack during the drilling program and a platform production rate of 35,000 BOPD (5.6 ML/day) (August 1997).
THE TARBAT-IPUNDU OIL FIELD, A CASE STUDY IN IDENTIFYING BYPASSED OIL
Authors: Lonergan T.P. , Ryles P.G. , McClure S.T. , McMillan D.W.
Published: August 2017

Since 1995 the Tarbat-Ipundu Field has developed from a marginal 200 BOPD (31.8 kL/d) field with perceived limited growth potential to a developing resource with production up to 3,000 BOPD (476.9 kL/d). This increase was achieved through the efforts of a dedicated multidisciplinary team and an aggressive 'fit for purpose' drilling and evaluation program.The Tarbat-Ipundu Field is located in PL 52 of ATP 299P in southwestern Queensland, approximately 115 km to the northeast of the Jackson Oil Field. The field was discovered by Hartogen Energy Ltd in 1986 with the drilling of Ipundu 1 which came on-line at 100 BOPD (15.9 kL/d) from the Wyandra Sandstone and the Murta Member. The discovery well was followed by the drilling of Tarbat-1 in 1988 on a subculmination to the north. Tarbat-1 encountered oil in the Wyandra Sandstone but watered out after producing 17 KSTB (2,702 kL) of oil. During 1991 a further four wells were drilled in the Ipundu Field by the then operator, Ampolex Pty Ltd. Two of these wells were plugged and abandoned. In January 1994 the field was producing at 220 BOPD (34.9 kL/d) after a total production of 350 KSTB.The Santos Group acquired a majority interest and Operatorship of the Tarbat-Ipundu Field in 1994. An integrated geological and engineering evaluation of Tarbat-1, incorporating experience gained in other parts of the Eromanga Basin, indicated the potential for bypassed oil in the Hutton Sandstone. Similarly, additional potential was recognised in the Wyandra Sandstone and Murta Member in the Tarbat-Ipundu wells. To evaluate this potential Tarbat-2 was drilled in August 1995 at a location 315 m to the northwest of Tarbat-1. Drill stem tests in Tarbat-2 resulted in flows of 2,037 BOPD (323.8 kL/d) from a 26 m gross hydrocarbon column in the Hutton Sandstone and 770 BOPD (122.4 kL/d) from a 14 m gross hydrocarbon column in the Wyandra Sandstone.An aggressive appraisal and development program followed the drilling of Tarbat-2 which has resulted in the drilling of an additional 25 wells. Proved and Probable Oil in Place estimates have increased from 5.2 MMSTB (0.826 ML) in 1994 to 44.2 MMSTB (7.02 ML) in 1997. As at June 1997 the field produces oil from the WyandraSandstone, Murta Member and Hutton Sandstone of the Eromanga Basin. A combined oil offtake of up to 3,000 BOPD (476.9 kL/d) has been achieved from the field. Continued field development is planned for 1998.The successful 're-discovery' of the Tarbat-Ipundu Field illustrates the potential benefit of a systematic review and integration of all existing data via a multidisciplinary team. The increasing cost of new data acquisition makes it imperative that the existing data is thoroughly evaluated prior to the investment of further exploration capital. The Tarbat-Ipundu Field demonstrates the potential to add significant new reserves from focussed targeting and evaluation of potential bypassed hydrocarbon accumulations.
COOL-WATER CARBONATE FACIES PATTERNS AND DIAGENESIS-THE KEY TO THE GIPPSLAND BASIN 'VELOCITY PROBLEM'
Authors: Feary D.A. , Loutit T.S.
Published: August 2017

Throughout much of the exploration history of the offshore Gippsland Basin it has been difficult to achieve acceptable accuracy or precision for time-depth conversions beneath the stratigraphically and sonically complex Seaspray Group, overlying exploration targets within the hydrocarbon-rich Latrobe Group. A regional seismic stratigraphic and seismic attribute analysis of the Oligocene-Recent Seaspray Group has been carried out as the first step towards resolving this long-standing Gippsland Basin 'velocity problem'.High-resolution 2D seismic reflection data and downhole logs were used to determine the depositional history and sequence characteristics of the Seaspray Group. This analysis was based on the premise that velocity variation must be related to, or controlled by, the nature and distribution of the dominantly cool-water carbonate facies of the Seaspray Group, and that solution of the velocity problem must be based on understanding the particular depositional and geochemical characteristics of cool-water carbonates.Detailed seismic stratigraphic analysis of the G92A dataset shows that the 16 unconformity-bounded seismic sequences within the Seaspray Group form four mega-sequences, each separated by major erosional (channel-cutting) events, with sequences reflecting variable sediment inputs from northeasterly and southwesterly sources. Seaspray Group characteristics result from interaction of complex depositional and post-depositional processes, including river incision, submarine canyon erosion, slumping, subaerial exposure, karstification, and subsurface diagenesis and erosion. Seismic attribute analysis records the variability of diagenesis and shows that diagenetic effects are predominantly concentrated along sequence boundaries, sometimes to significant depths below the sequence boundary.Results to date indicate that application of a velocity model based on this new interpretation will enable improved precision of depth estimates to the top Latrobe Group unconformity to less than five per cent.
PRESSURE STUDY OF THE FLACOURT FORMATION AQUIFER IN THE THEVENARD ISLAND AREA OF THE BARROW SUB-BASIN
Authors: Beacher G.J.
Published: August 2017

Thevenard Island area lies in the offshore Carnarvon Basin off the northwest coast of Western Australia. The Flacourt Formation of the Cretaceous Barrow Group sequence is the primary oil-producing reservoir. West Australian Petroleum Pty Limited (WAPET) as operator on behalf of its participants (Chevron, Texaco, Shell and Mobil) has been producing from this reservoir since 1989. It has widely been held that in this area the relatively thick, multi-darcy Barrow Group oil accumulations have had infinite aquifer pressure support with no regional draw-down effect.After the commencement of oil production from the Flacourt Formation, wireline pressure surveys in exploration and development wells have indicated anomalous pressure trends in the reservoir. Initially, the accuracy of pressure gauges and elevation measuring devices were questioned.Recent studies based on WAPET's production history in the region and re-analysis of wireline pressure data have shown that the Flacourt Formation does experience regional draw-down in aquifer pressure due to production. This paper demonstrates the existence of draw-down and how this information has aided in the evaluation of the Flacourt Formation and the overlying Mardie Greensand reservoirs.
TAXATION OF FINANCIAL ARRANGEMENTS
Authors: Broek P. van den
Published: August 2017

This paper looks at the proposal by the Federal Government to introduce a new regime for the taxation of financial arrangements. Such a change has been on the Government's agenda for some time. In 1993, an initial proposal was put forward, but serious concerns were raised by the business community. The Government's proposal re-surfaced in December 1996 with some modifications to address the concerns raised to the initial proposal but in the writer's view, these modifications do not satisfactorily address the concerns.The proposals basically seek to tax accrued and unrealised gains on financial arrangements such as foreign exchange loans and derivatives, including commodity derivatives. For instance, if a company has a foreign exchange loan, any unrealised foreign exchange gains at year end would need to be recognised for tax purposes, even though they may never be realised because of subsequent fluctuations in exchange rates.To address the concern that unrealised gains may never be realised, the ATO has put forward a proposal that if the foreign exchange or other transaction is a hedge against changes in value of an underlying transaction, unrealised gains do not need to be recognised for tax purposes until the underlying transaction is realised. For instance, if a company borrows in US dollars because its future revenue stream is in US dollars, unrealised foreign exchange gains would not need to be recognised until the revenue is derived.However, there is a major flaw in these hedging rules. If the hedging transaction is rolled over, any gain at the time of rollover needs to be recognised, even though the revenue that is being hedged has not been realised. Debt instruments and derivatives are often rolled over as part of the financial management of a large resource company and therefore, the new proposals in their current form would cause serious problems in that financial management.
ESSO AUSTRALIA LTD'S APPROACH TO RISK ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT
Authors: Gibbeson J.M. , Shinners C.D.
Published: August 2017

Management of operational risk has become critical in the hydrocarbon process industry. The Esso Australia Ltd Risk Assessment and Management System comprises three defined levels, covering field and management risk control through to formal structured risk assessment. The process steps within each level are common and include planning, hazard identification and assessment, reporting, follow-up and risk closure. Methodologies and degree of detail differ depending on the level and application. The core philosophies underlying the system are:clearly defined responsibilities and approvals for risk ownership, stewardship, follow-up and closure;risks identified and assessed at the lowest appropriate level in the organisation;a common process for risk evaluation and ranking.emphasis on risk reduction follow-up action; andappropriate competency and training.The system also specifies the risk assessment requirements for major facilities and activities. For the offshore platforms these are integrated with the Safety Case requirements.Since its development, the Esso system has played a significant role in improving Esso's overall safety by providing a formal, integrated and consistent process for identifying and controlling risks and hazards at all levels and through each phase of production operations and support activities.
A PROCESS FOR ESTIMATING GEOLOGICAL RISK OF PETROLEUM EXPLORATION PROSPECTS
Authors: Watson P.
Published: August 2017

The concept of geological risk is critically important in petroleum exploration. It is distinct from both volumetric and commercia I risk. Geological risk is defined as the confidence that a proposed petroleum system is actually working at a particular prospect. Using knowledge-engineering techniques, BHP developed an improved scheme for assessing geological risk. The scheme expands the conventional breakdown of petroleum system elements to about fifty discrete factors, with individual confidence ratings being required for each. The ratings are combined into an overall geological risk using algorithms designed to emulate the typical judgements of experienced explorationists. In practice, application of the scheme also subjects each prospect to an extremely rigorous, detailed and objective review by a technical peer group, which has proved to be a valuable process in its own right. The methodology has improved the accuracy of pre-drill forecasting.
VERY DEEP FACILITIES PHYSICAL MODELLING STRATEGIES
Authors: Hinwood J B. , Potts A.E. , Sincock P.
Published: August 2017

The design process for offshore facilities has used a mix of physical and numerical modelling to provide information on loads and steady dynamic responses in an efficient and accurate fashion. Usually physical modelling is used early in the design process to provide force coefficients for novel forms or novel loading conditions. Physical modelling is also used later in the design process to deal with complex issues for which the available numerical models are not adequate or are inefficient, and it is subsequently used to provide a verification of the final design under a comprehensive set of load cases.All of these applications of physical models remain important in the move to very deep water, but the limitations of water depth, plan area and velocity profile in existing laboratory facilities reduce the capability of physical modelling. At the same time the wide range of novel hull forms, mooring configurations and materials, and riser types increases the requirement for physical data to calibrate the numerical models and increases the need for design validation. Physical modelling procedures, facilities and limitations are discussed and a design methodology is outlined.
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF SYNTHETIC-BASED DRILLING MUD DISCHARGES TO BASS STRAIT, AUSTRALIA
Authors: Terrens G.W. , Gwyther D. , Keough M.J.
Published: August 2017

Esso Australia Ltd. (Esso) on behalf of the Esso/BHP joint venture undertakes exploration and development drilling activities to produce oil and gas from the Gippsland Basin in eastern Bass Strait. As part of the environmental management of the operation, a field monitoring program was undertaken to verify the predicted limited effect on the seabed of the discharge of residual synthetic based mud (SBM) adhered to drill cuttings.Reservoir studies of the mature Fortescue oil field identified scope to more efficiently deplete existing reserves as well as develop undrained oil pools within the known reservoir system. As such, 18 additional wells were drilled from the Fortescue platform in 1994-1996 following the original development drilling program when 21 wells were drilled in 1983-1985.Esso's standard drilling fluid in Bass Strait is an environmentally acceptable water based mud (WBM). However, due to the high frictional forces involved the greater lubricating properties of a non-water based drilling mud were required to drill the long reach, high angle sections of seven of the additional wells. The ester SBM was chosen on the basis of its lubricity and biodegradability, to reduce any potential environmental effects from the persistence of non-water based mud in seabed sediments.A seabed monitoring program was undertaken around the Fortescue platform by taking seabed samples from August 1995 to August 1997 at sites along a transect following the predominant ocean current and at control sites, before, during and after the period in which SBM cuttings were discharged. The seabed sediments were measured for esters, barium, biological changes and grain size. Results show clearly the increase in esters concentration in sediments during drilling, then the rapid decrease after completion of cuttings discharge. After a recovery period of 11 months from completion of SBM drilling, SBM esters were not detected in sediments. Sediment barium concentration was also found to be elevated, but only after SBM had been used, indicating greater dispersion of WBM than the more cohesive SBM. The barium concentrations found generally do not have measurable effects on biota. The impact on the sediment biology was found to be limited to the sampling site 100 m from the platform discharge point with recovery evident within four months of completion of drilling.Mechanisms for recovery of the minimal zone of effect are thought to be a combination of the biodegradation of the ester SBM used and the physical seabed dispersion process evident in eastern Bass Strait generated by the continuous series of storms which pass through especially in winter.
EFFECTS OF OILS AND DISPERSED-OILS ON MANGROVE SEEDLINGS IN PLANTHOUSE EXPERIMENTS: A PRELIMINARY ASSESSMENT OF RESULTS TWO MONTHS AFTER OIL TREATMENTS
Authors: Duke N.C. , Burns K.A. , Dalhaus O.
Published: August 2017

The effects of oil and dispersed-oil treatments on mangrove seedlings, grown in artificial tidal systems in tropical north-eastern Australia, were assessed two months after application. Seedling mortality was used as a measure of treatment toxicity. All oils and dispersed-oils were toxic to mangrove seedlings although the effect of Bunker C was quite low. Overall, oils and dispersed-oils were ordered by increasing toxicity: Bunker C fuel, Arabian Light crude, Gippsland Light crude, Thevenard crude, and Woodside condensate. Toxicity of oils correlated with viscosity, where low toxicity of the heavy fuel oil (3 per cent mortality) stood in marked contrast with high levels of mortality scored for very light crude oils, Thevenard (73 per cent) and Woodside (85 percent). Mangrove species were ordered by their overall increased vulnerability to oils and dispersed-oils as, Ceriops spp., Rhizophora stylosa, Avicennia marina and Aegiceras corniculatum. As expected, higher doses (2.0 L/m2) showed an overall increase of 30 per cent mortality compared with lower doses (0.2 L/m2). However, values for each grouping of seedlings varied widely, indicating possible synergistic effects of different environmental factors. Despite this, at least one other pattern was evident. Dispersed-oil treatments were usually less toxic to mangrove seedlings than undispersed oils, particularly for high doses. This result needs to be further assessed, but it is of interest that added dispersant did not usually result in increased seedling mortality. We will re-evaluate all findings once experiments are completed.
BIOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL OCEANOGRAPHIC PROCESSES IN SHALLOW NORTH WEST SHELF WATERS SURROUNDING THE HARRIET A PRODUCTION PLATFORM
Authors: Furnas M.J. , Mitchell A.W.
Published: August 2017

A diverse range of biological and chemical oceanographic properties and processes were measured in shallow NW shelf waters surrounding the Harriet A production platform in September 1995. Shelf waters were characterised by low plankton biomass levels, very low dissolved nutrient concentrations, relatively high water column primary and bacterial production rates, rapid nutrient uptake rates and rapid rates of water column particle turnover. While concentrations of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and P04 in PFW were elevated ca. 100-fold relative to ambient concentrations in shelf waters, daily discharge fluxes are small relative to local water column stocks. In contrast, PFW discharges of NH4 were very large relative to regional water column stocks. Because local plankton are strongly N-limited, this NH4−N was very rapidly taken up (depletion times
TRACKING PRODUCED FORMATION WATER DISCHARGE FROM A PETROLEUM PRODUCTION PLATFORM TO THE NORTH WEST SHELF
Authors: Holdway D. , Heggie D.T.
Published: August 2017

During September 1995, the Australian Geological Survey Organisation and the Australian Institute of Marine Science took part in a joint survey to monitor the dispersion, fates and effects of Produced Formation Water (PFW) discharged from the Harriet A production platform. Continuous Geochemical Tracer(CGT) analysis of benzene, toluene and C1−C6 hydrocarbons was used to map the spatial distribution of the PFW discharge in near surface waters. Hydrographic parameters were also continuously measured and four hydrocarbon vertical profiles were completed at various distances from the platform.PFW collected at the Harriet A production platform contained 3.75 mg/L of C1−C6 hydrocarbons; 1.59 mg/L of benzene and 1.72 mg/L of toluene. Benzene, toluene and total C1−C6 hydrocarbons are sensitive tracers of PFW, with concentrations of benzene and toluene in the PFW plume about 100 fold higher than typical 'detectable background' levels. Maximum concentrations measured within the PFW discharge plume were 140 ng/L for benzene, 250 ng/L for toluene and 1500 ng/L C1−C6 hydrocarbons. Minimum dilutions of about 2,500 for C1−C6 hydrocarbons and less than 10,000+ for benzene and toluene were measured at distances 1 km from the platform. Thus, close to the platform, benzene and toluene are apparently more 'reactive' than C1−C6 hydrocarbons and disperse more rapidly.The PFW discharge was mapped in a NNW and SSE direction on both the ebb and flood tides to a maximum distance of 10 km from the production platform. A net westerly drift of the plume was evident on both the ebb and flood tides toward the Montebello Islands and Varanus Island, rather than toward the east and the mainland. A one dimensional dispersion model found hydrocarbons are dispersed in seawater, with characteristic half-dispersion distances of about 3.5 km on a spring tide. Vertical profiles of PFW hydrocarbons suggest that within 1 km of the platform the PFW plume is primarily a surface feature but beyond 1 km all hydrocarbons are well mixed.
THE RESPONSE OF HUMPBACK WHALES (MEGAPTERA NOVAEANGLIAE) TO OFFSHORE SEISMIC SURVEY NOISE: PRELIMINARY RESULTS OF OBSERVATIONS ABOUT A WORKING SEISMIC VESSEL AND EXPERIMENTAL EXPOSURES
Authors: McCauley R.D. , Jenner M-N. , Jenner C. , McCabe K.A. , Murdoch J.
Published: August 2017

During October to November 1996 WMC Petroleum conducted the Robert 3D seismic survey to the northeast of North West Cape, off Exmouth Western Australia. The survey used one of two 2678 cui (44 L) air-gun arrays of source level 258 dB re 1µPa2−m p−p below the array (77 bar-m), operating every eight s for 33.4 days of continual operation. Tracklines ran east-west across the path of southerly migrating humpback whales. Before the seismic survey began aerial surveys determined that humpbacks moving through the seismic area were distributed uniformly seaward of the 20 m depth contour. Based on observations made from the operating Geco Resolution there did not appear to be any gross changes in the migratory path of humpback whales through the seismic area. Whales approaching the operating Geco Resolution began avoidance manoeuvres at 5−8 km and mostly kept a standoff range of 3−4 km. Some whales approached the vessel closer. Experiments were carried out in Exmouth Gulf where the movements and behaviour of humpback pods were monitored before, during and after an approach with a 20 cui air-gun (0.33 L) of horizontal source level 227 dB re 1µPa2−m p−p. The levels at which avoidance manoeuvres began during these trials was approximately 159 dB re 1µPa2 p−p, which is roughly equivalent to the received level of the 2678 cui array at 5 km, at 162 dB re 1µPa2 p−p. General avoidance of the 20 cui air-gun was observed at 1 km, or a level of 168 dB re 1µPa2 p−p, which was roughly equivalent to the level of the 2678 cui array at 3 km at 170 dB re 1µPa2 p−p, which was the general minimum humpback standoff range observed from this array. Whales were observed to move closer to the operating 20 cui and 2678 cui air-gun/array. It is speculated that these whales were mostly males intent on investigating or passing quickly by the appropriate air-gun/array.
UNDERWATER CHARACTER AND HORIZONTAL PROPAGATION OF AIR-GUN SIGNALS
Authors: Penrose J.D. , McCauley R.D.
Published: August 2017

This paper describes work carried out as part of an APPEA/ERDC supported project, Investigation of the Environmental Effects of Offshore Seismic Survey Activities. In this project biological research concerning the interaction of acoustic signals with marine organisms is linked to sound propagation studies focussed on frequencies, water characteristics and seabed types of relevance to offshore exploration practice. A key feature of the propagation component of the project concerns the extent to which lateral propagation of airgun signals in the water column may be adequately predicted.The study of acoustic propagation in the sea is an integral part of both scientific and defence enquiry. In recent years, the comparatively complex issue of propagation in shallow water, here considered as involving depths of 200 m or less, has received increasing attention. The literature concerning low frequency propagation in shallow water has features in common with seismic literature. Different emphases, however, notably concerning applications, the role of shear waves in solids and the geometry of the propagation environment have largely resulted in separate development paths being adopted by these two related fields. This paper summarises the range of modelling approaches available to predict shallow water propagation, some key issues influencing propagation and the influence of water and seabed parameters on model performance.An illustration of propagation model performance is provided in this paper by comparing the output from a normal mode model KRAKEN, with experimental data obtained using a mono-frequency source in shallow water in Cleveland Bay, Queensland. This offers an opportunity to assess propagation in a complex and, in acoustic terms, poorly classified environment. These results will be complemented in the conference presentation by airgun data obtained in Exmouth Gulf, Western Australia.
THE RELEVANCE OF RISK ASSESSMENT IN ENVIRONMENTAL APPROVALS AND DECISION MAKING
Authors: Stoklosa R.T.
Published: August 2017

The relevance of ecological risk assessment is the principal subject of this paper. The petroleum industry has demonstrated expertise in characterising process safety risk, and can confidently analyse the circumstances of accidental or routine emissions to the environment. However, the task of characterising the effects of environmental hazards on ecological systems has until recently been the domain of a select group of research scientists and theoreticians.As environmental risk assessment practices evolve, they, of course, gain the attention of decision-makers that must consider the possible consequences of industrial development in potentially sensitive settings. There would appear to be an opportunity for advancing risk assessment techniques and methodologies to fill this demand. It might seem appropriate for the petroleum industry to exercise leadership in this endeavour, applying new technology in ecological risk assessment and setting new standards of performance.But what would be the purpose of refining the petroleum industry's approach to environmental risk assessment if decision makers and the public do not wish to embrace the ideology of more perfect scientific expressions of the risk of development to the environment? Decision makers seek to obtain the best possible scientific advice on which to base decisions. However, the criteria for decision-making is understandably weighted in favour of consultation with stakeholders on issues of high social significance.In order for risk assessment to constructively influence debate and decision-making on environmental issues, it is essential to recognise the features of the environment at risk that have both biological and societal relevance. Even so, the scientific practice of ecological risk assessment can only serve to highlight the issues at hand and communicate the strategy for managing risk. It does not stand to be regarded by decision-makers as the panacea for justifying industrial development in the foreseeable future.A methodology for applying the practice of risk assessment in environmental approvals and decision making is proposed. A strategy of early government participation ensures that the major scientific and social issues can be incorporated explicitly in the risk assessment process. The criteria for interpreting the acceptability of risk must be stated unambiguously at the outset to foster credibility in the results. To be a successful and relevant practice, risk must be communicated to stakeholders with both an explanation of the uncertainty in the results, and a comparison of the risk of industrial development to naturally occurring and anthropogenic environmental hazards.
A PROCESS FOR PREDICTING POROSITY AND PERMEABILITY IN DEEP EARLY JURASSIC/TRIASSIC TARGETS, AUSTRALIAN NORTH WEST SHELF
Authors: Smalley P.C. , Jablonski D. , Simpson I.
Published: August 2017

In deep exploration prospects, reservoir quality is often a key risk. We describe a hybrid empirical-theoretical approach to minimise this risk:Use available regional petrographic-sedimentological data to tune theoretical depth-porosity-permeability curves.Verify that the model correctly represents the controlling geological processes by comparing these curves to core analysis data.Re-tune the model to the expected conditions in the deep prospects, using empirical quartz cementation predictions, regional depositional models and pressure prognoses from basin modelling.Use the re-tuned model to extrapolate porosity to the new depth, then predicting permeability from porosity.Eight studied wells in the Early Jurassic/Triassic, Dampier Sub-basin, provided an understanding of regional diagenetic style and the major reservoir quality controls. BP's PermPredictor model was used to construct regional, zone-specific depth-porosity-permeability curves from the petrographic and sedimentological data: sand ductile grain content, grain size, sorting and quartz cementation. Quartz cement correlates with burial depth, beginning at ~2,200 m and increasing by seven per cent (± two per cent) per km.The regional modelled depth-porosity-permeability relations agree well with the core analysis dataset, indicating model reliability. The modelled curves were then re-tuned to the predicted conditions in two notional exploration prospects, with top-structure depths of 4.7 km (Prospect 1) and 4.4 km (Prospect 2), the latter of these being overpressured. Predicted porosities were 5−11 per cent in Prospect 1 and ll−17per cent in Prospect 2, with permeabilities of 30−250 mD and 400−1,000 mD respectively assuming a clean sand composition. A dirty sand model (less likely) predicts
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES FOR EXPLORATION AND PRODUCTION COMPANIES IN SOUTHEAST ASIA
Authors: Martin J.H.
Published: August 2017

For new entrants and existing operators in the petroleum exploration and production sector in Southeast Asia, there are many business challenges to face. In particular, environmental performance expectations are changing at a rapid rate. The key to successful environmental management of the business is having a sound understanding of what is going on in the location of the company's operations, and being aware of internal and external, direct and indirect influences that will affect environmental management performance expectations and hence operations over time.Companies that develop such an awareness will be prepared for changes in public policy and the regulatory system, and react appropriately to unanticipated change or incidents. Companies who know that they are in control of their environmental impacts and have full knowledge of the status of their environmental management practices, will be able to publicly defend their practices. Knowledge and understanding of the institutional framework in which they operate, will enable companies to be better prepared to influence potential developments in the regulatory system, and participate in the development of an effective and practical regulatory system.
IMPROVING THE OPERABILITY OF REMOTELY
OPERATED VEHICLES
Authors: Woods A.J. , Penrose J.D. , Duncan A.J. , Koch R. , Clark D.
Published: August 2017

Underwater Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROV's) have a significant support role to play in offshore petroleum production facilities. The extent to which ROVs can replace diver-based operations depends significantly on ROV capacity and the relative costs of mobilising and implementing the two modes of underwater operation. This paper presents work directed at two aspects of ROV operability: the quality of visual information presented to the ROV pilots and the degree of station keeping control exhibited by the vehicle.Significant improvement in pilot performance of selected maintenance-type tasks has been achieved by the use of a purpose built underwater stereoscopic video camera and associated ship-based stereoscopic display unit. Two generations of cameras have now been built and used on a Perry Triton vehicle in use at the North Rankin A platform on the North West Shelf.In a related program, stereoscopic images of the platform structure are processed to determine the relative position of the ROV. Changes in position are used as inputs to thruster control algorithms, with a view to enabling the vehicle to hold position in fluctuating current fields. The position data from the processed 3D images are linked to output from an on-board inertial system to enable position to be maintained despite periodic loss of visual information.First trials of the combined vision-inertial system indicated some success, notably using the vision system, but indicated difficulties with the inertial package and its integration into the control process. An extension of this project is now being supported by the Australian Maritime Engineering Cooperative Research Centre (AMECRC).
THE GETTING OF WISDOM
Authors: Remfry J.G.
Published: August 2017

Data has long been regarded as a re-useable asset providing the basis of decision-making within an organisation. Much effort has been put into defining data structures that best fit the business requirement to allow this vital asset to be properly managed. The emerging trend is to ensure that the information derived from data and the reasoning behind it are readily available and accessible for sharing with other parts of the organisation. Doing this mobilises the collective intellectual might of the organisation and is the product of leveraging value from the investment in data acquisition. The ultimate measure of value is in the quality and speed of decision-making. The consequence of the decision leads to the 'Getting of Wisdom', (from the book of the same title by author Henry Handel Richardson, 1910).
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES IN PIPELINE FACILITY ABANDONMENT
Authors: Hinwood J.B. , Denis L.R.
Published: August 2017

A condition of offshore production licences in Australia, as in most countries, is that the operator undertakes to remove all facilities including pipelines. Frequently, when decommissioning an offshore facility, the operator will seek to leave the pipelines in place to avoid the costs of removal. In order to obtain approval for in-situ abandonment, however, the operator must satisfy regulatory authorities that the pipelines pose no hazards to the environment or to recognised beneficial uses of the offshore zone. Potential hazards to be considered include mechanical or physical effects of the pipe on the seabed, chemical and water quality effects due both to release of residues of the contents of the pipe and to the degradation of the pipe walls and coatings by mechanical and chemical action, and ecological effects.In reaching a recommendation in a particular case the above factors must be addressed, and it must be shown with reasonable certainty that recognised beneficial uses will not be disadvantaged. A strategy for reaching this position is outlined.
THE AUSTRALIAN SEARCH FOR PETROLEUM: PATTERNS OF DISCOVERY
Authors: Foster M.T. Bradshaw C.B. , Fellows M.E. , Rowland D.C.
Published: August 2017

Three cycles of successful commercial hydrocarbon exploration and discovery have occurred in Australia since 1960, although sporadic efforts to locate oil accumulations have occurred since 1860. The first cycle of successful exploration, from 1960 to 1972, revealed most of the productive basins and all of the giant oil fields found to date. After an interval of very low drilling rates between 1973 and 1978, exploration activity returned to strong levels for a second cycle of discovery between 1978 and 1988. A third cycle commenced in 1989 when there was an increase in exploration activity and the number of hydrocarbon discoveries again, after a low point in the mid 1980s.The discovery of oil and gas fields is dependent on the rate of exploration activity, geological endowment, exploration efficiency and chance. Technology and geological knowledge influence exploration efficiency. The main driver of exploration activity is the profit motive, which is modified by government policies, oil price, markets, and perceived prospectivity. Discovery itself is a powerful stimulus to further exploration. Through the last 40 years these factors have varied in their impact on exploration and the resulting petroleum discoveries.
SEAL CAPACITY AND HYDROCARBON ACCUMULATION HISTORY IN DYNAMIC PETROLEUM SYSTEMS: THE EAST JAVA BASIN, INDONESIA AND THE TIMOR SEA REGION, AUSTRALIA
Authors: Kaldi J.G. , O'Brien G.W. , Kivior T.
Published: August 2017

The East Java Basin, Indonesia, and the Timor Sea area and Yampi Shelf of the North West Shelf, Australia, are examples of dynamic petroleum systems where the processes of hydrocarbon generation, explusion, migration, accumulation and leakage are occurring today. Understanding the importance and relative balance of some or all these processes is a key step in reducing exploration uncertainty. In particular, seal effectiveness is a key factor controlling the prospectivity of traps within these petroleum systems.The seals in the East Java Basin are dynamic, rather than absolute, barriers to fluid flow. Empirical and experimental data from the largest producing gas field in the region, Pagerungan, suggest that it is a dynamically filling and leaking capillary trap, which may have been volumetrically larger at some time in the past.In the Timor Sea area, Neogene tectonism has caused both extensional faulting and basin formation. The faulting caused the partial to complete breaching of many of the traps in the region, whereas the subsidence in the newly created Neogene depocentres was the drive for a renewed phase of hydrocarbon expulsion and migration consisting principally of gas. In traps with high seal capacities, this charge of gas flushed preexisting oil accumulations. In other cases, completely breached traps were refilled with gas over periods as short as perhaps 2–3 My.On the Yampi Shelf, dry thermogenic gas is migrating actively across the shelf. Leakage rates to the sea floor are high, particularly as the regional seal thins against basement highs, and as the seal becomes thinner and sandier toward the margin. The risk of gas flushing of low-relief, oil-bearing traps in this area is ameliorated somewhat in a zone where seal capacity is low for gas (favouring gas leakage), but adequate for oil.
IMPACT OF 3D SEISMIC ON EXPLORATION AND DRILLING SUCCESS IN THE DAMPIER SUB-BASIN, WA
Authors: Kingsley D.R. , Tilbury L.A.
Published: August 2017

Application of 3D technology and the strategy of acquiring 'wall-to-wall' 3D data over WA-28-P and the associated production licences has had a major impact on the exploration and appraisal success of the North West Shelf Venture.The different aspects of 3D technology have contributed to this success to varying degrees according to the geological setting of the prospects and fields. In general, all have benefited from improved structural definition, better stratigraphic/reservoir definition, improved depth conversion and the spatial continuity of data inherent in 3D datasets.Noteable discoveries attributable to 3D technology include North Rankin West (NRA–22), Perseus–1 (and appraisals Perseus–2, –3A, Perseus South–1), Capella–1, Sculptor–1, Hermes (Lambert–2), Keast–1, Dockrell–2, and appraisal wells Yodel–2, Egret–2 and Lambert–4. Despite this outstanding success, several noteable dry wells, including West Dixon–1 (Triassic), Spica–1, Malmsey–1 and Wanaea–5 (appraisal), have been drilled.The continuing application of 3D technology, although in an increasingly mature area where more subtle and higher risk traps will be the norm, is expected to maintain a high success rate for the North West Shelf Venture.