bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Contaminated groundwater treatability—a case study
Authors: Stover Enos L. , Kincannon Don F.
Published: February 2018

The contamination of groundwater by toxic organic chemicals is becoming a widespread concern in the United States. The once abundant supply of uncontaminated groundwater has diminished to the degree that treatment of contaminated groundwaters is being required for direct use and for aquifer restoration or reclamation. Removal of organic chemicals requires treatability studies to determine the proper treatment processes and the proper design of these processes. The results from bench‐ and pilot‐scale treatability studies for removal of heavy metals, volatile organics, and extractable organics from contaminated groundwater near a hazardous waste dump are described as a case study of groundwater treatability for aquifer restoration.
Relationship of bacterial counts with turbidity and free chlorine in two distribution systems
Authors: Reilly J. Kevin , Kippin Joyce S.
Published: February 2018

In this study, the diversity of organisms identified by using standard plate count (SPC) and membrane filtration strongly suggests an established microbial ecosystem in two distribution systems. The SPC exhibited no relationship with coliform count when the SPC was less than 50 organisms/mL. The SPC was not dependent on low‐level turbidity and varied with respect to free chlorine residuals. The frequency of coliform isolation was independent of turbidity and free chlorine. Specifically, encapsulated coliforms (Klebsiella pneumoniae, Enterobacter cloacae, E. aerogenes, and E. agglomerans), which gave typical coliform results, exhibited the ability to survive a free chlorine residual of 0.2 mg/L or more. Encapsulation was a major factor in all of these results.
Optimizing large‐scale water treatment plants for asbestos‐fiber removal
Authors: McGuire Michael J. , Bowers A. Eugene , Bowers Daniel A.
Published: February 2018

Standard and optimized treatment were alternated at five filtration plants that receive low to high concentrations of chrysotile asbestos fibers in their influents. The removals of asbestos fibers and turbidity by these plants are reported in this article.
Optimizing pump operating costs
Authors: Clingenpeel William H.
Published: February 2018

Dramatic savings were realized for two water utilities when prevailing electric rates were considered in conjunction with detailed hydraulic performance analyses.
Changes in particle size distributions in batch flocculation
Authors: Lawler Desmond F. , Izurieta Edmundo , Kao Chein‐Ping
Published: February 2018

Batch flocculation experiments were performed to test a previously developed model for the changes in particle size distribution. Within each experiment, time was the only independent variable; between experiments, the velocity gradient, particle concentration, and chemical conditions were varied independently. Detailed measurements of the particle size distribution were made, and the extent of change caused by each variable was quantified. The effect of time, concentration, and chemical conditions were reasonably well explained if partial sedimentation was allowed in the model. The effect of the velocity gradient was greatly overestimated by the model, suggesting that current understanding of particle collisions caused by fluid motion is weak.
Equivalency testing of procedures for measuring free available chlorine: amperometric titration, DPD, and FACTS
Authors: Cooper William J. , Gibbs Paul H. , Ott Edward M. , Patel Perin
Published: February 2018

The results of 192 analyses for free available chlorine were obtained from each of 16 participating laboratories. These data were statistically analyzed to determine whether the DPD, FACTS, and amperometric titration methods were equivalent. This analysis indicated that FACTS is equivalent to both DPD and amperometric titration.
Evaluating the Safety and Seismic Stability of Embankment Reservoirs
Authors: Ryden Dean E.
Published: February 2018

Open storage reservoirs formed by earthen embankments may be classified as facilities with a high seismic hazard potential, especially if the surrounding areas have been heavily developed. A geotechnical evaluation of 12 open embankment reservoirs was undertaken in Seattle, Wash., to determine the safety and seismic stability of the facilities in the event of earthquakes.
Experience With Chlorine Dioxide in Brussels: Generation of Chlorine Dioxide
Authors: Masschelein W.J.
Published: February 2018

The yield of chlorine dioxide (ClO2) is influenced by chemical conditions (e.g., initial chlorine concentration, alkalinity) and by reactor design (e.g., detention time, method for mixing chemicals). This article describes the design and operation of C1O2‐generating systems used by the Brussels' Intercommunal Waterboard. Improved reactor designs have increased C1O2 yields from 65–80 percent to >95 percent of the theoretical yield.
Counterpoint – Turning Uncertainty Into Opportunity
Authors: Burba Foster S.
Published: February 2018

Foster S. Burba, a 25‐year veteran of the water industry, is president of the Louisville (Ky.) Water Company.
Removing Organics From Groundwater Through Aeration Plus GAC
Authors: McKinnon Ronald J. , Dyksen John E.
Published: February 2018

The Rockaway Township (N.J.) water utility installed a granular activated carbon (GAC) system to remove ethers and trichloroethylene that suddenly began contaminating its groundwater supplies. The system was installed expeditiously and performed well, but the carbon became exhausted within shorter and shorter periods of time. The solution was to add an aeration system prior to GAC treatment to extend the useful life of the carbon. As influent levels of the organic contaminants abated, the township was able to use aeration alone and to eliminate continuous use of the GAC system, maintaining it for contingencies only.
Chrysotile Asbestos in California Surface Waters: From Upstream Rivers Through Water Treatment
Authors: Bales Roger C. , Newkirk Dale D. , Hayward Steven B.
Published: February 2018

Concentrations of chrysotile asbestos fibers in surface waters in California are estimated from a mass‐balance model that takes into consideration natural weathering of serpentine rock in the Sierra Nevada and coastal mountains and removal of fibers by coagulation in reservoirs. Fiber concentrations range from 108/L in waters from the western slope of the Sierra Nevada foothills in the central part of the state to 1012/L in rivers in the northwest part of the state. As predicted, fiber removals of from 90 to 99.8 percent were observed in reservoirs with detention times of from 0.5 to 3 years. Removal of submicron‐sized fibers in water treatment plants also ranged from 90 to 99.8 percent, depending on the degree of coagulation prior to filtration.
A Survey of Problems With Reverse Osmosis Water Treatment
Authors: Eisenberg Talbert N. , Middlebrooks E. Joe
Published: February 2018

The authors surveyed operators of 28 reverse osmosis water treatment plants to obtain information on the types and causes of problems with such treatment installations. Operators were also asked for suggestions to improve the performance and operating efficiency of their particular system. The results of the survey are summarized, and recommendations incorporating operators' experience are made for future installations.
Conducting an Operators' Training and Certification Study
Authors: Ohr Charles E. , Cortinovis Daniel , Troyan Jerrold J.
Published: February 2018

A study of Arizona's water system operator certification program was undertaken to develop guidelines for operator training and to prepare certification examinations that reflect the actual tasks and duties required of operators in the field. Information about training needs and certification procedures was collected from operators and managers. The results of the study were incorporated into a manual prepared for the Arizona Department of Health Services.
Lead Hazard Controlled in Scottish Water Systems
Authors: Richards William N. , Moore Michael R.
Published: February 2018

Scotland, with its soft, acidic waters and old, lead‐plumbed dwellings, is acknowledged to have a serious problem with plumbosolvency (dissolved lead). Recent medical studies have confirmed that unacceptably elevated concentrations of lead in blood correlate with excessive levels of lead in drinking water. Bottle‐fed infants were shown to be particularly at risk. But controlled water treatment that reduced lead solubility by pH adjustment and phosphate addition was found to be an effective method of reducing concentrations of lead both in water and in blood.
Single Tariff Pricing
Authors: Limbach Edward W.
Published: February 2018

Single tariff pricing for 12 separate water districts, served by an investor‐owned utility in West Virginia, solved the problem of disparate water rates. Each customer in the service area now pays the same rate for the same service, although there are only 578 customers in the smallest district and 58 000 in the largest. The new rate structure resulted in as much as a 41 percent decrease in rates in one small district and only an 8 percent increase in the largest. The concept could help solve the dilemma of other nonintegrated small water systems.
Is Hazardous Waste Disposal in Clay Vaults Safe?
Authors: Lee G. Fred , Jones R. Anne
Published: February 2018

This discussion questions the safety and adequacy of clay‐lined disposal pits for containing the migration of leachates from hazardous wastes into groundwater systems. The authors advocate pretreating all hazardous wastes prior to disposal to detoxify them to the maximum extent possible. Heavy metal wastes should be segregated and immobilized by fixation before burial in a dry form. Approaches are discussed for establishing criteria for monitoring, maintenance, and remedial cleanup to ensure long‐term protection of public health and the environment.
Effective Manganese Removal Using Lime as an Additive
Authors: Jenkins Stephen R. , Benefield Larry , Keal Michael J. , Peacock Robin S.
Published: February 2018

The addition of calcium (as lime) was shown to enhance the removal of oxidized manganese from a surface water supply in Opelika, Ala. Samples that contained high manganese concentrations and low calcium concentrations were collected and tested, and the manganese ion was oxidized. The oxidized samples were treated with supplemental calcium ion and filtered through small, model rapid sand filters. By increasing the calcium ion concentration from 3 × 10‐5 M to 3.5 × 10‐4 M, removal efficiency was increased approximately 90 percent.
Viewpoint – A Water Utility Executive Looks Into the Future
Authors: Miller William H.
Published: February 2018

This article discusses future technological advances in water utility management and reviews technological advances that have affected management of the Denver Water Board in Denver, Colorado. Topics addressed include computerized budgeting and accounting, satellite monitoring of streamflow and snowpack data from remote locations that aids in planning, and computerized engineering applications, plant operations, and office systems.
Roundtable – How Safe Should Drinking Water Be?
Authors: Elwell Fred , Auer Jean , Kimm Victor , Ford William C. , Doull John , Burba Foster
Published: February 2018

This panel discussed the parameters of safe drinking water at AWWA's annual conference in Dallas on June 13, 1984. Fred Elwell, chairman of the Water Utility Council and director and chief engineer of the Manchester, N.H., Water Works, served as moderator of the discussion. Participants were: Jean Auer, water director of the San Francisco Bay Area League of Women Voters; Foster S. Burba, president of the Louisville, Ky., Water Company; John Doull, professor of pharmacology and toxicology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kan.; William C. Ford, director of the Public Water Program, Missouri Department of Natural Resources, Jefferson City, Mo.; and Victor Kimm, director of the Office of Drinking Water, US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
Roundtable – Small Water Systems and Their Problems
Authors: Hoffbuhr Jack W. , Jones A. H. , Kelley William A. , Lamson Robert , Cooney Elias A.
Published: February 2018

This discussion took place during AWWA's 1983 annual conference held in Las Vegas. Theparticipants were: Elias A. Cooney, senior vice‐president of Whitman and Howard Inc., Wellesley, Mass.; William A. Kelley, chief of the water supply division of the Michigan Department of Health, Lansing, Mich.; Jack W. Hoffbuhr, acting assistant regional administrator, policy and management, US Environmental Protection Agency, Region VIII, Denver, Colo.; and A.H. Jones, general manager of McMinnville Water and Light, McMinnville, Ore. Robert Lamson, head of the AWWA department of technical services, Denver, Colo., was the moderator.
Slow Sand and Direct In‐line Filtration of a Surface Water
Authors: Cleasby John L. , Hilmoe David J. , Dimitracopoulos Constantine J.
Published: February 2018

The research described in this article addressed the problems of the small water system faced with the need to construct treatment facilities that will be easy to operate and maintain yet will produce water that meets drinking water standards. Results of a pilot study, which used three parameters of filtrate quality—turbidity, particle count, and total coliform count, indicate that when raw water quality is high, slow sand filtration outperforms direct in‐line filtration operating with alum or cationic polymer as a coagulant. Enumeration of algae is considered essential for judging the acceptability of raw water for slow sand filtration. For raw water of poorer quality, direct in‐line filtration can be used, but this treatment system requires substantially more operational skill and attention.
Applying Analytical Techniques to Solve Groundwater Contamination Problems
Authors: Suffet I.H. (Mel) , Gibs Jacob , Coyle Judith A. , Chrobak Robert S. , Yohe Thomas L.
Published: February 2018

This article describes approaches for analyzing chemical compounds in drinking water along with broad‐spectrum analysis techniques that are effective tools in arriving at optimum methods to treat groundwater contamination. The analytical approaches described were used to study spatial and temporal groundwater variations and adsorbent treatment alternatives for three contaminated aquifers in the Philadelphia, Pa., area. The case studies show that the control of large fluctuations in concentrations of contaminants influenced the choice of pilot testing of aeration treatment at Lansdale, Pa., whereas at Upper Merion, although granular activated carbon (GAC) was a possibility, aeration would lead to fewer operational problems. At Washington, N.J., GAC was chosen for treatment at the well head.
Giardia lamblia and Water Supply
Authors: Lin Shun Dar
Published: February 2018

Giardiasis is now recognized as the most common identified waterborne intestinal disease in the United States. This article describes the morphology and life cycle of the causative agent, Giardia lamblia, the detection of Giardia and the effectiveness of water treatment processes in removing it, and the epidemiology and clinical aspects of giardiasis.
Causes of a Waterborne Giardiasis Outbreak
Authors: Braidech Thomas E. , Karlin Richard J.
Published: February 2018

In November 1981, a waterborne giardiasis outbreak occurred within the Highlands Water and Sanitation District in Colorado. Although the immediate cause of the outbreak was reduced chlorine contact time because of a pump failure, numerous design and operational deficiencies existed at the plant. Lack of chemical pretreatment, improper backwashing procedures, poor application of raw water to the filter, and failure to monitor plant conditions all contributed to the outbreak. Turbidity and bacteriological records did not indicate any problems, confirming the crucial role of proper design, installation, and operation of the multibarrier technique in preventing waterborne giardiasis outbreaks.
Viewpoint – Ingested Asbestos Deemed Benign
Authors: Commins Brian T.
Published: February 2018

This article summarizes the author's findings on the research into the relationship between the ingestion of asbestos fibers and gastrointestinal cancer. Asbestos fibers found in drinking water arise mainly from natural asbestos contamination, effluent discharges to water sources, and the use of asbestos‐cement pipe for distribution systems. The author states that there is no firm evidence for a causal relationship between cancer and asbestos in drinking water. The need for further research to determine a reliable means of predicting the extent of fiber release from asbestos‐cement pipe systems is proposed.
Tastes and Odors: The Flavor Profile Method
Authors: Krasner Stuart W. , McGuire Michael J. , Ferguson Virginia B.
Published: February 2018

Flavor profile analyses have been used by The Metropolitan Water District of Southern California to assist in detecting, controlling, and understanding off‐flavors in drinking water. This method has proved to be better than the traditional threshold odor number determination. A flavor profile panel has been selected and trained in the method, and a library of reference materials has been developed. Applications have included assessments of: earthy flavors caused by geosmin and 2‐methylisobomeol (microbiological metabolites); differences in waters disinfected with chlorine and chloramines; and medicinal off‐flavors in finished waters.
Canadians Commend Biological Treatment
Authors: Dart F. J.
Published: February 2018

The author of this letter to the editor details Canadian experience with the use of biological treatment for water purification. In a study designed to come up with parameters for new filtration facilities in Markam Township, Ontario, it was learned that filters without prechlorination had been removing an organic precursor to a strong chloroflavor problem. This study seemed to verify that biological growths absorb those substances that are most biologically accumulative. The new aeration‐plus‐pressure filter plant designed at 5 Igpm/sq ft successfully removed the chloroflavor. The author emphasizes the relative value of organic stabilization compared with the nitrification aspects of an earlier article by Rittman and Snoeyink entitled, “Achieving Biologically Stable Drinking Water” in the October 1984 Journal American Water Works Association. In another instance, a red water problem in the community of Brooklin, Ontario, was cleared up by reverting from prechlorination to postchlorination at the iron removal filter and by restoring the original prefilter air injection.
Advantages of Declining‐Rate Demonstrated
Authors: Schwartz Thomas F.
Published: February 2018

In response to an article in the December 1984 issue of the Journal American Water Works Association, the author of this letter to the editor offers arguments to demonstrate the advantage of the declining‐rate method of filtration. In the declining‐rate system, all filter beds have the same head. The worst filter is not forced to contribute an equal share of the total flow. The contaminated filter does not contribute its share of total flow; hence the head loss is considerably less.
Uses of Recharge Wells in Water Supply
Authors: Peters Jos H.
Published: February 2018

Recharge wells can be used for replenishing groundwater, for regulating the flow of contaminated or brackish groundwater, and for limiting the catchment area of a groundwater pumping station. Computer models used to study the flow of groundwater are also examined.
In‐Home Treatment Methods for Removing Volatile Organic Chemicals
Authors: Sorrell R. Kent , Daly Eileen M. , Weisner Michael J. , Brass Herbert J.
Published: February 2018

A two‐phase project was conducted to investigate the effectiveness of various in‐home treatment methods for removing volatile organic chemicals (VOCs) from drinking water. These methods are intended for temporary use in emergency situations. In phase 1, six methods—boiling, electric mixing, open standing, aeration, pouring, and faucet aeration—were examined with simple tests before and after treatment. Based on the results of phase 1, the first four methods were reexamined in phase 2, during which VOC loss over time was monitored. Results showed that two methods—boiling and electric mixing—removed approximately 100 percent of the VOCs.
The Old and the New: Bogotá's Water Plants
Authors: Meier Gregory A.
Published: February 2018

Bogotá, Colombia, continues a tradition of maintaining quality water supplies. Contemporary treatment techniques provide highly desirable potable water to the residents of the city from a technologically sophisticated two‐year‐old filtration plant and a monumental 50‐year‐old treatment plant.
Developing Regional Water Systems in the Netherlands
Authors: Eaton David J.
Published: February 2018

Virtually all rural households in the Netherlands are now supplied with piped and treated drinking water. This feat was largely accomplished over a 40‐year period, beginning in the early 1920s, by a combination of self‐help, sensible but affordable water rates, and partial government subsidies to promote extension of water services by regional utilities to remote areas. The Dutch experience could serve as a model throughout the world in providing safe and reliable water to villages and farms.
Water Reuse: The Second Time Around
Authors: DeBoer Jon
Published: February 2018

Nineteenth‐century French novelist Victor Hugo noted in Les Miserables that the nutrient value of wastes should be applied to the land rather than allowed to flow to the sea. During the same time period, the English Royal Commission on Sewage Disposal recommended land application of wastewater to avoid water pollution. These forerunners of today's ideas have led the way to the technology necessary for beneficial reuse of water, but water reuse continues to be a controversial topic.
Developing a New Edition of Standard Methods
Authors: Greenberg Arnold E. , Pontius Frederick W.
Published: February 2018

Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater is a widely recognized and used manual of analytical methods published jointly by the American Public Health Association, the American Water Works Association, and the Water Pollution Control Federation. Beginning with the fourteenth edition (1976) of Standard Methods, a thoroughly documented consensus procedure for the adoption of methods has been used. This article reviews the procedure and details the balloting for the sixteenth edition (1985).
Viewpoint – The Media's Premature Publication of Scientific Information
Authors: Popescu Cathy Becker
Published: February 2018

This article is reprinted by permission from ACSH News & Views, the publication of the American Council on Science and Health, 1995 Broadway, New York, NY 10023. The author is a research associate with ACSH
Roundtable – Should Lead Solder Be Banned?
Authors: Howell Richard B. , Boates James R. , Smith Jerome F. , Singley J. Edward , Courchene John E. , Turkus Samuel , Murrell Norman E. , Anderson Paul A. , Perler Arthur
Published: February 2018

This discussion took place June 25, 1985, during AWWA's annual conference in Washington, D.C. Participants were: Paul A. Anderson, vice‐president of the building construction group of the Copper Development Association Inc., Greenwich, Conn.; James R. Boates, Boston Plumbing Co., Boston, Mass.; John E. Courchene, director of water quality, Seattle Water Department, Seattle, Wash.; Richard B. Howell III, program director of the Delaware office of sanitary engineering, Bureau of Environmental Health, Dover, Del.; Norman E. Murrell, senior vice‐president of engineering, H2M/Holzmacher, McLendon and Murrell, P.C., Consulting Engineers, Melville, N.Y.; Arthur Perler, chief of science and technology, US Environmental Protection Agency Office of Drinking Water, Washington, D.C.; Jerome F. Smith, vice‐president of the Lead Industries Association, Inc., New York, N.Y.; and Samuel Turkus, president of Bow Solder Products, Union, N.J. J. Edward Singley, vicepresident of James M. Montgomery Engineers, Gainesville, Fla., was moderator of the panel.
Polyethylene and Polybutylene Pipe and Tubing: A Status Report
Authors: Crowson David L. , Chambers Richard
Published: February 2018

Polyethylene (PE) and polybutylene (PB) pipe have gained acceptance in the water industry for their many advantages, and if used correctly, polyolefin materials have proved to be as reliable as more traditional materials used for service connections. The AWWA standards for PE and PB are being revised to incorporate recent improvements in the manufacture of the materials, and new guidelines for installing and handling the materials will be published in the appendixes to the standards and in a forthcoming manual.
Reusing Power Plant Cooling Water to Reduce Main Breaks
Authors: Wettering Lawrence A.
Published: February 2018

Reduction of winter water‐main breaks through the use of warm water was studied in a full‐scale project in Manitowoc, Wis. Condenser cooling water from a nearby electric generating plant was used in lieu of Lake Michigan as the winter raw water source. In two winter seasons of full‐scale operation, the number of main breaks was significantly reduced and community wide energy savings were realized. The cost savings associated with these results have been partially offset, however, by operational problems, including increased chemical addition and decreased filter efficiency.
Two‐Stage Filtration
Authors: Kawamura Susumu
Published: February 2018

A relatively new concept in the United States, the two‐stage filtration process incorporates an initial bank of coarse filters, followed by a bank of final filters that are normally operated at a high filtration rate. Pilot studies showed that two‐stage filtration is an attractive alternative to either conventional treatment or direct filtration, depending on the quality of the raw water. If the raw water frequently exhibits high turbidity or presents taste and odor problems, type 1 two‐stage filtration, which includes flocculation and settling, should be considered as the treatment alternative. The type 2 two‐stage process, involving neither flocculation nor settling, is suggested for cases in which the raw water quality is good enough to allow direct filtration.
Alternatives to Central Water Treatment
Authors: Cirolia Donna , Cook Michael B. , Guerrera August A. , McGuire Michael J. , Fie Merrill R. , McClelland Nina I. , Burke Michael E.
Published: February 2018

This discussion on the role of bottled water, point‐of‐use, and point‐of‐entry water treatment devices took place during the annual conference in Denver on June 25, 1986. Participants were: Donna M. Cirolia, director of government affairs for the Water Quality Association, Washington, D.C.; Michael B. Cook, director of the Office of Drinking Water, US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.; Merrill R. Fie, president of the Deep Rock Water Company, Denver, Colo.; August A. Guerrera, president of A. Guerrera Associates and chairman of the New York Section of AWWA, Hauppauge, N. Y.; Nina I. McClelland, president of the National Sanitation Foundation, Ann Arbor, Mich.; Michael J. McGuire, director of water quality for The Metropolitan Water District of Southern California, Los Angeles, Calif.; and Lee T. Rozelle, vice‐president in charge of science and technology for Culligan International Company, Northbrook, Ill. Michael E. Burke, moderator of the panel, is director of the Bureau of Public Water Supply Protection of the New York State Department of Health, Albany, N. Y.
Comparing Constant‐Rate and Declining‐Rate Direct Filtration of a Surface Water
Authors: Hilmoe David J. , Cleasby John L.
Published: February 2018

Pilot‐scale constant‐rate and dedining‐rate direct filtration systems were evaluated for treating a high quality surface water, using two flow rates and alum or cationic polymer as the primary coagulant. Turbidity, particle count, and total coliform count were used to compare filtrate qualities. It was found that the effluent qualities for the two filtration schemes were the same—a result that disagrees with the conclusions of a previous study that used lime‐softened groundwater. However, the results of the current study were consistent with those of past projects in that the rate of head loss increase was the same for both types of filters.
Rapid Rate Filtration of Low Turbidity Water Using Field‐Scale Pilot Filters
Authors: Mosher Ron R. , Hendricks David W.
Published: February 2018

The primary objective of this research was to determine whether results obtained with laboratory‐scale rapid rate filtration of low turbidity waters could be duplicated during full‐scale operation. With the aid of two field‐scale pilot filters, it was verified that, using proper chemical coagulation, rapid rate filtration can remove high percentages of microscopic particles, including Giardia cysts. Although low temperatures have in the past been thought to hinder the treatment of low turbidity waters, the results of this research suggest that the rapid rate filtration of low turbidity waters can be as efficient at 32°F (0°C) as at higher temperatures.
Implementing Direct Filtration and Natural Freezing of Alum Sludge
Authors: Fitch David E. , Elliott C. Michael
Published: February 2018

In the early 1970s the Metropolitan Water Board, located in central New York State, was faced with two challenges: to expand the treatment capacity of its Lake Ontario plant and to dispose of process waste economically and in such a way that the requirements of its pollutant discharge permit were met. Doubling of treatment capacity was accomplished, after extensive testing, by implementing high‐rate direct filtration, which also reduced the amount of alum sludge produced by the plant. Pilot‐ and full‐scale testing at the plant led to construction of permanent sludge‐handling facilities. This system incorporates modified retention lagoons for solids separation, initial consolidation, and storage; and a floating pump for transferring the sludge via a pipeline to a series of beds, where freezing, thawing, and decanting concentrate the sludge substantially, making it suitable for land application by standard earth‐moving equipment
Isolating Viruses From Finished Water
Authors: Rose Joan B. , Gerba Charles P. , Singh Shri N. , Toranzos Gary A. , Keswick Bruce
Published: February 2018

Reduction of enteroviruses and rotaviruses averaged 81 and 93 percent, respectively, at a full‐scale 205‐mgd (776‐ML/d) plant whose treatment train includes chemical flocculation, sand filtration, and chlorination. The highest reduction of enteroviruses occurred during prechlorination‐flocculation and filtration, whereas the highest reduction of rotaviruses occurred during prechlorination‐clarification and final chlorination. Enteroviruses or rotaviruses occurred in 24 percent of the finished water samples, which had >;0.2 mg free chlorine/L and met coliform bacteria (1/100 mL) and turbidity (1 ntu) standards. Although major plant deficiencies may have been responsible for the occurrence of viruses in the finished water, the results of this study indicate that finished water, with measurable levels of free residual chlorine and meeting standards for coliform bacteria and turbidity, cannot be assumed to be virus free.
Effects of Chlorine and Ammonia Application Points on Bactericidal Efficiency
Authors: Means Edward G. , Tanaka Theodore S. , Otsuka Dennis J. , McGuire Michael J.
Published: February 2018

The bactericidal efficiencies of chloramines produced by (1) concurrent addition of chlorine and ammonia to the influent water, (2) prechlorination followed by addition of ammonia, and (3) preammoniation were compared with that of free residual chlorine during pilot testing. Coliform bacteria were found to be a poor indicator of the relative ability of the application schemes to disinfect water. Concurrent chlorine and ammonia application, prechlorination followed by addition of ammonia, and free residual chlorination generally produced low total bacteria counts in the pilot‐plant effluent. Preammoniation resulted in the highest frequency of elevated total bacteria counts (1 colony‐forming unit/mL) in the plant effluent.
Removing Trihalomethanes by Packed‐Column and Diffused Aeration
Authors: Bilello Louis J. , Singley J. Edward
Published: February 2018

The performance of packed‐column and diffused aeration for removing trihalomethanes from drinking water was related to water source, water temperature, contaminant concentration, and other process variables. Data obtained from this study were compared with theoretical predictions and with the results of previous feasibility studies. Based on efficiency and cost, packed‐column aeration appears to be the more promising of the two technologies.
Banning lead Solder
Authors: Dean Stuart M.
Published: February 2018

The author of this letter to the editor responds to an article entitled, “Roundtable – Should Lead Solder Be Banned?” (Journal AWWA, November 1985). He points out that no mention was made of limiting the banning of lead solder to the water supply field and questions the effect of an overall ban on the manufacture of a variety of products.
THM and TOX Formation: Routes, Rates, and Precursors
Authors: Johnson J. Donald , Jensen James N.
Published: February 2018

Oxidation and substitution are important mechanisms in the interaction between disinfectants and naturally occurring organics in water. Oxidation processes are responsible for the removal of organic compounds and precursors of trihalomethanes (THMs) and total organic halogen (TOX). Substitution reactions are the source of chlorine incorporation into the organic matter. Disinfectants differ in their abilities to carry out oxidation and substitution reactions, but studies show that chloramines also add chlorine to organic materials by substitution. Before a decision is made to change disinfectants, operating parameters and chemical functions must be taken into account to achieve the best quality drinking water.
Removing Trace Organics by Reverse Osmosis Using Cellulose Acetate and Polyamide Membranes
Authors: Reinhard Martin , Goodman Naomi L. , McCarty Perry L. , Argo David G.
Published: February 2018

A full‐scale (8‐cfs [0.22‐m3/s]) reverse osmosis (RO) water treatment plant equipped with conventional cellulose acetate membranes, and two pilot RO plants, equipped with polyamide membranes, were tested for their ability to remove total organic carbon and a broad range of trace organics, including volatiles, purgeables, neutrals, bases, phenols, and acids from lime‐clarified secondary municipal wastewater. The full‐scale RO system removed total organic carbon (TOC) by 89 percent to 0.95 mg/L at 84‐percent water recovery, and the pilot RO systems removed TOC by 99 percent to 0.1 mg/L at water recoveries of 52 and 67 percent, respectively. The two membranes tested showed significant differences in their ability to reject trace organics. All membranes rejected branched, complex molecules but varied in their rejection characteristics for smaller molecules, such as chlorinated solvents. The latter group was rejected to a varying degree by polyamide membranes but passed through cellulose acetate membranes. The use of RO for trace organics removal is evaluated by comparing cumulative removals of different treatment schemes with and without RO treatment.
Removal of Dissolved Organic Carbon by Coagulation With Iron Sulfate
Authors: Sinsabaugh Robert L. , Hoehn Robert C. , Knocke William R. , Linkins Arthur E.
Published: February 2018

Charge, solubility, and molecular‐size characteristics of dissolved organic carbon in raw and treated water from a Virginia reservoir were investigated to determine the types of organic compounds removed by ferric sulfate, coagulation, and settling. All three parameters influenced removal of dissolved organic carbon. Larger molecules were more readily precipitated than smaller ones. Ionic compounds were more effectively removed than neutral compounds. Hydrophilic and hydrophobic organics were preferentially removed over compounds of intermediate solubility. Two main groups of organic halide precursors were identified. Fulvic acids were the dominant precursors in raw water—they reacted rapidly with chlorine and had high specific yields, but were readily precipitated. Low‐molecular‐weight neutral compounds were the dominant precursor group remaining in treated waters. These molecules reacted more slowly with chlorine and had lower organohalide yields.
Privatization Promotes Improved Pricing
Authors: Kelly James S.
Published: February 2018

This letter comments on an earlier article (”Full‐Cost Water Pricing,” Journal AWWA, February, 1986) and makes the point that, while privatization of water utilities can accomplish the goal of fullpricing of water, the same goal can be met through regulation of utilities under the same guidelines and procedures as an investor‐owned utility. Regulation of utilities in Wisconsin is cited as an example.
Metrication Championed
Authors: Sokol Louis F.
Published: February 2018

This letter disagrees with Journal AWWA editorial policy which shows inch‐pound units followed parenthetically by SI units and puts forward the cause of metrication in the United States.
Public Attitudes Toward Water Utilities
Authors: Manwaring James F. , Zdep Stanley M. , Sayre Ida M.
Published: February 2018

In an effort to assess the public's perception of drinking water issues, the AWWA Research Foundation commissioned a national survey of public water supply consumers to obtain objective data about perceptions of the performance of water utilities. The survey was designed to provide water utility managers, as well as members of Congress and the US Environmental Protection Agency, with the information needed to respond to water users' concerns. One of the most salient factors indicated by the survey is the need for greatly improved public information programs about water.
A Review of Chlorine Dioxide in Drinking Water Treatment
Authors: Aieta E. Marco , Berg James D.
Published: February 2018

There is increased interest in using chlorine dioxide to treat drinking water for trihalomethane control, taste and odor control, oxidation of iron and manganese, and oxidant‐enhanced coagulation‐sedimentation. This article reviews the physical, chemical, and biological properties of chlorine dioxide as they relate to water treatment. The generation reactions as well as the reactions likely to occur in treated water are presented. In addition, the biological properties of chlorine dioxide are reviewed and compared with other common disinfectants.
Toxicological Problems Associated With Chlorine Dioxide
Authors: Condie Lyman W.
Published: February 2018

The toxicological hazards associated with disinfecting drinking water with either chlorine dioxide or chlorine are reviewed and compared. Adverse health effects shown in animal experiments as well as human poisoning incidents are reported. Toxicological effects, which are associated with the disinfectants themselves and the products formed when the disinfectants react with organic material present in water, are considered.
Organizational and System Improvements in Cairo
Authors: Hegab Kamal El Din
Published: February 2018

Continuous efforts are being made by the General Organization for Greater Cairo Water Supply to improve both its organization and its systems. Two major problems confronting the organization are the shortage of technical personnel and the confusing diversity of equipment and technologies that have been received from various countries around the world. Institutional aspects of the organization that are currently being upgraded are employee training, inventory control, water conservation, and finances and accounting. Technological advances include expansion of a water treatment plant, updating of water quality control, improvements in engineering and planning, implementation of telemetry, construction of a plant for removing iron and manganese, and the introduction of mobile workshops.
More on Metric
Authors: Bendix Gilbert G.
Published: February 2018

The author of this letter criticizes the inaccuracy of metric conversions in the Journal American Water Works Association.
Chemical Monitoring of Wisconsin's Groundwater
Authors: Krill Robert M. , Sonzogni William C.
Published: February 2018

In the early 1980s, a series of limited special purpose investigations was initiated to determine whether certain chemicals were entering Wisconsin's groundwater and, if so, to determine their concentrations. Screening of 1174 community wells and 617 private wells showed that 65 community wells had detectable levels of volatile organic chemicals (VOCs) and that 5 community wells had concentrations above the recommended health advisory levels. Also 82 private wells had detectable levels of VOCs, 14 of which had concentrations above the health advisory. On the basis of these initial results, sampling near probable sources of contamination will be given more attention as contamination appears more site‐specific than widespread.
Viewpoint – A New Era in Western Water Policy
Authors: Lamm Richard D.
Published: February 2018

Richard D. Lamm is the governor of Colorado and an attorney and accountant by profession. Portions of this article were included in an address he presented at the Natural Resources Law Center at the University of Colorado in Boulder June 2.
Groundwater Recharge: Enhancing Arizona's Aquifers
Authors: Ambrose Wallace A. , Lynn Pat
Published: February 2018

By 2025 Arizona's aquifers must be replenished to a status of safe yield. In an attempt to meet that goal, groundwater recharge and storage legislation was passed and signed into law this May. Reducing the groundwater overdraft will diminish the threat of subsidence, store water now for potential droughts, and provide a viable option for disposing of effluent.
Roundtable – Are Asbestos Fibers in Drinking Water Harmful?
Authors: Cotruvo Joseph A. , Wade Jeptha A. , Bryant Robert S. , Covey James R. , Warden James L. , Jackson Joseph C.
Published: February 2018

This discussion about proposed regulations concerning levels of asbestos in drinking water took place June 23, 1986, during A WWA's annual conference in Denver. Participants were: Joseph A. Cotruvo, director of the Criteria and Standards Division of the US Environmental Protection Agency's Office of Drinking Water, Washington, D.C.; James R. Covey, associate sanitary engineer with the New York Department of Health, Albany, N. Y.; Joseph C. Jackson, president of the Asbestos‐Cement Pipe Producers Association, Arlington, Va.; Jeptha A. Wade Jr., vice‐president and chief engineer of the California Water Service Company, San Jose, Calif; and James L. Warden, head of the pipeline section of the US Bureau of Reclamation's Engineering and Research Center, Denver, Colo. Robert S. Bryant, civil engineering associate with the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power, was moderator.
Water Systems Standards Survey
Authors: Rhoades Stephen D.
Published: February 2018

An informal inquiry of 24 cities about local water system standards resulted in a mini‐survey of criteria used for engineering and planning purposes. Areas covered were standards for sizes and types of pipes used, spacing of pipeline grids, calculations of water use for residences, velocity and pressure of distributed water, costs for pipe laid, head‐loss standards, fire flow standards, and storage requirements. The exchange of such information indicated a need for a nationwide data base for water utility planning and engineering purposes.
The Economics of Remote Meter Reading
Authors: Shierry Robert S.
Published: February 2018

Gaining access to residences to read water meters is difficult in Champaign–Urbana, Ill., where unusually large numbers of students and longer‐term residents move in and out of apartments and houses frequently. The Northern Illinois Water Corporation's Champaign–Urbana Division therefore decided to undertake a program to install remote meter‐reading equipment on all meters, beginning in 1981. The economic considerations are discussed as well as the success of the program to date.
Evaluating Relative Stringencies of Existing and Proposed Microbiological MCLs
Authors: Dempsey Kevin W. , Pipes Wesley O.
Published: February 2018

A mathematical model was used to calculate the effects of sample volume and number of samples collected each month on the probability of detecting coliforms in water distribution systems containing various levels of contamination and to compare proposed frequency‐of‐occurrence maximum contaminant level rules with existing microbiological rules. The number of samples examined appeared to have a profound effect on the stringency of a frequency‐of‐occurrence rule, with systems containing borderline levels of contamination more likely to meet the rule if only a few samples are collected each month. It was concluded that a frequency‐of‐occurrence rule with a coliform density limit of 1/100 mL, instead of the current 4/100 mL, would be much closer in stringency to the existing average‐density rule.
Ozonation: An Economic Choice for Water Treatment
Authors: Weng Cheng‐nan , Hoven Donald L. , Schwartz Barry J.
Published: February 2018

A five‐year pilot‐plant study at the Hackensack (N.J.) Water Company showed that coagulation, ozonation, and direct filtration could be used successfully to treat water from the Oradell Reservoir, producing a finished water with fewer dissolved solids and improved taste and odor. The proposed expansion of the Haworth Filtration Plant, using preozone treatment and direct filtration, will substantially reduce the use of alum, chlorine, and caustic soda. In addition, less sludge will be produced in the treatment process and sludge disposal will be less costly.
Training Panelists for the Flavor Profile Analysis Method
Authors: Bartels Jeroen H.M. , Brady Brian M. , Suffet I.H. (Mel)
Published: February 2018

The drinking water industry needs a standard method for determining the aesthetic quality of water. Currently, only sensory analysis provides the necessary information on the flavor and aroma of drinking water. The flavor profile analysis (FPA) method, as conducted at several water utilities, has provided reproducible results on both the intensity and the description of flavor and aroma. After a short training period, a panel can help provide organoleptic information for the water utility manager. The selection and initial training of panelists is an important aspect that must be considered if a panel is to provide reliable information. This article presents a general introduction about panel training in the FPA method.
Design Considerations for GAC Treatment of Organic Chemicals
Authors: Crittenden John C. , Hand David W. , Arora Harish , Benjamin W. Lykins
Published: February 2018

Procedures with which to determine preliminary fixed‐bed adsorber design calculations for single solutes are described. Correlations are proposed and verified to determine single‐solute isotherm and mass transfer parameters. These correlations are used in combination with a simplified version of a mass transfer model to calculate mass transfer zone lengths and the maximum amount of water that may be treated. The calculated results can then be used to select the optimum fixed‐bed adsorber operation. Comparisons of this simplified procedure with actual pilot‐plant and full‐scale data are presented to demonstrate its validity.
Reliable Water Depends on Commitment to Public Water Supply
Authors: Okun Daniel A.
Published: February 2018

In this letter, the author expresses concern over the increasing use of bottled water and home water treatment units. Use of bottled water or home treatment devices may result in less commitment to public water supplies and lower water standards. The author emphasizes the importance of implementing programs to educate people about high quality public water supplies, which should make alternative sources less desirable.