bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Avoiding HIV/AIDS and the Challenge of Growing Up Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual
Authors: Grossman Arnold H
Published: November 2023

The realities of HIV/ AIDS can be approached from a variety of perspectives. For many gay, lesbian, and bisexual youths and adults, these realities are linked to moral differentiations that society hasbased on modes of HIV transmission. Those termed “medical victims” (i.e., blood transfusion recipients, men with hemophilia, and infants infected perinatally) are seen as deserving compassion, while those who acquire the disease through sexual transmission are stigmatized and are associated with homosexuality and other “condemned lifestyles” (Manning, 1997; Novick, 1997). For many gay, lesbian, and bisexual youths, these perspectives frequently connect HIV/ AIDS to several disquieting concerns: being a member of the social group blamed for starting the “gay plague,” seeing portraits of gay men and lesbians with physically frightening manifestations, observing death and dying, witnessing increased anti-gay violence, viewing prevention messages that do not affirm “immoral” (i.e., homosexual) behaviors, engaging in same-sex behaviors that are labeled “taboo,” and experiencing homophobic behaviors that underlie social attitudes toward sexuality, including sexual pleasure outside of marriage (Public Media Center, 1995). Gay, lesbian, and bisexual youths have to face these HIV/ AIDS-related stigmatized portrayals while developing their personal, social, and sexual identities. Gay, lesbian, and bisexual youths must also meet the special challenge of avoiding HIV infection.
Social Change, Sexual Diversity, and Tolerance for Bisexuality in the United States
Authors: Herdt Gilbert
Published: November 2023

Whenever society ushers in a new and potentially revolutionary period of change, we can expect to find dramatic transformations in how the culture represents-and individuals negotiate-their sexuality and gender roles, dress and adornment, body images, and social relations. Such a time is now, as we approach the 21st century, wherein technological and global expansion of borders and systems of information create what Martin (1994) has called “flexible bodies.” These historical changes are challenging the received traditions of sex/gender, allowing more leeway for human development and reducing heterosexism and homophobia, and thus promoting tolerance for diversity in sexual identities and communities. This chapter focuses on these changes, particularly generational differences in representation and the practice of bisexuality in American society over the past three decades.
“Louis Armstrong + The Jewish Family In New Orleans, La., The Year Of 1907” (March 31, 1969-1970)
Authors: Armstrong Louis
Published: November 2023

Armstrong refers to this extraordinary document as a “book,” clearly signaling his desire that it be published. He began writing it while recovering from a life-threatening illness at New York’s Beth Israel Hospital, inspired, apparently, by his doctor Gary Zucker, who had just sung a Russian lullaby that Armstrong recognized from childhood. Armstrong first learned the lullaby from a Jewish family for whom he worked. He dedicates his book to his longtime manager Joe Glaser, another Jew who figured prominently in his life. Thus, the document provides a poignant flashback to the author’s positive experiences with Jews in childhood, through his career, and now at the end of his life. Catalyzing his memory is a song. Armstrong copies the song’s lyrics four times over the course of the document, testifying to its importance.
Neuroplasticity Following Traumatic Diffuse versus Focal Brain Injury in Children: Studies of Verbal Fluency
Authors: Levin Harveys. , song James , Chapman Sandra B , Harward Harriet
Published: November 2023

Development and reorganization of word production following early brain injury are reviewed in this chapter, including studies of children who sustained focal vascular lesions during the first 6 months of life and studies of recovery from traumatic brain injury. Cross-sectional and longitudinal word fluency data from an ongoing project on brain injury in children are presented, and putative mechanisms for reorganization of function are discussed.
Computational Modeling of the Cortical Response to Focal Damage
Authors: Reggia James A , Goodall Sharon , Reyett Ken , Ruppin Eytan
Published: November 2023

Efforts to understand the mechanisms of recovery following a stroke have traditionally been based on either clinical studies or animal models. In this chapter we will describe some initial steps in developing an alternative approach: computational models of the cerebral cortex and its reorganization following acute focal lesions. Ischemic stroke, where there is a loss of blood flow to a region of the brain, is a very complex multifactorial process. Acute and poststroke changes involve neural plasticity; metabolic and biochemical events; biophysical processes such as diffusion, mechanical displacement secondary to edema, altered autoregulation and metabolic regulation of blood flow; and other events. These events and their interactions are only partially understood; their complexity has led some investigators to suggest that novel ways of thinking about stroke are needed (Hallenback & Frerichs, 1993). Computational models provide a new approach that can be useful in furthering our understanding by supporting detailed examination of various hypotheses about stroke pathophysiology and recovery. In other words, the complexity of events in stroke suggests that computational models can be powerful tools for its investigation, much as they are in the analysis of other complex systems (e.g., climate prediction).
Conceptual Issues Relevant to Present and Future Neurologic Rehabilitation
Authors: Bach-Y-Rita Paul
Published: November 2023

Major questions running through much of the substance of this book are: What changes can be obtained with appropriate rehabilitation? How is the work each of us is engaged in relevant to recovery of function for persons with brain damage? What does this scientific information suggest to clinicians developing rehabilitation programs?
Eliza Lucas Pinckney(1722-1793)
Authors: Schulz Constance B
Published: November 2023

Born in the West Indies in 1722 and educated in England, Eliza Lucas was a privileged child of an upper-class planter who moved his family to Wappoo plantation in South Carolina when Eliza was fifteen. When her father was called back to Antigua in 1739, he left Eliza in charge of his three plantations. The young woman proved a talented manager, and successfully introduced the cultivation of indigo (a dye for textiles), a crop she imported from the West Indies in 1740. This agricultural breakthrough was a boon to the young colony, and became the source of fortune for many South Carolinian planters. In 1744 she married widower Charles Pinckney, a wealthy planter, and settled into the traditional role held by many wealthy southern women: plantation mistress and mother.
Maria Weston Chapman (1806-1885)
Authors: Clinton Catherine
Published: November 2023

Born into an affluent Massachusetts family, Maria Weston Chapman was educated in local ladies’ academies and in England before she became a school principal. After her marriage to Henry Grafton Chapman, a Boston merchant, she left her position to fulfill the role of wife and mother. Adopting the Chapman family’s antislavery stance as her own, Maria Weston Chapman became an influential abolitionist in addition to rearing six children and serving as wife-and nurse-to her invalid husband until his death.
Margaret Fuller (1810-1850)
Authors: Chevigny Bell Gale
Published: November 2023

Margaret Fuller was born on May 23rd, 1810, in Cambridgeport, Massachusetts, to Mary Crane Fuller and Timothy Fuller. Fuller attended Miss Prescott’s school in Groton and then Mr. Perkins’s school in Cambridge. In 1839 she translated Johann P. Eckermann’s Conversation with Goethe. By that time Fuller had left home, supporting herself by teaching. Between 1840 and 1842 Fuller edited the radically innovative magazine the Dial, with Ralph Waldo Emerson. She continued to write criticism for the New York Tribune, moving to New York for that purpose in 1844.
Walt Whitman 1812-1892: A Brief Biography
Authors: Reynolds David S
Published: November 2023

Walt Whitman emerged from a humble background to become one of America’s most celebrated poets. The second eight children of Walter and Louisa Van Velsor Whitman, he was born on May 31, 1819, in the rural Long Island village of West Hills, about fifty miles east of Manhattan. Although his ancestors were not distinguished, he later placed great emphasis on his genealogy. In his poem “By Blue Ontario’s Shore,” he wrote, “Underneath all, Nativity, / I swear I will stand by my own nativity.”
The Political Roots of Leaves of Grass
Authors: Loving Jerome
Published: November 2023

Late life in working-class Camden, New Jersey, Walt Whit as surrounded by an array of liberal thinkers and literessives. Visitors to 328 Mick.le Street included the prairie naturalist and future author of Main-Traveled Roads, Hamlin Garland; the future author of Dracula, Bram Stoker; the future wife of art critic Bernard Berenson, Mary Smith Costolloe; the future (first) wife of philosopher Bertrand Russell, Mary’s sister Alys; the painter Thomas Eakins; and Julian Hawthorne, the son of Whitman’s main literary model when he was writing fiction in the 1840s. For most of them (even Eakins, whose realistic, some times stark paintings were then considered untutored), the operative word was “future.” Certainly, it was the shibboleth for such socialists and activists as the poet’s biographer Horace Traubel, editor of the Conservator, who corresponded at length with radicals like Emma Goldman and Eugene Debs, and the silver-tongued agnostic and attorney Robert G.
Spanking the Master
Authors: Leverenz David
Published: November 2023

Why do sensations make Poe’s narrators feel supernaturally spanked?

In “The Imp of the Perverse” (1845), for instance, why does e narrator say we all want to jump from a precipice? It’s not to kill ourselves; “It is merely the idea of what would be our sensations during the sweeping precipitancy of a fall from such a height.” The idea of “rushing annihilation” crosses into our bodies: it “chills the very marrow of our bones” with the “fierceness of the delight of its horror” (PT, 829). At the end, when the narrator’s presumptive “we” yields to his perverse leap from the precipice of gentlemanly reason, he satisfies his craving for a rush, along with his desire to be slam-dunked: “I turned-I gasped for breath. For a moment, I experienced all the pangs of suffocation; I became blind, and deaf, and giddy; and then, some invisible fiend, I thought, struck me with his broad palm upon the back.”
Introduction
Authors: Wagner-Martin Linda
Published: November 2023

Scarcely nineteen when he understood that time to live was a luxury, Hemingway made his pained way back to health after the 200-odd shrapnel leg wounds hospitalized him on the Italian front during World War I. He was only twenty-one when he married Hadley Richardson, his first wife, with all the conviction of the incurable romantic he was to show himself repeatedly to be. The talk of the international literary world before he was thirty, Hemingway was already living out his—and his readers’—American dream of early, dramatic, professional success. There is nothing the United States loves more than handsome, healthy, hard-driving youngsters, and Ernest Hemingway, disguising his inherent shyness under a commanding facade of eager friendliness, seemed typecast for the role.
The Intertextual Hemingway
Authors: Wagner-Martin Linda
Published: November 2023

All the more surprising, then, is the actual aesthetic situation: that at least some parts of his fiction are drawn from other literature-that during the 1920s and the 1930s particularly, Ernest Hemingway was pioneering in what has today become known as “intertextuality.”1 Tracing an author’s borrowings-whether thematic correspondences, stylistic effects, parodies, or parallel characters or scenes—has today become a kind of critical method. Scholars acknowledge that such echoes, such borrowings, do not breech ethical norms. Indeed, using materials that could be found in writing by established authors may be a highly complimentary practice; for American modernist writers like Hemingway, such borrowing might also be ironic.
Research Concerns and Review of Literature
Authors: Roberts Felicia D
Published: November 2023

How treatment recommendations are structured and delivered by doctors, and how they are received by patients, is a comparatively new area of study within the field of health communication. More specifically, very little re search is available on medical recommendations as an accomplishment of talk-in-interaction. This study is intended to contribute in that regard; it is the first to present a qualitative analysis of the verbal interaction between oncologists and patients as they talk about treatment for breast cancer. As such, this book provides a foundation for further inquiry. We will look both at and around the treatment recommendation to account for the full range of activities that support and characterize this particular type of clinic visit.
Phased Organization of the Adjuvant Therapy Visit
Authors: Roberts Felicia D
Published: November 2023

Medical visits are characteristically organized into a series of activity phases corresponding to specific medical and social tasks to be accomplished. In an analysis of more than 1,800 general medical practice encounters, Byrne and Long (1976) distinguish the following six phases: relating to the patient (conversational openings), discovering the reason for the visit, con ducting verbal and/or physical exams, considering the patient’s condition (presenting diagnostic information to the patient), advising treatment or further testing, and termination (conversational closings).
Effects of Differential Experience on Brain and Cognition Throughout the Life Span
Authors: Rosenzweig Mark R
Published: November 2023

The basic neural processes of learning and development are now considered by many to be intimately related to both normal development and developmental dis orders. The last half century has seen remarkable advances in knowledge about these fields and their inter-relationships. This knowledge is also entering debates on public policy, as reflected by material in Hillary Rodham Clinton’s book, It Takes a Village (1996, esp. pp. 57-61), in the President’s 1997 State of the Union message, and in the White House Conference on Early Learning and the Brain, which took place April 17, 1997.
World Peace—A Challenge for the World Religions
Authors: Küng Hans
Published: November 2023

Since the French Revolution, the wars of kings and cabinets have been replaced by the wars of nations, and since the First World War these have been succeeded by the wars of ideologies. Now, however, we are told—and this is also the sign of an epoch-making change—that we are in the age of wars between the civilizations, which for their part are stamped by the religions. And indeed there is no avoiding the sad recognition that in the transition to the third millennium, religions appear not only as the great midwives of the global ethic but also as the great disturbers of world peace.
Introduction
Authors: Gordon-Reed Annette
Published: November 2023

It is currently popular to describe the concept of race as a social construct. Recent studies by and writings of biologists and geneticists sup port this idea, showing that there are no firm characteristics separating one race from another. More genetic variations exist within so-called racial groups than between them. One can truly say that our racial differences are only skin deep. That does not settle matters. Even if race is a created fiction, the fact remains that we are all, in many ways, hostages to a variety of social constructs that are as binding, determinative-as “concrete” as any biological “reality.” Even though we know the truth about race, we cannot deny its past and continuing power over the lives of millions.
Twenty Years On Trial: Takuji Yamashlta’s Struggle for Citizenship(1922)
Authors: Chin Gabriel J
Published: November 2023

Attorney Takuji Yamashita did not earn a dime practicing law, never won a single case, and, while he finished law school, could not even manage to get admitted to the bar. Unable to join the legal profession, Yamashita, like many of his fellow immigrants, lived a humble and anonymous life as a restaurant worker, farmer, and housekeeper. Yet his twenty-year legal fight to gain recognition as a citizen of the United States made him one of the great Asian American lawyers of his generation. When, because of his race, the law denied him the right to become a naturalized U.S. citizen, he pursued his claims to the highest courts in the land.
Korematsu V. United States Revisited: 1944 and 1983(1944)
Authors: Daniels Roger
Published: November 2023

Fred Korematsu is a man whose greatness was thrust upon him. Each of the other litigants in the so-called Japanese American Cases-Minoro Yasui, Gordon Hirabayashi, and Mitsuye Endo-deliberately challenged the un just government decrees that led to the incarceration of the West Coast Japanese American community. Fred Korematsu just wanted to be left alone.
Interracial Marriage On Trial: Loving v. Virginia(1967)
Authors: Wallenstein Peter
Published: November 2023

One night in July 1958, two newlyweds suddenly awoke in their home in Caroline County, Virginia, startled by the sound of men in their room and the glare of flashlights on their faces. One of the three intruders demanded to know who they were and why they were together in bed. Mildred Loving murmured, “I’m his wife,” and Richard Loving pointed to a marriage certificate hanging on the wall. “That’s no good here,” retorted the trio’s leader, Sheriff R. Garnett Brooks. The young couple were arrested and taken to jail.
The Cholera Epidemic in London, 1862
Authors: Critchley Macdonald , Critchley Eileen A
Published: November 2023

In April 1866, England experienced its fourth, and last, epidemic of cholera. It originated in the Middle East among pilgrims to Mecca, who took it to Egypt, and from there it spread to British seaports, including those on the River Thames in the East End of London. According to William Osler, cholera is not a highly contagious disease, and physicians and nurses, therefore, are not usually affected. However, washerwomen and those brought into close contact with the infected linen of hospital patients were prone to the disease. Unwashed vegetables, especially lettuce, and milk may convey the disease, but water is the most virulent source of infection.
Aphasia: The Early Researches of Broca and Jackson
Authors: Critchley Macdonald , Critchley Eileen A
Published: November 2023

Jackson’s contributions to aphasia were the most important, the most original, the most contentious, the most tantalising and probably the least understood of all his writings. His earliest appearance in the literature on the subject came three years after Dr. Paul Broca’s seminal presentation to a meeting of the Paris Anthropological Society on 18th May 1861 of the brain of a patient of his who had suffered from paralysis and loss of speech and who had died the previous day.
Further Work on Aphasia
Authors: Critchley Macdonald , Critchley Eileen A
Published: November 2023

In subsequent papers, Jackson elaborated on the various pat terns of disordered speech which occur in aphasia. He also discussed the difficulties which an aphasiac might experience when carrying out a voluntary or deliberate act. During ophthalmoscopy, for instance, the patient might make futile attempts to deviate his gaze in a particular direction but would never do what Jackson told him to, whether it was to keep his eyes still or his eyes open; the patient might open his mouth instead. These surely are examples of what came to be called ‘apraxia’.
People Made of Words: Identity and Identification in Leslie Marmon Silko’s Storyteller and Adrienne Kennedy’s People Who Led to My Plays
Authors: Rodríguez Barbara
Published: November 2023

The questions of identity and identification posed by this study of form, personhood, and self-representation in autobiographical writing by American women writers of color appear, in related terms, at the center of important legal arguments and decisions concerning Amf.ll’ican citizen ship. For instance, Dred Scott v. Sanford, a case I also mention in my second chapter, and Standing Bear et al. v. Crook each respectively considered whether to extend the rights of citizenship to the “Negro,” and the “Indian.” In the first case, Dred Scott, after he was taken by his master to Illinois where he spent most of the period from 1834 to 1838 on free soil, sued for his liberty in a Missouri court. Argued before the Supreme Court, the case depended—because the Constitution insures the rights only of “persons”-—at least in part on a consideration of that term. Chief Justice Roger B.
Conceptual Overview
Authors: Petersen Ronald C
Published: November 2023

Research in the field of aging and dementia is accelerating at an increasingly rapid rate. With the aging of America, the older segment of the population is increasing in size more rapidly than any other (Brookmeyer et al., 1998). People are living longer. In conjunction with this phenomenon comes concerns about the quality of life of persons as they age.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Authors: Jack Clifford R
Published: November 2023

This chapter will be limited to a discussion of MR-based techniques used in the study of aging and dementia, specifically: anatomic MRI; 1HMR spectroscopy; diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI); measures of regional cerebral blood flow and volume; and functional activation. The areas of emphasis in this chapter reflect the fact that the majority of the published literature in this area has focused on anatomic MRI.
Bibliographical Essay
Authors: Person Leland S
Published: November 2023

Historical studies of Hawthorne may be divided into two broad categories: those that emphasize his use of older history settings, particularly the world of seventeenth-century puritan New England, and those that emphasize his connections to the nineteenth-century world in which he wrote. Hawthorne knew his seventeenth-century New England history, but the trend in Hawthorne scholarship, as it is generally in American literary studies, is toward stressing the political and social context offered by the politically volatile world in which he lived. The decade of the 1990s was dominated by New Historicist analyses of Hawthorne and his writing, which place him within the context of that culture, often unflatteringly, because of what critics regard as his relatively conservative views toward questions of gender, class, and race.
Contingent Achievement of Co-Tellership in a Japanese Conversation: An Analysis of Talk, Gaze, and Gesture
Authors: Hayashi Makoto , Mori Junko , Takagi Tomoyo
Published: November 2023

The research presented in this chapter is intended as a contribution to an understanding of the mutual bearing of linguistic resources and interactional practices (cf. Ochs, Schegl off, and Thompson 1996). Our interest is in elucidating the embodied nature of language as action in social interaction. To this end, we undertake a detailed analysis of a single episode of talk-in-interaction taken from a video taped conversation among speakers of Japanese. Our study has three closely related goals: (1) to offer a demonstration of the complex interconnection of linguistic structures and social actions, (2) to underscore the need to include the examination of co-occurring non vocal behavior in the analysis of language in face-to-face interaction, and (3) to examine the interactive achievement of a contingent participation structure, that is, that of co-tellership, within the activity of telling.
Recipient Activities: The Particle No as a Go-Ahead Response in Finnish Conversations
Authors: Sorjonen Marja-Leena
Published: November 2023

Across languages, we find particles that are capable of forming an utterance and turn at talk by themselves, deployed by recipients for responding to co-participants’ prior talk. During the last fifteen years or so, a line of interdisciplinary work has evolved that focuses on meaning and use of response forms in different languages and cultures (see, for example, Jefferson 1981, 1984, 1993, 1996; Schegl off 1982; Heritage 1984b; Goodwin 1986; Tao and Thompson 1991; Drummond and Hop per 1993a, b; Hakulinen 1993; Gardner 1995; Clancy et al. 1996; Local 1996; Muller 1996; Sorjonen 1996, 1997; Guthrie 1997; Kangasharju 1998:140-184).
Baroclinically Enhanced Hurricanes
Authors: Elsner James B , Kara A Birol
Published: November 2023

Hurricanes that form as a consequence of favorable middle-latitude baroclinic influences are termed baroclinically-enhanced. There are two sources of baroclinicallyenhanced hurricanes. A tropical depression or tropical storm may strengthen to hurricane intensity under favorable baroclinic dynamics at high latitudes or the initial disturbance leading to the hurricane may be baroclinic. In the later case, the hurricane is called baroclinically-initiated. It is important to qualify baroclinic enhancement with the term “middle latitude” because the tropical easterly waves-the seedlings of most tropical-only hurricanes-are frequently associated with north-south atmospheric temperature contrasts across western Africa.
Sub Basin Forecast Models
Authors: Elsner James B , Kara A Birol
Published: November 2023

Operational tropical cyclone prediction is established in the North Atlantic, the western North Pacific, and the Australian region. Forecasts that describe the general character of the upcoming season are routinely made. Emphasis is on prediction of the abundance of storms over the entire basin. The nature of basin-wide forecasts render them somewhat intangible for general use. In other words, basin-wide seasonal forecasts fail to provide enough detail for significant utility. For instance, suppose that several months in advance of the hurricane season, a prediction of three hurricanes and one intense hurricane is offered. In essence the forecast calls for a below-average season. Even if the forecast verifies, coastal dwellers may be lured into a false sense of security due to the prediction of below-average activity. Since it takes only a single hurricane to cause catastrophic losses, information on the frequency of storms for next year has limited value. Hurricane Alicia in 1983 ranks as the eleventh costliest hurricane on record for the United States,1 but was one of only three hurricanes during that year. Hurricane Andrew in 1992 also arrived in a year with little activity.
People at Risk
Authors: Elsner James B , Kara A Birol
Published: November 2023

A hurricane results in a disaster to the extent of its interaction with humanity. Consequently, the cause of the hurricane hazard is rooted in social conditions, actions, and policies. The number of residents living along the U.S. Gulf and Atlantic coasts is increasing. Population increases are noted in Mexico and over much of the Caribbean. Large numbers of people living in small areas create significant crowding. Population densities are particularly high in Puerto Rico, with about 430 people per square km. Saint Lucia in the Windward Islands has a population density of 258 persons per square km. Crowding is also significant in Haiti and Jamaica; both with about 238 people per square km. El Salvador is the most densely populated of the Central American countries. Population density stresses the environment. The need to build houses and clear farmland creates a landscape more prone to devastation from wind and floods. The problem is most acute in the less affluent nations.
Catastrophe Insurance
Authors: Elsner James B , Kara A Birol
Published: November 2023

In his fascinating book entitled Against the Gods: The Remarkable Story of Risk, Peter L. Bernstein notes that whatever data we analyze, it will only be an approximation to reality. In the real world, except for games of chance, we never have all the infor­mation we need to achieve certainty about all possible future scenarios. Worst case futures include the potential for massive death and destruction. Unfortunately, hurricane disasters affect nations disproportionately. The poorest countries worry about loss of life, while the richest countries worry about economic costs. Improvements in the understanding of climate science will offer little in the way of benefits to areas with limited resources. Arguably a stronger global economy, bolstered by sound financial institutions creates an environment in which rich nations generously respond to natural disasters elsewhere.
Placing Gay In the Sixties
Authors: D’Emlllo John
Published: November 2023

The trouble with this picture Is that, If you press me to talk about “the sixties,” almost every one of the stories that would spontaneously erupt from my memory are about events that occurred in the 1970s and are associated in one way or another with the gay liberation movement. At first glance this might seem odd, a glaring fault in the workings of my historian’s mind that should be very attuned to time and chronology. But I prefer to use it as the jumping off point for a useful observation about historical eras: the “sixties” are less a time period bound by the start and the end of a decade than they are about an era organically bound together by events, outlook, and mood. My guess is that for many gay men and lesbians, the “sixties” happened in the 1970s.
Introduction
Authors: Overstreet Maryann
Published: November 2023

During the spring of 1995, I was visiting an aunt in Birmingham, Alabama. We were leaving a restaurant in a shopping mall after lunch, and discussing what we would do that afternoon, when my aunt produced the question that is quoted above. I’m not sure if I ever answered that question, nor do I recall going to look at shoes. But I do remember the utterance. It contains three versions of a type of expression I had been studying for some time. They are and stuff, or something, and or what. Displaying great virtuosity in the use of these forms, my aunt had given voice to the problematic nature of the moment for a woman wondering what to do next with a visitor whose interests she barely knew.
Vague Language and List Construction
Authors: Overstreet Maryann
Published: November 2023

The transcribed extract above is from an episode of the American television program Seinfeld. It is one of the few instances I have observed in which a general extender and its meaning are actually dis cussed by those who use it. Notice that, for the speakers, there is a significant difference between the expressions go for a walk and go for a walk or something. These speakers actually conclude that the general extender has a major impact on what is communicated.
The Autonomic Nervous System and its Coordination by the Brain
Authors: Jänig Wilfrid
Published: November 2023

The internal milieu of the body is controlled to keep the component cells, tissues, and organs (including the brain and skeletal muscles) maintained in an optimal environment for their function. This enables the organism to adjust its performance to the varying internal and external demands placed on the organism. In the short term the mechanisms involved include the control of: constancy of the fluid matrix of the body (fluid volume regulation, osmoregulation) gas exchange with the environment (regulation of airway resistance and the pulmonary circulation) ingestion and digestion of nutrients (regulation of the gastrointestinal tract, control of energy balance) excretion of substances (disposal of waste) transport of gases, nutrients, and other substances throughout the body (cardiovascular regulation) constancy of body temperature (thermoregulation) reproductive behavior (mechanics of sexual organs) defensive behaviors (adaptation of the body during fight, flight, and quiescence) and in the long term the control of: recovery of the body (control of circadian rhythms, sleep, and wakefulness) development and maintenance of body organs and tissues protection of the organism at the cellular and systems levels (regulation of inflammatory processes, control of the immune system) These body functions that maintain the internal milieu are controlled by the brain. This control is exerted by the autonomic nervous system and the endocrine systems. Specifically, the brain acts on many peripheral target tissues (smooth muscle cells of various organs, cardiac muscle cells, exocrine glands, endocrine cells, metabolic tissues, immune cells, etc.). The efferent signals from the brain to the periphery of the body by which this control is achieved are neural (by the autonomic nervous systems) and hormonal (by the neuroendocrine systems). The time scales of these controls differ by orders of magnitude: Autonomic regulation is normally fast and occurs within seconds, and neuroendocrine regulation is relatively slow (over tens of minutes, hours, or even days). The afferent signals from the periphery of the body to the brain are neural, hormonal (e.g., hormones from both endocrine organs and the gastrointestinal tract, cytokines from the immune system, leptin from adipocytes), and physicochemical (e.g., blood glucose level, temperature).
Methodological Considerations in the Psychophysiological Study of Emotion
Authors: Stemmler Gerhard
Published: November 2023

What is an emotion? Ever since William James asked this four-word question (James, 1884), there have been heated debates about its answer. Actually, answers are plenty, but consensus is small. As we have gradually learned, cortical, subcortical, and peripheral neuronal and humoral networks at different system levels subserve the processing of emotions. Likewise, cognitive processing at preattentive and conscious levels is complex and multifaceted. Thus emotions have many sides and give rise to many views. Studying emotions with psychophysiological methods seems straightforward. But simply registering physiological activity while an individual is in an affective state most certainly will not advance our knowledge about emotions. The reason for this assertion is that many decisions in setting up a psychophysiological study of emotion generate a particular perspective. Methodological considerations could disclose these often tacit implications of research decisions. They can also assist in the choice of methods, including the selection of emotion induction procedures, the sampling of variables and participants, the selection of an experimental design, and strategies of statistical analysis. By far most psychophysiological studies on emotion have been conducted in the laboratory. Although the lab may not be the best place to monitor emotions with high ecological validity (Fahrenberg & Myrtek, 1996), the lab provides for a wide range of more or less standardized induction procedures that can vary in the degree of subjective meaning and ego involvement they excite. Thus emotion inductions in the lab do have some degree of ecological validity. Admittedly, the social psychology of lab experimentation can be drastically different from that in the field. Methodologically, the choice of an emotion induction procedure may be codetermined by the theoretical perspective in which emotions are primarily embedded. From an evolutionary perspective, one would emphasize classes of situational demands for which emotions facilitate adaptive and functionally adequate solutions. From an activation-theoretical perspective, one would titrate the intensity of an emotional stimulus such that the intensity of the resulting arousal is within an optimal range given the momentary task demands and the arousability of an individual’s nervous system. From a neurophysiological perspective, one would construct conditions (including drugs) that have a proven agonist or antagonist effect on the activity of a specified neurobiological system. From a learning theory perspective, one would use the powerful tools of associative learning, which enable a separation of the physical properties of an unconditioned stimulus from the cue function of the conditioned stimulus.
Emotional Modulation of Selective Attention: Behavioral and Psychophysiological Measures
Authors: Hugdahl Kenneth , Stormark Kjell Morten
Published: November 2023

The study of attention has been central to the understanding of human cognition. Although research on attention has led to an enhanced understanding of selective information processing, it has tended to treat human attention in terms of “cold cognition.” As a consequence, researchers usually study attention to emotionally “neutral” stimuli, and the concept of attention is treated in terms of stages of information processing, as conscious, cognitive, rational activity. This approach neglects, however, the fact that selective attention in the natural environment most often is driven by motivation and regulated by the emotional significance of stimuli (see Lang, Bradley, & Cuthbert, 1997). We argue that selective attention to a neutral or innocuous stimulus is the exception rather than the rule in everyday life and that orienting of attention in most instances means orienting toward a stimulus source that has some affective value for the individual. This argument also goes the other way—an emotional response is always followed by redirecting attention to the source of the emotion. In this chapter we focus on emotionattention interaction by reviewing a series of studies from our laboratory, in which we have investigated emotional influences on selective attention. According to Posner (1995), selective attention can be understood in terms of three distinct mental processes: initial orienting following changes in sensory stimulation, detection of a stimulus that elicits orienting, and sustained attentiveness to the stimulus. One method by which behavioral consequences of selective processing have been investigated is the Stroop (1935) color naming interference task, in which participants are instructed to name the ink color of color words such as red, blue, and so forth printed on a sheet of paper or shown on a computer screen. The ink color of the words is either congruent (the word red typed in red ink) or incongruent (the word red written in blue ink).
Emotion and Life-Span Personality Development
Authors: Carstensen Laura L , Charles Susan T , Isaacowitz, Derek M , Kennedy Quinn
Published: November 2023

The field of personality development aims to understand how individuals acquire distinctive ways of being in the world. In this chapter, we adopt an agentic model of personality in which temperamental inheritance, exposure to different types of environments, acquired beliefs and expectations, and, most important, the interplay among these factors lead to characteristic styles of behaving (Bandura, 1997). Unlike typological or trait approaches to personality in which emotion is either largely ignored, or even designated as more or less salient to particular characteristics—such as the association of happiness with extraversion or anger with choleric tendencies—the approach we take assumes that emotional experience, expression, and regulation are far more broadly and more fundamentally related to personality development. The emotions people come to feel when they encounter challenges and the effectiveness with which they learn to regulate their emotions are the cardinal components of personality development (see Rothbart & Derryberry, 1981). Indeed, we contend that a model of personality development in which emotion is core provides the most parsimonious framework for understanding and predicting individual differences in behavior, thinking, and feeling in day-to-day life. Emotions are not simply related to personality. Emotions are the essence of personality. At the most basic level, emotions direct attention and subsequently orient people toward and away from various environmental stimuli (Zajonc, 1997). Individual differences in the propensity to experience specific emotions not only influence the psychological and biological reactivity of the person in the moment but come to influence conscious choices about preferred environments and behavioral styles and influence the social partners to which people are drawn.
Two Types of Relationship Closeness and Their Influence on People’s Emotional Lives
Authors: Clark Margaret S , Brissette Ian
Published: November 2023

To date, psychologists’ efforts to understand emotion have focused almost entirely on processes that occur within a single individual. In this chapter we break with that intrapersonal tradition and discuss emotion from an interpersonal perspective. After all, emotion appears to be most often experienced and expressed within the context of interpersonal relationships (Csikszentmihalyi & Larson, 1984; DeRivera, 1984; Larson, Csikszentmihalyi, & Graef, 1982; Scherer, Wallbott, & Summerfield, 1986; Schwartz & Shaver, 1987; Trevarthen, 1984). There must be something about interpersonal relationships that accounts for this. What are we to make of the fact that emotion occurs most frequently in the context of our interpersonal relationships? Perhaps the answer is simple. Perhaps other people’s actions (more often than other factors) produce our emotions by facilitating attainment of our goals or by impeding attainment of them. A person might throw a rock at us, endangering our safety and eliciting our anger. Alternatively, a person might give us some money, facilitating our ability to purchase something we have been wanting and eliciting happiness. If so, perhaps the processes through which other people elicit our emotions are no different from the processes through which inanimate objects elicit our emotions. For instance, a rock might slide from a hillside and hit us, making us angry. A slot machine may spew out coins, making us happy. Emotion may be more frequent within relationships than outside relationships only because people more frequently facilitate or impede our goals than do inanimate entities. If, indeed, the processes through which other people elicit emotions are not so different from the ways in which noninterpersonal events elicit emotions, then there would seem to be nothing special, theoretically, that relationship researchers could contribute to understanding people’s emotional lives. We do believe that other people facilitating or impeding our goals is a large part of why emotion is more frequently experienced within than outside relationships. However, we also firmly believe that relationship researchers do have some special knowledge that will prove very useful to emotion researchers in their efforts to understand people’s day-to-day emotional lives. Relationship context does make a difference. Winning a gift certificate to a good bookstore in a raffle may elicit moderate happiness. It facilitates your goal of getting a particular book. But what if another person gives you that certificate as a gift? Will you always feel moderately happy? No. Your emotional reactions will depend on who gives it to you. If it comes from your mother (who routinely gives you lots of gifts), you may feel mildly happy. If it comes from your brother (who has never given you a gift in the past and with whom you would love to have a better relationship), you may feel much happier. And what of expressing emotions? Imagine you lose a job and feel depressed. Will you express your depression?
Stress and Affect: Applicability of the Concepts of Allostasis and Allostatic Load
Authors: McEwen Bruce S , Seeman Teresa
Published: November 2023

Affective and anxiety disorders are estimated to account for half of the more than $74 billion cost burden of diagnosable mental disorders in the United States (Rupp, Gause, & Regier, 1998). Stressful life experiences play a significant role in mental disorders, not only as a causal or precipitating factor but also as an outcome of disordered thought and disrupted interpersonal relationships that lead to further stress on the individual and additional exacerbation of symptoms (e.g., see Kessler, 1997). Because of this and other connections between life experiences and health, medical science has been struggling for decades to understand the relationship between stress and disease. Stress may be defined as a threat, real or implied, to the psychological or physiological integrity of an individual. Yet the widespread use of the term stress in popular culture makes this word an imprecise and ambiguous means of describing how the body copes with psychosocial, environmental, and physical challenges. For example, the subjective experience of stress does not always predict the elevation of the physiological “stress mediators,” particularly cortisol and catecholamines (Kirschbaum, Kudielka, Gaab, Schommer, Hellhammer, 1999), and this leads into another aspect of the problem— namely, the tendency to dichotomize and separate “mind” from “body.” Indeed, we do need multiple levels of explanation and must often separately measure psychological and biological processes. Yet an integrated view of psychobiology maintains that there is no such thing as a purely psychological process and that the activity and structural and chemical plasticity of nerve cells underlies all forms of experience, thought, and action (Cacioppo et al., 2000). Moreover, these two levels of analysis feed into each other and interact in a reciprocal fashion—that is, behavior and experience regulate biological processes and the biological state of the brain determines behavior and reactions to situations. Furthermore, there are three principal ways that these interactions can affect health. The first is through overt acts, like aggression, substance abuse, risky behavior, eating the wrong things, drinking, exercising or not exercising, and so on. The second is via the neural regulation of autonomic and endocrine function that leads to a long-term cost to the body (defined below as “allostatic load”). The third involves the interactions between the first two—for example, how eating a rich diet, or not exercising, or being sleep deprived increases the metabolic allostatic load and enhances insulin resistance and the processes that lead to abdominal obesity and cardiovascular disease. Thus, with the exception of behaviors that directly damage the body, the physiological mediators such as cortisol and catecholamines, but also including many other hormones and neurochemicals, provide the final common path connecting experience with both adaptation and pathophysiology.
Psychodynamic Perspectives on Hypochondriasis
Authors: Lipsitt Don R
Published: November 2023

At a time when therapeutic paradigms focus largely on prompt, expeditious, limited, and (it its hoped) inexpensive intervention, attention to psychodynamics in this compendium of contemporary approaches to hypochondriasis may seem of only passing interest. Indeed, in many psychiatric training programs, educational observers have noted a dramatic shift of emphasis away from the study of psychodynamics toward the biological and neuro scientific (Jacobs et al., 1997).
Cognitive-Behavioral Treatment of Hypochondriasis
Authors: Warwick Hilary M C , Salkovskis Paul M
Published: November 2023

Although medicine has been aware of the problem of severe health anxiety and hypochondriasis for centuries, treatment attempts have been largely futile. Most commonly, doctors have resorted to reassurance as the primary approach. By modem definitions (such as the one found in the DSM-IV; American Psychiatric Association, 1994), such strategies are doomed to failure, given that hypochondriasis is only identified in individuals in whom preoccupation persists despite medical reassurance. Until recently, attempts to understand the nature of hypochondriasis were confined to theories derived from basic psychoanalytic and quasi-neurological approaches such as so-called alexithymia (Kellner, 1986).