bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
LEGAL AND JUDICIAL INTERPRETATION OF COMPETENCY TO STAND TRIAL STATUTES AND PROCEDURES
Authors: ROESCH RONALD , GOLDING STEPHEN L.
Published: March 2006

This study provides an analysis of the views of the legal community with respect to competency to stand trial statutes and procedures. Responses from North Carolina judges and defense attorneys reveal significant areas of disagreement or misunderstanding. While many judges believed that defense attorneys misunderstood or misused the competency procedures, the judges uniformly granted the motions. Defense attorneys indicated reasons for requesting competency evaluations that were frequently unrelated to concerns about competency. Hearings to determine competency were often not even held, and if a defendant was found to be incompetent. most judges believed that involuntary commitment to a mental institution should be automatic regardless of perceived dangerousness. The authors argue that these issues demand further attention and resolution to allow the competency laws to accomplish their intended goal without jeopardizing defendants’ rights.
DETERRENCE Theory versus Practice
Authors: PONTELL HENRY N.
Published: March 2006

Abstract Recently, some researchers have attempted to resurrect deterrence theory. These researchers have focused on the relationship between certainty and severity of punishment and subsequent rates of crime. An inverse relationship has been found, leading these researchers to conclude that penal sanctions deter crime. This paper presents another hypothesis, namely, that increases in crime may overburden existing legal machinery, and thus cause decreases in the certainty of punishment as a result. Using the same data employed in past deterrence studies, this paper demonstrates that crime may affect certainty of punishment more strongly than certainty of punishment affects the crime rate, a finding which seriously questions the ability of legal threats as currently administered in American society to deter crime.
THE INDEX OF SOUTHERNNESS REVISITED
Authors: DOERNER WILLIAM G.
Published: March 2006

Abstract A study by Gastil concludes that the Southern area of the United States constitutes a regional subculture of violence. Loftin and Hill (1974) empirically challenge Gastil's findings at the ecological level of analysis. This study adds a further dimension to that line of research by examining violence‐related items from a national survey at the individual level of analysis. Results fail to confirm the existence of a divergent value system among Southerners today. It is suggested that if a “regional culture of violence” once existed, it has vanished over the years.
FACE‐TO‐FACE INTERACTION IN THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM
Authors: JETTE PATRICIA RUTH , MONTANINO FRED
Published: March 2006

Abstract Management of face‐to‐face social interaction is not limited to a micro‐perspective, as some critics have argued, but is equally valid as an explanatory model in macro‐organizational settings. A “differential leverage interaction model“ is presented, which demonstrates that organizations determine, to a great extent. the nature of face‐to‐face interactions that take place. The application of the model to the courts and criminal justice system casts a new light on conventional explanations of the processes. powers, alignments, and activities of individuals who come to be enmeshed in the legal institution.
DETERRENCE EFFECTIVENESS MEASUREMENT
Authors: DEUTSCH STUART JAY
Published: March 2006

Abstract The controversy of statistical evaluation of effectiveness of the present criminal justice system and of specific programs or changes implemented in the existing system has in part centered around the value of crime‐incidence data. The relationships between victimization and UCR or police‐blotter data pertinent to their use in evaluation are first described. An example is presented using an empirical‐stochastic model developed solely from UCR data to illustrate an approach to evaluation of system effectiveness. Here an ad hoc procedure is displayed which quantifies variation in and/or shifts in crime patterns after an intervention in the system.
DECISION‐MAKING IN THE CRIMINAL COURTS:
Authors: KINGSNORTH RODNEY , RIZZO LOUIS
Published: March 2006

This article attempts an analysis of the relationship between the guilty‐plea bargaining process and presentence investigation reports. It is argued that because plea‐bargaining has increasingly come to involve bargaining over sentence. probation officers, as a consequence, have increasingly come to experience encroachment upon their decision‐making autonomy. In this predicament they have found little support from judges, who, committed to norms of managerial efficiency will reassert the primacy of the plea‐bargain when probation officers refuse to ratify previously negotiated sentence agreements. The policy implications of this for the criminal justice system are discussed.
COMMUNITY, ENVIRONMENT, AND VIOLENT CRIME
Authors: BLOCK RICHARD
Published: March 2006

Using regression analysis of community areas of Chicago, patterns of homicide, robbery, and aggravated assault are analyzed for the mid‐1970s. It is found that neighborhoods in which very poor and middle‐class people live in close proximity are those in which rates of all three types of criminal violence are highest. Of all demographic and crime variables analyzed, proximity was by far the most strongly related to crime rates. This relationship was taken to be another indicator of the extreme burden placed on blacks in heavily segregated cities of the urban North.
CONTROL THEORY REEXAMINED: Race and the Use of Neutralizations Among Institutionalized Delinquents
Authors: MANNLE HENRY W. , LEWIS PETER W.
Published: March 2006

A theoretical challenge to the socio‐structural analysis of delinquency was posited by Sykes and Maria over two decades ago. Since then, relatively few studies have addressed the several issues inherent in neutralization theory. The present research explores the association between socialization and neutralization as this relationship pertains to racial differences among institutionalized delinquents. Significant differences for socialization and neutralization scores on the basis of race were noted. Lack of significant differences between races in terms of the hypothesized direction of the socialization/neutralization correlation was interpreted as a function of the nonlinearity of the data.
THE SNOWMAN COMETH
Authors: Block Alan A.
Published: March 2006

The following is an analysis of primarily the cocaine trade in New York from 1910 to 1917. The data used come from the investigative files of the Bureau of Social Morals, part of the New York Kehillah. The Kehillah itself was a broadly based communal agency which functioned in part as a counter to accusations of Jewish criminality current in the press. The analysis deals with the social backgrounds of cocaine dealers. and then looks at the manner in which cocaine was distributed especially by criminal collectives known as combinations. It concludes that the structure of drug syndicates was exceptionally loose, fluid, and often kin‐centered. Finally, the essay strongly suggests the need to integrate urban history with studies of organized crime in general.
PRIVATE JUSTICE SYSTEMS AND CRIME REPORTING
Authors: ROJEK DEAN G.
Published: March 2006

The burgeoning need for private police to complement the activities of public police has added a new dimension to issues of reliability and validity of official statistics. For purposes of this study. shoplifting data generated by the private police sector were gathered from matched pairs of retail stores. The findings showed significant differences between stores by age and gender. Partitioning of contingency tables to localize the association to a particular category produced no systematic conclusions between the matched pairs of stores or among the full range of sampled stores. Differential law enforcement exercised by an untrained and unregulated private police force calls into question the concept of justice and the guarantees of due process.
STEREOTYPES AND DISPOSITIONS FOR CRIMINAL HOMICIDE
Authors: BORIS STEVEN BARNET
Published: March 2006

There exists disagreement in the existing literature with respect to the origins of differential police practices. Based upon observation of police work with traffic law violators, the present paper advances an organizationally sensitive analysis of police decision making. The essential interpretation is that police decision making in the context of traffic law violations is a function of relations between organizational norms and employee concerns with autonomy.
ORGANIZATIONAL NORMS AND POLICE DISCRETION.
Authors: LUNDMAN RICHARD J.
Published: March 2006

This essay explores the issues involved in designing public policies. It suggests that those programs not well designed will generate inappropriate expectations for success. This lack of design sophistication may not lead to well‐conceived methods for achieving stated objectives. Taking the Low Enforcement Assistance Administration's Community Anti‐Crime Program as an example, the paper analyzes the implicit sociological theory which guided the development of this new and important program. The essay concludes by highlighting some of the important contributions the Community Anti‐Crime Program can make in the criminal justice policy arena despite its conceptual shortcomings. While design problems may hinder the implementation of programs, they do not necessarily have to cripple them.
POPULATION DENSITY AND CRIMINAL VICTIMIZATIONSome Unexpected Findings in Central Cities
Authors: SHICHOR DAVID , DECKER DAVID L. , O'BRIEN ROBERT M.
Published: March 2006

Criminal behavior and criminal victimization have been associated with population density in the criminological literature. and this has led re‐ searchers to argue that there is a positive zero‐order relationship between population density and crime rates. However, using National Crime Survey victimization data we found that there is no simple relationship between population density and crime rates in 26 large American cities. Property crimes nith contact were, found 10 he positivelv correlated with population density. and thus are consistent with traditional criminological explana‐ tions. All other crimes, which we classified as property crimes without contacl and nonproperty assaultive crimes. contradict most previous research findings because of significant negative correlations with popula‐ tion density.
SCHOOL FAILURE AND DELINQUENCY Which Causes Which?
Authors: PHILLIPS JOHN C. , KELLY DELOS H.
Published: March 2006

An extensive literature has developed on the relationship between school failure and adolescent misconduct. Almost all of this literature has assumed that school failure is causally prior to adolescent misconduct. but little systematic attention has been devoted to the critical issue of causal order. of misconduct is causally prior to school failure, most of the recent work on the school‐delinquency linkage would have to be rejected. Given a workable definition of “delinquency” or “misconduct.” the causal order issue can be empirically assessed. Evidence from cross‐sectional and longitudinal studies provides at least tentative support for the proposition that school failure precedes misconduct in the causal process.
DIFFERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT THEORY EXAMINED
Authors: HALBASCH KEITH
Published: March 2006

It is argued that the attempts of Burgess and Akers and of Adams to formulate Sutherland's differential association theory in the language of operant conditioning theory fail to preserve Sutherland's interesting insights by reducing his theory to the mere claim that criminal behavior is operant conditioning behavior. Questions are then raised about the truth of even this claim. Some attention is also given to the question of the verification of both Sutherland's original theory and the operant Conditioning reformulations of it.
RANDOM ASSIGNMENT TO TREATMENT GROUPS:
Authors: WOOD MICHAEL T.
Published: March 2006

A persistent problem in evaluation research relates to the difficulty of using true experimental designs. In particular, random assignment of subjects to treatment groups is both very important to insure the internal validity of the design and very difficult to implement due to logistical and ethical aspects of field research. This paper reports on a strategy for randomization which was adapted to judicial research: specifically to the evaluation of o program for adjudicating minor traffic offenders. It is demonstrated that through careful planning and coordination, designs involving random assignment can be instituted without involving significant difficulties.
ALIENATION IN PRISON ORGANIZATIONS:
Authors: SMITH CAROL F. W. , HEPBURN JOHN R.
Published: March 2006

The deprivation modelsuggests that prisonization and inmate opposition the prison organization are a function of the deprivations imposed by organization. Compliance theory maintains that alienationof the organiza tionf participants covaries with the coerciveness of the organization. Data obtained from inmates and officers in six adult correctional institutions are examined to test the hypothesis that inmate alienation is a result of the coer civeness of the institution and a cause of inmate opposition to the institu tion. The findings lend support to the hypothesized model and, further more, suggest the need to distinguish between absolute and relative deprivation.
BYSTANDER REPORTING OF A CRIME:
Authors: BICKMAN LEONARD , HELWIG HELEN
Published: March 2006

A field experiment was conducted to study bystander reporting of a crime. The study investigated two primary dimensions upon which most programs which encourage reporting, namely, monetary reward and anonymity. Conditions of anonymity and reward were unobtrusively varied during a bogus interview conducted with shoppers before they entered a supermarket. Neither of these variables affected the reporting of a staged shoplifting. However, preincident behavioral intention to report was significantly correlated with reporting behavior. The findings are discussed with respect to research on intrinsic motivation and deindividuation.
MAINSTREAM CRIMINOLOGY:
Authors: PELFREY WILLIAM V.
Published: March 2006

This study explores the tendency of academic criminology and other crime‐related areas 10 accept or reject the new criminology as a viable alternative to the traditional perspective. Criminology has been characterized as being in a period of paradigm revolution as indicated by the radical writings of the 1970s. The results of this study lead to the conclusion that mainstream criminology has slipped its traditional boundaries and the new criminology is gaining acceptance.
FEAR OF CRIME AND HANDGUN OWNERSHIP
Authors: DeFRONZO JAMES
Published: March 2006

The levels of handgun ownership and the fear of criminal victimization Abstract are both considered social problems in American society. The present study attempted to test for causal effects among these and several other variables through the use of a nonrecursive simultaneous equation model to analyze data for 1,818 men. The results indicated that handgun ownership had the effect of reducing the fear of crime while fear had no statistically signficant effect on handgun ownership. These variables, in turn were influenced by religious membership, region, income, size of place of residence, political orientation, and age. The Findings do not support claims that the fear of crime motivates increased handgun ownership but do confirm arguments that in the contemporary United States. Handgun ownership provides some men with a sense of personal security.
JUVENILE COURT DISPOSITIONS:
Authors: CARTER TIMOTHY J.
Published: March 2006

The research question precipitated by the concern for “just sanctions” and effective treatment for future juvenile programs is: What have been the criterion used by juvenile court decision makers in disposition sentencing. Disposition is analyzed for both nonstatus and status offense groups. The method of analysis is a stepwise discriminant function. The findings indicate the importance of legalistic variables and a social class bias in the dispositions of both offense groups. The social class bias is much stronger in the case of status offenders and increases at subsequent court disposition levels. These data support the labeling‐conflict contention of class bias in the application of sanctions and suggest a policy directive for future delinquency prevention programs.
VIOLENCE AND POOR READING
Authors: ANDREW JUNE M.
Published: March 2006

Poor reading achievement, long linked to delinquency. also proved related to a history of violent offenses among male and female. Anglo and non‐Anglo, juvenile offenders. Reading was measured by the Wide Range Achievement Test. adjusted for Wechsler Verbal IQ; the Violence Scale specified the degree of violence of each child's most serious offense.
LINKING ACTUAL AND PERCEIVED CERTAINTY OF PUNISHMENT:
Authors: PARKER JERRY , GRASMICK HAROLD G.
Published: March 2006

An untested proposition in deterrence theory is that people's perceptions of the certainty of arrest in a community are influenced by their exposure to information about crimes committed in the community which have and have not resulted in arrest. We examine the effects of two sources of information on people k perceptions of the certainty of arrest in a community: (1) newspaper crime stories and (2) personal experiences with crimes and the personal experiences of one's acquaintances. Only the latter appear to influence people's estimates of the certainty of arrest.
CRIME REPORTING:
Authors: KIDD ROBERT F.
Published: March 2006

Most of the recent work on crime reporting has yet to be integrated into a coherent theoretical scheme. In response to this theoretical void, the present article outlines a model of the social psychological processes involved in crime reporting. The processes underlying the reporting of an observed crime assume that the bystander is a rational decision maker. After sighting an unusual event. the bystander calculates how discrepant the event is from his personal norms, ponders the sort of label that is appropriate for explaining the event, assumes personal responsibility. and adds up the costs and benefits associated with action. Final action or inaction is the consequence of a long chain of unobservable, cognitive events. The model draws heavily from current theorizing in studies of help‐giving and altruistic behavior.
THE PRODUCTION OF CRIMINOLOGY
Authors: QUINNEY RICHARD
Published: March 2006

Criminology—in theory and practice—is a form of cultural production. We are creating a way of understanding and a way of living in the world. Our production, however. is mediated by our location in the class structure. Whether our expressions are critical and reflexive or merely reflections of capitalism is shaped by our ability to think dialectically and by our conscious involvement in the class struggle. We are in Ihe position‐intellectually and socially‐to think about and act upon the production of a socialist future.
ANALYZING OFFICIAL DEVIANCE
Authors: TURK AUSTIN T.
Published: March 2006

Partisan criminological analysis is characterized by dogmatic theories whose volidity is politically rather thon scientifically determined. Methods of inquiry ore used to demonstrate rather thon test theoretical propositions. Standard methodological tactics include assertion, anecdote, association, and analogy. In contrast, nonpartisan conflict analysis treats as entirely problematic the processes by which conceptions of deviance are socially constructed and become the official concerns of those who wield state power. What, how, why, and by whom behavioral or nonbehovioral attributes are labeled deviant is viewed as o function of the relative power of parties in conflict over the distribution of life chances.
THEORY AND IDEOLOGY IN MARXIST CRIMINOLOGY
Authors: AKERS RONALD L.
Published: March 2006

Marxist criminology can be analyzed both as a theory of what is and as an ideology of what ought to be. theory must be examined by logic and empirical evidence. An ideology and its vision of the good society must be examined by comparison with other ideologies and real societies based on competing ideologies. Such comparisons would reveal that societies based on Marxist ideology have been unjust and repressive and do not represent a future for which criminologists should strive as Quinney urges them to do.
CRIMINAL JUSTICE PLANNING
Authors: SMITH RICHARD A. , KLOSTERMAN RICHARD E.
Published: March 2006

Academic and practicing criminal justice planners have generally assumed the utility of a particular model of planning. This model, the general planning process model, proceeds in a strict sequence of problem analysis, goal identification, alternative analysis, program selection, implementation, and evaluation. While this approach has proven useful in other areas such as corporate and military planning many of the fundamental assumptions underlying its use are not satisfied in the criminal justice field. Criminal justice planners have generally attempted to modify the field to match the assumptions of their planning approach. hut they have had little success in doing so. An alternative model exists, however, which suggests that planning ought to he restricted, concurrent, and fragmented. This approach not only adapts planning to the present characteristics of the criminal, justice field hut also helps deal with some of the fields most troublesome characteristics.
CITATION ARREST Extending the Reach of the Criminal Justice System?
Authors: HORNEY JULIE
Published: March 2006

The use of citations in place of full custody arrest has generally been considered a liberal reform. It has been suggested, however, that because such a policy might produce a shift in police officers' criteria for arrest, it could result in an increase in the number of people being brought into the criminal justice system. An interrupted time series design was used to study the effect of a citation policy on arrest rates. The predicted increase was found for only one offense. The implications for the evaluation of citation arrest are discussed.
A SENSE OF INJUSTICE?:
Authors: KROHN MARVIN , STRATTON JOHN
Published: March 2006

The literature on the impact of processing a defendant through the criminal justice system has long assumed that this experience created a “sense of injustice” for defendants which militated against rehabilitative efforts within correctional settings. The current research examined this assumption with data collected from a sample of inmates in a medium and a maximum security institution within a midwestern state. The findings serve to question the assumption of the development of a sense of injustice, as most inmates perceive themselves as having been treated fairly by the criminal justice system. It is also found that there is little relationship between attitudes toward the preprison criminal justice system and measures of prisonization. The results are discussed in reference to their relevance to the functional and importation models of prisonization.
TOO DUMB TO KNOW BETTER
Authors: HAHN NICOLAS F.
Published: March 2006

Throughout history, three traits have commonly been stressed as characteristic of the bad woman: her irresolution. her promiscuity, and her responsibility for the downfull of others. These traits were amplified by a series of studies of “cacogenic” families which appeared between 1874 and 1926. The family studies offered seemingly scientific proof that the bad woman was the source of many social problems and an important criminal type in her own right. The process by which the family studies helped remodel the image of the bad woman is examined as are effects of that remodeling on institutionalization policy. The development of this new image of the bad woman is explained, in part, by the fact that the family studies were financed by wealthy eugenists; these sponsors stood to gain from the increased social control which, the family studies showed, was required by the cacogenic woman and her progeny.
SEX CRIMES IN THE SUBWAY
Authors: BELLER ANNE , GARELIK SANFORD , COOPER SYDNEY
Published: March 2006

This article describes the nature, extent, and empirical ramifications of nonfelonious sex crimes on the New York City subway. Nonfelonious sex crimes are defined as those offenses designated “sexual abuse” and “public lewdness” in the revised New York Penal Code of 1967. excluding sexual abuse in the first degree. Offenders are predominantly black and Hispanic; victims white, youthful, and unexceptional in looks. Contrary to psychiatric stereotypes, 50% of recidivists in rhese crime categories prove to have arrest records for violent crimes. including nonsexual ones: and sexual abuse and public lewdness recidivists tend to commit either offense interchangeably.
SOCIAL CLASS AND DELINQUENT BEHAVIOR
Authors: JOHNSON RICHARD E.
Published: March 2006

The apparent refutation by self‐report studies of social class‐related theories of juvenile delinquency is critically reviewed. Improper conceptualization and operationalization of “social class” are considered to be primary causes of inconsistent findings. A more appropriate “underclasslearning class” model of stratification is suggested. Although no empirical support is found for a relationship between self‐reported delinquent behavior and socioeconomic status of father's occupation. indications are that social class is somewhat more related to self‐reported delinquency using the underclass/earning class model. However, there is no reason to expect social class to emerge as a major correlate of delinquent behavior no matter how it is measured.
THE NEUTRALIZATION OF CRIMINAL OFFENSE
Authors: MINOR W. WILLIAM
Published: March 2006

A previously untested proposition from Sykes and Matza's neutralization theory is that certain types of offenders will favor certain types of neutralizing excuses. Murderers, for example. may tend toward denial of responsibility or denial of the victim. A competing hypothesis, derived from Hindelang's challenges to neutralization and drift theories, is that offenders would favor excuses keyed to offenses similar to their own. Robbers, for example, may favor excuses for robbery over excuses for other offenses. regardless of the content of the excuses themselves. The data presented in this article, based on o survey of inmates in four Florida prisons, fail to support either hypothesis. This may suggest that the two perspectives from which the hypotheses are derived are overly simplistic‐that the nature of crime and delinquency is more subtle and complex than indicated by either the subcultural or antisubcultural theoretical traditions.
LABELING AND IDENTITY
Authors: JENSEN GARY F.
Published: March 2006

This article is both a response to criticism of some of the aurhor's work on Abstract the relevance of labeling to adolescent self‐conceptions and an attempt to reconcile divergent findings. Through a reanalysis of the data under question, it was found that both official labeling and self‐reporred delinquency are related to delinquent self‐images but that self‐reported delinquency is more closely associated with such images than official labels. In an effort to reconcile divergent findings, there was some indication in the data that the impact of official labeling may vary depending on the extent of involvement in delinquency. The most pressing task regarding this issue is further study of the variable meaning of labels and sanctions in different sociocultural and group contexts.
CONTROLLING CORPORATE DEVIANCE
Authors: HOPKINS ANDREW
Published: March 2006

The effectiveness of sanctions applied to corporate offenders has not been adequately studied, in part because of the absence of any appropriate research strategy. This absence stems from the tendency. since Sutherland, to conceptualize corporate crime as individual rather than organizational behavior. This article outlines a research procedure based on the organizational nature of corporate crime and uses it to evaluate the impact of prosecutions under Australia's Trade Practices Act. The article concludes that the sanctions applied have considerably reduced the likelihood of corporate recidivism.
CRIME AND PERSONALITY REVISITED
Authors: A. RA THUS SPENCER , SIEGEL LARRY J.
Published: March 2006

The present study explored the effects of MMPI response sets on relatonships between crime and personality in self‐report studies. The MMPI‐168 and a 21‐item delinquent behavior questionnaire were administered to 1680 high school students. The Psychopathic Deviate, Schizophrenia, and Hypomania scales of the MMPI‐168 were correlated with delinquent behaviors, with and without control for the L, F, and K scales of the MMPI‐168, considered separately and simultaneously. Controlling for F eliminated some relationships and significantly diminished the magnitude of others, while control for L and K had no significant effect. Studies of this nature that fail to control for the F type of response set may produee largely illusory results.
THE EGGHEAD, THE FLATFOOT, AND THE SCREW
Authors: SAGARIN EDWARD
Published: March 2006

The growth of the American Society of Criminology has strengthened it not only in numbers but by the active participation of leading criminologists. Practitioners entering the ranks of the organization offer an opportunity for collegial interaction of social scientists with police, correctional, and other personnel. This association may be mutually beneficial, but it may also result in faction‐ridden organizations whose facades of dialogue conceal dissatisfaction. The author envisages a scientific organization true to a mission that is neither elitist, exclusionary, nor isolated from the administration of justice or penology.
THE NEW MYTH OF CLASS AND CRIME
Authors: CLELLAND DONALD , CARTER TIMOTHY J.
Published: March 2006

On the basis of a reanalysis of the empirical evidence. Tittle et al. (1978) concluded that the presumed inverse relationship between class and crime is a myth. We discuss six problems in their evaluation: paucity of evidence; lack of specification of theoretical relationships; faulty specification and measures of class; inadequate operational definitions of “crime”; faulty analysis of evidence; and failure to examine all evidence. We conclude that the empirical evidence supports the hypothesis that low class position is a source of serious crimes against persons and property.
CHINATOWN'S IMMIGRANT GANGS
Authors: JOE DELBERT , ROBINSON NORMAN
Published: March 2006

The rise of Chinese youth gangs in urban centers in North America is a social phenomenon that has gained prominence in the past decade and a half. This study examines the characteristics and processes of four gangs operating in the Chinatown of Vancouver, Canada, over a three‐year period (1975‐1978). The gangs were composed entirely of teenaged immigrants recently arrived from Hong Kong who were engaged in a wide variety of antisocial and criminal behaviors. Three sociocultural antecendents are identified as important in the development of Chinese youth gangs: (1) the weakening among many Hong Kong immigrants of the traditional Chinese pattern of close parental guidance and supervision; (2) the resultant emergence of youth peer‐groups who challenge parental authority and Chinese values; (3) the strong attraction of North American success symbols for gang members, and their perceived inability to achieve success through legitimate means because of difficulties in learning English.
CRIME AS AN OCCUPATION
Authors: CULLEN FRANCIS T. , LINK BRUCE G.
Published: March 2006

Students of crime have traditionally stressed the uniqueness of the criminal world and have developed special concepts in their attempt to explain the functioning of this “special” domain. In contrast, others in the field have asserted that the concepts used to investigate the coventional world can also be employed to provide insight into its criminal counterpart. This sentiment has been particularly evident among those who have utilized the concept of “occupation” to analyze criminal behavior. Building on the “crime as work” perspective, this research illustrates that, similar to conventional occupations, criminal work is stratified by prestige and stereotyped by sex. Further, the data suggest that Davis and Moore's (1945) functional theory may be a useful explanation not only of the stratification of conventional work but of criminal occupations as well.
SOME MISLEADING CONCEPTIONS IN SENTENCING RESEARCH
Authors: HORWITZ ALLAN , WASSERMAN MICHAEL
Published: March 2006

Most studies of sentencing practices in both adult and juvenile courts have compared the relative power to predict dispositions of “legal” variables, such as the seriousness of offense and previous arrest record, and “extralegal” variables, such as race and social class. It is suggested that this is a misleading model for research on the decision‐making process in juvenile courts. Instead, results presented here indicate that the juvenile court uses a model of substantive decision‐making oriented toward the character and social environment of offenders. Social background variables are found to be more important determinants of disposition than either “legal” or “extralegal” variables.
INDIVIDUAL CHOICE, MATERIAL CULTURE, AND ORGANIZED CRIME
Authors: LUPSHA PETER A.
Published: March 2006

This article examines some of the American roots of organized crime, and its place within the American culture. The ethnic succession and limited mobility theses are critically examined, and some new perspectives presented regarding the analysis of organized crime. A number of research needs and propositions in need of further testing are presented.
MARIJUANA DECRIMINALIZATION RESEARCH
Authors: INCIARDI JAMES A.
Published: March 2006

It can be argued that any objective reexamination of the marijuana laws and reformulation of public policy should necessarily be undertaken within some type of cost/ benefit perspective. As such, a paradigm might be structured which could examine the costs and benefits of the criminalization of marijuana vs. the benefits and costs of its decriminalization. On the one hand, there are the psychosocial costs of marijuana use which include any effects which might flow from the use of the drug. What the benefits of marijuana use might be, beyond the euphoric states and feelings of well being it offers, are yet to be fully determined. Yet by contrast. there are the human, social, and economic costs which flow from the criminalization of marijuana use. It is argued in this commentary that this paradigm can be used as a guide for decriminalization research. A variety of data sets and historical issues are briefly examined which fall within the parameters of this paradigm, and a series of research protocols which flow from the paradigm are addressed.
A LONGITUDINAL PERSPECTIVE ON PATTERNS OF CRIME
Authors: McCORD JOAN
Published: March 2006

This article addresses the possibility of prospectively identfying chronic criminal offenders using identifiers available to the criminal justice system. Data were collected as part of a longitudinal study of the lives of men who were in a delinquency prevention program in the early 1940s. For the half who were randomly assigned to the treatment group, a discriminant function correctly identified 67% of the men as recidivists or nonrecidivists. When tested on the control group, it correctly sorted 76% of the men. The author argues that although prospective identification of recidivists may be possible, legal action based on predictions would be wrong.
ALIENATION IN PRISON
Authors: POOLE ERIC D. , REGOLI ROBERT M.
Published: March 2006

This article focuses on alienation among prison guards by examining the nature of the work relations between guards and fellow guards, inmates, and prison administrators. Data for the project were derived from both questionnaire and interview sources. The independent effects of the three forms of work relations on five types of alienation were assessed through an examination of standardized regression coefficients estimated from a fully recursive model of the variable relationships. We found that negative evaluations of work relations resulted in increased levels of alienation experienced by guards.
ADOLESCENT MARIJUANA AND ALCOHOL USE
Authors: JAQUITH SUSAN M.
Published: March 2006

Most tests of differential association theory focus on the basic relationships rather than the causal process specified by the theory. This study provides a more thorough test of Sutherland's differential association hypothesis by deriving and testing a causal model of alcohol and marijuana use among adolescents. The findings provide strong support for the causal process specified by differential association theory. However, two unexpected findings suggest that the theory may have to be modified to account for the differential impact of peer pressure, independent of internalized definitions, on individual behavior and for the differential impact of specific primary groups on the formation of individual definitions.
CRIME AND DRUG‐USING BEHAVIOR
Authors: McBRIDE DUANE C. , McCOY CLYDE B.
Published: March 2006

The purpose of this article was to examine the ecological perspective as an explanation of criminal and drug‐using behavior and to present data from a pilot study on the areal distribution of crime and drugs. We found that individuals engaged in narcotics use, those engaged in criminal behavior, and those engaged in both resided in the same area of the community. Those who used other types of drugs were less likely to reside in the same areas as those engaged in criminal behavior. Thus, we concluded narcotics users and criminals were drawn from the same population and both behaviors may be produced by the same environmental variables, rather than have an individual causal relationship.
PUBLIC SUPPORT FOR “LAW AND ORDER”: Interrelationships with System Affirmation and Attitudes Toward Minorities
Authors: CORBETT MICHAEL
Published: March 2006

This study deals with interrelationships among system affirmation, intoler‐ance of minorities or minority viewpoints. and support for a tough role for the police and courts in the criminal justice system. Using data from a survey of “Middletown” (Muncie, Indiana), all three of these concepts are‐as expected‐moderately highly interrelated. Those high in system affir‐mation are also high in intolerance, and they are high in support for a tough role for the police and courts. Further, combining system affirmation and intolerance measures into typologies accentuates the independent effects of these concepts on a hard‐line approach to “law and order” issues.
SUICIDE AS MURDER AT COMMON LAW: Another Chapter in the Falsification of Consensus Theory
Authors: HOFFMAN DENNIS E. , WEBB VINCENT J.
Published: March 2006

The debate among advocates of consensus, pluralist. and Marxist views of the origins of criminal law continues to occupy a central position in contemporary theoretical criminology. This article assesses these positions through a historical inquiry into the law‐making and‐enforcing processes surrounding self‐murder or suicide. Historical data on the criminalization and depenalization of suicide indicate that economic and fiscal interests shaped suicide laws, but these laws were unenforceable because of popular resistance. The significance of these findings for criminological theory is that laws generally thought to be based on consensus were instead grounded in conflict and struggle.
DIFFERENTIAL RATES OF RURAL‐URBAN DELINQUENCY: A Social Control Approach
Authors: LYERLY ROBERT RICHARD , SKIPPER JAMES K.
Published: March 2006

Official statistics and numerous sociological studies indicate that rural areas generate lower rates of delinquency than do urban areas. This study attempts to explain these differential rates by drawing on the social control theory of Hirschi. Questionnaires were administered to a rural and an urban juvenile detention center population to investigate both extent of delin‐quency involvement and degree of commitment to five institutional orders: family, church, school, peers, and formal authority. As hypothesized, the rural sample reported significantly less delinquent activity than the urban sample. Control theory also received support from the data. A strong inverse relationship was found between commitment and delinquency. When intro‐duced as a control variable, commitment specified the original relationship between locality and delinquency. The specified relationships were strongest for rural youth with high commitment and for urban youth with low commitment.
OFFICIAL CRIME DATA: Lag in Recording Time as a Threat to Validity
Authors: KLEINMAN PAULA HOLZMAN , LUKOFF IRVING FABER
Published: March 2006

Official reports are the preferred measure of criminal activity when the goal is to understand whether criminal justice clients are less involved in crime in the posttreatment than in the pretreatment period. However, even this preferred method has drawbacks. Data presented here show that there is a recording time lag in official crime data. At times, the gap between time of crime commission and entry of the offense onto the subject's police record is considerable. Data collected in a short span of time after the treatment period are likely to underestimate crime committed in that period. Consequently, findings of change in the level of involvement in crime should be interpreted with caution.
PSYCHOPATHIC DEVIATION AMONG FEMALE SUBURBAN ADOLESCENTS
Authors: RATHUS SPENCER A. , SIEGEL LARRY J.
Published: March 2006

The female population of a suburban high school in a Northeastern metropolitan region (n = 837) was administered the MMPI‐168 and additional surveys in order to explore the relationships between scale 4 (Psychopathic Deviate) and other variables, using multivariate techniques. Results of three multiple discriminant analyses between high and normal scorers on scale 4 suggest that high scorers are typified by a variety of delinquent experiences, low self‐esteem, family and residential disruptions, and personality disorder. MMPI‐168 response sets are not so influential as target variables in discriminating the criterion groups.
PRESTIGE OF JOURNALS IN CRIMINOLOGY AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE
Authors: SHICHOR DAVID , O'BRIEN ROBERT M. , DECKER DA VID L.
Published: March 2006

The prestige of professional journals is an important element in the academic world because of the relationship of journal prestige to the careers of individuals and to the reputations of academic institutions. This study investigates the system of journal prestige in the field of criminology and criminal justice, using the ratings of professional journals obtained from a sample of respondents who are members of professional associations in criminology and criminal justice. The results show that there is a relatively high degree of agreement about the relative prestige of journals in the field, despite the fact that criminology and criminal justice is a multidisciplinary field involving professionals from a wide variety of occupational settings.
PERIODICAL PRESTIGE IN CRIMINOLOGY AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE: A Comment
Authors: POOLE ERIC D. , REGOLI ROBERT M.
Published: March 2006

This study examines the problems involved in measuring prestige of periodicah in criminology and criminal justice via subjective evaluations. An alternative measure of journal eminence based on citation frequency is developed. The differences in journal rankings derived from these contrasting methods are assessed.
DIFFERENTIAL INTEGRATION AND JOB RETENTION AMONG EXOFFENDERS
Authors: KNOX GEORGE W.
Published: March 2006

Recent studies of the police have tended to stress the small role played by the police in the discovery and detection of offenses, and correspondingly, the dependence of the police on the public. The article focuses on the difficulties faced by the police where offenses occur in private or, at least in low‐visibility areas, and suggests six strategies that the police use in order to overcome this initial disadvantage, strategies which in many cases may be sources of controversy.
OVERCOMING THE BARRIERS OF PRIVACY
Authors: MAWBY R. I.
Published: March 2006

From the culture conflict theory of crime, it is possible to derive several hypotheses. This article tests the effect of recency of immigration, cultural homogeneity, and percent nondominant ethnic group upon delinquency levels in Israeli communities. When the size of the population and the juveniles population are controlled, none of these variables has a significant effect. Analysis of variance reveals significant urbanization effects, particularly on property delinuency rates. The results are discussed and a minimal “critical mass” of juveniles is suggested as a necessary condition for the emergence of delinquency.
A SYSTEMS ANALYSIS OF CRIME CONTROL STRATEGIES
Authors: WRIGHT KEVIN N. , MEYER PETER B.
Published: March 2006

Comparisons were made between 92 male prisoners over the age of 50 and 539 younger male prisoners at Utah State Prison, and between groups of first and muhiply incarcerated ot Utah and younger inmates. The older prisoners committed more crimes against persons, fewer property crimes, were older at first arrest, and were less socially deviant, impulsive, and hostile. The first incarcerated older inmates were found to have more often engaged in crimes of violence. were less involved in a criminal way of life, and were the best adjusted of all the groups. The multiply incarcerated older inmates were found to resemble the younger inmates in terms of a criminal way of life and were not different from their younger counterparts in their adjustment.
THE OLDER PRISONER
Authors: TELLER FRAN E. , HOWELL ROBERT J.
Published: March 2006

The value of defensible space (access by strangers and opportunity for residents to observe public areas) in a variety of household types was examined. Comparison of matched samples of households (one sample consisting of people who had been victims of a crime and one where they had not), using both observation and interview data produced mixed results. Defensible space was eflective in deterring crime in indoor public areas, but not in outdoor areas. Defensible space was found to have a slight impact on people's feeling of responsibility for public areas.
DERIVATIVE DEVIANCE The Cases of Extortion, Fag‐Bashing, and Shakedown of Gay Men
Authors: HARRY JOSEPH
Published: March 2006

Derivative deviance is defined as the victimization of stigmatized persons because of their inability to avail themselves of the protections of civil society without threat of discrediting. Whether there is a preexisting relationship between the victim and the victimizer affects the possible forms of victimization. When there is no preexisting relationship, victims must he identified by culturally accepted understandings of which places are deviant and what deviants look like. In these cases, the principal forms of victimization are assault and robbery. When there is a preexisting relationship, greater knowIedge of the victim's significant others permits the more sophisticated victimization of extortion. However, to the extent the victim has reference groups who are also deviant, he is often able to resist extortion attempts. Extortion attempts were found typically to arise our of preexisting relationships among our gay male respondents.
ANALYZING URBAN CRIME DATA: Deterrence and the Limitations of Arrests per Offense Ratios
Authors: CHILTON ROLAND
Published: March 2006

Police reports of Index crimes, arrests, and population estimates for 1960 through 1977 for 49 U.S. cities are used to compare trends in arrest rates, crime rates, and the arrests per crime (A/C) ratio‐a measure sometimes correlated with crime rates to assess the deterrent effect of arrest. Since the correlation of the A/C ratio with the crime rate can produce tautological results in a trend analysis. comparisons of trends for crime rates and arrest rates for specific cities are examined. The results do not support a deterrence hypothesis. but indicate that the A/C ratios for some of the nation's largest cities are unstable over time and sensitive to changes in reporting practices. The analysis illustrates the pitfalls encountered when data limitations are overlooked and underscores the need for more dependable measures of crime, apprehension, and punishment.