bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Not Competent but Warm... Really? Compensatory Stereotypes in the French-speaking World
Authors: Yzerbyt Vincent , Provost Valérie , Corneille Olivier
Published: July 2005

Two studies examined the compensation hypothesis that members of both high- and low-status groups associate high-status groups with high levels of competence and low levels of warmth on the one hand, and low-status groups with low levels of competence and high levels of warmth, on the other. Building upon existing linguistic relations between the French and the Belgians, Study 1 had standard, i.e. French, and non-standard, i.e. Belgian, speakers rate the linguistic skills, competence, and warmth of both groups and report their meta-stereotypes. As predicted, both groups of participants saw the French as more skilled linguistically than Belgians and evaluated standard speakers as more competent than warm and non-standard speakers as more warm than competent. This pattern also emerged in respondents’ meta-stereotypes. Study 2 revealed that compensation was less marked among a third group of Francophone speakers, i.e. Swiss, even if the latter respondents seemed well aware of the pattern guiding Belgian and French representations of each other. We discuss the implications of the findings in terms of motivated intergroup stereotypes.
A desperate means to dignity
Authors: Cleaveland Carol
Published: July 2005

Sentiments favoring a sweeping overhaul of the United States’ social welfare system culminated in the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act (PRWORA) in 1996 - a law that mandates states to move almost all recipients from cash assistance on welfare to paid work. This ethnographic study examined work refusal among women who left menial jobs to return to welfare, or to subsistence by other means. Seventy interviews and 18 months of participant observation revealed a pattern of confrontations with authority figures at various job sites as well as resentment of the subservience often demanded of workers in the lowest tiers of the primary economy. Confrontations in training programs and at work afforded impoverished women the chance to express their resentments about being relegated to unrewarding, low income work and to maintain vestiges of even a defiant dignity in the face of a hostile social order.
The ‘Other’ stares back
Authors: Fechter Anne-Meike
Published: July 2005

Discussions of whiteness often focus on the ‘invisibility’ of whites. I suggest, though, that the situation of whites in non-white environments contributes a crucial dimension to concepts of whiteness. In particular, I examine the case of white Euro-American expatriates living in Jakarta. These corporate expatriates have been posted to Indonesia by their companies, and they often experience being ‘racially marked’ for the first time. This takes place through the ‘gaze of the Other’; being looked at by Indonesians in the street, and by being called bule, an Indonesian term for ‘white person’. While many regard these practices as unpleasant and offensive, expatriates are unwilling to acknowledge their political implications. They often refuse to recognize their status as a ‘race’, thus highlighting the persistence of the notion of whiteness as unmarked, even when confronted with situations which suggest otherwise.
Narratives of corruption
Authors: Gupta Akhil
Published: July 2005

In this article I attempt to analyze stories about corruption for what they might reveal about the Indian state. By triangulating my own fieldwork data, a prize-winning novel written by an official of the Uttar Pradesh (U.P.) state government, and the accounts of corruption by one of the major social anthropologists of India, F.G. Bailey, I claim that narratives of corruption, and the actions of bureaucrats and agencies in relation to those narratives, are fundamental to the constitution of the state in contemporary India. I argue that the success of policies geared to providing basic needs to the poor depend on changing these narratives and thereby altering the affective relations that poor citizens have with the state.
Witchcraft, riches and roulette
Authors: Parish Jane
Published: July 2005

This article builds on research carried out at western Ghana’s anti-witchcraft shrines and on post-1996 fieldwork among Ghanaian gamblers in a major UK city-port, here named Northington. Unemployed or in a low-paid job, the gambler’s pursuit of excitement, financial respite and hope via his furtive endeavours tends, self-defeatingly, to add to his anxieties and, when he is lucky, guilt over accumulated ‘bad’ wealth. He is terrified that a witch, usually a female relative, suspicious about his prosperity, will punish him for ‘cheating’ her and other relatives of much-needed cash by ‘spiritually’ taking away his winnings. Fearing that his ‘illicit’ gambling has undermined the efficacy of charms and talismans to ward off the effects of witchcraft, his engagement with more elaborate rituals in the hope of stronger protection represents his attempt to manage anxiety and bring events under control.
Sentencing young offenders
Authors: Roberts Julian , Hough Mike
Published: July 2005

This article presents findings from a survey that systematically explores public opinion, youth crime and justice in England and Wales. Particular emphasis was placed upon public reaction to restorative sentencing. The survey uncovered a number of misperceptions about youth crime. Few respondents rated youth courts as doing a good job, and most thought that sentences imposed on young offenders are too lenient. A considerable gap existed between the sentences that respondents wanted to see imposed on young offenders and the sentences that they assumed would be imposed. Generally speaking, expected sentences were less harsh than favoured punishments. When respondents were asked to impose sentence in case scenarios, there was significantly less support for custody as a sanction when the young offender had made some restorative steps such as writing a letter of apology and promising to make compensation to the victim. When asked about alternatives to imprisonment, significant proportions of respondents found alternatives to be satisfactory substitutes for imprisonment, a result consistent with research in other jurisdictions.
Estimating treatment effects from randomized clinical trials with noncompliance and loss to follow-up: the role of instrumental variable methods
Authors: Dunn Graham , Maracy Mohammad , Tomenson Barbara
Published: July 2005

Perfectly implemented randomized clinical trials, particularly of complex interventions, are extremely rare. Almost always they are characterized by imperfect adherence to the randomly allocated treatment and variable amounts of missing outcome data. Here we start by describing a wide variety of examples and then introduce instrumental variable methods for the analysis of such trials. We concentrate mainly on situations in which compliance is all or nothing (either the patient receives the allocated treatment or they do not - in the latter case they may receive no treatment or a treatment other than the one allocated). The main purpose of the review is to illustrate the use of latent class (finite mixture) models, using maximum likelihood, for complier-average causal effect estimation under varying assumptions concerning the mechanism of the missing outcome data.
Simple maximum likelihood estimates of efficacy in randomized trials and before-and-after studies, with implications for meta-analysis
Authors: Baker Stuart G , Kramer Barnett S
Published: July 2005

Efficacy, which we define as the effect of receiving intervention on health outcomes among a group of subjects, is the quantity of interest for many investigators. In contrast, intent-to-treat analyses in randomized trials and their analogue for observational before-and-after studies compare outcomes between randomization groups or before-and-after time periods. When there is switching of interventions, estimates based on intent-to-treat are biased for estimating efficacy. By constructing a model based on potential outcomes, one can make reasonable assumptions to estimate efficacy under ‘all-or-none’ switching of interventions in which switching occurs immediately after randomization or at the start of the time period. This paper reviews the basic methodology, with emphasis on simple maximum likelihood estimates that arise with completely observed outcomes, partially missing binary outcomes, and discrete-time survival outcomes. Particular attention is paid to estimating efficacy in meta-analysis, where the interpretation is much more straightforward than with intent-to-treat analyses.
Designs in partially controlled studies: messages from a review
Authors: Li Fan , Frangakis Constantine E.
Published: July 2005

The ability to evaluate effects of factors on outcomes is increasingly important for studies that control some but not all of the factors. Although important advances have been made in methods of analysis for such partially controlled studies, work on designs has been limited. To help understand why, we review the main designs that have been used for such partially controlled studies. Based on the review, we give two complementary reasons that explain the limited work on such designs, and suggest a new direction in this area.
Uses and limitations of randomization-based efficacy estimators
Authors: White Ian R
Published: July 2005

In randomized trials with departures from allocated treatment, intention-to-treat analysis is important but not always sufficient. The most common supplement to intention-to-treat analysis is per-protocol analysis, whose assumption of comparability between different nonrandomized groups is often implausible. Randomization-based methods avoid making this assumption and are preferable. Situations where intention-to-treat analysis is insufficient and a randomization-based method is useful include provision of patient information, exploration of treatment-covariate and treatment-time interactions, meta-analysis, and equivalence trials.
Structural mean models for compliance analysis in randomized clinical trials and the impact of errors on measures of exposure
Authors: Goetghebeur Els , Vansteelandt Stijn
Published: July 2005

Partial compliance with assigned treatment regimes is common in drug trials and calls for a causal analysis of the effect of treatment actually received. As such observed exposure is no longer randomized, selection bias must be carefully accounted for. The framework of potential outcomes allows this by defining a subject-specific treatment-free reference outcome, which may be latent and is modelled in relation to the observed (treated) data. Causal parameters enter these structural models explicitly. In this paper we review recent progress in randomization-based inference for structural mean modelling, from the additive linear model to the structural generalized linear models. An arsenal of tools currently available for standard association regression has steadily been developed in the structural setting, providing many parallel features to help randomization-based inference. We argue that measurement error on exposure is an important practical complication that has, however, not yet been addressed. We show how standard additive linear structural mean models are robust against unbiased measurement error and how efficient, asymptotically unbiased inference can be drawn when the degree of measurement error bias is known. The impact of measurement error is illustrated in a blood pressure example and finite sample properties are verified by simulation. We end with a plea for more and careful use of this methodology and point to directions for further development.
Action Alters Shape Categories
Authors: Smith Linda B.
Published: July 2005

Two experiments show that action alters the shape categories formed by 2‐year‐olds. Experiment 1 shows that moving an object horizontally (or vertically) defines the horizontal (or vertical) axis as the main axis of elongation and systematically changes the range of shapes seen as similar. Experiment 2 shows that moving an object symmetrically (or asymmetrically) also alters shape categories. Previous work has shown marked developmental changes in object recognition between 1 and 3 years of age. These results suggest a role for action in this developmental process.
Massively Parallel Parsing: A Strongly Interactive Model of Natural Language Interpretation*
Authors: Waltz David L. , Pollack Jordan B.
Published: July 2005

This is a description of research in developing a natural language processing system with modular knowledge sources but strongly interactive processing. The system offers insights into a variety of linguistic phenomena and allows easy testing of a variety of hypotheses. Language interpretation takes place on a activation network which is dynamically created from input, recent context, and long‐term knowledge. Initially ambiguous and unstable, the network settles on a single interpretation, using a parallel, analog relaxation process. We also describe a parallel model for the representation of context and of the priming of concepts. Examples illustrating contextual influence on meaning interpretation and “semantic garden path” sentence processing, among other issues, are included.
An Overview of the KL‐ONE Knowledge Representation System*
Authors: Brachman Ronald J. , Schmolze James G.
Published: July 2005

KL‐ONE is a system for representing knowledge in Artificial Intelligence programs. It has been developed and refined over a long period and has been used in both basic research and implemented knowledge‐based systems in a number of places in the AI community. Here we present the kernel ideas of KL‐ONE, emphasizing its ability to form complex structured descriptions. In addition to detailing all of KL‐ONE's description‐forming structures, we discuss a bit of the philosophy underlying the system, highlight notions of taxonomy and classification that are central to it, and include an extended example of the use of KL‐ONE and its classifier in a recognition task.
Automatic and Strategic Aspects of Knowledge Retrieval*
Authors: Walker William H. , Kintsch Walter
Published: July 2005

An experiment was performed in which subjects retrieved members of natural categories. Subjects used a variety of retrieval cues in this task, making knowledge retrieval a two‐tiered process: First, contexts were generated in which category members are likely to be found, and second, these were used as retrieval cues to produce the category members themselves. These retrieval cues were primarily episodic rather than abstract‐semantic. Similarly, in a script‐generation task, subjects tended to generate scripts from personal experiences rather than through the retrieval of an abstract scheme or script. A loosely interassociated memory network is suggested by these results. A model of memory retrieval developed to account for the data of list‐learning experiments by Raaijmakers and Shiffrin was shown to be able to account for the automatic component of knowledge retrieval but requires a more complex control structure before it can successfully simulate the retrieval strategies used by the subjects in these experiments.
Categorizing Numeric Information for Generalization*
Authors: Lebowitz Michael
Published: July 2005

Learning programs that generalize from real‐world examples will have to deal with many different kinds of data. Continuous numeric data can cause problems for algorithms that search for examples with identical property values. These problems can be surmounted by categorizing the numeric data. However, this process has problems of its own. In this paper, we look at the need for categorizing numeric data and several methods for doing so. We concentrate on the use of generalization‐based memory, a memory organization where actual examples are stored along with generalizations, which leads to a generalization‐based categorization algorithm. We also consider how to use a number heuristic, looking for gaps. These methods have been implemented in the UNIMEM computer system. Examples are presented of these algorithms categorizing data about the states of the United States.
Semantics and Pragmatics of Locative Expressions*
Authors: Herskovits Annette
Published: July 2005

The paper examines locative expressions and shows that an adequate account of their meaning must be based on two essential understandings: First, the simple spatial relation, often given as the meaning of the spatial prepositions, is only an “ideal” from which there are deviations in context; second, a level of “geometric conceptualization” mediates between “the world as it is” and language. Pragmatic “near principles” are formulated to explain some deviations from the ideal and several other apparent irregularities of prepositional use. A set of “use types” of the ideal meaning is proposed to account for conventional aspects of locative meaning. The paper concludes with a discussion of the consequences of this description of locative expressions for artificial intelligence and linguistics.
Realism, Instrumentalism, and the Intentional Stance*
Authors: Bechtel William
Published: July 2005

One of Dennett's principal arguments for an instrumentalistic construal of intentional attributions (e.g., attributions of belief, etc.) is that such attributions are environment relative. I argue that one can and should adopt a realist perspective toward such attributions, but accommodate their environmental relativity by treating intentional properties as relational properties. By doing so one acquires a useful perspective on experimental cognitive psychology; in particular, one can overcome the temptation to treat ecological accounts and information processing accounts as incompatible alternatives and come to see them as mutually supportive. Treating intentional properties as relational may be counter‐intuitive, but I provide examples of how other sciences have had to treat what seem to be intrinsic properties as relational.
An Introduction to Cognitive Grammar
Authors: Langacker Ronald W.
Published: July 2005

Cognitive grammar takes a nonstandard view of linguistic semantics and grammatical structure. Meaning is equated with conceptualization. Semantic structures are characterized relative to cognitive domains, and derive their value by construing the content of these domains in a specific fashion. Grammar is not a distinct level of linguistic representation, but reduces instead to the structuring and symbolization of conceptual content. All grammatical units are symbolic: Basic categories (e.g., noun and verb) are held to be nationally definable, and grammatical rules are analyzed as symbolic units that are both complex and schematic. These concepts permit a revealing account of grammatical composition with notable descriptive advantages.
Two Theories of Home Heat Control*
Authors: Kempton Willett
Published: July 2005

People routinely develop their own theories to explain the world around them. These theories can be useful even when they contradict conventional technical wisdom. Based on in‐depth interviews about home heating and thermostat setting behavior, the present study presents two theories people use to understand and adjust their thermostats. The two theories are here called the feedback theory and the valve theory. The valve theory is inconsistent with engineering knowledge, but is estimated to be held by 25% to 50% of Americans. Predictions of each of the theories are compared with the operations normally performed in home heat control. This comparison suggests that the valve theory may be highly functional in normal day‐to‐day use. Further data is needed on the ways this theory guides behavior in natural environments.
Artificial Perception of Actions
Authors: Thibadeau Robert
Published: July 2005

This paper has to do with the visual perception of actions that are discretely conceptualized. The intent is to develop a vision system that produces causal or intentional descriptions of actions, thus providing the conceptual underpinnings of natural language descriptions. The computational theory is developed in linking a “point of action definition” analysis to an analysis of how the physical events will elicit appropriate verbal descriptions. Out of this theory of direct computational linkages between physical events, points of action definition, and verbal descriptions, comes a theory of perception that provides some insight into how to go about constructing systems that can watch the world and report on what they are watching.
Constructive Interaction and the Iterative Process of Understanding
Authors: Miyake Naomi
Published: July 2005

When people try to understand complex physical devices (e.g., a sewing machine), they proceed in an iterative fashion. They seem to reach several points at which they claim to “understand” the device. Each point of understanding is incomplete and requires a new level of understanding. As a result, they cycle between understanding and non‐understanding as they traverse different levels. The present study provides a framework to capture the iterative nature of understanding. These points are discussed and illustrated through observations of three pairs of people constructively interacting to understand how a sewing machine works. In addition to the iterative search for understanding, the conceptual point in space from which the speaker appeared to be viewing the machine was important. This conceptual point of view (C‐POV) was reflected in their use of language. The C‐POV appeared to be stable during points of understanding and to shift frequently at points of non‐understanding.
Interestingness—A Neglected Variable in Discourse Processing
Authors: Hidi Suzanne , Baird William
Published: July 2005

Symptomatic of a contemporary concern with affective factors in cognitive processing, a corpus of research is now emerging on the role of interestingness in discourse processing. This research has concentrated on narrative prose and has adopted a structural approach, arguing for the centrality of event and discourse structure in producing an affect like interest. The authors point out that this approach considers only one type of interest—knowledge‐triggered—to the exclusion of another important type—value‐triggered. A more comprehensive understanding of interest will only be achieved by researching other genres, such as exposition, and by considering the multiple sources of interest‐producing conditions. We suggest the notion of “informational significance” as an inclusive term, and underline the need for a process‐based understanding of interest.
Reply to Krellenstein on Parallel Computation
Authors: Thagard Paul
Published: July 2005

I recently argued that the position in the philosophy of mind called functionalism is undermined by the importance of recent work on parallel computation (Thagard, 1986). In reply, Krellenstein (1987) contends that parallelism does not have the philosophical significance I claimed for it. Although his contentions are plausible if one focuses on what is in principle computationally possible, they fail if one looks at real problems.
A Plan Recognition Model for Subdialogues in Conversations
Authors: Litman Diane J. , Allen James F.
Published: July 2005

Previous plan‐based models of dialogue understanding have been unable to account for many types of subdialogues present in naturally occurring conversations. One reason for this is that the models have not clearly differentiated between the varoius ways that an utterance can relate to a plan structure representing a topic. In this paper we present a plan‐based theory that allows a wide variety of utterance‐plan relationships. We introduce a set of discourse plans, each one corresponding to a particular way that an utterance can relate to a discourse topic, and distinguish such plans from the set of plans that are actually used to model the topics. By incorporating knowledge about discourse into a plan‐based framework, we can account for a wide variety of subdialogues while maintaining the computational advantages of the plan‐based approach.
An Incremental Procedural Grammar for Sentence Formulation
Authors: Kempen Gerard , Hoenkamp Edward
Published: July 2005

This paper presents a theory of the syntactic aspects of human sentence production. An important characteristic of unprepared speech is that overt pronunciation of a sentence can be initiated before the speaker has completely worked out the meaning content he or she is going to express in that sentence. Apparently, the speaker is able to build up a syntactically coherent utterance out of a series of syntactic fragments each rendering a new part of the meaning content. This incremental, left‐to‐right mode of sentence production is the central capability of the proposed Incremental Procedural Grammar (IPG). Certain other properties of spontaneous speech, as derivable from speech errors, hesitations, self‐repairs, and language pathology, are accounted for as well.

The psychological plausibility thus gained by the grammar appears compatible with a satisfactory level of linguistic plausibility in that sentences receive structural descriptions which are in line with current theories of grammar. More importantly, an explanation for the existence of configurational conditions on transformations and other linguistics rules is proposed.

The basic design feature of IPG which gives rise to these psychologically and linguistically desirable properties, is the “Procedures + Stack” concept. Sentences are built not by a central constructing agency which overlooks the whole process but by a team of syntactic procedures (modules) which work—in parallel—on small parts of the sentence, have only a limited overview, and whose sole communication channel is a stack.

IPG covers object complement constructions, interrogatives, and word order in main and subordinate clauses. It handles unbounded dependencies, crossserial dependencies and coordination phenomena such as gapping and conjunction reduction. It is also capable of generating self‐repairs and elliptical answers to questions. IPG has been implemented as an incremental Dutch sentence generator written in LISP.
Response to Hanks and McDermott: Temporal Evolution of Beliefs and Beliefs about Temporal Evolution
Authors: Loui Ronald P.
Published: July 2005

This paper critically evaluates the celebrated paper of Hanks and McDermott on temporal projection, non‐monotonic reasoning, and the frame problem. First I argue against their intuitions, and a fortiori, against their proposed solution. Next, I suggest how the solution they desire could be obtained, were they willing to represent the problem a bit differently.
Constraints and Preferences in Inductive Learning: An Experimental Study of Human and Machine Performance
Authors: Medin Douglas L. , Wattenmaker William D. , Michalski Ryszard S.
Published: July 2005

The paper examines constraints and preferences employed by people in learning decision rules from preclassified examples. Results from four experiments with human subjects were analyzed and compared with artificial intelligence (AI) inductive learning programs. The results showed the people's rule inductions tended to emphasize category validity (probability of some property, given a category) more than cue validity (probability that an entity is a member of a category given that it has some property) to a greater extent than did the AI programs. Although the relative proportions of different rule types (e.g., conjunctive vs. disjunctive) changed across experiments, a single process model provided a good account of the data from each study. These observations are used to argue for describing constraints in terms of processes embodied in models rather than in terms of products or outputs. Thus AI induction programs become candidate psychological process models and results from inductive learning experiments can suggest new algorithms. More generally, the results show that human inductive generalizations tend toward greater specificity than would be expected if conceptual simplicity were the key constraint on inductions. This bias toward specificity may be due to the fact that this criterion both maximizes inferences that may be drawn from category membership and protects rule induction systems from developing over‐generalizations.
The Referential Structure of the Affective Lexicon
Authors: Ortony Andrew , Clore Gerald L. , Foss Mark A.
Published: July 2005

A set of approximately 500 words taken from the literature on emotion was examined. The overall goal was to develop a comprehensive taxonomy of the affective lexicon, with special attention being devoted to the isolation of terms that refer to emotions. Within the taxonomy we propose, the best examples of emotion terms appear to be those that (a) refer to internal, mental conditions as opposed to physical or external ones, (b) are clear cases of stares, and (c) have affect as opposed to behavior or cognition as a predominant (rather than incidental) referential focus. Relaxing one or another of these constraints yields poorer examples or nonexamples of emotions; however, this gradedness is not taken as evidence that emotions necessarily defy classical definition.
Interactional Reconstruction in Real‐Time Language Processing
Authors: Fox Barbara A.
Published: July 2005

This study documents and characterizes a phenomenon in naturally‐occurring conversation which I have termed interactional reconstruction. Interactional reconstruction involves retroactive reinterpretation of an earlier utterance (or set of utterances) on the basis of a more recent utterance (or set of utterances). This work is meant to serve two functions: first, to enrich our theories of human communication; and second, to explore directions and implications for theories of meaning and discourse modeling within cognitive science.
A Taxonomy of Part‐Whole Relations
Authors: Winston Morton E. , Chaffin Roger , Herrmann Douglas
Published: July 2005

A taxonomy of part‐whole or meronymic relations is developed to explain the ordinary English‐speaker's use of the term “part of” and its cognates. The resulting classification yields six types of meronymic relations: 1. component‐integral object (pedal‐bike), 2. member‐collection (ship‐fleet), 3. portion‐mass (slice‐pie), 4. stuff‐object (steel‐car), 5. feature‐activity (paying‐shopping), and 6. place‐area (Everglades‐Florida). Meronymic relations ore further distinguished from other inclusion relations, such as spatial inclusion, and class inclusion, and from several other semantic relations: attribution, attachment, and ownership. This taxonomy is then used to explain cases of apparent intransitivity in merological syllogisms, and standard form syllogisms whose premises express different inclusion relations. The data suggest that intransitivities arise due to equivocations between different types of semantic relations. These results are then explained by means of the relation element theory which accounts for the character and behavior of semantic relations in terms of more primitive relational elements. The inferential phenomena observed are then explained by means of a single principle of element matching.
Defeasible Reasoning
Authors: Pollock John L.
Published: July 2005

What philosophers call defeasible reasoning is roughly the same as nonmonotonic reasoning in AI. Some brief remarks are made about the nature of reasoning and the relationship between work in epistemology, AI, and cognitive psychology. This is followed by a general description of human rational architecture. This description has the consequence that defeasible reasoning has a more complicated structure than has generally been recognized in AI. We define a proposition to be warranted if it would be believed by an ideal reasoner. A general theory of warrant, based on defeasible reasons, is developed. This theory is then used as a guide in the construction of a theory of defeasible reasoning, and a computer program implementing that theory. The theory constructed deals with only a subset of defeasible reasoning, but it is an important subset.
Force Dynamics in Language and Cognition
Authors: Talmy Leonard
Published: July 2005

“Force dynamics” refers to a previously neglected semantic category—how entities interact with respect to force. This category includes such concepts as: the exertion of force, resistance to such exertion and the overcoming of such resistance, blockage of a force and the removal of such blockage, and so forth. Force dynamics is a generalization over the traditional linguistic notion of “causative”: it analyzes “causing” into finer primitives and sets it naturally within a framework that also includes “letting,”“hindering,”“helping,” and still further notions. Force dynamics, moreover, appears to be the semantic category that uniquely characterizes the grammatical category of modals, in both their basic and epistemic usages. In addition, on the basis of force dynamic parameters, numerous lexical items fall into systematic semantic patterns, and there exhibit parallelisms between physical and psychosocial reference. Further, from research on the relation of semantic structure to general cognitive structure, it appears that the concepts of force interaction that are encoded within language closely parallel concepts that appear both in early science and in naive physics and psychology. Overall, force dynamics thus emerges as a fundamental notional system that structures conceptual material pertaining to force interaction in a common way across a linguistic range: the physical, psychological, social, inferential, discourse, and mental‐model domains of reference and conception.
The Processes of Scientific Discovery: The Strategy of Experimentation
Authors: Kulkarni Deepak , Simon Herbert A.
Published: July 2005

Hans Krebs' discovery, in 1932, of the urea cycle was a major event in biochemistry. This article describes a program, KEKADA, which models the heuristics Hans Krebs used in this discovery. KEKADA reacts to surprises, formulates explanations, and carries out experiments in the same manner as the evidence in the form of laboratory notebooks and interviews indicates Hans Krebs did. Furthermore, we answer a number of questions about the nature of the heuristics used by Krebs, in particular: How domain‐specific are the heuristics? To what extent are they idiosyncratic to Krebs? To what extent do they represent general strategies of problem‐solving search?

The relative generality of KEKADA allows us to view the control structure of KEKADA and its domain‐independent heuristics as a model of scientific experimentation that should apply over a broad domain.
Cognitive Load During Problem Solving: Effects on Learning
Authors: Sweller John
Published: July 2005

Considerable evidence indicates that domain specific knowledge in the form of schemas is the primary factor distinguishing experts from novices in problem‐solving skill. Evidence that conventional problem‐solving activity is not effective in schema acquisition is also accumulating. It is suggested that a major reason for the ineffectiveness of problem solving as a learning device, is that the cognitive processes required by the two activities overlap insufficiently, and that conventional problem solving in the form of means‐ends analysis requires a relatively large amount of cognitive processing capacity which is consequently unavailable for schema acquisition. A computational model and experimental evidence provide support for this contention. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
Comparison Between Kanerva's SDM and Hopfield‐type Neural Networks
Authors: Keeler James D.
Published: July 2005

The Sparse, Distributed Memory (SDM) model (Kanerva, 1984) is compared to Hopfield‐type, neural‐network models. A mathematical framework for comparing the two models is developed, and the capacity of each model is investigated. The capacity of the SDM can be increased independent of the dimension of the stored vectors, whereas the Hopfield capacity is limited to a fraction of this dimension. The stored information is proportional to the number of connections, and it is shown that this proportionality constant is the same for the SDM, the Hopfield model, and higher‐order models. The models are also compared in their ability to store and recall temporal sequences of patterns. The SDM also includes time delays so that contextual information can be used to recover sequences. A generalization of the SDM allows storage of correlated patterns.
Combining Prototypes: A Selective Modification Model
Authors: Smith Edward E. , Osherson Daniel N. , Rips Lance J. , Keane Margaret
Published: July 2005

We propose a model that accounts for how people construct prototypes for composite concepts out of prototypes for simple concepts. The first component of the model is a prototype representation for simple, noun concepts, such as fruit, which specifies: (1) the relevant attributes of the concepts, (2) the possible values of each attribute, (3) the salience of each value, and (4) the diagnosticity of each attribute. The second component of the model specifies procedures for modifying simple prototypes so that they represent new, composite concepts. The procedure for adjectival modification, as when red modifies fruit, consists of selecting the relevant attribute(s) in the noun concept (color), boosting the diagnosticity of that attribute, and increasing the salience of the value named by the adjective (red). The procedure for adverbial modification, as in very red fruit, consists of multiplication‐by‐o‐scalar of the salience of the relevant value (red). The outcome of these procedures is a new prototype representation. The third component of the model is tversky's (1977) contrast rule for determining the similarity between a representation for a prototype and one for an instance. The model is shown to be consistent with previous findings about prototypes in general, as well as with specific findings about typicality judgments for adjective‐noun conjunctions. Four new experiments provide further detailed support for the model.
Comprehending Complex Concepts
Authors: Murphy Gregory L.
Published: July 2005

Recent theories of concepts have raised the issue of how people combine simple concepts (like engine and repair) to form complex concepts (like engine repair). This article approaches this issue by asking how people comprehend modified noun phrases of this sort. One explanation of how complex concepts are understood (the feature weighting model) provides a simple mechanism in which the primary feature of the modifying concept is made more salient in the modified concept. Another explanation focuses on how world knowledge directs the combination process. The two explanations are compared in their ability to account for the interpretation of various kinds of noun phrases. Two experiments are reported which evaluate the feature weighting model's predictions for adjective‐noun phrases. These contrasts suggest that the combination process does require reference to world knowledge. The consequences of accepting such an account are discussed.
Skill Acquisition and the LISP Tutor
Authors: Anderson John R. , Conrad Frederick G. , Corbett Albert T.
Published: July 2005

An analysis of student learning with the LISP tutor indicates that while LISP is complex, learning it is simple. The key to factoring out the complexity of LISP is to monitor the learning of the 500 productions in the LISP tutor which describe the programming skill. The learning of these productions follows the power‐law learning curve typical of skill acquisition. There is transfer from other programming experience to the extent that this programming experience involves the same productions. Subjects appear to differ only on the general dimensions of how well they acquire the productions and how well they retain the productions. Instructional manipulations such as remediation, content of feedback, and timing of feedback are effective to the extent they give students more practice programming, and explain to students why correct solutions work.
The MEDIATOR: Analysis of an Early Case‐Based Problem Solver4
Authors: Kolodner Janet L. , Simpson Robert L.
Published: July 2005

Case‐based reasoning is a reasoning method that capitalizes on previous experience. In case‐based reasoning, a new problem is solved in a way that is analogous to a previous similar problem. Case‐based reasoning can improve problem‐solving behavior in several ways: by providing reasoning shortcuts, by warning of the potential for error, and by suggesting a focus for reasoning. The MEDIATOR was one of the earliest case‐based, problem‐solving programs. Its domain is dispute resolution, and it uses case‐based reasoning for 10 different tasks involved in its problem solving. While some of the MEDIATOR's processes have been elaborated and improved on in later case‐based problem solvers, there remain many lessons that can be learned about case‐based reasoning by analyzing the MEDIATOR's behavior. This article provides a short description of the MEDIATOR and its domain, presents its successes and shortcomings, and analyzes the reasons why it behaves the way it does. As part of the analysis, the differences and similarities between the MEDIATOR and later case‐based reasoners are also described, as well as the implications of those differences.
Compositionality: A Connectionist Variation on a Classical Theme
Authors: van Gelder Tim
Published: July 2005

Connectionism has been attacked on the grounds that it does not employ compositionally structured representations (e.g., Fodor & Pylyshyn, 1988). This article develops the response that Connectionist models can, and in fact sometimes do, employ compositionally structured representations without, thereby, simply implementing a Classical “Language of Thought.” Focusing on the mode of combination employed in constructing representations, it distinguishes concatenative compositionality, essential to the Classical approach, from a merely functional counterpart increasingly common in Connectionist research. On the basis of this distinction it is possible to demonstrate that Connectionist representations can be compositional without being Classical, and further, that Fodor and Pylyshyn's supposedly conclusive arguments in favor of the Classical approach do not in fact support that approach over the Connectionist alternative (as opposed to an “ossociotionist” straw man).
Abstract Planning and Perceptual Chunks: Elements of Expertise in Geometry
Authors: Koedinger Kenneth R. , Anderson John R.
Published: July 2005

We present a new model of skilled performance in geometry proof problem solving called the Diagram Configuration model (DC). While previous models plan proofs in a step‐by‐step fashion, we observed that experts plan at a more abstract level: They focus on the key steps and skip the less important ones. DC models this abstract planning behavior by parsing geometry problem diagrams into perceptual chunks, called diagram configurations, which cue relevant schematic knowledge. We provide verbal protocol evidence that DC's schemas correspond with the step‐skipping inferences experts make in their initial planning. We compare DC with other models of geometry expertise and then, in the final section, we discuss more general implications of our research. DC's reasoning has important similarities with Larkin's (1988) display‐based reasoning approach and Johnson‐Laird's (1983) mental model approach. DC's perceptually based schemas are a step towards a unified explanation of (1) experts' superior problem‐solving effectiveness, (2) experts' superior problem‐state memory, and (3) experts' ability, in certain domains, to solve relatively simple problems by pure forward inferencing. We also argue that the particular and efficient knowledge organization of DC challenges current theories of skill acquisition as it presents an end‐state of learning that is difficult to explain within such theories. Finally, we discuss the implications of DC for geometry instruction.
Modeling Novice‐to‐Expert Shifts in Problem‐Solving Strategy and Knowledge Organization
Authors: Elio Renée , Scharf Peternela B.
Published: July 2005

This research presents a computer model called EUREKA that begins with novice‐like strategies and knowledge organizations for solving physics word problems and acquires features of knowledge organizations and basic approaches that characterize experts in this domain. EUREKA learns a highly interrelated network of problem‐type schemas with associated solution methodologies. Initially, superficial features of the problem statement form the basis for both the problem‐type schemas and the discriminating features that organize them in the P‐MOP (Problem Memory Organization Packet) network. As EUREKA solves more problems, the content of the schemas and the discriminating features change to reflect more fundamental physics principles. This changing network allows EUREKA to shift from a novicelike means‐ends strategy to a more expertlike “knowledge development” strategy in which the presence of abstract concepts are triggered by problem features. In this model, the strategy shift emerges as a natural consequence of the evolving expertlike organization of problem‐type schemos. EUREKA captures many of the descriptive models of novice expert differences, and also suggests a number of empirically testable assumptions regarding problem‐solving strategies and the representation of problem‐solving knowledge.
Engineering Properties and Performance of Dental Crowns
Authors: Mitchell C A , Orr J F
Published: July 2005

Dental crowns are used to replace damaged natural crowns of teeth and are fixed to prepared teeth with luting cements, which should provide an adhesive bond to the tooth structure giving reliable retention and minimal microleakage. Mechanical testing of crowns in vitro gives failure load distributions that are well described by Weibull models, comparing probabilities of survival and reliability. Fatigue testing of crowns is time consuming, but regression analysis to interpolate functions through data points quoting probability limits or applying Weibull analysis is achievable. A complementary approach is to conduct materials tests with appropriate interfacial geometries. Luting cements are used in thin layers of 40–150 um. Contraction during polymerization is restrained by adhesion to substrates, allowing little relaxation of stresses. Conventional and resin-modified glass ionomer cements create thin zones of interaction with dentine and fail cohesively. The chevron notch short rod technique has been used to measure fracture toughness and rank cements. A development of this method, using chevron notch short bar specimens, permitted fracture toughness to be determined for luting cement-dentine substrate interfaces. Representative fracture experiments need to be developed to apply mixed mode conditions. The basic challenge to predict long-term performance from short-term laboratory tests remains.