bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Use of Gas Lifts in the Mid-Continent Field
Authors: Shaw S.F.
Published: June 2014

For some time it has been more or less recognized within the industry that ascientific control of flowing wells would result in increased production and agreater ultimate recovery of oil. About two years ago it was proposed by thewriter that this control should follow principles worked out by him whilehandling large air-lift operations. In the case of wells that had ceased toflow where a large quantity of liquid was present, the use of these principleswould result in a large increase of production by using compressed air or gasto flow the well; in the case of a well flowing naturally it would take theform of controlling the gas associated with the oil, resulting either inimmediate increase of production or in a reduction of the gas consumed perbarrel of oil, and in both cases would result in a greater ultimate recoveryfrom the sand.

The Roxana Petroleum Corp., appreciating the advantages to be obtained by ascientific application of the principles of the air lift to oil wells, recentlyengaged, for a limited time, the services of the writer to work out some of theproblems involved. The work was carried out at Braman, Garber and Tonkawa inOklahoma, and at Oxford in Kansas. Following some suggestions of the writer awell was also equipped by the Roxana company at Smackover by A.S. Feild.

Increased Production by Application of Air Lift

The results of the use of this method were, as a whole, quite satisfactory, in so far as it was possible to carry out these ideas in a limited time. Atotal of 14 wells produced 6590 bbl. before installation of the air lift and13,847 bbl. afterward, thus giving an increase of 110 per cent. The range ofincrease was from 5 to about 400 per cent where conditions were favorable forthe use of the air lift, indicating that in many cases wells would yield agreater production of oil if the fluid were removed as rapidly as it enters thewell. Most of this increase was made on wells already provided with the usualtype of gas lift.

In bringing about this change in operating conditions it was arranged to removeall back-pressures wherever possible.
Gas-oil Ratio as Related to the Decline of Oil Production, with Notes on the Effect of Controlled Pressure
Authors: Millikan C.V.
Published: June 2014

Gas-oil ratios in the production of oil have recently attracted theattention of production engineers throughout the country and much work has beendone in an effort to reduce the volume of gas produced with each barrel of oil, thereby increasing the ultimate oil production. When occasion arises to use therelationship of rate of oil production and rate of casinghead gas production ithas ordinarily been assumed to be within reasonably narrow limits constantthroughout the life of the property after flush production is past. Inoperating a lease for conservation of gas or more efficient methods of recoverythe rate at which the volume of casinghead gas is declining is as essential asthe rate of decline of oil production. Much work has been done on the rate ofdecline of oil production and while our knowledge of the subject is far fromcomplete it is much greater than our knowledge of the rate of decline of thecasinghead gas. The data presented show that a definite relationship existsbetween the rate of decline of oil production and volume of casinghead gas, andthat a study of this relationship will usually indicate the effect on thegas-oil ratio which may be expected when controlled pressure is applied.

Comparison of two curves with different rates of decline is difficult unlessone is expressed in terms of the other. Therefore in the discussion whichfollows the relationship of the rate of decline of casinghead gas to oilproduction is expressed by the cubic feet of gas produced with each barrel ofoil, or gas-oil ratio.

The subject of this paper might more appropriately be "The oil-gas ratioas related to the decline of casinghead gas." Where gas is the principalexpelling force of the oil from the sand, the oil is produced with thecasinghead gas rather than the casinghead gas being produced with the oil.Since oil production figures are more familiar and it is easier to follow fromthe known to the unknown, the more common usage is continued by expressing thecasinghead gas in terms of oil production, but it must be kept in mind that thereverse is the more exact condition.
Possible Natural Soda Drive in the Salt Creek Type of Pool, and Its Significance in Terms of Increased Oil Recoveries
Authors: Thom W.T.
Published: June 2014

Value of New Recovery Methods

The oil industry is deeply interested in the probability that improvedmethods of oil recovery will give commercial value to many old oil fieldspreviously regarded as nearly exhausted, and will add greatly to the life andyield of newly discovered pools. Because of the newness of many recoverymethods now being given a trial the respective value of these various methodsis uncertain. It can be stated with confidence, however, that no single newmethod will apply to all oil fields, and that one must know the conditionsobtaining in a specific field in order to selcct the method which will givebest results in that field.

That the movement of oil-field waters, if properly controlled, has abeneficial effect upon oil production, is not yet universally recognized, andhas in a measure been lost sight of since such general interest has beenaroused in the value of natural gas as a prime factor in the recovery of oil.In some instances the helpful influence exerted by waters arises solely fromtheir hydrostatic pressure and may be partly offset by chemical reactionsbetween water and oil. In other instances the waters may be neutral chemicallywith respect to the oil, and in yet others the dissolved salts of edge watersmay actually aid water pressure in loosening oil from the sand and inincreasing its recoverability. The purpose of this article is therefore partlyto emphasize the value of natural or artificial edgewater movement (undersuitable control) as an aid to oil recovery, and partly to describe edgewaterconditions at Salt Creek, Wyo., which suggest that a direct relation existsthere between the amount of sodium carbonate dissolved in the waters and theirbeneficial "water drive" effects.
Valuation of Properties in the Bradford District
Authors: Panyity L.S.
Published: June 2014

The production of oil by natural methods in the Bradford, Pa., and Bolivar, N.Y., oil fields has declined to such small proportions that under thoseconditions operating in these fields would no longer be profitable. However, with the water-flood method of rejuvenation there is available an additional 2000 to 14,000 bbl of oil per acre. Naturally, there is an increase in thevalue of properties that are believed to be in the flood zone. Properties thathave been purchased some years ago for their salvage value are today changinghands at$1000 to $4000 per acre.

A lease coming under the classification of flood property differs from anatural producing property in that it is to be treated more like a mining ormanufacturing proposition. The old wells and the information from them servethe same purpose that the diamond drill does for the coal or metal miner. Pastproduction gives an idea of the area that may be benefited by flooding, andthus some of the hazards of the oil producing business are minimized.

There are both royalty and fee properties to be valued. In valuation thefollowing are the chief items to be considered:

Condition of Sand. - Thickness of the formation is not necessarily indicationof great value. Some of the best results have been obtained where the sandaverages between 25 to 35 ft. in the Bradford sand and 15 to 25 ft. in theRichburg sand, which are the two main producing horizons. Sand thicknesses areknown to be as much as 115 ft., but such thicknesses frequently cause troubleowing to the fact that there is a possibility of portions of the sand beingmore porous or of different texture, which would tend to take the water andcause a different rate of flow through such portions without beneficial effectsfrom the rest of the sand. Sometimes a former gas streak or, high up on thestructure, considerable gas may yet remain in the sand, and such streaks maytake all the water, or the present gas may prevent the entrance of water intothe sand. These evils are combatted by placing the packer below such streaks, and in some places attempts are made to shut off the undesirable portions. Thearea of thick sand is fairly well known, and the structure of the formationwill indicate the "highs" where gas accumulations may be looked for.Such places are more desirable for gas-flooding than for water-flooding.
Improved Drilling and Production Methods in North and Central Texas
Authors: Edwards Harry L.
Published: June 2014

As my subject covers improved drilling and production methods in the Northand Central Texas area alone, some well known improvements applicable to othersections will not be treated in this discussion. There are also certainpractices in use in this area, such as the rejuvenation of sands with gas andair which might be discussed but will not receive attention because they arefully presented in other papers.

Probably 50 per cent of the new ideas in equipment originate in the field, but the field man, in most cases, through lack of scientific training and hislimited knowledge of metal and alloys, is unable to carry the idea through to asatisfactory conclusion. He must, therefore, call upon the engineer ormetallurgist; together they work out their problems and the ideamaterializes.

To obtain oil or gas it is necessary to drill a well, and each year seesthis operation become more and more of a problem because of increasing depths.Wells in North Texas are producing at depths below 4000 ft. and in California, there is a well now drilling below 8000 ft. The deepest well drilled by cabletools, that we have a record of, was drilled to a depth of 7756 ft. In thefuture wells 10,000 ft. deep will not be uncommon. The drilling of wells totwice the depth in half the time required in the early days is made possibleonly by the use of better equipment combined with better knowledge and methodsof operating.

The greatest improvements have been made in rotary equipment, whereas cabletools are today practically the same as when Captain Drake drilled his firstwell in Pennsylvania. Possibly no better comparison of the progress made can behad than that of the equipment used in drilling the first field at Corsicanaand that used in drilling the present deep field. The first wells were drilledto a depth of 1500 to 1600 ft. using 12-in. rotaries, 3-in. shafts and smalldraw works with single speed 35-hp. boilers and 9 by 10 single engines. At thattime they had no grief stems, tool joints, drive bushings, or any of theessentials that today make up the equipment of any up-to-date contractor.Instead they had grip rings, casing for drill pipe, small pumps, and in short, an outfit so unsuitable that a producer of today would hesitate to use it indrilling a shallow water well.
Development and Operations in the Panhandle Field
Authors: McKee E.J.
Published: June 2014

Development Practice

The area discussed lies south of Canadian River in Hutchinson County, Texas, covering approximately 10 miles east and west and 4 miles north and south.

Development is carried on in the manner usual in standard tool operations.No outstanding divergence from the usual methods is necessary as wells arecompleted in 35 to 55 days to approximately 3000 ft. Most of the time is lostin the upper part of the hole and is usually caused in driving pipe of largersizes. After approximately 1500 ft., little trouble occurs. A comparison of therecords of 13 contractors drilling for Phillips Petroleum Co. gave thefollowing averages: Drilling time from 32 to 63 days with a daily footage offrom 49 to 87 ft. per day. The rigs furnished are National turnbuckle type with6-in. irons and steel wheels.

Casing Used

The casing used in our No. 6 Coble, Section 13, Block Y, M &C Survey, Hutchinson County, is a fair example of average casing needs:

(Table)

Wherever possible all large pipe is pulled after cementing either the 151/2-in. or 12 1/2-in. casing. In this particular well the 15 1/2-in. partedafter 460 ft. had been run. Shifting sands encountered at 210 ft. caused theparting, necessitating running 12 1/2-in. at 490 ft., 12 1/2-in. being drivento a total depth of 675 ft. where it was cemented with 50 sacks of cement and10 gal. of "Konset," leaving 10 ft. of cement in the casing and wasallowed to stand for 72 hours, thus making a complete shut-off.
Use of Treating Compounds for Oil Field Emulsions in the Mid-Continent Field
Authors: Roberts Claudius H.M.
Published: June 2014

The dehydrating of oil is a problem in the manipulation of physical andchemical forces, some of which are almost too minute to be capable ofevaluation; forces which, however, must be directed and utilized to the maximumextent if successful results are to be obtained. The result is accomplishedwithout using any materials capable of harming the oil or any of the equipmentby which it is produced, handled, transported or refined; and without removingfrom the oil any constituents originally present in it or otherwise alteringits composition.

An emulsion is defined by Clayton as a system containing two liquid phases, one of which is dispersed as globules in the other. In order that thisdispersion may be stable, it is further necessary that an emulsifying agent bepresent, the nature of this agent controlling the type of emulsion produced, aswell as, to some extent at least, its character and resistance to treatment.The emulsifying agent responsible for the formation of petroleum emulsions isnot definitely known but, in a considerable number of cases, at least, it isfairly definitely known to be colloidal asphalt, that term being understood toinclude all asphalts and allied substances which occur in colloidal dispersionin crude oil.

Emulsified oil, as it occurs in the petroleum industry, is variously knownas "cut oil," "wet oil" or "B.S." In addition to thewater contained in the emulsion, there may be more or less sand, shale or otherforeign materials, but these are incidental and are not essential to theformation or stabilization of emulsions, although they frequently make theireconomical treatment more difficult. There is little difference between thefresh cut oil produced from a well and the B.S. found in the bottom of thestorage tanks; the only essential differences are age and degree ofstabilization of the emulsion, concentration and admixture with foreignmaterials; the cost of treatment also compare favorably with those of freshemulsions.

Crude oil emulsions are those either where water is dispersed in oil, orless frequently, where oil is dispersed in water, and are usually treated withease.
Elimination of Waste in the Production of Oil
Authors: Guarin Paul L.
Published: June 2014

The report of the American Petroleum Institute to the Federal OilConservation Board, which was presented by Mr. Hughes, tends to minimize themagnitude of waste in the production of oil. At least one member of theindustry has taken violent exception to some of the statements made in thatreport. With the present demand for petroleum and especially for its lighterproducts, it is plainly the duty of oil operators to protect oil and gas inevery way possible against losses. If methods of waste elimination arejudiciously applied they will result, not only in the conservation of avaluable natural resource, but also in increased profits to the operators.

A prominent petroleum engineer recently stated that in his opinion thegreatest single loss suffered by the oil industry today is that of evaporationof oil vapors into the atmosphere. It must be admitted that this constitutes avery large and important loss, and one that must be given a great deal ofattention. However, there are other wastes occurring that are of even greaterimportance from the stand point of the operator. I refer specifically tounnecessarily high exploration, development and operating costs.

Exploration Work

Much progress has been made along the lines of more scientific explorationwork. During recent years more attention has been given to geology, because theoperators have found by experience that it pays to do so. More recently thesubsurface geologist has made his appearance, and correlation on the basis ofsubsurface information obtained by core drills and small portable rotary rigshas added its contribution toward the more scientific location of expensivedeep tests. In some districts considerable success has been obtained withmechanical and electrical devices in determining underground structures.

In the actual drilling work still further waste eliminations have beenmade.
Principles of the Air-gas Lift as Applied to Oil Production
Authors: Pierce H.R. , Lewis James O.
Published: June 2014

Since the sudden revival of the air or gas-lift and its extensive use in theoil fields, many questions have arisen as to principles and as to theirapplication under the conditions actually encountered in the field. Much hasbeen written regarding both theory and practice, especially on the air-lift asapplied to lifting water. Many statements have been made as to the use andbenefits of the gas-lift, some of which are reasonable but many of which areunreasonable, many specialty makers claiming to have devices which operate inalmost miraculous ways and even to generate energy nature never possessed.These claims are often based upon incomplete or inaccurate data.

A review of the literature discloses many valuable articles, but it alsodiscloses the need for setting out more clearly the different practical endssought, and for working out specific engineering principles upon which toformulate the design and operation of gas-lifts to meet the desired ends withinthe limitations of field conditions. A check on some of the publishedinformation has revealed basic errors in the sources of data upon whichconclusions have been predicated and has led the writers to doubt the value ofa large part of the compiled data.

The writers have concluded, therefore, that it will be opportune to directdiscussion to the sources of error in the data now being collected, torecommend for consideration by the engineers some methods of collecting andcorrelating data, and to point out some of the factors relating to theapplication of the air-lift principle to oil production as dictated by thedifferent economic ends sought, and the limitations of working conditions thatmay be met. Until these several considerations are clearly understood by theengineers, and the unreliable data have been sifted out and dependable datasubstituted, there seems little chance of evolving satisfactory engineeringcontrol for the air-lift.

In the following pages no distinction will be made between gas-lift andair-lift, as they are generically the same.
Use of Electricity for Oil-field Operations in Wyoming
Authors: Peake A.W. , Prior F.O.
Published: June 2014

Considering the great advance in the development and application ofelectricity, it is not strange that eventually a big field for its use has beenfound in oil-field operations. So far as is known, the first electric drive inoil-field operations was in the Russian field of Baku in 1900. The firstapplication in this country was made by the South Penn Oil Co. near Folsom, West Va. in 1903.

In 1916, electric power was first used in the Burma fields of India fordrilling and pumping. Between 1916 and 1922, The Empire Gas &Fuel Co. madethe first large electrical installation in the Mid-Continent fields. Butalthough the first application was made 27 years ago, it is only within thelast 10 years that oil companies have begun to look upon its use with muchfavor. Within the last few years, there has been a steady increase in the useof electricity in the oil fields.

The first application of electricity for oil-field operations in Wyoming wasin the Lander field in 1919; the second was in 1924 in Salt Creek; and thethird, and last to date, was made by the Continental Oil Co. in the Big Muddyfield during 1926.

Lander Field

The electrification of oil-field operations in Wyoming was initiated by J.W.Steele, superintendent of the Producers &Refiners Oil Corp., in the Landerfield in 1919. At that time, 32 wells were being pumped from five band-wheelpowers, with oil engines as the prime movers. Eight barrels of fuel oil wereused for power per day and at the price of 90 c. per bbl. the fuel bill was $36 per day. It was decided to try a 15 to 35-hp. oil-field motor on one of thesepowers. Electric power was generated with steam at the old Wind River refinerystation. This test was so successful that in 1920 all five powers were equippedwith 15 to 35-hp. oil-field motors, the power being obtained from the SinksCanyon hydroelectric station. Four of these powers pumped wells at an averagedepth of 1450 ft., and the fifth pumped wells at an average of 2100 ft. In1920, the average production per day from the 32 wells was 325 bbl.
Summary of Existing Information on Handling Congealing Oils and Paraffin
Authors: Reistle C.E.
Published: June 2014

All crude oils become more viscous when chilled, but the only oils thatcongeal and precipitate paraffin to such an extent as actually to causeproduction troubles are those that contain an appreciable amount of wax.

In handling these oils of high wax content, three distinct problems may beencountered before the oil reaches the refinery. The first problem is theprecipitation and accumulation of paraffin in the well, either in the oilstring or on the face and in the pores of the sand. The second problem is theaccumulation of paraffin and the congealing of oil in the transportation lines.The third problem is the precipitation of paraffin and the formation of tankbottoms.

Factors That Control the Solubility of Paraffin in Crude Oil

Two main factors, possibly three, govern the solubility of wax in crude oil.The first of these is temperature. The solubility of wax in crude oil increaseswith an increase in temperature, and as the temperature approaches the meltingpoint, the wax becomes soluble in all proportions in the crude oil. The higherthe melting point of a wax, the less soluble it is in crude oil below itsmelting point. All crude oils containing wax can be chilled to a point wherethe oil is saturated with wax. If the temperature is decreased below thispoint, some of the wax will crystallize from solution. Fig. 1 shows the effectof temperature on the solubility of crude paraffin in oil.

The second factor is the amount of volatile constituents and gas removedfrom the crude oil. Evaporation of the volatile constituents and gas lessensthe volume of the oil and concentrates the solution of wax in the oil;therefore less wax can be held in solution at a definite temperature. As thenatural amount of wax present in the oil is constant, this results in the oilbecoming saturated with wax at a higher temperature than if the volatileconstituents and gas were still in the oil.
Summary of Discussion on Petroleum Engineering Problems
Authors: Hill H.H.
Published: June 2014

The Round Table Discussion on Petroleum Engineering Research was planned fortwo purposes. First, to review the work that has been done by petroleumengineers during the past few years on problems that have confronted theindustry and, second, to suggest new studies that should be made either on theproblems that have been the subject of research during the past or on problemsthat have arisen only recently. It was believed that by holding an informaldiscussion of the problems in which the petroleum engineer is vitallyinterested it would be possible to bring out new ideas as to the relativeimportance of the different problems that should be studied and to suggest newmethods for attacking some of the problems that have resisted the energies ofresearch workers throughout the industry. It was also believed that byarranging for an exchange of experiences between the different engineers itwould be possible to prevent a large amount of duplication of effort inconducting research work. Those engaged in petroleum engineering researchrealize that there is a broad field for study and by coordinating the work itwill be possible to obtain the maximum amount of information in the shortestpossible time.

In planning the program on Petroleum Engineering Research, nine subjectswere selected for discussion and each was assigned to a man who is doing workon that subject. These men were asked to lead the discussion on the problemassigned to each one. An effort was made to choose problems of a practicalnature and upon which considerable work is being conducted at the present time.Some of the men who were asked to lead the discussion were unable to attend themeeting but most of them submitted a written discussion of the subjectassigned, with the result that there was a discussion of eight of the nineproblems. Professor Uren, who was asked to lead the discussion on the subjectof Recent Developments in Methods for Reducing Gas-oil Ratios, was unable toattend the meeting and advised that he did not have any new ideas tocontribute.
The Loss Ratio Method of Extrapolating Oil Well Decline Curves
Authors: Johnson Roswell H. , Bollens A.L.
Published: June 2014

The appraisal of oil wells, now that we have the age-size method of makingcomposite decline curves, and the present worth of successive time units methodof valuation, has its greatest remaining uncertainty in the difficulty ofextending into the future the price curve and the composite production curve.The point of attack in this paper is the carrying on (or extrapolation) of theproduction curve.

Led by the valuable discovery of Lewis and Beal that the decline curve isnearer the hyperbolic class, y = (x + a)−n, than any other form, the currentpractice is the graphic method. The data are plotted on logarithmic paper andshifted with successive trials until the line becomes straight. This straightline can then be extended into the future. The method was a great help duringthe period when, for tax purposes, there was need for a quick method eventhough the errors were large. Now that we seek greater validity in our methodswe find the following faults with the current method.Where the shift is great (it exceeds 10 in some cases) the scale cannotbe read with the necessary precision so that the resulting data would give avery irregular and inaccurate curve.Where the curve cannot be straightened on logarithmic paper because ofsigmoid shape the method has a serious systematic error. We believe the sigmoidcurves to be more common than usually supposed, indeed when one considers thenumber of variable causative factors this is to be expected.

We have therefore been seeking a method that is free from these difficultiesand yet not so laborious as fitting a curve to the data and the calculationfrom the formula which, since it involves looking up logarithms, is undulytime-consuming. The method here described has been developed on the basissuggested by Earl Oliver, that the amount of oil produced per month or year foreach reduction of production of a barrel of oil per day could be plotted toadvantage.
Cooperative Development of Oil Pools
Authors: Kiessling O.E.
Published: June 2014

Viewed from the standpoint of an economist, the task which faces thepetroleum producing industry is one of intelligent adjustment so thattechnology can perform the job of efficient exploitation, while at the sametime the interests of producers and consumers remain adequately protected.

The crux in the task of making this adjustment lies in the difficulty ofarranging the instrumentalities of production to accord with the physicalcharacteristics of oil. For example, oil is exploited under a competitiveeconomic system based on private ownership and contract, with the hope thatprofits will attract capital and enterprise, and with competition supposedlyacting as the regulative factor. Whether such a scheme of industrialorganization works is partially dependent upon the ability of the producer towith old or produce his commodity as he sees fit, in accordance with marketdemand. But in the oil industry, the enterpriser does not have complete controlover the expansion and contraction of production, for, because of the decisionsof the courts that ownership in oil depends upon its possession, desire forimmediate output becomes the controlling force in production. Consequently, thetheoretical commands and restraints of free enterprise are not operativebecause there is no security of property, and the result is loss due to thefollowing economic maladjustments:Production not completely responsive to price control.Production at excessive cost.Loss of oil, a highly exhaustible natural resource.

If economic maladjustments are to be eliminated, there should be a change in the organization of production so as to provide efficientexploitation of the oil and at the same time to insure individual propertyinterests. The latter is necessary if economic considerations are to becomeprimary factors in regulating production.

T.P. 28
Acid Bottle Method of Subsurface Well Survey and Its Application
Authors: Griswold E.H.
Published: June 2014

The surveying of oil wells has in recent months become a common practice inthe deep fields of the Mid-Continent area. Borehole surveys have been made bymining companies for many years, but the introduction of such methods into theoil fields has been delayed until the past few years, because the value ofsurvey data was not fully appreciated.

The acid and gelatin bottle methods of obtaining the angle of deviation andthe floating compass method of obtaining the direction of horizontal drift havebeen in use for more than 20 years. A photographic recording instrumentconsisting of a plumb bob, magnetic needle and electrically operated camera wasdevised and used in the Rand mining fields of South Africa prior to 1912.Another and improved photographic instrument, depending upon orientation of thedrill pipe instead of polar magnetism for direction, has been invented andused. The acid bottle method has also been used in conjunction with orienteddrill pipe. The magnetic compass is not reliable for oil-well work because ofthe unsymmetrical attraction of the needle to the well casing and possiblemagnetic formations. Many engineers also concur in the opinion that orientationof the drill pipe from instrument to surface will be inaccurate because of thetorque exerted between the drill pipe and walls of the hole, causing the lowersections of pipe to twist. When it is considered that 4000 ft. of 6 in. drillpipe has approximately the same slenderness ratio as 6 ft. of silk thread, suchtwisting effects can be readily visualized. The gyroscopic compass has beensuggested for use in direction finding, but the high cost of such instrumentswill prohibit their use, except in special cases.

Due to the lack of accurate direction-finding instruments, almost all of thesurvey work in the Mid-Continent fields has been of the acid bottle methodalone.
Intermittent Injection of Gas in Gas-lift Installations
Authors: Walker Morgan
Published: June 2014

Intermittent injection of gas in gas-lift pumping is a variation of thecommon practice in that the gas is delivered to the well for ashortperiod, called the "on time," followed by a period during which none isadmitted, called the "off time," instead of being admitted continuouslyat a constant rate or by intermittent flowing in which it is occasionallydelivered to the well in just sufficient quantity to flow off the accumulatedhead of fluid. The term "gas" is used throughout this discussion but itshould be remembered that in so far as the operation is concerned either air ornatural gas may be used.

The equipment at the well is the same as commonly used in gas-liftinstallations and gas may be admitted to either the tubing or the casing. Itseldom occurs that all the wells on a lease can be pumped economically byintermittent injection from one header. Wells that have flow characteristicswhich permit their being handled together have their intake lines grouped at acentral compressor station. Well groups may consist of two or more wells. Thetotal volume of gas delivered by each group of compressors goes to one well ata time through a quick opening valve, each well connected to the headerreceiving its charge of gas in turn. Special cases may require a deviation fromthis arrangement. The distribution of the gas to the different wells iseffected by an automatic timing device which operates quick-opening valves onthe intake lines. The timing mechanism may be actuated by electricity, liquidor gas pressure. The essential factor in the operation of the timing mechanismis that as one intake valve is closed another must be opened.

Water-Operated Timing Device

Timing devices operate the intake valves either directly, or indirectly bypilot valves. Of the former type one that is operated by water and has givensatisfactory service is shown in Fig. 1 and can be made on the lease. Thehorizontal cylinder is a piece of 10-in. casing about 7 ft. long, closed ateach end and free to oscillate about a fulcrum at the center.
Means of Controlling Gas-oil Ratio
Authors: Marsh Hallan N. , Robinson Bruce H.
Published: June 2014

It is now generally recognized that to secure the greatest ultimate recoveryof petroleum from a field it is necessary to maintain at all times the lowestpossible ratio of gas to oil production. The numerous ways of securing lowratios are not so generally understood or practiced. To many operators, reduction of gas-oil ratio simply means "beaning back" wells, withresultant reduced production rate. This postponement of production is oftenconsidered and spoken of as "lost" production, with the result thatcontrol of gas-oil ratio is in disfavor with some operators.

Various methods are herein discussed by which gas-oil ratio may be reduced, some of which involve no curtailment of current production, while others areaccompanied by an actual increase of daily production. It is further shown thatin cases where rate of production is reduced to conserve gas, the indicatedultimate recovery is generally increased. Principles involved are discussed, and conclusions are illustrated by data from the operation of wells.

General Principles

The rate and ratio in which oil and gas enter a well are solely dependent, so far as the operation of that well is concerned, upon the pressuresmaintained in the well opposite the producing strata at various times and atvarious depths. The method of getting the oil out of the hole, whether bynatural flow, gas-lift, or pumping, has no effect upon either rate ofproduction or ultimate recovery except through its effect upon pressures.
Core Studies of the Bradford Sand from the Bradford Field, Pennsylvania
Authors: Fettke Charles R.
Published: June 2014

The Bradford field of northwestern Pennsylvania and adjacent portions of NewYork state has attracted world-wide attention in recent years on account of theremarkable success that has been attained in the application of water-Hoodingas a means of increasing the extraction of oil from a pool that had almostreached the economic limit by ordinary production methods. It is one of the fewlarge oil fields in which artificially conducted water drives have thus farproved successful, although many attempts have been made to apply themelsewhere. As detailed a knowledge as possible of the character of theproducing sand in this field is therefore of considerable interest, not onlyfrom a scientific but also from a practical standpoint. Outside the Bradfordfield, such knowledge should aid operators in determining whether or not theirsands are amenable to Hooding. In the Bradford field itself Hooding operationsare not uniformly successful over the approximately 85,000 acres of productivearea, due in many instances primarily to variations in sand conditions. Aknowledge of just what these variations are would often be a great aid inovercoming the difficulties, or else would save considerable sums of moneywhich might otherwise be wasted in experimenting in areas where the chances ofsuccess are very small.

Realizing that more precise information in regard to the nature of thereservoir rock was essential to improvements in the methods of oil recovery, the Northwestern Pennsylvania Oil Producers Assn., by private subscription ofits members, took a core of the Bradford sand from a well 1/2 mile west ofCuster City, Pa., during the spring of 1925. The Forest Oil Co. also took acore of the same sand from a well about 8 miles east of Bradford at that time.The cores were submitted to the United States Geological Survey for study andA. F. Melcher has published the results of porosity determinations on theCuster City core.
Manufacture of Nitroglycerin and Use of High Explosives in Oil and Gas Wells
Authors: Rison C.O.
Published: June 2014

High explosives, particularly nitroglycerin, have been used in torpedoes forthe purpose of shooting oil and gas wells for more than 60 years. The earlyhistory of the oil industry in Pennsylvania is not clear as to who actuallytorpedoed the first well, although in 1865 the Roberts Torpedo Co. procured apatent covering the process. Gunpowder was first used, although nitroglycerinwas substituted shortly afterwards.

Wells are shot for the purpose of increasing the flow of oil and gas. Ashot-hole in the producing horizon, with its contributory fissures andfractures, increases the area of and stimulates drainage into the hole. Theshot-hole also acts as a collecting basin from which the oil is pumped. As arule, hard or close-grained sands or limes are shot, other more or less porousand soft formations usually do not require shooting, and might be injured byblasting. Shooting is also resorted to in mechanical trouble such asstraightening crooked holes, sidetracking pipe or tools, and for severingfrozen strings of casing or drill pipe. Explosives are also used sometimes toextinguish oil or gas-well fires although that work, which involves unusualconditions and methods, does not properly come within the classification ofoil-well shooting.

Some Factors To Be Considered In Shooting Wells

Although nitroglycerin has been used extensively for more than half a centuryin shooting oil and gas wells, there is still a great deal of uncertainty as tothe proper method of shooting or the amount of explosive required to producebest results in a particular formation. The possibility of shootingunproductive or cavey formations above or below the productive horizons, shooting into lower water, destroying casing seats, and the splitting orcollapsing of casing strings, are factors that require consideration.
Principles of Unit Operation
Authors: Oliver Earl , Umpleby J.B.
Published: June 2014

It is believed that in connection with the study of unit operation by thePetroleum Division of the A. I. M. E. a review of the simple principles of unitoperation would be helpful. To that end, the following discussion is submitted.It is not to be considered in any sense as the conclusion of the committee, butrather as material submitted for its consideration and represents at this timeonly the viewpoints of its authors.

Growth of the Oil Industry

In 70 years the oil industry has grown from a single well on Oil Creek, VenangoCounty, Pennsylvania, producing 25 bbl. per day, to more than 400,000 wellsscattered over five continents with a daily output of 4,000,000 bbl. In thattime petroleum has expanded from its simple use as a medicine in a fewlocalities to a multitude of diverse uses in homes of every country the worldover. During those years the oil fields of the United States have producedtwo-thirds of the world's output and have shipped their excess production intoalmost every country.

In those years several hundred thousand good wells in the United Statesdeclined into small ones and depleted shallow deposits gave way to deep zones;so that the United States crude oil industry gradually changed from one of lowcost production to one of higher cost. Throughout its entire life it haslabored under two serious economic disadvantages, namely, constantly recurringperiods of demoralization through overproduction, and competitive developmentmethods that are wasteful.

Development of Foreign Competition

During the transition from low to higher cost production in the United States, events even more significant were taking place in foreign lands. Jungles weretamed and deserts conquered.
Some Development and Operating Economies of Unit Operation
Authors: Harlan Sam
Published: June 2014

At intervals during the past several years the oil industry has beenconfronted with the problem of forestalling crises in its affairs. These criseshave been reduced to periods of depression which, fortunately, the industry hasbeen able to survive. Under the existing competitive practices which controlthe producing division of the industry it apparently has been proved that thebest efforts logically to curtail development and producing operations areinadequate for effecting a true production balance and the consequentstabilization of prices. The industry is awakening to the fact that thesituation warrants revolutionary thought and at this time it is looking for apermanent solution of its problem in a general plan for unit development andoperation such as the one first proposed by Henry L. Doherty. Mr. Doherty'sproposal was designed not only as a means for stabilizing the industry as awhole, but its principles involve very definite potential benefits for theaverage individual operator and royalty owner as participants in pooledprojects. The benefits to these individuals would be derived from maximumrecovery, the maximum utilization of natural energies, the minimization ofdevelopment and operating costs, enhanced values of leases and royaltiesthrough improved efficiencies and ultimate yields, improved earnings throughstabilized crude oil prices, etc. This plan was revolutionary to the industry'spractices and at the time was rejected, but it now appears that the developmentand operating policies for new properties are continually approaching the idealof the original plan.

Oil companies are constantly extending their efforts to improve all factorsthat have a bearing on the costs and efficiencies of their operations.
Mid-Continent Practices in Handling Flowing Wells
Authors: Bond Reid W. , Trax D.L. , Watson C.D. , Walker Morgan
Published: June 2014

Common practice in the Mid-Continent until recently was to prolong thenatural flow of oil wells as long as possible by agitation and then swab for ashort period until the well was put on the pump. Comparatively recently thegas-lift has superseded the swabbing and agitating period and in some casesencroached on the natural flowing life, particularly where it was evident thatthe potential oil capacity of the well was greater than the gas supply, orlifting medium.

The majority of wells are finished with either 61/4, 6 5/8 or 81/4-in. casingand connected to a separator through a flow line which is usually 6% in. Theflow line is generally designed to eliminate sharp turns and has reduced thegas-oil ratio and therefore increased the efficiency in a good many instances.Until recently all wells were allowed to flow without restriction against thepossible trap pressure until it was deemed advisable to put them on gas-lift.This resulted in a fairly efficient flow during the early life of the well ifthe well was rather large but was usually inefficient in small wells and in thelater flowing life of large wells, on account of the large area in the casingand therefore excessive slippage.

Recently, considerable effort has been made to increase the efficiency of smallflowing wells by running tubing to eliminate as much slippage as possible. Withlarge wells there is a considerable trend toward back-pressuring, or beaning tofind out whether it is possible to reduce the gas-oil ratios and increase theflowing life.

The greater number of fields that have been back-pressured have been producedin that manner through necessity, either to restrict production for prorationpurposes or, in fields producing by hydraulic pressure, to reduce waterencroaching. The recent Cromwell sand development in Little River is an examplewhere both back-pressuring by means of high-pressure traps and beans andflowing through tubing were used to conserve gas, reduce the high gas-oil ratioand prolong the flowing life.
Electric Welding of Field Joints of Oil and Gas Pipe Lines
Authors: Price Harold C.
Published: June 2014

Prior to Sept. 1, 1928, there had never beenconstructed what might be termed a long pipe line with electric-welded fieldjoints. A year later more than 2500 miles of electric-welded lines had beencompleted which varied in diameter from 6 to 20 in., and in length from 50 to 700 miles. This paper discusses methods used on five lineswith a total length of about 750 miles. The welding equipment used for thefiring line or rolling welds, was 300-amp. generators driven with six-cylindergasoline engines, and for the bell-hole or tie-in welds, 200-amp. generators driven by four-cylinder gasolineengines. A welding gang consisted of a foreman, 6 to 12 firing-line welders and2 to 4 bell-hole welders, a mechanic and a tractor driver.

Coupons about 1/4 in. thick were frequently cut fromcompleted welds, which showed a cross-section of the weld and an indication ofits size and penetration. For tests of tensile strength complete welds were cutout. The tensile strength of 52 welds cut from 420 miles of 12-in. lineaveraged 50,870 lb. per square inch.

The following results give a fair average of the numberof welds made per man per day: on 157 miles of 8-in. line both firing-line andbell-hole welds averaged 15.3-the firing-line average was 21; on 39 miles of10-in. line the firing-line average was 19.9; on 50 miles of 6-in. line, withunfavorable weather, the average was 17.7; on 424 miles of 12-in. line most ofwhich was welded during the spring, 10.3, and with good weather the average rose to 13 welds per day. The average time for making a complete weldon 12-in. pipe 0.313 in. thick was found to be 30 min. for the rolling weld and45 min. for tie-in welds.

A comparison of costs between electric and gas weldingshows that the cost of labor for electric welding is 25 per cent. more thangas, generating cost 61 per cent. less than gas, welding wire 40 per cent. lessthan gas, and supervision and overhead the same.
Recent Studies of the Recovery of Oil from Sands
Authors: Chalmers Joseph
Published: June 2014

The Petroleum Experiment Station of the U. S. Bureau of Mines atBartlesville, Okla., has for the past three and a half years maintained alaboratory with the necessary personnel for conducting research on methods ofincreasing the recovery of oil. Some of the preliminary problems encountered instarting this work, with the data obtained, were discussed in A. 1. M. E.Technical Publication No. 144, "Oil Recovery Investigations of thePetroleum Experiment Station of the U. S. Bureau of Mines," which waspresented at the October meeting of the Institute at Tulsa, Okla., in1928.

Scope of Paper

The following discussion gives some of the results of the more recent work atthe Oil Recovery Laboratory. These experiments were conducted to obtainlaboratory data pertaining to the relative merits or efficiencies of variouspressure media in the recovery of oil from a sand reservoir. Two general typesof experiments were conducted. In one the various pressure media were passedthrough an artificial body of sand partly saturated with oil at a constantinput pressure; in the other the pressure media were passed through the body ofsand partly saturated with oil at a constant volume rate. No attempt will bemade to discuss the ramifications of economic problems which enter into thechoice of a pressure medium.

Apparatus and Materials

The two 6-in. by 6-ft. flow tubes described in Technical Publication 144 wereused in these experiments. They consist of 6-ft. sections of 6-in. casing witha blind flange at each end.