bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Model of Intransitive Predicate Encoding
Authors: Stassen Leon
Published: November 2023

The foregoing parts of this study have explored the cross-linguistic encoding of intransitive predicates from several perspectives. In doing so, we have identified a number of parameters and tendencies which are operative in shaping the stratification of the domain of intransitive predication in individual languages. In this chapter I aim at an integration of these descriptive results, in the form of a general, universally applicable model. This model should be able to demonstrate how the domain of intransitive predication finds its formal encoding in natural languages, and it should provide a principled and coherent account of the universal limitations imposed on this encoding.
Rongorongo The Easter Island Script
Authors: Fischer Steven Roger
Published: November 2023

Rongorongo, Easter Island's enigmatic script and Oceania's only known pre-twentieth-century writing system, is here comprehensively documented for the first time. The author tells the full history of rongorongo's exciting discovery and the many attempts at a decipherment. Pre-missionary traditions surrounding rongorongo are described from previously unpublished material. Full transcriptions of all the 25 surviving rongorongo inscriptions are provided, along with detailed photographs of nearly every incised artefact. In over six years of full-time research that took the author from St Petersburg to Easter Island, a wholly new picture of the rongorongo phenomenon has emerged. This book is the definitive study of one of the world's most fascinating and eloquent graphic achievements.
William Judah Thomson and Ure Va‘e Iko
Authors: Fischer Steven Roger
Published: November 2023

Among the most important informant material about rongorongo ever gathered was that which the Rapanui Ure Va’e Iko furnished the Americans on the island during the visit of the USS Mohican in 1886. Paymaster William Judah Thomson (1843-1909), keenly interested in rongorongo, included in his justly celebrated report about Rapanui for the Smithsonian Institution-one of our principal sources of early history for the island-a detailed survey of what was known about the script at the time (Thomson, 1891: 513-26). With other members of the Mohican’s crew, Thomson had visited Bishop Jaussen on Tahiti in November 1886, just one month after Jaussen had completed his transcription of the manuscript “Empire des Maori”. Here the Americans had even examined and photographed seven of Jaussen’s rongorongo tablets-”all in excellent state of preservation” (ibid., p. 513).
Introduction
Authors: Jones Mari C
Published: November 2023

Numerous instances are attested of languages going out of use: Cornish in the eighteenth century, Dalmatian in the nineteenth, and today many indigenous languages throughout the world. Thorough documentation of the stages leading to their extinction would be of great interest to historical linguistics. For many languages of which we know are now extinct; the steps to their extinction may be understood more clearly if we have thorough descriptions of languages now on the way to extinction. The publication of Coteanu’s Cum dispare o limba? in 1957 is generally considered to mark the official emergence of language death as a field of enquiry. However, it is the work of Nancy Dorian on East Sutherland Gaelic which has contributed most to its status and credibility as a separate sphere of study and established its importance to the field of language change. Her pioneering study has been followed by a host of similar investigations (such as Schmidt 1985; Dressler 1982; Campbell and Muntzel 1989) which show that, essentially, linguistic change during language death is no different from that taking place elsewhere (Orlowski 1971: 187 ff.). What sets it apart from that occurring in ‘healthy’ languages is the rate, context, and amount of change.
Some Basic Concepts of Hpsg
Authors: Kathol Andreas
Published: November 2023

This chapter provides a brief overview of some of the major concepts of HPSG that form the basis of the exposition in the later chapters. Besides introducing notational conventions that are commonly used in descriptive practice, it illustrates some of the design properties of HPSG grammars, such as the reliance on valence features of verious kinds. Of special importance for the chapters that follow is the relationship between constituent structure and linear order laid out in the ‘standard’ version described in Pollard & Sag (1987, 1994).
Beyond German
Authors: Kathol Andreas
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, I attempt to outline how a topology-based approach can be developed for other Germanic languages, specifically the Scandinavian languages and Yiddish. There are at least two reasons why such an undertaking may be of interest. First of all, if a level of linear organization that is to some degree disconnected from constituency and/or categorial status is available for a language like German, we should expect that other languages may also exhibit symptoms of syntactic organization along linear, as opposed to strictly phrase structure-based, lines. I.e., if Universal Grammar, the range of possible human languages, includes the option of a language exhibiting linearly defined principles of syntactic arrangement, then it is unlikely that German should be the only such language. Second, because of the close historical relationship with German, Scandinavian and Yiddish are prime candidates for languages with structural properties that to some degree overlap with those operative in German.
Some Comments on the Ethics of Consent to the Use of Ovarian Tissue from Aborted Fetuses and Dead Women
Authors: Erin Charles A
Published: November 2023

On 7 January 1994 the United Kingdom’s Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority (HFEA) produced a public consultation document, Donated Ovarian Tissue in Embryo Research and Assisted Conception.
To Everything there is a Season? Are there Medical Grounds for Refusing Fertility Treatment to Older Women?
Authors: Fisher Fleur , Sommerville Ann
Published: November 2023

In October 1994 the High Court upheld the decision of a District Health Authority not to provide publicly funded fertility treatment for a woman aged 36, on the grounds of her age. Although the court case centred primarily on the debate about what constitutes a reasonable use of public resources, it also raised much wider issues about the criteria for women’s access to or exclusion from fertility treatment.
‘Pioneers in the Untrodden Forest’: The New English Dictionary
Authors: Mugglestone Lynda
Published: November 2023

Pioneer, in the figurative sense selected by James Murray in his account of the complex demands which the making of the New English Dictionary1 was to place upon the lexicographer, receives its formal definition in the fascicle Ph to Piper, edited by Murray himself, and published in June 1906: ‘One who goes before to prepare or open up the way for others to follow; one who begins, or takes part in beginning, some enterprise, course of action, etc.; an original investigator, explorer, or worker, in any department of knowledge or activity.
Making the OED: Readers and Editors. A Critical Survey
Authors: Knowles Elizabeth
Published: November 2023

If there is one single image associated with the dictionary, it is that of the elderly James Murray in his Scriptorium, standing in front of shelves overflowing with slips. In one sense this is regrettable; while it properly represents Murray’s enormous individual contribution, it obscures the significant part played by a large number of people who may never have visited the Scriptorium, or even met Murray face-to-face. It is the intention in this chapter to look more closely at the way in which their work was done, and the implications which this has for the project as a whole. In considering the question of readers, subeditors, and editors there is one key fact to be borne in mind: the typical contributor was an unpaid volunteer who was not only working ‘out-of-house’, but was in fact often living at a considerable geographical distance, with instruction and comment being supplied largely through the written word.
Accent
Authors: Fox Anthony
Published: November 2023

‘Accent’ has proved to be one of the most controversial of the prosodic features, generating a considerable amount of theoretical debate. There has been-and continues to be-disagreement about the phonetic nature of the phenomenon, its phonological role, and the appropriate mode of its description, as well as its relationship to morphological and syntactic features in specific languages. In particular, much attention has been given to the rules required for assigning accentual features to English words and phrases. The aim of the present chapter is to examine some of these issues, and to evaluate the more important claims made and views expressed as to the nature and role of accent, and the means of representing and specifying it.
Sophistic Parmenideanism in the Sophist
Authors: Palmer John A
Published: November 2023

In the Sophist, the Eleatic Visitor quotes Parmenides B7. 1-2 as having provided the basis for the parallel problems of appearance and falsehood. Appearing but not really being and saying things that are not the case both involve an assumption that what-is-not somehow is. Parmenides, the Visitor says, expressly forbade any such assump- tion: ‘when we were young, my boy, the great Parmenides used to maintain this firmly from beginning to end, so saying on each occasion both in plain speech and in verse – “for never will this be made acceptable,” he says, “that things that are not are; but as you inquire1 restrain your thought from this path”‘ (Sph. 237a4-9). Later, at 241d, as he sets out to explain the nature of appearance and falsehood, the Visitor says he hopes Theaetetus will not consider him a ‘parricide’ for forcibly asserting, against Parmenides’ injunction, that what-isnot is in some respect and that what-is is not in some respect.
Sophistic Parmenideanism in the Sophist and in the Parmenides’s Dialectical Exercise
Authors: Palmer John A
Published: November 2023

Plato presents the dialectical exercise that constitutes the second part of the Parmenides as an examination by Parmenides himself of his own thesis (Prm. 13761-4). Thus one naturally expects the exercise to have significant implications for Plato’s understanding of Parmenides at this time. Unfortunately, one might also expect that determining exactly what these implications are will be quite difficult, for the second part of the Parmenides has been without doubt the most puzzling and controversial text in the Platonic corpus. Already in antiquity it was the locus of strong disagreement, and there have been deep divisions throughout the period of modern Platonic scholarship over the exercise’s ultimate meaning. The unity of the dialogue remains the dominant problem.
Parmenides and Xenophanes 1n the Sophist and Timaeus
Authors: Palmer John A
Published: November 2023

Our discussion of the various sophistic Parmenideanisms in both the Parmenides and the Sophist and of the role they play in introducing difficulties that Plato is concerned with resolving in the positive portions of these dialogues has given a prominent place to problems concerning the nature of predication. I have been suggesting that Plato’s efforts to resolve the range of problems raised by the various sophistic appropriations of Parmenides will be grounded, at least in part, in his own rival understanding of Parmenides. This suggestion implies that Plato saw in Parmenides a model for how to develop the more complex conception of predication that enables him to explain how one thing can have many names. But we may not want to go quite so far, for Parmenides clearly does not engage in the type of philosophical reflection on the nature of predication that one finds in Plato. Nevertheless, even if Plato did not see in Parmenides an actual model for his own specific account of the nature of predication, he still may have seen him as allowing a genuine role for various types of predication and therefore as not legitimating the sophistic attempts to restrict radically the range of admissible predications.
Plato’s Parmenides and the Parmenides’s Second Deduction
Authors: Palmer John A
Published: November 2023

The remaining portion of the Truth describes the further perfections of Being considered in itself rather than in its manifestations. The properties it is shown to have in itself are all present in the Second Deduction’s account of the One-that-is. Rather than take up these properties as they occur in Parmenides’ poem and demonstrate how they are attributed to the One-that-is in the Parmenides, however, I want instead to follow through certain arguments in the Second Deduction itself in order to show how it reflects Plato’s use of Parmenides. In discussing the relation of the Sophist’s second critique of Eleaticism to this deduction, we have seen how Parmenides expresses the idea that the One has both ‘one’ and ‘being’ predicable of it by saying that the hypothesis that the One is signifies that the One is such as to have parts. Describing the One as a whole having different parts is a way of speaking of its capacity to have more than one property predicated of it. This basically spatial model of predication may well seem unfortunate, and its infelicity might be thought responsible for some of the tortured ambiguities of the Second Deduction. But since Plato develops this spatial model of predication via his appropriation of Parmenides, we need to try to come to grips with the problems it poses.
Fiduciary Relationship: An Ethical Approach and a Legal Concept?
Authors: Brazier Margaret , Lobjoit Mary
Published: November 2023

The HIV epidemic has graphically illustrated society’s continuing inability to agree on the fundamental nature of the relationship between health professionals and their patients. Traditional notions of paternalism have been eroded and discredited. Respect for the patient’s autonomy is much trumpeted. Yet at the same time many practitioners argue that informed consent is a myth1 and English law largely continues to endorse medical paternalism. Screening for HIV has revealed the contradictions in our response to the debate on patients’ rights and professional responsibilities in a stark fashion. On the one hand it is contended that any professional testing for HIV without the patient’s informed consent commits a criminal offence. On the other, the government endorses a programme of unlinked anonymous testing for epidemiological purposes where, as we will show, consent truly is a myth. Moreover, the Royal College of Surgeons, not an institution given to incitement to crime, advises its members that in certain circumstances they can, and should, proceed with non-consensual testing.
Getting Perplexed about the Virtues
Authors: Matthews Gareth B
Published: November 2023

Suppose Aristotle is right about how philosophy got started in the ancient Greek world. Suppose philosophy did arise, historically, from astonishment over how difficult it is to deal with basic puzzles about the universe. Is that also, as Aristotle suggests it might be, the way individual philosophers come to do philosophy? Even if Aristotle’s account fits the biographies of the very first Western philosophers, the Presocratic ones, does it also fit those oflater philosophers? In particular, does it fit Socrates?
Getting Perplexed about Divine Normativity
Authors: Matthews Gareth B
Published: November 2023

The early dialogue Euthyphro is similar, in several important ways, to the Laches. Both are definitional dialogues. And both end in apparent failure; they therefore count as ‘aporetic dialogues’, that is, dialogues that end in aporia, perplexity. To be sure, the word aporia does not actually occur in the Euthyphro (though, as we noted in the last chapter, both it and its cognates occur several times in the Laches). Nevertheless, Socrates’ interlocutor, Euthyphro, gives us a nice display of philosophical perplexity when, after the crucial central argument, he erupts in frustration, ‘But Socrates, I am simply unable to tell you what I think, for whatever we put forward goes around and refuses to stay put where we place it’ (IIb).
Perplexity as Itself a Target of Inquiry
Authors: Matthews Gareth B
Published: November 2023

Plato’ s dialogue Theaetetus ends with an agreement to meet again the next day. His dialogue Sophist seems to offer an account of the next day’s meeting. The main characters from the Theaetetus—Socrates, Theodorus, and Theodorus’ pupil, Theaetetus — are on hand for the discussion in the Sophist. But Socrates steps aside to let a newcomer, the Eleatic Stranger, take over the role of discussion leader. Why?
Quality of Well-Being: Quality of Being
Authors: Skorupski John
Published: November 2023

It is an old idea that there is quality as well as quantity of well-being-that a distinction (perhaps a number of distinctions) can and should be drawn between higher and lower human goods. The implications of the idea differ according to the wider ethical framework in which one places it. But since virtually everyone thinks that a notion of individual well-being plays one or another major role in our ethical thought the questions at stake whether it makes sense to distinguish between higher and lower goods, and what it might mean to do so-are of wide interest. In this essay I want first to examine the idea as such (Sections 1-3) and then to consider its place within a moral philosophy which takes the ethical standard to be the well-being of all, impartially assessed (Section 4).
Freedom, Morality, and Recognition: Some Theses of Kant and Hegel
Authors: Skorupski John
Published: November 2023

Kant affirms that no one transgresses the moral law in full freedom. Hegel says that punishment is the right of the transgressor. Both theses seem implausible, even bizarre. They are also in apparent tension; in that rightful punishment might be thought to presuppose that the transgression was fully free-while a punishment to which the transgressor has a right presumably is a rightful punishment. Nonetheless, despite this apparent implausibility and tension, both theses are true. Or so I shall argue; I shall also consider how they are connected. Although I draw on some important arguments of Kant and Hegel my aim is to isolate those parts of the arguments which are really necessary for the defence of the two theses and to show that these parts are sound, whatever may be said of the rest. My main interest, then, is in the two theses and their relationship, rather than in the interpretation of Kant and Hegel (though obviously I hope that such interpretative claims as occur below are indeed correct).
Psyche, Soma, and the Vitalist Philosophy of Medicine
Authors: Rey”’ Roselyne
Published: November 2023

In order to understand the positions held by vitalist physicians in the second half of the eighteenth century, it is important to be aware of the intellectual milieu in which vitalism developed, and of the specific theories to which its proponents were reacting. Vitalism1 was a view on the relationship of the body and soul (lime) whose main feature may be seen as the rejection of any form of simplistic dualism. In fact, in the course of their simultaneous attacks on both mechanist and animist views, the eighteenth-century vitalists tended to circumscribe the problems they were facing rather than to provide a final, unified response to them.
Describing Polysemy: The Case of ‘Crawl’
Authors: Fillmore Charles J , Atkins B T S
Published: November 2023

The realization that a word can have more than one meaning becomes a part of the ordinary language user’s awareness through everyday experiences with dictionaries. It is common for a dictionary entry to have numbered or lettered sub-parts, and these are understood as informing the user of meaning differences for the word. An example of such a division into separate senses can be seen in the entry for the verb crawl in the American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (AHD, 1992) shown in Figure 5.1. Ordinary dictionary users seldom have a need to look a word up in more than one dictionary, but if they do, they are likely to discover discrepancies between one dictionary and another in respect to the manner of representing the meanings a word can have. Figure 5.2 shows the entry for the same verb in the Collins English Dictionary (CED, 1991).
Gradient Well-Formedness Optimality Theory
Authors: Hayes Bruce P
Published: November 2023

Virtually every generative linguist has had the following experience: a given linguistic entity (sentence, novel word, pronunciation) is presented to a native speaker and judged to be neither fully well-formed nor fully unacceptable. In such instances, consultants often say things like ‘I guess I could say that; ‘It’s all right but not perfect; ‘It’s pretty bad but not completely out; and the like. Such judgements often get reified: the data are sorted into grammatical and ungrammatical categories, and an analysis is developed in which the rules or principles generate all and only the grammatical outcomes. This procedure is controversial, as Schutze’s (1996) comprehensive review points out. Critics of generative grammar might take the existence of gradient well-formedness judge ments as an indication that the entire enterprise is misconceived: that discrete ‘categories; ‘rules; and ‘constraints’ are just illusions suffered by the linguist.
Language Diversity: Patterns in Space
Authors: Nettle Daniel
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we move on from the mechanisms that produce linguistic diversity in general to the actual distribution of languages in the world. I shall be trying to explain why there are so many, and why they are distributed the way that they are. Defining and counting distinct languages is problematic, as it is far from clear exactly what constitutes one language. I shall return to this problem in Section 4.2 For the time being, we merely need to note that linguists do often refer to such entities, and furthermore that an impressive catalogue of the world’s languages has been compiled by the Summer Institute of Linguists and published as the Ethnologue series (the most recent of which, at the time of writing, was Grimes 1993). Grimes (1993) lists 6,528 distinct living languages, plus a number of extinct ones. A first observation about this number is that it is vastly greater than most people realize; non-specialists are hard pushed to name more than a couple of dozen languages, and estimate the global total in hundreds or tens rather than thousands. This is because the overwhelming majority of languages are spoken by small groups living in the Third World, as we shall see. The second point to make about the languages in the Ethnologue concerns the unevenness of their distribution. The speakers of the ten most widely spoken languages add up to half the world’s population.1 On the other hand, there are literally thousands of very small languages, and these are much more numerous in some countries than in others, as the following examples clearly show.
Aristotle (384–322BC)
Authors: Charles David
Published: November 2023

Aristotle was born at Stagira in Chalcidice in northern Greece. His father was a doctor whose patients included Amyntas, King of Macedonia. At the age of 17, Aristotle went to Athens to study under Plato, and remained at the Academy for nearly twenty years until Plato’s death in 348/7. When Speusippus succeeded Plato as its head, Aristotle left Athens, lived for a while in Assos and Mytilene, and then was invited to return to Macedonia by Philip to tutor Alexander. Aristotle returned to Athens in 335 at the age of 49, and founded his own philosophical school. He worked there for twelve years until Alexander’s death in 323, when the Athenians in strongly anti-Macedonian mood brought a formal charge of impiety against him. Aristotle escaped with his life to Chaicis, but died there in the following year at the age of 62. He married twice, and had a son, Nicomachus, by his second wife.
John Locke (1632–1704)
Authors: Woolhouse Roger
Published: November 2023

The foremost English philosopher of the early period of modem post-Cartesian philosophy was educated at Westminster School and Christ Church, Oxford. Besides studying, and then teaching, subjects such as logic, moral philosophy, rhetoric, and Greek, he had a deep and abiding interest in medicine, which brought him into the service of the Earl of Shaftesbury. As secretary to Shaftesbury he became involved in Protestant politics. This involvement resulted in an exile in Holland from 1683 to 1689, when, shortly after William of Orange took the throne, he returned to England and a life of private study and public service.
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831)
Authors: Singer Peter
Published: November 2023

Of all the major Western philosophers, Hegel has gained the reputation of being the most impenetrable. He was a formidable critic of his predecessor Immanuel Kant and a formative influence on Karl Marx. Through his influence on Marx, Hegel’s thought has changed the course of nineteenth- and twentieth-century history.
Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (1844–1900)
Authors: Schacht Richard
Published: November 2023

GERMAN philosopher and critic par excellence. A classical philologist by training and academic profession, Nietzsche’s philosophical efforts—deriving chiefly from the last dozen years of his short productive life—were little heeded until long after his physical and mental collapse in 1889 (at the age of only 44). He subsequently emerged as one of the most controversial, unconventional, and important figures in the history of modem philosophy. His influence upon European philosophy in the twentieth century has been profound; and he has belatedly come to receive considerable attention in the English-speaking world as well, as the shadow cast by the travesty of his appropriation by the Nazis and Fascists has receded, along with the sway of philosophical fashions inhospitable to his kind of thinking and writing. He gave his Beyond Good and Evil the subtitle Prelude to a Philosophy of the Future; and in this he may well have been prophetic.
Bertrand Russell (1872–1970)
Authors: Sainsbury Mark
Published: November 2023

Third Earl Russell, British philosopher, mathematician, Nobel Prize-winner (Literature, 1950), civil-rights activist, and public figure. His most important philosophical works date from the first two decades of the century, and include the magisterial Prindpia Mathematica (1910–13), written jointly with Alfred North Whitehead. In the period between the world wars, he came to public notice through some influential books about morals and mores, which he claimed were written for money. After the Second World War, he was a prominent member of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (and was arrested for participating in one of their protest demonstrations), and helped initiate the Pugwash conferences, international gatherings of distinguished intellectuals, mainly scientists, devoted to discussing ways to achieve and maintain world peace. His Autobiography caused a stir by its selective frankness, and by the rather unattractive picture it conveyed of the great man’s tardy yet intense emotional development.
Introduction: Intuitive physics
Authors: Eilan Naomi
Published: November 2023

All the chapters in Part II and portions of Campbell’s chapter in in Part I are concerned with the connection between the representation of physical objects, in perception and thought, and grasp of an intuitive [naive) physics. They all share the view that the connection is deep; that both perceiving and thinking of an entity as a physical object are inseparable from grasp of an intuitive physics -- principles that systematically link geometrical properties such as distance and size with physical properties such as velocity, acceleration and mass. However, the phrase ‘intuitive [naive] physics’, as it is used in the psychological literature (and, increasingly, in the philosophical literature) covers a wide range of different kinds of principles, and different ways of grasping them. These differences are reflected in the substantially different claims made in each of the four chapters about the content of the physical principles what are linked to object representation, and about the nature of the link. Our aim in these introductory remarks will be to bring out a few of the distinctions and issues that may be of use in assessing the relations among these claims; where they potentially conflict, where they are complementary and so forth.
Content and vehicle
Authors: Millikan Ruth Garrett
Published: November 2023

When my daughter Natasha was very small, she often arrived in my bed in the night. One morning she woke there, eyes big with excitement: ‘Mommy, I saw your dream!’ The dream was mine, it seems, because it was in my bed. A charming mingling of the intentional contents of a representation with attributes of the vehicle of representation - something that we philosophers try hard to avoid. The possible forms of this confusion are numerous, however, and some are vanishingly subtle. Some, I believe, persist in the work of contemporary philosophers, philosophers explicitly aware of the danger. The purpose of this chapter is to illustrate certain very abstract varieties of this confusion as they appear in contemporary work on perception.
Assembling routines and addressing representations: An alternative conceptualization of ‘what’ and ‘where’ in the human brain
Authors: McCarthy Rosaleen
Published: November 2023

At an intuitive level it seems obvious that there is a dose relationship between ‘what’ and ‘where’. in visual perception: in order to perceive an object it is necessary to segregate out a portion of visual space as an object; objects stand out from their backgrounds by virtue of their spatial properties; they are even differentiated from each other because they have different spatial organizations. The intuitive notion of a very particular type of dependence between ‘what’ and ‘where’ has been brought into question by recent psychological and neuropsychological evidence. An extreme but widely supported view is that the processes of spatial analysis and object perception depend on specific, independent computational operations. These cognitive distinctions arc mirrored at the anatomical level by separate neural pathways (see Figure 17.l). The integration of’what’ and ‘where’ information is construed as a computationally complex process rather than a basic property of information extraction.
On the Philosophical Significance of Frege’s Theorem
Authors: wright crispin
Published: November 2023

My interest in Frege’s philosophy of mathematics was kindled by studying Grundlagen as a visiting graduate student in Oxford under Michael Dummett’s supervision in 1966–7. I don’t think I had realized before that year how deep analytical philosophy can reach. The experience decided me to become a professional philosopher if I could. However, my debt in thinking about these matters is, of course, not just to Michael’s teaching of thirty years ago, but to his encouragement, writings, and general example ever since. I would have liked to avoid the apparent ingratitude of contributing a chapter to his Festschrift with which he will largely disagree! He will agree, anyway, about the interest and importance of the larger debate.
5.1 Socrates’ Final Two Speeches
Authors: Brickhouse Thomas C , Smith Nicholas D
Published: November 2023

In the foregoing chapters we have tried to explain why Socrates hoped his defense would succeed, and how the actual defense he presented was supposed to serve this end. Our argument has been that sense can be made of the Apology only if Socrates is seen as attempting to secure his acquittal in a manner consistent with his principles. To be sure, we can conceive of ways in which he could have made his release more likely; but to have done so would have required him to violate one or more of his deepest moral or religious convictions. These same convictions, none the Jess, did not prevent Socrates from undertaking a serious defense. On the contrary: he thought himself obliged to do so, and he fulfilled his obligation with dignity, elegance, and economy.
Descartes, Augustine, And The Status Of Faith
Authors: Menn Stephen
Published: November 2023

Ever since the Augustinian theologian Antoine Arnauld wrote the ‘Fourth set of Objections’ to the Meditations, scholars have been struck by the resemblances between Descartes’s philosophy and that of St Augustine. “It first occurs to me to marvel [miranl]says Arnauld, “that the most eminent man [Descartes] has established as the first principle of his whole philosophy the same thing that was established by the divine Augustine, a man of the most acute intellect and entirely admirable [mirandus] not only in theological but also in philosophical matters” (AT vii. 197-8);1 for both Descartes in the Meditations and Augustine in the dialogue De libero arbitrio (On free will) begin their reconstructions of knowledge with the indubitable knowledge of oneself as a thinking thing.
Introduction
Authors: Krausz Michael
Published: November 2023

While musicians are engaged in the details of performing particular musical works, philosophers of music enquire into the presuppositions of the practice of musical interpretation. Yet there is a dialectical relationship between the practice of musical interpretation and philosophizing about it. Characteristically, interpreters of music entertain philosophical views (however inchoate) about musical interpretation. And philosophers of music—by taking certain cases as salient and describing them in certain ways—reveal their musical biases (however inchoate). For example, an interpreter’s decision whether to play one or, another version of a piece, whether he should make certain cuts, whether he should use one instrument or another, whether he should emphasize certain elements and de-emphasize others, in part depends upon certain philosophical convictions. How he deals with these sorts of decisions will involve his view on what a musical work is—for example, on whether it is fully embodied in a score, on how strictly all markings should be respected, on what pertinence historical research has to his performances, on how decisive is the role of a historical or reconstructed composer, and so on. In short, discourse about musical interpretation should be informed at both the practical and philosophical levels. This collection of essays by philosophers of music is offered as a contribution to one side of that dialectic relationship.
Making Music Our Own
Authors: Sibley Frank
Published: November 2023

This chapter is about interpretation of music in the broadest sense, about how and why it interests us. And since examination of practices should precede theorizing about any topic, I shall consider the role played by certain common descriptions of music. For this, I shall ignore the much discussed descriptions that employ the language of feelings and emotions, e.g. the familiar ‘sad music’, and the problems these supposedly raise. Musicians and critics draw equally upon all manner of other non-musical phenomena both mental and physical. If when writing on music they feel the need of so many kinds of descriptions in order to say what is important to them, to neglect so much of the language of criticism might be to risk impoverished theory. Besides omitting feeling and emotion vocabulary for the moment, I omit much else, e.g. ‘aesthetic’ terms like beautiful and graceful, the technical vocabulary of music, and so on.
Aesthetic Decomposition: Music, Identity, and Time
Authors: Hodge Joanna
Published: November 2023

There are two sets of issues addressed in this chapter. First, there are issues emerging out of the parallel, drawn by Wittgenstein, between understanding sentences in language and understanding musical themes. Secondly, there is the relation between aesthetics and the philosophy of art, and a suggestion about how the distinction between them might be understood. These issues are addressed by disrupting the presumption that there is one theory of art, which can be applied with minor modifications to all the art media. There are two ways of disrupting this model: by exploring Wittgenstein’s parallel between language and music; and by concentrating analysis on the characteristics of art, which are especially marked in music. These characteristics are the relation of artworks to time, their temporal duration, their temporal structure, and their historical contexts. For the purposes of this chapter, the view to be disrupted will be referred to as that of ‘classical aesthetics’, and it consists in a combination of Plato’s theory of art with eighteenth-century analyses of taste and judgement.
Introduction
Authors: Logue James
Published: November 2023

If you look at ideas about probability and its application, it’s always as though a priori and a posteriori were jumbled together, as if the same state of affairs could be discovered or corroborated by experience, whose existence was evident a priori. This of course shows that something’s amiss in our ideas ... (Wittgenstein [1975: §232]) That there is something very much amiss in most thinking about probability is one of the few propositions most probability theorists would agree on; even then, the proposition is likely to be treated indexically, the theorist’s own account being taken to encompass the small minority of unconfused thoughts on the subject. Such partisanship is common enough in philosophy, but in this area it tends, less usually, to be accompanied by an urge to plunge into detail rather than fight out the central metaphysical and epistemological issues raised by the contending theories. A standard dialectical pattern is to offer a taxonomy of theories of probability-anything from a twofold classification (Carnap [1950]) to the elevenfold of Fine [1970]; defend in detail the applicability of one interpretation in all circumstances, or some (even all) in some specified varying circumstances; and criticize in detail the mistaken claims of other interpretations to be applicable in contexts where they are not. I would not disparage that pattern; something like it must surely provide the gist of any explanatory theory, and much of this work will conform to it. But it brings with it the danger of failing to address the larger issues of the force and motive of our detailed theory; I shall constantly, especially in later chapters, attempt to respect that danger. Wittgenstein [1975: §235] speaks of probability laws as ‘the natural laws you see when you screw up your eyes’: as in natural philosophy, so in philosophy, much can be gained at certain stages from deliberately blurring one’s vision.
Convergence and Consensus
Authors: Logue James
Published: November 2023

This chapter gives an account of the dynamics of SCS. §2.1. presents and criticizes the standard view of belief change via Bayesian conditionalization and argues the advantages of defining ‘conditional’ probability by means of pay-off tables. §2.2. presents the de Finettian concept of exchangeability, discusses its role in the convergence of probability-judgements onto observed frequencies and asks whether it is an objective property of the world or a property of our subjective judgements. §2.3. examines how conditionalization and exchangeability contribute to ensuring consensus about a large range of probability-assessments. §2.4. tackles the criticism which can be launched at any coherentist theory that it fails to take account of weight of evidence and offers a characterization of weight in terms of resiliency and second-order probability.
From Subjectivism to Projectivism
Authors: Logue James
Published: November 2023

As an increasingly rigorous account of SCS has developed up to this point, the theory has moved further and further away from the crude sketch of it presented at the beginning—a crude sketch which is too frequently what opponents of subjectivism take it to be. Given the tendency among these critics to assume that any theory more sophisticated than that is ipso facto less subjectivist, it is time now to enquire more closely into the precise nature of the subjectivism of the developed theory. The Introduction argued, partly from the failure of the objectivist alternatives, that there is scope for a personalist interpretation of probability; and Chapters 1 and 2 presented the core of a theory which attempts to build such a personalist account on the single, minimal, constraint of coherence. But, apart from the objectivist competitors, there are of course within a personalist framework options other than the de Finettian approach I have been adopting—it is important to see how it relates to these options and to indicate, at least, why it is to be preferred to them. Several forms of pluralism in the interpretation of probability also need to be considered, before moving ahead with the positive project of locating our subjectivist commitments as commitments to a projective—better, a quasi-realist—approach to the problems of probability theory.
Methods
Authors: Romaine Suzanne
Published: November 2023

In this chapter I will describe in more detail the rural and urban settings where I carried out the research and the methods used to collect the data. My choice of locations was based primarily on accessibility, i.e. the nature of the connection between rural and urban areas, and the nature of typological diversity of the substratum languages in particular rural areas.
Requests: Modification
Authors: Sifianou Maria
Published: November 2023

Although, as we have just seen, the form and function of requests vary considerably in English and Greek, it is commonly accepted that the force of a request does not depend solely, nor even mainly perhaps, on the construction employed. The kind of modification chosen is also a determining factor contributing greatly to the force of the utterance. Therefore, having discussed the possible and preferred request constructions in English and Greek we will proceed with the types of modification available, whose function is to soften or to intensify the impact of the request. These, too, reveal interesting differences related to politeness between the two societies. In other words, the speaker has to make a number of choices on various levels which have a cumulative effect on the result, and clearly this is not just a matter of linguistic knowledge.
Introduction
Authors: Gill Christopher , Mccabe Mary Margaret
Published: November 2023

Why did Plato put his arguments into dialogues? The task of the philosopher—as many suppose—is to produce clear, unequivocal arguments which may readily be assessed by the reader. If the philosopher clothes his arguments in literary finery, he may reasonably be accused of irrelevance, obfuscation, or, at worst, deception. Plato presents his arguments within the complex literary form of the dialogue; and so he has seemed particularly vulnerable to these charges. In recent years many scholars have discussed the relation between literary form and argumentative context in Plato’s dialogues.
Tasks of Inda-European Linguistics
Authors: Szemerenyi Oswald J L
Published: November 2023

The fact that so many languages of Europe and south-west Asia show widespread agreements in their grammatical structure and vocabulary can be explained, as we have seen, only by the assumption that they all spring from a common basic language, which we call Inda-European, and are all nothing other than independently developed variants of this original language, the U rsprache.’
Morphonology
Authors: Szemerenyi Oswald J L
Published: November 2023

Phonemes are the constituent elements of larger linguistic units. The first of these larger units is generally understood by non-specialists to be the word, and the study of the changes in word forms, e.g. in declension or conjugation, to be the task of morphology.
Syntax
Authors: Drechsel Emanuel J
Published: November 2023

Following conventional, perhaps almost stereotypical wisdom, North American Indian languages distinguished themselves by polysynthesis— that is by the incorporation of several stems and affixes into one-word phrases or sentences (see e.g. Mithun 1983). At the opposite end on the scale of morphological synthesis and in sharp contrast to this type of grammatical pattern appear pidgins with their fundamentally analytic structure. Like Eskimo Jargon, Chinook Jargon, Delaware Jargon, and other Native American contact media, Mobilian Jargon generally lacked affixations or inflections; its speakers determined the grammatical functions of words by their position within a phrase or sentence, that is word order, and also from the sociolinguistic context.
Questions of Origin
Authors: Drechsel Emanuel J
Published: November 2023

Prior discussion has deliberately avoided the question of Mobilian Jargon’s origin and development because of the topic’s elusiveness. Any answer is by its very nature speculative, and must draw on the broadest possible range of information, including extralinguistic data and findings from archaeology with some intelligent guesses. Only such a comprehensive approach can tackle the issue of Mobilian Jargon’s origin, specifically whether the pidgin was the product of European colonialism or reflected indigenous, preColumbian sociopolitical conditions.
Introduction
Authors: Ben-Rafael Eliezer
Published: November 2023

This book is a sociological investigation of the diffusion, maintenance, and loss of languages in Israeli society. It analyses the findings of studies of language activity and resources in a wide range of Israel’s communities and class, ethnic, religious, and national groupings. In other words, this book is about identity, boundaries, and symbolic resources, using the case of Israeli society as an example.
Languages and Stratification
Authors: Ben-Rafael Eliezer
Published: November 2023

The investigation of the linguistic activity that marks class boundaries is enlightened by the current debates in contemporary sociology over the contours of classes. The functionalist status-achievement school emphasizes the social mobility of individuals in modern society, and minimizes the importance of stratification (Treiman 1977; Blau and Duncan 1967). However, while they disagree about the forms of their boundaries, other sociological schools speak of social classes and strata (see Wright 1979; Kalleberg and Griffin 1980; Goldthorpe 1969; 1978). Marxist sociology sees these boundaries as discontinuous, as they are a function of structural givens, such as ownership over means of production or the distribution of authority. Neo-Marxists like Althusser (1969; 1971), Poulantzas (1975), and Wright (1979) also consider the possibility of contradictory class location to designate new middle-class groups.
The Case of a National Minority
Authors: Ben-Rafael Eliezer
Published: November 2023

Another well-known cleavage of lsraeli society differentiates Jews from Arabs. The discussion of this division is often extended to include the Palestinian population of the territories, the West Bank and the Gaza Strip occupied by Israel since 1967. However, since these territories are not part of the Israeli State, they represent an external conflict that is primarily political.
Introduction
Authors: Rogers G A J
Published: November 2023

John Locke remains, after over 300 years, a central figure in philosophy and a key thinker for an understanding of the culture and categories of modem society. This collection underlines ways in which his thought continues to be rewarding and takes us further in appreciating why he has been such an influential figure. A feature of recent Locke scholarship, reflected in this volume, is the connection between Locke’s political theory, his religious beliefs, and his epistemology and metaphysics. The first part of this Introduction is offered as a contribution to further appreciation of that unity in his thought through an account of aspects of the context in which Locke wrote his major works. This is followed in Section II by a summary of the chapters that constitute this volume.