bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
MEMORY EFFECTS IN CROSS‐MODAL MATCHING
Authors: JONES BILL , CONNOLLY KEVIN
Published: April 2011

Predictions based on the model advanced by Connolly & Jones (1970) regarding the storage systems involved in cross‐modality matching tasks were examined. Adult subjects made intra‐modal and cross‐modal matches to a range of standard stimuli under three conditions: zero delay between presentation of standard and subject producing his match, interpolation of 10‐sec. unfilled interval and interpolation of 10‐sec. filled interval. The results confirmed previous findings about the properties of visual and kinaesthetic storage systems and their relation to central processing capacity. The hypothesis that translation takes place before storage in cross‐modality matching tasks was also confirmed.
ASSOCIATIVE GROUPING AND FREE RECALL
Authors: MATTHEWS W. A. , HOGGART K.
Published: April 2011

Investigations are reported into the effects of variations in association level, word frequency and the presented associated group size on free recall, the associated groups being presented in both a blocked and a randomized fashion. In the blocked presentation recall efficiency increased with association level and was curvilinearly related to increasing presented group size; word frequency had no independent effect on recall but interacted with the variations in list structure to produce more efficient recall of the lists with larger presented groups of low‐frequency words, and better recall of the lists with smaller presented groups of high‐frequency words. In the randomized presentation recall facilitation with increasing association level was obtained but recall efficiency decreased with decreasing presented group size. These results are interpreted as being consistent with a coding process at input involving the use of categorized items and category labels, with the latter being necessary for the retrieval of the stored items.
LIGHT REINFORCEMENT IN RELATION TO PRE‐TEST ILLUMINATION
Authors: WILLIAMS D. I. , LOWE G.
Published: April 2011

Rats were placed in an experimental chamber for 30 min. on two successive days. On day 1 they experienced either continuous steady light or continuous flickering light. On day 2 the box was dark, with either steady light or flicker contingent upon a bar press. A greater light reinforcement effect was found when the illumination contingent upon a response was different from the pre‐test illumination.
RELIABILITY AND EQUIVALENCE IN THE EIGHT‐PARALLEL FORM ANXIETY BATTERY
Authors: PHILIP ALISTAIR E.
Published: April 2011

The Eight‐Parallel Form Anxiety Battery was administered to a class of physiotherapy students on two separate occasions. Differences between persons and test forms were found but there were no differences in scores between occasions, nor was there any interaction between test forms and occasions. Test‐retest reliabilities of the forms were found to be satisfactory. Equivalence reliabilities between the forms were found to be greater for measurements made on the same occasion than for measurements made on different occasions; in addition correlations between the forms were higher on the second occasion. In discussing these results it is concluded that more information of a normative nature is required before this promising instrument can be used in non‐experimental work.
THE GROWTH OF MANUAL PREFERENCE AND SPEED
Authors: ANNETT MARIAN
Published: April 2011

Hand preference, speed of movement of each hand and vocabulary were examined in a random sample of children aged 3 1/2–15 years. The distributions of preference and relative manual speed were found unchanged during growth. Sex differences in preference and skill indicated that females are more asymmetrical to the right than males. Right‐, mixed and left‐handers were found in binomial proportions in both sexes. A linear relation between degrees of preference and degrees of relative manual skill was demonstrated. The vocabulary distributions of right‐, mixed and left‐handers differed; that of consistent left‐handers was displaced upwards, that of mixed handers spread out to give a significant excess of mixed handers among those of lower IQ. The implications of these findings for the basis of lateral asymmetry and for the relations between laterality and language development are considered. Norms for speed of movement in each hand are given which can be used to assess manual disability.
AN ANALYSIS OF THE DISCRIMINANT VALIDITY OF SEVERAL REPERTORY GRID INDICES
Authors: ADAMS‐WEBBER J. R.
Published: April 2011

The flexibility of G. A. Kelly's repertory grid as a methodological paradigm has facilitated its application to a diverse range of current measurement problems. However, the discriminant validity of several grid indices has become an important methodological issue. The results of the present study suggest that considerable clarification can be gained through the systematic comparison of grid measures which have been used to assess presumably ‘different’ variables. The evidence reported here generally indicates that the segregation of construct and figure comparisons in a structural analysis of repertory grids is unwarranted. Specifically, measures of ‘cognitive simplicity’, ‘identification’ and ‘constellatoriness’ were found to be functionally similar, an observation which is consistent with the internal logic of Kelly's ‘personal construct’ theory.
VISUAL DISCRIMINATION AND VERBAL COMPREHENSION OF SPATIAL RELATIONS BY YOUNG CHILDREN
Authors: ASSO DOREEN , WYKE MARIA
Published: April 2011

A comparison of the ability of young children to discriminate visually between different spatial relations in line drawings with their comprehension of the verbal instructions regarding the same relations was carried out. The subjects were 60 children between the ages of 4 and 7 . The test material consisted of 27 cards. Each card had one or two lines and a circle drawn on it. The lines and the circle were drawn in different spatial relations to one another. The results show that the ability of children to discriminate visually the spatial relations between line drawings improves with increasing age. Similar improvement with age was found in their ability to comprehend verbal material describing the spatial relations of the same line drawings. Comparison between these two abilities indicates, however, that the visual discrimination of spatial relations is easier than the verbal comprehension of the same relations in all the age‐groups tested. The results also show that there is no correlation between individual performances in the visual discrimination test and the verbal comprehension test. Some theoretical implications of the findings are discussed.
STIMULUS CONTROL IN DISCRIMINATION LEARNING
Authors: WILTON R. N. , GODBOUT R. C.
Published: April 2011

Following go/no go discrimination training, hypotheses can be made about the stimuli which control responding and the underlying factors upon which such control is dependent. The roles of generalization tests and tests to ascertain the operation of response suppression (inhibition) are assessed for their relevance to these hypotheses.
CRITERIA OF SUCCESS IN A DEVELOPMENTAL STUDY OF ODDITY LEARNING
Authors: BROWN ANN L. , LLOYD BARBARA B.
Published: April 2011

Equal numbers of boys and girls in five groups of restricted CA and IQ were tested on a standard three‐position planometric oddity problem. The relationship of CA and oddity learning was examined for instrumental and verbal criteria. Four experimental conditions assessing the effects of form (both geometric and life‐like) and colour as the vehicle dimension for oddity were employed. The instrumental criterion was first met by a majority of subjects in the 5‐year‐old group. Majority achievement of the verbal criterion first occurred in the 6‐year‐old group. Verbal justification shifted from ‘same’ to ‘difference’ explanations with age. Initial training on either form stimuli set led to greater success than initial colour training.
CONSTANT RATIO RULE FOR CONFUSION MATRICES FROM SHORT‐TERM MEMORY EXPERIMENTS
Authors: RICH ROBERT
Published: April 2011

Clarke (1957) has presented evidence that a constant ratio rule holds for auditory signal identification experiments. That is, the subset of a large confusion matrix may be used to predict a smaller confusion matrix based on data gathered under identical conditions. Evidence is presented that the constant ratio rule also holds for confusion matrices derived from short‐term memory experiments. The 10 times 10 confusion matrix presented by Conrad (1964) is ‘predicted’ from the appropriate submatrix of two 20 times 20 matrices, with moderate success. Besides confirming the applicability of the constant ratio rule to short‐term memory data, the experiment also provides indirect support for Conrad's (1965a) contention that order errors are a consequence of confusions.
IMAGERY AND SEX DIFFERENCES IN INCIDENTAL RECALL
Authors: ERNEST CAROLE H. , PAIVIO ALLAN
Published: April 2011

Male and female subjects who differed on measures of imagery ability were tested for incidental recall in two experiments involving pictures and words as stimuli. In one experiment, high‐imagery males surpassed their low‐imagery counterparts in intentional free recall of words, but the reverse relation occurred with females. No relation was obtained between imagery ability and incidental recall for stimulus colour. However, the colours were recalled better when associated with pictures rather than words as stimuli, suggesting an effect of stimulus concreteness on visual memory. The orientating task in the second experiment was item recognition. High‐imagery subjects were more accurate than low‐imagers in the recognition task, and high‐imagery females (but not males) surpassed their low‐imagery counterparts in incidental recall of the stimuli.
THE REPETITION OF SINGLE SPEECH SOUNDS UNDER DELAYED AUDITORY FEEDBACK
Authors: FLETCHER JANET F. , YATES AUBREY J.
Published: April 2011

Three experiments were carried out to determine the effect of delayed auditory feedback (DAF) on the rate of repetition of single speech sounds. Other variables investigated were variation in repetition rate among speech sounds under DAF, and the effect of the subject's sex on repetition rate. Subjects were found to repeat sounds significantly fewer times under DAF. There was no significant variation among sounds repeated under DAF, nor was there a sex effect. Since the major finding was in the opposite direction to that reported by Chase (1958), a fourth study was carried out to investigate a possible cause of this discrepancy.
THE EFFECT OF VOCALIZING ON COMPREHENSION IN THE PROFOUNDLY DEAF
Authors: CONRAD R.
Published: April 2011

A group of hearing and a group of profoundly deaf school children were tested for comprehension after reading prose passages either silently or aloud. The deaf subjects were known, from previously published studies, to comprise a subgroup who primarily relied on articulatory coding to memorize verbal material, and another subgroup who seemed more to rely on a visual code. Neither the hearing controls nor the deaf articulators showed a significant effect of reading mode. The ‘visualizers’ comprehended significantly less when they read aloud than when they read silently. Though the two deaf groups performed equally well after silent reading, after reading aloud the comprehension difference was significant at better than the 0·001 level.
SOME FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON THE MEASUREMENT OF CLUSTERING IN FREE RECALL
Authors: DALRYMPLE‐ALFORD E. C.
Published: April 2011

Properties of recently proposed measures of clustering in recall are considered. Applying some measures to computer‐generated sequences revealed that some of them are likely to give a spurious picture of differences in the tendency for items to cluster in sequences that also differ in length.
THE INFLUENCE OF FORCE MAGNITUDE ON THE PERCEPTION OF BODY POSITION
Authors: SCHÖNE H. , WADE N. J.
Published: April 2011

With rotation in the sagittal plane, deviations of the perceived from the trained body position were measured at force magnitudes of 1·0, 1·4 and 1·8 g. In Expt. I body postures with corresponding utricular macular orientations in the region of 40° and 10° backward and 20° forward were examined. In the two backward positions the judgements were displaced forward with increased force operating, whereas a backward shift was produced for the forward utricular orientation. The results support the hypothesis that the position in which the body is perceived is related to the utricular shear force. In Expt. II body postures were investigated which involved orientations of the utricular maculae of about 70°, 90° and 110° backward. The small shifts in judgements produced at increased force magnitudes were not significant. It appears that the above hypothesis is only valid for shear values up to 1·0 g, and this may represent the physiological limit of the statolith system with respect to judgements of body position.
NOISE TOLERANCE AND EXTRAVERSION IN CHILDREN
Authors: ELLIOTT COLIN D.
Published: April 2011

A method of measuring tolerance of white noise is described. The subjects were groups of children aged 5 and 10 years. Extraverts tolerated a significantly greater intensity than introverts. Boys tolerated a significantly greater intensity than girls. There was no difference between the two age‐groups in level of noise tolerance. The method can be used to measure extraversion in a younger age‐range than is possible with questionnaires. Results are discussed in terms of Eysenck's (1967) concepts of ‘stimulus hunger’, ‘stimulus avoidance’ and hedonic tone.
DETECTABILITY OF ITEMS IN THE EYSENCK PERSONALITY INVENTORY
Authors: POWER R. P. , MacRAE K. D.
Published: April 2011

Fifty university students completed Form B of the Eysenck Personality Inventory, and were then asked to indicate which items were measures of neuroticism (N), extraversion (E) and lying. Almost all items were correctly detected, and detectability of items as N and E items was highly correlated with their factor loadings Correct detection of N items was not related to N factor loadings, but correct detection of E items was related to E factor loadings. This latter finding appeared to be due to the unsatisfactory nature of the E scale. Ability to detect items was not related to personality or intelligence. It was concluded that a major difficulty exists: the better an item (in terms of its factor loading) the more detectable it is.
VERBAL MEDIATION EFFECTS IN CROSS‐MODAL TRANSFER
Authors: GARVILL J. , MOLANDER B.
Published: April 2011

Cross‐modal transfer was investigated within the verbal mediation paradigm A–B, B–C, A–C. In the first stage the subjects learned to associate CVC syllables with three‐dimensional ceramic objects, which were presented either visually or tactually. In stage III transfer was tested by presenting the objects in the one of the two modalities which was not used during the first stage learning. Verbal mediation was found to be an effective aid in the transfer of information between the two sensory modalities. It was also found that an interference effect could be obtained in stage II, although non‐verbal stimuli were used in stage I. Transfer appeared to be larger when training started tactually and was tested visually than vice versa. It is suggested that this asymmetric effect is caused by differential verbal mediation.
ON THE TERMS ‘SUBLIMINAL PERCEPTION’ AND ‘SUBCEPTION’
Authors: REES W. J.
Published: April 2011

The terms ‘subliminal perception’ and ‘subception’, as now employed in psychology, are widely agreed to be unclear. It is here argued that it is necessary to distinguish between a developmental and an analytical use of these terms and, more importantly, to recognize that on the analytical use, which is also the prevailing use, the term ‘subliminal perception’ does not designate a form of perception but a form of epiperception. It is further argued that, in the light of these considerations, it is possible to disperse at least some of the confusions now attending the use of these terms.
THE REGRESSION TO RIGHT ANGLES TENDENCY AND THE POGGENDORFF ILLUSION. II
Authors: HOTOPF W. H. N. , OLLEREARNSHAW CHRISTINE
Published: April 2011

The regression to right angles explanation of the Poggendorff illusion was tested by varying the distance apart of the parallels. The varying amount of illusion this produced was shown to be consistent with a constant angular distortion. When, however, the apparent angle of the transversal was also measured, this was not found to be sufficient to account for as much as half the illusion with a 30° transversal. It was shown also that the extra amount of illusion could not be accounted for by the Müller‐Lyer component of the Poggendorff illusion nor by any tendency to see the distance between the parallels as smaller than it was.
THE REORDERING OF THREE‐TERM SERIES PROBLEMS BY BLIND AND SIGHTED CHILDREN
Authors: O'CONNOR N. , HERMELIN B. M.
Published: April 2011

The experiment compared strategies used by blind and sighted children in attempts to solve two forms of the three‐term series problem. Order of magnitude and temporal order were congruent in one, while in the other they were not. Results showed that both groups of children used a sequential rather than a logical order as a guide in answering questions, and that there was no indication that sighted children used a strategy of spatial coding. Strategies used were illustrated by analysing incorrect responses.
CONFLICT RESOLUTION BY SEPTAL, DORSAL HIPPOCAMPAL OR VENTRAL HIPPOCAMPAL LESIONED RATS WITH PRE‐ OR POST‐OPERATIVE APPROACH TRAINING
Authors: FRIED P. A.
Published: April 2011

Rats with septal, dorsal hippocampal or ventral hippocampal lesions were observed during the development of approach behaviour followed by the introduction of an approach‐avoidance (food—shock) conflict which was eventually resolved in favour of approach. Surgery was performed either prior to or after the acquisition of the initial approach response. Septal lesions made before approach training resulted in a loss of inhibition during the early stages of conflict, whereas lesions made just prior to the conflict resulted in increased inhibition. Irrespective of the timing of surgery, rats with dorsal hippocampal lesions demonstrated ‘normal’ avoidance behaviour on the trials immediately after shock, but overcame the fear sooner than the control subjects. Ventral hippocampal lesions produced less avoidance behaviour when made before approach training than when made just prior to the conflict. Possible functions of the various structures are discussed.
PERSONALITY AND THE SUCCESS OF CARD‐PUNCH OPERATORS IN TRAINING
Authors: SAVAGE R. DOUGLASS , STEWART RONALD R.
Published: April 2011

A short battery of tests consisting of the Eysenck Personality Inventory, a test of clerical aptitude and a coding test was given to a group of 100 young female card‐punch operators during their first day in training. Test results were related to supervisors' ratings of output made at the end of each month of a three‐month training period. There were significant negative correlations between extraversion and output ratings during the first two stages of training (r = −0·29, P < 001; r = −0·33, P < 001), but the relationship at the third stage fell short of significance. Neuroticism and coding scores were not related to training performance, but clerical aptitude became significant during the last month.
HEMISPHERIC ASYMMETRIES IN TACHISTOSCOPIC INFORMATION‐PROCESSING
Authors: WHITE MURRAY J.
Published: April 2011

A considerable number of experiments, reported since 1965, has been concerned with cerebral hemisphere differences and the processing of tachistoscopic visual information. The present paper critically examines the findings from laboratory experiments with normal Ss and from clinical experiments with brain‐damaged patients. Three general conclusions are reached from this analysis: (1) Much of the available evidence on tachistoscopic laterality differences and hemispheric asymmetries is ambiguous, equivocal, and inconsistent; this is attributable to inadequate methodological considerations and misinterpretations of response indicators. (2) The reliable evidence suggests the hemispheres differ in efficiency to initiate specific responses and in ability to analyse/encode visual information. (3) Future research into hemispheric determinants should supplement traditional recognition‐accuracy indicators with non‐vocal, non‐identificatory measures in order to separate response‐initiation from visual‐analysis effects.
TYPES OF IMAGERY AND IMAGERY TYPES: AN EEG STUDY
Authors: GALE ANTHONY , MORRIS PETER E. , LUCAS BONNIE , RICHARDSON ALAN
Published: April 2011

The occipital EEG of subjects differing in reported vividness of mental imagery was monitored during a series of mental imagery tasks. (i) Vivid imagers (selected on the basis of the Betts Vividness of Imagery Scale) had a higher mean dominant alpha frequency (m.d.f.) than weak imagers (P < 0·025), but there were no individual differences for alpha abundance. The difference for m.d.f. held for only one task ‐ an eyes‐open, minimal imaging condition, (ii) Greater alpha suppression followed presentation of High Imagery (High I) words than followed presentation of Low Imagery (Low I) words (P < 0·005). (iii) High I words elicited more imagery than Low I words, for both vivid and weak imagers (P < 0·005). (iv) Reported elicited imagery was greater for the vivid imagers (P < 0·005). (v) For two voluntary imaging tasks, alpha suppression was greater in that task reported by the subjects as being harder to visualize (P < 0·01), thus reversing the findings for (ii) above, (vi) Subjects completed the Eysenck Personality Inventory. None of the above findings could be attributed to individual differences in either extraversion or neuroticism. It is concluded that the act of imaging per se does influence the EEG and that alpha suppression is not merely a by‐product of the arousing nature of imaging tasks. However, difficulty in the act of imaging also influences the EEG. The equivocal results of earlier research may therefore be accounted for in terms of the differential effects of instruction to image, upon the EEG, as demonstrated in the present study.
INTERFERENCE AND SHORT‐TERM RETENTION
Authors: MARCER D.
Published: April 2011

The recall of a five‐consonant sequence was tested after retention intervals of 0, 2, 4 and 6 sec. Each subject was tested only once, thus eliminating intra‐experimental PI. Two experimental conditions were employed. In one (W) both the stimulus and interpolated material were presented visually. In the VA condition presentation of the stimulus was visual with auditory presentation of the interpolated material. Significant forgetting occurred in both conditions, VA recall being superior to W. The implications of these results for a unitary theory of memory are discussed.
THE INFLUENCE OF SHORT‐TERM NOVELTY ON AFFECTIVE ASSERTIONS IN YOUNG CHILDREN
Authors: FREEMAN N. H.
Published: April 2011

It is a common finding that young children will express affective preference for short‐term novelty. However, it is often not clear whether this is because they like the novelty or dislike the familiarity, or both. In this study, novel and familiar pictures were presented for binary choice under one instructional condition per group of subjects ‐ either to indicate which one they liked or which one they did not like. The children liked the novelty but failed to ‘not like’ the familiarity. The results pose the problem of why the two affective expressions failed to act as opposites.
THE MODEL OF COGNITIVE ORIENTATION: TOWARDS A THEORY OF HUMAN BEHAVIOUR
Authors: KREITLER HANS , KREITLER SHULAMITH
Published: April 2011

This article presents the main assumptions and processes of a model for the analysis and prediction of behaviour, mainly on the molar level. Analysis of findings concerning the orienting reflex shows that a cognitive determination of the input's denotative meaning (‘meaning action’) is an indispensable antecedent for the elicitation of the orienting reflex, adaptive and defensive reactions, and CRs. If these responses fail to cope with the stimulus situation, meaning is further elaborated (‘meaning generation’). Interaction between the input's connotative meaning and the cognitive orientation components (beliefs about self, norms, goals and environment) produces a ‘cognitive orientation cluster’, manifested in a ‘behavioural intent’, which turns into behavioural output through the mobilization and adaptation of innate and learned ‘plans’. Supportive empirical findings and general theoretical implications are discussed.
UNDERWATER DISTORTION: AND PLAIN DISTORTION
Authors: TAYLOR JAMES G.
Published: April 2011

In a paper on underwater distortion of size Ross et al. (1970) report results which they claim to be at variance with a theory they attribute to Taylor. The so‐called theory is actually a deduction from Taylor's theory of perception and, when it is correctly stated, it is confirmed by the reported results. The use of objective methods for the study of perceptual adaptation is criticized, and it is argued that subjective reports give a more accurate account not only of perceptual adaptation but of the adaptation of the behavioural system that is disrupted by any transformation applied to the retinal input.
DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES IN SHORT‐TERM RECOGNITION MEMORY
Authors: KIRSNER KIM
Published: April 2011

Changes in auditory and visual recognition were studied in subjects ranging in age from 10 to 60 years. Four‐word lists were presented serially at a rate of 0·75 sec. per item and followed after 1·5 sec. by a test word for recognition. Under a separate condition subjects simply named the test word as rapidly as possible. It was argued that subtracting naming latency from decision latency yielded a relatively pure measure of comparison time in memory. Age effects were found in decision latency, but these were greatly reduced by the subtraction procedure. When presentation list and test word were both given auditorily no age differences were found in corrected decision latency, but developmental changes remained when the list and the test word were presented in different modalities. It was concluded, first, that in comparison with perceptual and response factors, memory scanning time is relatively insensitive to age differences and, second, that auditory recognition involves the use of a pre‐linguistic or ‘representational’ memory system which is not sensitive to age over the sampled range.
IMAGERY: A DIMENSION OF MIND REDISCOVERED
Authors: KESSEL FRANK S.
Published: April 2011

This paper examines the re‐emergence of imagery as a topic commanding attention in psychology. Recent research (by persons such as Haber, Paivio, Sheehan, Singer and Inhelder) is surveyed within the framework of the cognitive‐experiential Zeitgeist. Attention is then given to methodological issues involved in devising a ‘new’ introspection and to a number of theoretical statements on the nature and development of imagery, notably those of Bartlett, Bruner and Piaget. Questions such as the kind and dimension of imagery, individual differences in imagery, and the relationship of imagery to creativity are raised. The general conclusion is that the study of imagery affords a good opportunity for gaining knowledge of the ‘everyday stream’.
AROUSAL INCREMENT AND DEGREE OF COMPLEXITY AS INCENTIVE
Authors: NICKI R. M.
Published: April 2011

In Expt. I subjects were required by means of a key‐press to view checkerboard patterns of either medium (36 bits) or low (four bits), medium or high (900 bits), or low or high complexity. Normally aroused subjects key‐pressed more often to view slides of intermediate rather than low or high complexity. In Expt. II EEG desynchronization was found to be an inverted U‐shaped function of complexity. In Expt. III subjective complexity (SC), based on the number of names of objects that the patterns reminded the subjects of and an estimate of the strength of each association, was found to be a U‐shaped function of pattern complexity. These results were interpreted using Berlyne's notions regarding arousal, conflict and preference for complexity.
SHORT‐TERM MEMORY IN THE DEAF: A TEST FOR SPEECH CODING
Authors: CONRAD R.
Published: April 2011

A study was carried out to examine the feasibility of identifying by a short test whether or not any particular profoundly deaf school child uses a speech code in short‐term memory for verbal material. Consonant sequences were visually presented, drawn alternately from a set of letters which had high acoustic/articulatory similarity (AS), and from another of low similarity on this dimension, but with high shape similarity (VS). Relative recall performance from the two vocabularies is taken to represent the extent to which speech coding is used.

Almost all control hearing subjects recalled more from the VS set; almost all deaf subjects recalled more from the AS set. The test thus provides a quick method of assessing the level of oral memorizing in one situation which has pedagogic relevance. Some validity is provided by the further fact that deaf subjects selected for oral facility yielded scores which were significantly different from those of deaf subjects not so selected — and different in the direction of hearing subjects. Just the same, the most oral deaf, as a group, approached nowhere near the level of speech coding used by the hearing subjects.

Caution is suggested when comparing memory span of deaf and hearing subjects using verbal material, since it can be shown that with some consonant vocabularies, the deaf may show larger spans than the hearing.
VIGILANCE DECREMENT AND SPEED OF HABITUATION OF THE GSR COMPONENT OF THE ORIENTING RESPONSE
Authors: SIDDLE DAVID A. T.
Published: April 2011

The present study was designed to investigate the relationship between auditory vigilance performance and speed of habituation of the GSR component of the orienting response (OR) to auditory stimuli. Fast habituators (n = 7) displayed a greater rate of vigilance decrement than slow habituators (n = 7), suggesting a more rapid onset of a phase of low arousal in these subjects.
THE ATTENUATION OF VISUAL PERSISTENCE
Authors: DIXON N. F. , HAMMOND E. J.
Published: April 2011

Haber & Standing (1969, 1970) have shown that visual persistence (VP), which it is suggested corresponds to Sperling's ‘Visual Information Store’, can be directly measured. The present investigation extends this approach with another direct measure of VP. This involves recording the number of phenomenally simultaneous lines that are experienced when viewing a single trace moving in a straight line, at a sweep speed above the fusion threshold, across the face of a rotating CRO. The results from three experiments suggested that VP for the apparent movement produced by this display was a decreasing function of field brightness, a curvilinear function of sweep speed, and an increasing function of rotation speed and of the spatial separation of the lines. One implication of the latter findings, namely that termination of VP may be brought about by lateral inhibition, received additional support from the finding that disruption by a superimposed noise field increased VP.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF VISUAL AND KINAESTHETIC JUDGEMENTS OF DISTANCE
Authors: MILLAR SUSANNA
Published: April 2011

Three groups, each of 36 children, aged 4, 6 and 8 years, performed visual and kinaesthetic intra‐ and cross‐modal matching tasks in three experimental conditions of simultaneous or successive visual inputs in an age x conditions x modality design. Stimuli were lengths with specific relations to a total distance.

No effect of simultaneous versus successive experimental conditions was found. Age, modality and the interaction between age and modality were significant effects. For 8‐ and 6‐year‐olds highest errors were on the kinaesthetic–visual (K–V) task; for 4‐year‐olds visual–kinaesthetic (V–K) and intra‐kinaesthetic (K–K) errors were significantly higher than all others. To test if differences in error patterns could be explained by poor movement control by 4‐year‐olds, data for subjects selected on intra‐kinaesthetic performance were subjected to a second analysis.

An age x modality analysis on subjects selected on K–K showed that age, modality and the interaction between age and modality were again significant effects. K–K errors for the 4‐year group were now significantly lower than V–K errors, and not different from K–V. V–K errors had not been affected by the selection on K–K and were significantly higher than V–V, and than K–V errors. The cross‐modal asymmetry (V–K > K–V errors) was thus not due to kinaesthetic response errors. K–V was only slightly and not significantly higher than V–V at the 4‐year level. This error pattern contrasted with those found for 6‐ and 8‐year‐olds where K–V, not V–K errors, were highest and significantly different from V–V errors. The implications of the results for theories of cross‐modal performance are discussed, and an explanation is suggested.
CONSTANCY OF MNEMONIC CAPACITY AS A FUNCTION OF TRIALS IN FREE‐RECALL LEARNING
Authors: BENNETT S. , DAVIES P.
Published: April 2011

An experiment is described on the free‐recall learning of a list of high‐frequency words. The results are consistent with the view that the number of ‘mnemonic units' or ‘chunks' recalled remains constant over trials and over a retention interval of one week. The results are discussed in terms of Miller's (1956a, b, c) unitization hypothesis and in terms of the idea that two retrieval processes operate in memory.
CAPACITY AND DELAYED SPEECH
Authors: SALTER DAVID
Published: April 2011

The experiment tests a hypothesis based on limited capacity under conditions of normal and delayed auditory feedback. Three predictions are tested on reading material in which syntax and coherent meaning are introduced as separate constraints. The hypothesis predicts that the difference between normal and delayed speech rates will be inversely related to the redundancy of the material but that the ratio of delayed/normal readings will remain constant across the passages since this measure also takes account of reading speed. A third measure, based on a selective analysis of speech disturbances, also confirms a prediction that the likelihood of speech disturbances increase throughout a sentence unit. The effects of delayed feedback are briefly discussed within the context of two recent models of information processing.
EFFECT OF INTENSITY OF VISUAL STIMULATION ON AUDITORY SENSITIVITY IN RELATION TO PERSONALITY
Authors: SHIGEHISA T. , SYMONS J. R.
Published: April 2011

Auditory thresholds were determined by a modified method of limits under 10 intensities of light (patterned or homogeneous). An analysis of variance of the data showed significant results for intensity conditions, personality type and the interaction of these parameters. Auditory sensitivity increased under weak, and decreased under strong, intensities of light in introverts. It increased under all intensities in extraverts, with greater increase at greater intensities, and increased under weak and medium intensities in ambiverts. The EPI E, but not N, scale scores and sensitivity increases correlated positively, at medium and strong intensities of light.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SHORT‐TERM RETENTION AND THE AMOUNT OF INTERPOLATED MATERIAL
Authors: MARCER D.
Published: April 2011

Two experiments are reported. In the first experiment subjects recalled a trigram stimulus after copying a string of random consonants, using either the preferred or non‐preferred hand. Retention was higher in the non‐preferred hand condition in which fewer interpolated letters were written per unit time. The second experiment measured the latency of solving a simple mental arithmetic task under each of the two writing conditions. No difference was found, which, it is suggested, supports the view that the two tasks prevented rehearsal equally well in the memory experiment.
A LETTER‐DIGIT MATRIX OF AUDITORY CONFUSIONS
Authors: HULL A. J.
Published: April 2011

A matrix is presented of the errors of perception made by 135 men and women listening to three male and three female speakers reading aloud different randomized lists constructed from the letters of the alphabet and the digits 1–9, heard in white noise. Data from a short‐term memory (STM) experiment, using simultaneous visual presentation and immediate ordered recall of two selected vocabularies of nine letters and the digits 1–9, are cited as evidence of phonemic confusion between letters and digits in STM.
TACTILE SHORT‐TERM MEMORY BY BLIND AND SIGHTED CHILDREN
Authors: MILLAR SUSANNA
Published: April 2011

Four experiments are reported on effects of attention‐demanding and modality‐specific distractors on tactile recognition by blind and sighted children. Distractors produced significant response decrements by 9‐ to 10‐ and 5‐ to 7‐year‐olds. The effect was absent in one experiment in which the number of trials with each stimulus pair was restricted to a minimum. Modality‐specific effects were not found. Movement rehearsal did not facilitate responses. Distractors did not interact with delays beyond 5 sec. Length of delay produced response decrements by younger children; and by older subjects when distractor effects were absent. Immediate responses were faster and more accurate than responses under 5 sec. unfilled delay. Effects of distractors were similar for blind and sighted children. The blind were less accurate, but faster than the sighted. This did not interact with the distractor term. The results were consistent with a two‐process theory of tactile retention.
DEVELOPMENTAL SPELLING RETARDATION AND ITS RELATION TO OTHER COGNITIVE ABILITIES
Authors: NELSON HAZEL E. , WARRINGTON ELIZABETH K.
Published: April 2011

Children whose spelling retardation is associated with reading retardation differ from children with retardation in spelling alone in the ways in which they tend to misspell words, suggesting that there are different reasons for these misspellings. The results imply that underlying at least some cases of spelling plus reading retardation is a more generalized language deficiency, but the mechanism(s) underlying the spelling‐only retardation remains unclear.
TRACKING BY YOUNG INFANTS
Authors: HARRIS P. L. , CASSEL T. Z. , BAMBOROUGH P.
Published: April 2011

Tracking by infants aged 8–28 weeks is shown to be supported by the displacement of an object relative to a background. When object and background move together tracking is disrupted. This disruption in tracking is shown to be due to the absence of relative displacement between object and background and not to movement of the background as such. The absence of relative displacement reduces the duration of pursuit but does not alter the frequency of target‐capture.
GROUP RANKING TECHNIQUES IN THE STUDY OF THE ACCURACY OF INTERPERSONAL PERCEPTION
Authors: COOK MARK , SMITH JACQUELINE M. C.
Published: April 2011

Theoretical and methodological problems in the study of the accuracy of interpersonal perception are discussed. It is suggested that one set of problems, known as ‘Cronbach's components’, arise from the use of arbitrary numerical scales, and the other — response set artifacts — arise from uneven distributions of responses on multiple‐choice questionnaires, or in rating scales. It is suggested that a group ranking technique — in which subjects within a group rank each other on a continuous dimension — will avoid both these sets of artifacts. Some preliminary data, using the four dimensions of extraversion, neuroticism, authoritarianism and intelligence, indicate that subjects can rank others on extraversion with some accuracy, but are poor at ranking others on intelligence and neuroticism. Their success at ranking others for authoritarianism depends on the spread of authoritarianism scores. The significance of these results is discussed.
THE EFFECTIVE VISUAL FIELD AND THE USE OF CONTEXT IN FAST AND SLOW READERS OF TWO AGES
Authors: MARCEL TONY
Published: April 2011

The amount read from the second of two successive fixations was examined in adults before and after a ‘speed‐reading’ course and in fast and slow 11‐year‐old readers, as a function of contextual constraint. Faster readers benefited more from increased contextual constraint. Errors related only visually to the display decreased with increased constraint; errors both grammatically and visually related increased more in faster than slower readers, and more so than predicted by the relative increase found in purely grammatically related errors. It was concluded that more effective use of context enlarges the effective visual in field two ways. With greater contextual priming, less sampling of visual information is necessary for word recognition, allowing more capacity for visual processing on the periphery. In addition, faster children, but not adults, showed an advantage even in sequences without contextual constraint. In the fastest readers of both ages a type of semantically related error was found which suggests a further mechanism of rapid reading.
THE LANGUAGE OF INCONSISTENCY
Authors: WASON P. C. , GOLDING EVELYN
Published: April 2011

This paper presents an interpretation of inconsistent remarks which subjects made in explaining their erroneous solutions to a difficult deductive problem. Four half‐masked cards of the following types were presented: (a) a number in the lower half, (b) a blank in the upper half, (c) a letter in the upper half, and (d) a blank in the lower half. The problem is to say which cards need to be unmasked to determine decisively whether a sentence like ‘A letter is above each number’ is true or false. The original aim was to determine the possible effects of varying the order of the terms in the test sentence: the results were inconclusive. However, the subjects' protocols were of much greater interest. When asked to justify their incorrect solutions, their remarks clearly revealed the operation of irreversible thought processes. Three possible hypotheses about them are considered, and it is argued that one involving dissociation of attention is most plausible.
IMAGERY AND RECOGNITION
Authors: MORRIS P. E. , REID R. L.
Published: April 2011

Subjects who were instructed to form images, and control subjects, were allowed an average of 3 sec./word in Expt. I and 6 sec./word in Expt. II to study a mixed list of 50 high I and 50 low I nouns. Recognition was tested upon a list containing the old words mixed with an equal number of new high I and low I nouns. Analysis of total errors showed that high I nouns were recognized better than low I nouns and that instructions to form images improved the recognition of high I nouns. Instructions to form images improved the recognition of old high I nouns, but did not reduce the number of false positives. However, high I value was associated with fewer false positives, but not with better recognition of old words. It is suggested that better recognition following instructions to image is the result of images actually elicited but that better recognition of high I than of low I nouns results from a greater semantic similarity among low I than among high I words.
HANDEDNESS AND CONTROLLED MOVEMENT
Authors: FLOWERS KENNETH
Published: April 2011

Subjects classified according to degree of hand preference were tested with both hands on two tasks of controlled movement. Strongly lateralized subjects (both left‐ and right‐handers) showed greater skill with their better hand than ambilaterals on a visually controlled aiming test (faster speed and equal errors), but there were no marked differences between groups with the other hand. Between‐hand differences were also greater in lateralized subjects. On a ballistic rhythmical tapping test, no marked differences in speed were found, but ambilaterals made slightly fewer errors with the better hand. It is argued (i) that for ballistic movements the hands are equipotential, and skill is a direct function of practice, (ii) that the essential dexterity difference between the preferred and non‐preferred hands is in the sensory or feedback control of movements rather than in motor function per se, and (iii) ambilaterals, especially those with very mixed preferences, have virtually two non‐preferred hands in continuously controlled movement tasks, and may therefore rely on ballistic movements more than do pronounced sinistrals and dextrals.
RETEST RELIABILITIES AND INTERRELATIONSHIP OF THE ANNETT HAND PREFERENCE QUESTIONNAIRE AND THE EDINBURGH HANDEDNESS INVENTORY
Authors: McMEEKAN ELIZABETH R. L. , LISHMAN W. A.
Published: April 2011

Retest reliabilities of the Annett hand preference questionnaire and the Edinburgh Handedness Inventory were obtained over a mean test‐retest period of 14 weeks using 73 subjects. Both questionnaires showed significant reliability coefficients, although these were perhaps not as high as would have been expected. The interrelationship of the questionnaires based on data from 617 subjects is described and the relative advantages and disadvantages of the questionnaires discussed.
AN ALGORITHM FOR THE SEGMENTATION OF AN ARTIFICIAL LANGUAGE ANALOGUE
Authors: WOLFF J. G.
Published: April 2011

Hayes & Clark (1970) have demonstrated that adult subjects are capable of identifying the beginnings and ends of ‘words’ in artificial ‘speech’ when all clues from pause, stress or intonation are absent. This paper describes the mechanism and properties of a computer program which can perform an analogous segmentation of letter strings. Although the program contains artificialities, it seems to model other aspects of cognition besides perceptual segmentation: the use of redundancies to effect economies in storage and retrieval of information, induction, and the importance of context in recognition. The behaviour of the program and other evidence suggests that the joint probability of two perceptual elements provides a better definition of association than transition probability. The possible relevance of the program to the learning of grammatical patterns is briefly discussed.
EFFECT OF LENGTH, DENSITY, AND ANGLE BETWEEN ARMS ON GESTALT GROUPING
Authors: PRYTULAK LUBOMIR S. , BRODIE DELBERT A.
Published: April 2011

In three experiments, subjects viewed two lines (arms) of dots in which one dot was shared by both arms, then judged with which arm the shared dot appeared to group. Length of an arm, density of the dots in the arm, and angle between arms were manipulated. Increasing the density of an arm increased grouping with that arm regardless of the angle between arms. Increasing the length of an arm, however, increased grouping when arms met at 30° but not at 180°; intermediate angles produced intermediate effects. Advantages of the present method's simplification of the stimulus display are discussed.
A CHECK ON HYPOTHETICAL PERSONALITY STRUCTURES AND THEIR THEORETICAL INTERPRETATION AT 14–16 YEARS IN T‐DATA*
Authors: CATTELL RAYMOND B. , KLEIN THOMAS W.
Published: April 2011

Basing hypotheses on interpretations of 12 personality factors most replicated in 10 past researches with children, this experiment sets up about eight subtests as specific markers for each. Ninety‐five tests, taking eight hours in all, were administered to 394 14–16‐year‐olds. A majority of the personality pattern hypotheses were sustained factor analytically by evidence on number of factors, significance of unique simple structure reached, and goodness of identifying match (chi‐square test). Concept validities can be obtained for some six of the factors rivalling those for intelligence tests. A brief discussion is given of the bearing of the present results upon theoretical explanations of the given source traits, including extraversion, and it is pointed out that the psychological meaning of most, for personality research, is as important, in variance terms, as for the one or two, such as anxiety and extraversion, which have tended to monopolize discussion.