bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Stocks et stratégie des entrepreneurs dans le cycle
Authors: Moret Michel
Published: August 2023

Stocks and entrepreneurial strategy during the business cycle

Stock changes are of strategie importance for business fluctuations but the total volume of stocks is a very heterogeneous quantity. A fundamental distinction is between desired and unwanted stocks. Other distinctions may also be established, for example according to the types of product slocked and their place in the production process.

Stocks are frequently considered as a residual quantity but, in fact, stocking policy may also play an active role as part of entrepreneurial strategy.

A study of the passive role of stocks in the business cycle leads to the conclusion that such an explanation is incomplete because it ignores the active role played by slocks. From the latter point of view slocking policy forms part of the general policy of the firm in order to ensure its expansion or simply its continued existence.

Three stocking policies are examined : stocks forming a basis for manoeuvre by the entrepreneur, speculative stocks, slocks due to a deliberate anti-cyclical policy followed by the firm. The introduction of active stocking policy does not invalidate the work done on the analysis of the passive role of slocks but it does render unlikely a purely mechanical explanation of the cycle which supposes a strict periodicity through time.
Joseph A. Schumpeter : History of Economic Analysis
Authors: James Emile
Published: August 2023

Joseph A. Schumpeter’s history of economic analysis

Although Schumpeter did not limit himself to the field he set out to study — the history of the development of economic analysis — his book makes available to us for the first time a history of the emancipation of economics as an indépendant discipline and of the continual process of improvement of its analytical tools.
Des expériences monétaires récentes aux mécanismes monétaires de demain
Authors: Denizet Jean
Published: August 2023

From recent monetary experiences to the monetary mecanisms of the future

The following articles represent a survey of recent monetary experiences in a number of countries whose structure and monetary problems differ greatly. Despite the differences between the opinions expressed by their authors they all tend towards the same conclusion ; the greatly improved knowledge of the reality of monetary mecanisms and the adaptation of monetary policy to the economic situation of each country. The various methods of control of the supply of money (Bank rate, open market operations, variable liquidity ratios) have therefore to be adapted to economic circumstances. As regards the interdépendance of different national monetary policies the progress in Western Europe towards the establishment of an international payments system is also of the greatest importance.

It would, therefore, be premature and dangerous, as a result of criticisms levelled at certain aspects of monetary policy, to neglect the vital role for the future of the control of monetary and financial flows.
Sur la croissance économique des nations modernes
Authors: Kuznets Simon
Published: August 2023

Reflections on modern economic growth of nations.

If modern economic growth is defined as the spread of a system of production based upon the increased application of organized systems of tested knowledge it is clear that the sum of tested, or scientific knowledge which has potential economic significance is very wide indeed. The increased speed of economic growth over the last century or so implies an increased rale of addition to the stock of knowledge in existence. If , recently , necessity has become less the mother of invention than in the past and invention tends to become the mother of new needs and impulses this implies that the backlog of unused knowledge in society may have increased. If this is so, all countries tend to become underdeveloped and large unused growth potentials in rich countries may prevent an outflow of capital from more to less economically developed countries. It may follow also that it is no longer correct to say that there are technical limits to growth. But even if there is now no fixed limit to economic growth potential we still need to know how the accumulation of knowledge may be maximized. Finally, skewness in the distribution of the human potential devoted to increasing the stock of knowledge or in applying it raises problems of national adaptations in order to make possible the maximum use of the economic growth potential of the transnational stock of knowledge.

The problem of the national exploitation of, or adjustement to the growth potential of knowledge may be approached through an examination of the prerequisites which seem exist for rapid economic growth to rake place. These seem to include an acceleration in population growth, a rise in capital formation proportions, a big redistribution of population and labour accompanying a decline in agriculture and a growth of cities, changes in the character of organizational units and a transformation of values. These changes are the work of active minorities and entail painful transition periods of controlled economic revolution. Once the transition period is over, sustained economic growth may depend increasingly upon social, political and economic institutions and their adaptation to the changing opportunities for economic growth offered by the application of science to production.

But economic growth in any one country is not cut off from the international situation of that country. Economic growth acts with unequal impact upon nations. The major innovation, determining a distinct epoch in economic growth , begins in one or a few pioneering nations and then spreads oat to others. In this process account must be taken not only of «peacetype» international movements of men and goods but also of the political or power element in international relations. The latter seems, in fact, to be increasing in importance both inside national frontiers and internationally.
Profit et croissance économique
Authors: Harris C. Lowell
Published: August 2023

Profit and economic growth.

Profit is related to economic growth in two important ways. It provides an incentive for growth and , at the same time, in so far as it is realised, represents a source of the means of financing growth.

The author considers what is the nature of profit as an incentive for innovation and managerial efficiency and the degree of incentives of this kind which is desirable. As regards the role of profit as a source of finance for growth, it seems that, in proportion to its size, it is more important than other incomes. Nevertheless, its use depends upon institutional factors. It is necessary to consider also the disadvantages of monopoly, exploitation and excessive profits. But attempts to remedy these defects should not lead to neglect of the fundamental cost element for society of pure profit.
Profit et expansion
Authors: Fanno Marco
Published: August 2023

Profit and expansion

Net investment is a necessary condition for economic expansion and ils finance requires a flow of profit during the expansion period. Profit and expansion are therefore necessarily linked in a capitalist economy.

The expansion process in a capitalist economy may be studied with the help of three analytical types of expansion ; potential , secular, effective. The curve of potential expansion depends upon population growtk, technical change and saving. An upward movement of this curve creates opportunities for expansion in the economy.

The expansion process implies three types of investments : primary, secondary and tertiary. Primary investments depend directly on the expansion potential of the system. Secondary investments take place as a result of the execution of primary investments. Tertiary investments derive from the savings generated by primary and secondary investments. In a frictionless system without lags, total investment would then correspond to the curve of secular expansion, the latter following the potential expansion curve but remaining below it.

Introducing lags enables us to construct an effective expansion curve which oseillates around the secular expansion curve.

In this process of expansion, the relationships between profit and expansion are the fallowing. An upward movement of the potential expansion curve causes a wave of primary investments. The addition of secondary and tertiary investments pushes the system above the secular expansion curve. The rate of profit and primary investments then fall. For some time afterwards, however, secondary and tertiary investments, through the action of the multiplier and the accelerator, keep the system in expansion. But whereas, at first development profits, associated with primary investments, played an active role in expansion, now the conjundural profits which subsist result from the continued movement of expansion itself. In the long run, however, the real motor of expansion is development profits acting through primary investments.

This point of view makes it possible to avoid the ambiguities associated with the concept of autonomous investment and to see how the phenomena of economic expansion and economic fluctuations may be related to a common set of factors.
Marges bénéficiaires et formation des prix en A.O.F
Authors: Capet Marcel F.
Published: August 2023

Profit margins and price formation in French West Africa.

Profit margins as well as prices and product qualities depend upon a number of factors in French West Africa.

I. — The nature of products classified according to sectors or origin and destination : imported goods, export products, agricultural and artisanal goods, industrial products and services. Price and selling structures, market organization and consequently the behaviour of prices and profit margins are different in each case.

II. — Commercial organization which may be classified according to the size of firms and the personality of their heads : large companies, medium small and micro-commerce. These factors influence price stability, the degree of discrimination and profit margins.

III. — Location : for example, in the case of imported products, prices are higher, more instable and discriminatory as selling points are further from the coast and urban centers.

Although each of these markets has its own characteristics there exist common factors :

— price and profit margin changes occuring sometimes in the same direction (parliculary in the short run) sometimes in opposite directions (particulary in the long run) ;

— price domination exercised by metropolitan prices ;

— character of local prices : discrimination, instability, dearness.
Note sur un essai d’approche probabiliste à la théorie économique
Authors: Fossati Eraldo
Published: August 2023

A reformulation of the theory of marginal utility derined from the author’s inquiries twenty years ago is reproduced as a specimen of the dynamic theory advanced by him at that lime and as an introduction to the present essay. Dynamics was associated by the author with an individual’ s imperfect knowledge and not with variations. Statics was defined as the limiting case of dynamics. The bridge between the two, from the point of view of the logical apparatus of analysis, was the consideration of homogeneous doses, dated at different instants of time, of the same good as different goods. In this framework the author suggested a reformulation of the concepts of uncertainty and risk. The individual approaches them on the basis of the principle that his decisions regarding the future depend upon a judgement representing an application of statistical methods, albeit a rough one. Consequently he acknowledged a relation between subjective probabilities and statistical method.

The author regrets that a formal dynamic theory organized around anticipations has not yet been completly realized. The problem of individuals’ expectations still remains the basic point to define. In this framework the author suggests considering Shackle’s theory as a limiting case.

Finally the general problem of the measure of the degree of probability of every theory is dealt with.
La théorie de l’horizon économique et des longueurs d’anticipation dans la formation dynamique du plan de la firme
Authors: Bowman M. J. , Byé Maurice
Published: August 2023

Although, as yet, we do not possess a dynamic micro-economics, its beginnings are already apparent. Two major theoretical approaches have been the probability and potential surprise approach, and one which gives more attention to processes through time. On the empirical side, there are the rapid spread of surveys of business expectations and empirical research on individual firms and industries.

The adaptive behaviour and programmed decision-making aspects of the study of firms also play a role, in so far as they take account of the need for simplification in business behaviour. This leads to the distinction between decisions according to programme and non-pro grammed decisions. In the process of simplification of decision-making an element is the selective time horizon, not only as regards investment planning, but inre sped of operational variables. Recent work in this field is sumarized.

As regards the structure of expectations and the nature of uncertainty, these have usually been perceived too narrowly. The concept of «mathematical expectation » is of little or no use in the analysis of business behaviour under conditions of uncertainty, particularly in view of the psychological demonstration of the non-additivity of subjective probabilities. This leaves the modal value adjusted by some coefficient of uncertainly or sureness and programmed forecasts for study, in so far as single-valued expectations are concerned. But no assumption of a single-valued forecast is adequate for a theory of the firm leading to aggregate analysis. This does not, however, deprive single-value expectations of all importance for a theory of short-term business behaviour in view of their value as practical devices. This leads to a consideration of the concepts of expectation bands and of bounded expectations.

Finally, the whole question of the formation and revision of expectations, as regards degrees of sureness and surprise, is examined.

It is concluded that micro-economics has recently taken on a new lease of life, due to contributions coming from many quarters, but that the work of developing a coherent body of theory has scarcely begun.
Sur les oscillations aléatoires des systèmes économiques
Authors: Malécot Gustave
Published: August 2023

In the case of a recurrent system (in the meaning of Wold’s «Demand Analysis"), it is easy to study the covariances of the stochastic quantities by means of the roots of the «deterministic equations ». In the damped case (roots all < 1 in modulus ), the variances and correlations between the contemporaneous variables tend to a steady state (in which the nearer to 1 the moduli of the roots are, the greater the variances are). «Lag correlations » have damping factors and pseudo-periods in which these roots appear. Examples are given in the cobweb case, and relating to the Tinbergen’s adfustement of American economic activity from 1919 to 1932.
Le rôle du capital dans le développement économique
Authors: Byé Maurice
Published: August 2023

The role of capital in economic development

Economic development must be distinguished from growth. The development of an economy implies its growth in conditions of structural change which bring about a change in productivity. Thus a poor country is not necessarily under-developed. It follows that capital must be defined as everything which increases the productivity of an economy. The definition of structure is that of a system of relationships between specific decision centres. It follows that structural mutations which characterize development can only be analysed as a result of the effect of the use, by each decision centre, of each unit of capital.

This can be demonstrated by the experience of under-developed countries where the application of overall growth models, implying stable coefficients, appears inapplicable. If, then, attention is directed to the various sectors of under-developed countries it is found that these are frequently autonomous in so far as they finance their own development and take account, in drawing up their development plans, of variables different from those retainèd by other sectors. The examples studied concern export crops in agriculture, export industries and industries producing for the home market. Finally, the problems of structural changes induced by capital formation are examined. Both the incompatibility of plans and the presence of unbalanced social structures can block the process of development. Examples of this may be found in the existence of self-sufficient sectorial finance which may, or may not, favour development. Again, the objectives of development change through time. A distinction should be made between the need to integrate a subsistance sector of the economy and that of integrating a number of commercial sectors. Finally, the role of the development of an integrated money economy and the choice of a foreign exchange policy are studied.
Variation du taux de profit et accroissement de la productivité du travail
Authors: Bettelheim Charles
Published: August 2023

Changes in the bate of profit and increases in labour productivity

A simplified model of growth is presented in order to study the necessary relationships which exist between changes in the rale of profit and the organic composition of capital, in the one hand, and the overall growth process which results from the mutual reaction of the accumulation of surplus value, the distribution of surplus value between constant and variable capital, and labour productivity, on the other.

Labour productivity is analysed as a fonction of time and not as a fonction of the organic composition of capital. As a result, there is no strict link between increases in labour productivity and the rate of accumulation. In particular, it is not assumed that an increase in labour productivity requires a previous increase in the organic composition of capital.

It appears that the fundamental trend in a capitalist economy is towards a fall in the rate of profit. However, the limit is not zero but a positive figure which, moreover, is approached more and more slowly. But, unless the rate of increase of productivity can be increased indefinitely, it is only in special, and short-lived conditions that the rale of profit can rise.
La croissance économique des petites nations
Authors: Kuznets Simon
Published: August 2023

The economic growth of small nations

The economic structure of small nations differs from that of larger ones. This gives rise to specific problems as regards the growth of the former. Their economic structure lends to be less diversified than that of the larger countries. As a result, their activities are more highly concentrated in a limited number of sectors. Consequently foreign trade is more important for small nations and lends to be centred on a few foreign countries only. As regards foreign capital the small nations may be able to attract funds from abroad more easily than the large country.

In discussing whether the situation of the small country limits its growth possibilities compared with other countries, the author distinguishes between technological and social factors. The small size of these nations prevents them obtaining the maximum advantage from large-scale production. Social factors — notably cultural and linguistic elements — impose a limit upon the development of foreign trade. The defense effort of small countries must also be taken into consideration.

If, then, there are certain disadvantages in being «small », how can we explain the growth of certain small nations ? Luck in possessing valuable natural resources or the aptitude to exploit them is not a sufficient explanation. More important is the fact that the social structure of some small nations is more homogeneous than in large nations and this facilitates the social adjustments made necessary by the process of growth. Their adaptability enables these small nations to profit from the changes which take place in the direction and composition of international trade.
Une théorie générale du développement économique est-elle concevable ?
Authors: Akerman Johan
Published: August 2023

Is a general theory of economic development possible ?

Almost all studies of economic growth attempt to construct a general theory , applicable to all types of society. But it can be questioned whether such theories could be applied to any economy at all. On the other hand , there are studies of «under-developed» countries , but these are seldom concerned with theory ; there is a conflict between technological , political and economic fact and the causal relations postulated in theory. The development of Keynsian macro-dynamic models has unduly narrowed economists’ descriptions of the evolutionary process ; explanation of the technological acceleration which has been characteristic of industrialisation requires a much broader analysis. This modern approach is in contrast with theories of development during the period of industrialisation , when ideas evolved through a series of theses and counter-theses which the author describes.

Following upon this survey, it is argued that there are two sorts of difficulty that any theory of economic development (whether general or not) must meet. These are fundamental difficulties (concerned with the evolution of technology, political institutions, and social values), and special difficulties (concerned with the problems of aggregation, production and income distribution, productive capacity and depreciation).

The author concludes that a general theory of development is not conceivable, any more than a truly general theory of cyclical fluctuations. But specific theories can be developed, and should embody at least three principles : the theory should : 1) Be founded upon a causal analysis of the region, based upon empirical evidence ; 2) Be a theory of structural change ; 3) Be constructed within the limits set by the existing institutional framework.
La politique fiscale et le taux de croissance désiré
Authors: White Melwin I. , Montuori M.
Published: August 2023

Fiscal policy and the target rate of growth

In recent years, economic growth has emerged as an important objective of policy, to be considered alongside the price stability and full employment objectives. The author argues that there is no logical obstacle to the use of the fiscal and monetary system to pursue all three objectives simultaneously. He presents a growth model after the character of those of Smithies and Smith, in which elements of the fiscal system appear explicitly as parameters, and the relationship between profits, investment and growth plays a crucial role. Discussion is oriented towards the problem of raising the growth rate to a higher level, and also to the control of inflation.

Certain general policy guides are derived from the analysis. First, a rise in the growth rale requires an increase in the savings ratio and (more important) a rise in factor productivity. The fiscal system can contribute to this rise by expanding government investment that lends to an increase in potential output, by specific adjustments in business lax provisions and by a relative increase in the taxation of consumption. Second, a high rate of growth is likely to produce an inflation-prone economy. Policy should aim at a specifically limited rise in the price level, demand-pull inflation being checked by relatively heavy taxation of consumption, and cost-pull inflation probably being best countered by modification of the full-employment target.
Note sur la politique du taux d'escompte
Authors: Thanos C. A.
Published: August 2023

A note on bank rate policy

The purpose of the paper is to examine and assess the contradiction between the growing belief of monetary authorities in the workability of such monetary weapons as bank rale, and the attacks upon this belief currently being made by academicians.

It is argued that bank rale has special characteristics which make it wrong to consider the rate simply as a price. In particular, bank rate affects the supply and demand for funds , but does so indirectly and not in a way that can be analysed in terms of the cost of borrowing. Further, the supply of short-term funds depends upon the behaviour of the central bank, so lhal it cannot be assumed that supply is a function of price (bank rale).

The essential matter, then, is the way in which a bank rate change in fact works its way through the supply and demand components of the money market. It is suggested that bank rate changes in fact make themselves felt by creating a «period of anarchy» in the adjustment of rates. There may also be a considerable psychological effect, of which one can be sure only of the direction.
La psychologie de la récession
Authors: Katona George
Published: August 2023

The psychology of the recession

Economic psychology has developed as a means of providing information about the future course of the economy. It has two basic propositions : that demand depends upon both ability and willingness to buy , and that changes in the latter are measurable.

The paper uses economic psychology in the examination of three related topics : a (psychological) analysis of recent (pre-September 1958) consumer behaviour in the United Slates of America, a study of the function of attitudes, and an assessment of the predictions some economists have made of an unfavourable economic climate in the United Stales during the next decade.

It is argued that three important sets of attitudes developed in the United States after World War II : optimism, a desire for children alongside a rising standard of living, and a belief that inflation is bad. The origins and nature of the recession are examined in terms of what happened to consumer altitudes, evidence being adduced from the history of the period and the findings of surveys conducted by the Survey Research Centre.

The function of economic attitudes is next discussed in terms of three inter-related aspects : attitudes and action, attitudes and prediction, and social learning. Finally, the author, looking ahead, finds inter alia that the majority of people in the United States did not expect a repetition of a depression like that of the’ thirties , and that recession had not markedly affected this belief. At the same time, an early return in consumers’ discretionary expenditures was not assured on the available evidence, and relatively optimistic attitudes were likely to be disappointed.

In the author’s view, the growing importance of the consumer might promote stability rather than instability : the need is to discover more about fluctuation in consumer demand by the development of economic psychology through the participation of economists and sociologists as well as psychologists.
L’action du G. A. T. T.
Authors: Wyndham-White Eric
Published: August 2023

The article traces the history of the activities of G.A.T.T. from its origins in the tariff negotiations of 1947. These activities are examined in relation to two broad objectives : the reduction and stabilisation of tariffs («tariff disarmament r>), and the removal of quantitative restrictions («. quota disarmament » ).

The evolution of tariff reduction and of quota policies , from negotiations product-by-product and between pairs of countries to proposals for much wider general negotiations and to such concrete developments as the formation of the Six and the Seven free trade organisations is described in detail.
Intégrations régionales et organisations internationales
Authors: Lacharrière Guy De
Published: August 2023

The attitude to regional integration of international organizations , themselves interested in breaking down or reducing the importance of national frontiers in the furtherance of communal solidarity, is inevitably equivocal. Such regional integrations also transcend certain frontiers, but they create new ones which may not be much wider and which are in any case different from those of the organization. At the same lime, the integrations might plausibly be argued to be a step towards the objectives of the organization itself, rather than as a breakdown in its global solidarity.

The interest and altitudes of the international organizations and of «third countries » in these questions has been quickened by the Treaty of Rome. and the author examines that Treaty with this in mind. The altitude of those outside groups, he argues, is one of aversion or dislike, and they endeavour to retaliate by control of the integration, by reprisals, or by absorption. These responses must condition the future possibilities of creating a true world market.
Aspects actuels du régionalisme et du mondialisme
Authors: Valéry F.
Published: August 2023

Following upon the period of post-war reconstruction, world economic relations have entered upon a new phase. This phase of movement has two broad distinguishing characteristics.

First, countries have moved beyond the immediate difficulties that provided the reason for bilateral negotiations and for the regulation of multilateral exchange, and have begun to turn their attention to the question of tariffs.

Second, the character of international negotiations and economic relations has changed, to become concerned with the creation of customs unions and free trade areas, on the one hand, and with tendencies towards a wider «internationalism » (a mondialisme y>) on the other.

The article discusses some of the characteristics of this new situation in the context of existing international institutions and relations, and in the light of such problems as those created for a genuine «mondialisme » by the divisions that exist (e. g.) between industrial countries, less developed countries and industrialised communist countries.
Accumulation et développement économique de la Chine
Authors: Bettelheim Charles
Published: August 2023

The article reports the author's impressions of the economic development of China, formed during a visit last summer as one of a group of French economists.

After providing background information, the author examines the factors influencing the rate of growth in two groups. First, he discusses the objective elements in the growth process, incorporating the aid provided by the U.S.S.R. and the popular democracies, population and agricultural production, supply of labour and the growth of industrial production, and the evolution of production techniques. Following this, subjective factors (the activities of the Chinese Communist Party, the importance of accumulated experience in the U.S.S.R. and the popular democracies, the special characteristics of the Chinese revolution and the natural character of the Chinese people) are examined, and some general conclusions are offered.
Programmation régionale et théorie économique
Authors: Papi Giuseppe Ugo
Published: August 2023

The author asks two initial questions : What determines the rale of economic development of a country and of the international collectivity ? Why do «backward areas » exist and persist ?

Starling from a discussion of factor relations , proportions and complementarities, he then considers such matters as the responsibility of governments and individuals for the growth or decline of production and population ; the essential elements of a secular growth trend, and the elements likely to favour or retard the economic development of a country or region. This leads the author to comment upon the non-linearity of economic development and to emphasise and illustrate the importance of factor disproportions with their associated tendency for «cost aggravation ».

Factor disproportions can vary in nature and the remedies for «backwardness » must also vary in consequence : the need is for more factual information and a «typology » of backwardness.

The article further considers the problems of creation of a suitable environment for the development of particular kinds of production and emphasises the value of a regional approach that permits consideration of the integration of economies.
La politique de l’industrialisation régionale aux Pays-Bas
Authors: Os F. J. J. H. M. Van
Published: August 2023

An introductory section describes the characteristics of the country, draws attention particularly to the yrowlh and uneven distribution of the population and explains briefly the three distinct periods of post-liberation regional planning. The author then sets out relevant principles of regional planning, and discusses regional industrialisation policies between 1946 and 1958.

A final section discusses the policies now being pursued. After a general description, the author considers the problems of designation of «problem regions » and the choice of development centres, and discusses the stimulating measures being used and other methods of encouraging regional industrialisation. Some outstanding questions about these policies are raised in a postscript.
La Politique d’expansion régionale en Belgique
Authors: Vandeputte Robert
Published: August 2023

The article presents the facts of history about the development of regional economic policy in Belgium, and comments upon the results of these policies. A final section comments upon the particular characteristics of the Belgian economy from the point of view of regional policies.

The author concludes that it is reasonable for governments to pursue regional development policies in order to assist areas with particular historical, demographic or even geographical problems. But it would be a dangerous illusion to expect great things of such policies in a country with the political and economic characteristics of Belgium.
Recherche-développement et production
Authors: Waffenschmidt Walter Georg
Published: August 2023

Development , Research and Production.

This article deals with lhe influence of scientific progress and technical development on the theoretical and real production function. The author studies how automation, for instance, influences the investment policy of the firm, and the production function. The author studies also the influence of linear programming on the production function, and the problems being raised by the new technical changes.
Invention et recherche technique
Authors: Machlup Fritz
Published: August 2023

Invention and Technical Research

In his introduction the author tries to give an accurate definition of invention, then he gives us the particulars of industrial invention as compared to artistic invention.

In a following chapter the whereabouts of technical invention are studied ; as well as the social origin of inventors, and the sources of intellectual property.

In a third chapter, the different types of technical research are being studied and statistics of the financing of research are given.

The second part of the article deals with technical research work done inside the firm and with its impact on the firm as a whole. The second part also contains a chapter in which the author tries to analyse the productivity of technical invention.

In his conclusion the author describes the influence of technical change.
Élaboration d'un programme de recherche
Authors: Jacquemin Pierre
Published: August 2023

The Elaboration of a Research Programme

The much more rapid application of scientific discovery by industry during recent years is associated with the development of technical research using scientific techniques ; a new category, the research worker , has been interposed between the scholar and the engineer. This has involved the introduction into the structure of the enterprise of a new organism , the Research Centre, which brings its own problems along with it.

The article is concerned with the nature of one of these problems : the elaboration of a research programme. The author argues that constant collaboration is a necessity if the problem is to be satisfactorily solved, and collaboration between the Research Centre and other services of the enterprise is particularly necessary in the selection of new projects, and in the final adaptation of the research programme to the financial resources of the enterprise.
La théorie économique de l'éducation dans les sociétés en voie de développement
Authors: Meier Richard L.
Published: August 2023

The Political Economy of Education in Developing Societies

Education has a very important part to play in the process of economic development. But the economics of education have not been very thoroughly studied so far.

In order to get workable results, education should be studied as a «quasi-investment». It is then possible to attribute to research and development some potentials for growth that arise out of other activities. The investigators of the economics of education could influence other economists and thus bring about a revision of the estimates of the true rate of saving, and even help to design an altogether new and more realistic set of social accounts.

The most vexing problem faced by the economists of education is how to measure it. The concept of information may help to find a solution to this problem.

In a second part, the author analyses the educational implications of development, a developing society must draw upon an international fund of knowledge, much of which is in conflict with its established ways of thinking, if it is to continue to develop. The author advises the setting up of a new financial institution for education, and educational planning for development.
La recherche-développement considérée comme facteur de production
Authors: Hertz David Bendel
Published: August 2023

Research and Development as a Factor of Production

The economists are chided for having neglected the element constituted by knowledge on the economic scene. It is true that when economists talk of capital they rarely include knowledge. The author claims that knowledge is the only real capital today. In truth , the relationships between knowledge , technology and production have been difficult for economists to contend with.

One of the questions to be asked is how production is to be related to research and development. Very little is as yet known about how to deal with technological development in theoretical models of economic growth , and as Haavelmo points out , the task of merely describing what is meant by technological change is very difficult.

The author studies then technology and knowledge as capital and concludes by saying that when an investment gives rise to pecuniary external economics , its private profitability understates its social desirability.

The author ends his article by studying chance and research productivity , relationship of innovation to real production function , and finally gives us a model for research and development as a factor of production.
Conséquences de l'introduction du concept de structure dans la théorie du commerce international
Authors: Dagum Camilo
Published: August 2023

L’idée de changement structurel joue un rôle fondamental dans la formulation contemporaine de toute politique de développement. Elle affirme la nécessité de construire une société moderne (progressive) par opposition aux sociétés de type traditionnel (sous-développées). Le concept de changement structurel est un thème particulièrement central dans la polémique de la dernière décade sur les causes génératrices d’une inflation dans les pays en voie de développement. Les protagonistes sont les représentants de l’Ecole latino-américaine (Ecole structuraliste) et ceux de l’Ecole orthodoxe monétaire. On peut aussi remarquer son importance dans les fondements théoriques de toute politique économique.

Cependant, le concept de struture n’a pas été élaboré, ni énoncé de façon aussi rigoureuse qu’en économétrie. Dans la présente étude on développe systématiquement un concept opérationnel et quantitatif relatif au changement structurel. Pour cela, on introduit les postulats stochastiques et déterministes et le concept d’espace paramétrique, pour arriver à une définition de structure stochastique et déterministe et de changement structurel. Cela permet une interprétation immédiate et une mesure quantitative du développement économique en termes de changement structurel. C’est le résultat de :

a) la connaissance de la réalité (structure observée) ;

b) la formulation d’une structure-objectif ;

c) la formulation d’un modèle de décisions (philosophie en vue de l’action) .

Ces concepts et élaborations s’appliquent aux relations internationales, en mettant en relief leurs fonctions et leur capacité à expliquer quantitativement les interdépendances, les faiblesses et asymétries des relations entre unités économiques nationales et blocs de nations.
Succint analytical descriptions of income distribution using transformation functions
Authors: Bartels Cornelis P. A. , Vries Oebele
Published: August 2023

This paper follows a pragmatic approach to the analytical description of income distribution. It aims at defining simple density functions that generate estimated frequency distributions which fit empirical income distributions well. We start from simple symmetrical density functions and consider some transformations of random variables that may be used to derive an appropriate density function of income. Selecting three symmetrical distributions and three specific transformations, nine theoretical density functions are obtained. For these specifications parameter-estimates are obtained for data in grouped form, using numerical search routines, for maximum likelihood and minimum chi-square estimation. The performance of the different functions is evaluated by comparing their goodness-of-fit. The empirical results are used to judge the attractiveness of the selected symmetrical distributions and the transformation functions for the purpose of describing empirical income distributions succintly.
A measure of inequality between income distributions
Authors: Dagum Camilo
Published: August 2023

This study introduces a new measure of income inequality that complements the traditional one as those proposed by Gini, Theil, Bowley, Kuznets and others. While the latter are competitive measures that purport to account for the degree of inequality inside a given population of income units (we call them here intra-income inequality ratios) the former is intended to measure the degree of inequality between income distributions, hence, it is a measure of inter-income inequality. The mathematical form of this new measure is derived from the proposed definition without any parametric assumption of the underlying income distributions. Then its mathematical form is derived under a parametric assumption of an income distribution model specified by the author. This study concludes with an analysis of the intra-and inter-income inequality among regions in Canada (1971) and between races (white and black) in the USA (1974).
L’équilibre social et l’équilibre général reconsidérés
Authors: Prézeau Carl
Published: August 2023

Les déficiences de l’équilibre général ne peuvent être saisies qu’à travers une meilleure compréhension des mécanismes aboutissant à un ordre social. L’équilibre des prix et des quantités, et celui des investissements et de l’épargne ne peuvent à eux seuls constituer cet ordre social. L’agent de l’ordre social est tout à fait différent de celui de l’équilibre général. La spécification des caractéristiques de cet agent sert de fondement à la formalisation du schéma théorique de l’équilibre social. Cette formalisation est mise en perspective dans le cadre du renouveau de la pensée économique que tente François Perroux pour la rendre plus adéquate aux réalités contemporaines. Elle est fondée non pas sur un postulat de différence de niveaux d’énergie entre les agents comme le propose Perroux, mais bien sur un postulat démographique de complémentarité entre quatre profils de besoin parmi les agents soit : le pouvoir, la richesse, la sécurité et l’hédonisme.
L’assignation des rôles et les limites de la notion d’équilibre général
Authors: Chanier Paul
Published: August 2023

Role theory has been neglected by economists. This is due partly to liberal motives and partly to a purely representative conception of economics. But without expectation of reciprocal role playing, economic agents would be deprived of power. With roles played in a non atrophied manner the equilibrium theory becomes very different. The theory of conflict gives to role playing a real importance, in a completely different manner from marginal interaction.

Social psychology is not concerned with irrational attitudes but has something more serious to do.
Profit, domination et équilibre dans «l’essai sur la nature du commerce en général» de R. Cantillon
Authors: Gilardi Jean-claude
Published: August 2023

Les thèses de CANTILLON sur le rôle de l’entrepreneur, la valeur-coût, la concurrence et l’équilibre économique sont connues. Cet article nous fait entrevoir deux autres aspects de cette œuvre que la théorie moderne a consacrés.

Il s’agit d’abord, de l’esquisse de notions variées, telles celles d’élasticité, d’imitation, de multiplicateur d’emplois et de hiérarchie des villes.

Il s’agit surtout, de l’intégration d’un effet de domination dans l’analyse des marchés concurrentiels. Cet effet se concrétise dans le niveau et dans la structure de la production (et de la population) d’une économie parvenue “à l’équilibre”. Au point de vue analytique, la relation de pouvoir est approchée par le biais des super-profits : ceux-ci ne jouent pas le même rôle sur l’offre selon qu’ils proviennent de la demande des “dominés” ou des “dominants”.

Si la Société fortement hiérarchisée du XVIIIe siècle a servi Cantillon, il n’est pas douteux que ses réflexions ont une valeur beaucoup plus permanente.
Interaction in economic theory
Authors: Johansen Leif
Published: August 2023

Ecrit au départ pour contribuer aux contacts entre l’économie et la sociologie, le présent article est centré sur “l’interaction entre les acteurs” et survole les principaux champs de la théorie économique afin de montrer les différents types d’interaction présentés dans les diverses théories.

L’auteur propose une classification de l’interaction selon trois types principaux :

1 ) l’interaction indirecte et paramétrique

2) l’interaction indirecte et fonctionnelle

3) l’interaction directe

On élabore les relations entre ces types d’interaction et entre ces concepts à partir de la théorie des jeux. On constate que la théorie des jeux fournit à la théorie économique ses idées théoriques et des concepts très utiles, une fois que l’on a assimilé le fait que l’interaction entre les acteurs est au cœur de la théorie économique. On discute aussi bien les jeux non-coopératifs que les jeux coopératifs et, pour conclure, l’auteur suggère une forme plus générale des jeux mixtes, coopératifs et non-coopératifs.
L’organisation de la compétitivité internationale en France et en R.F.A
Authors: Urban Sabine
Published: August 2023

La compétitivité d’une entité économique (entreprise, industrie, Nation) est le résultat de l’interaction complexe d’un ensemble varié de facteurs, les uns se présentant comme des données ou des contraintes “externes” à l’entité considérée, les autres comme des variables suceptibles d’être infléchies par l’action du décideur. La compétitivité entendue comme une aptitude à soutenir efficace¬ ment la concurrence, n’est jamais un don du ciel, mais le fruit d’efforts coordonnés et cohérents, autrement dit l’effet d’une organisation.

Les différentes facettes du problème sont analysées dans cette article, centré sur la comparaison des situations et évolutions respectives en France et en Allemagne fédérale.

Une première partie est consacrée à l’examen des conditions objectives de la compétitivité, de l’état des structures, et du comportement des agents socio-économiques.

La deuxième partie étudie les réactions organisées par les Pouvoirs Publics, les entreprises et les institutions financières, de part et d’autre du Rhin, aux forces libérées par la guerre économique mondiale.