bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Classifying Realist Theories of War
Authors: James Patrick
Published: December 2022

Chapter 9 develops a scheme of organization for existing realist theories, which facilitates their evaluation and comparison to each other. This chapter begins by defining typologies and taxonomies that, respectively, are deductive and inductive means of classification. A combined approach, both typological and taxonomic, is applied to the realist theories of war; in chronological order, these are identified as classical, power cycle, structural, balance of threat, balance of interests, defensive, dynamic differentials, offensive, and predation. In some instances, more than one variant exists. Types of theory are identified on the basis of two dimensions: (i) dynamic or static specification and (ii) system- or state-level emphasis. With each type of realist theory, a taxonomy is developed through identification of a characteristic that is anticipated to be most relevant to the process of evaluation. The trait that stands out is the capability-based metric that is emphasized by a given theory.
Classical Realism
Authors: James Patrick
Published: December 2022

Chapter 10 focuses on classical realism. It is intriguing to reflect on classical realist ideas about why wars occur because adherents explored international relations more from the standpoint of philosophy or history than social science. Exponents of classical realism reflected upon human nature and prospects for a more peaceful world. Their expositions on power politics influenced both realist thought and IR as a discipline in a central way for decades. These accounts from classical realism for why wars occur are more challenging, but not impossible, to reproduce in graphic form. Visualizations of classical realism identify it as the foundation for social scientific theories of war to come.
Power Cycles
Authors: James Patrick
Published: December 2022

Chapter 11 focuses on power cycle theory. The theory of power cycles puts forward the idea that great powers in the system pass through waves of increase and decrease in their standing relative to each other. These cycles of capability feature turning points, where either the direction or pace of movement shifts and creates high uncertainty. A great power’s sense of its foreign policy role will lag behind these objective conditions with regard to change in relative capabilities. As a result, either a surplus or deficit of capacity to act will pose a challenge to the leadership in coping with the international system. At such times, according to power cycle theory, the likelihood of great power war reaches its maximum. This is true especially when more than one great power is in proximity to a critical point along its power cycle.
Balance of Threat
Authors: James Patrick
Published: December 2022

Balance of threat is the subject of Chapter 13. The leadership of a given state is anticipated to identify the most serious threat it faces and pursue appropriate policies in response. Perception of threat is a function of aggregate power, geographic proximity, offensive power, and aggressive intentions. While balancing is the anticipated norm, bandwagoning also can be expected to occur under certain circumstances. As opposed to balancing against a threatening state, bandwagoning refers to joining in with the would-be aggressor in the hope of either benefiting directly from conquest or at least averting losses. Balance-of-threat theory also contributes to the diversity of realism by integrating perceptions, as opposed to more purely material considerations, into theorizing about what states can be expected to do. Two theories are identified within balance of threat: a generic version and one that focuses on effects from revolution.
Balance of Interests
Authors: James Patrick
Published: December 2022

Chapter 14 conveys balance-of-interests theory. This theory, which emphasizes variation among goals pursued by states, emerged from a critique directed toward balance of threat. In order for threats to exist in the international system, at least some aggressive states must exist. Interests pursued by states in foreign policy are explained, at least in part, through processes unfolding at the domestic level. Balance-of-interests theory elaborates on power politics through identification of different kinds of states. While power as a resource is the goal at a strategic level, the tactics observed in the international system are not simply one variety of balancing or another. Thus balance-of-interests theory claims to be more realistic in its expectation of diverse foreign policies among states and pathways to war. Balance-of-interests theory exists in three variants: additive, extremely incoherent states, and polarized democratic.
Dynamic Differentials
Authors: James Patrick
Published: December 2022

Dynamic differentials, a theory that emphasizes the impact of change in the distribution of capabilities, is covered in Chapter 16. Major war becomes more likely when a great power experiences significant decline. While at any given time some states will have aggressive leadership at the helm, escalation to high levels of violence will not necessarily ensue. A key development in bringing about major war is noteworthy decline for a great power. Once its leadership becomes aware of this trend, hard-line policies are likely to follow soon after. This shift threatens the stability of the international system as a whole. Dynamic differentials takes the form of a deductive argument about the probability of major war in relation to shifting capabilities among states and how these changes feed into their interplay at the apex of the international system (Copeland 2000). Multiple pathways to war are identified along the way.
Offensive Realism
Authors: James Patrick
Published: December 2022

Offensive realism is the subject of Chapter 17. This theory envisions great powers as disposed toward expansion. Under conditions of anarchy, intentions do not matter because the existence of capabilities, in and of itself, creates a threatening situation between and among states. Thus a rational response for a great power to this predicament is to go on the offensive. The more power that can be accumulated, all other things being equal, the higher the level of security that results. Security, however, proves elusive because all of the great powers are thinking the same way. The result is that great power war can be expected to recur within the international system. This feature accounts for the title of the book that puts forward the theory, namely, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics.
Dialogue for Realist Theories of War
Authors: James Patrick
Published: December 2022

Chapter 19 engages realist theories about wars with each other. Graphic portrayal of respective theories following on from classical realism, described already in Chapters 11 to 18, facilitates moving forward with this agenda. Realist theories are identified as either complementary or competitive with each other. Opportunities are explored for combination and, when appropriate, more effective competition. Within the context of SIR, this activity is a form of systematic synthesis. Also in line with SIR, the chapter includes bricolagic bridging—engagement of realist theories with ideas from a major work of scholarship beyond this school of thought. This contact takes place in the spirit of analytic eclecticism, but with an eye on logical consistency and coherence as the work is carried out.
Dialogical Reading
Authors: Bachrach Emilia
Published: December 2022

This chapter attends to the centrality of reading in the process by which people become Pushtimargi. It argues that vārtā texts contribute to a shared grammar of devotional experience and praxis that animates devotees’ everyday lives. Although this study more broadly emphasizes how Pushtimargis engage with devotional literature in ways that are unique to their own social positions and historical circumstances, this chapter emphasizes that devotees also participate in an ever-emergent but shared “grammar of tradition” as readers. This grammar emerges from the style and content of the written hagiographies themselves (e.g., their distinct dialogical features, such as direct speech) and is formed and reformed each time devotees gather together to read, analyze, and discuss the narratives in community settings. In this way, practices of reading and textual exegesis become primary modes through which devotees—as individuals and in community—continuously make their traditions relevant to the contemporary world.
Community Reading
Authors: Bachrach Emilia
Published: December 2022

This chapter considers how devotees use the context of satsaṅgs (gatherings of the faithful) to cultivate Pushtimarg-specific, though highly personalized, modes of affective piety. Devotees also use satsaṅg as a place of learning: learning about Pushtimargi doctrine, and also learning how to navigate better between being Krishna’s caretakers and fulfilling various social, but specifically familial, roles. Drawing on observations of several distinct satsaṅgs in Ahmedabad city, the chapter analyzes the features of these ritualized gatherings, which include active affirmations and challenges to sectarian authority and long-standing theological, ritual, and social ideals. Readers’ personal circumstances come to the fore as they make sense of the 17th-cenutry hagiographies in terms of their own 21st-century lives. Ultimately, the chapter argues, community readings provide a forum in which “worldly” and “spiritual” narratives can be allowed to coexist for contemporary devotees whose practices of reading in turn sustain the vārtās as canonical.
Conclusion: Religious Reading and Everyday Lives
Authors: Bachrach Emilia
Published: December 2022

The Conclusion reviews how reading in the Pushtimargi community takes place in multiple environments. These contexts include ritualized in-person and technologically mediated meetings and public forums, during which devotional literature may be read aloud, quoted, casually referred to, formally commented on, actively questioned, and interpreted in ways that both validate and challenge long-standing exegetical paradigms and doctrines. The Conclusion also returns to the question of how this study of Pushtimargi Hinduism sheds light on religious reading as a distinct set of practices—analytical, affective, and embodied—by which individuals navigate changing traditions and mediate relationships with one another and the divine. In this way, texts and readers’ interpretations of texts are inherently embedded in people’s everyday lives and the ways in which they make and remake their moral, social, and devotional worlds. Finally, I invite other scholars to study written texts as part of performative canons.
Dictatorship and Information
Authors: Dimitrov Martin K.
Published: December 2022

This study offers a systematic theory of the institutional solutions to the dictator’s dilemma, which arises from the incapacity to calibrate repression and concessions due to the lack of information about elite and popular discontent. Empirically, the book presents a detailed discussion of the types of information-gathering institutions created in autocracies, paying particular attention to the difference between standard mechanisms for the retrospective assessment of overt dissatisfaction and the more sophisticated channels for anticipatory evaluations of latent discontent. The book argues that the creation of institutions for the involuntary collection of information is straightforward, but that only certain regimes successfully promote the voluntary provision of information, which is essential for anticipatory governance. In ethnically heterogeneous countries, compactly settled ethnic minorities present a further obstacle for establishing a panoptical authoritarian vision. These problems notwithstanding, communist regimes are especially adept at developing sophisticated systems that mobilize the party, State Security, and internal journalism to assess levels of discontent. Methodologically, the book demonstrates that documents prepared for regime insiders are more likely to shed light on a secret activity like information collection than officially released materials. Theoretically, the book argues that although the dictator’s dilemma can be solved and abundant information does extend authoritarian lifespans, information cannot ensure the indefinite survival of dictatorships. The book is based on detailed analysis of the origins and evolution of information-gathering systems in communist Bulgaria (1944–1991) and in China (1949–present), supplemented by eight case studies of information collection in the complete range of authoritarian regimes.
Indirectly Evaluative Legal Philosophy
Authors: Dickson Julie
Published: December 2022

This chapter continues the project of developing and defending the author’s distinctive approach to the methodology of legal philosophy: indirectly evaluative legal philosophy (IELP). It explores a key feature of this approach which is responsible for its name, and argues that legal philosophers must make evaluative judgements in constructing and defending their accounts of law, but that in the earlier stages of their inquiries, the evaluative judgements concerned can and should be ‘indirectly evaluative’ in character. This approach both allows for and facilitates a certain kind of ‘staged inquiry’ wherein important aspects of law’s nature can be identified and understood in a way which leaves open until an appropriate point in the investigation questions of their moral value or justification. The chapter argues that IELP thus enables legal philosophers to proceed in appropriate stages in understanding what law is, what law ought to be, and what is relevant to assessing law according to the standards by which it should be judged.
Continuity and Complementarity in Legal Philosophy
Authors: Dickson Julie
Published: December 2022

This final, concluding chapter of the book argues that indirectly evaluative legal philosophy (IELP) stands in relations of continuity and complementarity to the vital enterprise of subjecting law to appropriate moral evaluation and moral scrutiny. According to IELP, legal philosophers must make evaluative judgements in constructing and defending their accounts of law, but in the earlier stages of their inquiries, these judgements can and should be ‘indirectly evaluative’ in character, and legal philosophers should postpone subjecting law to moral evaluation and moral justification until a later stage. The chapter considers how we should understand the relations between IELP, and the later stage project of subjecting law to appropriate moral evaluation and moral scrutiny. It argues that the IELP approach picks out those features of law, and aspects of those features, which are important, significant, and relevant to law being held to, and being judged in terms of, appropriate moral standards. The chapter emphasizes that IELP does not stand in isolation from inquiries concerning the moral evaluation and criticism of law. Rather, IELP’s staged inquiry approach serves to focus and facilitate those latter enterprises as regards some of the important questions they should address.
The historical origins of aquaculture
Authors: Kültz Dietmar
Published: December 2022

Aquaculture developed independently several millennia ago in multiple regions of the world, driven by demand for seafood and by ornamental and religious motives. Good historical records of ancient aquaculture development exist for the Eastern Mediterranean regions of Egypt and Southern Europe, Assyria, China, Southeast Asia, and Oceania. In contrast to terrestrial species, only two aquatic species have been domesticated over many centuries: the goldfish in China and the carp in Central Europe and Eastern Asia. Development of freshwater aquaculture preceded that of mariculture. Aquaculture of catadromous fish has a much longer history than that of anadromous (fish that spawn in freshwater and mature in the ocean) species, though the latter are more commonly cultured today. There are four scenarios, referred to as oxbow, catch-and-hold, concentration, and trap-and-crop theories, that attempt to explain the transition from hunting to farming fish. Evidence exists that ancient societies practised ecologically, highly sustainable, and integrated multi-trophic aquaculture, e.g. in Hawai’i. The industrial revolution not only enabled key technological innovations that supported aquaculture development, but also greatly accelerated the unsustainable exploitation of aquatic resources. Massive transplantation of aquatic species at the dawn of the twentieth century led to the establishment of invasive species with high environmental resilience. The ‘blue revolution’ refers to a surge in aquaculture research and development during the second half of the twentieth century, which resulted in major economic growth of aquaculture businesses accompanied by growing concerns about the sustainability and ecological impacts of this new industry
Seafood and beyond: key aquaculture objectives
Authors: Kültz Dietmar
Published: December 2022

Aquaculture is economically incentivized by growing demand due to 1) human population growth and 2) increased per capita consumption. Aquaculture relieves pressure on capture fisheries and has high potential to be ecologically more sustainable than fishery exploitation of natural ecosystems. The most important aquaculture objective is the production of seafood for human consumption. Seafood has substantial health benefits compared to other sources of nutrition. There exist other significant aquaculture objectives. Aquaculture produces organisms for restocking of lakes, rivers, and the oceans with species of interest and/or concern. Ornamental fish and aquatic invertebrates are produced in aquaculture as companion animals. Jewellery and souvenirs, in particular pearls, are produced from skeletal structures of aquaculture organisms. Aquaculture production of specialized compounds with health or other benefits is practiced for producing nutritional supplements and pharmaceuticals for biomedicine. Moreover, the culture of aquatic microorganisms (bacteria, algae) aids in wastewater treatment and ecosystem restoration. Finally, aquaculture supplies live bait organisms for commercial and recreational fishery.
Integrated multitrophic polycultures
Authors: Kültz Dietmar
Published: December 2022

Integrated multitrophic polycultures represent an ecologically more sustainable form of aquaculture than monocultures; their economic feasibility relies on proper incentivization by policy makers. Polyculture, combined with a shift to culturing omnivores and herbivores instead of carnivores, reduces the unsustainable use of fish meal and fish oil by commercial aquaculture. The ecological value of any polyculture is proportional to the diversity of feeding niches occupied by the cultured species. The most ecologically sustainable form of polyculture combines all primary trophic levels (primary producers, consumers, decomposers) at appropriate ratios in a fully closed system. Decomposers represent critical links for polyculture systems. They fulfil an essential role in nutrient cycles and are cultured in biofilters and artificial reefs as ATS, periphyton, and bioflocs. Research on biochemical capacities of bacterial decomposer communities affords new opportunities for wastewater treatment. Polyculture systems can be coupled or decoupled, and although coupled systems have some advantages, decoupled systems appear more promising for future development of sustainable aquaculture. Aquaculture integration is not limited to polycultures of aquatic organisms but should also be pursued to link aquaculture and alternative uses of water, including drinking, sanitarian, recreational, conservation, industrial, and agricultural uses. Integration of aquaculture and agriculture (IAA) is practised in two forms: 1) wastewater produced by aquaculture is utilized for irrigation of crops and orchards; 2) animal manure produced by agriculture is used to fertilize semi-intensive aquaculture ponds.
Aquaculture of sponges and cnidarians
Authors: Kültz Dietmar
Published: December 2022

Porifera (sponges) and Cnidaria (corals and jellyfish) are produced in mariculture as seafood (jellyfish) and for other purposes. Sponges are the most primitive multicellular animals consisting of only a handful of cell types. They often harbour microbial symbionts (bacteria and microalgae). Sponges reproduce sexually and asexually. One mechanism of asexual reproduction (fragmentation) is commonly used for sponge propagation in aquaculture. Bath sponges are farmed in extensive mariculture to obtain their spongin skeleton. Sponges are also farmed in intensive and extensive aquaculture systems to extract a very wide variety of exotic bioactive metabolites that are used to improve human health. Sponge aquaculture is highly ecologically sustainable as sponges are filter feeders (extractive species) and their symbionts contribute to organic waste recycling. It can be further improved by reconditioning wastewater generated from cleaning bath sponge skeletons. Cnidarians are more complex animals than sponges and include jellyfish, corals, and anemones. Jellyfish aquaculture provides seafood by hatchery production of juvenile stages, which are used to restock and supplement natural jellyfish populations that are harvested by capture fishery. Both extensive and intensive aquaculture of ornamental corals and anemones has increased since the turn of the millennium and utilizes transplantation of fragments from donors to initiate cultures. Even though hatchery production of sexually generated larvae would be in many ways preferable, more research is needed for commercial feasibility. Aquaculture of sponges and cnidarians contributes to the conservation of coral reefs and other endangered habitats.
Crustacean aquaculture
Authors: Kültz Dietmar
Published: December 2022

Crustaceans are aquatic arthropods that grow in steps rather than continuously by moulting (i.e. by replacing their exoskeleton). Although they are taxonomically highly diverse only few species from the order Decapoda are used for commercial seafood production. Small crustaceans from the order Branchiopoda are used as live food in aquaculture hatcheries. Aquaculture of crustaceans is mostly based on semi-intensive pond culture that utilizes coastal wetlands and has been developed unsustainably during the initial period of rapid growth. Crustacean aquaculture ranks second after fish in terms of value and third after fish and molluscs in terms of production yield. The Western whiteleg shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) accounts for more than half of all crustacean aquaculture. Other important species include euryhaline crabs, freshwater prawns, and freshwater crayfish. Shrimps and prawns develop by succession through planktonic nauplius, zoea, and mysis larval stages, while crab development includes planktonic zoea and megalopa larval stages. However, crayfish lack any planktonic larval stages, which simplifies their culture. Hatcheries operating in intensive production mode and nurseries producing juveniles are increasingly utilized for aquaculture of crustaceans before transferring juveniles to grow-out systems. Opportunities for increasing the ecological sustainability of crustacean aquaculture include utilization of recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) for grow-out, reduction of water used by semi-intensive pond aquaculture, treatment of waste and sludge generated in aquaculture ponds instead of disposal into wild habitat, increased utilization of by-products, improved polyculture systems, increased biosecurity, and utilization of indigenous species.
Ornamental fishes
Authors: Kültz Dietmar
Published: December 2022

Aquaculture of ornamental fishes is rapidly expanding because of large demand and the much greater value of ornamentals relative to seafood fishes (per kg fish produced). Aquaculture of ornamental fishes is well suited for ecologically sustainable recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS). Technological innovations have made marine aquaria readily accessible for hobby aquarists, but they are still more challenging to maintain than freshwater aquaria. Thousands of different marine and freshwater ornamental fish species are being traded. Aquaculture accounts for >90% of all ornamental freshwater fishes but <10% and fewer than fifty species of all marine ornamental fishes. Several ornamental freshwater fishes have been domesticated, including betta fish, freshwater angelfish, guppies, and discus cichlids. Ornamental fish domestication is facilitated by short generation times. For marine ornamentals, research on husbandry and hatchery methods is needed to address environmentally destructive methods of capture fisheries in coral reef habitats. Advantages of ornamental fishes produced by aquaculture include species and habitat conservation, reduction of transport-related stress and mortality, improved animal welfare, elimination of pathogens and better health, known young age, being accustomed to life in aquaria and the presence of people, and being amenable to domestication for artificial selection of desirable traits. Diversification is essential for ornamental aquaculture to accommodate large fluctuations in demand for certain species. Many ornamental species have become invasive. Their management and preventative measures for avoiding future invasions of additional ornamental species are very challenging but essential for supporting the ecological sustainability of ornamental fish aquaculture.
Freshwater fishes
Authors: Kültz Dietmar
Published: December 2022

Freshwater (FW) aquaculture has greater potential than mariculture for intensifying production in ecologically sustainable systems that utilize available know-how and technologies. FW fishes used for aquaculture are positioned lower in trophic webs and, thus, require fewer resources than most catadromous, anadromous, and marine aquaculture fishes. Carp, tilapia, and catfish are the most important FW fishes used for aquaculture. They are farmed mostly in semi-intensive, open pond systems that rely heavily on ecosystem services. FW fish aquaculture is often divided into hatchery, nursery, and grow-out phases. Reproduction of carp, tilapia, and catfish broodstock is performed by natural spawning or artificial fertilization. In carp and catfish, injection of pituitary hormones induces ovulation and spawning. Carp and tilapia species dominate animal aquaculture and are often raised in polycultures to better utilize resources by taking advantage of different feeding habits and food preferences. Polyculture of carp and tilapia with rice and azolla improve resource utilization by integrating primary producers with heterotroph consumers into aquaculture nutrient cycles. Tilapia, carp, and catfish have high environmental stress tolerance and are ideal for a wide variety of aquaculture systems. However, their high environmental stress tolerance also promotes invasiveness. Premature reproduction of tilapia is problematic for aquaculture and promotes invasiveness. It has been addressed by producing single-sex (mostly all male) populations using multiple approaches. Catfish aquaculture has shifted from an initial focus on channel catfish in the second half of the twentieth century to Asian torpedo and shark catfish, which have superseded channel catfish in value and yield.
Anadromous fishes
Authors: Kültz Dietmar
Published: December 2022

Anadromous fishes hatch and develop in freshwater (FW) and migrate to seawater where they spend most of their life before returning to FW for spawning. In contrast to trout, most salmon are anadromous. Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) dominates aquaculture of anadromous fishes and is produced mainly in its native distribution range. Most Pacific salmon are produced in the Southern hemisphere, outside their native distribution range. Salmon aquaculture consists of a FW hatchery phase and a seawater grow-out phase. These different culture phases are required for all anadromous species. The most critical stage of salmon development in a FW hatchery is the alevin stage. At this stage, mortality is highest and yolk sac larvae are trained to consume starter feeds. Smoltification (silvering) is the physiological process of salmon parr transforming to smolts ready to enter seawater. Smoltification is essential for the anadromous life history of salmonids and precedes translocation of aquaculture salmon from FW hatcheries to open marine cages. Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) is the second-most produced salmonid aquaculture species. Most rainbow trout are grown in open, flow-through FW hatcheries and raceways, although anadromous rainbow trout (steelhead trout) are grown-out in mariculture. Salmonids are carnivores that occupy high levels in trophic webs, require high water quality, strong flow, and high-quality feeds. From an ecological sustainability perspective, salmonids are more challenging and more resource-intensive than herbivorous FW fishes. Consumer preference and demand for salmonids is high, which has fuelled research to reduce water usage, minimize waste, and develop more sustainable feeds.
Catadromous and marine fishes
Authors: Kültz Dietmar
Published: December 2022

Catadromous fishes reproduce in the ocean and migrate as larvae or juveniles to coastal brackish and inland freshwater habitats before returning to the ocean as adults. Catadromous migration varies between and within marine fishes. Catadromy is pronounced in river eels, milkfish, and mullets, while other fishes are amphidromous (i.e. their migrations are opportunistically driven by trophic conditions). Aquaculture of amphidromous species includes carnivores in the order Perciformes and flatfishes (Pleuronectiformes). Two species of catadromous river eels dominate eel aquaculture: the European eel (Anguilla anguilla) and the Japanese eel (A. japonica). A. anguilla reproduces in the Sargasso Sea of the Atlantic Ocean, while A. japonica spawns at the Suruga Seamount in the Pacific Ocean. Larval development takes many months during migration toward the coasts of Western Europe and Eastern Asia, respectively. Captive eel reproduction has been advanced, but its commercial adoption is not yet feasible. Thus, river eel aquaculture depends on capture of glass eels or elvers. Semi-intensive approaches and recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) and are used for eel aquaculture. Catadromous milkfish (Chanos chanos) is primarily a herbivore occasionally feeding on zooplankton. Advantages of milkfish for aquaculture include high stress tolerance, disease resistance, and rapid growth. Milkfish aquaculture has a long history in Southeast Asia. Specialized hatcheries produce milkfish fry for aquaculture, which relieves pressure on natural populations but requires careful genetic management. Milkfish grow-out is performed in semi-intensive ponds or cages. Despite the generally smaller ecological footprint of milkfish aquaculture, consumer preference for milkfish is lower than for carnivores.
Feeds, waste, and stress
Authors: Kültz Dietmar
Published: December 2022

The main input of energy and matter (excluding water and oxygen) in aquaculture systems are fertilized eggs, food, and fertilizer, while waste and harvest represent the main output. Aquaculture systems are classified by stocking density, yield, space efficiency, and the extent of reliance on ecosystem services or technology. Ecologically sustainable aquaculture is promoted by collection, processing, and proper disposal of waste and by trophic recycling of waste within the system. Intensive recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) and extensive aquaculture are most ecologically sustainable. Semi-intensive, open, cage, raceway, and net pen aquaculture systems are least ecologically sustainable. Aquaculture sustainability is increased when feed efficiency is maximized, and feed conversion rate minimized by optimal composition, consistency, and application of food. Live food is critical in hatcheries for feeding larvae. It consists of phytoplankton (microalgae) and zooplankton (rotifers, brine shrimp, and copepods). Formulated aquaculture feeds containing optimal amounts and ratios of amino acids, proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, minerals, vitamins, and other essential nutrients have been developed. An optimally nutrient-balanced diet based on formulated feeds maximizes the health of aquaculture animals. Aquaculture waste is produced from unused decaying food, excreted animal waste, and decaying plant, bacterial, and animal biomass. Aquaculture waste is treated by mechanical filtration and sedimentation, biological filtration, chemical filtration, degassing, oxygenation, and sterilization. Stress induced by poor water quality impairs the welfare and performance of aquaculture organisms. Universal, non-specific symptoms of stress are routinely monitored in aquaculture. They include animal behaviour and appearance, haematocrit, lymphocyte counts, and plasma cortisol and glucose concentrations.
Infectious diseases
Authors: Kültz Dietmar
Published: December 2022

Infectious diseases are responsible for the loss of almost half of all aquaculture production. Their incidence can be minimized by strict biosecurity in closed recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS). Infections are caused by pathogens transmitted by physical contact or biological vectors, either horizontally (within the same generation) or vertically (from parents to offspring). Many infectious pathogens are present in the environment, but healthy aquatic animals suppress them by employing pathogen defence mechanisms such as physical barriers and immunity. Immunity is compromised by stresses encountered in aquaculture. Adaptive immunity is based on cellular memory and limited to vertebrates (aquaculture fishes) while innate immunity and physical defences are also utilized by invertebrates. Four types of pathogens cause significant infectious diseases of aquaculture organisms: viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites. Diagnosis of viroses, bacterioses, mycoses, and parasitoses uses PCR, cytopathic effects in host cell lines, growth on selective media, microscopy in combination with specific stains, and visual inspection of hosts (e.g. to observe ectopic macroparasites). Treatment includes antibiotics, medicated feeds, chemotherapeutic, saline, or oxidative baths, and co-culture with cleaner fish. Prophylaxis is the best and sometimes the only (e.g. viroses) approach for minimizing disease problems in aquaculture. It is based on implementing biosecurity, sanitary management, quarantine, water sterilization, disinfection, stress reduction, regular monitoring, domestication of disease-resistant strains of aquaculture organisms, and utilization of specific pathogen-free (SPF) stocks of aquaculture organisms.
Random Walk
Authors: Bittelli Marco , Olmi Roberto , Rosa Rodolfo
Published: December 2022

One the cornerstone of random processes, random walk, is described in Chapter 4. The concepts of absorbing and reflecting barriers are presented along with the gambler’s ruin example, as well as a two-dimensional random walk code and discussion about random walk applied to the process of Brownian motion.
How Random is a Random Process?
Authors: Bittelli Marco , Olmi Roberto , Rosa Rodolfo
Published: December 2022

The book ends with Chapter 12, which discussed the very definition of a random process, the mathematical definition of randomness and a discussion about definition of entropies. This discussion is developed into a general framework and its implications for scientific inquire.
Awakening to China's Rise
Authors: Meijer Hugo
Published: December 2022

Awakening to China’s Rise delivers the first post-Cold War history of how Europe’s major powers (Britain, France and Germany) have responded to the security challenges posed by China’s rising assertiveness both in the Asia-Pacific and in Europe. A longstanding assumption in the IR literature has been that European foreign policies towards the People’s Republic of China (PRC) have been driven by a ‘naïve’ and self-interested focus on the economic opportunities presented by such a vast market, overlooking security considerations. This book challenges this common belief through a detailed examination of the policies of France, Germany and the United Kingdom from 1989 to the present. Its central argument is that, whereas this assessment aptly characterized the first two post-Cold War decades, Beijing’s growing assertiveness after 2009 caused the three major European powers to awaken to the security implications of China’s rise. Throughout the 2010s, heightened threat perceptions of China, coupled with increasingly competitive bilateral economic relations with the PRC, have gradually and cumulatively caused the hardening of their policy goals which, in turn, translated into the formulation of new, more stringent policy instruments to confront such a challenge. To substantiate this argument, this book puts forward a unique cross-regional comparison. It examines and compares the evolution of their foreign and security policies in two key regions. (1) Chinese assertiveness in the Asia-Pacific: it analyses their response to China’s increasingly muscular regional posture in the Asia-Pacific through the development of diplomatic and security cooperation initiatives with partners in the region. (2) Chinese assertiveness in Europe: it delineates how the Big Three have confronted China’s inroads into Europe, looking at the measures that they have taken to tackle the security challenges posed by Chinese investments in, and supply of, technologies in strategic sectors such as critical national infrastructures, dual-use technologies, and in the digital domain, including 5G networks. To do so, this book relies on a large body of previously undisclosed primary sources, including: 223 interviews conducted with senior officials in Europe (Berlin, Brussels, London, Paris), in the United States (Washington, DC), and in Asia (Beijing, Shanghai, New Delhi, Seoul); declassified archival documents from France, the UK and Germany; leaked US diplomatic cables; and new data on European naval deployments.
Introduction
Authors: Meijer Hugo
Published: December 2022

The Introduction of the book first sets the scene by characterizing the geostrategic context within which the foreign and security policy towards China of Europe’s major powers have unfolded, identifying three core macro-dynamics: the gradual retrenchment of the United States from Europe since the end of the Cold War—coupled with growing doubts about the credibility of US commitments to the continent—which has incited Europe’s major powers to provide for their own security; China’s increasingly assertive foreign policy behaviour both in Europe and in the Asia-Pacific since the late 2000s/early 2010s; and the rising global competition between the United States and China, which has become a structural feature of great power politics in the twenty-first century. Stuck between a rock and a hard place, Europe’s major powers therefore increasingly doubt the robustness of the US ally’s commitment to their security while grappling with China’s increasingly assertive behaviour in the larger context of mounting Sino-American rivalry, and are thus compelled to define their own position therein. The Introduction then presents the book’s research question and central argument, delineates the study’s intellectual contribution, and details the wide range of primary written and oral sources upon which it is based.
Introduction
Authors: Meijer Hugo
Published: December 2022

Part I of the book analyses how Europe’s three major powers have sought to confront China’s expanding clout and ambitions in the Asia-Pacific since the end of the Cold War through political and military endeavours. It focuses on the Big Three’s bilateral, minilateral, and multilateral security arrangements, their cooperation with other Western (US and European powers) as well as their naval deployments and forward-deployed forces. The Introduction to Part I first outlines the drivers and characteristics of China’s rising assertiveness in the Asia-Pacific, and then presents its central argument: it is shown that China’s rising regional assertiveness after 2009—and national policymakers’ perceptions thereof—has been the key driver of the change, in the 2010s, in the security policies of Europe’s three major powers in the Asia-Pacific. Specifically, whereas growing economic interests have provided the underlying impetus for the three countries’ growing attention to the PRC and the Asia-Pacific, their threat perceptions of China have been the key driver of change in their policy goals towards Beijing and in the policy instruments leveraged to achieve such goals in the Asia-Pacific.
The Reluctant European Power
Authors: Meijer Hugo
Published: December 2022

In sharp contrast to France, Germany has no direct foothold in the Asia-Pacific. Its lack of overseas territories and forward-deployed forces in the region is largely the result of German colonial history. The legacy of World War II (WWII)—coupled with severely declining defence capabilities since the end of the Cold War—further constrained the use of defence policy in the pursuit of Berlin’s foreign policy goals. Yet, this chapter shows that, despite these longstanding constraints, Germany has both expanded and diversified its diplomatic and security engagement in the Asia-Pacific in response to growing economic interests in the region and, crucially, to rising threat perceptions of the PRC. Chinese assertiveness after 2009 has been the main driver of change, prompting a significant policy shift in German security policy. The first two sections of this chapter examine the evolution of German economic interests in the region and of its threat assessment of China, the two key drivers of Berlin’s foreign and security policy in the Asia-Pacific. The subsequent two sections show how rising economic interests and shifting threat perceptions have, in turn, led Germany to sharpen its policy goals through a new policy framework for the Indo-Pacific and to strengthen the diplomatic and security instruments leveraged to achieve such goals.
Introduction
Authors: Meijer Hugo
Published: December 2022

Part II shifts the focus from the Asia-Pacific to Europe. It examines how Europe’s three major powers have confronted Beijing’s rising clout and ambitions in Europe since the end of the Cold War. It focuses on the key policy instruments that they devised to confront the security challenges linked to China’s investment in, and supply of, sensitive technologies, namely FDI screening mechanisms and the restrictions on telecommunications suppliers of concern, like Huawei, to protect Europe’s digital infrastructure. The Introduction to Part II first outlines the drivers and characteristics of China’s rising assertiveness in Europe, and then presents its central argument. It is argued that mounting threat perceptions of China’s rise in the 2010s—coupled with increasingly competitive bilateral economic relations with the PRC—have caused the hardening of each country’s policy goals, which, in turn, translated into new, more stringent policy instruments. Beijing’s aggressive inroads into Europe’s most sensitive high-tech sectors—and national policymakers’ perceptions thereof—have been the key driver of the change in the ‘China policies’ of the Big Three.
Germany’s ‘China Policy’
Authors: Meijer Hugo
Published: December 2022

This chapter examines how Germany has sought to confront China’s rising assertiveness in Europe. In light of its economic and political weight, Germany has long been the key trading partner for Beijing in on the European continent. However, it will be shown that as China’s capabilities and ambitions expanded, and as its companies became increasingly entrenched in Europe’s industrial fabric, German policymakers have grown alarmed by the People’s Republic of China’s inroads into Europe’s strategic sectors and by its rising economic and political clout across the region. These heightened threat perceptions, coupled with mounting Sino-German economic competition, have prompted Berlin to forge a comprehensive, cross-sectoral ‘China policy’ and to strive for greater intra-European coordination to better confront China. To substantiate this argument, this chapter proceeds as follows. The first two sections analyse the evolution of China’s growing economic presence in the German high-tech industrial landscape and Berlin’s heightened threat assessment of the PRC, two key factors influencing the making of Germany’s ‘China policy’. The subsequent two sections delineate how these evolving economic interests and threat perceptions have, in turn, led Germany to revise its policy goals and the policy instruments leveraged to achieve such goals.
The China Challenge
Authors: Meijer Hugo
Published: December 2022

The balance between national security and economic interests at play in the United Kingdom’s ‘China policy’ has significantly evolved in the post-Cold War era. As the first recipient of Chinese foreign direct investments (FDIs) in Europe but also a close ally of the United States, the United Kingdom has faced difficult trade-offs in formulating its policy towards the People’s Republic of China (PRC). This chapter investigates how London has responded to China’s growing foothold in the United Kingdom through increased FDIs and the supply of advanced telecoms equipment for the digital infrastructure. It will be shown that Chinese inroads into these strategic sectors in the 2010s—and British policymakers’ perception thereof—have been a key driver of change in the United Kingdom’s ‘China policy’. In particular, heightened threat perceptions, coupled with increasingly competitive economic relations with the PRC, have caused the United Kingdom to recalibrate the national security and economic interests at stake in its ‘China policy’ and to harden its stance towards Beijing. To corroborate this argument, the first two sections examine two key drivers of the United Kingdom’s ‘China policy’, namely the shifting British economic interests with China—including the Chinese economic imprint in the national infrastructure and in the telecoms sector—and London’s threat assessment of the PRC. The subsequent two sections show how changing economic interests and threat perceptions have, in turn, caused the United Kingdom to recalibrate its policy goals and to strengthen the policy instruments leveraged to achieve such goals. The chapter also discusses the consequences of Brexit for the United Kingdom’s ‘China policy’ and for its cooperation with other European powers.
Introduction
Authors: Razzack Azra , Siddiqui M. Atyab
Published: December 2022

The chapter begins by locating the school in the context of Delhi and the partition. The implication of partition on institutional structures is discussed. This led to a cumbersome division of homes, properties, ideas, and thoughts. Civil servants and those serving the army too were made to accept and choose between India and Pakistan. Sometimes the choice was against their wishes causing dismay, heart-burning, and discontentment. Educational institutions too were affected and so was the Anglo Arabic School. While the building, its historicity, and its campus remained, its autonomy was compromised. Its heritage and its attendant passions, however, live ardently in the hearts and psyche of the Muslims of Shahjehanabad. There is a discussion on the nostalgia people of the walled city have with the school. The chapter also highlights the need for a study of this kind and discusses the contents of the book.