bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Spain
Authors: Molina Ignacio
Published: October 2003

The purpose of this chapter is to examine the national co-ordination of European Union (EU) policy in Spain. It concentrates on the processes that take place in Madrid, and using a threefold categorization, examines the mechanisms used by central government in its dealings with the other main actors involved in the process. The first set of relationships are horizontal, and relate to non-governmental actors, including the Parliament, political parties, and interest groups; the second set are vertical, or more precisely intergovernmental, and concern relations between the centre and the periphery under the surveillance of the Constitutional Court; the third set are internal, and relate to intragovernmental co-ordination within the central administration and the core executive. These three sets of relationships are examined in the three main sections of the chapter. It is argued that Spain’s politico-constitutional uniqueness has been retained, and even reinforced within the EU, and that the Spanish case appears to challenge the assumption that Europeanization is hollowing out the state, since the Spanish state, here identified with its central government, has been strengthened since accession.
Greece
Authors: Spanou Calliope
Published: October 2003

This chapter analyses the national co-ordination of European Union (EU) policy in Greece, seeking to show that in terms of formal arrangements the country is more or less in tune with other EU members, although co-ordination deficiencies are often apparent and pronounced. The chapter highlights the ‘inanimate’ character of the arrangements in place and their neutralization by the absence of clear priorities set at the political level and diffused throughout the political–administrative system. The co-ordination scheme is described as looking like a truncated pyramid, where everything is in place apart from the unifying element at the top. It is further argued that although the existing arrangements are apparently well entrenched, they are not unalterable, and that what is essentially required is leadership from the centre and for government to lay down general orientations in the European policy domain; the core executive needs to take daring decisions and mark clear priorities so that ultimately it becomes possible to give a sense of direction. The three main sections of the chapter discuss the prerequisites of co-ordination, the ‘truncated pyramid structure’ of the Greek administrative system, and the missing link of governmental steering.
The Natural Philosophy in Smith's Essays
Authors: Vivenza Gloria
Published: October 2003

Deals with Adam Smith's juvenile essays on natural philosophy, and shows that some of Smith's methodological principles were partially grounded on ancient theories.

The content of the chapter analyses both Smith's historical reconstruction of the ancient doctrines, and the classical heritage in his own scientific and methodological approach.
The Classical Heritage in Adam Smith's Ethics
Authors: Vivenza Gloria
Published: October 2003

Deals with Smith's moral philosophy and singles out the influences of the main classical philosophies on Smith's treatise. There are clearly recognizable echoes from Greek philosophy (Plato and Aristotle), from the Hellenistic philosophies (Stoicism and Epicureanism), and from Roman Stoicism. This chapter shows the relationship of Smith's well‐known moral concepts (prudence, self‐interest, self‐control, justice, benevolence) with their classical antecedents.
The Lectures on Jurisprudence and Roman Law
Authors: Vivenza Gloria
Published: October 2003

Deals with the classical influences that may be found in the Lectures on Jurisprudence, two sets of notes taken by Adam Smith's students. Smith's lectures are studied in the mainstream of modern jurisprudential thought, with references to natural law theories, and to the evolutionary approach led by Montesquieu and followed by important Scottish thinkers. This chapter stresses the relevance of Roman law and jurisprudence for Adam Smith's lectures, and the influence that the Roman legal system had on his general ideas about jurisprudence.
Adam Smith and Ancient Literature
Authors: Vivenza Gloria
Published: October 2003

Deals with Adam Smith's Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres, i.e. with the set of lecture notes discovered and published in the twentieth century. The chapter follows Smith's exposition, which starts with poetry and after it illustrates prose in its main forms, namely history, didactic writing, oratory. The relationship of Smith's treatment of rhetoric and literature with important aspects of his subsequent thought is illustrated.
Social Norms, Culture and Beliefs
Authors: Basu Kaushik
Published: October 2003

This chapter explores the importance of social norms and beliefs in the economy. It argues that the prosperity of the economy is affected by attitudes towards work, level of mutual trust, standard of ethics, and social norms. It uses the act of exchange to elucidate the importance of social norms as a foundation of economic activity. It discusses equilibrium-selection norms, understanding social norms in terms of evolutionary games, and positive and normative beliefs.
Law and Economics
Authors: Basu Kaushik
Published: October 2003

This chapter lays the foundations for a revised and more inclusive view of the government. It argues that the law must be perceived differently to gain a better understanding on reality while building models of economics, politics, and society. It is shown that the law has similarities with equilibrium-selection norms discussed in the previous chapter.
Power and Coercion
Authors: Basu Kaushik
Published: October 2003

The concepts of power and coercion are essential to understanding the functioning of an economy. This chapter explores the nature and consequences of one kind of power — that which works through “triadic” relationships and allows rulers and the institutions of state to exercise control over the lives of ordinary people. This concept of power fits well with the agenda of endogenizing government.
On Advising Government
Authors: Basu Kaushik
Published: October 2003

This chapter analyses the economists’ practice of giving advise to governments. It identifies a scope to the task of advising governments, which may have to be done differently from the current method. To make room for advice that will not fall on deaf ears, it is necessary to move away from the Walrasian world to one in which information is imperfect and asymmetric. It argues that advice often takes the form of persuasion in reality, that social institutions work to align the interests of the adviser and advisee, and that moving away from the assumption that preferences are mutually known provides a new strategic dimension to communication where the communicator seeks to influence the belief of the listener about the communicator’s preference.
Welfare and Interpersonal Comparisons
Authors: Basu Kaushik
Published: October 2003

This chapter discusses some preliminaries of welfare economics, i.e., the meaning of welfare and interpersonal comparisons. It focuses on the informational feasibility of some ethical systems. It highlights an influential method of interpersonal comparison, propounded by the Chicago approach and widely used in labour economics and evaluating institutions, that suffers from the problem of inconsistency.
Utilitarianism and Rights
Authors: Basu Kaushik
Published: October 2003

This chapter examines utilitarianism and consequentialism as moral principles of decision-making, and the scope of rights and individual liberty. It argues that it is possible to distinguish between anti-consequentalism and rule-consequentalism, and that rule-consequentalism should be followed in such situations. Adherence of utilitarianism must not be understood as using the utilitarian principle for every decision in all walks of life. It is proposed that rule utilitarianism is compatible with legal rights.
Strategic Asset Allocation
Authors: Campbell John Y. , Viceira Luis M.
Published: October 2003

One of the most important decisions many people face is the choice of a portfolio of assets for retirement savings. The leading academic paradigm of portfolio choice, the mean‐variance analysis of Markowitz, does not give adequate guidance for this long‐term investment problem because it assumes that investors care only about the mean and variance of return over a single short period. The book develops an alternative paradigm, the inter‐temporal model of Merton, into an empirically usable framework with the following implications. The safe asset for a long‐term investor is not a Treasury bill, but a long‐term inflation‐indexed bond that provides a stable stream of real income. A nominal bond is a good substitute for an inflation‐indexed bond only if inflation risk is low. There is evidence that stock returns are mean‐reverting, with bull markets tending to follow bear markets and vice versa; this suggests that long‐term investors should increase their average stockholdings but should also vary their stockholdings with the overall level of the stock market. Investors with a stable stream of labour income can afford a greater exposure to stock market risk.
Introduction
Authors: Campbell John Y. , Viceira Luis M.
Published: October 2003

The mean‐variance paradigm has the strong implication that all investors should hold risky assets in the same proportion. Financial planners typically advise conservative investors to tilt their risky portfolios towards bonds and away from stocks; this has been called the “asset allocation puzzle” since it contradicts standard mean‐variance analysis. Financial planners also argue that long‐term investors can afford greater exposure to stock market risk. This book will show how financial planners’ advice can be justified by an inter‐temporal model of a rational investor. The model ignores some important real‐world issues, including diversification of individual stocks, transactions costs, taxation, and the biases identified by research in behavioural finance.
Sources of Chinese Economic Growth, 1978-1996
Authors: Bramall Chris
Published: October 2003

Chinese economic growth in the transition era between the deaths of Mao Zedong in 1976 and Deng Xiaoping in 1997 has been exceptionally rapid by historical and international standards. However, and contrary to the conventional wisdom espoused by the Washington consensus, it is shown here that only a small part of Chinese growth can be explained by trade, foreign direct investment, and the mobilization of surplus labour. Instead, growth has been driven by China's state‐led industrial policy, and facilitated by the many favourable industrial and infrastructural legacies of the Maoist era. But the Chinese developmental state did not emerge from a vacuum. Rather, its existence and effectiveness depended upon the limited degree of inequality of income and wealth in China at the end of the 1970s. As inequality has increased over the course of the 1980s and 1990s, so the ability of the Chinese state to promote growth has diminished.
Introduction: The Dengist Restoration
Authors: Bramall Chris
Published: October 2003

Outlines the key themes in the literature on Chinese growth. The orthodoxy assiduously promoted by the IMF, the World Bank, and the US government has claimed that Chinese growth after 1978 fell well below potential and that the growth which has occurred is unsustainable without a rapid and thoroughgoing transition to capitalism, an analysis that unites gradualists and advocates of shock therapy. Heterodox critics of the Washington consensus rightly point out that this type of account is misconceived because it pays inadequate attention to the positive role played by China's developmental state. But heterodox analyses are incomplete because they offer at best an incoherent explanation of the origins of this developmental state.
Theories of Growth
Authors: Bramall Chris
Published: October 2003

There is a vast theoretical and empirical literature on the determinants of economic growth. This literature is critically assessed in this chapter. It looks at theories that focus on initial conditions, the scope for catch‐up, physical investment, human capital formation and innovation in turn, and concludes that attempts to separate out the influence of these factors using neo‐classical growth‐accounting frameworks are unconvincing. As Kaldor pointed out many years ago, we cannot distinguish between a shift in the production function and a movement along it; we need to recognize the complexity of the growth process and the inter‐dependence of causal factors. A mono‐casual theory must necessarily be incomplete as an explanation of Chinese economic growth.
The Maoist Legacy and the Literature
Authors: Bramall Chris
Published: October 2003

The orthodoxy has long dismissed the notion that Maoist economic development helped lay the foundations for subsequent economic growth in China. However, as this chapter notes in introducing the proximate sources of growth discussed in this and the next six chapters, there is a body of research that points to the positive legacies of the Maoist era in terms of education, transport, and irrigation. Most of this literature takes the view that the Chinese economy in the late Maoist era had enormous potential but was under‐performing because of structural weaknesses and incentive failures. The new policies of the transition era had the effect of unlocking this potential.
Social Capability and the Capital Stock at the End of the Maoist Era
Authors: Bramall Chris
Published: October 2003

Here we outline the extent of the physical and human capital legacies from the Maoist era. One such legacy was a well‐developed irrigation system, much of which was completed in the late 1960s and 1970s. The industrial legacy was more mixed, mainly because much of the investment of the 1960s and 1970s was channelled into the defence sector, especially Third Front projects in western China. Nevertheless, transition‐era China inherited extensive stocks of industrial capital, as well as transport infrastructure. Perhaps most importantly of all, the Maoist development strategy was successful in vastly increasing rural literacy rates and thus creating a potential industrial workforce.
The Role of Surplus Labour
Authors: Bramall Chris
Published: October 2003

This chapter demonstrates that attempts to explain Chinese growth in terms of the transfer of surplus labour from agriculture to industry are unconvincing. The Lewis model, out of which labour‐surplus theories have evolved, offers a number of insights. However, this type of model ignores the point that surplus labour was created by the transition strategy itself; it was not a legacy. It also underestimates the problems involved in transforming the Chinese peasantry into an industrial proletariat, as well as the demand side difficulties caused by inter‐provincial migration. By depressing industrial productivity, labour migration hindered rather than helped the Chinese growth process.
The Growth of Productivity
Authors: Bramall Chris
Published: October 2003

A central feature of orthodox explanations of East Asian growth is that they assign at best a subordinate role to productivity growth. Part of the reason is the use of total factor productivity, a concept both theoretically flawed and empirically unreliable. Single‐factor productivity measures and more qualitative evidence on innovation are much more reliable indicators, and in China's case these all show significant across‐the‐board productivity gains. Even state‐owned industry, whether based in the cities or newly set up by local government, enjoyed significant gains. The literature notwithstanding, the Chinese evidence demonstrates that state ownership is compatible with dynamic efficiency.
Differences in Prefectural Growth Rates
Authors: Bramall Chris
Published: October 2003

This chapter applies the theory developed in previous chapters to the growth process in four very different Chinese regions: Suzhou (in the Yangzi delta), Wenzhou (in coastal Zhejiang province), Wenjiang (on the Chengdu plain in Sichuan) and Liangshan (in the mountainous south‐west of Sichuan). It shows that differences in growth rates between these four––output in Suzhou grew almost twice as fast as in Liangshan––can be explained in terms of the interaction of economic geography, catch‐up, factor accumulation, and productivity growth. Liangshan was handicapped by its location, by its low literacy rate, by its modest accumulation rate, and by the inability of its agricultural sector to release labour. By contrast, Suzhou was privileged in all these respects, and its growth rate reflected the fact.
The Master Discourse and the State
Authors: Bramall Chris
Published: October 2003

Chapters 5 to 11 have outlined the proximate sources of Chinese economic growth. The remaining part of the book probes the underlying sources of that growth, and especially the role played by Chinese state. This chapter begins this discussion by noting that, although the Washington consensus is adamantine in its rejection of the very idea that state intervention in developing countries can be growth‐promoting, the international evidence points firmly towards a much more positive appraisal of the role played by industrial policy. Those parts of the developing world which have embraced the market orthodoxy, whether in Eastern Europe, the former Soviet Union or Latin America, have fared poorly. By contrast, East Asia has prospered by embracing industrial policy. This suggests that China's transition strategy, and its explicit copying of the East Asian model, was correct.
Origins of the Growth‐Promoting State
Authors: Bramall Chris
Published: October 2003

Heterodox interpretations of Chinese economic growth are undoubtedly correct in pinpointing the critical and successful role played by the state in the growth of the transition era. However, heterodox accounts of the role of the developmental state across East Asia do not go far enough. We also need a coherent theory of the origins of the growth‐promoting state in China. This chapter offers such a theory, arguing that the absence of large inequalities in income and wealth at the close of the Maoist era, and the weakness of the Party bureaucracy as a result of the Cultural Revolution, insulated the Dengist state against rent‐seeking coalitions and allowed it to be developmental. However, as inequality has risen during the 1980s and 1990s, so the ability of the Chinese state to intervene effectively has waned.
Conclusion
Authors: Bramall Chris
Published: October 2003

China's experience during the transition era shows that its state followed the developmental model pioneered in South Korea, Japan, and Taiwan. In China, as elsewhere in East Asia, the developmental state was highly successful. But this success depended upon the insulation of the state from rent‐seeking behaviour. The policy lesson is therefore that industrial policy can be highly successful, but that countries which have weak states––especially in sub‐Saharan Africa and South Asia––may well be better advised to follow the Anglo‐Saxon form of capitalism advocated by the IMF and World Bank.
Asset Pricing under Asymmetric Information
Authors: Brunnermeier Markus K.
Published: October 2003

Asset prices are driven by public news and information that is dispersed among many market participants. Traditional asset pricing theories have assumed that all investors hold symmetric information. Research in the past two decades has shown that the inclusion of asymmetric information drastically alters traditional results. This book provides a detailed up‐to‐date survey that serves as a map for students and other researchers navigating through this literature.

The book starts by introducing the reader to different knowledge, equilibrium, and efficiency concepts. After explaining no‐trade theorems, it highlights the important role of asymmetric information in explaining the existence and anatomy of bubbles. The subsequent overview of market microstructure models shows how information is reflected in prices and how traders can infer it from prices. Insights derived from herding models are used to provide explanations for stock market crashes. If investors have short horizons, price correcting arbitrage activity is limited and investors have a tendency to focus on the same (possible unimportant) news, a phenomena that led Keynes to compare the stock market with a beauty contest. The book concludes with a brief summary of bank runs and their connection to financial crises.

In summary, models with asymmetric information provide a better understanding of bubbles, crashes, and other market inefficiencies and frictions.
The Multiculturalism of Fear
Authors: Levy Jacob T.
Published: October 2003

A liberal political theory, which is centrally concerned with preventing political violence, cruelty, and institutional humiliation, one that draws on Montesquieu, was named ‘the liberalism of fear’ by Judith Shklar. Such a liberalism must come to terms with the facts of multiculturalism, since ethnic and nationalist conflicts are among the most important sources of those evils. Such a liberalism of fear is a useful normative theory for thinking about multiculturalism and ethnic conflict, preferable to a multiculturalism of recognition, a multiculturalism of rights, and consociational pluralism. Political theories that are chiefly concerned with avoiding evils need not be liberal, and liberalism need not have that character; but a liberalism of fear is particularly well suited to the analysis of multiculturalism.
Cruelty and Conflict in Multiethnic Politics
Authors: Levy Jacob T.
Published: October 2003

Describes four characteristic dangers arising from cultural pluralism, dangers with which a multiculturalism of fear must concern itself: forcible inclusion of an ethnic minority that wishes to retain its own identity; forcible exclusion from citizenship and the protection of the state of small and stigmatized minorities; internal cruelty, arising from attempts by communal leaders to prevent members from assimilating to or hybridizing with a neighbouring culture; and the outcast status of those who leave their ancestral ethnic communities. Forced inclusion and forced exclusion are analysed as the two sides of an impulse towards nation‐state homogeneity. Internal cruelty, particularly against girls and women, often increases in reaction against assimilationist pressures from outside. State regulation of internal cruelty is legitimate and justified, but must be carefully done. Prohibited‐but‐still‐practised customs may be the most dangerous for group members, leaving selective acceptance and recognition as often preferable to outright bans.
Ethnic Symbolism and Official Apologies
Authors: Levy Jacob T.
Published: October 2003

Examines symbolic ethnic politics: the politics of place names, group names, national symbols, official apologies, and other matters that do not affect the rights or resources of any particular persons. Such symbolism is important in ethnic politics, and a theory with nothing to say about it is unsatisfactory. Disputes over symbolic issues, however, are poorly suited to compromise and easily escalate into rallying points for wider conflicts. In addition, it is often impossible to meet the symbolic demands of all groups simultaneously. The chief constraint on symbolic politics should be non‐humiliation and the avoidance of the celebration of past injustices and violence, a standard that can be met for all groups simultaneously. Official apologies in particular are considered at length; they are defended against the charges of collective guilt and anachronism, but are found to be limited by considerations including the passage of time and institutional discontinuities.
The Structure of Liberty
Authors: Barnett Randy E.
Published: October 2003

What is liberty, as opposed to licence, and why is it so important? When people pursue happiness, peace, and prosperity whilst living in society, they confront pervasive problems of knowledge, interest, and power. These problems are dealt with by ensuring the liberty of the people to pursue their own ends, but addressing these problems also requires that liberty be structured by certain rights and procedures associated with the classical liberal conception of justice and the rule of law. This book identifies the content of natural rights—several property, freedom of contract, first possession, restitution, and self defence—and explains how natural rights are distinct from natural law and why these abstract rights require a conventional rule of law to implement. Barnett discusses the practicality of restitution as an alternative to punishment in criminal justice and the constitutional principles that are needed to protect fundamental rights from enforcement error and abuse. After describing how a polycentric legal system would function, he concludes by considering communitarian objections and those based on retributive and distributive justice.
The Liberal Conception of Justice
Authors: Barnett Randy E.
Published: October 2003

The liberal conception of justice is introduced and refined in light of the need to address the first‐order problem of knowledge. ‘Justice’ is respect for the rights of individuals and associations. These rights include: (1) The right of several property specifies a right to acquire, possess, use, and dispose of scarce physical resources—including their own bodies. While most property rights are freely alienable, the right to one's person is inalienable. (2) The right of first possession specifies that property rights to unowned resources are acquired by being the first to establish control over them. (3) The right of freedom of contract specifies that a rightholder's consent is both necessary (freedom from contract) and sufficient (freedom to contract) to transfer alienable property rights.
Fighting Crime Without Punishment
Authors: Barnett Randy E.
Published: October 2003

In a legal system based on pure restitution and self‐defence combined with enhanced reliance on several property and freedom of contract, the ability to effectively prevent crime rather than deter its commission by ex‐ post punishment is greatly enhanced. Unlike public property, several property creates incentives to invest in crime prevention and the ability to exclude dangerous persons before they can act. Freedom of contract makes possible far more responsive law enforcement agencies than can be provided by a coercive monopoly. While pure restitution will not ‘deter’ all criminal behaviour, it is a fallacy to believe that increased deterrence invariably or logically follows, increasing the severity of punishment. Restitution increases the incentives to catch and prosecute defendants, thus increasing the rate at which legal sanctions are imposed.
Introduction
Authors: Varese Federico
Published: October 2003

The crucial importance of property rights in the transition from a centrally planned economy to a market economy is explained as the basis for emergence of mafia groups: if trust is scarce, and the state is not able or willing to protect property rights, then there is a demand for non-state, private protection. The emergence of the Sicilian Mafia (the Cosa Nostra) is briefly described, for the study of the emergence of the Russian Mafia presented in the book is largely informed by the Sicilian case. The author explains that he treats the term ‘mafia’ as a species of a broader genus of organized crime, which is willing to offer protection to both legal and illegal transactions – although this study is mainly concerned with legal rather than illegal markets (and also does not include the role of ethnic networks as a source of protection services). The reasoning behind the choice of the city of Perm for the location of the study, the type of evidence collected there, and methods of data collection used, are outlined. A summary of the contents of each chapter of the book is also included.
The Transition to the Market
Authors: Varese Federico
Published: October 2003

An account is given of the transition from a state-run to a market economy in Russia, since the crucial argument presented in the book is that the Russian Mafia emerged as a consequence of an imperfect transition. The chapter explores the extent to which the post-Soviet Russian state emerged either as an impartial protector of rights or, on the other hand, as an erratic, predatory, and non-impartial supplier of protection. The first section of the chapter looks briefly at the emergence of the legal and tax systems, and the rise in crime and corruption, and the second discusses property rights and the growing demand for protection. The last section presents the main actors involved in the transition – enterprise managers, industrial ministers, workers, and local governments and Boris Yeltsin’s reform team, and attempts to see which of these lobbies were best positioned to engage in collective action to determine some aspects of the transition, and the final outcome.
The State as Supplier of Protection
Authors: Varese Federico
Published: October 2003

The Russian state is examined as a supplier of protection. The chapter first explores how Russian citizens perceive the institutions of authority that are supposed to supply services of protection and dispute resolution, such as the legal system, state (government) officials and the police, and whether they expect fair treatment from them. Survey data from several Eastern European countries are compared in order to establish whether people should be expected to use these institutions and, more generally, to determine the levels of confidence in the legal system: the data indicate a low level of confidence in crucial institutions of authority. The second section of the chapter looks at one instance of state-supplied protection services – the courts of arbitration or Arbitrazh: the court where cases involving property rights and the privatization process are heard. The survey data presented suggest that the majority of the customers of the Arbitrazh courts are large enterprises that were formerly state-owned and were privatized in the 1990s.
The Soviet Elite from Lenin to Gorbachev
Authors: Mawdsley Evan , White Stephen
Published: October 2003

The USSR was dominated by its ruling Communist Party, and the party was in turn dominated by a political elite that was represented in its Central Committee. Nearly two thousand individuals were members of the Central Committee between 1917 and 1991, who may be divided into four distinct political generations from the professional revolutionaries born in the late nineteenth century to the post‐war generation that was beginning to enter the political elite in the Gorbachev years. There were considerable variations over time in the characteristics of the Central Committee, including the extent to which its membership was replaced at successive party congresses. But a close relationship developed between particular occupational positions and Central Committee membership, a ‘job‐slot’ system that lasted until the final years of communist rule. The Central Committee as an institution was generally marginal to the political process. But it met more frequently and took more decisions in the 1920s and late 1980s, and on several occasions, its meetings were decisive in resolving leadership conflicts; they also ventilated policy alternatives, and sometimes disagreements. In the last years of communist rule, the elite sought increasingly to transform their positions of political power into the more enduring advantage of property, and this allowed many of them to maintain their elite status into the post‐communist period. As well as printed sources, the study draws on recently opened party archives and about a hundred interviews with members of the Brezhnev‐era Central Committee.
The Old Bolsheviks, Socialist Construction, and the Purges, 1923–1937
Authors: Mawdsley Evan , White Stephen
Published: October 2003

After 1923 the size of the Central Committee increased, but membership was still overwhelmingly made up of pre‐1917 party members or Old Bolsheviks. The system of ‘job‐slot representation’ quickly took shape and approached maturity in 1934. Ironically, this apparent stability coincided with the destruction of much of the ‘first generation’ leadership in Stalin's purges of 1937‐38. Two examples of new leaders who added to the CC in the 1920s and early 1930s, who had much in common with the makers of the 1917 revolution and who fell victim to the purges, were I. M. Vareikis and P. O. Liubchenko. The involvement of the Central Committee in the purges was complex, and its great extent was partly explained by the integrated nature of the elite.
Stalinist Generation, ‘Leninist Norms’, 1956–1966
Authors: Mawdsley Evan , White Stephen
Published: October 2003

Although there was turmoil in this period with the rise and fall of N. S. Khrushchev, there was stability in the role and make up of the Central Committee elite. The events of 1957 and the ‘anti‐party group’ strengthened the power of the CC elite as a collective. That the membership was similar to that of the late Stalin years is shown by the careers of N. I. Zhurin, V. N. Novikov, and N. G. Egorychev, representative of regional agricultural leaders, technocrats, and the party bureaucracy, respectively. The CC elite saw itself as more of a coherent and privileged group during this period
An Evolving Elite
Authors: Mawdsley Evan , White Stephen
Published: October 2003

Across the years of its existence, the USSR witnessed three elite revolutions: in 1917, when the Tsarist elite was replaced by a Bolshevik elite of professional revolutionaries; during the Purges, when the ‘second generation’ moved into positions of power; and under Gorbachev, when levels of turnover in the Central Committee were at their highest, although they were not sufficient to bring many of the ‘fourth generation’ into the political elite. Considerable numbers of the Central Committee membership, however, retained their status into the post‐communist years, and they took part in a wider transition from political position (which had become insecure) to the more enduring advantage of property.
Cluster Dynamics
Authors: Best Michael H.
Published: October 2003

Focuses on business organization including inter‐firm relations, as they relate to technological change, regional specialization, and growth. The idea of an industrial district or cluster is extended to that of cluster dynamics driven by entrepreneurial firms and open‐system networks. The entrepreneurial, or learning, firm is defined in terms of an endless dynamic between technology capability and market opportunity. The internal dynamic of the entrepreneurial firm is seen as the driver of a set of regional growth or cluster dynamics based on processes of technological differentiation and horizontal integration across networked groups of specialist business enterprises. Collectively and cumulatively, entrepreneurial firms advance a region's unique technological capabilities and potential for industrial speciation. Open‐system networks, in turn, are shown to decentralize and diffuse design capabilities, foster a new firm‐creation process, multiply the number of design experiments, act as a collective experimental laboratory, and enhance the potential for unplanned technological combinations, all of which enhance regional techno‐diversification and innovation.
Innovation Capabilities and Skill Formation
Authors: Best Michael H.
Published: October 2003

Industrial innovation involves the integration of R&D including basic, developmental, and applied research with production. Three models are contrasted: science‐push, incremental, and regional or open‐systems. Industrial innovation depends upon a corresponding skill‐formation process involving both visible and invisible colleges. The education system supplies the technical labour force to convert innovation into regional growth. The technology diffusion process that underpins regional growth is mediated by engineering curricula to scale up the output of graduates with the requisite technical skills. Rapidly growing regions depend upon manpower development planning to synchronize the supply of technically skilled labour with the growth of technologically advancing firms.
The Resurgence of Route 128: The Triumph of Open Systems
Authors: Best Michael H.
Published: October 2003

Boston's Route 128 illustrates the concepts of regional technology capability, technology genealogy, and technology roadmap. Precision machining and complex product systems are regional technological capabilities that have been redefined, and product applications have evolved through a series of technology domain transitions from the mechanical to the electrical and electronic, and via an extension of Moore's Law into the age of nanotechnology and self‐assembly processes. Old industries have gone and new industries have emerged through a regional systems integration process reminiscent of Schumpeterian ‘creative destruction’. The recent transition from a vertical integration to an open‐systems business model has fostered a regional capability to rapidly integrate and reintegrate activities and technologies required for rapid new product development in complex product systems.
Cluster Dynamics in Malaysian Electronics
Authors: Best Michael H.
Published: October 2003

The capabilities and innovation perspective is applied to Malaysian electronics, a case of rapid growth and industrial development for over three decades but with disappointing productivity gains. In fact, Malaysia has not one but three electronics clusters. Each cluster has distinctive internal dynamics and is related to global production networks in distinctive ways. The most successful of the three regions in advancing local production capabilities has benefited from effective regional policy‐making and governance. The Penang Development Corporation is a model developmental agency that has coordinated the three elements of the productivity triad to create a world‐class high‐volume production system. However, the region is at an impasse: making the transition to new product development capabilities will require a substantial investment in advanced skill formation.
Public Management, Rhetoric, and Culture
Authors: Hood Christopher
Published: October 2003

Returns to the general question of what sort of science public management is or can be and how cultural theory can contribute to that science. If public management is (as suggested earlier) dominated by rhetorical forms of argument, cultural theory can help take one step further than conventional analyses of rhetoric by differentiating rhetorical ‘families’—this theme is explored in this chapter, which looks at what a cultural‐theory framework can add to the analysis of public management as an arena for rhetoric, and aims to do three things. First, it briefly expands on a now familiar argument (noted in the first chapter)—that shifts in what counts as received ideas in public management work through a process of fashion and persuasion, not through proofs couched in strict deductive logic, controlled experiments, or even systematic analysis of all available cases. Second, and more ambitiously, it aims to bring together the analysis of rhetoric in public management with the four ways of doing public management that were explored in Part II, to show how each of those approaches can have its own rhetoric, in the sense of foreshortened proofs, analogies, and parables; the aim is to put a cultural‐theory perspective to work in a different way, to identify multiple rhetorics of public management. Third, it briefly develops the suggestion made in Chapters 1 and 2 that shifts (change) in received ideas about how to organize typically occur in a reactive way, through rejection of existing arrangements with their known faults, rather than through a positive process of reasoning from a blank slate.
Contemporary Public Management: A New Global Paradigm?
Authors: Hood Christopher
Published: October 2003

Returns to the general question of what sort of science public management is or can be and how cultural theory can contribute to that science. Critically discusses the pervasive ideas of modernization and global convergence in a cultural‐theory framework, suggesting there are more forces for divergence and less common ground on what modernity means in matters of organization than is commonly recognized. It argues that modernization is a rhetorically successful idea because when the powerful but implicit metaphor of technological development that underlies it is carried over into human organization it is inherently ambiguous—so it lends itself to quite different and contradictory ideas about the wave of the future that fit with each of the world views identified by cultural theory. Further, it argues that a vision of global transformation of public management into a convergent modern style is likely to be exaggerated because it ignores powerful forces of path‐dependency and self‐disequilibration—i.e. the capacity of management reform initiatives to produce the opposite of their intended result. The main sections of the chapter are: Modern, Global, Inevitable? The Claim of a New Paradigm in Public Management; Public‐Management Modernization as Deep Change; Public‐Management Modernization as Irreversible Change; Public‐Management Modernization as Convergent Change; Public‐Management Modernization as Beneficent Change; and Modernization—or ‘Fatal Remedies’?
Taking Stock: The State of the Art of the State
Authors: Hood Christopher
Published: October 2003

Returns to the general question of what sort of science public management is or can be and how cultural theory can contribute to that science. Concludes by taking stock of the cultural‐theory approach as a framework for analysing public management, surveying its strengths and weaknesses. It does not claim there are no problems with the approach—on the contrary, there are major gaps and ambiguities and some of the underlying logic needs attention, but in spite of such weaknesses, the claim is that a cultural‐theory framework has much to contribute to a way of thinking about the art of the state that is neither sham science nor mere craft. To assess the cultural‐theory approach, this concluding chapter discusses three sorts of objections to the cultural‐theory framework as a way of analysing public management. One possible line of criticism might be called the ‘nursery toys’ objection—the claim that cultural theory is too simple for sophisticated analysis and is therefore better suited for the elementary stages of understanding than for advanced or professional analysis; a second possible line of criticism might be called the ‘soft science’ objection—the claim that, whatever its level of sophistication or applicability to management, the theory is, even on its own terms, limited, ambiguous, and perhaps even unfalsifiable; a third line of criticism might be called the ‘wrong tool’ objection—i.e. the claim that cultural theory, however sophisticated, cannot be an adequate basis for a theory of management, because ultimately it has little to say about the central what‐to‐do questions of organization that management and managers need to be concerned with—and by this view, it is the wrong tool for the job.
Rights Beyond Borders
Authors: Foot Rosemary
Published: October 2003

Over the five decades since the establishment of the UN Charter and Universal Declaration of Human Rights, human rights issues have become a dominant feature of the international system, embracing new actors, eroding the traditional Westphalian concept of sovereignty, and leading to an acceptance that the treatment of individuals and groups within domestic societies is legitimately a focus of global attention. This book examines the effect of this normative evolution on individual, state, institutional, and advocacy network behaviour. Having described this normative environment, it assesses its impact on the relationships of key actors (selected non‐governmental organizations (NGOs), some national governments and the UN human rights institutions) with China, particularly in the period since the Tiananmen bloodshed in June 1989. The book seeks to trace how the various parts of the international human rights regime have operated in combination, and why democratic governments have sustained a human rights element in their policies towards China. It also examines China's responses—international and internal—to being the focus of global attention in this issue area. The book's theoretical concerns are to uncover the mechanisms through which international human rights norms influence especially the external but also the domestic behaviour of states. By examining Beijing, it explains why there has been some forward movement in China's participation in the regime, and why that level of participation has only reached a certain stage. The book has nine chapters. The first is an introduction, and the rest are arranged in two parts: One, The Setting (two chapters), and Two, The Process (five chapters, followed by a concluding chapter).
Introduction
Authors: Foot Rosemary
Published: October 2003

Starts by looking at the reality of the attitude of the global community to China (in view of its past human rights record) and shows how the normative concern for human rights has influenced the behaviour of key actors within the global system. It notes that, as the following chapters of the book will demonstrate, China has been drawn steadily into the discourse on human rights, but does not suggest that there has been a linear forward movement in China's discursive and behavioural practices since the early 1980s. The following (main) sections of the chapter discuss normative diffusion in the global system, and the global community in relation to China. The final section includes a brief overview of the contents of the chapters that are to follow. They are arranged in two sections, the first of which provides the broad setting for the global diplomacy, and the second (Chapters 4–8) adopts a chronological approach to the analysis.
The Evolution of the Global Human Rights Regime
Authors: Foot Rosemary
Published: October 2003

During the 1970s, a time when the Beijing government was becoming more active internationally, the human rights regime reached a major turning point. In 1976, the two international human rights covenants, first introduced in 1966, came into force. Several democratic countries also introduced a human rights element in their foreign policies. Matters did not stand still after these innovations, and when the Chinese government began its final debate on whether to sign the two major international covenants, it must have been influenced by the knowledge that it was joining a group that, from June 1997, comprised 138 state parties to the ICCPR (International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights) and 136 to the ICESCR (International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights), although neither covenant has any effective coercive means of ensuring implementation of its articles. However, considerable normative convergence has occurred and, therefore, this chapter focuses on participatory and rhetorical behaviour in this issue area, even while it notes that actual levels of protection have frequently fallen far short of the required standards. The different sections of the chapter are: Building the Human Rights Regime; The Renewal of Activity, (which started in 1965); The Contribution of Non‐Governmental Organizations; Human Rights and the Foreign Policy of States; The Post‐Cold‐War Era; and Conclusion.