bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
An experimental investigation of the role of iconic gestures in lexical access using the tip‐of‐the‐tongue phenomenon
Authors: Beattie Geoffrey , Coughlan Jane
Published: February 2003

The tip‐of‐the‐tongue (TOT) state was induced in participants to test Butterworth & Hadar's (1989) theory that iconic gestures have a functional role in lexical access. Participants were given rare word definitions from which they had to retrieve the appropriate lexical item, all of which had been rated high in imageability. Half were free to gesture and the other half were instructed to fold their arms. Butterworth & Hadar's theory (1989) would predict, first, that the TOT state should be associated with iconic gesture and, second, that such gestures should assist in this lexical retrieval function. In other words, those who were free to gesture should have less trouble in accessing the appropriate lexical items. The study found that gestures were associated with lexical search. Furthermore, these gestures were sometimes iconic and sufficiently complex and elaborate that naive judges could discriminate the lexical item the speaker was searching for from a set of five alternatives, at a level far above chance. But often the gestures associated with lexical search were not iconic in nature, and furthermore there was no evidence that the presence of the iconic gesture itself actually helped the speaker find the lexical item they were searching for. This experimental result has important implications for models of linguistic production, which posit an important processing role for iconic gestures in the processes of lexical selection.
Causal bridging inference: A cause of story interestingness
Authors: Kim Sung‐il
Published: February 2003

Three experiments were conducted to examine whether the interestingness of a story would be influenced by the degree of causal bridging inferences a reader generates during reading. Implicit and explicit versions of the same story were used as experimental materials because it was assumed that the implicit versions lead the reader to generate causal bridging inferences. In Expt 1, it was found that the implicit versions were rated as more interesting than the explicit versions. When Rapid Serial Visual Presentation (RSVP) rate of less than 400 milliseconds was used to prevent inference generation in Expt 2, there was no difference in interestingness ratings between the implicit and explicit versions. However, when the RSVP rate was increased to more than 400 milliseconds in Expt 3, implicit versions produced greater interest than explicit versions. The results of three experiments suggest that the implicit versions are no more interesting than the explicit versions unless the readers generate causal bridging inferences. It is concluded that the interestingness of a story is affected by inference generation. A hypothetical model of the occurrence of the cognitive interest is also discussed.
The mental model theory of spatial reasoning re‐examined: The role of relevance in premise order
Authors: Van der Henst Jean‐Baptiste
Published: February 2003

The effect of premise order on spatial reasoning was investigated using a paradigm introduced by Byrne & Johnson‐Laird in 1989. Three kinds of problems were developed: the first of these was expected to prompt one mental model, whereas the second and third were expected to prompt two mental models. The two‐model problems differed from each other by the position (first or last) of a premise which was responsible for an indeterminacy. On the basis of Sperber & Wilson's Relevance theory, published in 1986 and 1995, it was predicted and observed that a two‐model problem with the crucial premise in the last position was easier than a two‐model problem with the crucial premise in the first position. Moreover, it was predicted and observed that the two‐model problem with the crucial premise in the last position was as easy as the one‐model problem. Implications of these results for the standard mental model theory of spatial reasoning are discussed.
Critical thinking and belief in the paranormal: A re‐evaluation
Authors: Roe Chris A.
Published: February 2003

This paper evaluates the claim that believers in the paranormal exhibit poor critical thinking ability relative to disbelievers, as manifested in their inability to evaluate the competence of experimental abstracts. It is argued that such differences reported elsewhere (Alcock & Otis, 1980; Gray & Mill, 1990) may be accountable for in terms of the action of cognitive dissonance, or as due to experimental artifacts. A study was conducted which attempted to overcome earlier methodological shortcomings, and which assessed the cognitive dissonance account of differential performance. Altogether, 117 participants were characterized as believers, neutrals or disbelievers according to a pre‐measure. Subsequently, each participant was asked to evaluate an abbreviated experimental report which was either sympathetic or unsympathetic to parapsychology. No differences in assessment ratings were found, failing to replicate the claimed effect and supporting an account in terms of artifact. There was a significant tendency for those participants who received a paper which was incongruent with their a priori beliefs to rate it as less competently conducted and analysed than those who rated the congruent paper, in keeping with the cognitive dissonance account.
Occupational choice and patterns of cognitive abilities
Authors: Govier Ernest , Feldman Janice
Published: February 2003

Previous studies by Govier and colleagues have shown dichotic listening performance to be related to occupation. The results of these studies were interpreted as supporting the view that both occupational choice and dichotic listening asymmetries depend upon biologically determined aspects of brain organization. The present study sought to test further the link between occupation and cognition by investigating the patterns of spatial and verbal abilities in males and females in male‐dominated occupations and males and females in femaledominated occupations. It was hypothesized that occupational choice would be a salient marker for within‐sex variation on cognitive tasks previously shown to differentiate performance in men and women. The results supported the hypothesis, and are interpreted as strengthening the view that occupational choice is, at least in part, a function of an individual s cognitive organization.
Failure to support the right‐shift theory s hypothesis of a ‘heterozygote advantage’ for cognitive abilities
Authors: Cerone Louis J. , Mckeever Walter F.
Published: February 2003

Annett's (1985) ‘right‐shift’ theory of language dominance and handedness posits three genotypes, rs ++, rs +− and rs −−, and Annett has hypothesized that there are cognitive ability correlates of these genotypes. The rs ++ genotype person is held to be at risk for maldevelopment of spatial or other right hemisphere‐based cognitive abilities, and the rs −− genotype individual is held to be at risk for maldevelopment of phonological abilities. Noting that there must be some adaptive advantage conferred by the heterozygous genotype for it to have survived over a presumably long period of evolution, Annett has hypothesized that heterozygotes are afforded an adaptive advantage over homozygotes because of their freedom from ‘risks’ to intelligence generally. Annett and colleagues have used two different indices, or markers, from which they have inferred differing concentrations of the three genotypes within groups of participants. One marker, based on responses to hand preference items of the Annett Handedness Inventory, was found by Annett (1992) to support her theory in that the least dextral of right‐handed participants did best on spatial tests. The other marker Annett has used is based on the degree of right‐hand advantage on a simple peg moving speed task. The present study utilized both methods and studied the performances of 259 dextral college men and women on two tests of mental rotation ability and two tests of verbal abilities. Results were not supportive of the heterozygote advantage hypothesis, and suggested that visuospatial ability was modestly related to greater dextrality of participants.
The cognitive psychology of auditory distraction: The 1997 BPS Broadbent Lecture
Authors: Jones Dylan
Published: February 2003

Recent research extending Broadbent's work on selective auditory attention is described through the medium of the irrelevant sound effect (the loss of efficiency when irrelevant sound is played during a serial short‐term memory task). This breakdown of selective attention cannot be explained by interference at encoding, but rather as disruption following some obligatory entry of sound into memory. Within memory, interference does not arise as a result of the conflict between the contents of memory and the irrelevant sound, since neither phonological nor semantic similarity predicts its extent. Instead, the interference seems to be a product of the similarity in process ‐ the degree of seriation ‐ between rehearsal in short‐term memory and the perceptual organization of the irrelevant sound. This type of breakdown in selectivity is likely to have relatively great practical impact, particularly since it is relatively insensitive to loudness and does not appear to diminish with repeated exposure.
Essay review: Recognizing the gauntlet: Anti‐developmentalism in developmental psychology
Authors: FORRESTER MICHAEL A.
Published: February 2003

Book reviewed in this article:

Developmental social psychology: From infancy to old age. By Kevin Durkin.

Agency: Its role in mental development. By James Russell.

Deconstructing developmental psychology. By Erica Burman.

Growing critical: Alternatives to developmental psychology. By John Morss.
The effect of interference on dynamic risk‐taking judgments
Authors: Horswill Mark S. , Mckenna Frank P.
Published: February 2003

The experiment outlined in this paper investigated the effect of interference on everyday dynamic risk‐taking judgments. Two questions were addressed. First, can highly practised dynamic risk‐taking decisions become automated, such that they are not affected by the presence of a demanding secondary task? Second, if risk‐taking decisions are interfered with by a secondary task, what is the direction of the effect? Do people take more risks when they are distracted or do they compensate for the interference and take fewer risks? Drivers (N=121) were required to perform video‐simulation tests measuring driving‐related, risk‐taking decisions. Participants were required to carry out the tasks while either performing a concurrent verbal task or not. It was found that those in the dual‐task condition took more risks. This suggests that dynamic risk‐taking decisions in this context are not automatic and also that interference increases individuals propensity to take risks.
Determinants of intergroup differentiation in the illusory correlation task
Authors: Berndsen Mariëtte , Spears Russell , Van der Pligt Joop , McGarty Craig
Published: February 2003

Illusory correlation refers to the perceived (but erroneous) relation between stimuli. In social psychology this phenomenon has been related to stereotype formation. Recent research in this area has shown that the perception of illusory correlation between two groups and their behaviours can be a product of understandable attempts to differentiate between these groups. This is due to participants interpretations of the experimental task and to features that draw attention to group differences. In the first study we showed that the task instructions presented to participants can induce expectations of differences between the stimulus groups, which helped to produce illusory correlation. We also demonstrated that giving precedence to the behaviours, rather than to the groups, resulted in attenuated illusory correlation effects. In the second study we investigated how aspects of the stimulus distribution affected the perception of illusory correlation. In line with the first study, we showed that increasing the focus on the stimulus groups can enhance illusory correlation, whereas focusing on the behaviours can reduce this effect. The present findings support the self‐categorization explanation of illusory correlation that proposes it to be the product of a meaningful category differentiation process.
Model applicants: The effect of facial appearance on recruitment decisions
Authors: Stevenage Sarah V. , McKay Yolanda
Published: February 2003

The fact that attractiveness is associated with goodness has dominated the literature on first impressions over the last few decades. However, one situation that has been largely ignored is the recruitment setting. While evidence suggests that attractiveness is an asset, little research has addressed the possible disadvantage of having a disfigured face. In this study, perceptions of personal qualities and job skills were obtained from both students and recruitment personnel in response to a mock job applicant who had either no disfigurement, a facial disfigurement, a physical disability or both. The results indicated a marked negative perception of the applicant with the facial disfigurement but no main effect of a physical disability, for both personal qualities and job skills. In addition, analysis of the recruitment decisions of the students suggested that while the possession of a physical disability significantly reduced the chances of being selected, the possession of a facial disfigurement had a far greater negative impact. Comparison across students and recruiters suggested that recruitment experience did offset this bias somewhat, and the results are discussed in terms of both a theoretical understanding of the reactions to disability and the possibilities for re‐education in the workplace.
A meta‐analysis of mass‐media tests of extrasensory perception
Authors: Milton Julie , Wiseman Richard
Published: February 2003

Some scientists have argued that recent meta‐analyses of many different types of parapsychological study suggest that extrasensory perception (ESP) might exist, albeit as a small effect. Large‐scale ESP experiments conducted via newspapers, magazines, radio and television can generate a huge number of guesses and offer researchers a way of quickly obtaining enough data to discover reliably whether such small effects actually exist. The experimental conditions used in mass‐media ESP studies are almost identical to most national lotteries (i.e. large numbers of people sitting at home attempting to guess the identity of a distant target) and so positive results from such studies would challenge the notion that lotteries are unpredictable. Meta‐analysis of eight ESP studies conducted via the mass media, representing over 1.5 million individual trials, indicate a very low, negative effect size (z / N1/2 = −.0046) whose overall cumulative outcome did not differ significantly from chance expectation (Stouffer z = −1.60). The paper discusses the implications of these results for the debate about the existence of ESP and its practical implications for lottery organizers.
Attention for action: Coordinating bimanual reach‐to‐grasp movements
Authors: Jackson G. M. , Jackson S. R. , Kritikos A.
Published: February 2003

Theories of attention have frequently pointed to the finding that there is a significant performance decrement (‘cost’) to responding to two different objects concurrently. However, much of the research aimed at investigating how attention is ‘divided’ in such circumstances has adopted response time (RT) as the measure of interest. In this paper we investigate how attention is ‘divided’ during the execution of concurrent motor responses, by studying bimanual reach‐to‐grasp movements directed towards two separate target objects. Furthermore, a key aspect of our study is that each hand is required to perform either the same action (congruent reaches) or a different action (incongruent reaches). Thus in Expt 1 we manipulated the movement amplitude of each hand, while in Expt 2 we manipulated object size. The results of this study suggest that while there is an overall cost associated with carrying out two movements simultaneously, kinematic measures are unaffected by whether the actions required of each hand are the same (congruent) or different (incongruent). The problem of executing incongruent bimanual movements appears to be solved by synchronizing each limb to a common movement duration, while movement velocity and grip aperture are independently scaled. These findings are discussed in relation to theories developed to explain the coordination of the reach‐and‐grasp phases of unimanual prehension, and in the context of recent theories of attention for action.
The coordination of two‐effector actions: Spoon‐feeding and intermanual prehension
Authors: Churchill Andrew , Vogt Stefan , Hopkins Brian
Published: February 2003

The aim of this study was to assess whether kinematic characteristics of unimanual (one‐effector) prehension movements can also be found in tasks where the transport and grasp components are distributed across separate effectors. Expt 1 compared prehension with spoon‐feeding and showed that a number of kinematic landmarks, such as time to peak aperture, were similar. An unexpected difference between the tasks was that the onsets of the transport and grasp components in the two‐effector task were not always synchronized. To control for a number of differences between the tasks used in Expt 1, such as the role of haptic and visual information, Expt 2 compared unimanual with intermanual prehension, which involved passing an object from one hand to the other. The results were consistent with those found in Expt 1. In particular, time to peak aperture was similar over the different tasks, despite a lack of consistent coupling between the components at movement onset. We conclude that the one‐ and two‐effector tasks pose largely the same task constraints and are coordinated in a similar way. Intermanual prehension tasks thus provide a useful experimental tool for manipulations that are difficult or impossible to perform with unimanual reaching and grasping.
On the perceived time of voluntary actions
Authors: Haggard Patrick , Newman Chris , Magno Elena
Published: February 2003

When do we think we move when we make a voluntary action? Previous studies have pointed to an anticipatory awareness of action (i.e. we think we move before we actually do), but have not investigated the content or locus of motor awareness. In the experiment reported here the authors localize the time of awareness of the first movement in a sequence within the context of a specific information‐processing model. The results suggest that our awareness of our own actions is associated with some pre‐motor event after the initial intention and preparation of action, but before the assembly and despatch of the actual motor command to the muscles.
Mood scores: Mood and performance in professional cricketers
Authors: Totterdell Peter
Published: February 2003

Do changes in the performance of professional sports players relate to changes in their moods? Thirty‐three professional county cricketers from four teams used pocket computers to provide ratings of their moods and performance three times a day for up to 4 days during a championship match. Pooled time‐series analysis and correlation analysis showed that players' subjective and objective performances were related to their happiness, energy, enthusiasm, focus and confidence during the match. The majority of players also performed better when they felt less tense, but some performed better when they felt more tense. Differences in players' recollection of their moods during best and worst performances reinforced the findings. The results suggest that professional cricketers' performances are influenced by their moods.
Essay Review: Multiplying the multiplicity: Are dissociative identity disorders ‘real’?
Authors: LEUDAR IVAN , SHARROCK WES
Published: February 2003

Rewriting the soul: Multiple personality and the sciences of memory. By Ian Hacking.
On the relationship between time management and time estimation
Authors: Francis‐Smythe J. A. , Robertson Ivan T.
Published: February 2003

The study explores the relationship between people's self‐report of the use of time management practices and estimates of task duration. The hypothesis is that those who are good time managers will be good at estimating how long a future task will take (expected); how long a previously executed task has taken (retrospective); and how long a task is taking while in process (prospective). In the expected setting results indicate that those who perceive themselves as good time managers are most accurate at estimating the duration of a future task. Of those who do not perceive themselves as good time managers, some grossly overestimate and many underestimate to quite a considerable extent. The latter finding thus provides support for the ‘planning fallacy’ (Kahneman & Tversky, 1979). In the prospective setting results indicate those who perceive themselves as good time managers tend to underestimate time passing. It is suggested that this is a motivational strategy designed to enhance a sense of control over time. Findings are discussed in relation to existing theories of time estimation.
Preparing to react in the absence of uncertainty: II. Stimulus uncertainty and response compatibility in tactile reaction time
Authors: Dittrich Winand H. , Henderson Leslie
Published: February 2003

Stimulus uncertainty and stimulus response compatibility were manipulated in three reaction time (RT) experiments. Key‐release responses were summoned either by direct tactile or visual cuing of the response finger or by oblique cuing of the contralateral finger. Comparisons of standard simple reaction time (SRT) with 2: 1 convergent RT (CoRT), in which participants were required to execute the same response to either of two stimuli, invariably revealed a stimulus uncertainty effect. Extended practice and high compatibility diminished, but did not eliminate, this effect. The effect was not confined to trials in which the stimulus differed from the previous one, trials following an error, or to a longer tail on participants' CoRT distribution. CoRT remained longer than SRT when tactile imperative stimuli were replaced by visual ones, establishing that the stimulus uncertainty effect was not a peculiarity of the bimanual tactile RT set‐up. The latencies of CoRT were invariably shorter than for binary Go/No‐Go RT or standard choice RT (CRT), indicating a role for factors other than stimulus uncertainty. A remarkable feature of the tactile paradigm was the varying impact of compatibility on different tasks: for example, CRT was actually shorter than Go/No‐Go RT when participants responded with the finger stimulated but considerably longer when responding with the contralateral finger.
Role of memorization conditions in the haptic processing of orientations and the ‘oblique effect’
Authors: Gentaz Edouard , Hatwell Yvette
Published: February 2003

The haptic processing of vertical, horizontal, 45° and 135° oblique orientations was studied in blindfolded sighted adults in an exploration‐reproduction task. The purpose was to determine whether the variations of the memorization conditions between the exploration and reproduction phases would influence the global performance and the oblique effect (lower performance in oblique orientations than in vertical‐horizontal orientations). If orientation coding depended on attentional resources, the increase in memory constraints would affect the haptic processing of orientations and the oblique effect. Memory constraints were therefore varied by changing the length and the nature of the delay in two tasks in which previous research has shown that the availability of gravitational cues affected orientation coding.

Blindfolded adults were asked to explore haptically a rod with minimal (Expt 1) or natural (Expt 2) gravitational cues and then to reproduce the orientation of this rod ipsilaterally after one of four memorization conditions: with 5 s or 30 s unfilled delays, and 30 s delays filled with verbal or haptic interpolated tasks. When the delay was unfilled, whatever its length (5 s or 30 s), the performance depended on the conditions of manual exploration: the oblique effect was absent when the gravitational cues were minimal (Expt 1) and was present when these cues were natural (Expt 2). By contrast, when the delay was filled with interpolated tasks, the haptic oblique effect was present whatever the conditions of manual exploration. Taken together, these results showed that memorization conditions played a role in the haptic processing of orientations and in the oblique effect when the gravitational cues were minimal during manual exploration.
The role of augmented information prior to learning a bimanual visual‐motor coordination task: Do instructions of the movement pattern facilitate learning relative to discovery learning?
Authors: Hodges Nicola J. , Lee Timothy D.
Published: February 2003

Investigators have recently begun to examine the role of information prior to learning a motor skill and surprisingly have found that not providing instruction about how to learn often results in better learning and transfer than explicit instruction. To examine more specifically how these instructional manipulations influence learning, a temporal, bimanual coordination study was conducted that allowed an examination of the process of acquisition, in relation to knowledge of pre‐existing coordinative tendencies. Specific (SI) and general (GI) instruction groups, where instruction informed participants how the hands should be coordinated to produce the required pattern, were compared to no‐instruction (NI) and secondary task learning (STL) groups. The two instruction groups showed an initial bias towards an anti‐phase pattern, whereas the no‐instruction groups showed a greater bias initially to an in‐phase pattern. However, it was the NI and the SI groups who were the most accurate during acquisition and retention. Interestingly, however, only the SI group was negatively affected during a secondary task transfer test, and regressed back to the previously stable anti‐phase pattern of coordination. These data show that discovery learning may facilitate the learning of a complex coordination task, especially if the task has to be performed concurrently with other attention‐demanding tasks.
Recognition hypermnesia with repeated trials: Initial evidence for the alternative retrieval pathways hypothesis
Authors: Kazén Miguel , Manuel Solís‐Macías Victor
Published: February 2003

The alternative retrieval pathways (ARP) hypothesis of hypermnesia is here proposed. This hypothesis predicts hypermnesia (net improvements in recall or recognition after initial learning) whenever alternative retrieval pathways are provided leading to the original episodic trace. Initial evidence for this hypothesis was obtained in two experiments testing a non‐obvious prediction of its format transformation assumption, namely that hypermnesia would be obtained in recognition and would not occur in recall if the former, but not the latter, condition requires obligatory format transformations between item encoding and retrieval. In the first experiment the same participants, exposed to identical items and having analogous encoding and retrieval conditions, showed recognition and did not show recall hypermnesia. With a between‐participant design, the second experiment replicated the recognition hypermnesia findings, using a different recognition procedure and three instead of two test trials, whereas recall hypermnesia remained absent. Results are discussed comparing the heuristic value of ARP hypothesis to that of other current theories. It is concluded that recognition hypermnesia using individual words and pictures is a reliable phenomenon, provided ceiling effects can be prevented, and access to the original episodic information takes place using alternative retrieval pathways.
Poker‐machine gambling: An analysis of within session characteristics
Authors: Delabbro Paul H. , Winefield Anthony H.
Published: February 2003

The aim of this study was to examine the nature of poker‐machine gambling (the Australian equivalent of British fruit machines and American slot‐machines) in an ecologically valid setting. Eighteen regular and 21 occasional poker‐machine players were observed, using a methodology that allowed simultaneous recording of machine events, behaviour and cognitions. The results supported previous research by Dickerson et al. (1991, 1992) showing that gambling responses are sensitive to machine events. Larger wins were found to disrupt response rates giving rise to larger post‐reinforcement pauses, whereas response rates were maintained by small rewards. In addition, the results showed that the behaviour and beliefs of regular players were more consistent than those of occasional players. Regular players held very fixed views about the profitability of given machines, were less likely to vary their wagers (stakes), and tended to increase their stakes when winning and decrease them when losing. The results also provided some evidence to suggest that poker‐machine gambling may be influenced by the beliefs which players hold about the nature of the schedule. The implications of these observations for modern operant conditioning theory are discussed, along with suggestions for further research investigating the relationship between verbal and non‐verbal behaviour.
The psychology of the near‐miss (revisited): A comment on Delfabbro & Winefield (1999)
Authors: Griffiths Mark D.
Published: February 2003

This paper briefly comments on Delfabbro & Winefield's (1999) paper ‘Poker‐machine gambling: An analysis of within‐session characteristics’, published in the British Journal of Psychology, and questions their notion that gambling is maintained by winning and losing sequences within the operant conditioning paradigm (i.e. that the only rewards and reinforcers in gambling are purely monetary). It is argued that Delfabbro and Winefield's contribution is too narrow in its focus in that they have taken no account of the ‘near miss’ in relation to operant conditioning theory and that there may be other reinforcers that play a role in the maintenance process. It is also argued that gambling is biopsychosocial behaviour, and should therefore be explained by a biopsychosocial account.
The danger of over‐explanation in psychological research: A reply to Griffiths
Authors: Delfabbra Paul H. , Winefield Anthony H.
Published: February 2003

According to Griffiths (1999), monetary rewards may only play a limited role in the maintenance of gambling behaviour. Many other factors, including near‐misses, excitement, and social rewards should be taken into account when trying to explain persistent gambling. In this paper, it is argued that this eclectic (biopsychosocial) approach needs to be applied with caution. This is because of the absence of clear operational definitions of these other reinforcers (e.g. ‘near‐misses’, social rewards); the fact that these reinforcers are likely to be related to the receipt or anticipation of monetary rewards (Walker, 1992); and the danger of over‐explanation. If reinforcers can be direct or indirect, monetary or non‐monetary, are there any aspects of gambling (apart from clear losses) which are not reinforcing?
The Gulf War and illness by association
Authors: Ferguson Eamonn , Cassaday Helen J.
Published: February 2003

The symptoms of Gulf War Syndrome (GWS) closely correspond to the physiological and behavioural sequelae of an interleukin‐1 (IL‐1) mediated sickness response. We propose that this response can account for the variability in its symptomatology. Furthermore, the persistence of GWS can be accounted for by an associative process, whereby the smells tastes of war become linked with the physiological reaction to environmental stressors encountered in the Gulf and or the ‘cocktail’ of drugs given to the soldiers. As required, the IL‐1 response is conditionable.
Changing conscious experience — Comparing clinical approaches, practice and outcomes
Authors: Henry Jane
Published: February 2003

The paper offers an integrative review of personal development procedures designed to improve conscious experience and enhance well‐being. The review is in four parts. The first part presents an overview of the various therapeutically oriented approaches offered in the clinical and personal development fields, contrasting six key schools. The second part examines practice, noting key assumptions and privileged practices along with their historical and cultural roots. The third part considers empirical evidence on outcomes, including work on common factors and negative outcomes. The fourth part offers an overview of some theoretical attempts to integrate work on personal change. The conclusion emphasizes the need to consider the role of neglected factors such as social support and active involvement.
Consciousness and psychological science
Authors: Pickering John
Published: February 2003

The growth of research on consciousness creates an opportunity to enrich psychological practice. This paper suggests that a more even balance between third and first‐person perspectives may now be sought, and that this will make possible more informed interaction between psychological science and pre‐scientific traditions for investigating the mind. This paper concludes by discussing how such developments might enhance the image of psychological science.
Effects of study‐test modality on false recognition
Authors: Maylor Elizabeth A. , Mo Andrew
Published: February 2003

Many recent investigations of false memories have generally followed Roediger & McDermott (1995) in using auditory presentation at study and a visual recognition test; the results reveal high rates of false alarms to non‐studied lure words that are associatively related to studied words. We presented lists of words related to critical lure words either auditorially (A) or visually (V); recognition was tested either auditorially or visually, producing four study‐test conditions (AA, AV, VA, and VV). The false recognition rate for critical lures was higher following visual presentation (.76) than following auditory presentation (.35). Moreover, false recognition rates were higher when study and test modalities differed than when they matched (AV higher than AA; VA higher than VV). Correct recognition rate was actually exceeded by false recognition rate following visual presentation, whereas the reverse was the case following auditory presentation. For each word recognized as old (whether correctly or falsely), a remember know guess judgment was required. The proportion of words that were consciously recollected (i.e. remembered) was not significantly lower for false recognitions than for correct recognitions in any of the four conditions. It is concluded that false recognition can be reduced by factors that enhance correct recognition (auditory rather than visual presentation at study; same rather than different modality at study and at test), but when false recognition occurs, the subjective experience of remembering may be indistinguishable from correct recognition, regardless of study‐test modality.
Spread of inhibition across an object's surface
Authors: Jordan Heather , Tipper Steven P.
Published: February 2003

For efficient visual search it is critical that attention is inhibited from returning to previously examined loci. It has been demonstrated that this inhibition can be associated both with the location and the object towards which attention was oriented. However, it is not known whether, after attending to one part of an object, the inhibition spreads to the entire object, or remains localized at the attended site. This study demonstrates that inhibition can spread across an object's surface. This confirms that the presence of objects in a display is sufficient to observe an object‐based inhibitory attentional effect. However, it is also noted that this spread of inhibition appears to decline with exposure to the task, being generally non‐significant in the second half of the study. The study suggests that the magnitude of pure object‐based Inhibition of Return (IOR) effect may be modulated by the subjective salience of the objects and that, when not directly relevant to a subject s behavioural goals, object‐based representations can have minimal impact on attentional orienting processes.
Inhibitory after‐effects in the stop signal paradigm
Authors: Rieger Martina , Gauggel Siegfried
Published: February 2003

The inhibition of responses to interfering stimuli in a trial results in longer reaction times in the following trial in which to‐be‐ignored stimuli become targets. This is due to the fact that the residual inhibition of the distractor must be overcome before the relevant response can be produced. Such negative priming effects are wellknown inhibitory after‐effects and the focus of intensive research. However, it seems reasonable to assume that the use of inhibitory processes leaves measurable after‐effects in a variety of other tasks and situations. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to investigate whether the after‐effects of inhibition could be obtained in a task measuring motor inhibition (i.e. the stop signal task). Our results indicate that inhibitory after‐effects were present in the stop signal task whether or not participants were successful in inhibiting their reactions. Moreover, inhibitory after‐effects were greater when both trials consisted of the same primary task properties. Strategic effects might explain part of the results, but there is evidence that a specific inhibition of either the stimulus, or the response to that stimulus, or both plays a role in the constitution of the after‐effects.
Motion sickness in public road transport: The relative importance of motion, vision and individual differences
Authors: Turner Mark , Griffin Michael J.
Published: February 2003

The relative importance of vehicle motion, a view of the road ahead and passenger characteristics in the causation of motion sickness in road transport has been investigated using survey data from 3256 coach passengers and measurements of coach motion. Overall, 28% of passengers said they felt unwell during coach travel. Prior experience of sickness, travel regularity and age were the factors most highly correlated with illness. Increased vehicle motion and poorer forward vision also correlated with illness. Little difference in illness was apparent with a good view of the road ahead, regardless of motion exposure, although vision alone was not sufficient to eliminate passenger sickness entirely. The results suggest that travel sickness could be significantly reduced by improved forward external vision and that improved forward vision may be particularly beneficial for individuals new to coach travel and for those who travel less often.
The possibility of a science of experience: An examination of some conceptual problems facing the study of consciousness
Authors: Valentine Elizabeth R.
Published: February 2003

This paper addresses some of the chief conceptual problems associated with the study of conscious experience. (1) Conceptual confusion and lack of clarity of the term ‘consciousness’ itself, including doubts as to whether it constitutes a natural kind, and confusion between different types. (2) Privacy: the claim that conscious experience cannot be studied scientifically on account of its subjectivity. The distinction between subjective and objective is re‐examined and the universally inferential nature of scientific statements stressed. Methods for the study of pain are examined in detail, exemplifying the objectification of a prototypically subjective experience. (3) Epiphenomenalism: the view that an adequate account of mental life can be given without reference to consciousness because the latter plays no causal role in the control of behaviour. The primacy of conscious experience is stressed as is its centrality to mental health. It is concluded that the study of conscious experience is both possible, even if from a third person perspective and necessary, on account of its importance for psychological well‐being.
When perception becomes conscious
Authors: Velmans Max
Published: February 2003

The study of preconscious vs. conscious processing has an extensive history in cognitive psychology, dating back to the writings of William James. Much of the experimental work on this issue has focused on perception, conceived of as input analysis, and on the relation of consciousness to attentional processing. The present paper examines when input analysis becomes conscious from the perspectives of cognitive modelling, methodology, and a more detailed understanding of what is meant by ‘conscious processing’. Current evidence suggests that perception becomes conscious at a late‐arising stage of focal‐attentive processing concerned with information integration and dissemination. Reliable criteria for determining when perception becomes conscious combine the evidence of ‘first‐person’ phenomenological reports with ‘third‐person’ functional dissociations between preconscious and conscious processing. There are three distinct senses in which a process may be said to be ‘conscious’. It might be ‘conscious’ (a) in the sense that one is conscious of the process, (b) in the sense that the operation of the process is accompanied by consciousness (of its results) and (c) in the sense that consciousness enters into or causally influences the process. Consciousness of familiar stimuli, rather than entering into input analysis, appears to follow it in human information processing. Processes closely associated with the appearance of consciousness such as information integration and dissemination appear to operate unconsciously. Consequently, perception appears to be ‘conscious’ only in sense (b).
Consciousness, mental imagery and action
Authors: Marks David F.
Published: February 2003

This article is founded on the bold claim that mental imagery is a basic building block of all consciousness. Conscious mental imagery is reported in association with waking, dreaming and intermediate states of consciousness. Meta‐cognitive theory claims that the individual may be treated as an imperfect measuring device of his or her own consciousness. This is supported by the evidence on the psychological correlates of imagery vividness reported using the Vividness of Visual Imagery Questionnaire (VVIQ) (Marks, 1973). Meta‐analysis of 150 studies has demonstrated high levels of reliability, content validity and criterion validity (McKelvie, 1995 a, b). This analysis demonstrates that under controlled conditions, verbal reports provide reliable and valid measures of conscious experience. The activity cycle theory of conscious imagery claims that a primary function of consciousness is the mental rehearsal of adaptive, goal‐directed action through the experimental manipulation of perceptual‐motor imagery. As predicted by this theory, the meta‐analysis shows that the vividness of conscious mental imagery is strongly associated with precisely those performances most likely to benefit from the use of perceptual‐motor imagery and mental practice. The theory helps to explain the existence and function of conscious experience.
Also against methodolatry: A reply to Reicher
Authors: Elliott Robert , Fischer Constance T. , Rennie David L.
Published: February 2003

The development and publication of proposed guidelines for qualitative research (Elliott, Fischer, & Rennie, 1999) is a politically fraught process. We support Reicher's (2000) basic position, that postmodernist critical discourse analysis a la Potter and Wetherell (1987) should develop its own standards of good practice. However, we take exception to Reicher's caricature of phenomenological‐hermeneutic research approaches as philosophically naive, and with his grouping of them with positivist quantitative/experimental methods. We contend that he based his response on prior assumptions which in fact do not pertain to our article or our own work as qualitative researchers. In our response, we correct the mischaracterization and aim to encourage all involved to keep communication channels open.
The timing, triggers and qualities of recovered memories in therapy
Authors: Andrews Bernice , Brewin Chris R. , Ochera Jenny , Morton John , Bekerian Debra A. , Davies Graham M. , Mollon Phil
Published: February 2003

Objectives. To report descriptive data on memory recovery of traumatic material including: degree of prior amnesia, triggers to recovery, qualities of the memory and length of time taken to recover different types of memory.

Design. British Psychological Society practitioners who reported having clients with recovered memories in a previous large‐scale survey were contacted for an indepth interview. They each provided information on up to three such clients.

Methods. From telephone interviews with 108 therapists, we elicited 236 detailed accounts of clients recovering a traumatic memory. Interviews were semistructured with investigator‐based ratings.

Results. The degree of amnesia varied widely according to therapists: some clients had prior total amnesia, others a prior vague sense or suspicion, and others prior partial memories. Time in therapy before first recall was longer for memories involving child sexual abuse than for memories of other traumas. The majority of the memories, but not all, were similar to those reported by patients with post‐traumatic stress disorder: they were fragmented, accompanied by high levels of emotion, and experienced as a reliving of the original event.

Conclusions. On the basis of current understanding of memory processes, several mechanisms may be needed to explain all the data, including disruptions to the encoding and retrieval of traumatic events and errors in the attribution of the source of specific memories. It will be important to confirm these findings by interviewing clients themselves.
Subjective improvement in PTSD patients with treatment by imaginal exposure or cognitive therapy: Session by session changes
Authors: Tarrier Nicholas , Humphreys Lloyd
Published: February 2003

A self‐rating scale, the Subjective Symptom Checklist (SSC) was developed to assess PTSD patients perception of their symptoms between treatment sessions. Reliability and validity of the scale were acceptable. The scale was used in a treatment trial comparing the efficacy of cognitive therapy versus imaginal exposure. Conventional pre‐post treatment comparisons using standardized assessments showed no differences between the two treatments. However, when patients who failed to respond to treatment were excluded, group treatment effects became apparent. Patients who received imaginal exposure showed a significantly greater reduction in subjective ratings of their symptoms than did those who received cognitive therapy. It was cautiously concluded that although some PTSD patients could not tolerate exposure, those who could may receive greater subjective benefit than those who received cognitive therapy.