bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
LONG-TERM FATE AND EFFECTS OF UNTREATED THICK OIL DEPOSITS ON SALT MARSHES
Authors: Baker Jenifer M. , Leonardo Guzman M. , Bartlett Paul D. , Little David I. , Wilson C. Mark
Published: January 2013

The paper compares two case histories in which thick oil layers were deposited on salt marshes. The first concerns a spill in Milford Haven, Wales, in February 1969, which resulted in deposits of heavy fuel oil on parts of the Martinshaven marsh. The second concerns the Metula spill of light Arabian crude in the Strait of Magellan, Chile, in August 1974. Salt marshes near Puerto Espora, Tierra del Fuego, were affected by thick mousse.

Following both spills, vegetation was smothered and killed. For a variety of reasons, including remoteness, there was no cleanup treatment in either case. At Martinshaven, vegetation recovery started within the first year after the spill, and was complete within 15 years. The oil layer is still clearly visible in core samples, but is not visible at the marsh surface because of sediment deposition. Samples analyzed in 1990, 22 years after the spill, were still recognizable as heavy fuel oil, albeit highly degraded.

The Puerto Espora marshes were revisited in 1990 and 1991, 16 and 17 years after the spill. Mousse deposits were still visible at the surface. Samples analyzed in 1990 showed that oil beneath the surface skin of thick deposits was still quite fresh. There was no vegetation recovery in such areas. Where deposits were thinner, the mousse was well weathered and vegetation was recovering.

Factors influencing recovery include oil type and weathering, oil thickness, sedimentation processes, size of area affected, and plant morphology. It is concluded that in extreme circumstances of extensive, thick oil deposits, natural recovery will take decades, so a cleanup program is likely to be justifiable. Cleanup may not be necessary for small areas of thick deposits on some marshes.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND SOURCE FINGERPRINTING OF DEPOSITIONAL OIL FROM THE KUWAIT OIL FIRES
Authors: Henry Charles B. , Overton Edward B.
Published: January 2013

Depositional oil and soot derived from the 1991 Kuwait oil field fires produced huge tar mats in the desert. The concentration of oil in the upper 5 cm of the desert surface ranged from 1.16 to 8.92 percent oil by weight as determined by TPH analysis over a 10 km transect in southern Kuwait. The mean concentration of asphaltenes in the tar mat samples was estimated at 62 percent; a greater than 17-fold increase in concentration over unweathered Kuwait crude oil. The remaining oil forming these tar mats is believed to be derived from petroleum that escaped combustion within the well fires. Results from GC/MS analyses characterize the depositional oil as being significantly altered by evaporative weathering. We suspect that evaporation of the depositional oil will continue, further consolidating the weathered oil, sand, and soot into asphalt-like zones which will remain for a very long time as features of the Kuwait desert. Significant quantities of oil residue from the fires also fell into the Arabian Gulf, contributing to what may be the largest man-made oil spill.
ECODYNAMICS OF OIL-DEGRADING BACTERIA AND SIGNIFICANCE OF MARINE MIXED POPULATIONS IN THE DEGRADATION OF PETROLEUM COMPOUNDS
Authors: Venkateswaran Kasthuri , Tanaka Hiroki , Komukai Shyoko , Toki Haruhisa , Iwabuchi Tokuro , Miyachi Shigetoh
Published: January 2013

Ecological studies, screening of hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria, and studies of the potentials of various single and mixed bacterial populations in the utilization of petroleum compounds were carried out to understand the microbial hydrocarbon degradation process in marine ecosystems. Populations of hydrocarbon utilizers were larger in coastal regions than in pelagic environments. Ecological observations indicated that oil-degrading bacteria were ubiquitously distributed in both temperate and tropical environments, irrespective of oil-polluted and unpolluted ecosystems. Bacteria were grown with n-tetradecane, pristane, propylbenzene, phenanthrene, and crude oil as the sole carbon source; and substrate specificities of the purified strains were characterized. Based on the assimilation characteristics of the isolated strains, an artificial mixed-culture system was constructed. Biodegradation of crude oil by the natural mixed population was found to be higher than by the artificial mixed population. However, when some of the substrate-specific degraders were artificially mixed with natural microflora, the degradation of hard-to-degrade aromatic hydrocarbon fractions of crude oil was enhanced.
TESTING THE EFFICACY OF OIL SPILL BIOREMEDIATION PRODUCTS
Authors: Venosa Albert D. , Kadkhodayan Miryam , King Dennis W. , Wrenn Brian A. , Haines John R. , Herrington Todd , Strohmeier Kevin , Suidan Makram T.
Published: January 2013

Ten bioremediation products were tested in laboratory respirometers for their ability to enhance the biodegradation of artificially weathered Alaska North Slope crude oil compared to natural populations supplied with mineral nutrients. The sea water used was natural sea water obtained from the Gulf of Mexico near Gulf Breeze, Florida. All products were tested in triplicate in closed laboratory flasks connected to an instrument able to track and record cumulative oxygen uptake continuously over time. Triplicate flasks were sacrificed periodically, the contents extracted with hexane, and the oil components quantified by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Correlations were made between the decline in aliphatic and aromatic analytes and the net oxygen uptake observed in each flask. From these correlations, the median time needed to consume enough oxygen to effect a 60 percent decline in the total resolved analytes was computed for each product, and this time was compared statistically to the time needed by the natural populations in the source sea water to effect the same removal. Using this approach, five of the ten products were found to enhance biotransformation of the crude oil analytes. When the analysis was repeated for the aromatic constituents only, using a target removal of only 25 percent, only two of the ten products gave shorter response times than the nutrient-supplemented sea water.
CONTINGENCY PLANNING, CONTRACTOR REQUIREMENTS, AND OIL POLLUTION ACT OF 1990 IMPLEMENTATION
Authors: Lees Joseph E.
Published: January 2013

In response to widespread public concern, Congress enacted the comprehensive Oil Pollution Act of 1990. This, in addition to legislation enacted by many coastal states, will bring dramatic changes to oil spill response in the United States. This paper considers OPA 90's response planning requirements, the rule-making process for implementing these requirements, and key issues in response planning. It compares the proposed federal requirements with state response planning and contractor requirements.

The response planning system faces a long period of adjustment. Sustained efforts will be needed to harmonize the many state and federal laws and regulations into a coherent, consistent, and understandable response regime.
EVALUATION OF THREE OIL SPILL LABORATORY DISPERSANT EFFECTIVENESS TESTS
Authors: Sullivan Daniel , Farlow John , Sahatjian Karen A.
Published: January 2013

Chemical dispersants can be used to reduce the interfacial tension of floating oil slicks so that the oils disperse more rapidly into the water column and thus pose less of a threat to shorelines, birds, and marine mammals. The laboratory test currently specified in federal regulations to measure dispersant effectiveness is not especially easy or inexpensive, and generates a rather large quantity of oily waste water. This paper describes the results of an effort by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to identify a more suitable laboratory dispersant effectiveness test.

EPA evaluated three laboratory methods: the Revised Standard Dispersant Effectiveness Test currently used (and required by regulation) in the United States, the swirling flask test (developed by Environment Canada), and the IFP-dilution test (used in France and other European countries). Six test oils and three dispersants were evaluated; dispersants were applied to the oil at an average 1:10 ratio (dispersant to oil) for each of the three laboratory methods. Screening efforts were used to focus on the most appropriate oil/dispersant combination for detailed study. A screening criterion was established that required a combination that gave at least 20 percent effectiveness results. The selected combination turned out to be Prudhoe Bay crude oil (an EPA-American Petroleum Institute Standard Reference Oil) and the dispersant Corexit 9527. This combination was also most likely to be encountered in U. S. coastal waters. The EPA evaluation concluded that the three tests gave similar precision results, but that the swirling flask test was fastest, cheapest, simplest, and required least operator skill.

Further, EPA is considering conducting the dispersant effectiveness test itself, rather than having data submitted by a dispersant manufacturer, and establishing an acceptability criterion (45 percent efficiency) which would have to be met before a dispersant could be placed on the Product Schedule of the National Contingency Plan (NCP). Also under consideration by EPA is a sequential testing procedure for a dispersant being placed on the schedule, whereby successful effectiveness testing would be required before toxicity testing would begin.
LASER AND INFRARED TECHNIQUES FOR WATER POLLUTION CONTROL
Authors: Geraci Alberto L. , Landolina Francesco , Pantani Luca , Cecchi Giovanna
Published: January 2013

A remote sensing application for the control of oil pollution and water quality was developed by the National Council of Research at Florence, and the University of Catania, both in Italy. The application is based on the simultaneous use of active and passive remote sensing systems (lidar and flir systems) from a helicopter. Water pollution characteristics were determined with the lidar system, in polluted areas of water detected, on a larger scale, by the flir system. Pollution characteristics detected included type of pollutant, type of oil, and oil thickness. The experiment, named LIRA, was carried out using an Italian Navy helicopter over sea areas around Sicily having a high risk of pollution. The results proved the effectiveness and usefulness of the techniques proposed.
THE MSRC RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM: AN UPDATE ON PROGRESS
Authors: Engelhardt F. Rainer
Published: January 2013

The research and development program of the Marine Spill Response Corporation is solidly under way in a variety of project areas. These include remote sensing, in-situ burning, dispersants, oil/water separation, countermeasures effectiveness, bioremediation, and evaluation of spill effects. More than thirty projects have been contracted. Among these are remote sensing studies, which started with in-depth market analyses, technical feasibility evaluations, and field studies. The remote sensing program is engaged in rapid development of a research test bed system, as well as longer-term studies on sensor development and use of satellite systems. In-situ burning studies included a detailed analysis of operational feasibility and information needs; preparations are being made for test burns at sea and improvements of fire-resistant barrier systems. Studies are underway on both aerial dispersant application system development and dispersant effects in selected environments. Studies have commenced on the development of oil/water separators for vessels of opportunity used in oil spill response, as well as the related issue of demulsification. The effectiveness of spill countermeasures is being investigated from both engineering and ecological perspectives. Bioremediation projects are under way to promote the development of test systems and on shoreline test sites. Interest continues in test spills in the marine environment, including participation in experimental spills outside the United States and a search for possible scenarios where such field experiments can be carried out in United States waters. In all of these project areas, the research and development program stresses information transfer by way of meetings and publications, and is initiating publication of a peer reviewed international journal on oil spill science and technology. Working collaboration with other organizations at federal and state levels, as well as internationally, has been established under a variety of agreements and understandings for research and development cooperation.
AN OVERVIEW OF THE EPA OIL SPILL RESEARCH PROGRAM
Authors: Lindsey Alfred W. , Jakobson Kurt
Published: January 2013

The Oil Pollution Act of 1990 authorized an expanded oil pollution research and development program and mandated that the program be coordinated among the federal agencies involved, in cooperation with industry, academia, and international organizations. EPA is participating in the Interagency Coordinating Committee on Oil Pollution Research in the development of a comprehensive R&D plan, summarized here.

Research to determine the effectiveness of chemical and biological processes for cleaning beaches and shorelines affected by a spill is a major component of EPA's research. This research includes the development of protocols for evaluating the efficacy and toxicity of a variety of chemical and biological agents designed to be used under various conditions to remove oil from the water, beaches, marshes, and shorelines. Research is also planned to develop and demonstrate effective techniques for controlling the spread of oil in streams moving at rates of more than one knot. Since the cleanup of a major oil spill usually results in the generation of a large volume of oily debris, which must be disposed of in an environmentally sound manner, research is planned for modifying techniques developed for the disposal of such debris.
OIL SPILL SORBENTS: TESTING PROTOCOL AND CERTIFICATION LISTING PROGRAM
Authors: Cooper David , Gausemel Ingvil
Published: January 2013

Environment Canada's Emergencies Engineering Division is spearheading a program in conjunction with the Canadian General Standards Board that would see the development of a certification and listing program in addition to a national standard for the testing of sorbent materials. Funding for this program is provided by Environment Canada (EC), Canadian Coast Guard (CCG), Marine Spill Response Corporation (MSRC), U.S. Coast Guard (USCG), and U.S. Minerals Management Service (MMS).

The test methods are based upon those defined by the American Society for Testing and Materials and previous test methods developed by Environment Canada for our series of reports entitled Selection Criteria and Laboratory Evaluation of Oil Spill Sorbents. This series, which was started in 1975, encompasses a number of commercially available oil spill sorbents tested with different petroleum products and hydrocarbon solvents.

The testing program will categorize the sorbents according to their operating characteristics. The main categories are oil spills on water, oil spills on land, and industrial use. The characteristics we will be evaluating with the new test protocols include initial and maximum sorption capacities, water pickup, buoyancy, reuse potential, retention profile, disintegration (material integrity), and ease of application and retrieval.

In the near future we plan to incorporate changes to the test that would involve increasing our list of test liquids to encompass spills in an industrial setting, in addition to testing sorbent booms and addressing the disposal problem.
INTERCALIBRATION EXERCISE FOR REMOTE SENSING AIRCRAFT
Authors: Descleves M. , Pellen Robert
Published: January 2013

Intercalibration exercises are organized each year in the North Sea area. In 1991, the tests revealed that airborne detection techniques have limits that are not completely taken into account by the regulations (MARPOL 73–78). It was also shown that using color codes could reduce the risks of error in evaluating the volume of a spill, which can occur even when made by very experienced crews.
IMPLICATIONS OF OBSERVATIONS OF INTENTIONAL OIL SPILLS
Authors: Reed Mark , Turner Chris , Price James
Published: January 2013

Intentional releases of crude oil on the open ocean were carried out in the Norwegian Sea in 1989 and 1991. The releases were used to evaluate selected satellite-tracked surface drifting buoys for their ability to simulate the movement of oil on the sea surface, and to improve our understanding of the behavior and fate of oil at sea. The crude oil used in 1989 rapidly formed a stable, highly viscous emulsion with water; the crude oil used in 1991 formed a very unstable emulsion, and spread rapidly to a relatively uniform, thin sheen. Both the surface drifters and a simple drift model simulated slick drift relatively well in 1989, but were significantly in error two out of three times in 1991. A physical explanation and numerical model have been constructed to explain the data. Implications of these and other observations, both for surface drifters and models of oil spills, are discussed.
APPLICATION OF PHOTOCATALYTIC HOLLOW GLASS MICROBEADS IN THE CLEANUP OF OIL SPILLS
Authors: Heller Adam , Nair Maya , Davidson Lois , Schwitzgebel Jörg , Luo Zhenghao , Norrell Jeffery L. , Brock James R. , Ekerdt John G.
Published: January 2013

Crude oil films on water are dissolved by photocatalytic oxidation. The photocatalyst, titanium dioxide, when excited by near-ultraviolet light, accelerates the oxidation of both the alipathic and the aromatic components of crude oil. The photocatalyst is maintained at the air-oil interface through attachment to sandlike ceramic microbeads that are hollow and buoyant.

Experiments in the laboratory show that the near-ultraviolet solar irradiance is not rate limiting in the 25 to 50 W/m2 range. Thus the rate of cleanup is not expected to vary with season or latitude except in the Arctic winter. The projected cleanup times range from one week to several months. Times are shorter when larger amounts of beads are applied per barrel of oil and when the beads are smaller, more buoyant, or less aggregated by the oil. The rate of cleanup was found to be limited by oxygen mass transport and was accelerated by waves.

Photocatalytic oxidation of crude oil, like natural noncatalytic oxidation, results in elimination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, some of which are carcinogens. Both the natural and the photocatalytic processes oxidize the aromatic hydrocarbons to phenols. However, the phenols are more rapidly eliminated in the photocatalytic reaction than they are in the natural photooxidation process.
RESTORATION AND NATURAL RESOURCE DAMAGE ASSESSMENT
Authors: Mazzotta Marisa J. , Opaluch James J. , Grigalunas Thomas A.
Published: January 2013

To date, the focus of damage assessment has tended to be either on economic valuation of lost services in monetary terms or on scientific studies of resource restoration. This paper suggests an alternative approach that integrates legal concepts based on the public trust doctrine, economic methods of determining compensation, and scientific approaches to restoration. The approach is based on a definition of restoration as a remedy for oil spill damages which identifies alternative restoration actions that provide resource services that are “equally desirable” to society as those lost due to the spill. The least costly of these alternatives is then selected as the cost-effective means of making the public whole.
OPA 90 and the Shipowner
Authors: Bovet David M.
Published: January 2013

OPA 90 is significantly impacting the business of U.S. and international tanker owners engaged in the U. S. trades. This paper delineates the affected segments of the oil shipping industry, the salient regulatory elements stemming from OPA 90, the financial and operational impacts that result, and the strategic choices open to shipowners.

Regulatory areas addressed include liability and compensation, financial responsibility, new ships, existing vessels, and vessel response plans. Strategic issues and action items are suggested for individual owners and industry groups.
SOOT REDUCTION CHEMICALS FOR IN-SITU BURNING
Authors: Moir Michael E. , Charbonneau Stéphanie , Mitchell J. Brian A.
Published: January 2013

A soot reduction additive for use in the in-situ burning of oil spills has been developed. The additive is in the form of a liquid concentrate that can be sprayed on a spill. The soot producing tendency of hydrocarbons decreases in the order: aromatics, branched paraffins, cycloalkanes, normal paraffins. Similarly, the soot reduction ability of ferrocene and derivatives decreases in the order: aromatics, cycloalkanes, branched paraffins, normal paraffins. A method of predicting soot reduction is inferred from model studies and confirmation obtained from experiments on known hydrocarbon mixtures.
A COORDINATED STATE/FEDERAL VOLUNTEER TRAINING PROGRAM1
Authors: Chuba Thomas J. , Dimmick Elizabeth
Published: January 2013

While the sinking of the Tenyo Maru and resultant oil spill off Washington's Olympic Peninsula in July 1991 was tragic, it fostered the birth of a cooperative effort by federal and state agencies to train volunteer responders prior to another oil spill. This effort, under the auspices of an Oregon nonprofit group known as SOLV (Stop Oregon Littering and Vandalism), is known as the SOS (SOLV Oil Spill) Steering committee. The purpose of the group is to train volunteer responders to aid federal, state, and local agencies in future oil spill cleanup activities. For the first time in the nation, governmental agencies have joined with corporations and environmental organizations in coordinating educational programs involving citizens in oil spill remediation efforts before the advent of a major spill that could affect coastal areas or inland waterways.

Free classes meeting federal and state hazardous waste training criteria are offered quarterly to citizens interested in either volunteer wildlife rehabilitation or beach cleanup. The four-hour course was developed by the U.S. Coast Guard, Oregon State Department of Environmental Quality, and Oregon OSHA. Topics covered include agency responsibilities, site safety plans, general safety, toxicology, material safety data sheets, personal protective equipment, decontamination, heat stress, helicopter safety, and wildlife safety.

In addition to course materials, participants receive a certificate and identification card verifying their training. A 1–800 number, computer data base, and newsletter are used to maintain contact with graduates. So far more than 600 volunteers have been trained and are ready to assist should the need arise.
IMPLEMENTATION OF FIELD TECHNIQUES TO STABILIZE ABANDONED OIL WELLS—BOYD'S CREEK, KENTUCKY1
Authors: Eger Charles K. , Fang Wen-Jei , Maybriar Jon , Sims Keith
Published: January 2013

Boyd's Creek, situated in Barren County, is recognized as the birthplace of the oil industry in the Commonwealth of Kentucky. Naturally occurring oil seeps were identified as early as the 1820s. Commercial crude-oil drilling production began in the early 1860s.3 From the early days to present, countless unrecorded exploration wells were drilled and many of these wells have been found to be improperly abandoned. The Corniferous limestone is the first oil producing interval and is situated at an average subsurface depth of 135 feet. The potential for impacting natural resources is high because of the shallow depth(s) of the Corniferous limestone and the presence of overlying artesian sulfur-water zones which routinely mix with brine and oil in uncased boreholes. The occurrence of limestone related (karstic) features, such as fractures and dissolution cavities, and the close proximity of the Boyd's Creek oil field to nearby surface streams are also of concern. Initially, two abandoned wells were identified as flowing into nearby streams.

Pursuant to federal removal authority provided by Subsection (c) of Section 311 of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act in accordance with Subtitle ? of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 and the National Contingency Plan, the Environmental Protection Agency has initiated cleanup operations within properties nearest to Boyd's Creek. Most wells are difficult to identify because they lack any casing strings and/or they have been buried with soil to hide uncontrolled flows at the surface. Field operations have included the utilization of multiple geophysical techniques to identify anomaly areas thought to represent buried unplugged wells. These include the excavation of surface soils down to the underlying limestone bedrock to search for cable tool and rotary boreholes, the drilling out of old wells using conventional industry technology and standards to plug them permanently with cement, the construction of temporary underflow dams downgradient from identified oil spills to minimize impacts on Boyd's Creek and its adjoining tributaries, and the burning of spilled product in temporary holding pits to minimize associated cleanup cost. In undertaking these actions, the agency is eliminating potential sources of petroleum related contamination.
A PROGRAM APPROACH FOR SITE SAFETY AT OIL SPILLS1
Authors: Whipple Frank L. , Glenn Stephan P. , Ocken Joseph J. , Ott Gary L.
Published: January 2013

When OSHA developed the hazardous waste operations (Hazwoper) regulations (29 CFR 1910.120) members of the response community envisioned a separation of oil and “hazmat” response operations. Organizations that deal with oil spills have had difficulty applying Hazwoper regulations to oil spill operations. This hinders meaningful implementation of the standard for their personnel. We should approach oil spills with the same degree of caution that is applied to hazmat response.

Training frequently does not address the safety of oil spill response operations. Site-specific safety and health plans often are neglected or omitted. Certain oils expose workers to carcinogens, as well as chronic and acute hazards. Significant physical hazards are most important. In responding to oil spills, the hazards must be addressed.

It is the authors' contention that a need exists for safety programs at oil spill sites. Gone are the days of labor pool hires cleaning up spills in jeans and sneakers. The key to meaningful programs for oil spills requires application of controls focused on relevant safety risks rather than minimal chemical exposure hazards. Working with concerned reviewers from other agencies and organizations, we have developed a generic safety and health program for oil spill response. It is intended to serve as the basis for organizations to customize their own written safety and health program (required by OSHA). It also provides a separate generic site safety plan for emergency phase oil spill operations (checklist) and long term post-emergency phase operations.
COMPARING CRUDE OIL TOXICITY UNDER STANDARD AND ENVIRONMENTALLY REALISTIC EXPOSURES
Authors: Pace Charles B. , Clark James R. , Bragin Gail E.
Published: January 2013

Standard aquatic toxicity tests do not address real-world, spiked exposure scenarios that occur during oil spills. We evaluated differences in toxicity of physically and chemically dispersed Kuwait crude oil to mysids (Mysidopsis bahia) under continuous and spiked (half-life of 2 hours) exposure conditions. The 96-hr LC50s for physically dispersed oil were 0.78 mg/L (continuous) and >2.9 mg/L (spiked), measured as total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH). Values for chemically dispersed oil were 0.98 mg/L (continuous) and 17.7 mg/L (spiked) TPH. Continuous-exposure tests may overestimate the potential for toxic effects under real-world conditions by a factor of 18 or more.
DISPERSION AND BIODEGRADATION OF OIL SPILLS ON WATER
Authors: Varadaraj R. , Robbins M. L. , Bock J. , Pace S. , MacDonald D.
Published: January 2013

Published literature indicates that oil spill dispersion by chemical dispersants will enhance biodegradation because of the increase in interfacial area. However, some of the literature is contradictory concerning whether the use of surfactants will enhance or temporarily inhibit biodegradation, suggesting that more than one mechanism is at work.

We set out to study the correlation between the area of dispersed oil droplets and the rate and extent of microbial oil degradation using sorbitan surfactants. We varied the surfactant blend hydrophile-lipophile balance (HLB) and treat level in a statistically designed experiment. Both dispersed area and percent oil degraded at a given time were shown to depend on surfactant HLB and treat level, but to different degrees. The difference was accounted for by demonstrating that percent oil degraded depended on both dispersed area and percent sorbitan in the dispersant treat. The quantitative finding that both dispersed area and surfactant chemistry control microbial growth and oil biodegradation explains the apparent contradiction that some good dispersants enhance, while others temporarily inhibit, degradation. Corexit 9500 dispersant was observed to have a positive influence on biodegradation of oil on water.
REVIEW OF U.K. POLICY ON RESPONSE TO OIL AT SEA
Authors: Lunel T. , Albone D. , McDonagh M. , Abbott J. , Tookey D.
Published: January 2013

The review carried out by NETCEN on the most appropriate response methods for oil spilled in U. K. waters concludes that aerial application of dispersants remains the most effective primary response. Modifications to operational procedures, in particular increased monitoring of the effectiveness of the dispersant response, is suggested. Research is ongoing on dispersant efficiency and toxicity, and changes in operational procedures should be dependent on these research programs.
DEPLOYMENT TEST FOR ALYESKA, GPS-POSITIONED DRIFTER BUOY
Authors: Hefer Michael , Burda Brian , Hillman Sharon , Eldridge Kevin
Published: January 2013

The field test of a free-floating buoy system (the Oil Tracker) was conducted for the Alyeska Pipeline Service Company on November 15–17, 1994. During those three days, several buoy deployments were conducted in varying weather conditions. The Oil Tracker buoys transmitted their positions to both the response vessel and the command center in Valdez in real time.
TRAINING FOR SUCCESS: A FUNCTIONAL MANAGEMENT TRAINING SYSTEM FOR RESPONSE ORGANIZATIONS
Authors: Stalfort David C. , Ott Gary L.
Published: January 2013

The U.S. Coast Guard and other organizations have adopted the unified command system (UCS) as “the” management system for pollution response. However, people in these organizations have little experience working within the UCS. This training gives participants an alternative way to think during pollution response by raising their experience level so that they will be able to predict what to do during a response and will know how to do it. Experiencing this alternative way of thinking will improve their chances for success by helping them plan their missions, determine goals, and assemble cohesive staffs capable of coordinating successful responses.
QUALITY AND THE UNIFIED COMMAND: THE REINVENTION OF SPILL RESPONSE
Authors: Thornton Gary J. E.
Published: January 2013

Area contingency planning guidance advocates a unified command support mechanism. Marine Safety Office (MSO) Hampton Roads used total quality management to improve the unified command processes. Following participation in an industry-sponsored spill management team exercise in October 1993, MSO Hampton Roads chartered a quality action team (QAT) to prepare for its December 1993 area exercise.

Before this exercise, the Hampton Roads unified command had the opportunity to try out several quality-based innovations during an actual response. They were further refined by the QAT and effectively executed during the exercise. The enhancements were operationally validated during a March 1994 spill.
EVALUATION AND CORRECTION: KEYS TO RESPONSE PREPAREDNESS
Authors: Mickelson Roger W.
Published: January 2013

Preparedness for oil spill response requires having trained people and relevant equipment. It must also include a disciplined and logical approach to define and implement clear policies, reasonable and coordinated plans, complementary operational and support procedures, and focused training. Preparedness relies on evaluation of team performance in simulated and actual response operations, objectively critiquing the results, and improving proficiency through a formal remedial action program to build better response capabilities.
ENVIRONMENTAL TRAINING FOR OIL SPILL RESPONSE
Authors: Moffatt Maureen
Published: January 2013

A training needs analysis study undertaken for Environment Canada's emergency responders discovered that a wide range of knowledge, from scientific to interpersonal relations and communications, is required to do their jobs effectively.
STUDIES OF IN SITU BURNING OF EMULSIONS IN NORWAY
Authors: Guénette Chantal C. , Sveum Per , Bech Cathe M. , Buist Ian A.
Published: January 2013

An experimental program, spanning four years, was initiated in 1990 to study the in-situ burning of emulsions. Its main objectives were to study the in-situ burning of emulsions in dynamic conditions (wind, waves, currents, and ice); to define the limitations and effectiveness of in-situ burning in terms of water content, evaporation, and film thickness of crude oils and emulsions; and to determine the physical processes involved in burning water-in-oil emulsions. Field experiments were conducted in basins cut into sea ice ranging in size from 4 m2 to 300 m2. Small-scale pan burns and emulsion-heating experiments were conducted in the laboratory. The results show that evaporated water-free oil can be easily ignited and burned with a high efficiency, even in the presence of swells and slush ice. When water contents exceeded 25 percent, the emulsions were difficult to ignite using gelled gasoline, and could not be ignited in the presence of moderate swells. However; ignition could be improved by using alternative igniters. Some postulated processes on the burning of stable emulsions have been confirmed: water must be removed from the emulsion surface before ignition can occur, water is released mainly through evaporation, and the temperature in the emulsion slick does not seem to exceed the boiling point of water.
OIL THICKNESS DETECTION USING WIDEBAND RADIOMETRY
Authors: McMahon O. B. , Brown E. R. , Daniels G. D. , Murphy T. J. , Hover G. L.
Published: January 2013

A major problem in the cleanup of oil spills on large bodies of water is determining the oil thickness distribution since much of the oil can be contained in a small fraction of the spill area. Knowledge of the location of the thick patches allows one to use cleanup resources more efficiently. To address this problem, we have designed, built and tested a millimeter-wave, frequency-scanning radiometer for remotely determining the thickness of oil films. The work is based on the theory of the frequency-scanning radiometer. Experimental results, obtained in an outdoor laboratory setting, show agreement between our theory and measured data for oil thicknesses ranging from 0 to 10 mm in 1 mm steps. A visible change was obtained for 0.1 mm steps from 0.0 to 1.0 mm of oil. The study also demonstrated that thin oil/water emulsions are detectable.
IMPROVED LABORATORY DEMULSIFICATION TESTS FOR OIL SPILL RESPONSE
Authors: Fiocco Robert J. , Becker Kenneth W. , Walsh Marjorie A. , Hokstad Jorunn N. , Daling Per S. , Lewis Alun
Published: January 2013

A critical need currently exists for standard laboratory procedures for evaluating demulsifiers over the range of applications encountered in oil spill response. The procedures should be flexible enough to generate emulsions that are representative of those encountered at various times during a spill situation, and the applications should cover emulsion inhibition, breaking emulsion slicks at sea, and breaking recovered emulsions. Two laboratory test procedures are proposed. The procedures have different mixing energy and treating conditions, but each has the desirable feature of utilizing the same apparatus to generate the emulsion and to test the demulsifier. One procedure, called the wrist-action shaker emulsion test (WRASET), utilizes a standard laboratory apparatus, and is applicable for emulsion inhibition and for simulating at-sea applications of demulsifiers. A second procedure, called the rotating flask emulsion test (ROFLET), can also be used for a range of applications and is applicable for treating emulsions during oil recovery operations. Data from each of the two laboratory emulsion tests are used to demonstrate their features and to provide guidance on their use. An important implication of this work is that laboratory tests currently used to evaluate the effectiveness of dispersants to break up emulsions at sea need to be modified to provide time for the emulsions to be first broken by the dispersant.
A NEW CLEANING PRODUCT FOR OILED BIRDS AND AN INTEGRATED AUTOMATED PROCESS
Authors: Basseres Anne , Verschuere Bruno , Holtzinger Gerard , Jacques Jean-Pierre , Tramier Bernard
Published: January 2013

A new product for cleaning oiled birds was tested. A laboratory test was made in which several duck feathers, polluted with aged oil, were cleaned in 40° C water with the new product, then rinsed with cold water. Under these conditions, 90 percent of the oil was removed using the new product, versus 30 percent removal in control tests. Standard toxicity testing procedures were used to show the nontoxicity of the product. The new product was then tested using Sintef-Unimed techniques and metabolic activity tests on six mallard ducks. The cleaning process was easy and quick; birds recovered normal metabolic rate and thermal insulation one day after cleaning. Similar results were obtained on site in a rehabilitation center, where birds were also efficiently cleaned. The recovery rate for wild birds was about 60 percent after two weeks, with much higher hydrophobicity recovery rate when using the new product than when using the reference product. This new product for cleaning oiled birds appeared very efficient and nontoxic.

A new technique to wash the birds also was tested on site. Accidently oiled wild birds were cleaned in an automated process, which included washing with the new product and efficient rinsing. The cleaning time was about 10 minutes for one bird. This technique was tested in one of the largest French rehabilitation centers. It appears very promising, considering the decrease in stress to the birds and the reduction in cleaning time.
BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS MONITORING DURING AN OPERATIONAL APPLICATION OF COREXIT 95801
Authors: Shigenaka Gary , Vicente Vance P. , McGehee M. Angela , Henry Charles B.
Published: January 2013

Following the grounding of the barge Morris J. Berman on the northern coast of Puerto Rico in January 1994, conditional approval for the use of the shoreline cleaner Corexit 9580 was granted. One requirement was the inclusion of biological effects monitoring, particularly during the first operational application. This was intended to safeguard against unforeseen ecological consequences from the treatment—to answer the question, does the use of Corexit 9580 result in adverse biological impact beyond that caused by the oil itself? The monitoring was designed to provide immediate operational feedback (Should the application continue?) but also addressed other questions of interest for future incidents and for further research.

Study sites were surveyed before, immediately following, and one day after treatment with Corexit 9580. No significant nearshore effects were observed, and the monitoring team recommended that operations proceed. Followup studies of organisms transplanted into the treatment area also showed few exposure-related effects. Measurable concentrations of both Corexit and oil were found in water samples collected in the treated area, and low levels of hydrocarbons were also found in sea urchins exposed to treatment runoff water. The toxicological significance of the exposure and the tissue residues were beyond the scope of this monitoring effort, but the lack of mortalities in both resident and transplanted organisms suggested a relatively minor short-term biological effect on exposed communities.
VESSEL LIABILITY AND FINANCIAL RESPONSIBILITY IN THE U.S. COASTAL STATES
Authors: Stolls Amy M.
Published: January 2013

Vessel owners and operators doing business in the United States know by now that simply complying with federal laws and regulations is not enough. Though some states have enacted legislation similar to the federal Oil Pollution Act of 1990, others have their own approach to environmental protection. This paper reviews the patchwork of U.S. coastal state requirements with regard to vessel liability and financial responsibility.
OPERATIONAL POLLUTION PREVENTION PROGRAMS FOR LOADED TANKERS TRANSITING COASTAL WATERS1
Authors: Lee N. Robin
Published: January 2013

Loaded tankers constitute a high-risk scenario during coastal navigation and inward transit to their destination terminal. An effective pollution prevention program based on prudent operational procedures can be developed on a port- and terminal-specific basis that will effectively reduce this risk and make cleanup and contingency plans largely redundant.

When the high cost and marginal effectiveness of oil spill cleanup is considered, a pollution prevention program appears particularly attractive. This is especially true if the threat of toxic chemical cargoes entering the water column is also borne in mind.

Most marine accidents that result in pollution take place in coastal waters to tankers under 100,000 dwt. The St. Lawrence Gulf and River on Canada's east coast constitute a fragile landlocked marine ecosystem that is potentially vulnerable to the depredations of pollution from vessels in transit to Montreal and the Great Lakes.

Perceptive assessment and strict operational programs have been established to ensure that only low-risk vessels, prudently navigated under approved terminal-specific programs, gain access to ports in the Maritime Provinces and thence to Canada's hinterland waterways.
A COOPERATIVE DAMAGE ASSESSMENT: LESSONS FROM THE GREENHILL SPILL1
Authors: Finley J. Heather Warner , Hanifen James G. , Roscigno Pasquale F. , Debusschere Karolien , Newell Maura J. , Julius Brian E. , von Beek Johannes
Published: January 2013

Following a September 1992 natural gas and oil well blowout in Timbalier Bay, Louisiana, natural resource trustees took action under the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA), Clean Water Act (CWA), and the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) to restore the natural resources injured by the spill. Trustees appointed by the State of Louisiana and the U.S. Government worked cooperatively with the well owner, Greenhill Petroleum Corporation, in a natural resource damage assessment (NRDA). The resolution of the Greenhill NRDA marks an early success for all parties involved. The process was concluded in December 1993, only 14 months after the spill, when Greenhill and the trustees signed a natural resource restoration agreement. The cooperative assessment and innovative approaches used by the trustees and the well owner resulted in the rapid resolution of the case, rapid environmental restoration, and relatively low assessment costs.
TEXAS MARSH BURN: REMOVING OIL FROM A SALT MARSH USING IN SITU BURNING
Authors: Gonzalez Manuel F. , Lugo Gabriel A.
Published: January 2013

Frequently coastal marsh is burned to enhance regrowth; but rarely is it burned to remove spilled oil. On January 7, 1992, a 40.64 cm crude oil pipeline ruptured causing a spill in a salt marsh. Four days later, in an unprecedented cleanup coordinated by Exxon Pipeline Company and the Texas General Land Office, 1,150 barrels of South Texas crude was ignited and removed, minimizing environmental damage to Copano Bay, Chiltipin Creek, and the surrounding wetlands.

This cleanup had been made difficult by inclement weather and heavy rainfall that saturated the marsh. Ingress and egress had damaged the marsh and was discontinued. Conventional mechanical cleanup techniques had been used with minimal success. Alternative methods like bioremediation, low pressure flooding, and peat moss applications were considered, but proved unfeasible. The unified command system then made an application for a permit to burn and gained approval. Seventy-six hours into the event, a successful test burn was conducted; one day later, the majority of the oil was ignited. It maintained a full burn for 21 hours, self-extinguished, and later was re-ignited for further removal.

Emerging technologies such as in-situ burning are additional implements in the oil spill responder's toolbox. In Texas, burning helped save a marsh.
OILING OF MANGROVE KEYS IN THE 1993 TAMPA BAY OIL SPILL1
Authors: Levings Sally C. , Garrity Stephen D.
Published: January 2013

On August 10, 1993, three vessels collided in the channel leading from the Gulf of Mexico into Tampa Bay, Florida. More than 300,000 gallons of No. 6 fuel oil and 30,000 gallons of gasoline, Jet-A fuel, and No. 2 fuel oil were discharged into Tampa Bay. Most oil moved out to sea and weathered until August 14. Onshore winds then moved the slick onto beaches and into Boca Ciega Bay. Four mangrove keys inside Johns Pass were oiled with No. 6 fuel oil. Floating oil washed through two keys, but slicks and oil patty stranded against berms or elevated sections of two others. Oil contacted three species of mangroves: black (Avicennia germinans), red (Rhizophora mangle), and white (Laguncularia racemosa). Nine months after oiling, significantly more juvenile red and black mangroves were dead at three oiled keys than at unoiled sites or a fourth oiled key. Juvenile plants died if leaf shoots were oiled. Where the oil patty was stranded in greatest amounts, adult red mangroves defoliated and died, and surviving red and black mangroves showed significant deterioration of fringing prop roots and pneumatophores.
MITIGATION STRATEGIES AT AN ESTUARINE MANGROVE AREA AFFECTED BY AN OIL SPILL
Authors: Quilici Antonio , Infante Carmen , Rodríguez-Grau Jorge , LaSchiazza José A. , Briceño Henry , Pereira Néstor
Published: January 2013

A simulated oil spill was carried out under controlled conditions at an estuarine mangrove forest dominated by Rhizophora mangle. Two mitigation strategies were thereafter applied: addition of nutrients to restore sediments CIN and CIP ratios and addition of a commercial shoreline cleaner without further surface washing. Photosynthetic capacity of leaves, soil respiration rate, and litter disappearance rate were measured periodically to evaluate differential responses of these community functional variables to the treatments. Application of shoreline cleaner negatively affected the productive capacity of R. mangle leaves. Soil respiration rate was stimulated in all of the oiled experimental plots but to a lesser extent in those where shoreline cleaner was applied—presumably as a result of less retention of hydrocarbon fractions in the sediments. Although litter increased its dry weight by 0.4 percent as a result of hydrocarbon addition, its disappearance rate did not slow down and remained unaltered among the different treatments compared to controls. Results suggest that the studied mangrove community possesses the capability to respond to moderate, medium crude oil spills. Neither the use of a shoreline cleaner nor the addition of nutrients alone is recommended as a mitigation strategy under such conditions.