bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Negative Selection and the Neutral Theory of Molecular Evolution
Authors: Johnson Norman A.
Published: September 2007

Natural selection is not the only evolutionary “force” that can alter frequencies of genetic variants; random genetic drift (a sampling process) persistently changes the gene pool of populations, especially in small populations. Moreover, at the molecular level, negative selection is more prevalent than positive selection as deleterious mutations occur much more than do advantageous mutations. Motoo Kimura, a Japanese evolutionary geneticist, expanded on Darwinian evolution and formulated what is now called the neutral theory of molecular evolution. According to Kimura, patterns of molecular evolution are determined primarily by mutation, genetic drift, and negative selection. This chapter discusses the development of the neutral theory, and explains how it lays the foundation to produce tests used to detect positive selection and balancing selection. It also contains a discussion of hypothesis testing.
Are We the Third Chimpanzee?
Authors: Johnson Norman A.
Published: September 2007

Our closest living relatives are the great apes, but which of the many types of apes are we closest to? The evidence from most genes supports humans being the closest relatives to the two chimpanzee species (the common chimpanzee and the bonobo), with gorillas more distant to either the human or chimp lineages. There are, however, genes that seem to support different relationships. These differences in the evolutionary relationships from different genes may be real and not just artifacts of methodology or inadequate sampling. “Gene trees” may not reflect “species trees” because of population genetic processes. This chapter also includes results from recent studies of the chimpanzee genome, and explores what it means to share 98% of our DNA with chimps.
Clicks, Genes, and Languages
Authors: Johnson Norman A.
Published: September 2007

Languages, like populations, evolve over time. However, languages, like other cultural units, are not inherited in the same way as genes are. Do these differences in inheritance lead to differences in their evolution? This chapter explores differences between the origin of language and language evolution. It also considers studies of click languages found in populations in Africa.
Who Let the Dogs in?
Authors: Johnson Norman A.
Published: September 2007

This chapter explores the timing of and evolutionary forces involved in our domestication of animals and plants. How many and which genes were involved? How long ago did these changes occur? Can we detect positive selection at the genetic loci involved? This chapter focuses on dogs and maize domestication. Dogs are derived exclusively from wolves, but are not wolves. Contrary to some early studies, it is now clear that dogs evolved only about 15,000 years ago and arose multiple times. The chapter also discusses results from the recently completed dog genome project. The timing and location of maize domestication are also discussed, as well as one gene that may have played a role in morphological changes as maize became domesticated. It concludes with a discussion about how patterns of human genetic variation may have been affected during the transition from a hunter-gatherer to an agriculture-based lifestyle.
The Transnational Struggle for Jewish Pluralism
Authors: Shain Yossi
Published: September 2007

This chapter examines the relationship between the American Jewish community and Israel from the perspective of a transnational struggle over Jewish pluralism. The question of Jewish identity in Israel and in the United States, the continuing insistence of many Jewish Americans on perceiving Israel as a critical source of their own identity, and Israel's direct or indirect involvement in the lives of all Jewish communities create a dynamic in which reciprocal influences mutually constitute Jewish identity. The new modes of Jewish American participation in Israeli affairs — domestic and international, on the one hand, and Israeli rethinking of its own position vis-à-vis the Diaspora in terms of legitimacy, status, power, and identity, on the other — has opened the way for greater negotiation over, and coordination of, the meaning and purpose of Judaism in our time.
America's Muslims
Authors: Esposito John L.
Published: September 2007

This chapter focuses on the issues faced by Muslims in the United States. The American Muslim experience, like that of Christians and Jews before them, reflects struggles of faith and identity (integration versus assimilation), political participation, institution building, and acculturation. American Muslims have faced the challenge of constructing an American identity that incorporates faith and values within America's melting pot or, more recently, its multicultural society.
Religion, Democratization, and European Union Enlargement
Authors: Stan Lavinia , Turcescu Lucian
Published: September 2007

The concluding chapter examines the divisions within the leadership of the Romanian Orthodox Church, and the recent victory of the conservatives over the more reformist leaders, and discusses the importance of religion and politics during Romania's process of integration into the European Union, which it joined in January 2007.
A Survey of Price Setting Practices of Luxembourg Firms
Authors: Lünnemann Patrick , Mathä Thomas
Published: September 2007

This chapter analyses the pricing behavior of Luxembourg firms. It provides evidence on the use of time- and state-dependent, as well as on forward-looking, backward-looking, and rules of thumb behavior. Firms' adjustment speed differs according to the type and source of shock. Similarly, the factors judged most relevant for price increases and decreases differ. The most relevant theories explaining price rigidity are implicit contracts, cost-based pricing and explicit contracts.
The Pricing Behavior of Dutch Firms
Authors: Hoeberichts Marco , Stokman Ad
Published: September 2007

Small Dutch firms adopt more rigid pricing policies, and the weaker the competition a firm faces, the stickier its prices will be. Furthermore, wholesale and retail prices are more flexible than those for business-to-business services. Menu costs and psychological pricing—two prominent explanations of price stickiness in the literature—are of minor importance. We also find clear evidence of asymmetries in shocks driving price increases and decreases.
Policy Lessons and Directions for Ongoing Research
Authors: Gaspar Vítor , Levin Andrew , Martins Fernando , Smets Frank
Published: September 2007

Understanding the features and the determinants of individual price setting behavior is important for the formulation of monetary policy. These behavioral mechanisms play a fundamental role in influencing the characteristics of aggregate inflation and in determining how monetary policy affects inflation and real economic activity. The Inflation Persistence Network analyzed a large number of panel data sets of individual price records and conducted surveys of price-setting managers in many euro area countries. This chapter discusses to what extent the evidence coming from those two data sources provides support for some basic elements of the New Keynesian perspective. It analyses the implications of the micro evidence for distinguishing between competing theories of price stickiness and provides some brief reflections about the lessons for monetary policy.
1 Introduction
Authors: McWhorter John
Published: September 2007

This introductory chapter begins with a discussion of complexity arguments regarding second-language acquisition. It argues that this neglect of the role of reduction in language contact beyond pidginization constitutes an empirical gap, neglecting a commonly encountered qualitative difference between related languages. This argument is founded on three basic assumptions: that in ordinary language change, grammars never become radically less complex overall; that radical simplification can be as central to the result of language contact as mixture; and that inflection is but one aspect of grammatical complexity.
6 Persian
Authors: McWhorter John
Published: September 2007

This chapter compares Old and Modern Persian languages, and addresses the question: when did Persian become ‘marvelously simple’? The differences between Persian and its sister languages, historical events that contributed to changes in the Persian language, and genetic evidence are discussed. It is argued that Persian is uniquely abbreviated morphologically amid a vast array of sister languages, to a degree that strongly suggests that something irregular affected its development. The linguistic, historical, and perhaps even genetic evidence combine to indicate that what happened to Persian was a moderate abbreviation similar to language learners' diligent but imperfect renditions of foreign languages practiced in the classroom or abroad.
8 Malay
Authors: McWhorter John
Published: September 2007

This chapter examines the evolution of Malay. It is argued that Malay, in both its standard and colloquial forms, is the product of incomplete transmission of Proto-Western Malayo-Polynesian grammar. Given Malay's longtime status as a regional lingua franca, it is most economical to suppose that this status was the causal factor.
Critical Issues in Retrieving Women's Experience
Authors: Kamitsuka Margaret D.
Published: September 2007

Although retrieving women's experience textually and ethnographically is pivotal for feminist theology, problematic assumptions are at work in the way feminist theologians undertake this task. Using feminist theological readings of Alice Walker's The Color Purple and the biblical story of Sarah and Hagar, this chapter illustrates how some attempts to retrieve women's experience textually actually result in eliding racial difference, silencing sexuality, and obscuring the nuances of women's agency and resistance practices. This chapter also discusses how some feminist scholars (e.g., mujerista theologian Ada María Isasi-Díaz) are using ethnographic methods in order to find source material for theological reflection and to give voice to women in marginalized communities. The chapter addresses conflicts that have emerged regarding whether one can retrieve the standpoint of an oppressed community of women, unmediated by the feminist theologian's own agendas.
6 Audi's Marriage of Ross and Kant
Authors: Hurka Thomas
Published: September 2007

This chapter argues that Audi's attempt to ground Ross's prima facie duties in Kant's categorical imperative does not succeed. Audi has attempted to give a Kantian basis for Rossian pluralism that can explain the comparative strength of duties, offer an epistemic guide for such comparisons, unify the duties, and provide the duties a deeper rationale. This chapter objects that Audi's Kantian explanations tend to assume what should be explained and that Kantian notions such as dignity might not have enough independent content to help matters. Moreover, any Kantian attempt to explain limits on the duty of beneficence faces problems stemming from the fact that the value Kant locates in persons is agent‐neutral and independent of states of affairs. This chapter closes by suggesting that a Thomist account can do some of the unifying work Audi wants, but without partaking of the “grandiose” ambition of Kant's project.
8 Are Perceptual Beliefs Properly Foundational?
Authors: BonJour Laurence
Published: September 2007

This chapter addresses the question of whether perceptual beliefs can have a foundational status in epistemology. It argues that, although Audi's defense of the foundational status of perceptual beliefs does not succeed, a similar defense might succeed. It first considers a defense based on considerations of intuitive plausibility. The chapter next considers Audi's more extended defense based on a form of “epistemic realism”. According to this chapter, both defenses fail to provide any explanation of why certain experiences are justificatorily relevant to the existence of certain material objects. BonJour then sketches a “best explanation” account of this justificatory relevance, and attempts to show how, despite serious difficulties, such an account can deliver foundational justification.
12 Trying with the Hope
Authors: Adams Frederick
Published: September 2007

This chapter argues that, in cases where one is confident that success is unlikely, one cannot intend, one can only try or intend to try, with the hope of success. Adams argues against Audi's view. It begins with a survey of the great variety of views on the connection between intending to do something and one's beliefs about the possibility or likelihood of success, and considers possible explanations for the diversity of opinion. It grants that statements such as “I intend to, but success is unlikely” sound odd, but it explains this by reference to the pragmatics of intention talk. The chapter ultimately defends the view that intending and trying have the same cognitive goal and the same functional role, that the cognitive state present in trying just is intending, and that the difference between intending and trying is a matter of one's confidence of success.
14 Motivating Reasons for Action
Authors: Tuomela Raimo
Published: September 2007

This chapter presents an account of motivational reasons that agents have for acting. This account covers not only the case of single‐agent action and reasons for them, but also the case of social reasons for action. In the course of presenting his account, this chapter relates it to Audi's theory of reasons. As it explains, this account is largely compatible with Audi's, but there remain theoretical differences. For instance, the view put forward here is more externalist than Audi's and does not connect reasons to psychological states as closely as does Audi's account.
15 Intuition, Reflection, and Justification
Authors: Audi Robert
Published: September 2007

This chapter comprises Audi's responses to the critical chapters that comprise Part I, “Problems and Prospects for Intuitionist Ethics.” Audi defends his version of ethical intuitionism against the objections of Walter Sinnott‐Armstrong (Chapter 2), Roger Crisp (Chapter 3), and Hugh McCann (Chapter 4), and he defends his integration of Rossian pluralism with a Kantian unification of morality under the categorical imperative against the challenges raised by Bernard Gert (Chapter 5), Thomas Hurka (Chapter 6), and Candace Vogler (Chapter 7).
The Philosophy of Sociality
Authors: Tuomela Raimo
Published: September 2007

The intuitive starting point of the book is the distinction between thinking and acting as a private person versus as a group member. People may view things from their own personal viewpoint and base their thinking and acting on this “I-perspective”. They can then be said to operate as private persons, in the I-mode, even when they are engaged in social action with others. Alternatively, they may adopt the perspective of their social group and view things from a full “we-perspective”, that is, from the group's point of view that is constituted and shared by its members. Then they can be said to operate in the we-mode. The most central thesis of the book is that collective intentionality is an essential ingredient in sociality and that especially we-mode collective intentionality is important. Social life and social institutions cannot be properly understood or explained in terms of I-mode concepts only, and in certain respects the we-mode can even be seen as primary when compared to the I-mode.

The book develops a systematic theory of sociality giving special emphasis on phenomena of collective intentionality, such as joint intentions, collective commitment, collective action, and group beliefs. The theory is used to investigate such topics as social institutions, cooperation, cultural evolution, and group responsibility. We-mode intentionality is compared with various forms of I-mode intentionality, and it is argued that the we-mode is irreducible to the I-mode. Yet the present book defends a naturalistic view of the social world. Accordingly, it is argued that the we-mode is an adaptation based on the co-evolution of genetic and cultural factors.

The present book offers new ideas and conceptual tools for philosophers and social scientists interested in the conceptual and philosophical foundations of social theorizing.
Joint Social Action
Authors: Tuomela Raimo
Published: September 2007

This chapter presents and defends a detailed account of joint action as a group in terms of joint action based on a we-mode joint intention. A brief survey of other available accounts of joint action is given. While the chapter concentrates on acting jointly as a group (namely, we-mode joint action), weaker kinds of joint action are also briefly considered, for example, I-mode joint action and joint action based on shared we-attitudes.
2 Emerson in the Gilded Age
Authors: Fuller Randall
Published: September 2007

This chapter examines four 19th-century biographer-critics of Emerson in order to address the notion of canonicity as it applies to the Gilded Age and, by implication, as it relates to the complex forces at work in any age. Canonicity here is revealed as less a matter of monolithically enshrining the dominant culture than it is an effort to establish a framework of established authors, within which fierce cultural struggles may take place as different parties with different agenda try to establish their Emerson as a “usable” ancestor who might inspire the present to create a desired future. From the beginning of Emerson's critical reception, commentators have sought either to contain the radical energies of his prose or to release them so as to effect social change.
3 How to Dismantle American Culture
Authors: Fuller Randall
Published: September 2007

This chapter traces the career of Van Wyck Brooks, who unconsciously enacted Emerson's “American Scholar” in his groundbreaking critical manifestos of the 1910s. Brooks eventually found that his guerilla warfare against the genteel dispensation had succeeded too well; he now stood in the wan afterglow of a sustained and robust series of instrumental approaches to literature that had released energies whose consequences were unpredictable and unintended. Ransacking the cultural archive for a “usable past”, Brooks had illuminated the role politics exerts in every act of writing and amplified (if not as much as he might have hoped) the canon. But he had accomplished these things at the cost of his sense of the literary, and soon began the more difficult project of healing and reconstruction. He did so by beginning a biography of Emerson. This work, which promised to heal a divided America, instead sent Brooks into a five-year nervous breakdown and hospitalization. Examining unpublished letters from this period, this chapter traces the fascinating story of Brooks' near-fatal engagement with Emerson and its lasting repercussions for the critic's practice.
Abstraction of Mental Representations: Theoretical Considerations and Neuroscientific Evidence
Authors: Christoff Kalina , Keramatian Kamyar
Published: September 2007

Humans are unique in being able to follow rules at a high order of abstraction—or complex systems of abstract rules that are themselves related in an abstract way. This chapter presents findings that provide evidence for specific involvement of the human lateral prefrontal cortex in enabling not only the flexible switching of rules, but also the process of establishing automaticity at high levels of abstraction. Results regarding such automaticity are discussed in a cognitive and social neuroscience context. These lateral prefrontal cortex regions are typically considered specific to controlled, rule‐guided behavior; however, under conditions requiring complex systems of rules to be followed, these same regions appear to support the formation of complex automatic behaviors. This somewhat unexpected finding of the reliance of automaticity on the lateral prefrontal cortex underscores the importance of investigating rule‐guided behavior in its full, uniquely human, complexity.
WHERE DO MORAL THEORIES COME FROM?
Authors: Urban Walker Margaret
Published: September 2007

This chapter traces the emergence of a theoretical-juridical model of moral theory in the work of English utilitarian philosopher Henry Sidgwick's masterwork, The Methods of Ethics. Through a series of theoretical exclusions and distinctions among morality and ethics, Sidgwick constructs the idea of a pure core of moral knowledge that can be captured by a compact moral system that is formally and practically superior to the supposed diversity of methods in commonsense morality. Sidgwick exhibits unusual self-consciousness in asking whom a scientific ethics is intended to serve, and with unusual candor defends the view that utilitarianism is best understood not as a replacement of commonsense morality for common people, but as the instrument of an exceptional few who may for utilitarian reasons not publicize their use of it.
6 CAREER SELVES
Authors: Urban Walker Margaret
Published: September 2007

This chapter examines John Rawls's idea of a life plan, Bernard Williams's idea of a constitutive project, and Charles Taylor's idea of life as a quest. Drawing on the work of Kathryn Addelson, each idea is exposed as a version of the “career self”, a kind of individual who aspires to the conscientious and conscious superintendence of itself. The career self is a dominant identity in late modern industrialized societies; it is a culturally embedded ideal that in its abstract philosophical form is called “autonomy”. A dominant identity is a normative ideal for a kind of life particularly valued and visible in a certain kind of society at a particular historical time, not a culturally transcendent and constitutive requirement of personhood. Highly valued dominant identities are not available to all in a given society, and typically require other less valued identities to support and define them.
7 made a slave, born a woman
Authors: Urban Walker Margaret
Published: September 2007

In Shame and Necessity, Bernard Williams uses the idea of a “necessary identity” ascribed to women to explain why ancient Greek society viewed the condition of slavery as coercive, but viewed the condition of women as inevitable. Williams fails to notice that female sex did not for the Greeks in itself constitute a social identity; rather, it is the fact of coercion into a social role that is denied in the case of women but not slaves. The key fact, then as now, is that justifying some people's subjection by others requires making coercion hard to recognize and easy to deny. Social arrangements that make identities appear necessary include naturalizing, privatizing, and normalizing the ascription of identities, and disqualifying the voice and testimony of those who bear them. Identities are made to appear necessary by a combination of force and epistemic rigging through physical, social, and legal arrangements.
The Explanatory Gap and Dualism Reconsidered
Authors: Horst Steven
Published: September 2007

This chapter examines the implications of post‐reductionist philosophy of science for dualism and the status of the explanatory gaps. The primary argument for dualism is based on a Negative Explanation‐to‐Metaphysics Connection Principle (“Negative EMC”), to the effect that if A is not reducible to B, then B→A is not metaphysically necessary and A is not metaphysically supervenient upon B. But if other special sciences are not reducible to physics either, the dualist is faced with a dilemma. Either she must give up Negative EMC, and with it the principal argument for dualism, or she must draw similar conclusions with respect to other irreducible phenomena, the result being not a dualism but a pluralism of higher ordinality. Dualism can be reconciled with explanatory pluralism only by producing a reason to think that only the mind‐body gap implies a failure of supervenience.
Nonreductive Physicalism and Mysterianism
Authors: Horst Steven
Published: September 2007

This chapter examines the consequences of post‐reductionist philosophy of science for nonreductive physicalism. Nonreductive physicalism is compatible with explanatory pluralism in philosophy of science. However, upon closer examination, the demise of reductionism leaves us with no convincing argument for physicalism. Nonreductive physicalism is attractive as a fallback position for disillusioned reductionists—that is, assuming one is already committed to physicalism. But without reductions, there is no convincing reason to become a physicalist—that is, to assume that mind‐body relations are metaphysically necessary.
8 The Scope and Plausibility of Cognitive Pluralist Epistemology
Authors: Horst Steven
Published: September 2007

This chapter argues for the plausibility of Cognitive Pluralism as a general principle of cognitive architecture, and argues further that scientific pluralism is plausibly seen as a special case of this general principle. Cognitive Pluralism is compared with existing ideas of modularity.
9 Cognitive Pluralism and Modal Metaphysics
Authors: Horst Steven
Published: September 2007

This chapter explores the metaphysical commitments of Cognitive Pluralism. Cognitive Pluralism, as a cognitivist/pragmatist thesis, is opposed to a native realism that assumes that the world divides itself into objects and kinds in a single canonical and mind-independent way, and that it is the job of the mind to accurately reflect how things are in their own right. Cognitivism, by contrast, holds that any way of modeling the world, including our best scientific models, reflects features of the mind's cognitive architecture as well. Cognitivist and pluralist assumptions create further problems for the terms in which contemporary problems in metaphysics of mind are framed. Intuitions about supervenience, the Negative EMC, and even our standard ways of framing issues about modal metaphysics turn out to be problematic. The cognitivist turn also suggests a way in which the psychological gaps are unlike the other gaps, as they are concerned with the relation between subjects and objects, while the others are concerned with relations between two types of objects.
Melancholic Freedom
Authors: Kim David Kyuman
Published: September 2007

This chapter lays the theoretical foundations for the analyses in this volume, which focus on “agency as melancholic freedom”. Framing the challenges of the difficult terms of “agency” and “melancholy” captures the sentiments, dispositions, and experiences of the piety to freedom that have been fundamental to modernity and to late modernity or postmodernity. Agency as the spirit of politics; and relationships between the religious, the moral-ethical, and the political are discussed.
Through a Self Darkly
Authors: Kim David Kyuman
Published: September 2007

This chapter focuses on so-called projects of regenerating agency in late modernity and postmodernity. It begins by recapping Taylor's diagnosis of the problem of agency in modernity: a diagnosis that turns out to be a revised version of the secularization thesis. It then moves to Taylor's suggested therapy for the problem of agency, namely, his invocation of the aesthetic and poetic as epiphanic, that is, as a revelation of held moral orientations, ideals, values, and ends. Taylor's treatment of the epiphanic is critiqued through a discussion of the relationship between the sublime and agency. It is argued that Taylor's invocation of the epiphanic as sublime remains a gesture, that is, a promising movement and hope for a glimpse of transcendence. The promise of the epiphanic and the sublime for projects of regenerating agency becomes clearer when interpreted as part of the ends and aims of the disciplines of self-cultivation and self-transformation.
Analyticity and Conceptual Content
Authors: Thomasson Amie L.
Published: September 2007

This chapter defends the idea that there are analytic entailments among our sentences against two sorts of prominent objections. In response to Quine's rejection of the analytic/synthetic distinction, it suggests that analytic interrelations may be understood as grounded in (tacit, collective) legislations of the rules of use for our terms. Against objections based on a Kripkean approach to reference, it argues that those inclined to causal theories should accept a hybrid theory of reference in order to overcome both the qua problem and the problem of singular nonexistence claims. This hybrid theory acknowledges that our general and singular nominative terms have determinate reference only to the extent that they are associated with frame-level conceptual content, in the form of application and coapplication conditions that fix the category of entity to be referred to. This minimal conceptual content can underpin the analytic entailments discussed in Chapter 1.
Parsimony and Ontological Commitment
Authors: Thomasson Amie L.
Published: September 2007

If we don't need ordinary objects in our causal explanations, it is often held, Occam's razor enjoins us to eliminate them. This chapter examines these arguments from parsimony, suggesting first that Occam's razor does not generalize to cases in which there are analytic entailments between existence claims. Moreover, it is argued that eliminativists, such as van Inwagen and Merricks who seek to paraphrase claims, for example, about baseballs in terms of claims about atoms arranged baseballwise, don't really offer a more parsimonious theory, since their paraphrased claims may be pleonastically transformed into claims that are explicitly committed to ordinary objects. This provides the basis for an argument for the existence of ordinary objects, and against Quine's criterion of ontological commitment. In closing, this chapter considers whether this also entails commitment to extraordinary objects, and whether more severe forms of eliminativism can do better.
Becoming African in America
Authors: Sidbury James
Published: September 2007

The first slaves imported to America did not see themselves as “African” but rather as Temne, Igbo, or Yoruban. This book reveals how an African identity emerged in the late 18th-century Atlantic world, tracing the development of “African” from a degrading term connoting savage people, to a word that was a source of pride and unity for the diverse victims of the Atlantic slave trade. The book first examines the work of black writers — such as Ignatius Sancho in England and Phillis Wheatley in America — who created a narrative of African identity that took its meaning from the diaspora, a narrative that began with enslavement and the experience of the Middle Passage, allowing people of various ethnic backgrounds to become “African” by virtue of sharing the oppression of slavery. It looks at political activists who worked within the emerging antislavery moment in England and North America in the 1780s and 1790s; it describes the rise of the African church movement in various cities — most notably, the establishment of the African Methodist Episcopal Church as an independent denomination — and the efforts of wealthy sea captain Paul Cuffe to initiate a black-controlled emigration movement that would forge ties between Sierra Leone and blacks in North America; and it examines in detail the efforts of blacks to emigrate to Africa, founding Sierra Leone and Liberia.
1 The First “Africans”
Authors: Sidbury James
Published: September 2007

This chapter shows how Wheatley and Sancho, having been labeled “African” writers, accepted that label and subtly altered what it meant to be “African” by what they wrote. Neither Africa nor African identity plays a central role in their texts, but the identity is present and acknowledged. Both were aware of ethnic diversity on the continent and understood that it undercut any notion of an indigenous “African” identity. Both responded by creating a narrative of African identity that took its meaning from the diaspora rather than from conditions on the continent, a narrative that began with enslavement and the experience of the Middle Passage.
7 Becoming American in Liberia and in the United States, 1820–1830
Authors: Sidbury James
Published: September 2007

This chapter traces the demise in black discourse on African identity through the 1820s. As black American antislavery activists became increasingly convinced that the ACS served slaveholders' interests and that asserting an “African” identity played into the Society's efforts to portray Africa as the natural home for black Americans, fewer and fewer blacks referred to themselves as Africans. “Colored” institutions began to supplant “African” ones. Orators insisted that free blacks living in the United States were “Americans” rather than “African”, and that their futures lay in the New World rather than the Old.
Maternal Investment
Authors: Keller Heidi , Chasiotis Athanasios
Published: September 2007

This chapter focuses on the Darwinian view of human maternal investment which links evolved female reproductive interests and the dynamics of social groups. Parental investment can occur in different modes, time, energy, life risks, and different styles of parenting. It can be directed at very different developmental phases. This chapter concentrates on the postnatal maternal investment. In particular, it concentrates primarily on the phase of infancy, i.e., the first two years of infant's life. This is due to the fact that this time span is crucial for investment decisions with respect to the survival of the offspring. Moreover, it constitutes a brain imprint period with consequences for psychological development and thus adaptation.
Temperament as a Biological Mechanism for Mate Choice: A Hypothesis and Preliminary Data
Authors: Fisher Helen E. , Island Heide D. , Daniel Marchalik , Jonathan Rich
Published: September 2007

This chapter discusses investigations based on Fisher's hypothesis that among the myriad cultural and biological forces that contribute to mate choice, men and women tend to be attracted to potential mates who have a somewhat different genetic profile associated with different cognitive and behavioral traits, an unconscious attraction mechanism that enables mating partners to create more genetic variety in their offspring and co-parent their young with a wider array of parenting skills. The chapter concludes that the results of these pilot projects provide enough preliminary data to warrant further pursuit of this line of investigation into the biological mechanisms associated with mate choice.
All in the Family: An Evolutionary Developmental Perspective
Authors: Gardiner Amy , Bjorklund David F.
Published: September 2007

This chapter looks briefly at evolutionary theory applied to human families, in particular inclusive fitness and parental investment theories, as well as some assumptions derived from evolutionary developmental psychology, including the concepts of ontogenetic, deferred, and conditional adaptations. It then examines factors that influence the investment decisions that mothers, fathers, grandparents, and stepparents make with regard to children. Lastly, it looks at issues related to living with siblings, including factors that influence both sibling conflict and cooperation and mechanism responsible for incest avoidance.
Religion
Authors: Louden Robert B.
Published: September 2007

This chapter examines the shape of contemporary religiosity with respect to the three identifying characteristics of Enlightenment religiosity: the unity thesis, the morality thesis, and toleration. These observations and comments are then used to support the claim that the spirit of Enlightenment religiosity, suitably tempered by two hundred years' hindsight, has much to offer us.
Economics
Authors: Louden Robert B.
Published: September 2007

This chapter examines whether Enlightenment hopes for the future in the area of economics have been realized. In particular, their hopes for globalization, trade liberalization for the reduction of poverty within and between nations, and a new active and engaged public sphere are considered. It is shown that neither of these hopes was realized. Economic globalization has not yet contributed to any noticeable moral globalization, nor has the liberalization of trade and commerce eliminated poverty. Inequality between and within nations has increased drastically over the past two hundred years, and many in the affluent West have backtracked to a pre-Enlightenment acceptance of the view that the poor will always be with us. Regardless of how much shoppers may wish to celebrate consumerism as a source of creativity and empowerment, there is no evidence that this produces active participants in an engaged civic culture.
FOUR McCulloch v.Maryland
Authors: Ellis E. Richard
Published: September 2007

This chapter analyzes the various arguments made in the case of McCulloch v. Maryland by the attorneys both for the 2 BUS and against it, as well as Marshall's famous decision. It also looks at James Madison's reservations about the decision as well as some hostile newspaper response, and the relationship of the decision to the ongoing debate over a federal program of internal improvements.
SEVEN Ohio and Georgia before the U.S. Supreme Court
Authors: Ellis E. Richard
Published: September 2007

This chapter examines the US Supreme Court's decision in Osborn et. al. v. The Bank of the United States (1824). It also treats developments in the state of Georgia which culminated in another US Supreme Court decision at the same term: The Bank of the United States v. The Planters' Bank of Georgia (1824) in which John Marshall delivered an opinion that contradicted in an important way the position he had taken in the McCulloch and Osborn cases.
Domestic Saving and Income Distribution
Authors: Chung Young‐Iob
Published: September 2007

This chapter examines the volume of domestic savings; its sources (e.g., personal/household, business, and the government); and the use of mobilized domestic savings to finance the growing investment needs of the country. Since personal/household saving is largely determined by the level and distribution of income, wealth, and people's propensity to save, these factors are evaluated for different income groups and occupations, and business profits and dividend payments upon which business savings largely depend on are examined. The chapter also analyzes the channels into which personal/household savings are funneled, the significance of owners' equity financing, and business saving. Since business saving depends on business profits, the factors that contribute to profits as well as their primary beneficiaries are examined. The sources of government revenues, public saving, and the role of the government in capital formation are investigated.
Introduction
Authors: Biernacki Loriliai
Published: September 2007

The introduction to this book accomplishes several ends. First, the introduction presents an overview of the book and the issues that will be addressed in it. The introduction especially speaks to how we might understand how discourse, or “talk,” about women functions within medieval Tantric texts: how this talk confines and defines notions of women's subjectivity, and with this, women's ability, or not, to speak and, finally, the implication of women's bodies in their speech. Second, a preliminary introduction to the Sanskrit sources used for this study are offered here, with a brief discussion of the elements these texts have in common. Third, the introduction lays out the theoretical issues at stake in examining women's roles in Tantra. Particular attention is given to understanding the implications of this study for contemporary feminist theorizing of gender.
The “Kālī Practice”
Authors: Biernacki Loriliai
Published: September 2007

This chapter addresses women's roles in Tantra, examining how and whether women function as actors within Tantric rites or to what degree they function merely as objects of male desire. This chapter argues that Tantric texts are varied, offering a multiplicity of views. Particularly, this chapter presents evidence from Tantric sources associated with the Northeast region of India in the fifteenth through eighteenth centuries for a particular Tantric tradition that accords women respect and in which we find women as gurus and initiates. This chapter proposes that the model for understanding the veneration of women in these texts finds a parallel in the veneration of the Brahmin, where women in these texts are by analogy likened to Brahmins.
Scientific Foundations of an Evolutionary Theology
Authors: Schaab Gloria L.
Published: September 2007

Chapter 2 explores the epic of an evolving universe in order to understand the entities, structures, and processes that disclose the nature, attributes, and purposes of its Creator. This exploration investigates insights regarding the origin of the cosmos and engages scientific theories that challenge classical conceptions of the God‐world relationship. It focuses on Darwinian and neo‐Darwinian theories that suggest an ongoing creativity immanent in the cosmos itself. It probes the interaction of law and chance that suggests freedom and autonomy inherent in the evolving cosmos and that raises questions concerning the operation of divine omnipotence and omniscience in relation to cosmic events. Arriving at the conclusion that such cosmic freedom and autonomy implies an intrinsic measure of risk, pain, suffering, and even death for its creatures and its Creator, this exploration finds itself in an inexorable movement toward the inference of the suffering of God in, with, and under the suffering of the cosmos.
Feminist, Ecological, and Pastoral Explorations
Authors: Schaab Gloria L.
Published: September 2007

Chapter 6 contributes to the renaissance of a practical theology of Trinity by delineating some positive implications of its evolutionary theology of the suffering God for feminist, ecological, and pastoral concerns. It proposes a female panentheistic‐procreative paradigm of the creative suffering of the Triune God through female images of God drawn from biblical and rabbinical traditions. In keeping with such a paradigm, it advances a model of midwifery as an approach toward ecological ethics. Finally, in view of the ubiquity and diversity of suffering in the cosmos and its creatures, it sets forth a pastoral model of threefold differentiation of suffering in God as sympathy, empathy, and protopathy.
The Antiochene Tradition Inherited by Theodoret
Authors: Clayton, Jr. Paul B.
Published: September 2007

This chapter explores the Antiochene tradition inherited by Theodoret. Theodoret's immediate predecessors in this tradition were Diodore of Tarsus, who died c.390 after a vigorous struggle against the Arians and after justifying the humanity of Christ against Apollinaris, and Theodore of Mopsuestia. These were men whom Theodoret was to defend in 438 against Cyril as his own forerunners. Although it is unlikely that Theodore was Theodoret's personal instructor, his theology without any doubt took Theodore's as its starting-point.
Two Physeis in One Prosopon
Authors: Clayton, Jr. Paul B.
Published: September 2007

This chapter explores the two-part work, De Sancta et Vivifica Trinitate and De Incarnatione Domini. These works mark Theodoret's transition from Theodoret the anti-Arian and anti-Apollinarian to Theodoret the anti-Cyrillian. In their original form, they must pre-date 431, but the present form of De Incarnatione Domini shows the marks of hasty editing during the Nestorian controversy. It represents the fullest systematic presentation of Theodoret's early, firmly Antiochene Christology. Its editing in the heat of controversy gives us an indication of the way in which Theodoret was responding to the crisis of the Council of Ephesus.
Romulus' Asylum
Authors: Dench Emma
Published: September 2007

Modern treatments of Rome have projected in highly emotive terms the perceived problems or the aspirations of the present: ‘race-mixture’ has been blamed for the collapse of the Roman empire. More recently, Rome and Roman society have been depicted as ‘multicultural’. Moving beyond these and beyond more traditional, juridical approaches to Roman identity, this book focuses on ancient modes of thinking about selves and relationships with other peoples, including descent-myths, history, and ethnographies. It explores the relative importance of sometimes closely interconnected categories of blood descent, language, culture and clothes, and territoriality. Rome's creation of a distinctive imperial shape is understood in the context of the broader ancient Mediterranean world within which the Romans self-consciously situated themselves, and whose modes of thought they appropriated and transformed.
Psychological Holism and Socratic Ideals
Authors: Gill Christopher
Published: September 2007

This chapter identifies the combination of radical (Socratic) ethical claims and psychological holism as a second distinctive feature of Stoic and Epicurean thought about the self. The main ethical claims are that all human beings can achieve happiness by rational reflection and virtue, that happiness involves time-independent perfection of character, and that only the wise are fully coherent ethically and psychologically. The chapter suggests that Stoic and Epicurean ethical ideals were both influenced by Socrates but in quite different ways. It argues that Stoics and Epicureans combine these radical ethical claims with a holistic conception of psychology. This can be contrasted with the Platonic-Aristotelian division of the personality into distinct parts, such as reason and emotion or desire. It also discusses some examples of ‘quasi-dualism’ in Stoicism and Epicureanism, in which seemingly dualistic psychological language is employed for ethical purposes.
Competing Readings of Platonic Psychology
Authors: Gill Christopher
Published: September 2007

In Hellenistic-Roman debate about psychology, thinkers such as Plutarch and Galen saw themselves as maintaining Platonic (and Aristotelian) ideas about psychology that the Stoics rejected. This chapter suggests that the relationship between Plato and these Hellenistic and Roman thinkers is more complex than initially appears. It suggests that both sides in the debate may have been influenced by key features of Platonic psychology. This suggestion is illustrated by accounts of competing ways of reading two important Platonic treatments of psychology: in the Timaeus and the Republic. The account of Galen’s reading is based on Galen’s own statements; the reconstruction of Chrysippus’ reading is more speculative. These competing readings are used to show how Platonic material could be seen as lending support both to part-based (Platonic-Aristotelian) and to holistic (Stoic) ideas about embodied psychology and psychological functions.
6 The Rise of Seleucus
Authors: Bosworth A. B.
Published: September 2007

Seleucus' rise to power is perhaps the most spectacular event of the period of the Successors. Expelled from his satrapy by Antigonus in the summer of 316 BC, he was able to retrieve it four years later and did so with a force which was remarkably small by any standards. Not only did he regain Babylonia, but he beat off an attack by Nicanor, the general supervising the upper satrapies, and immediately took the offensive, extending his dominions to Susiana, Media, and perhaps even further afield. All that took place within a year of his entering Babylonia, and a year later, in the summer of 310 BC, he was coping with a full-scale invasion by Antigonus. He did not merely survive; he forced Antigonus out of his territories, never to resume the offensive, and by 305 BC he had penetrated to the Indus valley, placing almost all the satraps of the eastern empire under his sway. This chapter chronicles Seleucus' rise to power and attempts to explain his success.
Epigraphy as a Source for Early Imperial Women's Verse
Authors: Stevenson Jane
Published: September 2007

The case for epigraphy as a source for women's verse production in Imperial Rome is considered. Evidence for women's literacy in the Roman empire, including non-literary sources such as graffiti and curse-tablets, is presented. The circumstances of production of epigraphic poetry are examined. The chapter also considers a variety of specific poems attributed to women, and the evidence they reveal of interpersonal relations, particularly Terentia's poem on the death of her brother.