bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Talmudic Texts
Authors: Ben-Eliyahu Eyal , Cohn Yehudah , Millar Fergus
Published: April 2014

This chapter describes the following Talmudic texts: the Mishnah; the Tosefta; the Talmud Yerushalmi/Palestinian Talmud; the Talmud Bavli/Babylonian Talmud; Minor Tractates; and external tractates (Tractate Derekh Erets Zuta and Pereq HaShalom, Tractate Derekh Erets Rabbah, Tractate Kallah, Kallah Rabbati, Tractate Soferim, Tractate Semaṭot, Avot DeRabbi Natan and (Sefer) HaMaasim). For each of these texts, details on the contents, dating, language, printed editions, translations, commentaries, bibliography, electronic resources and manuscripts are provided.
Midrashic Texts
Authors: Ben-Eliyahu Eyal , Cohn Yehudah , Millar Fergus
Published: April 2014

This chapter describes the following Midrashic texts: Mekhilta DeRabbi Yishmael; Mekhilta DeRabbi Shimon bar Yoṭai; Sifra; Sifre Numbers; Sifre Zuta (Numbers); Sifre Deuteronomy; Mekhilta Deuteronomy (Midrash Tannaim); Sifre Zuta (Deuteronomy); Baraita DeMelekhet HaMishkan; Genesis Rabbah; Leviticus Rabbah; Pesiqta DeRav Kahana; Lamentations Rabbati; Shir HaShirim Rabbah; Esther Rabbah; Ruth Rabbah; and Qohelet Rabbah. For each of these texts, details on the contents, dating, language, printed editions, translations, commentaries, bibliography, electronic resources and manuscripts are covered.
Liturgical Texts
Authors: Ben-Eliyahu Eyal , Cohn Yehudah , Millar Fergus
Published: April 2014

This chapter describes the following liturgical texts: prayers (the Shema liturgy, the Amidah prayer); Piyyutim by the following authors Yose ben Yose, Yannai, Elazar BeRabbi Qallir, Hadutahu and Shimon bar Megas; and synagogue prayers in Greek. For each of these texts, details on the contents, dating, language, printed editions, translations, commentaries, bibliography, electronic resources and manuscripts are provided.
Apocalyptic
Authors: Ben-Eliyahu Eyal , Cohn Yehudah , Millar Fergus
Published: April 2014

This chapter describes the following apocalyptic texts: Reuyot Yeṭezqel; Sefer Eliyahu; Sefer Zerubavel; and The Secrets of Rabbi Shimon bar Yoṭai (Rashbi). For each of these texts, details on the contents, dating, language, printed editions, translations, commentaries, bibliography, electronic resources and manuscripts are provided.
Instability in Stability
Authors: Evans Nicholas
Published: April 2014

Periphrasis has a striking role in the Australian (non-Pama-Nyungan) language Dalabon, where it helps to maintain the paradigm structure, and at the same time reshapes the paradigm by adding new categories. The key area concerns divalent prefixal marking in verbs, which has been used as evidence in establishing genetic relatedness of non-Pama-Nyungan languages. In Dalabon, there is a set of prefixes to mark subject-object relations for singular objects. The non-singular objects, however, are coded by preverbal pronouns and this chapter demonstrates the true periphrastic nature of this construction. Dalabon is also viewed in the context of other languages of the family, and this allows us to establish the systemic functions of periphrasis, that of ensuring stability of divalent marking in the paradigm, and that of enlarging the paradigm. More generally, then, the Dalabon data provide new evidence of how morphological paradigms behave in the context of change and renewal.
Periphrasis in Tundra Nenets1
Authors: Nikolaeva Irina
Published: April 2014

A detailed picture of periphrasis in Nenets (Uralic) presents a typologically rare instance of periphrasis in a nominal paradigm (as opposed to more familiar verbal periphrasis). Previous accounts treated Nenets nouns as an uncontroversial example of periphrasis, but this chapter demonstrates that a closer look reveals a more complicated picture. It argues that the choice between the usage of the periphrastic dual form and the numeral ‘two’ (which takes the singular) correlates with definiteness and/or discourse givenness. In addition, analysis of this rare instance of periphrasis in a noun system reveals interesting aspects of the way the number system works in the language. The chapter also investigates the periphrastic realization of verbal negation, where the auxiliary carries the information of the verb type. For intransitive verbs, the type is either ‘subjective’ or ‘reflexive’ and there are, surprisingly, arguments in favour of treating these as purely morphological classes.
Periphrasis and Possible Lexemes1
Authors: Corbett Greville G.
Published: April 2014

Periphrasis can be investigated for the ways in which it splits the paradigms of lexemes (into periphrastic and non-periphrastic parts); this is done in the context of other morphological phenomena which also split paradigms. This chapter proposes a typology of splits. First, the splits can be motivated ‘externally’, for example by different morphosyntactic or morphosemantic features, as in Russian where verbs are split by periphrasis and by stem alternation in line with tense differentiation. Alternatively, splits may follow a division internal to morphology (morphomic); we find this in a Romanian dialect example, where periphrastic forms do not make a coherent morphosyntactic group, but follow an already existing pattern of stem alternation. All this demonstrates that periphrasis splits lexemes in the same ways as other morphological phenomena, such as suppletion, stem alternation, and heteroclisis. It points to the conclusion that the periphrastic part of the paradigm may not be homogeneous, and the splits induced by periphrasis are comparable to other morphological splits.
Recognition and Registration: The Infrastructure of Personhood in World History
Authors: Szreter Simon , Breckenridge Keith
Published: April 2014

This introductory chapter provides an overview of the key arguments and subjects discussed in the book, but it undertakes this review by means of a close investigation of the place of registration in contemporary scholarship. It explores the meaning of the term registration, and then examines the concept in existing social science theory, tracking the limits of its usage in the writings of Michel Foucault, Jack Goody, James Scott, and Amartya Sen's scholarship of social rights. It draws linkages between the chapters in the volume and the existing historiography on documentary government, drawing out the implications, in particular, of Clanchy's work. Moving beyond this review, it offers a theoretical account of the work of registration which highlights the (often neglected) dialectical politics at work in the registration of membership in human collectivities across time and region.
Too Much Information? Too Little Coordination? (Civil) Registration in Nineteenth-Century Germany
Authors: Fahrmeir Andreas
Published: April 2014

During the conflict between the Liberal-Protestant state and the Catholic Church (Kulturkampf), Germany introduced a system of registration of births, marriages, and deaths by public authorities. This replaced a system of data-gathering by churches which informed state authorities of the entries in their registers. The transition from church to state did not imply a secularization of registers. Moreover, civil registers were not combined systematically with other sources of information on the population; for instance, they played little role for the registers on residents, migrants, and travellers. This chapter argues that the profusion of registers theoretically allowed German states access to a great deal of information on individuals, although they rarely linked it. While registration thus always fell short of fulfilling expectations, it produced a tradition of informing the state about matters considered private in other countries which greatly increased the scope of planning population development.
Japan’s Civil Registration Systems Before and After the Meiji Restoration
Authors: Saito Osamu , Sato Masahiro
Published: April 2014

This chapter traces the evolution of Japan's systems of household and land registration from c.1600 to the period of early Meiji reforms in the 1870s and 1880s, with due attention to the distinction between a system designed by the state and local forms of registration practice. In the section on the pre-Meiji period, one such local practice of having people ‘disowned’ and its consequence — registerlessness — is examined. The section on the Meiji reforms and the section that follows turn to the issue of continuity and discontinuity, and the question of whether any progress was made by those reforms. In order to illustrate the actual changes that took place at the local level, the chapter begins with an eighteenth-century story about a peasant woman and ends with a case of a family dispute that another village woman brought before the court some 120 years later.
The Identity Thieves of the Indian Ocean: Forgery, Fraud and the Origins of South African Immigration Control, 1890s–1920s
Authors: MacDonald Andrew
Published: April 2014

This chapter is about the fate of a registration system designed for the exclusion of ‘undesirable’ Indian migrants to South Africa in the first decades of the twentieth century. It traces the bureaucracy's deployment of residence permits, but shows how these were transacted along the networks established by long-established Indian Ocean merchant houses. This illicit economy provoked important reforms in record-keeping. Yet South Africa's immigration offices remained in disarray for another 15–20 years. The gaps were filled by shrewd criminal touting syndicates within the bureaucracy. More stringent record-keeping was finally in place by the mid-1920s due to help from migrant associations, although this hardly meant that insider subversion had been completely smothered. The chapter argues that South African border controls were not successfully coercive, and suggests that performative histories are important in the study of repressive registration regimes.
Identity Registration in India During and After the Raj
Authors: Gopinath Ravindran
Published: April 2014

This chapter is essentially a history of an absence — the absence of individual identity registration in pre-colonial and colonial India. The main question that it attempts to answer is the apparent contradiction between the colonial Indian state's encyclopaedic attempts at statistical recording and the absence of individual identity registration. The colonial government, while counting and recording virtually everything from people to property to natural resources, somehow did not feel the need to register individual identity. For the Indian population, social aggregates such as caste, despite official misgivings, continued throughout the colonial period to be a proxy for individual identity. It was only with the establishment of a democratic state based on universal adult suffrage after Independence that individual identity registration developed slowly and partially.
Voting, Welfare and Registration: The Strange Fate of the État-Civil in French Africa, 1945–1960
Authors: Cooper Frederick
Published: April 2014

In 1946, the French constitution made colonial subjects in Africa into citizens. Having been content to rule ‘tribes’ via their ‘chiefs’, at that point it had to track individuals entitled to vote and receive social benefits. The new citizens retained their personal status — regulating marriage, filiation, and inheritance — under Islamic law or local ‘customs’ rather than through the civil code. That posed a dilemma for French officials, for the état-civil did not just record life events, but symbolized the integration of all into a single body of citizens. French officials and legislators — including African representatives — could not agree on whether the multiple status regimes necessitated two états-civils or one. In the end, officials were too torn between their recognition of difference among peoples under French rule and their desire for singularity to put in place a consistent policy of identification, registration, and surveillance. They bequeathed the problem to their successors.
Children, Citizenship and Child Support: The Child Support Grant in Post-Apartheid South Africa
Authors: Lund Francie
Published: April 2014

In April 1998, the post-apartheid South African government introduced a monthly cash transfer for children in poor households. A requirement for getting the grant was that the birth of the child had to be registered, and the adult primary caregiver had to have the citizen identity document. The success of the system of support was contingent on the new democratic government's ability to integrate into one national welfare system what had been fragmented under apartheid into many racially separated systems; it also, ironically, built on the apartheid-era state pension delivery system. Within a decade the grant reached more than ten million children, and was associated with a rapid increase in birth registrations, marking the poorest children's first step into citizenship, and opening up the possibility of later access to other programmes and entitlements.
Global history: approaches and new directions
Authors: Berg Maxine
Published: April 2014

This chapter investigates timing and reasons for the ‘turn’ to global issues in historical writing. These have included dissatisfaction with the older frameworks of national histories and area studies, and a new interest in comparative and connected histories. The chapter critically addresses the focus of much recent debate on comparisons of East and West, and the question of the ‘Great Divergence’. It raises new questions of transmissions of material cultures and technologies, and of human agency and the histories of families and individuals, in global context. There are serious methodological questions for historians, those of sources, interdisciplinary approaches, and collaborations.
Reflections on doing global history
Authors: Vries Jan De
Published: April 2014

What difference has global history made to non-national historical agendas such as regional studies and studies based on ecological zones? The methods of regional history have many parallels with global history. Both transcend questions of boundaries and engage in methods of connection and comparison. Conceiving a polycentric early modern world challenges us to cross mental boundaries.
Notes on some discontents in the historical narrative
Authors: Schaub Jean-Frédéric
Published: April 2014

The colonized Spanish American world has not yet played a part as a leading subject of global history. French historiography addresses a concept of ‘asymmetries’ on European writing on encounters and cultural transfers. European historians risk essentialist frameworks in their comparisons of societies. Analysis must address the longer and broader framework of conquered and colonized peoples.
Regions and global history
Authors: Bin Wong R.
Published: April 2014

China provides a distinctive perspective for a regional approach to global history. The Chinese empire should be seen as a part of multiple regions, for example, North East Asia, or the East and Southeastern maritime regions. Can an analysis of different kinds of space take us beyond environmental history into wider issues of global history?
Institutions for writing the economic history of the global
Authors: Van Zanden Jan Luiten
Published: April 2014

Global history needs to take advantage of new research methodologies of teamwork and collaboration. Historians and economic historians can work together to provide historical data sets covering the world. New evidence gathering and analysis through teams of historians pooling expertise can create new public goods for global history. Examples are provided by current collaborative projects on national income, prices, real wages, and labour relations. Historians working in such teams must make agreements over who owns the data, the division of labour and who leads the projects and publications.
Writing about divergences in global history: some implications for scale, methods, aims, and categories
Authors: Pomeranz Kenneth
Published: April 2014

Kenneth Pomeranz, whose book The Great Divergence was one of the key starting points for global history, has developed a methodological approach to the concept of ‘divergence’. Historical divergences raise many questions: those of perspective, issues of ‘origin’, points where differences become divergences and those of multiple time scales.
The European miracle in global history: an East Asian perspective
Authors: Sugihara Kaoru
Published: April 2014

The ‘European miracle’ needs to be compared to an East Asian development path. In East Asia efficient institutions fostered great use of labour, an ‘industrious revolution’ path entailing extensive use of family labour and systems of double cropping. The result was a ‘labour-intensive industrialization’ such as occurred in Meiji Japan. That labour-intensive path now shapes the centres of most of the world's manufacturing employment, currently situated in East, South-east and South Asia. The challenge for Japan and other East Asian economies has been to develop resource- and energy-saving technologies.
Technology and innovation in global history and in the history of the global
Authors: Schäfer Dagmar
Published: April 2014

The Chinese of the Ming/Qing dynasties took a distinctive approach to technology and innovation. The Chinese assigned a place and function to technologies and their products in statecraft, public life, and scholarly achievements. Ming connoisseurs valued craftsmanship, and porcelain and silk were used to negotiate political control and economic interests. But free markets emerged for these products of craftsmanship. This chapter charts how products were marketed, and how original designs and techniques were claimed and marked by their craftsmen.
The art of global comparisons
Authors: Clunas Craig
Published: April 2014

This chapter considers comparison made hitherto between Western and Chinese art. Mieke Bal has argued that comparison becomes a ground for relative judgement; it establishes hierarchies and distracts from looking. The chapter considers attitudes to Chinese art before and after the Second World War. Chinese art was part of the syllabus before and after that war, and was excluded thereafter. It was relegated to the marginal place of the exotic arts. Mieke Bal has argued that comparison should not be an instrument of judgement, but a source of differentiation.
Panel discussion: ways forward and major challenges
Authors: Berg Maxine
Published: April 2014

John Darwin has assessed the contributions offered by archives of imperial history in analysing connections, interpretations, and control of empires over their conquered territories. Megan Vaughan has discussed the marginal place of Africa in current global history writing. Peer Vries has challenged the recent focus of global historians on connections, networks, exchanges and transfers. This history leaves out wars, violence, conflicts, and especially the state. Sufumi So and Billy Kee-Long So have sought more use of transnational biographies and narratives of individuals across time and place in Asia as well as Europe. Did some of these perceive themselves within wider world and global identities?
Marriage and Sexuality in Buganda, 1925–69
Authors: Doyle Shane
Published: April 2014

This chapter firstly examines how cash cropping heightened gender and generational tensions within colonial Buganda. As female labour increased in value, so did bridewealth demands. As in much of Africa, high divorce rates and delayed marriage were the most obvious results. But the unusual openness of mid-colonial Ganda society facilitated the development of a distinctive sexual culture. Opportunities for women to set themselves up as independent householders arose from Buganda's freehold land tenure, its largely unregulated urban centres, and legal protections for widows. During the middle decades of the twentieth century, meanwhile, new forms of socializing provided Ganda of all ages with opportunities to acquire new sexual partners, increasingly across generations, fostered a growing tolerance of non-marital sex, and facilitated ever wider urban-rural sexual networks. The sexuality of the young changed fastest, due to schooling, parental employment, a new culture of adolescence, and resentment at excessive bridewealth demands.
Ankole
Authors: Doyle Shane
Published: April 2014

This chapter explains why, compared to Buganda and Buhaya, sex and marriage in Ankole before the 1970s were characterized by stability and restraint. Local ethnic rivalry, a greater fear of violent repercussions, and the enduring power of ritual punishment ensured that extra-marital affairs were associated with danger and dishonour; post- and until the 1950s, pre-marital sex remained heavily regulated. The approach of independence though mixed schooling and growing prosperity led to new kinds of social encounters, and the 1960s brought a major expansion of the road network and a slow spread of modern bars and dance clubs. Labour migration did introduce some changes in sexual behaviour, and integrated Ankole intimately with the Ganda, accelerating the openness and homogenization of sexual culture across the region. But economic migration seems to have destabilized marriage and systems of sexual control less than did cash crop farming.
Sexuality, Mortality, Disease and Fertility in the 1970s
Authors: Doyle Shane
Published: April 2014

This chapter brings the various strands of this study together. Previous studies of the 1970s have tended to emphasize the grimmest aspects of life during this decade, but the evidence suggests that the immediate demographic impact of worsening poverty and instability was rather modest. Moreover, the changes in sexual culture and behaviour seen in the 1970s were to a large extent a continuation of long-established trends, ensuring that patterns which had been initially associated with urban contexts dispersed far into the regions' rural communities. What was new in the 1970s was as much the result of aspiration as desperation. Similarly the onset of fertility decline in central Buganda was driven by an attempt to maintain existing standards of living. Evidence that postponing and stopping as well as spacing behaviour contributed to fertility limitation indicates that this region once again does not fit with widely accepted theories about African demographic change.
Conclusion and Epilogue
Authors: Doyle Shane
Published: April 2014

This chapter considers the role of long-term changes in patterns of fertility, mortality, and STDs in the emergence and control of HIV in this region. It emphasizes that in order to explain the rapidity with which HIV became a mass epidemic in a largely rural context, it is necessary to examine the long history of changes in marriage, adolescent sexuality, leisure, materialism, and perceptions of risk. Equally, the remarkable success of AIDS control programmes in both southern Uganda and Buhaya can only be understood through an analysis of the series of campaigns aimed at improving public morality beginning in the early twentieth century, which helped legitimize sex as a topic of serious debate. Finally, the chapter also examines in detail the intimate relationship between fertility and mortality in Africa.
The United Kingdom’s Human Rights Project in Constitutional and Comparative Perspective
Authors: Masterman Roger , Leigh Ian
Published: April 2014

This chapter briefly traces the history of the Human Rights Act, contextualising the academic and popular debates which have seen the long-term future of the Act placed in doubt. It introduces some of the core constitutional questions addressed in this volume, detailing the individual essaying and highlighting common themes.
The Continuation of Politics, by Other Means: Judicial Dialogue under the Human Rights Act 1998
Authors: Murray C. R. G.
Published: April 2014

Much of the judicial-dialogue debate implies that this process was initiated by the Human Rights Act, but developments since its enactment arguably refine the long-established process whereby the courts interact with the other branches of government. For example, when individuals (often supported by pressure groups) pursue rights-based claims they may do so not with the expectation that the courts will uphold their claim, but in the hope that judges will issue a declaration of incompatibility with which they can influence political debate. The Human Rights Act marks an increase in the volume (in both senses of the word) of such dialogue. Judges must now consider their decisions not only regarding their impact upon UK government policy but also with one eye towards ensuring that the European Court of Human Rights upholds their decisions. This chapter examines these efforts, focusing in particular on the growth in ‘protest cases’ before the courts.
Deconstructing the Mirror Principle
Authors: Masterman Roger
Published: April 2014

The notion that the protections afforded by domestic courts pursuant to the Human Rights Act should ‘mirror’ the rights enforced by the European Court of Human Rights has been a recurring feature of judicial discussions on the nature and extent of the ‘Convention rights’ in domestic law, and has exercised a powerful influence over how those rights have been given legal effect. This chapter argues that the mirror principle is based on an overly narrow interpretation of the purpose of the Human Rights Act, provides an inadequate foundation for the development of domestic rights jurisprudence, and is an increasingly inaccurate description of judicial and constitutional practice.
From Monologue to Dialogue
Authors: Amos Merris
Published: April 2014

In recent years, there has been considerable discussion of the dialogue which takes place between UK courts, adjudicating in claims brought under the Human Rights Act 1998, and the European Court of Human Rights. This chapter examines the characteristics of this relationship and, utilising case law examples, considers the question of whether the metaphor of dialogue is entirely accurate. Also considered are the outcomes, both actual and potential, from a dialogue between national courts and a supranational court. It is clear that dialogue can have an impact on the creation of human rights norms, judicial power, and the legitimacy of human rights law. The UK example is employed to illustrate these outcomes in practice, and also to highlight the potential pitfalls of extensive dialogue with a supranational court.
Human Rights and Judicial Technique
Authors: Beatson Jack
Published: April 2014

This chapter assesses changes in judicial approach and technique since the enactment of the Human Rights Act (HRA), and whether they are irreversible. It considers the language of analysis; the significance of terms such as ‘deference’, ‘institutional competence’, and ‘weight’; and the interpretative obligation in s.3 HRA enabling radical re-interpretation, and its relationship with the s.4 power to make declarations of incompatibility. It asks whether the ‘no less, but certainly no more’ than Strasbourg approach, with its need to predict outcomes in Strasbourg, reflects a ‘domestic remedy for breach of international obligations’ view of the HRA, or is an indication of the courts' understanding of their constitutional role and its limits. Finally, it suggests it is important not to sideline or forget the potential of the common law and the continued relevance and importance of traditional common law public law techniques.
Human Rights and Legislative Supremacy
Authors: Mason Anthony
Published: April 2014

This chapter outlines the measures implemented for the protection for human rights available in New Zealand, Australia, and Hong Kong. It examines the influence of jurisprudence from the United Kingdom and European Court of Human Rights on those systems, and traces the conditioning effect of the doctrine of legislative supremacy on the development and implementation of rights instruments in New Zealand and Australia.
Australian Bills of Rights and the ‘New Commonwealth Model of Constitutionalism’
Authors: Evans Simon , Watson Julia
Published: April 2014

This chapter examines the influence of the new Commonwealth model of human rights protection (exemplified by the UK Human Rights Act 1998) on the form of the two Australian statutory Bills of Rights, and then considers the impact of Australia's distinctive legal culture and constitutional structure on the operation of these instruments. In particular, it examines the impact of culture and structure in the decision of the High Court of Australia in R. v Momcilovic [2011] HCA 34; (2011) 280 A.L.R. As a result of that case, key features of the Australian Bills of Rights now diverge from the dominant UK approach, a divergence so striking that it may no longer be possible to identify the Australian Bills of Rights as exemplars of the new Commonwealth model.
How, and How Not, to Use the Concept of Crisis in the Reign of Louis XVI*
Authors: Poussou Jean-Pierre
Published: April 2014

This chapter demonstrates that the idea of a ‘general crisis’ affecting the whole of Louis XVI's reign is unsustainable. This is particularly true of the French economy, where the influence of Ernest Labrousse has long dominated our understanding of the period. Far from experiencing a general economic downturn, which made 1789 a ‘revolution of misery’, the pattern of industrial and agricultural production and colonial trade was far more positive. Problems arose primarily from the failure of political reform, especially in fiscal matters, but they only took a dramatic turn for the worst after the summoning of the Assembly of Notables in the Spring of 1787.
The End of a Golden Age or the Implosion of a False Absolutism? The Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia from Absolutism to Revolution, 1685–1814
Authors: Broers Michael
Published: April 2014

On the eve of the French Revolution, there were few more truly ‘absolutist’ states than the lands of the House of Savoy. Yet there were also few as predicated on rule by educated meritocracy or pragmatic, if authoritarian reform. The Savoyard domains remain among the least known or understood of the second rank powers of the eighteenth century, but their internal history offers a remarkable insight into the workings of an absolutist regime, faced with the growing social and economic crisis in the last decades of pre-revolutionary Europe. This chapter first explores the reactions of the Savoyard monarchy to the internal crisis it faced on the eve of the French invasion. It then analyses its disintegration under the onslaught of the first Italian campaign.
Necker and Aristocratic Constitutionalism
Authors: Aston Nigel
Published: April 2014

Jacques Necker progressively advocated political values for the French monarchy that were broadly in line with those operative within a British constitutional nexus. He came to see the value of a bicameral constitutional settlement that would allow ‘aristocracy’ in one chamber to act as a counterweight to ‘democracy’ in another. However, he was slow to acknowledge the core difference between the tightly defined British nobility — synonymous with the peerage — and the tensions that existed within the formal, juridical unity of the French Second Estate. Necker's view of what a publicly responsible nobility might undertake within a state had its origins in his (and his wife, Suzanne's) many conversations with David, Seventh Viscount Stormont, British Ambassador to France, 1772–78, whom they saw as the embodiment of aristocratic state service. With the failure of the proposal for a two-chamber National Assembly in the autumn of 1789, Necker was forced to admit that the majority of his countrymen had turned against British models just as he had decided to embrace them wholeheartedly.
The Culture of War in Europe, 1750–1815
Authors: Bell David A.
Published: April 2014

This chapter examines the development of the ‘culture of war’ in Europe, focusing on France, from the Old Regime through the First Empire. It argues that before the Revolution, French aristocratic elites saw warfare as an ordinary part of human existence — and indeed, if kept under proper control, a positive and desirable one. It then shows how this idea was challenged during the Enlightenment, by critics who saw warfare as extraordinary and aberrant, with some deeming it extraordinarily horrible, and others depicting it, at least potentially, as extraordinarily sublime and regenerative. The chapter discusses how these conflicting ideas helped to shape the actual practice and course of the revolutionary and Napoleonic wars, looking particularly at the question of why these wars proved so terribly difficult to control, restrain, and bring to an end.
The Austrian Alliance, the Seven Years’ War and the Emergence of a French ‘National’ Foreign Policy, 1756–1790
Authors: Kaiser Thomas E.
Published: April 2014

When during the French Revolution the deputies of the National Assembly pondered the reasons for France's decades-long decline as a world power, many attributed it to the Franco-Austrian alliance of 1756, which had allegedly produced the humiliating outcome of the Seven Years' War. This chapter demonstrates how, why, and with what political effects the alliance was represented by its critics from its inception as the work of a powerful pro-Austrian ministerial lobby willing to sacrifice the interests of the nation to those of the dynasty and the Habsburgs. Reinforcing this view was the repeated appointment of incompetent military commanders loyal to the lobby supporting the alliance. At a time of rising national consciousness, the tale of infidelity, defeat, and impotence told by the alliance's many critics helped convince the general public that France was in desperate need of a new, nationally centred foreign policy as part of its general regeneration.
Franco-British Naval Rivalry and the Crisis of the Monarchy, 1759–1789*
Authors: Chaline Olivier
Published: April 2014

Did the immense investment in the French Navy in the context of the crisis of the monarchy outstrip the financial resources of the État royal, thus being a major cause or even the principal cause of the Revolution? Financially the critical period was not the War of American Independence but the years following the return of peace. The decisions made by those in charge of the French navy to maintain its expansion, while the costs of construction were doubling and while the state-funded budget was shrinking, were heavy with troublesome consequences as the monarchy was plunged into political crisis after the summoning of the Assembly of Notables.
The Crisis of the Nobility at the Twilight of the Monarchy*
Authors: Figeac Michel
Published: April 2014

The history of the French nobility has long been symptomatic with that of the Revolution, and this chapter takes a fresh look at the state of the second estate in the years preceding 1789. Confronted by the problems arising from demographic decline, the pressure of the state, and a certain internal malaise as it sought to cope with internal divisions and to make sense of its own place in the world, the French nobility could be seen as a state of crisis. With some nobles even going so far as to attack the concept of nobility itself, these divisions would have important repercussions in 1789.
William ‘Bill’ Doyle and the Origins of the French Revolution
Authors: Blanning Tim
Published: April 2014

This chapter discusses Bill Doyle's contribution to the study of the origins of the French Revolution. It shows how his early work delivered a powerful critique of the dominant Marxist interpretation, already under attack from revisionists led by Alfred Cobban. It examines the three editions of his book Origins of the French Revolution, with both continuities and changes identified. Particular importance is assigned to Doyle's ground-breaking work on the part played by venality in eroding the old regime monarchy. A second topic of major importance to which Doyle's researches have contributed a great deal is the role of the Parlements. This is placed in the context of Doyle's critique of the notion of an ‘aristocratic reaction’ in late-eighteenth century France. The chapter concludes with a discussion of his most recent work on aristocracy.
Communisms, Communist Musics
Authors: Adlington Robert
Published: April 2014

This chapter sketches key contexts (both global-political and scholarly) for the research presented by this book. By way of introduction to the individual chapters in the book, a number of connecting preoccupations are identified: debates over artistic experiment and populism, and over the handling of cultural difference; the diverse motivations for communist organisations to become involved in music, and their anxieties about such an involvement; attempts made to evade the grasp of political and economic structures (state and commerce especially) that communists typically opposed; and experimentation in alternative forms of musical practice that were imagined better to reflect communist ideology. The irreducible plurality of positions staked out by communist musicians and groups is emphasised.
The Black Panther Party
Authors: Kelly Eamonn
Published: April 2014

This chapter examines the ways in which the Black Panther Party (BPP) used popular music as a means to represent its ideology and politics to potential supporters during the peak of its activism in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Following an initial discussion of the ways in which the traditions of the U.S. left and popular music impacted upon the BPP, it explores the idea of black nationalism as understood and represented by the Panthers, its relationship to the traditions of Marxism, and the ways in which this relationship informed the cultural practice of the BPP. Finally, there is an examination of the ‘three moments’ alluded to in the title, a series of musical performances and recordings sponsored by the party.
Music, the Fête de l’Humanité, and Demographic Change in Post-War France
Authors: Drott Eric
Published: April 2014

This chapter examines music's role in the Fête de l'Humanité, an annual festival organized by L'Humanité, the French Communist Party's principal organ. Beyond generating revenue and mobilizing support for the Party, the Fête has long served an important ritual function, fostering a sense of camaraderie among participants. Music has proven particularly effective in this regard, offering a medium through which one's membership in an imagined (communist) community could be experienced. The chapter focuses on the Fête's transformation during the 1960s and 1970s, a period that saw the Party struggle to broaden its electoral appeal beyond its working-class base. By expanding the range of musics featured at the event, its organizers sought to address an increasingly diverse electorate. Yet the Party's reliance on the Fête as an instrument of public outreach proved problematic, given that the image of inclusiveness it projected masked rather than resolved the Party's long-term demographic difficulties.
New ‘Old Leftist’ Aesthetics in the West German Contemporary Music Scene
Authors: Kutschke Beate
Published: April 2014

This chapter investigates the socio-political background and music of the cantata Streik bei Mannesmann (1973) that was initiated by Wolfgang Florey and written by various young musicians such as Niels Frederic Hoffmann and Thomas Jahn, as well as the then-established composer Hans Werner Henze. It demonstrates that the creation of the collectively composed cantata must be traced back to the so-called ‘proletarian turn’: the turn, around 1970, from the New Left to the Old Left that affected not only the New Leftist activists, but also politicized musicians including those involved in the Mannesmann cantata. In light of the opposed objectives of the New Left and the new Old Left — the former fought for improving the living and working conditions of workers; the latter aimed at developing an anti-hierarchical youth culture and new lifestyles — the music reveals a remarkable stylistic split that reflects the ideological split between both Leftist camps.
Rocking Against Racism
Authors: Tranmer Jeremy
Published: April 2014

Rock Against Racism was one of the most dynamic and innovative British social movements of the 1970s, bringing together music fans and left-wing activists in the struggle against the far-right National Front. This surprising alliance was forged by members of the Trotskyist International Socialists/Socialist Workers Party who had a long-standing interest in popular culture and championed punk as a form of working-class revolt. This attitude contrasted sharply with that of the significantly larger Communist Party of Great Britain, which tended to view mass culture as a development of American capitalism. Seeking to adopt the dominant social and cultural norms of the labour movement, communists were unable to relate to the subversive irreverence of punk. Rock Against Racism disappeared in the very early 1980s but acted as a template for future attempts to link music and politics.
Class Love and the Unfinished Transformation of Social Hierarchy in Nepali Communist Songs
Authors: Stirr Anna
Published: April 2014

Nepal's twentieth-century tradition of leftist music, known as pragatisil git or progressive song, developed musically during the 1960s and 1970s along with state-sponsored nationalist genres meant to serve as musical representations of Nepali identity. The differences were primarily in the lyrics: pragatisil git's leftist themes were deemed too incendiary for a regime that forbade political organization. Composers writing songs for the national radio were encouraged to produce love songs, deemed apolitical and therefore safe. At first glance, communist pragatisil git avoids themes of love, in stark contrast to mainstream folk and popular music. Yet, while themes of romance are indeed absent from most Nepali communist music, a closer look demonstrates a strong concern with other forms of love and sentiment. This chapter focuses upon the theme of class love, examining how it is imagined to be socially transformative, and how it has changed through different communist parties' imaginings.
Religious Commitment and Secular Reason
Authors: Zurbuchen Simone
Published: April 2014

This chapter suggests that a nuanced account of early Enlightenment natural law theory may have something to offer modern debates that swing between a liberal emphasis on individual rights and a communitarian emphasis upon group rights. An examination of Pufendorf's work reveals that his natural law theory embraces two connected ways of thinking about toleration. One the one hand, his theory underpins the power of the magistrate to tolerate pragmatically for reasons of state. On the other, his account of natural religion defines a sphere that cannot be invaded legitimately by the state. Pufendorf's distinction between churches (as voluntary associations) and states (as guarantors of individual rights) offers resources for rethinking contemporary discussions that struggle to balance claims by religious communities to maintain their identities with the claims of their vulnerable members not to be oppressed.
Natural Law, Nonconformity, and Toleration
Authors: Stanton Timothy
Published: April 2014

This chapter identifies two significant stages in the development of Locke's mature position about toleration and explains the connections between them. At each stage, Locke made a series of conceptual moves whose combined effect replaced one understanding of the relations between church and state with another, and one upon which the argument of his Epistola de tolerantia/A Letter concerning toleration depended. Locke's ‘Defence of nonconformity’ (1681–2) is shown to be a pivotal text, which looks forward to the conclusions of Two treatises of government as well as Epistola, and which provides pressing reasons to doubt the adequacy of most modern treatments of Locke's view of toleration and the assumptions they embody about his wider moral and political theory.
John Locke and Natural Law
Authors: Harris Ian
Published: April 2014

The standard modern view of Locke portrays him as a simulacrum of John Stuart Mill or John Rawls. This chapter decisively shifts the terms in which Locke is understood away from this standard view. It shows that with Locke religious worship is neither private nor optional, and is a matter of duty rather than right primarily — a duty prescribed by natural law. Natural law led Locke to jurisdiction, and, more precisely, to two corresponding jurisdictions, the eccesiastical and civil. The different ends implied in these two jurisdictions and the different ways in which they were established made church and state free from each other's direction. Worship is not tolerated by the state, for the state has no jurisdiction over it; rather, it is free. Conversely the state is required to coerce religious or irreligious groups, whether Roman Catholics or atheists, who undermine the possibility of independent civil and ecclesiastical jurisdictions.
Leibniz’s Doctrine of Toleration
Authors: Antognazza Maria Rosa
Published: April 2014

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz is not usually regarded as a thinker who had a substantive theory of toleration. This chapter pieces together the scattered evidence to suggest otherwise. It is argued that Leibniz did have a doctrine of toleration, which operated on philosophical, theological, and pragmatic levels as part of his project for religious unification. The structure of Leibniz's philosophical arguments reflected his dependence on an idea of natural law that acted to support conceptions of toleration, in some ways far more inclusive than those of contemporaries such as Pufendorf and Locke. By reference to the primary, inalienable moral qualities of human beings, Leibniz was able to suggest that the coercion of individuals for almost any form of sincere belief was fundamentally illegitimate. There were limits to Leibniz's toleration — doctrines against natural law were emphatically not to be tolerated — but their effect was to create an unusually wide doctrine of toleration.
Of Doubtful Antiquity
Authors: Richardson Edmund
Published: April 2014

This chapter examines the ways in which Britain's campaigns in the Crimean War (1854–56) became entangled in the ancient world. During the conflict, British officers in the Crimea went in search of ancient sites to excavate — while newspapers in London reported avidly on their finds. The chapter centres around Duncan McPherson, a military doctor who carried out several strikingly ambitious Crimean excavations in collaboration with Robert Westmacott, son of the neoclassical sculptor Sir Richard Westmacott. It explores how difficult and frustrating the search for the ancient world became, for Britain's soldier-archaeologists — and how frequently their pursuit of the past was thwarted.
Officers and Gentlemen? Roman Britain and the British Empire*
Authors: Beard Mary
Published: April 2014

Starting from a famous address by Francis Haverfield, this chapter reflects on the relationship between Romano-British archaeology and the politics of the British empire, challenging any simple equation between the Roman empire and the modern. It also considers the nineteenth-century history of Hadrian's Wall, and its restoration.
Unholy Water
Authors: Gange David
Published: April 2014

The first Aswan Dam was the most controversial civil enterprise of the early British Mandate in Egypt. It was also one of the most ideologically loaded projects of a British-dominated government, which wished to be seen as both modernizing force and guardian of Egypt's heritage. In this conflicted situation, lobbies for and against the construction of the dam do not follow predictable patterns. Engineers, seeing themselves as modern parallels to the biblical Joseph, often expressed greater discomfort with the drowning of monuments than did those, including Egyptologists, whose professional concerns were with Egypt's ancient past. Initially centred around biblical imagery and the iconic temple of Philae, the debate was transformed by the emergence of concern for Egyptian prehistory and consequent attraction of new anthropological interests.