bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Stalking: Classification and Typology
Authors: Pinals Debra A.
Published: November 2020

Stalking, as currently conceptualized, is a complex phenomenon, and individual stalking cases can be quite distinct. Several authors have proposed classification schemes in an effort to discern and understand common themes among cases of stalking. These stalking “typologies” reflect both theoretical considerations and empirical examinations of persons whose behaviors have shaped the definition of stalking. Typologies have been constructed from clinical and law enforcement perspectives. Classification schemes to date have been broadly based on factors such as the motivation of the stalker, psychiatric symptoms among stalkers, the nature of the relationship between the pursuer and the victim, victim characteristics, and harm to the victim. These classifications have been conceptualized to assist with risk assessment, risk management, and treatment considerations in stalking cases. This chapter describes some historical underpinnings of classification categories, compares existing typologies of stalkers, and explicates the typological scheme adopted throughout this book. Over the last 15 years, stalking has become increasingly recognized as a distinctive form of potentially criminal behavior that may come to the attention of mental health professionals. At the same time that the criminal justice system has grappled with defining stalking for legal purposes, clinicians who encounter stalking behavior have attempted to create useful classifications of stalking behaviors. Attempts have also been made to develop taxonomies of stalking types that might guide law enforcement professionals. Taxonomic classifications are common in science and, when they are successful, they help us organize and identify unique aspects of information and refine our understanding of the given phenomenon under study. Setting up a system of classification of stalking, a behavior that is difficult to define and codify, has several advantages. Once established, a useful taxonomy of stalkers could improve communication among professionals and could help them better appreciate aspects of stalking, including the natural course of the behavior and prognosis of particular stalkers. In addition, taxonomic categorization can facilitate case comparisons and improve clinicians’ abilities to assess risks, manage risks, and provide treatment. Stalking typologies may also enlighten decisions about social policy and legal regulation related to the phenomenon.
Future Environments of South America
Authors: Veblen Thomas T. , Young Kenneth R.
Published: November 2020

An important goal of this book has been to provide a comprehensive understanding of the physical geography and landscape origins of South America as important background to assessing the probabilities and consequences of future environmental changes. Such background is essential to informed discussions of environmental management and the development of policy options designed to prepare local, national, and international societies for future changes. A unifying theme of this book has been the elucidation of how natural processes and human activities have interacted in the distant and recent past to create the modern landscapes of the continent. This retrospective appreciation of how the current landscapes have been shaped by nature and humans will guide our discussion of possible future trajectories of South American environments. There is abundant evidence from all regions of South America, from Tierra del Fuego to the Isthmus of Panama, that environmental change, not stasis, has been the norm. Given that fact, the history, timing, and recurrence intervals of this dynamism are all crucial pieces of information. The antiquity and widespread distribution of changes associated with the indigenous population are now well established. Rates and intensities of changes related to indigenous activities varied widely, but even in regions formerly believed to have experienced little or no pre-European impacts we now recognize the effects of early humans on features such as soils and vegetation. Colonization by Europeans mainly during the sixteenth century modified or in some cases replaced indigenous land-use practices and initiated changes that have continued to the present. Complementing these broad historical treatments of human impacts, other chapters have examined in detail the environmental impacts of agriculture (chapter 18) and urbanism (chapter 20), and the disruptions associated with El Niño–Southern Oscillation events. The goal of this final synthesis is to identify the major drivers of change and to discuss briefly their likely impacts on South American environments and resources in the near and medium-term future. Our intent is not to make or defend predictions, but rather to identify broad causes and specific drivers of environmental change to inform discussions of policy options for mitigating undesirable changes and to facilitate potential societal adaptations to them.
The Impact of Congenital Heart Disease on Cognitive and Behavioral Functioning
Authors: Wray Jo
Published: November 2020

Congenital heart disease (CHD) has been defined as “. . . a gross structural abnormality of the heart or intrathoracic great vessels that is actually or potentially of functional significance” (Mitchell, Korones, and Berendes 1971). Congenital heart disease is the most common single group of congenital abnormalities, accounting for about 30% of the total. The incidence is reported as varying between 0.3% and 1% of all live births. Ten to 15% of children with congenital heart defects have more than one cardiac abnormality; up to one-third also have one or more associated noncardiac congenital abnormalities (Wernovsky 2006). Although some forms of CHD are minor and do not require any medical or surgical intervention, others are very complex and may necessitate a series of staged surgical procedures and/or require life-long medications. Significant improvements in medical and surgical techniques have resulted in increasing numbers of children and adults living with CHD, and it is currently anticipated that 80%–85% of children born with CHD today will survive into adulthood (British Cardiac Society 2002). However, although survival rates have improved dramatically over the last 40 years or so, morbidity remains a concern. Congenital heart defects can be broadly subdivided into two groups, based on changes in the circulation. Acyanotic defects may be due to either a left-to-right shunt or to an obstructive lesion; there is no mixing of desaturated blood in the systemic arterial circulation. With cyanotic defects, there may be either increased or diminished pulmonary flow, and desaturated blood enters the systemic arterial circulation, regardless of whether cyanosis is clinically evident. Unsaturated venous blood bypassing the lungs can result in secondary polycythemia, which is a compensatory mechanism to carry more oxygen to the tissues. This causes increased viscosity, which in turn results in sluggish blood circulation and impeded blood flow, particularly in the capillaries. Poor peripheral blood flow and clubbing of the fingers and toes can result, breathlessness and fatigue often result in a reduced exercise tolerance, and growth may be affected.
Side Effects and Memory Issues
Authors: Fink MD Max
Published: November 2020

As we have seen, ECT involves modest discomfort, minimal risk, and almost no contraindications to its use. Headache, backache, nausea, and vomiting are the most frequent immediate complaints. These are relieved by mild analgesics and occasionally by the choice of anesthetic. Spine fractures were a complicating risk of the early treatments, but they are now prevented by muscle relaxation. In the past, seizures were sometimes prolonged and did not end promptly. Prolonged seizures are now avoided by precise energy dosing and attention to anesthesia related to the patient’s age. When a prolonged seizure does occur, it is readily recognized and treated. The risk of death during ECT is very low, less than that of women delivering spontaneous births. It is surprising that death is so rare since half of the patients are elderly, many ill with severe systemic infirmities or critical illnesses. The low mortality rate reflects the inherent safety of modern procedures. Indeed, some reports find that the lifetime death rates for hospitalized psychiatric patients who have received ECT are lower than the rates of those who have not. The mortality rate from natural causes is lower for those treated with ECT than for those who have not. Suicide rates are higher, however. The common memory loss associated with ECT is the main hurdle patients and their families face in accepting the treatment. Images of a patient losing the memory of his past life, his work skills, the names of his children and friends, and the ability to care for himself, much like a patient with Alzheimer’s disease, are so prevalent that doctors hesitate to recommend the treatment and many patients refuse permission even when it may be their principal lifesaving option. Such images are false. The fear of memory loss is based largely on reports by patients who were treated without anesthesia or ventilation with oxygen in the first decades of the treatment’s use. Such treatments were accompanied by severe, and often persistent, impairments in memory. Clinical practice changed and our treatments are no longer associated with these devastating problems, as careful attention is now paid to oxygenation throughout the procedure and to technical features that minimize the impact of the stimulus, anesthesia, and the seizure on memory.
Movement Disorders
Authors: Fink MD Max
Published: November 2020

Patients with mental disorders exhibit a range of abnormal movements. The severely depressed are given to hand wringing, pacing, and restlessness. Others lie in bed, stare into space, and posture for hours or days. At times, this behavior is so extreme as to be a stupor. Psychotic patients exhibit tremors or peculiar facial and body movements described as parkinsonism, dystonia, or dyskinesia. Manic patients are in constant motion. Children and adolescents bang their heads and pick at their skin, injuring themselves. Little attention is paid to such behavior unless it overwhelms the patient’s life, but it does distress the patient, the family, and the community. These motor symptoms often bring psychiatric patients to medical care. Catatonia is the motor syndrome characterized by muscular rigidity, unusual posturing, negativism (refusal to obey simple commands), mutism (persistent silence), echolalia (repetition of what has been said), echopraxia (imitation of movements), and repeated stereotyped mannerisms. It appears suddenly and quickly immobilizes the patient or it appears insidiously. When it dominates behavior and threatens the patient’s life by the failure to eat or drink, treatment becomes compulsory. Forced feeding, bedsores resulting from immobility, muscular atrophy, bladder catheterization and consequent infection, and blood clots in immobilized limbs all take a terrible toll. If the clots move to the lungs or brain, stroke or death may ensue. Catatonia was first described as a consequence of intense emotional anguish and tension. Although the movements frequently respond to sedative drugs, ECT is a more complete and effective treatment. The condition is frequently seen in patients with affective illnesses— both depression and mania—in patients with systemic disorders, and in those with toxic brain states caused by hallucinogenic drugs. For decades, the prevailing belief in psychiatry was that each instance of catatonia represented a type of schizophrenia. The major classification systems in psychiatry—the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of the American Psychiatric Association and the International Classification of Diseases—assigned to all patients with catatonia the diagnosis of schizophrenia, catatonic type. As a consequence, few patients were treated with anticonvulsant sedatives or with ECT, because those treatments were not recognized as effective in schizophrenia.
The Fateful Geography of Religion
Authors: De Blij Harm
Published: November 2020

If language is the mucilage of culture, religion is its manifesto. Any revelation of identity through language happens only when the speaker begins talking, and even then that identity remains in doubt except perhaps to the most experienced ear. Is that skilled KiSwahili speaker a Mijikenda from the Kenya coast or a Kamba from the interior? Is that cultivated French speaker a citizen of Senegal or a resident of Paris? Did those fellows at the bar in São Paulo mix some Brazilian terms with their Japanese, and are they mobals rather than visitors? Religious affiliation is another matter. Hundreds of millions of people routinely proclaim their religion through modes of dress, hairstyles, symbols, gestures, and other visible means. To those who share a faith, such customs create a sense of confidence and solidarity. To those who do not profess that faith, they can amount to provocation. For the faithful, religion is the key to identity. And such identity is part of the impress of place. Religion and place are strongly coupled, not only through the visible and prominent architecture of places of worship but also because certain orthodox believers still proclaim that their god “gave” them pieces of real estate whose ownership cannot therefore be a matter of Earthly political debate. To some, the Holy Land is a place where Jesus walked. To others, it is a gift from God. To the latter, it is worth dying for. Countless millions have perished for their faith, but comparatively few for their language. Dutch schoolchildren of a former generation used to learn the story of a captured boatload of medieval mercenaries plying the Zuider Zee. To a man, the captives claimed to be Dutch. The captain of the boarding party had a simple solution: any real Dutchman would be able to pronounce the word Scheveningen, a fishing port on the North Sea coast. Those who got it right were given amnesty. Those who failed were thrown overboard and drowned. It is an unusual tale. Language, dialect, accent, and syntax can confer advantage, open (or close) doors to opportunity, and engender social judgments. But they are not historically linked to mass annihilation.
Virtual Words
Authors: Keats Jonathon
Published: November 2020

The technological realm provides an unusually active laboratory not only for new ideas and products but also for the remarkable linguistic innovations that accompany and describe them. How else would words like qubit (a unit of quantum information), crowdsourcing (outsourcing to the masses), or in vitro meat (chicken and beef grown in an industrial vat) enter our language? In Virtual Words: Language on the Edge of Science and Technology, Jonathon Keats, author of Wired Magazine's monthly Jargon Watch column, investigates the interplay between words and ideas in our fast-paced tech-driven use-it-or-lose-it society. In 28 illuminating short essays, Keats examines how such words get coined, what relationship they have to their subject matter, and why some, like blog, succeed while others, like flog, fail. Divided into broad categories--such as commentary, promotion, and slang, in addition to scientific and technological neologisms--chapters each consider one exemplary word, its definition, origin, context, and significance. Examples range from microbiome (the collective genome of all microbes hosted by the human body) and unparticle (a form of matter lacking definite mass) to gene foundry (a laboratory where artificial life forms are assembled) and singularity (a hypothetical future moment when technology transforms the whole universe into a sentient supercomputer). Together these words provide not only a survey of technological invention and its consequences, but also a fascinating glimpse of novel language as it comes into being. No one knows this emerging lexical terrain better than Jonathon Keats. In writing that is as inventive and engaging as the language it describes, Virtual Words offers endless delights for word-lovers, technophiles, and anyone intrigued by the essential human obsession with naming.
Deadly Delays, Saving Opportunities: Creating a More Dangerous World?
Authors: Shue Henry
Published: November 2020

We now know that anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs) are interfering with the planet’s climate system in ways that are likely to lead to dangerous threats to human life (not to mention nonhuman life) and that are likely to compromise the fundamental well-being of people who live at a later time. We have not understood this for very long—for most of my life, for example, we were basically clueless about climate. Our recently acquired knowledge means that decisions about climate policy are no longer properly understood as decisions entirely about preferences of ours but also crucially about the vulnerabilities of others—not about the question “How much would we like to spend to slow climate change?” but about “How little are we in decency permitted to spend in light of the difficulties and the risks of difficulties to which we are likely otherwise to expose people, people already living and people yet to live?” For we now realize that the carbon-centered energy regime under which we live is modifying the human habitat, creating a more dangerous world for the living and for posterity. Our technologically primitive energy regime based on setting fire to fossil fuels is storing up, in the planet’s radically altering atmosphere, sources of added threat for people who are vulnerable to us and cannot protect themselves against the consequences of our decisions for the circumstances in which they will have to live—most notably, whichever people inherit the worn-and-torn planet we vacate. As we academics love to note, matters are, of course, complicated. Let’s look at a few of the complications, concentrating on some concerning risk. Mostly, we are talking about risks because, although we know strikingly much more about the planetary climate system than we did a generation ago, much is still unknown and unpredictable. I will offer three comments about risk. The third comment is the crucial one and makes a strong claim about a specific type of risk, with three distinctive features.
Recreation, Tourism, and Sport
Authors: Meyer-Arendt Klaus J. , Lew Alan A.
Published: November 2020

In North America, the subdisciplines of recreation geography, tourism geography, and sport geography (RTS) are alive and well. From their beginnings as serious research topics in the 1930s (cf. Mitchell and Smith 1989), the RTS subfields have gradually emerged as legitimate and significant areas of study within North American geography. Among the three subdisciplines, tourism geography has experienced the greatest growth in recent years, and in view of the role of tourism in the world economy, that growth trend is expected to continue. This chapter presents an overview of research in recreation geography, tourism geography, and sport geography by North American geographers since 1988. Research conducted prior to that date was summarized in Mitchell and Smith’s (1989) chapter in the first volume of Geography of America (Gaile and Willmott 1989), and readers are urged to consult that reference. An excellent summary of themes in RTS research from a global perspective is provided by Hall and Page (1999). According to a traditional, dualistic Western definition, all time can be divided into two categories: work and leisure. Leisure, or non-work time, is filled with various activities (or “non-activities”) such as watching television, playing games, and socializing. Whereas the study of many leisure activities falls within the domains of psychology, physical education, and sociology, most leisure activities also lend themselves to geographic analysis. This is where the origins of RTS geography lie. Tourism and recreation activities exhibit distinct place, time, distance, and activity patterns. For example, tourism is typically more passive and entails more distant and extended travel than does most recreation. Sport is a form of recreation that includes both active participation and passive spectator activities. Leisure studies is a broad and multidisciplinary research area that encompasses most of the RTS literature, and that has engendered its own body of literature that geographers have contributed to. However, the terms “leisure geography” or “geography of leisure” never came into common use among North American geographers. Mitchell and Smith (1989) noted that the term “recreation geography” was coined in 1954, and up through the 1970s it seemed best to reflect the predominant interests of North American geographers studying leisure activities.
Mathematical Geophysics
Authors: Chemin Jean-Yves , Desjardins Benoit , Gallagher Isabelle , Grenier Emmanuel
Published: November 2020

Aimed at graduate students, researchers and academics in mathematics, engineering, oceanography, meteorology, and mechanics, this text provides a detailed introduction to the physical theory of rotating fluids, a significant part of geophysical fluid dynamics. The text is divided into four parts, with the first part providing the physical background of the geophysical models to be analyzed. Part two is devoted to a self contained proof of the existence of weak (or strong) solutions to the imcompressible Navier-Stokes equations. Part three deals with the rapidly rotating Navier-Stokes equations, first in the whole space, where dispersion effects are considered. The case where the domain has periodic boundary conditions is then analyzed, and finally rotating Navier-Stokes equations between two plates are studied, both in the case of periodic horizontal coordinated and those in R2. In Part IV, the stability of Ekman boundary layers and boundary layer effects in magnetohydrodynamics and quasigeostrophic equations are discussed. The boundary layers which appear near vertical walls are presented and formally linked with the classical Prandlt equations. Finally spherical layers are introduced, whose study is completely open.
Back and Forward: Neolithic Standing Stones and Iron Age Stelae in French Brittany
Authors: Laporte Luc , Kerdivel Gwenolé
Published: November 2020

The history of each place is always unique, and this also applies to each monument. Even the title of this book ﬁts in with a pattern of thought developed by R. Bradley (2010). This approach treats the way in which certain prehistoric monuments continue to focus our attention, and how new signiﬁcances come to be attributed well after their initial construction. In some cases these monuments are the result of a considerable collective investment. They often represent places of memory, sometimes providing vectors of identity that continue up to the present day. A certain number of these monuments continuously changed their function and conﬁguration through the course of time. They were successively the setting of events that their builders could not have imagined. However, owing to the scale as well as the lasting nature of their achievements, the builders assigned additional unique features to these monuments that others later adapted or simply exploited. Many megalithic monuments of western Europe underwent such a process. Consequently, this chapter also contains the seeds of a more general discussion about the deﬁnitions of megalithism (Laporte forthcoming). It is a question of timescales and rhythms, involving lived time just as well as measured time, seen at different geographical scales. This is because the biography of each monument cannot be explained as simply being the sum of events that are unique in each case and speciﬁc to each site. Our contribution to this volume takes as an example the standing stones of Brittany. The region considered here includes the depart- ments of Finistère, Morbihan, Côtes d’Armor, Ille-et-Vilaine and Loire-Atlantique; that is to say an area of approximately 34,300 square kilometres. In the popular imagination, the Iron Age stelae of this region are often associated with the standing stones of the Neolithic, as portrayed in one of the world’s best-selling comic books featuring Astérix the Gaul and Obélix the menhir deliveryman. How- ever, for more than a century, archaeologists have always striven to make a clear distinction between material realities that, ultimately, are rather different.
Networks, Homophily, and the Spread of Innovations
Authors: Kandler Anne , Caccioli Fabio
Published: November 2020

The question of how and why innovations spread through populations has been the focus of extensive research in various scientific disciplines over recent decades. Generally, innovation diffusion is defined as the process whereby a few members of a social system initially adopt an innovation, then over time more individuals adopt until all (or most) members have adopted the new idea (e.g. Rogers 2003; Ryan and Gross 1943; Valente 1993). Anthropologists and archaeologists have argued that this process is one of the most important processes in cultural evolution (Richerson et al. 1996) and much work has been devoted to describing and analysing the temporal and spatial patterns of the spread of novel techniques and ideas from a particular source to their present distributions. Classic case studies include the spread of agricultural inventions such as hybrid corn (e.g. Griliches 1957; Ryan and Gross 1943), the spread of historic gravestone motifs in New England (Dethlefsen and Deetz 1966; Scholnick 2012), and the spread of bow and arrow technology (Bettinger and Eerkins 1999). (For a more comprehensive list see Rogers and Shoemaker (1971) who reviewed 1,500 studies of innovation diffusion.) Interestingly, the temporal diffusion dynamic in almost all case studies is characterized by an S-shaped diffusion curve describing the fraction of the population which has adopted the innovation at a certain point in time. Similarly, the spatial dynamics tend to resemble travelling wave-like patterns (see Steele 2009 for examples). The basic puzzle posed by innovation diffusion is the observed lag between an innovation’s first appearance and its general acceptance within a population (Young 2009). In other words, what are the individual-level mechanisms that give rise to the observed population-level pattern? Again, scientific fields as diverse as economics/marketing science (e.g. Bass 1969; Van den Bulte and Stremersch 2004; Young 2009), geography (e.g. Hägerstrand 1967), or social science (e.g. Henrich 2001; Steele 2009; Valente 1996; Watts 2002) offer interesting insights into this question without reaching a consensus about the general nature of individual adoption decisions. In archaeological and anthropological applications, population-level patterns inferred from the archaeological record, such as adoption curves, are often the only direct evidence about past cultural traditions (Shennan 2011).
Thinking about prognosis
Authors: McKnight Rebecca , Price Jonathan , Geddes John
Published: November 2020

The prognostic assessment of a patient aims to pre­dict the future, using the range of evidence available. This evidence relates to: … ● the individual patient (e.g. their own history of illness, and their compliance with medication); ● groups of patients like the individual patient, that is, diagnostic and subdiagnostic groups (e.g. in depressive disorder, the risk of recurrence; and in anorexia nervosa, the risk of suicide or of death by starvation); ● psychiatric patients in general (e.g. the importance of good relationships with healthcare professionals, supportive family and friends, and insight into illness). … Prognostic assessment results in an understanding of the following: … ● What outcomes are likely to happen? Relevant outcomes can be related to the illness (relapse and recurrence, for example— see ‘Terminology’ for definitions), to treatments (such as side effects or complications), to risks (to self, to others— see Chapter 7), or to important social outcomes (such as return to work, marital break- up, or permission to drive a car, bus, or lorry). ● How likely are they to happen, and when/ over what time period? An estimate of both likelihood and timeline is helpful. So, for example, in a patient with recurrent depressive episodes, who is now well, we may view that their lifetime risk of suicide is significantly higher than the population risk, that they are not currently at increased risk, and that suicide attempts are likely to occur in the context of depressive recurrence. ● What can change the nature or likelihood of the outcomes? For example, in the case just mentioned, we may view that the lifetime risk of recurrence can be reduced by training the patient and family to spot the early warning signs of illness, by reducing daily consumption of alcohol, and by finding regular, stable employment. In addition, we can reduce suicidal risk by ensuring that the patient is prescribed medicines that are relatively safe in overdose (e.g. SSRI antidepressants rather than tricyclics), and by making family members aware of the risk of their own medication being used in an overdose.
Reactions to stressful experiences
Authors: McKnight Rebecca , Price Jonathan , Geddes John
Published: November 2020

In biological terms, stress literally means a force from the outside world acting upon an individual, and is a phenomenon we have all experienced. The term ‘stress’ was first used in the 1930s by the endocrin­ologist Hans Selye to describe the responses of la­boratory animals to various stimuli. Originally, Selye meant ‘stress’ to be the response of an organism to a perceived threat or ‘stressor’, but the term is now used to mean the stimulus rather than the response in some cases. When presented with a stressor of any type, everyone will produce a reaction to that stress, and this is a normal physiological event. However, if the reac­tion is prolonged, too intense, or atypical in some way, stress can become abnormal and cause problems. Stressful events, even when reacted to normally, are important contributors to the causes of many kinds of psychiatric disorder. In this chapter, we consider those psychiatric disorders that are specific reactions to stressful experiences. These may occur independently or alongside other psychiatric conditions and include: … ● acute stress reactions: short- term disorders after stressful events; ● post- traumatic stress disorder: a disorder following exceptionally severe stress; ● adjustment disorders: conditions occurring after a change in life circumstances; ● grief reactions: the normal and abnormal responses to bereavement; ● reactions to special kinds of acute stress: for example, traffic accidents, war, earthquakes, etc… For all these conditions, an identifiable stressor is a necessary but not always sufficient factor in its aetiology. GPs encounter the vast majority of patients with stress disorders who present to the health services, but all clinicians will see these patients in their clinical specialties. The reasons for this are threefold: … 1 Acute physical illness and its treatment are stressful. 2 Chronic illness or disability can result in substantial changes in life circumstances. 3 Clinicians treat people involved in other kinds of stressful experiences…. Everyone reacts to stress differently, and what consti­tutes a stressful event is therefore highly subjective. However, there are certain situations that are likely to be experienced as stressful by anyone. The Holmes and Rahe Stress Scale is a list of 43 life events which predispose to stress- related illnesses, weighted ac­cording to their respective probability of doing so.
Medically unexplained physical symptoms
Authors: McKnight Rebecca , Price Jonathan , Geddes John
Published: November 2020

Concern about physical symptoms is a common reason for people to seek medical help. Many of these symptoms, such as headache, chest pain, weakness, dizziness, and fatigue, remain unexplained by identi­fiable disease even after careful medical assessment. Several general terms have been used to describe these types of symptom— somatoform, medically un­explained, and functional. We prefer the terms ‘med­ically unexplained physical symptom’ or ‘functional symptom’, because they imply a disturbance of some kind in bodily functioning without implying that the symptom is psychogenic. Patients and doctors often assume that a physical symptom implies that a phys­ical pathology exists. However, commonly experienced and often severe, distressing, and disabling symp­toms, such as menstrual pain or ‘tension headache’, indicate that this is not always the case. By assuming that a physical symptom is explained by physical dis­ease/ pathology, we may be subjecting the patient to unnecessary tests and hospital visits, adding to pa­tient distress, and failing to deliver the integrated management required. There are many kinds of these symptoms (Box 25.1), presenting across healthcare settings. They are con­sidered in this psychiatry textbook because (1) psy­chological factors (including, at times, psychiatric disorder) are important in aetiology and (2) psycho­logical and behavioural interventions have a funda­mental role in treatment A major obstacle to effective management of pa­tients with functional symptoms is that they feel their doctor does not believe them. They are concerned that they may be thought to be ‘putting it on’. Note that the deliberate manufacture or exaggeration of symptoms or signs (malingering) is quite different (see p. 359). Diagnoses of three kinds may be given: … ● Descriptive physical syndromes. These include fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue syndrome, non- cardiac chest pain, chronic pain syndrome, and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). Although the specific terms are useful in everyday medical practice, there is substantial overlap, and many patients with, for example, fibromyalgia will also have IBS. ● Psychiatric syndromes as the primary cause of the functional symptoms. Psychiatric disorders, such as depression, anxiety, and adjustment, are common primary causes of functional symptoms, and commonly present via the general hospital’s emergency department or cardiology clinic.
Personality and its disorders
Authors: McKnight Rebecca , Price Jonathan , Geddes John
Published: November 2020

Personality is a difficult concept to define: it is ex­tremely hard to encapsulate what makes a person ‘who they are’ in general terms. Personality is typically thought of as the set of characteristics which make us think, feel, and act in our own unique way. Personality is pervasive; people tend to behave in similar ways throughout life and across differing social and inter­personal contexts. The characteristics of personality, called traits, are a set of common features which are observed in variable degrees in different people. Traits provide a useful structure in which to describe a per­sonality: Box 31.1 shows some common personality traits. Some traits may be perceived as an asset to the individual, while others are more of a nuisance. We all have a little more or a little less of any given trait. The word ‘temperament’ rather than personality is used to describe the behavioural characteristics dis­played by young children. This is because our person­ality takes time to develop; it is shaped by a multitude of environmental, biological, and factors which interact throughout early life. By our late teens or early twenties, the majority of individuals have the set of traits which define the personality we will have for the rest of our lives. Having an understanding of an individual’s per­sonality helps clinicians to predict their patients’ re­sponse to illness and its treatment. The majority of us have some less favourable aspects to our personality, but we work around them and/ or have more prominent favourable traits that allow us to get on with our lives. For a minority of people, their less favourable traits are so prominent that they cause problems for themselves or for those around them. It is these people who we think of as having a personality disorder. It is extremely difficult to draw a line between normal personality and personality disorder, so this simple pragmatic approach is helpful in clinical practice. People with a personality disorder may: … ● have difficulties with social situations and relationships; ● have difficulties controlling their feelings and/ or behaviour; ● react in unusual ways to illness or to treatment; ● behave in unusual ways when mentally ill; ● have more extreme or unusual reactions to stressful events; ● behave in ways that are detrimental to themselves or others ● be more prone to developing other types of mental disorder.
Tropical Forests in Prehistory, History, and Modernity
Authors: Roberts Patrick
Published: November 2020

In popular discourse, tropical forests are synonymous with 'nature' and 'wilderness'; battlegrounds between apparently pristine floral, faunal, and human communities, and the unrelenting industrial and urban powers of the modern world. It is rarely publicly understood that the extent of human adaptation to, and alteration of, tropical forest environments extends across archaeological, historical, and anthropological timescales. This book is the first attempt to bring together evidence for the nature of human interactions with tropical forests on a global scale, from the emergence of hominins in the tropical forests of Africa to modern conservation issues. Following a review of the natural history and variability of tropical forest ecosystems, this book takes a tour of human, and human ancestor, occupation and use of tropical forest environments through time. Far from being pristine, primordial ecosystems, this book illustrates how our species has inhabited and modified tropical forests from the earliest stages of its evolution. While agricultural strategies and vast urban networks emerged in tropical forests long prior to the arrival of European colonial powers and later industrialization, this should not be taken as justification for the massive deforestation and biodiversity threats imposed on tropical forest ecosystems in the 21st century. Rather, such a long-term perspective highlights the ongoing challenges of sustainability faced by forager, agricultural, and urban societies in these environments, setting the stage for more integrated approaches to conservation and policy-making, and the protection of millennia of ecological and cultural heritage bound up in these habitats.
Introducing Tropical Forests in Prehistory, History, and Modernity
Authors: Roberts Patrick
Published: November 2020

Friedrich Wöhler was referring to the field of organic chemistry during the early 1800s when he wrote the above but his comments would not be out of place in the context of embarking upon a global study of past and present human relationships with tropical forests. Dense vegetation, difficulty of navigation, issues of preservation, political and health concerns, poisonous plants, animals, and insects, and the prospect of carrying out sampling or excavation in high humidity have all meant that our knowledge of human history and prehistory in these environments is under-developed relative to temperate, arid, or even polar habitats. There have been theoretical questions as to what kind of human activity one would even expect to find in tropical forest environments, which seem hostile to human foraging (Hart and Hart, 1986; Bailey et al., 1989) let alone thriving agricultural or urban settlements (Meggers, 1971, 1977, 1987). This has, until relatively recently, left the state of archaeological tropical forest research in a similar position to popular conceptions of these environments—untouched, primeval wilderness. Public ideas of an archaeologist investigating a tropical forest are probably synonymous with someone in a shabby-looking leather hat being chased, if not by a large stone boulder then by a group of Indigenous people with blowpipes, as they wade through dense undergrowth and vines while clutching a golden discovery that has been lost to the western world for thousands of years (Spielberg, 1981). The more recent development of the best-selling Uncharted video game series has done little to change these ideas amongst the next generation of media consumers, with players taking on the role of Francis Drake’s mythical ancestor in search of long lost treasure, frequently hidden within caves and ruins surrounded by vines and dense canopies (Naughty Dog et al., 2016). The idea of treasure hidden within tropical forest is also not a modern conception. The long-term myth of El Dorado, a city covered in gold, fuelled exploration of the tropical forests of South America by renowned individuals, including Sir Walter Raleigh, from the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries (Nicholl, 1995).
Tectonic Setting and Landscape Development
Authors: Mather Anne
Published: November 2020

The Mediterranean is the westernmost part of the global-scale Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt which stretches from Spain to New Zealand. The landscapes of the region have a long and complex history that includes both horizontal and vertical crustal movements and the creation and destruction of oceans. This began with the break up of the super-continent Pangea around 250 Ma, which generated the Tethys Ocean—the forerunner to the present-day Mediterranean Sea. Collision of the African and European tectonic plates over the last 30 Ma led to the destruction of the Tethys Ocean, although a few remnants of its geology are preserved within the eastern Mediterranean. It is the collision of Africa and Eurasia, and the associated tectonics that have been largely responsible for generating the Mediterranean Sea, its subsequent history, and the landscapes that surround it. This collisional history progressively reduced the connectivity of the Mediterranean Sea with surrounding marine bodies by closing and restricting marine gateways. During the Miocene, for example, the Mediterranean basin became completely isolated from surrounding marine bodies in what is known as the ‘Messinian Salinity Crisis’. This period saw major changes to the regional water balance leading to evaporation and draw-down of the Mediterranean Sea. This had profound impacts on all aspects of the physical geography of the region including the climatology, biogeography, and geomorphology and its legacy can be seen across the region today. The more recent Quaternary geodynamics of the Mediterranean have generated an area which includes a complex mixture of zones of plate subduction of various ages and stages (Figure 1.1b). The modern Mediterranean includes zones of active subduction associated with volcanic activity—such as the Calabrian arc—and older zones of now quiescent subduction such as the Betic-Rif arc. There is a wide range of seismic activity associated with these regions from deep (600 km) to shallow (<50 km) and ranging in magnitude up to 8.0Mw (earthquake moment magnitude; a quantitative and physically based scale for measuring earthquakes).
Karst Geomorphology and Environmental Change
Authors: Lewin John , Woodward Jamie
Published: November 2020

Whilst about 12 per cent of the earth’s dry and ice-free land is covered by carbonate rocks (limestone, marble, and dolomite), the proportion is significantly higher in the landscapes that border the Mediterranean Sea. These rock types are especially widespread in the northern part of the region and limestones in particular reach great thicknesses in Spain, southern France, Italy, the Balkan Peninsula, and Turkey and in many of the Mediterranean islands. Abundant precipitation in the uplands of the Mediterranean has encouraged solutional weathering of these carbonate rocks for an extended period. The region contains some of the deepest karst aquifers in the world, with many extending deep below present sea level (e.g. Bakalowicz et al. 2008). The regional fall in base level associated with the Messinian Salinity Crisis allowed the formation of very deep, multiphase karst systems in several parts of the Mediterranean basin (e.g. Mocochain et al. 2006). Thus, karst terrains and karstic processes are very significant components of the physical geography of the Mediterranean basin. Indeed, along with the climate and the vegetation, it can be argued that limestone landscapes (including limestone bedrock coasts) are one of the defining characteristics of the Mediterranean environment. Much of the northern coastline is flanked by mountains with bare limestone hillslopes (Figure 10.2) drained by short and steep river systems whose headwaters commonly lie in well-developed karst terrain. Karst terrains are also well developed in the Levant and in the Atlas Mountains of Morocco and Algeria, while relict karst features can be identified in the low-relief desert regions of Libya and Egypt (Perritaz 2004) (Figure 10.1). Mediterranean karst environments are also associated with distinctive soils, habitats and ecosystems as described in Chapters 5, 6, and 23. The nature and evolution of the karst landscapes across the Mediterranean region displays considerable spatial variability due to contrasts in relief, bedrock composition and structure, climatic history, and other factors. The karst geomorphological system is distinguished from other systems (e.g. glacial, fluvial, coastal, and aeolian) because of the dominant role of dissolution which results in water flowing in a subterranean circulation system rather than in surface channels (Ford 2004).
Glacial and Periglacial Environments
Authors: Hughes Philip , Woodward Jamie
Published: November 2020

Traditionally, glacial and periglacial geomorphology has not featured prominently in discussions about the physical geography of the Mediterranean basin. It is now clear, however, that on numerous occasions during the Pleistocene, and to a lesser extent during the Little Ice Age (LIA), glacial and periglacial activity was widespread in many of the region’s mountain ranges (Hughes et al. 2006a; Hughes and Woodward 2008). Even today, small glaciers and active periglacial features can be found on the highest peaks. Many mountain landscapes in the Mediterranean basin are therefore the product of glacial and periglacial processes that have fluctuated in intensity and spatial extent through the Quaternary. Glacial processes are defined here as those occurring as a result of dynamic glacier ice. The periglacial zone is sometimes defined as non-glacial areas where the mean annual temperature is less than 3°C (French 1996: 20). However, cryogenic processes can be important in landform development, even in areas of shallow frost over a wide range of mean annual temperatures. Thus, the term ‘periglacial’ is applied here to areas characterized by cold-climate processes—where frost and nival processes are important—but where glaciers are absent. Glacial and periglacial processes in the uplands can exert considerable influence upon geomorphological systems at lower elevations. Fluvial systems, for example, over a range of timescales have been shown to be especially sensitive to changes in sediment supply and water discharge from glaciated mountain headwaters (Gurnell and Clark 1987; Woodward et al. 2008). Nonetheless, the geomorphological impacts of glaciation are most clearly evident in the Mediterranean mountains where the erosional and depositional legacy is frequently well preserved. Cirques, glacial lakes, icescoured valleys, moraines, pronival ramparts, relict rock glaciers, and other glacial and periglacial features can be found in many Mediterranean mountain ranges (Hughes et al. 2006a). Upland limestone terrains are widespread across the Mediterranean and many of these landscapes have been shaped by a combination of glacial and karstic processes (Chapter 10). In fact, glacio-karst is probably the dominant landscape in many mountain regions, including the Dinaric Alps of Croatia/Bosnia/Montenegro (Nicod 1968), the Cantabrian Mountains of Spain (Smart 1986) and the Pindus Mountains of Greece (Waltham 1978; Woodward et al. 2004; Hughes et al. 2006b).