bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Hurricane Irma–Navy's Displaced Vessel and Oil Spill Response
Authors: Parker Heather A. , Baxter John , Murray Chris
Published: December 2021

On the evening of 09–10 September 2017, the Florida Keys were pummeled by Hurricane Irma - a Category 4 storm that was the fifth-costliest hurricane to hit mainland United States, causing an estimated $50 billion in damages, and 34 lives lost in Florida alone.

In the Keys, approximately 1350 boats were destroyed or damaged, and approximately 2000 boats were removed from the waters and shorelines from a Unified Command (UC) comprised of U.S. Coast Guard, EPA and Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission funded from the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), under an ESF10 Mission Assignment to remove those vessels displaced from the storm where they had sunk, submerged, or been stranded along the shoreline.

On September 28, 2017, the UC decided that boats that were on federal property were the responsibility of that agency to manage, and furthermore, since each of these boats had batteries and in most cases fuel on board they posed an immediate hazardous substance and/or oil spill threat, so requested that Navy undertake operations immediately as the lead FOSC to address each of the vessels sunk, submerged, stranded or otherwise displaced on Navy property in the Key West area.

On October 1, 2017, the Navy On-Scene Coordinator Representative (NOSC-R) from Navy Region Southeast (NRSE) deployed to Naval Air Station Key West (NASKW) to manage the response. Once adequate funds were identified and secured, NRSE contracted Navy Supervisor of Salvage (SUPSALV), who quickly arrived on-scene with a contracted private salvor.

Operations fell into several stages: locating each vessel on NASKW property and determining its condition; identifying each owner/representative; retrieval and temporary storage of each vessel or its remains on Navy property; contacting vessel owners/representatives to making arrangements for owner or insurance company to retrieve the vessel, or surrender it to Navy custody for final destruction at Navy's expense.

A number of challenges arose during this response: finding adequate funds at the end of a fiscal year for an un-programmed multi-million dollar project; identifying owners and contact information; negotiating final disposition of each vessel; allowing owners access to vessels stored on Navy property.

After 9 weeks of vessel location and identification, and owner notifications, 15 vessels were retrieved by owners, 13 vessels were towed away or otherwise removed by owner insurance companies, and 52 were barged off to a boatyard for final destruction at Navy's expense. In total, $3M was spent by Navy for this operation.
Removal of oil from Swedish shipwrecks
Authors: Åberg Frida , Lindgren Fredrik , Pålsson Jonas , Johansson Josephine Rubia
Published: December 2021

Oil leaks from shipwrecks can affect organisms living in the vicinity (Lindgren, 2015), but can also spread to other areas through water currents (Ljungman & Mattson, 2011, Höglund 2019).

Removing oil from a wreck, while costly, is often far less expensive as having to clean up after a potential oil spill resulting from a major leak (MSIR, 2012, Etkin, 1999). These wrecks have deteriorated for decades and there is often limited knowledge on volume and type of oil still onboard. (SMA, 2011)

By removing the oil, a potentially catastrophic oil spill is avoided. Any wreck could collapse during a storm or from corrosion. (Landquist et al., 2017) This occurred at the end of 2018, when the wreck Finnbirch started to leak oil from a bunker tank still containing oil.
The Decade-long Evolution and Toxicity of Oil Transformation Compounds in Louisiana Salt Marsh Sediments Revealed by FT-ICR Mass Spectrometry
Authors: Chen Huan , McKenna Amy M. , Davis Cameron C. , Rodgers Ryan P. , Hou Aixin
Published: December 2021

The 2010 explosion of the Deepwater Horizon (DWH) drilling rig provides a unique opportunity to advance the understanding of the evolution of lingering oil in Louisiana salt marshes for nearly a decade after the initial spill. After an oil spill, petroleum hydrocarbons undergo physical and chemical processes that transform the native oil composition to a polyfunctional oxygenated hydrocarbon matrix that contains ketones, hydroxyl, and carboxylic acid functional groups. Preliminary analysis of saltmarsh sediments impacted by the DWH spill between 2010–2014 identifies highly polar oxygenated hydrocarbons with carboxylic acid functionalities. These highly polar, high molecular weight compounds are not detectable by conventional gas chromatography (GC) based techniques. Here, we employ advanced analytical technologies such as targeted fractionation and isolation methods with Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (FT-ICR MS) to document and catalog oil transformation compounds detected in oiled saltmarsh sediments. The toxicities of these environmental transformation products are determined by commercial Microtox bioassay. Samples have been continuously collected from 21 previously established sampling stations located in northern Barataria Bay for the past ten years post-spill. The concentration of oil contamination from heavily and moderately oiled sites exceed non-oiled reference sites for years after the spill. Combining chromatographic fractionation, conventional GC MS, and ultrahigh-resolution FT-ICR Mass Spectrometry analyses, we identified tens-of-thousands of biotic and abiotic crude oil transformation products that remain persistent and keep evolving in the environment. Heavily oxygenated transformation products, which are mostly only accessible by FT-ICR MS, span a wide range of chemical functionalities. Toxicity of the non-GC amenable fraction of oil contaminants was measured to determine the health risk of weathered oil residues left in the salt marsh environment. The current study creates a decade-long assessment record, and a comprehensive understanding of petroleum compounds evolution of oil-impacted wetlands ecosystem.
Combating of oil spills by funding of oil spill preparedness vs funding for compensation after the spill events
Authors: Gunasekara A J M , Sathyadith W P J
Published: December 2021

• The total volume of oil spilled and the number of spills has declined significantly over the past forty years. However, oil spills are no longer considered as an unavoidable. The ship source oil pollution still remains a potentially important risk to the local economies and the marine environment which can cause major economic loss and severe damages to the coastal and marine environment. The international regulatory framework to deal with liability and compensation for ship source oil pollution has evolved over the past three decades. The available international legal regime for oil pollution liability and compensation is playing a great role in governing the discharge of oil into the sea by ensuring liability for polluters and compensation for victims of pollution. Despite the fact that the total cost of the oil spill cannot be compensated through the available international civil liability regime and entire damages caused to the marine environment cannot be compensated or recovered. This paper examined the application and limitations of available liability and compensation mechanisms for the protection of marine pollution and compares the benefit of the establishment of a funding mechanism for the strengthening of the level of oil spill preparedness and the civil liability regime for the protection of the coastal and marine environment. In addition, this paper reviews the funding mechanism adopted by the countries to strengthen a level of oil spill preparedness taken into account the polluter pays principle without putting the extra burden to general taxpayers. The establishment of a system for the funding of oil spill preparedness using the polluter pay principle has immensely helped to improve the oil spill response capabilities and protection of the marine environment of coastal states which adopted a unique funding mechanism by applying the polluter pay principle. This paper recommends among other things, review the available compensation and liability regime for the protection of the marine environment and recommend to adopt and apply a uniform funding mechanism for the strengthening of the level of oil spill preparedness taken into account the polluter pay principle for the protection of the marine environment and improve the status quo.

• Liability, compensation, Preparedness, Polluters pay principle
A Data-driven Framework for Defining Stages of Oil Weathering
Authors: Cook Linda L. , Drollette Brian D. , Edwards Melanie R. , Benton Laurie D. , Boehm Paul D.
Published: December 2021

Oil weathering is often described subjectively after a spill. Adjectives like “moderate” and “severe” help define the extent of oil loss but fail to communicate quantitatively and reproducibly the degree of weathering. The use of subjective weathering terms often leads to misperceptions about persistence and toxicity of oil residues in the environment. The weathering of MC252 oil from the Deepwater Horizon spill started immediately after release during the 1,500 m ascent to the sea surface and continued as it was transported on the surface and reached the shoreline. Weathering processes included evaporation, dissolution, photo-degradation, and biodegradation, among others. With extensive sample collection and detailed chemistry and source fingerprinting analyses, the Deepwater Horizon data provide a unique opportunity to evaluate weathering processes semi-quantitatively. An objective method of defining the degree of oil weathering is developed based on the detailed chemical results for over 700 MC252 oil samples from the environment.
Spray Missions & Flights in Known Icing (FIKI)
Authors: Jacobs Shane
Published: December 2021

Aerial Dispersant application has changed platform in recent years with the introduction of the worlds first jet platform; a Boeing 727 complete with the TERSUS dispersant delivery system. During the development of this platform, stringent measures were imposed to comply with aviation standards, necessary to obtain approval from the authorities to operate.

Airframe icing occurs when the ambient temperature is low enough to allow the water vapour in visible moisture to form a layer of ice on the unprotected surface, this can occur in temperatures between 10°C and −40°C. A feasibility study was completed to investigate icing and the affects it could have on operations with a fixed spray boom.

The Boeing 727 is approved for flights in known icing (FIKI), the spray boom is not included within this approval, meaning when installed, it is restricted from operation in these conditions. With new platforms being developed and stringent regulatory requirements to be met, the challenges faced to alleviate icing is crucial to remove the residual risk of being unable to spray in these conditions.

This poster looks at the change in design to a ‘fixed' spray boom and details how OSRL proceeded with a project to identify the risks, mitigations and the route to alleviate these restrictions.
The Advanced Responder Training Course–The perspective of a new starter to the industry during their initial three months training
Authors: Fisher Thomas , Moore Audrey
Published: December 2021

A requirement of the oil spill response industry is its ability to develop highly trained staff international backgrounds who have a holistic understanding of response techniques and who all meet a standard baseline of competency to provide an international response when required.

As a solution to this Oil Spill Response Ltd (OSRL) has developed the thirteen-week Advanced Responder training course aims to bring delegates from member companies and new starters from all OSRL's bases and train them to a required standard.

OSRL is unique in the people it attracts to undertake the role of a responder as these are sourced from a variety of backgrounds, however these skillsets are unlikely to cover the entirety of the skills required for a competent responder. The course gives the delegates an opportunity to be exposed to all aspects of response techniques and provides an opportunity for new starters to share their previous experience and apply them to the new role.

The advanced responder training course has a pinnacle benchmark that is assessed using an Offshore Petroleum Industry Training Organisation (OPITO) Approved Competence Management System (ACMS) that is used to verify at what point an individual is competent to perform the tasks required of them to an agreed global standard.

The purpose of this poster is not to advertise OSRL as a company or the specific course, but provide an oversight of the training and its benefit to the industry
Detection of Actionable Oil using RADARSAT-2 and Simulated RADARSAT Constellation Mission Data
Authors: Staples Gordon , Garcia Oscar , Chen Ji , Desschamps Benjamin , Flett Dean
Published: December 2021

Abstract 688970

For oil spill response, one of the key parameters is detection of actionable oil. Actionable oil (AO), which tends to be thick, emulsified oil, refers to oil that can be cleaned-up versus non-actionable oil (sheen) which cannot be readily cleaned-up. Previous studies by MDA of a controlled oil spills in the North Sea have shown the capability of RADARSAT-2 quad polarized data to detect AO using the entropy parameter (H) derived from the Cloude-Pottier decomposition. H → 0 for oil-free water and H → 1 in the presence of an oil slick.

To further test the detection of AO, RADARSAT-2, ASTER, WorldView imagery and in situ measurement were acquired April 25, 2017 at the MC20 site off Louisiana. Five oil thickness classes ranging from 1 micron to 100 microns were derived from a maximum likelihood classifier based on the ASTER and WorldView images and in situ samples. For oil-free water, the average H was 0.13 and 0.62 for the slick. There was good correlation between the variability of H and the oil thickness classes. Specifically, larger H was correlated with oil thickness in the 50 – 200 micron range and smaller H was correlated with oil in the 1 micro range. Not surprising there was overlap in H for area were the oil thickness was ~ 1 micron and the area deemed to be slick-free.

The results indicate that actionable oil can be discriminated from non-actionable oil based on the relative difference of H. Although these results are encouraging, one of the operational limitations is based on the use of the relatively small swath-width (25 km – 50 km) of the RADARSAT-2 quad polarized mode. The impact of the swath-width can be mitigated with data from the RADARSAT Constellation Mission (RCM). The RCM has a compact polarimetry (CP) mode that provides more polarimetric information than dual polarized modes, less than quad polarized modes, but is available for swath widths up to 500 km. Analysis of simulated SC50 RCM data (50 m resolution, 350 km swath width) derived from the aforementioned RADARSAT-2 image shows similar oil-slick variability that was observed in the RADARSAT-2 image and hence the capability to detect AO.
Innovation and Inland Oil Spill Response
Authors: Dyer Nick
Published: December 2021

Advances in technology and a sustained demand for oil mean exploration is being driven into more remote, fragile environments (Ivshina et al, 2015). Therefore, the number of drilling campaigns in remote inland locations is set to increase, so we should be prepared for a corresponding increase in the number of spills. This changing risk profile should in-turn be reflected in the oil spill response organisation (OSRO) community.

Whilst advances in offshore techniques and specialist equipment are plentiful, there appears to be scope for greater innovation in inland response. It is not uncommon for response plans to bear a close resemblance to those written in excess of 10 years ago, when the Macondo blow-out stimulated investment and a subsequent increase in offshore response capabilities.

This apparent disparity is surprising given offshore responses tend to orientate round either traditional containment and recovery measures or the use of dispersants, in contrast with inland response tactics which are often subject to a higher degree of site specificity.

There is a real appetite to add to the range of tactics available to OSROs. Precursors to change might include one or more of the following; field trials, better information sharing between response organisations and impressing upon manufacturers the potential value of developing proprietary inland spill equipment. This poster will explore some of the areas in inland response where there is scope for innovation.
Challenges Facing Myanmar in Developing a National Contingency Plan for Marine Pollution
Authors: Naing Ko Ko , Thu Khant , Davidson Dave
Published: December 2021

Myanmar became signatory to the OPRC 1990 in December 2016 and hence requires applicable vessels, ports and offshore facility operators to develop and maintain oil spill contingency plans coordinated with the National Contingency Plan. At about the same time, a super tanker terminal was constructed at Kyaukpyu deep-seaport on the west coast of Myanmar. This project made Myanmar an oil receiver country thus raising the risk of significant oil pollution incidents. To mitigate the risk, Myanmar developed its National Contingency Plan for Marine Pollution (NCP) in order to establish a coordinated oil spill preparedness and response policy and to align with the Regional Oil Spill Contingency Plan (ROSCP) developed under the ASEAN MOU for Joint Oil Spill Preparedness and Response (ASEAN, 2014).

Even with the NCP, Myanmar is still encountering a number of challenges to be fully prepared for severe and disastrous pollution incidents. Chief among these is the establishment of a proper spill response capability including trained personnel and a stockpile of appropriate response equipment. Many options are being considered: government funding; establishing a mutual aid program led by industry; contract bases; or some combination of these.

This paper looks at the actions Myanmar is taking to develop a state of the art NCP that is appropriate for Myanmar and the Region. The paper also discusses some of the key challenges Myanmar is facing, including transboundary issues and the solutions being considered and/or adopted to address such challenges.
Forecasting System for Predicting the Dynamics of Oil Spill in a Tide-Dominated Estuary
Authors: Eke Chijioke D. , Anifowose Babatunde , Van De Wiel Marco , Lawler Damian , Knaapen Michiel
Published: December 2021

Crude oil is predicted to become one of the most detrimental sources of anthropogenic pollution to estuaries. A comprehensive survey of oil spill literature reveals that oil spill transport in estuaries presents a gap in academic knowledge and literature. To address this gap, we present the first detailed analysis of estuarine oil spill dynamics. We develop and analyse a range of simulations for the Humber Estuary, using TELEMAC3D; a coupled hydrodynamic and oil spill models. The river boundary of the Humber Estuary is forced by discharge data, while the offshore boundary is driven by tidal height data, including estuarine water temperature and salinity. The calibrated model shows good agreement with measured data during the validation process. Results show that: (a) the time of oil release within a tidal cycle significantly influences oil slick transport; and (b) the tidal range significantly influences oil slick impacted area and overall distance travelled, as oil slick released under spring tide is approximately double the oil slick size under neap tides and travels on average 71% farther. This study emphasises the need to: a) understand how the interaction of river discharge and tidal range influences oil slick transport; and (b) be aware of the time of release within a tidal cycle, to efficiently deal with oil spills. Findings should be useful for future operational oil spill response and could be equally applicable to other tide-dominated estuaries.
BONN Agreement – More Than 50 Years of Spill Response Cooperation
Authors: Ly Johan Marius , de la Torre Laura , Schallier Ronny
Published: December 2021

In 2019, the BONN Agreement celebrated 50 years of continuous cooperation in dealing with marine pollution in Europe. This makes the Bonn Agreement the oldest regional agreement in the world established by governments for jointly dealing with and responding to pollution incidents.

The first “Agreement for Cooperation in Dealing with Pollution of the North Sea by Oil” was signed in 1969 by the eight states bordering the North Sea: Belgium, Denmark, Germany, France, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and the United Kingdom. This was shortly after the oil tanker “Torrey Canyon” broke up off Cornwall in 1967 spilling 117 000 tonnes of oil in the first major pollution disaster affecting Western Europe. In 1983 the agreement was expanded to include “other harmful substances” as well as oil and the European Union became a Contracting Party. In 1989 the agreement was amended to include aerial surveillance. In 2010, Ireland was included and in 2019, at the 50'th anniversary, a new enlargement of the geographical scope was approved by including the Bay of Biscay through Spain's accession and a new task related to the monitoring of air pollution from ships was incorporated. The area of the Bonn Agreement now covers the Greater North Sea and its approaches, comprising most of the heavy density traffic area and oil fields in Western Europe.

During these 50 years, the cooperation has resulted in a number of achievements on different topics. Some of these are: - aerial surveillance and detection of marine pollution,- harmonized pollution reporting format,- common quantification of oil spills through the Bonn Agreement Oil Appearance Code,- systems for reimbursement of costs when rendering assistance as the Bonn Agreement provides for mutual assistance between Contracting Parties,- joint exercises,- information sharing on experiences and on research & development findings,- Bonn Agreement region-wide risk assessment through the BE-AWARE project.

In October 2019, the agreement's 50th anniversary was celebrated and a ministerial meeting was held. This paper will give an overview of the history, the achievements and the future for the Bonn Agreement.
Basin-Scale and Near-Surface Circulation in the Gulf of Mexico
Authors: Özgökmen Tamay M. , Bracco Annalisa , Chassignet Eric P. , Chang Henry , Chen Shuyi C. , D'Asaro Eric , Fox-Kemper Baylor , Haza Angelique C. , Jacobs Gregg , Novelli Guillaume , Poje Andrew
Published: December 2021

In the aftermath of the Deepwater Horizon event, GoMRI-funded research consortia carried out several field campaigns in the northern Gulf of Mexico with the objectives of understanding physical processes that influence transport of oil in the ocean and evaluating the accuracy of current-generation ocean models. A variety of new instruments were created to achieve unprecedented levels of dense and overlapping datasets that span five orders of magnitude of spatial and temporal scales. The observational programs: GLAD (DeSoto Canyon, Summer 2012), SCOPE (Destin inner shelf, Winter 2013 14), LASER (DeSoto Canyon, Winter 2016) and SPLASH (Louisiana shelf, Spring 2017) were designed to capture transport by ocean currents that are not presently well resolved by operational models. The overarching objective of these experiments was to collect data from a variety of sensors (drifting, aerial and ship-board) to document the circulation and near-surface variability of fronts, where much of the surface oil tends to be concentrated. Two state-of-the-art models were also run in real-time during all the experiments; a multiply-nested Navy Coastal Ocean Model with horizontal resolutions ranging from 1 km in the outer nest down to 100 m, as well as a fully coupled atmosphere-wave-ocean model. The purpose of this submission is to summarize the advances made in both understanding and modeling the near-surface transport in the Gulf of Mexico.
Field test of herder and controlled burning of spilled oil in Kazakhstan
Authors: Kalimov Nurlybek , Taylor Peter M. , Kulekeyev Zhaxybek , Nurtayeva Gulnara
Published: December 2021

Recent years have seen renewed interest in the viability of using herding chemicals in conjunction with in-situ burning. NCOC, an operator in the shallow north Caspian Sea, undertook herder research as an extension to studies performed under the Arctic Response Technology Joint Industry Programme (JIP). The purpose was to investigate the feasibility of using herders as part of their response toolkit.

Laboratory tests were performed in Kazakhstan on weathered Kashagan export crude oil, using two herders listed on the US NCP Product Schedule. Results were positive and it was considered that a reasonable size test spill under realistic conditions was required to verify laboratory work.

In November 2018 a field trial was undertaken in the boat basin at Damba in western Kazakhstan. A volume of 400 litres of artificially weathered Kashagan crude was pumped onto the water surface and allowed to spread. Air and water temperatures were just above freezing and a small amount of ice was present due to overnight low temperatures. The test was recorded by an unmanned aerial vehicle, using thermal IR and 4K video.

After the oil had been allowed to spread out to be <1 mm, i.e. too thin to sustain combustion, a small boat was used to spray Siltech OP-40 herder around the periphery of the oil. After less than five minutes the effect of the herder became apparent. The oiled area was observed to begin contracting. A member of the boat crew successfully placed an igniter into the thick oil. A plume of black smoke was produced and the oil burned vigorously with flames of 2 to 3 metres high for approximately 8 minutes. After the burning had finished a visual inspection showed a relatively small quantity of oil residue. Pre- and post-environmental monitoring of the test site was undertaken.

Based on the success of the test, the next steps are to develop a formal methodology for the inclusion of herders in the list of approved oil spill treatment products. It will then be possible to incorporate the technique into contingency plans using NEBA/SIMA justification. This will have the potential to improve the response options and speed of response to incidents in broken ice or open waters.
Planning and Responding to a Petrochemical Disaster in the North American Inland Seas
Authors: Monacelli Nicholas N.
Published: December 2021

The Great Lakes represent the largest group of freshwater lakes in the world along a 1,500 mile international boundary between the United States and Canada. A source of drinking water for 35 million people and a hub of unique biodiversity, a major petrochemical spill would be devastating. With the increase in pipeline activity due to regional tar sands drilling and the navigationally challenging waterways hosting an increasing stream of petrochemical commerce, risk to the Lakes is higher than ever. Given the Lake's closed-system nature and their geographic remoteness relative to current US and Canadian government and private sector assets, the current response posture is inadequate. As the primary maritime spill response agency in the United States, the US Coast Guard retains the mantle of prevention and planning for a Great Lakes petrochemical disaster.

This paper seeks to examine the historic, current, and future states of the Great Lakes' oil-spill risk, in light of increased maritime commerce and recent spill “near-misses” regarding submerged pipelines in the Straits of Mackinac. The US Congress and the US Coast Guard have identified that the Great Lakes are not prepared for a large scale spill. Current resourcing levels and technology are insufficient, especially given the challenge of responding while the Lakes are frozen for a substantial portion of the year. With resources focused on the prospect of disaster in salt water regions, the “inland seas” of the Great Lakes receive too little attention.

After identifying the evolution of Great Lakes spill prevention and response policy, this paper will apply the Gulf of Mexico Deepwater Horizon spill as a case study into what spill response would look like on the Great Lakes. Given the authors' expansive experience as an operator during that historic spill and current commander of one of two US oil spill response assets in the Great Lakes, this paper will also identify remaining challenges to an effective spill response policy, and conclude with recommendations on how to tackle the response issues identified. The US Congress recently established the US Coast Guard's National Center of Expertise for the Great Lakes and one of their primary tasks is to analyze the effect of a spill in freshwater and develop an appropriate response plan. By attempting to identify critical gaps, this paper seeks to advance government and industry's ability to posture the region swiftly in the face of a growing threat and assist in the Center's work.
Domestication of International Regulation as a Fundamental Step to Developing Preparedness and Response
Authors: Favier Julien , Amanzholova Dinara , Lee Nai Ming
Published: December 2021

The International Maritime Organization (IMO) and the oil and shipping industries have been supporting countries in the development of their oil spill preparedness and response capacity for decades, including through the Global Initiative (GI) programme. These efforts have provided a wealth of experience and understanding of international good practice. A key lesson learned is the importance of legislation and regulation as a fundamental step to developing a preparedness and response framework.

This paper will explain how, by contributing to the full implementation of international regulation, the Global Initiative benefits industry and governments alike. Whilst governments find their level of oil pollution preparedness enhanced, industry benefits from the strengthening of the legal and institutional framework which mitigates regulatory and associated economic risks, and eases the dialog with relevant national authorities.

IMO's International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation (OPRC 90) is the bedrock on which national preparedness and response capability is built. OPRC 90, and various regional agreements that integrate with it, set out obligations with respect to a national response framework and associated contingency planning, communication plans, equipment capability and implementation through training and exercises.

Whilst the provisions of OPRC 90, and other relevant international legal instruments, are clear, their domestication has proven to be challenging. Most of the obstacles encountered by national authorities fall under three main themes. They could be: purely legal (e.g. transposition of the provisions in the international framework into national law); more institutional (e.g. definition of the competent national authority and operational contact points for oil pollution preparedness and response); or even technical, especially with regards to secondary regulations or rules to address technical aspects of preparedness and response (e.g. approval of response techniques).

The GI regional project teams are familiar with these challenges, which are regularly encountered. To overcome the difficulties, each Project has developed solutions together with governments and local business units of the industry.

This paper seeks to discuss challenges encountered by countries in meeting their obligations, within the different geographical regions covered by the GI programme. The authors will share their experience and observations from programme implementation, and recommend good practice to enable the domestication of international instruments.
The Development of New Toxicity Testing and Approval Processes for Oil Spill Treatment Products in the UK
Authors: Walton Helen E , Davison Joshua J , Uzyczak Joanna , Martin Christopher , Milliken Paula , Kirby Mark F
Published: December 2021

Current experimental protocols for the toxicity assessment of oil spill treatment products in the UK have been established since the 1970s. To address health and safety, cost and scientific robustness issues the UK approach for dispersant testing and approval has been reviewed and updated for implementation during 2020. To provide more robust scientific advice for the risk assessments that enable effective decision making on the use of oil remediation products in the event of a spill there has been a focus on methods that already have internationally accepted protocols. Standardisation of dispersant testing will promote more effective cross-institute comparisons of toxicity data and will enable further harmonisation of approaches in the future.

It is preferable that environmentally relevant test species are used but, as the scientific literature provides little conclusive evidence of a taxa-specific trend in sensitivity, species selection based on sensitivity alone was not justified. Eight dispersants, commonly stockpiled in the UK, were tested independently and in combination with a representative crude oil (Kuwait). Testing of dispersants in combination with oil has historically provided more variable results so this study has considered the benefits of this versus product only testing. Core test species included the harpacticoid copepod, Tisbe battagliai, and the algae, Skeletonema sp., as both have cost-effective internationally standardised methods, whilst also being environmentally representative and using test species easily cultured under laboratory conditions with no seasonality. Other candidate test species, such as oyster embryos, had limitations in applicability due to seasonal issues. Fish testing was not considered as there was no ethical reasoning for vertebrate testing due to the absence of taxa-specific toxicity.

Results showed that, if oil is excluded from the assessment, Skeletonema sp. and Tisbe battagliai, can produce reliable, reproduceable and interpretable results. When running the T. battagliai test, independently on multiple occasions, without oil, dispersant 1, 2 and 3 had EC50 results that were not statistically different. This suggests that product only testing is suitable for ranking products based on toxicological hazard.

The redevelopment of the UK guideline to use standardised testing and the selection of appropriate, environmentally relevant test organisms will increase the quality and reliability of data used to underpin the UK oil spill treatment testing and approval scheme. The adoption of this approach will enable an approved list of products for use in UK waters to be maintained. However, the decision for dispersant use in any given scenario will need to be underpinned through expert advice applying a risk assessment approach taking account a range of incident-specific physical and environmental sensitivity information.
Small Scale Physical and Bio-Chemical Processes Affecting the Transport of Oil after a Spill
Authors: Katz Joseph , Beegle-Krause CJ , Boufadel Michel , Chamecki Marcelo , John Vijay , Koehler Kirsten , Prosperetti Andrea , Sheng Jian , Steve Kathleen , Yang Di
Published: December 2021

A series of GOMRI-sponsored experimental and computational studies have discovered, elucidated and quantified the impact of small-scale processes on the dispersion, transport and weathering of crude oil slicks and subsurface plumes. Physical interfacial phenomena occurring at micron-scales include the formation of particle-stabilized emulsions, penetration of particles into oil droplets, formation of compound water-containing oil droplets during plume breakup, and the mechanisms affecting the breakup of oil into micro-droplet by tip streaming resulting from the drastic reduction in interfacial tension upon introduction of dispersant. Efforts aimed at development targeted delivery of surfactants have introduced solvent-free halloysite nanotubes that can be filled with surfactants, and preferentially released at oil-water interface. Buoyant surfactant-based gels, which enhance their encounter rates with oil slicks and adhere to weathered oil have also been developed. Studies of oil-bacteria interactions during early phases of biodegradation and shown how the bacteria, some highly active, attach to the oil-water interfaces and form complex films. Clay-decorated droplets sequester these bacteria and promote the propagation of these biofilm. Long extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) streamers generated by these biofilms form connected networks involving multiple droplets and debris, as well as increase the drag on the oil droplets. At 0.01–10 m scales, the generation of subsurface and airborne crude oil droplets by breaking waves, subsurface plumes and raindrop impact have been quantified. For waves, premixing the oil with dispersant reduces the droplets sizes to micron- and submicron-scales, and changes the slope of their size distribution. Without dispersant, the droplet diameters can be predicted based on the turbulence scales. With dispersant, the droplets are much smaller than the turbulence scales owing to the abovementioned tip-streaming. Aerosolization of oil is caused both by the initial splash and by subsequent bubble bursting, as entrained bubbles rise to the surface. Introduction of dispersant increases the airborne nano-droplet concentration by orders of magnitude, raising health questions. Dispersant injection also reduces the size of droplets in subsurface plumes, affecting the subsequent dispersion of these plume by currents and turbulence. Advancements have also been made in modeling of dissolution of oil in plumes, as well as in applications of Large Eddy Simulations (LES) to model plumes containing oil droplets and gas bubbles. The new multiscale framework, which accounts for the droplet size distribution and mass diffusion, can simulate the near- and far-fields of plumes, and predict the effect of vertical mixing promoted by turbulence on the transport of dispersed oil.
The Impact of Media on Spill Response Effectiveness
Authors: Nicolas-Kopec Annabelle
Published: December 2021

Over recent years, there have been numerous studies and papers on media coverage and subsequent politics of oil spills. However, there has been limited focus on how media can impact the effectiveness of a spill response. Using ITOPF's case study database, spanning 50 years of incidents, it has been consistently observed that, regardless of the quality of the cleanup strategy put in place, the media may affect the response both positively and negatively on the effectiveness of the clean-up response. This paper presents a framework, supported by case studies, for assessing the media impact on three aspects of a response: (1) the strategy; (2) the logistics; and (3) the claims/damage assessment.

The media's influence on response strategy is visible throughout the preparedness, clean-up, and post spill phases of the incident. Impacts on logistics are focussed primarily on the involvement of the public in the clean-up itself, with some effects positively supporting the response, while others cause disruption; potentially impacting the safety of responders. As for claims and damage assessment aspects of a response, the impact of media can often be observed long after the initial reporting. This contrasts with the relatively immediate media effects on strategy and logistics. While it is sometimes too late to counteract perceptions of damage or claim inflation due to media coverage, numerous case studies have also demonstrated how pressure from the media increases the accountability of the stakeholders involved in the response and the level of awareness of compensation available to claimants.

The objective of this paper is to provide a framework that is useful for responders to understand and prepare for the potential media influence on the effectiveness of a response.
EVOS and the Prince William Sound Long Term Environmental Monitoring Program
Authors: Payne James R. , Driskell William B. , Janka David , Ka'aihue Lisa , Banta Joe , Love Austin , Litman Eric
Published: December 2021

Following the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill (EVOS), the Prince William Sound Regional Citizens' Advisory Council began the Long-Term Environmental Monitoring Program (LTEMP) in 1993 to track oil hydrocarbon chemistry of recovering sediments and mussel tissues along the path of the spill in Prince William Sound (PWS) and across the Northern Gulf of Alaska (NGOA) region. The program also samples sites near the Alyeska Marine Terminal (AMT) within Port Valdez, primarily to monitor tanker operations and the resulting treatment and discharge of oil-contaminated tanker ballast water.

Over the last 28 years, the program has documented EVOS oil's disappearance at the spill-impacted sites (albeit buried oil still exists at a few unique sheltered locations in PWS). Within the Port, a few tanker- and diesel-spill incidents have been documented over the years, but all were minor and with recovery times of < 1 yr. Of highest concern has been the permitted chronic release of weathered oil from tankers' ballast-water that is treated and discharged at the Alyeska Marine Terminal (AMT). In earlier years (1980s–90s), with discharge volumes reaching 17–18 MGD, up to a barrel of finely dispersed weathered oil would be released into the fjord daily. Over the last two decades, total petrogenic inputs (TPAH43) into the Port have declined as measured in the monitored mussels and sediments. This trend reflects a combination of decreased Alaska North Slope (ANS) oil production and thus, less tanker traffic, plus less ballast from the transition to double-hulled tankers with segregated ballast tanks, and improved treatment-facility efficiency in removing PAH. From the 2018 collections, mussel-tissue hydrocarbon concentrations from all eleven LTEMP stations (within Port Valdez as well as PWS and NGOA regions) were below method detection limits and similar to laboratory blanks (TPAH43 < 44 ng/g dry wt.). At these low background levels, elevated TPAH values from a minor 2020 spill incident at the Terminal were easily detected at all three Port Valdez stations.
Outdoor Recreation Damages from Oil Spills: Why Current Assessments are Typically Wrong and What can be Done to Fix Them
Authors: Byrd Heath , Tomasi Theodore
Published: December 2021

This study reviews methods for assessing natural resource damages to outdoor recreation resulting from oil spills, often a substantial component of total damages. The usual approach for assessing recreational damages, called value-to-cost (VTC), is deficient. It almost always provides a biased estimate of damages because it ignores the benefits of restoration projects on which damage awards must be spent. VTC is the least preferred method under the Oil Pollution Act NRDA regulations unless alternative methods are cost-prohibitive. This paper first reviews the methods available for computing damages, noting the differences among them. We provide a model for evaluating alternative methods and a decision tree for selection of VTC or alternative approaches. Next, we delve deeper into arguments pro and con VTC, and provide recommendations for improvements in the NRDA process to incorporate improved methods that recognize the benefits of restoration where appropriate. We provide evidence on the benefits of human use restoration projects, which both reveal the magnitude of potential bias of the VTC approach and provide a basis for improved assessment methods. The bias in VTC is proportional to the ratio of benefits of human use restoration projects to their costs (the BCR). A BCR of 4 implies that a VTC estimate of damages is biased upwards by 400%. We review existing evidence on the BCR and present preliminary estimates from a pilot study of BCRs for actual human use restoration projects. The paper concludes with recommendations for continued research that we believe would simultaneously improve the accuracy of future assessments while reducing transaction costs.
An Analysis of the Fate and Trajectory Simulation of Bonny Light Crude From The Dangote Single Point Mooring(SPM) Terminal Off the South Atlantic Ocean, Lagos Nigeria
Authors: Engha Isah Mohammed , Anifowose Babatunde
Published: December 2021

Crude oil is predicted to become one of the most detrimental sources of anthropogenic pollution to the marine environment. To meet Nigeria's energy need, Dangote Industries Ltd. was granted licence to build a refinery in the Lekki Free Trade Zone in 2014. There is a significant risk of oil spill from the Single Point Mooring terminal of the refinery as it shares close proximity to the Lekki deep seaport, closeness to the shoreline, sensitive environmental receptors as well as social spots (beaches and resorts). To address this gap, this study aims to design a stochastic model for oil spill prediction for the SPM terminal in order to provide an understanding of the trajectory, fate and uncertainties of spilled oil at different environmental and hydrodynamic conditions. The GNOME software was used to model oil spill trajectory in the SPM terminal while ADIOS2 modelled Bonny light crude weathering characteristics. The best guess solution and the minimum regret analysis shows the possibility of oil beaching on the coastline of Lagos, Edo and Delta State as well as the Gulf of Guinea. The fate simulation for 5 days revealed that evaporation will account for 23% and 27% of oil loss in dry and wet season while dispersion will account for 1.3% and 1.6% in the same time period. Within the same time period, Bonny light crude will form a stable emulsion that will increase the viscosity and density of oil. Also, 66% and 59% of oil was remaining after 5 days, while airborne benzene concentration evaporated in 36 hours and 12 hours in the dry and wet season respectively. The results obtained in this research work suggest that, the window of opportunity need to be utilised by stockpiling equipment and mechanical responders for shoreline clean-up to avoid the oil possibly beaching along the Coastline of Lagos, Edo and Delta state as well as countries on the Gulf of Guinea.