bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Breathless Beasts and Stuffed Savages
Authors: Clements Ashley
Published: December 2021

This chapter takes the reader deep into the nineteenth-century afterlife of the Classical construction of nature, the wild, and the primitive and civilized, foundational to Victorian ideas of progress and to the nascent sciences that claimed the study of humanity as their own. It shows how the Natural History Courts of London’s Crystal Palace presented the marvels of ethnology and natural history, and how these displays were received in the context of nineteenth-century social evolutionist thought, which was itself built upon Classical foundations such as the account of primitive man in Lucretius’ De rerum natura. Against the Courts’ taxidermic dioramas of ‘savage life’, the ethnological casts displayed to the Victorian public prompted comparative questions about the evolutionary status of the non-European Other, while the ‘primitive’ nakedness of the casts created further parallels with the idealized nudity of Greek and Roman sculpture casts, engendering destabilizing dissonance with the connotations of civilization inscribed in the Classical ideal.
Pastor Tillich
Authors: Shearn Samuel Andrew
Published: December 2021

This book tells the story of Paul Tillich’s early theological development from his student days until the end of the First World War, set against the backdrop of church politics in Wilhelmine Germany and with particular reference to his early sermons. The majority of Tillich scholarship understands Tillich primarily as a philosophical theologian. But before and during the First World War, Tillich was Pastor Tillich, studying to become a pastor, leading a Christian student group, working periodically as a pastor in Berlin churches, and preaching to soldiers. Arriving in Berlin after the war, Tillich pursued religious socialism and a theology of culture through the 1920s. But the theological basis of these programmes was what Tillich considered his main concern immediately after the war: the theology of doubt. This book, using a wealth of untranslated German sources largely unknown to English-language scholarship, presents the stations of Tillich’s theological development of the notion of the justification of the doubter up to 1919. Distinguishing between Tillich’s later autobiographical statements and the witness of archival sources, a significantly original, contextualized account of Tillich’s early life in Germany emerges. From his days as the conservative son of a conservative Lutheran pastor to the battle-worn chaplain who could even write about ‘faith without God’, Tillich underwent considerable change. This book should therefore speak to any interested in the history of modern theology, as an example of how biography and theology are intertwined.
Doubt and System (1913–14)
Authors: Shearn Samuel Andrew
Published: December 2021

This chapter presents Tillich’s 1913 systematics as an indication of Tillich’s position in the year preceding the war. The tripartite system (Apologetics, Dogmatics, Ethics) locates theology in a truth-theoretical account where God is the absolute. Human thought is presented as a conflict between intuition and reflection, in need of redemption. Doubt is grounded in truth, and every human is principally justified. Justification is indeed presented as a universal and theoretical principle. However, since distressed thought is redeemed by the absolute paradox, we do not have the justification of the doubter in the same clarity as 1919. The question of whether the systematics constitutes an ‘intellectual work’ is therefore ambivalent, for it exhibits some structural characteristics of Karl Heim’s project. Despite the eschatological qualifications of Tillich’s system, we can begin to see why Tillich may have later found it an embarrassment.
Hot Pursuit and the Exercise of Enforcement Jurisdiction beyond the EEZ
Authors: Goodman Camille
Published: December 2021

This Chapter considers the enforcement of coastal State fisheries laws and regulations beyond the exclusive economic zone (EEZ) following a hot pursuit. While the general framework for hot pursuit established in the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea is clear, its substantive content and operation—particularly in situations that do not fall neatly within the black and white terms of the framework—is less clear. This Chapter considers the key challenges to this framework, and the extent to which—and the ways in which—coastal States have implemented, developed, or departed from it in practice, focusing in particular on the domestic legal basis for conducting hot pursuit, the use of technology in the conduct of hot pursuit, and cooperative approaches to hot pursuit. While recognizing that the hot pursuit doctrine must strike an appropriate balance between the sovereign rights of the coastal State to enforce its laws and the exclusive jurisdiction of the flag State over its vessels on the high seas, the Chapter argues that there is also a broader community interest to be balanced on both sides of this equation: to ensure the effective conservation and management of living resources, and preserve the freedom of navigation on the high seas. This is reflected in the Chapter’s examination of practice, which reveals that States have adopted and implemented a functional, contemporary approach to hot pursuit within the framework of the existing doctrine, which itself has proved to be at once flexible and remarkably enduring.
The Road Less Taken
Authors: Horwitz Ilana M.
Published: December 2021

This chapter argues that atheists are academically successful but for a different reason. Rather than being motivated to please God by being well behaved, atheists are intrinsically motivated to pursue knowledge, think critically, and are open to new experiences. This turns out to be even more important for academic performance than being conscientious and cooperative. Disavowing a belief in God is not what causes teens to do well academically. Instead, it’s a selection effect—the kinds of people who are exceptionally curious and therefore engage in self-directed behavior tend to be the kinds of people who are willing to go against the grain and take an unpopular religious view. Some of the most academically accomplished adolescents were those who grew up with religious restraint but moved away from religion by their mid-twenties. The chapter also discusses the role of parents in transmitting beliefs about God to their children.
Introduction
Authors: London Alex John
Published: December 2021

This chapter provides an overview of the main arguments in the book. It outlines eight problematic commitments that cause fault lines in the foundations of research ethics and that are rejected in subsequent chapters. It then shows how a conception of the common good connects research to the ability of key social institutions to safeguard the basic interests of community members. The resulting view grounds an imperative to promote research of a certain kind, while requiring that those efforts be organized as a voluntary scheme of social cooperation that respects its various contributors’ moral claim to be treated as free and equal. A framework for assessing and managing risk is proposed that can reconcile these goals and it is argued that connecting research to larger requirements of a just social order expands the issues and actors that fall under the purview of the field while providing a more coherent and unified foundation for domestic and international research.
Fear of the Common Good and the Neglect of Justice
Authors: London Alex John
Published: December 2021

This chapter traces the practical and conceptual origins of eight problematic commitments including the perception that there is an inherent moral dilemma at the heart of research with humans and the tendency to conceptualize research as a private transaction between researchers and participants without clear connections to the requirements of a just social order. It introduces readers who are new to research ethics to key cases and documents relating to domestic and international research and illustrates how they gave rise to the problematic views that produce conceptual and practical tensions in the field. The chapter frames the questions that will be addressed in subsequent chapters, including issues about research risk; the role of paternalism in research ethics; and requirements relating to responsiveness to host community health needs, the standard of care, and post-trial access in international research.
Two Dogmas of Research Ethics
Authors: London Alex John
Published: December 2021

This chapter reviews a series of arguments that purport to show that there is an inherent moral dilemma in research with humans and that this conflict produces a corresponding social dilemma, known as the prisoner’s dilemma. If these arguments are sound, it would show that dual requirements of the egalitarian research imperative outlined in chapter 4 cannot be satisfied in practice. This chapter argues that these arguments fail and that their intuitive force in this area is bolstered by two dogmas of research ethics: the claim that the ethical norms in this area derive from the role-related obligations of medical professionals and the claim that research is an inherently utilitarian undertaking. This chapter demonstrates that rejecting those dogmas creates a space for reconciling the production of socially valuable information with respect for research participants as free and equal.
Avoiding Justice: Research at the Auction Block
Authors: London Alex John
Published: December 2021

Although the principle of justice plays a peripheral role in domestic research in high-income countries, it grounds a series of requirements in international research relating to responsiveness to host community health needs, the standard of care, and assurances of post-trial access. This chapter reviews a proposal to eliminate what is seen as a cumbersome mix of requirements on international research in favor of a framework of procedures that render considerations of fairness more manageable within the confines of orthodox research ethics. This might appear to be an alternative to the approach defended in this book because it would avoid having to engage with difficult issues of justice that reach beyond the confines of the field as it is currently configured. This chapter argues that efforts to avoid substantive conceptions of justice wind up tacitly enforcing a particular conception of justice, and it is shown that the proposal to streamline the ethics of international research cannot satisfy some of the requirements that its proponents advocate.
Networked Collective Action and the Impeachment of President Park
Authors: Seo Hyunjin
Published: December 2021

This chapter offers a detailed analysis of online and offline interactions and information exchanges that took place in organizing candlelight vigils in 2016–2017 that contributed to the impeachment of President Park Geun-hye. Interactions between agents and affordances resulted in the nation’s first removal of a president through impeachment processes. Key agents—in particular, journalists, social media influencers, citizens, activists, news organizations, and civic organizations—interacted to produce, share, and amplify cognitive and affective content resulting in massive citizen participation in candlelight vigils for 20 consecutive weeks. It provides an in-depth analysis of these and related issues based on interviews with journalists, activists, citizens, government officials, and technology company representatives and experts. The interview data are triangulated using analyses of news reports and social media posts.
Conclusion
Authors: Seo Hyunjin
Published: December 2021

This chapter discusses lessons the candlelight vigils and other similar cases offer for our understanding of how collective actions co-adapt with information ecosystems. In particular, the author discusses how empirical data analysis informs the agent-affordance framework by illustrating ways in which information generation and distribution mechanisms involve diverse agents within the information ecosystem. This chapter also discusses how insights offered in this book might be applicable to citizens’ calls for major political changes in other democratic countries. The chapter concludes by summarizing the scholarly and policy contributions of the book and suggesting a need for specific research to examine challenges for democratic governance posed by the rapidly growing volume of information available in the public sphere.
Introduction
Authors: Sauthoff Patricia
Published: December 2021

The work begins with an introduction to the Netra and Svacchanda Tantras that locates them within the wider tantric canon. The chapter briefly introduces the main mantra of the texts and offers connections to a wider body of Sanskrit literature. It also introduces the main questions of the work: What do the Netra and Svacchanda Tantras mean by immortality? How does one attain it? How do the rites described within the text alleviate illness? What role does the deity play in the reduction of illness and attainment of immortality? What does that deity look like? Who has access to these rites?
Ingathering the Exiles of the Past?
Authors: Lustig Jason
Published: December 2021

This chapter follows the history of the Jewish Historical General Archives in Jerusalem, founded in 1939 and opened in 1947, which in 1969 changed its name to the Central Archives for the History of the Jewish People. This archive sought to bring Jewish archives from all over the world to Jerusalem under the banner of what they termed the “ingathering of the exiles of the past.” Its leaders, including Alex Bein and Daniel Cohen, who spearheaded the effort to gather materials from Europe, hoped to draw upon the legacy of European Jewry and thereby place Jews around the world within a sphere of Israeli cultural hegemony. In this archive, one finds an extension and intensification of the Gesamtarchiv’s dream of a total archive of Jewish life—and a powerful instance showing both its possibilities and the problems of fundamentally reframing the Jewish past.
Making the Past into History
Authors: Lustig Jason
Published: December 2021

This chapter chronicles battles over the restitution of Nazi-looted archives from Worms and Hamburg, which were eventually transferred to the Jewish Historical General Archives in Jerusalem, and also the contested possibility of establishing Jewish archives in 1950s Germany. It argues that restitution was really about the transfer of the German Jewish past into the realm of history. Israeli archivists and their restitution agency allies argued that Jewish life was at its end—and feared that establishing new archives in Germany would provide a kind of “birth certificate” for fledgling Jewish communities. The chapter traces this history to the 1980s and 1990s, when new Jewish archival efforts in Germany reflected the growth of Jewish communities in Germany.
Digitization, Virtual Collections, and Total Archives in the Twenty-First Century
Authors: Lustig Jason
Published: December 2021

This final chapter argues that struggles over archival ownership and the possibility of archival totality continue far beyond the years immediately following World War II. It considers three case studies to consider new forms of total archives being created through virtual collections and digitization: The Center for Jewish History in New York City (formed in 1994/1995 and opened in 2000), the efforts by the YIVO Institute for Jewish Research to digitize materials found in Lithuania and reunite them with their own files, and the Friedberg Genizah Project’s initiative to digitize and join together fragments of the Cairo Genizah found in repositories around the world. These case studies showcase enduring visions of monumentality and indicate how archival construction is not merely the province of the past. Instead, the process of gathering historical materials is a continual process of making and remaking history.
American Torture from the Philippines to Iraq
Authors: d'Ambruoso William L.
Published: December 2021

What accounts for the United States’ recurring turn to torture in wars against insurgents and terrorists over the past hundred-plus years? After all, torture is an abhorrent and risky interrogation method. Drawing on archival and bibliographic research, the book argues that the antitorture norm has two features that can lead to torture. First, the antitorture norm can, paradoxically, encourage torture by attracting those who believe unscrupulous methods confer advantages on those who use them. Second, because it is difficult to separate torture from milder acts, the norm lacks specificity. This gray area allows practitioners to portray their behavior as something short of torture and redefine torture to exclude their behavior. The two explanations interact as well: torture occurs because actors believe that it is harsh enough to work, and the definition of torture is blurry enough that actors believe they can sell their methods as legitimate. The book confirms these patterns in three comparable but disparate settings from the history of U.S. foreign policy: the Philippine-American War (1899–1902), the early Cold War up to the Vietnam War, and the post-2001 war on terror. In one extension of the argument, the book shows how the pervasive belief that autocrats have an edge over rule-bound democracies has tempted certain elected officials to chip away at their own liberal-democratic institutions.
Liberal-Democratic Torture
Authors: d'Ambruoso William L.
Published: December 2021

This chapter gives a primer on liberal-democratic torture. A brief summary of the historical record shows that liberal democracies have repeatedly engaged in “stealth” coercive interrogation, which the chapter argues usually qualifies as torture by the UN Convention against Torture’s standard definition. What can explain the pattern of recurrence that emerges? Previous work is a useful starting point but leaves important questions unanswered. Lack of monitoring can invite norm violations, but torture is not always hidden. Racism and anger make states and individuals more likely to torture, but they do not tell us why torture often occurs in conjunction with demands for intelligence. Realist and rational choice arguments help to explain the frequent connection between torture and intelligence needs, but they fail to address critical lurking puzzles: Why do people believe torture works? And how do torturers justify these norm-breaking deeds to themselves and others?
Justifying Torture in the Philippine-American War
Authors: d'Ambruoso William L.
Published: December 2021

Through primary documents such as court-martial transcripts, letters, and diaries, the Philippine-American War (1899–1902) provides an underexploited opportunity to see torturers themselves justifying their behavior at length. U.S. soldiers accused of abusing prisoners consistently played down their acts, arguing that the rope went around the detainee’s jaw instead of his neck, that the hits were slaps from the sides rather than punches straight out from the shoulder, that the “water cure” (which is somewhat like waterboarding) did not last very long, and so on. Yet at the same time, soldiers believed that it was necessary to use methods that would not be considered appropriate in other settings, because, as one veteran of the war put it, “[S]cruples often mean[t] flat failure or belated action.” Overall, U.S. interrogators in the Philippines believed that their techniques were, in the words of one practitioner, “the least brutal and painful which would be efficacious.”
Crisis of Democracy and Democratic Conceptions
Authors: Lu Jie
Published: December 2021

This chapter introduces the core theoretical arguments of the book and presents the main research framework, as well as related research design and empirical data. It poses the question: Why, despite its popularity, is democracy in trouble? Attempts to answer this question have mostly focused on supply-side dynamics, such as evolving political practices and institutional engineering led by political elites, while demand-side dynamics have been given scanty attention so far. We focus on some key micro-dynamics that have driven related mass attitudes and behaviors, all of which are centered on how people understand democracy in different ways. This chapter concludes with a roadmap for subsequent chapters.
Working Under the Myth of the Black Rapist
Authors: Braxton Gordon
Published: December 2021

Chapter 5 posits that the journey for Black boys adopting anti-violent perspectives is substantially different than that of their White peers because they must operate under negative tropes about their propensity for aggression: There is a belief that Black men have a special propensity for forcefully acting out their sexual desires on women. “The myth of the Black rapist” is identified as a term, and the author provides contemporary and historical evidence of its existence. Examples can be found in the criminal justice system and pornography. Chapter 5 reminds readers that caution in initiating sexual activity is an appropriate standard and closes with a challenge that Black men overcome historical stereotypes by becoming recognized advocates for anti-violence.
The Critical Antecedents of Populism
Authors: Carrión Julio F.
Published: December 2021

Under “normal” circumstances, people unhappy with their personal or national conditions turn their attention to traditional opposition parties. Only when there is widespread political dissatisfaction with all existing political choices does the potential for populism coming to power arise. This chapter focuses on two critical antecedents that make populism in power possible: mass discontent with existing political arrangements/institutions and elite disarray. It shows that, in all the cases discussed in the book, they provide the critical antecedents in which populist candidacies thrive. These two antecedents are not the only possible causes of populism but, when jointly present, they are sufficient conditions for the election of a populist leader.
The Geometry of Health
Authors: Arora Manish , Curtin Paul , Curtin Austen , Austin Christine , Giuliani Alessandro
Published: December 2021

Chapter 5 examines the dynamic nature of interfaces and starts examining their characteristics. The authors posit that just as we might derive a multitude of dimensions to describe biological structure, so too are there many dimensions that describe the functional dynamics in how biological systems vary over time. Current environmental epidemiological methods used in analyzing data on our environment and our physiology treat each measure as if it were an independent dimension, much like a carpenter measuring the height, width, or length of a piece of furniture. However, because there are processes underlying our physiological development, constraints are applied to the forms that we and our environment can take. Knowledge of these can be harnessed to identify the primary dimensions along which we must characterize the systems under study. By doing this we were able to take an important first step in operationalizing Environmental Biodynamics for clinical application.
“An Entirely New War”
Authors: Lissner Rebecca
Published: December 2021

This chapter shows how the Korean War meaningfully altered the course of the United States’ early Cold War grand strategy: in 1950, amidst the burgeoning superpower rivalry, the United States had embraced a version of containment that relied primarily on political and economic tools, enabling the United States to continue unwinding its wartime posture through demobilization, limited national security spending, and reliance on a small nuclear arsenal to deter attacks on its core interests in Western Europe and Japan. The Korean War called each of these premises into question, recasting American assessments of the Cold War balance of power, as well as the requirements for deterrence and defense of overseas commitments. By the mid-1950s, the United States had massively and durably increased its military power; expanded its overseas commitments to include security guarantees to the North American Trade Organization (NATO), South Korea, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, and Taiwan; and accepted the necessity of forward deployment as well as a large nuclear arsenal to maintain this extended deterrent.
“I Just Can’t”
Authors: Meca Alan , Allison Kelsie , Rodil Julie , Ayers Kenneth , Eichas Kyle
Published: December 2021

This chapter explores the social and emotional development of emerging adults and focuses on how it contributes to feelings of anxiety, inability to make decisions, uncertainty, and lack of belonging. It provides information on how identity impacts mental health, particularly during this developmental stage. Various theories are discussed, with information provided on the role of the social-cultural content. The Miami Adult Development Project serves as a case study of an identify-focused intervention with mental health outcomes. Guiding questions help readers better understand the role identity development plays in risk and resilience during this “age of uncertainty.”
Rise to Power
Authors: Drijvers Jan Willem
Published: December 2021

This chapter offers a reconstruction of Jovian’s rise to imperial power after Julian died in the Persian heartland. A few hours after Julian’s death, the army generals, the commanders of the legions and cavalry squadrons, as well as high civil officials assembled at the dawn of June 27, 363, to elect a successor. After the praetorian prefect Salutius had declined the emperorship and no agreement could be reached on a suitable candidate, the imperial guardsmen (protectores) put their commander (primicerius domesticorum) Jovian forward as the new emperor. He was soon accepted by the generals, high officials, and the complete army as their new ruler. Although sometimes argued otherwise, Jovian’s elevation to the throne was legitimate according to the primary sources. According to the Christian sources, Jovian initially refused to became emperor (recusatio imperii). Although Ammianus Marcellinus mentions that he was unfit for the emperorship, it is argued that Jovian’s background, his family connections (his own father Varronianus and his father-in-law Lucillianus), as well as his own military career, made him eligible for the emperorship. Nevertheless, Jovian was a compromise candidate and was made emperor not for his dynamic leadership, but in the expectation that he would work in collaboration with the senior staff (the men who had elected him) to get the army out of Persia and to lead the soldiers back to Roman territory.
Retreat and Treaty
Authors: Drijvers Jan Willem
Published: December 2021

This chapter examines the retreat of the Roman army from Persia to Antioch. The recoil was slow because of permanent attacks by Persian contingents at the expense of serious losses. Moreover, the Romans were suffering from hunger, thirst, and the heat. Somewhat unexpectedly, the Persian king Shapur II offered peace negotiations. The resulting treaty is considered by Ammianus and others, as well as by modern scholarship, as shameful for the Romans because territories and strongholds, including the important city of Nisibis, had to be surrendered. Jovian was being blamed for a bad deal because he wanted to return to Roman soil as soon as possible in order to secure his position as emperor. However, the conditions of the treaty, which are discussed in detail, were not that bad. Rome had to yield Transtigritane regions, fifteen strongholds, and the cities of Nisibis, Singara, and Castra Maurorum, some of which were already de facto but not de jure in Persian possession. In return, Jovian did not have to surrender and was offered a safe return with his complete army to Roman territory. Shapur was adamant about getting back the Transtigritane territories which his grandfather Narses had been forced to surrender to Rome by the treaty of 298/299. The 363 treaty was therefore a return to the situation before the Roman–Persian treaty of 298/299; it restored the balance of power between the Roman and Persian empires, and introduced a long period of relatively peaceful relations between the two empires.
Epilogue
Authors: Drijvers Jan Willem
Published: December 2021

In general, historians have put too much trust in the negative opinion of Jovian’s person and reign held by Ammianus Marcellinus, Libanius, and other (pagan) writers who display an obvious nostalgia for Julian and his rule. Although Jovian died before his skills as ruler could be truly tested, it is fair to say that his eight-months rule was not only eventful, but also a promising new start for the Roman Empire after the turbulent and confusing reign of Julian. The presentation of Jovian as a new Constantine in the Jovian Narrative served the interests of Edessa in its christological conflict with Antioch and Constantinople under Justinian and is linked to a portrayal of Edessa as a pristine and ancient Christian city. In addition, the story expresses the wish for peaceful coexistence in northern Mesopotamia between Rome and Persia, as was accomplished by Jovian’s treaty with Shapur.
Proximal Relations in the Cinema of Tom Kalin
Authors: Stamm Laura
Published: December 2021

The case studies of Tom Kalin’s Swoon (1992) and Savage Grace (2007) are the basis of Chapter 2’s return to cinema’s biomedical history, as well as to psychoanalytic models of suturing, to excavate queer filmmakers’ disruption of normative models of spectatorship. By examining the modes of looking and investigating already established by the studio-era scientist biopics, this second chapter argues that queer filmmakers returned to this observational mode in the midst of a health crisis. Kalin’s films are concerned with the biopic’s premise of proximity, being close to a historically or socially significant individual, but in such a way that puts forth alternative modes of vision and inspection. The biopic’s promise of closeness to an individual follows the Hollywood cinema’s conventions of cinematic suturing; the spectators identify with the narration of the biopic’s subject and locate themselves in the depicted cinematic world.
The Personal Is Archival
Authors: Stamm Laura
Published: December 2021

Chapter 4 investigates Barbara Hammer’s creation and use of queer archives to tell stories—via particular lesbians—of lesbian cultures past. The chapter’s turn to a lesbian filmmaker is an assertion that the preservationist impulse that accompanied much AIDS activism was genealogically connected to and politically aligned with feminist historiographical practice and body politics. The queer body politics of the AIDS crisis, politics rooted in the care of queer bodies, draws from the feminist politics and cinema originating in second-wave feminism. The chapter argues, then, that the lesbian body politics established in Hammer’s cinema, beginning in the 1970s, informed queer filmmakers’ activist approach to filmmaking during the AIDS crisis. Through readings of Maya Deren’s Sink (2011), Welcome to This House (2015), and Lover/Other (2006), this chapter argues that a distinctly lesbian-feminist aesthetic does not exist independently of a distinctly queer one.
Conclusion: Speculative Futures
Authors: Stamm Laura
Published: December 2021

The book’s conclusion, “Speculative Futures,” revalues the biopic’s importance for contemporary queer and trans cinema. It, moreover, argues that the biopic genre provides a form for telling the stories of lives excluded from dominant history. Readings of Happy Birthday, Marsha! (Tourmaline and Sasha Wortzel, 2018) and Salacia (Tourmaline, 2019) illustrate the biopic’s ability to construct speculative personal histories. Moreover, such speculative constructions provide depictions of queer and trans lives where adequate archival sources do not exist. While this book begins at the AIDS crisis, it ends by recognizing that we still live in the AIDS era and queer and transfilmmakers continue to transform the biopic.
Strange Objects
Authors: Harold Franklin M.
Published: December 2021

An introductory chapter, intended to set the tone for the entire book. Living things are passing strange. They are bound by all the laws that govern inanimate matter, yet they flaunt capacities that vastly exceed those of rocks, clouds, and water. Their basic building blocks are cells, either one cell or many, each of them an organized and purposeful entity that invariably arises by the reproduction of a previous cell. Life has a long history, nearly as long as that of earth itself, most of it microbial. To understand life one must begin with microorganisms, for the higher organisms that receive most of our attention are all latecomers.
From Egg to Organism
Authors: Harold Franklin M.
Published: December 2021

How an egg turns into an organism continues to baffle the imagination. We can describe how it happens and many of the particulars, but still struggle to comprehend how events at the levels of genes and cells produce a fruit fly, a sea urchin, or a baby. The fertilized egg, at bottom a single cell, undergoes multiple cycles of division with concurrent differentiation and transformations of shape, resulting in a multicellular embryo whose several regions are committed to develop into distinct organs. Differentiation relies on elaborate networks of control on gene expression that promote certain genes and silence others. Spatial organization of the embryo commonly involves diffusible “morphogens,” hormone-like substances that instruct cells as to their developmental fate. Chemical gradients are supplemented by diverse processes that draw on active transport, mechanical forces, and cell migration. Genes do not hold a comprehensive blueprint for development. They operate in the context of cells that are directed by both genes and self-organization, and there is no plan separable from its execution. How an egg turns into an organism may no longer be mysterious or miraculous, but it remains as wondrous as ever that an assemblage of lifeless molecules can build a butterfly.
Heidegger
Authors: Elgat Guy
Published: December 2021

This chapter argues that Martin Heidegger can be read as providing a synthesis of sorts of the views considered in the previous chapters. Specifically, it focuses on Heidegger’s analysis of Being-guilty in his Being and Time and argues that while for Heidegger we are indeed not causa sui, as the naturalists hold, we are nevertheless guilty as such or are characterized by ontological guilt, as the metaphysicians hold, and this is because for Heidegger, not being causa sui is a condition of our ontological guilt. Moreover, it is our Being-guilty that makes our factical or empirical guilt possible. After introducing some of the main concepts and themes of Heidegger’s discussion, the chapter turns to reconstruct Heidegger’s transcendental argument to the effect that our Being-guilty is a necessary condition of the possibility of factical guilt. It then turns to discuss Heidegger’s concepts of the call of conscience and of wanting-to-have-a-conscience.
Rorty and Peirce
Authors: Voparil Chris
Published: December 2021

This chapter presents a fuller, more accurate picture of Rorty’s early appreciation for and indebtedness to Peirce by establishing that Rorty was, by his own lights, at least for a time, a Peircean realist. This distinctive “Peircean” version of realism illuminates Rorty’s mature positions later expressed via a Davidsonian vocabulary. It also recounts how Rorty’s reading of Peirce’s end of inquiry and normative theory of self-controlled conduct enables him to grasp the dependence of epistemology on ethics and to see philosophical discourse as a rule-governed realm that necessitates choice of vocabulary and hence responsibility. Rorty turns out to be more of a realist, as traditionally understood, and Peirce less of one than we might expect. The “ethically-centered epistemology” aimed at the growth of knowledge Rorty sees in Peirce contrasts sharply with the view dominant among contemporary Peirceans, like Misak and Talisse, preoccupied above all with justification.
The Concept of an Islamic Reformation
Authors: Takim Liyakat
Published: December 2021

The first chapter defines reformation and examines what it means in a specifically Shi‘i context. It compares reformation in Islam and Christianity and argues that an Islamic reformation has to be an indigenous exercise, one that does not have to capitulate to the demands of a secular or exogenous religious tradition. The chapter considers why reformation in Shi‘ism started much later than it did in Sunnism. The chapter also examines juristic pluralism and the concept of hermeneutics and its effects on the reading of sacred texts. It argues that a hermeneutical approach is important to a discussion of Islamic reformation because of its insistence that the meaning of a text depends on various textual, contextual, and intertextual factors. The chapter demonstrates that a text requires multiple and continuous interpretations if it is to remain valid and able to respond to contemporary challenges.
The Neo-Ijtihadist Phenomenon
Authors: Takim Liyakat
Published: December 2021

This chapter evaluates and reconsiders some of the interpretive strategies and epistemological foundations of the current form of ijtihad. The basic thesis is that the moral rationalist presuppositions of Muslim reformers are diametrically opposed to the traditional jurists’ text-centered epistemological assumptions. The chapter contends that the current form of inferential jurisprudence (al-fiqh al-istidlali) should be replaced by neo-ijtihadism and that, should this transition occur, it will engender major paradigmatic shifts in the genre of rulings pronounced. An Islamic reformation also requires a revision of the epistemological and methodological foundations that undergird the current Islamic legal system. These are the key principles and procedures that guide a jurist in his interpretation and application of the rulings he deduces. The chapter also suggests different exegetical and hermeneutical strategies that neo-ijtihadism could adopt and proposes solutions that synthesize hermeneutical strategies with current exigencies so as to make Islamic law more moral, rational, and practical.
Citizenship as an Aim of Higher Education
Authors: Martin Christopher
Published: December 2021

The focus of this chapter is on the merits of civic education as an aim of higher education. First, the chapter explains how a legitimate and justifiable liberal civic education for children must (and can) strike a balance between the goods of political stability and individual freedom. Second, it makes the make the case for extending civic educational goals to higher education. The third and fourth sections show how civic educational aims look like a promising foundation for the justification of higher education. But a closer look reveals that this justification cannot strike a balance between stability and freedom. The upshot is that while it makes sense to cherish the indirect benefits of higher education for the civic capacities of graduates, these benefits ought not be understood as the overarching aim that justifies state involvement in its management and provision.
Cavendish’s Anti-Hobbesian Materialism
Authors: Duncan Stewart
Published: December 2021

This chapter examines the distinctive materialist philosophy of Margaret Cavendish. Cavendish gave a materialist account of the natural world, but departed in several ways from Hobbes’s materialism. Her view was a panpsychist one, on which some matter was fundamentally and irreducibly sensitive, and other matter was fundamentally and irreducibly rational. The chapter argues that Cavendish’s view lies in some ways between Hobbes’s view and Henry More’s. Cavendish’s view also reverses the mechanist model of explanation used by Hobbes and others: rather than explaining thought in terms of motion, Cavendish explains motion in terms of thought. The chapter also notes Cavendish’s sometime view that human beings have a divine, immaterial, supernatural soul, and examines her views about how, and to what extent, material beings can conceive of immaterial ones.
Locke, God, and Materialism
Authors: Duncan Stewart
Published: December 2021

This chapter looks at Locke’s discussion in Essay 4.10, focusing on his arguments that God cannot be material: that he can be neither an incogitative material first cause, nor a cogitative one. Perhaps Locke had Hobbes or even Spinoza in mind as targets of his arguments, but he did not focus on their views alone. Locke in 4.10 draws on a discussion in Cudworth’s True Intellectual System. The central thought behind several of Locke’s arguments is the metaphysical principle (also seen in Cudworth) that the less perfect cannot cause the more perfect. Locke uses this repeatedly in arguing against views on which God is material. Understanding the role of this principle also helps us understand what Locke meant when he said that we might be material thinking beings, because God could have superadded thought to the matter in us, even though God himself could not be a material being.
Conclusion
Authors: Payson Julia
Published: December 2021

This chapter concludes by considering the broader welfare implications of city lobbying. The ability to pay for professional advocacy represents a double-edged sword for cities. Lobbying provides an essential tool for local leaders seeking to amplify their voices in the complicated and often hostile world of state politics. This is true for progressive urban areas—but also for high-income suburbs. However, while some states have recently debated measures to restrict local government lobbying, this chapter concludes that these efforts would likely do more harm than good in the absence of reform to the lobbying industry more generally. Otherwise, the influence of corporations and PACs will continue to grow, while local officials would unfairly lose one of the key channels through which they are able to advocate for local interests in state politics.
Change Seen Through the Lens of Social Psychology in Europe and the United States
Authors: Rizzoli Valentina , Tuzzi Arjuna , Contarello Alberta
Published: December 2021

In this chapter, the authors consider the theme both by browsing through seminal reference books and scholars’ contributions and by using digital methods, probing all the abstracts published in two key journals: the US Journal of Personality and Social Psychology and the European Journal of Social Psychology. The keyword change is explored in its frequency, concordances, and usage contexts and trends over time in the two journals. The results empirically support Marková’s claim that change has mostly been studied in social psychology as perturbation of patterns of stability and has focused on individuals as surrounded and affected by social contexts. To better understand and foster societal changes, a “more social” social psychology would be helpful, particularly adopting study designs and projects oriented by perspectives that can emphasize the mutual and constitutive relations between the individual and the social.
The Common Good
Authors: Metz Thaddeus
Published: December 2021

Chapter 4, which begins Part II, addresses the moral theory from the African tradition according to which one is obligated to promote the common good without violating individual rights. This principle has been advanced by Kwame Gyekye, one of the most widely discussed African moral philosophers of the past twenty-five years. His ‘moderate communitarian’ ethic, although focused on promoting well-being, differs from Western utilitarianism, such that one cannot argue against the former by invoking well-known criticisms of the latter. The chapter advances fresh reasons for rejecting Gyekye’s welfarist approach to morality, principally on the ground that it does a poor job of capturing several intuitions salient in the African tradition. Sometimes permitting great inequalities of wealth, being competitive in the economic sphere, and undermining cultures can best improve well-being without violating individual rights, yet many African philosophers would judge these actions to be wrong to some degree.
Research Ethics
Authors: Metz Thaddeus
Published: December 2021

Chapter 10 addresses the duties of researchers, particularly those in the medical field, again contending that the relational moral theory is revealing relative to Western competitors. It first proffers a new account of the obligation to obtain free and informed consent to participate in a study, as something to be upheld not so much as a way to promote health (utilitarianism) or to avoid degrading autonomy (Kantianism), but more as a way to respect people as capable of communal or friendly relationship. Rightness as friendliness is next shown to entail duties of confidentiality, albeit, plausibly, ones not as stringent as what is common in Western ethical thought. Lastly, the chapter argues that the communal ethic grounds a powerful account of ancillary care obligations—duties to compensate for harms that have befallen study participants that the study did not cause—by giving an account that challenges an influential autonomy-based theory of them.
British Literature and the Life of Institutions
Authors: Kohlmann Benjamin
Published: December 2021

Speculative States pursues two related goals, one reconstructive and literary-historical, the other conceptual. First, the book restores to view literature’s engagements with the slow politics of reform by linking the development of the institutional forms of the state to the aesthetic forms of literary writing. In doing so, it maps out a literary prehistory of the welfare state in Britain that spans the late Victorian and modernist periods. Second, the book also makes visible an ambitious reformist idiom which insists that we think about the state as an aspirational (speculative) figure—as a form of life in its own right rather than as a set of detached administrative procedures and bureaucratic processes. Placing literary studies in dialogue with political theory, philosophy, and the history of ideas, Speculative States marks a major contribution to current debates about literature and the state, but it also centrally intervenes in conversations in critical theory by urging a fuller engagement with the critical and speculative dimensions of the dialectical imagination.
‘Kinetic’ Reform
Authors: Kohlmann Benjamin
Published: December 2021

The embedding of reformist politics in the medium of poetic form is a central feature of the reformist literary mode. Chapter 4 counterpoints the vision of class strife that haunts Wells’s scientific romances from the 1890s with the gradualist reformist impulse that came to the fore in tax debates in the early 1900s. The development of more nuanced forms of graduated taxation in the Edwardian period turned the tax system into a means of social integration, leading to the emergence of a new institutional idiom that can help us understand the generic hybridity of Wells’s works of this period. These books, notably Wells’s Edwardian ‘trilogy’ (Anticipations, 1901; Mankind in the Making, 1903; A Modern Utopia, 1905), responded to a new understanding of national wealth in terms of kinetic, redistributable ‘incomes’ rather than in terms of fixed private ‘wealth’.
Nationalization and Ethnicization
Authors: Gosewinkel Dieter
Published: December 2021

The emerging world civil war is the subject of an extensive chapter on the interwar period and the Second World War. This phase was marked by a fundamental tension. On the one hand, there was the systematic codification and substantive expansion of political and social civil rights in the emerging democracies and social welfare states of Europe. Legal inequality between the sexes diminished; a social security net began to spread across all of Europe. On the other hand, these expanding rights were increasingly reserved for a country’s own citizens and thereby nationalized. This restrictive tendency escalated to the extreme with the race and class-based exclusion and extermination policies of the dictatorships in Europe’s “bloodlands” (Timothy Snyder) prior to the Second World War and intensified during its course. Citizenship changed its function and went from being an institution of governmental protection to one of discriminatory selection and extermination policy.