bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Legality and the Sentence
Authors: Summers Sarah J
Published: December 2022

It is a fundamental principle of criminal law that offenders are to be punished for their crimes and not for other reasons such as lifestyle or character. The legality principle enjoys widespread recognition at the point of attribution of criminal liability. In addition, it is complemented in the procedural context by the requirement that the burden lies on the state to prove that a crime was committed. Much is made of the importance of the definition of the crime, of the obligation on the state to prove the various aspects of the charge, and yet at the sentencing stage it is common for factors to be taken into consideration which seem to have little to do with an offender’s culpability for the crime at issue. This chapter sets out to examine the importance of legality at sentencing and begins with an examination of the relationship between legality and the act and culpability requirements. It then goes on to analyse the case law of the European Court of Human Rights on Article 7(1) ECHR in order to establish the scope of the human rights principle at sentencing. This provides the basis for consideration of the compatibility of important sentencing practices, notably sentence enhancements for prior convictions, the treatment of confessions, and the extent of the sentence reductions in cases of diminished culpability or responsibility. This provides the basis for broader consideration of the role of legality as a limit on punishment.
Proportionality
Authors: Summers Sarah J
Published: December 2022

One of principal difficulties at sentencing is the determination of the appropriate sentence. In sentencing theory, the notion of proportionality between the offence and the sentence is of particular importance. The ECHR does not contain any express prohibition on disproportionate punishment and the ECtHR has proven reluctant to be drawn into discussions about whether a particular sentence is appropriate or not. Nevertheless, in view of the fact that state punishment impinges on the human rights of individuals, there is obviously potential for a requirement of proportionality between the interference with a human right and the sentence to act as a restraint on punishment. This chapter examines this issue by considering the relevance of the relationship between the sentence and the prohibition on torture and inhuman and degrading punishment, the right to liberty and security of person, the right to private life, the rights to freedom of expression and assembly, and in the context of the protection of property. It concludes by considering the significance of these issues for sentencing theory and practice.
Judicial Imposition of Punishment
Authors: Summers Sarah J
Published: December 2022

The imposition of punishment is a judicial exercise. This is a clearly a requirement of procedural fairness. At the same time, the role of the judge at sentencing is of central importance to the characterization of punishment as lawful or just. There might be said to be consensus that the rule of law is dependent on some form of adjudication. The nature and extent of the judicial power to interpret the law is nevertheless very much contested. This conflict at the heart of the judicial role between activism and restraint in the interpretation of the law takes on particular resonance at the sentencing stage. Concern about the potential for judges to overstep their institutional mandate mirrors anxiety about judges usurping the will of the majority. Notwithstanding such concerns, it is argued in this chapter that sentencing provisions must be framed in such a way as to ensure that judges have sufficient room to prevent the imposition of punishment which violates the principles of legality, equality, or the respect for certain human rights, notably the prohibition on the imposition of inhuman or degrading punishment. This understanding of the importance of the judge allows for reconsideration of a number of sentencing practices and laws, notably the role of the judge in plea-bargaining proceedings, and mandatory and indeterminate sentences.
Aquinas, Analogy and the Trinity
Authors: Chua Reginald Mary
Published: December 2022

In this paper I argue that Aquinas’ account of analogy provides resources for resolving the prima facie conflict between his claims that (1) the divine relations constituting the persons are “one and the same” with the divine essence; (2) the divine persons are really distinct, (3) the divine essence is absolutely simple. Specifically, I argue that Aquinas adopts an analogical understanding of the concepts of being and unity, and that these concepts are implicit in his formulation of claims about substance and relation in the Trinity. I then show how Aquinas appeals to key structural features of analogical concepts, notably, the simpliciter/secundum quid characterization, to resolve apparent conflicts between the unity of substance and distinction of relations in the Trinity.
Being and Abstraction
Authors: van Inwagen Peter
Published: December 2022

There may be no satisfactory definition of ‘abstract object’, but philosophers do seem to be able to sort terms that purport to denote objects into two piles—the ‘abstract object’ and the ‘concrete objects’ piles. There may be widespread disagreement over whether ‘God’ or ‘Nessie’ or ‘Robin Hood’ denote anything, but there is no doubt that they purport to denote concreta, and no doubt that ‘1/0’ and ‘the Ricci curvature tensor’ and ‘the mixolydian mode’ purport to denote abstracta. The burden of the chapter is that those who assert the non-existence of abstract objects will find themselves contradicting themselves many times every day—and are therefore “ontologically committed” to the existence of abstract objects.
Competition theory
Authors: Abrams Peter A.
Published: December 2022

Chapter 4 analyses six recent, high-profile articles to determine to what extent they have adopted a consumer–resource approach, and have advanced our understanding of interspecific competition. Five were chosen because they were the most highly cited articles (as of 2020) published in 2017 or later. The sixth was published most recently, so has had less time to accumulate citations; it appeared in the same journal as the majority of the top five articles, and had an approach that was more consistent to that recommended here. Several other recent articles are discussed more briefly. The results show that many articles are based on models that either ignore resources, or adopt extremely simplified component functions to describe the dynamics of the consumers and resources. Others use simplified analyses that may not reveal the true outcome of competition; this is the case for the one article that argues strongly for a consumer–resource approach.
The negativity, constancy, and continuity of competitive effects
Authors: Abrams Peter A.
Published: December 2022

This chapter uses relatively simple consumer–resource models to show that several phenomena that are impossible under the Lotka–Volterra model are common in models with resources. For the vast majority of models, all common measures of competitive effect differ depending on the size of the initial change used to make the measurement. Adding, removing, or changing the growth rate of a second consumer can produce, alter, or eliminate population cycles, and thereby alter the interaction. Changes in stability are almost always associated with large magnitude changes in competitive effects. If the experimental change used to measure the interspecific effect causes resource extinction, this often causes a discontinuous jump in the magnitude of the competitive effect. In two-resource systems, the possibility of resource extinction in the presence of a single consumer can lead to exclusion of a second consumer. In this case, the later arriving of two competitors always excludes the earlier one, producing a ‘posteriority’ effect. Such effects have never been observed. In systems where resource immigration prevents exclusion, posteriority does not occur. Systems in which each species has an exclusive resource are particularly likely to have very nonlinear competitive effects, and coexistence may be guaranteed in spite of high overlap in consumption rate curves.
Relative nonlinearity and seasonality
Authors: Abrams Peter A.
Published: December 2022

This chapter continues the analysis of seasonal competition, begun in Chapter 8. It examines cases in which there are differences in the shapes of two consumer species’ demographic responses (functional and/or numerical response) to resource abundance. Temporal variation affects parameters other than the consumer’s per capita resource capture rate, including variation in the resource growth rate or in a neutral parameter of one or both consumers. As in Chapter 8, temporal variation can make exclusion either more or less likely depending on the details of the mechanism(s) driving that variation. Mutual invasibility of single consumer systems is often not required for coexistence. Alternative attractors are a frequent occurrence in these systems, and different period lengths of temporal environmental variation can result in qualitatively different effects on coexistence. The complicated outcomes are largely due to interaction of the environmental seasonality with the inherent periodicity of one or both consumer–resource interactions.
Consumers and resources in space
Authors: Abrams Peter A.
Published: December 2022

Competition always has some spatial component, and this chapter explores the main effects that spatial subdivision has on competitive interactions. After a brief general description of various ways in which spatial issues can be modelled, the chapter explores a metacommunity approach, in which interactions occur within discrete patches, and movement can occur between any pair of patches. This means that competition and coexistence can be measured locally or globally, with the latter measurement being more appropriate for comparison with homogeneous systems. Measuring the shape of competitive interactions in the whole system is affected by the different effects of a neutral parameter in those patches, and by extinctions within patches. In systems having logistic resources where one consumer experiences environmental change, extinctions occur first in patches that have larger contributions to the total competitive effect. This produces a concave relationship between total population size and mortality. Random movement of resources must occur at quite high rates to make a metacommunity approximate a homogeneous system. Random movement of two consumer species at different rates in a metacommunity can lead to coexistence or produce exclusion of the superior consumer. Adaptive consumer movement often makes the abundances of two consumers less sensitive to changes in a neutral parameter of one of them. Adaptive movement may increase or decrease the synchrony of consumers in systems with cycles. More work on mathematical descriptions of adaptive movement is required to better understand competition in metacommunities.
Canada’s Long March against Tobacco
Authors: Callard Cynthia
Published: December 2022

After toying with the idea of restrictions in the early 20th century, Canadian governments only began developing policies to reduce smoking in the 1960s after the link between smoking and cancer was firmly established. Half a century later, they are still at it. The comprehensive set of tobacco control policies implemented in Canada, and now embraced by a global tobacco treaty, has focused on reducing the demand for tobacco products. Early approaches in the 1960s and 1970s relied on public education about the health risks and encouraging smokers to quit. By the mid 1980s, the insufficiency of this programmatic approach was recognized, and governments moved to impose and progressively tighten regulatory controls on marketing. Once ubiquitous promotions, like billboards, retail displays, sponsored events, and colourful packages were removed from the Canadian social environment. Measures to protect citizens from the harms of second-hand smoke began in the mid 1970s and, by 2010, to clean the air of workplaces and public venues, decreasing the social acceptability of smoking. Tobacco taxes, once used purely to generate revenues for the government, became recognized as a powerful public health tool to deter use with higher prices. The success of this set of demand-reduction policies can be measured in the reduction in the percentage of Canadians who smoke—from one-half of adults in the mid-1960s to about one-sixth today. The limits are seen in the industry’s continued ability to recruit new smokers to replace those who quit and die.
Modernizing Canada’s Research Universities
Authors: Tupper Allan
Published: December 2022

This chapter examines Government of Canada policies that profoundly altered Canada’s research universities. It argues that the federal university research policies are examples of successful public policies. The chapter shows how such initiatives as the Canada Research Chairs, the Canada Foundation for Innovation, and a program for the federal funding of the indirect costs of federal research grants were priorities for Liberal prime minister Jean Chrétien’s majority governments in the late 1990s and early 2000s. It notes how these programs were made possible by the governments’ receipt of unexpected budget surpluses. Chrétien insisted that a priority for the expenditure of these surpluses was university research, which he saw as essential to building Canada as a force in the emerging ‘knowledge economy’. A small group of university presidents, advisors in the Prime Minister’s Office, and senior officials in the Department of Finance spearheaded the policies. The policies established Ottawa as the dominant force in Canadian university research policy and strengthened federal links with major research universities including the University of Toronto, University of British Columbia, and McGill University. The chapter also shows how Chrétien’s policies have stood the test of time and were supported by Prime Minister Harper’s Conservative governments. The chapter notes how the federal policies created a clear set of policy winners and losers.
Managing Canada’s National Parks
Authors: Shepherd Robert P. , Simsovic Diane , Latourelle Alan
Published: December 2022

The creation and management of Canada’s national parks has been a policy success due to several features of institutional governance: its ability to remain non-partisan; its responsiveness to the needs and aspirations of its various stakeholder communities; and its ability to act as an independent steward enjoying political and bureaucratic commitment to its mission. Canada’s first national park was created in 1887 in response to economic concerns for revenue generation, but this rationale has evolved over time respecting and integrating matters of biological diversity, environmental sustainability, and public enjoyment. The Parks Canada agency has demonstrated a unique capability to balance these various purposes, while at the same time doing so in a way that has earned a national and international reputation for effective results-based management and collaborative relationships with Indigenous peoples, provinces/territories, and municipalities. The chapter provides a snapshot into the management of national parks and historic sites using mission mystique (Goodsell, 2011b) and Compton and ‘t Hart’s PPP framework (2019), drawing the conclusion in part that Parks Canada culture is committed to stewardship and the public good.
France
Authors: Howarth David , James Scott
Published: December 2022

In Chapter 7 we argue that the French case displays important similarities with Germany. During the 2012 presidential and parliamentary elections, Socialist candidate François Hollande made bold pledges to introduce stringent new rules to force banks to separate risky speculative activities from retail banking. As President, Hollande faced a ferocious backlash from France’s tightly integrated and highly concentrated banking sector. One important difference between the German and French cases is that cooperative financial power reflected not only centralized representation and alliance building with the wider business community, but also tight inter-organizational and interpersonal connections between the French state and the large banks. Steering the process through an in camera government committee with close ties to industry, as well as two parliamentary committees dominated by opponents of major structural reform, the Socialist government was able to backtrack on its campaign commitments. The limited set of restrictions on proprietary and high-frequency trading eventually adopted in July 2013 therefore represented a symbolic response to waning parliamentary and public pressure, justified on the grounds that protecting large French banks against US competition was in the ‘national interest’.
Conclusion
Authors: Howarth David , James Scott
Published: December 2022

The concluding chapter begins by recalling the main puzzle and research questions of the book. The second section summarizes the limitations of existing scholarship on bank structural reform, and details the book’s wider empirical and theoretical contribution to the relevant fields of academic research. We focus on three main literatures: international and comparative political economy, theories of business power, and financial interest lobbying. The final section provides a guide to future research by considering the wider application of the comparative financial power framework to other regulatory issues and economic sectors. In particular, we end with an appeal for future scholarship to extend our analytical horizon, and to contribute to the further refinement of our theoretical framework, through its application to case study countries beyond the narrow confines of Europe and North America.
Genomic insights into micro- and macro-evolutionary processes in Odonata
Authors: Wellenreuther Maren , Dudaniec Rachael Y. , Lancaster Lesley T.
Published: December 2022

Odonata (dragonflies and damselflies) present an unparalleled insect system for investigating biodiversity impacts of environmental change because of their ease of sampling, occupation of environmental gradients, and rapid movement dynamics. In addition, due to their ancient phylogenetic position, research into this order provides fundamental insights into key evolutionary processes such as the evolution of flight, vision, and sexual behavior. The chapter investigates how emerging genomics-based studies have provided novel insights into micro-and macro-evolutionary processes, namely: 1) movement dynamics; 2) local adaptation; and 3) species boundaries. It covers how genomic studies are starting to reveal the micro- and macro-evolutionary processes that underpin form and function in this order. It concludes that future work needs to taxonomically and geographically broaden the species investigated to capture the full extent of diversity in this order, and to enable comparative work.
Ecological differentiation, interference, and coexistence in Odonata
Authors: Grether Gregory F. , Siepielski Adam M. , Gómez-Llano Miguel
Published: December 2022

Recent work in coexistence theory has begun to more fully consider the diverse factors that may foster or retard species coexistence and the spatial scales over which this may occur. This chapter considers how ecological differentiation and interference may influence coexistence in Odonata. Studies of ecological differentiation have revealed how resource competition and predator–prey interactions may foster species coexistence, but they have also revealed evidence of neutrality among co-occurring odonate species. Both niche and neutral processes may simultaneously shape odonate assemblages, which can arise locally as well as regionally among different populations. Common forms of interspecific interference in Odonata include intraguild predation at the larval stage, and aggression (e.g. territorial fighting) and reproductive interference (e.g. attempted mating) at the adult stage. Currently, more is known about the evolutionary effects of interference between co-occurring species than about how interference impacts coexistence. In theory, intraspecific interference mechanisms, such as sexual conflict and territoriality, could promote coexistence by increasing intraspecific density-dependence relative to interspecific density-dependence. Conversely, interspecific interference could hinder local coexistence while promoting regional coexistence. Odonata is a promising taxon for advancing a general understanding of the role of interference in coexistence, in part because the types and intensity of interference vary within clades that exhibit minimal ecological differentiation. Ultimately, understanding how coexistence mechanisms structure Odonata communities will require investigating the roles of ecological differentiation and interference at both the larval and adult stages.
The Odonatoptera
Authors: Nel André , Piney Bertrand
Published: December 2022

This chapter explores how the extant Odonata (dragonflies and damselflies) are only the small remaining part of the superorder Odonatoptera. The Odonatoptera are a clade with an impressive systematic diversity and morphological disparity since the Late Carboniferous. Their fossil record is rather well known because these insects inhabit humid environments, which are favorable to fossilization. Thus it is possible to follow the evolution of the morphology of the order, especially in the evolving complexity of their wing venation. It is this evolution through time that has rendered possible for this order to acquire highly specialized structures resulting in their impressive flying capacities.
Bridging people and nature through Odonata
Authors: Dillon Amanda , Simaika John , Clausnitzer Viola , Thompson Ami , White Erin , Montes-Fontalvo Jenilee , Goforth Christine , Khelifa Rassim
Published: December 2022

Odonates are the charismatic megafauna of the insect world. This makes them ideal candidates for interaction with the public. These interactions engage communities not only with odonates themselves but the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems they inhabit. These interactions can have many benefits both for odonates and their ecosystems as well as the global community. Public engagement via odonates, for example, can increase scientific literacy, increase capacity for scientific data collection through community science, and/or encourage environmental advocacy and conservation. Our chapter provides examples of how odonates are used as tools for interaction with the public and how that can be turned into active participation in science and conservation. We conclude by describing existing barriers to making odonate science globally accessible and steps to address these issues.
Life in the Field
Authors: Regis Ed
Published: December 2022

This chapter describes the POBSP scientists, their duties, and the conditions under which they worked. The chapter introduces the four major characters who were the most prominent members of the field teams that actually performed the survey: A. Binion Amerson, entomologist, Roger Clapp, ornithologist, Fred C. Sibley, ornithologist, and Lawrence N. Huber, herpetologist. It describes in vivid detail a few of the Southern Island Cruises to places such as Howland Island and Baker Island in the North Pacific, and Jarvis Island in the South. It describes what these men actually did and presents a detailed picture of what it was like to travel from place to place aboard both army and navy oceangoing tugboats, as well as other vessels, and then to land on an island and perform a full biological survey and census of its life forms.
The Artificial Atoll
Authors: Regis Ed
Published: December 2022

The chapter describes how two islands visited by the POSBP, Tern Island in the Northwest Hawaiian chain, and Johnston Island, in the mid-Pacific, were converted to suit the needs of the military. Johnston is one of the most isolated islands in the world, and for that reason it became the staging point for many secret US Army experiments, including biological warfare tests. It was also used as a launch site for atmospheric nuclear bomb blasts. Tern Island was converted from an irregularly-shaped tropical isle into an air base that looks much like an aircraft carrier steaming through the waves. Made of dredged-up coral, it became known as “the Coral Carrier.” The chapter also describes how after a series of observations made by POBSP field teams, the scientists made important discoveries about bird migration patterns in the Central Pacific. Finally, the chapter asks the question of why, given the known presence of birds transiting through the fixed Johnston Grid area (a result established by a special POBSP subprogram called STAR BRITE), the army nevertheless chose to conduct bioweapons trials there, despite the potential hazards they might present to populations of the Western Pacific.
Fate of the Islands
Authors: Regis Ed
Published: December 2022

The chapter describes what happened to three islands after the conclusion of the tests. The tests themselves did no damage to any island or species inhabiting them, but all three were plagued by invasive species that killed birdlife, in some cases wiping out one or more species from the island. The most damaging invasive species were feral cats that had been introduced by earlier visitors. The chapter describes the cat eradication programs that were carried out on Baker and Jarvis islands. The eradication attempts were in the end successful, but in both cases took several years. The chapter also discusses the biological remediation of Eniwetok Atoll. Most surprisingly, Johnston Island was put up for auction by the US government as an uninhabited tropical paradise, and a potential “ecotourism” attraction.
“Let Him Kiss Me with the Kisses of His Mouth!”
Authors: Kling David W.
Published: December 2022

In the history of biblical interpretation, no other book of comparable size has elicited such a volume and variety of interpretations as the Song of Songs. This chapter examines several of interpretations, highlighting the important contribution of Origen’s allegorical approach throughout the early church and medieval periods. Particular attention is given to Bernard of Clairvaux’s Sermons on the Song of Songs, wherein he outlines the threefold process of mystical ascent: the via purgativa (ascetical purification), via illuminativa (progressive sanctification), and via unitiva (mystical union with Christ). The allegorical method of interpreting the Songs remained popular throughout the seventeenth and well into the eighteenth century, but a consensus among scholars eventually emerged that continues to this day: the Song is collection of poems about human love.
“The Righteous Will Live by Faith”
Authors: Kling David W.
Published: December 2022

This chapter focuses on Martin Luther and his search for a gracious God. It surveys Luther’s life as a prelude to his theological and biblical studies, which culminated in a new understanding of his place before God as he wrestled with Scripture: first, in his Lectures on the Psalms, then crucially, his Lectures on Romans, particularly Romans 1:17. The chapter briefly examines Luther’s hermeneutic (Scripture interprets Scripture, the distinctions between the Spirit and the Letter and the Law and Gospel), and concludes with a discussion of the recent history of interpretation of Romans 1:17 and its understanding among contemporary commentators within the context of Catholic-Lutheran dialogue.
Conclusion
Authors: Kling David W.
Published: December 2022

This concluding chapter acknowledges that the focus of this study has been primarily on Western Christianity and more specifically, in its American context. It commends the shifting of the effects of Scripture to the Global South (Asia, Africa, Latin America), recognizing the already ongoing efforts by other scholars. The chapter then summarizes the book’s primary focus—an examination of the ways that biblical texts have shaped history and, conversely, the ways that history has shaped the interpretation of texts. In this context of reciprocal circularity, biblical texts have functioned as transforming agents, re-created meaning, comprehending sources, hermeneutical keys, and secondary justifications.
Dangerous Ground
Authors: Suval John
Published: December 2022

White squatters in the American West propelled the Jacksonian Democratic Party to dominance and the United States to the shores of the Pacific. Yet, in the lead-up to the Civil War, they became foot soldiers on the front lines of clashes that sundered the Union. These dynamics have been largely overlooked. Dangerous Ground tracks squatters across antebellum America, from the Mississippi Valley and cotton lands of Texas, to Oregon, Gold Rush–era California, and, finally, Bleeding Kansas, revealing how claiming western domains became intertwined with partisan politics and fights over slavery extension. Unlike previous generations of politicians who condemned settlers who lacked title to the lands they occupied, Andrew Jackson’s Democratic Party built a strong base by celebrating white squatters as pioneering yeomen and encouraging their land grabs through preemption laws, Indian removal, and hawkish diplomacy. As America expanded, the party’s power grew. But the US-Mexican War proved a step too far, leading many to ask whether these squatters were genuine yeomen or forerunners of slavery expansion? Some northern Democrats bolted to form the Free Soil Party, while southerners denounced any hindrance to slavery’s spread. Faced with a fracturing party, Democratic chiefs promoted “squatter sovereignty,” allowing territorial inhabitants to determine whether new lands would be slave or free, leading to a destabilizing transfer of authority from Congress to frontier settlers. Squatters thus morphed from darlings of the Democratic Party and agents of Manifest Destiny into combatants in battles that ruptured the Party of Jackson and the nation.
Introduction
Authors: Bricca Jacob
Published: December 2022

The introduction gives an overview of the questions and themes contained in the book. It shows how the origins of most footage in a documentary remain ambiguous to the viewer, which allows documentaries to produce narrative and emotional experiences that are fundamentally fictional. It compares documentaries to fiction films and identifies several similarities, including how actors and documentary subjects both tend to be chosen for their ability to appear “natural” in front of a camera. Exploring the question of a working definition of documentary, it emphasizes how difficult it is to police the boundaries of the genre and emphasizes the difficulties that arise when trying to make strict rules about what is and is not a documentary. The chapter ends by showing the disconnect between documentary practitioners and audiences and argues that the purpose of book is to build a bridge between these worlds and give readers insights into how to interpret what they see and hear in a documentary.
Raw Materials
Authors: Bricca Jacob
Published: December 2022

Six categories of documentary footage are identified and explained. Verité (the audience sees it as it happens) includes unscripted actions occurring in front of the camera and presented in ways that often adhere to fictional narrative tradition, with individuals revealing information through their interactions with others and the world around them. Interviews (the audience hears about it through the account of a participant) allow participants to reflect on their experience and tell it to the audience. Archival material (the audience sees it as it happened) is a broad category including any material that predates the making of the film. Reenactment and animation (the audience sees it as it may have happened) allow filmmakers to portray a speculative account of events in order to dramatize them. In reenactments the portrayal is often partial, is often staged with actors facing away from the camera, and may gesture to its own artificiality as a way of signaling its presence. A short history of reenactments is given, and animation and motion graphics are briefly discussed. Voice-over narration (which narrates to the audience in a voice of the film’s choosing) is used to summarize information and set up scenes, and represents the filmmaker telling the audience something in a direct way. Title Cards (which present information to the audience directly in text) are also used to tell the audience pieces of information but do so in a more “hands-off” way that allows the audience to digest information that may feel more neutral and less didactic.
Meaning
Authors: Bricca Jacob
Published: December 2022

Chapter 2 discusses how the elements discussed in Chapter 1 create meaning, including through their varied recombination and juxtaposition. It shows how the choice of staging, lighting, and production design of interviews can convey powerful messages that influence how the audience views the testimony of the interviewee. By choosing uniform backgrounds (via building a set, green screen, or other means) a documentary can bring visual uniformity to its production and also create a specific tone. The chapter explains how most documentaries are dominated by words, with pictures offering only confirmatory meanings. Many examples are given of the dominance of words, and of the highly specific nature of the word/picture combinations chosen in many documentaries. It shows how documentaries use words in varied ways, including in order to prime the audience to arrive at a specific interpretation of the subsequent scene. Words may dominate even when narration is not used, because interview audio can function in the same way, and verité footage also often uses word logic to define meaning, even though it may seem utterly spontaneous and chaotic. In verité scenes cutaways may be harvested from elsewhere in the cut in order to insinuate certain apparent meanings when joined with words. The chapter contrasts the “closed meanings” created by many documentaries dominated by words with the “open meanings” of documentaries with much longer takes and a greater use of master shots.
Narrative
Authors: Bricca Jacob
Published: December 2022

Chapter 3 details the many ways in which techniques from narrative fiction are used in documentaries. “Narrative” is defined as the desire to attach coherence to otherwise inert actions and occurrences in order to achieve simpler and more dramatic meanings. The chapter details how every documentary creates narrative expectations via its opening segment. It shows how the arrangement of scenes within the overall narrative (or the arrangement of shots within a scene) can create narrative meaning through their position alone, with an event that takes place in the “climax” position functioning very differently than it would if it were placed somewhere else. A detailed exploration of the production of the A&E documentary series Intervention reveals how the participants are handled and filmed in order to package their experience into digestible “narrative turns.” It explains how “micronarratives” are also at play in documentaries by turning very small moments of experience such as the development of the action in a single shot into fulfilling narratives by creating curiosity and then satisfying it. “Callbacks” are explained as moments when a documentary revisits material that has previously been revealed in order to replay the experience for the audience in a different light. It also includes a discussion of documentaries that do not pursue traditional stories or narratives but instead focus on aesthetic, rhythmic, or thematic qualities.
Titles
Authors: Bricca Jacob
Published: December 2022

Chapter 7 goes into fine detail on the ways in which title cards can convey important information about the structure of the film and the hierarchy of the characters it contains, as well as providing tonal and textural information and manipulating the audience’s attention in subtle ways. Every documentary director makes considered decisions about which characters receive lower-third title cards and which do not; this is a cue to the audience about which individuals are more important than others to follow. The professional title given to the characters is also an important piece of information; documentaries may imply a more or less formal voice depending on whether the characters are introduced with or without their last names, and with or without their professional titles (e.g., “Director, University of Arizona School of Dance”). Documentaries may also choose to either reinforce or disrupt social hierarchies by giving or withholding professional titles. Subtitles play an important role in telling the audience if a certain passage is especially important to hear and may alter the experience of the scene in important ways by simplifying the translation of words spoken in another language. Visually busy lower-third title animations may also be employed at strategic moments when the logic of a scene is not particularly strong and the filmmaker wishes to intentionally distract the audience.
Sound
Authors: Bricca Jacob
Published: December 2022

Chapter 9 discusses the multiple ways that sound is used in documentaries to try to generate specific audience experiences and responses. Sound is used to subtly emphasize or de-emphasize certain actions occurring onscreen as well as to give the viewer a sense of the space beyond the borders of the visual frame. Reverb is added to certain sounds to change the audience’s perspective of the size of the space. Sound foley is used to attach emotional values to the sounds of onscreen actions and may be produced by fusing together multiple different sounds for each action. Sound is used to bring locations into proximity with one another from footage that may have been shot at different times and, by the same token, can be used to differentiate actions from each other that were actually continuous. The chapter offers an extended analysis of two Academy Award–nominated documentaries, The Cave and For Sama, and shows how each used sound to portray the world in a way that was consistent with the style of the rest of the film. While The Cave used extensive postproduction in order to create a sweeping, seamless soundscape in sync with the subjective and “cinematic” style of the film, For Sama used much more rudimentary tools and stayed away from anything that could have been perceived as “manipulation,” in part to comply with the journalistic standards of its producer, Channel Four.
Music
Authors: Bricca Jacob
Published: December 2022

Chapter 10 investigates the functions that music can have in a documentary and explains how its use depends on a variety of factors, including the type of footage it supports. Music has long been distrusted within the documentary community; it has been seen as “manipulative” and inauthentic because it tells the audience how to feel about the actions depicted onscreen. This may be a naive conception of music’s role in film, however; music can also bring out complex layers of emotional information that might otherwise go unnoticed, and may help reveal the “ecstatic truth” of a documentary moment, according to filmmaker Werner Herzog. There are many differences in how music is used in fiction films and in documentary, and most stem from documentary’s perceived relationship with the “real world”; fiction films take place in a make-believe world, whereas documentaries reference “real life” and thus don’t seem to support the emotional embellishment of a music track. Despite this, music is ubiquitous in many documentaries these days. Music is used more often in television documentaries than in those headed for theatrical distribution and is also used more often on scenes that are not in the “cinema verité” style, which are coded as closer to real-time experience. Music can also be a crucial part of defining a documentary’s overall tone.
Harriet Maxwell Converse,
Authors: Winters John C.
Published: December 2022

Harriet Maxwell Converse was adopted by the Snipe Clan in 1884. A savvy defender of Haudenosaunee sovereignty, she had a talent for mobilizing public opinion and became their “chief publicist.” She was given Seneca national membership and an honorary title as a League chief. Converse also built a vast salvage ethnography trading empire that removed vast quantities of Haudenosaunee material culture from their control. Her salvage empire and position as an adoptee and honorary League chief also made her a unique addition to the ranks of contemporary Gilded Age women who took on the responsibility of preserving Americana by saving historic homes and founding historical societies. She, like her dear friend Ely Parker, used her personal notoriety to reinforce on her own terms the idea that the Haudenosaunee, since the beginning, were an integral part of New York’s history and identity.
Is Democracy Worth Supporting?
Authors: Hamid Shadi
Published: December 2022

Chapter 1 presents the book’s main puzzles and themes, including the question of what to do about America’s democratic dilemma in the Middle East, where the U.S. says it wants democracy in theory but not necessarily its outcomes in practice. Is democracy worth it when it increasingly produces what seem to be destructive outcomes that put lives and livelihoods at risk? Why should mere democratic outcomes and elections take precedence over the other things we hold dear, such as liberalism, human rights, social justice, or racial equality? The book begins presenting an alternative vision for America’s engagement in the region, one that would prioritize supporting democracy over liberalism, when the two are in tension.
The American Veto
Authors: Hamid Shadi
Published: December 2022

Chapter 5 discusses the strained relationship between the United States and Egypt’s first democratically elected government—one that happened to be led by an Islamist party. The chapter considers whether the Obama administration gave the military what amounted to a green light to stage a coup and assesses the final few days that changed Egypt and the broader region forever.
Islamists in Government
Authors: Hamid Shadi
Published: December 2022

Chapter 8 considers in detail what the world can reasonably expect Islamist parties to do if they come to power—and then remain in power for a significant period of time. We know that Islamists are illiberal, but what does that illiberalism entail in practice?
On Hypocrisy
Authors: Hamid Shadi
Published: December 2022

This chapter introduces a note of ambivalence, interrogating the charge that the United States is guilty of hypocrisy in the Middle East—of saying one thing but doing another. Yes, the United States, under both Republican and Democratic administrations, has been guilty of this. But is the alternative to hypocrisy any better?
Growth Models and Post-Keynesian Macroeconomics
Authors: Stockhammer Engelbert , Onaran Özlem
Published: December 2022

The chapter gives an overview of post-Keynesian economics (PKE) and how it offers a macroeconomic foundation for the growth models approach. It first contrasts the methodological foundations of PKE and discusses differences and similarities to mainstream economics and New Keynesian Economics in particular. Second it presents the main features of PKE: demand-led growth (the goods market), post-Keynesian monetary theory (financial markets), and the theory of induced technological change and how it gives rise to path-dependent growth (the supply side). Third it presents the post-Keynesian theory of demand regimes, which covers distributional growth drivers (wage/profit-led growth) as well as finance and fiscal policy effects. Finally, the chapter discusses financialization, and the return of financial cycles and the central role of real estate prices for macroeconomic performance.
From Fordism to Franchise
Authors: Schwartz Herman Mark
Published: December 2022

Many analyses of contemporary global and national economies frame their dynamics as a shift from Fordism to a “Knowledge Economy,” which they define using varying combinations of human capital, winner-take-all dynamics, and the transition from manufacturing to services. These analyses obscure the degree to which the core dynamics instead reflect shifts in the legal regimes governing intellectual property rights and corporate organizational forms that have increased the salience of the distributional conflict over profits relative to the distributional conflict between capital and labor. De jure but not de facto corporate vertical disintegration has produced, in ideal typical terms, a three-tier economy composed of human capital and intellectual property-intensive firms, physical capitalism-intensive firms, and low-skill labor-intensive firms. The chapter proposes Franchise Economy rather than Knowledge Economy as a conceptual frame, as this better captures the legal and organizational dynamics of the contemporary global economy, including the so-called platform firms.
The Politics of Growth Model Switching
Authors: Sierra Jazmin
Published: December 2022

Latin America’s developmental trajectory is shaped by its states’ unsuccessful attempts to switch away from a Growth Model (GM) based upon the extraction and exportation of commodities to one based on manufacturing and services. Contra research that emphasizes the relevance of external constraints, this chapter argues that the persistence of commodity-driven growth is explained by an endogenous distributional dilemma. While governments have clear incentives to promote the interests of the rural sector due to its centrality in commodity-led growth, doing so affects their capacity to promote the urban sector, and thereby successfully switch GMs. This dilemma is traced in three interrelated areas— macroeconomic policies, fiscal policies, and the domestic balance of power—under populist governments after the Great Depression, bureaucratic-authoritarian regimes during the Cold War, and New Left governments during the recent commodity boom.
Rebalancing Balanced Growth
Authors: Erixon Lennart , Pontusson Jonas
Published: December 2022

This chapter argues that exports were the key driver of Swedish economic growth in the period from 1994 to 2008. In contrast to the German case, however, macroeconomic management and the system of coordinated wage bargaining served to boost domestic demand and to diffuse wage growth and productivity growth from the exposed sector to the sheltered sector. Over this period, the Swedish economy as a whole grew more rapidly than most OECD economies and exports became more diversified, with ICT products and high value-added business services assuming a more important role. We argue further that the Great Recession of 2008 to 2009 precipitated a shift toward a greater reliance of domestic consumption as a growth driver. Expansionary fiscal and especially monetary policy supported this shift, with construction and other sheltered sectors, characterized by lower profit shares than export-oriented manufacturing, becoming prominent actors within the dominant growth coalition.