bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Local Government, Business, and Partnership
Authors: Leigh Ian
Published: April 2012

This chapter addresses the development of the concept of ‘enabling authority’. It examines the narrow version of enabling, involving the introduction of competitive tendering before looking at the more recent broader aspects, such as partnership with voluntary and private bodies and local quangos. The discussion shows how ideas of how a local authority should relate to the community have changed radically in two decades. The notion of ‘enabling’, with an emphasis on the means by which services were provided, has given way to the idea of community leadership.
The 1972 Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects
Authors: Cheng Bin
Published: April 2012

This chapter details the events leading up to the ratification of the 1972 Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects. It took the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space nine years from 1962 to 1971 to produce an agreement on international liability for damage caused by the launching of objects into space. The text of the draft convention elaborated by its Legal Sub-Committee and transmitted by it to the General Assembly of the United Nations was in due course endorsed by the latter in its resolution 2777 (XXIV) on 29 November 1971, and opened for signature at London, Moscow, and Washington on 29 March 1972. The Convention received its fifth ratification on 1 September 1972 and, in accordance with its Article XXIV (3), entered into force on the same date. The Convention contains 28 articles. There is what may be called an Optional Clause in Article XIX, at least as interpreted in paragraph 3 of General Assembly resolution 2777 (XXVI). Some States have acted upon this interpretation and made declarations accepting in advance the decision of the Claims Commission under the Convention as binding.
Outer Space: The International Legal Framework—the International Legal Status of Outer Space, Space Objects, and Spacemen
Authors: Cheng Bin
Published: April 2012

Space law, as it now exists, is not an independent legal system. It is merely a functional classification of those rules of international law and of municipal law relating to outer space, natural or man-made objects in outer space, spacemen, and man’s activities in outer space. This chapter focuses on those rules of public international law which, by defining the legal status of outer space, space objects and spacemen, provide the international legal framework for the activities of States and of their astronauts in outer space.
The Legal Regime of Airspace and Outer Space: the Boundary Problem Functionalism versus Spatialism: the Major Premises
Authors: Cheng Bin
Published: April 2012

This chapter goes back to the very fundamentals of international law in the hope that this will enable us to understand better the major premises of both spatialism and functionalism, and thus to see the problem of a boundary between airspace and outer space in a clearer perspective. If it is remembered that the geographical or cosmographical scope of international law is unlimited, it will then become apparent that the question of a limit between outer space and territorial space, even at the threshold of the space age, would be governed already by the lex lata, however vague and uncertain this may be. This point does not appear, however, to be always fully realized.
Legal Status of Spacecraft, Satellites, and Space Objects*1
Authors: Cheng Bin
Published: April 2012

This chapter discusses the legal status of spacecraft, satellites, and space objects. Spacecraft and space vehicles appear to have been treated as synonymous terms in treaties relating to outer space concluded under the auspices of the United Nations. None of the treaties relating to outer space concluded under the auspices of the United Nations has occasion to refer to artificial earth satellites, although the Preamble of the Moon Treaty does mention the ‘moon, as a natural satellite of the earth’. The term space object designates any object which humans launch, attempt to launch, or have launched into outer space. It embraces satellites, spacecraft, space vehicles, equipment, facilities, stations, installations and other constructions, including their components, as well as their launch vehicles and parts thereof.
Definitional Issues in Space Law: the ‘Peaceful Use’ of Outer Space, including the Moon and other Celestial Bodies
Authors: Cheng Bin
Published: April 2012

Insofar as definitional issues in space law are concerned, there is one the present development of which gives rise to grave anxiety. This is the definition of the term ‘peaceful’, particularly as used in Article IV(2) of the 1967 Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Celestial Bodies (Space Treaty), and Article 3(a) of the 1979 Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (Moon Treaty). The current development, if unchecked, can produce serious consequences in many fields of international law. It, therefore, deserves wide attention and discussion, which should not be confined merely to the specialists.
The Military Use of Outer Space and International Law
Authors: Cheng Bin
Published: April 2012

This chapter discusses the legality of using outer space for military purposes under both general international law and relevant international agreements. It covers relevant rules of general international law and treaties restricting the military use of outer space.
Communications Satellites
Authors: Cheng Bin
Published: April 2012

This chapter outlines the major institutional as well as legal problems involved in the use of communications satellites for commercial or instructional purposes, especially those in the organization and activities of INTELSAT. These activities break new grounds, inasmuch as they constitute the first experiment in the commercial exploitation of the resources of outer space. The experience gained in this first experiment is bound to have an important effect on the future development of space law, which must henceforth concern itself not only with the provision of a legal framework for scientific exploration, but also with ensuring that in the exploitation of the natural resources of outer space and celestial bodies the welfare of mankind and of nations large and small is safeguarded.
Legal and Commercial Aspects of Data Gathering by Remote Sensing
Authors: Cheng Bin
Published: April 2012

This chapter discusses the use of remote sensing satellites from the perspective of international law. It considers the following issues: sovereignty, data gathering from outer space, capability and uses of remote sensing, commercialization and commercial prospects of remote sensing, and United Nations principles on remote sensing.
Jurisdictional Issues
Authors: ALDRICH GEORGE H.
Published: April 2012

Every tribunal has some limits to its jurisdiction, and international tribunals frequently have more limited grants of jurisdiction than domestic tribunals. Thus, it should not be surprising that the decisions of the Iran–United States Claims Tribunal with respect to the extent of its jurisdiction were numerous and that a great many claims and counterclaims submitted to it were dismissed for lack of jurisdiction. The Tribunal’s jurisdiction was in some respects quite broad, particularly in the types of obligations covered, in the acceptance of jurisdiction over claims owned indirectly through foreign juridical persons. Nevertheless, the limitations set forth in the Accords were also significant, particularly those relating to nationality, the requirement that the claims must have been outstanding at the date of the Accords, the several specific exclusions from jurisdiction, and the limitations imposed on counterclaims.
Claims and Disputes between the Two Governments
Authors: ALDRICH GEORGE H.
Published: April 2012

This chapter summarizes the decisions of the Iran–United States Claims Tribunal on two special types of cases: disputes between Iran and the United States as to the interpretation of or compliance with the terms of the Algiers Declarations; and the large Iranian contractual claim against the United States Department of Defense. Jurisdiction over these cases was reserved to the Full Tribunal. In addition, Article 6, Paragraph 4 of the Claims Settlement Declaration gave the Tribunal jurisdiction over ‘any question concerning the interpretation or application of this Agreement’ when requested by either Government. While the other official claims were eventually distributed among the Chambers, Case No. B1 was reserved to the Full Tribunal because of the magnitude of the claims included within that statement of claim.
The Basic Organizing Distinctions of Current Law
Authors: Robinson Paul H.
Published: April 2012

This chapter describes the basic organising distinctions of current law. The most basic of this organising distinction is between offences and defences, but that distinction is problematic when one examines how current law actually operates. It also discusses the current operational structure. Most criminal law doctrines operate in one of three ways. First, a doctrine may define what constitutes an offence. Secondly, a doctrine may define the conditions under which an actor will be acquitted even though he satisfies the elements of an offence. As noted, such a doctrine typically is called a defence, and perhaps more accurately is called a general defence. Thirdly, a doctrine may define the conditions under which an actor will be held liable even though he does not satisfy the elements of an offence — the reverse of a defence. Within each of these three groups of doctrines, the law relies upon a variety of other organising distinctions.
Offence Requirements
Authors: Robinson Paul H.
Published: April 2012

The most basic organising distinction of offence requirements in current law has been the actus reus-mens rea distinction. This chapter specifically starts by exploring the weaknesses of and the potential for confusion in the use of that distinction. It also recommends that use of the distinction be abandoned. It then offers as a replacement an alternative three-part conceptualisation of offence requirements, distinguishing what it calls objective, culpability, and act — omission requirements. Each of these three groups of doctrines is then examined. The current conceptualisation of each is summarised and refinements of it suggested. The actus reus-mens rea distinction reflects no discernible underlying concept; neither ‘actus reus’ requirements nor ‘mens rea’ requirements share a common characteristic or function. Moreover, it argues that current conceptualisation is flawed in two respects.
General Defences
Authors: Robinson Paul H.
Published: April 2012

This chapter argues that current conceptualisations hide significant fundamental distinctions between defences and between defence groups, and that this obscuration distorts the theories and formulation of defences. It also argues that better conceptualisation and a more accurate reflection of how current law actually operates would instead recognize five groups of defences. In addition, it takes up these groups of defences in reverse order: non-exculpatory defences, excuses, and then justifications. Moreover, it examines more closely at each of these groups: how each group differs from the other groups, the existence of distinguishable subgroups within a group, the shared theory and structure of the defences within the group, and a critique of current formulations. It then briefly signals some of the highlights of these discussions. To summarise, current law adopts the terminology of a ‘reasons’ theory of justification: an actor is justified if the actor believes the conduct is justified; the actual nature of the deed is irrelevant.
A Functional Analysis of Criminal Law
Authors: Robinson Paul H.
Published: April 2012

This chapter discusses how most current criminal law doctrines contain aspects that perform different functions. The first two purposes of the provisions governing the definition of offences embody the rule articulation function, the second two the liability assignment function, and the last the grading function. This chapter specifically analyzes current criminal law doctrine in terms of these three functions, and demonstrates that one can distinguish specific doctrines as serving specific functions. It is noted that the incomplete conduct (‘substantial step’) dealt with under subsection (1)(c) of the Model Penal Code's attempt provision requires a future conduct intention.
Introduction
Authors: Bell John
Published: April 2012

There is currently significant concern in constitutional reform in the United Kingdom, especially in the protection of fundamental rights, relations between central and local government, and the electoral system. This book provides an account of an alternative model that is, in many ways, far closer to the United Kingdom than many common law jurisdictions, particularly those of federal countries. France is a unitary state that, until recently, was a fervent believer in parliamentary sovereignty and the unacceptability of judicial review of legislation. This book also concentrates on the role of law in the Constitution, and the way in which this affects the structure of government. The book is divided into two parts: Part One sets out the basic institutions and principles of the 1958 Constitution; Part Two consists of a selection of constitutional texts and materials, together with a number of important decisions of the Conseil constitutionnel. An overview of the chapters in this book is given.
Parliamentary Procedure
Authors: Bell John
Published: April 2012

This chapter explores another major change, the principles governing parliamentary procedure and thus the political power of Parliament. It starts by presenting the sources of rules on parliamentary procedure. Measures with financial implications may not always be permissible in a budget; the Conseil constitutionnel has reduced its function to the raising of revenue and the authorization of immediate expenditure. The use of a referendum to pass legislation constitutes both the low point of the review operated by the Conseil and the greatest abuse of procedure in the Fifth Republic. The United Kingdom is used, as the French were, to political control of parliamentary procedure being exercised through the Speaker. But the French experience is that the most frequent task of the Conseil is to protect Parliament against dictatorship by the executive.
Theodosius I: The First Decade (379–388)
Authors: Honoré Tony
Published: April 2012

This chapter discusses the first analysis of the laws in the Theodosian dynasty, specifically those of Theodosius I. The laws enacted by Theodosius I are treated as part of the Eastern series though in 388–91 and again in 394–5 he remained in the West after he defeated Maximus and Eugenius. The laws that are dealt with and discussed in this chapter are those from the first decade of Theodosius I's government.
Honorius: The Ravenna Period (402–423)
Authors: Honoré Tony
Published: April 2012

This chapter discusses the laws that were enacted during the Ravenna Period. From the time the imperial court moved to Ravenna until Honorius' death, excerpts survive from 199 constitutions and are drawn from 260 texts. These excerpts are mainly preserved in the Theodosian Code and also include ten from the Sirmodian constitutions.
Valentinian III and Galla Placidia (425–437)
Authors: Honoré Tony
Published: April 2012

This chapter discusses the laws enacted by Valentinian III, the nephew of Honorius. Even though he was only four when his uncle died, a number of laws were enacted in his name when the imperial party was at Aquileia. There was a group of five constitutions issued there in the name of Theodosius as Augustus and Valentinian as Caesar.
Foreword Why Philosophy Matters to Tort Law
Authors: OWEN DAVID G.
Published: April 2012

The collection of essays in this book provides an expansive philosophic view of tort law issues by many of the scholars who have helped develop the discipline in its recent emergence from the mists of academic obscurity to its present position as a neo-quasi-discipline of its own. The philosophy of tort law in some ways is very old. As revealed in several of the essays here, philosophical examination of tort law problems is conventionally traced to Aristotle’s discussion of corrective justice in Nicomachean Ethics written some 2,500 years ago. Then, in 1982 and 1983, a critical mass developed when a number of scholars, including Jules Coleman, Ernest Weinrib, and George Fletcher, offered a variety of diverse views on tort law and philosophy in law and philosophy. This was an important event in the evolution of tort.
The Concept of a Civil Wrong
Authors: PETER BIRKS
Published: April 2012

This chapter is concerned with the common law, but it has a Roman beginning. By starting from the Roman analysis in which it had its origin, one can most easily set out the common law classification in which civil wrongs, or torts, form one important category. The concept of a civil wrong cannot be investigated other than in the context of that classification. The second-century jurist Gaius was the first to advance the proposition that every obligation arises from a contract, a wrong, or from some other causal event. However, he saw that that would not do, for there were indisputable instances of legal obligation handed down from the unsystematic past which arose from neither. The obligation to return a mistaken payment was a prominent example. The threefold classification – contracts, wrongs, and other events – was not the end of the Roman story. The miscellaneous third category posed a challenge.
Causation, Compensation, and Moral Responsibility
Authors: SCHROEDER CHRISTOPHER H.
Published: April 2012

This chapter concentrates on causation and the justification of the role that it plays in tort law. There is near universal agreement that that role is pivotal: however, if the sphere of appropriate cases is ultimately qualified and defined, it will turn out that the criterion of causation marks a sharp, dichotomous distinction. Cases otherwise indistinguishable from one another according to all of the other relevant criteria will be treated utterly differently depending upon the presence or absence of causation. If harm has been caused by a human agent’s volitional action of the appropriate kind, the plaintiff has a cause of action for full compensatory damages and the defendant has a duty to compensate. If the causal connection is absent, the plaintiff has no recourse at all, and the defendant has no liability of any kind. This chapter examines the justification for partitioning cases on the basis of causation.
Moments of Carelessness and Massive Loss
Authors: WALDRON JEREMY
Published: April 2012

The objection that it is inappropriate to assess the institution of tort liability in terms of a desert-based criterion of fairness would be more convincing if the institution were in better shape overall, so far as other modes of justification were concerned. This chapter considers whether tort liability can be defended on grounds of fairness, even if it cannot be defended on other grounds. It focuses on the assumption that the system of tort liability, whose impact on individual injurers is ameliorated by third-party insurance contracts, is in itself fundamentally just. There are important differences between tort liability and liability in the criminal law. The aim of compensating victims is at best secondary or incidental in criminal law, whereas it is central in torts. This theory also examines carelessness and the annulment theory, as well as wrongful loss and wrongful gain.
Wrongdoing, Welfare, and Damages: Recovery for Non-Pecuniary Loss in Corrective Justice
Authors: CHAPMAN BRUCE
Published: April 2012

This chapter offers a slightly different account of what corrective justice requires for the payment of monetary damages. Specifically, it argues that while corrective justice does require full compensation for the costs of future care, at least in so far as these involve pecuniary losses, and does require full compensation for the loss of future earnings, it does not require full compensation for non-pecuniary losses. This is true despite the fact that such losses have been caused by the defendant’s wrongdoing, and lie within its ambit. The reason for this is that corrective justice corrects for wrongdoing within the space of rights, not welfare. While welfare under the aspect of rights is ultimately attended to by a damages award under corrective justice, the fact that monetary damages can have no utility for the correction of non-pecuniary welfare losses under this aspect is decisive against the award of such damages.
The Romanization of Property Law
Authors: McLeod Grant
Published: April 2012

The law of property provides a promising area for exploration. The law of immoveable (or ‘heritable’) property was heavily influenced by feudalism from the early twelfth century onwards, so that many of its basic rules and institutions are clearly not of Roman origin. It is therefore be interesting to see whether feudalism acted as a barrier to Romanization. In comparison, the law of moveable property is quite Roman in appearance, although appearances may sometimes deceive. Another interesting question is whether the institutional writers thought that a unitary treatment of moveable and immoveable property on the Roman model was either possible or desirable.
Leases: Four Historical Portraits
Authors: Hogg Martin
Published: April 2012

The tenure of land by lease in Scotland has an ancient pedigree. While other forms of land tenure, such as the rental and kindly tenancy, thrived alongside the lease only to wither, the lease seems certain to outlive them all. The pattern of decline applies equally to feu farm, a form of tenure which did not appear on Scottish shores until well into the history of the lease, and which will, with the forthcoming abolition of the feudal system, pass into the history books. To borrow the language of horticulture, the lease is one of Scotland's hardiest perennials. The longevity of the lease, or ‘tack’ to use its Scots name, must be attributable in large part to its adaptability to meet changing social and political needs.
Trusts
Authors: Gretton George
Published: April 2012

One of the central questions in any attempt to study the history of trust must be the extent of English influence. It is a question of considerable difficulty, which is discussed in this chapter. The origins of the trust remain uncertain, and while it must be presumed that English law had some influence — the adoption of the English name is suggestive — the evidence does not support the theory of anything like a reception of English trust law, and, indeed, it is hard to prove any substantial degree of English influence before about the middle of the nineteenth century, by which time the institution had long been established.
Human Rights Standards and the Free Movement of People Within States
Authors: Beyani Chaloka
Published: April 2012

This book is an exposition of the standards of human rights, which are applicable to the right of freedom of movement and residence of people within states. Written from the standpoint of international law, the book identifies these standards and examines their application to various categories of people, including nationals, non-nationals, minorities, and indigenous groups. The primary motive for writing this book lies in the fact that the vast majority of people move and reside within states. People's ability to exercise civil and political rights as well as economic, social, and cultural rights within states generally depends in large measure on their ability to move about and to choose a place of residence within states. Freedom of movement is therefore crucial to the protection and enjoyment of other rights. As a consequence, the protection of freedom of movement cannot be left exclusively to domestic legal systems because many legal systems form the basis for denying people the right of free movement. Yet the extent to which freedom of movement within states is protected by human rights under international law has not received the attention that its importance deserves. Particular problems arise from the ordinary regulation of freedom of movement, internal exile, the development of free movement zones for nationals and third country nationals in economic and political unions, the need to protect the movement of minorities and indigenous peoples, the movement and location of refugees within states, as well as the legality of derogation from freedom of movement during states of emergency.
Treaty Standards on Freedom of Movement within States
Authors: Beyani Chaloka
Published: April 2012

International legal standards for such concerns as the freedom of movement and choosing one's residence within States is given importance by both the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and in various subsequent human rights treaties. Because such treaties are able to facilitate the strategic basis for the analysis of these issues through possessing binding capacities on particular parties and determining what legal standards should be pushed through with, this chapter attempts to identify these international standards. As these standards may be derived from the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 1966, and certain regional human rights treaties, this chapter further investigates the content of such standards for looking into which freedom of residence and movement within States should be established and lawfully exercised.
Conclusions
Authors: Beyani Chaloka
Published: April 2012

The freedom of movement and residence within States involve a multitude of concerns such as internal migration, the state of those who are displaced within States brought about by civil conflicts, and the relation economic cultural and social rights with such movement, among other such problems. Addressing these problems, however, entails imposing human rights standards for the freedom of movement and residence in varying contexts, and such requires thorough examination of what is contained in such standards. As the degree of protection that the freedom of movement receives depends greatly on the legality of its restrictions, the book has been able to look into its scope and how these are used to regulate and control the freedom of residence and entry through the following measures: monitoring and regulation, coming up with a policy that addresses racial discrimination, and other such functions.
Murder and the Structure of Homicide
Authors: Wilson William
Published: April 2012

This chapter discusses the difficulty of differentiating a motivated act of contempt for human life such as murder from an involuntary act leading to the death of a person such as homicide, and how it affects the trials and legal proceedings of the accused. The chapter discusses at length topics such as felony murder, murder by extreme recklessness and risk, and attitude-centered approaches and their relationship to the common law, as well as the ‘rough justice’ model of English Law and how it should be extended as far as the law is concerned, taking into account cases such as the GBH-murder or whether the accused, for example took necessary steps to bring heinous bodily harm to the victim even without actively playing a part in the act itself.
Diminished Responsibility and Mentally Disordered Killers
Authors: Mackay R. D.
Published: April 2012

This chapter discusses the often untouched side of investigating the case against the accused of homicide or murder, namely mental illness and the concept of diminished responsibility. It highlights the general idea of the grasp of the law with accused persons with limited or hindered faculties. An idea presented in the chapter is if the act of murder itself was brought about by the accused's limited grasp of perception, or, rather, fueled by emotion that drove them to commit the act, which in hindsight would be comparable to one that would seem to have hindered mental capacity. The chapter presents cases from other countries and compares them substantially so as to critique the Homicide Bill and the motivation for its reformation.
Colour vision and its disturbances after cortical lesions
Authors: Heywood C.A. , Cowey A.
Published: April 2012

This chapter provides a discussion on colour vision and its disturbances after cortical lesions. It specifically describes that it is less clear whether colour constancy can be selectively impaired. It is shown that the orientation and direction selectivity of cells in the M-channel, along with their high luminance contrast gain, indicates that it plays a role in conveying motion and form information to visual areas in the parietal lobes. It is also noted that the loss of colour vision in achromatopsia can leave other wavelength-based processing intact. Moreover, the described studies demonstrate that wavelength variation in the visual scene can be used, not only to produce colour experience, but also to determine further attributes such as form and motion. It is stated that chromatic information plays a manifold role in vision.
Coding near and far space
Authors: Berti Anna , Rizzolatti Giacomo
Published: April 2012

This chapter provides a review on coding near and far space. It begins by describing the anatomy and neurophysiological mechanisms of space coding. It is shown that monkey experiments indicate that space representation derives from the combined activity of several independent brain circuits. In addition, evidence on the anatomical correlates of peripersonal and far space in humans may be acquired from two sources — lesion studies and brain imaging experiments. The neuropsychological and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data illustrate that near and far space are differently coded in the human brain; near space is coded in areas that appear to be the homologs of those coding peripersonal space in monkeys; and peripersonal space is implemented in a system of bimodal neurons which are responsible for the various effects of cross-modal extinction. In general, the data clearly show that there is no unitary representation of the space in the brain. Monkey studies and human data suggest that different cortical areas code near and far space and that the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying space representation are different for the two space sectors.
Perceptual and visuomotor processing in spatial neglect
Authors: Milner A. David , McIntosh Rob D.
Published: April 2012

This chapter reviews recent progress on a series of studies in which the phenomena of size and distance distortion in neglect patients are examined. The data agree with the proposal by Bisiach et al. that the enhancement of neglect typically observed for gap bisection relates to the attentional cueing inherent in such tasks and does not reflect differential processing of filled and unfilled spatial intervals. Certainly, the study of neglect has provided compelling evidence that the mechanisms underlying the allocation of spatial attention within single objects may be separable from those governing the distribution of attention between discrete objects. Moreover, a hypothesis predicts that relative lateralization within the environmental frame of reference should be the dominant determinant of size distortion effects. Furthermore, preliminary evidence that neglect patients may indeed show preserved visuomotor guidance despite pronounced perceptual biases is reported. In addition, it is briefly considered how the recent observations on the heterogeneity of size distortion may fit within the general theoretical framework of this chapter.
Navigation in neglect patients
Authors: Pizzamiglio Luigi , Iaria Giuseppe , Berthoz Alain , Galati Gaspare , Guariglia Cecilia
Published: April 2012

This chapter reviews the ability of neglect patients to navigate in three-dimensional space. It specifically addresses two questions about different navigational systems and about the nature of neglect. The first can be formulated as follows: since hemispatial neglect is a multimodal disorder, does it also produce an anisometry in environmental navigation when using either visual or nonvisual updating? The second question refers to the integration of visual and nonvisual information. Evidence shows that the integration of nonvisual information in processing a navigational space involves brain structures different from those involved in the interaction between multimodal information and the subjects' segmental responses. The studies reviewed so far suggest that brain-damaged patients, including patients with unilateral neglect, can process spatial information as well as normal controls when the entire body is moved. In addition, the lesion may be located either in the parietal lobe, disconnecting the pathway indirectly connecting the striate cortex with the parieto-insular vestibular cortex (PIVC) area, or in areas involved in the connection of the superior colliculus to the PIVC via the pulvinar and the thalamus.
The neurobehavioral analysis of visuospatial attention in the rat
Authors: Brown Verity J.
Published: April 2012

This chapter addresses ways in which neglect and visuospatial processing are measured in the rat and what can be learned from studies in rats. It discusses the functions of parietal cortex of the rat. It is clear that posterior parietal cortex (PPC) in the rat does have functions — in particular, visuospatial functions — which lend support to the view that the deficits seen following PPC lesions, as well as lesions of the areas with connections to PPC, might be considered as having more than a superficial resemblance to ‘neglect’ in human patients. In addition, the evidence from paw preference supports the view that the PPC-medial agranular cortex (AGm) system is involved in the control of spatial orienting, the implication of which might be spatial ‘neglect’. The orientation of visuospatial attention in the rat is possibly to be mediated by similar neural processes as in the primate. Furthermore, exploring the neural basis of covert orienting provides clues to understanding normal attention as well as manifestations of impaired attention.
Two neural systems for visual orienting and the pathophysiology of unilateral spatial neglect
Authors: Corbetta Maurizio , Kincade Michelle J. , Shulman Gordon L.
Published: April 2012

This chapter critically assesses current neurobiological models of attention and unilateral spatial neglect, particularly in relation to neuroimaging results acquired over the last decade. It highlights that these models do not account for significant discrepancies between lesion studies and neuroimaging results. It then reports a new experiment that clarifies some of these discrepancies and proposes a revision of current models. It is noted that lesions causing neglect in the frontal lobe do not match with frontal areas of activation during visuospatial attention; rather, they better match the location of regions mediating alerting/vigilance. Moreover, the current evidence supports a role for human anterior cingulate cortex (AC) in response evaluation and monitoring, and not stimulus selection or motivation. It is also shown that temporoparietal junction (TPJ) plays a critical role in alerting. The proposed model clarifies some of the discrepancies between neuropsychological studies of neglect and brain imaging studies of visuospatial attention, and provides novel information on the pathophysiology of neglect.
Frequency processing and cognition: introduction and overview
Authors: Sedlmeier Peter , Betsch Tilmann , Renkewitz Frank
Published: April 2012

The topic of frequency processing and cognition plays a crucial role in several areas of psychological research and there exists a wealth of models and empirical results. At present, one of the main problems that hinders faster progress in the understanding of how frequencies of events are processed and how this influences cognition is that the exchange of information does not work adequately among the different areas. Some of the differences arose because researchers were interested in different questions, but other differences seem to be due to a missing exchange of ideas, models, and experimental results. This chapter first gives a brief overview about the research on how frequency processing affects cognition and then discusses briefly the content of the remaining chapters.
Frequency judgements and retrieval structures: splitting, zooming, and merging the units of the empirical world
Authors: Fiedler Klaus
Published: April 2012

This chapter attempts to explain the discrepancy between the often-cited finding of accurate and robust frequency memory and the existence of serious biases in frequentistic judgements. It is argued that accuracy often depends on the retrieval–cue structure. Accuracy is typically obtained when frequency judgements for different stimuli are elicited by comparable and easy-to-handle retrieval cues. However, strong biases arise when judgement prompts solicit different, misleading retrieval structures. Judges lack the metacognitive devices that would be necessary to correct for the influence of incomparable retrieval cues. The influence of retrieval structures on frequency judgements is illustrated with reference to various paradigms, such as category-split effects, the numerosity heuristic, conjunctions and logical connectives, the base rate fallacy, and inductive judgements of correlated attributes.
Technology needs psychology: how natural frequencies foster insight in medical and legal experts
Authors: Hertwig Ralph , Hoffrage Ulrich
Published: April 2012

Modern diagnostic technologies such as cancer screening tests or forensic DNA tests confront users with a basic problem, namely that of inferring the accuracy of a diagnostic test on the basis of statistical information about the test. The required statistics can be presented in a wide variety of ways. While these modes of presentation of statistical information are mathematically equivalent, psychologically they are not. This chapter shows that supplementing diagnostic technology with psychological knowledge about how people process frequency information provides us with a very simple — but powerful — method for improving diagnostic inferences.
Multiple forms of non-associative plasticity inAplysia: a behavioural, cellular and pharmacological analysis
Authors: FITZGERALD KENT , WRIGHT WILLIAM G. , MARCUS EMILIE A. , CAREW THOMAS J.
Published: April 2012

A complete understanding of the cellular mechanisms underlying the formation of associations between stimuli, as occurs during classical conditioning, requires an understanding of the non-associative effects of the individual stimuli. The siphon withdrawal reflex of Aplysia exhibits both non-associative and associative learning when a tactile stimulus to the siphon serves as a conditioned stimulus, and tail shock serves as an unconditioned stimulus. This chapter describes experiments which examine the non-associative effects of tail shock at three different levels of analysis.
The conditioning connection
Authors: McLAREN I. P. L. , Dickinson A.
Published: April 2012

The Konorskian process represents one way of implementing an error-correcting learning rule and thus anticipates selective conditioning. However, the Konorskian process, in common with other error-correcting learning rules, fails to explain why blocking is attenuated by ‘surprising’ changes in reinforcement conditions that should not augment activity in the reinforced element. Rather, the reinforcer-specificity of such unblocking suggests the operation of an associability process by which stored information about the past predictive history of the signal is expressed at the connection between signal and reinforcer elements to modulate changes in the connection weight.
Hippocampal synaptic plasticity and NMDA receptors: a role in information storage?
Authors: MORRIS R. G. M. , DAVIS S. , BUTCHER S. P.
Published: April 2012

One way of investigating the functional significance of long-term potentiation (LTP) is to use selective antagonists of those excitatory amino acid receptors whose activation is essential for its induction. This chapter discusses various design requirements for such experiments and reviews work indicating that the N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist AP5 causes a behaviourally selective learning impairment having certain common features to the behavioural profile seen after hippocampal lesions. Two new studies are described whose results show that AP5 has no effect upon the retrieval of previously established memories, and that the dose–response profile of the impairment of spatial learning occurs across a range of extracellular concentrations in hippocampus for which receptor selectivity exists. These experiments show that activation of NMDA receptors is essential for certain kinds of learning.
The Croonian Lecture, 1990
Authors: HINDE ROBERT A.
Published: April 2012

The exponential growth of science, and its magnificent achievements, have been accompanied by its disintegration into a multiplicity of subsciences. It is no longer possible for an individual to be an all-rounder, and that makes it the more important that collectively scientists should not lose sight of the essential unity of the scientific enterprise. This chapter aims to provide a framework to illustrate essential interrelations between the various subsciences that deal with behaviour and its underlying mechanisms, and to emphasize that the research worker must cross and recross the boundaries between them. It argues that full understanding of any one aspect of behaviour requires one to be not merely interdisciplinary, but to move backwards and forwards between disciplines.
Process dissociations versus task dissociations: a controversy in progress
Authors: Reingold Eyal M. , Toth Jeffrey P.
Published: April 2012

This chapter tackles the controversy over process dissociations against task dissociations, including perception-without-awareness, implicit memory research, process-purity, response bias, involuntary conscious memory, the retrieval intentionality criterion, the process-dissociation approach (PDA) assumptions and contributions, the problem of involuntary conscious memory, and the comparison between task-dissociation approach (TDA) and PDA. Some critiques of the PDA tend to be rather selective and biased which leads to the belief that even as the PDA involves predominantly problematic assumptions, the implicit memory TDA is in some way assumption-free. This chapter argues that this distorted impression is largely attributable to the fact that the assumptions regarding TDA are often tacit, unacknowledged, and unexamined. There was also a controversial explicit assumption included in the PDA regarding the relationship of conscious and unconscious memory processes, which is that of the independence between the two processes. This chapter concludes that the PDA and TDA can, and should coexist, and applying these paradigms and then comparing the results obtained may well be very educational and productive.
Photorefraction for the detection of amblyogenic defects: past and present
Authors: Angi M. R. , Pilotto E.
Published: April 2012

Amblyopia is a developmental disorder of binocular vision resulting from an anomalous visual experience early in life. It is the primary cause of monocular vision loss in children and young adults, affecting more than 2% of the population. Many investigators have strongly recommended the screening and correction of amblyogenic factors—such as high refraction errors, strabismus, and dioptric media opacity—at the earliest feasible age (from six months onwards) to improve visual outcome and reduce cases of squint and the progression of myopia. Amblyopia can be screened by subjective or objective testing. From birth, an estimation of visual acuity can be obtained from preferential direction of gaze but this method is unsuitable for large-scale screening because it is time-consuming and relies on the subject's co-operation. Objective refractometry without cycloplegia may represent the ideal method for screening infants for amblyogenic factors because the test is fast, it requires no contact, and it can be performed by non-professional staff. Various improvements have been proposed in an attempt to solve problems such as controlling image quality, accurate fixation, and accommodation, to extend the range of sensitivity to refractive defects and to measure ocular deviation.
MRI findings in children with cerebral visual impairment
Authors: Cioni G. , Ipata A. E. , Canapicchi R. , Fazzi B. , van Hof-van Duin J.
Published: April 2012

The classical definition of cortical blindness in both adults and children refers to complete loss of vision, including appreciation of light and dark, loss of OKN with preservation of pupillary responses, normal eye motility and normal retina on examination. Cerebral visual impairment (CVI) is now recommended as a better term. Complete blindness is rare in these patients. Most of them have some residual vision, which it is often difficult to test because they show inattention and variability in their visual performance. Secondly, ‘cerebral’ seems to be a more appropriate term than ‘cortical’. Visual impairment is secondary to a cerebral disease from multiple causes (e.g. infection, trauma, cerebrovascular disease, etc.), involving retrochiasmatic visual pathways but not necessarily the visual cortex. According to the timing of the cerebral injury, CVI in children can be classified as congenital or acquired. The latter can be caused by meningitis, encephalitis, head trauma, hydrocephalus, or metabolic derangements. Occipital infarctions are often observed in these cases. Congenital CVI includes visual loss caused by malformations, intrauterine infections or perinatal hypoxic ischaemic encephalopathy (HIE). HIE is the most common cause of CVI, and is often accompanied by other motor and cognitive impairment owing to the diffuse nature of this pathology.
Occlusion therapy for childhood amblyopia: current concepts in treatment evaluation
Authors: Moseley Merrick J. , Fielder Alistair R.
Published: April 2012

This chapter, as its title suggests, is concerned primarily with practical issues surrounding amblyopia therapy. Imprecise or inappropriate measurement techniques have limited understandings of occlusion therapy. To examine these issues the chapter draws upon observations made in the literature and on some techniques recently developed in the laboratory. Finally, experimental data that indicate how proposals work in practice are presented. The discussions are necessarily restricted in scope and do not address the many neuroscientific contributions that have increased the understandings of this curious condition. Throughout this chapter the attention is focused on the amblyopic child as opposed to the infant and the chapter defines the former as being of an age at which a visual task involving ‘linear’ optotypes can be performed, either by the elicitation of a verbal response or by the child indicating the target seen at distance on a hand-held key card. Also, it makes no specific reference to the taxonomy of amblyopia although it acknowledge this to be an obvious factor likely to influence treatment outcome. At the beginning of this chapter, attention is drawn to the lack of empirical (as opposed to clinical, anecdotal) support for the use of occlusion therapy. It is suggested that this arose because of inadequate or inappropriate measurement of compliance and visual outcome.