bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Modern Imaging Techniques in Infectious Disease
Authors: Stern Eric J , Nghiem Hanh V , Hiehle John F , Lewis David H
Published: October 2023

This chapter provides a regional and organ-system overview of the role of radiologic procedures in diagnosing infectious diseases. Emphasis is placed on the newer, more advanced imaging techniques, such as computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and their most appropriate uses and indications. For each organ system, the relative advantages and limitations of these new, advanced imaging modalities is specifically discussed, including their relationship to older, more traditional imaging techniques. Specific nuclear imaging techniques in diagnosing infectious diseases is discussed.
Specimen Management and Rapid Detection of Infectious Agents
Authors: Tenover Fred C
Published: October 2023

The microbiology laboratory plays a central role in the diagnosis of infectious illnesses by detecting microorganisms, or their products, in clinical samples. A variety of techniques, including direct staining, antigen and antibody tests, nucleic acid-based assays, and culture are often performed. The host’s immune response to a microorganism also provides clues to acute, chronic, and past infections, and tests to measure those responses are useful for diagnosis. Today, there is increased emphasis in the laboratory on rapid identification of pathogens through the use of immunologic and nucleic acid-based techniques.
Clinical Mycology
Authors: Pfaller Michael A
Published: October 2023

The spectrum of fungal infection runs the gamut from superficial mucosal and cutaneous mycoses to locally destructive and highly invasive infections due to both classic systemic and opportunistic pathogens. The frequency of fungal disease, particularly that due to the systemic and opportunistic pathogens, has increased substantially during the past two decades. This increase is due in large part to expanding patient populations with high risk of developing opportunistic life-threatening fungal infections, including individuals with AIDS or neoplastic disease, and those undergoing organ transplantation and aggressive surgery.
Rickettsia and Chlamydia
Authors: Liles W Conrad , Stamm Walter E
Published: October 2023

The agents causing human rickettsial disease comprise a diverse group of bacteria, considered similar because of both their characteristic ability to defy cultivation on artificial media and their tendency to be associated with transmission by arthropod vectors. The order Rickettsiales includes four genera-Rickettsia, Coxiella, Ehrlichia, and Bartonella-with members capable of causing human disease.
Control of Antimicrobial Usage
Authors: Davey Peter G
Published: October 2023

There is global concern about the need to control antibiotic usage. This stems from widespread evidence, mainly from hospitals, of misuse of antimicrobial drugs leading to escalating drug costs, increased burden of side effects, and the rapid spread of resistance. In contrast to irrational use of other drugs (e.g., anti-hypertensives), the latter problem is unique to antibiotic usage. Ideally, assessment of the benefits of controlling usage should be based on audits of mortality or morbidity from infection and should show that regulation limits the spread of resistance.
Penicillins
Authors: Creticos Catherine M , Sheagren John N
Published: October 2023

The now famous discovery by Alexander Fleming in 1928 of a substance produced by a culture of Penicillium notatum that inhibited the growth of Staphylococcus aureus did not evolve into a therapeutic compound until over 10 years later. In 1939, Dr. Howard W. Florey and co-workers isolated the compound and determined its structure and properties. After sufficient quantities of penicillin were produced, testing in humans began in 1941 when a British policeman infected with both staphylococci and streptococci was treated with penicillin-G.
Macrolides and Clindamycin
Authors: Gold Howard S , Moellering Robert C
Published: October 2023

Despite over 40 years of use, the macrolides continue to evolve in spectrum of activity and clinical application. Erythromycin is a natural compound secreted by Streptomyces erythreus. It is used most often to treat infections of the upper and lower respiratory tract, as well as the skin and soft tissues. Clindamycin is one of two clinically relevant lincosamide antibiotics, compounds composed of an amino acid linked to a sulfur-containing sugar. Lincomycin, the first described lincosamide, was isolated from a soil Streptomycete. It has been largely supplanted by its semisynthetic derivative, clindamycin, which is more active and better absorbed after oral administration.
Passive lmmunoprophylaxis and Treatment
Authors: Pennington James E
Published: October 2023

The clinical use of antibodies from animal or human sources for treatment or prophylaxis of infection is not a new concept. The development in recent years, however, of methods to render human plasma-derived immunoglobulin G safe for rapid intravenous use has opened new opportunities for use of passive immunization for infectious diseases. Given the concerns over cost and safety of modem intravenous immunoglobulin G (IGIV) preparations, a carefully documented clinical trial literature is becoming available to determine the proper role of IGIV in treating or preventing infection.
Approach to the Patient with Fever: Acute Febrile Illness
Authors: Rubinstein Ethan , Hassin David
Published: October 2023

Acute febrile illnesses usually develop within a 24 h period, and either subside in a few days (e.g., viral upper respiratory tract infection [URI]) or, because of their severity or associated symptoms, lead to early medical evaluation and diagnosis. While any process that can cause fever may have an acute onset and could involve a wide variety of infectious, inflammatory, or other disorders (Chapter 10), the vast majority of acute febrile illnesses are due to infection (Table 47.1). Chronic febrile illnesses, i.e., those lasting several weeks, often have a subtle onset; they may be more difficult to diagnose, and when infectious that are most often caused by pathogens that are sheltered from host defenses (e.g., intracellular or in abscesses, bone, or endocardium).
Infectious Diseases with Lymphadenopathy
Authors: Byren Ivor
Published: October 2023

Lymph nodes, together with the spleen, are a major site of interaction between antigen and the immune system and are involved in a broad spectrum of disease processes including infection, neoplasia, immune diseases, infiltrative conditions, endocrine diseases and a number of idiopathic conditions (Table 53.1). Afferent lymph from the circulation containing antigens, microorganisms, macrophages, and lymphocytes is processed in lymph nodes, and efferent lymph containing sensitized T cells, B cells, and antibody-secreting plasma cells is returned to the circulation via the thoracic duct. Lymph node structure includes the cortex, paracortex, and medulla.
Pleurisy and Empyema
Authors: Lode Hartmut , Schaberg, Tom , Eller J
Published: October 2023

A variety of infectious or inflammatory processes can involve the pleural membranes that enclose the lung and thoracic cavity. These give rise to characteristic symptoms and signs that require recognition and specific management. This chapter focuses on infectious diseases causing pleurisy, pleural effusions, or empyema. Much of the discussion will revolve around distinguishing and managing uncomplicated effusions that accompany pneumonia (parapneumonic effusions) from those that lead to empyema. munity since the fifth century B.c. when Hippocrates described in detail its symptomatology and management.
lntraoral Infections
Authors: Greenspan John S , Greenspan Deborah
Published: October 2023

Oral infections are so common and widespread as to be almost accepted as inevitable, yet most are both preventable and treatable. Some are infections found only in the mouth-for example, dental caries and periodontal diseases-while many are secondary reflections of infection elsewhere or are the oral tissue expressions of systemic processes. Oral infections can cause considerable morbidity while a few, if left untreated, may be fatal.
Genital Herpes, Syphilis, and Genital Ulcer Disease
Authors: Handsfield H Hunter
Published: October 2023

Of the five classical venereal diseases-gonorrhea, syphilis, chancroid, lymphogranuloma venereum (LGV), and granuloma inguinale (donovanosis)-four are characterized by genital ulceration, often with inguinal lymphadenopathy. In addition, genital herpes has become recognized in the past two decades as one of the most common sexually transmitted diseases (STD) in industrialized countries. Beyond the immediate local and occasional systemic manifestations of genital ulcer disease (GUD), serious long-term sequelae are common.
Urethritis, Epidydimitis, Orchitis, Prostatitis
Authors: Fox Kimberley K , Isbey Susan F , Cohen, Myron S , Carson III Culley C
Published: October 2023

Urethritis is a clinical syndrome generally characterized by urethral discharge and dysuria. It may be complicated by epididymitis and orchitis, which are also discussed in this chapter. The pathognomonic laboratory finding in urethritis is an increased number of polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMN) on the gram stain of a urethral smear. Some patients have increased PMNs on urethral smear but lack symptoms of infection, so some cases are considered asymptomatic. Urethritis is almost always sexually acquired, but occasionally it derives from coliform bacteria or noninfectious causes.
Focal Central Nervous System Infections
Authors: Tunkel Allan R , Scheld W Michael
Published: October 2023

Focal infections of the central nervous system (CNS) are frequently devastating, with most of the serious consequences occurring as a result of mass effect with compression of important CNS structures. The CNS possesses several defense mechanisms (e.g., an intact cranium and the blood-brain barrier) to prevent entry of various microorganisms, but once organisms have gained entry into the CNS, host defense mechanisms are often inadequate to control the infection. In addition, the effectiveness of antimicrobial therapy is limited by the poor penetration of many agents into the CNS.
Postsurgical Wound Infections
Authors: Nichols Ronald Lee
Published: October 2023

Postoperative wound infections remain a major source of morbidity and a less frequent source of mortality in the surgical patient. In a nationwide study occurring within a 12-month period in 1975-1976, it was estimated that wound infections accounted for about 24% of the total number of nosocomial (hospital acquired) infections. This figure represented more than 500,000 wound infections, or about 2.8 per 100 operations performed.
Alcohol Abuse, Host Defenses, and Infection
Authors: MacGregor Rob Roy
Published: October 2023

The fact that drunkenness and chronic overuse of alcoholic beverages put the user at increased jeopardy for ill health in general and infections in particular has been a folk observation and self evident fact for as long as alcohol has been used. One of the first learned treatises on the subject was written by Dr. Benjamin Rush, signer of the Declaration of Independence. Entitled “An Inquiry into the Effects of Ardent Spirits upon the Human Body and Mind,” it listed tuberculosis, pneumonia, and yellow fever as complications of alcoholism.
Fever in Travelers to Tropical Countries
Authors: Liles W Conrad , Van Voorhis Wesley C
Published: October 2023

Fever in travelers poses a diagnostic challenge to clinicians. Among the myriad of possible causes, many are geographically localized and, thus, unfamiliar (Table 92.1). In addition, some febrile illnesses in travelers to tropical countries are caused by infections that are potentially fatal if not recognized and treated expediently (Table 92.2). Furthermore, some of these infectious agents are highly communicable (Table 92.3), thereby posing significant risks to public health. Most febrile illnesses in travelers, however, are self-limited (e.g., viral upper respiratory infections and gastrointestinal infections).
Infections after Animal Bites and Scratches
Authors: J.Gluckman Stephen
Published: October 2023

There are an estimated two million animal bites and scratches in the United States each year, although only about half are reported. Most are trivial, but because of their frequency, they account for 1% of all emergency room visits, and 1% of those visits result in hospitalization. Of the two million bites annually, 70%-90% are dog bites, 3%-15% cat bites, and 4% rodent bites, both pet and wild. Wild animals comprise less than 1% of reported bites.
Therapy of Opportunistic Infections
Authors: Tokumoto Jason I N , Hollander Harry
Published: October 2023

Both opportunistic and non opportunistic infections can complicate the course of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) disease in the adult. In this chapter we review the ways in which the clinical presentation of infections is modified by underlying HIV. Infections are discussed in the context of common syndromes and of the progressive immunodeficiency due to HIV. Patients on highly active antiretroviral therapy have significantly decreased risk of these complications. Here, “early disease” refers to an immunologic status at which individuals are unlikely to develop life-threatening opportunistic infections.
Friendships, Companions, and Attachments, 1864-1882
Authors: White G Edward
Published: October 2023

When Holmes returned from the Civil War in the summer of 1864 he was confronted with the question of what to do with himself. For someone of his antecedents this was not an idle question. The Holmes family was not wealthy to the point where the life of an unemployed ‘gentleman,’ still a viable option for Holmes’ upper-class Boston contemporaries, was financially possible, and nothing in Holmes’ heritage suggested that he, unlike his father or his grandfathers, would be expected to lead a life of affl uent leisure. He had signaled in his autobiographical sketch that the legal profession was to be his ’’ starting point’’ for study if he survived the war, and so he prepared to enter Harvard Law School.
The Common Law
Authors: White G Edward
Published: October 2023

In One of the notebooks in which Holmes listed the titles of books he was reading and occasionally made comments about his scholarly projects, there is an 1880 entry stating that he was ’’ [a]t work writing Lectures for Lowell Inst. which occupies evenings, begun about Jan. 1.’1 The Lowell Institute, founded by the textile manufacturer John Lowell, Jr., in 1836 in order to offer public lectures that might demonstrate ’’the truth of those moral and religious precepts, by which alone ... men can be secure of happiness in this world and that to come,’ ’2 was offering a course in Common Law in the fall of 1880, and Holmes, at the suggestion of John Lowell’s son A. Lawrence Lowell, later President of Harvard, was invited to give the lectures that made up the course.3 It is not known when the invitation came, but it must have been in the calendar year of 1879, when Holmes’ early scholarship had taken a methodological tum.
A Concluding Assessement
Authors: White G Edward
Published: October 2023

When one seeks to sum up Holmes’ central personal characteristics, the quality that first comes to mind is his vast and driving ambition. The theme of ambition emerges in many places and at many levels in Holmes’ life—his intimi- datingly prominent heritage and the burdens, as well as the advantages, that it created for him; the early idea, introduced perhaps by his father but internalized at least by his college years, that “greatness” was an expectation that he and others had for himself; his tacit decision, after finishing law school, that “greatness” required a concentration of his intellectual powers on one subject, the law, and a concentration of his emotional energies on his scholarly work. A concentration of intellectual and emotional energy, the suppression of “distractions” such as extensive social contacts, dabbling in philosophy or literature, even intimate relationships, and the achievement of “greatness” became linked in his mind.
Asylum Crises in the Industrialized World
Authors: Loescher Gil
Published: October 2023

As the global refugee crisis intensified during the 1980s, greater numbers of people traveled to Western Europe and North America to claim political asylum. Western governments never envisaged such large-scale population movements. Political asylum was an exceptional event before the 1980s. The developed world was simply too distant, and jet-age travel too uncommon, for most Third World nationals to reach it.
Resolving Refugee Problems: Asylum and Development Assistance Policies
Authors: Loescher Gil
Published: October 2023

It has never been easy for international institutions dealing with refugees to respond to major political, economic, and social shifts in international politics. Over seventy years ago, Western leaders committed themselves to creating an international refugee regime to help both refugees and host countries and to promote regional and international stability. The need is still there, but the practices of individual governments have had only limited success in managing an increasingly difficult refugee situation. It is now generally recognized that the complex cooperative tasks required to deal with the global refugee problem require a strengthened international regime.
Signification, Movement, And Resistance In The Novels Of Nathanael West
Authors: Harper Phillip Brian
Published: October 2023

In dramatizing for his reader the automobile accident in which Nathanael West was killed, biographer Jay Martin writes that, at the moment of the tragedy, West “saw, dreamily, a sign that read Stop. But he did not stop.” What is notable about this formulation is not the conjecture that is posited as fact-that, indeed, “he saw … a sign”but, much more simply, the terse conjunction of what we do know to be two incontrovertible facts: that, at the intersection of Routes 80 and 111, just north of the California-Mexico border, there was a sign that read “Stop”; and that, when Nathanael West approached that sign in his station wagon on December 22, 1940, he did not stop. The traffic laws required West to stop, and he did not stop, and the deaths of both West and his wife, Eileen McKenney West, were the irremediable consequence of that violation.
Gwendolyn Brooks And The Vicissitudes Of Black Female Subjectivity
Authors: Harper Phillip Brian
Published: October 2023

Our examination of works by Ana”is Nin and Djuna Barnes has made it clear that any discussion of the female subject as merely an opposition to the masculine is bound to be fraught with difficulties. A study of the specific gender politics of those authors’ works-questions of feminine identity, for instance-inevitably implicates us in an equally crucial exploration of issues related to sexuality and sexual orientation-the erotic relationships among different subjects, lesbian identification-issues that, while closely related to gender in our social context, are not homologous with it. And yet, just as gender is a constitutive factor in our understanding of sexuality and sexual orientation, these latter phenomena are similarly important factors in the constitution of gender, and then only two among many. For the system in which the various gender and sexual identities that characterize our society are constituted-what Gayle Rubin has called the “sex/gender system”is not closed. The constitution of any given gender identity, for instance, depends upon factors from social categories conventionally conceived of as distinct from sex and gender-race, for example, or class, or physical ability or bodily configuration. And the converse is also true: Any individual’s experience of racial identity, for example, will be contingent upon that person’s gender. This dynamic might be multiplied infinitely, depending on the way that various social categories are inscribed in any given individual subject: Any one of the different social identities with which a given subject might be affiliated is inevitably intersected by a number of other social factors, with the multitude of possible such intersections constituting the various complex, conflicted, and contradictory “subject positions” that a particular individual might occupy at any moment.
Science and Racism: The Influence of Different Concepts of Race on Attitudes toward Nazi Race Policies
Authors: Kühl Stefan
Published: October 2023

Despite widespread support for Nazi race policies within the American eugenics movement, American historical scholarship has traditionally argued that only a small group of eugenicists supported Nazi race policies, and that this group was increasingly marginalized and discredited within the scientific community. Historians like Mark H. Haller, Kenneth M. Ludmerer, and Daniel J. Kevles have differentiated between two groups within the eugenics movement. The first lent support to Nazi policies and shared similar goals with the Nazis improvement of the white race through the elimination of “inferior” elements and prevention of miscegenation with other races. The second group, which gained increasing influence in the 1930s, assumed a critical stance toward Nazi race policies.
Those Outside the Modernizing Groups: Poor Jews and Orthodox Jews in Berlin
Authors: Lowenstein Steven M
Published: October 2023

The rapid changes in economic position, style of living, and cultural outlook that occurred during and after the Seven Years War did not affect all Berlin Jews equally. Not all the Jews of Berlin were wealthy or leaders of the Haskala. The changes that took place in the late eighteenth century, rather than creating a uniformly rich and modern Berlin Jewry, created an internal diversity in the community greater than anything that had existed previously. This chapter will explore two aspects of Jewish life in Berlin that might be skipped over if one concentrated solely on the affluent elite or the Haskala leadership-namely, the lives of those of modest means and the survival of the traditionalists. Although there was a certain overlap between these two groups, it is by no means true that all the poor were “orthodox” or all the orthodox, poor. Eighteenth century Berlin Jewry had the reputation of being a very wealthy community.1 To a considerable extent this was the result of the restrictive Prussian laws that favored the rich and tried to restrict the influx of the poor. These laws applied to all of the Kingdom of Prussia, but they had an especially great effect on Berlin for two reasons. First, the laws were probably more strictly enforced in the capital than in outlying provincial towns. It is well-known, for instance, that Jews without obvious means were restricted from entrance to the city. Second, in a number of cases, government fees for certain privileges for Jews were higher in large cities than in small ones.
Was the Experience of Women Different from Men’s Experience?
Authors: Lowenstein Steven M
Published: October 2023

Besides differences in conversion patterns based on wealth and on ideological affiliations of the various families, gender differences played a vital and frequently noticed part in the unfolding of the revolutionary changes affecting Berlin Jewry. The role of women in the salons and in the wave of conversions has been a frequent theme in the writings of Jewish historians. This is in marked contrast to the rarity of concentration by historians on women’s roles in most other crucial episodes in Jewish history. The analysis of the role played by women in the various aspects of the crisis of Berlin Jewry requires attention to two main issues. First, were women really noticeably different in their behavior from men? Second, if there are noticeable differences, what were the factors that caused women and men to react dissimilarly to the challenges of the age? Women’s role in the salons was a clear case of female predominance. Jewish men not only were fewer in number than Jewish women in salon society, but they also had less influence on the atmosphere at the salon gatherings. The main participants in the salons were Jewish women and Christian men.
The Aftermath of the Crisis: Berlin Jewry After 1823
Authors: Lowenstein Steven M
Published: October 2023

The Prussian decree of December 1823 forbidding all innovation in the Jewish religion marks the end of the period of intellectual ferment within Berlin Jewry. Whereas the great innovative movements in Judaism of the previous three-quarter century-Enlightenment, religious reform, Wissenschaft des Judentums-all had Berlin as their hub, Berlin now ceased to be a vital Jewish intellectual center for some two decades. In 1824 a new Jewish board of elders was chosen that was still made up mainly of modernists but contained few great or innovative leaders. By political fiat the orthodox had won, although in many ways their victory was a Pyrrhic one. All innovations in Jewish religion were forbidden, but tradition did not regain its hold in the lives of the Jews of Berlin. The reform forces, though defeated in the public sphere, continued to find arenas of activity especially in the sphere of education. For the first few years after the decree forbidding religious reform, the wave of conversions continued unabated; in fact the numbers converting continued to increase. By the 1830s, however, the crisis of conversions began to ebb as large numbers of migrants from the eastern provinces of Prussia poured into the city. Although orthodox Judaism gained control over all Jewish worship in Berlin after 1823, it remained a shadow of its former self. The majority of Berlin Jews simply ignored organized Jewish religion and attended services rarely, if at all.
Why Bridges?
Authors: Davis Robert C
Published: October 2023

Throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, often several times a year, Venetian workers and tradesmen would gather on a Sunday or holiday afternoon to battle with their fists or with sticks for possession of a bridge. These encounters were known as the battagliole sui ponti, the “little battles on the bridges,” and they could take several forms: from individual boxing duels and small-scale brawls held to amuse a few hundred or perhaps a thousand onlookers, to enormous, prearranged wars, prepared for days in advance and battled out for hours before tens of thousands of spectators. Those who competed at Venice’s bridges did so as members of the city’s two great geographic factions, known as the Castellani and the Nicolotti. Such were the passions that their factional loyalties could arouse that men were routinely injured and maimed in the fighting; some would almost inevitably be killed as well: trampled by the crowd, punched to death, drowned in the muddy waters under the bridge, or brained by flying rocks or roof tiles.
Horatius on the Bridge
Authors: Davis Robert C
Published: October 2023

On 21 July 1574, after having watched the Castellani and Nicolotti battle over the Ponte dei Carmini for nearly three hours, the French king Henry III made a sign from his balcony to halt the match. For Henry, the combat-enthusiastically waged by six hundred Venetian artisans armed with helmets, shields, and canne d’Inditr-had been entertaining, but in the end he reportedly complained that the event “was too small to be a real war and too cruel to be a game.”2 Henry was probably simply expressing his own royal taste in amusements, but he was right in his observation that the battagliole were neither exactly sport nor all-out war: they were little battles held on a stage, a drama put on by ordinary artisans who were at the same time both warriors and actors, common rioters and sports heroes.
The Health Consequences of Modernization
Authors: Kunitz Stephen J
Published: October 2023

The impact of modernization on health has been interpreted in different ways by different investigators. There is no doubt that across much of the world, mortality rates have fallen and life expectancy has improved dramatically over the past century and more. Nor is there any doubt that the whole complex of changes we group under the rubric of modernization-urbanization, the expansion of science and technology, industrialization, the shift from subsistence to cash economies has been implicated in these improvements.
Feminist Voices
Authors: Charlesworth Hilary , Chinkin Christine , Wright Shelley
Published: October 2023

Hilary Charlesworth, Christine Chink.in, and Shelley Wright, in the following essay on “Feminist Approaches to International Law,” suggest that the essential insight of feminist legal scholarship generally has been that it “exposed the gender bias of apparently neutral systems of rules.” They seek to explore and extend the implications of this insight into the sphere of international law. Charlesworth, Chink.in, and Wright acknowledge the debt of feminist legal theory to the Critical Legal Studies movement.
The Myth of the Disinherited One
Authors: Semmel Bernard
Published: October 2023

In late December 1869 George Eliot expressed the wish that a friend’s Christmas would be “very happy among the dear Kith and Kin.” “I cling strongly to Kith and Kin,” she added, “even though they reject me.” Marian Evans, (her name from birth-she adopted her nom de plume in 1857) was twice rejected by her family, first by her father, in 1842, after she had fallen away from her religious beliefs; and then by her brother Isaac a dozen years later, in 1854, when, though unmarried, she began to live with G. H. Lewes. Both rejections were painful. She suffered no actual disinheritance, though occasionally her brother had to be reminded after their father’s death to send her payments of the small income due her. Isaac declined to have any social contact with his sister until 1880, when after Lewes’s death she married J. W. Cross, and could be properly addressed as a respectable matron.
Can Technology Assure Environmentally Sound Economic Development?
Authors: Duchin Faye , Lange Glenn-Marie
Published: October 2023

The large-scale use of the technologies developed since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, and especially since World War IT, has placed considerable stress upon the environment mainly in the industrialized economies. This is due in part to steeply increasing rates of extraction and processing of natural materials, accompanied by the generation of a wide range of waste products. In addition, the new technologies have involved the dissipation of naturally occurring materials and the synthesis of materials which are not found in nature. Widely dispersed materials, whether natural or synthetic, are not easy to collect. Even if collected, many of the new materials cannot be reused or recycled at reasonable cost after their initial useful life is over.
Results and Conclusions
Authors: Duchin Faye , Lange Glenn-Marie
Published: October 2023

This chapter contains the results of computations of the OCF scenario and the Reference scenario that were described in Chapter 2. The principal findings about consumption, investment and international exchange and credit, about energy use and emissions, and about sectoral production and trade are reported, as well as summary results for several alternative scenarios. A number of conclusions about economic assistance and the development and transfer of new technology are discussed. In the first appendix to this chapter, our results are compared to those of other studies that have investigated some part of this story.
Construction
Authors: Duchin Faye , Lange Glenn-Marie
Published: October 2023

The Role of the Construction Industry The construction industry plays a major role in development, as it provides buildings, roads, bridges, power plants, ports, dams, water systems, and other infrastructure. Typically, construction accounts for 40-70 percent of gross fixed capital formation in developing countries.* In most developed market economies the share is 50-60 percent (uN, 1991a).
Cement
Authors: Duchin Faye , Lange Glenn-Marie
Published: October 2023

The Role of the Cement Industry The word cement can be used to describe any substance that makes objects adhere to each other, but in common usage it refers to hydraulic cement, which has the property of hardening under water. In the United States 95 percent of hydraulic cement production is portland cement, and most of the rest is masonry cement. Clinker is the base for cement; it is a mixture of calcium carbonate, silica, alumina, and usually iron oxide. Clinker is heated in a kiln to achieve partial fusion. To make portland cement, the processed clinker is ground with a small amount of calcium sulfate. The main energy inputs for making cement are fossil fuels used for clinkering; 10-25 percent of total energy consumption is in the form of electricity, mainly for crushing and grinding of feed and the final grinding of cement. The principal material and energy inputs are shown in Table 9.1.
Pulp and Paper
Authors: Duchin Faye , Lange Glenn-Marie
Published: October 2023

Paper is one of the most energy-intensive commodities since it has large direct energy requirements, as well as substantial indirect energy use through its reliance on chemical inputs. While the paper industry has been dominated by developed countries, the developing countries with large forest resources are rapidly increasing their capability for domestic processing of the wood products they traditionally exported. Domestic consumption of paper for uses such as newspapers is expected to increase rapidly in developing regions in the future; such uses of paper are near saturation levels in developed regions.
The Multiple Versions
Authors: Stillinger Jack
Published: October 2023

The ideal of the single best text goes back to the very beginnings of textual scholarship, when classicists, coping with situations in which all surviving versions of a work were many centuries (and many copyings) removed from their original sources, strove not so much to discover the best or most authoritative version as to distinguish the less corrupt from the more corrupt, and when biblical scholars were mainly interested in freeing the authentic words of the Deity from any human error. But the ideal has all along been constituted by the routine formats of scholarly editing, which feature a single text, however chosen, as the standard and reduce all other versions to fragments, relegating them to textual apparatuses that are printed in smaller type and sometimes placed at the back of the volume (or even in a separate volume) rather than at the foot of the page. The ideal is reconstituted once more by the routine formats of trade and textbook publication, which drop the scholarly apparatuses altogether and present each text as an uncluttered, singular entity.
Mr. Justice Roberts and the Railroaders
Authors: Leuchtenburg William E
Published: October 2023

The eight years separating Buck v. Bell from the Rail Pension case saw considerable alteration in the personnel of the Supreme Court and drastic change in the circumstances under which the Court operated. In 1935 the Chief Justice of the United States was no longer William Howard Taft but Charles Evans Hughes, and Sanford and Holmes had been replaced by Benjamin Cardozo and Owen Roberts. The Wall Street crash of 1929 and the ensuing Great Depression had led to emergency legislation in the states and far-reaching experimentation by Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal that raised stark challenges to the constitutional orthodoxy ex­ pounded in the 1920s. In two 1934 cases dealing with state laws, the Supreme Court appeared willing to give wide latitude to legislatures. In Blaisdell v. Minnesota, it validated a mortgage moratorium statute, and in Nebbia v. New York, price controls on milk. Both of these decisions, though, came by 5-4 votes, with the Four Horsemen in dissent and Brandeis, Cardozo, Hughes, Roberts, and Stone forming a precarious majority. The loss of any one of these five would imperil the New Deal. The Roosevelt administration worried most about Justice Roberts, though in Nebbia he had startled the country by saying, “There can be no doubt that upon proper occasion and by appropriate measures the state may regulate a business in any of its aspects, including the prices to be charged.” The Court gave the President a jolt in January 1935 by striking down the “hot oil” provisions of the National Industrial Recovery Act in an 8-1 decision, but the following month the Nebbia coalition came together once more when, by 5-4, the Court legitimated the government’s gold policy, though it made clear that it disapproved of what had been done.
The Historical Context
Authors: Anaya S James
Published: October 2023

Like all systems of law, international law is the product of historical as well as modern elements. International law especially is rooted in jurisprudential strains originating in classical Western legal thought, although today it is increasingly influenced by non-Western actors and perspectives. The subject of indigenous peoples is not new to this genre of law but has figured with varying degrees of prominence in the legal discourse and practice related to international law’s evolution over centuries. Discussions of indigenous peoples have appeared frequently in major treatises and published lectures contributing to the development of international law since the dawn of systemic European encroachment on distant lands half a millennium ago. This chapter discusses the historical threads of legal thought and official behavior that relate to the development of international law prior to the middle part of this century. It is not intended as a comprehensive history of international law and its treatment of indigenous peoples but is, rather, an effort to provide a contextual backdrop for assessing international law as it concerns today’s indigenous peoples, the principal focus of this book.
Negotiation and State Action
Authors: Anaya S James
Published: October 2023

In general, an integral part of international human rights law is the duty of states to secure enjoyment of human rights and to provide remedies where the rights are violated. This duty relates to the substantial corpus of international law on the responsibility of states in regard to unlawful acts and omissions. It is implicit, if not express, in human rights treaties and is similarly implicit in discernible customary human rights law. Thus, the Draft United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples states: “Indigenous peoples have the right to have access to and prompt decision through mutually acceptable and fair procedures for the resolution of conflicts and disputes with States, as well as to effective remedies for all infringements of their individual and collective rights.”The duty to secure enjoyment of human rights is heightened in the context of indigenous peoples and extends beyond states to the international community at large. With increased intensity over the last several years, the international community has maintained indigenous peoples as special subjects of concern and sought cooperatively to secure their rights and well-being. The United Nations, the Organization of American States, the International Labour Organisation, and other international insituations have acknowledged the need for special programs for indigenous peoples at both the state and global levels. In his statement to the United Nations General Assembly at the inauguration of the International Year of the World’s Indigenous People, Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali emphasized that “[t]he commitment of the United Nations’ system to the cause of indigenous people is long-standing. It goes back to a time before the creation of the United Nations itself.” Indigenous peoples are thus subjects of a special duty of care on the part of the international community, akin to the “sacred trust” articulated in the United Nations Charter with regard to the peoples of non-self-governing territories.
Implementation Procedures Involving International Institutions
Authors: Anaya S James
Published: October 2023

Procedures that engage the institutional mechanisms of states at the domestic level are supplemented by procedures involving international institutions. The relationship between these two procedural matrices is regulated by the principle of non interference in matters essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of states, a corollary to the doctrine of state sovereignty, which is reflected in article 2(7) of the United Nations Charter. This principle stems from a policy of favoring decision making at more local levels where possible, including decision making on the implementation of international human rights standards, and it reflects the realities of a world system that is still largely state-centered.
Tests of Puritan Justice
Authors: Vaughan Alden T
Published: October 2023

The defeat of the Pequots in I 637 kft the New England colonies, for the next several decades at waste free from the threat of major Indian opposition. That did not mean freedom from persistent involvement with Indians, however, for individual Indians and Indian nations remained central to the colonies’ day-today affairs. Some of those affairs were essentially political negotiations—mediation of intertribal grievances, for example—and some were essentially economic transactions—as with the fur trade and land purchases. The legislative and judicial records of the several New England colonies reveal that another category of Indian-white contact concerned legal issues that had broad intercultural implications. This essay addresses two such cases from the year after the Pequot War ended, when New England resumed peaceful solutions to disputes between natives and colonists. Both cases were important at the time but have received less attention from historians than it seems to me they deserve.
Introduction: The Court as Cultural Barometer
Authors: Nagel Robert F
Published: October 2023

Part of the romance of constitutional adjudication is the illusion of the ‘landmark case.’ Under the reassuring influence of this innocent notion, the Supreme Court seems to float above the political landscape and from its lofty position occasionally pull our policies toward heaven. The moral ambiguities, the backsliding, the unintended consequences-these all pale in comparison to the vivid heroism of the Court's decision to intervene. Because political decisionmaking, which depends on our ownvirtue and luck, is sometimes frightening, often disappointing, and usually uncertain, the idea of the landmark case is a profound comfort. Whatever our own weaknesses, crucial policies are still possible; they can be imposed by an ‘independent’ judiciary-and permanently at that! As alluring as such a conception of the Court's role has proven to be, especially to legal academics, the facts paint a different picture. At least since 1957, when the political scientist Robert Dahl published a classic study, we have known that the Court usually follows, rather than leads, public opinion and the political branches.1 Not only in the results that it decrees but also in the style of its thought, the Court's constitutional interpretations are often reflections of political currents and class interests that are no more elevated than the official positions of the American Medical Association or the editorials of the New York Times.
Correcting the Political: Interpretation as Mind Control
Authors: Nagel Robert F
Published: October 2023

As Justice Brennan’s arguments in Paris Adult Theatre and Texas v.Johnson reveal, it is intensely uncomfortable to recognize the extent to which we have a common interest in the attitudes, beliefs, and character traits of our fellow citizens. But this interest is a fact, and it is as unavoidable as it is dangerous. Many, like Brennan, who deny that it matters much whether society is permeated with pornographic materials believe that it is crucial for our culture to be suffused with courage and tolerance. Others, often on university campuses, deny the importance of a shared core of affection and respect for our country but propose ‘hate codes’ and various forms of ‘sensitivity training’ to assure that we all possess enlightened views about race, gender, disability, or sexual preference. To admit as a general principle that we do have a significant stake in the moral character of the community opens each of us to the possibility of domination by groups whose values and objectives we distrust. However, in pursuing our own moral visions, we necessarily attempt to inflict on others the very types of controls that we tend to think would be illegitimate if inflicted by others on us. Our own aspirations, then, commit us to a principle that we find frightening. This fear can be escaped or reduced through a number of stratagems. In constitutional law, as I observed in the preceding chapter, a major one is the asymmetrical characterization of objectives.
The Binds That Tie
Authors: Jamieson Kathleen Hall
Published: October 2023

In 1631, in Cautio Criminalis, Julius Friedrich Spee identified one no-win situation in which prosecutors placed women accused of witch-craft. The suspected witch was submerged in a pond. If she drowned, she deserved to; if she didn’t, she was a witch. In the first case, God was revealing her nature; in the second, the devil. Under torture, women either did or did not admit to complicity with Satan. If they did, they were executed for their crime. If they didn’t, their silence was attributed to solidarity with Satan and they too were marched off to the stake. Although he didn’t know it, Spee had identified a trap set for women throughout history. When our foremothers overstepped prescribed boundaries, they confronted situations constructed to ensure that they were guilty until proven guilty.
Factory Walls
Authors: Bradley Betsy Hunter
Published: October 2023

The walls of industrial buildings, as well as their roofs, were engineered to provide light and ventilation for manufacturing space. Invariably, the goal was to replicate ideal outdoors conditions-the brightness and comfortable temperature of a June day. Daylight, especially northern light, was preferred for manufacturing space because of its high quality and low cost. Even after the introduction of gas and electric lighting, natural light was cheaper and better for close work and matching colors. Artificial light was used to supplement daylight during the early morning and late afternoon hours only as necessary. The term daylight factory became prevalent when reinforced concrete and steel framed construction nearly doubled the amount of wall space that could be devoted to window openings. The large windows that extended from pier to pier and nearly from floor to ceiling created previously unimaginable lighting conditions in loft buildings.
Factory Roofs
Authors: Bradley Betsy Hunter
Published: October 2023

Perhaps more than any other aspect of the industrial building, the roof was engineered to serve industry-to provide ventilation and light, resist fire, span large areas, and support equipment. Engineered factory roofs also gave industrial buildings, particularly production sheds, their distinctive form and character. American engineers adapted European roof forms and methods of roof lighting for the harsher climate of North America and developed new ones as well. Roofs engineered to provide light varied from the gable roof pierced by skylights to roofs that were skylights: the sawtooth roof. The monitor roof, with its clerestory of sash elevated above adjacent portions of the roof to provide both light and ventilation, saw extensive use and was engineered to be even more effective during the first half of the twentieth century.