bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Comparative Study of Public Food Marketing as Viewed by Consumers in Mexico and India
Authors: Dahringer Lee D. , Hilger Marye T.
Published: March 2007

Public marketing of essential goods and services is frequently undertaken in developing economies, often with controversial results. Most evaluation and planning of public marketing has been from the perspective of economists, or public policy planners. Relatively few analyses have examined public marketing from the perspective of its impact upon those the system serves-consumers. This article presents an analysis of two national public food marketing agencies, one in Mexico and one in India. It reports on the performance of each agency as an active participant in the marketplace from the end user's perspective.

The data in both countries suggest that consumers support each public marketing agency as important to economic development and as offering good values. However, CONASUPO in Mexico appears to serve better its intended target market than does FCI in India. Both agencies are viewed by consumers as powerful competitors, although their impact on prices in private stores was not apparent. Data also suggest the importance of non-patrons in successful management of public food marketing.
Fostering Development through Backward Integration in Import Channels
Authors: Klein Saul
Published: March 2007

Backward vertical integration can provide a tool for economic development in lesser developed countries. At a micro level, transaction cost analysis provides an explanation for the degree of vertical integration found in import channels. Macro level consequences of backward integration are derived and policy recommendations are suggested to achieve greater backward integration. These macro consequences involve allocative efficiency, dynamic learning effects, technology transfer, and entrepreneurial incentives for import substitution.
Battling Worldliness in the New Zion: Mercantilism versus Homespun in Nineteenth-Century Utah
Authors: Belk Russell W.
Published: March 2007

Mormon pioneers fled to Utah with a prophetic vision of a self-contained cooperative and communal society. This vision had a place for agriculture and manufacturing but held merchandising to be at least vaguely immoral. In the ensuing battle between the original vision and mercantilism, the utopian view ultimately lost. This article examines the nature of the battle and factors that led to this outcome.
Peddling the Bicycle in the 1890s: Mass Marketing Shifts into High Gear
Authors: Petty Ross D.
Published: March 2007

While the bicycle industry has been recognized for its contribution to mass production in the late 1800s, it has not been generally recognized for developing mass marketing techniques to sell its products. The bicycle advanced the practice of advertising by developing competitive content, using images in posters, developing research techniques to determine effectiveness, and supporting a new media, magazines. The industry also developed new promotional techniques, including sponsoring racing teams and obtaining celebrity endorsements. It perfected the trade show and annual model changes. Most significantly, the bicycle of the late 1800s was marketed using segmentation techniques that have been thought to be of more recent origin.
Sustainable Marketing
Authors: van Dam Ynte K. , Apeldoorn Paul A. C.
Published: March 2007

In order for marketing to play a role in sustainable economic development, a critical reassessment of marketing theory is required. Both the "societal marketing" of the 1970s and contemporary "green marketing" are efforts to improve the relationship between marketing and the natural environment. Taken alone, however, either approach provides but a partial analysis of the problems that are involved. Starting from the assumptions and limitations of economic and cognitive approaches to marketing and from the dilemmas between micro-marketing objectives and macromarketing goals, marketing is shown to have an inherent drive toward unsustainability. Sustainable marketing requires finding optimal regulatory frameworks for governing the role of marketing within a confined ecological space.
Moral Reflections in Marketing
Authors: Bone Paula Fitzgerald , Corey Robert J.
Published: March 2007

In this article, the authors introduce the concept of moral reflection and test several contextual variables thought to affect how much an individual engages in Business-Relevant Moral Reflection (BRMR). We find that the degree of organizational centralization is negatively related to BRMR and that organizational norms are positively related to BRMR. Additionally, we find that the greater importance an individual places on both pragmatic and moral values the more she or he thinks about business ethics.
The Evolution of Quality in Consumer Goods
Authors: Carsky Mary L. , Dickinson Roger A. , Canedy Charles R.
Published: March 2007

This article examines changes in the quality of consumer products over time. It begins with a historical overview of the evolution of product quality since the beginning of the twentieth century. Next, evidence that substantive quality has increased and variability has decreased is summarized. An examination of Consumer Reports data supports the hypotheses that substantive quality has increased and variability has decreased significantly in recent years. Implications for consumer behavior and marketers are discussed.
Kinematics of Robot Wrists
Authors: Paul Richard P. , Stevenson Charles N.
Published: March 2007

Robots for use in assembly and other interactive tasks must be able to respond to both forces and velocity com mands within their workspace. By considering a general six-joint robot we show that all such robots are limited in their ability to respond in orientation to feedback commands. We also show that it is simple to predict, if not to avoid, these regions of degeneracy in which the manipulator loses a degree of freedom.
Automatic Synthesis of Fine-Motion Strategies for Robots
Authors: Lozano-Pérez Tomás , Mason Matthew T. , Taylor Russell H.
Published: March 2007

Active compliance enables robots to carry out tasks in the presence of significant sensing and control errors. Compliant motions are quite difficult for humans to specify, however. Furthermore, robot programs are quite sensitive to details of geometry and to error characteristics and must, therefore, be constructed anew for each task. These factors motivate the search for automatic synthesis tools for robot program ming, especially for compliant motion. This paper describes a formal approach to the synthesis of compliant-motion strategies from geometric descriptions of assembly operations and explicit estimates of errors in sensing and control. A key aspect of the approach is that it provides criteriafor correct ness of compliant-motion strategies.
Communication
Authors: Flash Tamar , Potts Renfrey B.
Published: March 2007

The paper considers the design of a computationally efficient trajectory planner for a manipulator. The design is based on a discrete dynamic robot model recently proposed by Neu man and Tourassis. The trajectory planner is formulated as a linear program (LP) with objective function and constraints expressed as linear functions of the reciprocals of the discrete time intervals of the model. The LP allows fast computation and flexibility in choice of criteria and constraints for the trajectory. The design is illustrated by some simulation ex amples for a two-link manipulator with rotary joints.
Application and Comparison of On-Line Identification Methods for Flexible Manipulator Control
Authors: Tzes Anthony P. , Yurkovich Stephen
Published: March 2007

The application of on-line identification schemes to flexi ble manipulators is considered. The common objective of all methods, for control purposes, is a time domain para meterization of the system transfer function. Time domain methods generally require more computational load, are more sensitive to noise than frequency domain methods, and suffer from over- (under-) parameterization of the transfer function. Frequency domain methods parameter ize the lightly damped transfer function in terms of its easily recognizable poles and zeros and offer alternatives to time domain methods. Several solutions to overcome the aforementioned problems are discussed and demon strated through experimental studies on a one-link flexible manipulator.
Posing Polygonal Objects in the Plane by Pushing
Authors: Akella Srinivas , Mason Matthew T.
Published: March 2007

This paper studies the use of pushing actions to orient and trans late objects in the plane. The authors use linear normal pushes, which are straight-line pushes in a direction normal to the pushing fence. These pushes are specified by the fence orientation and push distance. The authors show that a set of linear normal pushes can always be found to move any polygonal object from any initial con figuration to any goal configuration in the obstacle-free plane. The object configuration is specified by its pose; that is, its position and orientation. The authors formulate the search for such a sequence of pushes as a linear programming problem. They then describe an implemented pose planner that uses this formulation to identify a sequence of linear normal pushes given any polygonal object, any initial pose, and any goal pose. This planner is proven to be com plete and to have polynomial time complexity. The planner, which uses an analysis of the mechanics of pushing an object, generates open-loop plans that do not require sensing. The authors describe experiments that demonstrate the validity of the generated plans.
An Architecture for Autonomy
Authors: Alami R. , Chatila R. , Fleury S. , Ghallab M. , Ingrand F.
Published: March 2007

An autonomous robot offers a challenging and ideal field for the study of intelligent architectures. Autonomy within a rational be havior could be evaluated by the robot's effectiveness and robust ness in carrying out tasks in different and ill-known environments. It raises major requirements on the control architecture. Further more, a robot as a programmable machine brings up other archi tectural needs, such as the ease and quality of its specification and programming.

This article describes an integrated architecture that allows a mobile robot to plan its tasks—taking into account temporal and domain constraints, to perform corresponding actions and to con trol their execution in real-time—while being reactive to possible events. The general architecture is composed of three levels: a de cision level, an execution level, and a functional level. The latter is composed of modules that embed the functions achieving sensor- data processing and effector control. The decision level is goal and event driven, and it may have several layers, according to the application; their basic structure is a planner/supervisor pair that enables the architecture to integrate deliberation and reaction.

The proposed architecture relies naturally on several representa tions, programming paradigms, and processing approaches, which meet the precise requirements that are specified for each level. The authors have developed proper tools to meet these specifications and implement each level of the architecture: a temporal planner, IxTeT; a procedural system for task refinement and supervision, PRS; Kheops for the reactive control of the functional level, and GenoM for the specification and integration of modules at that level Validation of the temporal and logical properties of the reactive parts of the system, through these tools, are presented.

Instances of the proposed architecture have been integrated into several indoor and outdoor robots. Examples from real-world ex perimentations are provided and analyzed.
Undergraduate and Graduate Music Majors' Perceptions of Cross-Rhythms
Authors: Wapnick Joel
Published: March 2007

Twenty undergraduate and graduate music majors attempted to identify cross-rhythmic patterns generated from two melodies played simultaneously. Each melody consisted of randomly generated non repeating dodecaphonic tone rows. Thirteen different cross-rhythms were tested. The rate of correct identification was inversely related to the number of non-coincident pitches per measure that were generated by the two constituent melodies. Identification accuracy was unaffected by whether the higher-pitched melody was faster or slower than the lower-pitched melody. Accuracy was also unrelated to pitch distance between the melodies and to amount of loudness differeltiation between the melodies.
Musical Talent and Visual-Spatial Abilities: A Longitudinal Study
Authors: Hassler M. , Birbaumer N. , Feil A.
Published: March 2007

The relationship between musical talent, especially the ability to compose and/or improvise, and visual-spatial ability was investi- gated. Subjects were 60 boys and 60 girls from 9 to 14 years of age. Three groups of 40 were compared: (1) Children with musical talent and the ability to compose and/or improvise. (2) Children with musical talent without the ability to compose and/or impro- vise. (3) Non-musicians as controls. The spatial visualisation factor was found to be significantly related to musical talent in boys and in girls; high scores on Witelson's Dichaptic Stimulation Test were significantly related to musical talent in boys. The 13 boys and 13 girls with highest scores for their compositions and/or improvis- ations as evaluated by music scientists were contrasted with group 3. Results from the total sample were confirmed. One year later 51 boys and 52 girls who had participated in the first stage of the study were retested. Creative musical ability was significantly related to spatial orientation in both boys and girls and to spatial visual- isation in boys.
Field-Dependence/Independence, Movement-Based Instruction and Fourth Graders' Achievement in Selected Musical Tasks
Authors: Schmidt Charles P. , Lewis Barbara E.
Published: March 2007

The purpose of this study was 1) to examine the effect of psychomotor activities on achievement in temporal discrimination tasks; and, 2) to examine the interaction of this treatment with the cognitive style variable of field dependence/independence (FDI). A one-group pre-test-posttest design was utilized in the study. An intact class (n = 29) of normal fourth graders received eighteen class sessions in which musical concepts pertaining to tempo, meter and rhythm were reinforced through activities involving a psychomotor response. FDI was measured by means of the Group Embedded Figures Test (GEFT); subjects were classified as field dependent (FD) or field independent (FI) on the basis of a median split of the GEFT. The following standardized tests were used as both pre- and posttests; 1) Music Aptitude Profile (MAP)-Meter; 2) MAP-Tempo; and 3) Intermediate Measures of Music Audiation (IMMA)-Rhythm.

Data were analyzed through repeated measures ANOVA procedures. Results indicated that pre- to posttest differences for IMMA-Rhythm and MAP-Meter and interactions with FDI were non-significant. For MAP-Tempo, the pre- to posttest difference and the interaction effect for FDI were statistically significant, with the interaction effect accounting for 15% of the variance.
Research Note: Beta Blockers and Musical Perception
Authors: Nube Jacqueline
Published: March 2007

The effects of Propranolol (Inderal) on the perception of music, with a special focus on subjective emotional feelings, were investigated in an investigation which incorporated double blind and placebo controls. The effects of the drug were rated on a questionnaire of 133 items covering many aspects of musical perception. Within the framework of this study, no significant effects of the drugs were found.
Cross-Cultural Comparisons in the Affective Response to Music
Authors: Gregory Andrew H. , Varney Nicholas
Published: March 2007

Subjects from European and Asian cultural backgrounds listened to a variety of excerpts of western classical, Indian classical and New Age music. They were asked to choose appropriate adjectives to describe the mood of the excerpts, and also to identify the correct title of the New Age excerpts and to identify the seasons denoted by musical excerpts portraying different seasons of the year. Comparisons between European and Asian subjects revealed many subtle differences in affective response in the adjectival choice task, but cultural differences were not so marked in the choice of title and seasons. The results generally suggest that the affective response to music is determined more by cultural tradition than by the inherent qualities of the music.
Boys' and Girls' Preferences for Musical Instruments: A Function of Gender?
Authors: O'Neill Susan A. , Boultona Michael J.
Published: March 2007

This study investigated children's preferences for learning to play musical instruments and the extent to which boys' and girls' preferences are based on the gender stereotyped associations that have been found in previous studies. During individual interviews, 153 children (aged 9-1 1) from the north west of England stated their preferences for learning to play six musical instruments, and gave their views on which instruments should not be played by members of each sex. It was found that girls showed a significantly stronger preference for the piano, flute and violin than boys, whereas boys expressed a stronger preference for the guitar, drums and trumpet than girls. Log-linear analyses revealed that boys and girls have similar ideas about which instruments should not be played by members of each sex. Implications for music education are discussed, along with an explanation of the results in terms of children's social understanding of gender differentiation.
Toward a Sociology of Social Scientific Knowledge
Authors: Maynard Douglas W. , Schaeffer Nora Cate
Published: March 2007

When abstract, quantitative and generalizing sociologies are juxtaposed to qualitative sociologies, the relationship is often seen as complementary or competitive. Our purpose is to articulate a different type of relationship between abstract social scientific knowledge (as exemplified in Survey Research [SR]) and the form of concrete and particularized knowledge represented in ethnomethodological conversation analysis. SR, historically, represents what we (following Jean Converse) refer to as the `ascendance of the objectivized subjective realm'. Like other kinds of (in Ted Porter's phrase) `mechanical objectivity', this ascendance is everywhere made possible because it is accompanied by practitioners' (researchers' and interviewers') tacit, practical forms of knowledge that enable them to work through the situated problems endemic to SR. As endeavours that locate orderliness and social organization in the details of actual social activity, ethnomethodology and conversation analysis find that SR Centres have intrinsic interest as sites of locally-produced structures. Investigating the situated tacit practices of investigators actually conducting SR and survey interviews, ethnomethodological and conversation analytical approaches to SR are also akin to the Sociology of Scientific Knowledge (SSK), which has largely investigated practices in natural science laboratories. This may suggest that there is `symmetry' between natural and social science, but we also argue that `asymmetry' is a serviceable notion for science studies. Indeed, understanding the asymmetry between survey-based and ethnomethodological social sciences offers potential for communication (rather than a `state of non-intercourse') between sociologists and the scientists they study. As an illustration of the Sociology of Social Scientific Knowledge (SSSK), we examine a successful attempt at `refusal conversion' in an SR Centre.
Argument and 17th-Century Science
Authors: Gross Alan G. , Harmon Joseph E. , Reidy Michael S.
Published: March 2007

This paper compares the argumentative practices of the English and French scientific communities from the origin of the scientific journal in 1665 up to 1700. To that end, we ask a uniform set of questions related to argumentative practice in a large sample of articles randomly drawn from the three pre-eminent scientific journals of this period: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Journal des Sçavans and Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences. The results suggest an interesting link between socio-political structures and their influence on early scientific societies, and the articles in their fledgling publications. In particular, the early professionalization of French science through the Académie Royale led to a heightened emphasis on features familiar in 20th-century practice: quantification, mathematical and mechanical explanations for acquired facts, visual representations of facts and their explanations, and use of observations and experimental results as stepping stones to theory. This social arrangement led as well to a narrower view of what constituted acceptable subject matter. Despite these differences, there are also enough similarities in English and French communicative practices to suggest the beginnings of an international scientific community.
Science in the News:
Authors: Malone Ruth E. , Boyd Elizabeth , Bero Lisa A.
Published: March 2007

News media play critical rôles in public understandings of health issues. Media presentation of scientific evidence seems to involve the `facts', which are then discussed and interpreted by various `experts'. From an ethnomethodological or social constructionist perspective, however, news `facts' themselves are socially constituted. Examining how health science is reported thus offers important insight into the social construction of health policy problems. We offer an interpretive account of United States newspaper coverage of passive smoking during a time in which several major scientific studies of the issue were conducted and reported upon. We argue that newspaper journalists, through the use of several rhetorical devices, constructed an account of the passive smoking issue in which scientific `facts' were less important than moral `facts'. Rather than (or sometimes, in addition to) explicating science, newspaper coverage conveyed a moral narrative highlighting tensions between American cultural values of individual liberty and protection of the public health.
A Little Dirt Never Hurt Anyone:
Authors: Mody Cyrus C.M.
Published: March 2007

In many laboratory sciences, issues of cleanliness and purity are everpresent concerns. In materials science, keeping things (instruments, materials, people) clean structures the knowledge-making process. Using the work of Mary Douglas, I examine various contaminants, impurities and defects that are relevant to materials scientists. Importantly, though, definitions of what constitutes `dirt' are multiple, overlapping and, often, formally contradictory; this means that impurities are as much positive resources as threatening pollutants. In materials science labs, where many kinds of actors and forms of life intersect, pollution may be used to rein in confusion and ambiguity. This paper traces various manifestations of laboratory dirt, then examines how (un)cleanliness enables certain moves in the materials science game.
`Creative Solutions' and `Fibbing Results'
Authors: Roth Wolff-Michael , Bowen G. Michael
Published: March 2007

This paper is concerned with enculturation in field ecology, where students are frequently required to spend long periods of time in the field with little or no contact with others. We document the practical choices that allow aspiring ecologists, more or less successfully (in their own accounts), to deal with the indeterminacy and open-endedness of independent fieldwork, involving a version of what Collins called `the experimenters' regress'. `Constraint satisfaction' is a suitable concept to describe how our participant dealt with this regress. However, `creative solutions' and `fibbing results' become viable options when problems are deemed insurmountable.
Scientific Method Discourses in the Construction of `EMF Science'
Authors: Mercer David
Published: March 2007

Since the late 1970s, there has been considerable debate surrounding the question of whether or not exposures to non-ionizing radiation and electric and magnetic fields (EMF), produced by powerlines and electrical and telecommunications technologies, are harmful to health. Whilst there has been some recent evidence of regulatory fatigue, and attempts to enforce closure, the EMF debate nevertheless still continues. This paper will explore the rôle played by competing images of scientific method in the argumentative strategies used by two of the main protagonists in an Australian public inquiry (held in 1990-91) which investigated the EMF issue: `Inquiry into Community Needs and High Voltage (132kv and above) Transmission Line Development', the so-called Gibbs Inquiry. Apart from documenting some of the epistemologically intricate features of the EMF controversy, the following discussion will also consider the way scientific method discourses can contribute to enhancing the durability of knowledge claims in legal and regulatory settings.
Strategy in American Cancer Research After World War II: A Case Study
Authors: Bud R.F.
Published: March 2007

This is a study in the history of the large scale science that emerged after the Second World War. The paper examines the Influence of industrial research practices on the work of two important American cancer research laboratories - the Sloan-Kettering Institute and The Institute for Cancer Research - during the period 1945-50. It is shown that even before the war the application of Industrial organization to cancer research was debated. Then it is demonstrated that the early post-war strategies of the two institutes drew upon Industrial experience. Finally it is argued that these Industrially influenced strategies were responsible for institutional emphases on chemotherapy research.
Independent Discovery in Science and Technology: A Closer Look at the Poisson Distribution
Authors: Simonton Dean Keith
Published: March 2007

Social determinists have argued that the occurrence of independent discoveries and inventions demonstrates the inevitability of techno-scientific progress. Yet the frequency of such multiples may be adequately predicted by a probabilistic model, especially the Poisson model suggested by Price. A detailed inquiry reveals that the Poisson distribution can predict almost all the observed variation in the frequency distribution of multiples collected by Merton, and by Ogburn and Thomas. This study further indicates that: (a) the number of observed multiples may be greatly underestimated, particularly those involving few independent contributors, (b) discoveries and inventions are not sufficiently probable to avoid a large proportion of total failures, and hence techno-scientific advance is to a large measure indeterminate; (c) chance or 'luck' seems to play such a major part that the 'great genius' theory is no more tenable than the social deterministic theory.
The Seamless Web: Technology, Science, Etcetera, Etcetera
Authors: Hughes Thomas P.
Published: March 2007

Over the past two decades or so, historians of science have lamented the limitations of internalist history and celebrated the rise of contextual history. Historians of technology, however, have not accepted the location, by historians of science, of technology within the context of science. Historians of technology see an interaction, rather than contextual dependency. A few historians and sociologists of science and technology are now suggesting `networks' and `systems' as the preferred version of the interactive approach, with the interaction occurring not simply between science and technology, but also among a host of actors and institutions. Networks and systems eliminate many categories in favour of a `seamless web', which may lead to a new appreciation of the complex narrative style.
Highly Cited Soviet Papers: An Exploratory Investigation
Authors: Narin Francis , Frame J. Davidson , Carpenter Mark P.
Published: March 2007

The bibliometric methodology of citation tabulation is applied to the problem of identifying highly cited Soviet scientific areas. A general lack of highly cited Soviet papers is apparent. A further indication of the isolation of Soviet science is the existence of two discrete sets of highly cited Soviet papers, one set published in Soviet journals and cited by Soviet scientists, and a second set published in international journals and cited by non-Soviet scientists. The lists of highly cited papers were reviewed by experts in the field. The consensus was that these lists were indicative of areas of strong Soviet research and that lists of institutions producing these papers included the important Soviet labs.
The Socio-political Roots of Boris Hessen: Soviet Marxism and the History of Science
Authors: Graham Loren R.
Published: March 2007

One of the most famous papers ever presented at a history of science meeting was `The Socio-Economic Roots of Newton's Principia', given by the Soviet physicist Boris Hessen at the Second International Congress of the History of Science, held in London in 1931. Although many scholars at the congress were impressed by Hessen's thesis that intellectual achievements such as Newton's are best explained by examining the social context out of which they arose, oddly enough no one thought to apply this sort of analysis to Hessen's achievement. An examination of Soviet Russia in 1931, a time of great political and economic stress, shows that both Soviet physics and Hessen personally were under very unusual pressures. Hessen's main concern in previous months had been to protect Einstein's relativity theory from attacks by vulgar Marxist ideologists. Hessen's paper on Newton was carefully crafted to support this defensive effort and simultaneously was aimed at strengthening Hessen's own political situation.
Federal Funding and Planetary Astronomy, 1950-75: A Case Study
Authors: Tatarewicz Joseph N.
Published: March 2007

Planetary astronomy offers an excellent opportunity to examine the effects of federal funding on scientific careers and specialties. Some scientists and historians have claimed that study of the moon and planets, once a major specialty in astronomy, became a minority specialty around the turn of the century, having been eclipsed by stellar and galactic agendas. According to this view, the space programme contributed to a renewal of planetary studies as plans were being made for exploratory voyages. NASA made available relatively large sums of money for new instruments, facilities, observations, theoretical work, and predoctoral training. Evidence that links investments in these programmes with renewed interest in the planets by astronomers (and also geophysicists) has been largely anecdotal. In this paper an attempt is made to measure this renewed activity in a more objective way, and to relate this activity to the infusion of money. The analyses reported here concentrate on the changing composition of the community of scientists who published on planetary topics before and during the NASA programmes, with special attention to career problems chosen for investigation. The analyses make use of an existing data base on publishing habits of American astronomers, combined with aggregate funding data.
Quantitative Measures of Communication in Science: A Study of the Formal Level
Authors: MacRoberts Michael H. , MacRoberts Barbara R.
Published: March 2007

Studies of scientific communication have relied on citation indices and bibliographies for data. We examined papers to see how much influence appears as references in bibliographies. We found that very little does.
Of Asteroids and Dinosaurs: The Role of the Press in the Shaping of Scientific Debate
Authors: Clemens Elisabeth S.
Published: March 2007

Since 1980, catastrophist theories of extinction have experienced a dramatic renaissance, based on the claim that important biological changes have extraterrestrial causes - that asteroids or comets were responsible for the extinction of the dinosaurs, as well as a host of lesser-known creatures. Formerly relegated to the periphery of evolutionary biology and paleontology, the search for evidence of extraterrestrially instigated extinctions has become a well-funded and rapidly developing area of research, involving scientists from a wide variety of disciplines. In large part, the rapid establishment and diffusion of the `impact' or `asteroid' hypothesis may be attributed to the ways in which the style of the argument, as well as the institutional location of its proponents, has interacted with the system of scientific publication, both professional and popular. Through an analysis of the organization of publication and its relationship to various ideals concerning evidence, argument and `good science', some of the consequences of the organization of communication for the development of scientific thought are suggested.
Biotechnology in the Twentieth Century
Authors: Bud Robert
Published: March 2007

Why has the term `biotechnology' been so ambiguous, while hopes for the subject have been so high? Exploring biotechnology's historic role as a `boundary object' between engineering and biology offers an explanation. The word is shown to have been interpreted in a variety of ways since the beginning of the century. Here the translations and negotiations over its identity are uncovered, showing that the words Biotechnik and Biotechnologie were poineered around World War I, principally in Denmark, Germany and Hungary. Those ideas were used and modified in the writings and institutions of engineers and biologists in Britain, Sweden and the USA. The 1960s are identified as the period in which biotechnology acquired a single identity, but alternative meanings were in conflict and then merged in the 1970s and 1980s. The analysis suggests that the concept of a `biotechnology' is deeply entrenched in twentieth-century culture, and that current debates over regulation can be seen in terms of uncertainties over the proper boundary between engineering and biology.
The Role of Information Systems in the UK National Health Service: Action at a Distance and the Fetish of Calculation
Authors: Bloomfield Brian P.
Published: March 2007

This paper examines some fundamental issues pertaining to the use of, as well as to the distinctive characteristics of, information technology in relation to the development of information systems within the UK National Health Service (NHS). The paper refers to the current Resource Management Initiative in the NHS, which involves the fabrication of information systems to connect medical activity to resource usage, and thus to costs. Examining the features of some of the rival inscriptions undergoing development to make this connection visible, the paper highlights the properties of information technology in enhancing their mobilization. It also addresses the immutability and combinability of these inscriptions, and discusses some of the implications, in terms of medical practice and knowledge, which may follow from their use.
Extending the Social Shaping of Technology Approach: Ideology and Appropriation
Authors: Mackay Hughie , Gillespie Gareth
Published: March 2007

This paper explores ways in which the `social shaping of technology' (SST) approach to the technology-society relationship might be extended, by drawing on ideas which have been developed in media and cultural studies. We introduce the various approaches to the social shaping of technology by discussing, in particular, the work of Raymond Williams and Langdon Winner. We argue that the SST approach is limited on three counts. First, it fails to take account of ideology in the social shaping of technology. We argue that ideology is central to functional and symbolic encording, and suggest that designers are a key group in these processes. Second, we identify marketing as a process which is central to the shaping of technology: it plays an important part in both constructing the demand for technologies, and in informing their development. Third, we suggest that the SST approach fails to take account of the appropriation of technologies by users. Technologies offer varying possibilities for such appropriation, but these are not limitless: some technologies are more `open' than others in the range of possible uses to which they may be put. But appropriation is not just about the use of a technology: it is also about the meaning the technology has for its user. These ideas are discussed in relation to recent work on various domestic technologies.
Parliamentary Ambivalence in Relation to Embryo Research
Authors: Mulkay Michael
Published: March 2007

Documentary material drawn from the British parliamentary debate over embryo research is discussed in relation to a claim by Isaac Asimov regarding public support for, and opposition to, scientists' activities. The case of embryo research is taken to suggest that public reaction to science at certain fundamental moral boundaries is likely to be deeply ambivalent.
The African Heritage of Benjamin Banneker
Authors: Eglash Ron
Published: March 2007

Benjamin Banneker is well known for his accomplishments in early American applied science, as well as for his seminal role in African-American science history. Historical and linguistic evidence suggests that his grandfather was of Wolof origin, and that his father was from the area between what is now Ghana and Nigeria. This cultural heritage may have emerged in some of his mathematical thinking.
The Manifestations of Ill-treatment of Children: Historical Background
Authors: Lenoir-Degoumois V.
Published: March 2007

A brief survey of attitudes to children through the ages drawing on legal history and on literature. The break through to an acknowledgement and understanding of the prob lems of child abuse are traced back to the first medical review of the subject in 1879, and the intense work of American radio logists and paediatricians in the last twenty years are described.
In-Programme Failure among Delinquent Youths in Community-Based Programmes: Some Reflections on a Neglected Area of Research
Authors: Shorts Ivor D.
Published: March 2007

Community-based programmes and interventions for delinquent youths typically experience very high rates of in-programme failure (IPF). In view of the rapid growth in the number of such programmes, especially in North America and in Britain, it is regrettable that this phenomenon has been so under-researched. This article outlines some of the major problems posed by high IPF rates for the effective delivery, operation and evaluation of such community-centered programmes. It also proposes that research address itself to a number of IPF related issues, namely, sub-types of IPF, contributing factors, secondary prevention measures, early predictive devices and primary prevention.
Parasuicidal Behaviour of Detained Scottish Young Offenders
Authors: Power Kevin G. , Spencer Alec P.
Published: March 2007

A group of detained Scottish Young Offenders were assessed shortly after being placed on Strict Suicidal Observation. Suicidal intent and medical lethality were, in most cases, particularly low. Methods of parasuicide varied, the majority of inmates verbally threatening suicide or exhibiting minor wrist laceration while a small number adopted cell arson, swallowed objects or used the unpredictable and dangerous method offeigned hanging. A voidance of expected inmate confrontation, manipulative intent and emotional upset were the prime motivators for parasuicidal behaviour-psychiatric disturbance playing a minor role. Our findings are discussed in relation to penal setting and parasuicide in the general population.
Private and Public Prisons: A Comparison of Costs, Programs and Facilities
Authors: Sellers Martin P.
Published: March 2007

This article compares three privately operated prisons with three publicly operated prisons in an effort to learn which is run more efficiently. Through a comparative cost analysis of private and public prisons the author found that the private prisons provided more services at lower cost than their public counterparts. Factors that may have contributed to this include: increased economies when purchasing goods; less bureaucratic red tape; better control over resources; more flexible manpower usage; and the ability to build prisons quickly.

The author concluded from the findings of this study that comparative cost analyses and possible future research on the privatization of prisons will support the argument by proponents of prison privatization that private operation ofprisons is a worthwhile endeavor.
Lifestyle Criminality and the Psychology of Disresponsibility
Authors: White Thomas W. , Walters Glenn D.
Published: March 2007

Lifestyle criminality is defined as a life pattern of irresponsible, self-indulgent, interpersonally intrusive, social rule breaking behavior. Disresponsibility is a process in which a person's actions and behavior are attributed to factors other than the person himself. It is argued that disresponsibility has interfered with our ability to understand and manage criminal behavior because it provides the lifestyle criminal with legitimately sounding excuses for his norm-violating actions. Strategies by which we can move from apsychology of disresponsibility to one which emphasizes personal responsibility are discussed.
Role-Taking Ability and Gough'S Theory of Psychopathy
Authors: O'Mahony Paul D. , Murphy Paul G.
Published: March 2007

Thirty prisoners and 30 university students were administered the socialization scale of the California Personality Inventory under "honest" and `"fake good" conditions as a means of testing Gough's claim that the scale is immune to any significant degree of `faking good. " While the scale succeeded in differentiating the two groups, both groups-but especially the prisoners—were able to make significant gains in measured socialization under the "fake good" condition. Three prisoners who were classifiable as "psychopaths, " according to their "honest" results on the scale, were able to fake a "best citizen" profile. If it is granted that the scale is a valid measure of socialization, these results cast doubt on Gough's theory that socialization is strictly dependent on role-taking ability.
British and U.S. Left Realism: A Critical Comparison
Authors: DeKeseredy Walter S. , Schwartz Martin D.
Published: March 2007

Left realism has generated enormous interest and controversy in critical criminology over the past several years both in North America and in the United Kingdom. While there are important similarities between the writings from these countries, there are also some deep differences and divisions. This article provides some explication of these similarities and differences within a critical context.
Modes of Defensive Behavior in a Violent Society
Authors: Palermo George B. , Simpson Douglas , Knudten Richard , Turci Vitaliano , Davis Hugh
Published: March 2007

Violence has a history beginning with mankind. The study of violence indicates periodic peaks of violence. Our present time clearly suggests that violence is widespread and seemingly uncontrollable. One potential source of help is that of religion. The clergy needs to proclaim the values of morality, ethics, spirituality, and social responsibility. Since members of religion are everywhere throughout society, a basic, fundamental climate of anti-violence might begin to take root.
Self-Concept Comparisons of English and American Delinquents
Authors: Evans Robert C. , Copus Gary D. , Sullenberger Thomas E. , Hodgkinson F. Peter
Published: March 2007

The Tennessee Self-Concept Scale (TSCS) was administered to 223 United States and 180 English institutionalized juvenile offenders. In a crosscultural comparison of the subjects on the six TSCS empirical scales, both groups present indications of significantly more psychopathology on five of the six scales than nondelinquents. When the two groups are contrasted, the U.S. group is found to score significantly higher, overall, in psychopathology than the English delinquents. Discriminant function analysis identified two of the six empirical psychopathology scales, Personal Integration and Personality Disorder, capable of distinguishing the subjects by country. Analyses of the data suggest that recent-past and current conservative policies governing official responses to youth crime fail because they tend to address delinquency as if the underlying causes are constitutional. Rather, this data suggest that the differences found between the two groups are cultural in nature.
Measuring Aggression on Psychiatric Inpatient Units: Development and Testing of the Calgary General Hospital Aggression Scale
Authors: Arboleda-Florez J. , Crisanti A. , Rose S. , Holley H.
Published: March 2007

During the pilot component of a study designed to document aggressive incidents on the psychiatric inpatient units and to provide practical information relating to such incidents, it became evident that there were problems with using the Staff Observation Aggression Scale. In order to conduct the proposed study a new scale needed to be developed. The Calgary General Hospital (CGH) Aggression Scale was generated to: (1) capture all types of aggressive behavior, including behaviors that are very mild as well as those that are more severe and (2) reflect behaviors exhibited by all types of patients, not just those that are only a small proportion of this hospital's inpatient population. In addition to an introduction to the CGH Aggression Scale, descriptive data resulting from the use of the new scale and data regarding the reliability of the new scale will be discussed
Crime and Penal Policy in the Socialist African Republic of Tanzania
Authors: Arthur John A.
Published: March 2007

Since its independence from Britain in 1961, the nation of Tanzania in East Africa has undergone tremendous sociocultural, political and economic transfornations, the most important of which was the introduction of African socialism or ujamaa, meaning economic self-reliance and sufficiency. It is against this background that this article examines the trends in crime and the penal responses to crime in this African nation. The study is based on official crime data for four offense categories covering the period 1960-1984. The study finds that increases have occurred in homicides, major thefts (robbery, burglary), and minor thefts, whereas arrests for fraudulent practices have decreased significantly. In response to rising crimes, the socialist government enacted the Minimum Sentence Act and required flogging and mandatory imprisonment for certain offenses. In general these penal measures have not had any significant impact on crime.
Class Conflict and Macro-Policy: A Comment
Authors: Sherman Howard , Sherman Howard
Published: March 2007

Raford Boddy and James Crotty attribute depressions to high wages causing a profit squeeze, leading to less investment. In my view (and Marx's view, in my interpretation) profit squeeze is actually a two-sided dilemma. There are rising costs, mostly raw materials' prices. There is also restricted demand, caused by the poverty and limited buying power of the masses. Inflation in the midst of depression is primarily caused by monopoly power, which restricts supply and raises prices. The U.S. government intensi fies depression by restricting wages at the expansion peak, but helps recovery at the bottom by increasing demand.
The Neoclassical Theory of the Firm
Authors: Shapiro Nina , Shapiro Nina
Published: March 2007

The focus of this essay is the treatment of the firm in neoclassical economics and, in particular, the possibility of such a treatment. Its critical result is the impossibility of introducing the firm into neoclassical thought and thus the necessity of transcending the confines of this thought for the construction of a theory of the firm. The last section of this essay turns to the Marxian tradition for a concept of the firm. The outlines of a Marxian treatment of the firm are pre sented as well as the key differences between this treatment and that of neoclas sical economics.