bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Detection and cultivation of intestinal trichomonads of squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus)
Authors: Pindak F. F. , Pindak M. Mora De , Abee C. R. , Gardner W. A.
Published: June 2005

Routine examinations of fecal samples from squirrel monkeys suggested that intestinal trichomonads might be common inhabitants of these animals. In pursuit of these observations, microscopic examination of fecal suspensions and cultures have demonstrated a 100% incidence of trichomonads in 30 arbitrarily selected animals from a colony of more than 300 housed in groups of ten. The most prominent species was Pentatrichomonas hominis. A not yet fully characterized tritrichomonad was also found on several occasions. The main obstacle in establishing individual strains in culture was the presence of bacterial and fungal flora in the samples. Nevertheless, abundant cultures were obtained from 28 animals by inoculation of fecal suspensions into tissue cultures with appropriately formulated medium and high concentration of antibiotics. In several unattended cultures maintained at room temperature, the flagellates retained motility for at least 4 months. This long survival may explain the widespread occurrence of the parasites within a confined animal community.
Noninvasive measurement of blood pressure in African green monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops)
Authors: Kraft‐Schreyer N. , Angelakos E. T.
Published: June 2005

Indirect measurements of arterial blood pressure were made in African green monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops) employing a Doppler ultrasound stethoscope and standard cuff and an Infrasonde automatic blood pressure recorder. Measurements were obtained from anesthetized (10 mg/kg ketamine (HCI) and unanesthetized (1.5 mg/kg ketamine HCI) animals. Ketamine had no significant effect on blood pressure. Indirect measurements from the brachial artery were compared with direct femoral artery measurements and with each other. Systolic blood pressures measured by the Doppler (r = .948) and Infrasonde (r = .920) methods correlated closely with direct measurements but were significantly lower than systolic blood pressures measured by the direct method. Diastolic blood pressures measured by the Infrasonde method agreed closely with direct measurements (r = .947). Systolic blood pressures measured by the indirect methods correlated closely in both anesthetized (r = .973) and unanesthetized (r = .834) animals and were not significantly different. Mean blood pressures calculated from direct and Infrasonde measurements also correlated closely (r = .963), with direct measurements being 4 mmHg higher on the average. Mean blood pressures are less influenced by methodology and are more reproducible than other pressures. These noninvasive methods can be used to obtain simple and accurate measurements of blood pressure from anesthetized and unanesthetized monkeys and are of value in long‐term studies in monkeys.
Two new karyotypes in the Peruvian owl monkey (Aotus trivirgatus)
Authors: Ma Nancy Shui‐Fong , Aquino Rolando , Collins William E.
Published: June 2005

The observation of remarkable karyotypic variation in owl monkeys (Aotus trivirgatus) stimulated us to study the chromosomal evolution of this New World genus. As an extension of this project, we examined the chromosome complement of a “phenotype‐B” Aotus population from Peru. In addition to karyotype V(2n = 46), two new karyotypes with diploid numbers of 47 and 48 were identified. A G‐band comparison of these karyotypes indicated that the chromosome number polymorphism in these Peruvian owl monkeys resulted from a single fusion or fission event involving a single metacentric and two acrocentric chromosome pairs. This mechanism is also known to be responsible for the chromosome number polymorphism in at least two other populations of phenotype B Aotus, one from Colombia and the other from Panama.
Secondary sex ratio variation in the Cayo Santiago macaque population
Authors: Rawlins Richard G. , Kessler Matt J.
Published: June 2005

Secondary sex ratios (SSR) were calculated from 1,385 offspring delivered by 372 females in the Cayo Santiago population of free‐ranging rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) from 1976 through 1984. The SSR for the entire colony ranged from 0.86 to 1.46 males per female (combined total: 1.08), but no significant difference was observed (P > .05). SSR values were compared among the troops for each year. The SSR differed significantly among the six social groups (P < .05) only in 1978. The annual SSR of each troop was compared over 9 years. Significant variation was found only in group O. The annual SSR was significantly skewed (P < .05, males > females) for three troops in 3 separate years. The SSR did not vary according to troop rank. No significant difference was found among the 17 matrilines of the population, but comparison of matrilines within each social group revealed a significant difference in the SSR (P < .02) for the three matrilines in group I. This was due to the significantly skewed SSR (P = .0080, females > males) of the DM genealogy in that troop. SSR values were not related to matrilineal rank. Individual dominance rank did not bias the SSR. Complete reproductive histories for 266 females showed no evidence of significantly skewed SSR values. Age‐related effects on the SSR were examined by using cross‐sectional and cohort‐based analyses. The SSR did not vary significantly (P > .05) with maternal age, but it was significantly skewed (P < .05) toward males at the ages of 5 and 9 years. Parity had no significant effect (P > .05) on SSR values. Wide variation occurred in the SSR of the Cayo Santiago population. Rank‐related adjustment of the SSR at the level of the troop, matriline, or individual, as reported in short‐term studies of other primate social groups, may reflect normal annual variation in the SSR evident only from longitudinal observations of large multigroup primate populations.
Use of leaf resources by howling monkeys (Alouatta palliata) and leaf‐cutting ants (Atta cephalotes) in the tropical rain forest of Los Tuxtlas, Mexico
Authors: Estrada Alejandro , Coates‐Estrada Rosamond
Published: June 2005

Use of leaf resources by a troop of howling monkeys and two colonies of leaf cutting ants was studied for an annual cycle in the rain forest of Los Tuxtlas, Mexico. Howling monkeys spent half their annual foraging time feeding on leaves; leaf‐cutting ants spent at least 80% of their recorded foraging time harvesting leaves. Both herbivores preferred young leaves over nature ones, and chemical analysis showed that the protein: fibre ratio of the leaves used was correlated with these preferences. Howling monkeys used 34 tree species as leaf sources. Leaf‐cutting ants used 40 plant species of which 38 were trees. Eighteen species used by Alouatta were also used by Atta; species of Moraceae and Lauraceae were among the most important in their foraging preferences. The plant species used by monkeys and ants occurred at low densities (⩽ 4.0 ind/ha). The seasonal production of leaves, the high density of leaf‐cutting ant colonies at the study site, and the high amounts of young foliage harvested by the ants from tree species, and individual trees used by howling monkeys as sources of young leaves suggest that the foraging activities of Atta may represent a significant pressure upon leaf resources available to Alouatta.
Male intergroup mobility in a wild population of the Barbary macaque (Macaca sylvanus), Ghomaran rif mountains, Morocco
Authors: Mehlman Patrick
Published: June 2005

In this two‐year study of a Barbary macaque population (n = 162) in the Ghomaran region of Morocco, 13 cases of males separated from their assumed natal groups were observed (nine visits of nonresident males to groups, two males isolated from groups as much as one day and one night, and two sets of snow tracks indicating males travel +7 km as isolates). Males left their assumed natal groups primarily in the mating season (12 cases), focused their interactions on estrous females of other groups, and were observed to copulate with these females in two cases. All males leaving their assumed natal groups were estimated to be between 5 and 8 years of age, with one exception (+ 15 years). It could not be determined whether males younger than 5 years moved between groups, or whether any males made permanent intergroup transfers. Regardless, the data from this study indicate that male intergroup mobility (and intergroup gene flow) was higher than has been previously assumed for this species. A prior theory that Barbary macaque groups are highly inbred, and that this is causally related to the evolution of male‐infant care in this species, is not supported by the data of this study.
Focal epithelial hyperplasia of the oral mucosa in two chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)
Authors: Glad William R. , Nesland Jahn M.
Published: June 2005

Papillomas in the oral mucosa compatible with focal epithelial hyperplasia are reported in two chimpanzees. The lesions were studied by light and electron microscopy. Virus particles were not observed. The literature dealing with focal epithelial hyperplasia in humans and other animals is reviewed.
Dominance index: A simple measure of relative dominance status in primates
Authors: Zumpe Doris , Michael Richard P.
Published: June 2005

A simple measure of relative dominance status (cardinal rank) is described which we have termed the dominance index. Like more familiar techniques for assessing rank order, it is based on the direction of aggressive and submissive behaviors between all possible paired combinations of animals in a social group. Using data from five groups of female rhesus monkeys, it reliably produced the same ordinal ranks as fight interaction matrices. There was also good agreement with the cardinal ranks produced by two additional measures of dominance and with those produced by observer ratings. The dominance index can be calculated when fights have not actually occurred and is largely independent of the frequency of agonistic interactions. It has, therefore, wide application and can estimate dominance during brief sampling periods (one hour) and also in stable groups when agonistic interactions are low. Its application is described in experiments in which the male in a group of females was changed and the hormonal status of the females was altered. Estrogen increased female dominance status relative to other females.
Hand preference in a captive island group of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)
Authors: Marchant Linda F. , Steklis Horst D.
Published: June 2005

Morphological cerebral asymmetries in chimpanzee brains, similar to those found in humans, in whom they are associated with speech and handedness, suggest the possibility of functional lateralization in the chimpanzee. This possibility was investigated by examining hand preferences in an island group of five chimpanzees on a series of unimanual and bimanual tasks that are diagnostic of human hand and cerebral dominance. Each subject was tested in a double compartment cage on three unimanual nonsequential, three unimanual sequential, and three bimanual coordination tasks. One of the three unimanual sequential tasks was a bar‐press task that is analogous to the commonly used human finger‐tapping task. For the unimanual tasks, exclusive of the bar‐press, the chimpanzees showed a highly individualistic pattern of hand preference that did not change as a function of task complexity. On the bar‐press task, four of five subjects produced higher rates with one hand compared to the other; however, relative hand performance on this task was unrelated to hand preference on the other unimanual tasks. For the group of subjects, performance rates did not differ between the left and right hands; however, a practice effect was observed for the right hand in all subjects. The bimanual tasks also revealed a complex pattern of individual handedness, with no trends apparent for the group as a whole. Consistent with previous findings, the results from these tests on this group of five chimpanzees suggest that cerebral morphological asymmetries in the chimpanzee are not associated with motor dominance as reflected in handedness.
Male‐infant relationships in semifree‐ranging Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus) of affenberg salem/FRG: Testing the “male care” hypothesis
Authors: Kuester Jutta , Paul Andreas
Published: June 2005

The infant‐directed behavior of Barbary macaque males was analyzed in order to determine whether it is essential for an infant's survival during the first year and whether males interact selectively with closely related infants. Dyadic male‐infant contacts were recorded in a large group of semifree‐ranging Barbary macaques. Data collected during the first 12 weeks of life on each infant born in 1983 (n = 36) were analyzed. All adult and almost all subadult males established strong relationships with at least one infant. Almost two‐thirds of the infants (22) had frequent contacts with one or several males. Males showed no preference for closely related infants. Sexual associations with an infant's mother during the preceding mating season had no significant effect. Natal males did not prefer infants of their own matrilineage. There was no evidence that contacts with males had a positive influence on infant survival or that other benefits to the infants resulted from these contacts. Instead, excessive carrying by males and females led to starvation of some very young infants and was a major cause of neonatal deaths in this population. Males interacted preferentially with infants that were born early in the birth season, had a high‐ranking multiparous mother, and were male. Younger males established strong relationships with male infants only, while mother's rank was more important for older males. It is suggested that certain mothers prevented early contacts between their infants and males so that the observed preferences for certain infants were also a result of easier access to them. All results suggested that males interacted with infants for their own benefit.
Physical and activity changes associated with pregnancy in captive lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla)
Authors: Meder Angela
Published: June 2005

The physical appearance and the behavior of five lowland gorilla females at two zoos were recorded before and during 14 pregnancies. Whereas only the quality of changes associated with pregnancy had been described previously, in this study the behavior of the females was recorded quantitatively and evaluated statistically. All females at Stuttgart showed distention of the abdomen three to four months before delivery and development of the breasts a few weeks before parturition. Milk was produced by the third month in one case, and in the sixth month or later in the others, sometimes after delivery. The female at Frankfurt stopped social play seven days after conception; the Stuttgart females, in general, stopped, in the first weeks of pregnancy. Social activity and locomotion decreased considerably within the first three months in all females and were significantly different between the pregnant and the nonpregnant state in all the Stuttgart females. In this study, as in others in the literature, behavioral changes were much more reliable signs of pregnancy than were physical changes. Thus the quantitative results confirm those obtained solely by qualitative observation.
Census and preliminary observations on the ecology of the black‐faced black spider monkey (Ateles paniscus chamek) in Manu National Park, Peru
Authors: White Frances
Published: June 2005

The black‐faced black spider monkey, Ateles paniscus chamek, was studied at Cocha Cashu, Manu National Park, Peru, from June to August 1982. The density of independently locomoting individuals was found to be 31/km2, and the average party size was 3.15. Data on age and sex compositions of parties, activity patterns, and diet composition are presented. The spider monkeys spend approximately 30% of observed time feeding, 44% resting, and 25% moving. They ate 80% fruit and 17% new leaves. Spider monkeys appear to be important seed dispersers. The best dispersal observed was for fruits with few, relatively large seeds. A rough day‐range of 2,400 m was estimated from measured travel times and distances. The social system of Ateles is discussed.
Carbohydrate impairment and insulin secretory abnormalities among Macaca mulatta from Cayo Santiago
Authors: Howard Charles F. , Kessler Matt J. , Schwartz Susan
Published: June 2005

Rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) from Cayo Santiago were examined for evidence of carbohydrate intolerance indicative of potential development of non‐insulin‐dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM). Monkeys 6 to >20 years from natal Groups J, M, and P, an AGED Group (all >20 years), and unrelated monkeys removed from the island in association with other groups (CAYO), were examined with intravenous glucose tolerance tests (iv‐GTT). Morphometric measurements were made on all tested monkeys. Impairments included fasting hyperglycemia (>115 mg/dl), impaired glucose clearance (K <2.0%/min), fasting hyperinsulinemia (>150 μU/ml) or hypoinsulinemia (<20 μU/ml), and insulin secretory abnormalities (>500 μU/ml or <75 μU/ml). Natal groups J and M had 31% with impairments, group P had 0% the AGED group had 45%, and the CAYO group had 33%. Impaired glucose clearance was usually attributable to a reduced insulin response. Impairments correlated significantly (p ⩽ 0.05) to body weight and a modified Quetelet index, but not to sex, acute stress, or islet cell antibodies; the relationships to age could not be delineated in this survey. Impairements in monkeys are indicative of various stages in the asynchronous development of carbohydrate intolerance leading to NIDDM.
Individuality in a contact call of the ringtailed lemur (Lemur catta)
Authors: Macedonia Joseph M.
Published: June 2005

A vocalization of the ringtailed lemur (Lemur catta) was examined for individual differences according to several temporal‐ and frequency‐dependent variables. Vocalizations were tape recorded at the Duke University Primate Center (Durham, NC) and spectrographically analyzed. Significant differences were found in pair‐wise comparisons of call structure among the study subjects, thus providing the physical basis for individual discrimination. A separate analysis comparing degree of kinship and vocal similarity revealed a positive but nonsignificant correlation between these two variables. This study represents an initial examination of vocal individuality in prosimian primates.
Adrenal responsiveness and social status in intact and ovariectomized Macaca fascicularis
Authors: Kaplan Jay R. , Adams Michael R. , Koritnik Donald R. , Rose James C. , Manuck Stephen B.
Published: June 2005

Plasma cortisol (F) response to intravenous adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) infusion (following dexamethasone suppression) was examined in adult female Macaca fascicularis that had been living for 22 months in social groups consisting of four to six females and one male. A portion of these females were ovariectomized (n = 21), while the rest were reproductively intact (n = 23). The social behavior of all animals was monitored with a focal sampling procedure, and dominance ranks were determined on the basis of fight outcomes. Further, intact females were swabbed vaginally to determine onset of menstruation and were sampled for plasma progesterone (P) every three days during the luteal phase of their cycles. Among the results was that the plasma F response to ACTH infusion was greater in subordinate animals than in dominants (P < .02). Subordinates and dominants did not, however, differ in plasma F measured at baseline. It was found further that plasma F concentrations were greater in ovariectomized than in intact females at baseline and following ACTH injection (P < .01). Finally, there was an appreciable elevation in plasma F across all animals during the 15‐ and 30‐minute post‐ACTH injection measurements (P < .01). Subsequent analyses of data from intact females showed interrelationships among dominance rank, reproductive function (indicated by luteal phase plasma P concentrations), adrenal size, and adrenal response to ACTH infusion. These data indicated that subordinate females were at a reproductive disadvantage compared to dominants, a result that may have been mediated, in part, by the increased adrenal size and enhanced adrenal responsiveness of subordinate females.
Choline acetyltransferase and acetylcholinesterase activities in neocortex and hippocampus of squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus)
Authors: Walker Lary C. , Brizzee Kenneth R. , Kaack M. Bernice , Price Donald L.
Published: June 2005

The activities of choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) were measured in five neocortical regions and in the hippocampal formation of one hemisphere in eight 30‐day‐old squirrel monkeys. Enzyme levels in the hippocampal formation (hippocampus, dentate gyrus, and subiculum) were higher than in any neocortical region. Within neocortex, ChAT activity was highest in superior temporal and precentral regions, intermediate in prefrontal and postcentral regions, and lowest in occipital cortex. AChE activity also varied across neocortical regions and correlated significantly, but imprecisely, with ChAT activity. The activity of overall neocortical ChAT, but not AChE, differed significantly among animals. The pattern of cholinergic innervation of neocortex in the lissencephalic squirrel monkey is highly similar to that reported in gyrencephalic Old World primates.
Infant cross‐fostering in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta): A procedure for the long‐term management of captive populations
Authors: Smith Steve
Published: June 2005

Because of the constraints of captivity, captive populations are generally closed to the introduction of unrelated individuals and may eventually experience inbreeding depression and its associated problems. As a means of increasing genetic diversity in established social gropus of rhesus monkeys at the California Primate Research Center, 36 infants were used as subjects in a cross‐fostering experiment in which 27 infants (75%) were successfully integrated into non‐natal groups by fostering them onto unrelated females. These results have important practical implications for maintaining self‐sustaining populations of captive rhesus monkeys and may eventually be extended to other captive species. Cross‐fostering infants between captive social populations may be an important means of minimizing the higher mortality and morbidity and reduced fertility effects associated with inbreeding depression. Furthermore, this procedure causes a minimum of social disruption and reduces the chances that older animals introduced into new groups will be traumatized.
Serum chorionic gonadotropin levels determined by radioreceptorassay and early diagnosis of pregnancy in the cynomolgus monkey (Macaca fascicularis)
Authors: Yoshida Takashi , Suzuki Kinue , Cho Fumiaki , Honjo Shigeo
Published: June 2005

The radioreceptorassay developed to determine serum luteinizing hormone level in the cynomolgus monkey was evaluated for its usefulness in early pregnancy diagnosis by the detection of serum chorionic gonadotropin (CG). Blood samples were collected at weekly intervals from the 1st to the 5th week after conception to determine changes in circulating levels of CG. In the pregnancy cases, serum CG levels increased to above 50 μg/ml in almost all animals. By the determination of CG 3 weeks after conception, 86% of all pregnant cases exhibited a positive response. Cases that were negative 3 weeks after conception were followed by a repeated test in the next week. According to this test schedule, 95% of the pregnant cases were detected by 4 weeks after conception, and 5% were undetected as negative responses because their CG levels were low.
Type locality of Hylobates concolor leucogenys
Authors: Fooden Jack
Published: June 2005

Kloss [1929] restricted the type locality of the northern white‐cheeked gibbon, Hylobates concolor leucogenys, on the basis of two specimens that were collected at Muang Khi, Laos, not at Muang Pak‐Lay, Laos, as conventionally assumed. The locality difference is zoogeographically important because Muang Khi is east of the Mekong River, within the known range of H. c. leucogenys, whereas Muang Pak‐Lay is west of the river, outside the known range of the subspecies. The type‐locality restriction is appropriately amended.
Taxonomic assessment of the allopatric gray‐cheeked mangabey (Cercocebus albigena) and black mangabey (C. aterrimus): Comparative socioecological data and the species concept
Authors: Horn Arthur D.
Published: June 2005

A brief review of past taxonomic assessments of the allopatric gray‐cheeked mangabey (Cercocebus albigena) and the black mangabey (Cercocebus aterrimus) is presented. On the basis of pelage, cranial, and biomolecular morphology, aterrimus and albigena have been lumped together in the same species‐group, superspecies, subgenus, or species by various systematists over the years. A comparison of the available socioecological data on the two forms supports their close taxonomic association, as they are found to be very similar in socioecological traits. After a brief review of current species concepts, the author, on the basis of the socioecological commonalities, tentatively supports Groves' [1978] conspecific designation of albigena and aterrimus and suggests further tests for this proposal and for the species concept, from the points of view of both taxonomic and evolutionary theory.
Banded karyotypes of 20 Papionini species reveal no necessary correlation with speciation
Authors: Stanyon Roscoe , Fantini C. , Camperio‐Ciani A. , Chiarelli B. , Ardito G.
Published: June 2005

The G‐banded karyotypes of 20 species of the tribe Papionini are remarkably similar, and the amount of phylogenetic interpretation permitted is limited. The genera Mandrillus and Cercocebus may be linked by a derived chromosome 10. T. gelada may be linked to the macaques by chromosome 2. Chromosome 5, which differs in M. fascicularis, makes this species an unlikely ancestor of the Sulawesi (Celebes) macaques. An alternate hypothesis, which takes into consideration the possibility that ancestral populations may be polymorphic for these chromosome variants, suggests that different chromosome variants have become fixed in different lines. These chromosomes would therefore not reflect phylogenetic relations. In the Papionini the karyotype has not played a major role in diversification and speciation.
A study of postnatal appendicular skeletal maturation in captive‐born squirrel monkeys (Saimiri boliviensis)
Authors: Galliari Carlos A.
Published: June 2005

This study is based on a mixed longitudinal radiographic sampling of appendicular bones in 82 captive‐born squirrel monkeys (Saimiri boliviensis). All appendicular ossification centers had appeared radiographically by 17 weeks of age, and epiphyseal fusion was complete by 47‐53 months of age. No statistically significant differences were found between the sexes in comparisons carried out at birth and at 6 and 8 months of age. Valid sex comparisons could not be made at other ages owing to the small size of the sample. The sequence of appearance of the ossification centers (Spearman correlation coefficient of Saimiri vs. Callithrix = 0.68) shows greater interspecies differences than the sequence of fusion (Saimiri vs. Callithrix = 0.88).
Application of DNA fingerprinting probes to old world monkeys
Authors: Weiss Mark L. , Wilson Victoria , Chan Cindy , Turner Trudy , Jeffreys Alec J.
Published: June 2005

Analysis of tandem‐repetitive minisatellite DNA in humans provides great discriminatory power in paternity identification and individualization of tissue samples. The molecular probes used to study these hyper‐variable loci are here applied to DNA isolated from related animals in four species of Old World monkeys. Probes 33.6 and 33.15 are shown to cross‐hybridize with variable minisatellites in Macaca fuscata, Macaca silenus, Erythrocebus patas, and Colobus guereza. The DNA fingerprint patterns are consistent with germ‐line stability and mendelian inheritance. Application of DNA fingerprinting to Old World monkeys thus provides a new tool for identifying parentage and can thereby aid in colony management. The technique can also help to elucidate the role of behavioral factors in evolution. The breadth of applicability in other primates remains to be mapped.
Growth of nursery‐raised Macaca nemestrina infants: Effects of feeding schedules, sex, and birth weight
Authors: Sackett Gene P. , Ruppenthal Gerald C.
Published: June 2005

Ponderal growth, caloric intake, growth velocity, and growth efficiency were studied from birth through 90 days in 523 nursery‐raised pigtailed macaque infants. The male and female subjects ranged in birth weight from the 1st through 100th centiles of the colony distribution and were all judged to be clinically healthy. One group of infants was fed on an ad lib schedule, with formula continuously available from dispensers which were replenished every 8 h. A second group was fed on a distributed regimen, with formula available on a 4‐h‐on/4‐h‐off schedule. The latter schedule was instituted because of bacterial growth in the milk after 4 h. Infants fed the distributed diet had 20–25% lower caloric intake than those fed ad lib, but equaled or exceeded ad lib infants in body weight, growth velocity, and grams gained per 100 kilocalories (growth efficiency). The poorer utilization of calories by the ad lib group was attributed to a combination of bacteria in the milk, which caused diarrhea, and inability to metabolize the excess nutrients gained from overconsumption of fluids. The effects of the distributed diet occurred for both males and females, and across the full range of birth weights. Peak velocity and growth efficiency for both males and females occurred at 2 weeks after birth for high‐birth‐weight (HBW) infants and at 3 weeks for low‐birth‐weight (LBW) infants. However, the growth efficiency of LBW infants was equal to, or greater than, that of HBW infants after postnatal day 2. Descriptive statistics and regression equations based on this large sample are presented for quantitative comparisons of growth parameters with those of other primate species reared in laboratory or field settings. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Conditioned exercise method for use with nonhuman primates
Authors: Rogers Walter R. , Coelho Anthony M. , Carey K. Dee , Ivy John L. , Shade Robert E. , Easley Stephen P.
Published: June 2005

The objective of this study was to demonstrate the feasibility of using appetitive methods to train adult male olive baboons (Papio cynocephalus anubis), who were socially housed and fitted with indwelling catheter/ transducer systems, to exercise on an inclined, motorized, moving treadmill. All subjects were first trained to walk on a motorized treadmill for 30 min at a speed of approximately 1.6 km/hr on a 0 grade. Upon completion of initial exercise training, six animals were assigned to a low exercise group (LOW), six were assigned to a moderate exercise group (MOD), and six were assigned to a sedentary control group (SED). The LOW group exercised 30 min per day on an elevated treadmill, the MOD group exercised 60 min per day on an elevated treadmill and the SED group did not perform any treadmill exercise. The 12 animals comprising the LOW and MOD groups were exercised 4 days per week and their performance was increased over a subsequent 30‐week experimental period. We gradually increased speed and grade demands over several weeks and produced an animal model capable of traveling at speeds up to 5.5 km/hr on a 22% grade and distances up to 3,353 m horizontally and 549 m vertically in a 1‐hr session. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Food puzzle for singly caged primates
Authors: Murchison Mark A. , Nolte Randolph E.
Published: June 2005

To enhance environmental complexity for singly caged pigtailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina), we designed a food puzzle to promote foraging. The puzzles, made of clear plastic tubing and loaded with peanuts in the shell, were suspended from linked chains and attached to the fronts of the cages. Animals manipulated the puzzles by reaching through a cage opening. Upon presentation of loaded puzzles, most animals attempted to remove the peanuts. More peanuts were removed within an hour after the puzzle was loaded than at any other time during the day. Young adult animals showed no sex differences in number of peanuts removed and were more proficient than middle‐aged animals in removing peanuts during the first hour of testing. Middle‐aged females were more proficient than middle‐aged males. The food puzzle enhanced the animals' cage environment by providing a goal‐oriented activity that they could control. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Cycles, sexuality, and conception in free‐ranging langurs (Presbytis entellus)
Authors: Sommer Volker , Srivastava Arun , Borries Carola
Published: June 2005

Reproductive parameters and sexual behavior of free‐ranging Hanuman langurs (Presbytis entellus) were studied over a 13‐year period at Jodhpur, India in a population that breeds throughout the year. Long‐term monitoring of individually identified females living in one‐male‐multi‐female troops revealed a mean cycle length of 24.1 days (n = 113), a mean gestation of 200.3 days (n = 31), menarche at 29.0 months (n = 10), first conception at 35.0 months (n = 12), and a mean birth interval of 16.7 months (n = 114). The loss of unweaned infants accelerated the resumption of menstruation, receptivity, and attractivity; shortened the period between estrus and next conception; and reduced the median birth interval by 20.5%, thus supporting the sexual selection hypothesis of male infanticide. The decline of fertility with age (as measured by the rates of conception per estrus period), a regular postreproductive survival for up to 9 years (which can account for about 25% of a female's life span) and indications for the existence of a “true menopause” support the view that a postreproductive period in langurs is the result of natural selection. There is very limited evidence for situation‐dependent receptivity, because only 7.5% of all estrous days (n = 1,037) fell outside of the mid‐cycle period with at the same time strongly reduced proceptivity and attractivity. Moreover, postconception estrus behavior showed a stereotypical pattern during 31 pregnancies and did not reflect a situation‐dependent response to the immigration of new and potentially infanticidal males. It is likely that females competed for sperm of the harem holder, because the probability of conception increased significantly with an increase in the number of copulations, and when the number of females copulating on the same day decreased. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Insect‐eating by sympatric Lowland gorillas (Gorilla g. gorilla) and chimpanzees (Pan t. troglodytes) in the Lopé Reserve, Gabon
Authors: Tutin Caroline E. G. , Fernandez Michel
Published: June 2005

Sympatric populations of lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes troglodytes) in the Lopé Reserve in central Gabon consumed insects at similar average frequencies over a 7‐year period (30% versus 31% feces contained insect remains). Data came mostly from fecal analysis supplemented by observation and trail evidence. The weaver ant (Oecophylla longinoda) was the species eaten most frequently by both gorillas and chimpanzees. Other species of insects wore eaten but there was virtually no overlap: Chimpanzees used tools to eat Apis bees (and their honey) and two large species of ants; gorillas ate three species of small ants. Thus, despite their shared habitat, the esources utilized were not identical as gorillas do not show the tool‐use “technology” of chimpanzees. The frequency of insect‐eating by both species of ape varied seasonally and between years but in different ways. This variation did not seem to be related to the ratio of fruit to foliage in their diets. Gorillas of all age‐classes ate insects at similar rates. Comparisons with insectivory by other populations of gorillas indicate differences exist. Mountain gorillas (Gorilla g. beringei) in the Virunga Volcanoes, Rwanda, consume thousands of invertebrates daily, eating them inadvertently with handfuls of herbaceous foods but they deliberately ingest insect‐foods only rarely. Lowland gorillas at Lopé habitually ate social insects, and their selective processing of herbaceous foods probably minimizes inadvertent consumption of other invertebrates. Gorillas at Belinga in northeastern Gabon, 250 km from Lop6, ate social insects at similar rates but ignored weaver ants in favor of Cubitermes sulcifrons, a small species of termite that occurs at Lopé but was not eaten by gorillas. This indicates that local traditions similar to those reported for chimpanzees also exist amongst populations of gorillas. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Facultative expression of behavioral differences between one‐male and multimale savanna baboon groups
Authors: Hamilton William J. , Bulger John
Published: June 2005

A one‐male unit (OMU) of chacma baboons (Papio ursinus) in northern Botswana formed by the asymmetrical fissioning of a multimale (MM) group. During long‐term (13 years) observations in this area, which has a relatively high density of baboons, we observed only MM groups with 6 or more adult males per group (N = 19). The behavioral repertoire of the OMU generated a pattern of sociality unrepresentative of these MM groups. Distinctive behavior patterns expressed by the male of the OMU included vigilance oriented away from the group and suppression of intra‐group aggression among all other group members. There was also a difference between the foraging and movement patterns of the OMU and those of MM groups in environmentally similar or the same areas. The OMU moved and foraged in a cohesive formation and all group members often foraged in single fruiting trees. Under comparable circumstances at the same time and places MM groups foraged in dispersed formation. Diet and habitat choices of the OMU differed from those of neighboring groups. Patterns of sociality associated with OMUs have been interpreted as responses to extreme environmental conditions [Byrne et al.: Am J Primatol 20:313–329, 1990]. However, it is also possible that alternative behavior patterns are facultative tactical responses to social circumstances, The alternative social styles of OMUs arising within typically MM populations identify the breadth of the behavioral repertoire and the capacity for social flexibility within contemporary savanna baboon and perhaps other primate populations. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Phylogenetic influences on hormone levels across the primate order
Authors: Coe Christopher L. , Savage Anne , Bromley Lyn J.
Published: June 2005

Adrenal and gonadal hormone levels were evaluated in representative species from Prosimii, Ceboidea, Cercopithecoidea, and Hominoidea to determine if endocrine activity was influenced by phylogenetic factors. Most small‐bodied New World primates had extremely high levels of cortisol, progesterone, and testosterone when compared with Old World primates. In contrast to the high hormone levels and diversity found in Ceboidea, Old World primates showed a more similar pattern of hormone secretion. Thus, this survey supports earlier reports indicating that the callitricids and smaller cebid monkeys have a distinctive hormone profile. Although higher hormone levels tended to be associated with lower body weight, this effect was not evident in all taxa, and there were many notable exceptions. When species differ from their predicted hormone levels based on phylogenetic heritage and body weight (e.g., titi monkeys), we must look for other biological factors that influence endocrine activity. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Social organization of free‐ranging ruffed lemurs, Varecia variegata variegata: mother‐adult daughter relationship
Authors: White Frances J. , Burton Ann S. , Buchholz Susan , Glander Kenneth E.
Published: June 2005

The relationship between a mother and an adult daughter is examined in a group of free‐ranging ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata) at the Duke University Primate Center (DUPC). Although the two females were affiliative during the birth season, interactions during the mating season were predominantly agonistic. The maturing daughter was dominant to the mother, as has been observed in many caged social groups at the DUPC. Although both mother and daughter produced offspring in the same group, the daughter subsequently aggressively evicted the mother from the enclosure. It was not possible to maintain more than one long‐term resident breeding female in the same social group. This pattern contrasts with observations of affiliation among breeding females in the wild. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
In vitro fertilization analysis of squirrel monkey oocytes produced by various follicular induction regimens and the incidence of triploidy
Authors: Pierce Donna L. , Johnson M. P. , Kaneene J. B. , Dukelow W. R.
Published: June 2005

An in vitro fertilization system utilizing squirrel monkeys was used to compare follicle‐stimulating hormone, clomiphene citrate and prostaglandin E1 as follicular induction regimens, analyze culture medium characteristics, and examine the physiological phenomenon of polyspermy. Induction of follicular growth was poor with clomiphene citrate when compared to the control group and increased the incidence of atretic follicles at all levels tested. When prostaglandin E1 was administered, larger numbers of mature oocytes were recovered at laparoscopy. There was no difference in fertilization rate between the treatment and control groups.

Homologous serum was an adequate protein source in TC‐199 fertilization medium for squirrel monkey oocytes. Although the rate of triploidy was increased with in vitro fertilization, there was no relationship between sperm concentration and the incidence of polyspermy. These findings demonstrate that the squirrel monkey is a valuable primate system for studies of in vitro fertilization and preimplantation development. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Behavioral contrasts between male cynomolgus and lion‐tailed macaques
Authors: Clarke A. S. , Lindburg D. G.
Published: June 2005

Evidence indicates that primate species differ not only in social structure and concordant social propensities, but also in their approach toward novel objects, environments, and procedures. These differences in response dispositions have been described as being based on differences in characteristic stances toward the environment, also called temperaments. This report extends previous comparative primate research by describing behavioral contrasts observed among males of two macaque species, liontailed and cynomolgus macaques. The lion‐tails demonstrated more interest in other animals, more vigilance and instrumental behavior, and more readily adapted to training to enter a small and unfamilar cage than the cynomolgus. These results suggest temperamental differences between the two species. Lion‐tails may be characterized as bold, curious, and instrumental in their approach to the environment, while cynomolgus may be characterized as more passive or “reserved”. These differences may form the basis for the well‐developed sensorimotor abilities observed in liontails such as the manufacture and use of tools, and may also be related to their highly omnivorous diet. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Capture techniques and morphometrics for the woolly spider monkey, or muriqui (Brachyteles arachnoides, E. Geoffroy 1806)
Authors: Lemos de Sá Rosa M. , Glander Kenneth E.
Published: June 2005

A total of 12 free‐ranging muriquis (Brachyteles arachnoides) were captured with Telazol® at Fazenda Esmeralda, Minas Gerais, Brazil, and at Fazenda Barreiro Rico, São Paulo, Brazil. All animals were measured, marked, weighed, and released. Previously reported data suggested that Brachyteles is a sexually dimorphic species with female‐male body weights of 12–15 kg, respectively. We found no statistically significant difference in body weight between females (mean = 8.4 kg, range = 6.9–9.3 kg, n = 4), and males (mean =9.6 kg, range = 9.3–10.2 kg, n = 4). Our results are at variance with previously published body weights in the literature. Larger sample size may reveal a significant sexual difference, particularly in body weight. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Urinary cortisol responses of longtailed macaques to five cage sizes, tethering, sedation, and room change
Authors: Crockett Carolyn M. , Bowers Charles L. , Sackett Gene P. , Bowden Douglas M.
Published: June 2005

Urinary free cortisol responses to five cage sizes, cage level, room change, tethering adaptation, chronic catheterization, and ketamine sedation were measured in 14 female and 14 male wild‐born adult Macaca fascicularis. Urinary free cortisol, a physiological measure of psychological well‐being that can be collected unobtrusively, provided a measure of the animals' general adrenocortical response to various conditions over a time course of hours. Urinary free cortisol values in response to stimulation with adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) validated the measure as a reflection of blood values. Cortisol values were expressed as a ratio to creatinine, which normalized for differences in urinary output and body weight (muscle mass). Cage size (20–140% of regulation floor area) and housing level (upper vs. lower cage) had no effect on stress, as measured by cortisol excretion. Room change elicited a slight increase in cortisol excretion for the first day, but not to a level suggesting stress. Sedation, surgery, some aspects of tethering adaptation, and chronic catheterization produced urinary cortisol evidence of stress. Even so, animals varied in their responses and all showed adaptation. Males and females did not differ in normal mean values but females tended to have higher cortisol levels in response to potential stressors investigated in this study. Cortisol levels continued to decline gradually throughout the study. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Vocal coordination of troop movement among white‐faced capuchin monkeys, Cebus capucinus
Authors: Boinski Sue
Published: June 2005

Coordinated travel by social groups is well documented, often with evidence that cognitive spatial maps are employed. Yet the mechanisms by which movement decisions are made and implemented within social groups are poorly known. In a field study of white‐faced capuchin monkeys in Costa Rica it was demonstrated that a specific call, the “trill,” is used by adults in the initiation and directing of troop movement. The trills of subadults were restricted to vocal exchanges with other subadults. Continuous vocal recordings were collected of the vocalizations of the 14 members of the study troop. A cumulative 33.7 h of continuous samples and 1,892 sonagrams were analyzed. In addition to vocalizations clearly associated with alarm, distress, or agonistic contexts, two distinct call types were identified, trills and huhs. Age‐sex classes differed in the rate at which both types of calls were produced in different spatial positions within the troop. Adult females and males produced higher rates of trills when in the leading edge compared to all other spatial positions in a traveling troop. Trills at the edge of a stationary troop represented 36 “successful” and 3 “unsuccessful” start attempts; the troop usually moved in the trajectory predicted by a trilling adult's location on the troop periphery within 10 min of the initiation of trilling. Adults also altered the trajectory of traveling troops by trilling at the side and back of the troop (10 “successful” and 4 “unsuccessful” attempts). Huh vocalizations were most predictably produced when a capuchin is in a dense fruit patch. These results emphasize the role vocalizations serve in the coordination and trajectory of group movement in nonhuman primates, especially those populations that are arboreal or in which visual contact is otherwise impeded. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.

This article is a US Government work and, as such, is in the public domain in the United States of America.