bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
An Interpretation Specialization Continuum of Environmental Volunteerism in Taiwan
Authors: Morgan Mark , Lin Hui-nien “Sylvia” , Chou Ju , Wu Homer
Published: September 2020

The Society of Wilderness (SOW) is a non-governmental organization in Taiwan that relies on volunteers to protect nature through environmental education. Since volunteers play such an important role in natural resource preservation, more information is needed to understand their participation in SOW. The purpose of this study was to develop an interpretation specialization continuum of environmental volunteerism in Taiwan. A mail-back survey was administered to interpreters volunteering at Er-ge Mountain during the winter of 2005. Forty-five of 48 questionnaires were returned, yielding a 93.8% response rate. The resource knowledge and place attachment scores of volunteer interpreters were combined into a 2 x 2 matrix, thus providing one explanation for their level of activity involvement in SOW. Although volunteer interpreters were distributed throughout the continuum, results showed that highly specialized interpreters had greater activity involvement scores than those who were less specialized. Length of membership in SOW had no effect on their activity involvement scores. This specialization continuum addressed key managerial issues, such as recruitment and retention of volunteer interpreters.
The Development of Semantic Memories through Interpretation
Authors: Knapp Doug
Published: September 2020

This study used a phenomenological analysis to investigate the recollections of participants (N=36) of an interpretive program at Lowell National Historic Park. These individuals were interviewed six months following the experience. Four topic areas relating to the participants’ long-term memory of the interpretive program were identified: (a) personal connections with the tour, (b) program information retention, (c) positive visitor responses, and (d) ranger attributes. Results indicated that the personal connections made during the program were influential in creating vivid episodic memories. Some of the responses from the participants went beyond episodic information and could be associated with conceptual thinking associated with semantic memory or knowledge. The findings of this study, along with literature associated with long-term memory research, offer a potential model of learning for interpretation related to episodic/semantic memory systems.
Form Follows Function: Interpretive Wisdom for Environmental Educators
Authors: Turek Eve M.
Published: September 2020

A review of the literature reveals that interpreters’ emphasis on individual connection to the resource offers environmental educators key strategies to promote engagement and addresses critiques of environmental education practice as too generalized, behaviorist, manipulative, or negative. Interpreters serve as the nation's front-line environmental educators, with the foremost opportunity to inspire adults to engage in the free-choice learning that may, at best, motivate deeper ecological awareness and personal environmental activism. Pairing interpreters with teachers can extend the same opportunities to students.
The Effect of Moral and Fear Appeals on Park Visitors’ Beliefs about Feeding Wildlife
Authors: Hockett Karen S. , Hall Troy E.
Published: September 2020

This study tested the effectiveness of two written messages compared to a control condition in changing campers’ beliefs about feeding deer at Shenandoah National Park. Drawing on the Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion, both interventions were designed to promote central route processing. One used research on hazard warnings to present a fear appeal message highlighting risks to visitors, while the other used norm activation theory to develop a moral appeal that focused on impacts to deer. Questionnaires (control n =111, moral appeal n = 115, fear appeal n = 116) assessed level of agreement with belief statements taken from the appeals as well as related statements that would indicate whether message elaboration occurred. The fear appeal increased agreement that deer could cause physical harm to people and appeared to cause elaboration on these messages, but the moral appeal did not strengthen previously held beliefs that feeding harmed the deer. Both appeals reduced self-reported frequencies of deer feeding. Women agreed more strongly with some of the moral appeal statements in all conditions, but the interventions affected men and women equally. Results suggest that fear appeals may be an effective technique for changing beliefs about feeding wildlife.
Voices from the Profession: Principles of Successful Guided Cave Interpretation
Authors: Davidson Penny , Black Rosemary
Published: September 2020

Cave tourism is a significant sector of natural area tourism in many parts of the world, and in most situations cave guides play an integral role in the visitor experience, providing interpretation and information. The field of heritage interpretation has a significant body of professional literature and practice, yet little relates to subterranean landscapes. This research explores the guided interpretive methods used and experiences created to interpret Australian tourist cave sites. It taps the voices of experienced Australian cave guides to identify the current personal interpretive practices and identifies some key principles for successful guided cave interpretation. This study is qualitative in nature and utilized a participatory workshop with experienced cave guides, followed by a formal peer feedback process. Nine principles were articulated through the research process. Ham's (1992) four qualities of successful interpretation were affirmed and a further five principles emerged from the workshop discussions: group management, protection, two-way communication, holistic approach, and emotion. The first four principles are variously presented in the existing literature but the fifth, emotion, is less well articulated in the literature.
Practicing What We Preach
Authors: Grenier Robin S.
Published: September 2020

Today, environmental, cultural, and historical sites are emphasizing educational and interactive visitor experiences. An institution's educational philosophy should form the core of volunteer training and in turn be reflected in public programs. This comparative case study examined two training programs at a history and art museum. Data were collected through interviews, training/ promotional materials, and observations. Analysis revealed that the learning theory touted to volunteers for use with the public is not applied by educators during training. Findings suggest a need for aligning an institution's educational philosophy with its training practices and assessing the impact of such alignment on volunteer training and program delivery.
The Interpretive Power of Setting: Identifying and Protecting the Interpretive Potential of the Internal and External Setting at Copan Archaeological Park, Honduras
Authors: Mayer Christopher C. , Wallace George N.
Published: September 2020

This study examined how differing levels of restoration and development within, and intensifying development adjacent to Copan Archeological Park would affect interpretive potential and the visitor experience at this World Heritage Site in Honduras. Surveys and interviews with visitors revealed that Latin Americans, North Americans, and Europeans all show a preference for a mixture of restored ruins and those being reclaimed by nature. Visitors described how this juxtaposition added to their experience. A majority of visitors indicated a strong preference for maintaining agricultural or forested lands between the park and the town of Copán Ruinas and described how the intensification of development would impact their experience. Implications for park management and interpretive planning are discussed and recommendations given. Protecting the interpretive potential of these settings will require interpreters to inform the protected area and local government planning decisions that will ultimately determine the content and quality of programmatic interpretation.
From Principle to Practice: Four Conceptions of Interpretation
Authors: Benton Gregory M.
Published: September 2020

This multiple case study examined cultural interpretive programs for four different sets of goals or conceptions in a trickle-down effect from theory to practice. A proposed model, Four Conceptions of Interpretation, is based on foundational texts and empirical studies. The four conceptions are (a) connecting visitors to resources, (b) conveying agency mission and influencing behavior, (c) encouraging environmental literacy, and (d) promoting tourism outcomes. The data were examined for the presence of several different goals for interpretive practice. The study found that conception one was represented in all programs. Limited evidence of conceptions two, three, and four were found in participant recall. Although articulated in texts and training materials, evidence of the other conceptions’ goals were lacking from visitors’ short-term recall. This finding suggests that the practice of interpretation at the examined sites focused on conveying the seminal goal of connecting visitors to heritage resources.
Living Heritage: An Experimental Model Mixing Heritage and Entertainment
Authors: Saxe David W.
Published: September 2020

The living heritage model is portable and may be replicated by venues of all sizes and budgets. The model may also be scaled to match venue space requirements as well as be adjusted to available human, tangible, and financial resources.

Led by Colonial Williamsburg, Mount Vernon, Old Sturbridge Village, and other history-heritage sites, the museum, history-heritage industry is poised to fully embrace the opportunities and potentials that scripted entertainment projects hold for their institutions. The living heritage model is one example of what might be done to instill and invigorate historical interest among the general public.
Beyond the Basics
Authors: Buck Olivia
Published: September 2020

Much has been written about accessible text, regarding word counts, active rather than passive tense, straightening out sub-clauses and so on. This is now becoming embedded in good museum writing practice. At the British Museum, our aim is to maximize visitors’ engagement with our collections. Beyond the basic guidelines outlined above and in the light of the results of recent visitor research and evaluation we have begun to look again at the way in which we write interpretive text.

This article focuses on writing text for permanent galleries, rather than temporary exhibitions, and uses the recent Japan Gallery as a case study. The article also aims to provide some practical tips for writing and the interpretation process.
The Anchor on a Long Chain: The National Park Service Act of 1916 Related to Historical and Cultural Resources
Authors: Rogers Jerry L.
Published: September 2020

The National Park Service Act of 1916, often dangerously considered alone, is only one link, although a fundamental one, in a chain of authorities that acknowledge and preserve historical and cultural resources everywhere in the United States. By fully exercising its cultural resource leadership responsibilities and expanding them to natural resources, the National Park Service can help to make the second century of the service amount to a “Century of the Environment.”
Investigating the Impact of Interpretive Signs at Neighborhood Natural Areas
Authors: Davis Shawn K. , Thompson Jessica L.
Published: September 2020

Designing interpretive signs for community natural areas is often an expensive endeavor, sometimes requiring the largest portion of an already small budget, but what do we know about the impact of these signs? How do visitors to neighborhood natural areas interact with and use the signs? This multiple-method study investigated how visitors interacted with interpretive signs in two neighborhood natural areas in a mid-sized urban area. Results of this study indicate that a majority of natural area visitors were repeat visitors; however, when tested, first-time visitors scored higher on a knowledge assessment of information presented on the interpretive signs than repeat. Similarly, visitors’ appreciation for the signs varied whether they were running, biking, or walking. This insight may be helpful as natural areas invest in interpretive signage during a time of tight budgets.
Exploring empirical support for interpretation's best practices
Authors: Skibins Jeffrey C. , Powell Robert B. , Stern Marc J.
Published: September 2020

Since Freeman Tilden defined interpretation, numerous authors have proposed methodological best practices. The purposes of this meta-analysis were to identify best practices and examine the empirical evidence linking them to visitor outcomes. We identified 17 best practices from key texts used for interpretive training. Our investigation examined the relationships between hypothesized best practices and outcomes in 70 peer-reviewed articles. The most commonly reported of these best practices used in the programs evaluated in these articles were: resource/place-based messaging (53%), actively engaging the audience (51%), and thematic development and cognitive/affective messaging (both 49%). Knowledge was the most commonly evaluated outcome (33% of studies), and awareness the least (9%). Positive results were most commonly reported for satisfaction, 91%, while 32% of studies evaluating the influence of interpretation on attitudes showed no impact. Results provide general support for each of the 17 hypothesized best practices and their linkages to desired outcomes. However, the evidence remains circumstantial because the practices were rarely isolated or explicitly tested.
Getting Campers to Interpretive Programs: Understanding Constraints to Participation
Authors: Goodrich Jessica L. , Bixler Robert D.
Published: September 2020

Interpretive programs are offered by parks and public lands to inspire the visitors to further appreciate the heritage resources presented and protected within parks. The strategic use of interpretation requires participants, and the broader the audience, the wider the influence. Using an outcome-oriented approach, 40 semi-structured interviews were conducted to better understand the constraints that reduced campers’ participation in park interpretive programs held at state parks. Visitors described an inability to find program information, a desire to experience unstructured time, lifestage barriers, and the relative attractiveness of competing activities. Through increased awareness of constraints to participation, interpreters should be able to strategically schedule programs, use different programming delivery styles, and increase their ability to meet park management objectives.
Comparing Interpretive Methods Targeting Invasive Species Management at Cumberland Island National Seashore
Authors: Sharp Ryan L. , Larson Lincoln R. , Green Gary T. , Tomek Sara
Published: September 2020

Interpretation designed to increase public understanding and appreciation of environmental issues can provide support for management actions in protected areas, but the relative impact of different interpretive strategies on public awareness and attitudes has not been adequately explored. The purpose of this research was to compare the effects of two interpretive programs (a non-personal, visual-based flyer and an interpersonal, audio-based talk) relative to a control group on visitors’ knowledge of, attitudes toward, and support for invasive species management at Cumberland Island National Seashore, Georgia. In general, the interpretive talk appeared to be more effective than the flyer at increasing awareness and generating support for invasive species management. Although visitors exposed to each of the treatments displayed greater knowledge of invasive species, effects on attitudes and management preferences were minimal. Future research examining the effects of interpretive media on public awareness of and support for controversial management decisions could therefore explore mechanisms for maximizing the impact of interpretive programming on visitors’ attitudes and preferences.
Towards a Cultural Analysis: The Need for Ethnography in Interpretation Research
Authors: Hunter Joshua E.
Published: September 2020

The author examines a decade of interpretation research and focuses on the limited amount of qualitative research available, especially ethnographic. This highlights a trend in which there is a substantial absence of work derived from qualitative perspectives and even when studies are considered qualitative they are overwhelmingly geared towards individual visitor outcomes and large-scale studies and surveys. Drawing upon anthropological insights ethnography as both method and substance is explored. An argument is presented that ethnography, in its attention to context, making connections, shared social interactions, and holism is keenly suited to the study of interpretation and perhaps the best way of exploring meaning making, a prominent component of the field. Interpretation research is missing an important cultural analysis of the practice of interpretation, and ethnography offers a unique and invaluable lens by which to study interpretation as a cultural and social act.
Reflections on Educational Leadership & Innovation: An Agenda for New Research
Authors: Wolins Inez S.
Published: September 2020

Park Service and museum professionals live by a multitude of calendar demands that seem to define their days; from grant submissions to shipping dates, from project reports to newsletter deadlines, it isn't easy to build in time for reflection and analysis, let alone the development of strategies that help visitors have meaningful connections and experiences with our resources. In addition, organizational cultures can sometimes feel chaotic, or they can move at a snail's pace, so when professionals are identified as real innovators, they're “Googled,” “friended,” or “followed,” and they're invited to present and publish. There is no doubt in my mind that innovators have resolve and push the limits. They tackle challenges, question assumptions, create richer visitor experiences, get results, and raise the bar for the field.

So how do we achieve dramatic outcomes as a result of, or in spite of, organizational cultures?
Assessing Interest in Sustainable Seafood through Strategically Framed Interpretive Statements
Authors: Reese Jess
Published: September 2020

One billion people rely on the ocean for protein. Sustainable seafood initiatives can engage citizens on a consumer level, empowering them to shape our world with food choices. Communication is a useful tool in garnering conservation support. This study conducted at Brookfield Zoo dolphin shows sought to discover whether interest in sustainable seafood initiatives improved with the use of framed interpretive messages versus standard conservation messages. The framed message included a value, metaphor, and offered solutions; while the unframed message offered only a solution without further elaboration. The conservation messages were alternated over the course of 44 dolphin shows, and delivered to a total of 17,157 zoo guests. By measuring the amount of sustainable seafood guides that guests requested, it was discovered that interest in guides increased 2.5% when strategic framing techniques were used over standard messages. This study illuminates the possibilities of inspiring conservation leadership through strategic framing communications.
Preparing to be an Interpretive Naturalist: Opinions from the Field
Authors: Ivey Jonathan R. , Bixler Robert D.
Published: September 2020

This study documented the varying importance and availability of content and communication skills and certifications for entry-level interpretive naturalists, based on the perceptions of experienced interpreters. A web-based survey was sent to (n=867) interpreters. Responses were received from 308 interpreters. The five most important content skills were field ecology, field ornithology, conservation biology, field botany, and field mammalogy. The five most important communication skills were improvisational skills, understanding how children of different ages learn, ability to read an audience, good voice, and ability to write lesson plans/program outlines. Desired content skills were readily available in applicant pools for entry-level positions, but less so for communication skills. Results suggested general support for the National Association for Interpretation Certified Interpretive Guide and the National Park Service Interpretive Development Program. College professors advising students and persons wishing to enter the field of nature interpretation should make sure they develop the highly ranked skills, plus other less highly ranked skills that will help distinguish them from other applicants.
Speculating on the Role of Context in the Outcomes of Interpretive Programs
Authors: Powell Robert B. , Stern Marc J.
Published: September 2020

Based on data from 272 live interpretive programs conducted across 24 units of the U.S. National Park Service, we investigate the influence of context upon interpretive programs and visitor outcomes. We first examined whether outcomes vary based upon the size of the audience and its age makeup; program characteristics such as duration, topic, and type; and characteristics of the setting including proximity to urban centers, program location (indoor vs. outdoor), and resource quality. We then examine whether different program or interpreter characteristics operate differently in different contexts by examining their relationships to visitor outcomes in four context pairings: programs with mostly children vs. mostly adults in the audience; culturally focused vs. environmentally focused programs; programs conducted in remote vs. urban parks; and indoor vs. outdoor programs. The findings suggest that a small number of program and interpreter characteristics may operate differently within different contexts. Based on these results, we propose hypotheses regarding which program characteristics appear to be more or less beneficial (or harmful) to generating desired visitor outcomes in different contexts.
The Difference between Good Enough and Great: Bringing Interpretive Best Practices to Life
Authors: Stern Marc J. , Powell Robert B. , McLean Kevin D. , Martin Emily , Thomsen Jennifer M. , Mutchler Bethany A.
Published: September 2020

The purpose of this paper is to illuminate in both a quantitative and qualitative sense the practices that distinguish great interpretive programs from those that may merely be adequate to satisfy the visitor's basic desires to learn, be entertained, or spend time with a ranger. Great programs, like great works of art, have the potential to impact audiences in a deeper sense by providing memorable experiences that may influence multiple aspects of visitors’ lives. This paper draws on experiences from three months of fieldwork, observing 376 interpretive programs across 24 units of the U.S. National Park Service, to illustrate examples of program elements that distinguished what we considered to be the best programs we observed.
A New Interpretive Pedagogy
Authors: Knapp Doug , Forist Brian
Published: September 2020

One of the most prominent debates related to interpretation lies in the approach that this informal education process takes—in essence its pedagogy. At its core, personal interpretation's goal is to make the visit a memorable and meaningful encounter. It is an approach that if done properly, may be difficult to master, but one, that ultimately would increase the –success” of interpretation and improve its perception among those in the field as well as those outside the profession. This paper proposes a new pedagogic approach that focuses on the visitor more than the interpretive program. The more that can be learned about the constituents increases the ability to offer information that correlates to their lives and has far more potential to result in long-term impacts desired by our field. The notion of this new interpretation is to devote time and effort in the interpretive experience to learning who the visitor is and with that information, offer a message that would best resonate with participants.
Assessing the Effectiveness of Artistic Place-Based Climate Change Interpretation
Authors: Barrett Austin , Mowen Andrew J.
Published: September 2020

This paper analyzed the effectiveness of an artistic place-based climate change interpretive program at Glacier National Park in Montana. Utilizing the framework of place-based climate change communication and the use of artistic interpretive methods, this study offered support for the efficacy of communicating climate change at a climate-impacted location. The survey instrument assessed emotional, intellectual, and stewardship response measures, as well as climate change response outcomes. Regardless of the artistic program format (live music or poetry), visitors responded favorably to all three of the interpretive outcome domain measures. Statistical comparisons found a number of differences between interpretive outcome measures in regard to motivation and visitor characteristics. By utilizing artistic approaches, this study offers support for the growing body of research about the power of place-based interpretive messaging to engage the public on the issue of climate change.
Perception of Thematic-Based Interpretation at the Jefferson National Expansion Memorial: A Study of Korean Visitors
Authors: Morgan Mark , Hwang Geumchan
Published: September 2020

The Jefferson National Expansion Memorial (Gateway Arch) is a National Park Service (NPS) monument in St. Louis, Missouri, that serves as a symbol of westward expansion and frontier life in America during the 19th century. Most of the nearly 2.5 million annual visitors are interested in learning about its history and significance. Although the Gateway Arch is an international tourism destination, few attempts have addressed the language requirements of foreign visitors. This study evaluated thematic-based interpretation at the Gateway Arch using a sample of Korean visitors. A total of 148 subjects were recruited from the Asian Affairs Center (AAC) at the University of Missouri (MU) and assigned to one of three conditions: control group (n=42), watching a DVD prior to the visit (n=62), or participating in an on-site, ranger-led tour (n=44). Individuals were asked to evaluate five interpretive themes developed by NPS staff (by condition) using a questionnaire that was translated into Korean and checked for accuracy. Results indicated that theme perception was relatively poor in the control group, but improved significantly ( p < 0.05) after watching a DVD and attending a NPS ranger-led tour. Managerial implications of this study focused on improving visitor experiences for international audiences, especially Koreans.
The Churches of Venice: Sacred Places or Museum Spaces?
Authors: Saunders Venelina Dali
Published: September 2020

Many churches in Venice have become landmarks due to their artistic treasures. Their increased volume of visitors often has a primary goal of sightseeing rather than participating in religious services. Consequently, some of the churches have employed interpretation methods to satisfy the demand of mass tourism. The aim of the study is to investigate the role of current on-site interpretations of the churches and relate them to the visitors’ perceptions and experiences. The evaluation relies on qualitative methods such as case studies, visitors’ surveys, site observations, and interviews. The results are analyzed through the framework of the constructivist-learning theory, which affirms that people create their own meanings based on previous knowledge. The findings demonstrate that the interpretive methods on-sites present the visitors with experiences not usually associated with religious sites. The churches are experienced as tourist attractions rather then sacred sites—a perception that clearly interferes with their original purpose.
Analysis of Best Practices for Interpretation Development at Public Gardens
Authors: Tschaenn Nate M. , Lyons Robert E. , Miles Dottie , Bruck Jules
Published: September 2020

Interpretation can be the most effective way for public gardens to communicate with their audiences. However, many public gardens struggle to understand interpretation and how to best develop it. A survey conducted of professionals at 174 different public gardens investigated various approaches to interpretation development and their effect on the perceived quality of interpretation and interpretation development practices of the organization. These approaches included staff and volunteer training, planning documents, evaluation, and staff composition.

The results of this study revealed many interpretive development practices that are yielding significant benefits for public gardens. The data also revealed that the majority of public gardens have significant room for improvement with regard to interpretation development. For instance, organizations were more likely to be satisfied with the interpretive media that they routinely evaluated, but few routinely conducted evaluation. Recommendations that should help guide decision-making at public gardens resulting from this research are discussed.
Inspiring the Outdoor Experience: Does the Path through a Nature Center Lead Out the Door?
Authors: Beery Thomas , Jönsson K. Ingemar
Published: September 2020

This study investigates the visitor experience at a Swedish nature center within a UNESCO biosphere reserve. The question of whether this interpretive facility succeeds in motivating the visitor to get outdoors for a direct experience of nature is explored. Use of the environmental connectedness perspective and concerns about diminished nature experience support the importance of this study. A number of qualitative methodologies are used to investigate the research questions, including thought listing, phenomenology, and field observation. Results indicate that this particular nature center generally succeeded in the goal of inspiring visitors for a direct nature experience. The success in motivating visitors appears to be a result of a number of key variables, including place-based exhibitry, access, and personal visitor factors. Given the setting for this study, we conclude that interpretive nature centers have the potential to play an important role in the re-imagination of urban environments.
Choosing Illustrations of Spider (Faces) for Best First Impressions in Natural History Interpretive Programs A Program Component Analysis
Authors: Bixler Robert D. , Crosby Courtney L. , Howell Kelly N. , Tucker Teresa W.
Published: September 2020

This study demonstrates that faces of spiders that are neotenic are perceived as less scary than others, if not cute. A convenience sample of adults (n=69) at a university distributed 15 photographs spider faces along a ruler based on perceived scariness. Six of the seven photographs of jumping spiders (Family Salticidae) were ranked as least scary. Results suggest that using illustrations of jumping spiders to create a positive affective first impression in interpretive programs about spiders is a reasonable assumption. Spiders in the jumping spider family may be viewed as a –gateway spider.” This study illustrates a research and design approach termed Program Component Analysis (PCA), in which a design question for only a component of a program is subjected to systematic analysis.
Multiculturalism, Language Barriers, and Service Quality
Authors: Morgan Mark , Qiao Kai
Published: September 2020

If the White majority becomes a minority population in the United States by 2050, as predicted, this shift might result in a dilemma for the National Park Service (NPS) because Caucasians have provided the mainstay of agency support over the past century. According to published reports, recommendations to improve park awareness and relevance for underserved groups are being addressed by the National Parks Conservation Association. Although Asians are one of the fastest growing minorities in the U.S., they are infrequent NPS visitors. One possible explanation is language barriers, compounded by English-only websites and printed material. A service-quality test using a Chinese confederate was designed to examine some performance measures. Of the 370 national parks queried, less than 18% had any information for Chinese visitors. Some managerial implications for Asian inclusiveness are discussed.
Memories on the Trail: Families Connecting their Prior Informal Learning Experiences to the Natural World during Nature Walks
Authors: McClain Lucy R. , Zimmerman Heather Toomey
Published: September 2020

This study examined the importance of memories of informal learning experiences as families shared their prior experiences during meaning-making talk during nature walks. The families’ memories came from previous visits to interpretive sites and were used to shape their observations of the natural world during conversations in the outdoors. Using ethnographic data collection and thematic analysis, findings are first presented through one family case study, then across all 16 participant families. Three findings include: (1) for one family, prior informal learning experiences provided an essential learning tool for making meaning together during their hike; (2) across the dataset, when families observed the landscape along the trail, they often connected memories gleaned from previous visits to the nature center, while encounters with natural objects sparked memories originating from other informal learning sites; and, (3) children most often recalled prior visits to the nature center, while parents made connections to other settings. This study revealed that families’ personal memories were salient—months and even years later—as they attempted to make meaning with new experiences on the trail. Our work suggests that informal learning spaces that provide the opportunity to make previous connections to life experiences can have a long-term impact on families’ new understandings about the environment.
Understanding and Influencing State Park Visitors’ Leave No Trace Behavioral Intent
Authors: Lawhon Ben , Taff B. Derrick , Newman Peter , Vagias Wade M. , Newton Jennifer
Published: September 2020

Impact to protected area resources due to uninformed or depreciative visitor behavior continues to be a principal concern for managers. Leave No Trace (LNT) is a prevalent educational strategy for mitigating such impacts. Through on-site surveys, this study examined frontcountry visitor attitudes toward Leave No Trace (LNT) practices, and self-reported knowledge concerning LNT in three Wyoming state parks to determine factors that influenced their behavioral intent to practice LNT. Results suggest that attitudes toward perceived effectiveness of LNT practices and appropriateness of LNT practices are significant predictors of behavioral intent. If education-based communication efforts focus on why LNT practices are appropriate and effective, there is an increased likelihood of meaningfully influencing behavioral intent.
Evaluation of Interpretive Media Use and Effectiveness at a Nature Center
Authors: Mayorga Marisol , Cable Ted T. , Mullins Chris
Published: September 2020

This exploratory study is a contribution to the body of research on exhibit evaluation. It applied the concept of zones of tolerance to assess the effectiveness of interpretive themes in two exhibits at Dillon Nature Center in Kansas. It also assessed the use of QR codes installed along the Woodard Interpretive Trail, and analyzed visitors’ attitudes toward this technology. Major findings indicate visitor thoughts were within the narrow zone of tolerance for one of the exhibits and outside of that zone of tolerance for the other. QR codes are not widely accepted yet at the center, but visitors’ attitudes towards the technology show potential for future use. Last, it is essential for the nature center to research their visitors’ profile to facilitate better interpretive encounters with their audience. These results, although limited in scope, provide insights to managers and interpreters involved in evaluating the meaning-making process and considering the use of interpretive technologies in their sites.
An Investigation into the Impact of Environmental Education Certification on Perceptions of Personal Teaching Efficacy
Authors: Harrison Mandy , Gross Lisa , McGee Jennifer
Published: September 2020

The purpose of this study is to examine how participation in the North Carolina Environmental Educator (NCEE) program influences the individual's perceived self-efficacy. Specifically, this study examines the impact of NCEE certification on participants’ perceived personal teaching self-efficacy. This study compared personal teaching efficacy scores of certified environmental educators, non-certified environmental educators, and licensed schoolteachers. The study found significant differences in teaching efficacy between certified and non-certified environmental educators, as well as certified environmental educators and licensed school teachers. In addition, the study found no significant difference in efficacy scores between NCEE certified licensed school teachers and NCEE certified environmental educators.

Results of this study indicate a link between environmental education certification and higher personal teaching efficacy.
Interpretation Training Needs in the 21st Century: A Needs Assessment of Interpreters in the National Park Service
Authors: Powell Robert B. , Depper Gina L. , Wright Brett A.
Published: September 2020

To identify critical training needs in the Interpretation and Education (I&E) Division within the National Park Service (NPS), a team of experts and practitioners, including six academic institutions, the National Association for Interpretation, and the NPS, developed a comprehensive list of knowledge, skills, and abilities thought to be relevant for providing and managing interpretation in the 21st century. Using this list of 80 competencies, we received over 1,000 NPS I&E employees’ responses regarding their beliefs about the importance and their level of preparation performing these tasks. The results identified not only the most important competencies, but also three broad training needs: skills related to research-evaluation literacy, engaging new and diverse audiences, and using emerging and existing social media technologies. Preparing interpreters to perform these skills at the highest level appears imperative if the NPS is to maintain relevance and continue to meet the demands of 21st-century audiences.
A Brief Evaluation of an Interpretive, Self-Guided Mobile Tour
Authors: Britt Rebecca K.
Published: September 2020

In this brief report, an evaluation of a self-guided mobile tour was conducted at a new set of research facilities located at a university designed to attract two audiences: researchers and public visitors. A qualitative analysis using the think-aloud method was completed using the three types of devices through which visitors can complete the tour: a paper booklet, smartphone, or tablet. Findings from a college student sample demonstrated that the paper booklet was easier to use as opposed to the use of a tablet or smartphone. Participants discussed that paper booklets in guided tours offered the ability to take time to explore the landmarks and interpret the underlying meaning behind them. Suggestions are offered for future research on self-guided mobile tours based on research facilities.
Every Kid in the Woods: The Outdoor Education Experience of Diverse Youth
Authors: Montero Aracely C. , Roberts Nina S. , Wilson Jackson , Fonfa Lynn
Published: September 2020

The purpose of this qualitative study was to evaluate the experience of underserved fourth-grade students participating in the National Park Service's Every Kid in a Park (EKIP) initiative through the Into the Redwood Forest (IRF) education program at Muir Woods National Monument. The project's aim was to understand the experience of underserved diverse students (i.e., race and ethnicity, gender, and Title I schools) participating during the 2015–2016 school year. The study included six teacher interviews and document review procedure of 60 student journals. The findings reveal that the EKIP exposed students to parks, the inquiry-based learning proved effective for outdoor learning, and the impact of the nature experience encouraged environmental stewardship. Implications and recommendations for further implementation of both the EKIP initiative and IRF at Muir Woods are discussed.
Increasing Visitor Engagement during Interpretive Walking Tours
Authors: Douglas David , Ellis Gary , Lacanienta Andrew
Published: September 2020

This study examined the effect of living-history interpretation (i.e., first-person, third-person, no living history) and question type (i.e., relevant, dissonant, customary) on engagement of visitors during walking tours at a heritage site. One hundred seventy-six visitors participated in the study. Visitors completed a measure of engagement immediately following each of six stops during the walking tour. A measure of guest familiarity of the context of the site was also taken. Results from linear mixed-modeling revealed a three-factor interaction effect, familiarity by question type by living-history interpretation. Engagement of visitors is impacted by guest familiarity with the context, the living-history interpretation type, and the question type posed. Results might guide interpretation professionals in customizing interpretation experiences to stage more engaging interpretation experiences.
The Professor, the Anteater, and the Spellbound Boys: The Case for Spontaneous Interpretation
Authors: Bannor Brett
Published: September 2020

An anecdote is presented involving an anteater skin, some boys, and Samuel Latham Mitchill, an early American statesman and scientist. The story is a reminder that spontaneous interpretation can be effective because it reminds the audience of their immediate experience.
The Place of Inspiration in Heritage Interpretation: A Conceptual Analysis
Authors: Gilson Jacquline , Kool Richard
Published: September 2020

Inspiration has been an under-studied phenomenon in the interpretation field. This paper presents the results of a systematic literature review of psychological literature related to inspiration, revealing nine characteristics of inspiration. Of particular interest was the contrasting meanings of inspiration as inspired by and inspired to, and that inspiration is transmissible, positive, individual, transcendent, unexpected, and holistic, and requires receptivity, which may be cultivated. Each characteristic was related to the field of interpretation in practice. After this review of the literature, we propose that giving consideration to inspiration-based interpretation may provide useful insights for practice as a constructivist approach to interpretation. Further exploration into the topic is warranted.
Crowding, Race, and Ethnicity: A Case Study at Onondaga Cave State Park
Authors: Lee KangJae Jerry , Morgan Mark , Shim Hyojeong
Published: September 2020

This study investigated crowding perceptions of adult visitors who took guided tours at Onondaga Cave State Park in Leasburg, Missouri. An on-site survey was conducted on weekends, alternating between Saturdays and Sundays from May until October 2015. Crowding perceptions of White and Asian visitors were compared using an independent t-test, while a regression model examined the effects of different factors associated with perceived crowding. Results showed that Asian visitors felt more crowded on cave tours than Whites. Being Asian or White, along with tour satisfaction, were negatively associated with crowding perception. Implications for outdoor recreation management, both in theory and practice, were discussed.
The Devil Made Me Do It: Influence of Values on Interpretation and Behaviors for Tasmanian Devils
Authors: Skibins Jeffrey C. , Weiler Betty , Markwell Kevin , Wilson Lian
Published: September 2020

Zoos are becoming more intentional about embedding messaging in their interpretation to promote pro-conservation behaviors, essentially acting as agents of social change. Values theory suggests that, be effective, interpretation including these pro-conservation messages needs to broadly align with visitors’ values. Using the Schwartz value system, this study modeled the relationships between visitors’ values, perceptions of interpretation, emotional connectivity to Tasmanian Devils, and behavioral intent, including a comparison of different types of on-site and post-visit pro-conservation behaviors. Most visitors held moderate to strong conservation values, which were predictive of positive perceptions of interpretation, emotional connectivity, and pro-conservation behaviors. However, the results suggest that while visitors’ values align with their perceptions of interpretation, they are only weak predictors of behavioral intent. Visitors’ perceptions of interpretation and behavioral intent aligned more strongly with emotional connectivity than with their values. Overall, behavioral intentions were low for all pro-conservation behaviors. Liking a Facebook post about the conservation of Tasmanian Devils was the behavior most likely to be performed.
The Application of GPS Visitor Tracking Implications for Interpretation at Heritage Sites
Authors: Sharp Ryan L. , Cable Ted T. , Burns Aubrey
Published: September 2020

This paper presents the results of the application of GPS Visitor Tracking (GVT) to evaluate visitor movements through a heritage site. This method provides temporal and spatial distribution and “heat maps” that depict visitor movements through the site. Documenting these visitor movements indicates to interpreters where to concentrate interpretive efforts and identifies opportunities to strategically encourage visitation to less visited areas of the site. The research team approached 117 travel parties and 106 elected to participate in the study, yielding a 90.6% response rate. Analysis revealed that visitors typically travel in a clockwise direction once they entered the park, stopping at a point of interest then proceeding to the visitor center. However, the density maps revealed that other points of interest were less visited. This information about temporal and spatial distribution of visitors can provide information for creating interpretive programs that people may engage with at the park.
Environmental Interpretation for a Diverse Public: Nature Center Planning for Minority Populations
Authors: Jacohson Susan K. , Arana John J. , McDuff Mallory D.
Published: September 2020

The increasing cultural and ethnic diversity in the United States should challenge environmental interpreters to offer programs that attract a variety of audiences. This study investigated minority involvement at Florida's nature centers through a census of 77 nature center directors throughout Florida as well as a survey of 21 minority staff working at these educational facilities. School programs at the nature centers are the primary method for reaching minorities; few programs involve minority adults from the community. The focus of the one-day visits for students is primarily nature awareness, with little emphasis on influencing knowledge or attitudes about local issues, human-environment relationships, or actions to reduce environmental problems. The results indicate the need for nature centers to expand their programs to offer long-term, community-based environmental interpretation for a diverse public.