bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Reflections on Counting
Authors: Tennant Neil
Published: March 2022

This chapter is devoted to motivating, and answering, the question ‘When we count a finite collection of objects, why do we always recite our numerals, as we “flip through” the objects one by one, in their standard ordering?’ Canonical numerals are standardly recited in their intrinsic ordering of increasing size of numbers thereby denoted. We should be aware of how the length of any numeral of a certain kind depends on the size of the number it is to denote. With Dedekind‒Peano numerals (of the form s … s0), and with Dedekind‒Peano‒Frege numerals (of the form #x(Nx ⋀ x≤ s … s0)) the length of the numerals is a linear function of the number denoted. But in any place notation, from binary onward (including, in particular, our standard decimal notation) that function is logarithmic. (Starkly at odds with these tractable cases is the numeral system of the Fregean, for which, as we saw in Chapter 7, the length of a numeral is exponential in the number denoted.) But even with the linearly and logarithmically increasing numerals here mentioned, the question addressed in this chapter, about reciting numerals in their standard ordering, calls for careful consideration of the reasons why.
Past Accounts of the Rationals as Ratios
Authors: Tennant Neil
Published: March 2022

Rational numbers are ratios pq of two natural numbers (with q ≠ 0). Their ordering is dense. Rational numbers are also special cases of ratios of dimensional magnitudes—the latter, typically, being lengths of line segments. It is now known that collectively these di mensional magnitudes form the ordering of the reals. And this ordering is not just dense, but is also continuous. This chapter begins with a brief survey of how the rationals have figured, or been treated, from the time of Eudoxus through to present-day double-barreled abstractionism. Then it turns to a more detailed study of Euclid’s account of ratios, and their method of abstraction. Euclid’s method proves to be a precursor of double-barreled abstractionism. But this kind of abstractionism fails to ensure that any natural number is ‘itself again’, qua rational number. And the Euclidean method of abstraction has the drawback that it does not create (or explain our entitlement to be committed to the exis tence of) rational numbers on the basis of our prior grasp of natural numbers. The method employed in Natural Logicism that will ‘get’ the rationals from the naturals and recognize the naturals as themselves again qua rationals will be explained in Chapter 16.
The Trend toward Arithmetization
Authors: Tennant Neil
Published: March 2022

The tension is explored between geometrizing approaches to the real numbers, and arith metizing ones. After examining crucial statements by Newton, Gauss, and Frege, the conclusion emerges that the conception of real number as a ratio of magnitudes managed to survive the nineteenth-century shift from the geometrizing way to the arithmetizing way. Given these thinkers’ respectively different foundational views, this testifies to the robustness of that conception of the reals. The question to address is whether any major foundationalist thinker has ever provided compelling reasons or argument for this emer gent nineteenth-century tendency. Why should one eschew (let alone: reject) recourse to geometric concepts or intuitions or principles or understanding, in the attempt to provide a satisfactory foundation for real analysis? In trying to identify such a thinker, one must examine carefully the works of the two figures whose seminal writings are most fre quently cited in this connection: Bolzano and Dedekind. But their arguments turn out to be unconvincing. It is hard to resist the conclusion that there emerged within the tradition a mere preference for algebraic as opposed to geometric modes of presentation and rea soning in differential and integral calculus. The chapter closes with an exploration of the role of what mathematicians themselves call intuition when selecting the ‘first principles’ from which they then deduce their theorems.
Geometric Concepts and Axioms
Authors: Tennant Neil
Published: March 2022

The focus here is on countably infinite sequences of points on a directed (or oriented) line. The sequences are of various kinds, characterized in terms of the underlying ordering relation ◄ among points. Thus one has sequences that are left- (or right-) limited; ◄ -increasing (or decreasing); monotonic; strictly increasing (or decreasing) to a plateau; convergent to a given point; bisective; Cauchy …. These are all geometric sequences, not sequences of numbers. A stock of various geometrical concepts are defined in terms of ◄ that will enable one to formulate intuitively obvious axioms governing ◄ , expressed by quantifying over points and segments. Important among these concepts are those of the nth left- and nth-right bisection points of a closed segment of an oriented line. Some of the axioms have obvious ‘reflected’ counterparts, in which ‘right’ is exchanged with ‘left’. For all but four of these axioms, their right- and left-versions are equivalent. Continuity of the line is captured by the axioms stating the existence of left- and of right-limits for, respectively, ◄ -increasing sequences that are right-limited, and ◄ -decreasing sequences that are left-limited. This form of continuity is both simpler and more obvious than ones offered by Hilbert, Tarski, and analysts employing Cauchy sequences. Along with the property of Archimedean measure (which is logically derivable from simple axioms laid down here), the limit axioms ensure that any segment can be measured in terms of any other segment chosen as a unit. The chapter closes with proofs of various results about infinite subsequences of infinite sequences; and brings into focus an important kind of bisective sequence called a funnel sequence.
Uncountability
Authors: Tennant Neil
Published: March 2022

This chapter shows that one can meet the one remaining condition of adequacy that has been imposed on any account of the real numbers—that of demonstrating their uncountability. It rigorously examines the method inherent in Cantor’s proof of the uncountability of the reals. The proof takes subtly different forms, depending on whether one is conceiving of the reals as bicimals (as is the case here), or as the one-one corresponding sets of natural numbers. There is also the general set-theoretic form, establishing that every set has strictly more subsets than members. A careful investigation is undertaken of how the ‘shape’ or ‘line of argument’ in each of these diagonalization proofs is respectively regimented as a formal deduction. The method of diagonalization is so elementary in its existential and methodological presuppositions that it should be completely convincing to all stripes of mathematician contemplating the question of how many reals there are—including those not committed to the existence of any completed infinite totality, let alone a completed uncountably infinite totality. Even the ontologically conservative Kroneckerian, who is committed to no more than the individual natural numbers (and not to the totality they form), and who employs only constructive deductive reasoning, can see that there must be uncountably infinitely many reals, if they exist. This philosophical conclusion is based on the formally rigorous regimentation of the Cantorian reasoning by diagonalization, in free Core Logic.
Genetic Criticism
Authors: Van Hulle Dirk
Published: March 2022

As a method to study literary writing processes, genetic criticism is also a reading strategy. The idea behind this book is to introduce this strategy to a broader audience, from undergraduate students and interested readers to early career researchers and literary critics. A work of literature sometimes seems to hit a nerve, but it is more challenging to pinpoint exactly why it ‘works’. This book therefore starts from a basic principle: knowing how something was made can help us understand how and why it works. This strategy is at the basis of many disciplines, including art history. By means of X-ray technology or hyperspectral imaging, it is possible to look at a painting as a multilayered object with not only spatial dimensions but also a temporal one. This temporal dimension is the core of the reading strategy explored in this book.
Introduction
Authors: Questier Michael
Published: March 2022

The Introduction looks at the topic, initially, from the perspective of the eighteenth-century missionary bishop Richard Challoner and his martyrology entitled Memoirs of Missionary Priests. Challoner worked from a limited range of sources compared with what is available to us now. But, as far as Challoner was concerned, he was a historian with high standards of historical objectivity, and with a clear purpose in putting together a work which has much in common with, for example, Samuel Clarke’s well-known lives of godly Protestants. This chapter, then, briefly rehearses the attempts by Catholics, in and after the early seventeenth century, to collect the evidence relating to, as they saw it, intolerance and persecution, some of which Challoner was able to access and use. Here we look at, for example, the efforts of Bishop Richard Smith and, approximately eighty years later, the Yorkshire cleric John Knaresborough, who tried to establish and record the traditions which survived inside the Catholic community about those who had been prosecuted for alleged sedition and treason. Here we can glimpse the kinds of information networks, almost a martyrological republic of letters, that was, eventually, the basis for Challoner’s collation of the relevant records in his Memoirs.
The Incestuous Bastard Queen Persecutes the Faithful Servants of Christ
Authors: Questier Michael
Published: March 2022

The Armada campaign and the prospect of a Spanish invasion allowed for a purge of Catholic separatists, principally in London, in summer 1588. Some of those who were executed at this point were prepared to make (partially) loyalist statements, but these were not enough to satisfy the queen’s government, which seems to have used their deaths as didactic propaganda demonstrations, partly in order to whip up popular feeling against the external threat. However, the failure of the Armada allowed known anti-puritans in the regime to vent their anti-puritanism, even while some Catholics, faced with the promotion in the line of succession of a Calvinist (James VI of Scotland) now became critics of legitimist blood-right succession. Several Catholics who were sentenced under the 1585 treason statute appear to have made statements which implied full-blown resistance. That mode of non-compliance was compatible with the line insisted on by prominent clergy such as Henry Garnet that all forms of submission and conformity, in the face of oppression, were morally unacceptable. Garnet and others unequivocally denounced the cleric Thomas Bell, who argued in favour of occasional conformity, and who may well have articulated the view of many Catholics who thought that out-and-out resistance was a moral luxury that they could not afford. The puritan-led assault against Catholic separatism was clearly informed by a sense that the identification of popery with sedition tout court provided a riposte to conformist critiques of puritanism, and it intersected with, for example, the royal proclamation of October 1591.
Mid-Jacobean Confessional Politics and Anti-Popery
Authors: Questier Michael
Published: March 2022

This chapter continues with the account of Catholic petitioning for Rome to institute direct episcopal governance of their community in England. That petitioning, by former appellants, was pegged to an account of the sufferings of their community. The new lobbying for Rome to intervene in England was contested by those in the religious orders who had tried to face down the appellants before 1603. Both groups tried to appropriate recent instances of martyrdom. Here one had a debate about the potential for toleration at some point in the future. Former appellants claimed that a new hierarchy would serve to prevent anything like the Gunpowder Plot from happening again, and the State would be more tolerant as a result. In response, some in the religious orders said that true grace could indeed be conferred through martyrdom but that to set up new structures of Catholic clerical authority would provoke the State into more, but essentially needless, cruelty against good Catholics. (Notable here are the letters of the Spanish noblewoman Luisa de Carvajal.) These intra-Catholic disputes overlapped with an ongoing public dialogue (punctuated by new treason trials) with the authorities about what constituted appropriate political loyalty on the part of separatist Catholics. This dialogue was made more urgent by the assassination of Henry IV in May 1610.
Towards Toleration?
Authors: Questier Michael
Published: March 2022

The brief turn of the Stuart court in the later 1610s towards the House of Austria prompted speculation that the law governing Catholic separatism might be undermined, even if it was unlikely that any of the relevant statutes would be repealed by a parliament. The diplomacy designed to secure a confessionally mixed dynastic union triggered speculation about an incipient popish plot. In turn, some Catholics denounced puritanism, even as Rome intervened to assist the king’s Spanish diplomacy and, perhaps sensing a future toleration, to appoint a bishop to govern directly in England. This triggered further attempts to use the treason law against Catholic clergy, attempts that were blocked by the king. Despite the so-called ‘blessed revolution’ when the treaties with Spain were formally broken in 1624, a kind of de facto tolerance persisted into the reign of Charles I, that is, despite the difficulties associated with the new dynastic treaty with the French court. All through the chaotic early Caroline years, and then during the king’s personal rule, the Catholic issue was a constant point of reference for political commentators. Catholics, even as they continued to compile martyr catalogues, discussed whether there had finally been a form of toleration granted to (the majority of) the Catholic community, albeit one which retained financial penalties for recusant separatism.
The Economics of the Stock Market
Authors: Smithers Andrew
Published: March 2022

Since the 2008 financial crisis the neoclassical synthesis has increasingly been acknowledged as an unsatisfactory theory on which to base economic policy. Its failure to incorporate finance in its models is often identified as its most obvious weakness. While the stock market is not the only form of finance which needs to be incorporated into a satisfactory model for the economy it is an important element and this book presents a model which includes it. The neoclassical synthesis is not necessarily a completely unified body of doctrine, but the model presented here differs sharply from those usually held by adherents of the current consensus. It shows that the objections to the neoclassical synthesis consensus and the claims of the proposed model are supported by the evidence and submits that the latter should therefore be preferred.
Introduction
Authors: Smithers Andrew
Published: March 2022

The neoclassical synthesis is increasingly seen as an inadequate guide to economic policy and its weakness is widely agreed to be its failure to incorporate finance into its model. The book sets out a model incorporating the stock market, which is not the only way that finance needs to be included in a valid model of the economy, but it is an important part of it. The stock market’s unpredictable short-term fluctuations are simply noise in the statistical sense and have deflected attention from its longer-term more predictable ones. The stock market’s two key characteristics are the stability and level of the long-term real return on equities and the stability and strength of the mean reversion of their cumulative return to trend.
Surprising Features of the Model
Authors: Smithers Andrew
Published: March 2022

The model differs from the neoclassical synthesis by emphasizing the need to divide the private sector between the household and corporate sectors, as business managers do not act as if they were at the direct behest of shareholders. Companies do not ‘profit maximize’. Bond yields and equity returns are derived independently. Contrary to the Miller-Modigliani Theorem the cost of capital, and thus the value of the produced capital stock, varies with leverage. The risk aversion of investors results in the mean reversion of real equity returns at around 6.7 per cent and applies internationally. Corporate decisions are made by managers whose behaviour is determined by a utility function which is different from that which determines the portfolio preferences of the owners of capital.
Management Behaviour, Investment, Debt, and Pay-out Ratios
Authors: Smithers Andrew
Published: March 2022

Managements’ main aims are to preserve their jobs and be highly paid; the balance between these determines their decisions about the level of their companies’ capital investment, debt, and pay-out ratios. Job preservation requires that leverage is neither too high nor insufficient; the former increases the risk that new equity finance will be needed by new issues, which are disliked by shareholders, the latter results in the loss of market share as competitors improve their relative competitiveness. Results include (i) that the corporate interest payments/pre-tax ratio is stationary, (ii) that the hurdle rate for investment is stationary at around 6.7 per cent, and (iii) that pay-out ratios reflect the growth of the economy, given stable leverage. The change in management pay (‘the bonus culture’) has had the medium-term consequence of raising the hurdle rate in the United Kingdom and the United States and depressing investment.
The Growth of Corporate Equity
Authors: Smithers Andrew
Published: March 2022

The return on equities is the sum of the dividend yield and the growth of the dividend (the Gordon Growth Model) and remains constant though these proportions vary. As the ratio of output to the value of the fixed produced capital stock is mean reverting, output rises in line with the rate of change in the net worth of the economy. The equity of the corporate sector will also rise at this rate if the value of other forms of corporate capital, which include inventories, trade credit, and land, has a constant ratio to the value of fixed produced capital and there is no change in corporate leverage. If these conditions are met, the return on equity will be the growth of the economy plus the broad dividend yield. The total return on equities is determined by risk aversion but the distribution of this return between the broad dividend yield and the growth of corporate equity depends partly on the growth of the economy, partly on changes in leverage, and partly on the extent to which equity finance is provided from abroad.
The Time Horizon at Which Investors Will Prefer Equities to Bonds
Authors: Smithers Andrew
Published: March 2022

By combining the risk-free return on bonds of different maturities with the minimum likely return on equities at different probabilities we can calculate the time horizon at which investors will prefer equities to bonds. The combination of stable volatility with a near normal distribution of the returns allows the time horizon (T) of investors with different levels of risk aversion to be calculated. The risk aversion that determines this time horizon is that for the marginal supplier of sufficient equity and thus at the high end of the spectrum of individual attitudes. T is thus likely to be considerably longer than if the time horizon was determined by the average willingness to accept risk. Because the probability of any given minimum return on equity rises so quickly with time, T is insensitive to small changes in the yield curve. But corporate leverage is highly sensitive to changes in risk-free twenty-year bond yields, so it responds elastically to changes in the yield curve while investors’ time horizons do not. Changes in leverage thus occur readily in response to changes in the yield curve and accommodate the changes in households’ portfolio preferences without any change occurring in the returns on equity.
Fluctuations in the Hurdle Rate
Authors: Smithers Andrew
Published: March 2022

When companies use debt as part of their capital, their managements are balancing the advantage of the reduction in the cost of capital with the increased volatility of their companies’ profits and the consequent risks to their jobs if their companies are taken over or they are forced to raise additional equity. There is a considerable difference in the time horizons between the benefit of cheaper capital, which is virtually instantaneous, and the threat to jobs, which is uncertain. In the 1990s there was a very large change in the remuneration of US senior managements and the proportion of this which was contingent on achieving short-term profit-related targets. In response to this change in incentives management behaviour altered and led to the level of investment falling below what it would otherwise have been. The managements of unquoted and foreign-owned companies have, for the most part, different incentives and there is evidence that they have not cut back investment as has been done by quoted companies.
Aesthetic Dimensions of Modern Philosophy
Authors: Andrew Bowie
Published: March 2022

Much of contemporary philosophy, especially in the analytical tradition, regards aesthetics as of lesser significance than epistemology, ethics, metaphysics, and the philosophy of language. In Aesthetic Dimensions of Modern Philosophy Andrew Bowie, in contrast, explores the idea that art and aesthetics have crucial implications for those areas of philosophy. In the modern period, the growth of warranted scientific knowledge is accompanied both by heightened concern with epistemological scepticism and by a new philosophical attention to art and the beauty of nature. This suggests that modernity involves problems concerning how human beings make sense of the world that go beyond questions of knowledge, and are reflected in the arts. The relationship of art to philosophy is explored in Montaigne, Descartes, Hume, Kant, Schelling, the early German Romantics, and Hegel. The book then considers Cassirer’s and the hermeneutic tradition’s exploration of close links between meaning in language and in art. The work of Karl Polanyi, Marx, Nietzsche, Heidegger, Adorno, Dewey, and others is used to investigate how the modern sciences and the development of capitalism change both humankind’s relations to nature and the nature of value, and so affect the role of art in human self-understanding. The aesthetic dimensions of modern philosophy help to uncover often neglected historical shifts in how ‘subjective’ and ‘objective’ are conceived. Seeing art as a kind of philosophy, and philosophy as a kind of art reveals unresolved tensions between the different cultural domains of the modern world, and questions some of the orientation of contemporary philosophy.
The Art of Language and the Language of Art
Authors: Bowie Andrew
Published: March 2022

The emergence of sustained philosophical attention to art relates to new conceptions of language in the eighteenth century and beyond. Cassirer’s Philosophy of Symbolic Forms shows how links between language and art develop. ‘Designative’ conceptions of language see it primarily in terms of the representation of pre-existing ‘independent objects’, and so as connected to mathematics and natural scientific explanation. If language is instead seen as constituting an intelligible world before issues involving the justification of knowledge arise at all, designative conceptions become questionable. ‘Constitutive’ conceptions, in contrast, are linked to human expressive activity, and are not primarily ‘representational’. The emergence of modern hermeneutics is also connected to seeing language in relation to art.
The Evolution of Labor Supply in Egypt, 1988–2018
Authors: Krafft Caroline , Assaad Ragui , Keo Caitlyn
Published: March 2022

This chapter investigates the character of labor supply and especially female labor force participation in Egypt and its evolution over the twenty-year span from 1988 to 2018 using various waves of the Egypt Labor Market Panel Survey. The chapter pays particular attention to women’s labor force outcomes while examining trends in labor force participation, employment, and unemployment. The population and labor supply in Egypt are analyzed by demographic characteristics such as age, sex, educational attainment, and location. Demographic changes, including in age at marriage and fertility, are explored as important determinants of both labor supply and women’s participation.
Evolution of Wages, Inequality, and Social Mobility in Egypt
Authors: Said Mona , Galal Rami , Sami Mina
Published: March 2022

This chapter explores trends in wage and income levels and inequality and mobility in Egypt, especially since 2012. Data are from the 1998, 2006, 2012, and 2018 waves of the Egypt Labor Market Panel Survey (ELMPS). The findings point to declining real wages and incomes and a rise in inequality between 2012 and 2018. As a result, the share of wage workers below the low waged line has increased. Focusing on the panel of individuals present in multiple waves of the survey, mobility since 2006 has remained mostly unchanged. The wage workers who tended to fare better from 2012 to 2018 were males, those in the public sector, and those with higher education and occupations, however the differences across subgroups were not large. The deteriorating relative wage position of women in the private sector and increase in the working poor require policy action.
Trends and Patterns of Women’s Entrepreneurship in Egypt
Authors: Rizk Reham , Rashed Ali
Published: March 2022

This chapter conducts a detailed analysis of the trends and patterns of women’s role in household non-agricultural enterprises in Egypt. The paper uses the Egypt Labor Market Panel Survey (ELMPS) waves of 1998, 2006, 2012 and 2018. First, the paper examines whether households have enterprises and how this varies across female and male-headed households over time. Second, it investigates whether men and women own enterprises and how this differs by their characteristics. Third, it investigates the characteristics of women-owned enterprises vis-à-vis men. Finally, it examines the gendered patterns of participation in enterprises. The findings demonstrate that women are less likely to engage in or own non-agricultural enterprises than men. Although the trend in participation in enterprises has been declining for men, it has been flat for women. Women-owned enterprises are more likely to be informal, have less capital, and be home-based.
Early Period
Authors: Russ Steve , Roski Stefan , Schnieder Benjamin
Published: March 2022

This chapter contains translations of excerpts from three early texts by Bolzano (written around 1810): ▪ the 1810 booklet Contributions to a Better-Grounded Presentation of Mathematics; ▪ the unpublished manuscript Aetiology; ▪ the unpublished manuscript General Mathematics. Topic-wise, the texts centre around scientific method and the foundations of mathematics. In the Contributions Bolzano discusses grounding in connection with three topics: the classification of mathematical disciplines, the notion of ground-revealing proofs and its relation to syllogistic inferences, and finally the notion of axioms or basic propositions. In the Aetiology Bolzano presents his first attempt at a rigorous, axiomatic theory of grounding and relates the concept of grounding to several concepts and issues in mathematics. In the part of General Mathematics we present here, Bolzano critically assesses the Principle of Sufficient Reason and some related metaphysical issues.
Some Remarks on Bolzano on Ground
Authors: Fine Kit
Published: March 2022

Bolzano takes the notion of grounding to be factive, so that grounds and their consequences are always true propositions. But he also acknowledges that we sometimes invoke a non-factive notion of grounding. This paper discusses the two ways in which Bolzano attempts to explain the non-factive notion of grounding in terms of the factive notion and critically assesses these proposals from the standpoint of recent debates about grounding and its logic. It is argued that what he has to say, especially in regard to the question of complexity, is still very relevant to issues concerning the intelligibility and unity of ground.
Bolzano, (the Appropriate) Relevant Logic, and Grounding Rules for Implication
Authors: Poggiolesi Francesca
Published: March 2022

The Bohemian philosopher Bernard Bolzano introduced the notion of logical deducibility, anticipating by almost one hundred years the much more famous Tarskian result. Besides the notion of logical deducibility, he also introduced the notion of grounding, which, on the one hand, he distinguished from logical deducibility, but he also regarded as importantly connected to it. In particular, he saw a close connection between grounding and exact deducibility (a special case of deducibility). This paper examines this latter notion and compares it to notions of relevant entailment. Although the literature on this subject compares the notion of exact deducibility with that of relevant entailment as defined by Anderson and Belnap, here it is argued that Neil Tennant’s system CR is the best model for Bolzano’s ideas: it is shown that the two approaches share many important features, the most notable of which is the lack of full transitivity. It is also argued that Tennant’s system CR can serve as a framework for developing grounding rules for conditionals.
Denmark
Authors: Madsen Mikael Rask
Published: March 2022

This chapter discusses how the complex of legal professionals mobilizes and seeks to further political liberalism. It highlights the case of Denmark, a country that has transformed into a complex welfare state society that is governed by law but with a clear objective of attaining social justice. It also describes the configuration of legal and economic rationalities, which is of key importance for understanding the role that a limited and extensive legal complex has played in Danish political history and culture. The chapter refers to a host of actors that entered the political arena and sought to challenge the ancient regime by pursuing forms of political liberalism. It discusses the double role legal professionals played in politics as they are found in both the progressive and reactionary movements.
Iceland
Authors: Helgadóttir Ragnhildur
Published: March 2022

This chapter confirms whether the theories of a legal complex are mobilized primarily, but not exclusively, for issues that can be classified as classical political liberalism. It describes the political activities of Icelandic lawyers, from the late nineteenth century to the present. It also discusses the three core attributes of political liberalism: a moderate state, civil society, and certain basic legal freedoms. The chapter describes the activities of the Icelandic legal complex, which has been quite active in influencing legislation. It focuses on agency, on individual events, and on the unanimity and influence of the Icelandic legal complex and considers the legal complex formed on the basis of other stories from very different states.
SDG2 – The Elusive Global Quest to End Hunger
Authors: Byerlee Derek , Fanzo Jessica
Published: March 2022

SDG2 recognizes that access to sufficient, nutritious and safe food is arguably the most fundamental necessity for a healthy and productive life. This chapter provides an overview of the many dimensions of hunger and malnutrition and how societies from ancient times—states, civil society, and private philanthropists—have gradually organized collectively to reduce the burden of hunger and malnutrition. The chapter begins with a discussion of famine, the most visible manifestation of hunger throughout history that was once a scourge in most societies but has now largely been eliminated in the twenty-first century. We then discuss how from the early twentieth century the goal of zero hunger became an international cause and a basic human right. The review then moves to the post-Second World War period when foreign assistance programs and countries focused on producing more staples to feed the world’s burgeoning population, narrowly measured in per capita calories supplied. In the 1980s, the focus turned from supply to access to food, and from around 1990 to the multiple dimensions of malnutrition, now including obesity. This has resulted in the move to multi-sectoral approaches including agriculture, the food industry, nutrition policy, public health, and the status of women. Finally, we conclude that although the world has registered impressive achievements on some measures of malnutrition, the continuing presence of hundreds of millions suffering chronic malnourishment in its various dimensions remains a huge challenge but one that with sufficient will and focus can be solved with available resources and knowledge.
SDG 10 – The Politics and Policies of Inequality in the West, 1800–2015
Authors: Brady Anne Marie
Published: March 2022

Since the 1980s income and wealth have accrued to a very small group of people who, in turn, wield a substantial amount of political and economic power that has the effect of undermining social cohesion and democratic norms. It is in this context that the United Nations, building on the Millennium Development Goals, adopted the goal to reduce inequality within and among countries as one of its 17 Sustainable Development Goals. To understand how we came to this point where an explicit goal to reduce inequality needed to be articulated by a global body, this chapter will provide an analysis of the historical foundation of economic inequality—with a focus on income inequality—in the United States and in Western Europe, with the objective of using history to understand both the causes and the consequences of inequality today. By exploring key points in time since the advent of the Industrial Revolution and the modern capitalist economy, this chapter will argue that the shape of inequality and the distribution of wages is not wholly the result of external factors or because the “winners” in any economy have simply worked harder and therefore earned the rewards. Rather, inequality is a choice we made with the rules we created and the policies we implemented to structure the economy.
SDG 13 – How Societies Succeeded or Failed to Respond to Environmental Disruption
Authors: Haldon John , Izdebski Adam , Kemp Luke , Mordechai Lee , Trump Benjamin
Published: March 2022

Historical climatic and environmental pressures and societal responses have varied markedly. Connecting climatic changes to social transformations is not an invention of the modern age. Commentators since antiquity have attributed political and economic changes to extreme weather events. But while explanations for rapid change or catastrophic events were based within the cultural logic of the impacted society, past societies also learned to manage their environments within the limits of their technology and their beliefs and generally understood how to manage their resources sustainably. We offer examples of how premodern societies dealt with or responded to long- and short-term environmental and climatic challenges, including their ability or their failure to foresee and mitigate them. We also look at questions of how societal responses included measures contributing to both resilience and sustainability. Finally, we draw out some generalizable lessons about past responses and behaviors and the ways in which these have contributed, positively and negatively, to the development of more recent and contemporary understanding of and policies toward the impacts of climate change.
‘Under the Diall’
Authors: Higgins Ben
Published: March 2022

This chapter examines the places from which Shakespeare’s books were published and offered for wholesale, and asks whether we can read Shakespeare’s literary life by following the movements of his books across the city. In particular, the chapter uses the stationer John Smethwick as a prompt to explore the significance of St Dunstan in the West as a site of Shakespearean production. The chapter shows that the Folio’s publication unsettled the established geography of Shakespeare’s books. The year 1623 seems to have been a critical moment, after which Shakespeare’s books began a ragged march westwards across the city. Those titles that prevailed despite Shakespeare’s diminishing popularity left Paul’s Churchyard and found their resting place in and around an alternative churchyard on Fleet Street.
Seeking the Last End
Authors: Herdt Jennifer A.
Published: March 2022

This chapter examines happiness, the good, and the final end in the thought of Augustine and Aquinas, considering their indebtedness to ancient pagan eudaimonism. While there are differences between the two, arising in part from the strong influence of Aristotle on Aquinas, both embrace “ecstatic” eudaimonism, that is, the pursuit as final end of a good greater than oneself and worthy of one’s commitment and devotion. Pagan and Christian ethicists alike have taken persons to be perfected insofar as they seek a good beyond their own fulfillment. Love of “the good,” however, does not lead away from finite goods and persons; one who “ascends” learns to love concrete others well. For Augustine, we love God as highest good only when we grasp God as common, not private good. For Aquinas, those who love God are drawn into the intrinsically communicative and self-giving life of God.
Judicial Protection against the European Securities and Markets Authority (ESMA)
Authors: Ritleng Dominique
Published: March 2022

This chapter discusses the judicial remedies available to litigants, in particular investment firms, both on national and EU levels, against European Securities and Markets Authority (ESMA) action taken under MiFID II or MiFIR. As it has rightly been pointed out, ‘given the extensive powers of agencies, most visibly exemplified in some cases by their power to adopt decisions binding on third parties, judicial review as a check on agency power becomes central in a discussion of agency accountability’. The most significant aspect of legal accountability is, therefore, judicial review. The challenge is to identify which judicial remedies may be used against these various types of action and legal instrument, and to assess whether, and to what extent, they ensure an effective judicial protection against these actions and instruments. The chapter, first, looks at direct and indirect legality review of ESMA’s legal acts. It then considers the possibility of filing an action for damages caused by ESMA. It is important to note that, so far, no judicial proceedings, save staff cases, have been directly or indirectly brought against ESMA before EU courts.
Ensuring the Principle of Good Administration in EU Financial Markets Law
Authors: Reichel Jane
Published: March 2022

This chapter examines how the principle of good administration can be used as an accountability tool within the composite administrative structure of EU financial market law. Composite administrative procedures are not new in EU secondary law, and are well known in the case law of the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU). But financial market law differs from traditional composite administrative procedures in that it does not merely link decision-making, but also aspires to establish a common supervisory culture. Supervision in its entirety, here, is shared between EU and member state bodies, both in regards to factual administration, and decision-making procedure in individual cases, where different parts of the administrative decision-making procedure are taking place within different jurisdictions, European and national. Since the financial crisis at the end of the first decade of this millennium, a coherent and efficient supervision of the integrated European financial market has, in itself, been identified as an overriding aim. However, even though administrative cooperation and composite procedure are regulated in MiFID II and MiFIR, central components of the principle of good administration—for example the duty to care and the right to be heard—are not addressed in these acts.
Damages Liability as a Dual Opportunity to Promote Accountability
Authors: Strand Magnus
Published: March 2022

This chapter examines the dual role of investment firms in accountability through damages claims. It begins by looking at the opportunities to promote accountability for the investment firms themselves, focusing on the relevant passage in MiFID II (Article 69(2)(3)) and the conditions to be satisfied. The chapter then considers the opportunities for investment firms to act as agents for the rule of law by holding EU and national authorities accountable through actions for damages. The underlying theory in this presentation is that damages liability can contribute to accountability, and thereby to deterrence from infringements of MiFID II and MiFIR. Consequently, the chapter argues that damages liability should be promoted as an instrument of the rule of law in the financial markets.
Conclusion
Authors: Ullyot Michael
Published: March 2022

The Conclusion first asks whether cautionary examples, when we historicize them, are any more tenable than exhortations. But it focuses most on the implications of exemplary rhetoric for literary critics’ selections and excisions of evidence from the archives. This leaves criticism pervious to the problem of metonymic evidence, most acute when new discoveries challenge critical arguments and orthodoxies. New historicists have built arguments out of anecdotes for nearly four decades because they advertise the critic’s archival resourcefulness, their privileged access to a truth that is ‘real,’ yet dependent on the critic to reveal it. Anecdotes not only advertise the critic’s indispensability but also open their arguments to correction and qualification.
Introduction
Authors: Bower Hannah
Published: March 2022

This chapter introduces the material, linguistic, and intertextual contexts informing late medieval vernacular medical recipes. After a survey of the medical theories and earlier Greek, Arabic, Latin, and vernacular sources informing these later recipes, the chapter starts to flesh out their relationship to other forms of practical and scientific writing, including culinary and household recipes. The chapter also uses case studies to explore the types of people who might have written, read, owned, and used recipes. This historical introduction is supplemented in the second half of the chapter with an evaluation of extant scholarship on medieval and early modern recipes and an explanation of terms and concepts integral to the rest of the study: these terms include practical, poetic, and playful. An outline of the remaining chapters’ content follows.
The Scheler–Sartre View of Emotion and Value
Authors: Poellner Peter
Published: March 2022

This chapter outlines the qualified version of affective perceptualism articulated by Max Scheler and Jean-Paul Sartre. According to this version, immediately and intrinsically intelligible episodic emotions are experiential encounters with value properties as such properties, and some ‘psychic’ emotion types involve perceptual experiences, or derivative intuitional experiences, as of value properties in objects. This elaborated and qualified version of the view is a useful foil for discussing the main objections to affective perceptualism. Four prominent criticisms are considered. First, the perceptual model misdescribes even the kinds of emotional experience that are taken to be central by its advocates. Second, there are phenomenological disanalogies between conscious emotions and standard perceptual experiences. Third, there are fundamental differences in the rationalizing properties of standard perceptions and emotions. Fourth, the very idea of evaluative properties had by objects, and of these being directly accessible as such in emotional experience, is mysterious.
Conclusion
Authors: Poellner Peter
Published: March 2022

This Conclusion has two aims. First, it summarizes and reviews the central claims of the existential modernist philosophers discussed in this book. Second, it presents a summary of what the author takes to be a defensible existential modernist position on ethics. The overall conception of ethics that is recommended combines substantial contributions from each of the thinkers— Friedrich Nietzsche, Max Scheler, Jean-Paul Sartre, and Robert Musil—whose ideas have been presented and, in part, reconstructed in the book. It also includes ideas elaborated in the preceding chapters that are only implicit in some of these thinkers, such as the notion of phenomenally intrinsic value.
The Edge of the Union?
Authors: Savage Robert J.
Published: March 2022

This chapter addresses the Thatcher government’s dramatic intervention to suppress a BBC documentary that featured interviews with militant republican and loyalist politicians. It explores the controversy that developed within the BBC between the political appointees on the Board of Governors and professional staff represented by the Board of Management. In addressing the fractures that emerged within the BBC the chapter considers how the Governors, under pressure from the Thatcher government, intervened to stop a programme from being broadcast. Broadcasters considered this a clear case of censorship and mounted a sensational one-day strike that garnered international attention. The chapter also addresses how the 1985 Anglo-Irish Agreement increased tension within Northern Ireland and the surge in loyalist violence aimed at the police and media. It addresses the hostility the agreement provoked from loyalists and unionists who felt betrayed by the Thatcher government and examines how their hostility challenged the ability of the broadcast media to cover events in the aftermath of the accord between Dublin and London.
The Broadcasting Ban
Authors: Savage Robert J.
Published: March 2022

The gruesome events that played out in Gibraltar, at Belfast’s Milltown Cemetery, and on the streets of Andersonstown in March 1988 pushed the Prime Minister to reconsider her reluctance in ‘constraining the media’. These killings; by the army, a loyalist gunman, and the IRA, gained international publicity because television graphically recorded and quickly disseminated reports of these shocking images. Television cameras actually recorded two of these events as they unfolded and offered compelling programming about the third. Disturbing footage of Michael Stone’s rampage at Milltown Cemetery, of the two corporals being dragged from their car in Andersonstown, together with the unsettling revelations in Thames TV’s Death on the Rock, and BBC Northern Ireland’s Spotlight, fuelled pent up anger and frustration within the Thatcher government. The graphic violence of 1988 provoked Margaret Thatcher to embark upon an aggressive security initiative designed to strike back against the relentless violence of the IRA. In this context Britain’s broadcast media was an easy target for a government fed up and embarrassed by violence that had dragged on for twenty long years. The chapter addresses the Thatcher government’s imposition of censorship and the damage this did to Britain’s reputation as a leading democracy in a bipolar Cold War world.