bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Role of Oral Language in the Development ofL2Literacy Skills
Authors: Knell Ellen
Published: January 2018

The relationship between oral language development and the development of literacy skills in a second or foreign language is complex. Many English teachers may be unaware of the role that oral language development plays in the development of literacy skills. This entry presents some of the issues that teachers must consider in sorting out the relationships between oral language development and literacy, such as whether literacy instruction should be built on a solid oral language base or taught as learners are developing oral language skills. Pedagogical implications for oral language development and literacy are also presented as they relate to the timing of instruction, early intervention, and the development of reading comprehension skills.
Lesson Planning for Teaching Pronunciation
Authors: Farrelly Raichle
Published: January 2018

This entry on lesson planning for teaching pronunciation presents a communicative framework for engaging learners in the study of English pronunciation. Historically, the role of pronunciation in language teaching has varied from nonexistent to prominent, depending on the preferred teaching method of the decade. It is currently widely accepted that being intelligible is necessary for successful communication, but in most cases attaining the pronunciation of a native speaker is an unrealistic and unnecessary goal. This framework incorporates a balanced approach to teaching pronunciation, which affords learners the opportunity to analyze features of pronunciation and practice with increasing independence.
Assessing Speaking Skills in the Classroom
Authors: Boas Isabela Villas
Published: January 2018

This entry provides practical orientation on how to design and implement classroom‐based assessments of speaking. It starts by discussing the characteristics of classroom‐based assessments in the 21st century and making the case for alternative, formative types of assessments of speaking skills. These assessments should be aligned with the learning outcomes and instructional strategies in such a way that students hardly notice when the teaching ends and the assessment begins. The entry then provides examples of the types of classroom‐based assessment of speaking that emphasize performance assessments, with a specific orientation on how to construct rubrics and checklists to assess student performance. It concludes with a practical example of a formative, classroom‐based speaking assessment activity aligned with learning outcomes and instructional strategies.
Speaking and the Development of Intercultural Communication Skills
Authors: Liontas John I. , Siegel Matthew
Published: January 2018

This entry discusses the relationship between speaking and the development of intercultural communication skills. The importance of intercultural communicative competence is examined, as are the impediments to its development. It is argued that the mere existence of multicultural environments is insufficient to promote intercultural communicative skill development and that pedagogical intervention is obligatory. It is suggested that an increased emphasis on speaking (and listening) skills is required to facilitate intercultural competence. The task of assessing intercultural communicative competence is addressed, future directions in intercultural communication are highlighted, and practical recommendations are offered.
Teaching Spoken Register
Authors: Keller Jemina A.
Published: January 2018

Spoken register is a term most often used to refer to the degree of formality in spoken language. It is also a term used to refer to the variety of language used by speakers for a particular purpose; therefore, spoken register is affected by context and by the degree of formality appropriate for the situation in that context. It is a complex linguistic construct. This chapter will focus on teaching spoken register to English learners, including the high frequency exchanges found in introductions and greetings, as well as in the language used for making demands and requests. The chapter also includes a discussion of informal jargon and slang in English as they relate to spoken register. Suggestions will be offered on how to raise awareness of spoken register, as well as specific examples for how to teach it to language learners.
Data‐Driven Decision Making
Authors: Gottlieb Margo
Published: January 2018

In the educational arena, data‐driven decision making is widespread. Traditionally, scores from standardized high‐stakes tests have had negative repercussions, especially for linguistically and culturally diverse students. In the United States, these decisions are often traced back to accountability for teaching and learning. Assessment, on the other hand, is a more inclusive process for decision making as it involves multiple measures and a wider variety of stakeholders. The locus of control moves away from tests that are externally imposed upon schools to internally generated data embedded in instruction within and across classrooms. As a result, students and teachers tend to have greater opportunities to become vested in and contributors to decision making based on relevant and meaningful data.
English Language Arts
Authors: Brisk Maria Estela
Published: January 2018

Literacy education has emphasized the development of reading, mostly around fictional narratives and literature. Instruction focuses on understanding the content of texts. This entry proposes that there is need to expand instruction to developing students' writing not only related to literature but to all disciplines. An approach to writing that is based on a linguistic theory, systemic functional linguistics, directs instruction not only to the content of text but to learn how to use language resources to create text with a specific purpose and structure that considers not only the topic but the audience. Voice is achieved through grammar. Knowledge of these language resources supports learners, especially bilingual learners, to produce text in various contexts. Moreover, connecting writing instruction to the various disciplines allows learners to function well in schools.
Arts‐Based Pedagogy
Authors: Carroll Sherrie
Published: January 2018

Increasingly teacher educators are drawing upon arts‐based pedagogies to help teacher‐learners explore their identities, develop deeper and more nuanced understandings of a wide array of issues related to teaching and learning, and cultivate dispositions toward inquiry. These pedagogies draw upon holistic experiential learning and constructivist approaches where learners mine their personal experiences to produce situated understandings. Critical approaches use artistic expression to focus on questions around power, ideology, marginalization, and social justice. Integrating artistic learning experiences into teacher education can engage teacher‐learners in embodied, affective, and creative learning, often unavailable through traditional academic discourse practices. Arts‐based pedagogies open up spaces for exploration, dialogue, and questioning.
Teacher Advocacy
Authors: Athanases Steven Z. , Sanchez Sergio L. , Gray Crys M. Bronte
Published: January 2018

Teacher advocacy for students who develop English proficiency means taking action on their behalf beyond normal teaching. This kind of advocacy responds to the reality that developing bilingualism and multilingualism in learning English often occurs within larger sociopolitical contexts that do not adequately support such language development in schools. Teacher advocacy in language teaching confronts and responds to inequities and occurs in or beyond classrooms and as individual or collective action. Such advocacy in schools and in TE programs may ensure that English learners have access to needed resources, effective instruction, and appropriate assessments. Teacher advocacy also works to secure support beyond the classroom, from school and district leadership, through links with families and community networks and, when possible, through engagement with government policy makers.
TEFL
(Teaching English as a Foreign Language) Certificates
Authors: Tanghe Shannon , Lee Alice Shu‐Ju
Published: January 2018

The Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) certificate is considered a short‐term, entry‐level qualification in English‐language teaching. While differences exist in various TEFL certificate programs—particularly in terms of time, cost, and course content—TEFL certificate training courses tend to focus heavily on teaching practice, privileging skills immediately applicable to the English‐language classroom. The brevity of TEFL certificate courses has raised questions about whether such brief programs can adequately prepare teachers for the language classroom. TEFL certificates are often considered a first step in professional development for language teachers and are a minimum requirement for many language teaching jobs.
Bilingual Classroom
Authors: Ek Lucila D. , Guerra Myriam Jimena
Published: January 2018

The bilingual classroom is an optimal educational context where English learners can develop bilingualism and biliteracy. Research demonstrates that quality instruction in the primary language facilitates the acquisition of English and academic achievement. Based on these studies, different types of bilingual classrooms have been implemented that vary with respect to the percentage of language instruction, academic goals, pedagogies, and curricula. This entry includes effective practices for the development of bilingualism and biliteracy.
Developing Intercultural Competence in the Language Classroom
Authors: Lum Casey Man Kong
Published: January 2018

Intercultural competence refers to the extent of people's ability to partake in appropriate or effective interaction with their counterparts from cultural backgrounds other than their own. This entry begins with a discussion on the intellectual origins of intercultural competence within a larger historical context of intercultural communication as a field of academic study. As a process, intercultural communication refers to the interaction between people of different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. The second section of the entry sheds light on several key dimensions of intercultural competence. The entry will also reflect upon a number of pedagogical implications of intercultural competence including the moral ramifications of intercultural competence in language education.
Study Abroad
Authors: Pratt‐Johnson Yvonne
Published: January 2018

“Study abroad” refers to students carrying out educational activities outside their native countries, typically in semester or academic year programs at institutions that may partner with their home institution. Programs that fit this general description offer varying levels of support and cultural and linguistic immersion, but at least the better supported examples are widely believed to foster academic success and to contribute to participants' emotional development, including strengthening their ability to function in unfamiliar or multicultural contexts. Recently, study abroad practice has expanded to include more programs through which in‐service teachers gain knowledge of their students' heritage languages and cultures while learning to empathize with the challenges that their newcomer students face. In general, challenges associated with study abroad include the expense and logistics of travel and the sense of disorientation or isolation that can accompany functioning in an unfamiliar language and culture. Most experts and participants agree that these psychological effects are usually temporary and/or outweighed by the emotional and practical gains.
Storytelling as a Window to Culture
Authors: Romney Mary , Mama Raouf
Published: January 2018

Storytelling and folktales provide ways of accessing a community's fundamental beliefs, values, and expectations—collectively known as culture. For this reason, storytelling serves as a window to culture. Through folktales, it is possible to gain an understanding, not only of how different cultures portray universal themes of the human condition, but also to discover commonalities across cultures. Storytelling and folktales are essential to human communication. Because of their universal nature, storytelling and folktales can be highly effective ESOL material, both linguistically and culturally, and are uniquely suited to language learning for students of all ages. The linguistic and cultural characteristics of folktales lend themselves to use with ESOL students in a variety of ways.
Using Literature to Teach Culture
Authors: McCormack Bede
Published: January 2018

Historically, the use of literature in language teaching was largely limited to translating texts for grammar practice. With the advent of audio‐lingual and communicative approaches, literature faded from ESL classrooms in favor of oral skills until a resurgence of interest in literature led to its use for teaching grammar, vocabulary, rhetorical modes, and self‐awareness. More recently, the additional use of literature to promote cross‐cultural sensitivity has required teachers to make decisions about which aspects of which cultures to focus on, which literary works to expose students to, and how best to lead instruction. This entry reviews variables for instructor consideration when deciding text and cultural themes, and provides examples of texts and instructional methods. Despite inherent complexities, using literature in the ESL classroom to teach culture can engage and motivate ESL learners, as well as challenge their beliefs and worldviews.
Proverbs and Idioms in Raising Cultural Awareness
Authors: Liontas John I.
Published: January 2018

This entry discusses the importance of proverbs and idioms in raising cultural awareness across the curriculum. It argues that mastery of the functions idioms and proverbs fulfill in daily discourse and the means for performing those functions in meaningful communicative ways without violating the conventions of social appropriacy is far more critical than mere quantity of acontextualized idioms or proverbs learned. It suggests that the metaphoric and literal interpretability inherent in idioms and proverbs, along with lexical similarity, familiarity, compositionality, predictability, literality, translatability, and transparency are all relevant dimensions in the processing of both target‐language and native‐language idioms and proverbs and, furthermore, that the degree of decomposability or analyzability in context‐sensitive situations exerts significant influence on idiom/proverb interpretation. Research‐based practical considerations and recommendations complete and underscore the importance of proverbs and idioms in raising cultural awareness.
Cultural Attitudes Toward Language Variation and Dialects
Authors: Bayley Robert , Villarreal Dan
Published: January 2018

Attitudes toward languages, which serve as surrogates for attitudes toward groups of people, have important real‐world consequences, particularly for speakers of socially stigmatized language varieties, including speakers of non‐standard global varieties of English. This article explores those issues with examples both from stigmatized varieties spoken in US communities and World Englishes. Finally, suggestions are offered for teachers to assist students to overcome some of the negative attitudes associated with language varieties that differ from US and British standard English.
Racial, Ethnic, and Cultural Stereotypes in Teaching English
Authors: Kubota Ryuko
Published: January 2018

As a construct of social psychology, a
stereotype
is a simplified fixed belief about characteristics of a social group.
Essentialism
, a similar notion seen in cultural studies, is an assumption that unique features of a social group exclusively define its members. Institutional and everyday discourses shape stereotypes and essentialist ideas about the socially constructed categories of race, ethnicity, and culture, which are often conflated. These categories intersect with language and other differences, forming and imposing identities. Research suggests that learners accommodate, negotiate, or resist stereotypes, such as the model minority and reticent Asian students. Students also hold stereotypical and essentialist images of their peers, teachers, and target language speakers in general, reinforcing the superiority of Whiteness and native speakerness. It is necessary for teachers and students to become critically aware of stereotypes and essentialism and pursue a vision of antiracism and antilinguicism. Institutional practices should also follow this vision.
African American English in the United States Culture and Classrooms
Authors: Hudley Anne H. Charity
Published: January 2018

African American English (AAE) and African American Language (AAL) are linguistically and culturally encompassing terms used by educators and linguists to refer to varieties of English used by speakers who are African American or who live and come into linguistic contact with speech communities where African Americans live or historically have lived. As such, this article makes the case that African American English is inherently variable in nature from speaker to speaker and community to community. The pedagogical implications of AAE require that educators must be linguistically informed in order to instruct African American English‐speaking students in ways that enable them to recognize and value the rules, norms, and conventions of standardized English in school contexts while also recognizing and valuing the language patterns and sociolinguistic culture that they bring with them from homes and communities.
Global Hip‐Hop and the Role of English
Authors: Barrett Catrice
Published: January 2018

This entry discusses the role of English at the intersection of hip‐hop and globalization. The dominant global status of English combined with hip‐hop's historical ties to African American language and culture generates tensions and local innovations that function as pedagogical processes in their own right. These processes are examined in light of their potential to enrich our understanding of language use, in a broader sense, and English language teaching and learning, in particular.
Challenges and Possibilities in Culturally Relevant Teaching in the Caribbean
Authors: Bryan Beverley
Published: January 2018

The language situation of the Caribbean, and Jamaica in particular, has been variously described as a second language, second dialect, or Creole‐speaking environment. This summary briefly examines the fraught political history of this language variety; the problems with delineation; the attitudes to the vernacular generated by this history; and the language education practice required for this environment. In considering some of the issues faced by educators in the classroom, the competing language goals and varying teaching practices utilized are discussed. Finally, some possibilities are offered for creative, indigenous ways to approach the teaching of English in this named Creole‐speaking environment.
Addressing Cultural Bias inELTMaterials
Authors: Grant Rachel , Wong Shelley D.
Published: January 2018

Understanding the nature of text bias and seeking ways to address the repertories of representation around “difference” and “otherness” are crucial in English language teaching. ELT textbooks and other instructional resources may perhaps be a first opportunity for English learners to see and learn about individuals and cultural groups previously unknown to them. Thus, the materials used in the teaching of English can influence learners' initial impression about others who speak English, and shape their identities and perceptions of self. It is of the utmost importance that teachers of English avoid the pitfalls of domination, linguistic or otherwise. They must have tools to identify prejudice and stereotyping in ELT materials and have knowledge of theories that drive instructional practice to dissuade discrimination and bias.
Incorporating Diverse English Cultures in
ELT
Authors: Motha Suhanthie
Published: January 2018

In recent decades, the range of contexts widely considered to constitute “English culture” has broadened considerably, leading to a shift in pedagogical practice surrounding the incorporation of diverse English cultures in ELT. Across teaching materials, pedagogical practices, and media spaces, English is no longer represented as situated exclusively within a middle‐class White, British, or American context or even as limited to inner‐circle countries. Contemporary theories of intercultural education, postcolonialism and empire, race, and language disinvention have led practitioners towards practices that seek to represent and incorporate a diversity of contexts and forms of English language use and furthermore to support a critical eye towards cultural and linguistic hierarchies in students and teachers alike. This summary considers ways that teachers might consciously incorporate diverse English cultures into their ELT classes.
Test Anxiety
Authors: Elyas Tariq , Rehman Adil Abdul
Published: January 2018

Test anxietyrefers to an unpleasant feeling experienced during formal evaluative situations. It has been the focus of research for several decades because it negatively affects student performance. This entry discusses the nature of test anxiety, its components, major conceptual advancements in the field, and some of the intervention strategies aimed at reducing the effect of test anxiety on student performance.
Preparing Students to Take Tests
Authors: Ma Jia , Cheng Liying
Published: January 2018

Test scores derived from large‐scale testing are believed by many as an appropriate way to hold educators accountable for students' academic achievement. Test preparation has thus been widespread both inside and outside of schools and educational institutions aiming to increase students' test scores. However, the appropriateness of test preparation practices might be sacrificed for emphasis solely on students' score improvement. This entry discusses test preparation from theoretical and empirical perspectives across a broad educational context, and suggests pedagogical principles for teachers to integrate appropriate test preparation practices into their classroom instruction.
Peer Assessment
Authors: Sun Yilin , Doman Evelyn
Published: January 2018

Various types of peer assessment have become more popular in the last decade as educators strive to create autonomy and to give their students a voice in the learning process. Peer assessment involves students providing commentary on their peers' written or oral assignments, often resulting in a grade being assigned or suggestions being offered by the commentator that can lead to extensive improvements on the assignment. As peer assessment is rapidly gaining popularity in student‐centered second/foreign language classrooms, this entry presents the benefits and drawbacks of peer assessment and will offer ways in which it can be successfully implemented into the language classroom.
Describing and Interpreting Language Test Scores
Authors: Stanfield Peter W.
Published: January 2018

English language test scores are usually generated from standardized tests which seek to capture a “snapshot” of the learning process at a given developmental stage. They fall into three main types: those that measure progress, those that diagnose areas for improvement, and those that evaluate proficiency. The designs of such tests are built aroundtest constructswhich determine linguistic content, and question response types and the scoring rubrics to be used. Test stakeholders must be familiar with these constructs if they are to interpret test scores as valid representations of language‐learner ability. English language tests and concomitant scores are human artefacts determined by the decisions of often powerful stakeholders and hold consequences for the test taker. Therefore frequent review of the academic, professional, and social impact of the manner in which test scores are described and interpreted is required if English language tests are to possessconsequentialvalidity.
Item Analysis
Authors: Hidri Sahbi
Published: January 2018

Item analysis (IA) is implemented to investigate pass/fail dichotomy, mastery, and non‐mastery of an instructional material or criterion, item difficulty and test takers' ability. This entry delineates conceptual underpinnings and presents practical tips for classical and modern test IA theory with an accentuation of norm‐referenced testing (item facility [IF], item discrimination [ID], and analysis of distractors), criterion‐referenced testing (difference index [DI] and B‐index) and Multi‐Faceted Rasch Model (MFRM) that explores the one‐parameter model of item response theory (IRT). The entry underscores data from reading, grammar, and listening tests to examine the basic premise of IA on keeping, modifying, or weeding out test items.
Research on English Language Tests and Assessments
Authors: Clark‐Gareca Beth
Published: January 2018

As English learning and use gains popularity across the globe, the need to create English language tests and assessments and conduct research related to their many facets has expanded in kind. Standardized measures, in particular the TOEFL and IELTS English proficiency exams, continue to be the focus of many current research initiatives. This entry reports the primary areas of assessment which are currently being investigated within the field of English language testing. Specific attention is given to research‐based or large‐scale standardized tests, innovations as a new area for investigation, and ways in which language testing research can affect pedagogy.
History of Language Testing and Assessment
Authors: Farhady Hossein
Published: January 2018

The history of language testing dates back to probably the first teaching instance when a teacher wanted to see if the learner understood what was taught. However, formal assessment history might have started when language and language teaching began to utilize the findings of scientific fields of linguistics and psychology about the nature of language and learning. Since then different conceptualizations of both language and learning have shaped the way the learned language has been measured. For instance, most of the last century was dominated by intuitive testing of old time followed by discrete point, and integrative testing. With the emergence of communicative legacy, assessment culture replaced testing culture, and assessment for learning became popular. Since the beginning of the 21st century, learning oriented assessment has gained popularity.
Characteristics of Quality Assessment
Authors: Berry Vivien
Published: January 2018

All classroom teachers set out to create valid tests that provide useful and reliable information about their learners. However, they lack the financial and logistical resources that are available to major international test developers, and hence must do the best they can with the limited means available to them. This entry first of all describes the various models of test development that are currently in use and suggests the most appropriate model for classroom teachers to follow. It then briefly discusses issues of validity and reliability, mostly in relation to the two currently most influential models: Messick's validation framework and the sociocognitive framework. The final section describes in detail the characteristics of quality assessments and outlines the stages a classroom teacher should follow in order to ensure that the end result provides valid, useful, and reliable information about his or her learners' language ability.
Validity
Authors: Akbari Ramin
Published: January 2018

Validity is a comprehensive construct that deals with different aspects of test design and use. Through validity, test designers search for evidence for the adequacy of language samples used, the soundness of the instrument's structure, as well as additional external evidence that can justify a certain interpretation of a test's scores. Test content (content validity), the format, and the appearance of the instrument (face validity), the way the newly‐designed test correlates with existing valid instruments (empirical validly), and the theoretical justifications behind the meaning of its scores (construct validity) are among the key issues that are included in any serious discussion of validity.
Reliability
Authors: Robby Matthew A. , Gitsaki Christina
Published: January 2018

This entry contributes to enhancing the knowledge and skills needed for evaluating the reliability of assessments in second language acquisition. Different types of measurement error limit the effectiveness of assessments in yielding consistent and reproducible results, thereby reducing teachers' ability to make instructional decisions accurately, to measure student progress, and to evaluate curriculum models, strategies, and programs for enhancing student development and achievement. The entry provides an overview of how to evaluate the reliability of language assessments and describes useful tools and strategies for ameliorating reliability issues.
Test Impact and Washback
Authors: Schissel Jamie L.
Published: January 2018

The notions oftest impactandwashbackrefer to the influence of tests on teaching and learning—an influence that encompasses classroom instruction, curriculum choices, and educational policies. This influence can be positive or negative, intended or unintended. Issues related to consequential validity and the stakes of a test performance are important aspects of test impact and washback. To work toward creating positive test impact and washback, practitioners can examine how knowledge of the test construct can inform their choices in relation to the curriculum, in relation to their materials, teaching methods, feelings, and attitudes, and in relation to student learning.
Student Involvement in Assessment
Authors: Christison MaryAnn
Published: January 2018

There are two obvious ways that English learners can be involved in classroom assessment processes—namely, peer assessment and self‐assessment. These two types of assessments involve learners in evaluating themselves and others on their performances on classroom tasks, such as homework assignments, presentations, quizzes, and tests. There are also less obvious ways in which English learners can be involved in the assessment process, such as in creating benchmarks for learning—a task that has been traditionally assumed by teachers. This entry discusses the reasons why it is important to involve learners in both creating benchmarks and criteria for assessments, as well as participating in self‐ and peer assessment. The entry also outlines some of the benefits of involving learners in classroom assessment, presents guidelines for implementation, and offers practical suggestions for using specific assessments in the context of an English language teaching classroom.
TOEFL
(Test of English as a Foreign Language)
Authors: Burkett Theodore
Published: January 2018

The TOEFL is a high‐stakes American standardized test designed to measure the English proficiency of nonnative speakers of English. It is primarily used to measure international students' ability to use English in academic contexts and is used for admissions purposes in more than 9,000 institutions in more than 130 countries. It is administered by the Educational Testing Service (ETS).
IELTS(International English Language Testing System)
Authors: O'Sullivan Barry
Published: January 2018

IELTS is a high‐stakes test, used to measure the English‐language proficiency of people who wish to study or work in countries or institutions where English is the language used. IELTS is accepted by over 9,000 institutions (more than 3,000 of these in the United States) in over 140 countries worldwide, making it the most broadly recognized English‐language test globally. In 2015, over 2.7 million tests were taken.
Web‐Based Testing
Authors: Diaz Maggioli Gabriel H.
Published: January 2018

Web‐based testing (WBT) is the current incarnation of previous efforts to use technology in order to provide valid, reliable, and feasible assessment to and of students. Although this is not a recent phenomenon in language teaching, its development and applications have not been devoid of problems and controversy, particularly in relation to the use of WBT in large‐scale high‐stakes situations. However, recent developments seem to indicate that this kind of testing might hold increasingly more relevant potential for educational systems, institutions, instructors and students alike.
Correcting Errors
Authors: Maggioli Gabriel H. Diaz
Published: January 2018

The issue of error correction constitutes a highly contested area in the field of language teaching. While research on this subject has been plentiful, its results appear tentative and even contradictory. However, from an analysis of this extensive research, a set of principles can be outlined that have the potential to guide classroom practice. These principles emphasize a deep understanding of the context for correction, the incorporation of a variety of corrective moves, the provision of feedback, and a focus on empowering learners to progressively gain more control over their expression through targeted feedback that is explicit, detailed, and forward‐looking.
Multiple‐Choice Item Format
Authors: Bailey Kathleen M.
Published: January 2018

The multiple‐choice (MC) item format is widely used in language tests throughout the world, but it is not without problems. This entry describes the format as an example of a selected‐response item, identifying the typical components of the MC item. Next there is a discussion of how well the MC format stands up to evaluation by the four criteria by which language tests have traditionally been assessed: reliability, validity, practicality, and washback. Several suggestions from the research literature about how to write good MC items follow this discussion. The entry ends with some cautions about the use of this item format, since it is widely associated with discrete‐point testing of grammar, vocabulary, and the receptive skills.
Subjectively Scored Formats
Authors: di Gennaro Kristen
Published: January 2018

Within a communicative language‐teaching paradigm, assessments of learners' speaking, writing, and pragmatic ability typically involve the use of subjectively scored formats, such as essays, interviews, and role‐play tasks. Such tasks are subjective to the extent that a test taker's performance depends upon a reader's or a listener's judgment. Test users and teachers can minimize test score subjectivity by making rating criteria transparent, by training and norming raters to judge test takers' performance, and by adopting statistical procedures designed for measurements based on rating scales. Classroom teachers can use subjectively scored formats to clarify learning objectives and to encourage peer and self‐assessment of productive language skills.
Nontraditional Assessments
Authors: Ariza Eileen N. Whelan , Morehouse Jessica L.
Published: January 2018

This entry explores topics related to the use of nontraditional assessments to measure the content and language understanding and the proficiency levels of English language learners in reading, writing, listening, and speaking. Included is a discussion of what nontraditional assessments are, who should use them, why they are important, and when, where, and how such assessments should be used.
Classroom Testing
Authors: Migliacci Naomi
Published: January 2018

Unlike standardized tests, classroom assessment is often designed by teachers, although the classroom test can be pre‐packaged. The classroom test can consist of selected and constructed responses, like many standardized assessments, or it can be performance‐based. The advantage is that teachers can assess what was actually taught and if students have met the learning target. Classroom tests serve several purposes including formative and summative. Teachers need to consider several issues when designing assessments including validity, reliability, bias, and balance. The logistics of classroom assessments need consideration, such as the testing environment and what students will do once they finish. Grading and providing feedback are also aspects of test design.
Aptitude Testing
Authors: Winke Paula M.
Published: January 2018

Language aptitude is the set of talents that underlie one's ability to learn an additional language quickly in instructed settings. Aptitude tests are used to measure those talents. After defining aptitude and providing information on several aptitude tests available today (who created them, when they were created, why they were created, and how individuals can access them, if they can be accessed), the entry outlines (a) recent updates on research into the aptitude‐treatment‐interaction hypothesis (Cronbach & Snow, 1997; Robinson, 2007), and (b) pedagogical implications. Teachers are encouraged to instruct students in ways that have been proven to eradicate aptitude's effects on learning. Teachers are also recommended to monitor low‐aptitude students to maximize their success.
English for Specific Purposes (
ESP
) Testing
Authors: Sabieh Christine
Published: January 2018

The planning of English for Special Purposes (ESP) testing involves five steps: (1) identify the objective(s), (2) create a scenario, (3) provide information, (4) develop the task, and (5) create the evaluation tool. The construction of the ESP assessment tool is crucial to indicating the learning outcome success. It is imperative that the ESP instructors link the assessment to the teaching to the learning.
Communicative Language Testing
Authors: Morrow Christopher K.
Published: January 2018

Communicative language testing was a movement to enhance the validity of language tests by incorporating authentic materials and activities based on predictions of the testees' target language use. This direct, holistic style of testing encompassed far more than structural accuracy in its scope since it sought to measure various types of appropriateness relative to social, cultural, and pragmatic norms. With its frequent use of longer tasks and free production activities, this style of testing often challenged raters to make complex decisions about competing features in test data. In addition, it prompted detailed investigations about the suitability of various types of task demands and conditions relative to the future needs and goals of testees. Although communicative methods and principles departed significantly from well‐established psychometric forms of testing, they have been gradually incorporated into many major testing systems.
Student‐Generated Assessment
Authors: Palfreyman David M.
Published: January 2018

Student‐generated assessments involve learners contributing somehow to the means of assessment, for example selecting work for a portfolio, writing test questions for other students, or using assessment criteria to give feedback on particular pieces of work. As well as providing student‐relevant assessments for future use, involving students in this way can help their learning of language and skills, as well as motivate them and give them useful skills for independent learning in the future. Students can be prepared for this kind of peer teaching/assessment role through careful selection and staging of tasks; online social media provide further support for this type of activity.
Alternative Approaches to Professional Development
Authors: Gregory Karen , Oliver Gretchen
Published: January 2018

Twenty‐first‐century approaches to professional development for language teachers reflect a constructivist learning paradigm. Instead of traditional seminars, workshops, or training sessions, new professional development models aim to be sustained, teacher‐centered, collaborative, and discursive. The use of current technologies can facilitate professional development models such as communities of practice, professional learning communities, and reflective teaching so that professional development activities are embedded in the classroom where they can be specific to teachers' contexts and experiences.
Alternative Forms of Human–Computer Interaction
Authors: Kuhn Jeff
Published: January 2018

The rise of tablets and smartphones has brought wider attention to the opportunities for human–computer interaction beyond the mouse and keyboard. Alternate forms of interaction through voice, gesture, and immersion provide opportunities for a more seamless integration between machine and user. These alternate forms of input, combined with constructivist and task‐based learning pedagogies in second and foreign language studies can provide opportunities for real‐world simulation in the language classroom.
Collaborative Learning
Authors: Dooly Melinda
Published: January 2018

This entry outlines the principal parameters of collaborative learning (CL). CL is understood as orientation, framework, and setting for a specific type of language teaching that involves interdependent activities, facilitated through social interactions that support shared knowledge building and problem solving. Main research results concerning the impact of CL on language learning are summarized, followed by a discussion of the role technology can play in enhancing this socially oriented process.
Design
Authors: Levy Mike
Published: January 2018

Design is a key consideration in creating effective language‐learning environments when the aim is to fully utilize the potential of new technologies. The question of design may be applied to a wide range of target areas in language teaching, including materials design, task design, software design and game design, among others. The notion of design also relates critically to the ways in which technology potentials might be harnessed to extend time on task, as postulated in such approaches as blended learning, flipped learning, and mobile learning. The goal in each is to design the total learning environment—in‐class and out of class, with and without the teacher—such that the optimal student learning experience and outcomes are achieved.
CALL
(Computer‐Assisted Language Learning) Materials Development
Authors: Hanson‐Smith Elizabeth
Published: January 2018

The rapid development of online teaching and learning has led to new applications and tools for teachers and students to develop online spaces with peer‐to‐peer interactivity, creative project‐based learning, and mastery orientation to the subjects learned. Language teachers are increasingly developing materials tailored specifically to their own students' needs. Easy‐to‐use digital tools also encourage students to create their own study materials, presentations and portfolios, and multimedia collaborations. Recent research into teaching methods underscores the use of digital tools and the importance of higher order thinking skills fostered by independent learning. The teacher's task as materials developer in the digital era has become one of finding appropriate applications and planning motivating, creative uses of them. Digital tools are readily available to assist in this task.
Digital Citizenship
Authors: Padrón Yolanda N. , Barohona Elba , Waxman Hersh C.
Published: January 2018

An important area in the use of technology that has received attention in the past decade is digital citizenship (Ribble, Bailey, & Ross, 2004; Ribble, 2011; Winn, 2012). Digital citizenship focuses on how to (a) use digital tools in an ethical manner, (b) navigate the Internet safely, (c) communicate properly, and (d) effectively use digital means. The teaching of digital citizenship to ELLs, however, has not received much attention. The increased use of digital media and social networking are extremely important in the world of today's students, therefore, it is becoming increasingly important to teach students digital citizenship. This chapter defines and provides an overview of the issues related to digital citizenship. In addition, suggestions are provided that can assist teachers in helping their second‐language students become better digital citizens.
Digital Storytelling
Authors: Stanley Nile
Published: January 2018

Storytelling is the oldest form of teaching. Neuroscientists contend our brains may comprehend best through story. Digital storytelling is the practice of using computer‐based tools to create and tell stories. Using digital storytelling in education, including with second‐language learners, is supported by theories of constructivism and culturally responsive literacy. Language acquisition can be supported by practices of digital storytelling that occurs in natural, meaningful contexts. The process of teaching students to design digital stories can affirm students' cultures and identities. A major appeal of using digital storytelling is that it promotes 21st‐century skills needed to be successful in today's global economy. Research informed language teaching strategies focused on differentiated digital literacies for beginning, intermediate, and advanced level language learners are addressed.
Emerging Technologies
Authors: Godwin‐Jones Robert
Published: January 2018

Instructional technologies are evolving today at a fast rate in all areas: software, services, and devices. No one is able to predict what is coming, but several trends seem likely. Learner analytics will become more widely used, serving to improve instructional design and delivery. Cloud services will collect data from a variety of user devices and services, supplying learner profiles for personalized learning. Artificial intelligence will enable ever more sophisticated intelligent language tutors and other services such as adaptive learning in massively open online courses (MOOCs). Informal language learning through the use of social media and online gaming will continue to play a major role for many learners. Much of that social and learning activity will be done on increasingly more powerful and versatile mobile devices, leading to more opportunities for place‐based language learning.
Engagement in
CALL
Authors: Egbert Joy , Chia Chang Ai‐
Published: January 2018

The distinction between motivation and task engagement is an important one, because task engagement is linked to learner achievement. Language teachers can play a direct role in providing opportunities for learner task engagement; many such opportunities include technology to make them more effective, more efficient, or both.
Hypermedia Design
Authors: Mirzaeifard Sepideh
Published: January 2018

In recent years the use of hypermedia environments has gained significant attention in language classrooms. These environments have been used mostly for general English classes. However, it seems vital to utilize hypermedia reading texts at the academic EFL postgraduate level. On the other hand, considering the principle of dual presentation of information in cognitive theory of multimedia learning, there is a need to accommodate postgraduate EFL learners' different sensory pathways in order to present information in the appropriate form based on their needs.
Integrating Technology Institutionally
Authors: Fies Carmen
Published: January 2018

Technology integration in schools, and here specifically the integration of digital technologies, is still frequently fraught with difficulties. Given that schools have made tremendous strides in providing the infrastructure (e.g., hardware, software, connectivity), the focus here is on the human capital: teachers in classrooms. The recommendation is that institutions need to provide time and space for meaningful and long‐term teacher professional development within an overarching community of practice (COP) in order for teachers to successfully adopt and adapt technology innovations.
Intercultural Communicative Competence and Technology
Authors: O'Dowd Robert
Published: January 2018

This chapter looks at how different models of online interaction and exchange have been employed in foreign‐language education in order to develop language learners' intercultural communicative competence. Following a review of different activities and models of telecollaborative exchange, the chapter explores some of the academic debates and problematic issues which have emerged in relation to this activity. The chapter concludes by outlining some new approaches to developing intercultural competence through online interaction.