bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Bioenergetic Therapy
Authors: Friedman Harris , Glazer Robert
Published: January 2010

Bioenergetic therapy combines bodywork with psychoanalysis. Also known as bioenergetic analysis or simply bioenergetics, this therapeutic system was created by Alexander Lowen (2004), a protégé of Wilhelm Reich (see Sharaf, 1994), who in turn was Freud's student; as such, it stems from the Freudian psychoanalytic tradition. It is seen as a humanistic psychotherapy for its holistic mind‐body approach and is also sometimes grouped with gestalt, orgonomy, and radix as a neo‐Reichian therapy. Bioenergetics is a way to understand and therapeutically intervene both psychologically and physically. Diagnoses focus on both understanding psychological issues through traditional psychoanalytic concepts (e.g., defense mechanisms) and physical issues through observing bodily form (e.g., posture) and function (e.g., qualities of movement during respiration) stemming from Reich's (1980) insights into the role of chronic muscular tension patterns (body “armoring”) in shaping “character.”
Biofeedback
Authors: Greene William A.
Published: January 2010

Biofeedback is best understood as a closed feedback loop consisting of a person or animal, a response, a means to detect the response, and a mechanism for displaying the response to the person or animal—the response is thus fed back. For example, a person can be instructed to increase his or her heart rate; the heart rate is displayed by a monitor and fed back to the person; a feedback loop is thereby established. Biological systems have numerous, reflexive feedback loops to maintain homeostatic integrity: body temperature, blood sugar, blood pressure, endocrine levels, etc. Fluctuations are kept within narrow limits by such feedback loops. However, biofeedback learning is not reflexive—it is more closely associated with higher‐order learning processes.
Biographical Data
Authors: Farmer Richard F. , Sundberg Norman D.
Published: January 2010

Biographical data of one sort or another are shared in most day‐to‐day social encounters. When meeting new people, for example, some exchange of biographical data often occurs (e.g., the disclosure of one's occupation or place of employment). Professionals who work with people in a variety of contexts (e.g., physicians, government workers, potential employers) frequently obtain histories of health‐related events, education, and employment. In applied clinical settings, for example, therapists will often assess aspects of a client's life history (e.g., family history; school and occupational history; social history; health, medical, and psychiatric history), and evaluate the potential relevance of this information in relation to the client's stated reasons for entering into therapy and for the selection of appropriate therapies. Several methods or resources can be used for the collection of biographical data, including informal interviews, semi‐structured interviews (von Zerssen, Pössl, Hecht, Black, Garczynski, & Barthelmes, 1998), “memory books” (Thomson & Holland, 2005), institutional records, documents, and specially designed biographical inventories and checklists.
Bisexuality
Authors: Smith Nathan Grant
Published: January 2010

Bisexuality is a sexual orientation characterized by attraction to members of more than one sex. Often, bisexuality is thought of as attraction to both men and women; however, neither sex (i.e., biological and chromosomal traits that determine whether a person is male or female) nor gender (i.e., socially constructed behaviors and traits associated with femininity and masculinity) are always dichotomous. As with other sexual orientations (i.e., heterosexual, lesbian, gay), a bisexual orientation is an enduring pattern of attraction, sexual behavior, emotional affection, social contacts, and personal identity oriented toward individuals of more than one sex.
Bogardus Social Distance Scale
Authors: Geisinger Kurt F.
Published: January 2010

The Bogardus Social Distance Scale was an early technique for measuring attitudes toward racial and ethnic groups. The basic concept behind the Bogardus scale is that the more prejudiced an individual is against a particular group, the less that person will wish to interact with members of that group (R. M. Dawes, 1972). Thus, the items that compose a Bogardus scale describe relationships into which a respondent might be willing to enter with a member of the specified cultural group (e.g., spouse, friend, neighbor, co‐worker, citizen, visitor to our country). Items are worded in terms of inclusion or exclusion. “Would you accept an ‘X' as a spouse?” is an example of an inclusion question and “Would you keep all ‘Ys' out of America?” is an example of an exclusion question. The attitude or esteem with which the respondent holds the specified group is defined as the closeness of relationship that the respondent reports as being willing to accept with a member of that group.
Borderline Personality Disorder
Authors: Sherry Alissa
Published: January 2010

Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) is one of 10 personality disorders listed in theDiagnostic and Statistical Manual‐Text Revision(DSM‐IV‐TR; American Psychiatric Association, 2000), the manual used by mental health professionals to diagnose mental disorders. BPD is considered a “cluster B” personality disorder. The cluster B identifier signifies a general pattern of behavior characterized by deficiencies in impulse control and affect regulation and is also known as the “dramatic‐erratic” cluster. The diagnostic criteria listed in the DSM‐IV‐TR specific to BPD are as follows:

A pervasive pattern of instability of interpersonal relationships, self‐image, and affects, and marked impulsivity beginning by early adulthood and present in a variety of contexts, as indicated by five (or more) of the following:

frantic efforts to avoid real or imagined abandonment

a pattern of unstable and intense interpersonal relationships characterized by alternating between extremes of idealization and devaluation

identity disturbance: markedly and persistently unstable self‐image of sense of self

impulsivity in at least two areas that are potentially self‐damaging (e.g., spending, sex, substance abuse, reckless driving, binge eating)

recurrent suicidal behaviors, gestures, or threats, or self‐mutilating behavior

affective instability due to a marked reactivity of mood (e.g., intense episodic dysphoria, irritability, or anxiety usually lasting a few hours and only rarely more than a few days)

chronic feelings of emptiness

inappropriate, intense anger or difficulty controlling anger (e.g., frequent displays of temper, constant anger, recurrent physical fights)

transient, stress‐related paranoid ideation or severe dissociative symptoms (American Psychiatric Association, 2000, p. 710)
B
oring,
E
dwin
G
. (1886–1968)
Authors: Staff
Published: January 2010

Edwin G. Boring studied psychology at Cornell University under the Structuralist, E. B. Titchener, and he received his doctorate in 1914. He went to Clark University in 1919 and moved to Harvard in 1922; he remained there for the rest of his career as a general experimental psychologist. He influenced many generations of students through his teaching of the introductory course in psychology at Harvard.
B
owlby,
J
ohn (1907–1990)
Authors: Staff
Published: January 2010

John Bowlby is known for his work on the ill effects of maternal deprivation on personality development and for formulating attachment theory as a way of conceptualizing a child's tie to the mother. The son of a London surgeon, he studied medicine and psychology at Cambridge, completed his medical training in London (1933), and specialized in child psychiatry and psychoanalysis. After five years as an Army psychiatrist, he joined the Tavistock Clinic and Tavistock Institute of Human Relations, where he worked full time (1946–1972) as a clinician, teacher, and researcher in child and family psychiatry.
Buffering Hypothesis
Authors: Farmer Richard F. , Sundberg Norman D.
Published: January 2010

The buffering hypothesis suggests that under some conditions social support protects (or “buffers”) individuals from the harmful effects of stressful situations. Two important conditions must be satisfied to demonstrate the buffering effect: (1) individuals must experience relatively high levels of stress in response to a stressful situation, and (2) social support is defined in terms of the availability of interpersonal resources that can potentially offset needs occasioned by the stressful event. This specific type of social support is sometimes referred to as “instrumental support” (Cohen, 1988; Cohen & Wills, 1985), examples of which include financial aid, material resources, and needed services. The buffering hypothesis has been evaluated in a variety of areas of human functioning (e.g., depression, substance abuse, physical health) and in studies of immune response functioning among monkeys.
Bulimia Nervosa
Authors: Becker Carolyn Black
Published: January 2010

Bulimia nervosa is an eating disorder characterized by three primary symptoms: recurrent episodes of binge eating, inappropriate compensatory behaviors, and extreme concern about body weight and shape. Binge eating involves the consumption of a large amount of food in a relatively short period of time along with a perception of loss of control over eating. Binge eating may be triggered by a number of factors including hunger, negative mood, interpersonal stressors, and thoughts about weight and shape. Inappropriate compensatory behaviors are strategies aimed at controlling body weight and shape, including self‐induced vomiting, misuse of laxatives and/or diuretics, excessive exercising, and fasting.
Burnout
Authors: Leiter Michael P.
Published: January 2010

Burnout is a chronic syndrome describing a dysfunctional relationship with work. People experiencing burnout are tired, uninvolved, and ineffective. The concept has been the focus of extensive research and consulting work since it was introduced in the mid‐1970s.
Caffeine‐Related Disorders
Authors: James Jack E.
Published: January 2010

The widespread consumption of caffeine is a relatively recent phenomenon in human history. European colonization in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries led to coffee and tea being transported around the world, and this process of dissemination proved to be extraordinarily successful. Caffeine has come to be the most widely used psychoactive substance in history, with more than 80% of people worldwide now consuming the drug daily (James, 1997).
California Psychological Inventory
Authors: Groth‐Marnat Gary , Mullard Michael J.
Published: January 2010

The California Psychological Inventory (CPI) is a self‐report, paper and pencil test comprised of 434 True‐False items. There is also a 260‐item short form. Questions relate to a person's typical behaviors, opinions, feelings, and attitudes regarding family, ethical, and social matters. It can be administered to individuals between the ages of 12 and 70 having a minimum of a fourth grade education. Results of the test are presented as a profile comprised of 20 scales, 3 vectors (or factors), and a variety of special purpose scales. It is typically used within normal populations to help understand vocational preferences, interpersonal behavior, intrapersonal function, and orientation toward normative values.
Cannabis‐Related Disorders
Authors: Roffman Roger
Published: January 2010

In 2007, 3.9 million persons in the United States aged 12 or older (1.6% of the population) met DSM criteria for cannabis dependence or abuse. The numbers of those who had used marijuana ever, in the past year, and in the past month in 2007 were 100.5 million, 25.1 million, and 14.5 million, respectively (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration [CSAT], 2008). Approximately 4.3% of Americans have been dependent on cannabis.
Career Development
Authors: Herr Edwin L.
Published: January 2010

The term
career development
has several meanings. At one level it is the term used to describe the large body of theory and research that serves as the knowledge base for career counselors and psychologists. This knowledge base identifies the factors, both internal to the individual and external in the environment, that interact across the life span as individuals forge their personal career identity, acquire work‐related behaviors, anticipate and explore career options, adjust to the settings in which their work‐related behavior is implemented, and manage the interaction of career and family roles.
C
attell,
J
ames
Mc
Keen
(1860–1944)
Authors: Haynie N. A.
Published: January 2010

James McKeen Cattell attended Lafayette College for his undergraduate work. He traveled to Europe and studied at Gottingen and then in Leipzig under Wilhelm Wundt. He received a fellowship to return to Johns Hopkins in 1882 and study philosophy. While at Johns Hopkins, Cattell attended the lectures on psychology by G. Stanley Hall and began research on mental activities. He returned to work with Wundt in 1883 to study individual differences, which was characterized as a typically American project by Germans. Cattell received his PhD degree in 1886 in psychology. His dissertation was the first in psychology by an American.
Central Nervous System Disorders
Authors: Oscar‐Berman Marlene , Mosher Susan M.
Published: January 2010

The central nervous system (CNS) is comprised of the brain and the spinal cord. The spinal cord controls movement and feeling of body regions located below the brain. Because the brain and the spinal cord are connected, the brain also plays a role in movement and feeling. However, the brain controls complex psychological processes such as attention, perception, motivation, emotion, language, cognition, and action. Central nervous system disorders may arise due to brain injury, or may occur as the result of congenital or degenerative neurological conditions.
Child Custody
Authors: Bow James N.
Published: January 2010

History has witnessed a variety of trends in custody determination. Prior to the 1920s children were considered property of the father, who was almost always awarded custody. The Tender Years Doctrine, advanced in the 1920s, assumed that young children were better off in their mother's care. This resulted in a strong preference for awarding custody to the mother, a preference that continued until 1970 when the focus shifted to the best interests of the child.
Child Psychology
Authors: McKinney John Paul , McKinney Kathleen
Published: January 2010

Child psychology deals with the personality and behavior of children, typically from conception to puberty. Child psychology has referred in the past to both normal and abnormal behavior, to both theory and research, and also to the psychotherapy or counseling of disturbed children. Current usage, however, limits the term to a branch of the science of developmental psychology, while specifying “child clinical” when referring to the professional practice of child psychology.
Child Sexual Abuse
Authors: Kuehnle Kathryn
Published: January 2010

Child sexual abuse (CSA) is defined as the involvement of a child in sexual activity to provide sexual gratification or financial benefit to the perpetrator, including contacts for sexual purposes, prostitution, pornography, and other sexually exploitive activities. CSA allegations are addressed in a variety of psycholegal contexts, including, but not limited to, child custody evaluations in a family court, child protection proceedings in dependency court, personal injury cases in civil proceedings, and prosecution of legal charges in criminal and military courts. Few areas of psychological evaluation involve such a variety of complex evaluation issues and potentially serious consequences for faulty conclusions.
Chi‐Square Test
Authors: Rossi Joseph S.
Published: January 2010

The chi‐square (χ
2
) test was developed by Karl Pearson in 1900; this is often regarded as a seminal event in the history of statistics. The test and the statistical distribution on which it is based have wide application not only in psychology and the behavioral sciences but also in numerous related disciplines. Its two principal uses are to test the independence of two variables and to assess how well a theoretical model or set of a priori probabilities fits a set of data (goodness of fit). In both cases the test is typically thought of as a nonparametric procedure involving observed (
O
) and expected (
E
) frequencies. The expected frequencies may be determined either theoretically or empirically. The basic formula for calculating χ
2
is

urn:x-wiley:9780470479216:media:corpsy0174:xm1
Chronic Pain, Psychological Factors in
Authors: Turk Dennis C. , Wilson Hilary D.
Published: January 2010

Psychology has long been a topic addressed in the etiology of chronic pain; however, the hypothesized role these factors play has varied greatly. Psychological factors were traditionally considered to account for pain that could not be attributed to any physiological abnormalities. Pain was viewed as a dichotomy: it was either of physiological origin (somatogenic) or due to psychological issues (psychogenic). Thus, pain severity that was not linearly related to the amount of pathological abnormality was considered psychogenic, or “all in the patient's head.”
Civil Competence
Authors: Connell Mary
Published: January 2010

Competence, in civil legal matters, refers to the capacity to make independent decisions and conduct legal and financial transactions on one's own behalf. Adults are generally presumed to be competent to handle their own affairs, but when there is compelling evidence to the contrary, an individual may be found, by law, to be incompetent. Either the state or a private party, usually a family member, may raise the issue. Legal determinations of competence are important to fair execution of justice. A just outcome in any matter requires that parties are fully able to understand and participate in the decision making that is required for the matter; if they are not, that accommodation is arranged so that they can participate by representation from someone who has their interests in mind. If the court declares a person to be incompetent, a guardian may be appointed and legally empowered to make decisions on behalf of the person. This may be a family member of other close relation, or it may be the court itself, in which case the person becomes a “ward of the court.” This reflects the notion of
parent patriae
, or the state's interest in assuring care for those who cannot care for themselves.
Clinical Psychology, Graduate Training in
Authors: Collins Frank L. , Callahan Jennifer L.
Published: January 2010

Graduate training in clinical psychology is based on the science of psychology. To that end, all programs provide education in the broad and general foundational areas of psychology, which include the social, biological, cognitive, and affective aspects of behavior as well as human development. Specific training in the area of clinical psychology centers on diagnosing and defining problems through psychological assessment and measurement, implementing intervention strategies, providing consultation and supervision, and evaluating the efficacy of interventions.
Cluster Analysis
Authors: Hirtle Stephen C.
Published: January 2010

Cluster analysis refers to a family of related techniques that are used to create groups of objects that, in some sense, minimize the distance between the objects within a cluster (Arabie, Hubert, & DeSoete, 1996; Hartigan, 1975). It is generally viewed as a type of exploratory data analysis in which the clusters emerge from the analytical procedures. Cluster analysis has been used extensively since the 1970s by social scientists, market researchers, numerical taxonomists, and many others. Cluster analysis is also at the heart of many current approaches in machine learning, pattern recognition, and data mining.
Coaching
Authors: Weiner Karen Colby
Published: January 2010

Before 1990, coaching as a profession was recognized only in connection with mentoring corporate executives (Williams & Menendez, 2007). Within the last 15 years, however, coaching has come to be considered one of the fastest growing trends in the areas of health and well‐being (Williams & Anderson, 2006). At present coaching encompasses a growing number of specialties as diverse as getting adolescents to do their homework and assisting those leaving the workplace to create meaningful retirements.
Coefficient Alpha
Authors: Steedle Jeffrey T. , Shavelson Richard J.
Published: January 2010

Because test scores are known to contain errors, test developers and administrators must concern themselves with test score consistency (or reliability). Such concerns are commonly investigated using coefficient alpha, an internal consistency reliability coefficient that is computed as follows:

urn:x-wiley:9780470479216:media:corpsy0190:xm1

where
k
is the number of test items,

is the variance of scores on item
i
, and

is the variance of total test scores. Alpha is generally applicable for studying reliability on a single test at one point in time from multiple observations on individuals (e.g., scores on test items, task‐performance ratings from multiple judges).
Cohen's
d
Authors: Diener Marc J.
Published: January 2010

Cohen's (1988)
d
is one of several statistics used to examine differences between means, as in the case of the difference in mean outcome between participants who received treatment X and participants who received treatment Y. This difference score, calculated in standard deviation units, falls under the broader category of effect sizes. Effect sizes provide an important complement to traditional null hypothesis statistical significance testing. The traditional
p
value indicates the likelihood of obtaining the observed results if the null hypothesis is true (Cohen, 1988). It does not, however, offer any information about the magnitude of the research findings (e.g., how much of a difference it makes if someone receives treatment X vs. treatment Y; Rosenthal & Rosnow, 2008). Cohen's
d
offers an effective way of obtaining this information from means and standard deviations calculated in primary research.
Collective Unconscious
Authors: Cambray Joseph
Published: January 2010

In the early days of psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud and Carl Gustav Jung collaborated and explored unconscious aspects of the mind as they observed and experienced it clinically and personally. Archaeological and geological metaphors proved useful in describing the apparent layering of psyche seen in their patients and in themselves. Both men recognized what they saw as two main strata to the unconscious, correspondingly composed of ontogenetic and phylogenetic factors. Although Freud focused more attention on the ontogenetic factor in the development of psychopathology (the infantile neuroses), he did retain a view throughout his life that these phylogenetic contributions were acquired traits and were inherited; in other words, he held to a Lamarckian hypothesis, despite protest from his followers (Hoffer, 1992).
Communication Disorders
Authors: Kent Ray D.
Published: January 2010

Communication disorders limit or disrupt any of the processes of human communication, including language, voice, speech, and hearing. The major types of communication disorder are considered in this article; more detailed information is provided by Anderson and Shames (2006) and Owens, Metz, and Haas (2007).
Community Psychology
Authors: Jason Leonard A. , Porter Nicole
Published: January 2010

Community psychology is the study of the interaction between individuals and all of the levels of their environment (Dalton, Elias, & Wandersman, 2007). Community psychologists are interested in examining and improving the quality of life of individuals, communities, and society through collaborative research and action (Jason & Glenwick, 2002). Duffy and Wong (2000) characterized this field as emphasizing prevention over treatment; underscoring strengths and competencies over weaknesses; adopting an ecological perspective that examines the relationships among people and their environment; valuing and respecting diversity and differences; stressing empowerment, which involves enhancing the processes by which people gain control over their lives; emphasizing action research and social change, which provide more alternatives; stressing collaboration with other disciplines; examining how social support can act as a buffer against stress; and focusing on interventions that build a sense of community.
Comparative Neuropsychology
Authors: Oscar‐Berman Marlene
Published: January 2010

Results of nonhuman animal research can provide new information that human experimentation does not permit, usually for ethical considerations, or because of limited control over complex environmental influences. The new knowledge can then be used to help understand human disorders. One approach to understanding interspecies brain functions, comparative neuropsychology, involves the direct evaluation of human clinical populations by employing experimental paradigms originally developed for nonhuman animals (Oscar‐Berman & Bardenhagen, 1998). Of particular applicability has been the study of nonhuman primates, our closest genetic relatives.
Comparative Psychology
Authors: Norris Jacob N. , Papini Mauricio R.
Published: January 2010

Comparative psychology involves the study of the evolution and development of behavior. Comparative psychology is a branch of science that lies in the intersection between psychology and biology. Thus, it is not surprising that comparative psychologists recognize as part of their foundational tradition the works and ideas of a diverse group of scientists, including Charles Darwin (founder of modern evolutionary theory), Ivan P. Pavlov (discoverer of conditioning), John B. Watson (founder of behaviorism and a pioneer of field experiments), and Edward L. Thorndike (proponent of one of the first theories of behavior based on experimental research), among many others (Boakes, 1984). Comparative psychologists are interested in providing answers to questions such as:

What is the evolutionary origin of behavioral patterns observed in animals?

Does behavior contribute to individual reproductive success?

What external and internal factors determine animal behavior?

What factors regulate the development of behavior?
Competency to Stand Trial
Authors: Roesch Ronald , McLachlan Kaitlyn
Published: January 2010

Defendants can be found incompetent to stand trial, under provisions in criminal law, if they are unable to understand their legal circumstances and participate adequately in their defense. If they are found incompetent, further judicial proceedings are suspended until their competency has been restored. The purposes behind this procedure are to ensure that defendants receive a fair trial and to preserve the dignity of the adversarial process (Melton, Petrila, Poythress, & Slogobin, 2007). The competency standard that is currently recognized by the courts was established in
Dusky v. United States
(362 U.S. 402, 1960), which holds that defendants must be able to consult with an attorney and have a rational and factual understanding of the proceedings.
Computer‐Assisted Psychotherapy
Authors: Wright Jesse H. , Katz Marina , Tamas Rebecca L.
Published: January 2010

Computer‐assisted psychotherapy (CAT) can be defined as psychotherapy that utilizes a computer program to deliver a significant part of the treatment or uses computer tools to assist the work of the therapist. Clinician involvement usually includes screening, supervision, and support of program uses, and it may, in some applications, involve an integrated human‐computer “team” method of delivery. The amount of therapist time spent in CAT has varied in different studies, but is typically reduced considerably from the amounts used in standard psychotherapy.
Computerized Behavioral Assessment
Authors: Richard David C. S.
Published: January 2010

Behavioral assessment is a methodology characterized by direct or indirect observation of low‐level (i.e., minimally inferential) phenomena by either a participant or observer. It is distinguished from other forms of assessment in that behavior is considered a function of proximal and distal antecedents and consequences, the modification of which should lead to changes in the frequency, duration, or magnitude of a selected behavior. As such, behavioral assessment is a critical component of behavior therapy as both an assessment and monitoring tool to gauge the effects of an intervention on behavior and the variables hypothesized to control behavior (Haynes & O'Brien, 2000).
Conflict Resolution
Authors: Cohen Taya R.
Published: January 2010

Conflict occurs in situations in which two or more interdependent parties (either individuals or groups) have interests, outcomes, and/or goals that are incompatible in some way (Deutsch, 1973; Deutsch & Coleman, 2000; Kelley et al., 2003; Schelling, 1980). If the parties are completely independent, or if their interests, outcomes, and goals are completely compatible, then no conflict can exist, because, to put it colloquially, there is nothing to fight about. Conflict can occur in both cooperative and competitive contexts (Deutsch, 1973), as well as in “mixed‐motive” contexts that are marked by a combination of competitive and cooperative features. When the parties' interests are generally compatible or positively correlated, then resolving the conflict requires coordination (Kelley et al., 2003; Schelling, 1980).
Constancy
Authors: Hochberg Julian
Published: January 2010

An object's physical attributes (its size, shape, reflectance, location, and so on) are distal stimuli; our sense organs are activated by patterns of proximal stimulus energies, which change with distance, illumination, and so on. Things do not generally seem to expand when approached or to become darker (less reflective) when moved from light to shade. Such stabilities are termed size constancy, lightness constancy, shape constancy, position constancy, and the like.
Constructivist Psychotherapy
Authors: Leitner Larry M. , Lonoff Julie R.
Published: January 2010

Constructivism refers to a group of theories (originally stemming from Kelly's personal construct theory [1955]) holding the philosophical position that so‐called reality is, in some ways, created by persons. Rather than imposing some objective truth on persons seeking help, constructivist therapists attempt experientially to grasp the lived reality of each client. This relationship is more egalitarian and client‐empowering than approaches in which the more powerful therapist imposes diagnostic and treatment “realities” on the less powerful client. Constructivist psychotherapy can be seen as a part of the broader group of humanistic, existential, and postmodern therapies.
Counseling
Authors: Murdock Nancy L. , Krycak Romana C.
Published: January 2010

In an early attempt to define counseling, the Society of Counseling Psychology, which is Division 17 of the American Psychological Association, described counseling as a process of “helping individuals toward overcoming obstacles to personal growth, wherever these may be encountered, and toward achieving optimum development of personal resources” (Committee on Definition, Division of Counseling Psychology, 1956, p. 283). A more recent definition, offered by the American Counseling Association (ACA), is more specific: “…a process in which clients learn how to make decisions and formulate new ways of behaving, feeling, and thinking…[and] involves both choice and change, evolving through distinct stages such as exploration, goal setting, and action” (American Counseling Association, 2007). The ACA further elaborates that counseling is “the application of mental health, psychological, or human development principles, through cognitive, affective, behavioral or systemic intervention strategies, that address wellness, personal growth, or career development, as well as pathology” (ACA, 2008).
Couples Therapy
Authors: Lebow Jay , Black Danielle
Published: January 2010

Couples therapy is a form of psychotherapy targeting problems within a couple (e.g., two individuals in a committed romantic relationship). Whereas individual psychotherapy focuses on one person and that person's problem areas, couples therapy targets the problems of the couple, whether married or unmarried, heterosexual or homosexual. Couples therapy has emerged as a crucial intervention in mental health due to the growing need for treating couple problems.
Creativity
Authors: Krippner Stanley
Published: January 2010

Most Asian, African, Native American, and other indigenous traditions used creative imagination to enrich and enhance everyday life; original contributions were typically seen as gifts from deities or spirits who used humans as their “channels.” These insights would often come in nighttime dreams or daytime visions and were thought to re‐create divine truth. In some of these societies, individuals who produced something unprecedented (such as a mask or weapon) would be hailed as heroes, but in others they would be censured for breaking with tradition. Women's creativity was undervalued for centuries, and they were given few educational opportunities or life circumstances on which creative productivity depends; this situation still characterizes many contemporary countries where innovations are suspect, especially if women are the innovators (Kaufman & Sternberg, 2006; Richards, 2007).
Criminal Profiling
Authors: Godwin Maurice
Published: January 2010

Criminal profiling has received attention from the academic community and from the entertainment world since the FBI first published accounts of its profiling principles. It originally became popular through films such asSilence of the Lambsand theX‐Filesmaking headlines.
Cultural Sensitivity
Authors: Fowers Blaine J.
Published: January 2010

Over the last four decades, psychologists have become gradually, and with some controversy, more focused on the importance of cultural sensitivity in applied psychology, in theory, and in research. The examination of culture as an important aspect of human experience and behavior began with a few scattered commentators decrying the incompleteness and potentially damaging character of a monocultural psychology. This early work on cultural sensitivity has expanded to encompass the accreditation standards, publication standards, practice standards, and governance of the major professional associations in psychology. Although there is far from complete consensus on what constitutes cultural sensitivity, it is now widely accepted that attending to the cultural sources of human experience and behavior is important.
Deception
Authors: Rogers Richard
Published: January 2010

Deception is the broadest term used in psychological practice to refer to intentional distortion in self‐presentations. Most often deception is discussed in the framework of court‐ordered evaluations and adversarial contexts; however, even clients proactively seeking services can be less than completely forthcoming. Moreover, deceptions may occur (see Rogers, 2008) as a result of internal conditions (e.g., cognitive distortions of a sex offender), identity issues (e.g., stigmatization of mental disorders), or external motivations (e.g., impression management for job interviews).
Defense Mechanisms
Authors: Cramer Phebe
Published: January 2010

A defense mechanism may be defined as a cognitive operation or form of thinking that functions to protect a person from undue anxiety or loss of self‐esteem. These mental mechanisms and their function operate outside of awareness, so that people do not realize why they are thinking in a particular way. For example, when Johnny says “Grandma doesn't like me” in the absence of any objective evidence that this is the case, it may well be that Johnny does not like his Grandma, but cannot recognize this emotion in himself, because it would be an unacceptable feeling. In this case, Johnny is attributing his own unacceptable feeling to someone else and would be displaying the defense mechanism of projection to hide his true feelings, while at the same time he is providing an explanation for why he avoids his Grandma.
Delusions
Authors: Gipps Richard G. T. , Fulford K. W. M.
Published: January 2010

There is no widely accepted definition of delusion. Delusions are often described in textbooks as being defined since Karl Jaspers as false, subculturally atypical beliefs, strongly maintained in the face of counterargument. Yet such definitions fail to capture either the rich diversity or key features of delusions.
Dementia
Authors: Molinari Victor , Volicer Ladislav
Published: January 2010

Dementia is a syndrome characterized by progressive irreversible generalized cognitive decline that must include memory impairment (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2000). Most symptoms of dementia begin in old age, with varied estimates of its prevalence due to different methodologies and analytic strategies employed, diverse types of assessments used, and disparate screening assessment cut‐off points applied. The incidence of dementia is strongly correlated with age; a recent study suggests that 5% of adults over the age of 71 and perhaps 37.4% over 90 have dementia (Plassman, Langa, Fisher, et al., 2007).
Denmark, Psychology in
Authors: Elle Birgitte
Published: January 2010

Copenhagen University was founded in 1479 and reconstituted in 1539, after the Reformation. Here psychology was established as an independent discipline near the end of the nineteenth century; previously it had been taught in connection with other subjects, such as theology, philosophy, and psychiatry. Through the nineteenth century Danish philosophers pursued psychological studies in connection with such topics as sensory perception, thinking, and the psychology of personality. Among them was the renowned philosopher Søren Kierkegaard, whose writings inspired the existentialists of a later period. It was within philosophy that psychology first had a place, with Harald Høffding (1843–1931) a central figure. In 1882 he published the first Danish textbook in psychology,
Psykologi i omrids på grundlag af erfaringer
(Outlines of Psychology), which went into 11 editions, the last in 1930, and was also issued in several foreign languages: German, Russian, French, English, Polish, Japanese, and Italian. Høffding's psychology conforms to nineteenth‐century positivism and relies on the classical division of the mind into cognition, emotion, and will.
Dependency
Authors: Mongrain Myriam
Published: January 2010

All human beings depend on others: at first for survival and later, for support and companionship. The need to belong and be supported is one of the most basic needs. Some individuals may manifest a more extreme need for support and be intensely preoccupied with obtaining care or being close to their significant other. Dependency refers to a core motivation to obtain and maintain nurturing and supportive relationships (cited in Pincus & Wilson, 2001), and it involves a range of traits that can be either adaptive (e.g., valuing relationships) or maladaptive (e.g., people pleasing or passivity). This personality style is often associated with emotional difficulties and maladaptive relationships (see Bornstein, 2005) and, as a result, has received a great amount of attention from clinicians. Dependent personality disorder is a recognized diagnosis in the DSM‐IV. It is important to note that this diagnosis is applied only when the dependent individual's submissiveness, need to be taken care of, and fears of separation interfere with her or his functioning and cause significant distress.
Depth Perception
Authors: Riener Cedar , Proffitt Dennis
Published: January 2010

How do people perceive the three‐dimensional qualities of the world and the objects in it? Most investigators believe that the primary information for perception is the images projected onto our retinas. The problem of depth perception would thereby seem to be intractable; our visual system gets information limited to two dimensions (the projected retinal images), which does not uniquely determine any single three‐dimensional characteristics of the world. Yet we somehow perceive the three‐dimensional world that made those projections, and quite accurately in most circumstances. The two‐dimensional images are inherently ambiguous as to size and distance (e.g., large objects that are distant create the same projection as small objects that are close) as well as orientation (a rectangle and a trapezoid can both create the same retinal projection). People solve this problem, called the inverse projection problem, by combining four types of information, or depth cues: (1) oculomotor, (2) stereo, (3) pictorial, and (4) motion cues.
Deviancy
Authors: Davidson William , Onifade Eyitayo
Published: January 2010

Deviancy is a central concept in the study of human behavior and cognition. It underscores the primary focus of personality theory, clinical psychology, and social psychology. Deviancy in psychology describes behavior and thought patterns that are significantly different from what constitutes the norm in a population. These differences in cognition, behavior, and performance can be consistent and fixed or varying over time and situation. They are generally described as too much of an undesirable behavior or too little of a desired behavior. Alternately, these differences can occur as high‐intensity isolated events, as in the cases of violence or mental illness.
D
ewey,
J
ohn (1859–1952)
Authors: Haynie N. A.
Published: January 2010

John Dewey was an American philosopher, psychologist, and educator. He attended the University of Vermont, after which he taught high school and independently studied philosophy. He entered the graduate program at Johns Hopkins University and received his doctorate in philosophy in 1884. He taught at the University of Michigan and the University of Minnesota before going to the University of Chicago in 1894, the same year as James Rowland Angell. Dewey remained at Chicago for 10 years, and his and Angell's influence made the university a center for functional psychology. Dewey started an experimental laboratory school at Chicago, a new approach to educational methods that made him both famous and controversial. When he left, the leadership of the functionalist school passed to Angell. From 1904 to 1930 Dewey was at Columbia University, working on applications of psychology to educational and philosophical problems.
Disaster Psychology
Authors: Reyes Gilbert
Published: January 2010

Disasters severely disrupt or destroy environments on which people depend for their survival, and they may thus have extensive social and psychological consequences. The origin of a disaster may lie in natural phenomena such as heat, wind, precipitation, fire, tides, and seismic activity (e.g., droughts, famines, tornadoes, hurricanes, floods, blizzards, wildfires, tsunamis, and earthquakes). Disasters may also be brought about by unusually rapid changes in the prevalence and distribution of life forms, leading to infestations of destructive species and epidemics of infectious disease. Human activities may also cause massive destruction, whether inadvertently or by intent. Technological failures are an increasingly worrisome cause of death and destruction, most notably perhaps in the category of failures of transportation conveyances (e.g., aircraft, ships, trains), but failures of architectural structures can also be massively destructive (e.g., dams, levies, pipelines, and large buildings). Manufacturing that involves explosive or toxic substances also requires technological safeguards that may fail (e.g., chemical plants, oil refineries, and nuclear power plants), and major failures can lead to long‐term environmental damage and the injury or death of workers or others living nearby.
Discrimination
Authors: Sechrist Gretchen B.
Published: January 2010

Discrimination is negative behavior directed at individuals or at groups of individuals because of their social group membership. Discrimination is based on social categories to which individuals do not generally choose to belong. Such social categories include gender, race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, stigma, age, and physical appearance. Although it is normal to favor people who are similar to us (e.g., young children frequently play within gender groups and people date and marry primarily within their own race), discrimination involves unfair, unwarranted, and unjustifiable treatment of others.
Dissociative Identity Disorder
Authors: Gleaves David H.
Published: January 2010

Dissociative identity disorder (DID) is a psychiatric condition that was formerly known as multiple personality disorder (MPD). DID is viewed as the most complex and severe of the dissociative disorders, a category that also includes dissociative amnesia, dissociative fugue, and depersonalization disorder (see Cardeña & Gleaves, 2007 for a discussion of other dissociative disorders). Although it is controversial and long regarded as exotic and rare, a wealth of research has been conducted on DID in recent years, particularly since the 1980s.
Dynamic Psychology
Authors: Wolitzky David L.
Published: January 2010

A dynamic psychology considers mental experience and behavior as a function of the interaction of motivational, affective, and cognitive variables of different degrees of intensity or strength. There have been a variety of theories in the history of psychology that fall under the rubric of dynamic psychology. These theories, which have waned in influence in the past half‐century, include general systems theory, behaviorist theories (e.g., Hull), Lewin's field theory, cognitive dissonance theory (Festinger), family systems theories, Henry Murray's need‐press theory, and a variety of psychodynamic theories (e.g., Freud, Adler, Rank, Horney, Sullivan). Although differing in important respects, these theories have in common a focus on the intensity and direction of motivational forces and conflicts involved in adaptive and maladaptive goal‐directed behavior. For example, approach‐avoidance conflicts involve the dynamic interaction of competing needs, motives, fears, and goals.
Dysthymic Disorder
Authors: Klein Daniel N.
Published: January 2010

Dysthymic disorder is a form of mood disorder that is characterized by mild, chronic depression. The current diagnostic criteria require chronic depressed mood (i.e., depressed most of the day, for more days than not, for at least two years). In addition, the individual must experience at least two of the following six depressive symptoms: (1) low self‐esteem, (2) feelings of hopelessness, (3) low energy or fatigue, (4) difficulty concentrating or making decisions, (5) sleep disturbance (insomnia or sleeping too much), and (6) appetite disturbance (poor appetite or overeating). The symptoms must be persistent (i.e., never without depressive symptoms for more than two months at a time during this period), have a gradual (or insidious) onset (i.e., no major depressive episode during the first two years), and cause significant distress or impairment in social or occupational functioning. Finally, the diagnosis cannot not be made if the individual has a psychotic or bipolar (manic‐depressive) disorder, or if the symptoms are due to medication, substances of abuse, or a general medical condition (American Psychiatric Association, 2000).
Early Childhood Development
Authors: Vashchenko Myrna V. , Wertlieb Donald , Spetter Dante
Published: January 2010

Childhood is a culturally defined period in human development between birth and adulthood, and, in a historical perspective, is a relatively new social construction. Appreciation of childhood as a “special” time of life began to develop some 400 years ago, marking the beginning of a gradual move toward recognition of children's rights and their special needs for protection. Definitions of early childhood, an important subperiod of childhood, vary as to the ages that mark its beginning and end. The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) includes ages from birth to eight, whereas other sources prefer to view infancy as a separate period or to exclude middle‐childhood years (school age) from the definition of early childhood. Emerging classifications consider youth as ages 0 to 25 years.