bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Urban Sprawl: What is Urbanization and Why does it Matter?
Authors: Osborne Robin
Published: February 2012

This chapter explains the importance of studying urbanization in the Mediterranean region. Urbanization has become a somewhat unfashionable topic among archaeologists and this may be because it has become bound up with questions of state formation. This chapter highlights the need to analyse urban settlements in the way that sanctuaries and cemeteries have come to be analysed, and argues that attempts to understand what is going on in the Mediterranean in the early Iron Age are doomed unless the importance of the town as a unit of analysis is reinserted and the variable forms of town as a unit are examined.
The Beginnings of Urbanization in Rome
Authors: Smith Christopher
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines the urbanization process in Rome based on archaeological evidence. Archaeological attention has been refocused on Rome because the question of the reliability of our sources for early Rome has been reopened and because recent and ancient sources have been found to cohere to a surprising degree. The chapter suggests that the curiae are interestingly urban in their interests and functions, and in the way they participate in conscious and unconscious dialectics across the whole urban landscape. It also discusses the distinction between proto-urban and urban.
Introduction
Authors: Daunton Martin
Published: February 2012

This book places the establishment of the British Academy in the context of the Victorian organisation of knowledge. In this introductory chapter, the nature of academic, official, and legitimate knowledge in the Victorian period is discussed. It also considers the epistemological sites of Victorian Britain and how they were ordered. These sites included social networks, clubs, or societies such as provincial literary and philosophical societies and archaeological societies, national bodies such as the Royal Geographical Society, and the most exclusive, closed bodies of the elect, such as the Royal Society and the British Academy. These bodies have their own distinctive structures of power and authority. The Royal Society and British Academy for example, were designed to stabilise knowledge and the status of those claiming knowledge.
The Promotion and Constraints of Knowledge: The Changing Structure of Publishing in Victorian Britain
Authors: Raven James
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses the expansion of publishing and its role in organising knowledge in late Victorian Britain. The greater capitalisation of the industry during the later eighteenth and in the mid and later nineteenth century enabled the expansion of printing and publishing. Book trade profits resulted from the greater diversification of trading practices and financial infrastructure. Prominent publishing houses, like Macmillan, were able to broaden their market appeal to become general trade publishers and dominate the British publishing industry. The chapter also discusses the legislative constraints on publishing and how they erected political and legal barriers to the social extension of knowledge and education during the Victorian period.
The Origins and Conduct of the Russo-Persian War, 1826–1828
Authors: Bitis Alexander
Published: February 2012

This chapter considers the origins and conduct of the 1826–8 Russo-Persian War. While the actions of certain individuals were responsible for the outbreak of war, more profound causes were also at work. These were to be found in recent international history and the sudden entrance of Persia into the orbit of Great Power diplomacy. The discussion considers the Russo-Persian relations under Ermolov from 1817 to 1823; the origins of the 1826–8 Russo-Persian war; the campaign of 1826; the developments over the winter of 1826–7 and the controversy between Ermolov, Paskevich and Diebitsch; the occupation and liberation of Armenia; the 1828 Treaty of Turkomanchai; the conclusion on the war of 1826–8; and the Great Game in Asia.
The Danubian Principalities: Occupation and Reform, 1828–1834
Authors: Bitis Alexander
Published: February 2012

This chapter covers Russia's occupation and reform of the Danubian Principalities — a classic example of the ‘weak neighbour’ policy in action. It examines Russia and the Principalities; the Second Army and the Principalities; the wartime occupation of the Principalities in 1828–9; Kiselev and the Reform of the Principalities.
Introduction
Authors: Smout T. C.
Published: February 2012

This book presents an overview of the first six decades of the Union of the Crowns. It also provides a picture of the uses to which judicial torture was put after 1660 and a summary of the straits in which Scotland found itself in the opening years of the eighteenth century. It then explores the problems which union posed to maritime lawyers of both nations, the dark reception that the Scots received in eighteenth-century England, and the way Enlightenment Scotland viewed the British unions. It examines the ambitions of Scottish élites in India, the frame for radical cooperation in the age of the Friends of the People and later, and the background for the sojourn of Thomas and Jane Carlyle in London. It finally outlined the Anglo-Scottish relations on the political scene in the nineteenth century. The parliamentary union did little in the short run for Anglo-Scottish relations. It is shown that Scots are indeed worried and worry a lot about Anglo-Scottish relations, but the English worried and worry about them hardly at all, except in times of exceptional crisis, as in 1638–54, 1703–7, 1745–7 and perhaps much later in the 1970s after oil had been discovered.
A Blessed Union? Anglo-Scottish Relations before the Covenant
Authors: Brown Keith
Published: February 2012

This chapter provides a summary on the Anglo-Scottish relations before the Covenant. It specifically addresses the medieval inheritance of Anglo-Scottish relations. Undoubtedly, the fourteenth-century Wars of Independence hugely influenced the development of late medieval Scotland, leaving the Scots with a legacy of popular distrust of England. The new British state system with its composite monarchies was not unique, and multiple monarchies existed elsewhere in Europe. The structures put in place for the government of the new Britain had minimal or little impact on Anglo-Scottish relations, and what is surprising is how little governmental change took place. In terms of culture, the greatly improved Anglo-Scottish relations of the early seventeenth century had a modest impact. Religion was the single most damaging evidence of Scotland's distinctive traditions being compromised, and significantly it was on this issue that the Covenanters placed greatest emphasis in their subsequent negotiations with English parliamentarians in the 1640s.
Judicial Torture, the Liberties of the Subject, and Anglo-Scottish Relations, 1660–1690
Authors: Jackson Clare
Published: February 2012

This chapter provides a picture of the uses to which judicial torture was put after 1660. It also reconsiders Hume's ‘vestige of barbarity’: the role of judicial torture in late seventeenth-century Scotland. It first explores the practice of judicial torture in its broader legal, political, and philosophical contexts before turning to consider three specific instances wherein torture was sanctioned. The first concerns the torture in 1676 of the Covenanting preacher, James Mitchell, following his alleged attempt to assassinate the head of the established church, Archbishop James Sharp of St Andrews. The second investigates the torture of William Spence and William Carstares in 1684 on suspicion of treasonable attempts to foment an Anglo-Scottish rebellion against Charles II's authority, and the final case addresses the torture in 1690 of an English political agitator, Henry Neville Payne, in connection with Anglo-Scottish Jacobite intrigues being concerted against the government of William and Mary. Moreover, it describes the role of judicial torture within a domestic Scottish context. It is noted that if judicial torture is regarded as ‘an engine of state, not of law’, primarily deployed to protect civil society, rather than to punish known crimes, then some chilling contemporary parallels emerge.
Eighteenth-Century Scotland and the Three Unions
Authors: Kidd Colin
Published: February 2012

This chapter is concerned with the way Enlightenment Scotland viewed the British unions. The focus of the Scottish Enlightenment was on the deeper social and economic underpinnings of political systems, not on the epiphenomenal superficialities of national status. There has been a widespread assumption that Scots law and Presbyterianism became mainstays of Scottish identity in the supposed vacuum created by the loss of Scotland's parliament. A different kind of ambivalence surrounded eighteenth-century Scottish attitudes to the law. Eighteenth-century Scottish historians made no attempt to align the Union of 1603 and the Union of 1707 in a benignly unfolding story of ever-closer British integration. Given the horrors of the Union of the Crowns, as related by the sociological historians of the Scottish Enlightenment, it becomes easier to explain why these same historians put a positive gloss on the enforced Cromwellian union of the 1650s. The Anglo-American crisis and problems in the Anglo-Irish relationship brought into sharp focus the solid loyalty of North Britons.
Scottish-English Connections in British Radicalism in the 1790s
Authors: Harris Bob
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses the frame for radical co-operation in the age of the Friends of the People and later. The links to radicalism south of the Border have tended to be relegated to the margins of historical debate. Through the agency of Thomas Muir, links with the leading Irish radical society, the United Irishmen, were established at a relatively early stage, although the precise nature of these remains obscure. The emphasis on the Scots-Irish connection reflects the formative affect on Irish presbyterian radicals of an education provided by the Scottish universities. The influence of the English reform movement on the emergence of an organised campaign for parliamentary reform in Scotland in the 1790s has not always been fully appreciated, although it appears to have been a significant one. Correspondence and personal contacts across national boundaries were intermittent; the flow of print, in both ways, was continual. During the 1790s, union was a crucial element of radical strategy and tactics in Britain.
Anglo-Scottish Relations: the Carlyles in London
Authors: Ashton Rosemary
Published: February 2012

This chapter provides the background for the sojourn of Thomas and Jane Carlyle in London. Thomas travelled to London with the manuscript of Sartor Resartus, hoping to find a publisher for that strange satirical rhapsody. This work mounted a sustained rhetorical attack on ‘the condition of England’. It is not the case that the Scottish Carlyle opposed all things English as somehow inferior to the institutions and doings in his native land. He was never inclined to support Scottish separatism. He and his wife, Jane, later agreed to preferring life in London. Sartor Resartus would eventually claim the status of an iconic work. In Sartor itself, Carlyle's German philosopher Diogenes Teufelsdröckh states that he honours two kinds of men, ‘and no third’. The distinctive Carlylean voice of Sartor Resartus acted on its readers as a secular Bible, a Pilgrim's Progress for the age.
Anglo-Scottish Political Relations in the Nineteenth Century, c. 1815–1914
Authors: Hutchison I. G. C.
Published: February 2012

This chapter surveys Anglo-Scottish relations on the political scene in the nineteenth century. The English and Scottish politics in the nineteenth century were fairly well meshed together—certainly compared to Ireland. The extent of this political relationship can be exemplified in three areas: policy, party system, and personnel. There was a sense of grievance among Scots that their national interests and institutions were not being fairly or properly treated by the British state. There was also an inherent contradiction in their main complaints. Education was depicted as being supplanted by English values and methods. Anglo-Scottish political relations were reasonably favorable mainly because of the particular arrangements under which Scottish government was conducted. The several elements involved here are presented. At the moment of the greatest test of British unity, the proportion of Scots enlisting in the First World War was no different from the English and Welsh figures, and much higher than the Irish.
What has the Scottish Parliament achieved, and what can it teach Westminster?
Authors: Winetrobe Barry K. , Hazell Robert
Published: February 2012

This chapter argues that there was a determination that the 1997 devolution plan, unlike the earlier 1979 plan, would be ‘not like Westminster’ but would result from a ‘home-grown process’. It classifies the Holyrood parliament's successes and its failures, but its successes are there to be transferred and to be copied. In particular, it explains the four key principles of the Consultative Steering Group report: power-sharing, accountability, openness and accessibility, and equal opportunities. There is no generally accepted inclusive list of functions that a parliament is expected to carry out. It then investigates the four interlocking aspects of the parliament in operation over its first four-year session, as examples of how it has performed and how it may have lessons for Westminster. These include the arrangement of parliamentary business, legislation, committees, and accountability and representation. The committees are probably the Scottish Parliament's greatest single practical achievement. The other main feature of the parliament by comparison with Westminster is its greater institutional autonomy in relation to the Executive. The Scottish Parliament has also demonstrated a determination to be a learning parliament.
W(h)ither the Union? Anglo-Scottish Relations in the Twenty-first Century
Authors: McCrone David
Published: February 2012

This chapter argues that Britain in 1900 was neither a state nor a nation. It also claims that ‘the scale of grievances in Scotland…is simply not sufficient’ to endanger the union and ‘if anything’ devolution has decreased them. The union may mean what one want it to mean, as Humpty Dumpty observed. The irony is that the imperial connection has in large part reinforced the contradictions of British national identity. The chapter then examines the issues of identity. It also highlights the need not to assume that issues of citizenship and nationality operate according to the same framework in different parts of the kingdom. There does not appear to be an antipathy to being British among people in Scotland, but it does not ring with pride either: hence, perhaps, the usefulness of the ‘withering away’ metaphor. In addition, there is nothing inevitable either about the survival of the union, nor about its demise.
Anglo-Scottish Relations: A Borderland Perspective
Authors: Tomaney John
Published: February 2012

This chapter points out that the Provinces of England begins by ‘rejecting the idea of an English parliament’ on the grounds that an English parliament would ‘dominate the federation in the manner that Prussia had dominated the German Empire before 1914’. It also charts the rise of regionalism in North-East England during the twentieth century. Additionally, it argues that after 1914 North-East voices were central to the promotion of regional concerns in England and played a pivotal role in the wider emergence of political regionalism. The political expression of regionalism shifted significantly during the twentieth century. C. B. Fawcett's essay was a distinctive (northern) English contribution to the debate about ‘Home Rule All Round’. It raises issues that had begun finally to be grappled with at the close of the twentieth century. The North-East became the archetypal ‘problem region’ and the focus of multiple ‘regional policies’ over the following decades. Moreover, the regionalism in the era of nationalisation is discussed. The particular identity of the region and the need for institutional innovation to address longstanding social and economic problems is then emphasized.
Connections in Archaic Latin Prose
Authors: Penney J. H. W.
Published: February 2012

This chapter presents some of the trends observable in the scanty evidence for early Latin prose that deserve scrutiny and may perhaps shed some light on the development of the classical patterns. Comparison with the Sabellian languages may also be instructive in allowing the Italic background to be taken into account in any attempt to determine distinctive Latin practice. Discussion is largely confined to copulative conjunction, both of words or word groups and of clauses, either by asyndeton or with one of the conjunctions -que, atque (ac) and et, but it should be noted that even in the earliest inscriptions one can find examples of other modes of connection, such as the use of emphatically contrastive words, cf. The atque was well entrenched in early Latin, but Cato’s usage has suggested to many that it was a weightier variant. A careful examination of Plautus’ use of atque may perhaps one day offer some clues to a solution, but verse texts are inevitably problematic.
Cicero’s Adaptation of Legal Latin in the De legibus
Authors: Powell J. G. F.
Published: February 2012

This chapter argues that some apparent archaisms in the laws composed by Cicero in the De legibus should not be regarded as archaisms in a legal context. It also demonstrates that Cicero does indeed scatter about features of archaic laws for particular effects. The chapter then mentions that it is ‘typical of Cicero’s processes of literary composition that he should sometimes archaize vigorously when the context inspires him to do so, and at other times use archaic features more sparingly’. In addition, it describes the cases of ‘false archaism’, where an archaic word, form, or construction is used in a way that is different from its use in older material for archaisms which are in fact innovations in Latin poetry. Moreover, the chapter reports the Twelve Tables as Cicero’s model for his law code. The contemporary legal style in the law code and the ciceronianisms are addressed. The chapter then presents a more detailed consideration of the question of archaism and the problem of the transmission of the text.
Pope’s Spider and Cicero’s Writing
Authors: Hutchinson G. O.
Published: February 2012

This chapter presents a line from Pope’s An Essay on Man. It specifically reuses the spider that ‘Feels at each thread, and lives along the line’ as an image to introduce a way of looking at the writing in Cicero’s oratory. The chapter also focuses on one speech, the Pro S. Roscio, which receives an unusual amount of comment in Cicero’s work from the forties. The discussion of passages may show, perhaps more than has been done before, how much is involved in reading Cicero. The greatest hope is that it may encourage people to read Cicero with no less intensity and sophistication than Latin poetry.
The Impracticability of Latin ‘Kunstprosa’
Authors: Mayer R. G.
Published: February 2012

This chapter provides a discussion that aims to offer some account of the impracticability of Latin ‘Kunstprosa’. It begins by presenting the quandary of Vitruvius. Vitruvius showed a thorough competence; his intellectual predecessors in the later Republic had provided a lesson in the logical grouping of topics, a lesson he learnt. Vitruvius’ quandary can be explained by the failure of Latin prose to provide the educated writer with workable models of sound prose style. The chapter then inspects the masters themselves, Cicero and Caesar. The period in Cicero’s oratorical prose is deemed to be generally above reproach, once allowance is made for his increasing assurance. The issue of anacoluthon in Cicero’s philosophical writings was considerably discussed at the time this essay was delivered, and in subsequent e-mail exchanges with Jaap Wisse. The chapter then turns to Cicero’s only real successor, Livy. Moreover, the origin and use of the period in formal Latin style are described.
Translator’s Latin
Authors: Dionisotti A. C.
Published: February 2012

Latin is only one among many languages that have established themselves, in written form, by translating from others. The negative impact that humanism as promoted by Petrarch made on what is called the ‘inclusiveness’ of medieval Latin is shown. The relation between bilingualism and translation is obviously intricate. The separate source of the anecdote emerges quite clearly in the language. The chapter also shows the three factors in the story of Latin: (a) native developments in the language, (b) Hellenisms that infiltrated into it, and (c) outright translationese, idioms remaining recognizably foreign. It is suggested that, as the development of Latin in all its forms is understood from antiquity down to the Renaissance, it could be useful to pay more attention to the role of translations from Greek; not as a category apart, but as a continuing process, constantly provoking or instilling redefinition of what is possible as written Latin, or indeed as Kunstprosa.
Metrical and Rhythmical Clausulae in Medieval Latin Prose: Some Aspects and Problems
Authors: Orlandi Giovanni
Published: February 2012

The possibility that quantitative clausulae were sought by authors of the Latin literature of the medieval West offers a new means of entering the debate over ‘continuity or discontinuity’ between late antiquity and the Latin Middle Ages. The principles and aims of calculating prose rhythm, whether quantitative or tonic, have been changed; but much has returned as well. The variation of prosodical structure between the body and the end of a period may well be due to other reasons than the search for rhythm, such as the general preference of a long word to a short one to close a sentence. If the presented preliminary results are confirmed in the future by larger samples, it may be possible to trace in this twelfth-century prose a tendency towards what was to become the system characteristic of the Italian schools of ars dictaminis, namely a division of functions between the cursus tardus, deputed to minor pauses, and the obligatory cursus uelox, used to conclude nearly every sentence.
Bayesianism—its Scope and Limits
Authors: Sober Elliott
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses the scope and limits of Bayesianism. The first topics discussed are the math and philosophy embedded in Bayesianism and the standard objection to Bayesianism. The concept of likelihood in Bayesianism is examined, and a problem of the best-case strategy of dealing with nuisance parameters is studied. Finally, the main weakness of strong Bayesianism is identified.
Bayesianism in Statistics
Authors: Howson Colin
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses Bayesianism in statistics. The first section of the chapter is devoted to the First Bayesian Theory, which is immediately followed by a discussion of significance tests and the Second Bayesian Theory. Lindley's Paradox and the Neyman-Pearson Theory are examined in detail, along with the concept of priors and likelihood. The final portion of the chapter focuses on the Second Bayesian theory as logic.
Bayes’s Theorem and Weighing Evidence by Juries
Authors: Dawid A. P.
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses Bayes's theorem and the weighing of evidence by the juries. It first examines statistics and the law, before moving on to testing between two hypotheses in court. Identification evidence and databases and search are examined as well. The chapter concludes with a brief discussion of some problems of legal reasoning that have been greatly clarified by examining them from a Bayesian perspective.
Bayes, Hume, Price, and Miracles
Authors: Earman John
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses the Bayesian analysis of miracles. It is set in the context of the eighteenth-century debate on miracles. The discussion is focused on the probable response of Thomas Bayes to David Hume's celebrated argument against miracles. The chapter presents the claim that the criticisms Richard Price made against Hume's argument against miracles were largely solid.
Sociology in Britain in the Twentieth Century: Differentiation and Establishment
Authors: Bulmer Martin
Published: February 2012

Two books, one written by Chelly Halsey (2004) and the other by Jennifer Platt (2003), raise some very stimulating questions about the development of sociology in twentieth-century Britain, but they do not exhaust those questions. This chapter raises what seem to be significant questions stimulated by the two books and by the two-day conference held at the British Academy in May 2004. While there are reasons for disappointment about the history of British sociology in the twentieth century, there are still concrete achievements to celebrate, much distinguished individual scholarship to admire, and a number of salient issues to pursue. This chapter discusses who should write the history of sociology, who count as sociologists, the political embeddedness of sociology, whether sociology is characterized by its methods, the direction of sociology and its aims as an academic discipline, and what sources should be used for the history of sociology.
A Century of Time
Authors: Lucas J. R.
Published: February 2012

This chapter argues for the position of temporal becoming across a wide variety of fields. The chapter's central sections address successively the metaphysics, physics and logic of time. It rebuts McTaggart's argument that temporal becoming involves a contradiction. It admits that special relativity's frame — dependence of simultaneity is inimical to temporal becoming. However it also argues that temporal becoming is rehabilitated both by general relativity's allowance of cosmic time functions and, more fundamentally, by the collapse of the wave-packet in quantum theory. Finally, the discussion considers the logic of time, especially tense logic, and applies this to recent cosmological speculation about the Big Bang and more generally to the idea of the beginning of time.
The Problem of Time In Quantum Geometrodynamics
Authors: Kuchař Karel
Published: February 2012

This chapter describes the problem of time in quantum geometrodynamics in more detail. It first describes how the fundamental equation of general relativity can be written as an instantaneous law, indeed as a cousin of a beautiful geometric theorem of Gauss, which Gauss called ‘theoremaegregium’. Then, it describes how the quantization of general relativity leads to the disappearance of time from the formalism, and surveys three ways to respond to the problem. First, one can try to extract a notion of time that will not ‘disappear’ under quantization, from the formalism of classical general relativity. Second, one can try to find a time in the formalism of quantized general relativity. Third, one can conclude that time is only an approximate notion: quantum geometrodynamics, and perhaps quantum theory generally, are to be interpreted in a fundamentally timeless way.
The Industrious Revolution and Economic Growth, 1650–1830
Authors: De Vries Jan
Published: February 2012

This chapter examines the scope and intensity of productive labour and its relationship to consumer aspirations. It demonstrates that changes in consumption demands play a role in the process of industrialization. The first ‘industrious revolution’ within the household sector reinforced significant changes in business organization, affecting both the international wholesale trade and the retail provision of goods. This phenomenon paved the way for the Industrial Revolution, which was advanced by new technologies and changes in organization.
The East Asian Escape from Economic Backwardness: Retrospect and Prospect
Authors: Crafts Nicholas
Published: February 2012

This chapter is concerned with state policies and institutional arrangements that have figured prominently in the recent East Asian ‘economic miracle’, and assesses the significance of the financial crisis that overtook the newly industrializing countries (NICs) at the end of the 1990s. It employs a historical perspective within which to view the rapid transition of the NICs in the final quarter of the twentieth century.
Ideology and the Shadow of History: A Perspective on the Great Depression
Authors: Eichengreen Barry , Temin Peter
Published: February 2012

The Great Depression is one of those seminal events in the modern world economy on which policy-makers and market participants rely when formulating their conceptions of how market economies behave. This chapter examines the international monetary policy formation during the Great Depression. It argues that the ideology of the gold standard led policy-makers to take actions that accentuated economic distress in the 1930s.
Economic Welfare Measurements and Human Well-being
Authors: Offer Avner
Published: February 2012

This chapter focuses on alternative ways of measuring social welfare. These alternative measurements follow three approaches. The first involves extending the national accounts to incorporate non-market goods and services and to eliminate detrimental components. A second approach identifies social norms and evaluates their satisfaction through social indicators. The third approach involves the use of psychological indicators and attempts to reach directly into the experience of welfare using surveys of subjected well-being and research on the dynamics of hedonic experience.
Producing Health in Past and Present: The Changing Roles of Scientific and Alternative Medicine
Authors: Digby Anne , Johansson Sheila Ryan
Published: February 2012

This chapter explores some issues raised by historical changes in the positions of scientific and alternative medicine in health care provision, pointing out parallels between the coexistence of modern and traditional healers. It argues that in both developed and developing countries, maximizing the production of health-related welfare may require the continued existence of these two medical systems.
Rodney Howard Hilton 1916–2002
Authors: Dyer Christopher
Published: February 2012

Rodney Howard Hilton (1916–2002), a Fellow of the British Academy, was born in Middleton, England, to John James Hilton and Anne Howard Hilton. As a history undergraduate between 1935 and 1938, Hilton was attracted to the medieval period by the teaching of two outstanding Balliol scholars, Vivian Galbraith and Richard Southern. At the University of Oxford, he was influenced by ‘foreign ideas’ and joined the Communist Party. By 1956, Hilton had established an international reputation as an authority on the medieval economy in general, and in particular had put forward new ideas about social class, conflict, the crisis on feudalism, and the origins of capitalism. He was inspired by the writings of Karl Marx, Nikolai Lenin, and their more recent disciples, and applied their ideas. A constant theme running through all Hilton’s work was his commitment to the study of localities. He had a major role in making the subject of medieval economic and social history a lively field of enquiry and debate, which is a legacy that continues into the new century.
Judah Benzion (‘Ben’) Segal 1912–2003
Authors: Ullendorff Edward , Brock Sebastian
Published: February 2012

Judah Benzion Segal (1912–2003), a Fellow of the British Academy, had a long career as a teacher of Semitic languages at the School of Oriental and African Studies, London University. Segal’s principal interest was in Aramaic and Syriac, in addition to Hebrew and the other main Semitic tongues. Before his teaching career, he was employed in the Sudan Civil Service and, during World War II, his service was frequently behind the enemy lines in North Africa. He was educated at Magdalen College School, University of Oxford, and at St Catharine’s College, University of Cambridge. One of Segal’s other abiding interests concerned the Jews of Cochin whose history he published in 1993. But it will probably be in the area of Aramaic studies that Segal will be best remembered in the academic world.
Archaeology in Mesopotamia: Digging Deeper at Tell Brak
Authors: Oates Joan
Published: February 2012

This lecture discusses two recent projects conducted at Tell Brak: an intensive survey of the surrounding countryside and an investigation of the earlier fourth to fifth millennium levels. These projects used the latest satellite imagery and computer software. The lecture also provides an introduction to Tell Brak, an ancient city situated in the Khabur plain. Brief comments on the discoveries made during the third-millennium are presented, along with supporting evidence and several illustrations.
The Inquisition and the Renaissance
Authors: Murray Alexander
Published: February 2012

This lecture attempts to reveal that the Inquisition and the Renaissance were two aspects of one phenomenon, which is the halting emergence of a new entity, the territorial state. The lecture first describes the Inquisition and how it affected the sixteenth-century Renaissance. The element of violence, or killing people, is also examined. The second part of the lecture has a brief word about the creation of the Inquisition. It reviews two important elements that resulted from the Inquisition and what happened to the Inquisition once it had been invented. The lecture ends by examining certain states, including France and the papal state in Italy.
Barnardine’s Straw: The Devil in Shakespeare’s Detail
Authors: Pennington Michael
Published: February 2012

This lecture discusses memories of appreciating William Shakespeare's work. It reveals the various theatre adaptations of Shakespeare's works, including Hamlet, Macbeth, and As You Like It, and some notable theatre actors who contributed to the portrayal of Shakespeare's characters. It examines Shakespeare's use of language in his works, including several other literary techniques he used.
Dulness and Pope
Authors: Womersley David
Published: February 2012

This lecture discusses the dividedness shown by Pope in The Dunciad and attempts to offer a new explanation of that dividedness. It seeks the reasons for that dividedness and also dwells on Pope's relationship with the man he identified as a very dull poet, Sir Richard Blackmore. The lecture also argues that Pope acknowledged a kind of precedency in Dulness, and that The Dunciad pays an implicit tribute to the priority of dull poets in general.
Robert Graves and The White Goddess
Authors: Brearton Fran
Published: February 2012

This lecture discusses The White Goddess, a novel written by Robert Graves that was first published in May 1948. It is an intellectual and difficult book that has a toehold in many academic disciplines, including anthropology, literary studies, and Celtic studies. As an author, Graves has been described as the ‘bard’ of ‘an alternative society’ and as a ‘a unique figure in British literary life’. The lecture determines that The White Goddess can be both a help and a hindrance when it comes to looking at Graves' life and work. It also presents the literary techniques Graves used in the novel.
Imagining Pan-Islam: Religious Activism and Political Utopias
Authors: Piscatori James
Published: February 2012

This lecture gives an overview of religious activism and political utopias. It begins by detailing the emergence of a political symbol, pan-Islam. The second section focuses on how Muslim politics today is partly pre-occupied with contestation over this symbol. Pan-Islam emerged as an idea and a symbol that is conditioned by modern contexts. It is also seen to be shamelessly used and manipulated, but is still able to exercise a pull on the modern Muslim imagination.
The Justice of Venice
Authors: Shaw James E.
Published: February 2012

The Giustizia, or ‘Justice’, of Venice was one of the oldest magistracies of the city. Founded in 1173, it played a central role in the administration of the urban economy throughout the medieval and early-modern periods. On the other hand, the three Provveditori sopra la Giustizia Vecchia were elected by the Senate from its own number for a term of 12 months The senators who served as Provveditori generally did so as a preliminary step in an ambitious political career that might take them to the highest positions of the state, such as the Council of Ten. The hierarchical relationship between the two magistracies was therefore underlined by a social division between the types of nobles who served in them. The discussion considers the Provveditori di Comun, the reform of 1565, the Cinque Savi sopra le Mariegole, and discretion and mitigation.
Public Office and Private Property
Authors: Shaw James E.
Published: February 2012

Removal of the judges' right to discretion, to exercise their arbitrium, meant that they were less likely to convict criminals, instead choosing to let trials lapse altogether. This chapter discusses such findings in terms of the lesser court staff and the concrete practice of justice at the court. It tries to demonstrate the existence of a gulf between the rhetoric and practice of justice, between the high concerns of the political elite, and the actual implementation of power at the bottom level. The early modern state was an agglomeration of public and private interests, and its freedom of action was correspondingly limited. While the government struggled to impose central control over the courts, at the same time it allowed key elements of its institutional structure to fall into private hands. Corruption was a structural problem that would not be eliminated by rare and toothless government investigations.
Small Claims
Authors: Shaw James E.
Published: February 2012

While criminal justice emphasizes the role of law as an instrument of control, the study of civil justice presents an alternative view of the law as a resource. The criminal branch of the Giustizia Vecchia enforced market rules in partnership with the guilds, but parallel to this was a civil branch that considered private disputes. This chapter examines how far this civil justice was accessible to ordinary people. In particular, it asks whether the Giustizia Vecchia can be defined as a court of equity or as a court of law, and analyses the practical consequences of this for ordinary people. The vast majority of lawsuits fall into the category of small claims, defined in Venice as those worth up to 50 ducats. It was to keep legal costs down as far as possible, even if this meant accepting lower standards of justice.
Slavonic Sources
Authors: Franklin Simon
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses Slavonic sources, which appear to have been unevenly produced during the 1025–1204 period. A study of the ‘Greek’ Byzantine sources in Slavonic is first presented; these are found to be prosopographically straightforward and are found only with a Slavonic translation. Slavonic sources that are explicitly about Byzantium and the Crusaders, and Slavonic sources with incidental information on Byzantium and Crusaders, are covered in the last two sections of the chapter.
Georgian Sources
Authors: Rapp Stephen H. Jr.
Published: February 2012

This chapter discusses Georgian sources, beginning with a section on contemporary narrative historical sources. Comments on their utility for prosopographical data are provided and described, followed by a synopsis of other relevant contemporary Georgian-language sources. The chapter ends with a discussion of the current state of historical scholarship in Georgian and comments on the scholarly researches that would be of primary interest to prosopographers.
The Communists and the Serb Rebellion, c. April–September 1941
Authors: Hoare Marko Attila
Published: February 2012

The Partisan movement in Bosnia-Hercegovina was the product both of long-term socio-economic developments at home and of the short-term ‘accident’ of foreign invasion and occupation; it involved the merger of a traditional Serb-peasant uprising and a modern urban-revolutionary movement; and it represented both a characteristic chapter and a turning-point in modern Bosnian history. The Axis powers of Germany and Italy, by destroying the Yugoslav kingdom, changed the course of Bosnian history. Their installation in power of the Ustasha regime, and the latter's genocide of the Serb population of Croatia and Bosnia-Hercegovina, unleashed a resistance movement that would take shape as the Partisans. Yet the Partisans were not simply an armed response to the new order, but a revolutionary movement of a specifically Bosnian kind.
The Great Serb Reaction, c. August–December 1941
Authors: Hoare Marko Attila
Published: February 2012

The KPJ's careful organization and preparation made it the most important leader of the Serb rebellion in Bosnia-Hercegovina and Croatia in the summer of 1941. It was able to assume this position as a result of the social links that bound its members to the Serb peasants who comprised the overwhelming majority of the rebels. No other political group had prepared for participation in a guerrilla uprising and the KPJ therefore enjoyed a head start over all rivals in its quest for leadership over the latter. There was, however, a latent opposition among wide sections of the conservative, patriarchal, religious, and nationally homogenous Serb peasantry to the KPJ and the values it represented: urban civilization, cosmopolitanism, internationalism, republicanism, secularism, and equality of the sexes. The Chetnik movement in Bosnia-Hercegovina arose as a Serb-nationalist, conservative, anti-Croat, anti-Muslim, anti-Semitic, and anti-urban resistance to the KPJ's leadership of the uprising-in short, a ‘Great Serb’ reaction to the ‘multinational Bosnian’ resistance proclaimed by the Communist leaders. The first months of the Partisan movement saw the Communists attempting to reconcile the military necessity of an alliance with the Chetniks with the political necessity of opposing the divisive and destructive chauvinism that they stood for. As the impossibility of squaring this circle became increasingly apparent, the Partisans were gradually, reluctantly but inexorably pushed into war with the Chetniks.
The ‘Left Errors’ and the Partisan Crisis, c. February–June 1942
Authors: Hoare Marko Attila
Published: February 2012

The policy pursued by the KPJ and Partisan leadership in the period of the Foca Republic marked a step away from a Serb-oriented resistance strategy, towards one that was genuinely multinational. Nevertheless, the shift in strategy could not, in the short term, defuse the crisis that was enveloping the Partisan movement as a result of the conflict with the Chetniks. The character of the Partisan base — overwhelmingly Serb and peasant and prone to xenophobia towards non-Serbs and non-peasants — made it a fertile ground for the spread of Chetnik propaganda emphasizing the allegedly alien and ‘anti-Serb’ character of the Communists. Chetnik agitation and propaganda consequently undermined the Partisan movement from within. Meanwhile, the Communists responded to the crisis with various, contradictory measures that accelerated the Partisan decline. These ranged from continuing efforts at accommodating the chauvinistic sentiments of the Partisan rank-and-file; to ill-judged actions against individual Partisans guilty of pro-Chetnik agitation, which often served to inflame the feelings of other Partisans against the Communists; to left-extremist excesses and the mass killing of so-called ‘fifth columnists’ and ‘kulaks’, as well as of ordinary civilians of all nationalities; possibly even to collaboration with the NDH's armed forces against the Chetniks. The combination of Chetnik agitation and propaganda, Communist confusion and errors, and Axis and Ustasha military assaults, resulted in the virtual collapse of the Partisan movement in eastern Bosnia-Hercegovina.
The Partisans in Western Bosnia, c. July 1941–October 1942
Authors: Hoare Marko Attila
Published: February 2012

The Partisan movement in Bosnia-Hercegovina varied in character according to region. In western Bosnia, the region known as ‘Bosanska Krajina’, the Partisans operated autonomously in relation to the Bosnian Partisan command in East-Bosnia. The Partisan movement in Bosanska Krajina went through the same phases as the Partisan movement in the eastern parts of Bosnia-Hercegovina of initial co-operation with Chetnik elements, followed by the breakdown of co-operation, followed by outright war. Yet the very different geographical circumstances of Bosanska Krajina, combined with its stronger and more resilient Communist organization, meant that the Partisan movement there survived and flourished while its counterpart to the east decayed and collapsed. Not only were the Bosanska Krajina Partisans more successful in their confrontation with the Chetniks, but they were more successful in implementing the new Communist policy of building a genuinely multinational guerrilla army that encompassed Croats and Muslims as well as Serbs. Consequently, Bosanska Krajina became not just the heartland of the Bosnian Partisan movement, but the centre of activities of the Yugoslav Partisans as a whole.
Bosnia-Hercegovina Defeats Great Serbia, c. June 1942–October 1943
Authors: Hoare Marko Attila
Published: February 2012

Bosnia-Hercegovina was by mid-1942 effectively a patchwork of small fiefdoms. The Ustasha-held towns were islands in a hostile sea. Rebel Bosnia-Hercegovina was a world partitioned, militarily and geographically, between two antithetical movements: the Chetniks and the Partisans. Rural localities were held by Partisans, Chetniks or Muslim militias whose spheres of influence ebbed and flowed. In eastern Bosnia-Hercegovina, the Chetniks were triumphant, their Great Serb ‘state’ appearing to be born, based on their nationally and religiously exclusive, patriarchal and traditionalist rural values. In western Bosnia-Hercegovina, however, the cosmopolitan, internationalist, and modernist Communists, children of the towns, ruled a parallel ‘state’, the mass of whose peasant foot-soldiers were no different from those of its Chetnik counterpart, but whose governing ethos made it the polar opposite of the latter. As each movement consolidated its rule in its ‘own’ part of Bosnia-Hercegovina, the stage was set for a showdown between them that, at one level, represented the clash between modernist and traditionalist political values, and at another between the Bosnian and the Great Serb ideals.
The Debates about Universal History and National History, c. 1800: A Problem-oriented Historical Attempt*
Authors: Bödeker Hans Erich
Published: February 2012

Friedrich Rühs outlined the problems in the complicated relationship between national history and universal history around 1800. The change in theory from universal to national history, from the totality to the individual, was not only the result of methodological or intra-disciplinary consistency, but reflected nationalisation. The background was provided by the particular historical experiences of the time around the turn of the century: the French Revolution and, even more, changes in the German states and the impact of Napoleon Bonaparte's rule. The debates about the relationship between universal history and national history began during the heyday of Enlightenment history-writing. The switch from, in simplified terms, ‘Enlightenment history’ to ‘historicism’, it seems, also took place in these debates, which were, for a time, its primary setting. The authors involved were historians, philologists, philosophers, theologians and men of letters; the names ranged from Johann Christoph Gatterer, August Ludwig von Schlözer, and Johann Gottfried Herder to Immanuel Kant, Wilhelm von Humboldt, Leopold von Ranke and Johann Gustav Droysen.