bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Physiological Responses to Near-Vacuum
Authors: Bancroft R. W.
Published: August 2009

Unanesthetized dogs and trained subhuman primates, including chimpanzees, were decompressed in about 1 sec from 180 to less than 2 mm Hg. Exposure times at the low pressure ranged from 5 to 180 sec for the dogs and up to 150 sec for the chimpanzees. The animals usually became unconscious in about 9 to 12 sec after decompression. The effects of anoxia, water vapor, and other evolved gases were apparent, resulting in generalized muscle spasticity, a few gasps, transitory convulsive seizures, apnea, and gross swelling of the body. All dogs exposed for less than 120 sec survived despite evidence of transient lung damage. Respiration recommenced spontaneously either during or after recompression provided there was sufficient cardiovascular recovery to restore blood pressure, flow, and brain oxygenation. The longer the exposure time, the longer the recovery period, which ranged from a few minutes to a few hours, except for one dog, which showed a severe post-decompression paralysis with gradual recovery over a period of several weeks. In dogs, exposures of 120 to 180 sec resulted in about 15 to 18 per cent fatalities, respectively. Denitrogenation resulted in a significantly higher survival rate. Evidence of severe pathologic damage, except for the lungs and one case of paralysis, was essentially absent upon autopsy. Chimpanzees exposed for as long as 150 sec recovered with no apparent nervous system damage.
Instrumentation and Data Acquisition for Pressure-Suited Test Subjects in Space Environment Simulation Testing
Authors: Wortz E. C.
Published: August 2009

Instrumentation is described for making the following measurements on a pressure-suited subject: partial pressures of inspired gases (oxygen, carbon dioxide), electrocardiogram, respiration rate and depth, blood pressure, body core temperature, metabolic rate, and skin temperature. Acceptable limits for some of these are given.
Manned Operations in the NASA MSC Low-Pressure Chambers
Authors: Chappee J. H. , Hessberg R. R. , Hawkins W. R.
Published: August 2009

The low-pressure chambers discussed include those of both the Crew Systems Division and the Structures and Mechanics Division of the NASA Manned Spacecraft Center at Houston, Tex. A brief description of the facilities and their status and of anticipated tests is presented.
Man-Rating the Douglas 39-Foot-Diameter Space Simulator
Authors: Morrow J. T.
Published: August 2009

The Douglas space simulator is a 39-foot-diameter sphere with a pumping speed adequate for manned operation while maintaining a simulated space vacuum. Man-rating of the simulator will permit personnel safely to occupy the chamber and to enter or leave it quickly. The simulator will be modified to provide a two-stage repressurization system, additional penetrations for life-support systems, and a two-compartment air lock. The primary and secondary air locks will be used to enter the chamber without breaking vacuum and as a backup chamber for observer and rescue personnel. The primary lock may also be used as an independent test chamber. A life-support system will be provided to support personnel inside the chamber and locks. Suitable biomedical monitoring of chamber occupants will be provided.
Rapid Repressurization of Space Simulation Chambers
Authors: Jones J. H. , Berman R. J. , Weichbrodt B.
Published: August 2009

Trouble-free, rapid repressurization of space simulation chambers is possible using a commercially available muffler. Expected adverse dynamic and acoustic phenomena were eliminated during chamber tests. Heat transfer during the repressurization period was by forced convection; after the repressurization it was primarily by free convection. Fogging occurred during ambient air repressurization when the cryowall was cold. An open-cycle fan heater should eliminate this fog annoyance.
Stress Corrosion of High-Strength Steel Alloys—Environmental Factors
Authors: Gallaccio A. , Pelensky M. A.
Published: August 2009

Several years ago it became evident to members of ASTM Committee B-3, Subcommittee X (now Committee G-1, Subcommittee VI) on Stress Corrosion that a review of the reported information and, where available, work in progress on stress corrosion testing was needed. This was considered essential as a precursor to the proposed development of standards and criteria for determining the stress corrosion susceptibility and behavior of various alloys. The subcommittee established three task groups to accomplish a review of the subject. The task group assignments were as follows: TG-1, sample selection and method of stress; TG-2, environments under which stress corrosion occurs and duration of tests; and TG-3, reporting of stress corrosion results and interpretation of results. This report is part of the TG-2 assignment. It concerns a review of reported stress corrosion investigations relating to the effects of various environments on specific high-strength steels.
A Quantitative Stress Corrosion Test for Al-Zn-Mg Alloy Plate
Authors: Rosenthal H. , Pritchard H. R.
Published: August 2009

The stress corrosion susceptibility of Al-4.25Zn–2.9Mg plate was determined in the short-transverse direction. C-ring type specimens were exposed to alternate immersion in a NaCl solution. It was shown that laboratory temperature and humidity must be controlled to obtain reproducible results. Time-to-failure results for a given lot of material have a normal distribution when failure times are converted to logarithms. Tests were also made in a marine environment and in an industrial environment. These outdoor results for various lots follow the same ranking for susceptibility as determined by the alternate-immersion tests.
Stress Corrosion Test Environments and Test Durations
Authors: Romans H. B.
Published: August 2009

The most frequent environments used for stress corrosion testing of aluminum and titanium are presented. The general effects of the various environmental factors which may affect the tests are described. These include temperature, humidity, pH, etc. The data on a definite test period are presented in a quite limited form due to the scarcity of data in published papers on this subject. The results of a questionnaire which was submitted to all the members of Committee G-1 concerning their testing methods for stress corrosion testing are presented.
Environmental Factors Affecting the Stress Corrosion Cracking Behavior of an Aluminum-Zinc-Magnesium Alloy
Authors: Romans H. B. , Craig H. L.
Published: August 2009

The stress corrosion cracking phenomenon in an aluminumzinc-magnesium alloy is affected by the environmental factors in a different fashion than the way these factors affect other corrosion processes. The presence of traces of moisture is sufficient for stress corrosion cracking to proceed; the absence of moisture prevents cracking. The time required to initiate stress corrosion cracking is affected mostly by the temperature of the environment. Wide variations in sodium chloride concentration have no effect on the time-to-failure. Changes in solution pH and contamination with dissolved copper alter the time required to produce failure, so that stress corrosion cracking is not a continuous function of either variable. Evidence is presented which shows that the manner of stressing a specimen and specimen configuration both affect failure time. These anomalies may be used to understand the lack of reproducibility of stress corrosion testing and the difficulties encountered in correlation studies, either among different tests or the same test carried out by different laboratories.
The Mechanism of Temper Brittleness
Authors: Capus J. M.
Published: August 2009

Recent experimental work with steels of carefully controlled purity has allowed the phenomenon of temper brittleness to be defined more closely. It is now seen as a reversible embrittlement to which alloy steels of commercial purity are subject if exposed for prolonged periods in the temperature range 400 to 600 C. It does not occur in alloy steels synthesized from high-purity elements; neither does it occur in carbon steels even of commercial purity. A detailed consideration of the equilibrium segregation theory of grain-boundary embrittlement, as well as some associated mechanisms advanced in recent years, has shown them all to be inadequate as explanations of the peculiar conditions under which temper-brittleness can arise. A modified theory of “double segregation” is proposed to explain the influence of major alloying elements on the incidence of embrittlement by impurity elements. In this theory, grain-boundary enrichment with alloying elements such as manganese, chromium, and molybdenum during austenitizing can lead to enhanced segregation of the embrittlement elements such as phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, or tin by chemical interaction. Only the latter elements cause the shifts in transition temperature and the changeover from cleavage to intergranular brittle fracture which are characteristic of temper brittleness. They do this by lowering the intergranular fracture energy γ1. On the basis of the theory the specific nature of the temper-brittleness phenomenon, as well as the relative influences of individual major alloying elements, can be explained.
Temper Brittleness—An Interpretive Review
Authors: McMahon C. J.
Published: August 2009

The history of the problem of temper brittleness is surveyed; the reviews of Hollomon, Woodfine, and Low are reexamined in the light of recent developments, and the work carried out since 1959 is reviewed. Included in the latter is a model which has been proposed to explain the phenomenon. The problem of “500 F embrittlement” and its connection with temper brittleness are discussed, and a rudimentary model is proposed. Suggested directions for future research are indicated.
Mechanical Properties and Fracture Surface Topography of a Thermally Embrittled Steel
Authors: Carr F. L. , Nunes J. , Larson F. R.
Published: August 2009

Tensile flow and fracture properties of both medium and coarse grain 3140 steel in both the embrittled and unembrittled condition are presented and discussed. The fracture stress ratios of embrittled to unembrittled specimens indicate the relative decrease in toughness due to this embrittlement over the range of temperature studied. Quantitative fracture surface topography resulted in fracture transition curves for the three types of specimens utilized. Transition temperatures based on several criteria indicated differences due to grain size and temper brittleness. The well-known difference in fracture mode behavior at low-testing temperature between embrittled and unembrittled specimens was found to be due to the peculiar fracture behavior of the unembrittled material. Fracto-graphic examination revealed that the intergranular fracture of the coarse grain material had varying degrees of deformation indicating significant differences in both ductility and energy required for separation.
Preface and Introduction
Authors: Shobert Erle I.
Published: August 2009

In 1952, the Bibliography and Abstracts on Electrical Contacts was republished. The original printing of January, 1944, and all of the supplements that had been issued since then were included, many duplications were eliminated, and errors corrected. This new supplement now becomes the first with respect to the 1952 edition, and it includes all new references collected up to January 1, 1954. This is the largest supplement in number of references for two reasons. First, it contains the items collected over a two-year period, and second, the number of papers published each year has increased, a fact that indicates a growing interest in the research, development, and engineering problems in this field. It is encouraging to note an increase in basic research on some of the fundamental problems, as well as a considerable increase in the number of publications concerning heavy current interruption and control equipment. We are indebted to Masao Fujimoto for a list of references to Japanese publications. We have endeavored to secure more information concerning the papers and the sources, but what we have given is the best that is now available through our connection with the Carnegie Library in Pittsburgh, Pa. When more information is available, it will be included in subsequent supplements.
Introduction
Authors: Shobert Erle I.
Published: August 2009

The activity in the fields of engineering and science which concern electrical contacts is continuing at a high rate. This bibliography is somewhat larger than that of last year. It is important to note that there is more work in the fields of semiconducting devices and low voltage, low current, switching applications. On the other hand, the continued high rate of activity in the large circuit field points to the importance and growth of this field. The Subject Index lists the same headings as were given in the 1952, 1954 and 1955 editions. Part of the Introduction of these editions is repeated here for reference.
Introduction
Authors: Shobert Erle I.
Published: August 2009

The number of papers reported in the bibliography is approximately 10 per cent below that of last year. In previous years, the bibliography had been growing at the rate of approximately 10 per cent per year so this decrease would indicate that the engineering and research activity in this field is leveling off. The list of 182 abstracts in this supplement, however, still represents a considerable amount of effort. There is certainly no sign that all of the problems have been solved and this general level of activity is expected to continue. There are a few additional errata, which have been called to our attention, and which are listed in the following pages. The Subject Index lists the same headings as were given in the 1957 edition. Part of the Introduction of this edition is repeated here for reference.
Introduction
Authors: Shobert Erle I.
Published: August 2009

We continue to list the titles and authors of papers given at the Symposium on Electromagnetic Relays, held at Oklahoma State University under the direction of Professor C. F. Cameron, in association with the National Association of Relay Manufacturers. We also continue to list the papers and authors given at the Engineering Seminar on Electrical Contacts, conducted at the Pennsylvania State University by Professor R. E. Armington. Of particular interest this year is the new book by Dr. Albert Keil, titled “Materials For Electrical Contacts.” See Abstract No. 3124.
ASTM Committee F-27 on Snow Skiing
Authors: Bahniuk Eugene , Hulse William F.
Published: August 2009

In 1972, the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) issued a call for a meeting of all persons interested in writing consensus standards for skiing. In response to this call, approximately 60 people met in Cleveland, Ohio, in April 1972. Because of this interest, a subcommittee was formed to write such standards. This subcommittee was assigned to ASTM Committee F-8 on Sports Equipment and Facilities and was designated ASTM Subcommittee F08.14 on Snow Skiing. Recently, the governing bodies of ASTM have approved the elevation of the skiing subcommittee to full committee status. The new committee is designated ASTM Committee F-27 on Snow Skiing. Its elevation to committee status is a recognition of the contributions of the skiing subcommittee and provides a means for increasing the efficiency of standards writing for snow skiing. ASTM Committee F-27 is composed of persons representing all segments of the skiing community. Consumers, manufacturers, retailers, ski areas, academia, the ski press, medical doctors, consultants, and various skiing organizations are represented in this committee. Following ASTM procedures, these members work to write standards that are of service to the entire skiing community. Committee F-27 is organized into administrative subcommittees and technical subcommittees. The administrative subcommittees are the executive subcommittee, which determines policy; the ISO subcommittee, which is the ASTM liaison with the International Organization for Standardization (ISO); and the education subcommittee, which disseminates information. The technical subcommittees write standards for bindings, skis, poles, goggles, and ski boots. In addition, standard requirements for the setting, installation, and inspection of bindings are written by the technical subcommittees.
Activities of the TÜV Bayern Regarding Skiing Safety
Authors: Wittmann Gerd , Hauser Wolfhart
Published: August 2009

The technical inspectorate Technischer Überwachungs-Verein (TÜV) Bayern e.V., generally referred to as TÜV Bayern, is an independent body of experts and specialists. A survey of the technical departments of this organization is given. The TÜV Bayern is also the official test institute of the Internationaler Arbeitskreis Sicherheit beim Skilauf e. V. (IAS). In the department for testing of materials, the safety of ski equipment has been investigated for 15 years. From the beginning this department, together with the IAS, has developed standards and established biomechanical values for skiing equipment. Since 1969, equipment that has passed those tests has been permitted to bear the IAS insignia. A survey of the Deutsches Institut für Normung (DIN) (German Institute for Standards) is given and the cooperation between the DIN and TÜV is explained. The TÜV Bayern tests all kinds of products according to DIN safety specifications, and products that have passed those tests are allowed to bear the TÜV/geprüfte Sicherheit (proved safety) insignia. The difference between the IAS/GS insignia and the TÜV/GS insignia for skiing equipment is discussed.
Effects of Standards on Ski Bindings and Safety
Authors: Ettlinger Carl F.
Published: August 2009

The standards development process has had two important positive effects on the development of safer bindings—the standards themselves and the deliberations that have taken place in their development. Several standards-writing groups have been involved in this process, and, at present, a variety of standards are already in place, both in the United States and abroad, which influence the quality of new equipment. Since safety is not determined by the bindings alone, safety standards must include consideration of the necessary qualities of the entire release system (boot, binding, and ski). The organization, membership, and accomplishments of all groups involved in the standards development process in skiing are outlined in this report. Changes in the release system over the last 15 years and the process that influenced those changes are documented. Current projects, both national and international, are listed and possible future goals are discussed.
Frontal Diameter of the Tibia Head: A Comparison of Results from Computed Tomography and Anthropometric Measurements
Authors: Menke Wolfgang , Bodem Friedrich , Schild Hans
Published: August 2009

The individual frontal diameter of the tibia head is to be used to determine the individual release forces for release bindings, according to the instructions of the Internationaler Arbeitskreis Sicherheit beim Skilauf (IAS); these instructions are based on findings that claim there is a good correlation between the frontal diameter of the tibia head and the point of maximum load for the individual tibia. The reason for the investigation presented in this paper was to find the best method for predicting the real tibia head diameter. On 49 nonselected persons the frontal diameter of the tibia head of both legs was measured by computed tomography. The results were compared with corresponding anthropometric measurements made using a slide caliper rule (tibiameter). The measurements of the tibia head were performed with the knee both flexed and extended and with and without compression of the soft tissue proximal to the tibia head. Comparison of all the results, including the heights and weights of the persons studied, showed that the arithmetic mean of the real CT-determined diameters, when grouped by sex, is in most cases a better approximation of the real individual diameter of the tibia head than the result of individual measurements using the slide caliper rule, with or without compression of the soft tissue.
Torsion of the Lower Extremity and Surface Electromyogram Measurements
Authors: Louie James K. , Kuo Chen Y. , Gutierrez Maria D. , Mote C. D.
Published: August 2009

The relationship between mean rectified electromyogram signals (MREMG) from lower extremity medial and lateral rotator muscle groups and the torsional moment about the longitudinal axis of the lower leg was investigated in the laboratory and in snow skiing experiments. The MREMG was measured by six surface probes positioned over the gluteus maximus, gluteus medius, semitendinosus, biceps femoris, tibialis posterior, and peroneus longus muscles. In the laboratory, torsion was self-induced by each subject. During snow skiing, torsion of the lower extremity resulted from the normal skiing process. Analyses of the laboratory tests data showed excellent correlation between torsion at the foot and MREMG from some rotator muscle groups. Linear regressions of the MREMG from the gluteus medius and peroneus longus with the measured torsion predicted the torsion with correlation coefficients as high as 0.98 and standard deviations as small as 3.3 N ∙ m. A similar correspondence between MREMG from the rotator muscles and the measured torsion at the foot during normal skiing does not exist. In the field measurements, large MREMG were recorded simultaneously from the medial and lateral rotator muscle groups during falling, binding release, and other events associated with large external force. Posture and body position control during skiing dominate the observed MREMG, thus masking contributions to MREMG from lower extremity torsion.
Control of Torsion and Bending of the Lower Extremity During Skiing
Authors: Kuo Chen Y. , Louie James K. , Mote C. D.
Published: August 2009

Field measurements during skiing experiments simultaneously recorded the complete excitation of the toe and heel of one foot, the absolute spatial orientation of the pelvis and the foot, muscle activity at the hip, knee, and ankle, and the complete rotation of the femur in relation to the tibia across the knee in three test subjects. Data were transmitted from test subjects during the skiing experiments by a 100 kbits/s PCM-FM system and recorded in digital form. Analyses of field data show that the magnitude of the loading applied to the lower extremity during normal skiing often exceeds the expected, quasi-static, ultimate strength of the tibia. Anterior-posterior bending of 580 N ∙ m has been recorded during skiing, without binding release (release setting <300 N∙m) or injury to the test subject. The standard heel binding design which controls the heel hold-down force cannot effectively control the bending moment in the lower extremity during skiing. The vertical force at the toe was found to provide a good measure of bending in the tibia. Longitudinal rotation across the knee was in phase with, though not proportional to, the applied torsion at the foot by the ski. These results indicate the increased complexity of the injury and protection problems.
Pressure-Induced Pain in the Foot and Leg
Authors: Medoff Howard , Rosen James , Pope Malcolm , Johnson Robert J.
Published: August 2009

Pressure-induced pain is an important parameter in skiing safety. Pain is a complex phenomenon that includes not only the sensations evoked by tissue-damaging stimuli, but also the subject's response to those stimuli. Alpine skiers are willing to undergo “pain and discomfort” from their ski boots in order to improve their skiing performance. In this study, pressure-induced pain was applied to various areas of the foot and leg: the lateral and medial malleoli, the instep, the heads of the first and fifth metatarsals, the tibia, and the heel. The first six areas are regions of bony prominences, while the heel is an area that can undergo soft tissue damage from skiing in tight-fitting boots. Reliable and objective verbal descriptor pain scales have been developed that separate pain into two dimensions: the sensory and the affective. The sensory scale relates to the sensory discriminative aspects of pain, while the affective scale relates to the motivational and emotional aspects of pain. The pain-inducing pressure was applied with a hand-held plunger, in two testing sessions, one week apart. In one session the sensory scale was used, which contains such terms as weak and intense, and in the other session the affective scale was used, which uses such terms as unpleasant and excruciating. In each case, the subject determined the maximum value of force to be applied by indicating to the tester that the pain sensations were either “intense” or “excruciating.” At that time the force was removed and, later, random percentages (including a repeat application) of this subject-determined maximum force were applied to the same locations on the foot and leg of the same subject. Analysis of the data show this method to be a reliable technique for applying pressure-induced pain. A total of 15 subjects were used for the sensory testing session and 13 of those 15 for the affective testing. There were significant differences between locations of the foot and leg, with the tibia being the most sensitive and the heel the least sensitive.
The Evolution of Knee Injuries in Ski Accidents
Authors: Figueras José M. , Llobet Miguel , Buló José M. , Morgenstern Rudolph , Merino José A.
Published: August 2009

This study evaluates the incidence of knee injuries in two series of ski accidents over the last two decades—2004 cases from 1965 through 1971 and 3270 cases from 1975 through 1981. In the latter (1970s) series, an increase in knee injuries (from 21.7% to 26.2%) and a high percentage of severe injuries were observed; 43% of injured skiers had not checked the adjustment of their safety bindings. Results of 24 arthroscopies showed that there were more associated injuries when the initial clinical diagnosis was that of medial collateral ligament rupture. Injuries that have occurred without the skier's actual falling might be related to overstressing of the knee structures in turns. On the basis of a theoretical model of the biomechanical stresses involved in knee injury, the assumption can be made that today's skiing equipment allows the stress to be transmitted to the knee joint.
On-Slope Testing of an Instrumented Alpine Ski Boot
Authors: Medoff Howard , Pierce Jay , Pope Malcolm , Johnson Robert J.
Published: August 2009

In recent years, alpine ski boots have increased in height and in lateral and medial stiffness. As a result of these changes, the forces experienced by the lower leg, and the resulting injury pattern, have changed. Fractures and sprains of the ankle and spiral fractures of the tibia have declined significantly. In order to understand more fully the nature of these forces, a normal ski boot was modified by the inclusion of twelve transducers. These transducers measured forces in various areas on the lower leg, as well as under the forward part of the foot and the heel. The knee angle and the ankle flexion angle in the sagittal plane were also recorded. The instrumentation required was completely portable and weighed approximately 6 kg. A test skier made a number of runs with the equipment in place. The results show that, as the skier drove his knee forward, the forces on the frontal area of the tibia increased. The forces on the heel and forward part of the foot also increased. In going through a turn, the heel thrust took place first, followed by an increase in force in the forward part of the foot. The slalom turns show a more inconsistent, or rapidly changing, pattern of force application than the giant slalom turns.
Comparison of the BfU and IAS Binding Adjustment Systems for Recreational Skiers
Authors: Ekeland Arne , Lund Øyvind
Published: August 2009

The binding lateral toe release torques recommended by the Schweizerische Beratungsstelle für Unfallverhütung (BfU) and the Internationaler Arbeitskreis Sicherheit beim Skilauf e. V. (IAS) have been compared for 362 recreational skiers, randomly selected from a Norwegian ski slope. The lateral toe release torques recommended by BfU were generally higher than those recommended by IAS, and for all skiers, the mean difference between the BfU and IAS recommended values was 7%. This difference was much higher for women, children, and beginners for whom values between 13 and 52% were recorded. In contrast, BfU recommended release torques 8% below those of IAS for male expert skiers. The observed differences in the recommended binding release torques may indicate that, for some skiers, BfU and IAS have different opinions regarding the strength of the leg. Further studies are thus required to determine the injury threshold of the human leg while skiing.
A Survey of Actively Controlled (Electronic) Snow Ski Bindings
Authors: Hull Maury L.
Published: August 2009

Actively controlled ski bindings contain a transducer, which converts physical variables into electrical signals. The transducer signals are then processed by an electronic controller. When binding release is warranted, the controller emits an electrical command to an electromechanical binding, which releases the boot from the ski. This paper surveys the various actively controlled binding designs that have emerged, Although loading between the boot and ski is the physical variable common to all bindings, these bindings differ in the manner in which transducer signals are processed. As a result, the bindings are categorized according to the following signal-processing techniques: (1) first order, (2) impulse calculating, (3) biofeedback, and (4) model reference. At least one binding in each category is discussed in detail. The discussion includes an examination of the transducer and release mechanism as well as a schematic of the controller. The discussion evaluates the advantages of actively controlled bindings over their mechanical counterparts. A conclusion from this discussion is that actively controlled bindings eliminate many problems typical of mechanical bindings. Because of their advantages, actively controlled bindings offer potential in reducing the frequency and severity of skiing injuries.
Field Testing of a Microcomputer-Controlled Snow Ski Binding
Authors: MacGregor Duncan , Hull Maury L.
Published: August 2009

The novel ski binding used in this study, which has been field tested, incorporates a microcomputer controller and an integral binding/dynamometer. The microcomputer controller, designed as a research tool for field testing release decision theories, embodies the Intel 8086 microprocessor. This instrumentation system not only undertakes real-time control but also records transducer data by means of a miniature digital cassette tape recorder. The integral binding/dynamometer both directly measures all of the six boot load components and offers electromechanical release. To enable the user to operate the computer conveniently, extensive operating software was developed. The operating software is discussed in relation to both the acquisition and storage of data from the six-load-component dynamometer and the control of the electromechanical snow ski binding. The field test procedure consisted of both controlling the binding function and recording the transducer data as a test subject skied over a measured ten-turn slalom course. Despite the fact that the release decision theory simply compared quasi-static pain thresholds with measured axial torque and fore/aft bending moments, the binding satisfied both the release and retention requirements demanded by the tests. The recorded loading data were returned to the laboratory and analyzed. The first analysis consisted of generating time series plots of individual loading components. A second analysis consisted of simulating various release decision theories on a laboratory computer. These theories are evaluated in terms of their ability to meet both the release and the retention requirements.
Injury and Race Completion Rates in Alpine Competitions
Authors: Ekeland Arne , Holm Arild
Published: August 2009

The injuries in alpine skiing competitions in Norway were registered in the winter season of 1981/82. Data from 251 out of 381 races were obtained, and 40 injuries in 36 skiers were recorded. Forty-five percent of the injuries were located in the lower extremity, and 20% of all injuries were fractures. The average injury rate was 1.4 injured skier per 1000 participating racers. About 75% of the racers were younger than 16 years old, and the injury rate among them (0.7 per 1000) was significantly below that of skiers between the ages of 16 and 29 (3.8). The injury rate was also related to the type of race, being about ten times higher in downhill (10.3) than in slalom (0.8) and giant slalom (0.7) races. About 86% of all the skiers stayed the course. The race completion percentage was highest in downhill races (98%), followed by giant slalom (91 %) and slalom (78%) races.
Overall Analysis of NSAA/ASTM Data on Skiing Injuries for 1978 Through 1981
Authors: Shealy Jasper E.
Published: August 2009

This paper contains an analysis of ski injuries over a three-year period from 13 ski areas across the United States. For a control group, a sample was taken from the uninjured skiing population during the middle year. The analysis compares the control group with the injured group. The rates of injury are computed, as well as the distributions of injury and accident-related data. Injury and accident causation factors, as well as demographic data, are presented. Specific injury modes relating to equipment variables (in particular, to pole grips and ski brakes) are examined. The results suggest that recent trends towards the adaptation of ski brakes are beneficial in reducing lacerations due to being hit by one's own ski. The results also suggest that molded pole grips are helpful in reducing the incidence of thumb injuries. The overall injury rate is consistent with the downward trend observed in ski injury rates over the past 30 years.
Attempts to Reduce the Incidence of Skiing Injuries in Sweden
Authors: Danielsson Katarina , Eriksson Ejnar , Jonsson Ernst , Lind Erik , Lundkvist Stig
Published: August 2009

The development of skiing safety work in Sweden is described starting from the 1930s. After the first conference on ski trauma and skiing safety, which took place in Riksgränsen, Sweden, in 1974, an international skiing safety organization was formed. A strong safety campaign was launched in newspapers, on television, and in other media. Different organizations joined the campaign and bad release bindings were banned. Bindings were tested at ski slopes all over Sweden. A cost-benefit analysis was carried out in 1983 to evaluate the economic outcome of the campaign. It showed that thanks to the campaign, apart from the humanitarian gains, the annual average sum saved by the community amounted to almost four million crowns, or a yield of five on each crown invested in the campaign. From the economic point of view, the campaign thus was quite worthwhile.
Death in Downhill Skiing
Authors: Shealy Jasper E.
Published: August 2009

This is a study of deaths related to downhill skiing. Deaths due to medical emergencies (for example, heart attacks), lift accidents, and avalanches have been excluded from this analysis. The death certificate information was obtained in abstract form from the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) and covers the period from January 1978 through March 1982. The results suggest that the fatally injured skier is predominantly a male in the mid-twenties who dies as a result of head injuries sustained from an impact with a tree, following a loss of control while skiing at a relatively high speed. This type of skier is in contrast to the typical skier, who is about equally likely to be male or female, with a median age in the low twenties, and in contrast to the typical injured skier, who is about equally likely to be male or female and is in the late teens. The study contrasts death in skiing with death in other athletic endeavors and shows that the profile of the fatally injured skier is very similar to that of the modal fatally injured automobile driver.
Head Injuries in Alpine Skiing
Authors: Lindsjö Ulf , Hellquist Einar , Engkvist Ove , Balkfors Bengt
Published: August 2009

Out of 2259 patients treated at Lindvallen and Granfjällsstöten in Sälen, Sweden, during three winter seasons, 258 sought medical advice for head injuries. Of these, 159 sustained their injuries during skiing and 99 in the lift tracks or lift queues. The most common injury mechanisms were falls, collisions, and blows from swinging T-bars in the lifts. About 30% of the patients injured by a fall or a collision showed signs of concussion, and the corresponding figure for patients injured on ski lifts was 7%. There was 1 death from collision with a tree at high speed. Measures recommended for reduction of the number of head injuries include the following: information on the importance of ski school training and on the traffic rules of skiing, supervision by ski patrols, barring of obviously incapable skiers, restriction of the number of skiers on the slopes, avoidance of piste crossings, and, if necessary, speed restriction in certain areas.
Shoulder Dislocations Resulting from Ski Injuries
Authors: Binet Marc-Hervé , Berrehail Mohamed , Montillet Bernard , Terrenoir Francois , Tissier Bruno
Published: August 2009

A retrospective study based on 1338 dislocations seen by eleven ski resort consulting rooms was conducted with a survey of the different types of occurrence related to this injury, as well as a statistical analysis concerning the distribution by sex, age, level of sports achievement, and other factors. The different lesions associated with bones, nerves, or joint capsules are discussed. Correlations were established between the occurrence of these complications and different factors such as the type of initial fall, the patient's age, the degree of pain, and the difficulty of reduction. Of these complications, 88% were reduced in the doctor's office at the resort by simple manipulation without the use of general anesthesia. The description of these techniques is given, as well as therapeutic guidelines. A comparison is made between the percentage of success in reduction, the doctor's experience, and the technique employed. The different types of immobilization—flexible retention, cast, and elastic—are described, and the value of each of these techniques is discussed in relation to the initial diagnosis, the patient's age, and the primitive or recurrent character of the dislocation. The duration of immobilization prescribed and adhered to, the physical therapy undertaken, and the eventual sequelae are compared. A new type of retention is presented. We explain how it is possible to undertake an immediate rehabilitation without compromising the consolidation of capsular dislocations. A statistical evaluation based on these dislocations analyzes the different factors of recurrence: the patient's age at the first dislocation, type of initial fall, type and duration of immobilization, rehabilitation, time elapsed between the initial accident and the reduction, technique of rehabilitation, study of associated lesions, recurrence after surgical intervention, and research on associated lesions. A questionnaire sent to these patients enabled us to evaluate the pain felt before, during, and after the reduction and, the eventual complications: limitation of range of motion, neurological sequelae, and pain or discomfort under stress. It was also found that there is no correlation between the occurrence of these sequelae and the patient's age at the first lesion or the delay before reduction. Half of these lesions have left a residual effect, according to the patients, the major complaint being a limitation of range of motion in the shoulder articulation. One third of the patients, however, presented no complications and complained of no residual effects after the initial accident. Dislocation of the shoulder is often wrongly considered to be a trivial lesion. We have tried to show its management in emergency cases. We enumerate some preventive measures, which should limit the number of these injuries, the frequency of which is at present increasing.
A Comparison of Downhill and Cross-Country Skiing Injuries
Authors: Shealy Jasper E.
Published: August 2009

This paper contains an analysis based on data generated by the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) for cross-country (XC) and downhill (DH) skiing injuries, obtained from the National Electronic Injury Surveillance System (NEISS). The data concentrate on the last four years (1978 through 1982). Analysis of the data suggests that the overall injury patterns for the two sports are remarkably similar. Given that the overall patterns are similar, especially with regard to apparent lower extremity torsion and bending movement-related injuries, the analysis suggests that XC equipment should be evaluated in the same way as DH equipment. An examination of the available XC equipment reveals disturbing trends in stiffer connections between the skier and ski. The use of nonreleasable heel attachments, metal edges on skis, and the spread of XC skiing into remote areas, where first aid and medical support systems are not generally available, suggests a need for reconsideration of XC equipment design.
Field Treatment of Hypothermia
Authors: Bowman Warren D.
Published: August 2009

Hypothermia is a major concern for winter sports enthusiasts and cold weather rescuers. In both alpine and Nordic skiing it can complicate injuries and be a hazard for lost persons; in Nordic skiing it may be a hazard for tourers and ski mountaineers unequipped for sudden weather changes. Skiers need a working knowledge of the principles of heat production and conservation, the use of clothing and natural materials for insulation, and the techniques of cold-weather survival. A mildly hypothermic subject (one with a rectal temperature of 32°C or above) can be rewarmed in the field using any available means. Special devices for rewarming are available for rescue groups. A victim of moderate to severe hypothermia (with a rectal temperature below 32°C) should be stabilized, kept from getting colder, and evacuated to definite medical care rather than rewarmed in the field, if possible. Ventricular fibrillation is a serious hazard and should be prevented by gentle handling.
Accidental Hypothermia and its Treatment in the Field
Authors: Crombie Nickel
Published: August 2009

The incidence of mild and moderate accidental hypothermia in the Australian snowfields was not recognized until attempts were made to measure temperatures in possible subjects. Australia is generally considered to be a temperate-subtropical area. However, our ski fields sometimes provide almost ideal conditions for the development of accidental hypothermia. This paper describes the development of methods used by the ski patrol in Australia to manage these patients, based on the concept that active rewarming must be begun as soon as possible in the field.
Stress-Corrosion Tests on Turbo-Supercharger Materials in the Products of Combustion of Leaded Gasoline
Authors: Wilkes G. B.
Published: August 2009

Stress-corrosion tests were made on 18 alloys. The corroding agents were the products of combustion of leaded aircraft gasoline. Tests were made under both constant temperature and cyclic temperature conditions. Under the conditions of these tests, the combustion products are somewhat corrosive if the temperature is cycled but not at constant temperature. The acceleration of strain due to temperature cycling alone has a greater detrimental effect on strength. From the results of these tests, certain speculations are possible concerning the process by which products of combustion of leaded gasoline cause corrosion.
Creep as a Surface Dependent Phenomenon
Authors: Pickus Milton R. , Parker Earl R.
Published: August 2009

Published researches relating to the effects of surface conditions on the plastic flow of metals are briefly reviewed. Experiments are described in which the effects of surface conditions on secondary creep rates for zinc and “A” nickel were investigated. Both single-crystal and polycrystalline zinc were studied. For the single-crystal zinc specimens a marked increase in the resistance to creep was found when the surface layer contained copper. No such effect was found for polycrystalline zinc. Copper in the surface layer affected the temperature dependence of steady-state creep for single-crystal but not for polycrystalline zinc. The resistance to high-temperature creep of “A” nickel was found to be much greater in air than it was in hydrogen. The presence of tungsten on the surface of “A” nickel, however, had no effect upon the creep rate of this material. The temperature dependence of the steady-state creep rate of “A” nickel is shown to be insensitive to conditions at the surface.
Preliminary Studies of the Effect of Oxidizing Sulfurous Atmospheres on the Rupture Strengths of Inconel “X” and Inconel
Authors: Talbot A. M. , Skinner E. N.
Published: August 2009

While purporting to yield practical information on the mechanical properties of heat-resistant alloys at elevated temperatures, the usual creep and stress-rupture testing procedures generally make no attempt to simulate the corrosive conditions to be expected in the actual service environment. For some time it has been realized that the high-temperature corrosion resistance to various specific media is an aspect which cannot be safely ignored in the application of this type of alloy to high-temperature service. Resistance to oxidation, sulfidation, carburization, or to attack by steam, leaded fuel combustion products, or nitrogenous atmospheres or even, in certain less common cases, to halogen-containing gases, all are factors which the design engineer should consider to be of importance comparable to the strength properties. The corrosive action of sulfurous compounds in the environment on the rupture strength has been of particular interest because of the prevalence of this element in many of the lower grades of fuels. For example, it is a well-known fact that heat-resistant compositions high in nickel are prone to a more or less severely embrittling type of corrosion when exposed to hot sulfur-containing gases. This has led to speculation that the practical usefulness of these materials would be questionable, especially in gas turbine applications which contemplate, for reasons of economy, the use of low-grade heavy oil or pulverized coal — both containing appreciable amounts of sulfur. Previous tests usually have considered either the stress-elongation or rupture relationships on the one hand, or the probable corrosion mechanism on the other, but relatively few attempts have been made to study these two important factors of stress and high-temperature corrosion simultaneously. In an effort to devise a practical approach to this problem, a limited number of stress-rupture tests have been made on Inconel, a high-nickel heat-resistant alloy, and on Inconel “X”, its age-hardenable counterpart, in oxidizing sulfurous atmospheres with and without added water vapor. The data obtained, while of limited scope, suggest certain interesting conclusions which may become the basis of a more intensive study.