bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Attitude
Authors: Rheu Minjin (MJ)
Published: September 2020

An attitude is one's general evaluation toward an attitude object, which is generated from the past experience of learning that influences our thinking and acting about the object. Attitudes have been the central topic of communication scholars since the beginning of the field of communication research, and exposure to media content has been one of the most critical factors in the formation of individuals' attitudes toward different social groups, political and health behaviors, and so on. This entry aims to provide a broad overview of central issues in attitude research. Although it would be beyond the scope of the entry to provide a comprehensive and thorough review of existing literature, it will introduce the most important and essential topics in attitudes research, including implicit and explicit attitudes, attitude strength, and theories of attitude change.
Cognitive Dissonance
Authors: Ewoldsen David R.
Published: September 2020

Cognitive dissonance theory is one of the classic theories of attitudes. The theory was originally proposed in 1957. Although limiting conditions to the theory have been identified, the basic tenets of the theory are still accepted. The theory posits that when people engage in behavior that is inconsistent with their beliefs, they will experience dissonance arousal. Dissonance arousal is an aversive state that operates like a drive in that people are motivated to decrease the arousal and decreasing the arousal is intrinsically gratifying. This entry will summarize the basic assumptions of the theory, discuss a rival theory, and discuss some of the implications of dissonance theory for media psychology.
Phantom Cell Phone Signals/Ringxiety
Authors: Frissen Thomas
Published: September 2020

Phantom cell phone signals are tactile, auditory, and/or visual experiences suggesting that a mobile device is receiving calls, text messages, or other push notifications when in fact it is not. These phantom sensations appear to be common among cell phone users, although prevalence rates vary between the different forms (phantom vibrations are the most common). Increasing efforts have been put in the understanding of what causes these phantom sensations and several psychological states and traits have been found to be associated. However, after almost a decade of phantom sensations research, it still remains a mystery whether these sensations are illusions (i.e., of habitual origin) or hallucinations (i.e., of cortical origin). Future studies are encouraged to conduct longitudinal research in which the different forms of phantom sensations are independently examined and not as a catch‐all container concept.
Attitudes Toward Advertisements and Brands
Authors: Eastin Matthew S. , Lee Jung Ah
Published: September 2020

Attitude towards advertisements has been considered a standard measure of advertisement effectiveness as it influences how likely a consumer is to consider a brand, commit to a brand, and purchase a brand's product or service. Theoretical models such as the elaboration likelihood model have been proposed to illuminate attitude formation, suggesting that attitude is an outcome of a rather intricate process involving both motivational and situational factors. As the presentation of advertisements is transforming with the evolving media landscape, researchers are exploring the processes and effects underlying attitude formation in today's interactive, multisensory environments. Also, given that the nature of advertising and brand practices have changed dramatically since attitude to the advertisement and attitude to the brand were initially conceptualized, the role of attitude and validity of measurement practices warrant further discussion.
Protection Motivation Theory
Authors: Shillair Ruth
Published: September 2020

Protection motivation theory (PMT) is a widely‐used framework to understand responses to triggers that appraise individuals of a potential threat. These triggers include fear messages that encourage individuals to take protective measures or to refrain from activities that might harm themselves or others. This theory falls within the expectancy‐value theories that posit attitudes or beliefs will lead to subsequent behaviors. PMT posits that individuals evaluate potential response through a threat appraisal and coping appraisal process. The threat appraisal process includes assessing the severity of the threat and the likelihood (i.e., vulnerability) of the threat happening. The coping appraisal process includes consideration of the efficacy of the response, how difficult the response is to carry out (e.g., response cost), and the perceived self‐efficacy of enacting the coping response. If the threat appraisal is stronger than the coping appraisal then a maladaptive response follows. This can include denial, minimizing the threat, or ignoring it. If the coping response, which includes belief in response efficacy and perceived self‐efficacy, is stronger, protection motivation is achieved.
Extended Parallel Process Model
Authors: Popova Lucy
Published: September 2020

The extended parallel process model (EPPM) is a theory that explains when messages designed to scare people into healthy behavior succeed and under which circumstances they fail. The EPPM posits that when audiences' perceived threat and efficacy are high, they engage in protective behaviors and act along the message recommendations. When perceived threat is high, but efficacy is low, the fear they feel motivates them to engage in defensive response and reject the message. Recent research has contributed to developing the EPPM by demonstrating that the protective and defensive responses are not mutually exclusive, that defensive response can lead to protective behaviors, that it might not be the fear but the reduction in fear that motivates action, and that hope serves as the counterpart to fear.
Affective Responses to Pornography: Sexual Satisfaction
Authors: Wright Paul J.
Published: September 2020

This entry provides a review and synthesis of quantitative scientific research on the use of pornography and sexual satisfaction. Emphasis is placed on randomized pornography exposure experiments and observational methods correlating separate indices of pornography consumption and sexual satisfaction, rather than on studies of self‐perceived pornography effects, due to the possibility of rationalization, justification, biased optimism, and third‐person dynamics in the latter method. Conceptual rationales for why pornography may either increase or reduce sexual satisfaction are described first. Evidence for an overall effect from experimental studies, cross‐sectional surveys, and longitudinal panel designs is reviewed subsequently. This discussion is followed by an examination of whether the relationship between pornography use and sexual satisfaction may be reciprocal. Finally, potential moderating and mediating factors are considered.
Mental Representations
Authors: Krcmar Marina , Haberkorn Kristen
Published: September 2020

The complex concept of mental representations involves a rich history with many disciplines contributing to the dialogue. In fact, it was one of the first theoretical constructs in the field of cognitive science. Mental representations are, in short, objects and structures in the mind with semantic properties. More precisely, mental representations are information‐containing, physically‐realized structures in the mind that allow us to perceive, make sense of, process, understand, and recall all stimuli. In the area of media processing and media effects, mental representations have been researched through schema theory, scripts, stories, and the theory of mental models. Each of these theories argue that, most generally, media exposure influences our mental representations while, at the same time, existing mental representations influence how we process and make sense of media content. This entry reviews both the literature on mental representations themselves, as well as reviewing research that considers the interplay of mental representations and media exposure. Overall, findings suggest that schema are likely to work in somewhat of a feedback loop with existing schema affecting how we perceive, make sense of, and interpret information, but then that information, in some circumstances and with media content structured in a particular way, may influence schema. Research on media narratives, video games, and advertising is considered.
Attitude‐to‐Behavior Process Model
Authors: Arpan Laura M.
Published: September 2020

This entry reviews the attitude‐to‐behavior process (or automatic activation) model proposed by Russell Fazio in 1986, including the concepts of attitude and attitude accessibility. It also briefly discusses the subsequent MODE (motivation and opportunity as determinants of processing) model proposed by Fazio in 1990. Criticisms of the process model are discussed.
Exemplification Theory
Authors: Lachlan Kenneth A.
Published: September 2020

Exemplification theory has emerged in recent years as an increasingly popular explanatory mechanism for the encoding and retrieval of mediated information. The current article summarizes the key tenets of exemplification, including the role of heuristics in information processing and storage, the importance of arousal and base‐rate information, and the process of making subsequent judgments based on single observations. Recent media effects research using exemplification as a framework is discussed, including studies examining news content, risk perceptions, and the role of telepresence in exemplification processes.
Cognitive Response Theory
Authors: Shen Lijiang
Published: September 2020

This entry summarizes Greenwald's cognitive response theory including its assumption and main tenet that message receivers' cognitive response to a persuasive message produces persuasion, rather than the message per se. A definition of cognitive response is presented, measurement and analyses of cognitive responses are discussed, and the impact of cognitive response on persuasion is summarized.
Measuring Memory
Authors: Wise Kevin
Published: September 2020

This entry briefly introduces and defines the concept of memory. It summarizes a prominent model of memory, focusing on the subprocesses of encoding, storage, and retrieval. A brief description of these subprocesses follows, along with specific techniques for measuring each one in the media psychology laboratory. The entry concludes with some particular methodological issues for researchers to consider when measuring memory.
Intergroup Contact
Authors: Ramasubramanian Srividya , Costantini Rebecca
Published: September 2020

Intergroup contact is defined as interactions between members of different social groups. Contact is essentially a communicative process. Empirical evidence suggests that positive intergroup contact can lead to prejudice reduction, especially for members of the dominant group. Although intergroup contact is typically defined as face‐to‐face contact, recent definitions also include vicarious contact through mass media, interactive media, and extended contact by observing other ingroup members. Intergroup anxiety and other negative emotions can serve as barriers for contact, especially if the conflict and prejudice is deep‐rooted. However, positive emotions such as empathy and perspective‐taking alleviate these effects. Mediated contact has been especially effective for groups that have no or minimal direct contact opportunities. Such contact could happen through parasocial contact with a likable media persona or through mediated intergroup contact. Factors such as counterstereotypical exemplars and critical media literacy training can enhance positive contact effects.
Perceived Realism
Authors: Busselle Rick
Published: September 2020

This entry defines and describes the concept of perceived realism of media content and the various criteria readers, listeners, and viewers may use to judge the realism of a portrayal. Perceived realism is an audience member's evaluation of how accurately a narrative portrayal represents people and events as would be expected if they were to exist or occur in the actual world, or in some hypothetical world. The concept originated in the assumptions that media portrayals are either real or fictional depending on the portrayal's correspondence to the actual world. However, research has demonstrated that realism is determined largely by individuals' perceptions of the content rather than by the content itself, and that individuals may use criteria other than correspondence to the actual world as a basis for evaluating a portrayal's realism. In this entry, three types of realism judgments are described: absolute realism, relative realism, and narrative consistency.
Moral Disengagement
Authors: Raney Arthur A.
Published: September 2020

Moral disengagement is the process by which individuals can come to accept, permit, condone, or perform behaviors that they would otherwise judge to be immoral. Generally, we avoid violating our internal moral standards because doing so leads us to feel guilt and shame and to experience cognitive dissonance. However, at times, we violate our internal standards or approve of others who do so without the self‐condemnation that we normally experience. But to avoid self‐censure, we must come to consider the violating act as permissible. Moral disengagement is the process through which we do so. In order to recast an immoral act as acceptable, we suspend our moral control when considering the conduct itself, the agency of the bad actor, the consequences of the act, or the victim. Eight specific moral disengagement mechanisms explain how this occurs at each of those four points. Media psychologists examine issues related to moral disengagement in at least four areas: entertainment narratives, digital game play, news, and online communication.
Youth Social Media Use and Well‐Being
Authors: Toma Catalina L. , Chen Y. Anthony , Olson Chelsea , Fan Tingting , Brown B. Bradford
Published: September 2020

Adolescents tend to be enthusiastic users of social media, raising questions as to how time spent online affects their psychological well‐being. This entry reviews the literature on the links between adolescents' social media use and two categories of psychological well‐being: intrapersonal (self‐esteem, body image, self‐concept clarity) and interpersonal (social sharing, social capital, social support). Findings reveal that what adolescents do online matters, with some online activities having positive repercussions on well‐being, while others have negative repercussions. On the positive front, constructing profiles and receiving social feedback on social network sites boosted adolescents' self‐esteem and reflected their attempts to achieve self‐concept clarity, sharing positive news via social media boosted positive affect, active postings and passive consumption on social network sites enhanced social capital, and participation in online discussion groups provided social support. On the negative front, cyberbullying damaged adolescents' self‐esteem, attempts at achieving self‐concept clarity through online interaction were not always successful, and social comparisons with peers on social network sites reduced self‐esteem and increased body dissatisfaction. Implications for theorizing on how social media activities impact adolescent well‐being are discussed.
Effects of Media Use on School Readiness
Authors: Ribner Andrew D. , Gandhi Jill
Published: September 2020

In recent years, media use has become increasingly pervasive in early childhood. Now more than ever, young children have access to screens that can remove them from the here‐and‐now and transport them with near immediacy to another world. Ever‐increasing accessibility to electronic screen‐based media might mean children are spending more time engaging with screen‐based media than ever before, which can have important implications for child development. Several leading health organizations have recommended parents of young children limit children's screen time to less than 1–2 hours per day to optimize psychosocial, behavioral, and academic development; however, the average child across much of the Western world falls on the upper end of this recommendation. This entry reviews evidence that largely suggests negative associations between media use and child school readiness skills. It also highlights potential moderating roles of the content with which children engage and the context in which they engage. Recommendations for parents and educators are discussed.
Media Use and Imagination/Creativity in Childhood and Adolescence
Authors: Sibert Susan M. , Laverick DeAnna M.
Published: September 2020

This entry provides an introduction to effects of media use on creativity and imagination of children and adolescents. Time displacement hypotheses of media is a key foundational theory in this field. The effects of media on creativity and imagination are often examined through the consumption of three main media classifications: print, video, and interactive media. The latter includes interactive elements of both print and video media. Studies on video media's effect on children gained international attention in the 1970s when concerns were raised about the impact on children when viewing television violence. Examinations of how media impacts creativity and imagination began to emerge as findings from negative impact studies yielded some positive effects. The type of media, purpose, and amount of time children spend consuming media are determinant factors of impact on creativity and imagination.
Effects of Video Games on Child/Youth Cognitive Skills and Knowledge Gain
Authors: Brooks Patricia J. , Rose Maya C.
Published: September 2020

Children's enthusiasm for video games has fueled interest in identifying the impact of game play on cognitive skills and knowledge acquisition. Video games are highly engaging, encourage distributed practice of skills, calibrate challenges to match player's skills, and provide feedback. Research has demonstrated benefits of playing commercial video games for enhancing spatial skills, visual processing, and executive functions. Educational video games for learning aim to support learning of academic subjects in grades K to 12; such games appear to yield measurable gains in student learning as compared to traditional instruction. Games for learning are most effective when features are personalized to match players' needs and interests and game structures incorporate learning mechanics. Research on multimedia design of video games emphasizes the importance of mapping learning objectives onto game features to promote attention to relevant stimuli and reduce cognitive load. Recent applied research aiming to use video games as a platform for delivering treatments for conditions stemming from atypical visual processing and attention, including strabismus, amblyopia, and dyslexia, has been promising but requires replication. The extent to which video games promote development of cognitive skills and knowledge depends on many factors, including the age of the learner. Children under the age of 3 years show deficits in learning from screens as compared to learning via direct interaction with other humans. It is recommended that children under age 5 years play video games in social contexts, where co‐playing adults can scaffold their attention and understanding of media content.
Use of Media in Promoting STEM in Childhood and Adolescence
Authors: Ball Christopher
Published: September 2020

Various media have been leveraged to promote science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields in childhood and adolescence. Specifically, the media may be able to address issues related to children's and adolescents' STEM self‐efficacy and identity via role models. Research surrounding various media such as television/cinema, social media, and video games are reviewed. Harnessing the power of media to promote STEM is an interesting and exciting area of study, and it is one that will continue to require dedicated researchers and practitioners to keep up with the pace of its rapid evolution.
Effects of Media Use on Children's Language Skills
Authors: Cingel Drew P. , Yu Muheng , Reed Brittney
Published: September 2020

In this entry, research pertaining to child and adolescent media use as it relates to language is reviewed. Among children younger than age 2.5, research demonstrates that individuals struggle to learn novel language from screens, but this can be assuaged by making the interaction socially contingent. A large body of research shows that children older than age 2.5 can readily learn novel language from media. Among adolescents, texting has been both positively and negatively linked to language skills. Texting may promote engagement with language in a way that supports phonological skills; however, texting may also inhibit grammar skills, as texting language transfers into more formal settings where English grammar is required.
Comprehension
Authors: Anderegg Courtney
Published: September 2020

Comprehension involves the combination of new and existing information to create a coherent mental representation of knowledge. This mental representation is then stored in memory and used as a reference when new information is encountered. Closely connected to schemas, mental models, and situation models, comprehension contributes to how information can be received, understood, and stored for later use by an individual. The literature focuses on several models that attempt to explain how information presented in a message contributes to comprehension. The landscape model describes how the activation of concepts throughout a message aids in the process of understanding message content. The event‐indexing model examines how the concepts described in a message can be categorized into five dimensions—time, space, protagonist, causality, and intentionality—and used to update or create situation models of the presented information. Both of these models contribute to our understanding of the complex process of comprehending information and can be relied upon in creating effective media messages.
Media Logic and Media Psychology
Authors: Altheide David L.
Published: September 2020

Individual psychology is increasingly mediated by information technologies and communication formats that are personal, instantaneous, and visual. Media logic joins individuals to social institutions. In contemporary media culture, audiences operate with the perspectives and expectations guided by information technologies and communication formats that may vary with specific media, such as TV or digital and social media. Most are dedicated to entertainment: News reports and popular culture productions that promote fear‐as‐entertainment affect individual actors and promote the politics of fear that can have social and political consequences.
Prospect Theory: Framing
Authors: Lee Moon J. , Cho Jieun
Published: September 2020

This entry provides an introduction to Kahneman and Tversky's prospect theory and some of its research applications in the context of message framing, as well as critiques and future directions for research in the field of health communication. Prospect theory is a theory that explains the way in which individuals make a decision between two options that involve differently perceived probable outcomes. Thus, individuals' decisions to take or avoid certain risks depend on how messages are framed. Prospect theory provides a theoretical foundation to explain and predict individuals' economic choices based on their subjective evaluation of probable outcomes. This entry discusses how prospect theory has been adopted in the context of health communication/promotion, particularly in the health promotional message design.
Developmental Changes in Comprehension of Advertising
Authors: Sekarasih Laras
Published: September 2020

Children's recognition and understanding of advertising and its intent correspond to their cognitive and socioemotional development. Their still‐developing psychological capacity is reflected in children's limited advertising literacy which makes them more vulnerable to the effects of commercial messages. As children get older, their understanding about commercial messages becomes more sophisticated and more similar to adults. However, the emergence of embedded advertising, such as advergames, product placement, and sponsored vlogs, creates even greater challenge for today's young consumers in recognizing and resisting the influence of advertising. Existing research has showed mixed results regarding the effectiveness of parental mediation, advertising literacy education, and the presence of advertising disclosure in increasing children's advertising literacy, particularly in the context of child‐targeted nontraditional marketing campaigns.
Video Deficit in Children's Early Learning
Authors: Jing Mengguo , Kirkorian Heather L.
Published: September 2020

The video deficit is sometimes observed in young children during video‐mediated learning. It is related to several critical development processes, such as mental representation and social interaction. Research on the video deficit demonstrates that infants and young children typically learn more from real‐life demonstrations than from video‐mediated demonstrations. However, a growing body of research shows that, under some conditions, some toddlers can learn from screen media. Hypotheses for mechanisms that result in the video deficit are reviewed, and approaches for ameliorating the video deficit are discussed.
Autobiographical Memory
Authors: Lin Shu‐Fang
Published: September 2020

Autobiographical memory is our recollection of personal experiences that includes both episodic memory (past events) and semantic memory (facts and general knowledge). It allows us to learn from our past and make plans for future events and it is important for our well‐being. This entry introduces the key characteristics of two types of autobiographical memory; that is, memory that is deliberately recalled (voluntary autobiographical memory) and memory that comes to mind spontaneously and involuntarily, which does not require effort for retrieval (involuntary autobiographical memory). The implications of voluntary and involuntary autobiographical memory for research into media experiences are also discussed.
Self‐Monitoring
Authors: Kim Jihyun
Published: September 2020

Self‐monitoring refers to the degree to which an individual observes cues for social behavior and controls their expressive behavior based on the observed social cues. High self‐monitors notice social cues more readily and modify their behavior to conform to that of others. On the other hand, low self‐monitors are relatively less alert to social cues and tend to maintain consistent self‐presentation across different situations. Self‐monitoring has been closely and positively associated with materialism, fashion involvement, appearance management, favorable responses to promotional messages, mobile phone dependency, and misrepresentation of one's image via social media and online dating platforms, to name a few. In addition, self‐monitoring is negatively associated with age. In contemporary culture, where an individual consumer proactively shares their activities, opinions, and interests online, it is critical to further examine and understand the dynamic impacts of self‐monitoring in social media communication and consumption contexts.
Uses and Gratifications
Authors: Ruggiero Thomas E.
Published: September 2020

This entry provides an introduction to the methodological and theoretical approach, uses and gratifications, with some of its research applications, as well as critiques and future directions for research on these concepts. Uses and gratifications had been for decades used by social science scholars to investigate and identify gratifications or motivations associated with audiences' use of traditional media such as radio, television, and newspapers. Its continued use by contemporary social science researchers to investigate computer‐mediated communication (CMC) and social media justifies its enduring viability.
Media Entertainment Theory
Authors: Grizzard Matthew , Francemone C. Joseph
Published: September 2020

Despite having origins in ancient Greek philosophy, the scientific study of media entertainment did not occur in full earnest until the mid‐twentieth century. Media entertainment theories explain motivations for consuming media entertainment content; the factors underlying media selection; media processing; media evaluation, including enjoyment and appreciation of content; and the effects of media entertainment consumption on individuals. Key assumptions of these theories relate to the autotelic and intrinsically motivating elements of media entertainment, the sociological and psychological functions of media entertainment, and the strong association between media entertainment content and pleasure. Theories relevant for understanding why humans expose themselves to media entertainment and its effects on consumers include uses and gratifications, mood management theory, affective disposition theory, among others. Research on the psychological and sociological effects of media entertainment has focused mostly on antisocial effects, but more recent endeavors have begun to identify prosocial effects.
Automatic and Controlled Processes
Authors: Ewoldsen David R.
Published: September 2020

How people process information is of central importance to media psychologists. A basic distinction in the study of information processing involves automatic and controlled processes. Automatic processes are typically triggered by something in the environment and, once triggered, they operate outside the control of the individual and typically cannot be stopped. Controlled processes require the intentionality to start and maintain that process, the task demands cognitive resources, and the process can be stopped and resumed. Automatic and controlled processing plays an important role in the understanding of many different phenomena of interest to media psychologists including the processing of mediated messages, attitudes and persuasion, and media effects.
Socioemotional Selectivity Theory: Aging and Media Preferences
Authors: Hofer Matthias
Published: September 2020

Although older age is associated with cognitive and physical decline and a general decrease in social contacts, research shows that emotional functioning seems to remain stable or even improve with increasing age. Socioemotional selectivity theory (SST) can explain this seemingly paradoxical situation. The theory claims that the perception of (life) time plays a central role in how human beings select and pursue social and emotional goals. Younger adults generally select goals to build their identity and acquire knowledge that might be useful in the future. As a result, they tend to have relatively large social networks. In contrast, older adults tend to have limited social contacts that they use for emotion regulation. These age‐related differences are also reflected in both media uses and effects. More precisely, older adults tend to use media that suits their emotional goals, whereas younger adults seek media content that serves their interest for new and intense (emotional) experiences. The present entry discusses SST and its application to media psychological research. The entry ends with a critical outlook and possible avenues for future research.
Channel Repertoire
Authors: Wonneberger Anke
Published: September 2020

Introduced as a measure of television audience behavior and selectivity in the context of increasing choice opportunities, channel repertoires comprise sets of channels that are watched regularly. This entry describes the development and variations of the original concept and variations in applied methodological approaches, discusses related theoretical approaches in audience research and further applications, ranging from more generalized media repertoires to more specific information repertoires. Developments of channel repertoires have inspired most recent research on cross‐platform audience behavior in digital media environments.
Framing
Authors: Bullock Olivia M. , Shulman Hillary C.
Published: September 2020

Framing is a message presentation strategy that calls attention to certain aspects of information while simultaneously taking attention away from others. There are two types of framing, equivalency framing and emphasis framing. Equivalency framing presents information that is logically the same but differs along some presentational dimension. Emphasis framing examines how emphasizing different dimensions of the same topic can result in varying opinions and perceptions. Some critiques of framing research include inconsistencies in conceptualization and the lack of clarity surrounding the cognitive mechanism that explains framing effects. Some models have addressed this concern by attempting to explain when and how framing effects occur.
Liking of Violence
Authors: Weaver Andrew J.
Published: September 2020

Media violence is widely produced and treated as a valuable economic commodity, but the research on the appeal of violence suggests that audiences' appetite for violent content is not quite so straightforward. Although the presence of violence tends to increase selective exposure, it also has a tendency to decrease enjoyment. There are a few potential explanations for this disconnect, including the possibility that violence represents other narrative features that do increase enjoyment (e.g., action, suspense, humor), or the possibility that we seek out violence for nonhedonic purposes (e.g., meaning‐making, justice restoration, information). From a purely hedonic point of view, it is also worth exploring why violent content would decrease enjoyment. Possible explanatory routes here include aversive emotional responses to violent displays and the high cognitive and attentional load of violence distracting from other enjoyable narrative elements.
Gender and Media Preferences in Adulthood
Authors: Greenwood Dara , Winn Lara
Published: September 2020

In addition to reflecting gender‐targeted media content, men's and women's media habits may reflect a host of complex motivations and consequences, in step with larger cultural norms regarding gender roles. For example, men's greater interest in violent and/or sexually explicit media content may reflect gendered socialization practices that inhibit women from seeking out such traditionally male‐dominated genres, as well as sexist or sexually objectifying content that may decrease women's interest in such genres. In some domains, such as social media use, gender differences are not as notable, although women are more likely to use platforms such as Facebook, and engage in photo‐based behavior than men. Work on intersectional identities (intersections between gender and race, gender and sexuality, etc.) and media use focuses on navigation of stereotypic content, although some research has documented the benefit of new media (Internet and user‐generated content) for sexual and gender minorities in particular.
Race, Ethnicity, and Media Preferences: Content and Media Form
Authors: Rivadeneyra Rocío , Shafer Jessie
Published: September 2020

A long line of research with traditional media and more current work with new media have found that media impact people in various ways depending on who they are and their past experiences. Traditional media theories, such as cultivation hypothesis, have focused attention on the amount of exposure to media content as key to the impact this content has. Exposure to media is connected to access, availability, and preference of media and technology. Research using social cognitive theory has determined that these preferences are influenced by culture and context, including ethnicity and race. In turn, these identities impact how media influence individuals. Although the media divide has decreased as technology becomes more affordable, there are still ethnic differences in the ownership and access to various media technologies. For example, Asian Americans have access to the most devices while Latinxs and African Americans are more reliant on their smartphones. There are also ethnic differences in terms of the hours spent consuming media, with African American audience members being some of the heaviest consumers. Studies have found that audience members, especially Latinxs and African Americans, prefer to consume media that reflect their ethnic group. This is easier said than done for some groups, especially Latinxs, Asian Americans, and Native Americans who tend to be underrepresented and sometimes invisible in mainstream U.S. media.
Mobile Phone Use and Child Development
Authors: Yan Zheng
Published: September 2020

This entry briefly introduces the topic of mobile phone use and child development by using 10 real‐life cases. It then focuses on why children's mobile phone use is a complex developmental phenomenon based on the fundamental features of mobile phones and essential roles of mobile phone use in developmental processes. It further offers a detailed review of 30 years of research in mobile phone use and child development, suggesting that children's mobile phone use is an emerged multidisciplinary research field with an extensive literature and extremely active research programs. The entry concludes with a discussion of future research directions.
Gender and Children's Media Preferences
Authors: Hall Alice E.
Published: September 2020

Gender has been found to predict the time young people spend with some forms of media and to shape preferences for specific genres or types of content within media. Girls and young women tend to spend more time leisure reading, while boys and young men tend to spend more time with video games. Potential contributors to these gender differences in media usage include gender‐typed social norms regarding use of the medium as well as gender differences among beginners in the skills associated with the activity. In relation to gaming, the relative lack of nonsexualized female characters has also been cited as a factor, as have differences in the availability of peers to game with and the relative openness of gaming communities to players of different genders. Genre preferences in relation to movies, books, and television programs also vary depending on the media user's gender, with children and adolescents of both genders tending to select materials consistent with gendered social norms (e.g., action‐oriented and violent material among boys and relationship‐centered stories and romances among girls). The differences may be caused by and reinforce gender socialization. Contrasts in genre preferences between male and female media users tend to become wider with the age of the young person. There is also evidence that both males and females tend to attend more closely to characters of their own gender.
Digital Interactive Media and Health Behavior Change
Authors: Hudgens Laura G. , Ramble Taylor M. , Ahn Sun Joo (Grace)
Published: September 2020

With the negative effects of unhealthy lifestyles being widely understood, public health professionals and communicators strive to inform the public about effective ways to adopt healthier habits. Still, environmental, social, and personal barriers continue to inhibit the implementation of behaviors like eating a healthy diet, losing weight, and increasing physical activity. Research indicates that the incorporation of digital interactive media (DIM), such as virtual reality, augmented reality, and video games, may help make health behavior messages more relatable to consumers, as well as improve the perception of viability of behavior change goals. Unique benefits of DIM, such as customization, presence, and immersion, can help change the way health behavior messages are presented, thus improving the ways consumers respond to them.
Multidimensional Scaling
Authors: Fink Edward L. , Cai Deborah A.
Published: September 2020

Galileo multidimensional scaling (MDS) provides a way of mapping conceptual configurations of attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, and emotions in individuals, groups, and cultures, as well as a way to compare such configurations to predict and observe their change over time. Given this analytical power, Galileo MDS is well suited for studying media psychology regarding how media and the changing media environment relate to human cognition, emotion, and behavior. This entry explains the assumptions related to Galileo MDS as well as the steps needed to use this model effectively. Finally, it provides examples that elucidate the analytical potential of this approach.
Attitude Functions
Authors: Wang Xiao
Published: September 2020

Attitude functional theory addresses the motivational bases of holding and expressing an attitude. This theory states that people hold or express attitudes to serve a number of functions or psychological needs, including a knowledge function, a utilitarian function, a value‐expressive function, and an ego‐defensive function. The theory has been applied to persuasion research: The first step is to identify the functions that an attitude or an attitude object serves. Second, a message targeting these functions (versus not) can be more persuasive than a message not targeting these functions (i.e., functional matching hypothesis). Much of the functional matching research focuses on matching a functional appeal to high versus low self‐monitors. In general, high self‐monitors are more likely to be persuaded by a value‐expressive, identity‐related appeal than by a utilitarian appeal. Low self‐monitors are more likely to be persuaded by a utilitarian appeal than by a value‐expressive appeal. A recent stream of research states that the functional approach can be applied to media choice research, whereby different media choices can serve different functions and attitudes toward the media choices can be based on these functions.
Inoculation Theory
Authors: Banas John A.
Published: September 2020

This entry introduces McGuire's inoculation theory, which describes a message strategy to preemptively induce resistance to persuasion. Applying a biological analogy to attitudes, inoculation theory contends that resistance is induced through preemptive exposure to weakened persuasive arguments counter to previously held positions. Inoculation makes recipients aware of their attitudinal vulnerability which motivates counterarguing against opposing positions. This entry traces inoculation theory from its inception through important theoretical developments, boundary conditions of the theory, criticisms, and future research directions.
Video Games, Virtual Reality, and Fear Responses
Authors: Lin Jih‐Hsuan Tammy
Published: September 2020

Humans display fear responses not only toward potential threats in real environments but also toward various elements depicted in mediated content. Fear responses in interactive media such as video games and virtual reality (VR) have gained increasing attention due to the popularity of games in the horror and suspense genres and the commercialization of VR hardware. Fear elements, fear reactions, and coping reactions in video games and VR are reviewed in this entry. In video games, the horror game genre has topped the list of game types that elicit fear responses. In addition, participants have reported greater cognitive than physical reactions. In VR, participants have reported greater fear of plausibility illusion elements than place illusion elements. In addition, when playing a VR horror game, participants have most frequently employed an approach reaction, followed by cognitive avoidance (“this is not real”), physical and mental disengagement, and self‐help strategies. Participants have displayed response‐as‐if‐real (RAIR) reactions in VR games. In one study, a residual fear of being attacked from behind while playing the VR horror game was reported by some participants the next day. Empirical evidence has shown that greater emotional responses (in both self‐reported and psychophysiological responses) are greater in VR than in non‐VR video games. Understanding audiences' fear responses in video games and VR allows researchers and the industry to design effective intervention and training materials.
Weapons Effect
Authors: Benjamin Arlin J.
Published: September 2020

This entry summarizes research on the weapons effect, in which short‐term exposure to weapons or weapon images instigates aggressive cognitive and behavioral responses. This is a phenomenon that has been studied and debated for several decades. In that time, questions about the replicability and ultimately the validity of the weapons effect have been asked, especially in the context of recent meta‐analytic research. Noteworthy recent experiments purporting to demonstrate the weapons effect using ecologically valid measures and settings will also be examined.
Cognitive Functional Model of the Effects of Discrete Negative Emotions
Authors: Brooks John J. , Walter Nathan
Published: September 2020

The cognitive functional model (CFM) of the effects of discrete negative emotions draws from cognitive response models and functional accounts of emotion to establish an integrated decision‐making framework that emphasizes cognitive elaboration and emotional response. Designed by Robin Nabi, the CFM theorizes that discrete negative emotions (specifically anger, fear, sadness, guilt, and disgust) influence persuasion by motivating/demotivating an individual's attention and cognitive processing, thereby directing central or peripheral processing of the message. By outlining the unique appraisals and functions of discrete emotions, the model attempts to predict people's level of attention to persuasive messages, as well as subsequent effects on attitudes and behavior. The innovations of the CFM have great potential for refining our understanding of emotion's role in persuasion, but the limited body of empirical research supporting the model demands further study. Going forward, the model could be expanded to consider both positive emotions and cultural differences in emotional appraisal and cognitive response.
Attribution
Authors: Jiang Li Crystal , Sun Mengru
Published: September 2020

Human beings always wonder why and how things happen, and the process of making sense of their surroundings has been characterized as a fundamental human activity. A set of theories and frameworks, termed as attribution theory, have been developed to describe and explain the underlying mechanisms involved in the pursuit of finding explanations. This entry seeks to introduce the family of attribution theories and discusses how attribution is studied in the context of media psychology.
Digital Inclusion: Factors Related to Internet Adoption
Authors: Lin Carolyn A. , Atkin David J.
Published: September 2020

The digital divide conception can be defined as gaps in access to (or utilization of) Internet‐based information and communication technology (ICT). This entry addresses sociopsychological and geographical factors governing digital media diffusion—including social media and mobile communication technologies—across variegated social strata. It focuses on (i) differences in physical and financial access to Internet technologies, (ii) theoretical frameworks addressing psychological barriers to their adoption, (iii) evidence of different types and levels of use across the population, and (iv) implications stemming from those differential uses, in the context of information literacy as well as knowledge gaps in such domains as health and politics. The objective of this entry is to help us better understand and address the digital divide phenomenon from a social scientific perspective.