bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Livramento/Rivera: The Linguistic Side of International Relations
Authors: Hensey Fritz
Published: March 2007

Sociolinguistic studies in Latin America generally deal with situations in which one of the official languages is in contact with an American Indian language, one of the major languages of immigration (German, Italian, Japanese), or one of the creole languages or dialects spoken in the Caribbean area. Except for the latter case, such studies have usually emphasized such processes as acculturation or assimilation, internal migrations, or social mobility.

A somewhat neglected research area is that of the coexistence of Spanish and Portuguese along the borders which Brazil shares with a number of Spanish-speaking nations. Just as it is an oversimplification to lump Brazil and its neighbors into a vaguely homogeneous “Latin” America, so also it would appear very risky to rely on the obvious linguistic similarities to generalize about communication between the two major speech communities.
La generacíon romántica argentina y el problema de Hispanoamérica
Authors: Jaén Didier T.
Published: March 2007

¿No significa nada para la historia y la filosofía esta eterna lucha de los pueblos hispanoamericanos, esta falta supina de capacidad política e industrial que los tiene inquietos sin que sepan por qué no pueden conseguir un día de reposo, ni qué mano enemiga los echa y los empuja en el torbellino fatal que los arrastra, mal de su grado, y sin que les sea dado sustraerse a su maléfica influencia?

Domingo Faustino Sarmiento,Facundo, “Introducción”

Hispanoamérica se ha presentado constantemente a los ojos de muchos de sus escritores en forma problemática: como una entidad social o humana que, a pesar de sus muchos y continuados esfuerzos, no ha logrado satisfacer a plenitud los intereses o las esperanzas de felicidad y desarrollo humano que en ella han cifrado los propios hispanoamericanos. Esto no impide que, en la mayoría de los casos, esta visión inquietante y a veces desalentadora haya sido considerada con un grado de esperanza; con la convicción de que, si bien Hispanoamérica no ha logrado su plenitud, puede y debe lograrla.
Tropas e Tropeiros
Authors: Schmidt Carlos Borges
Published: March 2007

O papel representado pelo muar, na economía nacional, através da historia, foi de marcada importancia. Sem a sua contribuicáo, tendo em vista, principalmente, a reconhecida capacidade que possui, de transportar cargas diversas a distancias excepcionalmente grandes, muito do que foi alcancado, na criacáo de riquezas, jamais teria sido possível obter. Durante mais de século e meio, desde o descobrimento das minas auríferas, ao entardecer do século XVII, até a alvorada da era ferroviaria, em 1867, sua colaboracáo foi de marcante relêvo.

De início, atendeu ao abastecimento dos varios pontos de mineracáo no territorio nacional, suprindo-os de víveres e mercadorias de consumo, e o que mais necessário fósse. Depois, propiciou o desenvolvimento da producáo acucareira paulista, nao apenas para o abastecimento regular dos sertóes brasileiros, mas igualmente para a exportacáo, conduzindo-a ao porto de Santos.
“Che” Guevara: Some Documentary Puzzles at the End of a Long Journey
Authors: Mallin Jay
Published: March 2007

On December 9, 1964, Ernesto Guevara de la Serna, Cuban Minister of Industries and the most powerful man in Cuba under the Castro brothers, flew from Havana to New York to address the United Nations. He lashed at the United States and predicted continental revolution, “That wave of heightening fury, of just demands, of rights that have been flouted, is rising throughout Latin America, and no one can stop that tide.” From New York Guevara flew to Algiers, and thus began a trek that would take him to countries in Africa, Europe and Asia. For three months Guevara traveled, talking to leaders of nations, preaching revolution and communism wherever he went.
The Merchants and Economic Development in the Americas, 1750-1850: A Preliminary Study
Authors: Woodward Ralph Lee
Published: March 2007

The century embracing the wars and turmoils that politically separated America from Europe coincides roughly with that great change in the economic life of the western world known as the “Industrial Revolution.” Admitting that this so-called “Revolution” did not occur simultaneously everywhere, or affect all parts in a like manner, it is nonetheless clear that it had a profound effect not only on the material well-being of the American peoples, but on their social and political institutions as well, probably an effect even more important than the political revolutions and wars that accompanied it. The period thus demands careful attention and lends itself well to regional comparative study.
El Desarrollo Economico a Traves del Regionalismo
Authors: Krause Walter
Published: March 2007

Los años posteriores a la segunda guerra mundial han sido testigos de un creciente interés por el estado de los países subdesarrollados del mundo. Estos países — históricamente sujetos a condiciones extremas de pobreza y estancamiento — comenzaron a esforzarse con inusitada energía por mejorar su situación dentro de la realidad económica prevalente. Al mismo tiempo, los países desarrollados — especialmente Estados Unidos — acusaron una mayor preocupación por el bienestar de los pueblos de las regiones poco avanzadas, provocada en gran parte por las profundas implicaciones planteadas por la “revolución de crecientes esperanzas” dentro de la situación global del panorama internacional.
Posiciones de Principio en la Historia Política Dominicana
Authors: Sanchez Pedro Troncoso
Published: March 2007

La Proclamación de la República Dominicana el 27 de febrero de 1844 fué la culminación de un esfuerzo de los Trinitarios para J tomar la delantera a la facción que tramaba con los cónsules de Francia en Port-au-Prince y en Santo Domingo la separación del país respecto del poder haitiano con la protección contractual de la nación francesa. Los Trinitarios se anticiparon audazmente en la carrera que paralelamente emprendían ambos grupos, luchando entre sí, con los dos objetivos diferentes: ellos, la independencia pura, y el otro grupo rival (los afrancesados), la independencia mediatizada.

No puede decirse sin embargo que la independencia dominicana fue un parto prematuro. En todo caso se trató de un parto apresurado.
Tres Pensadores en la Vida Intelectual Argentina: Ingenieros, Korn, Romero
Authors: Torchia-Estrada Juan Carlos
Published: March 2007

Una filosofía es una expresión autónoma del espíritu, resultado de la eterna inquietud del hombre —nunca del todo desilusionado por sus fracasos— por ponerse en claro sobre el sentido de su vida y del universo a que pertenece. Así considerada, la obra de cualquier filósofo puede sufrir el examen de su valor intrínseco, como esfuerzo hacia la verdad, en cuyo caso se ejercita sobre ella una valoraciónteórica. Pero la filosofía es a la vez una parte de la aventura del hombre en el tiempo, y va signada por las limitaciones temporales de aquél. Nunca se da en el vacío, sino amalgamada con todos los elementos propios de la vida del hombre en un instante de la historia. Cuando se examina una filosofía según su función en una época, una comunidad o una cultura, lo que se intenta no es ya una valoración teórica, sino una interpretación histórica.
Politics, Power, and the Role of the Village Priest in Paraguay
Authors: Hicks Frederic
Published: March 2007

The parochial priests in small Paraguayan towns are generally reputed, in Paraguay, to exercise an extraordinary amount of power and influence over the people of their parishes—to a greater extent, it would seem, than in most other Latin American countries. This is, moreover, despite the fact that the church, as an institution, is considerably weaker, economically and politically, than in all but a handful of such countries. Therefore, what power the individual priest may have can not be viewed as simply an extension of the power of the church. Most urban Paraguayans, including at least some members of the church hierarchy, are inclined to attribute this situation to the alleged superstitious or credulous nature of the Paraguayan peasants. The rural people themselves, on the other hand, are apt to explain the influence of their own local priest, at least, as due to his personal qualities or strength of character, as did the Services when referring to the prestige of the local priest of Tobati.
Latin America's Need for Regional Research Centers
Authors: Herrera Felipe
Published: March 2007

The degree conferred upon me by the University of America with the concurrence of the 24 universities of the Republic of Colombia is a powerful incentive to the work of the Inter-American Development Bank in the field of higher education and research in Latin America. You will forgive me, then, if I take this occasion to mention the role of the Inter-American Bank as the “Bank of the Latin American University,” a role which has placed it in the vanguard of an impressive process of international cooperation for the modernization and decisive expansion of higher education in the Hemisphere. The $55 million it has loaned to 71 institutions in 17 countries bear eloquent testimony to an abiding preoccupation of the Bank in its brief years of existence.
El Faccionalismo: Supervivencia Medieval En America Latina
Authors: Guzmán Mauricio
Published: March 2007

Cuentan que Cristóbal Colón al seguir la señal de una bandada de aves marinas, varió la ruta que directamente lo habría conducido a las playas atlánticas de los Estados Unidos de América. En cierto modo, pues, un hecho providencial permitió que este continente se poblara de sajones y latinos, dividiéndose en dos partes: América inglesa, representada hoy, principalmente, por aquella gran república del norte y Canadá; y América hispánica, constituida por las numerosas naciones, incluso Brasil, que se extienden del Río Bravo al Polo Sur.

El continente americano, desde la extraordinaria hazaña del ilustre Navegante, quedó abierto a todas las corrientes de la cultura europea, especialmente a las influencias inglesa e ibérica; y durante trescientos años se fue acentuando, poco a poco, la personalidad étnica de los sectores de población que habitaban bajo su cielo.
Manuel Bandeira and the “Itinerario de Pasargada”
Authors: Pontiero Giovanni
Published: March 2007

Vou-me embora pra PasárgadaLá sou amigo do reiLa tenho a mulher que eu queroNa cama que escolhereiVou-me embora pra Pasárgada

Vou-me embora pra PasárgadaAqui eu nao sou feliz

Em Pasárgada tem tudoÉ Outra civilizaçãoTem um processo seguroDe impedir a concepçãoTem telefone automáticoTem alcaloide a vontadeTem prostitutas bonitasPara a gente namorar

— Lá sou amigo do rei —Terei a mulher que eu queroNa cama que escolhereiVou-me embora pra Pasárgada

Published in 1957, to mark his seventieth birthday, the “Itinerário” gives a lucid account of Manuel Bandeira's biography, in which he carefully details the significant events of his long career. But the book has even greater value as a document which traces the poet's dual formation as man and as artist, the shaping of his artistic sensibility and consciousness of poetic mission.
Argentine Radicalism: 1957-1963
Authors: Snow Peter G.
Published: March 2007

The Peronist victories in the 1962 elections, the subsequent military coup, and the nationalistic platform of the President elected in 1963 have again focused attention on the Argentine political scene. Much has been written about these and other aspects of contemporary Argentine politics; however, one major factor that has been almost completely ignored is the split within Argentine Radicalism that produced two separate Radical Parties. This article attempts to point out some of the reasons for the formation of these parties and also to trace their evolution through July, 1963.

The 1957 split was not the first to occur within theUnión Cívica Radical(Radical Civic Union or UCR); in fact the party was born of the 1891 split of the Civic Union into Nationals and Radicals. Although the UCR had definite internal factions as early as 1897, the first real split in the party came in 1922, when many Radicals left to form the Anti-personalist UCR under the leadership of President Marcelo T. Alvear.
Demographic Factors and Economic Integration in Central America
Authors: Duncan Julian S.
Published: March 2007

The purpose of this paper is to examine public discussion in Central America of its rate of population growth, and to consider the related question of international migration into the region. These will then be considered within the setting of the problem of economic integration in Central America.

The first of the published discussions to be considered is the writer's Reporte preliminar: Necesidades y recursos de El Salvador relacionados a diferentes tasas de crecimiento de población, published in San Salvador in 1956, and which will be hereafter cited as the 1956 Progress Report. The second is a study prepared under the auspices of the Economic Commission for Latin America of the United Nations on Los recursos humanos de Centroamérica, Panamá y México en 1950-1980 y sus relaciones con algunos aspectos del desarrollo económico. The third is a paper entitled La población salvadoreña, presented to the Primer Seminario Latino-Americano de Planificación de Familia in New York (June 4 to 15, 1962) by Drs. Roberto Pacheco and José Francisco Molina.
Ercilla and la Araucana: Spain and the New World
Authors: Dawson Frank G.
Published: March 2007

The impact upon Europe of the discovery and conquest of the New World is conventionally described in terms of political and economic effects. That there was an aesthetic and intellectual impact of equallygreat import is seldom recalled. The discovery and exploration of a totally new and unknown world of strange beasts, flora, and human beings affected European predilections and patterns of thought in a fashion which can only be likened to the reaction of thoughtful men today, when confronted with the wonders and potentialities implicit in the exploration of outer space.
El “Dinero” en el Léxico Chileno
Authors: Iturrieta Hernán Contreras
Published: March 2007

En la recopilación que presentamos aquí, hemos incluido las voces y locuciones que conforman un vocabulario nacional generalizado en Chile y que hace referencia al dinero, a los valores en uso en el país y a ciertos aspectos de la vida económica diaria. Hemos incluido, también, algunas variantes semánticas que esas voces y locuciones han originado y que constituyen una importante porción del léxico chileno.

Sin embargo, no hemos considerado, para el presente estudio, las denominaciones y giros propios de una lengua comercial o técnica, de una lengua de minoría.
The Mataco of Northern Argentina
Authors: Shapiro Samuel
Published: March 2007

When the first Spanish missionaries penetrated the Chaco early in the seventeenth century, they discovered a whole group of linguisticallyrelated tribes whose existence had gone unsuspected for a century. The most important of them, the Mataco, numbered about 30,000, and lived in numerous villages along the banks of the Bermejo, Paraguay, and Pilcomayo rivers. Pushed down off the Bolivian highlands by the more warlike Chiriguanos, the Mataco lived a peaceful, if primitive, life, hunting, fishing, and collecting carob pods, cactus figs, wild squash, and hearts of palm. During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, while Argentina exterminated most of her Indian population, the Mataco were left practically undisturbed; their lands were simply not valuable enough to be worth the white man's taking. Except for a few Anglican missions and an occasional trading post, the Chaco remained sealed off from the rest of Argentina.
Peronismo Without Perón Ten Years After the Fall (1955-1965)
Authors: Ranis Peter
Published: March 2007

The persistence of peronista political power remains the essential political concern of post-Perón Argentina. This dilemma has never been resolved and its presence affects any approximation of social and political integration. As contemporary peronismo responds to an apparent psycho-social void that has not been filled by any other party or movement, the alternatives today are as they were ten years ago: to allow the peronistas legal political status, to integrate them into existing political parties, or to permanently isolate them. The astounding peronista successes in the March 1965 Congressional elections favor the first solution to this now historical problem.
Derecho Agrario y Reforma Agraria en America Latina
Authors: Vivanco Antonino C.
Published: March 2007

Se entiende por conceptos fundamentales a aquellos que permiten dar una idea cabal del contenido esencial de vocablos y de instituciones por ellos designados, que constituyen la base y fundamento de todo el tema desarrollado en este breve ensayo.

Esto resulta indispensable, si se pretende elevar a un plano científico, lo que hasta ahora representa el tema preferido de quienes opinan y juzgan en materia agraria, sin tener mayores conocimientos acerca de ella, sobretodo en el orden jurídico, y pretenden participar en una polémica surgida con motivo de la Reforma Agraria, para denostarla al sólo efecto de preservar y defender sus intereses, aún a costa de la miseria y del atraso de millones de individuos que soportan el desequilibrio económico de América Latina y que viven propensos a la perturbación política de suma gravedad para la seguridad de los países latinoamericanos.
Meditaciones Politicas
Authors: Ramírez Alfonso Francisco
Published: March 2007

La política, siendo en esencia el arte de gobernar, es inseparable de cualquier régimen; la encontramos en la quietud de los despotismos orientales y en el tumulto de las modernas democracias. Consiguientemente, el político aparece en todos los pueblos y en todos los tiempos.

Ya el venerable Aristóteles decía que el hombre es “un animal político”, en el sentido de que nace con irresistible tendencia a vivir en sociedad, a organizarse en ciudades (polis), para cuya existencia es indispensable alguna clase de gobierno.

Las ideas corrientes acerca de la política y los políticos, son profundamente erradas. Se cree que son algo abominable que debe desaparecer, sin comprender su necesidad imprescindible.
Mass Communication and the Climate for Modernization in Latin America
Authors: McNelly John T.
Published: March 2007

Amounting number of studies have shown striking relationships between mass communication development and various economic, political and social aspects of national growth. Although these studies generally have been based on available data from countries throughout the world, similar relationships also can be found within regional groups of countries. Among the twenty Latin American countries, we find newspaper circulation per capita correlated .89 with urbanization, .82 with literacy, .80 with per capital income, and a negative .88 with percentage of population employed in agriculture.

Such studies, of course, do not establish causal relations. Is mass communication merely a reflection of other more basic factors of development such as urbanization and industrialization, literacy and political participation? Or does mass communication play a functional role in the development process: can the communication of facts and opinions through the mass media actually influence people to move to the cities, take up new skills, learn to read and write, and become involved in politics?
Novedades Sobre la Verdadera Historia de los Incas
Authors: Grasso Dick Edgar Ibarra
Published: March 2007

Presentamos aquí un ligero resumen sobre nuestras investigaciones sobre la verdadera historia de los Incas, en cuanto a su primer origen. Estos párrafos constituyen nuestras conclusiones en una obra extensa, que hemos entregado al Ministerio de Educación y Bellas Artes de Bolivia para su publicación. El título que lleva esa obra es La Verdadera Historia de los Incas.

La obra más corriente y populaí de la historia incaica, la de Garcilaso de la Vega, en la cual se basan todas las historias corrientes sobre ese antiguo imperio indígena, está fundamentalmente alterada, incluso diremos falsificada, aunque en un noble deseo de ennoblecerla, toda la historia Incaica. Esto se advierte claramente comparando esa historia con las de los otros cronistas, que en su mayor parte son anteriores en sus escritos originales a la obra de Garcilaso, aunque en gran parte ellos se publicaron en épocas muy posteriores.
Deodoro da Fonseca, Fate's Dictator
Authors: Simmons Charles Willis
Published: March 2007

The November 15, 1889, republican revolution in Brazil was led by a man who was a monarchist and an ardent admirer of the emperor whom he deprived of throne and country. This man, Deodoro da Fonseca, believed in constitutionalism and was forced by fate to become Brazil's first dictator. It is unfortunate that Marshal Deodoro's last few years of life made his name synonomous with the arbitrary use and abuse of power. This study seeks to explain fate's part in creating this dictator image and to modify and to mitigate that word when it is used to describe the man who became Brazil's first president.

The revolution which made Deodoro provisional president was engineered by republican agitators who manipulated the military leaders in such a manner that they administered the coup de grace to the magnanimous reign of Dom Pedro II. Military leaders had been convinced by a series of incidents dating back two decades that the políticos who controlled the government sought to restrict their prestige and authority. By 1889, these leaders were convinced that further concessions would lead to dishonor. Benjamin Constant and Aristides Lobo with difficulty convinced a reluctant Deodoro that he must act if the honor of the military class was to be saved.
Problems of Land Tenure Reform in Latin America
Authors: Picó Rafael
Published: March 2007

My interest in land reform started very early. In fact, my first executive appointment in the Government of Puerto Rico was in 1941, even before I left academic life, when I became a member of the first Board of Directors of the Land Authority of Puerto Rico, thus participating from the start in the land reform program of Puerto Rico. Back in 1940 when the present Government of Puerto Rico headed by Luis Muñoz Marín, our present Governor but at that time President of the Senate, took over the reins of government one of the first bills approved by our legislature was for a land tenure reform program in Puerto Rico.
Spiritism in Brazil
Authors: Warren Donald
Published: March 2007

Spiritism is well on the way to becoming the most national of the religions practiced in Brazil. Yet apart from Christian clergymen, social scientists, and of course Spiritists themselves, few educated people pay much attention to its rapid and wide spread. Although they must see the sensational picture stories frequently appearing in magazines and on screens, they fail to realize that Brazil has become the acknowledged capital of the spiritualistic world in the West. At most they may know that Brazil's most famous mediums get invitations to travel abroad North of the equator and in the Far East a ready coterie awaits these mediums whose best-selling psychographed works find foreign publishers. Spiritist journals, however, play on news of their travels to work up nationalist pride in Brazil as “Heart of the World, Homeland of the Gospel.” That self-regarding expression is the title of a popular national history psychographed (dictated by the Spirit of a deceased person to a medium who writes it down in trance) in 1938. Since then Brazilian Spiritism has grown hugely in national ardor and in numbers.
A Latin American-African Partnership
Authors: Saenz Paul
Published: March 2007

The purpose of this article is to formulate some general conclusions about Latin American and African caucusing group voting behavior patterns in the United Nations General Assembly. This study will attempt to establish and correlate these voting behavior patterns in terms of: (1) issues; (2) intra-group solidarity; and (3) inter-group support.

The method of inquiry is roll call voting analysis computed on the basis of percentage of total votes cast during a regular session of the Assembly on a general category of issues. The analysis includes all roll call votes (approximately 2,300) cast on entire resolutions during plenary sessions of the General Assembly from 1946 through 1966. This excludes from consideration all votes cast: (1) in the various committees of the Assembly; (2) on procedural matters; and (3) on parts of resolutions.
Space Activity in Latin America
Authors: Frutkin Arnold W. , Griffin Richard B.
Published: March 2007

Space research and exploration are commonly considered the special province of the superpowers. The considerable financial resources and still greater technological capabilities required for programs of manned space flight and planetary investigation are widely assumed to be prerequisites for space research activity of any character. In fact, however, space research is richly varied, in objective and method as well as in material and financial requirements. Thus, it is possible for lesser powers and certain of the developing countries to participate in this newest area of human activity. The values to be achieved are not only scientific and technical but also political and economic. Tangible contributions can be made both to the domestic interests of such countries find to the space programs of major powers. The opportunities implicit in these facts were early recognized by the Latin American countries, particularly Argentina, Brazil, and Mexico, and all are engaged in interesting, stimulating, and productive space activities.
Nonmember Participation in the Organization of American States
Authors: Kim Jung-Gun
Published: March 2007

Current experience in international relations reveals not only an increase in the number of international organizations but also a proportionately greater number of associated problems. One of these problems is the ascertainment of legal status and the assessment of the nature and significance of nonmembership.

As long as there are international organizations that embrace less than a universal membership, there will be nonmembers. The problems of nonmembers become particularly acute when one or more of the “great powers” (or states sponsored by them) are involved; the absence of the United States from the League of Nations and the absence of continental China and the divided nations of Germany, Korea, Vietnam, and others from the United Nations attest to this fact.
The Sino-Soviet Ideological Struggle in Latin America
Authors: Garner William R.
Published: March 2007

While it is true that the Chinese Communists are making a late entry into Latin America, the degree of appeal of the Peking position is indicative of two significant trends within the hemispheric Marxist movement. First, the original orthodox Communist parties have not been as aggregative as they should have been to keep up with the growth of groups committed to radical change. Second, the Chinese have provided an important facade for a Marxist approach to revolution that is fresher and less tarnished than has been provided by the older party organizations.
Algunas notas sobre el cabildo abierto en Hispanoamérica
Authors: Tapia Francisco X.
Published: March 2007

En los últimos días de julio de 1963, el que escribe estas líneas, durante una breve visita al Perú, tuvo ocasión, una vez más, de presenciar un cabildo abierto. Por cierto que el entonces recién inaugurado, ahora ya depuesto, Presidente Belaúnde Terry, se suponía iba a asistir al acto. Pero una avería en el helicóptero que le conducía le impidió llegar más allá del Cuzco. La ocasión de aquella asamblea, verdaderamente popular, era el elegir al alcalde y regidores de la pequeña villa de Chinchero, situada en plena Sierra peruana. Reuniones semejantes se estaban celebrando aquel mismo día, último domingo de julio, en los demás pueblos, cabezas de partido. Dato interesante es que las discusiones se condujeron en la lengua quechua, única que comprendían los asistentes al acto, en su totalidad indígenas.
La Campaña Permanente: Mexico's Antidrug Campaign
Authors: Craig Richard B.
Published: March 2007

The problems associated with drug abuse in the United States have received considerable attention in recent years. By the mid-1970s, approximately 500,000 Americans were addicted to heroin, while at least 15 million were regular or casual users of marijuana. None of this heroin originates domestically, and only a small percentage of the marijuana, and this of low potency, is home-grown. Consequently, the question of source has become cardinal to most analyses of drug use and abuse in the United States.

Mexico has long been the primary source of high potency marijuana for the American market. Despite the recent influx from Jamaica and Colombia, Mexico still supplies an estimated 70% of the annual American consumption, or some 10 million pounds. More importantly, Mexico is currently the source of 70% to 80% of the heroin on the U.S. market, an alarming 6-8 ton annual figure. Furthermore, Mexico is both a primary transshipment route for cocaine, an increasingly popular drug originating in South America, and the source of vast quantities of psychotropic substances.
Latin America and the Primary Product Trade
Authors: Junguito Roberto
Published: March 2007

The impact on Latin American economies stemming from recent developments of the primary product markets is analyzed in this article. Brief comments are also offered on the political stands these countries have adopted or are considering adopting as a result of the ongoing dialogue taking place at both the academic and political levels on the new international economic order.

Rather than pursue the traditional route of first reviewing major problems that primary product trade has imposed on economic development efforts and then recounting alternative control schemes adopted in primary trade, this article focuses primarily on the degree to which Latin America is dependent on primary products as a source of foreign exchange earnings, and second on the influence, relative to other developing countries (LDCs), that primary products have had on foreign earnings, export instability, and terms of trade.
The Dual Strategy Myth in Central American Policy
Authors: Vanderlaan Mary
Published: March 2007

The Reagan administration is sending mixed messages on its policy in Central America, leading some observers to label the policy “schizoid” and influencing yet others to give the president the benefit of the doubt until policy implications become clearer or unavoidable. Commenting in July on White House policy as it has been iterated in the first half of 1983, Senator Christopher Dodd (1983), a leading administration critic, asserted that “there is total confusion in Washington as to what the administration's policies are, and there is a total confusion in Central America as to what U.S. intentions are.” Similar charges have been made from both sides of the aisle in Congress.

Almost sadly, these charges are not part of an opposition's political ploy, but in fact are rooted in speeches, position papers, and actions formulated by the president and his Central America policy team.
Religious Allegiance and Economic Development in Rural Latin America
Authors: Clawson David L.
Published: March 2007

The possible correlation between religious affiliation and economic status and development has long interested social scientists. The purpose of this study is to analyze the potential contribution of Protestantism to the agricultural and economic development of Latin American agrarian communities.

The effects of religious affiliation on economic behavior have been studied most extensively in Western Europe and the United States. Max Weber (1958: 35) concluded in his pioneering study,The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, that in nations of mixed Catholic-Protestant religious composition the business leaders, owners of capital, and higher grades of skilled labor were “overwhelmingly Protestant.” Weber's initial intent was not to compare Protestant and Catholic economic achievement in Germany but, rather, to provide a non-Marxist interpretation of the rise of industrial capitalism and the attendant expansion of urbanization.
The Development of Venezuelan Geopolitical Analysis Since World War II
Authors: Ewell Judith
Published: March 2007

In a March 1980 address to the Venezuelan Congress, President Luis Herrera Campíns stated: “Effective action by Venezuela in the sphere of international affairs must take into account certain key facts: Economics—we are a producer-exporter of oil; politics—we have a stable, consolidated democracy; and geopolitics—we are at one and the same time a Caribbean, Andean, Atlantic, and Amazonian country” (Venezuela Up To Date, 1980: 8). President Herrera's statement reveals a Venezuelan interest in geopolitics; at the same time, it outlines the difficulties in achieving a coherent geopolitical strategy.
United States-Latin American Relations: Shifts in Economic Power and Implications for the Future
Authors: Bitar Sergio
Published: March 2007

The purpose of this article is to analyze the evolution of economic relations between Latin America and the United States in the 1970s and to suggest the implications of this evolution. The central proposition is that a shift in relative strength took place during this period that created the potential for achieving a new balance of economic power. This shift also created tension in the old pattern of inter-American security links. The process of transforming potential power into real power had relevant implications for economic, political, and security interests.
The Small State Alone: Jamaican Foreign Policy, 1977-1980
Authors: Lewis Vaughan A.
Published: March 2007

This study is a sequel to one done by this writer on the foreign policy of Jamaica from 1972 to 1977 (Lewis, 1981) and covers the remaining period during which the People's National Party (PNP), led by Prime Minister Michael Manley, presided over the government of the country.

In elections held on October 30, 1980, the PNP government was decisively defeated by the opposition Jamaica Labour Party (JLP). The latter had, in the previous elections of December 15, 1976, retained only 13 seats in Jamaica's parliament. When the Jamaica Labour Party administration took office, as the party had promised in its election manifesto, it reversed the central planks of the domestic and foreign policies of the PNP administration and reestablished a close relationship with the United States as the main element of its domestic and foreign policies.
From “Color” to “Rainbow”: U.S. Strategic Planning for Latin America, 1919-1945
Authors: Child John
Published: March 2007

A series of recently declassified documents in the National Archives provide striking evidence of the shift of United States military strategic thinking away from the nineteenth and early twentieth century unilateral interventionist approaches to the bilateral approaches taken in World War II under the multilateral framework of the Good Neighbor Policy.

It is also significant to note that, despite the multilateral thrust of this Good Neighbor Policy promulgated by President Roosevelt and the U.S. State Department, the U.S. Military Departments— War and Navy—made no provisions for multilateral strategic plans in World War II.

But even as U.S. military planners prepared for bilateral cooperation with Latin American allies in the war, they continued to draft and update unilateral plans for intervention and invasion of key Latin American countries if cooperative approaches should fail.
The Peruvian External Debt: Problem and Prospect
Authors: Kuczynski Pedro-Pablo
Published: March 2007

Peru, in the period 1976-1979, along with half a dozen or so other countries occupied the center stage in the discussion of developing countries, which fact serious difficulties in meeting their external debt service and which face equally if not more serious problems of internal adjustment—especially little if any economic growth—as they try to raise themselves out of their financial crises. The countries which might be on such a problem list1 each have their own specific problems. All of them, in one way or another, have had a major fiscal problem which has absorbed the bulk of domestic credit into the public sector and created strong pressures to borrow abroad. Of course, the individual causes of the public sector problem vary. In several countries, especially those which export copper, adverse export prices since 1974 have contributed significantly to development problems. The "list" of countries will no doubt change and quite probably expand in the next year or two, especially if there is an almost inevitable recession in the United States.
The Freedom Flotilla: A Legitimacy Crisis of Cuban Socialism?
Authors: Fernández Gastón A.
Published: March 2007

On March 20, 1980, a small group of would-be Cuban exiles attempted to force a bus through the gates of the Peruvian embassy in Havana. In the process, they killed one Cuban military guard on duty and apparently touched off a chain of events that resulted in the “Freedom Flotilla“—the dramatic emigration of 125,266 Cubans (Bowen, 1980:9). This exodus, one of the most controversial episodes in recent U.S.-Cuban relations, also sparked a national and international ideological debate over its significance. Central to the ideological struggle and the theme of this article are the legitimacy problems facing the Cuban state.
Schooling in Latin America: What are the Patterns and What is the Impact?
Authors: Behrman Jere R.
Published: March 2007

Schooling is thought to be of great importance in Latin America and elsewhere in the developing world. The World Bank (1980, 1981), Colclough (1982), Psacharopoulos (1981, 1983), and others emphasize strongly the critical role of schooling in increasing productivity, equalizing income distribution, improving health and nutrition, reducing fertility and in pursuing other objectives.

In part because of such emphasis, there have been considerable and increasing resources devoted to schooling in recent decades in Latin America and in other developing regions. There also have been numerous studies that attempt to evaluate what determines investment in schooling and what are the private and social rates of return to schooling. The latter group of studies generally finds that such returns are fairly high, suggesting that expanding schooling indeed should be a high priority activity.
US-Cuban Relations in the 1980s: Issues and Policies
Authors: Domínguez Jorge I.
Published: March 2007

Should the United States go to war with Cuba? If not, what should be the policy of the US government toward Cuba? What should be Cuban policies toward the United States and the Soviet Union? Should Cuba increase or decrease its worldwide commitments and should it emphasize formal or informal foreign policy instruments? These have been the central questions affecting US-Cuban relations during the past quarter century. This essay endeavors to address some of the aspects they raise for US-Cuban relations for the remainder of the decade.
Modernization and Rural Population Movements: Western Puerto Rico
Authors: Monk Janice J. , Alexander Charles S.
Published: March 2007

In geographic studies of modernization, attention has tended to focus on the processes of urbanization and the characteristics of urban areas rather than on rural areas. The latter have been included in macro-scale studies such as those of Gould and Soja in Africa investigating the spatial diffusion of modernization. In their studies of change in the Pacific, Brookfield (1973) and his associates also worked in rural communities, concentrating on the micro-scale. In research dealing with change in rural Latin America, emphasis has been on colonization studies and ruralurban migration, (Parsons, 1973; Preston, 1974; Stouse, 1971) but study of the effects of urbanization on change within a traditional rural areas has been neglected. Further, there have been few attempts in research on modernization to integrate macro and micro studies or to work at an intermediate scale.
The Church and the Doctrine of National Security
Authors: Calvo Roberto
Published: March 2007

In a book which has circulated rather widely in Latin America (Lieuwen, 1960), it was stated that, with the passage of time, Latin American military men would intervene less and less in politics. This was not an altogether mistaken belief, considering that in 1961 Paraguay was a “military island” in a sea of Latin American civilian governments. Today the situation has radically changed in many ways. On the one hand, more than half the population of Latin America lives under military regimes; on the other, military domination has a different cast: it is no longer a caudillo who takes over, but the armed forces, which have institutionalized their access to the government. Linked to the foregoing is the emergence of an authoritarian ideological platform—the military call it a doctrine of national security—which provides the armed forces with the necessary rationale for their political activities.
Contadora: The Failure of Diplomacy
Authors: Bagley Bruce Michael
Published: March 2007

By Mid-1986, The Contadora Group's search for a negotiated peace in Central America had reached a seemingly insurmountable impasse. Negotiations were deadlocked over the issues of arms limitations, democratization, and US support for the Nicaraguan counter-revolutionaries (contrarevolucionarios or contras). The United States and its closest Central American allies - Costa Rica, Honduras and El Salvador - demanded that Nicaragua reduce the size of its armed forces and install a democratic political system before they would end support for the contras Nicaragua's Sandinistas, in turn, refused to disarm until the United States and its Central American neighbors halted their support for the contras, they also rejected all proposals for direct negotiations with the contras.
Ten Years of Change in the Church: Puebla and the Future
Authors: Wilde Alexander
Published: March 2007

The Puebla meeting of the Latin American bishops in early 1979 capped a decade of far-reaching and surprising change in the Catholic Church. A new, local-level unit—the “ecclesial base community” or CEB—has given Catholicism a vitality in society it has not known for centuries. At the same time, the Church has achieved an unprecedented integration as an institution nationally and regionally, in Latin America as a whole. It has found itself, through an unexpected historical dynamic, increasingly committed to the cause of the poor in deed as well as word, And it has been thrust into political confrontations with state authority throughout the region with an intensity and scope unmatched since the nineteenth century.
Society, Politics, and the Press: An Interpretation of the Peruvian Press Reform of 1974
Authors: Gilbert Dennis
Published: March 2007

In the early morning hours of July 27, 1974, the military government of Peru employed riot police to seize control of the country's principal daily newspapers. The government announced that the newspapers were being transferred to independent organizations representative of broad sectors of Peruvian society. Peru's “Revolutionary Government of the Armed Forces,” which came to power in 1968, had already surprised students of the Latin American military with a series of radical measures which included an extensive land reform, the expropriation of a number of foreign companies, reorganization of the financial sector, and the creation of a system of worker control for industry. Now President Juan Velasco Alvarado presented the press takeover as an integral part of a fundamental reordering of the existing society along progressive nationalist lines.
Political Change in Latin America: A Foreign Policy Dilemma for the United States
Authors: Vaky Viron P.
Published: March 2007

In 1968 Henry Kissinger wrote: “A mature conception of our interests in the world … would deal with two fundamental questions: What is it in our interest to prevent? What should we seek to accomplish?” (Kissinger, 1974: 92) Whatever its general relevance, that passage is an apt description of the lens through which American policymakers have contemplated the phenomenon of political change in the Third World. Those are the first questions they tend to ask.

The rationale for this particular concept of foreign policy tasks has its roots (1) in the complexities of an increasingly interdependent world in which world politics have become truly global for the first time in human history, and (2) in the deep antagonisms embedded in the US/Soviet relationship. Because nuclear realities .have placed a cap on the way in which the two superpowers confront and contend with one another, conflict between them tends to get pushed to the periphery and to take place in indirect ways.
Nuclear Power in Latin America: An Overview of Its Present Status
Authors: Luddemann Margarete K.
Published: March 2007

The pivotal role energy plays in national economics not only converts the access to sources of supply into a vivid issue of foreign policy concern, but also causes an understandable preoccupation with investment capabilities and self-sufficiency. A report prepared by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in 1974 predicted a bright future for nuclear energy in the i developing countries and encouraged use of this form of energy after numerous field studies.

A nation that commits itself to nuclear energy by purchasing nuclear power-generating technology but not fuel cycle facilities incurs the risk of becoming dependent upon the supplier country because a quick switch to alternative sources of supply is difficult in cases of curtailment of fuel.
Ecuador: Putting an End to Ghosts of the Past?
Authors: Bustamante Fernando
Published: March 2007

In 1991, Ecuador's foreign policy had to deal with the revival of its old border conflict with Peru. Nevertheless, this time the situation offered some hope — in contrast to previous occasions, the most recent being the Paquisha incident in 1982 — that the longstanding impasse between the two countries, which had hindered closer cooperation and greater integration for decades, might be nearing some sort of resolution at last.

During the first two years of his administration, President Rodrigo Borja and his Foreign Minister Diego Cordovez were primarily concerned with incorporating Ecuador into some of the Latin American efforts at international cooperation — political, economic, and commercial — which had emerged during the 1980s, such as the Rio Group, or which had been redefined and advanced in new, more creative forms, such as those exemplified by the Cartagena Group, the Asociación Latinoamericana de Integratión (ALADI), the proposed Andean Free Trade Zone, and the like.
The DEA In Latin America: Dealing With Institutionalized Corruption
Authors: Nadelmann Ethan A.
Published: March 2007

Among the Many Obstacles that confront the government of the United States in its global battle against international drug trafficking, drug-related corruption of foreign governments ranks as one of the most troublesome. It is present in virtually every country. In many of the less developed countries in Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean, it is pervasive. Not just policemen and customs officials, but judges, generals, cabinet ministers and even presidents and prime ministers are implicated. Corruption in most of these countries is, of course, nothing new—although the temptations posed by the illicit drug traffic are unprecedented. Nor are US diplomats unaccustomed to dealing with foreign corruption. Their experience in this regard dates back to the origins of US diplomacy.