bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Verb-object-negative order in central Africa
Authors: Dryer Matthew S.
Published: March 2014

Crosslinguistically, SVO languages most commonly place negative particles before the
verb, employing SNegVO order. This paper documents an area in central Africa which
deviates from this pattern, in which the negative follows the verb, typically occurring
at the end of the clause, in SVONeg order. The languages in which this order is found do
not form a natural class genetically, since they belong to three different families:
Niger-Congo (including Adamawa-Ubangian, Platoid, northern Bantoid among others),
Nilo-Saharan (especially Bongo-Bagirmi, but also Kresh and a few other groups), and
Afro-Asiatic (specifically Chadic, but found widely throughout Chadic). The area
stretches from Nigeria across to the Central African Republic and down into the northern
Democratic Republic of the Congo.
Het Monitor Model
Authors: Marijnissen A.M.B.
Published: March 2014

In this article Krashen's Monitor Model is discussed. The working of the Model is explained and the criticism of McLaughlin and Sajavaara are discussed. It is argued that the Monitor Model can be seen only as a first attempt to get a better insight into the processes that play a part in a second language acquisition, and furthermore that there are still a lot of questions left to be answered, of which the most important are:
(a) Is Krashen's distinction between acquisition and learning real?
(b) And if so, how can this distinction be proven?
Over De Complexiteit Van Woordverwerving, Getoetst Aan Het Onderwijs Frans in Nederland
Authors: Blaauw-Holtzappel F.F.M. , Daams-Moussault A.
Published: March 2014

Les auteurs rendent compte des multiples difficultés rencontrées en composant deux vocabulaires de français destinés aux élèves hollandais. Elles en énumèrent 14, de nature très variée, les illustrant chaque fois d'exemples concrets.
I) le temps consacré à l'étude est primordial et dépend des autorités qui en fixent le nombre d'heures. 2) la politique joue un rôle: un enseignement intégré conduira à une harmonisation des programmes. 3) le dynamisme du temps: des changements s'opèrent dans la langue elle-même, dans les méthodes d'enseigne-ment, dans le climat pédagogique. 4) l'élève demande de l'efficacité dans l'ap-prentissage et ses intérêts ne correspondent pas forcément à ce qu'on lui pré-sente. 5) le professeur, débordé, n'a pas le temps de se tenir au courant de l'actualité linguistique et méthodologique. 6) le type d'établissement pourrait influencer la sélection et la présentation des mots. 7) 1'examen pose un grand nombre de problèmes. 8) le programme n'est que très vaguement déterminé. 9) Les rapports entre compréhension et expression ne sont pas définis, pas plus que leur place aux différents niveaux de l'enseignement. 10) Les niveaux de langue: faut-il enseigner le français écrit ou le français parlé?
II) la sélection des mots peut être influencée par leur fréquence, la situation, le hollandais ou des considérations didactiques.
12) la méthodologie en vigueur.
13) la présentation des mots peut se faire de 8 manières différentes.
14) l'apprentissage des mots peut varier d'un mot à l'autre et d'un élève à 1'autre.
L'acquisition d'un vocabulaire est donc fonction d'une série de variables souvent encore mal déterminées. Il est grand temps de s'occuper sérieusement d'un programme cohérent pour l'enseignement des langues modernes dans le secondaire et jusqu'à présent personne n'a envisagé de le faire.
Words and Scenes in a Didactic Lexicon
Authors: Dirven René
Published: March 2014

On of the major concerns in the tradition of foreign language teaching has been the question of how FL learners learn new vocabulary. This issue comprises two questions, i.e. how are FL words grasped in their complex meanings and how are they remembered? In this paper this dual issue is tackled by proposing the notion of a didactic lexicon, which is seen as an optimal presentation of word meanings.
This contribution discusses Fillmore's 'Scenes-and-frame semantics' and the contextual approach to vocabulary learning and describes an experiment in contextual vocabulary learning and testing.
A didactic lexicon is defined as a variabele set of lexical items explained in ordinary language, possibly with the help of visual materials or trans-lations, enabling the learner to build up the strongest possible associations between FL words and their prototypical scenes, and revealing the underlying structure of the lexicon of the FL.
Finally some strategies for developing a 'didactic' lexicon are presented.
'Les Faux Amis' Revisited
Authors: Hayward Tim , Michiels Archie , Mullenders Jacques , Noel Jacques
Published: March 2014

In order to specify false friends for French speakers using a general dictionary of English (LDOCE : Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. 1978), we propose a system of tags and cross-references. Special attention is paid to an outline of the system of syntactic specifications that will warn the users of the dictionary. Detailed syntactic specifications are possible in LDOCE because it makes use of a sophisticated system of grammati-cal fields and codes. Moreover, the dictionary is available as a data base, developed in the LONGMAN-LIEGE project, so that the false friends dimension can gradually be incorporated in our monolingual dictionary.
De Organisatie Van Het Lexicon Bij Bilingualen
Authors: Kerkman H.
Published: March 2014

In the literature on the organisation of the bilingual lexicon, two closely related issues have played a major role. In the so-called independence-interdependence issue, the central question is: Do bilinguals have two separate storage and retrieval systems, one for each language, or is there just one common memory store? A second group of studies centers around the 'compound-coordinate' distinction: 'compound' bilinguals are supposed to have only one semantic system that serves for both languages, whereas on the other hand 'coordinate' bilinguals have a separate semantic system for each language.
In order to resolve the above controversies researchers have employed different experimental techniques. Many of these studies have resulted in distinct and apparently contradictory conclusions. The main reason for these unclear results seems to be the defining of the level of language processing involved in these studies: the variety of experimental techniques used has caused an obvious incompatibility of the various results obtained.
One other complication that has repeatedly been neglected within the exper-iments reported in the literature concerns the existence of individual differences in bilingual subjects. By studying the distinction between 'compound' and 'coordinate' bilingualism many investigators have demonstra-ted the relevence of its consequences for the selection of bilingual subjects to be used.
Two experiments in which an attempt has been made to minimise the effect of some of the fundamental problems mentioned above, are globally discussed in the context of two models for the organisation of the monolingual lexicon (Forster, 1976; Morton, 1979). Within these experiments we investigated the effects of word-frequency and word-repetition within and between languages in respectively Dutch-English staff-members of the English-American Institute at the KUN and Dutch-English students, in order to explore the sharedness of lexical 'access-files' and for 'input-logogens'. In these experiments, that support an input-mechanism common to both English and Dutch, we have used cognates, words similar in form in both languages and differing in meaning (boot) or similar in meaning (hand).
Een Receptie-Woordenboek Voor Beginnend Leesonderwijs
Authors: Meijers A.J.A.
Published: March 2014

For some language (e.g. Latin, Russian) learners need to acquire only one skill: Reading. This article proposes a learning method for beginning reading in a foreign language wich consist of a dictionary in which lexical and grammatical information are combined. The working of this Dictionary Search Method is demonstrated. With the help of a search-algorithm, learners may, quite independently, grasp the meaning of authentic texts. As lexicon and grammar are fully combined in the reading (or learning to read) process, there is no risk of a gap between formal language knowledge and the application of it.
From psycholinguistic literature we know that the reader needs less grammatical information than the writer or speaker. Traditional pedagogic grammar reflects the production oriented language knowledge. This is demonstrated by comparing fragments of a reception- and production-oriented language knowledge. In designing reading courses in a foreign language we have to consider this fact which is further clarified by some examples from different languages. Another very important fact to be considered is the level of conceptual knowledge the reader has of the subject. Thus a course for highly specialised learners may well be very different from a course for beginning students, concerning the amount of formal language knowledge to be learned. The integrated dictionary offers all the necessary grammatical information. The learners themselves decide on the parts they use and acquire.
De Herkenbaarheid Van (Engels-Nederlandse) "Cognates" Tijdens Visuele Woordherkenning in Het Engels.
Authors: Nas Gerard
Published: March 2014

Word recognition is an important part of the reading process. During word recognition a Dutch reader of English will regularly process English words wich in different ways resemble Dutch words. Many of them are cognate words. Some examples are: block, dance, beer, bath. If it could be shown that the meaning of such English words need not be learned but becomes available to a reader in the same way as it becomes available when their Dutch counterparts are processed in a Dutch context language teaching could benefit from that insight. Using a lexical decision paradigm with pseudo-cognates as stimuli (3 to 5 letter words) it was shown that the following types of cognates were recognised as such during visual word recognition in English by Dutch subjects (first year university students not specializing in English):
1. Dutch cognate words that had kept their spelling in an English context.
2. Dutch cognate words that in an English context were still homophonous with their Dutch version and differed in the spelling of only one phoneme from their Dutch counterparts (cf. the Dutch-English cognate pair TEKST-TEXT).
Of all other types of cognate words, also those that were homophonous with their counterparts in the other language but differed in the spelling of two or more phonemes, the cognate status was not recognised. Applications of the results are discussed.
Factoren Die Het Onthouden Van Vreemdtalige Woorden Beinvloeden
Authors: Schouten-Van Parreren Caroline
Published: March 2014

In the recent literature on the methodology of foreign language teaching there is a growing consensus that new words should be presented in texts and not in vocabularies. The theoretical background of this assumption is explained through Van Parreren's theory of trace systems in memory.
In particular it is argued that a good retention of new words requires that the traces of meaningfully related words be connected in many diffe-rent ways. Words in texts are already so connected (whereas words in vo-cabularies etc. are not). Moreover it is also possible to treat words in texts in a number of different ways.
Although it is thus generally acknowledged that presenting words in texts is preferable, little is known about the nature of the psychological processes of comprehending and retaining new words when presented in texts. In order to gain insight into these processes a qualitative investigation was carried out. Texts in different foreign languages were read by adult subjects. These texts contained several words unknown to them. These words were tested twice: after a short and after a longer interval. While recalling the meaning of the words the subjects had to think aloud.
These recall protocols were qualitatively analysed with respect to a number of questions. It was concluded that presenting words in texts offer many possibilities to ''embed" words in meaningful memory systems.
However some linguistic and psychological conditions (concerning the text and the treatment of the text by the subjects) have to be taken into ac-count. In particular attention has to be paid only to a part of the unknown words, i.e. to the words in linguistically favourable positions. As a fa-vourable psychological condition for comprehension and retention diversity of treatment of the target words by the subjects seems to be required.
Het Belang Van Taalkunde Voor de Toegepaste Taalkunde
Authors: Sciarone A.G.
Published: March 2014

Applied Linguistics is generally regarded as a multidisciplinary field in which didactics, psychology and linguistics participate. It is remarkable that within the context of foreign language teaching the focus is mainly on the didactic experiment and on the construction of psycholinguistic hypotheses. Yet for a linguistic-didactic experiment to be relevant, insight in what is to be taught, viz. language,is necessary. Many variants of language teaching could have been avoided with a better linguistic insight. Moreover, a better linguistic understanding in applied linguis-tics leads to a better distinction between the views of linguists on language didactics and psycholinguistics and the descriptions of language they give.
In this paper the relation between grammar and vocabulary is discussed. It is argued that this distinction is based more on definition than on reality. Stressing the importance of the role of vocabulary does not imply denying or minimising the importance of grammar. On the contrary, the traditional task division in linguistics between grammar and lexicology has led to a sterile grammatical description. Recent tendencies in linguistics now show a more integrated description of grammar and vocabu-lary.
Finally, with regard to the didactically important problem of vocabu-lary selection, some remarks are made concerning the difference between selection on the basis of linguistic properties and selection on the basis of usually arbitrary non-linguistic idiosyncrasies of words and the influence of this on teaching material. This is illustrated with examples from language courses.
Over 'Behang-Het-Zelvers' en 'Zelfbehangers'
Authors: Smedts W.
Published: March 2014

The acquisition of WF-rules by children learning their mother-tongue has hardly been studied up to now for English or Dutch. Yet, it seemed to me that the acquisition of WF proceeds much more slowly than the acquisition of phonology, syntax and flexional morphology.
To test this hypothesis a WF-test of 211 items was submitted to a sample of 109 thirteen-year-old children of different social categories and to a control group of 20 adults. An adapted version has been submitted later on to a sample of 80 sixteen-year-old adolescents. Both versions try to measure the knowledge of WF-rules, and not the knowledge of certain morpho-logically complex words.
It appears from the test that the children master only half of the WF of Dutch : only 47 % of the items have been correctly formed, understood or judged. Even using a less rigid criterion - not mastery, but WF-ability in general - they don't do much better (55 %) . The lexical-morphological ability of the adolescents reaches 69 %; i.e. one fourth higher than that of the children. The proportion of normative answers rises from 39 % of all answers given by children over 54 % for the adolescents to 73 % for the adults.
The author's conclusion that children - and to a lesser extent, adolescents -do not master Dutch WF-rules, is illustrated with the discussion of four test items. The author stresses the desirability of teaching WF-rules at the right age and of correctly distinguishing between knowledge of words-the norm- and knowledge of the rules to form and understand complex words, i.e. the language-system.
Van Basiscursus Naar "Authentieke" Tekst
Authors: de Vriendt S.
Published: March 2014

The basic point behind the present paper is the general premise that the student, irrespective of the method of instruction followed, is suddenly confronted with a large number of new words at the point when he moves from pedagogically determined text material to "authentic" materials, such as newspaper articles, advertisement, literary texts, etc.
An attempt is made to have a clear insight, both quantitatively and qualitatively, into the vocabulary gap that requires bridging, via an analysis of the type of newspaper extract used in class (for reading comprehension) and of Dutch essays produced by French-speaking pupils (for written production). These two elements are further compared with a basic vocabulary list and with essays produced by Dutch-speaking pupils in their mother tongue.
The following conclusions become apparent :
a) among the "outsiders", i.e. words not in the basic vocabulary, a restricted number of loanwords (+ 15 %) and non-derived or non-compound words (± 25 %) were noted;
b) the majority of "outsiders" were derived or compounds and chiefly verb forms ;
c) compared with their Dutch-language peers the majority of French-speakers in using the items referred to in (b) are less ready to "play" with lexical variants;
d) the characteristic noted in (c) is not only attributable to a more limited competence in word formation but also due to the fact that bilingual dictionaries provide insufficient information on the nuances expressed through prefixes or particles.
The above observations lead to the conclusion that it is desirable to direct more attention to non-inflectional morphology at all levels -university, teacher training in particular, textbook and grammar instruc-tion. Research and conclusions relate to the teaching of languages made up of a rich non-inflectional morphology (in this case Dutch) to native speakers of a language whose morphology is relatively poor in non-inflectional items (e.g. French), and are not necessarily applicable to other languages
Volwasseneneducatie Lijkt in een Stroomversnelling te Komen
Authors: Hoksbergen R.A.C.
Published: March 2014

In the Netherlands we aim at the internal cohesion of schooling, education and training of adults in one policyplan and in one scientific discipline. At the moment three departments i.e. the Ministery of Education and Science, Culture, Recreation and Social Welfare and Social Affairs cover most of this field.
Structural changes in subsidized education for adults are brought by the implementation of the "Mammoth-Act" (1968). The past ten years the number of pupils trebled by:
a. expansion of the establishment of new schools;
b. evening schools also open for day-courses (1975);
c. possibility to take an examination in only one or a few subjects (1978).
Especially women make use of these possibilities. In 1980 about 2/3 were women. The introduction of a preparatory year creates the possibility to start without much education.
Important for the development of government policy in the '70's were the official advisory committees: Commission Open School and Commission to Promote Local Educational Networks, both commissions worked till 1-1-'80, and the still existing Commission Paid Educational Leave. This finds its expression among other things in the adult education projects (existing tül 1983), but especially in the starting up of integral legislation for adult education. Problems in adult education in the Netherlands:
participants: curriculum and didactics have to be adjusted to adults. Paying more attention to the process of intake may diminish the number of people who drop out.
institutions: more co-operation of "Volkshogescholen" and day-/eveningschools as regards to intake and didactics, establishing curriculum commissions.
government: more efficiency by promoting one overall governmental policy for adult education.
Future: The community colleges in existence in the U.S. could serve as a model for educational communities in the Netherlands. The drop in number of pupils (from 1983 on) will cause an extra capacity in secondary education for youngsters. This capacity could be used for adult education and the developing of educational communities. In these communities horizontal and vertical differentiation could exist and general and vocational subjects could be offered.
A conprehensive school for adults?
Kijken Naar (Eigen) Begeleidersgedrag een Verslag van de Workshop 'de Taaldocent' als Begeleider Van Lerende Volwassenen ik Groepsverband
Authors: Bakker Adriaan , van Kessel Louis , Staallekker Luuk
Published: March 2014

This article is the report of a workshop on the subject 'Looking at tutor-behaviour as a teacher of adults'.
The workshop consisted of looking at a video-tape with scenes fro» adult classes, small-group discussions and a plenary session on 'differences and correspondences between the teacher styles shown and my own.
One of the conclusions drawn by the authors is that teachers are very eager to look at and learn from teaching behaviour of colleages and that this may be the necessary condition for changing their own behaviour.
De Interaktie Tussen Taaldocent en Volwassen Taalleerders
Authors: van den Heuvel M.L.
Published: March 2014

L'interaction entre le professeur et les apprenants adultes est entièrement bâtie sur le statut adulte de l'apprenant.
La didactique des langues se doit de faire jouer ce qui caractérise essenti-ellement le stock socioculturel des étudiants adultes et qui réside dans une triple autonomie.
Si ce point de départ est accepté pour l'approche méthodologique dans l'enseignement des langues, il est particulièrement valable pour l'apprentissage de la langue de spécialité.
Pour illustrer cette thèse, j'ai exposé dans un premier temps les grands axes autour desquels viennent s'articuler les différentes idées qui permettent de concevoir et de construire un cours de langue de spécialité. Il s'agit en l'occurrence de "Recyclage, cours de français pour étudiants en sciences économiques".
La prise de position didactique s'est avérée double:
a) Le contenu des cours doit être rigoureusement axé sur l'apprenant (matériel didactique).
b) L'enseignement doit être essentiellement centré sur l'apprenant adulte (pédagogie de l'échange).
La stratégie selon laquelle le matériel didactique peut être structuré et élaboré partant d'un "contrat d'apprentissage" qui a été libellé de "Modèle-Congres" (voir sous à). Un certain nombre d'exercices tirés de Recyclage sont présentés en guise' de démonstration. Les échantillons illustrent à la même occasion comment ce type matériel de cours est utilisé dans la pratique de la classe de langues (voir sous b). Dans un second temps l'audience a été amenée à discuter une question qui soustend la construction d'un cours de langue de spécialité et qui par là rejoint le thème de ce colloque: quel est le visage de la réalité dans la classe de langue? Qu'est-ce qui se fait sur place et comment fonctionnent les partenaires dans cet auto-apprentissage de la communication en langue étrangère?
De Kursisten van de Alliance Française de Hollande
Authors: Smeets Ed F.L.
Published: March 2014

The article describes some results of an investigation into the motives and objectives of adults registered in French courses provided for by the Alliance Française de Hollande. In April 1980, students of that institution were asked to fill out a questionnaire.
In brief, the results were as follows :
The most important motive for taking French courses was, that the students would like to be able to converse in French while on holidays in France. Other motives to register for a course : Interest in France or some other French speaking country, interest in languages in general or in the French language in particular.
The objectives of the students focus especially on speaking the language during short visits to a French speaking country. They particularly wish to develop oral skills. To be more specific, they want to be able to understand and provide simple oral information. Another objective was the possibility of talking with the French about various subjects.
Suggestopedie Frans
Authors: Maleville M.F.
Published: March 2014

Within a suggestopedic experiment in teaching French to adults at Nijmegen University, material has been developed to meet the suggesto-pedic requirements.
These long dialogues, already presented in Levende Talen 366 are now placed within the context of the latest trends in syllabus design. They are cate-gorized as "analytical" as described by Wilkins. Ordening of language takes place on the basis of the criterium marked/unmarked. This criterium takes into account authenticity as described by Breen & Candlin but proves to be ambigous. Another criterium is affect: the language used is systematically chosen in the affective domain. A quantitative lexical analysis of the material proves that it is not very different from commercial material of the same level. The functional/notional model proved not to be adequate for analysis of the material because of the complexity of discourse analysis.
Exploitation of the material takes place within a communicative model with much emphasis on affect. The material appears to be satisfactory to the learners. On the other hand, some teachers appear to have difficulties with the analytical model and the length of the dialogues.
Volwassenen en de Reguliere Examens
Authors: van Weeren Jan
Published: March 2014

The author elaborates two theses:
1. the participation of adults in the regular final examinations for foreign languages causes a dilemma if a population is to be chosen on which to base the norms
2. the participation of adults in the regular final examinations for foreign languages may influence the construct validity in view of their increased "knowledge of the world"
Tekst, Toets en Theorie
Authors: Kreeft Henk P.J. , van Krieken Robert
Published: March 2014

Before giving a survey of reading comprehension theories and their implications for the testing of reading comprehension itself, some text theories particularly with regard to readability and structure are dealt with.
The authors are of the opinion that questions should preferably refer to elements which rank highly in the structure of the text and to places in the text where there is a discrepancy between form and structure.
After a survey of subskill theories, psycho-linguistic and cognitive theories and functional and communicative ideas on reading comprehension, the following conclusions are drawn with regard to the possibility of constructing tests which are in agreement with the principles of these theories: There is no reason why final reading comprehension tests should aim at specific subskills (provided their existence can be demonstrated), considering the complexity of problems which occur in the normal use of texts. For the time being a central testing of reading operations and strategies seems to be impossible. Choosing texts for which prior knowledge will not play a role is not quite justified. It would be worthwile to construct tests which can show the candidate's ability to use his prior knowledge. This may possibly lead to formulating questions which sometimes indicate an individual (non-uniform) processing of the text. A great many problems will have to be solved before a reliable testing of the use of prior knowledge can be achieved. Demands for a communicative approach, however, are reflected in current practice and will be met within the foreseeable future. The main problem in this area is that the test should be able to demonstrate to what degree the goals of readers with regard to a certain text have been reached.
Enkele Didaktische Imflikaties Van Een Perceptiepsychologische Theorie Van Het Lezen in een Vreemde Taal
Authors: Westhoff G.J.
Published: March 2014

This paper presents an approach of training foreign language reading based on the theory that reading can be described as a cybernetic process of 'bottom up' and 'top down' processing. In this framework we distinguish five fields of knowledge which the reader can use for 'top down' processing:
1. Knowledge about the probability of letter combinations
2. Knowledge about sentence structures
3. Knowledge about the probability of word combinations
4. Knowledge about logical structures
5. Knowledge about the world
Knowledge in the fields 1, 2 and 3 is language-bound. Therefore, the ratio between the visual information needed and the knowledge already possessed will be more adverse than in the mother tongue, for most foreign language readers. This lack of knowledge can be compensated for by optimalizing knowledge in the fields 4 en 5, which are only slightly language-bound.
To enlarge the readers'knowledge in the fields 1, 2 and 3, we have developed a reading programme, providing the student with a rich learning environment in the form of much reading material of an adequate level. We used the CLOZE-procedure to grade the reading material and to determine the appropriate level. To extend the students'ability to use knowledge from the fields 4 and 5, we developed a training programme partly based on Gal'perins theory of the stagewise development of mental activities. One of the most important stages to be completed is the so-called 'verbal stage', in which the prediction strategies used by the reader had to be expressed in words.
After 8 months (one hour a week) a qualitative and a quantitative evaluation was completed. In respect of the latter, we found the most significant effect (p < .01) was an increased ability to predict meaning on the basis of a relatively incomplete foreign language knowledge.
Vertalen en Begrijpen
Authors: van Krieken Robert
Published: March 2014

In view of the difference of opinion as to what the translation may and should test, it seemed useful to find out what in fact pupils are doing when they are making a translation. For this purpose I interviewed ten pupils of 3 more or less random schools in the week after their final exam. I presented them with a Latin text, which was about half the length of the text in the exam, though comparable as far as degree of difficulty was concerned. They were asked to translate it in the usual manner, the only difference being that they need not write down the result. Everything they were thinking had to be said aloud and was recorded.
From these data I concluded that the translation only calls for minimal comprehension and that the degree to which the knowlegde of the language is demonstrably used is sometimes less high than is often supposed. Knowledge of vocabulary plays a very important role because in principle the pupil builds up his translation on the basis of the words that he knows or has looked up. Where the order of the words in the foreign language and the mother language correspond, a correct translation may occur without an apparent effort to understand the structure of the foreign language.
The procedure of concurrent verbalisation does not clarify the nature of the processes involved. To find this out a combination of thinking aloud and 'probes' in a less naturalistic setting would seem necessary.
Enkele Psychologische Aspecten Bij Het Beginnend Lezen Van Pre-Linguaal Dove Kinderen.
Authors: van Uden A.M.J.
Published: March 2014

"Reading" can be described as a process that derives concepts from visual codes. These codes can be pictural or non-pictural. Non-pictural codes can have graphic-verbal-dialogic backgrounds. The initial reading process by prelingually profoundly deaf toddlers can be developed as "ideo-visual reading", i.e. without any phonologic en- and de-coding. This can be worked out in such a way, that communicative interactions can be represented and read in "visualized conversations".
Leessnelheid in de Moedertaal (Nederlands) en in Een Vreemde Taal (Frans)
Authors: Deering Joke
Published: March 2014

This research focuses on the comparative speed of reading in a first and in a foreign language. Dutch-speaking subjects with varying degrees of command in French were set to read a number of informative texts in Dutch and French. They were instructed to read through these texts as quickly as they could, and to summar-ize them directly afterwards in a few lines each. When dealing with Dutch texts, subjects were found to read an average of 165 words per minute. When reading the French texts, the speed of reading dropped by 20% for subjects with a completed University education in French. For third-year students of French a slow-down of 25% was found. A third group of subjects - students of various disciplines who had studied French up to Α-level only -needed as much as 150% more time for the French texts. The texts used fell into one of three categories, viz. reports (newspaper items covering everyday events), opinionating texts (newspaper items expressing point of view), and academic texts (passages from introductory academic textbooks on various subjects). When the language was Dutch, reports allowed an average reading speed of 182 words per minute, opinionating texts of 171 words per minute, and academic texts of 141 words per minute. When the results obtained on the French texts were differentiated according to text type a similar pattern emerged.
As a further outcome of the experiment the assumption was con-firmed that the correlation between word recognition speed - as measured by a lexical decision task - and reading speed will be lower when the medium in both tasks is a foreign rather than subjects' own language. This is especially the case with subjects whose command of the foreign language is relatively low. These data are in keeping with recent psycholinguistic views on the reading process, and with other experimental findings as to the differences between good readers and poor readers reported from investigations into the initial stages of mother tongue reading.
Een Spreekvaardigheidstest Voor Hoger Niveau
Authors: Nienhuis L.J.A.
Published: March 2014

As a test of oral proficiency for the higher levels, the interview seems very popular, but it is rather expensive, and psychometrists question its value.
In this article, we discuss an alternative test of oral production, consisting of three parts; each part has a different form:
part 1 - questions with key-words in the native language that delimit the content of the answer ( ± 4 1/2 min.);
part 2 - questions about some fragments of picture stories ( ± 7 1/2 min.);
part 3 - interview questions ( ± 6 1/2 min.).
The test takes its content from the teaching syllabus and students can prepare for it.
The answers of the students are recorded in the language laboratory and raters score these answers recorded on tape; each of the three parts of the test is scored by different rater: this offers the advantage of reducing the scoring task, yet every student will be rated by three different raters. The raters score separately each of the answers; for each part of the test, ten scores are given, so the final score is the sum of 30 item-scores. Rater reliability and inter-item consistency of this test for French as a second language were satisfactory: .894 and .901; still, two different groups of raters would take a different pass-fail decision with regard to one out of every seven students. In our opinion, time can be saved in order to discuss more thoroughly these really difficult cases: as the reliability of a test consisting of the two parts 1+3 or 2+3 were also rather satisfactory, the most economical solution is to score only two parts of the tests of all students; only if the first two raters disagree or if the two partscores are near the pass-fail borderline, a third rater should rate the third part and, after discussion, decisions can be taken.
In their evaluation of the test, the majority of the students appeared to appreciate the varied form of the test and to agree on the idea of an oral production test that takes its content from the syllabus and that can be prepared for.
Benaderingen van het Taalgebruik in Schoolboeken; Mogelijkheden en Beperkingen
Authors: Hulshof H.
Published: March 2014

Research into the use of language in schoolbooks can be done from several angles: theory of verbal communication, teaching methodology, psychology (of education, of reading, of the reader). Being at the crossroads of so many different disciplines makes research difficult, and this is not conductive to ready application of any results in practice. In the border area between linguistics (in its wider sense) and educational science, publications with a practical dimension are few and far between, most of these resorting to generalities. The perennial problem is: should we opt for adaptation of Schoolbook texts, in other words for 'availability' , or rather for training pupils in reading comprehension (in which case texts may well be difficult)? To complicate matters, the place and function of the Schoolbook within the teaching and learning process are under discussion. The place and function of the Schoolbook are again strongly determined by the phasing of communicative situations or language learning situations. Thus the wheel has come full circle. The question remains, however, where all this leaves the use of language in schoolbooks. In this context the interplay between reader and text cou!d be declared to be the object. The text-approaching skills of the reader and any text processing could be viewed as an integrated approach to text comprehension and text 'availability'. This means that the focus is on the interaction between reader and text, on mobilising meta-cognitive skills and on the improvement of reading for comprehension at primary school level. In the Netherlands this view is represented by such people as Hennephof, Westhoff and Bol; in the Federal Republic of Germany by Groeben. A situationally determined and multilateral approach to the use of language in schoolbooks seems the only sensible one.
'Availability' is here used in the sense that it is easy to get access to what is in the text. It is not synonymous with 'readability', but rather with the German "Verständlichkeit'.
Een Leertekst Toegankelijker Maken
Authors: Drop W.
Published: March 2014

Study-texts may give problems to learners because they do not present their contents clearly enough.
In order to understand a text one should be able to regard it as a complex of parts, interrelated by specific links. Parts the size of simple sentences may be understood "in one go", i.e. one may grasp them in an internal representation. Larger parts may be understood in abbreviated form, in a representative statement. A complex of larger parts may be understood in their representative statements and the specific relations between them.
For the recognition of parts in a text and the recognition of the specific relations between them (which very often are not formulated explicitly or specifically) one requires anticipation based on knowledge, on schemes.
For a text to be clear, it must not only be formulated in such a way that the elements at sentence level may be grasped in an inter-nal representation by the reader, and in such a way that the links are easily identifiable. The text must also mark its larger parts and make the representative statements easily recognizable, for instance through frontpositioning in the unit.
In addition the text must contain signals which enable the reader to anticipate on the larger parts and their links, thus promoting the identification of the markings and enabling the reader to recog-nize unmarked parts and their links as well.
It is demonstrated how a history text may be made more accessible without affecting the contents. Changes in formulation have only been made in so far as they are necessary for increasing the possi-bilities for identification of the structure.
Tweetalig Kleuter- en Lager Onderwijs in Friesland, Een Beschouwing van de Stand van Zaken
Authors: Meestringa Theun
Published: March 2014

Since August 1980 both Frisian and Dutch have been compulsory subjects in the primary schools in the province of Friesland. This article describes the present situation. It begins with a descrip-tion of the motives for bilingual education in Friesland and relates them to the typology of Fishman. This appears to clarify the position of regional languages and dialects in infant and primary education. In the beginning of the eighties the position of the Frisian language in both schooltypes was investigated. About 45% of the teachers of infant groups use Dutch as a medium of instruction in almost all activities, and about 10% does nearly everything in Frisian. The other 45% use both languages; we don't know in which way or proportion. It appears that in musical activities more than one language is used. The other regional dialects of the children are hardly ever used at all.
This last statement is at this moment also true for primary schools. Frisian is a subject in almost every school (86%) and a substantial part of the schools (29%) uses it as a medium of instruction. But looking at the desirability of goals as indicated by the schools, it becomes clear that most schools still don't expect their pupils to be able to write Frisian, though most of them say that their main motive for teaching Frisian is to prepare their pupils for functioning in the bilingual culture of Friesland. Too often it seems that the schools fail in respect to at least the Frisian aspects of culture in Friesland.
In other words, it may be said that partial and complete bilingu-alism are not yet found in all the infant and primary schools of Friesland. Hopefully this portrait of the state of affairs will turn out to be an instant photo: things are still developing.
Taalgebruik, van Surinaamse Kinderen op de Basisschool
Authors: de Haan Dorian
Published: March 2014

While research data indicate that Dutch education is problematic for Surinamese children, Dutch educational policy takes the view that the children can adapt to the curriculum quickly or even im-mediately, because they supposedly have a Dutch-speaking background. However, the language situation of Surinamese children is complex: a vast proportion of the children is bilingual and speaks a non-standard variety of Dutch: Surinamese Dutch (SN). Therefore, it is important to find out how the school fits the specific situa-tion of these children. The curriculum and the demands of the school, as well as the expectations of the teachers toward the children partly define the success of failure of the child. Language attitudes, too, can lead to a self fulfilling prophecy as regards to teacher expectations.
This article deals with the perceptions of teachers with respect to language problems in the school and with teacher attitudes con-cerning the language use of Surinamese children. According to the majority of the teachers. Surinamese children have difficulties with a number of schoolsubjects as a consequence of their different home language. In particular the 'concentration schools', schools with a population of more than 15% Surinamese children, experience these problems most acutely. The majority of teachers indicate that they pursue command of the standard language as an objective. Most of the teachers locate the problems with the chil-dren, not with the school system itself.
Investigating to what extent teachers-attitudes influence the educational results of the children is a complex task. First of all, the question needs to be answered wether teachers already have specific attitudes toward SN, since it is a rather new phenomenon to have Surinamese children in the classroom. The data suggest that, at this point, many teachers do not view SN as a seperate language variety, but as 'poor Dutch'. Nevertheless they are reasonably positive about the characteristics of SN, which may reflect their insecurity about this variety of Dutch. Comparing attitudes towards urban dialects and SN shows that teachers have a more pronounced and somewhat more negative attitude towards the urban dialects of their Dutch pupils. There is an important attitudinal difference between teachers from different cities. Teachers do not express stereotypes about the consequences of bilingualism for a child's intellectual development, but as regards the specific classroom situation, the majority of the teachers reports difficulties for children with a different home language. However, most teachers oppose special provisions in the school for use of the home language as a medium of instruction or as a subject.
It seems that the views of teachers are linked to societal norms and educational policy, in which an ethnocentric point of view predominates. While information about sociolinguistic insights may not on its own change these norms, ignoring such information will certainly not bring about a change. Therefore, specific language curricula need to be developed.
Verandering Van Taalattitudes in Het Onderwijs
Authors: Kuijper Henk , Munstermann Henk
Published: March 2014

A positive attitude of teachers towards non-standard varieties and speakers of non-standard varieties is an important prerequisite in handling the problems involved with language variation in school. In this paper we present some results of two studies of language attitude change of student teachers, teachers and children in primary schools. The first study is an inquiry into the nature of language attitudes of students in teacher training colleges. The second study is a case study carried out in the innovation stage of the Kerkrade-project, a sociolinguistic project intended to improve language education of children who originally speak dialect.
Results of the first study suggest that grade, experience in teaching dialect-speaking children and knowledge of and information received about language variation in school have a positive effect on the language attitudes of student teachers as well as on their judgements of the appropriateness of dialect in several educatio-nal situations.
Results from the second study indicate that introducing dialect in the verbal interaction in the classroom has a positive effect on the beliefs of teachers about the usefulness of the childrens' mother tongue in educational situations. Furthermore children saw that their own language was accepted by their teachers, as a language that was no longer inferior to the standard variety. A comparison with results from pupils of schools not participating in the project reveals that children who did participate no longer think of the school as a pure standard language environment. Finally observations of classroom interaction indicate that the use of dialect has a beneficial influence on the participation of dialect speaking children.