bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Implications for Planning of Local Government Reorganisation in Wales: Purpose, Process, and Practice
Authors: Harris N , Tewdwr-Jones M
Published: October 2006

Local government in Great Britain is currently undergoing reorganisation. The reorganisation process is being progressed separately in each of the three countries of Great Britain—England, Scotland, and Wales. Reorganisation itself has always been a sensitive issue, and the current process is no exception. Political implications of the process have often tended to cloud the practical implications for the delivery of local authority services. In this paper support by senior members of the planning profession in Wales for central government's reorganisation proposals is measured. The content of the proposals is examined and the principal planning-related issues that arise from them are identified. The paper highlights current debate on the implications of local government reorganisation for the future delivery and nature of planning in the principality, with particular reference to three key areas: Planning in a unitary local government structure, the nature of strategic planning within a reorganised local government structure, and the role of community and town councils in the planning process. It is shown that despite general dissatisfaction with central government's regard for the planning function in its proposals for reorganisation, there is considerable support for the underlying principles and content of those proposals. The paper is concluded by progressing the debate to the form of local authority planning postreorganisation.
The Legitimation Problems of New Democracies: Postcommunist Dilemmas in Czechoslovakia and Hungary
Authors: Frankland E G , Cox R H
Published: October 2006

After 1989 the countries of Eastern Europe embarked upon new directions away from central economies and one-party systems towards market economies and democratic systems. The courses of these political and economic transformations largely depended upon the ability of the emerging regimes to create legitimacy. In particular, those regimes which suffered from greater political divisiveness and significant economic problems were more likely to be confronted with a crisis of legitimacy. In this paper, the legitimation crisis theory is examined for post-communist Czechoslovakia and Hungary. It is found that the developments in Czechoslovakia and Hungary during this early transition period support the hypothesis, and, in addition, they hold implications for the survival of other transitional regimes as well as those in the West which have increasingly been confronted with questions of legitimacy.
Private Sector Criteria and the Radical Change in Provision of Social Housing in England
Authors: Pryke M , Whitehead C
Published: October 2006

The 1988 Housing Act signalled substantial changes in the provision of social housing in England. The act places housing associations at the centre of social housing provision. Moreover, their role as the main providers of social housing depends, in line with government intentions, on the greater use of private finance, as the proportion of public sector funds declines. The introduction of what amounts to a new regime for social housing provision in England has effectively changed the agenda of provision from one informed by public sector thinking to one established around private sector criteria. Housing associations have thus had to readjust quickly to an environment in which they are now exposed to a variety of interrelated risks. In order to manage such risks, associations have had to reorganise internally and to reevaluate their priorities. Against this background, this paper is aimed, first, at reporting on how a selection of case-study associations active across the main regions of England have faced up to the challenges that the new environment presents, and, second, at presenting the views of a selection of private sector financial institutions about their perceptions of social housing as an investment medium, the types of risk they view as characteristic of this sector, and their response to the efforts made by associations to manage the risks of social housing provision. The paper is concluded by setting out the likely shape that social housing provision will take in the immediate future.
The Regulation of Restructuring: Corner Brook 1984
Authors: Norcliffe G
Published: October 2006

Restructuring is interpreted as an act of social regulation involving negotiations amongst corporate interests, labour, and the state. In Corner Brook, Newfoundland, these interests were brought together in 1984 when the long-time owners of the local paper mill, the main employer in this single-industry town, put it up for sale. Restructuring was essential in order to secure the long-term future of the mill and the town, but its achievement in situ required difficult negotiations. The new forms of production needed to modernise the mill entailed greater structural rigidity in plant operations, matched by greater flexibility of the labour force. This goal was to be achieved through costabilisation of the various elements forming the local regime of accumulation, with the local state playing a key role as facilitator, guarantor, and promoter of restructuring. It culminated in the passage of two controversial acts by the provincial legislature to satisfy the demands of the potential corporate purchaser of the mill.
Global Competition, International Trade, and Regional Concentration: The Case of the German Chemical Industry during the 1980s
Authors: Bathelt H
Published: October 2006

The present transition from a Fordist to a post-Fordist stage of development is characterized by a structural crisis (the crisis of Fordism). Within the industrial sector, this crisis is associated with economic decline (especially in terms of employment) and substantial reorganization and modernization activities. The way in which the spatial patterns of production will be affected is largely unclear. In the case of the German economy, an increasing number of scholars are worried about the threats which might originate from global restructuring processes of industrial activities. In this context, the economic and spatial structure of the German chemical industry will be analyzed in this paper. It will be argued that the recent economic decline of the chemical industry of western Germany is not indicative of a general deindustrialization trend. The chemical industry is, because of its development path, characterized by a strong tendency to concentrate both economically and regionally. Only a few dominant firms, which form the basis for the spatial development of the industry, have retained, and will retain, technological leadership within the industry (particularly Bayer, Hoechst, and BASF). Their allocation of resources between world regions has remained relatively constant over the past twenty years. It seems unlikely that this geographical distribution will be dramatically changed in the near future through cost-induced relocation activities. Location decisions will, rather, be characterized by a distinct market orientation. This does not, however, imply that chemical production will be shifted away from German locations to other chemical core regions. In contrast to the situation in western Germany, the future existence of chemical production in eastern Germany seems questionable. This is not related to the Fordist crisis but is a consequence of remnants from the previous planned economy and problems associated with German unification.
The Right to Die: A Cross-National Analysis of Agenda Setting and Innovation
Authors: Smith J D , Glick H R
Published: October 2006

Through theories of agenda setting and innovation, the origin, development, and enactment of right-to-die policy in four Western nations—the United States, the Netherlands, Germany, and Great Britain—are examined. Different social and government structures produced varied right-to-die politics in each of these countries, although similar issues received more emphasis in Europe. However, it is discovered that policy entrepreneurs, organizations, and governments are important in similar ways in moving the issue from the public to the governmental agenda and to policy innovations in each country. The paper is concluded with a discussion of elements to be included in a model of agenda setting and innovation and with a proposal for the application of theory to a wider range of policies.
Regional Patterns in South Africa's Postapartheid Election in 1994
Authors: Christopher A J
Published: October 2006

The first universal-franchise elections in South Africa, for the National Assembly and nine provincial councils, were conducted under a system of proportional representation in April 1994. The African National Congress won a substantial victory but failed to secure control of two key provinces: the Western Cape and KwaZulu—Natal. Ethnic voting patterns among the spatially concentrated Coloured and Zulu populations were at variance with the otherwise national-liberationary nature of the election. The South African experience of the significance of ethnic voting parallels that discerned in other emergent democracies, contributing to the widening field of electoral geography.
The Political Economy of Deficit Spending: A Cross Comparison of Industrialized Democracies, 1955–90
Authors: Hahm S D
Published: October 2006

The postwar deficit experiences of nine industrialized democracies are analyzed. The relative importance of three of the primary influences on a country's deficit which have been suggested in the literature: (1) the state of the country's economy, (2) the ‘left – right’ ideology of the party in power, and (3) the strength of the party in power (as advanced by Roubini and Sachs) are examined. The author also introduces and tests the importance of an additional potential influence based on institutional structure in which presidential, ‘stable’ parliamentary, and ‘unstable’ parliamentary systems are seen to provide different incentives regarding the deficit for key political actors.

The arguments are tested on a pooled time-series cross-sectional data set involving two presidential systems (France and the United States), four relatively stable parliamentary systems (Canada, Germany, Japan, and the United Kingdom), and three relatively unstable parliamentary systems (Denmark, Italy, and the Netherlands). The findings include: (a) strong effects of the state of a nation's economy on its deficit; (b) little systematic relationship between the ideology of the party in power and its deficit; and (c) the observation that increased control of the government leads to lower deficits in unstable parliamentary systems but larger deficits in presidential systems, with stable parliamentary systems serving as an intermediate case. The findings are compared both with the author's theoretical refinement and with recent theoretical and empirical work by Roubini and Sachs.
A Review of the Potential of GIS and Spatial Modelling for Planning in the New Education Market
Authors: Clarke G P , Langley R
Published: October 2006

The authors aim to provide a review of the potential for the application of GIS and spatial-modelling techniques in the context of educational planning. It is their contention that such techniques can be particularly effective given the recent changes in the education-policy framework; namely the development of a market system to replace the previous, producer-led, planning environment. The authors argue that GIS-based techniques can offer only a partial solution to the manifold problems facing educationalists, and that we must look to more advanced spatial-analysis tools such as spatial-interaction modelling. The authors conclude that a combination of these techniques offers a powerful tool for planners who are increasingly concerned with questions of the equity of provision.
The Adoption of New Technology in West Virginia: Implications for Manufacturing Modernization Policies
Authors: Shapira P , Rephann T
Published: October 2006

In this paper the determinants of the adoption of new technology are explored by using data obtained from a 1993 survey of 299 manufacturing establishments in the state of West Virginia. The authors examine the use of twenty hardware-based and organizational new manufacturing technologies, aggregate use of technology, and plans for future use of technology. Multivariate regression analyses indicate that larger, export-oriented, branch plants that manufacture products in long production runs, and plants that are located in counties with a sizeable manufacturing sector adopt more new technologies than do other types of plants. The results also suggest that there is a role for further government policy in encouraging plant modernization. Although participation in a state technology-assistance program is not yet associated with higher aggregate levels of use of new technology, it is found to be associated with the adoption of specific technologies and receptivity to investment in new technology. The results of the study also confirm the value of training and suggest that a strategy of targeting smaller and medium-sized plants with services focused on multiple clustered locations may be effective in stimulating the use of new technology among these manufacturers.
The Legitimacy of Norwegian Local Government: The Impact of Central Government Controls
Authors: Sørensen R J
Published: October 2006

The Norwegian system of government comprises three levels: highest is the central government, or Storting (Parliament); in the middle are the counties, and at the lowest level are the municipalities. The municipal and county levels are considered local government. In this paper the degree of central control of the lower two levels of Norwegian government are compared and the implications of national regulations for local democracy, particularly for county governments, are discussed. The counties are more heavily controlled by the central government than are the municipalities, measured both by reliance on central grants and by regulation of the service supply. Whereas the representatives of the municipal councils are ambiguous when it comes to expressing the extent of central government control, the county-level politicians are clearly dissatisfied with central governmental constraints. Central regulations appear not to weaken the attractiveness of positions on the local councils, and the desire for reelection appears higher at the county level than at the municipal level. Voters see the parliamentary elections as most important, the municipal elections as of secondary importance, and the county elections as least important. At the county elections, national policymakers are to some extent responsible for the performance of the county government. It is argued that the lack of voter interest and voter control increases the ability of lobbying organizations to influence county decisions, which is likely to strengthen the dominance of producer interests relative to that of citizens and consumers. Such developments may induce demand for further state legislation to protect consumer interests, which will challenge the overall legitimacy of intermediate democracy.
Local Self-Government in Central and Eastern Europe: Decentralization or Deconcentration?
Authors: Zsamboki K , Bell M
Published: October 2006

The development of autonomous local self-governments is a critical, albeit often over-looked, element of the long-term transition to democracy in Central and Eastern Europe and the newly independent states of the former Soviet Union. All countries in the region have taken clear steps to pass legislation creating new local government institutions. Such institutional reform is necessary, but not sufficient, for the development of autonomous local self-government. In this paper we present several fundamental criteria which must be satisfied in order to establish and nurture autonomous local self-government. We test these criteria against institutional reforms in Central and Eastern Europe and the newly independent states to gauge the extent to which there has been actual devolution of governmental responsibility from central to local governments. We conclude that, although some individual strands of these fundamental reforms may have received some attention in the current transition process, such attention is more ad hoc than strategic. As a result, the goal of creating autonomous local self-governments has not been achieved. Donor nations and reform elements in each country must think strategically about all dimensions of this local government transition if these changes are to be institutionalized and the transition is to be successful in the long term.
Training and Enterprise Councils as Facilitators of a Networked Approach to Local Economic Development: Forms, Mechanisms, and Existing Interpretations
Authors: Huggins R
Published: October 2006

The author reviews and examines the relevant literature concerning the role that networks have played in the local economic development activities of Training and Enterprise Councils (TECs), The analysis focuses on TECs as actors within, and catalysts of, networks—specifically at the local level. TEC mechanisms for economic development and the forms of TEC-facilitated networks are considered, and it is argued that a networking approach has gradually permeated TEC strategies both as a specific policy tool and as an instrument for improving the effectiveness of other support initiatives and programmes. The author finds the existence of a dichotomy between the relatively positive finds of Government-sponsored evaluations of TECs and those of more critical academic studies.
The Use of Planning Methodologies in Local Economic Development Decisionmaking
Authors: Reese L A
Published: October 2006

In this paper the nature and extent of local planning and evaluation practices and their impact on economic development policies are examined. Based on data from a survey of Canadian and US cities with populations over 10 000, several conclusions are drawn; (1) it appears that the extent of planning and evaluation of local economic development policies is limited in cities in both nations; (2) conditions which appear to be associated with planning and evaluation include expected growth in economic base, more land available for development, larger local budgets for economic development, and greater professionalism among economic development officials; and (3) although more planning and evaluation activity is related to an increased use of all types of economic development techniques, planning appears to interact with other local forces in a manner which may lead to more entrepreneurial, demand-side, or redistributive economic development policies.
Administrative Systems and Metropolitan Regions
Authors: Barlow M
Published: October 2006

In recent years the two-tier model of metropolitan government has declined in importance as metropolitan authorities have been circumscribed, weakened, or abolished. At the same time, however, new urban patterns and changing political and economic circumstances are creating needs that point to the continued validity of the two-tier model. In particular, economic pressures resulting from global competition, and societal pressures associated with the need for sustainable development, are providing a basis for new responsibilities and new expectations with regard to metropolitan governance, and there continues to be a case for two scales of response. A major point of difference from the past is that the metropolitan scale is now much larger in spatial terms, and as a result it is useful to consider the upper tier in terms of regional or mesolevel government, and the concept of city-region, adapted to present-day circumstances, may provide a useful framework for future development. Recent proposals for Toronto are illustrative of the changing needs with regard to metropolitan government.
Development, Dependency, and Devolution: The Anomalous Political Economy of Communist and Postcommunist Societies
Authors: Hanson S E
Published: October 2006

The problem of situating economic transitions from communism to postcommunism within more general theories of comparative political economy has received surprisingly little scholarly attention. In this paper the author argues that the reason for the lack of integration between these two literatures is that the dynamics of the formation and decline of the Stalinist socioeconomic system remain basically anomalous for each of the three dominant theoretical frameworks in the field of political economy: the modernization approach, the world-systems approach, and the rational choice approach. Moreover, none of these paradigms by itself appears to account satisfactorily for the diverse economic trends in postcommunist societies. Modernization theory is apparently consistent with economic ‘development’ in the most successful areas within the Leninist and post-Leninist world; world-systems theory appears to fit the type of ‘dependency’ emerging in places such as Central Asia and the Caucasus; rational choice analysis elucidates the continuing ‘devolution’ of Leninist state structures in places where rent-seeking bureaucrats still directly or indirectly control most of the national wealth—but no single approach explains the overall pattern of mixed results. It is concluded that making sense of the puzzling emergence, destruction, and aftermath of the Stalinist economic model requires the integration of ideological modes of coordinating collective action into a more comprehensive political economy paradigm.
Urban Economic Policy Networks in Britain and France; A Sociometric Approach
Authors: John P
Published: October 2006

Local economic development policy networks in four cities in Britain and France (Leeds, Southampton, Lille, and Rennes) are compared by means of the technique of sociometric network analysis. The author's objective was to find out if, in an age of internationalisation and urban competition, networks still conform to the structure suggested by the classic Franco-British comparative studies, or whether they resemble the more open and interorganisational pattern characteristic of the new urban governance. After setting out the methods and the sociometric approach, the author identifies actors who have the ten highest centrality scores in the four cities, The author concludes that, in spite of continuing contrasts in the national institutional structures and differences in the politics and cultures of the four cities, there is a surprising similarity in the key actors involved in urban economic development; these actors include individuals from the locally elected authorities, central government bodies, and businesses. The new urban governance is based on the range of agencies responsible for economic development and upon the growing importance of business in policy formulation and implementation.
The Principles of the ‘New Competition’: An Empirical Assessment of Ireland's Position
Authors: Roper S
Published: October 2006

An assessment is provided of the extent to which industrial development policy and manufacturing firms in Ireland have embraced the four principles of the ‘New Competition’ outlined by Professor Michael Best. Comparisons with Germany arc made throughout the paper. A functional analysis of industrial development spending in Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland suggests that less than a tenth of all expenditure is targeted at improving sectoral competitiveness. Less than 2% is aimed directly at developing collaboration and cooperation between firms, The remainder is counterstrategic, grant aiding the development of individual firms. Although plants in Ireland are found to have more extensive network linkages than those in Germany, these were predominantly between companies which were part of the same group rather than collaborative relationships between independent plants. The limited information available suggests that the production operations of manufacturing plants in Ireland are less flexible than those of German plants. In terms of product development, plants in Ireland had more multifunctional involvement and less functional demarcation than plants in Germany. Plants in Ireland also had similar product-quality aspirations to their German counterparts. Political and operational difficulties are likely to arise in the adoption of a more strategic industrial policy. Firms in Ireland may also be constrained by available human and financial resources in their attempts to embrace the principles of the New Competition.
Barriers to Technology Transfer: Local Impediments in Oxfordshire
Authors: Smith H Lawton
Published: October 2006

The author examines linkage patterns in Oxfordshire between a sample of high-technology firms and local universities and national laboratories with a view to identifying local impediments to technology transfer. Two kinds of impediment are identified: those which are ‘obstructions’, arising from the failure of mechanisms designed to create networks within the national and local innovation systems, and ‘barriers’, which are the weak links within the innovation process in general.
Interrelationships between Key Actors in Local Economic Development
Authors: Wong C
Published: October 2006

The author examines the interrelationship between different organisations in the local economic-development field and the practitioners' response to various policy issues. A sociological perspective is adopted to achieve a sympathetic understanding of the situation as the actors see it, and of the subjective meanings they ascribe to their actions. Empirical findings were yielded both from quantitative and from qualitative data for two case-study areas—the North West and the Eastern regions of England. These two regions were chosen because of their very contrasting socioeconomic experiences, which provide a compelling account of how practitioners perceive different issues and how these perceptions vary between different types of organisations in different localities.
Social Polarisation and Inequality in London: The Earnings Evidence, 1979–95
Authors: Hamnett C , Cross D
Published: October 2006

The last few years have seen a major debate on the scale, extent, and causes of social polarisation in global cities and in Western societies in general. But the debate has often been characterised more by theoretical assertion than by empirical analysis. In particular, the concept of social polarisation has often been confused with inequality. The authors use General Household Survey data and New Earnings Survey data from 1979 to 1995 to examine the existence and extent of polarisation in London. It is argued that the evidence for polarisation is relatively weak, and that to the extent that polarisation exists it is asymmetric, with much greater growth in the size of groups at the top of the earnings distribution than at the bottom. But it is also argued that both London and Great Britain as a whole have seen a marked increase in earnings inequality over the last twenty-five years. Although most groups have improved earnings in real terms, the increase has been much greater at the top end of the earnings scale. As a result, the interquartile and interdecile earnings ratios have risen sharply. It is concluded that London has seen an increase in earnings inequality rather than growth of social polarisation.
Editorial Introduction: The Construction of a Multilevel Environmental Governance System
Authors: Jordan A
Published: October 2006

At its founding in 1957, the European Union (EU) had no environmental policy, no environmental bureaucracy, and no environmental laws. When, in 1973, the EU began systematically to address environmental concerns there was little expectation that the environment would develop into one of the largest areas of common activity. Twenty-five years on, the EU has some of the most progressive environmental policies of any state in the world although it is not itself a state. At the same time, the preexisting environmental policies of the member states have undergone a progressive change through their involvement in EU environmental policymaking. In other words, the member states have created an institutional entity to perform certain tasks which has in turn deeply affected the way they themselves perceive and act against environmental problems. This theme issue of Government and Policy offers a retrospective analysis of these developments. The purpose of this introductory essay is to describe the historical evolution of EU environmental policy and to identify the most salient themes.
The Implementation of EU Environmental Policy; A Policy Problem without a Political Solution?
Authors: Jordan A
Published: October 2006

Implementation lies at the ‘sharp end’ of the European Union (EU) environmental policy process. The success of the EU's policies must ultimately be judged by the impact they have on the ground, but despite many institutional initiatives, poor implementation remains a fact of life in Europe. In this paper the author investigates why the issue of poor implementation was neglected during the first decade of EU environmental policy, outlines the responsibilities and interests of the main actors involved in putting policies into effect, and discusses possible solutions to the well-publicised ‘gap’ between policy goals and outcomes. Implementation deficits will be difficult to eradicate completely because they serve to maintain the delicate ‘balance’ between governmental and supranational elements in the EU.
Cross-National Comparison of Post-Cold-War Defense Conversion and Labor Policies: Sweden and the United States
Authors: Deitrick S
Published: October 2006

Defense and military priorities have changed in the post-Cold-War era in many nations. Decreases in military and defense spending have resulted in layoffs in defense-related industries, creating dislocated defense-dependent workers and affecting economic and social conditions in their communities. How countries cope with the labor repercussions of restructuring in defense differs across nations. Their policy choices are rooted in the historical and institutional paths of their political economies. In this paper the author compares defense restructuring and its effects on workers through an analysis of policies in Sweden and the United States. Both the United States and Sweden have maintained strong military and defense sectors, for different reasons, but demonstrate most-different systems design with regard to labor policies affecting a dislocated workforce. It is argued that the dominant ‘warfare’ state policies of the United States forced the country to develop a set of reactive policies to defense restructuring, more focused on technology and existing defense firms than on the retraining and reemployment needs of its former defense workforce. Sweden's welfare state model, by contrast, enabled defense-sector dislocations to be treated in the same way as other industrial restructuring in the past, by a set of well-developed labor and social policies that encouraged retraining and reemployment of workers. Case studies from both nations highlight these differences. The anticipatory policies in Sweden were better able to cope with structural changes from defense restructuring than were the largely reactive policies of the United States.
An Evaluation of a Regional Development Agency's Grants in Terms of Deadweight and Displacement
Authors: Lenihan H
Published: October 2006

For a number of decades considerable resources have been devoted to supporting Irish industrial policies. There has, however, been a distinct lack of evaluation of these policies. This is particularly pertinent to the Irish small and medium-sized enterprise (SME) sector given its employment potential and importance to the domestic economy. The Small Business Task Force reports that 98% of businesses in Ireland employ fewer than 50 persons and that these provide around half of the total employment in the private sector. There has, however, been a distinct lack of research into the additional impact of SME policy, and particularly the measurement of the twin concepts of deadweight and displacement. To help bridge this gap in Irish SME policy research, the author evaluates grants awarded to indigenous firms (91% of which are SMEs) by a regional development agency in the Shannon region of Ireland. Two components of additionality—deadweight and displacement—are used to aid this evaluation process. The prime methodological approach is that of the self-assessment approach, involving in-depth face-to-face interviews with the managing directors of 77 firms that received grants from the regional development agency in 1995. Data emanating from interviews are then used to obtain estimates of deadweight and displacement in the Shannon region of Ireland.
Policy Implications Arising from the Impact of the Last Recession on the Capital Structure of UK SMEs
Authors: Michaelas N , Chittenden F , Poutziouris P
Published: October 2006

Different capital-structure theories are reviewed in order to formulate testable propositions concerning the levels of debt in small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), and a number of regression models are developed to test the hypotheses, The statistical results indicate that age and profitability, are negatively related to gearing, whereas size, asset structure, risk, nondebt tax shields, and the level of debtors each have a positive relationship with gearing. These relationships are maintained over time, but the magnitude and significance of the coefficients vary over business economic cycles, The results indicate that the last recession may have changed the borrowing behaviour of small businesses. After the dramatic experiences of the longest and deepest UK recession, small-business owners appear to be more cautious in raising external finance, and the results suggest that they may wish to grow only when there are sufficient internally generated funds, especially profits, to finance new investments. The results also suggest that the last recession had an effect on the lending behaviour of financial institutions, which still appear to be more cautious in their lending policies—even after the recession. The authors examine a number of policy implications that emanate from the findings, and discuss a number of possible actions that the government could undertake in order to enhance the financial development and prosperity of SMEs across the economic cycle.
Ex-Offenders and the Labour Market: A Review of the Discourse of Social Exclusion and Consequences for Crime and the New Deal
Authors: Fletcher D R
Published: October 2006

The growth of mass unemployment and concerns about crime in industrialised countries have been paralleled by an increasing preoccupation of policymakers with social exclusion. A key feature of the social exclusion discourse has been its emphasis on paid work as a mechanism of integration. The author outlines how ex-offenders are excluded from the labour market. The consequences for crime and implications for policy focused on the New Deal are also discussed. The key findings are that exclusion is as much a social and political phenomenon as an economic one. Consequently, the focus of the New Deal on reinforcing immediate labour-market attachment by enhancing individual employability is unlikely to succeed in reintegrating ex-offenders through work. The central challenge for policy remains the tackling of inequality in the labour market.
The Use of Indicators for Targeting Public Expenditure: The Index of Local Deprivation
Authors: Connolly C , Chisholm M
Published: October 2006

The UK government places considerable emphasis on the targeting of resources to areas most in need. For the Single Regeneration Budget and other purposes, use is made of the Index of Local Deprivation (ILD), formerly the Index of Local Conditions (ILC), to identify eligible areas. In this paper we show that this index suffers from such serious structural defects that it is unsuitable for the purpose to which it is put. These defects include the scale dependency of the index, the inappropriate treatment of positive and negative numbers, the unequal weights assigned to the indicators used and the difficulties introduced by using a nonlinear structure for the index. Recent decisions to modify the ILD do not address these defects and one change that has been mooted would exaggerate the scale bias. Suggestions are made for what should be done in replacing and supplementing the ILD to provide a better basis for assessing relative need.
Planning and the English Regions: Conflict and Convergence Amongst the Institutions of Regional Governance
Authors: Murdoch J , Tewdwr-Jones M
Published: October 2006

The Regional Development Agencies (RDAs) are just one of many institutional innovations currently being put in place by the new Labour government in the United Kingdom. They are part of a panoply of measures some of which are explicitly aimed at strengthening regional government. However, in this paper we argue that the new innovations are being put in place with insufficient attention paid to the need to reform central and local relations, so that the scope for regional autonomy is limited. The consequence is that relations between regional institutions are much weaker than their links to central government. We compare RDAs and regional planning fora in this regard and show that little thought has gone into harmonising their activities at the regional level as the emphasis has been placed on ensuring that central government retains overall control over policy. We conclude that, if regional autonomy is to be seriously introduced, the central state will have to substantially rethink the scope of national policy, especially in the planning arena.
The Role of the State in Urban Development: The Case of Houston, Texas
Authors: Feagin J R
Published: October 2006

Theories dealing with the role of the state in cities vary considerably in emphasis, from traditional political matters to neo-Marxist and neo-Weberian theories accenting a broader political-economic context in analyzing the role of government in cities. This diversity of urban theories poses significant theoretical and analytical challenges, The purpose of this paper is to examine the role of government in Houston, the most extreme case of a major city which has been developed according to an accentuated ‘free market’ philosophy, in order (1) to provide empirical evidence on the complexity of the state role in supporting urban growth in the Houston metropolis; and (2) to provide additional theoretical insight into the role of the state in the city.
Regional Restructuring, Class Change, and Political Action: Preliminary Comments on the 1984–1985 Miners' Strike in South Wales
Authors: Rees G
Published: October 2006

This paper sets out an analysis of the determination of the character of the 1984–1985 miners' strike. This character is to be understood in terms of the continuities between the strike and preceding developments in terms of (1) the reorganisation of the British coal industry, (2) wider patterns of change in the economic and social structure of the coalfields, and (3) active and self-conscious political organisation, especially within the National Union of Mineworkers and left political parties. By means of a detailed analysis of the South Wales coalfield, the highly differentiated regional character of these developments is demonstrated.
Power, Space, and the Body: A Critical Assessment of Foucault's Discipline and Punish
Authors: Driver F
Published: October 2006

The work of Michel Foucault has recently been subjected to considerable scrutiny. This paper is an examination of his book, Discipline and Punish, which describes an historical transformation in the exercise of power. The themes (section 2) and the significance (section 3) of the book are discussed in terms of Foucault's conception of history and power. In the rest of the paper, its implications are examined more closely, through four categories: ‘institutions’, ‘the economy’, ‘law and the state’, and ‘struggle and strategy’. Under these headings are discussed the connections and contradictions between Foucault's analysis and more conventional Marxist or Weberian approaches. Although Foucault's perspectives cannot be ‘incorporated’ within such theories of power, they are far from being completely incompatible with them.
Accounting for Place and Space
Authors: Shotter J
Published: October 2006

It is proposed that social practices—practical social activities—involve a kind of knowledge distinct both from technical skills (knowing-how) and the application of theoretical knowledge (knowing-that); they involve a knowing of the third kind (knowing-from), a contextual form of knowing from within a situation which takes into account, in what is known, the situation within which it is known. Such a kind of knowledge cannot be communicated in the form of theories, only in the form of narrative accounts. The nature of how people are placed in or determined by their surroundings, and the space of possibilities open to them for further action, are discussed.
Cities, Culture, and Social Change: Books in 1984
Authors: Forbes D K , Jackson P , Thrift N J , Williams P
Published: October 2006

This is the third in a series of annual reports on books likely to be of interest to readers of Society and Space. The report is again indicative rather than comprehensive. Given the enormous amount of literature that is now appearing in so many different subject areas, no other approach is possible. This year the report is divided into five sections: “Economy”, “Culture, Ethnicity, Neighbourhood, and Community”, “Cities, State Control, and Social Change”, “The Third World”, and “Methodology and Social Theory”.
The Dynamics of Transit Innovation in Los Angeles
Authors: Adler S
Published: October 2006

The recent reemergence of the private sector in urban transit, as well as private-sector-like behavior in the public sector, are manifestations of profound political and fiscal crises that are reshaping the service and institutional structure of the US transit industry, These crises developed as coalitions of competing place-based activists sought to deploy transit investments as strategic weapons to gain location advantages, The history and politics of transit in the intensely competitive Los Angeles metropolitan area illuminate these dynamics, especially the continuing conflict between downtown Los Angeles and outlying business centers on the issues of rail rapid transit and the role of the regional bus transit agency. Privatization and institutional fragmentation, facilitated in Los Angeles by passage of a transit sales tax in 1980, are the strategies of choice for outlying business centers, just as region-wide agencies and radial rail rapid transit systems have been downtown initiatives.
Postmodernism and Planning
Authors: Dear M J
Published: October 2006

Postmodernism seems able to embrace any discourse on style, architecture, literature, with equal facility. Yet its erratic and chameleon-like form renders it susceptible to quick dismissal. In this essay, I attempt a tolerant assessment of the meaning of postmodernism as it applies to planning. The notions of postmodernism as style, as method, and as epoch are examined. The history of planning from 1945 to 1985 is deconstructed, and reveals the pastiche of ‘postmodern planning’. A metalanguage for discourse on a reconstructed planning theory suggests three evaluative dimensions: function–context; commodification–noncommodification; and penetration–participation.
Ethnicity and the Frontier in Los Angeles
Authors: Krieger M H
Published: October 2006

Los Angeles is described using archetypal or mythic themes—virginity, virility, and purity—drawn in part from American historiography of the western part of the United States of America, often called the frontier. These themes have been used to express the contemporary fascination with the ethnic populations of Los Angeles, and they suggest a connection between the Eastern concern with ethnicity and the Western concern with the frontier.
Some Social and Spatial Aspects of Services
Authors: Urry J
Published: October 2006

Five related issues involved in the analysis of services are discussed. First, it is shown that it is incorrect to suggest that there is a single route to the contemporary economy with high employment in the service sector. The Fisher–Clark thesis is discussed and criticised. In the specific case of the United Kingdom it is shown that service industries were of considerable importance even during the supposed heyday of Victorian manufacturing industry. This is shown by analysing certain regional indicators. It is further suggested that the crucial role of especially financial services cannot be understood separately from the broader Makler or middleman economy which in part predated the extensive growth of manufacturing industry. Second, some of the recent arguments of Gershuny and Miles are analysed. It is shown that their formulations are insufficiently social, both in the sense of ignoring changes in the social relations underpinning capitalist production both of manufacturing and of service industries, and of neglecting the impact of ‘social struggles' on the forms and levels of service employment. Third, a number of criteria are discussed by which different service industries can be separated off from each other. The criteria considered are ownership, market, product, degree of ‘commodification’, function, and character of the exchange. A classification based on elements of each of these is proposed in order to deal with UK data sources. Fourth, analysis is developed of eleven different forms of service sector restructuring. Some consideration is paid to the problems of explaining which of these will be found in particular sectors. Particular attention is devoted to considering the degree of importance of the ‘labour’ factor. Last, some of the processes affecting the ‘private consumer services' concerned with tourism are analysed. In particular, attention is devoted to aspects of the physical and social setting within which the service delivery takes place. An attempt is made to demonstrate which particular forms of service sector restructuring will be found in those tourist services in British coastal resorts. The exceptionally complex nature of the forces affecting employment levels in such places is shown in some detail.
Structuration Theory: Some Thoughts on the Possibilities for Empirical Research
Authors: Gregson N
Published: October 2006

This paper is concerned with developing the current critical engagement in the social sciences with the structurationist writings of Anthony Giddens. Of particular concern here is the hitherto relatively neglected question of the relationship between structuration theory and empirical research projects. For reasons to do with (1) Giddens's arguments about the overall purpose of social theory, (2) the importance of the theory–empirical research question generally in social science, (3) the need to expand Giddens's audience, and (4) the necessity of assessing the degree to which structuration theory helps in the understanding of the social life, this issue is considered to be of the first importance. Several key questions of direct relevance to this concern are explored, notably, Giddens's comments on this score; the relationship of these comments to wider debate on the connections between theoretical and empirical work; and the possibility of locating structuration theory within the concept of hierarchies of abstraction.