bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Brief Report: Differential oxidations of estradiol‐17β by the chimpanzee in vivo
Authors: Musey P. I. , Collins D. C. , Gould K. G. , Preedy J. R. K.
Published: June 2005

The metabolism of estradiol‐17β is primarily an oxidative process at either carbon‐2 or carbon‐16 in the human. The objective of this study was to determine the relative importance of these two oxygenation pathways in the chimpanzee. The rate of oxidation of estradiol‐17β at each position was determined by measuring the release of tritium into body water from carbon‐2 or carbon‐16. [2‐3H]‐Estradiol‐17β or [16‐3H]‐estradiol‐17β was injected intravenously into three adult male chimpanzees, and blood samples were obtained at several time intervals between 1 and 48 hr. The blood was lyophilized, and the release of tritium from the specifically labeled estrogens into the body fluid pool was determined. The release of tritium from the 16α‐position was very low and did not exceed 3% in any animal. The release of tritium from the carbon‐2 was much faster, amounting to 29%, 34%, and 35%, respectively, by 24 hr. The ratio of tritium released from carbon‐2:carbon‐16 was 5.0, 13.2 and 16.9, respectively, at 24 hr after injection of the specifically labeled estradiol‐17β. These results demonstrate clearly that the major pathway for oxidative metabolism of estradiol‐17β in the chimpanzee is via oxygenation at carbon‐2, with the formation of catechol estrogens, as in the human.
Guinea baboons (Papio papio) at a sleeping site
Authors: Anderson J. R. , McGrew W. C.
Published: June 2005

Descriptive and quantitative observations were made of wild Guinea baboons (Papio papio) at a regularly used sleeping tree (Ceiba pentandra) in Senegal. Observations concentrated on the transition from darkness before sunrise until the baboons had left the tree. Behavior at sleeping sites is affected by a variety of social and nonsocial factors. Sleeping postures were adjusted during the night and to suit weather conditions. The baboons began to leave the tree earlier before sunrise in the dry season, especially on moonlit mornings. This might reflect increased foraging demands in the dry season. Sleeping parties were larger in the wet season, the difference being mainly due to juveniles. Huddling in the sleeping tree was little affected by weather conditions. The most common sleeping huddles consisted of adult females and young; huddles rarely contained more than one adult male. Although the sleeping tree was a safe refuge from leopards, the first baboon to leave the tree in the morning was usually an adult male. It has been hypothesized that the buildup of intestinal parasites in feces below sleeping trees influences the use of the trees by baboons; this did not occur here.
A test of the generalizability of the interval scale developed for social behavior of rhesus monkeys
Authors: Boccia Maria L.
Published: June 2005

An interval scale of behavior would be useful in the study of social relations because it would allow the whole behavioral repertory to be used simultaneously and would allow greater flexibility in statistical manipulation. Maxim has developed such a scale using isolated dyads of unfamiliar monkeys. The typical social environment of monkeys, however, consists of familiar monkeys in mixed age and sex groups. This study replicates Maxim's procedure and tests the applicability of a scale developed with isolated dyads to groups of familiar monkeys. The scale developed here differed substantially from Maxim's. Behavior of monkeys in these groups was much more variable than behavior of monkeys in Maxim's isolated dyads. Behaviors at the extremes of the scale were similarly arranged in both scales, but behaviors in the central region were more labile and disordered. Distances between behaviors at the extreme of this scale were significantly larger than those in the central region whereas there were no differences in Maxim's scale. While some of these differences may be accounted for by group size and familiarity, several difficulties remain. Some behaviors may change meaning across different contexts and social relationships. The generalizability of these scales, therefore, may be limited to the behavior of groups of similar composition and familiarity.
Seasonal changes of serum concentrations of estradiol and progesterone in Bolivian squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus)
Authors: Diamond Edward J. , Aksel Sezer , Hazelton Julianne M. , Jennings Roger A. , Abee Christian R.
Published: June 2005

Serial measurements of estradiol (E2) and progesterone (P) were used to describe the ovarian cycle of the Bolivian squirrel monkey. Group‐caged, sexually mature female squirrel monkeys, housed with males, were sampled daily between 0900 and 1100 hr. Sampling was carried out during the breeding and nonbreeding seasons, for periods of 19–20 days from September 1981 to May 1982. Seasonal differences in serum concentrations of E2 and P were found with low levels of E2 and P and an absence of preovulatory surges of E2 during the nonbreeding season. This pattern was also observed in some animals during the breeding season. An abrupt increase in serum P concentrations in December appeared to signal the onset of cycling. Cycling animals had well‐defined peaks of E2 (450–9,500 pg/ml) followed by increasing levels of P, which were >200 ng/ml in some animals. After the breeding season, E2 and P levels returned to their initially low levels. Levels of both steroids in cycling animals were higher than those reported for other primates and for previous measurements made in squirrel monkeys. Cycle length based on time interval between consecutive E2 peaks varied from 6–12 days.
Inbreeding, heterozygosity, and lymphoma risk among the baboons (Papio hamadryas) of Sukhumi, USSR
Authors: Crawford Michael H. , O'Rourke Dennis H. , Dykes Dale D. , Yakovleva L. A. , Voevodin A. F. , Lapin Boris , Polesky H. F.
Published: June 2005

This paper describes the spread of lymphoma through a baboon (Papio hamadryas) colony in the Institute of Experimental Pathology and Therapy at Sukhumi, USSR. In the late 1960s, Soviet scientists inoculated 12 baboons with cells from hospitalized human leukemia patients, causing the death of a total of 135 animals between 1967 and 1978. The death rate from lymphoma averages almost 12 baboons per year in the Sukhumi colony. Genetic investigations of these baboons revealed the following: 1) Six blood protein markers out of 16 systems (38%) tested were polymorphic; 2) the average inbreeding coefficient for the entire colony (N = 1,226) was 0.027 (exclusion of baboons with F values equal to 0.0 raised the mean inbreeding coefficient to 0.096); 3) no relationship between inbreeding and risk of lymphoma was noted; and 4) there was an apparent association between both PGM loci and the incidence of lymphoma at the 0.005 levels of significance. This association was further supported by the significantly lower incidence of PGM2 (2‐1) genotype in baboons with high anti‐VCA‐HVP titers.
Vigilance, vocalizations, and cryptic behavior at retirement in captive groups of red‐bellied tamarins (Saguinus labiatus)
Authors: Caine Nancy G.
Published: June 2005

Frequent references are made to presumed antipredator adaptations exhibited by callitrichids, but there are very few systematic investigations of these behaviors. One set of untested presumptions stems from observations that callitrichids become especially vigilant and cryptic prior to retirement each evening. This hypothesis was tested in the current study by quantifying the rates of vocalizations and extragroup behavior at various times of the day. Using two groups of captive red‐bellied tamarins, it was demonstrated that these primates do become relatively more quiet and more attentive to the nonsocial environment prior to retirement each evening, culminating in virtual silence once the nest box has been entered. While the adaptive significance of these phenomena has not yet been tested, it is likely that the behaviors reduce vulnerability to predation.
The fate of Washoe, et al. Review of Silent Partners, by Eugene Linden. New York, Times Books, 1986, 247 pages, $17.95
Authors: Shapiro Gary L.
Published: June 2005

In the long run, we are the victims of a skewed view of our relationship with the rest of the natural order. We treat everything besides oureslves as a commodity whose value is determined by the short‐term considerations of the marketplace, but how do we know that the market is efficient enough to assign a true value to everything in nature? Are we endangering or eliminating organisms that may be vital to our long‐term survival? It is hubris to assume that science can answer this question.
Sexual and social behavior of adult saddle‐back tamarins (Saguinus fuscicollis), castrated as neonates
Authors: Epple Gisela , Alveario M. Catherine , Andre Elizabeth St.
Published: June 2005

The behavior of four adult males castrated as neonates was compared with that of three neonatally sham‐castrated males and two untreated males serving as controls. Two males castrated as sexually experienced adults served as additional controls. All males lived in permanent male‐female pairs. The interactions of neonatally castrated, sham‐castrated, and intact control males with strange conspecifics were tested in a situation analogous to territorial defense. In addition, the interactions of all males with their female pair mates were tested. Neonatally castrated males showed less injurious aggression against strangers and interacted with them less frequently than control males. There were significant differences between both groups of males in some of the agonistic behaviors recorded, but not in all. In pair tests, neonatally castrated males failed to show any coordinated male copulatory behavior but control males did. Males castrated as adults showed rates of mounting and thrusting similar to those of intact controls. Neonatally castrated males tended to interact with their females on a lower level than neonatally sham‐castrated and untreated control males. How ever, most differences between both groups in the levels of pair mate interactions were not statistically significant. It is concluded that castration during neonatal life prevents the display of male copulatory behavior in adulthood and selectively affects the display of a number of other behaviors in adulthood. It is not possible at this point to decide whether these results are due to hormonal deficiencies on an organizational or activational level or both. However, data from studies currently in progress suggest that organizational processes might be responsible for part of the effect.
A benign method for maintaining ovulatory estrogen levels in cycling rhesus macaques
Authors: Bercovitch Fred B. , Goy Robert W. , Scheffler Guenther , Wittwer Daniel J. , Hempel Mike
Published: June 2005

The goal of this study was to develop a relatively noninvasive technique for generating ovulatory estrogen levels in cycling females over extended periods of time. Eleven intact cycling rhesus macaques were given weekly injections of estradiol cypionate in an effort to obtain weekly levels which approximated ovulatory levels. A dose of 500 μg generated weekly estrogen values averaging 370 ± 18 pg/ml. This method is a satisfactory alternative to more traditional techniques. It involves no surgical procedures, it is relatively nonintrusive, it does not terminate a female's reproductive career, and it is not as time‐consuming as daily injections. Female cycle state can be altered with a minimum of manipulation for studies involving the behavior of estrous females.
Prosimian hemoglobins: IV. The structural difference responsible for the hemoglobin phenotype of Lemur catta
Authors: Duffy Lawrence K. , Ehrhardt Margaret M. , Buettner‐Janusch John , Coppenhaver Dorian H.
Published: June 2005

The ring‐tailed lemur, Lemur catta, shows a two‐component hemoglobin phenotype after alkaline electrophoresis. A difference in the amino acid sequence of the isolated α‐globins was observed at position 15 (α I‐Gly, α II‐Lys) and can account for the electrophoretic pattern of two hemoglobin components. Only one other amino acid difference was found in the sequence of the two globin chains: a neutral substitution occurs at position 53 (α I‐Gly, α II‐Ala). The complete primary structures of the duplicated α‐globin chains of Lemur catta are presented.
The evolution of large body size in orangutans: A model for hominoid divergence
Authors: Wheatley Bruce P.
Published: June 2005

Recent Miocene fossil discoveries of large hominoids resemble orangutans. Since the evolution of large body size was functionally related to a powerful masticatory system in Miocene ape radiations, a better understanding of adaptations in extant orangutans will be informative of hominoid evolution. It is suggested here, based on the behavioral ecology of extant orangutans, that foraging energetics and large body size are tied to a dietary shift that provided access to and utilization of resources not generally available to other primates.
Differentiall behavioral and adrenocortical responses to stress among three macaque species
Authors: Clarke A. Susan , Mason William A. , Moberg Gary P.
Published: June 2005

Behavioral and adrenocortical responses of rhesus (Macaca mulatta), bonnet (M. radiata), and crabeating (M. fascicularis) macaques were compared in their home cages, during exposure to novelty and during physical restraint. Both behavioral and adrenocortical responses differentiated species in each condition. In all conditions, post‐test corticosteroid levels were highest for crabeaters and lowest for rhesus. Rhesus were the most active behaviorally, and bonnets were the most passive, while crabeaters exhibited the greatest signs of behavioral disturbance. Relationships between adrenocortical and behavioral responses varied between groups. Both adrenocortical and behavioral profiles were in accord with the behavior of these three species under more natural conditions. The role of psychophysiological responses in general behavioral dispositions toward the environment is discussed. It is concluded that behavioral dispositions, inclusive of psychophysiological responses, may vary qualitatively even among closely related primate species.
Enteric trichomonads of squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sp): Natural infestation and treatment
Authors: Brady Alan G. , Pindak Frank F. , Abee Christian R. , Gardner William A.
Published: June 2005

In a large breeding colony of squirrel monkeys, a previous study demonstrated apparent universal infestation of adult animals with enteric trichomonads. The potential of these organisms to act as a source of experimental variability and the potential pathogenic effects of parasitism in this species stimulated this study of organism acquisition and treatment. Age of natural infestation with trichomonads was determined from results of microscopic examination and culture of fecal samples from infants of different ages. A majority of squirrel monkey infants showed first evidence of trichomoniasis at 2 to 4 weeks of age, with apparent 100% infestation by 8 weeks of age. Treatment of adult monkeys was investigated. In vitro techniques were utilized to determine sensitivity to metronidazole of a number of isolates. An effective regimen for treatment of adult monkeys was determined to be 25 mg/kg body weight of metronidazole given orally, twice daily for 5 days.
Darting and marking techniques for an arboreal forest monkey, Cercopithecus ascanius
Authors: Jones W. Thomas , Bush Betsy B.
Published: June 2005

Techniques are described for capturing and marking redtail monkeys (Cercopithecus ascanius). An air‐powered darting rifle and syringe darts loaded with a Ketamine‐Rompun mixture were used for capture. Ketamine was used for maintaining anesthesia. Monkeys were darted 48 times and captured 27 times. In 24 of the 27 captures, the monkeys were released unharmed. Adult males were marked with radiotransmitters attached to collars of nylon webbing. Females received nylon webbing collars with colorcoded plastic washers for identification.
Gonadotropin‐releasing hormone release from the mediobasal hypothalamus of fetal baboons
Authors: Meyer Donald C. , Pepe Gerald J.
Published: June 2005

Pulsatile luteinizing‐hormone releasing hormone (LHRH) secretion was measured from the mediobasal‐suprachiasmatic‐preoptic (MBH‐SCN‐POA) region of the hypothalamus from fetal baboons (Papio anubis) at midgestation (day 100; term = day 184). The entire MBH‐SCN‐POA (48 ± 5 mg) was obtained between 1100 and 1200 hours and was immediately placed in icecold phosphate buffer (pH 7.4). The MBH‐SCN‐POA units were halved at the midline and superfused in parallel at 37.5°C for 5 hours. Then 500 μl of superfusate was collected at 10‐minute intervals, and LHRH concentration was measured by radioimmunoassay using the Chen‐Ramirez antibody. In fetuses of untreated baboons (N = 3), LHRH pulse amplitude (mean ± SE) was 16.0 ± 4.2 pg, with a period of 30 ± 1 minute; the average 10‐minute output of LHRH was 9.4 ± 2.0 pg. In fetal baboons in which the hormonal milieu in the mother was modulated by androstenedione treatment of midpregnancy (N = 3), average LHRH pulse amplitude was 1.7 ± 0.3 pg, with a period of 33.5 ± 4.9 minutes; the average 10‐minute output of LHRH was 1.2 ± 0.2 pg. Collectively, these data suggest that as early as midgestation, fetal baboons secrete LHRH in vitro in a pulsatile fashion and with a periodicity of 30–35 minutes. In addition, the decrease in LHRH pulse amplitude and the average 10‐minute LHRH output (P < .01, P < .05) in tissue from fetal baboons of mothers in which the normal pattern of steroidogenesis is altered suggest that the output of LHRH systems in the fetus is sensitive to changes in the maternal hormonal milieu.
Cytogenetic studies of Aotus from Eastern Amazonia. Y/Autosome rearrangement
Authors: Pieczarka Julio Cesar , Nagamachi Cleusa Yoshiko
Published: June 2005

Twenty‐one specimens of Aotus were captured on both sides of the Tocantins river when the hydroelectric reservoir of Tucuruí, Brazil, was filled. The males had a diploid number of 49 chromosomes, and the females had 50. The observed difference is a consequence of the fusion of the Y chromosome with an autosome. The karyotype is similar to that of the Bolivian Aotus (A. azarae boliviensis). It differs, however, in the G‐ and C‐banding patterns of the chromosome resulting from the Y/autosome fusion. The nucleolar organizing region is located on the secondary constriction of a pair of submetacentric chromosomes. Considerations are presented on the classification of A. infulatus as a separate species.
Three basic programs for recording, storing, and handling behavioral data
Authors: López‐Luján A. X. , Mondragón R.
Published: June 2005

Behavioral studies using observational methods can be improved by the use of microcomputers. Computers are time‐saving tools that enhance quantitative assessment of behavior. This is important in primate behavior studies, which typically are long‐term and involve large repertoires of behaviors. The present study describes three BASIC programs developed to record, store, and handle behavioral data. This software was created to allow the collection of a library of unabridged sampling sessions. The data‐handling programs were designed so that users can effortlessly extract specific information without disturbing the original recordings. Moreover, the programs can be easily translated to any BASIC dialect, so their use is not limited to a particular machine.
Affiliative behavior of adult female sooty mangabeys (Cercocebus atys)
Authors: Ehardt Carolyn L.
Published: June 2005

A 14‐month study of 30 adult female members of a captive group of sooty mangabeys investigated their affiliative interactions with group members of varying age and sex. The adult females preferentially affiliated with other adults and interacted less than expected with immature group members. Dyadic frequencies suggested especially frequent affiliation with the three resident adult males, although the pattern of interaction with each male was distinct and apparently was related to age and dominance status of the males. Females of the alpha matriline showed significantly greater affiliation with the males than did those of other matrilines, but this preference was not reciprocated by the males. A preference for grooming older group members (some of the matriarchs and the oldest adult male) was also suggested. In consideration of the taxonomic distinctness of the sooty mangabey from the gray‐cheeked mangabey, comparison of these results with those available for albigena were made. Few differences were apparent. Comparisons with the affiliative behavior of Papio females also suggested limited differences, despite the apparently isolated position of the sooty mangabey within the tribe Papionini.
Determinants of behavioral rhythmicity during artificial menstrual cycles in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta)
Authors: Michael Richard P. , Zumpe Doris
Published: June 2005

Reproductive success in many mammals depends on synchrony between copulation and ovulation, which is insured by the phenomenon of heat in the female. Certain anthropoid primates including rhesus monkeys do not show heat but may copulate throughout the menstrual cycle, especially when pairs are isolated from conspecifics. In social groups, however, mating mostly occurs around midcycle. We wished to test the hypothesis that copulations are more closely linked to ovulation when males have simultaneous access to several females in different cycle phases. Artificial menstrual cycles were therefore induced by giving hormones to ovariectomized female rhesus monkeys observed in small social groups that each consisted of four females and one male. The cycles of two hormone‐treated femlab in each group were either made to synchronize or be offset by 7‐day increments so that the estradiol peak of one female occurred 7 days before, and 7 and 14 days after, the estradiol peak of the other. Radioimmunoassay of plasma samples (N = 224) confirmed the timing of the estradiol peaks. Results from eight unique male‐female groups (4 males, 8 females, 16 male‐female pairs, 718 tests) fully supported the hypothesis. Compared with synchronized cycles, the amplitudes of rhythmic changes in offset cycles were reduced for ejaculations made by males but greatly enhanced for ejaculations received by females. We propose that this socio‐hormonal integration of behavior in the group is highly adaptive and enhances the reproductive success of both males and females.
Prehension in Cebus and Saimiri: I. Grip type and hand preference
Authors: Costello Michael B. , Fragaszy Dorothy Munkenbeck
Published: June 2005

Prehension was examined in tufted capuchins (Cebus apella) and squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus). Individual subjects were videotaped from frontal and sagittal planes while they grasped small objects presented in several ways (in view, out of view, embedded, moving). Capuchins used a precision grip in 30% of trials and in more than half of trials with stationary objects. Most (54%) of the precision grips used were opposition of the thumb to the index finger; however, eight other forms were also observed. Squirrel monkeys never used a precision grip. Data on hand preference, preliminary data on movement velocity, and preliminary observations of movement trajectories (up to the time of hand shaping prior to contact with the object) do not indicate significant differences across genera in these aspects of prehension. The presence of varied precision grips in capuchins and no form of precision grip in squirrel monkeys leads to two conclusions. First, a thumb classification of “opposable” (vs. “pseudo‐opposable”) is not essential for precision gripping. Capuchins, with pseudo‐opposable thumbs, use precision grips routinely. Second, the fundamental difference between these genera, which accommodates precision gripping in capuchins, is the capacity in capuchins (but not in squirrel monkeys) to produce lateral pressure between opposing digits. The anatomy of the spinal pyramidal tract and neuromuscular interfacing in the hands may be more sensitive gauges of manual dexterity than the anatomy of the thumb.
Taxonomic status of Saguinus tripartitus (Milne‐Edwards, 1878)
Authors: Thorington R. W.
Published: June 2005

A review of specimens and field notes of Carlos Olalla and his sons showed that they collected Saguinus tripartitus and Saguinus fuscicollis lagonotus at the same place on the right bank of the lower Rio Napo in Peru. Thus, these two forms are sympatric, although they probably occur in different habitats. Therefore, Saguinus tripartitus should be treated as a distinct species, not as a subspecies of Saguinus fuscicollis.
Proximate and ultimate causes of reproductive suppression among female yellow baboons at Mikumi National Park, Tanzania
Authors: Wasser Samuel K. , Starling Alison K.
Published: June 2005

Attack coalitions, whereby two or more individuals attack another animal simultaneously, were studied in 53 sexually mature female baboons from one small and two large troops at Mikumi National Park, Tanzania. For 14 months, three observers recorded coalition behavior throughout the day, using focal group sampling on a behavior‐dependent basis. Coalition rates were considerably greater in the two large troops than in the small troop, and primarily involved natal females rather than males. Coalition frequencies corresponded closely to measures of reproductive synchrony, both within and between troops. Involvement in attack coalition behavior depended on the reproductive states and ranks of both attackers and recipients. The first few females to give birth in the cohort received particularly high amounts of coalition aggression just before and immediately after giving birth. Receipt of attack coalitions was significantly associated with an increased number of cycles to conception and longer interbirth intervals, as well spontaneous abortion, premature birth, and prolonged gestation. A parallel study on survivorship patterns of immature baboons at Mikumi provided evidence for ultimate cause of the observed coalition patterns. These combined results suggest that attack coalition behavior is a form of reproductive competition whereby females attempt to suppress the reproduction of others at predictably competitive times and thereby reduce the competition their own infants face from the time they are weaned.
Food distribution, dominance, and aggressive behaviors in bonnet macaques
Authors: Boccia Maria L. , Laudenslager Mark , Reite Martin
Published: June 2005

Resource availability or distribution may affect interindividual competition in species such as primates, which forage in social groups, and several field studies suggest that dominance status predicts access to restricted food sources. Increased competition due to restricted resources may result in the intensification of aggressive behaviors. The study reported here examines the impact of manipulation of the distribution of food resources in a laboratory‐housed group of bonnet macaques to assess the impact of distribution on aggressive behaviors. Food was restricted to a space which allowed access to only one or two individuals at a time or was dispersed throughout the living enclosure to allow universal access in alternating periods. During periods of clumped distribution, the monkeys obtained access to the food in order of their dominance status in the group. In addition, overall levels of aggressive behaviors increased, submissive behavior increased, and play decreased during periods of clumped distribution of food. These results confirm the findings from field studies indicating increases in agonism with restriction of food resources. These findings also have implications for primate colony management, in terms of developing strategies for minimizing intragroup aggression in captive groups.
Successful feeding enrichment for captive chimpanzees
Authors: Bloomsmith M. A. , Alford P. L. , Maple T. L.
Published: June 2005

An analysis of a feeding enrichment program for captive chimpanzees was completed to determine the effects of that program on the incidence of agonistic and abnormal behaviors by using 41 adult chimpanzees in six social groups. Four feeding enrichment procedures were implemented simultaneously in the experimental phase of this ABA design study. The procedures were planned to elicit time‐consuming, noncompetitive feeding, theorizing a consequent reduction in agonism and detrimental abnormal behaviors typically occurring in captive chimpanzees. The 270 hours of data were collected over a 6‐month period. A multivariate analysis of variance result supported the hypothesis, as the barrage of feeding enrichment techniques significantly reduced agonism and abnormal behaviors. This study's significance lies in its application of the scientific method to improving the husbandry of captive primates.
Grooming with a stone in sooty mangabeys (Cercocebus atys)
Authors: Kyes Randall C.
Published: June 2005

“Stone‐grooming,” or grooming with a stone, has been reported in Macaca fuscata. This report provides a descriptive account of a similar behavior displayed by a female mangabey Cercocebus atys. During a study of embracing behavior in sooty mangabeys, one adult female was observed to groom her infant with a stone. The grooming pattern involved short strokes and/or a circular motion over the area being groomed—the infant's eye region. Stone‐grooming appears to be a distinct type of grooming although the function(s) of this behavior remains unclear. The use of a stone in grooming may represent a case of tool use.
Partial recovery and a new population estimate of rhesus monkey populations in India
Authors: Southwick Charles H. , Siddiqi M. Farooq
Published: June 2005

The purpose of this field study has been to assess major changes in rhesus monkey populations of north central India over a period of 28 yrs from 1959 to 1986. Population censuses have been done in Aligarh District three times per year, and extensive regional surveys were done in 1959–1960, 1964–1965, 1977–1978, and 1985–1986. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, rhesus populations in India declined more than 90%, from an estimated 2 million animals in 1960 to approximately 180,000 by 1980. These declines were attributed to increasing agricultural pressures in India, loss of primate habitats, less protection for monkeys, and high levels of trapping. In the 1970s, as India's agricultural production rose and stronger wildlife conservation programs developed, local populations of rhesus began to increase. These increases became more prominent after 1978, when India imposed a ban on export of monkeys. By 1985 a population in Aligarh District had returned to its 1960 level in total population size, although the number of groups remained low. Other local populations showed even more striking growth and greatly exceeded former levels. Some areas of India, however, have shown no improvement in rhesus populations. Overall, extensive field surveys of rural habitats in 1985–1986 showed a 53% recovery in the number of rhesus groups, and a 129% recovery in total rhesus from their low points in 1977–1978. We estimate the rhesus population of India in 1985 in the vicinity of 410,000–460,000 individuals.
Macaca thibetana at Mt. Emei, China: I. A cross‐sectional study of growth and development
Authors: Zhao Qikun , Deng Ziyun
Published: June 2005

Six free‐ranging groups of Macaca thibetana were studied at Mt. Emei, in southwest China. Patterns of growth and development observed during the study are described for this species for the first time. Data were collected mainly during the birth season of 1986. Food handouts made possible the measurement of body weight and sitting height. Changes in fur color and growth of forehead hair were noted. Dark hair appeared on the broad white forehead of infants at the end of the third month. A triangular patch formed about 30 days later, and full cover developed within 4.5 to 5 months. For the first 1 or 2 weeks, the fur was blackish; it then became yellow, and by the age of 3.5–4.5 months, it was brown or blackish, i.e., adult color. Growth data on body weight and sitting height for different age‐sex classes were collected. For adult males, body weight was 18 kg, sitting height (SH) 55 cm, and ponderal index 33. For adult female, body weight was 13 kg, sitting height 47 cm, and ponderal index 27. Females were considered to be adult at age 5 years.
Macaca thibetana at Mt. Emei, China: II. Birth seasonality
Authors: Zhao Qikun , Deng Ziyun
Published: June 2005

Birth censuses were conducted every 2 or 3 days for each of six groups of Macaca thibetana along trails at Mt. Emei in southwest China from March 7 to June 15, 1986. Based on direct observations and the timetable of forehead hair growth and behavior, each of 32 infants could be placed in one of sixteen 14‐day periods of the 1986 birth season. The mean estimated birth date was March 27 (SD = 39 days); the median estimated birth date was March 14. Sex ratios in newborns and yearlings did not deviate significantly from 1:1. Seasonal birth timing was correlated with the altitude of the range (r = −0.84, P < .05); that is, infants were born earlier in the season at higher altitudes.
Model life tables for the larger old world monkeys
Authors: Gage Timothy B. , Dyke Bennett
Published: June 2005

Mortality statistics for 25 populations of the larger Old World monkeys (members of the subfamily Cercopithecinae) were evaluated with a competing hazard model of mortality. The best eight of these life tables were combined to generate a standard model life table representative of the mortality patterns of these primates. Two applications of the standard model to smooth, graduate, and compare life tables based on limited and defective data are presented.
Female sexual swellings in the Asian colobine Simias concolor
Authors: Tenaza Richard R.
Published: June 2005

During a preliminary study of pig‐tailed langurs (Simias concolor) in the Pagai Islands, Indonesia, it was discovered that females exhibited conspicuous swelling of the urogenital triangle. The pig‐tailed langur is the first Asiatic colobine found to have prominent sexual swellings and the only colobine with sexual swellings that lives in one‐male groups. Because all anthropoids with conspicuous sex skin typically live in groups having female‐biased adult sex ratios, it is possible that females might compete amongst themselves for the male in one‐male groups, or the best males in multimale groups. Sexual swellings may therefore have resulted from sexual selection for signals attractive to males in female‐female competition, as suggested earlier by Bercovitch (California Anthropologist 8:9–12, 1978). Prolonged observation of recognizable individuals will be required to test this hypothesis in the pig‐tailed langur and other species.
Direct effect of estradiol‐17β on progesterone accumulation by ovarian granulosa cells from rhesus monkeys
Authors: Hutz Reinhold J. , Morgan Patricia M. , Krueger Gail S. , Durning Maureen , Dierschke Donald J.
Published: June 2005

We have previously demonstrated that estradiol‐17β (E2) administered in vivo induces atresia of the dominant ovarian follicle (DF). Whether this effect is exerted directly at the ovarian level or by central mediation has not been confirmed. The present study was designed to assess whether E2 in amounts similar to those found in monkey follicular fluid (FF) directly alters in vitro progesterone (P) accumulation by granulosa cells (GC) aspirated from follicles in cycling rhesus monkeys. Follicular contents were aspirated from three to five animals on each of days 8–13 of the cycle. GC were plated at a density of 50,000 viable GC/0.5 ml medium; GC were incubated with 0 or 2–2,000 ng/ml E2, and cultures were maintained for 72 h. P accumulation by GC collected on day 8 and treated with 2 ng/ml E2 was augmented 37.5 ± 5.5% (X ± S. E. M.; P<.05) over controls but was diminished significantly at 20 ng/ml ( −55 ± 18% with respect to controls), 200 ng/ml ( −73.7 ± 13.2%), and 2,000 ng/ml ( −77.3 ± 18.4%). A similar dose‐response relationship was noted on other cycle days. At a concentration of 2,000 ng/ml, E2 significantly reduced P 91.5 ± 8.5% (day 10), 81.5 ± 18.5% (day 11), 84.3 ± 4.7% (day 12), and 53.7 ± 15.8% (day 13). We conclude that E2 at concentrations found in FF can inhibit P output by monkey GC through a direct action.
Periparturitional behavior of a bonobo (Pan paniscus)
Authors: Bolser Linda , Savage‐Rumbaugh Sue
Published: June 2005

Knowledge of periparturitional behaviors in captive primates may contribute to infant survival and is particularly important for endangered species, such as the bonobo, or pygmy chimpanzee (Pan paniscus). Given that the bonobo is considered to be closely related to humans, such knowledge also may offer insights about the evolutionary development of complex maternal patterns. To date, however, only one observation of a P. paniscus birth has been reported. The periparturitional behaviors of a mature bonobo (P. paniscus) female during the pregnancy and birth of two infants are described in detail. Information not previously reported for the species is included. Periparturitional behaviors were similar for both births.
Forelimb dimensions and goniometry of the wrist and fingers in tufted capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella): Developmental and comparative aspects
Authors: Fragaszy Dorothy M. , Adams‐Curtis Leah E. , Baer Janet F. , Carlson‐Lammers Rena
Published: June 2005

Adult capuchin monkeys use precision grips during manipulation of small objects, although their thumbs have been classified as pseudo‐opposable. We investigated the physical properties of the hands to increase our understanding of manual function in capuchins. Forelimb dimensions and joint mobility (goniometric) measurements were obtained from adult, juvenile, and infant tufted capuchins (Cebus apella). Compared to adult squirrel monkeys, adult capuchins exhibited less flexibility of the wrist and digits. Capuchins of all ages had proportionally longer hands than squirrel monkeys, and capuchins more than 7 weeks old had proportionally longer thumbs than squirrel monkeys. Growth of the arms and hands was asynchronous. The duration of growth of the thumb was particularly prolonged, extending into early adulthood. Age‐related changes in flexibility were apparent in most indices, and were greatest at the metacarpophalangeal joints. It is unknown to what extent the characteristics of growth, forelimb dimensions, and goniometry presented by capuchins are shared with other species, or if they contribute to the capuchin's unusual prehensive capacities. However, the marked differences between adult capuchins and squirrel monkeys in these metrics, and between capuchins and rhesus in the growth patterns of the digits, suggest that variation across taxa in these characteristics can be considerable.
Uncertain availability of a preferred food affects choice in a captive group of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)
Authors: Gust Deborah A.
Published: June 2005

Food‐choice was investigated in a social group of 16 chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) maintained in a large outdoor compound. Three feeding stations located along the periphery of the compound were considered analogous to food patches. Color‐coded aluminum panels temporarily covered each feeding apparatus, with one color corresponding to nonpreferred food (commercial biscuits) available at two locations and other colors corresponding to the certain or uncertain availability of preferred food (oranges) available at one location. Only nine chimpanzees met the criterion for learning the color/food associations and thus only those animals were included in the analysis. There was a significant decrease in choosing the station associated with oranges when the probability of availability of oranges was reduced from 0.5 to 0.1 but not from 1.0 to 0.5. In addition, there was a significant increase in the frequency with which the subjects made no choice when the probability of availability of oranges was reduced from 1.0 to 0.1. The data indicate that the uncertain availability of preferred food in a choice situation affects choice behavior in a social group of chimpanzees studied under controlled conditions.
Spider monkey sleeping sites: Use and availability
Authors: Chapman Colin A.
Published: June 2005

The behavior of spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi) at sleeping sites and the characteristics of these sites were studied in Santa Rosa National Park, Costa Rica. The spider monkeys tended to congregate just prior to dusk at a number of sleeping sites which were repeatedly used (81.6%), but occasionally they slept in trees which were only used once (18.4%). All of the regularly used sleeping trees were not used concurrently, but rather, there was a rotation between sites. In general, males were not encountered at regularly used sleeping sites as often as other age/sex classes, and when they were in all male subgroups, they did not sleep in repeatedly used sites. The trees used as regular sleeping sites tended to be large, but such trees were common in the group's home range. The size of the subgroups attending repeatedly used sleeping trees was large when food was abundant and small when food was scarce. It is suggested that this relationship reflects that the costs of travelling to the sleeping site would be more easily recovered when food was abundant than when food was scarce.
Nutrition, body condition, activity patterns, and parasitism of free‐ranging troops of olive baboons (Papio anubis) in Kenya
Authors: Eley R. M. , Strum S. C. , Muchemi G. , Reid G. D. F.
Published: June 2005

Three troops of olive baboons (Papio anubis) comprising 134 animals were captured during a translocation program. All three troops (PHG, CRIP, WBY) lived in high‐altitude savannah, but two (CRIP and WBY) also frequented human settlements, where they had access to the garbage pits and vegetable gardens. The translocation offered the opportunity to compare body condition, activity patterns, and parasitism among the troops of animals. A variety of body measurements were taken, a physical examination performed, activity patterns for the previous 2 years enumerated, and blood and feces collected for virological and parasitological analyses. Body condition, as judged qualitatively by appearance and quantitatively by subcutaneous fat thickness and body weight, was lowest in PHG, the naturally foraging troop. All animals were negative for all viruses. No blood‐borne parasites were found, but the feces of the majority of animals were positive for eggs of strongyles, ascarids, Trichuris spp., and Strongyloides spp. Quantification of strongyles indicated the heaviest burdens were in the non provisioned troop PHG. These results when combined with the behavioral observations that PHG spent more time foraging and less time resting or socializing than WBY suggest lowered availability and/or a poorer quality of PHG's diet. The data support the hypothesis of a causal relationship between host nutrition and helminth parasite infection but do not permit general conclusions to be drawn on mechanisms of interaction.
Atresia of the dominant ovarian follicle in rhesus monkeys is detected within 24 hours of estradiol treatment
Authors: Hutz Reinhold J. , Krueger Gail S. , Morgan Patricia M. , Dierschke Donald J. , Wolf Richard C.
Published: June 2005

Following treatment with estradiol‐17β (E2) on day 6 of the menstrual cycle, degenerative alterations in the microenvironment of the dominant follicle (DF) (follicular fluid [FF], granulosa cells [GC], and oocyte) are readily apparent on day 10, or 96 h after E2 administration. The present study was designed to determine how early such changes could be detected and which indices of atresia were observed first. The DF was identified during laparoscopy on day 5 or 6 of the cycle, and four capsules containing crystalline E2 were inserted s.c. for 24 h. Contents of the DF were aspirated at 24, 48, and 72 h following initiation of E2 treatment. General size and appearance of the DF did not change distinctly with E2 treatment; however, by 48 h FF viscosity was increased markedly. GC viability was not altered with treatment. FF concentrations of estrogen (E) were dramatically reduced at 24 h. These differences were maintained at 48 h and at 72 h. E accumulation by cultured GC was significantly reduced by > eightfold. There appeared a similar trend for reduced progesterone (P) in FF and decreased P production by GC in vitro. These results demonstrate that degenerative alterations in the DF indicative of atresia can be detected as early as 24 h after initiation of E2 treatment; the index of atresia appearing earliest is a reduction in FF concentrations of E, and the first morphological changes in the DF can be observed 24 h later. This study indicates that biochemical alterations precede morphologic changes with E2‐induced atresia, and should allow us to begin to determine the earliest events and putative initiation sites of atresia.
Infant cross‐fostering between Japanese (Macaca fuscata) and rhesus macaques (M. mulatta)
Authors: Owren Michael J. , Dieter Jacquelyn A.
Published: June 2005

Cross‐fostering of infant rhesus macaques between unrelated females has become a routine management strategy at the California Primate Research Center. In order to study the effect of environmental factors on vocal development, we extended this procedure to offspring exchange between two different macaque species living in small social groups. A total of four neonatal Japanese and rhesus monkeys were fostered onto mothers of the other species. Six attempts were required, for an overall success rate of 67%. However, two of the adoptions involved the same foster mother, and both rejections occurred with the same female. The cross‐fostered individuals gained weight normally in the first year of life and did not require any hospital treatment. These results indicate that raising nonhuman primate infants with members of a different species can be a viable means of altering species‐typical experience without sacrificing essential aspects of maternal care, socialization, and psychological well‐being.
Population survey of macaques in northern Sulawesi
Authors: Sugardjito J. , Southwick C. H. , Supriatna J. , Kohlhaas A. , Baker S. , Erwin J. , Froehlich J. , Lerche N.
Published: June 2005

A field survey of 25 sites in Sulawesi Utara (north Sulawesi) in 1987 and 1988 found macaques in 16 of these sites. The most viable population of Macaca nigra was found in the Tangkoko reserve at an estimated density of 76.2 monkeys/km2, which is less than one‐third the abundance reported in the late 1970s by the MacKinnons. The adjacent reserves of Batuangus and Duasudara had only 22 monkeys/km2, yielding a population estimate for these three contiguous reserves of only 3,655 individuals. Maccaca nigrescens were found in the central and western portions of Dumoga‐Bone National Park in densities of 15.5 and 16.4 monkeys/km2, significantly below the density of 27/km2 reported by the MacKinnons. The more peripheral areas of Dumoga‐Bone had only 8.15 monkeys/km2, yielding a population estimate of M. nigrescens in Dumoga‐Bone of less than 34,000. Our total population estimate for M. nigra and M. nigrescens combined is less than 50,000 individuals, which is considerably below that reported in recent litreture. M. hecki were observed in only two locations, Tangale and Panua Reserves, at low densities of 3.3 to 5.2 monkeys/km2, suggesting its range and abundance have declined since the observations of Groves (pp. 84–124 in THE MACAQUES: STUDIES IN ECOLOGY, BEHAVIOR AND EVOLUTION. D. G. Lindburg, ed. New York, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1980). Several factors have contributed to population decline in these species: habitat shrinkage, increasing human population pressure, and drought conditions. Group sizes were significantly smaller in our study than in previous ones, and we found a shortage of juveniles and infants.
Change of nipple preference between successive offspring in Japanese macaques
Authors: Tanaka Ichirou
Published: June 2005

Selective use of nipples among free‐ranging infant Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) was studied. Each infant held only one of its mother's two nipples in the mouth during an average of 90.9% ± 1.5% (SEM) of total nipple contact time. The next offspring born to the same mother tended to use the nipple that its previous sibling had not used. Maternal behavior did not cause use of one nipple or the other.