bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Growth and Differentiation
Authors: Levi-Montalcini Rita , Angeletti Pietro U.
Published: July 2003

The convergent trend in biological sciences already apparent in the past few years recently became more pronounced. Fields which used to be the privileged property of a restricted group are now claimed by students of different disciplines. As a consequence, in 1961, the embryo no longer belongs to the embryologist nor the microbe to the microbiologist. Barely had the fences between different biological sciences been removed when new concepts developed and old concepts appeared in a new light. Possibly no concepts profited more from this invasive trend than the old concepts of growth and differentiation. Only a few decades ago, these words conveyed mainly the idea of the developing embryo and of the laborious and intricate processes which mold it into a complete and self-supporting organism. Today, many of the biologists preoccupied with these concepts are not familiar with the embryo and, for that matter, would not be able to identify one if they were confronted with it. At present the words “growth and differentiation” have acquired such a broad significance as to encompass almost all biological sciences. Faced with the problem of delimiting the field to be discussed, the reviewers found their assignment difficult. Although one of the two would label herself an embryologist, the embryo did not benefit from her admittedly modest and one-sided knowledge of this object, not so much because of awe or the fear of not doing it justice, as because of persuasion that the embryo, as a whole, has contributed less in recent years to our understanding of growth and differentiation than simpler objects such as isolated cells or cell groups.

Our presentation is divided into two parts. In the first, we review some of the work in the field of primitive organisms, isolated cells, and cell populations, and we discuss recent advances in the field of embryonic induction. In the second, the chemical aspects of growth and differentiation are presented.
Endocrine Regulation of Steroid Hormone-Secreting Cells
Authors: Kostyo Jack L.
Published: July 2003

The Endocrinology section of this volume has been devoted to five chapters describing recent work on the cellular mechanisms involved in the endocrine regulation of steroid hormone-secreting cells in these organs.
ANCIENTEMPIRES, MODERNSTATES, AND THESTUDY OFGOVERNMENT
Authors: Muhll George E. Von der
Published: July 2003

▪ Abstract  Samuel Finer's The History of Government from the Earliest Times is not only a major contribution to the history of governance in the ancient world; it is, in certain crucial respects, the only one. This essay surveys the uses of history within the discipline of political science to establish that surprising conclusion. In certain other social sciences—most notably in economics and above all in sociology—numerous leading scholars have applied the theories of their disciplines to illuminate the study of past civilizations while using data from those periods as a check on contemporary theories. Political scientists have, however, rarely ventured into world history before the eighteenth century. This essay considers some possible explanations for that discrepancy, then delineates and assesses Finer's massive and penetrating exploration of some 5000 years of institutional governmental history.
RICHARDE. NEUSTADT: Public Servant as Scholar
Authors: Jones Charles O.
Published: July 2003

▪ Abstract  Richard E. Neustadt is the author of one of the most influential books ever written about political leadership. Headed for a career as a political-level bureaucrat, he “drifted” to academia after the 1952 election brought a Republican to the White House. He observed a disconnect between what he had experienced in the executive branch in Washington and what was then written about the Presidency. He decided to write a book that would close this gap and, in doing so, contribute to political science. Presidential Power was the product of this effort, a book that continues to dominate the thinking about leadership in the White House. This essay focuses on the career and writings of Neustadt, including an analysis of his critics and his responses. It incorporates the results of two interviews with Neustadt.
Recollections and Small Confessions
Authors: Vennesland Birgit
Published: July 2003

On seeking inspiration from the prefatory chapters of my distinguished predecessors, I began to wonder what I had done to deserve inclusion in this series, beyond surviving until retirement. I represent a scientific generation that lived through a developmental explosion when scientific research came of age. Maybe I am typical of those biochemists with plant physiological interests who trained in the 1930s, when refrigerated centrifuges and spectrophotometers and isotopic tracers were only available in homemade versions, fractions were hand-collected, and jobs were rare. My generation has seen greater scientific change in our lifetime than any generation before us. All I can do is describe what it was like.
Genetic Control and Integration of Maturation and Germination Pathways in Seed Development
Authors: McCarty Donald R.
Published: July 2003

The viviparous and germination mutants of maize and Arabidopsis thaliana illuminate the mechanism that integrates control of morphogenetic, maturation, dormancy, and germination pathways in seed development. Key elements of this mechanism include (a) developmental control of abscisic acid and gibberellin hormone synthesis and perception, (b) integration of maturation and anthocyanin pathways in the maize seed, (c) functions of the VP1 and ABI3 factors in abscisic acid-regulated gene expression, and (d) intrinsic developmental genes that couple seed maturation to the program of embryo morphogenesis. The scarcity of mutants that affect timing or tissue specificity of hormone synthesis in the seed is an important constraint to progress in understanding the role of hormone signals. The interactions among the abscisic acid-insensitive abil, abi2, abi3, abi4, and abi5 mutants of A. thaliana are consistent with multiple pathways of abscisic acid signal transduction in the seed. The maize Vp1 and A. thaliana Abi3 genes are functional homologs that mediate a seed-specific abscisic acid response necessary for maturation. The specific roles of these genes in controlling dormancy and anthocyanin synthesis in the seed have diverged since the evolutionary separation of maize and A. thaliana. The coupling of anthocyanin synthesis to maturation in maize may have resulted from changes in the downstream cl regulatory gene rather than a functional change in VPl. Functional analysis indicates that VP1 is a transcriptional activator of the Em and C1 genes in maize, although its specific role in abscisic acid signal transduction remains poorly understood. The lecl and fus3 mutants of A. thaliana and pleiotropic viviparous mutants of maize may identify intrinsic factors that couple the maturation pathway to embryo morphogenesis.
Polysaccharide-Modifying Enzymes in the Plant Cell Wall
Authors: Fry Stephen C.
Published: July 2003

Enzymes found in the cell walls of higher plants are surveyed briefly, especially those in the primary cell walls of growing tissue. Attention is focused on hydrolases and transglycosylases that attack the structural carbohydrates of the wall. The reactions catalyzed by these enzymes in vitro are described. Exo-O-glycosylhydrolases are divided into two categories based on specificity for the aglycone group of the substrate: Those with low specificity are in the majority over those with high specificity. Endo-O-glycosylhydrolase-catalyzed reactions are discussed, especially the ability of cellulase to hydrolyze cellulose, xyloglucan, and mixed-linkage glucan. Transglycosylation is defined, and the distinction is drawn between exo- and endo-transglycosylation. Enzymes that catalyze only exo-transglycosylation have not been found in plant cell walls, although some exo-O-glycosylhydrolases can catalyze limited exo-transglycosylation under suitable conditions. In contrast, xyloglucan endo-transglycosylase (XET) catalyzes endo-transglycosylation in the absence of hydrolysis. The evidence that these enzymes act in the walls of living cells is evaluated critically, and the natural and biotechnological regulation of wall enzyme action is discussed. Many enzymes occur in cell walls, and many biological roles have been proposed for them, but we still have far to go in investigating the reactions catalyzed by wall enzymes in vivo and in testing the proposed roles of these enzymes.
Molecular Biology of Rhodophyte and Chromophyte Plastids
Authors: Reith M.
Published: July 2003

Recent information on the plastid genes and genomes of rhodophyte (red algae) and chromophyte (yellow and brown algae) plastids are summarized. The plastid genomes of these algae contain many more genes than those of metaphyte (land plant) plastids, and the encoded proteins are involved in a much wider range of metabolic activities. Rhodophyte and chromophyte plastid genomes contain very few introns and maintain many ancestral gene operons, which suggests that they are more primitive than those of metaphytes. Hypotheses of plastid evolution (monophyletic or polyphyletic primary origins) are discussed and assessed. The data available at present support the idea that all plastids arose from a single endosymbiotic event that involved a cyanobacterium and a eukaryote host (monophyletic origin). Information from rhodophyte and chromophyte plastid genomes also provides insights into the evolution of other organisms. Finally, the implications for plastid metabolism that arise from the presence of several genes on rhodophyte and chromophyte plastid genomes are discussed.
Educational Psychology
Authors: Elmgren John K. G.
Published: July 2003

The learning process and its scientific study is of paramount interest to education and educational psychology. The recent trend in this important domain seems to be a more clear understanding of the facts and their relative importance and a critical scepticism towards learning theories, including attempts to explain the psychological facts gained by experiments in terms of a somewhat doubtful neurophysiology, e.g., brain fields or something else which will be some rather unknown physiological variable.
Public Health Informatics: How Information-Age Technology Can Strengthen Public Health
Authors: Friede Andrew , Blum Henrik L. , McDonald Mike
Published: July 2003

The combination of the burgeoning interest in health, health care reform and the advent of the Information Age, represents a challenge and an opportunity for public health. If public health’s effectiveness and profile are to grow, practitioners and researchers will need reliable, timely informati6n with which to make information-driven decisions, better ways to communicate, and improved tools to analyze and present new knowledge.

“Public Health Informatics” (PHI) is the science of applying Information- Age technology to serve the specialized needs of public health. In this paper we define Public Health Informatics, outline specific benefits that may accrue from its widespread application, and discuss why and how an academic discipline of public health informatics should be developed. Finally, we make specific recommendations for actions that government and academia can take to assure that public health professionals have the systems, tools, and training to use PHI to advance the mission of public health.
Tuberculosis, Public Health, and Civil Liberties
Authors: Bayer Ronald , Dupuis Laurence
Published: July 2003

The resurgence of tuberculosis confronts policy-makers with difficult legal and ethical questions about the proper use of state power and resources to protect public health. This chapter examines the implications of expanded use of invasive or coercive measures—including directly observed therapy, involuntary detention of noncompliant patients, and forced administration of medications—designed to reduce the risk of tuberculosis transmission and to ensure that those with TB are fully treated. These measures focus attention on the limitations of government power and obligation and on the delicate balance between the demands of civil liberty and the demands of public health.
Risk Adjusting Community Rated Health Plan Premiums: A Survey of Risk Assessment Literature and Policy Applications
Authors: Giacomini Mita , Luft Harold S. , Robinson James C.
Published: July 2003

This paper surveys recent health care reform debates and empirical evidence regarding the potential role for risk adjusters in addressing the problem of competitive risk segmentation under capitated financing. We discuss features of health plan markets affecting risk selection, methodological considerations in measuring it, and alternative approaches to financial correction for risk differentials. The appropriate approach to assessing risk differences between health plans depends upon the nature of market risk selection allowed under a given reform scenario. Because per capita costs depend on a health plan's population risk, efficiency, and quality of service, risk adjustment will most strongly promote efficiency in environments with commensurately strong incentives for quality care.
Crack Cocaine Abuse: An Epidemic with Many Public Health Consequences
Authors: Cornish James W. , O'Brien Charles P.
Published: July 2003

In the mid-1980s a new, smokable form of cocaine, called crack, was introduced in the United States. Soon thereafter, it became apparent that crack cocaine abuse was a serious and important public health concern. Over the past several years, crack cocaine use has increasingly been associated with a myriad of immediate and long-term adverse effects. Duing this same period, crack cocaine use has progressively moved away from experimentation and recreational use to chronic and compulsive drug use.
Pervasive Media Violence
Authors: Schooler C. , Flora J. A.
Published: July 2003

In this review, we focus our discussion on studies examining effects on children and young adults. We believe that the current epidemic of youth violence in the United States justifies a focus on this vulnerable segment of society. We consider media effects on individual children’s behaviors, such as imitating aggressive acts. In addition, we examine how the media influence young people’s perceptions of norms regarding interpersonal relationships. Next, we assess mass media effects on societal beliefs, or what children and adolescents think the “real world” is like. We suggest these media influences are cumulative and mutually reinforcing, and discuss the implications of repeated exposure to prominent and prevalent violent media messages. Finally, we catalog multiple intervention possibilities ranging from education to regulation. From a public health perspective, therefore, we evaluate the effects that pervasive media messages depicting violence have on young people and present multiple strategies to promote more healthful outcomes.
Population and Women's Reproductive Health: An International Perspective
Authors: Miller Kate , Rosenfield Allan
Published: July 2003

This paper gives a brief overview of current world population or demographic issues, followed by a discussion of the ICPD proceedings and various notable aspects of the ICPD Programme of Action. It then focuses on six of the most pressing reproductive health concerns facing women today: gender inequalities, access to contraceptive services, sexually transmitted diseases (including HIV), maternal mortality, unsafe abortion, and adolescent pregnancy. Because the ICPD Programme of Action is intended to have far-reaching consequences for each of these issues, it is taken as a focal point of analysis.
One Foot in the Furrow: Linkages Between Agriculture, Plant Pathology, and Public Health
Authors: Scholthof Karen-Beth G.
Published: July 2003

▪ Abstract  Plant pathology is a field of biology that focuses on understanding the nature of disease in plants as well as on more practical aspects of preventing and controlling plant diseases in crop plants that are important to agriculture. Throughout history, plant diseases have had significant effects on human health and welfare. Several examples, in both historical and contemporary contexts, are presented in this review to show how plant pathogens, biotechnology, and farming practices have affected public health. Specific topics illustrating clear linkages between agriculture and human health include allergens in the environment, food-safety and agricultural practices, mycotoxigenic fungi, agrobioterrorism, and the biological control of plant diseases. The further argument is made that in order to monitor and ensure that good health and safety practices are maintained from “farm to fork,” public health specialists may benefit from the resources and expertise of agricultural scientists.

   Man does not live by bread alone—but he must have bread. And he must have

     bread that is truly a staff of life, not a scepter of death ( 44 ).
Pioneer Leaders in Plant Pathology: Ralph M. Caldwell
Authors: Schafer John F.
Published: July 2003

Ralph Caldwell was a dynamic, innovative plant pathologist and plant breeder. His contributions to small grain cereal production in the Eastern United States were at the top of his field, and his achievements brought respect and honor to the Purdue University/US Department of Agriculture small grain research and breeding program, which he led. His approach to scientific problems was incisive. Dr. Caldwell was practically oriented, never losing sight of the societal benefits of his work. Nevertheless, he was a strong participant in and supporter of more basic research—believing that it was essential but not the total answer. One of his guidelines was that the applied program—breeding for disease resistance—was central and required a team effort. It inevitably would run into problems that were not easily addressed in the ongoing team effort. These problems, in turn, became the objects of research studies, which were individually approached on second tracks by members of the “team.” Research results were subsequently funneled back, as solutions for the specific problems, into the broadly based plant improvement program.
The Secret Life of Foliar Bacterial Pathogens on Leaves
Authors: Beattie Gwyn A , Lindow Steven E
Published: July 2003

This review focuses on the role of two distinct fitness strategies in the growth, survival, and epidemiology of foliar bacterial pathogens. A tolerance strategy requires the ability to tolerate direct exposure to environmental stresses on leaf surfaces, including UV radiation and low water availability. An avoidance strategy requires the ability to seek and/or exploit sites that are protected from these stresses, including endophytic sites. The ability to employ an avoidance strategy and grow endophytically may directly influence the potential for pathogenesis, since endophytic populations, not epiphytic populations, are likely responsible for disease induction. Furthermore, exchange between these two populations is probably crucial to the epidemiology of foliar pathogens. While foliar pathogens can grow and survive in both exposed and internal sites, indicating that they can employ both fitness strategies, the poor internal growth of most saprophytes suggests that saprophytes depend primarily on a strategy of tolerance. This difference between pathogens and saprophytes has important implications for predicting the population dynamics of leaf-associated bacterial species and for selecting effective biological control agents.
Social Indicators
Authors: Land Kenneth C.
Published: July 2003

This paper reviews the development of the field of social indicators from its origins in the 1960s to the present. Three classes of social indicators are identified: normative welfare indicators, which focus on direct measures of welfare and are subject to the interpretation that if they change in the right direction while other things remain equal things have gotten better or people are better off; satisfaction indicators, which measure psychological satisfaction, happiness, and life fulfillment by using survey research instruments that ascertain the subjective reality in which people live; and the most inclusive category, descriptive social indicators, which are indexes of social conditions (i.e. contexts of human existence) and changes therein for various segments of a population. Correspondingly, two conceptions of how social indicators are to be interpreted and used are discussed: One, which emphasizes the policy-analytic uses of social indicators, presumes that the proper relationship of social indicators to social policy occurs at the level of operating or managing organizations; the other, which emphasizes the uses of social indicators in social reporting, presumes that the proper role of social indicators is public enlightenment and the formation of general as opposed to operational policy. Three sociological contributions to the descriptive social indicators/enlightenment approach are described: the development of replication and longitudinal studies, the production of analytical studies of social change and social reports, and the creation of formal models for the analysis of data on social change. Current research problems that are identified include the development of social accounting systems, the construction of indicators of institutional values and structures, and the production of improved social forecasts and forecasting techniques. It is concluded that, while issues of public concern may change from time to time, the critical public and private sectors continue to need statistical information about current social conditions and trends.
Resource Mobilization Theory and the Study of Social Movements
Authors: Jenkins J. Craig
Published: July 2003

Resource mobilization theory has recently presented an alternative interpretation of social movements. The review traces the emergence and recent controversies generated by this new perspective. A multifactored model of social movement formation is advanced, emphasizing resources, organization, and political opportunities in addition to traditional discontent hypotheses. The McCarthy-Zald (1973) theory of entrepreneurial mobilization is critically assessed as an interpretation of the social movements of the 1960s-1970s, and the relevance of the Olson (1968) theory of collective action is specified. Group organization is argued to be the major determinant of mobilization potential and patterns. The debate between the Gerlach-Hine (1970) and entrepreneurial theories of social movement organization is traced in terms of historical changes in the social movement sector and the persistence of organizational diversity. A model of social movement politics is outlined, building on Gamson’s (1975) theory of strategy and Tilly’s (1978) polity theory by emphasizing political alliances and processes shaping success and failure. Piven & Cloward (1977) are correct that disruptiveness leads to success and that disruptions can be mobilized without formal organization; they are wrong in asserting that formal organization is necessarily incompatible with mobilization. The future development of resource mobilization theory lies in two directions: extending the polity theory to deal with different states and regimes, including the development of neo-corporatism, and providing a more sophisticated social psychology of mobilization.
The Changing Nature of Professional Control
Authors: Freidson Eliot
Published: July 2003

The traditional view of the professions is that they are largely free of the hierarchical forms of social control characteristic of other kinds of occupations; instead, they are self-regulating, subject only to informal collegial control. As a result of events in the past few decades in the United States, analysts now believe that the traditional autonomy of professions is eroding. This paper reviews two theories that emphasize this process, one focusing on deprofessionalization and the other on proletarianization. It concludes that the available evidence does not support either theory sufficiently to make them analytically useful; it advances an alternate theory that emphasizes the formalization of professional social control. This third viewpoint is based on the finding that the professions—as corporate bodies—have remained relatively autonomous. Antitrust decisions, political pressure to exercise more control over errant members, and the administrative requirement of greater accountability in large organizations employing professionals are all leading to a formalization of the methods by which professions control their members. An administrative elite of professionals who serve as supervisors, managers, chief executive officers, and owners is being formed in order to guide and evaluate the performance of rank and file professionals. The technical standards employed by such professionally qualified administrators are devised by a separate group of professionals—the knowledge elite—who are based primarily in professional schools. Rank and file practitioners are no longer as free to follow the dictates of their individual judgments as in the past, though quite unlike other workers, their work is expected to involve the use of discretion on a daily basis. Stratification in the professions, which has always existed, has become more formal and overt than in the past. This development may lead to divisions within any given profession as a whole that are too deep to contain within a nominally unified corporate body.
The Organizational Structure of the School
Authors: Tyler William B.
Published: July 2003

The sociology of school organization is today fragmented by a bewildering variety of theoretical perspectives—interactionist, neo-Durkheimian, phenomenological, to name a few. Central to the development in this field over the past decade has been the rejection of the ideal-type of bureaucratic organization as formulated by Weber and the attempt to locate formal structures of the school within the strategies and motives of teachers, pupils, and administrators. The result has often been, however, a certain loss of theoretical focus and a failure to think through the contradictions of particular perspectives and to formulate their partial insights into more rigorous and embracing conclusions. The ascendant model of school structure is now that of the loosely coupled system, in which technologies are uncertain, goals unclear, and the formal structures of which tend towards anarchy. This model contrasts markedly with other dominant perspectives, notably those in the structuralist tradition (e.g. Bernstein, Foucault) that describe school organization in terms of a close theoretical relationship between pedagogy, ideology, and the apparatus of control and surveillance. This review explicates these tensions and contradictions in contemporary accounts of school structure and suggests ways in which they may be reconciled.
The Impact of School Desegregation: A Situational Analysis
Authors: Longshore Douglas , Prager Jeffrey
Published: July 2003

The effects of school desegregation will become clearer as we develop a more comprehensive awareness of variability in the desegregation “situation.” In this paper, we distinguish three dimensions of a situational analysis: macro/micro, objective/subjective, and proximal/distal. We use these dimensions to evaluate the research on students' academic achievement, self-esteem, and intergroup relations, identifying points along each dimension where research seems well advanced and points where more research is needed.
Associations and Interest Groups
Authors: Knoke David
Published: July 2003

A review of the past decade’s research on American associations reveals significant growth in empirical findings across three levels of analysis: the individual member, the organization, and the political system. The social correlates of joining and participation, particularly gender and race differences, and the effect of incentives on individual decisions continued to attract the interest of many researchers. At the organization level, the structure of incentives and the impact of collective decision-making processes received less attention than the social ecology of association growth and differentiation, The advocacy explosion of recent years that brought many new groups and lobbying methods to Washington stimulated much research on associations in the pressure group system. The field of association research as a whole, however, still suffers from a lack of theoretical consensus on the central issues and of means for studying them.
Fifty Years of Sociology
Authors: Homans George C.
Published: July 2003

What follows is a personal appraisal of the development of sociology over the past 50 years. The 1930s were a time of high hopes, empirically (field studies, new statistical techniques) and theoretically (for instance, functionalism and operationalism). The great achievement of sociology has been its development of statistical techniques, but these have had the effect of inhibiting field studies. In theory, sociology has remained divided into a number of different schools, a condition maintained by the failure of most sociologists to consider what a theory is. The condition can be overcome only by sociologists’ accepting the “covering law” view of theory, the covering laws referring to the behavior of individual persons as members of a single species, and the laws themselves being the laws of behavioral psychology. Recent favorable developments in sociology include network analysis, historical sociology, and sociobiology.
Three Fragments From a Sociologist's Notebooks: Establishing the Phenomenon, Specified Ignorance, and Strategic Research Materials
Authors: Merton Robert K.
Published: July 2003

This occasionally biographical paper deals with three cognitive and social patterns in the practice of science (not 'the scientific method’). The first, “establishing the phenomenon,” involves the doctrine (universally accepted in the abstract) that phenomena should of course be shown to exist or to occur before one explains why they exist or how they come to be; sources of departure in practice from this seemingly self-evident principle are examined. One parochial case of such a departure is considered in detail. The second pattern is the particular form of ignorance described as “specified ignorance”: the express recognition of what is not yet known but needs to be known in order to lay the foundation for still more knowledge. The substantial role of this practice in the sciences is identified and the case of successive specification of ignorance in the evolving sociological theory of deviant behavior by four thought-collectives is sketched out. Reference is made to the virtual institutionalization of specified ignorance in some sciences and the question is raised whether scientific disciplines differ in the extent of routinely specifying ignorance and how this affects the growth of knowledge. The two patterns of scientific practice are linked to a third: the use of “strategic research materials (SRMs)” i.e. strategic research sites, objects, or events that exhibit the phenomena to be explained or interpreted to such advantage and in such accessible form that they enable the fruitful investigation of previously stubborn problems and the discovery of new problems for further inquiry. The development of biology is taken as a self-exemplifying case since it provides innumerable SRMs for the sociological study of the selection and consequences of SRMs in science. The differing role of SRMs in the natural sciences and in the Geisteswissenschaften is identified and several cases of strategic research sites and events in sociology, explored.
Network Approaches to Social Evaluation
Authors: Gartrell C. David
Published: July 2003

Social evaluation—the way that people learn about themselves by comparing themselves with others—is a prosaic, age-old process. Periodic efforts have been made to integrate theories and empirical studies of reference groups, social comparison, equity and justice, and relative deprivation (e.g. Pettigrew 1967). Despite these efforts, research has remained fragmented and continues to be dominated by psychologists. Network imagery, models, and findings run through this literature as far back as the last century and play a central role in contemporary applications of social evaluation to research on social support, class consciousness, and the diffusion of innovations. I argue that the network approach will help to resolve fundamental, unanswered questions about social evaluation first raised in 1950 by Merton and Rossi—specifically, the origins of comparative frameworks and the relation between individual and categorical or group reference points. Such an approach provides an integrative focus for sociological research in this area.
Changing Perspectives on the American Family in the Past
Authors: Juster Susan M. , Vinovskis Maris A.
Published: July 2003

Past reviews of American family history, while providing useful information about certain aspects of family life in the past, have inadequately addressed the conceptual framework informing the discipline. This article begins by reviewing four approaches developed by social scientists for studying the family: household composition, generations, family cycle, and life-course. The life-course perspective seems the most promising for a dynamic, complex view of families that links changes in the domestic sphere to wider societal trends and concerns. Using the analytical perspective of the life-course, we then examine significant historiographical contributions in four areas of family life—childbearing, early child development, adolescence, and old age.
Soviet Sociology and Sociology in the Soviet Union
Authors: Greenfeld Liah
Published: July 2003

The core of the paper is an analysis of the meaning of sociology in the USSR, as defined by the participants and outsiders alike. The review is based on the study of programmatic statements, the character of references in sociological writings, and available biographical information on their authors. All of these help to locate Soviet sociology within the intellectual enterprise in general and to establish whether it is actually a counterpart of what is called “sociology” in the West, or a different branch of intellectual activity which for some reason uses its name. Most of the findings are derived from an analysis of Sotsiogicheskie lssledovania (Sociological Research), the only specifically sociological journal in the USSR, published since 1974. These findings are compared with parallel observations on representative samples of the American Journal of Sociology and the American Sociological Review. The conclusion is that Soviet sociology, although it uses some of the methods of Western sociology, is an activity of a different nature on the whole. It is a branch of social technology, a managerial science oriented towards the promotion of the goals and the increase of the ideological and administrative efficiency of the Soviet government.
Energy and Society
Authors: Rosa Eugene A. , Machlis Gary E. , Keating Kenneth M.
Published: July 2003

Energy is a crucial social variable and has sporadically been of interest to sociologists. Recent world events and trends have revived interest and concern. This review traces key themes and arguments in the sociology of energy and critically evaluates the literature. The discussion is organized into four sections: energetic theories of society, macrosociology of energy, microsociology of energy, and energy policy and other special topics. A concluding section assesses the state of the field and speculates on its future directions.
Comparative Perspectives on Work Structures and Inequality
Authors: Kalleberg Arne L.
Published: July 2003

This essay synthesizes comparative research on work structures and inequality. It emphasizes explicitly comparable cross-national studies, though it also discusses historical research as well as some illustrative nation-specific studies that provide interesting contrasts with research in the United States. The focus is mainly on studies of work structures and earnings inequality, though selected studies of careers and commitment are also considered. The kinds of cross-national studies reviewed will become increasingly common in the future, due to the growing availability of explicitly comparable microdata sets.
Structures and Processes of Social Support
Authors: House J. S. , Umberson D. , Landis K. R.
Published: July 2003

This chapter reviews the recent literature on social support and health and its relation to preexisting research and theory in the areas of social networks and social integration. We identify crucial directions for future theoretical and empirical work, focusing on the need to better understand the structures and processes through which social relationships affect human health and well-being. Two elements of social relationship structure are distinguished: (a) social integration, which refers to the existence or quantity of social relationships, and (b) social network structure, referring to the structural properties that characterize a set of relationships. We further identify three social processes through which these structures may have their effects: (i) social support, which pertains to the emotionally or instrumentally sustaining quality of social relationships; (ii) relational demands and conflict, referring to the negative or conflictive aspects of social relationships; and (iii) social regulation or control, referring to the controlling or regulating quality of social relationships. We also consider the social (as well as psychological and biological) determinants of levels and consequences of relationship structures and processes. In conclusion, we discuss the relevance of research and theory on social relationships and health to current demographic trends and public policy concerns.
The Economic Progress of European and East Asian Americans
Authors: Model Suzanne
Published: July 2003

This paper reviews the recent literature on the determinants of socioeconomic success among immigrants from Europe and East Asia. The survey focuses on the larger, better studied groups and gives particular attention to historically based investigations of their progress. The concluding section emphasizes the need for additional descriptive and explanatory research on the labor market outcomes of ethnic Americans since the Second World War.
Stratification and Social Structure in Hungary
Authors: Kolosi Tamás
Published: July 2003

The study of social structure represents an important field of sociological research in the European socialist countries. At first, the objective of these studies was to revise the ideological model of society developed during the period of Stalinism, a model that distinguished “two allied classes”—the working class and the peasantry—and “one stratum” the intelligentsia. Later, as knowledge developed, scientific interest shifted from ideological criticism to exploring and understanding actual social conditions. The present paper briefly touches upon these ideological and scientific developments and makes an attempt to build a model that represents both the system of reproduction and the system of inequality of Hungarian society.
Price, Authority, and Trust: From Ideal Types to Plural Forms
Authors: Bradach Jeffrey L. , Eccles Robert G.
Published: July 2003

This review article focuses on the three control mechanisms that govern economic transactions between actors: price, authority, and trust. In contrast to conventional approaches that view market and hierarchy as mutually exclusive control mechanisms (or as poles of a continuum), we argue that price, authority, and trust are independent and can be combined in a variety of ways. For instance, price and authority are often played off each other within firms, while trust and price are sometimes intertwined to control transactions between firms. We also identify a type of organization largely ignored in the literature: the plural form. In the plural form, organizations simultaneously operate distinct control mechanisms for the same function. For example, organizations operate franchises and company-owned units under the same trademark, and companies sometimes make and buy the same part. To understand this form, the analytic focus must move from individual transactions to the broader architecture of control mechanisms
The State and the Life Course
Authors: Mayer Karl Ulrich , Schoepflin Urs
Published: July 2003

Traditionally, the study of the life course has been divided into research on different age groups, different life phases, and different life domains such as the family cycle, fertility history, occupational careers and employment, the dynamics of income and consumption, migration, and normative patterns of aging. The emerging field of theory and research on the impact of the state on the structuring of the life course highlights overarching and integrative mechanisms for institutionalizing the life course. Therefore, the field constitutes a new analytical perspective rather than a specialized area of research. This review attempts to make the theoretical perspective explicit and to collect the various contributions from very scattered research reports. The major emphasis is macrosociological and theoretical. Examples are drawn from research on childhood, education, military service and wars, public employment, retirement, and old age. Particular attention is paid to the historical aspects of increasing state regulation. The review is based on US and Western European literature.
The Sociology of Emotions
Authors: Thoits Peggy A.
Published: July 2003

Recent work in the sociology of emotions has gone beyond the development of concepts and broad perspectives to elaboration of theory and some empirical research. More work has been done at the micro-level than the macro-level of analysis. At both analytical levels, emotion most commonly is treated as a dependent variable, although increasingly, its role as an intervening and independent variable in social processes is being recognized, especially with regard to problems in substantive fields as diverse as gender roles, stress, small groups, social movements, and stratification. Considerable gaps exist in sociological knowledge about emotions; in particular, little is known about distribution of different emotional experiences in the population, the content of emotion culture, emotional socialization processes, emotional interactions, and relationships between social structure and emotion norms. More empirical research is necessary, to build on the theoretical groundwork that has been laid. Problems in measuring emotional experience and aspects of emotion culture have not been addressed and are likely to become critical issues as empirical work accumulates in the future.
Gender and Social Reproduction: Historical Perspectives
Authors: Laslett Barbara , Brenner Johanna
Published: July 2003

This paper defines the concepts of gender and social reproduction as developed in feminist theory and discusses their utility for synthesizing recent historical research on women. We review literature on the emergence, institutionalization, and reorganization of “separate spheres” in nineteenth and early twentieth century Europe and North America. Focusing on social class differences in family strategies, procreation, sexuality, consumerism, professionalization, and state policy, we argue that the organization of gender relations and social reproduction crucially shaped macrohistorical processes, as well as being shaped by them.
Peasants and Proletarians
Authors: Roberts B. R.
Published: July 2003

Peasants and proletarians are key actors in the social changes that produced the modern world. The concepts identify different forms of demographic behavior, social organization and political action. The peasant is locally oriented and defensive politically, yet has contributed to revolutionary change. The proletarian looks to association beyond locality and is the basis of modern class politics, but the political impact of the proletariat has varied with time and place. There are many types of peasantry and many types of proletariat. The categories serve usefully in comparative and historical analysis, but the variations in types and in the social and political context in which they act need to be specified. The orientations to action and the life chances that both categories describe need to be modified to take account of current social and economic changes. In many parts of the world, the peasant disappears in face of the modernization of agriculture or survives by combining agricultural work with nonagricultural work or migration. The proletarian also retreats in face of the decline of full-time wage employment in the cities, and the increasing importance of independent and part-time employment. Other forms of identity, based on gender or generation, or community-based ones, such as religion or ethnicity, are reinforced as a basis of political action, particularly in face of the growing significance of the state, not the employer, in determining the life chances of different social groups.
Divorce and the American Family
Authors: Furstenberg Frank F.
Published: July 2003

This paper reviews the cultural, demographic, economic, and social sources that have produced a transformation in the institution of marriage over the past century. It describes trends in marriage and remarriage that have altered the life course of children in families. The consequences of growing levels of marital instability for children are described. Particular attention is devoted to the changing parenting system and alterations in the kinship system of children whose parents divorced and remarried. Some problems in interpreting the effects of divorce on children are identified. The paper concludes with a discussion of public policy issues related to divorce and remarriage.
Economic Restructuring and the American City
Authors: Sassen Saskia
Published: July 2003

Transformations in the composition and locational patterns of the economy have assumed specific forms in cities and in the urban hierarchy. The new service-dominated urbanization, particularly evident in major cities, has distinct consequences for a range of social conditions. Here we focus especially on the characteristics of today's leading industries, the producer services, disproportionately concentrated in major cities; the impact of restructuring on the earnings distribution generally and in major cities in particular, and the impact of urban restructuring on minorities, a population increasingly concentrated in large cities.
Some Reflections on the Feminist Scholarship in Sociology
Authors: Komarovsky Mirra
Published: July 2003

The emergence of the women’s movement in the 1960s presents two challenges to sociology. The more obvious task is the analysis of a social movement: How did private problems get transformed into a collective protest at that particular historical moment? This article, however, addresses itself to the contribution of a social movement to the sociology of sociology. Feminist sociologists, in representing a disadvantaged group, claim to look at society from a new angle of vision. What was the impact upon the discipline of sociology of this new perspective? Feminist criticism of mainstream sociology revealed not only vast lacunae in our knowledge but flawed interpretations of social phenomena. Feminist theoreticians have extended their criticism to some epistomelogical positions of contemporary American sociology.

The purpose of this article is two-fold. It illustrates some contributions to sociology by feminist scholars (including a few precursors). Secondly, some changing trends in feminist orientations are discerned and analyzed from the perspective of the sociology of knowledge.