bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Galvanomagnetic and thermomagnetic phenomena
Authors: Newnham Robert E.
Published: November 2020

The Lorentz force that a magnetic field exerts on a moving charge carrier is perpendicular to the direction of motion and to the magnetic field. Since both electric and thermal currents are carried by mobile electrons and ions, a wide range of galvanomagnetic and thermomagnetic effects result. The effects that occur in an isotropic polycrystalline metal are illustrated in Fig. 20.1. As to be expected, many more cross-coupled effects occur in less symmetric solids. The galvanomagnetic experiments involve electric field, electric current, and magnetic field as variables. The Hall Effect, transverse magnetoresistance, and longitudinal magnetoresistance all describe the effects of magnetic fields on electrical resistance. Analogous experiments on thermal conductivity are referred to as thermomagnetic effects. In this case the variables are heat flow, temperature gradient, and magnetic field. The Righi–Leduc Effect is the thermal Hall Effect in which magnetic fields deflect heat flow rather than electric current. The transverse thermal magnetoresistance (the Maggi–Righi–Leduc Effect) and the longitudinal thermal magnetoresistance are analogous to the two galvanomagnetic magnetoresistance effects. Additional interaction phenomena related to the thermoelectric and piezoresistance effects will be discussed in the next two chapters. In tensor form Ohm’s Law is . . .Ei = ρijJj , . . . where Ei is electrical field, Jj electric current density, and ρij the electrical resistivity in Ωm. In describing the effect of magnetic field on electrical resistance, we expand the resistivity in a power series in magnetic flux density B. B is used rather than the magnetic field H because the Lorentz force acting on the charge carriers depends on B not H.
Chemical anisotropy
Authors: Newnham Robert E.
Published: November 2020

Chemical anisotropy concerns the ways in which crystals grow or dissolve in different directions. It is an appropriate subject to end this book because it brings together the oldest and the newest parts of crystal physics. Long, long ago mineralogists described the shapes of natural crystals and noted correlations with cleavage, hardness, and other physical properties. Chemical etching was another favorite topic in classical crystal physics that has undergone a recent revival because of the interest in the micromachining of semiconductor devices. Chemical anisotropy involves the interaction of a crystal with a chemically active environment that promotes dissolution or growth. For this reason it is primarily a surface property, rather than a bulk property of the crystal. This is one of the reasons why chemical anisotropy is not normally included in crystal physics books. The other reason is that rates of growth and dissolution depend on the chemical nature of the environment much more than the bulk properties of crystals do. Nevertheless, this is an important subject in contemporary crystal physics. Surfaces become more and more important as the scale of engineered devices grows smaller. The crystal physics of surface properties is a natural extension of classical crystal physics. It is a topic still in its infancy. Under favorable conditions, crystal growth takes place in such a way that the external surface is bounded by a set of plane faces. The preferred shape of rocksalt family crystals is cube bounded by six symmetry-related {100} faces. For diamond, an octahedral shape with eight {111} faces often appears. Quartz, calcite, and rutile belong to lower symmetry crystal systems with more anisotropic morphologies. Quartz crystals are often elongated along the c-axis with a hexagonal cross-section bounded by six {100} faces while the ends are terminated by six {101} and six {011} faces. Calcite tends to form rhombohedra with six faces shaped like parallelograms. Rutile (TiO2) crystals are often elongated along the c-axis forming slender needles.
The evolutionary significance of mass extinctions
Authors: Hallam Tony
Published: November 2020

Darwin was firmly of the opinion that biotic interactions, such as competition for food and space – the ‘struggle for existence’ – were of considerably greater importance in promoting evolution and extinction than changes in the physical environment. This is clearly brought out by this quotation from The Origin of Species: . . . Species are produced and exterminated by slowly acting causes . . . and the most important of all causes of organic change is one that is almost independent of altered . . . physical conditions, namely the mutual relation of organism to organism – the improvement of one organism entailing the improvement or extermination of others. . . . The driving force of competition in a crowded world is also stressed in another quotation presenting Darwin’s famous wedge metaphor: . . . In looking at Nature, it is most necessary . . . never to forget that every single organic being around us may be said to be striving to the utmost to increase in numbers; that each lives by a struggle at some period of its life; that heavy destruction inevitably falls either on the young or the old, during each generation . . . The face of Nature may be compared to a yielding surface, with ten thousand sharp wedges packed close together and driven inwards by incessant blows, sometimes one wedge being struck, and then another with greater force. . . . The implication of the Darwinian view concerning the dominance of biotic competition is that for each winner there is a loser – a kind of zero-sum game. It has been accepted more or less uncritically by generations of evolutionary biologists, but not until the 1970s did it become graced with a name – the Red Queen hypothesis. The story behind the emergence of this name is an interesting one. At the beginning of the 1970s the rather eccentric University of Chicago palaeobiologist Leigh Van Valen did some interesting research concerning the analysis of survivors of Phanerozoic taxa which suggested that the probability of a fossil group becoming extinct was more or less constant in time. To account for this, Van Valen put forward his Red Queen hypothesis.
Peierls–Nabarro Model Of Dislocations
Authors: Bulatov Vasily , Cai Wei
Published: November 2020

Chapter 1 introduced dislocations as dual objects permitting both atomistic and continuum descriptions. The subsequent Chapters 2 through 7 discussed various aspects of atomistic simulations and their application to dislocation modeling. In the rest of the book, from Chapter 8 to Chapter 11, we will be treating dislocations as continuum objects. This is a huge simplification that makes it possible to consider dislocation behavior on length and time scales well beyond reach of the atomistic simulations. The following chapters are organized in the order of increasing length and time scales. This particular chapter deals with the famous Peierls–Nabarro continuum model that is most closely related to the atomistic models discussed earlier. Fundamentally, dislocations are line defects producing distortions in an otherwise perfect crystal lattice. While this point of view is entirely correct, the atomistic models of dislocations can deal with only relatively small material volumes where every atom is individually resolved. Furthermore, having to keep track of all these atoms all the time limits the time horizon of atomistic simulations. On the other hand, when the host crystal is viewed as an elastic continuum, the linear elasticity theory of dislocations offers a variety of useful analytical and numerical solutions that are no longer subject to such constraints. Although quite accurate far away from the dislocation center, where the lattice distortions remain small, continuum theory breaks down near the dislocation center, where lattice discreteness and non-linearity of interatomic interactions become important. To obtain a more efficient description of crystal dislocations, some sort of bridging between the atomistic and continuum models is necessary. For example, it would be very useful to have a hybrid continuum–atomistic approach such that it retains the analytic nature of the continuum theory for the long-range elastic fields but also captures the essential non-linear effects in the atomic core. Bearing the names of Rudolf Peierls [86] and Frank Nabarro [87], the celebrated Peierls–Nabarro (PN) model is one such approach. Possibly the most attractive feature of the PN model is its simplicity.
Thermodynamics and Kinetics in Materials Science
Authors: Bokstein Boris S. , Mendelev Mikhail I. , Srolovitz David J.
Published: November 2020

This text presents a concise and thorough introduction to the main concepts and practical applications of thermodynamics and kinetics in materials science. It is designed with two types of uses in mind: firstly for one or two semester university course for mid- to - upper level undergraduate or first year graduate students in a materials-science-oriented discipline and secondly for individuals who want to study the materials on their own. The following major topics are discussed: basic laws of classical and irreversible thermodynamics, phase equilibria, theory of solutions, chemical reaction thermodynamics and kinetics, surface phenomena, stressed systems, diffusion and statistical thermodynamics. A large number of example problems with detailed solutions are included as well as accompanying computer-based self-tests, consisting of over 400 questions and 2000 answers with hints for students. Computer-based laboratories are provided, in which a laboratory problem is posed and the experiment described. The student can "perform" the experiments and change the laboratory conditions to obtain the data required for meeting the laboratory objective. Each "laboratory" is augmented with background material to aid analysis of the experimental results.
Thermodynamics of chemical reactions
Authors: Bokstein Boris S. , Mendelev Mikhail I. , Srolovitz David J.
Published: November 2020

This chapter is devoted to chemical equilibrium. We will use thermodynamics to answer two main questions: (1) ‘‘In which direction will a chemical reaction proceed?’’ and (2) ‘‘What is the composition of the system at equilibrium?’’ These are the oldest and most important questions in all of chemical thermodynamics for obvious reasons. The answers to these questions represent the foundation upon which all modern chemical technologies rest. Consider the following chemical reaction: . . . aA = bB ⇆ cC + dD. (5.1) . . . A, B, C, and D represent the chemical species participating in the reaction and a, b, c, and d are the stoichiometric coefficients of these species. We refer to the species on the left side of this chemical equation as reactants and those on the right as products. The reaction in Eq. (5.1) can either go forward, from left to right (reactants to products), or backward, from right to left (products to reactants). Therefore, we see that the definition of which we call reactants and which products is arbitrary. Assume that Eq. (5.1) occurs at constant temperature and pressure. Under these conditions, the direction of the reaction is determined by the sign of the change of the Gibbs free energy.
Chemical Dynamics in Condensed Phases
Authors: Nitzan Abraham
Published: November 2020

This text provides a uniform and consistent approach to diversified problems encountered in the study of dynamical processes in condensed phase molecular systems. Given the broad interdisciplinary aspect of this subject, the book focuses on three themes: coverage of needed background material, in-depth introduction of methodologies, and analysis of several key applications. The uniform approach and common language used in all discussions help to develop general understanding and insight on condensed phases chemical dynamics. The applications discussed are among the most fundamental processes that underlie physical, chemical and biological phenomena in complex systems. The first part of the book starts with a general review of basic mathematical and physical methods (Chapter 1) and a few introductory chapters on quantum dynamics (Chapter 2), interaction of radiation and matter (Chapter 3) and basic properties of solids (chapter 4) and liquids (Chapter 5). In the second part the text embarks on a broad coverage of the main methodological approaches. The central role of classical and quantum time correlation functions is emphasized in Chapter 6. The presentation of dynamical phenomena in complex systems as stochastic processes is discussed in Chapters 7 and 8. The basic theory of quantum relaxation phenomena is developed in Chapter 9, and carried on in Chapter 10 which introduces the density operator, its quantum evolution in Liouville space, and the concept of reduced equation of motions. The methodological part concludes with a discussion of linear response theory in Chapter 11, and of the spin-boson model in chapter 12. The third part of the book applies the methodologies introduced earlier to several fundamental processes that underlie much of the dynamical behaviour of condensed phase molecular systems. Vibrational relaxation and vibrational energy transfer (Chapter 13), Barrier crossing and diffusion controlled reactions (Chapter 14), solvation dynamics (Chapter 15), electron transfer in bulk solvents (Chapter 16) and at electrodes/electrolyte and metal/molecule/metal junctions (Chapter 17), and several processes pertaining to molecular spectroscopy in condensed phases (Chapter 18) are the main subjects discussed in this part.
Algebraic specification of abstract data types
Authors: Loeckx J. , Ehrich H.-D.
Published: November 2020

It is widely accepted that the quality of software can be improved if its design is systematically based on the principles of modularization and formalization. Modularization consists in replacing a problem by several “smaller” ones. Formalization consists in using a formal language; it obliges the software designer to be precise and principally allows a mechanical treatment. One may distinguish two modularization techniques for the software design. The first technique consists in a modularization on the basis of the control structures. It is used in classical programming languages where it leads to the notion of a procedure. Moreover, it is used in “imperative” specification languages such as VDM [Woodman and Heal, 1993; Andrews and Ince, 1991], Raise [Raise Development Group, 1995], Z [Spivey, 1989] and B [Abrial, 1996]. The second technique consists in a modularization on the basis of the data structures. While modern programming languages such as Ada [Barstow, 1983] and ML [Paulson, 1991] provide facilities for this modularization technique, its systematic use leads to the notion of abstract data types. This technique is particularly interesting in the design of software for non-numerical problems. Compared with the first technique it is more abstract in the sense that algebras are more abstract than algorithms; in fact, control structures are related to algorithms whereas data structures are related to algebras. Formalization leads to the use of logic. The logics used are generally variants of the equational logic or of the first-order predicate logic. The present chapter is concerned with the specification of abstract data types. The theory of abstract data type specification is not trivial, essentially because the objects considered — viz. algebras — have a more complex structure than, say, integers. For more clarity the present chapter treats algebras, logics, specification methods (“specification-in-the-small”), specification languages (“specification-in-the-large”) and parameterization separately. In order to be accessible to a large number of readers it makes use of set-theoretical notions only. This contrasts with a large number of publications on the subject that make use of category theory [Ehrig and Mahr, 1985; Ehrich et al., 1989; Sannella and Tarlecki, 2001].
Introduction
Authors: Gray C. G. , Gubbins K. E.
Published: November 2020

The application of statistical mechanics to the study of fluids over the past fifty years † or so has progressed through a series of problems of gradually increasing difficulty. The first and most elementary calculations were for the thermodynamic functions (heat capacities, entropies, free energies, etc.) of perfect gases. These properties are related to the molecular energy levels, which for perfect gases can be determined theoretically (by quantum calculations) or experimentally (by spectroscopic methods, for example). For simple molecules (CO2 , CH4 , etc.) the energy levels, and hence the thermodynamic properties, can be determined with great accuracy, and even for quite complex organic molecules it is now possible to obtain thermodynamic properties with satisfactory accuracy. With the advent of digital computers it became possible to calculate thermodynamic properties for a wide variety of substances and temperatures, and several useful tabulations of perfect gas properties now exist. Having successfully treated the perfect gas, it was natural to consider gases of moderate density, where intermolecular forces begin to have an effect, by expanding the thermodynamic functions in a power series (or virial series) in density. Although the mathematical basis for a theoretical treatment of this series was laid by Ursell in 1927, it was not exploited until ten years later, when Mayer re-examined the problem. Since that time a great deal of effort has been put into evaluating the virial coefficients that appear in the series for a variety of intermolecular force models. As the expressions for the virial coefficients are exact, they provide a very useful means of checking such force models by comparison of calculated and experimental coefficients. While the theory of dilute gases at equilibrium is essentially complete, this is far from being the case for all dense gases and liquids. The virial series cannot be applied directly to liquids. As an alternative to the ‘dense gas’ approach to liquids, there were early attempts to treat liquids as disordered solids by using cell or lattice theories; these were popular from the mid-1930s until the early 1960s.
Sampling sediments
Authors: Gray John S. , Elliott Michael
Published: November 2020

One of the truisms of sampling design is that the design depends on the objectives. Too often objectives are not defined properly, with the result that the data collected cannot be used to answer the questions posed. A good example is that of a monitoring programme that aims to detect changes in an assemblage of benthic organisms caused by eutrophication but where the magnitude of change was not specified in the objectives, with the result that the monitoring programme was so loosely designed that insufficient samples were taken. A posteriori analyses of the results may show that the monitoring would take 10 years to detect a 10% change in the faunal composition. You may think that this is an unrealistic and hypothetical example, but our experience shows that far too often results such as this are the norm. We return to the types of monitoring in Chapter 11, but for now let us start with perhaps the simplest case: we wish to survey an area of coastal soft sediment simply to find out what is there (i.e. to map the habitats and prepare for a more detailed quantitative study of the benthic assemblages). Up to the last couple of decades, sampling subtidally below diveable depths was usually done blind. One had to resort to charts, perhaps prepared in the nineteenth century, which have depths and descriptions of sediments made from soundings done with handlines with candlewax in a hollowed-out part of the lead weight that touched sediment particles, enabling the sediment type to be crudely mapped. Since the 1980s huge technological advances have been made in mapping sediments. Two types of instrumentation have been developed: depth sounders of various types and remote-operated vehicles (ROVs). With sounders, accurate maps of the contours of the seabed can be produced and then indications of the hardness and roughness superimposed on the depth and good three-dimensional images produced with modern software. Sophisticated multibeam echosounders have been used to map the whole continental shelves of many countries. Now that the satellite-based differential global positioning system (DGPS) is generally available with an accuracy to a few metres, mapping of subtidal sediments has become much easier and more accurate.
Hazards from comets and asteroids
Authors: Napier William
Published: November 2020

The first angel sounded his trumpet, and there came hail and fire mixed with blood, and it was hurled down upon the earth. A third of the earth was burned up, a third of the trees were burned up, and all the green grass was burned up. The second angel sounded his trumpet, and something like a huge mountain, all ablaze, was thrown into the sea . . . The third angel sounded his trumpet, and a great star, blazing like a torch, fell from the sky on a third of the rivers . . . a third of the sun was struck, a third of the moon, and a third of the stars, so that a third of them turned dark . . . and I saw a star that had fallen from the sky to the earth. The star was given the key to the shaft of the Abyss. When he opened the Abyss, smoke rose from it like the smoke from a gigantic furnace. The sun and sky were darkened by the smoke from the Abyss . . .. The Revelation of St John was probably written around 100 ad, but is part of a very much older ‘Star Wars’ literature, going back to the very earliest writings and probably based on pre-literate oral traditions. Common threads in these tales are often hot blast, hurricane winds, flattened forests, tsunami and cataclysmic floods, associated with blazing thunderbolts from the sky, a darkened sun, a great, red-tailed comet and what appears to be a meteor storm. Even without benefit of the twentieth century Tunguska impact, which destroyed 2000 square kilometres of Siberian forest in 1908, classical scholars have long regarded the stories as descriptions of a cosmic impact. Myth was a vehicle for transmitting astronomical and cosmological information through the generations, and it is surely a seductive proposition to see these tales of celestial catastrophe – which are found worldwide – as prehistoric descriptions of cosmic cataclysm, one-off or recurrent, local or global. Inevitably, this is a contentious area – only qualitative statements can be made, and one individual’s unifying hypothesis is another’s Velikovskian fantasy.
Big troubles, imagined and real
Authors: Wilczek Frank
Published: November 2020

Modern physics suggests several exotic ways in which things could go terribly wrong on a very large scale. Most, but not all, are highly speculative, unlikely, or remote. Rare catastrophes might well have decisive influences on the evolution of life in the universe. So also might slow but inexorable changes in the cosmic environment in the future. Only a twisted mind will find joy in contemplating exotic ways to shower doom on the world as we know it. Putting aside that hedonistic motivation, there are several good reasons for physicists to investigate doomsday scenarios that include the following: Looking before leaping: Experimental physics often aims to produce extreme conditions that do not occur naturally on Earth (or perhaps elsewhere in the universe). Modern high-energy accelerators are one example; nuclear weapons labs are another. With new conditions come new possibilities, including – perhaps – the possibility of large-scale catstrophe. Also, new technologies enabled by advances in physics and kindred engineering disciplines might trigger social or ecological instabilities. The wisdom of ‘Look before you leap’ is one important motivation for considering worst-case scenarios. Preparing to prepare: Other drastic changes and challenges must be anticipated, even if we forego daring leaps. Such changes and challenges include exhaustion of energy supplies, possible asteroid or cometary impacts, orbital evolution and precessional instability of Earth, evolution of the Sun, and – in the very long run – some form of ‘heat death of the universe’. Many of these are long-term problems, but tough ones that, if neglected, will only loom larger. So we should prepare, or at least prepare to prepare, well in advance of crises. Wondering: Catastrophes might leave a mark on cosmic evolution, in both the physical and (exo)biological senses. Certainly, recent work has established a major role for catastrophes in sculpting terrestrial evolution (see http://www.answers.com/topic/timeline-of-evolution). So to understand the universe, we must take into account their possible occurrence. In particular, serious consideration of Fermi’s question ‘Where are they?’, or logical pursuit of anthropic reasoning, cannot be separated from thinking about how things could go drastically wrong. This will be a very unbalanced essay.
The Piltdown Forgery
Authors: Weiner J. S. , Stringer Chris
Published: November 2020

For decades the remains of fossils found in Piltdown, England were believed to come from a "missing link," a creature with a human cranium and an ape's jaw. Dr. Weiner shows how he discovered the truth about these remains, and went on to expose one of the world's greatest scientific frauds.
Illustrated Questions in Orthodontics
Authors: Nightingale Claire , Sandy Jonathan
Published: November 2020

Illustrated Questions in Orthodontics takes a problem-based approach to orthodontics, offering a unique resource for undergraduate dentists. This book contains a comprehensive set of questions mapped to undergraduate orthodontics curricula, including chapters on examination and diagnosis, treatment planning, pathology, appliances, and anchorage. Each chapter is packed with high-quality clinical photographs and x-rays to help readers to test their skills in identifying and describing various orthodontic problems and presentations. Furthermore, every question is answered with extensive feedback, setting each topic in a clinical context in order to teach as well as test. The ideal revision resource for undergraduate dentists looking to test and consolidate their knowledge ahead of placements and exams, Illustrated Questions in Orthodontics will also form a useful tool for postgraduate dentists and orthodontic therapists.
Confusion
Authors: Farne Hugo , Norris-Cervetto Edward , Warbrick-Smith James
Published: November 2020

• Delirium: an acute impairment in cognitive ability together with impaired consciousness. • Dementia: a chronic, progressive impairment in cognitive ability but with intact consciousness. Note that this is different from delirium and that you cannot diagnose dementia from a single mental status assessment. • Mental impairment: a permanent impairment in cognitive ability. • Psychosis: the patient may not be confused, but have a disorder of thought content/perception (e.g. delusions and/or hallucinations). • Receptive dysphasia: the patient may have difficulties comprehending your questions (e.g. due to damage to Wernicke’s area of the brain). • Expressive dysphasia: the patient may be cognitively intact but have difficulties verbalizing an answer to your questions (e.g. due to damage to Broca’s area of the brain). Note that these syndromes may coexist in patients, particularly delirium and dementia which are both very common. Remember to start by checking the patient’s airway, breathing, and circulation (ABC) and whether they are in any pain that requires analgesia. To work out what type of confusion this is, you should start by conducting a quick screen of confusion because if the patient does poorly in your screen, taking a conventional history may prove unhelpful. For example, you may ask: • Are they oriented to time, place, and person? Can they tell you why they are here? The Abbreviated Mental Test Score (AMTS; see Box 2.1) is a simple 10-question screening tool for assessing confusion where a score of less than 6/10 indicates cognitive impairment. An alternative is the 30-question Mini Mental State Exam (MMSE), where a score of less than 26/30 indicates cognitive impairment. Be aware that there are many other scoring systems in routine use, such as the Confusion Assessment Method (CAM), Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA), etc. • If their ability to converse is impaired, can they follow a three-step command? Can they name three common objects? These questions test for receptive and expressive dysphasia respectively. It will be fairly obvious early in your interaction with the patient whether either of these questions is relevant (they do not need to be asked routinely). • Other symptoms? Are they in pain? (even the most confused patient will complain of pain). You should also ask about breathlessness, cough, and urinary symptoms as a chest or urinary tract infection (UTI) is often the cause of confusion.
Haematemesis
Authors: Farne Hugo , Norris-Cervetto Edward , Warbrick-Smith James
Published: November 2020

First of all, call for help. You cannot manage an emergency alone—it involves teamwork. Call for help and involve your seniors. Second, this patient has potentially lost a lot of blood. Start with ABCDE—Airway, Breathing, Circulation, Disability, Exposure. Airway: Ensure it is patent. Can he talk? Is there any gurgling or stridor? Beware of blood in the oropharynx in a patient with haematemesis. If necessary, use suction to remove the blood. Breathing: Are there any signs of respiratory distress (tachypnoea, use of accessory muscles, low saturations)? Circulation: Does he have a pulse? Is he in shock (tachycardia, narrow pulse pressure, hypotension, cold peripheries)? Disability: what is the patient’s Glasgow Coma Score (GCS)? Always calculate this in an emergency as a GCS ≤8 (or rapidly dropping towards that point) suggests that the patient may soon require intubation to protect their airway. If you can’t remember the components of a GCS in an emergency, use the AVPU score (patient is Alert, responds to Voice, responds to Pain or is Unresponsive), where an avPu score (i.e. a patient who is responding to painful stimuli but not voice) is roughly equivalent to a GCS = 8. Exposure: The patient may have suffered multiple trauma and/or have various sites of blood loss. Although it is unlikely, what the hostel staff perceived as drunken behaviour may in fact represent behaviour from an unwitnessed assault resulting in significant head injury, and the haematemesis may reflect a stab wound to the chest or abdomen. Always expose the patient or you will be caught out by unsuspected findings. Mr Tucker is in shock, often defined as a BP <90/60 mmHg. He needs fluid resuscitation: • Apply high flow oxygen (15 L/min). • Get intravenous (IV) access: insert a large-bore (14G–16G) cannula and if you can’t do it yourself, ask a senior to help. They may need to resort to ultrasound-guided peripheral vascular access, to intraosseus access or to central venous access. • Send bloods for: ■ Venous blood gas: this will give you a rapid estimate of the patient’s haemoglobin.
Constipation
Authors: Farne Hugo , Norris-Cervetto Edward , Warbrick-Smith James
Published: November 2020

Constipation typically refers to stool that is passed infrequently and/or with difficulty. The most important thing to elucidate is what the patient means by ‘constipation’. Therefore, writing ‘constipation’ in the notes is inadequate—you must say something about frequency, ease of passage, and volume. Bear in mind that, in a hospital setting, one of the most common causes of constipation will not be due to any pathology per se but rather the embarrassment or discomfort of having to open one’s bowels on a bed pan within earshot of others. Equally, patients who are immobile for any reason (e.g. spinal pathology, old age) are prone to constipation, although the mechanism for this is unclear. There are a number of features from the history that should alert you to potentially sinister causes of constipation (especially colorectal cancer) and which warrant further investigation: • Severe, persistent constipation that is unresponsive to treatment • Absolute constipation, i.e. not passing either stool or flatus • Rectal bleeding, tenesmus, or intermittent mucoid diarrhoea • Significant weight loss, iron deficiency anaemia, and/or night sweats • Past medical history of ulcerative colitis or colonic polyps • Strong family history of colon cancer or colonic polyps, particularly if affected family members were <60 years old. • Characterize what the patient means by ‘constipation’. Passing hard, lumpy stools suggests lack of fibre or dehydration, but not obstruction. No longer passing any faeces nor flatus (‘absolute constipation’) suggests complete bowel obstruction. • When did this start? Recent change in bowel habit suggests pathology, whereas chronic constipation is usually benign. • Weight loss, night sweats, fevers? May suggest malignancy. • Diarrhoea? Intermittent diarrhoea and constipation can suggest irritable bowel syndrome (in younger patients), colorectal cancer (in patients >45 years, especially if the diarrhoea is mucoid), or diverticular disease (in patients >60 years, especially if they have had episodes of left iliac fossa pain). • Tenesmus? Suggests a persistent mass in the rectum (e.g. tumour). • Blood on faeces, per rectum, or when wiping? May suggest haemorrhoids, anal fissure, diverticular disease, or colorectal cancer (see Chapter 21). • Bloating? A feature of irritable bowel syndrome.
Scrotal mass
Authors: Farne Hugo , Norris-Cervetto Edward , Warbrick-Smith James
Published: November 2020

In common with lumps anywhere on the body, you will need to establish: • Is the lump painful? This is an absolutely critical question. An acutely swollen and tender scrotum is testicular torsion until proven otherwise, which is a surgical emergency. Most cases of testicular malignancy are not painful. • How long has the lump been there? A testicular torsion will only have been present for hours whereas a testicular tumour may have been present for weeks/months. • What made the patient first notice the lump? It may be that Mr Collons checks his testes regularly, but it is equally likely that this is a chance finding, perhaps following some minor trauma to his scrotum. • Has the lump got bigger, smaller, or stayed the same size? • Is the lump always there? This is not such a strange question as it may sound. An inguinal hernia may extend into the scrotum in response to increases in intra-abdominal pressure, such as during periods of exertion or after prolonged periods of standing. Varicoceles can vary in size throughout the day, and will typically disappear when the patient lies flat. • Are there any other lumps? The pathology may not be confined just to the testicles. • Does he have any other symptoms? You should ask about symptoms of urinary tract infection (dysuria, polyuria, suprapubic pain, offensive-smelling urine, urgency, strangury, haematuria) and symptoms suggestive of sexually transmitted infections (such as purulent urethral discharge) in order to identify possible sources of infection which may have ascended into the testis and/or epididymis. • Has there been any trauma to the testes? There is one further question that can be particularly informative regarding scrotal swellings: • Does the testis feel heavy? While there are no symptoms that are truly pathognomonic for testicular cancer, this symptom should raise suspicions… if clinical examination supports the diagnosis. • Can you get above it? Meaning, is the swelling confined to the scrotum or does it extend proximally into the groin? Extension of the mass into the groin is consistent with an inguinoscrotal hernia.
Religious Architecture in Latium and Etruria, c. 900-500 BC
Authors: Potts Charlotte R.
Published: November 2020

Religious Architecture in Latium and Etruria, c. 900-500 BC presents the first comprehensive treatment of cult buildings in western central Italy from the Iron Age to the Archaic Period. By analysing the archaeological evidence for the form of early religious buildings and their role in ancient communities, it reconstructs a detailed history of early Latial and Etruscan religious architecture that brings together the buildings and the people who used them. The first part of the study examines the processes by which religious buildings changed from huts and shrines to monumental temples, and explores apparent differences between these processes in Latium and Etruria. The second part analyses the broader architectural, religious, and topographical contexts of the first Etrusco-Italic temples alongside possible rationales for their introduction. The result is a new and extensive account of when, where, and why monumental cult buildings became features of early central Italic society.
Accounting for religious monumentality
Authors: Potts Charlotte R.
Published: November 2020

The evidence collected in the previous chapters has shown that the appearance and prominence of central Italic religious architecture changed significantly between the ninth and fifth centuries BC. Technological changes led to the use of more permanent materials and roofing systems, while the incorporation of podia and the increasingly specialized use of architectural terracottas saw a distinctive visual aesthetic develop for temples that differentiated them from other buildings. They also became a focus for investment, dominating their settlements, and were often constructed at sites that were highly accessible rather than defensible. These developments occurred at different times in Latium and Etruria but resulted in a largely standardized set of architectural, decorative, and topographic features for central Italic temples that can also be recognized in many cult buildings constructed in subsequent centuries. This book has so far paid more attention to the form and arrangement of monumental religious architecture than to its function. In part this is due to the inherently problematic nature of identifying precise building functions in early Italy, using archaeological evidence with a tendency for ambiguity and a general absence of contemporary, relevant literary information. It is clear, however, that not all of the functions of later Roman temples, as described by literary sources, can simply be retrospectively assigned to their Latial and Etruscan predecessors. Few Archaic cult buildings functioned as conspicuous landmarks on the highest point in their settlements, and many may not have necessarily sheltered cult statues that received sacrifices at external altars. Evidence of votive depositions that pre-date and post-date the presence of cult buildings at sites such as Pyrgi, Veii, Orvieto, and Gravisca furthermore makes it clear that architecture was not integral to ritual practice. But if temples did not meet essential religious needs, then what purpose was served by their construction? And, more importantly, why did sixth-century communities decide to invest great resources in building monumental temples rather than maintaining relatively modest shrines? This chapter will explore old and new answers to these questions.
Readers' Liberation
Authors: Rose Jonathan
Published: November 2020

The Literary Agenda is a series of short polemical monographs about the importance of literature and of reading in the wider world and about the state of literary education inside schools and universities. The category of 'the literary' has always been contentious. What is clear, however, is how increasingly it is dismissed or is unrecognised as a way of thinking or an arena for thought. It is sceptically challenged from within, for example, by the sometimes rival claims of cultural history, contextualized explanation, or media studies. It is shaken from without by even greater pressures: by economic exigency and the severe social attitudes that can follow from it; by technological change that may leave the traditional forms of serious human communication looking merely antiquated. For just these reasons this is the right time for renewal, to start reinvigorated work into the meaning and value of literary reading. For the Internet and digitial generation, the most basic human right is the freedom to read. The Web has indeed brought about a rapid and far-reaching revolution in reading, making a limitless global pool of literature and information available to anyone with a computer. At the same time, however, the threats of censorship, surveillance, and mass manipulation through the media have grown apace. Some of the most important political battles of the twenty-first century have been fought--and will be fought--over the right to read. Will it be adequately protected by constitutional guarantees and freedom of information laws? Or will it be restricted by very wealthy individuals and very powerful institutions? And given increasingly sophisticated methods of publicity and propaganda, how much of what we read can we believe? This book surveys the history of independent sceptical reading, from antiquity to the present. It tells the stories of heroic efforts at self-education by disadvantaged people in all parts of the world. It analyzes successful reading promotion campaigns throughout history (concluding with Oprah Winfrey) and explains why they succeeded. It also explores some disturbing current trends, such as the reported decay of attentive reading, the disappearance of investigative journalism, 'fake news', the growth of censorship, and the pervasive influence of advertisers and publicists on the media--even on scientific publishing. For anyone who uses libraries and Internet to find out what the hell is going on, this book is a guide, an inspiration, and a warning.
Biography of a Hill: Novi Pazar in South-Western Serbia
Authors: Babić Staša
Published: November 2020

Archaeology is one of the academic disciplines whose aim is to make sense of the past. Among other things, we organize and classify the material culture of the past into distinctive units according to a number of scholarly established criteria. In the course of the history of the discipline, these criteria have changed, and some of the previously prevailing modes of classiﬁcation have been severely criticized, above all the concept of archaeological culture (e.g. Jones 1997; Canuto and Yaeger 2000; Isbell 2000; Thomas 2000; Lucy 2005). These reconsiderations have brought forward that the past may not have been as orderly organized and readily packed into the units we have designed to manipulate and explain its material traces. Consequently, we have started investigating other possible paths of thinking about the lived experiences of the people whose actions we seek to understand (e.g. Díaz-Andreu et al. 2005; Insoll 2007). However, some of the archaeological practices of organizing our subject of study have remained largely unchanged from the very beginnings of our discipline to the present day, such as deﬁning one of the very basic units of observation—an archaeological site. The archaeological process may be said to begin ‘at the trowel’s edge’ (Hodder 1999, 92ff.), by distinguishing the features in the soil indicative of past human activities and demarcating their spatial limits. This basic anchoring in the spatial dimension, regardless of subsequent procedures, that may vary signiﬁcantly depending upon the theoretical and methodological inclinations of the researcher(s) in question (Jones 2002; Lucas 2001; 2012), renders the past tangible and manageable, transforming a patch of land into an object of study, further scrutinized according to a set of rules laid down by archaeologists. Once investigated in their physical form in the ﬁeld, the sites are converted into a set of information, analysed, commented upon and valorized both by archaeologists and the general public. In the process, some are judged to be more important than the others and lists of particularly valuable sites are compiled, such as the UNESCO World Heritage List.
Homeless Heritage
Authors: Kiddey Rachael
Published: November 2020

Homeless Heritage describes the process of using archaeological methodologies to collaboratively document how contemporary homeless people use and experience the city. Drawing on fieldwork undertaken in Bristol and York, the book first describes the way in which archaeological methods and theory have come to be usefully applied to the contemporary world, before exploring the historical development of the concept of homelessness. Working with homeless people, the author undertook surveys and two excavations of contemporary homeless sites, and the team co-curated two public heritage exhibitions - with surprising results. Complementing a growing body of literature that details how collaborative and participatory heritage projects can give voice to marginalised groups, Homeless Heritage details what it means to be homeless in twenty-
Tunny: Hitler’s biggest fish
Authors: Copeland Jack
Published: November 2020

After 1942, the Tunny cipher machine took over increasingly from Enigma for encrypting Berlin’s highest-level army communications. Hitler used Tunny to communicate with his generals at the front lines. Turing tackled Tunny in the summer of 1942, and altered the course of the war by inventing the first systematic method for breaking into the torrent of priceless Tunny messages. The story of Enigma’s defeat by the Bletchley Park codebreakers astonished the world. Less well known is the story—even more astounding—of the codebreakers’ success against a later, stateof- the-art German cipher machine (Fig. 14.1). This new machine began its work encrypting German Army messages in 1941, nearly two years into the war. At Bletchley Park it was codenamed simply ‘Tunny’. Broken Tunny messages contained intelligence that changed the course of the war and saved an incalculable number of lives. How Bletchley Park broke Tunny remained a closely guarded secret for more than 50 years. In June 2000 the British government finally declassified the hitherto ultra-secret 500-page official history of the Tunny operation. Titled ‘General report on Tunny’, this history was written in 1945 at the end of the war by three of the Tunny codebreakers, Donald Michie, Jack Good, and Geoffrey Timms. Finally the secrecy ended: the ‘General report’ laid bare the whole incredible story of the assault on Tunny. Far more advanced than Enigma, Tunny marked a new era in crypto-technology. The Enigma machine dated from the early 1920s—its manufacturer first placed it on the market in 1923—and even though the German Army and Navy made extensive modifications, Enigma was certainly no longer state-of-the-art equipment by the time the war broke out in 1939. From 1942, Hitler and the German Army High Command in Berlin relied increasingly on the Tunny machine to protect their ultra-secret communications with the front-line generals who commanded the war in the eastern and western theatres. Germany’s compromised Tunny radio network carried the highest grade of intelligence, giving Bletchley Park the opportunity to eavesdrop on lengthy back-and-forth communications between the grand architects of Germany’s battle plans. Tunny leaked detailed information about German strategy, tactical planning, and military strengths and weaknesses.