bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
PRELIMINARILY STUDIES ON THE MULTIDIMENSIONAL NICHES OF TWO SPIDER MITES OF APPLE LEAF
Authors: Qin Yuchuan
Published: April 2008

Abstract  The multidimensional niches of two spider mites Tetranychus viennensis Zacher and Panonychus ulmi (Koch) comprise eleven ecological dimensions (trophic, microclimatic. and biologic dimensions). Principal component analysis shows: some dimensions of leaf nutrition and microclimate perform more important function than the biologic dimensions in the mites' niches from June to August. By the analysis of main axis technique and the method of comparative ecology the niche ellipsoids (i.e. multidimensional niches) of each mite were established. The niche ellipsoids of the two mites change their volumes with time, tend to seperate in June. overlap in July. and seperate in August.
RESEARCH ON INSECTICIDES FROM PLANTS IN CHINA
Authors: Zhao Shanhuan
Published: April 2008

Abstract  An overview is presented on recent (1989–19911 investigations on insecticidal plants in China, specially in South China. The main emphasis was laid on studies of Meliaceae including Azadirachta indica, Melia azedarach and M. toosendan, as well as on Rhododendron molle, Derris elliptica, Tephrosia voglii, Ajuga nipponensis, Plumbago idea and Celastrus anplatus. Research work on the bioactivities and application of essential oils from plants for the control of stored‐grain insects is also discussed. The results of these investigations reveal a great potential of the active ingredients of a number of Chinese plants for integrated pest management, as well as for using these natural product models as guides for the synthesis of a novel class of insecticides.
RESPONSES OF SINGLE OLFACTORY RECEPTOR CELL TO SEX PHEROMONES IN MALE MOTH PARANTHRENE TABANZFORMIS
Authors: Wu Caihong , Guo Guangzhong , Liu Hanqian , Lin Guoqiang
Published: April 2008

Abstract Electrophysiological recording showed two types of pheromone receptor cell in one sensillum trichodeum of the male Paranthrene tabani formis. Type A receptor cell fired larger nerve impulse to the major pheromone component E3, Z13,‐18:OH; type B receptor cell fired smaller nerve impulse to the candidate compound of minor pheromone component Z3, Z13‐18:Ac. Pheromonal effect should be tested still in field and behavior response. The selective adaptation demonstrated that Z3, Z13,‐18:Ac and E3, Z13‐18: Ac excited the same receptor cell. E3, Z13‐18:Ac was an analog of pheromone.
TWO NEW SPECIES OF CUNOPHYMA ZUB. FROM XINJIANG: (ACRIDOIDEA: CATANTOPIDAE)
Authors: Li Baoping , Ti Xiaonan
Published: April 2008

Abstract Two new species of the genus Conophyma Zub. were reported from Southern Xinjiang. Conophyma mica sp. nov. is similar to C. zhaosuensis Huang, but differs from it in the following characters:1) rear angles of male supraanal plate obviously protruding, posterior margin of the supraanal plate acute‐triangularly projecting medially; 2) hind tibia redish brown. Conophyma ru fitibia sp. nov. is similar to C. alajense Msthsenko, but can be differentiated from it in the characters:1) furcula of the last tergite in male distinctly larger; 2) male cerci longer, obviously extending beyond the posterior median process of the supraanal plate; and 3) female ovipositor without a very distinct tooth on the outer ventral margin of the ventral valves. The new species, C. rufitibia, is also similar to C. almasyi (Kuthy), but different in the following points:1) male supraanal plate nearly quadrate with a blunt tubercle at the middle of lateral margins; 2) male abdomen with 2 light longitudinal bands dorsally.
DEVELOPMENT AND DECLINING OF RESISTANCE IN DIAMOND BACK MOTH PLUTELLA XYLOSTELLA L. RESISTANT STRAINS SELECTED BY DIMEHYPO AND CARTAP*
Authors: Chen Zhihao , Han Zhaojiu , Li Fengliang , Liu Chuanxiu
Published: April 2008

Abstract Two resistant strains of diamond back moth Plutella xylostella L. were treated with dimehy‐po and cartap in succession, The susceptible strain had never contacted with any insecticieds since reared in the in sectary. The rearing method by using vermiculite and radish seedling was discribed by Chen et al. (1990) and Liuet al. (1993). Comparison between reared strains and field strain did not display any difference in biological characteristics. The resistance reached 178 fold in dimehypo resistant strain in F85, and 87 fold in cartap resistant strain in F80, Two high level resistant strains had formed. After termination of selection, the resistance declined from 167 to 57 fold in dimehypo resistant strain and from 74 to 16 fold in cartap resistant strain within five generations. The resistance of diamond back moth to the two insecticides was unstable at high level, but could be steady at quite lower degree for a long time. It seemed impossible to regain the same sensitivity as before selection for the two resistant strains after resistance declining.
EGG MORPHOLOGY AND OVIPOSITION PATTERNS OF THE STRO‐BILOMYIA SPP. (DIPTERA: ANTHOMYIIDAE) FLIES DAMAGING SIBERIAN LARCH CONES IN NORTHEASTERN CHINA1)
Authors: Sun Jianghua , Roques Alain , Zhang Xudong , Xu Yongbo
Published: April 2008

Abstract  The oviposition patterns of 6 larch cone flies, Strobilomyia spp., were surveyed in 1993 in Da Hinggan Mountains, northeastern China. The colonization of distinct phases of cone development and the selection of different sites to lay eggs allowed to distinguish 5 patterns of oviposition. Observations of the egg morphology and of the chorion architecture using scanning electron microscope lead to classify the examined cone fly eggs into 6 different types. Each type of egg was related to a given oviposition pattern. Among the 6 egg types, eggs of S. laricicola, S. melaniola and S. infrequens were identified with certainty. Although hypotheses were given, further experiments under controlled conditions are required to identify which of the 3 other egg types is associated to S. baicalensis, S. svenssoni and S. sanyangi, respectively.
BIOCHEMICAL ASPECTS OF INSECTICIDE RESISTANCE IN COTTON BOLLWORM FROM HANDAN OF HEBEI PROVINCE*
Authors: Gao Xiwu , Zhang Fan , Zheng Bingzong , Wang Rongjing , Lin Bin
Published: April 2008

Abstract  The cotton bollworms, Helicoverpa armigera Hübner, collected from Handan of Hebei Province, have evolved high resistance to pyrethroid, organophosphate and carbamate insecticides, The sensitivity of acetylcholinesterase (AChEs) to paraoxon and methomyl varied with the development stages of the cotton bollworm. After the treatments with LD5 and LD50 of parathion and methomyl to the cotton bollworms, the affinity of AChE to acetylthiocholine (ATCh) and acetyl‐β‐bmethyl‐thio choline (MeTCh) increased significantly except the treatment of parathion using LD50 dosage while the sensitivity of AChEs to paraoxon significantly decreased. The sensitivity of AChEs to methomyl strongly increased in the treatment of parathion using LD50 dosages while strongly decreased in other treatments. The affinity of carboxylesterase to β‐naphthyl acetate (β‐NA) was higher in groups of treatment with insecticides than in group of control. The glutathione‐s‐transferase (GST) activity significantly decreased in the induced groups using LD5 dosages, while increased in the selection groups using LD50 dosages. The effects of parathion and methomyl on the phosphatases of cotton bollworm were related to the dosages of application and the time after treatment and the effect on the alkaline phosphatase was stronger than on acid phosphatase.
ANOMALA CUPRZPESSPECIES GROUP OF CHINA AND A DISCUSSION ON ITS TAXONOMY (COLEOPTERA: RUTELIDAE)
Authors: Lin Ping
Published: April 2008

Abstract Anomala cupripesHope,A. rubripessp. nov.,A. rubripes virescensssp. nov.,A. ignipessp. nov.,A. truncataBates,A. truncata chlorochelysArrow,A. ex pansaBates, A.virenssp. nov.,A. planicornasp. nov. andA. granuliformissp. nov. found in China have been put together as a species group according to their main features including male and female genitalia. Descriptions and illustrations with a key to the species of the group and a discussion of their taxonomy are given.
FOUR NEW SPECIES OF EVACANTHINAE FROM VIETNAM AND THAILAND (HOMOPTERA: CICADELLIDAE)
Authors: Li Zizhong , Webb M. D.
Published: April 2008

Abstract Four new species of Evacanthinae, Carinata nigropictura, sp. nov., Cunedda albovenosa, sp. nov., Cunedda signuma, sp. nov. and Dussana vietnama, sp. nov. are described from Vietnam and Thailand. The morphology is described in details and genitalia are illustrated.
PROGRESS IN THE RESEARCH ON MECHANISM OF INSECT COLD‐HARDINESS
Authors: Zhao Zhangwu
Published: April 2008

Abstract A number of freeze‐tolerant insect species contain proteins/lipoproteins or insoluble crystals that are ice nucleating active at relatively high subzero temperatures. Recently ice nucleating active bacteria and fungi have been identified as normal flora in insect guts. However, most insects are unable to survive internal ice formation and the key factor in their overwintering survival is the regulation of the temperature at which they spontaneously freeze. To enhance their supercooling capacity overwintering insects eliminate endogenous ice nucleators, accumulate low molecular weight polyols and sugars, and synthesize hemolymph antifreeze proteins or peptides. The factors affecting the supercooling capacity of overwintering insects or the mechanism of cold‐hardiness are discussed.
JURASSIC PALAEONTINJDS FROM KARAMAI, XINJIANG, WlTH A DISCUSSION OF PALAEONTINIDAE (HOMOPTERA:PALAEON‐TINIDAE) IN CHINA*
Authors: Zhang Haichun
Published: April 2008

Abstract Three new species of fossil insects described here were collected from the Lower Jurassic Badaowan Formation of Tuzigou, Karamai, Xinjiang of northwestern China and are respectively referred to three genera of Palaeontinidae. They are Fletcheriana jurassica sp. nov., Plachutella exculpta sp. nov., and Pseudocossus strenus sp. nov.

Some insects of Palaeontinidae have been in discovered succession in northern China. But it should be pointed out that in classification of some of these insects, there exist many questions, which are discussed here. The geological and geographical distributions of Palaeontinidae in China are reviewed in this paper.
ESTABLISHMENT OF FOSSIL ENTOMOFAUNAS AND THEIR EVOLUTIONARY SUCCESSION IN NORTH CHINA*
Authors: Hong Youchong
Published: April 2008

Abstract  According to a systematic study of large numbers of fossil insects collected from the Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Tertiary strata in North China, three evolutionary mega‐stages of fossil insects including 14 fossil entomofaunas and 29 entomassemblages have been established. These insect faunas reflect their order or law of evolution—the history of their rise and fall, and form their evolutionary succession in North China. Such a history provides an important reference not only for understanding fossil insects through time, but also showing for stratigraphical correlation.
REPEAT SEQUENCE PRIMER‐PCR STUDY ON DNA POLYMORPHISM OF GEOGRAPHIC POPULATIONS OF COTTON APHID, APHIS GOSSYPII, IN CHINA*
Authors: Chen‐hui ZOU , Xiao‐wen YANG , Xiao‐feng CHEN , Ying‐xia LI
Published: April 2008

Abstract  The repeat sequence primer‐PCR technique was used to determine DNA polymorphism of the aphid Aphis gossypii (Glover) collected from 8 different localites in China. Three primers were selected and used for similarity index (SI) and cluster analysis based on the data of Nei's genetic distance (D). We found that the populations in the north and northwest of China was linked before they were joined by those in southern China. A proposed explanation emphasizes the populations in the north and northwest of China were located near — 4 °C isotherm or lower in January with less than 200 frost‐free days per year, whereas populations in southern China were located near 0 °C isotherm or higher with more than 300 frost ‐ free days per year. So it may be the over‐winter host plants instead of the geographic distance or gene flow, exert pronounced influence on the geographic population differentiation of A. gossypii. Species on different over‐winter host plants may directly lead to the genetic differentiation of their summer offsprings.
SIX NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS MICROTERYS OF CHINA (HYMENOPTERA: ENCYRTIDAE) *
Authors: Zhi‐hong XU , Han‐lin CHEN
Published: April 2008

Abstract  This paper deals with six new species of the genus Microterys, collected from Zhejiang, Fujian, Yunnan and Guangdong Provinces. They are M. metaceronemae Xu, sp. n. M. nuticaudatus Xu, sp. n. M. postmarginis Xu, sp. n. M. pseudonietneri Xu, sp. n. M. unicoloris Xu, sp. n. and M. zhaoi Xu, sp. n. The host of these parasitoids are Metaceronema japonica on Camellia oleosa Cerococcus muratae on Magnolia officinalis, Coccus hesperidum on citrus, Ceroplastes japonicus on citrus, Chloropulvinaria aurantii, Laccifer lacca Ceroplastes japonicus and Kerria lacca (Homoptera: Coccidoidea)
A NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS CAECULISOMA BERLESE (ACARI: ERYTHRAEIDAE) IN CHINA
Authors: Bo‐yi ZHENG
Published: April 2008

Abstract A larva erythraeid mite, Caecdisoma hununica sp. nov., specimens is described from Hunan Province, China. It is the first record of this genus from China. A key to the known larval species of Caeculisoma is provided. The holotype of the new species is deposited in Laboratory of Entomology, College of Environment and Resources, Central South Forestry University.
STUDIES ON CULTIVAR‐INDUCED CHANGES IN INSECTICIDE SUSCEPTIBILITY AND ITS RELATED ENZYME ACTIVITIES OF THE WHITE BACKED PLANTHOPPER, SOGATELLA FURCZFERA (HORVÁTH) (HOMOPTERA:DELPHACIDAE)
Authors: Hong‐wei YAO , Cai‐ying JIANG , Gong‐yin YE , Jia‐an CHENG
Published: April 2008

Abstract  The susceptibility of Sogatella furcifera female adults on N22 to malathion increased as feeding time prolonged, while the day change of susceptibility to isoprocarb showed a inverse tendency. The activities of esterase and carboxylesterase were induced significantly after on N22 for one day, and then declined. The non‐susceptible level of adults to insecticides and enzyme activities seemed to be heightened after feeding on ASD7, a variety resistant to Nilaparvata lugens. The total phenol content in rice leaf sheath was the highest in N22, and could be regaded as one of the factors, which caused chages in susceptibility of S. furicfera to insecticide after feeding different rice varieties. It was recommended that suitable insecticides and planthopper resistant varieties should be coordinately used in practice 90 that they contribute more effects respectively.
THE FEASIBILITY OF USING VERTICAL‐LOOKING RADAR TO MONITOR THE MIGRATION OF BROWN PLANTHOPPER AND OTHER INSECT PESTS OF RICE IN CHINA
Authors: Riley Joe R. , Smith A. D. , Reynolds D. R.
Published: April 2008

Abstract The recent development of automatically operating, inexpensive vertical‐looking radar (VLR) for entomological purposes has made it practical to carry out routine, automated monitoring of insect aerial migration throughout the year. In this paper we investigate whether such radars might have a role in monitoring and forecasting schemes designed to improve the management of the Brown Planthopper (BPH), Nilaparvata lugens, and of associated rice pest species in China. A survey of the literature revealed that these insects typically migrate at altitudes between 300 to 2 000 m above ground level, but calculations based on BPH radar scattering cross‐sections indicated that the maximum altitude at which they individually produce signals analysable by current VLRs is only ˜ 240 m. We also show that coverage over most of the flight altitudes of BPH could be achieved by building a VLR using a wavelength of 8.8 mm instead of the 3.2 cm of existing VLR, but that such a radar would be expensive to build and to operate. We suggest that a more practical solution would be to use a 3.2 cm VLR as a monitor of the aerial movement of the larger species, from which the migration of rice pests in general might be inferred.
CLONING AND EXPRESSION OF SPODOPTERA LITURA UBIQUITIN GENE
Authors: Zhao‐fei LI , Ying‐xue GONG , Yong‐xia SHI , Li‐jin PAN , Yi PANG
Published: April 2008

Abstract Ubiquitin (UBI) plays a very important role in regulated non‐lysosomal ATP dependent protein degradation. In the present work, the coding sequence of Spodoptera litura UBI gene was isolated (GenBank Accession No. AF436066). The length of this ORF is 228bp, encoding a protein with Mr of 8.56 kD and isoelectric point of 6.56. Multiple sequence alignment indicated that S. litura UBI is very similar to the homologous proteins of other eukaryotic species and it has 84% identity with S. litura nucleopolyhedrovirus (SpltMNPV) UBI at amino acid level. RT‐PCR analysis showed that S. litura UBI gene is ubiquitously expressed in larva tissues which are susceptible to SpltMNPV infection. By constructing E. coli expression vector, S. litura UBI was highly expressed and the recombinant protein was purified using Ni‐NTA resin column, and currently further study on the function of S. litura UBI in SpltMNPV infection is underway.
SPECIES‐GROUPS WITHIN THE GENUS LIMNOPHORA R.‐D. (DIPTERA: MUSCIDAE) AND DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW SPECIES
Authors: Wan‐qi XUE , Yan‐feng TONG
Published: April 2008

Abstract This paper divides the genus Limnophora R.‐D., into five species‐group, s, namely L. triangula‐gr., L. spoliata‐gr., L. exigua‐gr., L. nigripes‐gr. and L. scrupulosa‐gr. A key to each group is provided and three new species from Yunnan Province, L. longispatula sp. nov., L. yulongxueshanna sp. nov. and L. yunnanensis sp. nov., described. Type specimens are deposited in the Institute of Entomology, Shenyang Normal University.
THE ROLES OF DETOXIFYING ENZYMES AND AChE INSENSITIVITY IN METHAMIDOPHOS RESISTANCE DEVELOPMENT AND DECLINE IN NILAPARVATA LUGENS
Authors: Liu Ze‐wen , Han Zhao‐jun , Zhang Ling‐chun
Published: April 2008

Methamidophos resistance of brown planthopper (Nilaparvata lugens Stål, BPH) was selected in laboratory. After successive selection for 9 generations, the selection was ceased by rearing BPH without contact with any insecticide for 9 generations. In the full course, the successive changes of esterase activity, MFO activity, GSTs activity and AChE insensitivity were analyzed. The results showed that the change of esterase activity was high correlated with that of methamidophos in the full course, which indicated that esterase played very important role both in the resistance development and in the resistance decline. However, the change of AChE insensitivity only significantly correlated with that of resistance in the development stage, and the change of MFO activity or GSTs activity only significantly correlated with that of the resistance in the decline stage, which indicated the changes of AChE insensitivity, MFO activity or GSTs activity only played some roles in different stages of the resistance change.
LIME GREEN LIGHT‐EMITTING DIODE EQUIPPED YELLOW STICKY CARD TRAPS FOR MONITORING WHITEFLIES, APHIDS AND FUNGUS GNATS IN GREENHOUSES
Authors: Chu Chang‐chi , Simmons Alvin M. , Chen Tian‐Ye , Alexander Patrick J. , Henneberry T. J.
Published: April 2008

Abstract  Light‐emitting diodes (LEDs) were attached to plastic cup and sticky card traps to improve pest insect catches in the laboratory and in greenhouses. Plastic cup traps equipped with 530 nm lime green LEDs caught more adult Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Westwood) and Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) biotype B compared with plastic cup traps alone. Yellow sticky card (YC) and clear plastic sticky card (CS) traps equipped with lime green LEDs (LED‐YC and LED‐CS, respectively) caught more adult T. vaporariorum, B. tabaci biotype B, Aphis gossypii (Glover) and Bradysia coprophila (Lintner) compared with unlit traps of each type in greenhouse cage studies with shell beans, Phaseolus vulgaris (L.) and cotton, Gossypium hirsutum (L.). The lime green LED equipped YC traps have potential for use in greenhouses for insect detection, monitoring, and control.
NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF THE FIELD CRICKET (GRYLLUS TESTACEUS WALKER)
Authors: Wang Dun , Bai Yao‐yu , Li Jiang‐hong , Zhang Chuan‐xi
Published: April 2008

Abstract The chemical composition and the nutritional quality of protein, fatty acids and chitin of adult field cricket Gryllus testaceus Walker were investigated. The adult insect contained: crude protein 58.3 %; fat 10.3 %, chitin 8.7 % and ash 2.96 % on dry matter basis respectively. The essential amino acid profile compared well with FAO/WHO recommended pattern except for cysteine and methionine. The fatty acid analysis showed unsaturated acid of the field cricket to be present in high quantities, and the total percentage of oleic acid, linolic acid and linolenic acid was 77.51%. The chitin content of the insect was 8.7% with a better quality than the commercial chitin that was prepared from shells of shrimp and crab. Therefore the chemical composition of the field cricket indicates the insect to be a good supplement to nutrition for food and feed, even a raw material for medicine.
Pharmacophore Modelling and Virtual Screening for Identification of New Aurora‐A Kinase Inhibitors
Authors: Deng Xiao‐Qiang , Wang Hui‐Yuan , Zhao Ying‐Lan , Xiang Ming‐Li , Jiang Pei‐Du , Cao Zhi‐Xing , Zheng Yu‐Zhu , Luo Shi‐Dong , Yu Luo‐Ting , Wei Yu‐Quan , Yang Sheng‐Yong
Published: April 2008

Aurora‐A has been identified as one of the most attractive targets for cancer therapy and a considerable number of Aurora‐A inhibitors have been reported recently. In order to clarify the essential structure–activity relationship for the known Aurora‐A inhibitors as well as identify new lead compounds against Aurora‐A, 3D pharmacophore models were developed based on the known inhibitors. The best hypothesis, Hypo1, was used to screen molecular structural databases, including Specs and China Natural Products Database for potential lead compounds. The hit compounds were subsequently subjected to filtering by Lipinski’s rules and docking study to refine the retrieved hits and as a result to reduce the rate of false positive. Finally, 39 compounds were purchased for further in vitro assay against several human tumour cell lines including A549, MCF‐7, HepG2 and PC‐3, in which Aurora‐A is overexpressed. Two compounds show very low micromolar inhibition potency against some of these tumour cells. And they have been selected for further investigation.
A Prognosis for the Rural Hospital Part I: What is the Role of the Rural Hospital?
Authors: Moscovice Ira , Rosenblatt Roger A.
Published: April 2008

The rural hospital is a vital component of the rural health care delivery system and an important institution in rural communities. In recent years, considerable concern has been expressed over the future of these institutions, many of which have experienced serious difficulties in maintaining financial viability. The problems facing many rural hospitals today result from a number of interrelated factors, both internal and external, that determine the environment within which the rural hospital operates and affect its performance. This is the first of a two‐part series that: (1) provides an objective review and critical analysis of what is known and what is not known from the existing body of research on the performance of rural hospitals; (2) identifies and examines the influence of the major external factors which affect viability; and (3) outlines potential options and strategies for strengthening the viability of these institutions. Part I addresses the issues of scope of services and quality of care in rural hospitals.
A Practical Guide for Avoiding Disaster When Computerizing the Small Rural Health Clinic
Authors: Crafford J. Carter
Published: April 2008

With the advent of the small, personal and affordable microcomputer, the opportunity for purchasing and operating automated data processing equipment in the rural health clinic for medical, administrative and financial functions has become both pragmatic and increasingly popular. Some practical guidelines for clinic administrators seriously considering introducing the computer revolution into their clinic's current methods of operating are discussed. Suggestions are offered for priorities in clinic functional automation, equipment purchasing strategies, and how to evaluate prospective vendors and their products. Some of the potential impacts of computerization on clinic personnel and operation are identified.
Implementing Swing‐Bed Services in Small Rural Hospitals*
Authors: Richardson Hila , Kovner Anthony R.
Published: April 2008

Since 1983, twenty‐six small rural hospitals in five states have been developing models of the “swing‐bed” concept as part of a coordinated national demonstration project. Based on the experiences of these hospitals, swing‐bed programs use excess hospital capacity to provide short‐term, post‐acute care in rural communities where there are nursing home shortages, and, thus, help avoid the need for new nursing home construction. The availability of swing‐bed services in rural hospitals has allowed the elderly patient to receive a full‐range of long‐term care services within the community to avoid transfer to a nursing home outside the community. Introduction of services also has improved patient care for all hospitalized elderly. Finally, the revenue from the swing‐bed services has helped to stabilize small, rural hospitals faced with declining utilization. The demonstration has provided evidence that the swing‐bed program has the potential to deliver a needed service to the rural elderly while contributing to the preservation of the small, rural hospital as a valuable community resource.
The Influence of Rural Physicians' Perceptions on Referral Patterns to a University Hospital*
Authors: Cooper James K. , Johnson Timothy P. , Heller Leonard E.
Published: April 2008

The patient referral process is based on a complex set of social rewards and costs for the referring physician. For the physician or institution potentially receiving referrals, a key question is, why is one institution selected over other available choices? Factor analysis of a survey of rural physicians revealed five factors of reward and cost associated with the choice of where to refer patients. Further analysis of these factors suggested that the ability to have patients admitted and treated when necessary is central to the satisfaction of the referring physician and their willingness to continue the consultant relationship. Adequate information about the consultants was also important to satisfaction. Other factors have less influence. Further, “admissions when necessary” was the only reward/cost factor which predicted physicians who referred more to the university hospital than to other hospitals. If a university hospital wants to develop strategies to encourage referrals from rural physicians, it must be cognizant of these social reward‐cost factors.
Faculty Time Allocation in Rural Primary Care Training Sites*
Authors: Crandall Lee A. , Walczak Alexandra A. , Duncan R. Paul
Published: April 2008

This investigation examined the allocation of time by medical school faculty who served as attending physicians on a rotating basis in rural primary care centers where medical students and house staff were trained. Two quite different methods of studying faculty time allocation produced relatively consistent results. Travel and direct care of patients (with no medical students present) accounted for the largest share of faculty time. Much of the teaching time was spent in direct student contact with no patient present. Simultaneous care of patients by an attending faculty member and a medical student accounted for less than ten percent of faculty effort. It appears that in a busy rural primary care center, faculty whose mission is intended to emphasize teaching may often be thrust into the role of care providers. Despite this problem, faculty‐student contact appears to be greater than that which typically occurs in the tertiary care teaching hospital environment.
The Economic Costs and Benefits of Adding Medical Manpower to Rural and Urban Communities: A Human Capital Perspective*
Authors: Miller Michael K. , Dixon Bruce L. , Fendley Kim
Published: April 2008

For health planners to be able to me scarce resources efficiently and effectively to improve health, it is necessary for them to have reliable information on the productivity of the major categories of health producing expenditures. The present study utilizes a human capital perspective to evaluate the economic costs and benefits of medical manpower to communities in the West South Central United States. The results of the study suggest that beyond problems of maldistribution of physicians and nurses, the larger problem from an economic effectiveness perspective may be significant excesses of medical manpower, although some rural communities could justify, economically, adding physicians and/or nurses to reduce lost human capital. The findings indicate a need to further rationalize the allocation of health care resources as well as the need to consider means other than increased spending on curative medicine (e.g., health promotion and health education) as a strategy for efficiently meeting the objective of improving public health.
Acquisition of Small Rural Hospitals by Multihospital Systems*
Authors: Lewis Bonnie L. , Parent F. Dale
Published: April 2008

The occurrence of multihospital systems, two or more hospitals owned, leased, or managed by a separate organization, represents a noteworthy change in the way health care is organized today. The impact of this for small rural hospitals, however, has only been studied indirectly or anecdotally. This investigation, using data from national surveys, systematically documents and analyzes this trend and discusses its potential impact. By 1983 almost one quarter of all small rural hosptals were affiliated with multihospital systems. This growth occurred primarily over the last few years, and was accompanied by a rapid surge in the involvement of for‐profit systems. This contrasts sharply with traditional rural hospital care which had been provided primarily by nonprofit or religious institutions. There also were differences in the form of affiliation the hospitals had with their parent organizations, with the most recent movement toward management contracts. Differential changes also occurred in the patterns of affiliation by geographic region.
The Effect of Malpractice Liability on the Delivery of Rural Obstetrical Care*
Authors: Gordon Rena J. , McMullen Gail , Weiss Barry D. , Nichols Andrew W.
Published: April 2008

A telephone survey of all non‐governmental obstetricians, family physicians, general practitioners, and osteopathic physicians in rural Arizona was undertaken to determine the effect of medical liability issues on the availability of rural obstetrical services. One hundred ninety‐one (88.8%) responded, and after exclusion of those who had never provided obstetrical care, 126 physicians remained for evaluation. These included 32 obstetricians, 55 family physicians, 25 general practitioners, and 14 osteopaths.

During the past three years, 26 (20.6%) had discontinued providing obstetrical services, citing liability issues as the reason. An additional 12 physicians (9–5%) planned to discontinue obstetrics upon expiration of their 1986 malpractice insurance policy. By the end of 1986, the number of obstetrical providers in rural Arizona will have decreased by 30.1 percent.

Women in many rural areas already have pregnancy outcomes that are inferior to their urban counterparts. A further decrease in the availability of obstetrical providers may have additional adverse effects on pregnancy outcomes.
Stressful life Events Among Women: A Rural‐Urban Comparison*
Authors: Bigbee Jeri L.
Published: April 2008

This retrospective comparative study assessed the levels and types of stressful life events among rural versus urban women in Wyoming (n = 157). No significant difference in total life events scores, negative life events scores, positive life events scores, or total number of life events reported was found between the rural and urban samples. Rural women tended to report environmentally related stressors more frequently than urban women, while urban women reported more financially related stressors. The findings suggest that the levels of stress among rural and urban women are comparable, but the types of stressors experienced may vary.
A Comparison of the Rural‐Urban Mortality Differential for Deaths From All Causes, Cardiovascular Disease and Cancer*
Authors: Miller Michael K. , Stokes C. Shannon , Clifford William B.
Published: April 2008

Using a nine category continuum of residence ranging from major metropolitan counties of one million or more to isolated rural counties with las than 2,500 residents, the data presented indicate that although ruralurban differentials in mortality narrowed over the decade of the 1970s, by 1980 non‐metropolitan counties continuedto have crude death rates that were significantly higher than metropolitan counties for deaths from all causes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer. A detailed examination of directly standardized rates reveals that virtually all of the rural‐urban mortality differential is due not to residence per se, but to differences in demographic structure, particularly age composition. Rural areas have an age distribution more heavily skewed toward the older ages where the probability of death is higher. The implications of the findings for broad‐based rural health care policy are discussed with an emphasis on the need to consider the special health and service needs ofan aging population.
Efficacy of System Management or Ownership as Options for Distressed Small Rural Hospitals*
Authors: Berry David E. , Tucker Thomas , Seavey John
Published: April 2008

Systems linkages through signing a management contract or selling to a multihospital system have been advocated as strategies for addressing the distress of small rural hospitals through increased management capacity. This national study compares 311 independent self‐managed hospitals, 194 independent systems‐managed and 235 systems‐owned and managed hospitals in relation to occupancy levels and secondary measures of performance. Almost no differences were found in performance among the three groups. Distress was found to be highly associated with hospitals under 50 beds and less supportive environments. The data presented suggests that many of the advantages of systems linkage may be obtained in other ways and that a management contract or sale to a multi‐hospital system may not solve the problems of a rural hospital.
Social Networks and Depression Among the Elderly: Metropolitan/Nonmetropolitan Comparisons*
Authors: Johnson Timothy P. , Hendricks Jon , Turner Howard B. , Stallones Lorann , Marx Martin B. , Garrity Thomas F.
Published: April 2008

Contradictory findings have been reported about depression in the elderly living in metropolitan and nonmetropolitan regions of the United States. Additionally, the extent to which the same sets of variables are predictive of depression among the elderly living in metropolitan and nonmetropolitan environments is unknown. We examined these issues using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES‐D) and a national sample of elderly respondents. Findings indicated no differences in the average depression scores of metropolitan and nonmetropolitan elderly. Differences were observed in the social network variables found to be predictive of depression within each subgroup. Among the metropolitan elderly, intimate social relations were found to be independently associated with depression, while secondary social attachments were related to depression among the nonmetropolitan elderly. An examination of the buffering effect of social ties upon the relationship between stress and depression revealed that a simple additive model may not be adequate to describe the association between social network elements and depression among the elderly.
Health Promotion for the Rural Elderly*
Authors: Lubben James E , Weiler Philip G. , Chi Iris , Jong Fred De
Published: April 2008

There has been increased interest in developing health promotion programs for the rural elderly as a means to foster successful aging. The present study describes one such program and identifies rural and urban differences in health promotion activities. Data corne from the California Preventive Health Cane for the Aging Program (PHCAP) which is one of the oldest and largest such programs in the United States. A sample of over 5,000 PHCAP clients was draum from rural, semi‐rural and urban projects. Though the rural and urban clients differed significantly with respect to demographic characteristics, differences in health promotion practices were relatively minor. However, the health promotion practices of semi‐rural residents differed considerably from that in rural projects. Though less disabled, semi‐rural clients received a greater scope of health promotion activities than rural clients. The authors discuss possible site, practitioner and client factors which may bave accounted for rural health promotion activities being more restricted. Regardless of Project site, the California PHCAP detected many health problems and a majority of clients were referred to other health professionals for treatment.
Rural Health Care in Bolivia*
Authors: Perry Henry B.
Published: April 2008

ABSTRACT: Eighty percent of Bolivians live in rural areas. However, because of a lack of resources and an urban / curative health sector orientation, rural primary health care services are woefully inadequate. Consequently, Bolivia has the worst health conditions of any of the Latin American countries. The broader factors which underlie Bolivia's poor health conditions, such as the low standard of living and impediments to socioeconomic development, are reviewed. Rural primary health programs are hampered by a lack of local support, overdependence on central and distant Ministry of Health supervisory staff, a lack of strong national political support for rural primary health care programs, the absence of public sector support for social programs, and a lack of appropriately trained health providers who are comfortable in the rural sociocultural mileu of community‐oriented primary health care. The experience of Andean Rural Health Care is briefly described, and the potential contribution of private organizations working with local communities and with the Ministry of Health is addressed. The most viable option for improving rural primary health care in Bolivia is the census‐based community‐oriented approach.
Rural Hospital Nursing as an Elective*
Authors: Reimer Marlene , Mills Claire
Published: April 2008

A rural hospital elective in a diploma nursing program is described. A need and opportunity for this unique practicum was identified in a Canadian province where one‐third of the acute care beds are in hospitals of under 100 beds, located primarily in towns outside of metropolitan areas. The six week course offers students 35 hours of classroom content focusing on rural health care concepts plus a 150 hour practicum in one of three participating hospitals. The course is seen as unique in that it focuses on rural health care and is offered within the context of a diploma nursing program. Vive student outcomes are identified: awareness of the differences between rural and urban health care; integration of knowledge and experience from previous nursing courses as it relates to the rural context; increasing understanding of how rural population groups affect health care delivery; awareness of rural employment opportunities; and, preparation for the graduate role. A shared vision and collaborative effort on the part of the School of Nursing, the rural hospitals and the host communities has been necessary to establish and maintain such a course.
Small Hospital Obstetrics: Is Small Beautiful?*
Authors: Fallis Geordie , Dunn Earl , Hilditch John
Published: April 2008

The number of deliveries in small Canadian hospitals over the last 15 years was reviewed. The two provinces with the highest percentage of deliveries in small hospitals had similar patterns of Perinatal Mortality Rates to the two provinces with the lowest percentage of small hospital deliveries. Birthweight specific mortality rates for newborns weighing greater than 2,500 grams was lower in small hospitals compared to larger hospitals in the provinces of Ontario, Newfoundland and Saskatchewan for 1985. In Ontario, for the year 1985, even when corrected for perinatal transfers and the home address of the mother, there were no significant differences in perinatal mortality between those hospitals with less than 400 births, those between 401 and 2,999 births and those with 3,000 or more births. Within the present Canadian system of perinatal regionalization, small hospital obstetrics is safe.
Inpatient Nursing Case Management as a Strategy for Rural Hospitals: A Case Study*
Authors: Sowell Richard , Fuszard Barbara
Published: April 2008

ABSTRACT: Increasingly, hospitals are facing the dual challenges of cost containment and a nursing shortage. These challenges are especially problematic for rural hospitals where nursing staff must be recruited and quality standards maintained within the financial limitations of lower DRG reimbursement rates when compared with urban centers. Therefore, it has become necessary for rural administrators to find new approaches to maximizing the utilization of available nursing staff. Experts have proposed that one solution to the nursing shortage is redesigning the work of RNs to more fully utilize the knowledge and skill of nurses. Nursing case management—a system in which the registered nurse (RN) assesses patient needs, develops a plan of care, procures and coordinates needed resources, and provides ongoing evaluation of care—is one strategy for redesigning nursing roles which offers potential financial benefits to hospitals. Through daily coordination and evaluation of patient care activities, nursing case managers can ensure cost effective allocation of organizational resources and facilitate early discharge planning. This article includes a case study of a rural hospital that introduced the nursing case management system, the hospital's steps of planning and implementation, and examples of forms associated with the system.
An Overview of Maternal and Infant Health Services in Rural America*
Authors: Hughes Dana , Rosenbaum Sara
Published: April 2008

ABSTRACT: Economically disadvantaged rural families, like their urban counterparts, face significant difficulties obtaining adequate maternity and infant health care resulting, in part, from an unequal distribution of resources as well as economic and racial barriers to health care nationwide. Rural women and infants must contend with additional access problems that reflect the inherent constraints of rural existence as well as specific state policies that exacerbate the barriers associated with isolation. This article provides an overview of the availability and accessibility of maternal and infant health services in nonmetropolitan America and identifies policy reforms to improve access to care.
Loss of a Rural Hospital Obstetric Unit: A Case Study*
Authors: Taylor Jane , Zweig Steven , Williamson Harold , Lawhorne Larry , Wright Harley
Published: April 2008

ABSTRACT: As family and general practitioners who provide a substantial portion of the obstetric care in rural areas quit their obstetric practice, small rural hospital obstetric units are at risk of closing. Using a case study design, we examined the impact of the loss of obstetric services at a small rural hospital in Missouri. This unit was the site of delivery for less than one‐half of the infants born to women living within its service area. However, it was the most likely source of care for women who were young, undereducated and unmarried (p < 0.01). Evidence derived from birth certificates showed that women who delivered there had good perinatal outcomes compared with local women who delivered at larger hospitals. A gradual decline in the number of physicians providing obstetric care preceded the closing of the hospital unit. Women from the hospital service area who presented late for prenatal care were twice as likely to have had a low birthweight infant in the year after the local hospital unit closed (16.7% versus 7.4%), although this difference and other comparisons of outcomes were not statistically significant.
Medical Practice and Satisfaction of Physicians in Sparsely Populated Rural Counties of the United States: Results of a 1988 Survey*
Authors: Movassaghi Hormoz , Kindig David
Published: April 2008

ABSTRACT: The results are reported from a mail survey to a 25 percent sample of all allopathic and osteopathic physicians practicing in counties less than 10,000 population in 1988. Overall, 71 percent of respondents indicated that they were satisfied with their practice in those areas but 23 percent indicated dissatisfaction and 26 percent planned to leave those areas within five years. Factors associated with practice dissatisfaction included lower income, long hours worked, increase in patients with inadequate medical insurance and distance from a major referral center. Thirty‐two percent of respondents indicated that there were too few physicians in their counties and in aggregate projected a need for 1,100 additional physicians, or approximately a 50 percent increase relative to the current supply of physicians in such counties. Seventy‐four percent of those indicating a need for more physicians stated that in their opinion the community in which they were practicing could support such additions. The survey results indicate an underlying satisfaction with rural practice but suggest the need for ongoing educational and financial incentives for such practices if the delivery of health care services in rural areas is to be improved.
Birthweight‐Specific Mortality: Important Inequalities Remain*
Authors: Baker Samuel L. , Kotelchuck Milton
Published: April 2008

ABSTRACT: Optimal birthweight‐specific neonatal mortality has not yet been achieved in the United States, particularly in rural states. A comparison of 1983 data from Massachusetts, an urban state with low infant mortality, and South Carolina, a rural state with a higher infant mortality rate, shows that, for whites, two‐thirds of the difference in infant mortality between the two states is due to differences in birthweight‐specific mortality. For blacks, all of the difference in infant mortality is due to the difference in birthweight‐specific mortality. Birthweight‐specific mortality rates are lower in Massachusetts than in South Carolina across the birthweight spectrum generally for both races. It is likely that some portion of these differences are due to the urban‐rural difference between the states, compounded by the difference in poverty rates. The birthweight‐specific mortality difference, particularly at higher birthweights, indicates that outcomes in South Carolina could be improved with better access to perinatal care and the more aggressive follow‐up of high‐risk babies who do not require neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) services. This study suggests that, while efforts to improve the birthweight distribution should certainly be pursued, we should also work to complete the improvement of birthweight‐specific mortality in rural states.