bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Epidemiology of Staphylococcus aureus Harboring the mecA or Panton-Valentine Leukocidin Genes in Hospitals in Java and Bali, Indonesia
Authors: Santosaningsih Dewi , Santoso Sanarto , Budayanti Nyoman S. , Kuntaman Kuntaman , Lestari Endang S. , Farida Helmia , Hapsari Rebriarina , Hadi Purnomo , Winarto Winarto , Milheiriço Catarina , Maquelin Kees , Willemse-Erix Diana , van Belkum Alex , Severin Juliëtte A. , Verbrugh Henri A.
Published: February 2014

Data of Staphylococcus aureus carriage in Indonesian hospitals are scarce. Therefore, the epidemiology of S. aureus among surgery patients in three academic hospitals in Indonesia was studied. In total, 366 of 1,502 (24.4%) patients carried S. aureus. The methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) carriage rate was 4.3%, whereas 1.5% of the patients carried Panton-Valentine leukocidin (PVL)-positive methicillin-sensitive S. aureus (MSSA). Semarang and Malang city (odds ratio [OR] 9.4 and OR 9.0), being male (OR 2.4), hospitalization for more than 5 days (OR 11.708), and antibiotic therapy during hospitalization (OR 2.6) were independent determinants for MRSA carriage, whereas prior hospitalization (OR 2.5) was the only one risk factor for PVL-positive MSSA carriage. Typing of MRSA strains by Raman spectroscopy showed three large clusters assigned type 21, 24, and 38, all corresponding to ST239-MRSA-SCCmec type III. In conclusion, MRSA and PVL-positive MSSA are present among patients in surgical wards in Indonesian academic hospitals.
The Occupational Performance Measure of Food Activities: Item Pool Development and Measurement Properties
Authors: Plastow Nicola Ann , Spiliotopoulou Georgia , Atwal Anita , Gilhooly Mary
Published: February 2014

Introduction:

Occupational therapists have the knowledge and skills to improve nutritional risk in community-living older adults by improving performance of food-related occupations. However, few tools are available to evaluate these interventions. We developed the first item pool that measures community-living older adults' occupational performance of food activities.

Method:

In Phase 1 of the research we developed an item pool within a qualitative exploratory study with five older adults. In Phase 2 we designed the Occupational Performance Measure of Food Activities. In Phase 3 we formally assessed the measurement properties of the 15-item measure, using survey responses from 77 community-living older adults. Construct validity, reliability, and utility were evaluated.

Findings:

A 13-item measure of the occupational performance of food activities showed acceptable validity and reliability in three subscales (Cronbach's α ranged from .70 to .75). The item pool demonstrated good utility. We had comparable results for administration via self-completion survey (n = 38) and interview (n = 39).

Conclusion:

This unique item pool showed promising validity and reliability for the measurement of the occupational performance of food activities. Occupational therapists are cautioned against modifying existing measurement tools without thorough testing of the resulting new measure of occupational performance.
PM2.5 pollution in a megacity of southwest China: source apportionment and implication
Authors: Tao J. , Gao J. , Zhang L. , Zhang R. , Che H. , Zhang Z. , Lin Z. , Jing J. , Cao J. , Hsu S.-C.
Published: February 2014

Abstract. Daily PM2.5 (aerosol particles with an aerodynamic diameter of less than 2.5 μm) samples were collected at an urban site in Chengdu, an inland megacity in southwest China, during four one-month periods in 2011, with each period in a different season. Samples were subjected to chemical analysis for various chemical components ranging from major water-soluble ions, organic carbon (OC), element carbon (EC), trace elements to biomass burning tracers, anhydrosugar levoglucosan (LG) and mannosan (MN). Two models, ISORROPIA-II thermodynamic equilibrium model and positive matrix factorization (PMF) model, were applied to explore the likely chemical forms of ionic constituents and to apportion sources for PM2.5. Distinctive seasonal patterns of PM2.5 and associated main chemical components were identified and could be explained by varying emission sources and meteorological conditions. PM2.5 showed a typical seasonality of waxing in winter and waning in summer, with an annual mean of 119 μg m−3. Mineral soil concentrations increased in spring whereas biomass burning species elevated in autumn and winter. Six major source factors were identified to have contributed to PM2.5 using the PMF model. These were secondary inorganic aerosols, coal combustion, biomass burning, iron and steel manufacturing, Mo-related industries, and soil dust, and they contributed 37 ± 18%, 20 ± 12%, 11 ± 10%, 11 ± 9%, 11 ± 9%, and 10 ± 12%, respectively, to PM2.5 masses on annual average, while exhibiting large seasonal variability. On annual average, the unknown emission sources that were not identified by the PMF model contributed 1 ± 11% to the measured PM2.5 mass. Various chemical tracers were used for validating PMF performance. Antimony (Sb) was suggested to be a suitable tracer of coal combustion in Chengdu. Results of LG and MN helped constrain the biomass burning sources, with wood burning dominating in winter and agricultural waste burning dominating in autumn. Excessive Fe (Ex-Fe), defined as excessive portion in measured Fe that cannot be sustained by mineral dust, is corroborated to be a straightforward useful tracer of iron and steel manufacturing pollution. In Chengdu, Mo/Ni mass ratios were persistently higher than unity, and considerably distinct from those usually observed in ambient airs. V/Ni ratios averaged at only 0.7. Results revealed that heavy oil fuel combustion should not be a vital anthropogenic source, and additional anthropogenic sources for Mo are yet to be identified. Overall, the emission sources identified in Chengdu could be dominated by local sources located in the vicinity of Sichuan, a result differed from those found in Beijing and Shanghai, wherein cross-boundary transport is significant in contributing pronounced PM2.5. These results provided implications for PM2.5 control strategies.
Influence of corona discharge on the ozone budget in the tropical free troposphere: a case study of deep convection during GABRIEL
Authors: Bozem H. , Fischer H. , Gurk C. , Schiller C. L. , Parchatka U. , Koenigstedt R. , Stickler A. , Martinez M. , Harder H. , Kubistin D. , Williams J. , Eerdekens G. , Lelieveld J.
Published: February 2014

Abstract. Convective redistribution of ozone and its precursors between the boundary layer (BL) and the free troposphere (FT) influences photochemistry, in particular that of the middle and upper troposphere (UT). We present a case study of convective transport during the GABRIEL campaign over the tropical rain forest in Suriname in October 2005. During a measurement flight on 12 October the inflow and outflow regions of a cumulonimbus cloud (Cb) have been characterized, providing evidence of convective transport. We identified a distinct layer between 9 and 11 km altitude with enhanced mixing ratios of CO, O3, HOx, acetone and acetonitrile. The elevated O3 contradicts the expectation that convective transport brings low ozone air from the boundary layer to the outflow region. The enhanced mixing ratio of ozone in the outflow was mainly of dynamical origin. Entrainment of ozone rich air at the outflow level into the convective outflow accounts for 62% (range: 33–91%) of the observed O3. Ozone is enhanced by only 5–6% by photochemical production in the outflow due to enhanced NO from lightning, based on steady state model calculations, using in-situ observations including the first reported HOx measurements over the tropical rainforest. The "excess" ozone in the outflow is most probably due to direct production by corona discharge associated with lightning. We deduce a production rate of 5.12 × 1028 molecules O3 flash−1 (range: 9.89 × 1026–9.82 × 1028 molecules O3 flash−1), which is at the upper limit of the range of the values reported previously.
Sensitivity of the OMI ozone profile retrieval (OMO3PR) to a priori assumptions
Authors: Mielonen T. , de Haan J. F. , Veefkind J. P.
Published: February 2014

Abstract. We have assessed the sensitivity of the operational OMI ozone profile retrieval (OMO3PR) algorithm to a number of a priori assumptions. We studied the effect of stray light correction, surface albedo assumptions and a priori ozone profiles on the retrieved ozone profile. Then, we studied how to modify the algorithm to improve the retrieval of tropospheric ozone. We found that stray light corrections have a significant effect on the retrieved ozone profile but mainly at high altitudes. Surface albedo assumptions, on the other hand, have the largest impact at the lowest layers. Selection of an ozone profile climatology which is used as a priori information has small effects on the retrievals at all altitudes. However, the usage of climatological a priori covariance matrix has a significant effect. Based on these sensitivity tests, we made several modifications to the OMO3PR algorithm: the a priori ozone climatology was replaced with a new climatology (TpO3), the a priori covariance matrix was calculated from the climatological ozone variance values, and the surface albedo was assumed to be linearly dependent on wavelength in the UV2 channel. We found that the a priori covariance matrix basically defines the vertical distribution of degrees of freedom for a retrieval. Moreover, all the studied versions of the OMO3PR algorithm were equally effective in reducing uncertainty in the retrieved ozone profile. This implies that the posterior error values depend mostly on the assumed a priori errors. Our case study over Europe showed that the new version produced over 10% smaller ozone abundances which reduced the systematic overestimation of ozone in the OMO3PR algorithm and improved correspondence with IASI retrievals.
Technical Note: Mesocosm approach to quantify dissolved inorganic carbon percolation fluxes
Authors: Thaysen E. M. , Jessen S. , Ambus P. , Beier C. , Postma D. , Jakobsen I.
Published: February 2014

Abstract. Dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) fluxes across the vadose zone are influenced by a complex interplay of biological, chemical and physical factors. A novel soil mesocosm system was evaluated as a tool for providing information on the mechanisms behind DIC percolation to the groundwater from unplanted soil. Carbon dioxide partial pressure (pCO2), alkalinity, soil moisture and temperature were measured with depth and time, and DIC in the percolate was quantified using a sodium hydroxide trap. Results showed good reproducibility between two replicate mesocosms. The pCO2 varied between 0.2 and 1.1%, and the alkalinity was 0.1–0.6 meq L−1. The measured cumulative effluent DIC flux over the 78-day experimental period was 185–196 mg L−1 m−2 and in the same range as estimates derived from pCO2 and alkalinity in samples extracted from the side of the mesocosm column and the drainage flux. Our results indicate that the mesocosm system is a promising tool for studying DIC percolation fluxes and other biogeochemical transport processes in unsaturated environments.
Nitrogen and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) losses from an artificially drained grassland on organic soils
Authors: Tiemeyer B. , Kahle P.
Published: February 2014

Abstract. Nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N) as well as dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and nitrogen (DON) concentrations and losses were studied for three respectively two years in a small catchment dominated by a degraded peatland used as intensive grassland. Concentrations in the shallow groundwater were spatially and temporally very variable with NO3-N being the most dynamic component (7.3 ± 12.5 mg L–1). Average NO3-N concentrations of 10.3 ± 5.4 mg L–1 in the ditch draining the catchment and annual NO3-N losses of 19, 35 and 26 kg ha–1 confirmed drained peatlands as an important source of diffuse N pollution. The highest NO3-N losses occurred during the wettest year. Resulting from concentrations of 2.4 ± 0.8 mg L–1, DON added further 4.5 to 6.4 kg ha–1 to the N losses and thus formed a relevant component of the total N losses. Ditch DOC concentrations of 24.9 ± 5.9 mg L–1 resulted in DOC losses of 66 kg ha–1 in the wet year 2006/07 and 39 kg ha–1 in the dry year 2007/08. Both DOC and N concentrations were governed by hydrological conditions, but NO3-N reacted much faster and clearer on rising discharge rates than DOC which tended to be higher under dryer conditions. In the third year of the study, the superposition of a very wet summer and land use changes from grassland to arable land in a part of the catchment suggests that under re-wetting conditions with a high groundwater table in summer, NO3-N would diminish quickly, while DOC would remain on a similar level. Further intensification of the land use, on the other hand, would increase N losses to receiving water bodies.
Molecular insights into the microbial formation of marine dissolved organic matter: recalcitrant or labile?
Authors: Koch B. P. , Kattner G. , Witt M. , Passow U.
Published: February 2014

Abstract. The degradation of marine dissolved organic matter (DOM) is an important control variable in the global carbon cycle and dependent on the DOM composition. For our understanding of the kinetics of organic matter cycling in the ocean, it is therefore crucial to achieve a mechanistic and molecular understanding of its transformation processes. A long-term microbial experiment was performed to follow the production of non-labile DOM by marine bacteria. Two different glucose concentrations and dissolved algal exudates were used as substrates. We monitored the bacterial abundance, concentrations of dissolved and particulate organic carbon (DOC, POC), nutrients, amino acids, and transparent exopolymer particles (TEP) for two years. Ultrahigh resolution Fourier Transform Ion Cyclotron Resonance Mass Spectrometry (FT-ICR-MS) allowed the molecular characterization of extracted DOM after 70 days and after ∼2 years of incubation. Although glucose was quickly degraded, a DOC background was generated in glucose incubations. Only 20% of the organic carbon from algal exudate was degraded within the 2 years of incubation. TEP, which are released by micro-organisms, were produced during glucose degradation but decreased within less than three weeks back to half of the maximum concentration and were below detection in all treatments after 2 years. The molecular analysis demonstrated that DOM generated during glucose degradation differed appreciably from DOM produced during the degradation of the algal exudates. Our results led to several conclusions: (i) Higher substrate levels result in a higher level of non-labile DOC which is an important prerequisite for carbon sequestration in the ocean; (ii) TEP are generated by bacteria but are also degraded rapidly, thus limiting their potential contribution to carbon sequestration; (iii) The molecular signatures of DOM derived from algal exudates or glucose after 70 days of incubation differed strongly from refractory DOM. After 2 years, however, the molecular patterns of DOM in glucose incubations were more similar to deep ocean DOM whereas the degraded exudate was still different.
The influence of ocean acidification on nitrogen regeneration and nitrous oxide production in the North-West European shelf sea
Authors: Clark D. R. , Brown I. J. , Rees A. P. , Somerfield P. J. , Miller P. I.
Published: February 2014

Abstract. The assimilation and regeneration of dissolved inorganic nitrogen, and the concentration of N2O, was investigated at stations located in the NW European shelf sea during June/July 2011. These observational measurements within the photic zone demonstrated the simultaneous regeneration and assimilation of NH4+, NO2− and NO3−. NH4+ was assimilated at 1.82–49.12 nmol N L−1 h−1 and regenerated at 3.46–14.60 nmol N L−1 h−1; NO2− was assimilated at 0–2.08 nmol N L−1 h−1 and regenerated at 0.01–1.85 nmol N L−1 h−1; NO3− was assimilated at 0.67–18.75 nmol N L−1 h−1 and regenerated at 0.05–28.97 nmol N L−1 h−1. Observations implied that these processes were closely coupled at the regional scale and nitrogen recycling played an important role in sustaining phytoplankton growth during the summer. The [N2O], measured in water column profiles, was 10.13 ± 1.11 nmol L−1 and did not strongly diverge from atmospheric equilibrium indicating that sampled marine regions where neither a strong source nor sink of N2O to the atmosphere. Multivariate analysis of data describing water column biogeochemistry and its links to N-cycling activity failed to explain the observed variance in rates of N-regeneration and N-assimilation, possibly due to the limited number of process rate observations. In the surface waters of 5 further stations, Ocean Acidification (OA) bioassay experiments were conducted to investigate the response of NH4+ oxidising and regenerating organisms to simulated OA conditions, including the implications for [N2O]. Multivariate analysis was undertaken which considered the complete bioassay dataset of measured variables describing changes in N-regeneration rate, [N2O] and the biogeochemical composition of seawater. While anticipating biogeochemical differences between locations, we aimed to test the hypothesis that the underlying mechanism through which pelagic N-regeneration responded to simulated OA conditions was independent of location and that a mechanistic understanding of how NH4+ oxidation, NH4+ regeneration and N2O production responded to OA could be developed. Results indicated that N-regeneration process responses to OA treatments were location specific; no mechanistic understanding of how N-regeneration processes respond to OA in the surface ocean of the NW European shelf sea could be developed.
Interannual sea–air CO2 flux variability from an observation-driven ocean mixed-layer scheme
Authors: Rödenbeck C. , Bakker D. C. E. , Metzl N. , Olsen A. , Sabine C. , Cassar N. , Reum F. , Keeling R. F. , Heimann M.
Published: February 2014

Abstract. Interannual anomalies in the sea–air carbon dioxide (CO2) exchange have been estimated from surface-ocean CO2 partial pressure measurements. Available data are sufficient to constrain these anomalies in large parts of the tropical and Northern Pacific and in the Northern Atlantic, in some areas since the mid 1980s to 2011. Global interannual variability is estimated as about 0.31 Pg C yr−1 (temporal standard deviation 1993–2008). The tropical Pacific accounts for a large fraction of this global variability, closely tied to ENSO. Anomalies occur more than 6 months later in the East than in the West. The estimated amplitude and ENSO response are consistent with independent information from atmospheric oxygen data. Despite discrepancies in detail, this both supports the variability estimated from surface-ocean carbon data, and demonstrates the potential of the atmospheric oxygen signal to constrain ocean biogeochemical processes. The ocean variability estimated from surface-ocean carbon data can be used to improve land CO2 flux estimates from atmospheric inversions.
Biophysical constraints on gross primary production by the terrestrial biosphere
Authors: Wang H. , Prentice I. C. , Davis T. W.
Published: February 2014

Abstract. Persistent divergences among the predictions of complex carbon cycle models include differences in the sign as well as the magnitude of the response of global terrestrial primary production to climate change. This and other problems with current models indicate an urgent need to re-assess the principles underlying the environmental controls of primary production. The global patterns of annual and maximum monthly terrestrial gross primary production (GPP) by C3 plants are explored here using a simple first-principles model based on the light-use efficiency formalism and the Farquhar model for C3 photosynthesis. The model is driven by incident photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) and remotely sensed green vegetation cover, with additional constraints imposed by low-temperature inhibition and CO2 limitation. The ratio of leaf-internal to ambient CO2 concentration in the model responds to growing-season mean temperature, atmospheric dryness (indexed by the cumulative water deficit, ΔE) and elevation, based on optimality theory. The greatest annual GPP is predicted for tropical moist forests, but the maximum (summer) monthly GPP can be as high or higher in boreal or temperate forests. These findings are supported by a new analysis of CO2 flux measurements. The explanation is simply based on the seasonal and latitudinal distribution of PAR combined with the physiology of photosynthesis. By successively imposing biophysical constraints, it is shown that partial vegetation cover – driven primarily by water shortage – represents the largest constraint on global GPP.
Regional economic impacts of natural hazards – the case of the 2005 Alpine flood event in Tyrol (Austria)
Authors: Pfurtscheller C.
Published: February 2014

Abstract. Natural hazards have substantial impacts on economies on all scales. While the measurement of direct effects seems manageable, less is known about the dimensions of economic effects, especially on local and regional scales. The lack of standardized terminology, empirical data and methods currently hampers profound decision support. In our study of the 2005 flood event in the Federal State of Tyrol (Austria), which triggered about 264 million Euros in direct losses, we surveyed companies from all sectors of the economy to identify the drivers of economic effects. The main aim of the study was to assess the regional economic impacts on the gross regional product by the 2005 floods without macro-economic modelling techniques using bottom-up data. Using basic quantitative and qualitative methods, we established and analysed a data pool of questionnaire and interview results as well as direct loss data. Based on this empirical evidence, we estimated the decline in gross regional product in the study area at NUTS-3 level. We observed that disrupted traffic networks, for instance, had very negative effects on the regional economy. In addition, we identified economic winners of severe hazard impacts and estimated the amount of increasing economic flows (economic stimuli), based on compensation payments. Finally, the net effect can be estimated balancing the negative and positive effects of the flood event. The methods and results of this study can help to improve ex post loss estimations, and with it, ex ante methods for the cost efficiency of risk reduction measures, e.g. cost–benefit analysis. However, much effort is needed to improve the data basis on economic effects measured as a change in economic flows.
The World Turned Upside Down:
Authors: Leighten Patricia
Published: February 2014

L'assiette au beurre, a leading pre-World War I Parisian journal of satire, constituted a crossroads for anarchism and modernism. In a period of rising censorship, the journal's artists employed strategies of inversion, allowing for pointed commentary, humor, and prosecutorial protection. This study reveals how modernist aesthetics were adaptable to political cartoons for working-class publications and the mutually reinforcing impact of political cartoons on modernist art. First discussing the anarchist movement in Paris and the role L'assiette au beurre played, this article explores these two modes of production through Kees Van Dongen's and Juan Gris's practice of ‘inversion’ in both realms.
FromBoostertoBolero:
Authors: Gifford James
Published: February 2014

This article historicizes a network of authors that coalesced around a post-surrealist aesthetic before World War II. These anarchists were destined to be overshadowed by the war, by hostile predecessors who wrote them out of history, and by progenitors who assumed the mantle of the Beats or Angry Young Men. Yet they sustained their vision from the 1940s to the 60s, and challenged the statist politics of the high modernists and Auden Generation. Anarchism was in tune with the literary interests of the 1960s, though it proved difficult for potential allies to recognize a kindred spirit.
Amiodarone and digitalis: An odd couple in a tachycardiomyopathic patient
Authors: Guerra Federico , Brambatti Michela , Matassini Maria Vittoria , Capucci Alessandro
Published: February 2014

Amiodarone is one of the most used anti-arrhythmic drug for rate and rhythm control in atrial fibrillation. Unfortunately, it has also well-known pro-arrhythmic properties and it has been reported as a common cause of malignant ventricular tachyarrhytmias, especially torsade de pointes. Proarrhytmic effects of amiodarone are greatly increased by other concomitant factors, such as ventricular dysfunction and concomitant treatment with digitalis. Current evidence shows how amiodarone and digitalis together are associated with torsade de pointes in ischemic patients with heart failure. The present case report describes, for the first time, how amiodarone and digital can concur in producing torsade de pointes also in a tachycardiomyopathic patient with no coronary artery disease.
Estimating Short and Long-Run Demand Elasticities: A Primer with Energy-Sector Applications
Authors: Cuddington John T. , Dagher Leila
Published: February 2014

Many empirical exercises estimating demand functions, whether in energy economics or other fields, are concerned with estimating dynamic effects of price and income changes over time. This paper first reviews a number of commonly used dynamic demand specifications to highlight the implausible a priori restrictions that they place on short and long-run elasticities. Such problems are easily avoided by adopting a general-to-specific modeling methodology. Second, it discusses functional forms and estimation issues for getting point estimates and associated standard errors for both short and long-run elasticities—key information that is missing from many published studies. Third, our proposed approach is illustrated using a dataset on Minnesota residential electricity demand.
The Archaeological Signature of Stews or Grease Rendering in the Historic Period
Authors: Heinrich Adam R.
Published: February 2014

Small bone fragments have often been interpreted as the residues of stews or grease extraction. In international historical archaeological research, stew interpretations have often focused on enslaved or underclass groups or on those who had limited access to sufficient amounts of food or faced nutritional deficiencies. These analyses have widely been uncritical, and the small fragment sizes can be better explained as the products of taphonomic processes such as weathering, trampling, and carnivore scavenging. This work presents results from experimentally chopped long bones from cows, sheep, goats, and pigs that identify butchery and fracture patterns that can be used to evaluate past stew interpretations and provide comparative models for future analyses.
Mobilizing Archaeologists
Authors: Austin Anne
Published: February 2014

Data collection takes up much of the already limited time archaeologists have to excavate and often requires additional time to digitize. Moreover, despite efforts to standardize data, archaeologists often find errors such as blank or incorrectly recorded fields. To avoid these issues, several projects have made use of tablet computers to streamline and digitize data, but this process can be opaque, specialized, and expensive. Previous research has addressed neither the general feasibility of developing and utilizing mobile devices for data collection nor the quality and quantity of these data. In this article, I review existing methods and practices for integrating data collection on mobile devices in order to evaluate the costs and feasibility of transitioning to a mobile-based data collection system. Through a case study using OsteoSurvey, a series of bioarchaeological data collection forms for Android tablets, I assess the efficacy of data collection on mobile devices. An experiment comparing OsteoSurvey to traditional paper forms demonstrates that participants saved time and made fewer mistakes using the OsteoSurvey forms, resulting in the collection of 21–32 percent more data. Consequently, data collection with mobile devices can significantly increase the overall productivity and quality of archaeological research
Spending of HIV resources in Asia and Eastern Europe: systematic review reveals the need to shift funding allocations towards priority populations
Authors: Craig Andrew P , Thein Hla‐Hla , Zhang Lei , Gray Richard T , Henderson Klara , Wilson David , Gorgens Marelize , Wilson David P
Published: February 2014

Introduction

It is increasingly important to prioritize the most cost‐effective HIV interventions. We sought to summarize the evidence on which types of interventions provide the best value for money in regions with concentrated HIV epidemics.

Methods

We conducted a systematic review of peer‐reviewed and grey literature reporting measurements of cost‐effectiveness or cost‐benefit for HIV/AIDS interventions in Asia and Eastern Europe. We also collated HIV/AIDS spending assessment data from case‐study countries in the region.

Results

We identified 91 studies for inclusion, 47 of which were from peer‐reviewed journals. Generally, in concentrated settings, prevention of mother‐to‐child transmission programmes and prevention programmes targeting people who inject drugs and sex workers had lower incremental cost‐effectiveness ratios than programmes aimed at the general population. The few studies evaluating programmes targeting men who have sex with men indicate moderate cost‐effectiveness. Collation of prevention programme spending data from 12 countries in the region (none of which had generalized epidemics) indicated that resources for the general population/non‐targeted was greater than 30% for eight countries and greater than 50% for five countries.

Conclusions

There is a misalignment between national spending on HIV/AIDS responses and the most affected populations across the region. In concentrated epidemics, scarce funding should be directed more towards most‐at‐risk populations. Reaching consensus on general principles of cost‐effectiveness of programmes by epidemic settings is difficult due to inconsistent evaluation approaches. Adopting a standard costing, impact evaluation, benefits calculation, analysis and reporting framework would enable cross comparisons and improve HIV resource prioritization and allocation.
Structural basis for the prion-like MAVS filaments in antiviral innate immunity
Authors: Xu Hui , He Xiaojing , Zheng Hui , Huang Lily J , Hou Fajian , Yu Zhiheng , de la Cruz Michael Jason , Borkowski Brian , Zhang Xuewu , Chen Zhijian J , Jiang Qiu-Xing
Published: February 2014

Mitochondrial antiviral signaling (MAVS) protein is required for innate immune responses against RNA viruses. In virus-infected cells MAVS forms prion-like aggregates to activate antiviral signaling cascades, but the underlying structural mechanism is unknown. Here we report cryo-electron microscopic structures of the helical filaments formed by both the N-terminal caspase activation and recruitment domain (CARD) of MAVS and a truncated MAVS lacking part of the proline-rich region and the C-terminal transmembrane domain. Both structures are left-handed three-stranded helical filaments, revealing specific interfaces between individual CARD subunits that are dictated by electrostatic interactions between neighboring strands and hydrophobic interactions within each strand. Point mutations at multiple locations of these two interfaces impaired filament formation and antiviral signaling. Super-resolution imaging of virus-infected cells revealed rod-shaped MAVS clusters on mitochondria. These results elucidate the structural mechanism of MAVS polymerization, and explain how an α-helical domain uses distinct chemical interactions to form self-perpetuating filaments.
Synaptotagmin 7 functions as a Ca2+-sensor for synaptic vesicle replenishment
Authors: Liu Huisheng , Bai Hua , Hui Enfu , Yang Lu , Evans Chantell S , Wang Zhao , Kwon Sung E , Chapman Edwin R
Published: February 2014

Synaptotagmin (syt) 7 is one of three syt isoforms found in all metazoans; it is ubiquitously expressed, yet its function in neurons remains obscure. Here, we resolved Ca2+-dependent and Ca2+-independent synaptic vesicle (SV) replenishment pathways, and found that syt 7 plays a selective and critical role in the Ca2+-dependent pathway. Mutations that disrupt Ca2+-binding to syt 7 abolish this function, suggesting that syt 7 functions as a Ca2+-sensor for replenishment. The Ca2+-binding protein calmodulin (CaM) has also been implicated in SV replenishment, and we found that loss of syt 7 was phenocopied by a CaM antagonist. Moreover, we discovered that syt 7 binds to CaM in a highly specific and Ca2+-dependent manner; this interaction requires intact Ca2+-binding sites within syt 7. Together, these data indicate that a complex of two conserved Ca2+-binding proteins, syt 7 and CaM, serve as a key regulator of SV replenishment in presynaptic nerve terminals.
The structure and organization of lanceolate mechanosensory complexes at mouse hair follicles
Authors: Li Lishi , Ginty David D
Published: February 2014

In mouse hairy skin, lanceolate complexes associated with three types of hair follicles, guard, awl/auchene and zigzag, serve as mechanosensory end organs. These structures are formed by unique combinations of low-threshold mechanoreceptors (LTMRs), Aβ RA-LTMRs, Aδ-LTMRs, and C-LTMRs, and their associated terminal Schwann cells (TSCs). In this study, we investigated the organization, ultrastructure, and maintenance of longitudinal lanceolate complexes at each hair follicle subtype. We found that TSC processes at hair follicles are tiled and that individual TSCs host axonal endings of more than one LTMR subtype. Electron microscopic analyses revealed unique ultrastructural features of lanceolate complexes that are proposed to underlie mechanotransduction. Moreover, Schwann cell ablation leads to loss of LTMR terminals at hair follicles while, in contrast, TSCs remain associated with hair follicles following skin denervation in adult mice and, remarkably, become re-associated with newly formed axons, indicating a TSC-dependence of lanceolate complex maintenance and regeneration in adults.
Orientation- and position-controlled alignment of asymmetric silicon microrod on a substrate with asymmetric electrodes
Authors: Shibata Akihide , Watanabe Keiji , Sato Takuya , Kotaki Hiroshi , Schuele Paul J. , Crowder Mark A. , Zhan Changqing , Hartzell John W. , Nakatani Ryoichi
Published: February 2014

In this paper, we demonstrate the orientation-controlled alignment of asymmetric Si microrods on a glass substrate with an asymmetric pair of electrodes. The Si microrods have the shape of a paddle with a blade and a shaft part, and the pair of electrodes consists of a narrow electrode and a wide electrode. By applying AC bias to the electrodes, the Si microrods suspended in a fluid align in such a way to settle across the electrode pair, and over 80% of the aligned Si microrods have an orientation with the blade and the shaft of the paddle on the wide and the narrow electrodes, respectively. When Si microrods have a shell of dielectric film and its thickness on the top face is thicker than that on the bottom face, 97.8% of the Si microrods are aligned with the top face facing upwards. This technique is useful for orientation-controlled alignment of nano- and microsized devices that have polarity or a distinction between the top and bottom faces.
Wireless Learning Technology in Higher Education – a Case Study in Singapore
Authors: Bhati Abhishek , Lundberg Anita , Toe Teoh Teik , Carter Margaret
Published: February 2014

Wireless Learning Technologies (WLTs) are set to replace the traditional methods of information sharing and set the trend for future information presentation and collaborative multiuser sharing. Wireless learning technologies (WLTs) used in education include mobile technologies such as smartphones, tablets and laptops as well as systems designed to be used specifically in technology-rich collaborative learning spaces. Such spaces are networked both technologically as well as through student-to-student interactions.

This paper undertakes a literature review of wireless learning technologies for multi-platform compatibility over a multitude of personal devices and operating systems. It discusses the use of WLT for new collaborative spaces of learning. The paper further undertakes a comparative descriptive analysis between a space recently discussed in the teaching and learning literature with a case study of one classroom based on the authorial team’s participation and observation.
Rate‐ and strain‐dependent brittle deformation of rocks
Authors: Brantut N. , Heap M. J. , Baud P. , Meredith P. G.
Published: February 2014

We develop a unifying framework to quantify rate‐dependent deformation in the brittle field and establish links between the microscale time‐dependent crack growth processes and the macroscopically observed rate dependency. Triaxial deformation experiments have been performed under both constant strain rate and constant stress (creep) conditions on three types of sandstone. The measured relative evolution of P wave speeds as a function of inelastic axial strain is similar for both types of test, despite differences in strain rate of up to 3 orders of magnitude. This similarity indicates that there exists a direct, time‐independent link between the microstructural state (as reflected by the variations in P wave speed) and the inelastic axial strain. Comparison of applied stresses between constant strain rate and creep experiments as a function of inelastic strain indicates that creep deformation requires less mechanical work to bring the sample to failure. This energy deficit corresponds to a stress deficit, which can be related to a deficit in energy release rate of the microcracks. We establish empirically that the creep strain rate is given by , where ΔQ is the stress deficit (negative) and σ∗ is an activation stress. This empirical exponential relation between creep strain rate and stress deficit is analogous to rate‐and‐state friction law. We develop a micromechanical approach based on fracture mechanics to determine the evolution of an effective stress intensity factor at crack tips during creep deformation and estimate the activation volume of the stress corrosion reaction responsible for brittle creep.
Influence of cooling rate on thermoremanence of magnetite grains: Identifying the role of different magnetic domain states
Authors: Ferk Annika , Leonhardt Roman , Hess Kai‐Uwe , Koch Stephan , Egli Ramon , Krása David , Dingwell Donald B.
Published: February 2014

It is widely accepted that cooling rate can strongly influence the intensity of the thermal remanent magnetization (TRM) acquired by rocks during cooling to ambient temperatures. If ignored, this effect might lead to underestimates or overestimates of the ancient magnetic field intensity. To date, however, the cooling rate dependence of TRM acquired by particles with different domain states has never been systematically analyzed from the theoretical or experimental point of view. In this study, we present measurements of the TRM of synthetic magnetites with well‐defined grain sizes that were quenched with constant cooling rates of 0.05, 0.1, 1, 3, 10, and 15 K/min. While single domain (SD) and small pseudo‐single domain (PSD) samples are found to show larger TRMs after slow cooling, the TRMs of larger PSD and multidomain (MD) magnetites are not affected by an increase or decrease of the cooling rate. Overall, our results suggest that only smallest magnetite grains acquire a cooling rate‐dependent TRM. Therefore, cooling rate corrections of paleointensity determinations are only necessary for samples dominated by SD remanence carriers, while rocks dominated by PSD and MD carriers, such as basalts, which are most commonly used for paleointensity studies, do not require such corrections.
Mental Illness, Measuring
Authors: Horwitz Allan V.
Published: February 2014

Accurate measures of mental illness must distinguish psychological dysfunctions from natural responses to stressful conditions. This entry describes the challenges that researchers face in measuring mental illness and three historical stages in the process of assessing mental illness. It suggests that measures of context are essential for optimal distinctions between mental illness and normal reactions to stress.
Mental Health and Family Status
Authors: Lodge Amy C. , Umberson Debra
Published: February 2014

In this entry we apply a life course perspective to examine the ways in which family status shapes mental health. We provide an overview of contemporary research on the effects of marriage and parenthood on mental health as well as the ways in which parents shape their children's mental health. Although some evidence suggests that married people, children raised in two‐parent families, and the childless have better mental health than the unmarried, children raised in other family forms, and parents, contemporary research also suggests that the quality of family relationships is as important for mental health as the presence or absence of family ties. In addition, a variety of other factors, including age, gender, race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and social norms and meanings, also matter in determining the mental health costs and benefits of particular family ties. Finally, contemporary research suggests that the costs and benefits of particular family ties on mental health are cumulative over the life course.
Aging and Stress
Authors: Berkowsky Ronald W.
Published: February 2014

There exists an interplay between the process of aging and the experience of stress such that an individual's physical and mental health can be greatly affected by the stressful events that are experienced over time. While some of these events can be considered normal and expected occurrences of an individual moving through the life course, others can be described as a product of the historical context in which the individual resides. The combination of these stressful events, whether in the form of major role transitions, the development of chronic conditions, or the perpetuation of daily hassles, can have significant consequences on the health of aging individuals, and these consequences can be mediated by a host of other factors such as individual control of events, coping strategies, and social support.
Asian Americans, Health of
Authors: Trinh‐Shevrin Chau , Park Rebecca
Published: February 2014

Although Asian Americans may share common experiences in the United States, this rapidly growing population represents nearly 50 countries and ethnic groups with distinct cultures, histories, dialects, and languages. Additionally, due to variables in resources, knowledge, and power, health disparities continue to exist in these underserved communities. The diversity of this underserved population calls for an understanding of the social determinants of health that impact Asian Americans. Collaborations between communities, academia, government, and health professionals working to identify and address the most pressing health challenges facing Asian Americans today may further improve health care delivery, data collection and analysis, research and development, and public health practices.
Illness Behavior
Authors: R. Quah Stella
Published: February 2014

What is “illness behavior”? The brief answer is what people do when they first become aware that “something is wrong” with their health or what people do in response to symptoms. I will discuss the conceptual and empirical importance of illness behavior in clinical and sociocultural research on health and illness, identifying some important trends that impinge upon the effectiveness of health services utilization and medical treatment.
Bourdieu, Pierre
Authors: Scambler Sasha
Published: February 2014

Pierre Bourdieu's work provides an interesting framework for exploring the role of health and health care on our lives and the experiences of people living with illness or disability. The premise upon which the work of Bourdieu is built is that the social world cannot be understood through models or groupings such as that of the family or culture. The phenomena which make up the social world in which we live are not naturally occurring, but are culturally and historically bounded and temporal in nature. Furthermore, they are socially constructed within a structural network of social and power relations. Bourdieu's concepts of field and habitus seek to address the ways in which agency and reflexivity (habitus) are shaped by or embedded within structure (field). The framework he outlines offers a novel way of thinking about the complexities of the everyday experiences of life, incorporating structure and agency and providing a way of categorizing the different forms of currency or capital that we use to negotiate the lifeworld and our place within it.
Geographies of Health Care Provision
Authors: Barnett Ross
Published: February 2014

In recent years geographies of health care have increasingly focused on highly contextualized experiences of health and health care accessibility. There is a need to refocus attention on broader structural characteristics of health systems and the political and economic forces which lead to geographic differences in health care restructuring and health outcomes.
Health, Self‐Rated
Authors: Christine Snead M.
Published: February 2014

Self‐rated health, or self‐reported health (SRH), is a measurement of a respondent's subjective sense of health. The SRH measure is commonly used to capture a general sense of health from the perspective of the respondent. SRH is both a reliable and a valid measurement of health. It has been used widely to study health, and is an excellent predictor of future health.
Health Inequalities, Work, and Welfare
Authors: Bambra Clare
Published: February 2014

It is well established that the work environment is an important social determinant of health, with hazardous working conditions resulting in poor health. Similarly, the negative association between unemployment and health has been subject to intensive scrutiny. However, what is less established is the contribution of the work environment or unemployment to socioeconomic inequalities in health. This entry examines the contribution that work and unemployment play in determining health inequalities and the mediating impact of the broader political and economic context – “welfare state regimes.”
Mental Health and Religion
Authors: Hill Terrence D. , Mannheimer Andrew H.
Published: February 2014

The pioneering work of Émile Durkheim (1858–1917) and numerous subsequent studies show us that mental health varies systematically according to religion. While general religious involvement tends to promote mental health, religious struggles tend to undermine it. Taken together, these patterns are of sociological interest because they emphasize that the mental health of individuals and groups is intimately tied to involvement in institutions of religion.
Embryo and Fetus
Authors: Williams Clare
Published: February 2014

In humans, the word “embryo” is used to describe the early stages of pregnancy, from fertilization of the egg by the sperm and implantation, through to approximately the eighth week of pregnancy. The term “fetus” is used to refer to the unborn offspring from then up until the time of birth. However, the ways in which we think about these entities have shifted over time, and continue to shift.
Widowhood
Authors: Williams Beverly Rosa
Published: February 2014

The termwidowhooddesignates the marital status of individuals who have incurred the death of a spouse, but have not remarried. The notion of widowhood as a distinctive position in the social structure is deeply rooted in the norms and practices of human societies. The imposition or assumption of widowed status is a process associated with social and psychological vulnerability, often exacerbated by the absence of a clearly articulated social role. Traditionally, widowed persons were set apart from the larger society and treated deferentially for a specified period of time. The timing and method of reintegration into society has varied over time and across cultures; however, the resumption of social obligations is expected.