bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
On the Dynamics of the Helping Relationship
Authors: Kolb David A. , Boyatzis Richard E.
Published: March 2006

With the desire of improving the effectiveness of helping relationships, which are so much a part of everyday life, this study is an attempt to increase the knowledge concerning the interaction of various elements in such relationships. A conceptual framework of helping relationships is presented which includes the nature of the task, the helper, the receiver of help, the environment and psychological climate of the relationship, and the information feedback which occurs during the relationship.

The study focuses on the helper, his motivation, self-image, and style of communicating with the receiver of help. Effective helpers are found to have moderate levels of achievement, power, and affiliation motivation in contrast to ineffective helpers (those individuals who unsuccessfully try to help) and nonhelpers (those individuals who do not try to help). Effective helpers are found to have self-images which are somewhere between the self-images of ineffective helpers and nonhelpers on such dimensions as aggressive-timid, talkative-quiet, self-conscious-not self-conscious, and patient-impatient. They also give more positive feedback and less feedback related to control issues than do ineffective helpers or non-helpers.
A Design for a Laboratory Exploring Issues of Organization
Authors: Harvey Jerry B. , Oshry Barry I. , Watson Goodwin
Published: March 2006

This paper describes the design of a laboratory dealing with issues of organization. It differs from traditional sensitivity training designs in that it consists of a theoretical model rather than a sequence of staff-designed activities. In this paper, the model, in a form of a series of learning assumptions, is explicated, and the results of its application to a particular laboratory program are discussed. A variety of issues arising from this kind of design are also described.
A Personal Growth Program for Self-Directed Groups
Authors: Solomon Lawrence N. , Berzon Betty , Davis David P.
Published: March 2006

Twenty-four vocational rehabilitation clients participated in a nineday "Self-Improvement Workshop." They met in self-directed groups of approximately eight persons for two, two-hour sessions a day, using a set of program materials recorded on audio-tape. The program materials were designed to enhance opportunities for selfexploration and personal growth by presenting a series of interpersonal exercises.

Results indicate that the subjects using the program materialswere enabled to become more open, sensitive to others, self-accept-ing, and self-motivating, as measured by a battery of pre-, post-,session-by-session, and daily instruments. Control subjects whowere given no group experience showed no such changes.

This study is part of the continuing research activity on self-di-rected groups that has been conducted at the Western BehavioralSciences Institute since 1960 (Berzon & Solomon, 1964; Solomon,Berzon, & Weedman, 1968). The current paper describes an experi-mental evaluation of the authors' second effort to enhance personalgrowth in a self-directed small group through the use of programmaterials.' This effort, much more than the previous one, empha-sizes experiential over cognitive learning.
The Potential Activist and His Perception of the University
Authors: Mock Kathleen Ranlett
Published: March 2006

Starting with an attitude survey of freshmen entering three University of California campuses on the issue of support for, opposition to, or neutral feelings concerning the Free Speech Movement (FSM) at Berkeley, the author goes on to label the supporters as "potential activists" and to record their perceptions of present and ideal university education, in contrast to the anti-FSMers and neutrals (who often operated as a single comparison group). Data on the perceptions of a second comparison group composed of Berkeley students are also presented. Variables examined include political/social attitudes and educational goals and ideals. Using personality scales taken from the Omnibus Personality Inventory (Heist & Yonge, 1968), pro-FSMers were found to resemble the participants in the movement. The role of the psychologist in campus conflicts is introduced, and the implications of the potential activist profile for university policy planning are suggested.
Change in Municipal Government: A View from the Inside
Authors: Costello Timothy W.
Published: March 2006

Preliminary to a description of five change decisions made by New York City municipal government, rules of political practice as they affect change are discussed briefly, a simple taxonomy of organizational change is illustrated from municipal experience, and differences between the public and private sectors that either facilitate or hinder change are identified. An inductive method is used to describe five municipal changes in the areas of organization, education, labor relations, air pollution, and model cities, and then to analyze the processes through which the changes occurred.
Stages of Group Development: An Empirical Test of Tuckman's Hypothesis
Authors: Runkel Philip J. , Lawrence Marilyn , Oldfield Shirley , Rider Mimi , Clark Candee
Published: March 2006

The stages of group development have often been discussed and frequently hypothesized-but seldom observed in the classroom. During winter term, 1968, at the University of Oregon, a study was made of small workgroups, each of which was assigned to complete an empirical investigation. The task-oriented groups, composed mostly of strangers, had to form themselves from larger sections into workgroups of four or more individuals, choose a task, pursue the research, and present the work in written form at the completion of the project. These workgroups were observed by students who had been through this social psychology course the previous year. The basic framework for the observations presented as outcomes in this paper was Bruce Tuckman's (1965) proposed model of group development. He stated that there are two aspects to group development: task activity and group structure; within each, he listed four developmental phases. The chief goal of the research was to test the fit of Tuckman's model of group development to the actual development of the workgroups observed in the classroom setting. The fit was very good.
Emotive and Control Groups as Mutated New American Utopian Communities
Authors: Jacobs Ruth Harriet
Published: March 2006

Popularity of the vast range of emotive and control groups in America today cannot be explained simply by the reputed success of psychoanalysis and groups derived from it and other psychological theories. In their ideal type, these proliferating groups relate to the utopian tradition in Western civilization, functioning as do all utopias. Utopias compensate for felt difficulties-in this case the lack of personal satisfactions in mass culture and the paucity of emotive, integrative, and control mechanisms. Unlike earlier utopian communities, most emotive and control groups are part time, but their parttime nature is consistent with the segmented structure of modern life. Utopias can incorporate recessive cultural genes, enclose deviance or institutionalize it, offer solidarity, catharsis, control, and hope for their members, and sometimes serve as change models. In contemporary America, not only do emotive and control groups serve these ends; in addition, they are effective because they are legitimated by all three types of authority-traditional, charismatic, and legal-rational. The extent of the groups is diagnostic of the crisis in American culture.
Organizations in a Changing World
Authors: Katz Daniel , Georgopoulos Basil S.
Published: March 2006

Organizations today are under challenge as a result of the break with traditional authority, the growth of democratic ideology, economic affluence and consequent changes in needs and motive patterns, and the accelerated rate of change. Adaptive subsystems have not kept pace with other organizational subsystems, and hence new inputs tend to be either rejected in blanket fashion or else incorporated without assimilation to the dominant patterns. Organizational leaders are preoccupied with their tasks of mediation between conflicting demands, and the problem of the reconceptualization of values has been left to the rebelling factions. There is hope, however, that a new consensus may emerge about organizational restructuring which acknowledges both the role of direct democracy in the smaller units and representative democracy in the larger system.
The Individual, the Organization, and the Career: A Conceptual Scheme
Authors: Schein Edgar H.
Published: March 2006

This paper presents a set of concepts about the nature of the organization, the nature of the individual, and the nature of the career-the set of events which tie the individual and the organization together. The purpose is to provide a frame of reference and a set of concepts to make it possible to think in more empirical terms about a variable like "career," yet which relate this variable both to organizational and psychological variables. Concepts such as "organizational boundaries," labile and stable "social selves," career stages and transitional processes are used to generate some hypotheses about organizational influences on the individual (socialization) and individual influences on the organization (innovation).
T-Group Training in The Netherlands: An Evaluation and Cross-Cultural Comparison
Authors: Moscow David
Published: March 2006

The effects of T-Group training laboratories held in The Netherlands were assessed, using an open-ended perceived change measure utilised in several previous studies. Dutch participants in these laboratories were shown to have improved more than members of control groups in communication ability, sensitivity, and self-and role-insight. The incidence of changes reported after Dutch laboratories is comparable with that found in studies conducted in the United Kingdom and the United States, although Dutch participants improved more in "active" communication to others while British and American participants improved more on the "receptive" side. Suggestions for improved assessment of laboratory training outcomes are made.
Mutually Perceived Therapeutic Relationships in T Groups: The Co-Trainer Puzzle
Authors: Frankiel Harry H.
Published: March 2006

This study provides added support for the theory proposed by Clark (1963), namely, that "the two-person interaction between members of T Groups seems to be the most significant determinant of changes in awareness and behaviour of individuals," and confirms the findings of Clark and Culbert (1965). Finding this therapeutic relationship and change present only in groups with one trainer, however, leads the author to propose that the presence of two trainers provides a different constellation of behaviours for participants to use as models. The author develops the case that participants develop less skill in engaging in relationships which are characterized by confrontation and mutual support when cotrainers are used.
Humanism and the Training of Applied Behavioral Scientists
Authors: Solomon Lawrence N.
Published: March 2006

A philosophy of humanism provides a valuational base for the activities of applied behavioral scientists. The historical roots of the humanistic orientation are traced and contrasted with the normative orientation in Western thought. Implications of this philosophy for development of social change agents lead to speculation regarding training programs; and the outline of a model for such a training program is presented. Abuses of the humanistic perspective within the behavioral sciences, nascent in current attempts to implement humanistically oriented training programs, become manifest as a generalized fear of control, a movement toward anarchy, and a narrowing anti-intellectualism. Amelioration of these dangers should enhance the future actualization of a humanistic model in applied behavioral science.
Some Conceptual Issues in Individual and Group-Oriented Strategies of Intervention into Organizations
Authors: Hornstein Harvey A. , Bunker Barbara Benedict , Hornstein Marion G.
Published: March 2006

This paper is an attempt to conceptualize and contrast some of the psychological and sociological assumptions underlying two different strategies of social intervention: an individually oriented strategy which assumes that individual change is the primary mediator of organization change and a group-oriented strategy which assumes that group-level phenomena, such as norms and values, are the primary mediators of organization change. It is not assumed that the views presented in this paper are complete or uncontroversial. On the contrary, by articulating these assumptions and their interrelationships, we hope to begin building systemic conceptual frameworks for describing the dynamics of social intervention. The understanding of social process provided by these frameworks may aid the practitioner in his application of an intervention approach and may help the theoretician-researcher to be more aware of gaps in his knowledge of social process.
Sensitivity Training for Staff in an Institution for Adolescent Offenders
Authors: Shapiro Jerrold L. , Ross Robert R.
Published: March 2006

In a controlled study of T-Group effectiveness in a correctional institution,' it appears that such a group benefited the members. Seveen female supervisors participated in a sensitivity group twice a week for three months. These women showed an increment in self-reported positive adjectives from preto posttest. Of greater importance was the fact that there was a concomitant increase in positive adjectives used in descriptions of the supervisors by the residents of the institution. During the same time, a matched group of control Ss showed a significant decrease in the number of positive adjectives ascribed to them. These results were maintained after a one-year period. The data suggest that T Groups may be valuable as a staff training method in correctional institutions-where the aim increasingly is positive rehabilitation.
T-Group Influence on Feelings of Alienation
Authors: Koziey Paul W. , Loken Joel O. , Field James A.
Published: March 2006

In the study reported here, feelings of alienation, as measured by Keniston's (1968) Alienation Scale, were generally found to decrease as a result of particularized group experience. This reduction, statistically significant at p < .05 after three weeks, was stable over a six-month period. Though subscale differences and individual differences were found, the authors conclude that a three week daily T-Group experience did reduce feelings of personal, interpersonal, and social alienation.
Do Personal Growth Laboratories Represent an Alternative Culture?
Authors: Argyris Chris
Published: March 2006

The rhetoric of personal growth programs represents, as Shepard suggests (J.A.B.S. 6 (3), 259-266), an alternative culture. However, when one attempts to study the actual behavior of participants in a laboratory, preliminary research suggests that it may bb closer to the established culture than to a "clearer vision of a better life." A theoretical framework is here proposed in an attempt to explain the apparent discrepancy between the actual behavior of participants and what they say they experienced and learned in personal growth programs.
The Impact of Encounter Groups on Participants: Some Preliminary Findings
Authors: Lieberman Morton A. , Yalom Irvin D. , Miles Matthew B.
Published: March 2006

Eighteen encounter groups were studied, representing lo approaches to personal change: T Groups, Rogerian, personal growth, sensory awareness, Gestalt, transactional analysis, psychodrama, Synanon, marathons, psychoanalytic, and Berzon's PEER Tapes. The study aims were (a) to assess the impact of such experiences for participants and (b) to isolate the group conditions associated with change. College undergraduates who expressed interest in having an encounter group experience were randomly assigned to the groups. A control group of 69 persons supplied data for contrast with those collected from the 209 experimental participants.

Outcome assessment procedures were developed to assess (i) peak experiences, (2) self-esteem and self-ideal discrepancies, (3) values, (4) life decision making, (5) interpersonal orientation, (6) interpersonal constructs, (7) coping styles, and (8) interpersonal ftyles. Individuals were tested prior to group assignment, at the end of the three-month experience (30 hours of group), and again six/eight months later. Other sources of outcome data included (a) leader ratings, (b) peer group ratings of in-group behavior, and (c) external 'social network" judgments of change. All group sessions were attended by systematically rotated observers, who made codings of Content, working pattern, emotional climate, themes, normative behavior, rewarding and sanctioning behavior, and leader behavior and style. Other measures of group conditions were derived from participants, including questionnaircs on norms, cohesion, member roles, and Ss' phenomenal view of critical group events and major learning experiences.

Preliminary findings are reviewed, including evidence on both positive and negative outcomes, and the relationship of leader behavior to each.
A Systems Approach to Organization Development
Authors: Beer Michael , Huse Edgar F.
Published: March 2006

Organization development (OD) efforts are often exclusively oriented to one method, one set of theoretical concepts, or one organizational variable. An input-process-output model of an organization was used as a framework for planned change." The program dealt with many organizational dimensions and used several intervention strategies and OD technologies. The effort resulted in substantial changes in organizational inputs, processes, and outputs. A number of findings about organization development have emerged from this OD experience and include the following: (1) OD efforts must not always start at the top; (2) the organization itself is the best laboratory for learning; (3) structural and interpersonal changes must complement and reinforce each other; (4) adult learning starts with behavioral change rather than cognitive change; and (5) the selection of change leaders as initial targets for the change program is a useful OD strategy.
A Method for the Analysis of the Thematic Structure of T Groups
Authors: Liebowitz Bernard
Published: March 2006

Systematic methods are needed for studying group development over time. The method described here permits interpretive description of a group session, useful both for feedback to the group and for further study of group processes. Participants in six T Groups rated the degree of importance of 45 themes for six middle sessions of their group. A correlation matrix for each session was derived; these were averaged and the resulting average matrix was factor-analyzed. Factor scores for individuals and groups (by session) were derived. The group scores served as the basis for interpretive descriptions. The results of this and other studies are compared and criteria for a methodology to investigate group thematic structure over time are explored.
The Internal Normative Structure of Sensitivity Training Groups
Authors: Luke Robert A.
Published: March 2006

This study attempts to articulate the internal normative structure of sensitivity training groups by identifying the normative patterns that govern member behavior and by examining the relative influence exercised by trainer and member over the establishment and maintenance of group norms. The concept of a mutually accommodative learning environment, a popular conception of a T Group's normative structure, assumes that norms arise sequentially from the interaction of members and that trainers and members exert mutual influence over a T Group's normative structure. The findings demonstrate that members perceive the trainer to exert more influence than members; that norms supportive of interpersonal encounter are consistently perceived to be of primary importance, while norms supportive of conceptual processes play a lesser role in the groups' normative structure. Some evidence is presented in support of an inverse relationship between trainer influence and member influence upon group norms. It is concluded that the learning environments in T Groups are not always mutually accommodative: the trainer largely determines the degree of mutual influence possible between trainer and member.
Strategies of Organizational Survival: The Case of a National Program for Educational Reform
Authors: Corwin Ronald G.
Published: March 2006

A small number of case studies describing how organizations adapt to changing or hostile environments by means of goal adaptation, selection of membership and audience, and reinforcement of organizational structure has accumulated. (For example, see Clark, 1956, 1960; Gusfield, 1955; Marris & Rein, 1967, Messinger, 1955; Moynihan, 1969; Selznick, 1949; Sills, 1957; Watson, 1968; Zald, 1970.) This literature is comprehensive, in that most aspects of the problem have been considered by one writer or another; however, at least two critical dimensions have not been given the full attention they deserve. First, with notable exceptions (e.g., Moynihan, 1969; Selznick, 1949; Zald, 1970), these studies concentrate on a single organization or view large sets of organizations as a collective, with only incidental attention to their internal dynamics. Analysis of interorganizational relationships would, however, illuminate the processes by which organizations are able to adapt and survive. Second, recent syntheses of political, economic, and sociological perspectives (Hirschman, 1970) bring into focus the essentially political nature of the process by which goals and structure are adapted to external and internal constraints. Zald (1970), for one, has demonstrated the utility of focusing on the "political economy" of organizations; i.e., the interplay of power and goals and productive exchange systems. This approach calls attention to the importance of external funding sources, internal allocations of resources, internal and external group conflict, and dominating elites.
Toward a Self-Renewing School
Authors: Alschuler Alfred
Published: March 2006

This case study describes the use of OD strategies to introduce psychological curricula in a community college. The author hypothesizes that the success of the intervention was due to the combination of three factors: favorable historical antecedents, the nature of the intervention, and continuous leadership by key administrators before and after the intervention. The interdependence of these three factors is analyzed.
Frontiers Beckoning the Organizational Psychologist
Authors: Walton Richard E.
Published: March 2006

One frontier for research and action focuses on the linkages between an organization and external groups, such as consumers and ecological neighbors. The various communities affected by a firm or a government agency's decisions increasingly expect to be able to influence these decisions.

A second frontier is the organization's internal community, which will be reformed and transformed into a community with a more livable organizational ecology, an extended bill of individual rights, and a new morality.

The third frontier is the development of mechanisms to achieve collaboration among organizations-mechanisms that cross the traditional boundaries of agencies, firms, industries, and levels of government and bridge the private and public sectors.
The Scandinavians Rehearse the Liberation
Authors: Higgin Gurth
Published: March 2006

This article reports some aspects of the third Mini-Society sponsored by Gunnar Hjelholt of Denmark. The distinctive quality of the event is that it allows experimental behaviour, mutual exploration, and confrontation between groups. Since the characteristics of the groups involved are meaningful in terms of problems emerging in society today, the themes which spontaneously engaged the groups and the dynamics which arose can throw new light on these problems. The theme illustrated here is the confrontation between the demand for personal liberation from the "destructive alienation" of the conventional demands of society and the fear of chaos and social breakdown. As this confrontation was acted out, the two groups directly involved tended to force each other into self-caricature and out of communication with the other, and to induce a growing paralysis or disruption in the other groups in the community. That one of these other groups experienced suffering passivity and high community visibility is seen as a necessary condition for the developments between the two confronting groups.
"Research Action": Organizational Feedback, Understanding, and Change
Authors: Brown L. Dave
Published: March 2006

This article focuses on the relationship between "research" and "action" as contradictory and complementary activities. Recent research and theory indicate the two may be synergistic and difficult to separate. It is suggested that mutual exchange of information between investigator and respondents is critical to both increased understanding ("research") and constructive change ("action"). The events in a case study of organizational diagnosis in a school and the outcomes of feedback of that diagnosis are examined in this context. The data indicate that information sharing improved the relationships between investigators and respondents, improved the quality of the diagnosis, and increased student involvement in school life. Some implications of the concept of "research action" for researchers and practitioners are discussed.
OD Techniques and Their Results in 23 Organizations: The Michigan ICL Study
Authors: Bowers David G.
Published: March 2006

Data collected by the Michigan Inter-Company Longitudinal Study from more than 14,000 respondents in 23 organizations are analyzed in terms of the organizational development treatments that intervened between pre and postmeasures. Four "experimental" treatments (Survey Feedback, Interpersonal Process Consultation, Task Process Consultation, and Laboratory Training) and two "control" treatments (Data Handback and No Treatment) are compared to determine their relative association with improved organizational functioning as measured by the Survey of Organizations questionnaire. The results indicate that Survey Feedback was associated with statistically significant improvement on a majority of measures, that Interpersonal Process Consultation was associated with improvement on a majority of measures, that Task Process Consultation was associated with little or no change, and that Laboratory Training and No Treatment were associated with declines. In addition, organizational climate emerges as a potentially extremely important conditioner of these results, with Survey Feedback appearing as the only treatment associated with substantial improvement in the variables of this domain.
Changing the Status of Poorly Esteemed Students through Teacher Reinforcement
Authors: Retish Paul M.
Published: March 2006

This study investigates the extent to which specific changes in teacher behavior and attitudes influence pupil acceptance by peers. Overt teacher reinforcement three times a day for three weeks was found to result in significant net gains in the sociometric status of experimental students as compared with that of their controls. Pupils who were merely identified to the teachers as "promising" did not, however, improve significantly in sociometric status when compared with controls. Teacher ratings of the children, on the other hand, were not consistently changed by either treatment; the results depended on grade level. These findings indicate that teachers can use overt reinforcement techniques to alter the social position of students.
Improving Participant Observation: The T Group as an Answer
Authors: Sandler Georgette Bennett
Published: March 2006

Participant observation as a research method is frequently criticized as unsystematic and low in reliability. T Groups are criticized for their lack of applicability and effectiveness outside the laboratory. Parallels between the two suggest that the latter can provide skills that increase the validity of the former, and that the former can increase the usefulness of the latter. This paper focuses on the relatively neglected dimensions of the researcher's experience of himself and the subject's experience of the researcher. Because the research relationship is a social relationship, it is crucial to take these two factors into account. T Groups provide a program for doing so.
Phenomenarchy: A Suggestion for Social Redesign
Authors: McWhinney Will
Published: March 2006

Social change is most enduring when it occurs in the context of a change in a basic structural determinant. A proposal is made that with certain changes in the employment "contract," we can create conditions for new social forms that can serve a rich variety of human needs. Evidence that we have the social technologies to create communities of self-potentiating individuals is given from the author's experience in open system organizations and the use of art in low-income areas.
The "Social Architects" and Their Architecture of Social Change
Authors: Hayden Dolores
Published: March 2006

American communitarians of the nineteenth century described themselves as "Social Architects" committed to the redesign of society. Their "architecture of social change" represents a conscious effort to reshape the life space of alternative societies. Their goals included uniqueness, accountability, perfectibility, collectivity, and credibility. Their environments were characterized by isolation, unique architectural features, recycling within closed systems, architectural adaptation, "perfect" details, inventions, elaborate transitions between public and private spaces, and prefabrication for easier assembly of the "model" town. The effects of "the architecture of social change" demonstrate the importance of alternative environments to the success of contemporary alternative institutions.
New Wine in Old Skins, and Vice Versa
Authors: Biersdorf John E.
Published: March 2006

A study o religious groups in contemporary culture suggests two basic ways to xi7rss rdig beliefs or myths ire their contest with scientific beliefs or myths in a pluralistic and conflict-ridden society. Oririskt& appropriate the latest social-scientific findings and methods to reformulate community life and beliefs; the other is to ignore scientific developments and concentrate on a re-presentation of traditional beliefs. Both types of groups are also concerned with the tension between personal growth and social change, the need for close community, the problems of mythic language, and the search for appealing disciplines of personal growth.
An Experimental Selection Process for a Collaborative Organization
Authors: Torbert William R.
Published: March 2006

When collaborative organizations or communities survive the earliest stages of development, they encounter two related structural dilemmas. First, a variety of constraints makes pure collaboration on every decision impossible and particular goals may make it undesirable. Second, turnover in membership requires a selection process that enables applicants to exercise self-direction and collaboration, so that those most capable of collaboration can be identified and selected and new members' sense of collaboration with "old" members is enhanced rather than diminished. An attempt to resolve these demands is offered in the following case study of selection procedures for staffing a second-year Upward Bound program.
The Tensions Between Research and Intervention in Intergroup Conflict
Authors: Lewicki Roy J. , Alderfer Clayton P.
Published: March 2006

One of the greatest problems facing the applied behavioral scientist is the conflict between intervening in a system in order to change it and collecting research data on the system and the impact of his intervention. The interventionist-as-researcher often experiences pressures from the system to ignore certain kinds of data, to avoid certain people, or to accept its own diagnosis of its problems and their solution. The researcher-as-interventionist must likewise deal with several problems: system members become' "subjects" rather than clients, unplanned interventions threaten the coherence of his research design, and field settings themselves often give rise to data collection and analysis difficulties. This case study reports an attempt to intervene in an intergroup relationship and explores two basic problems: the tensions between research and intervention, and the inadequacy of models of intervention into interpersonal conflict for effective management of intergroup conflict.
Implementing Organizational Changes in Urban Schools: The Case of Paraprofessionals
Authors: Giacquinta Joseph B. , London Herbert I. , Shigaki Irene S.
Published: March 2006

Paraprofessional programs in a metropolitan school system were studied to test a theory about factors related to successful implementation of organizational innovations. Indices of variables were constructed from items on two questionnaires administered to a stratified random sample of paraprofessionals, teachers, and administrators. The analysis confirmed the model, showing that paraprofessional clarity, willingness, ability, resources, and school compatibility, in the aggregate, were predictive of differences in the implementation of the programs.
An Interview with Roger Harrison
Authors: Tichy Noel
Published: March 2006

Roger Harrison was trained as a psychologist at the University of California (Berkeley). He spent four years as an internal consultant with Proctor & Gamble, at the conclusion of which he left, motivated partly by the desire to gain broader experience, and partly by a youthful and unrealistic impatience with the rate of change in a large organization. He next taught for six years in the Department of Industrial Administration at Yale University, where his deep involvement in outside organization development and sensitivity training activities interfered seriously with what had at first seemed a promising academic career. After leaving Yale, he was briefly with NTL, which he left in 1967 for independent practice. Since 1969, Roger Harrison has been the sole overseas representative of Development Research Associates, Inc., a group of applied behavioral scientists devoted to the creation and application of methods for releasing human potential in organizational, educational, and community systems. He lives in London where he currently divides his time-with difficulty-among the development of educational programs, the practice of organization development, and his family.
The Impact of PROCESS: Self-Administered Exercises for Personal and Interpersonal Development
Authors: Vicino Franco L. , Deci Edward L. , Landy David A. , Krusell Judith , Bass Bernard M.
Published: March 2006

This report describes the content and evaluation of a program of eight self-administered exercises for personal and interpersonal development, called PROCESS. The program was designed as an educational experience for students and others interested in gaining a better understanding of themselves and the way in which they relate to others. It is based on the laboratoty method of learning and involves a series of learning activities within a small, selfdirected group setting. The program materials obviate the necessity for a professionally trained leader.

The program was evaluated in a field experiment using a holdout control procedure. In general, the results indicated that participants in the program improved their concept of themselves, were more able to see themselves as their peers did, and reacted favorably to the total experience.
From Skinner to Satori? Toward a Social Learning Analysis of Encounter Group Behavior Change
Authors: Diamond Michael Jay
Published: March 2006

How can encounter group behavior, and behavior change following such groups, be understood most fruitfully? This article reviews social factors, inside and outside the encounter group setting, that may influence behavior change, maintenance, and generalization. The rudiments of social learning theory (SLT) are outlined, and it is argued that a cognitive social learning?nodel has distinct applied, heuristic, and sociopolitical value when used in conceptualizing encounter group processes and outcomes. It is proposed that a number of grotup-facilitated motor, affective, cognitive, and verbal behavior changes noted in the literature are a function of specific social learning processes.
On Participation in Political Protest Movements
Authors: Orum Anthony M.
Published: March 2006

Laymen and social scientists alike often believe that people are inspired to participate in political or social movements because of certain dislocating or frustrating personal experiences. The political protests of recent years have been interpreted in terms of similar ideas and formalized in five currently popular theories on the origins of political protest: status inconsistency, cumulative deprivation, relative deprivation, rising expectations, and social isolation. I review a large body of empirical evidence concerning each theory and find, at best, only limited support for them. Next I present some general reasons why the theories may be either inadequate or only partially correct. And, finally, I suggest a novel approach to the explanation and prediction of participation in political movements, portrayed in the form of a path-analytic scheme which can be employed in future empirical research.
Head Start Parents in Participant Groups
Authors: Wohlford Paul
Published: March 2006

Sensitivity training groups have rarely been conducted with lowincome people. A modification of the laboratory training method, here called the "participant group method," was used with lowincome parents of Head Start children to demonstrate under what conditions participant groups might be helpful to parents and their children. Eight groups met twice a week for eight weeks to help parents increase their children's language skills or to help them with their child-rearing problems. Parent trainers worked in pairs, which included a mother from the community. Couples were invited to some groups; only mothers to other groups. Most groups succeeded in engaging the parents' participation in child-rearing or related discussions. Judged on the basis of attendance and group process data, the participant group method seems an effective vehicle for directly delivering community clinical-psychological and educational services to low-income parents of preschool children.
Contemporary Perspectives on Planned Social Change: A Comparison
Authors: Crowfoot James E. , Chesler Mark A.
Published: March 2006

This paper offers a typology of social change efforts based on an analysis of their divergent root assumptions about values and the nature of reality rather than a categorization of their various activities. Analysis of change agents' images of society and of the individual, their diagnoses of contemporary society, and their priorities for action yields three perspectives of planned social change: the professional-technical, the political, and the countercultural, which the authors discuss in terms of such issues as their varying kinds of constituencies, resources, roles, and institutional bases.
Power and Young People
Authors: Kaimowitz David
Published: March 2006

David Kaimowitz reflects the energy and idealism of youth. He has translated his theories into action through work with Youth Liberation,* the President's White House Conference on Children and Youth in 1970-71, the Saginaw-[Michigan] Student Rights Center, and Ozone House, a home for runaway youth in Ann Arbor.
The Emerging New Criminal Justice System
Authors: Robin Gerald D.
Published: March 2006

The role and parameters of power are explored within the context of improving the administration of criminal justice. This effort at reform is referred to as the Emerging New Criminal Justice System, with an emphasis upon the integrating quality and functional value of greater cooperation among subsystems. The genesis of this movement is traced to the Safe Streets Act and the creation of the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration. The administration of criminal justice is characterized by the prevalence of conflict at many, often subtle, levels of community, governmental, and bureaucratic operation and interaction. The exercise of power is a continuously available resource used to respond to formal organizational goals as well as to the often incompatible, informal system maintenance needs.
Justice, the Courts, and Change
Authors: Crockett George W.
Published: March 2006

"After 200 years of experience with our Constitution, new change agents are appearing to alter substantially the character, the selection, and the response of considerable sections of the American judiciary."
Intimidation Rituals: Reactions to Reform
Authors: O'Day Rory
Published: March 2006

The reaction of authority in social systems to the reform initiatives of a subordinate is viewed as a series of intimidation rituals. These rituals divide into two major phases, each involving two distinct steps. The first phase, Indirect Intimidation, includes the rituals of nullification and isolation; the second, Direct Intimidation, the rituals of defamation and expulsion. Why these rituals for protestsuppression in organizations are powerful tools in the hands of the middle manager is discussed. Attention is also given to various images projected by the organizational reformer and reasons for resistance to reform from within an organization.
Power and the Utopian Assumption
Authors: Kinkade Kathleen
Published: March 2006

Kathleen Kinkade's thoughts on power in the alternative community are based on eight years of communal living, including six years at Twin Oaks, Virginia. Her experience is unusual in that she has founded groups which are profoundly egalitarian in philosophy and conduct, but she is 20 years older than the average member of these communities, a fact which almost inevitably places her in leadership roles. "The trouble with my theories on power," she admits, "is that I have never had the opportunity to be powerless in my communities, so I don't know how good my social theories are."

Ms. Kinkade is a founding member of Twin Oaks Community in Louisa, Virginia, a communal group founded in 1967 and based on the ideas set forth in B. F. Skinner's Walden Two. Her account of the early years at Twin Oaks is contained in A Walden Two Experiment, published by William Morrow & Co.
The Control of Knowledge: The Power of the Helping Professions
Authors: Reiff Robert
Published: March 2006

The basis of professional power is not knowledge itself but the control of knowledge. Historically, the helping professions have been mandated and licensed by society-have been given the reins of expert authority-to define who is deviant, ill, or needy and who is entitled to what help in the promotion of human welfare.

While on one hand the helping professions today have a vested interest in maintaining a commodity concept of their services, on the other hand, they have, by the very nature of their service policies, deprived their clients of their rights as consumers, argues the author. If a community wishes to reduce the power of the helping professions it will have to break up their monopolistic control. If the institutions of professionalism-its educational systems and organizations-were compelled to share their power with society, it would inevitably result in the democratization of knowledge and a new social contract between the professions and society. The potential for such a counter-force already exists in the demands for accountability and control by local communities of the poor, the blacks, the students, and the paraprofessional movement.
Organizational Development: Some Problems and Proposals
Authors: Kahn Robert L.
Published: March 2006

Examination of the rapidly increasing body of OD literature reveals that much of its research is redundant and without refinement or validation, that the term "Organizational Development" itself remains scientifically undefined and hence primarily a convenient label for a variety of activities, and that the OD literature as a whole is more autobiographical than organizational in focus and scope. Work toward resolution of these three problems, the author suggests, would help the practice of OD base itself on a more mature and usable set of principles and procedures for organizational change. The author also questions the adequacy and utility of the traditional dichotomy between organizational process and structure evident in the literature and discusses a reconceptualization of organizational structure that permits clarification of key issues in the practice and theory of organizational change.
The Effects of Power Training on Community Action Agencies
Authors: McClelland David C. , Rhinesmith Stephen , Kristensen Richard
Published: March 2006

In an effort to help the poor help themselves, power motivation training workshops were designed for Community Action Agency staff members in one state and their effects on individuals were measured six months later. This intervention "from the bottom up" was based on the theory that personal and socialized power needs must first be recognized by and developed in individuals in order for change in an organization-and ultimately in a community-to occur.
Boundary Management in Psychological Work with Groups
Authors: Singer David L. , Astrachan Boris M. , Gould Laurence J. , Klein Edward B.
Published: March 2006

Group events are conceptualized in this paper as temporary institutions in which and through which a variety of tasks or goals may be pursued. The role of group leader is viewed as encompassing significant managerial authority and responsibility, although this facet of the role is often overlooked. Using a typology of group events based upon the event's task system and the psychological level at which it is pursued, six types of groups currently offered to the public are identified and described. Then, using this framework and a social-systems organizational perspective, we explore the management aspects of work in groups which arise during the import, processing, and export phases of a group's life. We also argue that 1) only accurate diagnosis of the prospective members' or client organization's needs can lead to proper design of a group event, and 2) a clear contract between group leader and clients is necessary for optimal outcome.
The Effects of Laboratory Training: A Field Experiment
Authors: Lennung Sven-Ake , Ahlberg Ake
Published: March 2006

This report of the results of a Swedish field experiment on the effects of laboratory training argues that individually different changes are to be expected after training, in contrast with changes in central tendency claimed by other researchers. A theoretical rationale elaborating upon the concepts of "meta-goals" and "meta-learnings" is provided. Observer ratings and the results of a variety of scales administered to industrial supervisory personnel reveal individually different changes in the areas of interpersonal behavior and attitudes.
Interpersonal Compatibility and Workgroup Performance
Authors: Hill Raymond E.
Published: March 2006

Schutz hypothesized in his theory of interpersonal relations that more interpersonally compatible groups will exhibit greater productivity. Until recently, this proposition has remained largely untested for workgroups. The present study examined 22 teams of systems analysts working at the corporate headquarters of a large oil company. Interpersonal compatibility was measured by using Schuitz's standard instrument, and productivity measurements utilized paired comparisons. Ranks on the compatibility and productivity measures of paired teams were then compared. The hypothesis was not supported; in fact, the data strongly suggest the opposite notion, that more incompatible groups are likely to be judged as more productive. Reciprocal and interchange incompatibilities were found to be particularly associated with the higher-rated groups. This result suggests that moderate tension within groups, not interpersonal harmony, leads to productivity; however, task interdependence could be an important moderating variable and should be incorporated into future studies.