bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
PASTEURIZATION OF CHERRY BRINE IN A HELICALLY COILED HEAT EXCHANGER
Authors: MINTZIAS PETROS Z. , RIPPEN ALVIN L. , LEREW LLOYD E.
Published: February 2007

Spent cherry brine was pasteurized in a helically coiled heat exchanger. The brine contained polygalacturonase enzyme at a concentration of 1 mg of enzyme per 1 ml of brine. Two methods were used to predict the amount of polygalacturonase inactivation. Predicted and measured values varied less than 2.34%. A pasteurization process with a constant temperature of 81†C throughout the holding coil of the heat exchanger for 9 sec resulted in 99.8% inactivation.
A COMPUTER‐THERMOCOUPLE INTERFACING SYS FOR TIME‐TEMPERATURE DATA COLLECTION FROM THERMAL FOOD PROCESSES1
Authors: ROOP RICHARD A. , BADENHOP ARTHUR F.
Published: February 2007

A data logger that uses two computers simultaneously for collection and immediate observation of thermal food process data is described. Limits of error for a single observation, determined using a standard voltage input, was found to be less than .17° F (.094 °C). Component drift was found to be .04° F (.022° C) per hour. When properly calibrated, the system can be used for accurate data collection in most thermal process evaluations.
RHEOLOGICAL MODEL OF SOY DOUGH IN EXTRUSION
Authors: CHEN A. H. , JAO Y. C. , LARKIN J. W. , GOLDSTEIN W. E.
Published: February 2007

A viscosity model of defatted soy dough under various conditions of shear rate, temperature and moisture level in the extrusion process is reported. The model represents the data well within the shear rate range of 50 to 1,000 s−1, the temperature range of 100 °C to 160 °C, and the added moisture range of 22% to 32%. The flow index is determined to be 0.127, and response surfaces of the viscosity are also presented.
COMPUTER SIMULATION OF VITAMIN DEGRADATION IN A DRY MODEL FOOD SYSTEM DURING STORAGE1
Authors: PURWADARIA H. K. , HELDMAN D. R. , KIRK J. R.
Published: February 2007

During storage of dry foods, oxidative mechanisms can result in nutrient degradation. Accurate prediction of the vitamin content for dry foods during storage is essential to provide the processor with the assurance of meeting label claims. Since appropriate shelf‐life tests for measurement of vitamin degradation represents an alternative worth considering.

A mathematical model of the relationship between the rate constant of ascorbic acid oxidation and water activity was established. Computer simulation to predict product moisture content and ascorbic acid degradation in a dry model food product was developed by considering the simultaneous influence of water activity and temperature on rate constants which change with storage time due to varying storage environments.

The computer simulation predicts product moisture content and vitamin degradation in good agreement with the experimental data. The simulation will account for the influence of storage temperature and relative humidity as well as characteristics of the food product and package material.
RESPONSE SURFACE ANALYSIS OF EGG WHITE GELLING PROPERTIES IN A MEAT LOAF ANALOG
Authors: JAO Y. C. , LARKIN J. W. , CHEN A. H. , GOLDSTEIN W. E.
Published: February 2007

The effects of pH (5.0 to 7.0), salt content (0 to 3%), cooking time (15 to 75 min at 100°C), soy isolate and egg white level (both from 1 to 5%) on the gel strength of a model meat loaf analog system are investigated. An Instron Universal tester is used for evaluating the analog's strength of various compositions. The study indicates an insignificant influence of pH and soy isolate content on the analog's strength. Effects of egg white content, salt content, and cooking time are expressed in terms of a second order polynomial, where linear effects and interactions are shown to be significant. Egg white content and cooking time are exponentially related to the hardness, whereas, salt content is linearly proportional to the logarithm of hardness. Response surface analysis reveals that egg white usage can be greatly reduced if salt content and cooking time are manipulated. This study provides a model that can be used to optimize a process for producing meat loaf analogs.
ENERGY COMSUMPTION IN STEAM BLANCHERS1
Authors: SCOTT ELAINE P. , CARROAD PAUL A. , RUMSEY THOMAS R. , HORN JEFFREY , BUHLERT JAMES , ROSE WALTER W.
Published: February 2007

The energy consumption of several steam blanchers was monitored to identify design characteristics which are most energy conserving. Hydrostatically sealing the units to prevent escape of steam was shown to be significant in reducing energy usage. Results are compared with estimates of energy efficiency found in the literature and are shown to be in agreement.
AN OPTICAL METHOD TO STUDY THE KINETICS OF CLEANING MILK DEPOSITS BY SODIUM HYDROXIDE
Authors: GALLOT‐LAVALLEE THIERRY , LALANDE MARC , CORRIEU GEORGES
Published: February 2007

An optical sensor was devised to observe cleaning kinetics of heat exchange surfaces fouled by milk and to study the influence of some parameters on them.

The sensor works by sensing the attenuation of incident light by the suspension of deposits which are removed by the cleaning solution.

The cleaning is carried out without recycling the cleaning solution. The on‐line collected numerical data are converted into concentration values by the use of an empirical correlation based on samples of freeze dried deposits diluted with soda solutions. The cleaning kinetics and the weight of removed fouled material are computed for each experiment by integrating the concentration versus time curve.

Over 20 experiments, carried out on a plate milk pasteurizer have established the validity of the method. The kinetics are interpreted as initially zero order, but first order at the end of the process.
EFFECT OF TIME AND FISH TEMPERATURE ON THE BLUNTING RATE OF FILLETING KNIVES1
Authors: MATUSZEK TADEUSZ
Published: February 2007

The blunting rate of the disc knives in the filleting process is influenced by the anatomical location of the cut, cutting time and temperature of the fish body. The head cutting, abdominal‐bone cutting and spinal bone separating knives blunt faster due to the structural differentiation in the fish body. The longer cut at the spinal bone separation also increases the blunting rate. Lowering the fish temperature from 285°K to 258°K (+12 to ‐15° C) accelerated the blunting rate of the knives about 2.4 times.
GENERAL AND KINETIC ASPECTS OF PRE‐RINSE AND CLEANING OF A MILK STORAGE TANK
Authors: TISSIER JEAN‐PIERRE , CORRIEU GEORGE , LALANDE MARC
Published: February 2007

With the aim of studying pre‐rinsing and cleaning of a milk storage tank, different representative samples are collected during the process and their components (protein, sugar and lipid) analysed. The main conclusions of this study may be summarized as follows: (1) The mean thickness of milk remaining in the tank ranges around 20 μm. It depends on the dropping time and on the possible presence of milk foam. (2) The different main milk components do not exhibit the same removal rate and sugar seems to be completely removable by rinsing only. (3) Prerinsing may be characterized by four periods of which one depends on a diffusion mechanism. (4) Pre‐rinse is a very rapid process which mainly depends on the pre‐rinse solution volume used per unit of soiled surface. (5) Hard water, osmosed water alone or admixed with a surface active agent or caustic soda (1%) lead to the same results.
CONVECTIVE AND CONDUCTIVE EFFECTS OF HEAT TRANSFER IN POROUS MEDIA
Authors: CRUZ JOSELITO V. DELA , AKINS RICHARD G.
Published: February 2007

An experimental study was made of heat transfer by natural convection inside packed vertical cylinders whose wall temperatures varied sinusoidally with time. The packings were small glass or plastic spheres with water as the interstitial fluid. The purpose of this research was to stimulate, in a controlled laboratory model, the heat transfer to grain stored in bins.

Temperature distributions throughout the bed were determined for various sizes of packing, several height‐to‐diameter ratios, and for a number of frequencies of sinusoidal forcings. The results are presented graphically in terms of the amplitude ratios of the interior temperatures to the wall temperature and the phase lag between the interior and wall temperatures. The operating conditions ranged from essentially pure conduction to moderately strong natural convection.

The temperature distributions near the wall of the cylindrical container were found to be predicted by a simple one‐dimensional model. Temperature distributions throughout an entire packed bed were quite complex when there was significant natural convection and, although general overall predictions were possible, accurate calculation of the temperature at a specific location and time was impossible.
AN APPROXIMATE METHOD FOR DETERMINING THE WASHING TIME AND WATER VOLUME DURING THE BATCH WASHING OF COTTAGE CHEESE CURD
Authors: BRESSAN JUAN A. , LUNA JULIO A. , CARROAD PAUL A. , WILSON ALFRED W.
Published: February 2007

A calculation method for batch washing of cottage cheese curd which yields combinations of washing time and ratio of water volume to curd volume is presented. The method is based on a theoretical model of the washing process which showed mass transfer of whey solids, rather than heat transfer, to be the rate limiting step. Input values include initial and final values of total solids concentration in the whey entrapped in the curd, and curd and water temperatures. Selection of optimum time and water volume depends on subsequent economic analysis.
CLEANING KINETICS MODELING OF HOLDING TUBES FOULED DURING MILK PASTEURIZATION1
Authors: GALLOT‐LAVALLEE THIERRY , LALANDE MARC , CORRIEU GEORGES
Published: February 2007

In the present study, 25 cm tubes fouled during pilot plant scale pasteurization of raw whole milk were cleaned with sodium hydroxide. The pasteurization conditions resembled those of the dairy industry. An optical sensor sensitive to the turbidity of suspended deposits removed by the cleaning solution was placed successively at the outlet of each fouled tube. Use of this sensor combined with a nonrecycled cleaning solution process enabled us to measure the cleaning rate on line. In these conditions it was observed that, at zero time, the cleaning rate was null. Based on the above observations a kinetic model of cleaning was established. It consists of two steps in series. The adhesive deposit passes through an intermediate state before being washed away by the cleaning solution. Each step is a first order reaction related to the mass of the adhesive deposit and the mass of the intermediate compound, respectively.

Among the many physico‐chemical parameters affecting the cleaning process, three major ones were studied; temperature, concentration and circulation rate of the soda solution. An empirical model of the rate constant was set up which takes into account those three parameters and the initial weight of deposit to be cleaned. A 1% increase in the amount of NaOH caused the same increase in the constant rate as 8°C or 0.5 m/s.
COMPARISON of FRICTION FACTOR EQUATIONS FOR NON‐NEWTONIAN FLUIDS IN PIPE FLOW1
Authors: GARCIA EDGARDO J. , STEFFE JAMES F.
Published: February 2007

The pressure drop, due to friction, in pipe flow of non‐Newtonian fluids can be estimated if the friction factor is known. For laminar flow, the friction factor for power law, Bingham plastic and Herschel‐Bulkely fluids can be obtained from a single theoretical relationship. However, a number of different relationships have been developed for turbulent flow. This paper presents a summary and comparison of these relationships. Friction factor predictions were found to differ significantly depending on the flow behavior index, Reynolds number and Hedstrom number. Generally, the spread of predictions increased as the fluid deviated from Newtonian behavior. Significant errors can be made when using relationships based on fluids without a yield stress to predict friction factors for fluids having a yield stress.
RESIDENCE TIME DISTRIBUTION IN HORIZONTAL THIN FILM SCRAPED SURFACE HEAT EXCHANGER (SSHE)
Authors: ABICHANDANI H. , SARMA S. C.
Published: February 2007

The residence time distribution (RTD) studies were conducted to predict the flow characteristics in thin film SSHE. the experiments were conducted at zero heat flux using water as working fluid. A pulse input in form of saturated sodium chloride solution was used as the disturbance at inlet and the response in form of electrical conductivity was measured at outlet. Thirty‐two trials were conducted at different flow rates, number of blades and rotor speeds. the E‐curves were plotted. It was inferred that the flow in thin film SSHE approximates to plug flow. Also, as the mass flow rate increased, RTD improved. the increasing number of blades resulted in appreciable improvement in RTD. the rotor speed had similar effect as that of number of blades on RTD. However, the number of blades had more profound effect as compared to rotor speed. If the rotor design is modified then RTD can be improved and simultaneously the power consumption can be kept at minimum.
INCORPORATION of MILK PROTEINS HARVESTED BY DIRECT ACIDIFICATION INTO PROCESS CHEESE PRODUCTS
Authors: POPPLEWELL L. M. , ROSENAU J. R.
Published: February 2007

Casein curd, a 5:1 combination of casein curd and lactalbumin, traditional coprecipitate curd, and Hiddink's coprecipitate curd were each used to replace varying amounts of natural cheese protein in a process cheese product.

Traditional coprecipitate was used successfully to replace up to 40%, and Hiddink's coprecipitate up to 50%, of natural cheese protein in an experimental product. At higher levels of replacement, the product mixtures would not become homogeneous. Casein, and the combination of casein and lactalbumin, were used to replace up to 80% of natural cheese protein in an experimental product.

Experimental products were compared rheologically to a group of similar use commercial products. Stress‐strain, stress relaxation, and creep behavior indicated that the experimental products were generally more rigid than the commercial products. the meltability of all the experimental products was similar to that of the commercial products.
A PRELIMINARY STUDY of HEATING CHARACTERISTICS and QUALITY ATTRIBUTES of PRODUCT PACKAGED IN the RETORT POUCH COMPARED WITH the CONVENTIONAL CAN
Authors: SNYDER CYNTHIA J. , HENDERSON JERALD M.
Published: February 2007

The advantages of using a retort pouch to replace the conventional metal can were investigated. Required processing times for equivalent volume packages subjected to either a still or agitated cook were compared for three products, and the resulting product quality was determined by evaluating Vitamin C content, color, and drained weight. Pureed pumpkin represented conduction heating products; peas in brine and pineapple in juice represented products using conduction/convection heating. It was found that pouches yield greatly reduced process times for conduction heating products. For particulates in a liquid medium, the agitated cooking of cans require less processing time than the thinner still‐cooked pouches.
SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS of ASEPTIC PROCESS SIMULATIONS FOR FOODS CONTAINING PARTICULATES1
Authors: LEE JUN H. , SINGH RAKESH K. , CHANDARANA DILIP I.
Published: February 2007

A sensitivity analysis of a computer model, simulating heat transfer into particulate foods processed in a continuous aseptic system was conducted to determine how the model reacts to the variations in selected product and process input parameters depending on simulation types, namely, “Total”, “F0 Hold” and “Hold Only”. Three major output variables, namely, holding tube required to destroy 6 D of Clostridium sporogenes (PA3679), destruction of thiamine and inactivation of peroxidase were selected for the sensitivity analysis. Theoretical results indicated that basically no difference between the “Total” system approach and the “F0 Hold” approach was found on the model prediction. Particle size, particle thermal properties such as density and specific heat were the most sensitive parameters (within the range investigated) among product parameters which influence holding tube length required, thiamine and peroxidase retention while fluid properties such as fluid thermal conductivity and viscosity were less susceptible to affect the model prediction regardless of simulation types. Among process parameters, product flow rate and product initial temperature seemed to be the most critical parameters within the range covered in this study while rotor speed seemed to be one of the least critical parameters to influence the model prediction regardless of simulation types.
OXYGEN TRANSMISSION RATE of an EDIBLE METHYLCELLULOSE‐PALMITIC ACID FILM1
Authors: RICO‐PẼNA DELMY C. , TORRES J. ANTONIO
Published: February 2007

Edible coatings with low potassium sorbate permeability could be used to increase the microbial stability of food surfaces. However, such coatings could induce anaerobic food conditions if their oxygen permeability were low. the oxygen permeability of an edible emulsion film (average thickness, 55 μm), composed of methylcellulose and palmitic acid (weight ratio of 3:1), was evaluated at 24°C, atmospheric pressure, and at different percentages of relative humidity (RH). RH values in the 0–57% range had no significant effect on oxygen transmission rate (OTR); calculated OTR values ranged from 660 to 740 mL O2 (STP)/m2 24h atm. At 79% RH, the OTR doubled to 1,500 mL O2 (STP)/m2 24h atm. This effect correlated well with the moisture isotherm for the film which showed a low moisture content in the 0–57% RH range and a rapid increase at higher RH values. OTR values, particularly at high relative humidity, indicate no risk of developing anaerobic conditions on the food surface.
PARTICLE/FLUID INTERFACE HEAT TRANSFER UNDER UHT CONDITIONS AT LOW PARTICLE/FLUID RELATIVE VELOCITIES1
Authors: CHANDARANA D. I. , GAVIN A. , WHEATON F. W.
Published: February 2007

Mathematical models are often used for determining commercial thermal process schedules for heterogeneous foods processed in an aseptic processing system. the particle/fluid interface convective heat transfer coefficient is a critical input parameter for these models and must be determined experimentally. Experiments were conducted at 129.4°C in a specially designed apparatus to determine the particle/fluid interface convective heat transfer coefficient for model food particles heated by Newtonian and non‐Newtonian fluids. Values of the heat transfer coefficient ranged between 55.63 and 89.5 W/m10C for particles heated in a non‐Newtonian fluid and between 65.67 and 107.11 W/m20C for particles heated in a Newtonian fluid.
CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT FOR A RESTRUCTURED PORK/SOY HULL PRODUCT1
Authors: UNKLESBAY KENNETH , UNKLESBAY NAN , BIEDRZYCKI KRZYSZTOF
Published: February 2007

Heat transfer coefficients, h, (J/cm2°C min) were determined for a pork/soy hull mixture during heating in a convection oven (142°C) with and without control of the dew point. Data were acquired by heat processing 5 stacked layers of product (10 × 10 × 1 cm) so that heat was only conducted into the top surface. One experiment was designed to determine h when the second layer from the top reached one of 6 temperatures: 20, 32, 44, 56, 68 and 77°C, with no control of the dew point. the second experiment determined h for 60 min of heating for 5 dew point levels: 6, 21, 31, 40 and 50°C. Without the control of humidity, values for h ranged from 0.0170–0.0366 J/cm2°C min. the heat transfer coefficient increased with temperature and heat processing time. Product yield and surface area ratios decreased as h increased. When relative humidity was controlled, values for h ranged from 0.0167–0.0270 J/cm2°C min, decreasing for dew points above 31°C.
INFLUENCE of PARTICLE ORIENTATION ON the EFFECTIVE ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE and OHMIC HEATING RATE of A LIQUID‐PARTICLE MIXTURE1
Authors: SASTRY SUDHIR K. , PALANIAPPAN SEVUGAN
Published: February 2007

The ohmic heating rate of a liquid‐particle mixture is expected to depend on particle orientation. A mathematical model was developed to determine the extent of orientation dependence for the case of a cubic particle. the particle and liquid resistances were determined by taking incremental sections through the particle and using the electrical conductivity to calculate the effective resistance. Modeling and experimental results indicate that for a cubic particle, orientation effects are slight; both with regard to effective resistance and heating time. However, this result is not expected to apply to particles of large aspect ratios.
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY of INDIAN UNLEAVENED FLAT BREAD (CHAPATI) AT VARIOUS STAGES of BAKING
Authors: GUPTA T.R.
Published: February 2007

A steady state technique was used to measure thermal conductivity of whole wheat dough (rolled chapati) and baked chapati (round disc prepared mostly from whole wheat flour dough) at various stages of cooking. Based on the experimental data of chapati at various stages of cooking, a linear equation K = ‐0.5677 + 0.01396 M + 0.005131 T is proposed for conductivity of wheat flour dough and baked chapati at moisture levels (M): 35 < M < 50 and temperature ranges 35 < T < 60 A separate equation K = 0.3204 + 0.0091 M ‐0.00805 T predicts thermal conductivity of rolled chapati and baked chapati at T > 60C.
PHYSICAL and THERMAL PROPERTIES of GORGON NUT
Authors: JHA S.N. , PRASAD SURESH
Published: February 2007

Bulk density, true density, angle of repose, coefficient of friction on metal surfaces, specific heat, thermal diffusivity and conductivity of gorgon nut were determined using standard techniques for different sizes of nuts at moisture contents and temperatures ranging from 15 to 60% (dry basis) and 25 to 55C, respectively. the physical properties varied quadratically with moisture content. Specific heat increased with moisture and temperature but decreased with the size of the nut; whereas, the thermal diffusivity showed a reverse trend. Thermal conductivity increased with moisture content but did not follow any trend with temperature within the range of the study. the physical and thermal properties data at various moisture contents and temperatures were used to develop equations for different sizes of gorgon nuts.
THE INFLUENCE of pH ON the KINETICS of ACID HYDROLYSIS of SUCROSE
Authors: TORRES A. PINHEIRO , OLIVEIRA F.A.R. , SILVA C.L.M. , FORTUNA S.P.
Published: February 2007

Sucrose acid hydrolysis was studied as a potential chemical time‐temperature integrator to use under pasteurization conditions. A nonisothermal method was used to determine the kinetic parameters of this reaction at different pH values in the range of 0.8 to 2.5 and covering the range of temperatures from 50 to 90G. the nonisothermal method was first validated with the classical two‐step isothermal method at pH 2.5. Kinetic parameters showed to be highly collinear (correlation of 0.99), but it was concluded that the activation energy can be assumed independent of pH and equal to 99 kJ/mole with the preexponential factor being proportional to the H+ concentration. Results are favorable for the future application of this system in the evaluation of pasteurization processes. Since the activation energy was found to be independent of the pH, this system is useful as a TTI for validation of mathematical models, but not so much for monitoring quality factors, except those with an equal activation energy.
SIMULTANEOUS HEAT and MASS TRANSFER DURING the DEEP FAT FRYING of TORTILLA CHIPS
Authors: MOREIRA ROSANA , PALAU JAIME , SUN XIUZHI
Published: February 2007

The heating and water loss of a single tortilla chip during deep fat frying was investigated experimentally and the data were analyzed by writing two heat and mass transfer balances. the equations were solved using explicit finite difference technique. Oil uptake as a function of frying time was described by a first order exponential equation. the empirical and theoretical heat and mass transfer agreed well.

The effect of oil temperature on the moisture loss and oil uptake as a function of frying time was analyzed. Moisture loss rate increased as temperature increased. the effects of temperature on oil uptake were not significant during the first 15 s of frying, however, the final oil content was higher for the tortilla chip fried at 190C than at 150C for 60 s.
CONVERGENCE ANGLE OF WHEAT DOUGH IN A ZERO LENGTH DIE
Authors: SCHLUENTZ EMILY J. , STEFFE JAMES F.
Published: February 2007

A mechanical system was designed, and constructed, to experimentally determine the angle of convergence (required to calculate extensional viscosity from converging flow data) of wheat flour dough flowing through a zero‐length die. To determine the convergence angle, and investigate potential dead spaces, tests were conducted with angled inserts. The mean angle for a flat‐entry die was 43.1° with a standard deviation of 5.30°. Results show that convergence patterns did not follow straight lines, and entrance angles for wheat dough could not be closely controlled with angled inserts. Based on these findings, calculating extensional viscosity from converging die data cannot be expected to provide accurate values for wheat dough.
COMMERCIAL TESTING AND OPTIMIZATION STUDIES OF THE SURFACE PASTEURIZATION PROCESS OF CHICKEN1
Authors: KOZEMPEL MICHAEL , GOLDBERG NEIL , RADEWONUK E. RICHARD , SCULLEN O. JOSEPH
Published: February 2007

The performance of the surface pasteurization process to reduce the bacteria levels on the surface of chicken was tested on carcasses received from federally inspected commercial processing plants. These tests were made with carcasses that had been chilled and shipped overnight with ice packs. The tests and follow‐up experiments showed the visceral cavity was not treated as effectively as the outside. A second series of tests with chicken halves which eliminated the difficulty with the cavity, produced significant kills in E. coli, coliform, and total aerobic plate counts. Further research with chicken purchased at the supermarket established optimum process conditions as initial vacuum of 0.1 s, steam at 138C for 0.1 s, and final vacuum of 0.5 s. At these conditions, for half carcasses, bacteria kills for E. coli, coliforms, and APC generally ranged from approximately 0.5 to 1.0 log cfu/mL. The process is being modified to assure adequate treatment of the cavity
REMOVAL KINETICS OF BACILLUS CEREUS SPORES FROM STAINLESS STEEL PIPES UNDER CIP PROCEDURE: INFLUENCE OF SOILING AND CLEANING CONDITIONS
Authors: LELIEVRE CAROLINE , FAILLE CHRISTINE , BENEZECH THIERRY
Published: February 2007

Cleaning efficiency is of prime importance for food industries to ensure both the quality and safety of the products. The removal kinetics of Bacillus cereus spores adhering to unheated stainless steel pipes was studied under turbulent flow conditions (Reynolds’number of 77500 and 116300) in order to be close to those encountered in industrial practice. The experimental data was fitted using a hyperbolic tangent model. Variance analysis was then performed to underline any potential effects on the kinetics of the processing parameters, such as soiling conditions, soiling media and mean walls shear stress during cleaning.

A significant influence of the adhesion medium (milk or saline) is shown at the level of spore removal (P < 0.001). This trend could probably be explained by the change in the surface properties of spores and stainless steel surfaces when covered by milk macromolecules. After milk soiling in turbulent flow conditions, removal efficiency was enhanced by a factor of 2.5 to remove 50% of the initial spore contamination and by a factor of 2 for the remaining spores after 30 min of cleaning. No effect of the two mean wall shear stresses (9.4 and 19.1 Pa) has been identified. The removal kinetic model proposed here could now permit the effect on the cleaning efficiency of a wide range of CIP conditions to be tested.
NONLINEAR CONSTRAINED OPTIMIZATION of THERMAL PROCESSING II. VARIABLE PROCESS TEMPERATURE PROFILES to REDUCE PROCESS TIME and to IMPROVE NUTRIENT RETENTION IN SPHERICAL and FINITE CYLINDRICAL GEOMETRIES
Authors: ERDOǦDU FERRUH , BALABAN MURAT O.
Published: February 2007

Conventional methods for thermal processing of foods use constant processing temperature profiles (CPTPs) for a prescribed processing time, which is based on achieving a required microbial lethality to comply with public health standards. This also results in degradation of nutrients and quality factors. the variable process temperature profiles (VPTPs) obtained by using optimization methods can reduce quality losses and/or processing time compared to CPTPs. the objective of this research was to evaluate VPTPs using the Complex Method to reduce the processing time and/or improve quality retention for a specified level of lethality in thermal processing of conduction heated foods. the VPTPs were obtained for volume average retention of thiamine considering different sizes of spheres (small and large) and finite cylinders (small and large), and the thiamine retention and processing time results were compared with a conventional method (processing at 121.1C) for a specified lethality level. the use of VPTPs resulted in a 37 and 10% decrease in processing times in spherical and 40 % and 6 % for finite cylindrical shapes, for the same objective function value and specified lethality compared to the CPTP process. For the same processing time, the improvements in thiamine destruction were 3.7 and 2 % for spheres, and 3.9 and 2.2% for finite cylinders.
A MODEL FOR DIFFUSION of SODIUM IN GREEN OLIVES AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES and LYE CONCENTRATIONS
Authors: MALDONADO MARIELA BEATRIZ , ZURITZ CARLOS ALBERTO
Published: February 2007

A diffusion model for a composite flat plate, consisting of a thin skin of thickness o, and a thicker flesh of thickness L, with constant flesh and skin effective diffusion coefficients (DF and DS) was successfully adjusted to the experimental data obtained during the debittering of green olives variety Arauco (also known as Criolla) at 15C, 20C and 25C and lye concentrations of 1.50%, 2.25% and 3.00% of NaOH. the DF values ranged between 1.64 × 10−10 and 9.20 × 10−10 m2/s, and increased with increasing temperature and lye concentration. the DS values ranged between 1.27 × 10−12 and 5.63 × 10−12 and also increased with increasing lye concentration and temperature. Activation Energies (Ea) of diffusion in the flesh and the skin were evaluated with an Arrhenius‐type relationship. the Ea values for the flesh were 93.2, 72.7 and 64.8 kJ/mol, and 92.7, 91.46 and 33.67 for the skin for lye concentrations of 1.50%, 2.25% and 3.00%, respectively.
PHYSICAL CHANGES DURING COFFEE ROASTING IN ROTARY CONDUCTION‐TYPE HEATING UNITS
Authors: MWITHIGA GIKURU , JINDAL V.K.
Published: February 2007

Coffee beans were roasted in a rotary conduction‐type‐heating unit under constant heating surface or product temperatures ranging from 200 to 240C or 170 to 210C, respectively. the roasting duration was varied from 0 to 70 min through intermittent sampling of coffee beans at selected intervals. There were marked changes in physical conditions of coffee beans during roasting. the specific gravity, bulk density, susceptibility to breakage, and color lightness index L changed from 1.2 to 0.5, 0.7 to 0.3 g/cm3, 20 to 100, and 50 to 12, respectively.
RELATION OF RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF TESTA OF PISUM SATIVUM L. TO HISTOLOGICAL CHANGES*
Authors: ANGEL SAMUEL , KRAMER AMIHUD
Published: February 2007

The study was undertaken to determine histological distortions occurring in the pea testa (skin) as a result of various force applications.

Multi‐directional compression caused bending of macrosclereids and flattening of osteosclereids. Unidirectional pressure caused similar deformations plus eventual separation between cells; shearing caused bending, buckling and wedging of macrosclereids; bruising resulted in cracks between macrosclereids and buckling.

The existence of a pentosan‐cellulose complex in the basal and apical ends of the macrosclereids and in the end wall regions of the osteosclereids, as established by R. M. Reeve of the U.S.D. A., and the triangular arrangement of the osteosclereids might explain the ability of the macrosclereids to bend and buckle and of the osteosclereids to spread in the end wall regions. This in turn contributes to the resiliency and toughness of the testa in the face of varied physical forces.
APPLICATION OF ENGINEERING TECHNIQUES TO EVALUATION OF TEXTURE OF SOLID FOOD MATERIALS
Authors: MOHSENIN NURI N.
Published: February 2007

Abstract An engineering approach to evaluation of mechanical attributes of texture in solid food materials is presented. The usefulness of such an approach, which is based on sound physical principles, is discussed. An illustrated list of mechanical tests applicable to solid food materials is given along with formulas for computing the mechanical properties which should be related to mechanical attributes of texture. Examples of previous work which have employed these techniques with the intention of correlating the results with some textural parameters of solid foods are reviewed. It is shown that these objective physical measurements have proven to be useful and give more fundamental data than most of the conventional, poorly defined tests employed in the past. The use of these techniques, where applicable, for future studies is recommended.
PARAMETERS OF TEXTURE CHANGE IN PROCESSED FISH: PROTEIN CRYSTALLIZATION
Authors: MAO WEI‐WEN , STERLING CLARENCE
Published: February 2007

Abstract Processed muscle of the Sacramento blackfish (Orthodon microlepidotus) was examined for changes in crystallinity by X‐ray diffraction and relative water vapor uptake, the specimens having been prepared by the freeze‐substitution procedure. Although only a slight increase in crystallinity occurred on processing, both methods agreed in showing a small increase in crystallinity on freezing, a somewhat greater increase on cooking, and a still greater increase on dehydrating. Further increases in crystallinity occurred during storage of frozen and dehydrated muscles.
BOOK REVIEW
Authors: Szczesniak Alina S.
Published: February 2007

Gum Technology in the Food Industry by Martin Glicksman
REVERSIBLE COMPRESSION OF DEHYDRATED PEAS
Authors: RAHMAN A. R. , BISHOV S. , WESTCOTT D. E.
Published: February 2007

Abstract. Freeze‐dried peas were compressed 4‐fold and subsequently rehydrated to virtually their precompression characteristics. Histological studies showed that conventional processes of freezing and freeze‐drying result in considerable disruption of cell walls. Contrary to what was anticipated, compression forces of 1000–2000 psi resulted in only a slight increase in breakage of cell walls. However, no correlation was established between cell disruption or texture and increasing compression force. A study of the effects of plasticizing moisture and compression force enabled optimization of processing conditions resulting in compressed peas which can be reconstituted to virtually their precompression characteristics.
FOOD TEXTURE MEASUREMENTS IN CANADA
Authors: CUMMING D. B. , MAN J. M. DE , LYNCH A. G. , MERTENS W. G. , TANAKA M.
Published: February 2007

A survey of the food industry, government agencies and educational institutions dealing with foods has been conducted to establish the nature and extent to which instrumental texture measurements are employed in Canada. Two hundred and fifteen questionnaires were sent out and 123 (57%) returned. Of those replying, 52% were using texture evaluation instruments. Within the food industry the use of texture measuring instruments was as follows: meat 36%; fish 20%; canner/freezer 79%; dairy 42%; confectionery 73%; baking 50%; fats and oils 78%; multi product 77%; beverage 0%. Most widely used instruments in the quality control area were rotational viscometers and penetrometers. The more complex instruments, such as the Universal Testing Machine and the Shear Press, were used to a larger extent in the research area. The use of some instruments appeared to be restricted to particular commodity groups. The questionnaire dealt among other things with the use of taste panels, statistical evaluation of results, and the need for expanded use of instruments. There was general agreement that more standardization of methods is desirable.
TEXTURAL AND ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF IRISH POTATOES: I. Textural Properties*
Authors: SCHMIDT THOMAS R. , AHMED ESAM M.
Published: February 2007

Steam‐peeled unprocessed potatoes showed the least hardness, gumminess, and resistance to shear or to compression forces in comparison to those peeled by lye or by abrasion. Fracturability values were greater than hardness values for the unprocessed potatoes, while the reverse was true for processed potatoes. Processed lye‐peeled potatoes showed the greatest amount of cohesiveness and gumminess, and required the largest forces to shear or compress. The peeling method had no observed effect on adhesiveness values of processed potatoes. Texture profile parameters as well as resistance to shear or compression forces, and sensory hardness ratings increased during storage of processed potatoes. Steam and lye‐peeled potatoes were more preferred organoleptically than abrasion‐peeled potatoes.
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN BINDING QUALITY OF MEAT AND MYOFIBRILLAR PROTEINS
Authors: NAKAYAMA TERUO , SATO YASUSHI
Published: February 2007

The binding quality of the heat set gel increased when F‐actin was present in an appropriate ratio to myosin A. It increased further when tropomyosin was added to the myosin A/F‐actin model system. The water holding capacity was increased by tropomyosin only. Thus, the contribution of not only myosin A but also of native tropomyosin and actin should be controlled in sausage manufacture. The presence of 0.6 M NaCl or KCl in the sol was necessary to produce high binding quality and high water holding capacity of heated myosin B gels. NaCl is preferred because of the taste effect on the meat product. Heating temperature (65, 80, or 90°CC) affected the physical properties of heated myosin B gels. The water holding capacity and the maximum relaxation time decreased with increasing temperature. In the manufacture of meat products, the heating temperature should be selected in accordance with the desired properties in the finished product.
CONTRACTIBILITY OF MUSCLE FIBRES AS A POSSIBLE AID TO JUDGING TEXTURAL CHANGES IN FROZEN MEATS AND FISH
Authors: PARTMANN WALTER
Published: February 2007

Abstract Following addition of ATP, the contractibility of muscle fibres in suspension (obtained by muscle homogenization) changes during frozen storage of the muscle. These changes were detected by turbidity measurements. In beef, there were no significant changes up to 6 months storage at— 8°C or lower. Considerable loss in contractibility occurred in chicken white muscle. Losses were rapid in cod and carp muscle, contractibility being completely lost in one month at— 3°C. The method is proposed as one criterion for judging textural changes in lean fish during frozen storage.
RHEOLOGICAL MODELS FOR DISPERSIONS OF POLYOXYETHYLENE (4) LAURYL ETHER IN HYDROXYETHYL CELLULOSE
Authors: HAÜGEN P. , RUNIKIS J. O. , TUNG M. A.
Published: February 2007

Viscometric properties of polyoxyethylene (4) lauryl ether (Brij 30) in hydroxyethylcellulose (HEC) dispersions were evaluated over a concentration range of 2.0–3.5% HEC and 0–16% Brij 30. Three rheological models: the modified Shangraw structure equation, the Steiger‐Trippi‐Ory equation and the power‐law model were fitted to the data and found to describe accurately the flow behaviour of the dispersions at 30.0°C between shear rates of 8.5–685 s‐1. Variation of model parameters with surfactant (Brij 30) concentration was computed for each HEC dispersion. A shear sensitive interaction between the surfactant and the cellulose polymer was noted.
MEAT TEXTURE: II. The Relationship Between Subjective Assessments and a Compressive Test on Roast Beef
Authors: RHODES D. N. , JONES R. C. D. , CHRYSTALL B. B. , HARRIES J. M.
Published: February 2007

Ten instrumental characteristics of the mechanical properties of roast beef were derived from an analysis of the force‐deformation curve obtained during compression of the meat between blunt jaws, fitted in the Instron. Equipment is described for recording the curve in a computer readable form on punched tape. Sixty‐nine samples of beef, representing a wide range of textural properties, were examined instrumentally and by a taste panel. The data correlated much more closely with the sensory ‘toughness‐tenderness’ factor than with the sensory ‘juiciness’ factor. All characteristics of cold samples together accounted for 50% of the variance in the ‘toughness‐tenderness’ factor of samples tasted hot and for 75% of those tasted cold. Two or three of the characteristics were almost as effective. Neither single characteristics derived from the compression curve nor their various combinations improved markedly the correlations with sensory assessments reported in the literature and obtained with other texture measuring devices.
TERMINOLOGY OF THE TEXTURE OF CREAM
Authors: PRENTICE J. H.
Published: February 2007

An enquiry among experts into the use of terms to describe subjectively assessed properties of double cream (48% fat) showed that ‘body’, ‘texture’ and ‘homogeneity’ were the most important and widely used, though inadequately defined. Only ‘body’ appeared to be analogous to a rheological property; ‘texture’ and ‘homogeneity’ appeared to refer to small scale and large scale structures.
VARIATION IN STIMULI ASSOCIATED WITH ORAL EVALUATION OF THE VISCOSITIES OF GLUCOSE SOLUTIONS
Authors: SHAMA F. , SHERMAN P.
Published: February 2007

Abstract. Previous observations suggesting that different stimuli are associated with oral evaluation of the viscosity of fluid and of viscous foods have been confirmed. The change in stimuli begins at a viscosity of about 70 cp. In the initial study sensory evaluation of viscosity was by paired comparisons, while in this study distance measures and ratio scaling were used. The agreement between the data indicates that the observations are independent of the evaluation procedure employed.
MEASUREMENT OF PEA TENDERNESS: V: The Ottawa Pea Tenderometer and its Performance in Relation to the Pea Tenderometer and the FTC Texture Test System*
Authors: VOISEY PETER W. , NONNECKE I. L.
Published: February 2007

Abstract. An instrument is described to measure pea tenderness for establishing the price paid to the grower. Peas are forced through a wire grid by a plunger and the maximum force is recorded automatically in digital form by electronic apparatus. Provision is made for rapid electric calibration of the recording system which can be checked by weights.

Readings from the new machine, the shear‐compression cell of the Texture Test System and the pea tenderometer were highly correlated, but there was a different relationship for each pea variety tested. This introduces complexity into establishing a new pricing scale if the pea tenderometer is replaced. The data indicate the importance of using test samples having a wide range of textural properties to compare instruments.
ANALYSIS OF THE MECHANICS OF THE FRUIT PRESSURE TESTER
Authors: YANG Y. M. , MOHSENIN N.
Published: February 2007

The Magness‐Taylor pressure tester is used extensively as a firmness measuring device for convex‐shaped fruits. Researchers have been interested to learn what is really being measured by this device when its probe is pressed against the fruit to the point of flesh rupture. This investigation analyzes the mechanics of deformation of Rome Beauty apples, with the skin sliced off, in two deformation stages namely prior to and after puncturing of the flesh. Theories of inelasticity and piercing problem are adopted in analyzing the theoretical stress distribution. With the stress distribution, the theoretical force‐deformation relations were found which show the effect of probe size, shape, radius of curvature, and the mechanical properties of the fruit. Experimental tests included simple compression of cylindrical specimens of the flesh, punch shear tests of slices of the flesh, and pressure tests of whole pared fruits. With the 5/16‐in. probe, agreement between experimental and theoretical results was within 1.5 % and 2.2 % for the first and the second deformation stage, respectively.

Results showed that; (1) the Magness‐Taylor pressure test involves a combination of shear and compression stresses; (2) an average conversion factor of 1.85 can be used to convert readings by a 5/16‐in. rigid die to those by a 7/16‐in. die; and (3) shearing strength of the flesh is the only mechanical property needed to predict the maximum force reading after puncturing of the flesh.
EFFECT OF FRICTION ON THE PERFORMANCE OF TEXTURE TEST CELLS*
Authors: VOISEY PETER W. , REID W. S.
Published: February 2007

The relationship was measured between the normal contact force and the force required to overcome friction between food samples and a surface simulating a typical texture test cell. Peas produced frictional behavior that combined the characteristics of dry friction and fluid flow. Friction coefficients for selected foods ranged from 0.04 to 0.52. Friction force was linearly related to the normal contact force and non‐linearly to the area of contact between the sample and the surface, and the speed of the sample relative to the surface. This verifies the fact that, with empirical texture test devices, these test variables must be held constant.

The estimated friction forces represented a significant amount of the total force required to operate a wire extrusion cell and a back extrusion cell. It was concluded that standardization of the test cell would be easier to achieve if the contact area between the sample and the cell surfaces was minimized and if low friction materials were used to construct the cells.
RECENT PROGRESS IN FOOD TEXTURE RESEARCH IN JAPAN
Authors: MATSUMOTO SACHIO
Published: February 2007

This paper reviews the original work on food rheology and texture published by Japanese authors and integrates advances made in many areas of food science in Japan. The contents are divided into four sections: description of the native Japanese foods tested, experimental techniques for studying food rheology and texture, rheological properties of specific foodstuffs, and other research on the textural quality of foods.
ON THE RHEOLOGY OF MINCED MEAT
Authors: HAMM R.
Published: February 2007

The paper reviews research conducted by the author on the basic factors affecting the flow properties of beef muscle homogenates and meat emulsions having a bearing on sausage production. Apparent viscosity and yield value were measured using a coaxial cylinder viscometer. The homogenates show structural viscosity, plasticity and ‐ under certain conditions ‐ some thixotropy. The rheological behavior of homogenates is influenced by the time post‐mortem, pH, NaCl and added water. Sausage type emulsions are, in addition, influenced by the amount of added fat and the temperature. The results point to the following main factors as affecting the rheological properties of minced meat and meat emulsions: changes in the water holding capacity and swelling, changes in the interaction between myosin and actin, solubilization of myofibrillar proteins, and the physical state of fat.