bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Australian Defence Force surgical support to peacekeeping operations in East Timor
Authors: Chambers Anthony J. , Crozier John A.
Published: July 2004

Background:  The Australian Defence Force (ADF) has provided surgical support to peacekeeping operations in East Timor since September 1999. The aim of the present paper is to document the wide range of surgical procedures performed by the ADF in East Timor from September 1999 to December 2002 on peacekeeping force personnel and the civilian population.

Methods:  Records of all surgical procedures performed by the ADF in East Timor from their arrival in September 1999 to December 2002 were retrospectively reviewed. Details of the type of procedures performed and anaesthetic administered, the age and sex of the patients and whether they were a member of peacekeeping forces or East Timorese civilian were recorded.

Results:  There were 702 surgical procedures performed by the ADF in East Timor during this period, of which 401 (57%) were for peacekeeping force personnel and 301 (43%) were for East Timorese or other civilians. The most commonly performed procedures were for the management of non‐battle wounds, accounting for 181 cases (26%). Battle‐type wounds accounted for only 36 procedures (5%). Obstetric and gynaecology cases accounted for 30 procedures (4%). Fifty‐six procedures (8%) were on children 12 years or younger.

Conclusions:  The wide range of surgical procedures performed by the ADF during peacekeeping operations in East Timor highlights the requirement for deployed surgeons to possess a broad range of clinical skills and has implications for their preparation and training. Battle‐type wounds accounted for only a small proportion of procedures.
Splenic preservation: an additional haemostatic measure during mesh splenorrhaphy
Authors: Reddy Chaitan G. , Chalasani Venu , Pathma‐Nathan Nimalan
Published: July 2004

Background:  Various treatment measures have been described in achieving splenic preservation following splenic injury. We describe an additional measure in achieving haemostasis during mesh splenorrhaphy.

Methods:  Oxycel (BD, Franklin Lakes, NJ, USA) (topical haemostatic agent composed of oxidized cellulose) is sutured onto the inside of Dexon (Sherwood, Davis & Geck, St Louis, MO, USA) (polyglycolic acid) mesh.

Results:  Two patients with splenic lacerations were operated on from July 2002 to February 2003 using this technique and both patients did not experience postoperative abdominal complications and were clinically well at follow up 1−2 months later.

Conclusions:  In our experience this technique made the Dexon mesh bulkier and easier to secure as well as more haemostatic.
Elective surgery for dIverticular disease: an audit of surgical pathology and treatment
Authors: Killingback Mark , Barron Prudence E. , Dent Owen F.
Published: July 2004

Background:  There is a need for a better classification of the surgical pathology of diverticular disease treated by elective resection.

Methods:  A prospective audit was conducted over a 25‐year period, during which the surgeon studied the surgical pathology. The results of surgical treatment have been related to the pathology.

Results:  Two hundred and six patients were managed by elective resection with a postoperative mortality of 1.0% and a total morbidity of 51.5%. The surgical pathology was classified as: non‐inflammatory 25 (12.6%), localized diverticulitis 90 (43.7%) and extracolic diverticulitis 90 (44.2%).

Conclusions:  This classification is useful to relate the technical requirements of surgery and the outcome to the surgical pathology. Postoperative morbidity is associated with the presence and severity of inflammatory pathology and therefore the casemix of any series will have a significant impact on this aspect.
Shear mode fatigue crack growth in 1050 aluminium
Authors: MAKABE C. , SOCIE D. F. , SUEYOSHI T.
Published: July 2004

The shear mode crack growth mechanism in 1050 aluminium was investigated using pre‐cracked specimens. A small blind hole was drilled in the centre section of the specimens in order to predetermine the crack initiation position, and a push–pull fatigue test was used to make a pre‐crack. Crack propagation tests were carried out using both push–pull and cyclic torsion with a static axial load. With push–pull testing, the main crack grew by a mixed mode. It is thus apparent that shear deformation affects the fatigue crack growth in pure aluminium. In tests using cyclic torsion, the fatigue crack grew by a shear mode. The micro‐cracks initiated perpendicular and parallel to the main crack's growth direction during the cyclic torsion tests. However, the growth direction of the main crack was not changed by the coalescence of the main crack and the micro‐cracks. Shear mode crack growth tends to occur in aluminium. The crack growth behaviour is related to a material's slip systems. The number of slip planes in aluminium is smaller than that of steel and the friction stress during edge dislocation motion of aluminium is lower than many other materials. Correlation between the crack propagation rate and the stress intensity factor range was almost the same in both push–pull and cyclic torsion with tension in this study.
Comparison of retardation behaviour of 2024‐T3 and 7075‐T6 Al alloys
Authors: CELIK C. E. , VARDAR O. , KALENDEROGLU V.
Published: July 2004

Retardation in fatigue crack growth rate following the application of single and periodic tensile overloads was studied for 2024‐T3 and 7075‐T6 aluminium alloys. Tests were performed at constant stress and at constant stress intensity factor ranges, at a load ratio of R= 0.1, at a baseline ΔK in the 10–20 MPa√m range which corresponds to the Paris regime. Overload ratios of 1.3–1.65 were studied with overload spacing, n, varying from 20 to 10 000 cycles. 2024‐T3 displayed an order of magnitude higher retardation, Nd, due to single tensile overloads compared to 7075‐T6. Periodic overloads induced maximum retardation when n/Nd≈ 0.5 for both alloys, the magnitude being only 15% higher for 2024‐T3.
Segregation of two endocannabinoid‐hydrolyzing enzymes into pre‐ and postsynaptic compartments in the rat hippocampus, cerebellum and amygdala
Authors: Gulyas A. I. , Cravatt B. F. , Bracey M. H. , Dinh T. P. , Piomelli D. , Boscia F. , Freund T. F.
Published: July 2004

Fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) and monoglyceride lipase (MGL) catalyse the hydrolysis of the endocannabinoids anandamide and 2‐arachidonoyl glycerol. We investigated their ultrastructural distribution in brain areas where the localization and effects of cannabinoid receptor activation are known. In the hippocampus, FAAH was present in somata and dendrites of principal cells, but not in interneurons. It was located mostly on the membrane surface of intracellular organelles known to store Ca2+ (e.g. mitochondria, smooth endoplasmic reticulum), less frequently on the somatic or dendritic plasma membrane. MGL immunoreactivity was found in axon terminals of granule cells, CA3 pyramidal cells and some interneurons. In the cerebellum, Purkinje cells and their dendrites are intensively immunoreactive for FAAH, together with a sparse axon plexus at the border of the Purkinje cell/granule cell layers. Immunostaining for MGL was complementary, the axons in the molecular layer were intensively labelled leaving the Purkinje cell dendrites blank. FAAH distribution in the amygdala was similar to that of the CB1 cannabinoid receptor: evident signal in neuronal somata and proximal dendrites in the basolateral nucleus, and hardly any labelling in the central nucleus. MGL staining was restricted to axons in the neuropil, with similar relative signal intensities seen for FAAH in different nuclei. Thus, FAAH is primarily a postsynaptic enzyme, whereas MGL is presynaptic. FAAH is associated with membranes of cytoplasmic organelles. The differential compartmentalization of the two enzymes suggests that anandamide and 2‐AG signalling may subserve functional roles that are spatially segregated at least at the stage of metabolism.
Dopaminergic nigrostriatal projections regulate neural precursor proliferation in the adult mouse subventricular zone
Authors: Baker Sarah A. , Baker K. Adam , Hagg Theo
Published: July 2004

An understanding of the regulators of neurogenesis in the normal and diseased brain is necessary in order to recruit endogenously produced neural precursors for cell replacement in neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson's disease. The location of dopaminergic projections from the midbrain to the neostriatum and nucleus accumbens overlaps with the most active region of neurogenesis in the adult brain, the subventricular zone of the anterior lateral ventricle. This suggests that dopamine may contribute to regulation of the subventricular niche of adult neurogenesis. Here, we show in adult mice that destruction of the dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area in a 6‐hydroxydopamine model of Parkinson's disease reduced the number of proliferating neural precursors in the subventricular zone of the anterior lateral ventricle by ∼ 40%. The effect on neural precursor proliferation correlated with the extent of dopaminergic denervation in the neighboring neostriatum. This identifies dopamine as one of the few known endogenous regulators of adult neurogenesis with implications for the potential use of endogenous neural precursors in cell replacement strategies for Parkinson's disease.
CREBαδ– deficient mice show inhibition and low activity in novel environments without changes in stress reactivity
Authors: Hebda‐Bauer Elaine K. , Watson Stanley J. , Akil Huda
Published: July 2004

The ability to respond to unexpected or novel stimuli is critical for survival. Determining that a stimulus is indeed novel requires memory to ascertain its lack of familiarity. As the long‐term synaptic changes involved in memory formation require the cAMP response element binding protein (CREB), we examined the extent to which CREB is involved in responses to novel environments. These environments typically trigger an endocrine stress response. Thus, we measured behavioural and stress hormone responses to three novel and one familiar environment in mice with a targeted disruption of the alpha and delta isoforms of the CREB gene (CREBαδ– deficient mice). We found CREBαδ– deficient mice to be less active and more inhibited in the elevated plus maze, open field, and light/dark box, without showing differences in anxiety‐like behaviour. This inhibition is unique to novel environments because these mice display a normal phenotype in the home cage, a familiar environment. Although CREBαδ– deficient mice exhibit altered behaviour in novel environments, they show normal reactivity to mild and moderate stress as both basal and stress levels of corticosterone are similar to those of wild‐type controls. This is the first report of CREBαδ– deficient mice to: (i) show altered behaviour, not related to learning and memory‐associated behaviours, upon initial exposure to environments and (ii) serve as an animal model that can dissociate locomotor activity from anxiety‐like behaviour in novel environments.
Strain differences affect the induction of status epilepticus and seizure‐induced morphological changes
Authors: Xu B. , McIntyre D. C. , Fahnestock M. , Racine R. J.
Published: July 2004

Genetic deficits have been discovered in human epilepsy, which lead to alteration of the balance between excitation and inhibition, and ultimately result in seizures. Rodents show similar genetic determinants of seizure induction. To test whether seizure‐prone phenotypes exhibit increased seizure‐related morphological changes, we compared two standard rat strains (Long–Evans hooded and Wistar) and two specially bred strains following status epilepticus. The special strains, namely the kindling‐prone (FAST) and kindling‐resistant (SLOW) strains, were selectively bred based on their amygdala kindling rate. Although the Wistar and Long–Evans hooded strains experienced similar amounts of seizure activity, Wistar rats showed greater mossy fiber sprouting and hilar neuronal loss than Long–Evans hooded rats. The mossy fiber system was affected differently in FAST and SLOW rats. FAST animals showed more mossy fiber granules in the naïve state, but were more resistant to seizure‐induced mossy fiber sprouting than SLOW rats. These properties of the FAST strain are consistent with those observed in juvenile animals, further supporting the hypothesis that the FAST strain shares circuit properties similar to those seen in immature animals. Furthermore, the extent of mossy fiber sprouting was not well correlated with sensitivity to status epilepticus, but was positively correlated with the frequency of spontaneous recurrent seizures in the FAST rats only, suggesting a possible role for axonal sprouting in the development of spontaneous seizures in these animals. We conclude that genetic factors clearly affect seizure development and related morphological changes in both standard laboratory strains and the selectively bred seizure‐prone and seizure‐resistant strains.
Neurotrophic effects of BDNF on embryonic gonadotropin‐releasing hormone (GnRH) neurons
Authors: Cronin Anna S. , Horan Tracey L. , Spergel Daniel J. , Brooks A. Nigel , Hastings Michael H. , Ebling Francis J. P.
Published: July 2004

Secretion of gonadotropin‐releasing hormone (GnRH) at the median eminence is the essential activator of the reproductive axis. The mechanisms by which embryonic GnRH neurons migrate from the olfactory placode to the preoptic area and then elaborate neurites that course through the hypothalamus to terminate at the median eminence are largely unknown. We investigated the hypothesis that GnRH neurite outgrowth is promoted by brain‐derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) because GnRH neurites course through BDNF‐rich areas of the forebrain during their development. Confocal microscopy revealed that most (86%) cultured embryonic GnRH cells tagged with a green fluorescent protein reporter were immunoreactive for TrkB. In primary cultures of E12.5 olfactory tissue, treatment with BDNF induced a dose‐dependent increase in neurite outgrowth, but had no discernible effect on branching. BDNF induced phosphorylation of Ca2+/cAMP response element‐binding protein (pCREB) in both GnRH and non‐GnRH cells in these cultures. This was not associated with phosphorylation of ERK in GnRH‐immunoreactive cells, though BDNF treatment did stimulate pERK in neighbouring non‐GnRH cells. Promotion of neurite outgrowth is unlikely therefore to result from activation of the Ras‐MAPK/ERK pathway. We conclude that the developing GnRH secretory system is directly sensitive to BDNF and that this polypeptide functions as a neurotrophic factor for GnRH neurons.
Long‐term potentiation of transmitter exocytosis expressed by Ca2+‐induced Ca2+ release from thapsigargin‐sensitive Ca2+ stores in preganglionic nerve terminals
Authors: Cong Ya‐Lin , Takeuchi Shinpei , Tokuno Hiroyuki , Kuba Kenji
Published: July 2004

We have studied whether Ca2+‐induced Ca2+ release (CICR) is involved in the mechanism of long‐term potentiation (LTP) at nicotinic synapses of bullfrog sympathetic ganglia. Fast excitatory postsynaptic potentials (fast EPSPs) were recorded in a low‐Ca2+, high‐Mg2+ solution and quantal analysis was applied. The conditioning stimulation of the B‐type preganglionic nerve at 20 Hz for 4 min consistently enhanced the amplitude and quantal content of fast EPSP for > 2 h, but only sometimes enhanced the quantal size. The LTP of quantal content produced by the conditioning tetanus was blocked by thapsigargin, a blocker of Ca2+ pumps at Ca2+ stores, applied before or after the conditioning tetanus, and by Xestospongin C, a blocker of inositoltrisphosphate (IP3) receptors, applied before the tetanus. It was not, however, blocked by ryanodine, a blocker and/or activator of ryanodine receptors, or by propranolol, a blocker of β‐adrenergic receptors. Thus the long‐lasting activity of the preganglionic nerve at a high frequency causes the LTP of impulse‐evoked transmitter release by the activation of CICR from thapsigargin‐sensitive Ca2+ stores in the nerve terminals. It is likely that a large Ca2+ entry into the nerve terminals during tetanic activity primes ryanodine‐insensitive Ca2+ release channels for activation.
Mechanism of NF‐κB inactivation induced by survival signal withdrawal in cerebellar granule neurons
Authors: D. Kovács Attila , Chakraborty‐Sett Shikha , Ramirez Servio H. , Sniderhan Lynn F. , Williamson Andrea L. , Maggirwar Sanjay B.
Published: July 2004

Activity of the transcription factor nuclear factor‐κB (NF‐κB) has been shown to be necessary for maintaining neuronal viability. In cultured rat cerebellar granule neurons, trophic factor withdrawal induces NF‐κB inactivation, resulting in cell death. The exact mechanism of this inactivation, however, has not been revealed. Here we report that trophic factor deprivation in cultured cerebellar granule neurons leads to a rapid and sustained increase in the level of IκBα and IκBβ, the inhibitory proteins of NF‐κB, causing prolonged NF‐κB inactivation. Transient NF‐κB activation resulting in new IκBα mRNA and protein synthesis gives rise to the rapid increase of IκBα level. The importance of elevated IκB level in neuronal apoptosis was confirmed in transfection experiments. Ectopic expression of a stabilized form of IκBα protein promoted neuronal death. Our findings suggest a novel mode of initiation of neuronal apoptosis wherein survival signal withdrawal induces NF‐κB to lethally turn itself off.
Distributed population coding of multisensory spatial information in the associative cortex
Authors: Benedek György , Eördegh Gabriella , Chadaide Zoltán , Nagy Attila
Published: July 2004

This study describes a possible mechanism of coding of multisensory information in the anterior ectosylvian visual area of the feline cortex. Extracellular microelectrode recordings on 168 cells were carried out in the anterior ectosylvian sulcal region of halothane‐anaesthetized, immobilized, artificially ventilated cats. Ninety‐five neurons were found to respond to visual stimuli, 96 responded to auditory stimuli and 45 were bimodal, reacting to both visual and auditory modalities. A large proportion of the neurons exhibited significantly different responses to stimuli appearing in different regions of their huge receptive field. These neurons have the ability to provide information via their discharge rate on the site of the stimulus within their receptive field. This suggests that they may serve as panoramic localizers. The ability of the bimodal neurons to localize bimodal stimulus sources is better than any of the unimodal localizing functions. Further, the sites of maximal responsivity of the visual, auditory and bimodal neurons are distributed over the whole extent of the large receptive fields. Thus, a large population of such panoramic visual, auditory and multisensory neurons could accurately code the locations of the sensory stimuli. Our findings support the notion that there is a distributed population code of multisensory information in the feline associative cortex.
c‐ret regulates cholinergic properties in mouse sympathetic neurons: evidence from mutant mice
Authors: Burau K. , Stenull I. , Huber K. , Misawa H. , Berse B. , Unsicker K. , Ernsberger U.
Published: July 2004

The search for signalling systems regulating development of noradrenergic and cholinergic sympathetic neurons is a classical problem of developmental neuroscience. While an essential role of bone morphogenetic proteins for induction of noradrenergic properties is firmly established, factors involved in the development of cholinergic traits in vivo are still enigmatic. Previous studies have shown that the c‐ret receptor and cholinergic properties are coexpressed in chick sympathetic neurons. Using in situ hybridization we show now that a loss‐of‐function mutation of the c‐ret receptor in mice dramatically reduces numbers of cells positive for choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) and the vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT) in stellate ganglia of homozygous newborn animals. The number of neurons positive for tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) mRNA, the rate‐limiting enzyme of noradrenaline synthesis, is reduced to a smaller degree and expression levels are not detectably altered. Already at embryonic day 16 (E16), ChAT and VAChT‐positive cells are affected by the c‐ret mutation. At E14, however, ChAT and VAChT mRNAs are detectable at low levels and no difference is observed between wildtype and mutant mice. Our data suggest that c‐ret signalling is necessary for the maturation of cholinergic sympathetic neurons but dispensable for de novo induction of ChAT and VAChT expression.
Antinociceptive effects of N‐acetylaspartylglutamate (NAAG) peptidase inhibitors ZJ‐11, ZJ‐17 and ZJ‐43 in the rat formalin test and in the rat neuropathic pain model
Authors: Yamamoto Tatsuo , Hirasawa Serabi , Wroblewska Barbara , Grajkowska Ewa , Zhou Jia , Kozikowski Alan , Wroblewski Jarda , Neale Joseph H.
Published: July 2004

The peptide neurotransmitter N‐acetylaspartylglutamate (NAAG) acts as an agonist at group II metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs). NAAG is inactivated by extracellular peptidase activity yielding glutamate and N‐acetylaspartate. We recently developed a series of potent NAAG peptidase inhibitors, including ZJ‐11, ZJ‐17 and ZJ‐43. In the present study, we examined the effects of intrathecally administered ZJ‐11 and ZJ‐17 and intravenously administered ZJ‐11 and ZJ‐43 in the rat formalin test (an inflammatory pain model) and in the rat partial sciatic nerve ligation model (a neuropathic pain model). Intrathecal injection of ZJ‐11 or ZJ‐17 or intravenous injection of ZJ‐11 or ZJ‐43 suppressed both phases of the agitation behaviour induced by paw formalin injection. Intrathecal and intravenous injection of ZJ‐11 suppressed the expression of Fos‐like immunoreactivity, induced by paw formalin injection, in laminae I–II in segments L4–L5 of the spinal cord, suggesting an action on sensory spinal transmission. Partial sciatic nerve ligation induced significant mechanical allodynia 7 days after the nerve injury. Intrathecal injection of ZJ‐11 or ZJ‐17 or intravenous administration of ZJ‐11 or ZJ‐43 attenuated the level of mechanical allodynia induced by this nerve ligation. These effects of intrathecally or intravenously administered ZJ compounds in both the formalin test and the partial sciatic nerve ligation model were completely antagonized by pretreatment with LY‐341495, a highly selective group II mGluR antagonist. Thus, elevation of extracellular NAAG, induced by the inhibition of NAAG peptidase, activates group II mGluRs and produces an analgesic effect in neuropathic and inflammatory and pain models. In contrast, peptidase inhibition did not affect the threshold for withdrawal from a noxious mechanical stimulus or from an acute thermal stimulus in the hotplate test.
Effects of isolectin B4‐conjugated saporin, a targeting cytotoxin, on bladder overactivity induced by bladder irritation
Authors: Nishiguchi Jun , Sasaki Katsumi , Seki Satoshi , Chancellor Michael B. , Erickson Kristin A. , De Groat William C. , Kumon Hiromi , Yoshimura Naoki
Published: July 2004

In order to clarify the functional role of the isolectin B4 (IB4)‐binding afferent pathway in the micturition reflex, we investigated the effects on bladder activity of intrathecal application of the IB4–saporin conjugate, a targeting cytotoxin that destroys neurons binding IB4. In rats, IB4–saporin (2.5 µm) or vehicle was administered through an intrathecal catheter implanted at the level of the L6–S1 spinal cord. Three weeks after IB4–saporin administration, cystometry in conscious animals revealed a reduction in bladder overactive responses induced by intravesical capsaicin or ATP infusion without affecting normal voiding function. In histochemical studies, double staining for IB4 and saporin was detected in L6 dorsal root ganglia (DRG) neurons 2 days after the treatment. Three weeks after the treatment, the area in lamina II of the L6 spinal cord stained with IB4 was significantly reduced compared with the area stained in control rats. The staining in the L1 spinal cord was not affected. The percentage of neurons in the L6 DRG intensely labeled with IB4 was also reduced in IB4–saporin‐treated rats. These results indicate that intrathecal treatment with the IB4–saporin conjugate at the level of L6–S1 spinal cord, which reduces IB4 afferent nerve terminal staining in lamina II of the L6 spinal cord as well as the number of IB4‐binding neurons in L6 DRG, suppressed bladder overactivity induced by bladder irritation without affecting normal micturition. Thus targeting IB4‐binding, non‐peptidergic afferent pathways sensitive to capsaicin and adenosine 5′‐triphosphate may be an effective treatment for overactivity and/or pain responses in the bladder.
Rat anterodorsal thalamic head direction neurons depend upon dynamic visual signals to select anchoring landmark cues
Authors: Zugaro Michaël B. , Arleo Angelo , Déjean Cyril , Burguière Eric , Khamassi Mehdi , Wiener Sidney I.
Published: July 2004

Head direction cells, which are functionally coupled to ‘place’ cells of the hippocampus, a structure critically involved in spatial cognition, are likely neural substrates for the sense of direction. Here we studied the mechanism by which head direction cells are principally anchored to background visual cues [M.B. Zugaro et al. (2001) J. Neurosci., 21, RC154,1–5]. Anterodorsal thalamic head direction cells were recorded while the rat foraged on a small elevated platform in a 3‐m diameter cylindrical enclosure. A large card was placed in the background, near the curtain, and a smaller card was placed in the foreground, near the platform. The cards were identically marked, proportionally dimensioned, subtended the same visual angles from the central vantage point and separated by 90°. The rat was then disoriented in darkness, the cards were rotated by 90° in opposite directions about the center and the rat was returned. Preferred directions followed either the background card, foreground card or midpoint between the two cards. In continuous lighting, preferred directions shifted to follow the background cue in most cases (30 of the 53 experiments, Batschelet V‐test, P < 0.01). Stroboscopic illumination, which perturbs dynamic visual signals (e.g. motion parallax), blocked this selectivity. Head direction cells remained equally anchored to the background card, foreground card or configuration of the two cards (Watson test, P > 0.1). This shows that dynamic visual signals are critical in distinguishing typically more stable background cues which govern spatial neuronal responses and orientation behaviors.
Complete Freunds adjuvant‐induced peripheral inflammation evokes glial activation and proinflammatory cytokine expression in the CNS
Authors: Raghavendra Vasudeva , Tanga Flobert Y. , DeLeo Joyce A.
Published: July 2004

Peripheral inflammation induces central sensitization characterized by the development of allodynia and hyperalgesia to mechanical and thermal stimuli. Recent evidence suggests that activation of glial cells and a subsequent increase in proinflammatory cytokines contribute to the development of behavioral hypersensitivity after nerve injury or peripheral inflammation. In the present study, we examined mRNA and protein expression of glial markers and proinflammatory cytokines at the lumbar spinal cord, brainstem and forebrain following intraplantar administration of complete Freunds adjuvant (CFA) in rats. Gene expression studied by real‐time reverse transcriptase‐polymerase chain reaction (RT‐PCR) for microglial markers (Mac‐1, TLR4 and CD14) showed a significant increase in their expression during all phases (acute, subacute and chronic) of inflammation. Conversely, up‐regulation of astroglial markers [glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and S100B] was observed only at the subacute and chronic phases of inflammation. Increased immunoreactivity for OX‐42 (CR3/CD11b) and GFAP at various brain regions was also observed after the acute and subacute phases of the inflammation, respectively. Quantification of proinflammatory cytokines (IL‐1β, IL‐6 and TNF‐α) at the mRNA (by real‐time RT‐PCR) and protein level (by ELISA) revealed enhanced expression during the acute, subacute and chronic phases of CFA‐induced peripheral inflammation. This study demonstrates that CFA‐induced peripheral inflammation induces robust glial activation and proinflammatory cytokines both spinally and supraspinally. In addition, similar to nerve injury‐induced behavioral hypersensitivity microglial activation preceded astrocytic activation following CFA‐induced peripheral inflammation, supporting a role of microglia in the initiation phase and astrocytes in maintaining hypersensitivity. These findings further support a unifying theory that glial activation and enhanced cytokine expression at the CNS have a role in eliciting behavioral hypersensitivity.
Functional MRI during sleep: BOLD signal decreases and their electrophysiological correlates
Authors: Czisch Michael , Wehrle Renate , Kaufmann Christian , Wetter Thomas C. , Holsboer Florian , Pollmächer Thomas , Auer Dorothee P.
Published: July 2004

Prominent local decreases in blood oxygenation level (BOLD) can be observed by functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) upon acoustic stimulation during sleep. The goal of this study was to further characterize this BOLD signal decrease with respect to corresponding neurophysiological phenomena using a simultaneous electroencephalography (EEG)/fMRI approach in sleeping human subjects. Healthy volunteers were subjected to acoustic stimulation during non‐rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep. On the basis of statistical parametric maps, the correlations between the fMRI response (both amplitude and extent of the BOLD response) and the concomittant changes in the EEG (delta power and K‐complexes) were calculated. Amplitude and extent of the stimulus‐induced negative BOLD effect correlated positively with measures of EEG synchronization, namely an increase in the number of K‐complexes and EEG delta power. Stimulus‐induced BOLD decreases were most prominent during light (stage 2) NREM sleep and disappeared during slow wave sleep, indicating an influence of the baseline degree of hyperpolarization. Our observations provide first evidence that ‘negative’ BOLD signal changes during human sleep are associated with electrophysiological indicators of altered neuronal activity. Increased number of K‐complexes and delta power reflecting hyperpolarization suggests true cortical deactivation upon stimulus presentation. This sleep stage‐dependent deactivation might serve to protect the brain from arousing stimuli, particularly during the light phases of sleep shortly after sleep onset.
NIEMEYER, SCULLIN AND THE AUSTRALIAN ECONOMISTS
Authors: Millmow Alex
Published: July 2004

This article revisits the Niemeyer mission to Australia in 1930 and shows how it facilitated the entry of local economists into the art of policy making. Until then the Scullin government had little regard for the worth of academic economists, a view shared by bankers and central bankers alike. With Niemeyer's dogmatic advice considered too draconian by a vacillating government, Australian economists, led by L. F. Giblin and D. B. Copland, were galvanised into providing a more palatable alternative. This advice eventually transformed into the Premiers’ Plan which complemented the devaluation and wage cut, both of which had been implemented in January 1931. While the Plan in its entirety was deflationary it was a more equitable and imaginative blueprint than Niemeyer’s.
Selective Schools
Authors: Brunello Giorgio , Giannini Massimo
Published: July 2004

This paper studies how schooling admission tests affect economic performance in an economy where individuals are endowed with both academic and non‐academic abilities and both abilities matter for labour productivity. We develop a simple model with schools run by the goverment, where individuals signal their abilities by taking an admission test and sort into low quality and high quality schools. When abilities are poorly correlated in the population, as documented in the literature, a standard test based only on academic abilities can be less efficient than a balanced test, which considers both ability types. We show that a sequential testing strategy, with schools testing academic abilities and firms testing non‐academic abilities on the sub‐sample of graduates of high quality schools, does not necessarily replicate the outcome of a balanced test.
Compulsory Schooling Laws and the Cure for Child Labour
Authors: Bellettini Giorgio , Ceroni Carlotta Berti
Published: July 2004

This paper provides an explanation for the existence of child labour which relies on the imperfect enforcement of compulsory schooling laws. In the presence of complementarities in the production of human capital that justify legislative intervention, mandatory measures ensure that coordination failures are solved so that all parents send their children to school and the socially optimal equilibrium is reached. However, if enforcement of legislation is too low, multiple equilibria emerge. In this case, compulsory schooling laws may have adverse welfare effects on all households.
The Delaying Effect of Financing Constraints on Investment
Authors: Van De Laar Mindel , Letterie Wilko
Published: July 2004

We develop a simple model in which a firm considers a number of investment projects. Because of limited financial resources, the firm can undertake at most one project. In line with the literature on real options we stress features like irreversibility, uncertainty and the possibility of postponing the investment decision and show under which conditions limited availability of funds tends to increase the value of waiting.
A Plague Upon their Houses: Revelations of the Foot and Mouth Disease Epidemic for Business Households
Authors: Bennett Katy , Phillipson Jeremy
Published: July 2004

Research on the coping behaviour of micro‐businesses during the Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) outbreak of 2001 in the UK revealed the importance of households to micro‐businesses. However it was not just family members who helped businesses to cope with the crisis. Non‐family members of households also took part in activities to help businesses survive declines in turnover. Whilst business families have received considerable attention in research that examines how small firms are socially embedded and the consequences of this for business growth and decision making, this paper explores business households and how these enabled small firms to cope with the FMD outbreak. The paper develops the concept of the business household, explaining it from three (connected) perspectives: work, consumption and people. It is influenced by an institutional approach to the household, which relates the organisation of tasks inside the household to political and economic processes outside it, and is based on qualitative and quantitative data collected from both farming and non‐farming businesses in the north of England in 2001/2.
Debating Production‐Consumption Linkages in Food Studies
Authors: Fine Ben
Published: July 2004

Recent contributions to the journal have commendably sought to extend agro‐food studies from production to consumption in line with the consumption turn across the social sciences. In doing so, and inspired by actor‐network theory, exception has been taken to the systems of provision approach to food studies. This approach is defended by suggesting that it has in part been misinterpreted as comprising an extension of agro‐food studies to consumption rather than a general approach to consumption per se applied to food in particular. In addition, the later turn of such agro‐food studies to consumption is shown to continue to lag behind the understanding of the culture of consumption that has evolved over the past decade. A plea is made for more constructive and informed dialogue with the literature on consumption.
Pedagogical Praxis: The Professions as Models for Postindustrial Education
Authors: Shaffer David Williamson
Published: July 2004

In this article, I propose a theory of pedagogical praxis. Pedagogical praxis begins with the premise that under the right conditions, computers and other information technologies can make it easier for students to become active participants in meaningful projects and practices in the life of their community and suggests that professional practices such as architecture, mediation, and journalism can provide constructive models for helping students learn from such experiences. In this vision, new technology reinvigorates Dewey's (1915) idea of linking school with society. Technology builds a bridge that allows young people to participate in the learning practices of professionals; in the process, they develop epistemological frameworks that organize the skills, habits, and understandings they need to thrive in a complex, postindustrial society. Although further work needs to be done to explore the processes through which such learning can take place, studies suggest that this perspective may be a productive avenue for continuing research. This article presents an overview of the theories and methods that inform such work.
Teaching after the Market: From Commodity to Cosmopolitan
Authors: Luke Allan
Published: July 2004

This essay is a philosophical and sociological reconsideration of the nature of teaching and work. It draws broadly from the sociology of Pierre Bourdieu and materialist models of the economic subject. It begins from an acknowledgment and review of the critiques of current policy orientations to testing and accountability in the United States, Australia, and the United Kingdom. One of the principal effects is the reconstruction of the teacher as commodity fetishist. The case is made that reassertions of definitions of teaching as craft and profession are of limited value in responding to new economic and policy conditions. A proposal is made for the reenvisioning of teachers and teaching in relation to cosmopolitan, transcultural contexts and conditions.
The Tacit Knowledge of Productive Scholars in Education
Authors: Tschannen-Moran Megan , Nestor-Baker Nancy
Published: July 2004

This study investigates the tacit knowledge of prolific educational scholars. These scholars were motivated by a clear set of values that led them to make research a priority in the midst of competing demands and to persist through the more tedious or arduous parts of the research process. The participants learned to manage not only their time but also their emotions when coping with the pressures of academic life, the criticism inherent in the peer review process, and the politics of organizational life. They formed collaborative networks for both emotional support and intellectual challenge. By making these knowledge structures more explicit, others may benefit from the thinking behind these scholars’ success to improve scholarship in the field.
Patterns of analogical reasoning among beginning readers
Authors: Farrington‐Flint Lee , Wood Clare , Canobi Katherine H. , Faulkner Dorothy
Published: July 2004

Despite compelling evidence that analogy skills are available to beginning readers, few studies have actually explored the possibility of identifying individual differences in young children's analogy skills in early reading. The present study examined individual differences in children's use of orthographic and phonological relations between words as they learn to read. Specifically, the study addressed whether general analogical reasoning, short‐term memory and domain‐specific reading skills explain 5‐ to 6‐year‐olds' reading analogies (n=51). The findings revealed an orthographic analogy effect accompanied by high levels of phonological priming. Single‐word reading and use of visual analogies predicted young children's orthographic and phonological analogies in the regression analyses. However, different findings emerged from exploring profiles based on individual differences in reasoning skill. Indeed, when individual differences in composite scores of orthographic and phonological analogy were examined, group membership was predicted by word reading and early phonological knowledge, rather than general analogical reasoning skills. The findings highlight the usefulness of exploring individual differences in children's analogy development in the early stages of learning to read.
An analysis of teachers' rating scales as sources of evidence for a standardised Greek reading test
Authors: Triga Anastassia
Published: July 2004

Until recently there has been no nationally acceptable test for assessing reading for the higher grades (Five and Six) of the elementary schools in Greece. As part of an effort to validate such a test, evidence was gathered from teachers' rating scales. Seventy‐two teachers from Fifth and Sixth Grades all over Greece evaluated their 1377 students' reading ability prior to the administration of a standardised reading test. The teachers were instructed to rate each student's reading achievement, disregarding effort, intelligence, behaviour and attendance. Within class correlation coefficients were computed to determine whether teachers' personal judgement (ratings) and students' actual performance on the reading test were correlated. The standardised reading test and the teachers' ratings were found to have a strong correlation. The match between Greek teachers' assessments of student reading levels and the scores obtained using a newly standardised reading test is reported, in order to examine the extent to which teacher ratings and standardised test results of students yield the same information. The rationale of this study is to investigate whether a new standardised Greek reading test can provide an alternative tool for the assessment of Greek primary education.
RADICAL ORTHODOXY AND THE NEW CULTURE OF OBSCURANTISM
Authors: JANZ PAUL D.
Published: July 2004

Centering around a careful, sustained critique of John Milbank's polemic against Kant, this essay connects the growing anti‐philosophical sentiments in theology to a wider anti‐rational trend in the human sciences generally. What most visibly unifies these new obscurantist outlooks is their reliance on free‐floating, unapologetically self‐perpetuating ideological historiographies, which are advanced via a kind of “co‐opt‐and‐plunder” approach to historical texts. However, the rejection of rational integrity also entails a rejection of the traditional intellectual virtues—attentiveness, consistency, modesty, charity etc.—virtues which any theological claim to orthodoxy cannot do without. Radical Orthodoxy therefore risks a worrying slide into new forms of esoteric gnosticism.
“Offshoring”: How big an issue?
Authors: Colquhoun Grant , Edmonds Keith , Goodger David
Published: July 2004

Spurred by the political debate in the US and several high‐profile corporate moves, “offshoring” has become a lively topic of discussion. This paper by Grant Colquhoun, Keith Edmonds and David Goodger tries to put recent developments in context and argues that “offshoring” should be seen as part of a long‐standing and largely beneficial trend of international specialisation. In the short term at least, the transfer of service sector activities abroad is likely to involve relatively small numbers of jobs when compared to overall UK employment and labour market turnover. However, specific areas — such as call centres, back office functions and software programming — are expected to be increasingly affected, impacting upon regions of the UK with heavy exposure to those activities and giving rise to adjustment costs. In contrast, retailing, hotels and catering and personal services could well benefit from the move of low value‐added jobs abroad. Overall, the impact of “offshoring” on the UK economy in terms of output and productivity should be positive.
William Warham and English heresy policy after the fall of Wolsey
Authors: D'Alton Craig
Published: July 2004

This article examines actions against heresy and heretics in England in the wake of the 1529 fall of Cardinal Thomas Wolsey. It charts the brief re-emergence of William Warham, archbishop of Canterbury, as the main driving force, arguing that the lord chancellor, Sir Thomas More, did not assert control over heresy policy until late 1531. Warham's policy combined anti-heresy activity with attempts at clerical reform. Moreover, he sought to publicize and publicly refute the errors of the heretics, eschewing show trials and burnings. This policy ultimately failed, and was replaced with more direct action which saw several key heretics handed over for burning.
The Hitler émigrés: the cultural impact on Britain of refugees from Nazism
Authors: Snowman Daniel
Published: July 2004

This article reflects upon some of the issues arising from the author's work on the ‘Hitler émigrés’. It looks in particular at the reasons for the huge recent resurgence of scholarly (and popular) interest in the history of the Second World War, Hitler, Nazism and the Holocaust; the relevance – or otherwise – of the Jewishness of many of the ‘Hitler émigrés’ to what they went on to achieve; and finally culture and identity among asylum-seekers and immigrants, then and now.
The breakdown of starch in leaves
Authors: Zeeman Samuel C. , Smith Steven M. , Smith Alison M.
Published: July 2004

This review describes recent progress in discovering the pathway of starch breakdown in leaves. The synthesis of starch from photo‐assimilated carbon is one of the major biochemical fluxes in plants. Despite this, the pathway through which this starch is remobilized has not been defined. Numerous enzymes that could participate in starch breakdown are present in leaves, but until recently, the relative importance of each had not been determined. Through studies using model species such as Arabidopsis and potato, significant progress has now been made in determining the roles of known enzymes, and in the discovery of novel proteins necessary for breakdown. These data allow a tentative pathway for starch breakdown to be mapped out, involving hydrolysis primarily to maltose and subsequent maltose export to the cytosol. This provides a framework for complete discovery of the pathway and for the analysis of its regulation.

Contents

Summary
247

I.
Introduction
247

II.
Structure of the starch granule
248

III.
Initial attack on the granule and the role of glucan, water dikinase
249

IV.
Debranching of branched glucans
250

V.
The metabolism of linear glucans
251

VI.
Export of starch catabolites
254

VII.
Metabolism of glucose and maltose
255

VIII.
The emerging pathway of starch breakdown and its regulation
256

Acknowledgements
258

References
258
The plant nuclear envelope: new prospects for a poorly understood structure
Authors: Brandizzi Federica , Irons Sarah L. , Evans David E.
Published: July 2004

The nuclear envelope (NE) is one of the least characterized cellular structures in plant cells. In particular, knowledge of its dynamic behaviour during the cell cycle and of its protein composition is limited. This review summarizes current views on the plant NE and highlights fundamental differences with other organisms. We also introduce the power of new technology available to investigate the NE and how this has already begun to revolutionize our knowledge of the biology of the plant NE.

Contents

Summary
227

I.
Introduction
227

II.
The membranes of the nuclear envelope
228

III.
Functions of the nuclear envelope
231

IV.
Proteins associated with the nuclear envelope
236

V.
New tools for studying the nuclear envelope
239

VI.
Conclusions and future prospects
241

Acknowledgements
242

References
242