bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Southern Blotting for the Analysis of Human Disease
Authors: Medh Rheem D
Published: September 2006

With the advent of molecular techniques and advances in disease gene identification, molecular diagnostics has taken precedence over biochemical/functional diagnosis. Although the use of conventional Southern blotting techniques may be on the decline, more sensitive and efficient hybridization technologies promise a bright future for effective and early disease diagnosis.
Heart Failure
Authors: Poole‐Wilson Philip A , Sharma Rakesh , Bolger Aidan
Published: September 2006

Heart failure is a medical condition in which reduced function of the heart causes symptoms. The commonest symptoms are shortness of breath and tiredness or fatigue.
Urinary Tract Stones
Authors: Watts Richard WE
Published: September 2006

Urinary stones are crystal aggregates embedded in a glycoprotein matrix which may also contain some nonglycoproteins when associated with infection.
Osteoarthritis
Authors: Chu Constance R , Thornhill Thomas S
Published: September 2006

Osteoarthritis is a pathological condition of articular cartilage and its underlying bone associated with biomechanical abnormalities and secondary inflammation. These changes result in cartilage loss, subchondral sclerosis, cyst and osteophyte formation, and the clinical sequelae of pain, swelling, deformity and loss of motion in affected joints.
Gout
Authors: Snaith Michael L
Published: September 2006

The term ‘gout’ means inflammation of a joint, or arthritis, due to crystals of uric acid (monosodium urate monohydrate). Etymologically, it probably derives from
gutta
, meaning ‘a drop’ in Latin. This is thought to reflect a belief that the symptoms resulted in drops of toxins into the joint.
Water and Sodium Regulation in Health and Disease
Authors: Kokko Juha P
Published: September 2006

The maintenance of normal circulatory volume is the single most important characteristic of body fluid homeostasis. The constituents of body fluids in turn are regulated within narrow limits. The kidney plays a critical role in these regulatory processes.
Pregnancy: Maternal Disorders
Authors: Redman Christopher
Published: September 2006

There are many disorders that are specific to, or coincide with, pregnancy.
Infectious Mononucleosis
Authors: Epstein MA
Published: September 2006

Infectious mononucleosis is an acute self‐limiting disease caused by
Epstein–Barr virus
. Young adults and adolescents in societies with high standards of living are most commonly affected.
Birth Defects: Overview
Authors: Winter Robin M
Published: September 2006

Birth defects are abnormalities in a baby present at birth that may by life‐threatening or disabling. They may occur singly or associated with another abnormality in a syndrome, and may be caused by a number of genetic and environmental factors.
Globin Synthesis
Authors: Fiering Steven , Martin David IK , Bouhassira Eric E
Published: September 2006

Globin synthesis refers to the expression of the α‐like and β‐like globin genes in red blood cells. Mutations of these genes cause the ‘haemoglobinopathies’, the most common genetic disorders in humans. The regulation of the globin genes is not only an important model system for understanding gene expression in mammals, but a fuller understanding of this problem will lead to novel clinical approaches to the haemoglobinopathies.
Signal Transduction: Overview
Authors: Heldin Carl‐Henrik
Published: September 2006

Cell growth, migration, shape, differentiation and apoptosis are all regulated by signals that cells receive from their environment. The mechanism whereby information is transmitted over the cell membrane or through the interior of the cell, occurs in a network of crosstalk between different signalling pathways, known as signal transduction.
Bone Morphogenetic Proteins and their Receptors
Authors: ten Dijke Peter , Piek Ester , Heldin Carl‐Henrik
Published: September 2006

Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) are important cell–cell signalling molecules that were first identified by their ability to induce cartilage and bone, and subsequently were shown to be multifunctional proteins. BMPs transmit their signals from membrane to nucleus through distinct combinations of type I and type II serine/threonine kinase receptors and their intracellular effectors known as Smad proteins.
Signal Transduction Pathways in Development and Immunity: Rel Pathways
Authors: Gilmore Thomas D , Ip Y Tony
Published: September 2006

The Rel signal transduction pathway is conserved from insects to humans, and controls a variety of processes involved primarily in immunity and development. Misregulation of this pathway has also been implicated in several human disease states.
Digital Processing and Information Technology in Imaging
Authors: Mehta Amit , Boland Giles , Dreyer Keith , Thrall James
Published: September 2006

Imaging has moved from a film‐based (hardcopy) to a digital‐based (softcopy) process. The acquisition, transmission, and interpretation of medical images can now be performed free of physical means and via electronic data shuttled from scanning devices to display devices. This has proven to be more efficient and effective – ultimately improving patient care.
Computed Tomography
Authors: Dixon Adrian K
Published: September 2006

The development of computed tomography (CT) during the 1970s heralded the start of sophisticated cross‐sectional imaging. Such cross‐sectional images have, in turn, revolutionized the diagnostic investigation for many clinical conditions and have helped to bring radiology to the forefront as a major clinical speciality.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Authors: Worthington Brian S
Published: September 2006

Modern radiological methods such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are powerful tools in assisting the clinician to identify specific diseases as an essential prerequisite to appropriate treatment that can secure the best prognosis. They have advanced the goal of obtaining more diagnostic information whilst reducing risk and discomfort for the patient, and provide vital information on the extent and spread of disease, which guide the application of surgery and radiotherapy.
Imaging: Developing Techniques
Authors: Young Ian R
Published: September 2006

A number of imaging techniques are being investigated by physicists and engineers as possible tools in the diagnosis of human disease; they include magnetic source imaging, applied‐potential tomography, optical methods and microwave imaging. Physicians have yet to evaluate their performance to any great extent.
Polyketides
Authors: Bentley Ronald
Published: September 2006

Polyketides are a large group of secondary metabolites of varied structure with carbon chains formed by decarboxylative addition of malonyl thioesters to a starter unit. Some are useful drugs, others are toxic or carcinogenic; genetic engineering may lead to new polyketide drugs.
Immunology of Invertebrates: Cellular
Authors: Gupta Ayodhya P
Published: September 2006

The invertebrate immune system employs a number of strategies involving effector cells to avoid the host's immunological assaults, and histocompatibility in transplantation immunity.
Adrian, Edgar Douglas
Authors: Tansey EM
Published: September 2006

1889–1977 English physiologist and one of the founders of modern neurophysiology.
Aldrovandi, Ulisse
Authors: Bertucci Paola
Published: September 2006

1522–1605 Italian naturalist and collector who catalogued plants, animals and minerals.
Aristotle of Stagira
Authors: Sharples Robert W
Published: September 2006

384
BC
–322
BC
Ancient Greek philosopher who originated systematic biological research.
Arrhenius, Svante August
Authors: Brock WH
Published: September 2006

1859–1927 Swedish physical chemist and Nobel Prize winner who established the ionic theory of electrolytic dissociation and the concept of activation energy.
Bacon, Francis
Authors: Sutton J
Published: September 2006

1561

–

1626

English

statesman and philosopher

of science whose empiricist methodological prescriptions influenced the early Royal Society.
Banks, Joseph
Authors: Browne Janet
Published: September 2006

1743–1820 English naturalistwith Captain Cook on the
Endeavour
voyage to Australia, later President of the Royal Society of London.
Metchnikoff, Elie (Ilya)
Authors: Cruse JM , Lewis RE
Published: September 2006

1845 – 1916 Russian biologist who discovered phagocytes , developed a cellular theory of immunity, demonstrated the cells of acute inflammation and studied ageing.
Barcroft, Joseph
Authors: Tansey EM
Published: September 2006

1872–1947 British physiologistwho was particularly interested in respiratory physiology. He also studied the effects of temperature, high altitude and exercise on respiration, the role of the respiratory pigment haemoglobin, and fetal physiology.
Binz, Carl
Authors: Prüll CR
Published: September 2006

(1832–1913) German doctor, who was a pioneer in the field of scientific drug therapy (pharmacology) and who worked on remedies against malaria.
Boyle, Robert
Authors: Hunter Michael
Published: September 2006

1627–1691 British natural philosopher who pioneered systematic experimentation, using it to vindicate his corpuscularian view of nature.
Burnet, Frank Macfarlane
Authors: Cruse JM , Lewis RE
Published: September 2006

1899

–

1985

Australian

immunologist

and

virologist

who proposed the clonal selection theory of acquired immunity.
Butenandt, Adolf Friedrich Johann
Authors: Watson Katherine D
Published: September 2006

1903–1995 German biochemist who pioneered the chemistry of sex hormones.
Hevesy, Georges de
Authors: Sutton Michael A
Published: September 2006

1885–1966 Austro‐Hungarian physical chemist who pioneered the use of isotopic tracers in the study of plant and animal physiology.
Darwin, Charles Robert
Authors: Browne Janet
Published: September 2006

1809–1882 English naturalist and geologist, proponent of the theory of evolution by natural selection, author of
On the Origin of Species
.
Darwin, Erasmus
Authors: King‐Hele Desmond
Published: September 2006

1731–1802 British physician and scientist who put forward the idea of biological evolution and elucidated plant nutrition and photosynthesis.

Erasmus Darwin (1731–1802).

image
Michel, Hartmut
Authors: Brock WH
Published: September 2006

1948–German biochemist and Nobel Prize winner who crystallized and determined the structure of the membrane protein involved in photosynthesis.
Davaine, Casimir‐Joseph
Authors: Wilkinson Lise
Published: September 2006

1812–1882 French medical doctor and microbiologist who made important contributions to early research in bacteriology and comparative pathology and parasitology.
Todd, Alexander Robertus
Authors: Brock WH
Published: September 2006

1907

–

1997

Scottish

organic chemist

and Nobel Prize winner who elucidated the structure of nucleotides.
de Candolle, Augustin‐Pyramus
Authors: Browne Janet
Published: September 2006

1778–1841 Swiss botanist and plant geographer who established the foundations of modern biogeography.
de Graaf, Regnier
Authors: Ruestow Edward G
Published: September 2006

1641–1673 Dutch anatomist and experimental physiologist who demonstrated the nature of the mammalian ovaries.
Trembley, Abraham
Authors: Ratcliff MJ
Published: September 2006

1710–1784A Geneva (now part of Switzerland) naturalist who discovered the regeneration of Hydra.
de Jussieu, Antoine‐Laurent
Authors: Browne Janet
Published: September 2006

1748

–

1836

French

botanist

, founding father of modern plant classification schemes.
Morgan, Thomas Hunt
Authors: Winchester EG
Published: September 2006

1866–1945 American zoologist and embryologist who established the chromosome theory of heredity.
Muller, Hermann Joseph
Authors: Forsdyke Donald R
Published: September 2006

1890–1967 American geneticist and societal reformer whose studies in the United States, Russia and Scotland of mutations in fruitflies contributed to ‘the modern synthesis’ of genetics in the 1930s.
Hooke, Robert
Authors: Sutton John
Published: September 2006

1635–1702/3 English instrument‐maker, experimentalist and natural philosopher who made key contributions in a wide range of areas including physiology, geology and mechanics.
Hoppe‐Seyler, Ernst Felix Immanuel
Authors: Brock WH
Published: September 2006

1825–1895 German biochemist who discovered haemoglobin and investigated the chemistry of respiration. Founding editor of
Zeitschrift für physiologische Chemie.
Nicolle, Charles Jules Henri
Authors: Pelis Kim
Published: September 2006

1866

–

1936

French

bacteriologist

who

discovered the louse transmission of typhus

.
Wallace, Alfred Russel
Authors: Browne Janet
Published: September 2006

1823–1913 British naturalist and co‐propounder of evolution by natural selection.
Huxley, Thomas Henry
Authors: Browne Janet
Published: September 2006

1825–1895 English biologist and leading man of science who played a prominent role in promoting Darwinism.
Weldon, Walter Frank Raphael
Authors: Magnello ME
Published: September 2006

1860–1906 English evolutionary zoologist and biometrican whose collaboration with Karl Pearson greatly influenced the latter to develop the modern theory of mathematical statistics.
Owen, Richard
Authors: Rupke Nicolaas A
Published: September 2006

1804

–

1892

English

comparative anatomist

and

palaeontologist

who

founded the British Museum (Natural History).
Paley, William
Authors: Rehbock Philip F
Published: September 2006

1743–1805 English clergyman and author of works on theology, especially his
Natural Theology
, and proponent of the ‘watchmaker’ theory of creation.
Pasteur, Louis
Authors: de Syon G
Published: September 2006

1822–1895 French chemist who discovered the germ theory of disease and pioneered preventive vaccination and microbiology.
Pauling, Linus Carl
Authors: Watson Katherine D
Published: September 2006

1901–1994 American chemist who made fundamental contributions to many areas of science, including inorganic, organic and theoretical chemistry, biology and medicine. He was politically active, and spoke out loudly in support of world peace. In later years he attracted controversy with his advocacy of massive doses of vitamin C as a palliative for everything from the common cold to old age and cancer.
Pavlov, Ivan Petrovitch
Authors: Klimenko Victor , Golikov Jury
Published: September 2006

(1849–1936) Russian physiologist, whose classic works in the field of digestion were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1904. He also discovered conditioned reflexes and studied the physiology of higher nervous activity.
Poulton, Edward Bagnall
Authors: Power Helen J
Published: September 2006

1856

–

1943

English

zoologist

noted for his

work on the colours used in mimicry, warnings and protective resemblance

.
Prichard, James Cowles
Authors: Bynum WF
Published: September 2006

1786–1848 British physician and anthropologist who developed a model of human racial formation based on sexual selection and ideas of beauty.
Richards, Dickinson Woodruff
Authors: Fishman Alfred P
Published: September 2006

1895–1973 American physician who shared the Nobel Prize in medicine in 1956. He is most famous for introducing cardiac catheterization.
Richet, Charles
Authors: Parnes Ohad
Published: September 2006

1850

–

1935

French

physiologist

who

studied the regulative functions of the body and discovered anaphylaxis

.
Lamarck, Jean‐Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet de
Authors: Oldroyd David
Published: September 2006

1744–1829 French botanist, zoologist and natural historian; early exponent of transformism, of biology as the science of living bodies, and a holistic view of nature.
Dobzhansky, Theodosius
Authors: Winchester EG
Published: September 2006

1900–1975 Russian‐born American naturalist and evolutionist, who pioneered the field of population genetics.
Schleiden, Matthias Jacob
Authors: Parnes Ohad S
Published: September 2006

1804–1881 German botanist who elucidated the role of the nucleus in plant cell development.
Schwann, Theodor Ambrose Hubert
Authors: Parnes Ohad S
Published: September 2006

1810

–

1882

German

physiologist

who

established the cell as the elementary unit of living tissues and introduced new experimental methods into physiology

.
Domagk, Gerhard Johannes Paul
Authors: Parascandola John
Published: September 2006

1895

–

1964

German

pathologist

and

bacteriologist

who discovered the first of the sulfa drugs or sulfonamides.
Jackson, John Hughlings
Authors: Jacyna S
Published: September 2006

1835–1911 British neurologist who applied evolutionary ideas to nervous disorders.
Simpson, George Gaylord
Authors: Cain Joe
Published: September 2006

1902

–

1984

American

palaeontologist

whose research on

evolutionary processes, systematics and historical biogeography helped transform biological theory in the twentieth century

.
Jacob, François
Authors: Smith C Christopher
Published: September 2006

1920– French bacteriologist and co‐discoverer of messenger RNA, who is also renowned for his research on bacterial sexuality and genetics.
Spallanzani, Lazzaro
Authors: Ratcliff MJ
Published: September 2006

1729–1799 Italian priest and naturalist who disproved the theory of spontaneous generation.
Spencer, Herbert
Authors: Power Helen J
Published: September 2006

1820–1903 English sociologist and psychologist best known for his synthetic writings on natural science, evolutionary thinking, social progress and cultural development.
Jennings, Herbert Spencer
Authors: Dror Otniel E
Published: September 2006

1868–1947 American zoologist who did pioneering studies in invertebrate psychology and genetics.
Katz, Bernard
Authors: Tansey EM
Published: September 2006

1911

–German‐born

British

biophysicist

, best known for his

work on the mechanisms of neural transmission

.
Kocher, Emil Theodor
Authors: Herrick Claire EJ
Published: September 2006

1841–1917 Swiss surgeon, and pioneer of thyroid surgery.
Dujardin, Félix
Authors: Power Helen J
Published: September 2006

(1801–1860) French zoologist who made important preliminary studies of animal protoplasm and expanded the study of parasitology and protozoology.
Landsteiner, Karl
Authors: Cruse JM , Lewis RE
Published: September 2006

1868–1943 Austrian–American pathologist and immunologist who discovered the human blood groups.
Ehrlich, Paul
Authors: Parascandola John
Published: September 2006

1854–1915 German medical scientist who developed the side‐chain or receptor theory and discovered the drug Salvarsan for the treatment of syphilis.
Löffler, Friedrich August Johann
Authors: Gradmann Christoph
Published: September 2006

1852–1915 German Bacteriologist and Virologist who identified the organism that causes diptheria, and described the causative agent of foot‐and‐mouth disease.
Ludwig, Carl Wilhelm Friedrich
Authors: Lohff B
Published: September 2006

1816–1895 German physiologist, who introduced scientific measurement and instruments into physiological research; important teacher in physiology, and author of numerous investigations of the cardiovascular and secretory systems and metabolism.
Eijkman, Christiaan
Authors: Carpenter KJ
Published: September 2006

(1858–1930) Dutch physician who used chickens as a model for the study of beriberi, and was a pioneer in research leading to the discovery of vitamins.
MacLeay, William Sharp
Authors: Oldroyd David
Published: September 2006

(1792–1865) Anglo‐Australian diplomat and amateur naturalist, originator of the so‐called ‘quinary system’ of classification.
Farr, William
Authors: Hardy Anne
Published: September 2006

1807–1883 British doctor who laid the foundations of the modern discipline of epidemiology.
Malpighi, Marcello
Authors: Smith C Christopher
Published: September 2006

1628–1694 Italian anatomist and physician whose skill with the microscope yielded many anatomical, physiological and embryological discoveries including the papillae (sensory receptors) and the red blood corpuscles.
Fischer, Emil Hermann
Authors: Brock WH
Published: September 2006

(1852–1919) German organic chemist and Nobel Prize winner who elucidated the structures of carbohydrates and proteins.
Forbes, Edward
Authors: Rehbock Philip F
Published: September 2006

1815–1854 British naturalist, pioneer in marine ecology and biogeography of European seas.
Forel, Auguste‐Henri
Authors: Shamdasani S
Published: September 2006

1848–1931 Swiss psychiatrist, neuroanatomist, entomologist, social reformer and formulator of neuron theory.
Fuchs, Leonhart
Authors: Galle K
Published: September 2006

1501–1566 German botanist distinguished for the innovative use of woodcut illustrations in his herbal of medicinal plants.
Lyell, Charles
Authors: Oldroyd David
Published: September 2006

1797–1875 British geologist, well known for his ‘uniformitarian’ geology, his arguments on geological time and the age of the earth, his subdivisions of the Tertiary, his influence on Darwin, and application of Darwinian theory to humans.
Galton, Sir Francis
Authors: Waller John
Published: September 2006

1822–1911 British scientific polymath responsible for major breakthroughs in statistics and the science of heredity.
Gesner, Conrad (Konrad)
Authors: Martensen Robert L
Published: September 2006

1516–1565 Swiss physician, naturalist and philologist whose publications were among the first to emphasize plant and animal structures as keys to classification and provide extensive bibliographies.
Grassi, Giovanni Battista
Authors: Corbellini Gilberto
Published: September 2006

(1854–1925) Italian zoologist and parasitologist who established the role of
Anopheles
mosquitoes in transmitting malaria parasites.
Haldane, John Scott
Authors: Power Helen J
Published: September 2006

1860–1936 Scottish physiologist who focused on respiratory physiology.
Harvey, William
Authors: Wear Andrew
Published: September 2006

1578–1657 English physician who discovered the circulation of the blood.
Henle, Friedrich Gustav Jakob
Authors: Carter K Codell
Published: September 2006

1809–1885 German anatomist and pathologist who provided intellectual background to the rise of the germ theory.
Einthoven, Willem
Authors: Power HJ
Published: September 2006

1860–1927 Dutch physiologist, and inventor of the electrocardiograph.
Lankester, Edwin Ray
Authors: Power Helen J
Published: September 2006

(1847–1929) English zoologist, Darwinian and popularizer of natural history.
Lysenko, Trofim Denisovich
Authors: Gratzer Walter
Published: September 2006

(1898–1976) Russian agronomist
and charlatan, who proclaimed the inheritance of acquired
characteristics and transformation of species in plants.
Mendel, Gregor Johann
Authors: Forsdyke Donald R
Published: September 2006

(1822–1884) Moravian biologist and physicistfrom whose plant breeding studies were derived fundamental laws of inheritance, which founded a new branch of biology, genetics.
Wagner‐Jauregg, Julius
Authors: Whitrow Magda
Published: September 2006

(1857–1940) Austrian psychiatrist who was awarded the Nobel Prize for his development of malaria therapy for general paralysis of the insane.
Driesch, Hans Adolf Eduard
Authors: Gradmann Christoph
Published: September 2006

(1867–1941) German biologist and philosopher who made contributions to experimental embryology and was one of most prominent proponents of vitalism in twentieth century biology.
Von Behring, Emil Adolf
Authors: Parascandola John
Published: September 2006

(1854–1917) German medical scientist who
developed antitoxins against diphtheria and tetanus.
Cell Culture: Basic Procedures
Authors: Mericko Patricia , Helmirch Angela , Chen LuPeng , Kusamoto Kenichi , Toumadje Araz , Chapline Christine , Sato Denry , Barnes David W
Published: September 2006

Cell culture has provided a valuable research tool for over 100 years. Cell culture is a broad term applied to the wide range of techniques to culture cells on an artificial nutrient medium in a controlled culture environment.
Cell Cloning and Plating Efficiency
Authors: Martin Bernice M
Published: September 2006

Cultures of cells can be obtained from a single cell. However, the isolation of the single cell and its proliferation present challenges.
Cell Culture Media
Authors: Jayme David W
Published: September 2006

Cell culture media comprise the biochemical constituents required to sustain proliferation and biological function of cells
in vitro
.
Cell Line Authentication Methods
Authors: Reid Yvonne A , Durkin A Scott , Steenbergen Kate , Hay Robert J
Published: September 2006

In vitro
cell culture systems are crucial research tools for discerning the complex mechanisms and pathways that regulate cell growth, differentiation and development. The validity of conclusions drawn from this research demands unequivocal verification of cell line identity.
Cryopreservation of Cells
Authors: Harrison Maureen Anne
Published: September 2006

Cryopreservation of cells is the storage of cells at liquid
nitrogen temperature (−196°C) in a viable state but in suspended
animation. The cells can be thawed and resuscitated when required. Freezing
aliquots of cells will guard against genetic drift in continuous cell lines
and against senescence in noncontinuous cell lines.
Animal Cell Culture Scale‐up
Authors: McGlinchey Eunan
Published: September 2006

Cultures of animal cells can be grown
in vitro
within
controlled laboratory environments and are used for research in cell biology
or as a method for producing products of commercial interest. Various methods
for scale‐up of these cultures are available.
Safety Considerations in the Tissue Culture Laboratory
Authors: Martin Bernice M
Published: September 2006

Potential safety hazards can exist during routine and experimental tissue culture. However, culturists can overcome these hazards through proper instruction.
Apoptosis: Morphological Criteria and Other Assays
Authors: Gobé Glenda , Harmon Brian
Published: September 2006

Apoptosis is a morphologically and biochemically distinct mode of cell death that uses the cell's own genetic controls for death to occur. It is central to many normal physiological processes such as morphogenesis, homeostasis and differentiation and, in disease, apoptosis is responsible for loss of functioning tissue as well as the control of proliferation in disorders such as neoplasias and cancers.
Cell Cycle Analysis by Flow Cytometry
Authors: Darzynkiewicz Zbigniew
Published: September 2006

Flow cytometry is an important tool for biomedical research that provides a way to distinguish the physical and chemical characteristics of individual cells within a heterogeneous population. This technique has great importance for cell cycle analysis, and various assays using flow cytometry have been developed for research in this field.
Histocultures and Organ Cultures
Authors: Hoffman Robert M
Published: September 2006

Histocultures are three‐dimensional tissues that are put into growth medium either with a collagen gel support or simply free floating.
Insect Cell Culture
Authors: Vlak Just M , van Oers Monique M
Published: September 2006

Insect cell culture is an indispensable tool for the study of insect cell physiology and baculovirus biology, and in particular for the production of recombinant, near‐authentic eukaryotic proteins using expression vectors.
Caenorhabditis elegans
Culture
Authors: Shakes Diane Carol
Published: September 2006

The nematode worm,
Caenorhabditis elegans
, has rapidly become one of the premier model organisms for biomedical research. A number of the worm's attributes – including its small size, rapid life cycle and tolerance for cryogenic freezing – enable researchers to maintain and study literally millions of worms and hundreds of mutant strains within a small research laboratory.
Tetrahymena
Cell Culture
Authors: Nozawa Yoshinori , Umeki Shigenobu
Published: September 2006

Tetrahymena
, a free‐living unicellular eukaryote, is a ciliate considered to be the most highly developed protozoan, because it possesses specialized organelles which perform each of the cell functions. This pear‐shaped microorganism (30 × 50 μm) can be found in almost all freshwater environments, including even natural hot springs in which a thermotolerant strain can live.
Acanthamoeba castellanii
Cell Culture
Authors: Khan Naveed A
Published: September 2006

Acanthamoeba castellanii
is an opportunistic human parasite that is found in a wide variety of environmental niches. This unicellular amoeba has been used extensively to study the capture of prey by phagocytosis, for its ability to harbour pathogenic bacteria as endosymbionts, to understand the molecular biology of motility, and because of its ability to cause serious human diseases.
Dictyostelium
: Cell Culture and Molecular Tools
Authors: Nellen Wolfgang , Maniak Markus
Published: September 2006

Dictyostelium
provides an easy‐to‐grow model system for the study of the cellular functions of a unicellular eukaryote. A variety of conditions initiate a differentiation process resulting in a multicellular structure of low complexity. A plethora of molecular tools allow for easy genetic manipulation.
Parvovirus B19 Culture
Authors: Morinet Frédéric , Fichelson S
Published: September 2006

Parvovirus B19 was discovered twenty‐five years ago. Recently, an easy method of culture was formulated that will permit a better understanding, at the cellular level, of the particular form of anaemia induced by this virus.
Adenovirus Culture
Authors: Wold William SM , Tollefson Ann E
Published: September 2006

Adenovirus culture is the propagation of adenovirus in tissue culture for subsequent use for basic and applied virus research.
Golgi: Methods for Preparation
Authors: Barr Francis A
Published: September 2006

The Golgi apparatus can be purified from cells and tissues using a number of different methods, depending on the purpose for which it is to be used. Purified Golgi membranes have been used in a variety of cell‐free assays investigating vesicle transport, and to a lesser extent in assays looking at the structure of the Golgi apparatus and the interaction of the Golgi with microtubules.
Clathrin‐coated Vesicles: Methods for Preparation
Authors: Ungewickell Ernst
Published: September 2006

Clathrin‐coated vesicles carry proteins and lipids between compartments of eukaryotic cells. Best‐studied is their role in receptor‐mediated endocytosis and in the transport of lysosomal proteins from the
trans
‐Golgi network to the endosomal system.
Phagosomes: Methods for Preparation
Authors: Desjardins Michel
Published: September 2006

Phagosomes are dynamic cellular compartments in which cells kill and degrade intracellular pathogens. Although phagosomes normally mature into phagolysosomes to perform their tasks, several pathogens have developed ways to alter this maturation process in order to survive and replicate within their host cells. Isolation of pure phagosomes will allow the analysis of their composition and function in health and their modifications during infectious diseases.
Secretory Granules: Methods for Preparation
Authors: Moore Hsiao‐Ping H , Chan Charles KF , Eaton Benjamin A
Published: September 2006

Secretory granules – small membrane‐bound compartments for transport of secretory proteins to the extracellular environment – regulate the secretion of peptide hormones such as insulin by mammalian cells. The granules need to be isolated and purified for studies of their formation and maturation. They can be purified by high‐speed gradient centrifugation or by immunoadsorption. Although immunoadsorption is faster and gives higher purity, it requires the identity of the surface antigens to be known.
Centrosomes: Methods for Preparation
Authors: Bornens Michel
Published: September 2006

The centrosome is a single‐copy organelle that acts as the microtubule organizing centre. Isolation of centrosomes from animal cells has been a necessary step for the biochemical, structural and functional characterization of these organelles.
Proteasomes: Methods for Preparation
Authors: Tanaka Keiji
Published: September 2006

The 26S proteasome is a eukaryotic, ATP‐dependent protease complex comprising the S20 proteasome and a pair of symmetrically disposed PA 700 regulatory particles. Both components can be purified by various chromatographic techniques after sample preparation.
Ribosomes: Methods for Preparation
Authors: Raué Hendrik A
Published: September 2006

Ribosomes, the large protein–RNA complexes involved in translation of nucleotide sequences into proteins, are obtained from cells broken open by grinding, shear forces or enzymatically. They are purified from the cell lysate by centrifugation to remove cell debris, followed by sucrose density gradient centrifugation.
Nucleus and Nuclear Envelope: Methods for Preparation
Authors: Hallberg Einar , Kihlmark Madeleine
Published: September 2006

Pure intact nuclei can be isolated at high yields from tissue homogenates by centrifugation. Structurally well‐conserved nuclear envelopes can be prepared from isolated nuclei by enzymatic degradation of their nucleic acid content.
Endocytic and Exocytic Transport Assays
Authors: Lafont Frank
Published: September 2006

Endocytosis is the process of uptake by a cell of material from the environment by invagination of the plasma membrane, and includes phagocytosis and pinocytosis. The opposite process, exocytosis, is the discharge of cellular products upon membrane fusion of transport carriers with the plasma membrane.
Membrane Targeting: Methods
Authors: Buss Janice E
Published: September 2006

Receptor proteins in the outer cell membrane transmit environmental signals into the cell by the recruitment and assembly of internal proteins in an organized complex around the receptor on the inner surface of the cell membrane. Lipids (fats) that are physically attached to some proteins in these complexes help to tether key components to the lipid bilayer of the membrane to increase signalling efficiency. Scientists have learned how to introduce these membrane‐targeting lipids into many proteins to produce and study how this may alter cell behaviour.
Nuclear Protein Import: Methods
Authors: Jans David A
Published: September 2006

Protein synthesis takes place in the cytoplasm, so that proteins needed in the nuclear compartment, e.g. for control of gene transcription, have to be transported there from their site of synthesis. Analysis of the regulation of nuclear import requires dynamic experimental systems ideally able to provide quantitative kinetic information.
Protein Import into Peroxisomes: Methods
Authors: Brink Susanne C , Danpure Christopher J
Published: September 2006

Peroxisomes are essential, yet poorly understood, intracellular organelles that import most of their proteins directly from the cytosol. The mechanisms by which this is achieved are still being elucidated.
Nuclear‐encoded Protein Import into Chloroplasts: Methods
Authors: Soll Jürgen , Bölter Bettina
Published: September 2006

Investigation of the import of nuclear‐encoded proteins into chloroplasts is an essential field of plant science. To enlighten this very basic process many different methods have been established.
Immunoglobulin Purification
Authors: Page Mark
Published: September 2006

Immunoglobulins are widely used as research and diagnostic tools and for passive immunization and treatment of immunocompromised disease states. Most applications require purification of the immunoglobulins; for example, clinical‐grade material must be of very high purity. The purification method of choice is dictated by the level of purity required and the intended use.
Epitope Mapping
Authors: Morris GE
Published: September 2006

Immunoglobulin molecules are folded to present a surface feature complementary to a surface structure on the antigen – the epitope is this feature of the antigen. Epitope mapping is the process of locating the antibody‐binding site on the antigen; the term is also applied more broadly to T‐cell epitopes and even to receptor–ligand interactions unrelated to the immune system.
Enzyme‐Linked Immunosorbent Assay
Authors: Perlmann Peter , Perlmann Hedvig
Published: September 2006

ELISA (enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay) is an immunoassay utilizing enzyme‐conjugated antibodies, with antigen or antibodies bound to a solid support. The assay measures changes in enzyme activities proportional to the antigen or antibody concentrations involved in the underlying immune reactions.
Immunofluorescence: Conjugation of Dyes to Antibodies
Authors: Härtig Wolfgang , Fritschy Jean‐Marc
Published: September 2006

Conjugation is the covalent attachment of a reporter molecule to a probe used to investigate specific tissue constituents. Biotin, digoxigenin, fluorescent molecules (fluorochromes) and other haptens are widely used for conjugation to antibodies to allow sensitive detection of a large variety of probes in cells and tissues, using bioanalytical techniques such as immunofluorescence and flow cytometry.
Indirect Immunofluorescence of Tissues
Authors: Härtig Wolfgang , Fritschy Jean‐Marc
Published: September 2006

Indirect immunofluorescence is a two‐step procedure whereby unlabelled antibodies are first bound to their target antigen and subsequently detected with fluorochrome‐conjugated secondary antibodies (indirect immunofluorescence). This technique is widely used for histological analysis of tissues in basic and clinical research.
Cell Staining: Fluorescence imaging of mitochondrial structure and function
Authors: Pierce Robert H , Kavanagh Terrance J , Poot Martin
Published: September 2006

Staining of mitochondria with fluorescent dyes, antibodies or mitochondria‐targeted naturally fluorescent molecules contributes to the study of mitochondrial structure and function in normal physiological and pathophysiological states. Using these techniques, the mitochondrial permeability transition and redox state can be probed.
Light Microscopy
Authors: Oldfield Ronald J
Published: September 2006

The light microscope has the function of revealing fine detail in transparent (usually) or opaque specimens. Although much depends on the preparation of the specimen, an understanding of the operation of the microscope itself is a requirement to help distinguish a good image from an inferior one.
Interference Reflection Microscopy
Authors: Albrecht Richard , Weber Igor
Published: September 2006

Interference reflection microscopy (IRM) utilizes interference of light reflected from closely apposed surfaces to provide an image containing information about the separation of those surfaces. In cell biology, IRM is used to image structures at the base of adherent cells and to measure cell–substratum distances, as well as to investigate mechanisms of cell–substratum adhesion.
Fluorescence Microscopy
Authors: Jacobson Ken
Published: September 2006

Fluorescence microscopy in biomedical research is a light microscope technique designed to view fluorescence emission from a biological specimen. It has become an extremely useful tool to localize genes, messenger RNA and proteins within live and fixed cells and tissues and to visualize spatiotemporal variations in intracellular calcium as well as other ions and metabolites.
Confocal Microscopy
Authors: Stelzer Ernst HK
Published: September 2006

By using apertures reduced to the physical limit imposed by the numerical aperture and magnification of the objective lens as well as the wavelength of the light, confocal fluorescence microscopy effectively achieves point illumination and point detection. This permits ‘optical sectioning’; a stack of sections can be used to derive a three‐dimensional intensity distribution and to calculate projections along arbitrary axes.
Electron Microscopy
Authors: Bozzola John J
Published: September 2006

Electron microscopy is a technology for examining the extremely fine detail or ultrastructure of biological specimens for use in research and medical situations.
Atomic Force Microscopy
Authors: Groscurth Peter , Ziegler Urs
Published: September 2006

Atomic force microscopy can be used to analyse the ultrastructure of cells, cell fragments, proteins or DNA/RNA in a physiological environment. In addition, adhesive and repulsive forces as well as the elasticity of samples can be measured accurately.
Intracellular p
H
Measurement
Authors: Szaszi Katalin , Grinstein Sergio
Published: September 2006

Measurement of intracellular pH requires preservation of cellular integrity. For this purpose biophysical methods such as nuclear magnetic resonance, fluorescence spectroscopy and pH‐sensitive microelectrodes can be applied.
Histochemical Staining
Authors: Horobin Richard William
Published: September 2006

Histochemical staining colour‐codes biological structures and biomolecules, facilitating microscopic observation. This answers several questions simultaneously: what is this structure or molecule, where is it found, and how much of it is present?
In Situ
Hybridization
Authors: Choo KH Andy , Craig Jeffrey M , Cutts Suzanne M , Lo Anthony WI
Published: September 2006

In situ
hybridization is based on the sequence‐specific annealing of denatured nucleic acid strands. It combines the detection of specific nucleic acid sequences and their localization in relation to cellular or subcellular morphology.
Cytogenetic Techniques
Authors: Hsieh Chih‐Lin
Published: September 2006

Cytogenetics is the study of the genetic material in cells at the microscopic level, with the goal of achieving optimal resolution for chromosomes or regions of chromosomes. Cytogenetic techniques are gaining in power and usefulness with the development of new detection methods linked to computer technology. The conventional techniques already available have applications in clinical diagnosis as well as study of genetics.
Comparative Genomic Hybridization
Authors: Lapierre Jean Michel , Tachdjian Gérard
Published: September 2006

Comparative genomic hybridization is a modified
in situ
hybridization technique which allows detection and mapping of DNA sequence copy differences between two genomes.
Cell Hybrids
Authors: Shirahata Sanetaka , Katakura Yoshinori , Teruya Kiichiro
Published: September 2006

Cell hybridization using polyethylene glycol is a basic and widely used procedure. Monoclonal antibodies produced by hybridomas are applied widely in research and industrial processes and their application to therapeutic and diagnostic uses is a lively area of research.
Pore‐forming Toxins
Authors: Menestrina Gianfranco , Serra Mauro Dalla
Published: September 2006

Toxins have developed as weapons to attack foreign cells. Membrane‐damaging toxins generally increase membrane permeability rather nonspecifically to overwhelm the cell's homeostasis. Pore‐forming toxins produce well‐structured holes in the cell membrane. These toxins are widespread in venoms, fluids and secretions of many organisms.
Liposomes
Authors: Gregoriadis Gregory
Published: September 2006

Liposomes are synthetic vesicles consisting of one or more phospholipid bilayers, able to accommodate water‐ and lipid‐soluble molecules. They are used as a delivery system for drugs, genes and vaccines in therapeutics.
Microprojectile Bombardment
Authors: Kikkert Julie Russell
Published: September 2006

Microprojectile bombardment is a method by which foreign substances such as DNA are introduced into living cells and tissues via high‐velocity microprojectiles.
Green Fluorescent Protein
Authors: Hebshi Leila D , Angres Brigitte M , Li Xianqiang L , Kain Steven R
Published: September 2006

Green fluorescent protein, a fluorescent molecule found in the jellyfish
Aequorea victoria
, is a useful reporter molecule for
in vitro
and whole organism gene expression studies. Several modifications have produced an important class of reporter molecules with superior monitoring capabilities.
Gene Expression in Yeast
Authors: Scheiner‐Bobis Georgios
Published: September 2006

The advanced knowledge about yeast genetics, the availability of numerous suitable expression vectors and host strains, and the improvement of transformation and simple cultivation methods have established yeast cells as the most powerful system for the expression of foreign genes.
Transgenic Mice Production
Authors: Gordon Jon W
Published: September 2006

Transgenic mice are those into which foreign genetic material has been inserted.
Transgenic Zebrafish Production
Authors: Allende Miguel L
Published: September 2006

Gene transfer can be readily achieved in zebrafish by microinjection of plasmid DNA or retroviral infection in early embryos. Stable integration of plasmid DNA allows efficient expression of foreign genes either ubiquitously or tissue‐specifically, depending on the type of promoter used. Most zebrafish transgenics generated to date have been used in basic embryological research.
Transgenic
Xenopus
Production
Authors: Seidman Shlomo
Published: September 2006

Transient transgenic gene expression in microinjected embryos of
Xenopus laevis
offers a relatively simple, yet versatile and economical experimental system for the molecular analysis of vertebrate embryogenesis.
Liquid Chromatography
Authors: Mansoor Mohammad Azam
Published: September 2006

Liquid chromatography, also called high‐performance liquid chromatography, is a popular quantitative analytical technique applied in many areas of chemical, biomedical and pharmaceutical sciences. Liquid chromatography currently accounts for about 60% of separation technology applied in life sciences around the world.
Gel Staining Techniques
Authors: Merril Carl R
Published: September 2006

Gel staining techniques are used to detect proteins and nucleic acids isolated from tissues or cells by electrophoretic separation in gels.
Electroelution of Proteins from Polyacrylamide Gels
Authors: Gromov Pavel S , Celis Julio E
Published: September 2006

Electroelution of proteins from gels is the method used to recover proteins resolved by electrophoresis in polyacrylamide gel by transferring the protein molecules out of gel by means of an electric field.
Protein Synthesis: Measuring Errors
Authors: Bogosian Gregg
Published: September 2006

The detection and measurement of errors in protein synthesis is of interest to workers studying proteins, particularly when exploiting overexpression systems to prepare proteins as research reagents or for commercial purposes. Detection of errors is a key step in the process of producing high‐quality proteins.
Translation ofmRNAsinXenopusOocytes
Authors: Keiper Brett D
Published: September 2006

The translational control mechanisms of native and microinjected messenger RNA (mRNA) inXenopusoocytes involve the endogenous protein synthesis machinery and govern both the kinetics of protein accumulation and function, as well as the metabolic state of the encoding mRNA.
Surface Plasmon Resonance
Authors: Fivash Matthew J
Published: September 2006

Surface plasmon resonance is an optical resonance effect where the back side of a thin conductive mirror affects the angle at which there is a minimum of reflected light.
Spectroscopic Techniques
Authors: Dyson H Jane
Published: September 2006

A number of spectroscopic techniques are available to the biochemical researcher. They give different information, and can be used to determine concentrations and molecular weights, as well as providing information on secondary and tertiary structure. Three‐dimensional structures can be calculated using information from the nuclear magnetic resonance and other spectra.
Nuclear Pores: Methods for Preparation
Authors: Fradin Cécile
Published: September 2006

Nuclear pore complexes are large protein assemblies that span the nuclear envelope and are involved in the regulation of molecular transport between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. There are three different methods that allow preparation of intact functional nuclear pore complexes: cell permeabilization, preparation of isolated nuclei, and cell‐free nuclear reconstitution.
Nuclear Matrix: Methods of Preparation
Authors: Swarup Ghanshyam , Radha Vegesna
Published: September 2006

The nuclear matrix is the non‐chromatin component of the nucleus, which consists of the nuclear envelope and the inner fibrous web forming a scaffold for attachment of DNA. Sequential extraction of isolated nuclei with DNAase and high‐salt buffers yields a residual structure – the nuclear matrix.
Protein Motifs: the Helix‐Loop‐Helix Motif
Authors: Sablitzky Fred
Published: September 2006

The helix‐loop‐helix (HLH) domain is characterized by two sets of amino acid sequences that fold into amphipathic α helices separated by a flexible linker or ‘loop’ of variable amino acid sequence and length. The HLH domain is a dimerization domain that allows proteins to form homo‐ and/or heterodimers.