bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Suffering and Virtue
Authors: Brady Michael S.
Published: August 2018

Suffering, in one form or another, is present in all of our lives. But why do we suffer? On one reading, this is a question about the causes of physical and emotional suffering. But on another, it is a question about whether suffering has a point or purpose or value. In this book, Michael Brady argues that suffering is vital for the development of virtue, and hence for us to live happy or flourishing lives. After presenting a distinctive and original account of suffering, and a novel account of its core element, unpleasantness, Brady proceeds to focus on three claims that are central to his picture. The first is that forms of suffering, like pain and remorse, can themselves constitute virtuous responses. The second is that suffering is essential for four important classes of virtue—virtues of strength, such as fortitude and courage; virtues of vulnerability, such as adaptability and humility; moral virtues, such as compassion; and the practical and epistemic excellences that make up wisdom. His final claim is that suffering is vital for the social virtues of justice, love, and trust, and hence for the flourishing of social groups.
Introduction
Authors: Brady Michael S.
Published: August 2018

In this introduction Brady sets out the general shape of his virtue-theoretical account of the value of suffering. He outlines the three ways in which suffering can have significant value: it can constitute virtue; it is essential to the development of important categories of virtue; and it is at the heart of important social virtues.
Neurodiversity and the Rejection of Cures
Authors: Dean Richard
Published: August 2018

The neurodiversity movement emphasizes the idea that autism (and some other neurologically influenced conditions) should not be seen as a medical problem or a defect, but as just an alternative form of neurological organization. A natural corollary of this position is that people with autism do not need to be “cured.” But many members of the general public find it difficult to understand this claim, even if they are receptive to the need for increased acceptance, recognition, and inclusion of people on the autism spectrum. Although this chapter’s tentative conclusions about the rejection of cures for autism are, overall, unsurprisingly moderate, it argues that it is justified for an individual to reject a cure for herself. However, it is much more questionable to demand an end to the search for cures altogether. Along the way the chapter usefully disentangles different lines of argument, and vitiate the force of some of them.
Prophets of Democracy
Authors: Freedman Linda
Published: August 2018

The most persistent theme in Blake’s twentieth-century American reception laments the loss of a Whitmanesque ideal of democracy. In 1868, A. C. Swinburne presented Blake and Whitman as spiritual twins. They had a common poetic source in biblical models which celebrated the privileged insight and sacred poetry of the Hebrew prophets but also registered the frustration of the prophetic mode. But the frustrations that both Blake and Whitman felt about their prophetic vocation have been largely overlooked in the desire to see both writers as prophets of democracy. Swinburne presented Blake as England’s version of Whitman and the hope of British republicanism. Whitman then became thought of as the mystical ‘re-appearance of Blake’. Despite Whitman’s equivocal reaction, the comparison stuck.
‘Break on Through’
Authors: Freedman Linda
Published: August 2018

As Blake had espoused horror at rebellious spirit turned to murderous bloodshed, so the sounds of the sixties often reflected disillusionment with organized revolution, believing real change came from within. Bob Dylan, Ed Sanders, and Patti Smith sounded the voice of experience as well as innocence. Jim Morrison was driven by the dark and destructive energy of the prophet–artist who finds that, in trying to change the world, he has destroyed it. Morrison and Smith reflected the two sides of the psychedelic Blake of the sixties. Morrison’s Blake was one of terror and dark vision. Smith paid tribute to the Blake of compassion and social justice. Both found him deeply relevant to the crisis they perceived in their own country and historical moment.
Aperture harmony
Authors: van der Hulst Harry
Published: August 2018

This chapter analyzes a number of vowel harmony systems which have been described or analyzed in terms of aperture (lowering or raising, including complete harmony). This takes us into areas where the literature on vowel harmony discusses cases involving the following binary features: [± high], [± low], [± ATR], and [± RTR]. Raising has been thought of as problematic for unary ‘IUA’ systems as these systems lack a common element for high vowels. This chapter suggests that raising can be attributed to ATR-harmony. The chapter also discusses typological generalizations and analyzes metaphony in Romance languages.
House and Home
Authors: Brundin Abigail , Howard Deborah , Laven Mary
Published: August 2018

Households in Renaissance Italy varied greatly in size and composition. This chapter introduces the idea of home as a social unit and considers this in relation to its physical characteristics, size, and the layout of rooms. Private chapels were rare except in elite families, but in every home, however modest, it was possible to designate a special corner or small table (altarino) for family prayers. The life of the Holy Family, as narrated in popular texts, provided a model for the pious home. The camera or bedroom, which was also a living room, seems to have been the usual site of domestic worship, and household inventories of the period suggest that devotional objects were often located around the bed. Practices varied between town and country.
Sacred Stuff
Authors: Brundin Abigail , Howard Deborah , Laven Mary
Published: August 2018

Inventories have long been used by historians as a source for investigating ‘worldly goods’; here, they are scrutinized anew for evidence of devotional practices in the home. Rosaries, little crosses, Agnus Dei, and coral are just some of the material objects that served to sacralize the home. These same items, densely recorded in the inventories of workshops and private households also figure in dowry contracts and registers of pawned goods. Such documents, drawn up by notaries, afford us new insights into the significance of material things at key moments in the life-cycle. Often invested with amuletic powers, many of the objects under investigation blur the boundaries between religion and superstition and draw attention to the profoundly protective role of domestic devotion.
The Devotional Eye
Authors: Brundin Abigail , Howard Deborah , Laven Mary
Published: August 2018

The chapter explores how the residents of Italian Renaissance homes responded to religious images in devotional practice. It discusses the differences between paintings and sculptures as the focus of prayer and meditation. The fundamental changes in pictorial art during the Italian Renaissance—greater realism through the use of perspective, more naturalistic settings, and the delineation of physical detail—have generally been regarded as strategies for making religious images more worldly and approachable. This book questions such an interpretation. Many families clung to older icons of the Virgin and Child, with their flattened features and gold backgrounds, long after they had fallen out of fashion artistically. Meanwhile, innovations in modes of representation helped devotees to experience meditative or visionary states of mind.
Miracles
Authors: Brundin Abigail , Howard Deborah , Laven Mary
Published: August 2018

The period of the Renaissance witnessed an extraordinary proliferation of miraculous events in Italy. Many of these miracles were connected to images of the Virgin Mary that were seen to weep, move, or speak out. In turn, these miraculous images acquired a reputation for helping the laity and were often called upon in times of crisis. Cults also grew up around miracle-working saints and printed accounts served to boost the fame of local shrines and pilgrimage sites. Making use of extensive visual and textual evidence, this chapter points to the many ways in which the Virgin and saints intervened in everyday domestic life. More fundamentally, it demonstrates for the first time the important role played by miracles in locating religion in the Italian Renaissance household.
Plato’s Theory of Knowledge
Authors: Wedgwood Ralph
Published: August 2018

Several contemporary epistemologists have been intrigued by the discussion of the distinction between knowledge and correct opinion in Plato’s Meno (97a–98b); a number of them have suggested that Plato is appealing to the idea that to know a proposition one must be ‘safe from error’ regarding that proposition. In fact, although there is evidence that Plato assumes that knowledge requires something like safety, this passage in the Meno imposes a different requirement on knowledge—namely, what Robert Nozick called ‘adherence’, the requirement that knowledge must resiliently ‘adhere’ to the truth. Adherence is much more controversial than safety, but it seems that Plato accepted both, and it is argued that he was right to do so. Both adherence and safety can be understood in a ‘contextualist’ manner, but it seems that Plato rejects contextualism in favor of understanding both conditions in their most demanding form.
Self-Mastery and Self-Rule in Plato’s Laws
Authors: Meyer Susan Sauvé
Published: August 2018

Plato’s famous image of the divine puppets in Book 1 of the Laws illustrates the notion of self-mastery. The puppet achieves self-mastery when its golden cord (logismos) wins a struggle against the iron cords (pleasure, pain, fear, and desire). Self-mastery, so conceived, involves internal conflict. This raises a considerable puzzle, since the Athenian endorses a conception of virtue that involves harmony between rational and non-rational motivations, and he has criticized the conception of self-mastery praised by his interlocutors. Yet he presents the puppet image as an illumination of a conception of virtue on which he and his interlocutors are agreed.
A Series of Goods
Authors: Shields Christopher
Published: August 2018

Aristotle criticizes Plato’s Form of the Good, insisting that goodness is not ‘something common, universal, and one’ (EN 1096a28). He rejects Plato’s univocity assumption to the effect that goodness admits of a single, non-disjunctive essence-specifying account, contending among other things that the Platonists themselves agree that there are no Forms set over ordered series, such as the series of natural numbers. Since good things are arranged as such a series, presumably from the highest good to the least good, it should follow as a direct consequence that there simply is no Form of the Good, even on the Platonists’ own terms. Yet both premises in this argument are perplexing. First, why should the Platonists allow no Forms set over items arranged in a series? Second, even granting that they do (or must), why should they also allow that good things form a series akin to the series of natural numbers?
‘Ought’ in Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics
Authors: Annas Julia
Published: August 2018

Much attention has been paid to the issue of whether, in the Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle uses what we would recognize as deontic concepts. On the basis of a study of dei and other constructions I argue that Aristotle’s use of them is often misconstrued and should be interpreted as giving reasons that are reasons of virtue, not a distinct alternative. Many issues remain live in the interpretation (and the translation) of Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics; in this essay I offer a contribution to one of these, the nature and role of deontic concepts in the work. I offer this essay with pleasure to a celebration of Terry and Gail’s work.
Virtue
Authors: Wood Allen W.
Published: August 2018

Kant and Aristotle have often been seen as proponents of contrasting approaches to ethical theory: deontology and virtue ethics (respectively). This essay argues, with the help of Terence Irwin’s discussions in The Development of Ethics, that their conceptions of virtue are very similar and easily reconciled. This can be done if we adopt what Irwin calls a ‘rationalist’ interpretation of Aristotle, and if we also appreciate the ways in which virtue for Kant involves desire, pleasure, and pain (both rational and empirical desires and feelings). We also explore the real differences between Aristotelian and Kantian ethics, which, it is argued, turn on differences between the ancient and modern conceptions of happiness, which hinge, in turn, on the difference between the ancient and modern views of the human condition.
Richard Price on Virtue
Authors: Crisp Roger
Published: August 2018

This essay examines the position on virtue taken by the Welsh dissenting minister and philosopher Richard Price in his A Review of the Principal Questions in Morals, first published in 1758. Price speaks broadly of the ‘obligations of virtue’, seeing virtue as in effect equivalent to morality, obligation, or what is morally right; so an examination of his views on virtue will engage with his first-order or normative ethics as a whole. The essay reconstructs Price’s views on the nature and origin of virtue, virtue and the happiness of the agent, moral motivation, the role of the affections, consequentialism, and the unity of virtue. This reconstruction is compared with Terry Irwin’s interpretation and assessment of Price in The Development of Ethics.
New York
Authors: Sylla Richard
Published: August 2018

New York, the epicentre of the 2007–9 Global Financial Crisis, during the ensuing decade regained much of its pre-Crisis stature as a pre-eminent international financial centre. Its advantages going forwards include the huge US Treasury debt market, the dollar as the leading reserve currency, the Federal Reserve System as a de facto world central bank, a stronger US banking system, and the world’s largest securities markets which list and trade leading US-based companies and many corporations based in other countries. Congress’s 2010 Dodd–Frank Act reduced systemic financial risks, but also contained regulatory overkill that is gradually being modified; attempts to repeal or replace Dodd–Frank appear unlikely to succeed. Fintech represents both an opportunity—more efficient financial services—and a threat—reduced profits—for New York financial firms, which will most probably incorporate fintech innovations into their business models. For New York, Brexit is more of an opportunity than a threat.
Paris
Authors: Quennouëlle-Corre Laure
Published: August 2018

This chapter discusses Paris as an international financial centre and focuses on the role played by financial services and the numerous and various criteria that affect a financial centre’s competitiveness. It stresses both the long-term trends and the new circumstances that influence its current strengths and weaknesses compared to its main European competitors. The chapter analyses to what extent and how the Global Financial Crisis affected the financial activities of the French capital. Its banking stability, its active asset management industry, and its highly skilled labour market remain decisive advantages. The main uncertainty in the near future comes from the Brexit negotiations between the UK and the European Union, but there is also uncertainty arising from the development of technological delocalization of global firms’ financial activities.
Hong Kong, Shanghai, and Beijing
Authors: Meyer David R.
Published: August 2018

China’s extraordinary economic growth over recent decades underpins the top global rank of its financial centres of Hong Kong, Shanghai, and Beijing. Hong Kong is China’s window to global capital, an Asia-Pacific leader, and one of the top three global financial centres, along with London and New York. Shanghai is the commercial-financial centre, and Beijing is the political-regulatory centre of China. Government policy supports stock- and bond-connect programmes among its exchanges, Fintech, internationalization of the renminbi, and its ‘Belt and Road’ initiative and associated Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB). These directly and indirectly strengthen China’s internal financial centre networks and the centres’ global links. The government’s political and economic policies maintain Hong Kong as a premier global centre. China controls its banks, and its strength as a large economy will help mitigate the impacts of a global financial crisis.
Waiting in the Restaurant
Authors: Assael Brenda
Published: August 2018

Chapter 3 focuses on the waiter, exploring the reality behind his representation in popular culture as marginal, disenchanted, and melancholy. While real-life waiters were often keen to share a variety of grievances about their working conditions, they were not universally degraded victims of exploitation. Some waiters were able to capitalize on the open and dynamic nature of the restaurant service economy, which created opportunities for mobility and reward. Tipping, which remained an ongoing bone of contention, for both waiters and those they served, could prove to be an important source of supplementary income. For all the idiosyncrasies of the waiter’s position, he represented the broader significance of the service sector in the shaping of London in this period. The extensive public attention given to foreign-born waiters and (newly emergent) waitresses underlines the heterogeneity that characterized, not merely the restaurant, but the wider metropolitan culture in which it was located.
Drug Policy and the Public Good
Authors: Babor Thomas , Caulkins Jonathan , Fischer Benedikt , Foxcroft David , Humphreys Keith , Medina-Mora María Elena , Obot Isidore , Rehm Jürgen , Reuter Peter , Room Robin , Rossow Ingeborg , Strang John
Published: August 2018

Drug Policy and the Public Good presents the accumulated scientific knowledge of direct relevance to the development of drug policy on local, national, and international levels. The book explores both illicit drug use and non-medical use of prescription medications within a public health perspective. A conceptual basis for a rational drug policy is presented, along with new epidemiological data on the global dimensions of drug misuse, significant trends in drug epidemics, and the global burden of disease attributable to drug misuse. The markets for both illicit and legally prescribed psychoactive substances are described, showing that these two sources of drug supply are becoming increasingly connected in many countries. The core of the book is a critical review of the cumulative scientific evidence in five general areas of drug policy: primary prevention programmes in schools and other settings; treatment interventions and harm reduction approaches; attempts to control the supply of illicit drugs, including drug interdiction and law enforcement; decriminalization and penal approaches; and control of the legal market through prescription drug regimes. The final chapters discuss the trend toward legalization of some psychoactive substances in different parts of the world and describe the need for a new approach to drug policy that is evidence-based, realistic, and coordinated. The evidence reviewed in this book suggests that an integrated and balanced approach to evidence-informed drug policy is more likely to benefit the public good than are uncoordinated efforts to reduce drug supply and demand.
Illegal markets: the economics and social costs of drug distribution
Authors: Babor Thomas F. , Caulkins Jonathan , Fischer Benedikt , Foxcroft David , Humphreys Keith , Medina-Mora María Elena , Obot Isidore , Rehm Jürgen , Reuter Peter , Room Robin , Rossow Ingeborg , Strang John
Published: August 2018

Illegal drugs are commodities that are bought and sold in markets. Many farmers are engaged in small amounts of drug growing in the producing countries, but there are comparatively small numbers of refiners, smugglers, and top-level importers. Compared to most legal markets, there are many sellers relative to the number of buyers in drug markets. One consequence of the network character of drug distribution is its resilience. Eliminating individual players or even entire organizations within a mature drug distribution network has little impact on the ability of the network as a whole to transport drugs from their source to the customers. This adaptability of mature drug distribution networks limits the ability of enforcement authorities to eradicate mass-market drugs.
The legal market: prescription and diversion of psychopharmaceuticals
Authors: Babor Thomas F. , Caulkins Jonathan , Fischer Benedikt , Foxcroft David , Humphreys Keith , Medina-Mora María Elena , Obot Isidore , Rehm Jürgen , Reuter Peter , Room Robin , Rossow Ingeborg , Strang John
Published: August 2018

The growth of modern medicine, is paralleled by substantial growth in psychopharmaceutical medications designed to treat psychiatric disorders, pain, cognitive dysfunction, mental distress, and sleep disorders. These medications, many of which have high dependence potential, are primarily distributed through a prescription system. Diversion of psychopharmaceuticals from this system for non-medical use constitutes a substantial part of the illicit drug market in a growing number of countries. While there is considerable criminal or organized diversion from the prescription system, much of the leakage happens informally, often at the consumer/patient end of the distribution or availability chain. Modern technologies, including Internet-based market elements and new synthetic medications, are blurring the boundaries between medicines and illicit drugs, especially in affluent countries. The pathways of availability and distribution for non-medical use of ‘illicit drugs’ and of psychopharmaceuticals are thus increasingly converging and overlapping.
Legalizing the supply of cannabis
Authors: Babor Thomas F. , Caulkins Jonathan , Fischer Benedikt , Foxcroft David , Humphreys Keith , Medina-Mora María Elena , Obot Isidore , Rehm Jürgen , Reuter Peter , Room Robin , Rossow Ingeborg , Strang John
Published: August 2018

Changing a substance’s legal status is a perennial policy question that can be answered in many different ways. The focus of this chapter is on cannabis, the drug that has attracted the most attention because of its widespread use and relatively favourable risk profile in comparison with several legal substances.
Conviction Narrative Theory and Understanding Decision-Making in Economics and Finance
Authors: Tuckett David
Published: August 2018

This chapter describes the radically uncertain context faced by money managers and how they cope by developing conviction narratives. It then generalizes these findings to introduce a wider theory of decision-making under radical uncertainty, termed Conviction Narrative Theory (CNT). CNT differs from standard approaches to decision-making in economics and behavioural psychology that are limited to theories of efficient and inefficient information processing in contexts where data is available to calculate future probabilities. In radical uncertainty, we cannot know which bits of information are useful. CNT explains the human capacity to cope despite this situation: actors organize their experience through narratives and use the emotions attaching to them to feel the conviction to act. In effect, CNT operationalizes Keynes’ (1936) formulation of animal spirits as a human solution to radical uncertainty; and it provides more plausible and empirically substantiated microfoundations on which to build understanding of aggregate economic outcomes, the development of monocultures, and financial market instability.
Rhythmic Prose in Imperial Greek Literature
Authors: Hutchinson G. O.
Published: August 2018

The chapter looks at the division between poetry and prose in ancient and other literatures, and shows the importance of rhythmic patterning in ancient prose. The development of rhythmic prose in Greek and Latin is sketched, the system explained and illustrated (from Latin). It is firmly established, for the first time, which of the main Greek non-Christian authors 31 bc–ad 300 write rhythmically. The method takes a substantial sample of random sentence-endings (usually 400) from each of a large number of Imperial authors; it compares that sample with one sample of the same size (400) drawn randomly from a range of authors earlier than the invention of this rhythmic system. A particular sort of X2-test is applied. Many Imperial authors, it emerges, write rhythmically; many do not. The genres most likely to offer rhythmic writing are, unexpectedly, narrative: historiography and the novel.
Taking Fratricide Too Hard (Timoleon5–6)
Authors: Hutchinson G. O.
Published: August 2018

This chapter provides a contrast: it looks at a longer passage not dense in rhythm to bring out the nature of the dense passages which are the main concern of the book. This passage itself varies in how packed or loose the rhythms are: there is greater passing density at philosophical or heightened moments. The mobility of Plutarch’s style can be clearly seen. Timoleon is here at a contrasting position to that seen in the previous chapter: he is reacting to his involvement in the killing of his tyrannical brother with gloom and an evasion of public life. Plutarch expatiates philosophically. This and the previous passage together illustrate various kinds of range in Plutarch’s Lives, including complexity of depiction and depth of time.
Some Tears in Achilles Tatius (Achilles 6.7.3–7)
Authors: Hutchinson G. O.
Published: August 2018

Another novelist provides in some respects a point in between Chariton and Heliodorus. His elaborate expatiation on tears and the lover put rhythm at the service of an intricate treatment of the mind and body, and a shrewd depiction of amorous self-control and manipulation. The first-person narrative adds a further stratum of sophistication to this handling of the speaker’s rival and enemy. Achilles Tatius demonstrates further, in contrast with Chariton, the range of possibilities for the exploitation of rhythm seen already in the difference of Chariton and Plutarch. Comparison with Heliodorus brings out Achilles’ elegance.
Structural Reforms, Growth, and Inequality
Authors: Campos Nauro F. , Grauwe Paul De , Ji Yuemei
Published: August 2018

This chapter provides a critical overview of the state of the art in the economics literature on structural reforms. It takes stock of theoretical developments, measurement efforts, and of the econometric evidence. We start with a simple theoretical framework for the relationship between structural reforms, economic growth, and income inequality. We argue that whether structural reforms have a positive or negative impact depends on various factors. The type of reform, timing, sequence, and political constraints play crucial roles in determining the effectiveness of reforms on economic growth and income inequality. We conclude by proposing a 7-point agenda for future research.
Growth, Unemployment, and Wages in EU Countries since the Great Recession
Authors: Brůha Jan , Kucharčuková Oxana Babecká
Published: August 2018

In this chapter, we contribute to the research investigating how institutions and regulations affect the resilience of countries to adverse macroeconomic shocks. To do this, we apply a hierarchical non-parametric curve fitting model to compare economic growth and labour market developments in EU countries since the beginning of the Great Recession. Using the model, we identify four latent classes that represent distinct patterns of the labour market and economic developments. We present evidence that countries in the different classes systematically differ by labour market regulation and quality of institutions. This demonstrates the relevance of institutions and regulation for economies’ resilience to shocks.
Reforming the Labour Market in Good and Bad Times
Authors: Gehrke Britta , Weber Enzo
Published: August 2018

This chapter discusses how the effects of structural labour market reforms depend on whether the economy is in expansion or recession. Based on an empirical time series model with Markov switching that draws on search and matching theory, we propose a novel identification of reform outcomes and distinguish the effects of structural reforms that increase the flexibility of the labour market in distinct phases of the business cycle. We find in applications to Germany and Spain that reforms which are implemented in recessions have weaker expansionary effects in the short run. For policymakers, these results emphasize the costs of introducing labour market reforms in recessions.
Newton’s Three Laws
Authors: Mann Peter
Published: August 2018

This chapter introduces Newton’s laws, the Newtonian formulation of mechanics and key concepts such as configuration space and phase space for later development. In 1687, the natural philosopher Sir Isaac Newton published the Principia Mathematica and, with it, sparked the revolutionary ideas key to all branches of classical physics. In this chapter, the system is the object of interest and is considered to be either a single or a collection of generic particles that are not governed by quantum mechanics, for quantum systems do not follow these laws explicitly. Results for systems of particles and conservation laws are presented as the invariance of a given quantity under time evolution. The N-body problem, first integrals, initial value problems and Galilean transformations are all introduced and the Picard iteration and the Verlet algorithm are discussed.
Energy and Work
Authors: Mann Peter
Published: August 2018

This chapter discusses the work–energy theorem, which is developed from Newton’s second law, and defines the kinetic and potential energies of the system. While there is some vector calculus involved, it has been kept to the bare minimum and the reader should not require in-depth knowledge to understand the salient points. If there is a net force on the particle, it accelerates in the direction of the unbalanced force. The force is a central force if it depends only on the distance between the point on which the force acts and the coordinate origin. Using Stokes’s theorem, potential energies are thoroughly discussed. The chapter also discusses spherically symmetric potentials, isotropic force, force on systems of particles, centre of mass coordinates and rigid bodies.
Constrained Lagrangian Mechanics
Authors: Mann Peter
Published: August 2018

This chapter builds on the previous two chapters to tackle constrained systems, using Lagrangian mechanics and constrained variations. The first section deals with holonomic constraint equations using Lagrange multipliers; these can be used to reduce the number of coordinates until a linearly independent minimal set is obtained that describes a constraint surface within configuration space, so that Lagrange equations can be set up and solved. Motion is understood to be confined to a constraint submanifold. The variational formulation of non-holonomic constraints is then discussed to derive the vakonomic formulation. These erroneous equations are then compared to the central Lagrange equation, and the precise nature of the variations used in each formulation is investigated. The vakonomic equations are then presented in their Suslov form (Suslov–vakonomic form) in an attempt to reconcile the two approaches. In addition, the structure of biological membranes is framed as a constrained optimisation problem.
Symmetries & Lagrangian-Hamilton-Jacobi Theory
Authors: Mann Peter
Published: August 2018

This chapter discusses conservation laws in Lagrangian mechanics and shows that certain conservation laws are just particular examples of a more fundamental theory called ‘Noether’s theorem’, after Amalie ‘Emmy’ Noether, who first discovered it in 1918. The chapter starts off by discussing Noether’s theorem and symmetry transformations in Lagrangian mechanics in detail. It then moves on to gauge theory and surface terms in the action before isotropic symmetries. continuous symmetry, conserved quantities, conjugate momentum, cyclic coordinates, Hessian condition and discrete symmetries are discussed. The chapter also covers Lie algebra, spontaneous symmetry breaking, reduction theorems, non-dynamical symmetries and Ostrogradsky momentum. The final section of the chapter details Carathéodory–Hamilton–Jacobi theory in the Lagrangian setting, to derive the Hamilton–Jacobi equation on the tangent bundle!
Liouville’s Theorem & Classical Statistical Mechanics
Authors: Mann Peter
Published: August 2018

This chapter returns to the discussion of constrained Hamiltonian dynamics, now in the canonical setting, including topics such as regular Lagrangians, constraint surfaces, Hessian conditions and the constrained action principle. The standard approach to Hamiltonian mechanics is to treat all the variables as being independent; in the constrained case, a constraint function links the variables so they are no longer independent. In this chapter, the Dirac–Bergmann theory for singular Lagrangians is developed, using an action-based approach. The chapter then investigates consistency conditions and Dirac’s different types of constraints (i.e. first-class constraints, second-class constraints, primary constraints and secondary constraints) before deriving the Dirac bracket from simple arguments. The Jackiw–Fadeev constraint formulation is then discussed before the chapter closes with the Güler formulation for a constrained Hamilton–Jacobi theory.
Classical Path-Integrals
Authors: Mann Peter
Published: August 2018

The purpose of this chapter is to formalise functions and set theory. It is often handy to partition a collection of numbers into one package for neatness. This is the idea of a set; it is itself an object. A function is like a number-crunching box: numbers are fed into the function and another number comes out; it is a mapping from a set of numbers to another set of numbers and there are several ways to write it. A functional is a box that takes a function and gives out a number; it is a function of a function of a variable. A real-valued function is a scalar field when it has a scalar quantity as its output; it is called a vector field when the output is a vector. Other concepts associated with sets and functions are discussed, providing background to the other chapters in the book.
Partial Differentiation
Authors: Mann Peter
Published: August 2018

This short chapter discusses the Legendre transform, which is used in mechanics to convert between the Lagrangian and the Hamiltonian formulations. The Legendre transform is a mathematical tool that can be used to convert the variables of a function through the methods of partial differentiation in a one-to-one fashion. Developed by Adrien-Marie Legendre in the nineteenth century, it is also central to converting between action principles, generating functions and thermodynamic potentials. By using the Legendre transform, two variables can be expressed in four different ways, via the idea of conjugate pairs; it just depends on what differential quantity is subtracted. Variables that are not considered in the transformation are called passive variables, whiles the important ones are the active variables. The information in this chapter provides the background for many of the other chapters in this book.
Differential Equations
Authors: Mann Peter
Published: August 2018

This chapter presents the general formulation of the calculus of variations as applied to mechanics, relativity and field theories. The calculus of variations is a common mathematical technique used throughout classical mechanics. First developed by Euler to determine the shortest paths between fixed points along a surface, it was applied by Lagrange to mechanical problems in analytical mechanics. The variational problems in the chapter have been simplified for ease of understanding upon first introduction, in order to give a general mathematical framework. This chapter takes a relaxed approach to explain how the Euler–Lagrange equation is derived using this method. It also discusses first integrals. The chapter closes by defining the functional derivative, which is used in classical field theory.
The Sisters’ World
Authors: Capp Bernard
Published: August 2018

The chapter’s main focus is the bond of friendship and support, both practical and emotional, among sisters at all levels of society. It is found that it was reflected in help during and after childbirth, taking in a young nephew or niece, providing shelter from an abusive husband, or (for the more literate) maintaining close links by letters. At the lower levels of society, support might include the loan of clothes, patching up a sister’s marital relationship, and physical violence directed against a personal enemy. Even young spinsters could have agency. The chapter also explores the contrasting evidence of rivalry and resentment. In some families, competition for the affection of parents or brothers can be traced. In others, tensions over seniority, sexual rivalry, or conflict over money, are found especially in the context of inheritance and unequal portions.
Samuel Pepys
Authors: Capp Bernard
Published: August 2018

The famous diarist Samuel Pepys felt responsible for the welfare of his three siblings, Tom, Pall, and John, an important aspect of his life that is often overlooked. In the case of feckless Tom, a tailor, Pepys sought to put his trade on an even keel and find him a wife. John, an idle student, had to be helped through university and into a career. In the case of Pall, plain and truculent, Pepys devoted huge time and effort to finding her security through marriage. His support and commitment is all the more striking given that he felt little affection for any of them, while they in turn resented his overbearing manner and demands for deference and obedience. Despite the rivalries, the family’s story underlines the strength of sibling ties, and the tensions within them, and shows the famous diarist in a new light.
Conclusion
Authors: Devetak Richard
Published: August 2018

This chapter restates the purpose of the book and sketches a way for critical international theory to be reoriented towards a historical mode of theorizing. Accepting the humanist and civil Enlightenment view that historical modes of knowledge are just as valuable as philosophical modes, the Conclusion suggests that critical international theory could do worse than think about addressing the ‘literate statesman’ and pursuing more modest reformist agendas aimed at combating the encroachment of metaphysics on politics. After distinguishing the contextual approach to history from post-Marxist and constructivist theories, the chapter proposes thinking of contextual intellectual history as a form of critical theory that can help international relations cultivate the ethical comportments and personae required to pursue the ends of civil Enlightenment. It also enables us to historicize our conceptions of theory, the international, and the critical.
Non-Naturalism Gone Quasi
Authors: Toppinen Teemu
Published: August 2018

Non-naturalism—roughly the view that normative properties and facts are sui generis—may be combined either with cognitivism (realist non-naturalism) or with non-cognitivism (quasi-realist non-naturalism). The chapter starts by explaining how the metaphysically necessary connections between the natural and the normative raise an explanatory challenge for realist non-naturalism, and how it is not at all obvious that quasi-realism offers a way of escaping the challenge. Having briefly explored different kinds of accounts of what it is to have thoughts concerning metaphysical necessity, it then proceeds to argue that once we understand the explanatory challenge in the light of a quasi-realist take on normative judgments, this challenge takes the shape of a first-order normative issue, and will be answerable by the quasi-realists’ lights. When it comes to explaining the necessary connections between the normative and the natural, all will be fine, it seems, if non-naturalists just go a little quasi.
What is (In)coherence?
Authors: Worsnip Alex
Published: August 2018

Philosophers have recently been increasingly attentive to “coherence requirements,” with heated debates about both the content of such requirements and their “normativity” (i.e., whether there is necessarily reason to obey them). Yet there is little work on the metanormative status of coherence requirements. Metaphysically: what is it for two or more mental states to be jointly incoherent, such that they are banned by a coherence requirement? In virtue of what are some putative requirements genuine and others not? Epistemologically: how are we to know which requirements are genuine and which are not? This chapter offers an account that tries to answer these questions. On this account, the incoherence of a set of attitudes is a matter of its being constitutive of the attitudes in question that any agent who holds these attitudes jointly is disposed, when conditions of full transparency are met, to give at least one of them up.
The Rationality of Ends
Authors: Svavarsdóttir Sigrún
Published: August 2018

This chapter defends the thesis that an agent can display more or less rationality in selecting ends, even final ends, against the background of a conception of practical rationality as an excellence in the exercise of cognitive capacities in one’s practical endeavors. It moreover argues that Humeans and anti-Humeans alike should accept this conclusion, while refocusing their disagreement on the question of whether excellence in the exercise of cognitive capacities in one’s practical endeavors invariably yields a configuration of attitudes which precludes that some specific kinds of ends make good sense to the agent, so that having these kinds of ends is a sure sign of irrationality. By way of preliminaries, the chapter also offers a new (partial) account of ends and motivates the cognitive excellence conception of practical rationality in preference to conceptions of practical rationality as responsiveness to normative reasons or as coherence of attitudes and actions.
Other topics
Authors: Janssen Ted , Chapuis Gervais , de Boissieu Marc
Published: August 2018

The law of rational indices to describe crystal faces was one of the most fundamental law of crystallography and is strongly linked to the three-dimensional periodicity of solids. This chapter describes how this fundamental law has to be revised and generalized in order to include the structures of aperiodic crystals. The generalization consists in using for each face a number of integers, with the number corresponding to the rank of the structure, that is, the number of integer indices necessary to characterize each of the diffracted intensities generated by the aperiodic system. A series of examples including incommensurate multiferroics, icosahedral crystals, and decagonal quaiscrystals illustrates this topic. Aperiodicity is also encountered in surfaces where the same generalization can be applied. The chapter discusses aperiodic crystal morphology, including icosahedral quasicrystal morphology, decagonal quasicrystal morphology, and aperiodic crystal surfaces; magnetic quasiperiodic systems; aperiodic photonic crystals; mesoscopic quasicrystals, and the mineral calaverite.
Austin as Theorist
Authors: Kaplan Mark
Published: August 2018

Explains why it is a mistake to think of Austin as an anti-philosopher; lays out what Austin had to say about the nature of knowledge; shows how Austin sought to reconcile his fallibilist take on the nature of knowledge with the thought that, if you know, you can’t be wrong; raises, and lays to rest, four worries about the account of knowledge presupposed by Austin’s critique of the dream argument: (i) that his account goes wrong in holding that what a person knows at a time depends on what there is special reason to suspect at that time, (ii) that his account is over-intellectualized, (iii) that his account fails to provide the sort of “in-virtue-of” explanations we expect a philosophical account to provide us, (iv) that he does not tell us how to deal with the skeptical argument from ignorance.
Philosophical Detachment Revisited
Authors: Kaplan Mark
Published: August 2018

Examines five attempts to show that the skeptically inclined philosopher has things she can point to that genuinely constrain what we can say from a detached philosophical perspective—things that suggest that we should say (from that perspective) exactly what the skeptically inclined philosopher would have us say; included are Barry Stroud’s appeals to a scenario involving plane-spotters, to the nature of the project of trying to understand human knowledge in general, to the tug of the dream argument, and to the thought that our ordinary practice of knowledge attribution is overly influenced by practical exigency; also included is a fifth appeal (not by Stroud) to the thought that there really isn’t anything out of the ordinary about waxing skeptical from a detached philosophical perspective; shows how each of these attempts goes wrong; along the way, explains and defends Austin’s take on the nature of perceptual experience.
Interpretation of the ICESCR
Authors: Moeckli Daniel
Published: August 2018

The Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights has developed a number of methods for interpreting the ICESCR that are often described as ‘special’ and as falling outside the framework of VCLT articles 31–33. However, this chapter argues that the VCLT can accommodate these methods. The real problem with the Committee’s interpretations is not their (il)legality but their (lack of) legitimacy. The Committee seems to equate legitimacy with sufficient State support. Accordingly, it constantly attempts to balance a moral reading of the Covenant with finding common ground among States parties. Yet legitimacy may derive not only from a source, such as State consent, but also from following a process of interpretation that is adequate and fair. For an interpretive practice to be legitimate, the interpreter must, at the very least, adhere to a set of principles, apply these coherently, and lay bare how a particular interpretive outcome is reached.
Insincerity and the Opacity of the Self
Authors: Stokke Andreas
Published: August 2018

This chapter discusses insincerity in light of the fact that many beliefs and intentions are non-transparent. First, for some mental states, one may be in such states without believing that one is. Second, for some mental states, one may believe that one is in such states without being in them. The chapter introduces the difference between deep and shallow conceptions of insincerity. On deep views, insincerity depends on attitudes that may be unconscious, while on shallow views, insincerity depends on one’s conscious mental attitudes. By considering examples involving conflict between what is said and the speaker’s beliefs about her beliefs, the chapter argues that the appropriate attitude to focus on is mental assent, which is an act of conscious judging as the result of consideration.