bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Touch Panel Sampling Strategies and Keypad Performance Comparisons
Authors: Beringer Dennis B.
Published: January 2012

A study was conducted to improve accuracy of touch input devices to be used in helicopter evnironments through serial sampling and minima selection algorithms. Neither first nor last contact point was congruent with point of minimum error and sampling techniques were derived to reduce error without using “touch-mouse” strategies, being most effective for the infrared panel. Wearing flight gloves and using the nonpreferred hand had no practical detrimental effects on performance for a high-resolution touch input task. In a second study several types of mechanical keypads were compared with the two types of touch-input devices. Results obtained with this menu-selection task suggested no practical degradation in performance when substituting the touch input devices for bezel-mounted hardware keys. This was true of both error rate (in a qualified sense) and response time. It was concluded that the touch-input devices could provide flexibility for high-resolution input using maps and other spatial forms of data while allowing effective use of previously developed menus and menu-selection routines without the need for auxiliary bezel-mounted mechanical keys.
Visual Scanning with or without Spatial Uncertainty and Time-Sharing Performance
Authors: Liu Yili , Wickens Christopher D.
Published: January 2012

We report here an experiment that examines the pattern of task interference between visual scanning as a sequential and selective attention process and other concurrent spatial or verbal processing tasks. A distinction is proposed between visual scanning with or without spatial uncertainty regarding the possible differential effects of these two types of scanning on interference with other concurrent processes. The experiment required the subject to perform a simulated primary tracking task, which was time-shared with a secondary spatial or verbal decision task. The relevant information that was needed to perform the decision tasks were displayed with or without spatial uncertainty. The experiment employed a 2 × 2 × 2 design with types of scanning (with or without spatial uncertainty), expected scanning distance (low/high) and codes of concurrent processing (spatial/verbal) as the three experimental factors. The results provide strong evidence that visual scanning as a spatial exploratory activity produces greater task interference with concurrent spatial tasks than with concurrent verbal tasks. Furthermore, spatial uncertainty in visual scanning is identified to be the crucial factor in producing this differential effect. Theoretical and practical implications of these results are also discussed.
Helmet Mounted Display Systems for Helicopter Simulation
Authors: Haworth Loran A. , Bucher Nancy , Runnings David
Published: January 2012

Simulation scientists continually pursue improved flight simulation technology with the goal of closely replicating the “real world” physical environment. The presentation/display of visual information for flight simulation is one such area enjoying recent technical improvements that are fundamental for conducting simulated operations close to the terrain. Detailed and appropriate visual information is especially critical for Nap-Of-the-Earth (NOE) helicopter flight simulation where the pilot maintains an “eyes-out” orientation to avoid obstructions and terrain. This paper elaborates on the visually-coupled Wide Field Of View Helmet Mounted Display (WFOVHMD) system technology as a viable visual display system for helicopter simulation. In addition the paper discusses research conducted on the NASA-Ames Vertical Motion Simulator that examined one critical research issue for helmet mounted displays.
Comparison of Time Delay during In-Flight and Ground Simulation
Authors: Gawron Valerie J. , Bailey Randall E. , Knotts Louis H. , McMillan Grant R.
Published: January 2012

An in-flight experiment was performed to investigate the effects of time delay on manual flight control and flying qualities. The experiment was conducted using the USAF/FDL variable-stability NT-33A aircraft. Pure time delay was added equally to the pitch and roll flight control system. Evaluation tasks were presented on a head-up display (HUD). Instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) were simulated which limited the visual cues available to the pilot to the 20 degree foveal scene provided by the HUD. The in-flight time delay data were generated with full fidelity, unlimited range of motion cues. Using the same cockpit and a digital aerodynamic simulation, the in-flight experiment was completely replicated as a fixed-based ground simulation. Thus, the effects of extreme conditions in motion cuing (i.e., full motion versus no-motion) were examined for constant visual cuing.
Neutral Buoyancy Methodology for Studying Satellite Servicing EVA Crewmember Interfaces
Authors: Barnby Mary E. , Griffin Thomas J. , Lewis Ruthan
Published: January 2012

Current economic constraints indicate the need for incorporating the satellite servicing philosophy of commonality within the design of spacecraft subsystems. This philosophy is essential for conserving resources including hardware/software development and implementation costs, on-orbit and ground-based manpower, crew training/testing time, and documentation. In addition, spacecraft subsystem commonality may be coupled with standardization of operational procedures, and test and verification techniques for spacecraft design. Several spacecraft have adapted this practice, including Hubble Space Telescope, Space Station Freedom, and the Explorer Platform. As these and other programs continue and if effective crew interfaces and procedures are clearly and consistently defined, crew retraining for similar spacecraft subsystems will lessen, and procurement efforts will diminish. A relatively high fidelity zero-gravity simulation using water immersion is available to establish crew interfaces economically. The flexibility and utility of this space simulation medium for planning and assisting on-orbit operations was exemplified by astronaut evaluations of potential extravehicular activity electrical connectors. The testing was conducted at a National Aeronautics and Space Administration underwater neutral buoyancy training facility.
Iterative Usability Testing of a Security Application
Authors: Karat Clare-Marie
Published: January 2012

This paper reports the results of three iterative usability tests of a security application as it evolved through the application development process and highlights the use of several methodological techniques: 1) reusable color foil prototypes of application panels as an alternative to developing online prototypes during short development cycles, 2) field tests as a complement to laboratory tests, 3) iterative testing of an evolving prototype, and 4) analysis of dollar value of usability work. The techniques used represent an attempt to apply usability engineering to system design (Whiteside, Bennett, and Holtzblatt; 1988) and to provide management with a dollar value estimate of human factors work (Mantei, 1988). Significant improvements in end user performance and satisfaction occurred across the three iterative tests (field prototype test, laboratory prototype test, and laboratory integration test) conducted across 7 months with 27 participants. The product usability objective was met during the third test. By using the reusable foil prototypes of the interface panels, usability staff were able to efficiently and effectively identify problems, make design changes, and retest the panels. The field test furnished unique data necessary to understanding end user issues. Iterative testing provided the opportunity to test the impact of changes made to the interface and a reliability check on previous results. The methodology for computing the value of usability work provided a feasible way of analyzing the cost benefit of the human factors work.
Use of Computer Graphics and Cluster Analysis in Aiding Relational Judgment
Authors: Liu Yili
Published: January 2012

An experiment is conducted to investigate the use of computer graphics and cluster analysis in aiding human relational judgment. The experimental stimuli were similarity matrices from real-world data sources. The experimental tasks required the subjects to detect the number of clusters or to judge the similarity value between a designated pair of objects in the displayed matrix. Each matrix was either ordered randomly or arranged according to the results of cluster analysis. Each matrix was displayed in one of four schemes: number scheme, color scheme, size scheme or 3-D vertical line scheme. The results indicated that the cluster-ordered displays greatly facilitated cluster detection performance in three out of the four display schemes, with the 3-D line scheme as the only exception. Matrix ordering had no effect on the value judgment task. The proximity compatibility principle (Wickens, 1987) and theories of perceptual grouping (Garner, 1976; Pomerantz, 1981) provided predictions and were tested in this experiment. Theoretical and practical implications were also discussed.
On the Use of a Primitive Formal Language and Ill-Defined Quantifiers in Knowledge Acquisition
Authors: Deffner Gerhard , Ahrens Reinhard
Published: January 2012

This paper describes a tool for knowledge acquisition and its empirical evaluation. The main characteristics are the use of a highly restricted language allowing for the expression of rules by means of cards and their combination. In order to assess the feasibility of the approach, subjects were trained in the use of a computer simulation that only gave them very general, unspecific, feedback about the internal workings of the system. It was their newly gained knowledge about how to control the system that was probed in a subsequent knowledge acquisition step. We observed substantial accuracy and also demonstrated its validity in a comparison against prior performance.
The Content of Help Screens: Users versus Developers
Authors: Keister Richard S.
Published: January 2012

Following a training course where 15 entry operators received hands-on experience with a software application package and its help screens, questionnaires which included 34 help screen features to be rated as to their importance, was administered. Examining the ratings in terms of features which were included in the current help screens indicated that users were reasonably satisfied with the help screens except in two unimplemented areas: intelligent help and the ability to access all help screens from anywhere in the system. The same items were then rated by a sample of 15 software developers. Results showed that the two sets of ratings differed significantly. Examinations of individual items suggested that developers tended to place more emphasis on technical implementation of help systems, while users tended to be more concerned with items directly related to their jobs, such as the existence of step-by-step instructions and the ability to restore the entry screen.
Human Factors as Design: An Attempt to Bridge the Gap between Basic and Applied Research
Authors: Moray Neville
Published: January 2012

This paper describes a course in the human factors of the design of complex systems. The course content, methods, and source materials were chosen to emphasize the possibility of using “basic” research in the applied problem of designing complex human-machine systems. Students were required to handle interdisciplinary knowledge and work with engineers on designing a process control plant.

Three important principles are proposed to enable basic research to be applied to design problems. These are the Principle of Boundary Conditions which allows false theories to be useful: the Principle of Limiting Values, which allows exact quantities collected in context free research to be used in context dependent design: and the Principle of Importance in statistics, which states that significant results which have small magnitudes should be ignored in design.

The paper will describe the experience of centering human factors training on design rather than knowledge acquisition.
Computer Aided Design of the Thermal Environment
Authors: Parsons Kenneth C.
Published: January 2012

The use in design, of knowledge and understanding of human thermal comfort, heat stress and cold stress, is often complex and time consuming. A computer based system (IBM-PC) was developed to allow human factors practitioners to assess and manipulate knowledge, data and simulations of human response to thermal environments, thus allowing computer aided design. A description of the system, its design and development and examples of its use are provided. The role of such systems in design and assessment should be considered by human factors practitioners.
Analyses of Automobile Interiors Using a Semantic Differential Method
Authors: Shimizu Youji , Yanagishima Takayuki , Jindo Tomio , Nagamachi Mituo
Published: January 2012

It is important to design and engineer cars with greater emphasis on human sensibilities in order to create an attractive, habitable car interior. In this research, the impressions people receive from a car interior were evaluated using the semantic differential method. The results made clear the evaluation structure of interior habitability and the relationship between subjective impressions and design/aesthetic elements. The knowledge gained through this research provided the foundations for establishing a simulation procedure for evaluating car interior impressions.
Isometric Pushing, Pulling, and Lifting Strengths in Three Postures
Authors: Gallagher Sean
Published: January 2012

Nine underground coal miners (Mean age = 36.9 yrs ± 6.3 SD; height = 174.5 cm ± 7.4 SD; weight = 87.8 kg ± 12.5 SD) participated in a Bureau of Mines study examining the effects of posture on isometric strength. Five tests of static strength (i.e. maximum push, maximum pull, maximum lift with elbows flexed at 90 degrees, maximum lift with lifting handle 45.7 cm [18 inches] above floor, and maximum push up with handle at eye height) were performed in three postures: standing, kneeling on one knee, and kneeling on two knees. Results indicated that neither test of lifting strength was affected by posture ( p > 0.05). However, maximum pulling strength was significantly greater when kneeling on one knee ( p < 0.001) than when standing or kneeling on both knees. Also, maximum pushing strength was greater when kneeling on both knees than when standing ( p < 0.05). The test of maximum push up was not affected by posture ( p > 0.05), and the force generated in the three postures for this test were highly correlated ( r = .94). Results of these strength tests may be useful when recommending appropriate postures to assume when performing specific underground materials-handling tasks.
How can Manufacturing Human Factors Help save a Company: Intervention at High and Low Levels
Authors: Drury C.G. , Kleiner B.M. , Zahorjan J.
Published: January 2012

Now that manufacturing has become a respectable topic in industry, an obvious question is how human factors/ergonomics can contribute to the improvement of manufacturing. The traditional route for ergonomics intervention has been a Project route, with a set of objectives agreed between the human factors engineer and people within the company. Projects, however, do not ask the question of whether human factors intervention is likely to have an impact on the company's strategic objectives, for example, remaining in the manufacturing of a particular product.

Case studies in a variety of industries are used to contrast the project approach with a more strategic approach. It is concluded that the project may represent sub-optimization in that a successful outcome of the project may have no impact upon company survival without a careful examination of the strategic plans of the company.
An Ergonomic Evaluation of Customer Service Operations — A Case Study
Authors: Thomas Robert E. , Congleton Jerome J. , Horsford William H.
Published: January 2012

Computer equipment repair services are a major and highly competitive industry. An ergonomic evaluation of the activities, methods, facilities and tools used by individual field service representatives of a major computer manufacturer were studied. Results indicated that good ergonomic interventions could reduce employee injuries while increasing productivity and rate-of-return on operations.
A Study of Several Performance Measures of Workers with Carpal Tunnel Syndrome
Authors: Fernandez Jeffrey E. , Malzahn Don E. , Marley Robert J. , Bonebrake Alan R.
Published: January 2012

Objective measures of anthropometry, strength, range-of-motion, muscle activity, and task performance, and subjective ratings of pain were observed in a group of individuals diagnosed with carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS). These measures were compared to a control population showing no symptoms of CTS. Results indicate that individuals with CTS had significantly lower values on some strength tests, less range of motion on several measures, and reduced performance on a simulated task than did the control group. Ratings of pain and distress for the CTS group were also significantly higher than the control group. Occupational and personality factors associated with the CTS group were also identified and discussed.
Lesson Prototyping in Multinational Computer-Based Training Program Development
Authors: Lierman Bruce C.
Published: January 2012

Many training projects seek to obtain the maximum return from investment in computer based training (CBT) by adapting the training materials to all potential trainees in diverse nations and settings. Lesson prototyping, especially modeling of the interactivity between the trainee and the program, provides a means to confirm the effectiveness of the program before investments are made in preparing multi-cultural presentation materials. The interactivity model enables program designers to gather data on trainee interaction at the earliest possible stage of development. Data collected from trainee and expert interaction with the interactivity model is used to modify the structure of the presentation and insure that all training requirements have been addressed. Data collection from an interactivity model is particularly valuable in determining assistance requirements and cultural factors in the program structure early in the development process. This methodology may help to reduce overall training development costs and lead time.
Organizational Factors in Quality Circle Activities
Authors: Nagamachi Mitsuo , Nakai Luisa V. , Hatamoto Keiko , Matsushima Kayoko
Published: January 2012

At present, Quality Circle (QC) activity is prevailing in the world, because we recognize that it contributes to an improvement of product quality as well as productivity. This paper identifies the main factors that enhance QC activity, emphasizing the organizational ones. Through a survey of enterprises working with QC activity, we find out an interrelation of factors. Factor management influences the factor culture and this last one leads to workers' involvement in jobs and to higher productivity.
CSCW: Evolution and Status of Computer Supported Cooperative Work
Authors: Cornell Paul , Luchetti Robert , Mack Lisbeth A. , Olson Gary M.
Published: January 2012

Recently we have experienced an exponential increase in the use of work groups to solve business problems, make decisions and develop products. In the past five years several products and facilities have come on-line which provide computer support for group activities. As is typical of new fields, this domain goes by many names, the most common being computer-supported cooperative work (CSCW).

The pace of research and development in CSCW is brisk. In this symposium we review these developments and describe the state-of-the-art. Many forms of CSCW exist, but here we will focus specifically on collaboration that occurs in the same time and place. Since much of the literature does not overlap that of the typical human factors professional, the review focuses on the interests and concerns of our discipline. Included in the review are five of the better known labs: Capture Lab (EDS), Project Nick (MCC), Prexsys (U. of Arizona), the Pod (ICL), and Colab (Xerox). Also reviewed is our own work-in-progress at the Collaboration Technology Suite at the University of Michigan and Andersen Consulting, and the Behavioral and Environmental Research group at Steelcase, Inc.

Four areas of concern are covered: the nature of group work, technological alternatives, ergonomic and environmental concerns, and future directions. CSCW technology holds much promise for facilitating group performance. It is felt that existing and emerging CSCW technology is not the obstacle but rather a catalyst for change, potentially altering the process and content of collaborative work.
Personality and Flight Training Performance
Authors: Shull Ronald N. , Dolgin Daniel L.
Published: January 2012

Current naval aircrew selection research typically focuses on psychomotor and cognitive abilities, but evidence from flight training attrition studies suggests that many failures may be due to personality/motivational factors. This study concerns the relationships found between elements of primary flight training performance and the results of two automated personality assessment instruments: a risk test and a pilot personality questionnaire. Both risk test measures correlated significantly with a simple pass/fail index but not with actual flight grades for either student pilots or flight officers. Several of the pilot personality scales correlated significantly with various flight training criteria but many of these were also not orthogonal to measures of the current Navy/Marine Corps aviation selection test battery, while both risk test measures were.
Comprehensibility estimates of public information symbols; their validity and use
Authors: Zwaga Harm J.
Published: January 2012

Estimation scores of comprehensibility were obtained for 109 hospital symbols, divided over five different sets. These scores were compared with the results of a comprehension test of those symbols. It is shown that the estimation scores can be used in a reliable way to identify good and bad symbols at an early stage. It is further demonstrated that the number of symbols to be tested for the ISO testing procedure can be substantially reduced.
A Human Factors and Human Reliability Programme for the Design of a Large UK Nuclear Chemical Plant
Authors: Kirwan B
Published: January 2012

This paper outlines a three year long, fifteen person-year effort to achieve a safer and more productive plant through the integration of human factors into the design and assessment process for a new plant. The implementation of the human factors and human reliability programme is at half-way point. This programme addresses issues such as adequacy of the VDU monitoring and control system, adequacy of panels in the Central Control Room and on local plant, and staffing arrangements, using techniques ranging from task analysis and audit techniques, to the running of experiments to determine acceptable VDU information density, and the application of techniques of human error analysis and workload assessment. The human reliability side of the programme has involved the development of a new human reliability management system, based partly on two experiments which comparatively evaluated error identification and error quantification techniques. The programme, as carried out so far, on the design and proposed operational structure, and future work proposals, are briefly outlined.
Risk Perception is Affected by Experience
Authors: Leonard S. David , Hill G. William
Published: January 2012

Use of safety devices concerns human factors and safety personnel both as a practical matter of reducing injuries and saving lives and as a basis for studying theories of human behavior. Many reasons are given for non-use of these devices. Seatbelt use provides a good model for examining generally what factors affect safety behaviors. Slovic, Fischoff, and Lichtenstein (1978) suggested that failure to use seatbelts resulted from fear extinction, in that the effort required to fasten the belt was not reinforced and ultimately habit strength was reduced. A test of this hypothesis provided evidence for fear as a factor. Professed seatbelt use was an increasing function of distance driven. In addition, other hazards examined generally showed the greater experience with a hazard the lower the perception of risk, supporting an extinction explanation.
Human Performance Assessment to Support Rapid Prototyping and Iterative Design
Authors: Broyles James W.
Published: January 2012

Fourteen U.S. Navy personnel with Aegis Combat System, Naval Tactical Data System (NTDS), and Non-NTDS operational experience participated in an experiment designed to investigate the impact of proposed workstation designs on operator performance, system usability, and training. Human performance data were collected on a sample of operational procedures typically performed in a Combat Information Center (CIC) for a current Navy Combat System and a prototype workstation. The prototype was developed using specific human factors design principles with the goal of reducing training time, improving operator retention of skills for system operation, reducing errors in system operation, improving operator efficiency (e.g., speed & accuracy of performance), and improving user's satisfaction with the user-computer interface. This paper reports only the preliminary results for data collected from seven subjects who performed procedures using the prototype workstation.
Developing Human Factors Criteria for a New Reactor Plant
Authors: Waters Robert M. , Schroeder Lothar R. , Burgy Donald C.
Published: January 2012

Since the accident at Three-mile Island, many efforts have been initiated to provide human factors guidance and standards in the power industry. These guidelines and critieria along with military standards and specifications and general guidelines and criteria now exist in a multitude of documents that have been developed over a twenty year time frame. This paper describes efforts to consolidate this guidance into a single design criteria for the development of new reactor plants and to identify “gaps” in human factors standards relating to nuclear reactor design.
Incorporating Dynamic Field of View Information to Design the Next-Generation Black Hawk Helicopter Cockpit
Authors: Simon Robert , Dunn Dennis
Published: January 2012

Changing flight tactics and increased use of Night Vision Goggles (NVGs) has focused attention on the limited Field of View (FOV) of the Army UH-60A Black Hawk Helicopter. To improve the FOV in the next generation Black Hawk, the U.S. Army tasked an independent contractor to investigate the problem and propose alternatives.

The study involved a comprehensive review of Army requirement documents, existing FOV studies, and accident data. Close attention was given to dynamic flight characteristics that affect FOV. Also, the study team collected technical data related to military rotary wing design, administered a survey to pilots; and interviewed users and other technical experts.

The study revealed the current UH-60A design meets the requirements of MIL-STD-850B under static conditions. The only exception is the obstructed view that the door and windshield vertical structures create. However, under dynamic conditions the UH-60A cockpit design and normal flight characteristics substantially reduce the FOV in critical areas.

The study produced eleven options that can improve and/or enhance the next generation Black Hawk's FOV if incorporated into the new design. Each option is presented and discussed.
The Case for Independent Software Usability Testing: Lessons Learned from a Successful Intervention
Authors: Biers David W.
Published: January 2012

This report presents the lessons learned from a software usability test for an external customer. An initial evaluation with naive users revealed problems in the user interface and that the customer's objectives were not being met. After initial resistance to making changes in the software, the customer decided to delay release of its product to implement some of the recommendations and changed the focus of initial release to experienced users. The results of a second evaluation conducted on the revised product with experienced users were positive.

Several lessons can be learned from the above evaluation: (1) Usability evaluation should be incorporated earlier in the software development cycle to minimize resistance to changes in a hardened user interface; (2) Organizations should have an independent usability evaluation of software products to avoid the temptation to overlook problems to release the product; (3) Multiple categories of dependent measures should be employed in usability testing because subjective measurement is not always consonant with user performance; and (4) Even though usability testing at the later stages of development may not impact software changes, it is useful to point out areas where training is needed to overcome deficiencies in the software.
Transfer of Training as a Function of Semantic Relatedness in a Category Search Task
Authors: Hodge Kevin A. , Fisk Arthur D.
Published: January 2012

It has been demonstrated that highly trained, automatic processes can transfer across certain memory search tasks; the degree to which these processes may be exhibited in visual search tasks has not been established, however. We examined this issue by testing the transfer of highly trained, automatized components of a semantic category, visual search task to stimulus situations of varying degrees of relatedness. We developed an adaptive version of the multiple-frame detection task (Schneider and Shiffrin, 1977) in order to test performance at the limits of visual search capacity. During training, frame-time was the dependent variable and was determined by each participant's performance ability. Each received 6,090 trials on exemplars from a single semantic category. Transfer consisted of two sessions, 330 trials per session. Transfer performance reveals that participants became highly proficient at the task: by Session 3 accuracy stabilized at around 80%. Accuracy increased in direct relation to the degree of semantic relatedness of the transfer category to the previously trained category. Frame times decreased according to a normal power function. These data demonstrate the importance of consistent training for the development of “high performance” skills and effective transfer of these skills to other, related tasks. These results have important implications for training “high performance” skills in which visual search processes a crucial role.
Toward an Understanding of Skill Decay: Retention of Automatic Component Processes
Authors: Hodge Kevin A. , Fisk Arthur D.
Published: January 2012

This investigation addresses fundamental aspects of the reliability and stability of both basic cognitive functions and automatic processing components of skills. In the present experiment we investigated the pattern of component skill retention (or decay) exhibited after training on automatic and controlled processing task components. Participants were trained on a hybrid memory/visual, semantic-category search task and received low (720 trials), moderate (2,160 trials) and high (4,320 trials) amounts of consistently mapped (CM) training plus variably mapped (VM) training (720 trials). Retention was tested at five time intervals: one day, 30 days, 90 days, 180 days and 365 days following training. Critical data for this investigation involve the pattern of performance decay across conditions and retention intervals. After an initial decline in the first 30 days following training, performance in CM conditions remained stable from Day 30 to Day 365. VM performance was erratic. The present research has practical and theoretical significance for elucidation of the mechanisms underlying long-term retention of automatic processes. Specification of these mechanisms is essential in the attempt to predict performance after a period of inactivity, to determine what constitutes appropriate refresher training, and to designate which skill components to emphasize during training.
A Model for the Implementation of Embedded Training in an Army Radar Ground Station
Authors: Busch Tamara L.
Published: January 2012

This paper describes a model for the implementation of embedded training (ET) which may find applications in a variety of military systems. In addition, several of the “lessons learned” during the development of this methodology are summarized. Finally, recommendations for model enhancement are discussed.
Specific versus General Instructions: Initial Performance and Later Transfer
Authors: Catrambone Richard
Published: January 2012

Two experiments demonstrated that people who receive specific instructions (SI subjects) for using a word processor are able to accomplish initial tasks more quickly than people who receive more general instructions (GI subjects). Experiment 1 found, however, that SI subjects were unable to do a novel transfer task unless they received hints while GI subjects had no trouble with the transfer task. A production rule analysis was used to guide a revision of the specific instructions so that those instructions promoted generalization. Experiment 2 used these revised specific instructions and found that SI subjects were now able to do a novel transfer task about as well as GI subjects. These results suggest that a production system is a useful tool for analyzing instructions and predicting user performance and that specific instructions designed to promote generalization may be the most effective type of instructions.
Color Contrast Requirements for Legibility of Color Symbology Displayed against Color Backgrounds
Authors: Wilson Denise L. , Crawford Robyn
Published: January 2012

A Signal Detection paradigm was utilized in a symbol recognition experiment designed to determine how far apart, in CIE/UCS color space, symbol and background chromaticities must be in order for observers to reliably recognize the symbol. Hits and d' were found to increase significantly and false alarms to decrease significantly as a function of increased distance between symbol and background chromaticities. The d' measure of sensitivity was generally found to be 3.0 or greater for symbol/background chromaticity differences of 0.06 units in 1976 UCS color space. However, d' was considerably lower for symbol/background pairs for which increasing distance between symbol and background chromaticity was associated with the background chromaticity having an increasing blue component. The area of application of the research results is in the design specification of color coded symbology to be overlaid on moving map, situational awareness, displays.
An Operator Workload Assessment Program for Army Systems
Authors: Christ Richard E. , Braun Bruce
Published: January 2012

Projected manpower declines coupled with increases in personnel costs and battlefield sophistication has prompted an increased reliance on high technology equipment in new Army systems. This advanced technology often features highly automated functions and promises substantially increased human and system productivity. However, potential enhancements to system performance may not be realized because the new technology frequently increases human perceptual, cognitive and psychomotor requirements to the point where the system operator may be said to be overloaded. Such a condition not only endangers the mission, but also threatens the safety of the soldier.

As a result of these concerns, the Army Research Institute (ARI) has initiated a long-term research progran aimed at controlling excessive operator/crew workload in emerging Army systems. The objective of a recently completed three-year work unit of the workload research program was to validate operator workload measures on three Army systems and use the results to develop guidance for controlling operator workload in new Army systems. This research work unit - the Operator Workload (OWL) Program - has developed a number of products which contribute to the Army's initiative for Manpower and Personnel Integration (MANPRINT) during the acquisition and continuing development of materiel systems.

The objective of this symposium is to present an overview of the approach and accomplishments of the OWL program, highlight two examples of experimental and analytical work which has been completed, describe an expert system developed to provide practical guidance on how best to assess workload levels for a given set of circumstances, and identify several areas for future research.

With guidance provided by the discussant and input from members of the audience, the desired impact of this symposium will be a heightened awareness of the importance to the Army MANPRINT initiative of this and other continuing research programs. The long term objectives of these research efforts should be to develop reliable and valid methods which: (1) forecast the impact of operator workload on the design and performance of new Army systems, (2) effectively allocate workload-imposing tasks among soldier, hardware, and software components of systems and assess the influence of workload factors on the organizational design of Army units, and (3) establish procedures for the selection, classification, and training of soldiers to effectively cope with operator workload in operational situations.
An Integrated Visual Search and Memory Retrieval Model of Inspection
Authors: Goldberg Joseph H. , Latorella Kara A.
Published: January 2012

A joint visual search and memory retrieval model of visual inspection is described here to allow improved prediction of inspection time and accuracy. The model includes search between and within regions of a part, and describes decision making as a series of comparisons between a potential defect and a series of probabilistically-ordered attributes. Inspection errors are expected when low probability attributes are not reliably checked, or when poorly organized.
Decision Support in the Cockpit: Probably a Good Thing?
Authors: Selcon Stephen J.
Published: January 2012

This paper considers the use of Expert Decision Support systems in the context of military fast-jet aircraft, with particular reference to the concept of the Electronic Crewmember or Pilot's Associate. Two studies are described which were carried out to investigate the utility of one such approach, that of providing explicit, system-generated probability estimates at the interface to reduce the uncertainty associated with the decision. Subjects were required to make ‘real-world’ driving/navigation decisions with and without externally generated probability labels. Decision latencies, subjective confidence, and memory for details of the decision were measured. It was found that the provision of probability values, which clearly distinguished between decision options, reduced decision latencies and increased subjective confidence, without interfering with memory for relevant details of the decision. Probability values with very small absolute differences between options increased the decision times. The results are used to attempt to provide a tentative information processing model of decision making and to identify areas of further research which are necessary.
Targeting Decisions Using Multiple Imaging Sensors: Operator Performance and Calibration
Authors: Weisgerber Scott A. , Kibbe Marion P.
Published: January 2012

Two experiments investigate target identification performance and operator calibration (i.e., the ability to evaluate the accuracy of one's own performance) using sensor imagery from either a single information source or two separate sources. The experimental task required subjects to identify a target ship among two distractors using either simulated forward-looking infrared (FLIR) imagery, simulated range only radar (ROR) imagery or both information sources presented simultaneously. Relative to the single-sensor condition, performance in the dual-sensor condition was either enhanced or degraded depending on the quality of the information presented on each sensor. Operator calibration was found to be poor, with operators consistently underestimating the accuracy of their target identification performance. Similar patterns of performance and calibration were found for both non-aviators (Experiment 1) and experienced aviators (Experiment 2). The finding that operators were often unable to integrate effectively two sources of sensor information implies that it might not be advisable to provide pilots with all of the information available in a multi-sensor suite unless additional cues are provided to aid in the integration of the information. Poor operator calibration could negatively impact targeting by leading to inappropriate delays (underconfidence) or misidentifications (overconfidence). Suggestions for improvement of operator information integration and calibration are offered.
An Initial Test of a Normative Figure of Merit for the Quality of Overall Task Performance
Authors: LeMay Moira , Comstock J. Raymond
Published: January 2012

An overall indicator, or Figure Of Merit (FOM), of the quality of crew/vehicle system performance is needed to establish the effect of workload on efficiency and to identify overload conditions. A normative FOM is proposed in which performance is measured on a representative task and a normative database obtained. FOMs for subsequent executions of the task are then reported in terms of weighted deviations from average task performance. Performance of discrete tasks is measured primarily in terms of subtask time and errors. Discrete task performance is then combined with a measure of continuous vehicle control. In order to test the normative FOM procedure, the technique was applied to an existing set of data from a simulated landing task in which standard communications with ATC was compared with a data link communications system. The results indicated that while mean task performance was not affected, task variability, as measured by the FOM, was significantly higher when data link communications were used. In order to establish the sensitivity of the normative FOM method, further testing of the measure is recommended.
Map Display Design
Authors: Aretz Anthony J.
Published: January 2012

This paper presents a cognitive model of a pilot's navigation task and describes an experiment comparing a visual momentum map display to the traditional track-up and north-up approaches. The data show the advantage to a track-up map is its congruence with the ego-centered forward view; however, the development of survey knowledge is hindered by the inconsistency of the rotating display. The stable alignment of a north-up map aids the acquisition of survey knowledge, but there is a cost associated with the mental rotation of the display to a track-up alignment for ego-centered tasks. The results also show that visual momentum can be used to reduce the mental rotation costs of a north-up display.
Computer Communication among Older Adults
Authors: Czaja Sara J. , Clark M. Cherie , Weber Ruth A. , Nachbar Daniel
Published: January 2012

Currently an estimated 2.8 million people aged 65 years or older need some type of assistance in carrying out everyday activities. Therefore, there exists a need to identify strategies which enhance the functional independence of older adults. There are a number of computer and communication technologies which can be used to provide support. For the potential of these technologies to be realized, they must be easy to use, easily available and accepted by older adults. The goal of this research project was to evaluate the feasibility of having older people use computers to perform tasks in their own home environment and to identify design parameters which facilitate their interaction with these systems. The study involved installing a customized e-mail system in the homes of 38 elderly women. Additional features were added over the course of the project. Data collected included: frequency of use, number and type of messages sent, communication patterns, time distribution of messages and frequency of features used. Overall the results of the study indicate that older adults are willing and able to use computers in their own homes if the system is simple, features are added in an incremental fashion and they are provided with a supportive environment.
Evaluating the Icon-Based Interface for Words Strategy, an Augmentative Communication System
Authors: Jean Daryle
Published: January 2012

The purpose of this paper is to present an evaluation of the icon-based interface employed in Words Strategy, an augmentative communication system used by speech impaired and nonspeaking individuals. Words Strategy is a software system implemented in the Prentke Romich Touchtalker, a special purpose computer which allows individuals to enter entire sentences with very few keystrokes, and which provides synthetic speech output of those sentences. The system has been criticized because of the long training period required for mastery, and because its use of multi-meaning icons might impose a severe memory load on the user (Light et al., 1988). The two studies presented derived a learning curve for Words Strategy and investigated the relearning of the system six months after initial training. The Touchtalker keyboard layout was also evaluated. Results indicated that the assignment of multiple meanings to an icon did not create a problem; in fact, it enhanced performance. In addition, relearning of the icon associations occurred rapidly, generally within one trial. The implications of the data for redesign of the Touchtalker keyboard are discussed.
Evaluative Methods for Rapid Prototypes
Authors: Herring Richard D.
Published: January 2012

There are a variety of techniques that can evaluate rapid prototype design alternatives for human-machine interfaces. These techniques can be used singly, or in combination. Empirical techniques require that the analyst obtain data from respondents who exercise a rapid prototype. Empirical techniques include questionnaires, observation and unobtrusive methods of data collection, and retention tests. Analytic techniques do not require data collection, but require that the analyst have a formal description of the human-machine interface and use methods for evaluating these descriptions. Analytic techniques include structured walkthroughs, behavioral models of human-machine interaction, Operator Sequence Diagrams (OSD), and Link Analysis. Empirical and analytical techniques can lead to systems that are more likely to meet users' needs, especially when the analyst employs several techniques simultaneously.
A Human Factors Evaluation: The Explosive Ordnance Disposal / Automated Information Retrieval and Expert System (EOD/AIRES)
Authors: Krass Adam E. , Miller Robert F. , Grynovicki Jock O.
Published: January 2012

The Explosive Ordnance Disposal/Automated Information Retrieval & Expert System (EOD/AIRES) is a combination of state-of-the art computer hardware and software, developed by the U.S. Army Electronics Technology & Devices Laboratory (ETDL) to assist EOD teams in identifying and rendering safe unexploded ordnance. This study examines the identification time and error rate of using the EOD/AIRES versus using the current method, the TM-60 series manuals. Identification time was significantly reduced using the EOD/AIRES for less-experienced, U.S. Army EOD soldiers. Error rates decreased with the EOD/AIRES, but not by statistically significant amounts. The qualitative results clearly show a preference for the EOD/AIRES.