bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Semiconductor Spintronic Devices
Authors: Flatté Michael E.
Published: December 2007

The sensitivity of semiconductor materials to external perturbations extends to their magnetic properties and other spin‐dependent behavior. Dilute magnetic dopants interact via the carriers in carrier‐mediated ferromagnetic semiconductors, so reducing the carrier concentration with a gate voltage can alter the magnetic properties of these materials. The spin orientation of carriers can change in response to their motion, leading to gate‐controlled spin lifetimes and optical coupling to spin. Semiconductors also offer the potential for nonlinear spin‐dependent transport, particularly at junctions between materials with different magnetizations. These unusual fundamental properties may lead to novel magneto‐optical and magnetoelectronic devices, including magnetic analogs to conventional transistors.
High‐temperature Superconductivity—Magnetic Mechanisms
Authors: Norman Michael R.
Published: December 2007

A brief history concerning the relation of magnetism to superconductivity and the possibility that magnetic correlations are responsible for certain types of superconductors is given. The central focus is on high‐temperature cuprate superconductivity and the important question of whether its d‐wave pairing is caused by antiferromagnetic or singlet correlations. Connected with this question is the much debated relation of the pseudogap phase to the superconducting phase, and whether lattice degrees of freedom are relevant or not.
Quantum Computing with Spins in Solids
Authors: Coish William A. , Loss Daniel
Published: December 2007

The ability to perform high‐precision one‐ and two‐qubit operations is sufficient for universal quantum computation. For the Loss–DiVincenzo proposal to use single‐electron spins confined to quantum dots as qubits, it is therefore sufficient to analyze only single‐ and coupled double‐dot structures, since the strong Heisenberg exchange coupling between spins in this proposal falls off exponentially with distance and long‐ranged dipolar coupling mechanisms can be made significantly weaker. A scaled‐up quantum computer could then be constructed from many single‐ and double‐dot elements. This scalability of the Loss–DiVincenzo design is both a practical necessity for eventual applications of multiqubit quantum computing and a great conceptual advantage, making analysis of the relevant components relatively transparent and systematic. We review the Loss–DiVincenzo proposal for quantum‐dot‐confined electron‐spin qubits, and survey the current state of experiment and theory regarding the relevant single‐ and double‐quantum dots, with a brief look at some related alternative schemes for quantum computing.
Geometry‐driven Magnetoresistance
Authors: Solin Stuart A. , Ram‐Mohan L. Ramdas
Published: December 2007

Magnetoresistance (MR) in materials arises from two properties of the system. One is the physical MR that is dependent on the intrinsic properties of the materials in the physical system. The second source originates in the geometric structure and distribution of the materials in the physical system. In this review, we focus on the geometric MR and show how it can be altered and dramatically enhanced in two cases. First, in metal–semiconductor hybrid (MSH) structures, the judicious distribution of metal and semiconductor leads to a dramatic increase in the MR due to the rerouting of the current passing preferentially through the metallic regions at low fields, due to their high conductivity, into the semiconductor regions in the presence of a magnetic field. This phenomenon is now known asextraordinary magnetoresistance(EMR), with observed room‐temperature EMR in excess of 100% at 0.05 T and reaching values of 106% at 5 T. This property of the MSH has been shown to be scalable down to structure dimensions on the order of ∼50 nm with a measured EMR of 35% at a signal field of 0.05 T. The details of the diffusive transport mechanism leading to the enhancements in MR are presented. Second, in nanocontacts between ferromagnetic wires, the quantum point contact leads to a ballistic magnetoresistance (BMR) that is due to the development of a domain wall (DW) between the wires when they are magnetized in an antiparallel configuration. The scattering of electrons by the DW in the nanochannels between the wires changes the conductance of the channel, and BMR of ∼300–3000% and higher have been observed. Here again the geometric origin of the MR is evident. The various aspects of the nanochannel governing BMR are discussed. Both geometric enhancements show great promise for technological applications in the area of reliable nanoscale sensors for computer read heads, magnetic actuators and switches, and biological sensors.
Magnetic Polarons
Authors: von Molnár Stephan , Stampe Patricia A.
Published: December 2007

We review the experimental evidence and conceptual models for magnetic polarons, a collective state that can explain many of the transport properties of concentrated and diluted magnetic semiconductors.
The Kondo Effect in Mesoscopic Quantum Dots
Authors: Grobis Michael , Rau Ileana G. , Potok Ronald M. , Goldhaber‐Gordon David
Published: December 2007

A dilute concentration of magnetic impurities can dramatically affect the transport properties of an otherwise pure metal. This phenomenon, known as the
Kondo effect
, originates from the interactions of individual magnetic impurities with the conduction electrons. Nearly a decade ago, the Kondo effect was observed in a new system, in which the magnetic moment stems from a single unpaired spin in a lithographically defined quantum dot, or artificial atom. The discovery of the Kondo effect in artificial atoms spurred a revival in the study of Kondo physics, due in part to the unprecedented control of relevant parameters in these systems. In this review, we discuss the physics, origins, and phenomenology of the Kondo effect in the context of recent quantum dot experiments. After a brief historical introduction (Section 1), we first discuss the spin‐1/2 Kondo effect (Section 2) and how it is modified by various parameters, external couplings, and nonideal conduction reservoirs (Section 3). Next, we discuss measurements of more exotic Kondo systems (Section 4) and conclude with some possible future directions (Section 5).
Hot Electron Spintronics
Authors: Jiang Xin , van Dijken Sebastiaan , Parkin Stuart
Published: December 2007

This article reviews recent experimental progress in hot electron spintronics. Experiments from various research groups using spin‐resolved electron transmission in ferromagnetic‐metal thin films are presented and the concept of spin‐filtering is introduced. These studies provide key insights into the operation of hot electron spintronic devices. Several applications based on hot electron spin‐filtering are also discussed, including ballistic electron emission microscopy, the spin‐valve transistor, and the magnetic tunnel transistor. Finally, the topic of hot electron spin injection into semiconductors is briefly reviewed.
Theory of Spin‐polarized Current and Spin‐transfer Torque in Magnetic Multilayers
Authors: Slonczewski John
Published: December 2007

An introduction to the theory of quantized spin‐polarized electron transport perpendicular to the plane of a magnetic multilayer with noncollinear magnetization vectors. The dependence of resistance and current‐driven torque on relative angle between two magnetic moments of a multilayer pillar are derived. Spacers of both metallic and insulating tunnel‐barrier types are considered. The classical Landau–Lifshitz equation describes the dynamics of the magnetization created by spin‐transfer torque.
Comparison Between Liquid State and Solid State Electrochemistry
Authors: Riess Ilan
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

We discuss the similarities and differences between liquid‐state electrochemistry (LSE) and solid‐state electrochemistry (SSE). Although based on the same thermodynamic principles, the properties of these cells are quite distinct. Differences exist in the bulk conduction mechanism, partially in electrode reaction and in cell construction and morphology. This also leads to differences in applications.

Introduction

Electrochemical Cell Geometry

Cells Based on
LEs

Cells Based on
SEs

Comparing the Two Groups of Cells

Charge Transport in Electrolytes

Charge Transport in
LEs

Charge Transport in
SEs

Summarizing the Differences Between Transport in
LEs
and
SEs

Theoretical Current Voltage Relations for Ideal
ECs
(No Electrode Polarization)

General Current Density Equations

Half Cells

Supporting Electrolyte

Boundary Conditions

Relations Between Open‐Circuit Voltage and the Nernst Voltage

Chemical Diffusion Coefficient

I
–
V
Relations

Methods for Characterizing
ECs

Methods for Characterizing
LEs
and
SEs
/
MIECs

Methods for Characterizing Elements in the
EC

Electrode Processes and Overpotentials

General

Inner (
G
alvani) Electrical Potential

Inner Electrical Potential in
LSE

Inner Electrical Potential in
SSE

I
–
V
Relations for Charge‐Transfer Processes in
LSE

The Butler–Volmer Equation for an Elementary Step

The Butler–Volmer Equation for Multistep Reactions

I
–
V
Relations for Charge‐Transfer Processes in
SSE

General

Ion Transfer

Electron Transfer

Further Discussion of Ion and Electron Transfer

Relating the Overpotential to a Difference in a Chemical or Electrochemical Potential

Conclusions for Charge‐Transfer Processes

Diffusion

Galvani Potential Distribution versus Electrochemical Potential Distribution

Heterogeneous Catalysis in
SSE
State of Art: Present Knowledge and Understanding
Authors: Horányi G.
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Historical Background

The Structure of the Double Layer

Thermodynamics and Models

The Extent of Adsorption

Adsorption Isotherm

Indication and Evaluation of Specific Adsorption

Specific Adsorption at Solid Electrodes

The End of the “Mercury Era”

Underpotential Deposition: A Limiting Case of Specific Adsorption

A Widely Used and Misinterpreted Misconception: The Electrosorption Valency

Interrelation of Anion Specific Adsorption andUPDof Metal Ions

The Generalization of the Thermodynamics of Monolayer Adsorption in Electrochemical Systems

Anion Adsorption on Well‐defined Crystal Surfaces

Methods of Investigation and Illustrative Examples

General Remarks

In Situ Techniques

Optical Techniques

Radiotracer Methods

Electrochemical Quartz Crystal Microbalance (EQCM) and Nanobalance (EQCN) Techniques

Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM) and Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM)

Ex Situ Methods

Electrochemical Double‐layer Modeling Under Ultrahigh Vacuum Conditions

Illustrative Examples

Trends and Perspectives

Acknowledgment
Electrodeposition of Compound Semiconductors by Electrochemical Atomic Layer Epitaxy (
EC
‐
ALE
)
Authors: Stickney John L. , Wade Travis L. , Flowers Billy H. , Vaidyanathan Raman , Happek Uwe
Published: December 2007

This chapter concerns the state of development of electrochemical atomic layer epitaxy (EC‐ALE), the electrochemical analog of atomic layer epitaxy (ALE). EC‐ALE is being developed as a methodology for the electrodeposition of compound semiconductors with nanoscale control. ALE is based on the formation of compounds, one monolayer (ML) at a time, using surface‐limited reactions. An atomic layer of one element can be electrodeposited at a potential under that needed to deposit the element on itself, and this process is referred to as underpotential deposition (UPD). EC‐ALE is the use of UPD for the surface‐limited reactions in an ALE cycle.

Electrodeposition is generally performed near room temperature, avoiding problems with interdiffusion and mismatched thermal expansion coefficients. This makes EC‐ALE a good candidate to form superlattices, where the compound deposited is modulated on the nanometer scale.

This chapter describes the basics of the EC‐ALE cycle, the elements that have been used to form deposits, as well as the solutions, rinsing, and potential changes. It describes the hardware presently being used by this group and other research laboratories, the compounds that have been formed, and the development of deposition cycles for various compounds. It describes the status of device formation using EC‐ALE, and goes over some of the problems and issues involved in developing cycles and growing films. Finally, given that EC‐ALE is based on surface‐limited electrochemical reactions, studies of relevant electrodeposit surface chemistry are discussed.
Electronic Tunnel Factors in Molecular Electron Transfer and Molecular Conduction
Authors: Nitzan Abraham
Published: December 2007

Electron transmission through molecules and molecular interfaces has been a subject of intensive research owing to recent interest in electron transfer phenomena underlying the operation of the scanning tunneling microscope (STM) on one hand, and in the transmission properties of molecular bridges between conducting leads, on the other. In these processes, the traditional molecular view of electron transfer between donor and acceptor species give rise to a novel view of the molecule as a current carrying conductor, and observables such as electron transfer rates and yields are replaced by the conductivities, or more generally by current–voltage relationships, in molecular junctions. Such investigations of electrical junctions in which single molecules or small molecular assemblies operate as conductors, constitute a major part of what has become the active field of molecular electronics.

In this chapter, the author reviews the current knowledge and understanding of this field with particular emphasis on theoretical issues, and on the relationship between this new look at electron transfer phenomena and the traditional study of molecular electron transfer in solution. Different approaches to computing the conduction properties of molecules and molecular assemblies are reviewed, and the relationships between them is discussed.
Analog and Digital Instrumentation
Authors: Wipf David
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Electrical Control

Electronic Principles

Electronic Electrical Control

Potentiostat Circuits

Galvanostatic Circuits

Signal Transduction

Alternate Control Circuits

Ohmic Drop Compensation

Current Interruption

Positive Feedback

Control Loop Frequency Response

Effect of Reference Position

Positive Feedback Stability

Other Destabilizing Conditions

Excitation Signals and Data Acquisition

Excitation Signals

Data Acquisition

Microcomputer Control and Storage

Example Instrument

Conclusion
Ultrasound and Electrosynthesis
Authors: Compton Richard G. , Hardcastle Joanna L. , del Campo Javier , Wadhawan Jay D.
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Cell Design in Sonoelectrosynthesis

Examples of Sonoelectrosynthetic Reactions

Electrochemical Reductions in Ultrasonically Emulsified Media: Electroreduction of Maleates, Fumarates, and Acetylenes

Electrodimerization of 2‐Nitrobenzylchloride in the Presence of Ultrasound

Ultrasonically Enhanced Birch Reductions

Ultrasonically Induced Electrode Depassivation: Reduction of Methylene Green

Ultrasonically Enhanced Kolbe Processes

Inorganic Sonoelectrosynthesis: Production of Metallic Nanopowders

Sonoelectrosynthesis: An Overview
Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy
Authors: Horrocks Benjamin R.
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Principles of Operation

Feedback Mode

Generation/Collection Mode and Potentiometric
SECM

Penetration Experiments

Equilibrium Perturbation Mode

SECM
Imaging

Instrumentation

Apparatus

Tips

Theory

Numerical Simulation of
SECM
Experiments

Finite Difference Methods

Integral Equations

Finite Element Methods

Steady State
SECM
Experiments

Diffusion‐Controlled Reactions

Finite Kinetics

Generation‐Collection Mode

Transient
SECM
Experiments

Potential Step Techniques

Miscellaneous Techniques

Selected Applications

Solid–Liquid Interfaces

Corrosion

Semiconductors

Conductive Polymers

Immobilized Enzymes

Dissolution of Ionic Crystals

Liquid–Liquid and Liquid–Gas Interfaces

Electron Transfer at the
ITIES

Ion Transfer at the
ITIES

Transfer of Neutral Molecules

Applications in the Life Sciences

Intact Plants and Single Cultivated Cells

Calcium and Superoxide Measurements

Imaging Mass Transport in Biological Systems

Microfabrication

Methods Based on Direct Current Flow Between Tip and Substrate

Methods Based on Feedback or Localized Generation of Reagents

Single Molecule Electrochemistry

Advances in
SECM
Imaging

Constant Height Imaging

Constant Current Imaging

High‐Resolution
SECM
Imaging

Acknowledgments
Kinetics of Electrolytic Corrosion Reactions
Authors: Frankel Gerald S. , Landolt Dieter
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Measures of Corrosion Rate

Exchange Current Density; Kinetics at Equilibrium

Overvoltage

Activation Overvoltage

Development of
B
utler–
V
olmer Equation

T
afel Equation

Low‐field Approximation

Multistep Reactions

The Hydrogen Evolution Reaction

Mixed Potential Theory

Effect of Multiple Oxidizing Agents

Galvanic Corrosion

Ohmic Potential Drops

Polarization Resistance and Linear Polarization
Uniform Corrosion of Metals in Acid, Neutral and Alkaline Electrolytes
Authors: Feser Ralf
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Fundamental Aspects of Uniform Corrosion

Introduction to Uniform Corrosion

Homogenous Mixed Electrode

Determination of the Homogenous Corrosion Rate

Cathodic Corrosion Reactions in Acids

Kinetic of Cathodic Reactions and Influence of Transport Processes

Transport‐controlled Hydrogen Reduction

Oxygen Reduction

Corrosion in Mineral Acids

Corrosion in Organic Solutions

Single or Multicomponent Media

Corrosion of Various Metals

Iron

Potential–pHDiagram of Iron

Corrosion of Iron in Acids

Corrosion of Iron in Neutral and Alkaline Solutions

Stainless Steel

Corrosion of Stainless Steels in Acids

Stainless Steels in Neutral and Alkaline Solutions

Nickel

Potential–pHDiagram of Nickel

Corrosion of Nickel in Acids

Corrosion of Nickel in Neutral and Alkaline Solutions

Aluminum

Potential–pHDiagram of Aluminum

Corrosion of Aluminum in Acids

Corrosion of Aluminum in Neutral and Alkaline Solutions

Magnesium

Potential–pHDiagram of Magnesium

Corrosion of Magnesium in Acids

Corrosion of Magnesium in Neutral and Alkaline Solutions

Zinc

Potential–pHDiagram of Zinc

Corrosion of Zinc in Acids

Corrosion of Zinc in Neutral and Alkaline Solutions

Copper

Potential–pHDiagram of Copper

Corrosion of Copper in Acids

Corrosion of Copper in Neutral and Alkaline Solutions

Titanium

Potential–pHDiagram of Titanium

Corrosion of Titanium in Acids

Corrosion of Titanium in Neutral and Alkaline Solutions
Electrochemical Deposition
Authors: Paunovic Milan
Published: December 2007

Electrochemical deposition involves (1) electrodeposition (Sects 3.1, 3.2, and 3.5.2), (2) electroless deposition (Sects 3.3 and 3.5.3), and (3) displacement deposition (Sect. 3.4). The structure and properties of the deposits are the subject of Sect. 3.6. The applications of electrochemical deposition in modern electrochemical technology are discussed in Sects 3.7 and 3.8.
Electrochemical Techniques for Studying High‐temperature Subcritical and Supercritical Aqueous Solutions
Authors: Lvov Serguei N.
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction

High‐temperature Electrochemical Systems

High‐temperature Reference Electrodes

High‐temperature Indicator Electrodes

Undesirable Potentials

High‐temperature Reference and Buffer Solutions

High‐temperature Potentiometry

High‐temperature
p
H
Measurements

High‐temperature Electrokinetic Studies

High‐temperature Electrochemical Kinetics and Corrosion

High‐temperature Electrical Conductance Techniques

Conclusions
Polymer Electrolyte and Direct Methanol Fuel Cells
Authors: Gottesfeld Shimshon
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction

The Polymer Electrolyte and Direct Methanol Fuel Cells: Brief Overview of Key Components and Features of Cells and Stacks

The Polymer Electrolyte and Direct Methanol Fuel Cells: Power Output and Energy‐conversion Efficiency

The Ionomeric Membrane

Chemical Structure and Chemical Stability of Proton‐conducting Polymeric Membranes

The Ionomeric Membrane/Water System

Water Uptake by Ionomeric Membranes

The State of Water in the Ionomeric Membrane

Proton Conduction in Ionomeric Membranes

Water Currents through Ionomeric Membranes in an OperatingPEFC

Diffusion of Water in poly[PFSA] Membranes

Electroosmosis

Modeling of the Water Profile and Net Water Flow Rate across the Ionomeric Membrane under Current

ThePEFCIonomeric Membrane—State of the Art

From Ionomeric Membrane to the Membrane‐electrode Assembly

Pt/CCatalysts Applied to the Membrane

Long‐term Stability of Membrane/Electrode Assemblies inPEFCs

From aPEFCStack to thePEFCPower System

Electrocatalysis and Electrodes inPEFCs

The Anode Process in thePEFCs

ThePEFCAnode with Pure Hydrogen Feed

The Anode Process in aPEFCOperating on Reformed Carbonaceous Fuels

Anode Catalyst Cleansing by Oxygen Bleeding

CO‐tolerantPEFCAnode Catalysts

ThePEFCAnode: Summary

The Air Cathode in thePEFC

PEFCCathode Losses and the Uniqueness of the Pt Catalyst

The Kinetics of theORRat the Pt/Ionomer Interface

ThePEFCAir Cathode: Comprehensive Analysis of Voltage Loss

PEFCCathode Modeling and Diagnostics Based on Impedance Spectra

ThePEFCCathode: Summary

The Direct Methanol Fuel Cell

TheDMFCAnode

TheDMFCMembrane: Methanol Crossover and the Impact on the Power/Efficiency Relationship in theDMFC

TheDMFCAir Cathode

Potential Applications ofDMFCsin Portable Power Sources

Microfuel Cell System Engineering Challenges

Demonstrations of Small Fuel‐cell System Prototypes

Acknowledgments
Charge Transport in Dye‐sensitized Systems
Authors: Nelson Jenny
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Dye‐sensitized Systems for Photovoltaics

Dye‐sensitized Systems for Other Applications

Structure and Function of Dye‐sensitized Junctions: An Overview

General Structure of Dye‐sensitized Electrochemical Junction

Energetic Structure

Physical Structure and Materials

Charge Carriers and Charge Transfer Processes

Potential Distribution

Relevance to Device Performance

Material Properties

Electron Conductor

ZnOand Other Oxides

p‐type Metal Oxides

Hole Conductors

Liquid Electrolytes

Solid‐state Hole Conductors

Dyes

Theoretical Background

Basic Equations of Device Physics

Charge Transport in a Conventional Photovoltaic Device

Device Physics for Dye‐sensitized Systems

Simplifications for Dye‐sensitized Systems

Experimental Techniques and Results

DCMeasurements

Incident Photon to Current Efficiency

Dark‐current Voltage

Light‐current Voltage

Photoconductivity and Photovoltaic Properties

Time Domain

Photocurrent Transients

Potential Step Transients

Transient Absorption

Frequency Domain

Intensity Modulated Photocurrent Spectroscopy

IMVS

Electrical Impedance Spectro‐scopy (EIS)

Acknowledgment
Solid State Dye‐sensitized Solar Cells—An Alternative Route Towards Low‐Cost Photovoltaic Devices
Authors: Bach Udo
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Solid‐state Dye‐sensitized Systems

Organic
CTMs
Applied to Nanoporous Dye‐sensitized Metal Oxide Electrodes

Inorganic Nanoporous Dye‐sensitized Heterojunctions

Alternative Organic Solid‐state Approaches

Organic Solar Cells

Interpenetrating Networks

Nonsensitized Inorganic/Organic Junctions

Conclusion and Outlook

Acknowledgment
Sulfur
Authors: Levillain E. , Demortier A. , Lelieur J.‐P.
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Sulfur and Polysulfide Ions in Solution

Nonaqueous Solvents

Aqueous Solutions

Electroreduction of Sulfur and Redox Properties of Polysulfides

“Classical” Nonaqueous Solvents

Liquid Ammonia

Aqueous Solutions

Electrooxidation of Sulfur

Applied Electrochemistry

Electrosynthesis

Batteries, Solar Cells, and Sulfurization

Environmental Chemistry

Conclusion
Alkali Metals
Authors: Redepenning Jody
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Secondary Lithium‐ion Batteries

Standard Potentials in Aqueous Solutions

Temperature Dependence of Standard Potentials

Alkali Metal Hydrides

Pourbaix Diagrams

Amalgams

Formation of Binary Compounds

Nonaqueous Solvents
A Few Selected Aspects of Electrode‐induced Reactions at Mono‐ and Dinuclear Molybdenum–sulfur Centers
Authors: Pétillon Francois Y. , Schollhammer Philippe , Talarmin Jean
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Mononuclear
Mo

S
Centers

Electron Transfer‐induced Structure Change

Electrochemically Induced Metal–ligand Bonds Cleavage

Electrochemical Transformation of Ligands

Dinuclear Thiolate‐bridged Molybdenum Complexes

Electron Transfer‐induced Structure Changes

Electron Transfer‐induced and Electron Transfer‐catalyzed Ligand Substitution

Electrochemically Induced Metal–Ligand Bonds Cleavage

Electrochemical Deprotection of a Substrate‐binding Site

Electrochemical Transformations of Bound Substrate

Conclusion

Acknowledgments
Aspects of Metallo‐sulfur Clusters' Electrochemistry
Authors: Barrière Frédéric
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Abiological Iron–Sulfur Clusters' Electrochemistry: The Black Roussinate as an Example

Models of Iron–Sulfur Centers in Protein

Models of
Fe
(
SR
)
4
Sites

Models of
Fe
2
S
2
(
SR
)
4
Sites

Models of Linear
Fe
3
S
4
(
SR
)
4
or Cuboidal
Fe
3
S
4
(
SR
)
3
Sites

Models of
Fe
4
S
4
(
SR
)
4
Sites, The Iron‐protein of Nitrogenase as an Example

Bridged Iron–Sulfur Molecular Assemblies

Nitrogenases

Introduction

Electrochemistry of the
Fe
8
S
7
P
Cluster and Models

Electrochemistry of the
Mo
Fe
7
S
9
Fe
Mo
Cofactor and Models

Hydrogenases

Conclusions
The Actinides
Authors: Stoll Michael E.
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Actinium

Aqueous Solutions

Electrodeposition

Thorium

Aqueous Solutions

Nonaqueous Solutions

Molten‐salt Solutions

Electrodeposition

Organometallic and Coordination Compounds

Protactinium

Aqueous Solutions

Electrodeposition

Nonaqueous Solutions

Uranium

Aqueous Solutions

Electrodeposition

Molten‐salt Solutions

Nonaqueous Solutions

Neptunium

Aqueous Solutions

Electrodeposition

Nonaqueous Solutions

Molten‐salt Solutions

Plutonium

Aqueous Solutions

Electrodeposition

Molten‐salt Solutions

Americium

Aqueous Solutions

Molten‐salt Solutions

Nonaqueous Solutions

Electrodeposition

Curium

Electrodeposition

Berkelium

Californium

Einsteinium

Fermium

Mendelevium

Nobelium
Manganese
Authors: Schultz Franklin A. , Duncan Cole T. , Rigsby Matthew A.
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Mononuclear Complexes with Acyclic and Other Common Ligands

Redox Potentials

Coupled Chemical and Electrochemical Reactions

Electron‐transfer Kinetics

Mononuclear Complexes with Porphyrins, Schiff Bases, Phthalocyanine, and Related Macrocyclic Ligands

Introduction

Studies in Nonaqueous Media

Studies in Aqueous Media

Electrocatalytic Studies

Binuclear and Polynuclear Complexes

Introduction

Studies in Nonaqueous Media

Studies in Aqueous Media

Biological Systems

Introduction

Manganese Catalase

Manganese Peroxidase

Manganese Superoxide Dismutase

Oxygen‐evolving Center in Photosystem II
Electrochemistry of Cadmium
Authors: Stroka Jadwiga , Maksymiuk Krzysztof , Galus Zbigniew
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Double‐layer Properties of Cadmium Electrodes

Electrochemical Properties and Kinetics of the
Cd
(
II
)/
Cd
(
Hg
) Systems

Electrochemistry in Aqueous Solutions

Kinetics of Simple Ions

Influence of a Catalyst

Influence of Inhibitors

Electrochemistry in Mixed and Nonaqueous Solvents

Electrochemical Properties of the Cadmium Complexes

Determination of Stability Constants

Electrochemical Preparation of Cadmium Complexes

Preparation and Electrochemical Properties of Cadmium Chalcogenides

CdS

CdSe

Cd
Te

Properties of Cadmium Intermetallic Compounds

Cadmium Underpotential Deposition and Electrodeposition on Solid Electrodes

Deposition of
Cd
on Cadmium Electrode

Electrodeposition of Cd on Other Solid Substrates

Gold

Platinum

Silver

Copper

Silicon

Other Substrates

Passivation and Corrosion of Cadmium

Passivation of Cadmium Electrode

Corrosion of Cadmium

Applied Electrochemistry

Batteries

Cadmium–Mercuric Oxide Primary Cells

Cadmium–Nickel Oxide (
Ni
–
Cd
) Secondary Cells

Cadmium–Silver Oxide Secondary Cells

Application in Electrochemical Sensors

Potentiometric Sensors

Amperometric‐voltammetric Sensors
Electrochemistry of Gold*Dedicated to the memory of Professor Ralph N. Adams, a respected and unforgettable electrochemist and man
Authors: Orlik Marek , Galus Zbigniew
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Preparation of
Au
Surfaces and Double‐layer Properties

Polycrystalline (
pc
‐
Au
) and Single‐crystal
Au
/
H
2
O
Interface

pc
‐
Au
and Single‐crystal
Au
/Nonaqueous Solutions Interface

Adsorption of Inorganic Compounds on Gold Electrodes

Sulfate

Hydroxide

Nitrate

Chloride

Bromide

Iodide

Cyanide

Thiocyanate

Other Inorganic Species

Adsorption of Organic Compounds on Gold Electrodes

Adsorption of Sulfur‐containing Compounds

Adsorption of Thiols

Adsorption of Modified Thiols

Adsorption of Thiourea

Adsorption of Disulfides and Related Compounds

Other Sulfur Compounds and Complex Adsorption Layers

Adsorption of Selenium‐containing Compounds

Adsorption of Nitrogen‐containing Compounds

Pyridine and its Derivatives

Pyrazine

Amines and Other Nitrogen‐containing Compounds

Adsorption of Other Organic Compounds

Alcohols

Aminoacids

Other Organic Acids

Nucleic Bases and Other Biochemical Compounds

Other Compounds

Reconstruction of the Surface of Gold Electrodes

Formation of Oxides on Gold Electrodes

Underpotential Deposition of Various Metals on
Au

Cu

Cd

Pd

S
,
Se
, and
Te

Sulfur

Selenium

Tellurium

Bi

Pt

Ni

Co

Sb

Sn

Al

Tl

Pb

Zn

Ge

Rh

Li

Fe

Ag

Hg

Electrochemistry of Coordination Compounds of Gold. Electrodissolution and Electrodeposition of
Au

Au
Electrodeposition

Au
Electrodissolution

Gold Clusters
Electrochemistry of Silver
Authors: Orlik Marek , Galus Zbigniew
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Properties ofAgElectrodes

PolycrystallineAgElectrodes

Preparation

Surface and Double‐layer Properties

Single‐crystalAgElectrodes

Preparation

Surface and Double‐layer Properties

Surface Dynamics

Affinity of Water and Nonaqueous Solvent Molecules toAgSurfaces

Adsorption of Inorganic Species onAgElectrodes

Halide Ions

pc‐AgElectrodes

Single‐crystalAgElectrodes

Pseudohalide

Oxygen and its Compounds

Sulfur Compounds

Inorganic Carbon Compounds

Fullerenes

Other Inorganic Compounds

Metalocenes

Adsorption of Organic Species onAgElectrodes

Hydrocarbons

Pyridine and Other Nitrogen Compounds

Carboxylic Acids

Alcohols

Sulfur Compounds

Thiourea (TU)

Alkanethiols and Self‐assembled Monolayers

Biochemically Important Compounds

Adsorption on ModifiedAgElectrodes

Other Organic Compounds

Electrode Processes with Participation of Silver Electrodes

Reactions Involving Oxidation ofAgSurface

Oxygen and its Compounds

Sulfur Compounds

Carbon Compounds

Electrode Reactions of Selected Organic Compounds, Adsorbed onAgElectrodes

Biochemically Important Species

Underpotential Deposition Processes

AgUPDonAg

AgUPDonAuandPt

Pb

Tl

Ni

Chalcogenides

Other Elements and Compounds

Electrodeposition and Electrodissolution Processes ofAg

Electrodeposition Processes

Electrodissolution Processes

Silver Compounds at the Oxidation States Higher Than I
Methods to Investigate Mechanisms of Electroorganic Reactions
Authors: Speiser Bernd
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Scope: Methods of Molecular Electrochemistry

Historical Development

Why and How to Investigate Mechanisms of Electroorganic Reactions

Steps of Electrode Reaction Mechanisms

General

Transport

Electron Transfer

Chemical Kinetic Steps

Adsorption

Organic Electrode Reaction Mechanisms

Electron Transfer Initiates Chemistry

Nomenclature of Electrode Reaction Mechanisms

Formal Description of Events at an Electrode

Current‐Potential‐Time Relationships

Concentration Profiles

Methods of Mechanistic Electroorganic Chemistry

Classification

Controlled‐Potential Techniques

Controlled‐Current Techniques

Hydrodynamic Voltammetry

Exhaustive Electrolysis Techniques

How to Gain Access to Kinetics, Thermodynamics, and Mechanisms of Electroorganic Reactions

Qualitative and Quantitative Investigation of Electrode Reaction Mechanisms

General Recommendations for Mechanistic Analysis

Some Mechanistic Examples

Pure
ET
Reactions

Follow‐up Reactions

Preequilibria to
ETs

Catalytic Reactions

How to Gain Additional Information about Electroorganic Reaction Mechanisms

Simulation

Ultramicroelectrodes

Electrogravimetry

Spectroelectrochemistry

Conclusion

Acknowledgment
Electrochemistry of Nitrogen‐containing Compounds
Authors: Moeller Kevin D.
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Oxidation of Amines

Amine Radical Cations as Electrochemical Mediators

Functionalization Reactions

N‐centered Radicals and Cycloadditions

Kolbe Oxidations and the Formation of
N
‐Acyliminium Ions

The Anodic Oxidation of Amides

General Reaction

Adding Functionality to Synthetic Starting Materials

Mediated Reactions and the use of Electroauxiliaries

The Application of Amide Oxidations to the Synthesis of Natural Products

The Synthesis of Azathymine Derivatives

Octahydroisoquinolines

ACE
Inhibitors A58365A and A58365B

(3
R
, 5
R
, 8
aR
)‐3‐
n
‐Butylindolizidine

Bulgecin C

(±)‐Anatoxin A

The Synthesis of Constrained Peptidomimetics

Introduction

The Synthesis of Constrained
TRH
Analogs

Sequential Amide Oxidation—Olefin Metathesis Strategies

Substance P Analogs and an Approach to Piperazinone Rings

Amide Oxidations and the Construction of Combinatorial Libraries

Conclusions

Acknowledgment
Electrochemistry of Heterocycles
Authors: Moinet Claude
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Overview on the Electrochemistry of Heterocycles

Electrosyntheses of Heterocycles

Anodic Cyclizations

Cathodic Cyclizations

Electrochemical Behavior of Heterocycles

Oxidation of Heterocycles

Reduction of Heterocycles

Oxidative Cyclizations at the Anode

Intramolecular Cyclizations

Carbon–Carbon Bond Formation

Carbon–Heteroatom Bond Formation

Heteroatom–Heteroatom Bond Formation

Intermolecular Coupling

Heterocoupling Reactions

Homocoupling Reactions

Reductive Cyclization at the Cathode

Intramolecular Cyclization

Carbon–Carbon Bond Formation

Carbon–Heteroatom Bond Formation

Heteroatom–Heteroatom Bond Formation

Intermolecular Cyclization

Heterocoupling Reactions

Homocoupling Reaction

Anodic Oxidation of Heterocycles

Double Bond Formation

Functionalization of Heterocycles

Methoxylation Reactions

Acetoxylation Reactions

Hydroxylation Reactions

Cyanation Reactions

Halogenation Reactions

Trifluoromethylation Reactions

Intramolecular Coupling Reactions

Dimerization Reactions

Ring Expansions

Ring Contractions

Ring Opening

Cathodic Reduction of Heterocycles

Electroreductive Hydrogenation of Double Bonds

Functionalization of Heterocycles

Addition Reactions

Substitution Reactions

Intramolecular Coupling Reactions

Dimerization Reactions

Ring Expansions

Ring Contractions

Ring Opening
Selectivity in Electrochemical Reactions
Authors: Fuchigami Toshio , Nonaka Tsutomu , Schäfer Hans J.
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Regioselectivity

Regioselectivity at the Anode

Regioselective Substitution ofCHBonds

Regioselective Addition to Double Bonds

Anodic Cleavage

AnodicC,C‐Coupling

Regioselectivity in Cathode Reactions

Regioselective Substitution

Cathodic Addition

Cathodic Cleavage

Cathodic Coupling

Electrogenerated Bases

Chemoselectivity

General

Chemoselectivity in Anode Reactions

Anodic Dehydrogenation

Anodic Cleavage

Anodic Substitution and Addition

Chemoselectivity in Cathode Reactions

Cathodic Hydrogenation

Cathodic Cleavage and Elimination

Stereoselectivity

General

Diastereoselectivity

Diastereoselectivity at the Anode

Diastereoselectivity at the Cathode

Hydrogenation

Cleavage

Elimination

Enantioselectivity

General

Anode

Cathode
Indirect Electrochemical Reactions
Authors: Torii Sigeru
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Indirect Electrooxidation

Indirect Oxidation with Halide Ions

Chloro Cation [CI]+‐assisted Indirect Oxidation

Bromo Cation [Br]+‐assisted Indirect Oxidation

Indirect Oxidation with [I]+andIO4−as Electron Carriers

Indirect Oxidation with Organic Mediators

Mediators Containing Sulfur and Selenium Elements

Mediators Containing Nitrogen

Indirect Oxidation with Other Redox Systems

Metal Ion‐assisted Indirect Oxidation

Indirect Oxidation with Metal Ion Redox Systems

Indirect Oxidation with Nickel (Ni) and Cobalt (Co) Compounds

Iron (Fe) Complex‐assisted Oxidation

Indirect Oxidation with Chromic Acid [Cr(VI)]

Palladium (Pd)‐assisted Oxidation

Ruthenium (Ru)‐assisted Oxidation

Osmium (Os)‐assisted Oxidation

Indirect Oxidation with Manganese [Mn(III)]

Indirect Oxidation with Cerium (Ce) Complexes

Copper (Cu) and Silver (Ag)‐assisted Oxidation

Thallic Ion [Tl(III)]‐assisted Oxidation

Indirect Electroreduction

Indirect Reduction with Mediators Containing Nickel, Cobalt, and Iron

Nickel (Ni) Complex Mediators

Cobalt (Co) Complex Mediators

Iron (Fe) Complex Mediators

Indirect Reduction with Mediators Containing Palladium, Rhodium, Iridium, and Platinum

Palladium (Pd) Complex Mediators

Platinum (Pt) Complex Mediators

Rhodium and Iridium Complex Mediators

Indirect Reduction with Mediators Containing Ruthenium and Osmium

Ruthenium (Ru) Complex Mediators

Osmium (Os) Complex Mediators

Indirect Reduction with Mediators Containing Chromium, Molybdenum, and Tungsten

Chromium (Cr) Complex Mediators

Molybdenum (Mo) Complex Mediators

Tungsten (W) Complex Mediators

Indirect Reduction with Mediators Containing Manganese and Rhenium

Manganese (Mn) Complex Mediators

Rhenium (Re) Complex Mediators

Indirect Reduction with Mediators Containing Titanium, Tin, and Lead

Titanium (Ti) Complex Mediators

Tin (Sn) Complex Mediators

Lead (Pb) Complex Mediators

Indirect Reduction with Mediators Containing Zinc (Zn), Mercury (Hg), and Cadmium (Cd)

Indirect Reduction with Mediators Containing Selenides (Se) or Tellurides (Te)

Indirect Reduction with Mediators Containing Miscellaneous Metal Complexes

Samarium (Sm) and Indium (In) Complex Mediators

Antimony (Sb) and Bismuth (Bi) Complex Mediators

Copper (Cu) Complex Mediators
Bioelectronics
Authors: Ziegler Christiane
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Scope

Brief Summary of Electronic Signal Transduction in the Neural System

Biology Meets Electronics: Applications

Bioelectronic Noses

Comparison between Biological and Electronic Noses

Specific Example: Neural Network Biosensors

Biocomputer

Short Summary of In Vivo Applications
Electrochemical Immunoassay
Authors: Wijayawardhana C. Ajith , Halsall H. Brian , Heineman William R.
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Enzyme Electrochemical Immunoassays

Electrochemical Detection

TheE‐S‐PSystem

Heterogeneous Enzyme Immunoassay

Ultrasensitive Heterogeneous Enzyme Assays in Small Volumes

Homogeneous Enzyme Immunoassay

Nonenzyme Electrochemical Immunoassays

Nonenzyme Homogeneous Immunoassays

Heterogeneous Nonenzymatic Immunoassays

Electrochemical Immunosensors

Applications

Conclusion
Electrochemistry of Metalloporphyrins in Nonaqueous Media
Authors: Kadish Karl M. , Caemelbecke Eric Van
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Porphyrin Electrochemistry in the Early 1960sand the 1970s

Porphyrin Electrochemistry in the 1980s and the 1990s

Selection of Appropriate Solvent and Supporting Electrolyte

Selection of Appropriate Supporting Electrolyte

Effect of Macrocycle Structure on Potentials

Effect of Axial Ligation

Periodic Table of Metalloporphyrins

Groups 1–4

Groups 5 and 6

Group 7

Group 8

Ruthenium

Osmium

Iron

Group 9

Group 10

Group 11

Group 12

Group 13

Group 14

Group 15

Concluding Statement

Acknowledgments
Electrochemistry in Bioanalysis
Authors: Mikkelsen Susan R.
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Bioanalysis

Electroanalytical Methods

Potentiometric Methods

Introduction

Zero‐Current Potentiometry

ISEsin Bioanalysis

Enzymes, Antibodies, and Nucleic Acids with Zero‐Current Potentiometry

Dynamic Potentiometry

Emerging Technology

Commercialization of Potentiometric Devices

Amperometric Methods

Introduction

Direct Amperometric Methods

Amperometric Measurements with Enzymes

Amperometric Immunoassays and Immunosensors

Amperometric Nucleic Acid Assays and Sensors

Emerging Technology

Commercialization of Amperometric Devices

Impedimetric Methods

Introduction

Impedimetric Assays and Sensors

Commercially Available Instruments for Impedance Measurements

Future Directions and Perspectives

Acknowledgments
Introduction to Modified Electrodes (very short article)
Authors: Fujihira Masamichi
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are
Charge Transport in Polymer‐modified Electrodes
Authors: Inzelt György
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

General Considerations

Electron Transport

Electron‐exchange Reaction

Problems with the Verification of the Model

Advanced Theories Predicting NonlinearD(c) Function

Transition between Percolation and Diffusion Behaviors

Potential Dependence of Diffusion Coefficient

Electronic Conductivity

Ion Transport

Coupling of Electron and Ionic Charge Transport

Other Transport Processes

Solvent Transport

Dynamics of Polymeric Motion

Film Structure and Morphology

Thickness

Synthesis Conditions, Nature of Electrolyte

Effect of Electrolyte Concentration and Temperature

Relaxation and Hysteresis Phenomena

Measurements of the Rate of Charge Transport
Modification of Transparent Conducting Oxide (
TCO
) Electrodes through Silanization and Chemisorption of Small Molecules
Authors: Brumbach Michael , Armstrong Neal R.
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction

The Metal Oxide Electrode and Modification Schemes

Commonly Encountered
TCO
Electrodes

Variability in
TCO
Electrodes

Factors that Control the Surface Composition of the
TCO
Electrode

Chemical Modification of
TCO
Surfaces Using Silane Chemistries

Introduction to Silane Modification

Examples of Silane Modification

Silane Modification of Electrodes for Use in Devices

Modification of
TCO
Surfaces through Chemisorption of Small Molecules

Modification using Small Molecules Containing Carboxylic Acid Functionality

Modification Using Phosphonic Acids and Other Chemisorbing Functionalities

Conclusions

Acknowledgments
Electrochemistry of Monolayer Assemblies at the Air/Water Interface
Authors: Majda Marcin
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Langmuir and Gibbs Monolayers at the Air/Water Interface

Horizontal Touch Electrochemical Characterization of Monolayer Films at the Air/Water Interface

Two‐dimensional Electrochemistry

Fabrication and Characterization of Line Microelectrodes

2
D
Electrochemical Investigations of Langmuir Monolayer Films

Dynamics of the Lateral Diffusion of Surfactants on the Water Surface

Measurements of the
LE
/
G
Phase Transitions and their Critical Temperature

Kinetics of Electron Hopping in Langmuir Monolayers

Acknowledgments
Metal Substrates for Self‐assembled Monolayers
Authors: Schneeweiss Marie Anne , Rubinstein Israel
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction

General Considerations Regarding Substrates

Specific Requirements Imposed by Analysis Techniques

Polycrystalline, Textured, Single‐crystalline Substrates

Major Aspects Regarding Substrate Preparation/ Pretreatment

Substrates Used for
SAM
Preparation

Gold

Gold Films on Various Supports

Bulk Gold

Gold Beads

Oxidized Gold

Other Gold Substrates for Special Applications

Comparative Studies

Silver

Silver Films on Supports

Bulk Silver

Copper

Copper Films on Supports

Bulk Copper

Copper Oxide

Iron

Aluminum

Platinum

Nickel

Titanium

Stainless Steel

Mercury
Inorganic and Composite Films
Authors: Suib Steven L. , Hu Naifei , Rusling James F.
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Overview

Inorganic and Composite Films

Synthesis

Characterization

Applications of Inorganic Films

Electroactive Nanoparticle Films

Conclusions

Acknowledgments
Metal‐ion Binding to Self‐assembled Monolayers on Surfaces
Authors: Vaskevich Alexander , Rubinstein Israel
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Binding of Metal Ions to Functionalized
SAMs
: General Phenomena and Case Studies

Stoichiometry of Surface Metal‐organic Complexes

Solution‐surface Equilibrium

SAMs
as Metal‐ion Receptors

Ion Binding to
SAMs
: Direct Electrochemical Reporting

Binding of Electrochemically Inert Ions: Reporting by Redox Reactions of Solution Species

Binding of Electrochemically Inert Ions: Reporting by Redox Centers in the
SAM

Binding of Electrochemically Inert Ions: Application of Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (
EIS
)

Optical Methods for Control and Reporting of Ion Binding to
SAMs

Bilayers Formed by Metal‐organic Coordination

Coordinated Organic Bilayers

Immobilization of Biological Molecules through Coordination Binding

Binding of Macrocycle Molecules
Sum Frequency Generation (SFG) Evaluation of the Chemically Modified Solid Surface
Authors: Ye Shen , Uosaki Kohei
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Theory

Quantitative Analysis ofSFGSpectra

Experimental Setup

SFGStudies in the Molecular Structure on the Organic Thin Film Interfaces

Modified Solid Surfaces in Gas Phase

SAMs

LBFilms

Modified Solid Surfaces in Solution

SAMsin Solution

LBFilms in Solution

Interfacial Water Structures on the Modified Solid Surface

Acknowledgment
Electrocatalysis of Inorganic Chemicals by Chemically Modified Electrodes
Authors: Keita Bineta , Nadjo Louis
Published: December 2007

The sections in this article are

Inorganic

The Three Main Strategies as Applied to the
NO

x

Other Illustrative Examples:
O
2
,
H
2
,
Cl
O
3
−
,
CO

x

A Brief Overview of the Dimensionally Stable Anodes (
DSA
) Story

Electrocatalysis by Oxide Materials Electrodeposited from Oxometalates

Hydrogen Evolution Reaction (
HER
)

Oxygen Reduction

Electrocatalysis and Analysis

Some Recent Trends in Electrode Surface Modification Techniques

Concluding Remarks
How many deaths will it take? A death from asthma associated with work‐related environmental tobacco smoke
Authors: Stanbury Martha , Chester Debra , Hanna Elizabeth A. , Rosenman Kenneth D.
Published: December 2007

Background

Despite epidemiologic, experimental and observational data on the association of environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) and adverse health effects, bar and restaurant workers remain exposed to ETS in the majority of states and countries.

Methods

Three public health surveillance systems were used to identify and conduct a follow‐up investigation of a reported acute asthma death of a young waitress in a bar.

Results

The waitress collapsed at the bar where she worked and was declared dead shortly thereafter. Evaluation of the circumstances of her death and her medical history concluded that her death was from acute asthma due to environmental tobacco smoke at work.

Conclusions

This is the first reported acute asthma death associated with work‐related ETS. Recent studies of asthma among bar and restaurant workers before and after smoking bans support this association. This death dramatizes the need to enact legal protections for workers in the hospitality industry from secondhand smoke. Am. J. Ind. Med. 51:111–116, 2008. © 2007 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.