bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Perception of Synthetic Speech by Nonnative Speakers of English
Authors: Greene Beth G.
Published: January 2012

Nonnative speakers of English listened to natural and synthetic speech materials. All natural speech material was spoken by a native male speaker of American English. The synthetic speech was produced by the MITalk-79 system for the first experiment and by the Prose 2000 V2.1 text-to-speech system for the second experiment. Results from Experiment 1 indicated that nonnative speakers show higher levels of performance when listening to natural speech than when listening to synthetic speech. However, nonnative speakers did not reach the level of performance of native speakers for either natural or synthetic speech. Experiment 2 provided further evidence that nonnative speakers fail to reach the same level of performance when listening to synthetic speech as native speakers. Performance of nonnative speakers on a dictation task showed high positive correlations with their general English language ability as measured by two standardized tests. Results indicate the importance of language background and experience in the perception of speech, particularly synthetic and digitally encoded speech.
A Sketchbook History of Human Factors
Authors: Schmidt John K.
Published: January 2012

The following paper is an attempt to capture the circumstances, conepts, and events that led to the formulation of Human Factors. Born in the wake of the second world war, it was implimented to help people cope with the complex “war machines” of the day. Human Factors served as a meeting ground for several discliplines, that were all bound together in single endeavor to improve the effectiveness, effieciency and safety of human in systems. Since the war's close, the field has been expanded to include many non-military applications. Despite its new found diversity, it continues to employ the same guiding principle of incorporating psychological and physiological characteristics of people into interface designs. It is this phenomena which distinguishes Human Factors as a unique paradigm with its own antecedental roots and disciplinary matrix. Furthermore, its proliferation in recent years denotes a science that has transcended a revolutionary stage of development to a normal one in a Kuhnian perspective. It is contended that a recognition of these factors would facilitate a novice's understanding of the field, recognition of where the discipline presently is and where it is headed.
Overcoming Unreliability in Operational Measures: The Use of Surrogate Measure Systems
Authors: Lane Norman E. , Kennedy Robert S. , Jones Marshall B.
Published: January 2012

Improved assessment of operational performance is critical for studies of selection, training and human engineering as well as those examining the performance effects of environmental changes, chemicals or other stressors imposed by military duties. The present discussion focuses on what we consider to be the major problem with such enterprises – the lack of sensitivity of operational measures because of poor reliability. The well-documented impact of low field measure reliability includes the inability to demonstrate differences resulting from experimental treatments and the chronic underrepresentation of validity in predictive studies. This paper describes a general methodology for using specially-developed performance batteries as surrogates for real-world performances, in particular for determining whether such performance may be disrupted by environmental or chemical agents. The logical and metric rationale of surrogate measurement is presented, and the advantages and disadvantages are discussed and compared to alternative approaches (job samples, synthetic tasks, etc.).
A Checklist for Carpal Tunnel Syndrome
Authors: Calisto George M. , Jiang Bernard C. , Cheng S.H.
Published: January 2012

Efforts to control the incidence of Carpal Tunnel Syndrome (CTS) in industry should focus on introducing the shop supervisor to those basic biomechanical principles underlying the etiology of CTS; i.e., it is the supervisor who best monitors an employee's reactions to prescribed work methods, tools, and concomitant postures. A three-part, pictorially illustrated checklist was developed: Part I assists in the identification of upper-extremity working postures; Part II facilitates the judgement of force/torque levels by identifying the implemented tool and the material which it acts on; and Part III examines the mechanical stresses resulting from hand-tool and/or limb-worksurface interfaces. Copies of the checklist were distributed to several AT&T manufacturing, installation, service, data, and material management centers to determine its readability, relevance, time for completion, and utility in terms of orienting the supervisor to the said principles. In general, supervisory input indicated that the checklist catered mainly to the manufacturing sector: most manufacturing supervisors found the form to be readable, pertinent, and edifying.
Alternative Approaches to Analyzing SWAT Data
Authors: Biers David W. , Masline Philip J.
Published: January 2012

The present study sought to determine the sensitivity of three alternative approaches to deriving a workload composite measure based upon data gathered using the Subjective Workload Assessment Technique (SWAT) and to determine through the use of multivariate statistical procedures (MANOVA) if anything is to be gained by retaining the individual scale information of SWAT. The three rating scale dimensions of SWAT (time load, mental effort load, psychological stress load) were combined into a single workload composite using three techniques: conjoint measurement; a simple sum of the three scales weighted equally; an empirically determined weighted-linear combination of the three scales (from MANOVA). Using data gathered by having subjects perform a continuous memory task under twelve levels of task difficulty, it was found that the three composite measures were equally sensitive and highly correlated (the minimum correlation among the three composites being 0.9913). The results of the MANOVA performed on the same data indicated that the individual scales of SWAT were differentially sensitive to different task demands and that individual scale information should be retained rather than rely on a simple composite.
Development of Instructional Design Guidelines for Team Training Devices
Authors: Swezey Robert W. , Salas Eduardo
Published: January 2012

Both the research data base and practical experience, indicate that engineers involved in the design and development of team training devices either have inadequate access to, or for other reasons do not typically use, human factors and instructional design principles. This paper discusses a project whose purpose is to: (1) identify team processes and characteristics which may be employed in the design of team training devices, (2) state this information in guideline form, and (3) begin the development of a taxonomy of team training design characteristics which may be used to organize the guidelines.
Multidimensional Scaling as a Method for Probing the Conceptual Structure of State Categories: An Individual Differences Analysis
Authors: Zubritzky Monica C. , Coury Bruce G.
Published: January 2012

Identifying the underlying decision criteria used by operators to classify system state, and revealing the way in which that information is internally represented is one of the challenges facing designers of control systems. This paper describes the use of multidimensional scaling (MDS) to probe the structure and composition of the internal conceptual models used by operators to identify system state. Specifically, the issue of individual differences in mental model is addressed, as well as the impact of these differences on individual performance in a classification task. Twenty subjects were trained as operators to classify instances of system data into one of four system state categories. After training, subjects were asked to rate the similarity between instances of system state. Results showed that the dominant dimensions used by an individual are related to his/her performance on the classification task.
Authenticating Users by Word Association
Authors: Smith Sidney L.
Published: January 2012

Testing word associations, as an extension of simple password entry, may be a practical means of verifying the identity of individual computer users. If each user specifies his/her own cue-response associations, then responses will be easy to remember. It should be easy for legitimate users to respond correctly to word association testing, but virtually impossible for potential intruders. Such testing should also prove easy for a computer to process.
Contemporary Issues for Macroergonomics
Authors: Imada Andrew S.
Published: January 2012

This article illustrates the potential contribution of macroergonomics by: 1) identifying four contemporary issues that organizations face and 2) demonstrating how a macroergonomic approach can help. These issues represent four levels of analysis — individual, job design, organizational, and environmental. In addition to demonstrating its utility, the illustration is intended to generate action toward meeting these challenges.
Human Perception of the Maximum Safe Speed of Robot Motions
Authors: Karwowski Waldemar , Plank T. , Parsaei M. , Rahimi M.
Published: January 2012

A laboratory experiment was conducted to determine the maximum speeds of robot arm motion considered by the subjects as safe for human operators working in a close proximity of the robot's working envelope. Twenty-nine college students (16 males and 13 females) participated in the study as monitors of the simulated assembly tasks performed by two industrial robots of different size and work capabilities. The results show that the speed selection process depends on the robot's physical size and its initial speed at the start of the adjustment process. Subjects selected higher speeds as “safe” if they were first exposed to the maximum speed of the robot, and significantly lower values when the initial speed of the robot's actions was only 5% of maximum. It was also shown that the subject's previous exposure to robots and the level of their knowledge of industrial robots highly affected their perception of safe speeds of robot motions. Such effects differ, however, between males and females.
Do Identical Circumstances Preceed Minor and Major Injuries?
Authors: Lozada-Larsen Susana R. , Laughery Kenneth R.
Published: January 2012

The identical causation hypothesis contends that identical causes or circumstances preceed minor and major injuries in accidents. Tests of the identical causation hypothesis were carried out by examining frequencies of prior activities, accident events and injury events across minor and major injuries, including a breakdown by job family. Also, combinations of variables (scenerios) for minor and major injuries were examined. For the individual accident variables, the data clearly support a similar causation hypothesis. However, for the combinations of accident variables, differences were discerned between minor and major injuries. Overall, the present test of the identical causation hypothesis suggests that similar preceeding circumstances may underly both minor and major injuries.
Evaluation of Trailer Hitches Using Ergonomic Principles
Authors: Lee K. , Waikar A. , Aghazadeh F. , Chen F.
Published: January 2012

This paper presents a field experiment designed to test and evaluate two functionally different trailer hitches, conventional and newly designed, for driving effectiveness and safety. The evaluation was performed using three different approaches. The first used subjective evaluation obtained through subject questionnaire. The second involved estimating the strength required for the control of steering wheel using electromyogram (EMG). The third involved monitoring the extent of the oscillations of the steering system of the experimental car. The independent variables were the type of hitch, driving pattern and the trailer load. Each of the six subjects participated in 24 driving runs in the experiment. The results showed that the new trailer hitch provides greater driving effectiveness and safety than the conventional trailer hitch.
Learning and Using Office Automation on Personal Computers: A Voice/Phone Application
Authors: Wichansky Anna M.
Published: January 2012

An experiment was conducted to evaluate user performance with a voice/phone management system for a personal computer. An experimental group of 11 subjects performed seven common voice communication tasks with the automated system using a touch-tone telephone. A control group of 10 subjects performed the same tasks by calling a dedicated human secretary. Experimental subjects gave favorable subjective ratings to system features despite poor performance. Control subjects performed most tasks faster than experimental subjects. Control subjects worked with the secretary in a more direct and goal-oriented way than experimental subjects using the automated system. The main benefit of the automated system may be its availability when human support is limited.
The Criterion Task Set: An Updated Battery
Authors: Amell John R. , Eggemeier F. Thomas , Acton William H.
Published: January 2012

Several tasks in the Criterion Task Set have been modified as a result of validation studies conducted on the original battery. Recent research has established new loading levels for those tasks. In addition to task changes, several modifications have been made in the user interface. Added features include: a 30 second trial option, automatic trial number incrementing, a file naming convention, and a data reduction program.
Dynamic Function Allocation in Fighter Cockpits
Authors: Aretz Anthony J. , Hickox Joseph C. , Kesler Susan R.
Published: January 2012

The objective of this study was to investigate alternatives for allocating the tasks associated with defensive counter measures in a fighter cockpit environment. The three methods allocated the functions either totally to the operator or a simulated expert system and dynamically at the operator's request to either. The analysis of the objective data showed there were no significant performance differences among the three treatment conditions. However, the analysis of post treatment subjective data showed the subjects did have confidence in the simulated expert systems's ability to handle the threats (p < .01) and they had a significant preference for some form of computer assistance during the missions (p < .01).
Effects of Lifting in Four Restricted Work Postures
Authors: Gallagher Sean , Unger Richard L. , Rossi E. William
Published: January 2012

The purpose of this study was to examine the lifting capacity of low-seam coal miners in four restricted work postures (roof heights of 36″, 40″, 44″, and 48″), investigate the associated metabolic costs, and to examine electromyographic (EMG) data from eight trunk muscles during the lifting procedure. Subjects were thirteen underground miners accustomed to handling materials in restricted work postures. Each subject performed two twenty-minute periods of asymmetric lifting in each of four postures during the day of testing. The frequency of lifting was 10 lifts per minute. A specially designed lifting box incorporated microswitches in one handle of the box and another in the bottom of the box, in order to examine the trunk muscle function at specific points during the lfting cycle. The data collected will be used by the Bureau of Mines to make recommendations for lifting materials in low-seam coal mines.
A Comparative Evaluation of Warning Label Designs
Authors: Gill Richard T. , Barbera Christine , Precht Terrence
Published: January 2012

The objective of this research was to compare the effectiveness of different warning label designs. Three different warning label designs for a portable electric heater were tested: (1) a traditional non-human factored label; (2) a color-coded “ski pass” label attached near the male end of the electric cord; and (3) a color-coded “interactive” label that required the user to interact with the label in order to use the heater. Subjects were informed that they were participating in a problem-solving experiment. Their task was to devise a system, meeting various constraints, to melt a votive candle in a cup. Several potential heat sources were available including an unsafe heater and extension cord combination. The results showed that the interactive design was most effective in attracting the users' attention, but none of them were effective in mediating safe user behavior.
Simulator Induced Syndrome: Evidence for Long Term Simulator Aftereffects
Authors: Ungs Timothy J.
Published: January 2012

The purpose of this study was to determine the incidence, risk factors, and significance of adverse symptoms occurring in pilots more than 24 hours after completion of flight simulator training. This continued occurrence or recurrence of symptoms is termed by the author as “Long Term Simulator Aftereffects” (LTSA). Information was gathered by multi-part, anonymous, and voluntary questionnaire. Nine (4.6%) of 196 pilots studied reported LTSA. Several pilots reported symptoms up to one week and one three weeks post simulator training. Symptoms reported included: recurrent visual flashbacks, continued disturbance in balance, difficulties in concentrating and hand-eye discoordination. Three pilots (1.5%) reported difficulties in flying aircraft. There was no statistically significant association between LTSA and: total flight time, total simulator time, length of simulator training, self-determined motion sickness susceptibility, and sex. Simulator training can result in the occurrence of long term (1 day) adverse symptoms which poses flight safety concerns.
A Comparison of Shape/Object Displays, Quasi Shape Displays, and Conventional Univariate Indicators: Integration Benefits or the “Nearer to Thee” Effect?
Authors: Beringer Dennis B. , Chrísman Steven E.
Published: January 2012

The performance of a complex task, such as piloting an aircraft, requires an operator to effectively process and integrate information from numerous sources. Recent efforts (Beringer, 1985; 1986) have examined the combining of integrated displays to provide both continuous-system-control information and secondary system status/rate information. The present effort reported herein is an attempt to determine the origin of benefits that accrue from shape/object displays; specifically whether they stem from cognitively based integration of information or merely physical proximity of the information. This study examined several formats of information display using conventional (univariate needle indicators) and nonconventional (polar histograms and polar polygons) formats for presenting multiple univariate indices. Some flight control parameters and out-of-tolerance detection rates were affected by the format of the peripheral display while these performance measures plus processing rate of a digit-cancelling side task were affected by flight difficulty (two axes versus three axes; effect in the expected direction). Performance with the polar histogram display was superior in all cases followed closely by performance with the polar polygons, the multiple nonpolar univariate indicators (needles) being least effective for the differentiation task. This suggests that the shape/object displays do allow integration of information beyond that found with simple physical proximity of univariate indicators. A continuation of this research is addressing the problem of system diagnostics using these formats.
Interface Style and Eclecticism: Moving beyond Categorical Approaches
Authors: Wixon Dennis , Good Michael
Published: January 2012

The weaknesses inherent in categorizing interfaces are discussed. Questions are raised about using categorical approaches in science and design. Alternative approaches are suggested with an emphasis on dimensional scope and contextual sensitivity. It is argued that interfaces should be seen in terms of their transparency and support for breakdown.
Optimizing a Portable Terminal Keyboard for Combined One-Handed and Two-Handed use
Authors: Wiklund Michael E. , Dumas Joseph S. , Hoffman Lawrence R.
Published: January 2012

Human factors experimentation facilitated the design of a portable terminal keyboard for combined one-handed and two-handed operation. To ensure a comfortable grip, the terminal had to be made smaller by reducing the size of its keyboard. The product design team needed to know how small the keyboard could be before it degraded the usability of the keyboard and the overall product. The keyboard experiment was designed primarily to determine the effect of both the number of hands used in typing and key spacing on typing speed and accuracy. A total of six commercially available keyboards with key spacings varying from 0.75 to 0.45 inches were tested. Test subjects with typing skills ranging from expert to novice typed separate samples of text on each keyboard, once using one hand and once using two hands. The difference in typing speed between two and one-handed typing averaged 2—1. A key spacing less than about 0.7 inches substantially reduced typing speed but did not increase errors. Poor typists typed at roughly the same speed no matter the key spacing or number of hands used. These findings and additional human factors studies provided parameters for a keyboard smaller than standard size that is expected to allow users to achieve 90 percent of the typing speed possible on a standard size keyboard without decreasing accuracy.
Some Guidelines for Human Factors Expert Witness Testimony
Authors: Whitaker Leslie A. , Miller G. Spencer
Published: January 2012

In recent years, many scientists have been asked to provide input as experts in legal proceedings (Sanders and McCormick, 1987). There are occasions when such activities go beyond consultations and reports, resulting in testimony for a deposition or a trial. Since such testimony will involve the specialized arena of a legal venue, there is a substantial need for the expert witness to understand this legal role. A set of guidelines is presented to help prepare the witness for the legal constraints within which testimony will be given. These guidelines address aspects of the following areas: defining your expertise, preparing for testimony, and what you can expect from your client (the attorney). The application of these guidelines is illustrated through expert testimony given by the first author in a variety of cases.
Factors Affecting Consumers' Perceptions of Product Warnings: An Examination of the Differences between Male and Female Consumers
Authors: LaRue Cindy , Cohen H. Harvey
Published: January 2012

This study utilized a survey to investigate several factors that may influence consumers' perceptions of warnings. The purpose of this research was twofold: 1) to partially replicate a previous study of college undergraduates to see if similar results would be obtained in a random sample of consumers, and 2) to determine if these factors are significantly different depending on the sex of the consumer. Subjects rated twelve products according to: dangerousness, familiarity, their willingness to read a warning, need for a warning, and location of the warning. The results of this research are similar to those of the original study, therefore, the undergraduates can be considered a good indicator of the general consumer population. Further analysis showed differences in the perception of warnings between male and female consumers. Females are more likely to feel a product should have a warning and are more likely to read a warning despite the perceived dangerousness of the product than are males. The likelihood of males reading warning labels depends on the perceived dangerousness and familiarity of the product.
Impact of Human Performance on System Performance
Authors: Connelly Edward M.
Published: January 2012

Objectives: The objectives of this symposium are to identify fundamental performance measurement problems and to present theory, methods and application tools for assessing the impact of human performance on system performance. Further, case studies are used to illustrate the methods and tools. Finally, plans for development by government agencies of computer based processors implementing the tools are presented.

Scientific Importance: Design and analysis of systems involving human operators have been hampered by the lack of performance based development tools. In order to assess the impact of human performance on system performance, it is first necessary to have a reliable and quantitative means for assessing overall system performance. Second, a means is required for relating human performance to the system performance. When these two types of tools are available and are used, systems can be designed to a prescribed performance standard.

The papers in this session address fundamental performance measurement issues (including measurement reliability, sensitivity, and discrimination issues), as well as application methods and procedures.
A Theory of Human Performance Assessment
Authors: Connelly Edward M.
Published: January 2012

Selection of a measure of effectiveness (MOE) (a mathematical function) and using that measure to evaluate performance demonstrations (or exercises, or experimental trials) without first testing the measure, typically results in a disagreement between two ways of assigning effectiveness scores to each performance demonstration. The two ways of assigning effectiveness scores to each performance demonstration are: effectiveness scores assigned directly by the investigator and effectiveness scores assigned by the MOE selected by the investigator. The disagreement often exists even when comparing the rank ordering of the two sets of scored performance demonstrations.

A disagreement between the two methods means that one method, possibly both, are not correct. The direct assignment of effectiveness scores to each performance demonstration constitutes a test of the MOE. In this paper, we argue that test is typically not conducted and if it were, the MOE (existing untested MOE's) would likely fail the test. We also argue that the investigator should not select an MOE but rather should have an authority (SME) score performance demonstrations and then synthesize an MOE that will pass the test. A method for synthesizing the MOE is presented.
Attention Theory and Training Research
Authors: Connelly James G. , Wickens Christopher D. , Lintern Gavan , Harwood Kelly
Published: January 2012

This study used elements of attention theory as a methodological basis to decompose a complex training task in order to improve training efficiency. The complex task was a microcomputer flight simulation where subjects were required to control the stability of their own helicopter while acquiring and engaging enemy helicopters in a threat environment. Subjects were divided into whole-task, part-task, and part/open loop adaptive task groups in a transfer of training paradigm. The effect of reducing mental workload at the early stages of learning was examined with respect to the degree that subordinate elements of the complex task could be automated through practice of consistent, learnable stimulus-response relationships. Results revealed trends suggesting the benefit of isolating consistently mapped sub-tasks for part-task training and the presence of a time-sharing skill over and above the skill required for the separate subtasks.
Memory-Encoding Strategies and Concurrent-Task Practice: New Implications for Complex Skill Training
Authors: Winne Peter S.
Published: January 2012

This study investigates memory-encoding strategies in a multiple-task environment. Eighty subjects solved mental arithmetic and trigram items in a transfer of training study. During training, practice load and variety were manipulated between groups. During transfer, the subjects solved rehearsed and novel items under single-, dual- and triple-task loads. Both main and interactive effects for practice load and variety were found. Variety influenced solution times for new and rehearsed items and these effects were moderated by practice load within levels of task load. The results are discussed within the framework of memory-encoding strategies, as applied to the design of training in complex systems.
Estimating Capacity Equivalence Curves following Practice on a Consistently Mapped Task
Authors: Colle Herbert A. , Jenkins Mary-Louise
Published: January 2012

Capacity equivalence curves were obtained both before and after practice on a consistently mapped task. The test of primary task independence was conducted on both sets of data. Support for the independence assumption was found under both conditions. The results suggest that capacity equivalence curves may be valid for partially automatized tasks as well as with unpracticed tasks.
Comparison of Horizontal and Vertical Menu Formats
Authors: Backs Richard W. , Walrath Larry C. , Hancock Glenn A.
Published: January 2012

Eight operators searched vertical and horizontal menus containing 4, 8, or 12 items in order to find a target item and report an associated numerical value. A within-subject design was used with menu orientation as a (balanced) blocking variable and number of items a random variable within blocks. The results indicate that operator search time is shorter for vertical than for horizontal menus. Number of items was also significant, but these factors did not interact. The orientation effect is large enough to be of likely practical significance in an operational environment.
Random versus Ordered Menus in Self-Terminating Menu Searches
Authors: Harpster Jeffrey L.
Published: January 2012

An experiment testing the effectiveness of ordering menus in a self-terminating menu search task is described. Twelve subjects participated in the search task which consisted of traversing menus in a database of 4,096 items. Four depth vs. breadth combinations were used. Half of the subjects started on a series of randomly ordered menus while the remainder began on sequentially ordered menus. As expected, the ordering of items on the menus did improve performance. It was observed that ordering the elements grew in importance as the number of elements on the menu increased. The subjects' search strategies are discussed as well as possible applications of the data in the design of menu selection systems.
All-Terrain Vehicles: A Human Factors and Safety Analysis
Authors: Kvålseth Tarald O.
Published: January 2012

This summary outlines the primary points of a paper concerning a human factors and safety analysis of the all-terrain vehicle (ATV). The ATV has become a popular consumer product and is being widely used in various work related environments. However, the safety of the different ATV designs is being seriously questioned, and the ATV related accident rates are showing alarming trends. In addition to giving such accident statistics, the paper to be presented will be concerned with various safety-related aspects of ATVs such as (1) the design of warning decals and owner's manuals, (2) safety devices, (3) thumb-operated versus twist throttles, (4) seat design, (5) luggage rack designs and (6) the unique operating characteristics and instability conditions. Two safety devices designed by this author and his students to prevent the ATV from tipping over backwards are discussed and the results of field tests, and possibly a video demonstration, are presented.
Delivery of Army Training via Computer Conferencing: An Empirical Evaluation of a Rising Technology—Report of Year One
Authors: Richards Robert E.
Published: January 2012

This symposium consists of four related presentations on the application of computer conferencing to Army training. These presentations will be followed by a short presentation by a distinguished discussant. It should be noted that the work being reported was performed for the United States Army Research Institute (ARI).

The first presentation provides an overview of computer conferencing, discusses the training needs of the Army Reserve Component (RC), and looks at the potential match between the capabilities of computer conferencing and the RC training needs. A brief introduction is given of the first year's research study conducted by the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory (INEL) in support of ARI. A two-group design was adopted to look at the effects of augmenting an existing correspondence course with computer conferencing.

The second presentation discusses the data obtained from the study and presents preliminary results (the online class has been completed but the correspondence tests have not all been submitted nor have the study-related posttests and retention tests been completed by all the subjects). The types of data presented and discussed include activity data which was gathered as the online course proceeded, various kinds of survey data, and performance and completion data.

The third presentation looks at the online course experience using process observation technique. Some results of the analysis to date are presented, with various examples from the online transcripts illustrating the types of behaviors and interpersonnel interactions observed. The examples are woven together with commentary and clarifying notes.

The final presentation is a summary of lessons learned and a list of “gaps” that need to be filled by further research. As with many new areas, what is known at this point in time is overshadowed by what is not known. Important areas needing further research include instructor training and selection, course adaptation methods (how to take existing content and objectives and teach them via computer conferencing), and the entire area of logistics (including hardware, software, and support). As a result of the first year's efforts, the researchers are soberly aware of the difficulties and costs associated with using computer conferencing for training but are also optimistic that given the appropriate type of content, properly trained instructors, willing students, and sufficient logistical support, there is a real place for this technology in delivering training to the Army reserve component.
Computer Conferencing: Lessons Learned and Further Research
Authors: Phelps Ruth H. , Richards Robert E.
Published: January 2012

Although data analysis of the computer conferencing study being conducted is not yet complete, we have been able to identify, at this point in the investigation, many valuable lessons learned and gaps in knowledge and experience. Lessons learned are presented in the areas of hardware and software, logistics, training, and the instructor. Research gaps are then identified and described. This paper is presented in the hopes that others beginning similar efforts or research can benefit and to begin to build a sound foundation for making decisions on the appropriate use of this technology.
Learning Hierarchical Menu Systems: A Comparative Investigation of Analogical and Pictorial Formats
Authors: Webb Jayson M. , Kramer Arthur F.
Published: January 2012

The studies investigated the relative efficacy of different instructional aids for the learning and use of a hierarchical database system. Previous research has suggested that subjects who study a spatial map of the structure and objects in a database perform better on data retrieval tasks than subjects who study other types of material. The results of the present studies suggest that analogies are useful instructional aids for learning hierarchical databases.
An Evaluation of Some VDT Lighting Variables
Authors: Konz Stephan , Bennett Corwin
Published: January 2012

It has been difficult to differentiate statistically among lighting conditions. A questionnaire, using 12 positive adjectives, was developed which was sensitive enough to show differences among lighting variables. Twenty subjects each spent 20 minutes in each of 12 conditions. The 12 conditions were all combinations of screen glare (high and low), ambient light source (kiosk and kiosk + ceiling), and document luminance (25, 160 and 320 cd/m2). The criterion was put on a scale of 0–100%. Kiosk + ceiling lighting (score = 69%) was preferred to kiosk lighting (59%). Medium document brightness (73%) was preferred to high (63%) and low (56%). Low glare (67%) was preferred to high glare (61%).
Dorsiflexion of the Human Ankle as it Relates to Ski Boot Design in Downhill Skiing
Authors: Shealy Jasper E. , Miller David A.
Published: January 2012

This study is part of an on-going series of studies that relate to Alpine or Downhill Ski Boot Design. In current Alpine skiing, the ski boot is an integral part of the ski boot-binding system. One of the roles of the ski boot is to protect the ankle from excessive dorsiflexion during forward falls, as the ski boot is levered out of the heel binding. A boot designer needs to know what the ranges of dorsiflexion are for human ankles so that the allowable forward flex built into the ski boot will not exceed some specified level. That specified level should be such that a large part of the population will not exceed a safe level of dorsiflexion. The stiffening of the ankle by voluntary contraction of the muscles that control the ankle joint cannot be relied upon since the reaction time to contract the muscles will be greater than the time available to the skier under many circumstances. This study looks at the maximum voluntary dorsiflexion of a group of people (n=64) similar to a skiing population. The anatomical and biomechanical posture of the subjects was intended to represent typical skiing situations, therefore the subjects were measured in a weight bearing, flexed knee, upright posture. The age, gender, height, weight and skiing experience of the subjects was recorded as independent variables. The maximum voluntary dorsiflexion of the ankle was the dependent variable. 10 subjects were measured while the knee was kept in a straight or extended posture. The analysis indicates that there is no statistically significant relationship between dorsiflexion and any of the independent variables. The mean dorsiflexion was 42.7 degrees, the 5th% value was 28.5 and the 95th% was 56.7 degrees. The straight knee posture reduces the effective dorsiflexion by 8.5 degrees. Current standards permit as much as 40 to 45 degrees dorsiflexion. The implications are that current standards are excessive, a reasonable limit would be something under 30 degrees. Such a limit, or less, is consistent with the maximum dorsiflexion found in most current ski boots.
The Role of the Human Factors Designer in an Integrated Computer System
Authors: Myers Greta L. , Thrush Lisa L. , Limanowski Joseph J.
Published: January 2012

This paper addresses the changing role of the human factors professional in the design of integrated computer systems for telecommunications engineering. Specifically, with the advent of such software, the human-computer interface is at times replaced by a computer-computer interface. With humans removed from the direct processing function, should human factors designers be removed from the design function as well? Our experience has shown that there is in fact a continuing need for our expertise, as long as humans remain in the process in any role. With the changing roles of our users, however, the focus of our efforts should change. The quality and utility of an automated computer system will be optimized by the early and persistent involvement of human factors designers in task analysis, user identification, function allocation, system design, user education and quality assurance.
Advanced Manufacturing Technology Development: A Macroergonomics Perspective
Authors: Robertson Michelle M. , Majchzark Ann
Published: January 2012

This paper examines and discusses the implications of a macroergonomic perspective for assimilating advanced manufacturing technological innovations into an organization's human infrastructure. A framework for integrating sociotechnical systems and advanced manufacturing technology design is presented which identifies first-and second-order effects of the new technology on the human infrastructure. The Human Infrastructure Impact Statement (HISS) operationalizes these concepts into a systematic assessment tool. This paper ends with a brief list of some of the pertinent macroergonomic decisions that a manager and a macroergonomist must consider in implementing and designing Advance Manufacturing Technologies.
Microcomputer Human Operator Simulator (HOS-IV)
Authors: Harris Regina M. , Iavecchia Helene P. , Ross Lorna V. , Shaffer Steven C.
Published: January 2012

This paper describes the 4th-generation model of the Human Operator Simulator (HOS-IV) as implemented on an IBM PC AT microcomputer. HOS is a general purpose simulation tool for modeling the cognitive, perceptual, and motor activities of an operator who is performing a set of tasks during the course of a mission. HOS provides the capability to model the hardware system and the external environment which impact operator workload and system performance. Discussed are the new features of HOS-IV including the user-oriented interface, knowledge representation scheme, and enhanced modeling capabilities.
Cognitive Processes during Instrument Landing
Authors: Higgins Thomas J. , Chignell Mark H.
Published: January 2012

Applications of artificial intelligence (AI) in the cockpit require a deeper understanding of the cognitive processes of the pilot. This paper describes ongoing research concerned with developing cognitive models of pilot behavior that can support the development of expert systems and machine reasoning within the cockpit. An experiment is reported where the behavior of pilots within a flight simulator is observed. Verbal instructions given by the controlling pilot in a “division of labor” task are used to identify salient features of pilot cognitive models of the task. The results of this experiment are interpreted in terms of their implications for the development of future expert systems within the cockpit. Continued research on the cognitive models used by pilots should permit the development of a knowledge base that will assist display design, training programs, and research on mental workload within the cockpit.
Application of Tullis' Visual Search Model to Highlighted and Non-Highlighted Tabular Displays
Authors: Thacker Pratapray (Paul) , Tullis T. S. , Babu A. J. G.
Published: January 2012

This paper presents a comparison of experimental results with predictions obtained from Tullis' (1984) model of search times for tabular displays. Three levels of information density for displays with and without highlighting were used in a series of experiments. The highlighting of information was done by adding graphic boundaries (lines). Two levels of highlighting were used. A question-answer type of visual search was performed for two different tasks. The search time results are discussed and a method for utilizing Tullis' model for highlighted displays is suggested.
Consumer Behavior Considerations in Product Design
Authors: Ryan Joseph P.
Published: January 2012

This paper has, as its primary objective, the provision of Guidelines for product designers to assist in safe design of consumer products. Presentation of the Guidelines is based on a Human Factors Perspective of consumer behavior in the reasonable and foreseeable use and mis-use of consumer products. The Guidelines for Safe Consumer Product Design included in this Paper emphasize the valuable source of Human Factors available to Designers. The paper concludes that safe product design can be planned and designed into products that will reduce the risk of injury, or even death, in product use.
The Effects of Simulator Delays on the Acquisition of Flight Control Skills: Control of Heading and Altitude
Authors: Riccio Gary E. , Cress Jeffrey D. , Johnson William V.
Published: January 2012

The effects of simulator delays on performance, control behavior, and transfer of training were investigated with a group of subjects who had no experience with flight control tasks. Two types of aircraft were simulated: one with highly responsive dynamics and one with sluggish dynamics. Subjects were assigned to one of four time-delay conditions and to one of the two aircraft types. In the first phase of the experiment, subjects participated in fifty trials (ten trials per day) with a particular time delay (50, 100, 200, or 400 milliseconds). After this “training” phase, all subjects “transferred” to the minimum time-delay condition (50 milliseconds) for another fifty trials. The experimental task required that the subjects maintain constant heading and altitude in the presence of pseudo-random roll-rate and pitch-rate disturbances. There were statistically significant effects of time delay on root-mean-square heading and altitude errors in both the training and transfer phases of the experiment. The effect of delay on transfer of training was greater for the aircraft with sluggish dynamics.
On-Board Electronic Warfare Simulator (OBEWS): Designing the Ground Support Subsystem (GSS) Man Machine Interface
Authors: Wilford Gregory M.
Published: January 2012

This paper reports on the development of the On-Board Electronic Warfare Simulator (OBEWS) Ground Support Subsystem (GSS). The discussion will take place on two levels. At the top level, the theme of embedded training and the role that the OBEWS program will have in proving the feasibility of the concept will be discussed. At the second and more detailed level, the intensive human factors engineering effort undertaken in the design/development of the OBEWS GSS man machine interface (MMI) will be presented. A description of the resulting MMI will be included. The paper concludes with recommendations and lessons learned at both levels.
The Application of Human Factors to the Development of Expert Systems for Advanced Cockpits
Authors: Endsley Mica R.
Published: January 2012

Expert system applications must be carefully selected, designed and integrated into the cockpit based on a full understanding of the pilot's tasks, requirements, and capabilities. In this paper, expert systems development issues in the following areas are identified and addressed utilizing processes, methodologies and knowledge from the human factors field: the selection of systems to automate, the elicitation of expert knowledge from pilots, role allocation between the pilot and the system, system design issues, and system evaluation. Considerations of pilot workload, situational awareness, performance and pilot acceptance are considered key to the successful design and implementation of expert systems which will truly enhance the pilot in the performance of his tasks.
Evaluation of Asw Tactical Symbology
Authors: Hovey Clay K. , Berson Barry L.
Published: January 2012

Twelve experienced tactical crew members served as subjects in a study which compared three synonymous sets of tactical contact symbols under conditions of color/monochrome and high/low density. Time and accuracy data of responses to stimulus displays were collected and analyzed, and subjective findings were obtained through post-experiment questionnaires and interviews. The National Tactical Data System symbology produced significantly better results than the two other symbologies, and was favored most by subjects. This presentation describes the study and offers an explanation of the results based on Anne Triesman's findings of preattentive visual processing.
Situation Awareness: Icons vs. Alphanumerics
Authors: Steiner Bruce A. , Camacho Monica J.
Published: January 2012

This study examined the effect of varying the amount of information that is presented in either an alphanumeric or iconic display and its effect on how efficiently a pilot can utilize the data. The results from 12 subjects, under self-paced presentation length conditions, indicated that for a small quantity of data (2 or 4 bits) there is no difference in response times between iconic and alphanumeric displays. As the quantity of data presented increases (8, 16, or 32 bits), subjects perform better using iconic displays.