bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
S
uárez,
F
rancisco (1548–1617)
Authors: Macy Gary
Published: January 2012

The Spanish theologian Francisco Suárez is often considered the greatest of the Jesuit theo‐logians. Titled
doctor eximius et pius
by Pope Paul V, Suárez studied philosophy and theology at Salamanca and taught there from 1564 until 1570. He later taught in Rome from 1580 until 1585, at Alcalá from 1585 until 1593 and at Coimbra from 1597 until 1616. His most famous works are
De Verbo Incarnato
(1590),
De Mysteriis Vitae Christi
(1592),
Varia Opuscula Theologica
(1599),
De Vera Intelligentia Auxilii Efficacis
(1605),
De Virtute et Statu Religionis
(1608–1609),
De Legibus
(1612),
Defensio Fidei
(against Anglicanism; 1613), and three post‐humous works,
De Necessitate Gratia
(1619),
De Gratia Habituali
(1619), and
De Gratia Actuali
(1651).
S
ung,
J
ohn (1901–1944)
Authors: Anderson Allan
Published: January 2012

John Sung (Siong‐ceh) was perhaps the greatest evangelist and revivalist of 20th century China. Born in the home of a Methodist pastor in Hinghwa, Fujian in southeast China, Sung went to the USA in 1920 for university studies, graduating with a Ph.D. in chemistry from Ohio State University in 1926. After an eventful year in the USA that included a semester at Union Theological Seminary, New York, he burned all his theological books and renounced theological education. After six months in a mental hospital, he returned home in early 1927. For the next 15 years he devoted himself exclusively to evangelism and healing, bringing tens of thousands to faith in Christ and revival to hundreds of Chinese churches throughout China and Southeast Asia. From 1931–1934 he worked in an evangelistic team with Andre Gih in the Bethel Mission, called the Bethel Gospel Band, until he resigned over differences with the missionary founder and began work as an independent evangelist. His hundreds of meetings were characterized by great drama and emotion, including vigorous handclapping, spontaneous prayer in unison, free‐flowing tears, and vivid illustrations. Sung dressed in informal attire and often appeared unkempt, and his messages appealed to common people, despite his education. Numerous cases of healing in Sung's ministry were reported, with overwhelming numbers of people lining up for prayer for healing and exorcism in his meetings. He became a national figure, but his critics charged him with fanaticism.
S
wedenborg,
E
manuel (1688–1772)
Authors: Lineham Peter
Published: January 2012

Emanuel Swedenborg was born in Stockholm on January 29, 1688, third child of court chaplain Jesper Swedberg, who served from the 1690s as professor of theology at the University of Uppsala and then from 1702 until his death in 1735 as bishop of Skara. The family was ennobled and their name changed to Swedenborg in 1719. A clever young man, Emanuel was educated at the University of Uppsala, majoring in mathematics, and then traveled abroad from 1710 to 1715. On his return he was appointed by royal patronage an unpaid assessor to the Board of Mines, and in 1724 he was appointed an ordinary assessor. He published a number of Latin works, notably the large
Principa Rerum Naturalium
(1734) and then
Oeconomia Regni Animalis
(1741–1745) in which he explores various theories of the nature of life, somewhat in the tradition of Descartes and Malebranche, which he learned from his brother‐in‐law Eric Benzelius, the friend of Leibniz, and from Christopher Polhelm, Sweden's pioneer scientist.
Syriac Orthodox Church
Authors: Murre‐van den Berg Heleen
Published: January 2012

The Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch and all the East has almost one and a half million adherents. Of these, roughly two‐thirds (one million) live in India, somewhat more than one‐sixth (260,000) in the Middle East, whereas the remaining sixth is divided over Europe (100,000, mostly in Sweden, Germany, and the Netherlands), North and South America (up to 40,000, most of these in the US and Canada), and Australia (a few thousand). In the Middle East, in and around the towns of Mardin and Midyat in southeastern Turkey, small but vigorous communities testify to the almost 2,000 year history of this church. Its present leader, Patriarch Mor Ignatius Zakka I Iwas, has been in office since 1980 and resides in Syria, the most important country of residence (170,000), with the official see of the patriarchate in the old city of Damascus (Bab Touma) and the main headquarters, monastery, and seminary in the nearby town of Ma“arat Saidnaya. The Syriac Orthodox Church is one of the miaphysite churches of the so‐called “Non‐Chalcedonian” Oriental Orthodox family, stressing the single inseparable divine‐human nature of Christ. With the Assyrian Apostolic Church of the East it shares the common heritage of the classical Syriac language. It is in this form of Aramaic that the Bible translation, the theological and philosophical literature, and most of the liturgy are written, and it has remained in use to the present day.
Taizé Community
Authors: Johnson R. Kevin
Published: January 2012

Taizé is a monastic community that originated in southeast France. Taizé was founded in 1940 by Roger Schutz‐Marsauche (1915–2005) who had a strong burden for Christian groups in conflict with one another and for the concerns of humanity. Brother Roger had a vibrant ministry to refugees fleeing persecution during the 1940s and gave a home to prisoners of war after World War II.
T
elemann,
G
eorg
P
hilipp (1681–1767)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

The most prolific German composer of the first half of the 18th century. In 1705 he became Kapellmeister at Sorau and moved on to a similar position at Frankfurt am Main. Finally he settled at Hamburg where he was expected to write two cantatas for every Sunday and one Passion every year. Altogether he composed 1,043 cantatas, many of them with four voices accompanied by strings and woodwinds. He published four complete cycles of church cantatas. He also set 46 Passions of which 20 are extant, six Passion oratorios, 11 Masses on chorale tunes, four short Masses, two
Magnificats
, one in Latin and the other in German, 17 psalm settings, 26 motets, and a number of sacred songs and canons and some chorale preludes and fugues for organ. From 1755 he composed his greatest liturgical music, including a series of oratorios, among them
Der Tod, Jesu
(The Death of Jesus, 1755),
Die Auferstehung und Himmelfahrt Jesus
(The Resurrection and Ascension of Jesus, 1760), and
Der Tag des Gerichts
(Judgment Day, 1762).
Temperance and Prohibition
Authors: Lay Robert F.
Published: January 2012

Temperance urges abstinence from alcohol, or drinking in moderation, as a personal choice. Prohibition aims to remove the temptation by outlawing drink altogether. Neither movement is exclusive to Christianity, but many Christians have worked to reduce the misery that accompanies excessive drinking. The Bible itself condemns the abuse but not the use of alcohol. Drunkenness, for example, is condemned in Paul's letters (Rom. 13:13; 1 Cor. 5:11, 6:10) and the apostle warns that “those who live like this will not inherit the Kingdom of God” (Gal. 5:21). Overseers, moreover, must not be “given to drunkenness,” but must be “self‐controlled” (1 Tim. 3:3; Titus 1:7); the latter term (Greek,
egkrateia
) expresses the idea of sobriety or temperance (see Gal. 5:22). Prior to the 19th century, temperance was the foremost strategy: an Eastern Church father, Chrysostom, counseled his hearers to find fault not with wine but with drunkenness (Sermon 57); a German reformer, Martin Luther, mounted the first temperance campaign, yet warned against lengthy abstention: “… not temperance but faith is the victory …” (1955: 30, 312). Methodist founder John Wesley directed his preachers not to drink liquor but considered wine “the noblest cordial in nature” — not worthy of condemnation (Journal, Oct. 9, 1771). American colonists viewed hardships as signs of God's wrath concerning drunkenness and spiritual lethargy, and prescribed occasional fasts.
T
emple,
W
illiam (1881–1944)
Authors: Watts Thomas D.
Published: January 2012

William Temple (1881–1944), Anglican bishop and theologian, served as Archbishop of Canterbury from 1942 to 1944, and developed Anglican social thought in egalitarian directions. He was the youngest child of Archbishop of Canterbury Frederick Temple, and pursued studies at Balliol College, Oxford. His years at Oxford foreshadowed his interests and his commitments in coming years: politics, social justice and equality, academics and ecumenism.
Local Church
Authors: Bigalke Ron J.
Published: January 2012

The Local Church was founded by Witness Lee (1905–1997). Lee was initially a disciple of Watchman Nee (1903–1972; an ultra‐mystical [anthropologically and soteriologically] Chinese “apostle”) but separated himself from Nee in belief and practice. The Local Church began in the orient, and extended its influence to the western world in the early 60s. In the 1940s, Nee was a dynamic teacher in the Little Flock movement in China, which gained ascendancy subsequent to World War II, and Lee became the gifted organizer of the movement. Prior to his first visit to America in 1958, Lee established Local Churches in Hong Kong and Taiwan. In 1962, Lee established the first American Local Church in Los Angeles and founded the Stream Ministry (renamed Living Stream Ministry). Although claiming no central headquarters, the foremost Local Church is
arguably
established in Anaheim, California. The Local Church attracts individuals from mainline Protestant denominations and Plymouth Brethren assemblies. Over 2,000 Local Churches exist worldwide, and at least one is established in nearly every state in America.
Shepherd of Hermas
Authors: Scholer David M.
Published: January 2012

The
Shepherd of Hermas
(
SH
) is the longest work in the collection of early 2nd century Christian writings known as the Apostolic Fathers. The
SH
is divided into three sections: Visions (five of them; chapters 1–25), Mandates (= Commandments; ten of them; chapters 29–49), and Similitudes (= Parables; twelve of them; chapters 50–114).
Theodicy
Authors: Jones Clay Butler
Published: January 2012

From the Greek
theos
, “God,” and
dikê
, “justice”; a theodicy attempts to explain why God is just to allow evil. That an all‐powerful and all‐good God would allow evil is called the “problem of evil.” One famous formulation of the problem of evil is by philosopher David Hume (1711–1776): “Is He willing to prevent evil, but not able? Then He is impotent. Is He able, but not willing? Then He is malevolent. Is He both able and willing? Whence then is evil?” A successful theodicy, then, will show that God's being all‐good and all‐powerful is not logically inconsistent with His allowing particular types of evil (e.g. moral evils such as rape or murder and natural evils such as tsunamis and disease). Each type of evil may require a different theodicy to answer it.
Theology of History
Authors: Green Bradley G.
Published: January 2012

From perhaps their earliest moments, people of biblical faith have understood and construed events in terms of who God is, who man is, and in light of what God has done and spoken. Thus, even if a full‐orbed historical
consciousness
emerged more fully later in history, there was already a certain historical understanding or awareness among people of biblical faith.
Theology of the Body
Authors: Smith Jay E.
Published: January 2012

Body, the physical side or aspect of human beings. Since God created the human body (Gen. 2:7; cf. Ps. 139:13–18), the Bible portrays it favorably and as integral to humanity, rather than unfavorably — as an evil and perishable drag on the soul. Nevertheless, the Bible does not glorify the body as an artistic ideal of human strength, power, and beauty as did the Greeks in classical antiquity (Gardner 1980: 108–155; Gundry 1996: 150–151; cf. Rom. 8:10, 20–23; 1 Cor. 15:42–44; 2 Cor. 4:16; Phil. 3:21).
T
homas (Didymus)
Authors: Senior Donald
Published: January 2012

Thomas is listed as an original disciple of Jesus in each of the Synoptic Gospels (see Mark 3:18; Matt. 10:3; Luke 6:15). He is also one of the disciples gathered in the upper room in Jerusalem prior to Pentecost (Acts 1:13). The name “Thomas” is probably a transliteration of the Aramaic word
tau'ma
or “twin” — “Didymus” in Latin. Thomas takes on more vivid life in John's Gospel. He first appears in John 11:16 where Jesus learns of his friend Lazarus' illness and decides to return to Judea in spite of opposition there. Thomas, sensing danger, urges his fellow disciples, “Let us also go, that we may die with him.” On the night of Jesus' arrest, Thomas is among the disciples who hear Jesus' final discourse. Hearing Jesus' speak of his “departure” Thomas expresses his consternation: “Lord, we do not know where you are going. How can we know the way?” (John 14:5). In the Fourth Gospel's typical style in which such questions trigger further development of the discourse, Jesus responds: “I am the way, and the truth, and the life. No one comes to the Father except through me” (John 14:6). “Thomas called the Twin” is also among the disciples who gather in Galilee after the death of Jesus and who, while fishing, encounter the Risen Christ in one of the Gospel's most beautiful resurrection stories (see John 21:1–23).
Tithe
Authors: Köstenberger Andreas J.
Published: January 2012

The word “tithe” literally means “tenth,” which is usually taken to refer to the requirement to give 10 percent of one's income to God. Both Testaments view the tithe within the larger framework of giving and worship. Prior to the giving of the Mosaic law, tithing was not a systematic, continual practice but an occasional, even exceptional, form of giving (Gen. 14:20; cf. Heb. 7:4; Gen. 28:22). The Mosaic law includes stipulations regarding the Levitical, Festival, and Poor (or Welfare) tithe (Lev. 27:30–33; Num. 18:21; Deut. 14:22–29). Taken together, the annual tithe of the Israelites surpassed 10 percent of their income, totaling more than 20 percent. Of the seven references to tithing in the Old Testament historical and prophetic books, the most important is that in Malachi 3:8 (cf. 2 Chron. 31:5–6, 12; Neh. 10:38–39; 12:44–47; 13:5, 12; Amos 4:4), where people are told to bring their (Levitical) “tithes and offerings” into God's “storehouse” and (agricultural) blessings are promised for those who comply.
T
itian (1485–1576)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

Real name: Tiziano Vecellio. Venetian painter who dominated the golden age of Venetian art. His long life of 90 years enabled him to produce a body of religious art of unexcelled range and variety.
Titles of Christ
Authors: Köstenberger Andreas J.
Published: January 2012

In developing its Christology, the early church applied several titles to Jesus. Among the most common christological titles applied to Jesus are the following: 1) Messiah or Christ (John 1:41; 4:25; Matt. 1:1, 16–18; 2:4; 11:2; 16:16, 20; etc.); 2) Son of God (Luke 3:38; John 1:34, 49; 3:18; 5:25; 10:36; 11:4, 27; 19:7; 20:31), one‐of‐a‐kind Son (John 1:14, 18; 3:16, 18), or simply the Son (John 3:17, 35–36; 5:19–26; 6:40; 8:35–36; 14:13; 17:1; Heb. 1:3); 3) Lord (Matt. 8:2, 6, 8, 21, 25; 9:28; 12:8; 14:28, 30; 15:22, 25; etc.); and 4) God (John 1:1, 18; 20:28; etc.). Jesus frequently referred to himself as the Son of Man (numerous times in all four Gospels) or as the “I am” (John 9:24, 28, 58; etc.) in continuity with the Old Testament designation of Yahweh (Exod. 3:14; Isa. 43:10–13, 25; 45:18; 48:12; 51:12; 52:6).
T
orrey,
R
euben
A
rcher (1856–1928)
Authors: Streett R. Alan
Published: January 2012

Reuben Archer Torrey (1856–1928) was a Congregationalist evangelist and leading proponent of the Bible School movement. Born on January 28, 1856 at Hoboken, New Jersey, R. A. Torrey grew up as the son of a wealthy corporate lawyer. His parents, Reuben and Elizabeth, were refined and cultured and moved freely in society circles. When Torrey was three years old, the family moved to Brooklyn, New York, and seven years later purchased a 200 acre estate in Uplands, New York. Although the family embraced Universalism, they attended an orthodox Congregational Church and observed the Sabbath.
T
ozer,
A
.
W
. (1897–1963)
Authors: King Paul L.
Published: January 2012

Born in 1897 in Pennsylvania, Aiden Wilson Tozer was converted at the age of 17 by a lay preacher at a street meeting. He attended the Methodist Church and was baptized in Church of the Brethren before he became ordained with The Christian and Missionary Alliance (C&MA). He served as a pastor for 44 years in Stonewood and Morgantown, West Virginia; Indianapolis, Indiana; Chicago, Illinois; and Toronto, Ontario. A prolific writer, he became editor of
Alliance Life
for 13 years. He served as Vice President of the C&MA 1946–1950, but declined the presidency of the denomination. His writings and teachings have had an immense impact on the lives of thousands of Christians. His classic
The Pursuit of God
(1948), urging being passionate for God himself, has sold more than 1.5 million copies and been translated into 20 languages. It was chosen by
Christianity Today
readers as one of the top ten most spiritually influential books. Known for his incisive writing to issues of the times, more than 40 volumes of his writings and sermons have been published.
The Divine Conquest
(1950) and
The Knowledge of the Holy
(1961) also became classics.
Tradition
Authors: Williams D. H.
Published: January 2012

Traditio
, or (Greek)
paradosis
, is a dynamic term that literally meant “to hand over.” It is not coincidental that Paul turned out to be the chief architect of a language of tradition for the church. Having been educated in Jerusalem under Gamaliel the Elder (Acts 22:3), he was thoroughly trained in the Law and was thereafter zealous to follow the “traditions of my fathers” (Gal. 1:4). Through his epistles, Paul either introduced or, more likely, expanded upon a terminology that articulated the process by which a uniquely Christian “tradition” was developed. While preserving the essential structure of the Jewish principle of “tradition,” Paul brought new life into it by making it the vehicle of the gospel wherein Jesus Christ became both its content and the principle of its origin (authority).
T
raherne,
T
homas (1637–1674)
Authors: Foltz Bruce V.
Published: January 2012

Thomas Traherne was an Anglican priest and theologian, considered to be the last of the English metaphysical poets, succeeding such illustrious figures as Donne, Herbert, Crashaw, and Vaughan. He was also a notable mystic and an original thinker, whose evocative reflections on the relations between God, nature, and humanity seem especially appealing in an age of environmental crisis. Born in Herefordshire, according to some accounts the son of a shoemaker, Traherne graduated with a BA from Brasenose College, Oxford in 1656, was ordained in 1660 after the Restoration, and in 1661 was awarded an MA at Oxford. He served as rector of a small parish church in Credenhill, near his native Hereford, beginning in 1657. He also served from 1669 to 1672 as private chaplain to Sir Orlando Bridgeman, Lord Keeper of the Great Seal for Charles II, with pastoral duties in the Teddington parish near London. He died in 1674, while in residence at the Bridgeman household, with a last will providing generously for the poor. During his short and quiet life, his literary work was largely unknown, his only publication being in 1673 a scholarly and polemical treatise,
Roman Forgeries
, which is critical of certain Roman Catholic theological claims. His
Christian Ethicks: The Way to Blessedness
was published posthumously in 1675. Here, Traherne first develops his understanding of his important theme of “felicity” or happiness, undertaking to correct Hobbes' “great mistake in that arrogant
Leviathan
,” which “imprisons” our love for ourselves by making it “inconsistent with charity towards others.” Traherne argues to the contrary that it is not the isolated self at all that we desire to preserve, but only the self in love with what is other than itself. Moreover, through the proper enjoyment of what we love, we can come to an “enjoyment of God by way of gratitude,” whose culmination is what he calls “godliness” or “godlikeness,” and which bears a certain resemblance to Eastern Orthodox teachings concerning
theosis
. His
Thanksgivings
was published anonymously in 1699 as
A Serious and Pathetical Contemplation
. But Traherne's current celebrity dates from the discovery by William Brooke, in the bargain bins of two London bookstores during the winter of 1896–1897, of Traherne's poems and, even more importantly, of his
Centuries of Meditations
, where themes treated in the
Ethicks
appear with great poetic and mystical power:
Transubstantiation
Authors: Macy Gary
Published: January 2012

Christians have held from earliest times that Jesus, since his resurrection from the dead, is present as the risen Lord in the community. Christians claim that this presence makes itself felt powerfully in the ritual meal of blessed bread and wine known as the Eucharist or Lord's Supper. In the 11th century Christian writers began to discuss in earnest how this presence in the Eucharist might be possible. Transubstantiation emerged from these discussions as one way of describing how this might occur. Most basically, transubstantiation posits that the
substantia
(substance) of the bread and of the wine is replaced by the
substantia
of the body and of the blood of the risen Lord during the blessing of the bread and wine in the ritual of the Eucharist.
Substantia
although not understood in the same way by all medieval theologians, generally referred to the Aristotelian category of “
ousia
” or the essential reality that underlies individual things. Transubstantiation and a belief in the real presence, although sometimes confused, are quite distinct. Belief in the real presence asserts
that
the risen Lord is present in the Eucharist; transubstantiation attempts to explain
how
that is possible. Belief in the real presence was considered a requirement for orthodox Christian belief among most Christian groups. It is not clear that transubstantiation was ever so required by any Christian group, except when denial of transubstantiation was understood to entail denial of the real presence.
T
roeltsch,
E
rnst (1865–1923)
Authors: Green Todd
Published: January 2012

Ernst Troeltsch was a German theologian associated with the History of Religions School. After studying at the universities in Erlangen and Göttingen, Troeltsch taught briefly in Göttingen and Bonn before accepting a position at the University of Heidelberg in 1894. In 1915 he accepted the Philosophy chair in Berlin, where he remained until his death in 1923.
T
yndale,
W
illiam (
c
.1494–1536)
Authors: Maas Korey D.
Published: January 2012

William Tyndale, English Bible translator and theological reformer, was born in Gloucester‐shire circa 1494 and educated at the University of Oxford (and perhaps for a time at Cambridge). Tyndale first received public attention when, employed as a tutor in his native Gloucestershire (1522–1523), he translated Erasmus'
Enchiridion
into English. The opposition aroused by this modest indication of reformist leanings was intensified by his subsequent proposal to translate the Bible into English — a project Erasmus himself had supported but never undertaken.
Ukrainian Christianity
Authors: Steeves Paul D.
Published: January 2012

Legend connects Ukrainian Christianity with the Apostle Andrew, brother of St. Peter, who was reported to have visited the site of the Ukrainian mother city, Kiev, and to have planted a cross on the hill overlooking the Dniepr river while predicting the eventual dawn of the gospel light over Slavic lands. More substantial historical evidence places early Christians in Ukraine among the resident Slavs and conquering Norsemen (Varangians) in the early 10th century, including the consecration of a church to St. Elijah. This story includes the first conversion of a regent, Princess Olga, around mid century.
U
ruguayan Christianity
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

Roman Catholicism is the dominant religion of Uruguay. Just over 47 percent of the population are Catholics. The imprint of Catholicism on the national culture is strong and solid.
V
an
D
er
K
emp,
J
ohannes (1747–1811)
Authors: Maclean Iain S.
Published: January 2012

A Dutch medical doctor and early missionary of the London Missionary Society (LMS) from 1799 in the Cape Colony, South Africa. One of the first LMS missionaries sent to the Cape and the first to work among the Xhosa. He gained a lasting reputation as a defender of the indigenous inhabitants, the Khoi‐San (known until recently as Hottentots) and as an opponent of slavery.
W
eyden,
R
ogier
V
an
D
er (1399–1464)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

Belgian painter, one of the most celebrated artists of the 15th century. His identity and origins are obscure and there are no records and no signed paintings. All that is definitely known about him is that he became the city painter of Brussels in 1436.
v
an
R
uusbroec,
J
an (1293–1381)
Authors: Nieuwenhove Rik Van
Published: January 2012

Jan van Ruusbroec (Ruysbroeck) was born near Brussels in 1293. He became chaplain at St. Gudula but in 1343 he withdrew into the Zonien Forest in the Groenendaal valley to pursue a more secluded life. He died in 1381 and was beatified in 1909. All his works were written in Middle Dutch. His most important works are
Die Geestelike Brulocht
[The Spiritual Espousals],
Een Spieghel der Eewigher Salicheit
[A Mirror of Eternal Blessedness],
Dat Rijcke der Ghelieven
[The Realm of Lovers], and
Van den Geesteliken Tabernakel
[The Spiritual Tabernacle], besides a range of smaller treatises. Ruusbroec's works have been published in a trilingual edition as
Jan van Ruusbroec. Opera Omnia
(1981–2006). For a more indepth study of Ruusbroec's mystical theology, see Van Nieuwenhove 2003.
V
an
T
il,
C
ornelius (1895–1987)
Authors: Oliphint K. Scott
Published: January 2012

Cornelius Van Til was born the sixth of eight children, in the village of Grootegast, in the province of Groningen, in the Netherlands. Van Til's parents, Ite and Klazina, moved the family to the United States in 1905, when Van Til was only 10 years old. The family were farmers by trade, and Van Til was the first of the eight children to receive a higher education.
V
atican
I
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

The 20th Ecumenical Council, also known as Vatican I, was convoked by Pius IX in 1868 in Rome to deal with the issues faced by the Catholic Church in the mid 19th century. It sat from December 8, 1869 to July 18, 1870, when it was closed at the outbreak of the Franco Prussian War and the occupation of Rome by Italian troops.
V
atican
II
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

On January 25, 1959 Pope John XXIII announced his intention to summon an ecumenical council 90 years after the conclusion of Vatican I. Unlike previous councils, Vatican II was not convened to fight heresy or to deal with a serious threat to the unity of the church. In an earlier encyclical
Ad Petri Cathedram
, the pope said that he had church unity at heart and that he hoped that one day other Christians would return and that there would be one fold and one shepherd. The principal aims of the council would be “to promote the growth of the Catholic faith and a salutary renewal of morals among Christian peoples, to bring ecclesiastical discipline up to date, according to the needs of the times.” In June 1960 he established 10 preparatory commissions and 2 secretariats, all responsible to a central commission charged with preparing the agenda. By the following December a total of 728 persons were appointed to the commissions and secretariats, including 48 cardinals, 215 patriarchs, archbishops, and bishops, 217 prelates, 240 priests and religious, and 8 laypeople, some of them in the capacity of
periti
, or scholars. The remits of the 10 commissions were: (1) theology, (2) bishops and the government of dioceses, (3) discipline of clergy and laity, (4) religious, (5) discipline of sacraments, (6) sacred liturgy, (7) studies and seminaries, (8) Eastern Churches, (9) missions, and (10) apostolate of the laity. The remits of the two secretariats were (1) press, radio, and television and (2) Christian unity. Nearly 71 percent of the members were Europeans.
V
enezuelan
C
hristianity
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

Dominican and Franciscan priests arrived in the northeastern part of Venezuela in 1513 and opened cocoa, coffee, and sugar plantations as a prelude to evangelization. Between 1658 and 1758 the Capuchins founded 100 stations in the plains around Caracas, while the Jesuits opened missions along the Orinoco. The diocese of Caracas was established in 1637, becoming a metropolitan see in 1803.
V
enn,
H
enry (1796–1873)
Authors: Olabimtan Kehinde
Published: January 2012

English administrator of the Church Missionary Society and its mission theorist in the 19th century, Henry Venn was born in Clapham into a long line of clerics. His father, John Venn (1759–1813), was pastor to members of the Clapham Sect, the evangelical abolitionist movement that emerged in late 18th century England, and presided at the meeting in 1799 where the CMS was formed as a missionary society of the Anglican Church. Henry Venn trained at Queen's College, Cambridge, and was ordained a deacon in 1819 and a priest in 1821. He enrolled as a member of the CMS in 1820. After serving at the parishes of Drypool, Hull, where he married Martha Sykes in 1829, and St. John's, Holloway, he was made a prebendary of St. Paul's Cathedral in 1846. He assumed the office of CMS clerical secretary in 1841 and served the mission body for three decades, shaping its policies and making definitive contributions to the fledgling movement.
Vermigli,PeterMartyr (1499–1562)
Authors: McAlhaney Timothy M.
Published: January 2012

Peter Vermigli was born on September 8, 1499 in Florence, Italy, to a wealthy shoemaker named Stephano Vermigli. Although Peter was christened Piero Mariano, he took the name of the saint Peter Martyr of Verona upon entering the Order of Augustinian Canons in 1514. Here he became acquainted with the Scholastics but soon moved beyond the medieval doctors to the early church fathers and then ultimately to scripture. To this end he took up the study of Hebrew while in Bologna. While serving as prior at St. Peter's in Naples, Vermigli read works by Zwingli, Bucer, and Melanchthon. He was also influenced by Juan de Valdés, whose lectures on 1 Corinthians pushed Vermigli toward a Protestant view of justification. Vermigli's exegesis of 1 Corinthians 3:11–13 earned him a ban from preaching. Influential friends, however, had the ban lifted and in 1540 he was made a visitor by the Augustinian canons and given broad reforming power in Italy.
V
eronese (1528–1588)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

Real name: Paolo Caliari or Cagliari. Greatest Venetian decorator before Tiepolo. His first major commission was for both oil and fresco for the church and sacristy of S. Sebastiano, Venice. Three large ovals on the nave and ceiling tell the story of Esther and Ahasuerus, and the walls on the north and south sides of the monks' choir have frescoes of the
Life of St. Sebastian
(1558). Veronese had a large workshop and his output was enormous.
The Marriage Feast at Cana
for the refectory of S. Giorgio Maggiore, Venice, is the first of a series of large religious scenes. Unfortunately his religious pictures were considered irreverent and in 1573 he was summoned before the Inquisition for his painting,
Feast in the House of Levi
(1573). His art was sometimes dismissed as mere decoration but his gift was not evocative or emotive art but rather opulent display. In his
Last Supper
he filled some 40 feet of space with elaborate architecture and scores of figures.
ViennaHofmusikkapelle
Authors: Hettrick Jane Schatkin
Published: January 2012

The ViennaHofmusikkapelle(court musical ensemble) is one of the oldest and most distinguished musical institutions in Europe. Officially founded in 1498 (but probably going back 60 years prior) by Emperor Maximilian I (1486–1519) and continuing with few interruptions to the present, the ViennaHofmusikkapelleprovided music for the imperial family for worship and state occasions. Music represented the splendor of the monarchy, rulers ordained by God. It traveled with the emperor to gatherings of the Imperial Diet, coronations, weddings, funerals, oath‐taking, etc. The ensemble, which varied in size over the centuries, consisted of a choir of men and boys accompanied by instruments. TheKapellmeister(director of music) was responsible for the performances; he was also expected to compose music (e.g. masses, graduals, offertories) for regular services in theHofkapelle. During its long history, numerous important composers directed and/or belonged to the ensemble. Maximilian engaged Heinrich Isaac, Ludwig Senfl, and Paul Hofhaimer. Throughout the 16th century, Franco‐Flemish vocal polyphony dominated the ensemble. Arnold von Bruck, Jakob Vaet, and Philipp de Monte served successively asHofkapellmeister, presiding over a growing choir and gradual addition of instrumentalists. When Ferdinand II came to the throne in 1619, he brought with him his mostly Italian ensemble, ushering in the new Baroque style and beginning a period of Italian domination of theHofmusikkapelle. Seventeenth centuryKapellmeisterincluded Giovanni Valentini, Antonio Bertati, and Antonio Draghi. Johann Jacob Froberger served as court organist (1637–1657) under Ferdinand III.
Z
inzendorf,
N
ikolaus
L
udwig, Count
v
on (1700–1760)
Authors: Atwood Craig D.
Published: January 2012

Nikolaus Ludwig von Zinzendorf was one of the most provocative figures of modern Christianity. He was influential in the areas of global missions, ecumenism, community formation, hymnody, hermeneutics, and education. The son of aristocratic parents closely connected to the Pietist leader Philip Jakob Spener, Zinzendorf was sent to the Halle Pedagogium at age 10. There he was mentored by another Pietist leader, August Hermann Francke. When he turned 16, Zinzendorf attended the University of Wittenberg. His formal studies focused on the law and state service, but he also pursued theological study and church history privately. He was devoted to the writings of the young Luther. Zinzendorf spent his
Wanderjahr
making contact with the Mennonite and Jewish communities in the Netherlands, and established a close relationship with the Catholic primate of France, Archbishop Noailles. This ecumenical experience shaped his attitude toward the universal church for the rest of his career. When he came of age in 1721, he purchased the estate of Berthelsdorf in Upper Lusatia (Saxony) from his grandmother, and entered into the service of the King of Saxony.
W
alls,
A
ndrew F. (
b
. 1928)
Authors: Norris Frederick W.
Published: January 2012

No other church historian has described world Christianity with such insight and breadth. Born at New Milton, England in 1928 because only there had his father found work, the Scot Andrew Walls is a graduate of Oxford and Aberdeen universities. Beginning in 1952 he served as secretary and librarian of Tyndale House in Cambridge. There his ability to inspire and encourage church leaders emerged.
War and Violence, Christian Responses
Authors: Harold Philip J.
Published: January 2012

Christian reflection on the proper response to war and violence begins with the New Testament and the words of Christ. Christ forgave those who were crucifying him from the cross. Our risen Lord's first words to his disciples — “Peace be with you” — are the opposite of anger and hostility toward those who had crucified him. The Sermon on the Mount spoke of peacemakers as children of God. Yet Jesus also said that he gives peace not as the world gives, and he warned his disciples: “Do not think that I have come to bring peace upon the earth. I have come to bring not peace but the sword. For I have come to set a man against his father, a daughter against her mother, and a daughter‐in‐law against her mother‐in‐law; and one's enemies will be those of his household” (Matt. 10:34–36). At the same time Christ commanded us to pray for our enemies and persecutors so as to be children of the Father. In contrast to the
lex talionis
, Christ says to “offer no resistance to one who is evil. When someone strikes you on your right cheek, turn the other one to him as well. If anyone wants to go to law with you over your tunic, hand him your cloak as well” (Matt. 5:39–40). His passion and death strikingly exemplify this teaching.
W
arfield, B. B. (1851–1921)
Authors: Rios Christopher M.
Published: January 2012

A conservative Presbyterian theologian, Benjamin Breckinridge Warfield's rigorous defense of Reformed confessionalism and the plenary inspiration of Scripture helped to establish him as one of the giants of the Princeton theology and put him at odds with much 20th century theology. Born near Lexington, Kentucky to William Warfield and Mary Cabell Breckinridge, Warfield was privately educated and trained in the Presbyterian faith until he entered the College of New Jersey (later Princeton University) in 1868. Warfield graduated in 1871 and entered Princeton Theological Seminary, where he was greatly influenced by a mature Charles Hodge. In 1876, Warfield graduated from the seminary, married Annie Pearce Kinkead, and began a period of advanced study in Europe. He began his teaching career at Western Theological Seminary (Pittsburg) in 1878. In 1887, he returned to Princeton Seminary to become professor of didactic and polemical theology, a position previously held by Archibald Alexander, Charles Hodge, and Archibald Alexander Hodge. From this position, Warfield continued the seminary's tradition of expounding Calvinistic theology, a high view of Scripture, and Scottish Common Sense reasoning. Though he never wrote a systematic theology of his own, his prolific output of books, articles, and reviews dealt with nearly every major issue of the day and helped keep many Americans abreast of the developments in Continental theology. Warfield died at Princeton Seminary, having spent nearly four decades defending conservative American religion.
W
arneck,
G
ustav (1834–1910)
Authors: Maclean Iain S.
Published: January 2012

Founder of modern Christian theory of missions or missiology, Gustav Warneck was born in Naumberg, graduated from the Latin Gymnasium in Halle in 1855, and proceeded to study theology at the University of Halle, where he was influenced by F. A. Tholuck's theology. After theological exams, he worked as a tutor and completed his second theological exams before being appointed to pastoral positions in Bitterfeld and Dommitzsch. From 1871 to 1874 he served as theological teacher for the Rhenish Mission Society in Barmen. This marked his only direct engagement in the mission field, yet it ignited a lifelong interest and engagement in developing a science of missions. Thus, in 1874 he founded the journal
Allgemeine Missionszeitschrift
, and returned to parish work in Eisleben. In 1879 after attending a Holiness Conference at Brighton, he established the first Halle Missions Conference. In 1896 he was appointed honorary Professor of the Science of Missions at the Halle Theological Faculty, this being the first appointment in this field in Germany.
W
esley,
J
ohn (1703–1791)
Authors: Castelo Daniel
Published: January 2012

The son of Anglican parents of a nonconformist background, John Wesley is most often remembered as the principal founder and organizer of the Methodist movement. Born in a rectory at Epworth, Wesley was a priest in the Church of England for most of his adult life, seeking renewal among the Anglicans of his day through a number of religious and social endeavors. After attending Charterhouse School, London, he went on to Christ Church, Oxford and eventually became a fellow of Lincoln College. During his Oxford days, he began to read certain writers on Christian piety, including Thomas à Kempis, Jeremy Taylor, and William Law, with the aim of deepening his practical piety. By 1729 he began to lead a small group at the university that became known as the “Oxford Methodists,” noted in particular for their regular meetings for study and devotion and their programs to assist the poor of the surrounding area. This period at Oxford, later termed by Wesley the “First Rise of Methodism,” was followed by a missionary stint (1736–1738) in the English colony of Georgia in the New World (what he would later call the “Second Rise of Methodism”) and eventually a return to England, when he experienced his famous “heart‐warming” experience at Aldersgate Street, London on May 24, 1738. This moment marked the pinnacle of what became a tumultuous relationship with the Moravians, the fallout relating to heretical tendencies he found within the Fetter Lane Society, London. The split was a difficult one since the founding of this society marked for him the “Third Rise of Methodism.”
West African Christianity
Authors: Wilson Douglas K.
Published: January 2012

West Africa presently consists of 15 countries. The two island nations are the Cape Verde islands in the far west and former Portuguese holdings São Tomé and Principe farther south. Along the coast are Mauritania, Senegal, the Gambia, Guinea Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin, and Nigeria. The interior countries include Mali and Niger.
Westminster Confession
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

The Westminster Confession document is a Reformed confession of faith with strong theological underpinnings of Calvinism. In 1643 the Parliament of England (controlled by Presbyterians) issued an ordinance requiring an assembly of clergy and laity to meet at Westminster in order to formulate articles of doctrine for the Church of England. This meant that the Thirty‐Nine Articles of the Church of England (1571) would likely be replaced with the aim of getting the Church of England to abandon its high church practices, along with the episcopacy, and thus bring it in line with the Calvinistic doctrines of the Church of Scotland (Presbyterian). The English parliament thought producing a confessional document favorable to the Scottish church would obtain Scotland's help against King Charles I, whom the Presbyterians despised.
W
hite,
E
llen G. (1827–1915)
Authors: Hasel Frank M.
Published: January 2012

Ellen Gould White, nee Harmon, was one of the cofounders of the Seventh‐Day Adventist Church and made a lasting impact as a Christian writer, lecturer, counselor and health reformer. Even critics acknowledge that “the best proof of the healthy mind of EGW is her impressive amount of even, continuous work, produced by her through almost seven decades” (Lindén 1978: 162). Her prophetic ministry was instrumental in founding the Sabbatarian Adventist movement that gave rise to the Seventh‐Day Adventist Church, which today is one of the fastest growing Protestant churches around the world.
W
hitefield,
G
eorge (1714–1770)
Authors: Pasquier Michael
Published: January 2012

George Whitefield, an Oxford‐trained Anglican minister, was an itinerant preacher in England and the American colonies who was largely responsible for the emergence of a transatlantic revival movement throughout the 18th century. He popularized the idea of “New Birth” among English‐speaking audiences and served as a key figure in the intercolonial, interdenominational movement of the Great Awakening. He was involved in the formative stages of the religious group known as Methodism, though his impact as a revivalist was more influential in laying the groundwork for modern evangelical Protestantism.
Willaert,Adrian (c.1490–1562)
Authors: Stoltzfus Philip
Published: January 2012

Flemish composer of the Italian Renaissance. Hailed as “the new Pythagoras” by his student Gioseffo Zarlino, Willaert developed a reputation as one of the most celebrated European musicians of the 16th century. Through his post as choir master at the basilica of St. Mark's in Venice, Willaert founded the Venetian school, known for the antiphonal and polychoral style of its sacred music, and for decisively shaping the stylistic shift from the Renaissance to the Baroque.
Winthrop,John (1588–1649)
Authors: Buss Dietrich Gotthilf
Published: January 2012

John Winthrop was the founding governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony. He was born in Edwardston, Suffolk, England on January 22, 1588, one of nine children of a Puritan family. His father, Adam Winthrop, was a successful lawyer. Winthrop attended Trinity College, Cambridge where his Puritan upbringing matured into lifelong convictions. He withdrew before earning a degree to be married to Mary Forth who bore him six children. Winthrop was appointed justice of the peace at 18 and held his first court in Groton Hall. In 1626 he was appointed one of the attorneys in the Court of Ward and Liveries. This advancement brought him in contact with Parliament and writing bills for legislative committees. Mary's death after 11 years led him to three successive marriages, all as a widower.
Women's Ministries
Authors: Hyatt Susan Stubbs
Published: January 2012

Two primary schools of thought have coexisted throughout church history regarding women's role in ministry and female authority in leadership. Whereas the
traditional
school is patriarchal and teaches that women are lesser than men in authority and different from men in ministerial function, the
charismatic
school favors an egalitarian posture and teaches that ministry and authority flow directly from God by his Spirit to and through both men and women without regard of gender. Although both schools claim biblical justification, they hold conflicting interpretations arising from opposing presuppositions.
Worldview, Christian
Authors: Cowan Steven B.
Published: January 2012

As philosopher Ronald Nash explains, the touchstone proposition that provides the most basic tenet of the Christian faith is: “Human beings and the universe in which they reside are the creation of the God who has revealed himself in Scripture” (Nash 1992: 52). At the root of the Christian faith, then, is the belief that the God of the Bible exists.
Worship
Authors: Maschke Timothy
Published: January 2012

Christians have assembled for over two millennia as God's gathered guests to receive his blessings in Christ and to respond with prayers, praises, and thanksgivings. Christian worship is often portrayed as being simply a response to God's grace in Christ, yet throughout the centuries, Christian corporate worship has encompassed four dimensions. Christian worship is initially an encounter between the triune God and his people as he comes through Word and sacraments. Second, it is the Spirit‐motivated response to his gracious presence and blessings with prayers, praises, and thanksgivings. Third, Christian worship is part of the educational (catechetical) ministry of the community by which Christians are nurtured in the faith for life. Finally, what is done in worship enables and emboldens the believer's witness to Christ in the world. These key dimensions have waxed and waned over the centuries, yet they mark God's people at worship.
W
ren, Christopher (1632–1723)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

British architect. He began his career as a scientist, not as an architect. In 1665 he made his only trip to the continent, where he was impressed by the classical buildings in Italy. He returned just before the Great Fire of London (1666), in which the entire city, including about 100 churches and St. Paul's Cathedral, were burned down. It gave Wren the opportunity to reshape architectural history. Wren's plans called for a truly Anglican compromise between the altar and the pulpit. He built 52 churches, among them St. Bride's, Fleet Street, St. Mary‐le‐Bow, and St. Stephen Walbrook, the Lord Mayor's parish church.