bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Water Issues Relating to Heavy Oil Production
Authors: Veil J. A. , Quinn J. J. , Garcia J. P.
Published: March 2009

Crude oil occurs in many different forms throughout the world. An important characteristic of crude oil that affects the ease at which it can be produced is its density and viscosity. Lighter crude oil typically can be produced more easily and at a lower cost than heavier crude oil. Historically, much of the world's oil supply came from light or medium crude oil sources. Oil and gas companies are actively looking toward heavier crude oil sources to help meet demands and to take advantage of large heavy oil reserves located in many countries. Heavy oil includes very viscous oil resources like those found in some fields in California and Venezuela and oil (or tar) sands. In this paper, oil shale is also considered as heavy oil.

Produced water is the largest by-product associated with conventional oil production. The cost of managing large volumes of produced water is an important component of the overall cost of producing oil. Most mature oil fields rely on injected water to maintain formation pressure during production. The processes involved with heavy oil production often require external water supplies for steam generation, washing, and other steps. While some heavy oil processes generate produced water, others generate different types of industrial wastewater. Management and disposition of the wastewater presents challenges and costs for the operators. This paper describes water requirements relating to heavy oil production and potential sources for that water. It also describes how water is used and the resulting water quality impacts associated with heavy oil production.
Why We Don't Learn What We Should from HAZOPs
Authors: Duhon Howard J.
Published: March 2009

It is difficult to learn effectively from projects for many reasons. Despite these difficulties we have learned a great deal in the area of process safety over the past few years as a result of more intense focus on safety both in design and in operation. An example of the increased focus on safety is the increased use of HAZOPs. Almost all process designs are now subjected to one or more HAZOP studies over the course of the project. A HAZOP is a structured method for identifying process design flaws. No such method could ever be perfect. Some design errors will be missed; some problems identified may not be effectively corrected; and some problem "corrections" create new, sometimes worse problems.

This paper applies a structured method to identify cognitive, social and organizational factors which limit the effectiveness of HAZOPs. It is important to consider behavior at these three levels to get a complete picture. At the cognitive level we are interested in why individuals make mistakes and why they resist efforts of others to correct those mistakes (defensiveness). At the social level we need to consider how social interactions, especially those within a design team, impact design effectiveness and defensiveness. Impacts at the organizational level are more subtle and less well understood. The overall organization of a large project will include the operating company, partners, design contractors, construction and installation contractors, vendors, government agencies and others. The processes, procedures, standards and cultures of each of these groups and the interfaces between these groups will impact design decisions and the ability of the design teams to implement changes.

Studying the HAZOP process via a structured method yields new insights into the causes of limited learning in HAZOPs. These insights provide ideas for improving the HAZOP process.

HAZOPs are the last and best line of defense we have for catching design errors and omissions. A significant improvement in the process could provide a step change in the safety performance of process designs.
Facilitating a Change in HSE Culture: How to Understand an Organization's Culture and Affect Change
Authors: Cranford Curtis
Published: March 2009

Introduction

Facilitating a culture change in an organization, both large and small, is a daunting task. The first basic step in this process, to identify the existing culture of the organization, is often the first miscue. This can send the organization down the wrong path from the beginning resulting in wasted time and effort, and causing frustration. EH&S culture is often difficult to correctly determine because the factor of being "politically correct" may cloud the ability to see through facades disguising the true beliefs within the organization.

One of the modern technical definitions of culture, "socially patterned human thoughts and behaviors" shows us that we must identify an organization's true culture through the behaviors and beliefs of all levels of employees. Being able to correctly assess an organization's culture is imperative to understanding what changes must occur in order for the entire organization to progress.

An organization's EH&S program and its culture share a symbiotic relationship. Culture, employee behaviors and beliefs, initially defines the EH&S program or lack there of. The EH&S program, once implemented, will then affect the culture. As the culture changes, this in turn will allow the EH&S program to shift to a level of greater prominence, which will then again affect change in the organization's culture. This process will continue until halted by the culture reaching a point of resistance philosophically in which beliefs and/or behaviors can no longer be changed.
Optimal Life-Cycle Model for Ranking Environmental Performance of E&P Programs
Authors: Abhulimen Kingsley
Published: March 2009

The objective of this paper is to present a novel multiobjective optimization strategy using a weighted optimal Life Cycle Analysis (WOLCA) model to rank environmental performance of Exploration and Production programs. The weighted optimal Life Cycle Assessment (WOLCA) was use to formulate an environmental rank index that incorporates economic tradeoff for selecting best exploration and production (E&P) HSE (Health, Safety, Environment) programs. The application of the model to measure the environmental performance of a typical E & P company based on published HSE data of oil spills and air pollution were weighted statistically and ranked yearly according to their best environmental impact reduction merits over the ten years of operations of the E&P company from 1999-2007. The Environmental impact relating to the impacts of gas flaring and oil spill along pipelines based on the HSE annual report were derived from the concept of the weighted optimal life cycle assessment, the weights being generated using Normal Probability Distributions of the EIU (Environmental Impact Units). The resulting economic and environment and cost multiobjective optimization models were solved using goal-programming (GP) techniques in which the performance index are ranked and then minimized lexicographically. A matrix of deviation from the zero waste targets was formulated using the Jacobean formulation derived from the Liapunov Stability Criteria. A typical E&P HSE program was studied and simulated for the environmental rank and zero target improvement indexes. The results for the E&P case study showed that their environmental performance was poor in 2000 and 2004 with a zero target improvement index being 0.1018 and 0.4151 above zero baselines. Year 2004 exhibited the least environmental performance.The enironmental rank index for year 2000 and 2004 being 0.197165 and 0.198559 having the highest rank fraction in the years spanning 1999-2007. Based on the simulated results, it was possible to rank the environmental performance of E&P Company under a single digit metric. The cost index was derived from the penalties paid as oil spill fines, the cost rank index derived provided a metric of cost associated with the spills and the cost benefits or improvements considered as the economic tradeoffs. This model would be useful to E&P HSE managers, Operators and Regulators to compare the environmental performance of HSE programs of different E& P companies over a common baseline. It would also serves as a useful tool for environmental auditors in providing an informed audit on the actual impact of the E&P Life Cycle operations on the environment.
Comments regarding the USEPA Proposed Class VI Well Rule
Authors: Holliday G. H.
Published: March 2009

On 25 July 2008, US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) proposed a rule governing carbon dioxide (CO2) sequestration wells, e.g., newly EPA designated Class VI wells. The Agency cites many references regarding Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) wells, but demonstrates a lack of applying these concepts to CO2 retention projects. Literature citations range from pulling cemented casing, milling thousands of feet of casing, to using "milling stones" give experienced oil and gas operators pause for concern: Is the Agency in over their heads? One of the major concerns regarding the proposed rule is the high degree of technical support expected by the Agency from the oil and gas upstream industry.

The agency looks to API and other standards writing bodies to prospectively develop materials, hardware and techniques to make the rules viable. Currently, upstream oil and gas operators are experience difficulty staffing in-house engineering groups for the purpose of producing sufficient oil and gas to meet demands. Availability of industry engineers to simultaneously design CO2 sequestration projects appears highly questionable. The lack of qualified industry engineers can lead to speculators submitting inferior sequestration plans to EPA. If the plans are accepted and the speculator starts injection, but goes bankrupt, the project is left to the agency to complete. Is the Agency capable?

The paper discusses the EPA printed proposal, cites concerns, reviews some of the questionable citations, and recommends minimum technical qualification requirements and written examinations for EPA reviewers and Regional Directors so they can recognize speculator's questionable sequestration project proposals from well engineered proposals.
A Method to Assess and Classify HSE Standards
Authors: Aas Andreas Lumbe , Skramstad Torbjørn
Published: March 2009

We established metrics to assess HSE standards for the purpose of making cross standard comparisons to rank the standards and to predict resource requirements. We assessed six international safety standards, thirteen parts in total, to determine their degree of goal-based or prescriptive, generic, and process-oriented approach. We also recorded size, year of publication and the number of normative references. These standards were published in the period 1994-2006 and were selected because they were normative references in the working environment standard NORSOK-S002, developed by the Norwegian petroleum industry.

As new technologies emerge and the use of software in safety-critical systems increases, it can be challenging to provide effective, efficient and easy-to-use safety standards. Thus has the use of process-oriented and goal-based safety standards emerged where a prescriptive approach was inappropriate. Typically, more experienced personnel will be required to effectively apply goal-based standards compared to prescriptive ones.

We plan to use this framework to gain an overview of the use of goal-based versus prescriptive standards to predict resource requirements, such as personnel's competence.

The results revealed that our selection included both prescriptive and goal-based standards. We expected recent standards to be more goal-based than older ones, but a Spearman analysis revealed no correlation. We did, however, observe a weak correlation indicating that more recent publications were larger in size (0.55). We also observed that the degree of goal-based approach in a standard correlated negatively with the number of normative references (-0.45) and with the size (-0.35). Reasons for this can be that goal-based standards typically contain fewer specific requirements, which reduce the need for normative references and thus size.

We conclude that our framework appears appropriate to assess HSE standards and that we have established valid metrics for such assessments.

Effective safety standards are important in order to ensure safe systems at an acceptable cost. The rapid development of new technology, combined with a growing number of standards, calls for a systematic approach to assess, classify and compare HSE standards to predict their impact.
Environmental Performance of the Exploration and Production Industry: Past, Present, and Future
Authors: Godec Michael L.
Published: March 2009

This paper builds upon past work1 to document the technological progress made by the oil and gas exploration and production (E&P) industry and the environmental benefits realized from this progress. The improvements in environmental performance made by the E&P industry is documented, industry and societal trends examined, and technological advances contributing to its performance highlighted. The paper describes how company environmental performance has evolved from a necessary activity to comply with regulatory requirements to a major factor differentiating companies to stakeholders, including customers and the communities within which they operate -- or wish to operate. Several new concepts of environmental performance are introduced, particularly relating to extracting environmental value from existing infrastructure. Finally, the paper concludes by describing the likely key future role the E&P industry will play in addressing arguably the most important environmental issue of our time – global climate change.
Improving Safety Management in the Exploitation of Mature Fields in a Complex Social Environment
Authors: Torraca L. , Ferrari M.
Published: March 2009

The Southern Argentina YPF Business Unit, UNAS, develops a wide Exploration and Production activity in more than twenty oilfields, dispersed in a vast area of twenty thousand square kilometers within the San Jorge Basin. The daily activity involves ten thousand workers under rigorous climatic conditions.

The UNAS E&P operation is carried out in mature oil fields, some of them under continuous operation since 1907.

In the last five years under a stage of changes in respect to a new prevailing social model, UNAS emphasized the need to improve its Safety Model, in order to deal with new and relevant elements of consideration: new government regulations, increasing number of union conflicts, social claims, and certain demands to increase workforce by poorly qualified personnel. Under this relevant context, UNAS defined and implemented a very challenging and solid model aiming to add value to the stakeholders by targeting a few critical elements of the Safety Culture.

This paper provides a case of study of how the organization faces new opportunities of improving safety performance in a turbulent environment by means of accomplishment of a strong Health and Safety Policy and specific concrete actions.
Risk Assessment as a Tool in Establishing the Requirement of Subsea Isolation Valves in Subsea Pipelines
Authors: Dhar Rahul
Published: March 2009

For offshore oil and gas installations, one of the major hazards identified is the possibility of a hydrocarbon leak on the pipeline side of the riser Emergency shutdown valve (ESDV). The consequences of such an event can be catastrophic as the subsea pipelines are generally several kilometers long and contain large inventories.

In order to prevent the backflow of the hydrocarbon inventory from the subsea pipeline in the event of a leak on the pipeline side of the riser ESDV, the requirements of installing a Subsea Isolation Valve (SSIV) are assessed. The purpose of installing a SSIV in the subsea pipeline is to limit the duration and severity of release which can in turn potentially reduce the risk to personnel, asset and environment. In addition to this function, the subsea isolation system also provides an alternative means of isolation in the event of failure of the topsides isolation system. In some instances, however, the cost and operational impact of installing an SSIV may outweigh these benefits.

The assessment for benefits versus non-benefits of installing a SSIV are carried out using Risk Assessment techniques and the decisions are generally based on Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA). The use of risk assessments in establishing the requirement or non-requirement of SSIV's in the subsea pipelines is currently the best tool available for the oil and gas industry. However, these assessments and the conclusions drawn there from should be based on a holistic approach considering personnel, asset and environmental risk, production availability, operational impacts, SSIV reliability and the cost benefit analysis.

The purpose of this paper is to elaborate on the risk assessment process undertaken for establishing the requirement or non-requirement of a SSIV in a subsea pipeline. It further cautions the assessor about possible pitfalls and identifies possible challenges in such assessment processes.
Well Integrity Management: A Systematic Way of Describing and Keeping Track of the Integrity Status for Wells in Operation
Authors: Haga Jarle , Corneliussen Kjell , Sorli Folke
Published: March 2009

Talisman operates several fields on the Norwegian Continental Shelf (NCS), many of these mature fields are taken over at the end of their design life. These old fields represent challenges with respect to well integrity and overall profitability.

Talisman is a member of the Well Integrity Forum (WIF), a co-operative effort between the operating companies on the NCS to define a unified approach for handling well integrity. Using WIMS and the WIF recommendations together with internal guidelines improves Talismans ability to handle well integrity issues throughout the production phase of a well and in compliance with regulatory requirements.

This paper describes how Talisman Energy Norway (Talisman) manages well integrity for their assets, and discusses the benefits, challenges and lessons learned from implementing a well integrity management system, focusing on technical and organizational aspects.
Restoring Sagebrush Habitat in the Pinedale Anticline Natural Gas Field in Wyoming
Authors: Sewell H. James , Carr Richard S.
Published: March 2009

Disturbed areas in the Pinedale Anticline natural gas field of southwestern Wyoming are being restored using native plant species that are beneficial in critical sage grouse and ungulate habitat. A new seed mixture was developed to re-establish native plant species in reclaimed areas, replacing the grass-dominated seed mixes that have been utilized in the past, and returning these areas to productive habitat in a more timely manner. Testing and monitoring of various seeding methods, soil amendment use, topsoil stockpile management and temporary stock fencing has been ongoing since the fall of 2004. Observations to date indicate successful re-establishment of sagebrush as well as various grasses and forbs that should provide habitat for sage grouse and ungulate populations in the vicinity of the current natural gas field development. Several seeding methods have proven successful in the application of the native seed mixture, promoting germination of young plants during the next growing season. It is unclear at this time if the use of soil amendments and biostimulants has provided more success in native plant establishment than if these materials were not used. Temporary fencing of reclaimed sites during the first several growing seasons has provided protection of seedlings from stock grazing pressures, although wildlife continue to utilize the reclaimed areas for forage and habitat.
Guidelines for a Regulatory Framework to Accommodate Geological Storage of CO2 in Alberta
Authors: Zeidouni M. , Moore M. , Keith D.
Published: March 2009

The principal drivers of climate change are likely to be CO2 emissions caused by use of fossil fuels. A variety of methodologies have been proposed to cut these emissions. A preferred method is CO2 Capture and Storage in geological formations (CCS). Despite exceptional CCS potential in the Province of Alberta, there are legal and regulatory issues that must be resolved to allow its implementation. Without these changes there will not be enough certainty to enable the industry to make appropriate decisions that encourage investment.

Existing regulations of Alberta in oil and gas sector designed to regulate acid gas disposal provide a basis for regulating geological storage of CO2. However, these regulations cannot be directly used to handle huge CO2 storage volumes compared to the acid gas disposal amounts. Disposal of CO2-rich acid gas streams is mainly regulated by the directives of Alberta Energy Resources Conservation Board (AERCB).

Guidelines are provided in this paper to show how these regulations can be the basis for geological storage projects. The guidelines are given for different CO2 storage project stages of: planning and design, operation, closure, and post-closure. The guidelines presented in this work are applicable to any regulatory regime for assessment and management of the risks associated with CO2 storage activities.

At the planning and design stage of the project, certain criteria for site selection are proposed, including comprehensive reservoir characterization and modeling for risk assessment and performance prediction of storage project. The regulatory regime can then use performance-based and procedural regulations to ensure sufficient data is acquired and a model with a specified confidence limit is available.

Risk of leakage is highest during the operation stage because the formation pressure is the highest at this stage. Considerations to be made by the regulatory regime to ensure containment of the CO2 during this stage are proposed. Guidelines are given on what should be considered by the regulatory regime to ensure sufficient level of monitoring.

Implementing these changes encourages, but does not guarantee the regulatory system to be compatible with future technologies and adapt to changes in risk and remediation.
Dry-Polymer Blending Eliminates Need for Hydrocarbon Carrier Fluids
Authors: Weinstein Jeremy , Phillippi Max , Walters Harold G.
Published: March 2009

This paper presents methods, materials, and equipment that can be used to mix and apply viscous proppant-carrying fluids, on-the-fly, to support hydraulic fracturing processes using a dry-polymer blender. This dry-polymer blending system (DPBS) replaces the liquid-gel concentrate (LGC) mixing method, which requires premixing gel-producing powders with a hydrocarbon carrier fluid.

The equipment and methods described have contributed to a cleaner environment without imposing any cost increases or wellsite expansion on the operating company. The on-the-fly dry-gel blending process is compatible with existing fracturing technology, and has helped enable environmentally responsible technology development.

The fracturing fluid product used in this process is based on dry powders and does not contain hydrocarbon carrier fluids. Dry-polymer blending enables the use of new gel systems that work well in produced waters. This type of blending can be applied in any hydraulic fracturing operation requiring preparation, blending, and pumping of a viscous fluid to suspend proppant for transport to created fractures. The DPBS uses a trailer with a weigh system and continuous viscosity monitoring to help ensure job quality. Handling of the gel powder can be accomplished without dusting.
Strategies for CO2 Reductions in the U.S. Enhanced Oil Recovery Production Segment: Utilizing Energy Efficiency as the First Step
Authors: Hamilton Gerry
Published: March 2009

This paper presents aggregate level energy consumption data for the U.S. Oil and Gas Production industry to illustrate the significant contribution that energy consumption makes to total industry greenhouse gas emissions. The potential for energy savings through the implementation of energy efficiency measures is then presented as a viable strategy for reducing industry emissions. Total energy consumption data and energy savings estimates are converted to equivalent CO2 emissions to present an estimated baseline for the industry associated with energy consumption and to illustrate the potential reduction in emissions. The data used for analysis come from publicly available sources and are used to derive estimations only. The analysis reveals that the best opportunities for energy savings, and associated CO2 emissions, are in the enhanced oil recovery (EOR) sector of the industry. Disproportionately high production energy intensities linked to EOR processes enable a relatively few efficiency upgrade projects to delivery significant savings.

Experiences from California energy efficiency programs targeting oil and gas producers are highlighted. Insight from these programs is used to identify proven energy efficient technologies, energy savings expectations, and the potential for CO2 emissions reductions.
Reducing Centrifugal Pump Noise and Vibration on Cementing Equipment
Authors: Coffman Ken , Neal Greg
Published: March 2009

Sound and vibration studies have been conducted on cement mixing and pumping equipment to identify the loudest components so that the reliability and efficiency of noise and vibration reduction work can be improved.

During stages of the mixing process, the variable-speed centrifugal pump has minimal flow through it, yet it maintains high pressure. This pressure causes discharge cavitation that forms bubbles that collapse on the outside of the impeller. This cavitation is thought to be the main cause of noise and vibration from the pump.

The centrifugal pump supplying water for the cement-mixing process had sound pressures of up to 105 dBA ref 20μPa, power spectral densities (PSD) of up to 7.3 g2/Hz RMS, and can be heard over the unit's diesel engine noise. Hence, this location was selected as the best place to start noise/vibration reduction.

A standard centrifugal pump was tested and, in one test, was modified to have a smaller impeller and, in another test, sound attenuation blankets were installed on the pump. Sound and vibration measurements were completed on a test stand as well as on a cementing unit.

The testing with the modified impeller showed significant noise and vibration reduction. The sound pressure level was reduced approximately 13 to 16.5 dB when the impeller diameter was reduced from 12 in. to 11.25 in.; there was also a significant decrease in the overall vibration level of the unit. A corresponding loss of maximum pressure from 111 psi to 94 psi was observed but was not considered significant to the cement-mixing process. This pressure loss was overcome by increasing the speed of the pump, which caused a minimal increase in the noise and vibration signature. The sound pressure level was reduced 1.5 dB with the sound attenuating blankets installed.
Evaluating the Environmental Implications of Hydraulic Fracturing in Shale Gas Reservoirs
Authors: Arthur James Daniel , Bohm Brian K. , Coughlin Bobbi Jo , Layne Mark Alan , Cornue David
Published: March 2009

Exploration, drilling and production of shale gas plays such as the Barnett, Fayetteville, and Haynesville have transformed the unconventional gas industry. These and other existing and developing plays have had unimaginable economic impacts to many regions, created tens of thousands of jobs, and have generated royalty payments to a variety of state and local governments as well as many individuals. At the core of shale gas development are two key technologies: horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing. Techniques used to hydraulically fracture horizontal wells completed in shale reservoirs often require larger volumes of fracturing fluid than might be common for conventional, vertical well stimulations. The rapid development of shale gas across the country has created concerns on issues such as the use of infrastructure and environmental impacts. Specifically, the common practice of hydraulic fracturing of these shales has attracted critical interest regarding risks potentially posed to groundwater and surface water. This paper will present a summary and evaluation of the environmental implications of hydraulic fracturing in shale gas reservoirs, with examples from multiple basins.

Introduction

Natural gas production from tight shale formations, known as "shale gas", is one of the most rapidly expanding trends in onshore, domestic natural gas exploration and production. In some areas, development of shale gas resources is bringing drilling and production to regions of the country that has previously seen little to no oil and gas development activity. In plays like the Barnett Shale of Texas, development is occurring in urban and suburban areas where both operators and regulators are adapting to this new environment. Shales are the most abundant sedimentary rock in the Earth's crust and are present across the U.S. (Figure 1).

Shales have been sources of natural gas in small but continuous volumes since the earliest years of gas development. The first producing gas well in the U.S. was completed in 1821 in Devonian-aged shale near the town of Fredonia, New York (Harper, 2008). Early sources of natural gas were shallow gas wells that were from dug wells and natural gas seeps (NY DEC, 1992). Shallow wells and seeps were capable of producing small amounts of natural gas which were used for illuminating city streets and households (Frantz and Jochen, 2005). These early gas wells played a key part in bringing illumination to the cities and towns of the eastern U.S. (Harper, 2008). In contrast, modern shale gas development has become a technological play, in which development is facilitated by the technological advances the oil and gas industry has made in hydraulic fracturing and horizontal drilling over the last two decades.
Anti-Collision Risk Management Standard for Well Placement
Authors: Poedjono Benny , Lombardo Guy J. , Phillips W.
Published: March 2009

Complex drilling programs in crowded downhole environments are increasingly common today, placing a premium on effective techniques for avoiding wellbore collisions. The costs of such incidents, both in financial and safety terms, can be extremely high. The authors have developed a comprehensive and effective approach to wellbore collision avoidance, as confirmed by a number of consistently successful projects. Based on their experiences in the field, the authors believe the time has come to establish an industry-wide standard for evaluating, minimizing and mitigating well collision hazards. This paper will outline their approach and provide case studies illustrating the high cost of such collisions and the value of an effective process for identifying-and eliminating or reducing-their likelihood.

The approach described is flexible enough to accommodate the different challenges each unique field presents, and has proven equally effective in projects ranging from simple vertical wells to crowded land pads, offshore platforms, deepwater/subsea and fishbone multilateral designs. Well position uncertainties are determined by using survey error models from the Industry Steering Committee on Wellbore Survey Accuracy. Drilling program recommendations are based on the status and conditions of adjacent wells and the nature and magnitude of potential risks associated with a collision. Developing a standard based on this approach will equip the industry to achieve increasingly complex and ambitious goals without compromising safety or incurring unacceptable losses or risks by ensuring the targeting of the correct limited resources and expertise where they are most needed.
Time to Protect: Layout Methodology for Safe Simops in High-Pressure, High-% H2S Facilities
Authors: Blyth A.
Published: March 2009

Growing numbers of projects are proposing to produce fluids contaminated with Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S) at high concentrations, and operating at high pressures.

The scale of toxic impact from high pressure, high-% H2S leaks is very significant, and this is driving changes to layout strategy. Large separation distances are being implemented in order to mitigate toxic fatality impact, particularly for simultaneous production and construction / maintenance operations (SimOps). A new methodology for layout has been developed for SimOps in high-sour facilities, based on "time to protect", which provides a risk-based approach to equipment or area segregation that buys time for emergency escape prior to impairment by incoming H2S. The methodology combines physical effects modeling and QRA, emergency response, and the "sour mindset" competency of personnel in response to an H2S release. It can also be used as a decision-making tool to determine the level of H2S training required and personal protection (such as escape breathing sets) for different SimOps areas and activities around a facility.

There is potential for application of the layout methodology in development of projects that will handle H2S at high partial pressures, such as:

Sour Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) Acid Gas Injection (AGI) Sour gas processing facilities with high-% H2S in the feed stream.

The material is applicable in both on- and offshore locations. The result is a layout that has significantly larger spacing than seen in "standard" facilities. There are many cost, schedule, operability and maintainability implications to consider; the ALARP balance is not simple. This type of layout approach requires front-end implementation in projects and early operations input in order for optimal benefits to be achieved.

The layout methodology can help to significantly reduce toxic exposure fatality risk, particularly for groups of workers. This can reduce a company's risk of reputation loss associated with large-scale multiple fatality accidents; a key factor for consideration in a sour venture where a large-scale H2S release can rapidly engulf a widespread area with toxic gas.
The Use of Risk Analysis in Design: Safety Aspects Related to the Design and Operation of a FPSO
Authors: Tronstad Lars
Published: March 2009

There are many safety issues related to building and operating a Floating Production, Storage and Offloading unit (FPSO). The paper presents how risk assessments and risk analyses tools were actively used in the design of the Asgard FPSO on the Norwegian Continental Shelf.

The paper covers:

– risk management issues – risk analyses as design tools – risk factors and elements related to design – safety issues related to operation – experience from 10 years of operation

The presentation is general in nature, but the Asgard FPSO is used as the main example. The paper reviews the most relevant and important issues related to safety of FPSOs, and summarize experiences in relation to what design and operational requirements that should be pursued in order to avoid major accidents.
Technology With High Impact on ROI and Low Impact on HSE
Authors: Schwanitz Brian , Henriques Kristine
Published: March 2009

Traditionally, deviated and horizontal wells have been challenging to service in a cost and time-efficient manner. Conventional technology requires large equipment to be mobilized and many heavy lifts in the offshore environment, sometimes with negative HSE consequences.

New technology on electric wireline has made it possible to access the entire well regardless of deviation and lateral reach. Wireline tractors and new mechanical services can be mobilized in a matter of hours and only require a crew of two people for many applications. Transportation can be done by helicopter to avoid the cost and time of mobilizing a full coiled tubing (CT) spread with bottom hole assembly. Additionally, fuel consumption, emissions and fluid discharges are reduced and heavy lifts are eliminated for the offshore environment.

Mechanical down hole wireline tools have also been developed to manage produced water. When wells produce up to 100% of water, mechanical tools can isolate the water to increase oil recovery. By reducing water entry at the source, the subsequent efforts and costs to address it are reduced along with the environmental risks.

This paper will illustrate how HSE benefits can be achieved through several case histories. One case history will show how time and crew requirements can be reduced when a wireline tractor and milling system were deployed to remove 42 ft of barium sulfate inside two wellbores. The scale was removed from both wells in 12 days – the same time it would have taken a CT unit to mobilize and demobilize offshore. Costs were reduced by 60% and crew requirements were reduced from 23 to 12 people compared which reduced human exposure to risks offshore.

Another case history will illustrate how produced water can be effectively reduced through e-line mechanical services. In an offshore well in Norway, a leak was detected in the tubing, which resulted in 85% water cut. A wireline tractor and stroker were applied to install two straddle packers in order to isolate the water-producing area. Water cut was reduced to 5% and oil production increased 800%.
Navier-Stokes Simulations of Surface Waves Generated by Submarine Landslides: Effect of Slide Geometry and Turbulence
Authors: Basu Debashis , Green Steve , Das Kaushik , Janetzke Ron , Stamatakos John
Published: March 2009

Surface waves generated by submarine landslides are studied using a computational model based on Navier-Stokes equations. The volume of fluid (VOF) method is used to track the free surface and shoreline movements. A Renormalization Group (RNG) turbulence model and Detached Eddy Simulation (DES) multiscale model are used to simulate turbulence dissipation. The submarine landslide is simulated using a sliding mass. The three-dimensional numerical simulations are carried out for a freely falling wedge representing the landslide and subsequent wave generations. Simulation results are compared with the experimental data. Modeled illustrate the effect of slide geometry, computational grid, turbulence model parameters, and slide material density on the predicted wave characteristics and runup/rundown at various locations. Computed results also show the complex three-dimensional flow patterns in terms of the velocity field, shoreline evolution, and free-surface profiles. Predicted numerical results for time histories of free-surface fluctuations and the runup/rundown at various locations are in good agreement with the available experimental data.
Breakthrough Mobile Water Treatment Converts 75% of Fracturing Flowback Fluid to Fresh Water and Lowers CO2 Emissions
Authors: Horn Aaron D.
Published: March 2009

Treating and recycling flowback from a hydraulically fractured gas shale reservoir is vital to the development of several shale plays. The use and disposal of water in emerging shale plays is expensive and a significant public and political concern. A breakthrough in water treatment combines an advanced oxidation process (AOP) using ozone and ultrasonic transducers to oxidize heavy metals, soluble and insoluble organics. When combined with reverse osmosis (RO) in a mobile unit, this process allows for significant volumes of flowback to be returned to the environment as fresh, clean water, thereby significantly reducing truck traffic. The hydraulic fracturing process in the Woodford Shale requires 50,000 to 110,000 barrels of water per well. By treating flowback on location with the AOP/RO process, 75% of the volume treated will become clean water with total dissolved solid levels less than 500 ppm. 25% will be clean, concentrated brine water which can be used in subsequent hydraulic fracturing operations. Newfield Exploration executed a pilot 4Q08 during which flowback was processed on location with an AOP/RO unit. Sample analysis from this pilot will be provided to state and federal agencies as a validation of the technology. The mobile unit processed 100 barrels per hour using 220 kW power generation to provide a fresh water stream and brine stream from flowback. The proper application of the AOP/RO process could reduce the fluid disposal carbon footprint by 50 tons of CO2 per well and transform a large portion of industry water use from consumptive to non-consumptive—as much as 25,000 bbl per well. The AOP/RO process could untangle complex operating environments, reduce operating expense and help the environment.
Management of Change System: Focusing on the Basics for Quality Change Management
Authors: Bracey Jennifer , Smith Kris
Published: March 2009

Marathon Oil Corporation's Upstream Organization implemented a simplified Management of Change (MOC) Standard and Training Program to improve knowledge of all employees regarding the definition of Change, the purpose and scope of an effective Hazard Review, and the process for performing a quality Pre Startup Safety Review.

The MOC/PSSR Standard is being rolled out in 2008 and 2009 to all Upstream organizations in the United States, Europe, and Africa. The Standard includes guidance for the steps of the MOC and PSSR process, as well as defined roles and responsibilities. The standard is being applied at both regulatory OSHA PSM facilities, as well as those under other regulatory regimes such as the UK HSE. The Training Program is being applied at all upstream facilities to ensure that all employees understand the definition of Change, and to ensure understanding and importance of a good quality Hazard Evaluation and Pre Startup Safety Review.

The program is in its early stages at this time. We have seen the following tangible benefits: 1.) Improved understanding of Change, Hazard Evaluation process, and Pre Startup Safety Review process, 2.) Implementation of electronic systems with simplified approaches to encourage face to face team Hazard Evaluations and Pre Startup Safety Reviews and reduce employees answering electronic checklist questions in a silo, 3.) Consistent approach to evaluating High, Moderate, and Low complexity changes, and 4.) Consistent approach applied across upstream organizations with varying levels of operational complexity and resources.

We believe this application of MOC will enhance employees’ understanding of Change and quality Hazard Evaluations and PSSRs, resulting in improved process safety performance. Marathon has committed to apply good Process Safety principles across its upstream assets, and a quality MOC program is viewed as a priority for a strong process safety culture.
Wave height prediction at the Caspian Sea using a data-driven model and ensemble-based data assimilation methods
Authors: Zamani Ahmadreza , Azimian Ahmadreza , Heemink Arnold , Solomatine Dimitri
Published: March 2009

There are successful experiences with the application of ANN and ensemble-based data assimilation methods in the field of flood forecasting and estuary flow. In the present work, the combination of dynamic Artificial Neural Network and Ensemble Kalman Filter (EnKF) is applied on wind-wave data. ANN is used for the time propagation mechanism that governs the time evolution of the system state. The system state consists of the significant wave height that is affected by wind speed and wind direction. The relevant inputs are selected by analysing the Average Mutual Information. By help of the observations, the EnKF will correct the output of the ANN to find the best estimate of the wave height. A combination of ANN with EnKF acts as an output correction scheme. To deal with the time-delayed states, the extended state vector is taken and the dynamic equation of the extended state vector is used in EnKF. Application of the proposed scheme is examined by using five-month hourly buoy measurement at the Caspian Sea and several model runs with different assimilation–forecast cycles.The coefficient of performance and root mean square error are used to access performance of the method.
Optimization of cascade stilling basins using GA and PSO approaches
Authors: Bakhtyar R. , Barry D. A.
Published: March 2009

In high head dams, the kinetic energy at the spillway toe is very high and the tail-water depth available for energy dissipation is relatively small. Cascade stilling basins are energy dissipation systems for high head dams, the design of which is based on a trial-and-error procedure. Although such an approach yields feasible designs in which hydraulic and topographic considerations are met, there may exist many cost-effective designs. Therefore, optimization tools can help find the least construction cost while keeping hydraulic and topographic considerations satisfied. Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) and Genetic Algorithms (GA) were used to determine the optimal design of cascade stilling basins in terms of the height of falls and length of stilling basins. The approach was evaluated by application to the design of an energy dissipation system for the Tehri Dam on the Bhagirathi River. Comparison of the proposed methods with dynamic programming and an alternative approach not utilizing an optimization tool revealed that GA and PSO lead to significant savings in the construction cost with less computational effort.
Manganese removal in groundwater treatment: practice, problems and probable solutions
Authors: Buamah R. , Petrusevski B. , de Ridder D. , van de Wetering T. S. C. M. , Shippers J. C.
Published: March 2009

Most drinking water production plants use rapid sand filters for the removal of manganese from groundwater. The start-up of manganese removal on newly installed sand media is slow, taking several weeks till months. Reducing this period in order to prevent the loss of water during this phase has become an issue of concern. In this study pilot and bench scale experiments were conducted to investigate the mechanism, influence of operational conditions (e.g. filtration rate, manganese loading) and measures that enhance manganese removal capacity of the sand media. Other filter media were investigated with the objective of finding suitable substitutes for the sand. The development of the adsorptive/catalytic coating the sand media in a pilot plant was very slow, notwithstanding the relatively high pH of 8. Low manganese concentration and more frequent backwashing resulted in a longer start up period of the manganese removal. It can not be excluded, that nitrite has a negative effect as well. Measurements in the lab and bench scale tests show that the rate of adsorption/oxidation of manganese in the top layer of the filter bed is too low to explain the complete manganese removal in the filters. It is likely that the adsorptive catalyst in the top layer has partly been covered with ferric hydroxide. From the Freundlich's isotherms determined for 6 different filter media, a crushed medium consisting of mainly manganese dioxide and some silica, iron and aluminium (Aquamandix) followed by iron oxide coated sand, containing some manganese, demonstrated highest adsorption capacities at pHs 6 and 8. These materials can therefore be potential substitutes for sand in situations of slow start-up of manganese removal.