bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Broadway Dead, Says Soviet Critic
Authors: Caute David
Published: October 2023

Aleksandr Herzen compared the theatre to the parliament which Romanov Russia did not have; a century later the Soviet theatre critic Anatoly Smeliansky added a further reflection:’In Soviet Russia the theatre took the place of both the sham parliament and the half-strangled Church.’ The theatre, although less accessible to the rural population than the printed word, was regarded as a vital messenger of ideological imperatives, but by 1945 the Punch-and-Judy tradition of the itinerant agitprop troupe, perhaps perched on a railway wagon, improvisatory, expressionist, and witty, had succumbed to the gilded grandeur of chandelier classicism-the theatre was now a place where you must leave your coat in the cloakroom before entering the auditorium.
Dirty Hands: The Political Theatre of Sartre and Camus
Authors: Caute David
Published: October 2023

This was an era when, despite cinema and radio, French people still cut the pages of books with keen anticipation. Few writers are pursued by photographers today; we know their appearance only from portrait poses (often out of date) and the occasional prize-giving (out of focus). Yet fifty years ago Jean-Paul Sartre, Albert Camus, and Simone de Beauvoir attracted the kind of attention normally reserved for film stars-though Camus later became reclusive. On every issue-the nature of individual consciousness, the meaning of ‘freedom’ and moral choice, the cold war-when Sartre or Camus took up a position it was news.
Andrzej Wajda: Ashes and Diamonds, Marb e and ron
Authors: Caute David
Published: October 2023

The film thaw in Poland, the rebellion against Stalinism, announced itself in September 1954 when criticism of socialist realism was boldly voiced at a conference of film workers. The outstanding talent of the younger generation emerged in the shape of Andrzej Wajda, who had studied painting at the Cracow Academy of Fine Arts and, later, film-making at the Lo’ dz’ High Film School, from which he graduated in 1953, having worked (and hidden) as a locksmith for his uncle during the Nazi occupation.’I was scared even to go to the tram stop, because there was always some kind of control going on.’
Classical Music Wars
Authors: Caute David
Published: October 2023

The innocent might have expected classical music to dwell, alongside ‘pure’ mathematics and chess theory, in a zone immune to invasion by ideological polemic. This was far from the case. The political argument between classicism (or realism) and modernism was as lively in music as in literature and art. Furthermore, musical performance standards, requiring no linguistic translation, offered a uniquely exacting trial of cultural strength.
Britain, the Balkans and the Climax of Cretan Union, 1906–1913
Authors: Holland Robert , Markides Diana
Published: October 2023

It will already be apparent that the question of Cretan enosis with Greece was bound up with wider international struggles. This was particularly the case in the final climax leading to union, achieved de facto amidst the dramatic events of the First Balkan War after 8 October 1912, and de jure under the terms of the treaties which brought the upheavals in the region—all too briefly—to a close. Events in Crete fed directly into the initial outbreak of hostilities between the Christian Balkan states and Turkey; and it was these hostilities which came to be acknowledged as the harbinger of the ensuing great European war after August 1914. Whilst tracing the resulting patterns, we are consequently dealing with scenarios on a plane far beyond the dimensions of the island itself. In a way this proved what Sir Edward Grey, who remained Foreign Secretary throughout this period, always contended about the contingent nature of the Cretan Question; his handling of it, however, casts a penetrating light on the limits and contradictions of his own diplomacy. Our principal theme will be the manner in which powerful regional and international currents first sucked Crete in one direction, and then another, before decisively settling its ultimate fate. It is the plasticity of the outcome, not its historical ‘determinism’, which stands out from a close reading of the process.
The Dodecanese Experience, 1939–1948
Authors: Holland Robert , Markides Diana
Published: October 2023

Beset with the chronic political problems traced in the preceding chapter, Sir Ronald Storrs had long cast an envious eye towards Italian administration in the Dodecanese, an island chain off the western coast of Anatolia covering approximately 44,400 square miles. It offered precisely the model which British officialdom in Nicosia would have liked to emulate. Storrs even entertained the aristocratic Italian governor, Mario Lago, in the appropriately Venetian location of Famagusta, seeking tips on the awkward matter of administering an overwhelmingly Greek community. When Storrs was invited back to Rhodes, the principal island in the Dodecanesian archipelago, he was struck that the only Greek flag on the island flew over the consulate of the Hellenic kingdom. Storrs subsequently advised the Colonial Office that they they should ‘take a few leaves’ out of the Italian book in the eastern Mediterranean. The many millions of lire lavished on the construction of a new fascist-colonial architecture in Rhodes town itself, alongside the prevailing political quiescence, impressed many impartial visitors in the later 1920s and 1930s.
Mastery and Despair: Cyprus, 1931–1960
Authors: Holland Robert , Markides Diana
Published: October 2023

The ‘peculiarity’ of Cyprus as a British colonial territory has previously been explored in Chapter 7. That distinctiveness, however, was most powerfully revealed in the trajectory of its eventual decolonization from British sovereignty. The creation, after a bitter late colonial struggle, of an independent island republic in August 1960 eventually marked Cyprus off in Hellenic experience from that of the Ionian Islands, Crete, and, indeed, the Dodecanese archipelago. Equally, it was the legislative and international limitations of Cypriot statehood—or, as we shall see, ‘quasi-statehood’—which distinguished that process within the rather different historical category represented by the ending of the British Empire. Considered, then, either as a largely Hellenic society, or as a colonial polity, something funny happened to Cyprus on the way to self-rule. This chapter will attempt to draw together the threads of a uniqueness which made the Cyprus Problem one of the most intractable questions in contemporary international relations.
Temporal Construal Theory of Time-Dependent Preferences
Authors: Trope Yaacov , Liberman Nira
Published: October 2023

For more than a century, questions about the psychological consequences of time perspective have provided the impetus for a large amount of research in the behavioral sciences (see review by Loewenstein, 1993). This research has been conducted by investigators across different disciplines, including psychology (e.g., Ainslie, 1975; Ainslie and Haslam, 1992;
History and institutions
Authors: Allen Franklin , Gale Douglas
Published: October 2023

What happened in Asia in 1997? Countries such as South Korea, Thailand, Indonesia, Singapore, and Hong Kong whose economies had previously been the envy of the world experienced crises. Banks and other financial intermediaries were put under great strain and in many cases collapsed. Stock markets and currencies plunged. Their real economies were severely affected and their GDPs fell signiﬁcantly. What were the causes of these dramatic events?
Financial fragility
Authors: Allen Franklin , Gale Douglas
Published: October 2023

In the preceding two chapters, we separately considered the operation of asset markets and intermediaries, such as banks. In the present chapter, we combine these elements and begin the study of their interaction. From this we will gain important insight into the phenomenon of finianical fragility. We use the phrase “ financial fragility” to describe situations in which small shocks have a signiﬁcant impact on the financial system. One source of financial fragility is the crucial role of liquidity in the determination of asset prices. There are many historical illustrations of this phenomenon.
The Frequency of Famines as Demographic Correctives in the Japanese Past
Authors: Saito Osamu
Published: October 2023

In the first edition of his book An Essay on the Principle of Population, Thomas Robert Malthus regarded famines as ‘the last, the most dreadful’ of all positive checks on population growth (Malthus 1798: 51-2). In its later editions, however, he became concerned more with factual aspects of the matter, especially with the issue of how frequently famines occurred in relation to plagues and other epidemics. Using data assembled by Dr Thomas Short, he noted in the sixth edition of his book that the periodic returns of epidemics were ‘at the interval of about 4 1/2 years’, while the mean interval between the visits of great famines and dearths was ‘about 7 1/2 years’. Malthus suggested that ‘plagues, violent diseases, and famines have been certainly mitigated, and have become less frequent’ than in past times (Malthus 1826: II, 308 and 315). It is not quite certain if the later Malthus jettisoned his earlier view that famines were a mighty corrective to overpopulation, but few will question the later Malthus’ stance that the frequency of famines was one of the factors accounting for changing rates of natural increase of populations in the past.
The Geography of Revolution in Ireland
Authors: Hart Peter
Published: October 2023

The revolution of 1917-23 represents a marriage of activists and outcomes almost unique in the history of Irish nationalism. Revolutionaries there had been—of one sort or another-for well over a century, political upheavals and crises were frequent, but rarely had one anything to do with the other. ln the aftermath of the Easter Rising of 1916, however, radicals did achieve radical change: a Sinn Ftéin majority in Ireland in the 1918 general election; an avowedly separatist parliament, Dáil Éireann, in 1919; republican local governments, police, and courts in 1910; the AngloIrish Treary in 1921; and ultimately, in 1922, an independent Free State separate from both Great Britain and Northern Ireland.
The Social Structure of the Irish Republican Army
Authors: Hart Peter
Published: October 2023

W. B. Yeats ‘met them at close of day I Coming with vivid faces I From counter or desk’. Fdith Somerville dismissed them variously as ‘tom fools’ and ‘half-educated cads and upstarts’.’ Erskine Childers praised them as ‘the soul of a new Ireland, taken as a whole the finest young men in the country’. To their neighbours and supporters, they were most often simply ‘the boys’. ‘They’ were the Irish Volunteers-after 1919 the Irish Republican Army-and the question of what sort of people they were is a crucial one for our understanding of the organization, and of the Irish revolution as a whole.
Politics
Authors: Weiler Bjorn
Published: October 2023

The central Middle Ages witnessed dramatic political change. Within a few centuries, Latin Europe was transformed from a society deeply rooted in the Carolingian revival of classical Roman values and institutions into one that, despite its many fundamental differences, foreshadowed the concerns, the organizational mechanisms, and the ideologies of the early modern period. At the same time, underneath this rapid change, continuities remained. The aim of this chapter is to highlight this complexity, and it will do so by sketching out some common norms of political life in Latin Christendom during this period.
Religion
Authors: Barrow Julia
Published: October 2023

Religion was one of the principal means of identification in this period. It provided many of the rituals that articulated social and political activity, and supplied a store of learning, transmitted orally, in writing, and pictorially. It was central to everyone’s experience. Since in western Europe in this period the dominant religion was Christianity, this will receive most attention in what follows, but with discussion of other religions at the end of the chapter.
The Sale Of Land
Authors: Dyson Henry
Published: October 2023

It must be assumed that the draftsman of the article has deliberately used the word ‘chose’ (thing) to indicate that it applies to both immovable and movable property of every kind. Such a provision which envisages a verbal as well as a written agreement is, of course, a significant departure from the venerable rule of English law in respect of sales of land which is enshrined in section 40 of the Law of Property Act 1925 that contracts for the sale or other disposition.
Compromis De Vente
Authors: Dyson Henry
Published: October 2023

This kind of contract, the proper title of which is promesse synallagmatique de vente, corresponds to the contract used in England in a land transaction to bind the parties to buy and sell subject to such conditions as may be contained in the contract. Such a contract is said to be one valant vente since by the agreement of the parties on the thing sold and the price the requirements of Code civil (C.civ. art.1582) as noted in Chapter 3 have been fulfilled. It will normally be (but is not required by law to be) in writing and in the form of a single document but may be for example by an exchange of letters.
Joint Ownership Of Land
Authors: Dyson Henry
Published: October 2023

There exist in French law three types of co-ownership. These are ownership en indivision, en tontine and en copropriété. The third form of co-ownership is when applied to realty, for all practical purposes, limited to the ownership of flats forming parts of a single building and is treated separately in Chapter 15. It must be remembered that in the absence of any trust law in France, the interests of each co-owner are in effect individual legal estates in the land so owned.
Residential Leases
Authors: Dyson Henry
Published: October 2023

The fundamental law on this subject is to be found in C.civ.arts.1709 to 1778. These articles cover the leasing of properties under what are known in French law as baux de droit commun (translatable as basic statutory law and not as common law). However, in certain important respects, this law is overlaid with the effect of special legislation which applies broadly to leases of premises for private occupation. A fair analogy would be to describe the law in England relating to leases as that enacted in Part V of the Law of Property Act 1925 but subject to the effect of various other Acts including and in particular the various Rent Acts when in force.
Inheritance Law
Authors: Dyson Henry
Published: October 2023

There is possibly no branch of French law which is so inimical to the English as that relating to the inheritance of property on death. Its application to assets in France owned by English persons whatever may be their domicile at the date of their death and to all assets wherever situate if their domicile is French is frequently misunderstood. This can lead to much confusion and dismay and often recrimination among beneficiaries who find that they are deprived as a result of the impact of French law of assets which clearly they were intended to inherit. None suffers more noticeably than the surviving spouse even if, of very recent time, his or her position has been ameliorated to a considerable extent.
The English Trust
Authors: Dyson Henry
Published: October 2023

Not only is the trust unknown in French law but ‘it is surrounded by considerable legal and fiscal doubts It is an institution the nature of which it is always difficult to grasp, which can only be understood at best imperfectly by reference to and comparison with a system of law with which the French are familiar. Until such a solution has been found, one must be satisfied with answers which are necessarily incomplete and unclear.’ That quotation from so distinguished a source as Memento Lefebvre ‘Patrimoine’ is not a very hopeful beginning to an understanding by the English lawyer, weaned on trust law, of the appreciation of that law by the French.
Administration Of An Estate
Authors: Dyson Henry
Published: October 2023

C.civ.art.720 the terms of which were set by the Law of 3 December 2001 is brief: ‘Les successions s’ouvrent par la mort’. This evident statement can be somewhat inadequately translated as meaning that ‘death is the precursor of inheritance’. The short article qualifies the relevant death as taking place ‘au demier domicile du defunt’ which must be understood in neutral terms as ‘at the place of the last residence of the deceased’. This article has combined and amended the previous articles 110 and 718, the latter referring to the ‘natural death’ as opposed to ‘the death’ of the deceased. The Code originally spoke of the ‘natural death’ and the ‘civil death’ of the deceased but the latter was abolished by the Law of 31 May 1854.
Comments
Authors: Boeri Tito , Hanson Gordon , McCormick Barry
Published: October 2023

Europe is best described as a tribal mosaic. It consists of a great many individual sociological identities, peoples living alongside each other, each identifying more or less exclusively with one of a great many parallel histories. Given this backdrop, it seems no accident that Europe was the cradle of the Western nation-state. Because that notion has been frequently abused—and because Europeans continue to treat its ethnic minorities poorly, even to this day—Europe has been a traditional source of migration, to the United States and Canada, to South America, and to Oceania.
Introduction
Authors: Robinson Peter M
Published: October 2023

Dependence structure across time occupies a key role in the modelling of macroeconomic and financial data. Increasing interest has been shown in capturing the possibility of ‘long memory’ (also sometimes referred to as ‘long-range dependence’, or ‘strong dependence’ or ‘persistence’). By long-memory time series I mean not only stationary ones but, a fortiori, nonstationary ones in which dependence falls off even more slowly across time. This volume collects together some articles on long memory which I hope have particular relevance or potential to modelling and statistical inference in an econometric context.
Estimation of the Memory Parameter for Nonstationary or Noninvertible Fractionally Integrated Processes
Authors: Hurvich Clifford M , Ray Bonnie K
Published: October 2023

A key problem in time series analysis is the determination or estimation of the degree of integration, d , of the series. In the case of autoregressive moving-average (ARMA) models, for example, a series with a unit root in the AR polynomial (and all MA roots outside the unit circle) has d = 1 and is nonstationary, a series with a unit root in the MA polynomial (and all AR roots outside the unit circle) has d = — 1 and is noninvertible, while a series with all roots of the AR and MA polynomials outside the unit circle has d = 0 and is both stationary and invertible. The Dickey-Fuller test (Dickey and Fuller 1979) is a method for deciding, on the basis of the observed data, whether to use d = 0 or d = 1 in building a model for the series. The test proposed by Saikkonen and Luukkonen (1993) for a unit root in the MA polynomial is a method for deciding between d = 0 and d = — 1.
‘Commonplaces of memory’: Visual Regimes and Charmed Spaces
Authors: Engel William E
Published: October 2023

The epigraph to this chapter comes from lines chanted by those who ‘look not like inhabitants o’ the earth I And yet are on’t’. These words herald the last of the dumb shows that presage the culmination of Macbeth’s fatal destiny. The mimed action is conjured up, within the world of the play, using supernatural means. The imagination is thus haunted by an arresting set of memory images involving a pageant of history, revealing to Macbeth a succession of kings that will come in the future, but to the Jacobean audience a succession of kings from the past leading up to the present.
‘O eloquent, iust, and mighty Death!’: Ending The History of the World
Authors: Engel William E
Published: October 2023

It is with this last sentence that Ralegh concluded his monumental History of the World, but using the Latin Vulgate and not the King James English translation, as quoted here (see the Appendix). How did it come to this? What did Ralegh seek to communicate by making this biblical sentence serve, quite literally, as the last word of his History? What sorts of assumptions in his own day would have been made about this cunning conclusion? And to what extent did it reflect cunning, in the sense of the term discussed in Part I?
Ways of Remembering
Authors: Woolf Daniel
Published: October 2023

Much Has Been written about the classical and Renaissance ‘arts of memory’, those systems inherited from ancient writings such as the pseudo-Christian Rhetorica ad Herennium and revived in the later Middle Ages by sages such as Ramon Lull, whence they later figured prominently in the work of English magi such as John Dee and Robert Fludd. Studies by Paolo Rossi and the late Frances Yates demonstrated some interesting implications of the artificial memory of the Renaissance for the development of later philosophical and scientific interests. Jonathan D. Spence has shown how ‘place memory’ could be put to practical pedagogical use in his study of the Jesuit Matteo Ricci’s mission to China. Most recently, William E. Engel has provided a richly suggestive connection between the mnemonic processes at work in literary and iconographic representation and the seventeenth century’s melancholic preoccupation with death and wider questions of temporality.
Arbitrage and Discounting Formulae
Authors: Milne Frank
Published: October 2023

We know by the definition of an equilibrium asset cash flow matrix Z, that there cannot exist a portfolio α∈ ℝΩ+1 such that there exist arbitrage opportunities. The absence of arbitrage gains places restrictions on the form of Z, particularly when there are portfolios of assets that give the same pay-offs as other portfolios.
Education, Career Opportunities, and Changing Patterns of Fertility: A Study of Women in the Labour Market in Twentieth-Century Sweden
Authors: Stanfors Maria , Svensson Lars
Published: October 2023

Two distinct features of societal change in twentieth century Sweden are the changing socio-economic roles of women and the changing patterns of fertility. As the Swedish economy has changed, from being a predominantly agrarian economy at the turn of the century, to an industrial and further to a post-industrial economy, Swedish women have increased their level of education and made more use of it through increased labour force participation. They have also moved into new sectors and occupations and the earnings gap between men and women has been reduced. Together with these changes, period fertility rates have fluctuated dramatically and at some points in time, as for instance the late 1980s and early 1990s, Sweden showed a combination of one of the highest birth rates in Western Europe and a very high female labour force participation rate. Cohort fertility has, however, been remarkably stable at about two children per woman, during more than half of the twentieth century.
Scientific Travellers, Colonists, and Africans: Chains of Knowledge and the Cape Vernacular, 1770–1850
Authors: Beinart William
Published: October 2023

Anders Sparrman arrived at the Cape from Sweden aged 24 in 1772. He had studied with Linnaeus, the renowned Swedish botanist, qualified as a doctor, and, as a young man, travelled to East Asia.1 After a sojourn in Cape Town, he spent nearly two years as an assistant naturalist on Captain Cook’s Resolution, travelling to the Polynesian islands and the Antarctic. He returned in 1775 to make a nine-month journey through the rural Cape collecting botanical and zoological specimens. Sparrman was not the first eighteenth-century scientific traveller to record the Cape environment, nor was he necessarily the most accurate. But his book, A Voyage to the Cape of Good Hope, published in English in 1785, was widely read and often cited in subsequent travel texts. It included sharp insights about colonial society, and he evinced considerable sympathy towards the indigenous Khoisan people. Sparrman sought explicitly to discuss the natural world and was amongst the first to record environmental problems.
The Night of the Jackal: Sheep, Pastures, and Predators, 1890–1930
Authors: Beinart William
Published: October 2023

Debates about improvements in the Cape pastoral economy were bedevilled by the shadowy presence of predators, and especially jackals, on farm boundaries. Jackals stalked the countryside and the imagination of farmers. It was the losses they caused, and the perceived losses they might cause, which were so often cited as a major reason for the kraaling system. Jackals were the enemy of farmers because they killed sheep. They became a particular concern for progressives and conservationists because they inhibited the changes in livestock farming that were being advocated with ever-stronger convic-tion. For different reasons, jackals also became a target of the poor.
Ritual, Memory, and Religion
Authors: James Wendy , Lambek Michael
Published: October 2023

Anthropologists have struggled very hard to appreciate things from the participant’s point of view, and in the native language, as far as possible. A sensitivity to indigenous expressions and their translation has greatly improved the ethnographic reporting of religious phenomena in particular, but ‘beliefs and rituals’ are more than a matter of words. Language and the collective morphology of signifying action are best teased apart, before we can explore more lucidly their interconnection. Many of the shaped ceremonial actions of mundane life have a quasi-religious aspect; and religious phenomena, however defined, if we are to use the word as a general category, must share much with the ceremonial qualities of the mundane.
The ‘Home-Made’ Patterns of Livelihood
Authors: James Wendy , Lambek Michael
Published: October 2023

Across the world it is the dwelling and local settlement, or set of temporary settlements, that provide a concrete focus for the understanding of lived social space and its resonances for the development of the individual’s experience of belonging to a patterned world. A study of the sites of daily working activity is relevant not only to the ‘traditional’ worlds of subsistence or semi-subsistence production, but also to the life of localities well within the reach of capitalism, state influence, or modern communication networks. Before writing The Wealth o(Nations in the late eighteenth century, Adam Smith visited a pin factory.
Towards Large-Scale Modern Forms
Authors: James Wendy , Lambek Michael
Published: October 2023

It is true that anthropologists have tended to concentrate on the small scale, relatively face-to-face phenomena of social relations, rather than on the abstract workings of capitalism, government, or global cultural movements. At the same time it is equally true that there is a ‘human’ scale, and a ceremonial character, to the way these phenomena work too-though the relationship between power, politics, personal participation, and ceremony in modern, large-scale forms is admittedly not the same as in the more coherent local context of classic anthropological research. However, anthropologists, as I suggested in my early chapters, are in fact extremely curious about hidden principles and connections and can be quite creative when they look at large-scale systems. Many today are involved in revealing the layers of complexity involved in local/regional/world connections. Some still study at the ‘village’ level, but a growing number are investigating the dispersed networks of refugees, transnational migrants, or international entrepreneurs, and a few are going for central institutions of the global power structure such as the European Parliament or the BBC. Modern, large-scale, and urban society has typically been assumed to be amorphous, just a mass of anonymous individuals who show up as statistics in social trends.
Introduction
Authors: Mccreery Cindy
Published: October 2023

Though some make slight of Libells, yet you may see by them how the wind sitts; as, take a straw, & throw it upp into the Aire, you shall see by that which way the wind is, which you shall not doe by casting up a stone— More solid things doe not shew the Complexion of the times so well as Ballads and libels. Taking it for granted that you are a Lounger, I shall not detain you longer than the time allowed for a stroll up and down the High-street, including one gaze at the print shop . . . I think you will allow the time better employed, than in gaping it away over a set of ill-natured caricatures.
Theory and Values in Public Law: A Response
Authors: Craig* Paul
Published: October 2023

Peter Cane has, in the previous chapter, presented a challenging argument as to the role of theory and values in public law. The challenge is directed in part towards the utility of the distinction between red- and green-light theories of administrative law used by Harlow and Rawlings. The argument is also directed more generally against the use of political theory by public lawyers, the claim being that it has diverted attention away from legal values.
‘The Peculiarities of the English’: Resisting the Public/Private Law Distinction
Authors: Taggart* Michael
Published: October 2023

One of the most persistent themes in Carol Harlow’s oviferous work is the denial of any useful substantive distinction between private law and public law. This view coincides with that of the much maligned but resilient A.V. Dicey. This continuity of resistance to the public/private law distinction is worthy of discussion.
The Spectacle of Exhibitions
Authors: Hoock Holger
Published: October 2023

The annual Royal Academy exhibition was the main showcase of the nation’s art, at the time often referred to simply as ‘The Exhibition’. It was here that Reynolds’s doctrines and the efforts of the Academy schools were meant to yield their first fruits and help disseminate taste among students and a wider, though select, public. The press measured the ‘improvement of the British School of Arts by the comparative excellence of these annual exhibitions’. For the Academy’s Secretary for Foreign Correspondence, Prince Hoare, they were the ‘trial of national ability and national character’ . Throughout the late Hanoverian period, the exhibition was also a key event in London’s social season, a space where the discussion of art underlay polite sociability. Visitors went to the Great Room in order to see, be seen, and converse with one another, encouraged by a panoply of images which reflected a wide range of topical concerns. The Academicians were status-conscious professionals whose appointment by the Sovereign went with the elevation from ‘Mr.’ to ‘Esq.’ (1.11).3As hosts at Somerset House they strove to frame the exhibition experience as a polite occasion in a civic space, free from the commercial and sexual connotations of the auction room, pleasure garden, and commercial galleries.
Conclusion
Authors: Hoock Holger
Published: October 2023

The Royal Academy of Arts has remained a national institution, though the scope and power of that notion have perhaps never been greater than they were in its formative period. By1820 the Academy had educated some 1,200 students free of charge: the very best rose to international fame; those lacking sufficient talent for the higher branches worked as drawing masters and in the applied arts and manufacturing design across the country. The income generated by the national showcase for British art had allowed the Academy to dispense more money in relief of artists than any other society. At least for the short period between the 1790s and 18rns, the Academy, Reynolds, his concept of art, and his followers were widely recognized as pivotal to an emerging native artistic tradition. Art institutions in England’s provincial towns, her sister kingdoms, and her former North American colonies had benefited from Academicians’ resources, advice, and prestige. As the national pool of artistic and aesthetic expertise with a genteel residence at Somerset House, the Academy had raised the prestige of the fine arts and its professors at home and abroad. Drawing on its royal connections and lobbying government and Parliament with consider able success, it had helped shape the professional identity of artists, spread the notion of the arts as a national resource, and made substantial contributions to the creation of the St Paul’s pantheon, the acquisition of the Elgin Marbles, and the movement towards a National Gallery.
Displaying the Phallus: Masculinity and the Performance of Sexuality on the Internet
Authors: Kibby Marjorie , Costello Brigid
Published: October 2023

The structure of the look defines visual pleasure, as the relationship between the subject of the gaze and its object is based in the pleasure of control and consumption. The directing and direction of the look controls the desire, and hence the fulfillment, of the desire. Film theorists in the 1970s saw the look of the cinema as structured around the male gaze (Mulvey 1975), and Berger (1972) asserts that ‘men act and women appear. Men look at women. Women watch themselves being looked at’ (p. 47), but later writers suggested that both male and female subject positions have access to a controlling gaze (Rodowick 1982; Neale 1986). Until the late 1970s, the male body was infrequently available as the object of the female gaze.
Introduction: ‘Turning Readers into Spectators’
Authors: Calè Luisa
Published: October 2023

IN one of his many forays into the archaeology of film, the Russian film director Sergei Eisenstein tried to recover ‘the montage culture that so many have lost’. Where other film directors explored the coordination of music and action in opera or ballet, Eisenstein turned to literature and found a school of montage in Paradise Lost.1 In an essay on the Soviet historical film Milton’s battle scenes are singled out as a model which Eisenstein wished he had known when he shot Alexander Nevsky.
Conclusion
Authors: Calè Luisa
Published: October 2023

THIS book locates the act of reading within the vibrant experience of exhibitions which characterized public culture in late eighteenth-century London. After the new copyright laws of the 1770s offered authors to the public domain, an increasing number of texts circulated in the shape of cheap editions, anthologies, and abridgements. This wider market in turn identified in readers a constituency of viewers, and in subscriptions for literary prints and texts a way of funding historical and epic painting. The cultural practices emerging from this new culture of exhibitions and anthologies energized spectators and readers. Both exhibitions and anthologies excerpted literary texts, transforming them into a series of discontinuous turns which it was for readers and spectators to re-create into continuous wholes.
Women in the Street: Prostitutes and Market Vendors
Authors: Mccreery Cindy
Published: October 2023

I would ask a man of feeling to survey the lobby at the theatres or look at the courtesans in the streets of London. Then let him say what stronger proof can be required of the wretched debasement of society … Sin is artificial& is the monstrous offspring of government and property. Of the several thousand satirical prints of women published in England during the late eighteenth century, prints of women as men’ s sexual partners form by far the largest category. While this includes wives and courtesans, most of the women depicted are prostitutes. Although prints of prostitutes vary considerably in tone, execution, and price, and depict a wide range of women, two main themes dominate.
Women in Male Roles Literary Ladies and Masculine Politicians
Authors: Mccreery Cindy
Published: October 2023

Literary ladies will, I am afraid, be losers in love as well as in friendship, by their superiority. — Cupid is a timid, playful child, and is frightened at the helmet of Minerva. It has been observed, that gentlemen are not apt to admire a prodigious quantity of learning and masculine acquirements in the fair sex— we usually consider a certain degree of weakness, both of mind and body, as friendly to female grace. While late eighteenth-century satirical prints devoted considerable attention to prostitutes, courtesans, and actresses, they also discussed other prominent women. Of particular importance were women who engaged in artistic, scholarly, and politicalactivities—activities that were traditionally associated with men.
The Rise and Fall of the European New Markets: On the Short- and Long-run Performance of High-tech Initial Public Offerings
Authors: Goergen Marc , Khurshed Arif , McCahery, Joseph A , Renneboog Luc
Published: October 2023

As recently as a decade ago, primary equity markets in continental Europe provided investors with low levels of transparency and corporate governance standards (La Porta et al. 1997).
Reading, Reciting, Acting
Authors: Andrews Malcolm
Published: October 2023

What is at issue in distinguishing between the experience of reading a novel silently to oneself and the experience of having it read aloud, between the solitary consumption of fiction and the recitation to someone else or to larger groups, between reading from a script and reciting from memory? Where can the line be drawn between acting and dramatic public recitation? Like many people, the newspaper reviewers quoted above were puzzled as to how to classify the Readings.
Impersonation
Authors: Andrews Malcolm
Published: October 2023

‘Mr Dickens has invented a new medium for amusing an English audience.’ Thus The Illustrated London News welcomed Dickens at the start of his professional career as a public Reader in 1858. Public Readings per se, as we saw in the last chapter, were not such a ‘new medium’ of entertainment: what was new was the inclusion in such recitations of virtuoso impersonation. The Illustrated London News was itself recording a range of such shows in London through the summer and autumn of this same year in its column devoted to theatrical events. For instance, its July 17 issue contained a notice of a Mr. Douglas Thompson lecturing in the Hanover Square Rooms ‘on the present state of oratory and elocution in the different spheres of the Pulpit, the Bar, the Platform, and the Stage’.
Performance
Authors: Andrews Malcolm
Published: October 2023

The Reading is due to begin at 8 p.m. At about 6.30 Dickens arrives at the hall. In the room set aside as his dressing room, his valet Scott has laid out his evening clothes to air. Everything is arranged neatly in its allotted place. The slightest irregularity at this stage would upset Dickens’s studied composure. Within a quarter of an hour, with Scott’s help, he is dressed. Scott then goes softly away, and sits outside the door.
Local Communities and Water Investments
Authors: Cullet Philippe , Gowlland-Gualtieri Alix
Published: October 2023

Water investments in developing countries have until recently been undertaken primarily by governments themselves. Thus, most projects relating to hydropower, irrigation and drainage, water supply and sanitation, fisheries, and water services have been financed either by governments, or by outside funding agencies through governments. In recent times, there has been a rapid shift towards the involvement of national and international private sector actors to make up for declining public sectors resources. This ongoing shift is of tremendous importance in that individuals and communities often bear the negative consequences of major water investments. This chapter focuses on the procedural rights in international law of local communities that are adversely affected by water investments.1 It examines in particular issues concerning the extent to which local communities have rights to be informed and consulted in the context of proposed legislative changes, pro grammes, and specific projects before they are adopted and implemented. It also looks at the extent to which local communities have been given rights to participate in, and ultimately accept or refuse, specific water investments affecting them. In practice, there has been relatively little by way of international and regional decisions focusing expressly on water investments. As a result, wherever water related practice is not available, this chapter looks at decisions and standards that concern the broader field of natural resources as a proxy. 2
Introduction
Authors: Anand Sudhir , Peter Fabienne
Published: October 2023

Impressive gains in average life expectancy have been achieved worldwide in the second half of the twentieth century. These gains have been attributed to a variety of socio-economic factors and public policies, and—to a lesser extent—to improved medical care. The changes in life expectancy, however, have not been distributed equally either among or within countries. Among countries, there have been advances in many, but some countries—especially in sub-Saharan Africa and the former Soviet Union—have seen reversals in life expectancy (United Nations Development Programme 2003: 262–5). Within countries, some social groups have benefited significantly but the health status of others has stagnated or worsened. Very large disparities in life expectancy are found within countries across different social groups and regions. Thus, although average life expectancy worldwide has increased significantly, inequalities in health remain a matter of deep concern.
Outcasts, Dropouts, and Provocateurs: Nonconformists Prepare the Terrain
Authors: Horn Gerd-Rainer
Published: October 2023

It was the very beginning of September 1956. The setting? A provincial town in Piedmont, Italy, located 35 kilometres south-east of Turin: Alba. The administrative centre of the bucolic, wine-growing Langhe region, Alba ‘s most famous son is Beppe Fenoglio, a partisan in the Second World War, author of Johnny the Partisan, a semi-autobiographical account of antifascist guerrilla warfare in the Langhe, including the temporary liberation of his native Alba in October 1944.
The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, the Kyoto Protocol, and the Kyoto Mechanisms
Authors: Freestone David
Published: October 2023

Climate change has been described as a defining issue for the twenty-first century.1 On the one hand it poses an unprecedented and as yet still not fully understood threat to the global climate system upon which mankind depends; on the other hand remedial action requires an extensive, and expensive, overhaul of northern industrial economies which are still heavily dependent on non-renewable carbon-based fossil fuels. For decades scientists have understood the chemical processes by which emissions of carbon dioxide and other gases might warm the planet through the so-called ‘greenhouse effect‘, nevertheless it was not until the 1980s that inter-national concern about anthropogenic impacts on the atmosphere through such emissions came to a head, and it was only in the last two decades of the twentieth century that the United Nations took the first, somewhat faltering, steps towards recognizing and addressing the issue.
Can Companies or Entities from a Non-Party to the Kyoto Protocol Participate in the Flexible Mechanisms?
Authors: Wilder* Martijn
Published: October 2023

The flexible mechanisms of the Kyoto Protocol (the Clean Development Mechanism (COM), Joint Implementation QI), and International Emissions Trading(IET)) are intended to provide a cost-effective means to reduce greenhouse gas (GH G) emissions on a global level, by enabling Annex I Parties to meet their Protocol targets by investing in emission reduction projects in other countries or by purchasing Kyoto Protocol credits on an international trading market. It is clear from the terms of the Kyoto Protocol and the Marrakesh Accords (which flesh out the practical rules of participation in emission reduction projects and emissions trading) that it was generally envisioned that only Kyoto Protocol Parties and the entities they have authorized to participate in projects and emissions trading would be able to participate in the flexible mechanisms.
The Bismarck Myth
Authors: Gerwarth Robert
Published: October 2023

Few statesmen in history have inspired the imagination of generations of Germans more than the founder of the Kaiserreich, Otto von Bismarck. The archetype of charismatic leadership, the Iron Chancellor maintained his pre-eminent position in the pantheon of Germany's political iconography for much of the twentieth century. Based on a large selection of primary sources, this book provides an insightful analysis of the Bismarck myth's profound impact on Germany's political culture. In particular, it investigates the ways in which that myth was used to undermine parliamentary democracy in Germany after the Great War, paving the way for its replacement by authoritarian rule under an allegedly 'Bismarckian' charismatic leader, Adolf Hitler. As one of the most powerful weapons of nationalist agitation against the Weimar Republic, the Bismarck myth was never contested. The nationalists' ideologically charged interpretation of Bismarck as the father of the German nation-state and model for future political decision-making clashed with rivalling - and thoroughly critical - democratic and communist perceptions of the Iron Chancellor. The quarrel over Bismarck's legacy demonstrates how the clash of ideologies, particularly between 1918 and 1933, resulted in a highly political fight for the 'correct' and universal interpretation of the German past. Essential reading for anyone interested in modern German history, this book sheds new light on the Weimar Republic's struggle for survival and the reasons for its failure.
Bismarck as an Election Campaigner
Authors: Gerwarth Robert
Published: October 2023

The Reichstag elections of 4 May 1924 ended ignominiously for the ‘Weimar coalition’ parties. The Republican powers suffered their worst result prior to the disastrous elections of 1932; together they received merely 36.9 per cent of the valid vote. Only the Centre Party was able to consolidate its result of June 1920. The DDP, on the other hand, fell from 8.3 per cent to 5.3 per cent. The worst blow was struck against the Social Democrats, reunited with the USPD’s ‘right’ wing since 1922, whose share of the Reichstag mandates went down from 171 to 100 seats.1
Conclusion
Authors: Gerwarth Robert
Published: October 2023

Between 1918 and 1933, Germany witnessed an uncompromising clash of ideologies and invented historical traditions. Ideological conflict translated into a fierce pseudo-historical and highly political fight for the ‘correct’ and universal interpretation of the German past. In the course of this battle over the past, the Bismarck myth proved to be one of the most powerful weapons employed by right-wing circles in their struggle against Weimar. The myth suggested that the Republic had been founded against the ‘spirit of Bismarck’ by those political groups which the Iron Chancellor himself had characterized as the ‘internal enemies of the Empire’. One of the prime intentions of the myth-makers was to associate the Weimar Republic with the odium of treason.
Europe and the League of Nations
Authors: Clavin Patricia
Published: October 2023

‘For days and weeks they have been crossing the oceans, and have covered hundreds and thousands of miles of the railways of Europe. The ports of the open seas and of the Mediterranean, the capitals of Western and Central Europe were their first gathering points. And now they are hastening towards Switzerland.’ Published in 1932, these words from Max Beer’s dramatic A Journey to Geneva , an account of the work of the League of Nations, demonstrates how the League provided the opportunity for its members to get to know the landscape of Europe as well as its people and the social, political, and economic challenges before it. The League of Nations was an international organization created after the First World War, intended ‘to promote international co-operation and to achieve international peace and security’, and was intimately associated with the foreign policy of US President Woodrow Wilson. It has been studied primarily within the context of international or global history.