bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Postsacral Vertebral Morphology in Relation to Tail Length Among Primates and Other Mammals
Authors: Russo Gabrielle A.
Published: August 2014

Tail reduction/loss independently evolved in a number of mammalian lineages, including hominoid primates. One prerequisite to appropriately contextualizing its occurrence and understanding its significance is the ability to track evolutionary changes in tail length throughout the fossil record. However, to date, the bony correlates of tail length variation among living taxa have not been comprehensively examined. This study quantifies postsacral vertebral morphology among living primates and other mammals known to differ in relative tail length (RTL). Linear and angular measurements with known biomechanical significance were collected on the first, mid‐, and transition proximal postsacral vertebrae, and their relationship with RTL was assessed using phylogenetic generalized least‐squares regression methods. Compared to shorter‐tailed primates, longer‐tailed primates possess a greater number of postsacral vertebral features associated with increased proximal tail flexibility (e.g., craniocaudally longer vertebral bodies), increased intervertebral body joint range of motion (e.g., more circularly shaped cranial articular surfaces), and increased leverage of tail musculature (e.g., longer spinous processes). These observations are corroborated by the comparative mammalian sample, which shows that distantly related short‐tailed (e.g.,Phascolarctos,Lynx) and long‐tailed (e.g.,Dendrolagus,Acinonyx) nonprimate mammals morphologically converge with short‐tailed (e.g.,Macaca tonkeana) and long‐tailed (e.g.,Macaca fascicularis) primates, respectively. Multivariate models demonstrate that the variables examined account for 70% (all mammals) to 94% (only primates) of the variance in RTL. Results of this study may be used to infer the tail lengths of extinct primates and other mammals, thereby improving our understanding about the evolution of tail reduction/loss. Anat Rec, 298:354–375, 2015. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Immunologically Controlled Biofuel Cell as a Self‐Powered Biosensor for Antibiotic Residue Determination
Authors: Conzuelo Felipe , Vivekananthan Jeevanthi , Pöller Sascha , Pingarrón José M. , Schuhmann Wolfgang
Published: August 2014

A biofuel cell consisting of a self‐powered sulfonamide immunosensor as biocathode and a cellobiose dehydrogenase (CDH)‐based bioanode was developed for the determination of sulfonamide antibiotics in milk. A graphite‐rod electrode was modified with protein G for the immobilization of selective capture antibodies. A direct competitive immunoassay with a horseradish‐peroxidase‐labeled analog of the antibiotic and the 2,2′‐azino‐bis(3‐ethyl benzothiazoline‐6‐sulfonic acid) diammonium salt‐mediated reduction of H2O2 allows quantification of antibiotic residues. CDH was co‐immobilized with a toluidine‐blue‐modified redox polymer on a graphite electrode for the biocatalytic oxidation of lactose in milk. An open‐circuit voltage of 676 mV and a maximal power density of 6.9 µW cm−2 were obtained. The power densities measured at 550 mV (vs. the anode) as a function of antibiotic concentration in milk samples allowed the construction of a calibration curve with a detection limit for sulfapyridine as low as 2.4 ng mL−1.
Evolution of an Adenine–Copper Cluster to a Highly Porous Cuboidal Framework: Solution‐Phase Ripening and Gas‐Adsorption Properties
Authors: Venkatesh V. , Pachfule Pradip , Banerjee Rahul , Verma Sandeep
Published: August 2014

The synthesis and directed evolution of a tetranuclear copper cluster, supported by 8‐mercapto‐N9‐propyladenine ligand, to a highly porous three‐dimensional cubic framework in the solid state is reported. The structure of this porous framework was unambiguously characterized by X‐ray crystallography. The framework contains about 62 % solvent‐accessible void; the presence of a free exocyclic amino group in the porous framework facilitates reversible adsorption of gas and solvent molecules. Oriented growth of framework in solution was also tracked by force and scanning electron microscopy studies, leading to identification of an intriguing ripening process, over a period of 30 days, which also revealed formation of cuboidal aggregates in solution. The elemental composition of these cuboidal aggregates was ascertained by EDAX analysis.
Halotriazolium Axle Functionalised [2]Rotaxanes for Anion Recognition: Investigating the Effects of Halogen‐Bond Donor and Preorganisation
Authors: Mercurio James M. , Knighton Richard C. , Cookson James , Beer Paul D.
Published: August 2014

The anion‐templated synthesis of three novel halogen‐bonding 5‐halo‐1,2,3‐triazolium axle containing [2]rotaxanes is described, and the effects of altering the nature of the halogen‐bond donor atom together with the degree of inter‐component preorganisation on the anion‐recognition properties of the interlocked host investigated. The ability of the bromotriazolium motif to direct the halide‐anion‐templated assembly of interpenetrated [2]pseudorotaxanes was studied initially; bromide was found to be the most effective template. As a consequence, bromide anion templation was used to synthesise the first bromotriazolium axle containing [2]rotaxane, the anion‐binding properties of which, determined by 1H NMR spectroscopic titration experiments, revealed enhanced bromide and iodide recognition relative to a hydrogen‐bonding protic triazolium rotaxane analogue. Two halogen‐bonding [2]rotaxanes with bromo‐ and iodotriazolium motifs integrated into shortened axles designed to increase inter‐component preorganisation were also synthesised. Anion 1H NMR spectroscopic titration experiments demonstrated that these rotaxanes were able to bind halide anions even more strongly, with the iodotriazolium axle integrated rotaxane capable of recognising halides in aqueous solvent media. Importantly, these observations suggest that a halogen‐bonding interlocked host binding domain, in combination with increased inter‐component preorganisation, are requisite design features for a potent anion receptor.
Synthesis of Soluble, Alkyne‐Substituted Trideca‐ and Hexadeca‐Starphenes
Authors: Rüdiger Elias C. , Porz Michael , Schaffroth Manuel , Rominger Frank , Bunz Uwe H. F.
Published: August 2014

Two literature‐known TIPS‐ethynyl‐dibromoacenes were prepared and employed to synthesize cyclotrimers by using Yamamoto coupling conditions. Two large, well‐soluble starphenes were isolated in good yields. Crystallographic characterization verifies the triangular shape and shows significant differences in crystal packing.
Dehydrative Cross‐Coupling Reactions of Allylic Alcohols with Olefins
Authors: Gumrukcu Yasemin , de Bruin Bas , Reek Joost N. H.
Published: August 2014

The direct dehydrative activation of allylic alcohols and subsequent cross‐coupling with alkenes by using palladium catalyst containing a phosphoramidite ligand is described. The activation of the allyl alcohol does not require stoichiometric additives, thus allowing clean, waste‐free reactions. The scope is demonstrated by application of the protocol to a series allylic alcohols and vinyl arenes, leading to variety of 1,4‐diene products. Based on kinetic studies, a mechanism is proposed that involves a palladium hydride species that activates the allyl alcohol to form the allyl intermediate.
One‐Year Outcomes Associated With Using Observation Services in Triaging Patients With Nonspecific Chest Pain
Authors: Abbass Ibrahim M. , Virani Salim S. , Michael Swint J. , Chan Wenyaw , Franzini Luisa
Published: August 2014

Background

Observation services are provided in greatly variant settings. The aim of this study was to reexamine the effectiveness of observation services compared to inpatient units for patients with nonspecific chest pain.

Hypothesis

Patients admitted to observation units have similar outcomes to patients admitted to inpatient wards.

Methods

We conducted a claim‐based retrospective study for 7549 patients who were admitted to observation and inpatient units. Both models of care were evaluated using the 1‐year costs related to chest pain/cardiovascular diseases, and primary and secondary outcomes. Primary outcome was a composite of myocardial infarction, congestive heart failure, stroke, or cardiac arrest, whereas secondary outcomes included revascularization procedures, emergency room revisits, and hospitalization due to cardiovascular diseases.

Results

Two‐thirds (65.7%, n = 4962) of patients in the sample had observation services, and 34.3% (n = 2587) were admitted to inpatient care. Of the inpatient group, 4.9% experienced a total of 167 primary outcomes, whereas 14.1% experienced a total of 571 secondary outcomes. In comparison, 3.8% of the observation group experienced 238 primary outcomes, and 10.3% experienced 737 secondary outcomes. After adjusting for baseline characteristics using Cox proportional hazard and quantile regression models, no differences between the 2 groups were detected in the 1‐year costs of cardiovascular services and primary or secondary outcomes. Patients who had observation services were 79% (95% confidence interval: 1.24‐2.58) more likely to have revascularization procedures compared to those admitted to inpatient care.

Conclusions

Patients who had observation services had similar outcomes and 1‐year costs compared to patients admitted to inpatient wards.
Functionalization of Cantilever Tips with Nucleotides by the Phosphoramidite Method
Authors: David Ralf , Erdmann Matthias , Fornof Ann R. , Gaub Hermann E.
Published: August 2014

In atomic force microscopy (AFM) a sharp cantilever tip is used to scan surfaces at the atomic level. One further application is force spectroscopy, in which force–distance curves between binding partners located on the cantilever and substrate surface are determined. This requires specifically immobilized molecules. Herein we describe the covalent binding of single adenosine and thymidine nucleotides on an amino‐PEGylated cantilever tip by the phosphoramidite method. Force–distance curves between these cantilever tips and gold surfaces were recorded. The rupture forces of the coordination bond between the primary amine of adenosine and the undercoordinated gold atoms were determined to be 145 pN, which is in agreement with previously published data. The force–distance curves of thymidine‐functionalized tips did not show rupture events, because this nucleotide does not possess a primary amine function. Nucleotide‐functionalized tips could aid in the understanding of binding mechanisms of nucleotide binding molecules such as polymerases immobilized on surfaces or membranes.
Impact of complex blast waves on the human head: a computational study
Authors: Tan Long Bin , Chew Fatt Siong , Tse Kwong Ming , Chye Tan Vincent Beng , Lee Heow Pueh
Published: August 2014

Head injuries due to complex blasts are not well examined because of limited published articles on the subject. Previous studies have analyzed head injuries due to impact from a single planar blast wave. Complex or concomitant blasts refer to impacts usually caused by more than a single blast source, whereby the blast waves may impact the head simultaneously or consecutively, depending on the locations and distances of the blast sources from the subject, their blast intensities, the sequence of detonations, as well as the effect of blast wave reflections from rigid walls. It is expected that such scenarios will result in more serious head injuries as compared to impact from a single blast wave due to the larger effective duration of the blast.

In this paper, the utilization of a head–helmet model for blast impact analyses in AbaqusTM (Dassault Systemes, Singapore) is demonstrated. The model is validated against studies published in the literature. Results show that the skull is capable of transmitting the blast impact to cause high intracranial pressures (ICPs). In addition, the pressure wave from a frontal blast may enter through the sides of the helmet and wrap around the head to result in a second impact at the rear. This study recommended better protection at the sides and rear of the helmet through the use of foam pads so as to reduce wave entry into the helmet. The consecutive frontal blasts scenario resulted in higher ICPs compared with impact from a single frontal blast. This implied that blast impingement from an immediate subsequent pressure wave would increase severity of brain injury. For the unhelmeted head case, a peak ICP of 330 kPa is registered at the parietal lobe which exceeds the 235 kPa threshold for serious head injuries. The concurrent front and side blasts scenario yielded lower ICPs and skull stresses than the consecutive frontal blasts case. It is also revealed that the additional side blast would only significantly affect ICPs at the temporal and parietal lobes when compared with results from the single frontal blast case.

By analyzing the pressure wave flow surrounding the head and correlating them with the consequential evolution of ICP and skull stress, the paper provides insights into the interaction mechanics between the concomitant blast waves and the biological head model. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Recognition and repair of chemically heterogeneous structures at DNA ends
Authors: Andres Sara N. , Schellenberg Matthew J. , Wallace Bret D. , Tumbale Percy , Williams R. Scott
Published: August 2014

Exposure to environmental toxicants and stressors, radiation, pharmaceutical drugs, inflammation, cellular respiration, and routine DNA metabolism all lead to the production of cytotoxic DNA strand breaks. Akin to splintered wood, DNA breaks are not “clean.” Rather, DNA breaks typically lack DNA 5′‐phosphate and 3′‐hydroxyl moieties required for DNA synthesis and DNA ligation. Failure to resolve damage at DNA ends can lead to abnormal DNA replication and repair, and is associated with genomic instability, mutagenesis, neurological disease, ageing and carcinogenesis. An array of chemically heterogeneous DNA termini arises from spontaneously generated DNA single‐strand and double‐strand breaks (SSBs and DSBs), and also from normal and/or inappropriate DNA metabolism by DNA polymerases, DNA ligases and topoisomerases. As a front line of defense to these genotoxic insults, eukaryotic cells have accrued an arsenal of enzymatic first responders that bind and protect damaged DNA termini, and enzymatically tailor DNA ends for DNA repair synthesis and ligation. These nucleic acid transactions employ direct damage reversal enzymes including Aprataxin (APTX), Polynucleotide kinase phosphatase (PNK), the tyrosyl DNA phosphodiesterases (TDP1 and TDP2), the Ku70/80 complex and DNA polymerase β (POLβ). Nucleolytic processing enzymes such as the MRE11/RAD50/NBS1/CtIP complex, Flap endonuclease (FEN1) and the apurinic endonucleases (APE1 and APE2) also act in the chemical “cleansing” of DNA breaks to prevent genomic instability and disease, and promote progression of DNA‐ and RNA‐DNA damage response (DDR and RDDR) pathways. Here, we provide an overview of cellular first responders dedicated to the detection and repair of abnormal DNA termini. Environ. Mol. Mutagen. 56:1–21, 2015. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Chimeric RNAs generated by intergenic splicing in normal and cancer cells
Authors: Jividen Kasey , Li Hui
Published: August 2014

A hallmark of many neoplasias is chromosomal rearrangement, an event that commonly results in the fusion of two separate genes. The RNA and protein resulting from these gene fusions often play critical roles in cancer development, maintenance, and progression. Traditionally, these fusion products are thought to be produced solely due to DNA level changes and are therefore considered unique to cancer. Recent advances in microarray and deep‐sequencing have revealed many more fusion transcripts. Surprisingly, some are without detectable rearrangement at the DNA level. Reports have demonstrated that at least some of these chimeric RNAs are generated via intergenic splicing. In this review, we highlight three examples of these noncanonical chimeric transcripts that are formed by trans‐splicing or cis‐splicing of adjacent genes and summarize the knowledge we have regarding these noncanonical fusions. We discuss the implications of the chimeric RNAs in both cancer and normal physiology, as some of these fusion transcripts are found in normal, noncancerous cells with sequences identical to those generated by canonical chromosomal translocation found in cancer cells. Finally, we present methods that are currently being used to discover additional chimeric RNAs. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Value of Mendelian Laws of Segregation in Families: Data Quality Control, Imputation, and Beyond
Authors: Blue Elizabeth M. , Sun Lei , Tintle Nathan L. , Wijsman Ellen M.
Published: August 2014

When analyzing family data, we dream of perfectly informative data, even whole‐genome sequences (WGSs) for all family members. Reality intervenes, and we find that next‐generation sequencing (NGS) data have errors and are often too expensive or impossible to collect on everyone. The Genetic Analysis Workshop 18 working groups on quality control and dropping WGSs through families using a genome‐wide association framework focused on finding, correcting, and using errors within the available sequence and family data, developing methods to infer and analyze missing sequence data among relatives, and testing for linkage and association with simulated blood pressure. We found that single‐nucleotide polymorphisms, NGS data, and imputed data are generally concordant but that errors are particularly likely at rare variants, for homozygous genotypes, within regions with repeated sequences or structural variants, and within sequence data imputed from unrelated individuals. Admixture complicated identification of cryptic relatedness, but information from Mendelian transmission improved error detection and provided an estimate of the de novo mutation rate. Computationally, fast rule‐based imputation was accurate but could not cover as many loci or subjects as more computationally demanding probability‐based methods. Incorporating population‐level data into pedigree‐based imputation methods improved results. Observed data outperformed imputed data in association testing, but imputed data were also useful. We discuss the strengths and weaknesses of existing methods and suggest possible future directions, such as improving communication between data collectors and data analysts, establishing thresholds for and improving imputation quality, and incorporating error into imputation and analytical models.
Complex Pedigrees in the Sequencing Era: To Track Transmissions or Decorrelate?
Authors: Li Dalin , Zhou Jin , Thomas Duncan C. , Fardo David W.
Published: August 2014

Next‐generation sequencing (NGS) studies are becoming commonplace, and the NGS field is continuing to develop rapidly. Analytic methods aimed at testing for the various roles that genetic susceptibility plays in disease are also rapidly being developed and optimized. Studies that incorporate large, complex pedigrees are of particular importance because they provide detailed information about inheritance patterns and can be analyzed in a variety of complementary ways. The nine contributions from our Genetic Analysis Workshop 18 working group on family‐based tests of association for rare variants using simulated data examined analytic methods for testing genetic association using whole‐genome sequencing data from 20 large pedigrees with 200 phenotype simulation replicates. What distinguishes the approaches explored is how the complexities of analyzing familial genetic data were handled. Here, we explore the methods that either harness inheritance patterns and transmission information or attempt to adjust for the correlation between family members in order to utilize computationally and conceptually simpler statistical testing procedures. Although directly comparing these two classes of approaches across contributions is difficult, we note that the two classes balance robustness to population stratification and computational complexity (the transmission‐based approaches) with simplicity and increased power, assuming no population stratification or proper adjustment for it (decorrelation approaches).
Genetic Prediction in the Genetic Analysis Workshop 18 Sequencing Data
Authors: Ziegler Andreas , Bohossian Nora , Diego Vincent P. , Yao Chen
Published: August 2014

High‐throughput sequencing data can be used to predict phenotypes from genotypes, and this corresponds to establishing a prognostic model. In extended pedigrees the relatedness of subjects provides additional information so that genetic values, fixed or random genetic components, and heritability can be estimated. At the Genetic Analysis Workshop 18, the working group on genetic prediction dealt with both establishing a prognostic model and, in one contribution, comparing standard logistic regression with robust logistic regression in a sample of unrelated affected or unaffected individuals. Results of both logistic regression approaches were similar. All other contributions to this group used extended family data, in general using the quantitative trait blood pressure. The individual contributions varied in several important aspects, such as the estimation of the kinship matrix and the estimation method. Contributors chose various approaches for model validation, including different versions of cross‐validation or within‐family validation. Within‐family validation included model building in the upper generations and validation in later generations. The choice of the statistical model and the computational algorithm had substantial effects on computation time. If decorrelation approaches were applied, the computational burden was substantially reduced. Some software packages estimated negative eigenvalues, although eigenvalues of correlation matrices should be non‐negative. Most statistical models and software packages have been developed for experimental crosses and planned breeding programs. With their specialized pedigree structures, they are not sufficiently flexible to accommodate the variability of human pedigrees in general, and improved implementations are required.
Pathway Analysis Approaches for Rare and Common Variants: Insights From Genetic Analysis Workshop 18
Authors: Aslibekyan Stella , Almeida Marcio , Tintle Nathan
Published: August 2014

Pathway analysis, broadly defined as a group of methods incorporating a priori biological information from public databases, has emerged as a promising approach for analyzing high‐dimensional genomic data. As part of Genetic Analysis Workshop 18, seven research groups applied pathway analysis techniques to whole‐genome sequence data from the San Antonio Family Study. Overall, the groups found that the potential of pathway analysis to improve detection of causal variants by lowering the multiple‐testing burden and incorporating biologic insight remains largely unrealized. Specifically, there is a lack of best practices at each stage of the pathway approach: annotation, analysis, interpretation, and follow‐up. Annotation of genetic variants is inconsistent across databases, incomplete, and biased toward known genes. At the analysis stage insufficient statistical power remains a major challenge. Analyses combining rare and common variants may have an inflated type I error rate and may not improve detection of causal genes. Inclusion of known causal genes may not improve statistical power, although the fraction of explained phenotypic variance may be a more appropriate metric. Interpretation of findings is further complicated by evidence in support of interactions between pathways and by the lack of consensus on how to best incorporate functional information. Finally, all presented approaches warranted follow‐up studies, both to reduce the likelihood of false‐positive findings and to identify specific causal variants within a given pathway. Despite the initial promise of pathway analysis for modeling biological complexity of disease phenotypes, many methodological challenges currently remain to be addressed.
A descriptive qualitative study of the roles of family members in older men's depression treatment from the perspectives of older men and primary care providers
Authors: Hinton Ladson , Apesoa‐Varano Ester Carolina , Unützer Jürgen , Dwight‐Johnson Megan , Park Mijung , Barker Judith C.
Published: August 2014

Objective

The aim of this study is to describe the roles of family members in older men's depression treatment from the perspectives of older men and primary care physicians (PCPs).

Methods

Cross‐sectional, descriptive qualitative study conducted from 2008–2011 in primary care clinics in an academic medical center and a safety‐net county teaching hospital in California's Central Valley. Participants in this study were the following: (1) 77 age ≥ 60, noninstitutionalized men with a 1‐year history of clinical depression and/or depression treatment who were identified through screening in primary care clinics and (2) a convenience sample of 15 PCPs from the same recruitment sites. Semi‐structured and in‐depth qualitative interviews were conducted and audiotaped then transcribed and analyzed thematically.

Results

Treatment‐promoting roles of family included providing an emotionally supportive home environment, promoting depression self‐management and facilitating communication about depression during primary care visits. Treatment‐impeding roles of family included triggering or worsening men's depression, hindering depression care during primary care visits, discouraging depression treatment and being unavailable to assist men with their depression care. Overall, more than 90% of the men and the PCPs described one or more treatment‐promoting roles of family and over 75% of men and PCPs described one or more treatment‐impeding roles of family.

Conclusions

Families play important roles in older men's depression treatment with the potential to promote as well as impede care. Interventions and services need to carefully assess the ongoing roles and attitudes of family members and to tailor treatment approaches to build on the positive aspects and mitigate the negative aspects of family support. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Now you see it, now you don't: Testing environments modulate the association between hippocampal volume and cortisol levels in young and older adults
Authors: Sindi Shireen , Fiocco Alexandra J. , Juster Robert‐Paul , Lord Catherine , Pruessner Jens , Lupien Sonia J.
Published: August 2014

The hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis production of the stress hormone cortisol interacts with the hippocampal formation and impacts memory function. A growing interest is to determine whether hippocampal volume (HV) predicts basal and/or reactive cortisol levels in young and older adults. Recent evidence shows that contextual features in testing environments might be stressful and inadvertently induce a stress response in young and/or older populations. This latter result suggests that variations in testing environments might influence associations between HV and cortisol levels in young and older adults. To this end, we investigated 28 healthy young adults (ages 18–35) and 32 healthy older adults (ages 60–75) in two different environments constructed to be more or less stressful for each age group (Favoring‐Young versus Favoring‐Old conditions). Cortisol levels were repeatedly assessed in each environment, and young and older participants underwent an anatomical magnetic resonance imaging scan for subsequent assessment of HV. Results in both age groups showed that HV was significantly associated with cortisol levels only in the unfavorable stressful testing conditions specific for each age group. This association was absent when testing environments were designed to decrease stress for each age group. These findings are fundamental in showing that unless the nature of the testing environment is taken into consideration, detected associations between HV and cortisol levels in both young and older populations might be confounded by environmental stress. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Late mortality among 5‐year survivors of early onset cancer: A population‐based register study
Authors: Kero Andreina E. , Järvelä Liisa S. , Arola Mikko , Malila Nea , Madanat‐Harjuoja Laura M. , Matomäki Jaakko , Lähteenmäki Päivi M.
Published: August 2014

To date, only few studies have been published documenting late mortality among early onset cancer survivors, especially regarding young adulthood (YA) malignancies. Our nation‐wide population‐based registry study provides information concerning cause‐specific long‐term mortality among 16,769 5‐year survivors of early onset cancer (aged 0–34 years at diagnosis), with follow‐up for death extending from 1971 through 2012. A sibling cohort and population data were used as reference. The overall standardized mortality ratio (SMR) of cancer patients was 4.6‐fold, (95% CI 4.4–4.8). Highest SMRs were found for malignancies (12.8, 95% CI 12.3–13.3), infectious (4.8, 95%CI 2.9–6.7) and cardiovascular diseases (1.9, 95% CI 1.7–2.1). Malignancies and cardiovascular diseases accounted for the largest number of deaths. Childhood and YA cancer survivors with the same primary cancer site had a similarly elevated overall SMR with the exception of markedly higher SMRs after childhood Hodgkin lymphoma. The highest cumulative non‐malignancy‐related mortality was due to cardiovascular disease with a steady rise throughout the follow‐up, but strongly dependent on the primary cancer site and age at diagnosis. In childhood cancer survivors, the cumulative cardiovascular mortality did not reduce over time. However, overall and malignancy‐related mortality showed a declining tendency towards the most recent periods after both, childhood and YA cancer. Our findings on non‐malignancy‐related mortality stress the need to set up long‐term individual follow‐up with a focus on cardiovascular late effects for early onset cancer survivors, especially for YA cancer survivors still lacking those.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE VALIDITY OF A SINGLE TEST AND ITS CONTRIBUTION TO THE PREDICTIVE EFFICIENCY OF A TEST BATTERY
Authors: Horst Paul
Published: August 2014

Typical selection or classification testing programs should provide for improvement of the predictive efficiency of the test battery. Such provision calls for the administration of experimental tests along with the operational battery administration and follow‐up analysis to determine the value of the experimental material. It is possible to determine without waiting for criterion data what the validity of the experimental test must be in order to improve the battery validity. The method together with the proof is presented.
ON THE STANDARD LENGTH OF A TEST*
Authors: Woodbury Max A.
Published: August 2014

A new concept, that of the standard length of a test, seems useful in simplifying formulas for reliability and validity coefficients for tests of altered length. The usefulness of the concept is a consequence of the fact that it is possible to define a unit of test information, this being, in fact, the amount of information in a test of standard length. The amount of information in a test is its length L in terms of its standard length as a unit. From this one computes the reliability r of the test by the formula r = L/(L + 1). For small amounts of information, the reliability and the information are approximately equal. It is readily seen that the standard length of a test is that length which would make its reliability one half. The length of a test in terms of its standard length as a unit required to produce a given reliability is given by L = r/(1 ‐ r). Both formulas reduce to (1 + L) (1 ‐ r) = 1.

The correlation between two tests of length L1 and L2 in terms of their standard lengths as units is r12 = R12 L1L2/(L1 + 1)(L2 + 1)1/2, where R12 is the correlation corrected for attenuation. For the case of correlation with a criterion this becomes r1c = R1c L1/L1 + 11/2 where R1c is the validity coefficient corrected for attenuation.
OPTIMAL TEST LENGTH FOR MAXIMUM BATTERY VALIDITY
Authors: Horst Paul
Published: August 2014

Having given a fixed amount of total testing time it is important to know how long each test in the battery should be so that the correlation of the battery with the criterion will be a maximum. The precise solution for the test lengths will depend on a particular set of conditions which may be specified. The writer has previously presented solutions for two sets of conditions. This article presents the solution for a third set of conditions. These are: (1) The total number of items or testing time is fixed. (2) The score is the total number of items correctly answered. (3) The test lengths are determined in such a way that the correlation of total score with the criterion is a maximum.

The solutions for the two previous sets of conditions, together with the current set are summarized. A set of experimental data is submitted to each solution and the three sets of results are compared.
A GENERAL SOLUTION FOR THE LATENT CLASS MODEL OF LATENT STRUCTURE ANALYSIS*
Authors: Green Bert F.
Published: August 2014

For the point distribution model of Lazarsfeld's latent structure analysis, the general matrix equation is stated which relates the manifest data in the form of joint occurrence matrices to the latent parameters. A general solution of this equation for the latent parameters is presented, which is based on the notion of factoring two joint occurrence matrices. The solution is valid under certain conditions which will usually be fulfilled. The solution assumes that estimates are available for the elements in the joint occurrence matrices with recurring subscripts, analogous to item communality or reliability. Some alternative methods of obtaining these estimates are discussed. Finally, a method is indicated for calculating a certain joint occurrence matrix needed in the solution.
VALIDATION OF THE STUDY OF ARGUMENTS AND VOCABULARY INTEREST TEST EXPERIMENTAL SECTIONS OF ONE FORM OF THE LAW SCHOOL ADMISSION TEST
Authors: French John W.
Published: August 2014

A half‐hour, long‐passage reading comprehension test and a half‐hour vocabulary test designed to test interest in debating, current affairs, literature, and hobbies were tried out in the experimental section of the Law School Admission Test in the spring of 1951. The validities of these tests were computed for five law schools and were found to be insufficient for making an appreciable addition to the validity already provided by the present LSAT.
DIFFERENTIAL PREDICTABILITY IN THE USE OF TEST SCORES
Authors: Frederiksen Norman , Melville S. Donald
Published: August 2014

The purpose of this study is to illustrate how a test may be used more effectively for prediction through the identification of subgroups of individuals for whom the test is especially valid as a predictor.

It was hypothesized that scores on the Strong Vocational Interest Blank would be more predictive of success in an engineering school for noncompulsive than for compulsive students. Students were classified as compulsive or noncompulsive in two ways: on the basis of (1) scores on the Accountant Scale of the Strong blank, and (2) reading speed in relation to vocabulary. The compulsive subgroups were composed of students who most resembled accountants in one case, and students whose speed of comprehension was low in relation to vocabulary in the other. The value of the Strong scores as predictors of freshman average grade was determined for compulsive and for noncompulsive groups. The results tended to confirm the hypothesis that Strong scores are more valid predictors of academic success for compulsive than for noncompulsive students.

It is concluded that this study demonstrates that the use of tests could be improved by discovering subgroups of people for whom a test is expecially appropriate as a predictor.
AN EMPIRICAL COMPARISON OF FIVE METHODS OF SHORTENING A TEST*
Authors: Olsen Marjorie A. , Schrader William B.
Published: August 2014

This study was designed to provide an empirical comparison of the following methods of shortening the Law School Admission Test: (1) Internal consistency item analysis; (2) External criterion item analysis; (3) A method involving the ratio of item‐criterion correlation to item‐subtest correlation, substantially as described by Gulliksen; (4) A method described by Horst for estimating optimal times for subtests; and (5) A linear method for estimating optimal times for subtests. The analysis was carried out separately for two parallel subsamples of 500 first‐year law school students, and trial scoring keys requiring 135 minutes of testing time were assembled from material originally requiring 190 minutes.

When the trial scoring keys obtained from one subsample were validated against first‐year law school grades for the opposite subsample, the results were as follows: For one subsample, the validity coefficients for the five trial keys ranged from .568 to .576; the coefficient for total score on the 190 minute test was .586. For the second subsample, the validities of the trial keys were between .483 and .496, as compared with .493 for the 190 minute test.
SELECTION AND CLASSIFICATION TESTS FOE WOMEN: A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Authors: Wand Barbara , Mollenkopf William G.
Published: August 2014

The purpose of this review of the literature was to examine the appropriateness of using with women the same selection and classification procedures that are used with men in situations in which both men and women are selected for the same jobs. Particular attention was paid to reports of the selection of women for jobs similar to billets in the U. S. Navy.

Two valuable sources of information on women which included comparable data for men were U. S. Air Force reports of the selection of personnel for Air Force technical schools and British reports of the selection of women for the Auxiliary Territorial Service during World War II.

Most industrial studies were based on samples of one sex. It became apparent that in normal times most civilian jobs are held predominantly by members of one sex or the other, and hence the practical problem of the influence of sex differences on predictive measures has not been investigated to any extent by those who are conducting personnel research in industry.

The findings tend to support the assumption that tests developed and used for the selection of men must be carefully examined prior to their use in selecting women for the same jobs. This seems particularly true for tests in mechanical and computational areas. In general, findings seem to indicate that a given tests score may not predict the same level of on‐the‐job performance for a woman as for a man, there being evidence that women do better than would be predicted from scores based on tests and procedures developed for men.
THE WEST POINT TRYOUT OF THE GUIDANCE BATTERY, PART 2
Authors: French John W.
Published: August 2014

For the purpose of studying differential and comparative prediction with pure‐factor tests, information was desired on which to base the selection of appropriate factors and of appropriate measures for each factor. In August, 1950 some interest‐information variables and a battery including two, three, or four tests to represent each of thirteen established factors were administered to an entering class of West Point cadets. The tests and five criterion variables were intercorrelated and factored. The tests, the administration, and the intercorrelations of tests are described in RB‐51‐12. The present bulletin describes the correlations with course grades, the factor analysis, and the interpretations of factors. Sixteen factors were extracted and rotated to simple structure. These include twelve of the thirteen factors planted in the battery, two interest factors, the grade factor, and a residual factor. The study served to supply satisfactory information for setting up an experimental battery that could be used in studying the feasibility of making useful differential and comparative predictions of college major‐field success with pure‐factor tests.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ITEM DIFFICULTY AND TEST VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY
Authors: Myers Charles T.
Published: August 2014

Using freshman average grades as a criterion, this research compares the validity and reliability of part scores based on sets of items selected from a verbal and mathematical aptitude test for college freshmen, the sets having been selected on the basis of their “difficulty.” Two parallel sets of 24 items each were selected from the items whose difficulty fell within the limits of 40 per cent passing and 74 per cent passing. Two other parallel sets of 24 items were selected from the items outside this range with one half the items in each set easy and one half the items hard.

The subjects were 1600 freshmen at 12 liberal arts colleges.

For each college a table was prepared of correlations between sets of items and between each set of items and grade averages. The correlations between parallel sets of items were taken as the reliability coefficients. The correlations between average grades and the sums of scores on pairs of parallel sets were taken as the validity coefficients. Thus there were 12 pairs of reliability coefficients and 12 pairs of validity coefficients, one pair of each for each college. The significance of the differences between the two kinds of sets was tested by Wilcoxon's matched pairs signed ranks test.

No significant differences were found for the validities. The mean validity coefficient for all sets was .50. The sets of medium “difficulty” items were found to be more reliable at the two per cent level of significance. The mean reliability of these sets of 24 items was .69 while the mean reliability of the other sets was .63.
NOTES ON TEST THEORY
Authors: Keats John A.
Published: August 2014

The representation of test scores as n dimensional points leads directly to an estimate of error variance at a particular score level in the case of equivalent items. Approximations are suggested for the case of non‐equivalent items. These approximations are compared with empirical data prepared by Dr. Mollenkopf with satisfactory results.
THE STABILITY OF EQUATED TEST SCORES1
Authors: Karon Bertram P.
Published: August 2014

The effects of sampling error were studied empirically with respect to four methods of equating scales of tests administered to non‐overlapping groups of subjects: (1) mean and sigma method, (2) equi‐percentile method, (3) maximum likelihood method using an “anchor” test, (4) standard reference group method using an “anchor” test. The methods were compared under both random and stratified sampling. Results showed that sampling error was (1) smaller for those methods which make use of an “anchor” test than for those which do not, (2) smaller for equated scores closer to the mean of the total population than for those further from the mean, (3) was not decreased by stratification by institution when the “anchor” test methods of equating were used.
EDUCATIONAL AND OCCUPATIONAL VALIDATION OF A HIGH SCHOOL COMPARATIVE PREDICTION BATTERY (PILOT STUDY)
Authors: French John W.
Published: August 2014

This report concerns the preliminary tryout of tests intended for use in comparative prediction at the ninth‐grade level. A nine‐hour battery of pure‐factor aptitude tests and of interest measures was given to students in all grades of the Middlesex and Essex County, New Jersey, Vocational and Technical High Schools. The ninth‐grade data were used for internal test analysis. This report discusses the follow‐up done with the data for the eleventh grade, twelfth grade, and special graduate classes. The follow up included the gathering of school shop grades, job ratings by employers a half to one year after leaving school, and scores on satisfaction with the trade entered. The validity study shows that, among the 30 scores validated, there are a considerable number of validity coefficients suitable for comparative prediction for success in the various school shop courses. The validity of the tests is less good for the job criteria.
EVIDENCE BEARING ON USE OF THE MYERS‐BRIGGS TYPE INDICATOR TO SELECT PERSONS FOR ADVANCED RELIGIOUS TRAINING: A PRELIMINARY REPORT
Authors: Saunders D. R.
Published: August 2014

Evidence is presented that tends to support three hypotheses connecting the Myers‐Briggs Type Indicator to the field of advanced religious training. These hypotheses are:

Persons whose type is ESFJ or ENFJ are more interested in becoming ministers, et al, than are members of other types.

Persons whose type is ENFJ are relatively more interested in becoming ministers in liberal denominations, and persons whose type is ESFJ are relatively more interested in becoming ministers in conservative denominations.

In the case of liberal denominations, persons whose type is ENFJ are relatively prone to remain actively in the role of parish‐level religious leader. This is regarded as implying the possession by ENFJ of an inherently superior pattern of aptitude and personality development for this particular role. (The parallel hypothesis for ESFJ has not been tested.)

It is concluded that additional data on ministers should be obtained, in which the Myers‐Briggs is used.
AN EMPIRICAL STUDY OF THE NORMALITY AND INDEPENDENCE OF ERRORS OF MEASUREMENT IN TEST SCORES*
Authors: Lord Frederic M.
Published: August 2014

An empirical study is described for determining whether in actual practice the errors of measurement in a test score (a) are distributed normally and (b) independently of the true score. Standard error formulas are given for making the necessary significance tests. The results show that the variance of the errors of measurement was significantly associated with true score in each of the four groups studied, and that the distribution of the errors of measurement was significantly skewed in three of these four groups.
SOME OBSERVATIONS OF PROBLEM SOLVING IN SPATIAL RELATIONS TESTS
Authors: Myers Charles T.
Published: August 2014

During the past twenty‐five years or so, a number of factor‐analytic studies have identified a group of tests as belonging to a category which is frequently called Spatial Relations. However, continued use of a single experimental technique may lead to diminishing returns, and new techniques may be needed to develop new kinds of information. The present study was undertaken to find what information could be gained by relatively intensive and extended interviewing. Five subjects took part in about two hours of testing and six hours of interviews and discussion. The purpose of this investigation included studying the uses of interviewing as a method as well as studying the nature of spatial relations tests and the abilities they measure. It was observed that the subjects expected the test directions to serve a different purpose than the one they were designed to serve. It was also found that there were differences in the degree to which these subjects treated the problems as exercises in logic or exercises in perception; and it was found that the units of thought and perception varied with the subjects, the problems, and with the subjects' purposes.
KEYING PAIRS OF ITEMS FOR PREDICTING LAW SCHOOL GRADES1
Authors: Hills John R. , Raine Walter J.
Published: August 2014

The attempt to develop an item‐pair key from the 31,125 pairs of items obtainable from the Personality Research Inventory in order to predict first‐year grades in law schools was unsuccessful.
CONDUCTING RESEARCH WITH MIGRANT POPULATIONS: A REFLECTIVE ACCOUNT
Authors: Selkirk Mhairi , Quayle Ethel
Published: August 2014

This article discusses the researcher's experience of conducting research within a Polish migrant community. The methods employed and challenges faced are discussed. Finally, recommendations for conducting research with migrant populations are suggested, drawing on the lessons learned from the research process.