bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Uniting for Survival
Authors: Hill Laura Warren
Published: September 2021

This chapter documents several brutal clashes between African Americans and the police, which engendered a loose coalition of Black organizations and a number of sympathetic white ministers. It recounts the Rochester cases that garnered significant attention, while police clashes occurred throughout most cities in the postwar era. It also mentions a case where the US Justice Department interceded and another case where the famed Nation of Islam leader Malcolm X joined the protest efforts. The chapter argues that police brutality became a salient issue for a broad cross section of the Black community, which included ministers who cultivated and promoted a unified response. It talks about the local National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) that worked closely with Malcolm X and local Nation of Islam leaders to organize a unity rally, chastising the Rochester branch for consorting with reputed Black separatists.
Build the Army
Authors: Hill Laura Warren
Published: September 2021

This chapter talks about a group of white ministers who aided Black Rochesterians in their struggle to create a police review board and expanded their commitment to the struggle for racial justice. It details how the white ministers acted through the local council of churches and joined forces with Rochester's Black ministers to found and fund an organizational structure capable of building a Black movement. It also traces the abortive engagement with the Southern Christian Leadership Conference and Chicago's Saul Alinsky and his Industrial Areas Foundation. The chapter refers to FIGHT, Action for a Better Community (ABC), and the Urban League as the three groups that were competing for the hearts and minds of Black Rochester within a year of the uprising. It argues that in order for FIGHT to attract and retain the loyalty of the masses, it adopted an “oppositional identity.”
Confrontation with Kodak
Authors: Hill Laura Warren
Published: September 2021

This chapter shows how the militant organization FIGHT targeted the Eastman Kodak Company by pressing the film conglomerate to hire and train the hard-core unemployed in 1966. It recounts how FIGHT's crusade jumped to the national scene in 1967, making major waves in the business world. It also elaborates how the corporate leaders of KODAK simply handled FIGHT when it came calling, with Kodak representatives explaining their own programs and suggested that FIGHT get in line. The chapter details how FIGHT continued to pressure Kodak locally by engaging the media and even drawing national Black Power leader Stokely Carmichael to join its efforts. It argues that FIGHT's campaign against Kodak significantly rewrote the rules of corporate responsibility in the era of Black Power.
Conclusion
Authors: Hill Laura Warren
Published: September 2021

This chapter traces thirty years of engagement and organizing in Black Rochester. It emphasizes that no facet of life shaped Rochester in the period more than the emergence of a sizable Black population that is able to organize and command the attention of city hall and of the major corporations. It also mentions a telling diffusion of power that occurred by the end of the era, wherein corporations are no longer alone in charting the city's course. The chapter elaborates how the story of Rochester, New York makes clear that even among a relatively small Black population in a medium-sized city, there was no single Black movement nor one distinct path to freedom. It recounts Black activists that had continuously fought for equality and for their freedom rights throughout the history of the United States.
Still a Mother
Authors: Krasas Jackie
Published: September 2021

This book traces the trajectories of mothers who have lost or ceded custody to an ex-partner. The book argues that these noncustodial mothers' experiences should be understood within a greater web of gendered social institutions such as employment, education, health care, and legal systems that shapes the meanings of contemporary motherhood in the United States. If motherhood means “being there,” then noncustodial mothers, through their absence, are seen as nonmothers. They are anti-mothers to be reviled. At the very least, these mothers serve as cautionary tales. The book questions the existence of an objective method for determining custody of children and challenges the “best-interests standard” through a feminist, reproductive justice lens. The stories of noncustodial mothers that the book relates shed light on marriage and divorce, caregiving, gender violence, and family court. Unfortunately, much of the contemporary discussion of child-custody determination is dominated either by gender-neutral discussions or, at the opposite end of the spectrum, by the idea that fathers are severely disadvantaged in custody disputes. As a result, the idea that mothers always receive custody has taken on the status of common sense. If this was true, as the book's author affirms, there would be no book to write.
Still a Mother
Authors: Krasas Jackie
Published: September 2021

This chapter delves into how mothers understand the larger terrain of gender at work in their custody experiences. It addresses what role gender plays in a mother's path to becoming a noncustodial mother and explains how gender shapes their experiences of noncustodial motherhood. It also builds on the analysis of the meanings of motherhood in the context of the social stigma attached to the noncustodial mother status by taking a broader and deeper look at the range of understandings of motherhood held by the noncustodial mothers who were interviewed or who participated in online support communities. The chapter highlights noncustodial mothers on the gendered nature of their experiences, reflecting on how gender should matter in determining child custody. It points out how noncustodial mothers as a group have varied and complex understanding of gender and motherhood.
The Tradition of King Liao Commanded Gongzi Guang
Authors: He Jianjun
Published: September 2021

This chapter pays close attention to the two loosely connected stories of Wu Zixu's flight from Chu to Wu and Gongzi Guang's assassination of King Liao of Wu. It describes Wu Zixu as a pivotal figure and hero in the rival history between Wu and Yue. It also looks at the narratives of Wu Zixu, including his escape from Chu, the dangers he encountered on his journey to Wu, and his recommendation of Zhuanzhu to Gongzi Guang. The chapter draws Wu Zixu's story from early sources, especially those that are recorded in Sima Qian's biography of Wu Zixu in the Shiji. It highlights events where Wu Zixu had to overcome many difficulties and survive dangers on his journey to Wu, such as his flight from the Shao Pass and his rescue by a fisherman and a woman washing silk by the river.
Time for a Tenants Association
Authors: Garodnick Daniel R.
Published: September 2021

This chapter mentions the MetLife insurance company, which developed Peter Cooper Village at the same time as Stuyvesant Town covered the area from 20th to 23rd Streets. It details how the two communities operated as a united whole, with the same security and maintenance staff serving them, except the apartments in the Peter Cooper buildings were a little bigger than those in Stuy Town. It also elaborates the perception of Stuy Town' tenants about the management as they seem to pay more attention to Peter Cooper. The chapter talks about the second burst of real activism by Stuy Town tenants that was led by Charles Lyman, who decided to get together to explore ways to protect themselves and their community after 1974. It discusses the meetings of Lyman's group of tenants, which called themselves assembly the Stuyvesant Town Tenants Association.
Making a Bid
Authors: Garodnick Daniel R.
Published: September 2021

This chapter refers to the story about the tenant bid that was anticipated to pop up on the New York Times website in September 2006. It shows the headline of the article which read that Daniel Garodnick, as a representative of the 25,000 residents of Stuyvesant Town and Peter Cooper Village, intended to organize investors who could buy the two complexes and keep them affordable to the middle class. It also talks about Garodnick's plan to go to MetLife as a partner with the Tenants Association in the hopes to make the offer extremely desirable for the bidder. The chapter highlights that the lead story of the national edition of the New York Times proclaimed the two buildings were up for sale. It cites that the asking price for Stuy Town and Peter Cooper was nearly $5 billion, the biggest deal for a single American property in modern times.
Challenged from the Outside
Authors: Garodnick Daniel R.
Published: September 2021

This chapter discusses how residents of Stuyvesant Town received a colorful missive from Gerald Guterman, a real-estate speculator, which attacked and directly undermined the Tenants Association and Brookfield, the new partner of the complex buildings. It explores Guterman's plan of converting the Stuy Town property to a co-op and selling units to tenants at $130,000 per unit. It also points out how Guterman's plan sparked an anxious debate about who would become the owner of units that were not sold to the tenants who lived in them. The chapter mentions Guterman's intention to sell occupied rent-stabilized units to individual outside investors, a scenario most longtime rent-stabilized renters objected to. It also elaborates Daniel Garodnick's concerns on Guterman's model of short-term ownership that lacked any long-term affordability protections.
A New Start
Authors: Garodnick Daniel R.
Published: September 2021

This chapter focuses on Daniel Garodnick's preparation for the 2013 election as he intended to be the next speaker of the city council. It explains that the speaker is chosen by his or her colleagues in the council and one way to generate votes in a speaker race is by supporting current council members running for re-election. It also mentions the challenges caused by Bill de Blasio winning the Democratic primary for New York mayor as he and Garodnick had a complicated relationship. The chapter refers to the Progressive Caucus, a group of twenty-two council members who had formed a bloc of their own in hopes of influencing the race. It recounts how Garodnick endorsed de Blasio for the general election the day after the primary and came out to give him a boost with his constituents.
Epilogue
Authors: Garodnick Daniel R.
Published: September 2021

This chapter describes the feeling of stability in the community of Stuyvesant Town after the buildings have been passed from owner to owner for nearly a decade. It discusses how the property had been sold for the last time and set on the terms of the Tenants Association, with the new owner promising to bring back normalcy and calm to the day-to-day lives of the residents. It also mentions Rick Hayduk, the new manager, who earned a reputation for responsive, steady leadership. The chapter stresses how Hayduk established a cordial yet firmly organized approach in running the property in a very short time. It cites that the Brick Underground did an analysis to assess the twelve best landlords in Manhattan in 2017 and Stuy Town Property Management Services came as number one on the list.
A Fateful Rite of Passage
Authors: Howlett Zachary M.
Published: September 2021

This chapter explores the high-stakes of the Gaokao as test takers must cope with tremendous pressure since the exam is their only opportunity to achieve social mobility to change their fate or transform their destiny. It contextualizes the Gaokao culturally and historically and explains why it forms a fateful rite of passage. It also analyzes a parent's view of the Gaokao, which is seen as a chance for ordinary people to fight back against a corrupt and unequal world. The chapter explores the shared sentiment for the Gaokao as the only relatively fair competition in China, considering it as the cornerstone of meritocracy. It point out that meritocracy in relation to the Gaokao talks about society in which the ruling elite are selected on the basis of merit through open competition.
Introduction
Authors: O’Hanlon Michael E.
Published: September 2021

This chapter sketches out the characteristics of today's global security environment in a broad brush by describing the US Department of Defense. It focuses on the science of war, a subdiscipline of defense analysis that, beginning with a foundation of basic facts and figures about military organizations and operations, uses analytical methods to tackle key questions in the national security field. With this context, the chapter illustrates the analytical methods including simple computational algorithms for assessing military effectiveness and predicting combat outcomes. It also includes the study of defense budgets and economics, as well as efforts to understand the physics and technology of military weapons and operations today. The chapter then discusses many of the ABCs of the US armed forces. It explains the evolution of American grand strategy — the theory of the case for how the nation should ensure its safety, prosperity, and survival — that these forces are designed to undergird.
Defense Budgeting and Resource Allocation
Authors: O’Hanlon Michael E.
Published: September 2021

This chapter dissects the US defense budget, as well as various matters in the broader field of defense economics. It provides methodologies for understanding how different defense strategies and military force postures affect that budget. The chapter also explores various ways the defense budget can be categorized, broken down, and defined. It examines issues like military readiness — how the Department of Defense ensures that its forces are ready-to-go for crises that may emerge quickly. The chapter then looks into the economics of military bases, at home and abroad. It discusses military acquisition, modernization, and innovation. The chapter then shifts to the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) figures, and analyses how they provide the backbone of the cost estimates. It highlights the core of this section — understanding the costs of US Department of Defense's (DoD) force structure by type of unit. This is probably the core of defense budgeting methodology for those seeking to understand the fiscal implications of a given defense strategy and force structure. Ultimately, the chapter investigates how two different concepts of grand strategy and/or military policy might be translated into force structure, weapons acquisition, and budget plans.
Technological Change and Military Innovation
Authors: O’Hanlon Michael E.
Published: September 2021

This chapter examines various areas of defense technology, with a philosophy that might be described as “physics for poets.” The chapter provides information on the contemporary state of technology and projections for the future. It reviews broad trends across many areas of military technology, including cyber and artificial intelligence, as well as robotics, directed energy, and stealth. With a goal of making these important subjects accessible to a general audience, it suggests methods by which nonspecialists can make inroads into understanding them. The chapter surveys a wide range of military technologies, with a particular eye toward assessing whether collectively they can be used to revolutionize warfare in the coming years and decades. Ultimately, the chapter's category-by-category examination of military technology employs the same basic framework in the 2000 Technological Change and the Future of Warfare. The core of that book was an analysis of ongoing and likely future developments in various categories of military-related technologies.
Workers’ Health in the United States and Germany
Authors: Dutton Paul V.
Published: September 2021

This chapter explores the institutions and policies that influence the health of working-age Germans and Americans. Work (or the absence of paid work) is one of the most important determinants of health in advanced industrial societies. The nature of one's work differentially determines one's risk of unemployment, which is strongly linked to heightened rates of mortality and morbidity. Work also bears directly on health through potential exposure to toxic agents and other physical dangers. No less important are the psychosocial dimensions of the work environment. Substantial evidence links greater employee control of the workplace to better health outcomes. Conversely, a relative absence of worker power is detrimental to health. The development of employee participation in German firm management began in the 1920s, culminating in the Codetermination Law of 1976. That law mandates that workers' representatives fill half the supervisory board seats in all firms with more than two thousand employees. The chapter then considers the links between German workers' enhanced psychosocial work environments and their superior health status in comparison to their American counterparts.
Beyond Medicine
Authors: Dutton Paul V.
Published: September 2021

This concluding chapter explains that the preeminent challenge of US social reform today is to create a balanced health system that can meet the challenges of the twenty-first century. Policies will need to simultaneously encourage continued progress in biomedical curative care, assure universal access to it, and enhance the social and physical environments that are imperative for a healthy life. This book's comparative historical analysis reveals that purposeful state action in France, Germany, and Sweden helped to create balanced health systems that produce better population health outcomes than the United States. The chapter looks at the Health in All Policies (HIAP) movement. Rather than relying on health care systems to attenuate the negative social determinants on individuals, HIAP recognizes head-on that transformational improvement requires political power. The health impact assessment (HIA) plays a central role in the Health in All Policies approach. It informs policy makers and the greater public about how seemingly unrelated decisions outside the health field can affect health.
Victor of Liège and Tannenberg
Authors: Lockenour Jay
Published: September 2021

This chapter begins by discussing Erich Ludendorff’s early career and memoir, the only document containing information about his prewar life. It recounts Ludendorff’s time in Poland, in which he embarks on one brief tangent concerning the pernicious influence of the Catholic Church there, and makes occasional reference to a Masonic plot. The chapter then presents Ludendorff’s role as the section chief, a position of enormous responsibility, from 1908 until 1913. In this role, he oversaw the technical section of the General Staff and was responsible for modernizing Germany’s artillery, managing the army’s communications, and evaluating and incorporating new technologies such as automobiles and aircraft. The chapter also elaborates the details of the Schlieffen Plan and the issue of army enlargement. Ultimately, the chapter discusses how the twin victories at Liège and Tannenberg established Ludendorff’s reputation as a courageous officer and gifted operational commander.
Duelist
Authors: Lockenour Jay
Published: September 2021

This chapter explores Erich Ludendorff’s real political power and his participation in political intrigues. Ludendorff remained an important part of a symbolic and political struggle for influence in German political culture. He was notoriously combative and fought publicly with many notable Germans of the era, from a lingering wartime feud with Prince Rupprecht of Bavaria, to sparring matches with intellectuals such as Hans von Delbrück and Max Weber. The chapter then highlights Ludendorff’s most significant interaction with Paul von Hindenburg and Adolf Hitler. Ludendorff’s separate but related battles with Hindenburg and Hitler to have his narrative of the war and revolution prevail and to have his vision guide Germany’s future most determined his significance for German political culture. As it became one of Ludendorff’s many obsessions later in life to insist that he alone was responsible for the great victories at Liège and Tannenberg, the chapter explores how the battles became a metaphor for his promotion of German freedom through Deutsche Gotterkenntnis. Ultimately, the chapter discusses Ludendorff’s reputation as the victor of Tannenberg and his direct struggle with Paul von Hindenburg over its symbolic power.
Siegfried’s Death
Authors: Lockenour Jay
Published: September 2021

This chapter recounts the many legends surrounding former general Erich Ludendorff following his death. Headline after headline praised the Feldherr of the Great War. The chapter discusses the stories of Liège and Tannenberg in some detail and the coverage of his dismissal as the first quartermaster general in 1918, which reinforced the “stab in the back” legend that Ludendorff had originated. It explores his connection with Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (NSDAP), as well as Ludendorff’s historical significance. The chapter also analyses the coverage of foreign papers, such as The Manchester Guardian, The Times, The New York Times, the Paris Journal and Italian papers following Ludendorff’s death and the Feldherr’s willpower and energy at all stages of his life. Ultimately, the chapter assesses the impact of Ludendorff’s demise on the surviving members of the House of Ludendorff.
Our Changing Menu
Authors: Hoffmann Michael P. , Koplinka-Loehr Carrie , Eiseman Danielle L.
Published: September 2021

This book unpacks the increasingly complex relationships between food and climate change. Whether you're a chef, baker, distiller, restaurateur, or someone who simply enjoys a good pizza or drink, it's time to come to terms with how climate change is affecting our diverse and interwoven food system. The book offers an eye-opening journey through a complete menu of before-dinner drinks and salads; main courses and sides; and coffee and dessert. Along the way, the book examines the escalating changes occurring to the flavors of spices and teas, the yields of wheat, the vitamins in rice, and the price of vanilla. The story is rounded out with a primer on the global food system, the causes and impacts of climate change, and what we can all do. The book is a celebration of food and a call to action—encouraging readers to join with others from the common ground of food to help tackle the greatest challenge of our time.
Our Food Supply
Authors: Hoffmann Michael P. , Koplinka-Loehr Carrie , Eiseman Danielle L.
Published: September 2021

This chapter describes where the food we love and need comes from and how it gets to our table. The fresh vegetables we enjoy may come from a local farmers market, the grapes from California, tree nuts from Vietnam, coffee from Brazil, spices from India, and fish from the Bering Sea, to name a few. This global interconnected and interdependent food system that feeds us also provides 40 per cent of global employment and accounts for 10 per cent of consumer spending. But it faces increasing risks from a changing climate. With a global view of the food system as a foundation, the chapter then considers how the many changes in the climate are affecting plants, the basis of life. Plants require the right temperatures, water, soil, air, and sunlight. All of these requirements except sunlight are changing, with subtle to profound implications. The air now has more of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide, which means that most plants will grow faster and bigger, but any benefit will be offset by stress from increasing heat and drought. The chapter also looks at how the changing climate affects pests, pollinators, and the food supply chain.
Salads
Authors: Hoffmann Michael P. , Koplinka-Loehr Carrie , Eiseman Danielle L.
Published: September 2021

Whether you go for some mixed greens, a traditional Caesar, a classic iceberg wedge, or something of your own creation, the salad is a common way to start a meal. The crisp, tangy flavors stimulate the appetite. Of course, you can eat a salad at any point during the meal, or even ...
Farmers, Businesses, and Scientists
Authors: Hoffmann Michael P. , Koplinka-Loehr Carrie , Eiseman Danielle L.
Published: September 2021

This chapter explores key examples of the progress being made and work to be done in solving the challenges facing our menu. It begins with what farmers and ranchers are doing, such as climate-smart farming, conserving the soil, diversifying to reduce risks, and adopting new technologies. Those in the business of food are also changing to remain resilient and stay in business. And finally, scientists are developing hardier crops that tolerate the new stresses wrought by climate change. The chapter then considers what we can do. It is important to become informed, be climate-change literate, speak up about climate change and make it part of the regular dialogue, reduce food waste, switch to a more plant-based diet, and support those who stock the menu — fisher, farmer, and rancher.
Lakefront
Authors: Kearney Joseph D. , Merrill Thomas W.
Published: September 2021

How did Chicago, a city known for commerce, come to have such a splendid public waterfront — its most treasured asset? This book reveals a story of social, political, and legal conflict in which private and public rights have clashed repeatedly over time, only to produce, as a kind of miracle, a generally happy ending. The book's authors study the lakefront's evolution from the middle of the nineteenth century to the twenty-first. Their findings have significance for understanding not only Chicago's history but also the law's part in determining the future of significant urban resources such as waterfronts. The Chicago lakefront is where the American public trust doctrine, holding certain public resources off limits to private development, was born. The book describes the circumstances that gave rise to the doctrine and its fluctuating importance over time, and reveals how it was resurrected in the later twentieth century to become the primary principle for mediating clashes between public and private lakefront rights. The book compares the effectiveness of the public trust idea to other property doctrines, and assesses the role of the law as compared to more institutional developments, such as the emergence of sanitary commissions and park districts, in securing the protection of the lakefront for public uses. By charting its history, the book demonstrates that the lakefront's current status is in part a product of individuals and events unique to Chicago. But technological changes, and a transformation in social values in favor of recreational and preservationist uses, also have been critical. Throughout, the law, while also in a state of continual change, has played at least a supporting role.
Introduction
Authors: Kearney Joseph D. , Merrill Thomas W.
Published: September 2021

This chapter seeks to explain how Chicago came to have such a beautiful, well-tended, and publicly accessible lakefront — the city's most treasured asset. It discusses the exploration of legal sources which makes the study broadly relevant to those interested in environmental and urban history. The chapter also identifies what sort of legal regime will strike the right balance between public and private rights, arguing that private rights — such as the right of private landowners to sue to protect their view of the water — will do more to protect the interests of the general public than will more explicitly public remedies. The chapter sheds important light on the circumstances that gave rise to the doctrine on the Chicago lakefront, how the doctrine has performed in its original setting relative to other legal doctrines, how it was transformed in the twentieth century, and how its legacy in protecting public resources has been mixed, in both its original and its transformed versions. Ultimately, it highlights the importance of law and, in particular, legal property rights in the long-term development of an important resource like the lakefront.
The Lake Front Steal
Authors: Kearney Joseph D. , Merrill Thomas W.
Published: September 2021

This chapter analyses how the emergence of uncertainty about property rights can lead to great political and legal struggle. The chapter begins by narrating the construction of the Illinois Central Railroad along the shore of Lake Michigan in Chicago in the 1850s. It discusses the railroad's landfilling conflict — legal, political, and social — that vexed the lakefront in the ensuing years. The chapter unveils how it was also responsible for much of the configuration of the lakefront today. It investigates the owner of the submerged land and whether that owner had the authority to permit such landfilling. The chapter reveals that the primary motivation of the Illinois Central in 1869 was defensive — to prevent some other group from obtaining a grant of the lakefront for itself and thereby cutting off the railroad's access to it. Ultimately, the chapter reviews the important discussion of riparian property rights and explains some of the puzzling behavior of the City of Chicago and the Illinois Central in the arrangements allowing the railroad to enter along the lakefront in the 1850s. It then shifts on the drama over the lakefront that emerged in the 1860s and produced the “Lake Front Steal.”
South Lake Shore Drive and Bridging the River
Authors: Kearney Joseph D. , Merrill Thomas W.
Published: September 2021

This chapter tells the story of Lake Shore Drive on the South Side, including how it became one with its counterpart on the North Side. The chapter argues that the idea of south Lake Shore Drive, in a very general sense, can be traced to the World's Fair. It also discusses Edward O. Brown's boundary-line agreements, and its significance in the construction of south Lake Shore Drive, where they encountered a more formidable adversary: the Illinois Central Railroad. The chapter points out Illinois Central's environmental concerns, arguing that there was no guarantee the Illinois Central would electrify its lines. It might instead intensify the level of its operations on the South Side or provide trackage to other railroads, producing more smoke and soot for adjacent property owners. The chapter then shifts to discuss the impacts of the Depression and World War II on the Illinois Central's plans to capitalize on the air rights — the authority as a matter of property law to control space above the surface of land.
The Transformation of the Public Trust Doctrine
Authors: Kearney Joseph D. , Merrill Thomas W.
Published: September 2021

This chapter focuses on a remarkable rebirth of the public trust doctrine and traces the arc of its development on the Chicago lakefront in the twentieth century. It discusses how the public trust doctrine became the primary legal rubric for resolving controversies about what is permitted and forbidden on the lakefront. The chapter then asserts that the purpose of the doctrine has changed dramatically. It was originally to preserve public access to navigable waters, in order to allow the public to engage in commerce or fishing, then the focus changed with the environmental revolution in the 1970s. Today, the purpose is understood to be the preservation of public resources in the hands of public institutions. Ultimately, the chapter analyses how the doctrine became an antiprivatization doctrine for certain select categories of public property.
Conclusion
Authors: Kearney Joseph D. , Merrill Thomas W.
Published: September 2021

This chapter returns to the beginning of the book by seeking to explain how Chicago came to have the glorious lakefront we see today, with its parks, its Lake Shore Drive, its clean shoreline free of rotting docks and industrial facilities. It examines how Chicago, a city long dominated by private enterprise, ended up with such a relatively large quotient of public rights on its lakefront. The chapter then ventures to offer some thoughts to the questions, and recounts Chicago's specific factors like the absence of an outer harbor, the successful campaign of the Michigan Avenue property owners, the decision of the Illinois Supreme Court in the Revell cases to eliminate the common-law right of riparian owners to wharf out into the lake, and the creation of park districts as semiautonomous local government entities. It introduces some individuals such as Alonzo Mack, Ellis Chesbrough, Montgomery Ward, Daniel Burnham, Edward Brown and their influence on the Chicago lakefront. In emphasizing these Chicago-specific factors and the role of particular individuals, the chapter analyses the four broad categories of influence beyond the Chicago experience: the magnetic attraction of a large body of water such as Lake Michigan, the changing state of technology, the growth in the size and effectiveness of government institutions and the law.
What We Mean by the American Dream
Authors: Taussig Doron
Published: September 2021

This book invites us to question the American Dream. Did you earn what you have? Did everyone else? The American Dream is built on the idea that Americans end up roughly where we deserve to be in our working lives based on our efforts and abilities; in other words, the United States is supposed to be a meritocracy. When Americans think and talk about our lives, we grapple with this idea, asking how a person got to where he or she is and whether he or she earned it. This book tries to find out how we answer those questions. It investigates how we think about whether an individual deserves an opportunity, job, termination, paycheck, or fortune. The book looks into the fabric of American life to explore how various people, including dairy farmers, police officers, dancers, teachers, computer technicians, students, store clerks, the unemployed, homemakers, and even drug dealers got to where they are today and whether they earned it or not. The book's frank assessment of the state of the US workforce and its dreams allows the author to truly and meaningfully ask the question that underpins so many of our political debates and personal frustrations: Did you earn it? By doing so, the book sheds new light on what we mean by — and how we can deliver on — the American Dream of today.
Head Starts and Handicaps
Authors: Taussig Doron
Published: September 2021

This chapter considers the ways “everyday” (that is, not famous) Americans deal with circumstances such as structure and fortune in their stories. Americans are sometimes accused of not accounting for these factors in our understanding of success and failure. The chapter shows how Americans' assessments of advantage and disadvantage are not necessarily accurate. The chapter also observes how people attempt to account for and explain the role of external circumstances in their lives in order to evaluate their individual contributions. It elaborates the “principle of agency,” which holds that “we deserve X (on grounds of merit) on the basis of Z only if Z is the result of the exercise of some quality of ours, and possession of that quality is not caused by factors beyond our control.” The chapter then takes a look at the cultural mainstream under the rhetorical umbrella of “privilege” or “unearned advantage,” and analyses its implications for meritocracy and merit. Ultimately, it discusses the meaning of “enough,” depending on all kinds of subjectivities, motivations, and judgment calls.
Me, Myself, and I
Authors: Taussig Doron
Published: September 2021

This chapter examines our complex and sometimes contradictory notion of agency by asking which aspects of the interviewees' lives may considered to be under their control and which qualities they said make someone deserving. The chapter navigates our treatment of individual traits and behaviors, which the chapter divided into four very broad categories: innate abilities, effort, decisions, and morals. It discusses what roles we say they play in our success or failure, and whether and when we say these qualities deserve reward: in other words, the chapter navigates what specific qualities play the part of merit in our stories. The chapter asserts that the downplaying of talent in our stories is not consistent with how talent is treated in other aspects of American culture. It highlights the fact that the generally agreed-upon terms of what it takes to earn something in American culture are not very well developed or agreed upon, arguing that we exercise our agency by making choices, and we pay for deservedness with our most fundamental resources, our time and our comfort.
Merit without the -ocracy
Authors: Taussig Doron
Published: September 2021

This chapter explores the logic that seemed to guide interviewees' responses in the question: “Do Americans think they live in a meritocracy?” It looks at the conclusions we reach about what we have earned or deserve and the standards we use to reach them, arguing that the most common standard for deservedness Americans use is merit more than meritocracy. The chapter also details the interviewees' responses about American ideas of success, and notes that people evaluate success in the context of their parents' jobs and finances, the neighborhoods where they grew up, and the educational opportunities afforded them. The chapter asserts that our ideas about what it means to earn or deserve something are so flexible for two main reasons: the bigness of life and the subjectivity of experience, and the second reason for our flexibility is that in turning our lives into stories and asking whether we have done enough, we find ways to avoid using the standard of societal meritocracy to evaluate ourselves. Ultimately, the chapter notes that the absence of meritocracy does not preclude the possibility of individual deservedness being realized.
What’s Deserve Got to Do with It?
Authors: Taussig Doron
Published: September 2021

This chapter reveals that the storylines described in the section point toward a relationship with meritocracy that treats the concept not as an attainable ideal but as a flawed and unattainable guideline, with myriad exceptions and caveats. To challenge inequality and raise standards of living, the chapter suggests that stories and discourse about success and failure should focus less on pointing out the flawed execution of meritocracy and more on admitting that it is incoherent. The chapter gives emphasis on a fact that life is too complicated and arbitrary for merit to be reliably rewarded, and that what we accomplish has not much to do with what we deserve. The chapter also elaborates on what “Deserve's got not much to do with it” implies and evaluates the consequences of Americans' flexible, individualized, and narrativized idea of deservedness. Ultimately, it presents the narrative tweaks proposed in the concluding chapter, stating that they are not fixes to get us closer to meritocracy, but fixes to get us away from the delusion that we can be a meritocracy.
Germany Fails to Detach Japan, 1915–16
Authors: Crawford Timothy W.
Published: September 2021

This chapter discusses Germany's failed attempts during World War I to induce Japan to abandon the entente. Germany's primary levers in these efforts were offers to cede German territory in the Far East and Pacific that Japan had captured, to support Japan's ambitions for an enlarged sphere of control in the region (at the expense of Russia and Britain), and to construct rewarding postwar commercial and strategic relationships. Although Berlin's initiatives were encouraged by the Japanese government, they were never successful. The theoretical framework identifies two major reasons. In brief: Germany's alignment change goals were high, while its inducements were relatively weak, especially in the context of a bidding war over Japan's allegiance. Berlin's efforts enabled Tokyo to repeatedly convert German overtures into better bargains with its allies. Thus, Japan obtained from its existing alignment values that largely matched what Germany offered in exchange for a costly defection.
Britain and France Fail to Neutralize Italy, 1936–40
Authors: Crawford Timothy W.
Published: September 2021

This chapter assesses British and French efforts to prevent Italy from allying and fighting with Germany between 1937 and 1940. This case highlights the challenges of concerting accommodation. Throughout, British leaders believed that Italy had high strategic weight, and that they had reward power to influence its alignment. But they faced high alliance constraints. Britain could not decouple its relations with Italy from its relations with France, and not just British but also French concessions were needed to detach Italy. Together they controlled immediate rewards — material and symbolic — that Italy prized and could not obtain in other ways or without their assistance. Yet, London and Paris often disagreed about how to deal with Italy, due to divergent perceptions of Italy's strategic weight. Such frictions both hobbled their attempts to reach a bargain with Italy that would halt the trend of worsening relations that led to Italy's alliance with Germany in May of 1939 and abetted Adolf Hitler's decisions to plunge into war later that summer.
When Does Selective Accommodation Work?
Authors: Crawford Timothy W.
Published: September 2021

This chapter synthesizes the findings and addresses the question of what makes selective accommodation work, with cross-case comparisons that show the impact of conditions conducive to success. The theory situates selective accommodation in a larger bidding war over a target's alignment and thus implies that “realized” relative reward power is what determines outcomes. Process tracing in the cases confirms that perceptions of potential reward power are (along with high estimates of the target's strategic weight) a key driver of selective accommodation attempts. But it is also clear that dividers' perceptions of reward power potential are often not matched by outcomes. The theory helps to explain why, by specifying contingent conditions that promote success or failure by influencing the scope, viability, and relative competitiveness of reward power.
Selective Accommodation in Great Power Competition and U.S. Grand Strategy
Authors: Crawford Timothy W.
Published: September 2021

This chapter examines a pair of scenarios built around hinge points in current U.S. grand strategy. The scenarios envision surprising departures from current alignment trends and prevailing precepts in U.S. foreign policy. One explores how China might undermine the deepening Indo-American partnership by accommodating India. The other explores how the United States might short-circuit the emerging Russia–China alliance by accommodating Russia. These scenarios show how the book's theoretical constructs may describe and explain future developments. They also illuminate potential changes in great power politics that today's orthodoxies in U.S. grand strategy make hard to imagine, let alone think about carefully. The chapter then concludes with commentary for policy practitioners seeking to make selective accommodation work.
Many Secessionist Movements, One International System
Authors: Griffiths Ryan D.
Published: September 2021

This chapter focuses on the strategy and tactics of secessionist movements, and the game they play with states and the international community to win their sovereignty. The chapter provides a conceptual theoretical treatment of the sovereignty game. It assesses six identifiable kinds of movements: democratized, indigenous legal, weak combative, strong combative, decolonial, and de facto, through an analysis of all contemporary movements. The chapter brings together three research areas that are usually treated separately: the work on de facto states, the scholarship on secessionist political parties in advanced democracies, and the study of secessionist conflict. Ultimately, the chapter clarifies the behavior of diverse secessionist movements and accurately predicts the tactics they adopt. It focuses on what they do to achieve independence, which is a neglected area of research, and a vital one given that secessionist behavior is destabilizing and sometimes violent.
Catalonia
Authors: Griffiths Ryan D.
Published: September 2021

This chapter focuses on Catalonia, an exemplar of the democratized movement. Using a substantial number of interviews, the chapter discusses the tactics that the Catalan secessionists have used, and highlights the possibilities and limitations of a fully institutionalized movement. It argues that the Catalan secessionist movement is truly a public debate and much more likely in advanced democracies. Up close it can appear quite different from the efforts in West Papua, Bougainville, and Northern Cyprus, and yet they are playing the same strategic game insofar as they all need to work through the home state and enlist the international community. By this context, the chapter investigates how the democratized movement utilized the political apparatus of the state to achieve its ends — rather than resort to violence — and appeal to norms of democratic legitimacy. Ultimately, the chapter discusses the Catalan secessionist leadership's attempt to get external governments to apply pressure on Madrid to negotiate.
Bougainville
Authors: Griffiths Ryan D.
Published: September 2021

This chapter discusses Bougainville, an example of a strong combative movement, where there is greater symmetry between the capabilities of the two sides. Given the high price that Bougainville paid to win an autonomy agreement and legal referendum — roughly 20,000 people died in their ten-year civil war — the chapter presents another kind of cautionary tale. It offers a critique of the international recognition regime by showing how violence can be a useful tactic. The chapter shows Bougainville cannot make a persuasive argument that it, like New Caledonia, can and should achieve independence via the process of decolonization. It has therefore been relegated to the somewhat residual category of combative movements, where violence and the appeal to human rights are common tactics. The chapter then assumes that Bougainville is the most likely candidate for becoming the next sovereign state. Ultimately, the chapter illustrates the various factors that assisted Bougainville's development of secessionist drive and sense of national consciousness.
Northern Cyprus
Authors: Griffiths Ryan D.
Published: September 2021

This chapter tells the story of the independence effort in Northern Cyprus. It showcases the tactical options that are both available and unavailable to de facto state movements, and provides a cautionary tale for what happens when a secessionist region is separated from the rest of the state. The chapter discusses the tactics of the Northern Cypriots which are characterized by an inability to compel the home state using violence, nonviolence, and electoral capture, and then examines how they focused on defense, deterrence, and the keeping of the territory they possess instead. The chapter unveils how they demonstrated to the world that they are an empirical state that has earned sovereign recognition. It also investigates the calcified, frozen, and externalized conflict in Northern Cyprus, and assesses the impact of intricate diplomatic relations and geopolitical complexity. Ultimately, the chapter provides an illustration of how some independence movements, notably in the case of Northern Cyprus, are forced to play the sovereignty game. Although they have won their autonomy, their freedom, and their security, the victory is incomplete, as the Northern Cypriots know, because they are caught in a twilight state between reintegration and full statehood.