bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Resistance of Porcelain Enamels to Weathering
Authors: Moore Dwight G.
Published: August 2009

A study of the weather resistance of porcelain enamels has been under way at the National Bureau of Standards since 1939. A total of 768 1-ft-square panels are being exposed at four locations selected to represent temperate residential, temperate industrial, temperate salt-air, and semitropical residential. The results so far obtained show that most enamels are highly resistant to deterioration under the conditions existing at selected locations and, further, that those enamels that are not resistant can be eliminated prior to installation by simple laboratory tests. The results obtained from an inspection made after 7 years of exposure are given in the present paper.
The Chemical Resistance of Glass Fused to Steel
Authors: Sanpord E. A. , Britton O. J.
Published: August 2009

“Glassed steel,” or glass fused to steel, is often used as a material of construction for process equipment because of its wide range of chemical resistance. In order to make available specific data on chemical resistance of glassed steel, a large number of test results are reported in tabular form. Included are data and information on hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid at temperatures above 212 F. Specific instances where glassed steel is being used in severe services are cited. A novel design laboratory test unit for glassed steel, but adaptable to other coatings, is described for the first time. Other methods and equipment for laboratory and field tests are given. Reference is made to an acid-resistant glass with improved alkali resistance which has been thoroughly field tested and is now in production.
The Industrial Processing of High-Temperature Ceramic Coatings
Authors: Terry J. H.
Published: August 2009

The urgent need of the Air Force for protection of engine parts at very high temperatures presented a definite challenge to the protective coating industry. Techniques and processes built up through years of porcelain enameling were very useful but did not go far enough to produce the results desired. New ideas were essential to meet this challenge. It was immediately recognized that modification of conventional equipment was at best a stop-gap procedure. Design and construction were started on radically different facilities matched solely to the processing of high-temperature ceramic coatings. It became apparent at once that extreme care was essential in the handling of these coatings in every step of the production operations. The very thin coatings, the critical nature of metal preparation, the intricate design of the parts to be coated, and the perfection of finish that is necessary to withstand the high operational temperatures made it vital that every piece be treated with individual attention and care.
The Abrasion Resistance of Various Types of Porcelain Enamel
Authors: Sharon Arthur V.
Published: August 2009

The abrasion resistance of porcelain enamels is a property that has considerable significance to the users of protective finishes for metals. Since it is necessary to select the most suitable porcelain enamel for a specific application, it is desirable to know which type of enamel has the necessary abrasion resistance, whenever abrasion resistance is a property to be considered. In this study the types of enamels selected were those that have been employed on household appliances fabricated from sheet steel. Of the several recognized methods for measuring abrasion, the Taber abraser has probably received the greatest popularity because of its availability and ease of operation. This instrument was used to measure the abrasion resistance of the several types of porcelain enamels selected. The data obtained with this equipment under the conditions specified is relative within itself; it might be erroneous to compare it with that obtained, for example, on painted samples where the density of material and other factors are different.
The Resistance of Porcelain Enamels to Surface Abrasion as Determined by the PEI Test
Authors: Roberts John T.
Published: August 2009

Porcelain enamels by virtue of their hardness have good abrasion resistance; yet this fact is not generally recognized for two reasons. In the first place, the term abrasion has many interpretations. According to Webster, to abrade can mean to rub, to scrape, to grind, or to wear away by friction. A porcelain enamel might withstand satisfactorily one of these types of abrasion but not another and thus be wrongfully adjudged. In the second place, due to the lack of a universally accepted standard method of test for abrasion, the comparative resistances of various types of materials cannot be readily ascertained. At present, one cannot turn to property tables and compare enamels with plastics, paints, metals, glass, and the like. About two years ago, a task force of Subcommittee III on Test Methods and Specifications of ASTM Committee C-22 on Porcelain Enamel was appointed to make a study of abrasion and to evaluate as one possible method the test for Resistance of Porcelain Enamels to Surface Abrasion, a standard of the Porcelain Enamel Institute.
Torsion Testing as an Aid to the Porcelain Enamel Industry
Authors: Hoover E. L.
Published: August 2009

The torsion test is one of a series of some fourteen test methods that have been developed by the porcelain enamel industry through the Porcelain Enamel Institute (PEI), the Enameled Utensil Manufacturers Council, and ASTM Committee C-22 on Porcelain Enamel for the evaluation of finished porcelain enamel and ceramic coating surfaces. A complete discussion of the development of standard test methods in the industry and their application is obviously outside the scope of the present symposium even though such test methods are invaluable in the precise determination of the physical characteristics of the coatings and the evaluation thereof. It is felt, however, that the presentation of a case history showing the benefits derived through the application of one of these test methods would be valuable to the present program in calling attention to the existence of the standard test methods and demonstrating their industrial usefulness. The torsion test should serve as an admirable example. Not only can the advantages gained through the use of the test method be demonstrated but, at the same time, attention may be called to the fact that, although porcelain enamel and ceramic coatings are glassy in nature and therefore are normally considered by the casual observer to be extremely brittle, such coatings can be formulated and applied so that they will withstand a surprising amount of torsion. The torsion test was originally developed as a standard test method by the PEI as the result of a research program instituted in 1937 for the purpose of determining the cause of field failures due to the fracture of enameled surfaces. The program was designed (1) to determine the cause of the failures and (2) to develop standard test methods whereby the stresses giving rise to the failures could be duplicated and the strength of the coatings thereby determined. The research program was successful in first demonstrating that a large percentage of the failures in question were due to torsion rather than impact, as had been previously supposed, and in developing a test method that was tentatively adopted in 1941.
The Strengthening Effect of Porcelain Enamel on Sheet Iron as Indicated by Bending Tests
Authors: Bryant E. E.
Published: August 2009

Load-deflection data, obtained by loading an arm attached to a flat enameled sample, indicate (1) that the load supported, before exceeding the yield point, is greatly increased by the enamel applied on the compression side, although deflection at the yield point is not changed; (2) that enamel applied on the tension side produces a slight increase of load supported before exceeding the yield point, and a definite decrease in deflection with thick coatings as compared to thin coatings or uncoated iron; and (3) that the load and deflection changes with enamel on both sides of the iron are as predicted by combining results in (1) and (2) above. By this information, it is seen that porcelain enamel will produce a definite stiffening effect. There is very little increase in resistance to pure tensile stress when iron is coated with enamel. Strength is greatly increased with enamel under compression. Enamels normally in greatest compression (low expansion enamels) produce the greatest stiffening effect.
Tension Tests of Porcelain Enameled Steel
Authors: Deringer W. A.
Published: August 2009

When a porcelain enamel or glass coating is fused to a steel base, two materials of quite different natures are brought together. The metal base (usually low-carbon iron or steel) is a ductile, crystalline material with a relatively high modulus of elasticity, high tensile strength, and high percentage elongation before failure in tension. Glass, on the other hand, is amorphous and brittle; it has no yield point and a relatively low modulus of elasticity and low tensile strength in the massive form. It has a low percentage elongation before failure in tension. Glass has a high compressive strength compared to tensile strength in massive form (as contrasted to glass fibers which have high tensile strength), and when this property is used to good advantage glass can exhibit unusual resistance to stress and thermal shock. Recognizing that there is such a wide difference in physical properties between glass and steel, this investigation was carried out to study some of the tensile properties of glass coating or porcelain enamel coating on steel tension specimens, particularly to learn the relationship between the yield point of the steel and the stress and strain required to cause the porcelain enamel coating to crack.
A Laboratory Evaluation of Ceramic Coatings for High Temperature Applications
Authors: Ketcham Sara J.
Published: August 2009

A program to evaluate ceramic coatings currently available for use on stainless and low-alloy steels was established last year by the Bureau of Aeronautics, with the hope that some coatings had been developed that would possess resistance to thermal shock and protect the underlying metal from oxidation. Any coatings meeting these requirements would be considered for use in the exhaust systems of aircraft power plants. Companies that were interested in participating in the investigation were sent test specimens of AISI 321 stainless steel and AISI 4130 steel for application of suitable ceramic coatings. The coated specimens were then returned to the Naval Air Experimental Station for test and evaluation. Interest was specifically centered in determining three properties—resistance to thermal shock, protection against oxidation of the base metal, and adherence of coating to the metal. The 321 stainless steel specimens were to be tested at 1800 F, and the 4130 steel specimens were to be tested at 1200 F.
Introduction
Authors: Baker M. D.
Published: August 2009

The 1941 Symposium on Steam Quality marked the transition from determining the moisture in steam by measuring the temperature drop and reporting it in terms of percentage, to the determination of parts per million contamination and measuring it by conductivity instruments. Conductivity measurements with necessary corrections for dissolved gases had given most of the answers needed. With the introduction of higher pressures and higher steam temperature which resulted in the vaporization of dissolved solids in the boiler water, the need for a more sensitive and accurate measurement has been noted. Also the introduction of the once-through and the supercritical pressure boilers make obsolete the present methods for determining steam quality. The purpose of this symposium is to review present practices and introduce new techniques that will aid in obtaining the answer that is needed for the determination of steam purity in modern steam generators. The new techniques should give a more accurate picture of the solids that are vaporized as well as the solids that are carried over by mechanical means.
Construction and Operation of Larson-Lane Steam Purity and Condensate Analyzers
Authors: Sisson A. B. , Straub F. G. , Lane R. W.
Published: August 2009

Conductivity measurement (1, 2) to determine steam or condensate purity has been used extensively for many years in steam-electric generating stations and has been an excellent guide in many cases. However, with varying amounts of ammonia present in the steam-water cycle, evaluation has been difficult, particularly in steam of very low dissolved solids content. In the past, the calorimetric measurement of steam quality has provided important information; however in the modern plant, the calorimeter is not considered sufficiently sensitive, particularly at elevated pressures. Steam quality, as determined calorimetrically refers to the moisture content as H2O, whereas steam purity refers to ingredients other than H2O which may be present.
A Study of the Accuracy of Methods of Testing for Dissolved Oxygen in High-Purity Water
Authors: Stoffer K. G.
Published: August 2009

A study of the accuracy of several methods of testing for dissolved oxygen in high-purity water, was conducted under the sponsorship of the Dissolved Oxygen Subsection, Subcommittee IV, ASTM Committee D-19 on Industrial Water. The methods studied were the referee method of ASTM Method D 888 using both the potentiometric and dead-stop end point titrations, the Non-Referee Methods A and B of ASTM Method D 888, and the Schwartz-Gurney method employing both the starch and dead-stop titrations. The basis for the accuracy determinations was the metered addition of both aerated water and oxidizing and reducing interference into the deaerated boiler feedwater. All additions as well as the procurement of samples were made under a prescribed statistical plan. A statistical study of the data supplied by these tests and the effect of various anomalies of the test are discussed. Generally speaking, the study confirmed the assumed greater accuracy of the referee methods compared to the other procedures; however, because of the extreme difficulty of obtaining water samples of known dissolved oxygen content, the absolute accuracy of the methods could not be evaluated clearly.
Polarographic Measurement of Dissolved Oxygen
Authors: Eckenfelder W. Wesley , Burris Conrad T.
Published: August 2009

Polarographic techniques have been found to be generally applicable for the determination of dissolved oxygen. The operating voltage for any system is selected from a current-voltage curve. For most systems commonly encountered, 0.6v can be used. At the operating voltage the current is directly proportional to the oxygen content. Residual current is determined following a nitrogen purge of the solution. Calibration is accomplished by preparing a curve of diffusion current versus dissolved oxygen using a modified Winkler technique as a standard. The calibration can be checked on air saturated solutions whose dissolved oxygen content is known from handbook solubilities. Modified sampling and analytical techniques are described for dissolved oxygen and oxygen utilization measurements in the presence of biological sludges. A comparison of the polarographic method with chemical methods for several substances is presented. The effects of the impurities of peptone and castile soap on the oxygen polarogram and the polarographic method are discussed.
The Beckman Dissolved Oxygen Analyzer
Authors: Finnegan Thomas , Tucker Ross C.
Published: August 2009

In the Beckman dissolved oxygen analyzer the conductivity of a flowing sample of water is measured. To this water nitric oxide is added and its conductivity again measured. If the sample contains no oxygen, the conductivity is the same in both measurements, because the nitric oxide does not form an ion with the water but is present simply as a dissolved gas. If the water contains oxygen, some of the nitric oxide is oxidized to form nitrite ion and the conductivity of the second cell becomes higher than that of the first: 4NO+O2+2H2O→4H++4NO2− This increase in conductivity is expressed as dissolved oxygen. Since the constituents of the sample other than oxygen do not oxidize nitric oxide, the instrument is specific for dissolved oxygen. Figure 1 is a flow diagram of the analyzer. The sample passes through the first conductivity cell into the reaction column, where it comes in contact with nitric oxide. It then passes through the second conductivity cell, where the greater conductivity which results from the nitrite ion produced by the dissolved oxygen is measured. In order to eliminate interference from bases and buffer salts in the sample, it is passed through one of a pair of deionizing columns ahead of the first conductivity cell. This part of the process removes such interfering ions as sulfite and permits the determination of any residual oxygen that might be present in a sample of sulfite-treated water.
Determination of Dissolved Oxygen by Means of the Cambridge Analyzer
Authors: Grabowski H. A.
Published: August 2009

Steam pressure and temperature has increased rapidly and we are now engaged in consideration of problems in the supercritical field. This progress in the generation of steam could not be possible if water treatment and deaerating techniques were not refined to reduce deposits and corrosion on the heat-affected surfaces. Oxygen is a principal factor in the study of corrosion of metals in contact with water and its quantity must be closely monitored. The purpose of this paper is to describe the operation of and experience with an instrument used to analyze and record the dissolved oxygen of condensate and boiler feed-water. This instrument, the Cambridge Oxygen Analyzer, has a proven record in the field and is one of the principal control devices used in a boiler plant operating at higher pressures. The rise in steam pressure and temperature has been accompanied by an increase in boiler steam capacity. Today, units generating 2,000,000 lb of steam an hour are being designed for various utility systems. This progress has been necessary to meet the ever demanding reach for higher efficiencies. Kilowatt ratings per station operating employee have risen rapidly. The personnel to operate this equipment has been reduced to a minimum and the chemical control staff, in most instances, has been decreased in this economy of man-power. This condition necessitates the utilization of reliable analysis and control equipment to permit the engineer and the plant chemist an opportunity to operate effectively. The equipment to be considered in this presentation has been utilized by members of the Research Department of Combustion Engineering, Inc., for the past fourteen years. The comments relative to this apparatus are based on the practice gained in the field under various operating conditions.
Evaluation of Mineral Transformer Oil During Service. Part II: Correlation of Oil Characteristics with Continued Transformer Operation
Authors: Clark Frank M.
Published: August 2009

The susceptibility of mineral oil to oxidation under the conditions of its normal use in electrical apparatus has presented manufacturing and operating engineers with a continuing problem which has not been satisfactorily solved despite the widespread attention which it has attracted. Mineral oil is one of the basic insulating materials used in high-voltage electrical apparatus, such as power cables, switches, and transformers. Each application has its own specific problems concerning the proper selection of the base crude oil and the degree and type of refining best adapted for the manufacture of the most suitable product. It is with the laboratory evaluation of this product that the present series of papers is concerned. This evaluation is of two types. The first concerns the selection of the new and unused oil in order to insure that only the best quality will be selected for the application envisaged. The second type of evaluation concerns the examination of the oil during its actual use in the normal operation of the electrical equipment. The object is to insure against the development of a deteriorated oil whose continued presence would create an undue hazard to the future successful operation of the electrical machine. The present paper is primarily concerned with this second type of evaluation. Its specific object is to examine the possible value of those transformer oil tests which have been suggested for determining the quality of new and unused oils when applied to the problem of evaluating the chemical condition of the same oils during the normal operation of the transformer.
Industry's Viewpoint on Education in Materials
Authors: Wood Melvin F.
Published: August 2009

It is my pleasure and privilege to talk to you today from the common ground of interests in many areas. We in the process industries realize how much our success depends on a thorough knowledge of materials. In our purchases and in the sale of our products, we regularly encounter problems which depend for their solution on improved education in materials. Construction figures alone indicate the extent of our interest. Industrial building construction activity, even in the relatively less active year 1958, totaled almost two and a half billion dollars—one billion of which was for materials. Manufacturers spent an additional eleven and a half billion for new equipment. The nation's total expenditure for construction was $49 billion, and for durable production equipment, a further $23 billion. In maintenance, as well as in original installations, the materials dollar is an important one. Since World War II, wage rates in all areas have soared, placing even greater importance on proper selection of materials. For example, in the last ten years, the price index of prepared paint has increased 28 per cent, but painters' union wages in my home town of Wilmington, Delaware, have jumped 60 per cent. Obviously, it is increasingly important to pick the right kind of paint the first time—and for that, we look to a materials engineer.
Future Challenges of the Design Engineer to the Metals Engineer and Their Bearing on the Metals Engineer's Education
Authors: Warren Glenn B.
Published: August 2009

Although I have a little experience in the educational field, I am not an educator. I have had a great deal of experience in the design of high-duty machinery and much contact with the materials problems involved. When I was invited to speak, it seemed that my greatest service would be to attempt to organize and to present the challenges that the modern design engineer and his chief—the manager of industries dealing with high-duty machinery—are presenting daily to the metals engineers and to point out some of the areas in which they should have a greater understanding of each other's problems. We should then be able to draw some inferences as to the meaning of this in the education of the engineer who hopes to specialize in materials, whether or not those materials are limited to metals. It has become almost trite to say that on every side the mechanical engineer is limited by the materials with which he must work, but nevertheless it is true. At almost every turn, he must resort to ingenuity and subterfuge to develop the high-duty machines being demanded of him. He must use the best materials available at the time even though better ones may be available tomorrow. I think I can illustrate this best if I describe the four phases through which it seems the demands of the design engineer on the metals engineer run. Perhaps you will think these out of order, but with a little more discussion you will, I believe, see why I have grouped them so. 1. The design engineer needs materials to increase the reliability or life of existing machine designs. 2. He needs materials to permit an increase in the power, efficiency, and range of application of existing machine designs. 3. He needs materials and fabrication processes that will permit reduced costs or lower-cost designs to be made. 4. He needs new materials and concepts, and promises of these, to permit innovations—the building of new machines, devices, and processes never possible or dreamed of before.
Introduction
Authors: Simpson W. King
Published: August 2009

Since it had been some time since Technical Committee F of Committee D-2 on Petroleum Products and Lubricants had sponsored a symposium on diesel fuel, the advisory section of this committee met in Chicago on July 29, 1953, and outlined a program for a symposium that would cover all phases of the diesel fuel picture. A group of authors was selected on the basis of their qualifications to handle the subjects to be discussed. Eight papers were prepared covering the diesel fuel supply and demand outlook, the various problems associated with the procurement and usage of diesel fuels, as well as a review of the diesel fuel specification requirements which have been investigated by Technical Committee F. We believe that the men who gave generously of their time and effort in presenting their views on the diesel fuel situation have contributed to a more complete understanding of the problems that relate to better production, selection, and utilization of diesel fuels.
The Availability and Demand Outlook, Distribution, and Principal Properties of Domestic Diesel Fuels
Authors: Larson C. M.
Published: August 2009

The petroleum industry is vitally interested in the supply, demand, and distribution of diesel fuel oils, and through the American Petroleum Inst., the Bureau of Mines, and other sources, it keeps in contact with the ever increasing demand. Diesel fuel oil is middle distillate with a cultural background and in reality covers two quality grades—regular and premium. It is unfortunate that trade circles still use Diesel Index—generally 55 to 58 D.I.—as the dividing line instead of cetane number, ASTM Method D 613, or Calculated Cetane Index. A mixed outlook for potential diesel engine sales in 1954 is envisioned. New sales to railroads, highway transportation, and agriculture are expected to be lower in 1954 than in 1953. However, sales of diesel engines to general industry, to construction, mining, marine, and petroleum companies, and to municipal projects will be greater this year. Analysts foresee a good year ahead for the diesel industry. The five-year totals for the nine major categories covered are given in Table I. Since larger percentages of oil supplies are to come from areas outside of the United States, Fig. 1 is of interest since it shows the world petroleum demand and world petroleum supply, as well as the United States' position in this up- ward trend of supply and demand through 1956. Developments in global needs are dependent upon political as well as economic factors.
The Increasing Use of Furnace Oils for Diesel Fuel
Authors: Messick Harold V.
Published: August 2009

Prior to World War II practically all diesel engine manufacturers demanded, either in their specifications or in recommendations for diesel fuel, that (1) straight-run distillate should be used and (2) the product should have a cetane number of 50+ and a diesel index of 50 to 60. At the close of World War II, the pent-up demand for diesel power was released to the manufacturers of automotive, stationary, marine, and railroad diesel engines. As a result more new diesel engines went into use than at any previous time in our history. Each succeeding year saw a new record in diesel engine production. Even with full production, the backlog of orders continued to mount. The refinery faced the problem of meeting increased demand from the rapidly growing diesel engine industry and from the fast-developing domestic fuel oil market. Also, with the increased octane demand of motor gasoline, the virgin distillate which had supplied the diesel fuel market was needed as catalytic-cracking charge-stock for the production of high octane gasoline. For example, during the past five years the octane increase of approximately seven numbers required about twice as much catalytic-cracked gasoline, which in turn required twice as much catalytic-cracking charge-stock. By 1953 the total requirements of the diesel industry exceeded the available supply of straight-run distillates; the railroad diesel fuel requirement alone increased from one billion gallons in 1948 to over three billion gallons in 1953. All of these factors have caused more and more diesel operators to seek other fuels that are available and economical to use by the standards of today. Figure 1 indicates the transition to lower cetane fuels by one industry— the railroads. The trend in the railroad industry is generally representative of the changes in fuel specifications in other industries as well. The changes in railroad diesel requirements, cetane-wise, indicate the increased use of furnace oils. While this chart, based on sales to railroads, does not show the actual volume, it clearly defines the trend to No. 2 furnace oil for this use and probably is a fair indication of what is happening also in the marine and stationary diesel fields.
Technical Problems Associated with Diesel Fuels in Interstate Coach Operation
Authors: Duvall W. A.
Published: August 2009

The quality and availability of diesel fuel has so nearly kept pace with the development of the diesel engine in interstate coach service that one would almost be inclined to say that there were no problems. When one thinks back to the early years of the diesel engine in this type of service, it is impossible not to feel that the progress in the development of the two-cycle engine, and the evolution of specifications leading to present-day fuels, indicate that the development of the two must be closely related. Stuck valves, broken and burned pistons, and stuck and broken rings were some of the early problems most closely related to fuel. Of course, it is impossible to separate lubrication problems from the fuel in this type of failure. In fact, it is impossible to say that they were not sometimes related to the mechanical failures that so often occurred during the same period and which, because of their nature, could not be separated or definitely identified as being caused purely by one thing or another. In any case, the interstate coach services did elect to stay with the diesel engine through these early years, in spite of the problems attendant upon a nonmilitary operation in the midst of a major war. During those years, the oil suppliers always managed to supply the needs of these companies not only for diesel fuel but for gasoline as well; they supplied the best quality fuel that was at their command while keeping in mind, of course, that winning the war was the primary objective.
Diesel Fuels in Marine Operations
Authors: Habermann C. E.
Published: August 2009

There are a variety of diesel engines Used in marine service, ranging from small life boat and generator engines up to high horsepower, low-speed, main propulsion units having cylinder diameters of 30 in. or more. In a particular ship, moreover, several sizes of engines are generally used, one for propulsion, and others for the various auxiliary uses. In order to present a picture of the fuels in use, together with the trends and problems encountered, it is expedient to make some arbitrary grouping of the engines employed. Such a grouping, based on the rated revolutions per minute of the engines, is as follows: Group A—1200 rpm and higher. The group largely consists of “automotive” type, high-speed engines for auxiliary uses, as well as main propulsion on small craft. Group B—700 to 1200 rpm. This group consists of engines of intermediate horsepower range used for propulsion as well as auxiliary services. Group C—365 to 700 rpm. This group includes large auxiliaries as well as main propulsion units of intermediate horsepower range. Group D—365 rpm and lower. Most of the main propulsion engines of deep sea vessels fall in this category. Some large auxiliaries also fall in this category. In considering the fuels employed in marine service, one finds a variety of names being used to describe products available at various ports aud bunkering points. However, taken generally the fuels may be placed into four categories as follows: Type I—A light distillate material similar to ASTM Grade No. 1-D classification. Type II—A distillate of about the characteristics of ASTM Grade No. 2-D. Type III—A heavy distillate, or blend of distillate, with some residual material. Type IV—Various blends of residual with distillate material, generally classed as light bunker fuel oils. Also included in this group are the heavy bunker fuel oils commonly called Bunker C, or boiler fuel. Some measure of the characteristics of types II and III fuels is shown in Table I. Samples of mam engine fuel, taken from ships arriving in the port of New York, show the characteristics for a representative number from the survey. These fuels were obtained at a variety of ports over the world. Incidentally since all of these ships carried only one fuel, the auxiliaries also operated with the fuel shown. Lifeboat engines and the emergency generators had their own supplies of either a type I or type II fuel.
A Survey of Portland Cement Specifications of the United States of America
Authors: Gilliland J. L.
Published: August 2009

The AASHO and Federal portland cement specifications, although written by consumer organizations, do not differ significantly from the ASTM specifications. This is due to overlapping memberships, and to effective liasion among the responsible groups. Where differences in limits or methods exist, the manufacturer must consider that the AASHO or Federal cements are equivalent to separate types.
Bleeding of Cement: Its Significance in Concrete
Authors: Mardulier F. J.
Published: August 2009

Bleeding described as the separation of water from a concrete mix due to gravitational settlement of the solid materials was recognized many years ago as a form of segregation, the excessive occurrence of which leads to laitance, green shrinkage, sand streaking, non-uniformity of strength, water gain voids under aggregate with consequent increased transverse permeability and cold weak joints between successive courses of placed concrete. Later it came to be recognized that reasonable amounts of bleeding could be desirable, particularly with regard to the placement of concrete slabs or pavements in hot, dry, and windy weather. Bleeding rate and total bleeding, the latter referred to as bleeding capacity in ASTM Standard Method of Test for Bleeding of Cement Pastes and Mortars (C 243), are affected by several factors (1)1 type, fineness and setting characteristics of the cement, (2) amount of grading of the sand, particularly the −100 mesh fraction, (3) grading of the coarse aggregate, (4) water/cement ratio (5) cement factor and (6) the atmospheric conditions of concrete placement. Fundamentally, established is the fact that the ability of any solids/water mixture to retain its mixing water is directly related to the total surface area of the solid matter and the viscosity of the liquid phase. This ASTM standard is an adaptation of the carbon tetrachloride method developed by Valore, Bowling, and Elaine of the National Bureau of Standards and was originally intended to serve as a cement performance test which would make possible the elimination of fineness limits on cement. However, the Workability Subcommittee eventually came to recognize that (1) correlation between cement bleeding characteristics was impossible of attainment because of the many factors, including job factors, which control bleeding of concrete in the field and (2) even if correlation were established, realistic limits on bleeding rate and capacity could not be set because variable job and mix conditions, particularly atmospheric, vary the requirements for bleeding or its limitation. For these reasons, C 243 has been retained as a research method without limits.
Asphalt Content by Neutron Moderation
Authors: Steele J. H. , Fisher C. P.
Published: August 2009

The neutron moderation method of asphalt content determination is investigated by evaluating the effects of temperature of the mix, mass specific gravity of the sample, asphalt source, penetration grade of the asphalt, aggregate composition and gradation, and asphalt content of the mixture on the response of an experimental asphalt content gauge. Asphalt content and mass specific gravity each showed a strong linear correlation with counting rate in the range of 2 to 10 percent asphalt content and mass specific gravity of 1.25 to 1.50. The other variables showed no significant effect on gauge response.
The Use of a Nuclear Asphalt Content Gauge
Authors: Hughes C. S.
Published: August 2009

Nuclear gauges for the express purpose of measuring the asphalt content of bituminous mixes are now commercially available. The purposes of this study were to determine the precision of a Troxler AC-200 asphalt content gauge and to evaluate its accuracy under such variables as aggregate type and gradation, and asphalt content, type, and penetration grade. A total of forty-four mixes were investigated. Linear regression analyses were performed on each aggregate from the first 36 mixes and on the pooled data of all aggregates. The high correlation coefficients found demonstrate the potentialities of the nuclear gauge for measuring asphalt content. The magnitudes of the standard errors indicate that there are still problems that have to be resolved. The results of the regression indicate that a calibration curve should be obtained for each aggregate. However, gradation does not appear to influence the results significantly. The question of the influence of producers and penetration of asphalt was not resolved. Several mixes were also extracted by the refluxmethod, and these data show a bias as compared to the “input” values. The tentative conclusions are that the nuclear gauge at this state offers a potentially rapid and accurate method for determining asphalt content, but that a gauge redesign, which is now in progress, should improve the accuracy.
Introduction
Authors: Holtz W. G.
Published: August 2009

It has often been said that, although man has built structures of and on soils since the earliest time, we probably know less about the structural properties of soils than of any other engineering materials. When thinking in terms of soil stability we can carry this axiom further by saying that we probably know less about the shear properties than any of the other properties of soils used in present-day design. Subcommittee R-5C on Methods of Testing Soils Under Triaxial Loading of ASTM Committee D-18 on Soils for Engineering Purposes has realized that the standardization of a triaxial shear test for soils may take many years because of the varied concepts in this phase of soil mechanics and foundation engineering. The subcommittee has, therefore, devoted much time to discussions of the various concepts in use today and to the testing equipment and procedures used by various soils laboratories throughout the United States. It accordingly sponsored the Symposium on Testing Soils Under Triaxial Loading, at the 1950 Annual Meeting designed to bring out some of the current thinking on these subjects. A similar symposium was held during the Annual Meeting of the Society in 1939. A comparison of the papers in the two symposiums shows that, although there have been some changes in thinking during the past eleven years, a great deal of research work still lies ahead of those interested in the subject. Because of the close similarity of problems involved in testing both soils and bituminous paving materials under triaxial loading, several papers presented in this symposium cover both the use of the triaxial test in the design of soil subgrades and bituminous mixes for highway work. In addition. three interesting papers on the applications of the triaxial test to bituminous mixtures, presented at the Society's First Pacific Area National Meeting, San Francisco, Calif., October 10, 1949, are included in this special publication. These papers were prepared by members of the Triaxial Institute, an informal group of West Coast engineers, who are also members of subcommittee B-2 of ASTM Committee D-4 on Road and Paving Materials.
Application of the Triaxial Test to Bituminous Mixtures California Research Corporation Method
Authors: Smith V. R.
Published: August 2009

This paper outlines the theoretical and mathematical considerations underlying the development of the closed-system triaxial compression test described in the Appendix. Criteria for rating the suitability of bituminous paving mixes for various traffic conditions are presented. As the result of several years' experience in the use of this testing procedure, it is recommended for design of all mixed-type bituminous surfaces.
Triaxial Design Correlated with Flexible Pavement Performance in Kansas
Authors: Worley H. E.
Published: August 2009

This paper is intended to cover thoroughly the application of triaxial testing to flexible pavement design. Methods and procedures of sampling are not described in detail except as necessary in showing preparation for testing. A comprehensive discussion of test data and field performance is included. A less detailed explanation is given for the use of test data in regard to foundations, slopes, evaluation of materials for bases and surfaces, and subgrades for rigid pavements. The State Highway Commission of Kansas has been one of the pioneers in the field of triaxial testing, having begun their work in 1940. This method has been used to design flexible pavements over a wide variety of subgrades since 1945. The 375 miles which have been built to serve diversified traffic have performed successfully under varying climatic conditions. Over 14,000 triaxial tests have been conducted in Kansas. Several hundred miles of flexible pavement were constructed in which this method was not used for design. Their condition has been correlated with the theoretical requirements as shown by the triaxial design method. Wide variations in the type and condition of subgrade, volume of traffic, amount of rainfall, and type and thickness of base course and wearing surface were included in this study. The required thicknesses of base course and wearing surface as determined by this method of test procedure and design consistently parallel the thicknesses which have given satisfactory service for several years.
Shear Testing at the Waterways Experiment Station
Authors: Johnson Stanley J.
Published: August 2009

This paper reviews the types of shear tests normally performed by the Soils Laboratory of the Waterways Experiment Station, Corps of Engineers, in connection with problems of a practical nature. During the years 1940 to 1944 the Corps of Engineers sponsored a cooperative research project with Harvard University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and the Waterways Experiment Station as participating laboratories. The work at Harvard University was under the direction of Arthur Casagrande, that at M.I.T. under the direction of Donald W. Taylor. The results of this program and of the various reports prepared by the cooperating agencies were reviewed by P. C. Rutledge, Northwestern University, and published in a progress report entitled “Soil Mechanics Fact Finding Survey, Triaxial Shear Research and Pressure Distribution Studies on Soils.” This report, published in April 1947 by the Waterways Experiment Station, and the individual reports referred to therein, together with certain practices developed at the Waterways Experiment Station since that time in testing compacted soils, form the basis for shear testing at the Soils Laboratory of the Waterways Experiment Station.
A Triaxial Shear Investigation on a Partially Saturated Soil
Authors: Taylor Donald W.
Published: August 2009

Investigations of shearing strengths of the soils from the site of a model flood-wall in the vicinity of Cincinnati, Ohio, were made in 1949 in the Soil Mechanics Laboratory of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. This investigation was carried out under the supervision of the author, for the Ohio River Division of the Corps of Engineers, Department of the Army. Certain testing procedures that have not previously been published were used in this program, the most important being multiple-stage tests for determining the effect of applied pressure on partially saturated soil, and the aim of this paper is to outline the more important steps of the shear investigations of this project. The shear tests of this investigation were triaxial tests on samples 2.8 in. in diameter and about 6.5 in. in length, conducted at an essentially constant speed of axial compression, with no changes of water content permitted during shear and with pore-water pressures measured throughout all tests. This testing method has been accepted for several years as a standard procedure in the M. I. T. laboratory, and for testing details reference is made to other reports (1). The soil was a silty-clay of low plasticity. Undisturbed samples were taken from a test pit by the Ohio River Division laboratory staff at the seven depths shown in Fig. 1. The Atterberg limit and natural water content data at the left in this figure indicate that the nature of the soil does not vary with depth to any great degree, but the other curves show that the maximum past pressure (sometimes called the preconsolidation pressure) varies considerably with depth, and that the degree of saturation varies from about 90 per cent at the shallower depths to 100 per cent at the larger depths. Thus it is seen that the shearing strength must be recognized to be a function of depth.
Shear Characteristics of Remolded Earth Materials
Authors: Wagner A. A.
Published: August 2009

The shearing characteristics of several earth materials remolded and placed at different densities and moistures are presented in this paper. The shearing strengths were determined by the triaxial method and the results were analyzed by a failure criterion known as the “maximum principle stress ratio.” Although the entire research program has been planned to include tests at several density and moisture conditions on materials ranging from sand to fairly plastic clays, only a portion of this comprehensive program has been completed. The results of triaxial shear tests completed to date are Dresented in this paper.
The Importance of Natural Controlling Conditions upon Triaxial Compression Test Conditions
Authors: Burmister Donald M.
Published: August 2009

The scientific approach to the study and analysis of the problems encountered in foundation and earthwork engineering not only requires a thorough knowledge and understanding of the behavior characteristics of soils under stress but also a recognition and comprehension of the nature and importance of the controlling conditions inherent in natural situations and imposed by structures and by construction practices, which may dominate and control the actual behavior of soils. These problems may be divided into two broad categories as to their essential nature: 1. Foundations for structures in which the supporting value and the load-settlement characteristics of the soils are or major interest, and 2. Stability problems of natural and excavated slopes, compacted earth embankments, heavily loaded foundation units and retaining structures, in which the stress and deformation conditions leading to failure and the ultimate strength of a soil mass to resist failure are of major concern. This paper is concerned with certain basic principles and concepts for the direct application of the stress-strain relations obtained from triaxial compression tests under controlled test conditions to foundation and stability problems.