bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Persian Gulf: British Withdrawal and Western Security
Authors: Hurewitz J.C.
Published: March 2007

When the British government in January 1968 announced that it would withdraw from the Persian Gulf before the end of 1971, American security planners on the Middle East became uneasy. In their view, the central struc ture of the Western security system east of Suez would be dismantled at a time when the United States could not replace it adequately. The primary anxiety was to protect the Gulf sources of oil supply for Western security, industry, and international-payments balances. Britain's last-minute patch work designed to knit the shaykhdoms together in a durable union seem less promising, given the endemic territorial dis putes from which no riparian state is exempt, than Anglo- American efforts to erect a stable regional system in the Gulf. The paper, written so soon after the British pull-out, rests on an assessment of the structure that has now largely been taken down. For the time being Iranian military build-up in the Gulf enjoys Western support. The continued token American naval presence at Bahrain and the residual token British pres ence in the sultanate of Oman offer limited reassurance against possible Soviet attempts to establish a naval anchorage in the Gulf. The old system, undeniably, has gone. The new has not yet taken firm shape. At this stage, it is best not to project the outcome, but to keep one's fingers crossed.
The Internationalization of Business
Authors: Fayerweather John
Published: March 2007

The multinational firm which has evolved as the central institution in the tremendous postwar expansion of international business has two basic roles: transmission of resources, especially technological and managerial skills; and organization of unified multi-nation economic activities, notably in fields where there are advantages from the global integration of research and development, logistics, and financing. In pursuit of these roles the multinational firm encounters fundamental obstacles in nationalism and the structure of the nation-state. Nationalistic resistance to outsiders is aroused by the multinational firm which penetrates host nations, exercising control and extracting profits. Its global approach to economic decisions is often at odds with the nation-oriented criteria of governments. Furthermore, its control of critical economic elements, notably technology and investment, weakens the ability of elites to control their own national affairs. Despite these obstacles the multinational firm has expanded steadily because of the basic values of its economic contributions. It seems likely that this progress will continue with a gradual evolution of effective accommodation with nationalism and the nation-state even though there may be periods of greater tension along the way.
The Internationalized Corporation: An Executive's View
Authors: Clausen A.W.
Published: March 2007

Rapid and extensive internationalization of business is perhaps the single most important trend in modern commerce. Decentralization of worldwide political power—the waning influence of the United States and the Soviet Union relative to the growing importance of new nations and area groupings, plus the emergence of innovative international economic instruments—is stimulating the international business environment. In addition, the modern revolution in communications and transportation is facilitating the spread of business and enhancing prospects for improved cooperation. A continuing struggle is evident in efforts to reconcile the ways of the international firm with the often disruptive political and economic policies of the nations in which it attempts to operate. Internationalization of all factors of corporate operation can be seen as a basic step toward ameliorating this situation. Forces now at work make it probable that the number of firms operating internationally will increase significantly in the near future. It is also apparent that more medium-sized firms will join the ranks of the multinationals, more will have non-U.S. bases, and more will operate in the service sector. Eventually, truly world-oriented corporations with world-oriented incentives will evolve. These are foreseen as an effective force not only for better cooperation in the business world, but also as a force for peace among nations.
Trade Unions and the Challenge of the Multinational Corporation
Authors: Blake David H.
Published: March 2007

Of crucial importance to any corporation is the relationship between management and its employees and their trade union representatives, and thus it is not surprising that the internationalization of management through the multinational corporation has had important consequences for industrial relations in general and trade union strategies in particular. This article identifies several dimensions of the internationalization of employment and then examines the concerns of host country and parent country union leaders with respect to multinational enterprises. A number of advantages accruing to the firms as a result of their multinational nature are discussed in the light of the single-state orientation of national unions. To counteract the strength of these enterprises, national, regional, and international union organizations have developed a number of new institutional structures and strategic thrusts. Union strengthening, legal regulation, and cross-national cooperative activities are explored as they occur at each level of the union movement, and it is suggested that international and regional industrial union organizations are stimulating international union collaboration with respect to specific multinational enterprises. However, the central role of the national unions combined with their single-nation orientation will in some cases retard the development of an international union bargaining capability.
The Developing Countries, Development, and the Multinational Corporation
Authors: Robinson Richard D.
Published: March 2007

The point of departure is an explicit discussion of the nature of nationalism in terms of resource allocational priorities. For a variety of reasons the priorities differ from nation to nation. In that the penetration by an alien firm always requires the commitment of local resources, conflict is possible. The corporation's overall profit-maximizing objective pushes in the direction of centralizing control external to the host country, which in fact also causes conflict. It is suggested that a time limit on foreign ownership may be an appropriate response, as may be a higher level of sophistication with respect to environmental analysis on the part of the foreign corporation. Given the instabilities built into the multinational firm, two possible future scenarios are seen: (1) the transnational firm—a multinational corporation that is owned and managed multinationally—and (2) the multinational or transnational association—a corporation linked internationally essentially by contract. The latter is seen as possibly serving the best interests of the less developed countries.
The International Economic System and the Multinational Corporation
Authors: Krause Lawrence B.
Published: March 2007

The multinational corporation (MNC) is neither a new development in the world economy nor an unknown phenomenon in economic history, but its effect on the international economic system is truly revolutionary. The growing size and volume of international transactions undertaken by MNCs are already overwhelming the more traditional forms of international trade and capital flows for many countries. This is causing changes in the location and organizational structure of business activity and is raising public policy issues with which governments have not adequately dealt. MNCs have proven a mixed blessing. As technological leaders, MNCs help to diffuse management, production, and marketing techniques throughout the world. Nurtured by the growing integration of world product and capital markets, MNCs contribute to the further integration of the world economy. This trend reduces the distortions erected by man and nature, but places stresses on the international monetary system and on the efficacy of domestic economic policies. At present, the institutional framework of the international system is unequipped to contend with many of the jurisdictional problems created by MNCs, including excessive market power, distribution of tax revenues, and threats to national sovereignty. Policies are needed to ensure a competitive environment and to reconcile the activity of multinational corporations with national interests and welfare.
The Multinational Corporation and the Future International System
Authors: Alger Chadwick F.
Published: March 2007

It has been asserted that the multinational corporation is an instrument for peace and will spur an era of international government. These claims must be viewed in the light of other changes taking place in the international system, particularly tendencies toward regionalism and increasing conflict between rich and poor nations. Multinational corporations, with headquarters in a few rich countries and directed by nationals of these countries, will increasingly be perceived as neo-colonial activities. Response to the multinational corporation, and other tendencies in the international system, make it likely that the future international system will be composed of large regional states, with increasing bipolarization between rich and poor regions. The major countervailing force, global, functional, intergovernmental organizations, will probably not be able to prevent this trend because of the unwillingness of the rich superpowers to permit these organizations to be responsive to the demands of the less developed countries. The greatest contribution of the multinational corporations may be their demonstration of the potential of nongovernmental international activity as a challenge to the intergovernmental system. Might new nongovernmental international movements be formed that cut across the widening rich-poor gap? If this bipolarization is to be checked, these new nongovernmental movements, intergovernmental agencies, and multinational corporations must build more symmetric organizations that permit full participation by interests in the less developed nations and are responsive to their needs.
Multinational Enterprises and Prospects for Regional and Global Political Integration
Authors: Nye J.S.
Published: March 2007

Multinational enterprises are potentially important forces for regional integration. At the same time, however, extra-regional enterprises may weaken some integrative process forces—primarily ones concerned with identity—and worsen some conditions for integration—primarily those related to distributive equity. Thus projections must be made case by case. The large number of variables makes projection about global integration hazardous. Three simple models represent the approaches taken by various authors, but thus far there is only slight evidence for the validity of any of the models. Moreover, the models are applicable primarily to developed market economy countries. If multinational enterprises are bringing global political integration, it is far from being a universal process.
An Overview: Sensitivities of Compulsive and Planned Change
Authors: Mott George Fox
Published: March 2007

Although the correlation between change and planning is often negative, the subjects of planning and change command a growing public awareness. In consequence, planning as a professional activity has gained increased status. The social planner—the urban, regional, systems planner—is finding it necessary to become familiar with many disciplines. The successful planner must see the broad picture, and in addition to his own area of specialization, he must reach out to synthesize all available data on human social processes. The routine departmentalized approach to planning for change has not worked and will not work in designing for better man-nature relationships and manageable institutions. In the end, the planning syndrome, that is, the accretion of many kinds of knowledge to the objective of socio-economic and political planning, may solve our urban and other human crises.
Urban Violence—The Pattern of Disorder
Authors: Coates Joseph F.
Published: March 2007

This paper presents some general background information on the present status of violence and its impacts on the criminal justice system, giving particular emphasis to day-to-day crime and mass behavior. The paper emphasizes structural factors in our society with regard to the generation and control of violence and the implications they have for structural rather than short-term palliative or counterforce solutions. The need for an experimental approach and the development of new knowledge is emphasized. Among the long-term structural changes in the U.S. society influencing urban crime are the homogenization of U.S. society; the pervasiveness of inexpensive transportation and communication facilities; continuing urbanization; and the general trend toward middle-class status and attitudes for all citizens. Economic prosperity and the related growth of knowledge-based industries have strong implications for long-term patterns of crime and disorder. Institutional barriers to effective change within and outside the criminal justice community are touched on. Responses within that system are discussed.
Small Cities Can Help to Revitalize Rural Areas
Authors: Wrigley Robert L.
Published: March 2007

In recent decades the United States increasingly has experienced an unbalanced pattern of settlement. The nation's population has become proportionally more and more concentrated into a relatively few large metropolitan areas. Rural areas have lost population as the number of jobs in farming and other activities declined. Thus, at the same time that urban congestion has aggravated big-city problems, many rural areas are stagnating with high unemployment. This paper is concerned with the possibility of achieving a more balanced national distribution of population in the future through the revitalization of rural areas. It is suggested that: (1) rural development activities be focused on those "small cities"—places of ten thousand to fifty thousand population—that have locational and other assets on which to build, and (2) the basic unit for planning and action be multi-county "districts." Several federal agencies are now using this district approach, in cooperation with the states, after finding smaller—county—units too limited in scope. Although major rural revitalization on a national scale would require large amounts of public and private investment, it is believed that much can be accomplished, even with present funding, by closer cooperation of government agencies and by recognition of the crucial role of the small cities.
The Impact of Urbanization on Agricultural Processes
Authors: Winfield Gerald F.
Published: March 2007

The relationship between urbanization and agriculture is examined. With heavy migrations from rural to urban areas in the United States, there have been significant changes in land utilization. Land converted to urban uses is increasing, though it has little effect on total crop production. The technological transformation of agriculture has had much larger effects and has operated as a push-pull on the cityward movement of people as farm functions have moved to the city. Energy and chemical fertilizers now come from urban bases, with large numbers of urban people working for farmers. Yields per acre and per farm worker have risen sharply so that needs for agricultural products are fully met. Urbanization and rising buying power have moved Americans up the food chain. The demand for expensive animal products grows. These forces have resulted in a dramatic escalation of solid waste production in cities and on farms. Urbanization and transformed agriculture have exploded the organic matter cycle. The nitrogen thrown away in farm and urban organic wastes in the United States each year equals 137 percent of the nitrogen in all chemical fertilizers. In contrast, China keeps her organic matter cycle intact and feeds a population four times as large as ours on an equal cultivated area. Future planning must meet the challenge of wasteful land utilization, the overshift of population to cities, and the problems of restoring the organic matter cycle.
Ecology and Economics—Partners for Productivity
Authors: Bandurski Bruce Lord
Published: March 2007

Energy from which power is derived to maintain human settlements is identified. The interconnectedness of mankind's endeavors and urban growth makes an interdisciplinary approach necessary and suggests greater lay participation in environmental management. The common denominator "energy" is scrutinized for the equity of its distribution since it is a master parameter for concerted effort toward enhancing lifestyle options. Two realms of investigation dealing with ecospheric dynamics—ecology and economics—are fused to demonstrate their capacity for taking into account most inputs and outputs, whether local or global. The necessity of bringing mankind's laws into line with natural law is stressed as an initial step by planning for viable and rewarding lifestyles. Humane values such as stability—physiological, psychological, and sociological homeostasis—diversity of opportunity, and freedom of choice are shown to be guaranteed by going along with rather than contravening our ecosystem's naturally antientropic tendencies. High productivity—maximal realization of benefits for each unit of energy input—may be the reward for aligning most of humanity's developments so that ecology and economics are natural partners for productivity.
Urbanization and Asian Lifestyles
Authors: Ham Euiyoung
Published: March 2007

Nations of Asia, predominately made up of villages with rural life more the norm than city life, have been changing into lands of cities. The uniqueness of this urban growth in Asia is the universality of its nature and accelerated pace, caused primarily by the explosive increase of population and its shifts into cities. As a result, the immediate consequence of population concentration in Asian big cities in particular, without an adequate base of industrial and urban economies, is the inevitable deterioration of human environment, which affects the lifestyles of families and individuals in cities and rural villages as well. In other words, the patterns of life that provided for the orderly handling of many matters have to be compromised or shattered altogether. It must be recognized, however, that the urbanization process in Asian cities is playing a dynamic role, demonstrating a new spirit in the development of the urban community as well as in the process of modernization of a nation itself. Asian leaders are now convinced that planned urban growth, including the improvement of human environment, is a necessary condition for both a balanced economic growth and a new quality of life.
Planning Solutions Aided by Management and Systems Technology
Authors: Thompson Charles W.N. , Rath Ustave J.
Published: March 2007

Urban change is an extreme example of the proverbial product of a committee—most of the changes cannot be attributed to formal or organized planning. Planners who are trying to introduce a more orderly future, to correct present problems, and minimize future ones, must call upon all the skills of man—and perhaps, more—and it is unfortunate that planners are divided, in C. P. Snow's sense, into two cultures which little understand one another. The contribution of technology to planning solutions has its greatest potential and its severest limitations in the emphasis upon formal models, and analysis and evaluation based largely on quantitative techniques. The understanding of these methods, and the combining of them with other methods of planning, will provide the "optimal" solution.
The Promise of Nuclear Energy
Authors: Ramey James T.
Published: March 2007

Nuclear energy offers important benefits in helping to meet the nation's future energy needs: it helps con serve other fuels for purposes for which they are uniquely suited; it provides a competitive source of energy with costs which do not vary appreciably with location; it significantly reduces the problem of air pollution and has other important environmental advantages; it is a positive element in our foreign trade; and it provides freedom from overreliance on foreign energy sources. While coal, oil and gas are projected to continue sharing in the growth of the energy market, nuclear energy can, and must, make a vital contribution towards meeting our future energy requirements in a safe and environmentally acceptable manner. Although the emerging nuclear industry is going through a difficult period of growing pains, it is basically healthy; the future of nuclear energy is bright. Throughout our nation, there is a basic ap preciation of the fact that our social and economic system requires the continuing availability and proper utilization of clean energy supplies. There is also a growing awareness of the need for decisive actions to assure that our future energy requirements are met while the quality of our environment is simultaneously protected and enhanced. In the years ahead, while we should continue to explore the potential of new energy sources, we will need to rely on energy supplies which can be efficiently produced from every practical source. Each of these sources must be used in the most optimum fashion, consistent with environmental considerations.
Solar Energy: An Infinite Source of Clean Energy
Authors: Löf George O.G.
Published: March 2007

Abundance, cleanliness and widespread distri bution are great incentives for the application of solar energy to man's energy requirements. Recent and impend ing fuel shortages, cost increases of energy and environ mental degradation have provided strong incentives for the development of solar energy for wide practical use. However, its low intensity and high variability impose severe econo mic problems in converting it to useful forms. Conversion of solar radiation to thermal, electrical and mechanical energy has been well demonstrated in numerous experi mental systems. Of these methods, those of greatest current interest are the production of heat for the heating and cooling of buildings and the direct, or indirect, conversion to elec tricity. In favorable locations, the costs of solar heating and cooling equipment under development appear to be nearly competitive with fuels; hence, this application is ex pected to be widespread within a very few years. Electric power from solar energy is not now competitive with conventional supply and is, therefore, a longer term possibility.
The Nixon Administration Energy Policy
Authors: Morton Rogers C.B.
Published: March 2007

A serious energy situation awaited the incom ing Nixon administration in 1968. It stemmed from the fact that the nation was, and continues to be, in a period of transi tion from a long era of cheap and abundant indigenous energy and neglect of environmental consequences to one of scarcity of acceptable clean fuels, growing dependence on foreign energy imports, inadequate development of alternate clean energy sources and a growing interest in maintaining, or enhancing, environmental values. Reacting to the chal lenge, the Nixon administration adopted an energy policy designed to ensure an adequate and dependable supply of energy to meet the country's essential requirements and to assure its prosperity and security in ways which are con sistent with the nation's environmental and social goals. The administration has moved to stimulate increased utiliza tion of all energy sources found within the United States, including those of the outer continental shelf, and to remove artificial price and bureaucratic barriers which restrict the flow of gas and oil to markets. Suggestions have been made for the extensive reorganization of the execu tive branch which would enhance the government's ability to perceive and respond to energy problems and opportuni ties. The administration has taken steps to conserve energy in its operations both as a substantive measure and as an example to others. Actions have been taken—and others proposed—to use more fully private and public funds and expertise to solve the problems of finding new clean energy sources and to make currently used sources less environ mentally degrading. Steps have been taken to reduce the regulatory and administrative impediments which slowed, or prevented, construction of needed energy producing facili ties. Finally, the Nixon administration has moved in concert with other nations both to conduct research in the energy area and to discover means of preventing future energy shortages.
Interest Groups under a Semipermanent Government Party: The Case of Japan
Authors: Ishida Takeshi
Published: March 2007

Despite frequent changes of name, the con servative party has ruled Japan almost continuously since World War II. During this period a particularly close triangular relationship has developed among government party, bureaucracy and interest groups; organized interests compete with each other in cooperation with their sponsored Diet members and their supporters in the bureaucracy. Since the beginning of the 1960s the tendency towards oligopoly has distributed economic power among organiza tions unequally, and this has been reflected in greater disparities in political influence among stronger and weaker interest groups. Economically strong interest groups, such as those representing big business, do not exercise pressure overtly, whereas weaker organizations must rely on mass lobbying in order to demonstrate how many votes they can control. Moreover, the more powerful interest groups who do not make their demands public are in a more favorable position in the context of Japanese political culture in which insistence on special interests is not considered legitimate. Business groups, for example, always justify their policies as beneficial for the national economy and for rapid economic growth. Recently, however, this national goal has been called into question because of the increasing pollution of the environment and the growing public resentment against oligopoly.
British Pressure Group Politics: The National Council for Civil Liberties
Authors: Benewick Robert
Published: March 2007

This paper seeks to draw attention to a need to account for forms of pressure group activity which have become increasingly prominent in British politics. The focus is on groups that articulate demands of the disadvantaged or aggrieved in British society. This requires a pressure group framework, as well as the approaches used in studies of community action and political participation; it is argued that the literature on British pressure groups is inadequate in this respect. A typology is proposed to promote visibility in terms of relations with government. Groups can be seen to inhabit three worlds rather than one. The National Council for Civil Liberties is representative of third world pressure groups. It shares many characteristics and confronts similar problems, while possessing features which are peculiar to a group dedicated to the preservation and extension of civil liberties. The National Council for Civil Liberties has achieved effectiveness without acceptance.
The Moscow-Peking-Washington Triangle
Authors: Schwartz Harry
Published: March 2007

Two major factors in the world scene must be considered in any analysis of current Soviet-American rela tions: (1) the United States and Western Europe are, today, at the nadir of their effective political, military and economic power; (2) the specter of war with the People's Republic of China is in the background of all Soviet thinking. What has actually happened in the last few years is a sort of competitive wooing of the United States by the Russians and the Chinese. Each country is worried that the United States will team up with the other: for, while the United States does not have the political will to do anything major on the world scene by itself, the combination of American technological power and either Chinese or Soviet political power raises the most awesome possibilities. Thus, the recent historic changes—including those accomplished by President Nixon and Secretary of State Kissinger—have issued from the opportunities created by the Soviet-Chinese split. However, both in China and in Russia very real questions are being raised about the wisdom of the policy of the past. In view of this danger, in addition to the prospect of a major Constitutional crisis in the impeach ment and trial of the president of the United States, Ameri can foreign policy must be at maximum alert.
The USSR Position on Disarmament in the United Nations
Authors: Ovinnikov Richard S.
Published: March 2007

Inevitability of peaceful coexistence provides new opportunities for peace and disarmament. In accordance with the peace program of the Twenty-fourth Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) held in April 1971, the USSR put forward at the last three sessions of the United Nations (UN) General Assembly three concrete proposals. These are proposals on the convening of a world disarmament conference, on the nonuse of force in international relations and permanent prohibition of the use of nuclear weapons and on the reduction by 10 percent of the military budgets of those states which are permanent members of the Security Council and utilization of part of the funds thus saved to provide assistance to developing countries. Implementation of the UN resolutions adopted on all three items would widen the geographical scope of dis armament and the trend towards reducing armaments and would substantially contribute to actual decrease of the burden of armaments and the danger of war.
The Exchange of People and Ideas
Authors: Kassof Allen H.
Published: March 2007

In this paper attention is focused on long term exchanges of individuals, because this is the area in which interaction is most significant and in which there are the best possibilities for serious communication on the complex issues of Soviet-American cooperation. For the United States the exchanges provide indispensible access for hundreds of scholarly specialists who conduct research on Russian and Soviet life and culture. The majority of Soviet participants are in scientific and technical fields. For both sides the exchanges provide the less tangible benefits of mutual understanding which can come only from personal involvement and exposure. There are, however, various obstacles to maintain ing and broadening the exchange program: quantitative and practical problems, the securing of access to Soviet scholars on an individual basis, the lopsided imbalance of fields rep resented in the exchange and the working conditions for visiting scholars. While recent success and innovations illustrate the potential of the exchange program, worrisome questions about its future must be faced now; for, it is unlikely that the long range accommodation being sought by the USA and the USSR will take place without such an exchange program.
Rational Planning and Organizational Imperatives: Prospects for Area Planning in Aging
Authors: Hudson Robert B.
Published: March 2007

The federal grant strategy found in the Older Americans Comprehensive Services Amendments of 1973 represents a marked departure from earlier strategies of the Older Americans Act. While the national goal of the legislation is more clearly specified and funding has sig nificantly increased, the introduction of new substate plan ning bodies—Area Agencies on Aging—is seen here as the most important change. The new national strategy is geared toward the development of these new agencies, and its success will depend very much on their discharging the functions assigned to them. This paper argues that, because the new legislative strategy is based on a rational goal model and conceptualizes the area agencies accordingly, it neglects certain requisites of organizational life. Using, instead, a social system perspective of the area agencies and their environment, the paper suggests that these agencies will, of necessity, concern themselves with matters other than those mandated in the legislation. These other con cerns will affect both the national objectives which the area agencies choose to emphasize and the intensity of their effort. Specifically, the area agencies may view the mandate to draw-in and mobilize resources at the area level as not in their organizational interests. The paper concludes that: their engaging in this role in tentative fashion will result in either incremental or goal-displaced activities; their em barking in this role wholeheartedly may prove dangerous to them organizationally and may result in substantial mod ifications in the national strategy and their role in it.
The Role of the Federal Government in the Provision of Social Services to Older Persons
Authors: Gold Byron D.
Published: March 2007

Financing the provision of social services is one of six roles played by the federal government in its effort to improve the circumstances of the elderly. Support for meeting the needs of older persons and the forms in which this support is rendered by society leave substantial numbers of the elderly with unmet needs. Whether the market system can respond to such needs is unclear; until such a response occurs, however, society will depend on social services to fill the gap. Social services for older persons can be grouped into four categories; one of the four consists of services which assure access to the other three. Nowhere in the nation is a complete range of services available even to a small number of older persons, which is a reflection of how recent a phenom enon is the commitment of public resources for this purpose. Most of the resources committed have come from the federal government. They have been made available under three distinct approaches: the first, through the public welfare system; the second and third, through different titles of the Older Americans Act. Because public awareness of the unmet needs of the elderly is likely to increase with participation in the newly implemented federal program of cash assistance— Supplemental Security Income (SSI)—further evolution of the federal role can be anticipated. Furthermore, the approaches through which federal financing is made avail able will probably remain eclectic.
NCBA, Black Aged and Politics
Authors: Jackson Jacquelyne Johnson
Published: March 2007

Taking the position that those who are both black and old are different from the aged or the minority aged, this paper is primarily concerned with providing background information on the National Caucus on the Black Aged, Inc. (NCBA) and selected demographic data on black and other aged to justify that position and hence, NCBA's existence. Black aged—who often experience mul tiple jeopardy from racism, ageism and poverty and, in the case of females, sexism—are beset with certain crucial problems differentiating them from other aged. Because NCBA is opposed to "artificial dissection of blacks," it is justifiably committed to the position that those problems can and must be resolved through effective political action involving NCBA and aging and aged blacks.
How Fares Federalism in the Mid-Seventies?
Authors: Walker David B.
Published: March 2007

American federalism and the intergovernmental relations that sustain it are in a major transitional period. The recent emergence of several different theories—es pecially Creative Federalism and New Federalism—are symptomatic; yet neither of these schools of thought were applied consistently, nor were they in conflict with each other in all instances. Moreover, neither provides helpful answers to some of the emerging problems confronting the system. The many changes in fiscal federalism are another dimension of this transition. The federal govern ment still plays a dominant role in economic affairs, but a reduced one in intergovernmental financial assistance. Most states have strengthened their revenue systems, are enjoying surpluses or balanced budgets, and are beginning to act like major fiscal middlemen. All levels now have large intergovernmental components in their budgets, making fiscal relations more interdependent than ever before. Ad ministratively and jurisdictionally, a number of myths have emerged that impede the management of the system's current business. These include such notions as: all categorical grants have similar operational traits, block grants are easy to administer, decentralization is devolution, devolu tion of authority to elected officials is a simple under taking, local governmental fragmentation preserves local autonomy, and all general units of local government are general governments. A clearer understanding of the sources of conceptual confusion, a greater awareness of the new features of fiscal federalism, and a better appreciation of current administrative and jurisdictional conditions are vital for policy makers at all levels.
Dimensions of Judicial Federalism
Authors: Winkle John W.
Published: March 2007

Distribution of power between national and subnational judiciaries is a significant yet often overlooked dimension of American federalism. Jurisdictional overlap between state and federal courts has long generated adminis trative and political tensions that strike at the heart of inter governmental viability. Acute questions of intersystem equi librium arise in the consideration of judicial federalism. The dual court configuration materially affects litigant behavior, judicial policy making, and court administration. Intersystem reconciliation assumes greater importance in light of modern demands of spiraling litigation. This article seeks to raise some of the myriad issues of judicial federalism.
Intergovernmental Relations: a View from the States
Authors: Crihfield Brevard , Clyde Reeves H.
Published: March 2007

Interstate relations can not be viewed apart from the broad concept of the American federal system. The utiliza tion and viability of cooperative devices formally recognized by the Constitution of the United States, such as interstate compacts and agreements between states, are measurably offset by preemptive actions of the central government. There has been a vast increase in formal cooperative mechanisms among the states in past 30 years, accompanied by even greater changes in federal-state-local interrelationships. These changes have been accomplished without much regard for the theoretical framework in which decisions are made and functions are carried out. The authors describe states going about their business of rendering improved services to the people; of looking increasingly to each other for new and innovative approaches to problem solving; and of cooperating to increase their influence on federal policy. An emergent trend is discerned toward reversal of the theory that power is best exercised in the nation's capital. Circumstances indicate that the states today may take advantage of a golden oppor tunity to lead the way by working together to increase their individual and collective capacities.
Conflict in Metropolitan Areas
Authors: Maier Henry W.
Published: March 2007

The dichotomy between the central city and its suburbs is more pronounced than the more traditional conflict between rural and urban areas. Central cities contain the con centrations of the poor in the metropolitan area because of the lack of low income housing outside the city. The basic conflict arises from the contention for resources between the "have" suburban communities and the "have-not" central cities. Unless the suburbs are opened up to lower income residents, central cities will become even more impoverished. Conflict arises as suburbs fight to maintain the housing status quo, as cities fight to prevent expressways from destroying additional housing and tax base and to attain greater emphasis on adequate transportation, as heavy reliance on the property tax leads central city and suburb to compete for the same industry. In general, voluntary intergovernmental groups have not been responsive to central city needs in the metro politan area. What is required is a basic change in the system which separates resources from need and provides both greater fiscal equity and a metropolitan-wide sharing of the burden of social problems.
Interlocal Relations: Cooperation
Authors: Seyler William C.
Published: March 2007

The persistence of large numbers of local gov ernments in the United States emphasizes the continuing need for interlocal cooperation. In the American federal system, where local units are the creatures of the states, it is the states which must play a key role if the service needs of the 1970s are to be met by local governments. It appears that the states are increasingly recognizing this key role by granting local governments broader powers of home rule, by empower ing them to enter into agreements among themselves to pro vide badly needed services, by extending some state pow ers—such as purchasing—to local units, and by devising revenue sharing programs which have the effect of strength ening local governments. Although the federal government undoubtedly has a greater impact on interlocal cooperation than it did in the pre-New Deal days, it would appear that the early results of the federal revenue sharing program do not reflect the hopes of those who saw the program as a great stimulant for localities to become more innovative and more cooperative with each other, particularly when the early record of the program seems to show a net loss in resources for the local units.
Intergovernmental Relations in Canada
Authors: Hodgetts J.E.
Published: March 2007

Intergovernmental relations in Canada have tended to be viewed in light of the paper distribution of powers contained in the British North America Act, and, as a result, debate and research have focused on judicial interpretation and amendment as means of adapting inter governmental relations. The tremendous augmentation of governmental functions (and spending) at all levels has necessitated the creation of extra-constitutional mechanisms for providing the flexibility required to meet the con temporary trend toward the merging and blending of juris dictions that had been thought to exist in relatively watertight compartments. What is unique about the processes termed executive federalism is the way in which adjustment of regional and local relations tends to move to the top for resolution in a species of diplomatic conferences. While the new procedures have injected a realistic flexibility into the system, a high price is exacted in terms of Canada's capacity to arrive at an overall set of national policies.
"Full" Employment Growthmanship and the Expansion of Labor Supply
Authors: Gross Bertram M. , Straussman Jeffrey D.
Published: March 2007

During World War II, fears of postwar depres sion led to proposals for guaranteeing every adult American the "right to a useful and remunerative job." Under the Employment Act of 1946, the job guarantee was displaced by triple-layered guarantees to insure corporate growth: assured expansion of market demand, assured returns on capital, and guaranteed supply of inputs including trained or educated labor. While these growthmanship policies suc cessfully averted mass depression, restrictive definitions of "full" employment obscured the growing supply of labor able and willing to work for pay but outside the officially defined labor force. The expansion of labor supply has branded millions of people "surplus" and has, in effect, contributed to many of the social ills whose symptoms are labeled the urban crisis.
Socio-Economic Effects of Low and High Employment
Authors: Kapp K. William
Published: March 2007

Both low and high employment, as currently measured, have far-reaching serious consequences affecting the health and well-being of large masses of the population and seriously disrupting the environment. The criterion of public policies, including employment, must be the assurance ofsocio-economic reproduction for the maintenance of human life, health and survival, not maximum output and employ ment without regard for genuine individual and social needs. Social and environmental indicators and substantive norms, defined in terms of minimum requirements and social ob jectives, need to be made the guidelines of public action. In this sense, genuine full employment must be made a con tinuous objective and will remain a fundamental challenge to developed and underdeveloped countries.
Labor Unions and Full Employment
Authors: Livingston David
Published: March 2007

The Employment Act of 1946 has many weak nesses which may be corrected by the proposed Equal Opportunity and Full Employment Act of 1976. However, the 1946 act does place two major obligations on the federal government: (1) the promotion of maximum employment, production and purchasing power, and (2) the creation of conditions in which the government would supply useful employment opportunities when private industry is unwilling or unable to do so. These obligations can and should be met through such means as improved unemployment insurance and government subsidized employment in both the public and private sectors. The goal of full employment also requires an organized work force in order to be achieved. Despite the current recession and high levels of unemployment—and perhaps in part because of them—organized labor can grow stronger. Fundamental changes in national economic pri orities—changes which would place the welfare of the people above all other concerns—must take place. Evidence of such changes is mounting. Hopefully a new set of priorities which places people first will be adopted permanently in the United States.
Education for Work: A Full Employment Strategy
Authors: Gilpatrick Eleanor
Published: March 2007

A conceptual view is presented linking long term federal full employment policy to education. The asser tion is made that a primary role of the educational system is preparation of individuals for work. It is argued that a long term full employment policy should have a preventive com ponent which involves the educational system, and that the educational system should be made sufficiently flexible to allow for lifetime transferability of work preparation and for various patterns of movement in and out of work and education. The article covers the relationships among technology, work and education; defines types of unemploy ment ; notes the direction of technological change; presents an approach to labor force and educational participation; and offers a preventive policy for full employment planning, contrasting it with aggregate demand measures.
The Pro and Con Arguments
Authors: Reagan Michael D.
Published: March 2007

After a brief review of the forces which shaped the general revenue sharing legislation, this article investigates thoroughly various pro and con arguments about the program. While there may be a variety of theoretical "pro" arguments, the primary argument in favor of general revenue sharing is that is is politically popular with the public officials who are recipients of the funds. This article also explores the arguments that general rev enue sharing leads to increased citizen participation and fewer administrative requirements for recipient units, and that it increases the strength of the central administration. It urges caution in interpreting the preliminary research results which are available. On the "con" side, it considers a variety of theoretical arguments, but the main emphasis must be on the inequities in the existing legislation. These include the reduction in categorical aid programs, the failure to provide adequately for the largest cities, the inapplicability of fiscal crisis arguments, and the absence of important "side benefits"—institution building, for example—from general revenue sharing legislation. Finally, there is a discussion of the discriminatory provisions and enforcement procedures of the legislation. The dilemma which revenue sharing and the former categorical grant programs were designed to meet is best resolved by strengthening and expanding the block grant approach to federal aid.