bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Feminist Media Pedagogy
Authors: Cooks Leda
Published: September 2017

Feminist media pedagogy is a critical teaching practice and body of scholarship concerned with the lives and relationships of both women and men as mediated through cultural forms and institutions. Primarily, feminist media pedagogy focuses on the processes of teaching and learning about the politics of teaching and learning, especially as they are related to media production, content, reception, and consumption.
Fleet Street
Authors: Bromley Michael
Published: September 2017

Running between the Strand and Ludgate Circus in London, Fleet Street is synonymous with the national newspaper industry of the United Kingdom. Though from the mid‐1980s all the major newspaper offices were relocated, the name was still used to denote this type of newspaper and journalism even as late as the occasion of the publication of the Leveson Report into press culture and behavior in 2012. The most common explanation for this synergy was that since its development in the fourteenth century Fleet Street has connected the City of London with the City of Westminster, and thus governmental, financial, and commercial activities – traditionally staple sources of news.
Friendship and Communication
Authors: Rawlins William K.
Published: September 2017

Communication within friendships is important for human development throughout life. Beginning in childhood, friendships shape and reflect developments in social cognition, perspective‐taking abilities, moral comportment, and cooperation as equals. During adolescence and younger adulthood, friendships cultivate ethical sensibilities, and understandings and practices of intimacy, identity, and sociability. Across life people describe three benefits of close friendship: somebody to talk to; to depend on and rely on for instrumental help, social support, and caring; and to have fun and enjoy doing things with. Communication with friends relieves loneliness and contributes to physical and psychological well‐being.
Facebook
Authors: Matheson Donald
Published: September 2017

Facebook is the world's largest social networking service (SNS; → Social Media). Launched in 2004, it has quickly extended beyond a network of Harvard University students to become intertwined with many aspects of social life, from friendships to playing games to commerce and politics. How Facebook is used and why it has become so successful are central questions of much research. In addition, new scholarly methodologies are emerging to mine the unprecedented data available on the platform about a range of social interactions.
Gaze in Interaction
Authors: Mirivel Julien C.
Published: September 2017

When communicators interact with one another, they necessarily gaze (or look) at each other or gaze separately or together at objects, artifacts, or events in the perceptual world. Gazing, scholars in language and social interaction have shown (→ Language and Social Interaction), is a fundamental mechanism through which people manage, coordinate, and choreograph their communicative activities. Gaze‐in‐interaction, then, is the term of choice to refer to these multiple activities, including the ways in which people use gaze as a resource for accomplishing specific interactional goals.
Girl Culture
Authors: Mazzarella Sharon R.
Published: September 2017

Within the discipline of communication there has been a long history of studying the relationship between girls, media, and other cultural artifacts. Until a decade or so ago, however, the focus of such studies had been almost solely on girls as consumers of media and other products and/or as passive victims of mediated portrayals of femininity (→ Gender: Representation in the Media). For example, the norm for academic studies of girls had been to define girls as potential victims of the culture that surrounded them – a definition that guided much of the research examining how girls were affected by teen magazines, romance novels, popular music, and other cultural artifacts.
Globalization Theories
Authors: Sreberny Annabelle
Published: September 2017

An interconnected set of terms – globalization, global, globality – dominated analytic discourse toward the end of the twentieth century. The considerable disagreements among theorists are set out below. Then the specific issue of cultural globalization and its debates are addressed.
Grounded Theory
Authors: Scheufele Bertram
Published: September 2017

In its original sense “grounded theory” stands for a methodology, research program, and method of qualitative research. In a narrower but also more practical sense the term describes a qualitative technique of text analysis comparable to qualitative content analysis (→ Content Analysis, Qualitative) and → discourse analysis. Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss introduced grounded theory as a general research program for developing substantial (specific) or formal (general) theory by starting without (too) many assumptions and working immediately with the “data” (mostly text material) – this is what the term “grounded” refers to (→ Qualitative Methodology).
Health Disparities, Communication in
Authors: Freimuth Vicki S.
Published: September 2017

Eliminating health disparities is one of the most pressing global health issues. In the United States, health disparities have been examined primarily as differences in groups based on racial, class, and ethnic classifications. Globally, the issue focuses on the differences between developing and developed nations in health status and access to state of the art treatments. Harshly put, wherever in the world you live, if you are poor and a minority, you live sicker and die sooner (→ Health Communication).
Historiography
Authors: Meyen Michael
Published: September 2017

The term “historiography” is used in a number of different ways. It can refer to writings that present the past as “history.” It can also refer to the way these writings are produced, focusing on the issues of method that are linked to the construction of history. Unlike historical novels, historiography is based on a systematic access to sources, and therefore often connected with a claim of truth. However, it should be considered that any evidence is revocable because new sources may be found and already known sources can be reassessed according to the present world's interests (Jenkins 1995; Bentley 1999; Burke 2005).
Imagined Interactions
Authors: Honeycutt James M.
Published: September 2017

Imagined interactions are a type of social cognition and mental imagery (→ Cognition; Information Processing), theoretically grounded in symbolic interactionism (→ Symbolic Interaction), in which individuals imagine conversations with significant others for a variety of purposes (Honeycutt 2003). The imagined interaction construct has provided a beneficial mechanism for studying intrapersonal and → interpersonal communication. Imagined interactions are a type of daydreaming that has definitive characteristics and serves a number of functions including rehearsal, self‐understanding, relational maintenance, managing conflict, catharsis, and compensation. Retroactive imagined interactions often occur in television shows in terms of “flashbacks” as characters relive prior conversations in their mind.
Infographics
Authors: Cabianca David
Published: September 2017

An infographic (or information graphic) is a visual explanation – for example, a chart, map, or diagram – that aids in the comprehension of text‐based content. The infographic designer does not merely illustrate given information, but must actively interpret given content in order to present it in a manner that effectively visually communicates to the viewer. A designer does this by progressing through a number of steps, each time further processing and refining information (→ Design; Graphic Design).
Information Processing: Self‐Concept
Authors: Edwards Renee
Published: September 2017

Self‐concept plays an important role in → information processing by facilitating the processing of self‐relevant information, enhancing retrieval of relevant information, and influencing interpretations of information. As the more comprehensive construct, “self” includes identity, relationships, roles, personality (→ Personality and Exposure to Communication; Personality Development and Communication), and the physical body, as well as notions of agency and consciousness. “Self‐concept” refers to one's personal identity or the body of knowledge that an individual holds about himself or herself, including self‐esteem or self‐evaluation. Varying attributes and conceptions of the self can explain differing responses in social situations.
Interactional Sociolinguistics
Authors: Bailey Benjamin
Published: September 2017

Interactional sociolinguistics is concerned with how speakers signal and interpret meaning in social interaction. The term and the perspective are grounded in the work of John Gumperz (1982a, 1982b), who blended insights and tools from anthropology, linguistics, pragmatics, and conversation analysis into an interpretive framework for analyzing such meanings. Interactional sociolinguistics attempts to bridge the gulf between empirical communicative forms – e.g., words, prosody, register shifts – and what speakers and listeners take themselves to be doing with these forms. Methodologically, it relies on close → Discourse Analysis of audio‐ or video‐recorded interaction. Such methodology is central to uncovering meaning‐making processes because many conventions for signaling and interpreting meaning in talk are fleeting, unconscious, and culturally variable.
Inter‐American Court of Human Rights
Authors: Mendel Toby
Published: September 2017

The Inter‐American Court of Human Rights, established by the → American Convention on Human Rights (ACHR), is the leading regional human rights court in the Americas. The Court consists of seven judges, elected by secret ballot by member states of the Organization of American States (OAS).
Intereffication Approach in Public Relations
Authors: Wehmeier Stefan
Published: September 2017

The intereffication model focuses on the relationship between → Public Relations (PR) and → Journalism (Bentele et al. 1997). It was designed in a research project in 1996–1997 that focused on the PR activities of two East German cities, Leipzig and Halle. Unlike the
determination hypothesis
, the intereffication model stresses the interconnectedness of PR and journalism (→ Determination Theory in Public Relations). The authors describe the model as a complex relationship of mutual influence, mutual orientation, and mutual dependence. Intereffication means that neither PR nor journalism would be able to function properly without the existence of the other (Latin
efficare
= to make possible). The authors invented the word intereffication in order to create a neutral term, one free of the connotations associated with more metaphorical terms like symbiosis and Siamese twins.
Intergroup Contact and Communication
Authors: Harwood Jake
Published: September 2017

Intergroup contact occurs when a member or members of one social group come into contact with member(s) of another social group. Research has focused on whether such contact can influence attitudes about social groups, and whether certain types of contact yield the most positive prejudice‐reduction outcomes (→ Attitudes; stereotypes). Typically, the specific group memberships have significance in the local social milieu (e.g., in North America, race and sex would constitute meaningful dimensions for intergroup contact, whereas hair color would not).
Internet: International Regulation
Authors: Kleinwächter Wolfgang
Published: September 2017

Internet regulation means activities and policies aiming at regulating the structure and usage of the → Internet in a way that all participating parties accept as binding (→ Communication and Law → Internet Law and Regulation).
Interpersonal Attraction
Authors: Jones Susanne M.
Published: September 2017

Philosophical, empirical, and popular inquiries into what causes people to be attracted to one another are as old as humanity. As early as the fourth centurybcAristotle examined the forces of interpersonal attraction. Research on interpersonal attraction surged in the 1960s with two seminal publications (Berscheid & Walster 1969; Byrne 1971). Interpersonal attraction was conceptualized initially as a relatively stable attitude that leads to positive sentiments for another person and that serves as the catalyst for initiating interpersonal interaction. It is now viewed as a dynamic, affective force that draws people together and permeates all stages of interpersonal relationships (→ Dating Relationships; Initial Interaction; Ingratiation and Affinity Seeking; Relationship Development). McCroskey & McCain (1974) identified three types of interpersonal attraction.Task attractionrefers to our desire to work with someone, whereasphysical attractionoccurs when we are drawn to a person's physical appearance.Social attractionreflects our desire to develop a friendship with that person. Other types of attraction include sexual attraction, which reflects the desire to engage in sexual activity; relational attraction, which refers to the desire to have an intimate relationship with that person; and fatal attraction, which occurs when the very qualities that initially drew us to a person eventually contribute to relational deterioration.
Invention and Rhetoric
Authors: Jasinski James
Published: September 2017

In classical rhetorical theory, invention was one of the five essential canons and referred to the activity or process of creating a message (a speech, an essay, a poem, etc.). (On the other canons, see → Arrangement and Rhetoric; Delivery and Rhetoric; Memory and Rhetoric; Style and Rhetoric.) Over time, rhetoricians have explored some recurrent questions, such as whether or not invention can be described and systematized, what is the precise nature of the process of invention, and what exactly is the scope and function of inventional activity. Scholars have identified four dominant approaches to explaining and guiding this activity/process: romantic, systematic, imitative, and social (Kennedy 1963; Jasinski 2001).
Israel: Media System
Authors: Caspi Dan
Published: September 2017

Israel, a young democracy, established in 1948, with a 120‐member unicameral parliament elected officially every four years in universal, proportional, nationwide elections, is located in the Middle East, along the eastern coastline of the Mediterranean Sea, bordered by Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and Egypt. It lies at the junction of three continents: Europe, Asia, and Africa.
Issue Management
Authors: Röttger Ulrike
Published: September 2017

Issue management is a systematic procedure that helps organizations to identify, analyze, and respond to external or internal concerns that can significantly affect them. On this note, strategic issue management is a managerial function, which creates the information bases for a proactive examination of (potentially) critical themes that can limit strategic scope (→ Strategic Communication). It has to be accentuated that issue management does not solely relate to the effects of a crisis or a conflict. For a full understanding of this aspect of the discipline, we need to also consider the positive and negative repercussions concerning promotional themes in regard to a → brand or a company image.
Japan: Media System
Authors: Inoue Yasuhiro , Ito Youichi
Published: September 2017

Japan is an advanced industrialized country whose GNP/GDP is the second largest in the world. Its population is 127 million, which is the ninth largest in the world. The political system is a parliamentary democracy with the emperor as the state figurehead. The literacy rate is nearly 100 percent, and the per‐capita income is about the same as that of other advanced industrialized countries. The income disparity is small for a capitalist economy, leading most people to believe that they belong to the middle class.
Journalism: Normative Theories
Authors: Benson Rodney
Published: September 2017

Normative theories of journalism concern ideal functions of the press, what the pressshoulddo. These purposes are best understood in relation to larger claims about thegood society. In principle, there are as many normative theories of journalism as there are political systems, from Marxism–Leninism to diverse conceptions of democracy. Nonacademics as well as academics may express these theories, which are relatively coherent conceptions that cluster together specific ideals (such as representation, deliberation, accountability, and the like) in different combinations with varying emphasis (→ News Values; Standards of News; Journalists' Role Perception). Such broad theories are, to a certain extent, artificial constructs, because no one, from politicians to ordinary citizens, is entirely consistent in adhering to only one of them. Journalistic practice likewise does not always accord with normative theories of journalism, but these theories remain an important component of professional training (→ Journalism Education). Institutions and the state draw upon theories of journalism, implicitly or explicitly, when shaping media policies that carry real incentives or penalties for deviant behavior.
Journalists, Credibility of
Authors: Tsfati Yariv
Published: September 2017

Credibility is a central professional value for journalists. For audiences, perceived credibility of the media affects choices of and responses to the news. Scholars and journalists disagree about what constitutes credibility, but agree that it relates primarily to the truthfulness and accuracy of the facts journalists report. Credible journalism is reliable and believable. However, scholars, mostly in the United States, argue that credibility goes beyond believability (Metzger et al. 2003), and demonstrate that it encompasses fairness, lack of bias, → accuracy, completeness, and trustworthiness (Meyer 1988; → Bias in the News; Credibility of Content; Fairness Doctrine; Quality of the News).
Knowledge Management
Authors: Heaton Lorna
Published: September 2017

Knowledge management (KM) is a key concept in today's business world. While there is an element of fashion in its appearance toward the end of the 1990s (Swan et al. 1999), many of the world's most successful corporations, businesses, and organizations are investing considerable resources in this enterprise (Alvesson & Karreman 2001). These knowledge projects include setting up intranets, using collaborative or workflow software, mentoring, and sharing information on best practices. Deeply rooted in practicality and typically tied to organizational objectives, these practices seek to identify, create, represent, and distribute knowledge throughout the organization (→ Organizational Communication).
Organizational Change Processes
Authors: Zorn Theodore E.
Published: September 2017

Change is fundamental to organizing. To organize, or structure human activity intentionally to achieve collective goals, is in itself a change process – a movement from one state of being to another. Achange processin the context of formal organizations may be defined as a sequence of events by which alteration occurs in the structure and/or functioning of an organization. Alternatively, it may be seen as the way in which difference(s) emerge between two (or more) successive conditions, states, or moments of time in an organization (Ford & Ford 1995).
Organizational Conflict
Authors: Putnam Linda L.
Published: September 2017

Organizational conflict is a frequent occurrence in most work settings. Whether rooted in interactions with co‐workers, supervisors, or customers, conflict is an inevitable part of task and relational communication. Conflict refers to incompatibilities or perceptions of diametrically opposed goals and values that occur in the process of organizing. It includes disagreements about ideas, negotiations to obtain scarce resources, informal complaints about work issues, objections to corporate policies, and formal grievances filed against an organization. Hence, conflict is a pervasive feature of organizational life, but one that is often ignored. Unresolved and poorly managed organizational conflicts are very costly and lead to lower job satisfaction, lost work time, high costs of litigation, and the loss of valuable employees.
Organizational Identification
Authors: Kuhn Timothy
Published: September 2017

For organizational communication scholars, identification provides a key to understanding organizing practices, the individual–organization relationship, and the construction of selves. “Organizational identification” refers to the creation, maintenance, and modification of linkages between individuals and organizations, whereas “identity” refers to the conception of the self that defines the person's position in the social order (Cheney 1983a; Scott et al. 1998). Identification scholarship builds on a conception of personal identity in which we create selves, as well as distinctions from others, in social settings comprised by a variety of social groups. Identification, then, is the process by which an identity is constructed, but the linkages actors form are simultaneously guided by their pre‐existing personal and social identities.
Organizational Image
Authors: Carroll Craig E.
Published: September 2017

Organizational image is a useful concept for understanding the impressions individuals have of organizations or that organizations want to convey to individuals. The term refers to an → Image that encapsulates the likeness of an organization. Organizational images can have a strong influence on most aspects of members' organizational experiences. From an individual perspective, organizational image helps to explain how people: (1) seek membership in organizations, (2) identify with organizations, (3) make sense of and compare organizations, (4) align their decisions and behavior with others serving the same organizational cause, and (5) understand themselves and their roles in organizations. From an organizational perspective, organizational image helps the dominant coalition to establish or position the organization, its goals, and its views in the minds of its employees, customers, or other stakeholders. For employees, organizational image helps envision what types of activities are appropriate; for external constituencies, the image helps place the organization into a category of similar organizations while simultaneously differentiating the organization from others (→ Organizational Communication).
Organizations, Cultural Diversity in
Authors: Meares Mary M.
Published: September 2017

Cultural diversity is an increasingly salient issue for organizations due to greater geographic mobility among potential members (including migration; → Migration and Immigration) and a decrease in legal and cultural barriers to participation in many countries. “Cultural diversity” is defined as the presence of members with different systems of understanding based on cultural or group affiliation (Cox 1993; → Diversity in the Workplace). These systems of understanding may be based on identities of gender, age, race, ethnicity, socio‐economic status, sexual orientation, religion, educational background, or other identity groups (→ Culture: Definitions and Concepts). Loden and Rosner (1991) divide dimensions of diversity into those that are relatively fixed as primary (e.g., age, ethnicity, gender, physical abilities, race, and sexual orientation) and those that are more mutable as secondary (e.g., educational background, geographic location, income, marital status, etc.). Although demographic differences in a group often reflect differences in experiences and patterns of behavior, it is the differences in worldview, values, and ways of understanding based on cultural differences that often prove challenging in interacting and understanding diversity in organizations. When members of a work, social, or educational organization come from different cultural backgrounds, there is both increased potential for conflict and misunderstandingandthe potential for greater creativity and resources, resulting in productivity (→ Intercultural Conflict Styles and Facework; Organizational Conflict).
Ownership in the Media
Authors: Sussman Gerald
Published: September 2017

Structures of media ownership take the form of either public or private enterprises. “Public” refers to those media funded at least partially out of general public revenues, whereas in the general sense “private” means media whose financing is provided by individuals, families, or groups. Public media can be state‐owned (as in the former Soviet Union; → Russia: Media System) or state‐managed, controlled by the government in power (such as China's ruling Communist Party newspaper,
Renmin Ribao
; → China: Media System), or can have a charter making them relatively independent of the state or governing power (such as Britain's → BBC; → United Kingdom: Media System). The type of structure, public or private, does not necessarily correspond either to the degree of professional freedom enjoyed by the media organ or to its quality. Some African broadcast media are modeled on the BBC but operate with far less openness and with frequent political interference (→ Africa: Media Systems). Community media, such as community newspapers and radio stations, which typically rely on listener sponsorship and grants and receive little if any government financial support, are generally much smaller in scope and reach but often exercise considerably more freedom than their public‐media counterparts and often transmit a broader range of political, social, and cultural programming (→ Community Media).
Ownership in the Media
Authors: Sussman Gerald
Published: September 2017

Structures of media ownership take the form of public, private, or community enterprises. “Public” refers to those media funded at least partially out of general public revenues, whereas in the general sense “private” means media whose financing is provided by individuals, families, or groups. Public media can be state‐owned (as in the former Soviet Union; → Russia: Media System) or state‐managed, controlled by the government in power (such as China's ruling Communist Party newspaper,
Renmin Ribao
; → China: Media System), or can have a charter making them relatively independent of the state or governing power (such as Britain's → BBC; → United Kingdom: Media System). Community media, such as community radio or community newspapers, are usually based on a physical area or an interest. The type of structure – public, private, community – does not necessarily correspond either to the degree of professional freedom enjoyed by the media organ or to its quality. Some African broadcast media are modeled on the BBC but operate with far less openness and with frequent political interference (→ Africa: Media Systems). Community media, which typically rely on listener sponsorship and grants and receive little if any government financial support, are generally much smaller in scope and reach but often exercise considerably more freedom than their public media counterparts, and often transmit a broader range of political, social, and cultural programming (→ Community Media).
Physical Effects of Media Content
Authors: Grimm Jürgen
Published: September 2017

The physical effects of media content are understood as the direct influence of the media on the organism. This includes mainly processes of physiological arousal as well as emotional effects evoking joy or fear, a pleasant mood or stress.
Physiological Measurement
Authors: Fahr Andreas
Published: September 2017

Psychophysiology is concerned with the physiological bases of psychological processes. For example, where psychologists are interested in why we like a certain TV program, physiologists are interested in the input–output of the cardiovascular system. A psychophysiologist attempts to link the two approaches. The study of the interface of mind and body is what makes psychophysiology most distinct.
Political Efficacy
Authors: Moy Patricia
Published: September 2017

A multidimensional concept that links political → cognitions, → attitudes, and behaviors, political efficacy refers generally to citizens' beliefs in their ability to influence the political system. In the half‐century since its emergence, research on political efficacy has focused much on its conceptualization and → operationalization. In communication research, however, scholarship has emphasized defining its antecedents and outcomes.
Political Media Content, Quality Criteria in
Authors: Hagen Lutz M.
Published: September 2017

Media content is usually considered “political” if it refers to current events and issues, to political institutions or actors, as well as to the public discourse among these actors (→ Political Discourse). If the term “quality” is used to speak of more than just a trait, it refers to a trait that is desired according to some standard or norm. In this sense, the quality of political media content refers to the degree to which this content fulfills normative requirements.
Professionalization of Journalism
Authors: Anderson C. W.
Published: September 2017

The professionalization of journalism refers to the process by which a category of workers engaged in reporting and commentary in the public media on current events and ideas achieves the status of the occupational professional. Key issues in understanding the professionalization of journalism center on the difficulties in defining “professionalization” itself; the historical differences between US and non‐American trajectories of professionalization; the relationship between journalistic objectivity (→ Objectivity in Reporting) and professionalism, especially in the American case; and the dramatic economic, technological, and cultural challenges to the professional status of → journalism since the early 2000s.
Public Broadcasting Systems
Authors: Bardoel Jo
Published: September 2017

Public service broadcasting (PSB), according to McQuail (2010, 178), refers to “a system that is set up by law and generally financed by public funds (often a compulsory license fee paid by households) and given a large degree of editorial and operating independence.” PSB is supposed to function independently of both the market and the state, and therefore differs from the alternative systems of commercial broadcasting on the one hand and authoritarian or state‐operated broadcasting on the other (→ Communication and Law; Media Policy; Radio Broadcasting, Regulation of; Television Broadcasting, Regulation of).
Public Meetings
Authors: Castor Theresa
Published: September 2017

A public meeting is a gathering in which there are limited, if any, restrictions on who may participate. Public meetings, as an ideal, are a form of democracy (→ Public Sphere), but in fact are often viewed as frustrating and futile. Researchers have studied issues and topics related to public meetings (e.g., leadership, public participation); there is now increased attention on studying public meetings themselves as structured communication events. Labeling an event as a meeting calls attention to the communicative dimensions of this activity. Communication scholars have examined public meetings as situations in which identity, social action, and culture, among other practices, are enacted.
Public Relations Evaluation
Authors: Stacks Don W.
Published: September 2017

Evaluation is a management tool that allows the user to establish whether a project or campaign has had its intended effect. Effective evaluation is at the center of any public relations effort and should be a basic element of any planned public relations action. In reality, however, evaluation is often overlooked or not undertaken for a variety of reasons, including costs, lack of resources, or simply a failure to understand how to conduct basic evaluation. Basic evaluation provides the user not only with information on how well the project worked, but also with an indication during the project as to whether it is “on target,” or “on phase” (→ Public Relations).
Public Relations, Intercultural
Authors: Sriramesh Krishnamurthy
Published: September 2017

Although public relations practice is slightly ahead of the public relations body of knowledge, both have developed ethnocentrically in the twentieth century, based predominantly on experience and research from the United States and to a lesser extent from some countries in Europe (Sriramesh & Vercic 2003; Van Ruler & Vercic 2004). However, public relations practice, or many of the publicity activities that we have come to characterize as → Public Relations today, took place in pre‐biblical times in many ancient cultures. There is evidence of such communication practices in ancient civilizations in Egypt, Saudi Arabia, India, and China, among others (Sriramesh & Vercic 2003; Sriramesh 2004). However, in its “modern” avatar (incarnation), public relations practice is perceived around the world to be a western (predominantly American) phenomenon (→ Communication Modes, Western).
Public Relations Planning
Authors: Devereaux Ferguson Sherry
Published: September 2017

The 1952 edition ofEffective Public Relations: Pathway to Public Favor(Cutlip & Center) set the standard for PR education for decades to come. Chapters 5–7 introduced planning as the second of a three‐stage process model. The first step was fact‐finding, the second planning, and the third communicating. By 1958, the authors had moved evaluation (originally in step one) to step four. In 1963, Marston created the popular acronymRACE(Research, Action, Communication, and Evaluation) to represent the four‐stage process conceptualized by Cutlip and Center. As in the earlier model, planning took place at the second stage (→ Public Relations).
Public Service Broadcasting: Law and Policy
Authors: Tambini Damian
Published: September 2017

Public service broadcasting (PSB) is funded by the public, and regulated to ensure that it serves the → public interest. Public service broadcasters (PSBs) should be distinguished from state broadcasters, which function mainly to serve the interests of the government, and purely commercial broadcasters, which respond primarily to individual consumer choices rather than to any notion of the broader public interest. PSBs are also distinct from nonprofit local “community broadcasters,” which are public‐oriented and partly grant‐funded, in that PSBs are generally national in scope (→ Community Media).
Rhetoric of Science
Authors: Gross Alan G.
Published: September 2017

The rhetoric of science is the application of the resources of the rhetorical tradition to the texts, tables, and visuals of the sciences. It is a relatively new form of → rhetorical criticism that began over half a century ago with studies in science policy, shifted in the past quarter century to studies of science itself, and, in the past decade has evolved methodologically from case studies to forms more amenable to wide generalization.
Sampling, Nonrandom
Authors: Hayes Andrew F.
Published: September 2017

Nonrandom sampling, also called “nonprobabilistic” or “nonprobability sampling,” is any sampling method in which the process that determines whether a member of the population is selected for inclusion in the sample is guided by a nonchance or nonrandom process. Such nonrandom processes can include the investigator choosing who to include in the sample, advertising a study to find participants, or other methods of seeking participants in such a way that whoever is approached, recruited, or selected cannot be described by some kind of random mechanism.
Sampling, Random
Authors: Hayes Andrew F.
Published: September 2017

One of the bigger tasks the communication researcher faces is obtaining the data to answer the research question or test the hypothesis that motivated the research in the first place. In the field of communication, data comes primarily from two sources – human beings, or some media form (which, it could be argued, ultimately are produced by human beings, so perhaps these are not distinct sources). Human beings may be asked by a researcher to fill out a survey (→ Survey) or participate in an experiment (→ Experiment, Laboratory). Alternatively, a researcher might seek out political advertisements, newspaper editorials, or speeches to include in a content analysis (→ Content Analysis, Quantitative).
Scandinavian States: Media Systems
Authors: Weibull Lennart , Wadbring Ingela
Published: September 2017

The Nordic countries Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden are individually small but together have a population of more than 25 million people. Historically there are strong links between them and they have to a large extent a common history, which also includes much warfare up to the beginning of the nineteenth century. The languages of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden are very similar, whereas those of Finland and Iceland are different from the others. The countries are socially homogeneous, but this is changing because of immigration, especially in metropolitan areas.
Selective Attention
Authors: Nabi Robin L.
Published: September 2017

Selective attention refers to the differential processing of multiple sources of information that are available at the same time (Johnston & Dark 1986; → Information Processing; Attention). These information sources are generally in the external environment, though they need not be. For example, internal information sources, like → Memory, may also hold attention. Further, selective attention refers not simply to the orientation toward one message or stimulus rather than another, but also to the focus on parts of a message rather than other parts (often referred to as selective processing; → Selective Perception and Selective Retention).
Self‐Regulation of the Media
Authors: Tambini Damian
Published: September 2017

Media self‐regulation is the setting of rules for the media and oversight of compliance with those rules by media organizations or by users. Self‐regulation should be distinguished from state or statutory regulation (i.e., regulation by law or by a statutory regulatory authority). Means of self‐regulation include dispute resolution procedures, rating boards, codes of conduct, and at the level of the user, technical measures such as filtering, encryption, and pin numbers that regulate children's and others' behavior.
Sense‐Making
Authors: Buzzanell Patrice
Published: September 2017

Sense‐making is an intersubjective process of making meaning for individuals, groups, organizations, and societies. Weick's theorizing about organizing and sense‐making (1979; 1995; 2006) has been particularly influential in considerations of sense‐making and is oriented toward understanding how people identify and work through puzzling, plausible, or equivocal experiences and how organizing emerges through micro‐level and collective communicative practices and improvisations. Weick (1995) characterizes sense‐making as a process grounded in identity construction that is retrospective, enactive of environments, social, ongoing, and driven by plausibility rather than accuracy. Although much organizational communication research uses sense‐making to depict individual meaning‐making of work, identities, and complex situations, sense‐making processes actually link micro‐ through macro‐processes such that → organizational culture, structure, and knowledge are made more resilient (→ Organizational Structure; Knowledge Management).
Sibling Interaction
Authors: Mikkelson Alan C.
Published: September 2017

Sibling relationships can be important and influential throughout the lifespan. During childhood, siblings can influence both personality development and behavior. In adulthood, siblings can be an important source of friendship, support, and information. In old age, siblings are often an important source of both emotional and tangible support. Although much is known about the effects of birth order, family size, and sex differences on intellectual and personality characteristics (Cicerilli 1995), less is known about sibling communication and interaction patterns. Sibling interaction is guided by a set of characteristics that, as a whole, are unique to the sibling relationship.
Social Interaction Structure
Authors: Mabry Edward A.
Published: September 2017

How someone behaves verbally, physically, or through their presence in a social context influences the behavior of other people in that context. This is a logical and practical assumption about any form of shared human activity (→ Interactivity, Concept of). The variety of ways that behavior takes shape and is repeated over time and situations is referred to as “social interaction structure.” The concept of structure also implies that observable patterns of behavior give individual acts, messages, and other behaviors a frame of reference that can be used in their interpretation. The study of social interaction structures also encompasses analyses of natural language in multi‐speaker conversations (→ Conversation Analysis). Scholars who explore language‐based approaches to social interaction often focus on how
rules
of language use and norms governing social behavior influence communication practices (McLaughlin 1984). The study of social interaction structure is also closely aligned with the study of communication as a dynamic
process
(→ Models of Communication) and is often used as the basis for empirically representing
communication systems
. Social interaction structures are studied in a number of sub‐fields including group, intercultural, interpersonal, and organizational communication.
Social Support in Interpersonal Communication
Authors: Goldsmith Daena J.
Published: September 2017

Social support is a diverse, multidisciplinary area of study that addresses the question: why do people who are involved in relationships tend to be mentally and physically healthier than those who are not? One approach to answering this question focuses on what people say and do to help one another cope with stress (enacted support or supportive communication). Alternatively, scholars have examined how cognitive schemas and beliefs about relationships influence one's coping and outlook on life (perceived available support). A third way of studying social support focuses on how integration in social networks shapes opportunities, information, immunity, and the flow of resources (social networks and social integration). Within each of these traditions, scholars have recognized that relationships are sometimes harmful rather than beneficial, and have sought to identify circumstances in which and processes through which social support has positive outcomes.
Sony Corporation
Authors: Einstein Mara
Published: September 2017

Sony is a leading global producer of consumer electronic equipment. Principal products include, among many others, home and portable audio, video cameras, digital cameras, Aiwa products, and home and portable gaming systems. Sony also is a producer of media content including recorded music, motion pictures (→ Cinema), → Television programs and → video games. The company also has a fledgling financial services division, which offers insurance as well as → Internet banking.
Stakeholder Theory
Authors: de Bussy Nigel
Published: September 2017

Stakeholder theory has provoked controversy for more than 70 years, even though the term “stakeholder” is itself of more recent origin. The theory raises a highly contentious question: in whose interests should a business corporation or other type of organization be run? Opponents stress the primacy of shareholder rights. Supporters claim corporations have wider responsibilities toward a broad range of groups and individuals with a “stake,” whether financial or otherwise, in the operations of the business. In the contemporary world, strategic stakeholder communication has become a key driver of → corporate reputation. Hence the stakeholder concept is a central concern for the field of → Public Relations (→ Organizational Image; Trust of Publics).
Subsidies for the Media
Authors: Picard Robert G.
Published: September 2017

Subsidies for the media involve state financial support for media operations and content. Although generally considered undesirable from freedom of expression and economic standpoints, they are sometimes useful and necessary for pursuing social and cultural goals that markets fail to serve.
Social Media
Authors: Haferkamp Nina
Published: September 2017

The term “social media” is one of the buzzwords that emerged after 2005, when O'Reilly's postulates on the next generation of the →Internetcame into focus. To this day, there is no generally accepted definition of the term. Thus, “social media” is best used as an umbrella term, comprising various digital devices and services whose specific characteristics make it possible to distinguish them from other forms of media (Lietsala & Sirkkunen 2008). In its core meaning, “social media” is closely allied to the termsWeb 2.0andsocial web. However, while these describe the novelty of the Internet's second generation, the term “social media” covers the specific types of participatory digital media.
Trap Effect
Authors: Schoenbach Klaus
Published: September 2017

The “trap effect” of communication is a metaphor for an effect specifically on the uninterested, unmotivated, uninvolved members of the audience (Schoenbach & Weaver

). Those people are “trapped” and subsequently influenced by any type of communication that is frequent and striking enough to overcome their weak resistance. They do not care enough to raise the threshold against attempts to teach them something (→ Media Effects).
Tuning Surface Structure of 3D Nanoporous Gold by Surfactant‐Free Electrochemical Potential Cycling
Authors: Wang Zhili , Ning Shoucong , Liu Pan , Ding Yi , Hirata Akihiko , Fujita Takeshi , Chen Mingwei
Published: September 2017

3D dealloyed nanoporous metals have emerged as a new class of catalysts for various chemical and electrochemical reactions. Similar to other heterogeneous catalysts, the surface atomic structure of the nanoporous metal catalysts plays a crucial role in catalytic activity and selectivity. Through surfactant‐assisted bottom‐up synthesis, the surface‐structure modification has been successfully realized in low‐dimensional particulate catalysts. However, the surface modification by top‐down dealloying has not been well explored for nanoporous metal catalysts. Here, a surfactant‐free approach to tailor the surface structure of nanoporous gold by surface relaxation via electrochemical redox cycling is reported. By controlling the scan rates, nanoporous gold with abundant {111} facets or {100} facets can be designed and fabricated with dramatically improved electrocatalysis toward the ethanol oxidation reaction.
De novo SETD5 loss‐of‐function variant as a cause for intellectual disability in a 10‐year old boy with an aberrant blind ending bronchus
Authors: Green Claire , Willoughby Joshua ,   DDD Study, Balasubramanian Meena
Published: September 2017

Although rare, 3p microdeletion cases have been well described in the clinical literature. The clinical phenotype includes; intellectual disability (ID), growth retardation, facial dysmorphism, and cardiac malformations. Advances in chromosome microarray (CMA) testing narrowed the 3p25 critical region to a 124 kb region, and recent Whole Exome Sequencing (WES) studies have suggested that the SETD5 gene contributes significantly to the 3p25 phenotype. Loss‐of‐Function (LoF) variants in SETD5 are now considered a likely cause of ID. We report here a patient with a frameshift LoF variant in exon 12 of SETD5. This patient has features overlapping with other patients described with LoF SETD5 variants to include; similar facial morphology, feeding difficulties, ID, behavioral abnormalities and leg length discrepancy. In addition, he presents with an aberrant blind ending bronchus. This report adds to publications describing intragenic mutations in SETD5 and supports the assertion that de novo LoF mutations in SETD5 present with an overlapping but distinct phenotype in comparison with 3p25 microdeletion syndromes.