bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Social Development and Social Relationships in Middle Childhood
Authors: McHale Susan M. , Dariotis Jacinda K. , Kauh Tina J.
Published: November 2003

This chapter provides a broad overview of the social lives of children during middle childhood, the period between ages 5–6 and 11–12 years. Middle childhood has been described as a time of skill consolidation between two periods of striking developmental change and has been the focus of less research attention than these other developmental periods. Our review suggests, however, that middle childhood is a time of considerable change, when social competencies, essential for the development of close and harmonious social relationships, are practiced and refined. Middle childhood also is a period when children's social worlds expand and when children spend increasing amounts of time outside the direct supervision of parents or other care givers. As such, self‐regulation and control and the ability to read and understand the expectations of new social settings are essential for successful functioning. Finally, middle childhood is a time when children first become seriously involved in work–school work in industrialized countries and paid work or family work in other societies—and children's social competencies will be central to their success in these endeavors.
The Cultural Context of Child Development
Authors: Mistry Jayanthi , Saraswathi T. S.
Published: November 2003

In this chapter, we represent current understanding of the interface between culture and child development, by drawing on three subfields of psychology—cultural psychology, cross‐cultural psychology, and developmental psychology. We begin by providing a brief overview of three subfields of psychology, highlighting how the interface between culture and development is explained in each approach. We emphasize the increasing convergence and parallels between the three subfields, while delineating the differences and debates that continue to persist. We then illustrate the complementary contributions of the three subfields by presenting selective overviews of three topic areas of development, including literature from cultural, cross‐cultural and developmental psychology in each illustrative topic.

We present a selective review of literature in three topic areas: the development of self, development of children's narratives, and development of memory. In each topic area, we integrate key publications from cultural and cross‐cultural psychology, and developmental psychology, to demonstrate the inroads that have been made in unraveling the culture‐individual interface ranging from the larger context, to institutional mechanisms and the specific situation contexts and their embedded meaning that results in the individual's construction and acquisition of culture, as well as a precipitation of social/cultural change. Our goal is to document how complementary contributions from the three subfields of psychology enable a richer understanding of the interface between culture and individual development.
Puberty, Sexuality, and Health
Authors: Susman Elizabeth J. , Dorn Lorah D. , Schiefelbein Virginia L.
Published: November 2003

The chapter examines puberty from the perspective of biopsychosocial models of development, specifically, the developmental contextualism model and the holistic interactionism model of development. The endocrinology of puberty is reviewed, including the phases of adrenarche and gonadarche, mechanisms controlling the onset of puberty, and physical growth and development during puberty. Hormones appear to have a greater influence on adolescents' emotions and behavior than pubertal stageper se. Testosterone, estrogen, and adrenal androgens show associations with antisocial and aggressive behavior, depression, and sexual behavior. The timing of puberty, relative to peers, studies suggest that it has long‐term psychosocial implications, particularly for early maturers. Current areas of research on the timing of puberty include secular trends in the timing of puberty, effects of pubertal timing on adult physical and mental health, and mechanisms whereby stress may influence pubertal timing. Issues of emerging sexuality at puberty also are discussed. Adolescent sexuality is influenced by hormonal factors, body fat, and social influences. The chapter concludes with a discussion of implications for research and social policy, including the content of educational programs on puberty, the timing of prevention programs, and principles to guide future research.
Cognitive Development in Adolescence
Authors: Eccles Jacquelynne S. , Wigfield Allan , Byrnes James
Published: November 2003

In this chapter, we focus on two major aspects of adolescent development: cognitive development and achievement/achievement motivation. First, we discuss cognitive development, pointing out the relevance of recent work for both learning and decision making. Most of the chapter focuses on achievement and achievement motivation. We summarize current patterns of school achievement and recent changes in both school completion and differential performance on standardized tests of achievement. Then we summarize both the positive and negative age‐related changes in school motivation and discuss how experiences in school might explain these developmental patterns. Finally, we discuss both gender and ethnic group differences in achievement motivation and link these differences to gender and ethnic group differences in academic achievement and longer‐term career aspirations.
Emotional and Personality Development in Adolescence
Authors: Galambos Nancy L. , Costigan Catherine L.
Published: November 2003

This chapter highlights recent theoretical and empirical advances in understanding adolescents' emotional and personality development. Models of emotion regulation are viewed as important in uniting research on emotional well‐being and distress, with emotion dysregulation underlying the presence of interalizing and externalizing problems. Recent research on temperament and personality is also highlighted, which examines the structure, origins, and continuity of personality across the early years in the life span. Four exciting themes in research on emotional and personality development in adolescence are discussed, including a focus on adolescents' optimal development, attention to cultural variations in emotion and personality, the integration of knowledge of emotion and temperament, and the use of a person approach to understanding how constellations of emotional and personality characteristics influence adolescents' developmental trajectories. The chapter concludes by drawing attention to how knowledge about emotion and personality promises to aid in the design of intervention and prevention programs that can lead the way toward promoting healthy youth development.
Relationships With Parents and Peers in Adolescence
Authors: Kerr Margaret , Stattin Håkan , Biesecker Gretchen , Ferrer‐Wreder Laura
Published: November 2003

What roles do parents and peers play in adolescent development? The answers that developmental research offers to this question are limited by two features of the literatures on parenting and peer relationships. The first is that these two literatures are largely separate, with little theorizing about connections between parent‐adolescent relationships and adolescents' choices of peer contexts. The second is that they make the simplifying assumption that parents and peers affect adolescents in unidirectional fashion, with little or no recognition of bi‐directional effects. In this chapter, we examine the parenting and peer literatures separately, reviewing the major works upon which broad conclusions have been drawn, and pointing out limitations such as the unidirectional‐effects assumption, construct‐invalid measures, and, for peer research, limiting investigations to peers in the school classroom. Concerning parenting, we argue for a bi‐directional approach to parent‐adolescent relationships. Concerning peers, we argue for ecologically valid research designs. We then offer a theoretical integration of the parenting and peer literatures that sees adolescents as active agents who choose their peer contexts based, in part, on the feelings they have about their experiences in the parent context. The chapter concludes by recommending that research on adolescents' relationships with parents and peers become more integrative, bi‐directional, and developmental, even if these features make research more difficult.
Disease, Health, and Aging
Authors: Siegler Ilene C. , Bosworth Hayden B. , Poon Leonard W.
Published: November 2003

In this chapter we consider how understanding health can add to the study of developmental psychology. Developmental psychology sees health primarily as a topic of worry and concern to aging persons. Poor health is a source of stress, requires coping, and can start a cascade of life events. Health is an extremely important contextual variable which exerts considerable influence on many areas of individual lives. Cognition is perhaps the most important aspect of development that is changed when health is compromised. Relationships between health and cognition are bi‐directional. Not only do changes in health status precede changes in personality, cognition, and social functioning, for example, but changes in health status can also be the result of basic developmental changes in other area of life. Disease, on the other hand, is an entity physicians treat. It is the province of medicine and for psychologists, behavioral medicine. In this chapter we focus on new realities confronting the study of aging for the next century: (1) The explosion of input from other disciplines, (2) the emphasis on Alzheimer's Disease and what this has meant for research, (3) changes in the health status of aging populations reflected in demography and centenarian studies, and (4) the genetic revolution and its impact on developmental psychology.
Personality Development in Adulthood and Old Age
Authors: Bertrand Rosanna M. , Lachman Margie E.
Published: November 2003

The primary focus of personality research has turned from questions regarding stability and change across adulthood to examining the multidirectional paths of personality and the impact of individual differences throughout the lifespan. In this chapter we define and examine the nature of personality in adulthood and old age by adopting a life‐span approach. An overview of theoretical approaches and a discussion of findings from key empirical studies is provided. The discussion covers trait approaches with a focus on rank‐order and mean‐level consistency, as well as how individual differences shape life experiences in adulthood and later life. Stage theories and contextual models, which incorporate person‐environment interactions, are also presented. Findings involving subjective personality change and personality as a predictor of later life outcomes are discussed. Finally, the contribution of specific aspects of the self (e.g., identity, self‐efficacy and control beliefs, well‐being, emotions, and coping) to adult development is considered. The chapter concludes with a summary of the current state of the adult personality literature and offers suggestions for the direction of future work.
Social Relationships in Adulthood and Old Age
Authors: Pruchno Rachel , Rosenbaum Jennifer
Published: November 2003

This chapter reviews what is known about social relationships between adults. It focuses exclusively on social relationships in which all parties are adults and concentrates on those social relationships in which at least one person is elderly. A life course perspective on social relationships, focusing on how individuals change over time and how their transitions are linked to the people with whom they maintain close relationships, is used. The chapter focuses primarily on adult social relationships between: (1) spouses, (2) parents and their children, (3) siblings, and (4) friends. These bonds are examined both within the context of health and disability, reviewing conceptual frameworks as well as empirical literature. The chapter concentrates on reviewing critical themes, highlighting recently published literature, and identifying key research questions and findings. On the basis of this review of the state of the art, the chapter concludes by making recommendations for future directions that the next generation of knowledge about social relationships between adults should take.
Applied Developmental Science of Positive Human Development
Authors: Lerner Richard M. , Anderson Pamela M. , Balsano Aida Bilalbegović , Dowling Elizabeth M. , Bobek Deborah L.
Published: November 2003

This chapter examines key theoretical facets of the applied developmental science approach to knowledge generation and application. Represented by literature pertinent to the goodness‐of‐fit model proposed by Thomas and Chess, the stage‐environment fit model of Eccles and colleagues, Damon's conception of youth charters, and Search Institute's approach to individual and ecological assets for youth development, the importance of the dynamic relation between individuals and their contexts for understanding and promoting healthy development is discussed. These relational models stress that integrated, person‐context fusions may be the target of applications designed to facilitate the development of healthy exchanges between the individual and his or her ecology. For instance, youth charters are seen as a means to support healthy development through embedding youth in communities that maximize the positive person‐context experiences of youth, thereby promoting the ability of young people to contribute to civil society. In turn, integrating individual and ecological assets can promote positive youth development by engaging young people in community building actions. The chapter concludes by explaining how the diversity of person‐context relations may be capitalized on to provide a useful frame for policy and program innovations aimed at increasing the probability of healthy youth development.
Child Development and the Law
Authors: Lamb Michael E.
Published: November 2003

In this chapter, I illustrate ways in which the accumulated knowledge of developmental processes can assist legal authorities by focusing on two areas of research—child witness testimony and the resolution of divorce and child custody disputes. Researchers have shown that children of all ages are capable of providing detailed information about their experiences but that the way they are questioned greatly affects the accuracy of the information they provide. Thus, when forensic interviewers adopt practices informed by developmental research, they dramatically affect the quality of information obtained from alleged victims children about their experiences. Similarly, research on parent‐child relationships and on the effects of divorce have created a knowledge base that can be used to guide decisions about desirable living arrangements for children whose parents no longer live together. In both cases, scholarly research informs practice in the real world, promoting children's welfare and best interests in the process. In addition, close study of children's actual experiences and performance in real‐world settings (the court room, the forensic interview, the disintegrating family) has enhanced our cumulative understanding of developmental processes. “Basic” and “applied” research thus complement one another.
Successful Aging
Authors: Freund Alexandra M. , Riediger Michaela
Published: November 2003

Life expectancy has only recently extended into old age. In many countries, declining proportions of working‐age people have to ensure adequate living conditions for a growing number of old people. To meet this challenge, societies need knowledge about positive or “successful” aging and conditions that foster them. In this chapter, we review the state of research on this topic. Early approaches focused on the question “whatis successful aging?” by outlining general criteria for aging well. More recent approaches have shifted the focus to the question “howdo people age successfully?” These models—e.g., the model of selection, optimization, and compensation (Baltes & Baltes, 1990), the model of assimilative and accommodative coping (Brandtstädter & Renner, 1990), or the model of primary and secondary control (e.g., Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995)—emphasize the role of proactive processes and motivational processes in shaping and adapting to age‐related changes. By adapting goals and standards to the changing availability of resources (e.g., health‐related decline), for example, older people can maintain a high level of functioning and well‐being. Hopefully, the identification of processes underlying successful aging will help to enhance the quality of older person's lives in the future.
Current Perspectives in Educational Psychology
Authors: Reynolds William M. , Miller Gloria E.
Published: November 2003

This chapter provides an overview of research in Educational Psychology in the latter part of the twentieth century, with a focus on research and trends that have promise for the twenty‐first century. This chapter highlights research with ties to learning, motivation, and social processes encountered in school settings. Educational Psychology has contributed to our understanding of individual abilities; leaning and development; content areas such as literacy, mathematics, and technology; and our understanding of sociocultural, relational, and instructional classroom and school processes. This chapter provides an overview of the organization and content of the volume, and describes programmatic, research, and policies that have impacted the field of educational psychology.
Contemporary Theories of Intelligence
Authors: Sternberg Robert J.
Published: November 2003

The chapter begins with an overview of how theories of intelligence matter for theoretical and practical everyday life, followed by a review of classical and contemporary theories of intelligence. Contemporary theories of intelligence that have an important educational impact are presented and critically evaluated. An emphasis is placed on clarifyingimplicit theoriesof intelligence, or people's informal conceptions of intelligence, versusexplicit theoriesof intelligence, or experts' formal conceptions of what is intelligence. The chapter ends with challenges to current conceptions of intelligence that leads the reader to draw some important conclusions about the need for more careful analysis in the future.
Memory and Information Processes
Authors: Mayer Richard E.
Published: November 2003

This chapter provides an overview of precursors to the information processing view of learning and cognition and on research aimed at understanding how knowledge is represented and processed in human minds. Classic and the constructivist versions of an information processing view are described. Three major contributions of information processing theories are examined, including cognitive task analysis, the mental representations used to explain knowledge, memory, learning, and thinking, and architectural models of the human information processing system. Major assumptions underlying a contemporary information‐processing model are outlined to exemplify each of these points. Information processing theories of learning and cognition are related to three critical subject matter domains: reading, writing, and mathematics.
Metacognition and Learning
Authors: McCormick Christine B.
Published: November 2003

McCormick presents a brief historical overview of metacognition and its emergence in the early 1970's with a concentration on metamemory. Contemporary research that focuses on underlying metacognitive processes and concepts are reviewed as is research on the role of metacognition in individual and classroom learning. Contemporary research is reviewed on classroom interventions designed to facilitate the development of metacognition. Four areas for future research are outlined: how to more accurately assess metacognition; neuropsychological processes and their relation to metacognition; the role metacognition plays in bilingualism and the education of bilingual students; and how to best integrate metacognition into initial and ongoing teacher preparation programs.
Teaching Processes in Elementary and Secondary Education
Authors: Pressley Michael , Roehrig Alysia D. , Raphael Lisa , Dolezal Sara , Bohn Catherine , Mohan Lindsey , Wharton‐McDonald Ruth , Bogner Kristen , Hogan Kass
Published: November 2003

This chapter reviews the study of teaching in elementary and secondary schools. Information in the first section summarizes a large body of work by Pressley and his colleagues generated through longitudinal studies and qualitative analyses of classroom observations of teaching behaviors. Findings associated with this naturalistic work have led to a greater understanding of both direct transmission and constructivist teaching processes. The second section examines teachers' thinking about teaching and its associated affects on planning and direct acts of teaching. Motivational processes used by teachers in classrooms to stimulate student learning are the focus of the third section. The fourth section describes what expert teachers do as they teach.
Cooperative Learning and Achievement: Theory and Research
Authors: Slavin Robert E. , Hurley Eric A. , Chamberlain Anne
Published: November 2003

Slavin, Hurley, and Chamberlain present a historical review of cooperative learning. Four theoretical perspectives on cooperative learning and achievement are presented: Motivational, Social Cohesion, Cognitive Developmental, and Cognitive Elaboration Perspectives. In subsequent sections, critical philosophical differences are presented, particularly about where to locate motivation for learning behaviors, how to structure interactions among students, and how incentive and task structures impact forms of cooperative learning. In the final section, prospective areas for research are presented, and include a unified theoretical model that can guide future research efforts, inform educational practice, and foster the design of effective professional training and development.
Relationships Between Teachers and Children
Authors: Pianta Robert C. , Hamre Bridget , Stuhlman Megan
Published: November 2003

This chapter examines the expanding body of research that demonstrates the central role of teacher‐student relationships and its reciprocal effect on students' learning, achievement, and school engagement and teachers' sense of efficacy, job satisfaction and retention in teaching. Pianta and colleagues review current work on teacher‐student relationships that has identified qualitative and quantitative parameters in relational processes between children and adults and the central role of relationships in affecting overall school climate and student performance. In the final section ideas for future research are presented that include, assessments of multi‐level and multi‐system influences such as culture, policy and biological processes on classroom relations and processes.
Gender Issues in the Classroom
Authors: Koch Janice
Published: November 2003

Koch reviews the literature on gender socialization of students as they participate in the social and academic culture of the classroom. Research on classroom practices and policies that foster gender stereotypes and limit opportunity for females and males is followed by research on curriculum, classroom interaction, and school climates that promote gender equity. Information is presented on the importance of increasing educators' awareness of their gender expectations and how hidden curriculum and gender‐differentiated instruction can affect student learning social relations within the classroom. Sexual harassment in schools and policies and programs that interfere with equal access to education are examined from a developmental perspective as well as from a sociocultural perspective.
Early Childhood Education
Authors: Goelman Hillel , Andersen Catherine J. , Anderson Jim , Gouzouasis Peter , Kendrick Maureen , Kindler Anna M. , Porath Marion , Koh Jinyoung
Published: November 2003

Goelman and co‐authors review research in early childhood education. The authors provide a brief overview of how historical issues in early childhood education set the stage for contemporary research. Section one reviews research in learning and teaching across the domains of play, art, music, and literacy. In section two, issues of diversity and cultural pluralism and their impact on the field of early education are explored through a review of literature associated with giftedness, language learning, attachment, and temperament. The final section presents an integrative model of preschool learning and development and current thinking about best practices in compensatory education and early childcare programs.
Psychology of Literacy and Literacy Instruction
Authors: Pressley Michael
Published: November 2003

Pressley examines the research on literacy that has been contributed by psychologists. The chapter is organized along developmental lines, beginning in late infancy and proceeding through adulthood. Following the emphasis in pre‐ and early elementary school, there is a focus on the development of language and letter‐ and word‐level competencies in reading and writing. Next, is a focus on the development of fluent reading, vocabulary, then on comprehension and composition, and finally on advanced literacy skills essential to meet the learning demands of secondary and post‐secondary education. Adult literacy is reviewed in the final section, stressing research on what works for adults who did not develop literacy competencies.
Computers, the Internet, and New Media for Learning
Authors: Goldman‐Segall Ricki , Maxwell John W.
Published: November 2003

Goldman and Waxman present a historical review and prospective insights into technological advances that have shaped and have been shaped by our current notions of learners, learning, and teaching. They trace instructional technology from its behavioristic, computer‐administered drill and practice roots to the initial influence of the cognitive science revolution. Various analogies used to characterize the influence of computers in education are reviewed, including the computer as information source, as curriculum area, as communication medium, as tool, as environment, as partner, as scaffold, and as a perspectivity tool. Ideas forwarded stress the potential these innovations have for broadening conceptions of human functioning and fostering education.
School Psychology
Authors: Reschly Daniel J.
Published: November 2003

This chapter traces the early roots of school psychology, its origination in the practice of clinical psychology, and its more recent affiliation with the field of educational psychology. The emphasis of school psychology research has been on applied psychological principles that contribute to a greater understanding of individual differences in learning, development, and behavior, with a strong focus on the design of educational and mental health programs to accommodate these differences. This review points out how the field has been strongly influenced by societal trends and responses to meeting the needs of students with exceptionalities, and discusses contemporary and future challenges facing the field.
Learning Disabilities
Authors: Siegel Linda S.
Published: November 2003

Siegel describes issues and controversies related to current and newly proposed definitions of learning disabilities that include the use of intelligence as diagnostic criteria. Several critical controversies and questions are reviewed concerning whether learning disabilities is a specific, possibly neurologic type dysfunction and whether there are multiple subtypes of learning disabilities, specific to academic problem domains. In subsequent sections, research on reading and arithmetic disabilities and a description of related assessment requirements are presented. In the final section, recommendations and accommodations for the remediation of learning problems are presented.
Gifted Education Programs and Procedures
Authors: Olszewski‐Kubilius Paula
Published: November 2003

Olszewski‐Kubilius reviews work focused on defining characteristics of gifted children as well as on demonstrating important implications for education. Key research is presented to support the striking capabilities of gifted children and the increasing evidence of the stability of exceptional abilities. Considerable evidence is presented on inter‐ and intra‐individual variance, asynchronous development, and distinct ability profiles. Difficulties associated with current definitions of giftedness and the overall limitations of traditional and standardized intelligence measures for the early identification of giftedness are discussed. The chapter ends with an analysis of programs and practices currently employed across the country to address the needs of these students.
Educational/Psychological Intervention Research
Authors: Levin Joel R. , O'Donnell Angela M. , Kratochwill Thomas R.
Published: November 2003

Levin, O'Donnell, and Kratochwill focus on recommendations for improving the nature and quality of educational research. Recognizing the inherent difficulties in conducting educational research and the importance of bridging many different communities across a wide array of academic disciplines, there is a call for a broad array of methodologies that lead to rigorous inquiry standards. A framework for enhancing the evidence credibility of educational research follows an overview and critique of contemporary methodological issues. Promising methodological developments in instructional research are brought forward. A continuum is proposed for guiding inquiry from rich description to objective, empirical methods that can lead to more valid prescriptions for future educational interventions.
Future Perspectives in Educational Psychology
Authors: Miller Gloria E. , Reynolds William M.
Published: November 2003

Miller and Reynolds highlight critical theoretical, research, and practice issues likely to inform and direct the field of educational psychology in the twenty‐first century. Innovations and developments with the most promise for improving our understanding of learners, learning, and instruction in the future were identified, as were unresolved theoretical, methodological, and practical issues in need of further clarification and research. Issues that consistently surfaced across chapters are synthesized and themes and exemplars from educational psychology research are presented. The chapter concludes with an overview of prospective issues relevant to transforming the vast empirical knowledge base from the field of educational psychology into sound educational policy and reform.
Diagnosis and Classification
Authors: Nathan Peter E. , Langenbucher James
Published: November 2003

Fundamental to the science and practice of clinical psychology is a valid diagnostic nomenclature. Clinicians and researchers need a common language with which to describe and discuss what they are treating and studying. This chapter begins with an overview of the nature of diagnosis and classification. The history of the diagnosis of psychopathology is then briefly described, including the editions of the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Emphasis is given to issues of reliability, diagnostic stability, utility, cultural biases, and validity. Major controversies of the current diagnostic nomenclature are then discussed, including comorbidity, bias, the preference for categories or dimensions, and the definition of mental disorder. The chapter concludes with a presentation of new methods for diagnostic research.
Disorders of Childhood and Adolescence
Authors: Mash Eric J. , Wolfe David A.
Published: November 2003

Current knowledge of child and adolescent disorders is compromised by a lack of child‐specific theories. Despite the increasing attention to disorders of childhood and adolescence, there remain fewer categories for diagnosing mental disorders in children than in adults. Despite these caveats, tremendous advances have been made in the last decade with respect to childhood psychopathology. New conceptual frameworks, new knowledge, and new research methods have greatly enhanced our understanding of childhood disorders. This chapter demonstrates these advances with respect to the broad domains of externalizing disorders (e.g., disruptive behavior disorders) and internalizing disorders (mood and anxiety disorders). Considered within this chapter are the phenomenology, epidemiology, developmental course, associated features, and proposed causes. Integrative developmental pathway models for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and anxiety disorders of childhood are provided. The chapter concludes with a discussion of current issues and future directions for the field.
Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders
Authors: Fowles Donald C.
Published: November 2003

Schizophrenia, like all conceptualizations of psychopathology, is a hypothetical construct that clinicians and scientists have developed in an attempt to capture a complex reality. Generally, schizophrenia is a diagnosis applied to persons who manifest some combination of hallucinations, delusions, thought disorder, and bizarre or disorganized behavior. Although these features are seen in persons diagnosed with schizophrenia, the heterogeneity of schizophrenia has hindered attempts at simple conceptualizations. Three issues in particular are emphasized in this chapter: chronic versus episodic course, positive versus negative symptoms, and the presence of affective symptoms. The conceptualization of schizophrenia in this chapter attempts to account for this heterogeneity while retaining the parsimonious assumption of an underlying schizophrenic process varying in severity as a function of genetic liability. By hypothesizing two affective neurobehavioral systems that contribute different types of nonspecific liability and have different affects on behavior, it might be possible to account for the important aspects of this heterogeneity without losing the construct of schizophrenia as a relatively distinct phenomenon.
Anxiety Disorders
Authors: Barlow David H. , Pincus Donna B. , Heinrichs Nina , Choate Molly L.
Published: November 2003

The purpose of this chapter is to provide a comprehensive review of what is known about the etiology and pathology of anxiety disorders across the lifespan, highlighting in particular developmental differences in the expression of individual anxiety disorders. Anxiety is implicated heavily across the full range of psychopathology. Anxiety is a future‐oriented emotion characterized by marked negative affect, bodily symptoms of tension, and chronic apprehension. Fear, on the other hand, is an immediate alarm reaction to present danger characterized by strong escapist action tendencies. Anxiety, fear, and panic are the building blocks of anxiety disorders, arranging themselves in different ways as they focus on varying internal and external stimuli that have become imbued with threat or danger to form the commonly recognized variants of anxiety disorder. Included within this chapter will be separation anxiety disorder, obsessive‐compulsive disorder, specific phobias, social phobia, panic disorder (with and without agoraphobia), and generalized anxiety disorder. Covered for each disorder will be clinical presentation, prevalence, demographics, comorbidity, cultural influences, developmental changes, and etiology.
Personality Disorders
Authors: Trull Timothy J. , Widiger Thomas A.
Published: November 2003

Personality disorders are diagnosed on a separate axis in the American Psychiatric Association'sDiagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disordersin recognition of their prevalence and their impact on the treatment and course of most every other mental disorder. Ten personality disorders are included in DSM‐IV: paranoid, schizoid, schizotypal, antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic, avoidant, dependent, and obsessive‐compulsive. The phenomenology, epidemiology, etiology, childhood development, and pathology of each are discussed. Also discussed are issues of gender and culture bias, comorbidity, and the conceptualization of personality disorders as maladaptive variants of common personality traits. This alternative conceptualization is in contrast to the current DSM‐IV conceptualization of personality disorders as disorders with specific etiologies and pathologies that are qualitatively distinct from general personality functioning.
Eating Disorders
Authors: Steiger Howard , Bruce Kenneth R. , Israël Mimi
Published: November 2003

In a social context that equates thinness with many social values, it is not surprising to find that most people display body‐image and diet self‐consciousness, and that an alarming number of these persons (especially young women) progress to the development of an eating disorder. Anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa are the two primary variants of eating disorder recognized within authoritative diagnostic nomenclatures. However, binge eating disorder is likely to become a third, officially recognized variant of eating disorder in future editions of diagnostic manuals. Anorexia, bulimia, and binge eating are polysymptomatic syndromes defined by maladaptive attitudes and behaviors around eating, weight and body image, and more nonspecific disturbances of self‐image, mood, impulse‐regulation, and interpersonal functioning. Reviewed in this chapter are pathognomonic features of the eating disorders, findings on concurrent traits and comorbid psychopathology, and putative biological, psychological, and social factors that may explain their etiology and development.
Stress Disorders
Authors: Cardeña Etzel , Butler Lisa D. , Spiegel David
Published: November 2003

Reviewed in this chapter are the concepts of stress and trauma. Included within the chapter are such mental disorders as post‐traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), complex PTSD, acute stress disorder, dissociative disorders (dissociative identity, amnesia, fugue, and depersonalization), and conversion disorder. These disorders are classified within three different sections of the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and StatisticalManual of Mental Disorders, but they are conceptualized within this chapter as sharing a common etiology and pathology (and ultimately treatment implications). Extreme stress or trauma can have only a transient effect and it may even have for some a life‐transforming positive effect (e.g., greater investment in and appreciation of life). However, for many persons it can shatter their sense of security, attachment, and safety, contributing to the development of clinically significant anxiety, dissociative, and somatoform psychopathology. The dissociative disorders have been particularly controversial but compelling systematic research has documented well their validity and clinical importance.
Psychodynamic Psychotherapy
Authors: McWilliams Nancy , Weinberger Joel
Published: November 2003

The intellectual, social, and professional contexts in which Freud developed his ideas about psychotherapy are discussed, reviewing the different models (topographic, economic, dynamic, and genetic) subsumed under his early drive‐conflict theory. The development of his later structural (id, ego, superego) model and the emphasis on defense and adaptation characteristic of the ego psychology tradition that derived from that paradigm are then addressed. British object relations and American interpersonal theories, the self‐psychology movement, and contemporary intersubjective and relational contributions to the psychoanalytic clinical literature are reviewed. In each section, both the context in which innovative theoretical contributions arose (especially the type of patient with whom the theorist worked) and the implications of the different paradigms for psychotherapy are addressed. Research is examined that is pertinent to the ingredients of the psychodynamic therapies as they have been empirically found to be practiced, covering studies of affective expression, attention to defense, identification of patient problems, interest in effects of past experiences, focus on interpersonal experiences, emphasis on the therapeutic relationship (the therapeutic alliance and transference), and exploration of dreams, wishes, and fantasies. Finally, outcome studies in psychoanalysis and long‐term psychodynamic therapy are reviewed and recommendations for further research are made.
Behavioral and Cognitive‐Behavioral Psychotherapy
Authors: Craighead W. Edward , Craighead Linda Wilcoxon
Published: November 2003

This chapter describes the development and evolution of Behavior Therapy during the 1950s and 1960s. Although Cognitive Therapy began somewhat independently of BT, it is argued that during the 1970s the basic scientific assumptions between BT and CT led to their integration in CBT. One of the fundamental hallmarks of this approach to clinical work is the investigation of the efficacy and effectiveness of the interventions, so the remainder of the chapter reviews the treatment outcome studies with a variety of disorders. For historical reasons, the review section first discusses anxiety disorders, and reports that various forms of CBT are among the treatments of choice for most of these disorders. Both BT and CBT were reported to be effective for both eating disorders and obesity. Behavioral marital therapy for married depressed individuals and short‐term individual BT and CBT have been demonstrated to be effective for clinical depressive disorders. Both individual CBT and behaviorally based family therapy have been effective when combined with psychotropic medications for both bipolar disorder and various forms of schizophrenia. Future work needs to focus on maintenance of intervention effects, Axis II disorders (which to have a major impact on relapse), and the role of emotion in the therapeutic process.
Psychotherapy Integration
Authors: Castonguay Louis G. , Reid Jack J. , Halperin Gregory S. , Goldfried Marvin R.
Published: November 2003

In sharp contrast to the acrimonious debates that prevailed for a long time in psychotherapy, a movement of rapprochement and integration has emerged among major theoretical orientations (psychodynamic, cognitive‐behavioral, and humanistic). The first section of this chapter presents a number of empirical, conceptual, and clinical factors that have facilitated the emergence of this movement. The major trends of current integrative efforts are then described. The chapter ends with a brief description of the directions that the integration movement should be taking in the near future in order to maximize its contributions to the development of psychotherapy.
Family Psychotherapy
Authors: Mirsalimi Hamid , Perleberg Stephanie H. , Stovall Erica L. , Kaslow Nadine J.
Published: November 2003

To set the stage for this chapter, background information is presented on family systems theory. This is followed by a section on the characteristics of individual families, which emphasizes family development; family structures/types; family normalcy/health and dysfunction; and meaning, beliefs, and rituals. Attention is then turned to a discussion of the major theoretical models that serve as the basis for family therapy as it is practiced today. The family therapy models that are examined include: psychodynamically oriented, experiential/humanistic, communication, strategic, structural, behavioral and cognitive‐behavioral, transgenerational, psychoeducational, and systemic/Milan. This is followed by a brief review of more current and evolving approaches such as solution‐focused, solution‐oriented, reflecting team, externalization and reauthoring lives and relationships, therapeutic conversations, and integrative. Information is also presented on culturally competent family therapy and gender‐sensitive approaches to family therapy. Specific applications of family therapy are delineated related to medical problems, substance abuse, and family violence. After a presentation of the major empirical findings related to the efficacy and effectiveness of family intervention approaches, future directions for practice and research within the field of family therapy are provided.
Brief Psychotherapies
Authors: Messer Stanley B. , Sanderson William C. , Gurman Alan S.
Published: November 2003

Several factors have contributed to the increasing popularity of brief forms of psychotherapy. Among the most significant are: (1) cost‐saving measures such as managed care which has decreased the number of therapy sessions covered and (2) scientific studies demonstrating the efficacy of brief therapies for a variety of problems. These factors and others, such as the sharp increase of two‐earner families and the consequent decrease in leisure time, have increased the acceptance of brief therapy by clients and therapists as an alternative to long‐term, traditional therapies.

Brief therapy is not merely less therapy. As will be reviewed in this chapter, there are several brief psychotherapies that are structured and planned to maximize efficiency. Factors such as formulating and working within a therapeutic focus, setting time limits and goals, and increased therapist activity all have the potential to bring about change in a timely way. This chapter provides a state‐of‐the‐art review of six major forms of brief psychotherapy: Brief Psychodynamic Therapy, Cognitive Behavior Therapy, Brief Marital and Family Therapy, Brief Experiential Therapy, Strategic Therapy, and Brief Integrative‐Eclectic Therapy. The following information is presented for each of these modes of psychotherapy: Historical overview, selection criteria, techniques used in therapy, theory of change, supporting research, and future directions.
Crisis Intervention
Authors: Brown Lisa M. , Shiang Julia , Bongar Bruce
Published: November 2003

Crisis intervention services are now widely recognized as an efficacious treatment modality for the provision of emergency mental health care to individuals and groups. During the course of a lifetime, all people experience a variety of personal traumas, such as divorce or illness, while many others will also live through cataclysmic events, such as natural disasters or acts of violence, that result in a state of crisis. Although exposure to traumatic stressors can trigger adverse, long‐term effects that can become extremely difficult to resolve without the timely delivery of effective, psychological intervention, crisis states can also provide an avenue for personal growth. This chapter presents a summary of the historical highlights and the theoretical influences on the development of modem crisis intervention theory. An overview of solution focused therapy, cognitive therapy, and other useful techniques are presented along with the differences and similarities in the delivery of emergency mental health services to individuals and groups. Case examples are used to illustrate the implementation of specific assessments and interventions in providing crisis intervention services. A general framework for collaborating with law enforcement and other agencies providing emergency care providers is presented. Cultural considerations in the context of a crisis, current research, and relevant legal issues are reviewed.