bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The torsion pendulum
Authors: Baker Gregory L , Blackburn James A
Published: November 2023

The restoring forces responsible for harmonic motion in a conventional pendulum are provided by the local gravitational field. A grandfather clock, standing on the surface of the Moon, will run slow. A grandfather clock, ﬂoating in interplanetary space, will not ‘‘tick’’ at all. Gravity on the Moon is reduced; in free space it is zero.

But if, by the term pendulum, we mean to suggest the rather general situation of a hanging mass executing periodic motion, then in principle different types of pendula could be created by devising configurations for which other forms of restoring force arise. For example, in a torsion pendulum, a mass-structure is suspended from a thin fiber that is anchored securely at its other end as shown in Fig. 5.1.
The chaotic pendulum
Authors: Baker Gregory L , Blackburn James A
Published: November 2023

Much of the history of physics has been characterized by the effort to understand, in great detail, increasingly smaller pieces of nature; beginning with classical particles and waves, and progressing to molecules, atoms, nuclei, and elementary particles. This trend became especially pronounced in the twentieth century with the development of sophisticated experi mental apparatus capable of probing deeply into nature’s innermost parts. Aside from the sense that one is closer to reality at the deeper levels of nature, it is plausible to assume that a clear understanding of the small pieces of nature will lead to a clear view of the large picture. The whole is presumed equal to the sum of its parts. This approach is sometimes call reductionism.

More recently, in certain areas of physics, the opposite methodology has proved fruitful. New structure and organization may become evident when there is complexity, large numbers of parts, several degrees of freedom, or even just sufficient energy to make a discrete change in the system. Indeed, sometimes the whole is more than the sum of its parts. This creation of new richness of behavior often occurs in the study of processes that are pushed well beyond their equilibrium configurations. Researchers find new levels of organization, new complexity that does not seem to be obvious from a consideration of the individual parts of the process (Prigogine 1980). For example, if reactants are forced rapidly into certain chemical reactions, the resultant products may show spatial or temporal ordering (Zhabotinskii 1991). Or convective systems with large temperature gradients may exhibit new structural or dynamic organization of ﬂuid motion. Even the motion of the humble pendulum achieves a new level of complexity if it is driven energetically at nonresonant frequencies.
The Dynamical Equations
Authors: Darrigol Olivier
Published: November 2023

Modern derivations of the fundamental equations for non-viscous fluids have an air of evidence. The fluid is divided into volume elements, and the acceleration of a volume element is equated to a force divided by a mass. The force on the element dτ is the sum of an external action fdτ (e.g. gravity) and of the resultant -( ▽P)dt of the pressures exerted on the surface of the element by the surrounding fluid. If v (r, t) denotes the velocity of the fluid at the point r and time t, and r (t) is the position of the element at time t, then the acceleration of the element is the time derivative of v [r(t), t], that is, ∂v= ∂tþ (v • ∂)v. The mass of the element is the product of its density ρ and its volume dτ. Hence Euler’s equation follows:
Viscosity
Authors: Darrigol Olivier
Published: November 2023

In the early nineteenth century, the rational fluid mechanics of d’Alembert, Euler, and Lagrange remained irrelevant to the mundane problems of pipe flow and ship resistance. Engineers had their own empirical formulas, and mathematicians their own paper theory of perfectly unresisted flow. A similar contrast existed in the case of elasticity: the formulas established by mathematicians for the flexion of prisms were of little help in evaluating the limits of rupture in physical constructions. In the 1820s and 1830s, a new breed of French engineer–mathematicians trained at the Ecole Polytechnique, mainly Navier, Cauchy, and Saint-Venant, struggled to fill this gap between theory and practice. As a preliminary step toward a more realistic theory of elasticity, in 1821 Navier announced the general equations of equilibrium and motion for an (isotropic, one-constant) elastic body. Transposing his reasoning to fluids, he soon obtained a new hydrodynamic equation for viscous flow, namely the Navier–Stokes equation.
Turbulence
Authors: Darrigol Olivier
Published: November 2023

If the velocities [of water in rivers] remained constant in each point of the traversed space, the surface of the liquid would look like a plate of ice and the herbs growing at the bottom would be equally motionless. Far from that, the stream presents incessant agitation and tumultuous, disordered movements, so that the velocities change in an abrupt and most diverse manner from one point to another and from one instant to the next. As noted by Leonardo da Vinci, Venturi, and especially Poncelet, one can perceive eddies, large and small, with a vertical mobile axis. One can also see, at the surface, bouillons, or eddies with a nearly horizontal axis, that constantly surge from the bottom and thus form genuine ruptures, with the intertwining and mixing motions that M. Boileau observed in his experiments. (Adhémar Barré de Saint-Venant, 1872)

Hard to gain though it may be, any understanding of hydrodynamic instabilities is of a negative kind. Namely, it only tells us when and why the rigorous solutions of the hydrodynamic equations under given boundary conditions fail to represent natural flows. It does not tell us much on the sort of motion into which the unstable system settles after perturbation. From common observations, everyone knows the great complexity of this motion. The capricious eddying of water behind obstacles, or the hesitating, convoluted rise of smoke from a fire have indeed inspired poets with metaphors for the unpredictability of human life.
The Elasticity of Long-Chain Molecules
Authors: Treloar L R G
Published: November 2023

THE preceding chapters have set out the basic concepts of the kinetic theory of rubber elasticity and discussed in general thermodynamic terms some of its most characteristic consequences. We have seen that in its dependence on the changes of conformation of long-chain molecules the elasticity of rubber stands in striking contrast, both physically and thermodynamically, to the elasticity of an ordinary solid such as a crystal or a glass. We now proceed to the next stage in the development of the kinetic theory, which consists in the quantitative derivation of the actual mechanical properties of a rubber in terms of its molecular constitution.
Experimental Examination of the Statistical Theory
Authors: Treloar L R G
Published: November 2023

IN the last chapter we saw that the statistical network theory leads to an expression for the work of deformation in a pure homogeneous strain of the most general type (eqn (4.9)), and to corresponding general stress-strain relations (eqns (4.18)), which involve only a single material constant or modulus, which is related to the degree of cross-linking or number of chains per unit volume of the network (eqn 4.9b)). Attempts to verify the theory by comparison with the actual properties of rubbers have been concerned both with the form of the stress-strain relations, and with the comparison of the measured value of the modulus with that deried from chemical estimates of the degree of cross-linking.
Evolving together
Authors: Mayhew Peter J
Published: November 2023

In much of the last two chapters we attempted to explain the outcome of ecological interactions by assuming one species evolving in relation to constraints provided by another, evolutionarily static, species. Of course there is no reason why this process need be so one-way, and if it is not, then it is essential that the reciprocal evolution of both species in an interaction be considered. Such reciprocal evolution of interacting species is called co-evolution. The aim of co-evolutionary studies is to predict or understand the evolutionary dynamics and evolutionary outcomes that result from species interactions. The subject actually has one of the longest histories of any in evolutionary ecology, with basic concepts and theory dating to the 1950s (see Thompson 1999).
Big evolution
Authors: Mayhew Peter J
Published: November 2023

Up until now the book has been concerned with the properties of individual lineages and how they change through time: so-called ‘microevolution’. Our focus in microevolution has been mostly on how the average properties of a species may change and why they were of a certain observed value as opposed to some other hypothetical values. This is a natural stance to take, because intraspecific variation tends to be small in comparison with interspecific variation, hence, we can justify to some extent treating species as single points in the moving cloud of phenotype space (though see Chapter 11). Evolutionary biologists can also consider the properties of clades of lineages: so-called ‘macroevolution’ (Figure 14.1).
David G. Lloyd and the evolution of floral biology: from natural history to strategic analysis
Authors: Barrett Spencer C H , Harder Lawrence D
Published: November 2023

David G. Lloyd’s scholarly contributions provide the conceptual foundation for many aspects of plant reproductive biology. Here we provide a biographical sketch of Lloyd’s life, trace his intellectual development, and highlight the main research problems that he tackled during his 30-year career. Our review reveals how Lloyd started as a botanist making natural history observations in the classic Darwinian tradition. As his career progressed, Lloyd embraced the optimality approach of evolutionary ecology, enabling him to provide some of the first strategic analyses of plant reproductive adaptations. Many of Lloyd’s ideas have influenced contemporary research and we identify four major areas in which he made seminal contributions: self- and cross-fertilization, gender strategies, allocation strategies and floral mechanisms.
Between cortex and the basal ganglia: Neuroscientific Accounts Of Voluntary Action
Authors: Roth Gerhard
Published: November 2023

The study of voluntary action has a long tradition in neurobiology and neurology, especially because of the consequences of impairment in the motor system, such as in Parkinson’s disease or in Chorea Huntington. Usually, voluntary actions are experienced consciously and are accompanied by the feeling that they originate from within ourselves—as opposed to being a reflex. In more neurological and neurobiological terms, voluntary actions include all kinds of behaviour that can be started, restrained, or changed during its course and can vary in intensity. They can typically improve through practice, as in the case of driving a car, cycling, or playing the piano. Characteristically, they first require conscious control in the form of attention and concentration, and an explicit act of will, but the more they are perfected and stereotyped, the less they require conscious control, including an act of will. Interestingly—despite this process of automation and decoupling from consciousness—we still attribute these movements to ourselves.
Mental causation: the Supervenience argument and the proportionality constraint
Authors: SchrÖDer JÜRgen
Published: November 2023

One central aspect of the mind-body problem traditionally has been the question: ‘How can the mind influence the body, and how it is possible that mental items like intentions and beliefs can make a difference to how we act’. By the times of Descartes this question threatened to undermine his substance dualism because it was not at all clear how something immaterial could change the course of the material particles out of which the human body is composed. Later on, when the conservation of energy was discovered, it was thought that a causal influence from an immaterial soul to a material brain would violate this conservation law because any time there is a mental change, energy would disappear from the brain, and any time there is a mentally induced change in the brain, energy would be created. Although this problem did much to weaken the support for substance dualism, there were still those who sought to render mental causation compatible with the conservation of energy by appealing to quantum effects (e.g. Eccles, 1989).
Rational And Irrational Intentions: An Argument For Externalism
Authors: Vossenkuhl Wilhelm
Published: November 2023

There is plenty of evidence, for instance, in mathematics, the sciences, and economics, that rationality is paramount to all other cognitive powers. There is further evidence that intentions are borne and originate in the mind. We therefore might be inclined to conclude that rational intentions are brought about in the mind internally by the best of all cognitive powers. In this case it would be enough to analyse mental representations that are antecedent to decision making in order to find the basic ingredients causing rational or irrational intentions.
Bird population dynamics, management, and conservation: the role of mathematical modelling
Authors: Lebreton J -D , Clobert J
Published: November 2023

In the real world animal populations rarely show simple patterns of growth such as the exponential or logistic model: most of the time complex mechanisms interact over time in an intrinsically multiplicative process. This complexity limits the value of intuitive reasoning or of simple models. In a parallel way, biological goals in studies of the dynamics of bird populations are very diverse, ranging e.g. from deciding if a population is stable in numbers, to assessing the effects of dispersal at various levels in time and space. This might be used equally to fight a pest as to predict the risk of extinction of an endangered population.
Effects of predation on the numbers of Great Tits Parus major
Authors: Mccleery R H , Perrins C M
Published: November 2023

The Great Tit, Parus major is one of the most intensively studied small birds in the world and, more importantly perhaps, has been the subject of a number of long-term studies from which some conclusions can be drawn about the dynamics of populations. The longest running study was that started in the Netherlands by H. Wolda (Kluijver 1951) and continued in the Hoge Veluwe (van Balen 1980) and on the island of Vlieland. The Oxford study was started in Wytham Woods by Drs D. Lack and J. A. Gibb in 1947 (e.g. Lack 1966); initially this study was confined to a relatively small area of the woods, Marley Wood, but was extended to cover the whole of Wytham Woods during the years 1958-65. Few breeding adults were trapped before 1960 and from 1960-4 only females were caught, so for studies such as this one, involving survival rates of individuals, 1965 marks the beginning of the usable data set.
Survival rates of Greater Flamingos in the west Mediterranean region
Authors: Johnson A R , Green R E , Hirons G J M
Published: November 2023

Flamingos lay their eggs on the ground or in raised mud nests and breed in large, dense colonies. In spite of the numbers of adult birds present at colonies they are ineffective in deterring predators from taking eggs or young. Even birds much smaller than Flamingos, such as gulls, are able to take eggs with little difficulty. Therefore, successful breeding depends on the inaccessibility of colonies. Consequently, these are usually on islands and set in large desolate areas rarely penetrated by mammalian predators (Cramp and Simmons 1977).
Analysis and ecological correlates of tick burdens in a New Guinea avifauna
Authors: Pruett-Jones Melinda , Pruett-Jones Stephen
Published: November 2023

Ticks (Arachnida: Acari) are nearly ubiquitous ectoparasites of terrestrial vertebrates. Although taxonomically conservative, with approximately 800 species in 20 genera in three families (Ixodidae, Argasidae, and Nuttalliellidae; Hoogstraal 1978), ticks are geographically widely distributed, being found on all continents, and most islands (Hoogstraal 1973). They infest most orders and families of mammals, reptiles, and birds and are vectors for a number of pathogens which are known to adversely affect the survival and reproduction of both human and nonhuman hosts (Hoogstraal 1966; Wilde 1978). As vectors of human diseases, ticks rank second only to mosquitoes (Obenchain and Galun 1982). With respect to bird populations, effects of tick infestations on reproduction include mortality of young, nest failure, and nest desertion (Duffy 1983, and references therein).
Effects of avian host age and arbovirus infection on mosquito attraction and blood-feeding success
Authors: Scott Thomas W , Edman John D
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we review the role of birds in arthropod-borne virus (arbovirus) transmission cycles with emphasis on interactions between avian hosts and mosquito vectors. Our discussion begins with an introduction to the role of birds in arbovirus transmission and is followed by a summary of contemporary thoughts on attraction of mosquitoes to birds and on avian defensive behaviour toward mosquitoes that are attempting to blood feed. The last section of the chapter addresses research that we conducted to determine how avian host age and virus infection status affect the attraction and blood-feeding success of mosquitoes.
The need for a worldwide botanical referenee system
Authors: Lucas G Ll.
Published: November 2023

The taxonomists of the world have been struggling to identify, name and classify the world’s flora now in a systematic way for nearly 250 years. We have been very conscientious; there are nearly one million names in the Index Kewensis to prove it. However, we all know there are probably only about 250 000 species covered by those names and of course there are still many species to be discovered, named, and classified. What must we do, therefore, to help the user community to have full access to our combined knowledge to help them with their specific needs? Simply, they need a basic system that identifies the entities, gives them a name, and shows how they relate to one another, and what their distributions are. How simple it sounds-but it doesn’t exist. Because this system doesn’t exist, others (lawyers and legislators) are taking the decisions and in doing so are putting taxonomists to one side. We have to take the high ground again by providing such a system: a reliable and permanent system. But what is essential is that the taxonomists design and run the system. Hence one element of this programme is the Species Plantarum Project. It must be an international collaborative venture to show that we, the taxonomic community, can provide what the world needs. More importantly we need to start now. It is a big task and the sooner it is started the sooner it will be finished.
Standard and alternative taxonomic data in the multi-institutional Natural Heritage Data Center Network
Authors: Morse Larry E
Published: November 2023

Natural Heritage Inventory Programs (or Conservation Data Centers), established with the assistance of The Nature Conservancy, operate in all 50 US states, two Canadian provinces, Puerto Rico, and 13 Latin American nations. A highly integrated database system in Advanced Revelation is supplied to these data centres by the Conservancy. Each inventory maintains a classification file, using locally acceptable taxonomies, of species and natural communities of conservation importance in their state or nation, as well as full species lists for vertebrate animals and, increasingly, vascular plants. Conservation priorities are determined for each entity (‘element’) on these lists from a state, national, and global perspective. Locality-by-locality occurrence data for priority elements is mapped, computer indexed, and used in conservation planning and environmental review. Central databases at the Conservancy’s headquarters include the conservation status of each species of interest, as well as its distribution and various additional biological, ecological, and management data. For the better known groups of plants and animals, the Conservancy adopts a widely used standard classification, such as the Kartesz checklist for vascular plants of North America. Major monographs are used when no regional flora is available. Co-operating programmes are encouraged to follow these specified classifications to the extent they can, and itemize any divergences they make. Taxon and name codes link synonymy and variant usages, so data can be consolidated under the standard species for range-wide assessments and reports. Simple synonyms, such as differences in generic.
A view of the future for floristic research
Authors: GÓmez-Pompa Arturo , Plummer Orlay Edward
Published: November 2023

Floristic research faces the challenge of major losses of its study material: plant diversity, especially in the tropics. One outlook on this challenge is to increase our efforts in describing the plants before they become extinct. Another is to modify the forces that are threatening this biodiversity so we can have more time to do the urgently needed research and with luck more plants will escape extinction. The one outlook that we all tend to reject is to continue as we have been doing and let what will be become reality. Accepting this challenge entails a close analysis of the current manner and means of floristic research in terms of how well our current procedures are meeting it and how can we change them in order to better meet it. The experience of the Flora of Veracruz The experience of the flora for the state of Veracruz illustrates the issues. In 1967 the Flora de Veracruz was begun (Gomez-Pompa and Nevling 1988). The project faced real and great difficulties because of the scarce resources in Mexico for this type of research-a very poor herbarium and library and a very limited number of trained taxonomists.
Instability in biological nomenclature: problems and solutions
Authors: Mcneill J
Published: November 2023

The species is a human concept that has proven useful in categonzmg natural diversity, but there is not necessarily a single correct species circumscription in any particular group of organisms. Legitimate diversity of view is even greater for other ranks. Any species information system requires as its core feature an unambiguous reference system for the basic components, the species. Since 1753 (1758 for animals) the binomial system of nomenclature introduced by Linnaeus has generally served this function. The development of this in the present-day International Code of Botanical Nomenclature specifies that ‘each taxonomic group [e.g. a species] with a particular circumscription, position and rank can bear only one correct name . . .’ This highlights the sources of in-built instability in this system in that changes of circumscription, position, and rank can, and generally will, induce changes in the basic reference system, which in turn will tend to create ambiguity. Alternative systems are discussed and their inadequacies noted. The limitations of the type method of applying names, the need to accommodate alternative taxonomic treatments while recognizing the demand for a single preferred treatment, and some necessary components of an optimal species-based reference system are discussed. Means of minimizing instability are noted and a plea is made for greater participation by designers and users of a global plant species information system in the process of developing and modifying the internationally established rules governing the nomenclature of biological organisms.
Lists of names in current use and their possible role in a global plant species information system
Authors: Greuter Werner
Published: November 2023

Changes in taxonomy unavoidably result in name changes. As long as scientific plant names reflect the accepted position and rank of a taxon, and as long as taxonomy progresses, such changes must be accepted. ‘Consensus taxonomy’ cannot be the final answer. Lack of certainty with respect to basic nomenclatural parameters also results in nomenclatural instability. Such uncertainty may concern priority (date of publication, existence of overlooked earlier synonyms or homonyms), availability (effectivity and validity of publication, legitimacy of names), application (choice and identity of nomenclatural types), and minor points such as correct orthography and gender. In order to avoid such uncertainty and the resulting instability, the compilation of vetted lists of names in current use is being actively promoted by IUBS and IAPT, among others.
Botanical strategies for compiling a global plant checklist
Authors: Bisby Frank A
Published: November 2023

Compiling an integrated world checklist of plants is not a simple matter. Alternative treatments, problems of taxonomic integrity, poorly known groups, and partial taxonomic treatments each provide particular problems to be overcome. The two main strategies for achieving a complete checklist, flora-by-flora and family-by-family differ markedly in the level and stage at which these problems are met. The seeming advantage of family-by-family has to be balanced against the larger fraction of plants available by the flora-by-flora route. In practice the choices are limited by availability and a global project will have to pick and mix between sources. The co-ordinated plan proposed is to use family-by-family for all groups where it is available; to follow this with flora-by-flora for all remaining groups; and finally to revert to piecemeal compilation for plants covered by neither route.
Botanical decision-making and data-collection strategies—the role of small institutions
Authors: Eggli Urs
Published: November 2023

The many small institutions in the botanical and systematic community are highly heterogeneous, but can be characterized by low budgets and few scientific staff. The few of them active in research are potential contributors: the many more active, say, in public education and displays are potential users. The participation of small institutions, whether as contributors or as users implies certain constraints on a general information system. Copyright and ownership must be clarified both so that contributions can be made by a range of sorts of small institution, and so that the whole system can be used by them. Hardware and software choices must allow for the low-cost mass-market machines used in small institutions. This may impose technical restrictions for instance on character sets. Entry to the system, as contributor or as user, must include low-cost options for those that clearly cannot pay the full cost of what they are using. Introduction The task of outlining the participation possibilities of small institutions in the context of a global plant species information system is not an easy one. Apart from the difficulty of defining the term ‘small institution’, the group of organizations and institutions probably falling under this term will be extremely heterogeneous, and it is difficult to establish a common base of needs and wishes or possibilities of co-operation.
Designing a world service: a BIOSIS viewpoint
Authors: Dadd* Michael N , Kellyꝉ Maureen C
Published: November 2023

Experience in the compilation and distribution of bibliographic and factual databases covering the world literature in biology provides a number of lessons relevant to the design of a global plant species information system. A common problem to many non-taxonomists is the need to produce lists of organisms, or to verify that names, often from conflicting sources, are ‘correct’, all without becoming submerged in a mass of irrelevant taxonomic detail. In developing a system, it is important to consider what advantages it will offer over existing services, and to make sure that the needs of the users, not the needs that the developers think that the users have, are met. In addition to the basic service, system design must take account of the need to make the user aware of the service, and subsequently for user training and support. The differences in approach between the academic and commercial worlds to both the technology and the costs of exchanging information are also important. The technologically most advanced solutions are not necessarily the most suitable in this case. BIOSIS BIOSIS is an independent, not-for-profit publisher of printed and computer-readable products in the life sciences, established in 1926. It is governed by a Board of Trustees drawn from both the academic and industrial sectors.
Networks and communications: the Internet
Authors: Roubicek Karen C
Published: November 2023

A design for a global plant species information system must provide for mechanisms that facilitate collaboration and communications between geographically separated research groups working on common problems and that provide remote access to unique resources. Computer networks reach users at thousands of institutions in countries throughout the world. Wide-area computer networks, once the exclusive domain of computer scientists, have become an indispensable tool to members of the scientific community. Researchers in biology, physics, chemistry, and other disciplines routinely use supercomputers, databases, and on-line bibliographic information regardless of their locations. As the academic, government, and industrial sectors within and outside the United States commit more resources to communications infrastructures, the use of applications such as videoteleconferencing and high-resolution image transfer will become more common. New developments in very-high-speed networking and networked digital library systems will play an important role in the way that scientists do their work and in the kinds of research that they can pursue.
Alternative models for taxonomic data
Authors: Zellweger* Catherine , Allkinꝉ Robert
Published: November 2023

A sequential series of data analysis and design stages should precede implementation of any information system. This chapter describes the sequential nature of design and then concentrates on the earliest, more conceptual stages. We emphasize that important botanical decisions are necessary at the beginning of any project and explore the repurcussions of such design decisions. The first design step is to generate a conceptual model for a particular research area (for example, systematics) that identifies the objects under study and their properties. This model should also define the relationships among those objects. There are alternative modelling methods and any conceptual model built will reflect the constraints implict in the data model used to build it. The conceptual model is, however, independent of implementation constraints and serves as a formal tool to interpret and understand what data analysts term the ‘real world’. This term gives the misguided, if reassuring, impression that there is a single reality: a unified view of objects and their interrelations. Unfortunately, in practice, even the conceptual model for an information system will reflect the particular purpose of those building the system. Different projects, or even individuals within a project, will have different purposes and priorities. Depending on one’s purpose and priorities one model or another may be more ‘elegant’: none is uniquely correct.
Practical links between specimen and taxon databases
Authors: Magill Robert E
Published: November 2023

The development of a general-purpose indexing scheme capable of providing cross-reference addresses to related, although not necessarily format-compatible, databases will be required for access to the complete range of botanical data incorporated in a ‘global botanical database’. Botanists and horticulturists are no longer content with access to a single data source. They want easy access to a variety of resources with transparent seams between them. An indexing scheme using a modular names approach, similar to that currently in use by several database projects, could provide for greater access to data by either providing properly formatted entry identifiers to multiple databases running on the same platform or by providing access to summarized data capsules provided by other data sources. A data bank of name elements would be a necessary component to provide a library of units available for sending a name to the index and would also serve as a glossary of available, correct, or ‘accepted’ pieces of a modular name. The records in the indexing scheme would point to record identifiers for data stored by names from a variety of sources, for example, botany (nomenclatural and/or taxonomic), horticultural (hybrid, grex, cultivated), ecological, floristic (flora, checklist), and could provide additional cross referencing to specimen or collections data associated with a specific name.
A strategy for the evolution of database designs
Authors: White* Richard J , Allkinꝉ Robert
Published: November 2023

Inadequate and incompatible database designs, lack of awareness of the benefits of a common structure design, and failure to promote such a design can impede the creation of biological information systems. The ideal of such systems and possible ways to implement them are discussed, but the resources and the consensus for such an effort are lacking at present. Some collaborative projects are assembling databases around a common core of essential data, using common software where possible and a standard exchange mechanism for data sets which incorporate information describing their structure and contents. The XDF data exchange format permits simple field conversions and rearrangements within a table and the splitting and merging of tables during the transfer of data sets from one database to another. These manipulations are already permitting data exchange within and between several projects, but do not realize the full power of the relational database model underlying XDF. Interfacing XDF to a relational database management system would give the ability to relate database tables of divergent structure and information content. Such a system must have a suitable internal structure, underlining the need for a universal database structure design.
Power Generation and the Environment
Authors: Roberts L E J , Liss P S , Saunders P A H
Published: November 2023

Energy policy is one of the central questions on the political agenda. The problems involved in satisfying the world's ever-increasing energy needs have been compounded by the realization that increasing use of fossil fuels may damage the environment and cause irreversible climatic changes. The consumption of electricity is likely to grow because of its versatility, cleanliness, and efficiency at the point of use. The authors review the environmental effects of the large-scale generation of electricity. After tracing the reasons for the pattern of generation we have today, they consider generation from fossil fuels, from nuclear energy, and from some of the more promising 'renewable' technologies. The book is aimed primarily at the general reader rather than the technical expert, and the object throughout has been to set out the evidence in sufficient detail for readers to reach their own conclusions. An extensive bibliography is included.
The Telling Image
Authors: Davies Duncan , Bathurst Diana , Bathurst Robin
Published: November 2023

Almost unnoticed, profound changes are taking place in society as our methods of communication come to depend more on pictures and images and less on words and numbers. These changes, which are largely being brought about by the increasing use of computers, affect a wide range of human activities: science and technology, commerce and industry, medicine, education, the media, and the everyday world of shopping, entertainment, and travel. Bringing to bear a wide range of scientific, technological, and industrial experience on this phenomenon, this highly readable account reviews its history and examines the implications for science, technology, and society. It explores the problems of storing and indexing images in digital computers and goes on to discuss present and future trends in the use of images for communication.
Introduction
Authors: Cartledge Bryan
Published: November 2023

Few areas of public policy confront the governments of the world with sharper or more complex dilemmas than that of energy generation. This second series of Linacre Lectures exposes and defines the dilemmas, principally in the environmental context; but, as several of the lecturers acknowledged, few governments can give absolute priority to minimizing the adverse environmental impact of energy generation. A few countries, blessed in this respect by geography, are able to generate all or most of their electricity from the renewable and (usually) environmentally benign resource of hydropower: in Europe, Norway and Iceland and to a lesser extent Austria and Switzerland are in this fortunate position. As Peter Hardi shows, however, even hydroelectric power can be highly controversial in the environmental context: the Nagymaros dam project in Hungary, which would have deformed the outstandingly beautiful Danube Bend, has been suspended in deference to sustained public protest and to Hardi’s own report on the environmental impact of the project.
Energy and the environment: the differing problems of thedeveloped and developing regions
Authors: Bondi Hermann
Published: November 2023

Professor Sir Hermann Bondi, K CB, FRS, is one of the great polymaths of British science. After serving in the Admiralty during the Second World War, he was appointed to a lectureship in mathematics at Cambridge University where he also held a Fellowship at Trinity College. In 1954 he became Professor of Mathematics at King’s College, London, a post which he held until 1971 and which he still retains in an emeritus capacity. Professor Bondi then began a long and valuable association with Government, first as Chief Scientific Advisor to the Ministry of Defence and then, in 1977, as Chief Scientist at the Department of Energy; in 1980 he was appointed Chairman and Chief Executive of the Natural Environment Research Council. in 1983 Sir Hermann returned to Cambridge on his election as Master of Churchill College, from which post he retired in 1990, while continuing as a Fellow of the College. He holds honorary Doctorates from the Universities of Sussex, Bath, Surrey, York, Southampton, Salford, Birmingham, and St Andrews. in 1988 Sir Hermann was awarded the Gold Medal of the Institute of Mathematics and its Applications. His many publications include works on cosmology, relativity, and astrophysics. He has been, and remains, an indispensable bridge between the world of research and that of policy.
Clean power from fossil fuels
Authors: Chester Peter
Published: November 2023

After taking a First in physics at Queen Mary College, London, and completing his research for a Doctorate, Dr Peter Chester spent seven years in North America, first as a Post-doctoral Fellow with the National Research Council in Ottawa and then at the Westinghouse Research Laboratory in Pittsburgh. In 1960 he returned to the United Kingdom to set up the Solid State Physics Section in the Central Electricity Research Laboratories (CERL); six years later he was appointed Research Manager (Sciences) at the Electricity Council’s Research Centre. Dr Chester moved back in 1970 to the Central Electricity Generating Board (CEGB), where he served successively as Controller of Scientific Services (NW Region), Director of the Central Electricity Research Laboratories, Director of the Technology Planning and Research Division, and, finally, Director for the Environment. When the CEGB was dismantled as a result of the privatization of the electricity generating industry, Peter Chester was appointed Executive Director for Technology and Environment on the Board of National Power pie. In 1984 he gave the Institute of Electrical Engineers Faraday Lectures and in 1985 was awarded the Robens Coal Science Medal. He has written extensively in the fields of solid state and low temperature physics and on energy and the environment. In 1992 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering and to an Honorary Fellowship of Queen Mary and Westfield College. He is currently Chairman of National Wind Power Limited.
Nuclear power and the environment
Authors: Marshall Walter
Published: November 2023

When the history of nuclear power in the United Kingdom is written, the name of Lord Marshall of Goring, FRS, will have more index references than most. He has been involved with the industry, both as a distinguished scientist and as an energetic and sometimes controversial manager, for most of his career. He joined the Atomic Energy Research Establishment (AERE) at Harwell as a research physicist in 1954 and remained there, apart from two years of research in the United States, until 1975; by then he had been Director of the AERE for nine years, following six years as Head of the Establishment’s Theoretical Physics Division. During his term as Director at Harwell, Walter Marshall served simultaneously as Chief Scientist at the Department of Energy (1974-7) and as Director of the Research Group of the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority (UKAEA) (1969-75). He was appointed Chairman of the UKAEA in 1981 and then moved a year later to take over the Chairmanship of the Central Electricity Generating Board (CEGB). He occupied that position until 1989 and was consequently in the thick of the argument, during Mrs Thatcher’s premiership, over the proposed privatization-and consequently fragmentation-of the British power generating industry. Lord Marshall (as he had become in 1985) opposed privatization with characteristic vigour, on economic and managerial rather than political grounds: he lost the battle, but many of his arguments were vindicated when the Government was obliged to withdraw the nuclear power industry from the privatization programme. Shortly after the Chernobyl disaster and partly because of it, Lord Marshall founded and stimulated wide international support for the World Association of Nuclear Operators, of which he is now Chairman. The Association’s objective is to raise standards of the training of, and encourage the exchange of information between, those responsible for operating the nuclear power industry worldwide.
Generalized Vector and Dyadic Analysis
Authors: Tai Chen-To
Published: November 2023

An indispensable reference tool for engineers, mathematicians, and physicists, this book offers details on previously unpublished methods of treating and presenting vector and dyadic analysis. Along with pointing out various fundamental misunderstandings in the presentation of concepts to date, Dr Tai presents original findings on a new symbolic method with the aid of a symbol vector. Additional features include: the introduction of a symbolic vector that leads to the systematic treatment of the entire subject of vector analysis . . . detailed derivations of theorems and identities . . . coverage of new topics such as surface vector analysis and dyadic analysis . . . concise but rigorous treatment of topics.
Vector Algebra
Authors: Tai Chen-To
Published: November 2023

A vector function has both magnitude and direction. The vector functions which we encounter in many physical problems are, in general, functions of space and time. In the first five chapters, we discuss only their characteristics as functions of spatial variables. Functions of space and time are covered in Chapter 6 dealing with a moving surface or a moving contour.
Line Integrals, Surface Integrals, and Volume Integrals
Authors: Tai Chen-To
Published: November 2023

In this section, we shall give a brief review of the differential quantities to be used in vector analysis, particularly, their notation. A differential length, in general, will be denoted by dl.
On-Line Signal Processing Of Space Phasor Quantities
Authors: Vas Peter
Published: November 2023

In this chapter several circuits will be described which can be used for the on-line monitoring of the voltage, current, and flux linkage space phasors in a reference frame fixed to that side of the machine (stator or rotor) where the instantaneous values of the voltages and currents are monitored. Furthermore, the monitoring of the magnetizing flux linkage space phasor will also be discussed. Some of the circuits described are very simple to construct and utilize only passive elements, whereas others are simple and contain active elements as well. It should be noted that the concepts can also be implemented by using digital circuits. It is envisaged that in the future digital signal processors will perform most of the processing tasks encountered with electrical machines and drive systems.
Monitoring Of The Rotor Speed And Rotor Angle
Authors: Vas Peter
Published: November 2023

Tachometers can be used for monitoring the angular speed of a shaft. For this purpose it is possible to use a d.c. tachometer which can be a separately excited d.c. machine. When the separately excited d.c. machine operates as a generator, and if the field current is constant, under certain assumptions its armature voltage is proportional to the angular rotor speed. This is now proved.
Inverse Problems and Optimal Design in Electricity and Magnetism
Authors: Neittaanmäki P , Rudnicki M , Savini A
Published: November 2023

In the la.st thirty years optimization theory has been extensively applied to the optimal design of mechanical structures and to the solution of inverse problems in structural mechanics. As a result, a large number of research papers and a number of excellent books, ranging from theory to applications, have been published. In contrast, optimization methods have only recently been applied in electromagnetism; so far, in fact, only books devoted to the finite-element formulation and to solutions of direct electromagnetic problems have been published.
Lie Groups
Authors: Rossmann Wulf
Published: November 2023

This book is intended as an introduction to the theory of Lie groups and their representations at the advanced undergraduate or beginning graduate level. It covers the essentials of the subject starting from basic undergraduate mathematics. The correspondence between linear Lie groups and Lie algebras is developed in its local and global aspects. The classical groups are analysed in detail, first with elementary matrix methods, then with the help of the structural tools typical of the theory of semisimple groups, such as Cartan subgroups, roots, weights, and reflections. The fundamental groups of the classical groups are worked out as an application of these methods. Manifolds are introduced when needed, in connection with homogeneous spaces, and the elements of differential and integral calculus on manifolds are presented, with special emphasis on integration on groups and homogeneous spaces. Representation theory starts from first principles, such as Schur's lemma and its consequences, and proceeds from there to the Peter- Weyl theorem, Weyl's character formula, and the Borel-Weil theorem, all in the context of linear groups.
The classical groups
Authors: Rossmann Wulf
Published: November 2023

The classical groups could be introduced as further examples of linear groups, but that would not do them justice: they form the deepest and most beautiful part of the subject. (The connoisseur will add the exceptional groups, which do not concern us here.)
Integration
Authors: Rossmann Wulf
Published: November 2023

Now let M be an analytic manifold. The Jacobian factor in the change of variables formula (1) makes it impossible to define the integral of a function on M by simply using a coordinate system, if one wants the integral to come out independent of the coordinate system chosen.
Representations
Authors: Rossmann Wulf
Published: November 2023

Example 1. Any linear group comes automatically with a representation, as it consists already of matrices. (We may think of real matrices as special complex matrices to satisfy the requirement that the representation space V should be complex.