bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Instrumental Activities of Daily Living
Authors: Klimczuk Andrzej
Published: March 2016

Activities of daily living are usually defined as skills needed in typical daily self‐care. Instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs) are more complex skills beyond basic self‐care, and their measurement evaluates how individuals function in their homes, workplaces, and outdoor environments. The skills that pertain to IADLs are exposed to dysfunctions resulting from aging or illness. Reductions in those skills may begin to cause problems with independence but these problems can be solved with the help of others – for example, family members, social workers, and nurses.
C
atholicism and Families
Authors: Carter Gerard A.
Published: March 2016

Catholic families operate within a context of ancient theological dogmas derived from Jewish and Christian scriptures that place marriage at the center of family life and view sexuality as exclusively positioned within heterosexual marriage. Early church writers viewed marriage as a means of begetting children and by the Middle Ages marriage was closely linked with the liturgical functions as one of the seven Catholic key rituals. More recently, consideration of Catholic marriage and family life has focused on the effects of marriage as mutually unitive and procreative and the family as the “domestic church.” Valid marriage in the Catholic Church is marked by the essential properties of exclusivity (i.e., union of one man and one woman) and indissolvability (i.e., a union that endures until death). To enter validly into Catholic marriage, certain conditions must be met: freedom to marry; conformity to prescribed regulations; free exchange of consent; and consummation. Changing demographics are rapidly altering the modern face of Catholic families.
Child Support
Authors: Cook Kay
Published: March 2016

Child support is a contentious policy issue that affects a large number of separated parents and their children worldwide. Inherent in the payment and receipt of child support are the emotional responses by former partners to separation, and many parents resent mandatory state involvement in their personal financial affairs. Determination and payment of child support obligations vary internationally, with court, administrative, and hybrid systems in operation. Those with mandatory administrative systems face the most criticism, as fathers' attitudes toward payment are the most salient. Research on child support issues, however, has not kept pace with policy developments. Most research has been conducted in the United States, where there is an emphasis on payment compliance. Conversely, other countries have made significant policy reforms without robust evidence. To address this imbalance, researchers have taken steps to consolidate the evidence and provide stronger directions for policy reform.
P
oland, Families in
Authors: Krywult‐Albańska Małgorzata
Published: March 2016

This entry discusses family changes in Poland, focusing on selected historical and contemporary issues. The opening section provides a brief outline of historical trends, focusing on the communist period and the beginning of the transformation of the political system, which was set in motion by the collapse of communism.A discussion follows of select demographic and sociological characteristics of contemporary Polish families, set against a backdrop of past tendencies. The final section highlights some of the structural pressures affecting families and households in Poland.
Religion and Gender
Authors: Christ Stephen R.
Published: March 2016

Typically, women represent a subordinated class within religious organizations as they are denied institutional power and access to the religious hierarchy. They are also subordinated within the home, where submission to a husband's will is the model for good feminine behavior. While great strides have been made for women who desire to enter the religious clergy life, there still remains a “stained‐glass ceiling” that inhibits their ability to rise up the religious hierarchy. As a result, many women have turned to alternative forms of religious expression to satisfy their personal yearning to connect to a higher power. Gender will undoubtedly continue to be a major theme in the politics and practice of religious doctrines and teachings.
M
exican
A
merican Families
Authors: Rodriguez Cassaundra
Published: March 2016

Latinos represent the largest racial/ethnic minority group in the United States and Mexican Americans represent the largest subgroup in the broader Latino category. Some Mexican American families have been part of the US landscape since the mid‐1800s as a result of US conquest and/or patterns of migration. As a result, much of the family studies scholarship on Latino families has historically focused on Mexican American families specifically. However, like the research on this topic, Mexican American families are heterogeneous. These families are shaped and influenced by generational, socioeconomic, and immigration status as well as regional differences, religion, racialized status, gender norms, and labor and historical forces.
Cross‐Cultural Families
Authors: Noam Kris R.
Published: March 2016

In cross‐cultural families, there is more than one culture within the same household. Cultures can intersect within generations (parents' cultures differ), between generations (parents' and children's cultures differ), or for both generations together (parents' and children's culture differs from their peers' culture). Each cross‐cultural family has its own dynamics, but cross‐cultural families also have similarities and share a number of disadvantages and advantages. Members of cross‐cultural families may encounter culture clashes, identity confusion, or cultural dissonance. On the other hand, living in a cross‐cultural family can generate cognitive advantages for bicultural children and an enriched cultural setting can make family members more adaptable to various settings. Transforming cultures into “symbolic cultures” can enable family members to be more flexible with their culture and help them to benefit from living in a cross‐cultural family.
Evangelical Marriages
Authors: Killian Mark
Published: March 2016

Evangelical marriages have historically stressed patriarchal domination and gender‐essentialist roles for husbands and wives. However, research has shown that, although patriarchy does exist, evangelical husbands are more affectionate, appreciative, and understanding of their wives than their nonevangelical counterparts. Further, as opposed to nonevangelicals, evangelical husbands also spend more time socializing with their wives and commit fewer acts of domestic violence. These findings led B. Bradford Wilcox to label evangelical husbands “soft patriarchs.” This entry explores the development of gender‐essentialist ideologies in evangelicalism as well as four explanations for the soft patriarch phenomenon. Additionally, this entry provides areas for future research, particularly in light of the contrasting marital attitudes between Baby Boomer and post‐Boomer evangelicals.
Health and Families
Authors: Swindle Taren M. , Rutledge Julie M.
Published: March 2016

Individuals' physical, mental, and social health cannot be understood in isolation from the family. When the family as a whole is engaged in healthy behaviors, all the individual members are more likely to be in good physical health. The health of the family as a functional unit is influenced by the family's cohesion, flexibility, and communication (as shown by the circumplex model of family systems). Breakdowns in any of these areas can affect both physical and mental health. A family's reaction to a stressful event such as a health diagnosis can lead to improvement or crisis for the individuals and the family (as shown by the ABC‐X model of family stress). External sociocultural factors also impact the health of families, including social support, socioeconomic or minority status, and community resources. The patient‐centered medical home model and the community‐based participatory research model are emerging frameworks for healthcare and research that recognize the embeddedness of the individual in the family.
Foster Care
Authors: Schmeeckle Maria
Published: March 2016

Foster care is home‐based care provided to children who are unable to live with parents or guardians due to neglect, abuse, abandonment, or other reasons. Governments vary in their ability and willingness to take responsibility for children in need of alternative care. In high‐resource countries foster care is often provided formally through governments, and in low‐resource countries it is often provided informally through extended families and communities. Foster care tends not to be offered transnationally, but it is globalized through the dissemination of research and support provided by international nongovernmental organizations. In countries with well‐developed formal foster‐care systems such as the United States, improvements to the system are called for by researchers and practitioners due to racial disparities, service delays, inadequate caseworker training, high staff turnover, and other problems. This entry also discusses long‐term disadvantages for foster youth, trends in foster care, unanswered questions in the field, and debates about how foster care is being provided.
G
ermany, Families in
Authors: Brown Kristina S.
Published: March 2016

Germany has a rich and sometimes infamous history including Adolf Hitler, the Holocaust, and the Berlin Wall. But German social policies such as the Parental Leave Act of 2007 suggest that a high value is placed on family. In response to historically low fertility and birth rates, German policy aims to promote family. Marital and family issues in Germany including abortion, parental leave, child care, gender roles, homeschooling, right to education, divorce, child custody, domestic violence, gender roles, and LGBT populations will be introduced.
Z
imbabwe, Families in
Authors: Nyoni Chamunogwa , Dodo Obediah
Published: March 2016

This entry discusses the concept of familyhood from an African perspective looking at some of the features that define the family in the Zimbabwean context. While there may be various ethnic groups with varying social persuasions, the discussion focuses on the most common and defining features in all these groups.
Divorce Revolution
Authors: Ruspini Elisabetta
Published: March 2016

The increased divorce rate in the west is one of the consequences of the social revolution of the late twentieth century. The social and cultural revolution of the late 1960s and 1970s played a key role in reconfiguring women's and men's views of marriage and family life. Scholars have debated the implications of the “divorce revolution” and the social consequences of the liberalization of divorce laws. Specifically, the widespread change in divorce laws from a fault‐based to a no‐fault regime made divorce easier by requiring the consent of only one spouse to dissolve a marriage without any agreement or fault by the other.
Gay Men as Parents
Authors: Ruspini Elisabetta
Published: March 2016

Contemporary western societies are characterized by a growing diversification of family types. Families have changed dramatically over time due to economic, demographic, cultural, and political factors. The diversity of families is evident in the growth of nontraditional family structures. Within this challenging context, the phenomenon of homosexual parenting – a term that includes all those families in which at least one adult who defines himself/herself as homosexual is the parent of at least one child – has for some time been an emerging reality in many western societies. While in the past the children in homosexual families generally came from a previous heterosexual relationship, now the decision to become a parent is increasingly disconnected from heterosexuality, with possibilities having been opened up by assisted reproductive techniques but also by access to adoption. Within this context of change, the phenomenon of planned gay fatherhood has emerged: this is part of a broader process of social change that involves family life (Ruspini 2013).
Living Alone Together
Authors: Aletraris Lydia
Published: March 2016

Living alone together (LAT; or living apart together) refers to individuals who have an intimate relationship without cohabiting. These couples are often referred to as “commuter couples.” Each person in a LAT relationship maintains his/her own home and takes turns traveling to visit his/her partner. The rise of couples in LAT arrangements is largely due to dual‐employed couples pursuing careers that necessitate them living apart as their careers would be difficult to pursue in the same place. The experience of a distance relationship is shaped by family and career characteristics. On average, women tend to evaluate these relationships more positively than do men. Advantages of living alone together include individual and career growth, increased professional productivity, opportunities for advancement, autonomy, and gender equity in the division of household labor. Disadvantages include burden of travel, lack of physical intimacy, loneliness, financial burdens, and negative reactions from family and friends.
Heterogamy, Religious
Authors: Schramm David G. , Lester Ashlie
Published: March 2016

Religious heterogamy is present when partners differ on any religious facet, including denomination, belief, practice, or commitment. Belonging to a specific religious faith, the relative importance of religiosity, and the extent to which spouses engage in religious activities influence many couple relationships. Religion tends to have a positive influence on couple relationships. The religious makeup of a couple – whether couples share or differ in their religious backgrounds and beliefs – is influential in couple outcomes. However, since the 1990s the importance of religion and the influence of religion on couple relationships have declined.
I
srael, Families in
Authors: Fogiel‐Bijaoui Sylvie
Published: March 2016

Although Israel, as a postindustrial society, is undergoing a process of individualization, familism clearly remains a marker of that society. That is so mainly because the personal status of all inhabitants –Jews, Arabs, and “others” –is governed by religious institutions. This situation seems to be desired by the majority, which, given the Jewish–Arab conflict, considers religious laws as being rightly instrumentalized to preserve the boundaries of each ethno‐religious collective, and all the more so because alternatives and bypasses exist. In this conflictual context, the “double track” of the family institution will continue for the foreseeable future. That is, the main track –the institutionalized, religious one –will coexist with the individualization process and the circumventions that process fuels. The significant change, however, is that because of the transformations within Arab society, Arab women will also contribute to new (re)configurations of the family in Israel.
S
outh
K
orea, Families in
Authors: Han Yoonsun , Lee Jaerim
Published: March 2016

Contradictory values and norms prevail in contemporary South Korean (Korean hereafter) families. Patrilineal Confucian ideas are deeply embedded in Korean families, but at the same time rapid modernization since the 1960s has gradually pushed Koreans away from traditional ideas governing the family. As a result, contradictory Confucian and egalitarian norms prevail in contemporary Korean families. Modern Korea has experienced demographic changes such as delayed marriage, increased divorce, increased interethnic marriage, equalized sex ratio at birth, low fertility, population aging, and diversified household structures. The nature of family relationships has changed as well. Traditional ideas grounded in Confucian familism strictly maintained a hierarchical order between parents and children, husband and wife, and elder and younger siblings. However, relationships between family members have shifted toward more egalitarian practices. In response to the various demographic and relational changes in contemporary Korea, national family policies have undergone major reform since 2005.
Racism and Families in theUnitedStates
Authors: Foster John D.
Published: March 2016

Racism has had substantial effects on families living in the United States. Historical racism and persisting prejudice and discrimination produce myriad hardships for families of diverse racial and national backgrounds. Racial differences in familial experiences, such as marriage, number of children, and divorce, reproduce racial disparities in wealth, income, employment, and educational attainment. The consequences of this inequality have deleterious effects on both young and old in minority families. While interracial marriage has increased, it remains rare. Today immigrant families face unique challenges as they attempt to achieve the American dream.
Childlessness, Voluntary
Authors: Tunalilar Ozcan
Published: March 2016

Family scholars studying voluntary childlessness have increasingly focused on how to define the empirical boundaries of the childfree, attitudes toward voluntary childlessness, reasons behind remaining childless, and consequences of childlessness at older age. The available evidence suggests an increasing prevalence of voluntary childlessness with somewhat greater societal acceptance in the United States than in previous eras. Certain demographic characteristics (being a man, highly educated, and white) are consistently associated with higher likelihood of remaining voluntarily childless. A considerable number of studies have used the life course perspective as a theoretical tool in explaining childlessness. The dearth of empirical studies indicates a growing need to incorporate men's experiences into this line of research.
Russia, Families in
Authors: Tikhaze Dmitry , Kurilova Anastassia
Published: March 2016

The social institution of the family in Russia is gradually changing. Families are becoming smaller, with less children. Official marriage is often replaced with nonmarital cohabitation, which in the early twenty‐first century is normative in Russia. The average age at first marriage and birth is rising as more young Russians seek to reach a stable material and social status first. At the same time family ties in Russia are considered to have remained relatively close. Marriage and divorce rates are high while the birth rate is below the replacement level.
Vietnam, Families in
Authors: Phuong Pham Thi Thu , Phuong Dang Thi Viet
Published: March 2016

Marriage is the most common method of forming a family in Vietnam. Over two‐thirds of the population over the age of 15 is married, while the divorce rate is very low. Most families fall into the definition of the nuclear family, and the average number of people per family is 3.7. Empirical evidence has revealed the popularity of patrilocal residence patterns in Vietnam but matrilocal residence model also exists. Extended families and kinship networks still play a significant role in providing social and emotional supports to family members. The traditional pattern of domestic labor division, in which women have the higher burden, continues to dominate. This pattern influences parental socialization of children and the respective value placed on sons and daughters. Families in Vietnam in the twenty‐first century are still a source of caregiving for their members. However, pressures from modern life are creating significant challenges for how families function.
Theories of Aging
Authors: Franzese Alexis T. , Rurka Marissa M.
Published: March 2016

The study of aging has intrigued scholars and laypersons for centuries; over time, this area of study has undergone significant growth. While historically scholars were primarily concerned with promoting chronological longevity, since the late 1980s significant effort has been paid to understanding what it means to age well. In addition, there has been an increased emphasis on the important role of theory in grounding and connecting empirical observations. There are three main disciplinary‐based areas of aging theory: biological, psychological, and social. However, theorists have increasingly been developing and implementing more interdisciplinary theories such as the convoy theory of social support. These theories have important implications for understanding family dynamics and structure.
Gender and Communication
Authors: Charlebois Justin
Published: March 2016

This entry discusses the relationship between gender and communication style. There is a tendency to distinguish between discretely masculine and feminine communication styles that are supposedly predetermined by biological sex. Gender miscommunication theory or a cultural differences approaches posits that men and women possess different assumptions about communication and thus draw on distinctly gendered communication styles in social interaction, which often results in systematic miscommunication. This entry argues that, while masculine and feminine communication styles exist, individuals can and do draw on both styles. Not only gender but also age, ethnicity/race, sexuality, social class, and the communicative context all potentially influence the communication style a speaker deploys. Communication styles are flexible discursive resources that speakers accept, contest, or even reformulate in social interaction. This entry discusses three empirical studies that demonstrate how speakers use gendered communication styles in specific social contexts and dispel the validity of gender miscommunication theory.
I
nternet Dating
Authors: Schubert Katie A.
Published: March 2016

Internet dating has become increasingly common since the first few years of the twenty‐first century. More than 40 million people in the United States have tried Internet dating. This growing popularity can be explained by some societal trends that have arisen since the late twentieth century. This entry explores who is involved in Internet dating and why people decide to sign up for these sites. Further, the internal workings of dating sites are explained.
Communication, Family
Authors: Estlein Roi
Published: March 2016

Communication in families is the mechanism through which members exchange ideas and emotions, generate a sense of a shared group identity and togetherness, and dynamically manage their relationships. Because family communication both reflects and shapes family relationship dynamics, researchers have explored specific interaction behaviors, patterns, and strategies that explain and predict outcomes for families and individual members. As an interdisciplinary field of research, studies on family communication highlight psychological, social, relational, and developmental characteristics and processes in family life within cultural, historical, and technological contexts. This research suggests that communication within families is guided by environmental factors, shapes relationship dynamics, and actively contributes to family consequences, such as marital quality, divorce, parent–child relationships, children's development, sibling relationships, and relationships among extended family members.
Generational Bridge
Authors: Neves Barbara Barbosa , Fernandes Ana Alexandra
Published: March 2016

Generational bridges refer to inter‐ and cross‐generational relationships, being connections that help to negotiate family norms, roles, and expectations across generations. These bridges have become a trend because the global population is aging: the demographic changes that have occurred since the second half of the twentieth century, namely declines in fertility and mortality and an increase of life expectancy rates, have led to fast growth in the numbers of older (aged 65 and over) and oldest‐old (aged 80 and over) adults. These longevity gains have altered the structure of living generations, changing families: we now encounter a family structure with a higher number of living generations yet with fewer members of each generation. There has also been an increase in differences in ages and age ranges between generations, affecting family roles. To define these roles, for instance, parents may become a generational bridge between grandchildren and grandparents. Bridges based on intergenerational solidarity are essential for family relations and can mitigate intergenerational conflicts or ambivalence.
Teen Parenting in theUnitedStates
Authors: Skott Beth Pamela
Published: March 2016

Teenage pregnancy and parenthood have long held negative connotations in various societies worldwide. With the disadvantage of youth working against them, teenage parents are often unprepared for the financial, social, emotional, and psychological realities of parenthood. Teenage parents and their children experience several disadvantages, including in medical, psychological, developmental, social, and emotional areas. Programs designed to lower the rate of teenage parenthood should focus on these risks as well as on prevention efforts.
Equity Theory
Authors: Plevinski Chelsea C.
Published: March 2016

Equity theory is considered one of the sub‐theories of social exchange theory. Equity theory depends upon distributive justice, or the fairness that comes from the outcomes of a decision or output of resources. Equity theory allows us to predict an individual's behaviors and reactions based upon his/her human interactions. This theory suggests that people want to have the maximum outcomes they can from their relationships, while, at the same time, minimizing the costs to themselves of those relationships. However, partners in romantic relationships usually seek equality and seek to restore equality if they find they have an inequitable relationship. Equity theory suggests that, in marital relationships, when spouses feel they are being treated in an equitable way, they will feel that they have a better marriage and that this marriage is stable. In same‐sex relationships, the findings are similar.
Family of Procreation
Authors: Gerhardt Clara
Published: March 2016

The term “family of procreation” is loosely used to refer to a family unit created by two or more people. The concept is juxtaposed to “family of origin,” which refers to the families from which individuals originate. The family of procreation will form unique family values and dynamics. When the family of procreation is narrowed down to the format of a nuclear family, multigenerational factors contributing to stress as well as resilience will filter down to this family form. Socioeconomic factors such as poverty, as well as cultural and ethnic values, can shift from one generation to the next and become more or less pronounced within the family of procreation. The intergenerational continuity of a family system can contribute toward the shelter that an individual or a newly formed couple may seek and experience while embarking on the creation of his/her or their own family of procreation.
Intergenerational Relationships
Authors: Gerhardt Clara
Published: March 2016

The intergenerational or multigenerational family form is rapidly increasing, due to longer life expectancy as well as economic, emotional, and social demands. Historically, extended families were the norm and functioned as economic units, especially in rural and agricultural contexts. Changing demographic patterns include dual‐career, single‐parent, adolescent parent, and deployed military family structures. These serve as incentives to access temporary or permanent intergenerational support systems, even to form intergenerational households. Three generations can form a cohesive unit providing benefits from pooled resources. This family form can deal with child care needs, which can solidify intergenerational relations. Stressors increase when the middle generation in this triad feels sandwiched between caring for the older and younger generations. Family dynamics change over the life span, especially in grandparents' interactions with adult grandchildren. Research in the early twenty‐first century emphasizes the influence of multigenerational family dynamics on participating parties, the sociological/psychological implications, and optimal intergenerational parenting outcomes.
E
gypt, Families in
Authors: Hussein Nashaat
Published: March 2016

The contemporary Egyptian family represents a mosaic of several interrelated historical, cultural, social, political, economic, and religious factors. These factors have resulted in Egyptian families being diverse, resilient, and adaptive to new circumstances and changes that affect the society as a whole. Family is valued as one of the most important social institutions in Egyptian society, and families perform several functions for their members.Marriage is the only legitimately accepted way for the initiation of families to be honored and sanctified. The roles of partners in marriage, despite being exposed to various elements of modernity and change, still predominantly consist of typical gender‐based ascribed social roles. Notwithstanding the variations between urban, rural, and Bedouin communities in Egypt, fathers still represent the patriachical figures in society, and mothers are typically viewed as being responsible for raising children and the economic management of the household.
Day Care
Authors: Bartek Jennifer
Published: March 2016

Day care is care for those who cannot be fully independent themselves, such as children, whether they are disabled or not. Research shows that there are various types of day care, including in‐home day care and out‐of‐home day care. These different types can affect children's social and behavioral development. Day care may also affect children's aggression and their language, behavioral, and cognitive development depending on the quality of care. In many countries, licensing regulations play a role in whether day care is deemed to be of quality. Research also examines the effects of day care on attachment relationships between mothers and children.
Race and Sexuality
Authors: Moras Amanda
Published: March 2016

This entry illustrates the ways in which race and sexuality are co‐constructed, suggesting that racial ideologies have continuously relied on sexual stereotypes for meaning. Histories of racial exploitation including slavery, lynching, and Jim Crow segregation were predicated on the hypersexualization of black men and women and the supposed moral superiority of white sexuality. This hypersexualization was used to condone lynching and rape and more generally justify racial apartheid through fears around miscegenation. Similarly, colonization and conquest, sexual tourism, and the militarization of sexuality have used sexual fantasies and exploitation of the “other” as tools of subordination. These images persist today as women of color are often hypersexualized in the media.
Globalization and Families
Authors: Gerhardt Clara
Published: March 2016

The demographics of families in the early twenty‐first century are changing rapidly and dramatically, often driven by the direct and indirect effects of globalization. Globalization refers to increasing interconnectedness worldwide. As it is a process that is constantly evolving, globalization defies a tight definition. Family forms that were the norm until recently are adapting and changing. Families relocate and are separated through voluntary migratory patterns, involuntary choices related to survival, and the hope of better opportunities. The demands of cultural uprooting and assimilation place parents in different cultural contexts from those of their own offspring and affect parenting. High‐pressured economic demands alter parenting practices. There has been a multilevel shift concerning the family as an institution, in some ways intentional and in some ways unintended. It is changing the cultural fabric of societies. Serious efforts are required to balance the far‐reaching effects of globalization while also nurturing those initiatives that carve out better futures for the world's families, by supporting diverse family forms and functions.
One‐Child Policy
Authors: Yepes Ismael A.
Published: March 2016

The one‐child policy is a system of regulation created by the Chinese government to limit the number of births by each family in the People's Republic of China. The National Population and Family Planning Commission is responsible for the implementation and regulation of population growth. Those living in urban areas are subject to the strictest application of the policy. China has also offered financial incentives and educational opportunities to its citizens to bear one child. By contrast, those who violate the policy forego these benefits. Pregnant women who do not have permission to bear a child have been taken to clinics where their pregnancies are terminated. An unintended consequence of the policy is an unbalanced sex ratio. Due to the strong preference for sons among Chinese, baby girls are often abandoned so that their parents can get permission to try for a second child.
Serial Monogamy
Authors: Foster John D.
Published: March 2016

Serial monogamy is a common practice in postindustrial societies, including the United States. Its prevalence reflects the changing economic, cultural, and social realities of a postindustrial society. The practice has led to a transformation of families. Not everyone engages in serial monogamy, however. Some scholars argue that serial monogamy is another form of polygyny, in which men extend their reproductive capacity. Other scholars have not embraced this view. The prevalence of serial monogamy presents new challenges and new opportunities for family members.
Exogamy
Authors: Foster John D.
Published: March 2016

Exogamy is the union of individuals of different social categories or groups. Exogamy appears to be increasing in postindustrial societies such as the United States. Exogamous relationships assist in the transmission of culture and the fusion of ethnoracial groups. While more relationships come across as exogamous in the postindustrial United States than in prior eras, in reality they tend to have endogamous characteristics as well.
Communication, Dyadic/Marital
Authors: Estlein Roi
Published: March 2016

Marital researchers have long tried to understand what makes a successful marriage and what distinguishes successful marriages from unsuccessful marriages. Whereas early research on marriage privileged personality traits, demographic factors, and individual psychological processes as predictors of marital success, more recent research has focused on the influence of interpersonal communication on marital outcomes. The interest in the communication between spouses is related to the assumption that dyadic interaction patterns play a central role in shaping successful and satisfying marital relationships. Moreover, an extensive empirical body of evidence has consistently documented an association between a couple's communication and the quality of their marriage. Such evidence has pointed to certain interaction patterns, characterized by responsive positive affect, as being associated with marital success, satisfaction, and adjustment, and to other behavioral patterns, reflecting controlling negative affect, as being associated with marital distress and even dissolution.
Child Abuse in the
U
nited
S
tates
Authors: Malousek Jason R. , Colburn‐Malousek Lindsey K. , Brown Kristina S.
Published: March 2016

In the United States, the history of confronting child abuse and maltreatment dates as far back as 1875. The modern era of addressing child abuse continues to evolve, with an ever‐growing number of child abuse cases being discovered due to increased awareness, protection, and mandated reporting laws. The role of the federal government in child welfare increased with the creation of the federal Child Abuse and Prevention Treatment Act in 1974, and the federal government continues to assist states in assessing and combating child abuse. Risk factors and their interactions associated with higher levels of child abuse can be separated into four domains: caregiver, family, child, and environmental. When children are abused, there are greater risks associated with negative life outcomes, physical difficulties, mental illness, and developmental issues.
Gender Wage Gap
Authors: Danaj Ermira
Published: March 2016

Women are paid less than men. Despite stipulations regarding equal pay being included in the legislation of many countries, and despite the fact that equal pay for equal work is a right included in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, women are still paid less than men in almost all countries. The unequal divisions of productive and reproductive labor, as well as horizontal and vertical sex segregation in labor markets, are the main factors accounting for the gender wage gap.
Family Decline Theory
Authors: Laplant Katie M.
Published: March 2016

Family decline theory suggests that families as an institution are changing in such a way that they are in a state of decline. It is argued that the overall functions of the family, to have children and to nurture those children into functioning adults, are being threatened by changes in values and norms in society. The decline of the traditional nuclear family has brought about changes in many spheres of life throughout history. Proponents of family decline say that the decline in marriage rates, rise in divorce rates, changes in marital roles, and changing family structure are hindering the function of the family as an institution. However, many scholars also believe that the family is undergoing a state of change or transformation leading to new family values and structures that reflect the changes in societal norms and values.
Time Use
Authors: Mínguez Almudena Moreno
Published: March 2016

Time and time use have become significant and relevant topics for families due to time scarcity stemming from the multiplicity of activities that involve citizens in a globalized, technologically advanced society. This entry seeks to provide a review of the literature on the use of time in relation to families, a conceptual dimension that has received little attention and is generally linked to the working world. Analysis and reflection on the meaning of family work time have only since around 2005 become an area of interest, as a consequence of the massive incorporation of women into the labor market and changes in family models. This dimension is still absent from the public policies of most countries.
P
hilippines, Families in
Authors: Gata Larissa
Published: March 2016

The Filipino family is considered a highly valuable social institution in the Philippines. In general, Filipino families are bilaterally extended and residentially nuclear. Although Filipinos recognize husbands and fathers to be household heads, the family structure continues to be egalitarian in giving importance to both male and female family members. Like in other cultures in Asia, families in the Philippines uphold the principle of seniority in assigning authority within kinship groups. The kinship system is established through blood ties, marriage, and rituals. Kin groups are maintained primarily for mutual assistance. Moreover, when Filipino families become transnational due to migration and overseas work, they capitalize on computer‐mediated communication to maintain their familial connections across borders. A number of changes are happening among Filipino families including the increased participation of women in the labor force, a decline in family authority in terms of its influence over individual members, and an increasing number of single‐parent families.
Infertility
Authors: Steuber Keli Ryan
Published: March 2016

Infertility is most often defined as the inability to achieve pregnancy after one year of unprotected intercourse. Clinically, practitioners are concerned with whether the difficulty lies in conception or carrying a pregnancy to term; however, in social science research the underlying focus is on the parents' inability to have a child more broadly. Age is a predominant factor in the diagnosis and treatment of infertility, such that individuals who are aged 35 years or older are often labeled and treated as infertile within six months, rather than one year, of unprotected intercourse resulting in no pregnancy. Individuals can be characterized as having primary infertility, which is when they have no prior children, or secondary infertility, suggesting they have successfully birthed a child prior to their current attempt to become pregnant. Approximately 15 percent of couples, or 4.3 of the 28 million married couples in the United States, encounter difficulty conceiving at some point in their relational life span.
Gender Stratification
Authors: Danaj Ermira
Published: March 2016

Gender stratification refers to the inequalities between women and men regarding wealth, power, and privilege. Gender is a socially structured principle and represents a hierarchical, asymmetrical, and unequal division between men and women. Gender stratification is a relatively new concept borne of the feminist perspective in social sciences, especially in sociology, around the 1970s. Gender stratification can be illustrated by the figures of unequal participation of women in the labor market, incomes, politics, and so on.
Immigrant Families in theUnitedStates
Authors: Vesely Colleen K. , Letiecq Bethany L. , Ewaida Marriam
Published: March 2016

One‐fifth of the US population comprises immigrants and their children. In addition, immigrant settlement patterns indicate immigrantfamiliesnow make up a larger portion of US immigrants than in previous decades. Given this, immigrant families are more diverse than ever in terms of language, countries of origin, reasons for migrating, and access to resources. Accounting for and highlighting the diversity among immigrant families, this entry begins with a brief demographic overview and then reviews notable immigration policies that have affected immigrant families over time. It examines the “situatedness” or social location of immigrant families in the United States and concludes with a discussion of family processes that are likely influenced by policies and the resulting opportunity structure of immigrant families.
Marriage Counseling in the
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Authors: Brown Kristina S. , Janousek Thomas
Published: March 2016

Marriage counseling first emerged in the United States in the late 1920s. The origins of marriage counseling began with those not trained to specifically do marriage counseling but whose training was in areas ranging from birth control to medicine to sex therapy. Through the explosion of family therapy in the 1950s and the intersecting political and religious views on marriage, counseling with intimate partners continues as a mainstay practice most commonly referred to as “couple's therapy.” Leading figures in the field brought marriage counseling legitimacy through the creation of guiding theories and principles of practice. Modern marriage counselors consider issues of feminism and multiculturalism to be integral to their practice.
Transition to Adulthood
Authors: Dennison Renée Peltz
Published: March 2016

Historically in western societies, adulthood began almost as soon as adolescence ended, as the transition to adulthood had clear milestones and a relatively short timetable. In the mid‐twentieth century most young people had completed their education, entered the labor force, left home, married, and become parents – the traditional milestones of adulthood – by their early twenties. Moreover, these roles were usually achieved in a regular order (e.g., spouse before parent), and the importance of each of these roles varied by gender (e.g., worker was more salient for males). In the early twenty‐first century, however, this transition typically takes 5 to 10 years longer, resulting in a pathway to adulthood that is markedly prolonged. Moreover, most young people are taking more diverse and less gender‐specific pathways to adulthood, making the transition to adulthood more individualized than ever before.
Second‐Parent Adoption in the
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Authors: Harder Brittany M.
Published: March 2016

In some situations, second‐parent adoption has been granted to both heterosexual and same‐sex couples in the United States. Although LGBTQ families seek legal security and protection by way of second‐parent adoption, second‐parent adoption is not legally recognized at the federal level nor in all states. Laws that prohibit same‐sex parents from joint custody and second‐parent adoption deny the legal recognition of both parents as the parents of the child. Second‐parent adoption is not a guaranteed legal right even in the US states that have previously granted parenting rights to same‐sex couples. Advocacy groups, same‐sex couples, LGBTQ families, and their allies continue to seek to practice marriage, parenting, and personal relationships, with one avenue being second‐parent adoption.
Co‐Provider Marriages
Authors: Helms Heather M. , Wood Claire
Published: March 2016

Co‐provider marriages in which husbands and wives jointly provide shelter, food, and clothing for their families have existed for centuries. The extent to which both spouses' breadwinning efforts have been recognized, however, has varied over time. Currently, 65 percent of married couples in the United States are dual earners. Often overlooked are the meanings dual‐earner spouses ascribe to paid employment, and husbands often retain the psychological responsibility to provide. Dual‐earner couples in which both spouses assume responsibility for breadwinning have been termed “co‐providers.” In contrast to research that assumed similar attitudes between spouses, contemporary husbands and wives in dual‐earner marriages are likely to have discrepant provider role attitudes. The extent to which dual‐earner husbands and wives in the United States view wives' paid employment as essential varies among couples and often between spouses and has important implications for spouses' role‐related stress, division of housework, and marital satisfaction.
Separation, Marital
Authors: Brown Kristina S. , Halpin Jennifer
Published: March 2016

Marital separation is a legal status that a married couple agrees to that outlines the rights and responsibilities of each spouse as the couple enters into separation. Legal separation is especially important if a couple does physically separate, as it protects each spouse in the case of eventual divorce. Separation and divorce have different legal implications, statuses, and responsibilities. Along with filing marital separation papers with the courts, couples are also advised to proceed with separating all of their assets including debt. If children are involved, working out legal and physical custody, deciding on financial arrangements, and developing a parenting plan are also important. Not all separations end in divorce. However, if the couple proceeds with divorce rather than reconciliation, any agreements made during the marital separation can set a precedent in divorce proceedings.
Romantic Love
Authors: Arosio Laura
Published: March 2016

Romantic love is a distinct kind of love that is based on the notion of mutual attraction and on personal feelings between partners that bond them as a couple. In contemporary western culture, romantic love is regarded as the bedrock on which individuals base the choice of their partner and the factor that implies and sustains the formation and consolidation of their union. The ideal model of the family held up by romantic love is nuclear and neolocal, heterosexual and lifelong, and organized around clearly defined roles and gender differences. In fact, the ideal of romantic love creates the conditions for overturning the model of family and marriage that it engenders. The late twentieth century would appear to uphold the spread of a different kind of love, coupled with the emergence of new types of family forms.