bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The thickness lemma from P− + IΣ1 + ¬BΣ2
Authors: Yang Yue
Published: May 2006

Let P− denote the Peano axioms minus the induction scheme. Let IΣn, (I∏n), BΣn (B∏n), LΣn (L∏n denote the induction scheme, the collection scheme, and the least number principle for Σn-(∏n-) formulas respectively. Paris and Kirby [3] studied the relative proof-theoretic strengths of those schemes. The general theorem states that IΣn, I∏n, LΣn, and L∏n are equivalent; IΣn implies BΣn implies IΣn–1; but not conversely.

In recent years, people have been interested in doing recursion theory on fragments of arithmetic. One of the purposes of this study is to understand the priority methods. Much work has been done in this area. For example, M. Mytilinaios [5] showed that the Sacks splitting theorem can be proven in P− + IΣ1. Later, J. Mourad showed that the Sacks splitting theorem is indeed equivalent to IΣ1 [4]. M. Groszek and M. Mytilinaios [1] showed that P− + IΣ2 is sufficient to prove the existence of a high incomplete r.e. set. On the other hand, M. Mytilinaios and T. Slaman [6] showed that P− + IΣ1 is too weak to prove the existence of such a set. A natural question to ask is if the existence of such a set implies IΣ2. In this paper, we will show the answer is negative by constructing a model of P− + IΣ1 + ¬BΣ2 which has a high incomplete r.e. set. Notice that, as shown by M. Groszek and T. Slaman in [2], P− + IΣ1 is too weak to show the transitivity of weak Turing reducibility on Σ2-sets.
Models of arithmetic and upper bounds for arithmetic sets
Authors: Lachlan Alistair H. , Soare Robert I.
Published: May 2006

We settle a question in the literature about degrees of models of true arithmetic and upper bounds for the arithmetic sets. We prove that there is a model of true arithmetic whose degree is not a uniform upper bound for the arithmetic sets. The proof involves two forcing constructions.
Some remarks on the partition calculus of ordinals
Authors: Komjáth Péter
Published: May 2006

One of the early partition relation theorems which include ordinals was the observation of Erdös and Rado [7] that if κ = cf(κ) > ω then the Dushnik–Miller theorem can be sharpened to κ→(κ, ω + 1)2. The question on the possible further extension of this result was answered by Hajnal who in [8] proved that the continuum hypothesis implies ω1 ↛ (ω1, ω + 2)2. He actually proved the stronger result ω1 ↛ (ω: 2))2. The consistency of the relation κ↛(κ, (ω: 2))2 was later extensively studied. Baumgartner [1] proved it for every κ which is the successor of a regular cardinal. Laver [9] showed that if κ is Mahlo there is a forcing notion which adds a witness for κ↛ (κ, (ω: 2))2 and preserves Mahloness, ω-Mahloness of κ, etc. We notice in connection with these results that λ→(λ, (ω: 2))2 holds if λ is singular, in fact λ→(λ, (μ: n))2 for n < ω, μ < λ (Theorem 4).

In [11] Todorčević proved that if cf(λ) > ω then a ccc forcing can add a counter-example to λ→(λ, ω + 2)2. We give an alternative proof of this (Theorem 5) and extend it to larger cardinals: if GCH holds, cf (λ) > κ = cf (κ) then < κ-closed, κ+-c.c. forcing adds a counter-example to λ→(λ, κ + 2)2 (Theorem 6).

Erdös and Hajnal remarked in their problem paper [5] that Galvin had proved ω2→(ω1, ω + 2)2 and he had also asked if ω2→(ω1, ω + 3)2 is true. We show in Theorem 1 that the negative relation is consistent.
Universal classes of simple relation algebras
Authors: Givant Steven
Published: May 2006

Tarski [19] proved the important theorem that the class of representable relation algebras is equationally axiomatizable. One of the key steps in his proof is showing that the class of (isomorphs of) simple set relation algebras—that is, algebras of binary relations with a unit of the formU×Ufor some non-empty setU—is universal, i.e., is axiomatizable by a set of universal sentences. In the same paper Tarski observed that the class of (isomorphs of) relation algebras constructed from groups (so-calledgroup relation algebras) is also universal.

We shall abstract the essential ingredients of Tarski's method (in Corollary 2.4), and then combine them with some observations about atom structures, to establish (in Theorem 2.6) a rather general method for showing that certain classes of simple relation algebras—and, more generally, certain classes of simple algebras in a discriminator variety V—are universal, and consequently that the collections of (isomorphs of) subdirect products of algebras in such classes form subvarieties of V. As applications of the method we show that two well-known classes of simple relation algebras, those constructed from projective geometries (sometimes calledLyndon algebras) and those constructed from modular lattices with a zero (sometimes calledMaddux algebras), are universal. In the process we prove that these two classes consist precisely of all (isomorphs of) complex algebras over the respective geometries and modular lattices, provided that we choose the primitive notions of the latter structures in an appropriate fashion. We also derive Tarski's theorems and a related theorem of the author as easy corollaries of Theorem 2.6.
A general formulation of simultaneous inductive-recursive definitions in type theory
Authors: Dybjer Peter
Published: May 2006

The first example of a simultaneous inductive-recursive definition in intuitionistic type theory is Martin-Löfs universe à la Tarski. A set U0of codes for small sets is generated inductively at the same time as a function T0, which maps a code to the corresponding small set, is defined by recursion on the way the elements of U0are generated.

In this paper we argue that there is an underlyinggeneralnotion of simultaneous inductive-recursive definition which is implicit in Martin-Löf's intuitionistic type theory. We extend previously given schematic formulations of inductive definitions in type theory to encompass a general notion of simultaneous induction-recursion. This enables us to give a unified treatment of several interesting constructions including various universe constructions by Palmgren, Griffor, Rathjen, and Setzer and a constructive version of Aczel's Frege structures. Consistency of a restricted version of the extension is shown by constructing a realisability model in the style of Allen.
Killing ideals and adding reals
Authors: Zapletal Jindřich
Published: May 2006

The relationship between killing ideals and adding reals by forcings is analysed.
Subprevarieties versus extensions. Application to the logic of paradox
Authors: Pynko Alexej P.
Published: May 2006

In the present paper we prove that the poset of all extensions of the logic defined by a class of matrices whose sets of distinguished values are equationally definable by their algebra reducts is the retract, under a Galois connection, of the poset of all subprevarieties of the prevariety generated by the class of the algebra reducts of the matrices involved. We apply this general result to the problem of finding and studying all extensions of the logic of paradox (viz., the implication-free fragment of any non-classical normal extension of the relevance-mingle logic). In order to solve this problem, we first study the structure of prevarieties of Kleene lattices. Then, we show that the poset of extensions of the logic of paradox forms a four-element chain, all the extensions being finitely many-valued and finitely-axiomatizable logics. There are just two proper consistent extensions of the logic of paradox. The first is the classical logic that is relatively axiomatized by the Modus ponens rule for the material implication. The second extension, being intermediate between the logic of paradox and the classical logic, is the one relatively axiomatized by the Ex Contradictione Quodlibet rule.
After all, there are some inequalities which are provable in ZFC
Authors: Bartoszyński Tomek , Rosłanowski Andrzej , Shelah Saharon
Published: May 2006

We address ZFC inequalities between some cardinal invariants of the continuum, which turned out to be true in spite of strong expectations given by [11].
On axiomatising products of Kripke frames
Authors: Kurucz Ágnes
Published: May 2006

It is shown that the many-dimensional modal logicKn, determined by products ofn-many Kripke frames, is not finitely axiomatisable in then-modal language, for anyn> 2. On the other hand,Knis determined by a class of frames satisfying a single first-order sentence.
Dualization of the van Douwen diagram
Authors: Cichoń Jacek , Krawczyk Adam , Majcher-Iwanow Barbara , Wȩglorz Bogdan
Published: May 2006

We make a more systematic study of the van Douwen diagram for cardinal coefficients related to combinatorial properties of partitions of natural numbers.
Bounding minimal degrees by computably enumerable degrees
Authors: Li Angsheng , Yang Dongping
Published: May 2006

In this paper, we prove that there exist computably enumerable degrees a and b such that a > b and for any degree x, if x ≤ a and x is a minimal degree, then x < b.
Located sets and reverse mathematics
Authors: Giusto Mariagnese , Simpson Stephen G.
Published: May 2006

Let X be a compact metric space. A closed set K ⊆ X is located if the distance function d(x, K) exists as a continuous real-valued function on X; weakly located if the predicate d(x, K) > r is allowing parameters. The purpose of this paper is to explore the concepts of located and weakly located subsets of a compact separable metric space in the context of subsystems of second order arithmetic such as RCA0, WKL0 and ACA0. We also give some applications of these concepts by discussing some versions of the Tietze extension theorem. In particular we prove an RCA0 version of this result for weakly located closed sets.
The proof-theoretic analysis of transfinitely iterated fixed point theories
Authors: JÄger Gerhard , Kahle Reinhard , Setzer Anton , Strahm Thomas
Published: May 2006

This article provides the proof-theoretic analysis of the transfinitely iterated fixed point theories and ; the exact proof-theoretic ordinals of these systems are presented.
Non-distributive upper semilattice of Kleene degrees
Authors: Muraki Hisato
Published: May 2006

K denotes the upper semilattice of all Kleene degrees. Under ZF + AD + DC. K is well-ordered and deg(XSJ) is the next Kleene degree above deg(X) for X ⊆ ωω (see [4] and [5, Chapter V]). While, without AD, properties of K are not always clear. In this note, we prove the non-distributivity of K under ZFC (§1), and that of Kleene degrees between deg(X) and deg(XSJ) for some X under ZFC + CH (§2.3).
The effective content of surreal algebra
Authors: Lurie Jacob
Published: May 2006

This paper defines and explores the properties of several effectivizations of the structure of surreal numbers. The construction of one of previously investigated systems, the metadyadics, is shown to be effectively equivalent to the construction of the surreals in . This equivalence is used to answer several open questions concerning the metadyadics. Results obtained seem to indicate that the metadyadics best capture the notion of a recursive surreal number.
Definability and descent
Authors: Ballard David , Boshuck William
Published: May 2006

The present note offers a short argument for the descent theorems of Zawadowski [10] (originally [9]) and Makkai [6], which were conjectured by Pitts after the descent theorem of Joyal and Tierney [3] for open geometric morphisms of (Grothendieck) toposes. The original proofs, which involve variants of Makkai's [5] duality for first order logic, are rather involved and there has been considerable interest in locating simpler proofs. Viewed categorically, the descent theorems establish a bicategorical exactness property (conservative morphisms are effective descent) for pretop (the 2-category of small pretoposes, pretopos functors, and natural transformations), for exact (exact categories, exact functors, and natural transformations), and for bpretop* (Boolean pretoposes, pretopos functors, and natural isomorphisms). Viewed logically, they fragment into a familiar Beth/Tarski-type definability theorem and a covering theorem for certain functors on PCΔ-categories (groupoids, in the Boolean case); the latter (as the former) is a arithmetical statement about the syntax of first order logic ([6, §3])).

The argument here involves special models and, independently, a continuity lemma of Makkai. The use of special models is axiomatic in that only a few properties (listed below) are needed. The continuity lemma, 9.1 of [6], is established via forcing and can be read independently of the rest of that paper. Because of its interest to both the model theorist and the category theorist, the argument is first given as straight model theory and afterwards it is briefly indicated how the descent theorems follow.
Cohen-stable families of subsets of integers
Authors: Kurilić Miloš S.
Published: May 2006

A maximal almost disjoint (mad) family ⊆ [ω]ω is Cohen-stable if and only if it remains maximal in any Cohen generic extension. Otherwise it is Cohen-unstable. It is shown that a mad family. .is Cohen-unstable if and only if there is a bijection G from ω to the rationals such that the sets G[A]. A ∈ are nowhere dense. An ℵ0-mad family, . is a mad family with the property that given any countable family ℬ ⊂ [ω]ω such that each element of ℬ meets infinitely many elements of in an infinite set there is an element of meeting each element of ℬ in an infinite set. It is shown that Cohen-stable mad families exist if and only if there exist ℵ0-mad families. Either of the conditions b = c or a < cov() implies that there exist Cohen-stable mad families. Similar results are obtained for splitting families. For example, a splitting family. . is Cohen-unstable if and only if there is a bijection G from ω to the rationals such that the boundaries of the sets G[S], S ∈ are nowhere dense. Also. Cohen-stable splitting families of cardinality ≤ κ exist if and only if ℵ0-splitting families of cardinality ≤ κ exist.
An algebraic approach to intuitionistic connectives
Authors: Caicedo Xavier , Cignoli Roberto
Published: May 2006

It is shown that axiomatic extensions of intuitionistic propositional calculus defining univocally new connectives, including those proposed by Gabbay, are strongly complete with respect to valuations in Heyting algebras with additional operations. In all cases, the double negation of such a connective is equivalent to a formula of intuitionistic calculus. Thus, under the excluded third law it collapses to a classical formula, showing that this condition in Gabbay's definition is redundant. Moreover, such connectives can not be interpreted in all Heyting algebras, unless they are already equivalent to a formula of intuitionistic calculus. These facts relativize to connectives over intermediate logics. In particular, the intermediate logic with values in the chain of lengthnmay be “completed” conservatively by adding a single unary connective, so that the expandedsystemdoes not allow further axiomatic extensions by new connectives.
Bounded variation implies regulated: a constructive proof
Authors: Bridges Douglas , Mahalanobis Ayan
Published: May 2006

It is shown constructively that a strongly extensional function of bounded variation on an interval is regulated, in a sequential sense that is classically equivalent to the usual one.
On the maximality of logics with approximations
Authors: Iovino José
Published: May 2006

In this paper we analyze some aspects of the question of using methods from model theory to study structures of functional analysis.

By a well known result of P. Lindström, one cannot extend the expressive power of first order logic and yet preserve its most outstanding model theoretic characteristics (e.g., compactness and the Löwenheim-Skolem theorem). However, one may consider extending the scope of first order in a different sense, specifically, by expanding the class of structures that are regarded as models (e.g., including Banach algebras or other structures of functional analysis), and ask whether the resulting extensions of first order model theory preserve some of its desirable characteristics.

A formal framework for the study of structures based on Banach spaces from the perspective of model theory was first introduced by C. W. Henson in [8] and [6]. Notions of syntax and semantics for these structures were defined, and it was shown that using them one obtains a model theoretic apparatus that satisfies many of the fundamental properties of first order model theory. For instance, one has compactness, Löwenheim-Skolem, and omitting types theorems. Further aspects of the theory, namely, the fundamentals of stability and forking, were first introduced in [10] and [9].

The classes of mathematical structures formally encompassed by this framework are normed linear spaces, possibly expanded with additional structure,e.g., operations, real-valued relations, and constants. This notion subsumes wide classes of structures from functional analysis. However, the restriction that the universe of a structure be a normed space is not necessary. (This restriction has a historical, rather than technical origin; specifically, the development of the theory was originally motivated by questions in Banach space geometry.) Analogous techniques can be applied if the universe is a metric space. Now, when the underlying metric topology is discrete, the resulting model theory coincides with first order model theory, so this logic extends first order in the sense described above. Furthermore, without any cost in the mathematical complexity, one can also work in multi-sorted contexts, so, for instance, one sort could be an operator algebra while another is. say, a metric space.
Slim models of Zermelo set theory
Authors: Mathias A. R. D.
Published: May 2006

Working in Z + KP, we give a new proof that the class of hereditarily finite sets cannot be proved to be a set in Zermelo set theory, extend the method to establish other failures of replacement, and exhibit a formula Φ(λ, a) such that for any sequence ⟨Aλ ∣ λ a limit ordinal⟩ where for each λ. Aλ ⊆ λ2, there is a supertransitive inner model of Zermelo containing all ordinals in which for every λAλ = {a ∣ Φ(λ, a)}.
Fields of finite Morley rank
Authors: Wagner Frank
Published: May 2006

IfKis a field of finite Morley rank, then for any parameter setA⊆Keqthe prime model overAis equal to the model-theoretic algebraic closure ofA. A field of finite Morley rank eliminates imaginaries. Simlar results hold for minimal groups of finite Morley rank with infinite acl(∅).
Applications of PCF theory
Authors: Shelah Saharon
Published: May 2006

We deal with several pcf problems: we characterize another version of exponentiation: maximal number ofk-branches in a tree withλnodes, deal with existence of independent sets in stable theories, possible cardinalities of ultraproducts and the depth of ultraproducts of Boolean Algebras. Also we give cardinal invariants for eachλwith a pcf restriction and investigate furtherTD{f). The sections can be read independently, although there are some minor dependencies.
Hybrid logics: characterization, interpolation and complexity
Authors: Areces Carlos , Blackburn Patrick , Marx Maarten
Published: May 2006

Hybrid languages are expansions of propositional modal languages which can refer to (or even quantify over) worlds. The use of strong hybrid languages dates back to at least [Pri67], but recent work (for example [BS98, BT98a, BT99]) has focussed on a more constrained system called H(↓, @). We show in detail that (↓, @) is modally natural. We begin by studying its expressivity, and provide model theoretic characterizations (via a restricted notion of Ehrenfeucht-Fraïssé game, and an enriched notion of bisimulation) and a syntactic characterization (in terms of bounded formulas). The key result to emerge is that (↓, @) corresponds to the fragment of first-order logic which is invariant for generated submodels. We then show that (↓, @) enjoys (strong) interpolation, provide counterexamples for its finite variable fragments, and show that weak interpolation holds for the sublanguage (@). Finally, we provide complexity results for (@) and other fragments and variants, and sharpen known undecidability results for (↓, @).
Exact bounds for lengths of reductions in typed λ-calculus
Authors: Beckmann Arnold
Published: May 2006

We determine the exact bounds for the length of an arbitrary reduction sequence of a term in the typed λ-calculus with β-, ξ- and η-conversion. There will be two essentially different classifications, one depending on the height and the degree of the term and the other depending on the length and the degree of the term.
Beyond Tocqueville, Myrdal, and Hartz: The Multiple Traditions in America
Authors: Smith Rogers M.
Published: May 2006

Analysts of American politics since Tocqueville have seen the nation as a paradigmatic “liberal democratic” society, shaped most by the comparatively free and equal conditions and the Enlightenment ideals said to have prevailed at its founding. These accounts must be severely revised to recognize the inegalitarian ideologies and institutions of ascriptive hierarchy that defined the political status of racial and ethnic minorities and women through most of U.S. history. A study of the period 1870–1920 illustrates that American political culture is better understood as the often conflictual and contradictory product of multiple political traditions, than as the expression of hegemonic liberal or democratic political traditions.
The Electoral Fortunes of Legislative Factions in Japan
Authors: Cox Gary W. , Rosenbluth Frances
Published: May 2006

The legislative factions of the Liberal Democratic Party of Japan are so autonomous that the LDP is typically viewed as a coalition of factions, rather than a unitary party. We focus on the electoral role of these factions, finding that the five main factions differed substantially in electoral success in the 1960–79 period, but have been so closely tied together in the 1980s that differences in their electoral fates are statistically indiscernible. In particular, we find that the so-called mainstream factions did consistently better than their nonmainstream rivals before 1980 but not after. We explain the lessening of interfactional differences in terms of a decentralization of fund-raising within factions, which tended to equalize factional war chests (on a per capita basis).
Tolerating Economic Reform: Popular Support for Transition to a Free Market in the Former Soviet Union
Authors: Duch Raymond M.
Published: May 2006

The mass public in the Soviet Union is not enthusiastic about free-market reform. How, then, do citizens in a former communist regime develop an appreciation for free-market reforms? Different explanations for attitudes toward free market reforms are tested using data from a survey of the European USSR conducted in May 1990. First, negative assessments of recent economic performance is a catalyst for popular support for the market economy. Although very underdeveloped, there is a nascent free-market culture in the Soviet Union that makes a modest contribution to support for free-market reforms. The free-market culture that is developing in the former Soviet Union resembles that of social democracy, rather than laissez-faire capitalism. Democratic values and support for free markets are mutually reinforcing, suggesting that support for democracy makes a very important contribution to support for free-market reform.
Conceptual “Stretching” Revisited: Adapting Categories in Comparative Analysis
Authors: Collier David , Mahon James E.
Published: May 2006

When scholars extend their models and hypotheses to encompass additional cases, they commonly need to adapt their analytic categories to fit the new contexts. Giovanni Sartori's work on conceptual “traveling” and conceptual “stretching” provides helpful guidance in addressing this fundamental task of comparative analysis. Yet Sartori's framework draws upon what may be called classical categorization, which views the relation among categories in terms of a taxonomic hierarchy, with each category having clear boundaries and defining properties shared by all members. We examine the challenge to this framework presented by two types of nonclassical categories: family resemblances and radial categories. With such categories, the overly strict application of a classical framework can lead to abandoning to category prematurely or to modifying it inappropriately. We discuss solutions to these problems, using examples of how scholars have adapted their categories in comparative research on democracy and authoritarianism.
Addressing the Political Exception: Machiavelli's “Accidents” and the Mixed Regime
Authors: McCormick John P.
Published: May 2006

First, I will demonstrate that Machiavelli's conception of political phenomena is richer and more varied and conforms to an adequate understanding of political reality more closely than later, more “systematic,” or “regular,” conceptions often associated with the Enlightenment. Second, I find in Machiavelli strong grounds for resisting authoritarian claims that the variegated and unpredictable nature of political phenomena must be managed with unipartite and, especially, centralized practical political alternatives. I focus upon Machiavelli's frequent use of a particular word by which he refers to politically significant occurrences,accidente. I argue that his employment of this word, especially in theDiscourses, serves to accentuate his sensitivity to the irregular, nonsystematic nature of political reality—to the possibility of “exceptions.” But I demonstrate that his practical response to this reality, is not a perpetually vigilant, all-powerful sovereign but is, rather, a far more moderate answer, the mixed regime.
A Note on the Idea of the Moral Economy
Authors: Booth William James
Published: May 2006

In their research note Robert Bates and Amy Curry (1992) have drawn our attention to the importance for political science of the challenges posed by the moral economic approach. Using their essay as a springboard and recasting their understanding of the idea of the moral economy, I show that the full significance of this controversy would be better illuminated by moving the debate on to a different terrain, one that captures the fundamental sources of the antagonism between the moral economic and competing approaches. I begin by setting out the central difficulty in Bates and Curry's reading of the moral economy argument and relate that to how the controversy has been framed in the recent political science literature. I then offer a sketch of the core claims of the moral economic approach, drawing out the radicalness of their challenge, and offer an estimate of their weaknesses and value. I conclude with some observations about political philosophy and the idea of the moral economy.
The Reichstag Elections
Authors: Graper Elmer D.
Published: May 2006

Although two general elections were held in Germany during 1924, the political situation remained confused. The election of May resulted in gains for both the extreme right and the extreme left; the one of December registered a reaction against both extremes. However, neither of these contests was sufficiently conclusive to indicate clearly the direction in which the currents of public opinion were moving. The result has been a remarkable series of cabinet crises, the latest of which it took more than a month to settle.
General Deterrence between Enduring Rivals: Testing Three Competing Models
Authors: Huth Paul , Russett Bruce
Published: May 2006

General deterrence, unlike immediate deterrence, has rarely been analyzed in a systematic comparative manner. We outline a research design for doing so, by studying the circumstances under which, in a set of enduring rivalries, challengers are likely to initiate militarized disputes. We indicate the conceptual and operational steps necessary to make and empirically compare predictions stemming from three often-competing theoretical frameworks: rational deterrence, a general model of rational conflict initiation, and a cognitive psychological model of behavior emphasizing risk orientation and misperception. The results of probit analysis on a pooled time series of enduring rivalries since 1945 provide support for hypotheses from each of the different theoretical models.
Contextual Determinants of Feminist Attitudes: National and Subnational Influences in Western Europe
Authors: Banaszak Lee Ann , Plutzer Eric
Published: May 2006

We augment the survey-based studies of attitudes toward feminism with comparative, contextual perspectives emphasizing the importance of social structure and culture. In doing so, we are able to assess the relative merits of two very different structural theories. Most researchers implicitly assume a simple linear effect of social context on attitudes. On the other hand, some early works on American conservatism suggest to us that status discontent may be a better explanation. We explicate these two approaches and derive a series of testable hypotheses for each. We then examine the validity of these theories utilizing data from nine European nations.
A Signaling Model of Informative and Manipulative Political Action
Authors: Lohmann Susanne
Published: May 2006

I develop a signaling model of mass political action. I establish that rational, self-interested individuals may have incentives to engage in costly political action despite a free-rider problem. Their political actions are informative for a political leader who rationally takes a cue from the size of the protest movement. However, some information is trapped in extremist and rationally apathetic pockets of the society. Some extremists take political action regardless of their private information, to manipulate the political leader's decision. Others abstain hoping to benefit if the leader makes an uninformed decision. Rationally apathetic moderates abstain because, being nearly indifferent between the policy alternatives, they do not find it worthwhile to incur the cost of taking action. Only activist moderates take informative political action. The political leader discounts the observed turnout for extremist political action and shifts policy if the estimated number of activist moderates exceeds a critical threshold.
The Dynamics of Trade Unionism and National Economic Performance
Authors: Golden Miriam
Published: May 2006

I test two theories of the political processes of trade unions. The first argues that wage moderation depends on a centralized labor movement. The second contends that, institutional conditions permitting, unions' coordination of bargaining strategies is sufficient. Coordination is most likely to he achieved when there are small number of unions that do not compete for members, that is, when union monopoly is high. Important empirical anomalies may be resolved by analyzing the effects of union centralization and monopoly separately, rather than combining them into a composite index of corporatism. Reanalyzing comparative data from Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development countries between 1963 and 1985 largely corroborates the hypothesis that monopoly is more important than either centralization or composite indices of corporatism for national economic performance. The conceptual rationale underlying indices of corporatism should be reexamined.
Predicting the Number of Parties: A Quantitative Model of Duverger's Mechanical Effect
Authors: Taagepera Rein , Shugart Matthew Soberg
Published: May 2006

Themechanical effectof electoral systems, identified by Maurice Duverger, can be estimated by means of a quantitative model. The model predicts the range within which theeffective numberof parties in a district should fall for a given magnitude (number of seats) of the district. At the national level, a related model predicts the effective number of parties based on the effective magnitude and the number of seats in the national assembly. The institutional variables considered—magnitude and assembly size—define a great portion of the structural constraints within which a given country's politics must take place. The model developed provides a good fit to data in spite of its having been developed from outrageously simple starting assumptions.
The Strategic Role of Party Ideology When Voters Are Uncertain about How the Economy Works
Authors: Roemer John E.
Published: May 2006

A continuum of voters, indexed by income, have preferences over economic outcomes. Two political parties each represent the interests of given constituencies of voters: the rich and the poor. Parties/candidates put forth policies—for instance, tax policy, where taxes finance a public good. Voters are uncertain about the theory of the economy, the function that maps policies into economic outcomes. Parties argue, as well, for theories of the economy. Each voter has a prior probability distribution over possible theories of the economy; after parties announce their theories of the economy, each voter constructs an a posteriori distribution over such theories. Suppose that voters are unsure how efficiently the government converts tax revenues into the public good. Under reasonable assumptions the party representing the rich argues that the government is very inefficient and the party representing the poor argues the opposite. What appear as liberal and conservative ideological views emerge as simply good strategies in the electoral game.
Domestic Political Audiences and the Escalation of International Disputes
Authors: Fearon James D.
Published: May 2006

International crises are modeled as a political “war of attrition” in which state leaders choose at each moment whether to attack, back down, or escalate. A leader who backs down suffersaudience coststhat increase as the public confrontation proceeds. Equilibrium analysis shows how audience costs enable leaders to learn an adversary's true preferences concerning settlement versus war and thus whether and when attack is rational. The model also generates strong comparative statics results, mainly on the question of which side is most likely to back down. Publicly observable measures of relative military capabilities and relative interests prove to have no direct effect once a crisis begins. Instead, relative audience costs matter: the side with a stronger domestic audience (e.g., a democracy) is always less likely to back down than the side less able to generate audience costs (a nondemocracy). More broadly, the analysis suggests that democracies should be able to signal their intentions to other states more credibly and clearly than authoritarian states can, perhaps ameliorating the security dilemma between democratic states.
Popular Influence on Supreme Court Decisions
Authors: Norpoth Helmut , Segal Jeffrey A. , Mishler William , Sheehan Reginald S.
Published: May 2006

In their 1993 article in this Review, William Mishler and Reginald Sheehan reported evidence of both direct and indirect impacts of public opinion on Supreme Court decisions. Helmut Norpoth and Jeffrey Segal offer a methodological critique and in their own reanalysis of the data find, contrary to Mishler and Sheehan, no evidence for a direct path of influence from public opinion to Court decisions. Instead, they find an abrupt-permanent shift of judicial behavior consistent with an indirect model of influence whereby popularly elected presidents, through new appointments, affect the ideological complexion of the Court. In response, Mishler and Sheehan defend the direct public opinion linkage originally noted, at both individual and aggregate level; respond to the methodological critique; and offer further statistical analysis to support the aggregate linkages.
Limits of Political Strategy: A Systemic View of the African American Experience
Authors: Barker Lucius J.
Published: May 2006

Viewing the African American experience through a systemic perspective tells much about the nature and operation of the political system. I suggest that a systemic perspective incorporates a broad range of factors that must be considered in a constitutional context that guides not only the choice of goals and strategies, but also signals the relative chances of success in the outcome of interest conflict. I focus on the capacity and limits of various strategies, and show how the political system generally militates against fundamental policy change. However, on rare occasions such policy change does occur, but it is difficult to implement and maintain, especially regarding the matter of race. Under the circumstances, I suggest that overcoming America's continuing dilemma of race requires extraordinary leadership and people of good will who are determined to see the constitutional-democratic system work.
Aristotle's Science of the Best Regime
Authors: Bartlett Robert C.
Published: May 2006

Aristotle's science of the best regime brings to light an almost forgotten hut by no means settled quarrel between reason and faith concerning the best way of life and its political embodiments. Aristotle denies the claimed superiority of divine legislation, in favor of the guidance supplied by unaided reason. Aristotle knows, however, as contemporary political science may not, that only by confronting the divine law as such can science avoid collapsing into dogmatism. The present study attempts to sketch that confrontation by considering Aristotle's analysis of justice—the concern fundamental to both Aristotle and divine law—in order simply to encourage the kind of reflection necessary to reinvigorate rationalism, or that which, according to Aristotle, is closest to the divine in man.
Uncertainty, Shifting Power, and Appeasement
Authors: Powell Robert
Published: May 2006

Great Britain faced an immensely complicated strategic problem in the 1930s, and important aspects of it can be stylized as a situation in which a state that is declining in power is unsure of the aims of a rising state. If those aims are limited, then the declining state prefers to appease the rising state's demands rather than go to war to oppose them. If, however, the rising state's demands are unlimited, then the declining state prefers fighting. And, given that the declining state is becoming weaker over time, it prefers fighting sooner rather than later if there is to be a war. This situation creates a trade-off: The earlier a state stands firm, the stronger it will be if war ensues, but the higher the chance of fighting an unnecessary war. In equilibrium, the declining state generally tries to appease the rising state by making a series of concessions.
Reciprocity, Bullying, and International Cooperation: Time-series Analysis of the Bosnia Conflict
Authors: Goldstein Joshua S. , Pevehouse Jon C.
Published: May 2006

Although the role of reciprocity in international cooperation is central to neoliberal institutionalism, empirical understanding of the concept remains weak. We analyze strategic response patterns—the use of reciprocity or inverse response (bullying)—in the Bosnia conflict from 1992 to 1995. We construct weekly time series of conflict and cooperation among the parties to the Bosnia war, using machine-coded events data. Time-series statistical analysis identifies several important patterns of strategic response, both reciprocal and inverse. These include bilateral responses, which are central to the concepts of reciprocity and evolution of cooperation, and triangular responses, which are central to the debates on containment versus accommodation in regional conflicts. Specifically, Serb forces displayed inverse triangular response, cooperating toward Bosnia after being punished by NATO. Outside powers displayed triangular reciprocity, increasing hostility toward Serb forces after Serbian attacks on the Bosnian government.
Citizenship and Ethnicity: An Examination of Two Transition Moments in Kenyan Politics
Authors: Ndegwa Stephen N.
Published: May 2006

In some African countries, democratic openings have intensified ethnic competition and led to protracted transitions or outright conflict. In Kenya, I argue, the stalled transition reflects the effects ofrepublicancitizenship in ethnic political communities andliberalcitizenship in the national political community. This duality in citizenship engenders conflict over democracy—conceived as liberal majoritarian democracy—and results in ethnic coalitions disagreeing over which institutions are appropriate for a multiethnic state. I provide evidence from discourses over institutions from two transition periods in Kenya: at independence and in the recent shift from one-party rule. This study makes two contributions. First, it adds to current citizenship theory, which is largely derived from Western experience, by demonstrating that republican and liberal citizenships are not necessarily compatible and that the modern nation-state is not the only relevant community for forming citizens. Second, it adds to studies of African transitions by highlighting citizenship issues in institutional design with regard to ethnicity in Kenya.
A Not-so-distant Mirror: The 17th Amendment and Congressional Change
Authors: Crook Sara Brandes , Hibbing John R.
Published: May 2006

At the beginning of the century, the Constitution was amended to permit direct election of U.S. senators. We examine the shift to determine the extent to which an electoral reform can result in meaningful change. Variables are analyzed that tap the Senate's membership and responsiveness before and after direct election, and House data are employed to control for history effects. The results indicate that changing the mode of senatorial selection did indeed lead to alterations in the composition and sensitivity of the Senate, a finding that should encourage caution regarding the electoral reforms being advocated at the end of the century.
Distance versus Direction: The Illusory Defeat of the Proximity Theory of Electoral Choice
Authors: Westholm Anders
Published: May 2006

In an extensive series of articles, Rabinowitz, Macdonald, and Listhaug have launched a new, directional theory of electoral choice. According to their claims, the new theory is superior to the classical Downsian proximity model. Such a conclusion, however, is not tenable. First, it fails to take proper account of the lower falsifiability of the directional model. Second, it rests on empirical analyses that do not test the two theories on the predictions they actually make. Both are theories of individual choice, which implies intrapersonal comparisons of utility. Prior tests, however, have predominantly taken the form of interpersonal comparisons. A reanalysis based on the proper type of comparison yields an outcome diametrically opposed to that previously obtained. It also reveals an eccentricity effect that largely accounts for the apparent success of the directional model.
Lakatos and Neorealism: A Reply to Vasquez
Authors: Elman Colin , Elman Miriam Fendius
Published: May 2006

We disagree that our correspondence (Elman and Elman 1995) regarding Schroeder (1994) supports Vasquez's (1997) verdict that the neorealist scientific research program is degenerating. We argue that Vasquez's conclusion is based on a misstatement of the Lakatosian criteria of appraisal and a mistaken conflation of the neorealist research program with the proposition that balancing is a common foreign policy. We do, however, welcome Vasquez's attempt to apply Lakatosian metatheory to international relations theory, and we hope that this conversation will encourage others to follow his lead.
Capabilities, Perception, and Escalation
Authors: de Mesquita Bruce Bueno , Morrow James D. , Zorick Ethan R.
Published: May 2006

The evolution of crises depends upon interpreting intentions under uncertainty. We model crises as a game of two-sided incomplete information. Players are uncertain about their own payoffs from war because of differences between observable and actual capabilities. We derive four hypotheses, testing them against crises in Europe between 1815 and 1970. We show a nonmonotonic relationship between ex ante observable capabilities and the likelihood of violence in a crisis, as well as the ex ante likelihood of a negotiated settlement. We answer five questions: (1) How do differences in observable capabilities between rivals influence the likelihood of a crisis and the escalation to violence? (2) How do intangible capabilities alter the effects of observable capabilities on the likelihood of conflict and violence? (3) What do national leaders learn from the responses of their adversaries in crises? (4) Under what conditions can deterrence succeed? (5) Under what conditions are the strong likely to give in to the weak or vice versa in a crisis?
Politics Matters: Political Events as Catalysts for Preadult Socialization
Authors: Sears David O. , Valentino Nicholas A.
Published: May 2006

We propose that (1) the preadult socialization of longstanding, stable predispositions is catalyzed by exogenous political events; (2) such events socialize attitudes selectively, only in the specific domains they make salient; and so (3) longstanding predispositions tend to be socialized episodically rather than incrementally. This theory is applied to the socialization of partisanship during a presidential campaign, examining gains in information, affective expression, and attitude crystallization. Adolescents (aged 10 to 17) and their parents were interviewed in a three-wave panel study, at the beginning of a presidential campaign, at the end, and a year later. The campaign induced substantial preadult socialization gains regarding attitude objects central to the campaign (candidates and parties), particularly in the stability of preadults' partisanship. There were few gains in attitude domains peripheral to the campaign or during the postcampaign period. These findings suggest that periodic political events catalyze preadult socialization, generating predispositions that persist into later life stages.
The Rule of Wisdom and the Rule of Law in Plato'sStatesman
Authors: Stern Paul
Published: May 2006

Recently, the idea ofphronesishas assumed great importance among political theorists. This prominence is due to the perception that, contrary to the application of the methods of natural science to politics,phronesispreserves the distinctive character of politics in its refusal to apply inappropriate standards of precision and to find certainty where it does not exist. But precisely because of this, the following question arises: Can we ascertain a nonarbitrary standard ofphronesiswithout denying those characteristics that make it appropriate for the understanding of politics? I address this question by considering the treatment ofphronesis(wisdom) found in Plato'sStatesmanand, in particular, the passage that weighs the relative merits of rule by wisdom and rule by law. In this seminal consideration ofphronesisPlato (unlike Aristotle) does not confine his treatment to the practical sphere; even this intensely political passage contains far-reaching reflections on the nature of humanity and the world we inhabit. These explain what we are and what our world is, such that there is a need for this cognitive capacity. As I argue, they express the conditions ofphronesisthat can provide a guide for its use without negating its essential character.
Quasi-truth-functional systems of propositional logic
Authors: Rescher Nicholas
Published: May 2006

In teaching symbolic logic to beginners, it is a not infrequent experience to encounter difficulties in the transition from the informal “if …, then …” construction of common discourse to its analysis in terms of material implication and its truth-table. There is no trouble with the idea that “if p, then q” must be so understood that “if p/T1, then we must have (p⊃q)T when q/T, and (P⊃q)/F when q/F. There is thus no problem in leading the explanation to the point.
Syllogism and quantification
Authors: Smiley Timothy
Published: May 2006

Anyone who reads Aristotle, knowing something about modern logic and nothing about its history, must ask himself why the syllogistic cannot be translated as it stands into the logic of quantification. It is now more than twenty years since the invention of the requisite framework, the logic of many-sorted quantification.

In the familiar first-order predicate logic generality is expressed by means of variables and quantifiers, and each interpretation of the system is based upon the choice of some class over which the variables may range, the only restriction placed on this ‘domain of individuals’ being that it should not be empty.