bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
INTERINDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN CATECHOLAMINE EXCRETION DURING STRESS
Authors: Frankenhaeuser Marianne , Pátkai Paula
Published: May 2008

Measurements of adrenaline and noradrenaline excretion during inactivity and stress, and ratings of 22 personality variables were obtained for 110 subjects. Six factors were extracted by a factor analysis. Two of the factors were associated with personality variables, three primarily with catecholamines, and one with both types of variables. The ‘mixed.’ factor was tentatively interpreted as indicating that individuals with depressive tendencies respond to stressors with a relatively smaller rise in adrenaline excretion. This finding is in line with current theories concerning the role of catecholamines in affective psychoses.
DIMENSIONALITY OF THE SEMANTIC SPACE FOR COMMUNICATION VIA FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
Authors: Osgood Charles E.
Published: May 2008

Facial expressions were posed by student actors and labeled by student judges, the judges being restricted to the same labels as were given to the actors. Factor analyses yielded evidence for three major dimensions resembling those proposed by Schlosberg (1954): Pleasantness, Activation, and Control. A hypothetical emotional‐expression solid, a pyramid truncated at the far end (passive direction), is proposed as a resolution of recent controversies over the number and nature of dimensions. Cluster analyses confirm the existence of some seven to ten regions within this space, densely populated with quasi‐synonymous states, which warrant identification as ‘primary affects’.
THE INFLUENCE OF INTENSITY AND DURATION OF ELECTRICAL STIMULATION ON SUBJECTIVE VARIABLES
Authors: Ekman Gösta. , Frankenhaeuser Marianne , Levander Sonja , Mellis Inga
Published: May 2008

The unpleasantness and subjective duration of an A.C. current of 50 c/sec applied to two fingers was scaled by subjects using the method of magnitude estimation. Stimulation was varied with regard to both intensity and duration. It was found that (1) unpleasantness increased logarithmically with stimulus duration, (2) unpleasantness was a power function, with the exponent 1.5, of stimulus intensity, (3) subjective duration was essentially linearly related to stimulus duration, and (4) subjective duration increased logarithmically with intensity of stimulation.
NOTE OF CAUTION IN THE USE OF CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS IN FACTORIAL STUDIES IN THE CLINICAL DOMAIN
Authors: Holley J. W.
Published: May 2008

Extreme caution must be observed when correlation coefficients are used in factorial studies in the clinical area. Distortional effects resulting from differences between the levels of test performance are demonstrated on both a correlational and factorial level. Further research to obtain a more suitable statistical index than the correlation coefficient for clinical research is recommended.
NOTE ON THE DOUBLE CENTERING OF DICHOTOMIZED MATRICES
Authors: Holley J. W. , Guilford J. P.
Published: May 2008

A method is described for the double centering of dichotomized score matrices. It is based on a modification of the rs coefficient of Guilford in which a second set of values, based on the reversed scoring of the original set, is used. A comparison of indices from matrices centered in such a manner, with some coefficients customarily obtained from score matrices, is presented.
MICROANALYSIS OF CONCRETE REASONING
Authors: Smedslund Jan
Published: May 2008

Subjects with median age 5–11 were given 24 triads of elementary + and ‐ operations with one unit (AS items), besides pre‐ and posttests of conservation of quantity. A strong initial resistance to use the ‘equal’ category was observed. A considerable proportion of the subjects acquired conservation. The difficulty of the AS items seemed to be mainly determined by the number of required intellectual transformations and non‐redundant elements to be processed. Degree of perceptual support and codability of element combinations also appeared to be likely determinants.
OBJECTIVE AND SUBJECTIVE PERFORMANCE AS INFLUENCED BY DRUG‐INDUCED VARIATIONS IN ACTIVATION LEVEL
Authors: Frankenhaeuser Marianne , Post Birgitta
Published: May 2008

Performance was measured by seven sensorimotor and perceptual tests given to 30 students in six successive trials, spread over five hours, before and after the intake of either 15 mg dexamphetamine, zoo mg Pentobarbitone, or a placebo. Subjective performance, level of aspiration, wakefulness, and mood were measured by a scaling method. A close agreement was found between the amount of objective and subjective improvement following dexamphetamine, whereas the objective impairment induced by Pentobarbitone was not reflected in the subjective measures. These results were examined in relation to the other indices of activation.
A PARADOX IN THE PERCEPTION OF LUMINANCE GRADIENTS. I
Authors: Bergström Sten Sture
Published: May 2008

Under certain conditions subjects looking at a luminance gradient report a physically darker part of the gradient to be brighter than an adjacent area of higher luminance. This brightness paradox was studied in a series of experiments using a magnitude estimation method. The main results were that both the changing sign of the second derivative of the luminance function (Mach's hypothesis) and the higher or lower luminance of an adjacent area (McDougall's drainage theory) are critical conditions for the appearance of the paradox. In the present study none of these conditions per se resulted in a brightness paradox.
A TEST OF HENDIN'S HYPOTHESES RELATING SUICIDE IN SCANDINAVIA TO CHILD‐REARING ORIENTATIONS
Authors: Block Jeanne , Christiansen Bjørn
Published: May 2008

Hendin's hypotheses regarding the psychodynamic origins of the differences in suicide incidence among Denmark, Sweden, and Norway were studied by comparing responses on a Child Rearing Practices Report by 385 university students in these countries. Results lend support to Hendin's hypotheses with respect to competition, maternal authority, physical freedom and autonomy, and the use of teasing, but not with respect to tolerance for aggression, expression of affect, and dependency. The findings for Denmark and Norway are more consistent than for Sweden with Hendin's observations. Descriptions of the mother‐daughter relationship were more supporting of Hendin's conjectures than descriptions of the mother‐son relationship.
A REPLY TO JASPER HOLLEY'S DEFENSE OF THE G INDEX
Authors: Levy Philip
Published: May 2008

Holley argues that the appearance of effects related to person means in the factor analysis of G indices is due to Levy's failure to adopt the procedure of ‘double extending’ the score matrix in Q analysis. Holley also points out that this same procedure has no effect upon the G indices. Therefore there is no argument and Levy's results and conclusions stand unaltered.
DETERMINANTS OF PERFORMANCE ON DOUBLE CLASSIFICATION TASKS
Authors: Smedslund Jan
Published: May 2008

Two groups of children, median ages 6–7 and 8–7, were presented with objects examplifying three combinations of two dichotomous attributes, and asked to indicate the remaining combination. Keeping objects covered vs. uncovered at the time of the test response had generally little effect. Labelling was consistently superior to perceptual matching, apparently because the latter involved a search process. The errors in the labelling condition consisted mostly in naming an object identical to or different in both attributes from those given, reflecting perhaps an inability to break down the impression of the objects into independent attributes.
RODS AS COLOR RECEPTORS IN SCOTOPIC VISION
Authors: Stabell Bjørn
Published: May 2008

With the method of successive contrast, all the principal colors have been observed when test‐stimulating at levels of intensity within the photochromatic interval. Using the method of simultaneous contrast, blue and green colors have been observed within this area of intensity. It is concluded that rod activity must somehow initiate these color processes.
THE SHAPE SLANT INVARIANCE HYPOTHESIS IN STATIC PERCEPTION
Authors: Eriksson E. Sture
Published: May 2008

The hypothesis of geometric invariance in monocular static slant perception was found to be inadequate as a description of data from some experiments performed under reduced viewing conditions. Instead the data suggest that the subjects function according to two subrelations: (a) a variable subjective slant principle, (b) a principle concerning the distortion of the visual field.
RELATIVE CHANGES IN INTELLIGENCE FROM 13 TO 18: I. Background and methodology
Authors: Härnqvist K.
Published: May 2008

Härnqvist, K. Relative changes in intelligence from 13 to 18. I. Background and methodology. Scand. J. Psychol., 1968, 9, 50–64.—A ten‐percent sample of the Swedish school population born in 1948 took an intelligence test at the age of 13. The male part was tested again at 18 in connection with enrolment for military service in 1966. Complete test scores are available for 4616 men. The data were used to investigate relative changes in intelligence connected with differences in education and home background. In this report the theoretical and statistical bases for such comparisons are analyzed. In part II the results are reported.
A COMPARISON BETWEEN THE SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL AND SIMILARITY ANALYSIS IN THE MEASUREMENT OF MUSICAL EXPERIENCE
Authors: Nordenstreng Kaarle
Published: May 2008

Nordenstreng, K. A comparison between the semantic differential and similarity analysis in the measurement of musical experience. Scand. J. Psychol., 1968, 9,89–96.—Ten pieces of music were rated by a group of broadcasting sound‐controllers using two different scaling techniques, the semantic differential ratings of each sound on 32 scales, and similarity ratings for all pairs of sounds. The two scaling techniques were compared matching factor spaces by transformation analysis. The results indicate almost perfect similarity of the factor structures, which suggests that similarity analysis and the semantic differential in fact measure the same thing.
EFFECTS OF CONTINGENCYAND CONTRAST CONTEXTS ON THE COGNITION OF WORDS: A study of stereoscopic rivalry
Authors: Rommetveit Ragnar , Toch Hans , Svendsen Dagmund
Published: May 2008

Rommetveit, R., Toch, H. & Svendsen, D. Effects of contingency and contrast contexts on the cognition of words. A study of stereoscopic rivalry. Scad r. Psychol., 1968, 9, 138–144.—Two typographically very similar words (like ‘hell’ and ‘tell’) were presented in a binocular rivalry situation, each appearing after a contrast context (e.g. ‘heaven’) or a contingency context (e.g. ‘devil’) had been presented to both eyes. Context effect was then assessed in terms of the frequency with which the context‐relevant word was reported as seen. The effect of contrast compared with contingency context was weak when context and test words were presented consecutively, but strong when the context stimulus appeared above the rivalry pair on the same stereogram.
GENERATION OF WORDS FROM STEREOSCOPICALLY PRESENTED NON‐WORD STRINGS OF LETTERS
Authors: Rommetvett Ragnar , Berkley Miriam , Brøgger Jan
Published: May 2008

Rommetveit, R., Berkley, M. & Brøgger, J. Generation of words from stereoscopically presented non‐word strings of letters. Scand. J. Psychol., 1968, 9, 150–156.—Subjects were exposed to stereoscopically presented pairs of non‐word strings of letters (e.g. shar/shap). Instead of responding with either left‐ or right‐eye image, they frequently reported seeing a word generated by combining the two images (e.g., ‘sharp’). The way a particular pair of superimposed letters (such as r and p) will be processed, seemed to depend upon semantic and morphological aspects. As rivals for the same serial position in two different words, only one of them will be ‘seen’. When appropriate as neighbors in the same word, both tend to be seen, and in the appropriate spatial arrangement.
PREDICTION OF THE FUTURE POSITION OF A MOVING OBJECT
Authors: Bonnet Claude , Kolehmainen Kyösti
Published: May 2008

Bonnet, C. & Kolehmainen, K. Prediction of the future position of a moving object. Scand. J. Psychol., 1969, 10, 6570.—Hypothesis: prediction of the reappearence of a moving object involves some kind of estimation of space, velocity, and time. Results: the performance depends on the relative ease of utilisation of those cues when all are available in the situation. Conclusion: no general rule can be applied to all situations, because different strategies are used in different situations. The parameter which carries most weight in any given situation is determined by the ease with which the relevant information can be extracted from that parameter, relative to the other two.
AVOIDANCE BEHAVIOUR TO LIGHT IN THE PROTOZOA TETRAHYMENA: The effect of a gradual versus an abrupt boundary between dark and light
Authors: Bergström Sten R.
Published: May 2008

Bergström, S. R. Avoidance behaviour to light in the Protozoa Tetrahymena. The effect of a gradual versus an abrupt boundary between dark and light. Scand. J. Psychol., 1969, 10, 81–88.—Samples of Tetrahymena, trained to avoid light, were placed in the dark part of a partially lighted chamber. The frequency of animals entering the lighted part through a gradual and through an abrupt boundary between dark and light was observed. It was found that a gradual boundary was a much more effective obstacle to the animals than an abrupt one.
DIMENSION ANALYSIS OF THE PERCEPTION OF MUSICAL STYLE
Authors: Wedin Lage
Published: May 2008

Wedin, L. Dimension analysis of the perception of musical style. Scand. J. Psychol., 1969, 10, 97–108.‐The subjective similarity of ten short excerpts from musical works ranging over the period of 1720–1890 was studied by (I) the direct multidimensional ratio scaling method and (2) by the method of similarity analysis. Factor analysis extracted three or four factors depending on the degree of musical training of the subjects. The differentiation and inter‐pretability of the factors were higher for subjects with more musical training and interest. The factors were labeled ‘Baroque’, ‘Rococo’, ‘Viennese classicism’ and ‘Romanticism’.
ON THE ECOLOGICAL RELEVANCE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH
Authors: Björkman Mats
Published: May 2008

Björkman, M. On the ecological relevance of psychological research. Scand. J. Psychol., 1969,10,145–157.—It is argued that lack of ecological relevance is due to (a) the ‘organismic bias’ of theories, where the ecological aspects have not been sufficiently considered, (b) the emphasis on methodological criteria which have lead researches to deal with problems of little ecological relevance, and (c) the fact that conceptions of the real world have not been made sufficiently explicit. Rather than being representative, theories should be biased towards those aspects which are important in the real world. The lens model illustrates how ecological notions have been formalised into a model. Lens model experiments can contribute to valid knowledge about cognitive inference in various ecological contexts.
ON THE NATURE OF THE PERCEPTUAL SPEED FACTOR
Authors: Werdelin Ingvar , Stjernberg Gunnel
Published: May 2008

Werdelin, I. & Stjernberg, G. On the nature of the perceptual speed factor. Scand. J. Psychol., 1969, 10, 185–192.–149 subjects, about 15 years old, were given 25 psychological tests. Some of these defined the reference factors R, S, N, and P, others were designed to study the nature of the P factor. It was found that certain visual tests showed successively higher loadings in the P and N factors the more they were practiced. This effect of practice is probably restricted to tests of a certain kind. Very simple visual tests showed high loadings in the P factor. Hypotheses as to the nature of the P factor are suggested.
STUDIES IN VISUAL PERCEPTION OF ARCHITECTURAL SPACES AND ROOMS: I. Judgment scales of open and closed space
Authors: Gärling Tommy
Published: May 2008

Garling, T. Studies in visual perception of architectural spaces and rooms. I. Judgment scales of open and closed space. Scand. J. Psychol., 1969, io, 250–256.—Eight observers judged open and closed space, viewing spaces from different spots along a street in a small town. The spaces were viewed and judged either as wholes or parts by using a ratio scaling procedure. The observers were found to make reliable judgments of closed and open space. The function relating these judgment to each other approximated, however, a complementary relation as expected for category ratings. Judgments of whole spaces might be predicted from averaged judgments of their parts.
VISUAL AFTER‐IMAGES: CENTRAL AND PERIPHERAL EFFECTS: A comment upon Kolehmainen and Tuomisaari
Authors: Piggins David J.
Published: May 2008

Piggins, D. J. Visual after‐images: central and peripheral effects. A comment upon Kolehmainen and Tuomisaari. Scand. J. Psychol., 1969, 10, 287–288.— Evidence is presented to support the view that visual after‐images are influenced by central loci in the human visual system. The evidence for the involvement of a central site comes from studies on the ‘fragmentation’ of geometrical figures viewing as prolonged after‐images. (Completely stabilized retinal images.)
JUDGMENTS OF SLANT ON THE BASIS OF FORESHORTENING
Authors: Gillam Barbara
Published: May 2008

By analogy with Stavrianos' (1945) finding for linear perspective, it was proposed that the effectiveness of foreshortening as a slant cue would increase as a function of visual angle. Surfaces of vertical lines slanted around a vertical axis were monocularly viewed at three horizontal visual angles and four angles of slant. An adjustment method was used to record apparent slant. An analysis of variance showed significant F ratios for visual angle and angle of slant thus supporting the hypothesis that increasing visual angle increases the effectiveness of slant judgments. However, subjects' verbal reports indicated that slant may not be perceived when only foreshortening is available as a cue.
STUDIES IN VISUAL PERCEPTION OF ARCHITECTURAL SPACES AND ROOMS
Authors: Gärling Tommy
Published: May 2008

To test the hypothesis that perceived size of space depends on perceived depth, a relation between judged depth and size of space was derived. External spaces were judged from colour photographs by the magnitude estimation method. It was found that judged depth is a power function of physical depth and judged size of space a power function of physical size (rectangular area) or of judged depth times perceived width. The results indicate deviations from the derived relation and some explanations for these are discussed. Further research is needed to verify the proposed hypothesis.
STUDIES IN VISUAL PERCEPTION OF ARCHITECTURAL SPACES AND ROOMS
Authors: Gäbling Tommy
Published: May 2008

Judgments of depth and size of space were obtained by the magnitude estimation method under (i) binocular viewing of actual spaces, (ii) monocular viewing of colour photographs, (iii) monocular viewing of detailed drawings, and (iv) monocular viewing of undetailed drawings. Judged depth and size were found to be power functions of the physical measures. The exponents decreased successively under conditions (i)‐(iv). Judged size (rectangular area) might be a power function of judged depth times perceived width. The hypothesis was substantiated that perceived size of space depends on perceived depth.
ACHROMATIC COLOUR CONSTANCY
Authors: Lie Ivar
Published: May 2008

The traditional conception of achromatic colour constancy, defined in terms of a psychophysical colour‐albedo relation, is found to be unfruitful from a functional as well as a theoretical point of view. An alternative definition of colour constancy in terms of the validity of perception of illumination is suggested.
REVERSIBILITY OF PERSPECTIVE IN NORMAL AND STABILIZED VIEWING
Authors: Magnussen Svein
Published: May 2008

Two hypotheses regarding the role of eye movements in reversibility of perspective were tested by having the subjects observe a reversible‐perspective figure during normal and stabilized viewing. No difference in reversal rate was found between the two conditions. It is concluded that reversibility of perspective remains unaffected by the presence or absence of eye movements.
CONCRETE TRANSITIVITY OF LENGTH: A METHOD OF ASSESSMENT
Authors: Jensen Jørgen Aage
Published: May 2008

The problem of assessing concrete transitivity of length is explored with a non‐verbal design employing nine sets of three sticks each. A training phase is used to establish the relevant variable to which the subjects must attend, to obtain a bead. A test phase consists of eight trials, in which the elements A, B, and C, are displayed in a systematic variation. A subject is said to display transitivity, when he more than five times in the eight trials chooses the largest of three sticks, A, on the basis of the information A > B and B 7< C.

In a group of 20 children, varying in age between 52 and 80 months, half of the group, which is socio‐economically upper‐middle class, displayed transitivity. However, the youngest child displaying transitivity with six correct test‐trials was 5 1/2 years old. The youngest child displaying transitivity with eight correct trials was 6 1/4 years old.
PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL REACTIONS TO CIGARETTE SMOKING
Authors: Frankenhaeuser Marianne , Myrsten Anna‐Lisa , Post Birgitta
Published: May 2008

Dosage and time effects of cigarette smoking were studied in nine moderate smokers, who participated in a control condition without smoking, and in two experimental conditions, in which they smoked either two weak or two strong cigarettes (nicotine content 1.3 mg/cig. and 2.3 mg/cig., respectively) at the beginning of a 90‐min period. The main effects of smoking were to increase adrenaline output, blood pressure, and heart rate, and to decrease skin temperature and hand steadiness, the changes being consistently more pronounced after the larger dose. Peak effects were recorded at the first trial after smoking, whereupon followed a gradual return toward baseline levels which, however, were not reached within the 90‐min period.
MULTIDIMENSIONAL SCALING OF GEOMETRICAL FIGURES
Authors: Lund Thorleif
Published: May 2008

In two experiments with geometrical figures as stimuli, constructed in order to generate perceptual variation of roundness and height, four multidimensional scaling methods were compared, two metric and two nonmetric. The methods gave similar solutions. The fact that the solutions could be interpreted in accordance with expectations, points to the validity of the methods.
SIMULTANEOUS DISCRIMINATION OF VISUAL ATTRIBUTES
Authors: ORSZAGH IVAR LIE AND GEORG
Published: May 2008

LIE, I. & ORSZAGH, G. Simultaneous discrimination of visual attributes. Scand. J. Psychol, 1971, 12, 128–130.–The accuracy of simultaneous discrimination of two attributes (colour and size) of a common visual object was compared with discrimination of a single attribute. No significant difference between single and double discrimination tasks was obtained for any of the four durations of exposure (40, 100, 175, 500 msec).
TACTILE STIMULATION AND PERCEPTION OF THE VERTICAL
Authors: Nyborg Helmuth
Published: May 2008

NYBORG, H. Tactile stimulation and perception of the vertical. II. Effects of field dependency, arousal and cue function. Scand. J. Psychol., 1971, 12, 135–143.–In a previous study subjects differed in capacity to profit from changes in tactile stimulation when given the Rod‐and‐Frame test (Nyborg, 1971a). According to theory, it was expected that field‐independent subjects would profit more than field‐dependent on change in tactile conditions from diffuse body reference to specific body reference stimulation. However, in the present analysis of the data field‐independent subjects differed widely. Intermediate scoring subjects profitted considerably. Field‐dependent subjects gained little and the intersubj ect differences in this group was small. The results are tentatively interpreted in terms of individual differences in level of arousal function and related differences in cue function.
SUBJECTIVE TEMPORAL DISTANCE AND EMOTIONAL INVOLVEMENT
Authors: Bratfisch Oswald , Ekman Gösta , Lundberg Ulf , Kruger Kunnibert
Published: May 2008

BRATFISCH, O., EKMAN, G., LUNDBERG, U., and KRÜGER, K. Subjective temporal distance and emotional involvement. Scand. J. Psychol., 1971, 12, 147–160. –Three experiments were conducted in which subjects were required to estimate the subjective temporal distances of various historical periods, each of which was named after some person, event, or social process. In all, 65 subjects participated. In related experiments the same subjects estimated their degree of emotional involvement in what might have happened to people living during the various periods named. Using the actual dates when the events took place, the relation between objective and subjective temporal distance was found to be described by a simple power function. Emotional involvement was shown to be inversely related in a simple monotonic manner to both subjective and objective temporal distance, when other variables were so far as possible held constant. A number of different alternative power functions as well as an exponential and a logarithmic function were fitted to the empirical data. A specific type of power function with three empirical constants and a simple exponential function were found to describe experimetal data to a good approximation.
FACILITATION OF CHROMATIC CONE ACTIVITY BY ROD ACTIVITY
Authors: Stabell Ulf , Stabell Bjørn
Published: May 2008

STABELL, U. & STABELL, B. Facilitation of chromatic cone activity by rod activity. II. Variation of chromatic‐related cone activity. Scand. J. Psychol., 1971, 12, 168–174.–At the cone‐rod break of the dark adaptation curve, the specific threshold was found to drop to lower intensity levels, while the threshold curves of fovea proceeded in one step only, confirming the suggestion that rods may facilitate chromatic‐related cone activity.
CHANGES IN THE AGGRESSIVENESS OF MICE RESULTING FROM SELECTIVE BREEDING, LEARNING AND SOCIAL ISOLATION
Authors: Lagerspetz Kirsti M. J. , Lagerspetz K. Y. H.
Published: May 2008

LAGERSPETZ, K. M. J. & LAGERSPETZ, K. Y. H. Changes in the aggressiveness of mice resulting from selective breeding, learning and social isolation. Scand. J. Psychol. 1971, 12, 241–248.–Selective breeding for aggressiveness and non‐aggressiveness in mice has now been going on for 19 generations. The aggressiveness score distributions of the males have not changed since the 7th generation. Socially naive male mice which had been living in isolation, had five encounters with submissive males, and five with receptive females. Learning of aggressive and sexual behaviour occurred in males of both the aggressive and the non‐aggessive strain. When living in groups, the males of both strains show no aggressiveness towards a submissive opponent. Social isolation for 1–2 weeks greatly increases the aggressiveness level of the animals of the aggressive strain. The effects of grouping is interpreted as social learning of non‐aggressive behaviour, the effect of isolation as return of the inter‐individually variable aggressiveness level, determined by genetic variation and early experience. Some neurochemical findings are in agreement with the observed behavioural effects.
ON THE PROBLEMS OF PERCEIVED DIFFICULTY
Authors: Borg Gunnar , Bratfisch Oswald , Dorni'c Stanislav
Published: May 2008

BORG, G., BRATFISCH, O. & DORNI'C, S. On the problems of perceived difficulty. Scand. J. Psychol., 1971, 12, 249–260.–The development and meaning of the concept of “perceived difficulty” is presented. A concise survey of experiments carried out so far is given with regard to the main theoretical, methodological and applied problems at which the investigations aimed. A substantial part of the paper is devoted to the analysis of the concept of perceived difficulty and to the possibilities of measurement. The concept of perceived difficulty is dealt with also in a differential connection and a model for interindividual comparisons is suggested. It is emphasized that a systematic investigation of perceived difficulty is both possible and useful, and that it yields an opportunity to improve and facilitate the construction of psychological tests. Finally, possible future research projects are briefly outlined.
ATTENTION AND VISUAL IDENTIFICATION TIME
Authors: Schioldborg Per
Published: May 2008

SCHIOLDBORG, P. Attention and visual identification time. Scand. J. Psychol., 1971, 12, 289–294.–The identification time of a test object increased when viewed together with other objects, both for central and peripheral identification. When viewed alone, foreknowledge of position facilitated identification in central vision, but not in peripheral vision. A distinction between identification and localization as related to attention is outlined. The results are interpreted in line with a model where focusing and dispersion of attention are regarded as antagonistic processes, implying that the ensuing variation in the momentary attention level for some object affects the amount of information assessed per unit time.
BEHAVIOURAL DIMENSION ANALYSIS
Authors: Herbst P. G.
Published: May 2008

Herbst, P. G. Behavioural dimension analysis. A theoretical note. Scand. J. Psychol., 1972, 13, 1–4.—The method of dimensional analysis, applied to variables measured by means of ratio scales, leads to laws which take the form of multiplicative power functions. It is shown that the method can be extended to variables measured by means of non‐metric scales, and thus applied to a wider range of problems of the type encountered in psychology.
STUDYING COGNITIVE ADAPTIVE PROCESSES BY MEANS OF THE SERIAL COLOUR WORD TEST
Authors: Rosén Anne‐Sofie , Schalling Daisy
Published: May 2008

Rosén, Anne‐Sofie & Schalling, Daisy. Studying cognitive adaptive processes by means of the Serial Colour Word test. A methodological analysis and a clinical application. Scand. J. Psychol., 1972, 13, 17–26.—Performance on the Serial Colour Word Test (CWT), assumed to reflect cognitive adaptive processes, was studied in a group of criminals. By means of a latent profile analysis of clinical ratings and personality questionnaire scores subgroups of psychopathic and anxiety‐prone subjects were identified. On the basis of findings by Smith et coll. psychopathic subjects were expected to perform differently from anxiety‐prone subjects. Time scores on the CWT were analyzed by several methods. Expected group differences were not obtained. Methodological problems in the administration and scoring of the Serial CWT were discussed and some modifications suggested.
APPROACH AND WITHDRAWAL IN YOUNG OF TILAPIA MOSSAMBICA (CICHLIDAE, PISCES) AS A FUNCTION OF AGE AND SOCIAL EXPERIENCE
Authors: Goude Gunnar , Edlund Björn , Engqvist‐Edlund Ulla , Andersson Margareta
Published: May 2008

Goude G., Edlund B., Engqvist‐Edlund U. & Anderson M. Approach and withdrawal in young of Tilapia mossambica (Cichlidae, Pisces) as a function of age and Social experience. Scand. J. Psychol., 1972, 13, 89–97.—In an experiment with eight groups of young of Tilapia mossambica, approach and withdrawal behavior was registered during brief (5 min) periods of stimulation with a moving dummy; the experiment lasted twelwe days (towards the end and immediately after the sensitive period). Four of the groups comprised young which had been isolated from each other until the first stimulation period; in the other four groups the young had been kept together in the experimental tanks. The age of the young when first stimulated was varied experimentally. Changes in approach and withdrawal behavior over time were studied along with e.g. changes in group strength. Age at first stimulation was found to be of some consequence but no clear differences were obtained between groups with different environmental experiences.
CHROMATIC ROD VISION III. Duration of pre‐stimulation varied
Authors: Stabell Bjørn , Stabell Ulf
Published: May 2008

Stabell B. & Stabell U. Chromatic rod vision. III. Duration of pre‐stimulation varied. Scand. J. Psychol., 1972, 13, 136–140.—The scotopic contrast hue was determined as a function of duration of pre‐stimulation, together with the additive opponent hue. It is concluded that the red/blue ratio which has to be added to the additive opponent hue to produce the scotopic contrast hue, may change as a function of both wavelength and duration of pre‐stimulation.
DIMENSION ANALYSIS OF THE PERCEPTION OF INSTRUMENTAL TIMBRE
Authors: Wedin Lage , Goude Gunnar
Published: May 2008

Wedin L. & Goude G. Dimension analysis of the perception of instrumental timbre. Scand. J. Psychol., 1972, 13, 228–240.—The dimensionality of the perception of instrumental timbre for single tones was investigated through multidimensional scaling according to Ekman's vector model of similarity. Three factors were extracted and they were identified with certain characteristics of the spectrum envelopes. It was found that initial transients were important for the identifiability of instrumental tones but their presence or absence did not influence the dimensional structure. The “perceptual structure” was found to be different from the “cognitive structure” (= knowledge about the classification of the instruments), and the results are general for both trained and naive listeners.
LIGHT INTENSITY AND PERCEPTION OF THE VERTICAL
Authors: Nyborg Helmuth
Published: May 2008

Nyborg H. Light intensity and perception of the vertical: Two experiments with the Rod‐and‐Frame Test. Scand. J. Psychol., 1972, 13, 314–326.—Radical changes in light intensity of the visual field did not influence perception of the vertical appreciably as tested by means of a modified Rod‐and‐Frame Test apparatus in which the illumination of the rod and frame or of the frame alone was changed. Large individual differences in response to the Rod‐and‐Frame Test were found but little effect of changes in light intensity. A hypothesis that field dependent subjects would be more influenced than field independent by changes in light intensity of the rod and/or the frame was rejected.
Catecholamine output in school children as related to performance and adjustment
Authors: JOHANSSON GUNN , FRANKENHAEUSER MARIANNE , MAGNUSSON DAVID
Published: May 2008

Johansson, G. Frankenhaeuser, M. & Magnusson, D. Catecholamine output in school children as related to performance and adjustment. Scand. J. Psychol., 1973, 14, 20–28.‐Excretion of two catecholamines, adrenaline and noradrenaline, was studied in a group of 240 children, sampled from a longitudinal study, during a “passive” period (viewing a film) and a subsequent “active” period (performing an arithmetic test). In the group of boys the mean adrenaline excretion increased significantly during the active as compared with the passive period. Among the children of both sexes, those who increased their adrenaline output during the arithmetic test as compared with the preceding passive period, performed better on the test in terms of speed and endurance, than did children who did not respond to mental work by adrenaline increase. Significant positive correlations were found between the secretion of both catecholamines and teachers' ratings indicating good social adjustment and emotional stability, as well as with measures of the pupils' subjective satisfaction with their school environment.
An aggression machine II. Interindividual differences in the aggressive defence responses aroused by varying stimulus conditions
Authors: PITKÄNEN LEA
Published: May 2008

PitkÄnen, L. An aggression machine. II. Interindividual differences in the aggressive defence responses aroused by varying stimulus conditions. Scand. J. Psychol., 1973, 14, 65–74.‐The subjects, six aggressive and nonaggressive groups of ten 9‐year old boys, selected by rating method, were tested with an “aggression machine” (PAM) constructed by the writer. The varying stimulus conditions included two situations of impulsive aggression and six variations of specified attackers. The results showed that (1) the larger part of the variance of the intensity of aggression in the PAM was accounted for by the situational variations than by interindividual differences in coping with thwarting situations as measured by a rating method. (2) The overtly aggressive boys showed strong discrimination between the situations, while the overtly nonaggressive boys were quite insensitive to situational variations. (3) The intensity of aggressive defence towards a boy of the same age correlated most highly with rated aggressiveness. (4) The latency, duration, and number of aggressive responses did not vary as easily as the intensity according to situations.
Context effects and coding stations in sentence processing
Authors: BLAKAR ROLV MIKKEL
Published: May 2008

Blakar, R. M. Context effects and coding stations in sentence processing. Scand. J. Psychol., 1973, 14, 103–105.‐Using a proof‐reading technique, with a sentence split up in such a way that the 16 subjects participating had to correct each typing error at different coding stations within the sentence, it was found: (a) Extending the context perceived represented an active process, where every new part included in the context influenced the element processed (at the moment); even total re‐structuring of the interpretation of an element was evident. (b) Some of the coding points artificially introduced by the technique represented adequate coding stations, while others did not, either because they resulted in uncertainty as regards the missing “letter” or gave misleading interpretations. The critical difference between adequate and inadequate coding stations would appear to lie in the varying access given at each point to relevant context.
Process‐governed changes in the temporal properties of ordered recalls
Authors: POLLIO HOWARD R. , LINDER WAYNE , FOOTE RUSSEL A.
Published: May 2008

Pollio, H. R., Linder, W. & Foote, R. A. Process‐governed changes in the temporal properties of ordered recalls. Scand. J. Psychol., 1973, 14, 114–120.‐Two different experiments were run in which Ss were given a large number of recall trials involving binary digits. Half of the Ss were taught a binary coding rule while half were not. As expected, Rule Ss showed consistently more extended recalls and tended to produce temporal output protocols mirroring the structural properties imposed by the coding rule. Present results were compared to results obtained from other free recall studies and led to the conclusion that human Ss when allowed by stimulus or task constraints always structure recall in whatever way they can and that the specific details of how recall is accomplished must always be specific to the particular combination of subjects, materials, and task constraints used in any given experiment.
Multidimensional analysis of twenty‐one odors
Authors: BERGLUND BIRGITTA , BERGLUND ULF , ENGEN TRYGG , EKMAN GÖSTA
Published: May 2008

Berglund, B., Berglund, U., Engen, T., & Ekman, G.1 Multidimensional analysis of twenty‐one odors. Scand. J. Psychol., 1973, 14, 131–137.‐The present paper reports an experiment on the application of multidimensional scaling to the sense of smell for the purpose of revealing basic psychophysical dimensions of odorants matched in perceived intensity and varying only in perceived quality. The results showed clear evidence for the existence of individual odor spaces, but in apparent contradiction to related studies in the literature individual differences were too large to establish a representative odor space for the whole group. For nearly all individual subjects one of the factors extracted seemed to represent a unique hedonic dimension apparently unrelated to the physical attributes of the odorants. It is suggested that such psychological factors may be as important a basis for the judgment of the similarity of odors as the physical attributes of the odorants. Both the interpretation of multidimensional analysis and the extent to which the sense of smell is analytic or synthetic depend on an understanding of this problem.
Induced semantic‐associative states and resolution of binocular‐rivalry conflicts between letters
Authors: ROMMETVEIT RAGNAR , BLAKAR ROLV MIKKEL
Published: May 2008

Rommetveit, R. & Blakar, R. M. Induced semanticassociative states and resolution of binocular‐rivalry conflicts between letters. Scand. J. Psychol., 1973, 14, 185–194. MdashPairs of rivaling words such as hell/tell were presented in conjunction with context words, appearing 0, 1, and 4 sec before the rivalry pair. In addition, nonword pairs such as shap/shar were employed. Contextually appropriate resolutions (such as seeing only hell in hell/tell) were induced by syntagmatically related context words (e.g. dark‐hell), by contrast contexts (e. g. heaven‐hell), and by contingency contexts (e.g. devil‐hell). The latter had an unequivocal effect only when appearing 4 sec before the rivalry pair, whereas syntagmatic and contrast contexts affected resolution most strongly when context and rivalry pair appeared simultaneously and the subject tried deliberately to counteract contextual influence. The findings are discussed in the light of related previous experiments, and interpreted as evidence for and further specification of superordinate cognitive control of perceptual operations.
Effects of standard modality, comparison modality and retention interval on matching of form
Authors: GARVILL JÖRGEN , MOLANDER BO
Published: May 2008

Garvill, J. & Molander, B. Effects of standard modality, comparison modality and retention interval on matching of form. Scand. J. Psychol., 1973, 14, 203–206.MdashIntra‐modal and cross‐modal matching of nonsense forms was studied in a 2 (standard modalities: visual vs. tactual) by 2 (comparison modalities: visual vs. tactual) by 3 (intervals between standard and comparison: 1, 10 and 30 sec) factorial experiment. The errors were divided into false negatives and false positives. Significant effects of standard modality and of comparison modality were found for false negatives. For false positives the most prominent effect was an interaction between the standard modality and the comparison modality. Retention interval had no effect in any of the modality conditions. The effects are discussed in terms of differential information processing capacity for the visual and the tactual modalities.
Scotopic and photopic afterimages
Authors: STABELL ULF , STABELL BJØRN
Published: May 2008

Stabell, U. & Stabell, B. Scotopic and photopic afterimages. Scand. J. Psychol., 1973, 14, 210–212.MdashThe curves of photopic and scotopic afterimages were found to coincide, confirming the suggestion that disposition for scotopic contrast hue is controlled basically by the ratio of hue‐related processes initiated upon chromatic prestimulation of cones, while the achromatic test‐stimulation is a constant stimulus, regardless of test variables.
Parents' education and mean change in intelligence
Authors: BERGMAN LARS R.
Published: May 2008

Bergman, L. R. Parents' education and mean change in intelligence. Scand. J. Psychol., 1973, 14, 273–281.‐For 815 Swedish school children aged 9 in 1965, mean changes between 9 and 12 years are studied for Verbal Comprehension, Inductive ability, Spatial ability, and General Intelligence. Controlling for the initial values, children coming from educated homes tend to obtain larger positive changes than children coming from less educated homes. These differences are largest for boys, and in Verbal Comprehension. A comparison with other Swedish samples suggests that the present sample may be reasonably representative of many Swedish urban populations with regard to the problem under study.
Psychometric properties of the serial colour word test
Authors: SJÖBERG LENNART
Published: May 2008

Abstract.— Lower bound reliabilities for the various parameters of two previously suggested models for the serial colour word test—one linear and one quadratic —are derived and estimated. The quadratic model gave mostly very low reliabilities, and the stronger, linear model also gave only a few high reliabilities. Validity was studied by means of discriminant functions (4 groups being used; 3 clinical and 1 normal). The validity of the test was low. The linear model gave the best results under cross validation.
Subjective sampling distributions and the additivity of estimates
Authors: TEIGEN KARL HALVOR
Published: May 2008

Abstract.— Previous studies of sampling distributions have been conducted almost exclusively under the assumption that persons behave in accordance with the “fundamental convention” of probability, i.e. that the sum of all probability estimates will equal 1. When this assumption was tested by asking subjects to give “unrestricted” probability estimates of all possible outcomes of samples from a given population, a general tendency of overestimation made the sum of all probabilities exceed 1 to a considerable extent. The subjective sampling distributions appeared to be unaffected by sample size (N=5 or 10) and number of outcomes, and were flatter than the corresponding “objective” sampling distributions.
Overestimation of subjective probabilities
Authors: TEIGEN KARL HALVOR
Published: May 2008

Abstract.— When asked to estimate the probability of outcomes of draws from a binomial population, student subjects tend to report p values that clearly exceed the objective ones. The probability of specific binomial sequences was found to be even more overestimated, while the answers became much more conservative when the outcomes were grouped into a few categories. These findings were replicated in a second experiment, where the probability of heights in a male and a female student population was estimated. When the task was to estimate frequency of occurrence, instead of probability, the answers became more realistic. The conclusion is drawn that the direct p estimates are relatively independent of frequency judgments, the chief determinant being the properties of the particular sample to be evaluated, irrespective of the number and probabilities of other possible samples.
An empirical comparison between some models for multidimensional scaling
Authors: GABRIELSSON ALF
Published: May 2008

Abstract.— The results of three methods for multidimensional scaling—Torgerson's metric analysis, a non‐metric method (TORSCA), and a method dealing with individual differences in multidimensional scaling (INDSCAL)—were compared in experiments on rhythm experience and on perception of sound quality. The INDSCAL analysis seemed to be the most adequate method for treating the data in these experiments.
Immediate and long‐term retention of connected concrete discourse as a function of mnemonic picture‐type sequence and context
Authors: STRØMNES FRODE J. , NYMAN JEAN
Published: May 2008

Abstract.— Two stories each containing 30 sentences of connected, concrete discourse were presented with or without an illustrating picture preceding each sentence, and with or without within‐story context. Immediate paced recall with pictures or empty frames was demanded. With the with‐context material, paced recall and free recall was also studied after the lapse of one year. Storey 1 was made according to the en‐route mnemonic scheme and story 2 according to the within‐a‐building scheme. On immediate recall pictures as well as context had a strong positive effect. There was no interaction between pictures and context., which may be interpreted to mean that these factors may be intrapsychically identical. Recall after one year was generally poor, but indicated that the en‐route mnemonic scheme may be more effective in long‐term memory. Very little reconstruction from the pictures seems to have taken place.