bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Social Psychology and The Study of Peace: Personal Reflections
Authors: Kelman Herbert C.
Published: February 2013

This chapter offers reflections on the present volume from the perspective of someone who has worked at the interface of social psychology and peace research since the early 1950s. It describes the involvement of social psychologists in the beginnings of the peace research movement, including such initiatives as the Research Exchange on the Prevention of War, the Journal of Conflict Resolution, and the University of Michigan's Center for Research on Conflict Resolution. The author's own theoretical and empirical work and efforts as a scholar-practitioner in conflict resolution over the years are summarized, to illustrate potential contributions of social psychology to peace research. The chapter proposes that a major challenge in earlier years was bridging social-psychological approaches with international relations theory, anchored in political science; by now, social-psychological inputs are widely accepted in the field. One challenge today is bridging social-psychological research on peace and conflict—which, as this volume demonstrates, has become a flourishing and recognized specialization within the discipline—with mainstream social psychology.
Processes and Components of Reading
Authors: Trezek Beverly J. , Wang Ye , Paul Peter V.
Published: February 2013

Although the contents of the processes and components of reading for students who are deaf or hard of hearing have not changed considerably since they were first proposed (Paul, 1998, 2003), the field has been informed by recent publications that foster an enhanced and expanded dialogue on this topic. The purpose of this chapter is to reexamine the reading acquisition process of children and adolescents who are deaf or hard of hearing within the current context of reading research beginning with a discussion of reading achievement and an explanation of the Qualitative Similarity Hypothesis (QSH; Paul, 1998, 2003, 2008, 2009). Following a brief overview of the reading process for students with typical hearing, we provide a research synthesis pertaining to reader and text factors that influence the development of reading. The conflation of research on both groups of learners is necessary to obtain an adequate understanding of the reading process, the interaction between reader and text, and to appreciate the directions for future research offered in the conclusion.
Deaf Communities
Authors: Woll Bencie , Ladd Paddy
Published: February 2013

This chapter offers an introduction to the theoretical concepts underlying research on Deaf communities and Deaf culture, including a comparison of early views centering on the image of the deaf individual and later approaches seeing deaf people as members of social groups. It also includes the history of the concept of Deaf culture, models of Deaf communities, and and a consideration of ethnicity, identity, and cultural choice: Deaf communities as minority communities and subcommunities within Deaf communities. The central section of the chapter explores the origins of Deaf communities in relation to Deaf families and to deaf education. A multidimensional model is presented in the central section, and this is applied to case examples of various types of Deaf communities, starting with the European and American Deaf communities, and moving on to a consideration of village communities, including Martha’s Vineyard, Bali, the Yucatan, Bedouin, and Kano (Nigeria). These are then compared to case studies of isolated deaf individuals, the status of home sign, and the early development of Deaf communities and sign languages (including Nicaraguan Sign Language). These are used as a basis for describing studies of specific Deaf communities. In the final section, current issues in Deaf Cultural Studies are discussed.
Social and Emotional Development of Deaf Children: Family, School, and Program Effects
Authors: Calderon Rosemary , Greenberg Mark T.
Published: February 2013

Healthy social and emotional development is invaluable to life success, but there are challenges to this goal specific to deaf children. Key components of social and emotional development include: (a) effective and positive communication, (b) building social networks, (c) independent and evaluative thinking, (d) emotional and motivational understanding of self and others, (e) self-control and self-direction, (f) tolerance and flexibility to accommodate change and diversity, (g) empathy, (h) friendship skills which that promote positive growth in others and self, and (i) ability to cope with stereotyping and stigma. A developmental perspective for attaining these skills takes into consideration the differential development for deaf children. The role of family and ecological influences in promoting healthy social and emotional development also needs special address particularly for (a) supporting the family to support the child, (b) keeping families involved across time, and (c) engaging families broader community (Deaf community) involvement. Similar to families, professionals in school settings are also instrumental in promoting healthy social and emotional development by (a) prioritizing goals, (b) planning for success, and (c) emphasizing a comprehensive and generalized approach. A review of efficacy outcomes is discussed for programs designed to address social and emotional development. What is abundantly clear is the need for parents and professionals working together for the current and future needs to facilitate healthy adaptation in deaf children.
Mental Health and Deaf Adults
Authors: Leigh Irene W. , Pollard Robert Q.
Published: February 2013

While the majority of deaf people are mentally healthy and able to pursue self-actualizing lives, this chapter addresses critical issues in providing mental health services to deaf adults in need. It covers the history of research in mental health and the evolution of service delivery for this population. Information on the incidence and assessment of psychopathology outlines past findings and current issues. Psychological evaluations continue to be an area of concern due to the need for fluency in the deaf client’s preferred language as well as the challenges in arriving at accurate diagnoses. In turn, treatment approaches now focus on cultural relevance; however research on best practices is still in its infancy. The results of public policy advocacy are beginning to influence trends in program development and administration. Opportunities for training have improved, particularly for upcoming clinicians who are deaf and hard-of-hearing. Despite the difficulties in providing mental health services, the long-term economic benefit of keeping people mentally healthy as opposed to neglecting their mental health needs should serve as justification for service enhancements.
Formal and Informal Approaches to the Language Assessment of Deaf Children
Authors: Jamieson Janet R. , Simmons Noreen R.
Published: February 2013

From the moment deaf children are first identified, language development is a primary educational goal, and meaningful assessment of language skills is the cornerstone upon which initial placement and subsequent educational programming rests. In this connection, language assessment should be tailored to respond to specific diagnostic questions and to meet individual language and learning needs. However, few tests can be used reliably with this population; thus early interventionists, educators, and clinicians need to proceed cautiously when planning for, conducting, and interpreting findings of language assessments of deaf children. This chapter discusses some of the important issues surrounding the language assessment of deaf children, including issues that influence the selection of approaches and measures, assessment procedures, and interpretation of findings. Language assessment typically focuses on aspects of semantic, syntactic, or pragmatic development, and both formal (or standardized or “product-oriented”) and informal (or “process-oriented”) approaches and measures contribute to the language assessment process within and across these domains. Formal measures include instruments developed for and normed on typically hearing children and adapted for use with deaf children, as well as the comparatively smaller number of instruments designed specifically for use with children with hearing losses. In contrast, informal assessment is based on the assumption that language performance should be viewed in context and evaluated over time against the child’s own baseline. Overall, the aspect of language under investigation should be assessed using a variety of formal and informal approaches, and findings should be integrated both within and across domains.
Screening and Assessment of Hearing Loss in Infants
Authors: Cone Barbara
Published: February 2013

Screening newborns for hearing loss has become the standard of care in many regions of the world. Electroacoustic (evoked otoacoustic emissions) and electrophysiological (auditory brainstem response) methods are used for screening. These methods are also used in assessment of hearing loss, as well as behavioral methods such as visual reinforcement audiometry and other electrophysiological techniques such as electrocochleography, auditory steady-state responses, and cortical auditory evoked potential. This chapter describes the physiological bases of and the methods used for screening and assessment of infant hearing.
Adventures in the Evidence-Based Management Trade
Authors: Kovner Anthony R.
Published: February 2013

I have spent more than a decade trying to get managers and those who study management to use an evidence-based process where interventions to improve performance are concerned. This chapter describes my experiences including teaching a graduate capstone course, writing a text on evidence-based management in health-care, decision making as a board member of a large hospital, and attempting to launch evidence-based management research with practitioners.

This chapter describes my experiences and interpretations of early efforts to promote and practice evidence-based management. It includes my personal experiences, tacit knowledge derived from those experiences, the experiences of others in similar situations, expert opinion, case studies and other relevant information.
Evidence-BasedDecisionManagement
Authors: Yates J. Frank , Potworowski Georges A.
Published: February 2013

Decision making is the lifeblood of every organization and the central focus in the practice of evidence-based management (EBMgt). To help guide the practice of EBMgt, this chapter describes fundamental concepts of decision making and decision management. It begins with a discussion of the features that distinguish decision making from other, related concepts, such as more general problem solving and judgment. It then describes how crucial aspects of decision management are approached especially effectively when decision processes are broken down into essential elements. It then describes the theory known as the “cardinal decision issue perspective,” and illustrates its use as a decision management tool.
Evidence-Based Management (EBMgt) Using Organizational Facts
Authors: Donaldson Lex
Published: February 2013

Managers using evidence-based management (EBMgt) use data that exist in their organization to draw inferences and make decisions. This process is prone to a number of errors, including the small-numbers problem, measurement unreliability, range restriction, and confounding. This chapter makes recommendations about how managers can minimize these errors and make better-informed decision. Recommended procedures include statistical corrections and computation methods that make data more interpretable as well as changes in the way data are reported and aggregated within organizations.
From the 3 Rs to the 4 Rs: Toward Doctoral Education that Encourages Evidence-Based Management through Problem-Focused Research
Authors: Salipante Paul , Smith Ann Kowal
Published: February 2013

To make evidence-based management(EBMgt) commonplace and effective, senior managers and academics must develop the capabilities that problem-focused research requires. Drawing lessons from alternative doctoral programs and problem-focused research, this chapter offers its readers concrete ways to support EBMgt in their educational, research, and senior management activities. It covers three related developments: (1) alternative doctoral-education programs producing a community of managerially experienced practitioner-scholars, that fosters EBMgt by bridging managerial and academic practice; (2) problem-focused research, providing a new model of research for more effective EBMgt, refined in alternative doctoral programs; and (3) overcoming barriers to EBMgt, new educational pedagogies and problem-focused research via relevance, respect, resourcefulness and reframing, or “the 4Rs.” This chapter presents these developments as exemplified through an alternative doctoral program’s 15-year evolution.
Creating Evidence-Based Management Textbooks
Authors: Pearce Jone L.
Published: February 2013

A close look at textbooks helps to illustrate that we do not now translate research into practice in our teaching. There are two areas in which our textbooks fail: by too often reporting as research evidence information for which there is no reliable supporting scholarship, and by undermining the field by persisting in wasting scarce space (and students’ attention) on theories that have long been debunked by rigorous research. Why textbooks too often fail to accurately present research and what the chapter author has done to make her teaching more evidence based are described.
The Politics of Evidence-Based Decision Making
Authors: Hodgkinson Gerard P.
Published: February 2013

This chapter argues that evidence-based management is an inherently political project that risks creating an illusion of rationality, a multilayered façade masking underlying fundamental differences of interpretation, purpose, and power among the various stakeholders situated on both sides of the academic-practitioner/policy divide. To avoid this unfortunate scenario, it needs to accommodate on a more systematic basis the important influence of power and politics in organizational life, rather than downplaying them as it currently does, treating political problems as a minor by-product of an otherwise radical improvement to organizational decision processes. Only then will its advancement accelerate the development of work organizations that are more humane and more productive, to the benefit of all stakeholders of the modern enterprise.
Introduction: State and Local Government Finance in The United States
Authors: Ebel Robert D. , Petersen John E. , Vu Ha T. T.
Published: February 2013

Significant developments of US state and local finance are converging in a manner that will newly frame the practices of state and local governance in the next decade and beyond. These trends can move from low-priority “problems to be addressed” to becoming urgent, high-priority concerns when the governments face economic and political shocks that are beyond their direct control—for example, the Great Recession (2007–2009). In this context, this article offers to bring together in the book the existing knowledge on the principles and practices of state and local finance. It takes an explicit look at how the issues proposed to be addressed fit into the broader framework of the practice of US intergovernmental relations (fiscal decentralization). The organization of the book is explained.
Federalism Trends, Tensions, and Outlook
Authors: Conlan Timothy J. , Posner Paul L.
Published: February 2013

This article details the development of the US federal system over the past two and a half centuries. It not only establishes the proposition that if one is to understand the history of this country then one must understand its federalism platform, but also that that platform sets the initial conditions for determining the future options for US public finance policy and administration. To develop this theme, the article takes us through a series of stages—from that of a “dual federalism” that lasted until the 1860s whereby the federal and state governments had little overlap in functions and responsibilities to a post-Civil War era centralizing impulse that strengthened what had been a very weak antebellum national government. The early twentieth century saw the establishment of many of the institutions that are now part of today's intergovernmental system. What ensued was “cooperative federalism,” a model of governance whereby the federal government and the states shared responsibilities in a collaborative manner.
State Intergovernmental Grant Programs
Authors: Fisher Ronald C. , Bristle Andrew
Published: February 2013

Although much of the state and local literature regarding grants is focused on federal aid to state and local governments, much of the action in grants policy and practice is that of state-to-local transfers, which are larger in absolute as well as relative magnitude than federal aid. Moreover, for those who want to know what lessons, if any, the United States has to offer to developing and transitional countries, the practice of “state aid” is relevant. This article identifies the reasons that, for efficiency, a well-designed system of fiscal decentralization will utilize intergovernmental transfers. The discussion begins with details about the vertical imbalance within the aggregate numbers for state-to-local aid. The article then turns its attention to a topic that is perennially at or near the top of nearly every state and local legislative body.
Entity Taxation of Business Enterprises
Authors: Luna LeAnn , Murray Matthew N. , Yang Zhou
Published: February 2013

This article reports that some states have responded by complementing the corporate income tax (CIT) with “business activity” or “entity” taxation—that is, a general business tax based on gross receipts (GRT) or on state value-added taxes (VAT). At present, ten states have some form of broad-based tax on gross receipts or a “hybrid” value-added base, with three of the ten relying on an entity approach such as an alternative minimum tax. The article begins with an introduction to the variants of state general business taxes, noting that the range of choices can be thought of as a continuum, with the options distinguished primarily by the deductions allowed at arriving at the taxable base. On one end of the continuum of equal-revenue yield taxation is the narrowly based CIT. On the other end is the pure GRT, or “turnover,” tax that disallows any deductions from gross receipts.
Implications Of a Federal Value-Added Tax for State and Local Governments
Authors: Duncan Harley T.
Published: February 2013

This article addresses the question as to whether the United States may join many other central governments in enacting a national value-added taxes (VAT). The idea of a federal VAT, which in its final incidence operates like a national retail sales tax, is not new. The article reviews the performance of the current system of state and local retail sales taxes (RSTs) and compares this to what a “well-designed” consumption tax should look like (tax-base comprehensiveness, minimization of the taxation of intermediate products and services, destination-based taxation, and compliance and administrative costs). It concludes that state RSTs not only “fall well short” of meeting these policy goals, but also that their defects are not likely to be corrected.
Retail Sales and use Taxation
Authors: Fox William F.
Published: February 2013

When discussions turn to the growing “obsolescence” of state and local taxation in the economy of the twenty-first century, two state taxes are at the top of the list: the tax on corporate net income and the retail sales tax (RST). This article takes on the general retail sales tax. Whereas during the 1990s and into the 2000s that tax was the most important own-source revenue for state governments, it is now second to the state personal income tax. The article begins with a brief history of the tax and then examines a convergence of factors explaining its declining importance. It identifies three factors that have contributed to the sales tax-base shrinkage. It next evaluates all key facets of the RST against the test of economic efficiency (that is, the principle that a tax ideally should minimally interfere with, or “distort,” private consumer, labor, and producer decisions).
Financial Emergencies: Default and Bankruptcy
Authors: Spiotto James E.
Published: February 2013

The Great Recession and its aftermath resurrected concerns that state and local governments would begin to default on their obligations. Many feared that the long and successful history of state and local borrowing in the capital markets was destined to end. As spending needs swamped resources, finding easier ways out of public debt than repaying it as promised might become politically fashionable. This article explains and evaluates the various mechanisms that might deal with municipal and state defaults and insolvencies in the United States. It first explores the historical underpinnings of restructuring municipal debt, providing examples of successes and failures of such efforts in the United States. The era of the Great Depression of the 1930s and its precursors is examined, as is the existing statutory framework for municipal bankruptcy in the United States. Sovereign debt by states and its resolution is also discussed.
Government Financial-Reporting Standards: Reviewing the Past and Present, Anticipating the Future
Authors: Shoulders Craig D. , FreeMan Robert J.
Published: February 2013

Winnowing out and compiling the critical financial information and reporting it on a timely and accurate basis are arduous and often controversial tasks. Starting off with a brief description of the basis of governmental accounting principles (and how they are set), this article recounts the ongoing efforts to address long-standing problems and newly emerging issues. One complexity is reporting on the separate self-balancing funds, of which there can be a multitude for an individual government. The scope and number of audits, which cost money and take time, are constraints and affect how quickly financial reports can be published. Potential regulations in the securities area may force rapid changes. Another major pressure, evolving from the profession itself, is to move governments closer to the accrual-based accounting concepts (and associated principles) used by the private sector and to achieve greater conformity with international standards.
Economic Hardship and Its Consequences Across Generations
Authors: Conger Katherine Jewsbury , Martin Monica J. , Reeb Ben T. , Little Wendy M. , Craine Jessica L. , Shebloski Barbara , Conger Rand D.
Published: February 2013

Economic hardship and its consequences were examined across 3 generations of rural Midwestern families. Information from parents (G1) and adolescents (G2) from 556 families indicated that economic hardship experienced during adolescence predicted economic hardship in young adulthood, and this process was linked to developmental outcomes of the 3rd generation (G3). Five individual and family factors decreased the association between parents’ and offspring economic hardship over a 10-year period. G1 economic hardship decreased G2's association with conventional peers, participation in extracurricular activities, later educational attainment, and parents’ assistance with college. G1 hardship also was associated with adolescent personality traits such as higher negative emotionality and lower conscientiousness. Taken together, the results indicate that economic hardship in the 1st generation diminishes the personal and social resources of youth, thus increasing risk for hardship in the next generation. This process appears to be repeating for the children of the G2 young adults.
The Early Development of Vagal Tone: Effects of Poverty and Elevated Contextual Risk
Authors: Propper Cathi
Published: February 2013

This chapter will review what is known about the relation between living in conditions associated with poverty and the development of cardiac vagal tone in infants and young children. The effect of poverty-related stress during the prenatal period on vagal development in utero, in infancy, and young childhood will be discussed, with a specific focus on the effect of maternal psychological distress and substance use at this time. Additionally, this chapter will discuss how poverty-related stress may affect family functioning, due to such issues as maternal depression and marital conflict, leading to impaired parent-child interactions and subsequent deficits in vagal functioning in infants and children. Many unanswered questions about these associations remain, but initial findings provide compelling evidence that this physiological system may contribute to the long-term deleterious behavioral outcomes of children growing up in poverty.
Nonstandard Work Schedules and Child Development
Authors: Dunifon Rachel E. , Ziol-Guest Kathleen M. , Kalil Ariel
Published: February 2013

This chapter examines the state of the literature, and provides new evidence, on the association between maternal nonstandard work and child well-being. At a time in which the vast majority of mothers are employed, understanding the ways in which aspects of their employment are associated with family functioning and the well-being of their children is of paramount importance. A burgeoning body of research has begun to understand the associations between maternal nonstandard work and child adjustment. In this chapter we review the state of this research. We also motivate and present a model describing the potential linkages between maternal nonstandard work and child well-being, drawing on the perspectives of developmental psychology, sociology, and economics. We also describe how these associations may differ for less economically advantaged children. Finally, we present results of our own analyses testing aspects of this model.
Work-Family Policies and Child Well-Being in Low-Income Families
Authors: Waldfogel Jane
Published: February 2013

The families in which American children live have changed dramatically in recent years. Stay-at-home mothers, once the norm, have become an increasingly rare phenomenon, due to 2 major trends in family and work arrangements. These trends have profound implications for the role of work-family policies in promoting child well-being, particularly in low-income families. In this chapter, I consider the 4 major types of work-family policies: parental leave; other types of paid leave; flexible work arrangements; and child care. For each policy domain, I review what we know about how policies affect child well-being and then critically assess the current state of such policies in the United States, with a particular emphasis on their adequacy with regard to meeting the needs of children in low-income families. Because these policies tend to be more widely developed in other countries, I draw on evidence from overseas as well as from the United States. I conclude by discussing important policy considerations.
The Range of Documentary Texts: Types and Categories
Authors: Palme Bernhard
Published: February 2013

The diversity of texts and types of documents can easily create the impression that papyrological evidence offers a representative view on almost all aspects of life in antiquity. But even in Egypt the geographical and chronological distribution of preserved papyri is very uneven, concentrated on a few sites on the edges of ancient settlement. The present state of editions differs greatly among linguistic groups. Conventionally the documentary papyri and ostraca are divided into private and public. On the basis of historical and formal features, private documents can be classified into private communications, records of private legal transactions, accounts, and finances, and documents of piety and worship. The second group contains documents concerning the interaction between the state and individuals and pronouncements of the government and administration. Only the last group was meant for public dissemination.
Domestic Violence
Authors: Hines Denise A.
Published: February 2013

This article presents data on the prevalence of domestic violence and trends over time. It discusses five major analytical frameworks that have been employed to understand domestic violence: patriarchy theory, systems theory, alcoholism, personality dysfunction, and ecological models. It further mentions criminal justice system policies such as mandatory arrest, no-drop policies, protective orders, and batterer treatment programs. This article deals with female batterers and distinctive problems they raise for law enforcement and treatment policies. It is also concerned with how societal structures, socioeconomic status, stressful situations, and family dynamics contribute to domestic violence. Programs that focus on psychological issues, anger problems, communication problems, and couple interaction problems are often ignored by domestic violence advocates and prohibited by state laws. Finally, it concludes with the discussion of the policy implications of current knowledge.
Terrorism
Authors: Dugan Laura
Published: February 2013

This article is concerned with terrorism and it presents comprehensive data on global terrorist attacks for rigorous policy analysis. It begins by summarizing efforts to measure terrorism and provides an overview of the distribution of global terrorist violence over time and space using the Global Terrorism Database (GTD) data. This article then turns to terrorist activity in the United States, describing perpetrators, targets, and weapons. It describes two efforts that assess the effectiveness of different policy interventions using the GTD data and attempts to understand government action in preventing terrorist activity. This article concludes with a discussion of need of a comprehensive data set that includes the full range of policy responses to terrorism that will enable us to analyze more thoroughly and more rigorously the policy responses to terrorism.
Prostitution
Authors: Miller Jody
Published: February 2013

This article provides an overview of definitional issues concerning prostitution and their linkages to legal philosophies with respect to addressing commercial sex. It provides a description of patterns, trends, and varieties of prostitution. It reviews research evidence on the causes and correlates of prostitution, as well as direct and collateral consequences. There appears to be a strong connection between drug use and prostitution, although the causal nexus is unclear. It considers the range of policy responses to prostitution, including currently popular criminal justice and other intervention strategies. Western countries have developed more effective policies that produce fewer harmful consequences. The complexity and variations of prostitution suggest the need for a comparably diverse and complex array of intervention strategies. The article concludes with suggestions of fruitful directions for research and policy.
Crete
Authors: Tomkins Peter , Schoep Ilse
Published: February 2013

This article states that traditionally, the story of the Early Bronze Age of Crete has been one constructed between two pivotal points of change. The first, at the Neolithic period—Early Minoan I transition, is viewed as the birth of a culture considered to be definably Minoan, fostered by a major impulse from the east, conventionally modeled as a migration. The second, at the transition to the Middle Bronze Age (MM IB), is seen as the emergence of Europe's first civilization—a redistributive theocracy of kings or princes, cities and palaces, art and writing—which in subsequent millennia spread to the rest of Europe. In the later language of neoevolutionism, the emergence of the palaces in MM IB marked the transition from an egalitarian to a more complex, statelike society with a clear hierarchical structure crowned by a central, administrative elite authority that resided in the palaces.
End of the Bronze Age
Authors: Jung Reinhard
Published: February 2013

Today, the knowledge of the last phases of the Aegean Bronze Age can be based on a few but very important vertical settlement stratigraphies spanning most of the twelfth and eleventh centuries bc; additional evidence comes from cemetery sites. Apart from the known sequences of central Macedonia, from the outset of the Early Iron Age, the relative chronology rests mainly on tomb seriations, as there are still very few settlement stratigraphies available, although the situation is currently improving. The longest settlement stratigraphy for the Postpalatial period is provided by the Lower Citadel at Tiryns in the Argolid. The Tiryns Lower Citadel shows very short intervals of destruction events, rebuilding phases, and floor remakes, which allow a fine-phased pottery sequence. The sequence illustrated in the article provides the largest quantity of stratified settlement pottery known in the Postpalatial Aegean.
State and Society
Authors: Nakassis Dimitri , Galaty Michael L. , Parkinson William A.
Published: February 2013

States are notoriously difficult to define. Archaeologists usually describe them as complex, centralized institutions with administrative and social hierarchies that regulate access to resources and monopolize legitimate force within substantial territories. Some features typically associated with ancient states are settlement hierarchies of four tiers, social stratification that divides the ruling elite from the nonelite, and a recognizable structure, or “palace,” which serves as a base of operations for the ruling households. In the Aegean, states did not form until the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age at the earliest. This article defines three general periods of state formation: the Protopalatial (“Old Palace”) states of Minoan Crete, Neopalatial (“New Palace”) states of Minoan Crete, and Mycenaean states of the Greek mainland and Crete (at Knossos and Khania only).
Minoan Religion
Authors: Lupack Susan
Published: February 2013

The shrines situated on mountains, called peak sanctuaries, are a distinctive feature of Minoan religion. The most common finds are clay figurines, which appear in the form of animals, human votaries, and parts of the human body, such as feet, eyes, and genitalia. These votives reflect the concerns of the worshippers—their own fertility and well-being and that of their animals. Richer peak sanctuaries have stone vessels, Linear A inscriptions, jewelry, seals, bronze blades, figurines, and double axes. The more costly finds were found at a limited number of sites and generally date to the Neopalatial period. The ritual focus of the shrine may consist of a flat rock, a cairn of stones, and/or concentrations of white pebbles. Actual architectural remains appear at only nine sites, eight of which were those that continued into the Neopalatial period.
Linear B
Authors: Palaima Thomas G.
Published: February 2013

Unlike the other Bronze Age scripts in this tradition, Linear B has been deciphered—by British architect Michael Ventris. The Linear B texts, therefore, give us information about an important formative stage of the Greek language and how it was affected by language contact with surrounding cultures. They also provide the earliest primary written evidence about all facets of Mycenaean civilization. Finally, because what this article calls the Mycenaean Linear B script is an adaptation of Minoan Linear A, Linear B texts give insights into how speakers of the still undeciphered Minoan language(s) and of early Greek analyzed spoken language and how they represented it in writing as “visible speech.” The first scientifically excavated Linear B tablets were uncovered by Sir Arthur Evans at the site of Knossos on Crete in 1900. Many more texts were uncovered in the succeeding years of excavation.
Minoan Pottery
Authors: Hallager Birgitta
Published: February 2013

Major subsequent modifications and revisions have been made to Arthur Evans's pottery sequence, but his suggested tripartite division of the Neolithic period and the Minoan period is still by and large in use. Most scholars are also using a parallel, broader, and more simplified division of the Minoan era: the Prepalatial, Protopalatial, Neopalatial, Final palatial, and Postpalatial periods. Only the most important novelties and characteristic traits in each period are highlighted in this article, and it must be emphasized that “a specific period is defined not only by the exclusive presence of certain features but by the fact that some wares are common while others are just beginning or ending their periods of greatest popularity.”.
The Collapse at the End of the Bronze Age
Authors: Dickinson Oliver
Published: February 2013

General loss of faith in “invasion theories” as explanations of cultural change, doubts about the value of the Greek legends as sources for Bronze Age history, and closer dating of the sequence of archaeological phases have undermined the credibility of this reconstruction, and other explanations for the collapse have been proposed. This article recalls that the general impressions given by the material suggest a relatively prosperous and stable world dominated by a few major centers, the capitals of the “palace societies”; the best known are Mycenae, Thebes, and Pylos. These are the sites, along with Khania in Crete, that have produced almost all of the evidence from the thirteenth century bc for a sophisticated system of administration. This system, comparable in many ways to those used in the Near Eastern states, relied on the use of the seal and the Linear B script.
Ayia Triada
Authors: La Rosa Vincenzo
Published: February 2013

Ayia Triada was first explored in May 1902 by F. Halbherr and was originally thought to be a necropolis of Phaistos. Halbherr bore in mind the crucial issue of the relationship between the two sites from the start and hypothesized a single political entity divided between an “Ano polis” (Phaistos) and a “Kato polis” (Ayia Triada), with a hierarchy between the two sites. Episodic or occasional excavations took place in the 1970s by C. Laviosa and D. Levi, and a new systematic cycle of excavations was begun by the Italian archaeological school at Athens in 1977, which aimed to clarify a series of chronological, architectural, and planimetrical problems left unsolved by the old excavations. The new excavations have led to explanations of the parallel histories of Ayia Triada and Phaistos in terms of a “complementarity of roles.”.
Akrotiri
Authors: Doumas Christos
Published: February 2013

Forty years of continuous and systematic geological and archaeological investigations at Akrotiri on the island of Santorini (Thera) have yielded ample evidence for reconstructing the history of the site and filling gaps in the history of the wider Aegean region. This small, Late Neolithic coastal village, whose economy was based mainly on farming and fishing activities, was related culturally to other contemporary settlements in the Cyclades, namely Saliagos near Antiparos, Grotta on Naxos, and Ftelia on Mykonos. Investigation of the rock-cut chambers at Akrotiri has revealed that by the end of the third millennium bc, they had been abandoned and filled with debris almost up to their ceiling. Pithos burials of children were found in some, either beneath the debris or within it. Of particular importance is the discovery of a special construction in association with the cemetery, which corroborates sporadic evidence from various Aegean sites.
Troy
Authors: Jablonka Peter
Published: February 2013

The site known today as Troy is situated in northwestern Asia Minor, five kilometers from the present coastline at the Dardanelles (ancient Hellespont). Its sequence of occupation spans several millennia from the beginning of the Bronze Age (3000 bc) to the Byzantine period (twelfth century ad). Troy's high profile is obviously due to the fact that it has been regarded as the scene of the Trojan War, a story told in Homer's Iliad and still part of popular culture. Since this story also lies at the heart of Greek ethnic identity both ancient and modern, Troy has been considered “Aegean” although it is actually part of “Anatolia.” Whether these terms are meaningful at all, apart from reflecting a division of scholarship along modern political boundaries, remains to be shown.
Editing early English texts
Authors: Horobin Simon
Published: February 2013

A well-known fact in historical linguistics is that the only surviving evidence exists in the form of written texts, but the important implications of this truism for the kinds of texts upon which linguistic analysis relies have often been overlooked by linguists. Written texts produced prior to the introduction of printing in the fifteenth century were all handwritten, indicating that their status as evidence is not the same as that of texts from the print era. This article examines the different editorial methods that are commonly applied to such texts and considers their significance for linguistic analysis. It discusses various types of edition such as diplomatic editions, best-text editions, eclectic editions, and electronic editions. In order to demonstrate the practical differences that these different kinds of edition can have upon the texts available for analysis, this article looks at a single example which concerns three different editions of the B version of Piers Plowman.
Oral practices in the history of English
Authors: Schaefer Ursula
Published: February 2013

Like all other languages that have seen the transition to literacy, the English language has been influenced by a wide range of literate technologies. However, purely oral practices have survived or have been added to our communicative repertoire. This article first argues that in the history of Western European cultures, literacy itself was acquired for a long time via mnemonic exercising. It next groups various (secondary) oral practices into two large categories. One is that of speech events mediated by the human voice that can be characterized as public performances because they involve monological vocal delivery before an audience. Subsequently, the article discusses speech acts which amount to small-scale "perfomative" genres or discourse traditions such as charms or oaths. All of these practices are largely informed by formulaic diction which is a shared characteristic of primary and secondary orality. The article finally looks into small-scale pragmatic techniques with illocutionary force as "performative techniques", which may be found in everyday linguistic interaction.
From manuscript to printing: Transformations of genres in the history of English
Authors: Claridge Claudia
Published: February 2013

Within about the last two decades, the role in the history of the English language of genres together text types, resisters, and styles has generated strong interest. The article discusses one aspect of this, namely genres that were radically transformed or came into being through the influence of printing in Early Modern England. Printing made possible both new publication types, accommodating new or changed genres, and a widening, diversified readership, which may influence the choice of text type features. In this process, existing or incipient genres are reused and adapted by authors, publishers, and printers. Paratexts in books and pamphlets are shown in one case study to diversify into dedications, addresses and prefaces, taking up and remixing features from medieval prologues and from letter-writing. A second case study deals with newspaper texts, which borrow from and gradually alter characteristics of chronicles and letters.
Sociocultural processes and the history of English
Authors: Culpeper Jonathan , Nevala Minna
Published: February 2013

This article explores the socio-cultural processes, along with concepts used in defining them, that have played a significant role in the history of the English language. It looks at the fuzzy complexes of social phenomena that constitute socio-cultural processes, especially ideology, culture, and power. It also examines some specific processes that are applicable to events in the history of English (social stratification, standardization, colonialization, globalization, industrialization and urbanization, democratization, cultural assimilation) and considers whether discourse, as opposed to language, deserves analysis and discussion. In addition, the article looks at the kind of analytical focus linguistic work linking to socio-cultural processes might have, together with methodological issues and relevant data sources.
Changes in politeness cultures
Authors: Jucker Andreas H.
Published: February 2013

The 1970s and 1980s saw the emergence of more systematic research on politeness, led by the pioneering studies of Geoffrey N. Leech (1983) and Penelope Brown and Stephen C. Levinson (1987). In their research, Brown and Levinson used Erving Goffman’s (1974) notion of face as a starting point and conceptualized politeness as a means to mitigate face threats and to maintain face in everyday interactions. Criticisms aside, Brown and Levinson’s theory became the most influential approach to politeness. Richard J. Watts, Sachiko Ide, and Konrad Ehlich (1992) identified two levels of politeness: first-order politeness, which corresponds to the various ways in which polite behavior is perceived and talked about by members of socio-cultural groups, and second-order politeness, a theoretical construct within a theory of social behavior and language usage. This article provides an overview of politeness in the history of the English language, focusing on politeness-related terms such as politeness, graciousness, courtesy, tact, and civility.
The history of English seen as the history of ideas: Cultural change reflected in different translations of the New Testament
Authors: Wierzbicka Anna
Published: February 2013

Research on the history of English has often been undertaken in a somewhat atomistic spirit, with an emphasis on particular areas of phonology, morphology, syntax, and (to a far lesser degree) lexicon, or on aspects of what Ferdinand de Saussure termed “external history.” However, there is no attempt to take a broader view of the overall direction in which the English language was going. This article argues that the history of English is closely linked with the history of ideas and spiritual culture. It looks at some aspects of the hidden cultural legacy of English by analyzing selected examples from the Revised Standard Version of the New Testament and its successor, the New Revised Standard Version, and comparing them with the King James Version. It also examines some close links between semantic change, cultural history, and the history of ideas, and shows that these links can be investigated in a rigorous and illuminating manner with the aid of a semantic methodology (Natural Semantic Metalanguage).
Contact in the African area: A Southern African perspective
Authors: Deumert Ana , Mesthrie Rajend
Published: February 2013

This article explores language contact in the African area, with particular focus on Southern Africa. It first looks at the formal features of English in Africa that show the complexities of contact and provide some challenges to mainstream assumptions of historical linguistics. It examines three aspects of English in Africa: the variability and often unorthodox nature of the early input varieties, the nature of language inculcation via classrooms, and the internal dialectology of second language varieties of English in Africa. It then adopts a broad ecological perspective and reflects on the fact that language contact gives rise to new varieties of English as well as new varieties of African languages. The focus of the discussion is on language change due to two main factors (a) rural-urban as well as cross-border migration, and (b) new media. While the former supported complex forms of language contact, including the emergence of new varieties characterized by intensive code-switching and code-mixing; the latter led to the development of new ways of writing both English and African languages.