bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Ravel: Daphnis et Chloe Second Suite
Authors: Schuller Gunther
Published: November 2023

It is hard to name a composer who was more meticulous and detailed in his musical notation than Maurice Ravel. Debussy, Stravinsky, Prokofiev, Scriabin, Schonberg, Berg, and (especially) Webern are possible contenders, but I doubt that they surpassed Ravel in the exactitude with which he normally finalized and re fined his scores. The increasing complexity of music in the first decade of the 20th century-in the French school the subtle use of varied timbral mixtures, of multiple divisi in the strings, in the Viennese school the dramatically increased use of polyphony, a more fragmented continuity combined with a more instrumentally individualized chamber music approach, in the Russian school the greater use of massive harmonic and rhythmic structures, carefully differentiated orchestral/registral layerings-all this virtually compelled composers to scripturally ‘fix’ their musical conception more completely and precisely than had ever been necessary earlier. Composers such as Bach, Mozart, Beethoven-even Liszt and Wagner could rely on a high level of established performing traditions, in which their notation stood for a great deal more than actually appeared on the printed page. But with the ever more rapidly developing advances in musical conceptions and the emergence of highly differentiated nationalist styles, stylistic awareness on the part of orchestral musicians (and conductors) could no longer be taken for granted. Composers, virtually in self-defense, resorted to ever greater precision of notation, hoping to pin down as many minutiae and details of composition as notation per mitted. Ravel’s Daphnis et Chloe is a remarkable example of such notational raf fi.nement and precision, several major scriptural discrepancies not withstanding (more on these later). And yet, considering that the Second Suite from Ravel’s ballet is one of the most popular and most performed early 20th-century scores, it is staggering to discover that it is rarely played correctly, rarely played as it was writ ten, too often performed in considerable disregard of the hundreds of details of instrumentation, dynamics, tempo relationships Ravel lavished on this, one of his most brilliant, perfectly realized creations.
Schumann: Second Symphony
Authors: Schuller Gunther
Published: November 2023

The performance and interpretational problems in Schumann’s symphonies or better said, alleged problems-have been a matter of discussion and controversy almost ever since the works were written in the 1840s, continuing well into our own day. Such discussions have generally centered on two aspects of Schumann’s symphonic oeuvre: his orchestration-mostly negative-and the in fluence of Beethoven’s symphonies-mostly positively.

Through the years many conductors (as well as critics and composers) have contended that the great flaw in Schumann’s orchestral music was his “poor,” “weak,” even “inept” orchestration, premised on primarily the notion that his music was intrinsically pianistic and in his symphonies was not translated into truly orchestral music. As a result of such thinking, Schumann’s symphonies have been instrumentally re-touched, re-written, re-orchestrated not only by major conductor-composers such as Mahler and Weingartner, but by virtually every significant late 19th- and early 20th-century conductor. Whether such alterations really constitute ‘improvements’ remains questionable, or at least arguable.

As for the question of Beethoven’s influence on Schumann’s symphonic works, although in general positively viewed, I feel it is on the one hand over stated-Bach’s and Schubert’s works had much greater impact on most of Schumann’s music-and, on the other hand, curiously disregarded in precisely such works where Beethoven’s influence was quite specific and profound.
Tchaikovsky: Sixth Symphony
Authors: Schuller Gunther
Published: November 2023

There are certain aspects of Tchaikovsky’s Sixth Symphony that are very special, if not unique, to this work and to this composer’s conception, that in turn re quire very special care and attention in performance, in ‘interpretation.’ These unusual interpretive problems come in addition to all the more conventional, general interpretational/notational issues at stake in any major orchestral symphonic work. That being the case, I will not reiterate all those fundamental and customary performance issues already extensively examined herein, but, rather, address only those which are peculiar to Tchaikovsky’s Sixth Symphony.

These performance and notational aspects are, once again, primarily in the realm of tempo and dynamics, the notation of which Tchaikovsky had by the end of his life refined and expanded to a remarkable degree, to my knowledge more than any other prior composer or composer of his generation. This may surprise many readers, because Tchaikovsky is generally regarded as a highly emotional, unreservedly expressive, even at times unsubtle composer, and not given to tidy, fastidious subtleties of thought, let alone to intellectual precision. It is common knowledge that many ‘intellectuals’ in music -historians, critics, theorists, and such-consider much of Tchaikovsky’s music inclined to vulgar emotionalism, thus irresistible to a mass a11dience, and therefore, almost by definition, a music devoid of any discipline, refinement, and discriminating intelligence. Indeed, most performances—interpretations-of Tchaikovsky tend in that direction, wallowing indulgently in every expressive effect, wearing their emotionalism ostentatiously on their sleeve, and disregarding those aspects of his music that reflect the workings of a brilliant, disciplined mind. In fact, many conductors have made entire careers of exploiting the more obvious superficial emotional effects of Tchaikovsky’s music, some (Bernstein, for example) through incredible exaggerations and distortions, finding new depths of vulgarity that are nothing more than an offense to the music and to Tchaikovsky’s genius.
The Unknown Compromise
Authors: Woodward C Vann
Published: November 2023

FIVE TIMES in the course of the nineteenth century there arose political crises of such gravity as to call forth all the celebrated American genius for compromise. Four of these crises involved the threat of disunion or violence, if not war. In only one of them did the customary way of compromise fail, the threats materialize, and the crisis end in tragedy. All the others were settled by compromises that form some of the most important chapters in American history.
The Rift in the Democratic Ranks
Authors: Woodward C Vann
Published: November 2023

OTHER ARMIES than those of Hayes and Scott, to borrow Boynton’s phrase, “made juncture on the field of battle” during the last session of the Forty-fourth Congress. The combination between the Texas & Pacific and the Southern Pacific forces has already been explained. Another powerful combination was effected by an alliance between the Central Pacific men and the forces of the Union Pacific.
The End of the Crisis
Authors: Woodward C Vann
Published: November 2023

THEN at the very moment when Republican effusions over the loyalty, honour, and sterling patriotism of Southern Democrats had reached a climax, the applecart was suddenly upset by what appeared to be an embarrassing accident. It was merely the latest of a series of political gaucheries-of which Judge Davis’s sudden election to the Senate was an outstanding example-that beset the election crisis from beginning to end.
John Nelson Merchant Adventurer
Authors: Johnson Richard R
Published: November 2023

John Nelson was an entrepreneur born in the mid 17th century, a man, in Johnson’s words, `operating ahead of the government and settled society from which he came’, one who responded to conventions and conditions derived from several different and often competing cultures’. In the case of Nelson, this meant operating in England and France in Europe and in French Canada and New England in America. In several major transactions, he acted as middleman between French Canada and New England. He led an uprising that forced out the Royal Governor of Massachusetts in 1689 and later led an expedition against the French at Port Royal, where he was captured and ultimately landed in the Bastille in Paris. When he was finally released in 1698, he returned to Boston and remained in international trade but no longer had a political role. John Nelson’s career exemplifies ways in which the expansion of European empires overwhelmed the local and proprietary rules in effect in colonial America. Johnson’s book also provides a way of looking at the continued strong conflict between New England and Acadia about fishing rights in the North Atlantic. In Johnson’s words, Nelson’s career directs attention beyond social life on the one hand and court politics on the other to individuals whose lives precipitated policy even if they themselves never put it into execution. [Figures like Nelson] were at once the unsung creators and among the numerous victims of Europe’s American empires’.
S e e k i n g ‘‘t o l i v e i n d i f f e r e n t’’
Authors: Johnson Richard R
Published: November 2023

Fifteen years after his migration from England, John Nelson had emerged from his uncle’s eclipse to establish a position of his own in the commercial life of his adopted land. As if buoyed by the prospects before him, he began to put down social and domestic roots in Boston. In 1681, he joined the town’s Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company, founded in 1638 and modelled on that of London. Ostensibly an association for military training, it served as the nearest thing in seventeenth-century Boston to a gentleman’s club, where the town’s social and political elite could come together on easy terms under the guise of civic purpose. Early in the following year, he bought land to build a house in the center of town on the “Long Back Street” (later Hanover Street) that led from the southeastern base of Beacon Hill to Boston’s North End. From that site, it was an easy walk of some two hundred paces to the Town Dock, the center of commercial life.
From The Quebec To Bastille
Authors: Johnson Richard R
Published: November 2023

In the years before the events of 1689, John Nelson’s captivity would have been brief. Prisoners were costly to keep, and, if not kept securely, likely to escape and thereby lose their value as bargaining chips in diplomatic negotiation. Kept too long, they would return with valuable information about their captors upon their release. Moreover, the laws of war-grounded in a mutual recognition of the wisdom of refraining from doing unto others what you would not wish, if captured, done unto you-had provided since medieval times for a regular system of exchange. Prisoners could derive a certain pride as well as a sense of their precise status from finding out who and how many of the enemy were deemed their equivalent. Nelson was certainly not seen as lacking such status or as one whose past activities required his being surrenderedas North American captives occasionally were-to personal or tribal vengeance. “He is,” wrote Governor Frontenac’s secretary back to France, “a gentleman of merit and intelligence; possessing influence in Boston where his friends have always been opposed to those of Sir William Phips. He has ever distinguished himself by kind treatment of the French, as well in peace as during the War and to him M. de Monneval, Governor of Port Royal, is indebted for his liberty.
At King William’s Whitehall
Authors: Johnson Richard R
Published: November 2023

Nelson arrived in London at the beginning of 1696 to find English gov¬ernment and society at its lowest ebb since the triumphant days of James Stuart’s expulsion. A vast outpouring of men and money into Continental warfare seemed to have done no more than delay the advance of Louis XIVe’s armies in Flanders. At sea, a well orchestrated French campaign of commerce-raiding was playing havoc with foreign trade and London insurance rates: the ton of sugar that cost £5 to import from Jamaica in 1688 now cost four times that amount.1 In England, a succession of poor harvests, a debased currency, and the government’s desperate expedients to shore up public credit all meant popular hardship and economic depression. On the throne, “Dutch William” inspired respect but little affection in his subjects, and the death of his wife and consort Mary, James II’s daughter, had weakened his hold on the succession. Even some of William’s own ministers still kept a cautious foot in the French camp of the exiled James, and the plot exposed in February 1696 to assassinate the king was followed by a serious invasion scare as French troops and transports massed along the Channel to await ex¬pected uprisings in England.
The Experience of Politics
Authors: King Richard H
Published: November 2023

If any single event touched off the activist phase of the civil rights movement, it was the Montgomery bus boycott of 1955-56. Trig gered by the refusal of a black seamstress, Mrs. Rosa Parks, to take her place at the back of a city bus when the driver demanded it, this grass-roots movement led by the young Martin Luther King lasted for just over a year, from late in 1955 to late the next year. For the first time since the Depression, political initiative shifted from Washing ton back out into the country itself, in this case to the courts, schools, lunch counters, courthouses, streets, and jails of the South. The civil rights movement would grow by fits and starts, shift strategies and tactics, until the political and legal order that deprived black South erners of their civil and political rights had been substantially dis mantled by the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which forbade segregation in public accommodations, and a Voting Rights Act in 1965, providing for federal protection in the form of voter registrars for those who wanted to register to vote in several of the Southern states (or parts of them) where obvious patterns of disfranchisement existed.
"Keep the Song Going": Folk-Song Arrangements
Authors: Tick Judith
Published: November 2023

Throughout the 1940s Ruth Crawford Seeger channeled much of her com positional gift into her anthologies, publishing about 200 arrangements of folk tunes for solo voice and piano. Despite the disclaimers in her books that folk songs do not need any instrumental support, she took pride in her craftsmanship. She had a definite sense of their value, as her family and colleagues knew. Her daughter Peggy would later state that “her accompaniments of folk music, to me anyway, mean more to me than her work as a composer.’’
The Crisis of Liberalism and the Emergence of Cultural Science, 1848-1862
Authors: Smith Woodruff D
Published: November 2023

A host of factors converged in the third quarter of the nineteenth century to shake the dominance of the liberal theoretical pattern over German social science and to shape the evolution of the cultural sciences. This chapter and chapter 4 will show that the conjuncture of these factors-intellectual as well as economic, political and social–was stimulated to a large extent by the crisis of political liberalism that started around the time of the 1848 revolution and continued, in cycles, well into the period of the Bismarckian Reich. Although significant continuities linked the phases of the liberal crisis, it is convenient to divide the phenomenon into two periods: one that encompasses the revolution itself, the subsequent liberal eclipse and renaissance in the 1850s, and the first stages of the Prussian constitutional conflict; the other that lasts from the early 1860s until about 1885, including the unification of Germany, Bismarck’s attempt to co-opt the liberals and their division over the appropriate response, the erosion of their voting base, and their further division over such issues as tariffs, social policy and imperialism. The present chapter deals with the first period; chapter 4 with the second period.
From Toleration to Freedom
Authors: Cohen Naomi W
Published: November 2023

Until the French Revolution the identity and status of European Jews remained fixed within a medieval context. The workings of a society where religion mixed freely with the secular and where the primacy of the group eclipsed the individual still underlay both Christian and Jewish perceptions of the Jews. Those notions were part of the cultural baggage of the Jews who landed in the British colonies before 1776. To the Jews, a pre Enlightenment people, the concepts of the individual’s right to freedom of religion and the separation of church and state were at direct variance with their personal experience.
The Christian Agenda
Authors: Cohen Naomi W
Published: November 2023

At the outbreak of the Civil War geography dictated loyalty: Jews, like their countrymen, fought for the Union or the Confederacy in the field and on the home front. During the war years, however, a wave of Ju daeophobia swept both the North and South. An upsurge in religious passion accompanying the national crisis reinforced the age-old negative stereotypes of the Jews-Christ killers, accursed and stiff-necked people, unscrupulous money changers, aliens, and traitors.
Sabbaths and Symbols
Authors: Cohen Naomi W
Published: November 2023

Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes once remarked: “Sunday laws, no doubt, would be sustained by a bench of judges, even if every one of them thought it superstitious to make any day holy.” The great jurist could have included legislators as well. Until the mid-1950s, the age-old pattern of state laws and municipal ordinances that forbade certain activities on Sunday remained virtually unchanged. The overwhelming number of states retained some form of Sunday laws. Very few had repealed their Sunday laws, and only three had adopted a one-in-seven rest day. Patterns of enforcement were erratic and inconsistent, and the regulations themselves often defied the canons of logic. Why, Leo Pfeffer asked about New York’s laws, permission to sell bread but not meat, gasoline but not antifreeze, beer but not butter? A few states provided full exemptions for Sabbatarians; others allowed only partial exemptions (e.g., exemption for servile labor but not retailing).
Warrants for Screening Programs: Public Health, Legal, and Ethical Frameworks
Authors: Faden Ruth R , Kass Nancy E , Powers Madison
Published: November 2023

The purpose of this chapter is to examine the legal, ethical, and public health warrants for compulsory and voluntary public health programs, thereby laying a common groundwork for the rest of the chapters. The chapter is divided into two parts. First, we examine the traditional distinction between compulsory and voluntary programs and argue for expanded distinctions concerning the levels of compulsoriness in public health programs. We then sketch the structure of the public health, legal, and ethical frameworks against which the justification for each of these types of programs can be evaluated.
A History of Prenatal and Newborn Screening Programs: Lessons for the Future
Authors: Acuff Katherine L , Faden Ruth R
Published: November 2023

The screening of all pregnant women and newborns for the presence of HIV infection has been advocated as a means of controlling the spread of AIDS. As noted throughout this volume, however, such screening is not without a great deal of medical, legal, and ethical controversy. HIV screening of pregnant women and newborns is also not without precedent. The purpose of this chapter is to place present policy controversies surrounding HIV screening in the context of the histories of other prominent prenatal and neonatal screening programs.
Footnotes to a History of Cantonese: Accounting for the Phonological Irregularities
Authors: Newman John
Published: November 2023

It is only natural that one’s first priority in writing a phonological history of a language, or a language family, should be an account of the major developments which have taken place. Rules which affect hundreds of words in a language are attended to before minor rules affecting small numbers of words; changes which can be described as rule-governed are given more attention than those which appear to be idiosyncratic. I think this is only natural. One likes to have the larger picture in focus before one tries to understand the detail. This is true of the way in which history in general is approached. A person coming to learn about the history of, say, England typically learns, first of all, a few key dates, the names of the kings and queens, the dates of wars, and so on. But one can learn much (possibly more) about human nature from studying local history as well, where the players are not necessarily grand figures with power over thousands of lives and where events are of a far more mundane nature. In the same way, I believe one can learn much from the study of the minor rules and the occasional exceptions to rules in studying the phonological history of language.
Regularity of Change in What ?
Authors: Grace George W
Published: November 2023

Two of the fundamental assumptions of historical linguistics, I believe, have been (1)what one might call the “once a language boundary, always a language boundary” assumption (that is, the assumption that language boundaries, and hence languages, maintain their integrity over time) and (2) an assumption that the changes (at least phonological changes) which these long-persisting languages undergo are regular.
Genre Under Stress
Authors: Brater Enoch
Published: November 2023

To speak of Beckett’s late style in the theater is to come to grips with the need for a new kind of critical vocabulary. Drama, narrative, and poetry, the conventional categories a literary tradition has imposed on chapter and verse, seem in this instance tangential and inconvenient. Genre is under stress. The theater event is reduced to a piece of monologue and the play is on the verge of becoming something else, some thing that looks suspiciously like a performance poem. All the while a story is being told, a fiction closely approximating the dramatic situation the audience encounters in the theater. It is no longer possible to separate the dancer from the dance. Theater technology, too, is called upon to strut and fret its hour upon the stage-more likely, in this case, limited to fifteen or twenty minutes. Lighting, ‘Faint, though by no means invisible,’ and especially mechanical recording devices, frame the action, advance the plot, and function more like dramatic principals than incidental side effects. Something is taking its course, but this particular course, in such efficient stage terms, is one that has not been taken before.
That Time on That Space
Authors: Brater Enoch
Published: November 2023

In That Time drama and poetry come together in the urgency of an image which matches the urgency of the subject matter. Time, that time we spend in Beckett’s theater, is rendered economically in terms of stage space. A severed head with ‘long flaring white hair as if seen from above outspread’ is simultaneously character, stage prop, and stage set. The rest-and in this play Beckett will show it to be the far greater part-is silence.
Footfalls to Infinity
Authors: Brater Enoch
Published: November 2023

As the curtain rises in Footfalls we are relieved to find a human being onstage who is, as far as the eye can see, of ‘the same species as Pozzo,’ made ‘in God’s image.’ In this play Beckett discards abstrac tion for the simplicity of a surprisingly realistic image, the stark figure of an isolated woman treading a premeditated path from right to left, back and forth, like one of ‘Dante’s damned.’1 Rigid, bent, restless, tense, frightened, and pitiful, she is fated to a stage existence that makes us ‘hear the feet, however faint they fall.’ The seeming abandonment of physical fragmentation in this play, however, does not so much signal a retreat from the dramatic material of Not I and That Time as it does a further development of the minimalism central to the impact of Beckett’s late works in performance. Any trace of naturalism in the stage apparatus for Footfalls is quickly and quietly disposed of, and, as we have come to expect in Beckett’s theater, it is lighting which serves as realism’s principal agent of destruction. The atmo sphere of this play is established by light that ‘should be as weak as possible without becoming unbearably dark.
Shades for Film and Video
Authors: Brater Enoch
Published: November 2023

Moving from one medium to another, Beckett extends his search for theatrical metaphors. In radio, television, and in one instance film, Beckett clarifies the sight-sound relationships which leave their mark on his late stage plays through their technical precision. The rigid pat terning of voices on tape and images in film and video brings to his work a stability and a measure of control normally absent from the arena of live performance. Recording pictures that are permanent and unearthly sounds that never change, technology establishes a truly ‘concrete’ poetry, one that not only imitates electricity, but also lasts forever.1 In radio, a medium of sound, Beckett makes us visualize a world made up of private time and public space.
The Human condition
Authors: Corballis Michael C
Published: November 2023

In The Previous Chapter, I Traced the evolution of hominids through time. In the 5 million or so years since we split from the apes, we have diverged from them in a number of ways. The most obvious of these are cultural and environmental; we live in a world very different from that of the apes, partly as a consequence of our ability to construct our own environments (and to destroy the natural one). Despite the remarkably close genetic similarity between ourselves and our nearest relatives, the chimpanzees, we have also diverged from them physically. This chapter reviews the main changes that took place in hominid evolution and that have made us what we are. Again, the focus is broad; more detailed questions about language, and how humans perceive and think, will be dealt with in later chapters.
Other Theories of the Earth
Authors: Drake Ellen Tan
Published: November 2023

Fossils, or “figured stones,” posed a difficult problem to thinkers in the 17th century. To some, nature as created by God is perfect and therefore cannot change; how can perfection be anything different from itself? Yet some fossils. if they represent real animals or plants. are discernibly different from their corresponding living members, while others seem to have no living counterparts at all. Where fossils came from and what they represented were questions that stirred much debate. Many fossils are clearly hardened shells of marine animals, but they can be found on the highest mountains. If these figured stone represented once living animals, could the ocean have covered the Earth to such great heights? Had there been a different distribution of land and sea in the past? Or had these shells formed there through some trick of nature or been left behind by Noah’s flood? The Royal Society of London became a center for much of the discussion and debate regarding these questions. The issue of fossils became an essential clement in various theories about the Earth postulated to explain the distribution of continents and oceans and its superfici,1.l terrestrial features. Members of the Royal Society were scattered all over Britain, and even when they could not attend the weekly meetings. they often communicated their ideas through correspondence. They eagerly read books speculating about the Earth-in spite of the motto upon which the society was founded, Nullius in Verba, (nothing in words) expressing its dedication to the Baconian idea of collection and repeated observation.
Hooke’s System of the Earth
Authors: Drake Ellen Tan
Published: November 2023

In searching for the causes of the natural processes that produce changes to the terrestrial surface, Hooke hypothesized a number of extraordinary ideas that in hindsight seem almost clairvoyant. Over many years he spent much thought on celestial mechanics and the theory of gravitation, and their effects on Earth. In all his thinking about the Earth, Hooke always kept in mind that it is a planet 111 the solar system. Some of his ideas were freely borrowed by Newton, either without acknowledgment of debt or grudgingly mentioned with other names only after much urging by contemporarics.
Introduction
Authors: Drake Ellen Tan
Published: November 2023

These lectures on “earthquakes” arc here arranged according to the chronology worked out by Rhoda Rappaport (1986) through her careful research into the records of the Royal Society. They arc transcribed into modern type to facilitate reading for those who may have eyesight difficulties or young scholars who might be put off at first sight. Purists might look upon this practice with disdain who may feel a certain masochistic pride in being able to read 17th century texts in their original type and with all their creative font styles, spelling and punctuation. I have retained the spelling, punctuation, capitalization, font styles (i.e., whether italics or roman) of the 1705 Waller edition of the Posthumous Works of Robert Hooke. The original folios arc indicated in brackets throughout the text so that the reader can find the corresponding untranscribed passages with relative ease. I have eliminated most of Waller’s brief marginal comments and notes because I find them not very helpful, substituting, instead, my own, more extensive, annotations in the margins wherever I feel qualified to make comments in clarifying the text. Hooke expresses his most perceptive ideas about geology in the lectures that ended on September 15, 1668, and in the series of lectures between May 28th, 1684, and toward the end of 1687. After that, he launches into his study of the classics to find corroborative statements about some of his ideas such as cyclicity and islands grown from volcanic eruptions. They are nevertheless important in revealing a progressive change in the tone of his lectures toward a greater need to include the Mosaic account while he struggled to find the verisimilitude of legends. During the last few years of his life, Hooke waxed more philosophical; he seemed then to be more inclined to bring the biblical account into concordance with his scientific ideas. But a healthy skepticism seems always to be present underlying his words. As for Greek and Latin passages, Hooke himself usually makes their meanings rather clear, but a few notes arc supplied through the kindness of friends with classics degrees from the University of Oxford. Because only the Greek Symbol font was available to me for transcription, Greek scholars are urged to consult the original Greek passages in Waller’s Posthumous Works of Robert Hooke.
Verb Second Languages, Root-Embedded Asymmetries, Root Phenomena in Embedded Clauses, and Long Distance Reflexives
Authors: Holmberg Anders , Platzack Christer
Published: November 2023

This chapter has two aims: firstly, we want to show how the verb second phenomenon is analyzed in terms of our general theory of sentence structure, finiteness, and nominative Case outlined in chapter two above, and secondly, we want to show the effect on subordinate clause word order of the presence of Agr in ISc. and its absence in MSc. According to our theory of sentence structure, verb second languages (V2 languages) are languages where the tense feature and the finiteness feature [+F] are in different functional heads: the tense feature is generated in 1°, whereas the finiteness feature is generated in C0• Since this description is assumed to hold for all V2 languages, differences within the group of V2 languages must be the result of differences in other parts of their grammars. This is the case, we claim, with regard to the different word orders of subordinate clauses found within the group of V2 languages: we find verb-last order in languages like Frisian, German, Dutch and Afrikaans (3.1a), verb second order in Icelandic and Yiddish (3.lb), and verb-third order in Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish (3.lc); as shown in (3.2), the corresponding main clauses are much more alike. In the examples given, the tensed verbs are in bold face:
Police Organization
Authors: LeDonne John P
Published: November 2023

A command structure does not necessarily need an elaborate police organization. The possession of disciplinary powers by members of the apparatus and the political infrastructure, and by patriarchal heads of families, as well as by patrons over their clients, kept subordinates and individual members of communities on the path of obedience to authority and of respect for norms of behavior reflecting a consensus on the foundations of the political and social order. Only once such foundations are no longer taken for granted does it become necessary to define them explicitly and to defend their legitimacy with the help of police agencies, external to the social networks that had been adequate until then to enforce compliance on occasional dissenters.
The Political Police
Authors: LeDonne John P
Published: November 2023

Despite widespread social acceptance, a command society had to place a premium on political policing—even of the ruling order. Its object was to check threats against the ruler as the source of power around which the ruling elite operated and prospered, to correct manifestations of social deviancy, and to keep intellectual life within bounds considered ideologically safe by the ruler and the political leadership at any given time.
Taxation
Authors: LeDonne John P
Published: November 2023

A discussion of taxation in eighteenth-century Russia must consider three essential questions: Who bore the burden of taxation? What was the relationship between direct and indirect taxes? What was the role of taxation in kind? We shall see that taxation was the means by which an infinitesimal ruling class extracted enormous sums from the dependent population; that the share of direct taxes declined between 1725 and 1825 while that of indirect taxes grew, largely as a result of a systematic policy of extending alcohol consumption; and that compulsory labor and services constituted a substantial second economy not affected by the growth of a money economy until the reign of Alexander I. Direct taxes are those paid by the taxable individual or communities directly to agents of the treasury, indirect taxes those, like sales taxes, paid to a third party in return for a service, then paid by that party to the treasury.
Book I
Authors: Lawrence T E
Published: November 2023

By now the other warriors, those that had escaped head long ruin by sea or in battle, were safely home. Only Odysseus tarried, shut up by Lady Calypso, a nymph and very Goddess, in her hewn-out caves. She craved him for her bed-mate : while he was longing for his house and his wife. Of a truth the rolling seasons had at last brought up the year marked by the Gods for his return to Ithaca ; but not even there among his loved things would he escape further conflict. Yet had all the Gods with lapse of time grown compassionate towards Odysseus - all but Poseidon, whose enmity flamed ever against him till he had reached his home.
Book III
Authors: Lawrence T E
Published: November 2023

Forth from the lovely waters sprang the sun into its firmament of brass, thence to shine upon the Immortals, as also upon mortal men walking amid the corn-fields of earth ; while the ship drew into Pylos, the stately citadel of Neleus. There upon the fore-shore were gathered the inhabitants, doing sacrifice to the Earth-shaker, Poseidon, the dark-tressed God. Nine congregations they made, each five hundred strong: and every congregation had offered nine victims, jet-black bulls free from any fleck of colour, to the God: in whose honour the leg-bones were now burning with fire while the assembly ate of the entrails and organs.
Book V
Authors: Lawrence T E
Published: November 2023

Dawn rose from her marriage-bed beside high-born Ti thonus to bring her daylight to both gods and men. The immortals, with Zeus the high-thundering, their mightiest one, sat down in council: and to them Athene spoke thus, designing to remind them of the many misfortunes of Odysseus, whose long sojourn in the nymph’s house lay heavy on.
Book VII
Authors: Lawrence T E
Published: November 2023

Wherefore proud Odysseus waited in his place and prayed, all the time that her two strong mules were drawing the girl into the city as far as the palace of her illustrious father. Before its door she halted: her brothers, men like gods, came out and clustered round her. They freed the mules from the wagon and carried the washed clothes into the house : but she went up to her room, where a fire had been lit for her by the old woman of Aperaea, her chamber maid, whose name was Eurymedusa and who had been captured from Aperaea during a raid over-sea. Afterwards she had been set aside as prize of honour for Alcinous, because he was supreme ruler among the Phaeacians, obeyed by the common people as if he were a god.
Book XI
Authors: Lawrence T E
Published: November 2023

A length we were at the shore where lay the ship. Promptly we launched her into the divine sea, stepped the mast, made sail and went: not forgetting the sheep, though our hearts were very low and big tears rained down from our eyes. Behind the dark-prowed vessel came a favourable wind, our welcomed way-fellow, whom we owed to Circe, the kind-spoken yet awesome Goddess: so when each man had done his duty by the ship we could sit and watch the wind and the helmsman lead us forward, daylong going steadily across the deep, our sails cracking full, till sundown and its darkness covered the sea’s illimitable ways.
Book XV
Authors: Lawrence T E
Published: November 2023

Meanwhile Pallas Athene had gone to Lacedaemon of the broad acres to prompt the son of Odysseus to a quick return. She found him and Nestor’s noble son asleep in the porch of great .Menelaus’ house-or rather Nestor’s son lay in gentle slumber while Telemachus stirred with anxious thoughts about his father all through the divine night.
Book XVIII
Authors: Lawrence T E
Published: November 2023

Then arrived on the scene a vulgar tout who used to cadge his living everywhere round Ithaca and had the champion gluttonous belly of the world, that put no bounds to his eating or drinking : yet he got no muscle and no vigour by it, for all his bulky look. Arnaeus, his respectable mother had called him at birth ; but all the lads nicknamed him Irus, because there was never an errand he would not run. His coming now was to pick a quarrel with Odysseus and expel him from his own house.
Book XIX
Authors: Lawrence T E
Published: November 2023

Odysseus lingered where he was in the hall, nursing his schemes to kill the suitors with Athene’s help. Suddenly he spoke out to his son: “My Telemachus, let us now stow away all the serviceable weapons ;. and for reasoned excuse, when the suitors ask you why, say, ‘To save them from the fire-reek: for they have become so tarnished by smoke as not to look like the same weapons Odysseus left here when he sailed for Troy.
Book XXI
Authors: Lawrence T E
Published: November 2023

For Athene chose this moment to introduce the means of bloody death, by prompting wise Penelope to ordain bow and pallid iron as gages of prowess for her suitors in Odys seus’ halls. With her throng of escorting women the queen stepped from her room by the tall stairway firmly carrying the curved key (a noble key, bronze forged, with ivory shank) as far as the store chamber in the depths of the house, where the treasures of her king were laid up, his bronze, his gold, his patiently-wrought iron.
Book XXII
Authors: Lawrence T E
Published: November 2023

Therewith the wily Odysseus shed his rags, grasped the bow with its filled quiver and made one leap to the door sill, where he tumbled out the swift shafts at his feet before calling in a great voice to the suitors, “ At last, at last the ending of this fearful strain! Before me, by favour of Apollo if my luck holds, stands a virgin target never yet hit.” He levelled the bitter arrow at Antinous whose two hands were raising the splendid golden wine-cup to his lips, without suspicion of death in his heart-for who, at a thronged banquet, could conceive of any single man being bold enough to dare compass his violent death and bloody destruction? However Odysseus shot, and took him with the shaft full in the throat.
Aging and Blood Pressure
Authors: James Gary D , Pecker Mark S
Published: November 2023

On average, the blood pressure of individuals in industrialized societies increases with age (Lew, 1990). In these people, mean systolic pressure increases until the seventh decade of life, while mean diastolic pressure increases until the sixth decade of life and thereafter levels off or even declines slightly (Lew, 1990; see Figure 12-1). These findings are consistent among industrialized societies and raise the question: is this increase in blood pressure part of the natural aging process? Since the level of blood pressure considered to constitute hypertension is fixed [140/90 mm of mercury (mmHg)] and independent of age, a further question arises: is the development of hypertension, in part, simply a facet of the normal aging process? Over the past several decades, surveys of casual blood-pressure measurements in a variety of non-Westernized people with traditional lifestyles suggest that the answer to these questions may be no. These populations, living in a diversity of environments and climates, with different diets and customs, have been reported to show no blood pressure increase with age in adults (Waldron et al,. 1982; Henry, 1988; James and Baker, 1990).
Morphological Indicators of Skeletal Aging: Implications for Paleodemography and Paleogerontology
Authors: Loth Susan R , Işcan Mehmet Yaşar
Published: November 2023

Paleogerontology, simply stated, is the scientific study of aging ancients. One of the most pressing of many questions paleogerontologists face is determining if, indeed, there is anything to study at the senescent phase of the life span. Moreover, if only a few extinct forms did reach extreme old age, will any be found? If no fetal or infant skeletons were ever recovered, we can still safely assume that this stage of life existed in all hominids, but we cannot make the same assumption at the other end of the life cycle, let alone precisely delineate its absolute maximum for pre-modern humans. Finally, assuming elderly specimens are excavated, will scientists be able to recognize and interpret senescence in the remains? That is where skeletal biologists must provide paleodemographers with the knowledge they need.
Larynx Cancer Incidence among Workers Exposed to Acid Mists
Authors: Steenland Kyle
Published: November 2023

In the mid-1980s, at the time this study began, three reports in the literature indicated that exposure to acid mists (mainly sulfuric acid) was associated with an increase of larynx cancer (Soskolne et al., 1984; Forastiere et al., 1988; Ahlborg et al., 1981). However, these reports were inconclusive for several reasons: they were based on very small numbers, they lacked control over smoking, or they included people whose exposure to acid mists was uncertain. Hence, further study was warranted. The hypothesis that acid mists led to larynx cancer of the upper respiratory tract was biologically plausible. Acid mists irritate the epithelial cells of the upper respiratory tract and conceivably could be carcinogens. No animal studies had been done.
Kidney Dysfunction in Cadmium Workers
Authors: Thun Michael
Published: November 2023

In May 1985, workers at a cadmium production plant in Denver, Colorado, requested that the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) further evaluate health effects due to cadmium at their plant. The plant had produced cadmium since 1925. Airborne exposures to cadmium dust and fume were extremely high in the past, but had decreased because of engineering controls and required use of respirators. The main function of the plant was to recover cadmium from “bag house” dust, a waste by-product of zinc smelters. Cadmium metal, oxide, and sulfide were sold for use in electroplating, pigments, plastics, nickel-cadmium batteries, and brazing. Small amounts of other metals (copper, selenium, thallium, arsenic, indium, and lead) had also been processed in localized areas of the plant, but the predominant exposure was to cadmium.
Moral Reflections on the Columbian Legacy
Authors: Axtell James
Published: November 2023

The Impetus Given By Outside Invitations To Put one’s thoughts on paper cannot be overvalued. Although invitations often arrive at inopportune moments (during final exams, the extraction of wisdom teeth, the arrival of a new baby), they almost always allow enough lead time to research, outline, and write the masterwork while ignoring only two other commitments and a trio of best laid plans. Occasionally, the results seem worth all the angst and you silently thank your persistent benefactors for providing both a text and a pretext for exercising your latent literary inclinations.
The Experience of Personation
Authors: Cottom Daniel
Published: November 2023

In work that calls for innovation and improvisation, people sometimes get stuck. The experience of writing is exemplary. (That is, if one ignores its more specialized distresses - at work, most of us cannot excuse ourselves by raising a hand to a suffering brow and complaining that we are “blocked.”) It is a common experience for writers stalled at a certain point in their progress to spend hours and even days worrying at the troublesome spot, writing and crumpling page after page, only to realize that all this time they have been on the wrong track.
Dream Work
Authors: Cottom Daniel
Published: November 2023

A city street, tilted toward us, dominated on either side by the impassive arcades of anonymous buildings. Nothing happens, nothing much. A shadowed girl rolls her hoop past a wooden cart, also in shadow. Like the girl, it is turned away from us, the open doors in back permitting us to glimpse an interior that is perfectly empty, at least as far as our vision can reach. By their attitudes, the running girl and the undistinguished cart draw us toward another shadow: a silhouette fallen across the street. This figure elongated by the sun seems to be waiting for, or heading toward, the girl, the cart, and us.
Flora Tristan: Rebel Daughter of the Revolution
Authors: Desanti Dominique
Published: November 2023

The nineteenth century is the second wave of the French Revolution. Utopian socialists extended its ideas to the people the revolution had forgotten—women and workers—and thereby deepened those ideas. At this time, one woman, Flora Tristan (1803-44), acting alone, cast upon the political scene a flash of brilliance that lasted but a few years. Through her life and her work, inseparable from each other, she appears the emblematic figure of this second revolutionary wave.
Development of Deaf Children: Issues and Orientations
Authors: Marschark Marc
Published: November 2023

A sensory deprivation limits the world of experience. It deprives the organism of some of the material resources from which the mind develops. Because total experience is reduced, there is an imposition on the balance and equilibrium of all psychological processes. When one type of sensation is lacking, it alters the integration and function of all of the others. Experience is now constituted differently; the world of perception, conception, imagination, and thought has an altered foundation, a new configuration. Such alteration occurs naturally and unknowingly, because unless the individual is organized and attuned differently, survival itself may be in jeopardy. (Myklebust, 1960, p. 1)