bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Creative personality as the synthesis of various texts in Russian cultural space of the early XX century
Authors: Shevchuk Veronika Gennadiyevna
Published: January 2021

This article conducts culturological analysis of the diversity of intercultural communications in Russian culture of the early XX century. Cultural space as the text of culture of that time is characterized by a transitional state, synthetic and dialogical focus. The phenomenon of Russian culture consist in the intelligentsia represented by the cultural figures of the Silver Age and avant-garde, who have creative way of thinking and propensity for new achievements in art. The object of this research is the “textuality"”of Russian cultural space of the early XX century, which is comprised of a range of texts and semiotic systems. The subject is the creative minds interpreting as the text of personality. The leading theme became the determination of interaction and mutual influence of the phenomena of culture, dialogue between creative minds, interested in the problems of synthesis of arts, within the cultural-textual space. The novelty of this work is defined by insufficient coverage in culturology of the problem of interrelation between creative personality and text in culture of the Silver Age and the avant-garde. It is established that the cultural space of Russian avant-garde can be viewed as a “meta-semiotic formation”, which includes texts and “metatext”. Personality of the cultural figure as the foundation for classification of texts is referred to as “metatext”. Classification of texts consists of the verbal text (theoretical and literary texts, literature, epistolary) and nonverbal text (texts of behavior, everyday life, era). Literary texts of the cultural figures of the Silver Age contain texts of the works of art: painting, musical, poetic, prosaic, as well as critical reviews on art, manifestos, and others. Nonverbal texts include theatricalization of behavior, creative life, and mythologization of personality, which form the identification code of creative personality of the Silver Age that gravitates towards the synthesis of arts. It is determined that the period of development of Russian cultural space of Russia of the early XX century is characterized by such peculiarities as:  synthetical nature, innovation of artistic language that consists of visual, verbal and audial texts on the basis of synthesis of painting, poetry and music.
The dynasty of iconographers Rogachevsky-Nikita in the context of the history of the Old Believer Romanian rural localities Zhurilovka and Sarikei
Authors: Boitсova Aleksandra Aleksandrovna
Published: January 2021

This article examines the iconographic heritage of the Old Believer Lipovan Rogachevsky-Nikita family in the context of history of Romanian rural localities. Based on the expedition material, analysis is conducted on the peculiarities of folk icon and local traditions that established in the Old Believer center of Romania. The reviewed documentary sourced were acquired in the course of expeditions and further personal contact with the family. The collected material contains history of the family of iconographers, their lifestyle and customs, conditions for fulfilling the orders that are closely related to the history of this rural locality and way of life of the Nekrasov Cossacks. The research is of applied nature in the area of art history, as well as of interdisciplinary in nature. The article employs the methods of stylistic and historical-cultural analysis; biographical method for reconstruction of biography of the family members and their artistic heritage. New records on the dynasty of Romanian iconographers are introduced, which expands  the information on the Lipovan icon and indicate regional peculiarities of its creation. The author also introduces the new names and monuments of iconography into the scientific discourse that allows clarifying the attribution. The artistic heritage of iconographers of the late XIX – early XX centuries is also introduced into the scientific discourse: Rogachevsky-Nikita; in the XX century – Egor Nikitovich Nikita and Roman Egorovich Nikita.
Introduction
Authors: Shelef Nadav G.
Published: January 2021

This introductory chapter provides an overview of homelands and explains how transformations in the area included in the homeland come about. Contractions in the area included in what counts as the homeland occur as a result of a process rooted in domestic political competition. New, more modest, understandings of the homeland, where they are associated with domestic political success, displace more expansive ones. Over time, land left out of these understandings loses its status as part of the homeland. Such contractions in the area considered part of the homeland, in turn, are critical for parsing the variation in territorial partitions' ability to resolve conflict. Partitions work—that is, they resolve existing conflict without leading to further irredentist conflict—when the parts of the homeland that remain on the other side of the new border cease to be seen as appropriately part of the homeland. This book details the role of homelands in international conflict, providing systematic, comparable data about the homeland status of lost territory over time and bridging the gap between constructivist theories of nationalism and quantitative empirical analyses of international relations.
Understanding Homelands
Authors: Shelef Nadav G.
Published: January 2021

This chapter explores the theoretical arguments that homelands matter, that their contours can change, and that evolutionary processes arising from domestic political contestation could account for such transformations. Nationalism calls homelands into being; it is the nationalist project that transforms mere land into homeland and sanctifies it. The chapter shows that, despite its importance to nationalists, two aspects of the homeland are often domestically contested: (1) exactly which tracts of land are part of it; and (2) what logic or combination of logics is used to designate land as part of the homeland. It is the outcome of the political competition between movements that vary in the answers they provide to one or both of these questions that selects which shape of the homeland becomes taken for granted in the wider society and whether lost lands come to be excluded from it. The chapter then develops the empirically observable implications of this theory as well as alternative explanations for contractions in the homeland's scope. These implications serve as the foundation for the empirical exploration in both the cases studies and the cross-national statistical analysis that follow.
Kissinger and Latin America
Authors: Rabe Stephen G.
Published: January 2021

This book analyzes U.S. policies toward Latin America during a critical period of the Cold War. Except for the issue of Chile under Salvador Allende, historians have largely ignored inter-American relations during the presidencies of Richard M. Nixon and Gerald R. Ford. This book also offers a way of adding to and challenging the prevailing historiography on one of the most preeminent policymakers in the history of U.S. foreign relations. Scholarly studies on Henry Kissinger and his policies between 1969 and 1977 have tended to survey Kissinger's approach to the world, with an emphasis on initiatives toward the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China and the struggle to extricate the United States from the Vietnam conflict. This book offers something new—analyzing U.S. policies toward a distinct region of the world during Kissinger's career as national security adviser and secretary of state. The book further challenges the notion that Henry Kissinger dismissed relations with the southern neighbors. The energetic Kissinger devoted more time and effort to Latin America than any of his predecessors—or successors—who served as the national security adviser or secretary of state during the Cold War era. He waged war against Salvador Allende and successfully destabilized a government in Bolivia. He resolved nettlesome issues with Mexico, Peru, Ecuador, and Venezuela. He launched critical initiatives with Panama and Cuba. Kissinger also bolstered and coddled murderous military dictators who trampled on basic human rights. South American military dictators whom Kissinger favored committed international terrorism in Europe and the Western Hemisphere.
Preliminary Remarks on the Concept of Reality
Authors: Blumenberg Hans
Published: January 2021

This chapter looks at Hans Blumenberg's “Preliminary Remarks on the Concept of Reality” (1974). For the concept of reality, one cannot use the etymology of the words “real” and “reality” as a guiding thread for its conceptual history. The concept of reality is an “implicative predicate.” The reason for this is its predominantly pragmatic function. The guiding thread toward the concept of reality is any form of “realism,” albeit not chiefly that realism, which calls itself so. The rule that real is what is not unreal urges one to take a detour via that which in each case is deemed unreal and is rejected as such. The concept of reality's indeterminacy and historicity is based on the very fact that the ways of being unreal prove to be inexhaustible. To expose what is illusionary never guarantees that the “remainder” of what is not exposed in this way is the permanently and reliably real. Put theoretically, falsification is the nonattainable par excellence.
The Essential Ambiguity of the Aesthetic Object
Authors: Blumenberg Hans
Published: January 2021

This chapter evaluates Hans Blumenberg's “The Essential Ambiguity of the Aesthetic Object” (1966). The predicament of any theory of art is captured in the truism that there is no accounting for taste. But why not? Because it is always assumed that a dispute over definite — that is, definable — objects can only be meaningful when its outcome can take the form of that object's univocal determination. Aesthetics, therefore, always seeks to escape its dilemma by setting theoretical objectivation as a model — a model that, even if unreachable, may still be approximated. This is what Kant did when he saw the subjective universality of aesthetic judgment as the only way to save the reference to the aesthetic object from becoming a completely nonbinding relation of absolute individuality. Every philosophy of art must share this basic intention; the question is only whether Kant's is the only possible way.
The Concept of Reality and the Possibility of the Novel
Authors: Blumenberg Hans
Published: January 2021

This chapter describes Hans Blumenberg's theorization of the novel as a genuinely modern genre in “The Concept of Reality and the Possibility of the Novel” (1964). Art claims as its subject matter the formal proof of reality and not the material content that presents itself with this proof. Without doubt, the nonpossible would represent the fulfillment of this claim — namely, the infinite context, which alone could be counted as the normal equivalent to the open-endedness of physical experience. This is the starting point from which modern literature — and the aesthetics appropriate to it — proceeded toward the novel as the most comprehensively “realistic” genre, representing a context which, though finite in itself, presumes and indicates infinity. The potential infinity of the novel represents its ideality, arising out of the concept of reality, as well as the aesthetic irritation inevitable in view of the fact that its task of representing an infinite context can be fulfilled only by aesthetically binding principles of form.
The Eastern Chimera
Authors: Devereux Andrew W.
Published: January 2021

This chapter covers King Ferdinand's planned series of Levantine conquests stretching from Egypt through the Holy Land to Greece, Turkey, and eastward into Asia. While the planned conquests never attained fruition, the chapter provides an analysis for the legal arguments upon which they were predicated. It also describes King Ferdinand's conquest of the kingdom of Naples, where he had obtained the title to the defunct crusader kingdom of Jerusalem. The seemingly symbolic title to Jerusalem served as the foundation for the legal arguments mentioned in the chapter on how King Ferdinand crafted a just war against non-Christian people both in the Mediterranean and beyond. The chapter also talks about the religious politics of the Mediterranean basin that played a vital role in the formulation of the legal doctrines that were subsequently applied in other spheres of expansion, allowing Ferdinand to portray himself as an evangelical prince and imbuing Spanish conquests in other regions with legal and moral legitimacy.
Insects and Near Relatives
Authors: Vittum Patricia J.
Published: January 2021

This chapter presents a taxonomy of insects. Insects and mites belong to a larger category of related animals, the phylum Arthropoda. Of all arthropods, mites and spiders are the most closely related to insects in form and function and in their status as pests that damage turfgrass. The chapter then considers the form and function of insects and mites. It looks at the types of mouthparts and turf-feeding damage of chewing and sucking insects. The chapter also studies the orders of turfgrass-damaging insects and mites. Relatively few orders of insects and mites have species destructive to turfgrass. The orders Lepidoptera and Coleoptera are by far the most important in number of destructive species present.
Acarine Pests
Authors: Vittum Patricia J.
Published: January 2021

This chapter examines mites. Mites are arthropods in the class Arachnida, order Acari, and have several morphological and physiological characteristics that differ from insects. Many mites of economic importance in agriculture develop very rapidly and complete several generations each year. Mouthparts of mites are described as rasping and sucking — the mite rasps a wound on the surface of plant tissue and then laps or sucks up the resulting plant exudate. Several mites attack turfgrass in various regions of North America. The chapter then looks at the bermudagrass mite, the zoysiagrass mite, the buffalograss mite, the winter grain mite, the clover mite, and the banks grass mite.
Scarabaeid Pests: Subfamily Rutelinae
Authors: Vittum Patricia J.
Published: January 2021

This chapter looks at the Japanese beetle, in the order Coleoptera, family Scarabaeidae, subfamily Rutelinae (shiny leaf chafer), tribe Anomalini. The Japanese beetle is considered the single most important widespread turfgrass-infesting scarabaeid in the United States. Japanese beetle larvae cause significant damage to turfgrass in eastern North America and are also a major pest as adults, feeding on foliage, flowers, and fruits of more than 300 species of plants, including agricultural fruits and vegetables, ornamental plants, field and forage crops, and weeds. The chapter then considers the oriental beetle, which was first named the Asiatic beetle. The oriental beetle has become a major pest of turfgrass and occasionally is a pest of ornamentals in the northeastern United States.
Minor Insect Pests
Authors: Vittum Patricia J.
Published: January 2021

This chapter identifies minor insect pests. Many turfgrass insects and mites are considered major pests, either because they are troublesome on a regular basis over a wide geographic area or cause significant damage in a limited geographic area. Another group of insects and mites become turfgrass pests only occasionally, or if they occur regularly, their activities usually produce only minor injury. These are designated as minor turfgrass pests. Several such pests are discussed here, listed in the same sequence of orders as the major pests. These include northern mole and short-tailed crickets; grasshoppers, bermudagrass and turfgrass scales; burrowing sod webworms; sugarcane and carrot beetles; vegetable weevils; and March flies.
Biological Control Strategies
Authors: Vittum Patricia J.
Published: January 2021

This chapter assesses biological control strategies that can reduce turfgrass insect pest populations. Biological control refers to the suppression of pest populations through the activity of living organisms or their by-products. Although a majority of this book is devoted to understanding turfgrass pests, most organisms associated with turfgrass are not pests but instead may be considered beneficial because they reduce thatch, help recycle soil nutrients, or are natural enemies of pest species. Pest outbreaks can sometimes be traced to the absence of natural control agents in the turf environment. Vertebrate and invertebrate predators, insect parasitoids, and microbial pathogens may act as natural enemies of turfgrass pests. Although the effect of one species of natural enemy may be minor, the combined effects of predators, parasitoids, and pathogens can cause considerable reductions in pest populations. Additional agents can be considered as biological controls. These include fungal endophytes (which confer host-plant resistance to some insects), botanicals (botanically derived insecticides), and synthetic compounds that mimic the activity of insect-produced compounds, such as growth hormones and pheromones.
The Consequences of Humiliation
Authors: Barnhart Joslyn
Published: January 2021

This book explores the nature of national humiliation and its impact on foreign policy. The book demonstrates that Germany's catastrophic reaction to humiliation at the end of World War I is part of a broader pattern: states that experience humiliating events are more likely to engage in international aggression aimed at restoring the state's image in its own eyes and in the eyes of others. The book shows that these states also pursue conquest, intervene in the affairs of other states, engage in diplomatic hostility and verbal discord, and pursue advanced weaponry and other symbols of national resurgence at higher rates than non-humiliated states in similar foreign policy contexts. The book's examination of how national humiliation functions at the individual level explores leaders' domestic incentives to evoke a sense of national humiliation. As a result of humiliation on this level, the effects may persist for decades, if not centuries, following the original humiliating event.
National Humiliation at the Individual Level
Authors: Barnhart Joslyn
Published: January 2021

This chapter examines the effects of international events on an individuals' emotions and foreign policy preferences using a set of survey experiments conducted within the United States. It analyzes the experimental approach that test assumptions about the types of international events that are likely to engender national humiliation. It also demonstrates a clear link between a sense of helplessness and humiliation in a way that distinguishes humiliation from anger and assesses the degree to which humiliating events might shift foreign policy preferences for aggressive foreign policy behaviors. The chapter reviews the degree to which emotional concerns mediate the relationship between humiliating international events and support for aggression relative to security and instrumental concerns. It talks about the desire to shore up the image of the state in its own eyes as well as the eyes of others, which lead states to pursue more aggressive foreign policies and engage in costly status-seeking measures.
Soothing Wounded Vanity
Authors: Barnhart Joslyn
Published: January 2021

This chapter focuses on national humiliation and the triggering in the 1880s of the Scramble for Africa, an unprecedented land grab by European great powers. It demonstrates that individual-level support for aggressive policies, both vengeful in nature and directed at third-party states, increased within states that are confronted with potentially humiliating international events. The chapter reviews two international events that played an essential role in generating the competitive dynamics of the Scramble for Africa during the 1880s. The first event involved an instance of unexpected national failure, while the second event involved the denial of great power privileges by a higher status state. It also describes the acts of territorial conquest in Africa by France and Germany that generated status and security concerns within Italy and Britain, which led both states to adopt expansionary policies they likely would not have pursued otherwise.
Conclusion The Attenuation and Prevention of National Humiliation
Authors: Barnhart Joslyn
Published: January 2021

This chapter provides a conclusion by placing the findings into the broader context of international politics and international relations theory. It demonstrates the utility of the theory for understanding the contemporary foreign policies of China and Russia and sheds light on why the effects of humiliation may linger in some states longer than others. The chapter draws key distinctions between the theory and predictions of humiliation and more material and security-based explanations of international behavior. It addresses questions on what can be done to ameliorate or even prevent national humiliation and why are the ameliorative strategies often not employed by other states, much to the detriment of international stability and cooperation. It emphasizes how national humiliation affects world affairs in crucial ways and how it led important periods of international competition within the nineteenth and twentieth centuries and will continue to do so in the future.
Blood and Oil
Authors: Meierding Emily
Published: January 2021

This chapter determines whether oil causes international conflict and clarifies the meaning of oil wars. It describes militarized conflict that is linked to oil and examines oil-related civil wars along with oil-related interstate violence. The chapter identifies distinct causal pathways from petroleum to international conflict, ranging from conquest of oil resources, to fights over petroleum transportation routes, to externalization of oil-oriented civil wars, and to conflicts aimed at preventing the consolidation of control over global petroleum supplies. It argues that countries' willingness to fight for oil resources has been overstated. It also points out how oil is an exceptionally valuable commodity.
Oil Spats
Authors: Meierding Emily
Published: January 2021

This chapter presents a representative oil spat between Argentina and the United Kingdom. It recounts the 1976 incident, where an Argentine destroyer intercepted the RRS Shackleton, a British research ship, which the Argentines believed was unilaterally exploring for oil near the contested Falkland/Malvinas Islands. It narrates how the conflict between Argentina and the United Kingdom inspired an intensely hostile rhetoric but died down when the states began to pursue oil cooperation as a means of resolving their ongoing islands dispute. The chapter demonstrates how the next major conflict between Argentina and the United Kingdom, the Falklands War in 1982, was considered another red herring. It explains how the Falklands War was provoked by Argentine officials' determination to retake the islands before the sesquicentennial of British occupation.
Empirical Tests with Fuzzy-Set Qca
Authors: Kelanic Rosemary A.
Published: January 2021

This chapter examines the book's theory further by using fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis methods, which test for necessary and sufficient causal relationships using the logic of set theory. The data confirm the hypothesis that both the petroleum deficit and the threat to imports must be substantial to trigger anticipatory strategies. Thus, the results reinforce the findings from the previous chapters that coercive vulnerability, as determined by the petroleum deficit and import disruption threat, spurs great powers to adopt anticipatory strategies to reduce the danger of oil coercion. Moreover, the severity of the strategy chosen is consistent with the level of coercive vulnerability faced by the state. The more extreme the deficit and import disruption threat, the more extreme the strategy chosen; the less extreme the deficit and threat, the less extreme the strategy chosen.
Embodying Hospitality and Paternalism
Authors: Moran Katherine D.
Published: January 2021

This chapter analyzes how mission writers and boosters imagined the mission era as a model for their own. It argues that mission writers and boosters cast Junípero Serra and his brethren as embodiments of premodern values of meaningful work and leisure and unbounded hospitality, positioning the Franciscans as precursors to Southern California's modern hospitality industry and exemplars of paternalist labor management practices. It also demonstrates how some mission boosters cast assimilationist campaigns and institutions, such as the Sherman Institute, as modern-day embodiments of the Franciscans' spirit. The chapter claims that, like the celebration of Jacques Marquette, the celebration of Serra provided an economic origin story for the region. It illustrates how Serra was imagined to be laying the groundwork for modern capitalist development.
Imperial Church Stories
Authors: Moran Katherine D.
Published: January 2021

This chapter reviews the argument that in the Gilded Age and Progressive Era, in the upper Midwest, Southern California, and the U.S. colonial Philippines, many American Protestants and Catholics turned to idealized visions of Catholic imperial pasts in order to talk about the past and future of U.S. empire. The chapter talks about the broader relevance of the allegory of the Imperial Church, as Americans have continued to think with Catholicism when thinking about their own imperial nation. It also describes the various invocations of Catholic imperial pasts that emerged in the context of three concurrent developments. First is the postbellum national commemorative boom that saw Americans erecting monuments, writing histories, and performing in pageants at a remarkable rate. Second are the two waves of nineteenth-century Catholic European immigration that had supplied American Protestants with Catholic friends, colleagues, and constituents. And third is the center of U.S. economic and cultural power that shifted away from the Eastern Seaboard and no longer so dominated by events and individuals on the Atlantic coast.
Rural Development in South Korea, 1950s–1970s
Authors: Looney Kristen E.
Published: January 2021

This chapter explains South Korea's mixed record of rural development. It begins with an overview of rural change in the postwar period and shows that agriculture did not contribute much to the overall economy or to rural household incomes because of an adverse policy environment. The situation improved in the 1970s, with noticeable gains in production, incomes, and infrastructure, although progress was uneven in each of these areas. The chapter then discusses rural institutions and the shift away from urban bias. It argues that agriculture underperformed because land reform was insufficient for long-term growth and because South Korea's rural institutions were relatively weak. The Ministry of Agriculture was low in the bureaucratic hierarchy, and its extension agencies never developed deep roots in society. The National Agricultural Cooperative Federation (NACF) in particular was qualitatively different from its counterpart in Taiwan; it was an appendage of the state that exhibited linkage but not autonomy. Rural policy was implemented in a more rigid, top-down manner, with less participation from small farmers and fewer people advocating on their behalf. The South Korean case illustrates both the strengths and weaknesses of a campaign approach to development. The New Village Movement essentially reset the priorities of every branch of government, temporarily overriding other work.
Despotic Time in the U.S.
Authors: Wood Alex J.
Published: January 2021

This chapter examines the existence of internal labor markets at ConflictCo, looking at flexible scheduling in this workplace regime. While workers at PartnershipCo experienced little employment insecurity, this was not the case at ConflictCo. It was clear that workers at ConflictCo were highly fearful of losing their jobs. This was a consequence of ConflictCo's internal state, which made use of “at-will employment,” meaning that there was no redundancy policy, and managers were free to decide themselves which workers to keep on. Those who lost their jobs received no redundancy pay or notice. There was, therefore, a great deal of employment insecurity among the informants. If flexible discipline is found to be central to the operation of control at ConflictCo, despite the availability of traditional forms of discipline, then it significantly strengthens the case that this is a vital feature of workplace regimes in the twenty-first century.
A Global Shift in Missionary Christianity
Authors: Turek Lauren Frances
Published: January 2021

This chapter traces the development of a global network of mission-minded evangelicals in the 1970s. It identifies the International Congress on World Evangelization that Billy Graham organized in 1974 as a landmark event that touched off a new era in evangelical missionary work and cross-cultural cooperation. The chapter also delves deeply into the debates and new relationship that emerged from the congress and explains how the economic, political, and social changes of the 1970s led to a renewed sense of missionary urgency among evangelicals throughout the world. It demonstrates that active involvement in this new global Christian network cultivated an internationalist outlook among U.S. evangelicals. It also links the global expansion of evangelical Christianity with the concomitant rise in evangelical political influence in the United States.
Supporting a “Brother in Christ” in Guatemala
Authors: Turek Lauren Frances
Published: January 2021

This chapter focuses on Guatemala, where evangelical dictator General José Efraín Ríos Montt seized power in a coup in 1982. It talks about Ríos Montt's religious beliefs and staunch anticommunism that led politically influential evangelical leaders and nongovernmental organizations in the United States to support and promote his regime. It also discusses direct fundraising and evangelical organizations that lobbied Congress to restore military aid to Guatemala, which Jimmy Carter had suspended due to ongoing human rights violations. The chapter investigates why many evangelical groups argued that Ríos Montt's Christian faith would compel him to improve the human rights situation in Guatemala despite mounting evidence that the dictator's military campaign against the “communist insurgency” in his country involved the mass killing of indigenous Mayans. It demonstrates how evangelical engagement with Ríos Montt reshaped society and politics in Guatemala, as well as policymaking in the United States.
State Violence and the Problem of Political Legitimacy
Authors: Woods Colleen
Published: January 2021

This chapter explores how the remobilization of colonial anticommunism in postwar politics was fundamentally connected to the legitimation of state violence and the strategic and symbolic value of the Philippines to U.S. empire in the age of decolonization. The upsurge and demand for social change in the postwar Philippines took many forms, from protests across barrios and villages of Central Luzon to large-scale labor strikes and the formation of new political parties. One particular group, the Hukbo ng Bayan Laban sa Hapon—the People's Army against the Japanese—had fought against the Japanese occupation but had no intention of welcoming colonial elites back into power. As a consequence, Filipino political elites and their U.S. allies, intent on rebuilding the social order constructed during the U.S. colonial period, deemed the Hukbalahaps, or Huks, as threats to national—and eventually international—security. In effect, postwar U.S. policies in the Philippines not only helped to recriminalize peasant, labor, and progressive social movements, but they also helped fuel a nearly six-year-long civil war that would have long-standing effects on how both Americans and Filipino politicians and policymakers conceived of the Cold War and the wars of decolonization in Southeast Asia.
Dynamic Form
Authors: Lewis Cara L.
Published: January 2021

This book traces how intermedial experiments shape modernist texts from 1900 to 1950. Considering literature alongside painting, sculpture, photography, and film, the book examines how these arts inflect narrative movement, contribute to plot events, and configure poetry and memoir. As forms and formal theories cross from one artistic realm to another and back again, modernism shows its obsession with form—and even at times becomes a formalism itself—but as the book states, that form is far more dynamic than we have given it credit for. Form fulfills such various functions that we cannot characterize it as a mere container for content or matter, nor can we consign it to ignominy opposite historicism or political commitment. As a structure or scheme that enables action, form in modernism can be plastic, protean, or even fragile, and works by Henry James, Virginia Woolf, Mina Loy, Evelyn Waugh, and Gertrude Stein demonstrate the range of form's operations. Revising three major formal paradigms—spatial form, pure form, and formlessness—and recasting the history of modernist form, the book proposes an understanding of form as a verbal category, as a kind of doing. It thus opens new possibilities for conversation between modernist studies and formalist studies and simultaneously promotes a capacious rethinking of the convergence between literary modernism and creative work in other media.
Bad Formalism
Authors: Lewis Cara L.
Published: January 2021

This chapter examines a wide range of work by Evelyn Waugh—the novels Vile Bodies (1930) and The Loved One (1948) and the stories “The Balance” (1926) and “Excursion in Reality” (1932)—in order to show how Waugh develops an overarching narrative aesthetic out of his relationship with film. Engaging with the epistemology of the camera eye and the complexities of film viewing, this broader film writing constantly oscillates between two poles of formal extremism, sometimes risking a mechanical, formulaic rigidity and at other times courting a dissolution into chaotic formlessness. Waugh's aesthetics can therefore be described as bad formalism: one side of this dialectic develops too much form, while the other establishes too little. Neither manages just the right amount of formal production to count as “good” modernist formal innovation. Taken together, these extreme forms attest to the extent to which Waugh's work consistently allegorizes the condition of the late modernist writer struggling to survive a changed media ecology dominated by the cinema, as Waugh's satires take the form of—or rather deform—the Künstlerroman, twisting its narrative into a different shape with a less than heroic end.
Surface Forms
Authors: Lewis Cara L.
Published: January 2021

This chapter investigates how Gertrude Stein plays with the Künstlerroman. In The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas (1933), she offers her own assessment of the position of the artist in a saturated media marketplace. Reading The Autobiography alongside Stein's other work, the chapter examines Stein's deployment of photographic illustrations, tropes, and techniques as a crucial strategy in her attempt to picture the history of modernism and to secure her spot within it. In particular, The Autobiography's underexamined photographs show how an ostensibly formless form—the surface—becomes the instrument of Stein's experimental history, as she skims across major developments in modernist and avant-garde art and literature and touches on as many famous figures as possible. In this way, while earlier chapters discuss the forms that populate modernist texts or the formal theories that purport to elucidate them, the chapter turns to the forms taken by modernism itself, which takes shape in the “contact zone” of The Autobiography.
The Myth of the Nuclear Revolution
Authors: Lieber Keir A. , Press Daryl G.
Published: January 2021

Leading analysts have predicted for decades that nuclear weapons would help pacify international politics. The core notion is that countries protected by these fearsome weapons can stop competing so intensely with their adversaries: they can end their arms races, scale back their alliances, and stop jockeying for strategic territory. But rarely have theory and practice been so opposed. Why do international relations in the nuclear age remain so competitive? Indeed, why are today's major geopolitical rivalries intensifying? This book tackles the central puzzle of the nuclear age: the persistence of intense geopolitical competition in the shadow of nuclear weapons. The book explains why the Cold War superpowers raced so feverishly against each other; why the creation of “mutual assured destruction” does not ensure peace; and why the rapid technological changes of the 21st century will weaken deterrence in critical hotspots around the world. By explaining how the nuclear revolution falls short, the book discovers answers to the most pressing questions about deterrence in the coming decades: how much capability is required for a reliable nuclear deterrent, how conventional conflicts may become nuclear wars, and how great care is required now to prevent new technology from ushering in an age of nuclear instability.
Power Politics in the Nuclear Age
Authors: Lieber Keir A. , Press Daryl G.
Published: January 2021

This chapter describes the unique attributes of nuclear weapons that make them the most effective instruments of deterrence ever created. It discusses the intensely competitive nature of international politics that has endured despite the nuclear stalemate. Stalemate exists when neither adversary in a war can escape destruction and emerge victorious in any practical sense of the term. The chapter talks about the Clausewitzian definition of war as an extension of politics, by which other means becomes an absurdity since no rational goal of statecraft can entail suicidal destruction. It emphasizes why strategic stalemate should not only deter war but also allow countries to abandon a wide range of costly and risky policies designed to increase their security.
Escaping Stalemate
Authors: Lieber Keir A. , Press Daryl G.
Published: January 2021

This chapter analyzes the durability of stalemate. It investigates whether the situation can be reversed once countries reach the point where neither can disarm the other. For geopolitical competition to be greatly mitigated, the path to stalemate must be a one-way street. If the opposite were true, then even the achievement of stalemate would not eliminate competitive dynamics. The chapter shows that the survivability of nuclear arsenals has varied over time. During the later decades of the Cold War, it seemed that the superpowers were permanently locked into stalemate. It talks about “counterforce” attacks that are aimed at disarming the enemy's nuclear forces and appeared impossible because the superpower arsenals were enormous and dispersed, and some weapons seemed impossible to find.
The Case of Werther and the Institution of Literature
Authors: Höcker Arne
Published: January 2021

This chapter discusses Johann Wolfgang Goethe's first novel, The Sufferings of Young Werther (1774). This novel not only created a new kind of hero with whom a whole generation of young readers could identify but also set up a narrative framework that made the history of Werther available to psychological interpretation. Knowing oneself means to have succeeded in establishing a relation to oneself, and this complicated and difficult endeavor is not possible without a medium. Since Goethe's famous epistolary novel, this medium, in a completely new and emphatically modern sense, has carried the name literature. In Western literary history, The Sufferings of Young Werther is known as the novel with which a new form of individuality finds literary expression. The form of the epistolary novel serves as a vehicle, translating the discourse of the self into a seemingly communicative structure and successfully turning the incomprehensible individual monad into an apparently readable subject for a contemporary audience.
Americanization and the Immigrant Church in the 1920s
Authors: Kitroeff Alexander
Published: January 2021

This chapter recounts the ways the archdiocese tried to overcome the political divide that affected Greek Orthodox life. It highlights how the archdiocese attempted to devise a strategy that would confront the pressures in order to assimilate and “Americanize” what the Greek immigrants faced in the 1920s. It also explores the prospect of a long-term presence in the United States that became a reality. This chapter addresses the question on how best to become part of American society and maintain ties with the homeland in order to preserve Greek ethnic and religious identity. It looks into several strategies that evolved within the Greek community, which ranges from the advocacy of so-called 100 percent Americanism to a more cautious stance that acknowledged the need for the Greeks to demonstrate loyalty and acquire US citizenship.
Assimilation and Respectability in the 1950s
Authors: Kitroeff Alexander
Published: January 2021

This chapter examines the Greek Orthodox Church against the background of the 1950s. It highlights the rise in religiosity and the upward social mobility of the Greek American second generation. It also explains how the Greek Orthodox church, which was on the margins of conversations about religion in America, found ways to become more relevant and somewhat mainstream. The chapter analyzes the unexpected development and importance of the Eastern Orthodox Churches to the Cold War policies of the United States. It also looks into the combination of powerful causes, such as the Cold War, social dislocation in suburbia, anxieties of the atomic age, and deliberate religious marketing that led to a remarkable spread of religious identification in postwar America.
The Challenges for an American Greek Orthodoxy
Authors: Kitroeff Alexander
Published: January 2021

This chapter draws attention to Ligonier, a small town in western Pennsylvania with a population of about fifteen hundred that served as an unlikely site for where the future of Greek Orthodoxy in America would be decided. It describes Ligonier as a home to the Antiochian Village and Conference Center, which is administered by the Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of America. The chapter discusses the Antiochian Church, which had begun its existence in America under the auspices of the Russian Orthodox Church and had suffered internal divisions similar to those that Greek Orthodoxy faced in the 1920s. It investigates how the Antiochian Church was unified under the jurisdiction of the Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch based in Damascus, Syria. It also highlights the Arab Orthodox immigrants that were members of the Antiochian Church and explains how they admitted a number of converts from evangelical Protestantism in the 1980s.
The “Byzantine Firework” of Paris
Authors: Bailey Heather L.
Published: January 2021

This chapter examines the church's reception in France. It talks about the church and the media that accompanied France that started to reshape Orthodoxy's public image. It also explains how Orthodox publicists gained some control over the narratives about Orthodoxy and accurate information about the Eastern Church that was widely disseminated in newspaper articles and tour guides. The chapter also assesses discussions of the church that simultaneously blurred and sharpened the distinctions between Orthodoxy and Roman Catholicism and between notions of Russian-ness and French-ness. It also describes the term “Byzantine–Muscovite style” and the adoption of pre-Petrine Russian architectural models for church building that simultaneously emphasized Russia's distinctiveness in relation to western Europe and its belonging “to the great European cultural tradition.”
Guettée, Vasiliev, L’Union chrétienne, and the Public Image of Orthodoxy
Authors: Bailey Heather L.
Published: January 2021

This chapter compares how Guettée, Vasiliev, and their periodical L'Union chrétienne were understood by their contemporaries in France and Russia. It talks about Guettée's reputation among the Russian civil and ecclesiastical authorities that saw him as a trophy and an outspoken defender of Orthodoxy in the West. It also discusses Guettée and Vasiliev's Russian contemporaries that had an exaggerated sense of how significant and impactful Guettée's conversion and the priest-publicists' polemical activities, including L'Union chrétienne, actually were. The chapter narrates events in Paris that reverberated in Russia and contributed to reformist tendencies, such as the reconsideration of church–state relations, educational reforms, and calls for freedom of conscience. It also analyzes the West and the Russian campaign to change the public image of Orthodoxy that had some positive results in Russia.
Information Technology and Military Power
Authors: Lindsay Jon R.
Published: January 2021

Militaries with state-of-the-art information technology sometimes bog down in confusing conflicts. To understand why, it is important to understand the micro-foundations of military power in the information age, and this is exactly what this book gives us. As the book shows, digital systems now mediate almost every effort to gather, store, display, analyze, and communicate information in military organizations. The book highlights how personnel now struggle with their own information systems as much as with the enemy. Throughout this foray into networked technology in military operations, we see how information practice shapes the effectiveness of military performance. The quality of information practice depends on the interaction between strategic problems and organizational solutions. The book explores information practice through a series of detailed historical cases and ethnographic studies of military organizations at war. The book explains why the US military, despite all its technological advantages, has struggled for so long in unconventional conflicts against weaker adversaries. This same perspective suggests that the US retains important advantages against advanced competitors like China that are less prepared to cope with the complexity of information systems in wartime. The book argues convincingly that a better understanding of how personnel actually use technology can inform the design of command and control, improve the net assessment of military power, and promote reforms to improve military performance. Warfighting problems and technical solutions keep on changing, but information practice is always stuck in between.
The Technology Theory of Victory
Authors: Lindsay Jon R.
Published: January 2021

This chapter discusses the technology theory of victory. A theory of victory is an intellectual concept that describes how military organizations can prevail in war. It reflects intuitions or folk theories about what war will be like and how militaries will fight it. Concepts may be codified in doctrinal manuals and strategy documents, or they may just be shared beliefs in a military community of practice. The technology theory of victory has run afoul of operational and political problems. Decades of effort to substitute information for mass have culminated in cyberwarfare and drone operations, but decisive victory remains elusive. New variants of technology theory are already emerging in response to advances in machine learning, embedded computing, and quantum computing. Skeptics have highlighted numerous practical and conceptual shortcomings of technology theory. Scholars have offered more nuanced perspectives on the social factors that shape the adoption and employment of material capabilities. The chapter argues that all of these different strands of debate reflect different perspectives on the same underlying phenomenon: the historically increasing complexity of information practice.