bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Popularity and the Art of Rhetoric
Authors: Peltonen Markku
Published: August 2017

This chapter demonstrates the social depth of politics in Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar, focusing the theory and practice of the ars rhetorica. Central to political (in)stability in both classical Rome and Tudor England, the rhetorical virtuosity of the elite sought to constrain and control the restive commons and the potency of popularity. Since commoners were its intended primary audience, Cicero argued for ‘the ultimately popular nature of eloquence’. Julius Caesar sets two types of orator into a rhetorical contest: the nobleman who pacifies the volatile masses, and the ‘people pleaser’, a widely feared figure, who inflames them to insurgence. Different modes of rhetoric unfold: whereas Brutus’s speech violates the precept of adaptation to an audience, in Mark Anthony’s rhetoric, popularity pays off. Shakespeare’s bleak play departs from its sources to magnify the destructive potential of popular orators: unhistorically, Shakespeare renders the incitements of Anthony’s eloquence the trigger of the civil war.
‘As Full of Grief as Age’
Authors: Fitter Chris
Published: August 2017

This chapter situates King Lear in angry underclass responses to the recent Poor Law as revealed by the new social history. Revisiting the scene of Lear denied ‘raiment, bed and food’ by his disdainful and flinty-spirited daughters, it argues that this scanting of the geriatric at the gate, newly impotent and increasingly humiliated, enacts the familiar commons tragedy of the impoverished old man hectored by Overseers of the Poor, yet allocated little or nothing. Lear’s outcry ‘Allow not nature more than nature needs, / Man’s life is cheap as beast’s’ emerges as an impassioned rebuke to the spirit of hostile petty calculation practised by the prosperous of the parish and their officers. Revisiting Poor Tom, the chapter places him alongside eight traits of the vagrant persistently alleged by statutes and rogue literature, discovering that, created as a composite of refutations, Shakespeare’s Poor Tom is a serial exposé of government fatuity.
Introduction
Authors: Borris Kenneth
Published: August 2017

Before surveying the book’s argument, the Introduction contextualizes Spenser’s Platonic interests in relation to current trends and debates in literary studies and in Spenser studies. It further considers the relevant aspects of early modern thought and culture, including Plato’s perceived importance for discursive pursuits of the sublime, his Elizabethan status, how Spenser likely encountered Platonism as a schoolboy taught by Richard Mulcaster, its currency in the poet’s circle in the 1570s, and which Platonic texts are most pertinent to him. The interaction of Platonic poetics with Elizabethan poetic practice transformed the creative horizons of English literature. While newly assessing this aspect of Spenser’s poesis, the book as a whole clarifies the development of early modern continental and English poetics, this writer’s poetics, his visionary aspirations, his major poems, and his authorial persona. Spenser had a foundational role in the English literary “line of vision” that includes John Milton and William Blake among others.
Spenser’s Phaedran Calender
Authors: Borris Kenneth
Published: August 2017

Focusing on Spenser’s Shepheardes Calender, this chapter newly shows that one of the texts most marginal in previous readings, Plato’s Phaedrus, is one of the Calender’s foundational references. There Plato defines and coordinates love, beauty, the soul, its prospects, and the modes of revelatory furor, including the lover’s and the poet’s. Whereas the Calender’s Platonic affinities have typically seemed too vague to merit investigation, attention to the poem’s flight motif, to the precedents for its pictures in early modern iconography and emblem books, and especially to the quasi-emblematic interplay of the Maye eclogue’s poem and its illustration featuring two winged coach-horses shows that those Phaedran doctrines energized Spenser’s notions of poetry’s inspirations, power, and national significance. These findings profoundly change understanding of the Calender, Spenser’s literary development, and his intellectual biography.
Eight Defenses of the Method of Cases
Authors: Machery Edouard
Published: August 2017

Chapter 5 examines eight different ways of defending the method of cases against Unreliability, Dogmatism, and Parochialism, and finds them wanting. It defends the experimental bona fides of experimental philosophy, provides evidence that reflective judgments do not differ from the judgments reported by experimental philosophers, shows that philosophers are not expert judgers, explains why their findings generalize beyond the cases that have been examined, argues that the lesson to be drawn from experimental philosophy can’t just be that judgments are fallible, explains why the prospects for a reform of the method of cases are dim, makes the point that Unreliability, Dogmatism, and Parochialism do not rest on a mischaracterization of the use of cases in philosophy, and defuses the threat that if sound these three arguments would justify an unacceptable general skepticism about judgment.
Modal Ignorance and the Limits of Philosophy
Authors: Machery Edouard
Published: August 2017

Chapter 6 examines the implications of Unreliability, Dogmatism, and Parochialism for modally immodest philosophizing (that is, philosophizing that requires knowledge of metaphysical necessities): Modally immodest issues should be dismissed and philosophy reoriented. Alternatives to the method of cases are critically examined: We cannot gain the required modal knowledge by relying on intuition, by analyzing the meaning of philosophically significant words, and by appealing to alleged theoretical virtues like simplicity, generality, and elegance to choose between philosophical views. Alternative conceptions of philosophy are too deflationary to be satisfying, particularly because there is much philosophizing left once philosophy is reoriented.
Postscript
Authors: Machery Edouard
Published: August 2017

Debates about the limits of philosophical knowledge go way back, and philosophers fall roughly into two distinct traditions. Some, like Plato, Aristotle, Descartes, and Leibniz, are optimistic about the reach of philosophizing; others, like Hume, Dewey, and James, incline toward thinking that philosophical knowledge is limited and emphasize the critical role of philosophy: On their view, philosophy corrects erroneous, empty, or misleading ideas. Each tradition is of course quite diverse, but each is also unified by its optimism or pessimism about philosophical knowledge. ...
Introduction
Authors: Homburg Stefan
Published: August 2017

Chapter 1 describes the book’s aims and scope. The main objective is to improve understanding of the Great Recession and its aftermath. The book provides a unified theoretical framework that uses dynamic general equilibrium models, or DGE, but dispenses with the rational expectations assumption. Its distinctive features are clean models with a rich institutional structure encompassing credit money, external finance, borrowing constraints, net worth, real estate, and commercial banks. Written for economists in universities, governments, and financial institutions, the book addresses an international audience.
Migration Costs in Destinations
Authors: Martin Philip
Published: August 2017

This chapter fills a data void by examining what workers—interviewed where they worked—paid in their countries of origin for their foreign jobs. Workers were interviewed in Korea, Kuwait, and Spain in 2014, and in Malaysia in 2015; it was found that worker-paid migration costs were less than a month’s foreign earnings in Korea and Spain, but more in Malaysia and Kuwait. There were several reasons for these cost differences, including the fact that government agencies have a monopoly on moving workers into Korea, while Spanish regulations that require employers to pay most costs are generally followed. Migrants going to Kuwait had to pay for visas, and the Vietnamese in Malaysia had to pay agents in Vietnam to get their jobs.
The Recruiting Business
Authors: Martin Philip
Published: August 2017

This chapter explains the activities of for-profit recruiters who match workers in one country with jobs in another. Governments regulate the fees that recruiters can charge to local workers, but not the fees they charge foreign employers. Most recruiters who provide low-skilled workers to foreign employers are agents, seeking job offers and then finding workers to fill jobs on a case-by-case basis rather than partners who specialize in providing particular types of workers to one or a few employers. Agent recruiters have incentives to maximize their revenues from each transaction, since they do not know if there will be repeat business.
Regulating Recruiters
Authors: Martin Philip
Published: August 2017

This chapter outlines the major International Labor Organization and UN conventions that protect migrant workers, contrasts the efforts to reduce the cost of remitting small sums over national borders with those to reduce what workers pay to recruiters, and discusses the trade-off between the number of low-skilled migrants a country sends abroad and the rights enjoyed by these migrants. The migrant numbers–rights trade-off is straightforward but often misunderstood. Some rights have costs, including the right to work-related and general welfare benefits. If migrant-sending countries insist that their citizens abroad must have full rights to benefits, the cost of migrant workers will rise and there will be fewer jobs for them. Finding the best balance between migrant numbers and rights is difficult but necessary. The chapter concludes with incentives to induce recruiters to act in ways that protect migrant workers.
Recruiter Incentives and Alternatives
Authors: Martin Philip
Published: August 2017

The stick of enforcement has not been sufficient to persuade recruiters to obey laws protecting low-skilled migrants, so this chapter turns to the carrot of incentives to induce recruiter compliance. I review micro-incentives to induce recruiter compliance, including faster processing, exemptions from taxes or subsidies, and awards; and macro-incentives including consolidation into fewer and larger recruiters, allowing foreign employers to recruit workers directly, and favoring long-term employer–recruiter partnerships. A review of comparisons between recruiters who move workers over borders and contractors who move workers between farms and construction sites within a country suggests that regulating recruiters effectively is difficult, which is a justification for bilateral labor agreements that eliminate private recruiters. The most effective of these agreements are subsidized by migrant-receiving governments, and most admit relatively few workers.
A Philosophy for the Science of Well-Being
Authors: Alexandrova Anna
Published: August 2017

Well-being, happiness, and quality of life are now established objects of social and medical research. Does this science produce knowledge that is properly about well-being? What sort of well-being? The definition and measurement of these objects rest on assumptions that are partly normative, partly empirical, and partly pragmatic, producing a great diversity of definitions depending on the project and the discipline. This book, written from the perspective of philosophy of science, formulates principles for the responsible production and interpretation of this diverse knowledge. Traditionally, a philosopher’s goal has been a single concept of well-being and a single theory about what it consists in. But for science this goal is both unlikely and unnecessary. Instead the promise and authority of the science depends on it focusing on the well-being of specific kinds of people in specific contexts. Sceptical arguments notwithstanding, this contextual well-being can be measured in a valid and credible way—but only if scientists broaden their methods to make room for normative considerations and address publicly and inclusively the value-based conflicts that inevitably arise when a measure of well-being is adopted. The science of well-being can be normative, empirical, and objective all at once, provided that we line up values to science and science to values.
Is There a Single Concept of Well-Being?
Authors: Alexandrova Anna
Published: August 2017

Judgements of well-being across different circumstances and spheres of life exhibit a staggering diversity in the standards against which well-being is evaluated. This chapter considers three ways of interpreting this diversity: first, denying the legitimacy of this diversity by circumscribing the concept of well-being within a narrow domain of the most general evaluation (Circumscription); second, treating well-being as semantically invariant but differentially realisable (Differential Realisation); and third, allowing that the very meaning of well-being expressions varies with circumstances (Contextualism). A version of Contextualism is more defensible than Circusmcription and Differential Realisation and serves as a partial explanation of the diversity of well-being judgements.
Is There a Single Theory of Well-Being?
Authors: Alexandrova Anna
Published: August 2017

A theory of well-being, in the way that philosophers typically pursue it, is a maximally general account of goods noninstrumentally valuable to the agent. These theories purposefully leave out the context of the agent and the benefactor. When these high theories meet counterexamples, philosophers either bite the bullet, make theories more intricate, or combine them with other theories. The latter two reactions move these theories away from measurement and hence away from the goals of science. This chapter argues that to secure value-aptness for science, a single theory that acts as a general vending machine is unnecessary. This is the thesis of well-being variantism. Instead high theories, along with more context-specific mid-level theories, have a place in a toolbox that enables building theoretically motivated constructs for scientific practice.
Can the Science of Well-Being Be Objective?
Authors: Alexandrova Anna
Published: August 2017

As an object of science, well-being is unusual in that its study relies on a normative standard. Even when the requisite theory justifying this standard is available, deep disagreements about values can surface. These disagreements seem to undermine the claim of this science to objectivity. This is one reason why philosophers of science have traditionally advocated value freedom. This chapter proposes the notion of a ‘mixed claim’ to denote scientific hypotheses that rely on both factual and normative categories. It argues against the advocates of value freedom, that mixed claims should not be eliminated from science. Rather, we need principles that when followed can secure procedural objectivity for mixed claims. These principles include making values explicit, testing for presence of disagreement, and subjecting the controversial value presuppositions to a public deliberation that includes experts on well-being as well as the public whose well-being is in question.
The Earliness of Mahler’s Late Romanticism
Authors: Summerfield Mark
Published: August 2017

The music of late Mahler recurrently features an elision of the traditional deceptive and perfect cadence progressions into a V–VI–I progression: a ‘deceptive perfect cadence.’ The way this progression is used in Mahler’s music can be related to Mahler’s descriptions of how musical works should be constructed, particularly his insistence on development, evolution, and the avoidance of clearly delineated boundaries. Schoenberg’s description of the use of the deceptive cadence to introduce a digression provides the basis for an alternative to descriptions of Mahler’s musical techniques, particularly those relating to closure or cadential practice, which concentrate on modernistic juxtapositions or the subversion of classical techniques. Instead, I will show how Mahler’s ‘digressive’ musical language relates to nineteenth-century conceptions of the organic fragment which reach back to the aesthetics of early romantics such as Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel.
Mahler and the Myth of the Total Symphony
Authors: Buhler James
Published: August 2017

French film critic Bazin takes the ‘myth of total cinema’ to reveal a picture of its real history and sketches phases of a dialectical history based on it. Bazin’s conceptual framework gives rise to a fruitful metaphorical world. This essay uses Bazin’s ‘total cinema’ as a productive analogy through which to understand Mahler’s well-known comment: ‘The symphony must be like the world. It must embrace everything.’ With Bazin’s framework in mind, Mahler’s statement seems to express a will to the total symphony. By analogy, I ask what in Mahler’s art might correspond to the long take and deep-focus photography. I use this Bazinian ‘cinematic’ focus to reconsider crucial moments of the first movement of Mahler’s Sixth Symphony, most notably the purported ‘sketch’ of Alma in the second subject, which I argue contains a complex set of mirror-like reflections that complicates any attempt to assimilate the Sixth to the plot of a ‘terrifying Symphony Domestica’.
Gustav Mahler’s Eighth Symphony and Max Reinhardt’s Concept of Massenregie
Authors: Revers Peter
Published: August 2017

Two weeks after the premiere of Mahler’s Eighth Symphony, Max Reinhardt produced Hofmannsthal’s adaption of Sophocles’ King Ödipus (in some respects an aesthetic counterpart to Mahler’s Symphony) in the very same ‘Musikfesthalle’. The byname Symphony of a Thousand seems to have been influenced by Reinhardt’s idea of ‘a new people’s theatre, a theatre of the Five Thousand; as he called it, a theatre for the masses’. Mahler’s vision of an integral work of art as well as Roller’s innovative ideas about a comprehensive stage design converges remarkably with Reinhardt’s theatre work. Mahler’s Eighth is a ‘prototype of the Symphonic Drama’, one of the most prominent and influential examples within the entire tradition of the symphony. In this regard Mahler was as much a visionary for a new understanding of the symphony as Reinhardt was for a new concept of theatre.
Gustav Mahler and the Aesthetics of De-Identification
Authors: Celestini Federico
Published: August 2017

Mahler’s music offers the opportunity for an enrichment of the unilateral identity paradigm in musicological research through the concept of cultural and aesthetic hybridity. This chapter addresses the plurality of idioms, styles, and voices in Gustav Mahler’s music in the context of the cultural and linguistic heterogeneity which characterises Vienna at the turn of the century. Analytical categories are proposed that are able to serve the plurality and hybridity in Mahler’s music; relevant passages in his work are discussed according to these categories: 1. tragic breakdown (of the musical subject); 2. grotesque destabilisation; 3. alienated sound; 4. plurality of voices; 5. metamorphosis and mimesis; 6. thematic instability; 7. hybridity of genres and forms; 8. eclipses of the author
Mahler and the Game of History
Authors: Barham Jeremy
Published: August 2017

For obvious reasons, the understanding and writing of music history have favoured a linear model founded in causality and chronology. Like many disciplines, however, historiographical studies have been subjected to critiques of various theoretical and imaginative types, particularly, but not exclusively, in recent times. These critiques are outlined here, and three historiographical models critically applied to the understanding of Mahler’s music: historicism, historical materialism (after Walter Benjamin), and a more radical rhizomatic model (after Deleuze). Posited, put into operation and questioned, these models cast multi-perspectival and multi-temporal light on how Mahler’s music continues to participate in contexts of contemporary mass-media and public consciousness.
Commitment and Cooperation on High Courts
Authors: Alarie Benjamin , Green Andrew J.
Published: August 2017

Judicial decision-making is ideally impartial. In reality, judges are influenced by many different factors, including institutional context, ideological commitment, fellow justices on a panel, and personal preferences. Empirical literature in this area increasingly analyzes this complex collection of factors in isolation, when a larger sample size of comparative institutional contexts can help assess the impact of the procedures, norms, and rules on key institutional decisions, such as how appeals are decided. This book explains how the answers to the following institutional questions largely determine the influence of political preferences of individual judges and the degree of cooperation among judges at a given point in time. Who decides how judicial appointments are made? How does an appeal reach the court; what processes occur? Who is before the court; how do the characteristics of the litigants and third parties affect judicial decision-making? How does the court decide the appeal; what institutional norms and strategic behaviors do the judges follow in obtaining their preferred outcome? The authors apply these four fundamental institutional questions to empirical work on the supreme courts of the United States, UK, Canada, India, and the High Court of Australia. The ultimate purpose of this book is to promote a deeper understanding of how institutional differences affect judicial decision-making, using empirical studies of supreme courts in countries with similar basic structures but with sufficient differences to enable meaningful comparison.
How Do Judges Decide?
Authors: Alarie Benjamin , Green Andrew J.
Published: August 2017

This book argues that high court design influences how judges decide, and this chapter provides the basic theoretical structure for this argument. It primarily builds on the Epstein, Landes, and Posner’s labor market model of how judges decide. A judge makes decisions like any other individual, influenced by a range of factors such as his own view of the law and the preferred outcome of the appeal, his reputation, his workload, and even in some cases financial or material concerns. How he balances these various factors depends on the design of the court. This chapter sets out a preliminary framework for thinking about the relationship between the institutional design and how individual judges reach decisions.
Do Judges Care About Others?
Authors: Alarie Benjamin , Green Andrew J.
Published: August 2017

A judge is rooted in various relationships with the other judges on a panel or on the court as a whole, and with other institutions such as the legislature. This chapter looks at whether these relationships influence how judges vote. It finds that a judge does tend to respond differently depending on who else is with her on the panel deciding the appeal. However, this chapter finds only mixed evidence that a judge is influenced by his position on the bench (either as a new judge hearing his first few terms of cases or, at the other extreme, as the chief justice), or by other branches of government.
Slipping Through the Screen
Authors: Alarie Benjamin , Green Andrew J.
Published: August 2017

In general, judges on high courts do not just have a set of appeals given to them and make a decision. To a greater or lesser extent the judges also choose the cases they hear through various means of docket control. This chapter discusses how the rules about how courts are designed influence the set of cases the court hears. Judges take into account various factors such as their overall workload and signals of the importance of the case. In addition, however, they also at times consider the potential outcomes of the appeal, choosing cases to get a result by either overturning or affirming the decision. Judges may also avoid hearing a case if there is a risk that a hearing will result in an outcome they do not want.
Conclusion
Authors: Alarie Benjamin , Green Andrew J.
Published: August 2017

This chapter concludes the book, emphasizing that the authors do not attempt to define an optimal court. However, they argue that high court design influences how judges decide, and therefore we need a better theory of institutional design and improved ability to tease out how and when design matters. The differences across courts are both important and interesting in terms of where they come from and what their implications are. They enable an understanding of what may be necessary to improve high court design in particular countries. Countries cannot move toward better institutions without understanding how design features relate to the factors that underlie how a judge decides and to each other. Too much work has focused on courts in isolation without understanding the broader suite of design options and their implications.
Modern Ideas of the Present
Authors: Wright Julian
Published: August 2017

With Walter Benjamin’s concept of a ‘messianic present’ as its starting point, this chapter uncovers the different ways in which modern history can be explored using concepts of time. It considers the tradition of revolution and the focus on ‘abstract, unknowable’ futures analysed by Reinhardt Koselleck and draws on the idea of plural experiences and concepts of time in the work of Georges Gurvitch. It suggests that the late nineteenth-century experience of time was thought through in new ways in France, particularly after the Paris Commune of 1871. The chapter explains the theoretical and ideological basis for a new focus on change in the present that emerged across the French political spectrum during the Third Republic (1870–1940).
Georges Renard
Authors: Wright Julian
Published: August 2017

Georges Renard, professor of the history of literature and socialist intellectual, led the Revue socialiste after Malon’s death and was at the very heart of intellectual socialism in the 1890s. But his early experience in the Paris Commune and his career in Switzerland often gave him the experience of feeling ‘out of the flow of time’ in his socialist militancy. In the first major study of his intellectual contribution, this chapter sets out his approach to understanding the flow of time in modern society and the processes of social transformation, part of his ‘idealist’ socialism. It emphasizes the intimate world he built with his wife, Louise, and the nature of their hospitable and compassionate socialist activity. At the end of his life, Renard was an intellectual godfather for an important socialist dissident movement and founded an independent party.
Conclusion
Authors: Wright Julian
Published: August 2017

At the beginning of this book, we developed three frameworks for studying ideas about the present in French socialist intellectual life: the time of modern political culture; the time of the socialist movement; and the time of the individual. The last of these has been a human voice throughout, complicating and deepening the discussion. With that biographical focus, my material has been presented less systematically than in the careful typology of the sociologist Georges Gurvitch. What I have wanted to do is to allow intimate experiences of writing, thinking, and arguing to dominate my study of socialism and time....
PMT background
Authors: Wright A. G.
Published: August 2017

Photomultiplier (PMT) background derives from sources of photons, and from photoelectrons generation within a PMT. These may also act as a source of optical and radioactive background for neighbouring detectors. Dark count and dark current are reconciled by allowing for leakage currents flowing into the anode. The optimal gain setting follows from these considerations. Sources of background generated by the photocathode include thermionic emission; light generated within the PMT; gamma rays; muons and minimum ionizing particles (MIPs); insulator glow in the region of the anode; and residual gas. Pulse height distributions for dark counts, in terms of photoelectrons equivalent, reveal the size and magnitude distributions of the various contributions. Temperature and gain dependence are also covered. PMTs constructed from low radioactive glass provide ultra-low background.
Collection and counting efficiency
Authors: Wright A. G.
Published: August 2017

Standards laboratories can provide a photocathode calibration for quantum efficiency, as a function of wavelength, but their measurements are performed with the photomultiplier operating as a photodiode. Each photoelectron released makes a contribution to the photocathode current but, if it is lost or fails to create secondary electrons at d1, it makes no contribution to anode current. This is the basis of collection efficiency, F. The anode detection efficiency, ε‎, allied to F, refers to the counting efficiency of output pulses. The standard method for determining F involves photocurrent, anode current, count rate, and the use of highly attenuating filters; F may also be measured using methods based on single-electron responses (SERs), shot noise, or the SER at the first dynode.
Environmental considerations
Authors: Wright A. G.
Published: August 2017

Magnetic fields, with a magnitude comparable with that of the earth (10−4 tesla), affect trajectories of electrons and hence gain and collection efficiency. The inclusion of a high-permeability shield usually offers sufficient protection. Photomultiplier (PMT) performance is affected by electric field gradients generated by the proximity of a metal housing. The design criteria of such housings are discussed. Strong magnetic fields of the order of a tesla require special devices. Operation in harsh environments such as those encountered in oil well logging requires performance at high temperature (200 °C) and in situations of high shock and vibration expressed in terms of power spectral density. Rugged PMTs can meet all these requirements. Applications at cryogenic temperatures, such as liquid argon, can also be met with special PMTs.
Voltage dividers
Authors: Wright A. G.
Published: August 2017

Voltage dividers provide accelerating voltages to generate multiplier gain. Dynode voltages must remain constant and independent of the light input to maintain stable gain. The standard resistive divider never quite satisfies this requirement, although acceptable performance can be achieved by careful design. The inclusion of zener diodes improves performance but field-effect transistor (FET) circuits can provide gain stability at high mean anode currents, regardless of whether the application is pulsed or analogue. Design procedures for active and semi-active voltage dividers are presented. Dividers based on the Cockcroft–Walton (CW) principle are particularly suited to portable instrumentation because of their low standing current. Consideration is given to pulsed operation, decoupling, switch-on transients, ripple, dynode signals, single cable dividers, and equivalent circuits at high frequencies. Gating is used to protect a photomultiplier, in the presence of high light levels, by reducing the gain electronically. Various methods for gating a voltage divider are presented.
Electronics for PMTs
Authors: Wright A. G.
Published: August 2017

Photomultipliers (PMTs) are current generators characterized by high gain, wide bandwidth, and high-output impedance. The role of preamplifiers and amplifiers is generally one of conditioning the PMT output. Either the time signature is preserved using a fast voltage preamplifier, or a voltage proportional to the charge in each event is generated with a charge-sensitive preamplifier. Both preamplifier types are generally of low-output impedance, suitable for driving matched coaxial cable. Preamplifiers and amplifiers are available as modular units (e.g. nuclear instrument module), stand alone, or are incorporated in a module including the PMT. Shaping amplifiers are used to further condition preamplifier signals, using integrating and differentiating circuits—particularly relevant to scintillation spectrometers. Discrete-component amplifiers and current-feedback operational amplifiers serve fast applications. Digital signal processing has overtaken many of the classical electronic techniques involving resolution and in pulse shape discrimination. Electronic circuitry for generating fast LED pulses is discussed.
Global Change, Political Coalitions, and National Responses
Authors: Shadlen Kenneth C.
Published: August 2017

This chapter introduces the broad changes in the global politics of intellectual property that marked the late 1900s and early 2000s, and a coalitional argument for understanding cross-national and longitudinal diversity in response to the new external environment. The chapter situates the book’s analysis in the context of broader scholarship in comparative and international political economy, highlighting the importance of coalitions for understanding national forms of compliance to global changes. The chapter reviews scholarship on the politics of intellectual property, with an eye toward integrating international and domestic drivers of national policies. The chapter concludes with discussion of the logic of case selection, the method of data collection and comparative analysis, and the organization of the remainder of the book.
The Political Economy of Pharmaceutical Patents
Authors: Shadlen Kenneth C.
Published: August 2017

The chapter provides brief introductions to intellectual property, patents, and pharmaceuticals to help the reader understand the nature of the enduring conflicts in this area. Prior to the 1990s few developing countries granted patents on pharmaceutical products, but changes in the global politics of intellectual property made doing so obligatory – the starting point for the analyses in this book. The chapter reviews the policy challenges that countries addressed in deciding how to introduce pharmaceutical patents and then in revising their new patent systems, and then presents the explanatory framework to account for cross-national and longitudinal variation. National forms of compliance with global changes are iterative and path-dependent processes, in that there are successive episodes of conflict, and the policy choices of one period exert influence on the policy choices in subsequent periods. Degrees of over-compliance with the new global order are produced through resolution of these two sets of conflicts.
Power to the Producers
Authors: Shadlen Kenneth C.
Published: August 2017

This chapter analyses Argentina’s minimalist response to the global sea change. The pathway from the President Menem’s 1991 proposal for a new patent law to the 1996 Law on Invention Patents and Utility Models reveals intense Executive–Legislative conflict over how Argentina should introduce drug patents. The US Government and the Argentine Executive fought tirelessly for over-compliance, but failed to secure this outcome. Argentina’s national pharmaceutical firms were able to construct a broad coalition against over-compliance, benefiting from its own considerable resources as well as the support of other actors in the industrial sector and health community. In contrast, the transnational sector was unable to attract allies that could widen its own coalition, as the country’s export structure meant that the principal instrument used to expand coalitions for over-compliance was ineffective. By the end of the 1990s, minimalism had become state policy in Argentina.
Patents and Development in the New Global Economy
Authors: Shadlen Kenneth C.
Published: August 2017

The concluding chapter reviews the main findings from the comparative case studies, synthesizes the main lessons, considers extensions of the book’s explanatory framework, and looks at emerging challenges that countries face in adjusting their development strategies to the new global economy marked by the private ownership of knowledge. Review of the key points of comparison from the case studies underscores the importance of social structure and coalitions for analyses of comparative and international political economy. Looking forward, this chapter supplements the book’s analysis of the political economy of pharmaceutical patents with discussion of additional ways that countries respond to the monumental changes that global politics of intellectual property have undergone since the 1980s. The broader focus underscores fundamental economic and political challenges that countries face in adjusting to the new world order of privately owned knowledge, and points to asymmetries in global politics that reinforce these challenges.
Resurrection of the Dead in Early Judaism, 200 BCE-CE 200
Authors: Elledge C. D.
Published: August 2017

Belief in resurrection of the dead became one of the most adamant conceptual claims of Christianity and rabbinic Judaism. This book provides a focused analysis of the gradual emergence and diverse receptions of the discourse of resurrection within early Jewish literature, from its early emergence within portions of 1 Enoch (c.200 BCE), until its standardization as a non-negotiable eschatological belief in the Mishnah (c.CE 200). Within this historical environment, resurrection emerged as an insurgent and controversial theodicy that challenged more traditional interpretations of death. The study further demonstrates how scribal circles legitimated the controversial eschatological claim by clothing it in the raiment of earlier scriptural language, grounding it in the theology of creation, and insisting that it was essential to the affirmation of divine justice. As resurrection gained a reception in multiple movements within early Judaism, a diverse range of conceptions flourished, including a fascinating variety of assumptions about the embodied character of eschatological life, as well as how resurrection would transpire within larger cosmic-spatial parameters of the world. The hope also maintained a somewhat tensive relationship with belief in the immortality of the soul, another popular approach to the afterlife within early Judaism. Supportive chapters explore the emergence of resurrection within specific literary texts and collections, including 1 Enoch, the Dead Sea Scrolls, Josephus, 4 Ezra, 2 Baruch, and select inscriptions. As the nascent church and early rabbinic Judaism developed their own approaches to resurrection, they remained both the heirs and creative reinterpreters of earlier Jewish theologies of resurrection.
Diversity
Authors: Elledge C. D.
Published: August 2017

This chapter examines the conceptual diversity of expressions of resurrection in a variety of early Jewish writings (Daniel, 1 Enoch, 2 Maccabees, 4 Ezra, 2 Baruch, Messianic Apocalypse, Pseudo-Ezekiel). Two categories, in particular, appear to have offered broad fluctuation. First, differing modes of embodiment may be identified within the evidence, including beliefs about the fate of the deceased body, as well as varied assumptions about what the newly embodied eschatological life would be like. Second, representations of resurrection also differ in how they locate human destiny within the larger spatial parameters of the cosmos. This diversity has sometimes been interpreted as a deficiency within early Jewish theologies, yet the present chapter explains this as the result of the adaptability of resurrection to a variety of intellectual contexts, a factor that accelerated the reception of resurrection as a widespread eschatological belief, even among competing groups.
Resurrection and Immortality
Authors: Elledge C. D.
Published: August 2017

Some scholars have traditionally battled over distinctions between resurrection and immortality. This chapter examines the problem as reflected in early Jewish writings. Josephus and Pseudo-Phocylides reveal how the two concepts might stand in some complementary relation to each other. In these cases, resurrection demonstrates its adaptability to differing philosophical contexts within Judaism and its clear compatibilities with conceptions of immortalization. Wisdom of Solomon, Philo, and 4 Maccabees, however, may be viewed as more intentionally avoiding overt reference to resurrection in an exclusive preference for immortality. These writings indicate that within some approaches to theodicy in early Judaism, the immortality of the soul was a sufficient expression of divine justice on its own, apart from resurrection. Such tensions between resurrection and immortality comprise yet another facet of diversity within ancient Jewish reflection on the future life.
Resurrection and the Book of Watchers
Authors: Elledge C. D.
Published: August 2017

Since the Book of Watchers (1 En. 1–36) can be dated to a compositional process that transpired in the third century BCE, the work anchors an early hope in human revivification at least a generation earlier than Daniel 7–12 and the Maccabean Revolt. The present chapter further examines the particular “Enochic” assumptions about resurrection. In particular, the cosmic journey of Enoch (1 En. 20–36) renders a vision of eschatological life that is deeply integrated with two larger Enochic themes: the “great judgment” and the restoration of antediluvian life. This cosmic journey inherited and reinterpreted a great deal of earlier Enochic tradition, especially in utilizing the judgment of the watchers as a paradigm for human destinies. Their treatment of the afterlife offers an opportunity to observe how the Enochic authors shaped the discourse of resurrection into an important expression of their own theology.
Josephus
Authors: Elledge C. D.
Published: August 2017

The only early Jewish author to have written a surviving description of what his contemporaries believed about the afterlife was Josephus, yet his testimonies about the afterlife are complex historical, literary, and apologetic descriptions. They cannot be immediately corroborated by contemporary writings; nor should they be exclusively categorized as a purely Hellenizing literary construction that had no relationship to actual Jewish eschatological beliefs. To understand his testimonies to the afterlife, it is ultimately necessary to address how Josephus wrote about the afterlife. This chapter argues that his treatment of the afterlife can be reasonably explained as an apologetic cultural translation that made use of established doxographic and ethnographic techniques. His descriptions of the afterlife are, thus, an important window into his own compositional methods. In translating Jewish eschatological hopes into the categories of Hellenistic philosophy, Josephus also anticipates the strategies of later Christian apologists.
Conclusion
Authors: Elledge C. D.
Published: August 2017

This chapter summarizes the major claims of the study and offers observations on how the nascent church and the Tannaim reinterpreted earlier Jewish theologies of resurrection. Both the church and Judaism charted their own responses to theodicy in continuity with the earlier discourse of resurrection that originally developed within the Second Temple era, yet they did so in strikingly different ways, as illustrated in Mishnah Sanhedrin and Paul’s letters. Sanhedrin allows considerable freedom regarding the finer details of what form resurrection might take. What is more significant is the relevance of resurrection to the collective survival of “all Israel” and the restoration of the land. Paul illustrates how resurrection became increasingly invested in the person of Jesus and, thus, took on an entirely new meaning. He further illustrates the relationships between resurrection and the restoration of God’s dominion over the world that can also be identified in earlier Jewish writings.
The Protection of Intellectual Property in International Law
Authors: Grosse Ruse-Khan Henning
Published: August 2017

This book examines intellectual property (IP) protection in the broader context of international law. Against the background of the debate about norm relations within and between different rule systems in international law, it constructs a holistic view of international IP law as an integral part of the international legal system. The first part considers norm relations within the international IP law system. It analyses the relationship of the two main unilateral IP conventions to the World Trade Organisation (WTO) Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of International Property Rights (TRIPS), as well as the relationship between TRIPS and subsequent Free Trade Agreements (FTAs). The second part discusses alternative rule systems for the protection of IP. The third part identifies important intersections and links between the traditional system of IP protection and other areas of international law related to environmental, social, and economic concerns. These include free trade in goods; biological diversity, genetic resources, and traditional knowledge; multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs) on climate change; and access to medicines and food. This analysis provides significant insights into the nature and quality of international law as a legal system. The fourth part identifies appropriate norms within the international IP system that can respond to these complexities and linkages.
The Systemic Character of International Law
Authors: Grosse Ruse-Khan Henning
Published: August 2017

This chapter examines various conflict resolution approaches. The question of how the heterogeneous and pluralistic character of international law as a whole and the resulting overlaps, linkages, and tensions amongst different rules and rule-systems can be addressed depends much on how international law as such is perceived and understood. This chapter thus examines several distinct approaches to this issue in order to develop a functional method for the purpose of analysing legal relationships. It first discusses the International Law Commission (ILC) approach, which provides a set of general legal techniques to resolve overlaps, tensions, and conflicts between rules on an ad hoc basis as they arise. The chapter then criticises this approach and speculates on the possibility of a minimalist approach to an international legal system. Next, it analyses the societal differentiation and systems-theory, and finally examines a functional approach in search for relationships between legal rules.
Approaches for Analysing Norm Relationships
Authors: Grosse Ruse-Khan Henning
Published: August 2017

This chapter discusses conflict-resolution tools and develops an analytical structure building on rules and principles in international intellectual property (IP) treaties, other rule-systems, and general international law to define norm relationships of interpretation and of conflict. Several tools are taken from the ‘toolbox’ developed in the Fragmentation Report of the International Law Commission and other fragmentation literature. Depending on the type of relationship at stake, the most appropriate legal tools to address them may vary. The ILC Report and Conclusions provide for some of the tools and to some extent for an analytical structure, a logical order for examining these relationships. As the chapter shows, for some types of legal relations other approaches are more adequate. They hence complement the ILC principles and need to be integrated in the set of tools available.
Norm Relations Amongst Multilateral Treaties
Authors: Grosse Ruse-Khan Henning
Published: August 2017

This chapter explores the revisions of and special agreements to the Berne and Paris Conventions. Amongst the multilateral agreements in the international intellectual property (IP) system, these Conventions stand out as those with a long history of more than a hundred years of existence. However, international IP law has since developed outside of the two ‘classic’ conventions. Increasingly, these developments have taken place in different forums, such as trade negotiations, and in new institutions, such as the World Trade Organisation (WTO). This raises the question on how these new instruments relate to the classic treaties. As such, the chapter also analyses the WTO Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of International Property Rights (TRIPS) and its relations with the main pre-existing IP treaties.