bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
I
celand, Families in
Authors: Eydal Guđný Björk , Gíslason Ingólfur V.
Published: March 2016

The development of Icelandic family life and public policies is characterized by increasing individualization, including a strong emphasis since the early 1990s on the reconciliation of work and care, which is in accordance with the general political idea of promoting gender equality in all spheres of life. The idea is to promote the continued participation of women in the labor market and to increase the participation of men in family life. Parental leave has been used to encourage increased participation by fathers in family life. Simultaneously, child care has become highly socialized through early childhood education and care institutions and recreational facilities through schools. Since the late 1990s differences between policies for heterosexual and same‐sex couples has been eroding.
Elder Abuse in theUnitedStates
Authors: Gross Carolyn E.
Published: March 2016

As members of the population of older adults have increased, so has the problem of elder abuse. It has become a focus of study for many social scientists, beginning in the late 1970s. Elder abuse brings its own brand of distinctiveness under the umbrella term of “domestic violence.” With the problem of elder abuse come the common types of abusive behaviors: physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, neglect, and financial abuse. The implications of research on elder abuse have led to changes in legislation in the United States, changes in social policy, and the establishment of national and local community organizations directed at alleviating and ending the problem of elder abuse. Of particular interest is the call for the development of a coordinated community response to this increasing public health problem.
Widowhood
Authors: Utz Rebecca L.
Published: March 2016

Widowhood is the dissolution of marriage caused by the death of a spouse. Although widowhood is a common transition in the life course, it is often considered to be one of the most stressful. Most research on the topic has explored the similarities that bereaved persons experience as well as the unique variations that are determined by one's social, cultural, and personal histories.
Lee's Styles of Loving
Authors: Yeager Erica Owens
Published: March 2016

Lee's styles of loving, or love styles, are patterned sets of beliefs, practices, emotional responses, and motivations experienced by persons who feel romantic attachment to another. In any given romantic relationship, the partners act in accordance with their love styles. A person may have more than one style at a given time, though generally one is primary. One person's lovestyle may vary across different relationships, or over time within one relationship. A description of each of the six major styles of love is given.
M
ormon Families
Authors: Jeffrey Aaron J. , McPheters Justin K.
Published: March 2016

Despite a history of persecution, isolation, and relative obscurity, the early twenty‐first century has seen a cultural fascination with Mormon families and their practices. The primacy of family relationships is clearly understood against the backdrop of the history of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter‐day Saints. Belief in a Heavenly Father, the Plan of Salvation, and eternal marriage underscore the centrality of the family in Mormon doctrine. Mormon families participate in rituals and worship practices that serve to strengthen family bonds and reinforce family values.
Wedding Rituals
Authors: Costa Rosalina P.
Published: March 2016

Wedding rituals mark a special occasion because, traditionally, the day of the marriage was perceived as representing a major change in the individuals' lives. In the early twenty‐first century, individualization and detraditionalization theses emphasize that individuals are more free to make their own choices than in the past, and thus many people incorporate a personalized narrative into the construction of their wedding day, stressing their desire for the wedding “they want” in “the way they choose.” There is increasing use of creative adaptations and adjustments around various wedding rituals in terms of legitimizing the diversification and pluralization of relationships in contemporary western society, such as commitments between same‐sex couples, and de facto unions. Despite these changes and debates surrounding the so‐called deinstitutionalization of western marriage, wedding rituals' symbolism remains and crosses time, space, and cultures.
Infidelity in the
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Authors: Stanford Paul S.
Published: March 2016

Infidelity is a common issue couples face throughout the world. Although infidelity is almost universally regarded as unacceptable, a significant minority of men and women commit infidelity sometime during their life. Definitions range from sexual intercourse to internet chatting, and the associated “causes” range from poor marital quality and sexual dissatisfaction to pregnancy and income‐related stressors. Consequences of infidelity include marital distress, domestic violence, divorce, depression, and anxiety. The prevalence, causes, and consequences of infidelity are discussed and future research directions noted.
Sex Education in theUnitedStates
Authors: Stooksberry Jodi N.
Published: March 2016

Formalized sexual health education in the United States is often divided into two methods: abstinence‐only and comprehensive. This entry includes a discussion of the history of these methods of sex education, what they entail, and how they may or may not benefit their target population.
Gender and Household Labor
Authors: Oslawski‐Lopez Jamie
Published: March 2016

Within most heterosexual households, unpaid household labor is differentially divided based on gender. Specifically, women tend to perform a greater share of household labor than their male partners despite some convergence in time‐use estimates recorded in 1965, 1975, and 1998. Household labor entails all forms of unpaid labor done within the home or for the benefit of the household members, such as cooking, cleaning, and yard work. While family structure influences the extent to which housework is unequally divided, some level of inequality is common across family types. This form of family‐based inequality has negative implications for individuals' relationships and health outcomes. Future work should seek to understand why inequality persists in the household division of labor. Further, researchers should more fully attend to measurement issues in estimations of the household division of labor.
C
roatia, Families in
Authors: Čudina‐Obradović Mira , Obradović Josip
Published: March 2016

A historical review of the Croatian family since the late eighteenth century shows some specificities peculiar to Croatian society. Some of these specificities helped to maintain traditional family values while some led to the family assuming a modern distribution of work roles much earlier than in most western societies. Thus the contemporary Croatian family is a mixture of old and modern values, the patriarchal values being a hindrance to progress and at the same time providing protection and support to the family. The influence and deconstruction of patriarchal family values is analyzed with a special emphasis on the major negative forces of economic crisis, unemployment, and aging in Croatian society.
Incarceration and Families in the
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Authors: Reviere Rebecca
Published: March 2016

The impact on the incarceration of approximately 2.2 million individuals in US jails and prisons ripples through families. Most of those in prison are poor, poorly educated, and disproportionately people of color. Most women in prison are single mothers with dependent children, and worries about their children nag them while they are away; their children must have alternative living arrangements. When fathers go to prison, the financial impact may be severe, although children typically live with their mothers. Children's lives are often disrupted when a parent goes to prison; outcomes vary depending on several factors. Children's caregivers are important to the child's well‐being and family stability. Families can and do maintain contact with prisoners through visits, mail, and phone calls. When prisoners return to the community, they face challenges with reentry and reunification; strong family ties reduce recidivism.
Europe, Families in
Authors: Gianesini Giovanna
Published: March 2016

Many differences are observed in family patterns and normative initiatives across Europe, and these can only be satisfactorily explained by economic, ecological, and institutional factors and constraints. Traditional family patterns and rudimentary social insurance systems predominate in the southern countries while financial independence from the family and comparatively ambitious social programs characterize the Nordic countries. Deeply rooted cultural and political resistance to change, together with conservative gender‐specific division of labor within the family and a “familialism” ideology, still characterize the welfare states of southern Europe, which have limited development of family policies, permanence of family solidarity and dependence, limited flexibility of the labor market, and unequal division of family work between genders. These cultural differences, ecotype specificities, and political, economic, and demographic factors need to be accounted for in the study of family systems in Europe. Implications for practice, consequences, and future trends are critically discussed.
Marital Stability
Authors: Mitchell Katherine Stamps , Plauche Hannah
Published: March 2016

Marital stability can be defined as remaining legally married without divorce, physical separation, or legal separation. Marital stability is related to but distinct from marital adjustment, marital quality, marital satisfaction, and marital success. Factors that are associated with decreases in marital stability include financial stress, low income, low educational attainment, unemployment, young age at marriage, parental divorce, dissimilarity to spouse, religiosity, and serial premarital cohabitation. Marital stability is generally associated with positive outcomes for adults and children.
Queer Families
Authors: Harder Brittany M.
Published: March 2016

A queer family is a family that takes on a collective queer identity or stance. While most queer families are considered queer based on the sexuality of one or all of their members, other families are considered queer based on their positions on gender, politics, or cultural practices. As the term itself suggests, queer refers to something other than what it considered “normal” – a complex set of ideas that stands opposed to heteronormativity and the rigid, “natural” treatment of identity. Therefore, the queer family differs from most traditional notions and cultural understandings of family. Queer families are diverse and differ in their formation, relationships, and experiences. Queer families are a heterogeneous group and require a deeper understanding in our efforts to understanding families and relationships.
Motherhood Penalty in the
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Authors: Eschenfelder Christine C.
Published: March 2016

Studies indicate American women who are mothers earn less than American women who do not have children. Researchers find a pay gap exists between mothers and nonmothers who are otherwise equal in qualifications, experience, and job duties. Some studies find the causes of the motherhood wage penalty vary at different wage levels; mothers may take jobs or stay in jobs that offer less pay because the jobs are more conducive to a family schedule. Lack of flexibility in the workplace is considered problematic for mothers working for pay. Racial differences in the motherhood penalty are noted. In addition to wage penalties, some researchers find mothers are often stereotyped as being less competent and less committed to their jobs than women without children. Suggestions for mitigating the motherhood wage penalty include more widely available maternity benefits, assistance with and availability of childcare, and public policy initiatives.
Sexually Transmitted Infections
Authors: Vanmullekom Amy M.
Published: March 2016

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimates that there are approximately 19 million new cases of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) each year in the United States. There are over 30 pathogens that can be transmitted sexually including those that are bacterial (e.g., chlamydia, gonorrhea, syphilis) and viral (e.g., herpes, human papillomavirus, human immunodeficiency virus). Adolescents and young adults aged 15–24 years are at the highest risk of acquiring STIs and as of the mid‐2010s account for nearly half of all new STI cases each year in the United States. There are group disparities in STI rates that cannot be explained by individual‐level behaviors and instead societal influences must be examined.
Propinquity
Authors: Alphonso Carla
Published: March 2016

Mate selection is socially and culturally patterned instead of being random. A number of processes work to help potential partners find one another. Propinquity is one such process. Propinquity refers to the spatial nearness or geographic proximity of potential partners. Typically propinquity involves physical proximity although online technologies are broadening opportunities for meeting potential mates. Propinquity typically produces homogamy and also often leads to partners finding one another in the same schools, workplaces, religious organizations, or communities. For this reason, partners are often socially similar in terms of education, social class, religious affiliation, and the like.
Child Malnutrition (Chronic)
Authors: Baird Caitlin
Published: March 2016

Chronic undernutrition in early childhood affects the development of multiple organ systems and has permanent and detrimental effects on adult health and human capital. Long periods of malnutrition during infancy manifest as a faltering in linear growth known as “stunting.” Stunting is strongly associated with metabolic disorders such as obesity and diabetes, cardiovascular disorders, and delays in cognitive development. This increased disease burden and decreased productivity in adulthood help to maintain the cycle of poverty in much of the developing world.
Life Span Developmental Psychology
Authors: Solodnikova Irina V. , Solodnikov Vladimir V.
Published: March 2016

Increased life span, the popularity of healthy lifestyles, changes in family functioning, and the transformation of professional careers in the advanced economies during the twentieth century led to the development of life span development psychology. Erik Erikson is considered to be a pioneer of this area. He developed a chart of personality development from birth to death. He had an optimistic view on personality and thought that a person could develop and progress at any age. His concept was an impulse for empirical studies of personality not only in childhood and adolescence (child psychology) but also in adulthood and old age. In the early twenty‐first century life span developmental psychology is an actively developing branch of psychology that studies all stages of personality development.
Intimate Partner Violence
Authors: Andersen Judith P. , Papazoglou Konstantinos
Published: March 2016

Intimate partner violence (IPV) refers to various types of abuse that may take place in heterosexual couples, LGBT couples, teen couples, and former intimates. Victims and perpetrators of IPV may come from all ages, ethnic groups, racial groups, religions, occupations, socioeconomic status levels, education levels, and geographical areas. Historically, women have been considered the property of or submissive to men. Moreover, traditional psychological theories focused on victims' or perpetrators' psychopathology. However, feminist theory has challenged the patriarchal norms of femininity and masculinity, which prescribe the power and control of men over women. Since the 1970s, numerous laws have been passed around the world defining IPV as a crime. In addition, policy and training programs, research projects, and advocacy organizations have been established to increase public awareness about IPV. In the United States, many states have developed police training programs incorporating practices for effective resolution of IPV cases and medical professional organizations have developed certain guidelines for IPV screening conducted by healthcare professionals.
Mate Selection
Authors: Brackett Kimberly P.
Published: March 2016

Mate selection is the process of choosing a partner with whom to form a marriage bond or long‐term marriage‐like relationship. While personal preference is a key component in the selection process, structural influences also exist. Among the explanations for mate choice are filter theories, social exchange, sociobiology, needs and values, and matching hypotheses. Studies in the sociological literature emphasize life course factors and variations by gender, race, class, culture, and specific personal traits. As the role of marriage in western culture changes, so do the goals of mate selection. Internet sites offer new opportunities for daters and for researchers.
Hinduism and Families
Authors: Ray Avishek
Published: March 2016

While it is a commonly held belief that Hinduism valorizes family life, it is important to historicize Hinduism's association with the concept of the family. Given the pluralities in perceptions of both Hinduism and the family, it is necessary to understand why and in which sociopolitical milieux Hinduism has endorsed family life and how the archetypal imagination of the family in Hindu thought had subsequently been used as an apparatus to sustain the domain of identitarian politics.
T
aiwan, Families in
Authors: Chang Ching‐Yu
Published: March 2016

Since the beginning of the twentieth century, Taiwan has experienced countless social changes and several major social movements during the periods of Japanese occupation, Kuomintang government relocation in the 1940s, the 228 Incident and the White Terror in the 1950s and 1960s, and the introduction of feminism from western societies in 1970s. Taiwanese family culture reflects these changes. During colonial times, women received an education and were encouraged to work. Community bonding within military dependents' villages formed a unique culture among China mainland immigrants. As women's rights were promoted, many gradually began working outside the home. Gender equality and women's rights are now under the protection of laws. In contemporary Taiwanese society, a low birth rate, care work, and other family responsibilities are recognized to be major concerns. Migrant domestic workers and international marriages with women from Southeast Asian are recent phenomena.
Co‐Parenting
Authors: Rodriguez Yuliana , Helms Heather M.
Published: March 2016

Co‐parenting refers to the way two adults work together in their parenting roles. Co‐parenting partnerships exist in all kinds of families, including married couples with children, divorced parents who have a shared child or children, people who have a child together but never married, or any two or more people who work together to raise a child. Healthy co‐parental relationships are characterized by co‐parents that support one another and provide their children with a sense of stability and security. Unhealthy co‐parental relationships consist of adults that undermine one another's parenting while also competing openly for the children's affection and loyalty. While the literature has revealed a variety of co‐parenting types, predictors of co‐parenting types, and links between co‐parenting and children's development, an understanding of co‐parenting in underrepresented groups (i.e., partners who are not white, middle‐class, or heterosexual) is needed.
Maternal Mortality
Authors: Kronenfeld Jennie Jacobs
Published: March 2016

One difficult with discussing maternal mortality is that the main world and US health agencies use slightly different definitions of maternal or pregnancy‐related deaths. According to criteria from the World Health Organization, the definition of maternal death is “the death of a woman while pregnant or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy, irrespective of the duration and site of the pregnancy, from any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy or its management but not from accidental or incidental causes.” Within the United States, one of the main health agencies dealing with maternal mortality is the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's definition of a pregnancy‐related death is “the death of a woman while pregnant or within 1 year of pregnancy termination – regardless of the duration or site of the pregnancy – from any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy or its management, but not from accidental or incidental causes.” Although maternal death in the United States is much less common today than it was in 1900 and 1950, rates increased between 1987 and 2009. In contrast, across the world, maternal deaths have decreased and in developed countries they have decreased greatly over the past 100 years. Currently, the largest numbers of maternal deaths (over 90 percent) in the world occur in developing countries. In these countries, obstetrical hemorrhage is the most common cause of maternal death; the second most common cause is hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. The main causes of maternal death are slightly different for developed countries, where the most common cause is thromboembolism; unintended pregnancy and unsafe abortions of those pregnancies are also a significant cause of maternal death.
India, Families in
Authors: Manohar Namita N.
Published: March 2016

Family is one of the three key social institutions in Indian society. The Indian joint family is an ideal type associated with an elite minority. While, historically, joint and nuclear families have coexisted in India, even in globalized India, where households might be autonomous, family obligations continue to unfold in an extended context across households. Women's increased labor force participation in globalized India is shifting gender relations in families, although their paid labor has not substantially changed household labor arrangements. The dialogue between traditional and contemporary family and gender practices manifests in increasing attentiveness to family violence, of which dowry‐related violence dominates legal and social discourse. Indian families are simultaneous sites of support and inequity.
Exchange Theory
Authors: Fleming Kim
Published: March 2016

Exchange theory, constructed by George Homans, takes the principles of behavioral psychology and classic economic theory and applies them to social interaction. People are seen as rational beings who act with intent and with the purpose of improving their chances of achieving their goals and the ease with which they do so. Homans drew from classical economics, behavioral psychology, and rational choice theory in framing social exchange theory. As with all meaningful theories, others have contributed to social exchange theory over the years. The work of Peter Blau is particularly notable.
Child Sexual Abuse
Authors: Ellialti Tuğçe
Published: March 2016

Child sexual abuse is typically defined as any sort of sexual contact between a child and an adult (or significantly older teenager), including sexual solicitation of, or exposure to, a child by an older person. It may include unwanted and inappropriate physical contact with the child's genitals; sexual touching, manipulation, or fondling; penetration in terms of vaginal, oral, or anal intercourse or attempted intercourse; as well as exposing children to sexual images or forcing them to watch pornography or to witness adult sexual acts. Child sexual abuse can vary along a number of dimensions, including pattern, frequency, duration, age at onset, and relationship of victim to perpetrator. Experience with and exposure to sexual abuse in childhood are particularly associated with long‐term psychological effects and profoundly shape victims' lives well into adulthood by increasing the probability of negative psychological outcomes such as poor self‐esteem, lack of a sense of control or agency, and associated mental disorders. The level of harm may be affected by multiple factors such as duration and frequency of abuse, use of force, and penetration, and the social stigma of child sexual abuse often compounds the psychological harm to children.
Ethnicity and Family Life in theUnitedStates
Authors: Anguiano Ruben P. Viramontez , Hampton Shaiem
Published: March 2016

For the United States ethnicity and race have historically been integral to understanding family life. This entry focuses on illustrating how different ecological factors play out in ethnic family life among African Americans, Latinos/Hispanics, and Native American and Alaskan Natives groups. In particular, the entry provides a general overview of ethnicity and family life and a brief description of Urie Bronfenbrenner's ecological model as it relates to ethnicity. The entry also delves into social and health factors that impact these particular groups and describes demographic trends.
Sexually Bounded Primary Relationships (SBPRs)
Authors: Scanzoni John
Published: March 2016

The sexually bounded primary relationship (SBPR) is a broad umbrella construct that, in the west, subsumes situations, whether straight or gay/lesbian, ranging from boyfriend–girlfriend, boyfriend–boyfriend, or girlfriend–girlfriend residing in separate households to cohabiting couples, to legally married couples. These situations characterize couples that explicitly or tacitly commit themselves to practicing sexual monogamy. These relationships are also characterized as “primary” because they are infused with several crucial socioemotional features. Up till now, most observers have believed that marriage is qualitatively different in kind, and not simply in degree, from its nonlegal counterparts, but what if, in the upcoming generations, the legal/nonlegal distinction were to decrease in significance and be replaced by increased attention to the dynamics within the SBPR, such as negotiations that facilitate or impede the autonomy of each partner, particularly the woman's?
Family Stability
Authors: Dorius Cassandra
Published: March 2016

The dramatic transformation of family life since the mid‐twentieth century has led to a variety of new and complex family forms. As a result, researchers have begun to focus on the importance of family stability in understanding the health and well‐being of children and adults. Research suggests that children growing up in stable households – whether the parents are consistently married, cohabiting, or single – do better than children who experience relationship transitions such as divorce, separation, or the formation of new partnerships. Further, as exposure to family instability increases, child and adolescent well‐being declines across a broad range of indicators, including emotional, behavioral, social, health, and academic outcomes. Although the effects of family instability can be transitory, the negative consequences may last beyond childhood. Theoretical approaches to studying family stability often include social stress, family systems, and boundary ambiguity theories and the incorporation of the life course perspective.
Delayed Childbearing
Authors: Zsembik Barbara , Gui Tianhan
Published: March 2016

Delayed childbearing is a social phenomenon in which women are delaying having children. This trend can be observed in both developed and developing nations. The reasons for delayed childbearing vary greatly, including the development of contraceptive use, improvement in women's educational levels and employment, and changes in family policies. Delayed childbearing also has a series of macro and micro consequences, such as lower fertility rate, higher risk of congenital defect, and a greater generation gap between parents and children.
Family Demographic Patterns
Authors: Dorius Cassandra , Murphy Shannon
Published: March 2016

Family demographers study population level characteristics and process that influence the composition and structure of families and households, as well as the relationships between family members. Using the first and second demographic transitions theories as a guide, demographers explore changes in mortality, fertility, marriage, divorce, cohabitation, and childbearing, among other topics. Recent shifts toward cohabitation, nonmarital childbearing and increasingly complex family forms are discussed, along with an overview of how these changes reflect diverging destinies for American youth.
Adolescence
Authors: Dennison Renée Peltz
Published: March 2016

Adolescence, roughly the second decade of life, is a time of great change. Adolescents undergo many changes as they transition between childhood and adulthood, which include significant biological, cognitive, social, and psychological growth. Biologically, adolescents go through puberty – which involves significant physical changes including a growth spurt, the accentuation of sex‐specific physical characteristics, and the development of the ability to conceive children. Cognitively, adolescents experience a significant shift in how they think which gives them new competency in areas such as abstract thinking, hypothetical thinking, and metacognition. Psychologically, adolescents face a series of challenges in developing a sense of autonomy, identity, and self‐image – which may contribute to some adolescents developing emotional or psychological problems. Finally, socially adolescents increasingly value peers, and undergo a series of experiences which serve to complete their transition from being viewed by society as a child, to being viewed by society as an adult – a process often referred to as social redefinition.
International Year of the Family
Authors: Smith Suzanna
Published: March 2016

The International Year of the Family (IYF) draws global attention to the global importance of families in caring for their members, and for social and economic development and environmental resource conservation. IYF emphasizes the importance of solid scientific information to better understand family needs, and strong social policies to assist families as they confront obstacles and challenges across the life cycle. The overarching perspective that family‐supportive policies are vital to family well‐being and child development has guided IYF activities for the past two decades.
International Journal of Aging and Human Development
Authors: Smith Gregory C.
Published: March 2016

This entry describes the relevance of the
International Journal of Aging & Human Development
to the interdisciplinary field of family studies. Particular emphases are placed on indicators of the journal's prominence as well as the types of publications on aging family issues that are desired and published in the journal.
National Council on Family Relations (
NCFR
)
Authors: Cheesebrough Charles R.
Published: March 2016

The leading professional association for family researchers and educators since 1938, the National Council on Family Relations (NCFR) supports the advancement of family studies/family science through its scholarly journals, academic conference, and member resources. The NCFR is a multidisciplinary organization which comprises members from many additional fields – including sociology, anthropology, human development, social work, and family therapy – who contribute to understanding and strengthening families.
T
ender
Y
ears
D
octrine
Authors: Hartenstein Jaimee L.
Published: March 2016

The Tender Years Doctrine was a family law principle that began in 1881 and held that children should remain in their mother's care following a divorce as mothers are best equipped to meet the children's needs. The Tender Years Doctrine was determined to discriminate against, and violate, the rights of fathers and other caretakers. Currently, the Best Interests of the Child Standard is applied when determining custody arrangements for children. Additional research is needed to investigate the advantages and disadvantages of child inclusion in custody arrangement, shared parenting, and child support decisions.
Emerging Adulthood
(Journal)
Authors: Van Dulmen Manfred
Published: March 2016

Emerging Adulthood
is the official journal of the Society for the Study of Emerging Adulthood, published by SAGE Publications. It is an interdisciplinary and international journal that focuses on a broad range of developmental topics from the late teens through the twenties. The journal publishes quantitative and qualitative method papers as well as mixed methods studies.
Gender
Authors: Barglowski Karolina
Published: March 2016

Since the end of the twentieth century, gender perspectives have become dominant in social sciences and focus on a range of topics that investigate the social positions and life chances of men and women in various societies. Main fields for investigation are gendered division of labor markets, household division of labor/caregiving, male hegemony/patriarchy and hegemonic masculinity, sexuality, and a more recent global perspective on gender. Quite recently queer theories and intersectionality have become prominent paradigms within gender studies. Both approaches indicate the power of the binary classification of people into men and women and focus on the ways gender and sexuality shape identities and subjectivities, and their variation over time in a given culture. Intersectionality draws attention to the social processes through which gender is shaped by other social categories, such as race/ethnicity and class. Gender is also a significant category for policy with gender equality becoming a core value, and even an indicator, for the “development” of societies.
Gender Identity
Authors: Gianesini Giovanna
Published: March 2016

This entry presents a schematic overview of the development of gender identity as a multidimensional construct and a fundamental aspect of identity construction. Gender identity encompasses an individual's biological sex (genitalia), knowledge of membership in a gender category (core gender identity), felt compatibility with one gender group (gender compatibility), felt pressure for gender conformity (gender typing and gender roles), and sexual orientation (heterosexuality, homosexuality or bisexuality). The salient phases, characteristics, and determinants of gender identity development and the distinctions among the different constructs are presented. Gender identity represents a psychological achievement and covers a wide spectrum of gender‐fluid characteristics, whose determinants are scientifically known to be both biological (genetic and hormonal) and social cognitive (parenting, stereotyping, gender roles). Low gender compatibility and discontent with one's own gender are some of the possible factors associated with gender identity disorders and gender variance phenomena such as transsexualism.
Journal of Marriage and Family
Authors: Raley R. Kelly
Published: March 2016

The Journal of Marriage and Family
, which is affiliated with the National Council on Family Relations, has been the leading peer‐reviewed family research journal for over 70 years. It is an interdisciplinary journal that includes contributions from sociology, psychology, demography, economics, anthropology, history and human development and family sciences. This entry discusses its history and scope.
Hypergamy
Authors: Buckley Rhonda R.
Published: March 2016

Hypergamy is a term that refers to one partner improving his/her overall well‐being by marrying (or partnering with) someone with certain financial and status attributes that are perceived to be better than his/her own. This concept was historically associated with women “marrying up,” to improve their social status, but over time it has evolved to describe anyone (male or female) in an adult relationship partnering with (married or not married) someone who has financial and status attributes that are perceived to be better than his/her own.
Race and Family Life
Authors: Yang Ying
Published: March 2016

Since the 1970s, American society has experienced steady and noticeable changes in family structures. Across racial groups, some commonalities have been identified: declining marriage rate, increasing divorce rate and singlehood, delayed marriage, and increasing numbers of out‐of‐wedlock births. The unequal distribution of power, prestige, and wealth in racial groups is one leading explanation for such transitions. In addition, divergent cultural backgrounds and immigration experience, in conjunction with structural conditions surrounding racial groups in the United States, have all had their impacts on family and marriage issues.
Journal of Marital and Family Therapy
Authors: Nguyen Hoa N. , Piercy Fred P.
Published: March 2016

The
Journal of Marital and Family Therapy
(
JMFT
) is the flagship journal of the American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy (AAMFT) and the largest circulation family therapy journal in the world. As a peer‐reviewed journal,
JMFT
publishes articles on research, theory, clinical practice, and training in marital and family therapy. Recent initiatives include Virtual Issues, the
JMFT
Doctoral Student Apprenticeship Review Program, and the
JMFT
Best Article of the Year Award. The journal prides itself on providing a supportive, fair, and respectful review process and dedicated, high quality reviews from its reviewers. It continues to both reflect and shape the field through its commitment to publish the best in family therapy research, theory, practice, and training.
Heterogamy, Race
Authors: Obasi Sharon N. , Hill Toni
Published: March 2016

With the decision on
Loving v. Virginia
in 1967, the United States Supreme Court declared antimiscegenation laws unconstitutional. This ruling paved the way for adult American men and women to marry regardless of racial or ethnic origin. Despite the removal of legal restrictions, however, interracial and interethnic marriages continue to face social barriers. This entry focuses on the social implications of racially and/or ethnically heterogamous marriages.
Teen Motherhood
Authors: Dalton Elizabeth D. , Miller Laura E.
Published: March 2016

Teen motherhood involves giving birth and parenting during a woman's teenage years. The experience of teen motherhood changed throughout the twentieth century and in today's society fewer teens are becoming mothers, yet the health, social, and economic disparities for these young women abound. As the conceptualizations of motherhood and parenting shift, the need to better understand the lived experiences of young mothers becomes a salient societal and familial concern.
Mating Gradient
Authors: Chen Ruoxi
Published: March 2016

Mating gradient dictates that in mate selection, women should marry up and men should marry down. This socially and culturally prescribed assets differential between husbands and wives carries profound implications for members of different groups (e.g., gender, age, and socioeconomic status) and societies as a whole. High‐status women and low‐status men tend to be penalized in the marriage markets due to a lack of marriage candidates deemed suitable by the mating gradient.
Violence against Women Act
Authors: Stylianou Amanda M.
Published: March 2016

The Violence against Women Act of 1994 (VAWA; P.L. 103–322) was the first comprehensive response to the pervasive crimes of domestic violence, sexual assault, dating violence, and stalking. This entry focuses on providing a more extensive overview of the initial Violence against Women Act of 1994, and, in addition, the Violence against Women Act Reauthorizations of 2000, 2005, and 2013. The ways in which VAWA impacted the legal/criminal system's response to violence against women, society's awareness of violence against women, and services available to victims of crime are discussed.
Journal of Family Psychology
Authors: Fiese Barbara
Published: March 2016

The
Journal of Family Psychology
is an official publication of the American Psychological Association. The journal was established in 1987 with the founding of the Division of Family Psychology. It is committed to advancing a family systems perspective.
Stepgrandparenting
Authors: Chapman Ashton , Ganong Lawrence H. , Coleman Marilyn
Published: March 2016

Decades of divorce and remarriage, coupled with increases in longevity, have resulted in large numbers of multigenerational stepfamilies in many societies worldwide. Stepgrandparents are more common in families in the early twenty‐first century than ever before; thus, researchers, clinicians, and educators are eager to better understand stepgrandparents' roles and relationships. Stepgrandparents may enter families as a result of death, divorce, or remarriage. Stepgrandparents are often highly valued in families and can serve as important sources of support to younger generations. Stepgrandparent–stepgrandchild relationships are often complex in nature and their development is influenced by a variety of factors. Researchers are continuing to explore stepgrandparent transitions and experiences, including how they might differ from those of biological grandparents, as well as the ways in which stepgrandparent–stepgrandchild relationships are developed and maintained.
D
onaldson
A
doption
I
nstitute
Authors: Duncan Melanie L.
Published: March 2016

The Donaldson Adoption Institute, founded in 1996, is the foremost resource in the United States on adoption research and policy for those going through the adoption process. This entry discusses the history of the institute and the resources that it has available for adopters, adoptees, practitioners, and researchers.
Higher Education
Authors: Hughes Teresa Shehan
Published: March 2016

Law requires students throughout the world to receive an education from the time they are considered of enrollment age until they have successfully completed a program of study and have received a diploma or certificate, or until they reach the legal age for leaving compulsory schooling. Students who have met program expectations are no longer of mandatory educational age. Often, students who have completed compulsory education choose to further their education by attending programs at institutions offering specific programs in a particular field of study. This voluntary education is referred to as postsecondary education, tertiary education, or higher education.
U
nited
S
tates, Families in
Authors: Shehan Constance L.
Published: March 2016

The definition of “family” in the United States has been the subject of debate since early in the twentieth century. Long‐term demographic trends in age at first marriage, fertility, nonmarital cohabitation, divorce and remarriage, and life expectancy have changed the composition of – and the relationship between – families and households and challenged the traditional definition of family in the United States. Laws of each state regulate matters related to sexuality, marriage, and parent–child relationships (such as paternity and adoption). Throughout the twentieth century and into the twenty‐first, the Supreme Court of the United States has addressed family issues in a number of landmark cases regarding marriage, contraception, and abortion. These, along with key demographic changes in families, are discussed in this entry.
Sustained‐Release Synthetic Biomarkers for Monitoring Thrombosis and Inflammation Using Point‐of‐Care Compatible Readouts
Authors: Dudani Jaideep S. , Buss Colin G. , Akana Reid T. K. , Kwong Gabriel A. , Bhatia Sangeeta N.
Published: March 2016

Postoperative infection and thromboembolism represent significant sources of morbidity and mortality but cannot be easily tracked after hospital discharge. Therefore, a molecular test that could be performed at home would significantly impact disease management. The laboratory has previously developed intravenously delivered “synthetic biomarkers” that respond to dysregulated proteases to produce a urinary signal. These assays, however, have been limited to chronic diseases or acute diseases initiated at the time of diagnostic administration. Here, a subcutaneously administered sustained‐release system, using small poly(ethylene glycol) scaffolds (<10 nm) to promote diffusion into the bloodstream over a day, is formulated. The utility of a thrombin sensor to identify thrombosis and an Matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) sensor to measure inflammation is demonstrated. Finally, a companion paper ELISA (Enzyme‐linked immunosorbent sssay), using printed wax barriers, with nanomolar sensitivity for urinary reporters for point‐of‐care detection is developed. The approach for subcutaneous delivery of nanosensors combined with urinary paper analysis may enable facile monitoring of at‐risk patients.
Mitochondria‐Targeted Small‐Molecule Fluorophores for Dual Modal Cancer Phototherapy
Authors: Luo Shenglin , Tan Xu , Fang Shengtao , Wang Yu , Liu Tao , Wang Xin , Yuan Yi , Sun Huiqin , Qi Qingrong , Shi Chunmeng
Published: March 2016

Mitochondria are recognized as the ideal target for cancer treatment because they play a central role in oxidative metabolism and apoptosis. In this work, a mitochondria‐targeted near‐infrared (NIR) photosensitizer (PS) for synchronous cancer photodynamic therapy (PDT) and photothermal therapy (PTT) is synthesized. This multifunctional small‐molecule PS is developed from a variety of synthesized heptamethine cyanine dyes, which are modified with various N‐alkyl side chains on the lipophilic cationic heptamethine core. It is demonstrated to preferentially accumulate in cancer cells by organic‐anion transporting polypeptide mediated active transport and retain in mitochondria by its lipophilic cationic property. As mitochondria are susceptible to hyperthermia and excessive reactive oxygen species, this new PS integrating PTT and PDT treatment exhibits highly efficient phototherapy in multiple cancer cells and animal xenograft models. Furthermore, this targeted PS with NIR imaging property also enables tumors and their margins clearly visualized, providing the potential for precisely imaging‐guided phototherapy and treatment monitoring. This is the first report that a small‐molecule PS integrates both cancer PTT and PDT treatment by targeting mitochondria, significantly increasing the photosensitization. This work may also present a practicable strategy to develop small‐molecule‐based cancer theranostic agents for simultaneous cancer targeting, imaging, and therapy.
Self‐Assembled Multifunctional 3D Microdevices
Authors: Joung Daeha , Agarwal Kriti , Park Hyeong‐Ryeol , Liu Chao , Oh Sang‐Hyun , Cho Jeong‐Hyun
Published: March 2016

Multifunctional 3D microstructures have been extensively investigated for the development of new classes of electronic and optical devices. Here, functionalized, free‐standing, hollow, 3D, dielectric (150 nm thick aluminum oxide) microcontainers with metal patterning on their surfaces are realized by an evolved self‐assembly approach. To functionalize the 3D structure and use it as a device, metal patterns, arrays of split‐ring resonators (SRRs) acting as metamaterials, are defined on the surface of the 3D dielectric microcontainers. The SRRs on all six facets of a given microcube show a resonant behavior in terahertz regimes. Since desired metal and semiconductor patterns can be incorporated onto surfaces of 3D dielectric microstructures, this self‐assembly process can be harnessed in developing next‐generation microdevices utilizing the numerous advantages of 3D configurations.