bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The sources of Hospital infection of wounds with Clostridium welchii
Authors: Lowbury E. J. L. , Lilly H. A.
Published: May 2009

The air of operating theatres ventilated by powerful extractor fans was sampled during operations with special media for Cl. welchii and Staph. aureus, and also for total organisms. Counts made with the slit-sampler showed the presence of Cl. welchii in all samples in a range slightly higher than that of Staph. aureus (mostly between five and twenty-five colonies per 100 cu.ft.). There was no evidence of a build-up of either Cl. welchii or Staph. aureus during the course of operations, nor were there any consistent peaks of contamination during operations.

Settle plates exposed on numerous days in the operating theatres showed similar counts of Cl. welchii and Staph. aureus—the latter slightly more abundant in this series. Settle-plate counts from many parts of the hospital and from the road outside provided evidence that airborne Cl. welchii comes into the hospital from outside, while Staph. aureus is contributed to the air inside the hospital. This view was supported by study with the slit-sampler and with settle plates in a dressing station ventilated with filtered air, where Cl. welchii was rarely found and Staph. aureus momentarily abundant during dressings; staphylococci but not Cl. welchii were dispersed by the operators in a mock operation. The numbers of airborne Cl. welchii inside and outside the hospital were higher in dry than in rainy weather.

Of the patients in the Burns Unit 35% had at some stage Cl. welchii in their burns; contamination was commoner in the more extensive burns. In contrast to Staph. aureus, Cl. welchii was usually present in small numbers and for a short period.

Cl. welchii was found in the burns of twenty out of thirty (66%) patients whose rectal swab taken on admission showed the presence of Cl. welchii; a significantly smaller proportion of patients whose rectal swabs were free from Cl. welchii picked up the organism while in hospital (eight out of thirty-two, 25%; x2 = 9.4, P < 0.01). This observation supports the view that burns and possibly other wounds acquire Cl. welchii by self-infection at least as often as from the environment. While it is obvious that plenum ventilation of operating theatres with filtered air is desirable, it is uncertain to what extent this will reduce the small hazard of post-operative gas gangrene.

We wish to thank Miss G. Hogg and Mr L. Hurst, F.I.M.L.T. for technical assistance, the surgeons and nursing staff of the Birmingham Accident Hospital for their co-operation, Mr N. R. Gill for photography, and Professors A. A. Miles and C. L. Oakley for kindly sending us strains of Cl. welchii.
Tetanus antitoxin titration by haemagglutination at a low level of test
Authors: Fulthorpe A. J.
Published: May 2009

An investigation has been made of methods of estimating the antitoxin content of small samples of human sera by haemagglutination procedures.

The direct agglutination test appears to be satisfactory when dealing with groups of sera, but was unreliable for testing individual sera.

The discrepancies observed in the direct agglutination test were greatly reduced by adopting an agglutination inhibition test at the LA/100 level of test.

The difference in agglutinating capacity of both avid and non-avid sera perin vivounit of antitoxin did not appear to be related to avidity.
Rinderpest Immunity in Calves: I. The Acquisition and Persistence of Maternally Derived Antibody
Authors: Brown R. D.
Published: May 2009

Rinderpest neutralizing antibody was found to be transferred from the immune dam to the calf via the colostrum. No antibodies were detected in the sera of calves before suckling. The colostrum of immune cows contained rinderpest antibodies to a higher titre than that of the serum; 30–48 hr. after the ingestion of such colostra, newborn calves possessed high antibody levels in their sera, levels greater than those of their dams' sera but less than those of the colostrum ingested.

After the neonatal period the serum titres of calves declined linearly. The mean half-life of maternally derived rinderpest antibody in calves was 36.7 days and the extinction point 10.9 months.

Two young calves, from susceptible dams, which each ingested daily for 5 weeks 1 gallon of milk containing rinderpest antibodies failed to show evidence of their absorption from the intestinal tract.
An electron microscope study of molluscum contagiosum
Authors: Charles Arwyn
Published: May 2009

The development of the molluscum body and of the molluscum contagiosum virus is described. All cells of the molluscum lesion do not form molluscum bodies, but those which do probably show cytoplasmic abnormality prior to the appearance of virus particles within the cytoplasm. Such abnormal cells may reflect the activity of some infective precursor of the morphologically observable virus particle; they may alternatively represent cells which have successfully resisted invasion by the infective precursor.

Cells which have failed to resist invasion gradually become filled with virus particles and the nucleus becomes eccentric. The molluscum body thus formed is virtually a bag of virus particles, the wall of the bag being the peripheral cytoplasm, which seems to resist invasion and in which the nucleus remnant can readily be detected.

There appear to be two kinds of viruses. Development of the commoner virus is compared and contrasted with studies by Morgan and his colleagues of vaccinia and fowl pox. It is akin to fowl pox in its origin from foci of finely dispersed cytoplasm, here called cytoplasmic clouds; it is akin to vaccinia in that no evidence can be found of a denser, finely granular, pre-nucleoid material; it is like both in that the virus does not observably develop within the nucleus; and it is unlike both in that a nuclear change—the appearance of rather unspecific dense bodies—is seen. The structural changes seen in the virus particles during development are similar to those described by Morgan et al., but a slightly different interpretation is given of the behaviour of the transient ‘nucleoid’: they believe that it expands to form a central viroplasm, whereas in this paper it is believed to disperse through an already present central viroplasm.

The second type of virus is of uncertain origin. It may develop from, or at least it seems to be related to, a double-membrane structure seen in abnormal lesion cells.
Antigenic modulation ofBordetella pertussis
Authors: Lacey B. W.
Published: May 2009

The antigenic structure ofBordetella pertussisvaries continuously with environmental conditions of growth and, under suitable conditions, any of three forms (or modes) with markedly different antigenic surfaces may be developed. High temperatures and certain ions, such as sodium, potassium, halides, formate and nitrate, favour growth like that on Bordet and Gengou's medium at 35° C. Low temperatures and other ions, such as magnesium, sulphate and mono- and dicarboxylic acids with more than two carbon atoms, favour growth with a markedly different antigenic structure and character. These two extreme forms have been called X mode and C mode respectively. A third mode (called I mode) is induced within a narrow range of intermediate temperatures and ion ratios. Bacterial cells in C mode, unlike those in X mode, do not agglutinate red-blood cells, are not haemolytic or agglutinable by heavy metal salts, have no surface antigen related toBordetella parapertussisorB. bronchisepticaand are serotypically homogeneous.

The influence of ions is a function of their species and ratios and not of their absolute concentrations or total ionic strength. A number of ions has been arranged in a pattern. In this the influence of any salt is represented at the centre of a line joining its component ions, and a measure of the influence of any salt mixture is given by the position of its imaginary centre of inertia. (For calculating this,massis represented by the product of salt concentration and conductance ratio andradius of gyrationby distance.) The influences of ions and temperature appear not to interact since their combined influence is proportional to the sum of their separate influences.

The change from one mode to another (modulation) occurs without mutation or selection, is complete within 7–15 cell divisions and appears to stem from altered rates of synthesis of at least three kinds of antigen molecule. During the process of modulation, antigens not detectable by agglutination in any of the three equilibrium modes (X, I and C) may appear transiently at the surface.

Mutants may or may not modulate. Modulatable mutants may be distinguishable from the wild type in only one mode. Almost all convalescent antibodies are directed against X mode, but C-mode antibodies have been found in several adults with persistent cough and infection.

I wish particularly to thank Dr E. K. Andersen for her generous gifts of sera, Drs P. L. Kendrick, H. Proom, A. F. B. Standfast and A. J. H. Tomlinson for gifts of cultures and Mr M. Breach for his invaluable help in the preparation of media and sera. I am also indebted to the University of London Central Research Fund and the Governors of Westminster Hospital for grants towards the purchase of materials.
An apparent growth stimulant for Candida albicans released from tetracycline-treated bacterial flora
Authors: Campbell Patrick J. , Heseltine W. W.
Published: May 2009

Various explanations have been proposed to account for the increased incidence of moniliasis as a result of ‘broad spectrum’ antibiotic therapy, but it is generally believed that the suppression of the bacterial flora enables fungi to proliferate without competition. The pathogenicity of Candida albicans is, in any event, associated with the numbers of cells present and we have undertaken tests in vitro in an attempt to contribute more evidence on the mechanism of their proliferation in the presence of tetracycline-treated bacterial flora. The results are presented here as a preliminary communication.
Isolation of trachoma virus from patients in West Africa
Authors: Sowa J. , Collier L. H.
Published: May 2009

1. By inoculating conjunctival scrapings into the chick embryo yolk-sac trachoma virus was isolated from twenty-four of thirty patients, whereas inclusions were demonstrated in only eighteen of them.

2. Bacterial contamination of the chick embryos can be greatly reduced by treating the scrapings with streptomycin 20,000 μg./ml.

3. In twenty-four of twenty-five isolations, virus was first detected in embryos inoculated directly with conjunctival material.

4. The viruses usually kill the chick embryos, which may show haemorrhagic lesions, but it is not unusual for embryos to survive a large inoculum.

5. The viruses isolated all appear in the chick embryo yolk sac as elementary bodies similar to other members of the psittacosis-lymphogranuloma group. Of the twenty-four strains, two also induced the formation of compact aggregates of elementary bodies containing a carbohydrate, probably glycogen.

6. It is anticipated that this method of isolation will be useful in studying the virology and epidemiology of trachoma, in assessing the influence of treatment, and as a test of cure.

We are deeply indebted to Dr I. A. McGregor for all the facilities made available to us at the M.R.C. Laboratories in the Gambia. Our thanks are also due to the medical officers and sisters at the research ward for their kindness and unfailing co-operation in the care of those trachomatous patients who had to be hospitalized. The excellent technical assistance of Miss A. M. Fischer is gratefully acknowledged.
Identification of bacteria by specific antibody conjugated with fluorescein isothiocyanate
Authors: Chadwick P. , Slade J. H. R.
Published: May 2009

1. The reaction of slowly growing pathogenic bacteria with specific fluorescent antibody provided a means for their rapid identification.

2. Fluorescein isothiocyanate was used to label the globulins of antisera as it had a number of advantages over fluorescein isocyanate.

3. Several other isothiocyanates and a few sulphonyl chlorides tested were inferior to flurescein isothiocyanate as labelling agents. Some of the compounds caused protein precipitation, and others gave a less intense or less distinctive fluorescence than did dluorescein isothiocyanate.

4. The tests were performed by taking impressions of bacterial micro-colonies on glass cover-slips, drying and fixing the preparations, staining them with labelled antiserum, washing in saline and mounting in glycerol saline. The preparations were than examined microscopically under ultra-violet light.

5. Micro-colonies ofBr. suis, Past. tularensisandPast. pestis, when treated with homologous labelled antiserum, fluoresced brightly under ultra-violet light and the individual bacteria were sharply defined and stained at the periphery.

6. Micro-colonies of these and other bacteria stained with normal labelled serum, or heterologous labelled antiserum, showed either very dim fluorescence under ultra-violet light, with poor definition of in dividual bacteria, or no fluorescence at all.

7. The technique described permitted specific identification ofBr. suis, Past. pestisandPast. tularensiswithin 20 hr. of inoculation of agar plates with material suspected of containing one of these organisms.

This investigation arose out of a line of work suggested by Dr G. S. Wilson. We should like to thank Dr D. W. Henderson and Major L. H. Kent for providing facilities for the work, Mr E. O. Powell for continual encouragement and supervision of the microscopy, Dr D. W. Henderson, Dr M. C. Lancaster and Dr D. A. L. Davies for supplying antisera, and Mr T. W. Pearce for valuable technical assistance and the photographs.
The antigens of Trichomonas foetus isolated from cows and pigs
Authors: Robertson Muriel
Published: May 2009

The serological properties of the two strains of Trichomonas foetus (strain B and strain M) isolated from uterine infections in cows in Belfast and in northern England, respectively, and two strains isolated from the caecum of pigs were in vestigated with rabbit antisera to each of the four strains by direct agglutination and by precipitation of a saline extract of the dired organisms in tubes and in gel-diffusion plates.

There was considerable cross-reaction between the four strains. By the use of predominantly polysaccharide fractions from strains B and M and the predominantly protein fraction TF 4 from stratin B, the polysaccharide complex of lines could be distinguished from the protein lines.

The major protein antigens were common to all four strains, but the major polysaccharide antigens were only partially shared.

The cow strains B and M were readily distinguished from each other but had a variable though slight serological relationship. The two pig strains were very closely related to each other but were not identical. Cross-reaction revealed a relation between the cow and the pig strains. The cow strain B was more closely related than the M strain to the pig strains.

The serological distinctions do not justify the separation of the pig and the cow strains of T. foetus into two species.

I wish to thank Prof. W. T. J. Morgan, F.R.S. for preparations of diethylene glycol extracts and kind advice and Dr Winifred Watkins for ethanol fractionation of antigen and for enzyme preparations. I am also grateful to Dr A. E. Pierce of the Institute of Animal Physiology at Babraham for the isolation of clones from the S2 strain.
A serological relationship between mumps and sendai viruses
Authors: Gardner P. S.
Published: May 2009

Sixty-six paired sera from patients suffering from mumps were examined with Sendai and mumps virus particle antigen: 50% showed a rise of complementfixing antibodies to mumps virus particle antigen only and the rest to both antigens.

This relationship was further substantiated by the occurrence of both antibodies in a proportion of the sera of 362 blood transfusion donors and 978 sera from antenatal patients.

The occurrence of both antibodies in patients' sera is discussed and the conclusion is reached that one of the components of the mumps antigen complex is indistinguishable from the essential components of the Sendai virus.

I am indebted to the Maternity Department of the Edgware General Hospital for supplying the antenatal sera, and to Dr Preston of the Regional Transfusion Centre, Oxford, for the blood donor sera.
Control of plague vectors on diurnal rodents in the Sierra Nevada of California by use of insecticide bait-boxes
Authors: Barnes Allan M. , Kartman Leo
Published: May 2009

Trials were conducted in the Sierra Nevada Mountains of California to test the effectiveness of 10% DDT dust in insecticide bait-box stations against the fleas of native diurnal rodents. The principle host species involved were the chipmunks Eutamias amoenus and E. speciosus, and the golden-mantled ground squirrel, Citellus lateralis. The important flea species were Monopsyllus eumolpi and M. ciliatus on chipmunks, and Diamanus montanus and Oropsylla idahoensis on ground squirrels. When baited daily for 12 days and furnished with 50 g. of 10% DDT dust, the bait-box stations reduced fleas strikingly within 24 hr., but very little residual control was obtained. A second application in which boxes were baited only twice weekly but for 28 days, also resulted in rapid knockdown and a residual control still effective 42 days after removal of the bait-boxes. The effect of the DDT was apparent at a distance of 400 ft. from the nearest bait-box due to the relatively extensive home ranges of the hosts. Although, in these trials, bait-box stations were spaced 100 ft. apart, 200 ft. spacing probably would be as effective with these hosts.
A standard culture medium for general bacteriology
Authors: Marshall J. H. , Kelsey J. C.
Published: May 2009

An easily prepared and readily reproducible culture medium for general use is described. A wide range of standard media can be prepared from it by simple modifications.

We should like to thank Mr P. D. Laverack and Mr D. Garwes for their exellent technical assistance, and Marmite Ltd. for much useful information about their product.
The antigenic activity of some poliomyelitis vaccines used in the United Kingdom in 1958
Authors: Kendall E. J. C. , Vollum R. L. , Beswick T. S. L. , Miller Ann , Tobin J. O'H.
Published: May 2009

The potency in man of eight different commercial vaccines and an experimental vaccine, as judged by the antibody response after the primary course of two injections and after a booster dose 9–12 months later, was compared. All the vaccines produced good responses to Types 2 and 3 but some were less satisfactory for Type 1. The relation of potency to protection in man is discussed and the use of one of the vaccines as a minimum standard for this country is suggested.
Ventilation of operating-theatres.
Authors: Blowers Robert , Crew Beryl
Published: May 2009

1. Pathogenic bacteria are removed from air by relatively simple filters having an efficiency of 99·9% for 5-μ particles.

2. To prevent ingress of contaminated air from other parts of the hospital an operating-room should be pressurized by a flow of filtered air. An input flow of 1200 cu. ft. (34 cu. m.) per min. will ensure this if mechanical exhaust fans are replaced by pressure-relief valves.

3. Other rooms of the suite should be ventilated in this way with flow rates depending on door area, and with pressure gradients adjusted by relief-valve loadings to cause air flow from dirtier to cleaner zones.

4. All openings between the rooms of an operating-suite should be fitted with doors to prevent airborne cross-contamination and high-level loss of ventilating air.

5. The relative merits of turbulent and downward-displacement ventilation have been studied and are discussed. The choice between them depends on the sites from which pathogenic bacteria are mainly disseminated during operations; these are not yet fully understood but the available evidence favours the displacement system. Methods for producing turbulent and displacement ventilation are described.

6. Discomfort from overheating of operating-rooms is largely due to faulty design and siting of sterilizing equipment. In Britain, if these faults are avoided, ventilation without cooling equipment can give comfortable conditions except on very rare occasions.
Salmonella saint-paul infection in England and Wales in 1959
Authors: Galbraith N. S. , Archer J. F. , Tee G. H.
Published: May 2009

An investigation of Salm. saint-paul infection in England and Wales in 1959 is described. In one-third of the human incidents the infection was attributed to home-produced meat coming from two infected abattoirs.

Animal infection was demonstrated and was probably due to contaminated imported animal feedingstuffs.

The clinical histories of 55 of the 89 cases reported during the year were studied. There was one death. In ten patients the illness commenced with fever and malaise and diarrhoea was absent or did not occur until 24–48 hr. later. One patient developed meningitis and another an abdominal abscess.
The incidence of poliomyelitis virus in normal children aged 0–5 years A report on a study by the Public Health Laboratory Service and Local Health Authorities
Authors: Spicer C. C.
Published: May 2009

A survey has been made of a sample of children aged 0–5 years in a number of areas in England and Wales for the presence of symptomless excreters of poliomyeitis virus.

The investigation covered a 2-year period from the spring of 1957 to the summer of 1959.

Altogether 28, 797 specimens were examined of which 140 were positive for Type 1 virus, 24 for Type 2, and 44 for Type 3, the corresponding rates being 4·85, 0·83, and 1·53 per 1000 specimens respectively.

It is estimated that for every notified case of poliomyelitis there were about 140 symptoinless excreters of Type 1 virus. No accurate estimates of this ratio were possible for the other two types, but it was certainly much higher.

The incidence of positive specimens was 15 per 1000 in the first and 2·6 per 1000 in the second year of the survey, but there were considerable local variations.

Type 2 virus was not isolated during the second year. Most specimens were examined for the presence of salmonellae and shigellae which both had a frequency of about 2 per 1000. The salmonellae were mainly S. typhimurium, and all the shigellae were Sh. sonnei.

Some information was obtained on the prevalence of other viruses. Coxsackie B virus was the most commonly isolated and in the second year was commoner than poliomyelitis virus. Its seasonal incidence was roughly the same as that of polio myelitis virus.

Adenoviruses were isolated in about 6 per 1000 specimens and were most common in the winter. ECHO viruses were about half as common as adenoviruses and the maximum incidence was in the autumn.

The limitations of the sampling method used and the problems of analysis of the results are discussed.
The detection of the typhoid carrier state
Authors:   Report of the P.H.L.S. Working Party on the Bacteriological Examination of Waterworks Employees
Published: May 2009

1. The existing procedures recommended for the detection of carriers of enteric pathogens are reviewed.

2. The techniques employed in this work at present were re-examined.

3. An investigation of the sera of 67 chronic typhoid carriers and 343 normal persons, suggested that titrations for typhoid Vi, O and H agglutinins are useful screening tests for the detection of typhoid carriers. The examination may be usefully extended to the titration of H agglutinins against paratyphoid B and paratyphoid A, the former as a possible indicator of the carriage ofSalm.paratyphid B, the latter as an indicator of previous inoculation with T.A.B. vaccine.

4. Inoculation did not appear to increase the proportion of positive reactions with TVi bacterial suspension, which in uninfected persons was about 1%. In contrast, the proportion of positive reactors with TO suspension rose from 8·8% in uninoculated to 25·3% in inoculated persons, at a serum dilution of 50; and with TH suspension the positive figure rose from 2·7% in uninoculated to 71·4% in inoculated persons at a serum dilution of 25. Inoculation thus impairs the value of TO agglutination and destroys that of TH agglutination as indicators of infection.

5. The investigation of 29 chronic carriers showed that a single bacteriological examination of excreta for the presence ofSalm. typhiis not a reliable method of carrier detection. Increasing the number of specimens to three greatly raises the probability of detection.

6. The findings are discussed and a revised form of paragraph 5 of the Ministry of Health Memorandum on the safeguards recommended for adoption by water undertakings is suggested.

The Working Party is grateful to a number of pathologists for the supply of sera from chronic carriers and we should also like to thank Mr F. J. Flyn of the Central Enteric Reference Laboratory for his great technical help.
The soluble antigens of varicella-zoster virus produced in tissue culture
Authors: Caunt Anne E. , Rondle C. J. M. , Downie A. W.
Published: May 2009

It has been found that antigens suitable for routine tests for complement-fixing or precipitating antibodies in the sera of suspected cases of chickenpox or zoster can be readily prepared from tissue cultures of human amnion infected with zostervaricella virus.

Useful antigens were obtained when infected cells were incubated at 36°–38° C. in bovine amniotic fluid diluted with an equal volume of Hanks' solution.

Virus strains gave a good yield of antigen after two or more passages in tissue culture but one strain in its fiftieth passage did not.

Harvested culture fluids require 5- to 20-fold concentration for complement-fixation tests and 100- to 200-fold for precipitation tests; concentration of culture fluids was readily effected by drying from the frozen state after removal of salts by dialysis. Tissue culture antigens gave results by complement-fixation tests which were comparable to those given by a good vesicle fluid.

Some evidence was obtained that the antigens responsible for precipitation were not identical with those fixing complement with convalescent sera.
A modified metabolic inhibition test for the titration of poliovirus neutralizing antibodies
Authors: Mussett Marjorie V. , Dimic Mileva , Ege Nermin , Tobin J. O'H.
Published: May 2009

A modification of the metabolic inhibition test for titrating poliomyelitis antibody is described. The method depends on the substitution of galactose for glucose in the initial medium to eliminate colour change during the period of virus activity. Neutralization is detected by the addition of glucose at the end of the period, when the usual colour changes associated with this type of test occur. A statistical analysis of the results obtained is given.

This method can also be used for titrating antibodies to other enteric viruses.

Thanks are due to Dr Hélène Mair, Dr D. R. Gamble and Dr A. D. Macrae for strains of enteroviruses, and to Miss Patricia Jerram, for valuable technical assistance in the early days of this work.
The virulence of strains of poliovirus for cynomolgus monkeys after subcutaneous injection
Authors: Coid C. R. , Beswick T. S. L. , Tobin J. O'H.
Published: May 2009

The virulence of strains of the three types of poliovirus have been examined by the subcutaneous injection of monkeys. The strains used were the Sabin attenuated Types 1, 2 and 3, Cox attenuated Types 1, 2 and 3, the Brunenders Type 1 partially attenuated strain, MEF-1, Type 2 and Saukett, Type 3.

The results obtained indicated that the subcutaneous route of injection offers a promising method for comparing and characterizing strains of poliovirus.
Q fever in South Australia: an outbreak in a meat-works
Authors: Beech Margaret D. , Duxbury A. E. , Warner Peter
Published: May 2009

This paper consists of an epidemiological study of 52 cases of Q fever occurring in metropolitan Adelaide in 1957 and also a description of the results of a survey of 516 sera obtained from abattoir workers.

The only case occurring outside the abattoirs was a dairy farmer who probably became infected while visiting the abattoirs. If this were so the incubation period (35 days) of his disease would have been exceptionally long.

The general features of the outbreak, which lasted several months, differed from those on the North American continent in that the latter occurred explosively within a few days with very high attack rates. The situation in the Adelaide abattoirs is similar to that in Brisbane, where the disease appears to be endemic. However, unlike in Adelaide, cases are commonly recognized outside the abattoirs in Brisbane.

In the abattoirs the disease affected mainly inspectors, those working on killing beef, and those working on offal. Mutton workers were not so severely affected. However, all these groups had similar incidences of low titre antibodies suggesting that in the past Q fever spread equally in all killing departments. In departments not directly associated with slaughtering the incidence both of cases in 1957 and low titre antibodies was relatively small.

It was suggested that the epidemiological features of Q fever in Adelaide could be explained by the irregular appearance of animals from infected herds situated perhaps in Queensland—a known endemic area. Perhaps the appearance of such animals in the Adelaide abattoirs might be governed by meteorological conditions such that they were prevented from going to the ordinarily most convenient slaughterhouse.
Observations on penicillin prophylaxis of experimental inhalation anthrax in the monkey
Authors: Gochenour W. S. , Gleiser C. A. , Tigertt W. D.
Published: May 2009

The result of penicillin prophylaxis of experimental inhalation anthrax in the Rhesus monkey has been shown to be dependent upon the time of its initiation. If begun too early, it is unsuccessful. It may not be too long delayed, or the infection will have passed the point of no return. A brief, critical time period exists, during which successful prophylaxis may be initiated. This favourable outcome is attributed to the elaboration in vivo of sufficient antigen or antigens to stimulate an adequate immune response, prior to the initiation of antibiosis.
Concentration and partial purification of poliomyelitis viruses
Authors: Fantes K. H.
Published: May 2009

1. Conditions are described under which the three types of live or formalin-inactivated poliomyelitis viruses can be concentrated 10–100 times in good yield, with elimination of approximately 90% of the extraneous protein normally present in poliovaccines.

2. It was shown that 0·1–0·2 mg./ml. AlPO4almost quantitatively adsorbed the antigens, provided the adsorptions were carried out at a pH round about 5. Re-elution of the antigens occurred readily at pH 7–pH 8.

3. No noticeable conversion of the ‘D-antigen’ to the ‘C-antigen’ occurred during the concentration.
A laboratory determination of the destruction of α-amylase and salmonellae in whole egg by heat pasteurization
Authors: Shrimpton D. H. , Monsey J. B. , Hobbs Betty C. , Smith Muriel E.
Published: May 2009

The conditions of heating necessary to destroy salmonellae in liquid whole egg have been compared with those necessary to destroy the activity of the α-amylase of whole egg. All conditions of pasteurizing from the mildest at 61·1° C. (142° F.) for 1 min. to the most severe at 65·5° C. (150° F.) for 5 min. eliminated Salm. typhimurium. The heat-resistant strain of Salm. senftenberg N.C.T.C. 9959 (775 W) was not recovered after heating at 64·4° C. (148° F.) for 2½ min. and at the lower temperatures when the heating period was 3 min. or more. The activity of α-amylase was also destroyed by heating at 64·4° C. (148° F.) for 2½ min. but not at lower temperatures.

Because the baking properties of egg are not impaired by heating at 64·4° C. (148° F.) for 2½ min. it is proposed that the inactivation of the α-amylase of whole egg can be used as a test for controlling the pasteurization process, and a routine test has been developed which can be completed within 1 hr.
Effect of Naseptin cream prophylaxis on staphylococcal infection in adult surgical wards and infant nurseries
Authors: Stokes E. Joan , Milne Shelagh E.
Published: May 2009

A controlled trial of Naseptin cream, as an anti-staphylococcaiprophylactic, made in two adult wards, showed the cream to be effective in reducing nasal carriage, including antibiotic resistant strains. There was no marked effect on wound infection.

A controlled trial of Naseptin cream and Sterzac powder prophylactically in maternity nurseries was found to be effective in reducing nasal carriage and infection.

These findings are discussed, and recommendations on the use of Naseptin cream as a prophylactic are made.
An outbreak of aseptic meningitis associated with Coxsackie B5 and A9 viruses in Northern Japan, 1961. Virological and serological studies
Authors: Hinuma Yorio , Murai Yoshimichi , Fukuda Minoru , Numazaki Yoshio , Ishida Nakao , Nakao Tooru
Published: May 2009

Virological and serological studies on an outbreak of aseptic meningitis in association with Coxsackie B5 virus, and Coxsackie A9 virus to a lesser extent, are reported. Coxsackie B5 virus was isolated from spinal fluids of 60 patients and Coxsackie A 9 virus from one spinal fluid. Fifty Coxsackie B 5 and 13 Coxsackie A 9 viruses were recovered from patients' faeces. The evidence that the epidemic was caused by these viruses was confirmed by determination of neutralizing antibody in paired sera.

The plaque variants of Coxsackie B5 virus isolated from the faecal specimens and the poor antibody response in Coxsackie A 9 infection were reported as points of virological and serological interest.
The egg yolk reaction ofStaphylococcus aureusisolated from burns
Authors: Lowbury E. J. L. , Collins B. J.
Published: May 2009

Staph. aureusfrom burns of in-patients were tested for egg yolk reaction during three periods; in 1958 and in 1960 approximately 80 % of the strains gave a negative reaction (EY-), but in 1962 only 36 % of the strains were egg yolk negative.

Staphylococci of phage group III were more commonly EY- than those of other groups isolated from burns. Within each of groups I and III, however, there were patterns predominantly EY- and others predominantly egg yolk positive (EY+); in group I the majority of strains isolated in 1960 were of phage type 52 and EY-, while those isolated in 1962 were predominantly of phage type 80 or related patterns which were always EY+.

Most of the staphylococci in burns were resistant to penicillin, tetracycline and erythromycin; within groups I and III, the staphylococci which were EY- were also more commonly resistant than EY+ strains to these three antibiotics.

Most of the staphylococci from burns were mercuric chloride resistant (presumptive epidemic strains); of the mercuric chloride sensitive staphylococci, the proportion of EY+ strains was greater than that of EY- strains.
A rapid immunofluorescence technique for detecting salmonellae in raw meat
Authors: Georgala D. L. , Boothroyd Margery
Published: May 2009

A rapid 18 hr. technique has been developed for detecting salmonella contaminated carcass and boneless meats. It is based on 43° C. selenite enrichment of samples, followed by immunofluorescent detection of salmonella cells in the enrichment. In tests with 286 meat samples the rapid and conventional techniques agreed in the detection of 93 positive and 149 negative samples. The two tests failed to agree for the remaining 44 samples. The rapid technique thus lacks precision, but could be used as a rapid ‘presumptive’ salmonella test, so that contaminated material could be prevented from reaching the processing lines of food factories.

We thank Dr Betty Hobbs of the Food Hygiene Laboratory for kindly sup plying the meat samples used in this investigation, Dr Patricia Bradstreet of the Standards Laboratory for Serological Reagents for the salmonella diagnostic antisera and Mr R. Kenworthy for performing the goat injections.
Experiments on the spread of colds: 1. Laboratory studies on the dispersal of nasal secretion
Authors: Buckland F. E. , Tyrrell D. A. J.
Published: May 2009

An attempt has been made to study quantitatively the mechanisms by which infectious materials may enter the body by the upper respiratory tract and be shed during a cold.

The rapid clearance of tracers, spores of B. mycoides and bacteriophage type T3, has been measured after adding them in small drops to the nose, conjunctiva and mouth.

Tracers placed in the nose pass rapidly down the throat, but are found in only small amounts in the saliva. They are dispersed by blowing the nose and, more efficiently, by sneezing. Nearly all are shed as coarse droplets. About 0·1% are shed in droplets small enough to remain airborne and just over half of these are in the size range likely to be trapped in the upper respiratory tract. The droplets are apparently formed mainly in the nose. The larger amounts of droplets formed in the mouth carried relatively few infectious particles.

Testing by experiments in a model system it was concluded that most of the coarse droplets produced by a sneeze or by an experimental spray fall rapidly to the floor. A few of the larger droplets were trapped on a moistened microscope slide intended to mimic the possible trapping of droplets on the conjunctive. The spores in these represented only a small proportion of those found in droplets which remained airborne and were collected by an air sampler.

We wish to thank Miss P. D. Ball for technical assistance and Dr J. E. Lovelock for helpful discussion in the early stages of this work. We are also grateful to Sir Victor Negus and Dr B. Wyke for discussing the physiology of the nose with us, and to Mr K. R. May for his advice on methods of air sampling. The air samplers were loaned by the Microbiological Research Establishment, Porton, and the photographs taken by the Chemical Defence Experimental Establishment, Porton.
The incidence of the serological groups ofCandida albicansin southern England
Authors: Stallybrass F. C.
Published: May 2009

Cultures ofC. albicanshave been classified into two groups by means of a double diffusion precipitin test employing rabbit antisera and polysaccharide extracts. In the present series it has been found that 75% of cultures belong to group A and 25% to group B, and it is suggested that the higher incidence of group B strains occurring in the sputum of hospital in-patients with chest disease may be the result of reinfection by attenuated forms which persist in the environment.

My thanks are due to many colleagues who provided me with the strains ofC. albicans, and to Prof. H. Hare for helpful criticism in the preparation of this paper.
Tests on self-disinfecting surfaces
Authors: Kingston D. , Noble W. C.
Published: May 2009

A variety of surfaces was tested for self-disinfecting action againstStaph. aureusandEsch. coliat a humidity of 42%. Surfaces which had been treated with disinfectants sometimes reduced the survival when the organisms were applied subsequently in drops of broth, but the reduction was very small unless the surface was able to absorb appreciable amounts of disinfectant and the drop of inoculum spread. When the inoculum was applied dried in cotton dust, only surfaces which evolved formaldehyde showed any activity against the bacteria. These surfaces also reduced the survival of bacteria in liquid inocula.

We would like to record our thanks to Dr O. M. Lidwell for much helpful advice.
The influence of unheated guinea-pig serum on the neutralization of Semliki Forest virus by various antisera
Authors: Osterrieth P. M.
Published: May 2009

The neutralization of a constant dose of Semliki Forest virus by various doses of different antisera was studied. The presence of complement (1/200, v/v) in the neutralization mixture inhibited the neutralization by high concentration of antiserum and somewhat potentiated neutralization by low serum concentration. Because the experiments were biased towards a measure of irreversible neutralization, the inhibition observed in the presence of complement appeared to be an inhibition of irreversible neutralization. This inhibition was interpreted as a dissociation of a complement binding virus–antibody complex. The antibodies involved appeared to be virus-specific.
Virological and epidemiological studies on an outbreak of aseptic meningitis caused by echovirus 4 in northern Japan in 1964
Authors: Hinuma Yorio , Uruno Katsumi , Morita Morihiro , Ishida Nakao , Nakao Tooru
Published: May 2009

During the summer and autumn of 1964, echovirus 4 was found widely distributed in northern Japan; this virus was associated with localized outbreaks of iaseptic meningitis in many regions. The evidence that the echovirus was aetio-logically related to aseptic meningitis was shown by the virus isolation from cerebrospinal fluids and faeces and the serodiagnosis of paired sera in many patients: Age-specific sero-immunity and morbidity rate suggested that echovirus 4 had spread extensively in about 1954. The strains of echovirus 4 isolated in the 1964; epidemic were similar to the prototype strain, Pesascek, in biological characteristics.
A study of polio vaccination in infancy: excretion following challenge with live virus by children given killed or living poliovaccine
Authors: Henry J. L. , Jaikaran E. S. , Davies Joan R. , Tomlinson A. J. H. , Mason P. J. , Barnes Joan M. , Beale A. J.
Published: May 2009

Quadruple vaccine containing 75 D antigen units of killed type 1 poliovirus was given to children at ages 2, 3 and 4 months followed by a booster dose at 15 months.

The serological response to the primary course was difficult to assess owing to maternal antibody. Antibody titres to the type 1 component after the booster dose were very satisfactory and about 10 times higher than those observed in a similar group of children given attenuated vaccine. Response to the poliovirus types 2 and 3 in the quadruple vaccine was less satisfactory.

Graded doses of attenuated poliovirus type 1 were fed to the children 2 months after the primary course and 1 month after the booster dose. Children who had received no poliovaccine and children immunized with attenuated vaccine were included for comparison.

Immunization with killed vaccine did not greatly affect the size of the minimal infecting dose of live virus but reduced both the duration of the subsequent infection and the titre of virus in the faeces.

The epidemiological significance of these findings is discussed.
The discovery of pneumococcal type transformation: an appreciation
Authors: Hayes W.
Published: May 2009

The remarkable paper by Fred. Griffith on the significance of pneumococcal types, reproduced in the preceding pages of this Journal, in which it was first published 38 years ago (Griffith, 1928), describes a series of careful and painstaking experiments which show beyond doubt that the ability to produce a polysaccharide capsule can regularly be restored to ‘rough’ (R) strains of pneumococci which have lost it, by the subcutaneous inoculation of mice with a mixture of a small number of the living R bacteria and an excess of heat-killed, capsulated (S) virulent bacteria. The inoculated mice frequently died from septicaemia and virulent, capsulated S organisms could be isolated from the blood. On the other hand, in control experiments, the injection of suspensions of heat-killed S bacteria alone never yielded living organisms, while recovery of virulent S organisms by (mutational) reversion, following inoculation of living R bacteria alone, was a rare event. Griffith called this phenomenon ‘transformation’ and, at least in the field of bacterial genetics, this name is still specifically used to describe it.
Staphylococcal infection in thoracic surgery: experience in a subdivided ward
Authors: Lidwell O. M. , Polakoff Sheila , Jevons M. Patricia , Parker M. T. , Shooter R. A. , French Valentine I. , Dunkerley D. R.
Published: May 2009

We studied the incidence of staphylococcal infection in a thoracic surgery ward which consisted of a number of separate rooms, and inquired whether the subdivision of the ward was responsible for the unusually low sepsis-rate.

The airborne dissemination of Staphylococcus aureus from one room to another appeared to be little less than that in an open ward; but the total number of Staph. aureus in the air was very low.

Most of the patients received prophylactic antibiotics. The nasal carrier-rate of Staph. aureus by patients fell greatly during their stay in the ward. There was a progressive disappearance of sensitive organisms and little acquisition of multiple-resistant organisms.

When there are urgent clinical grounds for the lavish use of antibiotics, the dangers appear to be reduced by effective segregation of the patients from each other.
The survival ofToxoplasmain infected mosquitoes
Authors: Chapman Jennifer M. , Ormerod W. E.
Published: May 2009

1. An incomplete field study in Lincolnshire, England, suggested that toxoplasmosis might be transmitted from pig to man by mosquitoes. Although the results were inconclusive they suggested the experimental work recorded in this paper.

2. Trophozoites of the Beverley strain were obtained in increased yield from the peritoneal fluid ofMastomystreated with hydrocortisone. Cysts were obtained in increased yield by passage of the brain ofSigmodoninto laboratory mice.

3. Four species of mosquitoes were fed through a membrane or on sucrose solution on media containing either cysts or trophozoites ofToxoplasma gondii. In some experiments blood was added to ensure passage of the feed to the mosquito stomach, in others it was excluded so that at least part would pass to the crop.

4. A spurious ‘cyst’ resembling but distinguishable fromToxoplasmawas noted in the homogenate of mouse brain.

5. In no instance did mosquitoes retain infectivity as demonstrated by injection into mice, beyond the third day, but since experiments were not carried on beyond the fourteenth day the existence of an occult form cannot be excluded.
Enumeration of Clostridium welchii in the faeces of varying sections of the human population
Authors: Sutton Ross G. A.
Published: May 2009

A method of doing viable counts of Cl. welchii has been described that gives reproducible results from faeces. By this method counts were carried out on the faeces of persons in the general population, and those associated with an outbreak of food poisoning due to Cl. welchii. There was a significant increase in viable count in those with symptoms of food poisoning. Owing to many variables, single viable counts do not appear to be useful in the laboratory diagnosis of food poisoning, but the detection of heat-resistant spores, by direct culture after boiling, may be of some use. More work must be carried out to substantiate this point.
A whey complement fixation test. Its relation to whey agglutination and isolation of Brucella abortus from the milk of individual cows
Authors: Farrell I. D. , Robertson L.
Published: May 2009

Two hundred and ninety-three milk ring test-positive individual milk samples were examined by whey complement fixation and agglutination tests and the results were compared with the isolation of B. abortus by cultures made from the milk.

There was a closer correlation between whey CF tests and isolation of the organism than between whey AG tests and isolation. Brucella organisms were not isolated from 116 MRT-positive milk samples when the whey CF titre was < 1/10; whereas 9/104 (9%) isolations were made from milk when the whey AG titre was < 1/20.

Because of its closer correlation with culture results it is suggested that the whey CF test would be valuable in an eradication programme for the detection of infected udders.

The limitations of the milk ring test for the examination of individual milk samples are emphasized and it should be used only as a preliminary screening test. In the individual milk samples examined, 32% of the MRT-positives showed no evidence of infection by either the whey AG, whey CF, or culture tests.