bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Saving, Wealth, and Population
Authors: Lee Ronald D. , Mason Andrew , Miller Tim
Published: October 2003

This chapter examines the impact of demographic change on saving rates, wealth, and standards of living in East Asia. It is shown that the demand for material wealth relative to income is much higher if met through savings rather than transfers, given a modern democratic regime rather than a traditional one. In countries undergoing rapid demographic transitions, savings rates can reach historically high levels for several decades, leading to a rapid increase in capital and income.
Cumulative Causality, Economic Growth, and the Demographic Transition
Authors: Bloom David , Canning David
Published: October 2003

This chapter explores the impact of demographic change on economic growth. It is argued that the interaction of economic growth with population dynamics can create a poverty trap. There may be two clubs: one with low income and high population growth rates, and the other with high income and low population growth rates. Transition between these clubs may be rare, but when it occurs, it does so very quickly, due to the positive feedbacks between growth and demographic change.
Demographic Transition and Poverty: Effects Via Economic Growth, Distribution, and Conversion
Authors: Eastwood Robert , Lipton Michael
Published: October 2003

This chapter examines the results of Eastwood and Lipton (1999) which indicate that high fertility change has large negative growth and distribution effects on poverty. It is argued that the ‘conversion effect’ of high fertility on poor and near poor people’s capacity to turn a given consumption and income into capabilities and well-being is also negative and large. The strength of interactions between fertility and poverty are shown in the context of various ‘vicious circles’ that have emerged as centrepieces of the new development economics.
Inequality and the Family in Latin America
Authors: Hausmann Ricardo , Székely Miguel
Published: October 2003

This chapter examines the causes of the large differences in fertility between countries, and between poor and rich households in Latin America. It is shown that the opportunity cost for women to enter the labour market plays a critical role. A high return to female market work generates high participation, lower demand for children, and higher educational attainment by those children. This process depends not only on the educational attainment of the mother, but also on the potential returns to female education in the labour market.
Rural Population Growth, Agricultural Change, and Natural Resource Management in Developing Countries: A Review of Hypotheses and Some Evidence from Honduras
Authors: Pender John
Published: October 2003

This chapter analyses key hypotheses on the impacts of rural population growth on agriculture, natural resource management, and related impacts on poverty in development countries. It is argued that the impacts of population growth likely to be negative when there is no collective response than when population growth induces infrastructure development, collective action, institutional or organisational development. The results of recent studies by the International Food Policy Research Institute in Honduras are discussed.
Why Micro Matters
Authors: Behrman Jere R.
Published: October 2003

This chapter argues that a micro perspective is essential for many questions regarding population change and economic development. It presents some fundamentals for thinking about population change and development at the micro level, and for empirically assessing population change and development. It then provides some fundamentals for thinking about policy development followed by illustrations of these fundamentals, and summarises selected empirical micro studies that build on such frameworks.
New Findings in Economics and Demography: Implications for Policies to Reduce Poverty
Authors: Birdsall Nancy
Published: October 2003

This chapter provides a synthesis of the papers included in this volume. These present new arguments and evidence that high fertility at the economy-wide level makes poverty reduction more difficult and less likely. Concern about population growth in developing countries can be directly linked to concern about the welfare of parents, children, and families. The papers reinforce the need for public support of policies and programs that improve the environment in which the poor make constrained decisions on childbearing.
Regionalization and Democratic Consolidation
Authors: Neumann Iver B.
Published: October 2003

Presents the relationship between democracy and regionalization in Eastern Europe and discusses the following issues. Firstly, how regionalization in Eastern Europe is connected to the construction of a democratic regional community of states, namely, the European Union; and how regionalization may challenge the present state‐centric political order in Europe. Secondly, to what degree can the global democratic promise—seen in Western European regionalization—also be seen in Eastern European regionalization. The chapter emphasizes that regionalization in Eastern Europe has, so far, been a by‐product of the membership applications to the European Union.
The Internationalization of Ethnic Strife
Authors: MacFarlane S. Neil
Published: October 2003

Describes a series of active sub‐state conflicts involving ethnicity and interethnic struggles for power and resources in southeastern and Eastern Europe. These are seen as having significant implications for European security and evoking an array of international responses. These responses raised important questions about the boundary between civil and international politics, the changing meaning of sovereignty in international politics, and the capacity of external actors to regulate internal disputes. The discussion about the internationalization of ethnic strife begins with an investigation of the nature of ethnicity and ethnic conflict and of the parameters of internationalization and its relationship to democratization. The chapter then proceeds on an analysis of the record of efforts by international actors to control this post‐Cold War problem in European security. The chapter concludes by considering the effectiveness of these responses and their implications for the European system. It highlights the difficulties of dealing with ethnic disputes through hegemonic and multilateral efforts and considers the factors affecting the transition from management to political settlement.
Attitudes Towards the West, Democracy, and the Market
Authors: Whitefield Stephen , Evans Geoffrey
Published: October 2003

Addresses issues concerning attitudes towards the West, democracy, and the market. The first one is the extent of Western involvement and influence in the transformation as against internal and domestic forces. The second is the extent to which elite views of the West—and their commitment to transition—have persisted in the face of the transition experience itself, including the success or failure of the market and the integration of the post‐communist state in Western economic and military structures. The chapter concentrates on the stance taken by mass publics of Eastern Europe, and, in particular, on their attitudes towards key aspects of the transition and the ways in which these are linked with their views of Western involvement. The chapter advances three propositions: (1) democratization as an exit from communism made it highly likely that the economic correlate would be the market rather than state economic control; and vice versa; (2) the geographical location of the communist bloc and the nature of its political, strategic, and economic rivalries made it likely that this exit would entail a shift to the West; (3) those most in favour of transition and most opposed to the communist order were more likely to wish to be become part of the West and its democratic and market structures. The chapter addresses those arguments by testing six hypotheses using data of national probability samples of the populations of Belarus, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, and Ukraine.
Bulgaria and Macedonia: Voluntary Dependence on External Actors
Authors: Drezov Kyril
Published: October 2003

The main hypothesis of the chapter is that historically both Bulgaria and Macedonia have tended to adapt to an externally determined environment by opting for self‐limiting behaviour. This kind of ‘voluntary dependence’ arises where a subordinate ruling elite chooses not to exercise all the opportunities for sovereign decision‐making but instead accepts special favours from the hegemonic power. The chapter shows that such ‘survival techniques’ have defined the post‐communist positioning of Bulgaria and Macedonia. An examination of the specific patterns of democratization in Bulgaria and Macedonia is followed by an analysis of the international factors that have been the most influential in shaping events in both countries. The focus is on two factors: (1) the impact of the general international environment of Bulgaria and Macedonia; and (2) the actions of external power to influence events in these countries. The way in which these factors have impinged on specific developments is explored through several case studies. The chapter also points out to similarities between Macedonia and Bulgaria in the process of democratization and international influences. Both of them are considered as ‘islands of stability’ with experience of peaceful and negotiated transitions, and willingness to subordinate their national interests to Western strategic concerns despite the feeling of neglect and discrimination against the West.
Former Yugoslavia: International Efforts to Link Peace, Stability, and Democracy
Authors: Vukadinovic Radovan
Published: October 2003

Describes how the international community has sought to advance the consolidation of democracy, transformation to a market economy, promotion of regional peace and security, and the protection of human and minority rights in the area of former Yugoslavia. This chapter defines the ‘international community’ as comprising all external actors engaged in seeking to resolve the Yugoslav crisis, including the joint activities of the European Union, USA, and Russia. Given the conflicts in Croatia and Bosnia‐Hercegovina, as well as the Kosovo crisis in 1999, external actors gave priority to peace building over the promotion of democratic goals. The first part of the chapter analyses the role of international factors in the disintegration of Yugoslavia, concentrating on the new states of Slovenia, Croatia, and Bosnia‐Hercegovina, Macedonia, and rump Yugoslavia. The second part examines the Dayton Accord as an example of direct external engagement to promote peace in the region. The third part analyses the main Western plans, the regional approach of the EU and US approaches, which seek the promotion of security through cooperation in the region. This part also assesses the policies adopted by external actors, and their efficiency in contributing to regional peace and security.
Russia and the West: To Belong or not to Belong?
Authors: Mendras Marie
Published: October 2003

Addresses the question of how Western responsibility for the early promise and later disappointments of Russia's development in the 1990s should be assessed. It contends that internal dynamics and historic legacies have played a large part in shaping the behaviour of the Russian elite. The chapter focuses on Russia's relations with the democratic world, highlighting its attraction to Western, mainly European, ways of life and values, as well as a propensity for resisting influence and subordination. The chapter notes two major symptoms of a growing disregard for democratic rule, civil rights, and the rule of law: (1) the second war in Chechnya (2) Vladimir Putin's predetermined presidential election. The author points out to several reasons for the deterioration of democratic society in Russia's ‘new capitalism’: the flawed nature of elections, the pressure on powerful rivals not to compete, the scale of corruption and the frequency of financial‐political scandals. Nevertheless, the chapter also shows that in a number of cases Russia has demonstrated the will to play by international Western rules. Despite daunting internal problems, the opening of Russia and its immersion into the world of affairs has fundamentally changed the political environment.
Two Styles of Thought
Authors: Douglas Mary
Published: October 2003

Leviticus has a different style from Deuteronomy, and often the teaching differs, but through two millennia Leviticus has been read through Deuteronomy, with divergences reconciled by imposing the Deuteronomic version on the Levitical one. Even the most basic concepts have different meanings in the two books: when Deuteronomy uses a concept of the body it is the body politic, while in Leviticus it is a cosmic symbol. The two books were very likely to have been composed by writers living in different social circles, who could have been contemporaries, but it seems that there was some break in the continuity of interpretation of Leviticus. The Leviticus writer is theocratic, his institutions are sacred and he records the instructions that God gave to Moses on Mount Sinai about how to perform his cult and how to live together as a holy people; in contrast the Deuteronomy writer is governmental, his institutions secular, he has more interest in human affairs and is generally more sympathetic. These are two ways of thinking about religion, and the Leviticus way belongs to a now obsolete and completely foreign order of thought which the rest of this chapter and the next will examine.
Two Styles of Writing
Authors: Douglas Mary
Published: October 2003

This chapter expands on the previous one, which examined the differences in the styles of thought between Leviticus and Deuteronomy, by examining the differences in the styles of writing between the two books. Cosmic analogies are unnecessary to Deuteronomy’s purpose, and metaphysics are barely relevant –it teaches in a different style, and is by a writer with a different kind of experience and likely to have come a different social circle: the writer is political, brilliant at rousing congregations to enthusiasm, not so happy in the library or classroom, and not very interested in the ritual service of God. For his overall structure he chooses a poignant narrative moment (Moses’ valedictory sermon to the people of Israel, with Moses’ death the foreseen conclusion), and he writes in the heroic manner – he admonishes, he exhorts, evoking fear, dread, anguish and trembling. The contrast with the laconic priestly style of Leviticus, reticent, highly patterned and controlled by the literary form, suggests how difficult it would be to try to meld the two sources into a single teaching: the one uses the language of feeling and cause and effect, the other the language of position and analogy; one looks out to the readers, the other is involuted, and looks in towards itself, to the text to be embellished. The last part of the chapter introduces the central idea of this book: that Leviticus exploits to the full an ancient tradition that makes a parallel between Mount Sinai and the tabernacle.
Land Animals, Pure and Impure
Authors: Douglas Mary
Published: October 2003

Leviticus 1–7 presents the laws on sacrifices, and in sacrifice the body of the sacrificial animal becomes another microcosm in its own right, corresponding to the tabernacle and the holy mountain (Mount Sinai). Then the sequence of cultic laws is interrupted by the narrative in Leviticus 8–10, and when the lawgiving is resumed it develops a different bodily microcosm. This time the body of the worshipper is made analogous to the sanctuary and the altar: whatever will render the altar impure will do the same for the Israelite’s body. The laws of impurity sketch out the parallel in meticulous detail over Leviticus 11–15: the animal taken into the body by eating corresponds to that which is offered on the altar by fire; what is disallowed for the one is disallowed for the other; what harms the one harms the other. One thing that Leviticus never says, however, is that it is bad for the health of the body to eat any of the forbidden animals. The topic, the purity/impurity of land animals, is addressed by looking at land animals under the covenant (Leviticus 11), the similarities and differences between Leviticus and Deuteronomy as regards the definition of clean/unclean or pure/impure animals, interpretations of uncleanness/impurity, and sacred contagion.
Atonement for Sick Bodies
Authors: Douglas Mary
Published: October 2003

This chapter looks in detail at the four chapters following Leviticus 11, which take off from the theme of reproduction therein to form a distinct literary unit: Leviticus 12 is about blood impurity of a woman menstruating or giving birth, and then two chapters on leprosy (Leviticus 13 and 14), are followed by Leviticus 15 on genital discharges from men or women: all sources of impurity. The peroration in Leviticus 15: 33 closes a ring by referring back to the opening of chapter 12 – the impurity of menstruation, and with this reading the whole section becomes a formal abba pattern. It is a mistake to ignore the connections between these chapters: the first and last are directly about the reproductive process, and God’s compassion has been demonstrated in Leviticus 11 by the rules declaring it ‘abominable’ to harm corpses of the teeming, fertile creatures of water and air. The next set of rules returns to impurity, hence they are about the tabernacle: the writer has returned to the theses of Leviticus 11 on the dangers of impurity in the approach to the tabernacle. In Leviticus’ favourite literary form, chiastic composition, the meaning is at the pivot or the middle of a series of parallel verses: on either side of the sections on leprosy there stand supporting verses on human reproduction, like steps or like framing pillars, and within the series on a leprous person, two additional afflicted objects are introduced, a leprous garment, and a leprous house; the alternation makes an abab pattern; this signals a return to the body/ microcosm.
The Two Screens
Authors: Douglas Mary
Published: October 2003

Leviticus consists almost entirely of divine laws, which are interrupted twice by narratives, and both of these interruptions are about encroachment on the divine prerogative; there is no accepted explanation for why they should occur where they do. The explanation proposed in this chapter is that the structure of law and narrative cuts the book to the shape of the controlling paradigm. This means that the book of Leviticus itself is structured as a tripartite projection of the tabernacle, and thus also as a projection of Mount Sinai. On this reading the two stories (narratives) correspond to two screens which, according to the instructions given in Exodus, divide the desert tabernacle into three sections of unequal size: the narratives interrupt the movement through the laws as the two screens interrupt the movement through the tabernacle. This thesis is discussed in sections covering: Leviticus as a projection of the tabernacle; fire for fire, and burning for burning; the curser cursed; the scandal of the law of talion (retaliation); and the language of oracles.
Augustine as a Reader of Galatians
Authors: Plumer Eric
Published: October 2003

Drawing partly upon De Doctrina Christiana, partly upon other writings of Augustine, Ch. 4 examines the hermeneutical presuppositions with which Augustine approaches the Bible. Of these presuppositions, the ones pertaining to the following three topics are of particular importance for an appreciation of Augustine's Commentary on Galatians: the inspiration of the Bible, the unity of the Bible, and the relation between Scripture and the rule of faith, or Creed. This chapter also considers the closely related matter of Augustine's sensitivity to questions of text and translation. The chapter ends by summarizing Augustine's Commentary and highlighting significant points.
Conclusions
Authors: Plumer Eric
Published: October 2003

Consistent with his dual role as parish priest and spiritual director of a monastic community, Augustine chose to write a commentary on Galatians that is essentially pastoral, intended not only to merely inform his audience but also to form them spiritually in the faith. In it, Augustine teaches that Christian correction plays an indispensable role in spiritual formation and should always be given and received in humility and love. The Letter to the Galatians provides Augustine with a model of Christian correction, not only because Paul corrected the Galatians and told how he once corrected Peter but also because he taught the Galatians how they ought to correct one another. The list of Christian authors that Augustine used as sources for his Commentary coincides closely with the list given in a famous passage of De Doctrina Christiana. This and numerous other links between these two works demonstrate that the Commentary is a practical example of the theory of interpretation set forth in De Doctrina Christiana and indeed paved the way for that theory.
Four-Dimensionalism
Authors: Sider Theodore
Published: October 2003

According to ‘four‐dimensionalism’, temporally extended things are composed of temporal parts. Most four‐dimensionalists identify ordinary continuants—the persisting objects ordinary language quantifies over and names—with aggregates of temporal parts (‘space‐time worms’), but an attractive alternate version of four‐dimensionalism identifies ordinary continuants with instantaneous temporal slices and accounts for temporal predication using temporal counterpart theory. Arguments for four‐dimensionalism include the following: (1) Either substantivalism or relationalism about space‐time is true, but given substantivalism one might as well identify continuants with regions of space‐time, which have temporal parts, or with instantaneous slices of space‐time, whereas relationalism about space‐time cannot be made to work without temporal parts. (2) It can never be vague how many objects exist; if temporal parts do not exist, then a restrictive account of which filled regions of space‐time contain objects must be given, but no such account can be given that is plausible and non‐vague. (3) Four‐dimensionalism—especially the alternate, counterpart‐theoretic version—provides the most satisfying overall account of the ‘paradoxes of material constitution’, in which numerically distinct material objects (e.g. statues and lumps of clay) apparently share exactly the same parts. Objections to four‐dimensionalism (involving, e.g., motion in homogeneous substances and de re modal properties) may be answered. While logically independent of the question of four‐dimensionalism, the book also defends related theses, including (1) a robust meta‐ontology according to which unrestricted existence‐statements are non‐vague, non‐analytic, and uninfected by human convention; (2) the B‐theory of time (the opposite of presentism); (3) unrestricted composition; and (4) counterpart theory (both modal and temporal).
Arguments Against Four‐Dimensionalism
Authors: Sider Theodore
Published: October 2003

If four‐dimensionalism is an ontological, rather than conceptual or ordinary‐language, thesis, some traditional objections are misguided. It then does not require any particular semantics for tensed claims, does not imply any conceptual or epistemic priority of stage‐talk, and does not preclude a distinction in ordinary thought between processes and things. A more metaphysical traditional objection is that four‐dimensionalism precludes genuine change, but there is no good reason to regard the four‐dimensionalist's conception of change as non‐genuine. A better objection: four‐dimensionalism assigns the wrong modal properties to continuants. Reply: everyone, not just a four‐dimensionalist, should accept a ‘flexible’ account of de re modal predication. Counterpart theory is one such account, but not the only one. Best objection: four‐dimensionalism precludes motion in homogeneous substances. Reply: it is only four‐dimensionalism plus Humean supervenience that has the consequence, and even then, motion in homogenous substances may be allowed in many cases, assuming a holistic account of genidentity.
Fertility and Social Interaction
Authors: Kohler Hans-Peter
Published: October 2003

Considerable controversy exists among demographers, economists, and sociologists over the causes of fertility change in developing and developed countries. The neoclassical economic approach to fertility is embraced by its supporters because it facilitates the application of sophisticated consumer and household production theory to one of the most private and intimate questions: a couple's reproductive behaviour. Despite the theoretical appeal of the economic approach, it has been eschewed by many critics because of its lack of social and institutional context, its neglect of cultural factors and its requirements of ‘rationality’. The integration of social interaction with economic fertility models in this book emerges as a powerful tool to overcome many of these criticisms. First, the analysis provides a formal integration of economic, sociological, and other approaches to fertility and shows that there is a useful and promising agenda at the intersection of these schools. The second and more important goal is to sharpen the analytic lens with which theorists from different schools investigate fertility. For economists, the work shows the advantages of moving beyond individual decision‐making and embedding the fertility decisions in a ‘local environment’ with interpersonal information flows, ‘atmospheric’ or social externalities, norms, and customs. For sociologists, this work intends to show that the theorizing about the interaction in social network can be more sophisticated. Thirdly, the findings have important implications for population policy. The analyses in this book show when family planning is likely to diffuse and lead to rapid adoption of birth control, and they derive conditions when Pareto‐improving policy measures are likely to exist.
Fertility Behavior and Demographic Change: Economic and Other Perspectives
Authors: Kohler Hans‐Peter
Published: October 2003

Reviews the literature and empirical findings of European and contemporary fertility declines. It contrasts these findings with the primary economic and non‐economic theories of fertility, and it motivates the necessity to apply interacting economic agents to the context of demographic change.
Introduction
Authors: O'Sullivan Mary
Published: October 2003

The question of how corporations should be governed to enhance corporate and economic performance has been widely discussed in the last two decades in the USA and the UK, but until recently, the subject of corporate governance has attracted much less attention on the European continent, in Asia, and in other parts of the world. By the late 1990s, however, corporate governance had become a major, and highly contentious, issue in all of the advanced economies and, increasingly, in developing countries as well. International organizations, including the OECD, the World Bank, and the IMF have devoted increasing attention to corporate governance as a topic of global concern. The starting point for the analysis of corporate resource allocation and its governance presented in this book is a concern with the dynamics of enterprise and economic performance, and central to the process through which successful enterprises and economies improve their performance over time, as well as relative to each other, is a phenomenon that can broadly be termed ’innovation’; the term is used here in a general sense to include all activities that enterprises and economies undertake to deliver higher‐quality and/or cheaper products, i.e. it has a distinctly commercial connotation, and in particular, is not reducible to technological novelty. The particular focus of the book is a comparison of the historical development of systems of corporate governance in the USA and Germany, and given the pervasive influence of the US system as a model of corporate governance in contemporary academic and policy debates, an especially detailed historical analysis of the evolution and influence of governance institutions in that country has been done; this reveals the value of the organizational control framework for understanding the economics of corporate governance in the USA, and highlights the serious deficiencies of alternative theoretical treatments of the contemporary US system that have often led to what, in historical perspective, are serious misunderstandings of its essential elements.
Transforming the Debates on Corporate Governance
Authors: O'Sullivan Mary
Published: October 2003

The Anglo‐American debates on corporate governance that have taken place over the last two decades have been largely confined to shareholder theory, which is the dominant perspective, and stakeholder theory, which is its main challenger. The shareholder theory of corporate governance is discussed in Sect. 2.2 of the chapter, which argues that the theory precludes an understanding of the nature of corporate governance required for innovation as a result of its failure to incorporate a systematic analysis of innovation, and more generally, of production, in its conceptual framework. Rather, taking its lead from neoclassical economics (as discussed in Sect. 2.3), it regards economic activity as synonymous with exchange and, as a result, conceives of resource allocation as a transaction that is reversible, individual, and optimal. In the academic arena, one of the most sophisticated proponents of the stakeholder argument is Margaret Blair, an economist at the Brookings Institution, and her arguments are addressed in the discussion of the stakeholder theory of corporate governance in Section 2.3. The last main section of the chapter, Sect. 2.4, discusses organizational control theory––its logic, the theory in relation to innovation, and its institutional foundations.
From Managerial to Contested Control in Germany
Authors: O'Sullivan Mary
Published: October 2003

Like its US counterpart, the characteristic features of the post‐war system of corporate governance in the former West Germany have deep roots in the region's history. Section 7.2 of this chapter analyses the evolution of managerial control in pre‐war Germany and identifies its central institutional foundations as inter‐company shareholding and bank–industry relations. Section 7.3 describes how these institutions persisted in the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) after the war, although through the institution of co‐determination, the post‐war system of corporate governance was transformed beyond its narrow pre‐war confines into a contested form of organizational control; in shaping control over corporate resource allocation, these social conditions were complemented by institutions––especially the dual system of apprenticeship––that supported the organizational integration of resources in German business enterprises. Section 7.3 further discusses how, on the basis of the system of governance that supported organizational control, German companies achieved considerable success in industrial sectors in which high quality was more important than low cost as a basis for competitive advantage; it also analyses how the type of organizational control that emerged in the post‐war period influenced the distribution of wealth in the economy. The last main section, Sect. 7.4, discusses corporate governance in relation to performance.
The Emerging Challenges to Organizational Control in Germany
Authors: O'Sullivan Mary
Published: October 2003

In recent decades the institutional foundations of organizational control in Germany have proven to be more enduring than those in the USA, but, nevertheless various pressures have built up on the German system of corporate governance that raise questions about its sustainability in its current form. Some of these pressures emanate from sources external to the operation of the domestic corporate economy, such as the processes of European integration and German reunification, but the more powerful pressures reflect financial and productive challenges that are integrally related to the evolving political economy of the German corporate sector. First, pressures for financial liquidity have increased; as Germans have grown wealthier, they have been moving their savings out of bank deposits and into more market‐based instruments, a trend that is likely to lead to increased demands for higher returns on corporate securities; these pressures are discussed in Sect. 8.2. The second formidable challenge to the German system of organizational control, that posed by international competition, especially from Japan, is discussed in Sect. 8.3; the Japanese competitive challenge is fundamentally an organizational one since it confronts the social foundations on which German enterprises have successfully competed in the past even in high‐quality niches in which they have previously been unrivalled. Together, and in combination with forces external to the German economy, these structural changes in the German economy (the one financial, the other productive) may challenge the foundations of the post‐war system of corporate governance; Sect. 8.4 documents some of the political responses to these challenges from key interest groups and, in particular, labour and financial interests in the German economy; Sect. 8.5 concludes by drawing out some of the possible implications of these responses for the future of German corporate governance.
Conclusion
Authors: O'Sullivan Mary
Published: October 2003

The empirical analysis of the US and German systems of corporate governance presented in this book has highlighted the prevalence of organizational control across industry and over time. In both cases, the institutional foundations for organizational control were laid in the late nineteenth century, yet the comparison of the systems of governance reveals that they have taken very different forms in these two countries, with important economic and political repercussions. Furthermore, governance institutions in both the USA and Germany have evolved substantially, so that in both cases the essence of organizational control has changed considerably over the course of the twentieth century. The book has tried to illustrate the advantages of the organizational control theory for understanding the complex interaction between institutions of corporate governance and economic performance across countries and over time, and has argued that it is only by taking seriously the dynamics of enterprises and economies, that the relationship between corporate governance and corporate performance as it has existed and as it is evolving can be understood. However, there is a need for much more detailed empirical analysis in order to understand the economic logic of systems of corporate governance, and the need for further research can be identified at various levels of analysis, which are discussed.
Thresholds of Opportunity and Barriers to Change in the Right‐Sizing of States
Authors: Lustick Ian S.
Published: October 2003

Ian S. Lustick asks how can and do states ‘down‐size’ themselves by shrinking the ambit of their authority —a contraction that may be defined as consociationalism, or as partition, or as some combination of both such as in federative or cantonal schemes. Drawing on hegemonic theory of Antonio Gramsci, the author argues that state expansion and state contraction have a regime threshold and an ideological threshold. The elites first develop incumbency‐related interests in preserving central state control over the territory; then images of threats to the regime of the central state overshadow incumbency concerns; and then the larger conception of the state may become part of the common senses of political life. The author proposes applications of the theory to the study of state interests, conflict resolution, and the process of regime institutionalization and deinstitutionalization.
From Reshaping to Resizing a Failing State? the Case of the Congo/Zaïre
Authors: Callaghy Thomas M.
Published: October 2003

Thomas Callaghy applies Lustick's theory of institutionalization and deinstitutionalization to Zaïre under the dictatorship of Mobutu Sese Seko, and the subsequent conflict under Laurent Kabila. He argues that that failing state was subject to reshaping efforts by the opposition for over fifteen years, and that these efforts resulted in a strong ‘war of position’ and a weaker ‘war of manoeuvre’. The author shows how the struggle between opposition and the regime was affected by the systemic processes of state failure and dramatic changes in regional and international dynamics in the post‐Cold War context in Central Africa.
Manufacturing Identity and Managing Kurds in Iraq
Authors: Natali Denise
Published: October 2003

Denise Natali analyses 20 years of state‐reshaping projects in Iraq as an attempt by the Iraqi elite to draw Kurds into the state and to recognize the existence of a Kurdish ethnicity and region, while maintaining the idea of Kurds as ‘Iraqis first’ and of ‘Kurdistan’ as an internal part of sovereign Iraq. The author traces Iraq's transition from a colonized country to a modern welfare state to a military dictatorship, and shows how centre–periphery relations swung as a result of elite politics in Baghdad. The author unearths the complexity behind the national identity formation process, particularly under the uncertainty of economic transition and the centre's asymmetric relations with different ethnic groups at the periphery.
Right‐Sizing Over the Jordan: The Politics of Down‐Sizing Borders
Authors: Lynch Marc
Published: October 2003

Marc Lynch examines the Jordanian disengagement from the West Bank in 1988 as a case of state downsizing. The author focuses on international factors and elite politics on both sides of the Jordan River, drawing conclusions on the influences of state downsizing on the changing character of the Jordanian political regime under King Hussein and his son, Abdullah. The author examines the role of public sphere changes and the political identity, the entrepreneurs played in the process, and he outlines the reflexive institutional relationship of the disengagement on state institutions, political parties, the press, and professional organizations. Finally, he examines the role of the Arab–Israeli peace process for the formula of separation between Jordan and Palestine.
Federalism Without Constitutionalism: Europe's Sonderweg
Authors: Weiler J. H. H.
Published: October 2003

Focuses on the European Union, and looks at the promise and possibilities that emerge once the federal vision is liberated from ‘statist’ conceptions of political organization. The author views attempts to transform the European project into one of federal constitutionalism along statist lines as deeply misguided. The first section points out that the constitutional discipline of Europe is in most respects indistinguishable from that of advanced federal states, but with the huge difference that Europe chose not to presuppose the supreme authority and sovereignty of its federal demos. There is then a brief analysis of some of the premises on which the constitutional debate is typically based. The rest of the chapter explains why the unique brand of European federalism represents not only its most original political asset but also its deepest set of values, and offers a normative reading of the European constitutional architecture.
Centralization and Its Discontents: The Rhythms of Federalism in the United States and the European Union
Authors: Donahue John D. , Pollack Mark A.
Published: October 2003

Identifies some general themes that typically figure in particular policy debates in the USA and the European Union. It first traces, in the broadest possible outlines, the historical rhythm of centralization and decentralization in the USA and the EU, and then offers a few observations, for each polity, on the phase of the cycle at the start of the twenty‐first century, discussing the rhythms of federalism in the USA, and the EU experience of integration and subsidiarity. The generic arguments that drive the specific debates involved often concern geography‐linked diversity, the advantages and disadvantages that come with governmental scale, the role of autonomous governments as testbeds for innovation, and the alignment of choice and consequence to minimize policy externalities.
Devolution in the United States: Rhetoric and Reality
Authors: Kincaid John
Published: October 2003

Critically examines the fashionable notion that the steady trajectory of USA federalism in recent decades has been in the direction of decentralization or devolution; the case made rests above all on the pervasiveness of concurrency: ‘All public functions are likely to involve intergovernmental power‐sharing in one way or another . . . The centralization that has occurred in the USA has rarely involved wholesale federal occupation of policy fields . . . often in a positive‐sum manner in which there is a concomitant expansion of State and/or local government powers’. In this context, so‐called devolution in the USA has been far from a wholesale transfer of power but rather a series of halfway measures. More importantly, if legitimacy has not been enhanced through outright devolution—presumably an unachievable first‐best in the author's view—then ‘issues of process’ are vital. That is the legitimacy of the norms, institutions, and mechanisms that allow constant adjustment of roles and responsibilities between levels of government in response to changing circumstances and changing citizen preferences. The four sections of the chapter look in turn at definitions of devolution, explanations for the disjunction between devolution, rhetoric and devolution reality in the USA, devolution politics, and the implications for the EU.
The Role of Law in the Functioning of Federal Systems
Authors: Bermann George A.
Published: October 2003

Federal systems are about the distribution of legal and political power, but law is not only one of the currencies of federalism, it is also one of federalism's most important supports; this chapter considers the role that law plays in establishing and enforcing the system by which both legal and political power are distributed within the USA and the EU. Bermann explores the various ways in which the courts can, and choose to, enforce the principles of federalism beyond the classical ‘political’ and ‘procedural’ safeguards provided by the institutional structures themselves and the constraints on the deliberative process. He describes the reluctance on the part of courts on both sides to police the borders of enumerated competences, assess the ‘necessity’ of federal action, or carve out the ‘core’ of state sovereignty, all of which are ways of ‘second‐guessing’ the political process; he then points to the recent emphasis of the USA Supreme Court on what he calls the ‘relational’ aspects of federalism, whereby courts can identify ‘forbidden interfaces’ between State and federal governments, even without specific constitutional grounds. Bermann uses the examples of sovereign immunity and of anti‐commandeering to illustrate the manner in which court‐enforced constraints on the manner in which different levels of government interact can protect and promote democratic accountability in the USA. In contrast, European Union law offers no protection against risks to democracy from commandeering, but more broadly relies almost exclusively on the representation of member states and sub‐national units in the Council as structural political safeguards.
Regulatory Legitimacy in the United States and the European Union
Authors: Majone Giandomenico
Published: October 2003

Returns to themes sounded in the previous two chapters, elaborating them in the context of regulatory federalism: Majone discusses how regulatory independence may be reconciled with accountability, in a context where important policy‐making powers are delegated to non‐majoritarian institutions, an issue the American polity has grappled with for more than a century. Joint regulatory action, or regulatory cooperation, is a crucial feature of multi‐level governance, where powers are not clearly allocated hierarchically, and in Europe, the emergence of transnational regulatory networks is the key development that will help Europe find coordinated rather than vertically distinct solutions to regulatory problems. However, this also entails important dilemmas of legitimacy: on the one hand, in the context of multi‐level governance, values of technical competence and political independence argue in favour of governments delegating these joint regulatory activities to bodies of regulators from the various jurisdictions; on the other hand, this poses a very serious challenge to democratic legitimacy since there is no comprehensive democratic body or polity that can apparently effectively control the exercise of these delegated powers. Here, Majone dismisses various philosophies that have been tried in the USA and found echoes in the EU—from the traditional ‘transmission belt’ approach leaving no discretion to regulatory agencies, to the expertise model of the New Deal period or the pluralist proposal to politicize the regulatory process. Instead, he argues that, if one looks imaginatively at some of the control mechanisms that exist in the USA system today with respect to delegated federal regulatory powers, the problem may not at all be insuperable. In the EU, these procedural safeguards, designed to strengthen democratic legitimacy in general rather than simply state rights, are all the more necessary since delegation to the Commission and to a lesser extent to outside bodies involves wide discretionary powers: in short, the EU should continue to strengthen its multi‐level networks as well as to adopt the equivalent of the Federal Administrative Procedure Act and emulate the far‐reaching judicialization of regulatory decision‐making that has occurred since then in the USA.
Democratic Legitimacy Under Conditions of Regulatory Competition: Why Europe Differs from the United States
Authors: Scharpf Fritz W.
Published: October 2003

Addresses concern over the so‐called ‘democratic deficit’ in the EU in comparison with the USA. The author deduces that there are two reasons for the political salience of this alleged deficit: the pragmatic reason that the EU's institutions are inadequate for a union with fifteen members and an expanded range of competencies (and will become unworkable when it is enlarged by the joining of the Eastern European countries); and the trilemma of the democratic welfare state. This is that EU member states cannot want to shed their welfare‐state obligations without jeopardizing the bases of their democratic legitimacy, they cannot want to reverse the process of economic integration, which exposes national welfare states to regulatory competition, and they cannot want to avoid regulatory competition by shifting welfare‐state responsibilities upward to the European level. The chapter focuses primarily on the third part of this European trilemma. It begins with a brief theoretical discussion of the preconditions of democratic legitimacy, then it explores how these are affected by European integration; it concludes with an examination of European policies that could strengthen national efforts to cope with the constraints of regulatory competition.