bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Study of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCS) and Photochemically Reactive Organic Compounds (PROCS) in Relation to Household Pesticide Formulations
Authors: Namnath JS , Stripling EL , O'Hair DR
Published: December 2008

There exists a federal mandate for the reduction of PROCs released into air as a method of reducing ozone in the lower atmosphere. Some VOCs may also be PROCs. State and local agencies responsible for carrying out the mandate have indicated their desire to ban or limit the VOC content of household products as a remedy. Household pesticides have been included as a target. The benefits of pesticide products are maximized by their proper formulation which, only where necessary, include VOCs. A requirement to decrease VOC content of household products by an arbitrary amount implies that the formulas contain unnecessary amounts of VOC to begin with. Since low volatility products are often attractive in terms of safety and raw ingredient cost, the incentives for successfully formulating them exists. The legislative efforts aimed at reducing lower atmosphere ozone by proscribing VOC content of household pesticide formulas could reduce the health and safety benefits of such products by diminishing the efficiency and shelf life of many active ingredients while insignificantly impacting ozone levels.
Cast's Response to Environmental Issues
Authors: Marion WW
Published: December 2008

The Council for Agricultural Science and Technology (CAST) is owned and directed by 28 scientific societies, each in the food and agricultural area. Through the coordinated efforts of the societies, major task force reports are written on key national issues. These reports are distributed to federal and sometimes state policymakers. Environmental issues have been a major theme of CAST reports throughout the organization's 17-year history.
Effect of Formulation on Fungicidal Activity
Authors: Winkle JR , Arnold WR , Jourdan GP
Published: December 2008

A novel fungicide, LY177206 [3-(1,1-dimethylpropyl)-1-oxo-1H-indene-2-carbonitrile], has demonstrated activity as a protectant against certain plant pathogens under greenhouse conditions. The compound controlled squash downy mildew (Pseudoperonospora cubensis) and grape downy mildew (Plasmopara viticola) at a rate range of 25 to 50 ppm. Activity against wheat leaf rust (Puccinia recondita) and bean rust (Uromyces phaseoli) was demonstrated on intact plants at rates of 50 to 100 ppm. Better efficacy was obtained with an aqueous suspension (A.S.) of LY177206 than with an emulsifiable concentrate (E.C.), especially for residual control. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed that crystallization was occurring on the leaf surface with the E.C. formulation.

Attempts to improve the characteristics of the A.S. under rainfall conditions were performed by adding different polymers or surfactants to the formulation. Under simulated rainfall conditions in the greenhouse, addition of a resin hydrophobe, Polyfac MT603, to the LY177206 aqueous suspension resulted in the greatest efficacy enhancement when compared to the original aqueous suspension containing no additive. SEM studies comparing the A.S. formulations revealed subtle differences in the distribution and agglomeration properties of the active ingredient on the leaf surfaces.
Epicuticular Wax Solubility in Petroleum Solvents Relative to Herbicide Phytotoxicity
Authors: Manthey FA , Nalewaja JD , Group EF , Krenek MR
Published: December 2008

Petroleum solvents and oils commonly are used as formulants and adjuvants with pesticides. Information on plant response to solvents and oils could assist in selection of the most efficacious formulation and/or adjuvant for a herbicide. A technique was developed to study the interaction of solvents and oils with leaf wax from a variety of common weeds. Some of the 20 solvents and oils studied recoiled or contracted from leaf wax; recoil did not correlate with solvent phytotoxicity. Wax solubility in a given solvent differed depending on plant species. All solvents that caused leaf injury readily dissolved leaf wax, but not all solvents that readily dissolved leaf wax caused plant injury. The relative solubility of leaf wax in various solvents is influenced by solvent volatility and contact time. Emulsifier generally did not affect relative wax solubility in the solvents, but did increase the phytotoxicity of solvents applied as spray carriers. Solvents with emulsifier applied as spray adjuvants were less phytotoxic than solvents applied with or without emulsifier as spray carriers. In efficacy studies, herbicides evaluated were bentazon, fluazifop-P, quizalofop and sethoxydim, all developed for weed control in soybeans. Solvents or oils applied as herbicide spray adjuvants or carriers differed in their enhancement of herbicidal efficacy depending upon herbicide and plant species. The lack of a consistent relationship between relative wax solubility and solvent effectiveness as a herbicide spray adjuvant or spray carrier indicates that other factors may be involved in enhancing herbicide efficacy.
New Polymeric Materials for Temperature Controlled Release of Agricultural Chemicals
Authors: Greene L , Stewart RF
Published: December 2008

Currently there is significant interest in the development of controlled release delivery of agricultural agents: herbicides, insecticides, fungicides and fertilizers. Extended release of pesticides allow the potential for lowered doses, decreased application costs and reduced environmental risk. To date, however, existing systems are incapable of providing predictable delivery at a future date in response to an environmental need. Our approach is to develop an encapsulating polymer which will reversibly respond to ambient soil or air temperatures by releasing the core material at a temperature corresponding to the onset of the pest. We have now developed a class of polymeric membrane materials for the delayed delivery of pesticides. These materials exhibit large, reversible changes in permeability in response to seasonal temperature changes. Lab data is presented showing the permeability of films and microcapsules made from these polymers to a carbamate and organophosphate insecticide and a dinitroaniline herbicide over the temperature range of 10°C to 40°C. Reversible permeability changes from 200 to 2000% have been obtained over a 10°C interval.
The Formulation of Rodenticides for Optimized Efficacy and Safety
Authors: Godfrey MER
Published: December 2008

The formulation of several rodenticides is discussed with emphasis placed on the methods used to optimize the efficacy of the products for specific uses while presenting the minimum hazard to non-target species including humans, domestic animals and wildlife.

These methods include designing baits for use in different situations such as wet areas compared with indoor use, baits designed for specific target species and the physical form of the baits.

Optimized safety is achieved by using toxicants with relatively low non-target species hazard, low toxin loading, dyes and packaging which reduces the availability of the toxic bait to non-target species.
An Overview of Flea Control - Indoors
Authors: Wilks JE , Bushman DW , Case JE , Mikkonen JW , Malone GJ
Published: December 2008

In the past five to nine years the economic impact of the cat flea, Ctenocephalides felis, in the United states, has increased dramatically. Several hundred million dollars are spent annually to control this pest alone. Many pest management strategies include the treatment of the pet, treatment of indoor areas, and treatment of outdoor areas. This is sometimes called integrated pest management or IPM. Attempts to control fleas in these areas can be done by the pet owner/consumer, a veterinarian, or a pest control operator. This paper will give an overview of what the consumer can and does use to treat indoor areas.

Chemicals used, treatment forms, cost, and effectiveness of various product forms will be discussed. Laboratory, field, and consumer test results will be reviewed and discussed where applicable.
Drop Size Spectra, Spreading, and Adhesion and Physical Properties of Eight Bacillus Thuringiensis Formulations Following Spray Application under Laboratory Conditions
Authors: Sundaram A
Published: December 2008

Three oil-based formulations, Dipel® 6L, Dipel® 8L and Dipel® 12L, and five aqueous formulations, Thuricide® 48LV, Thuricide® 64B, Futura® XLV, Dipel® 6AF and Dipel® 8AF, of Bacillus thuringiensis (B.t.) were sprayed at a dosage rate of 30 BIU per ha in a laboratory chamber using a spinning disc atomizer. The formulations were mixed with Day-Glo® fluorescent pigments to facilitate drop detection on sampling surfaces. Spray drops were sampled with Kromekote® cards and deposits were collected on glass plates. Drops were counted on balsam fir foliage of potted seedlings. Physical properties such as, viscosity, surface tension, volatility and pseudo-plastic behavior, were determined for the formulations.

Spray drops of the three oil-based Dipel formulations were completely spread on Kromekote cards and fir foliage,, The degree of spreading was influenced by viscosity and surface tension values. Drops of the five aqueous formulations were either totally spherical or hemispherical on all sampling surfaces, and the degree of spreading was related to surface tension and pseudoplastic behavior.

The data on drop size spectra indicated little influence from the physical properties of formulations. This is because of the differences in the application rates used. All the-three oil-based Dipel formulations were non-volatile and provided 100% recovery of the spray volume on the glass plates. The four aqueous formulations, except Thuricide 64B, provided lower percent recovery of the spray volume on glass plates.
Use of an Air-Assisted Electrostatic Sprayer to Increase Pesticide Efficiency in Greenhouses
Authors: Lehtinen JR , Adams AJ , Lindquist RK , Hall FR , Simmons HC
Published: December 2008

The spraying system described in this paper uses air and electrostatics to deliver small drops (20 um Dv0.5) to the target. The use of this system in greenhouses is especially attractive since air movement can be controlled and drift is contained. It has been found that charged drops are collected more efficiently by, and distributed more evenly upon plant targets than uncharged drops. Evaluation of spray distribution on cucumbers and poinsettias confirmed that the theoretical advantages of small, charged drops may be exploited in greenhouses. Although the lower spray volume necessitated a correspondingly high concentration of active ingredient, no phytotoxic damage was observed.
Application, Distribution and Efficacy of Electrostatically Charged Sprays on Chrysanthemums
Authors: Adams AJ , Lindquist RK , Hall FR , Rolph IA
Published: December 2008

A hand-held sprayer, producing an electrostatically charged air-atomized spray, was used apply small droplets Dv0.5: 25um), in low volumes (∼ 30 1/ha) of aqueous sprays, to bench grown, potted chrysanthemums. Spray distribution was assessed using water-sensitive paper clipped to leaves, and microscopic examination of fluorescent tracer deposits. The biological efficacy of the deposits was determined from bioassays in which bifenthrin was applied against aphids (Aphis gossypii). These data were compared with results obtained in the laboratory using a uniform droplet generator. Particular emphasis was placed on the proportion of the spray deposits on leaf undersides, since this is where most pests occur, and upon behavioural responses of A. gossypii to sub-lethal residues of this pyrethroid. Positioning a hot-wire probe within the plant canopy showed how changes in droplet size, number of droplets available and air velocity may have influenced spray distribution at specific localities. Spray penetration of the canopy, and upper : lower leaf surface deposition on the plants had its greatest biological efficiency when the nozzle was aimed into the row, horizontally, with an air pressure of 138KPa. Comparing numbers of droplets per second, measured by the probe at different locations, with the corresponding deposits, showed that deposition and distribution were most uniform towards the center of the row, and this is attributed to still air allowing electrostatic forces to influence deposition.
Evaluation of a No-Touch Pesticide Use System
Authors: Hall FR , Reed JP , Reichard DL , Omilinsky BA , Maurer C
Published: December 2008

There are increasing problems (real and perceived) associated with the handling of pesticides in agriculture. All known data reveal that the greatest levels of exposure encountered with the use of a pesticide occurs at the mixer-loader stage. LPCAT and Merck initiated a collaborative, designed laboratory and field study to evaluate the potential of a series of dissolvable bags for use in boom and airblast sprayers. In laboratory studies, the effect of temperature on bag dissolution was a non-linear inverse relationship. Water hardness had no effect on bag dissolution. The field tests included mechanical and by-pass agitation sprayers with numerous concentration spray volumes. The protocols included: variation in tank levels prior to the addition of bags, check points at suction strainers, and in-line filter and nozzle strainer observations at 10 min, 1 h, and 4 h, including 1 h down time. The QSA 2004 bag reduced foaming of the wettable powder formulation. The QSA 2000, 2004, and Monosol 8000 were successful in low volume tank mixes in hydraulic and mechanized agitation sprayers.
Application of Pesticides on-the-go with Granular Fertilizer
Authors: Leedahl AO , Strand GL
Published: December 2008

On-the-go application of liquid pesticides on dry granular fertilizer is a reality. A liquid metering system installed on a pneumatic dry granular fertilizer applicator forms a novel and unique on-the-go application system. This system overcomes many of the problems previously associated with custom “weed and feed” programs.
Fenitrothion Deposits on Simulated and Live Fir Foliage Following Aerial Spraying of Two Formulations
Authors: Raske AG , Sundaram KMS , Sundaram A , West RJ
Published: December 2008

Quantity of deposit and droplet size spectra of two formulations of fenitrothion were compared at ground level and in conifer tree canopies, A new low-volatile, hygroscopic formulation, fenitrothion mixed with Dowanol® TPM, and a moderate-volatile formulation, fenitrothion mixed with Cyclosol® 63 and stove oil, were both sprayed at 210 g Al/ha with an aircraft equipped with six Micronair® AU4000 atomizers. The hygroscopic formulation was sprayed at 0.4 L/ha and the other at 1.5 L/ha, Kromekote® cards and glass plates were used to sample ground deposits and live balsam fir, Abies balsamea (L.) Mill., foliage and metal simulators were used to assess deposit in the tree canopy.

All measures of deposition on the ground, and on fir needles and foliar simulators in the canopy, were greater for the formulation sprayed at 1.5 L/ha than for the formulation sprayed at 0.4 L/ha. However, the difference was the smallest when measured in ug of AI/cm2. Deposits for both formulations were greater at ground level than those in the canopy. Deposit levels on metal foliar simulators were two to four times greater than those on living foliage with little variation of foliar deposit within branch tips without overhead obstruction. The hygroscopic formulation provided adequate deposit and has some potential for forestry applications. Metal foliar simulators are suitable samplers of spray deposit because they provide a sampling surface which would be constant from treatment to treatment and year to year.
Fenitrothion Deposits on Different Components of a Forest Ecosystem During an Aerial Spray Trial
Authors: Sundaram KMS
Published: December 2008

Initial deposits of aerially applied fenitrothion insecticide over a boreal forest area near Searchmont, Ontario, was studied. Two plots (PI, 23 ha and P2, 49 ha) were sprayed with an emulsion formulation of fenitrothion at 280 g in 1.5 L per ha using a Cessna 188 aircraft equipped with 4 Micronair® AU3000 atomizers. Kromekote® card/glass plate collection units were placed around the sample trees to determine spray deposit at ground level. Balsam fir and white birch foliage, caged and wild pollinators, moths and wild flower species were collected for deposit assessment. Water samples were collected, at different intervals of time after treatment, from a creek inside the spray plot (P2), and from a nearby river into which the creek drained. All samples were analysed by gas-liquid-chromatography.

Droplet analysis on Kromekote cards showed that the mean droplet frequency (droplets/cm2), number and volume median diameters were nearly the same at all sampling sites in both plots. Fenitrothion deposits (in ng/cm2) at mid-crown level of the sample trees were slightly higher on birch leaves than on fir foliage. The tubular chokecheery flowers showed higher deposits than the bell-shaped blueberry flowers, The caged pollinators showed higher fenitrothion concentrations than the wild pollinators.

The insecticide concentration in the creek rose to a maximum of 31.0 μg/L within five min after treatment, but fell to 0.5 μg/L after 24 h. The concentration-time profile showed that nearly half of the initial concentration in the creek water was lost within 21.8 min. In the river water sampled outside the spray area, the post-spray concentration, on average, was 2.2 μg/L.
The Effect of Application Volume on Wood Penetration by an Organophosphate Insecticide
Authors: Powell PK , Robinson WH
Published: December 2008

A controlled droplet application technique was investigated to determine the effect of droplet size and dosage on penetration of structural softwood by chlorpyrifos (DursbanR TC). An effort was made to quantify “run-off” and to reduce the amount of chemical applied to wood by several orders of magnitude. Wood was sectioned and analyzed and concentrations of chlorpyrifos at several depths within the wood were determined.
An Overview of ASTM Committee F-23 On Protective Clothing
Authors: Henry NW
Published: December 2008

ASTM Committee F-23 on Protective Clothing has tripled its membership, quadrupled the number of standards and now is holding its third international symposium on protective clothing. While focusing on developing standard test methods, terminology, classifications and performance specifications for clothing used to protect against occupational hazards, this committee has been instrumental in causing renewed development and research in improving protective clothing. This renewed interest has resulted in the expansion of F-23 into several new subcommittees addressing such issues as protective clothing programs, human factors and specific test methods for particulates and pesticides. The future growth and activities of Committee F-23 are unlimited when one considers the number of new occupations and technological advances being made today. This presentation will give an overview of ASTM Committee F-23, its past accomplishments, its present organization and future plans toward continued growth.
Understanding and Using Chemical Permeation Data in the Selection of Chemical Protective Clothing
Authors: Jamke RA
Published: December 2008

Despite the high level of effort that ASTM F23.30 Subcommittee on Chemical Resistance of Protective Clothing has put into bringing order into the process of evaluating and selecting chemical protective clothing (CPC), much confusion and many misconceptions still exist in the minds of those using or selecting CPC. Inadvertent misuse or misunderstanding of manufacturers' or distributors' data or failure to seek out the proper chemical resistance information may lead to incorrect and potentially dangerous garment selection. Through a review of existing and proposed ASTM standards and related literature, this paper calls attention to critical issues in evaluating and comparing chemical protective clothing materials.
The Selection and Measurement of Physical Properties for Characterization of Chemical Protective Clothing Materials
Authors: Schwope AD , Carroll TR , Stull JO , Royer MD
Published: December 2008

Chemical protective clothing (CPC) must possess certain physical properties if it is to function as an effective barrier to chemicals. The physical characteristics of CPC materials has gone largely unstudied; most attention has been focussed on chemical resistance. Physical property tests have been surveyed for applicability to CPC fabrics, and those tests, which appeared to be most pertinent, were applied to ten fabrics. From statistical analysis of the results and the experience gained in performing the tests, a minimum battery of tests is recommended. The battery includes tests for puncture, puncture propagation tear, abrasion, and burst resistance and triboelectric charge accumulation. Further development of a cut test is recommended before it is added to the battery.
Comparative Heat Stress of Four Chemical Protective Suits
Authors: Santee WR , Wenger CB
Published: December 2008

A primary limitation of chemical protective clothing is the cumulative effects of exposure to warm environments and activity which limit the duration of exposure due to heat storage and associated heat stress. Five subjects were exposed to three test environments while walking on a treadmill. They wore four versions of semipermeable battle dress overgarments (BDO) consisting of a current issue overgarment and three prototypes constructed with carbon or polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE) laminates. The three test environments were 29.4°C, 20% rh, 5 m∙s-1 wind speed (E1); 29.4°C, 20% rh, 1.1 m∙s-1 wind speed (E2) and 29.4°C, 85% rh and 5 m∙s-1 wind speed (E3). Rectal temperature (Tre), chest, forearm and calf skin temperatures, heart rate and metabolic rate (M) were measured. Subjects drank water ad libitum during each walk period. The test procedure consisted of a 10 min baseline, and four 25 min walk sessions at treadmill speed of 1.3 or 1.6 m∙s-1 (M≂500 W) separated by 5 minute rests. Differences between uniforms were significant (p⩽0.05) for mean skin temperature (Tsk) and the change in rectal temperature (ΔTre) in environments E1 and E2. In comparing prototype uniforms to the issue BDO (Tukey's t-test), on the basis of reduced ΔTre and Tsk in E2, one uniform (carbon sphere polyester taffeta laminate without fire retardant) was significantly better in terms of the heat strain experienced by subjects.
The Physiologic Strain Imposed by Wearing Fully Encapsulated Chemical Protective Clothing
Authors: Veghte JH
Published: December 2008

Physiological responses of fire fighters dressed in Level A or fully encapsulated Chemical Protective clothing were measured in field studies while exposed to various climatic conditions. Each test involved an operationally relevant work session. Rectal temperatures (TR), heart rates (HR), blood pressures, respiration rates, clothed weights and climatic parameters were recorded before and after each test. Test results show average TR, HR and sweat losses increased to 38.6°C, 208 beats/min and 1.59 Kg respectively during the hot/dry and hot/wet exposures. The wet bulb globe temperature (WBGT) levels for the hot/dry conditions exceeded the NIOSH recommended limiting criteria and was marginal for the hot/wet tests. Physiologic parameters measured during comfortable and cold conditions were similar to each other and lower than those measured during the hot/dry or hot/wet conditions. Differences in suit design were clearly reflected in the measured physiologic parameters and the effort required to perform work. Suggested suit modifications are discussed to reduce clothing encumbrance and enhance work efficiency.
Measurement of The Flammability and Thermal Aging of Chemical Protective Suit Materials
Authors: An SK , Barker RL , Stull JO
Published: December 2008

Test methods are described for measuring the flammability of materials used in chemical protective clothing. Vertical and 45° type flame test procedures have been used to evaluate and classify the flammability of selected materials supplied by the U.S. Coast Guard. Test protocols have been developed to measure the resistance to hot surface contact and to low heat similar to the maximum temperatures expected under severe storage conditions. This research used these test methods to evaluate a selected group of chemical protective suit materials. This program also evaluated the effect of a chemical protective suit layer on the thermal protective performance of Nomex fabric and firefighter's turnout coat ensemble. Analytical methods are used to assess the effects of convective heat exposure on the thermophysical properties of chemical protective suit materials and to explain the effects of heat on the chemical permeation resistance of these materials.
Selection, Design, and Testing of a Glove System Compatible with the U.S. Navy's Chemical Warfare Protective Dive Suit
Authors: White DF , Stull JO
Published: December 2008

This article describes a study sponsored by the U.S. Navy to select a glove system for its Chemical Warfare Protective Dive Suit (CWPDS), and to design the interface for attaching the selected gloves to the suit sleeves. Based on a market survey and review of literature data, a glove system consisting of inner Viton glove and outer butyl rubber glove was selected. A glove to suit interface was designed which allows easy removal and replacement of gloves while maintaining chemical protective integrity. Permeation tests for the dual glove system against five chemical warfare agents, before and after two pretreatment regimens, indicated no permeation of agent materials under the test conditions used. Permeation tests against 28 industrial chemicals were also performed. Overall permeation performance was equal or superior to the CWPDS primary material and seam.
MDPR--The Need for a Minimum Detectable Permeation Rate Requirement in Permeation Testing of Chemical Protective Clothing
Authors: Kairys CJ
Published: December 2008

Different permeation testing laboratories use different testing systems. This can lead to a tremendous difference in reported breakthrough times for the exact same material. To reduce such problems, all permeation tests of chemical protective clothing materials should be conducted to a minimum detectable permeation rate of 0.14 ug/cm2/min. In virtually all cases, as long as this level of system sensitivity is achieved, it makes little difference what testing system is used. It is low enough to detect significant concentrations of chemicals as toxic as chemical warfare G Agent, yet it is achievable by today's laboratories within the current state of the art in permeation testing. Where situations demand an exception to this proposed rule, the tester should report the actual detectable permeation rate achieved so that the user may note the exception to the rule.
Moisture Transfer Through Materials and Systems in Buildings
Authors: TenWolde A
Published: December 2008

When many of the current moisture control design guidelines for buildings were developed 50 years ago, they were consistent with analytical approaches and test methods. This consistency deteriorated when the importance of air convection was recognized. Although considerable research on moisture problems in buildings is available, there is no general consensus aimed at prevention. Sophisticated analytical moisture models have been developed, but they are not easily available or are too complex to use as analytical or design tools. Current water vapor transfer test methods do not provide material property data for these models or for design practice.

To restore consistency and make this information more useful to building practitioners, a coordinated approach to mathematical modeling is needed. Practical analytical tools need to be developed and test methods need to be expanded or developed to yield data appropriate for these models. Finally, more detailed information about airflow patterns in building components needs to be obtained.
Vapor Transport Characteristics of Mineral Fiber Insulation from Heat Flow Meter Measurements
Authors: Kumaran MK
Published: December 2008

Two empirical Coefficients are identified to represent water vapor transport through fibrous insulation, in the presence of a thermal gradient. These coefficients are determined from heat flow meter measurements.
Results of a Water Vapor Transmission Round-Robin Test Using Cup Methods
Authors: Hansen KK , Bertelsen NH
Published: December 2008

Ten institutes and laboratories from the Nordic countries participated in the round-robin test. The materials used were 12-mm porous board, 40-μm polyethylene foil, and 0.8-mm tarred paper. The measurements were performed both as wet-cup tests and as dry-cup tests. The round-robin test shows that the uncertainty of the measurements is considerably larger than the variations of the water vapor resistance (WVR) among the individual test specimens. It is also shown that the test results were greatly influenced by the moisture levels. The results show about 15% gross errors in the test.
Variability of Water Vapor Transmission Rates of Extruded Polystyrene Using ASTM E 96-80 (Desiccant Method)
Authors: Hoffee AR
Published: December 2008

A variety of materials are presently being tested for water vapor transmission using ASTM Test Methods for Water Vapor Transmission of Materials (E 96-80). The variability observed in data obtained from testing laboratories using this method has recently become a concern. Although most laboratories are performing analyses in accordance to the test method, the interpretation of the method has resulted in a variety of techniques for sample assembly and data evaluation. This paper presents the techniques and test data provided by two testing laboratories to illustrate the variability resulting from interpretation of the test method.
Review of Correlations of Infrared Detection Techniques for Water Vapor Transmission Rates (WVTR) with ASTM E 96-80 and Some Approaches to Gravimetric Calibration
Authors: Pike L
Published: December 2008

Results from an ASTM interlaboratory comparison of Modern Controls IRD-2, now ASTM Test Method for Water Vapor Transmission of Flexible Barrier Materials Using an Infrared Detection Technique (F 372-73), and ASTM Test Methods for Water Vapor Transmission of Materials (E 96-80), the cup test, are reviewed in this paper. A brief report on correlations with the Permatran W is included. The results indicate that the infrared detecting instruments provide results similar to those from ASTM E 96-80 and in significantly less time.

Some approaches to absorbing and weighing the transmitted water vapor for use in calibrating instruments are also covered.
Investigations into Gasoline/Alcohol Blends for Use in General Aviation Aircraft
Authors: Ferrara AM
Published: December 2008

The Federal Aviation Administration has studied the behavior of gasolines containing alcohols using an aircraft fuel system and engine that were installed on a dynamometer. The results of this study identified the worst case for vapor lock testing as: takeoff fuel flow, a fuel temperature in the tank of 38°C, and an alcohol concentration of 15% on a weight/weight basis. Several other considerations for using gasoline/alcohol blends in aircraft systems are identified including: material compatibility problems, water absorption and phase separation, and fuel aging, which aggravates the vapor lock behavior. An attempt was made to correlate the vapor pressure of the test fuels with the vapor lock behavior.
Panel Discussion: Future Fuel Requirements as Seen by Fuel Suppliers
Authors: Strauss KH
Published: December 2008

The purpose of the panel discussion was to explore the future worldwide availability of aviation gasoline. Panel members were F. E. Barnes of Chevron, G. J. Bishop of Shell International, J. P. Covell of Texaco Inc., R. Fletcher of British Petroleum, and R. G. Thompson of Phillips Petroleum. After each panel member made an informal presentation, various questions and comments were taken from the floor. The following is a summary of the presentations as well as the subsequent discussion.
Panel Discussion: Future Fuel Requirements as Seen by Engine Manufacturers
Authors: Strauss KH
Published: December 2008

A separate panel of engine company representatives also reviewed anticipated fuel requirements to support current and future engines. Panel members were C. Goulet of Teledyne Continental Motors, T. L. Holland of AVCO Lycoming, J. Schmauder of Porsche R & D Center, J. Allison of Intech International Inc., and C. Jones of John Deere.
Future Use of Automotive Gasoline in Light Aircraft
Authors: Wagner TO
Published: December 2008

Use of unleaded automotive gasoline in light aircraft that were originally certified on Grade 80 aviation gasoline is attractive because automotive gasoline is more widely available and cheaper than Grade 80 aviation gasoline. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has approved Supplemental Type Certificates permitting operation of certain aircraft on alcohol-free unleaded automotive gasolines meeting ASTM Specification for Automotive Gasoline (D 439-86) specifications, and such use is expected to continue in the future.

Automotive gasolines are substantially more volatile than aviation gasoline, so the fuel supply systems on affected aircraft must be capable of handling the additional volumes of vapor generated at high altitudes or elevated ambient temperatures or both. While the Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP) of summer-grade automotive gasoline may be reduced in the near future because of limitations imposed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), automotive gasolines will generally still be more volatile.

Blending of alcohols such as ethanol in automotive gasolines cannot be anticipated well, since their use is very selective and usually depends on local tax incentives. Some state laws require presence of alcohol in automotive gasoline to be disclosed, but many do not. Ethanol differs substantially from gasolines in heat of combustion, heat of vaporization, stoichiometric A/F ratio, and water susceptibility, all of which can adversely affect engine performance. Also, ethanol blends have higher RVP than the base gasoline. There is no practical way for owners or pilots of light aircraft to tell whether an automotive gasoline contains alcohol or not.

Other than the changes in gasoline RVP, which would benefit aircraft operation only slightly, no changes in automotive gasoline quality or composition that would materially affect their use in aircraft are likely in the future.

For several reasons, it is impossible for gasoline refiner/marketers to assure that automotive gasoline will always meet the limits in the ASTM (D 439-86) specification, especially the limits on RVP, when the gasoline is used in aircraft. However, in the long term, operating new, light aircraft on automotive gasoline may be in the best interest of aircraft owners. If so, to provide adequate flight safety, new aircraft should be certified for year-round use on gasoline of the most-volatile ASTM class, which presently has 103 kPa (15 psi) RVP.
Performance Properties of Silicone Structural Adhesives
Authors: Schmidt CM , Schoenherr WJ , Carbary LD , Takish MS
Published: December 2008

Industry-wide standards for the performance of silicone sealants need to be established to ensure the continued integrity of silicone sealant structurally glazed projects.The first step in establishing such standards is careful research into the behavior of silicone sealants under different conditions. This paper reports two major tests, one using mock-up panels and simulating field conditions, the other scrutinizing sealant properties in a laboratory setting. The results offer a greater understanding of silicone structural sealants and a foundation for developing standard test methods and setting industry performance standards for structural sealants.
Structural Silicone Sealant Curtain Walls: Field or Factory Glazing?
Authors: Takish MS , Haugsby MH , Schmidt CM , Schoenherr WJ
Published: December 2008

Silicone sealant structural glazing, whether conducted in the field or the factory, requires good workmanship and quality materials. While the same basic construction steps are followed for both methods, the details of how the work is done vary. This paper discusses joint design, sealant selection, surface preparation, and quality testing for structural silicone glazing, comparing shop and field glazing at each step.
Spacer Geometry Effects on Strength of Insulating Glass Joints for Structural Glazing Applications
Authors: Sandberg LB , Carbary TM
Published: December 2008

Test results are given for specimens that model insulating glass joints used in structural glazing applications. Three spacer geometries were investigated. The first was a rectangular spacer, resulting in a basic, three-sided adhesion joint. The second was a veeshaped spacer with the point toward the outer edge of the joint. The third was tee-shaped with the stem projecting outward. All specimens were made with a two-part silicone structural sealant. Static tensile strength rankings, in ascending order, are rectangular, vee, tee, and tee with bond breaker. The bond breaker provided only minor improvements for the tee spacer. The data showed a significant gain in strength with increased joint depth. These results are compared and discussed.
Lateral Buckling of Structurally Glazed Curtain Wall Framing
Authors: Clift CD
Published: December 2008

Glass curtain walls consist of large glass panes typically supported by vertical and horizontal framing elements. Wind forces on the curtain walls are transmitted to the building frame at the floor levels, most often by the vertical framing. The glazing transmits the wind forces to the framing and also acts to restrain lateral-torsional motion of the framing. The horizontal members between mullions also may restrain lateral-torsional buckling of the mullions. This paper is concerned with the lateral buckling strength of the long slender framing elements and the design of such members. Since there is practically no literature on this subject, some designers make very conservative assumptions. For example, the paper illustrates that neglecting the bracing offered by structural glazing, even on the tension flange side of a member, can be very inefficient.

Analyses are given herein for several different supporting conditions that approximate minimum and maximum bracing and a realistic approximation to the restraint afforded by structurally glazed elements. For a typical application, comparisons are made of the allowable compressive stress given by current design procedures with corresponding values derived from different theoretical analyses. These comparisons show the great influence of the restraint that may be offered by the structurally glazed elements. Large increases in the allowable compressive stresses are possible. A method that experimentally provides verification of stability is presented, and several tests of such designs are discussed.

The significance of the conclusion generates a design/analysis method that more fully harnesses the multi-function capabilities of structurally glazed curtain wall framing. This will enable the designer, manufacturer, and contractor to provide a more efficient system that will thus have an edge in competition with other exterior wall products in the building construction industry.
Lime in the Environmental Program—An Overview
Authors: Lewis CJ
Published: December 2008

High-calcium quicklime [calcium oxide (CaO)] is presently the major chemical used for controlling environmental pollutants. Areas of application for water include domestic water, industrial waste water, including acid mine drainage, and sewage and hazardous wastes. Domestic water is included because lime can remove metals in source waters which might be considered as pollutants. The area of application in air pollution control is the reduction of sulfur oxides in the stack gases of coal-fired boilers or other operations producing sulfur dioxide as a potential air pollutant. While the foregoing do not cover all of the environmental uses for lime, they are the major ones, an understanding of which should be helpful in almost any environmental application of lime.

The behavior of lime in these applications is discussed. Reference is also made to the use of dolomitic lime [calcium oxide; magnesium oxide (CaO; MgO)]. The magnesium content of this material gives rise to special considerations—for example, the solubility of magnesium sulfate as contrasted with that of calcium sulfate. This paper also calls attention to materials which are competitive with lime as a chemical in the environmental program.

The discussions include lime as the chemical for pH control of the liquid phase in sewage treatment, as well as for sludge dewatering and sludge stabilization prior to ultimate sludge disposal. Waste acids which favor the use of lime are contrasted with those which do not. Potential uses for lime in stabilizing tailings and in the construction of barrier walls around hazardous waste dumps are called to attention. In the field of sulfur oxides control, both wet and dry lime scrubbing procedures are covered, including reference to direct lime or limestone injection into coal-fired boilers.

The paper concludes with a review of the more important engineering considerations which must be taken into account when designing lime handling systems. These include storage, lime slaking, and lime slurry transport.
Use of Lime in the Design of Landfills for Waste Disposal
Authors: Malone PG , May JH
Published: December 2008

The term “lime” includes a wide variety of materials produced by calcining or burning limestone or dolostone and using the resulting material directly or adding water to form a hydrated lime. Lime and products containing lime have been widely employed in landfills. Examples of the use of lime in landfill covers (caps), wastes, and liners are presented. Lime can provide a valuable chemical barrier to the transport of specific contaminants. Lime-pozzolan cements can be used to improve handling of wastes and decrease waste compaction. Lime-soil mixtures can be employed as low-permeability, chemically reactive liners.

Well-documented demonstration projects are required to obtain data needed for the acceptance of lime-augmented landfill designs. Where waste containing lime is employed, standards should be presented as to the chemical characteristics of waste that make them acceptable.
Lime Stabilization of Wastewater Sludges
Authors: Christensen GL
Published: December 2008

The standard lime stabilization process and two process modifications are effective procedures for reducing fecal streptococcus concentrations (disinfection) in wastewater sludges. Depending on the process modification, fecal streptococcus concentrations in treated sludges ranged from a 7-log decrease to a 3-log increase over seven days. Three to seven log reductions are associated with treated sludges meeting the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) criterion of pH ≥ 12 two hours after lime addition. Poor reductions or substantial increases in fecal streptococcus concentrations are associated with treated sludges which do not meet the EPA criterion. Lime stabilization is particularly suitable for landfilling or agricultural utilization of wastewater sludges, and one of the process modifications can be effectively incorporated into any sludge processing scheme.
Carbonation of Calcium and Magnesium Oxides
Authors: Judd G
Published: December 2008

To reduce excessive maintenance at a water softening plant due to scale buildup at meters and filter clogging, it was decided to carbonate the highly alkaline water. This paper reports the author's experiences in the carbonation of calcium and calcium hydroxide as well as magnesium and magnesium hydroxide. A new method of carbonating lime slurries is outlined which derives the most advantage from the lime and carbon dioxide that are used in the carbonation process.
Canal Repair Techniques Using Lime-Stabilized Soil
Authors: Garver LL
Published: December 2008

The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation has been plagued with failures of its canal embankments for a number of years, particularly those constructed with the expansive clay soils found in the San Joaquin Valley of California. Failures have occurred regardless of whether the canal was constructed of earth only or was lined with concrete.

The bureau has tried various repair techniques over the years, none of which have been completely successful until 1972, when a technique was tried which was relatively new to the bureau engineers—lime treatment of existing embankment. So successful were the results that the bureau has used the same technique, with variations, on five more repair jobs.
Effect of Lime Treatment on Collapse-Susceptible Soils in Tucson, Arizona
Authors: Nowatzki EA , Alfi AA
Published: December 2008

This paper presents the results of a laboratory study conducted to determine the effectiveness of lime treatment in modifying the volume change behavior of a typical collapse-susceptible soil in Tucson, Arizona. A series of specimens containing 3% by weight of lime was prepared by statically compacting the mixture to maximum dry density at optimum moisture content as determined by ASTM D 698-78. Specimens were moist-cured under controlled conditions for from 0 to 7 days so that the effects of curing time could also be studied.

Following curing, specimens were tested in an oedometer to determine both “free” swell potential and collapse potential under either 47.9 or 191.5 kPa (0.5 or 2.0 ton/ft2) of applied normal stress. The results of these tests were compared with the results of similar tests performed on specially preconditioned, undisturbed samples and untreated, compacted specimens loaded under the same conditions. The comparison indicates that even moderate lime treatment substantially modified the collapse and free swell characteristics of the compacted soils and significantly improved their engineering behavior.
Some Applications of Computer-Assisted Quantitative Infrared Spectroscopy
Authors: Compton DAC , Young JR , Kollar RG , Mooney JR , Grasselli JG
Published: December 2008

Many of the advantages of a research-grade Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) instrument arise as a consequence of the powerful minicomputer available as part of the instrument. This computer allows for enhanced treatment of the digital spectroscopic data in order to improve the analytical capabilities. These enhanced treatment methods can be used for improved qualitative analysis (for example, by spectral searching) or quantitative analysis.

Enhanced data treatment techniques routinely used in our laboratory will be discussed, including the advantages and limitations of each method. One particularly useful approach of obtaining quantitative information involves the use of variable ratio spectral subtraction. In this method, the absorbance spectrum of a compound is interactively subtracted from the spectrum of a mixture. The value of the ratio necessary to null out the absorption of the component gives the concentration. “Spectral stripping” involves sequentially subtracting several component spectra from a sample spectrum of a multicomponent mixture. Examples of these two techniques will be shown.

When small concentrations of a component are present in a diluent (for example, oil additives) a 1:1 subtraction of the diluent spectrum from the mixture spectrum yields a difference spectrum of the microcomponent from which quantitative information can be obtained.

Another procedure, useful when examining spectra with overlapping band contours, involves resolution enhancement (deconvolution) of the spectral data prior to quantitation. Using this technique the concentration of carboxylic acid salts have been measured in aromatic oils even though there are overlapping absorptions in the 1600 cm−1 region.