bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Soviet ‘Zeitgeist’: Critique of the Post-Industrial Society
Authors: Bej Emil
Published: September 2011

The Soviet discovery of the approach of postindustrial society is not an incidental one. Since converging trends are observed in both capitalist and communist economic systems, the inclusion of macroplanning and more significant activity of the public sector could not be left unnoticed by the Soviet authors. For if convergence is viewed as a “capitalist policy” toward integration, postindustrialism stresses behaviorism with an accent on the consumer demand whose outlook became subject to extended modernization and technical acceptance of societal transformation. Soviet observers claim that in the capitalist environment, objective economic principles are replaced by purely biological determinants, because technocracy and consumerism are the very functional representatives of oncoming social values. Parenthetically then, planning and welfare-state designs are modes to “socialize” capitalism, since the two systems, as western economists claim, possess common values in terms of dynamic growth with no particular doctrine of implementation. Therefore, capitalism not only enforced hybridization of two ideologies, it became a virtual variant of socialism, converging around an industrial nucleus with increased participation of the public sector. Thus, capitalist convergence and revisionism in certain socialist countries are inbred, because by recognizing certain Marxian truisms but by ignoring class struggle, western societies approximate reinterpretation of Marx in the eastern bloc. The latter is a direct contradiction of the Soviet aim of establishing a classless, community-oriented society.
Basis and Superstructure in Poland
Authors: Matejko Alexander J.
Published: September 2011

For a long time state socialism in Eastern Europe has had a tendency towards ossification, and this leads to several negative consequences more or less clearly acknowledged by the local leadership. It is in the sociopolitical nature of the rigid Soviet-style system that any far-reaching reforms are difficult to introduce. Therefore, the Polish experiment of the 1970s started by Gierek and his équipe, after taking power in December 1970 from the équipe of Gomulka, should be carefully scrutinized for successes and failures. From the beginning, this has been an attempt to modernize the economy without transforming the power relations within the society. Modern industry and technology have been widely introduced in Poland during the 1970s, and a considerable part of these innovations has been financed by loans from the West. Application of scientific knowledge to production of goods and services, as well as to management and administration, has been generously promoted by the Polish government in order to maximize efficiency. There has also been much more emphasis than before on the rational utilization of human resources. In the first half of the 1970s, this path to modernity was accompanied by the rise of wages and salaries at a much faster rate than in the other countries of eastern Europe, but, on the other hand, the accelerated pressure on the population toward political conformity or at least passivity also occurred. This pressure was treated by many Poles, as well as by several western observers, rightly or wrongly, as the condition imposed by the neighbors of Poland, primarily the USSR, to tolerate any more vigorous contacts of Poland with the West, as well as the relative “secularization” of the Polish people in comparison with the rigid Marxist orthodoxy in which East Germans and Czechs and all Soviet people are constantly kept by their authorities.
Soviet Finnish: The Language of Neuvosto Karjala (Soviet Karelia)
Authors: Austin Paul M.
Published: September 2011

The Karelian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic provides a unique opportunity for an examination of Soviet linguistic policy. Part of the difficulty in the analysis of the development of Soviet languages has been the lack of a control language or suitable basis for comparison between a language in its Soviet and non-Soviet environment. While it is impossible to determine how a language would have developed had there been no revolution or had it not been in the Soviet Union, some very general observations seem clear. The example of Turkish and Azerbaijani is instructive in this respect. The entire orientation of these two languages has changed drastically since their respective revolutions, particularly in the replacement of the Arabic alphabet by Latin and Cyrillic respectively, the handling of traditional arabisms and Persianisms, and the sources for neologisms (Western European languages and native roots for Turkish and Russian for Azerbaijani). There are, however, very few situations where a realistic comparison can be made between different versions of the same language, for the language abroad may represent only an emigre community or may exist in totally different circumstances, such as Iranian Azerbaijani, or the Soviet language may itself represent only a rump, such as Soviet Yiddish.
Dissent of the Muslims: Soviet Central Asia in the 1980s
Authors: Shorish M. Mobin
Published: September 2011

It is very difficult to translate fully the above verse from the great Persian-speaking poet Bidil without violating its spirit in the context of the Central Asian (and other Iranian areas) culture. The spirit of the verse is not so much fatalism about life itself but is one of cynicism derived from power-lessness over one's fate. This verse is often uttered by the Central Asian intellectuals in response to questions about their relationship with the Russians and sharing of power in the Soviet bureaucracy. It does not communicate resignation. It describes the reality of the USSR, an awareness that a Central Asian is powerless to change circumstances to those favoring his/her well being and spiritual instincts. It camouflages the underlying resentment toward the dominant group, the Russians, who have the monopoly of the means of violence and who have not hesitated to use these means against the Muslim population of Central Asia on numerous occasions during the past hundred years of their rule there.
The Hungarian Revolution of 1956: The Legacy of the Refugees
Authors: Dreisziger Nador F.
Published: September 2011

The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 exerted a deep influence on the international communist movement and greatly affected the political and economic outlook in Hungary. A less well-known legacy of the uprising is what may be called the refugee experience, a momentous chapter in the history of human migration and resettlement. An examination of this experience reveals that the appearance of the Hungarian refugees in Western Europe and the New World greatly changed the development of Hungarian ethnic communities already in existence there, and that the refugees’ presence in the West continues to have lasting influence on relations between Hungary and the West.

In the past, Hungary has been both a source of refugees and a refuge for them. Many times in her history has she offered refuge to persecuted minorities and fugitives driven out of their own countries by war or other calamities. She has also sent her own refugees to the four corners of the world, after such events as the Rákóczi Uprising of the early eighteenth century, the War of Independece of 1848-49, the revolutions of 1918-19, and the Second World War.
‘God Keep me from Going Mad’
Authors: Solzhenitsyn Alexander
Published: September 2011

This is the first ever publication in English of verse by Solzhenitsyn. The passage in question is an extract from a longer autobiographical poem composed in 1950-53 while Solzhenitsyn was serving a sentence in a labour camp in North Kazakhstan. This camp formed the setting of Solzhenitsyn's celebrated novel. One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich. The verse was quoted in a samizdat article on the novel called Ivan Denisovich and the Writer's Spiritual Mission by Venyamin Teush, a former schoolteacher colleague and close friend of Solzhenitsyn. Teush signed it with the psuedonym D. Blagov.
Trials, verdicts and naïve questions
Authors: Cosić Dobrica
Published: September 2011

Dobrica Cosic is a Serb and one of the best known novelists in Yugoslavia today. During the second world war he was a political commissar with Tito's Partisans and afterwards served as a politician and leading member of the Central Committee of the Communist Party. He made his literary reputation with his first novel Daleko le sunce ( ‘Far Is the Sun’), published in 1951, and since then has published several more novels and stories. His latest novel Moć i strepnje ( ‘Power and Foreboding’) was banned after publication last year and removed from sale (see INDEX no.2, 1972, p.147).

The present essay was written in the summer of last year and published in the August 1972 issue of the Belgrade philosophical journal Filozofia. For printing this and an editorial on the same subject the journal was subsequently banned (see INDEX nos 3-4, p.126). The text of this English version has been shortened by about two thousand words.
Interview with Swedish RTV
Authors: Sakharov Andrei
Published: September 2011

This is the full text of the interview that Sakharov gave to Olle Stenholm of Swedish Radio and Television. It was first broadcast on 2 July, 1973.
Letter from Indonesia
Authors: Slamet Ibrahim
Published: September 2011

This article, published here under a pseudonym, is by a well-known Indonesian artist writing about the fate of some of his friends - fellow-artists, composers and journalists - who have suffered persecution and imprisonment since the coup of September 1965.
Reflections on Mihajlo Mihajlov
Authors: Djilas Milovan
Published: September 2011

This article appeared in the New York Times on 14 November, in the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung on 15 November, and in the International Herald Tribune on 20 November 1974.
Confused Mhlaba
Authors: Mqayisa Khayalethu
Published: September 2011

The author of Confused Mhlaba, a play in nine scenes, was born in Port Elizabeth in 1952. He matriculated in Transkei and started writing plays while still at school. This is his ninth, and was written in 1973. It was performed in lohannesburg and Soweto the following year, but has since been banned, as has the text of the play, published by Ravan Press in Johannesburg in November 1974.

Mhlaba is the sixteen-year-old son of Hlubi Nkululeko, a former political prisoner who spent fifteen years on Robben Island before being released and returning home.

We have selected three scenes from the play.
Twisting the rules in Argentina
Authors: Graham-Yooll Andrew
Published: September 2011

The author of Confused Mhlaba, a play in nine scenes, was born in Port Elizabeth in 1952. He matriculated in Transkei and started writing plays while still at school. This is his ninth, and was written in 1973. It was performed in lohannesburg and Soweto the following year, but has since been banned, as has the text of the play, published by Ravan Press in Johannesburg in November 1974.

Mhlaba is the sixteen-year-old son of Hlubi Nkululeko, a former political prisoner who spent fifteen years on Robben Island before being released and returning home.

We have selected three scenes from the play.
Knowing about the Sensory Properties of Objects
Authors: Katz Albert N.
Published: September 2011

Verification of object-property relationships, such as those involved in knowing that a canary is yellow, was examined in two studies. In the first study it was found that two variables, the dominance and the typicality of the property to an object, separately influenced verification speed. Moreover, the effectiveness of high over low dominant relationship was greater for atypical than for typical property relationships. The second study examined the two variables in a priming study. Participants were faster in verifying high compared to low typical relationships when primed by a property name; and faster with high compared to low dominant relationships when primed by the object name. This was taken as evidence for the asymmetric accessibility of object and property information. Taken together these findings indicate that the use and comprehension of property information is more complex than has hitherto been acknowledged and suggests that property statements might be verified much of the time by comparing a stored value to a prototypic standard.
Visual Information: The Control of Aiming Movements
Authors: Carlton Les G.
Published: September 2011

The study examined the contribution of various sources of visual information utilised in the control of discrete aiming movements. Subjects produced movements, 15.24 cm in amplitude, to a 1.27 cm target in a movement time of 330 ms. Responses were carried out at five vision-manipulation conditions which allowed the subject complete vision, no vision, vision of only the target or stylus, and a combination of stylus and target. Response accuracy scores indicated that a decrement in performance occurred when movements were completed in the absence of visual information or when only the target was visible during the response. The stylus and the target plus stylus visual conditions led to response accuracy which was comparable to movements produced with complete vision. These results suggest that the critical visual information for aiming accuracy is that of the stylus. These findings are consistent with a control model based on a visual representation of the discrepancy between the position of the hand and the location of the target.
The Effects of Articulatory Suppression on Reading Ideographic and Alphabetic Numbers
Authors: Hulme Charles , Richardson Jane Ryder
Published: September 2011

The present experiments investigated the effects of articulatory suppression on reading numbers written alphabetically (one, two, etc.) or as Arabic numerals (1, 2, etc.). For alphabetic numbers, but not for numerals, a phonological representation can be generated and used for lexical access. If such phonological encoding occurs, and if it is harmed by irrelevant articulatory activity, then articulatory suppression should have a greater effect on the reading of alphabetic than on numeral representations of numbers. In contrast to a finding reported by Baron (1977), involving alphabetic and Roman numerals, in two experiments suppression was found to have essentially equivalent effects on the reading of both types of numbers. A third experiment explored a possible explanation for these discrepant findings. It is concluded that although alphabetic and numeral representations of numbers may be processed differently there is no evidence to support the idea that reading alphabetic numbers involves phonological encoding prior to lexical access.
The Interference of a Baseline with Children's Orientation Judgement Need Not Entirely Mask Their Contextual Responsiveness
Authors: Freeman N. H. , Kelham S. E.
Published: September 2011

Children below the age of seven are very influenced by the orientation of the external frame of reference when they attempt to lay down a stimulus to match that of a tilted target. If, however, the target be set upon a baseline the children seem unable to benefit from salient parallel alignment cues. By modifying the usual design it is shown that children can remain able to take their bearings from contextual alignment even when setting a pointer upon a baseline; but the effect is only revealed in a complex three-way interaction. Contextual sensitivity is thus not abolished, but masked; and its re-emergence is in an apparently anomalous form.
Processing a Display Even after you Make a Response to it. How Perceptual Errors can be Corrected
Authors: Rabbitt Patrick , Vyas Subhash
Published: September 2011

We know that when people make responses which they did not intend they can discover this by monitoring kinaesthetic and visual feedback. It is less clear whether they can also correct perceptual errors which occur when they mistake one signal for another. It was argued that, if they can sometimes do this, extra errors which occur when discriminations become more difficult may be detected and corrected. Experiment I compared the ability of young fit subjects to detect errors made during easy and during difficult discriminations between tone signals. There was no evidence that any additional errors made to difficult discriminations were detected. Fast errors were detected, slower errors were not. The results were consistent with the idea that subjects can detect fast motor errors by monitoring feedback, but that they cannot detect perceptual mistakes.

In Experiment II subjects made easy and difficult line length discriminations. Displays lasted for 100 ms, 200 ms or 500 ms and were followed by random masks. In this case, fast errors were again corrected more frequently than slow errors but eight aspects of the data suggest that subjects could, and did, correct perceptual as well as motor mistakes and that they managed to do this by continuing to process a display after the moment at which they may have initiated an impulsive response to it. The data are interpreted in terms of a “Committee Decision” model for extended perceptual processing previously applied to other, similar data by Rabbitt and Rodgers (1977) and Rabbitt, Cumming and Vyas (1978).
Asymmetries in Face Processing: Evidence for a Right Hemisphere Perceptual Advantage
Authors: Hay D. C.
Published: September 2011

Investigation of lateral performance asymmetries in the early stages of face processing was conducted using a task which avoided the need either to memorise or to compare two faces. Subjects were merely required to decide whether or not a laterally presented stimulus constituted a face. Analysis of the latencies indicated a LVF advantage for this task which is interpreted, in conjunction with the evidence from patients suffering from prosopagnosia, as indicating a right hemisphere superiority in synthesizing facial percepts.
The Role of Subvocalisation in Reading
Authors: Baddeley Alan , Eldridge Marge , Lewis Vivien
Published: September 2011

A series of experiments explored the role of subvocalisation in fluent reading. Experiment I showed that when subjects were required to suppress articulation while reading, their ability to detect anomalous words or errors of word order in prose was markedly impaired although speed of reading was unaffected. Experiment II showed that this decrement was not a general effect due to performing a secondary task, since a concurrent tapping task did not impair detection accuracy. A third study explored the role of acoustic interference in reading by requiring subjects to detect errors in prose while attempting to ignore irrelevant speech, with or without articulatory suppression. Once again articulatory suppression led to a clear decrement in the subject's ability to detect errors, while unattended speech had no effect on performance. None of the manipulations influenced the speed with which the subjects performed the reading task. It is concluded that subvocalisation allows the creation of a supplementary articulatory code which is produced and utilised in parallel with other aspects of reading. Such a code seems particularly suitable for monitoring order information.
The MRC Psycholinguistic Database
Authors: Coltheart Max
Published: September 2011

This paper describes a computerised database of psycholinguistic information. Semantic, syntactic, phonological and orthographic information about some or all of the 98,538 words in the database is accessible, by using a specially-written and very simple programming language. Word-association data are also included in the database. Some examples are given of the use of the database for selection of stimuli to be used in psycholinguistic experimentation or linguistic research.
Effects of Incentive on Cued Recall
Authors: Eysenck Michael W. , Eysenck M. Christine
Published: September 2011

Words associated with high monetary incentive were better recalled than those associated with low incentive. This effect was found to depend on differential rehearsal, since it was eliminated or markedly attenuated when manipulations designed to minimize rehearsal were used. High-incentive words are more elaborately or extensively processed than low-incentive words, but they are not processed in a qualitatively different manner. This greater elaboration of processing appears to be limited to those attributes or features believed to be relevant to the subsequent retention test. The implications of these findings for incentive theories are discussed.
Aperture Viewing: A Review and a Synthesis
Authors: Morgan M. J. , Findlay J. M. , Watt R. J.
Published: September 2011

We argue that two processes are involved in the visual perception of shapes moving behind narrow apertures. “Retinal painting” occurs when the eyes are free to pursue the moving shape and when the traverse time across the aperture is sufficiently short to allow visual persistence of the temporally successive views. When pursuit eye movements do not occur, however, the shape may still be perceived if it moves relatively slowly. The latter kind of perception does not involve seeing all the parts of the shape simultaneously (as in the case with retinal painting) but we demonstrate that shapes seen in this way have some of the same properties as conventionally presented shapes. The discussion emphasises the relevance of these findings to general problems in movement perception.
Inspection Time: An Index for Intelligence?
Authors: Nettelbeck T.
Published: September 2011

Recent publicity has been given to reports of high correlations between IQ and “inspection time”, a measure derived from simple discrimination which is assumed to provide an estimate of the time taken by a basic component of the decision process. However, this publicity has not recognised that the inclusion of mentally retarded participants in the experiments concerned may have led to inflated correlations, because of the marked extent to which the performance of retarded subjects is inferior to that of nonretarded subjects. Evidence from the performance of nonretarded subjects in three studies suggests that although speed of decision is related to IQ, the degree of association is smaller than recent publicity has suggested. Inspection time does not appear at present to hold promise as an index from which a “culture-fair” measure of intelligence might be derived.
The Fractionation of Arithmetical Skills: A Single Case Study
Authors: Warrington Elizabeth K.
Published: September 2011

A single case study of a patient with a selective impairment of arithmetical calculation is reported. DRC became severely acalculic after sustaining a left parietal intra-cerebral haematoma. His numeracy skills were documented as fully as possible. It was found that his knowledge of the significance of individual numbers and his concept of quantity appeared to be intact, but simple addition, subtraction and multiplication were all performed laboriously and inaccurately and his performance was inconsistent from trial to trial. Further it was shown that it was his knowledge of arithmetical facts not his knowledge of arithmetical operations which was impaired. The findings are discussed in relation to models of arithmetical calculation and it is concluded that for DRC there was a deficit in accessing one category of verbal semantic knowledge systems, namely arithmetical facts.
Language and Orthography as Irrelevant Features in Colour-Word and Picture-Word Stroop Interference
Authors: Smith Marilyn Chapnik , Kirsner Kim
Published: September 2011

Based on evidence that Chinese yields more interference than English, Biederman and Tsao (1979) have suggested that the processes involved in reading Chinese are more similar to those involved in colour naming than are the processes involved in reading English. In three experiments conducted to evaluate the empirical foundation for this hypothesis it was found that: (1) Chinese yielded less interference than English (and French) in between-subjects comparisons involving Chinese-English bilinguals and English monolinguals or English-French bilinguals; (2) Chinese print did not yield more interference than English print in within-subjects comparisons involving the orthogonal combination of print language (Chinese or English) and naming language (Chinese or English) among Chinese–English bilinguals; and (3) compared with syntactic category, both language and orthography were relatively impotent variables in the object naming version of the Stroop task.
Syllable Similarity: The Effects of Differences in Vowels, Consonants, and Order
Authors: Chodorow Martin S. , Manning Susan Karp
Published: September 2011

In five experiments with synthetic and natural speech syllables, a rating task we used to study the effects of differences in vowels, consonants, and segment order on judged syllable similarity. The results of Experiments I-IV support neither a purely phonemic model of speech representation, in which vowel, consonant, and order are represented independently, nor a purely syllabic model, in which the three factors are integrated. Instead, the data indicate that subjects compare representations in which adjacent vowel and consonant are independent of one another but are not independent of their positions in the syllable. Experiment V provided no support for the hypothesis that this position-sensitive coding is due to acoustic differences in formant transitions.
Noise Effects on Rehearsal Rate in Short Term Serial Order Memory
Authors: Mohindra Naresh , Wilding John
Published: September 2011

Three experiments are reported which were designed to test the hypothesis that the rate of rehearsal during noise is slower than that under quiet conditions. The first experiment measured directly the rate of articulation while subjects either read or rehearsed a set of five consonants. It was shown that while the rate of articulation when reading aloud did not differ under the two noise levels [65 dB(C) and 85 dB(C)], rate of articulation during overt rehearsal in loud noise was significantly slower than under quiet conditions. In Experiment II a similar effect was demonstrated where words were required to be read or rehearsed; here it was shown that the greatest impairment due to noise was on the rate of rehearsal of words of long spoken length.

The third experiment showed that loud noise impaired recall performance more markedly for a set of words of long spoken length presented early on in the sequence than for a set of shorter words, even though both sets were equal in the number of syllables and phonemes they contained.

It was concluded that in verbal memory tasks where rote rehearsal of the to-be-remembered material is the predominant strategy for enhancing trace duration, noise may affect memory performance by slowing down the rehearsal rate.
Combining Attributes in Rapid Serial Visual Presentation Tasks
Authors: McLean John P. , Broadbent Donald E. , Broadbent Margaret H. P.
Published: September 2011

A series of three exploratory experiments sought to compare and contrast two broad classes of theory pertaining to visual information pick-up. One theoretical approach, exemplified by Keele and Neill (1978) and by Treisman (1977) emphasizes the relatively passive, parallel development of information codes, with subsequent attentional integration of contiguous codes into a percept. Another theoretical approach, exemplified by Broadbent (1977a) emphasizes the relatively active, sequential, recursive interrogation of a visual display in which the pick-up of each piece of information guides the perceptual system in its quest for more information. The manner in which separable attributes of visual information are picked up and combined was studied by manipulating the roles of different attributes in a rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) paradigm. Observers were asked to report the name of a letter in a specified target colour; to report the colour of a specified target letter; to report the colour of a specified target numeral embedded in a list of letters; to report the colour of an unspecified numeral embedded in a list of letters; and to perform the latter two tasks without knowing in which of two alternating spatial positions the target might appear. Examination of the patterns of mis-combinations of attributes from target and non-target stimuli yields evidence both for and against each theoretical position, and suggests that the two might better be considered as modes of processing available to the perceptual system, rather than as intrinsic properties of that system.
Differential Acquisition Rates for Different Types of Information from Pictures
Authors: Loftus Geoffrey R. , Nelson Walter W. , Kallman Howard J.
Published: September 2011

In three picture-recognition experiments, we investigated the characteristics of “specific feature” and “holistic” information hypothesized to be extracted from pictures. In each experiment, exposure time was varied at study. The recognition test was two-alternative forced-choice in which the target/distractor relationship was manipulated in such a way that responding on the basis of one type of information or the other was required. The results indicated that following one fixation on a picture at the time of initial study, performance based on holistic information was superior to performance based on specific feature information, whereas the reverse was true following sufficient study time for multiple fixations. These results support a view of pictorial information acquisition which postulates that most holistic information extracted from a picture is extracted during the first eye fixation on the picture, whereas subsequent fixations have the primary purpose of seeking out specific, informative features.
RT to Tactile Stimuli Presented Ipsi- and Contralaterally to the Responding Hand
Authors: Peters Michael
Published: September 2011

Subjects had to react with the hand which received a tactile stimulus (uncrossed condition) or with the hand opposite to the hand which received the stimulus (crossed condition). Four experiments were conducted. In the first three, subjects knew which hand would receive the stimulus and which hand would have to respond. In the first two experiments, subjects reacted to a simple tactile stimulus while in the third subjects had to perform a tactile discrimination before responding. No significant differences in RT under the crossed and uncrossed conditions were observed in the first three experiments. In the fourth experiment, subjects did not know which hand would receive the stimulus, and they also did not know which hand would have to respond. Under these conditions, large significant differences in RT between the crossed and uncrossed condition emerged.

The study includes a criticism of a simple structural interpretation of interhemispheric transmission time (IHTT) as proposed by Bashore (1981). Support is provided for the view that in paradigms of the kind used here, allocation of attention to a psychologically defined hemispace is a more important factor in observed RT than structural links between stimulus and response mechanisms.
Semantic Distance in Memory Structure: The Retrieval of Conceptual Relationships
Authors: Berry Colin , Grove Carl
Published: September 2011

Four experiments are described which aim to distinguish the relative contributions of measures of semantic distance based on formal and normative criteria. Experiment I replicates a previous finding by Collins and Quillian (1969) that sentence confirmation RTs support a hierarchically-organised memory model. Experiments II and III minimised the role of syntactic processes and examined the times taken to “see the relationship” between pairs of concepts. The results also supported a hierarchical model but cast doubt upon the formal distinction between superset and property relationships. Experiment IV showed similar results using only property relationships of the “has” form. Multiple regression analyses of the data indicate that “number of intervening links” is a more consistent predictor of RT than “associative” measures of semantic relatendness and confirm strong linearity effects consistent with a hierarchical model of storage.
Surface Dyslexia
Authors: Coltheart Max , Masterson Jacqueline , Byng Sally , Prior Margot , Riddoch Jane
Published: September 2011

Two cases of surface dyslexia are described. In this disorder, irregular words such as broad or steak are less likely to be read aloud correctly than regularly-spelled words like breed or steam; and when irregular words are misread the incorrect response is often a regularisation (reading broad as “brode” and steak as “steek, for example). When reading comprehension was tested, homophones were often confused with each other: for example, soar was understood as an instrument for cutting, and route was understood as being part of a tree. Spelling was also impaired, with the majority of spelling errors being phonologically correct: for example, “search” was spelled surch. “Orthographic” errors in reading aloud (omitting, altering, adding or transposing letters) were also noted. These errors were not due to defects at elementary levels of visual processing.

One of our cases was a developmental dyslexic, and the other was an acquired dyslexic. The close similarity of their reading and spelling performance supports the view that surface dyslexia can cccur both as a developmental and as an acquired dyslexia.

A theoretical interpretation of surface dyslexia within the framework of the logogen model (including a grapheme-phoneme correspondence system for reading non-words) was offered: defects within the input logogen system, and in communication from that system to semantics, were postulated as responsible for most of the symptoms of surface dyslexia.
Retrieval from Semantic Memory During a Night without Sleep
Authors: Tilley Andrew , Warren Paddy
Published: September 2011

It has been demonstrated that retrieval performance from semantic memory varies during the day. Specifically, the retrieval of low- relative to high-dominance category members is slower in the morning compared to later in the day. It has been suggested that the effect is related to a circadian arousal rhythm, which steadily rises during the day and rapidly declines at night. This study examines retrieval from semantic memory during the night. Sixteen subjects performed a semantic classification task once every hour throughout one night without sleep. Classification latencies became progressively slower, and the time taken to retrieve low- relative to high-dominance category members increased from midnight to 4 a.m. The trend reversed between 4 and 7 a.m. The pattern of results closely parallels the hypothesised circadian arousal rhythm. It is suggested that the variation in retrieval performance as a function of time of day may be related to fluctuations in a circadian arousal rhythm.
Bimanual Movement Control: Information processing and Interaction Effects
Authors: Marteniuk R. G. , MacKenzie C. L. , Baba D. M.
Published: September 2011

Three experiments were designed to investigate the underlying processes in bimanual control. With one hand alone, or with both simultaneously, subjects moved styli from the midline of the body to lateral targets as quickly and accurately as possible. The distance moved and the weight of the styli were varied. Results of reaction time, movement time, and kinematic trajectory analyses question the conclusions of Kelso, Southard and Goodman (1979) regarding the synchronicity of movement of the two limbs. Temporal parameters for the two limbs indicated marked departures from synchronicity, and there was evidence for a left–right asymmetry. The dependent variables of movement time and constant error indicated that there was interaction between the two limbs. The results are discussed in terms of three postulated processes underlying bimanual movement: limb selection (one or two), specification of movement locations and the specification of movement intensities.
The neuropsychology of Writing and Spelling: Semantic, Phonological, Motor, and Perceptual Processes
Authors: Margolin David I.
Published: September 2011

Neuropsychological data is reviewed in order to delineate the semantic, phonological, motor, and perceptual processes underlying spelling, with particular attention to handwriting. These data support a model in which semantic, lexical phonological, and non-lexical phonological processes can generate spelling, either independently or in an interactive fashion. Oral and written spelling depend upon common processes up to, and including, an orthographic code. After this point they each depend upon several separate stages of information processing.
Assimilation and Contrast in Perceptual Judgments
Authors: McKenna Frank P.
Published: September 2011

An attempt is made to specify the differential conditions underlying two opposite context effects: assimilation and contrast. Assimilation occurs when the judgment of the current stimulus shifts in the direction of the preceding stimulus; contrast occurs when the judgment shifts in the opposite direction. Both effects are brought together and demonstrated in a single paradigm. It is hypothesized that the number of contextual stimuli is the differentiating factor. Two alternative hypotheses, the differential stimulation hypothesis and the temporal position hypothesis, are also tested. The differential stimulation hypothesis proposes that the intensity difference between the contextual and judged stimulus determines whether assimilation or contrast occur, and the temporal position hypothesis proposes that varying the temporal position of the contextual stimulus is the critical factor. While the results do not support either of these alternative hypotheses, it is shown that the number of contextual stimuli does determine whether assimilation or contrast occur.
Reasoning with Realistic Disjunctives
Authors: Newstead Stephen E. , Griggs Richard A. , Chrostowski Jay J.
Published: September 2011

The research reported here investigated how people interpret and reason with disjunctive statements. Experiment 1 demonstrated a general preference for exclusive over inclusive interpretations, although this varied as a function of the context in which the statement occurred, and there were some contexts in which other, quite different, interpretations were possible. Experiments 2 and 3 showed that the logical inferences subjects would draw from disjunctive statements also varied with context. It is concluded that or permits a number of different interpretations, which are determined by contextual cues. Previous research may have underestimated disjunctive reasoning performance by using contexts that lead to non-logical responses; certainly in the present experiments reasoning was generally accurate given the interpretation adopted.
A Comparison of Disconfirmatory, Confirmatory and Control Strategies on Wason's 2–4–6 Task
Authors: Gorman Michael E. , Gorman Margaret E.
Published: September 2011

Attempts to instruct subjects to falsify on inference tasks designed to model scientific problem-solving have indicated that, in most cases, falsification does not lead to improved performance. The only study in which instructions to falsify did improve performance was done with groups, using a novel inference task. The present study is an attempt to replicate the success of falsification in the group study with subjects run individually on an inference task that has been used extensively in the literature: Wason's 2–4–6 problem. Each subject was run in one of three strategy conditions: confirmatory, disconfirmatory or control (no-strategy).

Results indicated that subjects in the disconfirmatory condition solved the 2–4–6 problem significantly more often than subjects in other conditions. The superior performance of disconfirmatory subjects was explained by the fact that they deliberately sought and obtained significantly more falsificatory information than subjects in other conditions.

The critical difference between this study and previous attempts to instruct individual subjects to falsify on the 2–4–6 task is that subjects in the present study were given no feedback as to whether their guesses were right or wrong until the experiment was over. The implications of this result for scientific problem-solving are discussed.
The Effects of Belief on the Spontaneous Production of Syllogistic Conclusions
Authors: Oakhill J. V. , Johnson-Laird P. N.
Published: September 2011

Two experiments examined the effects of subjects’ beliefs on syllogistic inference. The first experiment showed that beliefs biased the spontaneous conclusions that subjects drew for themselves. These effects were more marked for indeterminate premises (which yield no non-trivial valid conclusions) than for determinate premises (which yield valid conclusions). There was also an effect of the nature of the beliefs: conclusions that were false by definition had a bigger effect on deductions than those that were false as a matter of fact. The second experiment replicated the finding for determinate syllogisms, using problems in moods in which the status of the valid conclusion could not be altered by conversion of the premises. Beliefs accordingly appear to affect the process of reasoning rather than the interpretation of premises.
A Study of Braille Reading: 2. Patterns of Hand Activity in One-Handed and Two-Handed Reading
Authors: Bertelson Paul , Mousty Philippe , D'Alimonte Graziella
Published: September 2011

Video recordings of the hands of 24 blind adults reading aloud prose, statistical approximations and scrambled words with either hand alone and with two hands were analysed. Hand activity involved forward scanning movements, regressions and returns to the next line. In two-handed reading, most readers resorted to mixed movement patterns, where a first segment of the line was explored by the left hand alone, a second segment by the two hands conjointly and a third segment by the right hand alone, each hand returning to the line while the other one was reading. In subjects who dissociated the hands to a great extent, the left hand generally started scanning the new line before the right hand had reached the end of the preceding line. This simultaneous disjoint exploration occurred with little slowing down of forward scanning, and involved parallel collection of textual information by the two hands. There were large and reliable individual differences in the relative sizes of the segments explored using the different hand combinations. Hand dissociation was correlated positively with individual reading speed in both two-handed and one-handed reading, and reductions in the degree of contextual constraint induced the adoption of more conjoint patterns of exploration. Total reading time was analyzed into components corresponding to regressions, line transitions and forward scanning. The main part of the gain from two-handed reading resulted in most subjects from savings in line transition time, but the most conjoint readers gained also on forward scanning and on regressions. The lower overall speed of conjoint readers was due not only to longer transition times but also to slower forward scanning and more time spent regressing.
Orienting to Targets by Looking and Pointing: Parallels and Interactions in Ocular and Manual Performance
Authors: Mather Jennifer A. , Fisk John D.
Published: September 2011

Orienting to a target by looking and pointing is examined for parallels between the control of the two systems and interactions due to movement of the eyes and limb to the same target. Parallels appear early in orienting and may be due to common processing of spatial information for the ocular and manual systems. The eyes and limb both have shorter response latency to central visual and peripheral auditory targets. Each movement also has shorter latency and duration when the target presentation is short enough (200 msec) that no analysis of feedback of the target position is possible during the movement. Interactions appear at many stages of information processing for movement. Latency of ocular movement is much longer when the subject also points, and the eye and limb movement latencies are highly correlated for orienting to auditory targets. Final position of eyes and limb are significantly correlated only when target duration is short (200 msec). This illustrates that sensory information obtained before the movement begins is an important, but not the only, source of input about target position. Additional information that assists orienting may be passed from one system to another, since visual information gained by looking aided pointing to lights and proprioceptive information from the pointing hand seemed to assist the eyes in looking to sounds. Thus the production of this simple set of movements may be partly described by a cascade-type process of parallel analysis of spatial information for eye and hand control, but is also, later in the movement, assisted by cross-system interaction.
Enhancing Single-Item Recognition Accuracy by Cueing Spatial Locations in Vision
Authors: van der Heijden A. H. C. , Schreuder R. , Wolters G.
Published: September 2011

With single-item visual displays, facilitating effects of foreknowledge of position have been shown in detection tasks with latency and with accuracy as the dependent variables, as well as in recognition tasks with latency as the dependent variable. There is no evidence, however, of positive selective attention effects on recognition accuracy with single-item displays. One failure to find such an effect was reported by Grindley and Townsend (1968). It is argued that in the study of Grindley and Townsend sub-optimal conditions were used and that a more elaborate replication of their study is in order. In the experiment reported here, an exposure duration resulting in 75% correct recognitions of target letters was determined per subject. This exposure time was used in the subsequent experimental sessions. In the experimental trials, single letters were presented on one out of five positions on an imaginary circle around a fixation point. The position of the impending target item was either cued or not cued by presenting either one or five dots at corresponding positions on the circumference of a similar, but somewhat larger, imaginary circle. The results showed a small, but highly significant, improvement in recognition accuracy when the position of the target letter was cued. It is concluded that cueing enhances recognition accuracy in single-item displays. Such an effect can only be shown if optimal experimental conditions are used.
The Nature of Phonological Processing in Oral Reading: Evidence from Surface Dyslexia
Authors: Kay Janice , Lesser Ruth
Published: September 2011

Investigation of a neurological patient (PT) who presents with a relatively pure disorder of reading was carried out. His performance on a number of oral reading tasks was very similar to that of the surface dyslexic patient (HTR) reported by Shallice, Warrington and McCarthy (1983). Both patients showed an effect of “degree” of regularity in terms of accuracy of reading response. PT did not, however, show an effect of “typicality of divergence”, which was considered by Shallice and his colleagues to be responsible for the former effect. The size of orthographic–phonological unit operational in PT's oral reading was experimentally determined. PT appeared to rely on grapheme–phoneme correspondences that were assigned in a probabilistic rather than an “all-or-none” manner. No evidence for the existence of the sub-syllable as an independent unit was found. In contrast, this unit apparently mediated the performance of skilled adult readers. Implications of these results for models of the phonological route are discussed.