bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Global Statistical Analysis of Forced Settlement and Colonial Occupation
Authors: Owolabi Olukunle P.
Published: April 2023

Chapter 4 uses OLS regression models to examine the long-term developmental legacies of forced settlement and colonial occupation among Global South countries that emerged from colonial rule after 1945. These statistical models demonstrate favorable development outcomes in forced settlement colonies relative to colonies of occupation in terms of education, health, and economic well-being at the end of the colonial era. Forced settlement is also associated with greater exposure to mass electoral competition during the late colonial era and higher mean postcolonial democracy scores after independence. These data results are robust to different model specifications that include statistical controls for confounding factors like European settlement, British colonization, ethnic diversity, religious composition, geography, and Protestant missionary evangelization. The data models also suggest that the favorable developmental outcomes in forced settlement colonies resulted from liberal reforms that expanded educational access and voting rights to emancipated Afro-descendants following the abolition of slavery.
The Value of Death for Animals
Authors: Delon Nicolas
Published: April 2023

This chapter reviews issues concerning the value of death for non-human animals, specifically those in shelters. It focuses on the value and harm of death, asking what makes an animal’s life worth living; what, if anything, makes death bad (or good) for animals; what factors contribute to how bad it is; and what facts about shelters are relevant to our decision-making when considering saving lives and euthanasia. The chapter reviews three views of the harm of death: death as a deprivation, death as thwarting desires, and death as interrupting a narrative. It argues for the superiority of the deprivation view, on the grounds that it best accounts for the judgment that death is bad for animals while making sense of whether and when it is better for some animals in shelters to be killed than allowed to suffer.
Being Popular and Being Just
Authors: Tam Agnes , Kymlicka Will
Published: April 2023

Due to their heavy reliance on public goodwill, community-based animal protection organizations (APOs) often face a dilemma in animal advocacy. Either they preserve institutional efficacy by focusing on popular causes—for example, protecting cats and dogs from individual acts of cruelty—at the expense of their own progressive institutional mandates. Or they honor their own institutional mandates by pursuing progressive causes—for example, challenging factory farming or the property status of animals—at the risk of losing public support. In this chapter, the authors argue that APOs can avoid this dilemma by adopting a new model of advocacy: “we”-reasoning. Drawing on recent work in the philosophy of social norms, the authors claim that “we-reasons” rooted in group norms, distinct from both prudential reasoning (“reason-for-me”) and from moral reasoning (“reason-for everyone”), can generate support for progressive agendas. They apply this model to recent controversies about the adoption of vegan diets in shelters.
Introduction
Authors: Duina Francesco , Viju-Miljusevic Crina
Published: April 2023

The Introduction situates the volume in the existing literatures on trade, the European Union (EU), standardization, and globalization. Drawing from the insights of economic sociology, it puts forth a view of EU trade agreements as involving the standardization of many aspects of economic, political, and social life. The perspective is essentially constructivist and thus contrasts with more traditional understandings of international trade. At stake is the articulation of worldviews, and the possible projection of the EU’s own perspectives onto the world. The Introduction states that the volume investigates patterns of standardization and the extent to which they reflect the EU’s preferences. It articulates a set of possible explanations for the observable patterns. It then identifies the policy areas and regions of the world that the chapters cover. It concludes by reporting on the findings from the chapters.
Biography
Authors: Javeline Debra
Published: April 2023

Chapter 10 shows that victims’ biography mattered tremendously in terms of their personal history but mattered very little in terms of demographics. Victims’ age, education, and income were not significantly related to support for retaliatory violence or participation. However, those whose family or friends suffered harm by someone of Ingush or Chechen descent prior to the hostage taking were more likely to support retaliatory violence and also more likely to participate in politics. Those who participated in politics prior to the hostage taking were more likely to participate in politics afterward and, notably, were less likely to support retaliatory violence. Longtime political activists are thus some of the most reliably committed to ending the spiral of violence while still demanding grievance satisfaction.
Kant, Race, and Racism
Authors: Lu-Adler Huaping
Published: April 2023

Kant scholars have paid relatively little attention to his raciology. They assume that his racism, as personal prejudice, can be disentangled from his core philosophy. They also assume that racism contradicts his moral theory. This book challenges both assumptions. It shows how Kant’s raciology—divided into racialism and racism—is integral to his philosophical system as a whole. It also rejects the individualistic approach to Kant and racism. Instead, it uses the notion of racism as ideological formation to demonstrate how Kant, from his social location both as a prominent scholar and as a lifelong educator, participated in the formation of modern racist ideology. As a scholar, Kant developed a groundbreaking scientific theory of race from the standpoint of a philosophical investigator of nature or Naturforscher. As an educator, he transmitted denigrating depictions of the racialized others and imbued them with normative relevance. In both roles, he presented a worldview that excluded nonwhites from such goods as recognitional respect and candidacy for cultural and moral achievements. Some effects of this worldview are still palpable today. Scholars who research and teach Kant’s philosophy therefore have an unshakable burden to take part in the ongoing antiracist struggles, through their teaching practices as well as their scholarship. And they must do so in a color-conscious as opposed to colorblind way, with a pragmatic attention to nonideal social realities and a clear normative orientation toward substantial racial justice, equality, and inclusion.
What Is Seen Cannot Be Unseen
Authors: Lu-Adler Huaping
Published: April 2023

This chapter explicates the functions of “race” after Kant. There is a distinction between race concepts as representations and race concepts as tools or as political ideas serving ideological functions. We examine the legacies of Kant’s raciology in the latter terms. In a racialized world, one cannot unsee race and should not try to address racial injustices in a colorblind way. To illustrate, we consider two novellas published not long after Kant’s death. Both revolve around racial identities in a racially hegemonic world. The first novella, Die Verlobung in St. Domingo by Heinrich von Kleist, highlights the tragic trap of racialization. Kant’s theory of abstraction helps to explain the inescapability of racialization depicted in this novella. The second novella, William der Neger by Caroline Auguste Fischer, follows the growth of a “Negro” who struggled with Du Boisian double consciousness but came to embrace his identity as a black man.
Introduction to the Centennial History
Authors: Gold Andrew S. , Gordon Robert W.
Published: April 2023

This chapter introduces a volume of original essays in honor of the American Law Institute’s (ALI’s) Centennial. The volume focuses on specific ALI undertakings, including some of the more important Restatements and Codes; several leading Principles projects; statutory projects such as the Model Penal Code and the Uniform Commercial Code; themes cutting across substantive fields of law (such as the Restatements and codification or the Restatements and the common law); and the ALI’s institutional history. This introduction places the book’s contributions within a historical context that extends back to the early twentieth century, and it draws together key themes from each of the book’s chapters.
The Work of the American Law Institute in Historical Context
Authors: Abraham Kenneth S. , White G. Edward
Published: April 2023

This chapter examines the intellectual and social contexts in which the American Law Institute (ALI) has operated and how they have influenced the course the ALI and its projects have taken during the 100 years of its history. Our aim is to situate the central preoccupations of the ALI at various times in the larger culture of the American legal profession and the social forces influencing American law. From its origins, the ALI has been a self-consciously elitist organization, operating under the premise that a collection of distinguished individuals drawn from the practicing bar, the judiciary, and the legal academy can make significant contributions to the growth and development of American law. But despite that premise, the ALI has not been free from pressures emanating from the broader legal profession and American society as a whole. One of the themes of this chapter is the ALI’s inability to be immune from those pressures in its mission to improve the state of American law, despite its strong commitment to professional independence from outside influences.
The Restatements of Trusts—Revisited
Authors: Cahn Naomi , Gordon Deborah , Tait Allison
Published: April 2023

This chapter provides a brief history of the first three Restatements of Trusts, and it then offers suggestions for a Restatement (Fourth). As this chapter traces, the three Restatements reflect the legal development of the “modern trust,” which holds a variety of financial interests; the chapter also shows how the evolution of the trust Restatements reflect economic, social, and cultural changes. After a brief history, the chapter then turns to trace three themes: first, it threads together how the three Restatements address the question of shifting social and legal norms, including how diverse populations across the wealth spectrum engage with wealth transfer through trusts; second, the chapter focuses on the “public policy” provision in each of the three trust Restatements and tracks that provision’s focus on gender roles, marriage, religion, and “detriment to community”; and third, it traces provisions relating to trustees’ fiduciary responsibilities to beneficiaries, primarily relating to decisions about investments. As this chapter celebrates the positive impact of the Restatements of Trusts on the development of trust law, the chapter also provides suggestions for a Restatement (Fourth) of Trusts that, as has been true of the previous Restatements, would reflect contemporary developments in both trust and society in each of the three categories.
The International Law Profile of the ALI
Authors: Bermann George A.
Published: April 2023

Though its focus, most notably in its Restatements, has traditionally been on domestic U.S. law, the American Law Institute (ALI) has conspicuously turned “international” in recognition of the fact that U.S. law does not, in the present world, operate in isolation from the law of foreign jurisdictions and international institutions. To be sure, the two most prominent Restatements in the field continue to bear the term “U.S.” in their title: “Restatement of the Foreign Relations Law of the United States” and “The U.S. Law of International Commercial and Investor-State Arbitration.” But both present bodies of law profoundly influenced by, and influencing, foreign and international legal regimes. By contrast, the ALI’s Principles of World Trade Law present the law of a genuine international organization (the World Trade Organization), while the ALI’s Principles of Aggregate Litigation addresses challenges common to jurisdictions around the world. This broader outlook is exemplified by the ALI’s joint projects with the European Law Institute, for which the ALI was very much a model.
Constructing a Legal Field
Authors: Wendel W. Bradley
Published: April 2023

The law governing lawyers is a relatively young field, emerging from the organized bar’s efforts to preserve the autonomy of the profession from external regulation. The field also separated itself from aspirational ideals and ethical principles, becoming firmly established as a subject to be taught in law schools following the revelation of the participation of lawyers in the Watergate scandal. The history of the profession’s official pronouncements on ethics shows an evolution in the subject from aspirational statements of best practices to a statute-like set of enforceable legal rules. While some scholars criticized the “demoralization” of legal ethics, this chapter contends that what actually happened is the development of an area of law with its own characteristic normative perspective on the legal profession. Borrowing from Restatement Reporter Charles Wolfram’s history of the project, the chapter sees the Restatement as a response to a shift in the organized bar’s own governing ideology, from serving as guardians of the law to purely private guardians of client interests. The Restatement certainly does not envision lawyers as having robust, freestanding duties as guardians of the law, justice, morality, or the public interest. But it does recognize that the obligation of competent, diligent representation of clients—often shorthanded as “zealous advocacy”—is internally limited by a recognition that the law establishes boundaries on what lawyers permissibly may do in the course of representing clients. This represents a normatively attractive vision of legal practice, combining fiduciary loyalty to clients with an obligation to respect and sustain legal institutions.
The Uniform Commercial Code and the Ongoing Quest for an Efficient and Fair Commercial Law
Authors: Scott Robert E.
Published: April 2023

The Uniform Commercial Code has had a profound influence on the development of commercial law over the past seventy years. But viewed from a contemporary perspective, its legacy is decidedly mixed. Article 2 on sales, despite its innovations when first introduced, is now hopelessly obsolete and does not respond to the very different contracting practices facing commercial parties today. The specialized statutes dealing with commercial paper and secured debt—Articles 3, 4, and 9—are still widely useful and have been frequently revised but these revisions were promoted and successfully promulgated by the very parties most affected by the regulation, raising the fear of distributional unfairness toward third party interests. Thus, the quest for a commercial law that is both efficient as between the transacting parties and fair in its treatment of affected third parties must continue.
From Restatement to Model Penal Code
Authors: Ferzan Kimberly Kessler
Published: April 2023

This chapter details the evolution of the American Law Institute’s (ALI’s) approach to criminal law reform, eventuating in the Model Penal Code (MPC). It begins with the pre-MPC committees and reports. Here, we see how the chaotic state of the criminal law called for reform and how the need for direction transformed the project from Restatement to model code. The chapter then turns to the MPC, discussing how it innovated American criminal law and briefly surveying its substantial impact on law reform. It then sets forth the arguments for updating the MPC, including the recent projects that revised both sentencing and sexual assault. Finally, it evaluates the MPC. If we look at what motivated the first ALI committee on criminal law reform and what MPC Reporter Herbert Wechsler’s key aspirations were, the success of the MPC is mixed. Some key provisions were sparsely adopted, and some were later undermined. And the Code never offered the kind of uniformity that the initial committee sought. But it is a mistake to ask whether any state’s adoption of the code in whole or in part defines it success. Rather, the MPC’s success lies in the fact that it is a theoretical and conceptual lodestar for past and future reformers.
Special Interests at the Gate
Authors: Bratton William W.
Published: April 2023

The field of corporate governance was still in an early stage when, in 1978, the American Law Institute launched a Corporate Governance Project that produced its Principles of Corporate Governance: Analysis and Recommendations, finally approved fourteen years later. The Principles pursue the goal of enhanced management accountability with an innovative fusion of extralegal governance principles and restatements or revisions of the parts of corporate law that bear most directly on governance. This chapter recounts the Principles’ origins and evolution, a famously controversial process. The Project’s reporters confronted a direct attack spearheaded by agents of the Business Roundtable and their sympathizers. The attackers insisted that corporate governance is about efficient production as well as legal accountability and that the Principles’ progenitors were short on expertise respecting the former and so excessively weighted their output to the latter. This chapter concludes that history lies on the side of the Project and its reporters. The Principles, viewed with the benefit of hindsight, got a lot of things right. They stood (and continue to stand) head and shoulders above the rest of the literature as the best treatise ever produced on corporate law. They also stood (and continue to stand) as the formal source of the monitoring model of the corporate board of directors, the model that continues to dominate thinking both in corporate law and corporate governance.
The ALI Principles of the Law of Family Dissolution
Authors: McClain Linda C. , NeJaime Douglas
Published: April 2023

This chapter argues that the American Law Institute Principles of the Law of Family Dissolution intervened in cutting-edge issues at a time of flux in family law and elaborated a progressive agenda that gained traction in the years after the Principles’ publication. Beginning from the assumption that family law should reflect how people actually live, the Reporters developed a functional, rather than formal, approach to legal regulation. Such an approach, they believed, could vindicate commitments to equality and advance goals of predictability, consistency, and fairness. The chapter shows how concerns with intra-family inequality—particularly gender-differentiated roles in different-sex couples—and interfamily inequality—particularly marital-status distinctions that dovetailed with the exclusion of same-sex couples—led the Reporters to articulate generally applicable principles capable of accommodating families’ lived experiences. Explicit adoption of the Principles’ recommendations by courts and legislatures has been rare. Yet, the chapter rejects a view of the Principles as a failed project and instead understands them as a meaningful intervention in ongoing debates among courts, legislatures, advocates, and scholars. In recent decades, the Principles’ functional approach has grown across jurisdictions, spurred in part by efforts to eradicate inequality within and between families. Parentage law has turned to functional criteria to protect parent-child relationships regardless of the gender, sexual orientation, or marital status of the parent. While the Principles’ functional, status-based approach to nonmarital adult relationships remains a distinct minority position among U.S. jurisdictions, that approach continues to serve as a foundational authority in ongoing debates over legal remedies for unmarried partners.
Aggregationists at the Barricades
Authors: Mullenix Linda S.
Published: April 2023

This chapter assesses the impact of the American Law Institute’s project, Principles of the Law of Aggregate Litigation. It discusses the Principles in the historical context when complex litigation began to dominate federal dockets in the 1980s and aggregate litigation proliferated in the twenty-first century. The chapter examines the emergence of a cohort of aggregationists dedicated to liberalizing federal procedure to support, enhance, and encourage the speedy and efficient resolution of complex litigation. The chapter concludes that while the Principles project has left its mark in federal rulemaking, most judges seem comfortable with prevailing jurisprudence and not especially interested in rewriting procedural doctrine governing complex litigation as the Reporters and Advisers recommended. The Principles has not resulted in a root-and-branch revision of aggregate procedure. Rather, reception of the Principles suggests that a more incremental approach to legal reform has prevailed, and the efforts of the avid aggregationists must await another day.
Restatements and the Common Law
Authors: Gold Andrew S. , Smith Henry E
Published: April 2023

Restatements interact with the common law in multiple ways. Restatements reflect the common law, but they also may do much more; for example, they may accelerate legal reform, and they may freeze the law in place. This chapter considers ways that Restatements can address a concern that Justice Cardozo emphasized: the need for a balance between certainty and flexibility. With that in mind, a central concern is the way that the common law operates as a complex system. The system of the common law is a hybrid of a spontaneous and a made order; it is also, potentially, a loosely connected system rather than the kind of deductive system that some formalists imagine. Taking these features into account, we argue that a key consideration in the drafting of Restatements should be the architecture of the common law, including its conceptual structure. Restatements can seek an “architectural fit,” and in doing so they can strike a workable balance between certainty and flexibility.
The Means–Ends Fusion Model of Intrinsic Motivation
Authors: Woolley Kaitlin , Fishbach Ayelet
Published: April 2023

Intrinsic motivation results from the strong association between an activity (means) and its end goal; it occurs when the means and the ends collide. This chapter details this structural perspective on intrinsic motivation, specifically the means–ends fusion (MEF) model, which was inspired by research on goal systems theory. The authors explore four antecedents of MEF that result in intrinsic motivation: (1) a unique link between means and ends; (2) repeated pairing of means and ends; (3) greater similarity, or perceived fit, between a means and its end; and (4) closer temporal arrival of an end in relation to its means. The authors show that a fusion between means and their ends results in greater intrinsic motivation to pursue the means. They explore consequences of MEF for adherence to work, health, and academic goals, detailing how insights from the MEF model can increase persistence in goal-directed behaviors. The chapter concludes with a discussion of promising future directions inspired by this line of research.
Introduction
Authors: Rowe M. W.
Published: April 2023

The obvious reason for writing a biography of John Langshaw Austin (1911–60) is that he was one of the most important and distinctive philosophers of the post-war period. But there is a further, less obvious, reason for writing this book: one reliable source says that, when working for British Intelligence, Austin played a vital role in acquiring, analyzing, and disseminating the Intelligence for the D-Day landings. Information in support of this idea, however, is very difficult to find, and one of the main purposes of this biography is to reconstruct exactly what Austin did in the war. I hope, however, that I also have original things to say about Austin’s philosophical work, and these include the pre-war influence of Pragmatism, his lack of clarity about the interface between language and reality, the differing influences on his post-war development, and his late work on sound symbolism.
Childhood
Authors: Rowe M. W.
Published: April 2023

This chapter considers the effects of the First World War on Austin’s childhood in Lancaster. These include the death of both his mother’s siblings and all his father’s friends, the flu pandemic, the Great Depression, and his father’s being forced to leave the family architectural practice and become a school bursar in St Andrews, Scotland. The chapter also describes the atmosphere in Austin’s family home and his early education at St Salvator’s prep school. Attention is paid to Austin’s character as a boy; his family’s love of music, drama, sport, and camping; his relations with his parents and siblings; the character of Austin’s headmaster; and the first signs of Austin’s academic brilliance.
Shrewsbury
Authors: Rowe M. W.
Published: April 2023

This chapter considers why Austin was sent to Shrewsbury School, his experiences while there, and the long-term impact these had on his personality. The excellence of the classics teaching is emphasized, but the chapter also looks in detail at the distinctly limited curriculum (he studied virtually no science and very little mathematics), and the bullying, sexism, and snobbery that were rife in the boarding houses. It is argued that the First World War, the personalities of several masters, and deep institutional problems in the school’s structure either gave rise to or exacerbated these problems. Austin’s outstanding academic achievements are considered in detail, as are the personalities and future careers of several contemporaries.
Philosophy in Oxford
Authors: Rowe M. W.
Published: April 2023

This chapter looks in detail at the history of philosophy in Oxford between 1918 and 1933. It begins by pointing out that the war had meant there was an obvious generation gap between philosophers who had been too old, and those who had been too young, to fight; the generation in between had been virtually wiped out. This meant that the intellectual agenda was set by the older men who were still preoccupied by the Victorian Idealist/Realist debate, editing the classics, and training undergraduates in dialectical skills. The chapter then traces the younger dons’ struggle to break new ground, considering the influence of the early Wittgenstein, Moore and Cambridge philosophy, and Ayer and Logical Positivism.
All Souls
Authors: Rowe M. W.
Published: April 2023

This chapter describes Austin’s early historical work on Leibniz, his debate with Collingwood, and his friendships with A. J. Ayer and Isaiah Berlin. The contrasting personalities and intellectual developments of the three friends are explored in depth. But the chapter pays most attention to Austin’s difficulties in finding his feet in contemporary philosophy, his sustained attempt to master advanced mathematics, and his attraction to Logical Positivism. These philosophical developments are set against the background of events in Austin’s personal life: the three weeks he spent in Communist Russia in 1935; his move to Magdalen; and the beginnings of his long relationship with his sister’s ex-nanny, Renée Mothe.
Collingwood, C. I. Lewis, and Aristotle
Authors: Rowe M. W.
Published: April 2023

The chapter begins by describing the obvious split between the older Magdalen dons who believed in a relaxed, traditional, public school outlook, and several recently appointed left-wing dons who believed in reform and raising academic standards. Austin was a member of this second group. The chapter then considers why Collingwood (another Magdalen philosopher) and Austin had little to say about one another, and why Austin was so impressed by the work of the American philosopher C. I. Lewis. Several chapter sections are devoted to showing how Lewis’s Pragmatism enabled Austin to sharpen his criticisms of Positivism, and see how several of his apparently disparate interests could be united in a large-scale and creative work of modern philosophy. Austin’s joint class with Isaiah Berlin on Lewis is then considered, and the chapter ends by outlining Austin’s Aristotle lectures, and his campaign against RAF flying over Oxford.
The All Souls Group, Politics, and Wittgenstein
Authors: Rowe M. W.
Published: April 2023

The chapter opens by examining the All Souls discussion group, which existed between early 1937 and the summer of 1939. The main topics of discussion and all six participants are described in detail, as are the group’s effects on Austin’s philosophical status and outlook. But Austin was also becoming more politically active. He regularly donated to left-wing causes and, during the October 1938 Oxford by-election, canvassed every night for the anti-appeasement candidate. He did not, however, neglect his philosophical work, and gave his first published paper, ‘Are There A Priori Concepts?’ at an Aristotelian Society symposium in July 1939. The chapter ends by demonstrating that Austin’s next paper, ‘The Meaning of a Word’ (1940), was profoundly influenced by Wittgenstein’s Blue Book, and that Austin’s attraction to Aristotle’s ethics and Lewis’s Pragmatism had already prepared the ground for this development.
Jean and the Army
Authors: Rowe M. W.
Published: April 2023

The chapter begins by describing the death of Austin’s brother-in-law, four days after his wedding, and the start of hostilities. It then considers the start of the phoney war, and its effects on Austin’s life in Oxford. In mid-1940, he began to court one of his undergraduate pupils, Jean Coutts, but he was soon called up into the regular army and sent for training at Aldershot. The central sections of this chapter describe this training, and Jean’s character and background. On his return to Oxford, he proposed marriage to Jean, but she regretfully turned him down. At this point Austin was sent on an Intelligence course at Matlock, and the last third of the chapter discusses two topics: the letters in which he tries to persuade Jean to change her mind; and his eventual success when he is invited to spend Christmas with Jean and her parents.
Skyscraper, Invade Mecum, and Exile
Authors: Rowe M. W.
Published: April 2023

In early 1943, the Martians helped their parent organization, GHQ Home Forces, to draw up an invasion plan called Skyscraper. But the plan was dismissed out of hand. The reason is that responsibility for invasion-planning was being transferred to a new Anglo-American organization named COSSAC. The value of Austin’s work, however, was recognized, and much of his information for Skyscraper was put into a new invasion plan, called Overlord. In this period, the Martians were asked to draw up a handbook for invading troops, which Austin christened Invade Mecum, and much of the chapter is devoted to the writing, production, and quality of this document. In May and June, however, there was a serious row, because the General commanding Home Forces wanted the Martians to leave Norfolk House and move to his own HQ near Slough. An unsatisfactory compromise was reached, and the section reluctantly moved to Holland Park, London.
At Peter Robinson’s
Authors: Rowe M. W.
Published: April 2023

Duncan Sandys lobbied for Austin’s section to move back to central London, and on 12 November 1943 the section was renamed the Theatre Intelligence Section [TIS] and given the top floor of Peter Robinson’s department store in Oxford Circus. Here Austin was primarily occupied with processing data from the French Resistance, providing briefing material for commando raids, and considering the possibility of a landing in Norway. He was most concerned, however, with the Arromanches area of the French coast. This had already been chosen as one of the landing sites for D-Day, but there was a serious worry that the beach might rest on a bed of soft peat that would bog down vehicles. Every effort was made to discover whether this was a serious problem, and eventually it was decided that swimmers must be sent to reconnoitre the beach. Austin’s role in this operation is described in detail.
Towards D-Day
Authors: Rowe M. W.
Published: April 2023

Eisenhower was appointed Supreme Commander for the invasion of Europe and set up a new organization, SHAEF, to lead it. On 12 February 1944, TIS became part of this organization. The section had expanded to somewhere between 300 and 500 personnel to allow it to cope with the prodigious amount of material it was having to process. Austin was now regarded as key player in invasion-planning, and the reasons for this reputation are investigated. TIS was then divided into two groups: one concerned with German troops and equipment, the other with beach obstacles. Reconnaissance raids were organized to discover how the beaches were mined. The future of TIS after D-Day was debated, and it was decided it would become SHAEF’s operational Intelligence section.
D-Day and the Battle of Normandy
Authors: Rowe M. W.
Published: April 2023

The plan of Operation Overlord and the events of D-Day itself are outlined. Two official reports singled out the remarkable accuracy of Intelligence supplied by Austin’s section [TIS] as one of the primary factors in D-Day’s success. Four aspects of the assault where TIS’s information played a crucial role are examined, but the bulk of the chapter looks at some of the few places where TIS’s Intelligence was incorrect: the Merville, Crisbecq, and Pointe du Hoc batteries, and, most importantly, Omaha beach. The grinding battle of Normandy and the eventual American breakout are described. Austin remained in England for most of this period, and the chapter examines his experience of V1 strikes, and his section’s move first to Portsmouth, and then to Granville, France.
Arnhem and the Ardennes
Authors: Rowe M. W.
Published: April 2023

The Battle of Normandy was immediately followed by two important campaigns—the airborne assault on Arnhem and the German Ardennes Offensive—and this chapter looks at the role of Austin’s section in both. It argues that the Allied defeat at Arnhem was the result of faulty operational planning rather than faulty Intelligence, but that the German’s initial success in the Ardennes Offensive was partly a result of inaccurate Intelligence, including that collected, analysed, and disseminated by Austin’s section in SHAEF. An important unpublished interview with Austin’s deputy—F. A. ‘John’ Petito—is brought in evidence. The chapter also traces Austin’s movements from Granville to Versailles, and describes his reunion with Renée Mothe in Paris.
The Post-War Scene
Authors: Rowe M. W.
Published: April 2023

The chapter initially describes the political and cultural climate in Britain in the years immediately following the war—particularly the effects of the 1945 Labour victory and more severe rationing—before turning to consider the war’s long-term effects on the dons, graduates, and undergraduates in the Oxford philosophy sub-faculty. The impact of Ryle’s The Concept of Mind, his pre-eminent position in British philosophy, and his role in establishing the Oxford B.Phil. degree are explored. Austin’s domestic arrangements and return to teaching, together with the impression he created on some of his pupils, are then discussed. The chapter closes by examining the end of Austin’s relationship with Renée, and the death of his mother.
‘Other Minds’ and Ordinary Language
Authors: Rowe M. W.
Published: April 2023

This chapter concentrates on Austin’s important paper, ‘Other Minds’, read to a symposium at Manchester in 1946. The discussion focuses on two topics: the convincingness of his account of when and where intelligible knowledge claims can be made and questioned; and his novel account of how ‘I know’ differs from ‘I believe’. The second half of the chapter discusses how Austin’s paper emerged from the cultural Zeitgeist, and also from the novel view of thought and language proposed in Wittgenstein’s Blue Book. The final pages discuss Austin’s early presentations of his ideas on performative utterances, and Wittgenstein’s tense visit to the Jowett Society in 1947.
Ordinary Language Philosophy
Authors: Rowe M. W.
Published: April 2023

The chapter opens with a discussion of how the war affected Austin’s approach to philosophy, and how this contrasted with the war’s effects on other Oxford philosophers. The topic then switches to Austin’s belief that looking at ordinary language can show us something about reality, and his own attempts to justify this belief. The revolutionary aspects of ordinary language methods are then discussed, as are the areas of philosophy these procedures brought into prominence, and those they pushed into the background. The chapter ends by examining whether Austin thought—whatever he said—that the analysis of ordinary language was the be-all and end-all of philosophy, and, if not, what other approaches he thought legitimate.
The Oral and the Written
Authors: Rowe M. W.
Published: April 2023

The chapter examines Austin’s famous Saturday morning seminars for young tutors, and discusses their personnel, venues, organisation, topics, and point. Particular attention is paid to why they were so effective in spreading Austin’s influence, and how they differed from Wittgenstein’s Cambridge seminars. But Austin’s written work brought him to even wider attention, and the second half of the chapter looks at how he crafted a very individual written style which accurately conveyed his own distinctive personality, impressed itself on his reader’s consciousness, and – like his oral discussions – divided his audience into insiders and outsiders. The discussion focuses on his use of irony and allusion, and situates him in a line of late-C19th and early-C20th comic writing.
White’s Professor
Authors: Rowe M. W.
Published: April 2023

The chapter opens with Austin’s application for the White’s Professorship of Moral Philosophy and considers the electoral board, the other candidates, and, in particular, Ryle’s references for John Wisdom and Austin. The topic then switches to Austin’s standing and reputation in Oxford. Three subjects are considered in detail: his reputation as a lecturer, and graduate and undergraduate tutor; his administrative roles in the University, Oxford University Press, and the philosophy sub-faculty; and the fearsome reputation he established amongst his colleagues. The chapter ends by arguing that Austin was one kind of man in private with insiders (his family, friends, pupils, and sympathetic junior colleagues), and another in any circumstances with outsiders (unsympathetic juniors, and those of equivalent or senior academic status).
Domestic Life and the Americans
Authors: Rowe M. W.
Published: April 2023

The first third of the chapter discusses Austin’s family life and his relationships with his wife and children. The central third examines the nature of Austin’s personality and the reasons why he seemed to behave so differently according to whom he was with and the circumstances of the meeting. The last third of the chapter shows that Austin formed some of his closest academic relationships with visiting American graduate students, and considers the increasing two-way traffic between Oxford and American philosophy departments. Most attention is paid to Quine’s year in Oxford (1953–4) as the visiting Eastman Professor. The differences in personality and philosophical outlook between Quine and Austin are discussed in detail.
Harvard and Speech-Acts
Authors: Rowe M. W.
Published: April 2023

This chapter is about the semester Austin spent at Harvard in the first half of 1955. It considers the members of the philosophy department, and then describes the impact of Austin’s personality and outlook, and what exactly was found so fresh and liberating in his approach. It is argued that the impact of America on Austin was less philosophical than social and cultural, and that, removed from the competitiveness and class-consciousness of Oxford, he seemed much more approachable and relaxed. The second half of the chapter outlines the theory espoused in his ‘How to Do Things with Words’ lectures, discussing the reasons for their diminishing audience, but also for their overall intellectual significance.
Abilities and Excuses
Authors: Rowe M. W.
Published: April 2023

This chapter opens with a discussion of America’s long-term influence on Austin, and the increased flow of American philosophers into Oxford. In particular, it looks at Austin’s influence on Susan Sontag and her important essay, ‘Notes on “Camp”’. This is then followed by a discussion of whether Austin’s philosophical outlook could be described as conservative. The bulk of the chapter, however, is given over to considering the importance of two of Austin’s major papers: ‘Ifs and Cans’, and ‘A Plea for Excuses’, both from 1956. The influence of Austin on Herbert Hart and Paul Grice is then discussed, and whether Grice’s views on conversational implicature undermine some of Austin’s central doctrines.
Royaumont and Anscombe
Authors: Rowe M. W.
Published: April 2023

The chapter begins by considering the post-war divide that had begun to develop between analytic and Continental philosophy, and the 1958 Royaumont Conference in France intended to bring the two parties closer together. The contributions by Ryle and Austin are discussed, but most attention is paid to Austin’s remarks about his philosophical method’s relation to science, and his view of Continental philosophy. The conference was not generally considered a success. The second half of the chapter is devoted to Oxford views of Wittgenstein and his followers, especially Austin’s relationship with Anscombe. Their debate about pretending is examined in detail.
Ayer, Scandinavia, and the Gellner Controversy
Authors: Rowe M. W.
Published: April 2023

The chapter opens with the controversy surrounding Ayer’s appointment to the Wykeham Chair of Logic in early 1959, and the reasons why Ayer’s appointment was unwelcome to Austin. The focus then shifts to the declining appeal of Austin’s philosophical outlook and Ordinary Language Philosophy in general. Older philosophers like Strawson and Hampshire began to strike out in new directions, and younger philosophers like Bernard Williams found Austin’s outlook confining. In September and early October 1959, Austin went on a short lecture tour of Scandinavia, and a month later a dispute in the letter columns of The Times—prompted by the publication of Gellner’s Words and Things—showed the level of irritation Ordinary Language Philosophy could generate.
Conclusion
Authors: Kuehn David , Croissant Aurel
Published: April 2023

The final chapter summarizes the findings and discusses their implications for the academic study and political practice of reforming civil–military relations in new democracies. First, the chapter concludes that the more central a decision-making area is for the working of democracy, the more negative is the impact of weak civilian control on the survival and quality of democracy. Second, the more central a decision-making area is for the military’s key interests, the more difficult it is to institutionalize civilian control. Third, changes in civil–military relations in new democracies are driven by civilians who need to act prudently, systematically making use of the strategic resources at their disposal to institutionalize civilian control. These findings have a number of implications for domestic and international reformers. Civilians should adopt a gradualist approach to civil–military reforms that favors coalition building, recognizes the legitimate interests of the military, and concentrates first on ensuring the military’s acceptance of democracy and keeping the military out of the political processes of elite selection and policymaking before attempting to expand their authority into the matters of defense and military policy. External democracy promoters should recognize the crucial importance of civil–military relations for democratic stability and quality and should support domestic civilians in their attempts at institutionalizing civilian control. They, in particular, should emphasize the benefits of a gradual approach towards the restructuring of civil–military relations, and offer training and resources to strengthen civil society and build up effective civilian expertise in defense ministries and parliamentary committees.
Introduction
Authors: de Grazia Margreta
Published: April 2023

This is a book that reflects on our attachment to the biography of Shakespeare by looking at the two centuries when Shakespeare had none. From 1600 to 1800, the constituents of biography were not yet available: no chronology to hold the narrative together, no archive of documents on which to base the narrative, no identification of the Sonnets as Shakespeare’s first person writing. Each of the book’s four chapters focuses on one of those critical absences in order to discover what was there instead: not a continuous narrative but episodic anecdotes, not chronological development but classification by genre, not authentic documents but received records, not autobiographical sonnets but verses which survived in manuscript and print without the biographical trappings of authorship.
Shakespeare without a Life (1564–1616)
Authors: de Grazia Margreta
Published: April 2023

The 1623 Folio, the first major gathering of Shakespeare’s plays, was prefaced not with an account of his life but with elegies on his death. When in 1709 a Life was first printed at the threshold of his plays, it contained discrete anecdotes or “traditionary tales” which would be largely invalidated by later scholars. Yet these anecdotes, singly or in numbers, give a strong impression of Shakespeare’s character. Repeatedly they catch Shakespeare in an act of transgression, breaking the laws of the land or overstepping the bounds of civility. While no support for such offensive behavior emerges from the historical record, there is copious confirmation elsewhere: in early criticism of Shakespeare’s “extravagant” and “unruly” writing. Are the anecdotes, then, a form of literary biography?
Shakespeare’s Lifeline
Authors: de Grazia Margreta
Published: April 2023

No chronology for Shakespeare’s plays was attempted until the late eighteenth century and it was not standard to publish or discuss the plays in that order until the mid-twentieth century. Once put in the order in which Shakespeare was thought to have written them, his plays could be integrated with his lifetime on a developing chronological continuum. Prior to that, the presiding dramatic category had been genre, even if the plays were found intractable to its discriminations. Eighteenth-century editions introduce refinements and alternatives to the Folio’s tripartite generic division, but never with respect to the chronology of their composition, that is, to when in Shakespeare’s life the plays were written.
Shakespeare’s Archive
Authors: de Grazia Margreta
Published: April 2023

This chapter concerns the exhaustive search at the end of the eighteenth century for unmediated materials in Shakespeare’s own hand: for autograph manuscripts, correspondence, even Shakespeare’s pocket notebook. Intervening generations are castigated for their failure to preserve and transmit what even scholars imagine as a physical repository of some kind. The fantasized chest never materializes, only a few signatures and the forgeries based on them. But earlier modes of record-keeping existed, that neither prioritized primary materials nor mistrusted mediation, as can be seen in Gerard Langbaine’s alphabetized inventory of plays, An Account of the English Dramatick Poets (1691) and John Aubrey’s quirky manuscript collection of lives, now known as Brief Lives (c. 1676–92).