bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Grapevine from Hardwood Cuttings
Authors: Dalton David R.
Published: November 2020

Rooted plants can often be obtained and transferred from one environment into another either in order to increase the number of vines producing a specific grape in a vineyard or to introduce a new variety or propagate a new cultivar. It has been found that some vines can be grown from hardwood cuttings. The technique of hardwood cutting involves removing a cane (Figure 4.1, a and b) from a successful vine once the vine has gone dormant for the winter, trimming it appropriately, and then planting it in well-fertilized soil either with or without growth stimulants (i.e., phytohormones, vide supra). It is clear that the conditions of planting, reported by various sources, are a function of variety and terroir. Interestingly, it appears that the cutting, which may have been grown on a rootstock different from the variety of grape produced, will produce roots that are true to the variety of grape. Once the vine, from seed, grafting, or cane begins to grow, it must be “trained” so that its growth can be monitored and successful grape crops harvested. The training includes proper spacing of vines and the establishment of a trellis system or posts for each vine. Trellis systems are set up during the first or second year of the growth of the vine since harvesting of grape crops before the third year is rare. The trellis, which will need to bear the weight of the vine and grapes, is built much like a fence. Thus, the row of grape vines is held up by end posts at the end of the row and line posts about 20 feet apart between the ends. Usually, there is a line post for every two or three vines with some species needing more space than others. Generally the end posts are thick treated wood, concrete, or steel and are strongly anchored. The line posts are thinner, and the trellis itself is made of twelve (12) gauge or heavier wire with the number of wires a function of the weight to be supported and the height to which the grapes are to be grown.
The Roots of the Grape Vine
Authors: Dalton David R.
Published: November 2020

Aside from grafting onto already established rootstock or the development of roots from a planted cane (vide supra), root systems develop from the radicle in the plant’s seed. Both as roots begin to form from the cane, and as the sprouting seed coat opens in response to soil temperature, moisture, and genetic programming left in place when the seed formed, the roots begin to grow and interact with the rhizosphere. Similarly, signals received by rootstock where grafting has been effected also occur. The roots begin to bring moisture and food to produce and support the stem and, eventually, the leaves, flowers, and fruit. Heavily fruited plants such as grapes require additional support for the stems. In the roots, epidermal (surface) cells elongate and develop into root hairs. Beneath the epidermal cells it appears that the phloem cells which bring the starch bodies (amyloplasts) to the root tips and help direct which way “down” is, develop first. Then xylem elements develop in order to move the minerals into the system. Most of the minerals are absorbed through channels developing in the walls of the growing undifferentiated cells (the meristems). Because of concentration gradients (i.e., there is less on one side of a cell membrane than on the other), some minerals appear to be actively transported into the cells of the xylem (presumably through similar channels) in response to signals emanating from the plant. From the xylem cells, the minerals and water move upward into the apical meristem and get distributed to other regions. Interestingly, although most of the cells are derived from the same group of meristems which thus might be considered true stem cells, it is genetic programming which permits that differentiation. Thus, the derivatives of the meristems undergo transformation and develop into various cell types that perform the different functions (Figure 6.1). Relatively recently there has been an increased interest in what has been the largely unexplored biology of roots.
The Many Roles of Microorganisms
Authors: Kelly Alan
Published: November 2020

As mentioned already several times, the world of living things can be divided quite simply into that which we can see (animals, plants, us!) and that which we cannot see. We share this planet with microscopic life that actually far outnumber the life-forms we can see and whose importance to our lives across a huge range of areas is completely out of proportion to their size. We need the assistance of microscopes or other tools to reveal the incredible diversity, richness, and sheer vastness of this hidden world. In terms of the sphere of human life with which we are concerned in this book, food, we worry about two things to do with microorganisms in food, which are safety and spoilage, but these are not the same thing. For example, milk containing a bacterium called Pseudomonas could look green, be stinky, and have lumps floating in it, but could be quite safe, while milk containing listeria could look fresh as could be but would make you very ill, perhaps even fatally, were you to drink it. In addition, yogurt containing bacteria called Bifidobacteria might not only be neither unpleasant nor dangerous but might actually be good for you, as these are probiotic bacteria, which are believed to colonize the human gut and help keep us healthy. So (cue Ennio Morricone music, and distinctive whistling), bacteria in food can be good (like the probiotics), bad (like the pathogens), or ugly (like the types that cause spoilage). Of course, the population of living things we cannot see in food is much broader than bacteria too and encompasses viruses (generally these don’t come in good or ugly variants, and are usually simply bad news, as when they cause food poisoning because of their contamination of products like oysters) and fungi such as yeasts and molds.
Final Thoughts
Authors: Kelly Alan
Published: November 2020

It seems appropriate to finish this book with the equivalent of a dessert or aperitif, to send the reader off with a sense of satisfaction, satiation, and hopefully pleasure. I thought about polishing my crystal ball and trying to project into what food might look like in the future but, as the Nobel Prize-winning Danish physicist Niels Bohr once said, prediction is very difficult, especially when it is about the future. Futuristic predictions are of course notoriously unreliable, as can be seen by the fact that we should all surely have our personalized jet-packs by now. Interestingly, one theme that may have come through in this book is that the future of food, at least for the next few decades, is, to adapt a quote by the writer William Gibson, probably here already, but just not equally distributed. The progress of food science has happened sporadically and unevenly, as when Bert Hite showed that high pressures could preserve food a century before anyone figured out how to make that work in a practical sense, and when NASA was introducing innovations in food safety and packaging for space travel that years later have become common practice in our restaurant kitchens and on our supermarket shelves. The story of food science in the last century has been about taking all that we knew about the art, provenance, and processing of food in the prescientific era and underpinning anecdote with fact and understanding. I think that this great era of scientific study of food has answered the main questions, such that we understand broadly why most of the things we have observed since mankind emerged and started to eat things happen, and moreover how to control these to our greatest advantage. Many scientific phenomena relating to food are well described, in textbooks, websites, and a huge body of scientific papers, while of course leaving plenty of interesting questions and challenges for future generations of food scientists to explore.
Creating Awareness and Making a Commitment
Authors: Astor Ron , Benbenishty Rami
Published: November 2020

The first step toward implementing a monitoring system is creating awareness within the school or district about why, how, and for what purpose the information is being collected and how will it be used to help improve the lives of all school constituents. School leaders can use simple and inspiring examples to learn about the needs of students and staff members and to develop ways to address particular issues in those schools. Leaders may also emphasize the ways a monitoring system can empower students and staff members to make their voices heard and influence a school’s direction by bringing attention to their views and needs. This process, however, will also likely include addressing teachers’ and parents’ concerns over whether the information collected will reflect negatively on students, staff members, and the community. These concerns are well- founded. Ever since the passage of No Child Left Behind (NCLB), the emphasis on being “data- driven” became a central focus in schools and school districts across the country. But, along with making schools more accountable for the achievement of all of their students also came the side effects of schools being labeled as failures, the creation of a blaming culture, of teachers being suspicious of new evaluation systems that would punish them for students’ low achievement, and of parents not being sure what to think of their children’s schools (see Box 1.1). Cheating scandals, school closures, and an inordinate amount of time spent preparing students for standardized tests are some of the ways that accountability systems have affected schools and explain why many educators would be wary of any other attempts to collect information. While the new Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) allowed states much more flexibility in designing their accountability systems, it still maintains a strong focus on monitoring students’ success in multiple domains. We suspect that concerns about the effects of accountability may still linger, even with the new legislation.
What and How to Monitor
Authors: Astor Ron , Benbenishty Rami
Published: November 2020

The next area to consider is what aspects of school life to include in the system. In some cases, the topics covered by a monitoring system are predetermined by the state, district, or funder. For instance, schools that have tobacco- prevention grants are required to monitor patterns of student tobacco use. Other times, the school is given at least some flexibility. Schools need to choose what topics to include at what stage of the monitoring process. There are several issues to consider in making these choices. The most important consideration is the relevance of the topic to current school policies and concerns. Some schools may initiate a monitoring system because they are struggling with major issues, such as drugs or bullying, and they will monitor these issues and the factors that may contribute to the situation. Other schools may be involved in a new program and may want to assess the school’s progress in implementing the program and achieving the desired outcomes. The components chosen for the monitoring system should reflect these issues. It is useful to consider covering several major areas in a monitoring system. Questions need to address the multiple types of school violence and bullying behaviors, including verbal- emotional bullying (e.g., humiliating comments), indirect social aggression (e.g., excluding a student), physical bullying, cyberbullying, sexual harassment, and weapon- related behaviors (e.g., bringing a weapon to school, threatening with a weapon). In some settings, it may be important to identify whether students are being victimized by staff and vice versa. This central area includes multiple issues. They include topics such as how students perceive the respect, support, and care they receive from staff; how engaged and connected they feel in school; and whether they are satisfied with their school. Many of these questions are also relevant for staff and parents. Given the importance of social and emotional learning (SEL) and the current emphasis on including SEL in accountability systems, schools may want to consider adding this component to their monitoring. Monitoring SEL competencies may be especially relevant to schools that engage in SEL- promoting interventions.
Surveys
Authors: Astor Ron , Benbenishty Rami
Published: November 2020

Surveys are an effective way to gather large amounts of information from many respondents. They are flexible and can include a number of topics and subtopics that are selected to focus on the unique aspects of a particular school or district. This flexibility means that questionnaires that address multiple issues can be combined into one survey. There are many good reasons to compose a survey from existing questionnaires and scales. Most existing instruments were developed by experts and tested and improved over the years. Many of them are free, open for anyone to use, and readily available to schools interested in including them in their monitoring systems. Many questionnaires can be found in special compendiums that store large numbers of instruments, often relevant to a particular area (see Box 8.1). Schools choose from available questionnaires and scales based on multiple criteria, the most important being their relevance to school needs and what school leaders want to know. These decisions pertain to the content of the instrument but also to the language used. Certain wording, for example, is not useful with younger students or might not communicate well with non– English- speaking parents. Some instruments were designed to cover a certain topic in depth, making it relatively long. Schools interested in mixing several instruments to cover many topics may prefer a shorter questionnaire that fits with others in the same survey. It’s also important to give surveys on a regular, consistent basis. Giving a survey only once won’t provide school leaders with the information they need to improve school climate over time. A true monitoring system will include administering the sur­vey on an annual or bi- annual basis so that educators can tell whether issues are getting better or worse, which groups of students are affected more than others, and how their schools compare to others in the district or across the state. At times, districts and schools may need and want to create their own questionnaires or at least add modules to existing ones. This may happen, for instance, when the school is interested in monitoring the effects of certain practices implemented by the school.
Introduction:The Magic Device
Authors: Agrawal Ravi
Published: November 2020

In the dusty northwestern state of Rajasthan, Phoolwati was visiting a neighboring village on business. She was addressing a small circle of women dressed in sarees. Together, they formed a kaleidoscope of reds, yellows, and pinks. The colors parted obediently when an older woman, in white, pushed her way through the huddle. “What’s going on here?” bellowed the wizened old lady, speaking the rustic Hindi of the region. She pointed at the wiry newcomer, the hub of the commotion. “Who’s this?” All eyes turned to Phoolwati. “I’m here to teach the village women about the internet,” she said, as she thrust her hand out, revealing a phone with a large screen of images and text. She encountered a blank stare. “In-ter-nate,” tried Phoolwati once again, spelling it out phonetically in Hindi. “It’s a wonderful thing. You can get all kinds of information and knowledge on it.” The old lady snorted in disdain. “We’re all illiterate here, child,” she said. “Why are you wasting our time?” This was a familiar refrain to Phoolwati’s internet evangelism. She was prepared. “Who says you need to read and write to use the internet? Who says you need to know English?” demanded Phoolwati. “This is a magic device. See?” She held up her smartphone and pressed a button. The image of a microphone popped up on the screen. (This might have been more effective had the village women seen a microphone before.) “Go on. Ask it something,” Phoolwati told them. “Kuchh bhi. Anything. This has all the answers! You must be curious about something, na?” The old lady looked on incredulously. She slapped the top of her forehead in an exaggerated show of despair. Another woman had seen a city cousin toying with a smartphone once. She felt emboldened in the presence of Phoolwati’s gadget. “Show us the Taj Mahal!” she exclaimed loudly in Hindi. To instantly summon an image of the country’s most famous monument—one that none of them had ever seen—seemed an insurmountable challenge. But Google understood. The phone came alive; a video appeared on the screen. Phoolwati pressed Play.
Missed Call: The Smartphone and Job Creation
Authors: Agrawal Ravi
Published: November 2020

In the summer of 2015, the government of Uttar Pradesh began putting out advertisements looking for “peons”—the local term for low-ranking office helpers. UP, as the state is known, is home to more than 200 million Indians, packed into an area about the size of Texas (which has one-seventh as many inhabitants). Fittingly, UP needed a small army of new peons: in all, 368 jobs were posted. A very strange thing happened next. Applications poured in. After a painstaking survey that took weeks, 2.3 million résumés were counted. There were 6,250 candidates for each available position. Some of the applicants had doctorates. While peon jobs are stable—even respectable—they are by no means glamorous. Peons are usually the first people one sees at Indian government offices, dressed in shabby, faded khaki uniforms; their work involves tracking down dusty files, fetching tea, and ushering in guests. Salaries range from just $150 to $250 a month. The question is why these low-skill, low-paying jobs were in such high demand. There are several possible explanations. First, $250 a month may sound like a pittance, but it is not insignificant: it amounts to nearly double the median national salary. Second, peons are influential gatekeepers in Indian bureaucracy. If you need to see a local officer, a small bribe can go a long way. But workplace corruption is hardly something young, idealistic Indians aspire to (let alone the ones with doctorates). Something deeper was going on. A third possibility is that India simply isn’t creating enough jobs. A 2016 report by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) revealed that India’s working-age population expanded by 300 million between 1991 and 2013. But during those same twenty-two years, the UNDP says, the economy created just 140 million new jobs. Put another way, 160 million working-age Indians were without formal employment. Job creation is the number one headache for India’s policymakers. By some estimates, India needs to create a million new jobs every month simply to keep pace with the gush of new entrants to the workforce. There is little evidence that India has a plan to meet this demand.
Big Brothers: Internet Shutdowns and Internet.org
Authors: Agrawal Ravi
Published: November 2020

The rat-a-tat of automatic gunfire burst through the morning air in Anantnag. For the locals of this troubled district in the south of Kashmir, it came as a shock but no longer a surprise. Separatist militants had once again clashed with army forces. Several civilians were caught in the crossfire. One died; three others were wounded. It was Saturday, July 1, 2017. Hours earlier, at midnight, India had adopted a new national sales tax, designed to stitch the country’s twentynine states together into one economic union. The new system—known as the Goods and Services Tax, or GST—was heralded as an economic reform that would spur growth, enlarge the tax base, and make it easier to do business. Kashmir was the only state still debating whether to join. It was a symbolic outlier. Some distance from the gunfire, sixteen-year-old Zeyan Shafiq was just waking up. He hadn’t heard the shooting; his home was well insulated. When he opened his eyes, he told me, the first thing he did was to reach for his iPhone. He looked at the screen and sighed. The wireless internet at home was down. So was mobile data. Shafiq got out of bed, put on his slippers, and shuffled toward the front door, where he knew he would have a stronger mobile signal. No luck. He couldn’t catch the internet. Shafiq looked up at the skies, opened his lungs, and let out a bellow of frustration. For Shafiq, it was easy to guess what had happened. There must have been what locals called an encounter—a skirmish between Kashmiri separatists and the state. These days, encounters were inevitably followed by the government shutting down the internet. The digital blackouts weren’t aimed at stopping separatists or terrorists from communicating. They were usually already dead. The shutdowns were to prevent people from sharing videos and photos of the violence on social media. In effect, 13 million Kashmiris were collateral damage, unable to do something as simple as check email. There was a time when curfews were merely physical, imposed with barbed wire, barriers, and troops on the streets.
The Nuts and Bolts of Critical Service Learning Theoretical Foundations
Authors: Johnson Annette , McKay-Jackson Cassandra , Grumbach Giesela
Published: November 2020

Critical service learning (CSL), social and emotional learning (SEL), and positive youth development (PYD) represent key elements for promot¬ing healthy attitudes and behaviors among youth. This chapter explains each component and provides a theoretical overview. As mentioned in Chapter 1, CSL represents a therapeutic strategy that encompasses a philosophy of youth empowerment. CSL emphasizes youth becoming empowered to view themselves in relation to others, as partners, to bring about change in their environment. Mitchell (2008) defined CSL as an approach that challenges youth to become self-aware of how their own situations influence their relationships within their community. When these relationships are based on the concerns of the community, they can facilitate CSL through the examination of issues of power, privilege, and oppression— and disparaging assumptions of class, gender, and race— and then take action to address unjust and inequitable social and economic systems (Cipolle, 2010). Youth engage in critical thinking about the problems they face within their own communities and are encouraged to take action. The critical approach to service learning promotes social justice and challenges the status quo. The approach to CSL involves three key elements: “working to redistribute power amongst all participants in the service learning relationship, developing authentic relationships in the classroom and in the community and working from a social change perspective” (Mitchell, 2008, p. 50). The goal of CSL is to examine power relations, challenge oppressive institutions, and cultivate in youth the power to take action. In our model, the CSL approach presents “student voice” as a necessary component to create a sense of empowerment and authentic engagement. The community web-mapping tool discussed in Chapter 3 serves as the vehicle for students to address social justice issues as they compare and contrast their vision of perfect and imperfect communities (Figure 2.1). Social and emotional learning is a framework that provides opportunities for young people to acquire the skills necessary for maintaining personal well-being and positive relationships across their life span (Elbertson, Brackett, & Weissberg, 2009). The five competency clusters for students are the following: 1. Self- awareness: the ability to accurately recognize one’s emotions and thoughts and how they influence behavior.
Gaining Administrative School and Community Buy- In
Authors: Johnson Annette , McKay-Jackson Cassandra , Grumbach Giesela
Published: November 2020

Critical service learning (CSL), by its very nature, is conducive to collaborating, building a sense of community, and promoting a positive school climate (Kaye, 2010). In developing the CSL project, it is essential to understand the organizational structure of the school and how to collaborate with key stakeholders. The analysis of the organization should include a review of the school’s mission, its educational priorities, and level of administrative support. Schools have many competing priorities, such as improving academic achievement, curriculum development, Common Core learning standards, and promoting social and emotional learning (SEL). The school- based practitioner must recognize the school’s educational priorities and understand how CSL can support one or more of these priorities. This information should be ascertained prior to meeting with the school leader. Furthermore, the school- based practitioner should be fully prepared to articulate connections between CSL and specific school priorities when seeking administrative approval for the project. The principal’s support as the school leader is critical to the development of a new program within the school. To ensure the success of the CSL project, the school social worker or school- based practitioner must first confer with administrators about the value of this work, which may be viewed as more radical than day- to- day interventions with students. Sharing literature that speaks to the effectiveness of CSL may assist in this process. Therefore, as a first step in developing a CSL program in the school, the practitioner should reach out to the school principal. For CSL to be successful, the practitioner must clearly express to him or her how CSL aligns with, supports, or enhances one or more of the school’s educational priorities. Aligning with one of the school’s priorities represents an ideal way to gain buy- in from the principal and other school leaders. To ensure the success of the CSL project, the school social worker or school- based practitioner should share the value and uniqueness of this approach, which builds on students’ strengths and assets. It is also important to collaborate with teachers and community partners to develop an effective program.
Launching Critical Service Learning: A Quick Guide to Each Phase
Authors: Johnson Annette , McKay-Jackson Cassandra , Grumbach Giesela
Published: November 2020

This chapter is as a visual guide for launching a critical service learning (CSL) project with the goal of providing step- by- step implementation instructions. The implementation process may be different, depending on the setting, target population, and level of cognitive ability of the youth. The chapter is divided into five phases: (a) preplanning and screening, (b) skill building, (c) planning, (d) implementing/ action, and (e) evaluating. The content is structured to accommodate 12 group sessions. Each phase provides suggested materials, preparation tips, anticipated outcomes, and a content focus. In addition, two case examples are included, depicting a CSL project in an elementary school and one in a high school. Materials will be determined based on the focus and the marketing and recruitment needs of the project. Possible material may include marketing flyers and referral forms. Other notifications (parent) depend on school policies.
Future Implications
Authors: Johnson Annette , McKay-Jackson Cassandra , Grumbach Giesela
Published: November 2020

As presented in the case examples in Chapter 9, critical service learning (CSL) projects can be a tool for engaging young people in their school and neighborhood communities. Unfortunately, many US public schools may have limited resources (financial or personnel) to provide creative and innovative programming. (Spring, Grimm, & Dietz, 2008). However, a need still exists to ensure that all youth receive equal chances to succeed in school. According to Germain (2006), school mental health professionals such as school social workers should engage “the progressive forces in people and situational assets, and [effect] the removal of environmental obstacles to growth and adaptive functioning” (p. 30). Advocating against barriers that prevent equal access to resources is a cornerstone of social work practice, and CSL can be one vehicle by which equal opportunities are secured. As mentioned throughout this toolkit, CSL is appropriate for students at all tiers, including both regular education and students with disabilities. Many students who benefit from CSL projects and work with school- based social workers also receive special education support. Yet, even with targeted interventions, evaluative data from special education services continue to report poor outcomes for youth with emo¬tional and behavioral disorders (Lewis, Jones, Horner, & Sugai, 2010). Students who receive special education services may need additional supportive services to remain in and graduate from high school (Thurlow, Sinclair, & Johnson, 2002). According to 2010– 2011 data collected by the National Center for Education Statistics, more than 20% of students who received special education services dropped out of high school (US Department of Education, 2013). Approximately 20% of those students were diagnosed as emotionally disturbed, and 53% had a specific learning disability (US Department of Education, 2013). After controlling for gender, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status, youth with disabilities are still among those at greatest risk for dropping out of school. No single reason exists regarding why students disengage from school; the issue is multifaceted. Sinclair, Christenson, and Thurlow (2005) asserted that “practitioners and policymakers in search of empirically supported intervention strategies will need to rely on studies that examine secondary indica¬tors of dropout prevention, such as reduction in problem behavior through positive behavioral supports or increasing student’s affiliation with school through service learning programs” (p. 466).
Igneous Rocks
Authors: Maltman Alex
Published: November 2020

Igneous rocks were once molten. This is a simple statement, but it’s exactly what sets them apart from the other two great divisions of rocks: sedimentary and metamorphic. So, deriving from the Latin word for fire—ignis, the same word that gives us ignition—igneous rocks are associated with heat. Some are simply solidified lava, but most originated by slowly cooling below the Earth’s surface. Thanks to erosion through time of the overlying material, such rocks are now widespread at the Earth’s surface and consequently underlie many of the world’s vineyard regions, from Washington State to the mountains of Hungary, from Lodi, California, to the Cape Peninsula of South Africa. Although it gets warmer with depth everywhere across the Earth, generally the weight of the overlying rocks makes the pressure too great to allow melting, so as a rule the rocks below our feet are solid. In some places, however, the heat increases so rapidly that temperatures can reach over 600°C at just a few kilometers below the ground surface, a temperature at which some rocks are molten, even under pressure. The initial melting usually takes place in and below the lower part of the Earth’s crust, but the molten rock then rises, typically to reside tens of kilometers or so below the surface, though less under volcanically active areas. Such depths may seem large to us, but seeing as its well over 6000 kilometers to the center of the Earth, geologically they are pretty close to the surface. In other words, the igneous rocks we now see at the surface did not form incredibly deep in the Earth’s interior; they were nowhere near Earth’s core, as some writings claim. We call this underground molten material magma. People seem to like the word. Not only does it appear on wine labels, but it is also the name of a number of wine shops, bistros, and various drinks. It exists in the Earth in magma chambers. It would be simplistic to picture these as some sort of enormous underground caves filled with liquid rock: there may be patches that are wholly liquid, but almost certainly there will be plenty of solid matter, minerals that are below their melting point.
The Rocks Change Shape: Folds, Faults, and Joints
Authors: Maltman Alex
Published: November 2020

You may have looked at some rocky cliff and noticed sedimentary strata bent into huge curves, the shapes that geologists call folds. You may even have heard of terms like anticline and syncline. Almost certainly you will have heard of geological faults: the San Andreas Fault in California must be one of the best-known geological features there is. They are all examples of what geologists call geological structures. They can affect vineyards, and the names of examples appear around the world on wine labels. So how do these structures come about, and what decides whether rocks make folds or faults? We introduced the concept of tectonic stresses in the previous chapter. We learned that because they act in a particular direction they can induce foliations within metamorphic rocks, but of relevance here is that they can also cause rocks to change their overall shape. That is, the rocks deform, which gives rise to various geological structures. Any solid matter (unlike a liquid) that feels stresses, of whatever origin, will resist them up to a point before it starts to change shape. That point is what defines the strength of the material. The same principles apply when stresses are applied to a sediment or a soil, though rocks, with their constituent minerals firmly bonded together, resist much greater levels of stress before they deform. As one wag put it, the difference between a rock and a soil is that when you kick them a rock hurts your foot . . . So, focusing in on rocks, we see two ways in which they can deform: by flow and by fracture. Looking ahead to where this is going to lead, it’s flow that gives rise to folds, and faults result from fracture. A good analogy for the flow of rocks is glacial ice. The ice is solid to us, but given time, it can flow, to give the “river of ice” that is a glacier. If you leave a ball of silicone putty on a table top, after a few days it will have flowed, while still being a solid, to make a pool.
Constrained Collective Action Decentralization, Autonomy, and Institutionalized Cooperation in Shared River Basins
Authors: Moore Scott M.
Published: November 2020

As noted in the Introduction, it is frequently assumed that the costs of collective action between political jurisdictions are lower when they are part of the same country. A web of shared institutions and relationships, the thinking goes, helps to lower these costs relative to the international level, where cooperation is likely to be rarer and costlier. But, as this chapter explains, where political power is extensively decentralized, considerable constraints are placed on interjurisdictional collective action. In particular, because it distributes power between different levels of government, decentralization exacerbates the interjurisdictional and intersectoral coordination problems that are inherent to water resource management. This chapter explains how existing institutions often fail to prevent and resolve interjurisdictional water conflicts. It proceeds in three sections. The first section sets the stage for this discussion by exploring in greater detail the relationship between shared institutions and conflict potential, particularly in relation to other proposed sources of water conflict like geography and scarcity. The second section explains why decentralization creates specific barriers to interjurisdictional collective action, especially at the river basin scale. In particular, bureaucratic fragmentation, electoral incentives, and information asymmetries often create disincentives to establish institutional structures for river basin management. The third section, finally, explains why, as a result, collective action in shared river basins is often ad hoc and confined to relatively simple issues like point-source pollution control, rather than more complex and contentious issues like allocation. In combination, these challenges explain why existing institutional mechanisms so often fail to prevent interjurisdictional water conflicts from arising and to resolve them once they begin. This primary purpose of this chapter is to explore the institutional dimensions of subnational hydropolitics and in particular the role of decentralization. Doing so requires first understanding how institutions influence conflict and cooperation over shared water resources, especially in contrast to factors like geography and scarcity. This section accordingly discusses the two primary theoretical traditions concerning the causes of water conflict.
conclusion
Authors: Moore Scott M.
Published: November 2020

Arizona governor B.B. Moeur’s 1934 declaration of martial law to prevent construction of a dam to supply California with water now belongs to history. The open political conflict that characterized the early relationship between the states of the Colorado River basin has given way to extensive cooperation, even as water scarcity poses an ever–greater challenge for management of the basin’s water resources. Yet halfway around the world, in India, history threatens to repeat itself. In April 2013, the Indian press reported a most unusual case of espionage: the police in Kerala, a southern state engaged in a long–running river basin dispute with the adjacent state of Tamil Nadu, announced that they had uncovered a spy working on behalf of their neighbor, who they charged had “developed a wide network with officials and ministers to source vital info regarding Kerala’s stand on interstate water issues” (Express News Service 2013). Both the 1934 invocation of martial law and the more recent 2013 allegation of espionage are poignant examples of behavior common to countries but not to subnational states. Though fortunately rare, they attest to the gravity of conflict over water that occurs within countries, rather than between them. These subnational hydropolitics are both surprisingly common and conceptually puzzling, for they occur despite the existence of relationships and institutions, ranging from water ministries to political party structures, that may be expected to prevent them. This book helps to explain why water so often proves to be a focal point for political conflict within nations as well as among them. This conclusion first reprises the argument of the book and its implications, then discusses directions for future research. Finally, it offers some policy recommendations for countries like India where sustainable water resource management is undermined by extensive subnational political conflict over water. In a world where water needs are growing rapidly even as water supply variability increases due to climate change, it is critical to understand the politics of water at subnational as well as international levels—and how this understanding can be leveraged to improve water resource management.
Coordination of Services
Authors: Detterman Robin , Ventura Jenny , Rosenthal Lihi , Berrick Ken
Published: November 2020

Issues of coordination, integration, and early intervention are addressed throughout this book. Within the unconditional education (UE) framework, they come together in practice most visibly through the coordination of services team (COST). While the idea of a COST is not unique to UE, the framework’s explicit articulation of certain processes and protocols have helped to ensure that the myriad decision-making and data analysis processes that drive UE coexist in a coherent manner. Such carefully structured coordination is essential, given that barriers to academic success are most often multifaceted. A highly functioning COST ensures that individual student and schoolwide supports are coordinated and build on each other in a meaningful way, rather than competing with each other for a student’s valuable time. In addition, COST integrates services so that they create a seamless and comprehensive experience for students and families, rather than promoting supports that feel fractured or redundant. Of equal importance, COST allows schools to respond with early interventions, ensuring that services are quickly deployed and responsive to the evolving needs of schools and staff throughout the year. One of the key factors in ensuring that effective solutions are developed within a COST is, quite simply, making sure that the right people are sitting around the table. As we have established, barriers to school success are often difficult to identify. What manifests as a struggle with math could instead be a response to intense anxiety, and what manifests as defiant behavior could also stem from being asked to read a text that is too difficult. When it comes to identifying the root cause of student challenges, the possibilities are endless, as are the unique solutions that may be developed to address them. For this reason, it is important that a diverse, transdisciplinary team of specialists collaborate with teachers and administrators to identify the true origins of a problem and responsive action steps to address them. To enable this transdisciplinary transfer of knowledge, teams in UE schools usually consist of the following team members: …COST facilitator (often the UE coach) School administrator Special education teacher …
Leadership and Strategic Planning
Authors: Detterman Robin , Ventura Jenny , Rosenthal Lihi , Berrick Ken
Published: November 2020

Researchers within the field of organizational development have made a concerted effort to distinguish between two types of change organizations experience: first-order change, in which individual parameters shift but the system itself stays firmly in its place, and second-order change, in which the system itself undergoes meaningful transformation (Watzlawick, Weakland, & Fisch, 1974). The unconditional education (UE) approach shares the four common features of complex, or second-order, change: …change that involves multiple processes and tools being introduced to multifaceted human service systems, thereby requiring a certain level of trial and error to determine how the intervention best “fits” within each adoptive organization; change that involves a shift in stakeholders’ work roles and responsibilities, including how individuals coordinate and communicate; change that introduces new skills and knowledge; and change that requires a fundamental paradigm shift that may conflict with prevailing values and norms, including shifts in how participants are supposed understand and think about their work (Bryk, 2016; Waters & Grubb, 2004). … Acknowledging the complexity that exists in change initiatives is often the first step in understanding how to promote their successful implementation (Bryk, 2016; Waters & Grubb, 2004). Chapters 5, 6, and 7 have introduced the framework behind the UE model and its core principles of practice. This chapter will explore some of the essential strategies that promote successful implementation within a wide range of school and district settings, including (1) the role of leadership in initiating complex change, (2) the common developmental stages that begin UE transformation, and (3) the financial drivers capable of sustaining change over time. Initiating a complex change process requires an intentional approach. Successful implementation of UE hinges on the ability of leaders to inspire a unified vision across all stakeholders while simultaneously connecting this vision to concrete actions that create a clear path forward. Rather than assuming an overwhelmingly positive response, successful UE leaders anticipate skepticism and resistance. They celebrate early adopters, but also make plans to ensure the voices of dissenters are included in decision-making.
ENERGY BALANCE OF CLIMATE
Authors: Rohling Eelco J.
Published: November 2020

The Sun is the ultimate energy source for climate. The Sun radiates toward Earth at an almost constant intensity of about 1360 watts per square meter (W/ m2), as measured above the Earth ’s atmosphere. Most of this radiation takes place in the short ultra- violet and visible light wavelengths. We refer to it as incoming short- wave radiation (ISWR; the wavelengths are short because the Sun radiates at very high temperatures of about 5500°C). Earth is not a two- dimensional disk, but a 3- dimensional sphere. Its day- side faces the Sun and receives radiation, while its night- side is directed away from the Sun and does not receive solar radiation. As a result, the global average energy received from the Sun per square meter of Earth surface is the energy received by the day- side of Earth averaged over the surface area of the entire sphere. When we do the mathematics, this gives an average input of solar radiation into every square meter of Earth, at the top of the atmosphere, of 340 W/ m2 (Box 3.1). That is the value that things work out to when considering the ISWR from the Sun in a continuous and globally equally “smeared out” sense, and that is what matters when we are working out the balance between energy gained and lost by Earth (Box 3.2). Many people are puzzled by the fact that we talk only about energy from the Sun. They then especially wonder why we ignore heat input from the deep Earth, and in particular from volcanoes, which after all are very hot. But in spite of the spectacular shows of heat, steam, gases, and primordial mayhem that volcanoes put on display, they turn out to be almost negligible in terms of heat flow into the climate system. Compared with the global average solar energy gain of 340 W/ m2, recent assessments show that total heat outflow from the Earth’s interior is not even 0.09 W/ m2.
The Periodic Table
Authors: Scerri Eric
Published: November 2020

The periodic table of elements is among the most recognizable image in science. It lies at the core of chemistry and embodies the most fundamental principles of science. In this new edition, Eric Scerri offers readers a complete and updated history and philosophy of the periodic table. Written in a lively style to appeal to experts and interested lay-persons alike, The Periodic Table: Its Story and Its Significance begins with an overview of the importance of the periodic table and the manner in which the term "element" has been interpreted by chemists and philosophers across time. The book traces the evolution and development of the periodic table from its early beginnings with the work of the precursors like De Chancourtois, Newlands and Meyer to Mendeleev's 1869 first published table and beyond. Several chapters are devoted to developments in 20th century physics, especially quantum mechanics and and the extent to which they explain the periodic table in a more fundamental way. Other chapters examine the formation of the elements, nuclear structure, the discovery of the last seven infra-uranium elements, and the synthesis of trans-uranium elements. Finally, the book considers the many different ways of representing the periodic system and the quest for an optimal arrangement.