bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Interconnected Fiber Network Prevents Gravel Washout in Water Injector Wells
Authors: Vidma Konstantin , Glaznev Ivan , Green Sarah , Panga Mohan
Published: June 2014

In water injector wells, continuous injection can wash gravel from the annulus around the screen, especially if the rate of injection generates a pressure above the fracture threshold. The voids created after the washout are sometimes filled by an influx of formation sand during shut-in operations. This sand accumulation consequently reduces the injectivity when the injection operations resume. A solution to prevent such washouts is needed to maintain sand control and injectivity throughout the life of water injector wells.

As a solution to this common problem, we propose a new fiber based product that reinforces the gravel and/or proppant pack. The fibers have an outside layer that is activated by temperature to form a bonded fiber network that locks the gravel in place. The fibers can be used with any type and size of proppant. The key benefit is that the fibers can withstand the cyclic loading of stress inherent to the shut-in and restart of injection operations, which are typically performed several hundred times during the life of an injector well.

Our experimental study showed that the drag force of injected water easily displaced the gravel in the annulus into the fracture, whereas when gravel is reinforced with the fibers it withstood the drag force even at high injection rates (e.g., at 100 B/D per 0.5-in.-diameter perforation). We performed several experiments to evaluate the strength of the pack under cyclic stress conditions. After 30 cycles, the pack strength remained unaffected. The fiber chemistry was tailored for compatibility with commonly used fracturing fluids and brines. We found that the fibers remained connected in an interconnected network even after long-term interaction with seawater. We also studied the interaction of fibers with screens and other downhole equipment that comes in contact with the fibers during gravel placement. The laboratory results of that study showed the fibers do not create any issues with proppant placement or tool functionality during the sand control operation.

Our experimental study also showed the fibers provided an effective solution for preventing gravel washout in water injector wells, thereby supporting the sand control and injectivity for the life of the well.
Data Analysis and Updated Screening Criteria for Polymer Flooding Based on Oilfield Data
Authors: Saleh Laila Dao , Wei Mingzhen , Bai Baojun
Published: June 2014

Enhanced-oil-recovery (EOR) screening is considered the first step in evaluating potential EOR techniques for candidate reservoirs. Therefore, as new technologies are developed, it is important to update the screening criteria. Many of the screening criteria regarding polymer flooding that have been described in the literature were based on data collected from EOR surveys of the Oil and Gas Journal. However, the data quality has not been addressed in previous research. The data set originally contained 481 polymer-flooding projects from around the world, and it contained some problems, including outliers and duplicate, inconsistent, and missing data. To ensure the quality of the data set before running analyses, boxplots and crossplots were used to detect and identify data problems. After detecting outliers and deleting duplicate and severely inconsistent data records, only 250 projects remained. Both graphical and statistical methods were used to analyze and describe the results of the data set. Two major sets of information were given after data cleaning: The first was that the majority distribution of each parameter was shown by use of a histogram distribution, and the second was that the range of each parameter and some of its statistical values were presented by use of a boxplot. Finally, the screening criteria are presented on the basis of these statistics and the defined data parameters. The developed criteria were compared with previously published criteria, and their differences were explained. The developed criteria show that a polymer-flooding project can be successfully applied in a reservoir with a temperature of less than 210°F, an oil viscosity up to 5,000 cp, and gravity lower to 12°API.
Impact Map for Assessment of New Delineation-Well Locations
Authors: Zagayevskiy Yevgeniy , Deutsch Clayton V.
Published: June 2014

This paper describes a new technique for effective placement of delineationwells on the basis of the change of the uncertainty in the key global-reservesvariable. Uncertainty is summarized through the geostatistical framework. Theauthors develop a numerical and analytical methodology that is tested onsynthetic and real petroleum case studies. The implementation isstraightforward, and the results are promising. A methodology is developed toassist in delineation-well placement. Decisions for new-well locations areassisted with a quantitative measure of the expected reduction in globaluncertainty in the volume of original oil in place (OOIP). The availablerealizations are analyzed and processed to quantify the impact of wellplacement. Variograms and other required statistics are inferred from therealizations. As a result, a gridded map of impact values is produced, fromwhich locations with the highest impact are suggested for new-well locations.Numerical and analytical approaches for the impact-map calculation are proposedand compared. Pros and cons of each approach are summarized. The numericalapproach requires a large number of realizations for effective implementationof the impact map, which might not be practically achievable. On the otherhand, the analytical approach does not require many realizations and producesstable results. In most cases, only variogram models and current well locationsare needed for the analytical impact-map computation. Although computationaltime of this approach largely depends on the model size, some options aresuggested to reduce the cost. The analytical impact calculation is developedfor the OOIP model response, in which the petroleum reservoir is defined as acomplex geological architecture with multiple structural surface constraints.Several case studies, including a real-petroleum-reservoir example, demonstratethe use of the impact map for the assessment of new delineation-well locations.The developed tool is of significant help for well placement.
Rescaled Exponential and Density-Based Decline Models: Extension toVariable Rate/Pressure-Drawdown Conditions
Authors: Ayala Luis , Zhang Miao
Published: June 2014

Constant-bottomhole-pressure (BHP) solutions to the diffusivity equation areused routinely for the analysis of well-decline performance inboundary-dominated flow (BDF). Gas-well-performance equations for constant-BHPconditions may be written in a number of ways, including rate vs.pseudopressure, rate vs. pseudotime, rate vs. material-balance pseudotimeexpressions, and, more recently, in terms of density-based rescaled exponentialmodels (Ayala and Ye 2013a, b; Ye and Ayala 2013). A significant constraint forsome of these models, especially for the rescaled exponential model, is theassumption that BHP conditions remain constant throughout the declining life ofthe well. However, the most realistic well-specification scenario is that inwhich both BHP and flow rate decline in time (i.e., avariable-pressure-drawdown/-rate condition. In this study, we explore and provethe validity of rescaled exponential and density-based gas decline models forthe analysis of variable-rate/pressure-drop gas systems in BDF. We alsodemonstrate that the constant-rate and constant-BHP solutions given by theproposed density-based decline models for gas wells under BDF areinterchangeable.
Second-Order Gas-Permeability Correlation of Shale During Slip Flow
Authors: Niu Cong , Hao You-zhi , Li Dao-lun , Lu De-tang
Published: June 2014

Recent molecular-dynamics (MD) simulation of methane flow through nanoscale kaolinite channels shows that the gas molecules accumulate near the kaolinite wall, which will reduce the flowpath of the gas through tight porous media. Considering this gas-accumulation effect, and on the basis of the corrected second-order slip boundary condition (BC) proposed by Zhang et al. (2010), a permeability-correlation model is proposed for nanoscale flow in highly compacted shale reservoirs. Full-derivation detail of this model is presented along with a comparison with several existing correlations. Results show that, with the increase of the Knudsen number (Kn), the molecular-accumulation effect has an obvious negative effect on the shale permeability, which should not be neglected in further investigation. The parametric investigation of the model proposed shows that the permeability is mostly decided by the pore-wall structure of shale matrix and only slightly influenced by the gas property.
Extending the Reach of Coiled Tubing in Directional Wells with Downhole Motors
Authors: Oyedokun O. , Schubert J
Published: June 2014

A rigorous study has dispelled a longtime myth about coiled-tubing technology. The inability to rotate the tubing limits its reach in the lateral section of the wellbore. Past and current extended-reach techniques for coiled-tubing drilling (CTD) have not been sufficient (individually) in significantly increasing the reach of the tubing in the wellbore; often four or five extended-reach methods are combined to have significant tubing displacement in the wellbore, which is quite expensive to do.

After much rigorous investigations and computer simulation tests, the study has demonstrated that a downhole motor (second motor) can be employed in extending significantly the reach of coiled tubing in the wellbore. This technique is expected to also improve hole cleaning process (during CTD), since the configuration allows for the rotation of the coiled tubing string.

With the proposed technology having two tubing segments (rotating and nonrotating segments), the investigations show that the two segments will not buckle under applied torsional loads in the course of using a hydraulic downhole motor. But the nonrotating segment of the tubing string will be subjected to severe twisting.

Downhole electric motors and a dynamic torque anchor (or full-gaged stabilizer) coupled to a hydraulic motor can be employed to achieve the primary aim of the technology and prevent twisting of the nonrotating segment (the twisting of the segment destabilizes the drilling process).

Although the use of a dynamic torque anchor or full-gaged stabilizer can be employed in arresting the twisting moment, it induces high frictional forces, which reduce the lateral displacement of the tubing (relative to an electrodrill). To solve this problem, a new "dynamic torque arrestor" has been proposed in this project. The simulation tests show that the lateral displacements of the tubing in the wellbore (when the newly proposed dynamic torque arrestor is coupled to a hydraulic motor) are greater than the displacements achieved with the use of dynamic torque anchor or full-gaged stabilizer.

Since the proposed technology does not require the intense modification of the current configuration of the coiled tubing unit, its application will be inexpensive.
Defying Conventional Wisdom; Reversing Tapered Coiled Tubing Strings for Extended Life
Authors: Grant Ryan , Canada Sanjel , Burgess Lara
Published: June 2014

It is common practice in the coiled tubing industry to manage the fatigue of straight wall coiled tubing (CT) strings by reversing the string on a work reel. The benefit is to shift the fatigue profile along the string by moving high fatigue sections away from high cycle depths in the well. This often helps extend the working life of the coiled tubing. For tapered CT strings, however, this is not a common practice. Tapered strings are traditionally not considered reversible as the effectiveness of the taper would be lost, and in some cases, pulling out of hole would exceed the yield strength of the tapered section of the string. In a large unconventional gas play, a tapered string was designed to be utilized for a number of completion activities on extended reach wells. String costs had a significant impact on the economics of the project. The strings were utilized until a given section exceeded 80% of the predicted fatigue life of the coil, and then in a conventional fashion, the strings were taken out of service. By evaluating the upcoming work on the project and the location of the fatigue spikes in the string the coiled tubing service company was able to develop a procedure to remove the fatigue spikes and manipulate sections of the string to gain additional useful life out of the string. Forward planning, special operating procedures and engineering analysis were used to gain over 60% longer working life of coiled tubing strings on this campaign.
Coiled Tubing Drilling: Increasing Horizontal Reach in the Kuparuk Field
Authors: Burke J. , Eller G. , Venhaus D. , Gantt L.
Published: June 2014

Coiled Tubing Drilling (CTD), is a cornerstone of the brownfield redevelopment that is taking place on the North Slope of Alaska. Through-tubing horizontal multilateral completions are now being drilled with CTD to further develop the thin, highly faulted reservoirs in the Kuparuk field. Five years ago, the average horizontal lateral length was 2150 ft, with a maximum horizontal length of 3126 ft. As of June 2013, a horizontal lateral length of 4293 ft was drilled to a measured depth of 13,375 ft, currently a CTD record for the area.

As redevelopment of the Kuparuk field continues, the horizontal extension limits are being pushed to even greater lengths, and as development continues there will be many factors that pose challenges to continue drilling extended reach CTD laterals out of the existing well bores. These challenges include: down hole mechanical limitations, fluid systems (hole cleaning ability and pressure considerations), and equipment limitations. This paper highlights these challenges, and presents some possible solutions as well as discusses how these techniques were applied on the most recent record CTD horizontal lateral, and how these lessons will be applied for future extended reach candidates.
Successful Mechanical Removal of Barium Sulfate Tubular Scale by Coiled Tubing: A Gulf of Mexico Case History of an Engineered Approach for Offshore Rigless Interventions
Authors: Sopngwi Jean-Jose S. , Gauthreaux Alex , Kiburz Daniel E. , Sonnier Baine , Moghalu David , Smith Steve K.
Published: June 2014

Discovered in 1991 and located approximately 130 miles south of New Orleans, the Ewing Bank 873 (EW 873) field is an offshore mature field in the Gulf of Mexico that produces hydrocarbon from unconsolidated sandstone reservoirs of Middle-Upper Pliocene age. Most wells within the field were completed using cased-hole gravel packed completions, and field production began in 1994.

Throughout the production cycle of the EW 873 field, wells such as Well A-04 had experienced severe production impairment from near-wellbore (NWB) formation damage, as well as tubular buildups from barium sulfate (BaSO4) scale caused by incompatible mixing between formation water and biocide inhibited seawater that broke through from an offset injection well. While mechanical techniques such as coiled tubing-conveyed hydroblasting have been commonly used to remove BaSO4 tubular scale, the success of these techniques largely depends on the nature and magnitude of the BaSO4, as well as effective operational planning.

This paper presents the five-step engineered approach of the coiled tubing hydroblasting intervention that mechanically removed as much as 3,150 ft. measured depth (MD) of BaSO4 tubular scale from Well A-04. Additionally, the paper presents the tools that were utilized throughout the intervention and the laboratory and field methods that were applied to characterize the BaSO4. With NWB formation damage and production impairment already established to be a problem on Well A-04, the successful coiled tubing-conveyed hydroblasting intervention created an opportunity to effectively conduct a chelant-based hydrofluoric (HF) acid treatment that increased oil production by as much as 305% on the well (Sopngwi et al. 2014).
An Innovative Integrated Methodology to Deliquify Gas Well Using In-Well Live Performance Coiled Tubing for Velocity String Selection and Deployment: A Case Study in Saudi Arabia
Authors: Asel S. A. , Gomez F. A. , Ahmed D. , Baez F. , Elsherif T. , Kneina M. A. , Kharrat W.
Published: June 2014

Gas well deliquification is the process of removing water or condensate loading from producing gas wells. Water can be loaded into producing gas wells as a result of: an intervention where the well had to be loaded with water or completion fluids because of well control issues; stimulation fluids injected into the well; producible water zone below the gas zone; or well producing wet gas. Whereas, condensate banking can happen both in wet gas wells and retrograde gas condensate wells where condensate loads into the well or banks in the near wellbore region respectively, as a result of producing below dew point.

A number of techniques employed to deliquify gas wells include deploying an artificial lift system, installation of velocity string and stimulation. Artificial lift systems can include deployment of electrical submersible pumps, progressive cavity pumps, bean pumps, plunger pumps, and gas lift. Coiled tubing (CT) can be used to nitrogren lift the well or used as a velocity string, and stimulation can cover matrix stimulation or hydraulic fracking of the well.

Numerical and analytical software modeling can be performed prior to deploying each of the above mentioned techniques. In this case study after performing intensive modeling, different solutions were proposed but the question is which most efficient and cost effective technique to use?. Thus, In-Well Live Performance CT (I-WLPCT) was the selected technique because it is equipped with downhole pressure, temperature, casing collar and gamma ray sensors along with distributed temperature sensing for real time evaluation of the velocity string, determination of fluid level in the well, conducting surveillance under flow/shut-in test conditions and its results used to validate the software modeling.

This paper describes a case study of a retrograde gas condensate well and the challenges encountered during the successful implementation of an engineered approach with the aid of I-WLPCT to successfully select and deploy a velocity string for gas well deliquification.
2 3/8; and 2 7/8 OD Coiled Tubing Operations in Gulf of Mexico GoM Shelf: A Safe, Reliable, and Efficient Way to Prepare for Re-Entry of Wells to Conform to New BSEE Regulations
Authors: Torres Carlos , Ottolina Renny , Rudnik Alexander , Creppel Carl , Bergeron Ernest , Broussard Mike
Published: June 2014

Since the Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement (BSEE) released and implemented the updated version of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) in recent years, Operators now have the need to reenter wells that had been deemed as abandoned in the 1980’s, and perform operations to comply with the updated regulations.

All of these wells have surface plugs (either cement plugs or cast iron bridge plugs) that require milling in order to access the wellbores to be abandoned. The use of a pulling unit is generally the method used for these abandonment operations. However, the risks of having pressure trapped below those surface plugs, and the ability to maintain well control during milling operations with the pulling and jacking units (PJU) poses a great concern to the Operators. Upon evaluation, Shell decided to use large outside diameter (OD) coiled tubing (CT) to mill the surface cement plugs and the cast iron bridge plugs. The use of CT enabled several operational advantages, such as the ability to handle potentially live well situations safely and efficiently, faster operations to mobilize (mob) from well to well, the use of larger bottom hole assemblies (BHA) with mills manufactured to drift the different casings 7", 9 5/8" and 10 ¾" inner diameter (ID), ensure optimal downhole motor (DHM) performance and to provide efficient removal of solids from the wellbore back to surface.

This paper describes the CT operations performed on two shallow waters platforms projects in the GoM for Shell, where a total of 9 wells were intervened using 2 3/8" and 2 7/8" OD CT. The challenges encountered together with the developed solutions, equipment used, lessons learned are also discussed. Full compliance with BSSE regulations for well abandonment was the final result.
Cut & Cap Process for Surface Casing Vent Flow Repair and Prevention
Authors: Sahnoun Djillali , Schneider Jason , Sylvestre Chuck
Published: June 2014

Thousands of new wells are being drilled each year while thousands more are being repaired or abandoned around the world. Remedial and well abandonment work is becoming increasingly important for both E&P companies and energy service companies providers as the oil and gas industry continues to recognize the financial and environmental impact, while at the same time, authorities are tightening regulations.

Traditional abandonment and squeeze methods have not changed much over the past several decades which has resulted in little or no improvement on the successful repair and abandonment of wells. While improvements have been suggested and trialed, remedial work is viewed as a cost burden, and companies tend to avoid it rather than to address it, which often leads to problems occurring or reoccurring in the future.

However, in Western Canada one particular technique has been successfully developed. Although not a new technology, abrasive jetting has proven to be one successful component in well repair operations in many parts of Alberta. Abrasive jetting was primarily developed for wells presenting surface casing vent flow (SCVF) problems. According to the Alberta Energy Regulators (AER), approximately one in 20 oil and gas wells in Alberta experience gas migration to surface through one of the following issues: a cemented casing string(s) with either a micro-annulus between casing and cement, a channel within the cement sheath, or a channel between the cement and the borehole wall. To remediate these possible gas migration passages, the abrasive jetting technique is used first to radially cut the casing, the cement sheath, and the formation in the horizontal plane utilizing a high-pressure sand/liquid mixture. Cutting in this manner provides full radial exposure and increases the chances of intercepting the gas flow passage.The next step is to determine the formation feed rate. Once the feed rate is determined, the proper product can be selected along with the placement technique. Micro-fine cement with slow-rate pumping is often used in the squeeze process to seal off the channels.

This process is highly effective in terminating gas migration (GM) or SCVF and reducing remedial costs, saving E&P companies thousands of dollars in rig time and material costs, and adding significant value for the client.
Perforating and Pipe Recovery with Digital Slickline First Application in Colombia Ballena Field
Authors: Arcila G. P. , Perez L. H.
Published: June 2014

As part of an abandonment campaing started in Feb 2013, Chevron had decided to permanent plug 3 gas producer wells and 2 water producer wells in the Ballena Field, with the main challenge of the footprint of equipment to be used because the original locations were eroded by sea and there was no possibility to use a conventional work over rig. This document presents 2 case studies where a significant advance in the slickline technology that incorporates cutting-edge benefits such as real time visibility and interaction and control, while maintaining slickline advantage simplicity had overcome the project's challenges allowing time and cost reductions.
Managing Risk and Reaping Reward in a High Temperature, High H2S, Extended Reach Environment: A Case Study of a Coiled Tubing Stimulation Campaign in the UAE
Authors: Quinn Sean , Chrysovulou Christina , Erickson Daniel , Singh Basant K. , Haryanti Dwi , Bowen Greg J.
Published: June 2014

Coiled Tubing (CT) interventions, even in simple environments, carry inherent risk. This risk is further compounded as the intervention envelope is expanded and the environment made more complex. This gas field in the UAE is an example of such a reservoir. The high temperatures and high levels of both H2S and CO2 present in the field make this an unforgiving environment. The drilling strategy dictates a substantial number of long, horizontal, dual lateral wells to target different sections of the reservoir which in turn vary significantly in reservoir quality. Finally, the production strategy stipulates that wells require acid stimulation with CT selected as the preferred placement technique.

Meeting all of the above requirements in a single intervention strategy requires extensive and careful pre-planning and hazard analysis and identification at the onset of such a project. The obvious challenges relate to the selection of a suitable CT string for such a job and subsequently protecting it from attack from H2S, complicated by extended exposure to acid. The more subtle challenges lie in the appropriate selection and combination of downhole tools technologies to achieve the multiple objectives of lateral access, extended reach capability and stimulation efficiency in a single bottom-hole assembly (BHA).

To achieve all of these multi-level objectives, this paper will review the planning, execution and post-job phases of the CT stimulation campaign completed in this gas field. Focus will be given to the initial Hazard Identification Study (HAZID) carried out and the subsequent actions taken to mitigate the risks identified. These include but are not limited to the design of the CT string, the selection of the stimulation strategy including laboratory testing done for fluid selection and corrosion inhibition, a review of the various yard-testing conducted to select and set-up the required intervention BHAs, and finally the integration of a new, real-time CT pipe monitoring system to affirm the effectiveness of the pipe management and mitigation strategy used.

The results reaffirm the value of investing time upfront to conduct a HAZID and then do the necessary due diligence to follow through on action items and implement engineered solutions. Furthermore, the workflows and best practices resulting continue to be used and updated as the project continues.
Rheology and Flow Characteristics of Xanthan in Calcium Chloride Brine
Authors: Asafa Kolapo A. , Shah Subhash N.
Published: June 2014

Xanthan gum and other naturally obtained polymers have been used extensively in the petroleum industry as a "viscosifier" in drilling, completion, workover and hydraulic fracturing fluids. Other than the effects of shear rate, pH and temperature, the performance of various polymers can be greatly affected by salinity, due to their sensitivity to metal ions of different salts contained in the commonly used solvents. In today’s oilfield operations, it is not uncommon to combine polymers with sea water or brine of a known salt concentration in order to generate certain desired fluid properties. Consequently, the importance of understanding the compatibility and shear properties of polymer fluids in brine solvents for coiled tubing operations cannot be underemphasized.

However, while there are several existing literatures on the various methods of viscosifying brine solutions with polymers, only a handful have attempted to describe the flow properties of viscosified brine. In order to bridge this knowledge gap, the present experimental study examines the compatibility and flow characteristics of Xanthan gum at various polymer loadings with different concentrations of Calcium Chloride (CaCl2) brine. An unprecedented set of flow data was acquired using an experimental flow-loop comprising of ½ in. straight and coiled tubing sections. The data demonstrated a continual decrease in drag reduction and increased friction pressure loss with increasing brine density. A comparison of those data with predicted data show that the hydraulic properties of viscosified brine can be fairly estimated using existing friction factor correlations. Nevertheless, additional flow data must be acquired with various brines and polymers to develop correlations with better accuracy.
The Journey Continues: Sixty Years of Sharing Incident Information in the Geophysical Industry
Authors: Threadgold Ian M.
Published: June 2014

For more than sixty years the geophysical industry has been taking a journey towards greater safety and security for its workforce. In the early 1950’s, a worker in the geophysical sector of the petroleum industry was five times more at risk of injury than workers in other sectors of the same industry. Today a worker in the geophysical sector is at par with other oil and gas industry workers in terms of their safety.

It is the author’s intention to highlight the data available regarding safety statistics over the last six decades, and offer a brief review of which groups were stewarding safety issues during this same period. The paper looks at how the sharing of incident information began in the geophysical industry over 60 years ago and has continued to this present day. This sharing of incident information, for such a prolonged period of time, has been unique to the geophysical sector of the oil and gas industry.

A case is made that this sharing of information is the largest single factor in the dramatic improvement in safety performance within the geophysical sector of the petroleum industry. Mention is also made of how this sharing in the present day has led to the creation of a fatality and high potential incident database, again unique to the geophysical sector. It is hoped that this story may help encourage other sectors in the oil and gas industry to improve the sharing of incident information.
New Evidence on the Drivers of HSE Incidents and Reporting, and Implications for HSE Policy
Authors: Jablonowski Christopher J , Tolle John J.
Published: June 2014

This paper specifies detection-controlled regression models to investigate the drivers of health, safety, and environmental (HSE) performance and reporting behavior. The analysis confirms some results from previous research and also tests new hypotheses, with emphasis on supervision-related practices and policies. Most of the results are general and thus applicable to other regions, to other operators, and very likely to other industrial sectors. The results can be used to drive decisions regarding operating practices and HSE management system policy.
Oil and Gas E&P Cyber Security: Perfect Storm Threat Review
Authors: Smith Andrew L
Published: June 2014

Critical Infrastructure Protection (CIP) relates to the challenges posed by ‘High Impact, Low Frequency Risks’.1 World-wide critical infrastructure interdependencies also exist across the globe.2

The risk of a coordinated cyber, physical, or blended attack against CIP systems has become more acute over the past 15 years as digital communicating equipment has introduced cyber vulnerability to the system, and resource optimization trends have allowed some inherent physical redundancy within the system to be reduced. The specific concern with respect to these threats is the targeting of multiple key nodes on the system that, if damaged, destroyed, or interrupted in a coordinated fashion, could bring the system outside the protection provided by traditional planning and operating criteria. Such an attack would behave very differently than traditional risks to the system in that an intelligent attacker could mount an adaptive attack that would manipulate assets and potentially provide misleading information to system operators attempting to address the issue.

More comprehensive work is needed, however, to realize the vision of a secure CIP system. Better technology solutions for the cyber portion of the threat needs to be developed, with specific focus on forensic tools and network architectures to support graceful system degradation that would allow operators to "fly with fewer controls." Component and system design criteria also need to be re-evaluated with respect to these threats with an eye toward designing for survivability. Prioritization of key assets for protection will be a critical component of a successful mitigation approach.

Consequently, there needs to be a significant shift in industry specific standards by referencing active security monitoring, security intelligence and specially designed forensics tools. The review will address the latest developments in information protection, threat mitigation, behavioural and intrusion detection, situational awareness and defending against advanced persistent threats (APT’s) 3.

The global oil and gas businesses cannot close their eyes to this threat and hope it will go away or won’t happen to them. They must begin defending themselves now against the Perfect Storm.45678
HPHT Cement Sheath Integrity Evaluation Method for Unconventional Wells
Authors: Shadravan Arash , Schubert Jerome , Amani Mahmood , Teodoriu Catalin
Published: June 2014

Chances of cement sheath failure increase considerably when the application involves deepwater, high pressure high temperature (HPHT) conditions. Such failures may occur as a result of temperature and pressure-induced stresses created by well events such as hydraulic fracturing, cyclic steam injection, steam assisted gravity drainage (SAGD), production, completion, or other remedial treatments. Thermal and stress cycles could impose the risk of losing zonal isolation and lead to delay in hydrocarbon production.

Cement mechanical properties measurment solely would not be sufficient to predict the failure threshold of a cement sheath. Some experimental studies were conducted about the effect of cyclical loading on the integrity of casing and drill strings but less research have been done about the in situ cement sheath integrity under cyclical loading. This paper introduces a new Ultra HPHT experimental set up and an applicable method to evaluate cement sheath integrity under cyclical loading. It also provides insights to find the cement fatigue failure cycle for the set cement at elevated pressures and temperatures.

This system was built and completed by benefiting from the capabilities of an extreme HPHT Rheometer. Cement samples could be cured for number of hours in the newly developed HPHT cell and then instantly tested under cyclical loading in various scenarios at high temperatures. The cement sheath fails after a certain number of cycles when reaches its fatigue endurance limit. This research showcases scenarios in which the fatigue failure cycles were identified for 1,000 psi, 2,000 psi and 5,000 psi, pressure differentials between the confining pressure (exposed to outside of the sheath) and the casing pressure. During these experiments, the confining pressure and temperature were held constant at 15,000 psi and 330°F while the casing pressure varied cyclically between 15,000 psi and 16,000 psi (Set A), 17,000 (Set B) and 20,000 (Set C). A stable chemistry of Class H cement plus 35% silica was used to prevent cement retrogression. Cement sheath failures such as radial cracking, debonding and disking occured due to cyclical loadings. Finally, a fatigue failure envelope was generated by the obtained data. This curve represents the extent of cement sheath endurance at HPHT conditions under cyclical loading.
A Seachange in Environmental Capability Development
Authors: Walls Anne , Walker Sam , O’Brien Rob , Yoder James
Published: June 2014

Offshore exploration and production continues to be a major focus for the oil and gas industry, with the deepwater accounting for over 50% of all conventional new reserves discovered worldwide between 2007 and 2012. Like most oil and gas companies, BP has a dedicated and committed team of environmental advisors. However, a need to strengthen capability in marine science was identified. No courses were available commercially that offered suitable marine science training to develop the skills required, and to keep advisors up-to-date with new advances in scientific understanding and techniques.

In 2011, BP worked with the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI), Massachusetts to develop a two week course in marine science that would provide an in-depth understanding of the fundamental physical, chemical and biological aspects of marine science, and application of those fundamentals in an industry context. The syllabus developed also provides an insight into the practical aspects of marine science through tours of the WHOI laboratories and facilities and an offshore planning, sampling and data collection exercise.

The course was run in 2011 and 2012, with a total of 37 delegates from 13 countries attending. The benefits to participants have been high, with some even moving to new roles based on their acquired expertise, and the company now has a large resource base of capable marine scientists who are better equipped to manage marine projects and operations. WHOI has also benefited as the course gives staff and students direct exposure to industry representatives, enabling them to better understand the industry context. Each year, feedback was sought and incorporated into the syllabus in order to continuously improve the learning offer for participants.

This experience has demonstrated how, through partnership with world-class academic institutions, it is possible to develop high-quality environmental training offers that develop much needed capability for the industry. This paper will examine how the WHOI course has been made a success, what the benefits of this type of training are (to individuals and to companies), and what options are available for maintaining and further developing marine science capability going forward.
Fixing Human Error
Authors: Bridle Peter V.
Published: June 2014

Whether Process or Personal Safety, starting with the corner office will likely provide more of the answers than charging directly toward the coalface…

"So we just completed our detailed root cause analysis…."

"It took us several weeks to complete and lots of effort, but we can now most definitively say that the root cause was categorically linked to "human error".
Proactive Safety Campaign in Kuwait Reduces Personnel Injury Incidents to Zero
Authors: Azparren Frank , Anthony Graeme , Pohl Jonathan , D’Silva Ronald , Al-Khabbaz Aiman , Salih Omer
Published: June 2014

The well services division of an oilfield services company in Kuwait initiated a safety campaign to support field personnel in a proactive approach to personnel injury prevention. The initiative targets the root causes of personnel injury incidents; i.e., human behavior, poor hazard identification, failure to intervene and stop at-work risk behaviors, and non-compliance with recommended procedures and standards. The foundation of the campaign is the personal commitment from all employees involved to follow safe work procedures at all times. Additionally, the initiative established the role of a safety coach who observes crews at work, identifies potentially unsafe situations and intervenes when necessary, coaches individuals, challenges performance, and leads safety meetings focused on individual tasks or subtasks. Management is actively involved in the campaign by making safety visits to wellsites, to better understand the issues facing the crews, demonstrate support of the crews, and participate in the observation and intervention program. Inventories of the tasks at each wellsite are incorporated into site-specific risk assessments. Compliance to standards is supported by ensuring that the standards are clear and are understood by all of the field personnel. Complementing the safety campaign were exercises to help the personnel understand how an individual’s personality impacts their response to different situations. After these activities, debriefing sessions were conducted to highlight positive behaviors, identify areas for improvement, compile lessons learned, and formulate action items. The most important result of the campaign to date is a reduction in the incident rate for the pumping services unit to zero incidents. In addition, the increase in the reporting rate of hazardous situations, interventions following observation, and field audits indicates that the campaign heightens safety awareness and understanding of safe practices. This campaign is currently being extended to other segments in Kuwait and is being pilot tested by a major drilling contractor with the support of the operator.
Heat Related Illness Onshore and Offshore Medical Management
Authors: Hochberg Anthony
Published: June 2014

Australia experiences frequent and intense heat waves during the summer months. With temperatures rising off the charts across Australia this summer experienced the Bureau of Meteorology had to add new colours to extend its previous temperature range that was capped at 50 degrees. This has heightened the resources industry’s awareness to working in heat and the risks if proper precautions are not observed.

Hot workplaces are common in the resources industry and heat can be generated from Hot climatic conditions,Situations where heavy work is undertaken in moderate conditions,Hot work processes with radiant heat, such as welding, andWorking in conditions requiring heavy protective clothing.

Worker productivity, permit to work, heat stress indices, medical management, dehydration testing and heat illness protocols are all important components in managing heat illness.
Leading Organizations Build Case for Green Infrastructure
Authors: Disselhoff Duska , Guertin France , North Jeffrey
Published: June 2014

Research by experts from industry and an environmental organization finds that incorporating nature into man-made infrastructure can improve business resilience – and bring additional economic, environmental and socio-political benefits.

Experts from Shell, The Dow Chemical Company, Swiss Re, and Unilever, working with The Nature Conservancy, evaluated over 20 business case studies, and recommend that green infrastructure solutions should become part of the standard toolkit for modern engineers.
The Development of Risk-Based Company HSE Standards
Authors: Walker Kirsty , Oeen Odd
Published: June 2014

A new, and potentially more effective, approach to the development of company HSE standards is to move away from a prescriptive approach to a more risk-based strategy. The risk-based approach allows resources to be focused towards the geographic locations, activities and services that present higher risk to a company and its customers.

This paper describes how an oilfield services company has developed a risk-based HSE approach which involves setting prescribed fundamental controls that apply to all activities and employees at all company sites. While some of these controls apply without variation, the application of many controls increases proportionally with the assessed risk. To establish how the fundamental controls are applied, the risks are assessed according to a predefined process, which is described in the standards.

The development of the control levels for the HSE standards incorporates factors such as the physical geographic location; the operating environment; and the risks associated with the activities, products and services performed both internally within the company and externally.

The paper examines how the specific strategy for each HSE standard is defined to ensure that the key elements required across the organization are clearly defined for each risk level and identifies those controls that are allowed to be modified locally.
A Survey on Computer Work-related Risk Factors for Musculoskeletal Complaints at the PTT Exploration and Production Public Company Limited (PTTEP)
Authors: Dusadi-isariyavong Asadang , Jaloyondeja Wattana , Jalayondeja Chutima
Published: June 2014

Sick leaves caused by work-related musculoskeletal disorders were analyzed from 2009 to 2011 medical records of the PTTEP Thailand Company Limited. Health care cost of the company increased two-fold in 2011.The results showed that the prevalence ratio of musculoskeletal disorders was 51% and high prevalence was found at the Bangkok office. The computer work-related musculoskeletal complaints were low back pain (47%), neck and upper extremity problems (31%), knee and ankle discomfort (14%) and muscle strain (8%). Those who worked at Bangkok office were 2.56 times to have musculoskeletal disorders and sick leaves compared to those who worked at the provincial division of PTTEP.

Therefore, we designed a study to determine prevalence of work-related musculoskeletal disorders and their risk factors in approximate 1500 computer workers at Bangkok office divisions of PTTEP. The findings will lead to guidelines for health care program, behavior adaptation and risk factor management. A survey research was conducted in July 2013 using electronic questionnaires. The questions related to four issues including physical, administration, psychological and environmental factors have been included. The prevalence rate, odds ratio (OR) and 95% confident interval (95%CI) were calculated and demonstrated those who likelihood to have work-related musculoskeletal disorders.
High Integrity Pressure Protection System for ESP Activated Wells
Authors: Nelson-Bridgewater Stacy , Hiez Mathieu , Caudin Jean-Christophe , Collas Stephane
Published: June 2014

The use of downhole Electrical Submersible Pumps (ESP) provides a means of producing oil reservoirs that are non-eruptive and requires artificial lift to produce the reservoirs. The maximum expected wellhead pressure (MEWHP) of these wells takes account of the ESP parameters and in some cases, for instance after a long shutdown, the MEWHP of an ESP well can be as much as five times greater than the maximum wellhead flowing pressure (MWHFP). This creates a challenge for the design of surface facilities, as even though the reservoir pressure may be low, there exists the possibility for overpressure of the facilities by the ESPs. The design of the surface facilities therefore needs to account for possible overpressure from these pumps.

High Integrity Pressure Protection Systems (HIPPS) provide an alternate protection to the use of traditional pressure relief systems in cases where the installation of these systems is not technically feasible or where their installation would result in a disproportionate cost to the project and possible inacceptable environmental impact. The traditional HIPPS design uses closure of a valve as the final element for isolating the overpressure source. This paper presents the results of a study that uses an ‘Electrical HIPPS’ system to directly isolate the electrical source to the ESPs thereby stopping the pumps and removing the overpressure source.

The study demonstrates that an electrical HIPPS architecture can be used to protect the surface facilities from overpressure from the ESPs. The use of this design provides an overpressure protection system with a much faster reaction time, as valve closure time is no longer a limiting factor in stopping the source of overpressure. It further shows that a HIPPS design based on this architecture can achieve a HIPPS layer reliability equivalent to SIL 3, in low demand mode, and with an acceptable test period from an operational point of view.