bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Genotoxicity of fungi evaluated by SOS microplate assay
Authors: Sakai Masashi , Abe Ken‐Ichi , Okumura Hiroki , Kawamura Osamu , Sugiura Yoshitsugu , Horie Yoshikazu , Ueno Yoshio
Published: October 2006

By an introduction of sodium dodecylsulfate for cell lysis and immunomicroplate for mass assay, the modified SOS microplate assay method was established and applied for the evaluation of genotoxicity of mycotoxins and fungal cultures. Among 20 mycotoxins, the carcinogenic dihydrobisfuranoids such as aflatoxin B1, sterigmatocystin, and versicolorin A were positive in the presence of the activation system. While, the carcinogenic anthraquinones and lactones such as luteoskyrin, rugulosin, ochratoxin A, patulin, and citrinin were negative. The survey on genotoxic fungi revealed that, among 15 fungal isolates Aspergillus versicolor, Emericella acristata, and others were positive. Additional survey on 265 fungal isolates have revealed that various Aspergillus genera such as A. flavus, A. parasiticus, A. ustus, A. nidulans, and others were positive for SOS induction, along with several isolates of Fusarium moniliforme. The chemical analysis revealed that the dihydrobisfuranoids such as aflatoxin B1, and sterigmatocystin were the major genotoxic metabolites of several Aspergillus species. The SOS microplate assay system is a simple and rapid procedure for the mass screening of genotoxic fungi, particularly of the dihydrobisfuranoids‐producing strains. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Trichothecene synergism, additivity, and antagonism: The significance of the maximally quiescent ratio
Authors: Koshinsky Heather A. , Khachatourians George G.
Published: October 2006

The interactive effect of the combinations of trichothecene mycotoxins often found in fungus infected plants, contaminated grain, and other biological systems is poorly understood. Growth inhibition of the yeast Kluyveromyces marxianus was used to measure the effects of HT‐2 toxin, roridin A, and T‐2 toxin as individual toxins or as binary mixtures. A value, the combination index, was derived which indicates the interactive effects of a binary mixture of toxins. The interaction is affected by the ratio of the individual toxins, and the percent inhibition of yeast growth. Generally the interaction of T‐2 toxin and roridin A or T‐2 toxin and HT‐2 toxin changes from antagonistic when they cause a low percent inhibition of yeast growth to synergistic when they cause a high percent inhibition of yeast growth. Additionally, any two trichothecenes have a unique ratio, which we name the maximally quiescent ratio (or MQR), where there is the least change in the type and intensity of their interaction. The maximally quiescent ratio in this case has helped to define the nature of toxin interactions and could be used to provide insights into hormone, immune system, developmental, enzyme, and gene regulation, combined drug therapy, and the action of mixtures of natural or synthetic toxins, carcinogens, pesticides, and environmental pollutants. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Aflatoxins isolated by immunoaffinity chromatography from foods consumed in the Gambia, West Africa
Authors: Hudson Geoffrey J. , Wild Christopher P. , Zarba Audrey , Groopman John D.
Published: October 2006

An aflatoxin‐specific, monoclonal antibody‐based immunoaffinity chromatography method has been developed for the rapid isolation of aflatoxins from human foods. Aflatoxins were isolated by immunoaffinity chromatography from a variety of cooked foods, including maize, rice, millets, groundnut sauces, and leaf sauces, collected in The Gambia, West Africa. The aflatoxins were measured by direct fluorescence or high‐pressure liquid chromatography. The highest levels were found for groundnut sauces, mean 162 ppb (range 18 to 943 ppb) for 18 positive samples, but aflatoxins were found in other foods; e.g., maize, mean 9.7 ppb (range 2 to 35 ppb) for nine positive samples. The food analysis results were used with records of the amounts of cooked food to estimate a mean daily intake for an individual of the order of 3.5 μg of aflatoxins per day. This approach for exposure assessment is considered in relation to other biomarkers of aflatoxin exposure using biological fluids. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Effect of sanguinarine on the transport of essential nutrients in an everted gut sac model: Role of Na+, K+‐ATPase
Authors: Tandon Sangita , Das Mukul , Khanna Subhash K.
Published: October 2006

The effect of the argemone alkaloid, sanguinarine, was studied on the active transport of D‐glucose and some of the L‐amino acids in everted sacs of the small intestine of rats. Sanguinarine (1.0 μmole) was found to inhibit (61%) the transport of D‐glucose, while an alkaloid concentration of 0.1 μmole was ineffective. Both 0.1 and 1.0 μmole of sanguinarine had no effect on the transport of the L‐amino acids including aspartic acid, lysine, and tyrosine. Sanguinarine showed a dose dependent inhibition of intestinal and hepatic Na+, K+‐ATPase in a non‐competitive manner. The inhibition of Na+, K+‐ATPase by sanguinarine may in turn inhibit the active transport of D‐glucose which requires a sodium pump. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Toxins in the seedlings of some varieties of grass pea (Lathyrus sativus)
Authors: Lambein Fernand , Khan Jehangir K. , Kuo Yu‐Haey , Campbell Clayton G. , Briggs Colin J.
Published: October 2006

The major toxin present in the dry seeds and seedlings of Lathyrus sativus is the neurotoxin 3‐N‐oxalyl‐L‐2,3‐diaminopropanoic acid (β‐ODAP). The presence of one additional neurotoxin and an osteotoxin in the seedlings increases the overall toxicity. Isolation, purification, and detection of these toxins are described. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
The efficacy of various classes of anti‐emetics in preventing deoxynivalenol‐induced vomiting in swine
Authors: Prelusky Dan B. , Trenholm H. Locksley
Published: October 2006

The Fusarium mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) is a potent emetic agent. While the basic mechanisms which invoke and mediate emesis are still poorly understood, various neurotransmitters appear to be involved. The action of these transmitters can be blocked by various receptor‐specific antagonists. The current study investigated the efficacy of several classes of receptor antagonists to block the emetic effect of DON. Following anti‐emetic pretreatment, pigs were administered the toxin (i.v., 80 μg/kg, or oral, 300 μg/kg) and the onset of emesis was monitored. Certain specific serotonin (5HT3)‐receptor antagonists (ICS 205‐930, BRL 43694 A) were found to efficaciously prevent DON‐induced vomiting. These observations support the hypothesis that serotonin plays an important role in chemically induced emesis. Also moderately effective, but requiring high doses, were the 5HT2‐receptor antagonists, cyproheptadine and sulpiride. A variety of compounds possessing strong anticholinergic activity were also efficacious. These, however, apparently act directly at the emetic center and thus are capable of preventing emesis regardless of the cause, including chemically induced vomiting. Non‐effective were the antihistaminic and antidopaminergic anti‐emetics; except, those which also possessed considerable anticholinergic activity, and i.v. administered chlorpromazine which has been speculated to block specific receptors found in the brain's chemoreceptor trigger zone (CTZ) reportedly involved in initiating emesis. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Search for chlorinated sesquiterpene lactones in the neurotoxic thistle Centaurea solstitialis by liquid chromatography‐mass spectrometry, and model studies on their possible artifactual formation
Authors: Hamburger Matthias , Wolfender Jean‐Luc , Hostettmann Kurt
Published: October 2006

An HPLC method has been developed for the analysis of sesquiterpene lactones of the neurotoxic plant Centaurea solstitialis (Asteraceae). The presence of sesquiterpene lactone chlorohydrins in extracts was investigated by means of liquid chromatography‐thermospray mass spectrometry. In contrast to earlier reports of a series of mono‐ and dichlorohydrins from this plant, traces only of two monochlorohydrins could be detected in lipophilic extracts. Model studies carried out with extracts and with the genuine sesquiterpene diepoxide repin and its epimer subluteolide showed that (i) monochlorohydrins can be formed in CHCl3 under usual laboratory conditions; (ii) the epoxide moiety at C‐4 of the sesquiterpenes is extremely labile, reacting immediately and quantitatively with traces of HCl to the corresponding monohydrins; (iii) epoxide ring opening at the acyl side chain occurs only at higher HCl concentrations. Confirmation of the peak identity was obtained by the isotope ratio of chlorinated compounds and comparison with authentic samples. The structures of the mono‐ and dichlorohydrins were established by NMR spectroscopy. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Hepatotoxin (microcystin) and neurotoxin (anatoxin‐a) contained in natural blooms and strains of cyanobacteria from Japanese freshwaters
Authors: Park Ho‐Dong , Watanabe Mariyo F. , Harada Ken‐Ichi , Nagai Hidetoshi , Suzuki Makoto , Watanabe Masayuki , Hayashi Hidetake
Published: October 2006

Amounts of hepatotoxic microcystin and neurotoxic anatoxin‐a were estimated in natural blooms and strains of cyanobacteria from freshwaters in Japan. A simultaneous analysis method of anatoxin‐a and microcystin was applied to natural bloom samples, which has been dominated by several species and the strains of cyanobacteria which produced simultaneously both toxins. The natural blooms examined in the present study were mainly composed of Anabaena and Oscillatoria, but most also contained Microcystis and other cyanobacteria. Only one sample was almost unialgal, Anabaena spiroides, collected from Lake Sagami. The toxins in 14 samples collected from nine different natural blooms during 1988–1992 were identified as microcystins‐RR, ‐YR, and ‐LR; desmethyl‐7‐microcystin‐LR (7‐DMLR); and anatoxin‐a. Microcystins were the main toxins contained in these natural blooms, with anatoxin‐a not being detected or of very little quantity. 7‐DMLR was detected in samples only from Lake Kasumigaura. Five strains of Anabaena isolated from waters in Japan produced a small amount of anatoxin‐a, but no microcystins. One half of the strains of Microcystis produced microcystins and/or anatoxin‐a. This is the first study showing Microcystis producing both anatoxin‐a and microcystins. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Aflatoxin, kwashiorkor, and morbidity
Authors: Adhikari Miriam , Ramjee Gita , Berjak Patricia
Published: October 2006

Children suffering from kwashiorkor could be grouped as those in whom aflatoxin was detectable in both serum and urine, and those in whom this mycotoxin was undetectable. Examination of the clinical records of the aflatoxin‐positive and negative children (58% and 42% of the sample, respectively) showed several other differences between the two groups. Compared with the aflatoxin‐negative group, the children scored as aflatoxin‐positive showed a significantly lower haemoglobin level (P = 0.02), a longer duration of oedema (P = 0.057), an increased number of infections (P = 0.037), and a longer duration of hospital stay (P = 0.008). The present findings suggest that the consumption of a staple food such as maize that is contaminated with the fungus Aspergillus flavus exposes susceptible kwashiorkor children to the metabolic hazards of aflatoxins, resulting in a greater risk of frequent infections. © 1994 wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Interaction of citrinin and ochratoxin A
Authors: Braunberg Robert C. , Barton Curtis N. , Gantt Oscar O. , Friedman Leonard
Published: October 2006

The mycotoxins citrinin and ochratoxin A are produced in common by some molds and have been found together in a number of foods and animal feeds. We used in vitro tests to determine if the Same effects are produced by these two mycotoxins when they act both independently and together. Renal cortical cubes prepared from kidneys of young adult Hormel‐Hanford miniature swine were cultured in the presence or absence of the toxins for 1 h at 37°C. The concentration of the toxins both singly and in combination ranged from 10−6 to 10−3 M. The tissues were incubated, removed, rinsed, and reincubated to measure transport of either tetraethylammonium (TEA) or paraminohippurate (PAH) ions and protein synthesis, using 3H‐leucine. The transport data were analyzed by a recently developed logistic function test to ascertain whether the effects were additive, synergistic, or antagonistic. The significance of deviation was tested after a potency multiplier was added to the mixture. Data for three of the five experiments measuring TEA transport indicated a synergistic effect; for the other two, the results were not significantly different from additivity. The Same was true for PAH transport. For protein synthesis, one experiment showed synergism; for the other, nonadditivity was not significant. None of the measurements showed antagonism between the two toxins. As with several other systems, tests of biochemical effects showed that administration of citrinin and ochratoxin A together did not elicit either consistent or strong synergistic responses.
Characteristics of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins derived from short‐necked clams (Tapes japonica) in Mikawa Bay
Authors: Okumura Masanao , Yamada Seiji , Oshima Yasukatsu , Ishikawa Naohisa
Published: October 2006

A “red tide” bloom of Alexandrium temarense occurred in Mikawa Bay in April 1991. In association with this, paralytic shellfish poisoning toxin was detected in short‐necked clams by mouse bioassay. High performance liquid chromatography analysis demonstrated large quantities of the N‐sulfocarbamoyl toxins, C1, and C2 (approximately 90% of the total toxins), whose latent potency was confirmed by treatment with boiling at low pH. © 1994 wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Ribosomal DMA sequences discriminate among toxic and non‐toxic Pseudonitzschia species
Authors: Scholin C. A. , Villac M. C. , Buck K. R. , Krupp J. M. , Powers D. A. , Fryxell G. A. , Chavez F. P.
Published: October 2006

Cultured isolates of Pseudonitzschia australis Frenguelli, P. delicatissima (Cleve) Heiden, P. americana (Hasle) Fryxell, P. pungens (Grunow) Hasle, and P. pungens f. multiseries (Hasle) Hasle from Monterey Bay, California, were compared on the basis of their large‐subunit ribosomal RNA gene (LsrDNA). Pseudonitzschia australis, P. pungens f. multiseries, and P. delicatissima were previously shown to produce the neurotoxin domoic acid; the remaining isolates are considered non‐toxic. For each isolate approximately 800 base pairs of LsrDNA, encompassing both evolutionarily conserved and evolutionarily variable regions of the molecule, were amplified using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and sequenced. Phylogenetic trees generated by parsimony analysis of aligned sequences afford a preliminary view of the organisms genetic relationships. Species defined by morphological criteria are also distinguishable by LsrDNA sequence. Organisms known or suspected to produce domoic acid cluster at different termini on the phylogenetic tree. Two genetically distinct strains of P. australis and P. pungens were identified. Development of a restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) assay of the LsrDNA is described. The RFLP assay discriminates each species, including distinguished strains of P. australis and P. pungens. The restriction test provides a rapid and convenient method for screening isolates' LsrDNA, facilitating further tests of the apparent positive correlation between Pseudonitzschia species' ribosomal gene signatures, morphology, and capacity to produce domoic acid. copy; 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Degradation of the cyanobacterial hepatotoxin microcystin by aquatic bacteria
Authors: Jones Gary J. , Bourne David G. , Blakeley Robert L. , Doelle Hörst
Published: October 2006

Bacterial degradation of the cyanobacterial cyclic peptide hepatotoxin microcystin was confirmed in natural waters and by isolated laboratory strains. Degradation of 1 mg L−1 microcystin LR typically began 2‐8 days after addition to surface water samples. At concentrations greater than 1 mg L1 there was an initial slow removal of microcystin LR, rather than a distinct lag (or conditioning) phase, before rapid degradation commenced. The lag phase was absent upon re‐addition of microcystin LR to the water. Both single strains and mixed bacterial cultures capable of degrading microcystin LR were isolated from surface water samples. One single strain isolated was a gram‐negative rod and appeared to be a Pseudomonas sp., although standard taxonomic tests have given inconclusive results. Degradative activity was mostly intracellular and equally active against microcystin LR and RR, but not against nodularin. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Accumulation of paralytic shellfish toxins by surfclams, Spisula solidissima (Dillwyn, 1897) in the gulf of maine: Seasonal changes, distribution between tissues, and notes on feeding habits
Authors: Shumway Sandra E. , Sherman Sally A. , Cembella Allan D. , Selvin Rhonda
Published: October 2006

Accumulation of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins by surfclams, Spisula solidissima, was studied over a period of two years at two inshore locations in southern Maine and at six stations on Georges Bank in the Gulf of Maine. Whole animals as well as individual tissues (siphon, mantle, digestive gland, foot, adductor muscle, gill) were analyzed for PSP‐toxicity levels using the standard AOAC mouse bioassay. Analyses of gut contents were carried out on surfclams from both inshore and offshore locations to identify the type of particles ingested. Surfclams feed primarily on phytoplankton and detrital material characteristic of the overlying seawater and surface sediment. No evidence was found for any selection based on particle size or type. Elevated levels of PSP toxins were noted in surfclams from Georges Bank more than two years after initial toxification. Toxins were not evenly distributed among the various tissues of surfclams. Initially, maximum toxicity among surfclam tissues was found in digestive glands; however, subsequent analyses of samples collected later in the year indicated that toxicity in gill and mantle tissues had increased relative to initial values. No toxicity was detected in adductor muscles. Surfclams are characterized by a high variation in total toxin load among individual animals, with a tendency for decreasing variation as toxin levels increase. Archived data from the Main Department of Marine Resources revealed annual and seasonal patterns of toxin accumulation by surfclams, i.e., toxin accumulation is an annual event, with initial increases in toxicity usually occurring in early spring. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, inc.
Domoic acid‐producing diatom blooms in Monterey Bay, California: 1991‐1993
Authors: Walz P. M. , Garrison D. L. , Graham W. M. , Cattey M. A. , Tjeerdema R. S. , Silver M. W.
Published: October 2006

During the autumn of 1991, numerous seabird fatalities in Monterey Bay, California, led to the discovery of a new domoic acid‐producing diatom, Pseudonitzschia australis. Since this initial event, sizable populations of P. australis, as well as other likely toxin producers, P. pungens f. multiseries and P. pseudodelicatissima, have occurred biannually in Monterey Bay. Using the highly sensitive FMOC‐HPLC method, we detected domoic acid whenever Fseudonitzschia australis was found in the plankton, even at densities as low as 4.0 × 103 cells/L. Based on correlations of domoic acid and P. australis abundances and the overwhelming biovolume dominance of P. australis, we conclude that P. australis has been the major domoic acid producer during the period of our study.

Our study suggests that P. australis cells may always be toxic in natural populations and that toxin concentrations on a per‐cell basis have no statistically significant relationship to population density or to nutrient concentrations other than silicate. Cellular levels of domoic acid were positively correlated with silicate concentrations, which is at variance with reports from prior culture experiments. These conclusions must be tentative because of the limited extent of our sampling. Nevertheless, these preliminary data indicate that further investigations of environmental conditions affiliated with cell growth and toxin production in P. australis are warranted.

As a practical matter, domoic acid in the pelagic environment cannot be reliably or consistently detected by monitoring domoic acid levels in intertidal mussels. Direct measurement of domoic acid using sensitive HPLC methods is probably the most cost‐effective and accurate approach for an ongoing phycotoxin monitoring program. © 1994 wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Isolation and characterization of fusaproliferin, a new toxic metabolite from Fusarium proliferatum
Authors: Ritieni Alberto , Fogliano Vincenzo , Randazzo Giacomino , Scarallo Angela , Logrieco Antonio , Moretti Antonio , Manndina Luisa , Bottalico Antonio
Published: October 2006

A new toxic sesterterpene, named fusaproliferin, was purified from corn kernel cultures (120 ms/kg dry culture) of a strain of Fusarium proliferatum isolated from com ear rot in northern Italy. The strain, designated ITEM‐1494, also produced fumonisin B., (1.500 mg/kg dry culture) and beauvericin (90 mg/kg dry culture), but not moniliformin. To monitor toxicity, the brine shrimp assay was used throughout the isolation procedure. Fusaproliferin had a molecular formula of C27H40O5, and it is the first sesterterpene isolated from a Fusarium species. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Preliminary studies on the inflammatory actions of the venoms of some Australian spiders
Authors: Korszniak Natalie V. , Story David F.
Published: October 2006

Experiments were performed using an anaesthetised rat model to investigate the local inflammatory responses produced by intradermal injections of crude venom gland extracts from a number of Australian spiders, namely, Phonognatha graeffei, Delena cancerides, Isopeda montana, Badumna insignis, Lampona cylindrata, Steatoda grossa, S. capensis Hann. All of the venom gland extracts tested, with the exception of that from S. capensis, produced increases in vascular permeability consistent with acute inflammatory responses. The responses primarily involved the activation of 5‐HT receptors, since they were markedly reduced by the nonselective 5‐HT1/5‐HT2‐receptor antagonist methiothepin. Some of the venoms caused liberation of endogenous mediators of inflammation, and some had components that acted directly on the vasculature to increase vascular permeability. Histamine appeared to have little if any role in the observed increases in vascular permeability following intradermal injection of the spider venoms. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Studies on structure‐activity relationship of seiridins, phytotoxins produced by three species of Seiridium
Authors: Sparapano Lorenzo , Evidente And Antonio
Published: October 2006

The phytotoxins seiridin (SEI) and iso‐seiridin (ISE), two Δαβ‐butenolides produced in vitro by Seiridium cardinale, S. cupressi, and S. unicome, as well as their derivatives obtained by chemical modification of each toxin, were analyzed for their bioactivity. The effects of each compound on host and non‐host plants and their antimicrobial activity on bacteria were investigated. The toxicity of both seiridins (SEIs) decreased in the derivatives with modifications of the γ‐lactone ring or with acetylation of the hydroxy group of the aliphatic side chain at C‐4. Shoot tissues of Cupressus macrocarpa artificially infected by S. cardinale leached electrolytes more than those of C. sempervirens and C. arizonica. Electrolyte loss from shoot tissues of cypress plants treated with each derivative also decreased for most of them. Seed germination was not affected by SEI and ISE derivatives. Inhibition of root growth of three herbaceous test plants was studied. SEI and 3,4‐dihydro SEI were active to germlings of lettuce. No ISE derivative affected root growth of lettuce and oat germlings. Reduction was observed on roots of radish germlings treated with acetyl ISE or 3,4‐dihydro ISE. No derivative of SEI or ISE elicited hormone‐like activity as SEI did. Antibacterial activity shown by SEI and ISE at 150 μM accounted for both hydrogenated derivatives of SEI. The integrity of the Δαβ‐unsaturated‐γ‐lactone ring and the location of the hydroxy group in the heptyl side chain are features of importance in biological activity of the two butenol ides. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Selective chemisorption and detoxification of aflatoxins by phyllosilicate clay
Authors: Phillips Timothy D. , Sarr A. Bashir , Grant Patrick G.
Published: October 2006

Practical and effective strategies for the detoxification of aflatoxins are critically needed. We have shown that a phyllosilicate clay (HSCAS): i) tightly binds aflatoxins in aqueous solutions, including milk; ii) markedly decreases the bioavailability of radiolabeled aflatoxins; iii) greatly diminishes aflatoxicosis in young animals, i.e., rats, chickens, turkeys, lambs, and pigs; and iv) reduces the level of aflatoxin M1in the milk from lactating dairy cattle and goats. In further studies, ligands with one or more of the functional groups in common with aflatoxin were reacted with HSCAS in vitro in an attempt to elucidate the specificity and mechanism of tight binding (or chemisorption). A chemisorption index (Cα) was developed, allowing for direct comparison of various clay and zeolitic minerals with HSCAS. Chemisorption indices were determined by HPLC analysis of extracts of the supematants and sorbed pellets (exhaustively extracted with methanol and chloroform). The β‐dicarbonyl system of aflatoxin was found to be essential for tight binding by HSCAS. Comparison of the chemisorption indices from various classes of compounds with spectral data (DRIFTS) indicated that the molecular mechanism of aflatoxin binding may involve the chelation of metal ions in HSCAS with the β‐dicarbonyl moiety in aflatoxin. Computer modeling was utilized to provide additional information. Preliminary evidence suggests that aflatoxin B1may react at surfaces and within the interlayers of HSCAS particles. With knowledge of the mechanism involved, it has been possible to further enhance the propensity of HSCAS for aflatoxins. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Use of monoclonal antibodies for the analysis of mycotoxins
Authors: Dietrich Richard , Schneider Elisabeth , Usleber Ewald , Märtibauer Erwin
Published: October 2006

Hybridomas producing monoclonal antibodies against aflatoxin M1, ochratoxin A, zearalenone, T‐2 toxin, diacetoxyscirpenol, 3‐acetyl‐deoxynivalenol, fusarenon X, and roridin A were developed after immunization of BALB/c mice and fusion of the splenocytes with myeloma cells. The antibodies were characterized in terms of immunoglobulin subclass, sensitivity, and specificity. The use of these antibodies in competitive enzyme immunoassays, either as microtiter plate assays or membrane‐based quick tests, as well as for the production of immunoaffinity columns is described. The advantages and disadvantages of monoclonal antibodies compared to polyclonal antisera for the improvement of mycotoxin analysis are discussed. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Determination of datura alkaloids by using chromatographic techniques: A review
Authors: Papadoyannis Ioannis N.
Published: October 2006

A review of techniques used for the analysis of alkaloids in legume seeds, feedstuffs and plants is presented in this article. The analysis is performed by chromatographic techniques. Mainly Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC), Gas Chromatography (GC) and High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) are applied. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
FAO programmes for prevention, regulation, and control of mycotoxins in food
Authors: Boutrif Ezzeddine
Published: October 2006

The article provides information on recent past and current activities carried out by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) at national, regional, and international levels to assist member countries in overcoming the problems raised by mycotoxins in foods and feeds. It gives special emphasis to the preventive aspects at the stages of production and storage of those commodities which are particularly sensitive to mycotoxin contamination. Specific projects implemented by the FAO in various countries to prevent and control mycotoxin contamination are cited with particular reference to the on‐going FAO/United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Regional Training Network for Mycotoxin Control in Asia. The article also provides an update of the Codex Alimentarius effort to establish international guideline levels for different mycotoxins in various foodstuffs and agricultural commodities and to develop sampling plans for aflatoxin control in peanuts and maize and their products. It proposes a set of recommended actions at various levels to monitor and control mycotoxin levels in foods and to promote international cooperation in this field. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Worldwide regulations for mycotoxins in 1994
Authors: van Egmond Hans P. , Dekker Wybo H.
Published: October 2006

Since the discovery of the aflatoxins in the 1960s, regulations have been established in many countries to protect the consumer from harmful effects of mycotoxins that may contaminate foodstuffs. Various factors play a role in the decision‐making process of setting limits for mycotoxins. These include scientific factors such as availability of survey data, toxicological data, analytical methodology, and knowledge about the distribution of mycotoxins in contaminated commodities. Economical and political factors such as commercial interests and sufficiency of food supply have their impact as well.

International enquiries on existing mycotoxin regulation in foodstuffs and animal feedstuffs have been carried out several times in the 1980s and details about tolerances, legal bases, responsible authorities, official protocols of analysis and sampling have been published. The most recent enquiry is currently taking place as part of a contract with the Food and Agriculture Organization. At least 77 countries now have regulations for mycotoxins. An overview is presented of the tentative results of this enquiry, including frequency distributions of existing tolerances for aflatoxins and current trends. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
A lethal protein toxin (toxin‐PC) from the Indian catfish (Plotosus canius, Hamilton) venom
Authors: Auddy Biswajit , Muhuri Dilip C. , Alam Mohammad I. , Gomes Antony
Published: October 2006

Isolation and purification of a lethal protein toxin from the Indian catfish Plotosus canius, Hamilton, venom is described. The purification procedure involved ammonium sulfate precipitation of crude venom followed by DEAE‐ion exchange chromatography. The purified toxin (toxin‐PC) was homogeneous on one‐dimensional PAGE and PAS‐negative, and had a molecular weight 15 Kd. Toxin‐PC was lethal (LD50 225 μg/kg, intravenous, in mice) and cardiotoxic, having neuromuscular blocking activity. Toxin‐PC produced cardiac arrest on isolated toad and guinea pig hearts. Prior administration of atropine and propanolol failed to counteract toxin activity on isolated heart preparations. On isolated chick biventer cervicis, toxin‐PC produced total blockage of electrically‐induced twitch response without affecting carbachol‐ and acetylcholineinduced contraction. The tension developed by the muscle was Ca++ ion‐dependent. Neuromuscular blocking time was reduced when K++ ion concentration was increased in the medium. Antiserum raised against toxin‐PC failed to antagonize lethal activity of toxin‐PC in mice. Toxin‐PC probably represents a major toxic component of catfish venom (P. canius), and was responsible for the pathophysiological changes. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Pilot study on the plasma pharmacokinetics of fumonisin B1 in cows following a single dose by oral gavage or intravenous administration
Authors: Prelusky Dan B. , Savard Marc E. , Trenholm H. Locksley
Published: October 2006

The pharmacokinetic fate of the mycotoxin fumonisin B1, (FB1) was investigated using 4 Holstein cows. Two animals each were administered FB1, intravenously (0.05 or 0.20 mg kg−1) and by oral gavage (1.0 or 5.0 mg kg−1). Blood samples were collected at specific time intervals over 12 hr postdosing, then daily for 13 more days, and analyzed for FB1, the hydroxylated aminopental metabolite, and their conjugates. Following intravenous dosing, the plasma‐concentration profile of FB1 underwent a very rapid biexponential decrease, with toxin concentrations falling below detectable levels by 120 min postdosing. No known metabolites were detected in plasma. The similarity in pharmacokinetic parameters between the lowand high‐dose animals suggests that FB, distribution and elimination from blood was not dose‐dependent at these levels of toxin administration. Following oral administration of the toxin, no FB1 or known metabolites could be found in the plasma, indicating no or very limited bioavailability in ruminants.

The effects of FB1, on plasma‐free sphinganine (Sa) and free sphingosine (So) concentrations were also determined. Following oral gavage at either dose, no effects on plasma sphingolipid concentration or Sa/So ratio were noted beyond typical daily variations. At the low intravenous dose (0.05 mg kg−1), changes in Sa or So concentrations were also not apparent. However, following intravenous administration at the higher dose (0.20 mg kg−1), the plasma Sa/So ratio was increased marginally in the one dosed cow, due essentially to a transient increase in Sa concentrations, which rose by approximately 60‐65% over average predose levels; So levels remained relatively constant. Published 1995 Wiley‐Liss, inc.
Natural co‐occurrence of Fusarium toxins and aflatoxin B1 in com for feed in North Vietnam
Authors: Wang Dian‐Sheng , Liang Yi‐Xin , Chau Nguyen Thuy , Dien Le Doan , Tanaka Toshttsugu , Ueno Yoshio
Published: October 2006

Natural occurrence of Fusarium mycotoxins (trichothecenes and fumonisins) and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) were surveyed in 32 com samples, harvested in 1993 and randomly sampled in 1994 in several districts of Hanoi, Vietnam. Com samples were first milled into fine powder, extracted with methanol‐water (3:1) and the crude extracts obtained from the same samples were used for the simultaneous analysis of the trichothecenes such as nivalenbl (NIV), deoxynivalenol (DON), and T‐2 toxin (T‐2) by gas chromatosraphy/mass spectrometry (GC/NS); fumonisins B1 (FB1), B2 (FB2), and B3 (FB3) by hish‐performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with a flourescence detector; and AFB1 by and ELISA kit based on a monoclonal antibody. The data revealed that 14,8,4,3, and 2 out of 15 com kernel samples were positive for AFB1, FB1, FB2, FB3, and NIV with the average levels being 28, 1,101, 276, 232, and 858 ppb, respectively, and neither DON nor T‐2 were detected. As for the other 17 samples of com powder, 13, 15, 12, 10, 4, and 2 were positive for AFB1, FB1, FB2, FB3, DON, and NV with the average being 30, 780, 289, 176, 3, 170, and 1,365 ppb, respectively, and T‐2 was not detected.

Although their positive rates and levels fell in the ranges reported elsewhere, it was found for the first time that the Fusarium toxins (NIV, DON, and fumonisins) and an Aspergillus toxin (AFB1) were naturally cocontaminated in selected samples of com produced in north Vietnam. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Changes in primary care prescribing in the northern region UK: 1989–1992
Authors: Roberts Sarah J. , Bateman D. Nicholas , Smith James M.
Published: October 2006

Prescribing rates for the Family Health Service Authorities (FHSAs) of the Northern region were studied for the period June 1989–September 1992. Over three years the total number of items prescribed in the region rose by 13 per cent, and costs rose by 39 per cent. Trends within individual leading British National Formulary (BNF) chapters were different. The number of endocrine items increased substantially faster than average (45 per cent, over three years); gastro‐intestinal (GI) items also showed an above average rise; central nervous system (CNS) and infections items rose by only 6–8 per cent. In terms of cost, there were major rises for both endocrine (89 per cent) and CNS (62 per cent) drugs, but musculoskeletal (MS) prescribing costs were nearly static (+5 per cent). These trends were similar across the nine FHSAs in the Northern region. Significant upturns in the prescribing trends for CNS and endocrine drugs occurred in early 1992 leading to the high overall increases already noted.

Despite the pressure for conformity associated with changes in the funding of general practitioners' prescribing budgets, the differences between FHSAs in their absolute prescribing rates have largely remained. Within each therapeutic group the rankings of FHSAs have also shown surprising consistency. Whether these observations are attributable to fundamental differences in patient populations, or merely the consequence of inertia with respect to historic rates, is debatable. The reasons can only be properly determined by focused investigation of data linking prescribing and patient demographics.
Asymptomatic abnormal liver function tests in clinical trials
Authors: Stephens M. D. B.
Published: October 2006

There are many sources of asymptomatic abnormal liver function tests in clinical trials other than hepatotoxicity. It is, therefore, important to identify these sources by looking at the patient's past and present medical history for diseases or activities that may cause these abnormalities, study the degree and duration of the abnormality and the ratio of the different parameters to see whether they are consistent with the hypothesis that the drug is not hepatotoxic and that another cause is more likely.

Diseases and activities that can cause these abnormalities are given and methods of analysis outlined. There is no good evidence that abnormal liver function tests are predictive of hepatotoxicity.
Development of the quality‐of‐life questionnaires for use in Thailand: Translation and reliability test
Authors: Kongpatanakul Supornchai , Komoltri Chulaluk , Strom Brian L.
Published: October 2006

In preparation for a clinical trial to be performed in Thailand, a study was undertaken to evaluate the reliability of a Thai version of the General Well‐Being Adjustment Scale (GWB) and Physical Symptoms Distress Index (PSDI) questionnaires previously used in an important US clinical trial of the effects of antihypertensive therapy on quality‐of‐life. Included were 46 consecutive patients with no major clinical complaints, attending general internal medicine clinic for regular follow‐up. Those who might have a significant alteration in their clinical course, e.g. change of medications, were not included. Thai version questionnaires were first translated, back‐translated, and assessed for cultural equivalence to the original version. Questionnaires were then completed by the patients twice, 7 days apart, and then a third time during the same day as the second administration. The item numbers on the third set of questionnaires were randomly reassigned to minimize patients' recall of their previous response. Internal consistency, intra‐day reliability, and inter‐day reliability of each subscale of GWB and the total PSDI questionnaires were analysed using the Cronbach's alpha and intra‐class correlation coefficients. Items in the General Health subscale of the GWB showed somewhat low internal consistency. However, for whole instruments, all parameters showed satisfactory results; the internal consistency of the whole GWB range from 0.90 to 0.93 for the three tests. Inter‐day and intra‐day reliability were 0.78 and 0.95, respectively. For the Thai version of PSDI questionnaires, internal consistencies were over 0.80 for all tests while inter‐day reliability was 0.78 and intra‐day reliability was 0.93. In conclusion, the Thai version of both questionnaires appeared to be reliable. Further study of the criterion validity of the questionnaires, however, is still needed before they can be used more broadly in Thailand.
Adverse drug reaction reporting: Opinions and attitudes of medical practitioners in Ireland
Authors: McGettigan P. , Feely J.
Published: October 2006

Despite the critical role of adverse drug reaction (ADR) reporting in ensuring the safety of drugs in clinical practice, fewer than 10% of such reactions are reported. We analysed the views of 207 doctors in Ireland and, although well disposed towards reporting, most doctors (97%) were uncertain about the reporting criteria of the regulatory agency, the National Drugs Advisory Board (NDAB), and unclear as to the purposes of the reporting scheme. The unavailability of report forms (52%) or the address of the NDAB (28%), together with being too busy or unsure how to report were identified as major deterrents to reporting. There was general agreement about the factors important in the decision to report—seriousness of the reaction, an unusual reaction or a reaction to a new product. Almost 90% of doctors requested guidelines on reporting and regular bulletins on ADRs. Our survey indicates that doctors need ongoing education and information about this important area of drug safety if the benefits of their positive attitudes towards it are to be realized.
The schizontocidal activity of Spathodea campanulata leaf extract on Plasmodium berghei berghei in mice
Authors: Makinde J. M. , Adesogan E. K. , Amusan O. O. G.
Published: October 2006

Effects of extracts of Spathodea campanulata on Plasmodium berghei berghei in mice have been investigated. Schizontocidal activity of the plant in blood was determined on both the early and established infections. The repository action of the plant was also investigated. Chloroquine and pyrimethamine were used as reference drugs. The alcoholic extract of the leaves of the plant demonstrated antiplasmodial activity. The plant extract was more effective in treating the early infection than the established one. This report provides scientific data for the use of the aqueous alcoholic decoction of the leaves of Spathodea campanulata for the treatment of malaria.
Acetylcholine and choline in common spices
Authors: Haranath P. S. R. K. , Akther M. H. , Sharif S. I.
Published: October 2006

Aqueous extracts obtained from seven commonly used spices (cardamon, coriander, cumin, black pepper, red pepper, anise and fennel) showed cholinomimetic effects when tested on rat blood pressure, rat jejunum and frog rectus abdominis preparations. This effect was observed mostly when the spices were roasted. Chemical estimation using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry confirmed the presence of large amounts of acetylcholine and its precursor choline.
Guar‐enriched pasta and guar gum in the dietary treatment of type II diabetes
Authors: Briani G. , Bruttomesso D. , Bilardo G. , Giorato C. , Duner E. , Iori E. , Sgnaolin E. , Pedrini P. , Tiengo A.
Published: October 2006

Guar gum in two forms of preparation decreased post‐prandial glycemic profiles in patients when compared to controls. No differences were observed between the two guar gum preparations and no significant changes were exhibited in the FFA, lactate or pyruvate areas. From IRI and C‐peptide curves the preparations containing guar gum produced slower and later responses when compared to controls. 30% of patients reported diarrhea after consumption of one guar gum preparation and 60% of patients found that one preparation was not palatable whereas the other preparation was considered to be pleasant.
Immunomodulators from plants and fungi
Authors: Bomford R.
Published: October 2006

This discovery of the regulation of the immune response by hormone‐like proteins (lymphokines) offers opportunities for the search for novel and specific immunomodulators through new screening procedures; it has also assisted the analysis of the mechanism of action of established immunomodulators. This is illustrated by reference to a range of immunomodulators of plant or fungal origin, chosen for the recent progress in the understanding of their mechanism of action, or their potential clinical importance. These are the vaccine adjuvant saponin, the non‐specific immunostimulators lentinan and krestin (fungal polysaccharides) and bestatin (a fungal peptide) and the immunosuppressive fungal peptide cyclosporin A.
Pharmacological actions of the gut active principles in Croton penduliflorus hutch. Seed on isolated smooth and skeletal muscles and on blood pressure
Authors: Asuzu I. U. , Shetty S. N. , Anika S. M.
Published: October 2006

The effects of Croton penduliflorus seed crystals (CP crystals) were investigated on isolated guinea‐pig ileum, chick biventer cervicis muscle and frog rectus abdominis muscle. The effect of the crystals on flood pressure of normotensive Sprague Dawley rats was also investigated. CP crystals induced concentrations‐dependent contractions in the guinea‐pig ileum with EC50 of 2.39 × 106 g/mL. Contractions induced by CP crystals in the guinea‐pig ileum were not inhibited by atropine (2 × 10−7‐1.2 × 10−6 g/mL), tetrodotoxin (3 × 10−8‐2 × 10−7 g/mL), hexamethonium (7 × 10−6‐2.8 × 10−5 g/mL), mepyramine (2 × 10−7 g/mL) and noradrenaline (2 × 10−5 g/mL) but were completely (100%) inhibited by indomethacin (7.2 × 10−6 g/mL). CP crystals (1.0 × 10−6‐5.0 × 10−4 g/mL) could not elicit contractions in either chick biventer cervicis or frog rectus abdominis muscle. The mean blood pressure of normotensive Sprague Dawley rats was significantly reduced by CP crystals (1.6 × 10−4‐2.5 × 10−3 g/mL) while the heart rate was significantly reduced by an intravenous infusion of the crystals (2.5 × 10−3 g/kg) after 2min. The methods employed and the significance of the results obtained are discussed.
The effects of Mikania cordata (Burm) B. L. Robins. Root extract on gastro‐duodenal ulcer models in rats and guinea pigs
Authors: Pal Siddhartha , Bhattacharya Siddhartha , Chaudhuri A. K. Nag
Published: October 2006

The methanolic fraction of the root extract M. cordata was found to possess significant anti‐ulcer activity in different experimental models. In preventive tests the extract demonstrated significant protective action in gastric lesions induced by acetylsalicylic acid, serotonin and indomethacin in experimental rats. Significant protection was observed with the extract in chemically‐induced duodenal lesions. Significant enhancement of the healing process was also found to occur in acetic acid‐induced chronic gastric lesions in experimental animals.
Anti‐ulcerogenic activity of fulvic acids and 4′‐methoxy‐6‐carbomethoxybiphenyl isolated from shilajit
Authors: Ghosal Shibnath , Singh Sushil K. , Kumar Yatendra , Srivastava Radheyshyam , Goel Raj K. , Dey Radharaman , Bhattacharya Salil K.
Published: October 2006

Fulvic acids (FA) and 4′‐methoxy‐6‐carbomethoxybiphenyl (MCB, 1), two major organic compounds isolated from Shilajit (a humus product), were screened for anti‐ulcerogenic activity in albino rats. Both FA and MCB showed significant anti‐ulerogenic effects in the battery of tests accepted for this purpose. The mechanism of anti‐ulcerogenic action was studied with MCB on the basis of its effects on mucin content (gastric juice carbohydrates and carbohydrate/protein ratio) and on the concentration of DNA and protein in the gastric juice. The MCB‐induced changes in the mucosa provided resistance against the effect of ulcerogens and also against shedding of mucosal cells. A preliminary acute toxicity study indicated that both FA and MCB had a low order of toxicity.
Active principles of Tetradenia riparia III. Anti‐Trichomonas activity of 8(14), 15‐sandaracopimaradiene‐7α, 18‐diol
Authors: Hakizamungu E. , van Puyvelde L. , Wéty M. , De Kimpe N. , Schamp N.
Published: October 2006

Tetradenia riparia is one of the most popular medicinal plants in Rwanda. Previously, several substances have been isolated from the leaves, including the diterpenediol 8(14),15‐sandaracopimaradiene‐7α,18‐diol. This diterpenediol exhibits anti‐trichomonas activity. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the substance for Trichomonas vaginalis is between 20–40 μg/mL.