bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Diseases caused by prokaryotes - bacteria and phytoplasmas.
Authors: Ritchie D. F. , Barba M. , Pagani M. C.
Published: November 2009

This chapter focuses on the epidemiology, symptoms and management (mainly through chemical and cultural methods, and host resistance) of the following diseases of peach induced by bacteria (bacterial canker complex caused by Pseudomonas syringae pv. syringae and P. syringae pv. persicae, bacterial spot caused by Xanthomonas arboricola pv. pruni, crown gall caused by Agrobacterium tumefaciens, and phony peach disease caused by Xylella fastidiosa) and phytoplasmas ['Candidatus Phytoplasma'] (peach X-disease, peach yellows, peach rosette, peach yellow leaf roll, and European stone fruit yellows).
Viruses and viroids of peach trees.
Authors: Cambra M. , Flores R. , Pallás V. , Gentit P. , Candresse T.
Published: November 2009

This chapter covers the economic importance, geographical distribution, symptoms, causal agents, diagnosis, epidemiology and management (such as through the production of virus-free planting materials and quarantine) of the following diseases/pathogens of peach: Sharka or plum pox (caused by Plum pox virus), Ilarviruses, Tomato ringspot virus, Strawberry latent ringspot virus, Peach rosette mosaic virus, peach latent mosaic (induced by Peach latent mosaic viroid), peach dapple (caused by Hop stunt viroid), peach mosaic (caused by Peach mosaic virus or Peach latent mosaic viroid), and diseases of unknown aetiology and experimental infections in peach (Apricot latent virus, Peach sooty ringspot virus, Peach asteroid spot virus and Apple chlorotic leaf spot virus).
Ripening, nutrition and postharvest physiology.
Authors: Ramina A. , Tonutti P. , McGlasson W.
Published: November 2009

This chapter covers the following aspects of peach ripening, nutrition and postharvest physiology: main processes defining the ripening syndrome (respiration, ethylene biosynthesis and perception, flesh softening and melting, organic acid and sugar metabolism, and colour and aroma development), nutrititive value, and effects of genetic differences among cultivars, cold storage, and controlled atmosphere and modified atmosphere packaging on postharvest physiology.
Agronomy and crop production.
Authors: Brewster J. L.
Published: November 2009

This chapter discusses the production of onion, seed, garlic, leek, Japanese bunching onion [Welsh onion], chive and Chinese chives.
Biochemistry, health benefits and food science of alliums.
Authors: Brewster J. L.
Published: November 2009

This chapter reviews aspects of biochemistry that are special to alliums, all of which are relevant to their properties as foods, both raw and processed, and also to their well-known health benefits. Subjects reviewed are the biochemistry of the flavour compounds, aspects of carbohydrate biochemistry and, thirdly, the flavanoids responsible, among other things, for the colour of onion bulbs. The evidence for health benefits from allium vegetables is then discussed. The chapter ends with a brief consideration of the use of allium vegetables for various processed foods and for making extracts for flavouring or medicines.
Cultivars, anatomy and improvement.
Authors: Creasy G. L. , Creasy L. L.
Published: November 2009

This chapter discusses clones, or selections within a cultivar, which are another important variable in the growing of quality grapes. After a review of the parts (roots, flowers and fruits) of the vine, a brief discussion about vine breeding and improvement is provided.
Grapevine pests, diseases and disorders.
Authors: Creasy G. L. , Creasy L. L.
Published: November 2009

This chapter describes the most common diseases (fungal, bacterial and viral) and pests (insects, nematodes, vertebrates, and weeds) of grapevines, and their control using chemical, cultural, biological or quarantine methods. Other grape disorders due to environmental factors (e.g. hail and heat stress) or man-made hazards (such as herbicide application) are mentioned.
Telling tales of tourism: mobility, media and citizenship in the 2004 EU Enlargement.
Authors: Coles T.
Published: November 2009

This chapter argues that citizenship is a key, but routinely overlooked unifying conceptual framework in studies of tourism and other forms of mobility. The chapter explores how 'tourism', as an activity and as a concept, featured in wider public debates in Britain concerning migration, as a result of the recent 2004 EU enlargement from 15 to 25 member states. Media representations of changes in relative mobilities and flows of citizens between the UK and Eastern Europe reveal that multiple interpretations of citizenship and tourism were invoked tactically and flexibly in discussions of the merits and (potential) outcomes of enlargement. On the one hand, tourism was connected as an activity with new conceptualizations of citizenship to highlight the benefits of enlargement for UK residents; on the other, in a more abstract sense, tourism was deliberately connected by means of older, 'traditional' views of citizenship to (im-)migration and used by the government to address, even appease, the concerns of the anti-European lobby. As the case of the emergence of 'benefits tourism' demonstrates, far from being separate from other forms of human movement, tourism is not only intimately linked with them, but also used as a primary means of making sense of them.
'Claim you are from Canada, eh': travelling citizenship within global space.
Authors: Duval D. T.
Published: November 2009

This chapter revisits social science-based notions of identity and how these might apply to understanding mobilities as an inadvertent, yet conscious, personal exercise in relating person to place. In so doing, it presents 'netnographic' data from an online discussion forum 'thread' where advice is dispensed on 'how to look less American while travelling'. The chapter attempts a rough discourse analysis and concludes by suggesting that considerations of temporary mobility, of which tourism is most certainly an example, are manifested through the negotiation of tradition, nationalism, citizenship and pleasure.
International student mobility: cross-cultural learning from international internships.
Authors: Wijk J. van , Go F. , Klooster E. van't
Published: November 2009

This chapter addresses the impacts of internships on cross-cultural competencies of business students. It reports on self-perceived learning effects of internships by 168 Dutch business school alumni. The findings indicate that internships served in countries that required students to cross their cultural and economic 'home zone' resulted in significantly higher learning effects. This was not only in terms of appreciation and understanding of other cultures, but also in a better understanding of international issues and of local stakeholder perceptions.
Hypermobility in backpacker lifestyles: the emergence of the internet café.
Authors: O'Regan M.
Published: November 2009

This chapter explores how networked technology is made ordinary at an Internet café and how backpackers use the Internet as 'non-places' in the form of Internet cafés, and how this use may be impacting the experience of being an independent traveller. It is argued that Internet cafés as hypermobile places are not aimed at encouraging digital inclusion and at enhancing social contacts between locals and travellers or any sense of community. Rather, cafés are used by travellers as part of their hypermobile lifestyle, and many cafés are embedded within enclaves and hostels and are not fully embedded in place. It is indicated that Internet cafés created to serve travellers have changed those same travellers, transforming expectation and altering the very rhythm of their travel days, the use of travel time, perhaps undermining the systems in place that provided expertise, the middlemen/women and locals.
Entering the global margin: setting the 'other' scene in independent travel.
Authors: Bennett R. J.
Published: November 2009

This chapter argues that touristic popular culture and critical tourist theory is disproportionately focused on the scene of the 'self', especially in relation to the individualized discourse of the independent traveller. It is pointed out that demonstrating how backpacking is defined through the absence or subjective presence of 'otherness' allows for a more tangible and problematic reading of mobile leisure classes to emerge as a necessary focus for tourism critique. The configuration of otherness is an important facet of critical tourism theory because it exemplifies how the industry maintains and justifies its globalizing power. The chapter focuses on how backpacker media and theory contribute to the systematic silencing of one half of the tourist equation: the 'non-tourist' half. Tourist media encourages binary oppositions between pleasure and politics and subsequently tourism and terrorism that arbitrarily politicize and neuter the tourist experience in a global economic setting.
Everyday techno-social devices in everyday travel life: digital audio devices in solo travelling lifestyles.
Authors: Burns P. M. , O'Regan M.
Published: November 2009

This chapter looks at the growing proliferation of digital information, from place-bound desktops to pocket-sized portable digital technology, which has come to facilitate the mobility of modern society. In particular, it explores how budget travellers use a connected, pedestrian, personal and portable mobile sound technology - the iPod, a mobile auditory experience kept close to one's body - in everyday travel life. First, it looks at the mobility of budget travellers and the mobility of objects. Secondly, it conceptually discusses the 'everyday' and, thirdly, it examines how the iPod allows its user to weave in and out of public space and virtual space (or cyberspace). Fourthly, it looks at some of the consequences of travellers weaving in an out of these worlds. This is because, with the iPod, the public/private/virtual worlds intertwine, overlap, interact if not collide head on, causing new relationships, presences, absences, contexts and identities to change, emerge or be constrained (even if only temporarily). By examining how the iPod and mobilities blend together in the travelscape, one can examine the effects on a budget traveller's everyday activities, how they practise mobility, behaviour and management of everyday life and visualize the impact ubiquitous computing may have in the future.
Environmental discourses in the aviation industry: the reproduction of mobility.
Authors: Peeters P. , Gössling S.
Published: November 2009

This chapter investigates environmental narratives and discourses surrounding air travel. Four major lines of argument are identified and discussed. First, air travel is energy efficient. Globally, it accounts only for marginal emissions of CO2. Second, air travel is economically and socially too important to be restricted. Third, environmental impacts exist, but technology will solve the problem. And fourth, air travel is treated 'unfairly' in comparison to other means of transport. It is shown that these existing discourses are shaped mostly by the industry, leaving few opportunities for alternative messages to reach the public. The developments induced by these discourses are evaluated with respect to their short- and long-term consequences for tourism and sustainability.
Business relations in the design of package tours in a changing environment: the case of tourism from Germany to Jordan.
Authors: Dörry S.
Published: November 2009

This chapter uses the theoretical concept of 'global commodity chains', or more precisely one type - the buyer-driven value chain - to address two important issues. First, the supply chain from source market to the destination is generally governed by a lead firm (an issue of power); and, second, the characteristics of the demand side are not discussed in the concept (an issue of neglect). This is an indication that the tourism value chain (looking at both supply and demand) is not governed by a particular firm, although packaged tourism can be clearly seen as a buyer-driven 'commodity' chain. It is then pointed out that the kind of relationship between the tour operator and the incoming agent changes through a sudden event such as a terror attack and through steadier, predictable changes such as the Internet. These arguments are developed using the case study of German travellers who are culturally and religiously motivated to travel to Jordan.
Section I. Cassava: developmental physiology.
Authors: Lebot V.
Published: November 2009

This chapter covers the following aspects of the developmental physiology of cassava: growth cycle (sprouting, leaf and root system development, canopy establishment, high carbohydrate translocation, and dormancy), photoperiodism, response to temperature and water stress, nutrition, and yield potential.
Section I. Cassava: agronomy.
Authors: Lebot V.
Published: November 2009

This chapter covers the following aspects of cassava agronomy: soil preparation, propagule selection and preparation, crop density and establishment, intercropping, weeding (cultural and chemical weed control methods), fertilizer application and nutritional disorders, and harvesting.
Section III. Yams: postharvest quality and marketing.
Authors: Lebot V.
Published: November 2009

This chapter covers the following aspects of the postharvest quality and quality of yams (Dioscorea spp.): chemical composition; physiological disorders in freshly stored tubers; marketing and quality standards; storage methods; traditional processing techniques; and industrial processing.
Section IV. Aroids: pests and diseases.
Authors: Lebot V.
Published: November 2009

This chapter covers the pests (insects, snails and nematodes) and diseases (caused by bacteria, fungi and viruses) of major aroids (mainly Alocasia macrorrhiza, Amorphophallus campanulatus, Colocasia esculenta, Cyrtosperma merkusii and Xanthosoma sagittifolium), and their management (biological, cultural, chemical and integrated control methods).
Section IV. Aroids: postharvest quality and marketing.
Authors: Lebot V.
Published: November 2009

This chapter covers the following aspects of the postharvest quality and marketing of major aroids (Alocasia macrorrhiza, Amorphophallus campanulatus, Colocasia esculenta, Cyrtosperma merkusii and Xanthosoma sagittifolium): chemical composition, physiological disorders in freshly stored corms, marketing and quality standards, storage methods, traditional processing techniques, and industrial processing.
History of olive growing.
Authors: Therios I.
Published: November 2009

Olives were first cultivated in the Eastern Mediterranean region and expanded westwards during the next millennium. Olive cultivation spread from Crete to Syria, Palestine and Israel, to Cyprus, southern Turkey and Egypt. With the expansion of the Greek colonies, olive culture reached southern Italy and North Africa during the 8th century BC and subsequently spread into southern France. This chapter discusses the history of olive culture, origin, uses and industry.
The olive: origin and classification.
Authors: Therios I.
Published: November 2009

This chapter discusses the origin and classification of olive. Tabulated data summarizing the current stage of olive cultivation in non-Mediterranean areas and the botanical species of olive grown throughout the various continents (Oceania, America, Asia, Africa and Europe) are provided.
Rootstocks.
Authors: Therios I.
Published: November 2009

This chapter describes the roles of olive rootstocks on the tree size, salt tolerance, and fruit size, shape, ripening time and mineral content. Some selected olive rootstocks are described and the various degrees of vigour of olive plants exhibited by common rootstocks are given.
Climatic and soil conditions.
Authors: Therios I.
Published: November 2009

This paper describes the climatic and edaphic factors influencing the growth of olive trees. Topics covered include: the optimum temperature range and thermal requirements of olive trees; low temperature sensing and the role of calcium in olive trees; the different methods for the assessment of frost tolerance in olives; the measures for protecting olive trees against frost; the influence of climate change and air pollutants (sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide and ozone) on olive trees; the relationship between light and photosynthesis in olive trees; and the influence of various soil properties (soil texture, soil structure, soil porosity, soil horizons, soil water retention, infiltration, soil water content, and waterlogging) on the growth of olive trees.
Flower bud induction and differentiation.
Authors: Therios I.
Published: November 2009

This chapter describes the stages of flower bud induction and differentiation, and the factors affecting flowering bud induction (i.e. light, juvenility, temperature, growth regulators, sugars and nutrient elements, oleuropein levels, harvesting date, fruit thinning, and defoliation) in olive.
Alternate bearing.
Authors: Therios I.
Published: November 2009

The productivity of each cultivar is a function of alternate-bearing habit and fruit abscission before ripening. Alternate bearing is defined as the characteristic of an olive tree to produce olives every 2 or more years. The year of maximum production is called the 'on' year, while the year with minimum or no production is called the 'off' year. The effects of fruit load, girdling, endogenous hormones, protein content and phenolic acids on the alternate-bearing habit of olives are described.
Water use efficiency by the olive.
Authors: Therios I.
Published: November 2009

The olive tree is very efficient in its use of water. It requires 312 g water to produce 1 g dry matter, whereas other evergreen plants such as Citrus and Prunus species require 400 and 500 g, respectively. Water consumption by the olive is 30 and 40% of that of Citrus and Prunus species, respectively. The mechanisms conferring high water use efficiency (WUE) include the ability of the olive leaves to tolerate very low leaf water potential values and osmotic adjustment via the synthesis of osmoregulatory solutes. This chapter defines WUE, discusses the effect of plant nutrition on WUE, and describes methods of improving WUE (i.e. by regulated deficit irrigation and partial rootzone drying irrigation). The role of chemical signals which involve changes in the transport of growth regulators or other substances via the xylem on the WUE is also discussed.
Stress-induced accumulation of proline and mannitol.
Authors: Therios I.
Published: November 2009

Proline is one of the most common compatible solutes accumulated in plants under stress conditions. It contributes to osmotic adjustment, preserves enzymes and other important cellular structures and is a reserve for carbon and nitrogen following stress relief. Increasing osmotic stress stimulates the accumulation of mannitol as a compatible protective compound in olive. In the family Oleaceae, mannitol represents a significant proportion of the carbohydrate pool. This chapter focuses on the accumulation of proline and mannitol in olive trees under stress conditions, such as water stress and salinity. The 6 enzymes (δ1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate (PCP) synthetase, PCP reductase, proline dehydrogenase, PCP dehydrogenase, ornithine δ-aminotransferase, and arginase) that participate in proline biosynthesis and degradation are described.
Growth and salt tolerance of the olive.
Authors: Therios I.
Published: November 2009

This chapter discusses the effect of salinity on the growth, yield, oil quality, water relations, photosynthesis, ion, cytokinin, abscisic acid and mannitol contents of olive. Salt tolerance of olive cultivars are described. Future perspectives are given.
Olive ripening.
Authors: Therios I.
Published: November 2009

This chapter describes the fruit assimilate supply and growth of olives, and the seasonal changes occurring in fruit size and chemical composition during fruit ripening. The factors affecting olive fruit size and precocity of ripening are discussed. The components of the olive fruit (organic acids, water, sugars, oil, oleuropein, proteins, chlorophylls, carotenoids, sterols, aromatic compounds, tocopherols, phenols and minerals) and the ripening-related changes (softening of the cell wall, changes in the chloroplast pigments, and changes in catechol oxidase) are also described. The phenolic and volatile components of extra virgin olive oil are given. Several methods for evaluation of maturation stage are provided, as well as the characteristics of table olives and criteria for ripening.
Pests and diseases.
Authors: Therios I.
Published: November 2009

This chapter describes the morphology, life cycle, economic damage and control (using insecticides, pheromones, biological control agents, and cultural methods) of insect pests (Bactrocera oleae, Saissetia oleae, Prays oleae, Palpita unionalis, Frankliniella occidentalis, Parlatoria oleae, Hemiberlesia lataniae, Aspidiotus nerii, Phloeotribus scarabaeoides, Oxycenus maxwelli and Zeuzera pyrina); and the symptoms and control of fungal (Spilocaea (or Cycloconium) oleaginea, Verticillium dahliae, Armillaria mellea, Mycocentrospora (Cercospora) cladosporioides), bacterial (Pseudomonas syringae pv. savastanoi [Pseudomonas savastanoi]) and viral diseases of olive trees.
Origin, phylogeny, domestication and spread.
Authors: Cubero J. I. , Pérez de la Vega M. , Fratini R.
Published: November 2009

This chapter describes the history, taxonomy (morphological and molecular), centre of origin, spread of culture, and evolution of the cultivated forms of lentil. Lentils were domesticated, in the Near East or, more accurately, in the foothills of the mountains of southern Turkey and northern Syria. The raw materials were populations of orientalis, but primitive farmers could also have used some other species of the genus, whose similarity has been shown in this chapter, in mixed populations rather than in pure strands. But orientalis and odemensis forms are the most likely candidates to have been companion weeds of the cultigen. However, molecular marker analyses have indicated that the genetic variability within cultivated lentils is relatively low, which supports the idea that microsperma and macrosperma morphotypes are simple variants for quantitative traits resulting from disruptive selection. It is difficult to establish how much the wild relatives have contributed to the cultigen gene pool.
Genetics of economic traits.
Authors: Sharma B.
Published: November 2009

Although lentil is among the most prominent grain legumes globally, its economic position strengthened significantly when it became important in international trade about two decades ago. This, coupled with the International Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), focused attention on the crop as its world mandate, served as a stimulus for enhanced research in the area of genetics, breeding and biotechnology. This chapter deals with the genetics of characters showing discrete, identifiable and contrasting phenotypes. The inheritance of morphological traits (growth habit, red foliage, light green foliage, leaflet shape, size and number, tendril formation, plant pubescence, plant height, globe mutant, stem fasciation, stipule size, flowering time, flower colour, number of flowers per peduncle, pod size, pod dehiscence, seed coat colour, tannin in seed coat, seed coat spotting, seed size, hardseededness, cotyledon colour), protein content, abiotic stresses (frost injury, drought tolerance, soil factors), disease resistance, and alloenzyme variation. Cytogenetics studies on lentil are discussed.
Soil nutrient management.
Authors: Yadav S. S. , McNeil D. L. , Andrews M. , Chen ChengCi Chen ChengCi , Brand J. , Guriqbal Singh Guriqbal Singh , Shivakumar B. G. , Gangaiah B.
Published: November 2009

This paper discusses various management options and interactions as they apply to both high productivity and subsistence cropping of lentils. These include: nutrient management involving chemical, organic and biological sources (macronutrients, micronutrients, organic sources, chemical fertilizers and crop resiudes); and the management of toxic elements in lentil (in consideration with pH management and pH interactions, soil acidity, salinity and alkalinity, and toxicities). Also discussed are the different strategies for optimizing nutrient use efficiency in lentil, economics of nutrient management in lentil, and the economics of application of nutrients and biofertilizers.
The impact of improvement research: the case of Bangladesh and Ethiopia.
Authors: Aw-Hassan A. A. , Senait Regassa Senait Regassa , Islam Q. M. S. , Ashutosh Sarker Ashutosh Sarker
Published: November 2009

This chapter discusses the state of adoption of improved lentil cultivars in Bangladesh and Ethiopia using survey data, the factors constraining the diffusion of new lentil cultivars, the ex post economic impacts based on the adoption that has already taken place, and the costs of the time lag in new lentil cultivar adoption. The chapter is organized in 8 sections. The first section provides an overview of lentil research and development. The second section introduces the study areas and the third section describes the household surveys. The fourth section provides estimates of the profitability of new lentil technologies. The fifth section documents the adoption of new lentil cultivars. An analysis of the factors influencing the adoption of new lentil cultivars is presented in the sixth section. The economic impacts of lentil improvement research and the methods used in estimation are discussed in the seventh section. A discussion of results, their implications or lessons for research and extension are presented in the eighth section.
Reproductive physiology.
Authors: Davenport T. L.
Published: November 2009

This chapter addresses the physiology of mango flowering, early fruit set and fruit retention. The following topics are covered: phenology; shoot development (vegetative shoots and reproductive shoots); flowering mechanisms (shoot initiation, induction, florigenic promoter or stimulus, and vegetative promoter); effect of environment on vegetative and reproductive development (temperature, water relations, nitrogen and photoperiod); effects of growth regulators on flowering (ethylene, auxin, cytokinins, gibberellins and plant growth retardants); effects of photoassimilate on flowering; horticultural manipulation of flowering; conceptual flowering models (carbohydrate-regulated flowering models and hormone-regulated flowering models); floral management; floral biology (environmental and physiological determinants of sex ratio, anthesis and dehiscence, pollen and pollination); fruit development; stenospermocarpy; fruit set and retention; and alternate bearing.
Physiological disorders.
Authors: Galán Saúco V.
Published: November 2009

This chapter covers the symptoms, causes and control of the following physiological disorders of mango: internal fruit breakdown, lumpy tissue, ricey tissue, fruit cracking, black tip disorder, lenticel spot, other fruit disorders and stem disorders.
Crop production: management.
Authors: Crane J. H. , Salazar-García S. , Lin T. S. , Pinto A. C. de Q. , Shü Z. H.
Published: November 2009

This chapter provides an overview of cultural practices in mango production. Specific topics that are covered consisted of: production areas and yields, climate of production areas, soils and soil preparation, plant propagation and rootstocks, major cultivars, plant spacing, fertilizer practices, irrigation practices, vegetative growth and reproduction manipulation, environmental stress management, and harvesting practices.
Postharvest technology and quarantine treatments.
Authors: Johnson G. I. , Hofman P. J.
Published: November 2009

This chapter reviews the technology and quarantine treatments that have been developed for the postharvest handling of mangoes. The following aspects are covered: considerations influencing postharvest requirements (market and consumer research, quality assurance and good agricultural practice); preharvest management (maturity, adjusting maturation time, skin colour and lenticel damage, storage life and physiological disorders, pests and diseases, weather conditions, and flavour and aroma); harvesting and transport to the packhouse (timing, sapburn, harvesting and desapping, and transport to the packhouse); packhouse measures (delivery inspection and traceability, desapping and washing, disease control, brushing, grading and sizing, grade standards, and disinfestation); preparing fruit for the market (surface coatings, packaging, inspection, palletizing, precooling, and ethylene and ripening); pre- and post-shipping storage (cold storage, and controlled and modified atmosphere storage); transport; and marketing (networks and cooperatives, promotion and consumer education).
Does client-oriented plant breeding work?
Authors: Getachew Belay Getachew Belay
Published: November 2009

Client-oriented plant breeding traces its roots to farmer participatory research approaches of the 1980s. There are a number of names used to describe the practiced processes. This review includes participatory plant breeding (PPB), decentralized-PPB and highly client-oriented plant breeding that are treated under 'client-oriented plant breeding' and practiced in marginal environments of developing countries. The main objective is not to review the
process
but to analyse the results registered so far and published in peer-reviewed literature. Most arguments made in favour of client-oriented plant breeding have been based on criticizing conventional breeding rather than reporting its own achievements. Through time, however, the confrontations between approaches seem to have subsided. The practice of client-oriented plant breeding has been applied (or mis-applied) to several types of crops. In most cases, 'success' is reported by giving numbers of farmer-selected materials, or giving variety names to genotypes that did not pass the official release procedures. The extent of adoption and impact of these genotypes has been limited, or is not well documented. Four varieties have been released in rice and teff. Client-oriented plant breeding may have its narrow and local niches, but its institutionalization in agricultural research systems as a separate process from the conventional breeding does not appear evident. Given that the problem is the availability of varieties that can be grown in marginal environments, the future rests on the ingenuity of the cutting-edge scientific advances.
Insects as food: an ecological, social and economical approach.
Authors: Cerritos R.
Published: November 2009

More than 1000 species of insects that are edible at a certain stage of their life cycle have been identified worldwide. The orders Coleoptera, Lepidoptera and Orthoptera represent the highest number of species, the first two being mainly consumed in immature stages of their life cycle. Nutritional value and population size of some of these species represent two advantages, which mean they should be considered as an alternative source of food for the human diet, mainly in developing countries. Some species of Coleoptera, Orthoptera and Lepidoptera that are considered as pests are at the same time used for human consumption in different parts of the world. These species can be controlled if management techniques specially oriented to the sustained maintenance of the crop as well as of the insects are applied. On the other hand, some other species of insects with small population sizes and that are overexploited in their pre-reproductive phases show serious demographic problems, including extinction risk. For these species, it is necessary to apply management methods in order to conserve the natural populations and to develop culture or breeding techniques. For many countries with economical and social problems, owing to a deficiency in food supply or production, such strategies could be considered by their governments as priorities. In this work, the economic and social potential of the sustained exploitation of some insect species are analysed. Also, the ecological advantages of this type of management in agricultural and natural systems are reviewed.
Cloning and transgenics: progress and new approaches in domestic animals.
Authors: Ross J. W. , Prather R. S. , Whyte J. J. , Zhao J. G.
Published: November 2009

Cloning and transgenic modification of genomes of domesticated large animal species have significantly increased scientific discovery in both agricultural and biomedical research. The purpose of creating these modified animals includes biosynthesis of proteins in milk, human disease modelling, gene knockout models for potential utilization in xenotransplantation and improved animal performance. While several strategies, such as pronuclear injection and intracytoplasmic sperm injection are capable of producing transgenic animals, cloning with somatic cells allows an array of genetic modifications to be made and overcomes the lack of embryonic stem cells in these non-primate, non-rodent species. Numerous strategies for genetic modification of somatic cells are exploited in addition to methods enhancing donor cell nuclear reprogramming and remodelling to increase the efficiency of producing cloned, transgenic large animal models.
The use of chlorination and alternative sanitizers in the produce industry.
Authors: Fatica M. K. , Schneider K. R.
Published: November 2009

Food safety with respect to fresh produce has become an increasing concern as the incidence of produce-related food-borne illness outbreaks rises. The method of combating possible pathogens on the produce products is the implementation of an effective sanitation and washing system. The proper use of sanitizers should reduce the overall microbial load on the produce and decrease the incidence of cross-contamination. This review analyses the antimicrobial activity, efficacy, mode of action and associated hazards of chlorine- and non-chlorine-based sanitizers and their applications in the produce industry. The most commonly used sanitizer in produce processing is currently chlorine, specifically sodium hypochlorite. The antimicrobial limitations and associated hazards of the sanitizer have led to the investigation of both chlorine-based and non-chlorine-based alternative sanitizers including chlorine dioxide, acidified sodium chlorite, acid sanitizer, peroxyacetic acid, hydrogen peroxide and ozone.
Form–meaning links in the development of visual word recognition
Authors: Nation Kate
Published: November 2009

Learning to read takes time and it requires explicit instruction. Three decades of research has taught us a good deal about how children learn about the links between orthography and phonology during word reading development. However, we have learned less about the links that children build between orthographic form and meaning. This is surprising given that the goal of reading development must be for children to develop an orthographic system that allows meanings to be accessed quickly, reliably and efficiently from orthography. This review considers whether meaning-related information is used when children read words aloud, and asks what we know about how and when children make connections between form and meaning during the course of reading development.
Satb1 and Satb2 regulate embryonic stem cell differentiation and Nanog expression
Authors: Savarese Fabio , Dávila Amparo , Nechanitzky Robert , De La Rosa-Velazquez Inti , Pereira Carlos F. , Engelke Rudolf , Takahashi Keiko , Jenuwein Thomas , Kohwi-Shigematsu Terumi , Fisher Amanda G. , Grosschedl Rudolf
Published: November 2009

Satb1 and the closely related Satb2 proteins regulate gene expression and higher-order chromatin structure of multigene clusters in vivo. In examining the role of Satb proteins in murine embryonic stem (ES) cells, we find that Satb1−/− cells display an impaired differentiation potential and augmented expression of the pluripotency determinants Nanog, Klf4, and Tbx3. Metastable states of self-renewal and differentiation competence have been attributed to heterogeneity of ES cells in the expression of Nanog. Satb1−/− cultures have a higher proportion of Nanoghigh cells, and an increased potential to reprogram human B lymphocytes in cell fusion experiments. Moreover, Satb1-deficient ES cells show an increased expression of Satb2, and we find that forced Satb2 expression in wild-type ES cells antagonizes differentiation-associated silencing of Nanog and enhances the induction of NANOG in cell fusions with human B lymphocytes. An antagonistic function of Satb1 and Satb2 is also supported by the almost normal differentiation potential of Satb1−/−Satb2−/− ES cells. Taken together with the finding that both Satb1 and Satb2 bind the Nanog locus in vivo, our data suggest that the balance of Satb1 and Satb2 contributes to the plasticity of Nanog expression and ES cell pluripotency.
A physiological role for gene loops in yeast
Authors: Lainé Jean-Philippe , Singh Badri Nath , Krishnamurthy Shankarling , Hampsey Michael
Published: November 2009

DNA loops that juxtapose the promoter and terminator regions of RNA polymerase II-transcribed genes have been identified in yeast and mammalian cells. Loop formation is transcription-dependent and requires components of the pre-mRNA 3′-end processing machinery. Here we report that looping at the yeast GAL10 gene persists following a cycle of transcriptional activation and repression. Moreover, GAL10 and a GAL1p-SEN1 reporter undergo rapid reactivation kinetics following a cycle of activation and repression—a phenomenon defined as “transcriptional memory”—and this effect correlates with the persistence of looping. We propose that gene loops facilitate transcriptional memory in yeast.
Keeping abreast of the mammary epithelial hierarchy and breast tumorigenesis
Authors: Visvader Jane E.
Published: November 2009

The epithelium of the mammary gland exists in a highly dynamic state, undergoing dramatic morphogenetic changes during puberty, pregnancy, lactation, and regression. The recent identification of stem and progenitor populations in mouse and human mammary tissue has provided evidence that the mammary epithelium is organized in a hierarchical manner. Characterization of these normal epithelial subtypes is an important step toward understanding which cells are predisposed to oncogenesis. This review summarizes progress in the field toward defining constituent cells and key molecular regulators of the mammary epithelial hierarchy. Potential relationships between normal epithelial populations and breast tumor subtypes are discussed, with implications for understanding the cellular etiology underpinning breast tumor heterogeneity.
Molecular and crystalline structures of three (S)-4-alkoxycarbonyl-2-azetidinones containing long alkyl side chains from synchrotron X-ray powder diffraction data
Authors: Seijas Luis E. , Mora Asiloé J. , Delgado Gerzon E. , López-Carrasquero Francisco , Báez María E. , Brunelli Michela , Fitch Andrew N.
Published: November 2009

The (S)-4-alkoxo-2-azetidinecarboxylic acids are optically active β-lactam derivatives of aspartic acid, which are used as precursors of carbapenem-type antibiotics and poly-β-aspartates. The crystal structures of three (S)-4-alkoxo-2-azetidinecarboxylic acids with alkyl chains with 10, 12 and 16 C atoms were solved using parallel tempering and refined against the X-ray powder diffraction data using the Rietveld method. The azetidinone rings in the three compounds display a pattern of asymmetrical bond distances and an almost planar conformation; these characteristics are compared with periodic solid-state, gas-phase density-functional theory (DFT) calculations and MOGUL average bond distances and angles from the CSD. The compounds pack along [001] as corrugated sheets separated by approximately 4.40 Å and connected by hydrogen bonds of the type N—H...O.
Comparison of the effects of pressure on three layered hydrates: a partially successful attempt to predict a high-pressure phase transition
Authors: Johnstone Russell D. L. , Lennie Alistair R. , Parsons Simon , Pidcock Elna , Warren John E.
Published: November 2009

We report the effect of pressure on the crystal structures of betaine monohydrate (BTM), L-cysteic acid monohydrate (CAM) and S-4-sulfo-L-phenylalanine monohydrate (SPM). All three structures are composed of layers of zwitterionic molecules separated by layers of water molecules. In BTM the water molecules make donor interactions with the same layer of betaine molecules, and the structure remains in a compressed form of its ambient-pressure phase up to 7.8 GPa. CAM contains bi-layers of L-cysteic acid molecules separated by water molecules which form donor interactions to the bi-layers above and below. This phase is stable up to 6.8 GPa. SPM also contains layers of zwitterionic molecules with the waters acting as hydrogen-bond donors to the layers above and below. SPM undergoes a single-crystal to single-crystal phase transition above 1 GPa in which half the water molecules reorient so as to form one donor interaction with another water molecule within the same layer. In addition, half of the S-4-sulfo-L-phenylalanine molecules change their conformation. The high-pressure phase is stable up to 6.9 GPa, although modest rearrangements in hydrogen bonding and molecular conformation occur at 6.4 GPa. The three hydrates had been selected on the basis of their topological similarity (CAM and SPM) or dissimilarity (BTM) with serine hydrate, which undergoes a phase transition at 5 GPa in which the water molecules change orientation. The phase transition in SPM shows some common features with that in serine hydrate. The principal directions of compression in all three structures were found to correlate with directions of hydrogen bonds and distributions of interstitial voids.
Experimental and theoretical charge-density study of a tetranuclear cobalt carbonyl complex
Authors: Overgaard Jacob , Platts Jamie A. , Iversen Bo B.
Published: November 2009

Details of the complex bonding environment present in the molecular centre of an alkyne-bridged dicobalt complex have been examined using a combination of experimental and theoretical charge-density modelling for two compounds which share a central Co2C2 tetrahedral moiety as their common motif. Topological analysis of the experimental electron density illustrates the problem of separating the Co—C bond-critical points (b.c.p.s) from the intervening ring-critical point (r.c.p.), due largely to the flat nature of the electron density in the CoC2 triangles. Such a separation of critical points is immediately obtained from a topological analysis of the theoretical electron density as well as from the multipole-projected theoretical density; however, the addition of random noise to the theoretical structure factors prior to multipole modelling leads to a failure in consistently distinguishing two b.c.p.s and one r.c.p. in such close proximity within the particular environment of this Co2C2 centre.
Indels within promoter and intron 1 of bovine prion protein gene modulate the gene expression levels in the medulla oblongata of two Japanese cattle breeds
Authors: Msalya G. , Shimogiri T. , Nishitani K. , Okamoto S. , Kawabe K. , Minesawa M. , Maeda Y.
Published: November 2009

Genetic differences which exist in the prion protein gene (PRNP) have been reported to influence susceptibility of humans, sheep and goats to prion diseases. In cattle, however, none of the known coding polymorphisms has a direct effect on bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE). It has been reported that 23‐bp insertion/deletion (indel) polymorphisms within the promoter region have a tentative association to BSE susceptibility in German cattle, and a lower number of 24‐bp repeat units in the open reading frame (ORF) was reported to reduce BSE susceptibility in transgenic mice. In this study, because of the hypothesis that bovine PRNP promoter polymorphisms cause changes in PRNP expression, we genotyped PRNP polymorphisms in the promoter and intron 1 using 218 genomic DNA samples from two Japanese cattle breeds. We also analysed the expression levels of prion in 40 animals by quantification of real‐time PCR using mRNAs extracted from the medulla oblongata to study the relationship between PRNP genotypes and PRNP expression. We found a significant correlation between promoter indel polymorphisms and PRNP‐mRNA expression (P0.0413) and therefore hypothesize that differences in polymorphisms could be one of the causes of differences in PRNP expression levels. We also report a novel difference in PRNP expression (P < 0.0001) between Japanese Black and Japanese Brown cattle breeds. There was no significant difference based on age and sex of the animals.
The PPR protein encoded by the LOVASTATIN INSENSITIVE 1 gene is involved in RNA editing at three sites in mitochondria of Arabidopsis thaliana
Authors: Verbitskiy Daniil , Zehrmann Anja , Van Der Merwe Johannes A. , Brennicke Axel , Takenaka Mizuki
Published: November 2009

Post‐transcriptional RNA editing in flowering plant mitochondria alters several hundred nucleotides from cytidine to uridine, mostly in mRNAs. To characterize the factors involved in RNA editing in plant mitochondria, we initiated a screen for nuclear mutants defective in RNA editing at specific sites. Here we identify the nuclear‐encoded gene MEF11, which is involved in RNA editing of the three sites cox3‐422, nad4‐124 and ccb203‐344 in Arabidopsis thaliana. A T‐DNA insertion line of this gene was previously characterized as showing enhanced tolerance to the compound lovastatin, an inhibitor of the mevalonate pathway of isoprenoid biosynthesis. The mef11‐1 mutant described here shows similar tolerance to lovastatin. Identification of the function of the MEF11 protein in site‐specific mitochondrial RNA editing suggests indirect effects of retrograde signalling from mitochondria to the cytoplasm to evoke alteration of the mevalonate pathway. The editing sites cox3‐422 and ccb203‐344 each alter amino acids that are conserved in the respective proteins, while the nad4‐124 site is silent. The single amino acid change in the mef11‐1 mutant occurs in the second pentatricopeptide repeat, suggesting that this motif is required for site‐specific RNA editing.
Influence of coronary artery disease assessment and treatment in the incidence of cardiac events in renal transplant recipients
Authors: De Lima José J.G. , Gowdak Luis H.W. , De Paula Flavio J. , Arantes Rodolfo L. , Ianhez Luis E. , Ramires Jose A.F. , Krieger Eduardo M.
Published: November 2009

De Lima JJG, Gowdak LHW, de Paula FJ, Arantes RL, Ianhez LE, Ramires JAF, Krieger EM. Influence of coronary artery disease assessment and treatment in the incidence of cardiac events in renal transplant recipients. Clin Transplant 2010: 24: 474–480. © 2009 John Wiley & Sons A/S.

Abstract: Background:  The best strategy for pre‐transplant investigation and treatment of coronary artery disease (CAD) is controversial.

Methods:  We evaluated 167 renal transplant recipients before transplantation to determine the incidence of cardiac events and death. We performed clinical evaluations and myocardial scans in all patients and coronary angiography in select patients.

Results:  Asymptomatic patients with normal myocardial scans (n = 57) had significantly fewer cardiac events (log‐rank = 0.0002) and deaths (log‐rank = 0.0005) than did patients with abnormal scans but no angiographic evidence of CAD (n = 76) and individuals with CAD (n = 34) documented angiographically. CAD increased the probability of events (HR = 2.27, % CI 1.007–5.11; p = 0.04). The incidence of cardiac events (log‐rank = 0.349) and deaths (log‐rank = 0.588) was similar among patients treated medically (n = 23) or by intervention (n = 11).

Conclusion:  Asymptomatic patients with normal myocardial scans had a better cardiac prognosis than did patients with or without CAD and positive for myocardial ischemia. Patients with altered scan and CAD had the poorer outcome. Guideline‐oriented medical treatment is safe and yields results comparable to coronary intervention in renal transplant patients with CAD. The data do not support pre‐emptive myocardial revascularization for renal transplant candidates.