bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Antisemitism
Authors: Brustein William I.
Published: December 2015

Although the persecution of Jews has a history of at least two millennia, the late nineteenth and early twentieth century witnessed a high‐water mark in hatred against Jews, especially in western Christian societies. By antisemitism we refer to hostility—rooted in the general population and expressed in sentiments, attitudes, or actions—to Jews as a collectivity. The year 1879 constitutes an appropriate embarkation point for a study of antisemitism in that it coincides with the emergence of political parties and a press that embraced a comprehensive antisemitic ideology and is also the year in which Wilhelm Marr coined the term “antisemitism.”
Diaspora
Authors: Remennick Larissa
Published: December 2015

The term “diaspora” is applied to a broad range of migrant populations whose current or historic uprooting was politically or economically motivated: political refugees, labor migrants, expatriates, stable ethnic minorities, and other dispersed groups. The entry highlights the commonalities and differences between different kinds of diasporas and points to their multiple intersections with transnational lifestyles and activities. It reviews current trends in research on diasporic communities, including the role of information and communication technologies, political mobilizations, and professional mobility.
A
merican
D
ilemma
Authors: Kivisto Peter
Published: December 2015

This entry is a review of economist Gunnar Myrdal's work
An American Dilemma
.
G
obineau,
A
rthur de (1816–82)
Authors: Biddiss Michael
Published: December 2015

Gobineau is best known as a pioneering theorist of racial determinism, as presented most fully in his
Essai sur l'inégalité des races humaines
(
Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races
), where he argued that ethnicity provided the key to all major issues of social, political, and historical explanation.
Myth of the Frontier
Authors: Slotkin Richard
Published: December 2015

The Myth of the Frontier is the oldest American national myth. Like all nation‐state mythologies, its function is to provide a historical account and an ideological justification of national development, and a repertoire of exemplary fables—based on historical events—which offer plausible precedents for dealing with contemporary crises. The myth recognizes that the United States developed as a settler state, which grew geographically and increased in political and economic power by advancing European settlements into the territory of Native Americans and the “wilderness.” It builds upon that historical basis a set of historical fables that explain and justify the development of American nationality as the product of this perennial advance into the wilderness, or the “virgin land.”
Mythogenesis
Authors: Slotkin Richard
Published: December 2015

Myths are stories drawn from a society's history, which have acquired through persistent usage the power of symbolizing that society's ideology and of explicating the meaning and direction of its history. A society's mythology is, in effect, its memory system. Myths usually develop around cultural crises or moments of collective shock or trauma, when events challenge the belief system on which the society has operated up to that point. The most durable myths develop around issues or problems that are fundamental to the society's organization and persistent in its history: for example, the problem of kingship and succession in premodern societies, or the tensions between individual rights and social authority in modern nation‐states.
Clash of Civilizations, The(Huntington)
Authors: Avruch Kevin
Published: December 2015

Samuel Huntington's widely known idea of a “clash of civilizations” is one in a long line of culture‐conflict theories. First articulated in 1993, and although greeted critically by many scholars, it captured the imagination of influential US foreign policymakers throughout the 1990s and early 2000s.
Caucasian
Authors: Hughey Matthew W.
Published: December 2015

The term “Caucasian” has a long and sorted history as a racial category. In both scientific and lay language, it has been arbitrarily used as a synonym for “European” and “white” and has been deployed in concert with prevailing political and ideological currents in order to justify and rationalize European domination and superiority.
SunYat‐sen (1866–1925)
Authors: Pang Chien‐Kuo
Published: December 2015

Sun Yat‐sen was a Chinese statesman who played a leading role in the revolution that overthrew the Qing dynasty and led to the founding of the Republic of China in 1912. Although Sun is considered to be the greatest leader in postimperial China, his political life was one of constant struggle and frequent exile. This entry describes his life.
Discrimination, Categorical and Statistical
Authors: Law Ian
Published: December 2015

Discrimination refers to the differential—and often unequal—treatment of people who have been either formally or informally grouped into a particular class of persons; and it can take many forms. The legal concept of racial discrimination has been subject to criticism, but this has provided the foundation for the International Committee for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, which works to promote antidiscriminatory approaches.
Kurds and thePKK
Authors: Jongerden Joost , Hamdi Akkaya Ahmet
Published: December 2015

Comprising some thirty to forty million people, the Kurds constitute the fourth largest ethnicity in Western Asia. Divided between Turkey, Iran, Iraq, and Syria, Kurdistan is located in the northern part of the Middle East. A sense of national belonging among the Kurds emerged during the course of the twentieth century; it was late and weak by comparison to nationalism among the neighboring Turks, Arabs, and Persians. After the disintegration of the Ottoman empire and the establishment of a new state system in the region from which Turkey, Syria, and Iraq emerged, the Kurds living in those states rebelled on many occasions against physical and cultural genocide. The main Kurdish political actors today are the Kurdistan Regional Government in the north of Iraq, a product of a power‐sharing agreement between the Kurdistan Democratic Party and the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan; the Kurdistan Workers' Party; and the affiliated Democratic Union Party.
Sport and Nationalism
Authors: Bairner Alan
Published: December 2015

The existence of a close relationship between sport and nationalism is widely accepted. This relationship manifests itself in the enduring popularity of international competitions, events and contests, in the myriad ways in which politicians and politically motivated groups have sought to harness sport to national causes, and in the idea of national sports. Examples of each of these phenomena demonstrate that nationalism undeniably impacts on sport for a variety of reasons and in multiple ways. More problematic, however, is the question of the impact of sport on nationalism, particularly in an era during which both have been affected by globalizing forces.
Steering in Real Estate
Authors: Squires Gregory D.
Published: December 2015

Steering is a process by which providers of housing and housing related services direct families to neighborhoods in which their race is highly represented. Many actors and agencies have long been involved in racial steering, including government agencies, real estate and rental agents, and mortgage lenders. Though prohibited by law, the practice continues and contributes significantly to segregated housing.
P
owell,
E
noch (1912–98)
Authors: Law Ian
Published: December 2015

John Enoch Powell is a symbolic figure in the history of race and racism in Britain due to his speech on immigration, delivered on April 20, 1968 and commonly referred to as the “Rivers of Blood” speech, and also due to his continued comments on this topic, in politics and in the mass media. Powell repeated, reworked, and reinforced racial discourse in Britain, and this had a significant impact on immigration policy and on the lives of black and minority ethnic communities.
Interaction
Authors: vom Lehn Dirk
Published: December 2015

“Interaction” is a sociological concept that describes relationships between two or more participants. It goes back to the studies by Georg Simmel and was elaborated upon by Erving Goffman, who has provided a range of observations and concepts that help systematize the organization of human relationships in social situations. At least since the 1960s, social psychologists and sociologists have begun to explore differences in the organization of interaction within and between people of different cultural or ethnic background. They found, in particular, differences in the ways in which participants of different background deploy bodily actions, gesture, and touch. Recent studies based on ethnomethodology and conversation analysis add to this body of work. They reveal that the organization of talk is principally the same across different cultures. Hence their interest has moved from considering “race” as a variable external to interaction to exploring how participants to interaction orient to “race.”
Gellner,Ernest (1925–95)
Authors: Malešević Siniša
Published: December 2015

Ernest Gellner was a pioneer in the study of nationalism. He is the key representative of the modernist approach, which analyzes nationalism as the structural offshoot of industrialization. More specifically, Gellner sees nationalist ideology as a historically contingent but necessary product of modernization whereby the transition from the agrarian to the industrial world predisposes the population to a substantial degree of cultural homogeneity.
Stereotyping, National
Authors: Smith Peter B.
Published: December 2015

Beliefs about the shared qualities of members of particular nations are known as national stereotypes. Substantial consensus exists as to the personal qualities of members of different nations, even though these beliefs do not accord with actual data about the distribution of personalities between nations. Stereotypes rest on more readily available sources of information such as nations' size, wealth, and climate. Stereotypes tend to be more positive for nations that are more similar to one's own. National stereotypes do change over time, particularly in response to media reports of major world events, and in response to changes in one's personal circumstances.
Economic Development
Authors: Edwards Zophia
Published: December 2015

Studies in economic development aim to discover how societies pursue the improvement of their citizens' quality of life. This entry reviews the main theoretical perspectives, paradigms, and concepts that aim to describe and explain economic development. These include theories of modernization, dependency, world systems, feminist theory, developmental state, and institutionalism. Special attention is also paid to the statistical measures of development and intentional policies to effect change. Ultimately, the article demonstrates how ideas of development, and how it could and should be pursued, have changed over time.
Immigration, Deflection of
Authors: Light Ivan
Published: December 2015

Immigration is deflected when an existing migratory influx seeks new prime destinations without reduction of the aggregate volume of influx.
P
eru
Authors: Golash‐Boza Tanya
Published: December 2015

The population of Peru comprises people of African, European, indigenous, and Asian descent. The racial and ethnic categories used in Peru are a reflection of the particular history of slavery, colonialism, and genocide in this country.
Indigenous Peoples
Authors: Nagel Joane , Johnson Jay T. , Hall Thomas D.
Published: December 2015

“Indigenous peoples” is a modern concept used mainly by scholars and international organizations to describe culturally diverse groups with varied histories currently living in many states and regions around the world. Most contemporary indigenous peoples share a history of colonization in which their territory was appropriated and their language and culture were subordinated. Indigenous groups typically live in, or maintain attachments to, geographically distinct territories and many maintain distinctive cultural, social, economic, and political institutions within their communities or territories. Indigenous groups identify themselves as different from the national societies in which they reside and frequently seek a degree of home rule or independence from those national units. Labels used by indigenous communities or assigned to them by others include “tribes,” “Natives,” “First Nations,” and “aboriginals” as well as specific names of particular groups, such as “Bushmen,” “Diné,” “Māori,” “Ainu,” “Sámi,” “Miskito,” “Quechuas,” “Uyghur,” and “Tlingit.”
Blockbusting
Authors: Edward Orser W.
Published: December 2015

Blockbusting played a significant role in the episodes of massive racial change that transformed many American central cities in the 1950s and 1960s. The 1968 Civil Rights (or Fair Housing) Act specifically listed blockbusting as the illegal practice by real estate agents “for profit, to induce or attempt to induce ‘housing sales’ by representations regarding the entry or prospective entry into the neighborhood of a person or persons of a particular race, color, religion, etc.” (Section 804 [e]). Over the past two decades scholars have identified remarkably similar instances of blockbusting in such cities as Baltimore, Boston, Chicago, Cleveland, St. Louis, and Kansas City. Charges of blockbusting in the post‐World War II period typically referred to transactions in which white fear of black settlement was used by operatives, termed “blockbusters,” to produce panic sales at prices well below market value, then to charge African American purchasers prices considerably above market value. While such practices did produce increased housing opportunity for African Americans, they often were on the basis of exploitative prices and shaky financial mechanisms. Blockbusting may not have caused “white flight,” but it accelerated the process, leaving systematic resegregation in its wake.
Urban Crime and Violence
Authors: Dekeseredy Walter S.
Published: December 2015

Crime and violence are endemic to many urban communities. Some metropolitan areas and some people who live in them are at higher risk than others of being in conflict with the law. In the United States people of color and Hispanics are at the greatest risk of committing predatory street crime, murder, and of becoming involved with drugs. There are numerous explanations for crime in urban places, but some are much better than others, including those that focus on the influence of broader social forces. Additionally, the criminal justice system continues to fail to curb urban crime and violence. Therefore, it is necessary to implement more progressive solutions, such as quality employment and a higher minimum wage.
Gangs
Authors: Hare Tom , Ramirez Duran Kenneth , Monti Daniel
Published: December 2015

In most cultural settings young people are trained together or encouraged to socialize as groups, though often in separate groups for boys and girls. Gangs are an urban variant of this peer‐based learning and grouping strategy. As such, they are an important variant of this widespread cultural phenomenon. In adopting violent and illegal means to express themselves, they constitute an interesting alternative and challenge to adult “secret societies,” which perform socially integrative functions in the same settings.
Hate Crimes
Authors: Levin Jack
Published: December 2015

Hate crimes target victims who are different in some socially significant way. Most offenders are dabblers—that is, they commit hate crimes on a part‐time basis and do not belong to any organized hate group. As a result, it is possible to reach hatemongers—especially youthful first‐offenders—before they perpetrate major offenses. Moreover, structuring opportunities for interdependence has proven to be an effective means for preventing hate violence.
F
rance
Authors: Body‐Gendrot Sophie
Published: December 2015

Under French law, no statistical recognition is given to race and ethnicity. This French peculiarity cannot be understood without reference to the history of French nation building: the mode of production of the national identity in France was meaningful only by reference to those who had been selected for admission and it meant a preference given to majorities that were ethnicized as “French.” The principle of secularization (
laïcité
) that accompanies this vision is political. The state, in short, does not actively participate in racial and ethnic formation. However, the salience of nationalism over racial and ethnic differences marks specific episodes in France. The Algerian War created a powerful, unaddressed trauma. Currently, many vulnerable and diverse social groups suffer from a differentialist racism. Two examples—the headscarf crisis and urban riots—show how substitute terms are used to avoid dividing the French nation over issues of race and ethnicity.
K
enya
Authors: Lonsdale John
Published: December 2015

Since the mid‐nineteenth century, Kenya's interethnic relations have been transformed. In the nineteenth century ethnic groups farmed or grazed various ecological niches that were more complementary than competitive. Today they all compete for a share of the same state's power. But intraethnic change is just as important: all groups came to a greater self‐consciousness during the colonial period as literacy and markets in labor and produce challenged existing moral economies and Africans had to work out new codes of obligation, each within their own ethnic moral community. It remains to be seen whether the new decentralized constitution of 2013 will have the desired effect of diluting ethnic competition into the compromises of nationhood.
Media and Race
Authors: Lauricella Alexis
Published: December 2015

In the United States, media access and use among children and adults differ as a function of race, the type of media platform, and media content. This entry examines the types of media access and use that differ by race. Findings indicate that in the United States, minority adults have less access to newer technologies, specifically broadband Internet access but they may make up for these access limitations, by owning new mobile Internet devices. Overall, black and Hispanic children and youth tend to be higher media users than white youth across multiple platforms. Further, media rules about time spent with media and media content vary by race and may play a role in the media use differences we see in many reports.
S
carman
R
eport, The
Authors: Law Ian
Published: December 2015

The Scarman report was commissioned by the UK government to inquire into the Brixton riots in April 1981. It identified “complex political, social and economic factors” that created a “disposition towards violent protest,” but did not explicitly condemn police racism and denied that “institutional racism” even existed. The report also identified failures in police community liaison, confidence and trust in the police, police training, and in the representation of ethnic minorities in the police force. The report was symbolically “accepted” by the home secretary, William Whitelaw, but it was largely ignored by the Thatcher government, which failed to adjust government policies to systematically address racial disadvantage as Scarman had proposed.
Cultural Resistance
Authors: Tremblay Maxwell
Published: December 2015

Cultural resistance is the staging of opposition through the production or reappropriation of cultural practices. Such opposition, present throughout history and systematically analyzed by scholars primarily since the rise of cultural studies, can vary from cultural preservation to explicitly political action. In each instance, it often involves the staging of oppositional racial or ethnic identities.
Immigration, Illegal, Economic Impact of
Authors: Djajic Slobodan
Published: December 2015

Illegal immigration is a growing problem in the advanced countries. It undermines the authority of legal immigration programs and raises concerns about the fiscal impact of expanding underground activity. Illegal immigration may also affect employment opportunities for native workers and can have an impact on the local communities in which undocumented foreign workers are employed. In some countries the authorities worry that illegal immigration may alter the ethnic composition of the population and challenge the political and economic status of the natives as well as the country's cultural homogeneity. Illegal immigration can be even perceived as a threat to internal security and national cohesiveness. The purpose of this entry is to discuss the phenomenon of illegal immigration with a focus on its economic impact in the host country. What forms does it take, which industries hire illegal aliens, who benefits from it, and who is adversely affected?
Finland
Authors: Honkasalo Veronika
Published: December 2015

Finland has been almost untouched by immigration until mid‐1990; the country was for long time a country of emigration, especially to Sweden. The number of immigrants is still relatively small by comparison to numbers in the European Union. Russians and Estonians form the largest minority groups according to language and ethnicity. Finland has never been culturally homogenous, even though the recent anti‐immigration debate leans on a national identity that emphasizes common history and one language—Finnish.
H
akka
C
hinese
Authors: Michael Hsiao Hsin‐Huang , Chang Wei‐An
Published: December 2015

Originally, Hakka Chinese is an ethnic group widely concentrated in the provinces of Fujian, Guandong, and Jiangxi and mostly characterized by its own unique Southern Chinese culture. Over the past four centuries, they have emigrated to Taiwan, Southeast Asia, and many parts of the world. At present, Hakka can be found in as many as eighty‐two countries. What makes Hakka Chinese a unique and distinctive ethnic group are its distinguishable Hakka languages. There are also internal different tones within the different Hakka languages. In a long history of sociocultural interaction and interethnic marriages, Hakka groups now face the issue of defining what authentic Hakka culture is. Based on the research findings in Southeast Asian Hakka, the hakka “huiguan” (association) and religious beliefs and practices can still carry important functions to pass on the Hakka culture in most semipublic and semiprivate life domains. Yet, it is the family that can continue to perform the irreplaceable role in transmitting Hakka culture to the future generations.
Organizational Missions and Goals
Authors: Patrasc Lungu Adelaida
Published: December 2015

Organizational missions and goals clarify the purpose of an organization, aim to streamline both the internal and external decision‐making processes, as well to shape the perceived image of the organization and secure its legitimacy externally. Organizational missions and goals also play a critical role in the strategic management process and in explaining, including shaping, an organization's culture. The concept has received special attention from scholars in strategic management and organizational psychology research. A key framework for developing organizational missions was developed by Cochran, David, and Gibson in 2008. A classical framework that identifies the components of a mission statement was proposed by Pearce and David in 1987. A significant body of research around organizational missions is dedicated to analyzing the impact of the latter on organizational performance in both the for‐profit and not‐for‐profit contexts.
H
ungarians
Authors: Krizsan Andrea
Published: December 2015

Hungarian national identification is torn between the ethnonationalist paradigm and the paradigm of the political nation. The first places the emphasis on ethnicity and inclusion of ethnic Hungarians living within and beyond Hungary's borders. The second emphasizes the importance of citizenship and the inclusion of all Hungarian citizens regardless of their ethnicity. The Hungarian institutional framework and Hungarian political discourses on the nation present a hybrid of these two paradigms. This entry discusses Hungarians in light of these paradigms.
Immigrant Generations
Authors: Remennick Larissa
Published: December 2015

This entry introduces the concept of immigrant generations, demographic and political. It considers the research on the 1.5 and second generations in the context of segmented assimilation theory and examines generational transfer in immigrant families.
Power
Authors: Powell Jason L.
Published: December 2015

Like all concepts in social science, power is a complex term. The literature on power is marked by a deep disagreement over the basic definition of power. Some theorists define power as getting someone else to do what you want them to do (power over), whereas others define it more broadly as an ability or a capacity to act (power to). Thomas Hobbes's definition of power as a person's “present means … to obtain some future apparent Good” is a classic example of the latter understanding of power. Conversely, Michel Foucault suggests that power itself is “relational” in that, while one social actor may exercise power with other individuals, we also need to be aware that all other individuals have “power” in their social relationship that can be expressed through “resistance.”
Military Systems, Race, and Ethnicity
Authors: Lim Nelson , Haddad Abigail
Published: December 2015

Relations among racial/ethnic groups in a nation's military reflect that nation's history and larger social context. The military is both influenced by and an influence on civilian society. The contact hypothesis of prejudice reduction provides a framework for understanding the relations among racial and ethnic groups in the military. The US military is generally regarded as a major success story for racial integration; however, countries with different social and racial/ethnic histories and legacies have taken different paths in terms of both integration and balancing meritocracy and equal representation.
Government Intervention in International Business
Authors: Knight Gary
Published: December 2015

Internationally, free trade implies the unrestricted flow of products and services across national borders. Free trade offers nations numerous advantages. Governments erect trade barriers and intervene in other ways that restrict or alter free trade. Protectionism refers to trade and investment barriers applied with the aim of defending domestic markets and industries. Tariffs and nontariff trade barriers are the main instruments of protectionism. A tariff is a tax imposed by government on imported goods. Tariffs have fallen over time, but many high in many countries. Nontariff trade barriers are government policies or measures that restrict trade without imposing a direct tariff or duty. Subsidies are financial or other resources that a government provides to a firm or group of firms. Governments undertake intervention to achieve several goals, including: to generate revenue, to achieve policy objectives, and to protect or support the nation's citizens or private firms.
Emerging Markets
Authors: Knight Gary
Published: December 2015

Emerging markets refers to some forty former developing economies that have achieved industrialization, rapid economic development, and quickly improving living standards, in the past two decades. The term “emerging market” also describes commercial, political, and human development in these countries. They are increasingly attractive destinations for exports, foreign direct investment, and sourcing of manufactured goods and services. The countries are found in Asia, Latin America, and Eastern Europe. The largest are Brazil, Russia, India, and China, sometimes known by the acronym “BRIC.” Such countries are contributing enormously to global economic growth and a shift in geoeconomic power. Their rise represents how the distribution of global prosperity and economic growth are becoming more diffuse, with no one country dominating the world economy. They are giving rise to a new generation of large multinational enterprises that compete in world markets. Doing business in emerging markets entails various risks and uncertainty.
Restrictive Covenants
Authors: Krase Jerome
Published: December 2015

Restrictive covenants are deed restrictions on particular kinds of real estate. For example, they may restrict use of a subdivision of land to residential purposes only and define the maximum and minimum square footage of homes to be built. They might also place restrictions regarding construction of other kinds of buildings on the property, as well as control activities that take place within its boundaries, such as rentals. In the United States in recent years, legally enforceable covenants that restrict occupancy based on (for example) age, health, or family status—such as in adult and retirement communities—have increased in number. Legal limits have also been placed on physical changes to property such as colors and landscaping. Real estate professionals argue that such restrictions can give developments a more standard appearance and, when enforced, protect property values.
Endogamy
Authors: Kibria Nazli
Published: December 2015

This entry offers an introduction to the concept of endogamy and its implications for the study of race and ethnicity.
Peace and Reconciliation Processes
Authors: Seidel Timothy , Abu‐Nimer Mohammed
Published: December 2015

Within the larger framework of peace building, reconciliation processes aim to restore broken relationships so that a society can move from a divided past to a shared future, learning to live nonviolently with difference. Reconciliation processes involve personal, communal, institutional, and sociocultural initiatives in which community members across a society engage to restore a peaceful set of relationships with their enemies. They address painful histories of violence and victimhood, while also recognizing that the positive peace of reconciliation and psychosocial healing runs through justice. Reconciliation processes emerge from local cultural and traditional approaches, with local actors such as religious leaders playing a critical role in cultivating mass support and long‐term sustainability for peace agreements. Finally, integrating reconciliation mechanisms into peace processes is important for ensuring some level of postagreement political stability, underscoring the importance of community approval and the danger of neglecting relationships on the ground.
Y
ugoslavia
Authors: Banovac Boris
Published: December 2015

The unification of the South Slavs to a common state was achieved for the first time in 1918. Initially established as a centralized state dominated by Serbs, Yugoslavia was permeated with contradictions posed by the unresolved national question. This was the issue that Yugoslav communists placed at the center of their own political strategy. Their commitment to federalist principles and ethnic equality created popular support for an antifascist partisan movement that they led during World War II. After the war, and with the assistance of the Allied powers, a second Yugoslavia was created. With the establishment of the communist system, a complex multinational structure in Yugoslavia led to further demands for decentralization and the strengthening of the power of the federal units. The transition of the republican communist leaders towards positions of traditional nationalism finally led to war in the early 1990s and to the dramatic breakup of Yugoslavia.
Ethnic Enclaves
Authors: Lin Jan
Published: December 2015

Ethnic enclaves have drawn sociological interest as dynamic subeconomies that offer protected labor market opportunities for immigrants while also exposing them to coethnic exploitation. Ethnic economies grow via links between ethnic enterprises that recirculate and multiply income that can offer upward social mobility through time. Ethnic enclaves have drawn growing interest from city managers and urban planners that recognize their significance as electoral constituencies, foreign investment areas, and cultural tourism areas. Cultural tourism in ethnic enclaves generates opportunities for ethnic heritage preservation and confronting ethnoracial prejudice through popular education. But the touristic consumption and “branding” of ethnic enclaves can also produce a formulaic theme park atmosphere and create gentrification dynamics that threaten to displace low‐income immigrant residents and small businesses. Ethnic enclaves are increasingly factors in the dynamics of social mobility and inequality in the United States.
B
erlin,
I
saiah (1909–97)
Authors: Cherniss Joshua L.
Published: December 2015

A leading liberal political theorist of the mid‐twentieth century and influential historian of ideas, Isaiah Berlin contributed significantly to the study of nationalist thought by historians and political theorists. As a historian of ideas with a particular interest in the troubled legacy of the Enlightenment and its critics in the nineteenth century, Berlin traced the emergence—for good and ill—of nationalism as a political ideology. As a political theorist, Berlin advocated a version of liberal nationalism, based on recognition of the power of national feeling and importance of national belonging for individual well‐being, and cultural diversity for human development, and opposed to claims of the intrinsic superiority of some cultures over others.
Citizenship
Authors: Simpson Bueker Catherine
Published: December 2015

Citizenship is generally defined as political membership in a society. It determines everything from where an individual can live and travel to whether or not an individual can vote, hold certain jobs, access social programs, or rely on protections from a government. The concept of citizenship has expanded throughout the centuries, in terms of both what comprises citizenship status and who has access to it.
Vietnam
Authors: Nguyen‐Vo Thu‐Huong
Published: December 2015

The nation‐state of Vietnam today occupies the eastern edge of mainland southeast Asia. For much of its history, it was either a colony or a settler colonial state with expanding frontiers, complicating the question of who would identify as Vietnamese. Since 1975 when it became the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, a sizable number of people with connection to its history could be found outside its borders. Just like the question of who comprise the nation even within the territorial borders of the state, who is Vietnamese is a vexing query that requires an understanding of Chinese suzerainty, Vietnamese settler colonialism, French colonialism, and Vietnamese nationalism, and devastating wars. Colonialism (settler or not), migrancy, and diasporas also raise issues of racism, assimilation, and their contestation.
Color Consciousness
Authors: Smith Jason
Published: December 2015

In the contemporary United States, race relations are considered a dynamic process and linked to political struggle. Color consciousness is a concept that helps us understand how groups are formed and maintained in society, highlighting collective cohesion in relation to the dominate power structures. As a political practice, color consciousness disrupts both the centrality and neutrality of whiteness in structural arrangements, giving racial groups more visibility and input.
Immigration
Authors: van Amersfoort Hans
Published: December 2015

With the rise of the state as the dominant institution of the modern era, state borders have become the main divides regulating the migration of people. States have enacted laws and regulations to control the entry, residence, and work of foreigners who move into their territory. The practical implementation of these mechanisms of migration control proves, however, in many cases to be complicated and meets only with limited success. Migration flows do not only affect the size of the population of the host country; immigrants also introduce specific cultural elements into their new surroundings and form ethnic groups characterized by attributes such as language and religion. The main question around substantial immigration is how far the immigrants in the course of several generations enter into the mainstream of the society by participating in central institutions such as the labor market and the educational system.
Labeling Theory
Authors: Conyers Addrain , Calhoun Thomas C.
Published: December 2015

Labeling theory is one of the more popular theories in the study of deviant behavior and social control. The theory's influence is prevalent across the entire social science spectrum. Labeling theory provides insight into the reasons why certain individuals are labeled and marginalized in a society. The theory argues that labeling is a societal reaction to deviant behavior; consequently, labeling can be used as a form of social control. This process can be observed globally in various countries, social institutions, and political agendas.
S
hils,
E
dward (1910–95)
Authors: Greenfeld Liah
Published: December 2015

Edward Shils was, as a matter of general agreement, one of the world's most distinguished social theorists and arguably the most distinguished American social theorist of the twentieth century. He cared far more about understanding the realities he studied than being right. This entry details his life and his central ideas.
Bolívar, Simón (1783–1830)
Authors: Eastwood Jonathan
Published: December 2015

This entry provides an overview of the part played by Simón Bolívar in the creation of five national republics in the early nineteenth century in Latin America. His role as both a military leader and an architect of institutions and identities is stressed. The entry also addresses Bolívar's subsequent influence.
Indigenous Movements in
L
atin
A
merica
Authors: Gutierrez Chong Natividad
Published: December 2015

Even though Latin American indigenous populations have engaged in various types of social mobilization over the past five centuries, contemporary ethnic movements emerged in the past three decades of the twentieth century, stimulated by the surge in the economic and social processes of globalization. Such is the context which marked the beginning of an unprecedented mobilization of indigenous peoples at the regional and national levels in Latin America.
Collective Memory
Authors: Vardi Itai
Published: December 2015

This entry emphasizes the definitional character of collective memory as a sociocultural process by which groups make sense of prior times. It involves the use of knowledge, artifacts, and images to forge a certain relation to the past. A brief survey of several salient research strands in social memory studies highlights the field's diffuse theoretical and empirical development. If early scholarship emphasized top‐bottom memories as invented traditions in the service of nation building, later works often underlined the contested nature of social remembering as inherently polysemic. Most recently, postmodern crises of representation and new modes of temporality have introduced highly reflexive discussions about the current possibilities of collective mnemonics.
Double Consciousness
Authors: Dennis Rutledge M.
Published: December 2015

The sociological use of the term “double consciousness” differs from its psychological usage, in that the former provides a framework for understanding and analyzing the challenges and dilemmas created by power and status inequality evident in dominant–subordinate relations. Though Du Bois initially proposed the term to describe the contradictions in black American life, the term has been used to refer to the power and status inequality surrounding the lives of women, immigrants, and those in the global environment.
Separatism
Authors: Dennis Rutledge M.
Published: December 2015

One of the ironies of contemporary life, and perhaps a double irony of the current thrust towards globalization, is the concurrent, and contradictory, impetus towards separatism in its various forms and dimensions. The impetus may stem from a desire of a dominant group to separate itself from minority groups so as to protect its way of life; conversely, a minority group may wish to separate itself from the controls of the larger dominant group.
National Front
Authors: Gabriel John
Published: December 2015

The National Front (NF) is a political organization that was formed in 1967 and peaked in terms of electoral support in the 1970s. Its political roots can be traced back to the emergence of Nazism in the 1920s and 1930s although its anti‐ immigrant stance has a much longer tradition in British politics and culture. Its relative and short‐lived success in the 1970s is widely attributed to the vacuum left by mainstream political parties, which by and large avoided taking an explicit, anti‐immigrant stance. Margaret Thatcher's election victory in 1979 undermined support for the organization, as did the Anti‐Nazi League and Rock against Racism's highly successful campaigns against Fascism and Racism and the NF in particular. Although the organization has continued to the present day, it has been weakened by internal factionalism and leadership disputes and defections, and superseded, at least for the time being, by other organizations reflecting similar political views, including the British National Party, the United Kingdom Independence Party, and the English Defence League.
Profiling, Racial
Authors: Henry Frances
Published: December 2015

The modern practice of police, border guards, and official security agents of racial profiling is discussed. Problems and issues related to this practice such as definitions, methodological differences, and the effectiveness of racial profiling in controlling crime are noted.
One Country, Two Systems
Authors: Burns John P.
Published: December 2015

The implementation of China's one‐country, two‐systems policy in Hong Kong has been characterized by contested autonomy and some conflict over issues such as citizenship, competition, and the search for new opportunities.
Youth and Nationalism
Authors: Bracho Christian
Published: December 2015

Nations are regularly reimagined by young people, who often offer visions of nationhood counter to those constructed by older generations and transmitted through such mechanisms as schooling. Younger generations today have more access to global media, making it harder for older generations to maintain a “bounded” idea of national identity. Likewise, migration across countries creates new possibilities for imagining nationhood and maintaining connections to national communities.
Accommodation
Authors: Dennis Rutledge M.
Published: December 2015

The process of accommodation is more an art than a science. This is so because those involved in the act, or actions, of give and take must constantly weigh situations, interactions, and relations, historical and contemporary, and try, as best they can, to have their actions and attitudes fit and reflect specific ongoing events. The term has been used to describe intergroup relations between dominant and nondominant groups, and between the powerful and the powerless. Indeed, the act of accommodating may simply be moments that permit groups to act in ways to move from one type of situational action to another more acceptable, though still negative, type. Finally, there is a recognition that two general types of accommodation exist: one enacted by the powerful, the other by the powerless.
Nation and Homeland
Authors: Grosby Steven
Published: December 2015

The homeland of the nation is a spatially extensive, bounded structure of familiarity for the propagation and sustenance of the life of those who dwell within it. The recognition of a homeland conveys a territorial relation of kinship for those who reside and especially are born within the homeland. The spatially extensive, yet bounded land is recognized to be one's own.
Primordialism
Authors: Grosby Steven
Published: December 2015

The category “primordial” is an analytical recognition of the existential significance of nativity, namely, kinship, as one among a number of persistent orientations of self‐classification having a bearing on human action because of the preference expressed toward what one perceives as one's kin, variously understood. Thus, primordial beliefs are the objects of the relational modes of attachment formed around perceived lines of descent.
L
ocke,
A
lain (1885–1954)
Authors: Cherubin Rose
Published: December 2015

Alain LeRoy Locke was an African American philosopher, educator, critic, curator, and editor. Locke's account of race and interracial relations built upon critical analysis of research in sociology, anthropology, political economy, and pragmatist and classical philosophy. Locke proposed a theory of race as “civilization type,” and thus as socially constituted and determined. The content of this theory should be understood in the context of Locke's philosophical themes of cultural pluralism and critical relativism. Author of
Enter the New Negro
and a leading figure in the Harlem Renaissance, Locke also wrote extensively on African and African American art, literature, drama, and music.
Acculturation
Authors: Dennis Kimya N.
Published: December 2015

Acculturation is the process of cultural transmission or significant cultural changes that result from cultures coming into contact with other cultures from which they were previously separate and unconnected. The process of cultural transmission highlighted by Herskovits (1950) is important because it distinguishes acculturation from terms and concepts that are often used interchangeably such as assimilation. The central theme in the Herskovits' (1950) and Foster's (1962) descriptions is the idea of cultural borrowing. To understand acculturation entails a study of the social conditions that shape initial encounters between groups and power differentials across groups. Group encounters must be examined based on a range of issues including norms, morals, ideologies, and religious beliefs.
Chamberlain, Houston Stewart (1855–1927)
Authors: Field Geoffrey G.
Published: December 2015

A leading publicist of Wagnerism, H. S. Chamberlain, after 1900, became the most successful race popularizer in Central Europe. Heralded by the Nazis as a spiritual forerunner, his writings were underpinned by a racial vision that emphasized the dangers of miscegenation and viewed history as a titanic struggle between German or Aryan and Jew. His success illustrates the extent to which racial thinking pervaded the outlook of contemporaries.
Marginality
Authors: Dennis Rutledge M.
Published: December 2015

The concept and experience of marginality are as old as human history, for historically there have already been groups which have, for many reasons, been excluded, exploited, and punished by groups larger, with more military might, and keepers of the flame of myths and mythologies which accrue them inordinate powers vis‐à‐vis other groups. This marginal position may be the cause of, or the result of differential power distribution. In either case, marginality has been one of the causes and the impetus for intergroup tensions, conflicts and warfare.
Chechnya
Authors: Souleimanov Emil
Published: December 2015

After a brief introduction to the North Caucasus and Chechnya from a historical, ethnolinguistic and sociological perspective, this entry deals with the development of the concepts of ethnicity, race, and nationalism in the modern Chechen society particularly during the Soviet and post‐Soviet period. Special attention is paid to the interplay of archaic forms of social organization persisting in the heavily traditionalist Chechen society (clans, customary law, blood feud) with nationalism as a modern concept, which helps explain the phenomenon of cultural nationalism that is widespread among Chechens.