bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The US Intelligence Community’s Assessments of Soviet Intentions
Authors: Yarhi-Milo Keren
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the indicators used by U.S. intelligence organizations to assess the intentions of the Soviet Union. Drawing on National Intelligence Estimates (NIEs) produced on the Soviet Union between 1977 and 1980, the chapter considers the degree to which history confirms the predictions of the selective attention thesis’s organizational expertise hypothesis. It also tests the capabilities, strategic military doctrine, and behavior theses. After providing a brief overview of the U.S. intelligence community’s estimates of Soviet intentions earlier in the 1970s, the chapter discusses the intelligence organizations’ views about Soviet intentions during Jimmy Carter’s presidency. It shows that an effort to understand the adversary’s political intentions did not play a significant role in the U.S. intelligence community’s intentions assessments, and particularly in the NIEs’ judgments of the threat posed by the USSR. Instead, most of the NIEs were dedicated to estimating current and projected Soviet strategic forces as well as military intentions.
Introduction
Authors: Billings Joshua
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter provides an overview of tragedy. Tragedy is the most philosophical of art forms. However, tragedy has not always been philosophical in the same way. Around 1800, tragedy's way of meaning underwent a major shift, with broad consequences for thought on literature and philosophy. Through the eighteenth century, tragedy had been considered primarily in rhetorical terms as a way of producing a certain emotional effect, but since 1800 it has more often been considered in speculative terms as a way of making sense of the human world. It is only since around 1800 that works of art have been considered in such philosophical and often metaphysical terms. Greek tragedy played a leading role in this development, as the foundation for elaborating a concept of “the tragic” that extended far beyond an aesthetic context, encompassing history, politics, religion, and ontology.
The Antiquity of Tragedy
Authors: Billings Joshua
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the antiquity of tragedy. Thought about tragedy feeds on ulterior discussions of ancient political systems and of ancient epic, but the most significant factor may be a change in the status of poetics, and a diminution of Aristotle's authority. This development is associated in Germany with the Sturm und Drang, and receives much of its impetus from discussions in England. However, it is parallel to discussions in France, where normative Aristotelianism was similarly being criticized as inadequate to the task of grasping changes in the genre of tragedy. Across Western Europe, then, one can discern a broad shift away from the foundations of neoclassicism, and towards a philhellenism that emphasizes the singularity of antiquity. Taken together, these new ways of conceiving Greek literature within history represent a fundamental shift in thought about antiquity, which has tragedy as an important focal point.
Greek and Modern Tragedy
Authors: Billings Joshua
Published: November 2017

This chapter looks at idealist thought on the difference of antiquity and modernity. The starkest statement of the opposition of antiquity and modernity comes in Friedrich Schlegel's On the Study of Greek Poetry. The essay, published in 1797, though complete by the end of 1795, has often been overshadowed by Friedrich Schiller's concurrent and independently conceived On Naive and Sentimental Poetry (1795–96). While there are surprising similarities between the two essays, their juxtaposition very often obscures a fundamental difference in intent: where Schlegel's essay is concerned with ancient poetry as a concrete historical phenomenon, Schiller's understands much ancient poetry as an example of the “naive,” a category that transcends history. Schlegel aims to outline a program for a creative relation to antiquity, while Schiller seeks to grasp the philosophical significance of differing relations to nature.
Arithmetic of Unicritical Polynomial Maps
Authors: Milnor John
Published: November 2017

This chapter studies complex polynomials with only one critical point, relating arithmetic properties of the coefficients to those of periodic orbits and their multipliers and external rays. It first defines the complex polynomial maps of degree n ≥ 2, and draws an alternate normal form for studying periodic orbits. The chapter also discusses the notation for the integral closure. Next, the chapter discusses several statements about periodic orbits. It then proceeds to lay out the proofs of these statements, in the process detailing some basic properties of the integral closure. Finally, the chapter closes with a discussion of the critically finite case.
Les racines des composantes hyperboliques de M sont des quarts d'entiers algébriques
Authors: Bousch Thierry
Published: November 2017

Abstract and Keywords to be supplied.
Dynamical cores of topological polynomials
Authors: Blokh Alexander , Oversteegen Lex , Ptacek Ross , Timorin Vladlen
Published: November 2017

This chapter defines the (dynamical) core of a topological polynomial (and the associated lamination). This notion extends that of the core of a unimodal interval map. Two explicit descriptions of the core are given: one related to periodic objects and one related to critical objects. Topological polynomials are topological dynamical systems that generalize complex polynomials with locally connected Julia sets restricted to their Julia sets and considered up to topological conjugacy. This chapter aims to illustrate the analogy between the dynamics of topological polynomials on their cutpoints and cut-atoms and interval dynamics. For example, it is known that for interval maps, periodic points and critical points play a significant, if not decisive, role. This chapter thus attempts to establish similar facts for topological polynomials.
Limiting behavior of Julia sets of singularly perturbed rational maps
Authors: Devaney Robert L.
Published: November 2017

This chapter surveys dynamical properties of the families fsubscript c,𝜆(z) = zⁿ + c + λ‎/zᵈ for n ≥ 2, d ≥ 1, with c corresponding to the center of a hyperbolic component of the Multibrot set. These rational maps produce a variety of interesting Julia sets, including Sierpinski carpets and Sierpinski gaskets, as well as laminations by Jordan curves. The chapter describes a curious “implosion” of the Julia sets as a polynomial psubscript c = zⁿ + c is perturbed to a rational map fsubscript c,𝜆. In this way the chapter shows yet another way of producing rational maps through “singular” perturbations of complex polynomials.
Unmating of rational maps: Sufficient criteria and examples
Authors: Meyer Daniel
Published: November 2017

This chapter asks when a given (postcritically finite) rational map f arises as a mating. Mating occurs when the filled Julia sets of two polynomials of the same degree are dynamically related via external rays. This chapter seeks to tackle the opposite of mating—nonmating. To do this, a sufficient condition when the given rational map f arises as a mating is given. If this condition is satisfied, the chapter presents a simple explicit algorithm to unmate the rational map. This means that f is decomposed into polynomials that, when mated, yield f. Several examples of unmatings are then presented.
A framework toward understanding the characterization of holomorphic dynamics
Authors: Jiang Yunping
Published: November 2017

This chapter reviews the characterization of geometrically finite rational maps and then outlines a framework for characterizing holomorphic maps. Whereas Thurston's methods are based on estimates of hyperbolic distortion in hyperbolic geometry, the framework suggested here is based on controlling conformal distortion in spherical geometry. The new framework enables one to relax two of Thurston's assumptions: first, that the iterated map has finite degree and, second, that its post-critical set is finite. Thus, it makes possible to characterize certain rational maps for which the post-critical set is not finite as well as certain classes of entire and meromorphic coverings for which the iterated map has infinite degree.
Entropy in dimension one
Authors: Thurston William P.
Published: November 2017

This chapter studies the topological entropy h of postcritically finite one-dimensional maps and, in particular, the relations between dynamics and arithmetics of eʰ, presenting some constructions for maps with given entropy and characterizing what values of entropy can occur for postcritically finite maps. In particular, the chapter proves: h is the topological entropy of a postcritically finite interval map if and only if h = log λ‎, where λ‎ ≥ 1 is a weak Perron number, i.e., it is an algebraic integer, and λ‎ ≥ ∣λ‎superscript Greek Small Letter Sigma∣ for every Galois conjugate λ‎superscript Greek Small Letter Sigma ∈ C. Unfortunately, the author of this chapter has died before completing this work, hence this chapter contains both the original manuscript as well as a number of notes which clarify many of the points mentioned therein.
Dynamics of automorphisms of compact complex surfaces
Authors: Cantat Serge
Published: November 2017

This chapter describes the dynamics of automorphisms of compact complex surfaces when it is rich. In particular, the chapter carries to this general setting the interplay between ideas from ergodic and pluripotential theories. The study is restricted to compact Kähler surfaces. This is justified by the fact that the topological entropy of all automorphisms vanishes on compact complex surfaces which are not Kähler. Moreover, no proof is detailed in this chapter, but a few arguments are sketched in order to enlighten the interplay between algebraic geometry, complex analysis, and dynamical systems. Furthermore, when a result holds for automorphisms of projective surfaces over any algebraically closed field k, the chapter mentions it.
Entropy for hyperbolic Riemann surface laminations II
Authors: Dinh Tien-Cuong , Nguyen Viet-Anh , Sibony Nessim
Published: November 2017

This chapter studies Riemann surface foliations with tame singular points. It shows that the hyperbolic entropy of a Brody hyperbolic foliation by Riemann surfaces with linearizable isolated singularities on a compact complex surface is finite. The chapter then proves the finiteness of the entropy in the local setting near a singular point in any dimension, using a division of a neighborhood of a singular point into adapted cells. Next, the chapter estimates the modulus of continuity for the Poincaré metric along the leaves of the foliation, using notion of conformally (R,δ‎)-close maps. The estimate holds for foliations on manifolds of higher dimension.
The Weimar Century
Authors: Greenberg Udi
Published: November 2017

This book reveals the origins of two dramatic events: Germany's post-World War II transformation from a racist dictatorship to a liberal democracy, and the ideological genesis of the Cold War. The book shows that the foundations of Germany's reconstruction lay in the country's first democratic experiment, the Weimar Republic (1918–33). It traces the paths of five crucial German émigrés who participated in Weimar's intense political debates, spent the Nazi era in the United States, and then rebuilt Europe after a devastating war. Examining the unexpected stories of these diverse individuals—Protestant political thinker Carl J. Friedrich, Socialist theorist Ernst Fraenkel, Catholic publicist Waldemar Gurian, liberal lawyer Karl Loewenstein, and international relations theorist Hans Morgenthau—the book uncovers the intellectual and political forces that forged Germany's democracy after dictatorship, war, and occupation. These émigrés also shaped the currents of the early Cold War. Having borne witness to Weimar's political clashes and violent upheavals, they called on democratic regimes to permanently mobilize their citizens and resources in global struggle against their Communist enemies. In the process, they gained entry to the highest levels of American power, serving as top-level advisors to American occupation authorities in Germany and Korea, consultants for the State Department in Latin America, and leaders in universities and philanthropic foundations across Europe and the United States. From interwar Germany to the dawn of the American century, this book sheds light on the crucial ideas, individuals, and politics that made the trans-Atlantic postwar order.
Socialist Reform, the Rule of Law, and Labor Outreach
Authors: Greenberg Udi
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on the theories of Ernst Fraenkel, one of the most important Socialist intellectuals in postwar Germany. In the 1950s, the German left transformed from a class-based party of international neutrality into a broad-tent party of Cold War conviction. This shift by the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) has its roots in intellectual projects in the Weimar period. No one represents this continuity better than Fraenkel, a member of a unique intellectual school that sought to fuse Socialist and bourgeois theories of law, politics, and democracy. In this line of thought, it was incumbent on Socialists and middle-class liberals to join together in building a new kind of democratic regime, premised on equal respect for individual rights and social welfare. According to Fraenkel, the SPD had to renounce its belief that only the nationalization of the economy would bring about “true” democratic equality. Instead, Socialists had to embrace democratic visions that centered on individual rights, reach out to the middle class, and focus on welfare programs. In Fraenkel's mind, the true threat to this progressive vision was not the middle classes and industrialists, as many Socialists claimed, but ultimately communism.
Conservative Catholicism and American Philanthropy
Authors: Greenberg Udi
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on political theorist Waldemar Gurian, one of the first Catholic émigrés to return from exile to visit Germany in 1948. During the occupation period and the early 1950s, Gurian utilized U.S. wealth to fund a stream of publications, lectures, and educational programs intended to establish a union between the United States and Europe's Catholics. His writings depicted the United States as the guardian of Catholic ideals, autonomy, and communities and insisted that an alliance with the United States presented the only effective path toward defeating Catholicism's ultimate enemy, the Soviet Union. With the massive support of the American diplomatic and cultural apparatus, Gurian and other émigrés worked to popularize these ideas among German Catholics. By the mid-1950s, their efforts helped forge an alliance between Catholics, West Germany, and the United States, a bond that became the backbone of the Cold War effort in Europe.
Individual Liberties and “Militant Democracy”
Authors: Greenberg Udi
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on the theories of Karl Loewenstein. In the 1950s, German liberal politicians, intellectuals, and jurists welcomed the theory of militant democracy and claimed that political rights were dependent on loyalty to democratic institutions. They became ardent advocates of limiting rights and energetically supported Germany's participation in Cold War anti-Communist suppression. The transformation of German liberalism and the rise of militant democracy drew from older experiences. They were deeply shaped by the resurrection of a Weimar-era theory promulgated by Loewenstein, the liberal émigré who coined the term “militant democracy.” After the war, Loewenstein resumed his campaign to build a militant democracy in Germany, with the backing of U.S. occupation authorities. American officials, who believed that his plan would promote democratization and strengthen anti-Communist sentiments, sponsored his writings, lectures, and speeches.
Conclusion
Authors: Greenberg Udi
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers the new vision of democracy ushered in by the generation of the 1960s. Unlike the architects of the postwar order, left-wing students challenged, rather than celebrated, the legitimacy of elected institutions and party politics. Parliaments were merely stages for oligarchies, tools for self-perpetuating elites. In both West Germany and the United States, students claimed that state institutions inevitably reinforced rigid hierarchies and oppressive norms. A “true” democracy could not be built by state agencies. Rather, it would emerge from “autonomy,” from small organizations, student movements, NGOs, and, later, human rights organizations. When the frustration and anger of this new generation exploded in protest in the late 1960s, German émigrés were among its main targets. Student journals and pamphlets frequently attacked and ridiculed the leading thinkers of the older generation. Such criticism was especially ferocious in West Germany, where returning émigrés came to represent Cold War ties with an amoral and depraved United States.
Policy Choices and Turnout
Authors: Leighley Jan E. , Nagler Jonathan
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers how the policy positions offered by candidates influence voter turnout. It expects that larger differences in the policy positions of candidates are associated with a higher probability of voting. Using the American National Election Studies data, it examines the impact of individuals' perceptions of candidates' policy positions—how they compare to each other, and how they compare to the individuals' preferences—on individuals' decisions to vote. It finds that individuals are more likely to vote when they perceive a greater policy difference between the candidates. The poorest Americans have also become more indifferent between candidates in recent elections—that is, they see fewer differences between candidates now when compared to wealthier Americans.
On the Representativeness of Voters
Authors: Leighley Jan E. , Nagler Jonathan
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers a critical aspect of the potential consequences of turnout, that is, whether voters are representative of nonvoters with respect to their preferred policy positions. It briefly reviews the handful of studies that have addressed the question of the representativeness of voters, and then replicate some of Wolfinger and Rosenstone's (1980) evidence for 1972 with 2008 data. It then tests expectations regarding the distinctiveness of voters' preferences using data from the 1972–2008 American National Election Studies, as well as the 2004 National Annenberg Election Study, comparing the policy preferences of voters and nonvoters on redistributive issues, as well as a variety of other policy issues. The chapter finds concludes that the seeming consensus that it would not matter if everyone voted is simply wrong, and has been wrong for a long time. That these differences have been ignored in political discourse as well as scholarly research is all the more striking given the increase in economic inequality experienced in the United States.
Liberal Neutrality: A Reinterpretation and Defense
Authors: Patten Alan
Published: November 2017

This chapter develops an account of the moral foundations of minority cultural rights that revolves around two main claims. The first holds that the liberal state has a responsibility to be neutral toward the various conceptions of the good that are affirmed by its citizens. The second claims that, in certain domains, the most promising way for the state to discharge its responsibility of neutrality is by extending and protecting specific minority cultural rights. Although various qualifications and provisos are introduced along the way, and the rights that are justified are constrained in certain important respects, the argument will demonstrate why, in some contexts, specific cultural rights are indeed a requirement of liberal justice. The chapter is devoted to the first of the claims, exploring the meaning of neutrality and explaining why it is an important component of liberal justice.
Equal Recognition and Language Rights
Authors: Patten Alan
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores the justification of minority language rights. It argues that equal recognition ought to play a key role in thinking about the justification of minority language rights, and that disputes about language rights ought to be examined from the perspective of what was called “full liberal proceduralism.” From this perspective, the mere fact that some minority language is doing poorly does not by itself ground a legitimate complaint of injustice by speakers of that language. But minority speakers do have a complaint if their language fares poorly in a context in which it is disfavored by public institutions. There is no right to language preservation, but there is a strong, pro tanto claim for equal recognition, a claim that can be considered a right in the absence of defeating countervailing considerations.
Explaining National Behavior in Multilateral Interventions
Authors: Auerswald David P. , Saideman Stephen M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter draws on a variety of literatures to model the national determinants of military behavior during multilateral interventions. Theories of principal-agent relations point to the importance of knowing who are the ultimate decision units having the power to determine how military forces behave when deployed. One cannot know who those ultimate decision makers are without first understanding the domestic political institutions of the relevant nations. Domestic political institutions can either empower a single individual, as is the case with presidential or single-party parliamentary governments, or they can empower a collective body to make decisions, as is the case in parliamentary coalition governments. However, to understand the preferences of various principals requires understanding either their political ideology (in the case of collective principals) or how their previous experiences shape their current and future behaviors (in the case of single principals).
Single-Party Parliamentary Governments
Authors: Auerswald David P. , Saideman Stephen M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses a second type of political system where individual leaders are empowered: parliamentary systems with a single party controlling the government. Great Britain and Canada have been important players in Afghanistan, with both showing significant variation in what they were willing to do over time. One key difference is that Canada was led by a minority government for nearly all of its time in Afghanistan. Thus, these two countries have very similar institutions, similar political cultures, and large variations in how they have performed in Afghanistan and how they have been governed at home. These differences allow one to distinguish the key forces shaping decision making when prime ministers are unencumbered by the requirements of maintaining a domestic political coalition. This chapter then touches on two other countries in this category: Spain and Turkey.
Eli’s Impact: A Case Study
Authors: Fefferman Charles
Published: November 2017

This chapter illustrates the continuing powerful influence of Eli Stein's ideas. It starts by recalling his ideas on Littlewood–Paley theory, as well as several major developments in pure and applied mathematics, to which those ideas gave rise. Before Eli, Littlewood–Paley theory was one of the deepest parts of the classical study of Fourier series in one variable. Stein, however, found the right viewpoint to develop Littlewood–Paley theory and went on to develop Littlewood–Paley theory on any compact Lie group, and then in any setting in which there is a reasonable heat kernel. Afterward, the chapter discusses the remarkable recent work of Gressman and Strain on the Boltzmann equation, and explains in particular its connection to Stein's work.
On Oscillatory Integral Operators in Higher Dimensions
Authors: Bourgain Jean
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the progress made towards problems originating from Stein's seminal paper, “Some problems in harmonic analysis.” It is by now well-known that the mapping properties of Fourier restriction operators to hypersurfaces in R
n and their variable coefficient generalizations are intimately related to questions of a combinatorial nature. Over recent years there has been quite a bit of research around these underlying issues. In some way, it became interdisciplinary with connections towards geometric measure theory, the theory of finite fields, incidence geometry, and mathematical computer science. While the central original problems remain unsolved, this line of research has produced many new results of independent interest, though the chapter focuses primarily on developments around the theory of oscillatory integrals.
Hölder Regularity for Generalized Master Equations with Rough Kernels
Authors: Caffarelli Luis , Silvestre Luis
Published: November 2017

This chapter studies evolution problems that are related to continuous time random walks (CTRW), having a discontinuous path for which both the jumps and the time elapsed in between them are random. These processes are governed by a generalized master equation which is nonlocal both in space and time. To illustrate, the chapter considers kernels K(t, x, s, y) in a particular function. Here, studying correlated kernels provides a more flexible framework where more interesting physical phenomena can be observed, and more subtle mathematical questions appear. The regularity estimates are in fact more interesting (harder mathematically) when the jumps in space and the waiting times are strongly correlated.
Extremizers of a Radon Transform Inequality
Authors: Christ Michael
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the extremizers of a Radon transform inequality. The model for this analysis is Lieb's characterization of extremizers for the Hardy–Littlewood–Sobolev inequality for certain pairs of exponents. The chapter first introduces the four main steps of this model and sets up an endpoint inequality, before developing the identities to be used for the analysis in the remainder of this chapter. It then discusses some preliminary facts concerning extremizers and brings up direct and inverse Steiner symmetrization. Finally, the chapter returns to the inequality described in the first part of the chapter and begins the process of identifying extremizers for it. It concludes with further discussion on compact subgroups of the affine group as well as critical points.
Should We Solve Plateau’s Problem Again?
Authors: David Guy
Published: November 2017

This chapter gives a partial account of the situation of Plateau's problem on the existence and regularity of soap films with a given boundary. It starts with a description of some of the most celebrated solutions of Plateau's problem, followed by a description of a few easy examples. The chapter then returns to the modeling problem and mentions a few additional ways to state a Plateau problem. It briefly describes the known local regularity properties of the Almgren minimal sets, and why we would like to extend some of these regularity results to sliding minimal sets, all the way to the boundary. At the same time, the chapter considers why these solutions are not always entirely satisfactory. Finally, the chapter explains why the regularity results for sliding Almgren minimal sets also apply to solutions of the Reifenberg and size minimization problems described earlier in the chapter.
On Div-Curl for Higher Order
Authors: Lanzani Loredana , Raich Andrew S.
Published: November 2017

This chapter produces a new class of differential operators of order k (where k is any given positive integer) that satisfy an appropriate analogue of a Gagliardo–Nirenberg inequality for functions and contain the operators introduced in the works of Bourgain and Brezis and Van Schaftingen. The research in this chapter is furthermore based on div/curl-type phenomena studied by both Stein as well as one of the authors of this chapter. Thus, the chapter first introduces the notion of admissible degree increment, and describes the necessary operators and theorems. Proofs are then discussed later on in the chapter, before it concludes with further remarks on some of the problems and theorems advanced earlier on.
Multi-Linear Multipliers Associated to Simplexes of Arbitrary Length
Authors: Muscalu Camil , Tao Terence , Thiele Christoph
Published: November 2017

This chapter introduces two sets of theorems based on a study of the Littlewood–Paley boundedness properties of a tri-linear operator. It generalizes and proves similar estimates for multi-linear multipliers whose symbols are given by characteristic functions of simplexes of arbitrary length. The chapter introduces the so-called AKNS systems, which play an important role in nuclear physics, and describes their connection with certain operators. Then, the rest of the chapter is devoted to the proof of a third theorem, which has been derived from the first two. To conclude, the chapter also proves the “delicate Bessel” Lemma which plays an important role in the argument.
On the Singularities of the Pluricomplex Green’s Function
Authors: Phong D. H. , Sturm Jacob
Published: November 2017

This chapter seeks to establish the existence of pluricomplex Green's functions with singularities at certain multi poles, given by arbitrary local analytic functions. The Green's function plays a central role in the study of functions of one complex variable or of two real variables. This chapter also attempts to develop a geometric/analytic approach to Monge-Ampère equations with measures on the right-hand side, where the singularities of the solution arise from blow-up constructions. Since blow-ups typically lead to degenerate Kähler forms, an essential tool in this chapter's approach is the recent existence theorems for the Dirichlet problem for complex Monge-Ampère equations with degenerate background form.
From the Slave Trade to the September 11th Attacks
Authors: Bail Christopher
Published: November 2017

This chapter begins with a brief history of the dozens of civil society organizations that worked to shape the representation of Muslims within the American public sphere before the September 11 attacks. These include a diverse array of African American and immigrant Muslim organizations, as well as Jewish, Christian, and nonreligious civil society organizations that became involved in public discussions about Islam during the Arab–Israeli War, the Iranian hostage crisis, and other high-profile events involving Muslims. This broad historical perspective highlights the emergence of mainstream civil society organizations that produced positive or neutral messages about Muslims in the decade before the September 11th attacks, alongside a small group of fringe organizations with predominantly anti-Muslim messages.
The September 11th Attacks and the Rise of Anti-Muslim Fringe Organizations
Authors: Bail Christopher
Published: November 2017

This chapter charts the contours of the cultural environment inhabited by civil society organizations in the immediate aftermath of the September 11 attacks. While the majority of these organizations continued to produce positive or neutral messages about Islam, journalists were heavily influenced by the emotional appeals of a small group of anti-Muslim organizations—despite their meager social and financial resources. More than a decade after the September 11 attacks, anti-Muslim organizations enjoy considerable influence upon media, government, and public opinion. Meanwhile, the influence of mainstream Muslim organizations has substantially decreased. How did mainstream Muslim organizations lose so much of their influence within the American public sphere? How did anti-Muslim fringe organizations captivate the American media, government, and broader public?
The Rip Tide
Authors: Bail Christopher
Published: November 2017

This chapter explains why the impassioned warnings of anti-Muslim fringe organizations overshadowed the dispassionate condemnations of terrorism produced by mainstream organizations with superior financial and social resources after the September 11 attacks. Moreover, it explains how the rise of anti-Muslim fringe organizations within the mass media provoked angry responses from mainstream organizations that only called further attention to these once-obscure actors within the American public sphere. Finally, the chapter explains how consternation about whether and how to respond to the continued rise of the fringe created tension and splintering within the mainstream, and thus further opportunity for fringe organizations to advance their peripheral cultural messages within the media.
The Deliberative Justice Experiment
Authors: Karpowitz Christopher F. , Mendelberg Tali
Published: November 2017

This chapter looks at how there is no shortage of commentary about women's presence in decision-making groups. Part of the challenge of answering the lingering questions about women's voice and authority is methodological. For example, many of the studies that take up the question of gender do not disentangle group gender composition from individual gender or do not involve sufficient variation in gender composition to allow for a full understanding of group-level factors. In particular, there are many ways that gender composition and decision rule could be correlated with other possible causes of women's participation and substantive representation at a meeting. The chapter takes up these issues in detail by cataloging a number of methodological gaps in existing studies.
What Makes Women the “Silent Sex” When Their Status Is Low?
Authors: Karpowitz Christopher F. , Mendelberg Tali
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores how women are the “silent sex,” in a manner of speaking. In the settings that characterize most arenas of politics and public affairs, and in many other formal discussions that take place in civic organizations, work teams, and other common venues, women are not a majority, and the norm of interaction has masculine characteristics. Numbers and norms of interaction combine to deter women from fully expressing their thoughts. The chapter looks for clues to explain why women overcome the difficulties when they are placed in other circumstances. The evidence presented points toward several aspects of gender as culprits. Most importantly, confidence has much to do with women's relative quiescence.
Unpacking the Black Box of Interaction
Authors: Karpowitz Christopher F. , Mendelberg Tali
Published: November 2017

This chapter analyzes one more way that a person can instantiate power through speech—interruptions of other speakers and the responses to those interruptions. The way in which participants interact while speaking may enhance or undermine women's status in deliberation. Gendered roles and expectations construct women's speech as less authoritative to begin with. The chapter presents the nature of interaction between speakers to illuminate how gender affects women's relative authority—that is, their symbolic representation in discussion. However, women's authority may derive not only from power but also from warmth. Speech is not only a means to power, it can also establish social connection and solidarity. Social interaction is a crucial means for creating a sense of warmth and personal acceptance.
Nuclear Strategy in the Modern Era
Authors: Narang Vipin
Published: November 2017

The world is in a second nuclear age in which regional powers play an increasingly prominent role. These states have small nuclear arsenals, often face multiple active conflicts, and sometimes have weak institutions. How do these nuclear states—and potential future ones—manage their nuclear forces and influence international conflict? Examining the reasoning and deterrence consequences of regional power nuclear strategies, this book demonstrates that these strategies matter greatly to international stability and it provides new insights into conflict dynamics across important areas of the world such as the Middle East, East Asia, and South Asia. The book identifies the diversity of regional power nuclear strategies and describes in detail the posture each regional power has adopted over time. Developing a theory for the sources of regional power nuclear strategies, the book offers the first systematic explanation of why states choose the postures they do and under what conditions they might shift strategies. It then analyzes the effects of these choices on a state's ability to deter conflict. Using both quantitative and qualitative analysis, the book shows that, contrary to a bedrock article of faith in the canon of nuclear deterrence, the acquisition of nuclear weapons does not produce a uniform deterrent effect against opponents. Rather, some postures deter conflict more successfully than others. This book considers the range of nuclear choices made by regional powers and the critical challenges they pose to modern international security.
Introduction
Authors: Narang Vipin
Published: November 2017

This chapter lays out the volume's main arguments in brief. Contrary to the usual focus on superpowers and Cold War nuclear competition, the chapter proposes a different dynamic. It asks what strategies and choices certain states will make about their nuclear weapons and how those decisions about nuclear strategy can affect international relations and conflict. Examining the decisions that regional nuclear powers—such as China, India, Pakistan, Israel, France, and South Africa—have made about their arsenals thus far, and their resulting behavior, helps address these questions. Regional nuclear powers, for systematic and predictable reasons, choose clearly identifiable nuclear postures and these postures matter to a regional power's ability to deter conflict. These countries' nuclear choices, therefore, provide valuable insight into the crucial challenges of contemporary nuclear proliferation and international stability.
France
Authors: Narang Vipin
Published: November 2017

This chapter traces the contours of France's nuclear postures over time. During the Cold War and after, France adopted an asymmetric escalation posture—though for very different reasons in the two periods. During the Cold War, France's geopolitical position and its fear of American abandonment in the event of a conflict pushed France toward an asymmetric escalation posture for strictly security reasons. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, however, France enjoyed a more benign security environment. It was then faced with a choice: it could scale back its nuclear force posture toward an assured retaliation posture to deter conflict and coercion at the nuclear level, or it could continue to adopt an asymmetric escalation posture as a hedge to deter future potential conventional threats. France has since opted to maintain an independent asymmetric escalation posture.
Israel
Authors: Narang Vipin
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers how one might treat Israel's nuclear posture, given that it is a posture comprising capabilities that have never been confirmed. Israel is the world's oldest closet nuclear state. For more than forty years it has neither confirmed nor denied its possession of nuclear weapons, and has vowed not to be the first to “introduce” nuclear weapons into the Middle East. But it has circulated enough credible rumors and hints that it does possess a nuclear weapons capability to lead most of the world to believe that Israel was the world's sixth nuclear power. Based on incredible access to Israeli officials and declassified U.S. documents, this chapter reveals the most authoritative history of Israel's nuclear program. Drawing on previous works on the subject, this chapter fits Israel's nuclear posture into the broader comparative typology.
Deterring Unequally I: A Large-n Analysis
Authors: Narang Vipin
Published: November 2017

This chapter tests the deterrent effect of regional power nuclear postures in a large-n statistical design to systematically analyze whether, on average, some nuclear postures deter conflict better than others. It takes nuclear posture as an independent variable, testing whether these postures have differential effects on states' ability to deter the outbreak of conventional conflict. Compared to when the state did not have nuclear weapons, and compared to other states, this chapter considers what effect we should expect these different postures to have on a state's ability to deter the eruption of conventional conflict (general deterrence) against both nuclear and non-nuclear opponents.
Deterring Unequally II: Regional Power Nuclear Postures and Crisis Behavior
Authors: Narang Vipin
Published: November 2017

This chapter probes questions regarding how nuclear weapons or nuclear postures affect crisis dynamics, by examining whether there is variation in states' decisions to escalate or de-escalate a crisis as a function of nuclear posture. That is, within a crisis, the chapter considers if some nuclear postures deter states from conflict escalation better than others. In answering this question, this chapter uncovers the mechanisms responsible for the relationship between regional nuclear postures and deterrence outcomes, ensuring that the correlations established in the statistical analysis are not just spurious but are real and causal. To do this, the chapter explores the findings from the large-n analysis in more fine-grained crisis settings.
Coevolution
Authors: Spiegel Avi Max
Published: November 2017

This chapter seeks to understand how Islamist movements have evolved over time, and, in the process, provide important background on the political and religious contexts of the movements in question. In particular, it shows that Islamist movements coevolve. Focusing on the histories of Morocco's two main Islamist movements—the Justice and Spirituality Organization, or Al Adl wal Ihsan (Al Adl) and the Party of Justice and Development (PJD)—it suggests that their evolutions can only be fully appreciated if they are relayed in unison. These movements mirror one another depending on the competitive context, sometimes reflecting, sometimes refracting, sometimes borrowing, sometimes adapting or even reorganizing in order to keep up with the other.
The Next Islamist Generation
Authors: Spiegel Avi Max
Published: November 2017

This chapter argues that power dynamics within Islamist organizations are changing rapidly and dramatically. And these changes are happening, as they always have, not only from external constraints, but from internal pressures. This book offers new evidence not of the demise of Islamist movements, but of their lasting transformation. Young activists are poised to assert more control within their organizations, even initiate internal rebellions of their own, and perhaps also help break apart the very movements they helped grow. This is the case for four main reasons. First, making room for many might also mean laying the foundation for discord. Second, Islamist successes are increasingly replicable. Third, internal lines of religious authority are growing murky. Finally, skepticism of omnipotent central authority abounds. For members of the next Islamist generation, the Arab Spring is now part of their histories, just as independence struggles were for their grandparents.
For the Advance of Civilization
Authors: Wuthnow Robert
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the role of religion during the turbulent years of the Reconstruction. The election held in 1869 resulted in Texas approving a new constitution and being reincorporated into the United States in good standing. However, the outcome left many Texans unhappy, and a more enduring constitution was not approved until 1876. Religion was expected to play an important supportive role in nearly all efforts at rebuilding, especially in encouraging morality, and yet this role was never quite as prominent or straightforward as might later be assumed. On the one hand, the seeds of what would later be called fundamentalism were certainly evident in the kind of revival preaching that left listeners scared for the mortal destiny of their souls. Such preaching was widely practiced in the prevailing Baptist and Methodist congregations. On the other hand, the kind of skepticism that earlier resulted in preachers being run out of town now found quieter expression in arguments favoring reticence in favor of dogmatism.
The Fundamentalist Belt
Authors: Wuthnow Robert
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers the popular perception of Texas as a fundamentalist belt. This perception was never completely true, but it was not without basis either. It was more accurate to say that religious leaders who believed in a conservative interpretation of the Bible represented an almost unchallenged understanding of theology in Dallas to a greater extent than would have been the case in Boston, Philadelphia, Chicago, or Los Angeles. It was increasingly accurate to say that conservative Baptists and Methodists along with members of several smaller denominations carried greater influence in their denominations than their counterparts did in any other state. How that happened became evident in the church controversies that escalated between the 1880s and 1920s, in the opposition church leaders mobilized against evolution, in conflict between fundamentalists and modernists, in the monitoring of what was taught in schools and seminaries, and in the rising popularity of biblical interpretations emphasizing dispensational theology.
Meanest, Dirtiest, Low-Down Stuff
Authors: Wuthnow Robert
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses Texas as a microcosm of the various developments affecting the nation in the 1960s. Texas was part of the Democratic South, the state that Kennedy had to win in order to become president in 1960, and the state from which Johnson succeeded to the presidency in 1963, and yet it would be a strong ally of Ronald Reagan and the home of two subsequent Republican presidents. It was a bastion of Southern Baptist influences and yet was rife with religious disagreements. It was the location of tense relationships between Protestants and Catholics and between Anglos and Hispanics as well as conflicts over racial segregation and civil rights. In the early 1960s, Texas voters faced an array of issues as diverse as anywhere in the nation. Potential for division existed along partisan, racial, ethnic, educational, religious, and geographic lines.
God Can Save Us
Authors: Wuthnow Robert
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the emergence of the New Christian Right or simply the Religious Right as a powerful new force in American politics. The rise of the Religious Right has been examined from all angles, and several key factors have been identified. It clearly depended on leadership. The most visible leaders were preacher Jerry Falwell, whose Moral Majority rallies at state capitals had been gaining attention in the late 1970s, and fellow televangelist Pat Robertson, whose popular 700 Club television program included discussions of social and moral topics. Both were canny entrepreneurs who knew how to attract media attention, and there were conservative political operatives eager to enlist their support. There were unifying issues as well, such as opposition to abortion, homosexuality, and promiscuity, and the more general sense that religion was under siege by secularity and humanism. And there were lingering divisions within Protestant denominations and among Catholics over such issues as social activism, the legacies of the civil rights movement and the Vietnam War, communism, gender equality, the ordination of women, and theology.