bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
What does the Operator do in Complex Systems
Authors: Christensen Julien M. , Mills Robert G.
Published: January 2017

An effort was made to locate representative data on human activities in complex operational systems. Very little operational data were found which were suitable for our purposes. Therefore, this requirement was compromised and activity data from tests and paper and pencil analyses were used. These data were then classified by two raters according to an adopted taxonomy. It was generally concluded that where activity data have been gathered under operational conditions, they have been useful to design engineers, human factors specialists and systems analysts. It is further noted, however, that additional effort must be devoted to the development of better methods for obtaining data and corresponding criteria of human performance under operational conditions. A discussion of the taxonomy and other techniques indicated that collection of activity data should be feasible under operational conditions. In addition it is suggested that increased standardization and use of operational definition in the development of these techniques might result in improvement of their general applicability.
The Use of Full Scale Mission Simulation for the Assessment of Complex Operator Performance
Authors: Grodsky Milton A.
Published: January 2017

This report describes the use of full-scale high fidelity simulation as a technique for the evaluation of the performance of the human operator in an aerospace vehicle context. The specific implementation of this approach used an Apollo simulation with highly trained aerospace research pilots as subjects. The major advantages of the approach are considered to derive from the relative ease with which generalizations can be made from the research vehicle to the vehicle being simulated. The ultimate criterion, in-flight validation, is not as yet attainable, but the prediction is made that this approach would be fully supported by the outcome of such an evaluation. A requirement exists for the examination of this approach in relation to more commonly employed laboratory situations and tasks so that a tie in with such research can be established.
Performance Assessment Based on an Empirically Derived Task Taxonomy
Authors: Fleishman Edwin A.
Published: January 2017

This report reviews and discusses a number of the methodological questions relating to the application of an experimental-correlational approach to the problem of assessing complex performance. The basic point of departure is the specification of the requirements for a task taxonomy and an analysis of the value of factor analytic investigations in combination with experimental methods in providing the framework for such a taxonomy. The way in which this approach has been applied in the past and the expected benefits of its successful implementation are discussed. It is concluded that experimental-correlational studies offer considerable promise in attacking complex performance but that a more extensive research program is needed. The general outlines of such a program is described.
The Identification of Performance Dimensions Through Factor Analysis
Authors: Parker James F.
Published: January 2017

The problems encountered in trying to relate factor-analytically derived performance measures to real world, complex work situations are described. A particular implementation of this approach to the problem of assessing the performance capabilities of the on-orbit astronaut is described in relation to the task demands of the predicted space vehicle performance requirements. The general approach as outlined here is restricted to the measurement of perceptual motor functions of the sort traditionally looked at by factor analysts in relation to the ability requirements of aircraft operators. Relatively mild stressors—sleep loss and heat—have not resulted in significant alterations of performance on these tasks.
Methodology in the Use of Synthetic Tasks to Assess Complex Performance
Authors: Alluisi Earl A.
Published: January 2017

The application of synthetic tasks to the assessment of complex performance is discussed in relation to the trade-offs involved in achieving adequate levels of face validity and in specifying the exact changes in psychological functions that may result from particular environmental manipulations. It is argued that the multiple-task performance battery approach can provide levels of face validity adequate to maintain the motivation of subjects while at the same time permitting the identification of changes in specific performance functions. The characteristics of this approach are discussed in relation to a program of research on the effects of confinement and demanding work-rest schedules on crew performance.
Effect of Reduced Pressure on Human Performance
Authors: Seminara Joseph L. , Shavelson Richard J. , Parsons Stuart O.
Published: January 2017

The purpose of this study was to determine whether reduced pressure (1.5 psi) versus ambient pressure (14.7 psi) had a differential effect on man's performance in a pressurized (3.7 psi) Apollo suit. Two subjects were tested on three different types of tasks: psychomotor, a lunar mission-specific task, and walking. The results of this study gave support to the hypothesis that it would require greater effort to complete the same tasks in the reduced pressure condition than in the ambient pressure condition. During the reduced pressure condition, an increase in total time, total errors, heart rate, and carbon dioxide production was consistently observed over the ambient condition. These findings are considered preliminary, and future research is required to substantiate the conclusion that reduced pressure associated with the space environment negatively affects human performance.
Readability of Dials at Different Distances with Constant Visual Angle
Authors: Chapanis Alphonse , Scarpa Lorraine C.
Published: January 2017

The purpose of this experiment was to study the readability of dials at different distances when the visual angle subtended by the dials is held constant. Five dials, the sizes and markings of which were proportional to viewing distance, were tested at distances ranging from 14 to 224 in. Each of 20 subjects made 20 readings on each dial. Care was taken to select subjects with excellent uncorrected near and far visual acuity. A focus sign above each dial was used to hold accommodation time constant. Directions to the subject stressed accuracy. Response times, errors of estimation, and questionnaire data were recorded. The results show a significant effect of distance on readability: Dials located at distances greater than 28 inches were read faster than two smaller, closer dials. Although there are no significant differences among the errors made on the five dials, the error data are consistent with the time data.
Confusion Matrix Analysis for Form Perception
Authors: Engstrand Raymond D. , Moeller George
Published: January 2017

The Constant-Ratio Rule (CRR), an empirical technique for analysis of confusion matrices, was developed for use in predicting intelligibility of speech syllables. This study investigated the validity of the rule when applied to the data from experiments on visual form perception. English letters and simple geometric figures were tachistoscopically presented in the center of a viewing field. Response proportions for subsets of this master set of stimuli were predicted by CRR. Results indicated that the rule (1) accurately predicted numeric response proportions for subsets of stimuli when experimental conditions were similar and (2) predicted ordinally accurate data when experimental conditions varied within the limit which might be encountered in “operational situations.” These results, as well as arithmetic factors which can result in errors in prediction, are discussed.
Judgments of Relative Distance Based on Separate 2-D TV Views
Authors: Crawford Billy M. , Kama William N.
Published: January 2017

An experiment was conducted to determine human capabilities for making judgments of relative distance based on cues obtained from two ordinary, two-dimensional, closed-circuit television systems. The two cameras were placed so that their lines-of-sight converged symmetrically upon the mid-point between the two rods of a modified Howard-Dolman depth perception apparatus. Four camera lines-of-sight convergence angles were investigated: 15degree, 30°, 60°, and 90°. Difference thresholds for relative depth perception were determined for 24 subjects by the psychophysical Method of Limits. Thresholds were on the order of 12-13 minutes of arc in terms of the parallactic difference angle for the camera lines-of-sight. The results are related to the design of viewing systems for remote operations.
Display-Control Relationships with Bisensory Signals
Authors: Perriment A. Douglas , Webster William R.
Published: January 2017

Using a bi-sensory signal, simultaneously presented in the visual and auditory modes, an experiment was carried out to examine the effects of varied display-control relationships upon information transfer rate. Of the three response variables examined i.e., limb relationship, control position, & digit correspondence, that of control position was found to have the most significant effect upon performance. Controls which were centrally placed, gave higher information transfer rates than those placed laterally to the line of the incoming signal. The complex interactions, which were observed between all three response variables suggest the need for system specific examination of S-R ensembles where complex bi-sensory signals are used.
The Effects of Symbol Frequency in Legibility Testing
Authors: Bell Glennis L.
Published: January 2017

The legibilities of two fonts used for teletyped weather reports are being studied. The first tests were controlled-exposure-time tests, made with a tachistoscope, in which single symbols were shown to subjects randomly with respect to alphabetical and numerical order. The two fonts were tested at symbol brightnesses of 8, 6 and 5 ft-L against a constant background brightness of 1 ft-L. For each font at each symbol brightness, two conditions were compared. The first condition was that all the symbols occurred with the same frequency and the second condition was that the symbols occurred with relative frequencies similar to their frequencies in actual use in the weather reports. The results showed that the subjects’ performances were better when the symbols occurred with the unequal frequencies than they were for the equal frequency condition. Implications which reflect on the validity of legibility testing are discussed.
The Thumbwheel Switch as a Data Entry Device
Authors: Plath Dean W. , Kolesnik Peter E.
Published: January 2017

This study evaluated the speed and accuracy with which latitude and longitude coordinates can be entered into a computer by use of a thumbwheel switch unit. In addition, it determined the effect of flight gloves on thumbwheel operation, and compared two methods of using thumbwheels for entering coordinates. In the first method, one thumbwheel unit was used to enter both latitude and longitude of a given checkpoint before proceeding to the coordinates of the next checkpoint. In the second method, all latitude coordinates were entered sequentially, after which all longitude coordinates were entered in a similar manner. It was found that there were no significant differences in errors between gloved and ungloved operation, or between the two methods of entering coordinates. However, the two-unit method of entry was significantly faster than the one-unit method. It was concluded that the thumbwheel switch is suitable for use in entering navigational coordinates into an airborne computer.
The Use of Teams in Image Interpretation: Information Exchange, Confidence and Resolving Disagreements
Authors: Doten George W. , Cockrell John T. , Sadacca Robert
Published: January 2017

Using the common procedure of having each team member in two-man teams check the interpretations of his teammate, three experiments centered around the following questions: (1) How much knowledge should the checker have of the initial interpreter's work? (2) How accurately can the initial interpreter rate the accuracy of his interpretations and can the initial interpreter effectively designate which of his interpretations need checking? And, (3) how can a third interpreter best be utilized to resolve conflicts in interpretations made by the original two-man team? Variations centered about the amount of information passed from initial interpreter to checker, discussion between team members versus no discussion, consensus versus one-man decision in determining the team product, confidence ratings made by interpreters and confidence levels below which interpretations were checked, and participation of a third team member under varying conditions to resolve conflicts in interpretation. Results were evaluated in terms of completeness of information extracted, accuracy and efficiency.
Terrain-Following with a Head-up Display
Authors: Soliday Stanley M. , Milligan James R.
Published: January 2017

A head-up display (HUD) was evaluated in simulated low-altitude high-speed terrain-following flight using a four degree of freedom moving-base simulator. An aircraft representative of the RF-4C was programmed as the test vehicle through analog computers associated with the simulator. Six Air Force pilots made a total of 108 one-half hour flights in various terrain, airspeed, and visibility conditions. The pilots' tasks during the flights were to maintain a given clearance altitude and heading at all times. The results showed that terrain-following with the HUD was better than it was with typical in-cockpit instruments. The pilots also preferred the HUD to the in-cockpit instruments, although they felt that numerous improvements could be made to the particular HUD that was used. General findings were that terrain-following efficiency varied with type of terrain, airspeed, and visibility.
Work Schedules and Performance During Confinement
Authors: Chiles W. Dean , Alluisi Earl A. , Adams Oscar S.
Published: January 2017

Thirteen investigations were carried out as a part of an 8-year program of research on the performance effects of various work/rest schedules during confinement to a simulated aeorspace vehicle crew compartment. A total of 139 subjects were tested using a standard battery of performance tasks. The synthetic work approach used provided a reliable, face-valid, and sensitive technique for assessing complex operator performance.

It was found that a man can work 12 hours per day on a 4-hours work/4-hours rest schedule for periods of at least 30 days. For shorter periods, a man can work 16 hours per day on a 4/2 schedule but at a significant cost to his reserves for meeting emergencies such as sleep loss. Circadian periodicities are found in psycho-physiological functions paralleled by similar periodicities in performance functions, the latter being subject to modification by special motivational instructions.
The Effect of a Central Task on Luminance Thresholds for Peripherally Presented Stimuli
Authors: Leibowitz H. W. , Appelle Stuart
Published: January 2017

The effect of a central task on peripheral vision was investigated by obtaining luminance thresholds for stimuli presented from 20° to 90° in the periphery. A control group observed a steady foveal fixation light. For the two experimental groups, the fixation light was interrupted periodically and the subject was required to maintain illumination of the light by pressing a button. Interruption rates of 15 and 53 times per minute were investigated. The control condition with the steady fixation light produced the lowest thresholds. For the interrupted conditions, thresholds were higher for the near periphery but differences disappeared in the far periphery. Luminance threshold values were generally highest for the 15-per-minute interrupted group. The results are interpreted as reflecting the effect of an attention-demanding central task on the size of the functional visual field.
Quantifying Human Performance for Reliability Analysis of Systems
Authors: Askren William B. , Regulinski Thaddeus L.
Published: January 2017

A general mathematical model of the probability of errorless human performance was derived and equated to human reliability for time-continuous tasks. The application of this model and the implications of the time-to-first-human-error (TTFHE) concept were tested with data collected using a laboratory vigilance task. The error data were ordered, and through classical inference theory the underlying density functions were isolated and tested for goodness of fit. Weibull, gamma, and log-normal distributions emerged as relevant; normal and exponential distributions were rejected. The relevant distribution parameter values were applied to the general mathematical model, and predictions were made of human performance reliability for the task. It was concluded that this is a feasible and meaningful way to quantify human performance for time-continuous tasks for use in reliability analyses of systems.
Prototype of a New Lunar-Gravity Simulator for Astronaut Mobility Studies
Authors: Spady Amos A.
Published: January 2017

The results of a study of existing lunar-gravity simulators indicated that a number of improvements could be made in the simulators being used to study the effects of reduced or lunar gravity on man's self-locomotive capability. This paper presents a review of a prototype lunar-gravity simulator which was designed, built, and delivered to NASA Langley Research Center by the Case Western Reserve Institute and the Cleveland Institute of Art. The simulator utilizes novel magnetic air bearings with constant-force motors and a unique body support system in that each of the body members are independently supported.
Lunar Simulation
Authors: Seminara Joseph L. , Shavelson Richard J.
Published: January 2017

The purpose of this study was to examine the combined effects of simulated lunar environmental variables on human performance. A facility was developed to simulate the following aspects of the astronaut's lunar environment: confinement within a lunar shelter habitat with an oxygen-enriched atmosphere, high-risk vacuum, ⅙ g., lunar “terrain” characteristics, and space suit encumbrances. Four subjects were confined for five days in a simulated lunar shelter. During the fourth and fifth days, two subjects each made two simulated sorties outside the shelter. Basic maintenance and control tasks were performed under ⅙ g.; pressurized space suit conditions were at chamber altitudes at 18,000 and 100,000 ft., respectively. Results of this testing at altitude were compared with baseline measures conducted under ambient sea level conditions. It was concluded that the combined effect of the simulated lunar environment variables can substantially degrade certain categories of astronaut performance. The reduced pressure of altitude as well as ⅙ g. and space suit encumbrances appear to be significant factors affecting man's performance.
Reduced-Gravity Human Factors Research with Aircraft
Authors: Moran Michael J.
Published: January 2017

Human factors in a low-gravity environment became important with the beginning of manned space flight programs. The costs and dangers associated with actual space experiments necessitated the development of reduced-gravity simulation techniques. Since parabolic flight is the only way to produce approximately the same physical conditions as orbital space flight, it is the only technique acceptable for many human factors studies. However, the shortness of periods at the desired gravity level and the high gravity levels of the pre- and post-parabola flight compromise the effectiveness of the technique.

In spite of its faults, this technique has been used to produce many meaningful studies. These studies have done much to increase our limited knowledge of reduced-gravity human factors. It appears that this technique will continue to be a main source of low-gravity data, until the era of manned orbiting laboratories.
Force Application in Simulated Zero Gravity
Authors: Norman D. G.
Published: January 2017

Utilizing zero-gravity simulation techniques, six subjects provided basic force exertion data under various conditions of personnel restraints, worksite geometry, and type and direction of forces to be exerted. All data reported were collected with subjects wearing Apollo suits pressurized to 3.5 psig. Current efforts are providing baseline data under 1-g. and 0-g. shirtsleeve conditions. This study is part of an ongoing program of research on man's role in maintaining advanced space systems.
The Simulation of Weightlessness Using Water Immersion Techniques: An Annotated Bibliography
Authors: Duddy John H.
Published: January 2017

This bibliography contains 283 selected references pertaining to behavioral and biomedical research using water immersion techniques. References are organized under three topics: (I) physiological responses to weightlessness, (II) human performance under weightless conditions, and (III) simulation techniques, equipment, and facilities. A brief overview of each topic is presented, and the contents are selectively annotated.
What is Adaptive Training?
Authors: Kelley Charles R.
Published: January 2017

Adaptive training is training in which the problem, the stimulus, or the task is varied as a function of how well the trainee performs. The concept and techniques of adaptive training are introduced and a comparison drawn between different methods of adaptation. The preferred method keeps measured performance constant by changing the difficulty of the task. Fundamental characteristics of adaptive trainers are enumerated and contrasted with fixed trainers. The implementation of an adaptive training system is then discussed under the following headings, (1) choosing an adaptive variable, (2) measuring performance, (3) the adaptive logic, (4) error standard and difficulty level, and (5) knowledge-of-results displays. A concluding section cautions against expecting adaptive techniques to correct training devices with inherently poor training validity.
The Effective Time Constant—A New Technique for Adaptive Training
Authors: Matheny W. G.
Published: January 2017

Adaptive training requires the selection of an adaptive variable which is related to task difficulty, is quantifiable, and can be adjusted over a range commensurate with the trainee's skill. The Effective Time Constant (te) of the man-machine system is proposed as a suitable adaptive variable since it is based upon definable properties of the machine and the operator and has been shown to be related to task difficulty.
Adaptive Techniques in Multiparameter Problems
Authors: Hudson E. M.
Published: January 2017

This paper describes a technique for conducting multiparameter experiments in a manner such that the number of data points investigated is reduced to a minimum. The method is based upon the observation that human responses to psychophysiological inputs are lawful rather than random, and hence can be predicted from mathematical equations. The procedure is to: (a) collect data on human responses at a few points in the experimental matrix, (b) fit this data with a low-order polynominal, using a computer program to evaluate the coefficients of the equation as a function of the collected data points, and (c) then, using the developed equation, the computer predicts the values that would be observed at other data points. If these computed values are close enough to the observed values at these points, it is assumed that the equation is correct. If the values are not close enough, the new data is entered into the computer and a higher order equation is fitted by a method of least squares. The procedure is iterative, and is continued until the residual error between computed and observed values for all points falls below some desired value. The importance of the technique is that in multiparameter experiments such a technique can reduce the necessary number of observations by several orders of magnitude compared to what would be necessary by conventional techniques.
Adaptive Training—An Application to Flight Simulation
Authors: Caro Paul W.
Published: January 2017

Army pilot training requirements, particularly in the helicopter area, are growing rapidly. To meet the increased training load, an Army-wide system of aircraft simulators, known as the Synthetic Flight Training System (SFTS), has been designed and is under development. A feature of the SFTS is the automation of many instructor functions normally associated with training in flight simulators. A portion of the automation involves the application of adaptive training techniques. This paper describes the SFTS and the rationale for the incorporation in it of adaptive training. The selection of appropriate adaptive variables, techniques for error measurement and for providing feedback to trainees, and the adaptive logic employed are discussed.
Some Persistent Myths about Military Electronics Maintenance
Authors: Bond Nicholas A.
Published: January 2017

This paper considers several propositions that are widely held among people concerned with the maintainability of complex equipments in a military environment. It appears that these propositions are often dubious and represent unrealistic views of hardware and human performance conditions. Finally, it is proposed that these propositions, or “myths,” can be countered, not through “selling maintainability” but via a strategy of education and involvement.
TASKTEACH: A Method for Computer-Assisted Performance Training
Authors: Rigney Jospeh W. , Towne Douglas M.
Published: January 2017

A method for using a computer time-sharing system to assist the learning of serial tasks, from operating equipment to troubleshooting it, is described. The method is based on mediational theory. The current resurgence of interest in mediational theory in psychological research is noted, and parallels between experimental strategies and instructional strategies for evoking and manipulating mediating processes are pointed out. Categories of processes which mediate performance of serial tasks are described. Procedures for facilitating the learning of these processes are implemented by a computer program, called TASKTEACH. The program sustains the student's performance of complex serial tasks by giving him variable amounts of support while helping him learn and organize the processes which mediate his performance of these tasks. The program generates output to the student during the learning session by processing short lists and the prior responses of the student. The lists, which are input to the program replace the conventional frame-by-frame description of an instructional sequence written in a “CAI language.”
Maximizing Human Power Output by Suitable Selection of Motion Cycle and Load
Authors: Harrison J. Y.
Published: January 2017

In this paper various factors affecting human power output are discussed, including the mechanical properties of muscle, the geometry of the input motion and the kinematics of the input motion. A mulitpurpose ergometer, designed and built to take account of these factors is described. Two basic motions are possible on the ergometer: cycling and rowing. The rowing motions may be made with any combination of seat and feet either sliding or fixed. In the rowing motions, during a single to and fro cycle, prescribed variations in velocity of the input links can be forced on a subject. Experimental work, which is described, showed that there are considerable differences in the effectiveness of the various ways of working, and that one in particular, a modified rowing motion, allowed the production of greater average amounts of power for periods up to two minutes than have so far been recorded and published (to the author's knowledge).
Discrete Tracking Performance with Limited Velocity Resolution
Authors: Rogers James G.
Published: January 2017

Advances in the design of radar data processing and display systems have resulted in certain nonlinearities in the response of the displayed cursor to a manual input. This paper examines the effects upon target acquisition time, in a simulated air defense environment, of (1) a low-velocity “dead zone” for which no cursor movement occurs, and (2) quantization of control velocity into a small number of discrete cursor velocities. Resulting decrements in acquisition latencies are given as functions of tracking distance and direction. A rolling ball control is used.
The Law and Our Responsibility
Authors: Garrett John W.
Published: January 2017

Social and judicial reluctance to accept defectively designed products raises sharp questions concerning the human factors engineer's moral, ethical, legal and personal responsibilities. This paper presents one human factors engineer's thoughts and opinions on these questions and illustrates situations where liability perhaps should and should not be personal.
The Role of the Human Factors Engineer in Product Liability Litigation
Authors: Peters George A.
Published: January 2017

Experience gained from providing expert testimony in court has uncovered a number of issues pertinent to the science and practice of human factors engineering. Cases reviewed here provide some insight into the kinds of problems encountered and the benefits which derive from this exposure. It appears that liability suits will prove to be the testing ground not only for consumer products but for the products of human factors research as well. Such cases are also suggestive of the criteria the courts will apply to future research efforts.
The Needs and Potential for Cooperation between Human Factors Specialists and Lawyers in Research and Development of Automobile Accident Law
Authors: Miller Richard S.
Published: January 2017

The goals of automobile accident law are described. They are prevention, interdiction, special deterrence, general deterrence, correction and restoration. For each goal, the need and potential for cooperative research by lawyers and human factors specialists are suggested.
Hand Steadiness During Unrestricted Linear Arm Movements
Authors: Mead Philip G. , Sampson Philip B.
Published: January 2017

Factors influencing hand steadiness were investigated in 66 subjects performing unrestricted linear arm movements. Results demonstrated that most hand tremor occurs in the up-down plane, with right-left and in-out tremor occurring less frequently. In addition, arm movements made by subjects viewing a target by means of a mirror were found to produce more errors than those made by direct viewing. Other literature is cited, and implications are discussed for the utility of a hand-steadiness procedure in dental practice.
Human Engineering the Keyboard
Authors: Kroemer K. H. Eberhard
Published: January 2017

The standard typewriter keyboard serves as a model for keyboards of teletypewriters, desk calculators, consoles, computer keysets, cash registers, etc. This man-machine interface should be designed to allow high-frequency, error-free operation with the least possible strain on the operator. This paper discusses several feasible biomechanical improvements of the keyboard. Some experimental findings are described which support the following design concepts: (1) the keys should be arranged in a “hand-configured” grouping to simplify the motion patterns of the fingers; (2) the keyboard sections allotted to each hand should be physically separated to facilitate the positioning of the fingers; and (3) the keyboard sections allotted to each hand should be declined laterally to reduce postural muscular strain of the operator.
Task Complexity and Serial Performance under Steadily Increasing Input Rates
Authors: Huntley M. Stephen
Published: January 2017

Twenty-seven subjects were trained on a multichannel information processing task, under three levels of stimulus complexity, and tested in these conditions in each of three 5-min. sessions of rapidly increasing input rate. Correct responses, errors, and omissions were examined for each condition. During testing, performance decrements which followed initial performance peaks occurred at lower input rates were least severe, and recovery was quickest when stimulus complexity was greatest. Subjects adapted to high input rates by filtering and making omissions rather than incorrect responses. In addition two types of attention strategies were identified, one of which produced superior performance at low input rates, and the other superior performance at high input rates. Error and response rates were positively correlated for all code complexity levels when pooled across subjects. However, at the most complex level this relation only held for one of the two attention strategies when the two sets of data were analyzed separately.
Human Performance Characteristics in a Complex Manual Task Underwater
Authors: Streimer Irving
Published: January 2017

Five subjects executed a complex maintenance task at a pool depth of 6 ft. Heart rate, oxygen uptake, and task accomplishment times were continuously monitored. The results indicate that significant performance degradations may be anticipated during the performance of manual work under water.
What Moves, the Airplane or the World?
Authors: Johnson Steven L. , Roscoe Stanley N.
Published: January 2017

The literature pertaining to motion-relationship variables in the display of airplane flight attitude and steering commands and their effects upon pilot performance is reviewed. Factors considered include: (1) figure and ground relationships, (2) control-display relationships, (3) whether the airplane or the horizon is the moving element of the display, and (4) whether the presentation of steering commands results in pursuit or compensatory tracking. The frequency-separation principle is an unexplored approach to the solution of display motion relationship problems. A concluding set of requirements for future research is based on problems encountered in previous investigations of display motion relationships.
Tracking Performance with Visual, Auditory, or Electrocutaneous Displays
Authors: Hofmann Mark A. , Heimstra Norman W.
Published: January 2017

Three groups of ten subjects each performed a unidimensional compensatory tracking task for 30 minutes. Each group received continuous error information feedback either visually, auditorally, or cutaneously. Direction of error was signaled by the side of the body stimulated, magnitude of error was indicated by signal intensity. Intensities of the signals were subjectively matched. Performance was measured by time on target, constant error, absolute error, and root-mean-square error. Analyses of variance for these measures yielded significant differences between display types on all but the root-mean-square measure. A multiple discriminate analysis was performed on these measures and provided two significantly independent dimensions of discrimination. The first dimension was defined as “speed of response,” the second “goodness of performance.” It was concluded that for the particular task used, the auditory and cutaneous displays proved more effective than the visual display.
Visual Search in Complex Fields: Size Differences between Target Disc and Surrounding Discs
Authors: Bloomfield John R.
Published: January 2017

An adaptable technique for performing search experiments, enabling extensive studies to be undertaken with well-practiced observers, is described. In each trial a single target disc was presented. Cumulative distributions of the times taken to locate 6 solid disc targets of varying size in a display containing 99 larger standard discs arranged in a regular fashion, and 3 disc targets in a display of 107 larger discs arranged irregularly, are presented. Three practiced observers were used with each display. Sixty readings per observer, per target, per display were obtained. It is suggested that for the targets most different in size from the background discs, the distributions of times to locate are largely dependent on response time factors; and for the targets closest in size the distributions are largely dependent on search factors. Some support is lent to theoretical work that suggests search times are exponentially distributed. The shortest time required to locate a particular target is used as an estimate of response time. Response times are found to be inversely proportional to both the difference between the log of the target and nontarget disc diameters, and to the difference between the diameters. An amendment, taking response time into account, is suggested for exponential search equations.
Diver Performance in Controlling a Wet Submersible During Four-Hour Exposures to Cold Water
Authors: Vaughan W. S. , Mavor Anne S.
Published: January 2017

Six 4-hr., open-sea test trials were conducted with a wet submersible. The purpose of these trials was to assess the effects of long exposure to cold (16.5° C) water on man's ability to perform basic submersible control tasks. The subjects were experienced submersible pilots who had a minimum of 20 hours training prior to the experimental trials. Skin and rectal temperatures were continuously recorded from both the pilot and rider of the submersible. A continuous record of vehicle depth and water temperature was also obtained. The pilot's task was to maintain a prescribed depth while performing a sequence of course changes for a 4-hr. period of submergence. Depth error variance was correlated with pilot core and skin temperature changes over time, and although pilot core temperature fell as much as 1.83° C, no degradation in depth control performance was apparent.
The Office Environment: Space Planning and Affective Behavior
Authors: Brookes Malcolm J. , Kaplan Archie
Published: January 2017

The present state of the art in office and space planning described, and the results of a field study of the effects of office design on the occupants are presented. The attitudes and perceptions of 120 employees toward work practices and their office environment were recorded, using a semantic scaling instrument, immediately before and nine months after a change in their surroundings from a conventional mixture of rectilinear open plan, semiprivate and private offices, to a landscaped design. Chi-square analyses of contingency tables cast from combinations of subject group, instructional set, and experimental condition, showed significant increases in judgments of aesthetic value and decreases in judgments of functional efficiency. A perceived increase in noise level, loss of privacy, and increase in visual distractions were chief causes of complaint. There were some positive changes in group sociability.
Visitor Behavior in Museums: Some Early Research in Environmental Design
Authors: Melton Arthur W.
Published: January 2017

In 1930-32 Arthur W. Melton was a research associate of the American Association of Museums. The first part of what follows is a slightly edited portion of the summary chapter of the monograph he wrote to describe experiments at the Pennsylvania Museum of Art in Philadelphia. The research, directed by E. S. Robinson of Yale, was funded by the Carnegie Corporation of New York. Melton received his Ph.D. at Yale in 1932, and in the following two years as a research assistant there he supervised a training program for research in several museums. The second part of what follows is a somewhat shortened version of an article he wrote about studies at the Museum of Science and Industry in New York City. The permission of Melton and the American Association of Museums to reproduce this pioneering work on environmental design is gratefully acknowledged.
Human Factors Applied to Hospital Patient Care
Authors: Ronco Paul G.
Published: January 2017

Human factors specialists who conduct research on the design of hospitals should consider the needs of patients, not just those of doctors, nurses, and other staff. Patients are subject to physical and psychological confinement, lack of privacy, lack of familiar support, and disruption of familiar behavior patterns, all contributing to loss of personal control and an increase in the stress from hospitalization. To help design better hospital environments for patients, it will be necessary to identify relationships between particular environmental features, subjective reactions to these, and overt behaviors which such features influence. A start in this direction has been made by means of the semantic differential.
Difficulty Factors in Homemaking Tasks: Implications for Environmental Design
Authors: Steidl Rose E.
Published: January 2017

Homemakers were asked what made the work more or less difficult in tasks they named as high and low in cognitive requirements. Most frequently responses for high and low cognitive tasks and for more and less difficult work concerned housing and facilities in the home. The adequacy of equipment and space were noted often as were adequacy of work surface and storage, availability of equipment and supplies, and room arrangement. Each task was rated for complexity, difficulty, and preference. The results suggest that functional design criteria should be put to greater use. The implications for dwelling design are that difficulty factors are a source of annoyance, and minimizing them is important to the productivity and satisfaction of the homemaker.
Human Factors in Urban Transportation Systems
Authors: Hoag Laverne L. , Adams S. Keith
Published: January 2017

Urban growth and the development of the megalopolis have forced a re-examination of all urban transportation systems in terms of their ability to satisfy human needs and preferences. Encouraging the re-emergence of public transportation in cities requires a total assessment of the physical and behavioral characteristics of the user population as well as their economic, social, and esthetic preferences. This population includes many groups not normally considered in human engineering design, such as the physically or functionally handicapped and the aged. Existing data am reviewed and research needs are identified for the design of urban transportation systems.
Experimental System for the Control of Surgically Induced Infections
Authors: Skidmore Richard A.
Published: January 2017

As an approach to reducing wound contamination from airborne bacteria during surgery, an experimental system was developed and evaluated. The system consisted of a transparent collapsible clean room, a laminar flow air filter system, a full-bubble helmet with associated ventilation and communications, and special surgical gowns. The experimental surgical system was compared with the regular system in 820 surgical cases. Use of the experimental system reduced wound contamination rates by 87%. A human factors engineering analysis identified several areas of potential improvement in system operability.
Human Factors Analysis of the Diesel-Electric Locomotive Cab
Authors: Gamst Frederick C.
Published: January 2017

Using information collected over 6 1/2 years, a human factors analysis was completed of the diesel-electric locomotive cab. The analysis was directed towards displays, control design and arrangement, and environmental quality. Nineteen recommendations were provided for the modification of existing cabs and the design of new cabs to enable future locomotive crews to work more efficiently and safely in a more comfortable work environment.
Sex Differences in Driving Performance
Authors: Hagen Roger E.
Published: January 2017

Sex differences in the psychomotor performance characteristics of 89 male and 74 female licensed drivers were evaluated through the use of a driving simulator. Thirteen measurements of steering input, accelerator input, speed maintenance, and lateral placement were made. Data were subjected to a series of multiple discriminant analyses. Discrimination was found between sex groupings, sex/violation groupings, sex/accident groups, sex/driving exposure groupings, sex/type of driving groupings, sex/risk groupings, and sex/driver education groupings. Since basic differences were demonstrated, aspects of the transportation system, such as accident countermeasure efforts and driver education programs which have been primarily developed on the basis of male driving performance data, might be in need of re-evaluation.
The Comprehensibility of Printed Instructions and the Flowchart Alternative
Authors: Kammann Richard
Published: January 2017

A few recent studies of open-book comprehension for printed instructions lead to the rule of thumb that such instructions will be understood correctly about two-thirds of the time. In the experiment reported here, two different flowchart formats were compared with standard paragraph instructions and were found to be superior in comprehension accuracy and speed. The two-thirds rule and the flowchart effect were both sustained in comprehension testing in a subsequent field trial.
How Much Should You Pay for That Box?
Authors: Hopkins Charles O.
Published: January 2017

Some claimed cost, safety, efficiency, and effectiveness advantages of aircraft simulators for training are equivocal. Effectiveness of simulator training depends mostly upon the training procedures. Other factors alleged to influence the effectiveness of simulators vary in their demonstrated importance. These are considered in the contexts of physical simulation vs. psychological simulation, simulator fidelity and motivation, and pilot acceptance. One of the more costly areas of engineering development to increase fidelity of physical simulation is motion systems. No experimental evidence is available to show that simulator motion enhances transfer of training. Cost effectiveness has not been demonstrated for many interesting and attractive features that are standard trimmings on flight training simulators. The acquisition of simulators costing several times as much to own and operate as their counterpart airplanes may produce a backlash that will set back the desirable use of cost-effective simulators in reasonable research and training programs.
The Effects of Certain Gimbal Orders on Target Acquisition and Workload
Authors: Price Dennis L.
Published: January 2017

If air-to-ground imaging sensors are mounted to aircraft by different gimbal order systems, the displayed scene will rotate differently, even though the flight paths are identical. Eighteen experienced pilots were tested to investigate the effects of three gimbal orders (roll-pitch, yaw-pitch, and pitch-yaw) on target detection, recognition, and identification performance, and also on operator workload. The pitch-yaw gimbal order was associated with the greatest range-to-target scores and the lightest workloads.
On the Specification of Operator or Occupational Workload with Performance-Measurement Methods
Authors: Chiles W. Dean , Alluisi Earl A.
Published: January 2017

Five system-output or performance-measurement methods have been described in the literature for use in operator or occupational workload specifications: laboratory, analytic, synthetic, simulation, and operational-system methods. A review and analysis of these methods indicates that laboratory methods, where appropriate, are the methods of choice, with the synthetic-work technique especially well suited to examinations of general workload questions. Analytic and synthetic methods appear to yield reasonable results, but both rest on relatively fragile data bases; with correction of this deficiency and further research on time-sharing behavior or function interlacing, these methods should prove to be quite helpful, especially in systems designs and workload allocations. Simulation methods have the potential of providing quite useful information on operator workload, but simulators have not generally been employed for this purpose, and some of the difficulties implicit in their use are discussed. Operational-system methods, except for some possible safety limitations, can be used on virtually any workload-specification problem suitable for investigation in a simulator, but the problems of data recording can be substantial, and often there is little agreement on what should be measured as criteria of good performance. The need for reliable, valid, quantitative criteria to reflect system performance is stressed, and a potentially useful paired-comparisons scaling procedure is described.