bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Effects of plant phenylpropanoid pathway products and selected terpenoids and alkaloids on the behaviour of the plant-parasitic nematodes Radopholus similis, Pratylenchus penetrans and Meloidogyne incognita
Authors: Wuyts Nathalie , Swennen Rony , De Waele Dirk
Published: March 2006

Plants produce a wide range of biologically active chemicals which have been extensively explored for nematode-antagonistic properties. Although phenylpropanoids are part of the chemical defence system of plants against pests and diseases, including parasitic nematodes, no comprehensive study exists which relates (levels of) phenylpropanoid compounds in roots to actual effects on nematode behaviour. Therefore, a broad spectrum evaluation was made of the effects of phenylpropanoids (simple phenolics and flavonoids) and selected monoterpenoids and alkaloids on the behaviour of the migratory endoparasites Radopholus similis and Pratylenchus penetrans and the sedentary endoparasite Meloidogyne incognita. In vitro bioassays assessed effects on chemotaxis, motility, viability and hatch. Compared with the other two nematode species, P. penetrans was remarkably insensitive to the test compounds. Only phloretin was (limited) hatch inhibitive. This property was shared by other chalcone-related compounds for R. similis. Repellents and motility inhibitors for R. similis and M. incognita were found among the simple phenolic compounds. Flavonols stood out as repellent compounds for both these nematode species, while they were, in their degraded form, also motility inhibitors for M. incognita. Dopamine was an attractant for R. similis, while ferulic acid was strongly motility inhibitive and toxic (LC50 of 120 μg ml−1) for this nematode species. Salicylic acid was a strong attractant for M. incognita. The compound was also nematicidal (LC50 of 46 μg ml−1) and an irreversible inhibitor of hatch.
Rhaptothyreus typicus Hope & Murphy, 1969 (Nematoda: Rhaptothyreidae): an anatomical study of an unusual deep-sea nematode
Authors: Miljutin Dmitry M. , Tchesunov Alexei V. , Hope Duane W.
Published: March 2006

Descriptions are given for the males of Rhaptothyreus typicus, a
morphologically unique and incompletely investigated deep-sea nematode,
using light microscopy, TEM, and SEM. The cephalic sensilla are arranged in
two circles: an anterior circle consisting of six pairs of papilliform
sensilla and a posterior circle consisting of four papilliform sensilla. The
fovea of the giant, oblong, amphid is covered with cuticle bearing minute
perforations. The actual amphidial aperture, revealed only by TEM, is minute
and slitlike. The apical oral aperture is reduced to a simple pore and the
vestigial pharynx is devoid of an internal lumen and musculature. The
mid-gut is a trophosome consisting of a solid mass of irregularly-shaped
cells filled with rod-shaped structures that are assumed to be intracellular
symbiotic bacteria. There is no evidence of even a vestige of a reproductive
system except for the presence of the single spiculum. The phylogenetic
relationships of Rhaptothyreus remain unknown.
Assessment of the use of high-performance capillary gel electrophoresis to differentiate isolates of Globodera spp.
Authors: da Cunha Maria José M. , da Conceição Isabel Luci P.M. , de O. Abrantes Isabel Maria , de A. Santos M. Susana N.
Published: March 2006

Capillary gel electrophoresis was used to characterise 49 Portuguese isolates
of potato cyst nematodes, three of Globodera pallida and 46 of G.
rostochiensis, and eight isolates representative of pathotypes defined for
these two species (Ro1, Ro2, Ro3, Ro4 and Ro5 for G. rostochiensis and Pa1,
Pa2 and Pa3 for G. pallida). Protein extracts of four samples of 50 cysts
per isolate were separated using a Beckman eCAP SDS 14-200 kit, in a
capillary of 57 cm length and 100 μ m internal diameter and with a run time
of 40 min. Reproducible protein profiles were obtained and the isolates were
compared taking into account the relative migration time and area of each
peak recorded by the Gold Software Data System (Beckman). Euclidian
distances between isolates were calculated using peak area data and a
dendrogram was constructed according to the UPGMA method. Portuguese
isolates showed great variability and it seems that protein composition is
not related to their geographic origin. Protein profiles of each pathotype
were obtained and some of the proteins seem to be specific for each
pathotype. However, despite their common reaction to the H1 resistance gene,
Ro1 and Ro4 were not grouped together, and Pa1 was not grouped with Pa2.
Reproduction and pathogenicity of Helicotylenchus multicinctus, Meloidogyne incognita and Pratylenchus coffeae, and their interaction with Radopholus similis on Musa
Authors: Moens Thomas , Araya Mario , Swennen Rony , De Waele Dirk
Published: March 2006

The reproduction and pathogenicity of Helicotylenchus multicinctus,
Meloidogyne incognita and Pratylenchus coffeae was studied on Musa AAA cv.
Grande Naine pot plants and microplot plants. First, separate experiments
using different inoculation numbers (between 218 and 4144) and different
exposure times (between 8 and 22 weeks) were executed in pots for each
nematode species. Helicotylenchus multicinctus suppressed root growth by
13%, comparing inoculated with uninoculated plants. In contrast, M.
incognita stimulated root growth by 6.7%, while P. coffeae had no effect on
root growth. The interaction between R. similis and each of these three
nematode species was investigated in a concomitancy experiment in pots.
Plants without concomitant species yielded the highest R. similis population
densities but did not differ from plants previously inoculated with H.
multicinctus and P. coffeae. Meloidogyne incognita was the only concomitant
species that reduced R. similis population densities. Inoculation with R.
similis affected the recovered numbers of P. coffeae albeit with large
variability. In the microplot experiment, all four nematode species except
H. multicinctus reduced the bunch weight of bananas, compared to
uninoculated plants. Pratylenchus coffeae and R. similis increased root
damage by 129 and 262%, respectively, while only the latter species
suppressed root weight with 66%.
Investigations of Globodera pallida invasion and syncytia formation within roots of the susceptible potato cultivar Désirée and resistant species Solanum canasense
Authors: Castelli Lydia , Bryan Glenn , Blok Vivian G. , Ramsay Gavin , Sobczak Miroslaw , Gillespie Trudi , Phillips Mark S.
Published: March 2006

Resistant responses to cyst nematode infection can take several different
forms at a cytological level. We recently identified several new sources of
resistance to Globodera pallida, including one derived from S. canasense
Hawkes. Here we examine invasion, migration, syncytium formation and
development of G. pallida on this source as compared with a susceptible
cultivar (Désirée). Nematodes located roots of both resistant and
susceptible plants, and invasion, migration and syncytium development
occurred as expected on cv. Désirée roots. By contrast, second-stage
juveniles (J2) invading S. canasense roots rarely induced a functional
syncytium. The few syncytia that were induced were markedly smaller than
those observed in cv. Désirée roots at the same timepoint, although they did
contain the enlarged nuclei characteristic of 'normal' syncytia. No evidence
for a necrotic response to the nematode or a developing syncytium was
observed in S. canasense roots that did not support syncytia. Second-stage
juveniles were observed at the surface of these roots suggesting that the
nematodes were either unable to invade S. canasense roots or, as is the case
for other resistance sources, that the J2 left the root soon after invasion.
The possibility that glycoalkaloids play a role in the resistance of S.
canasense to G. pallida is discussed.
Aspects of ‘Religious Experience’ among the Hellenistic Mystery Religions
Authors: Martin Luther H.
Published: March 2006

The claim that religious experience is the basis for religious practices, ideas and institutions seems to be grounded more in theological (Protestant) bias than in historical evidence. From the example of the Graeco-Roman mystery religions, it would seem that it is religious practices, speciﬁcally, their rites of initiation that produced experiences that were interpreted by initiates as ‘religious.’ Nor was the production of such experiences considered to be an end in itself. Rather, they accomplished speciﬁc goals through an exploitation of tacit cognitive processes: (1) the promotion of group solidarity and transgenerational continuity, and (2) the triggering of a potential for cognitive development among individual members of the group.
‘And God Became Human’: Conversations within the Humanities
Authors: Vorster Johannes N.
Published: March 2006

Relocation implies recontextualisation. If the academic study of religion is to exploit its full potential, it needs to engage in conversation operating with similar terminologies. In this article it is argued that a critical awareness be developed for totalising terminologies; vestiges from a confessional or theological approach, that a sensitivity should be cultivated which could move away from a sui generis attitude. Guidelines for such a conversation are proposed.
Animal Voices
Authors: Perkins Judith
Published: March 2006

This article suggests that the presence of talking animals in the Apocryphal Acts of Paul, Peter, Thomas and Phillip, examples of Christian prose ﬁction, shows a Christian intervention in a wider cultural discussion taking place in the period about human self-understandings and identity. The hierarchical thinking of ancient culture consigned many humans to animal status. Two second-century narratives, Apuleius' Metamorphoses and the Greek Onos, through their depictions of a human suddenly transformed into an ass, suggest that authors of the period used this image of an animal-man to reﬂect on what it would be like for someone to lose his or her place and voice in society (as those reduced to slavery did) and suddenly ﬁnd oneself in the position of an animal, treated as less than fully human, as so many people in this period were. The Apocryphal Acts through their motif of talking animals worked to unsettle traditional status structures. Their representation of speaking animals ﬁgured a message of universal inclusiveness and equal participation by all species in the Christian community and worked to challenge the contemporary social hierarchy that devalued some persons in the society as too akin to animals.
Explorations in Interpersonal Competence-I
Authors: Argyris Chris
Published: March 2006

A set of categories is presented designed to measure interpersonal competence.

The primary plus categories on the individual and interpersonal levels are owning up to, openness, and risk taking. On the norms level they are individuality, concern, and trust.

The primary minus categories on the individual and interpersonal levels are not owning up to, not being open, and rejecting risk taking. On the norms level, they are conformity, antagonism, and mistrust.

Exploratory research suggests that the categories can be used (1) with an encouraging degree of reliability, (2) with an encouraging degree of predictive validity, and (3) as the basis to describe increases or decreases in individual and group competence during T-Group and other training.
Smoking Behavior: A Critical Review of Research
Authors: Pflaum John
Published: March 2006

The understanding, prediction, and control of smoking behavior Department of is a problem of major significance for the behavioral sciences. Counseling and In the United States alone, over $8 billion is spent each year Behavioral Studies on tobacco, and consumption is continually rising (Weaver, Unisersity of 1962). Over half of the adult male population and one out of Wisconsin every four females habitually smoke tobacco. Each year over one and one-half million young people start smoking. Smoking as a prominent behavioral characteristic challenges the behavioral scientist for explanation.
Reinforcing Police Neutrality in Civil Rights Confrontations
Authors: Shellow Robert
Published: March 2006

This paper reports a one-week program designed to prepare a group of police officers for mediating contemplated interracial conflict in the public streets. Participants were 45 of the department's most capable uniformed policemen. The training staff included a team of behavioral scientists from a community research field station set up by the National Institute of Mental Health in a Maryland county adjacent to the District of Columbia. The immediate occasion was the 1963 Rights March on Washington and concern that an overflow into the county would result in massive protest against segregated public establishments. The contribution of the behavioral scientists was to provide lectures and to facilitate open discussion of feelings, including anxieties over new role demands. The author concludes on the basis of observation that the program seemed to bolster the professional self-image of officers called upon to enforce a social change not necessarily in line with their sympathies or sentiments.
Social Psychology, Self, and Society
Authors: Seeley John R.
Published: March 2006

The author addresses himself to the need for social psychologists to reconsider the difficulties and distresses within the house of social science and to explain themselves to the public. He describes some of the sources of strain: the lack of a common language even among social psychologists; the lack of commonly defined commitments; the fact that the social psychologist, unlike the chemist, is inextricably a part of what he studies (and changes). The social psychologist is part of the social swirl. He is differentiated from it by the special social activity in which he engages and by the company he keeps-the community of social psychologists. This company includes and derives from W. L. Thomas and his recognition of the centrality in social action of "the definition of the situation"; from George Herbert Mead's insistence on Mind, Self, and Society as co-emergents; from Freud, who most clearly in "thinking" about men made himself (and them) over; and from Charles Horton Cooley's view of the scientist as a man among men. A social psychology thus founded (but not yet well begun) brings the social psychologist and social psychology within society; it makes of social science a value problem, it restores humility and mutuality.
Social Character and Sensitivity Training
Authors: Kassarjian Harold H.
Published: March 2006

Both opponents and proponents of sensitivity training often link the effects of the training experience with inneror other direction. The purpose of this paper was to study a number of sensitivity training groups to see whether there is a shift toward one or the other of these social character types after a one-semester sensitivity training course. Ten groups were given the 1-0 scale-a measure of inner-other-direction-before and after training. There were no significant changes either in means or variances, which indicates that social character may not be one of the variables being affected by the training.
Adoption Quotient: A Measure of Multipractice Adoption Behaviour
Authors: Pareek Udai , Chattopadhyay S. N.
Published: March 2006

Studies in the adoption of improved farm practices have used various measures. Adoption has been studied both as singlepractice adoption behaviour (Gross, 1949; Gross & Taves, 1952; Hoffer, 1942; Lindstrom, 1958; Ryan & Gross, 1943, 1950; Wilkening, 195ob, 1953) and as multipractice adoption behaviour (Bauder, 1960; Bose, 1961, 1962; Bose & Dasgupta, 1962; Bose, Dasgupta, & Das, 1963; Copp, 1956; Dasgupta, 1963a, 1963b; Duncan & Kreitlow, 1954; Fliegel, 1956; Freeman, 1961; Hoffer, 1942; Marsh & Coleman, 1954a, 1954b, 1954c; Pedersen, 1951; Rahim, 1961; Ramsey, Polson, & Spencer, 1959; Rogers, 1957, 1958, 1961, 1962; Rogers & Burdge, 1962; Rogers & Capener, 1960; Rogers, Havena, & Cartano, 1962; Rogers & Leuthold, 1962; Wilkening, 195oa, 1952). In the former case, the ratio of farmers adopting a practice to the farmers not adopting it has been used as a measure; while in the latter case, the ratio of the number of practices adopted to the number of practices advocated has usually been used as a measure of adoption. In a few cases, the The journal of Applied Behavioral Science time of adoption has also been used (Bose, 1962; Bose, Dasgupta, & Das, 1963; Dasgupta, 1963a, 1963b; Rahim, 1961; Rogers, 1957, 1958, 1961, 1962; Rogers & Burdge, 1962; Rogers & Capener, 1960; Rogers, Havena, & Cartano, 1962; Rogers & Leuthold, 1962).

Adoption is complex behaviour. It involves a number of variables. A simple index based on one variable may not give an accurate measure of adoption. This paper presents a new scale for measuring adoption behaviour, taking into account the different variables involved. The final scale was tried in a village in North India, the results of which have been reported (Chattopadhyay & Pareek, 1964a).
Supervisory Attitudes Toward the Legitimacy of Influencing Subordinates
Authors: Schein Edgar H. , Lippitt Gordon L.
Published: March 2006

This study attempts to relate attitudes about the legitimacy of influencing subordinates' behavior and attitudes to certain organizational variables. It is felt that the concept of legitimacy of influence is an important one to explore in the superior-subordinate relationship and in different organizational contexts.
The Effects of a T-Group Laboratory on Interpersonal Behavior
Authors: Schutz William C. , Allen Vernon L.
Published: March 2006

This is a study of 71 participants in the 1959 Western Training Laboratory in Human Relations. Both FIRO-B questionnaires (administered before, after, and six months later) and open-ended questions administered after six months (subjected to content analysis based on the method of dichotomous decisions) supported the hypothesis that the training laboratory changes people selectively, depending on their initial personality, the overly dominant becoming less dominant, the overly affectionate more discriminating, and so on. The hypothesis was also supported that change after a period of six months is in a positive direction with respect to the participant's self-concepts and behavior and feelings toward other people, as well as the behavior of others toward the participant. Despite methodological deficiencies in the study, results seem to support the assumption that intellectual and emotional benefits are derived from a T-Group workshop.
Autonomous Groups in Human Relations Training for Psychiatric Patients
Authors: Hanson Philip G. , Rothaus Paul , Johnson Dale L. , Lyle Francis A.
Published: March 2006

A Human Relations Training Program for psychiatric patients has been in operation at the VA Hospital, Houston, Texas, since May 1961. The instrumented program uses groups which meet without trainers or therapists for four weeks. The importance of the leaderless Development Groups is stressed as the major vehicle through which members examine and share their laboratory learnings about themselves and others. Contrasts are made between the more typical trainer-led groups and the autonomous groups relative to group dynamics, interpersonal behavior, process analysis, dilemma and invention, feedback, generalization, and application. The philosophy and goals of the program and the underlying learning strategy and daily work schedule are described in fairly specific terms. Critical issues such as dependency and need for personal contact are also examined, with discussion focusing on how such issues are handled in the autonomous group program. One study evaluating the training laboratory and comparing it with a more traditional type of group therapy program is cited. Four other pre-and post-laboratory evaluative studies are also described.
Factory Reject Personalities and the Human Salvage Operations
Authors: Robertson Richard J.
Published: March 2006

The rapid growth of rehabilitation or "human salvage" programs in our society is threatening to outrun the growth of research upon which they should be based. This paper is intended to describe a process of isolation and exclusion from ordinary experiences common to many subjects in various "salvage" populations and which, unfortunately, may be increased rather than diminished by certain types of poorly conceived rehabilitation programs. It is suggested that radical solutions are needed which would reduce the fragmentation of remedial efforts and decrease the possibilities of social disconnection.
Some Effects of Managerial Grid Seminar Training on Union and Management Attitudes Toward Supervision
Authors: Blake Robert R. , Mouton Jane S.
Published: March 2006

A total of 33 managers and 23 union members from the same plant participated in two one-week Managerial Grid Seminars. A forced-choice questionnaire, administered before the training and upon its completion, was used to assess beliefs about supervisory practices. Results showed significant differences in beliefs as to what constitutes sound supervision both before and after training. Significant changes in attitudes by both groups occurred as a result of the Seminar training.
The Anticipation and Management of Crisis on an Open Psychiatric Ward
Authors: Rothaus Paul , Hanson Philip G. , Johnson Dale L , Lyle Francis A. , Moyer Raymond
Published: March 2006

The present article deals with an attempt at integrating the therapeutic and management functions on an open psychiatric ward. The viewpoint is taken that the administrative policy and procedures of an open ward must be made consistent and congruent with the philosophy and therapeutic goals of the program. Failure to recognize this relationship frequently leads to the development of an overpermissive ward administration, a punitive antitherapeutic atmosphere, or a mechanical and sterile social milieu. The staff of psychiatric wards, by restricting and compartmentalizing their roles, often fail to see the extent to which administrative policies and practices influence their psychotherapeutic efforts.

To explain our position, we shall first describe the Patients' Training Laboratory and outline several general therapeutic goals set for patients. Next, we shall discuss the development of management practices intended to implement objectives. Since the management of an actual crisis is a critical test of the validity of a ward staff's intentions for the patients, this section will describe procedures for coming to grips with such crises. The last section will illustrate our procedures for anticipating crises.
An Organic Problem-Solving Method of Organizational Change
Authors: Davis Sheldon A.
Published: March 2006

In the opinion of the author, behavioral science literature does not give proper emphasis to the principle of confrontation as it relates to the improvement and development of organizations. Furthermore, sensitivity training is not effectively put into a larger context as a means to an end. This paper describes an extensive organizational development effort within TRW Systems which places a heavy emphasis on confrontation and the use of sensitivity training as part of an effort to improve the culture of an organization. The improvement focuses on the quality of working relationships between interdependent individuals and groups. The elements of this organic approach to organizational change are discussed and a generalized time-phased model is presented.
Need and Value Shifts in College Training Groups
Authors: Baumgartel Howard , Goldstein Joel W.
Published: March 2006

To evaluate the effects of human relations training on individual values (measured by the Study of Values) and interpersonal need orientation (measured by the FIRO-B), college subjects ranked their peers to determine which were the most valued members of the training groups. It was predicted that people will change their values and needs during a human relations course to become more like those of the highly valued members. Expressed control and political value were found to be positively correlated, and religious value to be negatively correlated with peer ratings. The prediction was tested that students would show positive change in expressed control and political value and negative change in religious value. Only the predicted change in religious value was demonstrated. Other unpredicted changes were observed (largely among highly chosen females and low-chosen males): wanted control increased, wanted affection decreased, and aesthetic value increased. The concept of an internal criterion of change seems worthy of further study.
Institutional Objectives and Student Development in College
Authors: Chickering Arthur W.
Published: March 2006

Two general objectives, the development of independence and the development of purpose, were translated into six more specific variables of student development: Venturesomeness; Interdependence; Resourcefulness and Organization; Goal Directedness; Full Involvement, Motivation, and Persistence; Personal Stability and Integration. Next, for each variable, questions concerning concrete behaviors and attitudes reflected in the self-evaluations and instructor comments comprising the students' records were developed. Then, for 1964 graduates, each semester was rated for each question and ratings were pooled to generate scores for each of the six variables. Multiple discriminant analysis and covariance analyses revealed significant change on all variables. Ratings on Goal Directedness changed most, followed by Personal Stability and Integration; Venturesomeness; Resourcefulness and Organization; Full Involvement, Motivation, and Persistence; and Interdependence.

Two major patterns were found. Goal Directedness and Personal Stability and Integration showed fairly regular progress during the four years, while ratings on Resourcefulness and Organization; Full Involvement, Motivation, and Persistence; and Interdependence dropped for the fifth semester.

The findings suggest that student development in college (a) occurs according to generalizable patterns, (b) occurs through sequences of differentiation and integration, (c) is congruent rather than compensatory, and (d) decreases as relevant conditions become more constant. They also demonstrate that general institutional objectives can be redefined and assessed to better inform decisions concerning institutional practice and innovation.
A College Innovation and the Decline of the West
Authors: Jerome Judson
Published: March 2006

The recent controversy at Antioch College over a highly innovative program for freshmen led one professor to speak out in faculty meeting and to prepare later the memorandum which comprises most of this article. It illustrates how almost any significant institutional change can become a target onto which conservatives project their feelings of resentment at the uncomfortable experiences forced upon them by a rapidly changing society.

The Editor
Confrontation as a Training Design in Complex Organizations: Attitudinal Changes in a Diversified Population of Managers
Authors: Golembiewski Robert T. , Blumberg Arthur
Published: March 2006

The "confrontation technique" has been used successfully in training designs in complex organizations, and this study at once reinforces and extends existing experience. Specifically, what follows is a report on an application of the technique that induced favorable attitudinal changes in the marketing area of a large firm.

The similarities of this study with existing ones encompass both design and results. Basically, the design required the exchange of "images" between individuals or organization units. The public sharing of these data apparently reduced the amount of "unfinished business," freed up organization members, and led to favorable attitudinal changes on a variety of before/after comparisons. Thus the study is consistent with a growing major emphasis in the contemporary literature. Numerous observers have cited the necessity and positive consequences of "confronting" in organizations (Davis,:1967; Greiner, 1967, pp. 66-70; Lorsch, 1965, pp. 95-110). Several change agents have successfully varied the basic design of confronting persons in complex organizations with data about how they are seen by some significant others. As in this case, to note one variety of design, the participants may do the actual image building and communicating (Beckhard, 1967; Blake, Mouton, & Sloma, 1965). More or less oppositely, the consultant can play a more active role by interviewing and then synthesizing an image to be communicated to the client system (Argyris, 1962, 1967). A range of variations lies somewhere between these two types (Benedict, Calder, Callahan, Hornstein, & Miles, 1966; Miles, Calder, Hornstein, Callahan, & Schiavo, 1966).

Also the design and results of this study are distinguished from other reports in the literature, particularly in four senses. First, the present training experience deals with several functionally related departments. Second, the design encompasses several hierarchical levels down to the first level of field supervision. (Other efforts in the literature tend to deal with two major groups, e.g., labor and management, and apparently with only a few levels of organization toward or at the top.) Third, an unusually wide variety of data was gathered in the present training design. Only gross attitudinal changes in the total population are reported here; i.e., the gross focus here is on changes in how everyone saw everyone else at time, and time2. But the cooperation of the participants permits a range of analysis broader than that of existing reports in the literature. Fourth, the confrontation experience was part of a large and longrange program of organization change. In contrast, existing reports tend to deal with ad hoc efforts.
Trainer Self-Disclosure and Member Growth in Two T Groups
Authors: Culbert Samuel A.
Published: March 2006

This study compares the effects that "more" or "less" self-disclosing trainer behavior had upon members of two T Groups. Part I of the data analysis substantiates that the experimental manipulation took place as intended. Part II shows that while an equivalent number of 2-person "perceived therapeutic relationships" were formed in each group, the Ss in the group with the less self-disclosing trainers (lSD) more often entered them with their trainers and dyad partners and the Ss with the more self-disclosing trainers (mSD) entered relationships more often with other members. Part III shows that although both groups eventually attained the same level of self-awareness, the mSD group did so earlier. A revised prescription for trainer behavior is advanced, suggesting that the trainer might optimally begin his participation with a high rate of self-disclosure and become more selective with time.
Social Therapy of a Civil Rights Organization
Authors: Nadler Eugene B.
Published: March 2006

The author reports informally his role as therapist for a social action group torn internally by dissension. The therapy includes individual interviews, T-Group and laboratory methods, with the author as trainer and "midwife."
A Personal Growth Crisis in Laboratory Training
Authors: Haigh Gerard V.
Published: March 2006

This article is presented on the assumption that knowledge about laboratory training may be advanced by the careful study of critical incidents and that such study may lead to the isolation of variables of significance for research.

The following is a verbatim account of a personal growth crisis which occurred near the midpoint of a two-week laboratory. Four factors are explored as having been of major influence in the growth crisis: (a) the group leader's persistence in turning attention toward emotional distress; (b) the leader's persistent quest for meanings in chaotic emotions; (c) the group's attentiveness as a healing force; and (d) the emotional interfiow among group members as a facilitator for self-exploration.
Leadership in Organizational Settings
Authors: O'Brien Gordon E.
Published: March 2006

Numerous studies have shown that some leadership styles are associated with increased productivity and worker satisfaction. Although their authors generally qualify their findings by stating that the specified leadership style is probably successful only in certain types of organizations or situations, relatively little work has been aimed at establishing the effect of "situational factors" on leadership effectiveness. The concern of this paper is with the relationship between effective leadership and these "situational factors." Research directed at this problem is reviewed, and it is concluded that progress in this area is limited not only by lack of knowledge but also by lack of adequate conceptualization of "the situation," or organizational setting. Finally, the usefulness of one conceptual scheme, structural role theory (Oeser & Harary, 1962, 1964; Oeser & O'Brien, 1967), for guiding leadership research and practice, is considered.
Mutually Therapeutic Perception and Self-Awareness under Variable Conditions
Authors: Clark James V. , Culbert Samuel A. , Bobele H. Kenneth
Published: March 2006

Two T Groups were studied to determine whether the findings obtained by Clark and Culbert (1965) would be duplicated under somewhat different conditions. In the earlier study, as predicted, group members who spoke with significantly more personal selfawareness at the end of their T-Group experience than at the beginning tended also to have formed a high number of two-person "mutually perceived therapeutic relationships (MPTRs)." In the present study, five of 20 members significantly increased in selfawareness and four of these five were among the ten members who formed a high number of MPTRs. Following experiential leads, an ad hoc analysis was made on the data from both studies. It suggested that combining the number of MPTRs and the number of mutually perceived nontherapeutic relationships may more accurately predict change in self-awareness than MPTRs alone.
The Informal Action Group: One Way to Collaborate in a University
Authors: Grinnell Sherman K.
Published: March 2006

This is the case history of an informal action group (HATS) that developed in a university-what it is, how it was started, what it has accomplished, in what ways it has been unsuccessful, and the characteristics that have aided its work and growth. The first section provides a brief overview of the group. The second section outlines the specific procedures followed by the group in arranging meetings, setting agenda, and accomplishing constructive work. In the third section the developmental history of the group is described, including: (a) some early innovative projects; (b) similarities between the EMBRYO HATS and what Leeds (1964) has termed "a nonconforming enclave"; (c) problems created by a temporary major expansion of the group; and (d) the problemsolving activities of the HATS as a mature workgroup. In the final section the causes and effects of success and failure experienced by the HATS as an informal action group are analyzed.
Congruence and Control
Authors: Dyer William G.
Published: March 2006

While congruency as a way of behaving has received wide acceptance, many criticize it as (a) giving way to license, (b) not allowing for change, and (c) not really being practical. If we recognize that congruence is not the only value we hold, perhaps we can respond to a range of feelings stemming from a more complex value system. Simple, impulsive behaviors may not represent the range of feelings induced by a complex set of values; to be truly congruent one must be aware of both his values and the range of his feelings. Neither does congruence mean the maintaining of one's behavioral status quo. Congruence would require that a person who has behaviors he does not like should declare these to others and engage in a process of change. Being congruent may not only represent a value but requires skill in performance, and this skill can perhaps be learned. Since certain social systems may not initially support congruent behaviors, it may mean introducing change into the system before congruence is recognized as a practical way of living with others.
The Academy and the Polity: Interaction between Social Scientists and Federal Administrators
Authors: Horowitz Irving Louis
Published: March 2006

There is a developing literature on the immense topic of the relationship between the academy and the polity. One aspect of the subject, which has been relatively obscured in the shock of recognition that academics are in fact directly linked to policy research and to the whole policy-making government apparatus, is considered: the sociology of how academics view politicians and how the politicians view academicians. This study is based on research conducted in 1965 on academic participation in Project Camelot, sponsored by the Special Operations Research Office of the Defense Department; and in 1968, on those participating in the Special Panel Report on the Social and Behavioral Sciences of the Defense Science Board. The results present a collective profile of the interaction network between academics and politicians, revealing how these human encounters and ideological blends provide an understanding of the more general relation between the academy and the polity. Focus is placed on the problem areas key to both groups: First, the social scientists perceive problems related to (a) the financial structure of contracts and grants; (b) the norm of secrecy and data availability; (c) dual allegiance, i.e., how government work intrudes upon the autonomy of a science; (d) boundary maintenance between heuristic and normative aspects of applied research; and finally, (e) the payoffs and liabilities of intense involvement in social research for the government. Second, as perceived by the politicians, the problems appear different, if not dissonant: (a) the excessive demands by social scientists on funds without practical utilization; (b) the absence of any system for ensuring that results obtained in research are usable, i.e., the gap between proposal and fulfillment; (c) the demand for differential treatment on grounds other than those accorded other government employees; (d) the social scientists' demand for elite accessibility to recommendations that tend to bypass normal political channels of communicating; and (e) the high degree of marginal supplement employment of social scientists in contrast to other federal governmental sectors. In conclusion, the proposals offered for improving the interaction between academicians and politicians, which range from suggested rupture of the two groups to a complete merger in the policyscience approach, are examined.
Staging a Behavioral Science Learning Experience: Transforming Observers into Participants
Authors: Culbert Samuel A. , Schmidt Warren H.
Published: March 2006

The techniques described in this article would transform observers attending a presentation on group dynamics into learning participants. The resistances of the audience to learning about self-and in public-are met with nine strategies or "Guidelines for Audience Involvement" devised by the behavioral scientist authors. In the language of the legitimate stage, observers fill participant roles under a competent director who bars the critics and utilizes a good script and a large cast.
Level of Emotional Arousal in Laboratory Training
Authors: Lubin Bernard , Zuckerman Marvin
Published: March 2006

In order to study the level of emotional arousal produced by laboratory training, data from the highest level of a four-T-Group laboratory were tested against the following stress conditions from perceptual isolation investigations: 6 hours, 8 hours, and 24 hours. Data were collected on a self-administering adjective check list which provided scores on anxiety, depression, and hostility. Anialyses of covariance were conducted, using prestress scores as covariates to provide statistical control in the absence of experimental matching of subjects.

Laboratory training mean scores on anxiety, depression, and hostility for the four T Groups at the highest level (stress condition) were significantly lower than the mean scores from the stress condition of the three perceptual isolation studies. Comparison of the poststress frequency distributions for the four samples indicates that no scores occur for laboratory training at or beyond the point traditionally accepted as deviant (T score of 70 on the standardization sample for the instrument), whereas the stress condition of each of the three perceptual isolation studies produced scores at or beyond this point.
Organizational Culture and Psychological Growth
Authors: Margulies Newton
Published: March 2006

Organization theorists and practitioners have long recognized intuitively that the design of technical systems influences the sociocultural dimensions of the organization. In addition, there is ample research evidence on the direct impact of the organizational system on organizational output. The study reported here explores the degree in which "sociotechnical systems architecture" influences individual psychological growth. Its major hypothesis is that a specific organizational culture, defined in terms of a specific set of values, attitudes, and behavioral norms, can contribute to the degree in which persons can actualize themselves. The research data support the hypothesis by describing two different sociotechnical systems, differentiating them in terms of their existing organizational cultures and indicating the specific cultural elements which correlate with increased psychological growth.
A Decision Paradigm for Action Research: Problems of Employing the Physically Handicapped
Authors: Rosen Hjalmar , Komorita Samuel S.
Published: March 2006

In studying the dynamics of a social problem, attitude and opinion surveys are frequently used to obtain information upon which to base a program of action. Such surveys, however, provide data about the direction and intensity of affect toward the issue in question but provide little information upon which to initiate change. Accordingly, a questionnaire based upon a decision theory paradigm was developed which elicits consequences associated with a given course of action and assesses the utility and likelihood of these consequences if the program were to be implemented. Using this questionnaire, data were collected from 132 adult students in a psychology course on the issue of "Employing the Handicapped," and evidence is presented which shows the advantages of this procedure for initiating a successful action program.
Leadership Style, Confidence in Management, and Job Satisfaction
Authors: Sadler Philip J.
Published: March 2006

A sample of persons drawn from all functions and from all levels of two companies in the United Kingdom were invited to express a preference for one of four leadership styles-the tells, the sells, the consults, and the joins. Each respondent was then asked to state which style most closely described his own immediate manager. (Alternatively, he could reply that his own manager did not correspond at all closely to any of the styles.) These answers were then related to replies to other questions concerned with describing managerial behaviour and with measuring job satisfaction, satisfaction with the employing organisation, and confidence in management.

The results indicate that the four descriptions of leadership styles are meaningful to people. The consultative style was the one most consistently preferred. Most people were able to see their own managers as fitting one of the four descriptions. Those who felt that their own managers did not correspond at all closely to any one of the four styles showed least confidence in management and relatively low job satisfaction. Their descriptions of managerial behaviour show that they regard their bosses as weak, indecisive, inconsistent, incompetent, and lacking in human relations skills.
Choosing the Depth of Organizational Intervention
Authors: Harrison Roger
Published: March 2006

There is a need for conceptual models which differentiate intervention strategies from one another in a way which permits rational matching of strategies to differing organizational change problems. A central concept in such a model could be the depth of individual emotional involvement in the change process. By depth we mean how deep, value-laden, emotionally charged, and central to the individual's sense of self are the issues and processes about which a consultant attempts directly to obtain information and which he seeks to influence. In order of increasing depth are the change strategies: operations analysis, management by objectives, the Managerial Grid, the T Group, and task group therapy.

As depth of intervention increases, so also do a number of concomitants of depth: dependence on the special competence of the change agent, centrality of the individual as the target of the change attempt, costs of intervention, and the risk of unintended consequences for individuals. These concomitants suggest a criterion for the depth of intervention: to intervene at a level no deeper than that required to produce enduring solutions to the problems at hand. However, a countervailing trend tends to push the level of intervention deeper as organizational systems shift from greater external control to more autonomy and internal control for members. As the individual becomes more important, the level at which the processes which effectively determine his behavior operate becomes deeper, and the individual has increasing influence over the success or failure of the intervention. A case is presented for a radical shift of consultant orientation in the direction of accepting a client's felt needs and presented problems as being real and of working on them at a level where the client can serve as a competent and willing collaborator. This leads to the second criterion: to intervene at a level no deeper than that at which the energy and resources of the client can be committed to problem solving and to change.
"Beyond a Reasonable Doubt"—An Experimental Attempt at Quantification
Authors: Simon Rita James
Published: March 2006

In American courts the burden of proof for determining guilt in criminal trials is the presentation of evidence which would lead "a reasonable man" to believe "beyond a reasonable doubt" that the defendant did indeed commit the act for which he was charged. This standard is applicable to all criminal acts irrespective of their heinousness or the circumstances under which they were committed. In instructing the jury, the judge explains his use of the phrase "beyond a reasonable doubt" by relying primarily upon paraphrases and by using what he believes are synonymous terms. Thus, a typical instruction sounds like this:

Reasonable doubt is one a reasonable person has after carefully weighing all the testimony and is one a reasonable person would act or decline to act upon. It is not a capricious doubt or a fanciful doubt or a doubt arising in anyone's mind because of any sympathy for the defendant. It is in essence what the words obviously mean-a reasonable doubt. A reasonable doubt may arise not only from the evidence produced but also from a lack of evidence.

The purpose of this research is to find out how subjects who are expected to apply that standard, namely, members of a jury, interpret its meaning, and to understand the relationship between the jurors' interpretation of the instruction and their verdict. From anecdotal evidence, it seems that the public translates the phrase "beyond a reasonable doubt" into "almost certain," "practically sure," "with only the slightest doubt"; or, if we were to restate the instruction in terms of a percentage or a probability, over a go per cent likelihood that the defendant committed the act for which he was charged.

The findings reported in this paper describe one attempt at obtaining, if not a more accurate, at least a more easily communicated and a more reliable definition of the standard "beyond a reasonable doubt."