bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Space Radiation Effects on the Thermo-Mechanical Behavior of Graphite-Epoxy Composites
Authors: Milkovich Scott M. , Herakovich Carl T. , Sykes George F.
Published: March 2007

This investigation of composite material properties utilized T300/934 graphite-epoxy that was subjected to 1.0 MeV electron radiation for a total dose of 1.0 x 1010 rads at a rate of 5.0 x 107 rads/hour, simulating a worst-case exposure equivalent to 30 years in space. Mechanical testing was performed on 4-ply unidirectional laminates over the temperature range of -250°F (116 K) to +250°F (394 K). In-plane elastic tensile and shear properties as well as strength were obtained ( E1, E2, v 12, G12, XT, YT, S). The results show that electron radiation degrades the epoxy matrix and produces products that volatilize at the temperatures considered. These degradation products plasticize the epoxy at elevated temperatures and embrittle it at low temperatures, thereby altering the mechanical properties of the composite.
Cure Kinetics and Viscosity of Fiberite 976 Resin
Authors: Dusi Mark R. , Lee Woo I. , Ciriscioli Peter R. , Springer George S.
Published: March 2007

Using data generated by a differential scanning calorimeter, the heat of reaction, the rate of cure, and the degree of cure of Fiberite 976 resin were determined at the constant temperatures of 413, 423, 433, and 443°K (isothermal scanning). The ultimate heat of reaction was also measured at the constant heating rate of 2°K/min (dynamic scanning). Using a disc and plate type viscometer, the viscosity was measured as a function of time at the temperatures of 413, 423, 433, and 443°K. Expressions were also developed which represent the rate of cure, the degree of cure, and the viscosity data.
Characterization of Off-Axis Laminates Made by Folding
Authors: Tan S.C.
Published: March 2007

Some folding techniques were established for fabricating off-axis balanced plies, [±Ø], of a laminate. In this research, the folding technique is applied to make the [±Ø/∓Ø]s family of laminates. The modulus and strength of the folded laminates are characterized and compared to the conventional laminates made by cutting. Both the tension and com pression tests show that the folded laminates are significantly stiffer and stronger than the conventional laminates. These folded laminates can be used to characterize the structures that have no free edges.
Polyphenylene Sulfide-Asbestos-Brucite Composites. Part II*: Properties and Performance in Advanced Water Electrolysis
Authors: Montoneri E. , Ranzi E. , Modica G. , Hofmann H.
Published: March 2007

Commercial crysotyle asbestos cardboard of 0.055 cm thickness and 0.44 V/w water regain volume per unit cardboard weight is a stable separator for advanced water electroly sis when coated with polyphenylene sulfide. The electrical resistance at the minimum 29% w/w coating level to guarantee separator stability has been found high (0.92 Π • cm2). Composite materials over a wide range of compositions have been further in vestigated by means of stepwise multivariable regression analysis and the relationships be tween chemical composition, morphology, water wettability and electrical resistance have been sought. The results indicate that a model composite fabricated from a more porous matrix should attain acceptable electrical resistance (≤ 0.25 Π • cm2) even at the mini mum PPS load which is required to maintain material stability.
Interrelationship of Damage and Strain in Particulate Composites
Authors: Newaz G.M. , Walsh W.J.
Published: March 2007

An investigation was conducted to establish a relationship between strain and damage in particulate composites. It was shown that damage calculated based on stiffness-loss due to dilation at particle-matrix interface can be related to strain in the composite. The concept of relating damage to strain has its strength in structural design. It implies that one can infer damage quantitatively by knowing the local strain in the laminate. Since strain can be easily measured in the structure, damage due to microcracking can be assessed by the designer in a fairly simple way.
Modeling of 3-D Angle-Interlock Textile Structural Composites
Authors: Whitney Thomas J. , Chou Tsu-Wei
Published: March 2007

A model is developed to predict the in-plane elastic properties of compos ites reinforced with 3-D angle-interlock textile preforms. Straight yarn segments and microcells are utilized in a lamination analogy to predict the in-plane elastic constants. Numerical results for angle-interlock preforms are compared to preliminary test data available in the literature. The effects of varying geometric parameters, namely crimp in terchange, in three different composite systems are discussed and presented in the form of performance maps. In general, stiffer yarn systems exhibit greater ranges of variability in in-plane properties, while the plain weave geometry exhibits greater variability for a given material system. Transverse modulus is higher and Poisson's ratio is generally lower for the plain weave compared to the satin weave, while the shear modulus is generally unaffected by inclination angle. Preliminary experiments, while few in number, show agreement with the plain weave predictions, but agree less well with satin weave predic tions. Knowledge of bundle locations and fiber volume fraction, as well as the accept ability of using straight yarn elements, are key elements to the successful use of the model.
Filament Winding Cylinders
Authors: Lee Soo-Yong , Springer George S.
Published: March 2007

A model was developed which describes the filament winding process of composite cylinders. The model relates the significant process variables such as winding speed, fiber tension, and applied temperature to the thermal, chemical and mechanical be havior of the composite cylinder and the mandrel. Based on the model, a user friendly code was written which can be used to calculate (1) the temperature in the cylinder and the mandrel, (2) the degree of cure and viscosity in the cylinder, (3) the fiber tensions and fiber positions, (4) the stresses and strains in the cylinder and in the mandrel, and (5) the void diameters in the cylinder.
Effect of Laminate Configuration and Impactor's Mass on the Initial Impact Damage of Graphite/Epoxy Composite Plates Due to Line-Loading Impact
Authors: Hyung Yun Choi  , Hong Sheng Wang  , Chang Fu-Kuo
Published: March 2007

An investigation was performed to study the effect of stacking sequence, thickness, and impactor's mass on the impact damage of graphite/epoxy laminated com posites due to low-velocity impact. The major focus of the study was concentrated on the initial damage and the corresponding impact energy with respect to these parameters. Ex periments were performed using specially designed line-nose impactors by which the re sulting impact damage and failure mode of the composites could easily be inspected. Ac cordingly, the velocities of the impactors causing initial impact damage in the composites were determined, and the effects of the laminate configuration and the mass of the impac tor on the damage were established. Numerical simulations based on the model, which was developed previously, were also performed in order to understand the basic mechanics and mechanisms governing the phenomena observed from the experiments. Based on the study, it can be concluded that the change of stacking sequence significantly influences the impact damage much more than the change of thickness. Initial impact damage is also very sensitive to the mass of the impactor, and both velocity and mass of the impactor have to be specified in order to adequately characterize impact damage in composites.
Analysis of Acousto-Ultrasonic Signals in Unidirectional Thick Composites Using the Slowness Surfaces
Authors: Hsu David K. , Margetan Frank J.
Published: March 2007

In single-sided, two-transducer ultrasonic measurements (commonly known as acousto-ultrasonics) of composites, the received signals are useful for the nondestructive evaluation of material properties. In this paper quantitative analysis is given for the oblique echoes obtained in acousto-ultrasonic measurements on a thick uni directional composite plate. Based on the slowness surfaces of the material, angular de pendent group velocities of the various modes are computed. Experimentally measured times-of-flight of oblique echoes of quasi-longitudinal, quasi-shear-vertical, shear-hori zontal, and mode-converted waves are compared with calculated results. Excellent agree ment was obtained.
Analysis of a Laminate with a Postbuckled Embedded Delamination, Including Contact Effects
Authors: Whitcomb John D.
Published: March 2007

The behavior of a postbuckled embedded delamination was studied using geometrically-nonlinear 3-D finite element analysis. Nonlinearities due to both significant rotations and delamination face contact were considered. The analysis showed that the postbuckling deformation can lead to matrix cracking and fiber breakage in addition to delamination growth. These calculations agree qualitatively with experimental results. Also, for the configuration analyzed and moderate strain levels, the strain-energy release rates can be calculated with reasonable accuracy without including contact effects in the analysis
Crushing Characteristics of Composite Tubes with "Near-Elliptical" Cross Sections
Authors: Farley Gary L. , Jones Robert M.
Published: March 2007

An experimental investigation was conducted to determine whether the energy-absorption capability of near-elliptical cross-section composite tubular specimens is a function of included angle. Each half of the near-elliptical cross-section tube is a seg ment of a circle. The included angle is the angle created by radial lines extending from the center of the circular segment to the ends of the circular segment. Graphite- and Kevlar- reinforced epoxy material was used to fabricate specimens. Tube ply orientation was [±45] N where the number of ±45 pairs was 2, 4, 6, and 12. Tube internal diameters were 2.54, 3.81, and 7.62 cm, and included angles were 180, 160, 135, 115, and 90 degrees. Based upon the test results from these tubes, energy-absorption capability increased between 10 and 30 percent as included angle decreased between 180 and 90 degrees for the materials evaluated. Energy-absorption capability was a decreasing nonlinear function of the ratio of tube internal diameter to wall thickness.
Elastic Behavior of Woven Fabric Composites: I—Lamina Analysis
Authors: Naik N.K. , Shembekar P.S.
Published: March 2007

Two-dimensional models are presented for the elastic analysis of a plain weave fabric lamina. These models take into account the actual fabric structure by consid ering the fiber undulation and continuity along both the warp and weft directions, possible presence of gap between adjacent yarns, actual cross-sectional geometry of the yarn and possible unbalanced nature of the plain weave fabric. Typical studies on the effect of fiber undulation and lamina thickness on the in-plane elastic constants are presented. A large discrepancy, similar to that reported in literature, is found between the predicted elastic moduli of plain weave fabric lamina by ID WF models and experimental results. On the other hand, the predictions of 2D WF models are fairly good since the two-dimensional extent of the fabric is considered in these models.
Correlation of Residual Strength with Acoustic Emission from Impact-Damaged Composite Structures under Constant Biaxial Load
Authors: Hamstad M.A. , Whittaker J.W. , Brosey W.D.
Published: March 2007

Small, filament-wound, Kevlar/epoxy, biaxial test specimens were sub jected to various levels of impact damage at the Oak Ridge Y-12 Plant.** The specimens were pressurized in a proof test cycle to 58% of their nominal, undamaged strength and then pressurized to failure. Acoustic emission data were gathered by multiple sensors dur ing a 10 minute hold at peak proof pressure. Post-test filtering of the data was performed to study composite behavior in the damaged region and other areas. The rate and total amount of AE produced depends on the duration of the static load and degree of damage. The concept of the event rate moment is introduced as a method of quantifying a struc ture's total AE behavior when under static load. Average event rate, total long duration events, and event rate moments provided various degrees of correlation between AE and residual strength.
A Quasi-Static Penetration Model for Composite Laminates
Authors: Lee S-W. R. , Sun C.T.
Published: March 2007

A quasi-static model was developed to simulate the penetration process of composite lammates. The penetrator was blunt-ended. A series of static punch tests were conducted to characterize the load-displacement relation during penetration. The damage mechanisms were identified by DIB enhanced X-radiography and microscopic observation on sectioned specimens. The major damage modes were found to be delamination and plugging. An axisymmetric finite element analysis was performed to simulate the penetra tion process. An effective modulus scheme was adopted in the present analysis. Compari son of punch curves showed good agreement between testing and modeling.
Design of Composite Laminates by a Monte Carlo Method
Authors: Fang Chin , Springer George S.
Published: March 2007

A Monte Carlo procedure was developed for optimizing symmetric fiber reinforced composite laminates such that the weight is minimum and the Tsai-Wu strength failure criterion is satisfied in each ply. The laminate may consist of several materials in cluding an idealized core, and may be subjected to several sets of combined in-plane and bending loads. The procedure yields the number of plies, the fiber orientation, and the material of each ply and the material and thickness of the core. A user friendly computer code was written for performing the numerical calculations. Laminates optimized by the code were compared to laminates resulting from existing optimization methods. These comparisons showed that the present Monte Carlo procedure is a useful and efficient tool for the design of composite laminates.
Immediate Recall
Authors: Wetherick N. E. , Deregowski Jan B.
Published: March 2007

The results are reported of two experiments which show that immediate recall of word lists is accomplished by a complex process in which a few words register immediately in what we have called residual memory. These are normally words which indicate a "change of state" of the input (in particular they may mark the beginning or end of lists) and they are recalled either alone or as the beginning or end points of short forward or backward sequences. Other words in the list are recalled (if at all) as members of these sequences. Parallels are drawn with other memory functions, such as serial rote learning. The conclusions drawn are supported by showing that there is a degree of similarity in the patterns of recall of members of radically different language communities (for example, English, Polish, Shona) and different age groups (5 years, 9-10 years, 14-15 years, adult).
Social Interactions of Guatemalan Infants
Authors: Lasky Robert E. , Klein Robert E. , Yarbrough Charles , Sellars Martha-Julia , Kagan Jerome
Published: March 2007

The behavior of 52 rural Guatemalan infants of ages 8, 12, and 16 months was observed and recorded in their homes. Most interactions initiated by the caretaker seemed to consist largely of caretaking activities, and a relatively large verbal component was evident only with increasing age. Specific caretakers were associated with specific types of social interactions. The mother was the primary caretaker, being responsible for most of the carrying, questioning, ordering, teaching, and prohibiting of her son or daughter. Interactions initiated by the infant generally included touching and preverbal vocalizations. Most social play and touching involved siblings. Visual interest, vocalizing, and smiling were greatest when directed to a person outside the nuclear family. The father was found to have little effect on the social environment of the infants observed.
Reactions to an Incident Involving a Child in School
Authors: Kurachi Akemi
Published: March 2007

This study explored role functions and interpersonal perceptions of parents and preschool teachers in Japan and the United States. Subjects were 304 mothers and teachers in the two countries. A critical incident involving potential conflict between a mother and a teacher about the mother's child was presented, and subjects were asked to respond to 24 statements, beginning with the "mother would feel" and "the mother would do," on a 7-point scale. From the 24 items, three locus of responsibility and three behavioral variables were defined. Multivariate analyses of variance showed a significant main effect for culture and strong interaction effects between culture and the derived dimensions. Further, examination of items showed that similar profiles of Americans and Japanese were often underlain by very different inner feelings.
Implications of a Natural Experiment in the Developed World for Research on Television in the Developing World
Authors: Williams Tannis MacBeth
Published: March 2007

Three Canadian communities were studied, just before and two years after the inception of television reception in one of them. Some implications of the results of this natural experiment for research on television in the developing world are described in this article. The advantages of behavioral measures over ratings and potential bias in ratings due to sex role or other (e.g., racial) stereotypes are discussed, as are problems in conceptualizing and measuring TV use. The importance of studying television's effects due to displacement of other activities and the time-sharing of TV with other activities is outlined. The possibility that television affects the ways in which viewers process information, and the importance of this possibility for research in the developing world, is emphasized. Schema or script theory is put forth as a conceptual framework for studying television's content effects. The ways in which third variables such as intelligence and socioeconomic status may confound the relationship between TV use and other behavior also are discussed.
Stereotyping among Aboriginal and Anglo-Australians
Authors: Marjoribanks Kevin , Jordan Deirdre F.
Published: March 2007

Procedures suggested by Triandis et al. (1982) were used to examine the auto-and heterostereotypes of Aboriginal- and Anglo-Australian adolescents. The sample included 90 Aboriginal- and 260 Anglo-Australian grade 9 and 11 students. Each student responded to schedules that included attributes arranged on bipolar scales. The attributes were selected only after extensive discussions with Aboriginal- and Anglo-Australian adults. The heterostereo-type that the Anglo-Australians had of Aboriginal Australians was unfavorable, uniform, and characterized by an intensity that reflected extreme negative feelings. In contrast, the heterostereotype that the Aboriginal Australians expressed for Anglo-Australians was particularly favorable and defined by intense positive orientations on a number of attributes. The autostereotype of the Anglo-Australians was very favorable, whereas the Aboriginal Australians defined an autostereotype that was only moderately favorable.
Acculturation and Perceived Family Decision-Making Input among Mexican American Wives
Authors: O'Guinn Thomas C. , Imperia Giovanna , MacAdams Elizabeth A.
Published: March 2007

This investigation assesses the perceived decision-making roles of Mexican American wives in the purchase of 10 different goods and services and their relation to the acculturation process. Acculturation was operationalized in three different ways. One employed role-relevant attitudinal measures; the others used reading language preference and television language preference. Perceived decision dominance was shown to be related to all three.
Stress in Academe
Authors: Keinan Giora , Perlberg Arye
Published: March 2007

This study of the sources and patterns of occupational stress experienced by Israeli faculty members is a partial replication of a study of faculty stress in American universities reported by Gmelch, Lorvich, and Wilke (1983, 1984). A total of 100 faculty members drawn from all Israeli universities were sampled. They were asked to fill out a Hebrew version of the questionnaire developed by Gmelch et al. to measure the degree of stress resulting from various sources and the overall intensity of stress experienced on the job. Comparison of the responses to the questionnaire revealed a high degree of similarity between the two cultures in the patterns of the results. Both the Americans and the Israelis ranked the sources of stress similarly. The intensity of stress experienced by Israelis, however, was reportedly lower than that of their American colleagues. Possible explanations for this difference are offered.
Colorful Community or Ethnic Witches' Brew?
Authors: Ellingsen Tanja
Published: March 2007

This article investigates the relationship between multiethnicity and domestic conflict from 1946 to 1992. Multiethnicity is measured by the size of the largest ethnic group, the number of ethnic groups, the size of the largest ethnic minority group, and ethnic affinities to groups outside the country. Although ethnic heterogeneity is expected to stimulate conflict, other factors may alleviate ethnic tension. Moreover, most countries are heterogeneous in one way or another and yet do not engage in violent conflict. The type of political regime and the socioeconomic level within the country become important here. Using data for two different types of domestic conflict, the article concludes that multiethnicity does increase the propensity of domestic violence, although less so for large-scale conflicts. Such cultural factors seem to have become more important in the post-cold war period. However, the country's political regime and socioeconomic level are more important in predicting domestic conflict.
Conflict and Conflict Resolution in China
Authors: Diamant Neil J.
Published: March 2007

It is commonly assumed that conflicts in China and other Asian countries that share its cultural heritage are resolved through mediation rather than adjudication or appeals to political institutions. Archival sources in China and interviews with urban and rural officials reveal that the preference for mediation in China and other Asian and even Western societies is largely correlated with region, class, and gender and therefore does not constitute a national pattern. Historical (19th century and Maoist China) and more contemporary evidence reveals that mediation—to the extent that it was actually performed at the grassroots level—was but one method of resolving problems in China. Other methods included interpersonal violence, collective action, and even feigned suicide. A disaggregated perspective on conflict resolution is a more accurate representation of China as it deepens market reforms and a more powerful way to predict China's capacity to manage the conflicts that follow such reforms.
Reciprocity and Shared Knowledge Structures in the Prisoner's Dilemma Game
Authors: Richards Diana
Published: March 2007

A prominent solution to achieving cooperation in prisoner's dilemma situations is repeated interaction between players. Although indefinitely repeated play solves the mutual gains problem, it also creates an unsolved coordination problem because an infinite number of strategies are possible in equilibrium. This article explores whether a “shared grammar of strategies,” formalized by a knowledge-induced equilibrium, resolves the coordination problem by prescribing a unique behavioral rule. Applied to the set of strategies submitted to Axelrod's prisoner's dilemma tournament, tit for tat emerges as that unique coordinating strategy.
Structural Embeddedness and Intergroup Conflict
Authors: Takács Károly
Published: March 2007

Social structure affects the likelihood of group conflicts, although it has been disregarded by previous explanations. This study extends the intergroup public goods game model and integrates the influence of structural embeddedness and social incentives in the analysis of harmful group conflict. The integrated model explains why intergroup conflicts are often promoted by segregation and describes conditions under which this effect does not occur. The model predicts that a relationship between segregation and the likelihood of conflict can be characterized by an S-shape function. The segregation effect is stronger if local selective incentives are relatively important compared to confirmation from neighbors. Results show that under certain structural conditions, rational individuals are more likely to be trapped in harmful conflict than less rational actors, and rigid assumptions about individual rationality strengthen the effect of clustering on intergroup conflict.
Choice of Partners in Multiple Two-Person Prisoner's Dilemma Games
Authors: Hauk Esther , Nagel Rosemarie
Published: March 2007

The effect of unilateral and mutual partner selection in the context of prisoner's dilemmas is examined. Participants played simultaneously several finitely repeated, two-person prisoner's dilemma games. Results show that unilateral choice leads to lower defection and fewer exits than mutual choice. In the unilateral-choice setup, intending defectors are more likely to exit than intending cooperators. Implications of these findings in the political context are discussed.
Toward an Explanation of Experimentally Obtained Outcomes to a Simple, Majority Rule Game
Authors: Westen T. Edward , Buckley James J.
Published: March 2007

The problem of so embarrassingly many solutions to n-person games is examined through the vehicle of a four-person simple, majority rule game. Ninety-seven experimental trials are employed to demonstrate that three different solutions (symmetric, inflated, and partitioned solutions) can be differentially predicted as one varies the structural characteristics of otherwise strictly identical games in character istic function form. The authors interpret their findings as an indication that systematic theory construction about the structure of conflict is a fruitful area for inquiry.
The Destructive Application of Group Techniques To a Conflict
Authors: Boehringer G.H. , Bayley J. , Zeruolis V. , Boehringer K.
Published: March 2007

This is a critique of two articles by Professors Doob and Foltz describing the conception and execution of a group dynamics workshop for Belfast inhabitants which took place in Scotland in 1972. The theoretical background, practical execution, and subsequent social and political impact of the workshop are assessed. The authors consider that the goals of the exercise were ill-defined and mutually contradictory. Because of this, the workshop was ineffective in its own terms and harmful to many of the participants.
Patterns of Conflict Generation and Conflict "Absorption"
Authors: Etzioni-Halevy Eva
Published: March 2007

This comparison of labor and ethnic conflict in Israel is intended to substantiate two theses. The first maintains that ideologies have more to do with patterning conflict than merely with legitimizing interests and counterinterests; specifically, that when ideological commitments and interests do not coincide, this will lead to ambiguities, i.e., to activities which work at cross-purposes to each other. The second thesis is that when an Establishment is confronted by conflict, it may develop certain patterns of conflict absorption by which the conflict is neither suppressed nor yet allowed to generate any substantial social changes. These patterns usually include symbolic reassurances; devices for attenuating demands and for depleting the aggrieved parties' ranks; partial responsiveness; and maintenance of the Establishment itself and the basic framework of the society relatively unchanged.
A Game-Theoretic Analysis Of the Vietnam Negotiations
Authors: Zagare Frank C.
Published: March 2007

This article employs game theory to analyze two games played at the Paris Peace Talks of 1968-1973 by the United States, the Republic of Vietnam, and a coalition of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam and the National Liberation Front. The stalemate of the first game, which lasted from the inception of the Talks in 1968 to the winter of 1971-1972, is shown to have resulted from the coincidence of the preferences of the players and from their game-theoretically defined best strategies. The article offers two interpretations of the outcome of the second game. Under the first interpretation, the two-track solution, the most-preferred alternative of the United States, is shown to have resulted from a shift in the Commumsts' preference order. Under the second, this game is shown to be vulnerable to a deceptive strategy by the United States. Under either interpretation, the optimal strategy of the United States entailed announcing that it would prefer to prolong the war rather than capitulate to the Communists.
When Will They Ever Learn?
Authors: Leng Russell J.
Published: March 2007

A set of hypotheses derived from experiential learning and a realpolitik orientation to crisis bargaining are employed to investigate the bargaining behavior of pairs of states embroiled in recurring crises. It is proposed that in crisis bargaining, experiential learning focuses on the outcome of the preceding crisis, and the lessons drawn from that experience are interpreted in accordance with a realpolitik orientation that stresses the importance of a credible demonstration of power and resolve. The hypotheses predict that in crises between states of relatively equal military capabilities, successful outcomes encourage policymakers to repeat the bargaining strategy employed in the previous crisis, while failures lead to more coercive bargaining in the next crisis. Employing events data from a sample of 18 disputes among 6 pairs of states, each pair having been engaged in three successive crises, a significant pattern of shifts to more coercive bargaining following crises with unsuccessful outcomes was found.
Enhancing Negotiators' Successfulness
Authors: Weiss-Wik Stephen
Published: March 2007

This article offers synopses of six books recently written by negotiation trainers. It pulls together common guidelines, and focuses on three particular prescriptions. The recommendation that negotiators concentrate on needs is considered in light of empirical research on intangible issues, the nature and formulation of goals, and integrative processes. The recommendation that appropriate bargaining tactics be employed is examined with regard to research on overall strategies, extreme initial offers, concession making, and use of threats. Finally, emphasis on adroit communication is considered in light of research on bilateral focus, information gathering, phases of interaction, and styles of verbal expression. There are both matters on which trainers and researchers differ and matters on which they concur, but the juxtaposition of their perspectives appears valuable for the purposes of each group.
The Epidemiology of War, 1816-1980
Authors: Houweling Henk W. , Siccama Jan G.
Published: March 2007

Quantitative research into the causes of war is influenced by the choice that has to be made between time-series designs on the one hand and cross-sectional designs on the other. The assumption of independence is important for both of them. The present article investigates whether warfare is clustered in time and in space. Using a method of analysis proposed by epidemiologists, significant evidence is found for time-space interaction not only in participation in war but also in outbreaks of war.
Value Orientation and Conformity
Authors: Liebrand Wim B.G. , Wilke Henk A.M. , Vogel Rob , Wolters Fred J.M.
Published: March 2007

Three different types of N-person social dilemma games were employed: the Prisoner's Dilemma (NPD), the Chicken Dilemma (NCD), and the Trust Dilemma (NTD). Subjects, who were classified a priori as either a cooperator (n = 58) or a defector (n = 68), participated in one of the social dilemma games before they received bogus feedback: they were told that the majority had chosen the defecting alternative D, or that the majority had chosen the cooperative alternative C. As predicted, (1) both before and after feedback, more defecting choices were made in the NPD than in the NCD, whereas in the NCD more defecting choices were made than in the NTD; (2) before and after feedback, defectors made more defecting choices than cooperators; (3) after majority D feedback more defecting choices were made than after majority C feedback. In addition, it appeared that in NPD and in NTD, defectors were especially sensitive to majority D feedback in that it facilitated their natural inclination to prefer D-choices. No support for Kelley and Stahelski's triangle hypothesis was observed.
Time Pressure and the Development of Integrative Agreements in Bilateral Negotiations
Authors: Carnevale Peter J.D. , Lawler Edward J.
Published: March 2007

A laboratory experiment examined the effects of time pressure on the process and outcome of integrative bargaining. Time pressure was operationalized in terms of the amount of time available to negotiate. As hypothesized, high time pressure produced nonagreements and poor negotiation outcomes only when negotiators adopted an individualistic orientation; when negotiators adopted a cooperative orientation, they achieved high outcomes regardless of time pressure. In combination with an individualistic orientation, time pressure produced greater competitiveness, firm negotiator aspirations, and reduced information exchange. In combination with a cooperative orientation, time pressure produced greater cooperativeness and lower negotiator aspirations. The main findings were seen as consistent with Pruitt's strategic-choice model of negotiation.
The Military Burden and Basic Human Needs
Authors: Dixon William J. , Moon Bruce E.
Published: March 2007

This study examines ways in which military factors influence the provision of basic human needs once the effects of aggregated social wealth and certain political aspects of the state are removed. Three channels of influence are examined: the defense burden on the economy, the scope of military participation in society, and military control of the ruling regime. We analyze these influences by regressing an index of physical well-being, the PQLI, on measures of each factor for a sample of 116 contemporary national societies. Our findings indicate that military attributes do indeed have some impact on the provision of basic needs even with other important influences removed. Military participation is found to make a positive contribution to welfare performance; military spending, on the other hand, appears to inhibit welfare outcomes, but only when controlling for the size of the military establishment. Military control of the government has no discernible effect on our measure of welfare performance.
Regime Types and International Conflict, 1816-1976
Authors: Maoz Zeev , Abdolali Nasrin
Published: March 2007

This study replicates and extends previous inquiries on the relations between regime type and conflict involvement of states. It examines the robustness of previous findings with respect to various regime attributes, various conflict involvement measures, and units of analysis. Using two comprehensive datasets on polity characteristics and militarized interstate disputes, the empirical analyses reveal: (1) There are no relations between regime type and conflict involvement measures when the unit of analysis is the individual polity (i.e., a state characterized by a certain regime type over a given time span); this finding is robust in that it holds over most regime characteristics and conflict involvement measures. (2) There is a significant relationship between the regime characteristics of a dyad and the probability of conflict involvement of that dyad: Democracies rarely clash with one another, and never fight one another in war. (3) Both the proportion of democratic dyads and the proportion of autocratic dyads in the international system significantly affect the number of disputes begun and underway. But the proportion of democratic dyads in the system has a negative effect on the number of wars begun and on the proportion of disputes that escalate to war.
Interdependence in a Crisis Situation
Authors: Sergeev V. M. , Akimov V. P. , Lukov V. B. , Parshin P. B.
Published: March 2007

Using a multiplicatively enhanced version of cognitive mapping techniques, this study first analyzes two of President Kennedy's speeches during the Carribean Crisis (known in the United States as the Cuban Missile Crisis). Text analysis shows a sharp decline in the ratio of controlled to uncontrolled events, an increased role for environmental variables, and crisis tangles with multiple negative effects on U.S. goals. A counterfactual computer simulation of alternative U.S. crisis scenarios, based on the cognitive maps, suggests that expectations of Soviet “sincerity” and “restraint” were crucial in achieving mutually satisfactory deescalatory responses. These results suggest the beginnings of new thinking about mutual sincerity, the priority of avoiding nuclear war, and international interdependence.
Election Cycles and War
Authors: Gaubatz Kurt Taylor
Published: March 2007

Insight into the effect of domestic factors on the international conflict behavior of democratic states can be garnered from treating electoral cycles as cycles in the relative power of state and society. This article shows that there is a discernible relationship between election cycles and the behavior of democratic states in international conflicts. In the past 200 years, democratic states have tended to get into relatively more wars early in the election cycle and fewer wars late in the cycle. Interestingly, this result holds regardless of whether it was a democracy or a nondemocracy which initiated the war. The author argues, however, that this pattern at the international level is insufficient for drawing firm conclusions about the preferences of democratic states and societies at the domestic level. Finally, the author suggests that although election dynamics may mitigate against war entry in the short run, it is plausible that they have made war more likely or more severe in the long run.
Domestic Political Structure and War Behavior
Authors: Kilgour D. Marc
Published: March 2007

A natural approach to understanding the tendencies of nations to enter or avoid wars is through the study of national decision making in international crises. Recent game-theoretic models of national crisis behavior can be used to generate research hypotheses about how specific features of national political structures and political culture are related to war-proneness. To illustrate, propositions about the relationships of several national characteristics to crisis involvement and war initiation are derived from two such models. Empirical testing of these hypotheses can help shed new light on Kant's thesis that democracies are less war-prone than other states.
Resource Unpredictability, Mistrust, and War
Authors: Ember Carol R. , Ember Melvin
Published: March 2007

The results of this cross-cultural study suggest that war may be caused mostly by a fear of nature and a partially resultant fear of others. A history of unpredictable natural disasters strongly predicts more war, as does socialization for mistrust (but less strongly). It seems that people, particularly in nonstate societies, may try to protect themselves against future disasters by going to war to take resources from enemies.
System Uncertainty, Risk Propensity, and International Conflict among the Great Powers
Authors: Huth Paul , Bennett D. Scott , Gelpi Christopher
Published: March 2007

The authors investigate the relationship between system structure and the initiation of militarized disputes among Great Powers. The central hypotheses concern the interaction between system uncertainty and the risk propensity of national decision makers. The authors employ a research design that enables them to incorporate explanatory variables from various levels of analysis into their theoretical model. The model is tested by probit analysis on a pooled time series of Great Power rival dyads from 1816 to 1975. The empirical results support the central hypothesis that the effects of the international system are mediated by the risk propensity of decision makers. In addition, the authors find that dyadic- and unit-level variables such as arms races, power transitions, and the current and past dispute behavior of rivals also have significant effects on conflict behavior. Finally, the results indicate that nuclear weapons do not seem to have a systematic impact on the initiation of militarized disputes among Great Powers.
Settling Old Scores
Authors: Sutter Daniel
Published: March 2007

Under certain conditions both the opponents and supporters of an authoritarian regime can benefit from the peaceful liberalization of the regime. The literature on transitions to democracy emphasizes the role of negotiated deals (pacts) in facilitating transitions. Political deals are not legally enforceable contracts; they are subject to opportunism by one of the parties. I examine how punishment of the ex-ruler(s) by a successor government after power has been transferred renders a pact ineffective and prevents a peaceful transition. Political asylum can alleviate the punishment dilemma, but the host nation can have an incentive to renege on its protection. A military government retains the power to reintervene in politics after transferring power to civilians. The possibility of reintervention allows the military to ensure compliance by other parties and overcome the punishment dilemma.
Security Feelings among Jewish Settlers in The Occupied Territories
Authors: Bar-Tal Daniel , Jacobson Dan , Freund Tali
Published: March 2007

The objective of the described study was to assess the effect of living in a communal settlement in Israel's occupied territories on residents' general feelings of insecurity and related variables. The sample was drawn from three settlements that are similar in size, urban-communal nature, year of establishment, and socioeconomic status, but different in geographic location, political ideology, and extent of exposure to the Palestinian uprising. The results indicate, contrary to the authors' hypothesis, that living in the settlement had little effect on insecurity feelings and most other dependent variables. On the other hand, variables related to the personal rather than the communal context had a significant effect on insecurity feelings. These variables included gender, ethnic origin, level of income, age, having a family member who lived through the Holocaust, level of hawkishness, military service, religiosity, and health problems. Findings are interpreted and considered in the context of the cognitive-relational appraisal theory.
Weak Models, Nil Hypotheses, And Decorative Statistics
Authors: O'Neill Barry
Published: March 2007

Donald Green and Ian Shapiro contend that rational choice models have made negligible contributions to the empirical study of politics. Published tests systematically violate some basic research principles, they say, and they ascribe the problem to modelers' universalist aim of explaining all human behavior. This review critiques some of the authors' principles, which seem to derive from an extreme form of Popperianism combined with norms around null hypothesis testing. Their attribution of universalism is exaggerated; what they are seeing is actually a desire to unify different selected areas, a basic goal in theoretical explanation. One advantage of rational choice models is that they frequently make precise predictions. Models that can do this offer an escape from the uninformative ritual of null hypotheses tests.
Nasty or Nice?
Authors: De Mesquita Bruce Bueno , Siverson Randolph M.
Published: March 2007

A large amount of recent research points to the importance of domestic political institutions in shaping foreign policy, most of it turning on the distinction between democratic and nondemocratic regimes. However, fundamental characteristics differentiate regime types beyond the distinction between democratic and nondemocratic. Drawing a distinction between institutional differences that result from variation in the sizes of selectorates and winning coalitions, the authors consider the effect that regime type has on the prospects that a foreign leader will be removed from office following a military defeat, be it in a war or some lesser level of violence. The authors show that the distinction, now common in the literature, between democratic and nondemocratic regimes is not adequate for understanding the linkages between domestic and foreign affairs. A model is presented from which nine hypotheses are derived. A preliminary test of one hypothesis is presented, the results of which are consistent with the expectation that regimes, and consequently their leaders, will be the issue of conflict when power differences are great and the winning state has either a large winning coalition or a small selectorate.
Elements of a Script for Friendship in Transactions
Authors: Halpern Jennifer J.
Published: March 2007

Social norms constrain people's behaviors in transactions, but such norms are rarely investigated. Script theory provides a coherent, holistic structure for understanding socially mediated behaviors. This study proposes terms of a script for the pricing behavior of transactors when friendship is considered. The script generates testable hypotheses, which are studied in three lab-based experiments. Vignette studies considered the effect of friendship on two-party transactions and revealed consistent behaviors. Without discussion, subjects exhibit consistent agreement for what constitutes appropriate pricing for friends and for strangers in different contexts: when pricing a variety of commodities for a transaction, when acting as agents for a friend or a stranger, and when observing others engaged in such transactions.
Thinking is Social
Authors: Kennedy James
Published: March 2007

Robert Axelrod's model of the spread of culture is extended to demonstrate that social interaction can function as an algorithm for optimizing cognition. Mental structures can be represented as strings of symbols that can be evaluated according to some criterion of goodness. Individuals interact with their neighbors, often resulting in patterns of similarities within and differences between regions of the population. Group-level phenomena, in turn, result in the optimization of individual structures.
Economic Innovation, Systemic Leadership, and Military Preparations for War
Authors: Reuveny Rafael , Thompson William R.
Published: March 2007

Focusing on an initial and potentially expandable four-variable model combining leading sector innovation, leading sector concentration, naval capability concentration, and military preparation for warfare, a vector autoregression analysis of U.S. data for the 1801-1992 period reveals a substantial degree of interrelationship. The two leading sector variables “Granger cause” the two military-political variables (naval capability concentration and military preparation for warfare). Eight of nine other anticipated relationships linking specific variables are obtained, as are two unanticipated relationships linking naval concentration negatively to the leading sector variables. A very tight, coevolutionary pattern is found to characterize the economic growth-systemic leadership-military mobilization experience of the United States, thereby underlining the constraints of structural change.