bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Externalidades sociais da produção de combustíveis no estado do Paraná
Authors: Souza Luiz Gustavo Antonio de , Moraes Marcia Azanha Ferraz Dias de
Published: February 2015

A acentuação dos efeitos das mudanças climáticas cria perspectivas positivas para uso da bioenergia em detrimento dos combustíveis fósseis. Verifica-se uma expansão da cana-de-açúcar no estado do Paraná. Tal crescimento aliado a instalação de novas usinas ou ampliação da capacidade produtiva beneficiará direta e indiretamente a dinâmica econômica locacional dos municípios paranaenses. O objetivo do presente artigo é compreender a relevância das atividades econômicas correlatas à produção de etanol em comparação aos combustíveis derivados do petróleo em meio as novas perspectivas. Este artigo aborda o conceito de aglomerações produtivas nos setores em análise sob a ótica das externalidades sociais. O indicador de quociente locacional (QL) é utilizado como proxy para a presença de aglomeração produtiva e portanto da presença de externalidades sociais. Foram utilizados dados de empregos formais provenientes da Relação Anual de Informações Sociais (RAIS) para os setores de cana-de-açúcar, etanol, extração de petróleo e derivados de petróleo. No presente caso verificou-se que os setores de produção de cana e etanol são relevantes no estado, o que leva à inferência da presença de economias de aglomeração e externalidades. No setor de extração de petróleo e derivados, entretanto, sua atuação é incipiente e pontual. Os resultados permitem concluir que a alta capilaridade proveniente do setor de cana-de-açúcar e etanol podem gerar tanto uma externalidade positiva quanto uma vulnerabilidade.
Determinantes do grau de satisfação dos empreendedores do projeto Bom Negócio Paraná do Norte Pioneiro
Authors: Alves Brene Paulo Rogério , Oliveira Lorena Regina de , Dalla Costa Ricardo
Published: February 2015

O trabalho tem por objetivo avaliar os determinantes da satisfação dos empreendedores com a capacitação/curso do projeto denominado Bom Negócio Paraná do Norte Pioneiro. Como ferramenta analítica, a pesquisa utilizou-se da análise fatorial, que teve a função de avaliar a consistência do questionário e agregar as 11 perguntas em dois grupos (Estrutura e Consultores). De posse dessas duas variáveis explicativas, as mesmas foram cruzadas com a nota da satisfação com o curso (variável dependente) primeiro a partir dos índices de correção (Pearson e Spearman) e posteriormente com a análise de regressão. Destaca-se que a regressão, determinou qual das variáveis se mostrara mais relevante, ou mesmo se ambas eram significativas. Como resultado verificou-se que a variável Consultores tem uma correção de Pearson moderada (0,413) com a nota de satisfação, sendo maior que a da Estrutura (0,268), classificada como fraca. Sobre a correlação de Spearman, ambas tiveram a hipótese H1 (interligação entre as variáveis) aceita. No tocante a regressão é possível inferir que tanto no conjunto como no aspecto individual, as variáveis são significativas, com destaque a estrutura que apresentou coeficiente (1,13) superior ao dos consultores (1,07), ambas explicando 27,2% da nota de satisfação (0,5 ponto de uma média de 1,86).
Consumo domiciliar de alimentos: uma análise para a região Centro–Oeste do Brasil
Authors: Schlindwein Madalena Maria , Oliveira Marciele de Freitas , Ostroski Diane Aparecida
Published: February 2015

O Centro-Oeste brasileiro vem se destacando, ao longo do tempo, como importante área de produção de alimentos, tanto para consumo interno quanto para exportação. No entanto, pouco se discute sobre o padrão de consumo alimentar da população que vive nessa região. Neste ínterim, o objetivo central deste estudo foi fazer uma caracterização do consumo alimentar domiciliar das famílias pertencentes à região Centro-Oeste brasileira, bem como uma comparação entre os dados para as Unidades Federativas dessa região. Esse estudo é de caráter exploratório e descritivo, pois buscou descrever as características do padrão do consumo alimentar das famílias. Foram utilizados os dados das Pesquisas de Orçamento Familiar (POFs) de 2002-03 e 2008-09, publicados pelo Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (IBGE). Os resultados mostram que, no período analisado, vem ocorrendo uma tendência de redução no consumo de alimentos básicos como arroz, feijão e farinha de trigo, enquanto os bens de preparo rápido como pães, refrigerantes e sucos, iogurtes e alimentos prontos apresentaram um aumento no consumo.
Determinantes das exportações paranaenses entre 2000 e 2012: Uma aplicação do modelo gravitacional
Authors: Silva Geisiane Michelle da , Pintor Eduardo de , Schneider Braun Mirian Beatriz
Published: February 2015

Os economistas clássicos Adam Smith e David Ricardo desenvolveram as primeiras teorias para explicar os determinantes do comércio internacional. Para Smith, o comércio era baseado nas vantagens absolutas. Ricardo afirmou que as vantagens comparativas determinavam o comércio entre países. Para Eli Heckscher e Bertil Ohlin a diferença na dotação de fatores de produção é o que determina o comércio internacional. O objetivo deste estudo foi analisar os determinantes das exportações paranaenses entre 2000 e 2012 através do Modelo Gravitacional. A equação gravitacional foi estimada com dados em painel e utilizou como variável dependente as exportações do Paraná e como variáveis independentes o Produto Interno Bruto (PIB) e a população do estado, o PIB e a população dos países importadores de produtos paranaenses e a distância em quilômetros entre a capital do estado e a capital do país importador. Conclui-se que o PIB e a população dos países importadores, além da distância entre a capital paranaense e a capital do país importador, foram determinantes para as exportações do estado. Estas variáveis foram estatisticamente significativas, enquanto o PIB e a população do Paraná não foram estatisticamente significativas e, portanto, não foram determinantes das exportações do estado no período analisado.
Perfil dos ocupados no mercado de trabalho paranaense para 2003, 2006, 2009 e 2012
Authors: Sales Maria de Fátima , Satel Clécia Ivânia Rosa
Published: February 2015

O objetivo do artigo é traçar o perfil dos ocupados no mercado de trabalho paranaense no período de 2003 a 2012 a partir dos microdados da Pesquisa Nacional por Amostra de Domicílios (PNAD). Os resultados evidenciaram que o mercado de trabalho no Paraná é predominantemente ocupado por indivíduos do gênero masculino, pertencentes ao mercado formal e de cor da pele branca. A participação das mulheres, pessoas não jovens e indivíduos qualificados entre os ocupados foi ampliada. Indivíduos qualificados exercem usualmente atividades em setores relacionados às ciências e artes, enquanto os não qualificados trabalham naquelas relacionadas à produção ou ao setor de serviços.
Wat is witwassen eigenlijk?
Authors: Kruisbergen E.W. , Soudijn M.R.J.
Published: February 2015

What is money laundering? An introduction to theory and practice

In this article, which serves as an introduction, the authors take a closer look at theoretical definitions as well as empirical manifestations of money laundering. They discuss the judicial definition and the often used theoretical distinction between ‘three stages’ of money laundering. Furthermore, the authors provide the reader with a quick overview of several forms of money laundering. This overview is based on actual criminal investigations. It covers the transfer of cash money and ‘concealed consumption’, both of which are frequently overlooked by authors who use the three stages model. Also ‘traditional’ forms of money laundering such as loan backs, abuse of legal trade, feigning gambling profit, structuring of real estate deals and ‘new’ forms, i.e. the use of bitcoins, are dealt with.
De illegale economie en nationaal inkomen
Authors: Kazemier B. , Rensman M.
Published: February 2015

The illegal economy and national income

In 2014, almost all countries of the European Community have revised their National Accounts. Besides the introduction of some important methodological and theoretical improvements, now income from illegal activities are included in the estimates of the national income. For the Netherlands the inclusion of illegal activities has increased gross national income by some 0.4%. This is less than the overall average for the European Community.
De criminele levensloop van hawaladars
Authors: Soudijn M.R.J. , de Groen E.M.
Published: February 2015

The criminal careers of hawaladars: an exploratory study

This research takes a closer look at the criminal careers of 89 offenders who are involved in offering hawala services. The main finding is that 61% has a criminal record that does not consist of hawala related offenses. This finding is important from both a policy and criminological perspective. Firstly, incorporating hawala in the legal financial sector is a difficult prospect with the current people involved. Somehow the sector needs to be cleaned up. Secondly, the findings tie in with other research about criminal careers in organized crime. About two-thirds came into contact with the authorities later in life. However, an important caveat to the authors’ findings is that the outcomes are based on a known group of offenders. The total size of the hawala population is a dark number.
Learning From a Tale of Two Droughts: 2002 vs. 2012
Authors: Rodriguez Alfredo
Published: February 2015

Colorado's most recent droughts occurred in 2002 and 2012. The two events shared many similarities. However, because of lessons learned in 2002, Aurora Water's response to the second drought was different because of a significant investment in personnel, infrastructure, and conservation resources.
Autophagy in Cancer Therapy: Progress and Issues
Authors: Jia-Jie Shi  , Ling-Hua Meng
Published: February 2015

Autophagy is an evolutionarily conserved intracellular self-digestion process, which mediates homeostasis in response to various stresses via degradation of damaged organelles or unnecessary proteins. It has been demonstrated that autophagy involves in tumorigenesis and progression. Autophagy serves either as tumor suppressor or promotor in a context-dependent way. It has been revealed in multiple studies that autophagy plays a pro-survival role upon treatment of anticancer drugs. Thus, combination of autophagy inhibitors with anticancer drugs may provide a desirable strategy to improve therapeutic efficacy. In this review, we summarize recent progress in the process and regulation of autophagy with a highlight in advances in the role of autophagy in cancer treatment. We also summarize some recent clinical outcomes of combinatorial use of autophagy inhibitors and anticancer drugs, and introduce latest discovered selective autophagy inhibitors. Some issues which should be paid attention to during the research to improve the clinical outcomes are discussed.
Circulating Tumor Cells: A Window to Understand Cancer Metastasis, Monitor and Fight Against Cancers
Authors: Lei Xu  , Jonathan Shamash  , Yong-Jie Lu
Published: February 2015

Metastases are the major culprits behind most cancer-related death and the central challenge to the eradication of a malignancy. Circulating tumor cells (CTCs) have the potential to help us understand how metastases form, to be utilized for cancer diagnosis and treatment selection and even to be targeted for cancer treatment. Many advances have been made regarding the isolation of these rare cells. However, several challenges and limitations in CTC analysis still exist. Multiple color immunofluorescence, genetic analysis (e.g. Fluorescence in situ Hybridization, microarray and next generation sequencing) and CTC culture will be effective tools to study CTCs and provide information on metastatic mechanism and clinical implication. In this review, we discuss the importance of CTC study in understanding cancer metastasis and their potential clinical application as biomarkers to predict cancer progression and treatment response, as well as the current situation for CTC isolation and analysis.
Obesity and Breast Cancer: Molecular and Epidemiological Evidence
Authors: Nehad M. Ayoub  , Amal Kaddoumi
Published: February 2015

Carcinoma of the breast is a leading cause of cancer deaths among women world-wide. Obesity is recognized as a well-established risk factor for epithelial tumors including the mammary epithelium. Adipose tissue is considered to be metabolically active organ with the ability to secrete a wide range of biologically active adipokines. Multiple studies have evaluated the potential mechanisms correlating obesity to increased risk of breast cancer. Altered circulating levels of adipokines or changed adipokine signaling pathways are now increasingly recognized to be associated with breast cancer development and progression. Leptin and adiponectin were the main adipokines that have been investigated in the context of breast cancer in both preclinical and epidemiological studies. Obesity is also believed to promote inflammatory response and induce activity of key enzymes like aromatase, leading to higher risk of breast cancer development. The goal of this review is to provide recent insights into the potential molecular mechanisms linking adipokines to the etiopathogenesis of breast cancer including recently identified adipokines and trying to correlate these molecular mechanisms to more established metabolic and hormonal dysregulations of obesity. A better understanding of the interplay between adipokines and other deregulated mechanisms in obesity is important for the development of preventive strategies with therapeutic potential against breast cancer in obese patients.
Widespread correlation patterns of fMRI signal across visual cortex reflect eccentricity organization
Authors: Arcaro Michael J , Honey Christopher J , Mruczek Ryan EB , Kastner Sabine , Hasson Uri
Published: February 2015

The human visual system can be divided into over two-dozen distinct areas, each of which contains a topographic map of the visual field. A fundamental question in vision neuroscience is how the visual system integrates information from the environment across different areas. Using neuroimaging, we investigated the spatial pattern of correlated BOLD signal across eight visual areas on data collected during rest conditions and during naturalistic movie viewing. The correlation pattern between areas reflected the underlying receptive field organization with higher correlations between cortical sites containing overlapping representations of visual space. In addition, the correlation pattern reflected the underlying widespread eccentricity organization of visual cortex, in which the highest correlations were observed for cortical sites with iso-eccentricity representations including regions with non-overlapping representations of visual space. This eccentricity-based correlation pattern appears to be part of an intrinsic functional architecture that supports the integration of information across functionally specialized visual areas.
Radiation Characteristics Enhancement of Dielectric Resonator Antenna Using Solid/Discrete Dielectric Lenses
Authors: Malhat H. A. E. , Zainud-Deen S. H. , Hassan W. M. , Awadalla K. H.
Published: February 2015

The radiation characteristics of the dielectric resonator antennas (DRA) is enhanced using different types of solid and discrete dielectric lenses. One of these approaches is by loading the DRA with planar superstrate, spherical lens, or by discrete lens (transmitarray). The dimensions and dielectric constant of each lens are optimized to maximize the gain of the DRA. A comparison between the radiations characteristics of the DRA loaded with different lenses are introduced. The design of the dielectric transmitarray depends on optimizing the heights of the dielectric material of the unit cell. The optimized transmitarray achieves 7 dBi extra gain over the single DRA with preserving the circular polarization. The proposed antenna is suitable for various applications that need high gain and focused antenna beam.
Health Care Redesign for Responsive Behaviours—The Behavioural Supports Ontario Experience: Lessons Learned and Keys to Success
Authors: Gutmanis Iris , Snyder Matt , Harvey David , Hillier Loretta M. , LeClair J. Kenneth
Published: February 2015

Our health care system is ill prepared for the growing number of older adults and their families/caregivers who live with responsive behaviours associated with cognitive impairment. Considering the burden of illness, quality of life issues, and escalating costs, system-wide redesign is warranted. The Behavioural Supports Ontario (BSO) project is a province-wide, regionally implemented, evidence-informed change strategy that utilizes quality improvement principles and knowledge translation best practices as critical enablers. This paper describes the project and key lessons learned in the implementation of this initiative that can be applied to other jurisdictions wishing to enable large-scale system redesign and sustainable system change.
Summer upwelling and thermal fronts in the northwestern South China Sea: Observational analysis of two mesoscale mapping surveys
Authors: Jing Zhiyou , Qi Yiquan , Du Yan , Zhang Shuwen , Xie Lingling
Published: February 2015

Persistent coastal upwelling and upwelling‐induced thermal fronts in the northwestern South China Sea are investigated using satellite measurements, two intensive mesoscale mapping surveys and three bottom‐mounted ADCPs. The results indicate that pronounced surface cooling and upwelling‐related fronts with a width of 20–50 km occur around Hainan Island and persist through the summer upwelling season. Driven by the prevailing southwesterly monsoon, the subsurface cooling band is ∼6°C colder than the water offshore of the East Coast, where the thermal gradients are generally more than 0.1°C/km. The cold and nutrient‐rich coastal water is identified to be derived primarily from the deep water of the outer shelf. At the same time, the spatial structure of the upwelling and thermal front, as well as the upwelling‐related coastal currents, is significantly regulated by wind forcing. A prominent lagged correlation between the moored temperature records and alongshore wind stress is detected in the East Coast. The correlation coefficient is −0.8 with the temperature lagging behind wind stress by 2.2 days, indicating that the cooling band off the East Coast is dominated mostly by the alongshore southwesterly monsoon during the upwelling season.
Global survey of concentric gravity waves in AIRS images and ECMWF analysis
Authors: Gong Jie , Yue Jia , Wu Dong L.
Published: February 2015

Concentric gravity waves (CGWs) are atmospheric phenomena with ring‐shape perturbations originating in the troposphere. They can propagate up to the ionosphere and thermosphere and dynamically couple the lower and upper atmosphere. In this study we developed a novel ring detection algorithm to extract CGWs from the Atmosphere Infrared Sounder (AIRS) radiance data and the European Center for Medium‐Range Weather Forecasting (ECMWF) analysis temperature in the stratosphere to produce the first global maps of such phenomena. The algorithm is capable of estimating wave amplitude, wavelength, propagation direction, and source location. Both AIRS and ECMWF data show a significant diurnal variation in wave propagation direction and generation, in addition to strong seasonal variations in wavelength and amplitude. Occurrence of these ring waves is associated not only with tropical deep convections but also with summertime midlatitude convection, wintertime extratropical jets, and topography such as islands. The high‐resolution ECMWF analysis data capture most of the CGW features, but the wave amplitude is significantly weaker than AIRS observations, showing few convectively generated CGWs.
Two regimes of cloud water over the Okhotsk Sea and the adjacent regions around Japan in summer
Authors: Shimada Teruhisa , Iwasaki Toshiki
Published: February 2015

This study derived two regimes of cloud water with a dipole structure between over the Okhotsk Sea and over the adjacent regions around Japan in summer by using a climate index for cool summer. When the Okhotsk high develops, clouds are confined to a thin low‐level layer owing to the enhanced stability in the lower atmosphere induced by the downward motion associated with the Okhotsk high. The resulting optically thin clouds allow more downward shortwave radiation to reach the surface of the Okhotsk Sea. In contrast, the low‐level easterly winds blowing toward the Japanese Islands and the Eurasian continent enhance cloud formation. This is due to the convergence of the water vapor flux induced by the easterly winds associated with the Okhotsk high and the southerly winds associated with the Baiu frontal zone and the Pacific high and due to the orographic uplift of air mass. When a cyclonic circulation occurs over the Okhotsk Sea, a thick layer of low‐level clouds extending close to the sea surface is formed. The convergence of the water vapor flux over the subarctic sea surface temperature (SST) frontal zone and the cool SST promote fog formation, and upward motion associated with the cyclonic circulation supports the high cloud water content from the lower to the upper troposphere. The resulting optically thick clouds reduce the downward shortwave radiation at the surface of the Okhotsk Sea. Over the regions around Japan, water vapor flux diverges owing to dry air originating from land and cloud water decreases.
Diurnal and seasonal changes in near‐surface humidity in a complex orography
Authors: Fatichi Simone , Molnar Peter , Mastrotheodoros Theodoros , Burlando Paolo
Published: February 2015

Changes in near‐surface humidity are evaluated in relation to changes in other meteorological variables such as air temperature, precipitation, and sunshine duration for a 31 year period (1981–2011) using hourly time series recorded in Switzerland. Trends in meteorological variables are analyzed at the seasonal and subdaily scale, and changes in water vapor are tested for Clausius‐Clapeyron scaling. Results show a marked seasonality of climatic changes with a trend toward warmer, clearer, and drier near‐surface atmosphere strengthening from January to June. During this period considerable negative trends in relative humidity are detected. An abrupt shift in climatic trends occurs during the month of July, after which warming trends are considerably smaller and relative humidity remains constant or increases. An evaluation of reanalysis products demonstrates strong consistency with station observations and when combined with teleconnection indices supports the hypothesis that shifts in the general circulation patterns rather than local feedbacks are the principal drivers of observed seasonality of climate change. However, local feedbacks can play a role in enhancing summer humidity and convective activity (lightning and evening precipitation). Subdaily changes are significant with more pronounced daytime trends of temperature and humidity during spring and the opposite during summer. The strong seasonality and diurnal variability of changes in near‐surface meteorology over the last three decades in Switzerland warns against climate change impact assessments at local scale that consider uniform changes in air temperature and assume Clausius‐Clapeyron scaling for near‐surface humidity.
The impacts of cloud snow radiative effects on Pacific Ocean surface heat fluxes, surface wind stress, and ocean temperatures in coupled GCM simulations
Authors: Li J.‐L. F. , Lee W.‐L. , Lee Tong , Fetzer Eric , Yu Jia‐Yuh , Kubar Terence L. , Boening Carmen
Published: February 2015

An accurate representation of the climatology of the coupled ocean‐atmosphere system in global climate models has strong implications for the reliability of projected climate change inferred by these models. Our previous efforts have identified substantial biases of ocean surface wind stress that are fairly common in two generations of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP) models, relative to QuikSCAT climatology. One of the potential causes of the CMIP model biases is the missing representation of large frozen precipitating hydrometeors (i.e., cloud snow) in all CMIP3 and most CMIP5 models, which has not been investigated previously. We examine the impacts of cloud snow on the radiation and atmospheric circulation, air‐sea fluxes, and explore the implications to common biases in CMIP models using the National Center for Atmospheric Research coupled Community Earth System Model (CESM) to perform sensitivity experiments with and without cloud snow radiative effects. This study focuses on the impacts of cloud snow in CESM on ocean surface wind stress and air‐sea heat fluxes, as well as their relationship with sea surface temperature (SST) and subsurface ocean temperatures in the Pacific sector. It is found that inclusion of the cloud snow parameterization in CESM reduces the surface wind stress and upper ocean temperature (including SST) biases in the tropical and midlatitude Pacific. The differences in the upper ocean temperature with and without the cloud snow parameterization are consistent with the effect of different strength of vertical mixing due to ocean surface wind stress differences but cannot be explained by the differences in net air‐sea heat fluxes.
Simulated warm periods of climate over China during the last two millennia: The Sui‐Tang warm period versus the Song‐Yuan warm period
Authors: Yan Qing , Zhang Zhongshi , Wang Huijun , Jiang Dabang
Published: February 2015

A 2000 year simulation forced by the external forcings of the last two millennia is carried out with the Community Earth System Model. We compare climate changes over China between the peak Sui‐Tang warm period (Sui‐TangWP; 650–700 A.D.) and Song‐Yuan warm period (Song‐YuanWP; 950–1000 A.D.), which were two key culturally, economically, and educationally prosperous eras in Chinese history. The simulation indicates warm conditions in both periods, but the warmth is mainly seen in East China in the peak Sui‐TangWP, and over the whole of China in the peak Song‐YuanWP. The warming in the peak Sui‐TangWP is attributed to the localized increase of atmospheric net energy with favorable heat transport, whereas the peak Song‐YuanWP results from the increase of global solar radiation. The annual mean precipitation anomalies in the peak Sui‐TangWP exhibit a meridional dipole pattern over East China, with enhanced precipitation in the region south of the Yangtze River and decreased precipitation to the north. In the peak Song‐YuanWP, the precipitation enhances over most parts of China. The precipitation anomalies are largely attributed to the water vapor transport anomalies associated with monsoon circulation changes. The simulated climate changes are broadly consistent with reconstructions, but the magnitude is greatly underestimated. Based on the simulation and reconstructions, we suggest that the Sui‐TangWP may have been a regional phenomenon in China, while the Song‐YuanWP was a reflection of global/hemispheric‐scale warm events that took place at the same time.
The complementary relationship and generation of the Budyko functions
Authors: Zhou Sha , Yu Bofu , Huang Yuefei , Wang Guangqian
Published: February 2015

The Budyko hypothesis states that the ratio of the actual evapotranspiration over precipitation (E/P) is fundamentally related to the ratio of the potential evapotranspiration over precipitation (E0/P). A number of Budyko functions have been proposed to describe such a relationship between E0/P and E/P. There is, however, no simple method to generate Budyko functions that meet the water and energy constraints. This study showed analytically that for any Budyko function, the sum of elasticity of evapotranspiration with respect to potential evapotranspiration and that with respect to precipitation is equal to unity. This complementary relationship for sensitivity of evapotranspiration has important implications for evaluating hydrologic impact of change in climate and/or catchment characteristics. More importantly, this study found a function that is monotonically increasing with simple limiting properties. This function can be used to generate numerous valid Budyko functions and can also be used to test the validity of the existing Budyko functions.
Stainless Steels
Authors: Kelly James
Published: February 2015

Stainless steels are those alloys of iron and chromium, with or without other elements, containing at least 11% chromium. There are six basic classifications of stainless steels: ferritic, martensitic, martensitic age hardening, duplex austenitic‐ferritic, and austenitic. The corrosion behavior of the alloying elements in pure form influences the corrosion properties of the stainless or nickel grades containing them. Some forms of corrosion are general corrosion, stress corrosion cracking, pitting corrosion, crevice corrosion, intergranular corrosion and galvanic Corrosion. This chapter presents tables on alloy composition of ferritic, martensitic, martensitic age hardening, duplex austenitic‐ferritic, and austenitic stainless steel. It also discusses the metallurgical aspects of alloy selection. The chapter explains some important differences between welding carbon steel and welding stainless steel, and discusses specific issues regarding duplex stainless steels and weld fillers for the high‐molybdenum alloys.
Aluminum Alloys
Authors: Kaufman J. G.
Published: February 2015

Aluminum is the most abundant metal and the third most abundant chemical element in Earth's crust, comprising over 8% of its weight. This chapter reviews the characteristics of aluminum alloys that make them so attractive and note the variety of applications in which they are used. It discusses the wrought alloys and cast alloys. The general corrosion behavior of aluminum alloys depends basically on three factors: (1) the stability of the oxide film, (2) the environment, and (3) the alloying elements. Cutting tool materials for machining aluminum alloys include water‐hardening steels, high‐speed steels, hard‐cast alloys, sintered carbides, and diamonds. The aluminum surface can be finished in more different ways than any other metal. The normal finishing operations fall into four categories: mechanical, chemical, electrochemical, and applied. There are at least two approaches to overviewing important applications of aluminum alloys: by alloy class, and by type of application.
Copper and Copper Alloys
Authors: Kundig Konrad J. A. , Weed Robert D.
Published: February 2015

Copper was among the first metals to be put into utilitarian service. The Unified Numbering System (UNS) is the accepted alloy designation system in North America for wrought and cast coppers and copper alloys. Identification is by five‐digit numbers preceded by the letter C. Preferred marine alloys include copper nickels, which exhibit the highest corrosion and erosion resistance among copper metals, and also offer relatively high strengths, and aluminum bronzes, which are stronger still, as well as ultrahigh‐strength beryllium copper, inhibited aluminum brass, phosphor bronzes, arsenical admiralty brass, and nickel silvers. Copper alloys that perform well in seawater are also often acceptable for use with industrial and process. Copper casting alloys are widely used in the manufacture of plumbing, electrical, and mechanical products and for bearings and industrial valves and fittings. Copper nickels, aluminum bronzes, silicon bronzes, manganese bronzes, and tin and phosphor bronzes should be considered for such environments.
Nickel and Its Alloys
Authors: Smith Gaylord D. , Baker Brian A.
Published: February 2015

Nickel alloys are used in a multiplicity of consumer applications, such as household appliances, electronics, and automotive components. The excellent ductility and malleability of nickel and nickel‐based alloys in the annealed condition make them adaptable to virtually all methods of cold fabrication. High‐nickel alloys are subject to surface oxidation unless heating is performed in a protective atmosphere or under vacuum. A protective atmosphere can be provided either by controlling the ratio of fuel and air to minimize oxidation or by surrounding the metal being heated with a prepared atmosphere. The most common protective atmosphere used in heating the nickel alloys is that provided by controlling the ratio between the fuel and air supplied to the burners. Nickel alloys are characterized by good weldability by a variety of common joining processes. Thin sheet is generally joined without filler metal (autogenous) using gas‐tungsten arc welding (GTAW) or plasma arc welding (PAW) processes.
Thermoplastics, Thermosets, and Elastomers—Descriptions and Properties
Authors: Peters Edward N.
Published: February 2015

This chapter focuses on properties of the base resins with very few additives other than stabilizers. Depending on the temperature, pressure, catalyst, and the use of a comonomer, three basic types of polyethylene (PE) can be produced: high‐density PE (HDPE), low‐density PE (LDPE), and linear low‐density PE (LLDPE). The three main categories of commercial polystyrene (PS) resins are crystal PS, impact PS, and expanded PS foam. Engineering thermoplastics comprise a special performance segment of synthetic plastics materials that offer enhanced properties. Typically high‐performance resins will be used in tough metal replacement applications or replacement of ceramic materials. Thermoset resins are generally highly filled with mineral fillers and glass fibers. Elastomers are polymers that can be stretched substantially beyond their original length and can retract rapidly and forcibly to essentially their original dimensions. Specialty rubbers offer higher performance over general‐purpose rubbers and find use in more demanding applications.
Composite Materials
Authors: Zweben Carl
Published: February 2015

Composites are important materials which are now used widely, not only in the aerospace industry, but also in a large and increasing number of commercial mechanical engineering applications, such as internal combustion engines; machine components; thermal management and electronic packaging; automobile, train, and aircraft structures and mechanical components, such as brakes, drive shafts, flywheels, tanks, and pressure vessels; dimensionally stable components; process industries equipment requiring resistance to high‐temperature corrosion, oxidation, and wear; offshore and onshore oil exploration and production; marine structures; sports and leisure equipment; ships and boats; and biomedical devices. The four primary categories of composites are polymer matrix composites (PMCs), metal matrix composites (MMCs), ceramic matrix composites (CMCs), and carbon matrix composites (CAMCs). Carbon‐carbon composites (CCCs) are the most important subclass of CAMCs. Composites also offer a number of significant manufacturing advantages over monolithic metals and ceramics. Composites are complex and heterogeneous material systems.
Overview of Ceramic Materials, Design, and Application
Authors: Nathan Katz R.
Published: February 2015

Engineering ceramics possess unique combinations of physical, chemical, electrical, optical, and mechanical properties. Consequently, many exciting new applications for the ceramic materials have emerged over the past several decades. Among the major commercial applications for these materials are: passive electronics; optronics/photonics; piezoceramics; mechanical; biomaterials; refractories; electrochemical and transparencies. This chapter provides a brief overview of how ceramics are processed and the ramifications of processing on properties. Next, a short discussion of the special issues that one encounters in mechanical design with brittle materials is presented. The chapter reviews several of the engineering applications of ceramics and glasses, which discuss some of the specific combinations of properties that have led design engineers to the selected material(s), follow. It provides how to obtain information on materials sources. Future growth in advanced ceramics utilization will be driven by organic growth in many existing applications and by expansion into new ones.
Electronic Materials and Packaging
Authors: Fackler Warren C.
Published: February 2015

Electronic packaging is a multidisciplinary process consisting of the physical design, product development, and manufacture required to transform an electronic circuit schematic diagram into functional electronic equipment. There are four basic categories of concern to the electronic packaging engineer, working from the external environment inward: exterior conditions, internal conditions, component environments and component requirements. Several computer‐aided design programs address electronic packaging design and development tasks. Most computer algorithms are adaptations of codes generated for other, related purposes (e.g., finite‐element techniques for structures, stresses, thermal analysis, fluid flow analysis, and flow visualization; solid‐modeling and drafting programs; printed circuit board design programs). Electronic packaging applications often fall into one or more of the following categories. They are equipment attachment, equipment racks, frames, and mounting structures, equipment and module enclosures, temperature control, mechanical joints, finishes, position‐sensitive assemblies, electrical contacts, and harsh‐environment endurance.
Quantitative Methods of Materials Selection
Authors: Farag Mahmoud M.
Published: February 2015

A variety of quantitative selection procedures have been developed to analyze the large amount of data involved in the selection process so that a systematic evaluation can be made. With concurrent engineering, materials and manufacturing processes are considered in the early stages of design and are defined as the design progresses from the concept to the embodiment and finally the detail stages. This chapter illustrates the progressive nature of materials and process selection and defines three stages of selection: initial screening, comparing and ranking alternatives, and selecting the optimum solution. It discusses these three stages of material and process selection in detail. The chapter presents a case study to illustrate the procedure. Although the materials and process selection is often thought of in terms of new product development, there are many other incidences where materials substitution is considered for an existing product. The chapter discusses issues related to materials substitution.
Stress Analysis
Authors: Fisher Franklin E.
Published: February 2015

This chapter begins by providing fundamental definitions of stress, strain, creep, fatigue, and resilience. It then discusses the impact of stress, strain and combined stresses on different types of beams, columns, cylinders, spheres, plates, springs and rotating elements. The safety factor for designing these elements and their design procedure are also discussed.
Resistive Strain Measurement Devices
Authors: Tuttle Mark
Published: February 2015

Methods of strain measurement can be roughly grouped into two major categories: those based on the behavior of light and those based on electronic devices. This chapter focuses on strain measurements obtained by monitoring resistance changes. This focus is appropriate because at present strain measurement via resistance strain gauges is by far the most widely used technique, although other methods (particularly digital image correlation (DIC)) are gaining in popularity. The chapter discusses the use of engineering shear strain. The most widely used resistive strain measurement device is certainly the resistance metal strain gauge and is originally known as “bonded wire strain gauges”. Strain gauge rosettes are commonly available in three forms: biaxial rosette (also known as a T‐rosette), rectangular rosette, and delta rosette. Liquid metal strain gauges can be used to measure very large strains. They are often used to measure strain in biological tissues such as ligaments or tendons.
Failure Models: Performance and Service Requirements for Metals
Authors: Collins J. A. , Potirniche G. P. , Daniewicz S. R.
Published: February 2015

This chapter summarizes the mechanical failure modes most commonly observed in practice followed by a brief description of each one. For uniaxial loading of a machine or structural element, the total elastic deformation of the member may be found by integrating the elastic strain over the length of the element. The two most widely accepted theories for predicting the onset of yielding are the distortion energy theory and the maximum shearing stress theory. Computer‐controlled fatigue testing machines are widely used in all modern fatigue testing laboratories. Three commonly used methods for extrapolating short‐time creep data to long‐term applications are the abridged method, the mechanical acceleration method, and the thermal acceleration method. Erosion corrosion is influenced by the velocity of the flowing corrosive medium, turbulence of the flow, impingement characteristics, concentration of abrasive solids, and characteristics of the metal alloy surface exposed to the flow.
Failure Modes: Performance and Service Requirements for Ceramics
Authors: Munz Dietrich
Published: February 2015

A reliable design of components requires the knowledge of the possible failure modes under service conditions and knowledge of the material properties describing these failure modes. The failure in ceramics starts from flaws introduced during fabrication or surface treatment. Due to the scatter in the size of the flaws, the strength also shows a large scatter, which is much larger than in metals. The different failure modes are characterized by material properties and relations between the applied loading in terms of stresses or stress intensity factors and the materials response in terms of lifetime or plastic deformation. The flaws leading to failure can be described as cracks. Therefore, the methods of fracture mechanics can be applied to describe the flaw extension behavior. The failure probability of components undermultiaxial loading can be calculated applying multiaxial Weibull theory, where the flaws are described as randomly orientated cracks.
Tribology Measurements
Authors: Sahoo Prasanta
Published: February 2015

Tribology deals with the technology of lubrication, control of friction, and prevention of wear. Successful design of machine elements depends essentially on the understanding of tribological principles. Wear particle analysis and industrial tribology form an important part of tribological measurement. Over the years different methods have been devised to study the topography of surfaces. This chapter presents a brief outline of some of the methods: surface profilometer, optical microscopy, and advanced techniques for surface topography evaluation. Two basic types of devices are commonly used for the measurement of friction force, viz., the piezoelectric force gauge and strain gauge transducer. The tribological behavior of any material depends on its material characteristics. The materials are in general characterized using four quantities: hardness, Young's modulus and the elasticity limit, toughness, and residual stresses. Characterization of a lubricant is an essential part of any study related to lubricated wear and friction.
Vibration and Shock
Authors: Rao Singiresu S.
Published: February 2015

For the analysis and design of mechanical and structural systems, it is essential that the analyst or the designer have a thorough understanding of the basic principles of vibration and shock. A physical system is to be replaced by a mathematical model in order to predict its vibration behavior. A study of the vibration characteristics of a single degree of freedom system is extremely important in the study of vibration and shock because the approximate or qualitative response of most systems can be determined by using a single degree of freedom model for the system. Most mechanical and structural systems have distributed mass, elasticity, and damping. These systems are modeled as multi‐(n)‐degree‐of‐freedom systems to facilitate analysis of their vibration behavior. A continuous vibratory system will have infinite degrees of freedom. Vibration and shock isolation denotes the storage of energy temporarily and its release in a different time relation.
Product Design for Manufacturing and Assembly
Authors: Lewis Gordon
Published: February 2015

Major changes in product design practices are occurring in all phases of the new product development process. These changes will have a significant impact on how all products are designed and the development of the related manufacturing processes over the next decade. The obvious goal of any new product development process is to turn a profit by converting raw material into finished products. Designing for manufacturing and assembly (DFM&A) is a technique for reducing the cost of a product by breaking the product down into its simplest components. All members of the design team can understand the product's assembly sequence and material flow early in the design process. The most beneficial outcome of DFM&A is to reduce part count in the assembly, which in turn will simplify the assembly process, lower manufacturing overhead, reduce assembly time, and increase quality by lessening the opportunities for introducing a defect.
Design‐for‐Environment Processes and Tools
Authors: Fitzgerald Daniel P. , Gogoll Thornton H. , Schmidt Linda C. , Herrmann Jeffrey W. , Sandborn Peter A.
Published: February 2015

Design for environment (DfE) is “the systematic consideration of design performance with respect to environmental, health, and safety objectives over the full product and process life cycle”. DfE is one of many possible design for X (DFX) activities that comprise concurrent engineering techniques that seek to address product life‐cycle concerns early in the design phase. Thus, it is similar to design for manufacturing (DFM) and design for assembly (DFA). This chapter reviews DfE tools, methods, and strategies that have been developed and implemented to help manufacturing firms create environmentally benign products. It identifies one way to create a DfE process, something that many manufacturing firms are now attempting to do, and discusses the use of this approach at a particular manufacturing firm. In manufacturing firms where the safety objectives and environmental objectives are quite different in scope, other types of DfE processes will be more effective.
Product Design and Manufacturing Processes for Sustainability
Authors: Jawahir I. S. , Wanigarathne P. C. , Wang X.
Published: February 2015

Sustainability requirements are based on the utilization of available, and the generation of new, resources for the needs of future generations. A relatively less‐known and significantly impacting element of sustainability is sustainable manufacture, which includes sustainable products, processes, and systems in its core. This integral role of sustainable manufacture, with its three major functional elements (innovative product development; value design, and manufacturing processes; and value creation and value recovery), all contributing to the sustained growth through economic sustainability component, has been discussed. The application of basic sustainability principles in product design and manufacture serves as a catalyst for sustainable products to emerge in the marketplace. This chapter presents a case study, which provides a description of how sustainability measures can be selected along with an approximate method for modeling these measures for optimizing machining processes for maximum sustainability. The machining processes are considered as a generic case for manufacturing processes.