bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Attentional Engines
Authors: Seeley William P.
Published: February 2020

What is it about art that can be so captivating? How is it that we find value in these often odd and abstract objects and events that we call artworks? My proposal is that artworks are attentional engines. They are artifacts that have been intentionally designed to direct attention to critical stylistic features that reveal their point, purpose, or meaning. My suggestion is that there is a lot that we can learn about art from interdisciplinary research focused on our perceptual engagement with artworks. These kinds of studies can reveal how we recognize artworks, how we differentiate them from other, more quotidian artifacts. In doing so they reveal how artworks function as a unique source of value. Our interactions with artworks draw on a broad base of shared artistic and cultural constitutive of different categories of art. Cognitive systems integrate this information into our experience of art, guiding attention, and shaping what we perceive. Our understanding and appreciation of artworks is therefore carried in our perceptual experience of them. Teasing out how this works can contribute valuable information to our philosophical understanding of art. Attentional Engines explores this interdisciplinary strategy for understanding art. It articulates a cognitivist theory of art grounded in perceptual psychology and the neuroscience attention and demonstrates its application to a range of puzzles in the philosophy of the arts, including questions about the nature of depiction, the role played by metakinesis in dance appreciation, the nature of musical expression, and the power of movies.
Seeking Salience
Authors: Seeley William P.
Published: February 2020

Chapter 1 evaluates the role played by aesthetics in the arts, argues that the shortcomings of neuroaesthetics emerge from conflating aesthetics with art, and introduces an alternative cognitivist model for understanding art. Artworks are communicative devices. They are artifacts designed to direct attention to formal-compositional features diagnostic for their point, purpose, or meaning. The communicative exchange between artists and consumers is, in turn, governed by a familiar set of Gricean conditions operative in communication and interpretation more generally. Artworks can therefore be understood as communicative events structured by a shared understanding of genre and stylistic categories.
Seeking Salience
Authors: Seeley William P.
Published: February 2020

Chapter 2 explores the role played by categorization processing in perceptual recognition and introduces a diagnostic recognition framework for engaging art derived from a biased competition model for selective attention. The environment is replete with information. Perceptual systems are limited capacity cognitive systems. Perceptual systems are by their very nature, therefore, selective. In ordinary contexts, task demands and general world knowledge are used to direct attention to task-salient features of the environment. In artistic contexts these task demands are constrained by shared knowledge of different categories of art which serve as recipes to direct attention to minimal sets of diagnostic compositional features that carry the content of a work. Neurophysiological evidence demonstrates that these psychological processes not only guide attention, but also shape perception. This in turn entails that psychology and neuroscience can contribute to an understanding of how an artwork carries and conveys its artistically salient content.
Musical Expression
Authors: Seeley William P.
Published: February 2020

Chapter 6 explores philosophical discussions about the nature of music expression. Musical works are inanimate artifacts. It has, as a result, been thought to be puzzling that listeners attribute expressive qualities to them. The chapter evaluates two alternative philosophical solutions to this puzzle: contour theory and embodied appraisal theory. Current research in psychology of music suggests that the conjunction of these two alternative theories provides a comprehensive model for how music carries and conveys information about the affective contours of ordinary behaviors. An appeal to facts about sensorimotor processing can in this case, as in the previous chapter, be used to dissolve a longstanding philosophical puzzle about art.
Staying Optimistic
Authors: Seeley William P.
Published: February 2020

Chapter 9 recapitulates the arguments and evidence from the previous chapters, summarizes the diagnostic recognition framework for engaging art, and sets forth a concluding argument for moderate optimism in cognitive science and aesthetics.
The Canon of Ancient Iranian Art
Authors: Colburn Henry P.
Published: February 2020

The canon of ancient Iranian art coalesced during the heyday of archaeological research in Iran during the 1950s and 1960s. Scholars sought to reconcile both excavated material from a series of type sites and unexcavated objects, with a sequence of historical and cultural phases from Proto-Elamite to Sasanian. Consequently, the canon has some notable weaknesses. First, the term “Iranian” can refer to geography or people, either of which excludes important material. Second, the periodization of the canon relies on Mesopotamian and Mediterranean history, which is not always a good fit for Iran. Third, the use of style to assign material to these periods relies on the problematic assumption that multiple artistic styles cannot coexist at the same time and place. This chapter argues that it is useful to adopt an approach that focuses instead on individual sites or micro-regions, thus better reflecting the richness and diversity of ancient Iranian art.
“Classical” versus “Ancient” in the Near Eastern Canon
Authors: Friedland Elise A.
Published: February 2020

Despite art historians’ inclination to expand the narrative of the Near East into the Graeco-Roman period, there is no published survey of the art and archaeology of the classical Near East. Likewise, handbooks of classical and general art history underrepresent the Levant. This chapter explores that lacuna through three canonical examples from the Levant, which are typically represented in these handbooks, and one canon-worthy example that is not. It addresses contributing factors to this lacuna: the dynamic politics of the Graeco-Roman Levant, disciplinary and historiographic biases, and the nature of the evidence. Finally, it exhorts specialists to publish a classical Near East survey representing the full range of sites, architecture, monuments, media, and styles from 330 bce to 636 ce. Without such a handbook, material culture from the region is rarely interpreted within its historical, political, and artistic contexts and is more often (mis)represented in the broader narrative of world art history.
The Canon of Ancient Near Eastern Glyptic on a Roll
Authors: Stein Diana L.
Published: February 2020

Once valued purely as objets d’art and gems of the ancient Near Eastern canon, seals are today integral to any investigation into ancient bureaucracies and their implications. While practical inquiries into seal use and design now adopt a holistic approach, thematic investigations are thwarted by long-standing assumptions about seals, their function, and the key to deciphering their imagery. Taking the “banquet scene” as an example, this chapter questions the basis for its conventional interpretation and reexamines the data from the viewpoint of its archaeological correlates. A longer perspective highlights the norm and suggests an alternative explanation that better fits the assembled evidence. This particular case also underscores the importance of glyptic (seals and sealings) as the longest continuous record of symbolic communication. To the extent that it revolves around man’s timeless quest to access, comprehend, and control what many perceive to be an alternate but ineffable reality, the glyptic corpus has a key role to play in updating the ancient Near Eastern canon.
The Canon of Ancient Near Eastern Palaces
Authors: Kertai David
Published: February 2020

This chapter identifies a list of ancient Near Eastern palaces that emerge as canonical across scholarly literature. The result is rather haphazard, with a palace’s canonical status being dependent on archaeological discovery and preservation rather than on the building’s ancient historical or architectural significance. Indeed, the study of ancient Near Eastern palaces has been dominated by a morphological approach, exemplified by the German tradition of Formengeschichte (“history of form”). Ignoring the specificities of particular times and places, this approach uses general typologies that create grand narratives of a timeless Oriental architecture. This approach has allowed an implicit set of theoretical and methodological assumptions to dominate scholarly discourse on ancient Near Eastern palaces. In response, after tracing the formation of the canon of palaces, this chapter questions the relevance of the resulting canon and ponders potential alternative approaches to ancient Near Eastern royal architecture.
How Ancient and Modern Memory Shapes the Past
Authors: Nadali Davide
Published: February 2020

Ancient Near Eastern state agencies that produced monumental art and architecture and crafted rare works out of luxury materials were essentially materializing their own interpretations of reality and thereby producing memories. Because elite memories were rendered into tangible forms and images, they dominated and endured. Thus, ruling bodies curated their particular memories through a range of canonical sites, buildings, monuments, and artworks, which they would have viewed as most representative of their power and legitimacy. Modern canons of ancient Near Eastern art and architecture are an indirect legacy of antiquity’s broken and biased record. Modern aesthetic and political agendas have isolated certain archaeological finds and elevated them to canonical status as representatives of a past best suited to modern needs. This chapter aims to detangle the ancient and modern canons, and, using the Assyrians as a case study, proposes a new memory-based paradigm for canon construction.
Conceptualizing the Past in Museum Exhibitions of Ancient Egyptian and Near Eastern Art
Authors: Kreiter Rachel P.
Published: February 2020

Should Egypt be exhibited as part of the ancient Near East? This chapter considers the museological place of objects that cannot currently be accommodated in either the Egyptian or ancient Near Eastern canons. First, the chapter broadly defines the traits shared by objects in the Egyptian art canon and argues that museum displays have been primarily responsible for its formation. Then a selection of exhibitions that have incorporated Egyptian material with that of the Near East and traditional African art are considered in order to demonstrate the benefits of an international approach to display. The conclusion is that, as a powerful technology of knowledge production, a curatorial vision that integrates cross-cultural and international strategies into the display of permanent collections would encourage a broadening of the types of objects included in regional and global canons.
The Lucrative Business of the Cyrus Cylinder
Authors: Abdi Kamyar
Published: February 2020

This chapter focuses on the Cylinder of Cyrus the Great (c. 600–530 bce) of Persia. More commonly known as the “Cyrus Cylinder,” this archaeological find housed in the British Museum is about 22 centimeters long, made of baked clay, and covered in cuneiform writing that has been noted by biblical scholars to corroborate the story of Cyrus’s liberation of the Jewish people from Babylonian captivity. Since the mid-twentieth century, it has been (mis/ab)used as a political tool to promote Iranian national identity. With its exhibition in Iran in 2010 and in the United States in 2013, it has also become a commodified icon in a lucrative international business.
Kick It
Authors: Brennan Matt
Published: February 2020

The drum kit—the combination of kick drum, snare drum, and cymbals—has provided the pulse of popular music from before the dawn of jazz up to the present day pop charts. This book is a provocative social history of the instrument that looks closely at key innovators in the development of the kit: inventors and manufacturers like the Ludwig and Zildjian dynasties, jazz icons like Gene Krupa and Max Roach, rock stars from Ringo Starr to Keith Moon, and popular artists who haven't always got their dues as drummers, such as Karen Carpenter and J Dilla. Addressing a seeming contradiction – the centrality of the drum kit on the one hand, and the general disparagement of drummers on the other—this book makes the case for the drum kit’s role as one of the most important and transformative musical inventions of the modern era. Going beyond its purely musical history, it uses the instrument to replay the wider history of the United States and to chart the rise of the drum kit’s global economic and cultural influence. Tackling the history of race relations, global migration, and the changing tension between high and low culture, it shows how the drum kit, drummers, and drumming helped change modern music—and society as a whole—from the bottom up.
Working drummers, musical labour, role playing, and authorship
Authors: Brennan Matt
Published: February 2020

This chapter examines drumming as a form of musical labour. It documents the establishment of different roles the drummer is expected to play in different contexts, from session work in the recording studio to the work performed by rock stars onstage. It also considers the globalization of drum kit production in the postwar era and the rise of East Asian manufacturers such as Pearl, Tama, and Yamaha. Finally, it considers the plight of the drummer when it comes to receiving credit as a songwriter, and how the history of copyright law has influenced the perception of drummers and the remuneration they can expect for their work.
Indispensable drummers, drum machines, and record production
Authors: Brennan Matt
Published: February 2020

This chapter explores attempts to replace drummers with new technologies, but also the gradual move of the drum kit—both acoustic and synthesized—from the margins to the center of pop record production from the 1970s to the present. It examines the development of recording the drum kit through the multi-tracking era and into the digital production era. It also discusses the important role the drum kit played in the creation of reggae, Afrobeat, hip-hop, disco, and dance music. It charts the rise of drum machines, digital samplers, augmenting the drum kit, and drumming without drummers.
Innovation
Authors: Gordon Eric , Mugar Gabriel
Published: February 2020

This chapter introduces the concept of civic innovation, which is distinct from the more commonly understood market innovation. Instead of moving quickly and disrupting markets through the introduction of novelties, civic innovators use novelties to change organizational cultures, and build publics around common cause. The chapter introduces four primary activities of civic innovation: network building, holding space, distributing ownership and persistent input. Drawing on two case studies, the Chicago Police Data Project and the Boston Student Rights App, the chapter shows how people are putting these activities into practice and reshaping how innovation happens. The chapter reviews popular conceptualizations of innovation, especially as they emerge from Silicon Valley, and describes why innovating in a civic context comes with different demands.
Didactic Poetry of Mergen Gegeen
Authors: Ujeed Uranchimeg
Published: February 2020

Mergen Gegeen’s popular poetry and songs are intended to popularize Buddhist teaching among the laity. “A Teaching on the Maṇi” is about impermanence of lives. Nothing can help when someone dies other than relying on Buddha Dharma and recite the maṇi mantra. “A Human Life Difficult to Obtain” speaks of the preciousness and rarity of a human rebirth and meeting with the Dharma. It encourages people to dedicate themselves to the practice of Buddhism and set themselves onto the Bodhisattva Path in order to attain Buddhahood. “Saṃsāra” warns the audience of the ripening of karma, sufferings of human life, and of the dangers of youthful negligence and ignorance. It encourages the audience to generate virtue, abandon sins, and progress on the stages of the path. “Supreme Śākyamuni” conveys Buddhist knowledge by recounting the Buddha’s life story
Oral Narratives from the Early Twentieth Century
Authors: Gecse Adrienn
Published: February 2020

The stories introduced in this chapter tell about the life of various monks, the teachers of the storyteller who was the then-ninety-two-year-old G. Sukhbat in Erdenetsogt district of Bayankhongor Province. Through the narratives we get a glimpse of the early twentieth-century Mongolia, when religion and religious values became worthless or rather dangerous in the eyes of those in power. Western principles came to the front, became superior, and traditional culture was eliminated for its outdatedness and primitivity. Because religion was considered the main carrier of traditional Mongolian culture, neither monks nor their followers and monasteries could escape the punishment. Various sources quote somewhat differing figures, but undoubtedly, due to the so-called Modern Mongolia project, tens of thousands of people lost their lives in the purges. The 1990s meant a huge transformation into a free society and the rediscovery of traditions and religion. Because of the circumstances, monks and others followed the traditional way of preserving their heritage that is through keeping the knowledge within for future generations to come, similarly to the stories told as follows. They did not get written down, and they emerged to the surface and became more widely known only after the passing of the danger. Only thanks to the strength and persistence of monks and laypeople could these stories emerge to be learned from.
The Internal Regulations of Gandan Monastery
Authors: Tsultemin Uranchimeg
Published: February 2020

The chapter provides a translation of the first nine folios of the “Internal Regulations of Gandan Monastery in Ulaanbaatar” written in Classical Mongolian in 1925. To date, this is the only monastic constitution jayig (Tib. bca’ yig) of Ikh Khüree (Cl. M. Yeke küriye), the main seat of the Jebtsundampa Khutugtus, known to us. As this text was written shortly upon the foundation of the People’s Republic of Mongolia (1924–1992), it testifies to the prompt reforms undertaken by the socialist government toward religion and its institutions. While the main content addresses the temples in both parts of former Ikh Khüree—Züün Khüree and Gandan—the title, by its clear reference to exclusively Gandan as the Monastery in Ulaanbaatar, indicates that the reforms began with the immediate separation of religion from politics. Even though the main content focuses on the details of rituals, monks’ duties, and daily routines of Ikh Khüree’s temples, which primarily follow Géluk scholastic models and curricula, the authors use explicit language to instruct subordination of religious constituents to the socialist government. One wonders whether this deliberate start was in anticipation of the upcoming measures that would gradually eradicate the Mongolian Buddhism and its culture.
Introduction
Authors: Carlson Hasler Laura
Published: February 2020

The style of Ezra-Nehemiah has confounded generations of readers. This chapter reviews the ways in which biblical scholars over the last century have maligned this text, and outlines the author’s argument that the concept of an archive forms an alternative way to encounter it.
“These Were Their Number”
Authors: Carlson Hasler Laura
Published: February 2020

Chapter 3 conducts a detailed study of the archival forms of the citations in Ezra-Nehemiah. It reviews the three major types of cited documents in these texts—imperial decrees, letters, and lists of people, places, and objects—arguing that through these citations, Ezra-Nehemiah takes on the look of an archive. This archival form explains the otherwise uneven and disruptive collection of documents that pervade the book, disrupting narrative coherence. The chapter argues that the act of citation is less about authorizing this account or symbolizing the fulfillment of imperial or prophetic promises and much more about the reestablishing a community through building an archive. Citation provides a way to assemble an archive made entirely out of text. This is a phenomenon termed “archival historiography.”
Resisting Oblivion
Authors: Carlson Hasler Laura
Published: February 2020

Chapter 4 compares a phenomenon, termed “archival historiography,” with the historiographical forms exhibited by several versions of the story of Esther. This comparison, made more complex by Esther’s multiple Greek versions and significant later additions, shows that Esther approaches archival form, without fully imitating it. This similarity is more apparent in the extant Greek versions of Esther than in the Bible’s Hebrew text, as the former adds citations of documents that the Hebrew version lacks. The differences between Esther’s and Ezra-Nehemiah’s relationships with documents can be explained through each story’s disposition toward their colonial contexts. In short, while Ezra-Nehemiah imagines survival based on textual gathering and reclamation, Esther pins its hopes on textual counterclaim and dissemination.
Reading Scriptures as Spaces
Authors: Carlson Hasler Laura
Published: February 2020

Chapter 5 returns to the question of what may be accomplished by the performance, as it were, of archival historiography. This chapter argues that Ezra-Nehemiah’s archival historiography both signals and, by virtue of its collection, performs movement toward sociopolitical recovery after the losses of exile. The narrative of Ezra-Nehemiah deals heavily in loss. Through citation, however, its archival form becomes a dynamic tool in recovery efforts. Reassembling a collection through texts becomes a critical innovation on that path toward re-collecting—and, in some cases, re-creating—memory. In Ezra-Nehemiah, archive becomes the historiographical script that choreographs the recovery of memory and reveals a resuscitated political body after the losses of exile. In this way, the concept of archival historiography enables us to see modes of history writing beyond the binaries of narrative coherence and incoherence.
Epilogue
Authors: Carlson Hasler Laura
Published: February 2020

This chapter examines the broader implications of the intersection between text and archive. It compares the term “archival historiography” with other iterations of the archiving styles in literature, considers other biblical literature that might be illuminated by the term, and explores how thinking critically about the connection between space and text might reshape the means by which we evaluate literature, ancient and modern.
Australianama
Authors: Khatun Samia
Published: February 2020

Australian deserts remain dotted with the ruins of old mosques. Beginning with a Bengali poetry collection discovered in a nineteenth-century mosque in the town of Broken Hill, Samia Khatun weaves together the stories of various peoples colonized by the British Empire to chart a history of South Asian diaspora.
Australia has long been an outpost of Anglo empires in the Indian Ocean world, today the site of military infrastructure central to the surveillance of 'Muslim-majority' countries across the region. Imperial knowledges from Australian territories contribute significantly to the Islamic-Western binary of the post- Cold War era. In narrating a history of Indian Ocean connections from the perspectives of those colonized by the British, Khatun highlights alternative contexts against which to consider accounts of non-white people.
Australianama challenges a central idea that powerfully shapes history books across the Anglophone world: the colonial myth that European knowledge traditions are superior to the epistemologies of the colonized. Arguing that Aboriginal and South Asian language sources are keys to the vast, complex libraries that belie colonized geographies, Khatun shows that stories in colonized tongues can transform the very ground from which we view past, present and future.
The Book of Books
Authors: Khatun Samia
Published: February 2020

Examining past ‘misreadings’ of a copy of Kasasol Ambia in the Australian mining town of Broken Hill that has long been mislabeled a Quran in Australian history books, this chapter challenges one of the central problems of English language historiography today: The systematic subjugation of colonised knowledges to produce dead objects and artifacts. Examining the Indian Ocean geography that the Kasasol Ambia circulated I piece together the contours of colonial-modern historical storytelling in South Asia and Australia. Placing Australia within histories of the Indian Ocean world, I approach this arena as a key terrain of Anglo empires and a site of ongoing epistemic struggle. Showing that the Kasasol Ambia can offer clues for how to use colonised people’s knowledge traditions to think, theorise and understand the Indian Ocean world, this chapter develops a framework for producing anti-colonial knowledes about the region.
Seven Voyages of Khawajah Muhammad Bux
Authors: Khatun Samia
Published: February 2020

Reading a seafarer’s travelogue that circulates today in Urdu and English, this chapter examines seven of Khawajah Muhammad Bux’s voyages. Beginning his life as a lascar at the bottom of the racial hierarchy of a British ship, Bux was a wealthy merchant by the end of his days in 1920s Lahore. He recounted a lengthy family history to his scribe that was published recently in Urdu as Lahore Ka Sindbad (Sindbad of Lahore), and as ‘Memoirs of Khawajah Muhammad Bux’ in English. Placing the text within a wider world of Indian Ocean circulations of narratives, I examine the path the text lays out for future generations of South Asians crossing the seas.
The Camel and the Prophecy
Authors: Khatun Samia
Published: February 2020

Moving from the ‘Dreaming’ stories that structure Aboriginal geographies to Muslim practices of dream interpretation in Beltana, Chapter 5 examines the Ahmadi variety of Islam that flowered along Australian camel tracks. Established in Punjab in the 1880s, the Ahmadiyya movement grew as its founder issued prophecy after prophecy following vivid dream after dream in Urdu, Persian, Arabic and occasionally English. Piecing together the traces Ahmadi dreams left in Australian newspapers, I plot a practice of dream interpretation that circulated across the Indian Ocean during the era of camel transportation.
Come Out, Come Out, Wherever You Are
Authors: Saguy Abigail C.
Published: February 2020

This chapter traces the origin of the term coming out to gay men in pre–World War II urban communities, who spoke of coming out into gay society. It recounts how, by the 1970s, coming out had become a political tactic by which people revealed their sexual orientation to friends, neighbors, and co-workers or—in the case of celebrities—more publicly via the mass media in an effort to challenge harmful stereotypes and gain sympathy. It reviews how, in the 1980s and 1990s, coming out was set up in explicit relation to the metaphor of the closet and how the mantra “Come Out, Come Out, Wherever You Are” became a demand for members of sexual minorities to declare their sexual orientation—bringing forth the “closet case” and “outing.” It considers critiques of the imperative to come out and arguments that gay men and lesbians have moved “beyond the closet.”
Coming Out of Glass Closets
Authors: Saguy Abigail C.
Published: February 2020

This chapter discusses coming out as fat. It shows how fat lesbian feminists, who were already steeped in talk of coming out as lesbian, first extrapolated from that experience to talk of coming out as fat. It argues that coming out as fat is less about disclosing one’s size than refusing to downplay it in the hopes that others will not notice it. It means politicizing body size in order to challenge negative stereotypes and stand up against weight-based oppression. This chapter uses the case of coming out as fat to consider the broader question of the role visibility plays in coming out. It argues that coming out has never been only about revealing a hidden identity. It is about proudly reclaiming this identity. Thus community and pride—and not just disclosure—are an integral part of coming out.
Introduction
Authors: LeMoine Rebecca
Published: February 2020

This chapter discusses existing interpretations of the treatment of foreigners in Plato’s dialogues. The view that Platonic political thought is xenophobic remains prominent in both popular accounts and the scholarly literature, but there is reason to question the traditional narrative. First, recent historical work shows that Athenian attitudes toward foreigners were more mixed than was previously believed. Plato, then, may well have held a positive conception of foreigners. Second, the analysis shows why quoting lines out of the dramatic contexts of the dialogues is problematic. If one of Plato’s characters speaks disparagingly of foreigners, that does not make Plato xenophobic. The chapter proposes instead a close reading of Plato’s dialogues using the techniques of literary analysis. It presents original data on the use of terminology related to foreigners throughout the Platonic corpus, and explains the process of selecting which dialogues to analyze.
The Panharmonic Music of the Piraeus
Authors: LeMoine Rebecca
Published: February 2020

This chapter examines the treatment of foreigners in Plato’s Republic. It argues that by giving the dialogue a diverse setting and cast of characters, Plato indicates the importance of cross-cultural engagement in provoking examinations of justice. As the drama unfolds, Plato demonstrates this by depicting foreigners and metics helping the dialogue’s Athenian characters recognize the discordance within the Athenian belief that one should seem just, but be unjust. Although this philosophy was initially the backbone of Athenian imperialism, eventually citizens came to use it on each other, with the help of the sophists’ teachings. As the dialogue proceeds, the incongruity between Socrates’ deeds (visiting a diverse place, worshipping a non-Greek goddess, applauding a non-Greek procession, and engaging in an all-night discussion with foreigners) and the city he and his interlocutors develop in speech (which excludes the foreign and treats non-Greeks as enemies) serves to prompt reflection on the tension found in Greek attitudes toward barbarians.
Civic Myths through Immigrant Voices
Authors: LeMoine Rebecca
Published: February 2020

This chapter examines the treatment of foreigners in Plato’s Menexenus. The Menexenus appears to offer some of the most striking evidence of Platonic xenophobia, as it features Socrates delivering a mock funeral oration that glorifies Athens’s exclusion of foreigners. When readers play along, however, with Socrates’ exhortation to imagine the oration through the voice of its alleged author, Aspasia, Pericles’ foreign mistress, the oration becomes ironic or dissonant. This dissonance arises in part because Aspasia, a foreigner, speaks disparagingly of foreigners. Yet it also arises because Aspasia is the metic mother of an Athenian citizen, even though her speech praises the pure-blooded, autochthonous nature of Athenians. This chapter thus expands on the central argument that cross-cultural engagement exposes contradictions in the civic beliefs of Athenians by showing how the intersection of national origin and gender can magnify this effect.
Building Better Social Programs
Authors: Stoesz David
Published: February 2020

Evidence-based policymaking has, in recent decades, become a focus of program innovation in social care, engaging foundations, universities, as well as state and federal governments. Rigorous research, epitomized by randomized controlled trials, has become the benchmark for demonstrating efficacy and efficiency in social programming. Building Better Social Programs situates evidence-based policymaking with respect to the welfare state, describes key organizations driving the evidence-based movement, and proposes innovations designed to extend benefits to the working class. Interviews with leaders in the movement animate the discussion. Building Better Social Programs will be essential reading for faculty, program managers, foundation program officers, and research students.
A Refundable Volunteer Tax Credit
Authors: Stoesz David
Published: February 2020

The depopulation of small towns and rural communities could be ameliorated by a Refundable Volunteer Tax Credit (RVTC) that allows mayors and county commissioners to authorize reimbursement of citizens who volunteer to provide essential services, such as public safety, libraries, building and road maintenance, etc. Pegged at the minimum wage, RVTCs would ensure minimal support for schools, police and fire departments, ambulance services, and the like. In so doing, an RVTC would correct for the disproportionate advantage that cities have enjoyed in charitable contributions, which are encouraged by the tax code, in favor of rural America.
In$ync
Authors: Stoesz David
Published: February 2020

In$ync bridges higher education and employers preparing “good jobs” for young adults who are pursuing training in high tech. Despite a norm that all youth should complete college in order to secure a well-paying job almost as many “good jobs” paying at least $60,000 a year do not require an undergraduate degree, compared to those that do. Using the Los Alamos National Lab and Northern New Mexico College as a case study, In$ync demonstrates how Associate degrees can propel individual upward mobility as well as community development. The model is similar to other ventures, such as the Federation for Advanced Manufacturing Education and Credential Engine.
“Kant’s Great Service to Philosophy”
Authors: Ng Karen
Published: February 2020

This chapter introduces the purposiveness theme from Kant’s Critique of Judgment. It argues that Kant’s innovation consists in the claim that purposiveness defines the space of judgment and that purposiveness plays a much larger role in Kant’s philosophy than is usually assumed. It begins by considering Kant’s theory of judgment in the first Critique, arguing that the problem of purposiveness is already present there in a nascent form. It then turns to the third Critique, arguing that internal purposiveness (an organic model) has priority over external purposiveness (a designer-artifact model) in connection with judgment’s powers, exploring Kant’s conception of internal purposiveness of form. The concept of a natural purpose (Naturzweck) is central for understanding Kant’s expanded understanding of conceptual form. The chapter also discusses Kant’s antinomy of teleological judgment and argues against the need for positing the idea of an intuitive understanding in the resolution of that antinomy. The chapter concludes by responding to an initial objection against Hegel’s claim that purposiveness is constitutive—namely, a worry about hylozoism.
Hegel’s Speculative Identity Thesis
Authors: Ng Karen
Published: February 2020

This chapter explores Hegel’s speculative identity thesis, defending the importance of Schelling for Hegel’s appropriation of Kant’s purposiveness theme. It provides an interpretation of Hegel’s first published text, the Differenzschrift, and analyzes the relation between “subjective subject-objects” and “objective subject-objects” as an early presentation of Hegel’s philosophical method. In addition to defending the contribution of Schelling, this chapter provides an interpretation of Fichte’s contribution via his notion of the self-positing activity of the I. It then turns to a reading of Hegel’s Phenomenology of Spirit, demonstrating that the notion of “negativity” can be understood along the lines of speculative identity. The chapter argues that Hegel presents life as constitutive for self-consciousness by way of a three-dimensional argument: the employment of an analogy; a transcendental argument; and a refutation of idealism argument. It concludes by briefly outlining how the speculative identity thesis is carried forward in the Science of Logic.
The Objectivity of the Concept
Authors: Ng Karen
Published: February 2020

Chapter 6 explores the transition to “Objectivity,” continuing the investigation into the role of the Gattung as an objective universal. Hegel’s chapters on “Mechanism,” “Chemism,” and “Teleology,” establish the genus not only as an objective context of predication but also as the necessary context of objective existence, determining the degree to which self-determining activity can be realized. This chapter defends Hegel’s employment of the ontological proof and argues that the being or existence that can be inferred from the Concept is being as self-individuating activity. The processes of mechanism, chemism, and external purposiveness all fall short of self-determining activity, which is marked by descriptions of striving and violence. This chapter also discusses what Hegel calls “objective judgment,” and considers its relation to the practical syllogism. Hegel’s analysis reveals that there is an irreducible role for judgment as an act of self-determination and self-constitution, an activity that is immediately manifest in the activity of life.
Life as the Immediate Idea
Authors: Ng Karen
Published: February 2020

Chapter 7 explores Hegel’s chapter on “Life,” focusing on the discussion of logical life as “original judgment.” It argues that the Idea must be understood in two senses: as ground and as “doubled.” Returning to a passage from Faith and Knowledge, this chapter argues that the doubling of the Idea is Hegel’s attempt to replace Kant’s doctrine of the two stems of knowledge, where life and cognition take the place of intuitions and concepts. To understand how this works, this chapter provides a detailed account of Hegel’s chapter on “Life,” suggesting that it provides an a priori schema that at once enables and constrains the activities of self-conscious cognition. The three processes of logical life—corporeality (Leiblichkeit), externality (Äußerlichkeit), and genus (Gattung)—are interpreted as three a priori form-constraints presupposed by the actualization of self-conscious cognition—three processes without which cognition would be “empty,” or without actuality.
Sequence recompletion
Authors: Hoey Elliott M.
Published: February 2020

This chapter describes an interactional practice called “sequence recompletion,” which is a way that participants in a lapse deflect speakership from themselves. The emergence of lapses is sketched, as well as the types of problems they can engender. Sequence recompletion is then analyzed as a recurrent solution to some of those problems that occur in lapses. The analysis is based on a collection of cases of sequence recompletion found in ordinary conversational interactions. The collection is analyzed quantitatively with respect to lapse duration, the distribution of the practice across different settings, and features of the sequence recompletion turn. The qualitative analysis describes five methods by which sequence recompletion is done and the differences between those methods. The analysis concludes with a deviant case. The practice of sequence recompletion is then summarized and discussed with relation to turn-taking, sequence organization, and unit completion.
Lapses as social objects
Authors: Hoey Elliott M.
Published: February 2020

This chapter summarizes and discusses the prior chapters and then relates the findings to other domains of social research. The findings of the four empirical studies are summarized and placed into a broader perspective. The lapse environment is characterized as a particular place in talk where particular practical issues come to the fore. Those practical issues that are characteristic of lapses are then related to the range of behaviors that occur in lapses. The findings as a whole are then discussed with relation to other research on silence. Particular attention is given to so-called awkward silence, how lapses can be generative of embarrassment, and how this is grounded in agency and turn-taking. The chapter ends with a discussion of lapses in comparative or cross-cultural perspective.
Theorizing Informal Organizations
Authors: Roger Charles B.
Published: February 2020

This chapter presents the central theory the book explores. After a brief review of prevailing functionalist and power-based approaches, it argues that to understand when informal organizations will be established one must explain, first, how states form preference as to the legal designs of international organizations, and second, whose preferences are likely to hold sway when states join each other at the negotiating table. The theory of preference formation emphasizes the importance of domestic institutional structures, levels of domestic constraints, and levels of politicization. The account of preference aggregation processes, or bargaining, emphasizes the structure of the bargaining scenario and the distribution of power. The final part of the chapter outlines the more dynamic theory of informality that is offered. This account explains how domestic shifts within powerful states—especially growing polarization and the rise of the regulatory state—have projected outward and reshaped the global system.
Analyzing the Origins of Informality
Authors: Roger Charles B.
Published: February 2020

This chapter presents the results of a quantitative analysis designed to test the observable implications of the two-step theory. The chapter begins with an overview of the dependent variable and the sample of international organizations that is used. The chapter then explains how the central domestic politics, functionalist, and power-based variables have been operationalized. The results of the statistical analysis are presented next, along with sensitivity analyses designed to check the robustness of the results. Overall, this provides strong support for the two-step theory explored in the book. In the final part of the chapter, the dynamic accounts of each theory are weighed against one another. This analysis reveals that shifts within the domestic political arenas of powerful states have been the biggest source of informality. Changing cooperation problems have played a critical role, too, but it appears that shifting power and interests have not influenced this trend in a significant way.
The Implications of Informality
Authors: Roger Charles B.
Published: February 2020

This chapter summarizes the main conclusions of the book, draws out its empirical and theoretical implications, and reflects on the broader policy debate about informal organizations. It begins by integrating the different pieces of evidence that have been presented in the book to assemble a more complete picture of the origins of informality. The main theoretical and empirical implications are then discussed. These primarily relate to current theorizing about informal organizations, research on the broader informal order these bodies are a part of, and the study of international relations and international organizations, broadly conceived. With respect to the policy debate, the chapter argues that the theory provides reasons to doubt some of the more optimistic claims made about informal organizations. Informal bodies are, in fact, less likely to be well matched with the problems they are supposed to solve.
Introduction
Authors: Randall Nicola P. , Smith Barbara
Published: February 2020

This chapter describes what agroecosystems are, and considers the importance of studying the biology of agroecosystems. A brief introduction to the extent and general characteristics of agroecosystems is provided, before describing the scope and organization of the rest of the book.
Soils
Authors: Randall Nicola P. , Smith Barbara
Published: February 2020

This chapter gives a basic introduction to soil formation and fundamental soil processes in agroecosystems. The types of soils found in agroecosystems and their importance for agriculture is explored, with a principal focus on soil biodiversity, i.e. soil-dwelling organisms, their variety and function, and the interaction between soil biology, agriculture, and food production. The chapter describes some of the issues associated with soils in agroecosystems. These include interactions between agricultural practices and soil erosion and soil quality issues such as salinization and desertification. The major challenges to maintaining ‘healthy’ soils on productive land are outlined, and approaches and techniques for managing soils described.
Water (Hydrology)
Authors: Randall Nicola P. , Smith Barbara
Published: February 2020

This chapter outlines the biological impacts of water use and pollution related to agricultural systems. Topics include drainage, irrigation, water harvesting, and the water cycle (e.g. under polytunnels and greenhouses) and how management of water for agriculture links with biology. Water availability as a limiting factor for agriculture is discussed, particularly in relation to arid areas (e.g. salinization, biological impacts of collecting water for storage for agriculture in arid areas). Outputs from agriculture and potential biological impacts are also explored (e.g. nitrates, phosphates, pesticides, bacterial pathogens, sediment in water). Potential management tools for water use and protection in relation to farming are introduced.
Towards a Concept of Interactive Political Leadership
Authors: Sørensen Eva
Published: February 2020

Chapter 3 examines what political leadership means in the age of governance. In unison, theories of metagovernance and recent theories of political leadership provide the necessary building blocks for developing a concept of interactive political leadership that captures what political leadership implies in a context where the members of the political community take an active part in governing society. While metagovernance theory highlights the role of hands-off and hands-on forms of governance in regulating self-governance, new theories of political leadership provide a helpful redefinition of the role of power and the relationship between leaders and followers in political leadership. These important insights pave the way for the development of a concept of interactive political leadership and a specification of nine tasks for political leaders in multi-actor policy-making. The chapter concludes by listing a number of challenges and dilemmas facing politicians who aspire to become interactive political leaders.
Democratic Perspectives on Interactive Political Leadership
Authors: Sørensen Eva
Published: February 2020

Representative democracy is in transition in theory as well as in practice, and this transition affects the way we think about political leadership and democratic representation. New theories of democracy challenge traditional understandings of what it entails to represent the people, and a mushrooming of new forms of political participation destabilizes traditional views of the role of citizens in democratic decision-making. Chapter 4 shows how these theoretical and empirical developments, which are partially triggered by inherent tensions in democratic thought, promote a turn towards interactive forms of political leadership. Interactive political leadership can potentially alleviate the tensions in democratic thought and strengthen the input legitimacy of representative democracy in times of declining trust in politicians. A turn to interactive political leadership is no panacea. It triggers new dilemmas and challenges for elected politicians.