bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Extrusion cooking technology: Principal mechanism and effect on direct expanded snacks – An overview
Authors: TIWARI AJITA , S. K. Jha
Published: April 2017

The snack industry is one of the fastest growing food sectors and is an important contributor within the global convenience food market. Nowadays snacks and convenience foods are also consumed regularly in India. Properly designed convenience foods can make an important contribution to nutrition in societies where social changes are altering traditional patterns of food preparation. Extrusion cooking as a popular means of preparing snack foods based on cereals and plant protein foodstuff has elicited considerable interest and attention over the past 30 years. Several studies on the extrusion of cereals and pulses, using various proportions, have been conducted because blends of cereals and pulses produce protein enriched products. Special importance is placed on the physicochemical and chemical modifications of protein, starch and dietary fibre. Extruded products can be categorized for a particular application based on their functional properties such as water absorption and water solubility index, expansion ratio, bulk density and viscosity of the dough. Therefore, the literature was reviewed for effect of extrusion processing on product parameters, and nutritional and anti-nutritional properties of extruded products.
Effect of inulin on dough and biscuit quality produced from different flours
Authors: S. Blanco Canalis Maria , E. Leon Alberto , D. Ribotta Pablo
Published: April 2017

One of the methods of improving the nutritional profile of baked-goods is the incorporation of dietary fibre (DF) to the formulation. However, DF retains more water than wheat flour which, affects dough rheological properties and thus the final product quality. Flour is the main ingredient in biscuits and contributes to the baked texture and shape of biscuits. There are large differences in quality among the flours from wheat cultivars and among non-wheat flours used for biscuit production. In previous works, different dietary fibres were tested and inulin was found to have a positive quality effect on biscuits made from an all-purpose wheat flour without the need of introducing significant changes in dough properties. To know whether these results are extended to different types of flours that can be used for biscuit production, this paper aimed to analyse the effects of different levels of inulin incorporation on dough and biscuits quality made from three different wheat flours and one triticale flour. Chemical and physic-chemical characterization of the flour samples was performed and compared (moisture, ashes, gluten, solvent retention capacity (SRC) and protein content). Inulin was incorporated to biscuits formulation in two levels: 6 and 12% (wheat replacement). Dough and biscuits quality was measured by spread rate during baking and biscuit factor, texture and surface colour. Inulin incorporation increased dough spreading and biscuit factor and decreased biscuit hardness. The enhancing effect of inulin was observed in all flour. The results confirmed the effect of inulin on biscuits obtained with all flour assayed, despite the differences in flour quality that was tested.
Optimization of microwave vacuum drying parameters for germinated lentils based on starch digestibility, antioxidant activity and total phenolic content
Authors: Nongmaithem Robbarts , Meda Venkatesh
Published: April 2017

The aim of this study was to optimize the processing parameters of pulse mode microwave-vacuum drying of germinated green and red lentils (CDC Greenland and CDC Maxim) and investigate the changes in their total phenolic content (TPC), total antioxidant activity (TAA) and In-vitro starch digestibility (SD). The lentils were germinated for 5 days and dried by a pulse mode microwavevacuum method, using 2 s to 8 s out of 10 s pulsed mode at 2000W microwave power and varying the vacuum pressure level between 15 and 45 kPa. In-vitro starch digestibility increased significantly with increased microwave power level. The TPC and TAA appeared to vary distinctively in the two varieties of selected lentils. Vacuum pressure levels did not significantly (p>0.05) affect any responses. Green lentils could be dried at 8 s microwave power and 45 kPa vacuum pressure and red lentils could be dried at 5.5 s microwave power and 42.19 kPa vacuum pressure. The microwave-vacuum drying showed great potential for the drying of germinated lentils. 
In vitro investigation of antioxidant activities of Launea taraxacifolia and Crassocephalum rubens
Authors: B. Borokini Funmilayo , Labunmi Lajide
Published: April 2017

Launea taraxacifolia and Crassocephalum rubens are among many wild, underutilized and under cultivated vegetables in Nigeria that are at risk of extinction. Total flavonoid contents (TFC), total phenolic contents (TPC), and antioxidant activities of different concentrations (1-5 mg ml−1 ) were evaluated; using in vitro assays to assess the scavenging properties of 2, 2-diphenyl-1-picryl hydrazyl (DPPHRSP), nitric oxide (NORSP) and hydroxyl (OHRSP). Phenolic profiles of the alcoholic extracts were characterized using high-performance liquid chromatography techniques. The results revealed higher TFC (mg/100g RE) in aqueous (6.06±0.02-78.79±0.01) than alcohol extracts (with methanol 0.93±0.01—12.73±0.04, and with ethanol -0.85±0.01–7.70±0.03). In a similar trend, OHRSP (%) was higher in aqueous extracts (40.83±0.10–91.74±0.19) than alcoholic extracts (with methanol - 11.67±0.3–30.83±0.06; and with ethanol -14.42±0.06-40.27±0.05). TPC (mg/100g GAE) which was higher in alcoholic extracts (with methanol -21.48±0.01–133.20±0.16 and with ethanol -9.45±0.01– 59.73±0.02) than aqueous extracts (14.83±0.01–52.64±0.03) was in agreement with the trend observed for NORSP (28.24±0.05-151.76±0.08 for methanolic extracts, 21.99±0.13–49.93±0.04 for ethanolic extracts and 38.47±0.11–86.15±0.05 for aqueous extracts). DPPHRSP was also higher in alcoholic extracts (methanolic -22.81±0.01-48.41±0.05 and ethanolic–14.53±0.01-62.68±0.07) than aqueous extracts (13.66±0.13–42.86±0.03). TFC, TPC and antioxidant activities showed concentration dependent increase and strong positive correlation with TFC (r= 0.926 – 0.997and r= 0.432 – 1.000) and TPC (r= 0.825 – 0.999 and r= 0.473 - 0.994) for L. taraxacifolia and C. rubens respectively. Caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, ellagic acid, quercetin and kaempferol were identified as major phenolic components in the extracts. The vegetables have high antioxidant potential for promoting good health; which could be attributed to the identified phytochemicals in them.
Rheological properties of traditional balsamic vinegar: New insights and markers for objective and perceived quality
Authors: Falcone Pasquale , Sabatinelli Elisa , Lemmetti Federico , Giudici Paolo
Published: April 2017

The molecular structure of Traditional Balsamic Vinegar (TBV) undergoes shear-induced and timedependent jamming transitions due to the high solute concentration and self-assembling phenomena of high molecular size melanoidins with very-long relaxation times (12 years at least or more than 25). The purpose of this work was to perform a descriptive and quantitative evaluation of relationships between rheological properties, vinegar composition, and perceptual assessment of sensory properties according to the official sensory procedure. With this aim, vinegars having quality traits matching legal requirements for the PDO designation were analyzed for their reducing sugars (glucose and fructose), volatile acidity, fixed acidity, pH, Brix degree, and density as well as for their flow behaviour and dynamic viscosity over a wide range of shear rates. Results showed that flow behaviour of TBV was affected by jamming properties over wide-scale ranges of shear rate producing flow instability below a shear rate of 60 s−1 . Homogeneous, continuous flow was found at medium-high shear rates with thickening and/or thinning traits. A common onset for the structure scaling was mathematically estimated to occur close to when the density was 1.32 gmL−1 . Comparative analysis of rheological, compositional and sensory properties suggested that the colloidal jamming of the vinegar melanoidins dominated the total olfactive and gustative stimuli, and determined the classification of the vinegars that had a higher dynamic viscosity but more homogeneous flow as being of the highest commercial quality category. A robust statistical model was proposed encoding for the top-down decision-making process for quality assignment according to the official sensory procedure, using composition and flow properties as predictor variables.
Comparison of Maternal and Fetal Outcomes in Pregnancies with Preterm Premature Rupture of Membrane (PPROM) Terminating in 34th or 36th Gestational Weeks: A Clinical Trial
Authors: Abbasalizadeh Shamsi , Bagherifard Rana , Mahdavi Farshad , Abbasaizadeh Fatemeh , Raouf Shiva
Published: April 2017

present  study,  we aimed at studying maternal  and  neonatal  outcomes  in  patients with terminated pregnancy in 34th  and  36th  gestational  weeks. Materials and methods: 40 pregnant women, with PPROM who underwent pregnancy termination at 34 group (A) or 36 group (B) gestational weeks, were included to be evaluated and compared for maternal and neonatal outcomes. Type of delivery, birth complications, chorioamnoionitis, endometritis, sepsis, maternal mortality, infant gender, birth weight, Apgar scores, respiratory distress syndrome, Meconium-stained amniotic fluid, NICU admission, abruption, umbilical cord prolapse, maternal and neonatal outcomes were compared between the two groups.  Results: There was no statistically significant difference between the two groups regarding maternal age, level of education, or gravity. The percentage of cases with birth weight between 1500 and 2500 g was significantly higher in group A P<0.001). Frequency of NICU admission in group A was significantly more than group B (P<0.001). In conclusion: Termination of pregnancy at 36 weeks compared to 34 weeks in pregnant women with PPROM is preferred in terms of neonatal outcomes and it is recommended; also, there might be no preference in terms of  maternal outcomes.
Direct imaging of APP proteolysis in living cells
Authors: Parenti Niccoló , Del Grosso Ambra , Antoni Claudia , Cecchini Marco , Corradetti Renato , Pavone Francesco S. , Calamai Martino
Published: April 2017

Alzheimer’s disease is a multifactorial disorder caused by the interaction of genetic, epigenetic and environmental factors. The formation of cytotoxic oligomers consisting of Aβpeptide is widely accepted as being one of the main key events triggering the development of Alzheimer’s disease. Aβpeptide production results from the specific proteolytic processing of the amyloid precursor protein (APP). Deciphering the factors governing the activity of the secretases responsible for the cleavage of APP is still a critical issue. Kits available commercially measure the enzymatic activity of the secretases from cells lysates,in vitro. By contrast, we have developed a prototypal rapid bioassay that provides visible information on the proteolytic processing of APP directly in living cells. APP was fused to a monomeric variant of the green fluorescent protein and a monomeric variant of the red fluorescent protein at the C-terminal and N-terminal (mChAPPmGFP), respectively. Changes in the proteolytic processing rate in transfected human neuroblastoma and rat neuronal cells were imaged with confocal microscopy as changes in the red/green fluorescence intensity ratio. The significant decrease in the mean red/green ratio observed in cells over-expressing theβ-secretase BACE1, or theα-secretase ADAM10, fused to a monomeric blue fluorescent protein confirms that the proteolytic site is still accessible. Specific siRNA was used to evaluate the contribution of endogenous BACE1. Interestingly, we found that the degree of proteolytic processing of APP is not completely homogeneous within the same single cell, and that there is a high degree of variability between cells of the same type. We were also able to follow with a fluorescence spectrometer the changes in the red emission intensity of the extracellular medium when BACE1 was overexpressed. This represents a complementary approach to fluorescence microscopy for rapidly detecting changes in the proteolytic processing of APP in real time. In order to allow the discrimination between theα- and theβ-secretase activity, we have created a variant of mChAPPmGFP with a mutation that inhibits theα-secretase cleavage without perturbing theβ-secretase processing. Moreover, we obtained a quantitatively robust estimate of the changes in the red/green ratio for the above conditions by using a flow cytometer able to simultaneously excite and measure the red and green fluorescence. Our novel approach lay the foundation for a bioassay suitable to study the effect of drugs or particular conditions, to investigate in an unbiased way the the proteolytic processing of APP in single living cells in order, and to elucidate the causes of the variability and the factors driving the processing of APP.
Elucidating the diet of the island flying fox (Pteropus hypomelanus) in Peninsular Malaysia through Illumina Next-Generation Sequencing
Authors: Aziz Sheema Abdul , Clements Gopalasamy Reuben , Peng Lee Yin , Campos-Arceiz Ahimsa , McConkey Kim R. , Forget Pierre-Michel , Gan Han Ming
Published: April 2017

There is an urgent need to identify and understand the ecosystem services of pollination and seed dispersal provided by threatened mammals such as flying foxes. The first step towards this is to obtain comprehensive data on their diet. However, the volant and nocturnal nature of bats presents a particularly challenging situation, and conventional microhistological approaches to studying their diet can be laborious and time-consuming, and provide incomplete information. We used Illumina Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) as a novel, non-invasive method for analysing the diet of the island flying fox (Pteropus hypomelanus) on Tioman Island, Peninsular Malaysia. Through DNA metabarcoding of plants in flying fox droppings, using primers targeting therbcLgene, we identified at least 29 Operationally Taxonomic Units (OTUs) comprising the diet of this giant pteropodid. OTU sequences matched at least four genera and 14 plant families from online reference databases based on a conservative Least Common Ancestor approach, and eight species from our site-specific plant reference collection. NGS was just as successful as conventional microhistological analysis in detecting plant taxa from droppings, but also uncovered six additional plant taxa. The island flying fox’s diet appeared to be dominated by figs (Ficussp.), which was the most abundant plant taxon detected in the droppings every single month. Our study has shown that NGS can add value to the conventional microhistological approach in identifying food plant species from flying fox droppings. At this point in time, more accurate genus- and species-level identification of OTUs not only requires support from databases with more representative sequences of relevant plant DNA, but probably necessitatesin situcollection of plant specimens to create a reference collection. Although this method cannot be used to quantify true abundance or proportion of plant species, nor plant parts consumed, it ultimately provides a very important first step towards identifying plant taxa and spatio-temporal patterns in flying fox diets.
Melanogenesis‐Inhibitory and Cytotoxic Activities of Limonoids, Alkaloids, and Phenolic Compounds from Phellodendron amurense Bark
Authors: Akihisa Toshihiro , Yokokawa Satoru , Ogihara Eri , Matsumoto Masahiro , Zhang Jie , Kikuchi Takashi , Koike Kazuo , Abe Masahiko
Published: April 2017

Four limonoids, 1 – 4, five alkaloids, 5 – 9, and four phenolic compounds, 10 – 13, were isolated from a MeOH extract of the bark of Phellodendron amurense (Rutaceae). Among these, compound 13 was new, and its structure was established as rel‐(1R,2R,3R)‐5‐hydroxy‐3‐(4‐hydroxy‐3‐methoxyphenyl)‐6‐methoxy‐1‐(methoxycarbonylmethyl)indane‐2‐carboxylic acid methyl ester (γ‐di(methyl ferulate)) based on the spectrometric analysis. Upon evaluation of compounds 1 – 13 against the melanogenesis in the B16 melanoma cells induced with α‐melanocyte‐stimulating hormone (α‐MSH), four compounds, limonin (1), noroxyhydrastinine (6), haplopine (7), and 4‐methoxy‐1‐methylquinolin‐2(1H)‐one (8), exhibited potent melanogenesis‐inhibitory activities with almost no toxicity to the cells. Western blot analysis revealed that compound 6 inhibited melanogenesis, at least in part, by inhibiting the expression of protein levels of tyrosinase, TRP‐1, and TRP‐2 in α‐MSH‐stimulated B16 melanoma cells. In addition, when compounds 1 – 13 were evaluated for their cytotoxic activities against leukemia (HL60), lung (A549), duodenum (AZ521), and breast (SK‐BR‐3) cancer cell lines, five compounds, berberine (5), 8, canthin‐6‐one (9), α‐di‐(methyl ferulate) (12), and 13, exhibited cytotoxicities against one or more cancer cell lines with IC50 values in the range of 2.6 – 90.0 μm. In particular, compound 5 exhibited strong cytotoxicity against AZ521 (IC50 2.6 μm) which was superior to that of the reference cisplatin (IC50 9.5 μm).
Hybrid finite difference/finite element immersed boundary method
Authors: Griffith Boyce E , Luo Xiaoyu
Published: April 2017

The immersed boundary method is an approach to fluid‐structure interaction that uses a Lagrangian description of the structural deformations, stresses, and forces along with an Eulerian description of the momentum, viscosity, and incompressibility of the fluid‐structure system. The original immersed boundary methods described immersed elastic structures using systems of flexible fibers, and even now, most immersed boundary methods still require Lagrangian meshes that are finer than the Eulerian grid. This work introduces a coupling scheme for the immersed boundary method to link the Lagrangian and Eulerian variables that facilitates independent spatial discretizations for the structure and background grid. This approach uses a finite element discretization of the structure while retaining a finite difference scheme for the Eulerian variables. We apply this method to benchmark problems involving elastic, rigid, and actively contracting structures, including an idealized model of the left ventricle of the heart. Our tests include cases in which, for a fixed Eulerian grid spacing, coarser Lagrangian structural meshes yield discretization errors that are as much as several orders of magnitude smaller than errors obtained using finer structural meshes. The Lagrangian‐Eulerian coupling approach developed in this work enables the effective use of these coarse structural meshes with the immersed boundary method. This work also contrasts two different weak forms of the equations, one of which is demonstrated to be more effective for the coarse structural discretizations facilitated by our coupling approach.
Geochronological, geochemical, and Sr–Nd–Hf isotopic studies of the Aketas adakitic granites in Eastern Junggar: Petrogenesis and tectonic implications
Authors: Zhang Chen , Luo Qun , Zhang Xin , Liu Luofu , Liu Dongdong , Wang Pengfei , Yang Keji , Wang Jian , Zhao Yan
Published: April 2017

The Aketas adakitic granites are located in the Dulate Arc, in the northern part of the eastern Junggar region, Xinjiang (NW China). In this study, we determined the zircon U–Pb isotopic compositions, bulk‐rock Sr–Nd–Hf isotopic compositions, and major and trace elements of Aketas granite samples. These samples show a narrow range in SiO2 content (65.05–67.19 wt.%) as well as high Al2O3 (14.95–18.09 wt.%; A/CNK = 0.96–1.08), Na2O + K2O (7.94–8.42 wt.%), and CaO (2.05–3.48 wt.%) content. Similar to modern adakites, the samples have high Na2O (4.55–5.61 wt.%) and Sr (554.00–915.00 ppm) content, high Sr/Y ratios (85.10–127.38), and low Y (6.51–7.12 ppm) and Yb (0.42–0.79 ppm) content. The low initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios (0.70298–0.70350) and positive εNd(t) (+5.1 to +7.0) and εHf(t) values (+10.4 to +14.9) suggest that the Aketas adakitic granites were derived from the partial melting of lower crustal material in a subduction setting. This is further evidenced by high Mg# values (42.00–65.67), high SiO2 and K2O content, and low Cr (<17.30 ppm), Co (<9.62 ppm), and Ni (<12.60 ppm) content. Bidirectional subduction occurred between eastern Junggar and the Altai Orogen during the Late Carboniferous, and in combination with other exposed Palaeozoic granites in eastern Junggar, the Aketas adakitic granites may represent the latest record of this subduction event. The emplacement of the Aketas adakitic granites implies that eastern Junggar was involved in southward subduction at 308 ± 2.3 Ma; therefore, the final collision between the Siberian and Kazakhstan blocks likely occurred between 310.3 and 307 Ma. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Thoughts from the Provinces
Authors: Hamdan Ali
Published: April 2017

“Place matters,” geographers are fond of saying. And it seems this sentiment is more and more embraced by scholars in other disciplines. The current outpour of writing in Middle East studies that draws on geographic themes goes a long way toward showing how “spatial form can alter the future course of the very histories which have produced it.” At the same time, geography in Middle East studies is at risk of being provincialized over the long term, instead of taken seriously as a source for new approaches to studying the region. For the so-called spatial turn to endure, it must be transformed from a vague thematic concern to a more self-conscious analytical perspective, one that reveals the many competing visions and practices that constitute space. More reflection on the purposes, limits, and politics of thinking geographically in research on the Middle East is required.
Loan translations versus direct loans: The impact of English on European football lexis
Authors: Bergh Gunnar , Ohlander Sölve
Published: April 2017

Football language may be regarded as the world's most widespread special language, where English has played a key role. The focus of the present study is the influence of English football vocabulary in the form of loan translations, contrasted with direct loans, as manifested in 16 European languages from different language families (Germanic, Romance, Slavic, etc.). Drawing on a set of 25 English football words (match, corner, dribble, offside, etc.), the investigation shows that there is a great deal of variation between the languages studied. For example, Icelandic shows the largest number of loan translations, while direct loans are most numerous in Norwegian; overall, combining direct loans and loan translations, Finnish displays the lowest number of English loans. The tendencies noted are discussed, offering some tentative explanations of the results, where both linguistic and sociolinguistic factors, such as language similarity and attitudes to borrowing, are considered.
Withaferin-A kills cancer cells with and without telomerase: chemical, computational and experimental evidences
Authors: Yu Yue , Katiyar Shashank P , Sundar Durai , Kaul Zeenia , Miyako Eijiro , Zhang Zhenya , Kaul Sunil C , Reddel Roger R , Wadhwa Renu
Published: April 2017

Maintenance of telomere length is the most consistent attribute of cancer cells. Tightly connected to their capacity to overcome replicative mortality, it is achieved either by activation of telomerase or an Alternative mechanism of Lengthening of Telomeres (ALT). Disruption of either of these mechanisms has been shown to induce DNA damage signalling leading to senescence or apoptosis. Telomerase inhibitors are considered as potential anticancer drugs but are ineffective for ALT cancers (~15% of all cancers). Withaferin-A (Wi-A), a major constituent of the medicinal plant, Withania somnifera (Ashwagandha), has been shown to exert anti-tumour activity. However, its effect on either telomerase or ALT mechanisms has not been investigated. Here, by using isogenic cancer cells with/without telomerase, we found that Wi-A caused stronger cytotoxicity to ALT cells. It was associated with inhibition of ALT-associated promyelocytic leukemia nuclear bodies, an established marker of ALT. Comparative analyses of telomerase positive and ALT cells revealed that Wi-A caused stronger telomere dysfunction and upregulation of DNA damage response in ALT cells. Molecular computational and experimental analyses revealed that Wi-A led to Myc-Mad mediated transcriptional suppression of NBS-1, an MRN complex protein that is an essential component of the ALT mechanism. The results suggest that Wi-A could be a new candidate drug for ALT cancers.
Role of chiral quantum Hall edge states in nuclear spin polarization
Authors: Yang Kaifeng , Nagase Katsumi , Hirayama Yoshiro , Mishima Tetsuya D. , Santos Michael B. , Liu Hongwu
Published: April 2017

Resistively detected NMR (RDNMR) based on dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) in a quantum Hall ferromagnet (QHF) is a highly sensitive method for the discovery of fascinating quantum Hall phases; however, the mechanism of this DNP and, in particular, the role of quantum Hall edge states in it are unclear. Here we demonstrate the important but previously unrecognized effect of chiral edge modes on the nuclear spin polarization. A side-by-side comparison of the RDNMR signals from Hall bar and Corbino disk configurations allows us to distinguish the contributions of bulk and edge states to DNP in QHF. The unidirectional current flow along chiral edge states makes the polarization robust to thermal fluctuations at high temperatures and makes it possible to observe a reciprocity principle of the RDNMR response. These findings help us better understand complex NMR responses in QHF, which has important implications for the development of RDNMR techniques.
Real-time Crystal Growth Visualization and Quantification by Energy-Resolved Neutron Imaging
Authors: Tremsin Anton S. , Perrodin Didier , Losko Adrian S. , Vogel Sven C. , Bourke Mark A.M. , Bizarri Gregory A. , Bourret Edith D.
Published: April 2017

Energy-resolved neutron imaging is investigated as a real-time diagnostic tool for visualization and in-situ measurements of “blind” processes. This technique is demonstrated for the Bridgman-type crystal growth enabling remote and direct measurements of growth parameters crucial for process optimization. The location and shape of the interface between liquid and solid phases are monitored in real-time, concurrently with the measurement of elemental distribution within the growth volume and with the identification of structural features with a ~100 μm spatial resolution. Such diagnostics can substantially reduce the development time between exploratory small scale growth of new materials and their subsequent commercial production. This technique is widely applicable and is not limited to crystal growth processes.
Complementary spin transistor using a quantum well channel
Authors: Park Youn Ho , Choi Jun Woo , Kim Hyung-jun , Chang Joonyeon , Han Suk Hee , Choi Heon-Jin , Koo Hyun Cheol
Published: April 2017

In order to utilize the spin field effect transistor in logic applications, the development of two types of complementary transistors, which play roles of the n- and p-type conventional charge transistors, is an essential prerequisite. In this research, we demonstrate complementary spin transistors consisting of two types of devices, namely parallel and antiparallel spin transistors using InAs based quantum well channels and exchange-biased ferromagnetic electrodes. In these spin transistors, the magnetization directions of the source and drain electrodes are parallel or antiparallel, respectively, depending on the exchange bias field direction. Using this scheme, we also realize a complementary logic operation purely with spin transistors controlled by the gate voltage, without any additional n- or p-channel transistor.
The level of climate-change mitigation depends on how humans assess the risk arising from missing the 2°C target
Authors: Hagel Kristin , Milinski Manfred , Marotzke Jochem
Published: April 2017

The established international 2°C target stipulates that global warming should be limited to below 2°C compared with pre-industrial periods; this has emerged as the most prominent interpretation of how to avoid dangerous climate change. The 2°C target was confirmed and made legally binding in the Paris agreement at the “climate summit” (Conference of Parties 21, COP21) in December 2015. But despite agreement on the target, greenhouse-gas emissions are unlikely to fall soon and fast enough to meet the target, raising the question of whether this target needs to be revised or reinterpreted, and also of why there is insufficient cooperation toward emissions reduction despite the risk of dangerous climate change. Previous theoretical and experimental research has suggested that cooperation towards emissions reduction is undermined by uncertainty about the threshold marking the transition to dangerous climate change. However, even if the threshold and hence the location of the target are known precisely, uncertainty ensues because of an unknown risk that arises from missing the collective target. How humans deal with this risk has not been investigated experimentally. Here we investigate how individuals behave under different risk scenarios if a collective target is missed. We perform economics experiments framed as a collective-risk social dilemma and directly examine the extent to which human subjects trade pay-out reduction for risk. We show that a reduced assessed risk arising from missing the collective target leads to reduced contributions towards the target; but that risk reduction causes the subjects almost to maximize their individual pay-out by balancing the effort to reach the target against the risk posed by missing it. We provide quantitative support for the argument that group contributions toward the collective target can be interpreted as proportional to mitigated warming. We conclude that reinterpretation of the 2°C target as less strict causes additional warming. However, our subjects deal effectively with a risk of dangerous climate change that they assess to depend gradually on global warming. Our results suggest that, if the additional warming is judged to be acceptable, a less strict interpretation of the 2°C target might support finding a trade-off between the effort put into climate mitigation and the risk of dangerous climate change.
Deletion of inositol-requiring enzyme-1α in podocytes disrupts glomerular capillary integrity and autophagy
Authors: Kaufman Daniel Robert , Papillon Joan , Larose Louise , Iwawaki Takao , Cybulsky Andrey V.
Published: April 2017

Inositol-requiring enzyme-1α (IRE1α) is an endoplasmic reticulum (ER)–transmembrane endoribonuclease kinase that plays an essential function in extraembryonic tissues during normal development and is activated during ER stress. To address the functional role of IRE1α in glomerular podocytes, we produced podocyte-specific IRE1α-deletion mice. In male mice, deletion of IRE1α in podocytes resulted in albuminuria beginning at 5 mo of age and worsening with time. Electron microscopy revealed focal podocyte foot-process effacement in 9-mo-old male IRE1α-deletion mice, as well as microvillous transformation of podocyte plasma membranes. Compared with control, glomerular cross-sectional and capillary lumenal areas were greater in deletion mice, and there was relative podocyte depletion. Levels of microtubule-associated protein 1A/1B-light chain 3 (LC3)-II expression and c-Jun N-terminal kinase-1 phosphorylation were decreased in IRE1α-deletion glomeruli, in keeping with reduced autophagy. Deletion of IRE1α exacerbated glomerular injury in anti–glomerular basement membrane nephritis. In cell culture, IRE1α dominant-negative mutants reduced the physiological (basal) accumulation of LC3B-II and the size of autophagic vacuoles but did not affect ER-associated degradation. Thus IRE1α is essential for maintaining podocyte and glomerular integrity as mice age and in glomerulonephritis. The mechanism is related, at least in part, to the maintenance of autophagy in podocytes.
1. Empires and migration
Authors: Hsu Madeline Y.
Published: April 2017

The first Asians—Filipino “Luzon Indians” on a Spanish galleon—arrived on the North American continent in the late sixteenth century. Through periods of conquest and capitalism, and then colonization and adaptation, almost one million people from China, Japan, the Philippines, Korea, and India arrived seeking opportunities to better their fortunes and improve their lives. “Empires and migration,” outlines the key historical periods that facilitated this mobilization. It also explains that Asian immigration challenged the United States’ constitutional claims of equality for all, highlighting the question of which racial groups could claim citizenship, triggering America’s first attempts to systematically control its borders and limit the rights of immigrants and visitors.
1. What is populism?
Authors: Mudde Cas , Kaltwasser Cristóbal Rovira
Published: April 2017

“What is populism?” explains the ideational approach taken by this VSI. Populism is positioned within the context of liberal democracy. It is a label seldom claimed by people or organizations themselves. Instead, it is ascribed to others, most often with a negative connotation. Populism is defined as a thin-centered ideology that considers society to be ultimately separated into two homogeneous and antagonistic camps, “the pure people” versus “the corrupt elite,” and which argues that politics should be an expression of the volonté générale (general will) of the people. The three core concepts—the people, the elite, and the general will—are then explained in more detail.
4. Technological change
Authors: Roland Alex
Published: April 2017

‘Technological change’ presents three perspectives on the nature of change in military technology: research and development, dual-use technologies, and military revolutions. World War II ushered in two momentous transformations in the world’s relationship with military technology: the nuclear revolution and modern, institutionalized, routinized research and development. Non-weapons dual-use technologies include fortifications, roads, steam engines, the internal combustion engine, electric and electronic communication, and computers. Weapons dual-use technologies include the Schöningen spear, the bow and arrow, the chariot, nuclear power, explosives, and automatic firearms. Military revolutions have been divided into two arcs of analysis: the role of military revolutions in history and the revolution in military affairs.
6. Words in the world
Authors: Reynolds Matthew
Published: April 2017

Translation happens everywhere all the time. But when it comes to the public and commercial world of printed books, political documents, diplomatic negotiations, business transactions, and world news, translation is strictly limited. Official rules and market forces combine to determine who can do it, how it is done, and which languages it involves. ‘Words in the world’ looks at translation in the international book trade, in official organizations such as the United Nations and the European Union, and in mainstream global news. It also considers how computers are used for translation and how the internet has allowed crowd translation to flourish.
Savannas and human evolution
Authors: Furley Peter A.
Published: April 2017

Savannas have helped to shape the evolutionary pageant of human history and the dispersal of our ancestors across the continents. Although there is considerable controversy over the causes and mechanisms of this evolutionary story, ecological, environmental, and genetic evidence suggests that human-like primates first arose in savanna sites within Africa. These habitats offered more open conditions of grassland and woodland that are believed to have stimulated the development of specific physical attributes and social behaviour leading to advanced and mobile societies. ‘Savannas and human evolution’ considers the origins of savannas, the origins and movements of people, and their dispersal and migration around the globe to Australia and the Americas.
2. Time of day matters
Authors: Foster Russell G. , Kreitzman Leon
Published: April 2017

Numerous studies have shown that a broad range of activities—both physical and cognitive—vary across the 24-hour day. The blood pressure and heart rate of a human shows striking day–night variations. Simply, an organism is set up to function differently at different times of the day. ‘Time of day matters’ outlines the different human chronotypes—the different preferred waking and sleeping times of humans—and explains concepts such as ‘social jet lag’. There are optimal times of day for physical and cognitive activities, and chronotherapy has also shown that the administration of medication at different times of day can have an important impact on efficacy.
3. When timing goes wrong
Authors: Foster Russell G. , Kreitzman Leon
Published: April 2017

While time of day, interacting with an individual’s chronotype, can have an important impact upon performance and health, severe disruption of the circadian system adds another level of complexity and severity. ‘When timing goes wrong’ considers the effects of flying across multiple time zones, resulting in jet lag, and shift work on human health. Sleep and circadian rhythm disruption is almost always associated with poor health. Four circadian rhythm sleep disorders have been identified: advanced sleep phase disorder, delayed sleep phase disorder, freerunning, and irregular sleep timing. Sleep and circadian rhythm disruption in mental illness and neurodegenerative disease is also discussed.
2. Alternative projects of nationhood
Authors: Bull Anna Cento
Published: April 2017

After the First World War, the country was torn apart by competing visions of what modern Italy should stand for and which values should bind Italians together. Against a background of high inflation, high unemployment, widespread social protests, soaring trade-union membership, and militancy, liberals, Catholics, socialists, nationalists, and fascists vied with each other for popular support. ‘Alternative projects of nationhood’ outlines Benito Mussolini’s fascist movement describing its failure as a totalitarian project. It then describes the rise and decline of the Christian democratic take on modern nationhood after the Second World War, before looking at the Second Republic’s modernization project epitomized by Silvio Berlusconi, which embraced consumerism and media culture.
Epilogue
Authors: Clifton Timothy
Published: April 2017

Our understanding of gravity has developed rapidly over the past century. This began with Einstein’s revolutionary new theory and continued with sustained developments in both our understanding of the mathematics and observations that can be used to probe it. This VSI outlines how new gravitational effects have been predicted and observed in the Solar System; in exotic astrophysical systems; and in the Universe as a whole. The ‘Epilogue’ explains that although this VSI attempts to give some idea of the elegance of the concepts involved, and the details of the wondrous physics that results, it is inevitably left incomplete. The final words on gravity have yet to be written.
3. The evolving scholarship of futures studies
Authors: Gidley Jennifer M.
Published: April 2017

Many futurists over the years came to the realization that attempting to predict the future, based on scientific positivism, was not the most productive way to approach futures studies in our complex world. ‘The evolving scholarship of futures studies’ describes four different futures approaches that have followed on from the positivist predictive-empirical future: critical futures, cultural futures, participatory futures, and integral futures. Over the last five decades futures scholars have developed new language, concepts, and methods to articulate the breadth and depth of the futures studies field and have made important contributions to advancing our ideas about the complex relationship between time consciousness and futures.
4. Crystal balls, flying cars, and robots
Authors: Gidley Jennifer M.
Published: April 2017

In spite of the substantial body of futures literature with its conceptual and methodological innovation and engagement with real world issues, misconceptions abound in academic, professional, and policy circles. The term ‘future’ is increasingly used in these circles without reference to the published futures studies material. ‘Crystal balls, flying cars, and robots’ considers general misunderstandings and the trivialization of futures research by the media. Futurists are not crystal ball gazers; they are not all involved in high-technology, flying machines, space-technology, and science fiction; and future studies is not dominantly involved with robotics, drones, and artificial intelligence. The concepts of transhumanism, posthumanism, and dehumanization are also discussed.
6. Grand global futures challenges
Authors: Gidley Jennifer M.
Published: April 2017

The challenges we face for near and long-term futures have been called a crisis of crises. ‘Grand global futures challenges’ synthesizes these complex and interconnected major global futures challenges into twelve clusters of issues across three domains: environmental, geo-political, and socio-cultural. The first mind-map includes current trends likely to create major problems for futures of humanity. The second includes counter-trends, twists, and surprises. These alternative futures have potential to mitigate, disrupt, or reverse the dominant trends and enable others to imagine and create alternatives to the disturbing trends being forecast. Finally, the focus is on three Grand Global Challenges: growing urbanization, lack of (or inadequate) education, and the climate crisis.
6. A mirror held up to nature
Authors: Cottrell Geoff
Published: April 2017

‘A mirror held up to nature’ looks at some of today’s remarkable optical and infrared large telescopes, highlighting the technologies that made them possible and the science results that have revealed galaxies at vast distances and, closer to home, exoplanets. The quest for telescopes with ever greater light-gathering power never stops. The convergence of several diverse technologies has, in the last few decades, produced the Very Large Telescopes. Three new mirror technologies in the 1970s and 1980s—segmented, honeycomb, and meniscus types—allied with active control of mirror shape (active optics), the use of altazimuth mounts, and computing technology transformed telescope production and their abilities. Adaptive optics is also described.
8. Space telescopes
Authors: Cottrell Geoff
Published: April 2017

The last seven decades have seen telescopes launched into space, vastly enhancing the crispness of the images they produce and expanding the range of observable wavelengths to include UV, X- and gamma-ray wavelengths. ‘Space telescopes’ shows how the information gleaned from them has enabled us to make new discoveries and form much more complete astrophysical models. It documents the development of space telescopes—including the Hubble Space Telescope—and highlights key discoveries, such as cosmic microwave background radiation, the results of which have profound implications for cosmology. The Standard Cosmological Model is known as ‘lambda cold dark matter’, containing three main ingredients: baryonic matter, cold dark matter (the unknown form of gravitating matter), and the mysterious dark energy.
9. The next telescopes
Authors: Cottrell Geoff
Published: April 2017

Each question that telescopes have helped answer has led to new questions: what is dark matter and dark energy? How did the first galaxies form? Are there habitable, Earth-like exoplanets? To address these questions, a new generation of telescopes are being built. ‘The next telescopes’ describes some of these, including the three extremely large infrared/optical telescopes, equipped with adaptive optics systems, due to start operating in the next decade. Other new telescopes discussed are the Square Kilometre Array, a radio telescope that will soon be the world’s largest scientific instrument, and the James Webb Space Telescope due to be launched in 2018, which is the 100 times more powerful successor to the Hubble Space Telescope.
8. The future of home
Authors: Fox Michael Allen
Published: April 2017

There are indefinitely numerous new ideas and technologies that might develop and improve the quality of life if humans have the good sense to protect their planet’s health, learn to live in peace with one another, and choose to share resources and opportunities more equitably. Only in this way will there be a future that is worth living in. ‘The future of home’ reviews the central ideas of home and the concept that home is universal and essential for grounding ourselves in the world. We can expect homes—whatever their type—to exist and continue serving the same needs in the future as they have always done.
1. Calvinism: what’s in a name?
Authors: Balserak Jon
Published: April 2017

The roots of Calvinism are found in 16th-century Zurich and Geneva, which became major centres for Reformation under the guidance of Ulrich Zwingli, John Calvin, and Heinrich Bullinger. They believed that Aurelius Augustine (354–430), who stressed the greatness and incomprehensibility of God, was the pre-eminent interpreter of Christian theology. ‘Calvinism: what’s in a name?’ explains the general philosophy of Calvinism and describes its spread from Zurich and Geneva throughout Europe, into the New World, and eventually Africa, the Far East, and the southern hemisphere. It also considers the impact of Calvinism and explains why some of its claims have been seen as provocative and socially disruptive.
8. God and hell
Authors: Balserak Jon
Published: April 2017

According to Calvinists, hell is part of God’s design. In fact, the doctrine of hell has recently been defended quite vigorously by Calvinists. It reminds us that there is a deep sense of self-abandonment that operates in Calvinist theology. It is a conviction which says that it is right that God should determine the fate of every human being. ‘God and hell’ asks important questions: isn’t God love? Why doesn’t God save everyone? Why doesn’t he covenant with the entire human race, predestining everyone to eternal salvation? Why didn’t God stop the fall of Adam and Eve from occurring? If God is love, how can he reprobate some to eternal damnation?
4. Quick thinking
Authors: Baddeley Michelle
Published: April 2017

Deciding quickly is difficult when we face information and choice overload so in much of our everyday decision-making we use quick rules. ‘Quick thinking’ explores some of these rules—heuristics—and the consequences of using them. Sometimes heuristics work well, but sometimes they lead us into errors and mistakes. Psychologists Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky explore three main heuristics and the associated behavioural biases: availability, representativeness, and anchoring and adjustment. The availability heuristic can explain our habitual behaviours. Employing the representative heuristic, we match our judgements with our knowledge of prior scenarios and stereotypes. Anchoring/adjustment occurs when we anchor our decisions around a reference point, and adjust our choices relative to it.
7. Personalities, moods, and emotions
Authors: Baddeley Michelle
Published: April 2017

‘Personalities, moods, and emotions’ explains how and why psychological factors affect our economic and financial decision-making. It looks at measuring personality through OCEAN tests that capture traits across five dimensions: Openness to experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism. Our personalities have an impact on many of our economic and financial decisions and choices. Often decision-making requires some thought, and our personality traits can determine our cognitive skills and, through our cognition, drive our choices. Are emotions an irrational element in our decision-making or can emotions and rationality complement each other? The affect heuristic—where emotions guide our actions—is discussed along with the somatic market hypothesis, dual-system models, and neuroeconomics.