bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Parental Influence on Children’s Cognitive and Affective Responses to Competitive Soccer Participation
Authors: Babkes Megan L. , Weiss Maureen R.
Published: August 2016

This study examined the relationship between children’s perceptions of parental influence and their psychosocial responses to competitive soccer participation. Female (n = 114) and male (n = 113) athletes completed self-reports of soccer competence, enjoyment, intrinsic motivation, and parents’ influence on their participation. Mothers (n = 160) and fathers (n = 123) reported their own attitudes and behaviors toward their child’s participation. Regression analyses revealed that mothers and fathers who were perceived as positive exercise role models, who had more positive beliefs about their child’s competency, and who gave more frequent positive contingent responses to performance successes were associated with athletes who had higher perceived competence, enjoyment, and intrinsic motivation. Children who also perceived their fathers as being more involved in their soccer participation and exerting lower amounts of pressure to perform had more positive psychosocial responses. However, a nonsignificant relationship was found for mother and father reported influence with children’s psychosocial responses.
An Explorative Study into the Relationship between Increasing Exercise Intensity and Visual Function in Prepubertal Male Soccer Players
Authors: Middlebrooke Andrew R. , Stephenson Gail , Unnithan Viswanath B.
Published: August 2016

Nine first team (age, 11.7 ± 0.32 years) and nine reserve team (age, 11.8 ± 0.32 years) soccer players completed a discontinuous incremental exercise test to exhaustion on a treadmill. Each submaximal stage lasted 3 min. Irnrnediately after each stage, contrast sensitivity and peripheral vision were assessed. No significant differences were found between the groups for VO2peak. Reserve team players had significantly lower (p < .05) submaximal values of %VO2peak and ΔHR (pre-exercise heart rate) at the same running speed comparedto first team players. Significant relationships (p < .05) were noted between outer peripheral vision and respiratory exchange ratio following maximal exercise (r = 0.55) and between respiratory rate and outer peripheral vision following the first (8.0 krn · h−1) exercise stage, r = −0.49. However, it was difficult to reconcile physiological significance to these relationships, which would only account for 24 to 29% of the shown variance.
Sex Differences in Running Economy of Young Children
Authors: Morgan Don W. , Tseh Wayland , Caputo Jennifer L. , Craig Ian S. , Keefer Daniel J. , Martin Philip E.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to quantify running economy (RE) during level treadmill running in 6-year-old children and to identify the potentially mediating effects of resting oxygen uptake and body fat percentage on sex differences in RE. Resting oxygen uptake (VO2), body fat, and RE at 5 mph were quantified in 15 boys and 20 girls following 30 min of treadmill accommodation. While absolute VO2 and mass-related values of gross and net VO2 were significantly higher in boys compared to girls, gross VO2 expressed relative to fat-free mass was not different between sexes. These results indicate that 6-year-old girls exhibit better RE compared to 6-year-old boys when VO2 is expressed as a function of total body mass. This sex difference in VO2 may reflect an increase in aerobic energy demands associated with the presence of a greater muscle mass in boys.
Is Physical Activity Related to Body Size, Fundamental Motor Skills, and CHD Risk Factors in Early Childhood?
Authors: Sääkslahti Arja , Numminen Pirkko , Niinikoski Harri , Rask-Nissilä Leena , Viikari Jorma , Tuominen Juhani , Välimäki Ilkaa
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to examine patterns of physical activity (PA) during a single weekend to ascertain possible relationships between PA and anthropometry, fundamental motor skills, and CHD risk factors among 105 normal male and female children, aged 3–4 years. The children played, when awake, on the average for 14 hr, 16 min indoors and for 5 hr, 12 min outdoors of which low activity playing accounted about 4 hr. Notable gender differences were observed in the intensity of PA but not in fundamental motor skills and CHD risk factors. The results suggest that physical activity is weakly related to fundamental motor skills and CHD risk factors at an early age. The association between PA and body size was modified by gender (p = .024): The girls who played indoors a lot were heavier than the others, and the boys who played much more outdoors were heavier in relation to other boys. The associations between PA and motor skills as well as PA and CHD risk factors were also highly gender-dependent: The boys benefited from interacting with parents, while the girls benefited from independence. The most influential factors seemed to be the amount of playing outdoors, the amount of high level play activities, as well as interaction with parents.
The Role of Exercise as a Therapy for Children with Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy
Authors: Sayers Stephen P.
Published: August 2016

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a disease affecting muscle fiber integrity in boys that leads to progressive weakness in skeletal muscle and premature death. Currently, there is no known cure for the disease. Different interventions have been explored to delay the progression of the disease and improve the quality of life for the DMD patient. Physical activity is one treatment that has generated controversy due to the increased mechanical stress placed on the muscle during contraction. This review explores the literature in animal models and human DMD patients and evaluates the known theoretical risks and benefits of increased physical activity in DMD patients.
A Nonmotorized Treadmill Test to Assess Children’s Short-Term Power Output
Authors: Sutton Nicola C. , Childs David J. , Bar-Or Oded , Armstrong Neil
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to develop a nonmotorized treadmill sprint test (ExNMT) to assess children’s short-term power output, to establish the test’s repeatability, and to compare the results to corresponding Wingate anaerobic test (WAnT) measurements. Nineteen children (aged 10.9±0.3 years) completed 2 ExNMTs and 2 WAnTs. Statistical analysis revealed coefficients of repeatability for the ExNMT that compared very favorably with the WAnT for both peak power (26.6 vs. 44.5 W) and mean power (15.3 vs. 42.1 W). The validity of the ExNMT as a test of anaerobic performance is reflected by significant correlations (p ≤.05) with the WAnT (peak power, r = 0.82; mean power, r = 0.88) and reinforced by the relatively high post-exercise blood lactate concentrations (7.1 ± 1.3 vs. 5.6 ± 1.5 mmol · L−1 for the ExNMT and WAnT, respectively). This study has developed a promising laboratory running test with which to examine young people’s short-term power output.
Leg Strength Is Related to Endurance Run Performance in Children and Adolescents with Mental Retardation
Authors: Fernhall Bo , Pitetti Kenneth H.
Published: August 2016

This study evaluated the relationship between leg strength and endurance run performance, independent of aerobic capacity (V̇O2peak), body size, and gender, in children and adolescents with mild or moderate mental retardation. Twenty-six individuals (15 boys and 11 girls) volunteered and underwent tests of V̇O2peak, isokinetic leg strength, and endurance run performance (600-yard ran/walk and 20-m shuttle run). Results showed that leg strength was significantly related to both types of run performance; however, when controlling for V̇O2peak, body size, and gender, leg strength was a more significant contributor to the 600-yard run/walk than to 20-m shuttle run performance. Gender did not influence these relationships. These data suggest that leg strength has a significant influence on endurance run performance in children and adolescents with mild or moderate mental retardation.
Optimal Peak and Mean Power on the Wingate Test: Relationship with Sprint Ability, Vertical Jump, and Standing Long Jump in Boys
Authors: Almuzaini Khalid S.
Published: August 2016

The first purpose of the present study was to test sensitivity of the Wingate anaerobic test (WAnT) to alterations in resistance settings. The second purpose was to investigate whether using optimal braking force on WAnT enhances its relation with a 50-m dash, a vertical jump (VJ), or a standing long jump (LJ) tests. Twenty-three 12 year-old boys performed a 50-m dash, VJ, LJ, and WAnT using four braking force resistances (BFR; .065, .070, .075, and .080 kp/kg BM). Results revealed significant (p ≤ .05) differences among the four BFRs in peak power (PP) and in mean power (MP). Post hoc tests indicated significant differences among all of the four BFRs in PP and between the 0.065 and both the 0.075 and the 0.08 kp/kg BM in MP. Results of Pearson correlation coefficients indicated that using the optimal BFR for both PP and MP enhanced their relation with performance during the 50-m dash, VJ, and LJ tests. Also, partial correlation coefficients, controlling for body weight, height, percent fat, or body mass index supported these findings. It was concluded that for untrained, healthy 12-year-old boys, WAnT is sensitive to incremental alterations in resistance settings ranging from 0.065 to 0.080 kp/kg body mass. To be more specific, PP is sensitive to small increments in BFR, while MP is only sensitive to larger increments in BFR. Furthermore, optimizing resistance settings on WAnT enhances its relationship with anaerobic performance tasks, such as the 50-m dash, the VJ, and the LJ.
Development and Validation of a Computer Delivered Physical Activity Questionnaire (CDPAQ) for Children
Authors: Ridley Kate , Dollman Jim , Olds Tim
Published: August 2016

The aim was to develop and trial a computer delivered multimedia 1-day physical activity questionnaire (CDPAQ) and to compare this with an equivalent hard copy version (HC). Thirty male and female subjects (11.96 ± 0.53 years) were used to assess the validity of the questionnaires by comparing Caltrac counts and heart rate (HR) data with physical activity recalls. Pearson product-moment correlations between the CDPAQ and HR and Caltrac counts ranged from r = 0.36 to 0.63 (p < .05). For the HC, correlations ranged from r = 0.25 to 0.48 (p < .05). While the CDPAQ displayed consistently higher validity correlations, the differences failed to reach statistical significance. Both questionnaires demonstrated high test-retest reliability (r = 0.98, p = .0001). The multimedia features of the CDPAQ may assist children in remembering and characterizing physical activity. The data processing features of the CDPAQ also provide considerable time-saving benefits.
Comparing Two Regression Formulas That Predict V̇O2peak Using the 20-M Shuttle Run for Children and Adolescents
Authors: Pitetti Kenneth H. , Fernhall Bo , Figoni Steve
Published: August 2016

Two regression equations were developed to predict cardiovascular fitness (CVF) based on the 20-m shuttle run test (20-MST) for nondisabled youth and for youth with mild mental retardation (MR). The purpose of this study was to compare the validity of both regression formulas to predict CVF in nondisabled, healthy youths (ages 8 to 15 yrs; 38 females and 13 males). Participants performed two modified Bruce protocol treadmill (TM) tests and two 20-MSTs on separate days. CVF (V̇O2peak, ml • kg−1 • min−1) was measured during the TM tests and computed for the 20-MST using both regression equations. Results indicate that test-retest correlations for the 20-MST (# of laps; r = 0.89) and TM test (V̇O2peak, ml • kg−1 • min−1; r = 0.86) were high. Predicted V̇O2peak values were moderately significant (nondisabled youth: r = 0.55, p < .01; youth with MR: r = 0.66, p < .01) when compared with TM V̇O2peak. Correlation between the two regression equations was significant (r = 0.78, p < .01).
Validity of a Revised System for Observing Fitness Instruction Time (SOFIT)
Authors: Pope Roman P. , Coleman Karen J. , Gonzalez Eugenia C. , Barron Felix , Heath Edward M.
Published: August 2016

This study was designed to validate the System for Observing Fitness Instruction Time (SOFIT5) and a modified SOFIT scale (SOFIT6) for assessing activity levels in physical education (PE) classes. Participants were 56 third- to fifth-grade students from a predominantly (98%) Hispanic school. Inter-rater reliability, using intraclass correlations, for both SOFIT5 and SOFIT5 was r = .98. The correlation for the SOFIT5 with TriTrac was r = .60 (CI = .43–.734) and the correlation for the SOFIT6 with TriTrac was r = .68 (CI = .524–.804). A six-point SOFIT scale may be more sensitive to measuring variations in light and moderate physical activity during PE classes as compared to the standard five point SOFIT scale. This has important implications for using this observation system to estimate the effects of interventions for physical activity during PE classes.
The Effects of Playground Markings on the Energy Expenditure of 5–7-Year-Old School Children
Authors: Stratton Gareth , Leonard Janine
Published: August 2016

The energy expenditure of 47 children aged 5–7 years was assessed before and after a school playground was painted with fluorescent markings. Physical activity was measured using heart rate monitors and energy expenditure calculated for 3 playtimes per child before and after the playground was painted. Total energy expenditure and the rate of energy expenditure increased significantly, as did the duration of play. The effect of painting the playground on total energy expenditure was analysed using an ANCOVA to control for play duration and body mass. Results revealed a 35% increase in total energy expenditure (P £ .01) and a 6% increase in the rate of energy expenditure (P £ .01). The significant interaction between time (before and after) and group (experimental and control) (P £ .02) demonstrated that the intervention programme significantly increased heart rates. These results suggest that playground markings and duration of play can have a significant and positive influence on young children’s energy expenditure.
Anthropometry, Fitness and Physical Activity of Urban and Rural South Australian Children
Authors: Dollman Jim , Norton Kevin , Tucker Graeme
Published: August 2016

The aim of this study was to compare urban and rural South Australian primary schoolchildren on measures of anthropometry, fitness, and environmental mediators of physical activity. The sample was comprised of 445 urban and 205 rural boys and 423 urban and 158 rural girls, all age 10–11 yrs at the time of testing. After controlling for socioeconomic status and ethnicity, rural girls and boys were faster over 1.6 k than their urban counterparts while rural girls were also faster over 50 m. Rural residence independently predicted participation in organized activity, increasing involvement in club sport, and decreasing involvement in school sport. Rural children reported a greater likelihood of participating in two or more physical education classes per week. It is evident that urban and rural South Australia differ in ways which impact on fitness and physical activity patterns of upper primary age children.
Children’s Heart Rates and Enjoyment Levels during PE Classes in Hong Kong Primary Schools
Authors: Macfarlane Duncan , Kwong Wong Tung
Published: August 2016

Levels of activity and enjoyment were measured in 73 Hong Kong primary school children (39 girls and 34 boys), during regularly scheduled physical education (PE) classes. Classroom activities were classified into one of 4 types (ball games, athletics, gymnastics and free play). Activity levels were monitored by heart rate telemetry and by direct observation (CARS), whilst enjoyment was scored using a 5-point Likert scale. Results showed that the average PE class used 22 minutes of the scheduled 35 class time, whilst the students spent 3.7 min in moderate-to-vigorous (MVPA) activity (60-90%HRR), and nearly 50% of the children spent less than 2 minutes with their heart rate above 159 beats · min−1. There were no significant differences in activity levels between genders. Ball games and free play generally produced statistically higher heart rates and CARS values than gymnastics. The levels of enjoyment were low (3.7 − 1.0), but did not vary significantly between gender or activity type. A variety of social and environmental factors may contribute to these low activity and enjoyment levels.
Self-Perceptions of Physical Activity in Survivors of Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia in Childhood
Authors: Wright Marilyn J. , Galea Victoria , Barr Ronald D.
Published: August 2016

Participation in physical activity has important beneficial effects on physical and psychological health. Many outcomes associated with physical activity are typically compromised in survivors of childhood cancer. The purpose of this study was to describe self-perceptions of physical activity in survivors of acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) and to explore the relationships of these findings with quality of life measures and clinical descriptors. 62 children and adolescents treated previously for ALL and 71 comparable healthy subjects completed the Children’s Self-perceptions of Adequacy in and Predilection for Physical Activity (CSAPPA) scale and the Health Utilities Index (HUI). The ALL subjects had significantly poorer self-perceptions of their adequacy in and predilection for physical activity than the comparison group. Stepwise regression analyses identified high risk for relapse, female gender, and older age, but not body-mass-index, age, age at diagnosis, length of time off therapy, or cranial irradiation as significant predictors of CSAPPA total scores in the ALL group. HUI overall scores and single attribute scores for emotion, cognition and pain had significant positive correlations with various CSAPPA scores. Results suggest that survivors of ALL are less inclined to participate in physical activity and physical activity scores are related to quality of life scores. Long-term follow-up should include education and programming to promote participation in physical activity.
Comparison of Twitch Contractile Properties of Plantar Flexor Muscles in 9–10-Year-Old Girls and Boys
Authors: Pääsuke Mati , Ereline Jaan , Gapeyeva Helena , Toots Madli , Toots Laivi
Published: August 2016

Twitch contractile properties of plantar flexor muscles were compared in 9- to 10-year-old girls and boys. No significant gender differences (p > .05) in isometric maximal voluntary contraction force and twitch peak force, contraction and relaxation times, and twitch maximal rate of force development in either resting or potentiated state have been observed. However, boys had significantly greater (p < .05) twitch postactivation potentiation and potentiated twitch maximal rate of relaxation than girls. These results indicated that twitch force-potentiation capacity of skeletal muscles prior to puberty is more highly developed in boys than girls.
Optimal Peak Power in Relation to Age, Body Size, Gender, and Thigh Muscle Volume
Authors: Santos Amândio M.C. , Armstrong Neil , De Ste Croix Mark B. A. , Sharpe Peter , Welsman Joanne R.
Published: August 2016

These studies used multilevel modelling to examine optimised peak power (PPopt) from a force velocity test over the age range 12–14 years. In the first study, body mass, stature, triceps and subscapular skinfold thicknesses of boys and girls, aged 12.3 ± 0.3 y at the onset of the study, were measured on four occasions at 6 monthly intervals. The analysis was founded on 146 PPopt determinations (79 from boys and 67 from girls). Body mass and stature were significant explanatory variables with sum of two skinfolds exerting an additional effect. No gender differences were evident but PPopt increased with age. In the second study, thigh muscle volume (TMV) was estimated using magnetic resonance imaging at test occasions two and four. The analysis, founded on a subsample of 67 PPopt determinations (39 from boys and 28 from girls), demonstrated TMV to be a significant additional explanatory variable alongside body mass and stature with neither age nor gender making a significant contribution to PPopt. Together the studies demonstrate the influence of body size and TMV on young people’s PPopt.
Using Repetitions to Fatigue to Predict One-Repetition Maximum Bench Press in Male High School Athletes
Authors: Mayhew J. L. , Kerksick Chad D. , Lentz Doug , Ware John S. , Mayhew David L.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of repetitions to fatigue (RTF) for estimating one-repetition maximum (1-RM) bench press performance in male high school athletes. Members of high school athletic teams (N = 213, age = 16.3 ± 1.1 yrs, weight = 79.9 ± 16.7 kg) from four states were tested for 1-RM bench press and RTF after completing 4–6 weeks of resistance training. A new equation for use with male high school athletes was developed from a random sample of 180 participants; it appears to have excellent predictive potential (r = 0.96, SEE = 4.5 kg) and cross-validated well on a subsample (n = 33) from this population (r = 0.98, t = 0.64). Therefore, RTF can be used with acceptable accuracy to estimate maximal strength in the majority of adolescent male athletes who need to handle excessively heavy weights.
Physical Activity and Physical Fitness in Children Schooled at Home and in Public Schools
Authors: Welk Gregory J. , Schaben Jodee A. , Shelley Mack
Published: August 2016

Homeschooling is increasingly popular, but little is known about how homeschooling affects physical activity patterns or fitness levels. This study compares patterns of physical fitness, physical activity, and psychosocial correlates of physical activity in homeschooled youth and youth attending public school. Fitness levels were obtained using the PACER aerobic fitness test, physical activity levels were assessed with 3 days of accelerometry, and psychosocial correlates were assessed with the Children’s Physical Activity Correlates scale. There were no significant main effects for fitness comparisons, but significant age and gender interactions indicate that variability exists within these samples for fitness. No school type effects were evident for the physical activity measures or the psychosocial correlate measures, but trends in the data suggest the possibility of age-related interactions for the psychosocial measures. Additional research on possible differences between homeschooled youth and youth attending public school is needed to better understand these trends.
Comparison of Two Accelerometers for Assessment of Physical Activity in Preschool Children
Authors: Kelly Louise A. , Reilly John J. , Fairweather Sheila C. , Barrie Sarah , Grant Stanley , Paton James Y
Published: August 2016

The primary aim of this study was to test the validity of two accelerometers, CSA/MTI WAM-7164 and Actiwatch®, against direct observation of physical activity using the Children’s Physical Activity Form (CPAF). CSA/MTI WAM-7164 and Actiwatch accelerometers simultaneously measured activity during structured-play classes in 3- to 4-year olds. Accelerometry output was synchronized to CPAF assessments of physical activity in 78 children. Rank order correlations between accelerometry and direct observation evaluated the ability of the accelerometers to assess total physical activity. Within-child minute-to-minute correlations were calculated between accelerometry output and direct observation. For total physical activity, CSA/MTI output was significantly correlated with CPAF (r = .72, p < .001), but output from the Actiwatch was not (r = .16, p > .05).
Assessment of RPE Signal Dominance at Slow to Moderate Walking Speeds in Children
Authors: Rutkowski Jason J. , Robertson Robert J. , Tseh Wayland D. , Caputo Jennifer L. , Keefer Daniel J. , Sutika Kristin M. , Morgan Donald W.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this investigation was to determine whether either the differentiated ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) for the legs (RPE-L) or chest (RPE-C) were higher than the overall body RPE (RPE-O) in children performing treadmill walking. A differentiated RPE that was higher than the RPE-O was considered the dominant perceptual signal. Thirty-one 10-year-old participants (16 boys, 15 girls) performed six separate 5-min bouts of level treadmill walking at different speeds. During each bout of exercise, RPEs were recorded using the modified Children’s OMNI Scale. Oxygen consumption (VO2), heart rate (HR), and ventilation (VE) were measured during Minutes 4 and 5 at each walking speed. VO2, HR, and VE increased as walking speed increased, as did perceived exertion. No differences were observed among RPE-O, RPE-L, and RPE-C at any speed. In addition, boys and girls exhibited similar responses for each perceptual and physiological variable. In conclusion, a dominant differentiated perceptual rating was not found at slow-to-moderate treadmill walking speeds for either boys or girls. Neither the respiratory–metabolic nor peripheral ratings of perceived exertion appeared to dominate the whole-body sensory-integration process in this sample.
Measuring Physical Activity in Children with Pedometers: Reliability, Reactivity, and Replacement of Missing Data
Authors: Rowe David A. , Mahar Matthew T. , Raedeke Thomas D. , Lore Joanna
Published: August 2016

The study was undertaken to evaluate (a) the reliability of pedometer data and reactivity of children to wearing a pedometer, (b) the effectiveness of a missing data replacement procedure, and (c) the validity of the Leisure Time Exercise Questionnaire (LTEQ). Six days of pedometer data were collected from 299 middle-school children, followed by administration of the LTEQ. Six days of pedometer data were found to be adequately reliable for research into habitual physical activity (Rxx = .79) and no reactivity occurred. Inclusion of weekday and weekend scores is recommended where possible. The individual-centered data-replacement procedure did not adversely affect reliability, so this data-replacement method offers great promise to physical activity researchers who wish to maintain statistical power in their studies. The LTEQ does not appear to measure physical activity similarly to pedometers (r = .05), and researchers should use the LTEQ with caution in children until further research explains this discrepancy.
Adequacy of Fluid Ingestion in Adolescents and Adults during Moderate-Intensity Exercise
Authors: Horswill Craig A. , Passe Dennis H. , Stofan John R. , Horn Mary K. , Murray Robert
Published: August 2016

We compared ad libitum fluid consumption in adolescent (n = 15) and adult athletes (n = 34) exercising in similar environmental conditions (26.5°C, 27.3% relative humidity) and similar modes and intensities of exercise (80-85% of their age-predicted maximum heart rate). Throughout 1 hr of exercise, participants had access to sports bottles containing a sports drink (6% carbohydrate with electrolytes and identical flavoring). Sweat rate (SR) and percent dehydration were calculated from the change in body weight corrected for urine loss and fluid intake (FI). FI was significantly higher for the adults than for the adolescents. SR was also higher for the adults compared with that of the adolescents. Compared with adults, adolescents had significantly lower FI and SR, the combination of which allowed them to meet their fluid needs more closely during exercise. Minimal voluntary dehydration occurred in either group during exercise, possibly because of the nature of the exercise (noncompetitive) or the beverage characteristics (presence of sodium and sweetness) or availability of the beverage.
Lessons Learned from the Trois-Rivières Physical Education Study: A Retrospective
Authors: Shephard Roy J. , Trudeau François
Published: August 2016

This article looks retrospectively at lessons learned from the Trois-Rivières physical education study. A brief review of the experimental design shows 546 students assigned by class cohort to either an additional 5 hours of quality physical education per week in grades 1 through 6, or a control treatment (minimal physical education by the homeroom teacher). Strengths of the study include a quasi-experimental design, a prolonged and well-defined intervention, assessment of compensation for the program, continuation of observations into middle age, collection of data in urban and rural environments, consistency of teaching staff and technical personnel, documentation of changes in academic achievement, assessment of bone maturation, a carefully constructed database, and control for cross-contamination. Limitations include some secular change, limited information on pubertal stages, difficulty in generalizing findings to an English-speaking environment, and some rigidity in the statistical design. The study demonstrates that cardiorespiratory function, muscle strength, and field performance can all be enhanced in primary school with no negative impact on academic work. Further, attitudes, behavior, and function are favorably influenced in adults. Future studies should seek out stable populations, define interventions closely, contract with participants for a long-term follow-up, and assess the immediate and long-term impact on health and function. Above all, there is a need for a dedicated principal investigator who will devote his or her entire career to the longitudinal study.
Intrapersonal Correlates of Sufficiently Active Youth and Adolescents
Authors: Spink Kevin S. , Chad Karen , Muhajarine Nazeem , Humbert Louise , Odnokon Patrick , Gryba Catherine , Anderson Kristal
Published: August 2016

This study examined the relationship between intrapersonal correlates and being sufficiently active for health benefits in youth and adolescents (12-17 years of age). Participants completed questionnaires that assessed physical activity in the form of energy expenditure and intrapersonal correlates. Being in the sufficiently active group (> 8 kcal per day per kg of body weight) was associated with engaging in a greater array of physical activities, reporting greater levels of health, reporting a better home life, and spending less time in sedentary activities. The results provided preliminary evidence that selected intrapersonal correlates were associated with youth and adolescents who were sufficiently active to attain health benefits.
Physical Activity during School Recess: The Liverpool Sporting Playgrounds Project
Authors: Ridgers Nicola D. , Stratton Gareth
Published: August 2016

Recess offers primary school age children the opportunity to engage in physical activity, though few studies have detailed the physical activity levels of children in this environment. The physical activity levels of 270 children ages 6-11 years from 18 schools were monitored on 1 school day using heart rate telemetry. Data revealed that boys engaged in higher levels of moderate-to-vigorous and vigorous physical activity (MVPA) than did girls during recess (26 and 20 min, respectively). These results suggest that recess can make a worthwhile contribution to the recommended 60 min of MVPA per day.
Twelve- to Thirteen-Year-Old Boys Are More Resistant to Low-Frequency Fatigue than Young Men
Authors: Streckis Vytautas , Skurvydas Albertas , Ratkevicius Aivaras
Published: August 2016

The aim of this study was to compare low-frequency fatigue (LFF) after 100 drop jumps in boys (age = 12.7 ± 0.7 years, mean ± SD) and men (age = 25.6 ± 1.7 years). The force-generating-capacity test (FGCT) of knee extensor muscles was performed before the exercise, as well as 3 and 20 min after the exercise. Before exercise, men were stronger than boys, but twitch time characteristics did not differ between the groups. The 20:50 Hz torque ratio was similar in boys and men as well (0.71 ± 0.08 and 0.73 ± 0.08, respectively). After exercise, at 20 min of recovery, the 20:50 Hz ratio was depressed to 48.9 ± 11.6% of initial in men and to 74.5 ± 10.0% of initial in boys (p < .05). There was no significant difference between boys and men in ground-reaction forces of drop jumps when the values were normalized to body mass. It is argued that intrinsic differences in the muscle-tendon complex are responsible for less severe LFF in boys compared with men.
The Effect of Partial Body Weight Support on the Oxygen Cost of Walking in Children and Adolescents with Spastic Cerebral Palsy
Authors: Unnithan Viswanath B. , Kenne Ellinor M. , Logan Lynne , Collier Scott , Turk Margaret
Published: August 2016

The aim of this study was to assess the effect of partial body weight support on the oxygen cost of treadmill walking in children and adolescents with spastic cerebral palsy (CP). Five children and adolescents (2 girls and 3 boys) with spastic CP (12.4 ± 3.6 years) volunteered for the study. Participants performed three 4-min tread mill walks on three separate days at their comfortable treadmill walking speeds. At each visit a different partial body weight harness setting was used. Significant (p < .05) differences in oxygen cost were found when the harness was worn but not connected to the support frame. Partial body weight support reduces the oxygen cost of walking in children and adolescents with spastic CP.
Developmental Coordination Disorder and Cardiorespiratory Fitness in Children
Authors: Cairney John , Hay John A. , Faught Brent E. , Flouris Andreas , Klentrou Panagiota
Published: August 2016

It is not known whether children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) have lower cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) than children without the disorder, or whether this relationship varies by age and gender. These issues are examined using a cross-sectional assessment of children 9-14 years of age (N = 549). Participants were screened for DCD using the short form Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency (BOTMP-SF). A BOTMP-SF age-adjusted standard score at or below the 10th percentile rank on the BOTMP-SF was required to classify a diagnosis for probable DCD. CRF was determined from each participant’s predicted peak-aerobic power using the Léger 20-m shuttle-run test. Children with DCD report lower CRF than children without the disorder and are more likely to be in a high-risk group (≤ 20th percentile in peak VO2). Moreover, 70% of boys with DCD scored at or below the 20th percentile in peak VO2. Further research in a laboratory setting should be conducted to confirm these findings.
Oxygen-Uptake Efficiency Slope in Healthy 7- to 18-Year-Old Children
Authors: Marinov Blagoi , Mandadzhieva Stoilka , Kostianev Stefan
Published: August 2016

The aim of this article was to assess the oxygen-uptake efficiency slope (OUES) throughout the age span of 7 to 18 years. One hundred fourteen healthy children (58 boys and 56 girls) exercised on a treadmill by means of a modified Balke protocol. The OUES grew in a nonlinear pattern with age, and it appeared to be significantly higher in boys than in girls. There was a very strong correlation between OUES and VO2peak (r = .92), and there was a small difference between the values of OUES calculated for different exercise intensities. Stepwise-regression analysis outlined body surface area (BSA) and sex as main determinants of OUES. OUES is an objective measure of exercise capacity that does not require a maximal effort but is considerably dependent on anthropometric variables and necessitates the generation of appropriate reference values.
Achievement Goal Orientation Patterns and Fifth Graders’ Motivation in Physical Education Running Programs
Authors: Xiang Ping , McBride Ron E. , Bruene April , Liu Yuanlong
Published: August 2016

This study examined achievement goal orientation patterns and their impact on student motivation in physical education running programs. Participants included 533 fifth graders. They completed questionnaires assessing their achievement goal orientations, expectancy beliefs, task values, and intentions for future participation in running. They also completed a timed, 1-mile run. Data revealed 4 goal orientation patterns: low task/low ego, low task/high ego, high task/low ego, and high task/high ego. Students in the high-task/low-ego and high-task/high-ego groups demonstrated higher levels of motivation in running than those in the low-task/low-ego and low-task/high-ego groups.
Tracking of Pedometer-Determined Physical Activity: A 5-Year Follow-Up Study of Adolescents in Sweden
Authors: Raustorp Anders , Svensson Kjell , Perlinger Thommy
Published: August 2016

Tracking refers to the tendency for individuals to maintain their rank in a group over time. The authors explored tracking of pedometer-determined physical activity. In October of 2000, 2003, and 2005, data of physical activity as steps per day were collected with sealed Yamax SW-200 pedometers (Tokyo, Japan) for 4 consecutive schooldays in 97 (46 boys and 51 girls) Swedish adolescents (mean age 12.7 in 2000). In general, tracking of pedometer-determined physical activity was low to moderate during adolescence. A sex difference, with boys expressing higher tracking, was seen. Moderate tracking was seen in the individuals who, according to recommendations, were insufficiently active.
Agreement between Student-Reported and Proxy-Reported Physical Activity Questionnaires
Authors: Dowda Marsha , Pate Russell R. , Sallis James F. , Freedson Patty S. , Taylor Wendell C. , Sirard John R. , Trost Stewart G.
Published: August 2016

Parents and 531 students (46% males, 78% white) completed equivalent questionnaires. Agreement between student and parent responses to questions about hypothesized physical activity (PA) correlates was assessed. Relationships between hypothesized correlates and an objective measure of student’s moderate- to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) in a subset of 177 students were also investigated. Agreement between student and parent ranged from r = .34 to .64 for PA correlates. Spearman correlations between MVPA and PA correlates ranged from −.04 to .21 for student report and −.14 to .32 for parent report, and there were no statistical differences for 8 out of 9 correlations between parent and student. Parents can provide useful data on PA correlates for students in Grades 7–12.
Activity Levels, Dietary Energy Intake, and Body Composition in Children Who Walk to School
Authors: Ford Paul , Bailey Richard , Coleman Damian , Woolf-May Kate , Swaine Ian
Published: August 2016

Although differences in daily activity levels have been assessed in cross-sectional walk-to-school studies, no one has assessed differences in body composition and dietary energy intake at the same time. In this study of 239 primary school children, there were no significant differences in daily activity levels, body composition, or estimated dietary energy intake between those who walk to school (WALK) and those who travel by car (CAR; p < .05). WALK children were more active between 8 a.m. and 9 a.m. and 3 p.m. and 4 p.m. than CAR children (p < .05). In addition, there were no significant differences in the main analysis when participants were subgrouped by gender and age.
Investigating the Youth Physical Activity Promotion Model: Internal Structure and External Validity Evidence for a Potential Measurement Model
Authors: Rowe David A. , Raedeke Thomas D. , Wiersma Lenny D. , Mahar Matthew T.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of the study was to investigate the measurement properties of questionnaires associated with the Youth Physical Activity Promotion (YPAP) model. Data were collected from 296 children in Grades 5–8 using several existing questionnaires corresponding to YPAP model components, a physical activity questionnaire, and 6 consecutive days of pedometer data. Internal validity of the questionnaires was tested using confirmatory factor analyses, and external validity was investigated via correlations with physical activity and body composition. Initial model fit of the questionnaires ranged from poor to very good. After item removal, all scales demonstrated good fit. Correlations with percentage body fat and objectively measured physical activity were low but in the theoretically predicted direction. The current study provides good internal validity evidence and acceptable external validity evidence for a brief set of questionnaire items to investigate the theoretical basis for the YPAP model.
Influence of a Physical Activity Program on Children with Cerebral Palsy: A Single Subject Design
Authors: Rintala Pauli , Lyytinen Heikki , Dunn John M.
Published: August 2016

The effects of a 4-month physical activity program on physical fitness, balance, and ball skills were examined. A multiple baseline design across subjects was used to study the effects of training on static and dynamic balance, physical fitness, and the motor skills of catching and throwing. The subjects were eight 7- to 11-year-old, ambulatory, hemiplegic or diplegic cerebral palsy children. The results indicated slight overall improvement in physical fitness. The specific balance training was not effective, with improvements in dynamic balance noted in only one subject. The specific ball training improved target throw skill in all subjects, but catching skill scores varied greatly, with none of the subjects showing consistent improvement.
The Validity of High School Wrestlers’ Estimations of Minimal Wrestling Weight
Authors: Hough Dona J. , Housh Terry J. , Johnson Glen O. , Hughes Rommie J.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this investigation was twofold: (a) to determine the validity of high school wrestlers’ estimations of minimal wrestling weight (MWW) and (b) to compare their certified wrestling weight with the recommended MWW values based on underwater weighing (fat-free weight plus 5% fat). Sixty wrestlers (M age±SD) = 16.54±1.07 yrs) volunteered to be assessed via underwater weighing and were asked to estimate, within 1 lb, their MWW. The certified wrestling weight for each subject was also obtained from the state activities association. The results indicated that the total error for the wrestlers’ estimations of MWW ranged from 3.25 to 3.69 kg, and in 32 to 43% of the cases the certified wrestling weight was below (M = 2.29−2.84 kg) the recommended MWW from underwater weighing.
Relationship between Bioelectrical Impedance and Anthropometric Techniques to Determine Body Fat in a Black Pediatric Population
Authors: Covington N. Kay , Kluka Darlene A. , Love Phyllis A.
Published: August 2016

This investigation compared the percentage of body fat obtained using the bioelectrical impedance technique and the anthropometric technique on a black pediatric population consisting of 196 subjects, 93 girls and 103 boys, ages 5-11 years. Subjects were measured utilizing the Bioelectrical Impedance Analyzer-103 (RJL Systems, Inc.). In order to simulate a realistic school environment, protocol was deliberately not followed. Anthropometric measurements were obtained at two sites: triceps and medial calf. The anthropometric and BIA percentages of body fat were compared using the Pearson product-moment coefficient or correlation and an ANOVA. The overall relationship between the groups was .809. Use of the BIA appears to lead to an overestimation of fatness in black children.
Comparing the Sit and Reach with the Modified Sit and Reach in Measuring Flexibility in Adolescents
Authors: Hoeger Werner W.K. , Hopkins David R. , Button Sherman , Palmer Troy A.
Published: August 2016

This study compared the proposed modified sit and reach test (MSR) and the commonly administered sit and reach test (SR) to determine if the MSR can administratively control possible limb-length biases. Subjects (N=258) were administered two trials of each test. The MSR test incorporates a finger-to-box distance (FBD) to account for proportional differences between legs and arms. Individuals with high FBD measurements demonstrated a poorer performance on the SR test. An analysis of the subjects failing to meet the Physical Best standard (25 cm) indicated a higher probability of failure for those with larger FBD scores. The subjects were subsequently separated into three groups: high, medium, and low FBD. There were no significant difference among the groups on MSR performance but a significant difference was found on SR performance. The MSR test appears to eliminate the concern of disproportionate limb-length bias expressed by many practitioners.
Exercise Testing in Patients with Arrhythmias
Authors: Neish Steven R. , Friedman Richard A. , Bricker J. Timothy
Published: August 2016

Exercise testing has become an important method for evaluation of pediatric patients with known or suspected arrhythmias. It has proven useful in patients with exercise-induced symptoms, patients with congenital heart disease, and patients with pacemakers. Exercise has predictable effects on the normal electrocardiogram. Exercise can also bring out abnormalities in cardiac rhythm that may not be present at rest. The results of exercise testing can provide information that directs further therapy or evaluation. Exercise testing also helps to evaluate the efficacy of antiarrhythmic therapy in some patients.
The Oxygen Cost of a 20-Minute Steady-State Jog for High School Boys and Girls
Authors: Walker John L. , Murray Tinker D. , Johnson Charles M. , Rainey Don L. , Squires William G.
Published: August 2016

This study evaluated the aerobic demands of the 20-minute steady-state jogging speeds for 15 high school students. All subjects performed a discontinuous treadmill test that included submaximal speeds, the Fit Youth Today criterion referenced speeds, and finally a run to voluntary fatigue. Stages lasted 5 minutes. Preliminary data indicated that both groups averaged between 87% (the 9 boys) and 93 % (the 6 girls) of their respective peak oxygen consumption at the criterion referenced speeds during treadmill testing. According to the American College of Sports Medicine guidelines for healthy adults, these intensities represent the upper threshold for aerobic conditioning, and high exercise intensities can increase the risk of injury. Although the results of this study are preliminary in nature and based on a small sample size, we suggest that the criterion referenced distances (speeds) for the FYT 20-minute steady-state jog may need modification.
Gender Difference in the Relationship of Anaerobic Power Output to Body Composition in Children
Authors: Van Praagh Emmanuel , Fellmann Nicole , Bedu Mario , Falgairette Guy , Coudert Jean
Published: August 2016

This study was done to determine the extent to which body composition accounts for differences in anaerobic characteristics between 12-year-old girls and boys. Peak leg power (PP), mean leg power (MP), percent body fat, fat free mass (FFM), and lean thigh volume (LTV) were determined by various tests. Pubertal stages and salivary testosterone concentration (in boys) were used to assess sexual maturation. Laboratory anaerobic indices were compared with performances in two running tests. Blood samples were taken for lactate determination. Absolute PP and MP outputs were similar in both sexes and were better correlated with LTV in girls, whereas in boys both PP and MP were highly correlated with FFM. Although nonsignificant gender difference in lean tissue was observed, PP and MP when corrected for LTV were significantly greater in boys than in girls. Factors other than the amount of lean muscle mass should be considered in explaining the gender differences in PP and MP in early pubertal children.
Children’s After-School Activity: Associations with Weight Status and Family Circumstance
Authors: Hesketh Kylie , Graham Melissa , Waters Elizabeth
Published: August 2016

This study investigated children’s after-school activity and associations with body mass index (BMI) and family circumstance. One thousand two hundred thirty-four parents and 854 children (age 8–13 years) completed activity diaries for the 2 hours after school. Parents reported children as more active than children reported themselves. Boys were reported to be more active than girls. Activity levels were generally not associated with BMI or family circumstance with the exception of cultural background. Parent-reported mean child METs were higher for mothers born in Australia (3.3 vs. 3.0; p = .02). Child-reported mean METs were higher for fathers born in Australia (2.9 vs. 2.6; p = .04) and where English was their main language (2.9 vs. 2.3, p = .003).