bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Bipolar disorders during adolescence
Authors: Lewinsohn P. M. , Seeley J. R. , Klein D. N.
Published: September 2003

Objective:  To examine the incidence, correlates, course and family history of bipolar disorder (BD) and subthreshold BD in adolescents.

Method:  Structured diagnostic interviews were conducted with a large community sample of adolescents and their first‐degree relatives, and the adolescents were re‐evaluated as young adults.

Results:  The first lifetime onset of BD and subthreshold BD almost always occurred in adolescence. Adolescent BD and subthreshold BD were associated with elevated impairment, comorbidity, and suicide attempts. Adolescents with BD were at increased risk for BD, and adolescents with subthreshold BD were at increased risk for major depressive disorder (MDD) in young adulthood. Relatives of BD adolescents had elevated rates of subthreshold BD and MDD, and relatives of subthreshold BD adolescents had elevated rates of BD and MDD.

Conclusion:  ‘Classical’ BD clearly exists in adolescence, but there is also a spectrum of milder bipolar conditions. Remediating and preventing BD in adolescents should be a high public health priority.
Postpartum depression: do we still need this diagnostic term?
Authors: Riecher‐Rössler A. , Hofecker Fallahpour M.
Published: September 2003

Objective: The diagnostic term ‘postpartum depression’ is still widely used. This paper attempts to discuss if this is still justified in the light of recent research.

Method: Comprehensive review of literature.

Results: Postpartum depression is not a specific entity in terms of having a specific aetiology. Rather, giving birth to a child with all its biological and psychosocial consequences seems to act as a major stressor, which – within a general vulnerability–stress model – can trigger the outbreak of the disease in predisposed women. Nevertheless, it might still be justified to continue the use of this diagnostic term, as depression in early motherhood confronts us with specific needs. Thus, help‐seeking is often delayed due to shame and stigma, and diagnosis is often missed due to misinterpretation of symptoms. Services often do not meet these women's needs adequately, as they do not take into account their specific situation, problems and fears. Untreated, postpartum depression can have especially severe long‐term consequences, not only for the mother but also for the child and the whole family. Therefore, special attention and special treatment is necessary. This necessitates modifications of our pharmacological, non‐pharmacological and psychotherapeutic treatment and also provision of new low‐threshold mother–infant services.

Conclusion: Although postpartum depression is not a specific entity from an aetiological point of view, the diagnostic term [as ‘specifier’, as in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM)‐IV)] should not be abandoned, as depression in the postpartum period confronts us with specific needs for care.
Comorbidity in depression
Authors: Kupfer D. J. , Frank E.
Published: September 2003

Objective:  To define the extent of comorbidity in depression.

Method:  The level of medical comorbidity in depression was assessed on the basis of the empirical literature and results from the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) conference on Depression's Toll on Other Illnesses.

Results:  The global incidence of depression underscores the need to develop integrative treatment strategies for these disorders. An NIMH conference entitled ‘The Unwanted Cotraveler: Depression's Toll on Other Illnesses' has highlighted the impact of increased depression prevalence in the presence of medical disorders. Economic data from a large health insurance claims database concludes that the presence of a psychiatric condition, particularly depression, considerably increases the medical costs, as well as the cost of caring for the psychiatric condition.

Conclusion:  Federally sponsored research intervention centres need to address these issues and provide opportunities for diverse medical specialties to collaborate on testing novel treatment approaches.
Life events and affective disorders
Authors: Paykel E. S.
Published: September 2003

Objective:  To summarize research in life events and affective disorders

Method:  Review of the literature.

Results and conclusion:  Many studies have shown that episodes of unipolar depression are preceded by life events at higher rates than in control samples. A variety of stressful events are involved with only limited specificity but some relationship to social exit events. Life events also affect remission and relapse of depression. Effects of life events are less when the disorder has already been recurrent, particularly where illness is severe. Effects of life events are also weaker in bipolar disorder than unipolar, but major life events may be important in first onset. Recent evidence suggests a specific role of social rhythm disruption events in manic relapses. Causative chains are multifactorial and complex, and genetic factors can influence life event exposure.
Migration and depression
Authors: Bhugra D.
Published: September 2003

Objective:  Migrants migrate for a number of reasons and varying duration. The objective in this paper is to review the findings to ascertain whether rates of depression among migrants are higher compared with the non‐migrant populations.

Method:  We used the published data to review the theoretical background for migration and to study the existing literature on rates of depression in various migrant and ethnic groups.

Results:  The rates of depressive neurosis vary according to migrant status. Migrants in some groups are less likely to report symptoms of depression. Using fluency in language as a proxy measure of acculturation it appears that acculturated individuals are more likely to be depressed.

Conclusion:  The impact of migration on depression is not as clear and straightforward as for other psychiatric conditions. More work needs to be carried out in understanding the impact of migration on depression.
Suicide, suicidality and suicide prevention in affective disorders
Authors: Möller H. J.
Published: September 2003

Objective:  It is well known that functional psychiatric disorders are one of the main causes of suicidal behaviour. This paper discusses the epidemiology and risk factors of suicidal behaviour in affective disorders and goes on to describe the treatment and prevention of such suicidal behaviour.

Method:  A narrative overview of relevant epidemiological and drug studies.

Results:  About 60–70% of patients with acute depression experience suicidal ideas. There is a high incidence of suicide (10–15%) in depressive patients. Psychopharmacological treatment with antidepressants and/or mood stabilizers is the most successful approach to avoid the risk of suicidal behaviour. In addition, psychotherapeutic and psychosocial interventions are of importance.

Conclusion:  Suicidal behaviour and suicide must be considered when treating patients with affective disorders. The complex causation of suicidality has to be borne in mind when considering methods of suicide prevention. In order to obtain the best results, psychosocial, psychotherapeutic and psychopharmacological approaches should be combined, depending on the risk factors of each individual patient.
Vulnerability, destabilization and restitution in anxious depression
Authors: Goldberg D.
Published: September 2003

Objective:  To summarize what is known about vulnerability and resilience to common mental disorders, and the psychosocial factors associated with speed of recovery.

Method:  Recent genetic factors are summarized, and taken together with known facts about social factors encouraging or reducing likelihood of an episode.

Results:  Multiple genes are likely, controlling both vulnerability and resilience, with the manifestation in phenotype modified by environmental factors. Restitution must be thought of separately from vulnerability.

Conclusion:  Instead of specific genes causing specific mental disorders, we need a more complex model.
Sleep and manipulations of the sleep–wake rhythm in depression
Authors: Berger M. , Van Calker D. , Riemann D.
Published: September 2003

Objective:  Disturbed sleep is typical for most depressed patients and complaints about disordered sleep are the hallmarks of the disorder. Polysomnographic sleep research has demonstrated that besides impaired sleep continuity, sleep in depression is characterized by a reduction of slow wave sleep and a disinhibition of random eye movement (REM) sleep, with a shortening of REM latency, a prolongation of the first REM period and increased REM density.

Method:  Our own experimental work has focused on the reciprocal interaction hypothesis of non‐REM and REM sleep regulation as a model to explain the characteristic features of depressed sleep.

Results:  In agreement with the major tenet of this model, administration of cholinomimetics provoked shortened REM latency in healthy subjects and led to an even stronger REM sleep disinhibition in depressed patients. Manipulations of the sleep–wake cycle, such as sleep deprivation or a phase advance of the sleep period, alleviate depressive symptoms.

Conclusion:  These data indicate a strong bidirectional relationship between sleep, sleep alterations and depression.
Seasonality in affective disorders in Switzerland
Authors: Wirz‐Justice A. , Graw P. , Kräuchi K. , Wacker H. R.
Published: September 2003

Objective:  To estimate the prevalence of seasonal affective disorder (SAD) and its subsyndromal form (S‐SAD) in Switzerland (47°N).

Method:  A representative sample from all three language areas of Switzerland (n = 980) were given a structured telephone interview using the extended Seasonal Pattern Assessment Questionnaire (SPAQ+). A smaller, but also representative sample in the city of Basel filled in the SPAQ+ form as well as undergoing a structured diagnostic interview.

Results:  In this Swiss sample, 2.2% of the population presented with symptom severity of SAD, 8.9% with S‐SAD. In Basel, a much higher prevalence of SAD was found. Seasonal problems occurred more often in patients with the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM)‐III diagnosis of major affective disorders than in those with pure anxiety disorders or no psychiatric diagnosis.

Conclusion:  These estimates for SAD in Switzerland are similar to those found in the Zürich Study, using other methods, and for populations in the UK, with the limitations inherent in retrospective questionnaire studies.
Lay beliefs about causes of depression
Authors: Lauber C. , Falcato L. , Nordt C. , Rössler W.
Published: September 2003

Objective:  Assessing lay beliefs about causes of depressive behaviour and analysing the influence of labelling and demographic factors on causal attributions.

Method:  In Switzerland we conducted a representative telephone survey with 873 interviewees. A vignette depicting a man with depression satisfying the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM)‐III‐R criteria was presented. Content analysis of up to three answers about assumed causes was conducted.

Results:  For more than half the respondents (56.6%) difficulties within the family or the partnership are causal for depression. Occupational stress is the second most‐mentioned cause (32.7%), whereas unspecified further stress is in third place (19.9%). Traumatic events (17.9%), depressive disorder (14.1%) and further unspecified illnesses (11.6%) follow. Few correlations were found between causal attributions, labelling and demographic factors.

Conclusion:  The respective causal attributions are mainly independent of demographic factors, thus generalizable for the population. The attributions are shaped primarily by psychosocial ideas about aetiology. Nevertheless, one‐third of the interviewees holds biological or disease‐related beliefs about causes of depression. The respective illness models cannot be neglected in the therapeutic relationship.
The Zurich Study: participation patterns and Symptom Checklist 90‐R scores in six interviews, 1979–99
Authors: Eich D. , Ajdacic‐Gross V. , Condrau M. , Huber H. , Gamma A. , Angst J. , Rössler W.
Published: September 2003

Objective:  The Zurich study is a longitudinal study in psychiatric epidemiology that started in the late 1970s. The sixth interview in 1999 provides the basis to investigate and update the participation and drop‐out patterns of the Zurich subjects.

Method:  Aside from descriptive analyses, particular attention was paid to the Symptom Checklist 90‐R (SCL‐90‐R), used initially to stratify the Zurich sample.

Results:  The initial proportions of high‐scorers vs. low‐scorers (two‐thirds vs. one‐third) have not changed significantly in the 367 subjects who participated in the 1999 interview. More detailed analyses indicate a selective and changing dependence of participation/drop‐out on health status as measured by the SCL‐90R. In recent interviews drop‐out has become more likely in subjects with extremely high SCL scores and in subjects with low SCL scores.

Conclusion:  Drop‐out in the Zurich Study is associated with extreme SCL scores.
Risk factors for the bipolar and depression spectra
Authors: Angst J. , Gamma A. , Endrass J.
Published: September 2003

Objective:  To identify risk factors for mood disorders in a community sample studied from the ages of 20 to 35 years.

Method:  Social characteristics, a family history of mood disorders and some personality features were analysed as risk factors for bipolar and depressive disorders by means of logistic regression.

Results:  Frequent ‘ups and downs’ of mood were the strongest risk factor for both bipolar and depressive disorders; a weaker risk factor for both was emotional/vegetative lability (neuroticism). An additional risk factor for bipolar disorders was a positive family history of mania, whereas for depression it was a positive family history of depression/fatigue. As a risk factor for bipolar disorders, ‘ups and downs’ were much stronger than a positive family history of mania. Frequent ups and downs were independent of the family history of mood disorders.

Conclusion:  The results suggest that mood regulation should be investigated as a new, very important independent risk factor for mood disorders.
Prevalence of affective disorders in children and adolescents: findings from the Zurich Epidemiological Studies
Authors: Steinhausen H.‐C. , Winkler Metzke C.
Published: September 2003

Objective:  Affective disorders were studied in two epidemiological studies of children and adolescents in the Canton of Zurich, Switzerland.

Method:  In the Zurich Epidemiological Study of Child and Adolescent Psychopathology Study (ZESCAP) in 1994 a representative cohort of 1964 pupils aged 7–16 years was studied. The Zurich Adolescent Psychology and Psychopathology Study (ZAPPS) included 1089 adolescents aged 15–19 years who were assessed in 1997. A two‐stage approach with questionnaire screening of the entire sample in stage 1 and consecutive interviews in stage 2 was used in both studies. Diagnoses according to DSM‐III‐R were derived from structured parent interviews in the ZESCAP and from both parent and adolescent interviews in the ZAPPS.

Results:  The total prevalence rate for affective disorders in the ZESCAP was 0.66% (SE 0.25) whereas it was 5.1% based on adolescent interviews and 1.2% based on parent interviews in the ZAPPS. Adolescent girls have significantly higher prevalence rates for affective disorders than boys (9.4 vs. 1.1%).

Conclusion:  These findings are in accordance with various other international epidemiological studies on affective disorders in children and adolescents.
Modern diagnostic concepts of the affective disorders
Authors: Parker G.
Published: September 2003

Objective:  To review critically alternative models of depression.

Method:  Contrasting historical models are noted and some results of a study overviewing a temperament‐based model for the non‐melancholic disorders are presented.

Results:  Limitations to all models are considered.

Conclusion:  As depression can present as a mood state, a syndrome, a disorder and as a disease, it is unwise to assume that a single model will suffice. A pure temperament diathesis model of non‐melancholic depression is unlikely to be sufficient and would benefit from testing of additional personality constructs.
The schizoaffective phenomenon: the state of the art
Authors: Marneros A.
Published: September 2003

Objective:  Schizoaffective disorders are well established. Nevertheless, the definition in the International Classification of Diseases (ICD)‐10 and the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM)‐IV are insufficient.

Method:  Critical review of the literature from Kahlbaum (1863) to the 21st century.

Results:  Many authors have described people suddenly developing a disorder with both ‘schizophrenic’ and ‘affective’ symptoms. In DSM‐IV and ICD‐10, the schizoaffective disorder is defined as the concurrent occurrence of schizophrenic symptoms with a major affective disorder. However, there is no reason for a chronological distinction regarding the co‐existence of schizophrenic and affective symptomatology. Moreover, longitudinal aspects are not included in the definitions.

Conclusion:  Two types of schizoaffective disorder must be distinguished: the ‘concurrent’ and the ‘sequential’ type. The first includes people having only a coincidence of schizophrenic and affective symptoms. The ‘sequential’ type is defined as the schizoaffective disorder under a longitudinal aspect subsuming disorders with a symptom change between different episodes. Consequences for further research are discussed in detail.
Affective disorders, personality and personality disorders
Authors: Sass H. , Jünemann K.
Published: September 2003

Objective:  The article deals with the complex conceptual history and current concepts on the relationship between personality, personality disorders and affective disorders. It is discussed whether these concepts represent distinct clinical entities or whether they lie on a continuum.

Method:  We reviewed the classical literature from the 19th and the first half of the 20th centuries as well as analysed recent empirical data in order to summarize the current knowledge on this topic with respect to its historical origin. As a particular example, the position of the depressive personality disorder is evaluated.

Results:  Considerable heterogeneity can be seen, both theoretically and empirically. The two major concepts are based either on a continuum model or favour distinct clinical entities, corresponding to a more dimensional or category‐orientated recording method.

Conclusion:  The relationship between personality disorders and affective disorders is still unclear and is a highly debated issue. There is as yet no consensus, but a certain shift to dimensional models can be recognized.
Concepts in the treatment of bipolar disorder
Authors: Greil W. , Kleindienst N.
Published: September 2003

Objective:  Concepts in the treatment of bipolar disorder are discussed considering clinical practice.

Method:  Results of the Multicenter Study of Long‐term Treatment of Affective and Schizoaffective Psychoses (MAP) study, a controlled maintenance trial, are interpreted with respect to treatment concepts.

Results:  The spectrum of patients diagnosed as bipolar has become more heterogeneous. It now comprises subtypes requiring differentiated treatment. The MAP study confirms that prophylactic efficacy of lithium seems to be specific to classic manic‐depressive illness, whereas carbamazepine might be more efficacious in non‐classic bipolar patients. With respect to clinical practice, treatment evaluation should also consider antisuicidal effects, inter‐episodic morbidity and compliance. In these respects, results are in favour of lithium. Furthermore, data indicate that adherence to lithium clearly depends on illness concepts. This encourages efforts to supplement pharmacotherapy by psychoeducation and psychotherapy.

Conclusion:  With the broadening of diagnostic criteria, the treatment of bipolar disorder has become more complex. Patients need an integrated approach, including differentiated mood‐stabilizing pharmacotherapy and psychotherapeutic measures.
The spectrum of subjective effects of antipsychotic medication
Authors: Wolters Hugo A , Knegtering Rikus , Wiersma Durk , van den Bosch Robert J
Published: September 2003

Background:

This study examined the spectrum of subjective experiences which patients attribute to the use of antipsychotic medication.

Methods:

We collected interview data and answers to structured questions based on a comprehensive checklist in 77 patients using various types of classical or atypical antipsychotic drugs.

Results:

The responses of the patients could be categorized into psychological and somatic domains. The psychological domain could be subdivided into emotional, cognitive and sociability domains. The somatic set could be subdivided into activation and physiological domains.

Conclusions:

Our data reveal that the same effects may be experienced in either a positive or a negative way by different patients. We conclude that existing scales for measuring subjective effects of antipsychotic medication are incomplete.
The prevalence of Capgras syndrome in a university hospital setting
Authors: Tamam Lut , Karatas Gonca , Zeren Tayfun , Ozpoyraz Nurgul
Published: September 2003

Background:

Capgras syndrome (CS), the most common type of delusional misidentification syndrome, is the delusional belief that significant people in the patient's life have been replaced by identical doubles. Capgras syndrome is thought to be a rare syndrome which commonly occurs in a psychotic context.

Objective:

The objective of this study was to estimate the 5-year prevalence rate of CS in a university hospital in-patient setting and determine associated etiological and sociodemographic factors.

Methods:

All patient files and medical records were reviewed in detail for the presence of Capgras syndrome. The sociodemographic variables, clinical manifestations, and psychiatric and medical diagnoses of patients who fulfilled clinical criteria for Capgras syndrome were recorded for statistical evaluation.

Results:

The retrospective evaluation of patient files in 920 cases admitted to our psychiatric in-patient unit over 5 years revealed that 12 patients fulfilled the criteria for Capgras syndrome. The crude prevalence of Capgras syndrome in this population during 5-year period was 1.3% (1.8% for females, 0.9% for males). Schizophrenia (50%) was the most common psychiatric diagnosis in these patients. Only two patients presented with an organic etiology underlying Capgras syndrome.

Conclusions:

The results of this study indicate that Capgras syndrome is not a rare syndrome, and commonly occurs during the course of either functional or organic psychotic illness. Age seems to be an important predicting factor for the etiology of psychosis underlying Capgras syndrome.
Association between -174 G/C polymorphism of interleukin-6 gene and alcoholism
Authors: Šerý Omar , Hladilová Renáta , Novotný Miroslav , Hríbková Hana , Znojil Vladimír , Zvolský Petr
Published: September 2003

Objectives:

IL-6 plays the role as a physiological neuromodulator involved in dopaminergic, serotonergic and other neurotransmissions. The aim of the present association study was to examine the effect of the G/C -174 polymorphism of the IL-6 gene on disposition to alcoholism.

Methods:

We investigated the relationship between the G/C -174 polymorphism of the IL-6 gene and alcohol dependence in 281 alcoholics and 242 control subjects.

Results:

The significant difference in G allele frequency between alcoholic group (0.52) and control group (0.59) was found (P< 0.03).

Conclusion:

To our knowledge, this is the first finding providing evidence for an association between alcoholism and the polymorphism of the IL-6 gene. The background of the relationship between the IL-6 gene and alcoholism is discussed.
An investigation of criteria used to indicate cranial CT in males with schizophrenia
Authors: Rock Daniel J , Wynn Owen Peter
Published: September 2003

Background:

With the increased accessibility of the CT scanner, psychiatrists managing schizophrenia and first-episode psychosis have incorporated this imaging technique into their diagnostic work-up. This practice has been reinforced by published criteria for CT scanning in psychiatric patients suggesting that cranial CT should be used as a screening tool to exclude intracranial pathology in all patients with a first presentation of schizophrenia or first psychotic episode.

Objectives:

This study reviews the performance of these criteria.

Method:

This consisted of a 3-year retrospective case-note audit, using published criteria, of all male in-patients with an established diagnosis of schizophrenia who had a cranial CT during the review period.

Results:

The efficacy of the published criteria is not supported. In addition, non-specific abnormalities on cranial CT are related to duration of illness and not age in this sample.

Conclusions:

There is a need to establish new and clinically meaningful approaches for the use of cranial CT and similar technologies in clinical psychiatry. Cranial CT performs poorly as a universal screening tool in this population. The decision to use such imaging techniques should be made on a case-by-case basis using all available clinical evidence.
Disturbed cognitive functioning and clinical symptoms: two independent problem areas in schizophrenia
Authors: Pijnenborg G. H. M. , van Beilen M. , Arends J. , Holthausen E. A. E. , Withaar F. K.
Published: September 2003

Background:

Research findings on the relationship between cognitive functioning and psychiatric symptoms in schizophrenia have yielded inconsistent results. Although several models were postulated linking cognition and symptoms, the most recent studies point in the direction of cognition and symptoms being relatively independent disease processes.

Objective:

The hypothesis that cognitive decline and psychiatric symptoms are independent disease processes was tested.

Methods:

The relationship between cognitive functioning and clinical symptoms was examined in a large sample of 100 schizophrenia patients.

Results:

The hypothesis was largely confirmed.

Conclusion:

No convincing evidence was found that symptoms and cognition were related.
Borna disease virus and deficit schizophrenia
Authors: Kim Yong-Ku , Kim Sang-Hyun , Han Chang-Su , Lee Heon-Jeong , Kim Hyung-Seob , Yoon Sung-Chul , Kim Dai-Jin , Song Ki-Joon , Maes Michael , Song Jin-Won
Published: September 2003

Background:

It is controversial whether Borna disease virus (BDV) infects humans and causes psychiatric disorders.

Objectives:

The relationship between BDV infection and schizophrenia with deficit syndrome was investigated.

Study design:

Using the Schedule for the Deficit Syndrome, 62 schizophrenic in-patients were selected from three psychiatric hospitals. RNA was extracted from peripheral blood mononuclear cells and analyzed using nested reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction with primers to detect BDV p24 and p40.

Results and conclusions:

BDV transcripts were not detected in samples from any of the 62 schizophrenic patients. These data do not support an etiologic association between BDV infection and the deficit form of schizophrenia.
Recognition memory abnormalities in asymptomatic biological parents of a patient with schizophrenia
Authors: Edelstyn N. M. J. , Drakeford J. , Oyebode F. , Findlay C. D.
Published: September 2003

Background:

Recognition memory dysfunction has been frequently reported in schizophrenic populations, and has been linked with the development of delusions and thought disorder. A range of neuropsychological abnormalities have also been documented in the biological asymptomatic relatives of patients with schizophrenia; however, recognition memory has not been one of them.

Aim:

This study was carried out in order to investigate: (i) verbal and facial recognition memory in terms of accuracy and false alarm rates; and (ii) contributions from the episodic and semantic memory systems to recognition memory, in the biological asymptomatic parents of a reported schizophrenic patient and a set of male and female psychotic controls.

Results:

Gender differences failed to emerge between the psychotic controls on any of the recognition measures (discrimination accuracy, response bias, hit and false alarm rates, ‘remember’ and ‘know’ recognition memory decisions). However, there was evidence of recognition dysfunction in the female relative, and to a lesser extent, in the male. Both parent's recognition memory performance profiles were marked by a pathologically elevated false alarm rate, and an increased dependence ‘remember’ judgements, i.e. input from the episodic memory system, to drive recognition memory decisions.

Conclusions:

These findings are discussed in the context of models of episodic and semantic memory impairment in schizophrenia.
Isoprenoid pathway dysfunction in chronic fatigue syndrome
Authors: Kurup Ravi Kumar , Kurup Parameswara Achutha
Published: September 2003

Background and aims:

The isoprenoid pathway was assessed in 15 patients with chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS). The pathway was also assessed in individuals with differing hemispheric dominance to assess whether hemispheric dominance has any correlation with these disease states.

Methods:

The isoprenoid metabolites – digoxin, dolichol and ubiquinone – RBC membrane Na+-K+ATPase activity, serum magnesium and tyrosine/tryptophan catabolic patterns were assessed. The free radical metabolism, glycoconjugate metabolism and RBC membrane composition were also assessed.

Results:

Membrane Na+-K+ATPase activity and serum magnesium levels were decreased while HMG-CoA reductase activity and serum digoxin levels were increased in CFS. There were increased levels of tryptophan catabolites – nicotine, strychnine, quinolinic acid and serotonin – and decreased levels of tyrosine catabolites –dopamine, norepinephrine and morphine – in CFS. There was an increase in dolichol levels, carbohydrate residues of glycoproteins, glycolipids, total/individual glycosaminoglycans (GAG) fractions and lysosomal enzymes in CFS. Reduced levels of ubiquinone, reduced glutathione and free radical scavenging enzymes as well as increased lipid peroxidation products and nitric oxide were noticed in CFS. The biochemical patterns in CFS correlated with those obtained in right hemispheric dominance.

Conclusions:

The role of hypothalamic digoxin and neurotransmitter-induced immune activation, altered glycoconjugate metabolism and resultant defective viral antigen presentation, NMDA excitotoxicity and cognitive and mitochondrial dysfunction in the pathogenesis of CFS is stressed. CFS occurs in individuals with right hemispheric dominance.
Polymyxa graminis and the cereal viruses it transmits: a research challenge
Authors: Kanyuka Konstantin , Ward Elaine , Adams Michael J.
Published: September 2003

Polymyxa graminis is a eukaryotic obligate biotrophic parasite of plant roots that belongs to a poorly studied discrete taxonomic unit informally called the ‘plasmodiophorids’. P. graminis is non‐pathogenic, but has the ability to acquire and transmit a range of plant viruses which cause serious diseases in cereal crop species and result in significant yield reductions. The viruses are protected from the environment within P. graminis resting spores (‘cysts’) that may remain dormant but viable for decades (probably until a suitable host plant is encountered). The persistent, soil‐borne nature of these diseases makes the use of virus‐resistant crop varieties currently the only practical and environmentally friendly means of control.

 Useful websites:  http://www.rothamsted.bbsrc.ac.uk/ppi/links/pplinks/plasmod/index.html, http://www.dpvweb.net/, http://www.rothamsted.bbsrc.ac.uk/ppi/Iwgpvfv/index.html, http://www.rothamsted.bbsrc.ac.uk/ppi/links/pplinks/bymoviruses/index.html, http://oak.cats.ohiou.edu/~braselto/plasmos/
Pantoea agglomerans pvs. gypsophilae and betae, recently evolved pathogens?
Authors: Manulis Shulamit , Barash Isaac
Published: September 2003

Pantoea agglomerans pvs. gypsophilae and betae

Taxonomy: Bacteria; Proteobacteria; gamma subdivision; order Enterobacteriales; family Enterobacteriaceae; species Pantoea agglomerans.

 Microbiological properties: Gram‐negative, non‐capsulated, non‐spore‐forming, predominately motile rode.

 Disease symptoms: Gall formation at wound sites, mainly in the crown region of the stem. The host range of P. agglomerans pv. gypsophilae is restricted to Gypsophila paniculata, whereas P. agglomerans pv. betae is pathogenic on Beta vulgaris and gypsophila.

 Disease control: Pathogenic‐free transplants and sanitation. No resistant cultivars are available.

 Major virulence determinants: Pathogenicity plasmid (pPATH), hrp cluster, type III virulence effectors, phytohormones.
The role of lipopolysaccharides in induction of plant defence responses
Authors: Erbs Gitte , Newman Mari‐Anne
Published: September 2003

Lipopolysaccharides (LPS) are ubiquitous, indispensable components of the cell surface of Gram‐negative bacteria that apparently have diverse roles in bacterial pathogenesis of plants. As an outer membrane component, LPS may contribute to the exclusion of plant‐derived antimicrobial compounds promoting the ability of a bacterial plant pathogen to infect plants. In contrast, LPS can be recognized by plants to directly trigger some plant defence‐related responses. LPS also sensitize plant tissue to respond more rapidly or to a greater extent to subsequently inoculated phytopathogenic bacteria. Sensitization is manifested by an accelerated synthesis of antimicrobial hydroxycinnamoyl‐tyramine conjugates, in the expression patterns of genes coding for some pathogenesis‐related (PR) proteins, and prevention of the hypersensitive reaction caused by avirulent bacteria. The description at the molecular level of the various effects of LPS on plants is a necessary step towards an understanding of the signal transduction mechanisms through which LPS triggers these responses. A definition of these signal transduction pathways should allow an assessment of the contribution that LPS signalling makes to plant disease resistance in both natural infections and biocontrol.
Fusarium oxysporum: exploring the molecular arsenal of a vascular wilt fungus
Authors: Pietro Antonio Di , Madrid Marta P. , Caracuel Zaira , Delgado‐Jarana Jesús , Roncero M. Isabel G.
Published: September 2003

Taxonomy: Vascular wilt fungus; Ascomycete although sexual stage is yet to be found. The most closely related teleomorphic group, Gibberella, is classified within the Pyrenomycetes.

 Host range: Very broad at the species level. More than 120 different formae speciales have been identified based on specificity to host species belonging to a wide range of plant families.

 Disease symptoms: Initial symptoms of vascular wilt include vein clearing and leaf epinasty, followed by stunting, yellowing of the lower leafs, progressive wilting of leaves and stem, defoliation and finally death of the plant. In cross‐sections of the stem, a brown ring is evident in the area of the vascular bundles. Some formae speciales are not primarily vascular pathogens but cause foot‐ and rootrot or bulbrot.

 Economic importance: Causes severe losses on most vegetables and flowers, several field crops such as cotton and tobacco, plantation crops such as banana, plantain, coffee and sugarcane, and a few shade trees.

 Control: Use of resistant varieties is the only practical measure for controlling the disease in the field. Under greenhouse conditions, soil sterilization can be performed. Alternative control methods with potential for the future include soil solarization and biological control with antagonistic bacteria or fungi.

 Useful websites: http://www.fgsc.net/fus.htm, http://www‐genome.wi.mit.edu/annotation/fungi/fusarium/, http://www.cbs.knaw.nl/fusarium/database.html
Genotypic analysis of Xylella fastidiosa isolates from different hosts using sequences homologous to the Xanthomonas rpf genes
Authors: Meinhardt Lyndel W. , Ribeiro Milena P. M. A. , Coletta‐Filho Helvécio D. , Dumenyo C. Korsi , Tsai Sui M. , De M. Bellato Cláudia
Published: September 2003

This is the first report of a genotypic analysis of the phytopathogenic bacteria Xylella fastidiosa (Xf) using differences within intra‐ and intergenic regions of pathogenic genes. Orthologous sequences from the genome of Xf were identified for genes involved in the regulation of pathogenicity factors (rpf) from Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris (Xcc). While the rpf genes were conserved, the chromosomal region revealed differences in gene sizes and intergenic spacings and a major translocational event when compared to Xcc. Primers were designed to amplify three regions: the intragenic region of rpfA (2354 bp), the intergenic region between rpfA and rpfB (5772 bp), and the intergenic region between rpfC and rpfF (2314 bp). Amplicons were obtained for all three regions from 32 of the 33 Xf isolates tested from citrus, grape, coffee, plum, hibiscus and periwinkle. Three Xcc isolates from cruciferous plants only generated PCR products for the rpfC‐F region. Cleaved amplified polymorphic sequences (CAPS) (TaqαI) revealed differential banding profiles for the rpfA‐B and rpfC‐F regions. Xylella isolates were separated into seven groups via rpfA‐B, of which five contained only citrus, while the other two had citrus, grape and coffee, and citrus, coffee, plum and hibiscus isolates. rpfC‐F separated the isolates into three host‐related groups. Citrus, coffee and hibiscus isolates formed one group, while the other two groups were comprised solely of grape and plum isolates. Xcc isolates formed an out‐group. In silico analysis supports these results, which reveal the potential of the rpf genes for genotypic analysis of Xylella fastidiosa.
Large scale parallel analysis of gene expression during infection‐related morphogenesis ofMagnaporthe grisea
Authors: Takano Yoshitaka , Choi Woobong , Mitchell Thomas K. , Okuno Tetsuro , Dean Ralph A.
Published: September 2003

The rice blast fungusMagnaporthe griseacauses one of the most destructive diseases of rice. To initiate the infection of host tissues, conidia elaborate germ tubes that differentiate specialized infection structures called appressoria. Microarrays composed of 3500 cDNAs ofM. griseawere prepared for the identification of genes that are specifically up‐ or down‐regulated during appressorium formation. Gene expression in ungerminated conidia, during appressorium formation, and during mycelial growth was investigated with a novel highly sensitive dendrimer based detection system. Transcripts of 85 different genes were found to be more abundant in ungerminated conidia and/or in conidia with developing appressoria than in vegetative mycelia. Nineteen of these showed higher expression in both ungerminated conidia and developing appressoria than in mycelia, suggesting that their expression remains elevated during the early stage of fungal infection. The expression of 18 genes was higher in ungerminated conidia than in developing appressoria, indicating their possible role in the germination process or maintaining dormancy. Transcripts of 47 genes were found to be more abundant in developing appressoria than in ungerminated conidia, suggesting that their expression is induced during appressorium formation. Several of these genes, including a chitin binding protein and infection structure specific protein MIF23, were previously shown to be preferentially expressed during appressorium formation. However, the expression of many of these genes has not been reported prior to this analysis. In contrast, transcripts of 38 different genes were found to be more abundant in mycelia than in developing appressoria. A Northern blot analysis of selected genes was consistent with the microarray results. Results from this study provide a powerful resource for furthering our understanding of gene expression during infection‐related morphogenesis and for the functional analysis ofM. griseagenes involved in fungal infection.
The Fusarium graminearum MAP1 gene is essential for pathogenicity and development of perithecia
Authors: Urban Martin , Mott Ellie , Farley Tom , Hammond‐Kosack Kim
Published: September 2003

Fusarium graminearum is the causal agent of ear blight disease of cereals. Infection occurs at anthesis when ascospores and/or conidia directly penetrate exposed anther and ovary tissue. The hemibiotrophic hyphae colonize floral tissues and developing grains to cause premature ear senescence. During infection, Fusarium hyphae can also produce hazardous trichothecene mycotoxins, thereby posing a threat to human and animal health and safety. The Fusarium MAP1 gene was identified using a PCR approach by its homology to a known pathogenicity gene of Magnaporthe grisea, the mitogen‐activated protein kinase gene PMK1. Gene replacement F. graminearum map1 mutants were non‐pathogenic on wheat flowers and roots, and also could not infect wounded wheat floral tissue or tomato fruits. Unlike the wild‐type strain, map1 mutant inoculations did not compromise grain yield. Map1 mutants lost their ability to form perithecia in vitro, but their rate of asexual conidiation was unaffected. DON mycotoxin production in planta was still detected. Collectively, the observed phenotypes suggest that the Map1 signalling protein controls multiple events in disease establishment and propagation. Novel approaches to control Fusarium ear blight disease by blocking perithecial development are discussed.
Differential display analysis of gene expression in the cytoplasm of giant cells induced in tomato roots by Meloidogyne javanica
Authors: Wang Zhaohui , Potter Robert H. , Jones Michael G. K.
Published: September 2003

Giant cells induced by root‐knot nematodes are highly specialized cells which function as transfer cells and provide nutrients to support the growth and reproduction of the nematode. Changes in the overall pattern of gene expression in giant cells occur during the formation and maintenance of the nematode feeding cells. Differential display analysis has been carried out to detect changes in gene expression in giant cells induced in tomato roots by Meloidogyne javanica, using mRNA isolated directly from mature giant cell cytoplasm, compared to non‐infected root tissue. Eighty‐one differential displayed bands were generated, and of these, 73 were up‐regulated and 8 were down‐regulated. Twenty‐seven sequences were obtained by direct sequencing of the bands, and 16 fragments were further analysed by real‐time quantitative RT‐PCR. The most highly up‐regulated transcript increased 56‐fold in giant cells, and the greatest down‐regulation was 11‐fold. A time course of expression of the highest and lowest expressed transcripts was also undertaken by quantitative RT‐PCR using giant cell enriched tissue. These showed similar changes in expression, but values were dramatically reduced. This result shows the importance of analysing giant cell cytoplasm directly, rather than starting with giant cell enriched tissue, to obtain accurate information on changes in gene expression in nematode feeding cells. Sequenced transcripts showed significant homology to mitogen‐activated protein kinase, S‐adenosylmethionine decarboxylase, cysteine synthase, cytochrome c reductase subunit, and ribosomal proteins. The expression analysed reflects the high metabolic rate in mature giant cells rather than processes of giant cell induction.
Mapping the mating type locus of Ascochyta rabiei, the causal agent of ascochyta blight of chickpea
Authors: Phan H. T. T. , Ford R. , Taylor P. W. J.
Published: September 2003

A genome linkage map was developed for Ascochyta rabiei (Pass.) Labrousse, (teleomorph) Didymella rabiei (Kovachevski), an important pathogen causing ascochyta blight in chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.). The map was constructed using 96 progeny generated from a single pseudothecium produced from a cross between a USA MAT‐2 isolate and an Australian MAT‐1 isolate. The map comprised 126 molecular markers of which 69 were random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers, 46 were amplified fragment length polymorphic (AFLP) markers, 10 were sequence‐tagged microsatellite site (STMS) markers, and one was a sequence characterized amplified region (SCAR) marker. Eighteen large and 10 small linkage groups (LG) were characterized and the mating‐type locus was mapped on to LGd. The map spanned 1271 cM with an average spacing between markers of 15.1 cM. The SCAR marker, specific for mating type 2, was designed to amplify a region of the MAT locus and was used to identify the mating type of A. rabiei isolates. One AFLP marker, derived from the MAT‐1 parent, was closely linked to the mating‐type locus (9.6 cM). The linkage map provides a framework for the future identification of the locations of other important traits such as virulence/avirulence and fungicide resistance. Findings from this study suggest that the MAT‐2 isolates of D. rabiei should be renamed to MAT‐1 isolates because the alpha‐box, specific for MAT‐1 from other ascomycetes, was amplified from A. rabiei MAT‐2 isolates.
Cytosolic HSP90 and HSP70 are essential components of INF1‐mediated hypersensitive response and non‐host resistance toPseudomonas cichoriiinNicotiana benthamiana
Authors: Kanzaki H. , Saitoh H. , Ito A. , Fujisawa S. , Kamoun S. , Katou S. , Yoshioka H. , Terauchi R.
Published: September 2003

Mitogen‐activated protein kinases (MAPKs) play pivotal roles in the signal transduction pathway of plant defence responses against pathogens. A search for MAPK‐interacting proteins revealed an interaction between aNicotiana benthamianaMAPK, SIPK (NbSIPK) and cytosolic Hsp90 (NbHsp90c‐1) in yeast two‐hybrid assay. To study the function of Hsp90 in disease resistance, we silencedNbHsp90c‐1inN. benthamianaby virus‐induced gene silencing (VIGS) withPotato virus X(PVX).NbHsp90c‐1silenced plants exhibited: (1) a stunted phenotype, (2) no hypersensitive response (HR) development after infiltration with thePhytophthora infestansprotein INF1 and a non‐host pathogenPseudomonas cichoriithat normally triggers HR inN. benthamiana, (3) compromised non‐host resistance toP. cichorii, and (4) consistently reduced transcription levels of PR (pathogenesis related) protein genes. Similar phenotypes were observed also for plants in which a cytosolicHsp70(NbHsp70c‐1), a gene for another class of molecular chaperon, was silenced. Hsp90 was isolated as a MAPK‐interacting protein in yeast two‐hybrid assay, therefore we tested the effect ofNbHsp90c‐1silencing as well asNbHsp70c‐1silencing on the HR development caused by infiltration of a hyperactive potato MAPKK (StMEK1DD). No difference in the timing or extent of HR was found amongNbHsp90c‐1silenced,NbHsp70c‐1silenced and control plants. This result indicates that observed impairment of INF1‐ andP. cichorii‐mediated HR development inNbHsp90c‐1silenced andNbHsp70c‐1silenced plants was not caused by the abrogation in MAPK function downstream of active MAPKK that leads to HR. These findings suggest essential roles of Hsp90 and Hsp70 in plant defence signal transduction pathway upstream or independent of the MAPK cascade.