bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Solid and Hematologic Neoplasms After Testicular Cancer: A US Population-Based Study of 24 900 Survivors
Authors: Milano Michael T , Dinh Paul C , Yang Hongmei , Zaid Mohammad Abu , Fossa Sophie D , Feldman Darren R , Monahan Patrick O , Travis Lois B , Fung Chunkit
Published: February 2020

Background

No large US population-based study focusing on recent decades, to our knowledge, has comprehensively examined risks of second malignant solid and hematological neoplasms (solid-SMN and heme-SMN) after testicular cancer (TC), taking into account initial therapy and histological type.

Methods

Standardized incidence ratios (SIR) vs the general population and 95% confidence intervals (CI) for solid-SMN and heme-SMN were calculated for 24 900 TC survivors (TCS) reported to the National Cancer Institute’s Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results registries (1973–2014). All statistical tests were two-sided.

Results

The median age at TC diagnosis was 33 years. Initial management comprised chemotherapy (n = 6340), radiotherapy (n = 9058), or surgery alone (n = 8995). During 372 709 person-years of follow-up (mean = 15 years), 1625 TCS developed solid-SMN and 228 (107 lymphomas, 92 leukemias, 29 plasma cell dyscrasias) developed heme-SMN. Solid-SMN risk was increased 1.06-fold (95% CI = 1.01 to 1.12), with elevated risks following radiotherapy (SIR = 1.13, 95% CI = 1.06 to 1.21) and chemotherapy (SIR = 1.36, 95% CI = 1.12 to 1.41) but not surgery alone (SIR = 0.83, 95% CI = 0.75 to 0.92). Corresponding risks for seminoma were 1.13 (95% CI = 1.06 to 1.21), 1.28 (95% CI = 1.02 to 1.58), and 0.87 (95% CI = 0.74 to 1.01) and for nonseminoma were 1.05 (95% CI = 0.67 to 1.56), 1.25 (95% CI = 1.08 to 1.43), and 0.80 (95% CI = 0.70 to 0.92), respectively. Thirty-year cumulative incidences of solid-SMN after radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and surgery alone were 16.9% (95% CI = 15.7% to 18.1%), 10.1% (95% CI = 8.8% to 11.5%), and 8.8% (95% CI = 7.8% to 9.9%), respectively (P < .0001). Increased leukemia risks after chemotherapy (SIR = 2.68, 95% CI = 1.70 to 4.01) were driven by statistically significant sevenfold excesses of acute myeloid leukemia 1 to 10 years after TC diagnosis. Risks for lymphoma and plasma cell dyscrasias were not elevated.

Conclusions

We report statistically significant excesses of solid-SMN affecting 1 in 6 TCS 30 years after radiotherapy, and 2.7-fold risks of leukemias after chemotherapy, mostly acute myeloid leukemia. Efforts to minimize chemotherapy and radiotherapy exposures for TC should continue. TCS should be counseled about cancer prevention and screening.
Peripheral leg ischemia detected via intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring during a multilevel complex anterior and posterior operation
Authors: Rasouli Bobak , Pederson Kristine , Wilkinson Marshall F , Zarrabian Mohammad
Published: February 2020

Intraoperative neurophysiologic monitoring is a technique utilized during spinal operations to minimize sensory and motor function morbidity. We herein report a case of a 73-year-old female with renal cell carcinoma and metastatic involvement of the cervical and thoracic spine, who underwent a multilevel complex anterior and posterior operation. Neurophysiological monitoring was able to localize the lower limb ischemia utilizing somatosensory evoked potentials. This prompted intraoperative investigation of the peripheral ischemia, and the patient was found to have an Angio-Seal device embolus in the right popliteal artery that dislodged from the right femoral artery.
Ischemic appendicitis due to pelvic adhesions: a case report
Authors: Smith Lauren E , Levy and Paul
Published: February 2020

Acute appendicitis is one of the most common etiologies of a surgical abdomen. The lifetime risk is estimated to be 7%. Over 300 000 appendectomies occur annually in the USA. The pathophysiology of appendicitis in most patients is believed to be caused by outflow obstruction of the appendiceal lumen leading to increased intraluminal pressure, venous congestion and mucosal ischemia. This can occur due to a variety of internal obstructive causes such as a fecalith, lymphoid hyperplasia, parasites or a tumor. To date, no case reports describing appendicitis secondary to external compression of the appendix leading to outflow obstruction been documented in the literature. This case report describes a 61-year-old female who had a thick, adhesive band compressing the base of her appendix, which created external outflow obstruction leading to the development of appendicitis.
Cultural Materialism
Authors: Bertens Hans
Published: February 2020

Cultural materialism as a literary critical practice—this article will not address its anthropological namesake—is a Marxist-inspired and mostly British approach to in particular Shakespeare and early modern English literature that emerged and became prominent in the 1980s. Its emphasis on the historical and material conditions of the production and reception of texts has remained influential, even if its political commitment and interventionist purposes have largely been abandoned and increasingly ignored. While certain of its formulations would seem to echo Michel Foucault, Louis Althusser, or other thinkers of the period, the main influence is the British literary and cultural critic Raymond Williams, and his re-theorization, following Antonio Gramsci’s notion of cultural hegemony, of the orthodox Marxist binary of base and superstructure. For Williams, who coined the term “cultural materialism,” culture is neither a mere reflection of that base nor wholly independent of it. This does not rule out intentional human practice, but rejects the idealist position in seeing that practice as inseparable from specific historical conditions. Still, with culture not wholly determined by an economic base, it plays its own role in the construction and/or reproduction of the social totality, and inevitably becomes the site of ideological struggle. Next to the dominant, hegemonic cultural formation we will thus find declining, residual formations and nascent, emergent ones. Cultural materialism focused on the ideological forces at work in Shakespeare (and early modern literature more generally), in Shakespeare studies, and in contemporary re-stagings and representations—in for instance secondary education and advertising—of Shakespeare and/or his work. Rejecting humanist beliefs in transcendent, ahistorical, truth and in an essential human nature, cultural materialists insisted on historicization and argued that Shakespeare—and the study of literature in general—had been hijacked by a conservative humanist ideology that presented itself as timeless and “natural” and perhaps unwittingly colluded with a profoundly unjust and rapacious social order. One of cultural materialism’s main interests was social stratification and the way in which the dominant social order sought (and seeks) to legitimize itself—for instance through the construction of socially marginalized groups as “other,” a practice that led to an early interest in issues of gender and race, and would substantially contribute to the rise of queer studies. Inspired by its belief that ideological hegemony is never absolute and that all ideology at some point contradicts itself, cultural materialism reads texts for signs of subversion and political dissidence, arriving at often provocative interpretations whose ulterior purpose was to serve as interventions in current political debates.
Libraries
Authors: Ranogajec Paul
Published: February 2020

Libraries are an ancient building type. Beginning with the first literate societies—the ancient cultures of Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, China, Greece, and Rome—libraries have been a constant resource for cultural tradition and renewal. Yet the literature on libraries as works of architecture is much smaller than their cultural importance suggests. Until the mid-19th century, not much had been published on the architecture of libraries. And it is only in the past half-century that architectural studies—theory, criticism, and history—have taken up the building type in its full complexity. There are still many gaps in the literature, especially for non-Western cultures and for all periods before the 17th century. Sometimes libraries—Thomas Jefferson’s Rotunda at the University of Virginia is a good example—are discussed with no reference to their intended purpose, as if the functions they serve have no bearing on the architecture. Nonetheless, there is a growing scholarly interest in the history of libraries. And the best recent studies, whether by librarians, historians, or architectural historians, have sought to understand these buildings in their own right, drawing attention to the interrelated issues of librarianship, book collecting, public service, and design. This article presents works in architectural and art history, history, and library studies, and focuses on works that cover the design and function of libraries. It does not include items primarily oriented to book history, manuscript studies, bibliographic studies, collections, or theoretical issues of librarianship, although some of the entries touch upon these concerns. These fields may be of interest to researchers of library architecture when they indicate something about the purposes and services of libraries. However, the literature of those adjacent fields is simply too vast to reduce for inclusion here.
Paris
Authors: Weiss Sean
Published: February 2020

The architecture of the city of Paris encompasses a history of more than two millennia. Paris’s earliest known architecture dates to the start of the 1st century, when the Gallo-Roman city of Lutetia developed on the Left Bank and the Île de la Cité. The city subsequently expanded across the Right Bank and the present location of many important ecclesiastical monuments was determined after Clovis I, king of the Franks, made Paris the seat of the Merovingian Kingdom at the start of the 6th century. The cathedral of Notre-Dame, the abbey church of Saint-Germain-des-Près, and the French Panthéon (formerly the church of Sainte-Geneviève) were all built on Merovingian sites. Although there is little evidence of the city’s architecture from these early periods, it nevertheless established two enduring principles that broadly characterize the development of the city’s architecture over time. First, Paris’s urban fabric has followed an ongoing process of centrifugal expansion, engulfing the surrounding land until 1869 when it was decided to annex the old eleven faubourgs and make them the surrounding arrondissements, whose outer edges mark the municipal limits of the city. In the 20th and 21st centuries, urban development projects continue apace in the banlieues, or suburbs, beyond the city’s limits, while building campaigns within the capital have principally taken the form of urban infill and renovation projects. Second, subsequent rulers have consistently appropriated the same sites and rebuilt or extended them as a mark of political ambition. This was the case for important Christian sites as well as for the city’s palace complexes, such as the early-13th-century Louvre, which was consistently occupied, rebuilt, and expanded during the Old Regime; partially used as a museum during the French Revolution; and only transformed into a museum in its entirety in the 1980s when President François Mitterand stamped the buildings with his own political ambition in his bid to again transform the city. Collectively, the process of urban expansion and the reappropriation of sites have made the city’s architecture dense with historical layers from different periods of time. It has been the task of historians to peel back these layers to study the social, cultural, and material significance of the city’s architecture. To present the literature on Paris’s architecture in light of its vast history, the following bibliography begins with more general literature and research sources, and it then progresses chronologically, starting with Lutetia’s architecture and ending at the close of the 20th century. As the bibliography moves forward in time, the scholarship becomes denser, especially in the 19th century. This focus in large part reflects the recent nature of the city’s existing built fabric, which was mostly constructed starting in the mid-19th century.
Schools
Authors: Gyure Dale Allen
Published: February 2020

The literature of school architecture tends to break in two different directions. On one hand, practical advice guides written by architects and educators date back to the middle third of the 19th century; they were supplemented by a continuous stream of articles relating to design issues in educators’ and architects’ professional journals. By the early 20th century, they developed into extensively illustrated records of contemporary school buildings and design standards. These design guides continue to be published today, often with brief historical analyses included, in recognition of the specialty field that school architecture has become. The other trend for school architecture literature is toward historical analysis. This path has been less vigorously pursued, however, and architectural histories of schools, their spaces, and equipment appeared infrequently until the 1990s. Today, the importance of school buildings, and the many functional, inspirational, and symbolic roles they play, is widely accepted. Scholars have favored post–World War II schools over counterparts from other times, and, in general, the 20th century has been more popular with historians than previous periods. The consistent narrative in these works has involved the impact of evolving ideas about educational theory and practice on architectural spaces. As more histories are published, the field is broadening beyond its long-standing emphasis on American and English topics and the dominance of English-language publications. This collection of sources, which looks only at primary and secondary education, unfortunately reflects that Anglo-American orientation.
C. F. A. Voysey
Authors: Livingstone Karen
Published: February 2020

Charles Frances Annesley Voysey (b. 1857–d. 1941) was an architect, designer, and leading figure of the Arts and Crafts Movement in Britain. The houses and interiors he designed, notably his own home, The Orchard, Chorleywood (1899), were much acclaimed. From 1890 to 1910 he was regarded as one of the most innovative and influential architects of his generation. His international reputation was enhanced through the widespread publication of his work, and his own writing and lectures. He had strong guiding principles, believing in a simple and honest life, lived close to nature. Voysey was trained by J. P. Seddon (b. 1827–d. 1906) from 1874 and then worked for Henry Saxon Snell (b. 1830–d. 1904), followed by George Devey (b. 1820–d. 1886). He set up his own practice in 1882, specializing in small-scale houses. He designed only a few commercial or public buildings, including a factory for Sanderson and Co., London (1902) and Winsford Cottage Hospital, Devon (1901). Voysey designed homes to suit the needs of his clients’ lifestyles and budgets, in which he merged traditional styles with modern construction techniques, materials, and amenities such as plumbing and electricity. He used a consistent architectural language, and while the same details appear over and over, the result is never repetitive and always suited to the setting. Voysey was also a successful designer of patterns for textiles and wallpapers, beginning around 1884 and producing a prolific range over the next fifty years. He designed extensively for other media, including furniture, clocks, ceramics, metalwork, stained glass, jewelry, sculpture, and graphic design. Voysey was a pioneer, and scholars, notably Pevsner 1968 (cited under General Overviews), at first positioned him as a pioneer of modern design. Voysey firmly rejected this notion, believing that he was an individual, a man of his age, and a follower of the Gothic revival. His most important influences were the architect and designer A. W. N. Pugin (b. 1812–d. 1852), the writer and critic John Ruskin (b. 1819–d. 1900), and the designer, poet and socialist William Morris (b. 1834–d. 1896). He also greatly admired the architect Ninian Comper (b. 1864–d. 1960). Voysey did not receive formal recognition until later in life. He became a Fellow of the Royal Institute of British Architects in 1927 and was awarded the RIBA Gold Medal in 1940. In 1936 he was elected Designer for Industry by the Royal Society of Arts. He lived in poor financial straits exasperated by the decline of his practice after 1912, ill health, and separated from his wife since 1917. He died in Winchester in 1941.
Roman Republican Architecture
Authors: Hopkins John
Published: February 2020

The designation “Republican” refers to the Roman political period, traditionally dated between 509 and 31 bce. Roman Republican architecture is understood as the product of the built environment in the city of Rome as well as the territory controlled by Romans during this period. Scholarship on Roman architecture in general has focused on building typology; structure, materials, and construction techniques; and design and urbanism—all frequently with an interest in historical context. The study of the Republic has incorporated these traditions, but analysis of the physical remains is often restricted, due to the much degraded state of many early monuments; thus, critical study of ancient textual sources is often crucial, and study of the historical or cultural context of architecture sees increased attention. There is an equally strong—and recently deepened—interest in sociologically and anthropologically informed study of the use and experience of architecture and its effects on Roman society. The best-known aspects of architecture from the period include the construction of monumental temples in stone and terracotta at first, and later incorporating stone entablatures, roofs, and eventually concrete from foundations to superstructure. As for the geographical extent of Roman territory (both political and cultural), it was rarely static and in some cases is poorly understood; furthermore, Romans were frequently in contact with communities and cultures around them, so in some cases it is essential to look outside of Roman territory to understand Roman Republican-era architecture. This bibliography is not meant as a digest of buildings, but rather, after General Overviews and Reference Works, it covers various important topics in the field. As a whole, though, the citations have been assembled in a way that there should be at least one key source on most of the major monuments of the Roman Republic. The bibliography is limited to Italian territory, though the reader will find some references to Roman architecture from wider Mediterranean territories that Rome controlled by the mid-2nd century. Furthermore, the study of Republican architecture is necessarily tied to archaeological excavations, yet this is not a bibliography of Roman archaeology. Thus, although some seminal studies of individual monuments and excavations appear, most works are on the discipline of architectural history and questions related to it, rather than on sites and their excavation. More so than for the period of the Empire, the study of Republican architecture has been dominated by Italian scholarship, with some important work by French and German scholars. Anglophone interest has been infrequent until recently, so scholarship in English presents only a spotty picture of the state of the field. This bibliography is purposefully focused on English-language scholarship, but for some areas, works in foreign languages are essential for study beyond introductory material.
Architecture of Hong Kong
Authors: Farris Johnathan
Published: February 2020

The architecture of Hong Kong is the built environment contained within the present-day Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (SAR) of China, which also matches the former British Colony of Hong Kong at its largest extent. The region’s architecture, and the literature about it, can be divided into several phases. Pre–urban architecture of the territory consists of buildings built before the British occupation of Hong Kong Island in 1841, as well as later architecture produced in a traditional manner afterwards. This architecture is largely a regional vernacular reflection of broader Chinese traditions. The second phase of Hong Kong architecture is the early colonial phase, from the British cession of the island, through the expansion of the territory to include Kowloon in 1860 and the New Territories in 1898, up to the Second World War. This phase is characterized by the importation of Western building types and technologies and the implementation of colonial planning in the shaping of the city. This era can be subdivided into an initial commercially driven and fairly organic phase, a reshaping of key aspects of the city from around the time of Queen Victoria’s Diamond Jubilee, and a third phase of subsequent transformation in the early twentieth century defined by increasing influence of technologies such as concrete and electricity. Hong Kong’s architecture can also be neatly subdivided into two eras since the Second World War. The 1940s through the 1970s were characterized by rebuilding after war and the Japanese occupation, and dramatic expansion, particularly needed to accommodate a massive influx of population in the form of refugees from mainland China. In reaction to the latter, the development of public housing estates and the eventual founding of new towns is particularly significant in the history of Hong Kong. The immediate postwar phase is also accompanied by industrial growth. Around 1980, the city’s economic transformation from a manufacturing center to a hub of global commerce and investment would also have dramatic repercussions. The creation of landmark corporate modernist buildings by globally renowned architects in the 1980s, followed by an intensification of real estate speculation, sets the tone for the city of high-rise architecture that exists today.
Building Materials of Chinese Architecture
Authors: Guo Qinghua
Published: February 2020

This bibliography is a summation of our present knowledge of building materials used in China from prehistoric (c. 3000 bce) to premodern times (18th century). Earth, timber, stone, bricks, and tiles are the major materials developed with construction purposes. Earth and wood rendered as tu-mu are a synonym for construction work used throughout the history. In the case of earth, for example, it was used to build not only architecture but also infrastructure (such as city walls) with different techniques (e.g., direct molding and cob, rammed earth with framework and adobe [mud bricks]). China is well known for its long tradition of historical documentation; however building materials in early imperial times were only occasionally mentioned in literature, and their manufacture details were recorded in a few documents. The oldest written source in existence is the Yingzao Fashi (1103). A large number of historic buildings survived from the Ming-Qing times are timber-framed. Therefore, timber architecture has been studied more intensely than the others. And, scholarly attention has put more on the later period of Chinese architecture. Critical study of Chinese architecture did not begin until the 20th century. In the field of building materials, the academic work was scarce. Obviously, the study overlaps with a number of fields: construction, technology, architecture, and archaeology. Within the topic, this bibliography is organized in five categories: timber, stone and earth, bricks and tiles, mortars, coating and painting. Timber includes various prefabricated elements and units, such as columns, beams and block-bracket sets (dou-gong). Over time, Chinese timber architecture developed into a modular design and building standard as a system. Wooden buildings require coatings for weather proofing, which led to application of decorative coatings and paints. Drainage and waterproofing had been major issues for buildings and structures, which resulted in the development from adobe to bricks and tiles. Each section reviews main issues and lists recent scholarly contributions, as well as important database sources.
Historicism
Authors: Hvattum Mari
Published: February 2020

In its most general sense, historicism refers to a new historical consciousness emerging in late-18th- and early-19th-century Europe. This novel “historical-mindedness,” as the cultural historian Stephen Bann has called it, sprung from a recognition that human knowledge and human making are historically conditioned and must be understood within particular historical contexts. Historicism inspired new interest in the origin and development of cultural phenomena, not least art and architecture. When used in relation to architecture, historicism usually refers to the 19th-century notion that architecture is a historically dynamic and relative phenomenon, changing with time and circumstance. This in contrast to 18th-century classicism which tended to uphold the classical tradition as a universal ideal and a timeless standard. Historicism in architecture often entails Revivals of various kinds, i.e., the reference to or use of historical styles and motifs. The term is related to concepts such as eclecticism, revivalism, and relativism. In architectural history, an early anticipation of a historicist way of thinking is Johann Joachim Winckelmann’s History of the Art of Antiquity (1764). While still idealizing Greek art, Winckelmann also analyzed Egyptian, Etruscan, Phoenician, and Persian art and architecture, paying close attention to the historical conditions in which each of these cultures emerged. This new attentiveness to the relationship between cultural conditions and artistic expression lies at the heart of historicism, as does the related idea that architecture has the capacity to represent an epoch or a nation, forming a veritable index of cultural development. There is a strong organicist aspect to historicism, i.e., a tendency to think about cultural phenomena as organic wholes that evolve according to laws.
Architecture of China-Middle (Han - Yuan Dynasties)
Authors: Harrer Alexandra
Published: February 2020

More than fifteen hundred years separate the beginning of the Han dynasty (206 bce to 220 ce) from the fall of the Yuan dynasty (1267–1368). Milestones in the formation of traditional building culture were seen during the Han dynasty and the divided period of the Northern and Southern Dynasties (420–589); construction technology was still in an experimental phase and new cultural imports from Central Asia like Buddhism and influences from the politically separated but economically more advanced South stimulated the process of artistic exchange. New structural principles were imbued with philosophical meaning and connected to social status, once formulated in the Tang dynasty (618–907), were continued and perfectioned over the next centuries. It is an irony of history that the Liao (907–1125), a nomadic people who took over the rule of North China, preserved the iconic features of Tang architecture even better than the contemporary indigenous Northern Song (960–1279), which sheds light on the historical perception of Han-Chinese building culture and the culturally sensible process of Sinification. Design practice was rooted in China’s culture of institutionalization and normalization, and imperially commissioned technical standards for government sponsored construction have survived in the form of several almost intact manuscripts, namely through copies of the original text (Yingzao fashi 1103, 1145), that tell us about the superior level of craftsmanship at the Song court. But official, dynastic style and regional building styles developed next to each other under mutual influence, which is also evident in the architecture of the succeeding Jin (1126–1234) and Yuan dynasties. Magnificent palaces and temples with towering pagodas and multi-storied halls were built in great numbers in wood but due to the events of history, not a single pre-Tang timber building has survived even in the remote areas of Shanxi province. For the one thousand years between the establishment of the Han dynasty and the erection of the timber-framed main hall at Nanchansi (南禅寺, dedicated 782), the study of traditional Chinese architecture has relied on textual records, archeological evidence, and artistic representations on paintings and in relief. Architecture, and Chinese architecture is no exception, refers to both the process and the product of spatial design and in the material form of buildings. It is art, cultural heritage, and applied science, answering the needs of everyday life by providing physical and symbolic shelter. Thus, literature on Chinese architecture is multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary, and transdisciplinary, reflecting a variety of methodologies and a diversity of authors and readers.
Architecture of East Asia
Authors: Steinhardt Nancy S.
Published: February 2020

East Asia is a modern geographic designation. Today East Asia comprises China, Korea, Japan, Vietnam, Mongolia, and Tibet. Parts of all of them except Japan have at one time been part of China. China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam use Chinese characters in their classical languages. Buddhist architecture stands in all six countries. Still, books and articles about East Asian architecture are few. The majority of published material concerns only one East Asian country. Several features characterize architecture across East Asia from the earliest evidence through the 19th century. The majority of buildings are supported by timber frames. The timber pieces are modular, so the measurements of certain components can be used to derive the measurements of others. Buildings usually are part of groups that form around or inside courtyards. Sometimes the courtyards are enclosed by covered arcades; other times they are enclosed by walls. The principles of enclosure and walling extend to cities. A front gate is part of almost any East Asian building group. Although it is rare for a building in East Asia to stand in isolation, every building group has one main structure. Most architecture in East Asia is built by craftsmen. Few names of architects survive, however. The patrons of East Asia’s most significant buildings were rulers and aristocrats.
Child Maltreatment Prevention
Authors: Johnson-Motoyama Michelle , Davis Starr
Published: February 2020

Child maltreatment is a costly, dynamically complex problem of global significance with serious consequences for children, families, and communities. The World Health Organization defines child maltreatment as abuse and neglect that results in actual or potential harm to a child’s health, survival, development, or dignity in the context of a relationship of responsibility, trust, or power. While estimates vary by country, the most recent global estimates suggest that over the course of childhood 23 percent of adults are physically abused, 36 percent are emotionally abused, and 16 percent are physically neglected. Approximately one in five girls are sexually abused, a rate 2.5 times higher than that of boys. Overviews of the nature and scope of child maltreatment are provided in separate Oxford Bibliographies articles “Child Maltreatment,” “Child Maltreatment,” and “Intergenerational Transmission of Maltreatment.” In depth entries addressing systems of response to child maltreatment are provided in “Child Protection” and Child Welfare. This article focuses on universal and targeted strategies to prevent child maltreatment before it occurs. Whereas universal strategies seek to reach all children and families with prevention programming in a given community, targeted strategies are designed to reach specific families with identified needs. This entry provides general overviews on the topic of child maltreatment prevention from interdisciplinary perspectives. It directs readers to scientific journals that disseminate peer-reviewed research, scholarship on universal and targeted child maltreatment prevention strategies, and clearinghouses that provide timely evidence regarding the effectiveness of specific programs. The vast number of international and US agencies and organizations engaged in child maltreatment prevention efforts are highlighted. A growing body of established and emerging research evidence demonstrates that the prevention of child maltreatment is possible within our lifetimes through public and private investments in effective universal and targeted strategies; interdisciplinary and cross-systems collaboration; innovation; and political will.
Midian
Authors: Tebes Juan Manuel
Published: February 2020

Midian was an ancient region located in northwestern Arabia. Compared with other peoples of the ancient Near East, knowledge about Midian and the Midianites is limited and restricted to a few and relatively late written sources, particularly the Hebrew Bible. The exact geographical location of the Midianites is unknown, and although the Midianite “heartland” is traditionally situated east of the Gulf of Aqaba, in some biblical texts the Midianites appear to be present in Transjordan and even invading Canaan itself. The chronological dating is also imprecise, but because biblical references to the Midianites concentrate in the Exodus and Wilderness wandering stories and are not mentioned by name in Neo-Assyrian and later Mesopotamian sources, they are usually considered to be one of the earliest Arabian tribal groups, traditionally dated between the late second and early first millennia bce—the Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages of the Syro-Palestinian archaeological periodization. In the Hebrew Bible there is an ambivalent approach toward the Midianites. While in the Patriarchal and especially in the Exodus/Wilderness traditions they are portrayed as close to the Israelites—even to the extent that according to mainstream biblical scholarship worship of Yahweh originated in Midian, this did not preclude military clashes between Israelites and Midianites at the end of the Wilderness wanderings and during the period of the Judges. Later classical, Jewish, and Christian writers located Midian east of the Gulf of Aqaba, connecting the region with the biblical theophany at Mt. Sinai. The Quranic and early Islamic traditions took the Jewish/Christian allusions to Midian and the Moses story, expanding them with ancient Arabian lore. Attempts to define a Midianite material culture in northwestern Arabia and southern Levant through archaeology remain a thorny issue because of the almost total lack of local written sources naming Midian and the few archaeological excavations carried out in northern Saudi Arabia.
Back-End Sentencing and Parole Revocation
Authors: Grattet Ryken
Published: February 2020

Back-end sentencing refers to the practice of sending formerly incarcerated people back to prison for parole violations. The concept was popularized by Jeremy Travis in his book But They All Come Back: Facing the Challenges of Prisoner Reentry (2005) to sensitize researchers and policymakers to the overlooked contribution of parole violations and revocations to the increased use of incarceration during the 1980s to early 2000s. European scholars have used the term “back-door” sentences to refer to the same idea. Although revocation results in an action that is analogous to a sentence, procedures employed in revocation hearings operate under a lower standard of evidence—a “preponderance of the evidence”—and have fewer opportunities for representation and appeal than sentences given out in criminal courts. In California, where back-end sentencing had become routine by 1995, nearly half of all entries into prison annually were the result of parole board revocations rather criminal convictions. A portion of the violations that resulted in reincarceration were “technical violations,” which include noncriminal violations of a parolee’s terms of supervision, such as traveling more than 50 miles from their residence, not showing up for appointments, or associating with gang members or criminal peers. Commentators emphasized the ways that the back-end sentencing traps individuals in a “revolving door” between prison and the community supervision phases of punishment, “churning” back and forth between the two. Some research explicitly employs the term “back-end sentencing” whereas other scholarship relevant to the topic focuses on how parole systems deal with parole violators via the revocation process.
Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children
Authors: Dierkhising Carly B. , Rios Jessica J. , Tiscareño Samantha G.
Published: February 2020

Commercial sexual exploitation of children (CSEC) is a specific kind of human trafficking. It is the trafficking of people for the sale or exchange of sexual acts to another where, typically, a third party benefits. These third parties are referred to as traffickers though they can also be referred to as “pimps.” Even in the absence of a third party, the sale or exchange of sexual acts with a minor to another is commercial sexual exploitation. Unfortunately, the commercial sexual exploitation of children is appealing because it is highly profitable. Children and youth are sought after by traffickers because the demand for children and youth is high among those who pay for sex. In addition, traffickers tend to target young girls and boys who may be homeless, living in group homes, have a history of trauma, or are otherwise vulnerable. Previously, when children were identified or found to be commercially sexually exploited they were considered child prostitutes. More recently, this narrative has changed, with the recognition that there is no such thing as a child prostitute. Policies regarding the commercial sexual exploitation of children have also changed to more accurately recognize and treat children and youth as victims in need of support or services. This more accurate reframing of the issue, along with the increase in attention to the issue, has led to a proliferation of efforts in many public service systems, including criminal, juvenile justice, and child welfare systems, to respond to commercial sexual exploitation (CSE) differently—specifically, to focus on identifying and protecting victims of CSE and providing the most appropriate services to victims. Despite these changes and increased focus on the issue, true prevalence rates of CSE are unknown and service systems often struggle with how to best serve children and youth who have experienced CSE.
Green Atlantic: the Irish in the Atlantic World
Authors: Peyrol-Kleiber Elodie
Published: February 2020

Does an Irish Atlantic exist? Indeed, forgetting Ireland when studying the Atlantic world was frequent as the island was easily integrated into English or British history. However, late studies have put forward not only the unavoidable presence of the Irish in the Atlantic world but also their agency, through commercial and ideological exchanges. Green being the color of the Irish, tinting the Atlantic Ocean green was self-evident, and it gave birth to the Green Atlantic. Among academic works, no one has defined this idiom. It is understood as the transatlantic circulation of Irish people, ideologies, and goods. We believe that the Green Atlantic stems from a comparison with the Black Atlantic. This idiom has become trendy these days, however, with publications and conferences using it. The least we can say is that the Green Atlantic was an unwanted Atlantic: whether it was the Irish indentured servants sent to the colonies or the Irish migrants flowing into America as a result of the Great Famine, the Irish were unwanted “others.” They were deemed unreliable and lazy, and they often were compared to the African slaves or the Native Americans as a savage people hard to civilize. Despite the discrimination they suffered as a result of both their religion and their origin, Irish people have left their mark on many aspects of Atlantic societies. Think of the Carrolls, the Kennedys, and most American families that can claim Irish ancestry with pride now.
Slavery and the Family
Authors: Doddington David Stefan
Published: February 2020

From the earliest historical studies on Atlantic slavery to the present day, historians have been interested in the development of family ties among enslaved people. They have debated, denied, questioned, and celebrated the ability of enslaved people to forge meaningful family relationships and kinship networks in the face of the traumas and violence of slavery. Arguments over the legacies of slavery and the actions of enslavers and enslaved alike in the context of family life have extended beyond the academic world; histories of the slave family have been used and abused in political debates, addressed and expressed in popular culture, and connected to contemporary concerns relating to social structures, racial politics, and gender dynamics across the Americas. In broad terms, scholarship on the slave family has moved beyond a focus on rigid consanguineal links or a biologically based model, as well as challenged Eurocentric perceptions as to the normality of nuclear or patriarchal structures in family life. Instead, historians have revealed the diverse forms of kinship and family relations found across and within the Atlantic world, noting connections, adaptations, and retentions among the various actors present in the slaving zones of the Atlantic world. Historians have done tremendous work in connecting the destruction and reconstruction of familial units in slavery to wider themes relating to resistance, trauma, and survival in the face of oppression. Pioneering work on enslaved women, and attention to the reproductive and productive exploitation women faced, has likewise revealed the centrality of sex, gender, and the family to the strategies of domination employed by enslavers in the Americas. These scholars also revealed how family life could provide a measure of respite, act as a site of pleasure, and serve as the foundation of a culture of resistance for enslaved people. Debates on the slave family thus provide insight into the most personal and intimate areas of enslaved people’s lives and reveal the complex power dynamics, negotiations, contest, and resistance between enslavers and enslaved people in the Atlantic world. In the rest of this piece I outline key texts relating to the slave family, focusing on scholarly monographs and structured roughly by geography. Scholarly articles have not been referenced, outside of one or two significant pieces, but readers should make use of the specific journals cited to explore the topic of the slave family. Select online databases and banks of primary source material are also listed.
Political Institutions and the Policymaking Process in Latin America
Authors: Saiegh Sebastian M.
Published: February 2020

The systematic study of how institutional rules and political practices influence the capacity of Latin American governments to adopt public policies is of relatively recent vintage. For decades, the fleeting and unstable democratic experiences in the region obfuscated the role of politics in the policymaking process. Policy analysis was more often than not motivated by the question of what governments should do rather what governments could do. With the restoration of democracy in Latin America in the 1980s, the view that a given set of “optimal policies” should or could be implemented against all political odds became untenable. In the ensuing decade, as the economic reforms inspired by the “Washington Consensus” swept the region, a growing concern with the timing, sequencing, and implementation of public policies materialized among both scholars and policymakers. This approach, however, proved insufficient to fully understand the political feasibility, but also the actual process by which public policies are discussed, approved, and implemented in the region. In the 2000s, a comprehensive, soul-searching research agenda about the politics of policies was launched by the leading development organizations, most notably, the Inter-American Development Bank (IADB). Since then, a voluminous literature studying how different constitutional structures, legislative institutions, electoral rules, bureaucracies, partisan organizations, and Interest Groups influence public policies in Latin America has emerged. The following bibliography identifies some general topics, as well as several sources to consult within each topic, for those readers interested in how politics shape policies in Latin America
Workplace Flexibility
Authors: Fan Wen
Published: February 2020

As communication technologies develop and as organizations create policies to deal with global expansion and work−life balance, work practices and organizational lives have shifted, giving rise to a model of work where employment is not restricted to one particular place or to standard work hours. This model, workplace flexibility, has been the topic of many fields including sociology, organizational psychology, industry relations, gender studies, management, and health research. This article brings together influential studies from these fields and identifies key themes and topics of interest: the institutional and organizational forces that drive demand for workplace flexibility, types and practices of flexibility, disparities in the provision, access to, and usage of flexibility, the impact of flexibility on work-, family-, and health-related outcomes, and variation in these outcomes by workers’ characteristics and across contexts. Only articles published in English are included, but great efforts have been made to include as many international and cross-national studies as possible. As will be seen, research findings on workplace flexibility are not always consistent. Indeed, despite a growing literature that praises work flexibility for accommodating employees’ needs to balance work, leisure, and family and for reducing gender inequalities, there are also studies criticizing flexibility for fueling heightened job demands and job insecurity and for enlarging gender inequalities. This contradiction can be partially addressed by realizing that researchers do not always define “workplace flexibility” in the same way (see more discussion in Types of Workplace Flexibility). Unless noted otherwise, this article defines workplace flexibility as the ability of workers to make choices regarding when, where, and for how long they engage in work-related tasks. Flexible work arrangements, therefore, are organizational practices that permit employees to adjust their work schedule or location to better manage demands outside of work. Rigorous studies—through group-randomized trials or natural experiments—show that flexibility can promote employer and employee outcomes, but only through a systematic cultural change in how work is defined and how workers are rewarded. Given the still prevalent ideal worker norms that expect workers to be highly dedicated to work and that use “time at work” as the sole metric to assess productivity, a more profound change is needed to remove the stigma around flexibility so as to provide viable solutions to contemporary employees’ needs.