bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Reading Aloud and Spelling in Alzheimer’s Disease
Authors: Graham Naida L , Patterson Karalyn
Published: November 2023

In Alzheimer’s initial report of a patient with this disease (1907, translated in 1977), both reading and writing deficits were noted. The study of these deficits in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) was, however, limited until the 1980s, when research on the neuropsychological features of AD proliferated. Examination of reading and writing in AD was initially done in the context of investigations focused on clinical issues or general language functioning, and the assessments were, therefore, somewhat superficial. Nevertheless, these studies established that agraphia is a common early symptom in AD (Appell et al.1982; Cummings et al.1985; Faber-Langendoen et al.1988; Murdoch et al.1987). The findings on reading have been less consistent. Early work gave rise to the traditional view that reading aloud is well-preserved in AD (Bayles et al.1992; Code and Lodge 1987; Cummings et al.1986; Friedman et al.1992; Nelson and McKenna 1975; Sasanuma et al.1992; Sevush 1984), but it has subsequently been demonstrated that this usually applies only to certain types of words (see below).
Cognitive Approaches to the Management of Dementia
Authors: Rusted Jennifer M , Clare Linda
Published: November 2023

Impairment in episodic memory—memory for temporally and spatially defined events, which are both personally relevant and context—dependent-is a defining feature of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) (Brandt and Rich 1995) and is typically present in severe form from the earliest stages. Semantic memory—memory for lexical information, facts and general knowledge—is impaired in some people with early-stage AD (Hodges and Patterson 1995) and is increasingly affected as the dementia progresses.
Ramanujan’s garden
Authors: Shai Haran M J
Published: November 2023

There is a world that interpolates between the p-adic and the real numbers; it is the world of quantum groups, basic hypergeometric series, q-series, etc. In this world, the continuum
GPCR signalling through enzymatic cascades
Authors: Challiss R A John , Nahorski Stefan R
Published: November 2023

It is now appreciated that the G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) constitute a superfamily of proteins that allow cells within multicellular organisms to respond to their environment and to exchange information. Of the 600-plus GPCRs already identified in the human genome (Venter et al. 2001), many are expressed exclusively, or at their highest levels, within the central nervous system (CNS). Despite this abundance of GPCRs in the CNS, it is only recently that we have begun to appreciate how these receptors contribute to the control of specific aspects of neuronal function. In this Chapter we will discuss the intracellular pathways regulated by GPCRs with a view to providing an insight into the diversity of mechanisms by which this receptor superfamily can mediate and modulate neuronal signalling.
GPCR signalling through ion channels
Authors: Roberson Christov , Clapham David E
Published: November 2023

G proteins act as relay stations which sense structural changes on the receptor protein in response to ligand binding and translate this action into the onset of a cellular response, as illustrated in the previous chapter. This is often manifest as alterations in the activity of a number of different intracellular biochemical cascades. However, many GPCRs have also been shown to interact with ion channels in complex ways. When considering the coupling mechanisms that link seven-transmembrane receptors to the activation or inhibition of ion channels a number of questions arise. First, one must establish which G protein subclass is involved in the regulatory step. Thus far, at least 20 different G-alpha subtypes have been identified and classified into four major subfamilies based on sequence homology (Simon et al . 1991; Hepler and Gilman 1992; Chapter 1.4). The sensitivity of different Gα subunits to certain bacterial toxins such as pertussis toxin (PTX) or cholera toxin (CTX) is generally used as an initial aid in this identification. Furthermore, it must be shown which of the two functionally relevant G protein subunits, Gα or Gβγ , is the active participant in the regulatory step.
Protein regulators of GPCR function
Authors: Hepler John R , Saugstad Julie A
Published: November 2023

As described in previous chapters many extracellular ligands such as neurotransmitters, hormones, cytokines, and sensory input rely upon G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and linked signalling pathways to exert their actions at target cells. The established dogma is that these extracellular stimuli utilize a receptor, a heterotrimeric guanine nucleotide binding protein (G protein αβγ subunit complex), and downstream effector proteins to transmit their signals across the plasma membrane (Hepler and Gilman 1992; Clapham and Neer 1997; Hamm 1998). Specifically, agonist occupancy of GPCRs causes exchange of GTP for GDP on Gα that activates Gα and stimulates its dissociation from the Gβγ complex. Free Gα -GTP and Gβγ then directly regulate the activity of well-defined effector proteins (e.g. adenylyl cyclases, phospholipases, ion channels) that, in the case of enzyme targets, generate second messenger molecules. In this model, second messengers activate signalling cascades that account for the many cellular actions initiated by the activated receptor. However, a wealth of new information highlights the limitations of this model and suggests that GPCRs utilize a growing list of additional protein binding partners to carry out their cellular actions (Bockaert and Pin 1999; Hall et al . 1999a )
Adenosine receptors
Authors: Fredholm Bertil B
Published: November 2023

Adenosine is not a neurotransmitter but rather a paracrine neuromodulator. This obviously does not mean that adenosine is not biologically important—it just means that we must think differently about its role compared to, for example, dopamine or noradrenaline.
Muscarinic receptors
Authors: Ellis John
Published: November 2023

The pharmacology of acetylcholine is in many ways a very old subject. The use of antimuscarinic plant extracts as both poisons and therapies can be traced back to ancient times. Thus, Linnaeus gave the systematic name Atropa belladonna to the deadly nightshade, in homage to Atropos of Greek mythology, who cuts the thread of life, and to Italian women, who reportedly used the same plant as a topical cosmetic to dilate the pupils (Brown and Taylor 2001). Indeed, Socrates may have been poisoned with henbane (Hyoscyamus niger), rather than with hemlock (Burgen 1995). Many cholinergic compounds were isolated to purity or near-purity in the nineteenth century, including atropine and acetylcholine, and it was the muscarinic action of acetylcholine on the heart that established the chemical basis of neurotransmission in Otto Loewi’s famous experiment (Smith 1996).
Gender Identity And Music
Authors: Dibben Nicola
Published: November 2023

All human societies make social distinctions based on gender: for example, many societies label some work as ‘women’s work’ and some as ‘men’s work’, and in the domain of music some kinds of musical activities are deemed ‘female’ or ‘male’. Why should musical activities be gendered in this way? And what role does music have in the psychological sense of oneself as male or female? In this chapter, I present evidence for the role of music in the construction of gender identity. The approach adopted here which provides the explanatory framework for the research reported is a social constructionist perspective (although biological and cognitive approaches are also discussed briefly). Issues addressed in this chapter are the gendering of music as an activity, the gendering of musical practices and tastes, and the way in which musical texts may position the (gendered) subject.
Introduction
Authors: Pepe Margaret Sullivan
Published: November 2023

Accurate diagnosis of a medical condition is often the first step towards its control. Appropriate treatment generally depends on knowing what the condition is. Diagnosis is a familiar part of everyday life. I diagnose a runny nose and sore throat as a cold, that I then treat with chicken soup, orange juice and rest. More formal, familiar medical diagnostic tests include, for example, bacterial cultures, radiographic images and biochemical tests. Consider bacterial culture of a throat swab for streptococcal infection (strep throat), of urine for urinary tract infection, of blood for sepsis and of spinal fluid for meningitis.
Biometrika: The first 100 years
Authors: Cox D R
Published: November 2023

A broad sketch is given of the origins of Biometrika, of the contents of the early volumes and of the progression of the journal over the century. The contention ‘that numbers mean nothing and do not exist in Nature’ is a very serious thing, which will have to be fought. Most other people have got beyond it but most biologists have not. Do you think it would be too hopelessly expensive to start a journal of some kind? If one printed 500 copies of a Royal 8vo once a quarter, sternly repressing anything by way of illustration except process drawings and curves, what would the annual loss be, taking any practical price per number? If no English publisher would undertake it at a cheap rate, the cost of going to Fischer of Jena, or even Engelmann, would not be very great.
The Relation Between Measures of Correlation in the Universe of Sample Permutations
Authors: Daniels H E
Published: November 2023

Recent papers by Hotelling & Pabst (1936), Pitman (1937), Kendall (1938) and Kendall, Kendall & Babington-Smith (1939) discuss the distribution of the correlation coefficient when members of the sample corresponding to the two variates are permuted randomly relative to one another. In the case of rank correlation, the characteristics of the population sampled are generally unknown, and a significance test has to be based on the distribution obtained from the sample in this way.
Q
Authors: Dodge Yadolah
Published: November 2023

Q-technique A method of analysis of similarities or relationships in which, given a matrix of n observations on m individuals, n rows and m columns, the correlations or other statistical measure are sought between the m columns down the n rows, i.e., between individuals, as distinct from the R-technique which looks for relations between variables, namely between rows along the columns.
The pair theory of liquids —equilibrium properties
Authors: Egelstaff P A
Published: November 2023

The pair theory is simply that theory of liquids which results from truncating the series for the total potential energy (eqn 2.42 or 3.28) at the pair term. We shall assume that the pair potential, u  2(r), is independent of state parameters (P, V, T) and that the pair correlation function, g2(r), is known at all state points. This implies that the thermodynamic derivatives of g  2(r)are known, which in turn means that properties which may be expressed in terms of these derivatives are known. Some versions of the pair theory express bulk properties in terms of distribution functions of higher order than g  2(r)In the treatment given below, such functions arc not necessary because the use of thermodynamic derivatives eliminates the (explicit appearance of) higher-order functions (for example, via eqn (2.28)) and simplifies the theoretical expressions.
Computer simulations and perturbation theory
Authors: Egelstaff P A
Published: November 2023

In this chapter two other methods of calculation of the properties of liquids, starting from the pair potential, will be considered. First, we shall discuss the simulation of a classical liquid by following the behaviour of several hundred particles using computer methods. As an example of this approach, the calculation of y(r) will be described. There are several uses for data obtained this way, including: a test for the results of the theories described in Chapter 5; a prescription through which numerical limits of validity of these theories may be established, which in turn allows these theories to be used as an interpolation technique between widely separated (in (P, V, T) space) computer simulation results; a starting point for theories or calculations which include higher-order potentials; a starting point for perturbation ‘theories of fluids’, which include theories for both atomic and molecular fluids; and a set of ‘exact’ theoretical predictions which may be compared to experimental results, especially for regions outside the range of validity of the theories discussed in Chapter 5.
Collective modes of motion at high frequencies
Authors: Egelstaff P A
Published: November 2023

The discussion of Chapter 14 was centred on the long-wavelength or Q > 0 region of ( ω, Q) space where a fluid may be treated as a continuum. In this chapter, larger values of Q and w are considered where the microscopic structure of the liquid is important and the dynamic structure factor is related to the high-frequency modes of motion. At first, this treatment will follow the method used for the discussion of single-particle modes, in that the viscosity coefficient will be expressed as the time integral of a correlation function (e.g. eqns ( 15.3a) and (15.13b)) and the high-frequency behaviour of that function will be outlined.
Towards a settled life 1660–65
Authors: Hall Marie Boas
Published: November 2023

So, with a suspiciously superior choice of phrase (he did not greatly like the English) did Samuel Sorbière describe the turn of events which was to give Oldenburg a settled way of life in England, a post of responsibility and a distinguished position in the world of learning both at home (now firmly England) and abroad. In fairness it must be remembered that Sorbière had known Oldenburg in Paris as tutor to Richard Jones, an auditor rather than a member of the Montmor Academy. And indeed Oldenburg did not rise above his earlier circumstances immediately upon his return to England and was in danger of dropping into obscurity.
Aftermath
Authors: Hall Marie Boas
Published: November 2023

When Oldenburg died his family was left bereft, his friends grieved, and the learned world felt it as an extraordinary loss. Only his few enemies rejoiced, and like Hooke saw it as creating the possibility of a major upheaval in the Royal Society. Oldenburg’s importance to the world is best shown by the spontaneous tributes paid by various individuals, tributes contained in letters never intended to be made public.
HSSS model criticism
Authors: O’Hagan Anthony
Published: November 2023

There has been an enormous surge in practical applications of Bayesian statistics in the last decade. The primary reason for this has been the development of Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) tools for computing posterior inferences.
Variation in mating systems and sexual dimorphism
Authors: Bennett Peter M , Owens Ian P F
Published: November 2023

Variation in mating system among bird species occurs along two major axes: variation in the number of ‘social partners’ and variation in the number of ‘sexual partners’. An individual’s social partners are those with which it cooperates with respect to defending a breeding territory and/or providing parental care. An individual’s sexual partners, on the other hand, are simply those with which it copulates.
Representations of the complex classical categories
Authors: Neretin Yu. A , Gould G G
Published: November 2023

This chapter is devoted to the classification of the holomorphic representations of the categories GD, GA and various categories close to them. We call these categories classical in honour of the classical groups. We begin (§§3.1- 3.2) with a discussion of the holomorphic representations of the classical groups SL(n, ℂ), S  p(2n, ℂ), SO(2n, ℂ), SO(2n + 1, ℂ). Here the main result is the deceptively simple theorem of E.
Fundamentals of Semigroup Theory
Authors: Howie John M
Published: November 2023

This book is an indispensable source for anyone with an interest in semigroup theory or whose research overlaps with this increasingly important and active field of mathematics. It clearly emphasizes "pure" semigroup theory, in particular the various classes of regular semigroups. More than 150 exercises, accompanied by relevant references to the literature, give pointers to areas of the subject not explicitly covered in the text.
Physical principles of atom probe instrumentation
Authors: Miller M K , Cerezo A , Hetherington M G , Smith G D W
Published: November 2023

Despite the simplicity of early atom probe designs, current instruments often include many features intended to improve their performance and range of applications. This chapter discusses the source of limitations in mass resolution and the underlying physics of the methods used to minimize its effect. Pulsed heating of the field ion specimen, used as an alternative to voltage pulsing, is also considered. 4.1 ENERGY DEFICITS In the basic time-of-flight equation used for mass-to-charge ratio determination in the atom probe (eqn 1.3), it is assumed that the ion is instantaneously accelerated to a well defined (and known) energy. However, there will always be some finite acceleration time and the ion will fail to acquire the full energy e(Vac + Vpulse) since the field evaporation pulse (typically 10-20 ns duration) will end within this acceleration period. There are also inherent energy losses, termed ion appearance potentials (§2.4), but these are relatively small, amounting to 20-40 eV. The overall shortfall in the energy of a field evaporated ion is termed the energy deficit. Atom probe designs will usually include a counter electrode placed close to the specimen, to minimize the extent of the acceleration region and thus reduce acceleration time.[1,21 This configuration also reduces energy deficits, although some deficit will remain. There are other benefits in the use of a counter electrode: the specimen field will be increased for a given applied voltage and, in instruments where the channel plate and screen assembly can be moved, the field and energy deficits will remain independent of tip-to-screen distance.
Future directions
Authors: Miller M K , Cerezo A , Hetherington M G , Smith G D W
Published: November 2023

In terms of the imagery used in the Preface to this book, the first phase of our ‘Journey into Inner Space’ is essentially complete. The ‘space technology’ needed to carry us to the world of atoms has been successfully developed. We can ‘land’ on the surface of almost any metallic or semiconducting material, ‘walk around’, ‘look’ at the atoms, identify them and even study the ‘architecture’ of this new world in three dimensions. What, then, of the futureã The one thing we can confidently predict is that it will be unpredictable! However, certain trends are clearly discernible and so we will make a few forecasts.
Truth and knowability: on the principles C and K of Michael Dummett
Authors: Martin-Löf Per
Published: November 2023

There is an ambiguity in the term ‘assertion’: you may use it either generally for a claim, a knowledge claim, or specifically for an affirmation, that is, for a claim of the form ‘A is true’, where A is a proposition. In this talk, I shall use it consistently in the first of these two senses. Also, I shall use the terms ‘assertion’ and ‘judgement’ synonymously. At the bottom of my list is the notion of truth as one pole of the distinction between appearance and reality: it is so to speak the high notion of truth, often capitalized, although I have put it at the bottom. At the top is the notion of truth of closed formulas, or sentences, which is the lowest notion in the sense that it is a purely mathematical notion, determined by Tarski’s well-known recursive definition, and I shall not be concerned with that either, but remain in the middle region, dealing exclusively with the notion of truth of a proposition and the notion of truth of an assertion, or judgement.
How to be a naturalist about mathematics
Authors: Maddy Penelope
Published: November 2023

1Naturalism1, as I use the term, is a metaphilosophical principle describing the proper relations between philosophy and methodology, between philosophical theorizing about a given practice and methodological decisions about how that practice should be pursued. This usage springs from work of Quine and Putnam in the philosophy of science, but I have recently applied it to mathematics in ways that depart substantially from the views of these authors.

My focus so far has been on how naturalism affects the evaluation of set-theoretic methodology, that is, on its implications for particular, practical decisions. But a principle on the relations between philosophy and methodology can be expected to raise philosophical issues as well, and perhaps to have philosophical ramifications. I will focus here on the philosophical aspects of naturalism. This is a big topic, so I can only attempt a preliminary sketch of the terrain.
Mathematical evidence
Authors: Martin Donald A
Published: November 2023

I will be discussing the subject of this conference, truth in mathematics. I will not, however, talk about the nature of mathematical truth but only about what counts as evidence for mathematical truth. I will do this not in general but only by way of two nearly thirty-year old examples from descriptive set theory, examples that seem similar to typical cases of evidence in empirical sciences. (The examples are not, of course, intended to be typical examples of mathematical evidence.) I hope it will be clear that my examples are cases of strong scientific evidence for the truth of mathematical propositions. I will raise and discuss the issue of whether there are stronger canons of evidence in mathematics, canons that my examples do not satisfy.
The Tower of Hanoi
Authors: Woodin W Hugh
Published: November 2023

concern perhaps more prevalent among logicians than among mathematicians in general is that the formal axioms chosen for set theory lead to a contradiction. Further, possible inconsistency has been a frequent point in the criticism of the study of large cardinals in general. This is without question a valid concern; however the intricate structure that has evolved in the course of this study seems to provide justification for the belief in the consistency of these axioms.
Introduction
Authors: D'eath P D
Published: November 2023

Black holes are regions of space-time where the gravitational field is so strong that not even light can escape. As will be seen in Chapter 2, it appears to be inevitable that black holes will form as a result of gravitational matter collapse. This is expected to occur for a star of sufficiently large mass, of the order of a few solar masses, once it has burnt its nuclear fuel. Black holes can also be formed by gravitational collapse of the inner regions of a galaxy, or by collisions. This leads one to look first for equilibrium (time-independent) black-hole states. The stationary (time-independent) black holes, say in a theory containing only gravity and Maxwell electromagnetism, are Schwarzschild (with mass), ReissnerNordstrom (with mass and charge), Kerr (with mass and angular momentum), and Kerr-Newman (with mass, angular momentum, and charge). It is a remarkable result that, in such a non-linear theory as general relativity, the stationary Einstein-Maxwell black holes should be exactly known, and be given in terms of only three parameters (Hawking and Ellis 1973; Robinson 1975; Wald 1984). The structure of these space-times is investigated with the help of Penrose conformal diagrams (Chapter 2). It is now known that the stationary (time-independent) black holes are stable against small perturbations (Whiting 1989). Hence it seems reasonable to expect that a matter collapse will lead at late times to a stationary black-hole space-time together with radiation which propagates out toward infinity. Much can then be learnt from studying the standard stationary black-hole models, together with linearized perturbations propagating in them (Chapter 2).
Linear Extensions and Moore Spaces
Authors: Baues Hans-Joachim
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we describe some basic concepts used in this book. We first introduce purely categorical notions like detecting functor, linear extension of categories, and the cohomology of categories. Then we describe the properties of Whitehead’s f-functor which we shall need for the description of homotopy classes of maps between Moore spaces in degree 2.
Linear Algebra
Authors: Rowlinson Peter
Published: November 2023

We discuss the relationship between the structure of a graph and the spectrum of its adjacency matrix, and we describe a classic application of linear algebra to distance-regular graphs. The notions of graph angles and star partitions enable us to explore the influence on graph structure of an individual eigenvalue. The representation of a finite graph by a matrix provides an immediate link between linear algebra and graph theory. If the vertices of the graph G are labelled 1, 2, … , n, then the corresponding adjacency matrix A is the n × n matrix whose ij-entry is 1 if the vertices i and j are adjacent, and 0 if they are non-adjacent. Thus A is a symmetric matrix with zero diagonal; see Fig. 6.1 for a simple example.
Defining fungal individuals: ecological, biological and genetical aspects; sampling
Authors: Burnett John
Published: November 2023

However a population is defined, it is generally assumed that its individual members can be distinguished, except when dealing with clonal organisms. For many purposes the recognition of visible individual structures of a particular taxon is sufficient for ecological analysis and, indeed, fungi have been treated in this way, e.g. counts of taxonomically identical basidiocarps. But, in fact, the identification of a fungal individual by such inspection alone is usually impossible for the following reasons.
Describing and analysing populations: basic genetic and phylogenetic aspects
Authors: Burnett John
Published: November 2023

The mm1mum requirement for describing and comparing populations in both space and time is to be able to identify and distinguish them from each other. Such discrimination is difficult in fungi because of the inherent problem of recognizing distinct individuals (see Chapter 4). By inspection alone, therefore, it is only possible to describe a population in territorial terms as a group of adjacent fungal mycelia or reproductive structures rather than as a group of individuals.
The generation of variation-II The importance and diversity of inbreeding and outbreeding
Authors: Burnett John
Published: November 2023

Recombination in fungi can involve the reassortment of genes, chromosomes, extra-chromosomal elements, or even whole nuclei. The first two occur most frequently at meiosis but mitotic recombination is possible. The reassortment of extra-chromosomal elements and whole nuclei consequential on hyphal anastomoses, leading to heterokaryosis and heteroplasmon formation, is also possible and can be detected. The basic processes concerned in sexual and parasexual recombination have been outlined earlier (see Chapter 1, section 1.4).
Wild birds and science
Authors: Kruuk Hans
Published: November 2023

One cold, April morning I was perched on a dune, somewhere along the west coast in the very north of England, a student at work, diligently making notes on birds and beasts. In front of me, right across the wind-swept landscape of dunes and beach, tens of thousands of gulls were nesting: the sky was full of them, and their noise competed with that of the sea. There was an endless backdrop of clouds, sand, and waves, miles away from roads or houses.
Sheaves On A Site
Authors: Johnstone Peter T
Published: November 2023

We have seen in the last chapter how we may regard many familiar topological properties (of spaces or locales) as properties of sheaf toposes. This in itself would not be a significant gain, were it not for the fact that there are other contexts in mathematics where ‘topological intuition’ seems to be present, and which cannot be adequately described by either spaces or locales – but these contexts do give rise to toposes.
First-order categorical logic
Authors: Johnstone Peter T
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we shall examine the relationship between topos theory and first-order predicate logic. The languages underlying this kind of logic contain formal expressions called terms, which denote individuals, and formal expressions called formulae, which denote predicates that make assertions about the individuals. Compound terms and formulae are built up using various logical operators. The expressions of such a language can be assigned meanings in a category: the terms are interpreted as morphisms and the formulae as subobjects, in a way that respects the logical structure of compound expressions. This categorical semantics requires various kinds of categorical structure to be present in the category, mirroring the logical operations which are allowed in the language, and will be described in the next section. In this section we shall describe the formal syntax of first-order languages.
Higher-Order Logic
Authors: Johnstone Peter T
Published: November 2023

We now turn from first-order logic to higher-order logic: the principal extra feature of this logic, compared with that which we studied in Chapter D1, is that we have variables running over types whose intended interpretation is the set of all subsets of (the set denoted by) some other type, or the set of all functions between two such types – and we can therefore quantify over elements of such ‘higher types’. The extra feature of our formal languages which makes this possible is the presence of type constructors, which build new types from old. In fact, as we remarked after Definition 1.1.1, the first of these type constructors (the product type constructor) was implicitly present already in our account of first-order logic, in that our function symbols and relation symbols had types assigned to them which were finite strings of sorts, and which were formally interpreted as products of those sorts. Now that we need other type constructors, it makes sense to add the product type constructor explicitly to our definition of a signature. We shall find it convenient to maintain the distinction between sorts which are the basic types given to us, along with the primitive function symbols and relation symbols, as part of the specification of our signature, and the types of the signature which may be either sorts or ‘compound types’ built up using type constructors.
The basic dynamical quantities
Authors: Balucani Umberto , Zoppi Marco
Published: November 2023

On the gross scale of everyday experience, a liquid can be described by a relatively small number of quantities. As in any other physical system, the criteria of choice of these macroscopic variables are established by thermodynamics. For example, the equilibrium state of a one-component fluid* is specified by the volume V of the system, its pressure P, and its absolute temperature T. The actual independence of these equilibrium thermodynamic variables is limited by ‘constitutive relations’ (in the example, the equation of state), whose specific form is taken phenomenologically from some experimental evidence. The well-established ‘principia’ of thermodynamics are subsequently exploited to yield the best possible description of the equilibrium properties of the system from a macroscopic point of view.
Introduction
Authors: Carrington Gerald
Published: November 2023

Thermodynamics deals with the bulk properties of matter and the processes by which these properties are changed. We shall begin by considering briefly the two primary divisions of the subject, statistical mechanics and macro-scopic thermodynamics. In statistical mechanics, quantum theory is used to establish the properties of individual atoms. Large numbers of atoms together have many degrees of freedom and our information about the state of individual atoms is usually incomplete. Hence it is necessary to use statistical methods to determine the properties of a large system from basic quantum principles. For instance, given a quantity of gas in a certain volume we may obtain the allowed values for the energy of the individual atoms from quantum theory. The mean number of atoms in each energy state may then be calculated using statistical arguments. Finally the energy of the gas as a whole, and other properties, may be obtained.
Equations of state
Authors: Carrington Gerald
Published: November 2023

An equation which links the thermodynamic parameters of a system most accessible to measurement, such as P, v, and T, is normally called an equation of state. For a simple fluid system the equation of state typically has the form, We shall distinguish two uses for the term equation of state. First, it may represent a real equation, like the ideal gas law, Pv = RT. Such an equation is effectively a thermodynamic model for the system. It would not be surprising to find that a particular model equation is reasonable under some conditions but is unacceptable under others. We shall normally assume that model equations of state are well-behaved continuous functions of the independent variables with continuous derivatives, even though the equation may not be physically valid for all states.
Coupling Angular Momentum Vectors and Transformation Theory
Authors: Brink D M , Satchler G R
Published: November 2023

The most important of these operators. is usually the Hamiltonian H of the system or at least the principal part of it, the rest perhaps to be treated as a perturbation later. The other operators then have to be chosen to commute with H. The need for the present chapter arises because there are often two or more ways of choosing our complete set. These sets of course are not independent but have eigenstates which are related by unitary linear transformation.
Graphical Methods in Angular Momentum
Authors: Brink D M , Satchler G R
Published: November 2023

IN any angular momentum coupling problem it is necessary to evaluate expressions containing sums of products of ClebschGordan coefficients or Wigner 3j-coefficients. Such calculations may often be simplified by using the graphical methods of Levinson [85]. These methods have been extended by a number of authors and the results are collected in two books by Yutsis, Levinson, and Vanagas [86] (this reference is denoted by YLV) and by Yutsis and Bandzaitis [87].
Data correction
Authors: Nield Victoria M , Keen David A
Published: November 2023

The aim of data correction is to take the neutron counts received by the instrument detectors and convert them to the appropriate scattering functions which can subsequently be interpreted in terms of the structure of the material. This manipulation can take a number of forms depending on the amount of rigour required and the complexity of data interpretation. For instance, when investigating the Bragg peaks from a single crystal or powdered sample, it is not normally necessary to take great care in subtracting background scattering, unless it is highly structured. Such scattering can readily be removed using simple fitting procedures, which can differentiate between the sharp (strong) Bragg signals and broad (weak) background. However, if the diffuse scattering is also important, such simple methods cannot be employed and more rigorous treatment is necessary. For some methods of data interpretation it is also necessary to produce scattering functions on an absolute scale, and normalisation of the data then becomes important. Equally, different instrumentation may make different approximations in the measurement of the scattering functions and these may need to be accounted for. Several corrections are dependent on the incident neutron wavelength and therefore correction of data from time-of-flight instrumentation is usually more complex than from instruments which use a monochro-matic incident neutron beam.
Superionic conductors
Authors: Nield Victoria M , Keen David A
Published: November 2023

Superionic materials (or ‘fast-ion conductors’ or ‘solid electrolytes’) are ionic solids which possess exceptionally high values of electrical conductivity. Typical conductivites of up to 1 Ω−1cm−1 may be achieved, usually, but not exclusively, at high temperature. These values are comparable with the conductivity of molten ionic materials and are far higher than those of typical ionic solids (e.g. NaCl at room temperature has an ionic conductivity of < 10−12 Ω1cm1). The high conductivity in certain ionic materials has been known about for over a century. Faraday (1839) reported high ionic conductivity in lead fluoride and Kohlrausch (1882) noted that the electrical conductivity of silver iodide was unusually high prior to melting. The conductivity in AgI was subsequently ascribed to a high ionic conductivity arising from an extraordinarily mobile cation (Tubandt and Lorenz, 1914). NemI (1899) observed a high oxygen-ion conductivity in yttria stabilised zirconia and Benrath and Drekopf (1921) measured high lithium-ion conduction in the high temperature phase of lithium sulphate.
Field, Virtual and Image States
Authors: Davison Sydney G , Stęślicka Maria
Published: November 2023

So far, it has been assumed that the potential outside the crystal is constant, i.e., V(x) = Vo in the vacuum region (the so-called abrupt-potential mode . One should remember, however, that this is only an assumption, which greatly simplifies the direct-matching procedure, and enables surface-state calculations to be performed in a straightforward manner. In reality, an electron outside the crystal can experience different potential fields, depending on the physical conditions to which the crystal surface is exposed. We shall consider two of the most interesting and important cases, viz., when an external electric field is applied to a crystal and when the image potential is taken into account, i.e., the potential generated by the positive image charge created when an electron leaves the crystal.
Major modalities: psychoanalytic/ psychodynamic
Authors: Gabbard Glen O
Published: November 2023

The terms psychoanalytic and psychodynamic have increasingly been used synonymously in discussions of psychotherapy. Both psychotherapeutic approaches derive from a set of core principles derived from psychoanalysis.
Psychodynamic Couple Therapy
Authors: Scharff David E , Scharff Jill Savege
Published: November 2023

Psychodynamic couple therapy is an application of psychoanalytic theory. It draws on the psychotherapist’s experience of dealing with relationships in individual, group, and family therapy. Psychodynamic couple therapists relate in depth and get firsthand exposure to couples’ defenses and anxieties, which they interpret to foster change.
Borderline Personality Disorder
Authors: Bateman Anthony W , Karterud Sigmund , Van Den Bosch Louisa M C
Published: November 2023

The inherently ambiguous term ‘borderline’ on the one hand continues to evoke an ambivalent response within the psychotherapeutic and psychiatric community with many authors continuing to complain of its imprecision after two decades of research and predicting its eventual replacement by some more satisfactory formulation (Tyrer, 1999).
Psychotherapy With Adolescents
Authors: Reinecke Mark A , Shirk Stephen R
Published: November 2023

Psychotherapy is, in one sense, a simple endeavor. An individual and a clinician meet, and in a trusting and open manner, talk through the patient’s concerns with the goal of bringing about changes in the person’s thoughts, feelings, or behavior. Psychotherapy can be thought of, then, as learning and change brought about through a supportive relationship.
Psychotherapy During the Reproductive Years
Authors: Raphael–Leff Joan
Published: November 2023

In recent times, ‘reproductive years’ are elongated at both ends—from premature puberty to well past middle–age. Hopefully, throughout this extended period we continue to grow—strive to learn, develop, change— and ultimately (albeit, intermittently) achieve a form of wisdom unavailable in youth.
Quantum electrodynamics
Authors: Maggiore Michele
Published: November 2023

Quantum electrodynamics (QED) describes the interaction between electrons (or any other charged spin 1/2 particle, like muons) and photons. It is convenient to quantize the photons using the covariant quantization of Section 4.3.2. Actually, it is also useful to generalize slightly the Lagrangian used in Section 4.3.2: instead of eq. (4.102), we describe the free electromagnetic field by with a generic parameter. In Section 4.3.2 we set = 1, but it can be shown that for any ‘ after requiring that 8vanishes between physical states, the spectrum of the theory is given by the two transverse polarization states of the photon.
Applications of estimating function theory to replicates of generalized proportional hazards models
Authors: Chang I-Shou , Hsiung Chao A
Published: November 2023

Four types of proportional hazards models for counting processes are intro¬ duced according to the assumptions on the baseline functions. Estimation of the relative risk coefficients is considered in the framework of estimating function theory for each of these models. It is argued, when one multivariate counting process is observed, the optima! estimating functions are the same for each of these four models. However, when replicates of the multivariate counting processes are observed, the optimal estimating functions are different for these four models.
Inferential estimation, likelihood, and maximum likelihood linear estimation functions
Authors: Chamberlin S R , Sprott D A
Published: November 2023

The purpose of’inferential’ estimation, as contrasted with ‘point’ estimation, is to make estimation statements. An estimation statement is a quantitative statement of uncertainty about μ using all the information supplied by X.
The Principles of Statistical Estimation
Authors: Fisher R A , Yates F
Published: November 2023

50. The practical importance of using satisfactory methods of statistical estimation, and the widespread use in statistical literature of inefficient statistics, in the sense explained in Section 31 makes it necessary for the research worker, in interpreting his own results, or studying those reported by others, to discriminate between those conclusions which flow from the nature of the observations themselves, and those which are due solely to faulty methods of estimation.
Data examination and display
Authors: Swan Tony , Gilchrist Robert , Bradley Malcolm , Clarke Mike , Green Peter , Reese Allan , Hinde John , Stalewski Andrew , O’brien Carl
Published: November 2023

There are many facilities within GLIM for the examination and display of the contents of data structures. They can be used to explore the characteristics of a dataset before fitting a model, and to inspect the diagnostics of and present the output from a fit. To output data values, use the directives LOOK, PRINT, or TPRINT. The LOOK directive processes only vectors or scalars and displays the output in parallel. The PRINT directive can output the contents of all types of identifier, and displays the output serially. The TPRINT directive will display a vector or an array as a table.
Modelling with Mixtures
Authors: West Mike
Published: November 2023

Discrete mixtures of distributions of standard parametric forms commonly arise in statistical modelling and with methods of analysis that exploit mixture structure. This paper discusses general issues of modelling with mixtures that arise in fitting mixtures to data distributions, using mixtures to approximate functional forms, such as posterior distributions in parametric models, and development of mixture pruning methods useful for reducing the number of components of large mixtures. These issues arise in problems of density estimation using mixtures of Dirichlet processes, adaptive importance sampling function design in Monte Carlo integration, and Bayesian discrimination and cluster analysis.
A Single Series from the Gibbs Sampler Provides a False Sense of Security
Authors: Gelman Andrew , Rubin Donald B
Published: November 2023

The Gibbs sampler can be very useful for simulating multivariate distributions, but naive use of it can give misleading—falsely precise—answers. An example with the using lattice model demonstrates that it is generally impossibile to assess convergence of a Gibbs sampler from a single sample series. This conclusion also applies to other iterative simulation methods such as the Metropolis algorithm.
Optimal Portfolios of Forward Currency Contracts
Authors: Quintana José-Mario
Published: November 2023

The optimal management of portfolios of financial assets is an excellent challenge to the application of the Bayesian paradigm for the decision making process. The forward currency market, in particular, represents a free environment for constructing and rebalancing portfolios since there are virtually no constraints on the feasible asset allocations. First, the operational characteristics of the forward currency market are described. Second, both the Markowitz and the multi-period myopic utility optimizers are reviewed. In addition, their relationship with variable. and fixed target optimizers with quadratic loss is explored. Third, a passive, an econometric, and a Bayesian forecasting model are cited. Finally, the impact of these statistical and optimization components on the overall performance is assessed by analyzing their results over the last eight years.
How many Iterations in the Gibbs Sampler?
Authors: Raftery Adrian E , Lewis Steven M
Published: November 2023

When the Gibbs sampler is used to estimate posterior distributions (Gelfand and Smith, I990), the question of how many iterations are required is central to its implementation. When interest focuses on quantiles of functionals of the posterior distribution, we describe an easily-implemented method for determining the total number of iterations required, and also the number of initial iterations that should be discarded to allow for “burn-in”. The method uses only the Gibbs iterates themselves, and does not, for example, require external specification of characteristics of the posterior density.
BUGS: a Program to Perform Bayesian Inference using Gibbs Sampling
Authors: Thomas Andrew , Spiegelhalter David J , Gilks Wally R
Published: November 2023

We describe a preliminary version of a general program for Bayesian inference using Gibbs sampling. A crucial feature of the program is the exploitation of conditional independence assumptions in the original statistical model to allow a smooth transition between model specification in a simple language, internal representation of the model in an object-oriented environment, and automatic derivation of the necessary sampling distributions. A useful starting point is the graphical representation of conditional independence assumptions. The eventual aim is to produce a program that can handle arbitrarily complex problems by decomposing them into modular components which then can be “intelligently” handled by the software.
Genetic Adaptation
Authors: Smith Malcolm T
Published: November 2023

One of the achievements of Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection was to provide an alternative explanation of adaptation, a mechanistic means by which the appearance of purposive functional design had been achieved without a designer. Our initial apprehension of human adaptation seems to me still to be a reaction to the obvious or supposed functional design aspects of our form and habit. Comparison with our closest ancestors and relatives plays a part here in influencing our judgement. Our large brain, our upright stance and bipedal gait, the functional competence of hand and eye, surely these are adaptations which have led to our success as the most numerous, widespread, socially complex, and cleverest primate of all.