bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Spin and Double‐Speak
Authors: Fall Lisa T.
Published: September 2017

The term “spin” has historically been associated with political and governmental campaigns. Two prominent citations stem from the
Washington Post
and
New York Times
. In 1977,
Washington Post
staff writer Spencer Rich wrote an editorial about Mike Pertschuk, former chief counsel and staff director, Senate Commerce Committee. Rich accused Pertschuk of “being too ardent a consumer advocate, of ‘lobbying’ members of the committee on behalf of things he thinks are good, of putting his own philosophical ‘spin’ on options, of being too close to Ralph Nader, of having excessive influence on Magnuson; in short, of acting like the ‘101st senator.’” In 1984, under the headline “The debates and the spin doctors,”
New York Times
editorial writer Jack Rosenthal predicted that “a bazaar will suddenly materialize in the pressroom” during a presidential debate between Ronald Reagan and Walter Mondale. He explained: “A dozen men in good suits and women in silk dresses will circulate smoothly among the reporters, spouting confident opinions. They won't be just press agents trying to impart a favorable spin to a routine release. They'll be the Spin Doctors, senior advisors to the candidates, and they'll be playing for very high stakes.”
Spiral of Silence
Authors: Petersen Thomas
Published: September 2017

Developed by German survey and communication researcher → Elisabeth Noelle‐Neumann in the 1960s and 1970s, the spiral of silence theory describes collective opinion formation and societal decision‐making in situations where the issue being debated or decided upon is controversial and morally loaded (→ Public Opinion; Conflict as Media Content; Social Conflict and Communication). The theory is one of the most frequently cited and debated to emerge from the field of communication studies during the latter half of the twentieth century.
Sports as Popular Communication
Authors: Hardin Marie
Published: September 2017

Although they are often framed as “merely” fun and games, sports and the communication that surrounds them influence social norms. Many scholars recognize that the “sports–media complex,” identified as such by Jhally (1989, 77) because of the virtually inseparable relationship between high‐profile sports and media, is one that entertains but also reflects and reinforces existing social dynamics. As outlined by media sociologist Robert McChesney (1989), the sports–media complex is a commercial enterprise and has evolved in pace with consumerism and with communication technology.
Stage Fright
Authors: Daly John
Published: September 2017

Stage fright is the anxiety and nervousness people experience when delivering oral presentations. In the field of communication, stage fright has also been studied under a variety of rubrics including public speaking anxiety, reticence, and audience anxiety. It is one of the oldest topics that communication scholars have studied empirically (Clevenger

), perhaps because it profoundly affects so many. In survey after survey of people's greatest fears, giving speeches always appears toward the top of the list.
Stereotyping and the Media
Authors: Appiah Osei
Published: September 2017

Stereotypes are positive or negative generalizations indiscriminately attributed to members of a group (Tamborini et al.

; → stereotypes). They have a significant impact on individuals' perception of and interactions with members of different social groups by conveying information about the social groups' capabilities (e.g., fast learners, good athletes), personalities (e.g., shy, violent) and/or socio‐economic status (e.g., educated, powerful, poor).
Strategic Framing
Authors: Hallahan Kirk
Published: September 2017

Framing is a rhetorical tool used by communicators to delimit the scope of a situation or argument. Although it is “media framing” that has received extensive attention since the late 1970s (→ Framing Effects; Framing of the News), the framing construct is employed to understand communication in a wide range of disciplines, including speech, organizational behavioral, economics, political science, psychology, and sociology. “Strategic framing” involves the purposeful use of this technique by rhetors, social advocates, and communications professionals in fields such as → Public Relations and advertisers (→ Advertising). The goals of strategic framing are to telegraph → meaning and to focus audience attention on particular portions of a message or aspects of a topic in order to gain a favorable response.
Student Communication Competence
Authors: Morreale Sherwyn P.
Published: September 2017

Scholars and teachers have endeavored over time to define communication competence conceptually and identify the components that comprise it. The increasing cross‐cultural importance of this notion is emphasized by the development of an international volume devoted entirely to communication competence in various contexts and situations, including instructional communication (Hannawa & Spitzberg 2015). Some researchers have collaborated to define and describe the communication competencies considered critical to students' personal, professional, and academic success, while others have studied why communication competence is important for students. As a result of public mandates from accrediting agencies and academic administrators, still others have examined how to assess students' communication competence. While these studies were mainly carried out in the United States, scholars in a variety of countries have demonstrated keen interest in understanding intercultural communication competence and variations in competence based on the impact of culture, globalization, and emerging technologies.
Style and Rhetoric
Authors: Fahnestock Jeanne
Published: September 2017

Under the term
style
in rhetorical studies are grouped all those concerns with effective language that have been part of the rhetorical tradition from its beginnings in ancient Greece (→ Rhetoric, Greek). In rhetorical manuals from antiquity through to the present, language issues are typically discussed at the levels of word choice, sentence structure, and passage arrangement according to certain broad principles guiding selection, such as clarity or vivacity. Rhetorical stylistics also describes linguistic devices that can help construct the interaction between rhetor and audience (e.g.,
apostrophe
or direct address), express states of mind (e.g.,
dubitatio
, the expression of doubt), or even control the flow of discourse (e.g.,
transitio
, marking the movement from one section to another). Many of these rhetorical
figures of speech
survive in the everyday vocabulary of language awareness (e.g.,
rhetorical question
), while others are studied as literary devices achieving aesthetic effects (e.g.,
personification
, extending human attributes like speech to the inanimate and nonhuman).
Subaltern Communities, Communication in
Authors: Escobar Gabriela Martínez
Published: September 2017

In most of Latin America, subaltern populations are those whose primary origins are indigenous, including lower‐class
mestizo
people (i.e., people of mixed origins – indigenous with European) and the urban poor of predominantly indigenous background. Internal migration, urbanization, and modernization are three elements that have influenced transformations in popular communication. For instance, in Peru, television has changed due to socio‐economic and political factors. Television came about in 1957 with the altruistic ideal of education, as a plan for modernization, and with → UNESCO's financial and technical aid (Perla

). However, within a year of the birth of television in Peru, US → television networks NBC and CBS began lending money and providing content for the recently formed local stations. At that point it was clear that television would be primarily a commercial and entertainment enterprise targeting the middle and upper classes rather than subaltern groups (→ Brazil: Media System; Bolivia: Media System).
Subsidies for the Media
Authors: Picard Robert
Published: September 2017

Subsidies for the media involve state financial support for media operations and content. Although generally considered undesirable from freedom of expression and economic standpoints, they are sometimes necessary to pursue social and cultural goals that markets fail to serve.
Suspense
Authors: Nieding Gerhild
Published: September 2017

Which elements of films, novels, or plays are able to produce suspense in the viewer or reader? (We will use the term “viewer” in the rest of this entry to cover viewers, readers, and users.) This question immediately indicates that the concept of suspense has to be treated on multiple levels because it is a multilayered phenomenon. First, suspense is a cognitive‐emotional strategy in the dramaturgy of a written, auditive, audiovisual, or performed “text,” which usually possesses a narrative structure. Second, the recipient has to be able to experience the suspense potential of this text. In order to manage this task, her or his cognitive architecture and socio‐emotional as well as motivational makeup have to fulfill specific prerequisites. Finally, if the suspense construction has achieved its effect, the question that follows is which processes take place in the viewer. Usually cognitive analyses of suspense phenomena are carried out by focusing either on the text, as a calculated structural proposal for → information processing by the viewer, or on the viewer's reception process.
Sustainable Development
Authors: Waters Jody
Published: September 2017

The idea of sustainable development has, for several decades, held out the promise of reconciling the competing goals of economic growth and environmental preservation. The term proposes that economic growth should not be carried out without consideration of environmental and social concerns. This represents a departure from traditional development thinking that suggests that social and political stability will follow the achievement of a robust economy.
Symbolism
Authors: Olson Scott Robert
Published: September 2017

Symbols are linguistic devices in which complex, culturally specific meanings are communicated simply. Nearly all human utterance is in some ways symbolic, and for many who study communication, symbolizing is the most fundamental attribute of being human (Burke). Peirce defines a symbol as “a sign which refers to the Object that it denotes by virtue of a law, usually an association of general ideas, which operates to cause the Symbol to be interpreted as referring to that Object” (1965, 143). In other words, when cultural conventions define how a → Sign is to be associated with an idea or object, then that sign is a symbol. Generally, the connection between signifier and signified in a symbol is arbitrary, necessitating a cultural context for understanding. Because nearly every image has symbolic aspects, symbols are especially important in the visual media (→ Visual Communication).
Synchronization of the News
Authors: Schoenbach Klaus
Published: September 2017

“Synchronization” means the selection and presentation of news to favor a medium's marked editorial policy or stance. “Synchronized” news, then, is news selected and presented to support a medium's anti‐ or pro‐government sentiments, for instance, or its liberal or conservative philosophy (Schoenbach

).
Systems Theory
Authors: Krippendorff Klaus
Published: September 2017

The word “system” is widely used. We speak of planetary systems, transportation systems, nervous systems, number systems, filing systems, political systems, systems of checks and balances, systems of grammatical rules, systems of weights and measures, and so on as if they shared the same reality. Their common denominator is a multitude of component parts, depending on each other, working together in complex ways, and functioning as wholes. Beyond these commonalities, such systems exhibit at best Wittgensteinian family resemblances.
S
chiller,
H
erbert
I
.
Authors: Mosco Vincent
Published: September 2017

Herbert I. Schiller is one of the founding figures of the political economy of communication tradition (→ Political Economy of the Media). Schiller was born in 1919 and died in 2000. Beginning with his book
Mass communication and American empire
(1969) and ending with his posthumously published
Living in the number one country
(2000), he had an impact on several generations of scholars, policymakers, media practitioners, and media activists. His work provided a principal inspiration for the global movement to create a → new world information and communication order (NWICO). Schiller was also a leading figure in the → International Association for Media and Communication Research (IAMCR), the scholarly association most strongly identified with international and political economic research (→ International Communication).
Scholarly Communication of Communication Studies
Authors: Barnett George A.
Published: September 2017

Scholarly communication (sometimes called “scientific communication”) refers to studies of the dissemination of knowledge through scholars' activities including memberships in professional organizations, hiring practices, and academic publication (journals, books, conference papers). Because of the diverse subject matter and variety of theoretical perspectives that constitute communication, its scholars have engaged in empirical research and discussion about its structure, antecedent conditions that created its current form, and how the idealized field should look. Much of this research has used network analytic methods and focuses specifically on the communication discipline, so that quite a bit is known about the network structure of communication and citation patterns across disciplines (→Communication: Definitions and Concepts; Communication as a Field and Discipline; Communication Theory and Philosophy).
Stereotype Threat
Authors: McGlone Matthew S.
Published: September 2017

Stereotype threat describes the psychological discomfort associated with being confronted by a negative stereotype in a situation where one's behavior could be construed as confirming it (Steele & Aronson

; → Stereotypes). Scholars in a variety of disciplines have documented the pervasive influence of stereotypes on social interaction. Traditionally, this research has investigated how stereotypes distort one group's perceptions of another. For example, communication scholars have studied stereotypes' impact on whites' evaluations of black crime suspects in television news and the effects of gender stereotypes on interactions between men and women (→ Interpersonal Communication, Sex and Gender Differences in). In recent years, the focus of stereotyping research has shifted from the behavioral correlates of endorsing stereotypes to the cognitive consequences of being targeted by them. People may not give credence to stereotypes associated with their various social identities (female, Asian, etc.), but are aware the stereotypes exist and often are as familiar with their contents as others who espouse them. Such awareness can exert a profound influence on one's interactions with others, one manifestation being “stereotype threat” (→ Imagined Interactions; Interpersonal Communication; Language and Social Interaction).
Tabloid Press
Authors: Grabe Maria Elizabeth , Kleemans Mariska
Published: September 2017

“Tabloid” means compact size. In reference to the press it describes smaller‐sized → newspapers. Yet in contemporary journalism the term “tabloid” refers to both newspapers and television and carries a strong normative evaluation of news work (→ Television News). In many respects, the term “tabloid” has become removed from its original meaning and attached itself to the idea of sensational news coverage (→ Scandalization in the News; Sensationalism). Slogans like “if it bleeds it leads” and “bodybag journalism” refer to emphases on death and destruction and are commonly used in reference to tabloid news. An assessment of public debate among media critics and academics about this journalistic style reveals sweeping declarations about its corruptive influence on journalism. At the heart of this debate are two popular concerns: tabloid journalism violates notions of social decency, and it displaces socially significant stories.
Teacher Affinity Seeking
Authors: McCroskey Linda L.
Published: September 2017

McCroskey and Wheeless, the first to introduce the concept of “affinity” in the communication literature, defined it as “a positive attitude toward another person” (1976, 231). Bell and Daly expanded research in the area of affinity seeking in interpersonal communication. They defined “affinity seeking” as “the active social communicative process by which individuals attempt to get others to like and feel positive toward them” (1984, 91). These pioneers pursued this research stream as it gained momentum, clearing, defining, and redefining a swath so significant that not only did their efforts spawn decades of affinity research, but these early efforts appeared to support the idea that gaining “affinity” may be the single most important reason why we engage in → Interpersonal Communication (→ Interpersonal Attraction). That the fledgling discipline could assert a simple explanation for what motivates communication interaction is impressive. A more far‐reaching impact was felt as interpersonal communication research shifted focus to specialized contexts such as the classroom or workplace. Because the seminal affinity research was conducted by scholars interested in communication education and instruction, affinity research in the instructional context set the agenda for its application to other interpersonal contexts.
Teacher Training in Communication
Authors: Cooper Pamela
Published: September 2017

An important part of the history of communication, particularly in the US, focused on how to train teachers to teach this subject. From the first issues of the academic journals in the early 1900s (
Quarterly Journal of Public Speaking
) until today, when entire journals provide research reports for and about teachers, the topic has been at the forefront of professional associations, as evidenced in their publications (e.g.,
Communication Education, Feedback, Journalism and Mass Communication Educator
) and association names. For instance, the National Communication Association (NCA) began as the National Association of Academic Teachers of Public Speaking (1914–1922) and then the National Association of Teachers of Speech (1923–1945). And the Broadcast Education Association and the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication continue to promote education in their association names.
Technology as Fashion
Authors: Bull Michael
Published: September 2017

In 1957 Vance Packard complained that the manufacturers of typewriters and telephones had recently begun producing models in a wide range of colors rather than in their traditional black. He critically surmised that the sole motive for this innovation was “to make owners dissatisfied with their plain old black models” (Packard

, 72). Packard understood that the introduction of color into the appearance of these technologies added nothing to their functionality, that color was ephemeral and external to the workings of these technologies. The ephemeral was merely “fashionable.” That owners of traditional black models might become dissatisfied with their “old” models was, he thought, attributable to the workings of those in the → advertising industries (→ Advertising; Advertising: Global Industry) who would work their sophistries upon a naïve public.
TeleSur
Authors: Sotillo Omar Hernández
Published: September 2017

TeleSur is a multinational → television initiative launched in July 2005 and spearheaded by the government of Venezuela, in cooperation with three other Latin American states – Argentina, Cuba, and Uruguay (→ Argentina: Media System; Cuba: Media System; International Television). The channel presents itself as “the new television of the south,” with a direct emphasis on the word “sur” (south), which is defined in their mission statement as “a geopolitical concept promoting people's struggles towards peace, self‐determination, respect for human rights, and social justice.” While there are some undeniably innovative aspects to this project, its central objectives correspond to old and traditionally unfulfilled political aspirations for Latin American regional integration on the one hand, and for providing alternatives to what some see as hegemonic ideologies of cultural imperialism on the other (→ Cultural Imperialism Theories). This orientation is openly reflected in one of the channel's slogans, often seen on the screen in promotional spots between programs: “Seeing each other we get to know each other, knowing each other we get to respect each other, respecting each other we learn to love each other, and loving each other is the first step toward integration.”
Televised Debates
Authors: Reinemann Carsten , Maurer Marcus
Published: September 2017

Televised debates have become a key feature of election campaigns in many countries around the world. Unlike regular campaign media coverage, they provide voters with the chance to directly listen to the candidates and learn about their stands on the issues and their personalities without the filter of the media's news selection. They provide much more information than campaign ads and, unlike those, give the opposing candidate the chance to counterargue. Therefore, televised debates are often regarded as an especially valuable form of campaign communication (→ Election Campaign Communication). In many countries, televised debates reach a larger audience, generate more media coverage, and stimulate more discussion among citizens than any other single campaign event. In addition, numerous studies in several countries show that televised debates have a variety of effects. Due to their assumed importance, a large body of research has been accumulated investigating various aspects of the debates, especially in the US. However, due to differences in political systems, electoral procedures, the role of the candidates, political cultures, and the debates themselves, these findings should not be uncritically transferred to other countries (→ Political Communication Culture).
Television
Authors: Lotz Amanda D.
Published: September 2017

Since the advent of the post‐World War II era, television has functioned as the quintessential mass medium. Television's status as a central cultural storyteller that offers a widely shared lens on news information, media events, and fictional narratives has allowed it to transcend academic approaches and operate as a crucial object of study for a range of communication traditions.
Television Broadcasting, Regulation of
Authors: Sadler Roger L.
Published: September 2017

Historically, TV regulation in various countries has fallen into one of four broad categories. None of these regulatory frameworks exists in its true form in any country, but these categories provide a general framework for how different governments regulate television (→ Media Policy).
Television Networks
Authors: Compton James R.
Published: September 2017

Television networks are organizations that produce or acquire the rights to TV programs, which are centrally distributed to affiliated stations where they are scheduled at uniform time slots. The distribution of content to geographically dispersed stations can occur using a variety of technical systems, involving traditional over‐the‐air electromagnetic broadcasting, cable, satellite, and now digital transmission. The history of television networks has been influenced by two principal broadcast network models: the public service broadcasting (PSB) model (→ Public Broadcasting Systems; Public Broadcasting, History of), epitomized in the English speaking world by the British Broadcasting Corporation (→ BBC), and by the for‐profit commercial model, associated with television networks in the United States.
Television News, Visual Components of
Authors: Dahlgren Peter
Published: September 2017

The emergence of television news programs in the late 1940s in the US marked a major historical development in the history of journalism (→ news; Television News; Journalism, History of). Combining the broadcast auditory flow of radio (→ Radio Technology) with the moving images (→ Film Theory) of the movie → newsreels shown in the → cinema, television news was able to provide the public with a new experience in journalism. In the context of American commercial broadcasting, television journalism – more than any previous form of news – was shaped by the economic demands of entertainment and advertising (→ Advertising, Economics of), not least on account of the compelling visual dimension (→ Commercialization: Impact on Media Content). The American model of television news was quickly exported, and has become the global norm for how it is done. The visual elements are a part of the taken‐for‐granted professional routines, yet continue to evolve as the genre develops, and they remain of important analytic concern (→ News Routines).
Television News, Visual Components of
Authors: Dahlgren Peter , Griffin Michael
Published: September 2017

The emergence of television news programs in the late 1940s and early 1950s in the USA marked a major historical development in the history of → journalism (→ Journalism, History of; News; Television News). Combining the broadcast auditory flow of radio (→ Radio Technology) with the moving images (→ Film Theory) of the motion picture → newsreels shown in the → cinema, television news was able to provide the public with a new experience in journalism. In the context of American commercial broadcasting, television journalism – more than any previous form of news – was shaped by the economic demands of entertainment and advertising (→ Advertising, Economics of), not least because of its compelling visual dimension (→ Commercialization: Impact on Media Content). The American model of television news was quickly exported, becoming the global norm for TV news formats and production practices. The visual components of news programs have become part of taken‐for‐granted professional routines, yet continue to evolve as the genre develops and media platforms for news expand (→ News Routines). As an element driving news priorities as well as presentational formats the visual emphases of television journalism remain of important analytic concern.
Television as Popular Culture
Authors: Miller Toby
Published: September 2017

“Television” refers to “seeing from afar.” It describes a physical device, a cultural system, and a labor process that brings the two together and embeds them in the daily experience of half the world's population (→ Television). “Popular” signifies of, by, and for the people, offering transcendence through pleasure, but doing so by referring to the everyday (→ Popular Communication). “Culture” derives from agriculture (→ Culture: Definitions and Concepts). With the emergence of capitalism, it embodied instrumentalism and abjured it, via the industrialization of farming and the cultivation of taste.
Telework
Authors: Hylmö Annika
Published: September 2017

Researchers examining new and emerging work forms not following the traditional “9‐to‐5 schedule” often explore the impact of opportunities for employees to work remotely by teleworking or telecommuting (Nilles 1977). Teleworking may be defined as any form of work that substitutes information technology for work‐related travel, so that work travels to the employee instead of the reverse (Hylmö 2006). While working remotely has been a part of organizations for generations (for example, making cloth for entrepreneurs in the textile industry), the 1970s oil crisis, coupled with increased technological capabilities, spurred interest in large‐scale teleworking. Teleworking was especially encouraged during the 1990s as a way for employees to balance work with other commitments. In the United States, the practice has resurged since the September 11, 2001 attacks on the World Trade Center, as many people wanted to decrease their commutes and work closer to home.
Terrorism and Communication Technologies
Authors: Sonwalkar Prasun
Published: September 2017

Communication and communication technologies are intrinsic to the idea of terrorism as formulated and understood from the nineteenth century onwards (→ Technology and Communication). The discourse of terrorism has come to be symbiotically linked to communication technologies as state and nonstate actors across the globe use and exploit technological advances to further their causes. Schmid & de Graaf (1982, 9) observed that, “without communication there can be no terrorism,” while for Wilkinson (2001, 177), “when one says ‘terrorism’ in a democratic society, one also says ‘media.’”
Text Analysis, Computer‐Aided
Authors: Schweiger Wolfgang
Published: September 2017

The basic medium of interpersonal and mass communication is text (→ Text and Intertextuality). Analyzing text helps in understanding the meanings of mass media messages and their potential effects, observing strategies and developments of rhetoric, identifying rules and structures of social communication, etc. Thus text analysis, comprising all kinds of qualitative and quantitative techniques of media content, discourse, and linguistic analysis, is an indispensable methodological field for all social sciences (→ Content Analysis, Qualitative; Content Analysis, Quantitative; Discourse Analysis; Linguistics). But as communicators' encoding of → meaning and ideas (semantics) in text (syntax) does not always follow a straight logic and is heavily influenced by social and cultural context (→ Linguistic Pragmatics), the analysis of large text corpuses is a complicated and laborious endeavor. Therefore, from the beginning of computer science, scholars have tried to develop automated tools for understanding, abstracting, and classifying texts.
Transactional Models
Authors: Wünsch Carsten
Published: September 2017

Representation and explanation of complex communication phenomena are goals of communication research and theory building. To reach these goals, communication science uses simplified representations, also known as scientific models. Scientific models describe, in simplified form, the order of elements in a system and their relations to each other. These relations can be described as temporal, spatial, causal, correlative, interactive, or transactional. A model of our solar system, for example, describes the spatial arrangement of the planets. The Lasswell formula describes the central protagonists of the communication process (communicators, recipients, media, etc.) and their temporal and causal relations in a communication model (→ Lasswell, Harold D.; Models of Communication).
Transcribing and Transcription
Authors: Roberts Felicia
Published: September 2017

Transcribing is the process of representing, in written form, some stretch of lived activity. The resulting transcription provides a document that is easily perused and examined, and in a variety of institutional settings it serves as the official record of the actual proceedings. Such governmental and commercial transcripts are generally perceived as impersonal or unbiased renderings and are intended primarily as references to activity. In communication research, however, it is understood that transcribing is an
analytic process
, since, in actuality, a transcriber is always selecting and distilling the complexities of speech and action. Or, in the case of rendering original handwritten documents, the researcher loses the artistry of the hand that produced the original document. Transcripts are, therefore, abstract versions of verbal, vocal, bodily, and spatial activities; they embody the transcriber's stance toward the aims of recording and studying a communication event.
Transcribing and Transcription
Authors: Roberts Felicia
Published: September 2017

Transcribing is the process of representing, in written form, some stretch of lived activity. The resulting transcription provides a document that is easily perused and examined, and in a variety of institutional settings it serves as the official record of the actual proceedings. Such governmental and commercial transcripts are generally perceived as impersonal or unbiased renderings and are intended primarily as references to activity. In communication research, however, it is understood that transcribing is ananalytic process, since, in actuality, a transcriber is always selecting and distilling the complexities of speech and action. Or, in the case of rendering original handwritten documents, the researcher loses the artistry of the hand that produced the original document. Transcripts are, therefore, abstract versions of verbal, vocal, bodily, and spatial activities; they embody the transcriber's stance toward the aims of recording and studying a communication event.
Transnational Civil Society
Authors: Downing John D. H.
Published: September 2017

“Civil society” has been through a series of definitions since it first came into use in the 18th century. Locke, Hegel, Marx, and Gramsci all used the term; but for Locke it meant organized human civilization as contrasted with the animal kingdom's turbulence, for Marx it meant the economic process, and the other two writers assigned it still other meanings. In Soviet bloc countries in the final years of the bloc's disintegration, and in Latin America in the same period during the gradual disappearance of military dictatorships, “civil society” was a term of hope often used by advocates of democratic governance to denote the hopeful shoots of democratic process they saw emerging in front of their eyes, that they felt were ushering in the dissolution of dictatorial rule.
Transportation Theory
Authors: Green Melanie C.
Published: September 2017

Transportation into a narrative world refers to the feeling of being lost in the world of a narrative, of being completely immersed in a story and leaving the real world behind. This experience is a key mechanism underlying the influence of stories or narratives on individuals' attitudes and beliefs, and is also associated with media enjoyment. Although transportation has long been used as a metaphor for narrative experience, psychologists have conceptualized transportation into a narrative world as a distinct mental process, an integrative melding of → attention, imagery, and → emotions (Gerrig; Green & Brock, 701; see also Nell). Transportation is a form of experiential response to narratives. It is psychologically similar to flow (Csikszentmihalyi) or absorption, although both flow and absorption are more general concepts (individuals can experience flow in a variety of activities; absorption is a dispositional tendency to become immersed in experiences). Transportation is also similar to Vorderer's high involvement (→ Involvement with Media Content).
Triangulation
Authors: Bilandzic Helena
Published: September 2017

Triangulation is a metaphor for research strategies that employ different methods, theories, or data sources in order to capture social reality in a comprehensive manner, reflecting appropriately the multifaceted nature of social objects. While all research approaches in themselves have certain shortcomings, a combination of several approaches may compensate for one another's weaknesses and provide a more complete picture. The term triangulation originally comes from geodesy and refers to a procedure that uses the known distance between two points in order to determine the unknown distance to a third point (Flick

).
Truth and Media Content
Authors: Wahl‐Jorgensen Karin
Published: September 2017

Truth is a slippery concept, and philosophers since Aristotle have battled over its meaning. The most intuitive and widely adopted understanding of truth is that of correspondence theory – the idea that “true propositions tell it like it is;” that “for a proposition to be true is for it to correspond to the facts” (Blackburn & Simmons

, 1). The correspondence theory assumes that the “truth” about a particular event or object is constituted by a set of “facts.” The more skillfully a phenomenon is described, the closer the description gets to the “truth” of it. Such a conception imbues media content and its makers with phenomenal authority, and is central to arguments about the importance of media professions.
Two‐Step Flow of Communication
Authors: Maurer Marcus
Published: September 2017

The two‐step flow of communication hypothesis was first formulated by → Paul F. Lazarsfeld and his colleagues in their classical study on the 1940 American presidential election (1944). It states that there is usually no direct influence of the mass media on the general public. Rather, “ideas often flow from radio and print to the opinion leaders and from them to the less active sections of the population” (Lazarsfeld et al., 151). This assumption, challenging the popular idea of strong direct media effects on the public (→ Stimulus–Response Model), turned out to be one of the most influential ideas in communication research from the 1940s to at least the 1960s. While recent research has contradicted the original hypothesis in its rigid form, many of its underlying ideas have stimulated fruitful further research. This holds especially true for the concept of opinion leadership and the analysis of social networks (→ Network Analysis; Opinion Leader).
Typography
Authors: Craig Robert L.
Published: September 2017

Typography is a process for reproducing text, figures, punctuation, characters, ornaments, and borders via a printing press or electronic communication. Typography is distinguished from calligraphy, by which single, handwritten copies are made. Manuscripts set into type may be printed or stored electronically, allowing an infinite number of exact replicas to be distributed widely. Early typeface designs were modeled after calligraphic letter‐forms but book typefaces quickly moved away from writing as a model. In a development spurred by the Industrial Revolution, commercialization, and later the growth of digital typography, which made type design easier, hundreds of thousands of formal, informal, and decorative typestyles are in use today.
Turkey: Media System
Authors: Özcan Esra A.
Published: September 2017

Turkey (population 70 million; 2007 census) is a parliamentary republic with a multiparty system, a centralized government, and an authoritarian‐secular bureaucratic tradition. The country's history is characterized by military coups, heavy state control over the media, and rapid liberalization, bringing its media system closer to the media systems in parts of Latin America and Southeastern Europe (Christensen; → West Asia: Media Systems). Turkey has been a candidate country for European Union (EU) membership since 1999. It is the only EU candidate with a majority Muslim population. In line with the EU framework, the country has passed constitutional reforms and democratization packages, which have influenced the media scene considerably in the last decade, particularly in breaking the ban on broadcasting in the Kurdish language (→ European Union: Communication Law; Kurdish International Broadcasting).
Triplet Harvesting from Intramolecular Singlet Fission in Polytetracene
Authors: Pun Andrew B. , Sanders Samuel N. , Kumarasamy Elango , Sfeir Matthew Y. , Congreve Daniel N. , Campos Luis M.
Published: September 2017

Singlet fission (SF), a promising mechanism of multiple exciton generation, has only recently been engineered as a fast, efficient, intramolecular process (iSF). The challenge now lies in designing and optimizing iSF materials that can be practically applied in high‐performance optoelectronic devices. However, most of the reported iSF systems, such as those based on donor–acceptor polymers or pentacene, have low triplet energies, which limits their applications. Tetracene‐based materials can overcome significant challenges, as the tetracene triplet state is practically useful, ≈1.2 eV. Here, the synthesis and excited state dynamics of a conjugated tetracene homopolymer are studied. This polymer undergoes ultrafast iSF in solution, generating high‐energy triplets on a sub‐picosecond time scale. Magnetic‐field‐dependent photocurrent measurements of polytetracene‐based devices demonstrate the first example of iSF‐generated triplet extraction in devices, exhibiting the potential of iSF materials for use in next‐generation devices.
Multifunctional Phenanthroimidazole Derivatives to Realize High‐Performance Deep‐Blue and White Organic Light‐Emitting Diodes
Authors: Du Xiaoyang , Li Guang , Zhao Juewen , Tao Silu , Zheng Caijun , Lin Hui , Tong Qingxiao , Zhang Xiaohong
Published: September 2017

Deep blue emitters with high quantum yield, good stability, and multifunctionality are still the key technology for white organic light‐emitting diodes (WOLEDs). To address this, two multifunctional deep‐blue materials 4‐{2‐[4′‐(1,4,5‐triphenyl‐4,5‐dihydro‐1H‐imidazol‐2‐yl)‐biphenyl‐4‐yl]‐3a,11b‐dihydro‐phenanthro[9,10‐d]imidazol‐1‐yl}‐benzonitrile (CPD) and 4‐(2‐{4′‐[1‐(4‐tert‐butyl‐phenyl)‐4,5‐diphenyl‐4,5‐dihydro‐1H‐imidazol‐2‐yl]‐biphenyl‐4‐yl}‐3a,11b‐dihydro‐phenanthro[9,10‐d]imidazol‐1‐yl)‐benzonitrile (tCPD) based on phenanthroimidazole units are designed, synthesized, and characterized. Both the materials show high quantum yields and good stabilities. The deep‐blue fluorescent devices using CPD and tCPD as emitters show maximum external quantum efficiency (EQE) of 5.80% and 4.71% along with Commission Internationale de I'Eclairage (CIE) coordinates of (0.15, 0.07) and (0.15, 0.09), respectively. Two‐color based WOLEDs are demonstrated by doping Ir(MDQ)2acac into CPD and tCPD with a low doping concentration, both devices show high EQEs of 16.4% and 16.6% and CIEs of (0.49, 0.34) and (0.48, 0.32), respectively. Furthermore, three‐color based fluorescence/phosphorescence‐WOLEDs (F/P‐WOLEDs), with reasonable exciton management, are fabricated to enhance exciton utilization and improve device performance. CPD‐based WOLED shows high efficiencies of 49.4 cd A−1, 53.5 lm W−1, 19.0%, and CIE coordinate of (0.46, 0.46). With the same structure, tCPD‐based device also shows high efficiencies of 40.6 cd A−1, 47.2 lm W−1, 19.4% along with CIE coordinate of (0.43, 0.45). These results are among the best of reported deep‐blue OLEDs and F/P‐WOLEDs.
P‐Stereogenic Chiral Phosphine−Palladium Complex Catalyzed Enantioselective Synthesis of Phosphoryl‐Substituted Atropisomeric Vinylarenes
Authors: Wu Hao , Han Zhengxu S. , Qu Bo , Wang Dan , Zhang Yongda , Xu Yibo , Grinberg Nelu , Lee Heewon , Song Jinhua J. , Roschangar Frank , Wang Guijun , Senanayake Chris H.
Published: September 2017

P‐Stereogenic chiral phosphine BI‐BOP is employed for the first time as ligand to promote catalytic enantioselective synthesis of phosphoryl‐substituted atropisomeric vinylarenes through a palladium−carbene pathway. This strategy utilizes 10 mol% palladium(II) acetate, 10 mol% phosphine ligand as well as a variety of N‐tosylhydrazones and phosphoryl‐substituted aryl bromides as the reaction partners. The desired axially chiral vinylarenes were isolated with up to 80% yield and 96:4 er, and can be further converted effectively and stereoselectively into dialkylphosphoryl‐substituted atropisomeric arenes through a Grignard reaction. This protocol offers a general approach to synthesize phosphoryl‐substituted atropisomeric vinylarenes with high enantiomeric purities.

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The Base‐Promoted Annulation of 2‐Hydrazinyl Pyridine and CO2 toward Triazolones
Authors: Wu Xiaopeng , Sun Song , Wang Bingbing , Cheng Jiang
Published: September 2017

A base‐promoted annulation of 2‐hydrazinyl pyridine and atmospheric pressure of CO2 has been developed in the presence of silane as reducing reagent, affording a series of triazolones in moderate to excellent yields. CO2 served as a carbonyl source in this transfomation. Moreover, benzamidrazones also worked well under this procedure. Thus, it represents a green, sustainable and straightforward pathway to access triazolone frameworks.

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Engineering Temperature‐Dependent Carrier Concentration in Bulk Composite Materials via Temperature‐Dependent Fermi Level Offset
Authors: Hui Si , Gao Wenpei , Lu Xu , Panda Anurag , Bailey Trevor P. , Page Alexander A. , Forrest Stephen R. , Morelli Donald T. , Pan Xiaoqing , Pipe Kevin P. , Uher Ctirad
Published: September 2017

Precise control of carrier concentration in both bulk and thin‐film materials is crucial for many solid‐state devices, including photovoltaic cells, superconductors, and high mobility transistors. For applications that span a wide temperature range (thermoelectric power generation being a prime example) the optimal carrier concentration varies as a function of temperature. This work presents a modified modulation doping method to engineer the temperature dependence of the carrier concentration by incorporating a nanosize secondary phase that controls the temperature‐dependent doping in the bulk matrix. This study demonstrates this technique by de‐doping the heavily defect‐doped degenerate semiconductor GeTe, thereby enhancing its average power factor by 100% at low temperatures, with no deterioration at high temperatures. This can be a general method to improve the average thermoelectric performance of many other materials.
Child fosterage and sex‐biased nutritional outcomes among Namibian pastoralists
Authors: Prall Sean P. , Scelza Brooke A.
Published: September 2017

Objectives

Across cultures, fosterage has been shown to impact child health. Contextual factors, such as the reason for fosterage and the relationship between foster parent and child, are known to magnify variance in nutritional outcomes for foster children. Another important, but less studied, factor is the role of gender. Sex‐biases in physiology and cultural norms are both known to affect child nutrition, and we posit these effects might be magnified in the presence of fosterage. In this study, we investigate how sex interacts with fosterage to affect nutritional outcomes among Namibian pastoralists.

Methods

Anthropometrics for children and adults were collected using standard procedures, and linear models were used to predict the effects of age, sex, and fosterage on height, weight, and body mass index Z‐scores. Semi‐structured interviews with adults provided context for understanding sex specific reasons for fosterage and biases in investment.

Results

Boys in this population have lower nutritional scores than girls, and fostered boys have lower weight and BMI Z‐scores than nonfostered boys. Fostered girls have lower height Z‐scores and are more likely to be stunted and underweight than nonfostered girls. These effects extend into adulthood, with fostered women being shorter than their nonfostered counterparts.

Conclusions

Sex plays a role in the nutritional impact of fosterage among Himba children. These differences could be related to differential child labor demands, investment patterns, and the divergent reasons girls and boys are placed into fosterage. Future studies should consider how fosterage can magnify existing biases, like sex, when studying its impact on child health.