bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Logistic Regression Modelling of Proteomic Mass Spectra in a Case-Control Study on Diagnosis for Colon Cancer*
Authors: Mertens Bart J A
Published: November 2023

We adapt logistic regression modelling for the evaluation of mass spectroscopic data in proteomic case-control studies. Instead of a direct attempt to model the observed case-control data as regression on peaks, we parameterize the predictor as a linear combination of Gaussian basis functions along the mass/charge axis. The location of these basis functions is treated as a random variable and must be estimated from the data. A fully Bayesian implementation is pursued, which allows the number of functional components within the regression parameter vector to be specified as a random variable. Calculations are implemented through birth–death process modelling.
Bayesian Model Diagnostics Based on Artificial Autoregressive Errors*
Authors: Peruggia Mario
Published: November 2023

This article provides a synopsis of the material presented in Peruggia (2007), where I develop a simple and effective device for ascertaining the quality of the modeling choices and detecting lack-of-fit in hierarchical Bayes models. These models will typically specify regression equations for one or more parameters, with errors that are often assumed to be i.i.d. Gaussian. To build the diagnostic tool, I specify an artificial autoregressive structure (AAR) in the probability model for the errors that incorporates the i.i.d. model as a special case and assess lack-of-fit by examining the posterior distribution of the AAR parameters.
Stochastic Processes
Authors: Medvegyev Péter
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we first discuss the basic definitions of the theory of stochastic processes. Then we discuss the simplest properties of martingales, the Martingale Convergence Theorem and the Optional Sampling Theorem. In the last section of the chapter we introduce the concept of localization.
Some Other Theorems
Authors: Medvegyev Péter
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we shall discuss some further theorems from the general theory of stochastic processes. First we shall prove the so-called Doob–Meyer decomposition. By the Doob–Meyer decomposition every integrable submartingale is a semimartingale. We shall also prove the theorem of Bichteler and Dellacherie, which states that the semimartingales are the only ‘good integrators’.
Processes With Independent Increments
Authors: Medvegyev Péter
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we discuss the classical theory of processes with independent increments. In the first section we return to the theory of Lévy processes. The increments of Lévy processes are not only independent but they are also stationary. Lévy processes are semimartingales, but the same is not true for processes with independent increments. In the second part of the chapter we show the generalization of the Lévy–Khintchine formula to processes with just independent increments.
The Calabi Conjecture
Authors: Joyce Dominic D
Published: November 2023

The conjecture was posed by Calabi in 1954, who also showed that if g exists it must be unique. It was eventually proved by Yau in 1976, [344,345]. Before this, Aubin [15] had made significant progress towards a proof. In this chapter we will give a proof of the Calabi Conjecture that broadly follows Yau ‘s own proof, with some differences. My main references were Yau ‘s paper [345], and the treatment given in Aubin ‘s book [16, 7]. The proof is also explained, in French, by Bourguignon et al. [42].
Calabi–Yau Manifolds
Authors: Joyce Dominic D
Published: November 2023

Although much of the chapter is algebraic geometry, a rather technical subject, we will try to present it in an elementary way and keep the technicalities to a minimum. One thing we will not say much about is what the metrics on the Calabi–Yau manifolds are like: here we are mostly interested in the underlying complex manifolds. In fact little is known about general Calabi–Yau metrics. The subject of Calabi–Yau manifolds is too big to be properly described in one chapter of a book. We aim to cover three main areas in detail: firstly, the basic differential geometry of Calabi–Yau manifolds; secondly, orbifolds and crepant resolutions; and thirdly, ways of constructing Calabi–Yau manifolds. There are other important areas, such as rational curves on Calabi–Yau 3-folds, that we shall not have space to discuss.
Introduction: Challenges and Opportunities of the Enlargement of the European Union
Authors: Verheugen GÜnter
Published: November 2023

Politically enlargement became a reality on 1 May 2004, when eight new Member States of Central and southern Europe—Poland, the three Baltic states, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Hungary—as well as Malta and Cyprus joined the EU. It would be premature to make a final judgement. However, the most important effects of the strategic decision on enlargement have already taken place: today’s Europe is a safer and better place to live in and to do business in than fifteen years ago.
The Danish Presidency: Conclusion of the Negotiations
Authors: Christoffersen Poul Skytte
Published: November 2023

The Swedish, Belgian, and Spanish presidencies had led to considerable progress in the enlargement negotiations. The road map established by the Commission at the end of 2000 had generally been adhered to. However, the Danish presidency, which started on 1 July 2002, had a huge task before it, if the ambition—to conclude the enlargement negotiations before the end of the year—should be crowned with success.
The acting brain
Authors: Rizzolatti Giacomo , Sinigaglia Corrado , Anderson Frances
Published: November 2023

In the first Chapter we have seen that the act of picking up an object, our cup of coffee for example, is a combination of two processes, reaching and grasping, which, though independent, are inter-coordinated. It is commonly thought that the former precedes the latter, but this is not so. Recordings of the movements of the arm and hand show that these processes start and proceed in parallel. The arm moves towards the cup and contemporaneously the hand assumes the shape necessary to grasp it.
Trees and Games of Logic
Authors: Higgins Peter M
Published: November 2023

Many games and puzzles, perhaps more than you realize, are tree searches. Examples include games like Mastermind and puzzles such as the modern creation known by the Japanese name of Doku, although this puzzle type seems first to have appeared in the US-based Dell magazine many years earlier. The most difficult are the board games such as checkers and chess.

The simplest is tic-tac-toe or noughts and crosses. This pastime is complicated enough to be a real game yet simple enough for we humans to master it completely.

The first player marks his cross in any of the nine squares while the second player counters with her noughts. They continue until one or other gets three of their symbols in a line (horizontal, vertical, or diagonal) or until all nine squares are occupied without this happening in which case the game is drawn. It is obviously a big advantage to go first in this game, yet, if the second player is careful, she can avoid defeat and even win if the first is careless.
The Nature of Nets
Authors: Higgins Peter M
Published: November 2023

In this chapter you will be introduced to an array of different kinds of questions that concern general networks that are not just trees but in which cycles and multiple edges are permitted between nodes. At first inspection the problems and queries may not seem to be about networks but the underlying network comes to life as a natural model of the situation in each case. But first we look a little more closely at the reasons why nets are becoming more noticed.

‘I’ ve danced with a man, who has danced with a girl, who has danced with the Prince of Wales!’ The idea of this was enough to send the girl singing this old song into raptures. However, as has often been observed, this kind of thing is bound to happen once we start to mix with prominent people. Even if we make a point of avoiding celebrities all our lives, it was observed, apparently by the Hungarian writer Frigyes Karinthy as early as 1929, that it is more than likely that any two people on Earth could be linked through a chain of no more than five personal acquaintances.
Colouring and Planarity
Authors: Higgins Peter M
Published: November 2023

This chapter begins and ends with questions that can be resolved through talking about colouring the vertices of networks while respecting certain rules. It is striking that a topic that sounds very technical lies at the heart of a variety of questions that vary from the colouring of maps, to the guarding of museums, to deep mathematical questions that are applicable particularly in economics. The common thread throughout these investigations is planarity of the networks but its development from these problems is surprising and in one instance the application of network ideas emerges very much out of the blue.
How to Traverse a Network
Authors: Higgins Peter M
Published: November 2023

Let us now return to Euler’s resolution of the question of finding traversing walks in networks. Our explanation is thoroughly modern and is not expressed in the fashion that Euler would have used. Although he is regarded as an excellent expositor of his own work and is renowned for producing mathematics that was free of error, he suffered greatly from the fact that network theory was a new and unrecognized field. It would have been strange in the extreme to devise the kind of language that we have introduced here, incorporating as it does a large number of interrelated ideas, simply in order to deal with one or two problem types. Lacking this language and notation was however a great handicap and Euler struggled to convey his new ideas, despite the fact that, to the modern mathematical outlook, they are not especially difficult to come to terms with and put into practice.
For Connoisseurs
Authors: Higgins Peter M
Published: November 2023

This final chapter is intended to give a little more mathematical explanation for those readers who would appreciate some without having to pursue another source. The level of difficulty will vary—much of it is not very hard at all but, unlike in the main part of the book, I will assume that the reader has some familiarity with mathematical ideas and notation. However, most readers will be able to gain from dipping into the text here and there.

In some places I will be using proof by induction. This is the mathematical technique where the proof is established by building from one case to the next. A case study that is relevant here is the fact that any tree with n nodes has n – 1 edges.
EU Social Policy, or, How Far Up Do You Like Your Safety Net?
Authors: Johnson Ailish
Published: November 2023

Social issues figured prominently during the debate surrounding the European constitution, and claims that the EU is not sufficiently concerned with social policy contributed to its collapse. The French ‘no’ vote in May 2005 was in part spurred by concerns about high rates of national unemployment and fears that increased integration would contribute to further job losses and lower social standards. The French media symbolized this fear in the mythical ‘Polish plumber’, a specter of cheap Eastern European labor come to rob the French, and perhaps all of western and northern Europe, of their well-paid and high- benefit jobs. And yet this backlash about the weakness of the EU’s role in social policy came at a time when EU governance of social policy had never been greater.
Dispersal
Authors: Davis Mark A
Published: November 2023

The invasion process has been described as a series of stages (Carlton 1985, Williamson and Fitter 1996, Richardson et al. 2000a, Kolar and Lodge 2001). Some have characterized three stages: arrival, establishment, and spread (Williamson 1996, Freckleton et al. 2006) or establishment, spread, and integration (Marchetti et al. 2004); some have proposed four stages: arrival, establishment, spread, and adjustment (Ricklefs 2005, Reise et al. 2006).
Persistence and spread
Authors: Davis Mark A
Published: November 2023

A founding population emerges from the establishment of the first arriving propagules. However, the establishment of a founding population may not necessarily be deemed an invasion, which typically involves persistence of subsequent generations and spread well beyond the original point of entry.
Understanding and predicting invasions: an Integrated Approach
Authors: Davis Mark A
Published: November 2023

Despite confronting a very complex system, in which history plays a major role, invasion biologists have relentlessly tried to make the field a predictive science. There are likely two reasons for these persistent efforts. First, if the science is going to be able to inform management efforts, the field needs to provide knowledge that involves some reliable cause and effect relationships, i.e. predictability.
Framing biological invasions
Authors: Davis Mark A
Published: November 2023

Although quantum physicists seemed to have recently questioned the veracity of realism (Gröblacher et al. 2007), and post-modernists argue that humans do not have any access to reality (Allen et al. 2005), most scientists believe, not only that an external reality exists but, that humans are able to access at least some of this reality through our senses and instruments (Ellis 2005).
Conclusion
Authors: Davis Mark A
Published: November 2023

Nature is continually changing, but it does not have a goal. Nor, is there only one valid nature that can or should exist at a particular place and point in time (Diamond 1987, Hull and Robertson 2000). As scientists who both study and value nature, we need to operate somewhere between passively accepting the inevitability of change and obsessively trying to preserve the world as we have known it.
Binary response data
Authors: Aitkin Murray , Francis Brian , Hinde John , Darnell Ross
Published: November 2023

Much social science data consist of categorical variables. Familiar examples are religion, nationality, residence (urban/rural), type of dwelling, level of education and social class. The categories may be unordered (religion, nationality) or ordered (degree of disablement, attitude to a social question).
Filtering Model And Kallianpur–Striebel Formula
Authors: Xiong Jie
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we introduce the basic setup of the filtering models to be studied in this book. Then we demonstrate that the optimal filter is given by the conditional distribution of the signal. Bayes ‘ formula in the filtering setup, is called the Kallianpur–Striebel formula, which is the key in the development of non-linear filtering theory. We will derive this formula in Section 5.2. We establish the filtering equations in Section 5.3. Finally, in Section 5.4, we give a particle-system representation of the optimal filter that will be useful in understanding numerical schemes for the optimal filter.
Uniqueness Of The Solution For Zakai ‘S Equation
Authors: Xiong Jie
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we prove the uniqueness of the solution to Zakai ‘s equation by transforming it to an SDE in a Hilbert space and by making use of estimates based on Hilbert-space techniques. Most of the material in Sections 6.2–6.4 is taken from Kurtz and Xiong [97] where a large class of linear stochastic partial differential equations are studied. Although the techniques we introduce here are for Zakai ‘s equation, they can be applied to other classes of linear SPDEs that includes Zakai ‘s equation as a special example.
Stability Of Non-Linear Filtering
Authors: Xiong Jie
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we consider the stability of the non-linear filter for the case when the observation and signal noises are independent, i.e. c 0 in the filtering model introduced in the previous chapters. In this case, X t is a time-homogeneous Markov process taking values in Rd. We will consider the filtering problem with a state space that is more general than what we studied in the previous chapters, namely, we assume that X t is a continuous time-homogeneous Markov process in a Polish space S .
The Series Of Primes (1)
Authors: Hardy G H , Wright E . M
Published: November 2023

The positive integers. The positive integers form the primary subject-matter of arithmetic, but it is often essential to regard them as a subclass of the integers or of some larger class of numbers. In what follows the letters will usually denote integers, which will sometimes, but not always, be subject to further restrictions, such as to be positive or non-negative. We shall often use the word ‘number’ as meaning ‘integer’ (or ‘positive integer’, etc.), when it is clear from the context that we are considering only numbers of this particular class. An integer ais said to be divisibleby another integer b, not 0, if there is a third integer csuch that If aand bare positive, cis necessarily positive. We express the fact that a is divisible by b, or bis a divisorof a, by b|a.
The Series Of Primes (2)
Authors: Hardy G H , Wright E . M
Published: November 2023

First proof of Euclid’s second theorem. Euclid’s own proof of Theorem 4 was as follows. Let 2, 3, 5, pbe the aggregate of primes up to p, and let Then qis not divisible by any of the numbers 2, 3, 5,, p. It is therefore either prime, or divisible by a prime between pand q. In either case there is a prime greater than p, which proves the theorem. The theorem is equivalent to Further deductions from Euclid ’s argument. If pis the nth prime pn, and qis defined as in (2.1.1), it is plain that This inequality enables us to assign an upper limit to the rate of increase of pn, and a lower limit to that of π(x). We can, however, obtain better limits as follows.
Congruences And Residues
Authors: Hardy G H , Wright E . M
Published: November 2023

Highest common divisor and least common multiple. We have already defined the highest common divisor (a, b)of two numbers aand b. There is a simple formula for this number. We denote by min(x, y)and max(x, y)the lesser and the greater of xand y. Thus min(1, 2)= 1, max(l, 1)= 1. This theorem is an immediate consequence of Theorem 2 and the definition of (a, b). The least common multipleof two numbers aand bis the least positive number which is divisible by both aand b. We denote it by {a, b}, so that a|{a, b}, b|{a, b}, and {a, b} is the least number which has this property. denotes a product extended over all prime values of p. The symbol denotes a product extended over all primes which divide m. In the first formula of Theorem 50, αis zero unless p|a(so that the product is really a finite product). We might equally well write In this case every αwould be positive.
Fermat’s Theorem And Its Consequences
Authors: Hardy G H , Wright E . M
Published: November 2023

Fermat’s theorem. In this chapter we apply the general ideas of Ch. V to the proof of a series of classical theorems, due mainly to Fermat, Euler, Legendre, and Gauss. Theorem 71 (Fermat’s theorem). If p is prime, and pf a, then The congruences (6.1.1) and (6.1.2) are equivalent when pf a; and (6.1.1) is trivial when p a, since then ap0 a. Hence Theorems 70 and 71 are equivalent. Theorem 71 is a particular case of the more general Theorem 72 (The Fermat–Euler theorem). If (a, m)= 1, then If xruns through a complete system of residues prime to m, then, by Theorem 58, axalso runs through such a system. Hence, taking the product of each set, we have Since every number xis prime to m, their product is prime to m; and hence, by Theorem 55,
Continued Fractions
Authors: Hardy G H , Wright E . M
Published: November 2023

Finite continued fractions. We shall describe the function as a finite continued fraction,or, when there is no risk of ambiguity, simply as a continued fraction.Continued fractions are important in many branches of mathematics, and particularly in the theory of approximation to real numbers by rationals. There are more general types of continued fractions in which the ‘numerators’ are not all 1’s, but we shall not require them here. The formula (10.1.1) is cumbrous, and we shall usually write the continued fraction in one of the two forms There is a clash between our notation here and that of § 6.11, which we shall use again later in the chapter (for example in § 10.5). In § 6.11, [x] was defined as the integral part of x; while here [a0] means simply a0. The ambiguity should not confuse the reader, since we use [a0] here merely as a special case of [a0, a1, ..., an]. The square bracket in this sense will seldom occur with a single letter inside it, and will not then be important.
Some Diophantine Equations
Authors: Hardy G H , Wright E . M
Published: November 2023

Fermat’s last theorem. ‘Fermat’s last theorem’ asserts that the equation where nis an integer greater than 2, has no integral solutions, except the trivial solutions in which one of the variables is 0. The theorem has never been proved for all n,† or even in an infinity of genuinely distinct cases, but it is known to be true for 2 < n <619. In this chapter we shall be concerned only with the two simplest cases of the theorem, in which n3 and n4. The case n4 is easy, and the case n3 provides an excellent illustration of the use of the ideas of Ch. XII. The equation x2 y2 z2. The equation (13.1.1) is soluble when n2; the most familiar solutions are 3, 4, 5 and 5, 12, 13. We dispose of this problem first. It is plain that we may suppose x, y, zpositive, without loss of generality. Hence, if x, y, zis a solution with (x, y) d, then x dxt, y dyt, z dzt, and xt, yt, zt is a solution with (xt, yt) 1. We may therefore suppose that 1, the general solution being a multiple of a solution satisfying this condition. Finally which is impossible; so that one of xand ymust be odd and the other even. It is therefore sufficient for our purpose to prove the theorem which follows.
The Arithmetical Functions φ(n), μ(n), d(n), ς (n), r(n)
Authors: Hardy G H , Wright E . M
Published: November 2023

The function φ(n). In this and the next two chapters we shall study the properties of certain ‘arithmetical functions’ of n, that is to say functions f (n)of the positive integer ndefined in a manner which expresses some arithmetical property of n. The function φ(n)was defined in § 5.5, for n >1, as the number of positive integers less than and prime to n. We proved (Theorem 62) that This formula is also an immediate consequence of the general principle expressed by the theorem which follows. If ais prime to b, then the number of integers not greater than n, and divisible by both aand b, is and aand dare uniquely determined by hand n. Conversely, every fraction a/d, for which d|nand (16.2.2) is satisfied, appears in the set (16.2.1), though in general not in reduced form.
The Series Of Primes (3)
Authors: Hardy G H , Wright E . M
Published: November 2023

The functions ϑ(x)and Ψ(x). In this chapter we return to the problems concerning the distribution of primes of which we gave a preliminary account in the first two chapters. There we proved nothing except Euclid’s Theorem 4 and the slight extensions contained in §§ 2.1–6. Here we develop the theory much further and, in particular, prove Theorem 6 (the Prime Number Theorem). We begin, however, by proving the much simpler Theorem 7. Our proof of Theorems 6 and 7 depends upon the properties of a function there being a contribution log 2 from 2, 4, and 8, and a contribution log 3 from 3 and 9.If pmis the highest power of pnot exceeding x, log poccurs mtimes in Ψ(x).Also pmis the highest power of pwhich divides any number up to x, so that where U(x)is the least common multiple of all numbers up to x. We can also express Ψ(x)in the form † Throughout this chapter x(and yand t) are not necessarily integral. On the other hand, m, n, h, k, etc., are positive integers and p, as usual, is a prime. We suppose always that x): 1.
Odds and ends
Authors: Anderson Raymond
Published: November 2023

This section is used for topics that do not fit neatly elsewhere in this module. These are treated under three headings: descriptive statistics—covering cluster analysis and factor analysis; forecasting—covering Markov chains and survival analysis; and concepts—which include correlations, interactions, monotonicity, and normalization.

Credit scoring is almost exclusively associated with predictive modelling, but there are other techniques that are sometimes encountered. Descriptive techniques are used to describe the data, and are sometimes used as part of the scorecard development process, either to gain a better understanding of the data, or to create new variables. In contrast, forecasting techniques are used to do modelling at the portfolio level, to aid in various finance functions. Both categories each have two main techniques associated with them, as shown in Table 9.1, which are covered next.
Minds and machines
Authors: Anderson Raymond
Published: November 2023

A lot of business applications, such as financial modelling, are actually scientific in nature and even though the nature of the problems may be different in business, the mathematics is very similar to tasks we have already tackled in science.

Chorafas (1990)

When the above is read, one must understand science as also including fields like economics, engineering, psychology, and others. It is also not only the maths that is similar, but also much relating to the people and computers that are employed. By extension, this also applies to credit scoring. While it tries to bring science into lending decisions, it will always be both science and art. Creativity can be used at all stages in the process, but some developers wield their paintbrushes better than others. This section focuses on both the people and the software:
Scoring structure
Authors: Anderson Raymond
Published: November 2023

The first two chapters of this module covered data considerations, and the various data sources. This section moves on to some of the practical issues encountered when bringing data together and making it work. It is an awkward chapter, in that many of the topics are not normally treated together—if treated at all—in other texts. Even so, each topic provides some insight into the scoring process:
Application processing
Authors: Anderson Raymond
Published: November 2023

Throughout many of the previous sections, the processing of applications has been discussed, but at no point has the processing of applications really been discussed. It has instead been brought up in bits and pieces, even though it is the most critical point in the risk management cycle. According to Makuch (1998:3), ‘It is estimated that as much as 80 per cent of the “measurable and controllable risk” is decided upon at the time of underwriting’.
Data privacy and protection
Authors: Anderson Raymond
Published: November 2023

George Orwell’s book ‘1984’, written in 1948, presents a world governed by an all-knowing and all-seeing ‘Big Brother’. This was not the entertaining and sometimes humorous TV reality program, but a sinister prediction of how technology would assist a totalitarian state to control people’s lives. While the real model for the story was the then Soviet Union, the title became a metaphor for increasing public concern—if not paranoia—about western governments’ use of technology to compile cradle-to-grave dossiers on their citizens, and its potential impacts on civil liberties.
Anti-discrimination
Authors: Anderson Raymond
Published: November 2023

People are warned against the use of generalisations, yet this is one of the most fundamental tools used by humans, to compensate for a lack of information in new situations. Some generalisations are pre-programmed as basic instincts, and may cause either repulsion or attraction in a given situation. Others are learnt as a part of people’s cultural upbringing; something is believed to be true just because family, friends, or government have said so. And finally, generalisations based upon people’s own limited past experiences may be used in certain situations.
Fair lending
Authors: Anderson Raymond
Published: November 2023

The first laws governing lending related to the charging of interest, and over time a distinction was made between interest and usury. Indeed, many countries either had, or have, a Usury Act that sets the maximum rate of interest that may be charged and guidelines for its disclosure. Nowadays, there is a bevy of fair-lending legislation that goes much further. These are often referred to as Consumer Affairs, Unfair Business Practices,1 or Consumer Credit Acts, which may cover marketing, account origination, account management, and collections practices. Such legislation is meant not only to protect consumers from borrowers, but also from them-selves. In this domain, a distinction is made between three types of lending practices, something like ‘illegal’, ‘barely legal’, and ‘legal’, but not quite:
Capital adequacy
Authors: Anderson Raymond
Published: November 2023

Bungee jumpers, skydivers and Indy 500 drivers are in the business of taking risk. Bankers are in the business of managing risk. John D. Hawke Jr., US Comptroller of the Currency, 1999. Anybody with a knowledge of economic history will be familiar with runs on the bank, which have caused many unnecessary bank failures during depressions and times of economic crisis. A rumour of financial problems at a bank can cause its depositors to storm its doors, waving their savings books and demanding their money. What may have been a minor problem becomes major, because cash in the vault is limited, and many other assets illiquid. In a world where a sound banking system is a major mainstay of both economy and society, such runs are unhealthy. Capital adequacy is a measure of banks’ financial strength and ability to absorb such shocks.
National differences
Authors: Anderson Raymond
Published: November 2023

The following provides an indication of some of the national differences between various English-speaking countries, which are summarised in Table 38.1. The first line provides the name used in that country, to refer to shared performance data. The acronyms in the second line indicate what personal identifier is used: social security number (SSN), social insurance number (SIN), identification number (ID). The items for ‘bureaux since’ and ‘debt % of net national product’ are based on a survey done by Japelli (1999).
Vowels
Authors: Colvin Stephen
Published: November 2023

1.The raising of εto before a nasal: 7 2. 2.The raising of to before a nasal and at word end: ε’ fρητασατ8 4. 3.Vocalic resonants are generally vocalized with o(§10.3): but τρακασ7 8< *–kmtioi(contrast Attic, §32.9a). The perf. 4.Long vowels ηand ω(inherited and from contraction etc.): cf. the ‘severe’ WGk. vocalism of the southern Peloponnese (§38.3). 5.In the acc. plur. the sequence *-s> -swith a short vowel (§23.9): therefore the a-stem acc. plur. is probably also short (δαρχμαs7 23), and so also the aor. ptcpl. lργωfJσαs7 12 (§23.11 for the accent).
Morphology/Syntax
Authors: Colvin Stephen
Published: November 2023

1. The athematic 3 plur. imperf. and aor. was originally ȅθεν, ȅδον, etc. <*ȅθε-ντ, ȅδο-ντ, and this is retained in some dialects. Att.-Ion. ized to ευ at an early date (§23.2b). The same may be true in certain circumstances for εω.3
Aeolic
Authors: Colvin Stephen
Published: November 2023

The Aeolic dialects bear witness to a relatively brief period of common development followed by a much longer process of areal convergence (Boeotian and Thessalian have features in common with West Greek, Lesbian with East Greek). Whether proto-Aeolic was in the Bronze Age a north-western or south-eastern idiom (§8) is a vexed question, and perhaps misconceived (it implies a strongly genetic rather than an areal model of how dialects develop). Aeolic was clearly a conservative dialect (and therefore resembled the conservative north-western dialects in many respects), and probably did not develop distinctively Aeolic features (innovations) until the post-Mycenaean period. In the late second millennium the proto- Aeolians seem to have occupied the regions between Epirus and Thessaly, and to have migrated as far as the northern Peloponnese.
Morphology/Syntax
Authors: Colvin Stephen
Published: November 2023

1.Athematic inflection of vowel-stem verbs (§24.1): but Boeotian inscriptions show thematic inflection with West Greek and Attic. 2.Perfect ptcpl.: the inherited suffix *-wos- was replaced with -ont- imported from the present (*-wos- had to be remodelled in all dialects after the disappearance of intervocalic *-s-): Eπεστα-κτα 9 8, ‘in office’ (Ecp-{σταμα). 3.Infinitives: (a) the athematic infin. (active) is -μεin Thess. Boe., extended to thematic verbs also. (b) Lesb. has athematic -μεα(apparently a blend of -μεand -α), but only in the case of short- vowel monosyllabic stems (lμ-μεα, δ6-μεα, θi-μεα): other athematic stems share the thematic ending, viz. long vowel -.
Consonants
Authors: Colvin Stephen
Published: November 2023

1.[w] (digamma) is retained until the koiné period, especially in word-initial position. Exceptions: [w] is lost early in insular Doric (but retained in Crete), and the Saronic dialects (but post- consonantal fis found in early inscriptions from Corinth). There is a regular change of intervocalic -s-> -h- in Laconian from the V cent. (and sporadically in other dialects, though not attested till the IV cent.): both epigraphic, and captured in Aristoph. Lysistrata. e.g. aor. ptcpl. καhαs33 3. The spelling <σ> for <θ> in sources (epigraphic, and Aristoph. Lysistrata) dating to the late V or early IV cent. indicates that [t] had moved early to the fricative [θ] in Lac., as in Modern Gk. ([s] was the only fricative of classical Gk., which explains the choice of sign). It is difficult to know how early this change had occurred: but however Alkman pronounced the sound, it is unlikely that he would have used the spelling <σ> (which must be a later addition to the text).
Consonants
Authors: Colvin Stephen
Published: November 2023

1.Inherited *wis retained in most positions: perhaps as a fricative (it seems to have merged with *b). See on σελWs63 1. 2.Retention of inherited -τ(verbal endings and numerals), as in WGk. 3.is not written before consonants (as in Cyp.), which points to nasalized vowels: e.g. πεδε[pede] 63 5. Also absent at word end in many cases.
Morphology/Syntax
Authors: Colvin Stephen
Published: November 2023

1.Dat. plur. in -σ/-ασ(as in Ionic, Lesb., early Att. and early Argolic): §32.14. 2.Prepositions meaning ‘from’ are constructed with the dat.-loc., as in Arc.-Cyp. (§28.5). 3.Imper. 3 plur. in -< -τ(cf. §32.3), similar to the Lesb. form (§36.8). 4.The sigmatic aor. has thematic endings (i.e. those of the imperfect): Eβ-λασετ63 8. There are also examples in Homer (δ!σετ, etc.).
Epic
Authors: Colvin Stephen
Published: November 2023

Of all the literary dialects, the language of epic (Homer and Hesiod) offers the most perplexing mixture of real and invented elements. It seems likely that Iliadand Odysseytook a form close to the one we are familiar with between the late VIII and early VII cent., though there is some dispute as to whether they were committed to writing contemporaneously or later (following a period of oral transmission). They represent the climax of many centuries of oral epic composition, and this is reflected in the peculiar language of the poetry. It is a literary dialect (Kunstsprache) which contains elements from different dialects and different periods, and some which were never spoken at all but created by the bards within the tradition.
The Classical World: 480–320 BC
Authors: Colvin Stephen
Published: November 2023

The Persian occupation of the Ionian Greek states in the mid VI cent. BC led to a shift in the intellectual centre of gravity in the Greek world, as Ionian thinkers moved west to mainland Greece and Ionia ceased to be the dominant force in Greek thought. Athens had been an important cultural centre in the VI cent. (the Peisistratid tyrants were patrons of the arts), but was distracted by political and constitutional upheaval for much of the period. After the Persian wars (490–79), however, a new-found self-confidence, stable democratic government, and a rapid increase in wealth and political influence through the Delian league led to undisputed Athenian leadership in the artistic and intellectual life of the Greek world.
Post-Classical Prose: The Koiné
Authors: Colvin Stephen
Published: November 2023

The Greek-speaking world after Alexander the Great is more or less diglossic. For the first time in Greek history there is a common Greek language, which remains the standard for the next several centuries while becoming increasingly distant from the everyday spoken language. This is the era of the koiné (ή κοινή δια´ λεκτος), a term which probably dates to the beginnings of Alexandrian textual and grammatical activity in the III/II cent. BC. This common language was contrasted (a) with foreign languages, and (b) with the classical dialects Attic, Ionic, Aeolic, and Doric. It has proved difficult, how- ever, to specify exactly which variety of the language should be called ‘koiné’. One variety can be immediately excluded, and that is the spoken vernacular: the language spoken by most people most of the time. This may seem surprising: there are two reasons for it.
Morphology/Syntax
Authors: Colvin Stephen
Published: November 2023

Some characteristic features of Greek in the Hellenistic period: 1. Anomalous verbs such as οȉδα are regularized (3 plur. οȉδασι): cf. 21 10.
Lexicon
Authors: Colvin Stephen
Published: November 2023

The lexicon of Hellenistic Greek is in many ways the area in which the differences from classical Attic are most striking; however, none of the developments below is new to the koiné. 1.A large proportion of the words were originally at home in Ionic: there are a number of reasons for this. The literary koiné (e.g. of historiography) aligned itself with the tradition of scientific prose, where, as we have seen, Ionic was always extremely influential. Secondly, the importance of Ionians in the hellenization of Asia Minor explains why a large number of Ionicisms entered the common language on a spoken level. 2.Some literary prose authors (notably Polybios) use words which seem oddly poetic from an Attic perspective. No doubt this is partly due to the presence of dialect words (mostly Ionic) in the con- stitution of the koiné, words which were confined to poetry in Attic (but vernacular elsewhere). Another reason is the artificial nature of the literary koiné: writers drew on the lexical resources of the clas- sical past, and this sometimes included the poets (especially epic). 3.The language is enriched by borrowings: particularly from Latin, but also from other languages in the case of regional standards (such as Egypt).
Post-Classical Literary Prose
Authors: Colvin Stephen
Published: November 2023

The distinction between literary prose of the Hellenistic period and formal inscriptions (such as 65) is to a large extent artificial. The koiné takes many forms, and although the Atticizing movement of the I cent. BC is presented as a marked shift in attitude, there was always a continuum between ‘low’ koiné (the letters in 64) and the ‘high’ variety which closely emulated classical prose, and which required a high level of education. The move to Atticism could be compared to the return to classicizing Latin in medieval Europe after the reforms of Charlemagne. 1. The Septuagint A translation of the Pentateuch (torah, or first five books of the Hebrew Bible) was made in Alexandria in the III cent. BC. Translation of the rest of the Hebrew Bible was probably complete by the end of the I cent. BC. To refer to the Septuagint (LXX) as though it constitutes a unitary work is misleading, since it is likely that there were competing translations of much of it. According to tradition (documented in the so-called Letter of Aristeas), Ptolemy II wrote to the high priest of Jerusalem requesting six elders from each of the twelve tribes to make a translation: he hosted them in Alexandria, where it took them seventy or seventy-two days (hence the name Septuagint). In fact the translation was probably undertaken by and for the hellenized Jewish community of Alexandria for whom Hebrew and Aramaic were becoming inaccessible.
Dialect Inscriptions
Authors: Colvin Stephen
Published: November 2023

ARCADIAN Inscription on stone from Tegea concerning the awarding of building-contracts: only the first part is given here. Mid IV cent. BC. IGV 2. 6. Buck 19. Schwyzer 656. Thür–Taeuber (1994: no. 3). Rhodes–Osborne (2003, no. 60). O Dubois (1986: II, 39–61). the same work, so far as it concerns the work; let the wronged party summon the wrongdoer within three days from the time at which the injury (5) arose, but not later; and whatever the contract-awarders decide, that is to be valid. Now if war hinders any of the works which have been contracted out or destroys any of those completed, let the Three Hundred decide what should be done; let the Generals provide revenue (10) if it seems to them that it is war which hinders or has destroyed the works, with a sale of booty at the city’s expense. Now if anyone, having entered into a contract, has not taken the works in hand, but war hinders him, let him return whatever money he has received, and let him be excused the work, (15) if the contract-awarders so order.
From Distant Cousins to Close Family
Authors: Taylor Jeremy
Published: November 2023

An American tourist becomes lost in the wilds of Western Ireland. Spotting a farmer working in a nearby field, he edges his car toward the kerb, gets out, and walks over to him. ‘Excuse me, sir’, he says, ‘Could you possibly tell me how to get to Kilkenny?’ The farmer ruminatively scratches his stubbly chin, before answering: ‘Well now, if I were going to Kilkenny, I wouldn’t start from here!’ One of mankind’s greatest intellectual journeys has been the quest for our evolutionary human origins.
The Riddle of the 1.6%
Authors: Taylor Jeremy
Published: November 2023

What is indisputable—far too many independent scientific studies have verified it—is that over very appreciable lengths of their respective genomes, humans and chimpanzees are very similar indeed. This is where the oft-quoted ‘1.6% that makes us human’ comes from. Despite 12 million years of evolutionary separation, 6 million for each species since the split from the common ancestor, we are surprisingly similar in our genes.
The Ape That Domesticated Itself
Authors: Taylor Jeremy
Published: November 2023

Over the last few years, several pieces of evidence have come together that have dramatically changed our perception of the rate of evolution in the human genome, when it happened, and what processes brought it about. It is impossible to over-emphasize the importance of these recent developments because they not only show that many of the genetic differences between humans and chimps have happened recently—within the last 40–50,000 years—they show how we humans have brought about new and intense selection pressures upon ourselves that have resulted in these genetic changes. We have been the main instruments of our own evolution.
Dancers and Choruses
Authors: Schuchard Ronald
Published: November 2023

Florence Farr sensed doom for the Masquers Society when Annie Horniman gave her full support to the Irish National Theatre Society. It was a bitter pill for her to swallow, given the energy and expectation invested over two years. Instinctively, as she had often done within the Golden Dawn, she made plans to form yet another society to keep the core of her London dramatic group intact, and by October 20, 1903, her old friend York Powell had promised to put up her circular for a society to be known as “The Dancers.” With the Masquers dissolving and Yeats going to America, she was determined to keep her friends and “pupils” together as a fun-loving but serious group that would serve as a standing company for societies performing poetic drama.
“As Regarding Rhythm”: Minstrels and Imagists
Authors: Schuchard Ronald
Published: November 2023

Soon after Florence Farr returned from her American tour and began writing dramatic criticism for the New Age, she found herself in the company of T. E. Hulme and a group of poets who were soon to form what Ezra Pound called “the forgotten school of 1909.” Hulme, a brilliant student of maths, Bergson, and French vers libre, had been sent down from Cambridge for prankish behavior and had left the University of London in 1906 without graduating. After a maturing year of travel, hard labor, and philosophical reflection in Canada and a short period of teaching English and perfecting his French in Brussels, he returned to London intent upon making an impact on English poetry with his developing Imagist aesthetic.
The Last Minstrel
Authors: Schuchard Ronald
Published: November 2023

Immersed as he was in Senate affairs, the writing and revisions of A Vision, the struggle to reclaim the Hugh Lane pictures for Ireland, and his many literary and theatrical activities, Yeats was not attentive to the development of wireless broadcasting in the 1920s as a wondrous medium for taking the living voice of the poet to the people. Although the BBC began broadcasting in October 1922, its programs were not relayed to Belfast until September 1924, and the Dublin Broadcasting Station (Radio Telefis Éireann) did not broadcast its first program until New Year’s Day 1926.
The human amygdala and orbital prefrontal cortex in behavioural regulation
Authors: Dolan R J
Published: November 2023

Survival in complex environments depends on an ability to optimize future behaviour based on past experience. Learning from experience enables an organism to generate predictive expectancies regarding probable future states of the world, enabling deployment of flexible behavioural strategies. However, behavioural flexibility cannot rely on predictive expectancies alone and options for action need to be deployed in a manner that is responsive to a changing environment.
Morphology, language and the brain: the decompositional substrate for language comprehension
Authors: Marslen-Wilson William D , Tyler Lorraine K
Published: November 2023

This paper outlines a neurocognitive approach to human language, focusing on inflectional morphology and grammatical function in English. Taking as a starting point the selective deficits for regular inflectional morphology of a group of non-fluent patients with left hemisphere damage, we argue for a core decompositional network linking left inferior frontal cortex with superior and middle temporal cortex, connected via the arcuate fasciculus.
Modulation of visual processing by attention and emotion: windows on causal interactions between human brain regions
Authors: Vuilleumier Patrik , Driver Jon
Published: November 2023

Visual processing is not determined solely by retinal inputs. Attentional modulation can arise when the internal attentional state (current task) of the observer alters visual processing of the same stimuli. This can influence visual cortex, boosting neural responses to an attended stimulus. Emotional modulation can also arise, when affective properties (emotional significance) of stimuli, rather than their strictly visual properties, influence processing.
Levels of processing during non-conscious perception: a critical review of visual masking
Authors: Kouider Sid , Dehaene Stanislas
Published: November 2023

Understanding the extent and limits of non-conscious processing is an important step on the road to a thorough understanding of the cognitive and cerebral correlates of conscious perception. In this article, we present a critical review of research on subliminal perception during masking and other related experimental conditions. Although initially controversial, the possibility that a broad variety of processes can be activated by a non-reportable stimulus is now well established. Behavioural findings of subliminal priming indicate that a masked word or digit can have an influence on perceptual, lexical and semantic levels, while neuroimaging directly visualizes the brain activation that it evokes in several cortical areas.