bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Environmental Noise
Authors: Lippmann Morton , Cohen Beverly S , Schlesinger Richard B
Published: November 2023

Noise contamination can be defined quite simply as unwanted sound. At high sound pressure levels it can cause temporary and/or permanent losses in our capacity to hear and/or understand speech and in our ability to hear and enjoy music. At lower sound pressure levels it can still be a significant environmental sensory stress. In order to understand how environmental acoustic noise can damage auditory capacity and interfere with human comfort and performance, we need to understand the nature of sound in our environment, as well as our capacity and limitations in sensing and interpreting auditory signals.
Nonionizing Electromagnetic Radiation
Authors: Lippmann Morton , Cohen Beverly S , Schlesinger Richard B
Published: November 2023

Electromagnetic radiation is emitted from sources in space and from anthropogenic sources on earth. It travels at a constant speed, i.e., the speed of light. The overall electromagnetic spectrum is illustrated in Figure 10–1. Energy is transmitted as a sinusoidal wave form, by time varying electric and magnetic fields. The transmission velocity, c, is described by the formula: The health effects of exposures to the various components of the electromagnetic spectrum vary greatly with frequency, and the discussion that follows outlines the sources, as well as the nature and extent of the effects that they produce. There are separate discussions on component bands within the overall spectrum, i.e., ionizing radiation, UV, visible, IR, and radio frequency (RF). The electric and magnetic fields induced by these radiations can also produce biological responses, and these responses will also be reviewed.
Ionizing Radiation and Environmental Radioactivity
Authors: Lippmann Morton , Cohen Beverly S , Schlesinger Richard B
Published: November 2023

Naturally occurring ionizing radiation has always pervaded the biosphere, although this was only recognized a little more than a century ago. Ionizing radiation is electromagnetic or particulate radiation that is so named because it produces ion pairs in any material it traverses. An ion pair is a pair of charged particles, usually consisting of a negatively charged electron that has been separated from an atom, and the residual positively charged atom. Ionization occurs when the radiation transfers sufficient energy to the electron to enable it to separate and move away from the positive atom. If too little energy is given to the electron for it to move completely away from the residual atom, the ions can quickly recombine. If still less energy is transferred, the interaction will not produce ion pairs, but simply result in an atom that has more energy than normal, or an “excited atom.” Since the least strongly bound electron in an atom requires about 11 eV (see Table 11–1 for definitions of units) of energy to move away from the atom, radiation with less energy cannot cause ionization. Environmental ionizing radiation consists of high energy photons that travel at the speed of light (c = 3 X 1010 cm/sec), or charged atomic, or subatomic particles.
Cohort Studies:I Planning and Execution
Authors: Kelsey Jennifer L , Whittemore Alice S , Evans Alfred S , Thompson W Douglas
Published: November 2023

In a case-control study, persons with a given disease (the cases) and persons without the given disease (the controls) are selected; the proportions of cases and controls who have certain background characteristics or who have been exposed to possible risk factors are then determined and compared. Case-control studies are also sometimes called case-comparison studies, case-referent studies, or retrospective studies. Usually cases enter the study as they are diagnosed over time, and controls enter the study as they are identified. In some studies, however, cases consist of individuals who have been diagnosed with the disease in the past. Such a study is sometimes called a “retrospective case-control study.”
Introduction
Authors: Vikner Sten
Published: November 2023

In this book I discuss a set of interrelated phenomena in the Germanic languages: the position of the finite verb, the various factors that determine this position, and some of the consequences that the choice of position has. These consequences are taken from the area of expletive constructions; I argue that it depends on the actual or potential position of the finite verb, whether it is possible for a noun phrase (NP) to appear outside the three following positions: the complement of a transitive verb, the complement of a preposition, and the standard subject position.
Relativised Minimality
Authors: Vikner Sten
Published: November 2023

For reasons of space, it is not possible to include a general introduction to the linguistic theory that I presuppose in the following chapters, the so-called principles and parameters model (also known as the theory of government and binding). For readers who would like such an introduction, I recommend the consultation of an introductory textbook such as Haegeman (1991), or alternatively Cook (1988), Fanselow & Felix (1987a,b), Lasnik & Uriagereka (1988), or Radford (1988).
Verb Second
Authors: Vikner Sten
Published: November 2023

In this and the following two chapters, two types of finite verb movements are dis cussed: verb second and V0-to-l0 movement.
NP-Positions in Expletive Constructions
Authors: Vikner Sten
Published: November 2023

In this and the following chapter, I discuss various aspects of constructions with expletive subjects. Particularly, I show that the properties of these constructions in any given Germanic (or Romance) language are determined by the properties of finite verb movement-i.e. by whether the language has V2 and/or V0-to-l0 move ment.
Dealing With Constipation, Diarrhea, Nausea, And Vomiting
Authors: Lang Susan S , Patt Richard B
Published: November 2023

Pain is not the only factor that can take its toll on a patient’s quality of life. Side effects from radiation, surgery, chemotherapy, and other medications, as well as other ailments resulting from cancer, can be the cause of significant discomfort. Just as cancer pain can be well controlled when treated aggressively, many of these other symptoms, such as nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and constipation, can also be effectively managed.
Special Cases: Children, The Elderly, And Patients With Special Needs
Authors: Lang Susan S , Patt Richard B
Published: November 2023

So far, we’ve discussed techniques that are generally effective for controlling cancer pain. These techniques take into account the variability among individuals, recognizing that each person is unique, and that many of the techniques need to be applied differently for each individual. This is what doctors call ‘‘interindividual variability’‘-an important feature of cancer pain and its management. Yet, certain groups of individuals have special needs--namely, the very young and very old, as well as those with a history of substance abuse.
Dissidents in the Conscript Army
Authors: Schweninger John Hope , Franklin Loren
Published: November 2023

On 17 august 1840, the day of a great Whig political convention in Nashville, Tennessee, Jake, a slave owned by an old and respected farmer, Robert Bradford, refused to go to work. Like other blacks in the neighborhood, he wanted to go to the convention, listen to the speeches, and attend the celebrations. The overseer informed Bradford that Jake was “in an ugly mood “ and asked him what to do. Bradford said he would speak with Jake and see if he could calm him down. Bradford was unable to placate the black man and ordered his overseer to tie him up for a whipping. Jake quickly drew a knife. “Whether he aimed to cut the rope or the Overseer no one knew, “ a Nashville slave recalled, “but he made a wild thrust which killed Mr. Bradford on the spot. “
On the Run
Authors: Schweninger John Hope , Franklin Loren
Published: November 2023

Along the western shore of Chesapeake Bay, the winter months of 1831-32 were harsh. The ground froze early and remained frozen until early spring. Although plowing and planting were delayed, the slaves on Doughoregan Manor (the House of Kings) in Anne Arundel County, the favorite plantation of Charles Carroll of Carrollton, went about their other daily chores much as in previous years. The last to survive among the signers of the Declaration of Independence, Carroll was an immensely wealthy man, owning a number of plantations, residential and business properties in Baltimore and Annapolis, stock certificates in banks and incorporated companies, outstanding debts and claims, herds of livestock, and a great many slaves. Indeed, during the late winter and early spring, more than 215 black men and women at the Manor were tending the horses, cattle, sheep, and hogs, mending fences, hauling rails, and making ready to plant wheat, rye, corn, and tobacco.
The Nature of Dual Attraction
Authors: Weinberg Martin S , Williams Colin J , Pryor Douglas W
Published: November 2023

Bisexuality consists of a mingling of sexual feelings, behaviors, and romantic inclinations that does not easily gel with society’s categories of typical sexuality. But just how different is bisexuality from other forms of sexual attraction? What is sexual attraction, and how do we learn to be attracted to one sex or the other, or both? Ideas about gender and gender roles are crucial factors in how we think about our sexuality. As we develop sexual identities, our frame of reference generally is not sexuality per se. Instead of learning directly to eroticize one gender or the other, we learn to act as a woman or to act as a man. A woman learns that to be an adequate woman in our society her sexual feelings and behaviors should be directed toward men, because this is “what women do,” while a man is socialized to direct his sexual feelings and behaviors toward women, because this is “what men do.” Gender, not sexuality, is the encompassing framework through which we learn and process this information.
Conclusions: Understanding Bisexuality
Authors: Weinberg Martin S , Williams Colin J , Pryor Douglas W
Published: November 2023

We began the book by posing a riddle: how can current theories of exclusive homosexuality, with their emphasis on fixed biological characteristics, explain bisexuality? It did not seem feasible to us that these theories could do justice to the complexity of a sexual preference in which people engage in sex with both same- and opposite-sex partners and often change this mix over their lives. If current theories cannot explain these patterns, how exactly do our general conceptions of sexual preference need to be rethought?
Lincoln and McClellan
Authors: Sears Stephen W
Published: November 2023

ON OCTOBER 29, 1985, A TUESDAY, a dozen or so self-described “Civil War buffs and historians” assembled on Connecticut Avenue at California Street in Washington. The site was the equestrian statue of Major General George Brinton McClellan. The occasion was the 100th anniversary of the general’s death. Several in the group wore uniforms of Federal blue. One wore Confederate gray, in acknowledgment of the fact that one of the pallbearers at General McClellan’s funeral had been his old friend and foe, General Joe Johnston. The ceremony was brief but heartfelt and, as such things do in a city like Washington, it attracted a small crowd of curious spectators. A wreath of laurel tied with red, white, and blue ribbon was laid at the base of the statue, and there was a short address “touching on some of McClellan’s strengths.” “We Conluded ,” goes the report, ‘‘with three cheers for ‘Little Mac,’ which echoed down the avenue and over the traffic. . . .”
Lincoln and Sherman
Authors: Fellman Michael
Published: November 2023

Nothing Could Be Further from the truth than the common picture of the Union war effort as some sort of well-organized, well-directed juggernaut. The Union won, of course, and historians have tended to read back into the war effort some necessary evolution toward that. victory .. As one could infer from the argument of Richard Berringer and his co-writers of Why the South Lost the Civil War> perhaps the Union, which was somewhat less badly organized and motivated than the Confederacy, won by default. In any event, the mess of malice and wild disorder in Washington around the issue of civil liberties, which Mark Neely has demonstrated so vividly, ought to be extrapolated further than it has been thus far. At the center of the war effort in Washington, for lack of a bureaucratic, governmental, and martial tradition, a wide variety of officials improvised like mad and with little coordination, and managed to paste together a war effort sufficient to the day, but barely so.
Family Pathways to Child Health
Authors: Schor Edward L , Menaghan Elizabeth G
Published: November 2023

Children’s physical and emotional health and their cognitive and social functioning are strongly influenced by how well their families function. A family’s functioning reflects its composition and the characteristics of its members—their talents and dispositions, their daily activities, their beliefs and values, and their experiences together and apart. Families are also shaped by the world in which they live and their positions and roles within it. As intermediaries between society and their children, parents may be buffeted or supported by external forces. This chapter will explore how changes in the composition and activities of families in the United States are affecting their abilities to safeguard and promote their children’s health. We will give particular attention to how family composition and parents’ economic roles affect children, and how family patterns of action and interaction shape the health of children, their youngest and most vulnerable members. In tracing the roots of family characteristics and behavior that alter children’s life chances and health status, we will consider the extent to which social factors—particularly parents’ education, employment and income—explain variations in what families do. We will assess the extent to which such variations in behavior directly affect children’s health even when social influences are statistically controlled. We will also explore the interaction between societal and family influences.
Care and Morality
Authors: Kultgen John
Published: November 2023

Care is too important to be left to the vicissitudes of family affiliation and friendship. For there to be genuine community among any sizable group of people, solicitude must be a routine feature of daily intercourse. Since natural bonds of affection do not suffice, the group must cultivate caring relationships in a systematic way. Though no large society has ever aroused a wholehearted commitment to taking care of one another among all of its members, lesser groups-well-favored communes, brotherhoods and sisterhoods, families-have approximated the ideal. Such triumphs of care throw into relief the central place of social forms in developing solicitude.
The Value of Autonomy
Authors: Kultgen John
Published: November 2023

Nothing rings out more clearly in the literature on parentalism than praise of autonomy. Many philosophers take it to be the distinctive trait of persons, the source of human dignity, and a basic human right. They claim that it deserves respect, and they sharply distinguish respect from affection or esteem, which may be due animals and things.
The Role of Consent
Authors: Kultgen John
Published: November 2023

The consent of persons affected by an action is an important consideration in justifying it. According to the guidelines in Chapter 6, the prospective parentalist should make a reasonable effort to get her subject to agree to her efforts to help him. However, his consent is neither necessary nor sufficient to justify intervention. It can be right to help him without his consent or in face of his opposition, and it can be wrong to help him even though he badly wants it.
Professional Parentalism
Authors: Kultgen John
Published: November 2023

John Swenson, an aging man dressed in neat overalls, appears at the office of James Saunders, M.D., urologist, at 8:45 A.M. The waiting room is already crowded. Swenson stands before the receptionist’s window. A matronly woman busies herself with clerical work. She finally looks up.
Progress in the Victorian Advertisement: Productive Engines and Consuming Conflagrations
Authors: Loeb Lori Anne
Published: November 2023

The Victorian attitude toward progress was characteristically ambivalent. Victorians welcomed unprecedented material accomplishment. But by the end of the century there was a pervasive unease especially about the country's moral condition. This concern with moral progress found a number of well-known expressive avenues such as the aesthetic movement. I will argue in this chapter that advertisements, too, reflect the conflicted temper of the popular mood. Advertisements celebrate material progress; they praise its miraculous potential with grandiose images of smokestacks and production lines.
Social Emulation and Mass Consumption: Elitism or Material Democratization?
Authors: Loeb Lori Anne
Published: November 2023

Since Veblen, social emulation has been a centripetal force for historical studies of the so-called consumer revolution. These studies have focused on the eighteenth century or on the efflorescence of mass production up to 1850. They have rarely concentrated on the heights of mass production and mass advertising that were achieved between 1885-1914. An examination of advertisements during these years brings into question an uncritical acceptance of the hypothesis of social emulation. Coincident developments suggest alternative explanations. The consumer revolution achieved unprecedented heights precisely during the period in which the Great Depression occurred, in which aristocratic fortunes waned and in which glaring social inequalities spawned socialist parties and collectivist sentiments. The key to consumer demand, I will argue, lay not so much in imitation of aristocratic (or even rich) behavior, as in a distinctively bourgeois pursuit of equal opportunity.
Conclusion
Authors: Loeb Lori Anne
Published: November 2023

Victorian print advertisements reveal an important cultural pattern. As the hall of commerce infiltrated the very heart of the home, Victorians with increasing fervor in the late nineteenth century gravitated toward a commercial ideal of "self-illusory hedonism." But, intriguingly, advertisers set materialism within the context of pastoral romanticism, classical culture, and evangelical conversion. It is significant that each of these contexts had egalitarian connotations.
Liberal Professions and Illiberal Politics
Authors: Kovacs Maria M
Published: November 2023

In this important new historical study, Mária Kovács examines the struggle between liberal and anti-Semitic policies among professional groups--doctors, lawyers, engineers--in Hungary from 1867 to 1945. Kovács's main emphasis is on the interwar period when unemployment, expansion of the welfare system, and competition for state jobs during the Great Depression, combined with crass anti-Semitism on the part of engineers and medical associations, radically altered previously liberal policies of open entry and equal educational opportunity. Liberal Professions and Illiberal Politics analyses to what extent these new policies were dictated by authoritarian governments from above and to what extent they originated within the professions themselves. The story ends with the Holocaust, which sealed the fate of those professionals who had become victims of persecution under the German occupation of Hungary.
Liberalism and Professionalization in the Nineteenth Century
Authors: Kovacs Maria M
Published: November 2023

Until the end of the nineteenth century, the identification of Hungarian professionals with a theoretically formulated tradition of old-fashioned political liberalism was generally taken for granted. The organization of professional communities reflected the developmental concepts of Hungary’s post-1867 liberal establishment. Marketization, free access to education, and the free practice of the professions formed the core of the distinctively liberal form of professionalism that had emerged in the last third of the nineteenth century. The general attitudes of professionals toward social affairs and politics derived from a belief in evolutionary progress, from an opposition to aristocratic conservatism, and from the ideal of their professional roles based on certified competence, on mer­ itocratic pay and prestige, and on the autonomy of individual practice.
Cooperation in mammals I: nonprimates
Authors: Dugatkin Lee Alan
Published: November 2023

The concept of Scala Naturae (i.e., a natural system of ranking species from high to low) has all but disappeared from the modern-day evolutionary and behavioral literature. Overall, this is probably a good thing. After all, the previous chapters have shown that animals that in the past have been labeled “lower vertebrates” on such a scale are anything but simple. Yet, it is probably still true that Scala Naturae lingers in the unconscious, at least with respect to behavior. When pressed, how many behavioral ecologists would not admit that they think that a lion is “smarter” in some appropriate sense than a stickleback? And even though ant colonies are as complex as any nonhuman entity I know of, don’t we think that a single ant just isn’t as intelligent as a single wild dog? This book is not about animal intelligence per se, yet the discussion above has implications for the evolution of cooperation. In particular, if mammals are in some sense more behaviorally complex than the groups we have looked at so far, does this not at least suggest that they are cognitively more complex, and doesn’t that suggest they are better able to remember events and individuals?
Cooperation in eusocial insects
Authors: Dugatkin Lee Alan
Published: November 2023

At the outset, I had intended this chapter to be titled “Cooperation in Insects.” I quickly realized, however, that this was probably a more appropriate title for a series of books, rather than a book chapter. At that point, “Cooperation in Insects” became “Cooperation in Social Insects,” until it became apparent that even that was much too broad an area to even begin to review and compress into a single chapter. And so, we have “Cooperation in Eusocial Insects.” Even after such severe pruning, however, it is fair to say that I am bound to fail at reviewing this topic as well, and at best can hope to touch on the tip of the iceberg. So be it. The empirical and theoretical literature on cooperation in eusociality is so massive that if I just convey the essence of cooperation in this group and tie it to existing theory, I will feel justified in my attempt.
Romanticism and the Race Aesthetic: Scott and Wordsworth
Authors: Doyle Laura
Published: November 2023

In his final journal entry at the conclusion of A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, Stephen Dedalus commits himself to “father artificer,” and hopes by this allegiance to “forge in the smithy of my soul the uncreated conscience of my race.”1 In the context of the charged racial discourse of Joyce’s day, a discourse that urged certain “races” to take their future in hand and forge their eugenic progress, Stephen’s aesthetic ambition emerges as race-specific, undertaken for the Irish race, not the human race. Moreover, his appeal to “father artificer” invokes a gendered metaphysics, as does his desire to transform the “sluggish matter of the earth [into] a new soaring imperishable being” (429). Stephen’s perception of women as merely a passive element, “sluggish matter” transformed by men into immortal, transcendent art, also forecloses his sexually charged encounter with the girl on the beach, from whom he “turned away ... suddenly” to thoughts of his art; her “image had passed into his soul forever,” serving “the holy silence of his ecstasy” (429, 432). Joyce thus represents Stephen’s aesthetic (with some critical distance, as I will argue later) as both racial-patriarchal and metaphysical, for it enfolds yet subordinates the feminized world of matter in the production of a transcendent and masculine race culture.
Swan Song for the Race Mother: Late-Romantic Narrative in Cane
Authors: Doyle Laura
Published: November 2023

At the beginning of the twentieth century, alongside the descriptions of being and materiality offered by Western phenomenology, complicated and sometimes convoluted representations of the race mother began to appear in literary texts, mostly, though not exclusively, among writers whose group membership (in terms of either race or gender or both) associated them with the body rather than the mind, with “handwork” rather than “brainwork.” These writers reconfigured narrative so as to open a horizon of mutual access between language and the body, or handwork and brainwork, as Husserl and his followers worked to do in extending and revising the Hegelian story of intersubjectivity. Yet to do so, especially for women artists and for artists of a subordinate race, particularly in the era of eugenics, required a recasting or a casting off of the protagonist’s identity as determined by the race mother and a reshaping of the narrative trajectory which she originates.
Burning Down the House: Interruptive Narrative in Invisible Man
Authors: Doyle Laura
Published: November 2023

It should be clear by now-especially if we also think of novels such as William Faulkner’s Sound and the Fury or Absalom! Absalom!, Jean Rhys’s Good Morning, Midnight, or Marcel Proust’s Remembrance of Things Past-that to be a white modernist novelist is not a matter of being a race-neutral writer whose work takes shape free from considerations of race and grows out of autonomous and self-originating white traditions. The identities, settings, and fates of white characters in modern novels involve racial or racialized colonial questions; meanwhile, the traditions behind these novels themselves took shape in contexts permeated by race, including not only slavery and imperialism but also racialized class transformations. Since at least the eighteenth century, Western aesthetic traditions, especially those that invoke notions of transcendence, formed as racial traditions; they work with race-inflected and therefore also gender-inflected aesthetic terms. I consider Romanticism a crystallizing moment for the formation of these terms, although James Joyce points as far back as Shakespeare and even implicates the whole of Judaeo-Christian thought. Modernism distinguishes itself in part by highlighting these terms-and by challenging, through narrative form, the meta-physical values that underlie them.
Childhood
Authors: Robinson Ray
Published: November 2023

By some calculations, not necessarily accurate, Clem was rated as the third richest man in the territory when Will was born. What is clearly known is that he was handling as many as five thousand head of cattle a year by 1879, buying them in Texas, fattening them on his own bluestem grass, and then guiding them to St. Louis, which was then the principal market.
Organisms and the Edge of Disciplines
Authors: Sapp Jan
Published: November 2023

Concepts of hereditary symbiosis rose to the center of genetic discourse during the decade following World War II when new organisms-protozoa, algae, fungi, yeast, bacteria, and their viurses-were domesticated for genetic use and when geneticists began to focus on the nature of the gene and how genes control biochemical processes, as well as the problem of cellular differentiation, which for half a century had been largely excluded from genetics. A new generation-combined with the immigration of chemists and physicists into the domain-transformed the practice of genetics.2 New countries entered the field while others abandoned it. In France, small but very influential groups emerged at the Pasteur Institute and the Institute of Physicochemical Biology, Paris, working on problems of gene action and regulation. In the Soviet Union, Lysenkoism arose, repudiating the principles of genetics in a brutal wholesale way.3 In the West, postwar technological innovations in genetics were coupled with somewhat revolutionary concepts which threatened previously guarded genetic doctrines, not just about the nature of the gene, but also of heredity sensu lato, and the definition of the organism itself.
Molecular Reconstruction
Authors: Sapp Jan
Published: November 2023

The pressing problems of coexistence in world affairs may have influenced the Committee in their choice of subject for this year’s Symposium. If so, it is to be hoped that the more bizarre examples of symbiosis illustrated in this volume will not be followed in the world at large; there are many other ways of escaping the Hobbesian predicament that without “commonwealth” life must be “nasty, brutish and short.” There were few books chronicling the creative effects of microsymbiosis. During the 1950s, Lederberg wrote letters to several biologists and publishers seeking to have Buchner’s encylopedic text translated into English. However, there were problems. A preliminary survey by one publisher did not get an “encouraging response.” But the main obstacle was finding a suitable translator; it was hardly a rewarding task. As Lederberg wrote to a colleague, “It’s a dog’s work, and would have to be paid unhandsomely.
Introduction
Authors: Wierzbicka Anna
Published: November 2023

In his introduction to Vocabularies of Public Life (1992) the well-known sociologist of culture Robert Wuthnow observes: “Perhaps more than at any other time in the present century, cultural analysis lies at the center of human sciences.” A significant feature of the work in this area, according to Wuthnow, is its interdisciplinary character: “Anthropology, literary criticism, political philosophy, religious studies, cultural history, and cognitive psychology are all rich fields from which new insights can be derived.” (2) One discipline conspicuously absent from this list is linguistics. The omission is all the more striking in that Wuthnow links “the vitality and new thinking characteristic of the current sociological studies of culture [with] the depth of interest being given to questions of language” (2). This book seeks to demonstrate that cultural analysis can also gain important new insights from linguistics, in particular from linguistic semantics, and that the semantic perspective on culture is something that cultural analysis can ill afford to ignore. The relevance of semantics is not restricted to vocabulary, but perhaps in no other area is it so clearly obvious. It is therefore on vocabulary that this book concentrates.
Introduction
Authors: Glaeser Robert M , Downing Kenneth , DeRosier David , Chiu Wah , Frank Joachim
Published: November 2023

In the language of molecular biology, the term “x-ray crystallography” has become synonymous with using x-ray diffraction data to determine molecular structure. We will use the related term electron crystallography to describe the use of electron diffraction data and electron microscope images to determine the structure of biological macro-molecules. Our use of the word “crystallography” involves a considerable broadening of terminology from what has been customary, however, because direct images are introduced into crystallographic structure analysis for the ﬁrst time when electrons are employed. The use of images of single molecules, which is a possibility with electrons, strains even more the definition of what one means by “crystallography,” because crystals can even be, in effect, “grown” computationally by the coherent alignment of images of many thousands of such molecules.
Structure Determination as it has been Developed through X-ray Crystallography
Authors: Glaeser Robert M , Downing Kenneth , DeRosier David , Chiu Wah , Frank Joachim
Published: November 2023

This chapter gives an overview of how x-ray crystallographyis used to determine the structure of proteins and other biological macromolecules at high resolution. Our brief review of x-ray crystallography is designed to identify the most important mathematical concepts that electron crystallography has in common with x-ray crystallography. Thus, this chapter is meant to be a summary of concepts that the reader should be familiar with in order to work independently and proficiently in the field of electron crystallography. Our review is not intended to teach these concepts in full detail; that would be the subject of an entire book of its own.
Instrumentation and Experimental Techniques
Authors: Glaeser Robert M , Downing Kenneth , DeRosier David , Chiu Wah , Frank Joachim
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we first present a general overview (section 5.2) of the instrumental design of an electron microscope. This is followed in section 5.3 by more specific and detailed descriptions of several key components such as the electron gun, the condenser lens system, the objective lens, and the projector lens system. Along with this we develop some of the practical aspects that are related to optical coherence and alignment of the illumination, as well as the effects that these factors have on the contrast transfer function. These are topics that we discussed previously from a more theoretical perspective in section 3.9. In section 5.4 we move on to describe options that are available in the design of specimen stages, emphasizing the need for low specimen temperatures and explaining the relative advantages of top-entry and side-entry stage designs. Section 5.5 deals with the main parameters that are important in the various types of detectors used for recording both images and electron diffraction patterns. Two further sections then discuss some of the experimental details of how high-resolution images are recorded for beam-sensitive specimens. The first section on experimental image collection, section 5.6, addresses the need to record images with very low electron exposures, thus ensuring that the specimen receives only a negligible exposure before the data collection begins. The second section on experimental image collection, section 5.7, discusses the “spot-scan” exposure method, in which only a small area of the whole field of view is illuminated by the electron beam at any one time. Section 5.8 then concludes this chapter with a description of precautions that must be taken in order to avoid image artifacts associated with specimen charging.
Icosahedral Particles
Authors: Glaeser Robert M , Downing Kenneth , DeRosier David , Chiu Wah , Frank Joachim
Published: November 2023

Proteins can self-assemble into highly symmetrical particles that are biologically active and functional. Many viral proteins assemble into icosahedral shells containing a viral genome to become an infectious particle (Casjens, 1997). The icosahedral shell serves as a protective layer for the viral genome and is also involved in various biological processes during the viral infection and replication cycle. The outer shell can interact with immunoresponsive molecules, cellular receptors, and cytoskeletal proteins. In addition, some large enzyme complexes exist as icosahedral particles (Ladenstein et al., 1988; Zhou et al., 2001b; Milne et al., 2002). Structural studies of icosahe-dral particles thus are highly relevant to understanding their assembly principles and functional mechanisms.
Special Considerations Encountered with Thick Specimens
Authors: Glaeser Robert M , Downing Kenneth , DeRosier David , Chiu Wah , Frank Joachim
Published: November 2023

A number of idealized assumptions formed the basis of the majority of what was said about electron microscopy of biological macromolecules in the previous chapters. The most important of these assumptions were: (1) elastically scattered electrons undergo no more than one scattering event, (2) curvature of the Ewald sphere can be neglected, and (3) inelastic scattering can be ignored. While these represent satisfactory approximations for suitably thin specimens, each one becomes progressively less good as the specimen thickness increases.
Introduction
Authors: Begleiter Henri , Kissin Benjamin
Published: November 2023

It has long been observed that alcoholism runs in families, but whether for genetic or environmental reasons has depended more on current ideology than on any firm evidence in one direction or the other. Although there was much speculation about hereditary influences in the transmission of alcoholism, the first solid evidence came from Kaij’s twin study in 1960 and later from the 1973 Danish Adoption Study by Goodwin et al. The Goodwin study suggested that although genetic factors might be very important in the pathogenesis of both alcoholism and problem drinking, environmental factors appear to have greater influence on problem drinking.
Familial Transmission of Psychiatric Disorders Associated with Alcoholism
Authors: Cadoret Remi J
Published: November 2023

Recent developments in the study of alcoholism have both enriched and complicated the role of genetic factors in the etiology of alcohol abuse or dependence. One such development is the increasing recognition in the last decade that alcoholism is a clinically heterogeneous condition in which a number of psychiatric conditions including personality deviations play etiologic roles. In large part this awareness of the heterogeneity of alcoholism has come about because of a revamping of psychiatric diagnostic criteria published in DSM-III (American Psychiatric Association, 1980). In this diagnostic scheme explicit provision was made for multiple diagnoses. Room for multiple diagnoses was made by incorporating them in a multiaxial scheme in which personality disorders were assigned their own axis.
Behavioral Genetics and the Etiology of Alcoholism
Authors: Tarter Ralph E , Moss Howard B , Vanyukov Michael M
Published: November 2023

The overarching aim of behavioral genetic research is to explain phenotypic variation in behavior with respect to genotypic and environmental variation in the population. This research strategy provides a framework for understanding the etiology of alcoholism insofar as the alcoholism phenotype can be characterized in quantifiable behavioral terms such as amount, frequency, and pattern of drinking. Furthermore, the expression of behavioral traits has been shown to contribute to the variability of the risk for alcoholism. A significant proportion of the phenotypic variance in these traits can be explained by genotypic variation.
The Power of the Holy: Reformers, Priests, and Parishioners
Authors: Farr James r.
Published: November 2023

The privileged classes of France-both lay and clerical-envisioned a re fashioned moral order in which political, social, and religious ideologies were in concord and in which a sexual ethic held a constitutive place. This restructured order entailed a new type of community, no longer one cemented primarily by horizontal ties, but one constituted over the course of the seventeenth century of increasingly dissociated and hierarchically organized individuals held together by the overarching authoritarian apparatuses of a reformed church, a monarchical state, and a dominant and patriarchally inclined social group.
Marriage and the Uses of the Law: Legislation, Adjudication, and Litigation
Authors: Farr James r.
Published: November 2023

During the early modern period, authority and sexuality were defined in a moral order constituted by intersecting and reciprocally supportive ideologies of authoritarian politics, hierarchical social relations, reformed religion, and the law. The ediface of power and authority was patriarchal, and so a marital ethic was perhaps the fundamental mortar holding the structure together. This ethic was clearly embodied in royal legislation, and it just as clearly guided the jurisprudence of the courts of the realm. But if honor able marriage was the goal of nearly all French men and women, regardless of social rank, how people (especially women) used the laws pertaining to marriage in marital strategies and what impact this had upon practical jurisprudence (if not legislation) reveals that the meaning of the ethic was much more complex than prescriptive literature or legislation might suggest.
The Approach
Authors: Valiant Leslie G
Published: November 2023

Consider what happens when a person is exposed to a surprising juxtaposition of words as occurs sometimes in the title of a new book. The experience causes some adjustments in the brain, one must presume, since the presentation of the same sequence of words at a later time may elicit some form of recognition. Memorization of this kind requires few preconditions. The phrase to be memorized may be almost any combination of intelligible words, and the presentation of it may be very brief in time. Also, memorization has a certain robustness in the sense that it does not appear to interfere with unrelated knowledge previously memorized.
Unsupervised Memorization
Authors: Valiant Leslie G
Published: November 2023

Unsupervised memorization, as formulated earlier, appears on the surface to be a simple task. Following one presentation of an input, changes in the neuroidal system take place so that if an identical or similar enough input is presented in the future, the neuroidal system will recognize this repetition. By the term similar, we are not implying any abstract metric of similarity. We mean simply that the effects on the other circuits present in the system are substantially the same.
Objects and Relational Expressions
Authors: Valiant Leslie G
Published: November 2023

We regard a function of inputs as propositional if the function is best viewed as a predicate on the totality of the input. For example, when referring to a complex visual scene such predicates as “there is a green apple” or “there are three apples” can be viewed as propositions applying to the whole scene. Alternatively, if the input scene consists only of the image of an apple, then “green” is an appropriate propositional description. The representation of knowledge in the NTR can be viewed in the first instance as essentially propositional, each predicate being regarded as applying to the undivided totality of the input that is presented by the peripherals.
The Lower Intestinal Tract
Authors: Janowitz Henry D
Published: November 2023

This book focuses on disturbances of the lower intestinal tract or “the gut.” However, it is important to realize that the entire gastrointestinal tract is a wonderfully coordinated and programmed apparatus that handles our entire nutritional intake, its transportation and mechanical “blenderizing,” the digestion and absorption of the essential, vital materials and, finally, the storage of the waste residues and their periodic evacuation. The lower intestinal tract is a part of this machinery and must do its work at the correct time to insure harmonious, coordinated functioning.
The Performative Expression of Durativity and Perfectivity
Authors: Nuckolls Janis B
Published: November 2023

The concept of markedness was used in chapter 3 to analyze the Quechua verb’ s grammatical aspectual structure. Urban (1985: 314), following Hymes (1974) and Silver stein (1976) has shown that markedness can also clarify the complex multifunctionality of speech styles. As stylistic types, sound-symbolic adverbs have both marked and unmarked tokens. This chapter examines the expressive possibilities for stylistically marking sound-symbolic utterances.
Sound Symbols of Opening and Closing
Authors: Nuckolls Janis B
Published: November 2023

This chapter analyzes six sound-symbolic adverbs of opening and closing, most of which are based on bodily orifices. Ang describes a gaping, wide open mouth. Ing describes a slit-like opening, such as a smile, or a split on the surface of the skin. Awing describes the act of opening or exposing a hollow or enclosed space, which is typically noncorporeal. Tus describes the bursting open of something crisp or fleshy. Taw describes the closing up of a hollow space, or a hollow sound which can be corporeal or noncorporeal. Ping describes the act of closing the eyes and is metaphorically ex tended to describe an atmospheric change from light to darkness.
Gershwin’s Operetta Overtures: Medley or Composition?
Authors: Schneider Wayne
Published: November 2023

Leonard Bernstein, in his essay "Why Don't You Run Upstairs and Write a Nice Gershwin Time?," praised Gershwin's gifts as a songwriter—"[Gershwin] had the magic touch. Gershwin made hits, I don't know how. ... He wrote tunes, dozens of them, simple tunes that the world could sing and remember and want to sing again. He wrote for people, not for critics. . . . Gershwin was a songwriter who grew into a serious composer . . . starting with small forms and blossoming out from there"1—but seriously questioned his prowess as a composer.
The Academy and Its Structures
Authors: Weisz George
Published: November 2023

By the 1830s the academy was a fully functioning institution. In the next three chapters we shall examine its structures and activities from roughly 1830 to 1939. Our approach will be topical rather than chronological. But it may be useful for the reader to keep in mind that three chronological periods define the history of the institution.

During the first period, which lasted until 1870, the academy was a relatively impoverished institution whose intellectual, financial, and symbolic status was low. It was characterized by a certain administrative disorderliness, violent personal passions, and endless argument.
Academic Functions and Genres: Commissions and Prizes
Authors: Weisz George
Published: November 2023

Not all academic functions fit neatly into a three-tier schema of development. In this chapter we examine several forms of activity exhibiting more complex patterns of evolution. We begin with the academy’s permanent public health commissions, which carried out much of the academy’s day-to-day activity. We then go on to the elaborate system of prizes, which expanded substantially as the nineteenth century advanced.
Water Cures and Science: The Academy and Mineral Waters
Authors: Weisz George
Published: November 2023

During the nineteenth century the Academy of Medicine played a predominant role in the regulation and scientific study of spas and mineral waters. No one, I think, would argue that this represented the most important work done in the academy. There were, when all is said, few fundamental scientific discoveries in this domain. Nor were there many obvious repercussions for public health. Using the criterion of national mortality statistics, one discovers that the institutional activities of the nineteenth century which contributed most to saving lives were unquestionably those related to smallpox vaccination.
The Posthumous Laënnec: Creating a Modern Medical Hero
Authors: Weisz George
Published: November 2023

The Academy of Medicine evaluated works of medical science in reports, prize com petitions, and eulogies. It was not alone in this respect. Many other medical and scientific institutions performed similar functions. Wherever and however it took place, evaluation could occasionally merge into another characteristic scientific process: the elaboration of historical myth defining institutions, disciplines, or groups. In this chapter we shall examine this process in the evolution of a single medical reputation.
Maggie
Authors: Freeman John M , Mcdonnell Kevin
Published: November 2023

Margaret Laura O’Sullivan, known to everyone at the home as Maggie, is as lively as one could be at age 84. You are a second-year resident in the family practice program who first met her on rounds with her private physician, Bill Loeb. Dr. Loeb makes rounds once a week at the Hillside Retirement Home to see anyone with a complaint or problem. Between his visits, you are in charge. It is one of the most pleasant rotations of the residency. Things aren’t too rushed, no one is very sick, and you have time to get to know the patients—they are your responsibility.