bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Parenting the premature infant: balancing vulnerability and quality of life
Authors: Eiser C. , Eiser J. R. , Mayhew A.G. , Gibson A.T.
Published: October 2005

Background:  Relationships between child quality of life (QOL), maternal well‐being and parenting were explored in a questionnaire study.

Method:  Mothers of 126 full‐term (FT) and 91 pre‐term (PT) infants during the child's second year of life completed measures of their own and the child's quality of life and behavioural difficulties. We developed a measure of parenting style derived from Regulatory Focus Theory (RFT), to distinguish greater reported use of promotion as opposed to prevention strategies (emphasising gains rather than losses, and encouraging pursuit of goals rather than prevention of harm).

Results:  The two groups of mothers showed no differences on the parenting measure, but those in the PT compared with the FT group described their infant as having lower QOL and more behavioural and mood problems, and rated their own well‐being as less satisfactory. Greater use of promotion was associated with reports of fewer difficulties (better QOL) for the child and better mothers’ well‐being. Differences in mothers’ well‐being as a function of group (FT vs. PT) and promotion were strongly mediated by mothers’ perceptions of their child's difficulties. At the same time, associations with child difficulties were partly mediated by mothers’ well‐being, suggesting that maternal distress may have partly contributed to higher perceptions of such difficulties. Among PT infants, the degree of prematurity predicted child difficulties, but was not consistently related to mothers’ well‐being.

Discussion:  Mothers of PT infants report more physical health and behavioural difficulties than mothers of FT infants, but specific parenting styles can contribute to child difficulties and QOL in both infants and their mothers.

Conclusion:  We conclude that RFT has potential for understanding the conflicts experienced by parents caring for vulnerable children.
Practitioner Review: Chronic fatigue syndrome in childhood
Authors: Elena Garralda M. , Chalder Trudie
Published: October 2005

Background: Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) is being increasingly recognized in children and adolescents. Yet comparatively little attention has been given in the literature to management.

Methods: Description of the main features of the disorder, precipitating and maintaining factors and diagnostic assessment. Outline of different views on the nature and treatment of CFS in childhood. Description of a rehabilitation program based on cognitive behavior therapy and graded activity.

Results: Using adult research criteria, CFS can be diagnosed in children and adolescents. In its severe form it is often triggered by infectious illness episodes. It is commonly associated with mood disorders in the child and with mental distress and high levels of emotional involvement in parents. A number of patient support groups hold the view that CFS is a medical disorder, contest a psychiatric contribution and advocate ‘pacing’ as an approach to rehabilitation which includes avoiding activities. To date there is no empirical evidence for the efficacy of this approach. Research in adults, open and clinical reports in children support the use of graded activity and family cognitive behavior therapy. The main aim is to enable children, with the help of their family, to carry out their own rehabilitation with some support and guidance from a health professional. Engaging the child and family in treatment and forming a therapeutic alliance is a continual process and a crucial aspect of management, as many families view the condition as a medical disorder and are initially ambivalent towards this approach.

Conclusions: There is controversy about the nature and management of CFS in childhood but a rehabilitation program based on family cognitive behavior therapy can be implemented and seems to hold most promise in the management of children with CFS. Family engagement is a crucial aspect of management.
The comparative diagnostic accuracy of conventional and liquid‐based cytology in a colposcopic setting
Authors: Hussein T. , Desai M. , Tomlinson A. , Kitchener H.C.
Published: October 2005

Objective  This study was conducted to compare the performance of liquid‐based cytology (LBC) and conventional cytology (CS) in the high prevalence setting of colposcopy clinic.

Design  A split sample of matched ThinPrep (TP) and conventional smear from 563 patients were evaluated blindly. The performance of both techniques was compared with the gold standard of biopsy results or normal colposcopy examination in 441 cases.

Setting  Colposcopy clinic of an inner city hospital for women and children.

Sample  Five hundred and sixty‐three women referred to colposcopy clinic over 14‐month period.

Methods  Cervical smears were taken from 563 women referred for colposcopy. Using the split‐sample technique, the material was spread on a conventional (CS) slide and the remaining material rinsed in a PreservCyt solution. A T2000 processor was used to prepare LBC preparations. All women underwent colposcopy/biopsy according to local protocol. Four hundred and forty‐one women met the diagnostic standard criteria of the study, which was either a normal colposcopy or histopathology result. Sensitivity, specificity and positive and negative predictive values were calculated for both methods of cytology preparations.

Main outcome measures  Matched TP and conventional smears, detection of abnormality, matched biopsies, sensitivity, specificity, and positive and negative predictive values.

Results  Inadequate rates for CS and LBC (TP) were 4.3% and 0.68%, respectively. In 73% of cases, the CS and the LBC preparations showed exact agreement, whereas 77% agreement was seen when comparison was made for amalgamated low grade and high grade abnormalities. Low grade cytological abnormalities accounted for 44% of LBC slides versus 37% in CS slides. High grade cytological abnormalities accounted for 22% of LBC versus 17% seen in CS cases (P < 0.001). LBC showed increased sensitivity in the detection of CIN2 or worse than CS (92% and 83%, respectively) and CS showed greater specificity than LBC (82% and 76%, respectively).

Conclusions  In high prevalence setting, LBC performed at least as well as CS. The inadequate rate was significantly lower with LBC. The numbers are too small, however, to make confident comments about increased sensitivity and negative predictive value with LBC. Larger studies are required to verify these findings.
Peripheral arterial pulse wave analysis in women with pre‐eclampsia and gestational hypertension
Authors: Spasojevic Mica , Smith Simone A. , Morris Jonathan M. , Gallery Eileen D.M.
Published: October 2005

Objective  To compare peripheral pulse pressure waveforms in normal pregnancy, gestational hypertension (GH) and pre‐eclampsia (PE).

Design  Comparative study.

Setting  Tertiary referral teaching hospital.

Sample  Women with hypertensive disease in pregnancy and matched normal pregnant controls.

Methods  Women in the third trimester of pregnancy with newly developed PE (n= 27) or GH (n= 33) were studied by radial artery applanation tonometry. Values were compared with those for gestational age matched normal pregnant women (n= 39).

Main outcome measures  Augmentation Index.

Results  Hypertension was of equal severity in PE and GH. Central augmentation pressure and augmentation index, indicating vasoconstriction, were mildly elevated in GH, but markedly elevated in PE.

Conclusion  Non‐invasive applanation tonometry discriminates among normal pregnancy, GH and PE, and may be useful to predict PE.
Accuracy of ultrasound biometry in the prediction of macrosomia: a systematic quantitative review
Authors: Coomarasamy Arri , Connock Martin , Thornton Jim , Khan Khalid S.
Published: October 2005

Objective  To determine the accuracy of ultrasonographically estimated fetal weight (EFW) and abdominal circumference (AC) in the prediction of macrosomia.

Design  Systematic quantitative review.

Methods  Studies were identified without language restrictions from MEDLINE (1966–2003), EMBASE (1980–2003), Cochrane Library (2003:4), SCISEARCH (1974–2003) and manual searching of bibliographies of known primary and review articles. Studies were selected if accuracy of ultrasonographically EFW or AC was evaluated for predicting macrosomia using birthweight as the reference standard. Data were extracted on study characteristics, quality and accuracy. Data were pooled to produce summary receiver operating characteristic curves (sROC) for studies with various test thresholds. Summary likelihood ratios for positive (LR+) and negative (LR−) test results were generated for an EFW of 4000 g and an AC of 36 cm for predicting birthweight of over 4000 g.

Main outcome measures  Birthweight over various thresholds.

Results  There were 36 primary articles consisting of 63 accuracy studies (51 evaluating the accuracy of EFW, and 12 accuracy of fetal AC), including a total of 19,117 women. The sROC area for EFW was not different from the area for fetal AC (0.87 vs 0.85, P= 0.91). For predicting a birthweight of over 4000 g, the summary LRs were 5.7 (95% CI: 4.3 to 7.6) for a positive test and 0.48 (95% CI: 0.38 to 0.60) for a negative test, using Hadlock's method of ultrasonographically estimating fetal weight. For ultrasound fetal AC of 36 cm, the respective LRs for predicting a birthweight over 4000 g were 6.9 (95% CI: 5.2 to 9.0) and 0.37 (0.30–0.45).

Conclusion  There is no difference in accuracy between ultrasonographically EFW and AC in the prediction of a macrosomic baby at birth. A positive test result is more accurate for ruling in macrosomia than a negative test result for ruling it out.
Twenty‐four‐hour urine insulin as a measure of hyperinsulinaemia/insulin resistance before onset of pre‐eclampsia and gestational hypertension
Authors: Emery Stephen P. , Levine Richard J. , Qian Cong , Ewell Marian G. , England Lucinda J. , Yu Kai F. , Catalano Patrick M. ,   for the CPEP Study Group
Published: October 2005

Objective  To evaluate levels of 24‐hour urine insulin excretion before the onset of pre‐eclampsia and gestational hypertension.

Design  Nested case–control study within the Calcium for Preeclampsia Prevention (CPEP) study cohort.

Setting  Five university medical centres in the United States.

Sample  Cases had developed pre‐eclampsia (n= 70) or gestational hypertension (n= 142) in the absence of gestational diabetes. Controls (n= 429) had remained normotensive without gestational diabetes.

Methods  Subjects were required to have had an adequate baseline 24‐hour urine collection prior to CPEP enrolment at 13–21 weeks. Controls were matched to cases by enrolment site and specimen storage time, without regard to gestational age or CPEP treatment. Adjusted mean 24‐hour urine insulin excretion was, however, calculated using analysis of covariance, with adjustment models for pre‐eclampsia considering body mass index, race and smoking status; and for gestational hypertension, gestational age at specimen collection, height, body mass index and smoking. Urine insulin was measured by radio‐immunoassay.

Main outcome measures  Twenty‐four‐hour urine insulin excretion.

Results  Adjusted 24‐hour urine insulin excretion at baseline (mean 17 weeks of gestation) was greater in women who developed pre‐eclampsia than in normotensive controls (mean [SE]: 15.6 [1.5] vs 13.1 [1.2] × 103μIU/24 hour, P= 0.06), but not in women who developed gestational hypertension (14.7 [0.9] vs 15.0 [0.6] × 103μIU/24 hour, P= 0.79, in cases vs controls). Among women who developed pre‐eclampsia, adjusted urine insulin excretion was greater than controls only in women with mild pre‐eclampsia and not in severe pre‐eclampsia (mild pre‐eclampsia vs controls: 17.3 [2.0] vs 13.7 [1.6] × 103μIU/24 hour, P= 0.04; severe pre‐eclampsia vs controls: 12.3 [2.2] vs 11.5 [1.2], P= 0.69).

Conclusion  The data suggest that early hyperinsulinaemia, a marker of insulin resistance, may predispose to mild pre‐eclampsia.
Randomised controlled trial of community debriefing following operative delivery
Authors: Kershaw Kathryn , Jolly John , Bhabra Kalvinder , Ford Jane
Published: October 2005

Objective  The aim of this study was to determine if two debriefing sessions following an operative delivery could reduce a woman's fear of future childbirth.

Design  Prospective randomised controlled trial (RCT) with two arms comparing debriefing, aimed to reduce fear of future childbirth, with standard care after birth.

Setting  District General Hospital with 2500 deliveries per year.

Sample  Three hundred and nineteen mothers who delivered a first child by operative delivery (i.e. forceps, vacuum or emergency caesarean section). The study took place at Huddersfield Royal Infirmary, from January 2002 to July 2003.

Methods  Debriefing by community midwives specifically trained in postpartum debriefing at 10 days and 10 weeks.

Main outcome measure  Fear of childbirth was assessed using the Wijma Delivery Expectancy Scale (WDEQ). WDEQ scores were measured 10 days, 10 weeks and 20 weeks following delivery.

Results  Fear of childbirth as measured by the WDEQ was lower throughout the study for the debriefing group. However, it never reached statistical significance in the short term [10 days debriefing = 94.5, control = 97.5 (P= 0.295), 10 weeks debriefing = 92.0, control = 97.9 (P= 0.076), 20 weeks debriefing = 90.9, control = 97.4 (P= 0.057)].

Conclusion  This study shows in the short term there was no significant difference in the WDEQ fear of childbirth scores. The debriefing group were showing a tendency for lower scores. Long term follow up of these cases may be more relevant.
A randomised controlled trial of a new handheld vacuum extraction device
Authors: Attilakos G. , Sibanda T. , Winter C. , Johnson N. , Draycott T.
Published: October 2005

Objective  To evaluate the effectiveness of a new handheld vacuum delivery device.

Design  Randomised controlled trial.

Setting  Southmead Hospital, Bristol, UK.

Population  One hundred and ninety‐four women requiring delivery with vacuum extraction.

Methods  Women were recruited into the study while still in early labour. If during delivery, vacuum extraction was indicated they were then randomly allocated to either a new handheld vacuum device, the Kiwi Omnicup, or to a ‘standard’ vacuum cup selected by the obstetrician. The ‘standard group’ consisted of the silastic (66/98, 67%) or the metal cups (32/98, 33%). Study data were recorded at completion of the delivery and at 24–48 hours. An additional brief symptom questionnaire was completed by the mother at 10 days postnatally. Statistical analyses were done on an ‘intention‐to‐treat’ basis.

Main outcome measures  The primary outcome was the successful completion of delivery with the allocated instrument. Secondary outcomes were substantial fetal scalp trauma and substantial maternal trauma.

Results  The Omnicup was associated with a significantly higher failure rate than the standard cup [34%vs 21%, odds ratio (OR) = 1.9 (1.01–3.6)]. This difference persisted after adjusting for confounding factors [adjusted OR = 2.25 (1.01–5.0)] and resulted in significantly more forceps deliveries in the Kiwi Omnicup group [22%vs 10%, unadjusted OR = 2.5 (1.1–5.5)]. The caesarean section rates were similar in both groups [9.4%vs 8.2%, OR = 1.2 (0.4–3.2)]. Rates of substantial scalp trauma and maternal trauma were similar in both groups. However, there were more cases of jaundice in the standard cup group [2.3%vs 12.0%, unadjusted OR = 0.18 (0.04–0.82) and adjusted OR = 0.10 (0.01–0.88)].

Conclusions  The Omnicup is not as successful at achieving a vaginal delivery as the combination of the currently used vacuum cups.
Prediction of findings at defecography in patients with genital prolapse
Authors: Roovers Jan‐Paul W.R. , Van Der Bom Johanna G. , Van Der Vaart C. Huub , Heintz A. Peter M.
Published: October 2005

Objective  Defecography may be useful in pre‐operative assessment of patients with genital prolapse. Defecography is an invasive and embarrassing procedure for patients and little effort has been made to optimalise selection criteria for defecography. This study investigated whether discrimination of high and low probability of abnormal defecography is possible based on the quantified findings from patient history, pelvic examination and a validated questionnaire.

Design  Prospective observational study.

Setting  Three teaching hospitals in The Netherlands.

Population  Eighty‐two patients undergoing surgical correction of uterine prolapse Stages 2–4.

Methods  A history and pelvic examination were obtained from all patients. A validated questionnaire was used to assess the presence of defecation and micturition symptoms. Using multivariate logistic regression analyses with receiver operating characteristic curves, a diagnostic model to predict the presence of an abnormal defecography was systematically constructed and validated.

Main outcome measure  Presence of abnormal finding at defecography.

Results  The most important predictors for abnormal defecography were prolapse of the posterior vaginal wall, history of abdominal or pelvic surgery and the presence of constipation. With these variables, a prediction rule could be constructed which predicted the prevalence of an abnormal defecography (area under curve = 0.73; 95% CI 0.61–0.83).

Conclusions  This study shows that a diagnostic model based on findings obtained from a non‐invasive workup can accurately predict the presence of an abnormal defecography. Such a model provides the possibility to tailor the request for defecography to the individual patient.
Decreased antioxidant enzyme expression and increased oxidative damage in erosive lichen planus of the vulva
Authors: Sander C.S. , Cooper S.M. , Ali I. , Dean D. , Thiele J.J. , Wojnarowska F.
Published: October 2005

The aim of this study was to investigate whether increased oxidative stress occurs in erosive lichen planus of the vulva. Skin biopsies from six patients with untreated, histologically confirmed erosive lichen planus of the vulva were examined immunohistochemically using antibodies against antioxidant enzymes. The protein‐bound lipid peroxidation products malondialdehyde (MDA) and 4‐hydroxynonenale (4‐HNE) and the oxidative DNA damage marker 8‐hydroxy‐2′‐deoxyguanosine (8‐OHdG) were investigated. Protein carbonyls as markers of protein oxidation were visualised using the dinitrophenylhydrazone (DNPH) method. Normal vulval tissues from 12 subjects served as controls. In vulval lichen planus tissue the enzymatic antioxidant defence was found to be significantly decreased in the epidermal layers. Furthermore, a significant increase of lipid peroxidation products and oxidative DNA damage was found within the epidermis. Protein oxidation occurred predominantly in the papillary dermis. This is the first study to demonstrate a decreased antioxidant defence and increased oxidative damage to lipids, DNA and proteins in lichen planus. These oxidative modifications point to pathophysiological alterations mainly within the basal cell layers of the epidermis and at the dermoepidermal junction. Further studies are warranted to investigate the potential role of oxidative stress in the development of autoimmunity in this disease.
Intracellular domain of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor: the importance of being unfolded
Authors: Kukhtina V. , Kottwitz D. , Strauss H. , Heise B. , Chebotareva N. , Tsetlin V. , Hucho F.
Published: October 2005

Bioinformatics methods with subsequent verification by experimental data were applied to the structural investigation of the intracellular loop of the δ‐subunit of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR). Three complementary methods were used: prediction of secondary structure elements, prediction of ordered/disordered protein regions and prediction of short functional binding motifs. The output of five different algorithms was used for the secondary structure construction. Most of the intracellular domain is predicted to be unfolded. The predictions correlate well with the experimental data of limited proteolysis and NMR performed on the mostly monomeric fraction of heterologously expressed Torpedo intracellular domain protein. Twelve functional binding motifs within the disordered regions of the nAChR intracellular domain are predicted. Identification of proteins that interact with the intracellular domain will provide a better understanding of protein–protein interactions involved in nAChR assembly, trafficking and clustering.
Amyloid precursor protein expression in the rat hippocampal dentate gyrus modulates during memory consolidation
Authors: Conboy Lisa , Murphy Keith J. , Regan Ciaran M.
Published: October 2005

Despite advances in our understanding of the basic biology of amyloid precursor protein (APP), the normal physiological function(s) of APP in learning and memory remains unclear. Here we show increased APP degradation in the hippocampus to be associated with the consolidation of a passive avoidance response. Neurone‐specific APP695 expression became transiently reduced 2–4 h post‐training through association with endosomal adaptin proteins and enhanced internalization. By contrast, internalization of glial‐associated APP containing a Kunitz protease inhibitor‐like domain (APP‐KPI) was dependent on the low‐density lipoprotein receptor‐related protein (LRP). In addition, LRP expression and association with apolipoprotein E increased in the 2–4 h post‐training period. The LRP antagonist receptor‐associated protein prevented the APP‐KPI internalization and LRP–apolipoprotein E association and this resulted in amnesia. Degradation of APP695 and APP‐KPI did not appear to be related to α‐secretase activity, as no learning‐associated increase of secreted APP was observed in the CSF. Moreover, as internalization of APP isoforms was observed only in dentate gyrus, it probably relates to the learning‐associated restructuring of the perforant path terminals. Memory‐associated APP processing in both neuronal and glial compartments points to a role for glial unsheathing of synaptic connections, an event required for the synaptic restructuring that accompanies memory consolidation. These observations may have a direct relevance to understanding the pathophysiology of Alzheimer's disease as β/γ‐secretase‐derived β‐amyloid is formed following internalization of cell surface APP into the endosomal compartment.
Contribution of conserved glycine residues to ATP action at human P2X1receptors: mutagenesis indicates that the glycine at position 250 is important for channel function
Authors: Digby Helen R. , Roberts Jonathan A. , Sutcliffe Michael J. , Evans Richard J.
Published: October 2005

Glycine residues can introduce flexibility in proteins, give rise to turns and breaks in secondary structure and are key components of some nucleotide binding motifs. In the P2X receptor extracellular ATP binding domain, 11 glycine residues are completely conserved and an additional five are conserved in at least five of the seven family members. We have mutated individual conserved glycine residues and determined their effect on the ATP sensitivity and time‐course of P2X1receptors expressed inXenopusoocytes. In the majority of cases, replacement by alanine had no or a less than 3‐fold effect on ATP sensitivity and time‐course of responses. G71A resulted in a 6‐fold decrease in ATP potency and ATP (10 mm) failed to evoke functional responses from G96A, G250A and G301A mutant receptors. However, proline or cysteine could substitute for glycine at positions 96 and 301, giving receptors that were essentially normal. At glycine 250 substitution by serine gave functional responses to ATP with no effect on ATP sensitivity but a reduction in peak amplitude; in contrast, functional responses were not recorded when glycine 250 was replaced by the amino acids alanine, cysteine, aspartate, phenylalanine, isoleucine, lysine, proline or asparagine. These results suggest that glycine 250 plays an important role in determining the function of P2X receptors.
High‐frequency, but not low‐frequency, transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation reduces aspartate and glutamate release in the spinal cord dorsal horn
Authors: Sluka K. A. , Vance C. G. T. , Lisi T. L.
Published: October 2005

Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) is a commonly utilized non‐pharmacological treatment for pain. Studies show that low‐ and high‐frequency TENS utilize opioid, serotonin and/or muscarinic receptors in the spinal cord to reduce hyperalgesia induced by joint inflammation in rats. As there is an increase in glutamate and aspartate levels in the spinal cord after joint inflammation, and opioids reduce glutamate and aspartate release, we hypothesized that TENS reduces release of glutamate and aspartate in animals with joint inflammation by activation of opioid receptors. Using microdialysis and HPLC with fluorescence detection, we examined the release pattern of glutamate and aspartate in the dorsal horn in response to either low‐frequency (4 Hz) or high‐frequency (100 Hz) TENS. We examined the effects of TENS on glutamate and aspartate release in animals with and without joint inflammation. High‐frequency, but not low‐frequency, TENS significantly reduced spinal glutamate and aspartate in animals with joint inflammation compared with levels in those without joint inflammation. The reduced release of glutamate and aspartate by high‐frequency TENS was prevented by spinal blockade of delta‐opioid receptors with naltrindole. Thus, we conclude that high‐frequency TENS activates delta‐opioid receptors consequently reducing the increased release of glutamate and aspartate in the spinal cord.
Property Rights Protection of Biotechnology Innovations
Authors: Burton Diana M. , Love H. Alan , Ozertan Gokhan , Taylor Curtis R.
Published: October 2005

Protection of intellectual property embedded in self‐replicating biological innovations, such as genetically modified seed, presents two problems for the innovator: the need for copy protection of intellectual property and price competition between new seed and reproduced seed. We consider three regimes in two periods with asymmetric information: short‐term contracts, biotechnological protection, and long‐term contracts. We find that piracy imposes more intense competition for seed sales than does durability alone. Technology protection systems yield highest firm profit and long‐term contracts outperform short‐term contracts. Farmers prefer, in order, long‐term, short‐term, and biotechnical protection. Depending on monitoring cost, long‐term contracts may be socially preferred to short‐term contracts, with both preferred to biotechnical protection.
Product Differentiation and Mergers in the Carbonated Soft Drink Industry
Authors: Dubé Jean‐Pierre
Published: October 2005

I simulate the competitive impact of several soft drink mergers from the 1980s on equilibrium prices and quantities. An unusual feature of soft drink demand is that, at the individual purchase level, households regularly select a variety of soft drink products. Specifically, on a given trip households may select multiple soft drink products and multiple units of each. A concern is that using a standard discrete choice model that assumes single unit purchases may understate the price elasticity of demand. To model the sophisticated choice behavior generating this multiple discreteness, I use a household‐level scanner data set. Market demand is then computed by aggregating the household estimates. Combining the aggregate demand estimates with a model of static oligopoly, I then run the merger simulations. Despite moderate price increases, I find substantial welfare losses from the proposed merger between Coca‐Cola and Dr. Pepper. I also find large price increases and corresponding welfare losses from the proposed merger between Pepsi and 7 UP and, more notably, between Coca‐Cola and Pepsi.
Improbability of Igneous Intrusion Promoting a Critical Event in Spent Nuclear Fuel Disposed in Unsaturated Tuff
Authors: Rechard Rob P. , Tierney Martin S.
Published: October 2005

In their regulations, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission permit the omission of features, events, or processes with probabilities of <10−4in 104yr (e.g., a constant frequency of <10−8per yr) in assessments of the performance of radioactive waste disposal systems. Igneous intrusion (or “volcanism”) of a geologic repository at Yucca Mountain for radioactive waste is one disruptive event that has a probability with a range of uncertainty that straddles this regulatory criterion and is considered directly in performance assessment calculations. A self‐sustained nuclear chain reaction (or “criticality”) is another potentially disruptive event to consider, although it was never found to be important when evaluating the efficacy of radioactive waste disposal since the early 1970s. The thesis of this article is that the consideration of the joint event—volcanism and criticality—occurring in any 10,000‐year period following closure can be eliminated from performance calculations at Yucca Mountain. The probability of the joint event must be less than the fairly well‐accepted but low probability of volcanism. Furthermore, volcanism does not “remove” or “fail” existing hydrologic or geochemical constraints at Yucca Mountain that tend to prevent concentration of fissile material. Prior to general corrosion failure of waste packages, the mean release of fissile mass caused by a low‐probability, igneous intrusive event is so small that the probability of a critical event is remote, even for highly enriched spent nuclear fuel owned by the U.S. Department of Energy. After widespread failure of packages occurs, the probability of the joint event is less than the probability of criticality because of the very small influence of volcanism on the mean fissile mass release. Hence, volcanism plays an insignificant role in inducing criticality over any 104‐yr period. We also argue that the Oklo reactors serve as a natural analogue and provide a rough bound on probability of criticality given favorable hydrologic or geochemical conditions on the scale of the repository that is less than 0.10. Because the product of this bound with the probability of volcanism represents the probability of the joint event and the product is less than 10−4in 104yr, consideration of the joint event can be eliminated from performance calculations.
Risk Analysis for Environmental Health Triage
Authors: Bogen Kenneth T.
Published: October 2005

The Homeland Security Act mandates the development of a national, risk‐based system to support planning for, response to, and recovery from emergency situations involving large‐scale toxic exposures. To prepare for and manage consequences effectively, planners and responders need not only to identify zones of potentially elevated individual risk but also to predict expected casualties. Emergency response support systems now define “consequences” by mapping areas in which toxic chemical concentrations do or may exceed Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) or similar guidelines. However, because AEGLs do not estimate expected risks, current unqualified claims that such maps support consequence management are misleading. Intentionally protective, AEGLs incorporate various safety/uncertainty factors depending on the scope and quality of chemical‐specific toxicity data. Some of these factors are irrelevant, and others need to be modified, whenever resource constraints or exposure‐scenario complexities require responders to make critical trade‐off (triage) decisions in order to minimize expected casualties. AEGL‐exceedance zones cannot consistently be aggregated, compared, or used to calculate expected casualties and so may seriously misguide emergency response triage decisions. Methods and tools well established and readily available to support environmental health protection are not yet developed for chemically‐related environmental health triage. Effective triage decisions involving chemical risks require a new assessment approach that focuses on best estimates of likely casualties, rather than on upper plausible bounds of individual risk. If risk‐based consequence management is to become a reality, federal agencies tasked with supporting emergency response must actively coordinate to foster new methods that can support effective environmental health triage.
Normative nerve conductions in the tail of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta)
Authors: Graham W.A. , Ludlage E. , Mansfield K. , Magill D. , Nesathurai S.
Published: October 2005

Background  The aim of this study was to test the feasibility of using the tail of Macaca mulatta for neurophysiological testing of the peripheral nervous system.

Methods  Motor and sensory nerve conduction studies (NCS) of the tail were obtained by surface stimulation and recording. The technique utilized was novel. Unlike other NCS obtained from other peripheral nerves, this technique did not require any special neurophysiological expertise.

Results  The latency of the motor and sensory response was 2.5 ± 0.71 and 1.1 ± 0.27 ms respectively. The amplitude of the motor and sensory response was 8.1 ± 5.1 mV and 14.6 ± 9.4 μV respectively. Similar to human beings, there was a statistically significant relationship between age and motor amplitude, motor latency and sensory latency.

Conclusions  Based on our results, a relatively simple, reproducible neurophysiological monitoring technique of the peripheral nervous system is possible.
Computer simulation of solution and growth processes during the initial stage of liquid phase sintering of tungsten heavy metal
Authors: Ekbom Lars , Antonsson Tomas , Ekbom Mikael
Published: October 2005

In the initial stage of liquid phase sintering, particle dissolution and growth processes occur. The melting matrix penetrates the solid particle agglomerates. A fraction of the particles dissolves in the liquid matrix phase and the original powder size will initially be reduced. At the same time the agglomerates of particles are effectively separated. In a second stage larger particles grow in equilibrium with the matrix, whilst smaller, pure particles dissolve into the matrix and the mean particle size increases. When an equilibrium is reached, the solid particles start to grow in the liquid matrix phase in accordance with the ripening process. The initial stages of liquid phase sintering have been investigated by short time sintering under microgravity and are presented in a series of micrographs. Mathematical models for the 3 stages have been developed.

Computer simulations of these different stages in the solution and growth processes have been used to visualise the change in particle size distribution.
Effect of simultaneous addition of CaO–Al2O3 flux and CaSi on the modification of inclusions in aluminium‐killed steel
Authors: Das N. K. , Sen N. , Ghosh M. , Sau R.
Published: October 2005

This paper investigates the effect of CaO‐Al2O3 flux, used in conjunction with CaSi, on the formation of inclusions in aluminium‐killed steel. 50 kg scale experiments were carried out in an air induction furnace. The amounts of CaSi (1.25–2.5 kg/t) and fluxes (CaO:Al2O3 from 40:60 to 60:40) were varied in different experimental heats. The volume fraction and size of inclusion were determined through quantitative metallography. The change in the composition of inclusions was qualitatively studied through elemental x‐ray analysis by EPMA. The size of inclusions in general was found to be larger in the case of the simultaneous addition of CaSi with flux, compared to that obtained through CaSi alone. Larger inclusions lead to easier flotation resulting in lesser volume fraction. The inclusion content was lowest with flux containing 40% CaO and 60% Al2O3. Better globularisation of alumina inclusion was observed in the case of the simultaneous addition of flux with CaSi, compared to situations where CaSi alone is added. The present investigation has therefore identified the specific amount and composition of flux necessary for restricting the inclusion content as well as improving its globularisation.
Solid Oxide Membrane (SOM) technology for environmentally sound production of tantalum metal and alloys from their oxide sources
Authors: Krishnan Ajay , Lu Xiong Gang , Pal Uday Bhanu
Published: October 2005

The Solid‐Oxide‐Oxygen‐Ion conducting membrane (SOM) technology offers great potential for environment friendly and energy‐efficient extraction of high‐energy‐content metals. This work was performed to demonstrate the technical viability of the SOM technology to produce tantalum metal and tantalum–niobium alloy directly from tantalum oxide and ore concentrates. An electric potential is applied to dissociate the tantalum oxide source, reduce the Ta metal at the cathode, pump the oxygen ions through the membrane (SOM), and oxidize them at the anode. The process can be used to efficiently produce tantalum metal without the expensive pre‐processing of raw materials and generation of harmful byproducts. The work reported in this paper demonstrates that the SOM process can produce high‐purity tantalum metal. The electrochemical behavior of the cell and the method to increase membrane stability are also discussed.
Influence of boron on microstructure properties of 13% chromium white irons
Authors: Petrovic Stanka Tomovic , Markovic Srdjan , Martinovic Momcilo
Published: October 2005

In this paper, the results of the examinations of the influence of boron on microstructure properties of 13% Cr–2.3% C high‐chromium white irons are presented. The following quantities of boron were used: 0.26%, 0.39% and 0.59%. The results that confirm significant influence of boron on the structure of chromium white iron were obtained by means of optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, X‐ray diffraction and quantitative metallographic analysis. It is demonstrated that boron has strong carbide‐forming effect. With the increase of boron concentration in the alloy, the volume fraction of primary phase decreases and the volume fraction of eutectic carbide phase increases at the same time. It is also demonstrated that in the presence of boron the type of prevailing carbide is changed, that boron influences the structure phases morphology, and that boron supports the transformation of austenite into martensite.
Evolutionary mechanisms acting on proteinase inhibitor variability
Authors: Christeller John T.
Published: October 2005

The interaction of proteinase inhibitors produced, in most cases, by host organisms and the invasive proteinases of pathogens or parasites or the dietary proteinases of predators, results in an evolutionary ‘arms race’ of rapid and ongoing change in both interacting proteins. The importance of these interactions in pathogenicity and predation is indicated by the high level and diversity of observable evolutionary activity that has been found. At the initial level of evolutionary change, recruitment of other functional protein‐folding families has occurred, with the more recent evolution of one class of proteinase inhibitor from another, using the same mechanism and proteinase contact residues. The combination of different inhibitor domains into a single molecule is also observed. The basis from which variation is possible is shown by the high rate of retention of gene duplication events and by the associated process of inhibitory domain multiplication. At this level of reorganization, mutually exclusive splicing is also observed. Finally, the major mechanism by which variation is achieved rapidly is hypervariation of contact residues, an almost ubiquitous feature of proteinase inhibitors. The diversity of evolutionary mechanisms in a single class of proteins is unlikely to be common, because few systems are under similar pressure to create variation. Proteinase inhibitors are therefore a potential model system in which to study basic evolutionary process such as functional diversification.
Ca2+ rise within a narrow window of concentration prevents functional injury of mitochondria exposed to hypoxia/reoxygenation by increasing antioxidative defence
Authors: Schild Lorenz , Plumeyer Frank , Reiser Georg
Published: October 2005

Injury of liver by ischaemia crucially involves mitochondrial damage. The role of Ca2+ in mitochondrial damage is still unclear. We investigated the effect of low micromolar Ca2+ concentrations on respiration, membrane permeability, and antioxidative defence in liver mitochondria exposed to hypoxia/reoxygenation. Hypoxia/reoxygenation caused decrease in state 3 respiration and in the respiratory control ratio. Liver mitochondria were almost completely protected at about 2 µm Ca2+. Below and above 2 µm Ca2+, mitochondrial function was deteriorated, as indicated by the decrease in respiratory control ratio. Above 2 µm Ca2+, the mitochondrial membrane was permeabilized, as demonstrated by the sensitivity of state 3 respiration to NADH. Below 2 µm Ca2+, the nitric oxide synthase inhibitor nitro‐l‐arginine methylester had a protective effect. The activities of the manganese superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase after hypoxia showed maximal values at about 2 µm Ca2+. We conclude that Ca2+ exerts a protective effect on mitochondria within a narrow concentration window, by increasing the antioxidative defence.
Children's Asthma, Internalizing Problems, and Social Functioning: An Urban Perspective
Authors: Bender Berz Jennifer , Murdock Karla Klein , Koinis Mitchell Daphne
Published: October 2005

PROBLEM:  Asthma may serve as a risk factor for higher levels of psychosocial problems in urban school‐aged children.

METHOD:  Interview data were collected from 48 children (27 with asthma and 21 without asthma) and their mothers.

FINDINGS:  Asthma did not function as a risk factor for psychosocial problems in this sample. Children with more symptoms of depression and anxiety experienced poorer social functioning, regardless of their health status.

CONCLUSION:  These results highlight the importance of examining co‐occurring difficulties in psychosocial development among urban children in order to design interventions that minimize the impact of such challenges.
PRODUCTION OF A LOW‐CHOLESTEROL SHRIMP USING SUPERCRITICAL EXTRACTION
Authors: HIGUERA‐CIAPARA I. , TOLEDO‐GUILLEN A.R. , NORIEGA‐OROZCO L. , MARTINEZ‐ROBINSON K.G. , ESQUEDA‐VALLE M.C.
Published: October 2005

A low‐cholesterol shrimp was produced using supercritical extraction. The processing sequence included freeze drying, cholesterol extraction and rehydration. The shrimp was freeze dried, kept under vacuum until an experimental central composite rotatory design was applied using Response Surface Analysis for the supercritical extraction process. Three variables at five levels each were tested during the experiment (pressure, volume and temperature). After the extraction procedure, various rehydration and cooking conditions were applied to obtain a processed product with characteristics similar to those of the natural shrimp. Two sensory analyses were performed: one which compared the attributes of fresh shrimp with those of the freeze‐dried and rehydrated products, and another one which compared the acceptability between fresh shrimp and low‐cholesterol shrimp after freeze drying, supercritical extraction and rehydration. Under the conditions of 310 bar, 1875 L of carbon dioxide and 37C, it was possible to obtain a low‐cholesterol shrimp with acceptable organoleptic properties.
REDUCTION OF SACCHAROMYCES CEREVISIAE, ESCHERICHIA COLI AND LISTERIA INNOCUA IN APPLE JUICE BY ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT
Authors: GUERRERO‐BELTRÁN JOSÉ A. , BARBOSA‐CÁNOVAS GUSTAVO V.
Published: October 2005

Apple juice was inoculated separately with Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Listeria innocua (ATCC 51742) or Escherichia coli (ATCC 11775) for treatment in a double tube ultraviolet (UV) disinfection system. The apple juice was treated at six flow rates (0.073–0.548 L/min) for selected fluences (75–450 kJ/m2). The juice was also inoculated with a mixture of these three microorganisms and UV light treated from 0.548 to 0.735 L/min for 30 min. The microbial reduction was described with a first order kinetic model. Average Duvvalues of 23.1–40.5, 8.2–20.6 and 6.0–17.7 min were obtained for S. cerevisiae, L. innocua and E. coli, respectively. A linear model was used to describe the relationship between log Duvversus flow rate for S. cerevisiae and L. innocua. However, a third order polynomial model was more adequate for describing the E. coli Duvvalues versus flow rate. Less than 10 (no growth), 190 and 200 cfu/mL of S. cerevisiae, L. inocua and E. coli, respectively, were observed in UV‐treated apple juice inoculated with a mixture of microorganisms.
COMPUTER‐CONTROLLED MICROWAVE HEATING TO IN‐PACKAGE PASTEURIZE BEEF FRANKFURTERS FOR ELIMINATION OF LISTERIA MONOCYTOGENES†
Authors: HUANG LIHAN
Published: October 2005

The objective of this study was to develop an in‐package pasteurization technology to kill Listeria monocytogenes in ready‐to‐eat meats using microwave heating. This technology utilized an infrared sensor to monitor the surface temperature of beef frankfurters during microwave heating. The aim was to increase the surface temperature of frankfurters to a set point lethal to L. monocytogenes. A feedback control mechanism was used to control the power to the microwave oven. Results indicated that the simple on‐off control mechanism was able to maintain the surface temperature of beef frankfurters near the respective set points of 75, 80 or 85C used in this study. This pasteurization process was able to achieve a 7‐log reduction of L. monocytogenes in inoculated beef frankfurters using a 600‐W nominally rated microwave oven within 12–15 min. If optimized, this system may provide the food industry with a terminal, postlethality pasteurization technology to kill L. monocytogenes in ready‐to‐eat meats within the final packages.
KINETICS OF ACRYLAMIDE FORMATION DURING TRADITIONAL AND VACUUM FRYING OF POTATO CHIPS
Authors: GRANDA CLAUDIA , MOREIRA ROSANA G.
Published: October 2005

Acrylamide is considered a carcinogen in animals and a possible carcinogen in humans. It has been found in starch‐rich foods cooked at high temperatures. Vacuum frying (10 Torr) was investigated as a possible alternative to reduce acrylamide formation in potato chips. The cultivar Atlantic was used to determine the kinetics of acrylamide formation during traditional and vacuum frying at different temperatures. There was a 94% decrease in acrylamide content when potatoes were fried to the same final moisture content (1.5% ± 0.3% w.b.) under vacuum compared to those fried under atmospheric conditions. Acrylamide accumulation under vacuum frying was modeled using first‐order kinetics (during traditional frying, the logistic kinetic model was used). The behavior of the kinetics of acrylamide content in potato chips fried under the two processes was different mainly because of the different temperatures used. During traditional frying, higher temperatures are used (150 to 180C) and acrylamide after some time is produced but starts degrading, producing a constant level of acrylamide content at longer times. During vacuum frying (10 Torr), acrylamide increased exponentially (but at lower levels) for all frying times.