bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Educational Technology: New Myths and Old Realities
Authors: Oettinger Anthony , Marks Sema
Published: May 2015

Many claims have been made about the potential value of modern technological equipment and techniques for the improvement of education. In this article the authors evaluate some of these claims in depth. First, they examine the assertion that technology will promote "individualization of instruction,"contrasting broad claims with a narrower reality. They then outline some sources of resistance that will make it difficult to introduce new educational technology into the schools. The authors illustrate their case by referring to two examples of educational technology: the Watertown (Mass.) Language Laboratory and the Stanford-Brentwood C.A.I. Laboratory. They reach the conclusion that the short-range claims made for educational technology are unfounded.
Report Analysis: National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders
Authors: Light Richard , Green Robert
Published: May 2015

The Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, initiated by the President after the riots of Summer, 1967, received sustained national attention for its condemnation of white racism as the root cause of civil disorder and for its broad recommendations for government action, including action in the field of education. The Report deserves analysis both as a research document analyzing social processes underlying the present urban crisis, and as a political document recommending programs for change. Richard J. Light,Instructor in Education at the Harvard Graduate School of Education, concentrates on the Report's empirical studies, using them as a basis for analyzing the relationship between research and public policy. The initial section of Mr. Light's essay provides a brief summary of the Report. Robert L. Green, Professor of Educational Psychology at Michigan State University, focuses his attention on the Report's policy recommendations, especially those dealing with education.
The Confrontation Between Experimentalism and Existentialism: From Dewey Through Heidegger and Beyond
Authors: Troutner Leroy
Published: May 2015

Educational philosophy has long been dominated by the experimentalist position of John Dewey. In this paper the author finds that Dewey's primarily epistemo–logical concern fails to provide a suitable basis for exploring the critical issue of personal identity. In contrast, the author presents an exposition of the existentialist views of Martin Heidegger, finding in Heidegger's ontological concern a direct confrontation of the meaning of man's Being. The conclusion is a synthesis of the two positions: Dewey and Heidegger complement each other, but the balance has too long been on Dewey's side.
The Future of Individual Differences
Authors: Bereiter Carl
Published: May 2015

Professor Bereiter concurs in Jensen's re-emphasis of the heritability of intelligence,but he draws different conclusions about the probable future. Because most intellectual tools which can be learned act as amplifiers rather than equalizers of basic differences in problem-solving ability and because our complex society increasingly emphasizes intelligence rather than other abilities, Bereiter believes that the kind of educational effort recommended by Jensen may in fact only increase the consequences of individual differences. Nevertheless, he suggests that this pessimistic projection may be open to revision in the light of ongoing work in early remedial education.
Piagetian and Psychometric Conceptions of Intelligence
Authors: Elkind David
Published: May 2015

Professor Elkind devotes much of his discussion to the concept of intelligence. He finds both similarities and differences when comparing the Piagetian description of intelligence with Jensen's (and the psychometrician's) definition of intelligence. Operating from quite different assumptions than those of J. McV. Hunt (Piaget's Structuralism, rather than neurology) Elkind also finds reason to believe that intelligence is developed in experience. For Piaget and Elkind, intelligence is "an extension of biological adaptation" and is characterized by ability to assimilate (develop in response to internal processes) and accommodate(respond to environmental intrusions).
Heredity, Environment, and Educational Policy
Authors: Cronbach Lee
Published: May 2015

Professor Cronbach accepts some but by no means all of Professor Jensen's empirical conclusions. In the following review he indicates some research that bears on their points of disagreement. Cronbach suggests that such distinctions as Jensen's dichotomy between "Level I" and "Level II" abilities over-simplify the many dimensions of individual differences, and he disagrees with the educational policy he feels is implied by Jensen's recommendations for education. Beyond this,Professor Cronbach poses a more basic question—"Intelligence for what?"—a question of the compatibility of current social aims of schooling with long range changes in our social and technological structure.
Reducing the Heredity-Environment Uncertainty: A Reply
Authors: Jensen Arthur
Published: May 2015

Dr. Jensen replies to the seven responses in the Discussion (HER, Spring, 1969)and suggests some appropriate research endeavors that could provide answers to the questions raised in his original article. This reply does not deal with the additional responses or letters to the editor in this current issue.
Environment: The Cumulation of Effects Is Yet to be Understood
Authors: Stinchcombe Arthur
Published: May 2015

Professor Stinchcombe deals with the Jensen article from the point of view of an"environmentalist" but not from the simplistic stance that Professor Jensen attacked in his original article. Stinchcombe argues that deprivation does more than prevent children from learning simple skills at an early age—that cultures or social conditions must operate consistently and sequentially to produce successively higher levels of cognitive functioning. Environments, he argues, are cumulative,and until researchers can account for the complexity of environment, statements about the proportional effects of heredity and environment are premature. Thus extrapolations from twin studies limited to a single social group to estimates of the genetic capabilities of a different group are particularly suspect.
The Politics of Pronouncement: Notes on Publishing in the Social Sciences
Authors: Cottle Thomas
Published: May 2015

Focussing on the estranged reaction of individuals to scholarly writings about their ethnic groups, Thomas Cottle explores a network of political implications surrounding publishing in the social sciences. This network extends from published content through the act of publishing itself. He describes the interactions of political motives, conceptions of the university, communication media, and the public to convey a sense of the political ramifications of publishing in the social sciences.
Critique of Hereditarian Accounts of "Intelligence" and Contrary Findings: A Reply to Jensen
Authors: Fehr F.
Published: May 2015

The confounding of environmental and hereditary influences is a considerable problem in estimating heritability from twin studies. Fred S. Fehr discusses this problem and suggests two ways of calculating heritability which separate these influences more cleanly than the formula commonly used. The importance of heritability in the determination of intelligence is considerably less than suggested by Jensen when the effects of environmental variables are thus more adequately controlled.
Montessori Primary School in Delft, Holland
Authors: Hertzberger Herman
Published: May 2015

This school has been made to answer the specific demands of a non-traditional teaching system, as far as was possible within the framework of the rather strict building regulations for primary schools in this country. Each classroom is considered and equipped as a complete unit, a house in itself. The houses open onto a central space, "the street"; here all activities take place between students of many ages, interrupting the unity of the classroom-groups, which are merely children of similar age. The working method in a Montessori school is not dominated as in traditional teaching methods by a fixed and static relationship between teacher and children,but exploits the infinite variety of relationships of child to child, child to work and child to teacher. Everybody makes his own choice of what kind of work he is going to do. As a result, the system is characterised by many different activities occurring simultaneously.
Liberated Zone: An Evolving Learning Space
Authors: Goodman Robert
Published: May 2015

I was driving down from Boston to New York City with Dick Magidoff, a friend who teaches at a suburban high school near Boston. He was obviously excited as he told me about an idea he'd been exploring with a group of his students. How he or any one else could get excited about anything that was happening in high school took getting used to. I could only think back to my own high school days as something I had to suffer through. But as he went on and got caught up in his enthusiasm, some things troubling me about my own work began to take on a new perspective.
Report Analysis: The Impact of Head Start
Authors: Smith Marshall , Bissell Joan
Published: May 2015

The Westinghouse-Ohio national evaluation of Head Start evoked criticism from both social scientists and statisticians when it was issued last Spring. The authors present a history of Head Start and of the national evaluation. They raise serious questions about the sampling procedures used in the study, and they present the results of a re-analysis which suggest that some full-year Head Start centers were effective, particularly those with black children in urban areas. Policy implications discussed by the authors focus on the relationship between program evaluation and public policy.
Choosing a Future: Strategies for Designing and Evaluating New Programs
Authors: Light Richard , Smith Paul
Published: May 2015

The authors argue that large scale educational interventions at the national level should incorporate evaluation as an integral part of program development. They suggest several statistical techniques which developers could use. Until now, the thrust of evaluation has been to take a total program and judge it as either worthy or unworthy. In contrast, the authors propose an approach which searches for those few versions which are working well, so that they can be improved and recreated in future centers. The Head Start experience illustrates many of the authors' points.
The Adult Literacy Process as Cultural Action for Freedom
Authors: Freire Paulo
Published: May 2015

Dr. Freire writes from a Third World perspective, but with obvious implications for education in general. He rejects mechanistic conceptions of the adult literacy process, advocating instead a theory and practice based upon authentic dialogue between teachers and learners. Such dialogue, in Freire's approach, centers upon codified representations of the learners' existential situations and leads not only to their acquisition of literacy skills, but more importantly to their awareness of their right and capacity as human beings to transform reality. Becoming literate,then, means far more than learning to decode the written representation of a sound system. It is truly an act of knowing, through which a person is able to look critically at the culture which has shaped him, and to move toward reflection and positive action upon his world.
Reading, Writing, and Phonology
Authors: Chomsky Carol
Published: May 2015

The author discusses the relation of conventional English orthography to the sound structure of the language, showing that this relation is much closer than is ordinarily assumed. She points out that many of the non-phonetic aspects of English spelling are motivated rather than arbitrary, in that they correspond to a level of representation within the phonological system of the language which is deeper than the phonetic level. Finally she considers the implications of this view of the orthography for reading and spelling.
Authority in Education
Authors: Benne Kenneth
Published: May 2015

"Authority" is seldom discussed by proponents of educational reform, except as something to be abolished. In this article, Professor Benne analyzes the concept of authority and the reasons for its neglect by philosophers and its disrepute among educators. He describes two types of authority, expert authority and rule authority, and the limitations of these two concepts in dealing with current education. He then proposes a third type, which he calls anthropogogical authority,which may provide a way of describing the relationships of students,teachers, and community in a more vital and relevant model of education.
Students in Court: Free Speech and the Functions of Schooling in America
Authors: Berkman Richard
Published: May 2015

American courts have perceived the political aim of American education and have generally accepted a traditional disciplinarian concept of educational purpose. The recent Tinker decision is a notable departure, however. After a discussion of the legal history, the author evaluates the Tinker decision and possible directions post-Tinker.
Strategies for Failure
Authors: Stein Annie
Published: May 2015

Annie Stein draws upon thirty-five years of broad experience as a research analyst. During her long association with the New York City Public School System she has served as consultant, curriculum evaluator, community advocate, and staff aide to Dr. Milton A. Galarnison when he was vice-president of the New York City Board of Education. These selections from her field notes present a range of observations on various school practices.
Rethinking Black History
Authors: Patterson Orlando
Published: May 2015

Increased racial pride and dignity have prompted Black Americans to demand an interpretation of the past that does justice to the Black presence. This demand has influenced the writing of Black history as well as the way it is presented in schools. The author delineates and then analyzes five prevailing conceptions of Black history: radical and conservative catastrophism, radical and conservative survivalism, and contributionism. He rejects each for relying on fallacious assumptions concerning "civilization" and African culture, and for employing inadequate historical methods. He proposes various steps toward the development of an authentic Black history, including less emphasis on the roles of leading Blacks in fundamentally white historical settings, and more careful study of the continuities and discontinuities between African and Afro-American culture. This approach, Dr. Patterson suggests, will require new comparative methods of historical inquiry, making more use of oral, non-written, and non-literary sources.
Accumulating Evidence: Procedures for Resolving Contradictions among Different Research Studies
Authors: Light Richard , Smith Paul
Published: May 2015

Significant knowledge in the social sciences accrues ever too slowly. A major reason is that various research studies on a particular question tend to be of dissimilar designs, making their results difficult to compare. An even more important factor is that social science studies frequently produce conflicting results,which hinder theoretical developments and confuse those responsible for the implementation of social policies. In this pioneering effort the authors suggest criteria for determining when data from dissimilar studies can be pooled. Methods for recognizing fundamental differences in research designs, and for avoiding the creation of artificial differences, are offered. A paradigm, labeled the "cluster approach," is proposed as a means of combining the data of studies from which conflicting conclusions have been drawn. Major emphasis is placed on ways that the paradigm might solve problems presently faced by educational researchers,and several studies comparing the effectiveness of preschool programs are used to illustrate the cluster approach.
Cuban Education and the Revolutionary Ideology
Authors: Bowles Samuel
Published: May 2015

The rapid transformation of society in revolutionary Cuba vitally involves education. The author argues that school and society are always closely linked; in pre-revolutionary Cuba, schooling helped reproduce the class structure of economy and society from one generation to the next. In Cuba today education is attempting to serve the four major objectives of the revolution: economic growth; escape from the economic, political, and cultural hegemony of the United States; attainment of an egalitarian society; and the transformation of work into a creative activity for a new socialist man. The campaign against illiteracy,the general expansion of schooling, and the extension of education to the fields and factories are among the facets of the educational program described. Professor Bowles concludes with a discussion of dilemmas in Cuban education.
Towards a Political Economy of Education: A Radical Critique of Ivan Illich 's Deschooling Society
Authors: Gintis Herbert
Published: May 2015

The author critiques Ivan Illich's Deschooling Society, arguing that, despite his forthright vision of the liberating potential of educational technology, Illich fails to understand fully how the existing educational system serves the capitalist economy. Gintis evaluates and rejects the book's major thesis that the present character of schooling stems from the economy's need to shape consumer demands and expectations. Instead, he offers a production orientation which maintains that the repressive and unequal aspects of schooling derive from the need to supply a labor force compatible with the social relations of capitalist production. Gintis concludes that meaningful strategies for educational change must explicitly embrace a concomitant transformation of the mechanisms of power and privilege in the economic sphere.
Stages in Language Development and Reading Exposure
Authors: Chomsky Carol
Published: May 2015

This study of language acquisition in children between the ages of six and ten investigates their linguistic competence with respect to complex aspects of English syntax. Thirty-six children were tested for knowledge of nine complex syntactic structures. Five of the structures proved to be acquired in sequence, revealing five developmental stages in acquisition of syntax. The nature of specific disparities between adult grammar and child grammar are discussed, and the gradual reduction of these disparities as the children's knowledge of their native language increases is traced. Of particular interest is the regular order of acquisition of structures, accompanied by wide variation in rate of acquisition in different children.
Schools Without Education
Authors: Bereiter Carl
Published: May 2015

The author distinguishes between education, skill training and custodial child care, maintaining that only skill training and custodial care are legitimate functions of the elementary schools. Education, which Bereiter identifies with the explicit teaching of values and appropriate modes of conduct, is not well performed by the schools and more rightfully takes place in the context of the family. Schools, for their part, should limit and clarify their objectives, dividing children's time into periods of intensive skill-teaching conducted by specially trained instructors and periods with no defined teaching agenda or curriculum,when children are supervised in groups by child care personnel.
Notes Toward a Process of Afro-American Education
Authors: Wilson Thomasyne Lightfoote
Published: May 2015

The author outlines a process of Afro-American education which would establish a cultural identity for American Blacks. Dr. Wilson discusses the underlying principles of such a process, contrasts them to the current Anglo-American educational system, and draws attention to the need for the Black community to reconsider community values and attitudes in building viable educational institutions. For her, the essence of an Afro-American process of education lies in a more clarified view of Black identity and folkways, and cannot be found in Western values, attitudes, and institutions.
Strengthening Alternative High Schools
Authors: Center For New Schools
Published: May 2015

The authors first present a case study of student involvement in decision-making at Chicago's Metro High School, emphasizing the influence of the staff, student subgroups,and the school program upon the development of the decision-making process. They then trace patterns of development common to alternative schools,criticizing the notion of "organic growth" with which many alternative schools begin. Finally, the authors propose a constructive, supportive role for research,evaluation, and feedback to strengthen alternative schools within a framework of shared analysis and decision-making.
Highlander Folk School: Getting Information, Going Back and Teaching It
Authors: Adams Frank
Published: May 2015

If our judgments about educational change were based only on conventional histories,our vision of alternative futures would be constrained. We would probably come to the conclusion that a small number of school professionals and prominent social reformers have alone been responsible for initiating and maintaining worthwhile reforms.
Notes on the Context for Learning
Authors: Morimoto Kiyo
Published: May 2015

The author and his assistants examine some of the personal constraints in the teaching and learning process. Teachers need to learn the difficult skill of listening to discover students' real concerns. They must recognize that making decisions nearly always involves giving up options and therefore entails some ambivalence;and that the change learning involves is difficult and slow and must be supported even in its smallest steps. The authors suggest that teachers aware of these aspects of the learning context are more able to respond to students as human beings.
Ideological Development In Working-Class Youth
Authors: Steinitz Victoria , King Prudence , Solomon Ellen , Shapiro Ellen
Published: May 2015

The authors report on research in progress regarding modes of political thought among "bright" working-class adolescents. The basic question framing the study was "Has the ideology of working-class youth shifted away from its traditional focus on upward mobility toward a radical critique of the society?" The study consisted of in-depth interviews with working-class high school students with IQ's over 115. A pilot study revealed little heightened political consciousness and the authors turned to an exploration of the effects of community context on ideological development. The second phase of the research studied working-class adolescents in three contrasting community settings. Initial findings indicate on the one hand a widespread ethic of individual responsibility and a general suspicion of political involvement,but on the other hand, substantial community and individual variation in personal visions of the future and levels of support for the American political system. The authors speculate on the complex problems involved when middle-class persons engage in political consciousness raising among working-class adolescents,who would have to take substantial personal risks were they to adopt a more radical position.
The White House Conferences on Children: An Historical Perspective
Authors: Beck Rochelle
Published: May 2015

Sometimes when I get home at night in Washington I feel as though I had been in a great traffic jam. The jam is moving toward the Hill where Congress sits in judgment on all the administrative agencies of the Government. In that traffic jam are all kinds of vehicles ... There are all kinds of conveyances, for example, that the Army can put into the street—tanks, gun carriages, trucks ... There are the hayricks and the hinders and the ploughs and all the other things that the Department of Agriculture manages to put into the streets ... the handsome limousines in which the Department of Commerce rides ... the barouches in which the Department of State rides in such dignity. It seems to me as I stand on the sidewalk watching it become more congested and more difficult, and then because the responsibility is mine and I must, I take a very firm hold on the handles of the baby carriage and I wheel it into the traffic.
An Interview with Marian Wright Edelman
Authors: Edelman Marian Wright
Published: May 2015

Marian Wright Edelman, as Director of the Children's Defense Fund of the Washington Research Project, has added child advocacy to her agenda of action for social change. Beginning as an attorney in the civil rights movement, she directed Jackson, Mississippi's office of the NAACP Legal Defense and Education Fund,Inc. Headstart, children, and education were large issues for community development,and her involvement with the Child Development Group of Mississippi focused her concern on the welfare of poor and minority children. One of the principal architects of the Comprehensive Child Development Act of 1971, she has broadened her commitment to advocate the rights of all children. She has selected several specific areas on which to concentrate: the exclusion of children from school, labeling and treatment of children with special needs, the use of children in medical experimentation, their right to privacy with regard to school and juvenile court records, reform of the juvenile justice system, and children's right to day care of high quality. Ms. Edelman talked about these and other issues with HER.
In Memory of Marcus A. Foster 1923-1973
Authors: Silcox Harry
Published: May 2015

On November 6, 1973, Oakland School Superintendent Dr. Marcus A. Foster was assassinated in an Oakland, California parking lot. Editorials condemned the slaying as a "senseless act" which deprived the nation of one of its leading educators. But educators and newsmen in their haste to eulogize Foster neglected to analyze the problems facing American educators which his assassination brings to light.
Myths and Realities in the Search for Juvenile Justice: A Statement by The Honorable Justine Wise Polier
Authors: Polier Justine Wise
Published: May 2015

The Honorable Justine Wise Polier retired from the bench of New York's Family Court in 1973 to head the Children's Defense Fund's program in juvenile justice,emphasizing the right to care and treatment. She has served as a judge since 1935. During those years, her work led her to become deeply involved in the lives of children in trouble. She has served as founder and president of the Wiltwyck School for Boys, member of the New York State Citizen's Committee for Children, the Mayor's Committee on Foster Care, the Advisory Board of the League School for Seriously Disturbed Children, the Board of the New York School for Nursery Years, the Policy Committee of the Office of Children's Services of the Judicial Conference, and the Judicial Advisory Committee on Crime and Delinquency, among others. Juvenile Justice Confounded was written under her chairwomanship of the Committee on Mental Health Services in the Family Court. Judge Polier is also the author of books and studies on the law and social welfare including Everyone's Children,Nobody's Child.
The Edge of Social Science
Authors: Starr Paul
Published: May 2015

The author, seeking to define what is special about social science,finds its dustinctiveness in its questions and aims rather than its methods. He argues that precisely because social science is different in its concerns from other modes of social thought, it does not constitute a complete or a sufficient education about society. The essay begins with a comparison of idealized conceptions of social science and social criticism. It then considers self-conscious attempts to combine science and criticism in Marxism and policy research and examines ways in which science becomes a form of criticism. It argues that while science must be critical, criticism itself can never be a science. Next it explores the dialectic between attacks on the legitimacy of social science and efforts within social science to defend it by mimicking the pure sciences. It concludes by rejecting the positivst movement to reduce the social studies to social science and expel moral concerns, arguing that in practice moral convictions and objective understanding are not only compatible, but necessary complements of each other. While the essay directly concerns social science, much of it is equally pertinent to education.
Why Special Education Isn 't Special
Authors: Milofsky Carl
Published: May 2015

Special education has developed in recent years to diagnose more effectively and teach children who, for a wide variety of reasons, cannot learn from a regular curriculum. In this article, the author notes that despite their increasing size and sophistication, special education programs have not been successful for the majority of their students. He suggests that one reason for their ineffectiveness may be the ways in which special educators-teachers,psychologists and administrators-relate to the regular personnel of schools. Because special education is marginal to public school operation, political and organizational obstacles may infringe on the autonomy, funds, and quality of programs special educators can provide.
Gatekeeping and the Melting Pot: Interaction in Counseling Encounters
Authors: Erickson Frederick
Published: May 2015

To what extent do junior college counselors advise students on the basis of nominally objective criteria such as grades, aptitude scores and available job or college slots? To what extent do they judge students' potential on other grounds generated interactionally, such as race, ethnicity, appearance or communication style? This article explores the relationship of social identity, cultural communication style and the gatekeeping process. By analyzing films, videotapes and the participants' reactions, the author tested the hypotheses that the more alike counselors and students were in terms of social identity and communication style, the more smoothly the counseling interaction would proceed and the more special help counselors were likely to give students. While the hypotheses were confirmed in general, the author found that race, ethnicity and cultural style could be overridden by other factors. After a discussion of the theories behind interactional dynamics, the author presents the data collected in this study of junior college counseling and discusses the implications of his findings for reorganizing gatekeeping encounters.
Before Home Start: Notes toward a History of Parent Education in America, 1897-1929
Authors: Schlossman Steven
Published: May 2015

Hailed as an entirely new approach to addressing developmental deprivation in children, parent education to upgrade child-care practices in the home shows signs of becoming the pet educational reform of the 1970s. But is parent education as new as its proponents claim? In this article, Steven L. Schlossman notes that it is not and traces part of its long history in this country. He concentrates primarily on the development of the first nationwide parent-education organization, which became the PTA, and on the contributions of behavorial science to its mission. From an initial emphasis on changing society by organizing mothers of the nation in common cause, the PTA—joined by other groups—changed in the 1920s to become a movement of and for the middle class. Schlossman explores this evolution,concluding that current policy on parent education will be much the poorer for ignoring this history, that the value choices in behavioral science must be made clear, and that current efforts in parent education—while promising—can no more be an educational panacea than were past reforms.
The History of the History of American Education, 1900-1976: The Uses of the Past
Authors: Cohen Sol
Published: May 2015

Most recent histories of American education begin with an attack that enumerates the ways in which Ellwood P. Cubberley and other traditional historians of the early twentieth century stymied the development of the field. Indeed, these works suggest that the tradition of Cubberley and company was the only obstacle to good history of education until the pathbreaking contributions of Bernard Bailyn and Lawrence Cremin in the early 1960s. In this article, Sol Cohen argues that a rich and controversial chapter in the history of the history of education has been forgotten in the zeal to get on with the "new" history. He contends that historians need to come to terms with the struggles, primarily in the 1930s and 1940s, between those who would make the field purely "functional"—addressed to teacher training and to contemporary social problems—and those who would make it an academic discipline. After tracing the development and context of those struggles,Cohen concludes by noting certain dangerous continuities between the past and the present in the craft of history of education and cautions that progress can be made only by acknowledging and understanding that past.
From Religion to Politics: Debates and Confrontations over American College Governance in the Mid-Eighteenth Century
Authors: Herbst Jurgen
Published: May 2015

Questions of who will govern and how authority will be exercised pervade the history of American higher education. Such questions were particularly pressing before there was a clear distinction between public and private colleges. In this article,Jurgen Herbst traces the evolution of college governance from the early eighteenth century, when church and state exercised joint control, to the mid-eighteenth century,when religious, secular, and political tensions strained the effectiveness of that model. In the face of increasing ethnic and religious diversity in the colonies and amidst the breakdown of the alliance between ecclesiastical and secular interests, a more pluralistic model of college governance began to emerge. Professor Herbst examines the turmoil in Connecticut, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, and Virginia, which, by the end of the eighteenth century, culminated in a new distinction between private and public higher education.
Educational Expansion in Mid- Nineteenth-Century Massachusetts: Human-Capital Formation or Structural Reinforcement?
Authors: Field Alexander James
Published: May 2015

Economists and educational historians have put forth two major kinds of explanation for the coincidence between the industrial revolution and the development of mass public schooling in the United States. Industrial change, some maintain,created a demand for technicians, managers, skilled workers, and highly trained professionals; the rise of public education, then, involved a relatively automatic and decentralized response to a changing market for labor. Others argue that social disorganization wrought by the manufacturing system led members of elite groups to establish and support public education as a means to ensure the stability of the social arrangements from which they profited. In this article, Alexander James Field uses a wide range of data from nineteenth-century Massachusetts to assess the relative merits of these two schools of thought. While he notes that both explanations are accurate in some degree, he concludes that, in Massachusetts at least, the actions of economic elites in the political arena did more to establish mass public education than did the demands of individuals in the educational marketplace.
Loss as a Theme in Social Policy
Authors: Cohen David
Published: May 2015

Historians and social researchers have viewed social policy in America as primarily concerned with issues of equality. In this article, David K. Cohen argues that an equally important theme—a sense of loss—has gone largely unnoticed. Examining the role of loss in the historical development of social policy for public education,he demonstrates that policies aimed at creating equality have been confounded—and to some extent undermined—by policies aimed at repairing loss. The author contends that in general the sense of loss has led to a vision of community which is based on order and compulsion. He argues, however, that community may be organized on principles of reciprocity, equality, and choice. The author reviews alternative explanations for why the sense of loss has been pervasive and persistent; he offers the view that loss persists and community eludes us because of a particular cultural bias, and he illustrates how this bias continues to affect social policy.
Academic Evaluation and Grading: An Analysis and Some Proposals
Authors: Huntley John
Published: May 2015

The problem of "grade inflation," soaring since the 1960s, has prompted condemnation of current grading practices and calls for reform of the system of academic evaluation. Reformers decry the predominant ABC model of grading, and its offspring the GPA, as failing to convey much valid information about actual student mastery of learning, relative either to peers' achievements or to objective criteria. In this article, John F. Huntley describes the inadequacies of the present grading system and offers a new model, based upon intrinsic rather than extrinsic evaluation. He attempts to root his intrinsic evaluation system in a standard which is more clearcut than the letter-grade model and therefore less subject to grade inflation. After relating how intrinsic evaluation fared in his own classroom practice,he suggests ways in which his approach might be used more widely.
Some Comparative Principles of Educational Stratification
Authors: Collins Randall
Published: May 2015

During the 1950s and early 1960s functionalism, which held that education socializes the young and provides socially necessary technical skills, provided the dominant explanation for the genesis and role of educational systems. In the late 1960s,various neo-Marxist positions appeared which pointed to education's role in maintaining class inequality. Drawing on the work of Max Weber, Randall Collins proposes to move beyond both types of explanation by demonstrating the role of three sources of demand for education—the demand of individuals for practical skills,the desire of groups for social solidarity and high status, and the concern of states for effective political control. These sources and their consequences can be conceptualized as operating within a market for cultural goods which behaves much like the market for economic goods.
Street-Level Bureaucrats and Institutional Innovation: Implementing Special-Education Reform
Authors: Weatherley Richard , Lipsky Michael
Published: May 2015

Recent state and federal legislation holds the promise of sweeping reform in special-education practices. In this article, Richard Weatherley and Michael Lipsky examine the implementation of Chapter 766, the dramatically innovative state special-education law in Massachusetts. They show how the necessary coping mechanisms that individual school personnel use to manage the demands of their jobs may, in the aggregate, constrain and distort the implementation of special-education reform. Their findings have serious implications for those seeking to introduce policy innovations in service bureaucracies of all kinds where the deliverers of service exercise substantial discretion in setting their work priorities.
The Nature of Literacy: An Historical Exploration
Authors: Resnick Daniel , Resnick Lauren
Published: May 2015

In this article Daniel and Lauren Resnick bring an historical perspective to the present debate over reading achievement. From an historical examination of selected European and American models of literacy, they conclude that reading instruction has been aimed at attaining either a low level of literacy for a large number of people or a high level for an elite. Thus, the contemporary expectation—high levels of literacy for the entire population—represents a relatively recent development. From this stance the Resnicks argue that, contrary to the thrust of the "back to basics" movement, pedagogical practices from the past offer little remedy for reading problems as currently defined.
Making Sense of Reading— And of Reading Instruction
Authors: Smith Frank
Published: May 2015

For many years researchers and educators have sought to specify the prerequisites for learning to read. Physical, intellectual, and perceptual factors are often cited as the necessary precursors. Frank Smith has often argued that reading is not a matter of decoding but consists of bringing meaning to print. In this essay Smith claims that the essential antecedents of reading consist of two cognitive insights:that written language is meaningful and that written language is different from spoken language. Smith discusses the importance of each of these insights and explains how children typically learn them. He argues that current instructional practices may thwart the learning of these insights and suggests ways in which parents and teachers may help children to understand that reading makes sense.
Learning about Psycholinguistic Processes by Analyzing Oral Reading
Authors: Goodman Kenneth , Goodman Yetta
Published: May 2015

Kenneth and Yetta Goodman argue that reading, like speaking and writing, is an active language process in which readers display their sophistication as functional psycholinguists. The authors note, however, that it is difficult to gain access to and understand these active, underlying processes. To make such processes accessible,the authors advocate the use of oral reading as a data base. The Goodmans maintain that when oral readers depart from the written text—when miscues occur—the underlying processes of reading begin to be revealed. Using examples from children and adults, the authors present a typology of miscues and demonstrate how miscues provide a window on reading and other language processes. Throughout the article the Goodmans note the implications of miscue analysis for research and teaching.
In Memory of Robert Ulich 1890-1977
Authors: Messerli Jonathan
Published: May 2015

Robert Ulich, professor emeritus of educational history and philosophy at the Harvard University Graduate School of Education, died in his native Germany June 16, 1977. He was 87. In an affiliation that began in the 1930s and continued through the 1950s, Professor Ulich played a major role in the history of the Harvard Educational Review as an editor, contributor, and friend. As Associate Editor from 1945 to 1950, he was instrumental in the Review's transition from faculty to student governance. Thereafter, he maintained a strong interest in the development and direction of the journal.
Pierre Bourdieu: The Cultural Transmission of Social Inequality
Authors: Swartz David
Published: May 2015

A persistent problem in social science is the lack of good translations of major research done in other countries. This form of linguistic provincialism has been especially true of the works of Pierre Bourdieu, a leading French sociologist,whose studies on higher educational institutions now command much of the attention given to the sociology of education in France.1 Five of Bourdieu's articles have recently been translated into English and appear in several readers on the sociology of education. Similarly, this year marked the appearance in English of Reproduction:In Education, Society and Culture, a highly innovative and widely discussed work by Bourdieu and his collaborator, Jean-Claude Passeron. Finally, a sixth article by Bourdieu and an earlier book with Passeron, The Heirs: Students and Culture, are forthcoming in English translation.4 An initial assessment of Bourdieu's theory and research is now possible with the availability of these works in English. This essay will give a descriptive overview of salient features of Bourdieu's approach to educational institutions; the distinctive contributions he has made to the field will be identified and criticized.
Structuring School Structure
Authors: Mehan Hugh
Published: May 2015

In this article Hugh Mehan calls for a new approach to the study of schooling. He notes that the research methods that dominated the study of school effects in the last two decades—large-scale surveys and field observation—have failed to examine the processes by which school participants create school structures. The approach Mehan advocates, "constitutive ethnography," would give equal attention to the processes as well as the outcomes of structuring activities. He outlines the method of constitutive ethnography and illustrates its application in studies of classroom organization, testing encounters, and counseling sessions. Mehan concludes by calling for "constitutive career studies" of individuals as they participate in a range of school events.
The Crime of Precocious Sexuality: Female Juvenile Delinquency in the Progressive Era
Authors: Schlossman Steven , Wallach Stephanie
Published: May 2015

The juvenile justice system's discrimination against poor and minority children has been well documented, but the system's discrimination on the basis of gender has been less widely recognized. Drawing on neglected court records and secondary sources, Steven Schlossman and Stephanie Wallach show how girls bore a disproportionate share of the burden of juvenile justice in the Progressive era. The authors note that during the Progressive era female juvenile delinquents often received more severe punishments than males, even though boys usually were charged with more serious crimes. Schlossman and Wallach conclude that the discriminatory treatment of female delinquents in the early twentieth century resulted from racial prejudice, new theories of adolescence, and Progressive-era movements to purify society.
Pardon Us, But What Was the Question Again?: A Response to the Critique of the Follow Through Evaluation
Authors: Anderson Richard , St. Pierre Robert , Proper Elizabeth , Stebbins Linda
Published: May 2015

Abt Associates' five-year analysis of the national Follow Through data has reached several conclusions about the performance of this bold and costly educational experiment. These conclusions have important implications for gobernment, for educators, and for researchers. A Ford Foundation-funded and widely disseminated critique written by House, Glass, McLean, and Walker (1978), Which appears in this volume, does not take issue with any of these conclusions. The House group gives prominent mention, in fact, to only one of them, and while it comments favorably on that conclusion, it does so in a context of such shrill negativism that the reader of the critique must carry away the impression that we have said nothing that is either valid or important. We do not concur. People who care about education should care about what we have learned.
Follow Through Redux: A Response to the Critique by House, Glass, McLean, and Walker
Authors: Wisler Carl , Burns, Jr. Gerald , Iwamoto David
Published: May 2015

Most of the issues discussed by House, Glass, McLean,and Walker (1978) in their critique of the Follow Through evaluation are related to outcome measures, analysis methods, and ways of summarizing and interpreting results, although they also give recommendations for evaluation procedures generally. We believe that their critique is misleading in its interpretation of what the evaluation's findings were,what conclusions could be drawn from them, and, by implication, what evaluation research can contribute to decision making in education. But while we disagree with much that is in the critique, we noetheless recognize that there are some major problems in evaluative research. Although these problems are not peculiar to the Follow Through evaluation, they are at least exemplified by it.