bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Review of the Problems Posed By Spills of Heavy Fuel Oils
Authors: Ansell D. V. , Dicks B. , Guenette C. C. , Moller T. H. , Santner R. S. , White I. C.
Published: January 2013

Experience shows that spills of persistent heavy fuel oils, whether from cargo carried on tankers or bunker fuel used by ships in general, are among the most difficult to combat. Because of their viscous nature, which leads to prolonged persistence in the marine environment, these oils have the potential to cause widespread contamination of sensitive environmental and economic resources. This is also true for heavy crude oils and those crudes that form viscous and persistent emulsions, and many of the observations contained in this paper apply equally to such oils.

The paper highlights some of the specific problems that the International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation Limited (ITOPF) staff have experienced during their on-site involvement in over 150 fuel oil spills during the last 25 years including incidents such as the Eleni V (United Kingdom/Netherlands, 1978), Tanio (France, 1980), Nestucca (United States/Canada, 1988), Korea Hope (South Korea, 1990), Vista Bella (Caribbean, 1991), Katina P (Mozambique, 1992), Morris J Berman (Puerto Rico, 1994), Apollo Sea (South Africa), Iron Baron (Australia, 1995), Nakhodka (Japan, 1997), Evoikos (Singapore, 1997), Kure (United States, 1997), New Carissa (United States, 1999), Erika (France, 1999), Volgoneft 248 (Turkey, 1999), and Treasure (South Africa, 2000).

This review of the practical lessons that can be learned from past events is intended to provide an informed basis for the selection of more effective response techniques and equipment, and for the development of improved spill response management and contingency planning.
Oil Spill Response Training and Exercises in Norway: Are We Prepared?1
Authors: Ly Johan Marius
Published: January 2013

The Norwegian Pollution Control Authority (SFT) is responsible for coordinating a national contingency system against oil pollution in Norway. As part of this responsibility, SFT has conducted training and exercises for the private, municipal, and governmental contingency organizations for more than 20 years.

This paper presents the current oil spill response preparedness in Norway and outlines different training and exercise programs adapted to the various levels of responsibility and the geographical areas of response. Furthermore, some of the issues and challenges faced by the reduction of governmental funding for training and exercises are discussed.
EurOPA Is Coming1
Authors: Rutherford Donna J. , Bell Matteson B.
Published: January 2013

In the few short months since the Erika sinking, a push for stronger European maritime safety regulations has been proposed. Classification societies have come under fire to tighten standards and surveys for aging vessels. Changes, as an evolutionary process, are time-consuming and often slow; however, a catastrophic event may accelerate this change. The Exxon Valdez is a prime example of a catastrophe that preceded intense change in U.S. legislation and regulatory requirements; the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 was the eventual climax of the responses to this major spill. As the Exxon Valdez was the catalyst for major legislative and regulatory changes in the United States, the Erika could possibly be the European equivalent. This paper looks into the changes in U.S. legislation implemented after the Exxon Valdez and primarily, the aftermath of the Erika to European and international legislation as it pertains to the shipping industry.
The Erika Oil Spill: Laboratory Studies Conducted To Assist Responders
Authors: Guyomarc'h Julien , Merlin François-X , Budzinski Hélène , Mazeas Laurent , Chaumery Christian , Haeseler Frank , Oudot Jean
Published: January 2013

Immediately following the Erika oil spill, responders raised many questions concerning the identification of the fuel oil, its behavior in the water column, and physical properties, potential toxicity, environmental impacts, and the feasibility of various countermeasures to treat the spill. Several laboratories in France conducted simultaneous complementary investigations. The Laboratoire d'Analyse de Surveillance et d'Expertise de la Marine (LASEM) performed oil analyses of various samples collected at sea and on the shore for identification as well as for confirming the oil drifting predictions. The CEntre de Documentation de Recherche et d'Expérimentations sur les pollutions accidentelles des eaux (CEDRE) studied oil behavior and its physical properties under realistic conditions in its flume test canal to predict the evolution of the product spilled at sea. Simultaneously, the Institut Français du Pétrole (IFP) and the Laboratoire de Physico-Toxico Chimie des systèmes naturels (LPTC) carried out oil chemical analyses of the polyaromatic compounds and the water accommodated fractions for environmental risk assessments. Finally, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle (MNHN) investigated the possibility for oil biodegradation through laboratory experiments. This experimental information was of great interest for response operations. Field observations validated laboratory predictions, especially those concerning physical properties.
Alyeska Pipeline Service Company's Response Training Program
Authors: Chelgren-Koterba Pam , Knutsen Gregg , Hankins Paul
Published: January 2013

In January 2000, the Alaska Statewide Oil and Hazardous Substance Incident Management System workgroup, convened under the auspices of the Alaska Regional Response Team (ARRT), submitted standardized spill response management guidelines to the ARRT These guidelines lay out minimum training needs of personnel in a variety of spill response positions including both those in the field and the Incident Management Team. These guidelines were established after extensive workgroup actions designed to comprehensively and accurately capture response information.

This paper will examine these guidelines through a look at Alyeska Pipeline Service Company's Ship Escort Response Vessel System (SERVS) training standards and preparedness. It will show how SERVS and other Alyeska training requirements meet and/or exceed the recommendations of the ARRT-sponsored guidelines. The paper will explore the various avenues of training offered by Alyeska, including classroom instruction, on-the-job training opportunities available for employee development, and outside training classes/courses to which Alyeska has sent its employees. The paper will frame these discussions within a description of the minimum qualifications required for each position. As a key contributor to the guidelines, Alyeska Valdez Business Unit has used the guide to streamline its response training program. The training program set up by the Alyeska Business Unit compares very favorably to the statewide ARRT-recommended training levels by function and management level after an exhaustive review of our training processes. The paper will review how this training review process factors in prior work and training equivalencies into the Alyeska Valdez Business Unit program, promoting personnel assignment flexibility and efficiency.

Through this discussion of the elements of the Alyeska Valdez Business Unit training program and a comparison of the program to the ARRT guidelines, the reader will have a better understanding of the tools required to develop a comprehensive spill prevention and response training program, while considering the inevitable pressures of resource and time constraints on that program.
Scaling of Injury To Reef Flat Habitats Resulting From Removal Actions of Grounded Vessels in Pago Pago, American Samoa
Authors: Michel Jacqueline , Zengel Scott , Cotsapas Linos , Dahlin Jeffrey , Hoff James
Published: January 2013

In 1999, the U.S. Coast Guard developed an Incident Action Plan (IAP) to remove oil and hazardous materials from nine foreign-owned tuna longliner vessels grounded on the reef flat within Pago Pago Harbor, American Samoa. This plan involved the construction of rock and trestle causeways and rock working platforms to access the clusters of vessels, and partial removal of the vessels to access the oil and hazardous materials onboard. A natural resource damage assessment (NRDA) study was conducted to quantify the injuries associated with the response action and scale emergency restoration alternatives. A rapid field assessment program was implemented to characterize the benthic habitats around the grounded vessels and in the footprints of the proposed rock and trestle causeways and working platforms. Likely impacts to the dominant habitat types (coral, algal turf, and Halimeda/algal turf communities) from the proposed response actions were: (1) crushing and mortality in areas of fill deposition; (2) partial crushing in spillage zones around fill areas; (3) damages to the reef flat rock platform and framework due to collapse and fracturing; (4) physical injury from remobilization of residual materials remaining on the flat after fill removal; (5) water quality impacts from increased suspended sediment levels during fill placement, use, and removal; and (6) shading impacts to biota under trestles. These injuries were quantified in terms of the dimensions and degree of mortality and/or reduced function for different impacts. Habitat recovery rates for physical crushing and shading were developed, as well. Emergency restoration options were identified and scaled in terms of habitat credits, with one of the preferred options being complete removal of the vessel hulls followed by reef stabilization.
Industry and Government Roles in Addressing Historic Properties in Oil Spill Response: Lessons Learned From A Recent Exercise and Incidents
Authors: Toriello Tina M. , Thorman Jan , Bergmann Pamela , Waldbauer Richard
Published: January 2013

This paper focuses on industry and government roles for addressing historic properties during oil spill response. In 1997, the National Response Team (NRT) developed a Programmatic Agreement on Protection of Historic Properties during Emergency Response under the National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan (PA) (National Response Team, 1997). At the 1999 International Oil Spill Conference (IOSC), U.S. Department of the Interior (DOI) representatives discussed the development and implementation of the PA, which is intended to ensure that historic properties are appropriately taken into account during the planning for and conducting of emergency response to oil spills and hazardous substance releases. Following the 1999 IOSC, DOI and Chevron representatives began a dialog regarding industry and government roles under the PA. Chevron invited the DOI representatives to participate in an October 1999 large-scale, industry-led spill exercise; a precedent-setting drill that included historic properties protection as a key objective. This 2001 paper focuses on how industry and government have worked together to protect historic properties, government roles in PA implementation, and lessons learned.

As an example of what industry can do to support the protection of historic properties during planning and response activities, this paper describes Chevron's Historic Properties Program, a program managed under its emergency spill response environmental functional team (EFT). A discussion of lessons learned focuses on the need for clear definition of industry and government roles, and the benefits of building a foundation of cooperation between industry and government to protect historic properties. Of particular importance is the inclusion of historic properties in all aspects of oil spill preparedness and response, including planning, drills, training, and response organization structure and staffing. Experience from incident response in Alaska has shown that the PA assists Federal On-Scene Coordinators (FOSCs) and responsible parties, while also protecting historic properties, when the FOSC is prepared to implement the PA promptly and effectively.
Meeting the Challenge of Deepwater Spill Response
Authors: LaBelle Robert P. , Lane James S.
Published: January 2013

Close to 25% of all oil and gas produced in the United States comes from offshore production. A new era for the Gulf of Mexico has begun with intense industry interest in deepwater (> 300 m) areas. Production from deepwater now represents about 46% of all U.S. offshore oil and 17% of U.S. offshore gas. Spill response plans and capabilities must be upgraded to meet the challenges of this new remote activity. This paper outlines a joint research effort underway between government and industry to address needed research on deep spill plume and trajectory behavior and surveillance. Major topics discussed include the application of results from a June 2000 deepwater experimental release of oil and gas offshore Norway, findings from several laboratory studies on plume characterization, and an upgraded numerical model for deep spill trajectories. There is much interest from the offshore industry as to how these research findings will be incorporated into federal review of oil spill response plans for deepwater projects.
Saudi Aramco Oil Spill Approach, Prevention, and Readiness
Authors: Zayer Mohammed H.
Published: January 2013

The oceans are a major source of food, livelihood, recreation, trade, and, in the case of many desert or semi-desert countries, a source of fresh water. In addition oceans serve as the primary carriers of another precious resource, petroleum.

Saudi Aramco's environmental policy is to ensure that its operations do not create undue risk to the environment or public health. It also states that the company will conduct its operation with full concern for the protection of land, air, and water from harmful pollution. To carry out this policy, the company has taken several important precautionary and preparatory measures to ensure minimization of pollution from its operation at the various sectors. Saudi Aramco has adopted the age-old maxim that an ounce of prevention is better than a pound of cure. Since oil is a major potential source of marine pollution, the company has started with minimizing the accidental introduction of oil into the marine environment.
Erika Oil Pumping: Successful Application of Oil Project Methodology
Authors: Bocquillon Gérard , Bouquier Laurent , Guyonnet Pierre
Published: January 2013

In December 1999, the tanker Erika, with a cargo of heavy fuel oil, broke in two and sank off the French coast. The oil spill resulted in widespread pollution and caused public outrage. Assessments indicated that both sections of the wreck still contained sizeable amounts of oil. The risk of subsequent pollution required that the remaining cargo be neutralized quickly.

TotalFinaElf volunteered to make its offshore expertise available to the French authorities and to finance the operation. Major challenges involved were the sea conditions, the state of the wreck, the viscosity of the fuel oil, and the time schedule. The project team set the objective of completing the operation by the end of the summer.

In neutralizing the cargo, the project team applied the same sequence of studies as for any industrial project. Technical options were evaluated with respect to various criteria, and the pumping option was chosen. Process engineering went through the same phases as complex reservoir engineering—a mathematical simulator was calibrated using experiments and a pilot unit was built. When engineering studies were sufficiently advanced, contractors were asked to tender.

An impressive fleet of vessels was mobilized, and the project was a complete success. The deadline was met, with the cargo being pumped out at an unprecedented rate thanks to the availability of adequate resources and the implementation of oil project management methodology.
The Erika Oil Spill: The Bird Rescue Response
Authors: Lamy André , Jacques Jean Pierre , Le Dréan-Quénec'hdu Sophie
Published: January 2013

On December 12, 1999, the 30,000-ton tanker Erika broke apart 100 km off the coast of Brittany, one of Europe's most pristine natural environments. France immediately launched a prepared countermeasure, the Polmar plan, designed to minimize the impact of the disaster on the sea and shore. In spite of the relatively small amount of fuel released, the location of the spill in high seas and the bad weather conditions caused the pollution to spread widely along the coastline over a number of weeks. Wildlife centers were mobilized to handle the anticipated load of 1,000 oiled birds. In the end, more than 15,000 birds were captured alive. The sea birds impacted were mainly guillemots and, to a lesser extent, scoters and gannets. TotalFinaElf helped the triage centers by providing finances, medical material, water-heating facilities, and several automated bird-washing devices with specialized detergent. The group funds the medical studies undertaken on the oiled birds in the triage center of the National Veterinary School (ENV) of Nantes. It also works in partnership with the French National Bird Rescue Association to improve the emergency response plan by defining their needs in terms of equipment and to provide a consensual “oiled-bird caring protocol” manual.

This report will both assess the existing response program by detailing the chronological implementation of the emergency plan for the oiled birds and present the first results of the medical studies undertaken. It will detail the types of birds impacted, the methods by which they were cured and cleaned, an analysis of their condition, the efforts made to improve the treatments, and, most importantly, the medical questions raised by such a situation.
WILDLIFE CAPTURE AND STABILIZATION TRAINING
Authors: Hillman Sharon O.
Published: January 2013

Alyeska Pipeline Service Company (“Alyeska”) facilitates a 2-day wildlife capture and stabilization course for fishing vessel personnel and staff who may be assisting during an oil spill The course involves hands-on training for participants who would be likely to capture or care for birds and small mammals in such a response. The course provides an understanding of: Alyeska's wildlife response program, field operations, and summary of wildlife anatomy and physiology as it relates to the capture and stabilization program; internal and external effects of oil on birds and mammals (especially sea otters); and basic concepts of wild bird and small mammal capture, care, and stabilization techniques.
SITE INFORMATION AND SPILL RESPONSE STRATEGY (SISRS) AND THE SISRS DATABASE: CALIFORNIA'S APPROACH TO MARINE OIL SPILL PROTECTION PLANNING AND RESPONSE FOR SENSITIVE SITES1
Authors: Jochums Carl , Ung Spencer
Published: January 2013

The California Department of Fish and Game (DFG) has developed a database of sensitive site information and oil spill protection strategies as a part of the California coastal contingency planning. The Site Information and Spill Response Strategy (SISRS) approach was developed to enable involvement and ownership of Port Area Contingency Plan (ACP) strategies among stakeholders, as well as provide consistency in site documentation and strategy development for the widely variable habitats of the long California coast. Through site visits and tabletop discussions, the Area Committee uses this approach to incorporate the input of state and federal trustees, contingency planners, and stakeholders (industry, spill response co-ops and contractors, environmentalists, other agencies) to form a consensus on the appropriate site protection strategies and response resources. This information is stored in the SISRS database.

The SISRS database has important benefits. It generates uniform Site Summary and Site Strategy pages across the six ACPs of California. Through the Internet, the database maximizes the opportunity to use the ACP as both a planning tool and a response tool. As a planning tool, the ACP and the generative database, maintained by the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG), is the relatively rigid benchmark for the contingency planning for regulated facilities and vessels under state and federal laws, and is a ready digital information source. As a response tool, DFG maintains the SISRS database (on its Web site), which includes strategy revisions as often as the Area Committee approves revisions and updates. This database is used to expedite the spill response and produce Incident Command System (ICS) response documents with the most current information. The response version is a ready source of information for third-party software products for spill response management, such as response forms and resource ordering and management documents.
THE GRAPHICAL RESOURCE DATABASE: FOUNDATION FOR GEOGRAPHIC RESPONSE PLANS
Authors: Hankins Paul F. , Wilson Douglas A.
Published: January 2013

Geographic Response Strategies (GRSs) proliferating in the Prince William Sound and Kodiak Island, Alaska area are relying increasingly on the Graphical Resource Database (GRD) sensitive resources maps. GRD allows response planners to select GRS sites from thousands of miles of remote, highly sensitive shoreline.

GRD consists of a stand-alone Geographic Information System (GIS) containing maps, photos, and thousands of records contributed by 15 state and federal agencies and two citizens' regional councils. GRD addresses the Southcentral Alaska coastline centered on Prince William Sound and stretching 800 kilometers from the Copper River to Kodiak Island. Alyeska Pipeline Service Company in Valdez maintains the database as a GIS. Alyeska distributes annual updates on 500-megabyte CD-ROMs to more than 40 public and industry response-planning groups.
FUNDING OF OIL SPILL SCIENCE IN LOUISIANA: 50 PROJECTS AND STILL COUNTING
Authors: Davis Donald W. , Dubusschere Karolien
Published: January 2013

Immediately following the Exxon Valdez incident, Alaska, California, Texas, and Louisiana law makers enacted complementary legislation to the federal Oil Pollution Act of 1990. Among other things, the Louisiana legislation provides $530,000 annually, through the Louisiana Applied and Educational Oil Spill Research and Development Program (OSRADP), to underwrite oil spill research. Although in some areas interest in oil spill research may be waning, this is not the case in Louisiana. In fact, the program may be getting stronger. Since the fall of 1993, the OSRADP has awarded 83 grants in support of 50 projects (some are 2- year projects); the average award has been $46,925. This paper briefly summarizes projected completed as of May 1999.

Through the coordination and cooperation of industry, government, and university community, OSRADP's research mission has promoted scientific endeavors based on a 1- or 2-year turnaround plan. This mission requires rigorous oversight and a dedicated research commitment. OSRADP's goals and objectives are designed to ensure all research projects are applied in nature and designed to take advantage of synergies. The program focuses on: (1) education, training, and public awareness; (2) remote sensing and mapping; (3) spill response, cleanup, and harmful ecological consequences; and (4) spills-of opportunity.

It is critical that the science developed with OSRADP support is incorporated into the oil industry's planning and response strategies with the approval and support of the various regulatory agencies. Investment in the research initiatives can only be justified when the regulatory community incorporates the research results/material in their oil spill cleanup protocols. Louisiana takes the position that planning and response can be enhanced by good science and supports this philosophy by annually underwriting up to 14 research projects.
THE THREAT OF OIL SPILLS FROM STORAGE TANKS AT END USER FACILITIES
Authors: Yoshioka Gary , Vitale Elisa
Published: January 2013

The oil pollution prevention program of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) addresses a large regulated community—the owners and operators of several hundred thousand nontransportation-related facilities. Regulated oil facilities generally are thought of as refineries, terminals, production field tanks, fuel oil dealers, or gasoline service stations. Some studies of the nationwide petroleum storage capacity do not even consider tanks owned by petroleum consumers, while others recognize that end users constitute a significant part of the nation's oil storage. The storage capacity of fixed petroleum tankage in the tertiary segment (agricultural, commercial, electric utility, industrial, military/government, residential, and transportation sectors) is estimated to comprise more than 20 % of the total U.S. storage capacity. EPA estimates that more than one-half of the facilities required to prepare Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasure (SPCC) plans are such end users.

The focus of oil pollution prevention, of course, is preventing spills. Several years ago, an American Petroleum Institute report on aboveground storage tank incidents stated that more than 25% of large petroleum releases in the United States were from tanks controlled by companies outside the petroleum industry. Recent data on large spills (10,000 gallons or more) show similar patterns. Of course, most nontransportation-related spills are from storage tanks or facilities in the petroleum industry (production wells, refineries, terminals, tank farms, and fuel oil dealers). More than 40%, however, are from electric utilities, manufacturing plants, military bases, airports, railroad yards, and other end user facilities. Smaller spills come from a variety of facility types. It is important for EPA and other groups to recognize the end user community and the threat of spills from end user facilities, and to begin to work with the owners and operators of end user facilities to educate them about EPA's oil pollution prevention regulation.
DISPERSION CHARACTERISTICS AND ASSOCIATED ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS IN THE UNLIKELY EVENT OF AN ORIMULSION® SPILL
Authors: Villoria C. Carlos M. , Masciangioli C. Pánfilo A.
Published: January 2013

Orimulsion® is a natural bitumen in water emulsion (70% bitumen, 30% water), that is stabilized by a surfactant (less than 0.2%). Orimulsion® is a relatively new fuel that is currently used in several electric-generating stations worldwide. Acceptance and use of the fuel are expected to increase in the very near future. An important consideration in using Orimulsion® as a fuel is the environmental risk associated with the unlikely event of a spill during transportation and trans loading.

This paper shows the dispersion characteristics and the possible environmental impacts of Orimulsion® when this is eventually spilled at sea based on theoretical considerations, laboratory studies, open-sea spill tests, and analytical and numerical modeling.® The results indicate that in the unlikely event of an Orimulsion® spill, it will pose a very low risk of affectation to the biological species that may be in contact with the product. Because of the emulsified characteristics of the product, the dispersion of the bitumen droplets and the dilution of the surfactant will be relatively fast, reaching very low concentrations in the water column in a matter of hours.

The SIMAP model was used to simulate an instantaneous spill of 22,000 barrels of Orimulsion® in a general place without currents and very low turbulence level to evaluate the development of the bitumen droplets cloud. The purpose is to follow the maximum bitumen concentration in order to be compared with the results of different toxicity tests reported in the literature, which represents the worst case scenario for organisms' impact. The results show that all the toxicity values remain relatively far above the maximum bitumen concentration curve. Therefore, if for the worst case scenario the possible environmental impacts of a 22,000-barrel Orimulsion® spills are very low, for normal sea conditions and a smaller spill size, it is expected that the maximum concentration curve will separate even more from the LC50 values, which imply a much lower impact on the marine organisms.
A COLD-WEATHER SPECIES' RESPONSE TO CHEMICALLY DISPERSED FRESH AND WEATHERED ALASKA NORTH SLOPE CRUDE OIL
Authors: Rhoton Sara L. , Perkins Robert A. , Behr-Andres Christina , Braddock Joan F.
Published: January 2013

The University of Alaska Fairbanks (UAF) joined the Chemical Response to Oil Spills: Ecological Effects Research Forum (CROSERF) in 1997. In 1998 and 1999, UAF tested the toxicity of: (1) an oil dispersant, COREXIT®9500; (2) the water-accommodated fraction (WAF) of Alaska North Slope (ANS) crude oil as well as the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)-standard, Prudhoe Bay crude oil (EPA); and (3) the chemically-enhanced water-accommodated fraction (CE-WAF) of ANS as well as EPA. Tests also were performed with ANS samples that had been artificially weathered to remove most of the volatile components (weathered ANS). Species tested were a juvenile mysid, Mysidopsis bahia, and the larvae of an estuarine fish, Menidia beryllina. Parallel testing with bacteria using the Microtox® test was performed and results compared. Overall, UAF's procedures and results were consistent with that of other CROSERF labs. These procedures use 25 °C water.

In 1998 and 1999, UAF tested the larvae of a crab native to Alaska, the Tanner crab, Chionoecetes bairdi. The crab larvae were tested with COREXIT®9500, ANS, and weathered ANS. During gestation the gravid crabs were kept in fresh seawater at temperatures of 6 to 8°C, and larval testing also was done at those temperatures. The results of the fresh oil tests showed that, for both the WAF and CE-WAF, the crab larvae sensitivity was similar to that of M. beryllina during a spiked exposure, but the crab larvae proved to be more sensitive during a continuous exposure. For weathered ANS, the result was highly dependent on the analysis and reporting techniques. A heavy loading of weathered oil was required to produce a low concentration of WAF because of the relative insolubility of the weathered oil.
TOXICITY OF PHYSICALLY AND CHEMICALLY DISPERSED OILS UNDER CONTINUOUS AND ENVIRONMENTALLY REALISTIC EXPOSURE CONDITIONS: APPLICABILITY TO DISPERSANT USE DECISIONS IN SPILL RESPONSE PLANNING
Authors: Clark James R. , Bragin Gail E. , Febbo Eric J. , Letinski Daniel J.
Published: January 2013

As part of efforts to develop standardized testing protocols under the Chemical Response to Oil Spills Environmental Research Forum (CROSERF) and apply the results to real-world scenarios, three types of oils and two dispersants were tested in both continuous and short-term spiked exposures using the early life-stages of several marine organisms. Test species included embryo-larval stages of Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas), two marine mysids (Holmesimysis costata and Mysidopsis bahia), and two marine fishes (turbot, Scophthalmus maximus and inland silverside, Menidia beryllina). Oils were physically dispersed in seawater by vortex mixing in a flask and chemically dispersed using the same approach with COREXIT® 9527 or COREXIT® 9500 applied in a 10:1 oil-to-dispersant ratio to generate maximum exposure concentrations. Continuous exposure tests followed standard testing protocols for 96-hour or 48-hour duration, according to demands of the test species. Spiked exposures reflect continuous dilution of water column concentrations (half-life ∼107 minutes), as observed in the field when oil is dispersed into open waters. Results are reported as the acute LC50s. Tests oils included fresh and weathered Kuwait crude, fresh Forties crude, and a Medium Fuel Oil (MFO) mix. Exposure concentrations for oil tests were quantified using gas chromatography and expressed as the sum of the C10 to C36 components, or TPH(resoived). Dispersant exposure concentrations were verified by UV spectrophotometric analysis. Not all species were tested with each oil and dispersant.

For dispersants tested individually, constant exposure LC50s ranged from 3 to 75 mg/L, with oyster the most sensitive and turbot the least sensitive species. Spiked exposure LC50s ranged from 14 to >1055 mg/L among all test species. Dispersants were up to 36 times less toxic under spiked exposure conditions compared to similar treatments under constant exposure conditions. For oils, LC50s based on TPH(resolved) are similar for both the physically and chemically dispersed oil, demonstrating that dispersant did not increase the toxicity of oils based on measured exposures. Under constant exposure conditions, test species are very similar in sensitivity to the oils, with most LC50s around 0.5 ppm TPH(resolyed). Spiked exposures were 4 to 100 fold less toxic to these test organisms. The more environmentally realistic spiked exposures demonstrate that standard, continuous exposure test data overestimate the potential toxicity of dispersed oil. When laboratory toxicity data are used as part of a dispersant approval process for spill response, the decision should take into account whether exposure durations and sensitivity of test species are representative of conditions in the spill area.
MAKING, MEASURING, AND USING WATER-ACCOMMODATED FRACTIONS OF PETROLEUM FOR TOXICITY TESTING
Authors: Singer Michael M. , Aurand Don V. , Coelho Gina M. , Bragin Gail E. , Clark James R. , Sowby Michael , Tjeerdema Ronald S.
Published: January 2013

Oil spill response can be highly affected by the perceived costs and benefits of a particular countermeasure. Responders' perceptions of these can be influenced by the means in which scientific data are collected and presented. To date, a large amount of information has been generated on the aquatic toxicity of oil, dispersants, and dispersed oil. Unfortunately, many of these data are not comparable because of differing toxicological and analytical methodologies, as well as frequent lack of analytical verification of exposures. Recently, a group of federal, state, academic, and industry representatives from North America and Europe have been working toward standardizing both biological and analytical methods used to produce acute toxicity estimates for complex mixtures such as oil, dispersants, and dispersed oil. This standardization provides guidelines for future investigations to be conducted in a sufficiently rigorous manner to allow both inter- and intra-laboratory dataset comparisons, thus providing a more coherent and robust database from which to derive response guidance. By encouraging the use of these standardizations, it is hoped that decision-makers can be provided with a clearer understanding of the acute toxicological results of oil dispersal, and that such information can be more properly integrated into the response planning and decision-making processes.
ANALYSIS OF OIL SPILL TRENDS IN THE UNITED STATES AND WORLDWIDE
Authors: Etkin Dagmar Schmidt
Published: January 2013

This presentation examines trends in U.S. oil spillage, with respect to historical and current trends in the United States and worldwide, and analyzes potential influences on spill frequencies. Contrary to popular perceptions, the numbers of oil spills, as well as the amount spilled, have decreased significantly over the last two decades, particularly in the last few years despite overall increases in oil transport. Decreases are pronounced for vessels. U.S. pipelines now spill considerably more than tankers. Overall, U.S. oil spillage decreased 228% since the 1970s and 154% since the 1980s. This decrease mirrors international trends and can likely be attributed to reduced accident rates, due to preventive measures and increased concerns over escalating financial liabilities.
THE DEVELOPMENT AND TEST OF EQUIPMENT FOR RAPID REFLOTATION OF SPILLED ORIMULSION®
Authors: Hvidbak Flemming , Masciangioli P.
Published: January 2013

An Orimulsion® spill will behave differently to an oil spill by initially going into suspension as microscopic surfactant coated bitumen particles in the upper 2–3 meters below the sea surface. In case of spills at Orimulsion® marine terminals or nearshore, it is important to be able to rapidly refloat the bitumen. In this way, the spill could be converted to and treated as a conventional heavy oil spill, using booms and heavy oil skimmers.

Previous tests by INTEVEP and BITOR indicated that agitation, air injection, and splashing are important for a rapid formation and reflotation of bitumen droplets. This developed into the Forced Adhesion and Flotation (FAF) concept. However, besides the effect of a centrifugal pump's agitation, air injection received the major attention until it was discovered that the splashing effect was as important and at the same time simpler and less costly to employ.

As a result, the PNP Orimulsion® Refloater was developed: a floating submerged or nonsubmerged centrifugal pump that sucks from beneath the water surface and with great force discharges vertically up against a splash cover, from where the water splashes back to the surface. Enhanced agitation and very strong aeration causes a very efficient reflotation.
EMERGENCY TRANSFER OPERATIONS INVOLVING HEAVY OILS: TWO CASE STUDIES
Authors: Usher David , Edgar Kenneth
Published: January 2013

Recent marine casualty events in the United States and overseas, involving vessels that are not carrying oil as their primary cargo, have once again highlighted potential problems faced by response personnel when attempting to transfer heavy (high viscosity) oils such as marine fuel oils (MFOs) (Figure 1). During such operations, dealing with the high viscosities typically encountered with these products is an important aspect of the operation's planning, direction and overall success. The problem is not a new one and oil transfer specialists have, over the years, developed equipment and techniques for handling these products (Figure 2). This paper will elaborate upon some of those techniques by presenting two case histories where transfers of heavy oils was successfully accomplished under adverse conditions.
JOINT CANADA/UNITED STATES WILDLIFE RESPONSE PLANNING: DIXON ENTRANCE
Authors: Bergmann Pamela , Russo Nick
Published: January 2013

Neither wildlife nor oil spills acknowledge international boundaries. Both migratory birds and marine mammals move freely between Alaska in the United States and British Columbia in Canada, in the international boundary area known as Dixon Entrance in the North Pacific Ocean. An oil spill on one side of the border may be carried by winds and/or currents into the waters of the adjacent country. Recognition of these facts resulted in the development of the Canada/United States Joint Marine Pollution Contingency Plan, which was signed by the Canadian Coast Guard (CCG) and U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) in 1974. Annexes were subsequently prepared for five transboundary areas, including Dixon Entrance. Following the promulgation of these annexes, joint exercises have been held to enhance annex implementation.

In September 1999, at the request of the USCG and CCG, the U.S. Department of the Interior, Alaska Office of Environmental Policy and Compliance (DOI-OEPC) took the lead in organizing and chairing a workshop to discuss issues associated with wildlife response activities for oil spills that cross the Canada/United States border in Dixon Entrance. The workshop was held in Prince Rupert, British Columbia as part of a 4-day joint meeting. Workshop participants included representatives from key U.S. federal and Alaska State wildlife resource agencies, Canadian federal wildlife resource agencies, oil spill cooperatives for Southeast Alaska and British Columbia, and the USCG.

Wildlife resource agency representatives participating in the workshop reached consensus that the goal of wildlife protection is to make decisions based on what is best for the wildlife resources and then to determine how the goal can be accomplished within the constraints of each countries regulatory process. Agreement was reached to form a Canada/United States working group to develop a joint wildlife response plan. The plan, which will focus on migratory birds and sea otters, will address issues associated with the removal of dead oiled wildlife from the environment, hazing of unoiled wildlife, preemptive capture of sea otters, and capture and treatment of oiled migratory birds and sea otters. A draft plan will be developed prior to a September 2000, Canada/U.S. Dixon Entrance (CANUSDIX) joint meeting, which will be held in Ketchikan, Alaska.
OIL SPILLS AND FINANCIAL RESPONSIBILITIES1
Authors: Wu Chao , Carden Nigel
Published: January 2013

Under the international convention system for oil spill liability and compensation, shipowners and oil cargo owners are sharing the costs of oil pollution (cleanup and damages). While the industries find the burden of financial liability too heavy, the compensation provided through the Conventions (Civil Liability Conventions and Fund Conventions [CLCs/FCs]) has become increasingly insufficient to satisfy the total admissible claims. What has to be done? Increase the financial liability of the responsible parties? Let the victims of pollution shoulder part of their uncompensated claims alone? Neither can be fairly accepted. This paper will discuss a solution based on the theory of risk-profit, upon which the current Conventions (CLCs/FCs) are founded. In this regard, the paper also will compare the Conventions with a domestic regime—the U.S. Oil Pollution Act of 1990.
FASTWATER TECHNIQUES AND EQUIPMENT EVALUATION1
Authors: Hansen Kurt A.
Published: January 2013

About 70% of the oil transported on U.S. waterways between 1992 and 1997 were on waterways with currents that routinely exceed one knot. About 58% of all of the oil spilled (by volume) also occurred on these waterways. The U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) Research and Development Center has been evaluating the state-of-the-art of containment and cleanup of oil in currents over 1 knot since 1997. An assessment of techniques and equipment was performed that has led to a series of field demonstrations in the Columbia River, Vineyard Haven, and New York Harbor. Tests on other potential fastwater systems have also taken place at the OHMSETT Facility in New Jersey in 1999 and 2000. The results of the equipment evaluations are presented. The format for a fastwater field guide being prepared is also briefly described. The result will be an increase in the capability of both USCG and commercial firms to respond to spills in fast water.
FLEXIBLE, SUBMERGENCE PLANE OIL CONTAINMENT SYSTEMS
Authors: Swift M. Robinson , Dugan Patrick , Nourse Peter , Steen Robert , Celikkol Barbaros , Doane Christopher W. , Hansen Kurt A.
Published: January 2013

Flexible, floating submergence plane barriers were developed for intercepting and containing oil spills under fast water conditions, that is, at speeds greater than 0.5 m/s (1 knot). When the perpendicular component of relative velocity exceeds 0.5 m/s (1 knot), conventional oil booms are subject to leakage limiting their usefulness in currents and alongside vessels used in “sweeping” operations. In fast water, submergence plane barriers retain oil by allowing the flow to drive incident oil down an inclined bow to a gap opening where the oil enters and is trapped in a protected containment volume. After optimizing cross-section shape in flume tests using oil with a wide range of physical properties, two systems were developed—a moored containment configuration and a vessel of opportunity skimming system (VOSS).

A 12.2-m (40-foot) wide moored system prototype was constructed and tested at OHMSETT where it consistently retained heavy oil at speeds of 1 m/s (2 knots). Practical and logistical issues were addressed in field deployments carried out in the Piscataqua River, New Hampshire. In contrast, early VOSS experiments at high speeds showed that lift forces on the submergence plane needed to be counteracted by a horizontal hydrofoil mounted transversely below the submergence plane at a negative angle of attack. After development using a 1.7-m (5.6-foot) wide VOSS model in tow tank and field experiments, a 4.3-m (14-foot) wide model was constructed and tested at OHMSETT. The model towed level with no submergence plane rise at the top carriage speed of 3.3 m/s (6.5 knots). Nearly all heavy oil was retained at speeds below 1 m/s (2 knots), while 59% of the oil encountered was retained at a convenient vessel operating speed of 1.4 m/s (2.8 knots).
OPTIMIZATION OF AN OIL BOOM ARRANGEMENT
Authors: Fang Jianzhi , Wong Kau-Fui Vincent
Published: January 2013

The equipment under study is an innovative boom arrangement consisting of a ramp boom and three other conventional booms of different drafts. To optimize the design, an advanced volume of fluid (VOF) algorithm is developed to calculate oil-water flows in the complex geometry. The effects of the gravity, current velocity, and depth; spans between the conventional booms; the ramp boom's draft and inclination angle; oil viscosity; and density are considered in the present numerical modeling. A comparison was made between the computational simulation and the laboratory experiment of the boom arrangement and satisfactory results were obtained.

From the numerical investigations, it is found that the oil slick flowing behind the ramp boom is similar to that of a solid object traveling under the influence of gravity. To achieve a high performance, the ramp slope should be as small as possible and the span of the boom system should cover the oil's “landing distance.” Under the current tide conditions, the simulations show that the small amplitude tide may improve the system's performance, while the large amplitude tide significantly deteriorates it. The smaller angular-frequency tide is more harmful to the system, especially if the tide's amplitude is large at the same time.
A REVIEW OF OIL-IN-WATER MONITORING TECHNIQUES
Authors: Lambert Patrick , Goldthorp Mike , Fieldhouse Ben , Wang Zhendi , Fingas Mervin F. , Pearson L. , Collazzi E.
Published: January 2013

A comprehensive laboratory study of the Turner Instrument flow-through fluorometers was conducted to review their ability to measure real-time oil-in-water concentrations, to compare the results to alternative total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH) procedures and to carry out supporting laboratory analysis in order to further understand the relationship of the fluorescent signal to the composition of the oils.

The model 10 AU was equipped with the long wavelength optical kit for crude oils while the model 10 was equipped with the short wavelength optical kit for diesel fuels and light refined oil products. Eight oils and the dispersant COREXIT®9500 were used. The oils were Alberta Sweet Mixed Blend crude oil (0% and 27% weathered), Prudhoe Bay crude oil (0% and 27% weathered), Bunker C fuel oil (0% and 8% weathered), and diesel fuel (0% and 37% weathered).

Efforts were made to establish a calibration procedure which was used to convert the real-time fluorometer data to oil concentration. Initial comparisons of the fluorometer results to standard infrared and gas chromatography laboratory procedures showed all methods capable of detecting and differentiating between small changes in oil concentration. The infrared and gas chromatography generated similar values while the fluorometer values were of the same order of magnitude but typically 20 to 80% higher.