bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Identification of Functional Genetic Variations Underlying Drought Tolerance in Maize Using SNP Markers
Authors: Hao Zhuanfang , Li Xinhai , Xie Chuanxiao , Weng Jianfeng , Li Mingshun , Zhang Degui , Liang Xiaoling , Liu Lingling , Liu Sisi , Zhang Shihuang
Published: May 2011

Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) is a common form of genetic variation and popularly exists in maize genome. An Illumina GoldenGate assay with 1 536 SNP markers was used to genotype maize inbred lines and identified the functional genetic variations underlying drought tolerance by association analysis. Across 80 lines, 1 006 polymorphic SNPs (65.5% of the total) in the assay with good call quality were used to estimate the pattern of genetic diversity, population structure, and familial relatedness. The analysis showed the best number of fixed subgroups was six, which was consistent with their original sources and results using only simple sequence repeat markers. Pairwise linkage disequilibrium (LD) and association mapping with phenotypic traits investigated under water‐stressed and well‐watered regimes showed rapid LD decline within 100–500 kb along the physical distance of each chromosome, and that 29 SNPs were associated with at least two phenotypic traits in one or more environments, which were related to drought‐tolerant or drought‐responsive genes. These drought‐tolerant SNPs could be converted into functional markers and then used for maize improvement by marker‐assisted selection.
Technologies involved in molecular blood group genotyping
Authors: Monteiro F. , Tavares G. , Ferreira M. , Amorim A. , Bastos P. , Rocha C. , Araújo F. , Cunha‐Ribeiro L. M.
Published: May 2011

Background  Until the 1990s, blood screening, typing and diagnostics depended entirely on serological techniques. For over a century, agglutination has been the gold standard for red blood cell (RBC) antigen detection used in all blood services. However, haemagglutination has certain limitations, such as, the difficulty to phenotype recently and multi‐transfused patients or direct antiglobulin test (DAT)‐positive patients. The haemagglutination test provides only indirect indications of risk or severity of haemolytic disease of the new born. In part, to overcome these limitations, nucleic acid‐based technologies have been used in immunohematology reference laboratories.

Methods  There are many molecular methods available for red cell genotyping: PCR, PCR‐RFLP, PCR‐SSP or PCR‐ASP, real time PCR, DNA sequencing and pirosequencing and methods with microarrays‐based systems.

Other molecular techniques that are under development and may be available for red cell genotyping in the next decade include fluidic or open microarrays; matrix‐assisted laser desorption/ionization time‐of‐flight mass spectrometry (MALDI‐TOF MS); and mini‐sequencing.

Conclusions  Although serology may be superior for some blood group typing, genotyping assays offer a good alternative for problems encountered by serology. In many laboratories, blood group genotyping is already used at a low‐throughput level for diagnostics in cases of problematic serology. Especially in case of weak expression of antigens, the presence of rare antigens or auto‐antibodies or after multiple transfusions, genotyping is superior. The non‐invasive determination of the foetal RHD analysis in maternal plasma by real‐time PCR is well established and already offered as a clinical service in a number of countries.

The recent availability of automated, high throughput, DNA‐array platforms, allows to introduce into the hospital and donor centres this DNA‐based typing methodology. The evolution of molecular methods combined with automation and high‐quality standards will make large‐scale screening a cost‐effective reality.
Application of recombinant antigens to blood group diagnostics
Authors: Seltsam A.
Published: May 2011

Conventional red blood cells (RBC)‐based assays use panels of human RBCs carrying a huge number of blood group antigens at the same time and require negative reactions of samples with antigen‐negative cells for indirect determination of antibody specificity. This particularly renders the identification of antibody mixtures and rare RBC antibodies difficult. Many blood group proteins have been recombinantly expressed in sufficient quantity and quality for RBC antibody testing. Recombinant blood group proteins can be used as single antigens in antibody identification assays so that a positive reaction of a serum with the recombinant protein directly indicates the presence and specificity of the target antibody. Recombinant proteins may have wide applications in blood group serology; they can be incorporated in soluble protein reagents or solid‐phase assays such as ELISA, colour‐coded microsphere and protein microarray chip‐based techniques. Because on their capacity for single‐step and direct RBC antibody determination, recombinant protein‐based assays may greatly facilitate and accelerate the identification of common and rare RBC antibodies, resulting in a faster and safer blood supply for immunized patients.
The building blocks of a quality management system, experiences from South Africa
Authors: Bust L.
Published: May 2011

Quality management systems (QMS), like houses, come in many different styles and sizes and an organization should design and build a system that accommodates its particular needs, depending on the resources available. The recommendation is to start small and add‐on over time until you have the desired structure. As with any building project, one needs plans, materials and a good construction crew to start with. A strong foundation is critical to a QMS and this can be attained with management support and staff buy‐in.
The management of nonconformities in blood establishments
Authors: Vuk T.
Published: May 2011

With the introduction of quality management system as either a voluntary activity or based on legal regulation, a transfusion establishment is committed to consistent use of nonconformity management in all its activities. Nonconformities are mostly detected in blood products, in all steps of the manufacturing process. A product in broad sense also refers to the services offered. Nonconformities may be found in input materials, devices and equipment as well. Efficient management of these nonconformities is one of the key elements of the materiovigilance system. A special category are the nonconformities that need not be identified directly in the products, materials or equipment, but their occurrence may have adverse effects on the product and service quality, safety of those involved in the transfusion chain, user confidence, or transfusion establishment economy. Nonconformities may be detected in regular work process, or during internal and external quality assessment, inspections, evaluation of the quality system by the managing board, management of complaints, etc. Each blood establishment should have written procedure describing nonconformity management, while the personnel should undergo continuous education on all aspects of this segment of quality management. Along with making proper decision on the nonconforming product/nonconformity, in the procedure of nonconformity management it is of great importance to assess the potential impact of this nonconformity on other products or processes, and to prevent the possible additional damage on time. As the management of nonconformities has a critical role for the quality and safety of transfusion treatment and is involved in all transfusion service activities, it is no surprise that an array of quality indicators that serve as a basis for corrective measures and continuous quality improvement derive from this segment of quality management.
Current concepts in serological testing – TTID
Authors: Schmidt M. , Seifried E.
Published: May 2011

Introduction  Blood components play a major part in a huge number of therapeutic interventions in oncology, haematology, surgery and other medicine disciplines. Therefore, the supply of safe blood products is a major ongoing challenge for blood transfusion services. Serology screening tests were developed to improve blood safety. As screening for antibodies reflects an immune reaction in response to infection, the diagnostic window period is longer for antibody tests than for direct screening assays, such as nucleic amplification tests (NAT). The introduction of mini‐pool NAT (MP‐NAT) and individual donation NAT (ID‐NAT) as well as the development of antigen screening assays, such as the hepatitis C virus antigen test (which detects the NS3 antigen) and the p24 antigen assay for HIV‐1, have been able to reduce the diagnostic window period.

Methods  Currently, blood donor screening for HBsAg, anti‐HBc, anti‐HCV, anti‐HIV‐1/2 and syphilis antibodies is mandated by the German authority (the Paul Ehrlich Institute). All blood donations must also be screened for HCV and HIV‐1 using MP‐NAT. The German Red Cross Blood Donor Services Baden‐Württemberg‐Hessen has implemented additional blood donor screening for anti‐CMV (for platelet products from repeat donors) and MP‐NAT screening for HBV, HAV and Parvovirus B19 on a voluntary basis.

Results  The epidemiology data within the last 4 years have found that 98% and 89% of hepatitis B and hepatitis C positive donors belonged to the first time donor population. Between 1997 and 2005, the German Red Cross Blood Donor Services detected hepatitis B, hepatitis C and HIV‐1 in 43, 23 and 7 donors, respectively, using NAT. About 50% (22 out of 43) of these HBV‐infected donors were in the acute phase of infection, while 21 were in the occult phase. Improvements in NAT technology, especially the introduction of full‐automated extraction robot systems (e.g. the Zelos × 100), have been able to reduce the diagnostic window period, especially for hepatitis B, by improving the 95% level of detection. Nevertheless, five cases of NAT failures in detecting HIV‐1 have been reported to the Paul‐Ehrlich‐Institute within the last decade. In 2010 in particular, three cases occurred in Germany due to mutations in the primer and probe binding regions. These cases restarted a discussion about risk analysis for NAT screening tests and serology methods in general.

Conclusion  In Germany, blood donor screening is performed using parallel serological assays (antigen and antibody detection) and by MP‐NAT for hepatitis B, hepatitis C and HIV‐1. The risk of false‐negative test results due to mutations in primer and probe binding regions is higher for NAT systems than for antibody/antigen detection tests. Therefore, the manufactures of the NAT systems are advised to improve their systems by utilising amplification in at least two conserved regions (dual‐ or triple‐targeting). The diagnostic window period for new screening strategies (e.g., antigen screening for HCV)
XMRV, Q fever and other emerging infections: impact on management of blood safety
Authors: Dodd R. Y.
Published: May 2011

As a result of continuous improvement efforts, the blood supply is now extremely safe. However, emerging infections offer a real or potential challenge to such safety. Since 2003, two new tests have been implemented in the United States in order to reduce the risk of transfusion transmission of West Nile virus and Trypanosoma cruzi. In addition, Babesia microti and dengue viruses are considered to be high‐priority threats. Q fever outbreaks in the Netherlands illustrate a localized threat that has been assessed and managed through human and agricultural public health measures and by selective testing of blood donors. The recently recognized gammaretrovirus XMRV has generated scientific and social controversy and illustrates a number of problems in managing blood safety policy.
Globalization and blood donors: How to improve the blood donation in the European Union (EU)
Authors: Gonçalves H.
Published: May 2011

Background and objectives  It can be estimated that there are about 900–950 blood establishments in the EU.

They show significant differences in terms of:

• Organizational patterns, legal status, level of quality, volume of quality.

• Many blood establishments in the different Members States of the EU follow the GOOD Manufacture Practice (GMP) principles.

• This is especially true when it comes to the larger ones that operate in a strict GMP environment and/or to ISO 9001:2000 standards.

• There is little doubt that in smaller institutions (for example with ≤5000 donations per year) it could be difficult to fulfil the Quality Management System (QMS) requirements.

Materials and Methods  • Blood donation requires ethics and medical practice in a context of confirmed humanism. Human beings are at the centre of activity that goes from donor to recipient, which to be effective, requires a wide range of human, sociological, biological, medical and scientific skills.

Results  • Also, transfusion medicine knows no frontiers; it has to be performed in the same way whatever the country, nationality or people: the basic principles that govern it should be maintained. Europe should become a Europe for people, for altruism and should also be a place where every country can compare itself to another in order to evolve and develop it is activities with respect for Community law. In the Regional Blood Center of Coimbra, RBCC, there was in 2010 25% of blood donors between 18‐30 years old.

Conclusions  • It is necessary to have effective cooperation between nations and between all professionals in this new world that is the European Union, and begin now to invest in youth of each country to become blood donors.
Uniform examination of stem cell donors
Authors: Brand A. ,   the ISBT/AABB Joint Working Party on Cellular Therapy
Published: May 2011

In contrast to unrelated donors who are counselled and examined according to international guidelines, related donors of allogeneic bone marrow (BM) or mobilized peripheral blood stem cells (PBSC) often are recruited, examined and followed otherwise. Currently, mostly PBSC instead of BM donation is used. The higher CD34+ yield is preferred for non‐myeloablated recipients, allowing transplantation of older patients. Consequently related sibling donors are aging and prone to suffer more co‐morbidity as compared to unrelated donors. With respect to counselling it is obvious that donor recruitment and motivation between related and unrelated donors differ. The related donor however needs protection by an independent physician safeguarding the health of the donor. Although financial and logistic reasons may play a role, several differences between related and unrelated donor management are eligible for harmonization. In addition it is important to reach agreement among donor centres on uniform decisions for deferral and long‐term follow‐up. This requires exchange of information, not only of serious adverse reactions but also of potential hazardous situations, in order to develop more evidence‐based recommendations.
Update on the status of pathogen inactivation methods
Authors: AuBuchon J. P.
Published: May 2011

Background  Improvements in donor selection criteria and donor testing have reduced the risks of transfusion‐transmitted diseases to remarkably low levels in developed countries. Residual risk remains because of window period donations and the potential for error. Developing countries may not have implemented all these safety measures fully, however. In all countries, tests with limited sensitivity (e.g. for detection of bacterial contamination) and ‘emerging’ pathogens, for which accurate tests have not been developed, pose continued threats to recipients.

Results  Pathogen inactivation (PI) has brought a welcome level of safety to plasma derivatives, and an increasing number of techniques are available for labile blood components. The toxicity profile of these techniques appears acceptable. Although the processes inevitably cause a reduction in the content or efficacy of the component, transfusions of the inactivated components appear to provide clinically useful outcomes. Transfusion of pathogen‐inactivated plasma components is in widest use across multiple countries, and an increasing number of centres in multiple countries are adopting PI of platelet units as well. Development of techniques applicable to red cell units continues and preliminary success has been claimed. Not all reports of clinical use of PI platelets and plasma have been positive, however. Differences in bleeding rates may be attributable to different approaches to patient evaluation. Some regulatory agencies continue to place emphasis on the potential for pulmonary complications, although reanalysis of previous data indicates no increased risk of pulmonary toxicity. Multiple cost‐effectiveness analyses have demonstrated that currently available PI techniques will likely reduce the residual risk of known pathogens by only a small amount and thus have marginal cost‐effectiveness ratios in the range of $500 000–1 500 000/QALY (this is worse than for most commonly accepted medical procedures but not out‐of‐line in comparison to other blood safety interventions). The presumed effectiveness of current bacterial detection approaches is central to these analyses as bacteria remain the most frequently transmitted pathogen with culture detecting only 30–50% of contaminated units. An analysis of residual risk indicates that while techniques applicable across all components will be necessary to achieve the desired maximal effect of PI, implementing PI for plasma and platelets with currently available technology would reduce transmissions of both acute and chronic emerging disease agents by 40%.

Conclusions  The decision whether to implement PI is a complex one with ethical, societal and financial aspects. The ability to improve the safety of transfusion for recipients, particularly with respect to bacteria and emerging threats, is an important augmentation to our commitment to patients.
Madrid train bombings: what we have learnt from that sad event
Authors: Algora‐Weber M.
Published: May 2011

Introduction

The Madrid train bombings consisted of a series of coordinated bombings against the commuter train system of Madrid, on the morning of Thursday 11 March 2004, killing 191 people and wounding 2000. The massive attacks on the population are always unexpected and can cause mass casualties, killed and psychologically affected. All need help. From the perspective of Hemotherapy it is desirable to have a plan already completed and validated to help in times of confusion to know what to do, how to do it and who has to manage everything. On the morning of March 11 the Community of Madrid had no such plan feature. The situation was brought under control, with the help, work and commitment of the population, but was subsequently other actions that had to be improved. For 3 years the Community of Madrid, has a plan of Transfusion in emergencies and disasters. The sad experience of 2004 served to drive us to the conception and development of this plan. The reason for this presentation is to describe the effects of the terrorist attack of 2004, from the point of view Transfusion Centre, how we handle the situation and make a note on such plan currently in place.
Esophageal Cancer: Recent advances
Authors: Sadiq Adil , Mansour Kamal A.
Published: May 2011

Esophageal carcinoma has, over the past decade, undergone a sea of change, not only in its pathological distribution, but also in the diagnosis, staging and subsequent management. Although the advent of better imaging techniques has helped in diagnosing patients at an earlier period, the majority of them have unresectable disease at the time of presentation. Despite aggressive treatment protocols involving either one or a combination of the options of surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy, the five‐year survival remains dismal in the order of 10 to 15%. The two most commonly used surgical techniques for resecting the esophagus, the Ivor Lewis and the trans‐hiatal esophagectomy, have similar results in terms of morbidity, mortality and, more importantly, five‐year survival following resection. There has been an increasing interest in the surgical treatment of carcinoma esophagus by a minimally invasive approach, as meta‐analysis of clinical series have shown that a faster recovery time without any statistically significant difference in the in‐hospital mortality or morbidity when compared to conventional surgery. Nonrandomized studies suggest that patients receiving neoadjuvant chemo‐radiation have a five year survival advantage compared with those treated with surgery alone, especially if they had a complete histological response to the preoperative regimen. Lastly, palliative procedures, form the mainstay of management of patients with non‐resectable disease.
Glass‐ionomer cement restorative materials: a sticky subject?
Authors: Sidhu SK
Published: May 2011

Glass‐ionomer cement (GIC) materials have been in clinical use since their inception 40 years ago. They have undergone several permutations to yield different categories of these materials. Although all GICs share the same generic properties, subtle differences between commercial products may occur. They have a wide range of uses such as lining, bonding, sealing, luting or restoring a tooth. In general, GICs are useful for reasons of adhesion to tooth structure, fluoride release and being tooth‐coloured although their sensitivity to moisture, inherent opacity, long‐term wear and strength are not as adequate as desired. They are useful in situations where they are not disadvantaged by their comparatively lower physical properties, such as where there is adequate remaining tooth structure to support the material and where they are not subject to heavy occlusal loading. The last decade has seen the use of these materials being extended. However, they are likely to retain their specific niches of clinical application.
A review of the clinical application and performance of pit and fissure sealants
Authors: Simonsen RJ , Neal RC
Published: May 2011

Thorough reviews of pit and fissure sealant are available in the literature. It is the intent of this paper to focus on the clinical aspects of pit and fissure sealant application and the most recent publications that support an evidence‐based clinical application technique.

Pit and fissure sealants were introduced in 1971 based on the pioneering studies of Buonocore. Additional work initiated by Handelman in 1972 looked specifically at what happens to the bacteria trapped underneath a sealant. Concerns that such entrapment could lead to propagation, or continued development, of caries under a well‐sealed area, were mitigated by this and many other succeeding studies.

It remains clear that the application of pit and fissure sealant to newly‐erupted posterior (and occasionally, anterior) teeth is the best method we have in dentistry to prevent pit and fissure caries, and/or to prevent the continued development of incipient caries into frank caries when the incipient lesion is sealed over with resin.
Resin composite restorative materials
Authors: Ilie N , Hickel R
Published: May 2011

This paper surveys the most important developments in resin‐based dental composites and focuses on the deficits (e.g. polymerization shrinkage) and strengths of the materials and their clinical implications. Moreover, differences between composite categories, such as hybrid, nanohybrid, microfilled, packable, ormocer‐based, silorane‐based, polyacid‐modified composites (compomers) and flowable composites are highlighted, especially in view of their mechanical behaviour. In addition to the classical dimethacrylate‐based composites, special attention is given to alternative monomers, such as siloranes, ormocers or high‐molecular‐weight dimethacrylate monomers (e.g. dimer acid‐based dimethacrylates and tricyclodecane (TCD)‐urethane), analysing their advantages, behaviour and abilities. Finally, the paper attempts to establish the needs and wishes of clinicians for further development of resin‐based composites.
A clinically focused discussion of luting materials
Authors: Hill EE , Lott J
Published: May 2011

A luting agent’s primary function is to fill the minute void between an indirect restoration (definitive or provisional) and tooth (or implant abutment) and mechanically lock the restoration in place to prevent dislodgement during function. The purpose of this paper is to provide a clinically focused discussion on the broad spectrum of luting materials currently available to help the general practitioner make appropriate choices. Resins are typically formulated for a specific function or restoration and offer strength, aesthetics, flexible working times, and very low solubility yet are technique sensitive, expensive and often hard to clean‐up. Glass‐ionomers offer good strength and optical properties plus the potential for fluoride release/recharge but may have short working times, are sensitive to moisture or dehydration early on, and take time to fully set. Resin‐modified glass‐ionomers are hybrid, dual‐phase materials which are manipulated like glass‐ionomer but set quicker and are stronger. Zinc phosphate cement, used successfully for over a century to lute well‐fitting metal and metal‐ceramic definitive restorations, is a very inexpensive, rigid material which displays very high early compressive strength yet acidity and solubility can be problems. Polycarboxylate cement (a hybrid of zinc phosphate) has lower compressive strength but high tensile strength and may be less injurious to the pulp. Zinc oxide eugenol and zinc oxide non‐eugenol cements typically have good sealing abilities but their relatively low compressive and tensile strengths, inherent brittleness, and high solubility limit usage to provisional restorations or implant supported crowns. Claims for multi‐purpose or universal use by manufacturers can be somewhat confusing and overwhelming. Even so, the busy general practitioner must have sufficient knowledge to help choose an appropriate luting agent for each unique clinical situation.
Ceramic materials in dentistry: historical evolution and current practice
Authors: Kelly JR , Benetti P
Published: May 2011

Dental ceramics are presented within a simplifying framework allowing for facile understanding of their development, composition and indications. Engineering assessments of clinical function are dealt with and literature is reviewed on the clinical behaviour of all‐ceramic systems. Practical aspects are presented regarding the choice and use of dental ceramics to maximize aesthetics and durability, emphasizing what we know and how we know it.
Periodontal materials
Authors: Darby I
Published: May 2011

Periodontics is more associated with debridement of periodontal pockets and not generally thought of as using dental materials in the treatment of patients. However, the last 30 years have seen the development of materials used in regeneration of the periodontal tissues following periodontal disease, guided tissue regeneration, and the use of these materials in bone regeneration more recently, guided bone regeneration. The materials used include bone grafts and membranes, but also growth factors and cells‐based therapies. This review provides an overview of the materials currently used and looks at contemporary research with a view to what may be used in the future. It also looks at the clinical effectiveness of these regenerative therapies with an emphasis on what is available in Australia.
Current aspects on bonding effectiveness and stability in adhesive dentistry
Authors: Cardoso MV , de Almeida Neves A , Mine A , Coutinho E , Van Landuyt K , De Munck J , Van Meerbeek B
Published: May 2011

Improved dental adhesive technology has extensively influenced modern concepts in restorative dentistry. In light of minimal‐invasive dentistry, this new approach promotes a more conservative cavity design, which basically relies on the effectiveness of current enamel‐dentine adhesives. Nowadays, the interaction of adhesives with the dental substrate is based on two different strategies, commonly described as an etch‐and‐rinse and a self‐etch approach. In an attempt to simplify the bonding technique, manufacturers have decreased the number of steps necessary for the accomplishment of the bonding procedure. As a consequence, two‐step etch‐and‐rinse and one‐step (self‐etch) adhesives were introduced and gained rapid popularity in the dental market due to their claimed user‐friendliness and lower technique sensitivity. However, many concerns have been raised on the bonding effectiveness of these simplified adhesives, especially in terms of durability, although this tends to be very material dependent. In order to blend all the adhesive components into one single solution, one‐step adhesives were made more acidic and hydrophilic. Unfortunately, these properties induce a wide variety of seemingly unrelated problems that may jeopardize the effectiveness and stability of adhesion to the dental substrate. Being more susceptible to water sorption and thus nanoleakage, these adhesives are more prone to bond degradation and tend to fail prematurely as compared to their multi‐step counterparts. Incidentally, another factor that may interfere with the bonding effectiveness of adhesives is the technique used for caries removal and cavity preparation. Several tools are on the market today to effectively remove carious tissue, thereby respecting the current trend of minimum intervention. Despite their promising performance, such techniques modify the tooth substrate in different aspects, possibly affecting bonding effectiveness. Altogether, we may conclude that not only the adhesive formulation, but also substrate nature must be taken into account to achieve a stable bonding interface, rendering the restorative treatment more predictable in terms of clinical performance. In this review, we analyse the current theoretical and clinical aspects of adhesion to enamel and dentine, and discuss the diverse possibilities to overcome problems which nowadays still challenge clinicians in their achievement of a more stable and effective bond to tooth enamel and dentine.
Ligneous gingivitis associated with plasminogen deficiency: a challenge in diagnosis
Authors: Cha Seunghee , Cohen Donald , Bhattacharyya Indraneel , Katz Joseph
Published: May 2011

Abstract A 66‐year‐old female presented with gum bleeding and soreness. Her medical history was significant for delayed wound healing, which appeared to cause blindness in her right eye. A gingival incisional biopsy revealed replacement of fibrous connective tissue by an amorphous and eosinophilic material. Direct immunofluorescent staining for antibodies was negative. After the differential diagnosis of ligneous gingivitis (LG) was rendered, the activity and antigenic level of plasminogen was tested and found to be significantly decreased. Partial improvement was observed within 1 year following a regimen of scaling, gingival curettage, topical steroids, and improved oral hygiene. LG is a rare condition, occurring as a result of plasminogen deficiency and subsequent fibrin accumulation. It presents as pseudomembranous gingiva and might affect the eyes and other organs. Dentists should be familiar with this condition, since they might assist in a diagnosis of this disease, with significant morbidity often missed by medical professionals.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF CONCEPTS*
Authors: FOWLER H. L.
Published: May 2011

Résumé

LE DÉVELOPPEMENT DES CONCEPTS.

La plupart des éducateurs affirment qu'en enseignant un concept il faut commencer par les idées particulières pour arriver à des généralisations. Pour mettre à l'épreuve la vérité de cette affirmation dans les cas des rapports grammaticaux adjectif‐nom, adverbe‐verbe, on inventa trois concepts artificiels comprenant ce rapport et chacun des trois fut enseigné par les trois méthodes suivantes:

Des idées particulières à la, généralisation.

De la généralisation aux applications particulières.

Comme dans 2., mais avec quelques explications au moyen des allusions aux applications particulières.

En outre, on tenta l'expérience d'aider les sujets de façon à les empêcher, autant que possible, de commettre des erreurs. La meilleure méthode se trouva être le numero trois—méthode qu'on pourrait appeler composée. La séconde se montra le plus variable. Lorsque la manière de formuler le concept n'était comprise qu'en partie, la méthode ne produisait que de mauvais résultats.

Les moyens adoptés pour éviter les erreurs n'étaient avantageux que lorsqu'ils n'empêchaient pas les sujets de déduire les “rapports de niveau supérieur.”

Übersicht

DIE ENTWICKLUNG DER BEGRIFFE.

Wenn man Unterricht in einem Begriff gibt, sollte man von Einzelheiten zu Verallgemeinerungen führen, behaupten die meisten Erzieher. Um die Stichhaltigkeit dieser Behauptung im Falle des Sprachverhältnisses “Adjektiv‐Substantiv” und “Adverb‐Verb” auf die Probe au stellen, wurden drei künstliche Begriffe erfunden, die dieses Verhältnis umfassen, und jeder wurde auf die drei folgenden Arten gelehrt.

Von Einzelheiten zu Verallgemeinerungen.

Von Verallgemeinerungen zu Einzelheiten.

Wie 2. aber mit Erlaüterung der Einzelheiten.

Ferner versuchte man die Folgen zu entdecken, wenn man den Personen womöglich half, damit sie keine Fehler begingen. Es ergab sich, dass die dritte oder zusammengesetzte Methode die beste war. Am veränderlichsten war die zweite; wenn die Formulierung des Begriffes nur zum Teile verstanden wurde, schadete sie nur. Die Hilfsmittel, die Irrtümern vorbeugen sollten, waren vorteilhaft, nur wenn sie die Personen nicht hinderten, die “Verhältnisse des höheren Niveaus” hervorzuziehen.
RETROSPECTIVE AND PROSPECTIVE ANALYSIS IN CHILD PSYCHOLOGY
Authors: PIAGET JEAN
Published: May 2011

Résumé

ANALYSE RETROSPECTIVE ET ANALYSE PROSPECTIVE DANS LA PSYCHOLOGIE DE L'ENFANT.

Dans sa “Réinterprétation” des résultats de l'auteur concernant les “Pourquoi” enfantins N. Isaacs se place à un point de vue uniquement prospectif et fonctionel. L'auteur cherche à montrer ici que ce point de vue n'exclut pas l'analyse structurale ou rétrospective, mais que les deux points de vue se complètent sans se contredire. Une même question, comme “Pourquoi la grotte doit être si noire?” obéit à la fois au schème de N. Isaacs et au schème de l'auteur. Du premier point de vue elle résulte d'une anticipation due à l'expérience antérieure et contrecarrée par l'expérience actuellé, elle est donc analogue à la recherche scientifique des lois et à l'analyse rationelle, des exceptions, ou des obstacles à la loi. Mais cela n'empêche pas, au second point de vue, d'analyser ce que l'enfant entend par “noir,” par “doit être,” par “pourquoi,” etc. On s'aperçoit alors que ces notions ont une structure différente de celle des notions adultes correspondantes: le “noir” est une substance, le terme “doit” exprime encore une idée d'obligation, etc. Par conséquent la structure est en retard sur le fonctionnement, elle a une histoire en partie indépendante et constitue en somme une sorte de cristallisation du fonctionnement passé.

Übersicht

RETROSPEKTIVE UND PROSPEKTIVE ANALYSE IN DER KINDERPSYCHOLOGIE.

In seiner Wiederauslegung “der Ergebnisse des Verfassers über das “Wie” der Kinder steht” N. Isaacs auf einem ausschliesslich prospektiven und funktionellen Standpunkt. Der Verf. versucht hier zu zeigen, dass dieser Standpunkt organische oder retrospektive Analyse nicht ausschliesst, sondern dass die beiden Ansichten sich ergänzen, ohne mit einander im Widerspruch zu stehen. Eine gleiche Frage wie “Warum die Höhle so schwarz sein müsse?” stimmt zugleich mit dem Entwurf von N. Isaacs und dem des Verf. überein. Aus dem ersten Gesichtspunkt ergibt sich eine Erwartung, die früherem Erlebnis zugeschrieben werden muss und die im Widerspruch mit gegenwärtigem Erlebnis steht. Sie entspricht also der wissenschaftlichen Untersuchung der Gesetze und der vernunftgemässen Analyse der Ausnahmen oder der Gesetzwidrigkeiten. Vom zweiten Gesichtspunkt aber hindert es nicht, wenn man analysieren will, was das Kind unter “schwarz,” unter “muss sein,” unter “warum” versteht. Man sieht also ein, dass diese Begriffe einen anderen Bau von dem der entsprechenden Begriffe Erwachsener haben; das “Schwarz” ist ein Stoff, der Ausdruck “muss” drückt noch einen Begriff der Verpflichtung u.s.w. aus. Infolgedessen bleibt der Bau hinter der Tätigkeit zurück, jener hat eine zum Teil unabhängige Geschichte und bildet schliesslich eine Art Kristallisation vergangener Tätigkeit.
THE THEORY OF “TWO FACTORS” AND THAT OF “SAMPLING.”
Authors: SPEARMAN C.
Published: May 2011

Résumé

LA THÉORIE DES “DEUX FACTEURS,” ET CELLE DE L'ÉCHANTILLONAGE.

On indique d'abord les caractéristiques essentielles de la Théorie Générale des Deux Facteurs (un facteur général et un facteur spécifique) impliqués dans toute activité mentale, en y ajoutant les principales formules mathématiques indispensables à l'application pratique de la théorie. Alors suit une esquisse de l'opposition que la théorie a dû subir pendant un quart de siècle.

Ensuite on décrit les caractéristiques essentielles de la “Théorie de l'échantillonage (sampling) avancée par certains psychologues pour remplacer l'autre. Une comparaison entre les deux révèle qu'elles ne sont point incompatibles; chacune doit se maintenir, ou tomber, par ses propres mérites; c'est à dire par son manque d'équivoque, ses rapports étroits avec l'observation directe, et sa puissance fécondatrice pour la science.

Sur tous les trois points la Théorie des Deux Facteurs se maintient, tandisque la Théorie de l'Échantillonage tombe sur tous trois, surtout sur le premier et ledernier.

Übersicht

THEORIE DER “ZWEI FAKTOREN” UND DIE DES MUSTERNS (SAMPLING).

Erstens wird das Wesentliche der Allgemeinen Theorie der Zwei Faktoren (eines allgemeinen und eines spezifischen, die in allen geistigen Beschäftigungen bestehen,) auseinandergesetzt. Mit eingeschlossen sind die hauptsächlichen zur praktischen Anwendung der Theorie gehörigen mathematischen Formeln. Dann folgt ein Umriss des Widerstandes, den diese Theorie seit einem Vierteljahrhundert durchmachen muss. Nächstens wird das Wesentliche der “Stichprobetheorie” oder “Theorie des Musterns” (Sampling) geschildert, durch die einige Verfasser die andere haben ersetzen wollen. Ein Vergleich der beiden zeigt, dass sie mit einander keineswegs unverträglich sind; jede muss schlechterdings von ihrem eignen Verdienst abhangen, d.h., von ihrer Unzweideutigkeit, ihrer Übereinstimmung mit wirklicher Beobachtung und ihrer Ergiebigkeit für die Wissenschaft. In allen drei Hinsichten ist die Theorie der Zwei Faktoren ganz hinlänglich, während die Theorie des Musterns in allen Fällen, besonders im ersten und im dritten erfolglos bleibt.
SOME CASE STUDIES OF DELINQUENT GIRLS DESCRIBED AS LEADERS.
Authors: BROWN S. CLEMENT
Published: May 2011

Résumé

QUELQUES ETUDES DE JEUNES FILLES DÉLINQUANTES DÉSIGNÉES COMME MENEUSES.

Parmi un petit groupe de jeunes filles adolescentes délinquantes auxquelles, dans un “Californian Juvenile Court,” on a reproché d'avoir eu une “mauvaise influence” on fit six études spécielles. Celles‐ci embrassent les dépositions des voisins et des camarades aussi bien que lés rapports médicaux et psychologiques. On les compare avec d'autres études de jeunes filles non délinquantes caractérisées comme “meneuses” et de celles caractérisées comme “menées.”

Dans l'analyse de la relation meneuse‐menée certains traits (un niveau extra‐ordinairement haut de dépense d'énergie, beau physique, aptitudes dépendant de l'habileté physique, etc.) se manifestent chez les “meneuses” délinquantes. L'intelligence, générale, comme telle, ne semble pas jouer un rôle important. Certains types de personnalité (y compris ceux montrant une intégration émotive supérieure: un type plutôt rare, le homo‐sexuel, diagnostiqué du point de vue médical comme “le type épileptique de personnalité”: et ceux ayant une surabondance d'activité sociale due à la force émotive) se trouvent dans ce groupe. La rang social relatif de meneuse et de menée a une grande importance pour l'explication de la relation, et l'on suggère qu'elle forme une condition essentielle de cette relation, mais non pas son explication entière.

Übersicht

EINIGE BEOBACHTUNGEN JUGENDLICHER VERBRECHERINNEN, DIE ALS ANFÜHRERINNEN BESCHRIEBEN WURDEN.

Aus einer kleinen Gruppe jugendlicher, verbrecherischer Mädchen, denen man in einem kalifornischen Gericht für Jugendliche schlechten Einfluss vorwarf, wurden sechs Beobachtungen gemacht. Diese schlossen Aussagen von Nachbarn und Genossen neben einem Bericht über Persönlichkeit und Familienverhältnisse ein. Sie werden in Bezug auf ähnliche Beobachtungen nichtverbrecherischer, als Anführerinnen beschriebener Mädchen und auch in Bezug auf Mädchen betrachtet, die als Anhängerinnen bezeichnet werden.

In der Analyse des von der Führerin geführten Verhältnisses findet man bei den jugendlichen Verbrecherinnen (Anführerinnen) gewisse Züge (namentlich einen hohen Grad von Kraftaufwand; guten Körperbau; Fähigkeiten, die von körperlicher Gewandtheit abhängig sind u.s.w.) vor. An und für sich scheint allgemeine Intelligenz nicht bedeutend zu sein. Gewisse Arten von Persönlichkeit (mitsamt denen überlegener Gemütsergänzung; einem verhältnismässig seltenen Typus‐dem homosexuellen, ärztlich bestimmt als dem “fallsüchtigen Typus der Persönlichkeit”; und jenen, die wegen Überanstrengung der Gemütsbewegungen gesellschaftlich übertätig sind) kommen in dieser Gruppe vor. Die relativen sozialen Verhältnisse von Anführerin und Anhängerin erweisen sich von grosser Bedeutung, um die Beziehung zu erklären. Darauf wird hingeweisen, dass diese eine wesentliche Bedingung des Verhältnisses bilden mögen, obschon sie keine genügende Erklärung davon geben.
THE STANDARDIZATION OF GROUP TESTS AND THE SCATTER OF INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENTS: A Contribution to the Theory of Examining
Authors: THOMSON GODFREY H.
Published: May 2011

Résumé.

LA STANDARDISATION DES TESTS PAR GROUPE D'AGE ET LA DISPERSION DES QUOTIENTS D'INTELLIGENCE. UNE CONTRIBUTION À LA THÉORIE DES EXAMENS.

L'auteur, après avoir inventé depuis douze ans des tests d'intelligence par groupe dâge pour juger des enfants de onze ans, trouve que de tels tests donnent toujours un écart moyen plus considérable que les 15 pointsqu'on trouve ordinairement dans les tests de Binet. Il trouve encore que le technique du I.Q. tend à pénaliser l'enfant plus âgé, mais intelligent, dans un groupe dâge. Il propose done de substituer au quotient d'intelligence un Résultat Moyen soigneusement ajusté pour donner léquivalence dâge exacte aux niveaux différents d'intelligence. En fixant à 50 le Résultat Moyen normal on éviterait toute confusion avec les quotients d'intelligence; tandisque l'on pourrait fixer à 15 lécart normal d'après la dispersion ordinaire des I.Q. chez Binet. En passant on suggère une méthode pour mesurer la somme de préparation extraordinaire pour un test, en comparant les résultats moyens annuels avec les mensuels.

Übersicht.

DIE NORMIERUNG VON GRUPPENTESTS UND DIE STREUUNG DER INTELLIGENZ‐QUOTIENTEN. EIN BEITRAG ZUR THEORIE DER PRÜFUNG.

Nach 12 jähriger Erfahrung in der Aufstellung von Gruppen‐Intelligenz‐prüfungen für Elfjährige erkennt der Verfasser, dass solche Gruppentests beständig eine Standardabweichung des Intelligenz‐Quotienten ergeben, die grösser ist als die gewöhnlich bei Binet‐Tests gefundenen 15 Punkte. Er entdeckt ferner, dass die Quotient‐Methode in der Regel die älteren begabten Kinder in einer Jahresklasse benachteiligt. Er schlägt daher vor, an Stelle des Intelligenz‐Quotienten eine Standardzahl zu nehmen, die sorgfältig ausgesucht ist und bei verschiedener Intelligenz genügend Rücksicht auf das Alter nimmt.

Nimmt man als normale Standardzahl 50, so kommt eine Verwechslung mit dem Intelligenz‐Quotienten nicht in Frage, während man doch die Standardabweichung mit 15 in Einklang bringen kann mit der gewöhnlichen Streuung von Binets Intelligenz‐Quotienten. Nebenbei wird eine Methode vorgeschlagen, um zu viel Vorbereitung für einen Test nach dem Vergleich der jährlichen und monatlichen Mittelwerte zu verurteilen.
“GESTALTTHEORIE”: ITS SIGNIFICANCE FOR TEACHING
Authors: HAMMOND MARJORIE
Published: May 2011

Résumé.

LA THÉORIE DE LA FORME (GESTALT): SON IMPORTANCE DANS L'ENSEIGNEMENT.

Cette étude donne un compte‐rendu critique des théories de la psychologie de “Forme” d'après les deux écoles principales de philosophie, et de quelques‐uns des témoignages expérimentaux sur lesquels se basent ces théories. On marque pourtant le fait que les travailleurs allemands ne reconnaissent guère les publications des deux grands psychologies anglais, Ward et Stout. Ces derniers connaissaient cependant bien la capacité de l'intelligence à saisir immédiatement un ensemble, et à réagir vis à vis d'un dessin ou d'une forme. On peut attribuer cette omission au fait que Ward et Stout tirèrent leurs conclusions de l'introspection plutôt que de l'expérimentation et qu'ils inclurent dans leur vocabulaire les termes “attention” et “signification,” que rejettent les psychologues de “Forme.” Henry Sturt dans ses “Principes de la Compréhension” indiqua l'application de méthodes “globales” à l'enseignement.

Des psychologues anglais expérimentaux, comme Myers et Valentine, ont proposé des expériences destinées à démontrer l'efficacité relative de la méthode “globale” et de la “partielle” pour apprendre quelquechose.

L‘étude se termine par une indication briève des méthodes de l'enseignement des branches scolaires, basées sur la notion que “à un moment donné nous avons toujours un certain ensemble de présentation.”

Übersicht.

GESTALTPSYCHOLOGIE: BEDEUTUNG FÜR DEN UNTERRICHT.

Diese Abhandlung beurteilt kritisch die Psychologie der “Gestalt” und deren beiden Schulen, auch etwas von dem experimentellen Beweis, worauf sie zum Teile basiert. Darauf wird hingewiesen, dass die deutschen Bearbeiter der Gestalten die Werke der grossen englischen Psychologen, Ward und Stout kaum anerkannt haben. Diese wussten sehr gut von der geistigen Fähigkeit, Ganzheiten sofort wahrzunehmen und auf das Gebild zu reagieren. Man kann diese geringschätzende Behandlung der Tatsache zuschreiben, dass Ward und Stout sich für ihre Schlüsse mehr auf Introspektion verliessen als auf Experimente und die von Gestaltpsychologen verworfenen Bezeichnungen “attention” (Aufmerksamkeit) und meaning (Bedeutung) in ihren Wortschätzen behielten Henry Sturt wies in seinen “Principles of Understanding” auf die Anwendung der Ganzlernmethoden auf den Unterricht.

Englische experimentelle Psychologen wie z. B., Myers und Valentine haben Experimente vorgeschlagen, die bestimmt sind, die relative Wirksamkeit der Ganz‐und Teillernmethoden zu prüfen. Man hat eine ungenügende Anzahl solcher Experimente samt ihren Resultaten veröffentlicht. Experimente zwecks Erinnerung und Lesen zeigen, dass die Ganzlernmethode der Teillernmethode unter gewissen Bedingungen überlegen ist.

Die Abhandlung schliesst mit einer kurzen Besprechung von Unterrichtsmethoden in der Schule, die auf dem Begriff basieren, dass “wir in irgend einem gegebenem Augenblick eine gewisse Ganzheit der Vorstellung haben.”