bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Local Communities and ISDS
Authors: Perrone Nicolás M.
Published: March 2021

Foreign investors and states frequently cooperate to facilitate investment projects in the natural resource sector. National elites tend to be involved in these cases, acting like partners to the foreign investors, because they often benefit economically and have an interest in the continuation of extractivism. Meanwhile, local communities are in a weak position, with limited or no public support and few legal options. They may still resist a project, sometimes forcing the state to cancel it, yet cancellation may only be a pyrrhic victory. Foreign investors can rely on investment treaties and ISDS to interpret and enforce the political signals and givings granted by the host state. The cases analysed in this chapter show how ISDS tribunals overlook investor misconduct and the context of extractivist projects while making local communities invisible.
Feeling Like It
Authors: Schapiro Tamar
Published: March 2021

Feeling like doing something is not the same as deciding to do it. When you feel like doing something, you are still free to decide to do it or not. You are having an inclination to do it, but you are not thereby determined to do it. I call this the moment of drama. This book is about what you are faced with, in this moment. How should you relate to the inclinations you “have,” given that you are free to “act on” them or not? To answer this question, we need an account of what sort of thing we are relating to, in this moment. But here we find a genuine philosophical problem. Our inclinations are forms of motivation, with respect to which we are distinctively passive. To be motivated is to be self-moved. But how can we be passive in relation to our own self-movement? Is our relation to our inclinations like that of rider to horse? Or is it like our relation to our own, spontaneous judgments or perceptions? I lay out three constraints on any theory of inclination, and I argue that familiar theories fail to meet them, because they make being inclined to φ too similar or dissimilar to φ-ing. I then put forward the “inner animal” view, which holds that when you are merely inclined to act, the instinctive part of yourself is already active, while the rest of you is not. In this moment, your will is “at a crossroads.” You can humanize your inclination, or dehumanize yourself.
A Holy Being, Creating
Authors: Murphy Mark C.
Published: March 2021

This chapter explores how exclusive acceptance of the holiness framework transforms how we approach perennial problems of creation, evil, and divine hiddenness. Because creation is an intimate relationship between God and other things, and all such other things are limited in goodness, the holiness framework entails that God has standing reasons not to create at all. The problem of evil, under the holiness framework, is not about evil’s justification, but just about God’s having to be intimately related to it, given its existence—the holiness framework entails that God has motivation not to be intimately related to what is evil, but God has to be intimately related to it, given its existence and God’s intimate relationship to all that exists. And as being known by is an intimate relationship, God would have reason to remain hidden rather than known by us limited, imperfect persons. God’s willingness to be intimately related to this world is against the reasons given by divine holiness, and is accounted for only through the reasons of love for us that God graciously, contingently acts upon.
Divine Love, Divine Holiness, and the Atonement
Authors: Murphy Mark C.
Published: March 2021

The chapter contrasts what we should expect and require from a theory of Atonement if we take divine action to be governed by the holiness framework and if we do not. The primary foil is Eleonore Stump’s unqualifiedly and exclusively love framework account of the Atonement. Stump’s way of categorizing theories of the Atonement based on whether the obstacle to union with God is in us or in God is inadequate; rather, the appropriate distinction is between views that take the obstacle to be psychological (as Stump’s own view does) or normative (as satisfaction and penal substitution views do). By Stump’s own lights, the way in which past sin is an obstacle to union with God requires a normative treatment, and the holiness framework provides a plausible explanation of this: so long as such past sin is not dealt with, it normatively precludes the fuller unity with God that is constitutive of our good.
Divine Humility
Authors: Murphy Mark C.
Published: March 2021

It is plain from Scripture that we should think that there is some sense in which God exhibits humility. We thus need a conception of humility that is compatible with its being a feature exhibited by God. The most promising such conception is that of a disposition not to invoke reasons of status when deciding whether to act for the sake of other worthwhile ends. Such reasons of status are ascribed to God in the holiness framework. God is humble insofar as God has not stood on God’s status by refraining from creating at all; or, having created, by leaving us entirely to our own devices and not revealing Godself to us; or, even if revealed to us, refraining from becoming incarnate as one of us. It is a further positive feature of the holiness framework that it enables us to illuminate God’s nearly unthinkable humility.
Heidegger's Metaphysical Abyss
Authors: Cykowski Elizabeth
Published: March 2021

This book provides a critical study of Heidegger’s reflections on animality, which are presented most extensively in his 1929–30 lecture course The Fundamental Concepts of Metaphysics. In these lectures Heidegger poses two provocative metaphysical theses: the human, he claims, is ‘world-forming’, whereas the animal is ‘poor in world’. Contemporary secondary literature has emphatically criticised these theses on account of the objection that they forge an ‘abyss of essence’ between human and non-human organisms. The theses undermine scientific developments by breaking apart the biological continuum in order to secure the human within in its own unique category, all the while leaving the world-poor animal on the other side of the abyss. Heidegger thus reinstates an outmoded dualism that he ought, on his own terms, to renounce: human versus animal. Via a close examination of The Fundamental Concepts of Metaphysics, one that also draws on other places within Heidegger’s corpus where the theme of animality features, the book aims to clarify the true meaning, scope, and significance of Heidegger’s theses. It seeks to show that Heidegger’s examination of animality points beyond the vestiges of received dualisms back to a more essential way of philosophising about life and the human’s relationship to it. The book concludes that Heidegger’s intention is to examine and illuminate, rather than simply to repeat the orthodox metaphysical hierarchies that we have inherited, and his exploration of animality raises deep questions about the status of the human within nature that remain vitally important to this day.
The Metaphysical Context of Heidegger’s Animal Analysis
Authors: Cykowski Beth
Published: March 2021

This chapter presents a detailed exegesis of the neglected opening passages of the lecture course in which Heidegger clarifies the aims of his project. These passages contain the metaphysical context we need to assess Heidegger’s reflections on animality. We discover from them that Heidegger takes as his primary aim not the production of a comparative account of animal life, but rather the extension of a kind of ‘invitation’ to learn about what philosophy is and to do philosophy for ourselves. It is against the backdrop of this wider project that Heidegger comes to the animal, using the concept of animality to deepen his exploration in the lecture course of metaphysics as a distinctively human activity and its relation to the sciences.
The Model of a True Demonstrative: Extra-linguistic Effects on Situated Meaning
Authors: Stojnić Una
Published: March 2021

This chapter introduces the standard account of context-sensitivity, focusing on true demonstratives, the model for most context-sensitive expressions. The account involves an idealization that utterances are interpreted in a single, unchanging context. But this is problematic: it has a consequence that demonstratives are either indefinitely lexically ambiguous, or indefinitely ambiguous at the level of logical form. The chapter argues this is theoretically problematic. Relaxing this idealization, we could let the context change between occurrences of demonstratives. A demonstrative could then have an unambiguous meaning, selecting the prominent interpretation in the current context. However, if prominence is determined extra-linguistically, as the traditional model assumes, we would still lack a systematic account of context-change, facing much of the same problems. An alternative account is outlined, which the chapter argues avoids the problems: the context is shifty, but the mechanisms of context-change are linguistic, and so the content of demonstratives is fully linguistically determined.
Context and Discourse Conventions
Authors: Stojnić Una
Published: March 2021

This chapter further develops the idea that discourse conventions govern the dynamics of prominence, and determine the state of the conversational record, fixing the interpretation of an occurrence of a prominence-sensitive expression, such as a demonstrative pronoun. The chapter identifies a range of linguistic mechanisms—discourse conventions—that affect prominence as a matter of their grammatical contribution reflected in the logical form of a discourse. Specifically, it is argued that mechanisms of discourse coherence—the inferential connections between individual utterances that signal how they are organized into a coherent discourse—affect the contextual prominence ranking of candidate interpretations for demonstrative pronouns as a matter of their grammatically encoded contribution. The meaning of a demonstrative is then determined linguistically through and through. While demonstratives are prominence-sensitive, they are not sensitive to non-linguistic features of utterance situation.
Interlude: Context and Common Ground
Authors: Stojnić Una
Published: March 2021

An influential alternative account of context that likewise models context as a body of information that changes with an evolving discourse is Stalnakerian common ground model. On this model, however, the context is projected from a body of information mutually accepted by the interlocutors for the purposes of a conversation—a common ground. While the context constantly changes, these changes simply reflect the agents’ rational and cooperative response to manifest evidence. Might one attempt to assimilate the kinds of effects on prominence simply to such rational responses to manifest evidence? Might we then do without the rich discourse structure posited in this chapter? It is argued here that this account would be empirically inadequate, failing to capture the special status linguistic conventions have when weighed against our overall evidence.
The Challenge: Non-propositionalism
Authors: Stojnić Una
Published: March 2021

Recent literature has presented a serious challenge for propositional accounts of content. It has been argued that certain bits of natural language discourse, in particular, modal claims, pose a fundamental challenge for propositional accounts, as they fail to express propositional content even relative to a context. The puzzling linguistic behavior of modal discourse suggests that context simply cannot determine propositional content for such claims. This appears to call for a re-thinking of the interaction between context and content, and their role in communication. Indeed, various non-propositionalist accounts that have been proposed to capture this puzzling behavior call for such re-thinking. Such accounts have received various implementations, for instance, in various expressivist and dynamic update semantics. These accounts deny that modals express ordinary propositional content, and they also deliver a non-classical logic. This chapter introduces the challenge, and the main features of non-propositional accounts that have been proposed as a solution.
Content, Context, and Logic
Authors: Stojnić Una
Published: March 2021

Non-propositionalism has additionally been fueled by the fact that modals and conditionals seem to give raise to failure of classical patterns of inference, for instance, modus ponens and modus tollens. Since non-propositionalist accounts typically invalidate some of these patterns of inference, the apparent counterexamples have been taken as further data in support of such treatments. This chapter argues that this is a mistaken reaction to the apparent counterexamples. The seeming violations of classical patterns of inference yet again result from a faulty assumption of the extra-linguistic account of context-sensitivity resolution, and a failure to account for the effects of discourse conventions on the interpretation of modal discourse. The chapter’s account of modality, which treats them as prominence-sensitive expressions whose interpretation is determined by discourse conventions, predicts and explains the apparent counterexamples, while nevertheless preserving classical logic.
Prominence Semantics for Modality
Authors: Stojnić Una
Published: March 2021

This chapter develops a formal model of context-sensitivity of modal discourse. Much like demonstrative pronouns, modals are prominence-sensitive, selecting the most prominent candidate interpretation. The prominence ranking of candidate interpretations is recorded in the conversational record, and is maintained through the effects of discourse conventions represented in the logical form of a discourse. In this way arguments are individuated as structured discourses that underwrite a particular propositional pattern. It is shown that such account provably preserves classical logic. Further, this chapter argues that its model offers a more satisfactory account of the individuation of argument patterns in natural language discourse then the competing alternatives. Any adequate account, it is here argued, will have to take into account not just the contribution of individual sentences, but also of discourse conventions. Indeed, the contribution of discourse conventions is crucial for determining the contribution of individual sentences in the first place.
Introduction to the Evolution of the South Korean Developmental State
Authors: Kwon Hyeong-ki
Published: March 2021

This chapter explores key questions of this book, including not only why Korea was able to achieve such sustained economic success from the 1960s to the 2010s, but also to what extent and why the Korean economy has changed. After critically reviewing prevalent theories including neoliberalism, the Global Production Networks, and the institutionalist developmental state (DS) theory, this chapter proposes a theoretical alternative by emphatically reviving the politics among diverse actors. In order to better account for endogenous changes and sustained economic success over a long period, this chapter suggests institutional adaptability and endogenous changes through elite competition.
Continuation of Developmentalism across Administrations
Authors: Kwon Hyeong-ki
Published: March 2021

In the 2010s, Korea continued its state-led developmentalism, including the Special Law for Parts and Materials and the New Growth Engine Promotion policy, across ideologically different governments. Korea’s state-led developmentalism was mainly realized through competitive politics within as well as outside the state, rather than by simple repetition of a developmental mindset or old institutional legacy. By exploring the industrial politics of three administrations—Roh Moo-hyun (2003–07), Lee Myung-bak (2008–12), and Park Geun-hye (2013–17), as well as the Moon administration (2017–present)—this chapter examines how the Korean state continued its developmentalism across ideologically different administrations. This chapter first studies why the Roh Moo-hyun administration continued with state-led developmentalism, rather than pursue the economic democratization proposed by the original supporters of Roh Moo-hyun. Then, it examines how Korean state-led developmentalism continues across ideologically different governments by focusing on competition and conflicts within the state.
Introduction
Authors: Taylor Joan E. , Ramelli Ilaria L. E.
Published: March 2021

This authoritative volume brings together the latest thinking on women’s leadership in early Christianity. Featuring contributions from key thinkers in the fields of Christian history, the volume considers the evidence for ways in which women exercised leadership in churches from the first to the ninth centuries CE. This rich and diverse collection breaks new ground in the study of women in early Christianity. This is not about working with one method, based on one type of feminist theory, but overall there is nevertheless a feminist or egalitarian agenda in considering the full equality of women with men in religious spheres a positive goal, with the assumption that this full equality has yet to be attained. The chapters revisit both older studies and offer new and unpublished research, exploring the many ways in which ancient Christian women’s leadership could function.
Male–Female Missionary Pairings among Jesus’ Disciples
Authors: Taylor Joan E.
Published: March 2021

This chapter expands on aspects of Joan Taylor’s previous argument that the designation ‘two by two’, δύο δύο‎, in Mark 1:7 suggests that the twelve male apostles appointed by Jesus in Galilee were not paired off internally as masculine teams but were paired with unnamed and obscured female companions as they went to heal and preach in Galilee. It is argued that the use of δύο δύο‎ in Mark, found without a preposition, needs to be distinguished from the usage in Luke 10:1 in regard to the seventy (or seventy-two) apostles sent out ἀνὰ δύο δύο‎, since the Gospel of Peter [9].35 indicates this latter expression means ‘two after two’: namely, pairs going off in sequence, successively. The expression δύο δύο‎, without any preposition, is not idiomatic Koinē but rather is an expression reliant on the Semitic pattern of distributive repetition, and in Sirach 33:14–15 it is used precisely in regard to pairs of opposites, or contraries, created by God, which would normatively include the binary pair of male and female, in accordance with Aristotelian archetypes.
Colleagues of Apostles, Presbyters, and Bishops
Authors: Ramelli Ilaria L.E.
Published: March 2021

This chapter points out and examines evidence for the role of female ‘colleagues’ or ‘partners’ (syzygoi) in the early churches. It focuses initially on the meaning(s) of syzygos, literally ‘yokefellow’, and the patristic debate about it. The chapter takes into consideration iconographic and archaeological evidence, and literary material, from Paul to patristic writings, including the Acts of Philip and its portrait of the apostolic couple of Philip and Mariamme. The chapter also points to the suggestion of a pairing in the Acts of Paul and Thecla, and includes assessment of Clement, Origen, Theodoret, and Gregory Nazianzen. Nazianzen testifies to the existence of a woman presbyter, colleague of a male presbyter and bishop, and highly respected in Cappadocia in the late fourth century, Theosebia, who was most likely the sister of Gregory Nyssen. It also notes that the women syzygoi need to be seen in the context of other women office holders in the Church, and provides a detailed overview of the key evidence, ending with Origen, who could even use passages of the Pastoral Epistles as a means of acknowledging them.
Women’s Liturgical Practices and Leadership Roles in Early Christian Communities
Authors: Berger Teresa
Published: March 2021

This chapter explores the scattered and fragmentary evidence for early Christian liturgical practices and the traces it offers of women’s leadership roles in worship as well as attendant issues of interpretation. The chapter interprets these traces within the broader frame of the emergence of a particular kind of priestly masculinity that increasingly renders women’s leadership problematic, especially in worship This suggests changing circumstances as the mainstream church evolves. Concerns about women’s presence during worship or when participating in liturgical practices, such as baptism, and their segregation within spaces of worship are also examined, as are liturgical practices within domestic space. In rituals of domestic piety especially, women continue to exercise liturgical agency and leadership.
The Meaning of Presbytera in Byzantine and Early Medieval Christianity
Authors: Madigan Kevin J.
Published: March 2021

This chapter examines the title of ‘presbyter’ attached to women in antiquity and the early Middle Ages. It is argued that this is always subject to difficult interpretation and, if capable of interpretation at all, highly dependent upon contemporary, contextual evidence. As noted in Chapter 8, this term presbytera can refer to an elderly woman and, often, it refers to the wives of male presbyters. Yet there are a number of instances in which neither is the case. Using inscriptional evidence, canonical decrees, episcopal letters and one papal letter, this chapter demonstrates that, in this third category of cases, presbyterae seem to have had authority in local communities, or performed quasi-diaconal service at the altar, assisted itinerant priests and, possibly, engaged in other, routine unspecified presbyteral activities. It is these actions that the ecclesiastical letters and decrees are intended to stop.
The Formation of the Italian Administrative Justice System, European Common Principles of Administrative Law, and ‘Jurisdictionalization’ of Administrative Justice in the Nineteenth Century
Authors: Mazzamuto Marco
Published: March 2021

The present study deals with the formation of the Italian administrative justice system and its French derivation. The analysis therefore extends into the wider European context in the nineteenth century, showing the existence of European common principles of administrative law and providing reasons that explain why the administrative justice system achieved a citizen protection superior to that of the civil law tradition. Finally, the chapter focuses on the consequences of the process of ‘jurisdictionalization’ of administrative justice, suggesting that the gracieuse origins of administrative justice was more easily saved in systems, such as the French or Italian system, in which the ‘same’ administrative bodies in exercising administrative justice formally became administrative courts.
The Wrong and the Bad
Authors: Nichols Shaun
Published: March 2021

The fundamental element of a cognitive account of moral judgment will be some form of representation. Two kinds of value representations need to be distinguished: value representations and rule representations. Value representations register valence for particular courses of action. For instance an organism might represent touching a certain wire as a bad thing. Such representations feed directly into behavior. Rule representations involve more than registering a bad value. They can involve complex representations composed of abstract concepts like impermissible, harm, and knowledge. This chapter argues that value representations cannot provide an adequate account of moral judgment, and that we must invoke rule representations to explain key features of moral judgment. In particular, it is difficult to capture the distinctive nature and specificity of wrongness judgments without adverting to structured rules.
Priors
Authors: Nichols Shaun
Published: March 2021

People seem to expect that rules will be act-based rather than consequence-based. For instance, when people learn a new rule, given minimal evidence, they tend to think that the rule prohibits people from producing a certain consequence, rather than that the rule dictates that such a consequence should be minimized. One explanation is that people have an innate bias to think rules are act-based. This chapter suggests an alternative empiricist proposal. The expectation that rules will be act-based might be explained as a prior that is itself the result of earlier learning. In particular, given that most rules that people have learned are act-based rules, the prior for act-based rules might be acquired through a process of overhypothesis construction.
Closure
Authors: Nichols Shaun
Published: March 2021

When people learn normative systems, they do so based on limited evidence. Many of the possible actions that are available to an agent have never been explicitly permitted or prohibited. But people will often need to figure out whether those unspecified actions are permitted or prohibited. How does a learner resolve this incompleteness? It seems that at least for many people in many contexts, there is an assumption that if an action-type is not expressly forbidden, then acts of that type are permitted. This “closure principle” is one of Liberty. But how might such a principle be acquired? This chapter argues that the statistical technique of pedagogical sampling provides an answer. If one is taught a rule system via a set of prohibitions, this provides reason to think that the set of actions in the domain that are not mentioned in the prohibitions are permitted.
Moral Empiricism
Authors: Nichols Shaun
Published: March 2021

Is morality prewired into our minds? The idea that morality is built into us is an old one in philosophy, and it has seen a resurgence of late. Indeed, the prevailing systematic account of how we acquire complex moral representations is a nativist view inspired by arguments in Chomskyan linguistics. If the statistical learning accounts I’ve defended in Part II of this book are right, we have the beginnings of an empiricist account of important aspects of human morality. This chapter offers a sustained defense of a moral empiricist view in the face of the Chomskyan challenge.
Introduction
Authors: Ingram Jenni
Published: March 2021

Learning is a social and interactional endeavour, involving interactions between students and the teacher, between students themselves, and between all of these participants and the mathematics. By focusing on the process of learning itself in classroom interactions, the intersubjective negotations enabled by interactional structures and practices become visible. Detailed analysis of these interactional structures and practices, such as those offered in this book, can not only contribute to our understanding of the complex process of learning mathematics, but can also reveal opportunities to use and deviate from these structures.
Turn-taking
Authors: Ingram Jenni
Published: March 2021

There is an almost universal pattern and structure to classroom interaction that both constrains what teachers and students can do, but also offers opportunities to use these structures to support the learning of mathematics. Turn taking structures that dominate learning interactions may control who can speak when and what can be said but turns can include a wide range of actions that constitute what it means to learn or do mathematics. It is through the deviations from these structures, such as when students speak ‘out of turn’, that these opportunities become clear. This reveals opportunities for teachers to work both within these structures, but also where deviations from these structures can also support learning. For example, by manipulating the wait time that can arise between turns in classroom interactions.
Trouble in Interaction
Authors: Ingram Jenni
Published: March 2021

Making mistakes is part of learning mathematics but these mistakes can be handled in many different ways which in turn can lead to the process of making mistakes and learning from them very different. Using the conversation analytic idea of repair, and the associated preference organisation of repair, the implicit messages that the handling of mistakes can give is revealed. This structure around the preference organisation of repair is used by many teachers to encourage students to offer explanations and justifications that are a fundamental part of learning and doing mathematics.
Doing Mathematics
Authors: Ingram Jenni
Published: March 2021

Learning mathematics is a way of acting. Mathematics is something that you do, not just something you know. Yet what it means to do mathematics can depend upon the norms and sociomathematical norms in each classroom. In turn, what it means to do mathematics in a classroom affects what it means to be a student or a teacher of mathematics. This doing of mathematics can be about communicating and problem solving, or it can be about remembering and knowing. Similarly, what it means to explain, argue, or justify varies between classrooms and the opportunities for students to do mathematics are constrained by what it means to do mathematics in each and every mathematics classroom.
Final Thoughts
Authors: Ingram Jenni
Published: March 2021

Mathematics classroom interactions are both intricate and complex. They are contingent upon the contexts in which they occur but can both open up and close down opportunities to do mathematics in different ways. What it means to be successfully participating in the learning of mathematics can be challenged by considering how learning mathematics is contingently produced and negotiated. Conversation analytic approaches describe in detail the various, and often contrasting, paths that teachers and students follow as they interaction in mathematics classrooms. Yet there is so much more to discover about this process of mathematics learning as it happens in the classroom.
From Hundreds to Billions of Dollars of Income
Authors: Teal Francis
Published: March 2021

This is a book about inequality. About the fact that we live in a world of very many poor people and a very few extremely rich ones—the poor and the plutocrats of its title. In this chapter we frame the question posed by the book—how one can move from such poverty to such riches?—using data from the UK, the US, and poor countries. If a longer term, and comparative, perspective is taken on incomes and inequality the problem is not to explain a rising tide of poverty—there isn’t one—nor is it to explain how capitalism generates ever-increasing inequality—it hasn’t. The problem is much more complicated. How can we explain such large changes in both incomes and in inequality as have occurred since the start of sustained global growth in the early part of the nineteenth century?
The Poor and the Rich in the UK in the Twenty-First Century
Authors: Teal Francis
Published: March 2021

We begin seeking an answer to the question posed in Chapter 1 by using HMRC and ONS data to show the current range of incomes within the UK. Those in the bottom 5 per cent of the distribution have annual incomes of some £6,300, while those in the bottom 1 per cent have incomes below £3,500. We compare these numbers with those on the minimum wage who, if they work full time, have an income of £13,000 a year in 2014 prices. In the tax data the highest incomes are in the tens of millions. This chapter thus introduces the range of incomes within a country that we need to explain and introduces too the log normal distribution which will prove essential for understanding why we observe the range of incomes we do with large numbers of the poor and very few of the rich.
Five Countries
Authors: Teal Francis
Published: March 2021

This chapter is framed by a citation for the Oxfam report released in February 2017 in which it was claimed that ‘eight billionaires own the same wealth as the 3.6 billion people who form the poorest half of the world’s population’. We begin to consider the range of incomes across the globe that need to be understood by looking at the economic history, since 1500, of five countries—the US, the UK, Brazil, China, and India. These five countries, encompassing the richest in terms of per capita incomes and the largest in terms of population, show the great divergence in incomes after 1700 and the (very) recent convergence. It is these patterns which explain the changing dispersions of the absolutely poor across the world.
The Rise (and Rise) of the World Economy
Authors: Teal Francis
Published: March 2021

In this chapter we turn from the consideration of individual countries to the whole world economy and document the continuing rapid rises in global incomes. Growth is shown to have been rapid for some periods and for some regions but it has been as far from uniform as can be imagined. Understanding the variations in the patterns of growth across regions provides insights into the changing geography of poverty and into the causes of the unease in once dominant countries. The success in creating high national incomes provides the environment that enables billionaires to emerge; the failures in the growth of such incomes are the sources of continuing absolute dire poverty.
The Growing Equality across Countries and Inequality within some Countries
Authors: Teal Francis
Published: March 2021

Just as unemployment dominated the political agenda of the 1930s, so inequality has come to dominate the concerns of both rich and poor countries in the twenty-first century. Contrary to what is widely believed, inequality across countries has been declining since the 1980s, driven primarily, but not exclusively, by the rise in incomes in China. Looking at inequality within countries, on average inequality is much higher in poor than in rich countries. Changes over time in inequality are modest, compared with differences across countries. We observe a world with countries which have policies, or politics, which generate high inequality and ones which generate much lower inequality. There is little link between inequality and growth on average across the world.
The Fall and Rise of the 1 Per Cent
Authors: Teal Francis
Published: March 2021

We have a puzzle we need to resolve and the core of this puzzle is the remorseless rise in incomes of the poorest and the widening spread of incomes we observe across the world. The most politically conspicuous (and contentious) aspect of this rising spread is the increasing share of income going to the top 1 per cent, particularly in the UK and the US. In this chapter we compare income growth across the distribution for the UK and the US from the Thatcher/Reagan period until the years after the financial crash. The rise of the 1 per cent is shown to be largely at the expense of the 90–99 per cent. Inequality rose far more in the US than in the UK. In the New Labour years in the UK incomes of the bottom quintile (that is the bottom 20 per cent) of households grew faster than the top quintile.
Sources of Income for the Plutocrats
Authors: Teal Francis
Published: March 2021

In this chapter we take the final step on the journey we have traversed in the book from the poorest of the poor to reach the richest of the rich—the plutocrats of the book’s title. We review the evidence as to where the plutocrats come from and compare a ‘merit’ view of the sources of their income with the more common ‘rent-seeking’ one. It is the incomes from finance which have been the most contentious and a major a source of dissatisfaction with the highest incomes across the world. We conclude by linking this dissatisfaction with the rise of populism and a new generation of populist politicians.
From the Poor to the Plutocrats
Authors: Teal Francis
Published: March 2021

In this chapter we provide an overview of the arguments of the earlier chapters as to what explains absolute and relative poverty and the incomes of the super-rich. The factors that influence whether one is to be very poor or very rich are summarized in four steps: Step 1—Get lucky where you are born; Step 2—Get lucky when you are born (if unskilled you want the early twentieth century, if skilled after that); Step 3—Get lucky in being able to move (if born in the wrong place); Step 4—Get ultra-lucky with a great idea, or own an oil company, or have rich parents, or eliminate the competition.
Discovery
Authors: Gamble Clive
Published: March 2021

The narrative starts at breakfast in the northern French town of Abbeville on the River Somme. Prestwich and Evans are joined by the pioneering, but eccentric antiquary Jacques Boucher de Perthes. They are here to inspect his claims for stone tools found alongside the bones of extinct ice age animals. If they can verify his claim, then the time revolution has begun. The reasons why Boucher de Perthes has been ignored are touched on as the three visit the gravel pits of the town, looking at the evidence. Lunch allows them to study Boucher de Perthes’s huge collection of flints and antiquities, including his strange stone sculptures. They are interrupted by a telegram and leave for Amiens. The train journey from Abbeville to Amiens is used to reflect on how they built their scientific case from facts, not theories. Once in Amiens they are taken by Charles Pinsard to the gravel pits at St Acheul, where they find, and photograph, the evidence they came for. The circumstances of the discovery are described in their own words.
Reception
Authors: Gamble Clive
Published: March 2021

The timescale now stretches to the year following the presentation of the evidence. They are warned by Charles Kingsley to expect clerical opposition, but it is slow in coming. Instead, there is a lively debate in the papers about the status of the stone tools and how to account for them. These ideas are set against Herbert Spencer’s view that all life and culture proceeds from the simple to the complex. Are Evans and Prestwich tapping into his idea of progress rather than Darwin’s natural selection, which appears later in the year? The chapter explores when, in 1859, historians such as Buckle, Macaulay, and Freeman thought history began. Their views contrast with the Northern Antiquaries of Scandinavia, who had proposed an earlier prehistoric period before written records. The time revolution had to be fitted into this scheme, and Lubbock was instrumental in finding it room. The time revolution set out to correct bad geology. The timescale of Genesis was simply wrong, although further confrontation with religious beliefs troubled Prestwich. The time revolutionaries were supported by the furore surrounding Essays and Reviews, published in 1860, where clerics challenged the Church’s authority on these matters. The question of how old the artefacts were is examined. They had no means of scientifically measuring age and remained sceptical of conjecture. Their suggestions are compared with those adopted by geologists such as Lyell and Phillips for physical changes in the earth.
Félix Varela’s Hemispheric Interventions
Authors: Lamas Carmen E.
Published: March 2021

This chapter recovers the transnational and hemispheric interests and influences of the Catholic priest Félix Varela (1788–1853), who lived for almost thirty years in the US and was nicknamed the “Father of the Irish” during his lifetime. It challenges the fractured reading of Varela’s archive in the scholarly literature, where he is normally studied only as an influential Cuban philosopher, his impact on US history having passed almost without note, and fills this lacuna by illustrating the manner in which Varela played a key role in the Protestant-Catholic debates of the 1830s–1840s and in the secularization of the public school system of New York City. Varela’s religious-ethical works Cartas a Elpidio (1835, 1838) demonstrate how these debates facilitated the emergence of minority politics in the US and the important role of Latina/os to that emergence. Nowhere is this more evident than in Varela’s annotated translation of Thomas Jefferson’s Manual of Parliamentary Practice, which exhibits a hemispheric reach and significance. It was intended for Spanish-speaking residents of the US, for readers in the nascent republics of Latin America and in colonial Cuba. An examination of Varela’s US archive, beyond his supposed authorship of Jicoténcatl (1826), locates Varela, on a Latino Continuum that reveals these early Latina/o writers as cultural actors shaping the very foundation of US history while also engaging broader ideas in Latin American political and cultural life. It thereby fundamentally challenges contemporary scholars to rethink the still existing divides between American, Latin American, Cuban, and Latinx studies.
Latina/o Translations as Historiography
Authors: Lamas Carmen E.
Published: March 2021

Miguel Teurbe Tolón (1823–57) is a figure well-known in Cuban history because of his landmark contribution to the island’s cultural and political life: he is credited with designing the nation’s flag. Tolón, however, also captures contemporary attention, because, first, he rendered for the first time in Spanish one of the most influential histories of the US that was published in his day, Emma Willard’s Abridged History of the United States. Second, the specific circumstances of Tolón’s historical moment signal the cultural importance of translation as a site not only for identifying the movement of cultural ideas across supposed cultural boundaries, but also for the mutual imbrication of supposedly different cultural worlds. Third, taking into account Willard’s intended audience for this translation—it was to serve as a US history textbook for Spanish-speaking inhabitants of the newly acquired Southwest territories and as a book for learning Spanish for US readers—an analysis of Tolón’s rendering situates this translation on the Latino Continuum. By critically engaging Willard’s vision of the newly acquired Southwest and California territories, Tolón’s translation practice provides an early political critique of Manifest Destiny and US expansionism. Tolón’s rendering reveals precisely that his is a Latina/o translation that, moving between English and Spanish and through Cuba, the US, and Mexico, constructs a Latina/o historiography, one that recognizes the degree of mutual imbrication of their peoples and literatures of the period. It also serves as a point of departures for reconceptualizing the intersection between American, Latin American, Cuban, and Latinx studies.
Archival Formations and the Universal Sentiment
Authors: Lamas Carmen E.
Published: March 2021

This chapter examines the life and writings of Eusebio Guiteras (1823–93), who lived for twenty-five years in Philadelphia. Guiteras captured American life and culture in his travel diaries of the 1840s–1880s, and he translated Rudo Ensayo, a work by the eighteenth-century priest Juan Nentvig (1713–68) that details the evangelization mission of the Jesuits in what is now the American Southwest, but was then northern New Spain. Contextualizing the production and circulation of the multiple editions of Nentvig’s text in the nineteenth century, specifically one by the well-known antiquarian Thomas Buckingham Smith (1810–71), this Latina/o translation advocates for a constructive place for the Catholic Church in the US and Cuba. This advocacy must be understood in light of the translation’s underlying racial politics. Following his source text and the political designs of the editors of the Records of the American Catholic Historical Society (1894), in which the translation appeared, Guiteras simplistically and erroneously depicts the pacification of Native Americans in New Spain as a compassionate enterprise. In his travel diary, Un invierno en Nueva York (n.d.), Guiteras transposes this spiritual enterprise to the Cuban context, in which the place of Afro Cubans was being debated in the 1880s and 1890s on the island and in the US. In doing so, he envisions Catholic priests and Catholicism as agents for the pacification and assimilation of Afro Cubans in Cuba’s future republic while also arguing for a parallel and positive role for the Catholic Church in fashioning a culturally integrated United States.
The Black Lector forging a radical revolution
Authors: Lamas Carmen E.
Published: March 2021

This chapter explores the place of black Cubans in Cuba and the US during the 1880s and 1890s, as articulated through the life and works of Martín Morúa Delgado (1856–1910). The first black reader or lector in cigar factories in Havana, New York, and Key West, Morúa labored incessantly for worker’s rights on both sides of the Florida Straits. Reading Morúa’s life and works from the Latino Continuum allows the recovery of the political significance of this figure for literary and historical studies, especially since he interacted directly with José Martí—the founder of the Cuban Revolutionary Party in New York City. Juxtaposing Morúa’s and Martí’s literary works and translation choices allows us to understand more fully why Morúa was at odds with Martí regarding Cuba’s future and the role that Afro Latina/os had played and would continue to play in Cuba and in the Americas. While the translation of Helen Hunt Jackson’s Ramona (1884) by Martí and the publication of Martí’s novel, Amistad funesta/Lucía Jerez, speak to US expansionism and its effect on Native American populations, they did not engage Cuba’s most pertinent question at the time—the role of black Cubans in the upcoming wars of independence and in the future Cuban Republic. Morúa, aware of this absence, uses his two novels, Sofía (1891) and La familia Unzúazu (1901), to question the political intentions and social prejudices of Americanized Cubans like José Martí, Tomás Estrada Palma, and Cirilo Villaverde.
Business Lobbying in the European Union
Authors: Coen David , Katsaitis Alexander , Vannoni Matia
Published: March 2021

At a time when Europe and business stand at crossroads, this study provides a perspective into how business representation in the EU has evolved and valuable insights into how to organize lobbying strategies and influence policy-making. Uniquely, the study analyses business lobbying in Brussels by drawing on insights from political science, public management, and business studies. At the macro-level, we explore over thirty years of increasing business lobbying and explore the emergence of a distinct European business-government relations style. At the meso-level, we assess how the role of EU institutions, policy types, and the policy cycle shape the density and diversity of business activity. Finally, at the micro-level we seek to explore how firms organize their political affairs functions and mobilized strategic political responses. The study utilizes a variety of methods to analyse business-government relations drawing on unique company and policy-maker surveys; in-depth case studies and elite interviews; large statistical analysis of lobbying registers to examine business the density and diversity; and managerial career path and organizational analyses to assess corporate political capabilities. In doing so, this study contributes to discussions on corporate political strategy and interest groups activity. This monograph should be of interest to public policy scholars, policy-makers, and businesses managers seeking to understand EU government affair and political representation.