bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Declarative Memory
Authors: Eichenbaum Howard
Published: January 2010

Declarative memory involves representations of facts and events that are subject to conscious recollection, verbal reflection, and explicit expression. Sometimes also called explicit memory, declarative memory is contrasted with procedural, implicit, or (simply) nondeclarative memory. The distinguishing features of declarative memory, as just introduced, involve a combination of two major features. One of these features is its mode of expression, characterized by the ability to bring facts and experiences to mind, that is, the ability to consciously recall items in memory. The second feature involves the ability to express a recalled memory in a variety of ways, most prominently by verbal reflection on a learned fact or past experience, but also by using the memory to answer a variety of questions or solve any of a variety of problems.
Dependent Variables
Authors: Drew Clifford J.
Published: January 2010

Dependent variable
is a term used in research methods and refers to the attribute being measured. In experimental research the dependent variable is what is being assessed to determine the effect of manipulating the independent variable. The term dependent variable is also labeled as the
criterion measure
by some research methodologists. The dependent variable or variables (it is not unusual to record multiple measures in an investigation) may involve behavioral, physiological, or social characteristics, depending on the nature of the study. It may involve assessment of performance, such as the amount of information a participant might learn as measured by the number of correct responses on a test.
D
eutsch,
M
orton (1920– )
Authors: Staff
Published: January 2010

Morton Deutsch was born, prematurely, in 1920 into a middle‐class family in New York City, the last of four sons. He was always eager to be more advanced than his age, so he skipped grades through elementary and high school and entered the City College of New York (CCNY) at the age of 15. He began as a pre‐med major with the idea of becoming a psychiatrist. However, after dissecting a pig in biology lab, he switched to psychology. While at college, he was deeply immersed in a student culture that highly valued Marx, Freud, the scientific method, and political activism.
Developmental Test of Visual Motor Integration
Authors: Bernstein Jane Holmes
Published: January 2010

The Developmental Test of Visual Motor Integration (VMI), now in its fifth edition, has clearly stood the test of time. Originally developed in 1967 by Beery and Buktenica, its longevity attests to its value to the clinical assessment community. This is not surprising. The VMI is an elegant test that has six critical features whose co‐occurrence may be unique in currently available psychological instruments. Its ease of administration minimizes examiner error and maximizes data quality. Its format is enjoyed by (most) children, which promotes rapport and maximizes clinical utility (most children are willing to complete all items—yielding both standard and age‐referenced data). It yields qualitative data, in that observation of the child's performance yields insights into psychological processes, deployment of motor skills, and response to increasing load as items increase in complexity. Its quantitative data include standard scores that permit ranking among peers and allow for monitoring of progress over time, and age‐referenced achievement levels, provided for each item, that may signal diagnostically relevant within‐child discrepancies in capacity when contrasted with standard scores. “Stepping Stones” age norms for tracking the progress of very young children are also provided for gross and fine motor, visual and visual motor development. Last, but by no means least, is an enormously valuable developmental trajectory reference set for each item that allows for evaluation of developmental status.
Diagnostic Interview Schedule for
DSM
‐
IV
(
DIS
‐
IV
)
Authors: Segal Daniel L.
Published: January 2010

The Diagnostic Interview Schedule for DSM‐IV (DIS‐IV; Robins, Cottler, Bucholz, Compton, North, & Rourke, 2000) is a structured interview designed to diagnose in a reliable and valid fashion the major psychiatric disorders according to the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
, fourth edition (DSM‐IV) (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). The DIS‐IV is unique among the multidisorder structured diagnostic interviews in that it is a fully structured interview specifically designed for use by nonclinician interviewers, whereas the other interviews are semi‐structured. By definition, a fully structured interview specifies clearly all questions and probes and does not permit deviations.
Dialectical Behavior Therapy
Authors: Jackson Safia C. , Linehan Marsha M.
Published: January 2010

Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) is a comprehensive, multimodal cognitive‐behavioral treatment developed for clients with complex and difficult‐to‐treat mental disorders. Originally developed to treat chronically suicidal clients, DBT evolved into a treatment for suicidal clients meeting criteria for borderline personality disorder (BPD). Since its development, DBT has been adapted to treat other problem behaviors in clients with BPD (including substance abuse and eating disorders), suicidal adolescents with BPD features, suicidal behavior in elderly with major depressive disorder, and individuals with antisocial personality disorder in forensic settings. DBT combines basic change strategies drawn from cognitive‐behavioral therapy with acceptance‐based strategies from Eastern meditative (Zen) and Western contemplative practices. The fundamental dialectical tension in DBT is between an emphasis on validation and acceptance of the client with a persistent attention to behavioral change.
Disordered Thinking
Authors: Kleiger James H.
Published: January 2010

An integrative definition of disordered thinking encompasses a broad perspective that includes traditional concepts such as impaired pace and flow of associations along with such factors as (1) inefficient focusing and attentional processes; (2) deviant word usage; (3) errors in syntax and syllogistic reasoning; (4) inappropriate levels of abstracting; (5) failure to maintain conceptual boundaries; and (6) a breakdown in the discrimination of internal perceptions from external ones (reality testing). A sufficiently broad definition captures the multidimensional nature of disturbances in thought organization (Kleiger, 1999).
Dissociative Disorders
Authors: Kihlstrom John F.
Published: January 2010

The dissociative disorders, as listed in the current (4th) edition of the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM‐IV‐TR; American Psychiatric Association, 2000), include a number of different syndromes, all of which entail an alteration in consciousness affecting memory and identity. Patients with dissociative amnesia (formerly known as psychogenic or functional amnesia) cannot remember certain past experiences (episodic memory), while those with dissociative fugue (formerly known as psychogenic fugue) also lose their personal identities (semantic memory). Patients with dissociative identity disorder (DID; formerly known as multiple personality disorder, or MPD) alternate between two or more separate identities (selves, or “alter egos”), each with its associated fund of autobiographical memory—and an interpersonality amnesia separating at least one alter ego from the others.
Divorce, Child and Adolescent Adjustment in
Authors: Kelly Joan B.
Published: January 2010

Parental divorce has been viewed for many decades as the cause of a wide range of enduring behavioral, emotional, and social problems in children and adolescents. Divorced families have been characterized as flawed structures in which to raise children, whereas married families were assumed to offer healthy and nurturing environments. Such simplistic views regarding these family structures have been abandoned in the past 20 years, as evolving social science research has provided an increasingly complex understanding of both marriage and divorce. Although children and adolescents generally fare better in well‐functioning two‐parent families than in divorced families, not all married families provide appropriate parenting for their children, and many divorced families offer the nurturance and support necessary for positive outcomes (see Clarke‐Stewart & Brentano, 2006; Kelly, 2000).
Double Bind
Authors: Enfield Roger E.
Published: January 2010

Double bind is a concept characterizing an ongoing pattern of communication that imposes painful no‐win situations on its victim through two processes: first, through contradictory demands made at different levels of communication, and second, by preventing the victim from either discriminating and commenting on the bind or withdrawing from it. Originally studied in the relationships between schizophrenic adults and their families, the double bind was viewed as having had causal relevance for their schizophrenia through having impaired their capacities to derive clear meaning from communications and to participate in normal social relationships.
Down Syndrome
Authors: Buckley Sue
Published: January 2010

People with Down syndrome are first and foremost people. They are men, women, and children who live with the condition and its consequences. They usually enjoy life and want the same things out of life as everyone else. As adults they want and have the right to live with dignity and choices. Increasingly, children with Down syndrome in enlightened communities attend nurseries, preschools, schools, and colleges with their mainstream peers and participate in their communities. As adults, they are increasingly living semi‐independently in their own homes, finding work, enjoying leisure facilities, finding partners, and getting married (Buckley, 2000). While this is true in the more developed countries, it is still the case that, in most parts of the world, many children with Down syndrome die young, most of those who survive do not have access to education or health care, and the majority are institutionalized. The point to stress is that, as in the experience of all other human beings, the development of children and adults with Down syndrome is strongly influenced by the care, education, and opportunities available to them. Negative attitudes toward individuals with disabilities and ignorance of what they can achieve are still widespread and diminish their lives and the lives of their families.
Dreams
Authors: Ray William J.
Published: January 2010

The study of dreams has moved from a focus on what they mean to attention to the underlying neuroscience mechanisms that are involved in their generation. Current research suggests that cortical areas involved in dreaming reflect those areas associated with emotional and sensory processing and lack the involvement of higher‐level logical thinking.
Educational Mainstreaming
Authors: Lindsay Geoff
Published: January 2010

The history of educational provision for children with special educational needs (SEN) and disabilities seems extraordinary from a modern perspective. In advanced countries, education is considered a universal right for all children and young people, while in developing countries this is typically an aspiration. Until relatively recently, however, there were children denied this right. For example, it was not until 1970 that children and young people with severe learning difficulties in the United Kingdom were allowed into the education system; previously, they had been cared for in a hospital or at home. This history is relevant today, even in advanced societies, as it lies at the heart of an important question for education policy: How should children and young people with SEN be educated, in special provision or with their typically developing peers? The history has led many to propose policy based upon avalues/rightsperspective (Lindsay, 2003); namely, that all children have the right to be educated in a common system. This is calledmainstreaming, which is also known asinclusive education. Another perspective, however, stresses the importance of the effectiveness of education.
Effect Size
Authors: Grissom Robert J.
Published: January 2010

Most broadly defined, an effect size measures the strength of association between variables or the degree of difference between parameters. If a null hypothesis is false, an effect size measures degree of falseness of that null hypothesis. In the planning of research, the anticipated effect size, or the effect size of minimum interest that the researcher wants to detect, is used in power analysis to estimate needed sample sizes. Estimates of effect size from related studies can be averaged in a meta‐analysis in order to yield a better estimate than could be expected from any single study.
Emotional Development
Authors: Cummings E. Mark , George Melissa R.W. , Kouros Chrystyna D.
Published: January 2010

Emotions are a universal and to some extent innate psychological process. Although certain emotions are present at birth, emotions develop and become differentiated throughout the early years of life. Emotional feelings, expression of emotion, and emotional understanding all importantly develop in the first years of life. Emotional development is based on a variety of influences, including cognitive abilities, social interactions, and cultural influences. Although virtually everyone comes to express and experiences a range of emotions, events that elicit emotions and the expression of emotions may differ widely across individuals.
Emotional Intelligence
Authors: Cherniss Cary
Published: January 2010

Interest in emotional intelligence (EI) and related concepts has a long history in psychology. However, the earliest intelligence quotient (IQ) tests focused on cognitive abilities, and research on the social and emotional skills necessary for successful functioning continued to lag behind work on the purely cognitive ones. Then in the early 1980s psychologists like Gardner (1983) and Sternberg (1985) proposed that there are other kinds of intelligences, and in 1990 Salovey and Mayer began publishing on a new form of intelligence that they called emotional intelligence (Salovey & Mayer, 1990).
Empirically Supported Treatments
Authors: Sanderson William C.
Published: January 2010

Empirically supported treatments (ESTs), which were previously known as empirically validated treatments (EVTs) and more recently as evidence‐based treatments (EBTs), are psychological treatments that have been shown to be effective in well‐conducted controlled research trials. The initial and perhaps most influential effort to identify ESTs was undertaken in 1993 by a task force commissioned by the Society of Clinical Psychology, which is Division 12 of the American Psychological Association (APA) (cf. Task Force on Promotion and Dissemination of Psychological Procedures, 1993).
Employee Assistance Programs
Authors: Bray Jeremy W. , Karutzos Georgia , MacDermind Shelley M.
Published: January 2010

Employee assistance programs (EAPs) are workplace programs offered by employers to employees that assist troubled employees and their family members with a variety of issues, ranging from financial and legal concerns to mental health and substance abuse problems. EAPs traditionally focus on these problems as they affect workplace performance, but EAPs are broadening their focus to include the full range of work‐life issues. The EAP movement in the United States grew out of industrial alcohol programs in the 1950s and saw its biggest growth during the 1980s. It was during the 1980s that most EAPs moved from primarily alcohol‐focused programs to the multi‐issue or broad‐brush programs that they are today.
Environmental Psychology
Authors: Bechtel Robert B.
Published: January 2010

Environmental psychology has been called an interdisciplinary science that focuses on the interplay between human beings and the environment. What environmental psychology introduced to the field of psychology was the presence and influence of the physical environment, which up until recently had been largely ignored. In the late 1960s environmental psychology began by a merging of several disciplines: anthropology, architecture, planning, psychology, sociology, and even some aspects of engineering. Environmental psychology also contributed to the area of human factors by showing that choices of methods and objects were not always logical and often followed irrational motives. In order to encompass this diversity, several organizations were formed to establish a more or less concentrated effort.
Episodic Memory and the Hippocampus
Authors: Rudy Jerry W. , Teyler Timothy J.
Published: January 2010

What did you have for breakfast yesterday? Who went with you to the movies? Who did you see at work today? It is likely that you can answer all questions of this sort. Moreover, if you continue to focus on retrieving information relevant to one or more of these questions, you will recover an amazing amount of contextual detail that surrounded the personal experience. Now answer another question: Did you intend to remember any of these experiences? The likely answer in most cases will be no. Thus, this small exercise reveals that your brain contains a memory system that automatically captures the content of your daily life and stores it in a manner that permits you to intentionally retrieve and replay it.
Ethical Issues in Psychology
Authors: Kitchener Karen Strohm
Published: January 2010

Professions share many common characteristics, such as the development of a code of ethics. Ethics codes serve many purposes, one of which is to state the fundamental values of the profession and to bring together the cumulative wisdom of the profession about acting morally toward those with whom the profession works. The 2002 Ethics Code of the American Psychological Association (APA) is divided into four sections: (1) the introduction, (2) the preamble, (3) general principles, and (4) ethical standards (American Psychological Association, 2002). Kitchener (1984) has argued that the ethical standards are grounded in principles that are more general and fundamental than standards and that serve as their foundation. Although slightly different from those in the 2002 APA Ethics Code, the five principles that seem central to thinking about ethical problems in psychology are (1) beneficence (do good), (2) nonmaleficence (do no harm), (3) respect for persons (treat individuals as autonomous agents, but recognize that those with diminished autonomy or competence need protection), (4) justice (be fair), and (5) fidelity (keep promises, do not lie, be faithful). These principles articulate ethical norms that are central to whatever role the psychologist is in and are quite similar to the principles in the 2002 code.
Ethical Treatment of Animals
Authors: Shapiro Kenneth J.
Published: January 2010

More than any other single event, the publication of Singer's
Animal Liberation
(1976) reopened examination of contemporary society's many and varied uses of animals other than humans (hereafter, animals). This discussion occurred in three overlapping contexts: (1) governmental regulation and institutional self‐regulation and the developments of (2) a major social justice movement, the animal rights movement (ARM), and (3) a field of study, human‐animal studies (HAS). It has ushered in numerous policies implementing changes in how we treat nonhuman animals and in public recognition of and changes in attitudes toward the various issues.
Ethnocultural Psychotherapy
Authors: Comas‐Diaz Lillian , Jacobsen Frederick M.
Published: January 2010

Ethnocultural psychology integrates ethnicity and culture into mental health assessment and treatment. It complements mainstream psychotherapy with cultural values, ethnic/indigenous practices, critical analysis, and empowering approaches. Ethnocultural psychotherapy acknowledges the concept of self as an internal cultural representation.
Existential Psychology
Authors: Koole Sander L.
Published: January 2010

Existential psychology is a branch of psychology that studies how people come to terms with the basic givens of human existence. The existential perspective has important roots in philosophy, which has long tried to make sense of people's being in the world. The philosophical tradition most associated with existential psychology is existential philosophy, which was pioneered by such thinkers as Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, and Heidegger. These and other existential philosophers have written about the anxiety that is inherent in human existence, people's need for meaning in a meaningless world, and the importance for people to make their own choices according to their own authentic desires. Existential psychology has also been influenced by artistic expressions of the confusion and alienation that people experience in their confrontation with meaninglessness and absurdity, which can be found in the work of novelists such as Dostoevsky and Kafka and existentialist writers such as Sartre, de Bouvoir, Camus, Ionesco, and Beckett.
Experiential Psychotherapy
Authors: Iberg James R.
Published: January 2010

Experiential psychotherapy is a meta‐theoretical term for a way of conducting therapy, rather than being a specific therapy based on one theory of personality.
Facial Recognition
Authors: Mansour Jamal K. , Lindsay Roderick C.
Published: January 2010

Facial recognition refers to our ability to indicate whether we have previously seen a face. This process involves perceptual, cognitive, and social components. We rely on our facial recognition system for mundane things such as recognizing acquaintances and more infrequent tasks such as identifying criminals from lineups.
Fear
Authors: Lohr Jeffrey M. , Adams Thomas G.
Published: January 2010

Fear may be the most important emotion for the survival of the human species. The experience of fear is the immediate subjective experience of apprehension marked by activation of the fight or flight response. The experience of fear is best understood on the basis of its principle function. According to Seligman (1971), “the great majority of phobias are about object(s) of natural importance to the survival of the species.” In the most severe of circumstances (e.g., in the presence of a fast‐approaching predator), fear activates the organism to flee or battle for its life. A less severe illustration of fear function is seen in day‐to‐day social interactions in which individuals avoid saying or doing embarrassing things in order to prevent social rejection or maintain companionship.
F
erster,
C
harles
B
. (1922–1981)
Authors: Lundin Ralph W.
Published: January 2010

Charles B. Ferster received the BS from Rutgers University, and the PhD in 1950 from Columbia, where he studied under such well‐known behaviorists as Fred S. Keller and William N. Schoenfeld. He served as research scientist at Yerkes Laboratories in Orange Park, FL, at Harvard University, and at the Indiana University School of Medicine. He then became professor of psychology at Georgetown University and then at the American University in Washington, D.C., where he remained until his death in 1981.
Figure Drawings
Authors: Handler Leonard
Published: January 2010

The term “Figure Drawings” (FD) describes a variety of drawing tests that tap personality functions, including the Draw‐A‐Person Test (DAP), the House‐Tree‐Person Test (H‐T‐P), and the Kinetic Family Drawing Test (K‐F‐D), among other lesser‐known drawing techniques.
Finland, Psychology in
Authors: Niemi Pekka
Published: January 2010

Not surprisingly, the first Finnish psychologists were trained by Wilhelm Wundt in his Leipzig laboratory. Most promising among them was Hjalmar Neiglick, who prepared his doctoral thesis there and defended it at the University of Helsinki in 1887. Unfortunately, Neiglick's premature death two years afterward put a brake on the development of an independent discipline of psychology, which thereafter remained a subsidiary interest of professors of philosophy. One of them, Eino Kaila, finally emerged as a founding father in psychology as late as 1922, when as a newly appointed professor of philosophy, he established a psychological laboratory in Turku. Kaila was keen on following the up‐to‐date trends in psychology. Some years earlier, he had defended this thesis “Über die Motivation und die Entscheidung” (On Motivation and Decision Making”). He also published in one of the leading German journals,
Psychologische Forschung
, in the 1920s and by so doing set a standard for his successors. However, a long time elapsed before Kaila's work entered the scene, with the exception that applied psychology was started by Esther Hjelt, who became the head of the State Railways' Psychotechnical Laboratory founded in 1923.
Fitts's Law
Authors: Grosjean Marc
Published: January 2010

Fitts's law is a mathematical relationship that captures how speed and accuracy trade off in human movement. Originally formulated by Paul M. Fitts (Fitts, 1954), it predicts the time it takes to move to a target as a function of the target's size and the distance that needs to be covered to attain it. In Fitts's study, people were asked to move a hand‐held stylus between two targets as fast as possible without missing them. The targets were of identical width (
W
) and were separated center‐to‐center by a certain amplitude (
A
). By systematically varying the width of the targets and distance between them, he found that the average movement time (
MT
) to go from one target to the other was specified by the following equation:

urn:x-wiley:9780470479216:media:corpsy0361:xm1

where a and b are empirically defined constants, and the expression log
2
(2·
A/W
) was termed the index of difficulty (
ID
) of the movement. Thus
MT
is predicted to increase linearly with
ID
:
MT
 = a + b·
ID
. The index of difficulty is defined such that it increases with the distance that needs to be covered and the narrowness of the targets (required movement accuracy). Moreover,
MT
is predicted to be the same as long as the ratio between movement amplitude and target width (
A
/
W
) remains unchanged.
Five‐Factor Model of Personality
Authors: Pincus Aaron L.
Published: January 2010

Personality traits describe individual differences in human beings' typical ways of perceiving, thinking, feeling, and behaving that are generally consistent over time and across situations. Beginning with the work of Allport and Odbert (1936), trait psychologists have attempted to identify a set of basic traits that adequately describe variation in human personality. This effort has employed two strategies: the analysis of descriptive adjectives across human languages (the lexical approach) and the measurement of various traits derived from personality theories (the questionnaire approach). For nearly 50 years, competing sets of fundamental traits (e.g., Cattell, Eysenck, Guilford), typically derived through factor analysis, created disagreement about which traits were basic. However, in the 1980s, a convergence of the lexical and questionnaire strategies generated a consensus among many trait psychologists that five basic broad traits provided an adequate description of individual differences (McCrae & John, 1992). This set of basic traits is referred to as the Five‐Factor Model (FFM) of personality.
Flynn Effect
Authors: Mingroni Michael A.
Published: January 2010

The term “Flynn Effect” refers to the finding that IQ test scores have increased over time in many countries (Flynn, 2007). Most existing evidence of the effect comes from industrialized nations; however, recent studies suggest that gains are now occurring in developing countries as well. In some northern European countries, the trend appears to have stopped. At present there is no generally agreed‐on explanation for the effect.
Forensic Assessment Instruments and Techniques
Authors: Otto Randy K.
Published: January 2010

Assessment and evaluation is a key component of the identity and practice of clinical psychologists. The majority of assessment activity in which psychologists engage is best described as
therapeutic assessment—
psychological evaluation that is conducted to facilitate or inform decision making about treatment and other types of interventions. In contrast,
forensic assessment
is conducted during or in anticipation of litigation, for the purpose of providing legal decision makers or others with information about aspects of the examinee's psychological functioning that are relevant to some issue that is in dispute. Many commentators, when discussing this issue, distinguish between “clinical assessment” and “forensic assessment” (or between clinical activities and forensic activities). Such terminology is potentially misleading, however, insofar as all forensic assessment is clinical in nature, and it is psychologists' clinical expertise that leads to the court to seek input and opinions from them.
Forensic Psychology
Authors: Hess Allen K.
Published: January 2010

Forensic psychology refers to the three ways psychology and law interact (A. K. Hess, 2006). Notwithstanding the common association of forensic with autopsies as in forensic medicine, the three ways are (1) psychology by the law, (2) psychology in the law, and (3) psychology of the law.
Functional Analysis
Authors: O'Donohue William T. , Loverich Tamara Penix
Published: January 2010

Functional analysis is a strategy for the assessment and treatment of mental health problems (or preferably “behavioral problems”) with origins in radical behaviorism, and particularly behavior therapy. It is generally viewed as an assessment and treatment strategy within the larger realm of behavioral assessment and behavior therapy. More specifically, functional analysis is a set of procedures that attempts to identify important environmental variables that develop and maintain behavior. The clinical goal of functional analysis is to effectively identify targets of intervention that are alterable, in order that appropriate treatments may be rapidly implemented and evaluated.
Germany, Psychology in
Authors: Plath Ingrid , Eckensberger Lutz H.
Published: January 2010

The history of psychology in German‐speaking countries (especially Germany, Austria, and Switzerland) goes back to the nineteenth century, when it began to evolve as an autonomous discipline by separating from philosophy and physiology (see Danziger, 1990; Hothersall, 2004). Typically this is linked to Wilhelm Wundt, who founded the first psychological institute in Leipzig in 1879 and soon launched the first psychological journal in 1883 (Philosophical Studies); in 1904 the first German congress was held, and the Society for Experimental Psychology established, later renamed the German Psychological Society (DGPs—Deutsche Gesellschaft für Psychologie) in 1929—all hallmarks of an established science. The history of the DGPs and psychology as a discipline is documented in detail in a special issue of its journalPsychologische Rundschau(Lukas & Schneider, 2004) on the occasion of its 100th anniversary.
Giftedness
Authors: Renzulli Joseph , Reis Sally M.
Published: January 2010

In the early and mid 1900s psychologists following in the footsteps of Lewis Terman (1877–1956) equated giftedness with high IQ. This legacy survives to the present day, although a variety of conceptions of giftedness have been suggested by many researchers. These conceptions range from general, broad characterizations to more targeted definitions of giftedness identified by specific actions, products, or abilities within certain domains (Sternberg & Davidson, 2005). Research conducted during the last few decades supports the more broad‐based conception of giftedness as a combination of multiple qualities, such as motivation, self‐concept, and creativity, in addition to intellectual potential. For example, Joseph Renzulli defines gifted behaviors rather than gifted individuals, as follows:

Gifted behavior consists of behaviors that reflect an interaction among three basic clusters of human traits—above average ability, high levels of task commitment, and high levels of creativity. Individuals capable of developing gifted behavior are those possessing or capable of developing this composite set of traits and applying them to any potentially valuable area of human performance. (Renzulli, 1978, p. 183)
Gross Motor Skill Learning
Authors: Kimble Gregory A.
Published: January 2010

The acquisition of motor skill, sometimes referred to as
motor learning
, has been the object of a great deal of experimental work. By far the most popular apparatus for such study has been the pursuit rotor or rotary pursuit test.
Group Therapy
Authors: Piper William
Published: January 2010

Group therapy is a form of psychosocial therapy that is conducted by one or more trained therapists with a group of patients or clients. Psychosocial therapy involves an extended verbal dialogue among patients and therapists and is believed to operate primarily by means of psychological mechanisms (e.g., insight regarding relationships or positive reinforcement). In contrast, treatment with medication management involves a brief verbal exchange among the parties and is believed to operate primarily by means of physical mechanisms (e.g., increased levels of neurotransmitters).
G
uthrie,
E
dwin
R
. (1886–1959)
Authors: Lundin Ralph W.
Published: January 2010

Edwin R. Guthrie received the PhD from the University of Pennsylvania in 1912. He spent his entire academic career at the University of Washington until his retirement in 1956. In 1958, the year before his death, he was awarded the Gold Medal Award from the American Psychological Foundation.
Hallucinations
Authors: Weisholtz Daniel , Epstein Jane , Stern Emily , Silbersweig David
Published: January 2010

Hallucinations are involuntary sensory experiences that are perceived as emanating from the external environment, in the absence of stimulation of relevant sensory receptors. Hallucinations can occur in a variety of contexts but are perhaps most striking and debilitating in the context of schizophrenia, in which they are generally experienced as real and emotionally significant, are related to concurrent delusions, and represent a manifestation of psychosis. Hallucinations can occur in any sensory modality and can involve multiple modalities. Auditory hallucinations are the most common in schizophrenia and other illnesses that are traditionally termed psychiatric, and visual hallucinations are the most common in illnesses termed neurological. Hallucinations can be described at multiple levels of analysis, including cognitive, neurochemical, computational, and social/psychological. This article presents a functional neuroanatomic approach to hallucinations describing and analyzing them in terms of disorders of sensory input and subcortical (mindbrain/thalamus) and higher brain regions, including cortical sensory, limbic, and frontal regions. It touches also on treatment considerations.
Hallucinogen‐Related Disorders
Authors: Hung Olivia Y. , Gillespie Charles F.
Published: January 2010

Psychosis is a disturbance in the perception of reality, evidenced by hallucinations (false sensory perceptions), delusions (false beliefs that are not shared with any other people), or disorganized thoughts. Psychotic states brought on by hallucinogen use are often referred to as “trips” by recreational users, and they may be accompanied by agitation, aggression, and other forms of behavioral impairment. Trips generally involve existential experiences, distortions in perception, and synesthesias (blending of the senses).
Halstead‐Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery
Authors: Wedding Danny
Published: January 2010

The Halstead‐Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery consists of a series of individual neuropsychological measures that, in combination, permit a skilled examiner to make detailed inferences about the integrity of the cerebral hemispheres. Because the brain is the organ of adaptive behavior, brain dysfunction is typically observable in some behavioral aberrations. The tests included in the Halstead‐Reitan Battery are designed to sample behavior across every possible sphere and assess all major cognitive, sensory, expressive, and motor functions.
Happiness
Authors: Veenhoven Ruut
Published: January 2010

The study of happiness has long been a playground for philosophical speculation. However, lack of empirical measures of happiness prevented evaluation of the validity of propositions about the matter. In the late twentieth century, survey‐research methods introduced by the social sciences brought a breakthrough, in the form of dependable measures of happiness that have provided a significant body of knowledge.
Health Psychology
Authors: Wallio Stephanie C.
Published: January 2010

Over 2,500 years have passed since philosophers Plato and Aristotle argued that the human mind or soul could not be found within the material body. Approximately 2,000 years later, René Descartes proposed his own theory about the separation of mind and body, which was rooted in these ancient philosophies and became known as Cartesian dualism. While believing that mental experiences were functions of the soul, which must be separate from the physical, Descartes also believed that the soul and body influenced one another. It has been argued (e.g., Rubin & Wessely, 2001) that perhaps the most important effect of Cartesian dualism is that it placed the body in the domain of physicians and the mind in the domain of philosophers, psychiatrists, and psychologists, leading to the development of modern medicine and psychology. This phenomenon is evident in one of the most common practitioner questions, “Is this problem organic or psychological?” Today, health psychology works within this still influential mind‐body dualism to bridge the gap between psychological and physical states.
H
ebb,
D
onald
O
lding (1904–1985)
Authors: Staff
Published: January 2010

Donald Olding Hebb was a Canadian born to two physicians in Chester, Nova Scotia, in 1904. He excelled in schoolwork until his reactions to authority led to difficulties in his later teenage years. He completed his undergraduate studies at Dalhousie University receiving a BA degree in 1925. He traveled to the beat of his own drum, engaging in teaching, farming, and common labor while he continued in self‐study reading works within the developing field of psychology. In 1928, he enrolled in psychology at McGill university, where he received his MA in 1932. His studies were combined with part‐time teaching, and he suffered from health problems and the death of his wife during his graduate studies. After these struggles, he left Canada in 1934 and began serious graduate study with Karl Lashley at the University of Chicago. Lashley left Chicago for Harvard in 1935, and Hebb moved with him. In 1936, at age 32, he received his PhD based on his research on the brains of rats.
High‐Risk Participant Studies
Authors: Stokes John M.
Published: January 2010

In order to improve the efficiency of psychological research concerning etiology, studies may oversample participants who are identified as having high risk for the development of disorders or for the occurrence of adverse outcomes. High‐risk participant studies have evolved in the context of “diathesis‐stress” developmental models of psychopathology that emphasize the impact of exogenous factors on the vulnerable individual. Such studies are extremely helpful in instances where there is a low population base rate for the presence of a disorder or negative outcome, since few studies conducted by other methods will be able to recruit the number of participants needed to ensure sufficient statistical power. Information obtained from high‐risk participant studies may be used to identify vulnerability processes central to the etiology of disorders and to develop preventive intervention programs.
H
ilgard,
E
rnest
R
. (1905–2001)
Authors: Staff
Published: January 2010

Ernest R. Hilgard graduated with honors in chemical engineering at the University of Illinois (1924), and received his PhD (1930) in experimental psychology from Yale upon completing a dissertation on conditioned human eyelid responses under Raymond Dodge. He became a teaching assistant and remained at Yale as an instructor from 1929 to 1933, when he accepted an invitation from Lewis M. Terman to join the faculty at Stanford University. Except for a period during World War II, he spent the rest of his career at Stanford, becoming an Emeritus Professor in 1969. He held a joint appointment in the School of Humanities and the School of Education, served as Executive Head of the Department of Psychology from 1942 to 1950, and was Dean of the Graduate Division from 1951 to 1955.
Histrionic Personality Disorder
Authors: Dorfman William I.
Published: January 2010

Histrionic Personality Disorder is one of 10 personality disorders listed in the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM‐IV‐TR; American Psychiatric Association, 2000). DSM‐IV‐TR defines a personality disorder as an enduring pattern of inner experience and inflexible, pervasive, and ultimately self‐defeating behavior, which is “stable and of long duration and its onset can be traced back at least to adolescence or early adulthood” (p. 689). Individuals diagnosed with histrionic personality disorder typically display exaggerated attention‐seeking behavior, dramatic emotionality, and often sexually seductive or otherwise provocative behavior, all of which are intended to manipulate others to ensure that their childlike dependency needs might be met. One's initial impression of such individuals is that of a rather charming, outgoing, and entertaining person who is often flirtatious and places a great deal of emphasis on his or her physical attractiveness. However, as time passes it becomes evident that this interpersonal style is a superficial façade, calculated to exploit and manipulate others into providing them with excitement and a corresponding, albeit fleeting, sense of self‐worth and identity.
Homelessness
Authors: Brown Sheldon S.
Published: January 2010

Homelessness is a nationwide, major social problem that continues to fester and requires resolution and prevention measures to eradicate. As incomes fall and the cost of living rises, Americans face complicated financial choices in buying food and clothing, securing roofs over their heads, paying for health care, and affording child care and education. Whoever cannot juggle these basic needs may become homeless.
Homeostasis
Authors: Enfield Roger E.
Published: January 2010

Complex organisms must maintain relatively stable internal environments to survive and move freely through the changing and often adverse conditions that surround them. “Homeostasis” is the name that was given to this constancy in 1926 by Walter B. Cannon, an American psychologist. Through his work on homeostasis, Cannon created a concept that has become a milestone in the history of ideas. It was the culmination of an approach begun some six decades earlier with the work of Claude Bernard, the French physiologist who is considered to have established the foundations of scientific physiology. Bernard concluded that organisms have evolved toward a greater independence from the changing environment by developing, from the blood of bodily fluids, aninternal environmentthat is held stable by its own adjustments (Robin, 1979). Cannon demonstrated that the activities of homeostasis, often simple if each is viewed in isolation, are nevertheless orchestrated by remarkably complex regulatory processes involving the organism across physiological systems and levels of functioning.
Human Factors Research
Authors: Durso Francis T. , Jones Keith S. , DeLucia Patricia R.
Published: January 2010

Human factorsis often used as a superordinate term covering a number of endeavors that share the goal of understanding and improving the interactions of human operators with their technology, work environment, and other domain operators. We all recognize when bad design has not been informed by human factors research: the door you push that is designed to be pulled, instructions that misdirect you, the device that looks elegant but that fails to make clear how it is to be turned on (Norman, 1998).
Hyperactivity
Authors: Spetter Dante , Wertlieb Donald , Vashcencko Myrna V.
Published: January 2010

The term
hyperactivity
refers to both a symptom associated with a variety of medical and behavioral disorders and a common psychopathological syndrome. A range of related terms are often treated interchangeably, including
overactivity, hyperkinesis, minimal brain dysfunction, attention deficit disorder
and
attention deficit–hyperactivity disorder.
This discussion addresses hyperactivity as a descriptor, symptom, and syndrome, emphasizing the disorder currently called attention deficit–hyperactivity disorder.
Hyperventilation
Authors: Meuret Alicia E.
Published: January 2010

Hyperventilation (or hypocapnia) refers to a state of reduced carbon dioxide in the blood. It is usually triggered by breathing too deeply or rapidly, in excess of the metabolic demand. The end result is that alveolar and arterial carbon dioxide (CO
2
) pressures decrease and blood pH increases. Sustained hyperventilation produces a variety of adverse changes, including a diminished ability for oxygen to pass from the blood to the organism's cells.
Iceland, Psychology in
Authors: Orn Arnarson Eirikur
Published: January 2010

Psychologists in Iceland have been trained in various countries. An undergraduate course in psychology was started at the University of Iceland, Reykjavík, in 1971 and at the University of Akureyri in the north of Iceland in 2003. Icelandic psychologists had to go abroad for their post‐graduate training in psychology until 1999, when a post‐graduate professional training program in psychology at the masters level was begun at the University of Iceland. Initially most Icelandic psychologists completed their training in Denmark, but later they sought their training in other countries, including Norway, Sweden, Germany, France, England, Scotland, the United States, Canada, and Australia.
Identity Formation
Authors: McKinney Kathleen
Published: January 2010

There are numerous theoretical approaches that illuminate certain areas of identity development (e.g., Kagan's constructive‐developmental approach or Blos's object relations approach), but Erik Erikson's 1968 psychosocial approach to human development appeals to many professionals because of its utility in many professional arenas, including clinical, theoretical, and empirical. Erikson's seminal work stressed the importance of history (personal and societal) and social contexts in influencing individuals' lives, and he incorporated these ideas into his concept of identity formation in adolescence.
Implicit Association Test
Authors: Smith Colin Tucker , Nosek Brian A.
Published: January 2010

When waiting for a movie to begin, it is common to see advertisements for the soda, popcorn, and candy you passed by (or bought) in the lobby. Whether you are paying attention to the advertisement or are talking to a companion, the pairing of ice‐cold containers of soda with other attractive images and sounds establishes an association between “soda” and “good” in your mind. In the theater and beyond, the mind is constantly gathering information from the social environment and creating, revising, and reinforcing associations in memory. The mind is so prolific at forming these associations that it may do so even if you would rather not have them.