bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Hematological parameters of four Chinese pangolins (Manis pentadactyla)
Authors: Heath Martha E.
Published: June 2005

Hematological, differential, and blood chemistry values were determined in four Chinese pangolins (Manis pentadactyla), both at the time of their arrival and after more than 1 year in captivity. The data presented were derived from two samples obtained from each of four animals, and they provide a preliminary basis for comparison with clinical blood values from this and other pangolin species. No peculiar features were identified that distinguish this species from other mammals.
Passerine dietary iron overload syndrome
Authors: Kincaid Anne L. , Stoskopf Michael K.
Published: June 2005

Iron storage disease attributable to dietary iron overload was identified in four genera and seven species of tanagers. Dietary analysis showed iron levels seven‐to 12‐fold above recommended values. The source of the iron was commercial mynah bird diet, a common component of passerine diets, which suggests an alternative interpretation of iron syndromes previously described as idiopathic heritable conditions. Pathologically, the syndrome was characterized by marked iron deposition in hepatocytes, Kupffer cells, and reticuloendothelial cells of the spleen and other tissues. Pathologic, demographic, and clinical data were compatible with a dietary source of iron overload.
Handraising large parrots: Methodology and expected weight gains
Authors: Hanson Janet Tashjian
Published: June 2005

Handraising psittacine chicks is gaining acceptance as a conservative tool, because it facilitates increased chick production through double‐clutching. Techniques involving environment, banding, diet, hygiene, and veterinary care used in the handrearing nursery of Aviculture Institute/Behavioral Study of Brids, Inc. are reported here. The mortality rate has steadily decreased since the nursery was established in 1981, while the total number of chicks handreared has increased from 116 in that year to 300 in 1985. Weight gain data of healthy, handreared chicks from the 1984 and 1985 breeding seasons are presented, representing 21 species of large, Old and New World parrots. Weight gains improved to a plateau reached in 1984. Tables are provided that contain normal weight gain values useful for comparison and evaluation of growth progress of handraised parrot chicks.
Urinary steroid evaluations to monitor ovarian function in exotic ungulates: IV. Estrogen metabolism in the okapi (Okapia johnstoni)
Authors: Loskutoff Naida M. , Kasman Lonnie H. , Raphael Bonnie L. , Ott‐Joslin Janis E. , Lasley Bill L.
Published: June 2005

In this investigation, an attempt was made to identify the major urinary estrogen metabolites in the okapi by radioisotope infusion and by chromatographic separation procedures. The results suggest that the urinary estrogens are excreted in concentrations below the limit of sensitivity of conventional assay systems. In addition, a variety of contaminants with estrogenic immunoreactivity are present in okapi urine that are not necessarily correlated with follicular activity. A great proportion of circulating estrogen is eliminated in fecal material. However, the rate of elimination is slow, and the extraction procedures necessary to detect the metabolites are tedious, which would prevent the practical application of this procedure for monitoring follicular activity.
Control of intragroup aggression by a captive male orangutan
Authors: Zucker Evan L.
Published: June 2005

An adult male orangutan, housed with two adult females, intervened in female‐female aggressive interactions at least seven times over a 4.5‐year period. Five of these seven episodes involved multiple interventions rather than a single act. One series of interventions was directly observed during an ongoing study of spatial relationships, and six other episodes were described in the zoo records. The intervention that was observed directly began with one female displacing the other, after which the male located himself between the two females. He remained nearer the displaced female than he did to the other female. These seven episodes demonstrate the male's mediation and regulation of intragroup aggression. Whereas the opportunities for the control of aggression are limited in the wild, the conditions of captivity likely allowed for the expression of this behavior pattern.
Artificial incubation of eggs of the green iguana (Iguana iguana)
Authors: Miller Tracy J.
Published: June 2005

Successful hatching of large numbers of artificially incubated eggs from the green iguana, Iguana iguana, are reported. Gravid females were captured at a nesting site in Summit Gardens, Soberania, Parque Nacional, Panama, and released into an enclosure with an artificial nesting area. Females dug their own tunnels and nest chambers or used artificial nest chambers for egg deposition. Eggs (n = 829) from 21 clutches were removed from the nests and artificially incubated. Average hatching success per clutch was 94.6% and the mean clutch incubation time was 92.1 days. A distinct odor was noticed in the incubation containers several days before the eggs began to hatch. At this time, the substrate layer was removed exposing the top surface of all eggs, and the eggs desiccated to some degree prior to hatching. High incubation temperature, hydric conditions, and egg arrangement are all implicated as contributing factors in low hatching success in previous studies using artificial incubation techniques.
Behavioral changes of a juvenile gorilla after a transfer to a more naturalistic environment
Authors: Goerke Betty , Fleming Leslie , Creel Melody
Published: June 2005

Play behavior and stress‐associated behavior of a captive juvenile gorilla were observed before and after his transfer to a larger and more natural environment. The gorilla was observed for 4 months after the transfer and at 1 and 4 years after the transfer. Throughout his first month in the new environment play decreased dramatically. Although play subsequently increased again 2 months and 1 year after the transfer, it never reached the levels of play in the old environment. Four years after the move his play had decreased again to the low level of his first month in the new environment. Two of his stress‐associated behaviors, coprophagy and regurgitation/reingestion, decreased after the transfer. Self‐clasping behavior increased initially in the new environment and remained at high levels 1 year after the move. Four years after the move his self‐clasping behavior was significantly less than at 1 year after the move; however, it continued to be significantly greater than in the old environment. These findings suggest that larger and more natural environments do not necessarily result in more play activity or a reduction in all stress‐associated behavior.
The current status and future prospects of the Red Panda (Ailurus fulgens) studbook population
Authors: Glatston Angela R. , Roberts Miles
Published: June 2005

Scientifically based captive breeding programs are an essential prerequisite to the long‐term preservation of exotic species in zoos. The data provided by studbooks form the foundation on which such a program can be built. In the following paper, information extracted from the International Studbook for the Red Panda (Ailurus fulgens) is used to provide both demographic and genetic analyses of the current captive‐born population and simulations of future trends in population structure. From the results of these analyses, conclusions can be drawn which are of importance to future captive management practice.
Switched identity of two Przewalski's horse mares detected by blood typing
Authors: Bowling Ann T. , Ryder Oliver A.
Published: June 2005

Accurate pedigrees are of prime importance to breeders of both domestic and captive animals. Blood typing is a tool utilized to verify accuracy of pedigrees in domestic animal breeding programs that may often be directly applied to related zoo species. We describe the application of blood typing techniques developed for domestic horses to detect a switch in the identity of two Przewalski's horse mares. Before the switch detection, one of the mares had been bred to a closely related stallion, a breeding which would not have been planned had the correct identity of the mare been known.
Artificial incubation of California condor Gymnogyps californianus eggs removed from the wild
Authors: Kuehler Cynthia M. , Witman Patricia N.
Published: June 2005

The currrent California condor (Gymnogyps californianus) recovery plan entails increasing the reproductive rate via replacement‐clutch manipulation of eggs. During the period from 1983 to 1985, 15 eggs were removed from wild nesting pairs for artificial incubation. The eggs were incubated at a dry bulb temperature of 36.4°C in modified forced‐air Lyon Electric incubators. The incubation humidity was adjusted for individual eggs based on weight loss data (water = weight), 25.6–30.0°C wet bulb (41.0–63.0% Relative Humidity (RH)). The chicks were hatched initially under forced‐air conditions of 36.1°C dry bulb, 31.1–01.7°C wet bulb (70.0–73.0% RH). In 1984, hatching parameters were changed to still‐air conditions, 36.1°C dry bulb (top of the egg), 35.0°C dry bulb (bottom of the egg), 31.1–31.7°C wet bulb (70.0‐73.0% RH). Tactile and auditory stimulation was utilized during the pip‐to‐hatch interval. From among 15 eggs collected, 13 hatched, and 12 condor chicks were raised successfully (hatchability: 86.7%; survivability: 92.3%).
Protein electrophoresis as a management tool: Detection of hybridization between banteng (Bos javanicus d'Alton) and domestic cattle
Authors: Davis Scott K. , Read Bruce , Balke Jennifer
Published: June 2005

The ability of protein electrophoresis to detect hybridization was evaluated by a detailed examination of 30 banteng‐domestic cattle hybrids. These hybrids were run as unknowns in a sample of 53 individuals that included both banteng and domestic cattle. Twenty‐six of the 30 hybrid animals could be unambiguously identified as such, while the remaining hybrids were indistinguishable from domestic cattle. Theoretical analysis showed that the sensitivity of the protein assays at the individual level increased slowly with the number of available markers. The probability of detecting limited amounts of hybrid influence (5–10%) in an individual was less than 70% for any biologically realistic number of protein markers. Hybridization was much easier to detect at the population level, where the sensitivity of an electrophoretic assay increased rapidly with increased sample size. The combined results of the protein electrophoresis and the theoretical analysis suggest that there is an 94.8% probability that there are essentially no genes from domestic cattle in the North American banteng herd at the present time. Zoos interested in obtaining new animals should examine the source population as well as the individuals in question whenever it is feasible. An electrophoretic survey would also provide useful information when a species survival plan is organized.
Breeding and management of the common trumpeter (Psophia crepitans)
Authors: Horning Cynthia L. , Hutchins Michael , English Walter
Published: June 2005

The breeding biology and management of three wild‐caught adult Common trumpeters (one male and two females) was documented at the Woodland Park Zoological Gardens, Seattle, from April, 1984 to August, 1986. A total of 27 eggs were laid, and eight young survived to fledging. Both sexes exhibited crane‐like dances during courtship, but the male appeared to perform these behaviors more frequently and with greater intensity than the females. Courtship feeding and allo‐preening also occurred. Nests consisted of simple scrapes on the ground, but the birds had no opportunity to rest in trees or other elevated sites. Clutches contained two or three eggs, and the incubation period was aproximately 28 days. Although the breeding pair was generally aggressive toward the second female, all three adults participated in incubation and in caring for the young. Parental behavior consisted of brooding, allopreening, and feeding. The male preened and fed one chick significantly more often than either of the females. Trumpeter chicks were highly precocial, but grew relatively slowly, reaching 50% of adult weight by 45 to 50 days of age. Trumpeters are difficult to maintain and breed in captivity and appear to be susceptible to mycotic diseases, such as aspergillosis. Changes in the social composition of captive groups may result in improved breeding.
Asian small‐clawed otter (Aonyx cinerea) urolithiasis prevalence in North America
Authors: Calle Paul P.
Published: June 2005

The prevalence of urolithiasis in the North American Asian small‐clawed otter (Aonyx cinerea) population was determined through a retrospective survey. A questionnaire regarding diet and radiographic or necropsy evidence of urolithiasis was sent to the 16 North American institutions or individuals listed in the Asian Small‐Clawed Otter North American Regional Studbook. Completed forms were returned by 75% of questionnaire recipients.

Individual surveys or necropsy reports were received for 79.8% of the living or dead animals listed as comprising the North American population. Renal calculi were detected in 66.1%, and cystic calculi in 23.2%, of the captive adult population that had been radiographed or necropsied. All otters with cystic calculi also had renal calculi. Bilateral renal calculi occurred in 83.8% of affected otters. Both males (61.2%) and females (72%) were frequently affected. The prevalence of urolithiasis in wild‐born otters was 76.7%, and in adult (≥1 year) captive‐born otters it was 53.8%. The higher prevalence in wild‐born otters may be a reflection of the older mean age at which they were first evaluated. In the overwhelming majority of otters with renal calculi, the calculi were multiple and diffusely distributed throughout the renal parenchyma. Renal and cystic calculi analyzed were primarily composed of calcium oxalate or urates. Glucosuria was infrequently reported. Necropsies of dependent neonates (≤ 2 months old) that died revealed cystic calculi in one animal.

Renal disease was the cause of, or a contributing factor in, the deaths of all older animals whose necropsy reports were reviewed. The captive diet may be a contributing factor to urolith formation and progression.
Successful artificial insemination in the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) at ueno zoo
Authors: Masui M. , Hiramatsu H. , Nose N. , Nakazato R. , Sagawa Y. , Tajima H. , Saito K.
Published: June 2005

Successful breeding of the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) following artificial insemination was achieved at the Ueno Zoo in 2 consecutive years (1985 and 1986). The first cub, born in June 1985, unfortunately died 43 hours after birth from being crushed by the mother panda; the second cub, born in June 1986, has been growing in good health. Electroejaculation and artificial insemination procedures were performed after immobilization with diazepam (0.1 mg/kg) and ketamine HCL (4.0–5.0 mg/kg). Semen of the male panda was collected by electroejaculation using a rectal probe with a diameter of 2.0 cm and with eight rings as electrodes. Stimulation of the male was given with 3 V (30–40 mA) over a 5‐sec period with 5‐sec intervals. The female panda exhibited estrus between late February and early March in 1985 and also between mid‐january and early February 1986. Increased excretion of urinary total estrogen showed coincidentally at maximum behavioral estrus, and a gradual rise of pregnanediol level was followed by artificial insemination. The gestational length for the first pregnancy was 110 days and that of the second 121 days.
Demographics of captive De Brazza's guenons
Authors: Brennan E. Jean
Published: June 2005

Survival and fertility rates of captive De Bràzza's guenons (Cercopithecus neglectus), based on the 575 known captive animals in 70 zoos and institutions worldwide, were calculated. The results suggest that the high level of infant mortality (males: dx(day 1‐yr 1) = 0.73 males; females; dx(day 1‐yr 1) = 0.51), low fertility rate (Σ m′x = 1.69), and differential mortality due to the incidence of stillbirths (males: dx(day 1) = 0.676, females: dx(day 1) = 0.442) may threaten the viability of this population. Possible causes of differential mortality rates are discussed and questions requiring additional research are identified.
Dynamics of intrafamily aggression and social reintegration in lion tamarins
Authors: Inglett Betty J. , French Jeffrey A. , Simmons Lee G. , Vires Kathy W.
Published: June 2005

Intrafamily aggression poses a critical problem in the captive maintenance of callitrichid social groups. Group cohesion and individual health is threatened by aggressive altercations. This paper discusses several aspects of lion tamarin aggression. To investigate the demography of intrafamily aggression in golden lion tamarins, we reviewed instances of family‐group aggression from our facilities and we solicited data from facilities around the world. The sex and reproductive status of tamarins that initiated and received aggressive attacks and a description of the nature and severity of injuries inflicted during aggressive altercations are documented. In lion tamarins, aggressive interactions between members of a social group are severe: 20.5% of such encounters resulted in the death of an individual. Juvenile males were found to be the most likely targets of injurious aggression (50.6% of all attacks), and juvenile females also accounted for a significant proportion of attacks (38.5% of attacks). Juvenile males, adult females, and juvenile females were most likely to initiate attacks, while adult males rarely initiated attacks on family members. A protocol for managing intact family groups by the successful reintegration of expelled tamarins back to their natal group is also described; this method requires direct and progressive contact of an expelled individual with their family group. This procedure has not proven successful for reintroducing hand‐reared infants to a social group.
Estrous cycle of the tayra, Eira barbara
Authors: Poglayen‐Neuwall Ivo , Durrant Barbara S. , Swansen Marda L. , Williams Robert C. , Barnes Roy A.
Published: June 2005

Thirty‐three estrous cycles of three female tayras were defined using vaginal cytology and/or behavioral observations. Estrous cycles averaged 56.0 ± 4.73 and 52.2 ± 15.5 days in length for two young tayras and 93.9 ± 21.0 for an older female. The complete absence of parabasal cells in vaginal smears coincided with vulvar tumescence and was diagnostic of estrus.
Lighting requirements of nocturnal primates in captivity: A chronobiological approach
Authors: Erkert Hans G.
Published: June 2005

From the results of chronobiological studies in 11 Aotus lemurinus (trivirgatus) griseimembra, 3 Galago garnettii, 5 Galago senegalensis, and 6 Microcebus murinus, inferences can be made on the most suitable lighting conditions for nocturnal primates kept in captivity. In each species studied light controls the daily periodic course of activity in a dual way. First, the light‐dark (LD) cycle acts as the main Zeitgeber, entraining the endogenous circadian timing system (CTS) to the environmental periodicity. Second, the prevailing light intensity has a direct species‐specific inhibiting or enhancing effect, masking the level of activity predetermined by the CTS. Marked inhibition of activity is caused especially by low light intensities during dark‐time (D‐time), which can also lead to drastically reduced food intake (e.g., in Aotus). Therefore, high‐amplitude LD cycles should be applied which guarantee a stable external and internal synchronization of the various circadian rhythms of the organism, with a D‐illumination intensity high enough to prevent light‐induced impairments of the behavior of the animals. Up to now LD cycles of 12:12 h (100–1,000:0.5–0.01 lx; ≥5,000°K) have proved to be most suitable. Only in Microcebus should the D‐illumination be reduced to about 10−4 lx. Moreover, it must be considered that species with a photoperiodically controlled reproduction cycle require specific alterations of the L‐time:D‐time ratio.
Reproductive parameters of clouded leopards (Neofelis nebulosa)
Authors: Yamada Joan K. , Durrant Barbara S.
Published: June 2005

Reproductive data compiled from the International Clouded Leopard Studbook revealed that 75% of all litters were born to females between one and five years of age. Sixty‐three percent of the males had sired litters by four years of age with reproduction declining after six years of age. Sixteen zoological institutions surveyed worldwide contributed estrous cycle data from 28 clouded leopards. Sexual maturity (age at first estrus) for these females ranged from 17 to 28 months of age with a mean estrous cycle length of 29.9 ± 13.8 days. The mean length of estrus was six days. Gestation length ranged from 85 to 121 days (X̄ = 93.4 ± 6.3). There was a significantly higher incidence of estrus in fall and winter compared with spring and summer over latitudes ranging from 36°–45° and 51°–55° (P < .005). Mating occurred in all months except June and October, and cubs were produced in all months except December. The highest frequency of mating occurred during the month of December corresponding with a birth peak in March.
Pathogenesis of hemosiderosis in lemurs: Role of dietary iron, tannin, and ascorbic acid
Authors: Spelman Lucy H. , Osborn Kent G. , Anderson Marilyn P.
Published: June 2005

Clinical disease associated with excess iron deposition (hemosiderosis) in the duodenum, liver, and spleen occurs in captive lemurs. In this report we review the occurrence of hemosiderosis and related disease in the Zoological Society of San Diego lemur collection; we then define and describe potential pathogenic factors with the goal of establishing rational husbandry methods to limit or prevent the disease. At the San Diego Zoo, all 49 lemurs necropsied since 1968 were hemosiderotic, the severity increasing with increasing age; liver and kidney disease were common. Our review of iron metabolism, current knowledge on the pathogenesis of hemosiderosis in humans, and the diets of captive and wild lemurs reveals several key dietary substances that may contribute to lemur hemosiderosis: iron, tannins, and ascorbic acid. In captivity, excess dietary iron (commercial monkey chow) and high levels of ascorbic acid (citrus fruits) lead to enhanced iron uptake and increased toxicity of stored iron due to free radical formation. In the wild, lemurs have an unusual preference for leaves, fruits, and bark high in tannin, a polyphenolic secondary plant compound that rapidly chelates iron, protein, and minerals in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, preventing their absorption. These findings suggest that hemosiderosis in captive lemurs results from a diet high in iron, high in ascorbic acid, and lacking in tannin. Immediate correction of captive diets may limit hemosiderosis in lemurs in the future.
Genetic investigations and pedigree analysis in captive barbary sheep (Ammotragus lerviapallas 1777)
Authors: Schreiber Arnd , Matern Bernd
Published: June 2005

The electrophoretic variation of blood proteins (hemoglobin, transferrin, adenylatekinase, and phosphoglucomutase) was studied in a population of 21 barbary sheep (Ammotragus lervia) living at Frankfurt Zoological Gardens. A polymorphism in hemoglobin was sufficient for pedigree analysis in most cases. It could be demonstrated that one female Barbary sheep cared for a lamb that genetically was not its own descendant. “Mismothering” has also been reported from domestic sheep. We suggest this to be critical when basing pedigree assumptions for stud‐book purposes merely on behavioral evidence. Biochemical pedigree control is recommended for the genetic management of endangered social caprines during bottleneck phases of population recovery.
Gene survival in the Asian wild horse (Equus przewalskii): II. Gene survival in the whole population, in subgroups, and through history
Authors: Geyer Charles J. , Thompson Elizabeth A. , Ryder Oliver A.
Published: June 2005

In populations with a known pedigree, exact joint probability distributions of numbers of surviving of genes from each founder can now be calculated for moderately large complex pedigrees (1,000–2,000 individuals and much inbreeding). The usefulness of such calculations is shown by our analysis of gene survival in the Asian wild horse (Equus przewalskii), a species now extinet in the wild with a captive population with 1,516 individuals in the known pedigree (12 generations). We calculate the genetic diversity of subsets of the current population interesting to the North American Species Survival Plan, trace the loss of genetic diversity in this species through its history in captivity, and determine genetically important individuals in the North American population—those with relatively high probabilities of having unique copy genes (genes not found in any other living individual in North America).
Effect of lead on blood protoporphyrin levels of a group of ring teal ducks (Callonetta leucophrys)
Authors: Passer Eugene L. , Leinaeng Rudean H. , Birmingham Lennel W. , Cruz Hector , Dupervil Chantale , Persaud Elizabeth J. , Dolensek Emil P.
Published: June 2005

This research determined the relationships between blood lead level and zinc protoporphyrin (ZnPROTO), protoporphyrin IX (PROTO), and free erythrocyte protoporphyrin (FEP) levels in a group of 18 ring teal ducks. Blood samples were drawn from two groups of ring teal ducks as part of the routine health maintenance program of the New York Zoological Park. One group of six teals had been exposed to what is believed to be lead‐contaminated dust, while the second group of twelve teals was unexposed. Blood samples were analyzed for lead by flameless atomic absorption and for protoporphyrins by fluorescence. Blood lead level and log blood lead level had positive correlations with each of the protoporphyrins: the logarithmic correlations were better than the nonlogarithmic correlations, and PROTO correlated better than ZnPROTO. With one exception, PROTO levels were higher than ZnPROTO levels. The results suggest that PROTO, FEP, or ZnPROTO could serve as a biological indicator of lead poisoning in ring teal ducks.
Development of coordinated singing in a newly formed siamang pair (Hylobates syndactylus)
Authors: Maples E. G. , Haraway M. M. , Hutto C. W.
Published: June 2005

The study traced the development of coordinated singing in a newly formed male‐female siamang pair. Forty‐five song bouts were observed during 18 wk following the pairs' initial introduction to one another. Of particular interest was the development of vocal coordination between pair members in the great‐call sequence of the duet. The percentage of successfully completed great‐call sequences rose from 24% for the first three sessions to 79% for the last three sessions. Types of “errors” that led to incomplete great calls were identified. The two most common errors were: uninvited female high‐bark series, which accounted for the premature termination of 30% of the great‐call attempts during the first three sessions and of 11% of the attempts during the last three sessions, and a premature male ululating scream and/or locomotion call, which accounted for the premature termination of 34% of the great‐call attempts during the first three sessions and of 5% of the attempts during the final three sessions. The fully coordinated great‐call sequences that finally developed closely resembled the siamang great‐call sequence described by Haimoff (Behaviour 76:128–151, 1981; Semiotica 68:89–120, 1988). The role of experience in the development of vocal coordination is discussed.
Menstrual cycle characterization and artificial insemination in the black mangabey (Cercocebus aterrimus)
Authors: Calle Paul P. , Chaudhuri Minu , Bowen Richard
Published: June 2005

Concentrations of immunoreactive estrone conjugates, pregnanediol‐3‐glucuronide, and luteinizing hormone were measured and indexed to creatinine in daily urine samples from three female black mangabeys (Cercocebus aterrimus). Daily observations of menstruation and perineal tumescence were recorded. The mean ± SEM lengths of the menstrual cycle [apparent cycle length of 26.0 ± 0.8 days determined by observation of intermenstrual intervals (n = 26); physiologic cycle length of 31.3 ± 5 days determined by urinary endocrine analysis (n = 4)], follicular phase [16.5 ± 4 days (n = 4)], and luteal phase [14.8 ± 1 day (n = 4)] were determined. The apparent cycle length is probably more accurate.

Perineal tumescence began during or shortly after menstruation, increased concomitantly with increasing follicular phase conjugated estrone values, and reached maximal size in the periovulatory period. Ovulation was closely followed by a drop in conjugated estrone levels, an increase in urinary pregnanediol‐3‐glucuronide, and perineal detumescence. Peak concentrations of conjugated estrone and luteinizing hormone values were coincident. Pregnanediol‐3‐glucuronide accurately reflected luteal function in the black mangabey.

Knowledge of the menstrual cycle parameters and their correlation to perineal tumescence was used to time artificial inseminations. Semen was obtained by rectal electroejaculation. Coagulum and extended semen, or trypsin‐digested coagulum, were used for insemination. One insemination of trypsin‐digested coagulum at the external os of the cervix resulted in a probable conception, follówed by apparent abortion after 3 weeks.
Urinary steroid evaluations to monitor ovarian function in exotic ungulates: VI. Pregnancy detection in exotic equidae
Authors: Czekala Nancy M. , Kasman Lonnie H. , Allen Jack , Oosterhuis Jim , Lasley Bill L.
Published: June 2005

The measurement of serum and urinary estrone sulfate (ES) was evaluated on random single samples for the detection of pregnancy in the Przewalski's horse (PRZ) and Hartmann's mountain zebra (HMZ). Pregnancy was detected by ES analysis of urine or serum in the PRZ and HMZ by at least 8 and 10 months before delivery, respectively. The values of ES in both serum and urine are shown at various stages of gestation. Results indicate urinary ES analysis is a noninvasive early diagnosis for pregnancy in these species.
Gorilla adaptations to naturalistic environments
Authors: Ogden Jacqueline J. , Finlay Ted W. , Maple Terry L.
Published: June 2005

In the past few decades there have been increased investigations into the effects of captive environments on behavior. Simultaneously, zoological gardens have undergone a revolution in philosophy and design, resulting in a proliferation of “naturalistic” habitats. Complex environments such as these have been found to affect the behavior of captive animals favorably, including increasing reproductive and rearing success, encouraging the expression of species‐typical behavior patterns, and decreasing abnormal behaviors. In June 1988, Zoo Atlanta completed four naturalistic habitats for western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla). These new habitats afforded a unique opportunity to study the adaptation of lowland gorillas to novel, naturalistic habitats. During the first year of habitation, a total of 451 hours of data were collected on 11 gorillas housed in three harem groups. Focal animal sampling with a behavioral change scoring system was used to obtain information on behavior, substrate, environmental components utilized, and location in sun or shade. Instantaneous scans at 15 minute intervals provided information on location and behavior of all individuals. Adaptation to the environments was assessed by using the indices of: time spent manipulating objects across the course of the study, the percent of the habitats utilized, and the dispersal of individual animals over the habitats. Trends in these behaviors indicated that exploration of the environments significantly decreased, but that this decline in exploration took over six months to occur. Several interpretations of these findings are presented including the unfamiliarity of these naturalistic habitats to these subjects.
Procedures for improving maternal behavior in captive chimpanzees
Authors: Hannah A. C. , Brotman B.
Published: June 2005

Captive female chimpanzees who have had no opportunity to observe mothers with infants or to interact with infants often show inappropriate maternal behavior, particularly with their first‐born infant, and this usually results in the removal of the infant to be human‐reared. The present study used two techniques to encourage appropriate maternal behavior in ten pregnant female chimpanzees. These females were housed together with unrelated infant chimpanzees to adopt, or with lactating female chimpanzees and infants to observe. In five cases both techniques were used, in two cases only the first technique was used, and in three cases only the second technique was used. All ten female chimpanzees showed appropriate maternal behavior when their infants were born, in contrast to a group of eight female chimpanzees who had no such experience whose infants had to be removed for human‐rearing. It is suggested that these techniques, or adaptations of them, could be applied to many other captive female chimpanzees with similar results.
Brief threatening events beneficial for captive tamarins?
Authors: Moodie Eleanor M. , Chamove Arnold S.
Published: June 2005

To evaluate speculation indirectly suggesting that brief arousal may be beneficial to animals, 39 cotton‐top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) living in 4 large families were observed (a) after normal husbandry procedures that excite them (capture and brief removal of infants or older monkeys), (b) after exposure to an over‐flying bird model, and (c) compared with control days in which neither of the above occurred. Both arousal conditions caused a decrease in play and locomotion, and an increase in grooming and contact during the remainder of the day. These behavioral changes are similar to the patterns reported as positive effects of enrichment but are dissimilar to negative effects of long‐term stressors reported. The pattern of changes in studies of enrichment and of stress enables more objective evaluation of ambiguous events.
Sexing greater flamingos by weight and linear measurements
Authors: Richter Nadine A. , Bourne Godfrey R.
Published: June 2005

The sex of 59 adult Greater Flamingos (Phoenicopterus ruber roseus L.) was determined by laparoscopic exam of the gonads. Concomitant body weight (kg) and linear measurements (mm) of the culmen (bill), tarsus, middle toe, and wing were taken and compared for males vs. females. Although an overlap between sexes existed in all measurements, males on average were larger than females. Student's t‐test indicated significant sexual differences for all five measurements. Thus, weights and linear measurements—especially tarsus, middle toe, and wing length—appear to be a useful parameter in determining an individual's sex in lieu of laparoscopic, feather pulp, blood chromosome, or fecal steroid analysis.
Cryogenic preservation of semen from the Aleutian Canada goose (Branta canadensis leucopareia)
Authors: Gee George F. , Sexton Thomas J.
Published: June 2005

Aleutian Canada geese (Branta canadensis leucopareia) were inseminated with frozen‐thawed semen containing 6% or 7% dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) resulting in 32 fertile eggs and 17 goslings; with 7% DMSO, 19 of 31 eggs were fertile. Beltsville Poultry Semen Extender (BPSE), adjusted to 270 ± 30 mOs and 7.5 ± 0.4 pH, was used to dilute semen samples and the DMSO before cryopreservation. About half of the live spermatozoa in the fresh semen (92.9 ± 2.5% live cells, laboratory studies; 87.3 ± 7.3%, insemination trials) survived the freeze‐thaw process (46.7 ± 7.8%, laboratory; 33.3 ± 17.8%, insemination trials). Samples of frozen‐thawed semen contained a greater percentage of bent spermatozoa (27.1 ± 8.4% of live cells) than fresh semen (14.4 ± 3.0% of live cells). Fecal‐ and urate‐contaminated semen (a common problem when collecting goose semen) reduced the sperm motility score from 3.2 ± 0.6 to 2.7 ± 0.7 and number of live spermatozoa in frozen‐thawed semen from 49 ± 9% to 24 ± 18%. Other variables examined that had less of an effect on semen quality included semen extenders, semen holding temperature, dilution and equilibration, relationship between hour of semen collection and level of semen contamination, and the relationship between season and sperm concentration.
Captive reproduction in Heermann's kangaroo rat, Dipodomys heermanni
Authors: Roest Aryan I.
Published: June 2005

This paper summarizes 8 years of captive breeding experience with the endangered Morro Bay kangaroo rat (Dipodomys heermanni morroensis) and the non‐endangered Lompoc kangaroo rat (D. h. arenae), a related form used as a surrogate. Kangaroo rats are aggressive and must be caged individually; copulation can only take place when the female is in estrus. The estrous cyle varies, but is usually 14–17 days long; gestation averages 31 days. Data on development of the young, animal health, mortality, and longevity are presented. The productivity of this project is compared with that of another long‐term kangaroo rat breeding project in terms of the number of young produced per female per year. A captive breeding program can be initiated with 40–50 reproductive animals as a founder group.
Assessing reproductive status in orang‐utans by using urinary estrone
Authors: Masters Anne M. , Markham Rosemary J.
Published: June 2005

The aim of this work was to compare normal menstrual cycle patterns of urinary estrone excretion in orang‐utans with those of an orang‐utan in her late 40s, an orang‐utan before and after rehabilitation for anorexia, and an orang‐utan during prolonged lactation. A detailed menstrual and sexual activity record was kept for each orang‐utan subject. Urine samples for estrone radioimmunoassay were collected daily for two cycles whenever possible. “Mawas,” in her late 40s, was monitored for two cycles in each of 3 successive years. While the normal pattern of estrone excretion was initially seen, some of the later cycles were shorter and appeared to lack the large luteal‐phase peak. “Puspa,” anorexic and amenorrhoeic at the age of 9½ years, had very low urinary estrone concentrations. After rehabilitation, followed by a late menarche, she had regular menstrual cycles with a normal estrone excretion pattern. She gave birth to a normal infant in 1990. “Puteri,” who had been lactating for 2 years, had consistently low estrone concentrations during an 8‐week monitoring period, with no evidence of cyclic variation in estrone excretion. Daily urinary estrone measurements, together with observation, were found to be useful in assessing the reproductive status of orangutans.
Normalizing laboratory‐reared rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) behavior with exposure to complex outdoor enclosures
Authors: O'Neill P. L. , Novak M. A. , Suomi S. J.
Published: June 2005

In comparison with standard laboratory settings, naturalistic environments typically provide nonhuman primates with increased visual, olfactory, and auditory stimulation and greater opportunities for exploration and manipulation. Although behavioral differences between monkeys reared in the laboratory and their feral counterparts are relatively well documented, less is known about the impact of transferring laboratory‐born and ‐reared primates to outdoor settings. Of particular relevance is whether lab‐reared primates retain the ability to respond in a species‐specific manner to environments designed to mimic certain features of natural habitats and if short‐term transfers have beneficial consequences. The present study compared the behavior of two groups of laboratory‐born juvenile rhesus monkeys reared in an identical manner. One group was then transferred to an outdoor, apparatus‐enriched corncrib adjacent to a semiwooded pasture. The other group remained indoors in a standard laboratory pen. Both groups were observed for 6 weeks prior to the transfer, during the 9‐week period of transfer, and for 6 weeks after the outdoor animals were returned to their laboratory cage. During their outdoor experience, corncrib‐housed subjects responded with higher locomotion and exploration scores. Animals housed in the outdoor corncrib also showed a decline in self‐oral behavior which persisted even upon return to the laboratory environment. These data suggest that juvenile monkeys can benefit from brief exposure to enriched outdoor settings.
Founder contribution and pedigree inference in a captive breeding colony of lion‐tailed macaques, using mitochondrial DNA and DNA fingerprint analyses
Authors: Morin Phillip A. , Ryder Oliver A.
Published: June 2005

Captive colony genetic management is dependent on knowledge of the colony pedigree. In most zoos, records for colonies held prior to the past decade are incomplete or nonexistent. We have used a nested set of molecular techniques to infer genetic relationships in a colony of 15 lion‐tailed macaques after twenty years of unmonitored reproduction. The troop was first divided into lines of matrilineal descent using mitochondrial DNA RFLP patterns. Paternity and maternity were then assigned on the basis of DNA fingerprint analysis. As mtDNA is maternally inherited, it is of no use in paternity assessment, but enabled subdivision of the colony into maternal lines. DNA fingerprinting would have been of little use by itself because of high levels of relatedness in several generations of offspring within the colony. The combination of the two techniques, however, enabled strong inference of both paternity and maternity in all cases. These data were instrumental in the inclusion of this troop in the AAZPA Species Survival Plan.
An automated assay for fecal estrogen conjugates in the determination of sex in avian species
Authors: Tell L. A. , Lasley B. L.
Published: June 2005

Recently captive propagation of psitticines has become necessary in order to preserve and breed endangered species. As habitat destruction increases and importation restrictions become more stringent, the need for a reliable and noninvasive technique for sex assignment is essential to improve the productivity of breeding and raising birds in captivity. One aspect of breeding is the proper assignment of breeding pairs; however, sex identification can be challenging due to the lack of sexual dimorphism in approximately 30% of all avian species. Historically, visual, behavioral, surgical, cytogenetic, and endocrine methods have been utilized in sex identification of avian species; however, the practicality, safety, and reliability of these techniques have been questioned. Therefore, there remains a need for an accurate, simple, and non‐invasive method to identify the sex of monomorphic birds so that the formation of breeding pairs and the success of breeding programs is facilitated. The data in this study support the concept that an automated fluorescence‐immunoassay which measures fecal estrogen conjugates can have an 87% success rate in determining the sex of psitticines, as demonstrated with cockatiels, while offering the advantages of non‐invasiveness, simplicity, and speed.
Sociosexual behavior of captive sichuan golden monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana)
Authors: Clarke A. S.
Published: June 2005

The Sichuan golden snub‐nosed monkey, Rhinopithecus roxellana, is an endangered Colobine endemic to China. The social and reproductive behavior of this species are little known, and it has rarely been kept in captivity outside China. Results from observations of a captive golden monkey pair revealed some unusual details of sociosexual behavior. Both members of the pair mounted one other, and female mounting of the male occurred nearly as often as the reverse. Male mounts were always preceded by a stereotyped behavioral sequence that included distinct facial and vocal displays. Female mounts occurred in response to male solicitation (presenting). No evidence of ejaculation was observed in association with mounts, although mounts were only observed in a distinctly sexual context. Sexual behavior was associated with aggressive displays by one or both animals and with apparently proceptive behavior by the female. All sexual behaviors showed a peak near the end of the study, although the female was continually receptive throughout the 2‐month study period.
Captive breeding and reintroduction of the endangered masked bobwhite
Authors: Carpenter James W. , Gabel Robert R. , Goodwin John G.
Published: June 2005

Efforts to restore the endangered masked bobwhite (Colinus virginianus ridgwayi) to its former range have required 1) habitat acquisition, restoration, and preservation; 2) captive propagation; and 3) reintroduction of captive‐bred stock. In its role to recover the masked bobwhite, the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service) has refined captive breeding techniques; provided captive‐produced stock for release; conducted field research on the distribution, limiting factors, and habitat characteristics of this species; and developed release methods. Techniques for the husbandry and captive management, breeding, artificial incubation and hatching of eggs, and rearing of young of the masked bobwhite have been developed. Successful reintroduction techniques for the masked bobwhite have included prerelease conditioning and/or cross‐fostering of captive‐reared masked bobwhite chicks to a wild‐caught, related, vasectomized bobwhite species and their release to the wild as family units. In addition, the establishment by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service of the Buenos Aires National Wildlife Refuge in 1985 has further enhanced the potential for establishing a self‐sustaining population of the masked bobwhite in the U.S. Through continued releases and active management of habitat, therefore, it is believed that the masked bobwhite can become permanently established at the refuge to ensure its continued survival in the wild.
Effective suppression of ovarian cyclicity in the lowland gorilla with an oral contraceptive
Authors: Goodrowe Karen L. , Wildt David E. , Monfort Steven L.
Published: June 2005

To determine the effects of a human oral contraceptive on normal and abnormal reproductive endocrine patterns in two lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla), daily urine samples were analyzed by radioimmunoassay for estrone conjugates (EC) and pregnanediol‐3‐glucuronide (PdG). During a pre‐treatment period one female (F1) demonstrated regular menstrual cycles averaging 27.6 ± 1.8 days, whereas ovarian cyclicity in female 2 (F2) was consistently prolonged, ranging from 37–51 days. A 56 day regimen of an oral contraceptive (Demulen 50®) was administered to both females beginning in the late luteal phase, and within 6 and 7 days of treatment onset (F1 and F2, respectively) urinary EC and PdG declined to and remained at concentrations consistent with amenorrhea throughout the administration period. Ten and twenty days after contraceptive withdrawal (F1 and F2, respectively) an EC peak was observed with subsequent PdG elevations 1–2 days later. Mean cycle length and luteal phase durations were not different (P > 0.05) before or after treatment for either female, while combined peak PdG concentrations were greater (P < 0.05) for the first 3 months after treatment compared to pre‐treatment values. These results indicate that a human oral contraceptive rapidly suppresses ovarian activity in female lowland gorillas, but that the abnormal endocrine pattern observed in F2 could not be redirected into a normal profile after contraceptive withdrawal. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss Inc.