bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Metamorphoses of the Crises of Capitalist Accumulation — Threats and Opportunities of the Current Stage
Authors: Mraović Branka
Published: February 2008

Following Braudel's conceptualization of capitalism and Arrighi's periodization of systemic cycles of accumulation, the authors focus on the patterns of recurrence of financial expansions enabling capitalism to revitalize itself through crisis; in this, crisis is considered in both aspects — crisis‐as‐restructuring and crisis‐as‐rupture. The ways in which finance aided by the blocks of governmental and business agencies in the present stage affects investment and business cycles result in a progressive increase of inequality between rich and poor countries, as well as inequality within the most developed countries. The authors tackle the crisis phenomenon through a genealogical analysis of the formation, consolidation and disintegration of the successive regimes of accumulation on a world scale through which the capital economy expands. They furthermore examine the crisis of capitalist accumulation through the relation of money and the state, which leads them to the field of debates on the changed relationship between the global economy and the national state. However, the crisis is also marked by a milestone which, despite dangers and pitfalls, opens up endless possibilities. They end the paper with a critique of the politics of money and advocate a socially responsible finance management, which will pave the way for a structure of society in which humanity will exist as an end in itself, rather than as a resource for the accumulation of money.
Corporate Social Responsibility in India: Promoting Human Development towards a Sacro‐Civic Society
Authors: Das Gupta Aruna
Published: February 2008

This paper attempts at charting out a road‐map for signifying the importance of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) as a whole and in its attempts of doing so, the paper underlines the role of corporate giants operating in India by citing examples of different Indian Business Houses for providing a guidance to achieve a sacro‐civic society where the under‐ pinning lies in promoting overall human development.
Shareholders fight for corporate control: Case studies from Poland
Authors: Aluchna Maria
Published: February 2008

The paper refers to the development process of corporate governance and shareholder activism in transition economies. It identifies the existing corporate governance structure as well as main problems analysing conflicts in Polish corporations portraying the shareholders' fight for control over the corporations. The analysis of several selected shareholder conflicts, referring particularly to the fights of dominant and minority shareholders allows to point out main shortcomings of corporate governance in transition economies. The lack of standards for corporate behaviour, the poor legal system characterized by weak enforcement of investor protection rights (law in action), the practically non‐existent shareholder litigation as well as the development stage of the shareholder activism. Finally, the paper attempts to trace the development of shareholder protection and ethical behaviour presenting the process of setting high standards for the corporate activity with the reference to transparency, the treatment of minority shareholders and the managerial accountability as well as the monitoring role of authorities carried out by Polish Securities and Exchange Commission and non‐governmental associations or business initiatives (Polish Institutes of Directors, Polish Institute for Investor Relations).
China's rural poverty and its entry to the WTO
Authors: Tisdell Clem
Published: February 2008

Begins by considering trends in the incidence of rural poverty in China, comparing China and India. Although the incidence of rural poverty in China declined generally, such poverty is still a matter for concern, especially now that China has joined the WTO. There is concern about the possible impact of China's WTO entry on its rural poverty and its ability to adopt policies to address it. Recent international studies of such poverty in China by bodies such as the World Bank, OECD, ADB and IFPRI are outlined and reviewed critically with these economic issues in mind. The most recent study by Anderson and others suggests that China's agriculture will be forced to undertake more structural adjustment than forecast in earlier studies. The Chinese policies to deal with rural poverty will need to give increasing attention to structural adjustment support and migration from rural areas in the future. The WTO does not count such measures as a form of economic protection. In fact, a large number of measures to provide financial support to farmers, including support to poor farmers, are WTO‐exempt. As discussed these include “green box” measure, certain development measures in developing countries, and “ blue box” measures. In addition, under the de minimis principle, China can provide economic protection on average of 8.5 per cent of the value of an agricultural product.
Youth restiveness and violence in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria: Implications and suggested solutions
Authors: Akpan Nseabasi S. , Akpabio Emmanuel M.
Published: February 2008

The Niger Delta is a region in Nigeria endowed with enormous natural resources of which petroleum oil is the most exploited. This petroleum oil has been the engine of development in Nigeria since 1958, providing more than 90 percent of total exports (CBN, 1981) and over 80 percent of Federal Government revenue. Despite this, the Niger Delta people remain poor and underdeveloped. Youth restiveness and violence is the order of the day. As a product of two separate youth forums, this paper recommends good governance, youth impact assessments, youth inclusion in decision‐making, as well as capacity building as a way out of this discord.
Interactive conflict management: An alternative methology to address social conflict at a local level
Authors: Raj Upreti Bishnu
Published: February 2008

Conflict is an inevitable part of any society. It often alters the social relations in society. Effective management of conflict requires an improvement in distorted social relations. The aim of this paper is to offer an action‐oriented, learning‐based methodology to address over‐growing conflict in society. Based on the examination of the conventional approaches used in rural Nepal, this paper argues that conventional methodologies are not able to resolve growing social conflicts in the community. This paper concludes that a more responsive conflict management methodology is required to deal with growing social conflict in the community. This paper then offers the correct management methodoligies to fill this badly needed gap.
Africa in a development crisis
Authors: Henry Olabode Olaonipekun
Published: February 2008

Development runs on a continuum, having traditional, transitional and desired (relative) development stages. Rather than moving on, the continent of Africa has remained perpetually transitional due to its inability to strategically position itself globally, and its attendant international maneuvers; as well as its inability to break away from the anti‐development traits of the traditional stage of development and launch into the future. This, has invariably resulted in a ‘Departure‐Arrival’ (from one stage of development to another) crises, and distractions, confusions, and uncertainties, which now pervade the development terrain of Africa.
Industrial policy with a twist: What the East Asian experience means
Authors: Grabowski Richard
Published: February 2008

This paper reviews the theoretical case for industrial policy (coordination) provided by theories of multiple equilibria. It is argued that for most less developed countries the case for industrial policy (government coordination) is best made with respect to agriculture. Those states that have succeeded in terms of government policy promoting economic development, began with the agricultural sector.
Governance, public health and the Millennium Development Goals: Some lessons from Burma
Authors: Oehlers Alfred
Published: February 2008

Current discussions around the lack of progress towards the Millennium Development Goals tend to emphasize deficiencies in governance as a major contributory factor. While agreeing with this assessment, this paper takes issue with the conventional understanding of what “governance” implies. Using Burma as an illustration, it suggests the current focus on purely administrative and organizational concerns must be broadened to encompass the wider political context in which these Goals are to be pursued. Authoritarian political structures must be confronted and challenged, if these worthy Goals are to have any realistic chance of being attained.
Revisiting the critical moment of the Korean economy and labor market: From central control to liberalization
Authors: Kim Kiyoung
Published: February 2008

This paper, in face of the increasing interconnectivity between local and global, has attempted to retrospect the critical moment of Korean society under Tae‐woo Rho (1988–93) regime, in which Korea struggled for fundamental reforms of the earlier centrally controlled state system through economic rationalization and labor flexibilization. During that juncture of Korean history, neo‐liberalization under the influence of Fordian decline was a governing theme behind the Korean economy's policy formation as well as labor agenda. This reliance of government on the neo‐liberal pillar has made an impact on the subsequent leaderships under Young Sam Kim (1993–1998) and Dae Jung Kim (1998‐present). After briefly reviewing the major aspect of Korean economy and labor problems surrounding the financial crisis of East Asia around 1998, the international influence of Fordian decline and neo‐liberalization as a Korean alternative has been discussed.
Economic growth and institutional change
Authors: Grabowski Richard
Published: February 2008

Economists have recently emphasized the role which institutional change plays in the process of economic growth and development. Focusing on the behavior of the state, effective constraints on the ruling elite are seen as a necessary precursor to successful economic growth. However, it is argued in this paper that causality runs the other way. Rapid growth (even with dictatorial regimes) leads to political development and institutional structures which provide a foundation for successful long‐term growth. It will be further argued that the greatest potential for stimulating political development comes as the result of rapid agricultural growth. The institutional constraints arising out of political development create an environment within which the ruling elite become developmental rather than predatory. The cases of English and Japanese industrialization will be used to illustrate these ideas. The relevance of the analyses for today's developing countries is discussed and illustrated with reference to the African experience.
Between neo‐Iiberalism and post‐imperialist land and Agrarian reforms: The South African case
Authors: Anseeuw Ward
Published: February 2008

Land and agrarian reforms were main promises of the ANC during its ascension to power: the objective was to redistribute 30% of the land within 5 years after the end of apartheid and, through this redistribution, restructure the agricultural sector. Nevertheless, presently, more than 10 years after the first democratic elections, only 3.1% of the land has been redistributed and the farming sector remains extremely dual. This paper argues that the implemented market‐oriented reforms, which are not complemented by regulation measures, do not represent the capacities of transformation of the racial configuration of South Africa's territory and agricultural sector.
High inflation episode of 1996–97 and the Bulgarian currency board
Authors: Beck Stacic , Miller Jeffrey B. , Saad Mohsen M.
Published: February 2008

Why did inflation fall so dramatically after the establishment of a currency board in Bulgaria in 1997? The establishment of the currency board was the response to a very severe financial crisis where inflation reached hyperinflationary levels. After the currency board was introduced, inflation fell even more spectacularly than it had risen with prices rising less than 10% annually during 1998 and 1999. Was this sudden drop in inflation due to a “discipline” effect caused by a reduction in money growth rates or to a “confidence” effect that created lower inflation expectations thus leading to higher money demand? We find strong indirect evidence for a confidence effect but less support for a discipline effect.
Information technology and mass poverty
Authors: James Jeffrey
Published: February 2008

If information technology (IT) is to have a mass impact on those living in rural areas of developing countries, it cannot occur on the basis of ownership (as it does in rich countries). Instead, it is to institutional innovations in and for developing countries, that one needs to look at. Two basic forms of innovation are identified: one which allows use of IT without ownership and the other which permits the benefits of IT to reach those who make no individual use of it. Either way, however, successful institutional innovations require a thicket of interactions between local actors, rather than interventions from foreign agencies (at least in the initial phase). Three case studies were used to illustrate these components of what I feel is an emerging paradigm of IT and rural development.
Aid for trade
Authors: Stiglitz Joseph E. , Charlton Andrew
Published: February 2008

Adjustment to a post‐Doha trading regime will be disproportionately costly and difficult for developing countries. Increased aid is vital for the poor countries if they are to grasp the opportunities provided through trade and meet transition costs. With aid‐for‐trade, for the first time, the developed countries have another bound and meaningful commitment that they can offer developing countries. Our proposal to provide new resources to meet adjustment needs, however, does not suggest that trade, when combined with aid, will be a panacea for developing countries. Interactions between trade, aid, and broader development policies and reforms are important.
Contradictions of neo‐liberal reforms on Mexico's balance of payments and labour markets
Authors: Jonakin Jon
Published: February 2008

Following the extension of trade and capital market reform in Mexico in the mid‐1980s, manufactured exports accelerated at an exponential rate. In spite of this remarkable performance, the Trade and Current Accounts remained consistently negative, manufacturing as a share of GDP stagnated, and the share of the labour force in manufacturing diminished. Unexpectedly, Mexico's abundant and majority less‐skilled workforce experienced a worsening in the conditions of employment. In the context of trade opening and neo‐liberal reform, inherent market failures involving imperfect information and increasing returns technologies interacted with a ‘maquila’ and a service sector mode—the locus of foreign direct investment—and accounted for the contradictions.
Women workers in unorganized sector: A study on construction industry in Haryana
Authors: Nandal Santosh
Published: February 2008

A vast majority of India's labour force is in unorganized sector. In the absence of economic opportunities in their own states, many workers migrate across the other states of India to seek employment. Construction industry depends almost entirely on migrant workers, majority of which are women. The main object of this paper is to shed light on the socio‐economic problems being faced by a section of the women workers in construction industry. These women workers have a very tough life. In spite of being actively involved in economic activities for survival, bearing and rearing of children remain their prime responsibility, and thus they end up with playing roles in both production and reproduction.
Suitability: Does the Concept Apply to Online Brokerage?
Authors: SCHNEIDER HOWARD , BUTOWSKY MICHAEL R. , LEW MICHELE M.
Published: February 2008

This article provides a comprehensive look at suitability rules, first in the traditional brokerage context and then in terms of their application to online brokerages in general. It outlines the arguments made by the online brokerages to differentiate their world from traditional broker‐dealers, and offers hypothetical scenarios in which suitability concepts may apply in the online brokerage setting. The authors suggest that online brokerages should be allowed time to determine the appropriate rules in light of how the technology itself evolves over the next several years.
TRADE AGGREGATION, ALLOCATION AND IPOS ON THE SEC'S RADAR SCREEN
Authors: CLARK KAREN B.
Published: February 2008

One current and long‐term blip on the Securities and Exchange Commission's (SEC) radar screen is trade allocation, including the allocation of initial public offerings (IPOs). In the May 1, 2000 “Dear Registered Investment Adviser Letter,” the SEC's Office of Compliance Inspections and Examinations (OCIE) summarized select areas reviewed, and violations of the Investment Advisers Act of 1940 (Advisers Act) found during compliance examinations of investment advisers. Item II of the letter addressed trade allocations and more specifically, allocations of IPOs. The letter described three examples of how an adviser could defraud clients by allocating trades inequitably among clients, including the following example addressing IPOs:
NASD Dispute Resolution Securities Mediation 2000: Survey Results
Authors: Andrichik Kenneth L. , McCoy Elizabeth A.
Published: February 2008

This is an exploration of the effectiveness of the NASD Dispute Resolution's mediation program from the user's point of view. There is a user survey that has been conducted to analyze the program. This article examines the results of the survey in a setting describing the program and how it is administered. There is an interesting examination of the effectiveness of mediation and which factors are most important.
Third‐Party Investigations and the Fair Credit Reporting Act
Authors: Kramer George R.
Published: February 2008

This article discusses a recent interpretation of the Fair Credit Reporting Act by the Federal Trade Commission. Under this interpretation, a range of potentially onerous requirements may be triggered when third parties are used to investigate potential employee misconduct. This article particularly focuses on how this interpretation might conflict with a broker‐dealer's compliance obligations.
Financial Services Industry Use of Electronic Media: Current Regulatory and Legal Landscape
Authors: BRAMNIK ROBERT P. , SOLOMON NEIL B.
Published: February 2008

The use of electronic media in the financial services industry is discussed in light of the regulatory framework in which the industry exists. The authors explore this issue in regards to both the securities and futures regulatory structure.
The Commodity Futures Modernization Act of 2000
Authors: ROSENZWEIG KENNETH M.
Published: February 2008

This new act has substantially changed the legal landscape for the futures markets as well as the over‐the‐counter securities markets. The author explores this act with particular attention in the new provision allowing for the trading of futures on individual stocks.
Contesting Price‐Fixing Class Action Claims in Commodities Futures Markets
Authors: Wolowitz Steven , Mortman Scott E.
Published: February 2008

An analysis of the defense of these cases contrasting them to similar cases on the equity side. The authors explore some technical and real defenses that are uniquely applicable to the commodity futures world.
Are Self‐Regulatory Organizations State Actors? Two Recent Cases Take Contrasting Perspectives
Authors: Santangelo Betty , Jacobs Margaret
Published: February 2008

An analysis of two recent decisions concerning both the NASD and the NYSE involving determinations as to whether or not there are colorable claims that each SRO is acting in a “governmental” capacity.
The Road to Transparency: New SEC Order Disclosure Requirements
Authors: Lavell Joan L.
Published: February 2008

A basic primer on dealing with the SEC Order handling rules. There are several compliance deadlines that rapidly approach for these disclosure requirements.
The Future of Stocks: Security Futures in the U.S.
Authors: YONG JAMES C.
Published: February 2008

This article is an exploration of the history of the regulation of stock futures leading up to the recent regulatory resolution in which the regulators (SEC and CFTC) share responsibilities, thus leading to the trading of single stock futures.
Telemarketing: A Legitimate Business Tool That State Legislatures Love to Hate
Authors: CHAMBERLAIN KIMBERLY , CHIN JAMES
Published: February 2008

The authors, both employees of the Securities Industry Association, examine the legitimate business tool—telemarketing. They delve into some of the recent criticism and federal and state legislation that has come along to curtail this communications device, the angle here being the law's application or exemption as to the securities industry.
Registration Can Be a Big Deal for Nontraditional “Broker‐Dealers”
Authors: SHELTON MARK S. , DERBES ELIZABETH K.
Published: February 2008

Much debate has swirled around the issue of registration, regulation or disclosure requirements for financial websites. The authors have put together thoughtful analysis of the issues along with some of the most recent pronouncements and thinking of the regulators.
Broker‐Dealers Face New Anti‐Money Laundering Requirements
Authors: STERN TODD , KINI SATISH M. , HEIFETZ STEPHEN R.
Published: February 2008

An exhaustive analysis of the current state of play of both the old and new law and the regulations promulgated thereunder. A one‐stop analysis of the state of the requirements under the USA Patriot Act and particularly how it affects broker‐dealers.
OFAC: A Compliance Priority
Authors: LAVELL JOAN L.
Published: February 2008

This is a “how‐to” guide for compliance professionals with regard to money laundering issues. It's a must‐read for all broker‐dealer attorneys and compliance analysts who want to know what's required of broker‐dealers by the Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC) and what “red flags” to look out for.
New Anti‐Money Laundering Rules for Investment Funds on the Horizon
Authors: SANTANGELO BETTY
Published: February 2008

A thoughtful review of the anti‐money laundering laws and rules with specific application to investment funds. It examines where hedge funds and the like are vulnerable under the new law and what the authorities may be looking at.
MONITORING BEST EXECUTION FROM AN INVESTMENT ADVISER'S PERSPECTIVE
Authors: FLYNN MICHAEL J. , BUSTAMANTE RENE A.
Published: February 2008

The obligation to seek best execution on behalf of clients is not a new issue for investment advisers but one which has received increased scrutiny by the SEC's Office of Compliance Inspections and Examinations (OCIE). This article discusses an adviser's duty to seek best execution and offers suggested guidelines from regulators and industry advocates when developing and implementing best execution policies and procedures. It also illustrates different trading analyses and sample controls that advisers may wish to consider when establishing a best execution monitoring program.
Securities Arbitration: Is It Truly Efficient, or Can It Be Improved?
Authors: RICHARD TUCKER J.
Published: February 2008

This is an in‐depth and critical look at securities arbitration. How efficient is it? Is it a better option than the courtroom? Were industry expectations of the benefits of arbitration justified?
Straight and positive thinking
Authors: Josephs Reuben
Published: February 2008

The Printed Circuit Industry is NOT in a mess, no thanks to some of the people in it and some of the industry's news media. Over the past few years all kinds of degrading concessions, statements, letters and articles have appeared in various newspapers and journals, thus clearly indicating that, despite popular belief to the contrary, news media which carried such disparagements show a complete lack of responsibility within the industry which supports them. Perhaps it boosts their circulation figures, or they feel good about running their industry down; or it is the only way they can get their views into print. However that may be, it is clear that they do not take their constitutional responsibilities sufficiently seriously. Of course, the news media could help considerably by avoiding sensationalism by checking accuracy or validity before publication, and by developing a better sense of responsibility. For example, there is no row within the industry—only a move towards unification. Again the industry is not ailing—a few companies have gone to the wall because of the effects of the deep recession combined with poor management but they are the exception and not the rule. So why is it not recognised that to generalise from the particular simply courts disaster by producing the wrong conclusion?
Screen Printing Quality Control and Faultfinding
Authors: Phippard C.
Published: February 2008

A summary of basic screen printing procedures is given, covering the main factors in quality control. These include: various means of controlling thickness of deposit; the approach to printing extra fine line work; the mechanical characteristics of different types of squeegee and their practical effects; maximum print areas and print gaps in relation to screen sizes. The paper concludes with a detailed faultfinding chart with recommendations on the remedies to be adopted.
X‐Ray Fluorescence for Coating Thickness Measurement
Authors: Latter T.D.T.
Published: February 2008

The X‐Ray fluorescence method of coating thickness measurement of ISO 3497, BS 5411 (A), DIN 50987, and ASTM B568–79 is discussed from a practical point of view. A brief illustration of the method's technical principles, advantages, applications, and example instrumentation is given together with some of the precautions to be taken.
Pointing the Way: A Practical Guide to Drill‐bit Usage
Authors: Cox D.
Published: February 2008

Miniature carbide drills are the workhorse of PCB hole production, yet little care is exercised in their usage despite the fact that hole quality is primarily determined by the cutting condition of the tool. Practical suggestions for improving hole quality are given.
Non‐conventional Substrates
Authors: Messner G.
Published: February 2008

This paper describes recent printed board applications in circuit manufacturing on novel non‐laminate substrates. It specifically discusses properties pertinent to metal core, thermal plastics, and new processing conditions for circuitising the new substrates. Techniques explored are intended to provide rigidity, flatness, dimensional stability and improved thermal management.
Reflections on My Life as an Inventor
Authors: Eisler P.
Published: February 2008

This is the final part of an abridged version of the previously unpublished writings of Paul Eisler, universally acknowledged as the inventor of the printed circuit board and many other technical innovations. The content of the extracts presented has concentrated mainly on Dr Eisler's efforts in the field of printed circuit technology, followed by a few details of some of his other areas of invention.
The Road to Uniform Plasma Etching of Printed Circuit Boards
Authors: Rust R.D. , Rhodes R.J. , Parker A.A.
Published: February 2008

Early in AT & T Bell Laboratories' involvement with plasma smear removal for multilayer boards, the generic problem of uniform etching over large size panels became obvious. Techniques were developed which provide a quantitative measurement of the etch uniformity. These techniques were used to evaluate the etch performance of existing reactors and as an aid in developing a better understanding of the factors which influence etch uniformity. This characterisation procedure enabled the development of new reactor geometries which greatly improved etch uniformity as compared to previously used configurations. This paper describes these steps along the road to uniform etching of printed circuit boards.
Functional Cycles and Surface Mounting Attachment Reliability
Authors: Engelmaier W.
Published: February 2008

One concern that has slowed the progress of surface mounted technology, in particular leadless chip carriers, has been the question of the reliability of the surface mount attachment technology. This concern follows from the realisation that the functional reliability of surface mount technology is a very complex issue involving many not very well understood components. What is needed is a relatively simple, useful, predictive model. The model reported here sidesteps the numerous complex underlying issues, which, if considered separately, make a predictive reliability model all but impossible, by taking a purely phenomenological approach and relegating second‐order effects to a lumped empirical figure of merit.
Reliability, Thermal and Thermomechanical Characteristics of Polymer‐on‐metal Multilayer Boards
Authors: Gray F. , Elkins M.
Published: February 2008

Wiring requirements and thermomechanical factors related to the design and fabrication of Polymer‐on‐metal constraining core PWBs are discussed. The necessity of small plated‐through‐holes for high‐density surface mount design is shown. Typical MLB constructions are shown with techniques for increasing wiring density. A design methodology for the POM construction is defined. The thermomechanical properties of copper‐Invar‐copper and the interactions of the MLB are described. The reliability of small PTHs is measured over a wide range of module constructions. Sixteen mil. diameter PTHs are reliable if the MLB thickness is kept below 0·040 inch. Through‐substrate PTHs make reliable side‐to‐side interconnections.
Water Absorption in Glass Fibre‐Epoxide Resin Laminates
Authors: Smith C.A.
Published: February 2008

Water absorption is a serious problem in all polymeric materials, including the glass fibre‐epoxide resin laminates used in printed circuit board manufacture. This paper describes experiments to determine the level of water absorption in these materials under different conditions of relative humidity and temperature using thermogravimetric analysis.
Laser Drilling of Very Small Electronic Via Holes in Common Circuit Board Materials
Authors: Kenney A.L. , Dally J.W.
Published: February 2008

As microelectronics continue to shrink, it is becoming increasingly difficult and expensive to mechanically drill very small via holes (<0·010 in.). Using lasers and optical technology, it is possible to drill any material. Thin circuit board materials of various compositions were investigated as candidates for laser drilling using a 100 watt CO2 laser. Laser variables were pulse frequency, duty cycle, and number of pulses (total energy delivered). Delivered energy seems to be the most critical parameter, and the optimal holes were drilled within a narrow energy band, although there was much data scatter. The best laser drilled holes were of lower quality than that obtainable with mechanical drilling. Photographs of the best holes in all materials are included.
Accelerated Thermal Fatigue Cycling of Surface Mounted PWB Assemblies in Telecom Equipment
Authors: Liljestrand L.‐G. , Andersson L.‐O.
Published: February 2008

Telecom equipment is subject to thermal cycles caused by both variations in temperature between day and night and variations in the telephone traffic. To simulate such thermal excursions, accelerated thermal cycle testing between — 10°C and 100°C has been established as a standard method within Ericsson Telecom. Thermal cycle tests have been carried out for frequencies ranging from one cycle per day to 30 cycles per hour in order to cover the different thermal excursions that occur in telecom equipment. It has been found that the life of a surface mounted PWB assembly can be predicted from the accelerated testing results using a frequency modified Coffin‐Manson relation. Factors which influence the fatigue life of solder joints such as solder material, compliant leads, compliant surface layers and mismatch between package and board are discussed. Based on results from accelerated testing it is suggested that the optimal PWB design for leadless ceramic chip carriers should be a moderate TCE matching combined with a compliant surface layer.
Improved Photoresist Technology Available in Europe
Authors: Newport B.L.
Published: February 2008

Major trends in the PWB industry and the requirements from the manufacturers to reduce reject rates at the imaging and chemical process stages have demanded a new generation of dry film photoresists. Details are given of the requirements laid down by the industry, how the dry film resist manufacturers have responded, and how the improved resist technology meets these demands. These latest products are extensively available in Europe and resist improvements have been welcomed by the board manufacturers.
Some Factors Affecting Leadless Chip Carrier Solder Joint Fatigue Life II
Authors: Wild R.N.
Published: February 2008

This paper reviews some continuing IBM study efforts conducted on surface mounted Leadless Chip Carrier (LCC) packaging for use in high density, high thermal stress military environments. The paper presents some designs, materials and solder joint processing considerations that can affect solder joint fatigue life. Also discussed are some thermal cycling test limitations, important properties of solder failure mechanisms and finally some technical concerns with both WS 6536E and DoD 2000 specifications as to their limitations with future surface mounted technologies.
Cleaning Alternatives for the 1990s
Authors: Elliott D.A.
Published: February 2008

In August 1987, the EPA held a conference in Washington DC with consultants and users from the electronics industry to determine the feasibility of practical cleaning alternatives to reduce emissions of chlorofluorocarbon solvents which are considered to be a major contributor to the ozone problem in the stratosphere the world over. This paper presents a short resume of these goals and how they will affect cleaning in the electronics industry. Electronic design and packaging are the first steps in the soldering and cleaning processes. Selection of components compatible with alternative cleaning methods as well as process changes to permit low solids fluxes in some cases where cleaning can be eliminated will be discussed. ‘High containment’ in‐line solvent cleaning systems which reduce emissions are likely to become the new standard for the industry. Machines will become longer in order to include internal drying stages, instead of allowing a board with residual solvent trapped under components to evaporate after it leaves the machine prior to electronic test. Alternative solvents will become available. Designers of components and assemblies will respecify their designs to permit water cleaning, even for surface mount assemblies.
Preparation of Small Diameter Holes in Printed Circuit Boards for Electroless Copper Plating Using a Jet Pumice Machine
Authors: Farrell D.M.
Published: February 2008

Due to problems experienced at the deburring stage of drilled 0·013 in. diameter holes, where the holes became blocked with deburring brush fibres, it was necessary to replace the use of traditional deburring techniques for the preparation of these drilled holes prior to electroless copper plating. In order to achieve this, a jet pumice machine was purchased and trials were conducted using various grades of pumice powder and different machine parameters. The purpose of these trials was to determine the optimum machine parameters for the task, such that burr‐free hole peripheries were achieved in conjunction with a surface finish suitable for electroless copper plating prior to dry film lamination.
AOI: Future Challenges
Authors: Richter K.
Published: February 2008

AOI has become a useful tool in the PWB industry, for yield enhancement and control. Future changes in manufacturing processes will affect the requirements from future AOI systems. A few assumptions are made about industry changes that may affect AOI, and the resulting AOI requirements are analysed.
Hi‐rel Multilayer Plated‐through Hole Utilising the EE‐1™ Process
Authors: Eliacin M. , Scaraglino F.
Published: February 2008

This paper describes the use of the EE‐1 process for making high‐reliability multilayer boards. The EE‐1 process eliminates the need for flash electroless copper for plated‐through holes. With this process, copper is directly electrodeposited onto an activated through‐hole. In addition to eliminating electroless deposition, the EE‐1 process claims to simplify process control, provide excellent copper‐to‐copper adhesion, and total backlight PTH coverage. Production experience with the process is extensive as it has been used at Photocircuits, Atlanta, since January 1986 in the fabrication of double‐sided boards. Test data of joint reliability and physical properties of copper in PTHs of multilayer boards obtained through this unique approach are presented. A special test, which directly measures the bond strength between through‐hole deposited copper and inner foil of multilayers, is also discussed.
Wetting Balance Methods for Component and Board Solderability Evaluation
Authors: Lin K.M. , Friend F.H.
Published: February 2008

With the increased use of surface‐mounted devices, both the component density and the board complexity are greatly increased on many circuit pack assemblies. Good solderability for the components as well as for the printed circuit boards has become one of the most important elements in achieving the ultra‐high efficiency and quality required of an assembly soldering process in today's competitive environment. Solderability evaluation generally uses the ‘dip and look’ method that relies entirely on the individual inspectors' often inconsistent interpretations resulting from the examination of the specimen dip‐tested in a molten solder bath. This method is subjective, so the results can vary from person to person and from day to day. In addition, the sensitivity of such a method is inadequate in discerning the differences in solder wetting characteristics of very small device leads and terminations. Consequently, components with marginal or even bad solderability may pass through inspection and move onto the production line to cause many easily avoidable defects and their subsequent repairs. A sensitive and quantitative wetting balance method has been studied with the purpose of developing a better alternative to the ‘dip and look’ procedure. Special sample holders and test conditions have been developed for testing various types of components and printed circuit board coupons. Examples of solderability testings are provided to illustrate the capability of the instrument when proper testing procedures are followed. More effort is under way to simplify the test procedure, and to establish a practical solderability test standard for the wetting balance method.
PCB Plated Through Hole Optimisation: A Case Study in SPC
Authors: Harry M.J.
Published: February 2008

This paper addresses two fundamental issues with regard to the production of printed circuit boards (PCBs). First, the paper presents a statistically‐based, four‐phase strategy aimed at better organising and facilitating the characterisation of a manufacturing process. The fact that the case study addresses copper plating thickness of PCBs is secondary to the characterisation strategy. In this sense, the strategy is universal by nature. Second, the paper provides analytical insight into a new statistical methodology aimed at establishing coupon‐to‐board correlation. The general concepts surrounding these two issues are embodied within the given PCB case study. Essentially, the case analysis systematically progresses through all four phases of the parameter characterisation strategy, highlighting the key aspects of each phase. In addition, the aforementioned technique for assessing coupon‐to‐board correlation is given substantiative discussion. However, it should be pointed out that a thorough narration pertaining to many of the statistical and engineering details of the case analysis has been deliberately omitted for the sake of brevity and reading ease. As a result of such considerations, it is assumed that the reader has a working knowledge of descriptive and inferential statistics, as well as experiment design. The benefit of this approach is simple—focus is easily given to the analytical strategy and order of execution without the usual clouding imposed by mathematical explanations.
International Institute News
Authors: Ellis Brian , Cullen Lorna
Published: February 2008

A Workshop sponsored by the EIPC in an attempt to provide insight into data transfer technology and its use for the printed circuit board industry was held in Berlin on 11–12 May. Course notes on the EIPC Electronic Data Transfer Committee (EDT Committee) and its activities were provided and the electronic host system, ECIS (EIPC Communication and Information System), was explained in detail.
New Reliable Methods of Measuring Temperature Distribution on Printed Boards during Operation
Authors: Sihlbom A. , Svärd H.
Published: February 2008

IVF has developed two new temperature measurement methods for PC boards and microelectronic devices as a result of Swedish national research programmes. This paper presents and explains how one can achieve a reliable temperature map using an IR scanner. First a method to compensate the large measurement errors due to variation of local factors of emissivity of the object surface is described. The second method makes it possible to use an IR scanner to measure a temperature map over a printed board assembly located inside a narrow cabinet.
A Modern Approach to Drill Optimisation
Authors: Roberts R.
Published: February 2008

The drilling process in the manufacture of printed circuit boards is one where there is a wide variation in the optimum parameters used by each printed circuit board manufacturer. The reason for this is probably due to variation in the definition of what is required and noise in the experiments used to determine them. The author has used a fresh approach by combining the use of Taguchi Methods to design a fractional factorial experiment together with a fibre‐optic temperature probe to measure the temperature of the drill bit under different experimental conditions. The Taguchi experiment demonstrates: (1) The high temperature rise with stack height; (2) the difference between woodpulp and phenolic back‐up/entry material; and (3) those parameters that have little effect on drill temperatures. Further work demonstrates: (1) The variation between drills and drill suppliers, and (2) how the use of a dry lubricant can minimise the variation in drilling temperature as well as extending drill life and increasing productivity.
COSHH and the Printed Circuit Industry
Authors: Menzies G.D.M.
Published: February 2008

This paper is a digest of a series of presentations on this subject prepared and delivered by the author at a number of courses on Advanced Printed Circuit Manufacture arranged by the Institute of Interconnection Technology at Rewley House in Oxford over the past year. COSHH is a very complex set of regulations and, because of their importance to the industry and the extent of the penalties involved for non‐compliance, it is intended that these lectures will be repeated, and may form the subject of a one‐day symposium in the near future.
Advances in Cleaning of Surface Mount Assemblies
Authors: Wenger G.M. , Guth L.A. , Dickinson D.A.
Published: February 2008

Non‐corrosive rosin fluxes have historically been used for telephone communications assemblies because they provide a measure of reliability even if the flux is not totally removed from the assembly. While cleaning is not always necessary from a reliability standpoint, testing issues, product appearance, operating performance and customer requirements must also be considered when making the decision whether or not to clean. As the electronics industry packages more and more functionality on less and less real estate, soldering yields need to increase in order for the assembly process to remain profitable. This requires not only attention to the product's design for manufacturing but it may also require aggressive fluxes to be used in the assembly process. When aggressive fluxes are employed, the necessity for cleaning is greatly increased. The particular combination of flux and cleaning option depends on product design, process capabilities, end point requirements, and environmental considerations. Pending restrictions on the production and use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), and the potential for tighter controls on chlorinated solvents and aqueous detergent effluents, are certain to add to the cost of standard processes. For these reasons alternative cleaning processes have been explored. The evaluation and subsequent use of water soluble flux with ‘water only’ cleaning, terpene cleaning of rosin flux residues, low solids flux ‘no‐clean’ wave soldering and ‘no‐clean’ assembly using reflowed rosin based solder pastes within AT&T are reviewed. A user's assessment of aqueous and semi‐aqueous cleaning is presented which indicates that there are acceptable alternatives to CFCs.
Fundamentals of Screens for Electronics Screen Printing
Authors: Hobby A.
Published: February 2008

Screen printing is widely used in electronics production and is the characteristic process of thick film manufacture. The correct choice of screen is most important if good quality prints of the correct thickness are to be achieved. Mesh and emulsion characteristics and the screen imaging process are discussed.
New Directions in Electrical Testing of PCBs for the 1990s
Authors: Hroundas G.
Published: February 2008

As SMT circuit boards continue to increase in complexity, the PCB manufacturer—in order to stay alive in an increasingly competitive market—will be forced to produce boards of the highest quality to meet marketplace performance standards. In addition, he will have to produce them economically at a profit. The complex board of today will be a subsystem tomorrow. It will certainly contain finer features, more embedded resistors, and will even exhibit analogue‐like and RF‐like features plus even more sophisticated networks. All of these developments are expected to have a strong impact on electrical testing techniques. This paper discusses the problems of increasing yields by means of better process control and higher quality testing for a changing spectrum of faults. The effects of both latent and immediate PCB faults are examined for various grades of products, including low grade commercial, commercial, ground‐based military, high rel. commercial, and high tech. military and commercial. Illustrations and tables are provided showing the impact of fault detection on product quality as well as the economic impact achieved for various levels of product quality by means of software SPC (statistical process control). The most important issue facing the PCB manufacturer in the 1990s is certain to be quality of product. This paper outlines strategies for the manufacturer to improve his process through improving the quality of electrical test and the provision of highly accurate fault data as well as the highest possible fault coverage.
Printed Circuit Inventor Receives Award
Authors: Garnett Chris
Published: February 2008

On the only rainy day of a week in early March, a yellow Rolls Royce pulled up outside a substantial house in North London, the home of Dr Paul Eisler, the inventor of the foil method of printed circuit manufacture. The occasion was the presentation to him of the Graphic Electronics Achievement Award in recognition of his work on the printed circuit.