bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Reasoning about knowledge: a survey
Authors: Gardenfors Peter , Rott Hans
Published: November 2023

The bird caught in the trap is white. C Now suppose that, as a matter of fact, the bird caught in the trap turns out to be black. This means that you want to add the fact ->C, i.e., the negation of C, to the database. But then the database becomes inconsistent. If you want to keep the database consistent—which is normally a sound methodology—you need to revise it. This means that some of the beliefs in the original database must be retracted. You don’t want to give up all of the beliefs since this would be an unnecessary loss of valuable information. So you have to choose between retracting A, B1, B1 -> B, or A A B C. When giving up a belief you have to decide which of the reasons for this belief to retain and which to retract (this is the backward direction).
Preliminaries From the Theory of Matrices
Authors: Lancaster Peter , Rodman Leiba
Published: November 2023

We consider n x n matrices A with complex entries (i.e. entries in the field of complex numbers ℂ). In a natural way A represents a linear transformation from (ℂn into (ℂn, where ℂn stands for the vector space of n-component columns with complex components. This linear transformation will be denoted by the same letter A. We have therefore the linear transformation A : (ℂn → ℂn defined by A(x) = Ax, x ∈ ℂn, where Ax is the matrix vector product of the matrix A and the column x.
Constructive Existence and Comparison Theorems
Authors: Lancaster Peter , Rodman Leiba
Published: November 2023

Consider the symmetric algebraic Riccati equation XDX−XA-A*X−C= 0. The main theme of this chapter concerns comparison results of the following nature: suppose the coefficients of the equation are changed, resulting in the equation XD′X−XA ′−A ′*X−C ′ = 0. If the first equation has hermitian solutions, when can we say that the second also has solutions? Is there some relationship between maximal solutions of the two equations? The methods of this chapter are based on a constructive iterative procedure, in contrast with Chapter 7 where the methods use geometrical properties of invariant subspaces.
Constructive Existence and Comparison Theorems
Authors: Lancaster Peter , Rodman Leiba
Published: November 2023

This chapter is an analogue of Chapter 9, in which existence and comparison theorems for the DARE (12.1.1) are developed, rather than for the CARE of (9.1.1). Throughout this chapter it is assumed that, in (12.1.1), Q = Q* and R =R* Additional hypotheses on A and B (such as d-stabilizability, as defined in Section 4.4) are assumed as required. The most important results of this kind for the DARE with complex coefficient matrices are stated and proved. The corresponding results for real solutions of the DARE with real coefficients (i.e. equation (12.7.1)) can be obtained as simple special cases of the results for the case of complex coefficient matrices, and are not considered explicitly.
Statistical Pattern Recognition
Authors: Bishop Christopher M
Published: November 2023

The term pattern recognition encompasses a wide range of information processing problems of great practical significance, from speech recognition and the classification of handwritten characters, to fault detection in machinery and medical diagnosis. Often these are problems which many humans solve in a seemingly effortless fashion. However, their solution using computers has, in many cases, proved to be immensely difficult. In order to have the best opportunity of developing effective solutions, it is important to adopt a principled approach based on sound theoretical concepts.
Single-Layer Networks
Authors: Bishop Christopher M
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 1 we showed that the optimal decision rule for minimizing the probability of misclassification requires a new pattern to be assigned to the class having the largest posterior probability. We also showed how the posterior probabilities can be related to class-conditional densities through Bayes’ theorem, and in Chapter 2 we described several techniques for estimating these densities. An alternative approach, which circumvents the determination of probability densities, is based on the idea of a discriminant function, also introduced in Chapter 1. In a practical application of discriminant functions, specific parametrized functional forms are chosen, and the values of the parameters are then determined from a set of training data by means of a suitable learning algorithm.
An overview of cooperative answering*
Authors: Gaasterland Terry , Godfrey Parke , Minker Jack
Published: November 2023

Databases and information systems are often difficult to use because they do not explicitly attempt to cooperate with their users. Direct answers to database and knowledge base queries may not always be the best answers. Instead, an answer with extra or alternative information may be more useful and less misleading to a user.
From Concurrent Logic Programming to Concurrent Constraint Programming
Authors: de Boer Frank S , Palamidessi Catuscia
Published: November 2023

The endeavor to extend logic programming to a language suitable for concurrent systems has stimulated in the last decade an intensive research, resulting in a large variety of proposals. A common feature of the various approaches is the attempt to define mechanisms for concurrency within the logical paradigm, the driving ideal being the balance between expressiveness and declarative reading. In this survey we present the motivations, the principal lines along which the field has developed, the various paradigms which have been proposed, and the main approaches to the semantic foundations.
Interior point algorithms for integer programming
Authors: Mitchell John E
Published: November 2023

An algorithm for solving linear programming problems can be used as a subroutine in methods for more complicated problems. Such methods usually involve solving a seque:1ce of related linear programming problems, where the solution to one linear program is close to the solution to the next, that is, it provides a warm start for the next linear program. The branch and cut method for solving integer programming problems is of this form: linear programming relaxations are solved unti eventually the integer programming problem has been solved. Within the last ten years, interior point methods have become accepted as powerful tools for solving linear programming problems. It appears that interior point methods may well solve large linear programs substantially faster than the simplex method. A natural question, therefore, is whether interior point methods can be successfully used to solve integer programming problems. This requires the ability to exploit a warm start.
General Algebraic Logic: A Perspective on ‘What is Logic’
Authors: Nemeti István , Andréka Hajnal
Published: November 2023

What is logic? We find this an important question. We also doubt the availability of a simple one-sentence answer. The question invokes some responsibility, too: the answer given today might influence the shape in which logic will be tomorrow.
The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art
Authors: Kangshen Shen , Crossley John N , Lun Anthony W -C
Published: November 2023

The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art is a classic text: the most important mathematical source in China during the past 2000 years, and comparable in significance to Euclid's Elements in the West. This volume contains the first complete English translation of the Nine Chapters, together with two commentaries written in the 3rd and 7th centuries AD, and a further commentary by the translators. The Nine Chapters contains 246 problems and their solutions, which fall into nine categories that are firmly based on practical needs. There are methods for solving problems in areas such as land measurement, construction, agriculture, commerce, and taxation. The Chinese commentators provided the algorithms needed to solve the problems, and explanations of how the algorithms work. The translators' commentary provides clear and accessible background material for the Western reader, explanations of technicalities, and notes on the treatment of similar or identical mathematical problems in other countries. The Nine Chapters quickly acquired a distinguished reputation, and was the standard mathematics textbook in China and the surrounding regions until Western science was introduced in about 1600. This English translation gives the reader an idea of the distinctive style and important contributions of traditional Chinese mathematics.
Leonardo Da Vinci
Authors: Coolidge Julian Lowell , Gray Jeremy
Published: November 2023

Of all the sons of men of whom we have any record, none had a greater intellectual appetite, or shall we say, a more omnivorous curiosity, than the great Florentine whose name appears at the head of the chapter. He is the closest approach we have to that unattainable ideal, the universal man. The Italian Renaissance produced a number of men who stood out both in science and art, but Leonardo was supreme.
Conceptual revolutions and the history of mathematics: two studies in the growth of knowledge (1984)*
Authors: Dauben Joseph
Published: November 2023

It has often been argued that revolutions do not occur in the history of mathematics and that, unlike the other sciences, mathematics accumulates positive knowledge without revolutionizing or rejecting its past.1 But there are certain critical moments, even in mathematics, that suggest that revolutions do occur—that new orders are brought about and eventually serve to supplant an older mathematics. Although there are many important examples of such innovation in the history of mathematics, two are particularly instructive: the discovery by the ancient Greeks of incommensurable magnitudes, and the creation of transfinite set theory by Georg Cantor in the nineteenth century. Both examples are as different in character as they are separated in time, and yet each provides a clear instance of a major transformation in mathematical thought.
Appendix (1992): revolutions revisited
Authors: Dauben Joseph
Published: November 2023

Each of these examples may be regarded as much more than simply another novel departure for mathematics. Each represents a new way of doing mathematics, by means of which its face and framework were dramatically altered in ways that indeed proved to be revolutionary.
Was Leibniz a mathematical revolutionary?
Authors: Grosholz Emily
Published: November 2023

That Leibniz was a mathematical revolutionary is not immediately obvious. For one thing, not everyone is convinced that conceptual revolutions take place in mathematics at all. Moreover. priority disputes aside, Leibniz’s initial work on the infinitesimal calculus may seem merely an improvement in notation and the organization of a body of problems and solutions already in place. However, I would like to argue in favour of Leibniz’s revolutionary status, not least because the term ‘revolutionary’ has come to have a honorific sense in the philosophy of science, and I would like to sec Leibniz properly honoured.
The Nineteenth-Century Revolution in Mathematical Ontology
Authors: Gray Jeremy
Published: November 2023

In this chapter I shall argue that there was a revolution in mathematics in the nineteenth century, characterized by a change in the ontological status of the basic objects of study. This change was brought about by a number of mathematicians working in a number of areas of mathematics, who came to feel that the resolution of many advanced questions required for their solution a redefinition of the foundations of their subject.
Single-photon correlation techniques
Authors: Schätzel Klaus
Published: November 2023

Dynamic light scattering (DLS) is based upon high-speed digital processing of stochastic optical signals. Optical questions are addressed in other chapters; this chapter presents a thorough treatment of the two topics of statistics and digital signal processing. The chapter starts with a brief summary of the underlying statistical concepts, with some emphasis on stochastic processes. Section 2.2 contains necessary material for the rest of the chapter. After a discussion of single photon detection techniques in Section 2.3 there follow two more-specialized subsections on photon and classical intensity statistics. A major subsection is then devoted to the estimation of correlation data with particular emphasis on proper normalization and noise performance. Section 2.4 discusses photon correlation hardware, extending from early single-bit machines to state-of-the-art multiple-sample-time devices and software algorithms.
Data analysis in dynamic light scattering
Authors: Štěpánek Petr
Published: November 2023

Recent advances in photon correlation spectroscopy (as a tool for studying quasi-elastic light scattering) have made it possible to measure very accurate autocorrelation functions covering 12 decades in delay time, from 12.5 ns to 104 s. With this new perspective it has become important to review new possibilities of data analysis, especially the determination of the distribution function A(τ) of decay times τ. Earlier reviews of this subject include refs 1–7. The range of correlation delay times indicated above takes into account the possibilities of the fastest commercially offered data accumulation (the 12.5 ns option of the ALV 5000 correlator and the 20 ns option of the ALV 3000 correlator ) as well as the possibilities of 32-bit software correlation on the slow side, recently described by the present author;191see also e.g. ref. 10. We note that the construction of a 5 ns correlator was reported some time ago, but this equipment was never made available commercially, nor were any extensive results published taking advantage of this feature.
Equivalence and Priority: Newton versus Leibniz
Authors: Meli Domenico Bertoloni
Published: November 2023

Leibniz's dispute with Newton over the physico-mathematical theories expounded in the Principia Mathematica (1687) have long been identified as a crucial episode in the history of science. Bertoloni Meli examines several hitherto unpublished manuscripts in Leibniz's hand illustrating his first reading of and reaction to Newton's Principia. Six of the most important manuscripts are here edited for the first time. Contrary to Leibniz's own claims, this new evidence shows that he had studied Newton's masterpiece before publishing An Essay on the Causes of Celestial Motions. This article, representing his response to Newton, is included here in English translation. Dr Bertoloni Meli analyses the important implications of this episode on a variety of themes ranging from priority claims to the mathematization of nature in the seventeeth century. Besides providing a careful study of Leibniz's style and strategy, the author examines how our perception of Newton's achievement is affected and the reception of the rival theories by the mathematical community around 1700.
Geometry And The Calculus
Authors: Meli Domenico Bertoloni
Published: November 2023

In the seventeenth century mathematics underwent profound transformations affecting methods of demonstration and objects of investigation as well as the very notions of rigour and proof. The invention of the calculus-namely of a method for finding tangents and quadratures which identifies the reciprocity between these two operations-was the culmination of a process involving several important advances. The establishment of a new, highly abstract, and general form of algebra, the formulation of analytic geometry, and the creation of a variety of techniques for finding maxima, minima, and tangents, paved the way to the great inventions by Newton and Leibniz.
The Reception Of Newtonian And Leibnizian Theories
Authors: Meli Domenico Bertoloni
Published: November 2023

Although in the seventeenth century several philosphers including Rene Descartes, Giovanni Alfonso Borelli, Robert Hooke, and Christiaan Huygens studied celestial phenomena using the laws of mechanics, with the appearance of Newton’s Principia the mathematical study of the system of the world reached a new level of sophistication and a broader horizon. If physical causes had been left at the margin of Newton’s account, mechanics and astronomy were brought together to an unprecedented degree of cohesion. Not only planetary motion and Kepler’s three laws, but also the motion of comets, tides, the shape and mutual perturbations of celestial bodies were studied on the basis of the same principles and laws of motion. This unified treatment of celestial and terrestrial phenomena set a number of problems in mathematics, mechanics, and astronomy and established a new field within the mathematical disciplines, namely celestial mechanics. It is essential at this point to permit some remarks about disciplinary boundaries. Newtonian and Leibnizian celestial mechanics had a location on the map of knowledge different from that which became standard several decades later. With regard to theology, for example, the order and constitution of the cosmos and the status of its laws with respect to the Creator were a major concern for the two contenders.
Möbius and his band
Authors: Fauvel John , Flood Raymond , Wilson Robin
Published: November 2023

August Möbius was one of the nineteenth century's most influential mathematicians and astronomers. Written by six distinguished contributors, this book explores the work of Möbius and his fellow-German scholars, in particular the achievements which act as a mirror for the work being undertaken by his contemporaries around the world. The background to Möbius's life and labours is provided by John Fauvel. Gert Schubring examines the mathematical community in nineteenth-century Germany, while Allan Chapman describes the revolution in astronomy that took place during the period. Jeremy Gray analyses Möbius's contribution to geometrical mechanics and Norman Biggs traces his role in the development of topological ideas. Finally, Ian Stewart explores the legacy Möbius left to mathematics in our own century.
Area Covered
Authors: Howell G , Steve N , Webb Sophie
Published: November 2023

This guide treats the approximately 1070 species of birds that occur in Mexico and northern Central America. Northern Central America, as defined in this book (see Figs 1, 2(a) and (6)), includes the Atlantic Slope lowlands south to the Ulua-Comayagua drainage (or Sula Valley) in western Honduras; the interior and highlands south to northcentral Nicaragua; the Pacific Slope lowlands south to western Nicaragua in the vicinity of the Gulf of Fonseca; all Mexican islands, the cays of Belize, the Honduras Bay Islands; and offshore waters to a distance of 200 nautical miles (or agreed international or median line borders) from habitable land. We also include the lowland pine savannas (the Mosquitia) of eastern Honduras and northern Nicaragua, which are biogeographically a part of northern Central America. Clipperton Atoll (l0°18’N, 109°13’W), a French possession, is also included as it has been claimed by Mexico, and is unlikely to be treated in any other guide.
The Crickets and Mole Crickets of Panama (Orthoptera: Gryllidae and Gryllotalpidae)
Authors: Nickle David A
Published: November 2023

The crickets and mole crickets of Central America in general have not been studied in detail by taxonomists. Although several species are agricultural pests, our knowledge of them is limited, partly because they are secretive in nature and difficult to study in the field and partly because in many crickets morphological differences among related species are often hard to find. Walker (1957, 1964) demonstrated the widespread occurrence of ‘cryptic species’ in crickets (not to be confused with cryptic coloration, a form of mimicry in which an animal is able to blend in with its environmental background). These are species that are behaviourally distinct or have different seasonal life histories, but morphologically are similar or nearly identical and therefore difficult to recognise on the basis of morphological information alone. For example, until as recently as 19 57 it was thought that all large black field crickets in the United States belonged to a single morphologically variable species, Gryllus assimilis (F., 1775), based on studies by Lutz (1908) and Rehn and Hebard (1915). However, in the 1950s, with advancements in audiometric technology, cricket taxonomy was revitalized in studies involving life history information and species-specific calling signals (Fulton 19 52; Alexander 1957, 1962). Today, in eastern United States eight species of Gryllus are recognized on the basis of calling songs and seasonal life histories (Alexander and Bigelow 1960; Nickle and Walker 1974; Walker 1974). Similarly, in California the number of species has risen from one to nine (three of which also occur in eastern US) (Weissman et al. 1980).
The ecology of the pygmy marmoset, Cebuella pygmaea: some comparisons with two sympatric tamarins
Authors: Saini Pekka
Published: November 2023

The pygmy marmoset, Cebuella pygmaea, an inhabitant of the upper Amazon lowland forests, is the smallest of the callitrichids: the average body mass for wild, non-pregnant, adult animals is 119 g (range 85-140 g, n = 63). The ecology and behaviour of Cebuella was studied in several areas in northeastern Peru, principally in the Maniti, Tahuayo, and Tapiche river basins, from September 1976 to February 1979 (Saini 1982b, 1987a, 1988). Besides field observations, 115 animals, including over 20 complete troops, were captured live and examined for more detailed data on age/sex composition of the populations. A summary of the principal ecological and demographic data gathered is presented here.
Competitive and co-operative interactions in Tanganyikan fish communities
Authors: Yuma Masahide
Published: November 2023

The high diversity in tropical ecological communities is one of the most interesting ecological phenomena, and fishes in tropical waters are no exception to this (see Lowe-McConnell 1987). A traditional question regarding this biological diversity is ‘Why are there so many kinds of animals?’ (Hutchinson 1959). Whittaker (1960) proposed to discriminate a- and ^-diversity as two components comprising the total diversity: the mean number of species within a habitat, and the species difference between habitats. Concerning the biological diversity within local communities, ecologists should focus primarily on the mechanisms of coexistence of organisms within a habitat which individual organisms inhabit together and interact with each other.
What, where, and when? Early vertebrates as we imagine them
Authors: Janvier Philippe
Published: November 2023

Most fossils of what I refer to here as ‘early vertebrates’ are about 470 to 250 million years old. They are unattractive, often fragmentary or crushed, and are pre¬ served in very hard rocks. Amateur palaeontologists therefore prefer them when reconstructed, as museum dis¬ plays, drawings, or paintings, and scientists like to see them in textbooks as line drawings illustrating transformation series. Such reconstructions are the ultimate result of a lengthy process of collection, preparation, comparison, and interpretation. One of the purposes of this book is to show how this work was—and still—is done, and how scientists have struggled with these miserable remains over more than a century and a half to integrate them into the classification of the vertebrates and into the evolutionary history of life.
Introduction
Authors: Stanton R L
Published: November 2023

It may seem trite to say that an understanding of oreelement geochemistry in volcanic rocks should be necessary for the proper understanding of the formation of volcanic orebodies. Surprisingly, however, little is known of the behaviour of the principal ore metals in lavas and other volcanic rocks, and there is no systematic documentation of their incidence in the lavas of island arcs, which are the principal locale of volcanic ore deposits in ancient terrains.
Historical: development of ideas on the origin of exhalative ores
Authors: Stanton R L
Published: November 2023

The early contributions of de Beaumont and de la Beche have already been referred to. They were however but two - though a particularly perspicacious pair - of a long line of geologists who have contributed to present understanding of stratiform ores of the aquatic-volcanic milieu.
Zinc
Authors: Stanton R L
Published: November 2023

Apart from iron, zinc is the most abundant sulphide metal of the exhalative ores. Within the sulphides it occurs almost entirely as the cubic mineral sphalerite, ZnS, though unknown small quantities may also appear in sulphosalts. Substantial quantities of zinc exist in some exhalative orebodies as the spinel series gahnitehercynite and as a component of olivines and other metamorphic silicates. Although the ‘classical’ Cyprustype ores are often (somewhat loosely) regarded as pyrite: chalcopyrite assemblages, there are few that do not contain at least minute quantities of zinc, usually as microscopic emulsoid blebs within chalcopyrite.
Calcium
Authors: Stanton R L
Published: November 2023

Although the presence of ‘carbonate’ is commonly noted among the non-sulphide components of many exhalative orebodies, comparatively little attention has been paid to the incidence of calcium in deposits of this class. Where the carbonate is dolomitic or ankeritic this is usually referred to, but where it is essentially calcite most investigators do little more than note its presence. In some cases, e.g. Mount Isa and Macarthur River in Australia, carbonate finely interbedded with sulphides may represent a part of the wider, ‘normal’ depositional context, ranging from fine pelagic limestone to carbonate deposited through sabka-evaporitic processes. In some exhalative ore environments however the carbonate, and its contained calcium, are fairly well limited to the area of ore occurrence. This and other features indicate that the calcium, with the sulphides and other associated elements, is of exhalative origin.
Molluscs
Authors: Hayward P J , Wigham, G D , Yonow N
Published: November 2023

The molluscs (Phylum Mollusca) are one of the largest groups of marine organisms and, with the exception of the Monoplacophora, representatives of all classes can be found in British waters. Living molluscs occur in terrestrial, freshwater, and marine ecosystems, and in the latter case have become adapted to every kind of habitat from abyssal oozes to oceanic surface currents. Molluscs are unsegmented, bilaterally symmetrical animals. The body consists of a muscular foot, a variously developed head, and a soft, non-muscular visceral mass. The foot may be adapted for grasping the substratum, for locomotion, burrowing or feeding, and is often closely associated with the head.
Parasitoid host ranges
Authors: Shaw Mark R
Published: November 2023

The host associations of a parasitoid reflect processes operating in both evolutionary and ecological time, and thus tend to become a central point of interest whatever aspect of a parasitoid’s behaviour, ecology, phylogeny, or even morphology may be under review. On the broadest front, community ecologists have focused attention on differences in the host range characteristics in particular their breadth-between parasitoids as one means of investigating the structure of parasitoid/herbivore communities; and a number of hypotheses have been generated which-at a very basic level-depend on the clarity of our understanding of host range and the legitimacy and accuracy of our current ways of assessing or expressing it.
Metapopulation Genetics and Evolution
Authors: Hanski llkka
Published: November 2023

The spatial structure of populations influences population dynamics but also the dynamics of genes in populations. An obvious but important example is increased genetic differentiation with increased population fragmentation (Hastings and Harrison 1994). The reverse—gene dynamics driving spatial structure—can also occur—as in the local adaptation of herbivores to individual host plants, or groups of host plants, which may generate or amplify spatial population structure (Mopper and Strauss 1998). A thorough discussion of metapopulation genetics and evolution is beyond the scope of this volume (for reviews see Barton and Clark 1990; Olivieri et al. 1990; Hastings and Harrison 1994; Harrison and Hastings 1996; Antonovics et al. 1997; Barton and Whitlock 1997; Olivieri and Gouyon 1997).
Tiger predatory behaviour, ecology and conservation
Authors: Seidensticker John , Mcdougal Charles
Published: November 2023

The tiger (Panthera tigris) is the largest obligate predator in the Asian temperate and tropical forest ecosystems in which it occurs. The plasticity and constraints in tiger resource acquisition are examined in the context of abrupt and pervasive environmental change throughout the tiger’s range—changes that threaten its survival. Prey capture in tigers is plastic, allowing tigers to capture prey of a wide range of sizes and types. In Nepal’s Chitwan National Park, tigers selected large cervids, thereby gaining access to a substantial proportion of the ungulate biomass which is not available to smaller felids. In mainland environments where primary prey are larger ungulates, tigers are larger, as much as twice the size of the Sunda Island tigers. Large body size may increase the efficiency of preying on big ungulates, but decreases the efficiency of living on smaller prey types. The smaller body size of the Sunda Island tigers may increase the efficiency of capturing the smaller prey that are relatively abundant in rainforest environments, feeding primarily on plant reproductive parts, but does not preclude the capture of large prey, such as Bos (800 kg).
The problems of reintroducing carnivores
Authors: Yalden D W
Published: November 2023

The problems of reintroducing an animal to parts of its former range are formidable. They include a reversal of the factors causing the original extinction; provision of a suitable stock of animals for the reintroduction; and adequate resources, human and financial, to persevere with the reintroduction programme until it has had a reasonable chance of success. Experience with large carnivores suggests that the problems are potentially more severe for them, partly because they are large and engender severe human antipathy, partly because their social structure raises extra difficulties. Nevertheless, there have been very few serious attempts to overcome the problems; in particular few attempts have persevered. The successful efforts to reintroduce the lynx Lynx lynx to central Europe provide an encouraging model, which should be applied to the even rarer (in western Europe) wolf Canis lupus and brown bear Ursus arctos.
Paradigms for managing carnivores: the case of the sea otter
Authors: Estes James A , Rathbun Galen B , Vanblaricom Glenn R
Published: November 2023

Because sound empirical data on the ecology of most carnivores are lacking, the goals of management are often pursued through actions based on broadly held paradigms. Four common paradigms were examined and found to beoverly simplistic, unreliable or incorrect for management of the sea otter (Enhydra lutris). In the first of these, successful reintroductions of wildlife are thought to depend largely on habitat quality and the number of reintroduced individuals. For sea otters, success seems to depend more strongly on overcoming a behavioural barrier—dispersal and the apparent desire of individuals to return to a familiar home range. Another paradigm states that small populations grow towards stability at carrying capacity in rough accordance with the logistic model. However, stable populations of sea otters may not be at carrying capacity, and populations that are limited by resources may not be stable. A third paradigm states that fisheries can be managed for maximum sustained yield in the absence of losses to predators. However, in the absence of sea otters, maximum sustained yield seems unrealistic for many shellfisheries because of episodic and spatially variable recruitment. A final paradigm is that food webs with an odd number of trophic levels have a dearth of herbivores that in turn leads to an abundance of plants. Although this is true for many kelp forests with sea otters, the rate at which kelp forests reappear after re-establishment of sea otters varies in different places.
Humans and big cats as predators in the Neotropics
Authors: jorgenson jeffrey P , redford kent H
Published: November 2023

Synopsis The disciplinary boundaries between the natural sciences and the social sciences have resulted in the viewing of humans and their activities as somehow separate from other animals. Yet, for example, humans clearly interact with other predators in tropical ecosystems. In order to overcome this dichotomy, we compared food habits of pumas, jaguars and human subsistence hunters for eight sites in the Neotropics. At these sites, predators took prey from at least three taxonomic classes of animals (i.e., mammals, birds and reptiles/’other’). Mammals were the class of prey items most frequently taken by pumas, jaguars and humans. Humans took the greatest number of prey taxa (mean= 39.2 per site), followed by jaguars (14.7) and pumas (5.3). Pumas primarily took armadillos and small and medium-sized rodents; jaguars predominantly took armadillos, peccaries and medium-sized rodents. Both pumas and jaguars took livestock. Humans primarily took coatimundis, peccaries, primates and medium-sized rodents.
Home range of leopards and their impact on livestock on Kenyan ranches
Authors: Mizutanl Fumi
Published: November 2023

Livestock ranches occupy the middle latitudes of Kenya. The land to the south is intensively used for agriculture and the extensive arid zone to the north is occupied by pastoralists. The ranching belt is of outstanding value for the conservation of wildlife. Most ranches carry abundant wild herbivores and some have black rhinoceros and elephant. Leopards and lions are increasing in numbers, however, and they kill increasing numbers of cattle and sheep, so alienating the ranchers from sympathy with conservation. The aim of this study is to record the density, home range and movements of leopards, their predation on domestic livestock and the prospects for control and management. The research is being carried out on a 200 km2 ranch north of Mount Kenya. Reconnaissance and survey have established the distribution of wild herbivores and the movements of leopards from spoor. Sixty baiting-points for leopards have been established and five males and five females have been trapped. Nine were immobilized and fitted with radio-collars.
Introduction: trends in marine mammal science
Authors: Boyd I L
Published: November 2023

In the past 20-30 years marine mammalogy has emerged as a discipline in its own right. The willingness of agencies to fund marine mammal research is evidence of its importance both in solving practical problems and in the more esoteric realms of pure science. To an outsider, the study of marine mammals might appear at first to be one of those narrow scientific specializations of little general interest. However, there is probably no other group of animals for which there is such specific legislation, enshrined in international treaties or national laws around the world, to regulate exploitation or conservation, and for which “there are such polarized views of how we should manage populations. Often, marine mammals are the stalking horse for public opinion on the wide-ranging principles of environmental conservation. The purpose of this chapter is to examine the development of marine mammal science from its roots in the control of commercial exploitation of seals and whales to its role in providing information essential for the administration of national and international laws and as a subject which is providing new insights into several aspects of mammalian ecology and physiology.
Harbour seal movement patterns
Authors: Thompson Paul M
Published: November 2023

In many species of phocids, the capacity to store energy as blubber has led to a separation of feeding and breeding activity. Recent marking and telemetric studies have shown that harbour seals may travel extensively and that their breeding activity may also constrain foraging behaviour. This paper assesses the relative importance of variations in food availability, breeding activity and predation pressure in shaping movement patterns. Two broad categories of movements are recognized. The first is those between haul-out sites and the sea. These are primarily for foraging, and appear to occur within 50 km of haul-out sites. The duration, timing and locations of these trips are related to changes in environmental conditions and breeding activity. The second is movements which occur between different haul-out sites. These may involve dispersal, or they can occur seasonally, when seals switch to sites which are more suitable for pupping or are closer to foraging areas. Regional variations exist in the extent of seasonal movements, probably in relation to the relative distribution of foraging areas and suitable haul-out sites.
Milk secretion in marine mammals in relation to foraging: can milk fatty acids predict diet?
Authors: Iverson Sara J
Published: November 2023

Patterns of milk composition and delivery differ greatly among mammals. However, despite these species-specific differences, lactation is very expensive in all species and thus diet and nutrient reserves of individual females must play a critical role in lactation performance. Pinnipeds, as well as mysticete whales, exhibit extreme adaptations to the constraints imposed by the separation of maternal feeding from milk transfer. This paper will consider three main questions: (1) how are milk secretion processes adapted to the temporal separation of foraging and milk secretion; (2) how are changes in diet or nutrient reserves likely to affect milk composition or yield; and (3) can specific milk constituents be used to indicate foraging behaviour or diet of individual animals? Substantial quantities of nutrients and metabolites are required by the mammary gland for the secretion of milk constituents. Nutrient partitioning and milk secretion are physiological processes which are both highly regulated and biochemically constrained. The general principles of these processes appear to be shared among all mammals, including marine mammals. It is concluded that neither the levels nor the types of most milk constituents are likely to be affected by maternal diet in marine mammals. However, milk yield may be reduced during a low plane of nutrition. Unlike other constituents, such as protein or carbohydrate, dietary fatty acids essentially remain intact through the digestion process (in carnivorous mammals) and many of these are secreted in milk or deposited in adipose tissue with no or minimal modification. Recent studies on species such as the California sea lion, Antarctic fur seal, hooded seal and harbour seal suggest a strong potential for determining prey items and diet of marine mammals through fatty acid signatures in the milk, particularly given the complex array of fatty acids which exist in marine organisms.
To what extent can heart rate be used as an indicator of metabolic rate in free-living marine mammals?
Authors: Butler P J
Published: November 2023

Physiologists and ecologists alike are in great need of a method by which they can obtain accurate information on the metabolic rate of free-ranging animals and relate metabolic rate to specific types of behaviour in the field. Under steady-state conditions, there is a good linear relationship between heart rate (/H) and the rate of oxygen consumption (Vo2in most terrestrial mammals that have been studied and data storage systems exist that could acquire fH from free-ranging animals over long periods. Marine mammals spend large proportions of their time (up to 90% in elephant seals) under water, and (H varies between the elevated rates at the surface and the much lower rates during submersion.
How fast should I swim? Behavioural implications of diving physiology
Authors: Thompson D , Hiby A R , Fedak M A
Published: November 2023

The extraordinary abilities of seals to survive long, apparently life-threatening, periods of anoxia have interested comparative physiologists for much of this century, with the emphasis on physiological responses as defensive measures to conserve oxygen. The advent of miniature recording devices and transmitters in the 1960s and 1970s dramatically changed the way we perceived diving. It is the steady state behaviour of seals at sea. Seals can dive continually, spending up to 90% of their time submerged over extended periods. In the previous paper (Fedak & Thompson, this volume) we described how combinations of behavioural and physiological adaptations enable seals to dive continually, often beyond estimated aerobic capacities, and suggested how these adaptations might restrict their choice of hunting tactics. Here we switch from regarding diving as a physiological event and look at it as primarily a behavioural event. Diving patterns are constrained by rigid physiological limits, but, within these limits, seals can vary the patterns to most efficiently exploit their environment. Seals must choose the duration and depth of dives, the swim speeds and angles of ascent/ descent and their hunting tactics while at depth.
Alternative life histories, mostly about males
Authors: Charnov Eric L
Published: November 2023

The problem of sex allocation, the evolution of male-to-female ratios, is the simplest and most universal example of alternative life histories–simplest because the frequency-dependent natural selection is literally built into the problem through the fact that everyone has one mother and one father. This chapter looks at another class of alternative life histories which occur within a single sex–usually, but not always, males. While the frequency dependence of fitness is not necessary to produce some of these alternatives, it will almost always be present. However, this will differ from sex allocation in that the frequency dependence is not automatic, not built in, and therefore will usually be generated by factors external to the genetic system, commonly the environment external to the individual organism. The aim of this chapter is to model the ESS for these other alternative life histories in a way analogous to sex allocation, and to stress the usefulness of the stable age distribution symmetry illustrated in Fig. 1.4.
Determinate growth, mostly about mammals
Authors: Charnov Eric L
Published: November 2023

We suggest, then, that the scaling of life history variables with body weight may derive from more fundamental relationships of weight with mortality schedules. But why should there be any consistent relationship between weight and rates of mortality? We do not yet know the answer to this question ... This approach, of attempting to explain allometric relationships as a function of demographic reality, is, we think, preferable to the largely descriptive role that allometry has played over the years. (Harvey and Pagel 1991, p. 198). (An answer to this question is provided by eqn. (5.7).)Birds, mammals, and insects show determinate growth where adult weight is more or less unchanging. Birds commonly reach their adult size well before maturation, while insects and mammals mature upon reaching near adult size. This chapter mostly deals with the allometry (body size scaling) of life histories for female mammals and the resulting invariants which follow from shared scaling exponents.
Introduction
Authors: Jones Robert Wynn
Published: November 2023

This book is divided in two, the first half (Chapters 2-6) dealing with pure micropalaeontology and the second half (Chapters 7-12) with applied micropalaeontology (commercial applications). Micropalaeorttology is interpreted in the broad sense so as to encompass not only the study of calcareous microfossils (and calcareous macrofossils identifiable in microfossil preparations), but also the study of siliceous and phosphatic microfossils, organic-walled microfossils or palynomorphs and calcareous nannofossils.
Calcareous nannofossils
Authors: Jones Robert Wynn
Published: November 2023

This chapter deals with calcareous nannofossils or coccoliths. These range in size from 1-100 µ,. Preparation of samples for calcareous nannofossil study generally consists of pulverising the containing sediment in distilled water using a pestle and mortar, strewing some of the suspended mixture onto a slide using a pipette and covering it with a glass slip (see, for instance, Taylor and Hamilton 1982; see also Beaufort 1991). Canada Balsam can be used to make a permanent mount. Examination is by means of an extremely powerful transmitted light microscope with polarisation facility or a scanning electron microscope.
The neo-traditional social order in Tokelau
Authors: Wessen Albert F , Hooper Antony , Huntsman Judith , Prior Ian A M , Salmond Clare E
Published: November 2023

The Tokelauan neo-traditional social order, according to our terminology, is that which Tokelauans refer to as faka Tokelau (Tokelauan ways or customs). The principles of community and kinship on which/aka Tokelau is based are viewed by Tokelauans as an ancient and shared heritage; however, the institutions of village (nuku) and family (kaiga) which manifest these principles are recognized to have changed over time and to be somewhat different from village to village and from family to family. The institutional framework or ground plan of this social order was in place, as noted in Chapter 3, by at least the late nineteenth century, and was elaborated during the next decades. During this period the three villages managed their own affairs: the Administration was remote and appeared to be content to leave the atolls relatively free to govern their everyday life. The economy was focused on subsistence: local wages paid by the colonial Administration amounted to a pittance, and trading vessels made infrequent visits.
Demographic aspects of Tokelauan communities
Authors: Wessen Albert F , Hooper Antony , Huntsman Judith , Prior Ian A M , Salmond Clare E
Published: November 2023

In Parts I and II, our chronicle of the Tokelauan people has documented their increasing contact with the West and the marked changes in life on Tokelau which resulted- culminating in a major migration to New Zealand. The significance of this migration lies in the fact that well over half of all those persons identifying themselves as Tokelauans now live in New Zealand. Yet it is also true that in the 1980s Tokelauans, whether non-migrants or migrants, continued to assert their common identity and, given the distance that lies between them, continued to maintain close bonds of interaction. Thus, from one perspective, Tokelauan society as it exists today can be defined as those persons claiming Tokelauan identity and speaking (or at least understanding) the Tokelauan language who may reside either on the atolls or in New Zealand.
Values, social structure, and change in Tokelauan society: the atolls
Authors: Wessen Albert F , Hooper Antony , Huntsman Judith , Prior Ian A M , Salmond Clare E
Published: November 2023

This and the two following chapters present a detailed analysis of the changing society of Tokelauans as this was reflected in our Project Censuses and in our sociological interviews with the atoll-dwellers and the migrants. In this chapter, dealing with the atoll-dwellers, attention is focused upon four main areas. First, measures of the basic values of Tokelauan society will be described, and the changing pattern of affirmation or rejection of these values by the population over the three study rounds will be traced. Second, evidence as to the degree of exposure to cosmopolitan society and its modern influences will be sought from the interviews, and the hypothesis that exposure to modernizing influences leads to increasing rejection of traditional Tokelauan values will be tested against the evidence. Third, a quantitative analysis will be made of the changing structure of social status in Tokelau based upon interview data concerning some of the multiple statuses held by adult men.