bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Quantum and statistical Field Theory
Authors: Bellac Michel Le , Barton G
Published: November 2023

Quantum field thory is a fundamental branch of theoretical physics, which in the last 20 years, has led to spectacular progress in our understanding of phase transitions and elementary particle physics. This textbook emphasizes the underlying unity of the concepts and methods used in both domains, and presents in clear language topics such as the pertubative expansion, Feynman diagrams, renormalization, and the renormalization group. It contains detailed applications of critical phenomena to condensed matter physics, such as the calculation of critical exponents and a discussion of the XY model. Applications to particle physics include quantum electrodynamics and chromodynamics, electroweak interactions, and lattice gauge theories. The book is based on courses given over several years on statistical mechanics and field theory, and is written at graduate level. It attempts to guide the reader through a somewhat difficult and sometimes intricate subject. Further it is intended to lead the student up to the level of more advanced textbooks and research articles. A large number of problems are given to measure the reader's understanding.
Fundamentals of MaxEnt in data analysis
Authors: Skilling J
Published: November 2023

The maximum entropy method (MaxEnt) demonstrably produces good reconstructions of images and spectra from blurred or otherwise imperfect data. However, these reconstructions have traditionally been single selections, lacking any estimates of their accuracy. Recently, the application of MaxEnt has been placed on a clear axiomatic foundation. The entropy of an image is now seen to represent its prior probability. As a consequence of this deeper viewpoint, it is now possible to place error bars on MaxEnt reconstructions, so that the reliability of the features produced can be quantitatively assessed. It is also possible to assess different variants of MaxEnt.
Maximum entropy and nuclear magnetic resonance
Authors: Hore P J
Published: November 2023

The use of the maximum entropy method as an alternative to Fourier transformation in nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is described. The problems of sensitivity, resolution, truncation and dispersion lineshapes are addressed and examples of maximum entropy processing of two-dimensional NMR data are presented. Finally a new approach to the maximum entropy problem in NMR is outlined.
The X-ray crystallographic phase problem
Authors: Bricogne G
Published: November 2023

The X-ray analysis of crystal structure may be viewed as an inverse problem in which the three-dimensional structure of a crystal is to be reconstructed from the results of an X-ray diffraction experiment. The intensities of the scattered beams which can be measured in such an experiment are essentially the squared moduli of the Fourier coefficients associated with the triply periodic electron density distribution in the crystal. Unfortunately the corresponding phases cannot be measured, yet they must be restored by some means before the desired picture of the crystal structure can be obtained by Fourier synthesis. This constitutes the ‘phase problem’ of Xray crystallography.
Structural Imaging Using q-Space
Authors: Callaghan Paul T
Published: November 2023

The translational motion of molecules in a heterogeneous structure will be influenced by boundaries. In the previous chapter we looked at anisotropic self-diffusion caused by the confining geometry of surrounding surfaces. In those examples we were concerned only with the components of displacement parallel to surfaces which meant that the observed motion was unbounded but that its appearance in the laboratory frame reflected a characteristic spatial dimensionality. Now we turn our attention to the measurement of motion along a direction in which molecules encounter some boundary. For example, the water inside a cell experiences a barrier to diffusion at the cell wall; oil molecules in plant or food material are often confined to localized droplets; and water inside a porous sandstone exists in a complex system of interconnected pores and capillaries.
Chaos and its application to physical systems
Authors: Mullin Tom
Published: November 2023

The main issue to be addressed here is whether the ideas embodied in nonlinear dynamical systems and chaos are of any value in aiding our understanding of complicated physical phenomena. The views expressed will necessarily be selective and will reflect those features of modern thinking in dynamical systems theory which the author has found to be most useful in interpreting the outcome of experiments. The field may be viewed in the following way. On the one hand there are many splendid abstract mathematical ideas in discussions of dynamical systems and chaos, and on the other there are so-called ‘real world’ phenomena. As is usually the case in physics, the interpretation of experimental results in terms of a set of theoretical ideas is not always a straightforward matter and things are no different here. This is despite some claims in popular accounts that ‘chaos theory’ is the ‘answer’ to a wide variety of problems. An example of this oversimplification is to be found in the phenomenon of turbulence in fluid flows. Over the past decade the words ‘chaos’ and ‘turbulence’ have become synonymous in many popular accounts and yet the connection between the two is far from obvious even today. In the author’s opinion the ideas of chaos have thus far added very little to the understanding of the phenomenon of turbulence. Yet many research groups, including the author’s, continue to study this topic because a significant breakthrough in this very difficult subject seems tantalizingly close.
Partnerships for conservation between zoos, local governments and non-governmental organizations
Authors: Mallinson Jeremy J C
Published: November 2023

The growing awareness of the importance of conserving biological diversity and the higher level of understanding as to the significance of zoo-based breeding programmes aiding species survival have led a number of organizations to develop collaborative conservation projects with countries where endangered species are endemic. The focus of this paper is the conservation strategy of the Wildlife Preservation Trust (The Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust (JWPT), Wildlife Preservation Trust International (WPTI) and Wildlife Preservation Trust Canada (WPTC) ) that has resulted in the development of this partnership process within the dynamics of a rapidly changing world environment, involving changing human attitudes and political systems. By entering into formal agreements with governments, training selected personnel, supporting field research and local education pro¬ grammes, funding in situ breeding projects, aiding the restoration of degraded habitats and land purchase, and actively participating in and having long-term commitments to re-introduction programmes, the Trust’s work has become an integral part of important national and international conservation strategies for threatened species. Examples of this partnership role are presented and scenarios for the future discussed.
Habitat protection and re-introduction programmes
Authors: Mackinnon K , Mackinnon J
Published: November 2023

In recent years, zoos and conservation organizations have given increasing attention and funding to captive breeding schemes and re-introduction programmes. These programmes are a useful conservation tool and have played a vital role in the survival of some endangered species. The top priority for most species, however, is, and must remain, habitat protection to conserve wild populations in situ.This paper considers four case studies from Asia, involving the Bali starling, kouprey, giant panda and orangutan. Most of the Bali starling’s remaining habitat lies within a reserve but re-introduction schemes will fail unless the wild populations can be effectively protected from trapping.
General introduction
Authors: Hopkin Stephen p.
Published: November 2023

Collembola are among the most widespread and abundant terrestrial arthropods. In this book, I shall cover all aspects of their biology and classification and show that their importance in terrestrial ecosystems has generally been underestimated. In this chapter, the main characteristics of the group are outlined and key publications are listed in which more detailed recent information can be found. Chapter 2 reviews the early literature on springtails from the first mention by Aristotle in about 350 BC via Linnaeus (1758) to the monograph of Salmon (1964).
Introduction
Authors: Pieterse A H
Published: November 2023

A Weed can be defined as ‘a plant (or group of plants) which is not desired at its place of occurrence’ (Coordinatiecommissie Onkruidonderzoek, 1984). Although ‘not desired’ may in general be referred to ‘not desired by man’, the definition could be narrowed to ‘not desired by the manager(s) of the area where the particular plant(s) occurs’.
General biology and ecology of aquatic weeds
Authors: Wade P M
Published: November 2023

To understand and manage aquatic weed problems effectively, it is important that the large body of knowledge which has been built up about the biology and ecology of aquatic plants is used as the foundation of management approaches. This chapter highlights those aspects of aquatic weed biology and ecology important in this context. Ecophysiological aspects are covered in more detail in Chapter 4.
Aquatic weed problems and management in North America
Authors: Anderson L W J
Published: November 2023

An understanding of aquatic weed impacts and solutions in the western United States and Canada is best gained from a general view of water catchment, storage and distribution. Although there are many thousands of kilometres of natural riverine systems and lakes, the most frequent and severe problems associated with aquatic macrophyte vegetation occur primarily in the man-made lakes, reservoirs, and canals throughout this region.
Responses of Sphagnum species to polluted environments
Authors: Lee John a.
Published: November 2023

Peatlands cover approximately 3 per cent of the Earth ‘s land surface (Kivinen and Pakarinen 1981) and play a significant role in the global cycles and geochemical balances of carbon, nitrogen, and sulphur (Gorham et al. 1984). In many peatlands the major peat-forming plants are Sphagnum species, and thus the response of these species to pollutants may influence markedly biogeochemical cycles.
Effects of pollutants on aquatic speci•es
Authors: Glime Janice m.
Published: November 2023

Aquatic systems are likely to experience a much greater variety of changes, at least through human activity, than terrestrial systems. The increase of nutrients has created the most visible problems, resulting in algal blooms, loss of oxygen, decreasing fish populations, and ultimately depriving bryophytes and lichens of light. As in the terrestrial system, the decrease of pH and increase of heavy metals have caused more subtle changes, often favouring bryophytes over their vascular competitors. But in addition to those problems that are also experienced by terrestrial situations, the aquatic system can suffer from unique problems. Construction of dams alters flow regimes and can alter the dissolved substances as a result of oxygen depletion in the reservoir. Temperatures are likely to rise, not only as the result of the greenhouse effect, but also from deforestation, reservoirs, and heated effluents, creating problems for those organisms that are adapted to the previously existing narrow temperature range. Deforestation, agriculture, and construction increase turbidity, which may affect light intensities or cause abrasion. Organic pollutants, much more common in aquatic systems, can be toxic to selected members of the community.
Leaf-cutter ant assemblies: effects of latitude, vegetation, and behaviour
Authors: Fowler H G , Claver Silvia
Published: November 2023

Although leaf-cutter ants (Acromyrex and Atta) are commonly considered to be characteristic of tropical forests, leaf-cutters are actually more abundant and diverse in the subtropics of South America (Fowler 1983a,b) (Fig. 5.1). Due to this biogeographical pattern, co-occurrences of taxa are likely, especially in the subtropical regions. Furthermore, not all species of leafcutter ant occur in forests, a sizeable proportion of the recognized taxa are open habitat specialists (Table 5.1). Many of these open habitat specialists are grass-cutters, while the remainder, and the closed habitat taxa, are true leaf-cutters; although many species forage leaf, flower, and fruit fall for the fungal substrate (Fowler and Stiles 1980; Fowler 1985; Fowler et al. 1986).
Azteca Ants In Cecropia Trees: Taxonomy, Colony Structure, And Behaviour
Authors: Longino John T
Published: November 2023

The most conspicuous ant-plant association in the wet neotropics is that of Aztecu ants and Cecropia trees. In most low-elevation, wet regions of the ncotropics, Cecropia is an ubiquitous and important invader of man-made clearings (Uhl et al. I 981; Brokaw 1987). The open, candelabra-shaped crowns of Cecropia often appear as the sole emergents over dense vine tangles in abandoned fields. The hollow internodes of these trees are almost always occupied by biting ants in the genus Azteca, each tree typically containing a single colony (Bequaert 1922; Wheeler 1942; Benson 1985).
Symbiosis Of Ants With Cecropia As A Function Of Light Regime
Authors: Davidson Diane W , Fisher Brian L
Published: November 2023

The relationships between ants and myrmecophytes are still viewed by many as unique and curious phenomena, unrelated to mainstream evolutionary ecology. However, as argued by McKey (1988), renewed interest in these relationships is leading to the discovery of both pattern and complexity resembling that found in other ecological systems. First, certain unifying principles of plant defence theory may be generalized to ant-protection mutualisms (McKey 1984, 1988). ln addition, symbiotic ant-plant relationships are likely to be products of selection based on complex networks of direct and indirect interactions, the outcome of which can be modified by variation in the physical environment (e.g. Schemske and Horvitz 1988; Davidson and Epstein 1989; Davidson et al. 1990). Given these parallels with other ecological systems, symbiotic ant-plant associations may have a unique role to play in elucidating the determinants of evolutionary specialization. Both myrmecophytes and plant-ants vary in their degree of specialization, and this variation can be quantified explicitly by experiment, and related to present-day selection environments.
Phylogenetic Analysis Of The Evolution Of A Mutualism: Leonardoxa (Caesalpiniaceae) And Its Associated Ants
Authors: McKey Doyle
Published: November 2023

Two notorious disciplines in biology seem to be lurching toward each other, groping for mutual understanding and even fusion into a more powerful version of evolutionary biology. The two disciplines are cladistics and adaptationist theory.... The two fields obviously need each other. The current estrangement between adaptationist theory and ‘pure’ cladistics (which tends to focus on character patterns rather than on evolutionary processes) finds its metaphor in a Greek explanation of sex. Plato believed that each male and female once formed a perfect hermaphroditic whole, but through some misunderstanding (nb!) were sundered into different, individually sterile genders. As such they are condemned to wander, miserably seeking their complementary half. I would ... advise cladists and adaptationists to give up, join up, and procreate.
Cavity Structure And Function In The Tuberous Rubiaceae
Authors: Jebb Matthew
Published: November 2023

The epiphytic rubiaceous ant-plants are currently classified into a subtribe of the Hydnophytinae comprising six closely related genera: Hydnophytum Jack, Myrmecodia Jack, Myrmephytum Becc., Myrmedoma Becc., Squamellaria Becc., and Anthorrhiza Huxley & Jebb (Huxley 1981; Jebb 1985; Huxley and Jebb 1990). The group is confined to the Far-eastern tropics, and is most diverse in New Guinea (Fig. 24. 1). In all species of these genera the hypocotyl of the seedling swells to form a tuber which always becomes chambered and is usually inhabited by ants (Forbes 1880; Treub 1883, 1888). Parts of the chambers are smooth and impervious while areas with ‘warts’ are absorptive (Miehe 1911; Spanner 1939; Janzen 1974c; Huxley 1978). Comparatively little has been done on the morphology and architecture of the cavities (Beccari 1884-1886; Spanner 1938; Huxley 1976, 1978). The taxonomic and evolutionary implications of the cavity structure, gross plant morphology, and ant occupation are outlined here. The lack of material for Myrmephytum and Myrmedoma has meant that the tuber structure of these genera remains unknown, although predictions about their organization are made in the light of current knowledge.
Seed Harvesting By Ants In Australia
Authors: Andersen Alan N
Published: November 2023

Seed harvesting by ants refers to the removal and subsequent consumption of seeds (i.e. seed predation), as distinct from the dispersal of seeds possessing an ant-attracting appendage (i.e. myrmecochory). Outside Australia, seed harvesting is primarily a phenomenon of arid regions. The seeds of ephemeral plants represent a valuable food source in desert environments, which typically support large populations of granivores, mostly rodents, birds, and ants (Mares and Rosenzweig 1978; Brown et al. 1979; Abramsky 1983). The ants are primarily species of the myrmicine genera Pogonomyrmex, Messor, Veromessor, Monomorium and Pheidole, and, although strictly they are not specialist granivores (Bohart and Knowlton 1953; Brown et al. 1979), seeds nevertheless constitute a major portion of their diets. Foraging by these ants can have a marked impact on seed densities and distributions (Reichman 1979) and consequently on the community structure of desert plants (Inouye et al. 1980). Most of these ant species are confined to deserts, and harvester ants are often absent altogether from other habitats (e.g. Brown et al. 1975). Harvester ants can be prominent in seasonally arid habitats, such as in mediterranean California (Hobbs 1985), tropical Mexico (Carrol and Risch 1984), and African savannahs (Levieux 1983), but there are no records of them being important in temperate habitats anywhere in America, Europe, or Africa.
Cannibalism and trophic eggs in subsocial and eusocial insects
Authors: Crespi Bernard J
Published: November 2023

Eusocial insects are characterized by the presence of reproductive division of labour, such that some individuals forego or reduce personal reproduction to help rear the offspring of others, usually kin (Wilson 1971; Michener 1974). Among Hymenoptera (ants, bees, and wasps) and Isoptera (termites), eusociality also involves cooperative brood care and generation overlap, whereas among Homo- ptera (aphids) and polyembryonic wasps (family Encyrtidae) more or less sterile juvenile ‘soldier’ morphs defend their habitat and the individuals therein against predation or usurpation (Aoki 1977, 1987; Cruz 1981). Subsocial insects exhibit only brood care, defined here as behaviour beyond oviposition, primarily feeding, defense or both, that increases offspring survivorship.
Cannibalism Among Non-Human Primates
Authors: Hiraiwa-Hasegawa Mariko
Published: November 2023

Reports of intraspecific killing and cannibalism among non-human primates, both from wild populations and captive groups (Angst and Thommen 1977; Goodall 1986; Hausfater and Hrdy 1984), were originally thought to be abnormal behaviour resulting from factors such as overcrowding or changes in the social environment (e.g. Curtin and Dolhinow 1978; Boggess 1979). More recently, primatologists have sought adaptive explanations of intraspecific killing, especially infanticide (Hrdy 1979; Hausfater and Hrdy 1984).
Dunnock Behaviour and Social Evolution
Authors: Davies N B , Quinn David
Published: November 2023

At first sight just a small brown bird, the dunnock's unobtrusive appearance belies its extraordinary behaviour and mating patterns. In this book Nick Davies gives a full account of the mating systems of the dunnock or hedge sparrow, Prunella modularis, which include pairs, a male with two females, two males with one female, and several males with several females. Detailed observations, elegant field experiments, and DNA fingerprinting are combined to show how this variable social organization from selfish individuals competing to maximize their own reproductive success. Further experiments reveal how the cuckoo may thwart the dunnock's parental efforts. David Quinn's exquisite drawings provide a visual summary of the birds' behaviour. All students of ecology, evolution, and animal behaviour will want to be familiar with this work, which addresses the wider issues of the influence of ecology on mating systems and the evolutionary significance of conflict within and between species. This is the third volume in the Oxford Series in Ecology and Evolution, and the first in this series to tackly behavioural ecology. Nick Davies is a Lecturer in Zoology at the University of Cambridge and co-editor with J. R. Krebs of the leading text in the field, Behavioural ecology: an evolutionary approach.
Metastasis: secondary proliferation in distant organs
Authors: Tarin D
Published: November 2023

Metastatic spread of tumours from the site of primary growth to distant organs, where seedling tumours are formed by disseminated cells, is the most clinically important property of malignant tumours. It endows the community of tumour cells with the ability to survive surgical excision of the primary growth. Also, because metastases can themselves act as foci for further shedding and dissemination of tumour cells, this process forms the basis for both a geometric increase in the impact of the tumour on the host, and increasing difficulty in clinical management, because of the wide dispersal of the tumour burden. The magnitude of the effect of this phenomenon on human health can be appreciated by reference to the annual mortality statistics published by the Registrar General of England and Wales (1). Approximately one in three of the population die of the consequences of metastatic cancer, or are found to harbour asymptomatic metastatic tumour deposits at autopsy.
Invasion by stratified diffusion
Authors: Shigesada Nanako , Kawasaki Kohkichi
Published: November 2023

So far, we have treated the movement of organisms as a diffusion process based on random walks. As we saw in Chapter 2, however, there are some species of birds, insects, plants and herding animals that expand their ranges not only by random movement into surrounding adjacent areas, but also by long-distance dispersal. When various modes of dispersal occur side by side within a species, Hengeveld (1989) proposed that such a dispersal process be called 'stratified diffusion' (but, in epidemiology, 'hierarchical diffusion' is in use as an alternative term).
Is it ancient or modern history that we can read in the genes?
Authors: Nichols Richard A , Beaumont Mark A
Published: November 2023

The impact of gene flow on the population structure of a species depends markedly on its population dynamics, and can also vary strikingly from locus to locus within the same individuals. The renaissance of the genealogical approach to population genetics has provided a series of simple and useful tools that enable us to use the distribution of allele frequencies to draw inferences about a species’ history and demography. In particular, comparisons between loci with different rates and types of mutation will be valuable in conservation planning. Conversely, they can provide insight into strategies for maintaining genetic variation.

Some of the familiar results of population genetics follow from very simple rules of genealogy construction. Besides providing a fresh perspective on these well-known results, the approach can be extended to new problems. In particular, we will address the interactions between gene flow and colonisation and growth. These interactions are important when individuals (or gametes) disperse into sparsely populated areas and especially during the colonisation of virgin territory.
Structural constraints on food web assembly
Authors: Warren Philip H
Published: November 2023

Diversity can be quantified in many ways (Gaston 1994). Food webs are one representation of diversity which explicitly incorporates both taxonomic and functional aspects of community structure. Webs may be represented as binary structures, with links simply present or absent, or as ‘functional webs’ including information about energy flow or other measures of interaction strength. Most comparative analyses of food webs have utilised the former (e.g. Cohen 1978, Briand 1983, Pimm 1982, Pimm et al. 1991, Schoenly et al. 1991, Martinez 1992, Bengtsson, 1994; though see also Hairston and Hairston 1993).

Such data define the trophic ‘scaffolding’ of a community, representing interactions that are possible, or simply those that are most frequent (depending on the resolution of the data). Although just looking at the scaffolding provides limited information about the functional significance of each link, existence is a prerequisite for importance, and a connectance web defines the bounds of structure within which functionally important links must lie. Additionally, many of the factors determining the occurrence of a link will also be important in determining its strength (e.g. relative body size of predator and prey may both set limits to, and influence the frequency of, prey capture (e.g. Werner and Hall 1974, Kislalioglu and Gibson 1976)).
The use of stable isotopes to study the diets of plant-visiting bats
Authors: Fleming Theodore H
Published: November 2023

Dietary analysis in bats has traditionally involved examination of stomach contents or faecal materials or the identification of plant materials (pollen, seeds) on the fur of animals or under feeding roosts. While they provide detailed information about what kinds of ‘prey’ bats are eating, these methods provide only a ‘snapshot’ of an animal’s diet and provide no long-term information about the general diets and trophic positions of plant-visiting bats. In this paper, I describe the application of stable isotope techniques to the study of the diets of plant-visiting bats. My colleagues and I have used carbon isotope analyses to determine whether CAM or C3 plants are the more important in the diets of Sonoran desert flower-visiting bats. Our results indicate that the nectarivorous bat Leptonycteris curasoae (Phyllostomidae) is a seasonal CAM specialist in mainland Mexico and a year-round CAM specialist in Baja California. Using this technique, we have discovered that the carnivorous bat Antrozous pallidus (Vespertilionidae) is also a legitimate pollinator of cactus and agave flowers in the deserts of the south-western United States. We have now begun to use carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes to study the relative importance of plant and insect tissue as sources of carbon and nitrogen in plant-visiting bats. We predict that, because of their ability to echolocate, phyllostomid bats obtain more of their nitrogen from non-plant sources than do non-echolocating pteropodid bats.
Abundance and habitat selection of foraging vespertilionid bats in Britain: a landscape-scale approach
Authors: Walsh Allyson L , Harris Stephen , Hutson A M
Published: November 2023

Large-scale surveys of the habitats required by foraging bats have seldom been attempted, despite a clear need for quantitative information in order to develop realistic conservation strategies. Accordingly, a standardized survey method was developed for a large-scale analysis of bat abundance and habitat selection in the whole of Britain. This was the first such survey of its kind undertaken anywhere. A random stratified sample of 1-km squares was surveyed by a network of volunteers walking fixed transects with bat detectors. They also collected information on the habitat features present in each 1-km square. Data from 910 squares were examined to test whether landscape and local habitat features influence bat activity. Significant regional differences were demonstrated between seven major land-class groups. Lowest bat activity levels occurred in upland, marginal upland and intensively farmed arable areas of the north. Habitat selection results are presented for two contrasting land-class groups. In both of these, woodland habitats and habitats associated with water were actively selected, whilst arable land, stone walls, scrub and parkland plus all grassland categories were avoided. Logistic regression models were used to identify habitats of critical importance within the two land-class groups. A variety of habitats were important in the pastural landscape but only one, semi-natural broadleaved woodland, was of critical importance in the arable landscape. The value of landscape-scale surveys for providing information on habitat use and a baseline from which to model’ the potential effects of changes in land use is discussed.
C
Authors: Atkins P W
Published: November 2023

The charge density at a point in an atom, molecule, or solid is the charge per unit volume at each location. For a one-electron system it is equal to the square of the wave function at the point of interest multiplied by the electronic charge, - e. For a many-electron system, the total charge density is the sum of all the one-electron contributions. The product of the charge density at a location and the volume element dr is equal to the charge inside the volume element.

The atomic charge density (the charge per atom rather than the charge per unit volume) is often encountered. If the contribution of an atomic orbital to a molecular orbital is cA, then that orbital contributes - elcAl2 to the charge density on atom A if it is occupied by a single electron.
Crystal imperfection broadening and peak shape in the Rietveld method
Authors: Delhez Robert , Keijser Thomas H de , Langford J Ian , Louër Daniel , Mittemeijer, Eric J , Sonneveld Eduard J
Published: November 2023

The Rietveld method requires a two-part starting model (see Chapter 1 and elsewhere), a structural model based on approximate atomic positions and a non-structural model which takes into account the contributions of individual line profiles in terms of analytical or other differentiable functions. Both must be considered in order to achieve an optimum representation of the observed pattern. The total intensity of Bragg reflections and, to a first approximation, their positions, are determined by the structural model, but the non-structural model, and hence the representation of diffraction lines, depends on the instrument used and on the microstructural and other properties of the sample. As is also explicitly noted in Chapters 7 and 9, structural imperfections should therefore be taken into account when considering the physical origin of line shapes. These imperfections can be diverse and include: the dimensions and morphology of coherently diffracting domains (crystallite-size effects), variation in interatomic distances due to internal stresses or non-stoichiometry, micro-twinning, stacking faults, dislocations, and other forms of atomic disorder. Microstructural features directly influence the shape of line profiles. The influence depends on the direction and magnitude of the diffraction vector.
Restraints and constraints in Rietveld refinement
Authors: Baerlocher Christian
Published: November 2023

In the same year as Rietveld’s paper, ‘A Profile Refinement Method for Nuclear and Magnetic Structures’ appeared (Rietveld 1969), Meier and Villiger ( 1969) published an article, the German title of which could be translated as ‘A Distance Refinement Method for the Determination of Atomic Coordinates of Idealized Framework Structures’. The similarity is evident: both methods refine atomic coordinates by using a least-squares procedure. The only difference is the type of observation. Whereas the former uses diffraction data, the latter uses chemical or geometric observations in the form of known or expected interatomic distances. The distance least-squares program DLS-76 (Baerlocher et al. 1976) has been widely used for a variety of purposes: to calculate good starting parameters for structure refinement to screen structural models for unknown phases (e.g. Baur 1977; Meier et al. 1987), and to predict structural changes (e.g. under high pressure) in cases where diffraction data were unavailable (Dempsey and Strens 1976). Despite its simplistic approach, the results obtained are generally remarkably good.
Combined X-ray and neutron Rietveld refinement
Authors: Dreele Robert B Von
Published: November 2023

As is noted in Chapter 1, a neutron or X-ray powder diffraction pattern can be modelled from descriptions of the crystal structure of the sample, both instrumental and sample contributions to peak broadening, intensity effects such as absorption and extinction, and a background contribution. Also noted is that a Rietveld (1969) refinement performs a least-squares minimization of the weighted differences between this calculated pattern and observed data by computing the shifts in the adjustable parameters for the model. Since the problem is non-linear, several cycles of least-squares refinement are needed to complete the minimization. However, because both the complex nature of the structure factors and much of the directional character of reciprocal space are lost in a powder diffraction experiment, there is a larger question of uniqueness for the result of a Rietveld refinement of a single powder pattern than for the result of a single crystal refinement.
Plasma Electrodynamics
Authors: Brambilla Marco
Published: November 2023

In principle, the phenomenological description of electromagnetic wave propagation in plasmas can be regarded as a chapter of the electrodynamics of material media. Plasmas differ from usual materials in several respects, however, which can be traced to the fact that all charge carriers are free. Hence the distinction between polarization and conduction current, which is of fundamental importance for non-ionized media, becomes irrelevant. On the other hand, the influence of the thermal motion of ions and electrons on the propagation of electromagnetic waves cannot always be neglected; as a consequence spatial dispersion, which is a rather exotic phenomenon in ordinary dielectrics or metals, plays an important role in plasmas. Finally, a magnetized plasma is anisotropic, but the resulting birefringence is of a different nature from that of typical crystals. In this chapter, therefore, we will introduce the electrodynamics of plasmas from a macroscopic, or phenomenological, point of view. We will limit ourselves to the case of linear wave propagation, although a plasma is, strictly speaking, a nonlinear medium. Nonlinear effects will be briefly considered in Chapter 11.
Elementary Plasma Kinetic Theory
Authors: Brambilla Marco
Published: November 2023

The basic equations for the description of h.f. waves in plasmas are Maxwell’s equations for the macroscopic fields, and the collisionless Vlasov kinetic equation for the particle distribution functions. In this section we will sketch the derivation of these equations. We will avoid many subtle questions arising in the details: our goal is only to clarify the concept of macroscopic fields which ignore the granular nature of free charges in the plasma and are determined only by the averaged collective response of ions and electrons, and to make plausible the validity of the equations which will be used in the next chapter to derive the dielectric tensor of the homogeneous hot plasma.
Basic Kinetic Theory
Authors: Bird G A
Published: November 2023

A gas flow would be completely described, in a classical sense, by listings of the position, velocity, and internal state of every molecule at a particular instant. The number of molecules in a real gas is so large that such a description is unthinkable, and we must resort to a statistical description in terms of probability distributions. A number of distinct velocity distribution functions are employed in kinetic theory and possible confusion may be avoided by a general review of the relationships between them.
Inelastic Collisions And Surface Interactions
Authors: Bird G A
Published: November 2023

As noted in Chapter 1, rotational energy is associated only with diatomic and polyatomic molecules that consist of two or more atoms. Furthermore, there is no rotation about axes with a small moment of inertia, such as the internuclear axis of diatomic molecules. The most realistic of the classical monatomic models is the point centre of force, and the obvious extension would be two or more point centres of force separated by fixed distances.
Characteristics of Dynamic Problems
Authors: Ishihara Kenji
Published: November 2023

There are a variety of problems where the behaviour of soils in dynamic loading is of concern, but because of diversity in the areas and complexity in the conditions under which dynamic loads are applied, it is not easy to establish a hierarchy in the discipline and to put all problems in a proper perspective. However some synthesized considerations may be afforded, if the dynamic problem type is classified in terms of the view point as distinguished from the static problem.
Science and Practice of Liquid-Liquid Extraction
Authors: Thornton John D
Published: November 2023

This work presents an up-to-date account of some of the fundamental aspects of liquid-liquid extraction technology together with an account of extraction processes in a number of important industries. The work is divided into two parts. This volume is concerned with the thermodynamics of phase equilibria; mass transfer in liquid-liquid systems including the complicating role of interfacial turbulence; behaviour of liquid-liquid dispersions and the selection and design of countercurrent contactors for particular applications.
The Tubular Thermosyphon
Authors: Lock G S H
Published: November 2023

The tubular thermosyphon is a very simple idea for transferring heat. Fluid inside a tube is circulated by buoyancy forces and thus carries thermal energy from the hot end to the cold end with great efficiency. The device has many uses: freezing ground, cooling equipment and machinery, waste heat recovery, and energy conservation. The operating details of the thermosyphon are, however, very complex and change dramatically with the circumstances. The length and diameter of the tube, the nature and state of the fluid, the strength and variation of the body force field, etc., all influence the internal circulation pattern and thus create different operating characteristics - variations on a basic theme. The book deals with each of these variations thoroughly and systematically. Emphasis is placed on the physical principles underlying thermal behaviour: under single-phase or evaporative conditions; whether the tube is stationary or rotating; and whether it is straight or bent. Consideration is also given to other devices having a similar purpose.
Low Temperatures
Authors: Eremets M I
Published: November 2023

Many interesting phenomena connected with quantum effects and low-energy excitations can be investigated at low temperatures. This represents a large field of the physics of superconductors and semiconductors and solid-state physics in general. At low temperature the fine structure of the energy spectrum is developed and even a low pressure produces sufficient shift in energy peaks. Determination of the derivatives of characteristic peaks in the energy spectrum in respect to volume (pressure) is very important because it helps to identify the observed peaks correctly. For example, determination of dTc/dP for superconductors helps to check different theories of HT superconductivity. In many theoretical calculations the volume derivatives are calculated more accurately than absolute values.
Introduction
Authors: Taniguchi Norio
Published: November 2023

The basic concept of nanotechnology was introduced in 1974 by Taniguchi as the keynote paper<> in the proceedings of the International Conference on Production Engineering (ICPE), Tokyo. This conference was sponsored by the Japan Society for Precision Engineering (JSPE) and the International Institution for Production Engineering Research (CIRP).
Nano-lithography or two-dimensional patterning systems
Authors: Taniguchi Norio
Published: November 2023

The general method used today for the manufacture of semiconductor devices involves the formation of the device pattern by electron beam exposure, followed by reproduction of this pattern by optical exposure system. Resist films are used to generate patterns in electron beam exposure and to replicate patterns in optical exposure. The common method of inspecting patterns made by electron beam or optical exposure systems is direct observation of the resulting resist image. Patterns are delineated on chrome-coated glass plates (photomasks) by electron beam exposure systems and reproduced on silicon wafers by optical exposure systems.
Principles of Metal Refining
Authors: Engh T Abel , Simensen Christian J , Wijk Olle
Published: November 2023

This book covers the field between extractive metallurgy and solidification and subsequent processing. An important point the book stresses is that the principles are the same in the treatment of various different metals. Someone concerned with the purification of one metal may learn from results and experiences gained on other metals and alloys. The specifics of metals such as iron and steel, aluminium, and copper are discussed in examples and in problems at the end of each chapter. The book is self-contained and covers the basic thermodynamics and fluid mechanics required.
Thermodynamics And Transport Properties
Authors: Engh T Abel , Simensen Christian J , Wijk Olle
Published: November 2023

Thermodynamics and kinetics are the tools we use to describe how impurities enter the melt and how they can be removed. Refining metallurgy is a neverending battle of trying to remove impurities and inclusions from the molten metal. These impurities come from various sources. Partly, they stem from the raw materials (ores) used in extractive metallurgy, and partly they enter the melt during the alloying and refining treatment. The melt picks up impurities from the containing walls (refractories), from the atmosphere, and even from the phase used to extract the impurities (slag). The slag and the walls must stand up to the high temperatures and chemical attack from the melt. The walls are therefore composed of refractory materials such as Al2O3 or MgO in the case of steelmaking. These refractory materials must be relatively inexpensive; they are therefore never ‘pure’. They also contain binding materials such as SiO2, B203, carbon-based binders, and so on.
Stainless Steelmaking In Converters
Authors: Wijk Olle
Published: November 2023

In converter steelmaking, a pig iron produced in a blast furnace or a raw steel with a high carbon content, usually melted in an electric arc furnace, is oxidized with gaseous oxygen in order to remove various dissolved elements. The oxygen is added to the molten metal through a water-cooled lance from the top or through two yeres placed under the bath surface in the converter. Combinations of these two techniques supplemented by inert gas are also commonly used.
Two-Component Velocity Measurements
Authors: Bruun H H
Published: November 2023

This chapter describes hot-wire/film-probe methods used for measuring two components of the velocity vector at a point. It will be assumed in this chapter that the selected plane of the two velocity components contains the mean-flow direction. Two-component velocity measurements are carried out either with a probe with a single wire inclined relative to the mean-flow direction or with a probe with two wires placed in an X-configuration. The related hot-film probes are discussed in Section 5.6. An X-probe enables simultaneous measurements of two velocity components to be made, whilst a single inclined wire can only provide statistical information about the velocity field. The geometry of a typical single yawed (SY) hot-wire probe with a parallel-stem orientation is shown in Fig. 5.l(a-b), unplated and plated, respectively. To minimize the probe-disturbance effects on the hot-wire signal, the plated configuration (Fig. 5.1(b)) is recommended. In certain flow situations it may be necessary to place the probe-stem perpendicular to the mean-flow direction, and with this support orientation a single normal (SN) probe can also be used for two-component velocity measurements by rotating the
Introduction to AC Drives
Authors: Novotny D W , Lipo T A
Published: November 2023

An important factor in worldwide industrial progress during the past several decades has been the increasing sophistication of factory automation. Manufacturing lines in an industrial plant typically involve one or more variable speed motor drives which serve to power conveyor belts, robot arms, overhead cranes, steel process lines, paper mills and plastic and fiber processing lines to name a few. Prior to the 1950s all such applications required the use of a de motor drive since ac motors were not capable of true adjustable or smoothly varying speed since they inherently operated synchronously or nearly synchronously with the frequency of electrical input. The inherent disadvantages of de drives, however, have prompted continual attempts to find better solutions to the problem. To a large extent, applications which require only a gradual change in speed are now being replaced by what can be called general purpose ac drives. In general, such ac drives often feature a cost advantage over their de counterparts and, in addition, offer lower maintenance, smaller motor size, and improved reliability. However, the control flexibility available with these drives is very limited and their application is, in the main, restricted to fan, pump and compressor types of application where the speed need be regulated only roughly and where transient response and low speed performance are not critical.
Time Domain Wave-Splittings and Inverse Problems
Authors: He Sailing , Strom Staffan , Weston Vaughan H
Published: November 2023

MIF awaited. Use short description and contents list meanwhile. Contents list is important to potential readers.
Population approaches to promote healthful eating behaviors
Authors: French Simone A
Published: November 2023

A substantial body of research supports the role of diet in contributing to secular increases in population-wide obesity prevalence (1-3). Both dietary composition (4-7) and energy availability (7-13) are implicated in the etiology of weight gain and obesity at the population level. In addition to its role in obesity, dietary intake plays an important role in the etiology and prevention of chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes, stroke, and osteoporosis (14, 15). Effective community-based interventions to improve dietary quality and food choices could promote populationwide health and substantially reduce the population burden of chronic disease.
Stand Still, Ever Moving Sun
Authors: Frova Andrea , Marenzana Mariapiera , Mcmanus Jim
Published: November 2023

The astronomical and epochal revolution of the heliocentric system. In three letters—the best-known being the one addressed to his pupil Father Benedetto Castelli—Galileo, prompted by objections that had been raised by the ecclesiastical authorities, proposes an honorable compromise which would permit the coexistence of the Copernican theory and the words of the Bible.
Wax Balls and Dew Drops*
Authors: Frova Andrea , Marenzana Mariapiera , Mcmanus Jim
Published: November 2023

Problems concerning bodies in contact with water. How do fish manage to stay suspended in mid water? To study this problem Galileo uses wax balls, which he gradually makes heavier by weighting them with grains of sand. Another question regards dew drops, which do not wet the leaves on which they form. Galileo does not have the right answer, nor could he have it, but amidst the conceptual mistakes, he is still capable of coming up with a brilliant intuition.