bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Garcfa Marquez: On Second Reading
Authors: Fuentes Carlos
Published: October 2023

That liberation, via the imagination, of the simultaneous spaces of the real is, for me, the central fact of Gabriel García Marquez’s great novel, One Hundred Years of Solitude. For if the enormous Latin American popularity of this work could be explained, at first glance, by the immediate shock of recognition, its comparable international success makes us think that there’s something more here than a joyful discovery of identity (or even of several identities: within the genealogy of Macondo, what reader hasn’t reencountered a brother or a nanny, a girlfriend or a grandma?) and that, without a doubt, One Hundred Years of Solitude is one of the most entertaining books ever written in Latin America. Still, the self-recognition and the sheer fun of that first reading hardly exhaust the book’s significance. Rather, they call for a second reading that corresponds to the true reading.
Abraham Lincoln and Jefferson Davis as Commanders in Chief
Authors: Donald David Herbert
Published: October 2023

The Constitution of the United States of America and the Constitution of the Confederate States of America use identical language to define the war powers of the chief executive: “The President shall be commander in chief of the army and navy.” Thus endowed with equal authority, one Civil War president directed a supremely successful victory, while the other led his country as it stumbled to disaster.
Toward Appomattox, Toward Unconditional Surrender?
Authors: Harris William C
Published: October 2023

On November 7, 1864, Abraham Lincoln, after a bitter campaign, won reelection to the presidency. Both contemporaries and modern historians have viewed the election as a mandate for the “unconditional surrender” of the Confederacy and, as one scholar has expressed it, an affirmation of Lincoln’s “strategy of total war to overthrow the [South’s] social and political system.” Historians have written that by this time Lincoln and the Northern people had adopted a policy of requiring the unconditional surrender of the rebel forces to be followed by the subjugation of the South to the Northern will.
Epilogue: Lincoln in “Modern” Art
Authors: Holzer Harold , Boritt Gabor
Published: October 2023

In 1984, the well-known photographer George Tice published an album of his camera studies entitled Lincoln. This collection of frank portraits of eroding statues throughout America was inspired, the author noted, by a visit to “the Lincoln Motel and Abe’s Disco . . . in the heart of Newark.” Not surprisingly, the book offered a generally grim view of surviving public art devoted to Abraham Lincoln: the famous Gutzon Borglum seated bronze in Newark was shown littered with graffiti; the replica of Thomas Ball’s Emancipation Group in Boston was set against a depressing backdrop of tawdry billboards and commercial storefronts; and the statue that stood once at Wilkensburg, Pennsylvania, was not even visible—it had earlier been stolen, leaving only its forlorn base crumbling in an overgrown, vacant lot.
The Angostura Address
Authors: Bushnell David
Published: October 2023

Happy is the citizen who, displaying the armorial shield of his command, has the privilege of convoking the representatives of national sovereignty so that they might exercise their will, which is absolute. I number myself among those most favored by Divine Providence, in that I have the honor of assembling the representatives of the people of Venezuela in this august congress, the font of legitimate authority, repository of the sovereign will, and arbiter of the destiny of the nation. In returning to the representatives of the people the supreme power that had been entrusted to me, I fulfill my heart’s wishes, those of my fellow citizens, and those of our future generations, who place all hope in your wisdom, integrity, and prudence. In complying with this pleasant obligation, I free myself of the immense authority that so overwhelmed me, as well as the unlimited responsibility that weighed so heavily on my meager resources. Only undeniable necessity, conjoined with the imperious will of the people, could have imposed on me the terrible and dangerous office of dictator and supreme chief of the republic.
A Glance at Spanish America (1829)
Authors: Bushnell David
Published: October 2023

We shall begin this outline with the Argentine Republic, not because it stands in the vanguard of our revolution, as her own citizens have claimed in their excess of vanity, but because it is the farthest south while at the same time presenting the clearest perspectives regarding every kind of anarchic revolution. On 15 May 1810, the city of Buenos Aires began her political career. Her example did not spread to the rest of the provinces, so it became necessary to use force to oblige them to embrace the revolutionary cause. In their march through the provinces, the troops from Buenos Aires took the first step in what was to become a harsh and merciless campaign by shooting down Viceroy [Santiago] Liniers, who had previously liberated that country from the English forces. At the same time the persecution of the pastors of the Church was initiated in the person of a bishop whose only crime was his faithfulness to his vows.
Manifesto of Carúpano
Authors: Bushnell David
Published: October 2023

Unhappy is the leader who, responsible for the calamities or crimes occurring in his country, is called before the tribunal of the people to defend himself against accusations concerning his conduct; but happy is he who, having steered a true course among the reefs of war, politics, and public misfortune, preserves his honor intact and stands innocent before his companions in misfortune to demand a fair decision concerning his righteous actions. I was chosen by the fortunes of war to break your chains, but it must also be said that I was the instrument used by Providence to gauge the extent of your afflictions. Yes, I brought you peace and freedom, but in the wake of these priceless boons, war and slavery also accompanied me. Victory tempered by justice was our constant guide as we marched on the ruins of our illustrious capital of Caracas to wrest it from the hands of its oppressors.
Manifesto on the Execution of General Manuel Piar
Authors: Bushnell David
Published: October 2023

Soldiers! Yesterday was a day of sorrow for my heart. General Piar was executed for his crimes against the country, for conspiracy and desertion. A just and legal tribunal has pronounced the sentence against that unfortunate citizen who, intoxicated by the favors of fortune and to satisfy his ambition, tried to bury the country amid her ruins. General Piar truly had rendered important service to the Republic, and though the course of his conduct had always been factious, his services had been rewarded generously by the government of Venezuela. For a leader who had obtained the highest military rank, there was nothing left to aspire to. Prior to his rebellion, the second highest authority of the republic, which had been vacated due to the dissidence of General [Santiago] Marino,7 was about to be conferred on him; but this general, who aspired only to the supreme command, contrived the most atrocious plot a perverse soul can conceive. Piar sought not only civil war but anarchy and the most inhuman sacrifice of his fellow soldiers and brothers.
Letter to José Antonio Páez: “Nor Am I Napoleon”
Authors: Bushnell David
Published: October 2023

I have received your very important letter of the first of October of last year, which you sent to me by way of Mr. [Antonio Leocadio] Guzmán, whom I met and listened to with some surprise, since his is an extraordinary mission. You tell me that the situation in Colombia is much like that in France when Napoleon found himself in Egypt and that I should say, with him, “The conspirators are going to lose the country. I am going to save it.” In truth, your entire letter is inscribed by the chisel of truth, but the truth alone is not sufficient for a plan to achieve its purpose. It seems to me that you have not judged matters and men with sufficient objectivity. Colombia is not France, nor am I Napoleon. People in France think a lot, and they know even more, the population is homogeneous, and moreover, war had the country on the edge of the precipice.
A Soldier’s Death Penalty Commuted
Authors: Bushnell David
Published: October 2023

Having witnessed in Government Council the accord issued on the 25th of this month by the Superior Military Court of the Department of Cundinamarca, in which on advice of the Executive Power a commutation was granted regarding the death penalty to which artillery soldier Antonio León was condemned during the regular meeting of the Council of War in this capital on 21 August 1827 for the crimes of climbing over the barracks wall, abandoning guard duty, and aiding in the escape of the prisoner Casimiro Solanilla, this sentence having been confirmed by the same court on appeal, after examining the original trial record, the following circumstances have been considered: that although the crimes for which León has been convicted are punishable by the death penalty according to army ordi- nances, they did not cause serious harm to society.
Final Proclamation of the Liberator
Authors: Bushnell David
Published: October 2023

Colombians! You have been witness to my efforts to establish freedom where tyranny previously reigned. I have worked without thought of personal gain, sacrificing my fortune and even my peace of mind. I relinquished my power when I became convinced that you mistrusted my detachment. My enemies took advantage of your credulity and under- mined what is most sacred to me: my reputation and my love of freedom. I have been the victim of my persecutors, who have driven me to the very threshold of my grave. I forgive them. As I disappear from among you, my affection tells me that I must make clear my final wishes. I aspire to no other glory than the consolidation of Colombia. You must all work for the inestimable good of the Union: the people offering their obedience to the current government in order to save themselves from anarchy; the ministers of the sanctuary directing their prayers to heaven; and the military officers using their swords to defend social guarantees.
Letter to General Francisco de Paula Santander: The Brazilian Empire, Upper Peru, North Americans, and Other Problems
Authors: Bushnell David
Published: October 2023

I have instructed my secretary general to inform you of the Portuguese invasion of Chiquitos in Upper Peru and to forward to you a copy of the barbaric and insolent demands of the Portuguese command- er. General Sucre has replied to him in similar terms, no doubt over- come by the feeling of outrage such an abominable atrocity must have caused him. However, I do not approve of the use of such language, because a new outbreak of war cannot be in anyone’s interest and will destroy the remnants of our meager fortunes. I presume that the commander may have acted without consulting his government, and if the emperor has indeed ordered him to do such a thing, that may be just another in the long list of mad things he does from day to day. This event needs to be considered from a number of perspectives.
Decree for the Emancipation of the Slaves
Authors: Bushnell David
Published: October 2023

Considering that justice, policy, and the country imperiously demand the inalienable rights of nature, I have decided to formally decree absolute freedom for the slaves who have groaned under the Spanish yoke during the three previous centuries. Considering that the Repub- lic needs the services of all her children, we must impose on these new citizens the following conditions: Article ?—Every healthy man between the ages of fourteen and sixty shall appear in the parish church of his district to enlist under the ?ag of Venezuela, within twenty-four hours of the publication of this decree. Article ?—Old men, women, children, and invalids shall be exempt from this day forth from military service and exempt as well from any domestic or field service in which they were previously employed for the benefit of their masters.
Decrees on Indian Rights, Lands, and Tribute
Authors: Bushnell David
Published: October 2023

Wishing to correct the abuses practiced in Cundinamarca in most of the native villages, against their persons as well as their communal lands and their freedom, and considering that this segment of the population of the republic deserves the most paternal attention from the government because they were the most aggrieved, oppressed, and humiliated during the period of Spanish despotism, in view of the provisions of canonical and civil laws, I have decided to decree and do hereby decree.
Application of Capital Punishment to Officials Who Have Taken Money from Public Funds
Authors: Bushnell David
Published: October 2023

First, that one of the principal causes of the disasters in which the Republic has become embroiled was the scandalous waste of its funds by certain officials who have had access to them; Second, that the only way to eradicate this disorder completely is to dictate harsh and extreme measures, I have decided to issue this decree at once; Decree: Article 1. Any public official convicted in summary court of having misapplied or stolen more than ten pesos from the public funds shall be subject to capital punishment. Article 2. The judges assigned jurisdiction in such a case, according to law, but who fail to adhere to this decree shall be condemned to the same penalty.
Circular on Educational Reform: Bentham reatises Banned from All Colombian Universities
Authors: Bushnell David
Published: October 2023

Taking into consideration several reports that have been addressed to the government advising against the use of the treatises on civil and criminal legislation, written by Jeremy Bentham, for the teaching of the principles of universal legislation, these reports being supported by the General Direction of Studies Article 1. The Bentham legislative treatises shall not be taught in any of the universities of Colombia, Article 168 of the General Plan of Studies being hereby amended.

Article 2. Article 227 is also amended, and in the classes on jurisprudence and theology the General Direction shall be permitted to make substitutions in the basic texts, on advice of the report to be read at the meeting of the governing board of the university, which the professors of the school of law are to attend. In the universities where the General Direction of Studies is not in residence, the respective subordinate directors shall be permitted to make similar substitutions in the basic texts designated for use in said plan, informing the General Direction in order that it be brought to the attention of the Executive Power.
Prohibition of Secret Societies
Authors: Bushnell David
Published: October 2023

Having learned from experience, both in Colombia and in other nations, that secret societies serve the specific purpose of instigating public upheavals that disturb the peace and the established order, that concealing all of their operations behind the veil of mystery they lead us to the fundamental conclusion that they are neither good nor useful to society, and by the same token that they seed mistrust and alarm among all those who are uninitiated into the objects used in their ceremonies, the judgment of the Council of Ministers follows.
The Brain The Mind’s Dynamic Orchestra
Authors: Andreasen Nancy C
Published: October 2023

The brain forms the essence of what defines us as human beings.To understand its structure and its workings is to understand ourselves.The normal healthy brain is a complex, miraculous, and ingeniously created organ. It permits us to achieve the wonders of music, art, science, architecture, engineering, political organization, and economic structure. Each of us has been endowed with a unique brain with particular capacities that we can either enhance through learning and productive work or waste through intellectual inactivity and unhealthy living habits.We can use our brains to good ends, as when we build bridges or heal illnesses, or we can use our brains to harm or destroy one another in many innovative ways.

The brain can also become “broken” in many ways that lead to the disorders known as mental illnesses. Most of the factors that produce a “broken brain” are outside the control of the individual who develops the illness, although he or she does have “free will” in deciding how to cope with its consequences. In order to understand how disturbances in the brain lead to disturbances in the mind, we need a rudimentary understanding of how the brain is organized and how it works to produce thoughts, emotions, and personal identity.
Understanding What Mental Illnesses are the past is Prologue to Progress
Authors: Andreasen Nancy C
Published: October 2023

We human beings moved out of caves and began to cultivate the soil thousands and thousands of years ago.We began to record our history in written language four to five thousand years ago.We do not know when we first began to suffer from mental illnesses, or why this occurred.We do know that mental illnesses have been with us for thousands of years, however, and that they began to be described as early as human beings began to create written accounts of their illnesses. Mental illnesses are described in most surviving early medical texts, such as the Egyptian Ebers Papyrus or the writings of Hippocrates or Galen, going back as early as 1900 B.c. For most of their history, mental illnesses have been recognized as brain diseases that are expressed as changes in thinking and emotion. In early medical texts they are discussed in the same manner as other illnesses, such as dropsy (heart failure) or diabetes. They are described in the Bible, as when King Saul falls into a severe depression. They are portrayed in literature, as when Aeschylus shows us Orestes tormented by the Furies, or Euripides presents the paranoid madness of Medea. Shakespeare and his contemporaries had a whole host of”madness” plays: The Spanish Tragedy by Kyd, The Duchess of Ma!fi byWebster, or Hamlet and King I.ear by Shakespeare.
Schizophrenia a Mind Divided
Authors: Andreasen Nancy C
Published: October 2023

Scott’s mom and dad, Sue and Phil, were puzzled and frightened. Scott, a nice-looking kid despite his rather scraggly blond hair and baggy, ill-fitting clothing, was no longer taking care of his appearance. He showered infrequently and seemed to have stopped brushing his teeth. Even his younger sister, Laura, was beginning to say he was outside the normal range for cool teenage scruffiness. He was also spending lots of time alone in his room and seemed to have lost interest in hanging out with his friends. Was he on drugs? Was he depressed? What could be wrong?

If I tell them what is happening, they will probably think I am losing my mind and make me see a psychiatrist, Scott thought to himself. God, it’s scary. Maybe I should tell them. Everyone is making fun of me all the time. Mom and dad wouldn’t believe it if I told them how bad it really is.
Whiteness and the Rejected Other in The Sun Also Rises
Authors: Traber Daniel S
Published: October 2023

Work in the field of whiteness studies commonly treats white racial identity in terms of its constructed quality and the privileges unfairly rewarded to white people. The prevalent critical standpoint is thus that whites work to protect whiteness. In contrast, this essay will focus on a white literary character-authored, perhaps surprisingly, by Ernest Hemingway-who rejects particular dominant versions of white-ness.
Southern Mesoamerica
Authors: Bierhorst John
Published: October 2023

Of the nearly five million people who are called Maya, the largest single group belongs to the Yucatan Peninsula, which is divided among the Mexican states of Campeche, Yucatán, and Quintana Roo and the northern parts of Guatemala and Belize. These Yucatec, or Maya of Yucatan, number approximately three quarters of a million. They live in towns and villages and in the state capital of Merida, the region’s principal city.
Lower Central America
Authors: Bierhorst John
Published: October 2023

The Indian peoples of Panama, Costa Rica, and the eastern regions of Nicaragua and Honduras are generally considered to have more in common with South America than with the AztecMaya, or Mesoamerican, area.

Traits that might be mentioned would include the use of blowguns, hammocks, canoes, sweet manioc, and bark cloth, also a preference for hunting and fishing rather than agriculture. All these features, however, are found among at least some groups in Guatemala and southern Mexico.

More distinctively South American are the low wooden stools carved with animal faces and the large, multifamily houses, often circular or oval in plan, with high, nearly conical thatched roofs. The stools are still in use, and although the houses, now single family, are not as large as they once were, the round or oval plan is still occasionally found.
Destructions and New Beginnings
Authors: Bierhorst John
Published: October 2023

Stories of lost races are among the most characteristic myths of Mexico and Central America. Often the ancient people are giants or dwarves, and usually they are too clever, too evil, or too imperfect to exist in the present world. In some cases they are not killed but merely driven underground, and their power can still be felt. Some versions tell of two, three, or even four previous races, each destroyed in a different manner. Flood is the most frequent catastrophe, though many storytellers mention a too hot sun or an onslaught of jaguars. Christian influence may be detected in the Tarahumara version given here.
The Quest for Corn
Authors: Bierhorst John
Published: October 2023

The discovery of corn by a small creature, usually an ant, and the breaking open of the corn mountain by lightning are the essential features of this myth throughout its many variants. The additional episodes involving the secretive fox and the impatient woodpecker are typical of the modern Maya. Much abbreviated variants of the story are found in old Maya writings such as the Popol Vuh and the Book of Chilam Balam of Chumayel.

Now, at that time the people had no corn or other crops. They and the animals lived on fruits, also roots that they found in the forest. However, there was corn in the world. It was hidden under a great rock. No one knew about it except the leaf-cutter ants.
Journeys to the Other World
Authors: Bierhorst John
Published: October 2023

The story of the thunder god whose human helper makes foolish mistakes is typical of the Maya area, though it is told as far north as the Distrito Federal of Mexico (where the thunder spirits are “rain dwarfs” and their home is called Tlalocan). Here, in a variant from the Mam of Guatemala, the scene is set in the sky, the thunder spirit is “the lord of the clouds,” and his helpers are “angels.”

They say it happened long ago, they say a man was carried off by the lord of the clouds, who took him away to his home in the sky, and when the man looked around, he saw angels. They were just setting out with their capes, just beginning to run, starting to thunder, and they made a cracking sound. In their hands they carried a reflecting sword that flashes when rain falls, and makes lightning. The noise of their capes is the storm, and when they run, rain falls on the earth.
Myths in Sequence
Authors: Bierhorst John
Published: October 2023

One myth does not make a mythology. Stories in quantity are needed to authorize a people’s customs, to illustrate the lessons that must be passed on to the young, and to answer the difficult questions “Where are we?” and “How did we get here?”

As is often the case, stories heard from grandparents and chance acquaintances can be saved up, then reeled off one by one around the hearth fire. This makes for good storytelling in the ordinary sense. But the term “mythology” implies a certain unity or interconnectedness that gives the stories added power. Often, though not always, the individual who understands how to put the myths together is no mere narrator but a religious specialist, who also knows songs, ceremonies, and other sacred lore.
Adventures of the Hero
Authors: Bierhorst John
Published: October 2023

The figure of the hero helps to bridge the gap between myth and history. Unlike the gods, he is usually a man who has lived on earth, often with a definite life span that begins with his birth and ends with his death or disappearance.

Nevertheless, heroes can become gods, and vice versa. Quetzalcoatl is a major deity of the Aztecs, but in some stories he is an earthly hero. The same is true of the Maya god Itzamna; and in modern lore, Christ is usually the tragic hero pursued and crucified, yet he sometimes fills the role of God the Creator.

Among the Huichol, the important god of hunting known as Elder Brother Deer Tail may also be called Kauyumari (Makes People Crazy), of whom trickster stories are told. In the latter case, the narrator will add, “Well, of course that happened in those days before he became sacred.”
Clans, Crests, and Ceremonies
Authors: Bierhorst John
Published: October 2023

Caught up in the pursuit of riches, Northwest Coast chiefs and their retainers developed a form of polite warfare in which symbols as well as goods were the weapons. Competing chiefs represented their clans, who were as eager to display their genealogies, emblems, and knowledge of ceremonies as to prove that they could outspend their rivals.

The normal arena for these displays was the potlatch, a kind of assembly for the purpose of distributing wealth.
The Northeast: Gluskap’s Country
Authors: Bierhorst John
Published: October 2023

Unlike their neighbors to the west and south, the peoples of the upper Northeast had no creation epic. In this damp, chilly country of hunters and fishermen, Earth Diver and emergence myths were all but unheard of. Although a number of tales-including corn mother stories-passed freely up the coast, the mythology of the upper region centered around a culture hero who had as much in common with the Transformer of the Northwest Coast as with the heroes of adjacent Huron and Iroquois tribes.
The Hare Cycle
Authors: Bierhorst John
Published: October 2023

Moving into the Great Lakes country and the upper Mississippi basin, we leave behind the dignified culture heroes of the Northeast and encounter once again the trickster-hero typical of the West. For the midwestern Siouans-the Winnebago, the Iowa, the Oto, the Omaha, the Ponca-this figure is Hare, called Mastshingke (rabbit) in the language of the Omaha. The Algonkian Ojibwa and Menominee call him Manab6zho, or Nanabush, a variable name that has been translated Great Hare.
Cataclysms
Authors: Bierhorst John
Published: October 2023

During the summer flood season in the Chaco an entire village can be swept away by a wall of water moving like a tidal wave. Yet often in the winter all water disappears, and even the riverbeds are dry. The highest temperatures in South America, rising to 115° F., have been recorded in the Chaco. Yet bitter cold with frost is not uncommon in the southern and eastern part of the region.
Providers and Deliverers
Authors: Bierhorst John
Published: October 2023

South of the Gran Chaco, the native populations rapidly thin out. No more than a few scattered remnants of the old Puelche and Tehuelche tribes are to be found in the lush grasslands, or pampas, of central Argentina and in the arid prairie lands farther south, known as Patagonia. In Tierra del Fuego, at the bottom of the continent, virtually all Indian life had been extinguished by the mid-twentieth century.
Highland Gods
Authors: Bierhorst John
Published: October 2023

Homeland of the most powerful of native American societies, the Central Andes is one of the poorer regions from the standpoint of pure mythology. The fascination of Inca civilization itself, nevertheless, lends weight to the bits and pieces of Inca myth that have survived. Conquered by Spaniards in 1533, the Inca empire had patched together dozens of highland tribes, stretching from northern Argentina and Chile through Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador.
Myth and Archaeology
Authors: Bierhorst John
Published: October 2023

Without regard to time layers or differing pottery types, the Quechua of Hualcan in the Peruvian highlands attribute ancient artifacts to the people of the dark, who were burned to death when the sun first rose. Some say these chullpa people buried their belongings when they saw that they were going to be killed, and this is why farmers today find pots and carvings as they dig their fields. Architectural remains are explained on the theory that in the dark time, stones responded to verbal commands or fell into place of their own accord.
The Seesaw Brain: "Highs" and Adaptations
Authors: Goldstein Avram
Published: October 2023

The brain resists any disturbance in its neurochemical equilibrium. It recognizes a chemical change immediately, then adapts to it slowly. An addictive drug that mimics or blocks a neurotransmitter or receptor is like a weight thrown suddenly onto one side (let’s call it the drug side) of a balanced seesaw. The sum of all the adaptations is like a counterweight added slowly to the opposite side (the adapting side) until the level state is reached again. If a drug floods the brain suddenly (a drug spike), an immediate change in brain function results. In the vernacular, if this effect is hedonic (pleasurable), it is called a drug “high;” the drug side of the seesaw drops. If the same drug is trickled slowly into the brain instead of spiking, adaptations can occur even while the drug level is increasing; the “high” is muted or nearly absent, while a plateau drug level is established.
The Winds of Change
Authors: Quandt Richard E
Published: October 2023

In the autumn of 1989, I was doing exactly what I had been doing every other autumn: teaching my classes in economics at Princeton University, where I was a professor, writing articles for learned journals, and participating in the life of the university in various ways. But while it was business as usual for me, the times were unusually exciting and the atmosphere heady, because significant political changes were occurring in Central and Eastern Europe.

In early November, I received a telephone call from William G. Bowen, the president of The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation. Bowen had been the president of Princeton University until January, 1988, at which time he as sumed the presidency of the Mellon Foundation. Obviously, I had known him for many years—he is also an economist and, in fact, I was one of his examiners on his final Ph.D. oral examination many years earlier. He wanted to know whether I would be willing to go to Budapest on behalf of the Mellon Foundation in order to evaluate two projects that had been called to the Foundation’s attention by Mark Palmer, the U.S. Ambassador to Hungary. The intermediary between Palmer and the Foundation was John C. Whitehead, former deputy secretary of state (July 1985-January 1989), who was a member of the Mellon Foundation’s board of trustees. It is noteworthy that the Foundation had no programs at the time in Hungary or any other Central or East European country. I replied that I would be happy to do so, since I was scheduled to go to Budapest anyway in a few of weeks in order to attend a scholarly meeting of economists. Stephanie Bell-Rose, who had joined the Foundation recently as its general counsel, came down to Princeton to explain in more detail what the Foundation wanted me to find out about the two projects and to assure me that she would arrange appointments for me with Ambassador Palmer and with a number of Hungarian experts who were reported to be knowledgeable about the projects.
Building a Program
Authors: Quandt Richard E
Published: October 2023

As I mentioned in the previous chapter, I realized early in the game that I would have to undertake a fairly substantial amount of travel to the region, both to solicit grant applications and to supervise projects once they were funded. Until we had made a sizeable number of grants, which took at least two years, correspondence was inadequate in itself to generate many good applications. This was partly because potential grantees had never heard of the Mellon Foundation and an invitation to prepare a grant application, extended by letter, was not always taken seriously, and partly because they often had only rudimentary ideas about how to prepare a proposal. I aimed at establishing a relatively regular pattern of travel, so that people could form reasonable expectations about when I might visit. Because I was teaching at Princeton until the end of the 1994-95 academic year, I could not very well get away for the requisite time before the middle or end of May. I always scheduled my visits to Czechoslovakia (later the Czech Republic and Slovakia) and Hungary for the end of May and early June, and my visits to Poland so as to overlap the fall term break at Princeton. These trips tended to be two-to-three-week trips and the days were crammed with appointments from early morning until after dinner. In Poland I always engaged a car with a driver to get from city to city, in the Czech Republic and Slovakia I drove myself, and in Hungary I mostly traveled by train. Some of my most delightful car trips took place in the Czech Republic and Slovakia where I was often accompanied by Andrew Lass, professor of anthropology at Mount Holyoke College, who managed our Czech and Slovak library projects. But car travel was also tiring. The road trip from Bratislava to Košice takes about five hours and the trip from Košice to Prague some seven to eight hours, and it is not adequate compensation for the fatigue that the road takes you near the famous battlefield of Austerlitz. So sometimes we went by air and had the dubious pleasure of flying in a Soviet-built Yak 42 jet, which gives one a good understanding of how sardines feel in a can.
Universities, Priorities, Problems
Authors: Quandt Richard E
Published: October 2023

In all spheres in which western donors were attempting to transfer knowledge, it was important to be sensitive to the needs of the prospective recipients and to avoid patronizing them. This was not always easy to do; in fact, the donors were transferring superior hardware and superior management skills, and such transfers unavoidably required that old ways of doing things be abandoned. Much as one tried to be on one’s best behavior, the frustrations of conducting business and coping with the exigencies of everyday life in Eastern Europe added to one’s impatience. And frustrations there were plenty.

One May, I spent a week or so in Prague and was unable to reserve rooms at the Intercontinental Hotel, where I always stayed. I ended up in the Atrium, a huge, modern building with a vast interior space, that promised the ultimate in efficiency. The second morning I was there, I decided that I wanted to have the International Herald Tribune delivered to my room every day because when I left the hotel in the morning to go about my business, it had not arrived yet and when I returned in the evening, it was all sold out. So I went to the concierge and asked him to arrange for it to be delivered to my room. To my considerable surprise, he asked me “Why?” I explained patiently that I left in the morning before it was delivered to the hotel and when I returned there were no copies left. He understood and sympathized, but informed me that the concierge’s desk did not handle such requests and that I would have to speak to the business center about this matter. So I went to the business center, where again I was asked why, and I again explained the reason, perhaps a little less patiently than the first time. The staff person at the business center understood the reason but told me that this was not done by the business center, but by the boutique. So, off I went to the boutique, where I was assured that my request was reasonable, but that the boutique did not do that; I would have to ask the concierge to deliver the paper to my room.
Igbo Cosmology and the Parameters of Individual Accomplishment in Things Fall Apart
Authors: Okafor Clement
Published: October 2023

Since The Publrcation of Things Fall Apart in 1958, the novel has developed into a truly remarkable literary phenomenon; it is not only the most widely read book in Africa except for the Bible, but also is now part of the global literary canon. Furthermore, Things Fall Apart has sold more than eight million copies and has been translated into fifty-five languages of the world.

As the literary world celebrates the fortieth anniversary of the publication of this classic, it is more important now than ever before that we establish an appropriate epistemological framework that can profitably inform our critical discussions of Things Fall Apart.
“When a Man Fails Alone”
Authors: Scheub Harold
Published: October 2023

There Is A Temptation, upon reaching the final pages of Things Fall Apart, Chinua Achebe’s tale of a man and his chi, to accept Obierika’s assessment of the hero’s unhappy fate. That this temptation should be avoided is evident in a study of that central character. Okonkwo does not lend himself to facile analysis. Of the various approaches to his character and fate, the first and most obvious is also the least acceptable when considered within the context of the total novel and not simply the final pages of the work. That evident conclusion is angrily expressed by the hero’s close friend who, turning vehemently on the white district commissioner as they stand at the foot of the tree from which hangs the limp body of the brash Okonkwo, spits out the words that, in their simplicity, obscure rather than edify: “That man was one of the greatest men in Umuofia. You drove him to kill himself” (147). So neat, so readily apparent—and yet so disturbingly inadequate an explanation—perforce leads one to a closer investigation of the character of Okonkwo, and significant aspects of that character warn against the obvious.
How the Center Is Made to Hold in Things Fall Apart
Authors: Kortenaar Neil Ten
Published: October 2023

A Whole Volume Me has been written by Emmanuel Meziemadu Okoye on the encounter between traditional Igbo religion and Christianity in the novels of Chinua Achebe, a volume which concludes that Achebe has done his research and that his depiction of the colonization of Igboland is historically accurate. Fiction, of course, cannot be judged by its verifiability; it expresses not what happened but what might have happened. Precisely because it must be plausible, however, fiction has to meet standards of correspondence and be adequate as an image of the human experience of the world (Ricoeur, Temps III, 278). Okoye’s desire to establish the accuracy of Achebe’s fiction is not misplaced. However, if we consider the novels as historiography and judge how faithful they are to the past, it is not just the details of culture and of incident that must be considered. The writing of history has two components: it depends on verifiable facts, and it arranges those facts in a narrative.
Introduction
Authors: Eatwell John , Taylor Lance
Published: October 2023

These events seemed more threatening than crises in the 1970s and 1980s (even when some, like the 1982 developing country debt shock, were devastating to the economies concerned) and led to a worldwide reappraisal of international financial arrangements. In particular, an unstated assumption among major players in both the private and public sectors that ongoing liberalization and deregulation of financial markets are invariably beneficial came under increased scrutiny. Almost all serious commentators now believe that some degree of regulation of international capital markets is both desirable and likely to happen. But there is as yet no consensus about how to analyze and specify an appropriate form of regulation or how to implement it in a proper institutional setting.
The Triumph of the Rentiers? The 1997 Korean Crisis in a Historical Perspective
Authors: Chang Ha-Joon , Yoo* Chul-Gyue
Published: October 2023

The present paper aims to shed some new light on this debate from a historical perspective by comparing the three episodes of foreign debt crisis in modern Korean history (1970-72, 1980, 1997) and the evolution of the country’s financial system before and after these crises.
Procyclicality of Regulatory Ratios?
Authors: Turner* Philip
Published: October 2023

The question of the procyclicality has several aspects. One concerns the timing of any tightening of capital rules-usually after a crisis when bank lending is in any case being curtailed. A second possible element is a supposed regulatory bias in favor of short-term lending, rather than long-term lending-which means that emerging markets are more vulnerable in a downturn. Another concerns the inherent cyclicality of any invariant minimum capital ratio.
Liposomal Nystatin
Authors: Hamill Richard J
Published: October 2023

Nystatin, the first successful antifungal agent, was isolated and subsequently developed through the collaborative efforts of Rachel Fuller Brown, a biochemist employed by the New York State Department of Health in Albany, and Elizabeth Lee Hazen, a microbiologist working in New York City. In a soil sample obtained from a dairy farm in Virginia, Hazen isolated a Streptomyces species, later identified as Streptomyces noursei. This organism produced two antifungal substances; one was later found to be too toxic for subsequent development. A second compound was present in the alcohol extracts from surface growth in liquid media of 5–7 day-old cultures. This material had a broad spectrum of antifungal activity and prolonged the life of mice infected with Cryptococcus neoformans and Histoplasma capsulatum (Hazen and Brown, 1950). Hazen and Brown originally called this agent fungicidin (Hazen and Brown, 1951), but later changed the name to nystatin after the New York State Department of Health Laboratories. They presented their discovery at the 1950 meeting of the National Academy of Sciences (Hazen and Brown, 1951), and were subsequently awarded a patent on June 25, 1957. E.R. Squibb & Sons received the license for the patent and began marketing the drug as Mycostatin in 1954.
Flucytosine
Authors: Larsen Robert A
Published: October 2023

Flucytosine (5-fluorocytosine; 5-flucytosine; 5-FC) is one of the oldest antifungal agents in use (Utz, 1972). It was initially synthesized in 1957, but was not discovered to possess significant antifungal properties until 1964, when activity against Cryptococcus neoformans and Candida species was shown (Grunmberg et al, 1964). Human clinical trials were initiated in the late 1960s for both cryptococcal meningitis and disseminated candidiasis (Tassel and Madoff, 1968; Utz et al, 1968). The rapid emergence of flucytosine resistance was observed, particularly among C. neoformans isolates, limiting its utility as single agent therapy (Normark and Schönebeck, 1972; Block et al, 1973; Hospenthal and Bennett, 1998). Presently, flucytosine is utilized as single agent therapy in only a limited number of settings including urinary candidiasis and chromo-blastomycosis (Graybill and Craven, 1983). The seminal studies of combination therapy of flucytosine with amphotericin B for patients with cryptococcal meningitis were the first to firmly establish a role for combination antifungal therapy in a well defined invasive fungal infection (Bennett et al, 1979; Dismukes et al, 1987). Flucytosine is taken up by fungal cells by a unique fungal-specific cytosine permease. Two important and independent pathways for fungal cell injury occur: one leading to protein synthesis inhibition, and the other resulting in DNA synthesis inhibition. Flucytosine is converted by intracellular deamination to 5-fluorouracil and ultimately processed into 5-fluorourindine triphosphate, which is incorporated into fungal RNA. This results in miscoding during translation from RNA into amino acid sequencing, causing structural abnormalities during protein synthesis (Bennett, 1977; Diasio et al, 1978). The second mechanism of action is characterized by the conversion of 5-fluorouracil to 5-fluorodeoxyuridine monophosphate, which inhibits thymidylate synthetase and subsequently DNA biosynthesis (Polak and Scholer, 1980; Waldorf and Polak, 1983). Resistance to flucytosine may arise from mutations that affect the production of three key enzymes, uridine monophosphate pyrophosphorylase, cytosine permease, and cytosine deaminase, or through increased production of pyrimidines (Francis and Walsh, 1992).
Resistance to Antifungal Drugs
Authors: Sanglard Dominique
Published: October 2023

Fungal infections caused by fungal pathogens remain quite common in immunocompromised hosts, especially in HIV-infected individuals, and in patients given immunosuppressive drugs or broad-spectrum antibiotics. Candida spp. represent the major group of yeast species recovered from these infected individuals; however, other yeasts such as Cryptococcus neoformans are also pathogens (Fridkin and Jarvis, 1996). Among filamentous fungi causing infections in humans, Aspergillus fumigatus is a common pathogen and is associated with a high mortality (Latge, 1999). Not only are a restricted number of antifungal agents available to treat these infections, but also resistance to antifungal drugs can occur. Table 9–1 summarizes the activity of known antifungal agents against Candida spp., C. neoformans; and A. fumigatus and also includes drugs in the late stages of development. The data given in Table 9–1 indicate that most of the agents show some activity against these pathogens. However, weak anti-fungal activity can be seen for the pyrimidine analogue, flucytosine, and azole agent, fluconazole, against A. fumigatus, for fluconazole against C. glabrata and C. kruseiand for the echinocandins againstC. neoformans. Resistance to antifungal treatment can develop on the basis of clinical and microbiological factors. A persistent infection despite treatment with an antifungal drug at maximal dosage may be described as clinically resistant to the therapeutic agent. However, the infecting organism may show normal susceptibility to the agent in vitro (Rex et al, 1997). Clinical resistance to treatment may result from microbial resistance to an agent, but may also be the result of complex interactions between an antimicrobial agent and the infecting microbe in a human host. Microbiological resistance can be defined as a shift (i.e., a decrease) in antifungal drug susceptibility that can be measured in vitro by appropriate laboratory methods. Resistance to specific antifungal drugs can be intrinsic (primary resistance) in some fungal pathogens as indicated above, and resistance can be also acquired (secondary resistance) either in a transient or permanent manner.