bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Improving postharvest commodity quality management through training.
Authors: Longstaff B. C. , Graver J. E. van S. , Srzednicki G. S.
Published: November 2017

Application of computer-assisted learning (CAL) to training of staff involved in postharvest quality management procedures is discussed. The approach is illustrated using 2 examples that seek to achieve improved staff understanding of management options and the consequences of applying them. Grain Storage Tutor, initially developed in a collaborative project between Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam and Australia, is now being used to extend conventional training for people involved in grain and commodity storage. This system covers control of commodity moisture content, moulds and mycotoxins, and pest management, which are the most important issues in quality maintenance during storage in these countries. Several training courses have been conducted in each of the participating countries. This package is aimed at people working at all levels in the postharvest sector, formal educators, private and public research organizations, and private industry. The second system was developed in response to a need to ensure that Australian standards for quarantine fumigation with methyl bromide are met by exporting countries. It has been targeted specifically at fumigators and has been used in several training courses in Indonesia, where it will be incorporated into an accreditation scheme for fumigators and fumigation companies. Adoption and integration of CAL by organizations should lead to more effective training and substantial reductions in costs of training quality management staff, particularly where there are geographically distributed workforces. This will lead to improved decision making and technology transfer and to reductions in overall storage losses. The wider application of this approach to projects dealing with the safe storage of perishable commodities and the training of quarantine inspection staff is discussed.
Recent research on storage structures and control of storage pests and moulds in China.
Authors: Jin ZuXun Jin ZuXun , Yang GuoFeng Yang GuoFeng , Wang SuYa Wang SuYa
Published: November 2017

The structure, ecological characteristics, and the essential technical measures for safe grain storage in squat silos and large warehouses built in recent years in China are reviewed in this paper. Progress in research, and some technical problems that need to be resolved in grain storage in large bins are discussed.
A new approach, using a text processor, to a computer-based advisory system for malting barley.
Authors: Wilkin R. , Knight J. , Woods L. , Armitage D.
Published: November 2017

Several "expert systems" have been developed to assist decision making by farmers and storekeepers during grain storage. The continued decline in the number of professional advisers makes these developments vitally important. However, the costs and time inputs needed to develop a system are considerable and may not always be available. As part of a European Union funded project on the storage of malting barley, a new approach to the development of computerized advisory systems has been used. An encyclopaedia of information was built as a word processor file. Where gaps in the available knowledge were identified, target research was done to provide the necessary data. Hyperlinks were added to enable users to navigate the system quickly and to select specific topic areas. A decision-support system was devised based on primary risk (giving safe storage times before mould develops or germination declines significantly). Secondary risks, giving safe storage times based on the times taken by insects or mites to complete their life cycles, were also covered and a classification of dormancy categories made. The final system was then copied as 'read-only' files onto a CD for assessment. In developing the system, the importance of close contact between scientists and industry became apparent.
Meaning and practical value of spatial analysis for protecting retail stores.
Authors: Arbogast R. T. , Kendra P. E. , Chini S. R. , McGovern J. E.
Published: November 2017

The risks posed by chemical pesticides have prompted initiatives to reduce pesticide use, primarily through integrated pest management (IPM). Implementation of IPM for control of stored product insects in retail stores will require regular monitoring to know when, where, and what type of control measures to apply. This need can be met by a combination of trapping and contour analysis of numbers captured in each trap. The objective of contour analysis is to determine patterns of distribution and identify foci of infestation. The principal requirements for monitoring are that contours of trap catch honour the data, predict trap-catch values between traps, and reflect the spatial distribution of the insect population monitored. Trapping studies of Plodia interpunctella in a pet store and Lasioderma serricorne in a shed were used to determine how well these requirements could be met in practice. Contours of trap catch for P. interpunctella fit the data closely and predicted trap catch values between traps well enough to locate and define a major focus of infestation, but a smaller focus of infestation was missed. Contours of trap catch for L. serricorne reflected the spatial distribution of the beetle population. Numbers captured declined with increasing distance from the source of infestation.
Organic agriculture and sustainability: environmental aspects.
Authors: Dabbert S.
Published: November 2017

While positive effects on the environment lie at the heart of the idea of organic farming they are still surrounded by controversy. The question whether positive effects on the environment justify political support of organic farming is especially critical. The paper outlines some of the methodological difficulties in assessing the environmental costs and benefits of organic farming. It is argued that a set of physical indicators should be used to measure the environmental benefits of organic farming compared to non-organic, rather than using monetary estimates. Results from a literature review on the environmental effects of organic farming based on the OECD agri-environmental indicators are presented, which generally show a superior performance of organic farming on a per-hectare scale. The paper critically reviews the hypothesis that a combination of conventional farming plus agri-environmental measures is always more cost-effective in providing the desired public goods than organic farming. Organic farming has advantages with respect to lower transaction costs and a partial internalization of externalities. Lower per area productivity is not a relevant problem as long as set-aside schemes are used to cut surplus production, but it might be in other situations. The paper concludes that there is sufficient justification to support organic farming for environmental reasons. However, this should be combined with agri-environmental measures targeted at all of agriculture.
Productivity of organic and conventional cropping systems.
Authors: Bruulsema T.
Published: November 2017

While it is difficult to make quantitative estimates, the productivity of organic cropping systems is considerably lower than that of conventional or integrated cropping systems. This reduced productivity could potentially lead to less land available for non-agricultural land uses such as wildlife habitat, greater negative impacts on the environment, and reduced sustainability. To ensure that the practice of organic farming aligns with its perception by the public, its conceptual definition must avoid misleading connotations regarding its ability to produce healthy and safe food in an environmentally sustainable manner.
Considerations of the environmental and animal welfare benefits of organic agriculture in the Netherlands.
Authors: Regouin E.
Published: November 2017

Policy support for organic agriculture in the Netherlands is based on the assumption that organic agriculture to a large extent fulfils the public's expectations in respect of advantages to the environment and to animal welfare, as compared to non-organic, conventional agriculture. This paper looks at the major issues in which organic agriculture differs from non-organic agriculture and identifies those issues where this difference may be considered significant. Such analysis of the performance of both systems can be done using different measuring rods. Based primarily on field research in the Netherlands, conclusions are drawn and organized in accordance with the OECD environmental indicators for agriculture. Taking those indicators that are relevant for the Netherlands, organic agriculture shows a different overall performance than does non-organic agriculture. However, quantification of their relative position is difficult and conclusions often depend on the measuring rod chosen. Moreover, environmentally and animal welfare benign non-organic production systems are approaching, or even surpass the performance of organic agriculture, by market demand or by legislative force.
Farm-level impacts of organic production systems.
Authors: Hanson J.
Published: November 2017

This paper examines the farm-level impacts of organic agricultural production as measured in profit and risk management, when compared with the conventional alternative. Specifically, farmer perceptions regarding profit, the importance of studying farming systems rather than single crops, and the effect of labour requirements are explored. Off-farm and on-farm sources of risk are identified for the organic producer.
Economic perspectives of Korean organic agriculture.
Authors: Kim ChangGil Kim ChangGil
Published: November 2017

Organic farming has had a tentative start as an alternative production system but now is more widely accepted in Korea. Many farmers express an interest in organic agriculture. However, farmers are reluctant to adopt organic farming practices because of many obstacles. They perceive that there are high risks involved, although the expected income from organic farming is comparable to that of conventional farming. The price premium of organic products is an important factor to induce farmers to participate in organic agriculture. The empirical findings reviewed in this paper indicate that factors of production receive a lower remuneration in organic agriculture than in conventional farming. Substantial price premiums on outputs are essential for the economic viability of organic farming. Consumers' lack of willingness to pay significant price premiums on rice and vegetables seems to be the most important obstacle to the expansion of organic farming. Finally, in order to soundly promote organic agriculture, additional public and private research is needed on many aspects of organic production and marketing in Korea, including the economic impacts and social benefits of widespread adoption of organic farming. Additional research is also needed on how to improve organic farming systems from agronomic and ecological perspectives, as well as from an economic perspective. The extent of the national research agenda on organic agriculture, along with programme and policy initiatives, will help shape the role that organic farming systems play in Korean agriculture in the decades ahead.
International and national standards and their impact on trade: the Swiss perspective.
Authors: Aebi P.
Published: November 2017

While the Codex Alimentarius has taken steps towards international harmonization of the organic regulations and markets, a proliferation of new obstacles to trade, particularly for Switzerland and Swiss operators, are observed. Governmental labels excluding imported produce, bureaucratic obstacles, a narrow view of the equivalence concept and a lack of control of private organizations are seen as the main factors. Further efforts are necessary in order to remove these obstacles and to foster international trade in organic products.
Pollution threats to organic production and products.
Authors: Helfter M.
Published: November 2017

The focus of attention in the organic sector has shifted away from organic farmers and production methods to consumers and their expectations regarding the specific qualities of final food products. Organic product consumers, who are willing to pay more for organically grown food, expect these products to be genuinely natural and pollution-free. The organic sector is far more sensitive than other sectors to problems of pollution (by chemical products, genetically modified organisms (GMOs), etc.), which can lead to serious crises with major negative economic consequences for the professionals involved and tarnish the image of the organic sector as a whole. In response to ever-growing consumer expectations, organic professionals must become ever-more vigilant and develop a specific approach aimed at guaranteeing the quality of final food products. However, the organic sector must not confine itself to this approach alone. It is important that consumers be fully informed of the major benefits that organic production can have for the environment, the preservation of natural balances and animal welfare. It is only by making the public more aware of these benefits that we will be able to ensure the harmonious development of organic production in the long term.
To convert or not to convert to organic farming.
Authors: Regouin E.
Published: November 2017

At the end of 2002, the Netherlands had approximately 1500 organic primary-producers. From the mid-1970s onwards, the area under organic farming grew by about 16% annually although this growth has been slowing down since 2001. According to some studies conducted in the Netherlands, only a very small percentage of conventional farmers seriously consider conversion to organic production methods. There are even cases of organic growers returning to conventional agricultural production. This paper explores some of the many factors that influence such decisions and their consequences for the policy making process. A principal conclusion is that not just technical constraints, nor negative market perspectives, nor other limitations, should be addressed as the single main target of government policy. Only an integrated policy approach that addresses reality as it is and as conventional farmers perceive it will result in increased interest for organic agriculture. Most of the information in this paper is the outcome of various projects undertaken by the National Reference Centre, in which farmers and other stakeholders, both in the organic farming community and outside, gave their views and thoughts on the subject of conversion.
What are the key issues for consumers?
Authors: Lockeretz W.
Published: November 2017

"Organic" is a complex term that to some producers and consumers implies fundamentally different values from those of mainstream society and conventional agriculture, whereas for others it has to do mainly with not using certain unacceptable materials, especially synthetic fertilizers, pesticides and additives. Therefore, organic foods are attractive to consumers in various ways, some related to the products themselves, some related to how they were produced, especially their presumed lower environmental impact, more humane treatment of livestock, and the shorter distance and more direct connection between producer and consumer. This means that although organic production standards are becoming more uniform both nationally and globally, as the organic market expands we can expect this expansion take different forms, not just in the kinds of products offered, but also in how they are distributed and sold.
The impact of consumer standards and market facilitation in Korea.
Authors: Kim GiHun Kim GiHun
Published: November 2017

Interest in sustainable/organic agriculture in Korea has increased significantly in the last few years. Sustainable/organic agriculture is still a small but growing part of the agricultural industry, and has now become one of the important elements of consumer choice. The production and distribution of agricultural products are increasing by 30-40% every year. The government is promoting a sustainable agriculture that uses a minimum amount of chemicals and chemical fertilizers, and organic agriculture that does not use any chemical resources such as agricultural chemicals and chemical fertilizers. An Agricultural Product Quality Certification System has been developed to assist the supply of sustainable/organic agricultural products to consumers. In 2001, a survey on Consumer Inclination Analysis towards Sustainable/Organic Agricultural Products indicated that 88% had purchased sustainable/organic agricultural products. Vegetables turned out to be the most commonly purchased item category. The biggest reason for purchasing these products was for health and the prevention of chronicle diseases. However, the majority of consumers complained about the high price. By building consumer confidence towards sustainable/organic products through the establishment of the Agricultural Product Quality Certification System, reducing the product cost, and diversifying the distribution channel, we expect the consumption of sustainable/organic agricultural products in Korea to continuously expand in the coming years.
Organic farming in Poland: past, present and future perspectives.
Authors: Tyburski J.
Published: November 2017

In this paper, the development of organic farming in Poland is presented from its original phase in the 1930s, through the period of abandonment, i.e. the outbreak of the Second World War, up until the beginning of the 1980s, when the organic farming movement was reborn. A more detailed description is devoted to the period since 1990, when for the first time inspection and certification took place. The development of formal structures is pointed out, i.e.: the establishment of organic farming associations and the inspection bodies of the Department of Organic Farming in the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development; the creation of a supervising office in the form of the Office of Purchase and Processing of Agricultural Products; the parliamentary acceptance of the organic farming regulation; as well as the introduction of subsidies for organic farmers. The potential of organic farming is evaluated by comparing average yields of organic crops with intensive conventional farms. The main obstacles to the dynamic development of the organic sector are identified: (1) the insufficient number of well-qualified advisers; (2) the insufficient number of veterinary doctors trained in organic farming healing methods; (3) the scarcity of applied experiments that are much expected by farmers; (4) the scarcity of biological pesticides and mineral fertilizers approved of by the organic standards; (5) the limited demand for organic products in the country; and (6) hindrances in the development of export. In the final section, the friction caused by different development tendencies in Polish farming is discussed, namely the still worsening economic situation of agriculture, and the ageing of farming machinery and buildings on the majority of farms, but also the growth in the number of intensive conventional farms. In the plans made by the government and the president, growth of the organic sector is forecast to increase from 0.2% at present to 3-5% in 2010.
Do support payments for organic farming achieve environmental goals efficiently?
Authors: Jacobsen L. B.
Published: November 2017

Concerns about the impact of modern agriculture on the environment have in the past few decades resulted in strict legislation concerning the leaching of nitrogen from Danish farms and their use of pesticides. An often-heard argument in recent years is that conversion to organic farming is a solution to many environmental problems. Hence, in the late 1990s several initiatives to support the development of organic farming have been taken, including permanent direct support for producing organically. This was made possible by the 1992 reform of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) that allowed for specific subsidies for environmentally friendly production. This paper discusses the cost efficiency of two alternative policy measures for obtaining an overall reduction in the use of nitrogen and pesticides in Danish agriculture. The first policy measure is a subsidy for producers who produce organically and thus reduces the use of nitrogen and abandons the use of pesticides. The other policy measure is the use of taxes levied on fertilizers and pesticides. Using an applied general equilibrium model, the two policy measures are compared. The paper concludes that an overall reduction in the use of pesticides and fertilizers is most efficiently obtained by taxing those agents using these inputs. The size of the organic sectors should be determined by consumers' willingness to pay for organic products.
New Zealand's organic agriculture: the government's role.
Authors: Kettle P.
Published: November 2017

The New Zealand government views organic agriculture as one of the paths towards sustainable production systems. It does not subsidize any form of agriculture but is assisting the organic sector through initiatives aimed at developing a national organic standard, a strategy for the sector and a scheme that will enable small-scale organic producers to have their produce certified as organic in a cost-effective manner. The New Zealand government is supportive of the organic agriculture sector, but is committed to encouraging all forms of sustainable farming.
INRA and organic farming: towards a research programme.
Authors: Sylvander B. , Bellon S.
Published: November 2017

This paper sets out the way in which the French Institute of Agronomic Research (INRA) intends to develop its research into organic farming through a commitment to both pluridisciplinary and partnership-based studies wherein organic farming is considered an agricultural "prototype". Although this starting point still leaves scope for analytical research, it is also likely to reinforce the systemic approach. It leads to an understanding of the processes employed in production under the constraints of regulatory standards. The basic principles of partnership-based research presuppose that programmes are to be developed through consultation with organic farmers' representatives. Those principles therefore combine academic criteria and compliance with the requirements of organic farming. So far work has begun on compiling a database of scientific literature, scientific seminars on specific questions have been held in association with organic farming organizations (ITAB) and non-INRA researchers and practitioners, and a research programme is under development (by organizing an in-house call-to-tender, in accordance with the applicable regulations). INRA allocates EUR 5.5 million annually to this programme. So far 55 projects have been assessed and 20 are on-going. About 32 full-time researchers work on those projects. The first subjects addressed relate to organic farming and: nutrition and health; crop protection; genetic resources; animal health; animal welfare; and the environment. The following questions are crucial to the research programme: what are the specific features of research into organic farming? Subsequently, does research need to change its objectives and approaches (increasing specialization versus cross-disciplinary research)?
Organic food for public institutions.
Authors: Rech T.
Published: November 2017

The structure of the Austrian 'eating out' sector is first examined, focusing on industrial and institutional catering as opposed to the gastronomic sector. Reasons for using organic food in industrial kitchens are then outlined, and examples of the use of organic products in Austrian public institutions (hospitals, residential homes, and schools) are discussed. Practical tips on using organic foods in public institutions are then presented.
On censusing lianas: a review of common methodologies.
Authors: Parren M. P. E. , Bongers F. , Caballé G. , Nabe-Nielsen J. , Schnitzer S. A.
Published: November 2017

Methodologically, the study of lianas is currently in disarray, as researchers are trying to determine the most appropriate ways to census lianas. Stem measurement location, the decision to include or exclude ramets, plot shape, and the criteria of what constitutes a liana differ among studies. In this chapter the authors compare and contrast the different methods that have been used and discuss the potential variations of these methods. Some of the problems incurred when including lianas in forest censuses are also considered.
Taxonomic diversity of climbers of riparian forests in Benin.
Authors: Natta A. K. , Sinsin B.
Published: November 2017

Savannahs occupy 72% of Benin's area while dense semi-deciduous upland forests and riparain forests stretching along waterways occupy only 1 and 2.3% respectively. These marginal forests islands and corridors contain many humid forest species among which climbers are key elements. A complete floristic inventory of the riparian forests yielded 1003 species of which 237 (23.6%) were climbers. These climber species belonged to 117 genera and 38 families. Floristic analysis based on climbers resulted in discrimination of 10 plant communities.
Climbing plants of the Haut-Sassandra forest: species and biomorphology.
Authors: Etien D. T. , Traoré D.
Published: November 2017

In the Haut-Sassandra forest in the southwest of Côte d'Ivoire, climbing plants have been inventoried and comprised 30% of the species found. The present study aimed to characterise the climbers of the Haut-Sassandra forests, describing those present, linking them with the different environments present, and their biomorphological characteristics were described in relation to the various biotopes explored.
Logging and lianas in West Africa.
Authors: Parren M. P. E. , Doumbia F.
Published: November 2017

Several aspects are considered including liana cutting as a silvicultural tool, liana abundance and tree infestation, silvicultural systems with natural regeneration and liana cutting, and forest regeneration based on a "model" forest.
Mass media and entertainment management.
Authors: Watson B. , Horne J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on mass media and offers a critical account of media-entertainment interrelationships that can usefully inform the broad contexts within which entertainment managers operate. The chapter outlines definitions of mass media and new media, and assesses changes and continuities between and across these to highlight some of the key ways in which mass media are theorized and explained. An extended case study of the Olympics provides an illustration of change and continuity and of competing views on the role and purpose of mass media.
Management in entertainment organizations.
Authors: Gorton L.
Published: November 2017

This chapter introduces and discusses the nature of management in today's entertainment industries. This snapshot of entertainment management is developed by considering the following four key questions. (1) What is management and what do managers actually do? (2) What changes in business and wider society have led to changes in the way we manage? (3) What characterizes management in the entertainment industries? (4) And to what extent do the above considerations impact upon the skills required to be an accomplished manager within the entertainment industries?
Responsible entertainment management.
Authors: Reiser D. , Moss S.
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on the meaning of responsible entertainment management holistically as well as specifically in relation to corporate social responsibility, dark entertainment and from a sustainable/green perspective.
Enterprise, creativity and small business.
Authors: Rundshagen V. , Sommer G. , Moss S.
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on entrepreneurship in the entertainment sector. Sections cover: the socio-cultural influences upon entrepreneurship; entrepreneurial motivation; the Timmons theory of entrepreneurship; the key components of a business plan; and the financing and funding of a business start-up. A case study illustrates how best-practice management techniques have contributed to the success of entrepreneurs at Jever Skihalle Neuss, a ski-slope visitor attraction in Germany.
Managing strategic and financial performance.
Authors: Piber M. , Walmsley B.
Published: November 2017

The key question explored in this chapter is how arts and entertainment organizations ensure the sustainable survival of their organizations by managing the quality of their performance effectively. This chapter is organized as follows: first, it outlines the management cycle and discusses its relationship with performance management. Second, it addresses the key issues and challenges of financial accounting in arts and entertainment organizations. The role of financial planning and budgeting is then studied, focusing briefly on the acquired art of managing production and exhibition budgets. Finally, the chapter moves on to critically explore more holistic ways of managing and measuring organizational performance and considers a range of tools and frameworks that are particularly useful for evaluating the strategic performance of arts and entertainment organizations.
Visitor attraction management.
Authors: Dewhurst P. D. , Thwaites E.
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses: the definition and categorization of visitor attractions; the visitor attraction offering; and the pressures facing visitor attractions, including changing leisure patterns, rising consumer expectations, increasing competition for reducing leisure spend, and the multiple expectations of different stakeholder groupings. Best-practice management solutions to these challenges are then identified, including: product development, diversification and differentiation; strategic partnerships, marketing and promotion; revenue management; managing visitor experience and improving service quality.
Feasibility studies for THE facilities.
Authors: Hassanien A. , Dale C. , Hawela M. F.
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the purpose, components and limitations of a feasibility study for tourism, hospitality and events (THE) facilities. The facility manager and operator should use the feasibility study for their decision making on whether to proceed with any development. This can only be accomplished successfully if the respective stages of the feasibility study are addressed comprehensively. Though it can be a time-consuming and costly exercise, if conducted appropriately it will act as an excellent foundation for the future success of the THE facility.
Outsourcing and THE facilities.
Authors: Hassanien A. , Dale C.
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores the concept of outsourcing in facilities and how this can be used as a means of not only reducing costs but also as a means of generating further value for the customer experience within the facility. The chapter acknowledges the different levels of outsourcing and why it may be used within tourism, hospitality and events (THE) facilities. It proposes financial, physical, human, operational and strategic factors that should be considered, as well as a range of hard and soft criteria that should be considered when conducting an outsourcing assessment. Central to this is the decision matrix, which could be used as a basis for classifying any outsourcing decision. It is suggested that facility managers and operators should determine to what extent any outsourcing would affect the development of the facilities resources and core competencies. This is crucial when considering the future strategic direction of the facility.
Cost management.
Authors: Alonso A. D. , O'Shea M. , Krajsic V.
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores the concept of cost management in the tourism, hospitality and events (THE) facilities context. The chapter notes the importance of costs at both a tangible and intangible level. This includes the cost of physical resources such as equipment and materials, in addition to the opportunity cost of pursuing a particular course of action in the development of a facility. In this respect, the chapter proposes a scenario planning approach to understanding cost management. Key to this is understanding the financial issues of selecting different alternatives. This is in terms of the break-even point and overall projected financial performance.
Environmental management.
Authors: Alonso A. D. , O'Shea M. , Krajsic V.
Published: November 2017

This chapter investigates environmental management in tourism, hospitality and events (THE) facilities. It recognizes the essential requirement for facilities to incorporate environmental management practices in light of global demographic and infrastructural pressures. The chapter notes the challenges for THE facilities in embedding environmental practices. This includes the individualistic, fragmented and relatively small-sized composition of facilities in the THE industries. Financial pressures and consumer sensitivity towards balancing environmental concerns with service quality further compound this issue. The chapter notes the continuous need to enlighten facility managers, operators, developers and users of the benefits and consequences of engaging in environmental management practices.
Waste and energy management.
Authors: Özgen I. , Yağcı K.
Published: November 2017

This chapter addresses waste and energy management in tourism, hospitality and events (THE) facilities. It discusses the implementation of energy and waste management in the design, construction and operation of THE facilities with the driver to generate resource and cost efficiencies. This includes a THE waste management programme that requires THE facilities to embrace the preparation, implementation and evaluation phases in their practices. The chapter also provides a range of examples for renewable energy management and efficiency.
Knowledge management.
Authors: Hawela M. F. , Hassanien A. , Dale C.
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores the concept of knowledge management and explains its significance and types within the context of tourism, hospitality and events (THE) facilities. It looks at the internal and external sources of knowledge within organizations. It also examines the processes of knowledge creation/acquisition; knowledge storage, identification, sharing and retrieval processes; and knowledge sharing, transfer and utilization.
Conclusions.
Authors: Hassanien A. , Dale C.
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on different essential requirements for successful and efficient facilities planning, development and management in the tourism, hospitality and events (THE) industries. Future directions for THE facilities management are also proposed.
Travel intermediaries and information technology.
Authors: Benckendorff P. J. , Sheldon P. J. , Fesenmaier D. R.
Published: November 2017

To exist and thrive in an information-intensive industry, travel intermediaries must learn about and embrace all aspects of IT. Travel intermediaries now rely on computerized reservation terminals, and must now learn other hardware and software applications. This requires careful analysis of when and how IT can offer value-added services to their clients. The development and marketing of those services will redefine the role of the travel intermediary in the future. In particular, the major challenge is to use emerging Internet and mobile technologies to their advantage. IT, when used appropriately, will assist in developing new strengths and managing weaknesses. As we have seen, IT can also turn threats into opportunities.
Social media and tourism.
Authors: Benckendorff P. J. , Sheldon P. J. , Fesenmaier D. R.
Published: November 2017

This chapter has provided several frameworks to help readers understand the social media landscapes and the functions of social media platforms. We have explored the importance and features of eWOM as an influential source of information for travelers. Our discussion of the social media platforms has highlighted opportunities for travel organizations. In the final part of this chapter we emphasize that despite all the hype surrounding social media, travel organizations need a strategic approach to these technologies. Planning is required to integrate social media with other marketing channels, to monitor the results of social media efforts and to help the organization to capitalize on the opportunities provided by these new media.
Destination management and information technology.
Authors: Benckendorff P. J. , Sheldon P. J. , Fesenmaier D. R.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examined the role of IT in destinations. It describes the importance of a DMS in destination management organization and the various dimensions that need to be considered in its design. It analyses how the web has changed the way tourists search for destination information using search engines and recommender systems and an array of Web 2.0 travel sites. The impact of social media both within the DMS and in other travel firms is explained, and the challenges that DMOs have in attracting visitors to their sites is explained. The need to train staff in new technologies and incorporate social media into their strategies is stressed. The chapter then explained how IT could be used for market research and data collection to assist the DMO in its market intelligence. Two very important responsibilities of DMOs in today's world are managing risk and crisis, and becoming learning destinations with all stakeholders connected. The chapter ends by explaining how IT can assist with both.
Sustainable tourism and information technology.
Authors: Benckendorff P. J. , Sheldon P. J. , Fesenmaier D. R.
Published: November 2017

The process for tourism destinations and travel enterprises to become more sustainable requires constant education, monitoring and collaboration. This chapter has identified some of the technologies for environmental, cultural and economic sustainability, and the issues surrounding their implementation in the quest for sustainability. The advancement of networks for collaboration, to build social capital and environmental integrity are necessary for a destination to move more towards sustainability. Many applications of technology including the Internet, handheld devices, GPS, GIS, location-based services and environmental management systems, and how they can be harnessed to enhance destination sustainability, are described in this chapter. Technologies that educate tourists and assist them in making more sustainable and responsible choices are also important to reduce the negative impacts of tourism. More creative ways to use IT for sustainability goals in the future will undoubtedly emerge as systems become more intelligent and affordable.
Trends and developments: consumers' pursuit of happiness.
Authors: Rooijackers M.
Published: November 2017

The experience economy no longer centres on products and services but on authentic emotions and experiences. Pine and Gilmore (2000) distinguish four economic stages, which are the agrarian economy, the industrial economy, the service economy and the experience economy. In the experience economy, aggregate experiences are pursued. Events in which the boundaries between the real and the virtual world are fading are consistent with this. All this is made possible by technological advancements. In this respect, co-creation is an interesting development too, with secret events as a distinctive component. The risk of a too great emphasis on experiences is that organizers sometimes raise too many expectations among potential critical visitors who want a true experience for their money. In positive psychology, with Martin Seligman as the leading spokesman, happiness is regarded as being enabling. In the future, the happiness economy - which is all about inspiring permanent changes in the lives of consumers - will gain ground as a fifth economic stage. The progression from experience economy to happiness economy presents opportunities for innovation. Events can be used, for instance, as a tool to promote social cohesion and personal well-being. The experience is no longer an isolated phenomenon, as it generates meaning and purpose. After a study of four possible scenarios for the future, this was also the challenge with which Rotterdam Festivals found itself confronted.
Events and marketing communication.
Authors: Gerritsen D. , Olderen R. van
Published: November 2017

What is typical of communication is that sender and recipient switch roles all the time. Not only is the message itself important but also the communication channels. An event is a medium and a platform at the same time; it is the place where people meet, as well as the communication channel. Live communication is the key; it allows the recipient to decode and respond to the message immediately. As for the message itself, four aspects are important: the business aspect, the expressive aspect, the relational aspect and the appealing aspect. The four modalities of communication are information, public relations, advertising and propaganda - the latter modality usually involves one-way communication. Good communication is characterized by efficient coordination between goal, message, means/tool, target group and timing. Events facilitate interpersonal communication and can be used to generate changes in knowledge, attitude and behaviour. Understanding the process of communication, the various means/tools and their advantages and disadvantages, and old and new media is important in this respect. Multi-channel strategies can be applied in this process as well, so as to get the communication message across to the target group via multiple channels at several points in time. Because an event often has news value in itself, free publicity is a welcome side effect.
Events and branding.
Authors: Velthoven T. van
Published: November 2017

A brand should be in alignment with the needs of the consumer. In this respect, brand attributes are of vital importance. On the demand side, brand functions include identification, assurance and symbolic functions. On the supply side, there is a role for brand building with the related brand associations and values. Some events have become brands themselves. The Black Cross is an example of this. Companies use events to load their brands, to accentuate their positioning. Think of the air races organized by Red Bull. Among other things, the process of image transfer and co-branding is used in this context. A company uses internal branding events to address its own employees, in which optimization of the customer or visitor experience is the main objective.
Touchpoints.
Authors: Gerritsen D. , Olderen R. van
Published: November 2017

The individual event visitor, with his individual needs, is becoming increasingly important and should be the primary point of departure in planning and organizing events. The visitor embarks on a journey (the customer journey), calling in at touchpoints that are instrumental to an optimal visitor experience. Touchpoints are points of contact; moments when a visitor or customer has contact with an organization or company. Touchpoints are becoming increasingly important in the events industry, and they are applied to control the points of contact, taking the customer's values and needs as the guiding principle (value addition and value fit). Touchpoint models can be set up from the organization's perspective, as well as from the customer's perspective; however, the customer's perception of the touchpoints is always the guiding principle. Touchpoints should be diversified, inspire memorable experiences, evoke emotions, stimulate several senses, be value oriented, be mutually consistent and be well chosen. Organizations can direct the visitor experience by means of the setting, the people and the process of interactions. Touchpoint models that have been developed for trade fairs and corporate events are presented in two appendices.
Approaches to planning and tourism.
Authors: Yan H. L. , Morpeth N. D.
Published: November 2017

This chapter provides an academic overview of the key conceptual and theoretical aspects of classical approaches to tourism planning, in the first instance discussing the relationship between policy and planning. The characteristics and techniques of different planning traditions are reviewed and a case study focuses on how an integrated planning approach is related to sustainable tourism development.
How to plan: the role of the planner and planning in the 21st century.
Authors: Morpeth N. D. , Brown I.
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores aspects of Ian Brown's career as a planner and in his current role, in planning for the needs of residents and tourists within an historic urban environment (Canterbury, UK). A case study on tourism within the city highlights the planning challenges of transport and the World Heritage Site of the cathedral.
Destination planning for disabled people.
Authors: Grimes C.
Published: November 2017

Written from the perspective of an entrepreneur and academic and wheelchair user, this chapter reviews how historically there is an 'invisibility' of disabled people in tourism literature and contrasts this with the developing concepts of accessible tourism and universal design. These concepts are then applied to a case study of Barcelona and pioneering work in the city in planning and providing bespoke holidays for disabled people.
Planning for sustainable tourism development in a context of regional instability: the case of the Lebanon.
Authors: Haddad N. F.
Published: November 2017

This chapter highlights how public and private sector stakeholders are struggling to develop strategic planning for sustainable tourism in Lebanon. There is consideration of how domestic rural and nature tourism can be used as new niche tourism products, to help to develop sustainable tourism. The chapter also emphasizes that successive planning initiatives are hampered by the challenge of the insecurity in Lebanon, not least from the hosting of political refugees from neighbouring states.
Cooperation, local communities and planning of a religious heritage site: Valle del Colca, Peru.
Authors: Vidal-Casellas D. , Crous-Costa N.
Published: November 2017

This chapter highlights the marginalization of rural areas in Peru, within the wider context of rapid economic growth in urban settings, with this economic growth stimulated partly by a growth in tourist visits surpassing 3 million in 2013. Specifically, the chapter focuses on the Colca Valley and describes the relevant stakeholders involved in the tourism industry from a social perspective. It evaluates the role of the local population in hospitality and tourism decision-making processes and related jobs, particularly in religious-based tourist sites.
Conclusions: diverse paths to sustainability.
Authors: Morpeth N. D. , Yan H. L.
Published: November 2017

This chapter offers a range of insights from the theoretical, practitioner and applied case study chapters in this book. It finally provides ideas on future issues in planning, tourism and sustainability.
Service characteristics and the nature of the LETS product.
Authors: Buswell J. , Williams C. , Sutton C.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the nature of services and evaluates the distinctiveness of leisure, events, tourism and sport (LETS) products and services, and the challenges posed by this for the management of service quality. The chapter addresses both the traditional service characteristics (intangibility, heterogeneity, inseparability, and perishability) and the newer approaches to service characteristics such as non-ownership, value creation and value-in-use. The demand to provide core and peripheral services is discussed; the need to categorize services into typologies is also questioned in this chapter.