bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Quantitative Approaches to Studying Second Language Writing
Authors: Manchón Rosa M. , Nicolás‐Conesa Florentina
Published: January 2018

Important insights in second and foreign language writing (L2) have been obtained in empirical research using quantitative approaches. Collectively, this research encompasses two main groups of studies: “descriptive” analyses of L2 writing processes and products, and “interventionist” studies of the effects of pedagogical treatments or experimental interventions of various kinds. Empirical work in both strands varies in terms of (1) issues being investigated and theoretical frameworks informing research, and (2) methodological characteristics in the areas of design, operationalization of independent and dependent variables, data collection instruments, and analytical procedures. Although no direct extrapolations to the classroom can be drawn from much of the available research, policy makers and teachers of writing can turn to this body of knowledge for insights relevant for their own teaching practice. Importantly, when assessing the value and significance of research insights for pedagogical decision making, possessing a solid methodological foundation is crucial.
Extensive Listening
Authors: Chang Anna C.‐S.
Published: January 2018

Derived from ideas about the benefits of extensive listening and reading seen in how L1 children develop their native language, extensive listening in L2 has started to gain some attention from researchers. This entry first defines what extensive listening is and explains the importance of extensive listening in a language development. Although researchers have stressed its importance in L2 learning, limited empirical studies exist to demonstrate its effect on improving listening competence. The research up to the present has shown that L2 extensive listening improves listening fluency, reading speed, and listening attitude, and also assists in reading comprehension. This entry provides some suggestions for implementing extensive listening in a foreign language context.
Types of Listening
Authors: Gu Yongqi
Published: January 2018

Listening can be classified into different types depending on the perspectives we examine it. When we see listening as psycholinguistic processes, we talk about top‐down, bottom‐up, and interactive listening. When we examine the functions of listening, listening is often classified as fulfilling transactional or interactive purposes. ESOL teachers often classify listening into different types of listening practice, such as intensive listening, extensive listening, selective listening, interactive listening, responsive listening, and autonomous listening.
Affect in Second Language Listening
Authors: Chang Anna C.‐S.
Published: January 2018

Previous research into affect in second language learning focuses mainly on anxiety and motivation, in particular on speaking and writing skills. Recent research shows that affect is an important factor affecting L2 listeners. This entry examines L2 listener affect from five perspectives: the nature of spoken language, listeners' listening proficiency, test anxiety, listeners' beliefs, and teacher factor. Overall, it is shown that fast speech rate, low listening competence, high stakes tests, some unrealistic beliefs, and harsh teacher attitudes are closely linked to listeners' negative affect toward listening. At the end of the entry, some good teaching practices that can create positive affect in second language listening are introduced.
Metacognitive Listening Strategies
Authors: Cross Jeremy , Vandergrift† Larry
Published: January 2018

This entry addresses metacognitive strategies in L2 listening. First, metacognition is briefly outlined, and metacognitive strategies are then defined and exemplified. Next, research showing the importance of metacognitive strategies for improving listening comprehension is presented, and the effect of several instructional approaches to promoting knowledge and use of metacognitive strategies is covered. The entry ends with discussion of a range of ways to raise learners' awareness of metacognitive strategies and promote their use.
Researching Listening Through Action Research
Authors: Siegel Joseph
Published: January 2018

Although the capacity of action research in the TESOL field has been both supported and criticized, this practical and flexible research orientation has potential as a framework for researching listening. The entry considers theoretical and functional issues related to action research and discusses how this cyclical and iterative research orientation can contribute to the advancement of listening instruction in the language teaching field. It shares strategies and ideas for investigating listening through action research, which can be applied to various contexts and ability levels.
Communicative Testing of Listening
Authors: Aryadoust Vahid
Published: January 2018

Two models of listening comprehension are presented: a cognitive model for non‐assessment settings and a language proficiency model which has been applied extensively to the assessment of listening. The similarities of the models are then discussed, and a general framework for communicative assessment of listening is proposed. The framework considers sociocognitive aspects of listening assessment and lends itself to both in‐class and beyond‐class assessment situations.
Integrative Testing of Listening
Authors: Brunfaut Tineke , Rukthong Anchana
Published: January 2018

In integrative forms of testing, language competence is assumed to be a unitary ability, not a multifactorial or divisible unit. Consequently, the assessment of language ability is not accomplished by assessing the knowledge of discrete points or the use of language elements in isolation, but is realized by assessing the use of those elements interactively. Integrative tests of listening therefore require that test takers employ various sources of knowledge and forms of processing (e.g., linguistic, semantic, and pragmatic) if they are to complete test tasks successfully. These tests come in different forms, for instance as cloze tests and comprehension questions in independent listening tests, or as integrated listening tasks in which listening comprehension forms the basis for language production (i.e., for speaking and writing).
Techniques for Assessing Listening
Authors: Abeywickrama Priyanvada
Published: January 2018

Assessing listening requires understanding the construct or ability being measured and then identifying the different techniques or test task formats used to assess the defined ability. A number of listening test task formats (i.e., formats of input and expected responses) are used to assess responsive, selective, intensive and extensive listening ability. In selecting the appropriate test task formats a number of issues relevant to specifically listening such as the use of authentic oral input, visuals, and discrete or integrated skills need to be considered. In each of the test task formats the two response types (selection and construction) can be scored using dichotomous or partial credit scoring.
Self‐Assessment in Listening
Authors: Inan‐Karagul Banu , Yuksel Dogan
Published: January 2018

Assessment of listening, one of the neglected skills in the language classroom, has been reconsidered with the emergence of alternative assessment methods in language teaching. One of these alternative methods is self‐assessment, in which students assess their own performance. For listening, self‐assessment can be achieved through a number of different means such as checklists, questionnaires, journals, etc. This alternative assessment method can foster learners' autonomy, enhance their intrinsic motivation, and improve cooperation among learners if it takes the form of peer assessment.
Texts for Listening Instruction and Assessment
Authors: Wagner Elvis
Published: January 2018

The spoken texts that teachers use for L2 classroom listening tasks and test developers use for L2 listening test tasks are a vital yet neglected aspect of L2 listening instruction and assessment. Most of the spoken texts currently used in L2 listening materials tend to be scripted texts that are written, edited, and polished, and then spoken aloud by voice actors. These “textbook texts” lack many of the characteristics of unscripted, authentic spoken language, and thus L2 learners are often unprepared for the types of real‐world spoken language that they encounter outside the classroom. This entry describes how scripted spoken texts differ from unscripted, spontaneously spoken texts and provides suggestions for how teachers, materials developers, and test writers can incorporate unscripted spoken texts into L2 listening materials.
Vocabulary Assessment
Authors: Coxhead Averil
Published: January 2018

The assessment of vocabulary is important for language learners and their teachers. Developing a large vocabulary is a key goal for language learners, because it supports all their other language skills of reading, writing, listening, and speaking. Typically, learners do not learn everything about a word at the first meeting; this knowledge rather develops over time. Furthermore, there is more to knowing a word than an initial connection between form and meaning. There are tests that can help measure different aspects of word knowledge, as well as the size and depth of vocabulary knowledge overall. Teachers need to consider aspects of word knowledge when they develop their own tests for the classroom, and to develop a range of simple techniques for uncovering what their students know. Finally, learners need to know about their performance on vocabulary assessments, because this knowledge will help them recognize gaps in their own knowledge and set goals for future learning.
Washback Effect in Teaching English as an International Language
Authors: McKinley Jim , Thompson Gene
Published: January 2018

Washback concerns the impact of tests and assessments on materials, teachers, and learners. Thirty years of research has shown that testing and assessment have influenced language teaching significantly. Teaching English as an international language (TEIL) is a quickly developing and practical new reality that is beginning to influence language assessment and to challenge the use of L1 speaker norms for English language proficiency tests such as IELTS and TOEFL. While the recent, cumulative knowledge of EIL is making those norms increasingly irrelevant, they still have significant impact on World English (WE) users. In this way EIL, which is not bound to a particular variety of English, allows for communication to occur according to context and is at the forefront of change in assessment. Thus, the washback effect in TEIL is driving assessment, while being influenced by the continued power of international language tests.
Prescriptive and Descriptive Approaches
Authors: Shunnaq Susanne Ramadan , Balasubramanian Chandrika
Published: January 2018

Prescriptivism and descriptivism are two different schools of thought concerned with language usage and propelled by historical and sociopolitical factors. Invasions of the British Isles throughout the medieval period produced numerous vernaculars which prevailed for centuries until the London dialect began to dominate in the 15th century. As British imperialistic interests grew, external influences increased concerns about language corruption and initiated the demand for a language reformation and standardization. Hence, prescriptivism gradually rose to prominence during the Enlightenment and language purism started to inform many English rule‐based grammars. However, growing nationalistic tendencies in America and the intellectual environment of the 19th century challenged prescriptivism and fostered the rise of descriptivism, which continued to grow in popularity in the 20th and 21st centuries largely due to new sociopolitical views in the teaching of grammar, style, and usage embodied in the English as a global language and the World Englishes phenomena. Further, developments in corpus linguistics have enabled the study and description of register‐specific grammars. Today, both schools have immediate pedagogical implications. While many teachers and linguists encourage the adoption of a descriptive approach in the language classroom, this is accompanied by practical considerations such as which particular English variety to teach.
Textbooks
Authors: Ilieva Roumiana
Published: January 2018

Textbooks in English language teaching are an important curriculum artifact which shapes the classroom experience. They are an intersection point of curriculum, culture, and commerce and have been studied from a variety of perspectives and through a multitude of theoretical lenses. In our globalizing times textbooks need to acknowledge a pluricentric view of English and English cultures, legitimize varieties of English and the diversity of its speakers, and promote international communication. English language textbooks are complex entities and analyses of their content, use, and production need to complement each other.
Teaching and Learning Styles in South‐East Asian Cultures
Authors: Crosthwaite Peter Robert
Published: January 2018

This entry looks at the diverse range of contexts where English is taught and learned in South‐East Asia, from outer‐circle countries such as Hong Kong and Singapore, to expanding‐circle countries such as Thailand and Laos. The entry considers the stereotypes attached to the teaching and learning of English in Asian culture, then considers whether (a) these stereotypes are in fact true, given the diversity of learning styles that may be apparent within any one context, and (b) how to overcome such stereotypes through a system of changes to curriculum, assessment, and pedagogy that promotes inclusivity for all learners on the one hand, and celebrates the diversity of learning styles and cultures present in the region, on the other.
Levels of Processing in
ESOL
Authors: Bird Steve
Published: January 2018

This entry discusses the psychological concept of levels of processing (LOP), its application to language‐learning research, and its influence on language‐teaching pedagogical practice. The entry discusses some limits of the LOP framework for language teaching.
Metacultural Competence in English Language Teaching (ELT)
Authors: Sharifian Farzad
Published: January 2018

Globalization and the continued spread of English add to the complexinterculturalityof interactions between speakers. This produces an increase in conceptual variation associated with the increasing diversification of English. In this context, English language teaching (ELT) curricula should aim at developing competencies in learners that enable them to achieve success in intercultural communication with speakers from various cultural backgrounds. One such competency ismetacultural competence, a key competence that enables interlocutors to communicate and negotiate theircultural conceptualizations. ELT curricula should focus on developing metacultural competence in learners and should expose learners to the sociocultural reality and the diversity that characterizes the English language today. This may be achieved by presenting students with examples of cultural conceptualizations from multiple varieties of English. ELT should also involve creating natural opportunities for learners to engage in reflecting on and explicating their cultural conceptualizations.
Speech Act Theory and Teaching Speaking
Authors: Christison MaryAnn
Published: January 2018

A speech act is an utterance that has a performative function, such as congratulating, greeting, inviting, ordering, and warning. Speech acts are basically of three types: (1) locutionary, (2) illocutionary, and (3) perlocutionary. In this entry, each type of speech act is defined and examples are given. Because illocutionary acts are difficult for English learners, they are explored more fully to include indirect speech acts. The four maxims that underpin Grice's cooperative principle are also explored along with some pedagogical implications of speech act theory for English language teaching classrooms.
Tasks for Teaching Pronunciation to Beginners
Authors: Chan Marsha J.
Published: January 2018

Pronunciation instruction is important for beginning learners. Being able to pronounce clearly is a vital part of oral communication, and teachers play a pivotal role in helping learners establish good habits in both pronunciation and listening perception from the beginning. With appropriate language tasks, teachers can help beginners pronounce English more intelligibly. When teachers provide plenty of focused listening tasks, they help lay the auditory foundation for good pronunciation. The tasks presented in this chapter focus on syllables, stress, rhythm, intonation, selected consonants and vowels, as well as the use of listening activities and movement and songs with the goal of encouraging teachers to teach pronunciation to beginners.
Understanding Functions in Learner Speech
Authors: Mendelson Melissa A.
Published: January 2018

This entry sets out to explain what the language functions identified in linguistics research are and how teachers can incorporate teaching language functions in a course or curriculum that includes a specific focus on teaching speaking skills. Language functions are used to communicate messages without an emphasis on specific linguistic forms. There are three basic language functions—transactional, interactional, and ludic. Of these three basic language functions, transactional and interactional will likely be the most familiar to English language teachers, while the other one, ludic, might be less familiar. However, they are all equally important and relevant in terms of English language teaching and learning. After providing background information on the development of language functions in research and explaining their usefulness in teaching, the entry will focus on specific ideas for English language teachers on how to teach the functions of language.
Teaching Idiomatic Language in Context
Authors: Liontas John I.
Published: January 2018

Idiomatic language may well be the eye of the storm in a teacup best held together by nomenclature subject to definition and ongoing linguistic debate. Even so, without batting an eye(lid) and not wishing to spit in anyone's eye or talk someone's ear off, teaching idiomatic language puts forth the cogent argument that English language teaching practitioners, even those who may still be wet behind their ears, can no longer afford to turn a blind eye to matters of idiomaticity just because doing so across the K‐12 curriculum may raise some eyebrows when counting noses. In so doing, it presents time‐tested theoretical and pedagogical constructs that are believed to be a sight for sore eyes. Collectively, these constructs attempt to put a bug, instead of a flea, in the reader's ear in the hope that the reader may see eye to eye with the author on the importance of teaching idiomatic language from Day One even when winning by a nose is all that can be hoped for. So keep your ear to the ground, your eye on the ball, and your nose to the grindstone and never ever, in a pig's ear, will you have to say that idiomatic language is all Greek to you!
Teaching Correct Usage ofin,on, andat
Authors: Tanaka Shigenori
Published: January 2018

Prepositionsin, on, andatare part of the basic English lexicon, and like most basic words, they are highly polysemous with multiple meanings. It is the polysemic nature of these prepositions that makes it difficult for many L2 learners to acquire the ability to use them fully and differentially. Simply presenting a set of meanings and their exemplars may not contribute to reducing the burden of learning English prepositions. For better teaching, we may turn to a cognitive semantics approach, which utilizes the concepts ofimage schemaandspatialization metaphorto explain the linguistic behaviors of English prepositions.
Strategies for Pre‐Teaching Vocabulary in Context
Authors: Ballance Oliver James
Published: January 2018

Pre‐teaching vocabulary (PTV) means teaching vocabulary before learners engage with a text or task. It scaffolds learners' processing or production of language, or else focuses attention on lexis within a text or task. The principles for designing PTV activities should reflect the rationale for using PTV in a given context.
Teaching/Developing Vocabulary Through Metacognition
Authors: Rogers John
Published: January 2018

Metacognition, or the practice of thinking about thinking, has the potential to be a powerful tool toward the development of second language vocabulary. Strategies connected with metacognition are concerned with the regulation of learning, and are further categorized in relation to planning, monitoring, and evaluation, that is, the point at which they occur during the learning process. Although the benefits of metacognition extend to all aspects of language acquisition, these strategies have been demonstrated to be effective in regard to the learning of L2 vocabulary in that they allow learners to become more self‐regulated in their learning. Teachers can foster metacognition by incorporating reflection into classroom activities and assignments, for example through the use of vocabulary notebooks, reflective questions, frequent no‐stakes testing, and learning journals.
Using Cognates for Vocabulary Development
Authors: Ajayi Lasisi
Published: January 2018

The use of the linguistic resources of English language learners (ELLs) in the teaching and learning process may not have been given sufficient attention in research and practice. ELLs come to the school with linguistic assets such as cognates that teachers can draw upon to bridge the gap between students' home resources and instruction. In this entry, the term cognate is defined and multiple examples are provided. In addition, it explains the differences in cognate spellings that are important for teachers to teach. Finally, the entry discusses specific strategies that teachers can use to help Hispanic ELLs apply the knowledge of Spanish‐English cognates to learn new English vocabulary words.
Exploring Figurative Language Across the Curriculum
Authors: Liontas John I.
Published: January 2018

Figuring prominently in language teaching and learning, figurative language has long been a topic of intense research activity. Teachers and learners alike enjoy reading about figurative language as much as they enjoy employing creatively said language in an array of activities and projects. This entry explores figurative language and focuses exclusively on figurative language techniques for instruction. Common figures of speech are presented along with some age‐appropriate teaching suggestions and resources to help English language teaching practitioners learn, review, or teach figurative language to their students as they move toward a working knowledge of figurative language use. Activities and projects suggested herein are designed to help students improve their reading/writing skills regardless of academic grade or language proficiency level.
Teaching Vocabulary for
IELTS
Advanced
Authors: Colovic‐Markovic Jelena
Published: January 2018

The International English Language Testing System (IELTS) is an English language proficiency test that serves as a gatekeeping mechanism for immigration departments, tertiary institutions, and professional accreditation bodies in the countries where English is used as a medium of communication. The test results are reported on a band scale of 1 to 9, with 1 being the lowest and 9 being the highest. Candidates with a band score of 6.5 and above are generally considered to have achieved levels of advanced performance on IELTS (i.e., IELTS Advanced). While multiple factors influence the candidates' success in attaining and surpassing the cut‐off score, one particular influence is strong vocabulary knowledge. To help learners expand their vocabulary to attain a high score on IELTS, it is important to ensure that a principled approach to vocabulary instruction is put in place.
Teaching Modals: The Potential of Can; The Possibility of May; The Necessity of Must; The Likelihood of Will; The Requirements of Should
Authors: Pitychoutis Konstantinos M. , Kozanoglou Danae , Oganesyants Natalia
Published: January 2018

Modal expressions allow us to talk and think about states of affairs that are not present in the current situation and may never occur in the natural world. They can be used to convey different meanings and attitudes in given situations. Their multiplicity of meaning, which is reliant on context and pragmatic mechanisms, has prompted the development of several different approaches, for example lexical ambiguity, polysemy, monosemy, and root‐based explanations of meaning. Modals that have been listed as representing one or two meanings in pedagogical grammars can actually cater for an extensive spectrum of potential meanings in context. For example,musthas little if anything to do with obligation inThey must be at work now, orMust you make so much noise? Don't you know it's annoying?
Teaching Prepositions and Particles
Authors: Liu Dilin , Zhan Hongwei
Published: January 2018

Prepositions and particles are highly frequent and hence important words but, due to their polysemous nature, they are simultaneously very difficult to learn. Language educators and researchers have long searched for effective ways to teach these challenging vocabulary items, including those approaches inspired by cognitive linguistics‐based research. By focusing on how the different meanings of a given preposition or particle are often extended from its literal core meanings via metaphorical processes, language teachers can make the teaching of prepositions and particles more engaging and effective. Other effective strategies include using embodied activities and visuals as well as attending to usage patterns from reading and using prepositions in meaningful context.
Listening Assessment
Authors: Sanavi Reza Vahdani , Mohammadi Mojtaba
Published: January 2018

The dearth of research in the realm of listening bears witness to the fact that it plays almost second fiddle to the other skills in second language acquisition. In this entry, such indispensable concepts as listening construct, listening processes, and the approaches to listening assessment are dealt with. The crucial role of technology in listening assessment is then followed by the different listening task types that range from the recognition of morphological elements to the ones that involve the inclusion of top‐down processing. The entry concludes with future directions in the assessment of listening.
Cambridge Suite of Exams
Authors: Hall Charles
Published: January 2018

The Cambridge Suite of Exams is a progressively more difficult series of standardized English language assessments developed by Cambridge English Language Assessment at the University of Cambridge, England. These exams differ from most other well‐known tests of the four skills (reading, writing, listening, and speaking) in that there is a “face‐to‐face” speaking assessment that includes two candidates and two assessors.

The exams were developed for a variety of reasons, including school admission, placement in programs, proving proficiency to potential employers, and for immigration purposes. Defenders of these high‐stakes exams believe them fair, valid, and reliable; however, there are critics who maintain that these exams do not reflect real‐world language abilities. There are also complaints that because of the importance of these tests, teachers must “teach to the test.” As a result, curricula are often changed to meet the requirements of the tests, not the needs of the students.
Geopolitics of Assessment
Authors: Cheng Liying
Published: January 2018

English as an international language (EIL) refers to the use of English as a means by which people from different parts of the world communicate with each other. Geopolitics concerns political power
within
and
across
geographic space. Within this broadly defined EIL context, this entry frames the political power of assessment and addresses this power from two dimensions. The first dimension is the geopolitics of international language testing, which deals with the testing of proficiency in English by speakers of other languages whose purpose of taking the test is to pursue academic study in English‐speaking countries, such as the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) and the International English Language Testing System (IELTS). The second dimension focuses on the testing of proficiency in English by speakers of other languages whose purpose is for schooling in English‐speaking countries, such as the Ontario Secondary School Literacy Test (OSSLT) in Canada and the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) policy in the United States.
Prefixes, Roots, and Suffixes
Authors: Mohr Kathleen A. J.
Published: January 2018

English is a morphophonemic language and its large lexicon includes numerous affixes added to root words. Knowing the meaning of prefixes, roots, and suffixes can greatly expand vocabulary and support reading comprehension, especially of academic texts. This entry defines the morphology of English, provides examples of the more frequent prefixes and suffixes, and suggests typical vocabulary activities that are used to promote morphological awareness.
Sight Word Vocabulary
Authors: Goertel Rachel Adams
Published: January 2018

Sight word vocabulary is a collection of frequently‐used foundational words which emerging readers learn to recognize without sounding out the letters. These common words become the foundation for reading fluency. Strong sight vocabulary increases the readability of a text since the frequently occurring words have been memorized and the less common ones can be sounded out or depicted with an accompanying picture. Because basic sight words occur frequently in reading material, it is valuable to recognize them instantly which helps develop fluency in reading.
Teacher Talk and Teacher Attitude
Authors: Simeonova‐Pissarro Marieta
Published: January 2018

The unprecedented linguistic, cultural, and religious diversity of English as a second language (ESL), English as a foreign language (EFL), migrant, and refugee students can be a challenge for language educators worldwide. This complexity necessitates that both language and content‐area teachers take mandatory graduate coursework in TESOL, or attend professional development workshops to acquire specific strategies to work with the increasing number of English language learners (ELLs), develop pedagogical mastery of teacher talk (TT), and establish positive and constructive attitudes toward working with ELLs in K‐12, intensive English programs, and university ESL and EFL classroom contexts.
Engaging Families and Communities Through Culturally Relevant Leadership
Authors: Souto‐Manning Mariana , Jun Eun Jeong , Yu Hae Min
Published: January 2018

This entry addresses ways (pre)school leaders can support teachers' authentic engagement with families and communities, honoring the unique expertise of culturally, linguistically, and racially diverse students, their families, and communities. Key recommendations are drawn from research informed by critical and sociocultural approaches. Recommendations highlight ways to position the strengths of cultural and linguistic practices in immigrant households centrally in (pre)school policies and practices. They help us envision ways in which (pre)school leadership can be (re)conceptualized to support teaching and learning in ways that result in high expectations, cultural competence, and critical consciousness. Recommended leadership practices include employing culturally relevant leadership and (re)positioning family and community members as worthy and essential partners. Policy and pedagogical implications include developing an equity‐ and excellence‐based participatory school philosophy; embracing the notion of
respeto
by utilizing assets inventories, bilingual programming, and home visits; and employing shared leadership that empowers immigrant parents and families.
Institutional and Professional Narratives
Authors: Golombek Paula
Published: January 2018

This entry describes how narrative promotes the professional development of pre‐ and in‐service language teachers, especially in terms of the development of their teacher identity. It also discusses the ways in which administrators can incorporate narrative practices into their institutions in intentional ways for the purpose of cultivating teacher development. Concepts that institutions should adopt to support the narrative practices of teachers include narrative knowing, narrative as sense‐making, language teacher knowledge as located and legitimate, and making language teacher knowledge public. Recommended narrative practices include reading, and writing and sharing of teachers' narratives, teacher, learner, and administrator autobiographies, teaching portfolios, and various forms of teacher inquiry.
Teaching Speaking to Grade School and Elementary Students
Authors: Dougherty Ellen
Published: January 2018

As educators, we know that the development of oral communication skills with second language, elementary students can be a complex and multifaceted process. However, within the context of supportive classrooms, the various components of oral communication (speaking, pronunciation, and listening) can be effectively and easily integrated through a variety of activities, sparking students' creativity as they learn English as an additional language. As teachers experiment with, implement, scaffold, and chunk new learning activities appropriately, they develop confidence in their personal, professional knowledge (PPK), thus enriching opportunities for English language learners (ELL) to learn English naturally and in engaging, fun ways.
Developing Authentic
CBI
Units
Authors: Daniel Shannon M.
Published: January 2018

When educators can develop questions that drive thematic units of study, respond to student thinking, and engage learners in asking their own questions, content‐based instruction (CBI) units will become more authentic and motivating for language learners. In addition to building this motivation, questioning will enable learners to develop communicative competence by encouraging them to negotiate meaning as they figure out solutions to real‐world problems. In turn, learners will not only develop communicative competence and grow their language proficiency but also gain expertise in the content that is of interest to them.
Effective Classroom Strategies Toward DecolonizingELTPractices: Implications for Postmethod Pedagogy
Authors: Chan Virak , Henderson Kathryn
Published: January 2018

Scholars have approached identifying effective classroom strategies from a multiple of angles and perspectives. This summary provides a brief history on major considerations for effective classroom strategies in both the methods and postmethods era, including a discussion of research‐based approaches and contemporary language teaching frameworks. The entry explores the problematic assumption that strategies successful in one context can be transferred to another context, and considers the decolonization of English language teaching practices through the adoption of a postmethod pedagogical approach. The pedagogical implications section takes a closer look at the development of autonomous learners, consideration for students' cultural and linguistic backgrounds, and the development of reflective teaching in pre‐service and in‐service teacher education.
Versatile, High‐Power, Flexible, Stretchable Carbon Nanotube Sheet Heating Elements Tolerant to Mechanical Damage and Severe Deformation
Authors: Lee Yourack , Le Viet Thong , Kim Jeong‐Gyun , Kang Haeyong , Kim Eun Sung , Ahn Seung‐Eon , Suh Dongseok
Published: January 2018

A macroscopic carbon nanotube (CNT) sheet‐based heating element having flexible, stretchable, and damage‐tolerant features, and wide applicability in harsh environments, is introduced. Because of the intrinsic connection of extremely flexible CNT bundles throughout the sample by van der Waals interactions without use of a binder, the electrical resistance variation of the CNT sheet on elastomer heating element as a function of strain is completely suppressed to some extent, even when stretched under up to 400% strain, which guarantees electrical stability under severe mechanical deformation. In addition, the spatial uniformity of the heat generated from the microaligned CNT bundles reduces the temperature variation inside the sample, which also guarantees thermal stability and operation at a higher average temperature. Such exceptional performance is achieved by the passivation of the elastomer layer on the CNT sheets. Furthermore, the mechanical robustness of this flexible, stretchable heating element is demonstrated by stable heater operation, even when the heating element is damaged. In addition, this design concept of CNT sheet on elastomer is extended to transparent flexible heaters and electric‐thermochromic windows.
Highly Porous Polymer Aerogel Film‐Based Triboelectric Nanogenerators
Authors: Zheng Qifeng , Fang Liming , Guo Haiquan , Yang Kefang , Cai Zhiyong , Meador Mary Ann B. , Gong Shaoqin
Published: January 2018

A novel class of high performance polymer porous aerogel film‐based triboelectric nanogenerators (A‐NGs) is demonstrated. The A‐NGs, made of a pair of highly porous polymer films, exhibit much higher triboelectric outputs than the corresponding dense polymer film‐based triboelectric nanogenerators (D‐NGs) under the same mechanical stress. The triboelectric outputs of the A‐NGs increase significantly with increasing porosity, which can be attributed to the increase in contact area and the electrostatic induction in the porous structure, thereby leading to additional charges on the porous surface. Remarkably, the A‐NG fabricated using porous chitosan aerogel film paired with the most porous polyimide (with a porosity of 92%) aerogel film demonstrates a very high voltage of 60.6 V and current of 7.7 µA, corresponding to a power density of 2.33 W m−2, which is sufficient to power 22 blue light‐emitting‐diodes (LEDs). This is the first report on triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) employing porous polymer aerogel films as both positive and negative materials to enhance triboelectric outputs. Furthermore, enhancing the tribopositive polarity of the cellulose aerogel film via silanization using aminosilane can dramatically improve the triboelectric performance. Therefore, this study provides new insights into investigating porous materials with tunable triboelectric polarities for high performance TENGs.
Chemoselective Flow Hydrogenation Approaches to Diversify the Cytotoxic Tetrahydroepoxyisoindole Carboxamide Scaffold
Authors: Spare Lawson K. , Harman David G. , Aldrich‐Wright Janice R. , Nguyen Thanh V. , Gordon Christopher P.
Published: January 2018

An Intramolecular Diels‐Alder cycloaddition reaction between a furan diene and an alkynic dienophile was performed within a flow hydrogenator fitted with an inert titanium column at 150 °C, no H2, under 100 bar pressure. A single column pass (tR=1.6 min) afforded ≈55% conversion to the tetrahydroepoxyisoindole carboxamide scaffold with a product turnover of ≈0.035 g/h, a 95% improvement over batch procedures. The cycloaddition protocol is performed in water and ethanol, and does not require catalysts or other additives. Quantitative hydrogenation of the resulting dual π‐bonds within the oxabicyclo system was effected with either a 10% Pd/Al2O3 or 10% Pd/CaCO3 catalyst at 20 °C, 20 bar, with full H2 whereas utilisation of a Raney Ni catalyst under these conditions resulted in a quantitative mono‐olefin reduction of the C4‐C5 double‐bond. With regard to di‐olefin reduction, a degree of stereoselectivity was observed with the aforementioned palladium‐based catalysts yielding exclusive formation of (R) configuration at C7 while utilisation of a 5% Pt/C (sulfided) catalyst at temperatures below 60 °C promoted the formation of the (S)‐isomer at C7. Hence this work further highlights that flow‐hydrogenation provides unprecedented convenience for establishing robust protocols to effect chemoselective transformations.

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Highly Efficient Infrared Photodetection in a Gate‐Controllable Van der Waals Heterojunction with Staggered Bandgap Alignment
Authors: Jo Seo‐Hyeon , Lee Hae Won , Shim Jaewoo , Heo Keun , Kim Minwoo , Song Young Jae , Park Jin‐Hong
Published: January 2018

In recent years, various van der Waals (vdW) materials have been used in implementing high‐performance photodetectors with high photoresponsivity over a wide detection range. However, in most studies reported so far, photodetection in the infrared (IR) region has not been achieved successfully. Although several vdW materials with narrow bandgaps have been proposed for IR detection, the devices based on these materials exhibit notably low photoresponsivity under IR light illumination. Here, highly efficient near‐infrared (NIR) photodetection based on the interlayer optical transition phenomenon in a vdW heterojunction structure consisting of ReS2 and ReSe2 is demonstrated. In addition, by applying the gate‐control function to the two‐terminal vdW heterojunction photodetector, the photoresponsivity is enhanced to 3.64 × 105 A W−1 at λ = 980 nm and 1.58 × 105 A W−1 at λ = 1310 nm. Compared to the values reported for previous vdW photodetectors, these results are the highest levels of photoresponsivity in the NIR range. The study offers a novel device platform for achieving high‐performance IR photodetectors.
Oxidative Mechanochemistry: Direct, Room‐Temperature, Solvent‐Free Conversion of Palladium and Gold Metals into Soluble Salts and Coordination Complexes
Authors: Do Jean‐Louis , Tan Davin , Friščić Tomislav
Published: January 2018

Noble metals are valued, critical elements whose chemical activation or recycling is challenging, and traditionally requires high temperatures, strong acids or bases, or aggressive complexation agents. By using elementary palladium and gold, demonstrated here is the use of mechanochemistry for noble‐metal activation and recycling by mild, clean, solvent‐free, and room‐temperature chemistry. The process leads to direct, efficient, one‐pot conversion of the metals, including spent catalysts, into either simple water‐soluble salts or metal–organic catalysts.
Curie point and a space charge relaxation in ferroelectric poly(vinylidene fluoride‐trifluoroethylene) copolymers with different thermal history
Authors: Kochervinskii Valentin , Malyshkina Inna , Bedin Sergey , Korlyukov Alexander , Buzin Mikhail , Shakirzyanov Rafael
Published: January 2018

High‐temperature processes of space charge relaxation in films of poly(vinylidene fluoride‐trifluoroethylene) (70–30) have been investigated. The films were prepared by the crystallization from a solution in tetrahydrofuran at a room temperature. X‐ray data analysis showed that initial films crystallize in metastable state: a paraelectric phase is formed at fast crystallization below the Curie temperature. An exothermic process was observed at heating, indicating a solid‐state crystallization of metastable paraelectric regions. This process is controlled by melting of ordered regions formed at secondary crystallization. These transformations of structure affect characteristics of the high‐temperature space charge relaxation process. In particular, it was found that activation energy of extrinsic conductivity is reduced by several times in the region of ferroelectric‐paraelectric phase transition. An additional relaxation process was registered above the Curie temperature, which is caused by the relaxation of charges in double electric layer formed on an interface between an electrode (Au) and fluorine‐containing polymer. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2018, 135, 46186.
Synthesis and properties of polypropylene/layered double hydroxide nanocomposites with different LDHs particle sizes
Authors: Qiu Lei , Gao Yanshan , Lu Peng , O'hare Dermot , Wang Qiang
Published: January 2018

In order to investigate whether the particle sizes of inorganic additives in polymer have an influence on the flame‐retardant and other properties of the polymer, five types of Mg3Al–CO3 layered double hydroxide (LDHs) with particle diameters of 80–100, 200–350, 500–550, 550–600, and 700–900 nm were synthesized using a hydrothermal method. The obtained Mg3Al–CO3 LDHs were treated using the aqueous miscible organic solvent treatment method to give highly dispersed platelets in Polypropylene (PP). The thermal stability, flame retardancy, and mechanical properties of the PP/AMO–LDH nanocomposites were investigated systematically. The results showed that the thermal stability and flame retardancy of PP could be improved after incorporating AMO–LDHs. The temperature at 50% weight loss (T0.5) of PP/LDH (700–900 nm) nanocomposites with a LDH loading of 15 wt % was increased by 57 °C. When the LDHs loading was 40 wt %, the peak heat release rate (PHRR) of the PP/LDH nanocomposites with small LDHs particle sizes (<350 nm) was decreased by ca. 58%. The limiting oxygen index was increased by 5% for PP/LDH (80–100 nm) nanocomposites. The response surface regression results also indicated that both LDH particle size and loading have influence on PHRR, heat release capacity, tensile strength, and elongation at break. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2018, 135, 46204.
Reducing water sorption of injection‐molded polyamide 6 bars by polymerization‐induced diffusion of styrene and grafting with polystyrene
Authors: Huang Cheng‐Huan , Tan Yin‐Le , Guo Zhao‐Xia , Yu Jian
Published: January 2018

An innovative method for reducing water sorption of injection‐molded polyamide 6 (PA6) bars by polymerization‐induced diffusion of styrene and grafting with polystyrene (PS) is reported. The process involves diffusion of styrene into PA6 bar in aqueous medium, addition of benzoyl peroxide to initiate polymerization of styrene, and further diffusion of styrene into the bar during polymerization. A hydrophobic PS‐rich shell consisting mainly of PS‐g‐PA6 can be formed in the surface layer of the PA6 bar, and as a result, the water sorption and dimensional change of PS‐modified PA6 bars reduce significantly. An incorporation of only 1.2% PS is sufficient, showing the advantage of this method over conventional melt mixing. The tensile modulus and strength of 1.2% PS‐modified PA6 bar increase slightly compared to those of neat PA6 bar due to reinforcement effect of rigid PS and reduced level of water‐caused plasticization, while maintaining the good ductility. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2018, 135, 46243.