bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Social Responsibility as an Innovative Approach for Enhancing Competitiveness of Tourism Business Sector in Egypt
Authors: Eraqi Mohammed I.
Published: June 2010

The purpose of this article is to improve the understanding of the manner in which tourism companies deal with key stakeholders in relation to corporate social responsibility (CSR) in Egypt, focusing in particular on how tourism business sector companies can handle critical issues related
to CSR and utilize these experiences in enforcing their regular social responsibility for gaining more competitive edges in the global tourism markets. The article methodology is based on collecting data from the Egyptian tourism companies through questionnaire forms. Statistical Means, Z
test, and analysis of variance (ANOVA) are used to measure the social responsibility criteria in the Egyptian tourism business sector and to interpret the research outcomes. The research results explained that tourism business sector managers' attitudes towards CSR criteria are positive. They
actually have defined policies regarding CSR and practice activities regarding CSR issues. However, CSR should be managed by a combination of handling unexpected episodes that threaten existing social responsibility and the long-term reduction of gaps between stakeholder expectations and the
tourism business sector performance. Furthermore, CSR implies building and maintaining relationships with society through interplay between actors, resources, and activities for improving the competitiveness of tourism business sector companies in Egypt.
Estimating Elasticity of Demand for Tourism in Dubai
Authors: Fernandes Cedwyn , Karnik Ajit V.
Published: June 2010

This study estimates the elasticity of demand for inbound tourism from 24 countries to Dubai with a view to understand the factors that influence this demand. The variables tourist arrivals, real per capita income, relative prices, and accommodation costs were tested for panel unit
roots, and panel cointegration was employed to determine the specification of the models to be used. These models were estimated employing Fixed Effects and Random Effects approaches. The choice between Fixed and Random Effects models was made using the Hausman Test. Determinants of the elasticity
of demand for the entire panel are consistent with theory. Within the subgroups there are differences. Arab countries and countries of the Indian subcontinent have an income elasticity of demand >1. Tourists from the developed countries seem to be the most sensitive to relative prices and
the cost of accommodation is significant only for tourists from the Arab and Indian subcontinent countries. Income elasticity of tourism especially from Arab countries and countries of the Indian subcontinent is high, indicating that marketers should tailor their strategies accordingly. Accommodation
costs have negative impact on demand, highlighting the need for more budget hotels. Relative increase in prices has a negative impact on tourism demand, highlighting the need to control domestic inflation.
Investigating the Temporal Dynamics of Tourist Movement: An Application of Circular Statistics
Authors: Chhetri Prem , Corcoran Jonathan , Arrowsmith Colin
Published: June 2010

This article explores temporal variability, referred to as temporal dynamics, in the movement patterns of tourists. Circular statistics were used to compute circular mean times and dispersions for different groups of tourists using data collected with Global Positioning Systems receivers
at Port Campbell national Park in Victoria, Australia over a 2-day period. The results indicate that there is a tendency for tourists to visit the site around noon. The differences in the circular mean times computed for different regions and for different types of tourist are not significant.
Nonetheless, kernel density estimation plots enabled variability, exhibited in terms of peak time and modality in patterns of visitor use, to be detected.
Child Labor in the Tourism Industry in Jordan
Authors: Magablih Khalid , Naamneh Mahmood
Published: June 2010

This study seeks to investigate the sociocultural dimensions of child labor in the tourism sector in Jordan. It focuses primarily on the causes, conditions, and consequences of such rising, yet alarming, phenomenon in the Jordanian society. An extensive scholarly work has been done
on child labor in an attempt to realize the magnitude, causes, and impact of the problem. Nonetheless, child labor in tourism has not received adequate attention from scholars, professionals, or officials. Tourism has recently become an important realm that pulls in a significant number of
children. Poverty and disenchantment with the educational system are considered major factors behind child labor in Jordan.
The Pay for In-Flight Food and Drinks Policy and Its Impact on Travelers' Experience
Authors: Moufakkir Omar
Published: June 2010

Information about customer satisfaction and service quality in the hospitality and tourism industry is hardly visible in the academic literature, mainly due to the proprietary nature of the data. Similar information in the airline industry literature is even less visible, even though
policies change. One of the most recent policies in the airline industry is the pay for in-flight food and drinks. This article offers information about the policy, and empirically examines its impact on travelers' experience. A sample of 217 cases was used for the analysis. Randomly selected
travelers were queried about their experience with paying for in-flight food and drinks and related issues, such as intention to pay, pay arrangement, and desired mode of payment. Generally, most travelers did not support the policy, and those who have had the experience found it cumbersome.
On the other hand, overall quality on board, including food and service, was perceived rather positive. Subsequent recommendations for airline companies were offered.
An Application of McClelland's Need Theory to the Casual Dining Industry
Authors: Curtis Catherine R. , Upchurch Randall S.
Published: June 2010

It should be understood that to date there has been a plethora of motivational research addressing employee needs, expectations, and motivational systems that have by-and-large expounded upon the merits of various motivational theories; however, the work by McClelland is devoid in the
hospitality literature and especially so concerning restaurant personnel. This latter observation is interesting in that McClelland's Need Theory is considered seminal in the broader context of understanding human behavior on personal and professional levels. In applying McClelland's theory,
the present research study sought to determine if front of the house restaurant workers were motivated by (a) need for achievement, (b) need for affiliation, (c) need for power, or a combination thereof. For the purpose of this study, data were collected from three free-standing units for
a national branded restaurant chain located in the southeastern US. The exploratory factor analysis results indicates that these front of the house personnel are strongly motivated by two of McClelland's postulates; those being the Need for Achievement (nAch) and the Need for Affiliation
(nAff).
Evaluating Tourism Community Preferences
Authors: Tyrrell Timothy , Paris Cody Morris , Casson Mallory
Published: June 2010

A short online survey of Kingman Arizona residents included two approaches for determining the relative importance of social, cultural, environmental, and economic attributes to community quality of life. A simple multiattribute choice approach gave noticeably different results from
a standard independent attribute ranking approach and lead researchers to recommend socially oriented tourism development projects over economically oriented ones.
The Economic Geography of Remote Tourism: The Problem of Connection Seeking
Authors: Schmallegger Doris , Carson Dean , Tremblay Pascal
Published: June 2010

The current literature on peripheral tourism appears conceptually weak for its inability to distinguish between different types of “peripheral” destinations. This review article argues that “remote” destinations have intrinsically different characteristics compared
to peripheral ones and require different theoretical approaches to better explain the dynamics of tourism in remote areas. The review builds on theoretical models from the fields of economic geography and political economy, which have been largely absent from peripheral research in Tourism
Studies in the past. In particular, the Canadian “staples thesis” is seen by these authors to offer some valuable insights into the unique patterns of economic development and core–periphery relationships in remote areas. They argue that while peripheral areas usually have
entrenched relationships with a clearly defined core, remote areas are characterized by “disconnectedness” and face substantial challenges in establishing viable connections with other places. This review article thereby suggests that understanding the processes and implications
of connection seeking is critical if tourism is to provide an effective tool for economic development in remote areas.
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Dietary Supplementation Induces Lipid Peroxidation in Normal Dogs
Authors: Walters John M. , Hackett Timothy B. , Ogilvie Gregory K. , Fettman Martin J.
Published: June 2010

Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) have anti-inflammatory effects at low concentrations; however increased dietary consumption may conversely increase susceptibility to oxidation by free radicals. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of PUFAs on selective oxidative injury and inflammatory biomarkers in canine urine and serum. Dogs (n=54) consumed a diet supplemented with 0.5% conjugated linoleic acid/dry matter, 1.0% conjugated linoleic acid/dry matter, or 200 mg/kg docosahexaenoic acid/eicosapentaenoic acid for 21 days. All dogs exhibited significantly increased plasma PUFA concentrations. All dogs had significant elevations in urinaryF2aisoprostane concentration, though dogs consuming a diet containing 1.0% conjugated linoleic acid/dry matter had the highest increase (P=.0052). Reduced glutathione concentrations within erythrocytes decreased significantly in all three dietary treatment groups (P=.0108). Treatment with diets containing 1.0% conjugated linoleic acid/dry matter resulted in the greatest increase in oxidant injury. Caution should be exercised when supplementing PUFAs as some types may increase oxidation.
To Know or Not to Know: Ethical Issues Related to Early Diagnosis of Alzheimer's Disease
Authors: Mattsson Niklas , Brax David , Zetterberg Henrik
Published: June 2010

In Alzheimer's disease (AD), pathological processes start in the brain long before clinical dementia. Biomarkers reflecting brain alterations may therefore indicate disease at an early stage, enabling early diagnosis. This raises several ethical questions and the potential benefits of early diagnosis must be weighted against possible disadvantages. Currently, there are few strong arguments favouring early diagnosis, due to the lack of disease modifying therapy. Also, available diagnostic methods risk erroneous classifications, with potentially grave consequences. However, a possible benefit of early diagnosis even without disease modifying therapy is that it may enable early decision making when patients still have full decision competence, avoiding problems of hypothetical consents. It may also help identifying patients with cognitive dysfunction secondary to other diseases that may be responsive to treatment already today.
Structural Aspects of Phenylalanylation and Quality Control in Three Major Forms of Phenylalanyl-tRNA Synthetase
Authors: Klipcan Liron , Finarov Igal , Moor Nina , Safro Mark G.
Published: June 2010

Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases (aaRSs) are a canonical set of enzymes that specifically attach corresponding amino acids to their cognate transfer RNAs in the cytoplasm, mitochondria, and nucleus. The aaRSs display great differences in primary sequence, subunit size, and quaternary structure. Existence of three types of phenylalanyl-tRNA synthetase (PheRS)—bacterial (αβ)2, eukaryotic/archaeal cytosolic (αβ)2, and mitochondrial α—is a prominent example of structural diversity within the aaRSs family. Although archaeal/eukaryotic and bacterial PheRSs share common topology of the core domains and the B3/B4 interface, where editing activity of heterotetrameric PheRSs is localized, the detailed investigation of the three-dimensional structures from three kingdoms revealed significant variations in the local design of their synthetic and editing sites. Moreover, as might be expected from structural data eubacterial, Thermus thermophilus and human cytoplasmic PheRSs acquire different patterns of tRNAPhe anticodon recognition.
Combustion Chemistry
Authors: Fernandes Ravi
Published: June 2010

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Temperature Dependence of Rate Coefficients

Pressure Dependence of Rate Coefficients

Experimental Techniques in Elementary Gas‐Phase Kinetics

Shock Tubes

Detection Techniques in Combustion Kinetics

Low‐Temperature Chemistry and Auto‐Ignition

Chemistry of Pollutant Formation in Combustion

Formation of Soot from Aliphatic Fuels

Formation of

NO

x

Thermal
NO
Route

Prompt
NO

The
N
2
O
Route to

NO

x

Fuel Nitrogen Route to
NO

Outlook

Acknowledgments
Combustion Physics
Authors: Burluka Alexey
Published: June 2010

Combustion is a multidisciplinary phenomenon often involving complicated chemical, physical, mathematical, environmental, economical, and social factors. It is by far the largest means of the energy conversion, and well in excess of 90% of the world's energy needs are satisfied by devices and processes employing some combustion regime. Examples of combustion range from an open campfire somewhere in a remote tropical jungle to the intense flames in Voulcain rocket engine of the Ariane‐5 launcher consuming several hundreds of kilograms of hydrogen and oxygen every second. Despite the large variety in its manifestations, combustion involves relatively few physical factors; more often than not, it is the physical aspects of combustion that determine the feasibility of a given energy conversion device. The aim of this chapter is to provide some basic information and guidance where further information may be found about physics of combustion.
Ignition: New Applications to Combustion Studies
Authors: Golovitchev Valeri I. , Kärrholm Fabian P.
Published: June 2010

In this chapter, the “state of art” in the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling of ignition and after ignition processes based on the detailed chemical approach is discussed. Initially, attention is paid to simulate the ignition of gaseous hydrogen/air mixtures with regards to problems of turbulent flame acceleration in closed compartments. The modeling capabilities are then illustrated by the results of liquid fuel injections into the combustion volume. In this case, the ignition processes are complicated by a presence of sprays, droplet formation, and evaporation. The autoignition of pure gaseous mixtures, considered as a fragment of the complete problem formulation, is also analyzed. In this case, different chemical mechanisms were constructed and validated for fuels used in the automotive industry, namely diesel oil, gasoline, ethanol, and some biofuels (methyl esters, e.g., rapeseed methyl ester) based on the concept of fuel surrogates. The tools used in this study are three‐dimensional CFD, KIVA3V rel.2 and FOAM, codes. The near‐identical numerical and physical models were formulated for both codes, for a test case of autoignition processes, when the liquid sprays were injected into the constant volume vessel, and numerical results compared between themselves and experimental data on the flame lift‐off lengths and autoignition times. The flame lift‐off phenomenon was interpreted as a consequence of the ignition process. The spark ignition process was then simulated for the spark‐ignition gasoline engine boosted by a direct ethanol injection. Finally, the ignition and combustion of solid aluminum was analyzed in water/steam and carbon dioxide environment, with the application to advanced energy generation systems.
Thermochemistry
Authors: Goos Elke , Burcat Alexander
Published: June 2010

In this chapter, the roots of thermochemistry will be presented, as well as the individual properties interrelations and their connection to chemical kinetic properties. Methods used to calculate the thermochemical properties from spectroscopic data are described, and sources for thermochemical data listed. An outline is provided of the uses of thermochemistry in research and industry for combustion and related processes, together with an overview of the future of thermochemistry and its developments.
Modeling of Turbulent Combustion
Authors: Merci Bart , Mastorakos Epaminondas , Mura Arnaud
Published: June 2010

In turbulent combustion, spatial and temporal fluctuations always play a predominant role. Along with the strong nonlinearity in combustion physics and chemistry, for example, in expressions for reaction rates in terms of species concentrations and temperature (and pressure), this results in a nontrivial closure problem. In this chapter, turbulence modeling and turbulent scales are first briefly discussed, after which details of the two extreme combustion configurations – premixed combustion and nonpremixed combustion – are outlined. Finally, some issues are noted on partially premixed combustion. The text is restricted to single‐phase combustion and, for turbulent premixed combustion, the relevant time and length scales are discussed in typical turbulent flame structures. Based on this, the combustion regime diagram is introduced, turbulent flame speed is discussed, and progress variable formalism described. Fast chemistry and finite rate chemistry effects, with associated closure issues, are also considered. For nonpremixed combustion, the eddy break‐up model and the eddy dissipation concept are introduced, after which the mixture fraction approach is explained. The preassumed probability density function (PDF) method is introduced, the laminar flamelet concept discussed, and the importance of the scalar dissipation rate highlighted. Finite rate chemistry effects are also discussed. Finally, the transported PDF and conditional moment closure (CMC) frameworks are introduced.
Modeling and Simulation of Droplet and Spray Combustion
Authors: Gutheil Eva
Published: June 2010

This chapter provides a survey on both droplet and spray models, as droplet heating, evaporation and motion are the underlying processes of both nonreacting and reacting spray flows. Attention is focused on the modeling and simulation of turbulence and turbulent mixing, as well as the interaction of evaporation with the turbulent flow field and chemical reactions. The principal approaches to modeling sprays in a turbulent flow field, such as Reynolds‐averaged Navier–Stokes equations (RANS), direct numerical simulation (DNS), and large eddy simulation (LES) are addressed. Details of the Reynolds stress models (RSM) and probability density function (PDF) models are also presented and discussed. These approaches may serve both as general spray models and subgrid models for LES. In order to address environmental concerns, detailed chemical kinetics must be considered to account for the prediction of pollutant emission, and its reduction. Appropriate methods such as direct closure and (spray) flamelet models for turbulent spray flames are addressed, together with reduced chemical mechanisms. It is shown that most often, gas flame models are not appropriate for spray flame modeling, because of the major impact that spray dynamics and evaporation have on spray combustion. The chapter also compares, by example, numerical results using different models and experimental data, mainly of research burners, with an aim to evaluate the present models, and also to identify future areas of research.
Conventional and Innovative Spray Generation for Combustion Applications
Authors: Ragucci Raffaele , Milton Brian
Published: June 2010

The atomization and dispersion of fuel is a fundamental stage in any combustion process involving liquid fuels. Atomization quality and efficient coupling with the airflows plays a key role in determining the performance and pollutant emissions from such systems. This chapter introduces the basic concepts of liquid atomization, and provides an overview of the dependence of the relevant processes on the combustion system parameters and the liquid properties. The main implications of theory on the practical aspects of atomization are reviewed and discussed. A conceptual classification of atomizers used in combustion systems is also presented. Practical atomization techniques and devices are presented in relation to the most important applications for energy production and propulsion. Brief details are also provided of selected innovative atomization techniques, with particular emphasis on high‐pressure combustion systems used in propulsion applications. Among the cited literature, books and reviews have been generally preferred as these already include selected bibliographies on specific topics, and represent a good starting point for more detailed studies.
Light Emission from Flames
Authors: Ciatti Stephen A.
Published: June 2010

This chapter describes the radiation phenomena that occur during fuel/oxidizer reactions; specifically the ultraviolet (UV), visible, and infrared (IR) light that is emitted via a variety of mechanisms during combustion events. Significant information about combustion can be acquired by analyzing the light‐emission profile of combustion events. Techniques such as emission spectroscopy, two‐color optical pyrometry, radiation thermometry, and combustion visualization are all utilized to study combustion. Both, sooting and nonsooting flames can be studied effectively with light‐emission techniques. The inherent advantage to utilizing emission‐based techniques to study combustion is that they require only minimal access to the combustion event; only a method is needed for light to leave the measurement area, such as fiber optics, endoscopes and borescopes, and small windows. Explanations of each of these techniques and their advantages/disadvantages in different applications will be discussed.
Cool Flames
Authors: Kolaitis Dionysios I. , Founti Maria A.
Published: June 2010

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Theory

Phenomenology

Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC)

Stabilized Cool Flames

Chemical Kinetics

Applications

Liquid Fuel Evaporation for Premixed Combustion

Liquid Fuel Reforming for Fuel Cell Applications

Internal Combustion Engines

Knocking

Low‐Temperature Combustion andHCCIEngines

Lean Premixed Prevaporized Combustion in Gas Turbines

Industrial Safety

Numerical Modeling of Stabilized Cool Flame Reactors

One‐Dimensional Chemical Kinetics Simulation of a Linear FlowSCFReactor

Two‐Dimensional Two‐PhaseCFDSimulation of a Linear FlowSCFReactor

Three‐Dimensional Two‐PhaseCFDSimulation of a Recirculating FlowSCFReactor

Outlook
Industrial Steam Boilers
Authors: Barroso Jorge , Barreras Félix , Ballester Javier , Fueyo Norberto
Published: June 2010

This chapter summarizes the essentials and trends of steam generation in industrial boilers burning fossil and biofuels. A descriptive overview of the present technology, main combustion systems and heat transfer schemes is first provided, after which the principles of conventional design methods and trends and achievements of computational fluid dynamics‐based techniques for boiler design are discussed. Combustion diagnostics and control systems, and their influence on both boiler efficiency and fouling and slagging on heat‐transfer surfaces, are also analyzed. Finally, the technology outlook for steam boilers is discussed, notably in respect of improving their efficiency and reducing the environmental impact of gas and solid emissions. New boiler concepts are addressed, including topics such as supercritical boilers, low‐NOxburners, and oxycombustion systems.
Toxicology of Combustion Products
Authors: Gupta Tarun , Agarwal Avinash Kumar
Published: June 2010

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Diesel Engine Emissions

Chemical Composition

Sampling

Health Effects

Health Effects Associated with Other Combustion Sources

Outlook
Flame Retardants: Chemistry, Applications, and Environmental Impacts
Authors: Beard Adrian , Angeler David
Published: June 2010

Flame retardants, also often referred to as fire retardants, are a diverse group of chemicals which are added to plastics, wood, or textiles to reduce their flammability. Steel is coated with flame‐retardant formulations to provide thermal insulation in the case of fire, in order to prevent the rapid collapse of a steel structure; flame retardants are also used in forest fire fighting to reduce the speed of fire spread. Flame retardants are classified according to their “active” chemical element: the main groups include products based on bromine, chlorine (halogenated flame retardants), phosphorus, nitrogen, aluminum, magnesium and, to a lesser extent, boron and carbon (expandable graphite). Apart from the different active elements, flame retardants cover a broad range of chemistries, from inorganic small molecules to organic oligomers or substances which can form part of a polymer structure. The flame‐retarding effect can be achieved by several different mechanisms: for example, “poisoning” of the chemical reactions in the flame zone, formation of char on the surface of the burning item, or release of inert gases. Since the mid 1990s, the use of nanoscale materials has been investigated, although nanoclay minerals and carbon nanotubes have not yet found significant commercial use. Since the 1990s, flame retardants have begun to raise environmental concerns, because some brominated flame retardants (e.g., polybrominated diphenylethers, PBDE) were found to form halogenated dioxins and furans in uncontrolled combustion, and also because flame retardants were found in various environmental compartments and biota, including humans. The producers of flame retardants have responded to these concerns, and are developing more environmentally compatible products, mainly nonhalogenated alternatives.
Loss Prevention and Safety Promotion in Industry
Authors: Bernatik Ales
Published: June 2010

The sections in this article are

The Problems of Major Accident Prevention: An Introduction

Accidents in the Past, and Legislation

Major Accident Risk Assessment

General Principle of Major Accident Risk Assessment

A Brief Overview of Partial Methods of Risk Analysis

Selection Method

Dow's Fire and Explosion Index

Dow's Chemical Exposure Index

Hazard and Operability Analysis (
HAZOP
)

Fault Tree Analysis (
FTA
)

Event Tree Analysis (
ETA
)

Scenario Probability Assessment

Direct Ignition

Scenario Consequence Assessment

Risk Acceptability

Probit Function

Calculation and Result Presentation

Major Accident Risk Management

Possibilities of Reducing Major Accident Risks

Outlook
Smoke Spread in Buildings
Authors: Yang Lizhong , Wu Laixi
Published: June 2010

Based on the analysis of comparability, a bench‐scale (1 : 4) facility with the configuration of a “fire room‐long passage‐remote room” has been designed to study the spatial distribution and risk of toxic gases in building fires. Experiments conducted with the facility showed that concentrations of toxic gases (CO) increased with probe height in the non‐firesource‐field. In the long term, the CO concentration decreased with distance from the fire source. CO concentrations were shown to vary widely at the upper long passage, but to be uniform at the lower long passage. The CO distribution in the remote room was in direct contrast, with CO concentrations greatly influenced by the openings. The characteristics of CO distribution in a non‐firesource‐field indicated that the long passage and remote room should be treated differently from a research aspect. The characteristics of smoke movement were investigated by numerical simulation, and the results of simulations and experiments compared to provide a clear understanding. In this chapter, the concept of an index of toxicity is proposed for analyzing smoke toxicity in a non‐firesource‐field, and to assess the risk grade in this environment.
An Overview of Combustion Diagnostics
Authors: Leipertz Alfred , Pfadler Sebastian , Schießl Robert
Published: June 2010

In this chapter, several of the diagnostic techniques commonly used to investigate combustion phenomena are reviewed, and a brief survey is provided of the mechanical probing techniques used to measure temperature, flow velocity, pressure and species concentrations (including flue gas diagnostics). The chapter includes an overview of optical techniques used for flow diagnostics, species concentration and temperature measurements in reacting flows. The use of imaging and multidimensional diagnostics for typical structures in the combustion field is also outlined. The simultaneous use of different planar measurement techniques describes state‐of‐the‐art of laser diagnostics in combustion research, and the potential for laser‐diagnostics to validate these approaches, as used in numerical simulations.
GC/MSfor Combustion and Pyrolysis Research
Authors: Cizdziel James , Chen Wei‐Yin
Published: June 2010

The ability to determine combustion and thermal decomposition (pyrolysis) products at trace concentrations can lead to important information on catalytic pathways, the degradation process itself, and structural (fingerprint) information on the parent molecule(s), among others. Gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC/MS) is well suited to separate and identify the volatile molecules and molecular fragments generated by combustion and pyrolysis processes. Whereas, pyrolysis (conducted in an inert atmosphere) is often used as a sample introduction device directly coupled to GC/MS, combustion is generally carried out offline and its products are collected and analyzed with GC/MS, or even pyrolysis‐GC/MS. In the past few years, this powerful technique has been used to examine a variety of sample types for quite diverse applications. This chapter describes the state of the art and the progress of GC/MS for the measurement of combustion and pyrolysis products. An introduction to the technique, including the principles of GC/MS, is first provided, followed by a demonstration of the instrument's capabilities for combustion and pyrolysis research. All reports discussed herein were selected in part to demonstrate the diversity of current combustion and pyrolysis research using GC/MS. The present authors' studies with temperature‐programmed desorption in conjunction with GC/MS to characterize oxygen shuttling on the chars derived from different gaseous environment, are highlighted. Finally, the use of GC/MS in combination with isotope‐labeling techniques to reveal complex reaction pathways and mechanisms is discussed.
Combustion Characteristics of Fossil Fuels by Thermal Analysis Methods
Authors: Kok Mustafa Versan
Published: June 2010

The sections in this article are

DSC,TG/DTGandDTAStudies on Coal Samples

DSC,TG/DTGandDTAStudies on Crude Oil Samples

DSC,TG/DTGandDTAStudies on Oil Shale Samples

Conclusions
Gas Potentiometry: Oxygen‐Based Redox Process Diagnostics in High‐Temperature Environments
Authors: Schotte Eyck , Lemin Bert , Lorenz Heike , Rau Helmut
Published: June 2010

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Theoretical Foundations of Gas Potentiometry

Physico‐Chemical Measuring Principle

Solid Electrolytes

Resumé

GOPApplications in Research and Industry

Materials, Design, and Systems

Sensor Materials

GOPDesigns

Electrical Metrology

Response Time

Analysis and Characterization of Gaseous and Liquid Fuel Combustion

In SituMeasurement

On‐Line Measurement (Off‐Flame Gas Potentiometric Measurement)

Analysis and Characterization of Solid Fuel Conversion

Gas Potentiometric Measurements in Combustion and Gasification Chambers

Burn‐Out Characteristics of Solid Fuels, Biofuels, and Waste Materials under Combustion and Gasification Conditions

Gas Potentiometric Combustion and Gasification Analysis: Burn‐Out Characteristics and Fuel‐Specific Makrokinetic Parameters

Modeling to Determine Fuel‐Specific Makrokinetic Parameters

Resumé

Applications with Potential for Development

The Performance of a Velocity‐Oxygen Probe

Measurement of Fluid Dynamics in a Fluidized‐Bed Reactor

Feed Control in Solid Fuel Gasification

O2Concentration Distribution in a Fluidized‐Bed Membrane Reactor

Outlook

Conclusions
Spontaneous Raman Scattering Diagnostics: Applications in Practical Combustion Systems
Authors: Kojima Jun , Nguyen Quang‐Viet
Published: June 2010

In this chapter, the practical aspects of spontaneous Raman scattering (SRS) diagnostics are explained based on hands‐on experience in applications to high‐pressure combustion. Details of the state‐of‐the‐art instrumentation used in an advanced vibrational Raman spectroscopy apparatus for combustion diagnostics are described, after which techniques are discussed for the design and optimization of a temporally stretched pulsed‐laser Raman excitation system used in conjunction with a relatively low‐spectral resolution, high‐optical throughput Raman spectrograph system. This system enables a true single‐shot diagnostic capability for turbulent flame studies. Single‐shot‐capable Raman diagnostic systems demand both a high signal‐to‐noise ratio and a high dynamic range in order to accurately capture Raman scattering occurring in the turbulent combustion process. A brief account of the data reduction and post‐processing methodology used to obtain multiscalar information (temperature and species concentrations) via the calibration matrix formalism is then provided. Finally, the concepts and methodology are applied to a high‐pressure swirl‐stabilized flame are outlined, demonstrating the capabilities of an SRS system in a practical combustion device. Practical considerations on the use of calibration burners and flow control systems for high‐pressure combustion systems are also addressed.
CARS
Spectroscopy
Authors: Marrocco Michele
Published: June 2010

Coherent anti‐Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) is known for its potential for accurate thermometric measurements. In this chapter, an explanation is provided of how the unrivaled sensitivity of CARS spectral lines to temperature combines with chemical selection, high spectral intensities, directionality of the signal, spatial resolution and short integration times. These advantages contrast with the complexity of the technique involving the use of more than one laser beam. Details are presented of the fundamental principles and some typical examples are given. Uses related to species detection in current research and perspectives are also briefly outlined.
Laser Doppler Anemometry
Authors: Blondel Damien
Published: June 2010

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Measurement Principles

Laser Beam

Doppler Effect

The Fringe Model

Measurement Volume

BackscatterversusForward‐ScatterLDA

System Description

Optics

Two‐ and Three‐DimensionalLDAfor Two‐ and Three‐Velocity Components

Laser

Frequency Shift

Seeding

Seeding as Flow Field Tracers

Light Scattering by Small Particles

Type and Size of Seeding Particles

Seeding Particles Generator

Signal Processing and Data Analysis

LDASignals

Moments

Weighting Factor

Time, Length Scale, and Turbulence Velocity Spectra

Applications

Automotive Engines

Large‐Scale Burners

Nonpremixed Turbulent Flame

Conditional Velocity in a Swirling Gas–Air Flame

Outlook
Laser‐Induced Fluorescence
Authors: Leipertz Alfred , Braeuer Andreas , Kiefer Johannes , Dreizler Andreas , Heeger Christof
Published: June 2010

Laser‐induced fluorescence (LIF) is a resonant absorption–emission interaction process between irradiated laser photons and atoms or molecules. Due to the resonant character of the excitation process, minor combustion species at very low concentration levels (ppm or sub‐ppm) can be probed using single‐photon absorption processes, or by tuning the exciting laser to a wavelength where the species absorbs two photons simultaneously (two‐photon LIF). Quantitative concentration measurements are feasible, but hindered by inter‐ or intramolecular energy transfer processes. Additionally, the temperature can be measured by determining the population distribution of the molecules, using Boltzmann's statistics. In many practical combustion systems the combustion fluid of interest (e.g., fuels or fuel components) does not give any LIF signal at all, or provides too‐strong fluorescence contributions that are composed of signals from numerous species. Here, quantitative interpretation of the signals is typically not feasible. For the quantitative analysis of non‐ or weakly fluorescing fluids, it is advantageous to add well‐characterized fluorescing tracers to the fluids (tracer LIF). The appropriate choice of the best suitable tracer system strongly depends on the particular application case. Recent laser developments have provided an increase of repetition rates into the multi‐kHz regime. Using these high repetition rates, integral time scales of typical turbulent flames can be resolved in the measurements. In combination with intensified complementary metal‐oxide semiconductor (CMOS) cameras, cinematographic imaging of flame dynamics becomes feasible, providing a complementary view compared to statistically independent sampling. This chapter includes a brief introduction to the most recent developments in the field of LIF at high repetition rates (high‐speed LIF), and also provides detailed information on suitable instrumentation for LIF applications, in particular for high‐speed LIF.
Measurement of Particle Properties: Concentration, Size Distribution, and Density
Authors: Gaderer Matthias , Kunde Robert , Brandt Christian
Published: June 2010

Various methods are available to investigate the particular emissions of combustion processes, and a brief survey of these is presented in this chapter. Within the flue gas of combustion, particle numbers may be measured continuously using either nucleus counters or light‐scattering instruments. The particle mass concentration is typically measured discontinuously by using filtering systems. Particle size distributions may be determined by applying fractionation to the aforementioned concentrations. On this basis, size‐classified particle number distributions or mass distributions may be measured. Typical fractionation methods can distinguish between aerodynamic separation on the basis of inertia (impactor, cyclone) and the electrical mobility of the particles. By comparing size distributions based on aerodynamic diameter with mobility diameter, the effective density of a particle collective can be calculated. A dilution system is normally required for the continuous measurement of particle concentrations in combustion flue gases, to reduce the dew point (avoiding condensation), and to adapting the concentrations to the instrument range. Ejector diluters, porous tubes and dilution tunnels are typically used to investigate stationary combustion processes. When analyzing the particle collective, it is essential to draw a representative sample; thus, in order to avoid sampling errors, certain criteria such as isokinetic sampling or transport losses must be respected.
Ultrafast Fluorescence Anisotropy for Combustion‐Produced Nanoparticles Analysis
Authors: Bruno Annalisa , de Lisio Corrado , Minutolo Patrizia
Published: June 2010

Understanding the formation mechanism of particulate matter due to incomplete combustion is fundamental to controlling the atmospheric impact of combustion systems. Toxicological studies have demonstrated that ultrafine aerosols can penetrate deep into the pulmonary alveoli, and affect human health. Different studies have identified in rich premixed flames a variety of carbon nanoparticles, ranging from those smaller than 3 nm (defined as nanoparticles of organic carbon, NOC) to larger soot particles of 20 nm, and more for aggregates. Optical methods represent the most desirable methods for nanoparticles studies, due to their accuracy, flexibility, and nonintrusive nature. Two principal uncertainties limit standard optical diagnostics in combustion systems:

the spectroscopic properties of the NOC are similar to those of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons; and

when light scattering is weak and comparable to that from gas‐phase compounds, size measurement is affected by large uncertainties.

Thus, it is necessary to exploit certain properties of fluorescence, which will depend unambiguously upon the size of the nanoparticles. This goal is achieved by using time‐resolved fluorescence anisotropy (TRFA), which leads to both size and spectral characterization of the investigated particles. TRFA shows much promise, and is highly sensitive for detecting nanoparticles, even in a flame hostile environment. It also differs from other sizing methods such as light scattering, as it does not depend on the refractive index. Moreover, exploiting spectral selectivity in light excitation and emission information on chemical functionalities of nanoparticles can be deduced. TRFA opens up new possibilities for combustion and environmental monitoring of nanoparticles. In this chapter, the theory of TRFA ultrafast technique is derived for different operating conditions. Experimental realizations, results and the analysis of nanoparticles produced in flames in two different configurations (directly in flames and for samples collected from the flame) are then presented and discussed.
Measurements in Large Power Plants
Authors: Juchelková Dagmar , Raclavská Helena , Raclavský Konstantin
Published: June 2010

The sections in this article are

Introduction

Technologies for Combined Combustion

Applications

Color Measurements of Coal Combustion Products

The Color of Fly Ash and Possible Influences on It

General Relationships between Color and Properties of Fly Ashes

Examples of Color Measurements

Special Measurement of Alternative Sorbents

Caustification Sludge from Paper Mill Production

Saturation Sludge from Sugar Industry

Limestone
VFK
55™ and
VFK
80™

Utilization of Alternative Sorbent for Desulfurization

Special Measurements Inside Boilers
CO2Greenhouse Gas Formation and Capture
Authors: Bai Hsunling , Karthik Mani
Published: June 2010

Carbon dioxide (CO2), which is emitted inevitably from the combustion of fossil fuels, has attracted increasing attention because of its potential impact on global climate change. To accurately quantify and mitigate the greenhouse gas effect, there is a need to understand the formation mechanism of CO2during the combustion processes, and to identify feasible means of reducing its emission. In this chapter the fundamental concepts of chemical equilibrium, chemical kinetics as well as stoichiometric fuel/air ratios which affect CO2formation during combustion processes are described in detail. Based on a basic understanding of the CO2formation theory, the typical amounts and concentration ranges of CO2emitted to the atmosphere are estimated. In addition, CO2‐reduction strategies and technologies are briefly described, and emerging CO2capture and storage (CCS) technologies also addressed.
Soot and Soot Diagnostics by Laser‐Induced Incandescence
Authors: Leipertz Alfred , Kiefer Johannes
Published: June 2010

This chapter provides a brief overview of soot formation in combustion environments, focusing mainly on the characterization of soot. The variety of soot diagnostics covering nonintrusive as well as sampling methods is briefly described. Laser‐induced incandescence (LII) is introduced in greater detail, covering the theoretical background of mass concentration and particle size determinations. Some experimental approaches, and results achieved in fundamental laboratory experiments and in practical applications, are also outlined.
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Combustion
Authors: Fetzer John
Published: June 2010

The polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are ubiquitous in any incomplete combustion; that is, one that does not generate only water and carbon dioxide. A huge variety of PAHs can be produced in combustion; the unsubstituted forms differ in ring number, ring isomerization, degree of condensation, and whether there are only six‐member carbon rings or some with five carbons. Substitution can be as simple as alkylation limited only to methylation. Various conditions can produce hydroxyl, carboxyl, and nitro substitutions. This chapter will mainly focus on the unsubstituted PAHs, as they are the prevalent type found in combustion products. This variety depends on combustion conditions such as the fuel and its concentration, residence time, and combustion temperature. Numerous reactions are involved that involve a multitude of production pathways, and to understand this complexity modern analytical tools must be used. Such tools include gas chromatography‐mass spectrometry and liquid chromatography with UV spectral detection, and are used to differentiate and identify specific PAHs. How these techniques work, and what types of information they provide, will be highlighted.
NOxFormation, Control and Reduction Techniques
Authors: Konnov Alexander A. , Javed M. Tayyeb , Kassman Håkan , Irfan Naseem
Published: June 2010

The formation of nitrogen oxides (NOx) in combustion systems is an important environmental concern. The control of NOxemissions and modern reduction techniques is based on worldwide investigations performed in this field. In this chapter, developments in the understanding of nitrogen chemistry in flames during the pas twenty years following the seminal studies of Miller and Bowman [1] are summarized. The different routes of NOxformation, including the newly proposed NNH route and prompt‐NO via NCN and other precursors, are discussed. The results of recent laboratory studies on NOxcontrol through reburning are also detailed. Other approaches for NOxcontrol, including low‐NOxburners, flue gas recirculation, and over‐fire air, are also outlined. Of special and practical interest are the selective noncatalytic reduction (SNCR) techniques; these include ammonia‐based, urea‐based, ammonium carbonate‐based SNCRs, and additive‐enhanced SNCR. An example of nitrogen‐containing additives for the simultaneous reduction of NOxand minimization of corrosion is presented. Finally, potential future developments and areas of use of these reduction techniques are discussed.
Catalytic Technology for Soot and Gaseous Pollution Control
Authors: Deutschmann Olaf , Konstandopoulos Athanasios G.
Published: June 2010

In this chapter, stationary and automotive technologies for gaseous and particulate pollution abatement are discussed. Stationary pollution abatement technologies involve the reduction of NOxemissions from the exhaust gases of power plants, industrial boilers, and gas turbines, and are based on selective catalytic reduction (SCR) using ammonia. In automotive pollution control, internal combustion engines represent the major source for the emission of NOx, CO, and unburned hydrocarbons (HCs), whereas diesel engines contribute to the emission of soot and NOx. These gaseous pollutants can be minimized with primary measures, for example, modification of the combustion process, and with additional secondary measures (exhaust purification by catalysts). The most frequent type of catalytic converter in automobiles is the three‐way catalyst (TWC) in stoichiometric operated gasoline engines, which simultaneously converts NOx, CO, and HCs. NOxemissions from lean‐operated enginescanbe removed by urea‐SCR and NOxstorage reduction catalysts (NSC). Catalytic CO oxidation is an essential reaction of the TWC and NSC, and is also applied in diesel engines using the diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC) that can oxidize gaseous HCs as well as HCs adsorbed onto soot particles. Diesel particulate filters (DPFs) are used to remove soot from diesel exhaust by filtration of the particles through the porous walls of the filter. The DPF application requires regeneration; that is, oxidation of the stored soot particles, which is accomplished by indirect (NO2‐assisted) and direct (redox metal oxide‐based) catalytic oxidation of the accumulated soot particles in the DPF.