bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Universal Service Obligations and the Emergence of Citizens’ Rights in European Telecommunications Liberalization
Authors: Sauter Wolf
Published: November 2023

This contribution2 gives an account of the role which the concept of universal service has played in the recent process of liberalization of the EU telecommunications markets. It will assert that this role has been a crucial one. Universal service obligations are likewise at the heart of the ongoing debate on the introduction of competition in a number of other sectors, notably the utilities (e.g. energy, water, transport, and postal services). However, it appears that at present telecommunications provide the best example of the debate on universal service in the European Union. The relevance of the telecommunications experiences to other sectors is beyond doubt. As is widely acknowledged, the opening of telecommunications markets has gone further and faster than that in any comparable sector.
Disciplinary Measures
Authors: Amerasinghe C F
Published: November 2023

Alternative post 56. The Respondent contends that the Bank only undertook to use best efforts to find the Applicant a position within the Bank and that ‘at no time did the Respondent obligate itself to force-place Applicant or to transfer him to a position from PAA to another complex in the Bank or to conduct an institution-wide search’.57. The issue before the Tribunal is, therefore, whether the Respondent made diligent and good faith efforts to locate a position for the Applicant at the end of his assignment with INU. In a letter dated March 8, 1993 to the VPPAA, the Applicant expressed his doubts as to the seriousness with which the Respondent was handling the search for a position as promised in the MAS agreement.
Structural And Content Regulation Of The Media: United Kingdom Law and Some American Comparisons.
Authors: Barendt* Eric
Published: November 2023

The government White Paper, Media Ownership, which prefaced the passage of the Broadcasting Act 1996, was clear about the case for special media ownership rules. The press and broadcasting industries are not to be treated like the producers of motor cars, petrol, or soap powders; the media are not only an important service industry, but play a crucial role in the formation and influencing of public opinion. In the absence of regulation there would be a danger that a handful of owners would control the sources of information and the communication of political and social opinion, a situation which would imperil the quality of public debate. General competition law alone is insufficient to avert this risk, for it ‘is concerned primarily with the operation of economic markets rather than with the distinctive wider needs of public policy in relation to the media industry; in particular the need to ensure the expression of a rich diversity of views and opinions ‘. Moreover, mergers and anti-competitive practices take some time to investigate, and, it might be added, the law allows the Secretary of State (and other authorities) considerable discretion whether to investigate a merger or how to remedy an abuse.
The New Television Without Frontiers Directive
Authors: Keller* Perry
Published: November 2023

The revised Television Without Frontiers Directive has finally arrived.1 With the defeat of the proposals put forward by the Culture Committee of the European Parliament in October 1996, the majority alliance in the Council of Ministers was to impose its own more modest objectives. For the proponents of radical reform, this is clearly the end of any serious hope that the Directive ‘s famous obligation on broadcasters to transmit a minimum quota of European programming will be transformed into an unconditional obligation.
Comparative Advertising In The UK-The New Law in its Infancy
Authors: Meade* Richard
Published: November 2023

Before the 1994 Trade Marks Act, a trader aggrieved by comparative advertising published by one of his competitors and wishing to obtain remedies in the civil courts had two main causes of action to deploy. He could sue for malicious falsehood, or he could sue for registered trade mark infringement. The former course, still available in the same form today, was not an easy one; in particular, it required proof of malice on the part of the defendant. In addition, it suffered from practical limitations if immediate relief was needed, because of the general rule that no interlocutory injunction would be granted if the defend ant intended to justify his statements.1 Advertising by its nature comes and goes fairly quickly, and all too often potential plaintiffs, knowing they could not get interlocutory relief and uninterested in a trial months or years after the advertising in question had ceased, simply took no action.
The Music Industry In 1996
Authors: Corr John Corr , Ware James , Enser* John
Published: November 2023

1996 again saw a plethora of legal issues facing the music industry. At the macro level, the two new International instruments initialled in Geneva in December saw the next phase in the international protection of the works of creators and producers. December also saw the belated implementation into UK law of the Rental and Lending Directive and Cable and Satellite Copyright Directive together with the remaining elements of the Term of Protection Directive.
Ec And United Kingdom Competition Law Developments
Authors: Aitman David
Published: November 2023

1996 saw the conclusion of many acquisitions and strategic alliances in the media sector. In previous years, merging companies had argued almost without exception that merger was an inevitable response to the challenges of digital technology and convergence. While these considerations continued to be a significant factor, the reasons for merger in 1996 seemed more diverse. In at least one case, merger was motivated by the desire of a non-media company to enter the media sector by acquisition. In several others, mergers were driven by the objective of applying common skills and resources to the development of new territories. A third group of mergers came about as a response to increasing competitive pressures in relatively mature media markets. In both 1994 and 1995, the Commission had blocked media mergers.
The Juridical Classification of Obligations
Authors: Weinrib* Ernest J
Published: November 2023

Classification is necessarily instinct with theory, because the act of classifying is the effort to understand a complex phenomenon through the interplay of its more general and particular aspects. Accordingly, the endeavour to classify the obligations of private law necessarily implicates the theory of private law.
Trustees, Committee Members, And Directors
Authors: Luxton Peter , Hill Judith
Published: November 2023

An initial problem in considering the position of charity trustees is to determine who ranks as a charity trustee. Much confusion can arise from the fact that the expression ‘charity trustee’ is susceptible to more than one meaning, and it is often necessary to determine the meaning from the context in which the expression is used. There are three possible meanings.
The Visitatorial Jurisdiction
Authors: Luxton Peter , Hill Judith
Published: November 2023

The function of the Visitor is to interpret the internal laws of an ecclesiastical or 12.01 eleemosynary corporation, and to hear and determine disputes which relate to such laws. The Visitor was historically an ecclesiastical body which monitored, and corrected abuses in, church government. Ecclesiastical corporations (for example, Dean and Chapters) are therefore subject to the visitatorial jurisdiction of the bishop. Lay corporations may be either civil (such as municipal or commercial corporations) or eleemosynary. Civil corporations are purely secular in origin, and are not subject to any visitatorial jurisdiction; rather they are subject to the common law and to the jurisdiction of the courts. Eleemosynary corporations are corporations established to distribute the bounty of the founder.
Cy-Pr ès And Schemes
Authors: Luxton Peter , Hill Judith
Published: November 2023

If property is given for charitable purposes without the interposition of a trust, the Crown may have jurisdiction over it. If property is given for charitable purposes that are uncertain, and without being subjected to a trust, it will vest in the Crown, which, by convention, and through the exercise of the royal prerogative, will direct the property under the sign manual1 to be applied to specific charitable purposes.2 A
Charities And Trading
Authors: Luxton Peter , Hill Judith
Published: November 2023

The most obvious form of trading involves the sale of goods; but trading can also 20.01 be in other forms of property (such as land or the supply of services). If a charity which preserves old buildings charges an entrance fee to the public, or a charity school or hospital levies admission fees, each is trading. The first important issue is to determine the extent to which charities are permitted in English law to carry on a trade.
Disaster Funds
Authors: Luxton Peter , Hill Judith
Published: November 2023

A disaster fund is the term generally used to describe a fund raised by means of an 25.01 appeal to the public following an accident, natural disaster, or war, involving al- most always loss of life, or at least serious injury or distress. Sometimes the terms of the appeal provide for the relief of the distress and suffering, or the poverty, of the survivors of the accident and for the relatives of those killed, but the terms of the appeal may be wider or narrower.
The Priority of Persons
Authors: Finnis John
Published: November 2023

What it is to be a person, and why it matters that one is, are issues no longer thematic in general accounts of law. But the very concept of law, of an existing and projected reality profoundly, and deliberately, different from both anarchy and tyranny is shaped by the recognition that (i) we human beings are all persons and each other’s equals in that respect even if in no other; (ii) persons of sufficient maturity and health can understand and communicate what they and other persons mean, and can intend and choose many other ways of behaving, too; and (iii) persons, their well-being, and their intentions matter in ways that nothing else in our environment does. This essay outlines some reasons for bringing these issues, rather neglected in modern jurisprudence, back into focus.
Claimant And Defendant Are Both Legally Liable To Creditor
Authors: Mitchell Charles
Published: November 2023

This chapter will first examine the basic rule, that for a contribution or reimbursement claim to lie, the claimant and the defendant must both be legally liable to the creditor. It will then be considered whether it forms any part of this rule that the claimant’s payment must have been compelled by legal process, for example by the issue of a court order, or whether it is enough that he was legally compellable to pay the creditor at the time when he paid him. Two further questions will also be addressed.
Using Rules Effectively
Authors: Black Julia
Published: November 2023

Regulation in the financial sector has been characterised by a strong preference on the part of regulatees for “principles “. “Principles “ are implicitly understood to be rules which are general in their language, purposive in their content, and non-legal in their effect. This demand has been pre sent throughout the history of financial services regulation, and a recent reiteration is to be found in the Hampel Report on the separate but related area of corporate governance.
Individualism and Citizenship
Authors: Leca Jean
Published: November 2023

It is the first meaning involving the problem of political rights and obligations and the individual as citizen which is the subject of the present chapter. The other two meanings will be referred to only in so much as they illustrate the first.

We shall not dwell for the moment on the status and attributes of this catch-all word ‘individualism’of which Max Weber remarked that it covered ‘the most heterogeneous things imaginable’. We shall accept Foucault’s definition with some modifications. Individualism cannot be properly understood, without proper qualification,as being restricted to those Western societies which resulted from the Reformation, the Renaissance, the Enlightenment, and capitalism. It is true to say, however, that it was within the material and cultural configuration which took place in these societies that the dual question of sociological individualism and state legitimation arose.
Introduction and Overview
Authors: Seyd Patrick , Whiteley Paul
Published: November 2023

Party members and party activists are the ‘Cinderellas’ of British politics. Few people, particularly journalists and academics, have much to say in their favour. Some see them as unrepresentative extremists, a vocal minority whose tiresome demands interfere with the ‘true’ processes of democracy. Others see them as ‘film extras’, whose task is basically to provide an appreciative audience for their respective party leaders during election rallies. Few think that they have any really important role to play in British politics.
Party Members: A Review
Authors: Seyd Patrick , Whiteley Paul
Published: November 2023

The subject of our research is the party member, but how one defines such a person varies according to the particular party under consideration. What one party means by membership will not agree with the definition of another. In this chapter, firstly we consider what the Labour party means by an individual member and what the trends have been in recruiting such people. Then we consider the formal powers that individual members possess and the manner in which these powers have changed in the past ten years. Thirdly, we summarize some of the key findings of previous research on the social composition and political attitudes of Labour party members. And, finally, we examine the place of parties in the British system of government.
Apprenticeship and the Social Identity of Artists
Authors: Taylor Luke
Published: November 2023

Having outlined the basic tenets of Kunwinjku group formation, this chapter focuses on the particular networks where ideas about painting and the training of young artists takes place. My concern is to show how the development of individual artists is mediated through basic social representations and how individual innovations are in turn transformed into social forms. In this respect we may view the various group formations described in the previous chapter as the social fields where Kunwinjku learn to identify with particular cultural materials and obtain the rights to control certain bodies of Ancestral law or bisnis. The chapter presents a consideration of the life-cycle of Kunwinjku artists to reveal the way that they gradually build identifications with many groups and exploit different avenues for gaining knowledge.
Iconic Representation
Authors: Taylor Luke
Published: November 2023

A key characteristic of Kunwinjku bark painting is the way that iconic representation is the predominant means of design generation and a primary frame of reference for the interpretation of the meaning of bark paintings. For Kunwinjku the figures in bark paintings are considered to be lifelike or relatively naturalistic representations of natural species or Ancestral beings. A painting may encode other levels of meaning, but an understanding of these meanings is contingent upon the correct interpretation of the figure represented in the painting.
Perforated Sovereignties: Towards a Typology of New Actors in International Relations
Authors: Duchacek Ivo D
Published: November 2023

As managers of economic, social, cultural, and environmental affairs, non-central governments in North America and Western Europe, especially in federal or regionalized systems, have been increasingly induced to react to events abroad and respond to or initiate various contacts with foreign centres of economic, cultural, and political influence. These contacts involve not only immediate neighbours across sovereign frontiers - such as northern Swiss cantons, the West German Land of Baden-Württemberg, and French Upper Alsace (Regio Basiliensis) - but also distant centres of industrial or investment power. In 1985, for example, twenty- nine US states had fifty-five permanent offices in seventeen foreign countries (eighteen US states had their separate missions in Tokyo) while only four states had overseas representation in 1970. (In Chapter 10 Earl Fry lists and analyses numerous other US state initiatives abroad.) In addition, eighteen US port authorities and cities had their representatives in Europe, ranging from Alabama’s Port of Mobile to the Texas Port Authority of Corpus Christi. Six Canadian provinces (Alberta, British Columbia, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Quebec, and Saskatchewan) have established forty-six permanent missions in eleven foreign countries: as the Feldmans point out in Chapter 7, the Canadian provinces’ commitment to defend their interests ‘beyond Canadian borders challenges the conventional concept of sovereignty and the federal view of a national monopoly in foreign policy’.
Interpretation Enlightenment
Authors: Galipeau Claude J
Published: November 2023

In this chapter I present Isaiah Berlin’s views of the nature and purpose of historical and philosophical studies. My aim is to show how Berlin’s interest in these fields is not incidental, or peripheral, to his liberalism; rather, these studies support his defence of liberal political morality. He, however, is hesitant to link together his studies in the history of ideas, his understanding of the role of philosophy, and his defence of negative liberty. He will admit that, in some ways, the history of ideas underlies his defence of political liberalism. Unfortunately, he wishes to go no further.1 The full reason is unknown; his antipathy for grand systems may perhaps explain the reticence.
Pluralism And The Liberal Political Order
Authors: Galipeau Claude J
Published: November 2023

Pluralism, with the measure of ‘negative’ liberty that it entails, seems to me a truer and more humane ideal than the goals of those who seek in the great, disciplined, authoritarian structures the ideal of ‘positive’ self-mastery by classes, or peoples, or the whole of mankind. It is truer, because it does, at least, recognize the fact that human goals are many, not all of them commensurable, and in perpetual rivalry with one another. To assume that all values can be graded on one scale, so that it is a mere matter of inspection to determine the highest, seems to me to falsify our knowledge that men are free agents, to represent moral decision as an operation which a slide-rule could, in principle, perform. To say that in some ultimate, all-reconciling, yet realizable synthesis, duty is interest, or individual freedom is pure democracy or an authoritarian state, is to throw a metaphysical blanket over either self-deceit or deliberate hypocrisy.
Western Polynesia and Fiji
Authors: Gell Alfred
Published: November 2023

In this chapter I will describe and analyse the tattooing institutions of what Burrows (1940) defines as western Polynesia, a cultural area comprising primarily the Tongan and Samoan archipelagos. I also intend to discuss data from Fiji. Unlike Tonga and Samoa, the ‘Fiji’ archipelago is markedly internally differentiated in cultural terms. The eastern part of Fiji (i.e. the northern Lau islands, most of Vanua Levu, and some coastal parts of Viti Levu) had fallen under intense and continuous Tongan influence, which was at its height during the epoch of initial European penetration into the region. Hence in these ‘Tonganized’ parts of Fiji, tattooing institutions were governed by Tongan rather than purely Fijian norms, or contained elements of both systems (Hocart 1952; L. Thompson 1940; Quain 1948).
Spain: A Federation In The Making?
Authors: Solozábal Juan José
Published: November 2023

The Spanish Constitution of 1978 established a model for territorial organization which may be considered to be midway between a unitary state and a federal one. Both politicians and constitutionalists have agreed on the terms ‘autonomous state’ (estado autonómico) or ‘state of autonomous territories’ (estado de las autonomías territoriales) to describe this model, although nowhere do these labels actually appear in the Constitution.

The socio-political dynamics operating in Spain when the new Constitution was drafted prevented its authors from considering any of the proven models of territorial organization, whether centralized or federal, as an option for Spain.
The Public Politics of Foreign Policy
Authors: Pravda Alex
Published: November 2023

Bringing foreign policy into the domain of public debate and effective parliamentary control constitutes one of the most challenging tasks for any state seeking to become a democracy. Andrei Kozyrev stressed the importance for Russia of fostering a role for public discussion and parliamentary scrutiny that would secure a balance between professional executive management of foreign policy and democratic oversight.
Introduction
Authors: Little I M D
Published: November 2023

The men whom some economists thus tend to despise they call ‘ methodologists’. Perhaps they should be despised. What is the use of the man who studies scientific method? He may explain to students how scientists reached their new theories; but this is unlikely to help the students reach new theories of their own. He may try to generalize, and lay down canons of inquiry. But there is no technique for forming good hypotheses which can be taught. Discussions of scientific method are often trite, and seldom helpful. This book is not about methodology.
The Choice Criterion
Authors: Little I M D
Published: November 2023

WE saw in the last Chapter that ‘ on a higher behaviour line’ entails ‘in a chosen position’. In this Chapter we will discuss the conditions required to apply the criterion to a real consumer, and, secondly, how far it is a good criterion for ‘ an increase in economic welfare’.1 The first condition is that the consumer is free to choose between the various collections of goods within the limits set by his purchasing power. It is obvious, since the analysis is built up on the basis of choices, and the relation of ‘ chosen rather than’ that one must be able to say that a consumer has chosen one collection rather than another, and that this cannot be said if he is prevented from choosing the alternative collection, other than by its being too expensive.
Value Judgements And Welfare Economics
Authors: Little I M D
Published: November 2023

Whether a word is a value word depends on the context. It is clear that ‘ You ought to go home for your father is dying’ is a value judgement, and that in this sentence the ‘ought’ has a moral force. On the other hand, in the statement ‘ You ought to go home if you want to avoid being recognized’, the ‘ought’ has no moral implication. Now it is possible that the word ‘ happiness’ may have ethical implications in some contexts. Whereas it has no moral force in ‘ Ais happier than B’,it may have in the statement ‘That change would increase the happiness of society’.
The ‘Optimum’ Conditions Of Production And Exchange (I)
Authors: Little I M D
Published: November 2023

Putting the above condition into operation, when it is not already fulfilled, is, in theory, a sufficient condition for an increase in welfare, so long as the distribution of welfare is not thereby made worse. This follows because any movement to a position of tangency of behaviour lines is a movement which satisfies the Scitovsky criterion. Once such a position is reached, as a result of some change, it is impossible that the Kaldor-Hicks criterion should be satisfied for the reverse change away from the tangency position.2
Welfare Theory And International Trade
Authors: Little I M D
Published: November 2023

WE do not propose to analyse the welfare implications of all the manifold different trade policies which a country might adopt. We shall content ourselves with three of the most important topics: first, the 'gains' from international trade; secondly, the 'gains' which can accrue to a country as a result of raising a tariff barrier; and, lastly, the question of the desirability of free trade. A correct statement of the 'gains' which may accrue to a hitherto isolated country as a result of entering upon international trade can be most simply made in terms of the analysis of the national income which we made in the last Chapter.
Coitus as Demographic Behaviour
Authors: Udry J Richard
Published: November 2023

The scientific study of coitus is not solely justified by its status as a demographic behaviour, that is, by the fact that it has relationships to reproduction. From the point of view of the participant, it has intrinsic interest. From the point of view of the biologist or sociologist, the determinants of coital behaviour may be just as interesting as the consequences. From the point of view of the social scientist, the import of coitus goes far beyond its reproductive consequences into fundamental dimensions of human relationships. As contraception becomes more nearly perfect and as other means of conception control are perfected, the significance of coitus as consummatory behaviour comes more and more to the forefront.
Age Patterns of Fecundability*
Authors: Weinstein Maxine , Wood James , Ming-Cheng Chang
Published: November 2023

Fecundability is defined as the probability that a couple will conceive during a month of exposure to unprotected intercourse, given that both partners are biologically able to conceive (Gini, 1924). Fecundability is of demographic importance because it determines a substantial portion of every birth interval, the so-called fecund waiting time to next conception. In a homogeneous population (that is, a group of couples all with the same fecundability), the relationship is simple: the mean waiting time is the inverse of fecundability. Thus, if fecundability is 0.25, couples can expect to experience an average of four months of regular intercourse before conceiving. As we shall see below, the heterogeneous case is more complicated-and more interesting-but the basic point still holds: fecundability determines the distribution of waiting times to conception. Fecundability is of special interest because, with lactational anovulation, it is one of the principal points of intersection between the biological and the behavioural determinants of fertility. On the biological side, the female partner must be experiencing regular ovarian cycles and her cycles must produce viable eggs (at least occasionally) for conception to occur, while in the male, sperm must be motile and of sufficient quantity. In addition, since pregnancies cannot be detected until about the time of implantation, the apparent value of fecundability will be influenced by the level of pre-implantation intrauterine loss, which reflects both maternal and paternal factors. The primary behavioural determinants of fecundability are, obviously, the overall frequency of intercourse and the way in which it is distributed across the cycle.
Biological Causes of Foetal Loss
Authors: Simpson Joe Leigh , Carson Sandra
Published: November 2023

Some 10 to 15 per cent of recognized pregnancies are lost during the first trimester, and an additional 2 to 3 per cent are lost later in pregnancy. In addition, many conceptions are lost before they are even recognized clinically. We shall first consider the frequency of foetal wastage during various stages of gestation. Thereafter, we shall review the causes of spontaneous abortions, emphasizing factors that serve as potential confounding variables. Clinical management is reviewed elsewhere (Carson and Simpson, 1990).
A Discrete-Time Method for the Analysis of Event Histories
Authors: Arjas Elja , Kangas Pekka
Published: November 2023

In demographic longitudinal studies, time measurements in the data are mostly reported in a rounded form: a time unit is fixed, typically a month or a year, and then the interval (of unit length) during which the event in question occurred is reported. Such rounding does cause some problems, however. For example, it may result in a considerable number of ties, and the computer-time requirement can be excessive for methods such as Cox’s proportional-hazards regression. A slightly different problem arises in using the Poisson regression technique with piecewise constant-baseline hazards, which requires the estimation of exposure in the various groups. To do this, the rounded time measurements are conventionally modified by applying ‘actuarial methods’, thus introducing an element of spurious accuracy into the data. For example, if the time-interval is a month, a single event is dated to the fifteenth day, and if there are two events, one is dated to the tenth and the other to the twentieth day of the month. If the time intervals are short, these somewhat ad hoc modifications of the essentially discrete data, which are required in order to apply a continuous time-method, appear rather harmless, since the differences between the true, recorded, and modified time measurements are small. However, ‘spurious accuracy’ is somewhat awkward, and it is natural to look for alternatives.
Capitalism With Morality
Authors: Haslett D W
Published: November 2023

Professor Haslett compares economic systems using both economic criteria and philosophically sophisticated standards to investigate ethical arguments for different types of economic system. Areas covered include: ethical presuppositions; libertarian capitalism; utopian communism; central planning socialism; worker democracies; and equal opportunity capitalism. He considers the advantages and disadvantages of the systems covered and concludes by outlining and defending an alternative system which attempts to avoid the moral deficiencies of capitalism.
Wealth-Maximization
Authors: Papandreou Andreas A
Published: November 2023

The dominant notion of efficiency in the Law and Economics literature is that of wealth-maximization. According to Posner (1977: 10) ‘Efficiency means exploiting economic resources in such a way that value—human satisfaction as measured by aggregate willingness to pay for goods and services—is maximized ’. While this criterion has been used primarily on issues of property-rights assignment and protection in common law, Posner has promoted its use as a guide to all questions of resource allocation. Even such basic entitlements as the entitlement to one ’s labour could and should be derived according to this principle.
Private Information and the Shape of the Redistribution Frontier
Authors: Gevers Louis , Wibaut Serge
Published: November 2023

This paper deals with the cost of moving towards equality; it attempts to explain what accounts for the size of it. In order to introduce our problem, we shall draw heavily on Sen’s (1982) Tanner lecture, which he delivered in 1979. After noting that a general concern for morality implies a concern for equality, Sen provides a characteristically lucid discussion of what should be equalized. Every individual in society can choose among various levels of consumption and effort within a given set of opportunities. By exerting his or her choice, the decision-maker produces a given list of functionings, some or all of which generate, in turn, his or her utility or welfare level. From the point of view of an ethical observer, certain basic functionings seem especially relevant: Sen quotes, among others, moving about, getting properly fed, participating in the social life of the community. He moves away from a time-honoured tradition, following which economists had been evaluating policy choices by means of their eventual consequences for individual welfare. Those of them concerned with equality had been comparing welfare levels or welfare gains among individuals. In A Theory of Justice, Rawls (1971) criticizes this approach and stresses the importance of what he calls primary goods, be they income, wealth, or the social basis of one’s self-respect. Sen builds on Rawls and emphasizes that the ability to achieve basic functionings with a given combination of effort and goods depends heavily on personal characteristics. He argues persuasively that one should be concerned with equality not so much in terms of goods or welfare or actual functionings, but rather in terms of capabilities to achieve basic functionings.
Valued Opinions or Opinionated Values: The Double Aggregation Problem
Authors: Roberts Kevin
Published: November 2023

Within the realm of social choice, the framework originally developed by Arrow can be viewed as applying to two different and distinct aggregation problems. In the first, aggregation takes the form of utilizing information about individual well-being to generate a social ranking of states. This is what is done by a social welfare function. In the second, the purpose of aggregation is to take a collection of social rankings of states that individuals in society may possess and to combine them to create a ‘consensus’ social ranking. This could be done by a voting system. In a general problem of social choice, one could expect to meet both aggregation problems—individuals in society have (perhaps different) views about the well-being of all individuals in society and, using this information, a single social ranking of states is desired.
Mass Unemployment as a Social Problem
Authors: Solow Robert m.
Published: November 2023

It may be possible to learn something new about the normal functioning of social institutions by observing what happens in extreme situations. Presumably that was one of Amartya Sen’s reasons for studying severe famine. It was probably not the only reason, however. Infrequent famine is an important enough event to be worth studying for its own sake, even if there were nothing to be learned from it about the distribution of food in normal circumstances. In this brief note I want to have a look at mass unemployment, in the same spirit. The 1930s were an extreme case, with high and persistent unemployment, the rate reaching above 30 per cent in some places for non-trivial intervals. That event provides a rugged proving-ground for any general picture of the functioning of the labour market. It may be too rugged. Just as hard cases are said to make bad law, it is possible that extreme cases make bad models. A model that works well for unemployment rates of between 3 and 15 per cent could be forgiven for failing outside that range; and trying to repair the model might make it worse. Nevertheless, one would be surprised if there were no general lessons to be learned from the experience of mass unemployment.
Socialism and Third World Development
Authors: Patnaik Prabhat
Published: November 2023

When Paul Baran named the last chapter of his book The Political Economy of Growth‘The Steep Ascent’ he could scarcely have imagined how steep that ascent would turn out to be in practice. The fact that many underdeveloped countries pursuing what then ap peared to be a promising path of self-reliant development, among whom Baran had high hopes in India, would, instead of pressing forward towards socialism as a means to sustain self-reliance, slide back into IMF conditionalities, may not perhaps have surprised him. After all these were countries with fairly entrenched bourgeoisies that would have made such an advancf: difficult. But the fact that there would be a slide back even among socialist countries, not just the extraordinarily poverty-stricken, embattled, and fragile countries, opting for socialism, but even among countries such as China which had witnessed some of the most heroic revolutionary struggles of this century, to a point where they too would have to listen to the ‘advice’ emanating from the Fund and the Bank would certainly have come to him as a surprise.To say this is not to trivialise the experiments in China, or to pre-judge the course of the current reforms, but merely to underscore the fact that the belief which many had that, once the revolution had triumphed, progress towards a society without want would be along a more or less well-charted course, and would be a more or less uninterrupted one, has turned out to have been simp listic.
The Torphichen Street Leviathan
Authors: Weir Ronald
Published: November 2023

It was a journalist in 1906 who described DCL as the ‘Torphichen Street Leviathan’.1 This was not a term of endearment, nor a nickname that those who led DCL liked or ever used, but it very accurately captured the trade’s sense of unease about DCL’s growing influence; like the legendary sea monster DCL did seem to be huge and menacing. DCL was respected but it was not popular, and dealers were permanently suspicious of its intentions, even though the company’s influence on the supply of grain whisky had actually diminished during the 1890s when three patent still distilleries were opened.2 Moreover, DCL had made no attempt to increase its ownership of grain distilleries. Indeed, between 1877 and 1902, it extended its distilling interests on only three occasions.3 DCL’s growth in this period was through internal expansion rather than by acquisition. By contrast, between 1902 and 1910 it acquired five patent still distilleries (three in Scotland and two in England), negotiated the closure of another one, and purchased a 50 per cent interest in United Distilleries, the largest grain whisky producer in Ireland.4 Thereafter the rate of acquisition accelerated and between 1910 and the ultimate union of DCL, Buchanan—Dewar, and Walker’s in the ‘big amalgamation’ of 1925 there was only one year, 1914, when the company was not involved in a take-over bid. This profile can be viewed another way.
Power Alcohol
Authors: Weir Ronald
Published: November 2023

In 1907 DCL purchased Vauxhall distillery in Liverpool. Vauxhall had a large trade in industrial alcohol, a business DCL believed had a good future and, because the main market was in England, could be developed better from Liverpool than from Scotland. DCL’s enthusiasm for industrial alcohol reflected the decline in the potable market and a major revision of the Excise regulations. Before 1902, these permitted the use of only one type of non-potable spirit—’ordinary methylated spirit’. For many users, particularly dyestuff-makers and other fine chemical producers, the denaturant in methylated spirit (10% wood naphtha) made alcohol technically unsuitable or too expensive and in 1902 a second category was enumerated, duty-free alcohol for use in arts and manufactures. This failed to satisfy several groups who were interested in the commercial exploitation of alcohol, and the government came under increasing pressure to lower the cost of alcohol. Distillers argued that the Excise system increased the cost of production and that compensation should be paid. Their campaign attracted support from many quarters.1 Chemical manufacturers held that the higher cost of alcohol handicapped them in competition with Germany. Agriculturalists envied the close relationship between farming and distilling in Germany and saw the derived demand from alcohol as a cure for agricultural depression. Motoring organizations wanted an alternative to petrol, whose supply was controlled by three oil companies, widely suspected of rigging the market.
Chemicals 1: Finding a Route to Solvents
Authors: Weir Ronald
Published: November 2023

The pressure to diversify was probably experienced most intensely by DCL between 1918 and 1925, for certainty that potable consumption was not going to return to pre-war levels combined with uncertainty about whether the big amalgation was attainable. In what sometimes seemed like a desperate search for new outlets for alcohol one group of products particularly attracted DCL: ‘alcohol derivatives and solvents’, a collective title which embraced acetone, acetic acid, methyl alcohol and methyl acetate, amyl alcohol, butyl alcohol, and propyl alcohol. DCL had produced acetone during the war using Weizmann’s process, an experience which convinced some directors that DCL’s future lay in the chemical industry. The immediate prospects for utilizing this experience were bleak, for the whole focus of acetone production had shifted across the Atlantic and, with the cessation of military demand, the market was in decline. Moreover, in Britain scientific opinion held that Weizmann’s process was not commercially viable because of the high cost of the raw material and ‘the fact that the production of every part of acetone involves the production of two parts of butyl alcohol having very little use for industrial purposes, at all events at the present time’.
Risk versus Reward: DCL’s Diversification Strategy, 1900–1939
Authors: Weir Ronald
Published: November 2023

DCL had a policy of spreading risks long before the inter-war period, as Menzies’ attempt to reassure shareholders during the anti-drink campaign indicates, but its product range was still very limited in 1915, consisting of yeast, malt extract, industrial alcohol, carbon dioxide, animal feed stuffs, and potable spirits. It was only after the First World War that diversification complemented rationalization as DCL’s solution to the problems facing the firm and the Scotch whisky industry. It is clear that the transition from the ‘whisky age’ to the ‘alcohol age’ was neither easy nor swift but a prolonged and difficult process.
From Inherito,,rs to Managers: The Ecole des Hautes Etudes Commerciales and Business Firms
Authors: Meuleau Marc
Published: November 2023

This chapter sets out to study the relationship between a recent newcomer to the field of top management; the commercial manager, and the evolution of administrative methods in large French firms. We shall take as our example the Ecole deshautes etudes commerciales (HEC) and its graduates. The post of commercial manager first appeared at the end of the nineteenth century with the development of senior management training. The commercial manager concentrated on everything other than pro duction and research,1 being as it were the counterpart of engineers in matters of commerce, finance, and administration; after the First World War he also competed on equal terms with them for promotion to a directorship. The underlying analysis is based on the assumption that training pro vides an individual with knowledge which can influence him in a decisive manner, giving him both technical skills and an ability to react more efficiently to given situations.
Relationships as Activity Links
Authors: Dubois Anna , Håkansson Håkan
Published: November 2023

One of the key problems in industrial markets is that activities in related companies have to be co-ordinated, not just within each company but also between them. One of the main ways of handling the co-ordination is developing relationships with the business counterparts. Business relationships have been analysed as some kind of simple on-off switch: from an economic point of view, either there is a relationship or there is not. In this article we try to go one step further and describe, characterize, and exemplify the content of business relationships as a continuous variable. In particular, we focus on how the relationship can function in terms of linking activities. Linking has different directions and dimensions, and therefore has different effects on the companies involved. The effects are analysed in three different analytical dimensions: the control actors gain over one another, the utilization of resources, that is, economic effects, and the possibility for individual actors to actively take part in change processes.
Inter-Firm Responses to Heterogeneity of Demand over Time
Authors: Easton Geoff , Aravjo Luis
Published: November 2023

This chapter examines the effects of heterogeneity of demand over time on modes of economic co-ordination in organizational markets. Departing from a discussion of different sources of heterogeneity of demand, the objective of the chapter is set in terms of examining the intra-and inter-organizational effects of coping strategies or response modes to short-term heterogeneity of demand over time. This perspective is contrasted with traditional approaches to the discontinuity-flexibility debate as in the manufacturing flexibility and strategy, and organizational change literatures. The discussion of firms’ responses to heterogeneity of demand over time is organized under a framework provided by the flow through nodes model of change in industrial networks. Six categories of response—selection, reflection, adaptation, absorption, transmission, and configuration—are discussed in turn and implications derived for modes of economic coordination. In particular, we argue that the transmission and configuration response modes are more likely to give rise to the formation of inter¬organizational networks, whilst other response modes tend to rely on either intra-firm or market mechanisms to deal with heterogeneity of demand over time.
Drivers of Management Accounting in Finland
Authors: Virtanen Kalervo , Malmi Teemu , Vaivio Juhani , Kasanen Eero
Published: November 2023

Finland provides an interesting laboratory setting for studying the turmoil in management accounting which is supposedly sweeping the world. There has been, in the not too distant past, a remarkable shift in Finnish management accounting practices, from full costing to variable costing. The recording of costs in official financial statements has likewise been increasingly based on variable costing. If the call for greater use of refined full costing or resource consumption models in advanced technological environments has merit, it should be made in Finland.
Portugal: Industrialization and Backwardness
Authors: Confraria Joao
Published: November 2023

By the end of the nineteenth century Portugal was one of the poorest countries in Europe. One century later, the position is similar (excluding Eastern Europe), even if for most of the period after 1950 the income gap with Western European countries has decreased. During the same period industrialization was often considered a necessary condition for sustainable economic growth. Accepting this position, it is possible to suggest two basic constraints for Portuguese growth. First, it was difficult to build a domestic consensus for industrialization policies; the issue was settled only by the middle of this century. Second, the small dimension of the domestic market was a powerful constraint on some industrialization strategies, for instance, those based on import substitution. Actually, import-substitution policies were pursued until the late 1950s, as a result of domes tic political processes and, also, of wider constraints related to international trade conditions. Later, following participation in the movements for European economic integration, export promotion became increasingly accepted. Meanwhile, the role of the state in fostering industrialization became particularly obvious after 1926. Since then, the policy framework has almost always led to state intervention not only in areas such as human resources and infrastructures but also in firms’ investment and, less often, pricing decisions.