bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Protestant Gnosis: From Holy Event to Private Illumination
Authors: Lee Philip J
Published: November 2023

THE difference between orthodox knowledge and gnostic knowledge has been described as the difference between open revelation and secret revelation. Although it is true for both faiths that the Holy Spirit is at work to open the eyes of the believer that he may know the truth, within orthodox thought the Holy Spirit’s work takes place in the presence of, and in terms of, given historical data and within the context of the Holy Catholic Church. Thus, in the Apostles’ Creed, the article affirming belief in the Holy Spirit is securely nestled between belief in the person and work of Jesus Christ and a willingness to learn from the Holy Catholic Church. That which humanity can and indeed ought to know-the data that bear the truth of God-is an open book. As Deutero-Isaiah assured Israel: He [the LORD] did not create it [the earth] a chaos, he formed it to be inhabited! “I am the LORD, and there is no other. I did not speak in secret, in a land of darkness; I did not say to the offspring of Jacob, ‘Seek me in chaos!’ “1 Here the prophet affirms not only the good order of the Creation, but the open revelation of Yahweh.
Syncretism: From the Particular to the Nebulous
Authors: Lee Philip J
Published: November 2023

The ancient gnostics did not find it acceptable to confine themselves to the intelligence of the apostles. They were not at all prepared to place all their eggs in such a small basket. For gnosticism by its very nature is syncretistic: it accepts the “intermingling of given ideas and images”1 as normal and necessary for faith. Christian orthodoxy is syncretistic by accident. As we have seen, in its missionary zeal and in its interaction with neighboring religions, the Church has been inadvertently influenced by many other faiths. Orthodoxy, however, in all its twists and turns, is pointed in one direction, that of Jesus Christ the incarnate Son of God. The one direction is guaranteed through the orthodox community’s regular celebration of Word and Sacrament. Gnostic syncretism could not accept the one direction. How could its multiple agenda be realized through the Crucified One? In fact, the Christ present at his Eucharist, as a single focus, denied what gnosis considered to be the supreme goals of religion: alienation from the world, secret knowledge, escape from the world, escape into the self and special status for the knowledgeable ones.
Results of a Gnosticized Protestantism
Authors: Lee Philip J
Published: November 2023

The decline of an authentic Protestantism and the ascendancy of gnostic Christianity in North America has wrought horrendous results and threatens even more tragic consequences in the future. If G. K. Chesterton was right in describing America as “a nation with the soul of a church,” that is one thing, but when America becomes a nation with the soul of a gnostic church, that is quite another. The sense of alienation felt by many Christians today is similar to that expressed in the mandalas of some Christian gnostics of the early Middle Ages. In some of their circular drawings or unifying symbols connecting male and female images, good and evil figures, there is no center. Those mandalas lacking a center, in which “no trace of divinity is to be found,” signify according to Jung that the creator of the mandala has found a center within the self. “The place of the deity,” Jung believes, “appears to be taken by the wholeness of man.” Although such a substitution of self for God can be and has been looked at as a positive step, humanity’s “coming of age,” the human race being now responsible for its own destiny or other bold assertions of emancipation, the place in the center remains empty: God’s place has been filled with-a void.
Pressure Balanced Structures
Authors: Burlaga L F
Published: November 2023

Pressure balanced structures are structures across which the total pressure is a constant (Ferraro and Plumpton, 1966; Burlaga, 1971a). Assuming that there is no motion of a pressure balanced structure relative to the solar wind frame, the equation of motion (1.1) is simply -ߜp’ + (J x B) = 0.
Magnetic Clouds and Force-Free Magnetic Fields
Authors: Burlaga L F
Published: November 2023

The concept of ejecta (“plasma clouds”) emitted from the sun, propagating through interplanetary space, and producing geomagnetic disturbances by their interaction with earth is very old (Lindeman, 1919; Chapman and Ferraro, 1929). The early work suggested that the plasma clouds are ejected by major solar flares with a speed of the order of 1000 km/s determined from the time between the flare and the corresponding solar disturbance (Chapman and Bartels, 1940). Initially, it was thought that the plasma clouds propagate through a vacuum. After Parker introduced the idea of a solar wind moving at a speed of the order of 400 km/s, it was realized by Gold (1955, 1959) that a plasma cloud can move supersonically and should drive a shock wave. Gold proposed that the sudden commencement of a geomagnetic storm is the effect of such a shock interacting with the earth’s magnetic field. Gold (1962) introduced the term “magnetosphere” for the region controlled by the earth’s magnetic field.
Merged Interaction Regions
Authors: Burlaga L F
Published: November 2023

When two or more interaction regions interact and coalesce, the resulting structure is called a “merged interaction region” or MIR (Burlaga et al. 1983, 1985; Burlaga, 1987). MIRs can be produced by the coalescence of interaction regions of various types, including those associated with corotating streams, magnetic clouds, forward and reverse shocks, and interplantary ejecta. Thus, there are many kinds of MIR, depending on origin. However, it is convenient to classify MIRs in three broad categories: corotating MIRs (CMIRs), local MIRs (LMIRs), and global MIRs (GMIRs), as discussed by Burlaga et al. (1993a). A corotating MIR is a quasi-steady pressure wave with a spiral geometry resembling that of the spiral magnetic field. A corotating MIR is ultimately formed by the interaction and coalescence of one corotating interaction region with one or more interaction regions of various types. Some processes by which a corotating MIR can be formed are discussed in Section 8.2. A corotating MIR tends to recur with a frequency equal to the solar rotation frequency. Qausi-periodic CMIRs are discussed in Section 8.3.
Decision-Making in Child Welfare: Linchpin of the Residual Model
Authors: Lindsey Duncan
Published: November 2023

Only one variable other than single motherhood was a better predictor of child removal: poverty… The Society [protective services] was sensitive to allegations that it kidnapped poor people’s children, and its stated policy was that it never removed children from their homes for poverty alone. But poverty was never alone. The characteristic signs of child neglect in this period [1880–1920]—dirty clothing, soiled linen, lice and wom1s, crowded sleeping conditions, lack of attention and supervision, untreated infections and running sores, rickets and other malfomiations, truancy, malnutrition, over-work—were often the results of poverty.
Euripides Electra
Authors: lembke Janet , Reckford kenneth J
Published: November 2023

Based on the conviction that only translators who write poetry themselves can properly recreate the celebrated and timeless tragedies of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, the Greek Tragedy in New Translations series offers new translations that go beyond the literal meaning of the Greek in order to evoke the poetry of the originals. Under the general editorship of the late William Arrowsmith and Herbert Golder, each volume includes a critical introduction, commentary on the text, full stage directions, and a glossary of the mythical and geographical references in the plays. This vital translation of Euripides’ Electra recreates the prize-winning excitement of the original play. Electra, obsessed by dreams of avenging her father’s murder, impatiently awaits the return of her exiled brother Orestes. When he arrives, the play mounts toward its first climax, a tender recognition scene. From that moment on, Electra uses Orestes as her instrument of vengeance. They kill their mother’s husband, then their mother herself--and only afterward see the evil inherent in these seemingly just acts. But in his usual fashion, Euripides has imbued myth with the reality of human experience, counterposing suspense and horror with comic realism and down-to-earth comments on life.
The comparative method in linguistics and poetics
Authors: Watkins Calvert
Published: November 2023

A curious byproduct of the age of colonialism and mercantilism was the introduction of Sanskrit in the 18th century to European intellectuals long familiar with Latin, Greek, and the European languages of culture at the time: Romance, Germanic, and Slavic. The comparison of Sanskrit with the two classical languages revolutionized the perception of linguistic relationships.
Sketch for a history of Indio-European poetics
Authors: Watkins Calvert
Published: November 2023

I treat these three topics separately and in the order given, since their histories are largely independent. A very detailed study of the history of Indo-European poetics, with the emphasis on formulaic comparisons, may be found in Schmitt 1967, the author’s dissertation under Paul Thieme.
Poetics as grammar: Typology of poetic devices and some rules of poetic grammar
Authors: Watkins Calvert
Published: November 2023

We may consider poetic language as a sort of grammar, in our case an Indo-European grammar, which distinguishes levels of sound and levels of meaning. On the level of sound alone, where meaning per se and meaningful units are not in play, we have the domains of METRICS and other rhythmic features and of the various sound devices which we can refer to globally as PHONETIC FIGURES, such as alliteration and rhyme. On a higher level, this poetic grammar has a morphological component, where sound and grammatical meaning alone are in play: we have the domain of GRAMMATICAL FIGURES.
The poet’s truth: The power, particularity, and perseveration of the word
Authors: Watkins Calvert
Published: November 2023

If water is best, and gold the most awesome of possessions, then Theron in virtue comes to the outermost edge, and reaches from his house to the Pillars of Heracles. I will speak with truthful mind a word under oath, that the city has not in a hundred years given birth to a man more magnificent in heart and more ungrudging in hand than Theron. In each case it is the ‘Poet’s Truth’ which assures his proper recompense.
The comparison of formulaic sequences
Authors: Watkins Calvert
Published: November 2023

In formulaics especially, as elsewhere in the study of poetics, the investigator must distinguish the diachronic, historical from the synchronic, descriptive, but at the same time move from the one to the other. Formulaic examples like those given just above from Vedic, Greek, and Old Irish are synchronic formulas. Cases like these just alluded to in Early Irish are synchronic formulas which are also diachronically viable. That is to say that in favorable cases this can be demonstrated by comparanda and motivated.
An Indo-European stylistic figure
Authors: Watkins Calvert
Published: November 2023

In the preceding chapter we saw that not only words but whole phrases can be equated between or among cognate languages. Such phrases are termed formulas, since their very repetitionas ‘ready-made surface structures’ (Kiparsky) over long periods of time is precisely what makes possible the application of the Comparative Method to them. The result is the postulation and reconstruction of a stylisticlinguistic history. Not only lexicon and formula, where meaning is relevant, but also more abstract levels of poetic grammar are equally amenable, in favorable circumstances, to treatment by the Comparative Method.
A late Indo-European traditional epithet
Authors: Watkins Calvert
Published: November 2023

In one of the few fragments of pre-Christian Armenian oral epic poetry (the text is quoted in chap. 23.2) we find in a simile the phrase arcui sratew‘sharp-winged eagle’. In this group of noun and adjectival epithet, both in its form and in its semantics, we have a probable inheritance from the common poetic language of Indo-Iranian, Greek, and Armenian.
Strophic structures as “rhythmic prose”? Italic
Authors: Watkins Calvert
Published: November 2023

Our observations of early Latin and Umbrian prayer and liturgy have led to the recognition of demarcated strophic structures which can be broken into relatively short lines which correspond to syntactic units. These lines are often ornamented by alliteration and other phonetic figures, and may and usually do exhibit characteristic rhetorical and grammatical figures (as for example those catalogued in chap.
Early Irish rosc
Authors: Watkins Calvert
Published: November 2023

Liam Breatnach observed in an important article (Breatnach 1984, with references) that ‘Old Irish texts appear in three forms: prose, rhyming syllabic verse, and rose.The simplest definition of roseis that it is neither of the other two.’ There were several stylistic varieties of prose in Early Irish, associated with such genres as law texts, saints’ lives, and sagas.
The root *g4hen-: Vedic han-
Authors: Watkins Calvert
Published: November 2023

While the Verb-Object formula is characteristic, the full structure with overt Subject is, not surprisingly, possible, with various permutations of word order, as we have seen. Indeed the fullest expression of the mythological theme includes the specification of the Weapon, typically a cudgel; this type will be considered separately later.
The root *g4hen-: Avestan jan-
Authors: Watkins Calvert
Published: November 2023

There should be no doubt that this legend is only another version of the same common Indo-Iranian myth, with its same formulaic diction.Yasna 9 .10, with which we began, continues exactly parallel to strophe 7 quoted above, with Thrita, the third man to press haoma.
Expansion of the formula: A recursive formulaic figure
Authors: Watkins Calvert
Published: November 2023

Yet another example of the basic formula with the same tripartite etymological figure in ring-composition recurs in Bacchylides, with the inverse or reciprocal version of the formula which we saw in Vedic and other languages in chap. 31.
Herakles, the formulaic hero
Authors: Watkins Calvert
Published: November 2023

Such echoes with lexical substitution may extend even further, as we might expect with flexible formulas. Indeed, lexical substitution under semantic identity is one of the principal ways in which formulas undergo diachronic change.
Hermes, Enualios, and Lukoworgos: The Serpent-slayer and the Man-slayer
Authors: Watkins Calvert
Published: November 2023

Let us return to the passages in Iliad 6 with which the discussion of the basic formula in Greece began: the meeting and verbal exchange on the battlefield between the Trojan Glaukos and the Greek Diomedes. As well as myths and legends it contains many cultural themes of great antiquity.
The name of Meleager
Authors: Watkins Calvert
Published: November 2023

Orion’s cudgel here is the most fully described in early Greek literature. There can be no doubt that this is an ancient and inherited thematic nexus,fo r the same features recur in the description of Indro’s cudgel in Vedic and Mithra’s mace in Avestan.
The Germanic world
Authors: Watkins Calvert
Published: November 2023

The earliest Germanic literature, Old English, Old High German, Old Saxon, and Old Norse, knows a great many combats between heroes and dragons or heroic adversaries, epical conflicts which have continued to seize popular imagination from the Dark Ages right down to the 19th and 20th centuries, in the response to the operas of Richard Wagner, the still unabated vogue of the literary creations of the distinguished philologist J. R. R. Tolkien, and the immense success of the game Dungeons and Dragons.
Fergus mac Léti and the muirdris
Authors: Watkins Calvert
Published: November 2023

The myth of the first of the two leading cases, teoraferba f(ra‘three milk cows’, contains both themes and key vocabulary going back to the Indo-European times: in a lecture in Dublin I styled it ‘The Milk of the Dawn Cows’. For this reason alone the second myth, the events culminating in Fergus’ vanquishing the monster in an underwater combat, also deserves our close attention.
Typhoeus and the Illuyankas
Authors: Watkins Calvert
Published: November 2023

In a more recent work, W. Burkert states simply,2 ‘There are detailed Hittite parallels; hence these myths must be regarded as borrowings from Asia Minor.’ While recognizing the value of the oriental analogues to Hesiod, Gregory Nagy (1990b:81) on the other hand cautions against the danger of mere typological similarity: the standard dilemma of the comparative method.
Python and Ahi Budhnya, the Serpent of the Deep
Authors: Watkins Calvert
Published: November 2023

Fontenrose showed at considerable length, without comparing the two names linguistically, that the Python and Typhon myths largely coincide, and must be at the outset developments of a single ‘earlier form of the Greek dragon myth in which Typhon and Python were not distinguished’ (1980:193).
The best of the Achaeans
Authors: Watkins Calvert
Published: November 2023

We can observe the transition from mythical combat to the reality of war in the account of the trials of Bellerophontes in Iliad6 with which we began chap. 36. The passage concludes with the slaying of the warriors sent against Bellerophontes by the king of Lycia after his victory over the Chimaira, the Solymians, and the Amazons, Il.6.
To be the death of: Transformation of the formula
Authors: Watkins Calvert
Published: November 2023

Some instances of the basic formula in Greek show a more complex grammatical responsion. Two sets involve minor players in the Iliad.We may think of them as little sagas, like that of Iphitos (chap. 41). The first is the saga of Tlepolemos of Rhodes, the son of Herakles and grandson of Zeus.
The formula without the word: A note on Euripides and Lysias
Authors: Watkins Calvert
Published: November 2023

We have a visual representation of the same scene on an early fifth-century black figured lekythos (thus prior to Euripides), with ‘the infant Apollo shooting his arrows from Leto’s arms at a snake of many coils, who appears among rocks in a hollow.’5
The basic formula and the announcement of death
Authors: Watkins Calvert
Published: November 2023

Such contrasts point up the interplay between synchronic text analysis— conventional literary “criticism”—and what for want of a better term I have tendentiously called diachronic and comparative “intertextuality” (chap. 27.3). They are part of what makes the study of these ancient texts worthwhile.
The song of victory in Greek
Authors: Watkins Calvert
Published: November 2023

For the god had sworn that because he had killed old Priam as he leapt toward the altar of Zeus Herkeios, he would reach neither his kindly home nor old age in life. As he quarreled with the attendants over vast prerogatives Apollo slew him in his own sanctuary by earth’s broad navel,
Indo-European medical doctrine
Authors: Watkins Calvert
Published: November 2023

They came to him with ulcers that the flesh had grown, or their limbs mangled with gray bronze, or bruised with the stone flung from afar, or the body stormed with summer fever, or chill; and he released each man and led him from his individual grief.
The poet as healer
Authors: Watkins Calvert
Published: November 2023

To the controversy initiated by Kuhn in 1864, centered rightly or wrongly on the Old High German second Merseburg charm, the theoretical contribution of Campanile 1977, reiterated 1990, was to recognize that magical, carminative medicine was in Indo-European culture and society a manifestation of the power of the spoken word, of which the Indo-European poet was both the custodian and the professional.
Conversion
Authors: Valeri Mark
Published: November 2023

The earliest autobiographical event that Joseph Bellamy recorded was his conversion. He recalled it some forty-seven years later, in 1783, while urging his daughter Betsey (b. 1759) to seek hers. “This is my comfort,” he wrote, “that God Almighty has been my chief joy from the time I was seventeen years old to this day.” He explained to Betsey that conversion was an identifiable and sensible moment of humiliation, confession, and faith. “Feel and confess all your guilt,” he counseled; “ask his pardon in the name of Christ, and his grace to form you anew.” If his advice reflected his own experience, then Bellamy’s conversion came also as a release from “the hustle and bustle of life,” the search for status and social position; it yielded a sense of security and confidence. Bellamy may well have recol-lected that his spiritual transformation occurred when he had gone to Northampton, Massachusetts, to reside and study with Jonathan Edwards.
Law
Authors: Valeri Mark
Published: November 2023

Among the wares that Boston dockworkers unloaded from a ship on a summer day in 1755, we might imagine, was a large package, damp and heavy after its long voyage from Scotland. It was addressed from “J. Erskine, Edinburgh” to “S. Kneeland, bookseller, Boston, New England.” The parcel lay for a few hours on the wharf before a messenger came, signed for it, and lugged it up to Queen street. At the shop, Samuel Kneeland cut open the cover and quickly thumbed through the books. He set aside and bundled nine of them and the next day sent them along with a rider to Hartford. During the next ten days several travelers carried the parcel to the inland trading town of Litchfield, where a militia captain on his way to Danbury agreed to take the books to a small village some fifteen miles away. After a morning’s ride, the captain knocked at the door of the village’s parsonage and handed the somewhat worn package to the large, deep-voiced man who shared courtesies and a draught of cider.
The Odyssey, History, and Women
Authors: Graham A J
Published: November 2023

If we include the goddesses and semidivine women, the Odyssey presents a great panorama of womanhood. This is a fascinating prospect for Greek historians, starved as they are for information about women in Greek history generally, and especially in the early period. Before they can use that material for historical reconstructions and conclusions, however, it is necessary to consider the question of the Odyssey as historical evidence.
The Plan of Athena
Authors: Murnaghan Sheila
Published: November 2023

The Odyssey opens by dramatizing the Olympian negotiations behind its action, and the goddess Athena quickly emerges as the source and sponsor of the plot that follows. All of the gods except Poseidon are gathered in the halls of Zeus listening to his meditations on a story that is already concluded, the story of Agamemnon. Athena tactfully shifts Zeus' attention to the story that is on her mind, the still-unconcluded story of Odysseus.
The Sargasso Sea: Aspasia and the Discourse on Prostitutes in the Hellenistic, Roman, and Late Antique Periods
Authors: Henry Madeleine M
Published: November 2023

Although Aspasia’s bios would surface spectacularly in Plutarch’s Life of Pericles, it is not possible to limn her biographical tradition clearly from the mid-fourth century B.c. onward. Aspasia is mentioned but cursorily in a few complete texts, and we cannot hope to fully understand how she was treated in the many fragmentary works that mention her. Cicero and Quintilian took her seriously as a logician, and Plutarch thought it worth reporting elements of her life relevant to Pericles. For others, Aspasia not only dominated Pericles, but was also the lovelorn Socrates’ “agony aunt.” There is much here for the student of high culture to disdain, but the persistence of treatments of Aspasia along the entire continuum of texts, patchy though these be, testifies to her power as an icon in this period of cultural ferment, fusion, and eclecticism.
Introduction
Authors: MacDonald Dennis Ronald
Published: November 2023

Gregory’s editing reduced the Acts drastically. He deleted most speeches and entire episodes, often skewed the itinerary, and purged nearly every trace of its original sexual asceticism, nonviolence, and Platonism. Nevertheless, his Liber de miraculis now is the most valuable extant witness to the architecture of The Acts of Andrew as a whole. Beginning with Andrew sailing off to rescue Matthias from cannibals and ending, more than thirty episodes later, with a radically abbreviated account of Andrew’s death, Gregory’s epitome provides the most reliable evidence concerning the extent and sequence of the original Acts.
Satire as Poetry and the Impossibility of Metathesis in Horace’s Satires
Authors: Oberhelman Steven , Armstrong David
Published: November 2023

So Horace’s comments are nearly always interpreted. But such a reading is valid only if the present text, and with it sections of the second literary satire that conclude the book, Satire 10, are taken at the surface layer of textuality. And one must be wary of accepting Horace’s words at face value.5 A close scrutiny is warranted in a poet whose “sense of irony and ambiguity”6 permeates his work, especially the satires; who was sensitive to the placement of words and their sounds as they affect textuality; who, most importantly, structured his poem, the hexameters and odes alike, into the organized unity of the scroll, the liber.7 In fact it will be demonstrated here that Horace is asserting in the above passage his right, as a satirist, to the rank of poets; that this passage gains important further meaning when read as part of the liber, that is, of Satires Book 1, and throws light on Horace’s literary critical ideas on res/verba and arslingenium-ideas for which Horace was greatly indebted to Philodemus and the Epicurean school.
Charge Collection Microscopy and Cathodoluminescence
Authors: Joy David C
Published: November 2023

Charge collection imaging in the scanning electron microscope, often known by the acronym EBIC (electron beam-induced current), has become a widely used technique for the characterization of semiconductor materials and devices (Leamy, 1982; Holt and Joy, 1990). While there is a substantial literature on the use of EBIC methods to measure semiconductor parameters, such as the minority carrier diffusion length (Leamy, 1982), the majority of charge collected images are interpreted in a purely qualitative manner. Cathodoluminescence (C/L) imaging of semiconductor materials, which is in essence very similar to EBIC, has similarly been used mostly in a picture-taking rather than a data-producing mode. The problem is not that there are no good models to explain the image formation but rather that, in order to provide tractable analytical expressions for the calculation of contrast, it is invariably necessary to make significantly oversimplified assumptions about the interaction of the electron beam with the specimen. In this chapter, we demonstrate how the Monte Carlo models discussed earlier can be used to overcome these problems and make EBIC and C/L more useful techniques for microcharacterization. When an electron beam impinges on a semiconductor, some of the energy deposited by the beam is used to promote an electron from the filled valence band, across the band gap, to the empty or partially filled conduction band (Fig. 7.1). Since the valence band was initially full, the removal of an electron leaves behind a “hole” that has all the physical properties of an electron but carries a positive charge. For each electron promoted across the band gap, one hole is formed, so it is convenient to consider the two components together and talk of an electron-hole pair.
Secondary Electrons and Imaging
Authors: Joy David C
Published: November 2023

Secondary electrons (SE), discovered by Austin and Starke in 1902, are defined as being those electrons emitted from the specimen that have energies between 0 and 50 eV. Because of their low energy, secondary electrons are readily deflected and collected by the application of an electrostatic or magnetic field; as a consequence, the great majority of all scanning electron microscope (SEM) images have been taken using the SE signal. Secondaries can be generated through a variety of interactions in the specimen (Wolff, 1954; Seiler, 1984), a typical event being a knock-on collision in which the incident electron imparts some fraction of its energy to a free electron in the specimen. This is followed by a cascade process in which these secondaries diffuse through the solid, multiplying and losing energy as they travel, until they either sink back into the sea of conduction electrons or reach the surface with sufficient energy to emerge as true SE. For SE with energies of a few tens of electron volts, the inelastic mean free path (MFP) is small, in the range 10 to 40 A, so each secondary typically travels only a short distance before sharing some of its energy in an inelastic event. However, for most materials, the inelastic MFP reaches a minimum at about 20 to 30 eV; for energies below that value, it increases rapidly, because there are no large cross-section inelastic scattering events through when energy can be transferred. The elastic MFP also falls with energy but becomes approximately constant at a few tens of angstroms for energies below about 30 eV. SE with energies below this value are therefore strongly elastically scattered even though inelastic scattering is insignificant. Consequently, as the cascade develops from some point below the surface of the irradiated specimen, only a finite fraction will actually reach the surface and escape to be collected. We can thus see that there is a region beneath the surface-the so-called SE escape depth, perhaps 50 to 150 A in extent-beyond which no SE generated can reach the surface and escape.
X-Ray Production and Microanalysis
Authors: Joy David C
Published: November 2023

The process of fluorescent x-ray generation in a sample by electron beam irradiation makes it possible to perform a chemical microanalysis of small (micrometer size or less) regions of a specimen. However, in order to obtain quantitative data, it is necessary to be able to describe in considerable detail the distribution-both laterally and in depth-of the x-ray production. It was this need that led to the initial studies of Monte Carlo modeling by Bishop (1966). Although, it many cases, simple analytical models have subsequently been developed that allow many of the required results to be obtained with adequate accuracy, only Monte Carlo methods offer a general approach to the microanalysis of an arbitrary specimen. In this chapter we examine x-ray production, both characteristic and continuum (Bremsstrahlung), in thin foils and in bulk specimens using the Monte Carlo models previously developed.
The Trinity, Society, and Politics
Authors: Thompson John
Published: November 2023

“The trinity is our social programme.” “This statement is found in the 19th Century in the Orthodox theologian Nicolai Fedorov and also in the Anglican theologian F. D. Maurice and the Danish Lutheran Nicolai Gruntvig.” So writes Jiirgen Moltmann in an address given at the Conference of European Churches in Goslar, Germany, in 1982.1 Moltmann’s concern to relate the Trinity to society stems from his particular view of God as a union of three divine persons or distinct, but related subjects. The Trinity forms the social paradigm since it is a mutually loving, interacting, sustaining society. It is, as he puts it, “the exemplar of true human community, first in the church and also in society.”2 Moltmann believes that the concept of person, stemming largely from the Christian doctrine of God, has had a permanent effect upon Western political thought. It has had much less of an impact on the social aspects of life. This stems from the fact that God was conceived too much in a monotheistic way rather than as a God of trinitarian unity and community. Moltmann therefore sees the social view of the Trinity as being both a proper paradigm for society and a critique of a false idea of God.
Introduction
Authors: Costin Lela B , Karger Howard Jacob , Stoesz David
Published: November 2023

In her remarks before the American Medical Association on March 11, 1994, Donna Shalala, secretary of health and human services, condemned family violence and urged congressional passage of the Violence Against Women Act as a way to protect women against abuse. Budgeted at $1.8 billion over five years, the act would, among its many provisions, mandate the arrest of a suspected abuser, whether or not the victim pressed charges. “This country has to wake up to the very real consequences of this violence,” Shalala explained. “Domestic violence is terrorism-terrorism in the home-and that is what we should call it.” (The bill, part of the Omnibus Violent Crime Control and Prevention Act, was in fact passed by Congress and then signed into law by President Bill Clinton in September 1994.)
Child Abuse as a Social Problem: The Emergence of the Child Savers
Authors: Costin Lela B , Karger Howard Jacob , Stoesz David
Published: November 2023

The “discovery” of child abuse in the urban industrial world and organized attention to it occurred more than a century ago with the founding in 187 4 of the New York Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (SPCC), the first organization of its kind anywhere. The movement spread rapidly throughout American cities and into countries of Europe. By 1910 more than two hundred such Societies existed in the United States. By 1921, however, formal efforts to “rescue” children from “cruelty” at the hands of their parents or other caretakers had lost momentum, to be resumed only in the late 1950s and early 1960s. While the rediscovery of child abuse as a serious social problem triggered an avalanche of public and professional concern, little notice was taken of the legacy of child protection that was reflected in the experience of the early Societies for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. This chapter examines the moral and legal reform represented by the early child rescue movement, many of whose characteristics form the basis for today’s efforts to combat child abuse and neglect.
The Decline and Rediscovery of Child Abuse 1920–1960
Authors: Costin Lela B , Karger Howard Jacob , Stoesz David
Published: November 2023

The halcyon days of America’s anticruelty-to-children movement gave way to a long period of dormancy in the early twentieth century. By the 1920s the cruelty movement had lost its momentum, changed its purpose, and become less visible. The social welfare literature from the early 1900s through the 1950s reflects a sharply diminished discussion of child abuse as a specific condition requiring intervention by community agents. This chapter (1) identifies and compares recurrent themes, salient issues, ambiguities, and strategies in the early-twentieth-century anti-child abuse organizations, (2) documents the basis for the schism that developed among them, allowing cruelty to children to become a muted issue for as long as four decades among child welfare professionals and those in other disciplines committed to children’s well-being, and ( 3) determines how the waning of a once vigorous movement and its long years of obscurity can be accounted for.
From the “Battered Child” Syndrome to the “Battered Psyche” Syndrome: Rediscovering Child Abuse in the 1960s and Beyond
Authors: Costin Lela B , Karger Howard Jacob , Stoesz David
Published: November 2023

Even as child abuse receded as a public concern, several institutional developments after the 1920s served to set the stage for its revival. Prominent among these were the major expansions of the American welfare state during the New Deal and, later, the War on Poverty. Indeed, as proponents of European-style welfare states moved to the forefront of discussions about American domestic policy, earlier attempts at child welfare—efforts by the New York SPCC to rescue children and by the Massachusetts SPCC to focus on prevention—were perceived as anachronisms, institutional artifacts in an era during which the state would assume responsibility for welfare. Three laws served to consolidate federal leadership in child welfare: the 1974 Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment, the 1980 Adoption Assistance and Child Welfare Act (PL 96-272), and the Family Preservation and Support initiative of the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993.
Restructuring Child Abuse Services: The Children’s Authority
Authors: Costin Lela B , Karger Howard Jacob , Stoesz David
Published: November 2023

Plagued by underfunding and related problems—staff burnout, high turnover rates, large caseloads, poor working conditions, inadequately trained staff, and haphazard screening and investigative procedures—child protection has devolved into a virtual nonsystem. As earlier chapters have shown, the current disarray in services for abused and neglected children is not unlike the benign neglect that has preceded new initiatives in child welfare in the past. The current enthusiasm for family preservation mirrors the nation’s failure to attend to the needs of maltreated children earlier in the twentieth century. Then, as now, proponents of social programs cited the need for policies that supported vulnerable families, contending that adequate support for families would prevent the need for more intrusive and expensive intervention. Then, as now, faith in prevention waned with the chronicling of significant trauma inflicted upon children. In the 1960s, the discovery of the battered-child syndrome challenged the belief that the social and economic supports introduced during the New Deal and the War on Poverty would eventually reduce the incidence of child maltreatment; in the 1990s, data on child abuse and neglect and child homicide serve to dispel the myth that family preservation is the panacea for child abuse and neglect.
P
Authors: Ellis Peter Berresford
Published: November 2023

Palug’s Cat. [W] A speckled feline who swam ashore on Ynys Mon and ate 180 warriors. Cei fought with it and killed it. Paris. [W] King Paris of France, “from whom Paris takes its name,” appears in the story of Culhwch and Olwen as a friend of Arthur’s who helps in the quest. The claim is not so far-out, for there was a Belgae tribe called the Parisi who settled, or had a branch who settled, north of the Humber (Yorkshire). The area has produced some of the most spectacular Celtic chariot burials (designated the “Arras culture” by archaeologists). [See The Parisi, Herman Ramm, Duckworth, London, 1978.] The Parisi, or their Gaulish branch, gave their name to Paris.
V
Authors: Ellis Peter Berresford
Published: November 2023

Vortigern. [W] Mentioned by Geoffrey of Monmouth, the name means “overlord” or “High King.” He is also known in Welsh tradition as Gwrtheyrn, meaning “supreme leader.” He is said to have been ruler of Britain in the fifth century and to have invited Jutish mercenaries under Hengist and Horsa into the island of Britain. Hengist and Horsa then turned on him and began to carve out kingdoms for themselves. This was the first appearance of the ancestors of the English in Britain. Because of this, he is regarded as the archtraitor in Celtic tradition.
The Triumph Of The Market
Authors: Blau Joel
Published: November 2023

In the last quarter of the twentieth century, the United States embarked on a great experiment. At work and in the national economy, Americans reembraced the market as the key to improving their standard of living. In the workplace, corporations deployed computer technology, revamped what nearly every worker did, and laid off millions of people-including nearly 4.2 million between 1993 and 1995 alone. In the national economy, a chastened federal government sought to become ever more marketlike: it downsized, deregulated, and dismantled. With less government and fewer social protections, most Americans tried simply to catch the new wave. Now that a bona fide market economy had been unleashed, surely it would bring prosperity to them, too.
National Security and National Morale
Authors: Oakes Guy
Published: November 2023

The Berlin blockade of 1948 and 1949 was the first nightmare of post war American foreign policy planning. The Red Army, it seemed, was poised to overrun Western Europe. America’s European allies would be occupied or neutralized, subdued by Soviet power or seduced by Communist ideology. The United States would be forced to maintain a garrison state within its own borders, its economy ruined and its most sacred values destroyed. Although the Cold War did not begin with the Berlin crisis, the blockade was the first conflict with the Soviet Union that led American planners to fear that World War III could be imminent.
The Cold War Conception of Nuclear Reality
Authors: Oakes Guy
Published: November 2023

What would it really be like to experience a nuclear attack? More important, what could Americans be persuaded to believe about their prospects for survival? How should the theater of World War III-the United States under nuclear bombardment-be conceived? In the 1950s, civil defense planners addressed these questions by developing a conception of American society in a nuclear crisis. The assumption that Americans would be able to protect themselves in a nuclear attack presupposed an account of nuclear war that showed how survival by means of self-protection could be achieved. Civil defense planners provided what was needed: the Cold War conception of nu clear reality, an interpretation of American society under nuclear attack designed to sustain the view that the American people could make the best of the worst. Its purpose was to define the public perception of nuclear war by writing the future as history and telling the story of what would happen when Soviet nuclear weapons struck their ultimate target, the American home front. The story was intended not as an accurate picture of what the United States devastated by nuclear bombs would look like, but as a representation of an “ideal” nuclear world, a highly selective and stylized account designed to legitimate the strategy’ of deterrence.
Governing The Tongue
Authors: Kamensky Jane
Published: November 2023

Colonial New Englanders would have found our modern notions of free speech very strange indeed. Children today shrug off harsh words by chanting “sticks and stones may break my bones but names will never hurt me," but in the seventeenth century people felt differently. “A soft tongue breaketh the bone,” they often said. Governing the Tongue explains why the spoken word assumed such importance in the culture of early New England. Author Jane Kamensky re-examines such famous Puritan events as the Salem witch trials and the banishment of Anne Hutchinson to expose the ever-present fear of what the puritans called “sins of the tongue.” But even while dangerous or deviant speech was restricted, Kamensky points out, godly speech was continuously praised and promoted. Congregations were told that one should ones voice “like a trumpet” to God and “cry out and cease not.” By placing speech at the heart of familiar stories of Puritan New England, Kamensky develops new ideas about the relationship between speech and power both in Puritan New England and, by extension, in our world today.
Historians and Congregational Evangelism
Authors: Rohrer James R
Published: November 2023

The American Revolution initiated a fundamental reorientation of Christianity in the United States. The egalitarian ideals of the revolutionary movement promoted dissatisfaction with traditional clerical authority and prompted Americans to seek greater freedom within their churches. “Let us be republicans indeed,” evangelist Elias Smith proclaimed to his followers in the early nineteenth century. “Venture to be as independent in things of religion,” Smith urged, “as those which respect the government in which you live.” The separation of church and state and the triumph of religious voluntarism was perhaps the clearest manifestation of this independent spirit. Republican citizens bristled at coercion of any kind—spiritual as well as political—and were quick to assert their “rights of conscience” against anyone who would restrict them. In such an environment heterodox beliefs and movements flourished, new sects enjoyed the freedom to proselytize and expand, and long-dominant communions struggled to retain the loyalty of their increasingly independent flocks. In Robert Wiebe’s words, the young republic experienced a “revolution in choices” in the religious as well as the secular realm, presenting clergymen of the established colonial churches with an unpleasant alternative: compete for popular favor or perish.
The Connecticut Missionary Society
Authors: Rohrer James R
Published: November 2023

When the General Association of Connecticut convened at the Congregational meetinghouse in Windham in June 1797, an atmosphere of expectancy pervaded the gathering. For several years evangelicals in both England and America had been praying fervently for a general revival of God’s people. Now, many New Light ministers believed, an awakening was at hand. From across the ocean came stirring news of wondrous missionary advances in Africa and the South Seas, while at home unusual “seriousness” seemed evident among many congregations throughout the state. New Divinity stalwart Charles Backus of Somers reported the commencement of “a great work” among his people, triggered, he believed, by a series of “sermons upon the inspiration of the scriptures.” In April word arrived of a “considerable awakening” in New York City, followed within weeks by missionary Seth Williston’s report of a marvelous outpouring of God’s Spirit in the Chenango settlements. These developments fired the imagination of New Lights and fueled millennial hopes that transformed the budding missionary movement.
CMS Missionaries and Revivalism
Authors: Rohrer James R
Published: November 2023

In August 1798, less than two months after the creation of the Connecticut Missionary Society, the Reverend Samuel J. Mills of Torringford noticed “unusual religious appearances” among his flock. The young people began to meet weekly by themselves for prayer and spiritual exercises, “an event so extraordinary” that it soon “excited a spirit of general inquiry throughout the society.” By the autumn it was evident that God was reviving the Church at Torringford. A remarkable “solemnity appeared on the countenances” of the people, Mills wrote in a narrative published in the Connecticut Evangelical Magazine. “They found their hearts so much opposed to God, and to his law and to his gospel, as to see that nothing short of divine power could ever subdue them.” Filled with a terrible anxiety about their sinful condition, many professors of religion now feared that their previous hopes of salvation had been grounded upon false impressions. For more than a year the “seriousness” and “solemnity” prevailed in Torringford, humbling the proud and hard-hearted, disturbing the lukewarm and the comfortable, and finally reconciling dozens of awakened sinners to the sovereignty of God and “the duties of unconditional submission and disinterested affection.” Mills, an earnest Edwardsean who had long prayed for a revival of religion, was amazed by the power of this divine outpouring of grace. “Such a day as this, Sir, we never even dreamt of,” he observed to Thomas Robbins in the fall of 1799. “It is the Lord’s doings & marvelous in our eyes.”
Sources of Noise
Authors: Sarid Dror
Published: November 2023

A typical scanning force microscope consists of a lever and its force-sensing tip, a bimorph, and a tip deflection probe with its amplifier, each of which contributes noise to the system. We present the primary sources of laser-diode noise (Petermann 1988 and Agrawal and Dutta 1986) including shot, intensity, and phase noise, which is converted into amplitude noise in an interferometric configuration. Next, we address the thermal noise of the lever and the limiting effect it has on the sensitivity of the measurements. We then discuss the noise of the bimorph supporting the lever and present experimental results where these noise contributions have been measured.