bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Vengefulness: Relationships with Forgiveness, Rumination, Well-Being, and the Big Five
Authors: McCullough Michael E. , Bellah C. Garth , Kilpatrick Shelley Dean , Johnson Judith L.
Published: March 2007

Because forgiveness theory has tended to neglect the role of dispositional factors, the authors present novel theorizing about the nature of vengefulness (the disposition to seek revenge following interpersonal offenses) and its relationship to forgiveness and other variables. In Study 1, vengefulness was correlated cross-sectionally with (a) less forgiving, (b) greater rumination about the offense, (c) higher negative affectivity, and (d) lower life satisfaction. Vengefulness at baseline was negatively related to change in forgiving throughout an 8-week follow-up. In Study 2, vengefulness was negatively associated with Agreeableness and positively associated with Neuroticism. Measures of the Big Five personality factors explained 30% of the variance in vengefulness.
What is it about Revealing Secrets that is Beneficial?
Authors: Kelly Anita E. , Klusas Julie A. , von Weiss Renee T. , Kenny Christine
Published: March 2007

Two studies explored what it is about revealing secrets that makes people feel better about them. In Study 1, undergraduates (N = 137) indicated whether they had gained new insights or catharsis from revealing secrets to confidants in the past. Gaining insights predicted feeling positive about the secrets, whereas gaining catharsis predicted feeling negative about them. In Study 2, undergraduates (N = 85) were randomly assigned to write about their (a) secrets while trying to gain new insights, (b) secrets while trying to gain catharsis, or (c) previous day. The new insights group felt more positive about their secrets than did the other groups and came to terms with their secrets more than did those in the catharsis group. Not coming to terms with the secrets was associated with feeling negative about them. It is suggested that focusing solely on venting emotions may be an unhelpful or even harmful way of dealing with secrets.
Need Satisfaction, Motivation, and Well-Being in the Work Organizations of a Former Eastern Bloc Country: A Cross-Cultural Study of Self-Determination
Authors: Deci Edward L. , Ryan Richard M. , Gagné Marylène , Leone Dean R. , Usunov Julian , Kornazheva Boyanka P.
Published: March 2007

Past studies in U.S. work organizations have supported a model derived from self-determination theory in which autonomy-supportive work climates predict satisfaction of the intrinsic needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness, which in turn predict task motivation and psychological adjustment on the job. To test this model cross-culturally, the authors studied employees of state-owned companies in Bulgaria, a country that has traditionally had a central-planning economy, a totalitarian political system, and collectivist values. A sample from a privately owned American corporation was used for comparison purposes. Results using structural equation modeling suggested that the model fit the data from each country, that the constructs were equivalent across countries, and that some paths of the structural model fit equivalently for the two countries but that county moderated the other paths.
The Effects of Envy on Reciprocation in a Social Dilemma
Authors: Parks Craig D. , Rumble Ann C. , Posey Donelle C.
Published: March 2007

This article presents two studies that address Axelrod’s (1984) prescription to not worry about the outcomes that others receive in a mixed-motive situation. The first study demonstrated that people do attend and react to others’ outcomes, with people whose outcomes were of a lesser magnitude than the opponent being uncooperative and people with greater-magnitude outcomes being very cooperative. This was true even though own and other outcomes were linearly equivalent. The second study showed that dispositional envy can predict rate of cooperation and that referent cognitions theory can be applied to help alleviate the impact of differing outcomes, both by making amends for small-magnitude outcomes at the end of the game (amelioration) and by providing a reasonable explanation for why the differences in outcomes exist (justification), although the former intervention was ineffective with people with high levels of dispositional envy. Discussion focuses on the role of mental simulations in the reduction of envy effects.
The Big Five Personality Factors and Personal Values
Authors: Roccas Sonia , Sagiv Lilach , Schwartz Shalom H. , Knafo Ariel
Published: March 2007

The authors relate Big Five personality traits to basic values in a sample of 246 students. As hypothesized, Agreeableness correlates most positively with benevolence and tradition values, Openness with self-direction and universalism values, Extroversion with achievement and stimulation values, and Conscientiousness with achievement and conformity values. Correlations of values with facets of the five factors reveal nuances of the facets and clarify ambiguities in the meanings of the factors. Values and personality traits exhibit different patterns of correlation with religiosity and positive affect. Findings support the idea that the influence of values on behavior depends more on cognitive control than does the influence of traits.
Heart Rate and Competitive Decision Making
Authors: Blascovich Jim , Nash Richard F. , Ginsburg Gerald P.
Published: March 2007

The viability of combining experimental-game and physiological measurement techniques to establish relationships between heart rate and competitive decision making was demonstrated. The results indicated that heart rate was a reliable predictor of success in a competitive decision-making situation, a zero-sum game, for males but not for females.
Consequences for Targets of Aggression as a Function of Aggressor and Instigator roles: Three Experiments
Authors: Gaebelein Jacquelyn W. , Mander Anthony
Published: March 2007

In three studies the amount of shock directed towards an opponent was assessed as a function of the subject's role, aggressor or advisor. Subjects when serving as aggressors (directly set shock for the target) directed less intense shock toward a nonprovocative target than when they were serving as advisors (instructed another individual to set the shock), whether vulnerable or invulnerable to attack. When the target was provocative there was no significant difference in the intensity of aggression as a function of the role change. Results were discussed in terms of vulnerability, potency of provocation, and role demands and expectations.
Byrne's Social Psychology of Sexual Behavior and the Social Behaviorism Approach: Pre-Paradigmatic Separatism
Authors: Staats Arthur W.
Published: March 2007

It is suggested that psychology is in a pre-paradigmatic state, divided into separate and isolated sub-fields and theories. Furthermore, there is contemporary disbelief in and suspicion of unified science and unified theory in social psychology as well as in psychology in general. This separatism is seen as an obstacle to scientific development as illustrated in the present case in which Byrne's social psychology of sexual behavior appears to be developing along the lines of social behaviorism, but in a separatistic manner that has disadvantageous effects.
Physical Attractiveness of the "Other Person" and Jealousy
Authors: Shettel-Neuber Joyce , Bryson Jeff B. , Young Leanne E.
Published: March 2007

Subjects reported projected feelings and actions asso- ciated with sexual jealousy after viewing a videotaped jealousy- evoking scenario. Tapes were varied systematically to determine the effects of sex and physical attractiveness of a third person interloper on jealousy responses in an existing relationship. Analyses of variance revealed significant differences due to sex, attractiveness, or their interaction for 12 of the 36 dependent measures. Results were discussed in regard to cultural and situational influences on male and female response patterns.
The Effect of Perceived Smoking Status on Attractiveness
Authors: Polivy Janet , Hackett Rick , Bycio Peter
Published: March 2007

The anti-smoking campaign appears to influence attitudes toward smokers but previous research suggests the effect is restricted to nonsmokers. Psychological attractiveness findings predict that smokers would find other smokers attractive while nonsmokers would prefer nonsmokers. The present study tested smoker and nonsmoker attitudes toward smoking and nonsmoking targets. As predicted, smokers preferred smokers and nonsmokers preferred nonsmokers, although smokers in general were rated less attractive. Physical attractiveness ratings were not influenced by status.
Bibliography of Journal Articles in Personality and Social Psychology: 1978
Authors: Reeves Robert A. , Richardson Deborah Capasso , Hendrick Clyde
Published: March 2007

This bibliography consists of 605 journal articles selected from 12 journals. The articles are arranged under 33 subject headings, with headings arranged alphabetically, and authors listed alphabetically under each heading. For ease of use, articles are numbered consecutively 1-605.
Anticipatory Belief Polarization as a Function of the Expertise of a Discussion Partner
Authors: Fitzpatrick Anne R. , Eagly Alice H.
Published: March 2007

This study examined change that occurs in persons' beliefs when they anticipate being observed discussing an issue with an individual whose position on the issue opposes their own. Subjects expected to discuss an issue with a partner who held an opposing view and was much more, more, equally, or less expert on the issue. While expecting a discussion with the equally expert partner, subjects produced more arguments countering their partner's position and supporting their own position than did control subjects, who did not expect to discuss the issue. As a consequence of this preparation for the discussion, subjects expecting the equally expert partner adopted a more extreme position opposing the partner (belief polarization) than control subjects and maintained their changed beliefs after the anticipated discussion was canceled. Subjects expecting partners less expert, more expert, or much more expert than themselves did not change their beliefs. The findings of the study were assumed to be the outcome of a social comparison process motivated by subjects' self-presentational concerns.
Another Look at the Milgram Obedience Studies
Authors: Gilbert Steven J.
Published: March 2007

Milgram's (1963, 1965a, 1965b) incremental shock procedure for quantifying obedience may be partly responsible for the high levels of obedience obtained. The innocuous beginning of the shock sequence (low voltage, no negative feedback) may elicit compliance before the frightening implications of the procedure are clear, and the gradual escalation in shock intensity may deprive subjects of a qualitative breakpoint needed to justify changing from obedience to disobedience. Parallels between the incremental shock and the `foot-in-the-door" (Freedman & Fraser, 1966) techniques for obtaining compliance are discussed.
Examination of Subject Roles
Authors: Christensen Larry
Published: March 2007

Carlston and Cohen (1980) appear to have concluded that the negative, good, faithful, and evaluation apprehension subject roles are theoretically correct but that they do not represent a threat to valid inference. 7hese conclusions should be viewed very cautiously since the data were derived from subjects who were instructed to portray given roles and the manner in which subjects should have responded was suggested by very explicit cues. Additionally, the spontaneous behavior of subjects infrequently corresponded to that of subjects portraying the various roles. When one investigates subject motivations by means of role playing it is essential for one of the subject roles to mirror the spontaneous behavior of subjects. This did not occur in the Carlston and Cohen stud'.
Delayed Persuasion as a Consequence of
Authors: Leippe Michael R. , Greenwald Anthony G. , Baumgardner Michael H.
Published: March 2007

Previous research (e.g., Tannenbaum, 1967) indicates that a persuasive message directed at one attitude object may alter opinion toward another, unrelated object. A process of generalization of a learned affective response to objects with some similar qualities might contribute to this indirect effect. Under some conditions, however, associative interference might cause a "spread of persuasion." For instance, when evaluating a particular object, a person who has encountered numerous messages about highly similar and previously unfamiliar attitude objects may occasionally retrieve from memory an evaluative conclusion learned from a message about a different object. To explore this possibility, subjects were exposed to a message-dense setting (48 messages within I hour) in which they received neutral messages about some consumer product brands in a context of either predominantly positive or predominantly negative messages about other, similar brands. Consistent with predictions, subjects' ratings of the neutral brands shifted within minutes toward the evaluation provided by the context. This result is interpreted in terms of an associative learning/interference model of persuasion.
Target Attractiveness as a Mediator of Assumed Attitude Similarity
Authors: Marks Gary , Miller Norman
Published: March 2007

Undergraduates indicated their opinions on eight issues. Then they viewed 12facial photographs of unknown college females whose physical attractiveness was systematically varied and estimated each target's position on each issue. Simultaneously, observers assessed subjects' attractiveness. Consistent with balance theory and self-enhancement concerns, subjects projected their own endorsement of attitude item content as well as their own average response elevation onto attractive peers to a greater degree than onto less attractive peers. Whereas subjects assumed similarity between themselves and attractive others to an equal extent on both involving and uninvolving issues, on involving issues they distanced themselves in elevation similarity from unattractive others. All effects were independent of subjects' own attractiveness.
Conformity by Omission
Authors: Sorrels J. Paul , Kelley Jeanette
Published: March 2007

Persons exhibit conformity to group norms or expectations by emitting responses they would emit less frequently or not at all had the group influence not been present. We propose to call this phenomenon "conformity by commission, "since behaviors are committed in response to the conforming influence. Persons also conform by avoiding or refusing to perform certain behaviors that group norms or expectations discourage. We have labeled this "conformity by omission" since behaviors are omitted in this context. In this study we have demonstrated "conformity by omission "with the autokinetic effect. Subjects participating alone reported significantly more autokinetic movement than did subjects who were led to believe that they were participating with two other subjects who reported no movement.
Own Value System, Value Images,and Cigarette Smoking
Authors: Grube Joel W. , Weir Ivan Lee , Getzlaf Shelly , Rokeach Milton
Published: March 2007

It has been suggested that smoking among young people results from a need to confirm self-images and thus is more likely to be adopted by those whose self-images are similar to images of smokers. Conversely, nonsmoking is expected to occur among those whose self-images are similar to images of nonsmokers. This study investigates the similarity between value images of smokers and nonsmokers and the terminal and instrumental value systems of junior high school students and recent high school graduates. Overall, the respondents' value systems were considerably more similar to images of nonsmokers than to images of smokers. However, for both age groups, those identified as smokers or potential smokers were more similar to images of smokers than were nonsmokers. Moreover, potential smokers were less similar to images of nonsmokers than were nonsmokers or smokers. Unexpectedly, these latter groups did not differ significantly in their similarity to images of nonsmokers. These results partially replicate previous findings and generally support the hypotheses.
Responses to Lonely Hearts Advertisements
Authors: Lynn Michael , Shurgot Barbara A.
Published: March 2007

This study employed lonely hearts advertisements to investigate the effects of reported physical appearance on interpersonal attraction. The personal advertisements in a local Columbus magazine were coded in terms of the individuals gender, height, weight, hair color, eye color, and evaluative self-description of his or her own appearance. The magazine recorded the number of responses each ad received, and this constituted the dependent measure. Multiple linear regression analyses indicated that more responses were received by women and by individuals providing nonnegative, evaluative self-descriptions than by their counterparts. Also, tall male advertisers and light female advertisers received more responses than their shorter and heavier counterparts. Finally, advertisers with red or salt and pepper hair received more responses than blonde and brunette advertisers. Discussion focused on the relations between these findings and those of past research and on the utility of lonely hearts advertisements in psychological research.
Acquisition of Relative Performance Information
Authors: Levine John M. , Green Stephanie M.
Published: March 2007

This study investigated the joint impact of intrapersonal and interpersonal performance information on comparison bahavior. Subjects (elementary-school children) worked on a perceptual task and had the opportunity to look at their own and others' performance after each trial A 2 X 2 design was used in which (1) subjects' performance increased or decreased over trials, and (2) others' performance changed in the same direction but at a faster or slower rate. It was predicted and found that subjects whose performance increased looked equally often at superior and inferior others, whereas subjects whose performance decreased looked more often at inferior others. Also as expected, when subjects' performance decreased, their preference for inferior others was affected by the absolute difference between their own and others' scores. Implications of these findings for a related-attributes analysis of social comparison were discussed.
The "Personality" of Personality Theory and Research
Authors: Feshbach Seymour
Published: March 2007

The objective of this article is to consider the changes that have taken place in the status of personality since the mid-1940s and to provide an overview of the current status of personality theory and research in the context of its history and challenge, and of likely future developments. During the last several decades the status and salience of personality study relative to other areas of psychological research has undergone a decline, although there have been some important advances during this period. In addition, there are a number of signs suggesting that a revitalization of the area of personality is taking place, and that we can anticipate a resurgence of research addressed to central problems of personality structure, dynamics, and development. The title chosen for this article is intended to convey the idea that I will draw upon the field of personality itself for concepts to describe its status. I do not intend to belabor the metaphor and restrict my analysis to personality terminology. However, I do believe the metaphor will help communicate the status of the field of personality.
The Blame in the Bottle
Authors: Critchlow Barbara
Published: March 2007

In an experiment designed to apply Kelley's (1972) concept of causal schemata to drunken behavior, subjects read short stories depicting acts that did or did not have an a priori association with alcohol use. The actor was presented as either drunk or sober and as either an alcoholic or social drinker. Participants rated the actor's role as to perceived cause, responsibility, blame, and suggested punishment. Intoxication of the actor led to decreased attributions, with acts associated with alcohol not affected differently than nonassociated acts. The four dependent measures showed a pattern consistent with earlier findings that these variables reflect different judgments.
Effort Attributions
Authors: Zaccaro Stephen J. , Lowe Charles A.
Published: March 2007

This study examined the effects of task novelty and attributional focus on effort cue utilization. It was predicted that attainment value would serve as an effort cue when tasks were novel to the achiever and when perceivers made attributions about their own performances. Outcome information was more likely to be used on familiar tasks and by observers. A second purpose of this study was to examine actor/observer differences in achievement attributions. Self-perceivers, yoked with observers, worked on either familiar or unfamiliar tasks. As expected, self-perceivers were more likely to use attainment value as an effort cue than other-perceivers. Other-perceivers were more likely than self-perceivers to use outcome information but only on familiar tasks. The data also indicated support for actor/observer differences in achievement attributions.
Extreme Deindividuation in the Laboratory
Authors: Prentice-Dunn Steven , Spivey Cashton B.
Published: March 2007

One cause of violent or wildly celebratory behavior in groups is deindividuation. The present study addresses two issues of concern to recent deindividuation researchers: (1) the investigation of a more extreme form of deindividuation than that customarily used in prior research and (2) the accurate assessment of the composition of the subjective deindividuated state. In the initial study, a manipulation of extreme deindividuation was developed in a context conducive to collective aggression. Subjects exposed to the extreme condition responded with significantly greater shock intensities and shock durations than those observed in previous research. In the second study, the self-reports of 91 subjects exposed to the extreme deindividuation condition were factor analyzed, revealing a subjective deindividuated state composed of Altered Experience and Private Self-Awareness. A path analysis indicated a possible causal role for Private Self-Awareness, but not Altered Experience, in producing aggression. Results were discussed in terms of a revised formulation of the deindividuation construct. In addition, several questions warranting further research were advanced.
Parental Child-Rearing Antecedents of Type a Behavior
Authors: McCranie Edward W. , Simpson Miles E.
Published: March 2007

This correlational study sought to assess the formulations of Matthews (1978) and Price (1982) concerning the influence of parents' continually escalating performance standards, constant disapproval, and punitive or hostile methods of control in the childhood etiology of Type A behavior. Male college students (N = 186) were administered the student version of the Jenkins Activity Survey, a self-report measure of Type A behavior, and the Parent Behavior Form, an instrument designed to assess perceptions of a variety of parental child-rearing attitudes and practices, including achievement expectations, methods of control, and acceptance or rejection. Males exhibiting greater Type A tendencies were significantly more likely to describe both parents as placing high emphasis on achievement, expecting competence in a wide variety of areas, and continually demanding better performance. They were also more likely to describe one or both parents as being strict, using frequent physical punishment or other hostile methods of control, and communicating frequent disapproval. Possible mechanisms by which such parental behaviors may promote Type A behavior in the developing child are discussed.
A Methodological Note
Authors: Hom Harry L.
Published: March 2007

This note reports two studies with college students that suggest time of participation (early versus later semester) is an important variable in intrinsic motivation research. In these studies, external constraints undermined interest levels of those subjects participating early but not of those later. This finding is discussed in light of current theorizing, and implications for future research are presented.
The Effects of Alcohol Consumption on Restaurant Tipping
Authors: Lynn Michael
Published: March 2007

Two explanations for the effects of alcohol on prosocial behavior-that is, mood enhancement and cognitive impairment-suggest that restaurant diners should tip more when they have consumed alcohol than when they have not. However, previous attempts to find a relationship between percent tip and alcohol consumption have failed. This failure may be due to statistical problems associated with using percent tip as a measure of tipping. This article reports a study that uses as a dependent variable residuals from a regression of bill size on tip amount. The results of this study indicate that alcohol consumption is positively related to tipping.
When Social Support Fails
Authors: Stroebe Wolfgang , Diehl Michael
Published: March 2007

An extension of the motivational assumptions of the heuristic model and the elaboration likelihood model of attitude change to counter attitudinal advocacy was tested. In a series of studies on the role of social support in attitude change following counter attitudinal advocacy, Stroebe and Diehl (1981) demonstrated that social support reduced attitude change only under conditions favorable to the arousal of dissonance. Under low choice or minimal consequences, social support was associated with an increase in attitude change. The present article suggests an interpretation of these findings in terms of motivational influences on levels of processing: Subjects engage in the cognitive effort of self-justification only when motivated to do so because of responsibility for a negative act. In the absence of such responsibility, subjects use the behavior of others (i.e., social support) merely as a cue for their opinion judgment. This was tested in an experiment that manipulated attitude similarity between subject and confederate in addition to social support and severity of consequences. A three-factor interaction on attitude change was obtained that was consistent with the differential processing hypothesis. Whereas under severe consequences attitude change was in line with dissonance predictions, a pattern of change consistent with balance theory was observed under minimal consequences. Implications of these findings for dissonance and conformity research are discussed.
Communicator Attributes and Persuasion
Authors: Wood Wendy , Kallgren Carl A.
Published: March 2007

Message recipients' recall of attitude-relevant beliefs and experiences was expected to affect message processing such that high-retrieval recipients base their opinions relatively more on an analysis of message validity, whereas recipients who could recall few beliefs and experiences base their opinions on noncontent features such as source cues. Indeed, high-retrieval recipients were unaffected by the likability of the message source, they demonstrated relatively good recall of the message position and arguments, and cognitive response data indicated that persuasion was enhanced by positive rather than negative reactions to message content. In contrast, low-retrieval recipients were more persuaded by likable and by expert sources than unlikable and nonexpert ones. Further, these recipients showed relatively poor recall of the message position and arguments, and cognitive response data suggested that persuasion was enhanced by positive rather than negative reactions to the communicator.
Does Happiness Mean Friendliness?
Authors: Cunningham Michael R.
Published: March 2007

The separate process model of mood and behavior suggested that positive mood is associated with a social, expansive, approach motivation, while negative mood is associated with an avoidant, egocentric motivation. The present experiment examined the differential impact of positive and negative mood stimuli that were self-relevant or non-self-relevant on males' social interaction and self-disclosure with a female. The self-relevant conditions were effective in altering both the subjects' self-esteem and mood states, while the non-self-relevant conditions were effective in altering only the subjects' moods. Supporting the separate process model prediction that positive mood increases sociability, the self-relevant and non-self-relevant positive mood inductions were equal in motivating more total communication and more moderately and highly intimate self-disclosures compared with the two negative mood conditions. The self-relevant and non-self-relevant negative mood conditions generally produced equivalent effects on communication behaviors, although the self-relevant negative mood subjects may have made a more rapid recovery from the negative experience than their counterparts.
Sex and Age Differences in Response to Informational and Controlling Feedback
Authors: Kast Audrey , Connor Kathleen
Published: March 2007

This study examined two issues ensuing from cognitive evaluation theory (Deci, 1975; Deci & Ryan, 1980, 1985), through the manipulation of positive feedback to third, fifth, and eighth grade children. Analysis of self-reported interest revealed that, as predicted, controlling feedback significantly lowered interest relative to informational -and no-feedback groups. The hypothesis that informational feedback would raise interest levels relative to the no-feedback group was not supported, perhaps due to a ceiling effect. These results replicate and extend previous findings with adults to children in a classroom context. A mixed-feedback condition, containing components of both information and control, yielded sex differences. As predicted, in the mixed condition, females reported interest levels significantly lower than those reported by males in that condition and by females in the informational -and no-feedback conditions. Although interest declined across grade level, the decline was greatest in the mixed condition, between fifth and eighth grades.
Deception in Psychological Research
Authors: Christensen Larry
Published: March 2007

Deception has been attacked repeatedly as ethically unacceptable and morally reprehensible. However, research has revealed that subjects who have participated in deception experiments versus nondeception experiments enjoyed the experience more, received more educational benefit from it, and did not mind being deceived or having their privacy invaded. Such evidence suggests that deception, although unethical from a moral point of view, is not considered to be aversive, undesirable, or an unacceptable methodology from the research participant's point of view. The repeated assumption of the unacceptability of deception seems to be due to the fact that deception has been evaluated only from the viewpoint of moral philosophizing. This has led to the repeated conclusion that deception is reprehensible and seems to have created a perceptual set to view deception immediately as aversive. However, the perception of the unethical nature of deception seems to be minimal in studies that investigate innocuous public behaviors and enhanced in studies that run the risk of harming research participants or in studies that investigate private behaviors. When this knowledge is combined with the fact that research participants do not mind being deceived, and that it can also be viewed as immoral not to conduct research on important problems, the scale seems to be tilted in favor of continuing the use of deception in psychological research.
A Measurement Model for Measuring Attitudes Toward Violence
Authors: Velicer Wayne F. , Huckel Lorraine H. , Hansen Catherine E.
Published: March 2007

Attitudes toward violence can be viewed as having an important mediating role in the translation of hostile feelings into aggressive behaviors. To alleviate the lack of adequate measures in this content area, two studies were performed. First, the item pool of Bardis's Violence Scale was analyzed resulting in a tentative model. Second, additional items were written to augment the item pool and administered to a second sample. A confirmatory (LISREL) analysis supported a model involving five first-order constructs (Penal Code Violence, Violence in War, Corporal Punishment of Children, Extreme Interpersonal Violence, Intimate Violence) and two hierarchical second-order constructs (Interpersonal Violence, Institutional Violence).
Some Comments in Reply
Authors: Berkowitz Leonard , Devine Patricia G.
Published: March 2007

The authors briefly respond to several of the issues raised in the articles commenting on their analysis of research traditions in social psychology and specifically on their treatment of dissonance theory. The authors' goal was not to engage in a protracted debate but to highlight some overarching issues in contemporary social psychology in order to encourage social psychologists to consider how they conduct their science.
Applying Social Psychology to Desegregation and Energy Conservation
Authors: Aronson Elliot
Published: March 2007

The applied work described here work fits Kurt Lewin's definition of "action research." Specifically, the experiments involved intervening into a system in crisis with an independent variable aimed at reducing or resolving the crisis. Moreover, the intervention was a teachable procedure that the system could continue to use long after the experimenters had packed up their scientific gear and gone back to the university. In addition, the intervention was based on theory and data from prior laboratory experiments. But the extent to which prior theory and laboratory research was considered
Relation of Self-Projection Processes to Performance, Emotion, and Memory in a Controlled Interaction Setting
Authors: Ryan Richard M. , Plant Robert W. , Kuczkowski Rebecca J.
Published: March 2007

Self-projection, defined as the character and valence of one's situational, objective, or public self-awareness, was operationalized in the present study by subjects' ratings of how they were viewed by the other in an interactional context. It was expected that the nature of self-projection would be strongly influenced by trait measures of self-esteem and social anxiety, particularly given that interpersonal feedback was ambiguous. A measure of self-projection was developed on an independent sample and then assessed in 48 subjects in a controlled interaction paradigm. Self-projection, as expected, was found to be related to trait measures of social anxiety and self-esteem. In addition, specific dimensions of sew-projection were found to predict self-evaluations, emotions, aspects of performance, and memory for the other's speech, as well as subjects' perceptions of the other person in the interaction. A path model is presented depicting these general relations. Results are discussed in terms of the processes through which persons construe themselves as social objects.
A Comparison of the Theory of Planned Behavior and the Theory of Reasoned Action
Authors: Madden Thomas J. , Ellen Pamela Scholder , Ajzen Icek
Published: March 2007

Research in social psychology has extensively referenced and used Fishbein and Ajzen's theory of reasoned action to predict and understand motivational influences on behavior Recently Ajzen has proposed an extension of the theory by including perceptions of behavioral control as an additional predictor of intentions and behavior. The present research compared Ajzen's theory of planned behavior with the theory of reasoned action for 10 behaviors chosen to represent a range with respect to control over performing the behavior. he results indicate that inclusion of perceived behavioral control enhances the prediction of behavioral intention and behavior Consistent with the theory of planned behavior, the effects of perceived behavioral control on a target behavior are most vivid when the behavior presents some problem with respect to control.
Perceptions and Metaperceptions of Leadership: Components, Accuracy, and Dispositional Correlates
Authors: Malloy Thomas E. , Janowski Claire L.
Published: March 2007

This research examined the components of leadership perceptions and metaperceptions in mixed-sex, problem-solving groups. A social relations analysis indicated that leadership perceptions were highly consensual. Perceivers similarly differentiated targets' leadership using similar behavioral cues and observable characteristics. Approximately 91% of the variance in perceivers' consensual judgments of targets' leadership was explained by quantity of targets' speech, quality of ideas, and friendliness. Leadership perceptions correlated reliably with targets'selfperceptions on leadership and revealed target accuracy. Also, targets knew how perceivers, in general, judged their leadership, yielding evidence of accurate metaperception. Perceptions and metaperceptions were correlated zLith target gender and endorsement of stereotypic masculine andfeminine traits. These data were consistent with a social role model which assumes that differential gnder expectancies affect behavior, perceivers'judgments of targets, and targets' metaperceptions. The advantages of the componential approach to research on leadership perception were discussed.
Hot Temperatures, Hostile Affect, Hostile Cognition, and Arousal: Tests of a General Model of Affective Aggression
Authors: Anderson Craig A. , Deuser William E. , DeNeve Kristina M.
Published: March 2007

A general model of affective aggression was used to generate predictions concerning hot temperatures. Experiment 1 examined hot temperature effects on hostile affect, hostile cognition, perceived arousal, and physiological arousal in the context of a study of video games. Experiment 2 examined hot temperature effects on hostile affect, perceived and physiological arousal, and general positive and negative affect in the context of brief aerobic exercise. Consistent results were obtained. Hot temperatures produced increases in hostile affect, hostile cognition, and physiological arousal. Hot temperatures also produced decreases in perceived arousal and general positive affect. These results suggest that hot temperatures may increase aggressive tendencies via any of three separate routes. Hostile affect, hostile cognitions, and excitation transfer processes may all increase the likelihood of biased appraisals of ambiguous social events, biased in a hostile direction.
Actor-Observer Bias in Close Relationships: The Role of Self-Knowledge and Self-Related Language
Authors: Fiedler Klaus , Semin Guin R. , Finkenauer Catrin , Berkel Ingnd
Published: March 2007

Attributional biases are studied in the context of close relation ships. Whereas the actor-observer bias implies more partner attributions than self-attributions, the egocentric bias predicts more self-attributions. Both phenomena can be reconciled within a language-based approach. Partner attributions prevail at the abstract level of adjectives, whereas self-attributions are more likely at the concrete level of action verbs, reflecting a rule to talk in less abstract terms about the self than about others. An alternative explanation based on multifaceted self-knowledge is refuted in Experiment 1. Experiment 2 replicates and extends the opposite attribution biases at different language levels, using free-format self- and partner descriptions. A comparison between short-term and long-term couples reveals a temporal decline in dispositional attributions. These findings support the role of language in addition to self-knowledge and perceptual determinants of attribution biases.
Effects of Epistemic Motivations on the Use of Accessible Constructs in Social Judgment
Authors: Ford Thomas E. , Kruglanski Arie W.
Published: March 2007

Two experiments tested the hypothesis that the use of primed constructs to interpret target information will be increased under high need for closure and decreased under high need to avoid closure. Supporting this hypothesis, Experiment I found that subjects high in need for closure (induced by increasing cognitive load) were more likely to characterize an ambiguous target in terms of primed traits. Subjects high in need to avoid closure (induced by stressing the importance of impression accuracy) were less likely to characterize the target in terms of primed traits. Experiment 2 found that subjects high in dispositional need for closure were more likely to characterize the target in terms of primed traits than subjects low in dispositional need for closure. By grouping subjects based on individual differences in need for closure, Experiment 2 provides convergent validity for the hypothesis and rules out alternative interpretations for the results of Experiment 1.
Working Knowledge, Cognitive Processing, and Attitudes: On the Determinants of Bias
Authors: Biek Michael , Wood Wendy , Chaiken Shelly
Published: March 2007

This experiment demonstrated that attitude-relevant knowledge can enable biased or objective systematic processing of new information. Subjects having a high or low knowledge on AIDS risk prevention evaluated a series of scenarios estimating the likelihood of contracting AIDS from sexual behavior. Knowledgeable subjects who reported considerable fear of AIDS engaged in biased processing of the risk estimates. The intense affect apparently motivated these subjects to use their knowledge to bolster and defend their existing attitudes toward AIDS risk: They gave more favorable evaluations of risk estimates that supported their attitudes than estimates that opposed them. In contrast, knowledgeable subjects who reported only moderate AIDS fear did not appear motivated to assume a defensive stance and instead processed the AIDS risk estimates in a critical, objective manner regardless of the congruence with their own attitudes. Less knowledgeable subjects did not demonstrate either a biased or an objectively critical processing orientation.
Mood and Behavior Perception: Dysphoria Can Increase and Decrease Effortful Processing of Information
Authors: Lassiter G. Daniel , Koenig Linda J. , Apple Kevin J.
Published: March 2007

In the affect and cognition literature, some studies demonstrate that dysphoric mood increases effortful processing of social and nonsocial information, but others demonstrate that it decreases such processing. Five studies examined the effect of dysphoric mood on perceivers' subjective unitization of an observed other's ongoing behavior into discrete meaningful actions. Dysphoria generally reduced unitization rate (i.e., number of actions discriminated). Additional evidence indicates that this reduction likely results from failure to initiate a higher (more effortful) unitization rate rather than from inability to achieve such a level of processing. Data also suggest that dysphoric mood can actually increase unitization rate when adopting that mode of processing might relieve the dysphoria. It is concluded that dysphoric mood may lead perceivers to exhibit a more discriminating "cognitive palate" in terms of how much effort they choose to expend on processing available information.
The Experimental Generation of Interpersonal Closeness: A Procedure and Some Preliminary Findings
Authors: Aron Arthur , Melinat Edward , Aron Elaine N. , Vallone Robert Darrin , Bator Renee J.
Published: March 2007

A practical methodology is presented for creating closeness in an experimental context. Whether or not an individual is in a relationship, particular pairings of individuals in the relationship, and circumstances of relationship development become manipulated variables. Over a 45-min period subject pairs carry out self-disclosure and relationship-building tasks that gradually escalate in intensity. Study 1 found greater postinteraction closeness with these tasks versus comparable small-talk tasks. Studies 2 and 3 found no significant closeness effects, inspite of adequate power, for (a) whether pairs were matched for nondisagreement on important attitudes, (b) whether pairs were led to expect mutual liking, or (c) whether getting close was made an explicit goal. These studies also illustrated applications for addressing theoretical issues, yielding provocative tentative findings relating to attachment style and introversion/extraversion.
Feminist Consciousness: Perspectives on Women's Experience
Authors: Henderson-King Donna , Stewart Abigail J.
Published: March 2007

Research on feminist consciousness has often relied on feminist self-identification as an indicator of women's group consciousness. In this study, several measures of group consciousness including group evaluations, political beliefs about gender relations, and sensitivity to sexism were used to predict women's self-identification as feminist. This set of variables was also used to predict four stages of feminist identity: passive acceptance, revelation, embeddedness/emanation, and synthesis. Findings emphasize the importance of not relying simply on self-identification in research on feminist consciousness. A view of feminist consciousness that goes beyond a dichotomous approach is recommended, as is further work on assessments of the phenomenology of consciousness.
Egalitarianism, Moral Obligation, and Prejudice-Related Personal Standards
Authors: Monteith Margo J. , Walters Gina L.
Published: March 2007

Many high-prejudice individuals' personal standards suggest that they should be less prejudiced toward Blacks than they actually are. The present research revealed that these standards are derived from a sense of personal moral obligation to temper prejudice rather than from pressure from others to moderate prejudice. The authors also investigated the influence of egalitarian values on feelings of moral obligation and, ultimately, on personal standards. Although participants viewed themselves as highly egalitarian, they differed in how they conceptualized the meaning of egalitarianism. Path analysis results were consistent with the notion that high-prejudice individuals who defined egalitarian in terms of equality of opportunity feel morally obligated to temper their prejudice, which, in turn, is associated with establishing relatively low-prejudice personal standards for responding to Blacks.
Emotional Distress and Disinhibited Eating: The Role of Self
Authors: Heatherton Todd F. , Striepe Meg , Wittenberg Lauren
Published: March 2007

Dieters and nondieters were exposed to self-referent or non-self-referent mood induction procedures, and food intake was subsequently recorded. In Study 1, both task failure and musical mood induction led to significantly increased eating among dieters. In Study 2, dieters and nondieters were exposed to sad or neutral music and half of the subjects were told that music might make them feel momentarily sad. The addition of an attributional label to the mood induction procedure eliminated the disinhibited eating that was observed in the unlabeled condition (for dieters). Study 3 demonstrated that only self-relevant negative mood disinhibits dieters. It is concluded that only those mood states that implicate the self promote self-regulatory failure. These results are discussed within the escape from self-awareness hypothesis of binge eating behavior.