bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Long Road to a New Path, 1959–1966
Authors: Sogner Knut
Published: September 2022

The beginning of the 1960s was characterized by several turnarounds. The generational change at the top of the family company Nyegaard & Co. obviously mattered and so did a gradual change in drug regulation in particular and in state policies in general. Profits from sales on the Norwegian markets grew thanks to higher prices, and national industrial policy prepared for assisting small high-tech companies in their quest to grow internationally. Obviously, having Thrombotest and Isopaque—two new and original exportable products—mattered for Nyegaard & Co.’s repurposing of its strategic aim away from “me too” drugs for Norway to pursuing fully fledged research strategies. Finding that particular research strategy, however, proved to be immensely difficult and a source of tension and conflict. Finally, the arguments of the head of the contrast media research won out: the company should follow its specialized knowledge and use the international networks created by being within the contrast media sector.
The Rise of the Knowledge-Based Companies
Authors: Sogner Knut
Published: September 2022

Nyegaard & Co.’s challenge when planning to launch its first non-ionic contrast medium for the myelographic market, Amipaque, was huge. It was a small and home-market-oriented company. Apart from a Scandinavian marketing organization, it had nothing. It was also about to enter the global market at a time when the pharmaceutical industry in the United States and other large markets came under scrutiny for lackadaisical practices. The challenge was solved by formulating an ethical code and by continuing to build a collective organization that shifted its emphasis from being a universal provider for a small market to testing, registering, and marketing a totally new concept globally. A traditional hierarchical family company radically changed its organizational ethos to create a collective. Empowering employees also was a tool in forging the necessary strategic alliances with the much larger companies that sold Amipaque. Nyegaard & Co. rather collaborated more than competed with some of the existing contrast media companies internationally.
Transformed Surroundings and New Priorities
Authors: Sogner Knut
Published: September 2022

In the period from 1986 to the merger with British Amersham in 1997, Nyegaard & Co. was rather forcefully changed by the stock-listed Norwegian company Hafslund that had purchased Actinor. Renaming the big company Hafslund Nycomed and going wholeheartedly into pharmaceuticals, Hafslund Nycomed became a major force in imaging products, especially thanks to the success of the product Omnipaque. In 1994, Hafslund Nycomed bought Sterling Drug’s US contrast media operation, in addition to the extensive marketing network having been created elsewhere. Hafslund Nycomed, however, prioritized shareholder value, centralized and streamlined research, divided Nycomed (Nyegaard & Co.) into two parts (Imaging and Pharma), and spent a lot of money building a European generics business through numerous acquisitions. In the brisk climate of the mid-1990s, pressure on drug prices, the looming threat of generic competition to Omnipaque, and a meager research portfolio, Hafslund Nycomed merged with Amersham in 1997, creating a British company led by Amersham’s chief executive officer.
Manoeuvering Land Registration: Decentralization of Land Administration in Siraro
Authors: Chinigò Davide
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses the implementation of a national programme of rural land registration in Siraro, Oromia region, that was introduced in the mid 2000s. Motivated by concerns over increasing the productivity of smallholder agriculture, the capitalization of land, and the uncapping of land rental markets, the programme was implemented as part of an ambitious set of policy reforms providing for the decentralization of service delivery and resource management from central to local government. Empirically the chapter discusses the set of practices and tactics of manoeuvring land registration, which local government officials and farmers performed to tackle insecurity, conflict, uncertainty, and the ensuing threat of dispossession that came with the programme. The chapter discusses the ways in which Oromo farmers, against a long and controversial history of exploitative land relations, reconstituted material and symbolic values to the land after land registration threatened their socio-economic reproduction. Land registration generated dynamics of social differentiation, with a minority of entrepreneurial and politically connected farmers making the most from the land rights’ formalization, while others experienced social and economic marginalization. An important outcome was the politicization of an Oromo identity in opposition to what was perceived as a top-down, centralizing state policy.
Conclusion: Identity Politics and the Everyday State in Ethiopia
Authors: Chinigò Davide
Published: September 2022

This concluding chapter summarizes and articulates the findings of the book’s five empirical chapters along two main themes. The first is that the everyday offers a privileged perspective to study the complex scalar dynamics within which trajectories of state formation in contemporary Africa are enmeshed. This allows us to circumvent the problem of methodological nationalism by attending those histories that challenge meta-narration of state formation. The problem of scale thus requires putting under critical scrutiny how scholarship constructs scale as a research object, emphasizing the power field that specific categorization, such as ‘global’, ‘national’, and ‘local’, necessarily mobilize. The second theme is that a focus on the problem of subjection offers the opportunity to study how state power forms the political subject through practices of recognition and, simultaneously, creates the conditions of possibility for a radically conditioned identity without resorting to culturalist explanations. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the book’s main findings to read the initial expectations, and then the deep political crisis into which Ethiopia appears to have descended since 2018. It engages with the question about whether ethnonationalism is an inevitable outcome of ethnic federalism. I contend that an overlooked aspect behind the prevalence of ethnonationalist politics in post-2018 Ethiopia has to do with the significant, and largely unintended, transformations that took place under the developmental state’s strategy on selective economic liberalization.
Rarity
Authors: Head Dominic
Published: September 2022

This chapter uses evidence-based observation about the nonhuman world to contextualize reflections on rarity found in contemporary nature prose. It is this context that produces a distinctively contemporary cultural fascination with the connection between the abundance and rarity of species, characterized by another variety of contained paradox. In the case of rarity, the contained paradox yokes intense appreciation together with the vertiginous fear of total ecological catastrophe. The dread induced by the realization that abundance can easily collapse into rarity, and then extinction, is a startlingly new cultural preoccupation. Nature prose is repeatedly forced to engage with this haunting pattern, producing effects which are partly conditioned by culpability in the facts of ecological collapse, offset y a tortured, but potentially redemptive, cultivation of wonder—redemptive because such wonder is the foundation of the conservationist impulse. It is in the interplay of abundance and rarity that this new aesthetic space emerges, revealing anxieties that have become internalized.
Altered feeding behaviors in disease vectors
Authors: Cator Lauren J.
Published: September 2022

Infection has been demonstrated to alter host behavior. Changes in the feeding behaviors of disease vectors are particularly interesting because in addition to being important for vector fitness and susceptibility, these changes have consequences for contact rates with hosts and large implications for transmission dynamics. While infection associated changes in the feeding behavior of vectors have been almost exclusively interpreted as parasite manipulation, work in other insects has highlighted the importance of feeding in host resistance and tolerance mechanisms. The goals of this chapter are to discuss the key ways that infection has been found to alter vector feeding behaviors, mechanisms currently known to underlie these changes in behavior, how the coevolved interactions between the vector and pathogen might shape these behaviors, and gaps in knowledge that need to be addressed to understand evolutionary and ecological aspects of these behaviors in full.
Parallels in parasite behavior: The other side of the host–parasite relationship
Authors: Resetarits Emlyn J. , Bartlett Lewis J. , Wilson Cali A. , Willoughby Anna R.
Published: September 2022

This book has principally explored how parasites impact and are impacted by the behaviors of hosts and vectors, however the behavior of parasites themselves is also critical for understanding the linkages between behavior and parasitism. Parasite behaviors are diverse, remarkable, and important for studying disease ecology and evolution. In this chapter, we use focal themes from this book (e.g., social behavior, sexual selection, movement) to frame current horizons in parasite behavioral research, highlighting particular aspects of the literature that introduce fruitful avenues for future work. We also demonstrate how host behavior and parasite behavior can feedback on each other to influence disease dynamics and host–pathogen coevolution.
Conceptual Framework and Data
Authors: Kokkonen Andrej , Møller Jørgen , Sundell Anders
Published: September 2022

Medieval monarchies were a form of authoritarian regimes, in some ways similar to modern dictatorships, in other ways different. The authors use this point to conceptualize the character of the regimes analysed in the empirical chapters. Against this backdrop, the authors describe the historical data used in the book and the way they analyse it. The dataset they have assembled includes more than seven hundred European rulers in the period 1000–1799, complete with biographical information about their sex, their tenure, their marriages, their paternal aunts and uncles, their siblings, their offspring, and the way they exited office. It also includes information about civil and international wars and parliamentary assemblies. The authors describe how they have coded this data and provide some simple descriptive illustrations of it.
The Politics of Succession in Comparative Perspective
Authors: Kokkonen Andrej , Møller Jørgen , Sundell Anders
Published: September 2022

How has the problem of succession played out in other parts of the world? This chapter combines a narrative historical analysis of succession arrangements and conflicts in Europe before the introduction of primogeniture and in the other old civilization areas of Eurasia with quantitative data on succession orders and ruler tenure in Imperial China and the Muslim Middle East. The comparative analysis returns the same findings as in the analyses of European monarchies—deaths of rulers repeatedly sparked conflicts, but father-to-son successions calmed the stormy waters of monarchical succession. The chapter also shows that monarchical systems where hereditary elements were very weak—such as the Byzantine Empire and Mamluk Egypt—were pestered by a staggering rate of usurpations and civil wars.
Conclusions
Authors: Kokkonen Andrej , Møller Jørgen , Sundell Anders
Published: September 2022

The Conclusions first summarize the book’s findings and then discuss their implications for state-formation and for understanding the workings of modern autocratic regimes. The authors point out how the perennial problem of succession is still relevant today: it regularly destabilizes non-democracies such as Russia, China, and Saudi Arabia and it even sometimes creates political crises in democracies, most recently in the United States after the November 2020 election. Against this background, the authors use their findings on European state-formation to shed light on how the politics of succession shapes political dynamics in autocracies more generally. They also show how modern representative democracy can be understood as an attempt to devise a peaceful solution to the problem of succession, in the form of a transfer of power via elections rather than bloodshed.
Historical Jurisprudence and Learned Law: 1865–1900
Authors: Clark David S.
Published: September 2022

German historical jurisprudence and learned law took hold in the United States after the Civil War through the remainder of the nineteenth century. Chapter 5 describes the romanticism and nationalism that infused the historical school and differentiated it from natural law theory. The German version aspired to be both systematic as a science and historical for sources of law. James Carter, a leading American disciple of historical jurisprudence, used it to defeat David Field’s ambitious codification program in New York. The learned law aspect of German legal science found fertile ground at Harvard Law School in the 1870s, which transformed American legal education to firmly root its teaching and development at universities with a scientific casebook method of instruction in judicial source materials. Furthermore, significant comparative law libraries emerged during this time. Roman and civil law survived in this era of industrialization and social transformation. Roman law teaching was a substitute for academic comparative law, a bridge between the classical past and interest in universalism and unification of law in the twentieth century. Legal periodicals provided an outlet for comparative law information and scholarly essays and a few American jurists were aware of German sociological jurisprudence, which was a forerunner to legal realism. William Hammond, Oliver Wendell Holmes, William Howe, and Christopher Tiedeman afford examples. Finally, comparative law formed as a discipline, first in Europe, then with supporters in the United States, highlighted by the 1900 International Congress of Comparative Law.
A Colony “on Fire”
Authors: Johnston Katherine
Published: September 2022

Chapter 2 focuses on the colony of Georgia in the 1730s and 1740s. The colony’s financers conceived it as a place cultivated by white laborers, and they prohibited Black slavery in Georgia. Seeing white planters relying heavily on Black laborers in neighboring South Carolina, however, a group of disgruntled settlers insisted on the need for Black laborers because of Georgia’s hot climate. The chapter demonstrates the ways these settlers deliberately constructed this argument even though their claims did not accord with their experience. It shows how a group of self-interested white settlers perpetuated a rhetoric that served as a long-standing justification for Black slavery in hot climates.
Churchill's American Arsenal
Authors: Ferreiro Larrie D.
Published: September 2022

The weapons and inventions that helped the Allies to win World War Two had not even been imagined when the conflict began. This book tells the story of how a British and American scientific and technological partnership, one that started not long after Britain had lost its ally France and stood alone against Nazi Germany, developed these innovations on an industrial scale. It has often been argued that the atomic bomb ended the war, but radar won it. Development of both began in Britain and then was taken over by the United States, which had the industrial and engineering capacity, and also the advantage of not being part of the battlefront. The partnership between the two nations was responsible for a number of iconic “American” weapons and inventions: the P-51 Merlin Mustang fighter, the Liberty ship, the proximity fuze, the LST, the Sherman tank, and even penicillin originally stemmed from British experiments and designs, then were brought to life with American scientific and technological might. Relying on previously untold stories of those scientists, engineers, and workers, on both sides of the Atlantic, who made all this possible, this book expands the story of the British-American “special relationship” in World War Two. It shows how the alliance extended beyond the battlefront and onto the home front, and resulted in the innovations that ultimately decided the outcome of the most devasting conflict in human history.
Fight in the Hills
Authors: Ferreiro Larrie D.
Published: September 2022

A week after D-Day, the first V-1 buzz bombs began falling on London. By that point in the war, the Allies had spent several years tackling the problem of shooting down enemy aircraft. This chapter describes the development of three of the most successful innovations. The first, the Oerlikon anti-aircraft gun, had been smuggled out of Switzerland at the start of the war, and through a series of political maneuvers was manufactured in both British and American factories. Similarly, the Bofors gun was spirited out of Sweden through espionage and smuggling operations, and mass-produced in converted locksmith plants and factories set up by automobile firms. The proximity fuze began in Britain as a series of experiments to increase the lethality of anti-aircraft shells, and when its research and development project was taken over by the Americans shortly before Pearl Harbor, it grew to be one of the most critical of the war, helping defeat the V-1s and winning the Battle of the Bulge.
Epilogue
Authors: Ferreiro Larrie D.
Published: September 2022

The end of World War Two marked a divergence in the economic and technological status of Britain and the United States. This epilogue concludes the story of the “special relationship” in this postwar setting. Britain’s economy grew at a slower pace, which meant that its large-scale domestic R&D projects (like passenger jets) soon evolved into joint programs with other nations. The United States had a booming economy, which fed the R&D industry and led to major advances in electronics and computers. The two nations continued their special relationship in the military and diplomatic spheres and, after a rocky start, with cooperative R&D in nuclear energy and weapons. The epilogue closes with the long-standing idea of America exceptionalism in the context of its Allied partnership.
Conclusions, Extensions, and Implications
Authors: Nelson Chad E.
Published: September 2022

This chapter sums up the findings of the book and discusses its broader relevance. It first reviews the empirical chapters and theoretical argument. It then applies the theory to other cases such as the Arab Spring and how fear of revolutionary contagion informs our understanding of Russian and Chinese foreign policy. The chapter then brings up an avenue for future research: how the revolutionary state and its neighbors come to an accommodation. Finally, it discusses the relevance of the findings for four literatures: the international effects of revolutions, domestic instability and international conflict, diffusion studies, and how ideological differences affect international politics.
Reclaiming Community Agency in Managing Intangible Cultural Heritage
Authors: Ceribašić Naila
Published: September 2022

This chapter examines how the centrality of community agency has been addressed in main statutory and relevant extra-statutory documents of the 2003 UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH), paying attention as well to on-topic debates in the process of the adoption of these documents. It also traces different understandings of community and its agency in the discussions on international inscriptions of ICH elements, notably in cases of the Intergovernmental Committee’s overturn of unfavorable recommendations of the Evaluation Body. A promising and attainable way out from a paperwork treatment of ICH would be to open the Convention to so-called correspondence from the public, i.e., to devise an inclusive mechanism that would allow, or even encourage, bearers of ICH and their communities, various other stakeholders, and public society at large to take part in (text-based) debates on safeguarding ICH under the 2003 Convention, especially as regards monitoring of elements included in the lists, registers, and inventories at national and international levels. It could be effectuated through the establishment of an ICH NGO monitoring center that would integrate expertise in ICH and dedication to the principle of community agency.
Building Theory in Political Communication
Authors: Wolfsfeld Gadi , Sheafer Tamir , Althaus Scott
Published: September 2022

The goal of this volume is to contribute to the collective effort of building cumulative knowledge in the field of political communication. It does so by adapting, refining, and extending the Politics-Media-Politics (PMP) principle. PMP is an intentionally broad conceptual map that is designed to be adopted by researchers working in a variety of fields. The book’s chapters illustrate this concept map’s basic components, demonstrate how to apply it, and showcase its usefulness. The PMP principle can be best understood in two central propositions. The “politics first” proposition makes the following claim: The role of all forms of media in politics can best be understood as one in which variations in political ecosystems are the most important factors leading to variations in communication systems, values, practices, and resources. The “media selection and transformation” proposition is formulated thusly: All forms of media do not merely reflect the nature of the political ecosystem, they can also have an independent effect on political processes by selecting and transforming political events and issues into stories. When these two claims are combined, detailed, and developed, they provide a powerful conceptual structure for integrating research from a variety of fields in political communication. Chapters address the role of the media in election campaigns, historical change, violent conflicts and peace processes, comparative political communication, and how to use the PMP approach to assess media performance in democratic and autocratic regimes.
Weapons Brandishing and Display
Authors: Spitzer Robert J.
Published: September 2022

Rising incidents of citizens openly carrying weapons at demonstrations and other public events and venues has brought to the fore the movement to normalize public gun carrying, despite the alarm it has raised regarding issues of free expression, safety, and the specter of intentional or unintentional violence. The history of the regulation of public weapons carrying, dating to the Middle Ages, is excavated and examined. Drawing on new data, this chapter presents a history of American law demonstrating that weapons brandishing, and even mere display, was restricted early and extensively in our history, often regardless of the intention of the weapons carrier. Such carrying was widely understood as a “breach of the peace.”
Ending Spells
Authors: Davenport Christian , Appel Benjamin J.
Published: September 2022

Chapter 5 provides one of the first empirical investigations of what (if anything) ends a repressive spell. Again, the analysis identifies the influence of the standard variables employed within the literature. Following this, the chapter moves to explore those variables that emerge from the domestic context (i.e., those used by actors within the territory in question) and those variables that emerge from the international context (i.e., those used by actors outside of the territory in question). The big findings here include pacifying influences of electoral democratization and judicial democracy, civil conflict termination, as well as International Government Organization membership but inflammatory influences of civil conflict, population, and youth bulges. This again reveals that there are different factors influencing distinct parts of the Death/Life repression cycle. Once again the chapter investigates what drives the variable/policy that wields the biggest impact on onset: political democratization. The chapter ends with what has been learned about spell termination.
Cases
Authors: Davenport Christian , Appel Benjamin J.
Published: September 2022

In an effort to facilitate clear understanding of the empirical results derived from the previous four chapters, Chapter 7 presents some case material which lays out relevant sequences in some detail. We begin with discussing the most common sequence that emerges from our study and the one that is most consistent with our juggernaut theoretical argument. Here, a spell starts, non-violence/civil resistance is enacted, democratization occurs, and the spell ends. Specifically, four cases are discussed. We then move on to a variant of our theoretically derived sequence but one where elements are missing. For example, where a spell begins, non-violence/civil resistance is enacted, and the spell comes to an end. Three cases are provided that illustrate this scenario. Finally, we identify cases where there is a somewhat more violent and more complex pathway to termination. Here, a spell starts, civil conflict occurs, there is some combination of democratization and/or civil resistance, and the spell is terminated. Two cases are provided that illustrate this scenario.
Counter-Revolution and Compromise
Authors: Berridge Willow , Lynch Justin , Makawi Raga , de Waal Alex
Published: September 2022

This chapter documents the period between al-Bashir's ouster on 11 April and the signing of the Constitutional Declaration by representatives of the Forces of Freedom and Change and General Burhan's Transitional Military Council on 17 August 2019. It covers the tense negotiations between the FFC and TMC, assessing the development of Burhan and Hemedti's revolutionary strategy from April until the massacre of protestors gathered at the sit-in site in military headquarters on 3 June. The rupture in negotiations brought about by the massacre provoked an intervention by a variety of international actors, including the AU, UK, UN, IGAD and USA, eventually leading to the compromise of 17 August.
Asserting Chinese Dominance
Authors: Moore Daniel
Published: September 2022

Chinese efforts at rapidly modernizing the People's Liberation Army (PLA) are unparalleled. These efforts include both major changes in acquisition and development of military hardware, alongside a thorough, progressive reimagining of military doctrine. One principal aspect of PLA modernization is the creation of the Strategic Support Force (SSF), which represents a consolidation of cyber operations, signals intelligence, electronic warfare, space operations and other adjacent components. Through the SSF, the PLA has adopted a sober, pragmatic view of cyber operations that includes all the requisite components for strategic incorporation of Offensive Cyber Operations (OCOs) into warfighting efforts. Yet one essential component remains lacking: experience. Success in OCOs is intricate and requires accrued experience painstakingly gained through recurring efforts. While China has extensive experience in conducting cyber operations for intelligence gathering, it lacks discernible offensive experience. This gap, paired with an overall inexperience in joint warfare in actual combat contingencies, raises questions about the PLA's readiness to successfully employ OCOs. This is explored through the lens of a Taiwan contingency--the long-planned potential campaign to forcibly overtake Taiwan in attempt to forcibly reunify it with the Chinese mainland, and how it may counter Taiwanese forces - and their US allies.
The Public Health Crisis Survival Guide
Authors: Sharfstein Joshua M.
Published: September 2022

Firefighters fight fires. Police officers race to crime scenes, sirens blaring. And health officials? Health officials respond to crises. There are infectious disease crises, budget crises, environmental health crises, human resources crises—and many more. At such critical moments, what happens next really matters. A strong response can generate greater credibility and authority for a health agency and its leadership, while a bungled response can lead to humiliation and even resignation. Health officials must be able to manage and communicate effectively as emotions run high, communities become engaged, politicians lean in, and journalists circle. In popular imagination, leaders intuitively rise to the challenge of a crisis: Either they have what it takes or they do not. In fact, preparation is invaluable, and critical skills can be learned and practiced. Students and health officials alike can prepare not only to avoid catastrophe during crises, but to take advantage of new opportunities for health improvement. The Public Health Crisis Survival Guide provides historical perspective, managerial insight, and strategic guidance to help health officials at all levels not just survive but thrive in the most challenging of times.
Introduction
Authors: Ellis Stephen , Randrianja Solofo , Bayart Jean-François
Published: September 2022

Stephen Ellis was widely recognized as one of the greatest Africanists of his generation. An expert on the history and politics of Madagascar, South Africa, Liberia and Nigeria, his bibliography included some 20 books and more than 130 published articles. This chapter introduces and provides an overview of the book, which encompasses his main geographical interests, historical and contemporary subjects, and includes well and lesser-known articles. It is grouped under the sections, "Method", "Rebellion and Repression", "Religion", "Crime", and "Public Engagement". It argues that Stephen Ellis was a scholar of considerable sophistication and subtlety whose work remains relevant today. It concludes by touching on some of the unanswered questions and perplexing features of his oeuvre.
Writing Histories of Contemporary Africa
Authors: Ellis Stephen , Randrianja Solofo , Bayart Jean-François
Published: September 2022

This essay argues that historians need to engage with the history of contemporary Africa both as a way of throwing new light on Africa's more remote past and as a way of understanding the present. The paper discusses two types of problems involved in such an enterprise. The first is the identification of the most fruitful themes for investigation. The second is the sources that may be used.
Africa’s Wars of Liberation
Authors: Ellis Stephen , Randrianja Solofo , Bayart Jean-François
Published: September 2022

This chapter offers some preliminary reflections on the ways in which scholars have considered African wars of liberation. It discusses a tendency on the part of historians to interpret violent resistance struggles in Africa as episodes in some ultimately teleological process, liberating Africans progressively from colonial, neo-colonial or national oppression. Yet given the disappointing results of each of these successive "liberations", there are reasons to be sceptical. A more fruitful approach would be to attempt to reread the late colonial and postcolonial period of African history without any ideological prism, transcending the now-classic division of African history into three periods defined by their relationship to colonial rule.
Violence and History
Authors: Ellis Stephen , Randrianja Solofo , Bayart Jean-François
Published: September 2022

The chapter responds to an article published by Thandika Mkandawire in the Journal of Modern African Studies in 2002. It rejects Mkandawire's explanation of violence against the peasantry in Africa, using an analysis of Liberia to propose instead that violence should be understood as a form of meaningful action that refers to a range of symbols concerning power that are widely understood and historically rooted. This leads on to a broader discussion of how to reinvigorate social science in an era whereconfidence in some of its most influential models and paradigms is on the wane. Social science should be premised on the assumption that all human beings have fundamental qualities, tendencies and abilities in common, and on the assumption that it is possible to reach a sophisticated and informed understanding of what these qualities are.
Witch-Hunting in Central Madagascar 1828–1861Madagascar 1828–1861
Authors: Ellis Stephen , Randrianja Solofo , Bayart Jean-François
Published: September 2022

This chapter tells the story of a poison ordeal administered en masse by the Imerina state in nineteenth century Madagascar. The chapter proceeds in two stages: first by describing "witchcraft" or mosavy as a category of local religious thought and then by analyzing its relation to and role in larger social processes, which included political centralisation, massive population movements, war, disease and state decay. It argues that the great witch-hunts in Madagascar were intrinsic to the articulation of a religious and political power that proved unable to endure, not least because of the vast inequities and ambiguities with which it was associated. The chapter raises the possibility of a cautious comparative analysis of witchcraft, best approached through a sociology of scapegoating.
Africa and International Corruption
Authors: Ellis Stephen , Randrianja Solofo , Bayart Jean-François
Published: September 2022

This article traces the development of corruption in one part of Africa--Seychelles--in a global context. It demonstrates how the ease with which capital can be transferred and commodities bought and sold, and the speed of modern communication in general, have been given considerable impetus to the linking of corrupt practices across borders, and that this process of transnational corruption was considerably encouraged by the Cold War. After independence in 1976, Seychelles was subject to intense international diplomatic and military activity, often of a covert nature, due largely to the islands' strategic location, which made them an asset both in US-Soviet rivalry in the Indian Ocean and in the more localized patterns of conflict stemming from South Africa's drive to assert its hegemony in southern Africa. This led to attempts to subvert or influence the islands' government by bribery and by force, while more powerful governments and business interests associated with political parties as far afield as Italy manipulated Seychelles' status as a sovereign State in order to perform various transactions of dubious legality. There is some evidence also that the islands were used for financial transactions by arms dealers and as a staging post for drug trafficking.
How to Rebuild Africa
Authors: Ellis Stephen , Randrianja Solofo , Bayart Jean-François
Published: September 2022

This chapter focuses on the problem of Africa's "failed" or "fragile states" at the turn of the twenty-first century. Failed states are typically viewed by policymakers as being like machines, which, with some well-known technical inputs, can be fixed. A better metaphor is that they are sick patients, each with their own peculiarities, which require careful diagnosis before being nursed back to health. In addition, the conventional wisdom on rebuilding African states suffers from three major defects: it is short-termist; it overestimates, in some cases, the degree of capacity that these states ever had; and it is overly focused on individual nations as its unit of analysis. What are needed are longer-term, international or regional solutions. In a few cases, a new form of international trusteeship can be advocated.
Conclusion
Authors: Smeets Max
Published: September 2022

This chapter summarizes the main arguments of the book, draws out implications for policy and academic research, and discusses avenues for future research. This chapter explains why it is difficult for a cyber command that lacks a peacetime mission to retain talent and assess possible solutions. This chapter also discuss the need for a "homegrown" industry as states will have to rely more on their own ability to build and innovate in the cyber realm, compared to other fields. In addition, this chapter notes that the policy writing on cyber disarmament is too preoccupied with the states' procedures to disclose zero-day exploits and pays insufficient attention to policies that curtail the unwanted diffusion of skills.
Epilogue
Authors: Dudai Ron
Published: September 2022

This epilogue briefly explores efforts of ‘rebranding’ informing in the aftermath of conflicts, and the challenges former rebel leaders can face in undoing the long-term consequences of their own past campaigns against informing. Republican leader Martin McGuinness, admired amongst former IRA supporters as a ‘warrior’, crossed the Rubicon and as Deputy First Minister called on Republican communities to inform the police on dissident organisations. Yet many in the community he represented remain on the far side of the metaphorical river, even when they strongly object to the dissident violence, still unwilling to countenance informing and remaining attached to entrenched social norms recoiling from it. Mainstream Republicans attempt to reframe informing in the post-conflict context: from a cardinal sin worthy of death to the praiseworthy duty of the good citizen; from ‘informing’, with its host of negative connotations, to mundane informing. These efforts—termed here ‘transitional social control’—have not been fully successful, and for many informing remains ‘informing’: a despicable act of betraying the community. This struggle demonstrates the pivotal role of perceptions of informing in conflicted and divided societies, and can lead to devising a societal litmus test for communities emerging from conflict: the more a community accepts that ‘informing’ has become informing, the more it has stepped out of the conflict and into a new phase of normalised relations with the state; while as long as informing retains its status as ‘informing’ among sizeable parts of the population, the conflict mentality remains prominent.
The Federal Contract
Authors: Tierney Stephen
Published: September 2022

This chapter introduces federalism as a discrete and significant tradition of constitutional rule for the modern state. It argues that this distinctiveness has largely been neglected by constitutional theory and explains how and why this is the case. It does so by tracing the history of the federal idea from the time of the founding of the constitution of the United States, exploring how the American model has overshadowed the development of federal theory and practice since then. The chapter argues that federalism must be conceived as a constitutional rather than merely a political idea, and that the generic constitutional purpose that unites federal systems can only be uncovered by way of constitutional theory. It contends that federal constitutionalism represents nothing less than an alternative form of social contract, manifest in a discrete order of constitutional rule, distinct from the monist constitutionalism that has dominated modern constitutional thinking. The chapter introduces how the book will rearticulate federalism in this way,, outlining the root and branch reconception in federal context of those essential elements that comprise the anatomy of constitutionalism—foundations, authority, subjecthood, purpose, design, and dynamics.
The Subjects of Federalism
Authors: Tierney Stephen
Published: September 2022

This chapter contends that subjecthood is a more capacious concept than—and within a federal constitution is not exhausted simply by an account of—individual citizenship. Since the territories which bring the federal constitution into being are its foundational constituents, and given that the constitutional purpose of the federal polity is manifest in the recognition of their centrality to the constitution’s identity and design, it follows that these territories must themselves be conceived of as constitutional subjects. This in turn has implications for the concept of federal citizenship, mediating the ways in which individuals relate to the constitution and to the state. The chapter also explores how the very idea of territorial subjecthood within federal systems has been so troubling for both constitutional theory and practice, taking the constitutional history of the United States and Canada as case studies.
The Purpose and Principles of Federalism
Authors: Tierney Stephen
Published: September 2022

The function of any constitution is to transform political power into lawful authority. Each constitution does this in its own way and for its own purpose. It is also the case that certain constitutions perform this function in a sufficiently similar manner to warrant categorisation as particular families of constitutionalism. Federalism is such a genus of government,and it is the aim of this chapter to explain the generic constitutional purpose of federalism. Federalism is an act of constitutional union that gives foundational recognition and accommodation to the state’s constituent territorial pluralism. The purpose of the federal constitution is both to foster this foundational pluralism and to maintain the constitutional relationship between pluralism and union in the creation and reconciliation of different orders of government. From this definition flows a set of constitutional principles that underpin the purpose of federalism: principles as the logical implication or ‘chain of reasoning’ that flows from the foundational character of federalism as a particular form of constitutional rule. It is constitutional theory that leads us to these principles: recognition, autonomous government, associational government, and both vertical and horizontal reciprocity.
Dynamics: Changing Federal Constitutions
Authors: Tierney Stephen
Published: September 2022

This chapter addresses how the constitutional purpose of federalism, and the principles which flow from it, shape the dynamics of federal constitutionalism in theory and in practice. In defining the purpose and principles of federalism in earlier chapters a key conclusion was that a federal constitution is a complex matrix of authority which must constantly manage the tension between pluralism and union. To this end the mechanics of constitutional change should offer an appropriate safety valve, relieving pressure in the system and adjusting the direction of the constitution, towards either greater territorial pluralism or stronger union, as the interplay between the polity’s underlying political conditions and the temper of its internal societies shifts. The chapter considers entrenchment and its suitability to a federal constitution. Is the balance between pluralism and union better maintained through constitutional provisions that embed foundational institutional arrangements, or by a more fluid constitutional arrangement that facilitates political openness, allowing stresses within the system to be eased through flexible pathways to change? To this end the chapter considers the different ways in which federal constitutions in practice manage formal constitutional change and addresses both the institutional architecture of constitutional amendment and the ways in which different entrenchment rules can apply to different constitutional provisions within federal systems. The chapter also addresses how change is managed or developed by the courts. Judicial interpretation within federal systems, as within unitary constitutions, has proven to be crucial to the evolution of constitutional meaning, in some cases serving to transform fundamentally the very character and identity of the federal contract.
Conceptualizing Emergency Professions
Authors: McCann Leo
Published: September 2022

Chapter 2 lays out the conceptual background for the book. It describes and explains five scholarly traditions that my analysis draws upon: (1) professionalism and expertise; (2) management and organizational control, especially the modes of measurement, standardization, and administration associated with New Public Management; (3) street-level bureaucracy; (4) occupational, technical, uniformed, and care work; and finally, (5) the notions of ‘edgework’ and ‘extreme work’. The chapter locates the behaviour, identity, and practices of the emerging paramedic profession as somewhere inside this shifting mass of concepts. Paramedics have made substantial progress in their professionalization project but, as members of a ‘new’ profession, they have yet to experience the more powerful forms of status and reward that are normally associated with traditional, well-established professions.
The Operator Culture
Authors: McCann Leo
Published: September 2022

This chapter focuses on what has been described as the paramedics’ ‘operator culture’; one subset of the broader ‘uniformed’ occupational culture associated with other emergency response professionals. It provides an in-depth account of the working culture of paramedics, crafting a detailed picture of an occupation that shares some characteristics with other uniformed occupations such as policing and firefighting, but which has received comparatively much less attention in sociological research. It will show how the English ambulance service culture is a hybrid of a uniformed, emergency service culture and a more ‘NHS’ type clinical culture that is recognizably similar to those existing in other health organizations such as hospitals, GPs surgeries, or mental health trusts. Empirical data explore paramedic autonomy, the targets and response times, the informal value hierarchy of types of calls that ambulance staff are sent to, and issues around staff morale and the gender and ethnic makeup of the paramedic workforce.
Rise of the Machines
Authors: Stahlke Samantha , Mirza-Babaei Pejman
Published: September 2022

While we normally think of it as relegated to computer-controlled enemies, artificial intelligence (AI) plays a much larger role in game interaction than many of us realize. This chapter outlines how AI companions and adversaries can be designed to feel more lively and engaging to interact with, both in their behaviours and through design trickery. Challenges with the design of AI characters, such as communicating their intentions to players and striking a balance between predictability and surprise, are also addressed. Beyond character control, the role of AI in procedural generation, and how computer-created content can be made more engaging, is also discussed. Lastly, the chapter examines how AI can help shape game design itself in the future, by supporting different stages and disciplines within the development process.
Introduction
Authors: Kakwani Nanak , Son Hyun H.
Published: September 2022

This introductory chapter summarizes how income inequality and poverty measurements have evolved in the past 50 years or so. It provides an overview of the entire book, briefly discussing key issues surrounding the topic and policy applications presented in the book. The chapter also outlines the scope and limitations of the book.
The Lorenz Curve and Its Variants
Authors: Kakwani Nanak , Son Hyun H.
Published: September 2022

The measurement of inequality goes back more than 115 years. In 1905, the US statistician M. O. Lorenz developed a simple two-dimensional curve, used extensively until the present day to represent and analyze income distributions. This chapter presents many statistical and mathematical properties of the curve, with many economic applications. The chapter shows that the Lorenz curve is not merely a graphical device to describe distribution but also a valuable tool for critically analyzing many economic situations. It introduces the Lorenz curve in formal and rigorous terms, deriving many analytical results, which open up opportunities for many applications in economics relating to measuring and analyzing inequality in income.