bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Training & Human Factors: Implications for Work Force Competitiveness & National Educational Problems
Authors: Griffith Doug , Ruck Hank , Converse Sharolyn A. , Smith Philip J. , Brock John
Published: January 2009

This panel discussion will examine the proposition that the field of human factors has technology relevant to two national problems: work force competitiveness and education. Specific examples of relevant technology will be presented and discussed.
Video Games, Training, and Investigating Complex Skills
Authors: Shebilske Wayne L. , Regian J. Wesley
Published: January 2009

We are utilizing Space Fortress in a basic research program that is designed to integrate cognitive and social learning theory in the development of group protocols for training complex skills. We present evidence that groups of 2, 3 and 4 can learn Space Fortress as well as 1 using 1/2, 1/3 and 1/4 the trainer time and resources respectively. We also present preliminary empirical steps towards individualizing training within groups according to individual differences in selective attention. We discuss implications for developing automated instruction that is designed for small groups rather than for individuals.
Ergonomic Analysis of Materials Handling and Design Guidelines for a New Central Public Library
Authors: Village Judy , Campbell Brian , Cull John
Published: January 2009

In the first phase of this two-year project, workplace factors contributing to hand, arm and back injuries among employees at a large central public library were identified and prioritized. A central research committee was established consisting of Library Management, Union representatives and an Ergonomist. The next phase involved formation of four sub-committees to procure and prototype new equipment, develop new methods of working, evaluate the new equipment and methods, and make recommendations to the central research committee. The Ergonomist facilitated the process by helping committees remain systematic and objective in their approach and evaluations. In some cases more detailed analyses were conducted using computerized lifting models and electromyographic (EMG) analysis of muscle activity. Efforts resulted in recommendations for the current library facility and conceptual design guidelines for architects planning the new Central Public Library.
Intelligent Vehicle Highway Systems (IVHS): Human Factors Issues in Subsystem Development
Authors: Mast Truman M. , Peters Joseph I.
Published: January 2009

Intelligent Vehicle-Highway Systems (IVHS) is a major U.S. Department of Transportation initiative to improve the safety and efficiency of our nation's highways. IVHS includes five related components: Advanced Traffic Management Systems (ATMS); Advanced Traveler Information Systems (ATIS); Commercial Vehicle Operations (CVO); Advanced Vehicle Control Systems (AVCS); and, Advanced Public Transportation Systems (APTS). Although the Federal Highway Administration has initially chosen to address each of these components separately, a number of issues are shared by all components. One critical common element deals with the capabilities of the humans in the system. Appropriate guidelines that consider the needs and capabilities of operators, maintainers, and users will be critical for efficient functioning of each system. Efforts are underway to define and resolve critical human factors issues related to IVHS components. This symposium addresses four of the five more highway related IVHS components. For each of these components, presenters will define the key engineering characteristics, hypothetical scenarios that focus on human-system interfaces, and examples of human factors issues that must be considered in the design of IVHS systems.
Human Factors and Advanced Traveler Information Systems (ATIS)
Authors: Perez William A. , Mast Truman M.
Published: January 2009

The nation's motoring public is increasingly burdened by recalcitrant transportation problems, many of them directly attributable to increasing traffic congestion. In response to this, the US. Department of transportation is actively moving on several fronts to address this problem.

One of the more promising approaches to relieving congestion is through the design and implementation of new technology in the Intelligent Vehicle/Highway System (IVHS). IVHS is composed of five elements: Advanced Traffic Management Systems (ATMS), Advanced Traveler Information Systems (ATIS), Commercial Vehicle Operations (CVO), Advanced Vehicle Control Systems (AVCS), and Advanced Public Transportation Systems (APTS). This paper will discuss human factors issues associated with ATIS.
Human-Centered Designs in Commercial Transport Aircraft
Authors: Braune Rolf J. , Graeber R. Curtis
Published: January 2009

Based on airline pilot surveys, industry committees and workshops, conducted on advanced technology “glass cockpit” airplanes, concerns have been raised about the application and long-term effects of automation technologies. It has been pointed out that purely technology-driven designs had resulted in unintended and unforeseen negative consequences. In order to counter this trend it has been proposed to shift the focus from technology-centered designs to what has become known as human-centered design. There are three primary objectives within a human-centered design philosophy: (1) the design should enhance the user's abilities, (2) the design should help overcome user limitations, and (3) the design should foster user acceptance. This paper discusses the human-centered design objectives within the context of commercial transport airplane developments. Representative examples of a human-centered design are presented.
Review of Concepts and Approaches to Complexity
Authors: Modrick John A.
Published: January 2009

The objective of this paper is to review research dealing with the role of complexity in functions and tasks commonly allocated to the operators/users. This topic is complex and not well-structured. We have reviewed principal approaches to provide better structure for the psychological domain of complexity. The research reviewed is partitioned into three categories: procedural, cognitive, and conceptual complexity. What we were after in the review was to find quantifiable attributes of complexity in cognitive tasks and skills and how to use these attributes to manage complexity during system design.
A Review of Anets: A Model of Cognitive Complexity of Displays
Authors: Chechile Richard A.
Published: January 2009

The ANETS model for representing and measuring the degree of the cognitive complexity of visual displays is described in general. Moreover, the results from several studies are described briefly that address the model's predictive power, the reliability of model usage, and the relationship to perceptual measures of display quality. Finally a model-based approach for interface design is discussed as possible and desirable.
The Role of Complexity in Human Performance, Memory, and Training
Authors: Modrick John A.
Published: January 2009

The objective of this symposium is to discuss research dealing with the role of complexity in functions and tasks commonly allocated to the operators/users of systems. Systems of greater capability are being designed and the complexity of operation is increasing. Conceptual/experimental approaches to complexity are reviewed under the categories of procedural, cognitive, and conceptual complexity. Specific projects are reviewed on the effects of complexity on memory for procedures, information extraction for displays, and flight operations in the glass cockpit.
Prototype Classification and User Interface Management during the Requirements Analysis Phase of System Acquistion
Authors: Bowen Charles D.
Published: January 2009

Much has been written about the value of prototyping during the requirements analysis phase of system acquisition. This paper focuses on the classification of prototypes as they impact the user interface. Using a style guide to manage the user interface during the prototyping process is also examined. A distinction between different categories of prototypes, can be drawn in terms of the amount of functionality provided to the user. Consequently, three distinct types of prototypes can be differentiated: conceptual, detailed design and operational prototypes. The conceptual prototype presents the user with the least amount of functionality and is often undertaken to derive functional requirements and to exhibit a proposed solution to a problem. The detailed design prototype exhibits more functionality and is often used by human factors personnel to collect detailed user feedback and performance data to make specific tradeoff decisions and to derive a more detailed design of the user interface. An operational prototype is a complete system that has been fully tested by selected end users, but is not sold as a commercial product. Once the category of prototype is established, a style guide is helpful in managing the development of the user interface. Ensuring consistency within a prototype is the principal role of a user interface style guide. Recent experience in the creation of a style guide for a prototyping effort for the US Air Force has led to a number of suggestions. These suggestions are discussed and future efforts in the development of user interface style guides is indicated.
Development of Job Performance Aids to Increase Human Performance Reliability: A Case Study in the Evaluation of Human Factors Principles
Authors: Hallbert Bruce P. , Rodriguez Michael A. , Harbour Jerry L. , Caccamise Donna J. , Keller John W.
Published: January 2009

A study of criticality safety, commissioned by the U.S. Department of Energy, was conducted by Scientech Inc. at the Rocky Flats nuclear weapons facility. The study concluded that human performance is the driving factor in the risk of an inadvertent criticality incident at the Rocky Flats Plant (RFP). A study of the infractions which have occurred at this facility bears this point out. A human factors team was established to identify a means of reducing human error in every day operations. The team determined that the posted instructions near each work area are key to operators having a clear understanding of operating requirements. An evaluation of the posted instructions revealed that they were very complex, required operators to monitor multiple parameters, and resulted in the operators” attention being divided between operational tasks and the task of monitoring nuclear safety parameters. Alternative graphics, textual, and graphics and textual formats combined with color coding were developed to improve comprehensibility, understandability, controllability, and usability in the Job Performance Aids (JPAs). Results of field tests of the different formats provide clear indication that operators prefer short, concise textual statements summarizing important information over both other formats. Although operators indicated interest in the graphics formats, the magnitude of change in presentation techniques and the generalizability of the icons argued against their immediate use. Issues in the development of candidate JPAs and other usability requirements are discussed.
Improving the Interface between Human Factors Data and Designers: Exemplified in a CASHE Reaction Time Prototyper
Authors: Whitaker L. A. , Moroney W. F.
Published: January 2009

This paper describes the process involved in the development of a reaction time test bench for the Computer Aided Systems Human Engineering (CASHE) program, which is based on a strategy for converting human factors information into simulation software, using a test bench metaphor. The metaphor takes its strength from the familiarity systems designers have with test benches and breadboarding facilities currently at their disposal. The purpose of this paper is to provide a description of this software development activity, illustrate the procedure we followed, specify the decision points we encountered, and relate our lessons learned. Our goal was to convey functional specification information to the software developers in a parsimonious, unambiguous, structured manner to facilitate the development of both the software and the user interface, while complying with hardware system constraints. Development of the Reaction Time (RT) Test Benches involved the following tasks: collect and digest the Engineering Data Compendium entries; analyze the variables; determine the scope of the relevant variables to be tested; select the test bench phenomena to be demonstrated; and develop each of the deliverables. These deliverables included the variable range tables, initial variable settings, the control flow and storyboard graphics. We believe that this task is typical of the input human factors specialists can provide to designers in a variety of contexts and hence generalizes beyond this specific application.
Determinants of Visual Search Performance: Age and Practice Effects
Authors: Rogers W. A. , Fisk A. D. , Hertzog C.
Published: January 2009

In the present experiment, ability-performance relationships were used to assess changes in task requirements across practice. A variety of cognitive and speed ability measures were administered to each subject to measure the following factors: general, fluid, and crystallized intelligence; working memory; perceptual speed; semantic memory access speed; and psychomotor speed. Subsequently, ability-performance relationships were investigated across extensive practice on consistently mapped (CM) and variably mapped (VM) versions of a semantic category visual search task for young (17–30) and old (66–80) adults. The ability-performance relationships revealed similar patterns across CM and VM practice for both age groups. Namely, initial performance was predicted by general ability and semantic memory access, whereas later performance was predicted by perceptual speed. Thus although the mean data suggested that only the young adults had developed an automatic attention response in the CM condition, the locus of the differences between CM and VM or between age groups could not be localized through the ability-performance relationships. Only through a transfer manipulation designed to assess the automaticity of the response in the CM condition did we observe strikingly different ability-performance relationships for the young adults relative to the old adults.
Predicting Performance in Army Aviation Flight Training
Authors: Intano Gabriel P. , Howse William R.
Published: January 2009

The Army Research Institute Aviation Research and Development Activity successfully implemented the Multi-Track Test Battery (MTTB) and associated classification functions in 1988. The battery and functions have been used to assign flight students to their combat skills aircraft. The present program determined the applicability of the battery to prediction of student performance in flight training. Performance evaluation in training consists of flight phase grades and academic phase grades. In addition to these grades, Overall Average Grade and Overall Flight Grade were also predicted using Forward Stepwise Multiple Regression procedures. Stepwise Multiple Discriminant Analysis was used to investigate two additional measures, flight deficiency training setback and flight deficiency attrition.
“It's Not Supposed to Work that Way!”: Applying Chaos Science to Work in Organizations
Authors: Eoyang Glenda H. , Dray Susan M.
Published: January 2009

Complex organizations require new and complex problem solving processes. Chaos science offers a new way of addressing complex organizational issues. This paper gives a 6-step method for managing complexity in organizations, based on the principles of Chaos science.
Experience, Utility and Situational Appropriateness: How does Organizational Context Influence Usability of Electronic Communications Media?
Authors: Nelson Julie A. Maryniak , Caldwell Barrett S.
Published: January 2009

This research investigates the relationship between user attitudes, organizational characteristics and the acceptance of a new electronic communication system in a university research group. The study also addressed users” perceived appropriateness of the new communication system and alternative media in specific organizational situations. The results of this study support previous research regarding the situational appropriateness of different communication media but did not support the hypotheses regarding user attitudes, support for innovation and the acceptance of the new electronic mail system. This study emphasizes the distinction between the usability of a technology and that technology's utility in the organization. While a system may be very easy to use, the usefulness of the implemented system will be the main determinant in how much the system is used.
A Macroergonomic Approach for Improving Safety and Work Design
Authors: Nagamachi Mitsuo , Imada Andrew S.
Published: January 2009

Over the past few years the concept of macroergonomics has heightened our awareness of how human factors can be successfully implemented in the work place. One application of this approach addresses the importance of psychological aspects of work that contribute to safe work performance. Traditionally safety interventionists, and to some extent, human factors professionals, have focused exclusively on the physical dimensions of work. Emphasizing the psychological and organizational impacts on safety represents a broader macroergonomic approach to human factors interventions. There is evidence that this approach has merit in reducing human suffering and costs.
Computers and Human Communication in the Organization — A Psychosocial Perspective on the Individual and the Society in Change - Research in Progress
Authors: Bradley Gunilla
Published: January 2009

The main purpose is to analyze the impact of computer technology and teletechnology on communication from a psychosocial perspective, with an emphasis on the interaction between people. A new infrastructure concerning communication is emerging on the society level and on the company level at the same time as computer use becomes more wiedespread in the private lives of families. The research problems concern analyzes of the structure of communication its quality, causal relations and long term effects. A crossdisciplinary approach is used and the research is performed through two types of intensive studies.
The Effects of Hierarchical Structure and Workload on the Performance of Team and Individual tasks
Authors: Urban Julie M. , Bowers Clint A. , Morgan Ben B. , Braun Curt C. , Kline Paul B.
Published: January 2009

This study represents an attempt to understand the individual and team level performance processes and communication of tactical decision making teams. The findings of a past study on decision making in dyads (Kleinman & Serfaty, 1989) was replicated and extended to include (a) larger teams (b) hierarchically structured teams (c) concurrent performance of team and individual tasks, and (d) verbal communication, in an attempt to enhance the generalizability of the research. The major findings of the current study differ from those reported by Kleinman and his colleagues (1989).
Scenes from the Front Line: Implementing Ergonomics in Organizations
Authors: Albin Thomas , Dray Susan , Larson Nancy , Nagamachi Mitsuo , Neese Regina
Published: January 2009

The purpose of this panel is to discuss “real world” ergonomic interventions and applications which have been successful within organizations.
Effects of Workspace Design and Environmental Control on Office Workers' Perceptions of Air Quality
Authors: O'Neill Michael J.
Published: January 2009

This paper examines the influence of work space enclosure, individual difference variables (sex, job type), and control over the thermal environment on employee perceptions and satisfaction with air quality. The study population consisted of 200 office workers on five different floors of a single building that used either under-floor mounted air distribution units or a standard HVAC system. The under-floor units permit individual control over volume and direction of airflow in the work space. Four aspects of control were examined: availability of control; perceptions of control; exercised control; and; importance of thermal comfort as a goal. Dependent measures of air quality included: perceptions of air freshness; temperature; seasonal variations in temperature and satisfaction with temperature. The combined effects of work station enclosure and employee control were examined by means of multiple regression equations in which sex and occupational status were controlled. The results indicate that when the effects of sex and job status are statistically controlled, personal control and enclosure are significant predictors of employee perceptions. In order of importance; exercised control, perceived control, the importance of air quality as a goal; physical enclosure, and; availability of control all significantly influence perceptions of thermal comfort and satisfaction.
Looking Back for the Future: Learnings about User-Centered Design
Authors: Dray Susan M. , George Debra S.
Published: January 2009

This paper describes the results of focus groups done with I/S professionals and business users to identify “best practices” for design of distributed systems. Many of these are “obvious” to a Human Factors professional, but the value of this effort was to help others to identify them from their own experience.
Change by Design, Human Factors by Necessity: Lessons in Participatory Ergonomics
Authors: Imada Andrew S. , Bowman Monte E.
Published: January 2009

Human factors is traditionally imported into organizations through training, education, and experts. In sharp contrast, this paper presents a case study which reduced safety and health costs significantly at two wood processing plants, not by introducing human factors, but by introducing an organizational change. This structural change, in turn created a need for human factors in redesigning work. Participation from three different level committees created an important understanding of how work redesign can be implemented to reduce accidents and injuries. This case reviews the organization, the change, results and implications for human factors interventions in organizations.
Managerial Implications of Extended Breaks on Predicting Performance Times for Industrial Tasks
Authors: Yearout Robert , Hewitt Darlene , Lisnerski Donald , Sprague Kelli
Published: January 2009

Production Managers and Industrial Engineers have relied upon learning (progress) curves for over fifty years. However, until recently only the impacts of extended breaks on performance time predictions were considered. This study examined the effect of breaks on two typical simulated industrial tasks. Fifty-eight subjects performed either the traditional peg-board, a low cognitive task, or a spreadsheet graphic, a moderately-high cognitive task, for 28 iterations. Upon completion of the assigned task, a break period that ranged from 2 to 83 days was randomly assigned to each subject. After the break, subjects replicated their assigned task. Regression analysis was used to select the best model to predict the performance time for the first iteration after a break. An exponential model was selected for the low cognitive task and a multiple linear model for the moderately-high cognitive task. Both models selected were no-intercept models and had multiple correlation coefficients of 0.729 and 0.897 respectively. The ability to accurately predict the first iteration time after a break is a key element in calculating time lost to forgetting and determining the forgetting function. These models may be useful in assisting production managers and industrial engineers in establishing more realistic progress curves and accurate standard times, thus reducing excessive idle time.
Qualifying as an Expert Witness and a Perspective on Negligence
Authors: Smith Leighton L.
Published: January 2009

This article discusses the process of qualifying as an expert witness in court cases. The author's personal experience as a human factors expert witness in a representative case is described and used as an illustrative example. The role of the expert witness in typical injury litigations is described. The difficulty in convincing judges to allow such testimony by experts is also discussed. The value of human factors expert witness testimony is shown through the particulars of an inadvertent landing gear retraction accident lawsuit. In addition, a discussion of the negligence phase of these types of litigations is provided and it is demonstrated again using the landing gear case as illustration, how human factors expert witness testimony can be extremely integral to the judgment of negligence.
The Effects of the Image Factor in Televised Advertising on Consumer Perception
Authors: Cohen David M. , Cohen H. Harvey
Published: January 2009

A review of the literature suggests that televised commercials display a definite image in presenting their product, and that airing of the commercial will have a predictable effect on consumer perception of the product advertised. The present study involved a questionnaire in which 140 subjects were asked to design a commercial using directed choices for one of four motor vehicle types: a mini-van, a pickup truck, a sports car or a luxury car. The hypothesis was that most subjects would design a commercial that reflected a definite image which would vary amongst vehicle types. Though the results did not support the original hypothesis in all respects, there were patterns of similarity in the responses which led to modification of the hypothesis, that being that image does not dictate the way motor vehicles in the commercials are perceived, but rather it directs the way they are perceived in accordance with viewers' varying needs and desires.
Forensics Practice — Headaches and Remedies
Authors: Hornick Richard J. , Besco Robert O. , Harris James L. , Laughery Kenneth R. , Sanders Mark S.
Published: January 2009

Attorneys are increasingly using human factors practitioners to perform analyses and to testify as expert witnesses in product liability and personal injury cases. Previous panels and symposia have addressed a variety of technical considerations and applications in those arenas. However, there are many practical challenges in providing such services to the legal community in an effective and personally satisfying manner. This panel is focused on the practical matters faced by the individual human factors consultant providing services to the legal community. The panel is intended to explore different experiential perspectives regarding effective procedures for dealing with the unique demands of the litigation field.
The Application of an Expanded Accident Sequence Model to Forensic Human Factors
Authors: Sloan Gary D.
Published: January 2009

There are several models that assist the human factors specialist in identifying those behaviors that most likely contributed to an accident's occurrence. Of particular importance to forensic human factors specialists are models that can also serve as demonstrative aids in communicating the bases of their opinions to jurors. One such aid is a version of Ramsey's (1978) accident sequence model. The model, which has been expanded by the author, traces sequentially the activities that likely take place within the individual before an accident occurs. The expanded model prompts the investigator to ask the following questions: (1) Was the hazard detected? (2) If so, was it identified? (3) If correctly identified, were its characteristics perceived accurately? (4) If perception was veridical, was the individual alert to the danger? (5) If alert to the danger, did they appreciate the degree of risk involved? (6) If their assessment of risk was realistic, did the individual want to avoid the hazard? 7) And if they sought to avoid the hazard, could they to do so under the existing conditions? The author draws from cases in which he served as an expert witness to illustrate the model's application.
Skip and Scan Telephone Menus: User Performance as a Function of Experience
Authors: Virzi Robert A. , Resnick Paul , Ottens Don
Published: January 2009

We present the results of a laboratory study comparing three styles of audio menus. One of these styles is the technique predominantly employed in interactive voice response (IVR) systems today. Two alternatives to this Standard technique were evaluated in this study. One of these alternatives was first proposed in Resnick and Virzi (1992), which they called Skip and Scan menus. This new style was hypothesized to be superior to Standard menus for intermediate users, but was expected to show limitations for one-time callers and expert users. The third menu alternative we evaluated combines elements of the Standard and Skip and Scan menus and was hypothesized to be superior in a broad range of usage conditions. Performance was measured over 36 tasks and two IVR applications. In all but the first few trials, the Skip and Scan menu style reported in Resnick and Virzi led to performance equal to or better than the other two menu styles. Standard menus showed a performance benefit for the first few trials of the first application only: this benefit was not present in the second application. There were no differences among the techniques in the trials simulating expert behavior.
Methodology for Software Documentation Reuse
Authors: Sherry Marion M.
Published: January 2009

This paper describes a documentation writing methodology developed and used by the author to address some of the issues of consistency in documentation and product function, redundancy of research and solution, and product usability (including timeliness of delivery and quality of support) for a software product engineered, developed and deployed in a multi-organizational or corporate environment. The methodology is compatible with technical systems engineering, development and testing documentation requirements, and is applicable to software products for which there are existing or anticipated “user guides”. The method used to accomplish these goals is the incorporation of existing user guide formats, wherever possible, in the documentation of technical specifications for detailed engineering, development and testing requirements. This paper describes the “cycle of documentation” methodology employed, identifies opportunities to use this methodology, and describes some of the benefits derived from using the methodology (both initially intended and later discovered).
Control of Prosodic Features for Keyword Emphasis in a Text-to-Speech Synthesizer
Authors: Hamada Hiroshi , Chiba Jin'ichi
Published: January 2009

For the purpose of designing a method to control the main speech parameters for keyword emphasis in a text-to-speech synthesizer, the relation between speech parameters and emphasis level is determined from experiments. Twelve subjects are instructed to modify keyword emphasis to achieve natural sounding speech from three sentences. An interactive speech editor with a graphical user interface is developed for the experiments. The editor allows the subjects to control speech intensity, speech rate and average fundamental frequency of the keyword, and of the other sentence components. Furthermore, subjects can also control pause (silence) duration preceding and following the keyword. Extracted relations between prosodic feature parameters and emphasis level shows that speech intensity and speech rate are independent of sentence content. Speech intensity increases linearly and speech rate decreases linearly with emphasis level. On the other hand, average fundamental frequency and pause duration depend on sentence content, and relatively large changes are required to strongly emphasize keywords using pause insertion and increased fundamental frequency.
Measuring Human Performance as a Function of Speech Communication Using the Close Combat Test Bed (CCTB) Facility
Authors: Whitaker Leslie A. , Peters Leslie J. , Mitchell Jennifer
Published: January 2009

Auditory communication is critical for the successful completion of many tasks which require information be transmitted among crew members. The purpose of the present program of research is to determine the impact that speech communication has on performance of such tasks. As guidance for this program, a model of auditory communication has been developed. This model describes performance as a function of three factors: transmission, linguistic, and individual. The model assumes that variables affecting these three factors alter the level of auditory workload and task performance is a consequence of this workload (Peters, 1991). The present paper describes the effects of two transmission factors: speech intelligibility and communication structure. Speech intelligibility was measured using the Modified Rhymes Test. Communication structure was defined as command, interrogative, and discussion levels. Three studies have been completed in this research program. The focus of the present paper is the most recent study, completed at the Ft. Knox Close Combat Test Bed, an M1A1 tank simulator facility. After describing the results of this study, the results of all three studies are reviewed and found to be consistent with the auditory-performance model proposed by the authors.
Technology Advancements in Hearing Protection: Active Noise Reduction, Frequency/Amplitude-Sensitivity, and Uniform Attenuation
Authors: Casall John Gordon
Published: January 2009

Conventional hearing protection devices have often been implicated in compromised auditory perception, degraded signal detection, and reduced speech communication abilities. Recent technological developments have been used to augment hearing protectors in an attempt to alleviate these problems for the user, while at the same time providing adequate attenuation. Operational characteristics, design features, performance data, and applications for active noise reduction, sound transmission, frequency-selective, adjustable attenuation, amplitude-sensitive, and uniform attenuation devices are discussed.
Human Factors Problems in Interactive Voice Response (IVR) Applications: Do we Need a Guideline/Standard?
Authors: Gardner-Bonneau Daryle Jean
Published: January 2009

The purpose of this paper is to present a case for the development of a user interface design guideline or standard for interactive voice response applications, to be widely disseminated throughout business and industry. A number of sample problems are cited, based on the author's consulting experience in this area, which serve to demonstrate that many of the problems encountered in IVR application development, particularly in scripting/dialogue design and use of automated speech recognition as a front-end, are not only solvable, but easily avoidable, given the current human factors knowledge base. The paper also discusses the Specification Document developed by the Voice Messaging User Interface Forum (1990, April), and the reasons why it cannot be applied, as written, to the user interface design of more complex IVR applications. Finally, the author proposes an approach to developing the proposed guideline/standard.
Systematic Errors Occur in the Discrimination of Complex Audio Signals
Authors: Gerth Jeffrey M.
Published: January 2009

Previous research suggests that the temporal pattern of dissimilar sounds may be a basis for confusion. To extend this research, the present study used complex sounds formed by simultaneously playing components drawn from four sound categories. Four temporal patterns, determined by sound duration and duty cycle were also used, producing a total of 16 basic components. The density (i.e., number of components played simultaneously) ranged from one to four. Subjects heard a sequence of two complex sounds and judged whether they were same of different. For trials in which the sounds differed, there were three possible manipulations: the addition of a component, the deletion of a component, and the substitution of one component for another.

Overall accuracy was 94 percent across the 144 dissimilar sound complexes. As density increased, a significantly greater number of errors occurred for all classes of manipulations. Changes in individual temporal patterns across a variety of manipulations of sounds involving adding, deleting and substituting components were accurately discriminated. Subjects were least accurate in detecting substitutions of a pattern. A single sound category was identified in error prone sequences which was most often involved as the changing component from first to second sound presentation. Suggestions for the design of easily discriminated sounds are discussed.
Integrating Cognitive Systems Engineering Throughout the Systems Engineering Process
Authors: Elm William C. , Gualtieri James W. , McKenna Brian P. , Tittle James S. , Peffer Jay E. , Szymczak Samantha S. , Grossman Justin B.
Published: January 2009

In order for cognitive systems engineering (CSE) to deliver the benefits of recent theoretical advances in actual systems being developed, the insights of CSE must be transformed into pragmatic engineering practices. The CSE engineering practices described in this article (using the applied cognitive systems engineering methodology as an exemplar) are typical of just such an engineering adaptation of revolutionary science and represent engineering practices that are dedicated to building effective systems. CSE research insights can have a significant impact on their corresponding systems engineering (SE) practices by expanding SE's concept of a system from just the technology components to a joint cognitive system (Hollnagel & Woods, 2005) and expanding the associated SE practices appropriately. This article uses the Department of Defense system life cycle and the SE V-model (Forsberg & Mooz, 1992) as SE process exemplars to illustrate how CSE engineering practices can be integrated into the SE process. Specifically, we propose four key integration points where CSE can contribute significantly to the SE process: concept refinement, software development, testing, and postsystem development (i.e., operations support, training, and maintenance). Our approach shows that the practice of CSE does not compete with SE but, instead, augments current SE practices to ensure that the technology components are engineered with the users' cognitive needs in mind.
Technology and Aging
Authors: Rogers Wendy A. , Stronge Aideen J. , Fisk Arthur D.
Published: January 2009

Technological advancements have become widespread, and their implementation into products of everyday use is accelerating. Technology has the potential to improve the lives of older adults by increasing their safety, security, and independence in daily life. However, too often older adults' capabilities and limitations are not considered in the design of current and future technologies. In 1990, the National Research Council identified the importance of human factors in the design of technology for an aging population. The goal of this chapter is to review research on aging and technology since that report to determine the contributions of human factors research to issues of aging and technology design. In this chapter we address the extent to which older adults use new technologies, factors to consider in the adoption of technology (e.g., attitudes), the influence of technology design on older adults' performance (e.g., design of input devices), and ways to optimize training for older adults in using new technologies (e.g., age-specific instructional designs). We then review emerging areas of research that may direct the focus of human factors research in the next decade. These areas of research include ubiquitous computing (e.g., home monitoring systems), health care technologies (e.g., telehealth), robotics (e.g., Nursebot), and automated systems (e.g., cruise control). Finally, we consider opportunities and challenges to human factors research as the field continues to address the questions of optimizing technology for older adult users.
Driving Safety
Authors: Lee John D.
Published: January 2009

Driving is a common and hazardous activity that is a prominent cause of death worldwide. Driver behavior represents a predominant cause, contributing to over 90% of crashes. In this review, I will focus on how driver behavior influences driving safety by describing the types of crashes and their general causes, the driving process, the perceptual and cognitive characteristics of drivers, and driver types and impairments. Evidence from each of these perspectives suggests that breakdowns of a multilevel control process are the fundamental factors that undermine driving safety. Drivers adapt and drive safely in a broad range of situations but fail when expectations are violated or when feedback is inadequate. The review concludes by considering driving safety from a societal risk management perspective.
Biomechanical Modeling
Authors: Marras William S. , Radwin Robert G.
Published: January 2009

Biomechanics provides a means to quantitatively consider the implications of workplace design. The benefit of biomechanical quantification is that it can help determine how much exposure to a risk factor is too much exposure. Given the escalating health care costs associated with work, these analyses are becoming very important to industry. This approach becomes important for work occupational task design. In order to evaluate the risk of a musculoskeletal disorder (MSD) from a particular task, one must consider the contribution of both the external loads and internal loads on a structure and how they relate to the tolerance of the structure. Over the past 35 years, several biomechanical modeling approaches have evolved and have been used to integrate our knowledge of how various biomechanical factors interact to mediate or exacerbate the effects of work on tissue loading. The applications of biomechanical modeling to the back have progressed rapidly and now make it possible to assess spine load specifically for an individual performing a particular task at a specific point in time. Although applications of biomechanical models for the upper limb have not progressed as rapidly as for the back, recent advances have been made, particularly in the areas of hand tools and repetitive motion tasks. Future challenges entail the more realistic assessments of tissue tolerances, better understanding of the role of biochemical reactions to loads, and ways to apply the laboratory-based models in the workplace. As the field continues to advance and more realistic and accurate biomechanical models are developed, our ability to control MSDs and predict which workplace designs will lead to injury will help to avoid unnecessary suffering while increasing productivity.
Analysis of Cognitive Work
Authors: Bisantz Ann , Roth Emilie
Published: January 2009

Cognitive task and work analyses are approaches to the analysis and support of cognitive work (rather than primarily physical or perceptual activities). Although a variety of methods exist for performing cognitive task and work analyses, they share a common goal of providing information about two mutually reinforcing perspectives. One perspective focuses on the fundamental characteristics of the work domain and the cognitive demands they impose. The other focuses on how current practitioners respond to the demands of the domain. This includes a description of the knowledge and skills practitioners have developed to operate effectively as well as any limitations in knowledge and strategies that contribute to performance problems. This chapter provides a broad survey of cognitive task analysis and cognitive work analysis methods. Some of the methods highlight techniques for knowledge gathering, whereas others focus on aspects of analysis and representation. Still other techniques emphasize process outputs, such as formal (computational) models of cognitive activities or design artifacts and associated rationales. In this chapter we review specific cognitive task and work analysis methods and describe through illustration how these methods can be adapted to meet specific project objectives and pragmatic constraints.
Macroergonomics: The Analysis and Design of Work Systems
Authors: Hendrick Hal W.
Published: January 2009

The concept of macroergonomics and its purpose, theoretical basis, and major methodologies are described. Macroergonomics is traced from the inception of ergonomics in the 1940s to formal consideration of organizational design and management factors in work system design over the past 2 decades. Types of work system designs and when to use each are reviewed. Applications of macroergonomics, as reported in the literature, are summarized. Documented results of several representative macroergonomic interventions are noted. The chapter concludes with some speculation on the potential of macroergonomics for future work systems.
Human Factors of Homeland Security
Authors: Cooke Nancy J. , Winner Jennifer L.
Published: January 2009

Humans play a role in all aspects of homeland security, including the functions of deterrence, detection, and response and in the capacities of both administrators and recipients of security procedures. The field of human factors has contributed to homeland security functions through design of user-centered technology and training programs, through metrics for assessing human performance, through environmental design, and through organizational changes targeting the larger sociotechnical system. In this chapter, we review these and other contributions and propose an agenda for future research and development on human factors of homeland security. We conclude that the field of human factors provides many low-cost, high-impact solutions that reach beyond the bounds of the human–single machine interface.
Haptic Interaction Design for Everyday Interfaces
Authors: MacLean Karon E.
Published: January 2009

This chapter sets about to provide the background and orientation needed to set a novice designer on his or her way to bringing haptics successfully into an interactive product. To define appropriate roles for haptic interaction, it is necessary to integrate a basic awareness of human capabilities on one hand and current device technology on the other. Here, I explore this integration by first summarizing the most salient constraints imposed by both humans and hardware. I then proceed to relate perceptual, motor, and attentional capabilities to a selection of emerging application contexts chosen to be relevant to contemporary design trends and opportunities. These include abstract communication and notification, augmentation of graphical user interfaces, expressive control, affective communication, and mobile and handheld computing.
Spatial Mental Representation: Implications for Navigation System Design
Authors: Taylor Holly A. , Brunyé Tad T. , Taylor Scott T.
Published: January 2009

Similarities exist in how people process and represent spatial information and in the factors that contribute to disorientation, whether one is moving through airspace, on the ground, or surgically within the body. As such, design principles for presenting spatial information should bear similarities across these domains but also be somewhat specific to each. In this chapter, we review research in spatial cognition and its application to navigation system design for within-vehicle, aviation, and endoscopic navigation systems. Taken together, the research suggests three general principles for navigation system design consideration. First, multimedia displays should present spatial information visually and action and description information verbally. Second, display organizations should meet users' dynamic navigational goals. Third, navigation systems should be adaptable to users' spatial information preferences. Designers of adaptive navigation display technologies can maximize the effectiveness of those technologies by appealing to the basic spatial cognition processes employed by all users while conforming to user's domain-specific requirements.