bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Genetics of Primate Color Vision
Authors: Veilleux Carrie C.
Published: April 2017

Compared to other placental mammal clades, primates have evolved substantial variation in the opsin genes that control color vision. Although several primates retain the ancestral mammalian complement of a short‐wavelength‐sensitive (
SWS1
) opsin gene and medium‐/long‐wavelength‐sensitive (
LWS
) opsin gene, the Primate Order has experienced multiple episodes of gene duplication, evolution of allelic variation, and loss of gene function throughout its evolutionary history. Much of the previous work on the opsin system in primates has focused on identifying and describing the genetic variation observed. Current research directions include employing selection tests on opsin genes to evaluate alternative evolutionary and ecological hypotheses for the diversity seen in opsin genes within and among taxa.
Cooperation
Authors: Sussman Robert W.
Published: April 2017

Generally, it is believed that competition drives evolution. Over generations, those individuals within a species who are stronger, prettier, or sexier, or those who have specific “adaptive” traits, have more genes for those traits and have more offspring, thus passing on more genes for those traits. However, many results from behavioral, hormonal, and brain‐imaging studies offer a new perspective on social animals, especially primates and humans, and their proclivities for cooperation, sociality, and peace.
Pathogen
Authors: MacIntosh Andrew J. J.
Published: April 2017

Pathogens are infectious agents that cause disease. Numerous microorganisms and multicellular parasites are pathogenic in primates. Pathogen transmission can be direct or indirect, the latter case typically requiring a trophic interaction between successive hosts in the life cycle of the pathogen. The distinction between infectious agents that do not cause disease and pathogens is not always clear in wild primates, and infectious agents in one host can become pathogens in another after crossing the species barrier. Early studies of primate pathogens were driven by the biomedical community, but current work has expanded to encompass risk assessment for primate‐derived zoonotic diseases and the potential role of pathogens in population declines of endangered species. In this context, measures are also being taken to minimize anthroponotic transmission of pathogens from humans to endangered primate species.
Oxytocin and Vasopressin
Authors: Bales Karen L.
Published: April 2017

Oxytocin and vasopressin are peptide hormones known to be involved in social and reproductive behaviors. While highly conserved among most mammals, some primates have a unique variation in oxytocin peptide structure. Variation in the distribution of receptors for these peptides in the brain may reflect social organization, and variation in the oxytocin and vasopressin receptor genes at the DNA level may be associated with individual‐level differences in social behavior. Intranasal administration represents a new way to experimentally manipulate oxytocin and appears to be a promising approach in primate research.
Grooming Hand Clasp
Authors: McGrew William C.
Published: April 2017

Grooming hand clasp is a behavioral pattern shown by chimpanzees (
Pan troglodytes
) and appears to be a rare example of a social custom, and thus is an indicator of nonhuman culture. It is a striking variant of normal social grooming, shown in some populations of these apes but not in others. In addition to its hygienic function, it may signal useful information about social relations. It has been recognized since 1978 and occurs both in nature and in captivity.
Callitrichines (Tamarins, Marmosets, and Callimicos)
Authors: Garber Paul A.
Published: April 2017

Tamarins, marmosets, and callimicos represent a highly successful radiation of small‐bodied (125–650 grams) New World primates that are ecologically and reproductively distinct from other monkeys. All species possess claw‐like nails on all digits except the hallux (big toe) which bears a flattened nail. Claw‐like nails enable these monkeys to cling to tree trunks and other large vertical supports in order to exploit resources such as plant exudates (gums and saps), insects, and small vertebrates. Callitrichines also are unique among higher primates in producing twin offspring (except forCallimicowhich has a single infant), usually only one female per group breeds (although groups commonly contain multiple adult females), the same female can give birth to two twin litters per year, and adult male group members provide the majority of infant care (cooperative caregiving) including carrying and provisioning.
K
inzey,
W
arren
Authors: Garber Paul A.
Published: April 2017

Warren G. Kinzey was a biological anthropologist who made significant contributions to the fields of functional anatomy, evolution, and primate behavioral ecology. His field research on
Ateles
,
Callicebus
,
Cebuella
,
Chiropotes
, and
Pithecia
highlighted the use of New World monkeys as important instructional models for studying human evolution, human mating systems, and human social behavior. Kinzey served as the Head of the Department of Anthropology at City College of New York (CUNY) and as the program director for Physical Anthropology at the National Science Foundation, Washington, DC. His commitment to field research inspired a generation of New World primatologists.
Urine Washing
Authors: Verderane Michele P.
Published: April 2017

Urine washing, an act of depositing urine onto the hand and/or feet and rubbing it against the body, occurs in many species of platyrrhines and lorisiformes and in one species of lemuriformes, but is absolutely absent from catarrhines and tarsiiformes primate radiations. It is suggested to have different and not necessarily exclusive functions, including several roles in olfactory communication and in noncommunicative functions such as thermoregulation, improvement of the grip, self‐cleaning, and as a stress reliever. Despite improvements in the understanding of urine washing by primates, including the numerous hypotheses raised to explain it, studies aiming to test nonexclusive hypotheses simultaneously, using accurate methodological and statistical procedures, are still scant. It offers a promising field for future experimental and naturalistic studies.
Primates in World Religions (
B
uddhism,
C
hristianity,
H
induism,
I
slam)
Authors: Peterson Jeffrey V.
Published: April 2017

This entry provides an overview of the presence of nonhuman primates in world religions. The relevant literature and practices associated with Buddhism, Hinduism, Christianity, and Islam are reviewed and discussed. In the Buddhist tradition, nonhuman primates are prominent in the
Journey to the West
epic novel and many of the
Jataka Tales
, which largely influence narratives surrounding them in Buddhism. Perceptions of nonhuman primates in Hinduism stem largely from depictions of Hanuman, the monkey demigod, in the
Ramayana
, but also from the presence of nonhuman primates in other religious texts such as the
Pancatantra
. Within the Christian tradition, nonhuman primates are often depicted negatively, which largely serves the purpose of establishing human superiority to animals. Finally, nonhuman primates are not a prominent feature of the Islamic traditions, the implications of which are discussed in this entry.
Dentition
Authors: Cuozzo Frank P.
Published: April 2017

Teeth are central to the study of nonhuman primates, as they provide an accurate record of an individual's growth and development, and their interactions with the environment throughout one's life. Teeth are also common in the primate fossil record, thus providing a window into how fossil primates lived their lives. With the development of a modern primatology in the latter half of the twentieth century, the contemporary study of primate teeth is now firmly grounded in our more recent, extensive knowledge of primate ecology and behavior. As new technologies have developed to assess tooth structure, dental wear, and pathology, we are now able to use teeth to gain tremendous insight into the lives of living and fossil primates, and how they interact with their environments, including a recent emphasis on using teeth to assess habitat change amid intensive human activities in areas where nonhuman primates live.
W
right,
P. C.
Authors: Tecot Stacey R.
Published: April 2017

Patricia Chapple Wright is an anthropologist, conservationist, and primatologist who has made significant strides in understanding primate behavior and ecology, particularly in the New World and Madagascar. She holds several positions, including Distinguished Professor of Anthropology at Stony Brook University, and Executive Director of the Institute for the Conservation of Tropical Environments. She has earned numerous prestigious awards, including the Indianapolis Prize for Conservation, and authored or co‐authored over 150 journal articles and book chapters, and several books. She was the first person to study the behavioral ecology of nocturnal owl monkeys, and has made major contributions to our understanding of primate paternal care and lemur evolution.
Group Movements (and Collective Decision Making)
Authors: Petit Odile
Published: April 2017

Classically, collective movements are viewed as the outcome of one individual's initiation (the leader) for departure, to which all or some of the other group members abide. Individuals assuming leadership have often been considered to hold a specific social status. This hierarchical or centralized control model has been challenged by recent theoretical and experimental findings, suggesting that leadership can be more distributed. Moreover, self‐organized processes can account for collective movements in many different species, even in those that are characterized by high cognitive complexity. As a result, decision making for moving collectively can be reached by a combination of different rules: that is, individualized (based on interindividual differences in physiology, energetic state, social status, etc.) and self‐organized (based on simple response) ones.
Botanical Sampling
Authors: Stevenson Pablo R.
Published: April 2017

Most primate species depend on plants for nutrition, support, and protection. Therefore primatologists are often interested in understanding the structure of the vegetation where the primates live, the spatial distribution of feeding patches, and the temporal changes in the abundance of resources. In this entry, the major methods used to study these plant attributes are briefly described and discussed.
Self‐Injurious Behavior (
SIB
)
Authors: Novak Melinda A.
Published: April 2017

Self‐injurious behavior (SIB) occurs in both human and nonhuman primates. Only a small percentage of monkeys develop this syndrome, which is manifested primarily as bites directed to the limbs. Monkeys with SIB show a dysregulation (blunting) of the stress response system and altered beta‐endorphin levels, and are genetically different than controls. SIB is also associated with early life stress events. Attempts to treat this condition have met with limited success. Some efficacy has been noted for both social living and outdoor housing. Some success has been achieved with pharmacotherapy, but most monkeys relapse post treatment, with the possible exception of naltrexone. Further research is needed to understand the function of this behavior in order to design more effective treatments.
Vertical Clinging
Authors: Johnson Laura E.
Published: April 2017

Primate vertical clinging is typically discussed in two contexts in the literature: (1) in the context of the habitual locomotor mode of vertical clinging and leaping, and (2) in the context of a static model of vertical climbing and locomotor evolution, concerning the evolution of nails rather than the retention of claws in ancestral primates. These two frameworks continue to be addressed today, though the term is divided into
vertical clinging
, defined as maintaining posture on relatively large‐circumference vertical substrates, while
vertical grasping
is limited to relatively small‐circumference vertical substrates. Recent research has considered the biomechanics of vertical clinging and grasping as a behavior with fundamental implications for primate origins.
HPA
Axis
Authors: Meyer Jerrold S. , Novak Melinda A.
Published: April 2017

The hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenocortical (HPA) axis is a multilevel component of the endocrine system. The HPA axis consists of neurons in the hypothalamus that release corticotropin‐releasing hormone (CRH), anterior pituitary cells that release adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) in response to CRH, and cells in the adrenal cortex that release the glucocorticoid hormone cortisol in response to ACTH. Cortisol acts on glucocorticoid receptors to exert complex effects on energy metabolism, immune function, and behavior. Circulating cortisol levels vary throughout the day, with highest levels in the morning in diurnal species. Increased HPA activity is triggered by various physical and psychosocial challenges (stressors). Acute stress responses are terminated by a negative feedback loop, but chronic or repeated stressors produce system dysregulation, leading to persistently high or low cortisol levels. Short‐term HPA activity is assessed by measuring cortisol in blood, urine, or feces, whereas long‐term activity can be determined by measuring cortisol deposited in body hair.
Psychological Well‐Being
Authors: Novak Melinda A. , Suomi Stephen J.
Published: April 2017

An amendment to the Animal Welfare Act in 1991 required facilities to provide an environment adequate to promote the psychological well‐being of the nonhuman primates under their care. Definitions of psychological well‐being typically include both behavioral and physiological measures. Changes in the physical environment (enrichments) are then assessed to determine that the following goals are achieved: the enrichment is used, species‐typical behavior is increased, abnormal behavior is reduced, and stress/distress is alleviated. Many changes to the physical environment are associated with increased attention and species‐typical behavior, but not all result in a decrease in abnormal behavior or stress. Issues include rapid habituation to some forms of physical enrichment and wide individual variation in responsiveness. Social housing is most effective in achieving the above goals.
Chimpanzee and Bonobo (Pan)
Authors: Stumpf Rebecca M.
Published: April 2017

The genusPancomprises two African ape sister taxa: chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and bonobos (Pan paniscus). Chimpanzees and bonobos are large‐bodied, diurnal, frugivorous/omnivorous, quadrupedal knuckle walkers. Both apes are highly social and share a male philopatric, multi‐male/multi‐female social system. Chimpanzees and bonobos are the closest living relatives of humans. Both species are members of the family Hominidae and subfamily Homininae, and are united under the subtribe Panina. They diverged evolutionarily from one another about 0.8–2.7 million years ago. Chimpanzees are composed of four distinct subspecies—P. t. verus,P. t. ellioti,P. t. troglodytes, andP. t. schweinfurthii—which inhabit multiple countries and landscapes across equatorial Africa. Chimpanzee subspecies differ in body size, extent of sexual dimorphism, pelage length and coloration, and social characteristics such as association patterns and extent of bisexual bonding, propensity for tool use, and hunting. The more gracile bonobos have no subspecies and are found only in Congo, south of the Congo River. Despite their close evolutionary relationship and relatively recent divergence, chimpanzees and bonobos differ in several important ways, including cranial and postcranial morphology, vocalizations, social structure, and behavior. Notable social and sexual behavioral differences include patterns of dominance, territoriality, the propensity for aggression, and sexual parameters.
Hominoidea (Apes)
Authors: Malone Nicholas
Published: April 2017

The superfamily Hominoidea is a taxonomic category that comprises the families Hylobatidae (small apes, also known as gibbons) and Hominidae (great apes and humans). The social systems of the various hominoid species are complex with respect to the observed variability in the nature of relationships at both the group and individual levels. Examining human evolution, in the context of continuity with the living apes, propels us into a continuous reinterpretation and realignment of the enigmatic animal–human/nature–social boundary.
Sanctuaries—
M
esoamerica/
S
outh
A
merica
Authors: Kowalewski Martin M. , Raño Mariana
Published: April 2017

Primates are threatened around the world. Factors including exponential human population growth, loss and transformation of habitat, poverty, and hunting affect primate population in several ways. Sanctuaries offer a good alternative to protect primates, and these represent organizations that house, care for, and support “unwanted” nonhuman primates or are focused primarily on rehabilitation or reintroduction of nonhuman primate species.
Primates as Metaphors/Symbols
Authors: Ohnuki‐Tierney Emiko
Published: April 2017

A brief survey of primate symbolism among Amerindians, Balinese, Chinese, Japanese, French, and others shows a wide range of symbolic imagination—from god to the embodiment of beastliness. Of particular importance is that there are cultures in which metamorphoses between human and nonhuman primates take place. In others, nonhuman primates take on super‐human capabilities while remaining nonhuman primates. An essential consideration is whether meanings assigned to nonhuman primates are metaphors, which by definition draws the distinction between the two, and whether the meanings serve as a looking‐glass for the humans to deliberate upon themselves. The demarcation line between them is highly complex in each culture. Therefore, instead of simply posing an “either or question”—do people see continuity or discontinuity?—our focus should be to investigate the multiplicity, ambivalence, instability, and contingency in their symbolic imagination in specific historical contexts, rather than viewing symbolic structure as a hermetically sealed entity.
Captive Management
Authors: Bloomsmith Mollie A.
Published: April 2017

Captive management of primates comprises a variety of responsibilities relating to the holding, care, and oversight of nonhuman primates kept in enclosed areas. Most basically, captive managers must be knowledgeable in these six areas: feeding and nutrition; housing, husbandry, and care practices; veterinary care; behavior; reproduction, breeding, and population management; and, in most situations, accreditation and legal requirements. Captive management and care of primates has become more complex, more professional, and more effective in recent decades.
Buffer Cropping
Authors: Smith Jaima , Nijman Vincent
Published: April 2017

The increasing interaction between humans and primates, and the potential conflicts that are a direct result of this, is one of the more significant challenges facing primate conservation. Primates are opportunistic, highly intelligent, and adept problem solvers, making them a significant threat to many agricultural crops. Farmers can alter the cost–benefit ratio where it is no longer profitable for primates to engage in crop raiding by planting buffer crops. Buffer cropping can consist of (1) planting less‐palatable crops, creating a low‐conflict barrier, (2) enriching the forest edge, enticing the primates to remain in the forest, or (3) planting crops that are beneficial to both farmers and primates.
Mate Choice
Authors: Lewis Rebecca J.
Published: April 2017

Mate choice is a mechanism of sexual selection where individuals of one sex compete with each other to be chosen by the opposite sex. Choice can occur before or after copulation and with behavioral, physiological, or anatomical mechanisms. While often associated with elaborate adornments, mate choice probably selects for behavioral displays more often in primates because most primates live in social groups and are thus familiar with many potential mates.
Tarsiiformes
Authors: Gursky Sharon , Grow Nanda , Fields Lori
Published: April 2017

Tarsiers are one of the most enigmatic taxa within the Order Primates. The current‐day taxonomic classification of tarsiers is based on Groves and Shekelle's (2010) classification of the tarsiers into three separate genera:Tarsius,Carlito, andCephalopachus. Within the genusTarsius, nine species are recognized, while only one species is currently recognized withinCarlitoandCephalopachus, respectively. All extant tarsiers are nocturnal. They awaken at sunset and are active throughout the night, with occasional periods of rest. While other nocturnal mammals exhibit lunar phobia, tarsiers are known to be lunar philic. Tarsiers are also unusual among primates in that they consume only animal food. Tarsiers show extreme adaptations for vertical clinging and leaping in the understory of tropical habitats, often 2 m or less from the ground. Their hindlimbs are greatly elongated, and they are reported to have the smallest intermembral index of any primate.
Demography
Authors: Erb Wendy M.
Published: April 2017

Demography is the science of populations. Demographic research utilizes the vital statistics (survival and reproductive rates) of a population to calculate parameters such as life expectancy and generation time, with the ultimate goal of documenting and projecting rates of population growth or decline, and understanding their causes. Demographers utilize an analytical toolbox that allows them to model population viabilities, estimate selection strength on life history, and compare patterns across taxa. Demography has important implications for evolutionary theory, as well as practical applications for the conservation and management of endangered primate populations.
S
imons,
E
lwyn
Authors: Fleagle John G.
Published: April 2017

Elwyn Simons (1930–2016) was a major figure in the study of primate evolution in the last half of the twentieth century. His work on the evolution of Miocene apes and human origins established a major paradigm for hominoid evolution, and his five decades of research in the Fayum of Egypt documented an extraordinary diversity of early anthropoid primates in Africa. As Director of the Duke University Primate Center, he pioneered work on captive breeding of Malagasy lemurs, and during paleontological expeditions to Madagascar he recovered many fossil lemurs.
Ethnoprimatology
Authors: Ellwanger Amanda L.
Published: April 2017

Ethnoprimatology is the study of human–nonhuman primate interconnections, which have developed through a shared evolutionary history, a lengthy temporal sympatry, and a wide geographic range. Ethnoprimatological investigations use an interdisciplinary approach to examine dynamic biological, ecological, and sociocultural dimensions of the primate interface, including bidirectional pathogen exchange, ecological competition and coexistence, and the role of nonhuman primates in people's worldview, ethnomedicinal practice, and economic systems. The ethnoprimatological approach has significant value for nonhuman primate conservation because it offers a holistic, integrated understanding of the combined influence of nonhuman primate behavioral ecology, human ecology, and culture on conservation outcomes. In the future, ethnoprimatology will continue to experience growth in research interest, methodological advances, and theoretical and applied contributions to the understanding of the human–nonhuman primate interface.
Homosexual Behavior
Authors: Vasey Paul L.
Published: April 2017

Homosexual behavior, involving genital contact between same‐sex individuals, has been observed in more than 50 primate species, including prosimians, monkeys, and apes. The frequency with which such behavior is expressed varies greatly both between and within species. In some primate species, this behavior facilitates adaptive social goals such as alliance formation. In others, it is enacted purely because it is sexually rewarding.
Polyspecific Associations
Authors: Rehg J. A.
Published: April 2017

Polyspecific associations (PSAs) are when individuals or groups of two or more species maintain proximity or coordinate activities by intention, and are reported in diverse animal taxa, including many primates. PSAs are hypothesized to provide ecological benefits relating to foraging or antipredation, which are balanced against resource competition and opportunity costs. However, unlike monospecific groups, social and reproductive factors are not direct influences on PSAs. PSAs vary significantly in frequency, stability, and cohesiveness, and are expected to form in beneficial contexts and dissolve when costs are prohibitive. Participating species may experience costs and benefits differently; to determine their functions, PSAs are examined in relation to demographic variables, resource availability, predation risk, and species' activity patterns.
Human Dimensions of Primate Management
Authors: Knight John
Published: April 2017

Primates increasingly live in shared or overlapping spaces with humans. A common view of human–primate overlap is that it is an unstable, volatile, and conflict‐ridden situation that cannot serve as a basis for lasting coexistence. However, a degree of overlap is inevitable where there no longer exists natural habitat on a scale that allows the primates to exist separately. Where a separate space solution is unrealistic, the challenge instead becomes that of managing this state of overlap to reduce or keep frictions to tolerable levels. This entry describes a case study from Japan where rural residents attempt to control macaque crop raiding through a strategy of deterrence.
Intermembral Index
Authors: Fleagle John G.
Published: April 2017

The Intermembral Index is a measure of relative limb proportions that is commonly used in descriptions of living and fossil primates. The Intermembral Index is roughly correlated with locomotor habits of primate species.
Parenteral Transmission
Authors: Whittier Christopher A.
Published: April 2017

Parenteral transmission refers to the process of acquiring an infectious agent into one's body through something other than the gastrointestinal (or enteral) route. This term is generally used to make the distinction from pathogens that are transmitted via the enteric routes such as fecal–oral and food‐ or water‐borne infections. In some disease transmission schemes, parenteral transmission is restricted to infection only through skin penetration, but more commonly it also refers to transmission through the respiratory tract, the bloodstream, urinary or genital tract, or even through more rare routes such as the eyes, ears, or umbilicus.
International Journal of Primatology
Authors: Setchell Joanna M.
Published: April 2017

The
International Journal of Primatology
is an official publication of the International Primatological Society, published by Springer. It is devoted to fundamental research on primates and aims to promote the survival of the primate populations of the world. The
International Journal of Primatology
publishes high‐quality original articles, reviews, commentaries, and book reviews. It reflects the broad theoretical foundations of our field and publishes laboratory and field studies from a diversity of disciplines, including anthropology, anatomy, ethology, paleontology, psychology, sociology, and zoology. It regularly publishes guest‐edited special issues on particular themes.
Immunoassays
Authors: Ziegler Toni E.
Published: April 2017

With the development of radio‐immunoassays (RIAs) in the late 1950s came the ability to quantitate hormones and analyze many samples at once. Clinical and research analyses of hormones increased dramatically. RIAs also provided high sensitivity reaching down to the low picogram range. By the 1980s, enzyme labels were developed for hormones and currently enzyme‐immunoassays (EIAs) are widely used as they are as sensitive as RIAs. A benefit of the immunoassays is that they are effective in measuring hormones in many different biological fluids such as serum, plasma, urine, saliva, and feces. The assays require minimal equipment and can be set up in small research laboratories with a limited cost.
Mandibular Morphology
Authors: Vinyard Christopher J.
Published: April 2017

The mandible, or jaw, is a bone in the skull that forms the skeleton of the lower face. The mandible houses the lower teeth and provides attachment for several muscles involved in feeding and vocal communication. The mandible articulates with the rest of the skull at the temporomandibular joint. Movements of the mandible occur at this joint during feeding, vocal communication, and oral display behaviors. Primates exhibit significant diversity in mandibular morphology that relates to feeding behaviors, diet, and influences from other parts of the skull.
Malaria
Authors: Lover Andrew A.
Published: April 2017

Malaria disease in humans and non‐human primates is caused by infections from protozoan parasites belonging to the
Plasmodium
genus, which involves a complex life cycle that includes both diverse host species and arthropod vectors. Host species include
Homo
,
Pan
,
Macaca
,
Aotus
,
Pongo
, and
Gorilla
. In humans, infection generally causes periodic fever, chills, vomiting, and malaise, which may progress to life‐threatening illness. However, there may also be asymptomatic parasite carriage, and presentation is highly variable by parasite and host species, and by host immune status.
Mating Systems
Authors: Petersdorf Megan , Higham James P.
Published: April 2017

A mating system is a reflection of the distribution and pattern of reproduction across individuals of a social group. Primates show remarkable diversity in the types of mating systems exhibited, namely monogamy, polyandry, polygyny, and polygynandry. This entry describes each of these systems and discusses how differential sexual selection pressures have led to the extraordinary variation seen both among and within primate mating systems.
B
ernstein,
I
rwin
Authors: Matheson Megan D.
Published: April 2017

Irwin Samuel Bernstein is an American primatologist with a research career spanning six decades. He has conducted empirical and theoretical work on social behavior in a diversity of nonhuman primate species in wild and captive settings. He is best known for his contributions in the areas of dominance and agonistic behavior. In 2001, the American Society of Primatologists awarded Bernstein their Distinguished Primatologist Award.
I
zawa,
K
osei
Authors: Shimooka Yukiko
Published: April 2017

Dr. Kosei Izawa is a Japanese primatologist and Emeritus Professor at the Miyagi University of Education. He studied ecology and social structure of wild chimpanzees, Japanese macaques, tufted capuchins, red howler monkeys, and white‐bellied spider monkeys, and established the methodology of monitoring the number of groups, group size, and home range of each group through long‐term studies. Also he was involved in education for children, university students, and graduate students.
Hershkovitz,Philip
Authors: Patterson Bruce D.
Published: April 2017

Philip Hershkovitz revised the systematics and classification of New World primates as part of his comprehensive studies of Neotropical mammals. His revisions were remarkable for their integration of ecology and behavior with anatomy and classification.
Proconsul
Authors: Harrison Terry
Published: April 2017

Proconsul
is an extinct hominoid primate from the Early and Middle Miocene of East Africa. Its cranio‐dental and postcranial anatomy is more primitive than extant apes, and it occupies an evolutionary grade close to the initial divergence of Old World monkeys and apes. The six species of
Proconsul
range in estimated body mass from 10 to 90 kg. Their generalized ape‐like teeth were adapted for eating ripe fruits and young leaves. The postcranial remains indicate that the smaller species of
Proconsul
were arboreal quadrupedal above‐branch runners and walkers, while the larger species were similar but may have included a somewhat greater degree of terrestriality.
International Primate Protection League
Authors: McGreal Shirley , Strong Sharon E.
Published: April 2017

The International Primate Protection League (IPPL) is a nongovernmental organization based in Summerville, South Carolina, United States. Founded in 1973 by Dr. Shirley McGreal, its mission is to promote both the conservation of primates in the wild and their well‐being in captivity. IPPL operates a gibbon sanctuary at its headquarters facility, carries out campaigns to protest the abuse of primates worldwide, and helps fund other grassroots primate rescue and advocacy organizations, mostly in primate habitat countries. IPPL was responsible for persuading India to ban exports of its native rhesus macaques in 1977.
Community Involvement and Primate Conservation
Authors: Horwich Robert H.
Published: April 2017

Primates have been used as flagship species to motivate communities to protect their wildlife and forests. Seven steps are listed that have been field tested since 1985 in 26 projects in 15 countries that have been effective in communities sustainably protecting primates, wildlife, and their forests. Seven cases are described as successful examples of community protection, two initiated by communities (Punta Laguna, Mexico; Boabeng‐Fiema Monkey Sanctuary, Ghana) and five catalyzed by nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) (Community Baboon Sanctuary, Belize; Golden Langur Conservation Project, India; Yellow‐Tailed Woolly Monkey Project, Peru; Kwabre Swamp Peat Forest, Ghana; Tanoé Forest, Ivory Coast). Some additional countries have laws to encourage community involvement in conservation that are incidentally protecting primates, like Madagascar, Namibia, and Nepal. Finally, it is noted that a partnership of communities, NGOs, and government provides the strongest conservation solution, and encouraging communities to form their own conservation organizations strengthens and sustains community empowerment.
H
ladik,
C. M
Authors: Chivers David J.
Published: April 2017

Marcel Hladik pioneered multidisciplinary, intercontinental research into primate feeding behavior in primates, principally in Gabon, Panama, and Sri Lanka, with detailed studies of gut anatomy and food composition and availability.
Agroecosystems
Authors: Oliveira Leonardo C. , Estrada Alejandro
Published: April 2017

The world's primate taxa (approximately 612) are at risk of extinction because of human activities. The IUCN Red List database classifies 37 percent of primate taxa as Least Concern, but the rest (63 percent) are categorized under different levels of risk. The cause of these declines is habitat loss caused by human activities. Natural protected areas may not be enough for long‐term conservation of many primate taxa, and thus landscape approaches to conservation are needed. Recent evidence indicates that agroecosystems may be of value for primate conservation in human‐modified landscapes. A worldwide account revealed that populations of 57 of the world's primate taxa use 38 types of agroecosystems as temporary or permanent habitats and/or as stepping‐stones when moving across human‐modified landscapes. This entry discusses the conservation value of agroecosystems for primate conservation and points out areas in need of research.
Private Reserves
Authors: Shanee Sam
Published: April 2017

Private protected areas have existed in some form for centuries but have witnessed a surge in popularity and impact in the last decades. Private reserves are often considered as complementary to nationally protected areas, increasing their impact through proximity to larger protected areas. Private reserves are particularly useful in areas of high human population densities, where they cover generally small areas, although some do cover extensive areas. Reasons for creating private reserves can vary from economic to purely altruistic. The first private reserves created specifically for the conservation of primates began in the 1980s. Now the survival of many primate species is supported by private reserves.
Male Bonding
Authors: Schülke Oliver , Ostner Julia
Published: April 2017

Male bonding is the phenomenon that among coresiding adult males certain dyads develop affiliate relationships that are stronger, more equitable, and longer lasting than others. Male bonding occurs both in male philopatric and in male dispersal primate species. The evolution of male bonding can be linked to the evolution of rank‐changing within‐group coalitions, because males preferentially form coalitions with partners with whom they are closely bonded and on whom they can rely. The social support provided by male bonding can convey a buffer against social and environmental stress and can increase male reproductive success by promoting the attainment and the maintenance of high social status.
Primate Tourism
Authors: Matheson Megan D.
Published: April 2017

Primate tourism is the use of nonhuman primates as the focus of tourism, with the aim of generating revenue and making conservation of primates and habitat worthwhile to local human populations. In practice, this oft‐touted conservation tool has been riddled with problems, calling into question whether it is helping or hurting conservation. Safari‐like primate tourism excursions, mainly focused on great apes, have shown the greatest efforts to manage tourism to limit negative impacts on primates, and are characterized here on the “high responsibility” end of an ecotourism spectrum. Nevertheless, there are still considerable problems, including compliance with adopted guidelines, and disease transmission. Monkey forests fall toward the “low responsibility” end of the spectrum, and show the most issues with habitat destruction and escalating aggression. Remarkably few efforts have focused on public education. If this neglect continues, there may be little hope for primate tourism to ever succeed as a conservation tool.
Orangutan (Pongo)
Authors: D. Marc Ancrenaz , Felicity Oram , Lackman Isabelle
Published: April 2017

Orangutans are only found in Southeast Asia. Their numbers have declined rapidly primarily because of hunting and forest conversion to other types of land‐uses. However, recent studies show that the species appears to be more resilient to habitat changes than previously expected. Many populations are currently found outside of protected forests. This situation indicates that adequate conservation planning for the species cannot restrict itself to the network of fragmented protected forests, but also needs to include the highly modified human‐transformed areas adjacent to natural forests as part of the overall landscape needed to support survival of wild orangutan populations. Better protection of the major populations and of their habitats is required, as well as better land‐use decisions in Borneo and Sumatra to secure the future of orangutans on both islands.
Migration
Authors: Huck Maren
Published: April 2017

Primate societies are not static. Group composition changes due to births and deaths, and also by emigration and immigration of individuals between different groups. These transfers, while considered costly for the individual, have important implications for the individual itself and the population as a whole. While, generally speaking, dispersal is male‐biased in strepsirhine and catarrhine primates and female‐biased in platyrrhines, variations even between different populations of the same species become increasingly apparent. This indicates that dispersal is a conditional strategy that depends on numerous external and internal proximate factors, as well as individual cost–benefit calculations. Although the advent of more advanced molecular techniques has started to provide more insights into dispersal patterns, the life of dispersing floaters remains a challenging topic, but is fundamental in order to not only understand the general behavioral ecology and evolution of a species but also help evaluate the viability of populations.
Plate Tectonics and Continental Drift
Authors: Fleagle John G.
Published: April 2017

Plate tectonics, the study of the arrangements of continents and oceans on the surface of the earth, and their ongoing movements, separations, and collisions has revolutionized our understanding of earth history, and the biogeographical history of primate evolution. Primates, as well as all other organisms, have evolved on a dynamic, constantly changing earth in which the positions of the plates that make up continents, islands, and oceans are not static over geological time. They are sometimes growing, sometimes shrinking, sometimes joining, and sometimes separating. The changing positions of the plates over the past 60 million years of primate evolution provided the geographical and climatic background for dispersals and isolation of individual clades that have, in turn, influenced their radiations and/or extinctions due to competition or climate change. In addition, the interactions between plates have been responsible for most of the geological processes such as volcanism, uplift, and rifting that have led to the deposition of sediments containing the fossils that provide the basis of our understanding of primate evolution.
Handedness
Authors: Marchant Linda F.
Published: April 2017

In humans, handedness is expressed by a tendency to use, prefer, or favor one hand over the other, and is characterized by a strong skew for right‐handedness, typically a 9:1 ratio. In nonhuman primates, the patterns of laterality are more diverse, may vary within and between species, and show the strongest directional asymmetries when primates engage in fine motor manipulation of food or objects.
Anthropogenic Landscapes
Authors: Michalski Fernanda , Hilário Renato Richard , Norris Darren
Published: April 2017

Throughout the world, human development activities have been modifying terrestrial surface to varying degrees. These anthropogenic landscapes can cause ecological constraints that can affect nonhuman primates in several forms. The extent and degree of these effects depends on the magnitude of a primate's ecological and behavioral plasticity. Thus the myriad nonhuman primate responses within anthropogenic landscapes offer both challenges and opportunities for primate conservation.
Social Traditions
Authors: Wood Lara A. , Whiten Andrew
Published: April 2017

Social traditions, here defined as displaying intergroup behavioural differences acquired through social learning, have been identified in a number of primate species. This entry reviews research methods used in the wild and in captivity to identify the presence of both primate social traditions and the necessary social learning mechanisms involved. Moving beyond evidence of the presence of primate social traditions, to their function, longevity, biased transmission, conformity, and cumulative nature, allows for the exploration of convergences and divergences between primate and human traditions.
G
elada (

T
heropithecus

)
Authors: Snyder‐Mackler Noah
Published: April 2017

The gelada (
Theropithecus gelada
) is a species of Old World monkey endemic to the highlands of Ethiopia. Geladas spend the majority of their time foraging for their primary food source, grass, while forming some of the largest social aggregations (approximately 1,200 individuals) of any nonhuman primate. Geladas have many unique morphological adaptations to their terrestrial and graminivorous diet. For example, geladas have a bare patch of skin on their chest, which varies in redness to indicate dominance status in males and reproductive status in females. Gelada reproductive units, the core of their society, associate with each other at different frequencies to form large groups called, in increasing size, “teams,” “bands,” and “communities”—forming a “multi‐level society.”
Menstruation
Authors: Thompson Melissa Emery
Published: April 2017

Menstruation is the vaginal bleeding that accompanies cyclic shedding of the uterine endometrial lining. It is caused by the withdrawal of progesterone stimulation to the endometrium in cycles in which conception does not occur. Menstruation occurs in all catarrhine primates, in the larger platyrrhines, and in only a handful of other mammals. Its occurrence may be related to features of uterine evolution, particularly the thicker endometria required in species with more invasive forms of placentation. Numerous adaptive hypotheses have been proposed for endometrial decidualization, or for menstrual bleeding itself, but these remain speculative without more comprehensive comparative anatomical data.
Rylands,Anthony
Authors: Strier Karen B.
Published: April 2017

Anthony Brome Rylands (BSc, ARCS, 1973; Ph.D. (Cantab.), 1982) is an international authority on the taxonomy, biogeography, and conservation of primates. His scientific achievements range from field studies of rare primates to evaluations of behavioral, genetic, morphological, and biogeographical distinctions required for classifying primate diversity that have significantly shaped our understanding of primate taxonomy and its conservation implications. Born in England, Rylands worked for more than 30 years in Brazil, and is a foreign member of the Brazilian Academy of Sciences. He is currently Senior Research Scientist in the Office of the Executive Vice Chair at Conservation International, United States.
Humans as Primate Predators
Authors: Urbani Bernardo
Published: April 2017

Historically,
Homo
predation on nonhuman primates has been overlooked. Humans are major predators of prosimians, monkeys, and apes; however, they do not fit the theoretical paradigms that have been proposed to characterize predation on nonhuman primates. Human predation on nonhuman primates has been reported since prehistoric times. Today, it also is known that
Homo
adapts its predation strategies according to their cultural practices. Thus predation by hominins has a long evolutionary history, with
Homo sapiens
predatory practices having an impact on prosimians, monkeys, and apes within a short ecological time scale.
Altmann, Stuart
Authors: Alberts Susan C.
Published: April 2017

Stuart Altmann is a founding figure in primate behavioral ecology. As part of his Ph.D. research at Harvard, completed in 1960, he produced seminal work on the Cayo Santiago rhesus monkeys. With his wife Jeanne Altmann, he helped found the long‐term research on the Amboseli baboons, which still continues today. Among his important contributions are an emphasis on the link between a species' ecology and its behavior, and an appreciation of the importance of precise mathematical models of both demographic and behavioral processes.
Epidemiology
Authors: Travis Dominic A. , Wolf Tiffany M.
Published: April 2017

Epidemiology is the study of disease processes in human, animal, and/or plant populations. Epidemiologists strive to understand risk factors for disease processes in order to design prevention and control policies. Epidemiological activities include health surveillance, outbreak investigation, clinical trials, diagnostic test validation, mathematical disease modeling, and risk assessment to support control and prevention policy.
Flow Cytometry
Authors: Gagneux Pascal
Published: April 2017

Flow cytometry is a powerful method for the rapid analysis of cells and other microscopic particles in suspension. The use of fluorescently labeled molecular probes (antibodies, lectins, or DNA probes) specific for molecules of interest allows rapid, quantitative measures of molecules present in large populations (tens of thousands) of particles. Interpretation of flow cytometry data critically relies on the use of proper controls in order to rule out artifacts such as nonspecific binding and overlap of fluorescence spectra when using multiple probes simultaneously. Flow cytometry is contributing a large body of molecular data to basic research on primate cell biology, immunology, and microbiology. Recent developments promise much smaller and even portable flow cytometry machines.