bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Aircraft applications of insecticides in East Africa
Authors: Burnett G. F. , Yeo D. , Miller A. W. D. , White P. J.
Published: July 2009

In the North Block at Chungai, comprising about 11 sq. miles of thorn savannah and thicket in Central Province, Tanganyika, an Auster J5G aircraft was used between July 1959 and March 1960 to apply a 2·5 per cent. solution of dieldrin in oil at the rate of 0·125 gal. per acre in an attempt to eradicate Glossina morsitans Westw. and G. pallidipes Aust. Eight applications were made at approximately four-weekly intervals. Swath width was 55 yd., and the aircraft emitted the insecticide as a coarse aerosol of volume median diameter 50–60μ as it flew in both directions over the block.

The operation suffered delays, and three applications were incomplete to varying degrees. Kills of G. morsitans per application appeared to be 85 per cent. or higher, but the final reduction of 99·5 per cent. could theoretically have been attained with consecutive mortalities of only 65 per cent. It is suggested that this discrepancy may be due to the higher lethal dose required by pregnant females. G. pallidipes was also reduced by 99·5 per cent. Numbers of fly were reduced sufficiently for large-scale settlement with cattle, which should complete the work of exterminating the fly.

The experiment is compared with that of the previous year in the same block, using γBHC, which reduced fly catches by less than 50 per cent. It is concluded that a combination of reduced swath width, greater volume dosage, more lethal insecticide and smaller lethal drop, together with improved flying technique and the more reliable performance of the disseminating equipment, was responsible for the improved result. It is thought that without delays, interruptions, incomplete applications and reinfestation, even better results would be obtained.

This was the cheapest and one of the most successful aerial operations carried out against savannah tsetse. Costs actually over the ground were £301 per sq. mile; incidental costs due to the locality of operations were £66 per sq. mile. There is little chance of reducing the costs of flying directly, but economies are possible by the use of other insecticides or, more probably, by more efficient dispensing equipment.
Studies on the biting habits and medical importance of East African mosquitos in the genus Aëdes. II.—Subgenera Mucidus, Diceromyia, Finlaya and Stegomyia
Authors: Haddow A. J.
Published: July 2009

The cyclic biting activities of East African mosquitos of the genus Aëdes, belonging to the subgenera Mucidus, Diceromyia, Finlaya and Stegomyia are discussed. The total number of 24-hour catches involved was 448, all in East Africa, of which 401 were made in forest in Uganda.

It is pointed out that many species in the subgenera of Aëdes dealt with show arboreal tendencies of varying degree and, while a species may show a preference for some particular level, many of them appear to make daily vertical migrations. Consequently, biting may reach its maximum intensity at different times at different levels. It is also pointed out that the habits of a species may vary from one area to another, and therefore it is often best to discuss a representative series of catches from a productive area, noting such differences as may have been observed elsewhere. It has been found further that, under certain circumstances, a species may fail to show a clear pattern of biting behaviour and the possible reasons for this are discussed.

All members of the subgenus Mucidus so far adequately studied are arboreal and nocturnal. In the subgenus Finlaya, A. ingrami Edw. is a mosquito of the forest understorey which bites most freely in the hour before sunset. It makes vertical migrations, however, and the biting cycle at ground-level differs from that in the trees. A. longipalpis (Grünb.) is a diurnal species of the forest canopy. A view formerly put forward by the writer, that the form of the biting cycle in this species could be attributed to different physiological groups biting at different times, can no longer be supported.

In the subgenus Stegomyia, A. dendrophilus Edw. and A. apicoargenteus (Theo.) are diurnal species with rather irregular biting cycles, A. dendrophilus
Observations on the ecology of the cotton flea-beetles in the Sudan Gezira and the effect of sowing date on the level of population in cotton
Authors: La Croix E. A. S.
Published: July 2009

A series of experiments was undertaken to examine the relative concentration of cotton flea-beetles (Podagrica puncticollis Weise and P. pallida (Jacoby), Halticinae) within cotton fields in the Sudan Gezira in 1954 and 1955. Assessments were carried out on the flea-beetle populations and on the damage done by them, and evidence is produced to show that the use of a damage assessment in the first three weeks of the life of the cotton plant is more satisfactory in a large-scale experiment than beetle counts. The assessment lasted for between three and four weeks after the emergence of the seedling cotton.

It appeared that the beetles tended to leave cotton 19 days after sowing. Damage within the cotton field was at first in accord with the sowing differential, but then shifted against this as the flea-beetles moved on to the later-sown cotton as this became more attractive.

The peak population of flea-beetles occurred during the last few days of August and the first few of September when the first-sown cotton was 14–18 days old, and this suffered more damage than the later-sown and less attractive cotton. Differences in the level of attack on the four sowings tended to even out, but did not do so completely as the flea-beetle population was declining.
Damage to swedes by the swede midge, Contarinia nasturtii (Kieff.), and a possible method of cultural control
Authors: Readshaw J. L.
Published: July 2009

The effects of infestation by Contarinia nasturtii (Kieff.) on the growth and yield of swedes were observed in a centric-systematic-area sample consisting of 720 individually tagged plants. Severe infestation by the first generation caused multiple haeding and some reduction of yield, though it was attack by the second generation that more strongly depressed yield. From the results of laboratory experiments described it is inferred that it should be possible to achieve satisfactory control by simple cultural procedures designed to bury the pupal cocoons too deeply in the soil to permit successful emergence of the adult midges.
Two new species of clearwing moths (Lepidoptera, Sesiidae) associated with sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) in East Africa
Authors: Bradley J. D.
Published: July 2009

The species of Sesiidae reared from larvae feeding in the vines and tubers of sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) in Kenya are described as new and named Synanthedon leptosceles and S. dasysceles, respectively. Illustrations are given of the adults and male and female genitalia of both species. S. leptosceles is differentiated from the superficially similar East African species S. erythromma Hmps., which also is associated with sweet potato. Aegeria pyrostoma Meyr. is synonymised under S. erythromma following the examination of type material. S. dasysceles is noted to be readily distinguishable from these and other known species of Synanthedon by the rough scaling and white markings of the legs.
Studies on alternate hosts of Myzus persicae (Sulz.) in Rhodesia
Authors: Shaw M. J. P.
Published: July 2009

Myzus persicae (Sulz.) has a wide range of possible host plants in Rhodesia though most may be physiologically unattractive to alate aphids that alight on them during the dry months of the year. Infested plants are difficult to find, yet as many winged aphids are trapped in the dry season (June) as in the wet (December). A wide dispersal of small colonies on a large variety of partially acceptable host plants during the dry season in therefore suggested. Potatoes and other garden plants may contribute to the population but tobacco regrowth is discounted as a source of aphids, though not of viruses.
Timing of insecticidal sprays to control the wheat-bulb fly, Leptohylemyia coarctata (Fall.)
Authors: Griffiths D. C. , Scott G. C.
Published: July 2009

The timing of sprays in relation to the stage of development of wheat plants and larvae of the wheat-bulb fly, Leptohylemyia coarctata (Pall.), was studied in the laboratory and field. The main growth of young wheat plants was of the centre shoot and such plants died when the centre shoot meristems were destroyed. Older plants survived by growth of lateral shoots. Sprays of dimethoate, trichloronate and thionazin applied before the larvae had emerged did not kill many larvae in the soil, and only insecticide that entered the plants was effective. Severely attacked two-leaf plants yielded little, whether sprayed or not, whereas three-leaf plants sprayed in early March gave a worth-while increase in yield: older plants had enough shoots to give moderate yields even when not sprayed.

In a large field trial, plants from two sowing dates, 22nd October and 1st November, were both at the late two-leaf stage of growth in late February. Wheat-bulb fly larvae had entered nearly all the shoots but plants from both sowings had buds or small lateral growths hidden beneath the outer leaves. The yields of October-sown plots sprayed on 22nd February, 2nd March, 9th March or 16th March were 28·2, 28·8, 25·5 and 23·2 cwt. grain per acre, respectively, (yield of unsprayed plots = 18.9 cwt./acre) and of November-sown plots were 31·0, 27·5, 17·9 and 14·9 cwt. per acre, respectively, (yield of unsprayed plots = 116 cwt. per acre). Sprays had most effect when applied soon after larvae had entered the plants. Spraying severely-attacked late two-leaf to three-leaf plants gave the greatest benefits because these plants recovered by growth of lateral buds or small lateral shoots.
Effects of larval and pupal environmental factors on biological status of adults at emergence inAedes taeniorhynchus(Wied.)
Authors: Nayar J. K.
Published: July 2009

Adults ofAedes taeniorhynchus(Wied.) were reared from larvae under five environmental variables—quantity of food, density of larvae, salinity of medium, light regime and temperature—singly and in combination. On emergence these adults were analysed for morphological characteristics, dry body weights, energy reserves and autogeny.

The minimal expression of adult characteristics and autogeny was effected by lack of food, crowding of larvae, and higher salinity, singly and in combination, at a constant temperature of 27°C. These three factors in turn showed a distinct relationship with delay in onset and prolongation of pupal ecdysis.

The maximal expression of adult characteristics and autogeny was found when 75 to 100 larvae per pan were reared on 2 × - or 4 × -basic ration in 10 to 25 per cent, sea water at 27°C. under alternating 12-hr. light-dark cycles. Above the optimal quantity of food,i.e., 2 × -basic ration, there was almost no enhanced effect on the adult characteristics; in fact, with 4 × - and 8 × -basic ration the morphological characteristics were suppressed. Of the three light regimes, continuous light produced adults that were largest, heaviest, had the most energy reserves and the highest level of autogeny. Adults reared on 4 × -basic ration in ten per cent, sea water under alternating 12-hr. light-dark cycles and at temperatures from 24 to 34°C. showed that even though largest mosquitos were obtained at 24°C, the heaviest mosquitos with maximal lipid and glycogen contents and maximal expression of autogeny were found at 28 and 30°C. Temperature changes during the pupal stage did not affect the adult characteristics.

Temperature and light regimes show distinct complex effects on adults at emergence, but the quantity of food, density of larvae and salinity of the rearing medium are more important.
Descriptions of some New Genera and Species of Coccidae
Authors: Laing F.
Published: July 2009

The following descriptions are based upon material submitted to me by the Director of the Imperial Bureau of Entomology. These species from but a very small part of the material which has gone, through the continuous efforts of Dr. Marshall, towards the growth and enrichment of the National Collection of Coccidae, and I wish to record my very best thanks to him. To Mr. E. E. Green I am indebted for his unfailing courtesy, helpful comments and gifts of material from his private collection.
A Systematic Monograph of the Tachardiinae or Lac Insects (Coccidae)
Authors: Chamberlin Joseph Conrad
Published: July 2009

At the suggestion of Professor G.F. Ferris, of the Department of Entomology of Stanford University, I have undertaken the following review of this extremely important, equally interesting, and almost equally neglected group of the Coccidae. My acknowledgements are due to Professor Ferris for his aid in the preparation of the paper and of the material upon which it is based. To my fellow-students, Mr. Bryan Duncan, Mr. Carl Duncan, Mr. W.H. Irwin and Mr. P. N. Annand, I desire to extend my thanks for their aid in testing the included keys.
The effect of temperature on the oxygen consumption of tsetse pupae
Authors: Rajagopal P. K. , Bursell E.
Published: July 2009

Measurements of oxygen consumption by a series of single pupae of Glossina morsitans orientalis Vanderplank maintained at 30°C. showed that the time course of respiration during this stage follows a U-shaped curve and thus resembles that of other holometabolous insects. The rate of pupal respiration was found to be directly proportional to wet weight at all temperatures investigated, and did not appear to be affected by the temperature to which females were subjected during pregnancy. The relation between temperature and the logarithm of metabolic rate was found to be curvilinear, tending to a relatively stable level between 35 and 40°C., the highest part of the range investigated.
Systates exaptus Mshl. (Col., Curculionidae) and related species as soil pests of maize in Rhodesia
Authors: Rose D. J. W. , Hodgson C. J.
Published: July 2009

A description is given of the damage caused by the larvae of two weevils, Systates exaptus Mshl. and Mesoleurus dentipes (Mshl.), which are soil pests of germinating maize and other crops in Rhodesia. Information is given on their life-cycles and some features of their biology. The larvae are nearly full grown at the beginning of the dry season, which is passed in an inactive state in the soil. Activity is resumed with the onset of the main rains, and it is at this time that the larvae may cause serious damage by attacking seedlings of maize or other crops growing in infested soil. Factors that encourage local increase of field populations are examined. It is shown that sunn hemp, soya bean and groundnut, all crops with high plant populations, favour the presence of large numbers of weevil larvae in the soil at the beginning of the following season. Growing closely planted maize year after year on the same land has been found to be one of the main causes of serious infestations in farm fields.

Results of soil-insecticide trials are given, and these show that larvae are very difficult to control. In the discussion, attention is drawn to similar weevil larvae indigenous to other parts of Africa, which are tolerant of soil insecticides and are also pests under conditions of intensive crop production.

Ways are suggested for reducing infestation in the following season. It is shown that properly timed applications of DDT to the maize crop will kill adults and prevent oviposition. Otherwise, infested fields may be left fallow, planted to grass or planted very late in the season.

No method of protecting germinating seedlings has been found, but reference is made to a soil-sampling technique that is useful for detecting infested fields before crops are planted.
The immediate and long-term effects of the herbicide MCPA on soil arthropods
Authors: Davis B. N. K.
Published: July 2009

Plots on arable land in southern England that had received an annual application of MCPA herbicide for 10 out of 13 years between 1951 and 1963, and similar untreated plots, were sampled to see whether there were any long-term or short-term effects on the arthropod fauna. Samples were taken before and after spring sowing, before and after spray application of the herbicide, and about a month later when weed counts were made. The fauna was divided into orders or suborders initially, and no differences between treated and untreated plots were detected either at the beginning of the season, as a residual effect from previous years, or in the period immediately following spraying. The Acari population was then analysed in more detail for possible qualitative differences between treatments, and the recorded numbers of 12 common species and two genera in treated and control plots were examined. No effect that could be attributed to the use of MCPA was found. The density of the fauna is discussed in relation to other soil arthropod surveys, and the wealth of Acari species is commented on. A list of the species of Acari and Collembola collected is appended.
Relationships between some physical properties of insecticides and their inteinsic and contact toxicities to adult mosquitos (Anopheles stephensi List.)
Authors: Hadaway A. B. , Barlow F
Published: July 2009

It had been noticed in earlier work that there was a lack of close relationship between the intrinsic and contact toxicities of various compounds to adults of Anopheles stephensi List., the intrinsic toxicities being determined by topical application of solutions and the contact toxicities by exposure to dry deposits. Since the reasons probably lay in the relative rates at which compounds penetrated the cuticle from solution and from the solid state, and since these rates are likely to be differently affected by the physical properties of the compounds, the intrinsic and contact toxicities to A. stephensi of some closely related carbamates and of a miscellaneous group of organophosphorus compounds were determined, together with the solubility in n-hexane and the partition coefficient between n-hexane and water of each, and the results were compared.

No definite pattern in the relationship between these physical properties of the compounds and their intrinsic and contact toxicities emerged from consideration of the results. However, there were indications that very low solubility is a limiting factor in the uptake and penetration into mosquitos of a solid insecticide and is associated with low contact toxicity, and that, when solubility is high enough to ensure solution in the wax layer of the cuticle, contact activity is favoured by a low value for the partition coefficient between hexane and water.
Genetical investigations on a strain of house-flies resistant to organophosphates and carbamates
Authors: Bell J. D
Published: July 2009

The inheritance of carbamate resistence in the Fc strain of Musca domestica L. was investigated by the method described by Nguy & Busvine (1960) and more than one gene, most probably two genes, were found to be responsiple for carbamate resistence. A further experiment showed organophosphate and carbamate inheritance to be linked. As it was already known that the genes for organophosphate resistence were on the third and fifth chromosome, the third and fifth chromosomal resistence factors were separated by use of marker genes. Both factors gave low to moderate levels of resistence to organophosphates and carbamates. The third chromosomal factor appeared to be associated with increased oxidative activity and the fifth chromosomal factor with a modified aliesterase mechanism. The effect of the two genes was cumulative.
The identity of Naphius seed bug pests in Africa (Hemiptera: Lygaeidae)
Authors: Scudder G. G. E.
Published: July 2009

Specimens of seed bugs are recorded as pests of groundnuts, sorghum and cotton in Africa, usually under the name Aphanus apicalis Dall. or Rhyparochromus apicalis (Dall.). It is shown that these pests belong to the genus Naphius Stål and, further, that not all should be placed in the species N. apicalis (Dall.). A study of the genus Naphius shows that there are seven distinct species in the Ethiopian region. The true N. apicalis is shown to be the species that is known to cause damage to pumpkin in Rhodesia and sorghum in Nigeria: the pest of groundnuts in Senegal and Gambia is N. zavattarii (Mancini), not N. apicalis. To date, the other species of Naphius in Africa are not reported as pests. The known distribution of the two pest species is illustrated; N. apicalis occurs throughout tropical Africa, but N. zavattarii seems to be confined to the northern and eastern parts of Africa south of the Sahara, with the latter also present in the Canary Is, and cape Verde Is.
The identity of the pepper flower-bud moth
Authors: Bradley J. D. , Povolný D.
Published: July 2009

The species commonly known in the West Indies as the pepper flower-bud moth has been shown not to be Gnorimoschema gudmannella (Wlsm.), as hitherto supposed, but an undescribed species, for which the name Gnorimoschema capsica is proposed. The species is described and differentiated from G. gudmannella and other species in the Grnorimoschemini.
The structure and biology of a new species of Mallophora Macq. (Diptera, Asilidae) from Trinidad, W.I.
Authors: Clements A. N. , Bennett F. D.
Published: July 2009

Detailed descriptions are given of the adults, larvae and pupae of Mallophora media sp.n., Asilidae, which occurs in Trinidad, W.I. The larvae live in the soil and prey upon larvae of Scarabaeidae. The affinities of the new species are discussed.
Olfactory perception of live hosts and carbon dioxide by the tsetse fly Glossina morsitans orientalis Vanderplank
Authors: Turner D. A.
Published: July 2009

Laboratory investigations of olfactory perception in the tsetse fly Glossina morsitans orientalis Vanderplank, were carried out by measuring the modulation of the spontaneous rate of activity by sudden olfactory stimulation. Marked responses were obtained to emanations from guinea-pig, chick, crocodile and the human hand and forearm. Emanations from human skin despite the absence of expired carbon dioxide induced a strong response compared to the other host types. The stimulus was removed by rinsing the skin with acetone solvent. Air passed over material impregnated with human sweat and odour was ineffective. Responses to guinea-pig odour and guinea-pig
expired air were approximately equal. Carbon dioxide was the important factor in expired air. The quantitative relationship between stimulus and response was non-linear, responses increasing with approximately exponential increases in stimulus intensity. The existence of an airborne sexual stimulus could not be demonstrated.
A trial use of grass-mat passages in protecting humans from attacks by tsetse flies.
Authors: La Croix E. A. S.
Published: July 2009

In March 1957, an outbreak of human sleeping sickness was discovered in the South Mamprussi District of northern Ghana. Temporary measures were initiated at a few villages to provide protection, at water-holes on streams, against attack by the two prevalent species of tsetse, Glossina palpalis (R.-D.) and G. tachinoides Westw., until clearings could be made.

These measures consisted of grass-mat passages approximately 8 ft. high, extending from about 75 yd. from the stream down to and around the waterhole. At the water-hole, there was a gap of about 1 ft. between mat and water.These passages were found to be successful in excluding tsetse fly. This suggests several points of interest about G. palpalis and G. tachinoides: that at that time of year and in that type of vegetation, they do not rest higher than 8 ft. above ground; that the portions of human anatomy that showed beneath the matting did not attract the fly; and that these species depend on sight for hunting rather than on smell.

The cost of this matting was negligible as compared with the cost of routine clearing, and this method of temporary protection was considered successful for its purpose.
Distortion of guineacorn (Sorghum vulgare) caused by a mealybug, Heterococcus nigeriensis Williams, in Northern Nigeria.
Authors: Harris Elizabeth
Published: July 2009

Distortion, a severe stunting and deformation of plants of guineacorn (Sorghum vulgare) in Northern Nigeria, has been shown to be caused by Heterococcus nigeriensis Williams feeding on the plants.

The symptoms are striking; affected stems are much shorter and wider than normal and leaves are mis-shapen, with irregularly divergent veins and white tissue between the veins. Symptoms in the field vary from small patches of distortion on other normal plants to whole plants affected. The abnormal leaves of a plant with severe distortion are crumpled and remain rolled together. Growth of the plants virtually ceases if the mealybug infestation continues but, in the absence of mealybugs, affected plants recover and produce normal leaves.

Distortion has been found in the field, commonly on Sorghum vulgare, Zea mays and Cynodon dactylon, and once only on Pennisetum typhoides and Chloris pycnothrix, respectively, and has been produced experimentally on Z. mays, C. dactylon, P. typhoides, Triticum aestivum, Oryza sativa and Digitaria exilis by transferring mealybugs from affected guineacorn.
The diurnal feeding activity of Glossina pallidipes Aust. in relation to trypanosome challenge.
Authors: Leggate B. M. , Pilson R. D.
Published: July 2009

The limitations of the use of apparent density in estimating trypanosomechallenge are discussed, and it is concluded that such estimates should be based on the feeding portion of the tsetse population, its activity in relation to a given host, the total period of feeding activity (or parts thereof) as the unit of time, and the trypanosome infection rate.

A method of investigating the diurnal feeding activity of Glossina pallidipes Aust. in the late dry season at Eekomitjie, in the Zambezi Valley in Southern Rhodesia, is described. A black ox was tethered daily under a large tree from before dawn until after dusk. Only flies that engorged on the ox were caught; the time of capture and sex of each fly was recorded, and the fly then marked and released. Catches were made on 15 separate but not consecutive days between 21 October and 30 November, 1959.

Diurnal activity extended from 0445 to 1845 hr., there being a small earlymorning peak, reduced activity over the midday period, and a comparatively large evening peak. Climatic factors were recorded but no conclusions could be drawn about their separate effects on activity.
A technique for the topical application of poisons to non-anaesthetised house-flies for knockdown assessments.
Authors: Sawicki R. M.
Published: July 2009

An apparatus and technique are described for handling, immobilising by suction, and individually dosing house-flies, Musca domestica L. The apparatus consists of a suction platform connected to a vacuum cleaner, a specially designed cage and a measured-drop apparatus. The suction platform consists essentially of a circle of terylene gauze, on to which the flies are drawn from the cage and held by suction during treatment. The cage can be made to contract, so that the flies may be crowded together near the special emergence hole through which they are to be withdrawn. The technique avoids the use of cooling and anaesthetics, which affect the metabolism of the flies, and is therefore especially suitable for measuring knockdown, although it can equally be used to estimate toxicity. Some factors likely to influence the results are examined and discussed, and an example is given of two experiments with house-flies, to show that the method gives reproducible results.
Acaricide resistance in the red tick, Rhipicephalus evertsi Neumann.
Authors: Whitehead G. B. , Baker J. A. F.
Published: July 2009

Early in 1959, observations on the farm Tayside, in the East London district of South Africa, suggested that populations of the ‘two-host’ red tick, Rhipicephalns evertsi Neum., were more difficult to control with toxaphene preparations than they had been in the past. Resistance to toxaphene was suspected, and both field and laboratory experiments were carried out to investigate this possibility. Field trials indicated an increase in tolerance by Tayside populations of the tick to toxaphene, γ BHC and dieldrin, but showed no increased tolerance to sodium arsenite or DDT. Similar results were obtained in laboratory experiments where Tayside adults were compared with those of other populations of the tick known to be sensitive to insecticides. Laboratory experiments with larvae indicated a high degree of resistance to toxaphene and γ BHC in the Tayside population, but no increased tolerance to sodium arsenite, Delnav, Sevin or DDT could be detected. This pattern of cross-resistance is similar to that occurring in resistant populations of Boophilus dccoloratus(Koch).
Some aspects of plant penetration by Myzus persicae (Sulz.) nymphs (Homoptera, Aphididae)
Authors: Pollard D.G.
Published: July 2009

The feeding penetrations of Myzus persicae (Sulz.) nymphs into tulip leaf epidermis, as shown by a study of stylets and tracks, may be intercellular, intracellular or stomatal with the former predominating. Contact between the stylet sheath or track and cell cytoplasm is at a maximum during intracellular entry but occurs to a limited extent during intercellular penetration due to partial rupture of the epidermal end walls. In the mesophyll, the stylet path is intercellular but a few cells were penetrated by tracks.Tracks vary in appearance according to the degree of confinement to which they have been subjected, the differing amounts of gelling saliva involved beingattributed to alterations in salivation rate or speed of penetration of the bundle. Seventypes of track were recognised, ranging from a thin membraneous to a thick lobular structure. The tracks have recognisable precursors in the stylet sheaths though differences between sheaths and tracks are evident, particularly where saliva is secreted during stylet withdrawal. In the vascular tissues, phloem and xylem are penetrated, often by repeatedlybranched tracks: the point of divergence of the arms of a branched track, in both mesophyll and vascular bundles, occurs only in large inter- or intracellular spaces where the lobular sheath or track is present. Three types of track are common in the vascular tissue:the lobular, the membraneous, and a saliva-filled type. The majority of stylet bundles terminate in the phloem. Rotation of the stylet bundle about its longitudal axis is generally absent.
A preliminary note on the black scales (Homoptera, Coccidae) of North and Central America
Authors: De Lotto G.
Published: July 2009

A preliminary account of the main differentiating characters of Saissetia miranda(Cockerell & Parrott), S. neglecta De Lotto and S. oleae (Olivier) is given, together with notes on their hosts and distribution in Central and North America. Three forms of S. oleae occur in California.
Phosphoglucomutase polymorphism in Aedes phoeniciae Coluzzi & Sabatini of the Ae. mariae complex (Dipt., Culicidae)
Authors: Coluzzi M. , Bullini L. , Bianchi Bullini A. P.
Published: July 2009

Different phosphoglucomutase (PGM) allozymes exist in the three sibling species of theAe. mariae complex. These enzyme variants appear to bedetermined at homologous loci by three codominant alleles designated as PgmA, PgmB andPgmC. Some populations of Ae. zammitii (Theo.) and of Ae. mariae (Ed. & Et. Serg.) were found to be homozygous PgmA / PgmA and PgmB/PgmB, respectively. A laboratory population of Ae. phoeniciae (Coluzzi & Sabatini) was found to be polymorphic for the PgmBand the PgmC alleles, the latter being conspicuously more frequent. An electrophoretically marked PgmC strain of Ae. phoeniciae was easily obtained. This is expected to be useful in release experiments for the study of pre-copulatory isolating mechanisms between this and the other two siblings of the Ae. mariae complex.
Biological control of the coconut scale, Aspidiotus destructor Sign., in Principe, Portuguese West Africa.
Authors: Simmonds F. J.
Published: July 2009

The coconut scale, Aspidiotus destructor Sign., was recorded for the first time from the island of Principe in November 1954, but it is practically certain that it was actually introduced accidentally in 1952.

Prior to 1954, normal fluctuations had occurred in the total annual production of copra of the island, probably correlated mainly with rainfall conditions. However, in 1954 there was a steady and very serious decline in production due to damage caused by Aspidiotus. Several species of endemic natural enemies were found attacking the scale, but the control exerted by them was quite inadequate to prevent astronomical increase of Aspidiotus.
Biology and ecology of the garden chafer, Phyllopertha horticola (L.). VII.—The flight season: male and female behaviour, and concluding discussion.
Authors: Milne A.
Published: July 2009

A general description of mass behaviour of the garden chafer, Phyllopertha horticola (L.), in the flight season was given earlier in this series (Milne, 1958). The outstanding features are two roughly equal and half-overlapping phases of activity: Phase 1, the swarming of the beetles over the grass sward, followed by Phase 2, the swarming on the surrounding bracken, hedges and trees. Investigation of sex proportions and mass reproductive state in the two phases permitted some deductions as to individual male and female behaviour (Milne, 1959a, b). In the present paper, further details of behaviour are given, and study of the flight season is concluded with a brief general discussion.
Larval movement and infestation in the wheat bulb fly, Leptohylemyia coarctata (Fall.).
Authors: Long D. B.
Published: July 2009

In pot experiments, the ability of newly hatched larvae of the wheat bulb fly, Leptohylemyia coarctata (Fall.), to move through nine in. of soil and infest wheat plants was tested for three different types of soil: sandy loam, clay loam and peaty loam and also clay loams at different levels of acidity. Each soil was inoculated with 200 freshly hatched larvae and the effects associated with soil were measured by the number of larvae subsequently recovered from infested plants.

The larval recoveries for different soil types were: sandy loam 28 per cent., clay loam 19 per cent, and peaty loam 2 per cent. The larvae could infest plants grown in clay loam within a pH range of 4·9 to 7·8 and the results suggested a possible optimum at pH 6·2. The relative failure to infest in peaty loam appeared to be due to this soil impeding larval movement rather than interfering with the mechanism of host-plant location.
Notes on the Red Locust (Nomadacris septemfasciata, Serv.) in Nyasaland 1933–34
Authors: Smee C.
Published: July 2009

In common with the rest of southern-central Africa (Uvarov, 1933) the Nyasaland Protectorate was affected late in 1932 by the spread of the sixth generation of the red-winged locust. The course of the invasion, development of subsequent generations, and the damage done have been fully described in the Annual Reports of the Department of Agriculture for the years 1933 to 1934 (Smee, 1934, 1935).
Experimental Study on the Development of the Ovary in Anopheles elutus, Edw. (Dipt. Culic.)
Authors: Mer G. G.
Published: July 2009

Hibernation is still one of the obscure phenomena in the bionomics of Anopheles, for the nature of hibernation itself, as well as the associative changes of fat deposition and retarded ovarian development, have not as yet been made clear. Despite the extensive investigations on the subject, the factors responsible for hibernation remain unknown.
On the first Instar Larvae of some Species ofOtiorrhynchusfound on Strawberries, with Notes on their Biology
Authors: Fidler J. Havelock
Published: July 2009

1. There are four species ofOtiorrhynchuswhich commonly, in both the larval and the adult stage, cause damage to strawberry plants.

2. The morphology of the first larval instar of these species is discussed from the point of view of their determination.

3. It is shown that although the larvae in this stage are superficially very similar, there are considerable differences in the chaetotaxy of the head and also in the form of the labrum and the setae situated upon it.

4. Similarly there are variations in the position and size of the setae on the dorsum of both the thorax and abdomen.

5. A table is drawn up summarising all these characters in each of the four species.

6. A brief description of the present knowledge of the biology of these species is also given. It appears that although all of them are usually parthenogenetic, it is at present uncertain whether they can ever reproduce sexually, since the presence of males has as yet not been recorded.

7. These species usually have only one generation in the year, ovipositing in mid-summer and over-wintering as well developed larvae. In the case ofO. sulcatusandO. ovatus, however, adults may emerge late in the summer and, having hibernated as adults, lay eggs in the early spring following.
Studies on Soils in Relation to the Biology of Glossina submorsitans and tachinoides in the North of Nigeria
Authors: Buxton P. A. , Mellanby K.
Published: July 2009

It is known that there is a high mortality in puparia of Glossina submorsitans and tachinoides if they are kept in air which is far from saturation; it seems anomalous that there is no evidence of mortality among puparia in nature at the end of the dry season when the soil in the thickets appears to be quite dry.

Experiments are described, showing that the soil of the thickets (unlike the more sandy soil of the open country) will take up large quantities of water; as its colloid content is high, this soil must also possess great power of retaining the water. Moreover even when the soil seems quite dry (water content 4 per cent.) the atmosphere in the soil spaces is very nearly saturated.
The history of card games
Authors: Dummett Michael
Published: July 2009

Playing cards were introduced into Europe from the Islamic world in the second half of the 14th century, forming packs with essentially the same structure as now, but with different suit-signs and court figures. Trick-taking games were certainly among those games which were introduced with the cards used to play them; but trumps and bidding were later European inventions. The former of these ideas derives from the games played with the Tarot pack (which was not associated with fortune-telling or the occult until the late 18th century); the latter from the Spanish game of Ombre, once fashionable all over Europe.
Cork and corks
Authors: Fortes Manuel A.
Published: July 2009

The common cork stopper takes advantage of the peculiar properties of the bark of the cork oak. This has very low permeability to both gases and liquids due to suberin and waxes; the cellular structure makes possible the deformation that gives a secure fit in the bottle neck.
State, state-nation, cultural nation
Authors: Glatz Ferenc
Published: July 2009

The paper examines the background of current national and minority conflicts in Eastern and Central Europe and argues that a deeper-going analysis of these phenomena calls for a reconsideration of the traditional European territorial-administrative institutions. It argues that the European State-structure as shaped in the 17–19th centuries is the greatest obstacle to the prevention of global dangers, then looks at the typical arguments against dismantling the present national-state borders.

The conclusion is that European nations are primarily cultural nations and they have to survive in that form for the 21st century.
Co-operation in R&D, efficiency and European policy
Authors: Jacquemin Alexis , Soete Luc
Published: July 2009

In this paper, the role of co-operative agreements in R&D, as a strategic option for firms confronted with the globalization of markets and the multiplication of sources of new technology is examined within the European context. It is argued that a plausible case can be made for co-operative R&D ventures, especially where positive and large technological spillovers exist, when the fixed component of technology-development cost is high and the hedging of risk is an important incentive, and when participating firms produce complementary products. The empirical evidence of a significant multiplication of R&D partnerships in Europe illustrates, from this perspective, the strategic option that firms were confronted with as competition ‘Europeanized’ and ‘globalized’ and technology changed rapidly and unpredictably. Co-operative agreements in R&D also create problems. One such problem is that the agreements could be a vehicle for reducing competition in the downstream product market and for creating barriers to entry. From that point of view, existing EC regulations seems well adapted, but this leaves open the question of conflicts between differing competition policies at the world level. The growing web of international coalitions makes it increasingly difficult, if not impossible, to implement a European technology policy whose results are not accessible to companies and countries competing with Europe.
Scandinavian realism
Authors: Strömholm Stig
Published: July 2009

This is an account of the jurisprudence expounded by the Swedes Axel Hägerström, Wilhelm Lundstedt, Karl Olivecrona and the Dane Alf Ross. The characteristic features of this school of legal science are the firm rejection of idealism and conceptualism and a sociological approach to legal phenomena. Severe criticism has been directed against the way in which, particularly, Swedish Social Democrats made use of the tenets of Realism in justifying legislative measures in certain areas.
Biological evidence of past environments and climatic changes
Authors: Pilcher Jon R.
Published: July 2009

This paper will examine some of the types of biological evidence that allow us an insight into past environments and will consider some of the concepts that affect and limit our interpretations of past environments, and through them climatic changes.

Scandinavia was the birthplace of palaeoenvironmental studies; basic to these being the concepts of speciation formulated in Uppsala by Linnaeus nearly 250 years ago. Sernander proposed his bog regeneration theories in 1910 and von Post gave his first two lectures on pollen analysis in 1916. Iversen demonstrated how the impact of human activities could be disentangled from climate change and later discussed the effects of lags in the vegetation at the start of the post glacial. These laid the framework for much that I will describe.

At the turn of the century the two botanists Blytt and Sernander proposed a sub-division of the recent past (the post glacial period or Holocene as we now call it) on the basis of biological evidence preserved in bogs. They described wood layers in peat bogs and introduced the terms Boreal and Sub-Boreal for the time spanned by the wood layers, and the Atlantic and Sub-Atlantic for what they interpreted as the intervening wetter periods. These wood layers are as obvious now as they were in 1900 and the terms Boreal and Atlantic have gone in and out of fashion over the intervening years.
Classical antiquity in contemporary Europe
Authors: Ludwig Walther
Published: July 2009

As a consequence of the diminished role that Greek and Roman antiquity plays in secondary school education, the impact which Classical antiquity still has on our contemporary culture is underestimated in public opinion.
An integrated approach to science and technology policy: social and economic development in a European context
Authors: Blondel J.
Published: July 2009

There was little science policy in the past. Science and technology developed at their own pace. Science policy is now required, not just on grounds of the cost of science, but also because problems of esthetics and of environmental externalities are raised. There are also questions posed by the recruitment of scientists, the structure of research and, above all, priorities in scientific development. There has also to be an analysis of the level—regional, national, plurinational, worldwide—at which decisions on science should be taken. If this is not done through science policy, decisions will be taken entirely haphazardly.
Christopher Columbus' situation and the challenge of understanding today's global environmental issues
Authors: Svedin Uno
Published: July 2009

This paper highlights the process of selecting a long term research agenda in the environmental-development field. What are the criteria to be used for the understanding of what is important in our phase of history? In order to dwell on this process somewhat from the outside, the entry-point chosen is Columbus' world and challenges 500 years ago. In his time the problem was not environmental issues; however, at a more general level an analysis of the interplay between what is supposed to be known, the ideological connotations, the political ambitions, and the economical and technical capacities, provide interesting parallels to our time.
‘Mr Secretary, Colonel, Admiral, Philosopher Thompson’: the European odyssey of Count Rumford
Authors: Day Peter
Published: July 2009

Benjamin Thompson, better known as Count Rumford, discovered the mechanical equivalent of heat. He was also soldier, administrator, founder of the Royal Institution in London and the English Garden in Munich. Fellow of the Royal Society and Membre de l'Institut, his career embraced rural New England, London society, service to the Elector of Bavaria and an unhappy marriage in Paris to the widow of Antoine Lavoisier.
Postmodernity and postcommunism
Authors: Szegedy-Maszák Mihály
Published: July 2009

Generalizing between postmodernity and postmodernism is of doubtful value. The shift from communism to postcommunism has led to a decline, or different significance, of postmodernism in Eastern Europe.
Europe in the making of Japanese values
Authors: Morris-Suzuki Tessa
Published: July 2009

With the Meiji Restoration the first steps were taken in the third quarter of the 19th century to set up a national system of education in Japan. European educational theories were influential. Samuel Smiles became a reference for moral principles and Western heroes from Socrates to Florence Nightingale were exemplars. The articles explores the complex relationship of Western ideas with indigenous Japanese culture.
The re-establishment of good taste: on the role of academies in the 21st century
Authors: Allén Sture
Published: July 2009

Of the multitude of languages, many are endangered and threatened with extinction; this is a great potential loss of witnesses to human perception. Academies should support non-majority languages and oppose the acceleration of their loss due to the rise of computers with programs limited to majority languages.
Referendums and the evolution of party government in liberal democracies
Authors: Morel Laurence
Published: July 2009

An analysis of the motivations behind the present revival of referendum ballots in liberal democracies shows that referendums launched by governments, often politically motivated, and those launched by popular initiatives are linked to a demand for new legislation, and both illustrate the crisis of representative governments that is currently affecting these democracies. The pursuit of the increase of referendums will depend however on whether popular initiatives will or will not be introduced in the Constitutions of countries, since the great majority do not provide for it. In spite of similarities between the present political situation in Western Europe and the contexts in which popular initiatives were introduced in some countries, there is no serious ground to predict that such institutional reforms will take place in the near future. The directness of democracy is maybe more likely to increase under the effect not of referendums, but of other factors like the growing interference of polls, or the decline of intermediaries, especially parties, in the daily practice of government.