bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Communication Modes, Hispanic
Authors: Alemán Carlos Galvan
Published: September 2017

It is widely accepted that communication, whether presented as a manner of acting, a style of conversing, or a fashioning of language, functions in many
modes
to bring individuals to some awareness of each other as members of a collective. This conceptualization of modes as
signifying forms of social activity
is in contrast to the more general notion of
channels
or means of communication (→ Communication: Definitions and Concepts; Communication: History of the Idea; Communicator Style).
Communication Modes, Muslim
Authors: Moghaddam Fathali M.
Published: September 2017

Traditional Islamic modes of communication have evolved to become very effective at enhancing conformity and obedience, and in strengthening ingroup cohesion (→ Communication and Social Change: Research Methods). Three illustrative examples are discussed here: theazan(call to prayer), the daily prayer, and the month ofRamadan.
Communication: Relationship Rules
Authors: Pavitt Charles
Published: September 2017

A
communication rule
is a description of a communicative regularity relevant to social interaction. The communicative regularities contained within rules are normative, in the sense that they are what is expected to occur by participants in social engagements and their absence usually results in social disapproval or sanction on the part of those participants toward a transgressor.
Communication Skills across the Life‐Span
Authors: Samter Wendy
Published: September 2017

The ability to maintain friendships is important to people's well‐being. Individuals who lack friends experience adjustment problems including drug and alcohol abuse, academic failure, antisocial conduct, depression, loneliness, anxiety, and fatigue. One promising approach to the study of → friendship and communication involves analysis of friends’ conceptions and expectations of the relationships, as well as the daily activities in which they engage. Understanding what people think of and do with their friends tells us something about the duties and obligations of being a friend, the standards to which friends are held, and the kinds of skills through which such duties and standards are met. Unfortunately, space precludes discussion of gender differences. However, it is important to note that such differences are most pronounced in childhood and attenuate with age. By adulthood, men and women are much more similar than different in their beliefs about friendship – and in performance of the skills that predict its success (→ Interpersonal Communication → Friendship and Peer Interaction).
Communication and Social Change: Research Methods
Authors: Pollock John C.
Published: September 2017

Modern research methods for social/behavioral change reflect a tension between collecting data at the individual level and making inferences at macro‐levels such as health‐care systems, communities, and nations. This tension becomes more palpable when measuring the concerns of historically underserved, difficult‐to‐reach populations, those suffering the greatest inequalities in access to information, civic participation, and, in particular, health care. Research questions are explored by focusing on multiple levels of analysis, multidisciplinary approaches, targeted methods/measures, flexible measures of “community,” and converging methodologies for maximizing evaluation validity.
Communication Strategies for Empowerment
Authors: White Robert A.
Published: September 2017

“Empowerment” generally refers to development approaches that “enable” the beneficiaries, especially the poor and marginal and excluded groups such as women, to take initiatives to solve their own problems of poverty, exclusion, and chronic dependency (Narayan 2005; → Dependency Theories; Development, Gender, and Communication). The role of government and nongovernmental agencies is to encourage and support local organization efforts, help local groups define their own needs, and respond to requests for training and other technical or capital assistance. Beneficiary groups are expected to initiate → participatory communication within their communities, establish communication networks with other beneficiary groups, and build cooperative linkages with government and nongovernmental agencies. Because personal and social isolation is so much a part of social passivity and exploitation, communication strategies of organization, networking, group communication, and community media are central to empowerment methods (→ Citizens' Media).
Communication Theory and Philosophy
Authors: Jensen Klaus Bruhn
Published: September 2017

Communication theory is heir to classic issues in the history of ideas. If philosophy has traditionally asked how human knowledge of reality may be possible, communication theory addresses the media, modalities, and messages by which humans exchange, reflect on, and enact different perspectives on reality. Revisiting a number of key epistemological, ethical, and political issues, while responding to the increased importance of information and communication technologies throughout society and culture during the twentieth century, communication research emerged at the crossroads of social philosophy and scientific theory.
Communicology
Authors: Lanigan Richard Leo
Published: September 2017

Communicology is a tradition in the human sciences studying → Discourse in all of its semiotic and phenomenological manifestations of embodied consciousness and of practice in the world of other people and their environment.
Computers and Display Programs in Education
Authors: Downing Joe R.
Published: September 2017

Communication instructors use two broad categories of display programs in their classrooms. The first category is whiteboard technology (→ Classroom Instructional Technology). When delivering a lecture, instructors make notes on the whiteboard using a special stylus. The text is digitized, so the whiteboard subsequently becomes the display program. Instructors can email these digitized notes to their students or post their lecture notes to courseware packages like Blackboard (→ Course Organization Programs in Education). An
interactive whiteboard
represents the latest technology in this area. In class, students can use their laptop computers, which are connected to a local wireless network to collaborate on a project. The group's output is displayed on the interactive whiteboard.
Computers and Display Programs in Education
Authors: Downing Joe R.
Published: September 2017

Communication instructors use two broad categories of display programs in their classrooms. The first category is whiteboard technology (→ Classroom Instructional Technology). When delivering a lecture, instructors make notes on the whiteboard using a special stylus. The text is digitized so the whiteboard later becomes the display program. Instructors can email these digitized notes to their students or post their lecture notes to courseware packages such as Blackboard or Moodle (→ Course Organization Programs in Education). An
interactive whiteboard
represents the latest technology in this area. In class, students can use their laptop computers, which are connected to a local wireless network, to collaborate on a project. The group's output is displayed on the interactive whiteboard. To date, little research has been conducted on the efficacy of whiteboard technology in the classroom.
Conflict and Cooperation across the Life‐Span
Authors: Zhang Yan Bing
Published: September 2017

Conflict is pervasive and has been examined extensively in various relationships and communication contexts (Hocker & Wilmot 1991; Putnam & Poole 1987). Communication scholars, however, have only recently begun to investigate this phenomenon from a life‐span perspective, suggesting that communication among people at different ages deserves special attention. Nussbaum (1989) argued that people of different ages not only experience life events in unique historical contexts, but also develop different physical, cognitive, and psychological selves (→ Development Communication). In line with the life‐span perspective, recent research on intergenerational communication in conflict situations has demonstrated several key factors influencing individuals' conflict styles, including age, age stereotypes, and cultural values. From the life‐span perspective, the focus of this article is to explore the nature of conflict, conflict styles, intergenerational conflict management, and how younger and older adults differ in their perceptions and attributions of conflict and conflict‐management styles.
Consensus‐Oriented Public Relations
Authors: Burkart Roland
Published: September 2017

Consensus‐oriented public relations (COPR) is a concept for planning and evaluating → public relations (PR). Especially in situations with a high chance of conflict, companies and organizations are forced to present good arguments for communicating their interests and ideas – in other words, they must make the public understand their actions (→ Corporate Communication; Crisis Communication). Therefore, from the viewpoint of COPR, understanding has an important role within the PR management process (Burkart 1994, 2004, 2007, 2009, 2015).
Constructivism
Authors: Lindlof Thomas R.
Published: September 2017

Constructivism refers to the philosophical perspective that human beings actively participate in creating their psychological selves and social worlds. Translated to the social sciences, where it is often known as “social constructivism” or “constructionism,” Constructivism is commonly considered to be a paradigm of its own (→ Paradigm), with epistemological tenets and methods of inquiry that contrast sharply with those of objectivist science (→ Communication Theory and Philosophy).
Constructivism and Interpersonal Processes
Authors: Burleson Brant R. , Bodie Graham D.
Published: September 2017

As Phillips (2000) observes, the term → constructivism is associated with numerous doctrines and positions in the social sciences, but in the communication discipline constructivism is most associated with a theory of individual differences in communication skills developed by Jesse Delia and his colleagues at the University of Illinois in the 1970s. Although constructivism originally focused on individual differences in interpersonal competence, it has been applied to numerous communication events and behaviors. It has served as the foundation for theoretical and empirical analyses of relationship development and maintenance, cultural influences on communication, language acquisition and communicative development, socialization processes, and communication instruction. It has also been applied to numerous communication events and processes in business, families, education, health‐care, mass media, and politics (for reviews, see Delia 1987; Applegate 1990; Gastil 1995; Coopman 1997; Burleson & Caplan 1998; Burleson 2007).
Consumer Informatics
Authors: Hesse Bradford W.
Published: September 2017

In its broadest sense, consumer informatics can refer to that branch of the field of communications dedicated to understanding and improving the use of online information resources by the → public. Online information resources have been made available to consumers in a variety of different market sectors, from airline ticketing and travel to the online distribution of goods and services. In these instances, the online interactions replace interpersonal encounters as the basis for generating value to a sponsoring organization's bottom line. Communication researchers are often brought in to be sure the structure of the communication is made as user friendly and satisfactory as possible; unsatisfactory structures will drive away customers (→ Computer–User Interaction; E‐Commerce). In a more specific sense, the study of consumer informatics has gained its greatest currency in the area of medicine and healthcare (→ Health Communication).
Consumers in Media Markets
Authors: Napoli Philip M.
Published: September 2017

Communication researchers have devoted a substantial amount of attention to understanding consumers in media markets. The processes by which audiences select between the various content options available, as well as the mechanisms by which media organizations seek to understand, anticipate, and respond to these choices have traditionally resided at the core of research focusing on media consumers. The study of media consumers fits within the somewhat broader framework of → audience research and is distinguished by its attention primarily to the economic dimensions of media consumption and the processes by which audiences select media products – as is reflected in the use of the term “consumers” (→ Media Economics; Exposure to Communication Content).
Content Analysis, Quantitative
Authors: Scheufele Bertram
Published: September 2017

Quantitative content analysis is an empirical method used in the social sciences primarily for analyzing recorded human communication in a quantitative, systematic, and intersubjective way. This material can include newspaper articles, films, advertisements, interview transcripts, or observational protocols, for instance. Thus, a quantitative content analysis can be applied to verbal material, and also to visual material like the evening news or television entertainment. Surveys, → observations, and quantitative content analysis are the main three methods of data collection in empirical communication research, with quantitative content analysis the most prominent in the field (→ Survey). In other disciplines like psychology or sociology quantitative content analysis is not used as widely.
Contingency Model of Conflict
Authors: Pang Augustine
Published: September 2017

The contingency theory of strategic conflict management, which began as an elaboration, qualification, and extension of the value of symmetry propounded in the excellence theory, has, over the last decade, come into its own and emerged as an empirically tested perspective. This entry consolidates the maturation and advances of the theory.
Copyright
Authors: Jackson Matt
Published: September 2017

Copyright is the branch of law that provides property rights in expression, and it is the primary legal regime for the cultural and information industries, including print publishing, music, film, television, radio, theater, computer software, photography, and fine art. Copyright only protects expression, not the ideas being expressed. Ideas are the thoughts inside our heads and expression is the way we communicate those thoughts to others (→ Freedom of Communication). A book may include many facts and ideas. The author then uses specific expression, including words or pictures, to communicate those facts and ideas. A second author (or artist or musician) can use any of the facts or ideas contained in the book but would need permission to copy the first author's expression.
Corporate Reputation
Authors: Carroll Craig E.
Published: September 2017

Corporate (or organizational) reputation refers to what is generally said about an organization. Corporate reputation is different than organizational identity by its focus on what other people say about the organization, rather than what the organization itself or its members say. Corporate reputation is distinguished from → organizational image in the sense that it is generally more durable and substance‐based rather than fleeting and impression‐based. Generally, there is some story, an activity, or a topic associated with the firm, which is, in effect, regarded as remarkable.
Corporate Reputation
Authors: Carroll Craig E.
Published: September 2017

Corporate (or organizational) reputation refers to what is generally said about an organization. It differs from organizational identity in its focus on what other people say about the organization, rather than what the organization or its members say. Thus, reputations are messages. As messages, reputations are also noise or feedback: both sources and listeners to reputation messages must decide. The most salient reputations are ones where messages are widely circulated, often repeated, and contain minimal variation.
Correlation Analysis
Authors: Weber René
Published: September 2017

A correlation analysis is a statistical procedure that evaluates the association between two sets of variables. The association between variables can be linear or nonlinear (→ Linear and Nonlinear Models of Causal Analysis). In communication research, however, correlation analyses are mostly used to evaluate linear relationships. Sets of variables may include one or many variables. Associations between two variables (two sets of one variable) can be analyzed with a
bivariate correlation analysis
. Associations between one (dependent) variable and a set of two or more (independent) variables can be studied using
multiple correlation (regression) analysis
(→ Regression Analysis; Discriminant Analysis). Relationships between sets of many (independent and dependent) variables can be investigated using
canonical correlation analysis
(→ Factor Analysis; Structural Equation).
Crime and Communication Technology
Authors: Ekblom Paul
Published: September 2017

Crime and communications are perennial and pervasive features of society, while equally subject to dramatic change. They have a complex and evolving relationship, covering both the communicationsfunctionand its realization through communicationtechnology(→ Technology and Communication). Attempts to control crime involve conventional law enforcement, criminal justice, and broader, more “scientific” approaches.
Crime Reporting
Authors: Wardle Claire
Published: September 2017

Crime reporting represents a significant component of → Newspapers in the western world. This is the case for both broadsheets and tabloids, although crime coverage in tabloids tends to be more sensational, in terms of the types of crime covered, as well as the use of emotive language and visual images (→ Photojournalism; Sensationalism; Tabloid Press). The most up‐to‐date research in the US and UK suggests approximately 25 percent of newspaper articles are dedicated to crime and justice stories (Reiner et al. 2003). Furthermore, studies have shown crime news stories are read and remembered by a greater percentage of readers than any other type of news story (Graber 1980; → Exposure to the News).
Critical Rationalism
Authors: Anderson James A.
Published: September 2017

Critical rationalism is, first of all, the solution proposed by Karl Popper to the epistemological problem of the growth of knowledge. Second, it has come to be one description of the method by which science progresses. And, third, it has become an ideological position which both continues the project of the Enlightenment and celebrates the role of communication in the field of knowledge. The essence of critical rationalism is contained in four steps: (1) Through intuition, ignorance, or other circumstance, even blind luck, “we stumble over some problem” (
Myth
, p. 101). (2) We attempt a solution by boldly proposing a theory that entails material consequences that can be tested. (3) Our conjecture and tests are subjected to rigorous critical review and stringent testing by the scientific community. (4) The results of this process are used to refine our original understanding of the problem, and we return to step (1).
Critical Theory
Authors: Murdock Graham
Published: September 2017

The phrase “critical theory” was first promoted by the German philosopher and sociologist, Max Horkheimer, in a 1937 essay, “Critical and traditional theory.” An astute academic entrepreneur, he devised it to promote the approach to studying society and culture that he and his colleagues had been developing at the Institute for Social Research in Frankfurt, which he had headed since 1930, and which became an important influence on international media and communication research (Horkheimer 1972).
Cultivation Effects
Authors: Signorielli Nancy
Published: September 2017

Television is the world's storyteller, telling most of the stories to most of the people, most of the time. As such it has become our most common and constant learning environment, one that very few can or even want to escape or ignore. Children today are born into homes in which most stories are told by a centralized commercial institution rather than parents, peers, schools, or the church. Television shows and tells us about life – who wins, who loses, who is powerful, who is weak, as well as who is happy and who is sad (Weimann 2000; → Media Effects; Media and Perceptions of Reality).
Cultural Imperialism Theories
Authors: Morris Nancy
Published: September 2017

The cultural imperialism thesis states, broadly, that a powerful country uses cultural means to achieve or support the political and economic ends of imperialism that were historically attained through military force and occupation. In this view, the tools of culture can smooth the way for domination by exposing people to lifestyles to aspire to, products to desire, and even new sources of allegiance (→ Culture: Definitions and Concepts).
Cultural Patterns and Communication
Authors: Smith Peter B.
Published: September 2017

The concept of culture was first found useful by social anthropologists in studies of tribal societies. More recently, it has also been used to analyze differences between industrialized societies. A culture can be said to exist when a number of persons interpret the events around them in relatively similar ways. These shared interpretations typically include the meanings of both the behaviors of other persons and the physical entities that are present in a particular setting. Thus, attributes of a culture might include agreement that a certain building is to be thought of as a school and perceptions that certain students are more able, attractive, or industrious than others. Culture is a concept that can be applied to marriages, teams, tribes, organizations, and nations. There is obviously less consensus between the members of a nation than there is between members of smaller groupings, but cross‐cultural psychologists have found value in studying nations as cultures.
Cultural Studies
Authors: Grossberg Lawrence
Published: September 2017

Cultural studies is a recent, innovative, and interdisciplinary project that has had a significant presence in the field of communication since the late 1970s, as well as in other humanities and social sciences (→ Communication and Media Studies, History since 1968). Cultural studies is concerned with describing and intervening in the ways in which texts, discourses, and other cultural practices are produced within, circulate through, and operate in the everyday life of human beings and the institutions of society.
Culture and Communication, Ethnographic Perspectives on
Authors: Carbaugh Donal
Published: September 2017

Studies of culture have been conducted in a variety of productive ways in several academic fields; one might say the same about studies of communication, while also saying as much for ethnographic studies (→ Cultural Patterns and Communication). Adding this variety, that is, all three of these, together can create an unwieldy assortment of theories and research reports. Indeed, saying something about them all would be a difficult task. However, examining a subset of these that stand at the nexus of all three concerns, that is, identifying studies of communication that highlight cultural variability, and do so ethnographically, is a more manageable pursuit, and one that this entry undertakes, with special attention to intergroup and intercultural dynamics. It will be shown that this type of study has provided a very detailed and deep look at actual intercultural encounters.
Culture and Health Communication
Authors: Kreuter Matthew W.
Published: September 2017

It is widely recognized that cultural norms, values, beliefs, and practices vary among population sub‐groups, and influence how members of a group seek, understand, process, communicate, and act upon information about health. Ignoring these cultural differences during health and medical system interactions can have serious consequences that lead to or exacerbate disparities in health status between population sub‐groups.
Cumulative Media Effects
Authors: Fan David
Published: September 2017

The mass media can be the major influence on the adoption of an idea after the general public begins to become aware. Initially, an idea spreads through limited → social networks, with members exchanging information in formats ranging from face‐to‐face discussions to blogs on the → Internet (→ Blogger). Such interactivity means that participants are actively engaged in the topic. The spread will be more rapid if the adopters are more vocal, more influential, and have the other traits that → Rogers(2003) ascribes to innovators and to early adopters for the diffusion of innovations (→ Diffusion of Information and Innovation).
Cyberfeminism
Authors: Sundén Jenny
Published: September 2017

Cyberfeminism as feminist theory and practice is a historically specific concept of the 1990s which grew out of feminist uses of the early world wide web. The notion of cyberfeminism was challenged over time by other ways of conceptualizing the relationship between feminism and new technologies, such as “technofeminism” (Wajcman 2004), “posthumanist feminism” (Barad 2007), “somatechnics” (Sullivan & Murray 2009), and the growing field of feminist new media studies more generally. The concept of cyberfeminism was used for the first time by Australian artists' group VNS Matrix in their
Cyberfeminist manifesto for the 21st century
(1991), and soon after by British cultural theorist Sadie Plant. Cyberfeminism refers to a wide range of feminist practices, ranging from high theory to political techno‐art, science fiction writing, game design, and activism. Cyberfeminist projects can usually be mapped in relation to two intersecting axes: one running between “theoretical” and “practice‐based” cyberfeminism, the other between “third wave” and “second wave” feminism.
Cyborgs
Authors: Mertz David
Published: September 2017

The term “cyborg” was coined in 1960 by Manfred Clynes and Nathan Kline as a portmanteau of Norbert Wiener's (1965) “cybernetics” with “organism.” A cybernetic organism (cyborg) is a biological creature – generally a human being – whose functioning has been enhanced through integration of mechanical, electrical, computational, or otherwise artificial components.
Communication as an Academic Field: Turkey
Authors: Turkoglu Nurcay
Published: September 2017

In Turkey, the start of communication as an academic field was closely linked to → journalism education. The need for a school of journalism was first announced in 1947 by Sedat Simavi, a journalist and then president of the Turkish Journalists' Association. In the early 1950s the institute at Istanbul University enrolled almost 500 students to study for a degree in journalism. The courses were taught by experienced journalists who wrote textbooks for journalists (Tokgöz 2003).
Classroom Participation and Engagement
Authors: Rocca‐DelGaizo Kelly
Published: September 2017

In‐class participation has become increasingly important in higher education as the traditional lecture format is replaced or supplemented with delivery methods such as group discussion, dyadic work, and peer review. Though its importance has increased, there is not one universal definition or means of measuring participation in the existing literature (see Rocca 2010 for thorough literature review on the topic). Thus, the author recommends an operational definition of participation for this entry: asking questions, raising one's hand, and making comments in class (→ Classroom Student–Teacher Interaction; Learning and Communication).
Deduction vs Induction vs Abduction
Authors: Jensen Klaus Bruhn
Published: September 2017

Deduction, induction, and abduction are three basicforms of inferencethat inform the methodologies of communication research as well as other fields and disciplines. Whereas the most familiar forms are inference from a general principle or law to individual instances (deduction), or from several instances to a law (induction), abduction is an equally important constituent of scholarship, serving to identify possible explanations for a set of observations. Different traditions of communication research can be seen to rely on distinctive variants and combinations of deduction, induction, and abduction.
Definition
Authors: Fretwurst Benjamin
Published: September 2017

The meaning of a term is determined by a definition. Definitions are, therefore, conventions of a language. Terms are words that describe, for example, objects, processes, characteristics of objects or persons, or notional content of our imagination.
Deliberative Polls
Authors: Lindeman Mark
Published: September 2017

The phrase “deliberative polls” most often refers to political philosopher James Fishkin's conception of a multi‐stage opinion poll that incorporates systematic deliberation on policy issues (→ Public Opinion Polling). As such, Fishkin has trademarked the phrase “deliberative polling.” It can refer to other methods of introducing a deliberative component to public opinion research, some of which are touched on below.
Design
Authors: Buchanan Richard
Published: September 2017

Design is the human power to conceive, plan, and make all of the products that serve human beings in the accomplishment of their individual and collective purposes. It is a cultural art and a practical art, supporting all forms of activity in the human community by providing a high degree of forethought for communications, artifacts, actions, and organizations. The practice of design provides the subject matter and examples upon which the arts and sciences of communication base a significant portion of research and theory. In turn, the exploration of rhetoric and the arts and sciences of communication deepens awareness of the dimensions of communication in design and human‐made products (→ Art as Communication; Rhetorical Studies).
Development Communication
Authors: Wilkins Karin Gwinn
Published: September 2017

Development communication refers to strategic communication toward and about social change. Development encompasses intentional strategies designed to benefit the public good, whether in terms of material, political, or social needs. Communication engages mediation by communities, movements, and organizations within these institutional and social structures to promote beneficial dialogic action. This subject is considered in terms of its historical contexts and conceptualizations, and research agendas.
Development Communication: Africa
Authors: Moemeka Andrew A.
Published: September 2017

“Development” refers to the process of social change that has as its objective the promotion of physical and material progress (→ Development Communication). The “silent engine” that drives this development endeavor is communication. In the developed world, development communication is geared toward addressing the dysfunctions of physical and material progress. In the developing world, it is concerned with the provision of physical and material infrastructure. But it is also concerned with social change in the form of inspiring hard work, eliciting self‐help, and providing education, health facilities, and other critical conditions. Africa is one of the regions in the developing world where development seems to be occurring slowly. As a result, there has been great concern about how to stimulate development and social change.
Development Communication Campaigns
Authors: Storey J. Douglas
Published: September 2017

The use of → strategic communication has an ancient history dating back at least to Aristotle'sRhetoric(→ Rhetoric, Greek). But technological and theoretical advances beginning in the twentieth century, most notably the growth of electronic media and media studies, have resulted in dramatic improvements in the scale, sophistication, and effectiveness of purposive communication and in the rise of contemporary communication campaigns. Billions of dollars are spent globally each year on commercial, political, and public service campaigns aimed at influencing consumer decisions, mobilizing support for political candidates, changing unhealthy behaviors and reinforcing healthy ones, advocating for social issues and policy changes, and much more.
Development Communication: Latin America
Authors: Beltrán Luis Ramiro
Published: September 2017

A universally valid and widely accepted definition of the field does not exist, but three conceptualizations have prevailed in the western world, the first two emanating from the US and the third from Latin America. The first, development communication, is the notion that mass media are capable of creating a public atmosphere favorable to change, which is assumed to be indispensable for modernizing traditional societies through technological advancement and economic growth. The second is → “development support communication,” i.e., the idea that planned and organized communication – massive, interpersonal, and mixed – is a key instrument for the accomplishment of the practical goals of national development‐seeking institutions (→ Planned Social Change through Communication). The third is the concept of alternative communication for democratic development. This assumes that, by expanding and balancing people's access to, and participation in, the communication process – at both mass media and interpersonal grassroots levels – development should secure, in addition to material gains, social justice, freedom for all, and the majority's rule (→ Communication Strategies for Empowerment).
Development Communication: Middle East
Authors: Dajani Nabil H.
Published: September 2017

This entry offers an overview of → development communication in the region that the west calls the Middle East, but which in Arabic is known as “al‐Mashrik al Arabi,” or the Arab East. The area comprises three Arab regions that fall between the eastern Mediterranean, the Arabian (Persian) Gulf, the Red Sea, and the Indian Ocean. Located in an area where Africa, Asia, and Europe meet, these regions are: Egypt, which is in Africa; Bilad ash‐Sham (sometimes referred to as the Fertile Crescent or Greater Syria), on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea, which extends from Turkey and Iran in the north to Egypt in the south and the Arabian peninsula and the Red Sea to the east (including the present states of Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq, and Palestine); and the Arabian peninsula, or Arabian Gulf, which is largely a desert area that includes the present states of Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman, Qatar, Bahrain, the Arab Emirates, and Kuwait.
Development Institutions
Authors: Groshek Jacob , Ogan Christine
Published: September 2017

At present, there are over 50,000 international organizations with a total budget easily over US$250 billion devoted to improving social, economic, political, and health conditions around the world, specifically in less developed countries (Directory of Development Organizations 2007; → International Communication Agencies). The current status of modern international development organizations can be traced back to the end of World War II and the official launch of the United Nations. Indeed, while other organizations pre‐date the UN, including religious and political bodies, it was the formation of the UN and its many subsidiary programs and funds that helped catalyze international → modernization efforts.
Development Journalism
Authors: Shah Hemant
Published: September 2017

During the 1970s and 1980s, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (→ UNESCO) was the site of vociferous debate about global communication. Collectively, these arguments have come to be known as the → New World Information and Communication Order [NWICO] debate. Nations of the south, many of which had relatively recently emerged from colonial domination, demanded a restructuring of the flows, distribution, and practice related to global information and communication. Many nations of the west, led by the United States and Great Britain, resisted any restructuring, arguing that such changes would have to be mandated by governments and would amount to undermining sound universal principles such as the free flow of information. Among the most contentious issues in the debate was development journalism – a term referring to the role of the press in the process of socio‐economic development, primarily in countries of the south (→ Development Communication).
Development Support Communication
Authors: Melkote Srinivas R.
Published: September 2017

A cursory examination of halo terms used on the world stage in the last 50 years will surely unearth the term “development.”
Development
is commonly understood to mean a process by which societal conditions are improved. However, there is much disagreement on what constitutes improvement. Consequently, the term
development
has been continually contested. Development communication, a special focus of this entry, often refers to a linear process of information exchange, resulting in knowledge acquisition or persuasion toward some objective related to development. This term too has been actively contested, especially with the changing interpretations of
development
. Today, many emphasize
communication
as a process of shared meaning that takes place in a cultural, political‐economic, and geographical context, and is inseparable from that context (→ Development Communication).
Dialogic Perspectives
Authors: Barge J. Kevin
Published: September 2017

Multiple intellectual traditions exist within a dialogic perspective toward organizational communication. These intellectual traditions share a common set of theoretical inclinations that distinguish a dialogic perspective by focusing on discourse, holism, and tensionality (Stewart et al. 2004). First, dialogic approaches emphasize the
centrality of discourse
. A dialogic perspective focuses on both “little d” and “big D” discourse, with the former centering on language‐in‐use and the latter spotlighting enduring systems of thought, feeling, and action that structure the way organizational members make sense of and act in their social worlds (Fairhurst & Putnam 2004). Second, dialogic approaches are
holistic
as they emphasize the interplay among communication, context, action, and meaning. Third, dialogic approaches view human systems as riddled with
tensionality
, which requires theorists and researchers to articulate the tensions constituting a system and how individuals attempt to manage them (→ Organizational Discourse).
Digitization and Media Convergence
Authors: Storsul Tanja , Fagerjord Anders
Published: September 2017

From the 1980s onward, media technologies have gone through a phase of
digitization
. CDs and digital music media replaced records and tapes in the 1980s and 1990s, and movies are increasingly being produced and distributed digitally. Newspaper production has become computer based and the news is distributed not only on paper, but also digitally on the web. Satellite television is completely digitized in many countries, cable networks are partly digitized, and in several countries terrestrial networks for television are being digitized. Furthermore, various models for digital radio are being tried out. And new digital media services, based on platforms like the web or the mobile phone, have become important in many parts of the world.
Disasters and Communication
Authors: Seeger Matthew W.
Published: September 2017

Crises and disasters are increasingly common in their occurrence and increasingly widespread in their impact. Events such as the Indian Ocean tsunami and Hurricane Katrina illustrate the potential devastation caused by natural disasters, particularly as they interact with human development. Technology‐based disasters, sometimes called accidents, such as the Chernobyl nuclear plant explosion, the leak of toxic material over the sleeping community of Bhopal, India, or the
Exxon Valdez
oil spill, can also create widespread devastation. In addition, the outbreak of diseases such as acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), sudden acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), or H5N1, avian influenza, represent yet another kind of disaster. Finally, terrorism, as witnessed in the 9/11 attacks and the London transportation system bombings, has become an increasingly prominent and insidious form of disaster (O'Hair et al. 2005).
Disclosure in Health Communication
Authors: Godard Béatrice
Published: September 2017

Much has been written in recent years about the issues of disclosing and communicating health information (including genetic information) in biomedical research and medical practice. Various guidelines and policy statements have been adopted internationally, but these are contradictory and the criteria they set out sometimes vague. Given the complexity of the ethical landscape surrounding this topic, particularly in regard to genetic risk and predictability of disease, guidance is undeniably needed on this issue.
Discourse
Authors: Cobley Paul
Published: September 2017

As a common term in English, discourse means any extended verbal communication, such as Jesus's discourse with the people (John 6: 22–71) or, “The Disinherited Knight then addressed his discourse to Baldwin” (Scott,
Ivanhoe
). Discourse is lengthy but targeted speech between individuals or between an individual and a group. As a theoretical term, discourse gained in importance during the twentieth century, both in the relatively new discipline of → linguistics and in the newer discipline of communication study (→ Communication as a Field and Discipline), taking on two distinct meanings. First, it refers to stretches of communication beyond the small units that are examined with the traditional methods of linguistic analysis. Second, discourse directs attention to the social origins and consequences of communications (→ Communication: Definitions and Concepts).
Discourse in the Law
Authors: Hobbs Pamela
Published: September 2017

The law operates primarily through language. Legislative bodies enact statutes and ordinances, judges hand down decisions, juries issue verdicts, and people enter into a wide variety of contractual relationships; in each case, a legal effect is produced through language. Nevertheless, until recently, the study of legal discourse was not well developed. Since the 1980s, however, an increasing number of scholars have addressed aspects of the relationship between law and language.
Discursive Psychology
Authors: te Molder Hedwig
Published: September 2017

Discursive psychology examines how psychological issues are made relevant and put to use in everyday talk. Unlike traditional psychological perspectives, discursive psychology does not approach the question of what psychology comprises and explains from an analyst's perspective. Instead, the focus is on how psychological characteristics are made available, ascribed, and resisted by people
themselves
, as part of the social actions performed in and through talk.
Disowning Projection
Authors: McDonald Daniel G.
Published: September 2017

In a
projection
, a person attributes certain aspects of him or herself to others (→ Attribution Processes). The process is closely tied to → identification in the psychology of personality. A
disowning projection
involves attributing negative aspects of the self to others, such as “selfish motives, evil intent … [or] stupid attitudes” (Cameron 1947). Cameron includes the exclusion of those characteristics from the self as part of that projection (hence the
disowning
portion of the name). Theoretically, a disowning projection should be contrasted with an
assimilative projection
, in which a person similarly projects his or her own qualities onto others. Although both are projections, the content and effects of the projections are quite different. When negative characteristics are projected, the person who is projecting disassociates him or herself from the characteristics. When positive characteristics are projected, no such disassociation occurs. Instead, the person who is projecting maintains the view of him or herself as being described by these characteristics, and, after projecting them onto others, sees him or herself as similar to those others.
Document Analysis
Authors: Meyen Michael
Published: September 2017

By no means all method textbooks discuss document analysis because there is disaccord as to whether this is an independent technique or whether it merely aims to apply different methods to a particular investigation material (→ Research Methods). There is also controversy as to what has to be understood by “document.” Used in a wider sense as a synonym for the word “source” in historical research (→ Historiography), this concept encompasses all objects manufactured by man. However, as a rule, only written sources are considered to be documents. Examples are: reports, the wordings of laws, the minutes of proceedings, records, letters, diaries, leaflets, press articles, books, organization charts, or work instructions. Since these documents have their origin in everyday contexts and there is no contact between the researcher and the production of the investigation material, document analysis is a non‐reactive method. Consequently, neither the researcher nor the aim of the investigation has any influence on the material itself. In addition, the costs of document analysis are lower than those of any primary → survey. Against this, the method has two major disadvantages: usually, documents only account for parts of the questions asked by the researcher, and they leave room for interpretations (→ Qualitative Methodology; Objectivity in Science).
Documentary Film
Authors: Nichols Bill
Published: September 2017

Among the qualities that distinguish films considered documentary are: (1) explicit reference to the historical world that surrounds the film, (2) a persuasive effort that encourages viewers to see or understand some aspect of the actual world in a particular way, and (3) an indexical relationship between the image and the reality it refers to. Indexical images match in their particulars the physical appearance of what they represent (→ Documentary Film, History of; Film Genres). They do not possess a general likeness to a model or referent, as a → painting would; they are closer to an exact replica of what came before the camera. The cinematic image can capture the look of a person, place, or event precisely. The optical properties of cameras, lenses, and recording media – from film to memory cards – capture aspects of the world with great precision. This allows the indexical image to serve as documentary evidence, as footage from surveillance cameras demonstrates.
Domain Names
Authors: Kleinwächter Wolfgang
Published: September 2017

The domain name system (DNS) was developed mainly by Paul Mockapetris and Jon Postel in the early 1980s. The main specifications are laid down in RFCs, or requests for comment, managed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). These are the accepted technical standards for the Internet; key ones are RFC 1034, RFC 1035, and RFC 1591 of March 1994, which defined the DNS structure and delegation.
Domestication of Technology
Authors: Hartmann Maren
Published: September 2017

The
domestication of technology
is an approach within the area of media appropriation studies. It describes the process of media (technology) adoption in everyday life, and especially within households. It outlines several dimensions of this dynamic adoption process in the context of the household as a
moral economy
and through the concept of the
double articulation
of media as technology. Two major strands of the domestication approach have been developed, only one of which is clearly within the field of media and communication studies. The other is located in the field of social studies of technology (e.g., Lie & Sorensen 1997).