bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Process Approach Versus Product Approach
Authors: Porter‐Szucs Ildiko
Published: January 2018

In the field teaching English to speakers of other languages, the product approach to listening refers to the teaching of listening comprehension with an emphasis on the product, that is, the correct answer to comprehension questions. On the other hand, the process approach refers to a psychological model of the mental processes, skills, and strategies that undergird skilled listening. This chapter discusses these two approaches and offers time‐tested practical applications for the process approach, which practitioners can employ with their students.
IELTSListening Sub‐Test
Authors: Holzknecht Franz , Harding Luke
Published: January 2018

The IELTS Listening Sub‐test is one of the most widely taken English language listening tests in the world. It is also a clear example of an approach to listening assessment that emerged from the communicative language testing tradition prevailing in Britain in the 1980s. This entry will first describe the IELTS Listening Sub‐test before surveying a selection of research which has focused on IELTS listening. Finally, some suggestions for addressing IELTS listening in the language classroom will be drawn.
Plagiarism and Academic Dishonesty
Authors: Wolfersberger Mark
Published: January 2018

Plagiarism is often viewed as an act of academic dishonesty. While intentional plagiarism does exist, inadvertent plagiarism can occur among second language students when they are writing from sources. Inadvertent plagiarism can be caused by low L2 proficiency, underdeveloped writing skills, varying definitions of plagiarism across academic subject areas, and differences across academic cultures. Institutional plagiarism policies are often criticized because they ignore these causes. Teachers and administrators should understand the full range of potential causes of plagiarism so that students are not punished for honest attempts at engaging in the academic writing process. To reduce the chances of intentional plagiarism and increase opportunities to correct inadvertent plagiarism, teachers can design locally relevant writing assignments, require multiple drafts, and teach inferencing skills.
Trends in Teacher Development Programs
Authors: Barahona Malba
Published: January 2018

Teacher development (TD) is broadly understood as the range of activities that encourage the formation of participative, situated, and shared practices among teachers and their communities. In the last 30 years in TESOL, teacher development programs (TDPs) have tended to shift from traditional top‐down initiatives to small‐scale programs with a focus on collaboration, reflection, teachers' research and the use of ICT. Sociocultural perspectives—together with identity and critical theoretical underpinnings—have contributed to these shifts. Examples of innovation in TDPs comprise a wide range of initiatives characterized by teachers' ownership, high levels of flexibility, and appreciation of context. Increasing criticism towards traditional TDPs asserts that traditional approaches failed to sustain positive changes in teaching practices. Thus, a closer scrutiny of TDPs is needed to identify their impact on teachers' practices and the factors that influence the sustainability of TDPs over time.
Integration of Content and Language Learning
Authors: Thompson Gene , McKinley Jim
Published: January 2018

The integration of content and language learning in English as an international language (EIL) is addressed by discussing approaches to content‐centered learning in a second language. These approaches include bilingual education, immersion, content‐based instruction (CBI), content‐based language teaching (CBLT), content and language integrated learning (CLIL), and English medium instruction (EMI). The multiplicity of terms can cause confusion, and indeed debate continues as to what the distinctions are between them. While all of these approaches encompass a shared endeavor of fostering additive bilingualism through a dual focus on both content and language learning, they also raise a number of questions regarding the implications of EIL for content‐integrated approaches. Each approach is presented in turn, taking into consideration the perspective of EIL, in addition to English as a lingua franca (ELF). Current research indicates it is important to be critical of integrating content and language learning, particularly in EMI programs.
Two‐Way Immersion
Authors: de Jong Ester J.
Published: January 2018

Two‐way immersion (TWI) programs are one type of bilingual education programs that aims for bilingualism and biliteracy, age‐appropriate academic achievement, and cross‐cultural competence for an integrated group of minority and majority language speakers. The programs represent an additive bilingual approach and TWI educators view students' linguistic and cultural diversity as a resource to build on and extend across social and academic registers. Well‐implemented TWI programs have demonstrated positive academic, linguistic, and sociocultural outcomes in diverse contexts and with diverse student populations. Effective TWI programs share several school, program, and classroom practices.
Bilingual Programs
Authors: Ennis Michael J.
Published: January 2018

In the English‐speaking world
bilingual programs
have a complex and dynamic history that is as old as the English language itself. Yet a distinction is often made between
additive
bilingual education, which fosters individual and societal bilingualism, and
subtractive
bilingual education, which maintains the status quo of monolingualism. Bilingual programs can be further divided into
strong
forms, which entail substantial second or foreign language exposure and instruction, and
weak
forms, which entail significantly less exposure and instruction. Research suggests that strong, additive forms are most effective at fostering bilingualism and integrating minority communities into society, and are equally and often more effective at teaching other subjects. There are, however, a myriad of variables that can impact the success of any program.
Teaching Culture in AdultESOLin theUK
Authors: Simpson James , Cooke Melanie
Published: January 2018

Teachers of English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) in the UK are expected to teach students about daily life, to equip them to join the labor market, and to prepare them for British citizenship. These three conditions form the cultural content of much publicly funded English language provision for adult migrants. In this entry various approaches to teaching culture are identified: avoidance of culture as an explicit focus; culture as heritage, history, and emblems; culture as daily life and institutions; multiculturalism which values the home cultures of students as well as the UK. Teachers rarely approach culture critically in ESOL but some recent initiatives have attempted to place students' needs at the center of the curriculum, addressing students as analytical new citizens who are engaging with British culture in a dynamic process.
Cultural Elements in English as a Lingua Franca
Authors: Cogo Alessia
Published: January 2018

This entry offers an overview of research concerning English as a lingua franca (ELF) and its applications for language teaching. It begins by exploring the dynamic, co‐constructed, and intercultural nature of ELF, focusing on pragmatic and multilingual aspects, before concentrating on pedagogical implications.

Throughout the examination of research and applications, the emphasis is on how ELF is not a neutral medium but a complex phenomenon, which is constantly adapting and co‐constructing intercultural elements according to the context in which it is used. The fluidity of this kind of communication, its “inherent variability,” and intercultural nature raise questions for pedagogical applications for the language classroom, which are addressed in the last section. These relate to curriculum design, materials, a reconceptualization of the notion of communicative competence, and ultimately a change of mindset for an ELF‐informed pedagogy.
Academic Language
Authors: Fang Zhihui
Published: January 2018

Promoting academic language (AL) development is a crucial task for teachers in all subject areas. Although AL has been defined in many ways, it is most often associated with the language used to conduct academic work in the school context. This language has certain features that do not typically occur in everyday spontaneous spoken interaction and thus present challenges to students who have little or no access to it outside of school. Teachers need to recognize and respond to these challenges because AL proficiency is critical to both literacy development and disciplinary learning. They can do so by providing students with ample opportunities to read, analyze, discuss, evaluate, and write about content‐rich texts in curricular contexts that promote literacy engagement, identity affirmation, and disciplinary inquiries. Undertaking this important work requires that teachers have a deep understanding of the ways language is used to construe, communicate, critique, and renovate knowledge in specific genres, disciplines, and contexts.
Role of the First Language
Authors: Lee Heekyeong
Published: January 2018

The role of using the first language (L1) in ESL and EFL classrooms has been a controversial issue over the past few decades. A dominant position has been that the use of L1 should be completely avoided by both teachers and students because learners' L1 plays only negative roles in their English language development. Recently, researchers have argued that such an “English‐only” policy has little empirical support while there are more studies illustrating the various cognitive and affective functions of L1 that can benefit teachers' and learners' classroom practice. There has been a call for the reconceptualization of the role of L1 that is responsive to recent phenomena of dynamic bilingualism/multilingualism as well as the growing needs for learning and teaching English as an international language.
Language Standards in the Classroom
Authors: Hansen‐Thomas Holly
Published: January 2018

Language standards are an important feature of teaching and lesson planning because they guide the stakeholders (teachers and learners themselves) in understanding what students need to know at particular milestones, that is, the benchmarks for language proficiency. Language standards have followed content standards in the standards movement as a key feature of second and foreign language education.
English for Specific Purposes
Authors: Abrar‐Ul‐Hassan Shahid , Fazel Ismaeil
Published: January 2018

ESP has emerged as a dominant language teaching approach across the globe for its explicit focus on why does a learnerneedto learn the language, and what does the learnerwantto do with English. The specificity of this approach centers on the needs and the instrumentality of the target linguistic proficiency in academic or occupational settings. Effective ESP instruction entails a range of curricular and pedagogical skills as well as a thorough orientation to disciplinary or occupational discourses. The classification of ESP into English for occupational purposes (or in‐service) and English for academic purposes (or pre‐service for all professions) is well‐established. ESP pedagogy is considered learner‐centered instruction, though ESP practice varies globally. In recent years, English for academic purposes has been theorized as a distinct subfield under the impact of critical and situated pedagogies in the world at large.
Teaching Language Skills
Authors: Marlina Roby
Published: January 2018

The outcomes of English being an international language have led to a reassessment of the ways in which receptive (listening and reading) and productive (speaking and writing) skills are taught. Since English is a heterogeneous language used predominantly by multilingual speakers of English, the teaching of listening and speaking skills should go beyond listening to and emulating how native‐speakers speak English. Learners should be exposed to different World Englishes, and learn to develop intercultural pragmatic skills. In teaching writing, learners should learn to take into account the social contexts in which they operate, and learn to shuttle between communities. Since many English language teaching (ELT) texts are not always written with cultural values and semantic phrases with which learners of English are familiar, teachers are encouraged to engage their learners in learning to read “against the grain” (critical readers) as opposed to learning to be assimilated into what is written in the texts.
Cram Schools and English Language Education in East Asian Contexts
Authors: Jeon Jihyeon , Choe Yoonhee
Published: January 2018

Cram schools appear frequently in East Asian news media, yet are less explored and theorized in the TESOL literature. Cram schools, which in this study imply any tutoring education, are making huge impacts, both positive and negative, on students and society in East Asian countries. English cram schools in East Asian contexts can be classified according to their purposes, learners' ages, program regularity, functions of the institutions, and the medium of teaching and learning. While they have various negatives—adding education costs, intensifying the “English divide” as a form of social inequality, putting extra study burdens on students, sometimes enforcing rote learning, and being outside central control in terms of growth and management—they also have positives: service‐mindedness, customized care, efficiency, reduction of barriers, and efficient use of technology. There is a need for more empirical research on cram schools and English education.
Early Childhood
Authors: Nemeth Karen N.
Published: January 2018

Preparing teachers to work effectively with English/dual language learners in early childhood is a challenging task in the face of rapidly increasing language diversity in US schools, and growing attention to early language learning throughout the world. This entry sets the stage for discussing developmentally appropriate practices with young English learners and provides solutions for early‐childhood teacher education.
Heritage Language
Authors: Lee Sarah Henderson
Published: January 2018

Even though debates related to bilingual education and language policy continue in the United States, interest in the maintenance, development, revitalization, and education of heritage languages has grown. This entry contextualizes the termheritage language, explores the research trends of the emerging field, and discusses pedagogical implications through a teacher education and professional development lens.
Preparing Paraprofessionals and Community Members in
ESL
Authors: Ernst‐Slavit Gisela , Wenger Kerri J.
Published: January 2018

Paraprofessionals can play an important role in the education of English language learners (ELLs). As potentially certified educators, they bring to the classroom qualities and experiences hard to find in graduates of traditional teacher‐preparation programs: extensive classroom experience, understanding of and commitment to the students they teach, intimate knowledge of the school and the community, and firsthand experience with social inequities. This entry will make the case for recruiting paraprofessionals into the teaching profession by (a) offering avenues for recruitment, (b) describing general features of programs that support paraprofessionals in teacher licensure programs with English as a second language (ESL) endorsements, and (c) providing a specific example of a successful teacher preparation program for paraprofessionals in the Pacific Northwest.
Respect and Politeness in Different Cultures
Authors: Naiditch Fernando
Published: January 2018

This entry examines the importance of understanding respect and politeness as learned behaviors within the conventionalized requirements and norms of a certain society. People express respect and politeness to demonstrate their understanding of what it means to act and speak in civil and socially accepted ways. Respect and politeness refer to the establishment and recognition of a set of prescriptive rules that have been agreed upon based on cultural‐specific norms that are passed on historically from generation to generation as a way of socializing individuals and communities. Because they are cultural constructs, what is considered polite and respectful in one culture may not be seen the same way in another. This is why it is extremely important to understand the social practices, cultural norms, and conversational patterns of different societies when learning a second or foreign language.
Describing Proficiency
Authors: Alsagoff Lubna
Published: January 2018

Proficiency is often used to refer to how effectively (or not) a speaker or learner of English can communicate in a language for a variety of purposes and includes having operational skills in all areas of that language, including speaking, listening, reading, and writing. Related terms that are used to describe proficiency include fluency, accuracy, and competence. Proficiency is most often described in terms of bands or levels that are derived from the results of linguistic proficiency assessment tests. Given the changing context of English as an international language (EIL), proficiency may need to be reevaluated and measured not in relation to norms of traditional Anglophone countries, but norms that are based on EIL users' needs and desired learner identities and encompass locally and contextually determined norms. In addition, acquiring proficiency might also mean that EIL learners need to be able to accommodate the various styles and pragmatic and sociolinguistic norms of the different global varieties of English.
Neurolinguistic Approach to
L2
Learning and Teaching
Authors: Idrissi Ali
Published: January 2018

The neurolinguistic approach to second/foreign language (L2) learning and teaching is based on the distinction between implicit linguistic competence and explicit linguistic knowledge. Within this approach, L2 teaching aims at developing both implicit competence and explicit knowledge in L2 learners. It also emphasizes oral communication. This entry provides a review of the basic tenets of this approach, its implications for L2 curriculum and classroom pedagogy, and a discussion of its current applications.
Language Planning
Authors: Faez Farahnaz , Taylor Shelley K.
Published: January 2018

The spread of English as an international language (EIL) is so pervasive as to warrant consideration in the media, in business and youth culture, but especially in domestic language planning. Teaching English as an international language (TEIL) is informed by, and has implications for, the societal and educational roles played by Standard English, varieties of English, and other languages known by plurilingual learners and teachers. Tensions and conflicts related to policy makers’ and general language users’ beliefs shape (and challenge) status and acquisition planning mechanisms such as tests, programs, the medium of instruction, curriculum, pedagogical and linguistic practices, and age of entry. TEIL's relationship to norms, standards, World Englishes, English as a lingua franca, native/non‐native speaker (NS/NNS) designations, and plurilingualism fuels controversies, as do policy decisions regarding language status, corpus and acquisition planning, and teacher education. The challenge is for language planning in TEIL to account for multiple stakeholders’ beliefs, interests, and goals.
Meaning‐Focused Versus Form‐Focused Instruction
Authors: Storch Neomy
Published: January 2018

Meaning‐focused instruction and form‐focused instruction represent two different views about whether there should be any overt attention to grammar in the second language (L2) classroom. Meaning‐focused instruction sees no role or a minimal role for such attention in the L2 classroom, whereas the form‐focused approach is based on the belief that attention to grammar is beneficial for L2 learning. The chapter discusses what each approach to instruction entails, the theoretical and empirical evidence used to support each approach, and how these approaches are operationalized in the L2 classroom.
Teaching Pronunciation in Integrated Skills Classes
Authors: Dixon Tülay
Published: January 2018

The teaching of second and foreign languages by focusing on the development of separate language skills—reading, writing, listening, and speaking (to include pronunciation)—is a traditional approach to curriculum design. In fact, it is likely the most common approach to organizing and developing both programs and materials for English learners. Some current approaches to curriculum design for language teaching strive to integrate the four skills. While the other language skills, for example writing and reading, receive adequate attention in English language teaching programs with an integrated skills curriculum, pronunciation instruction is still in the background in many programs and, hence, is called the “Cinderella” of language teaching. Despite the fact that pronunciation teaching and/or learning is often shortchanged in the design of curriculum, it has been acknowledged as a crucial skill by English as a second language (ESL) teachers and learners. This entry summarizes some of the major reasons why teaching pronunciation in integrated skills ESL classes is often difficult for English language teachers in both ESL and EFL settings. The entry also offers some pedagogical activities that can be implemented in integrated skills classes to improve and further the teaching of pronunciation.
Teaching Speaking inEFLEnvironments
Authors: Safargalina Alina
Published: January 2018

In the modern world of the 21st century, the ability to express oneself in English has become necessary for a successful career in almost any sphere. While foreign language teaching methods of the past largely focused on promoting writing and reading skills, today, most learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) are studying English in order to use it for real‐life communication. This change in focus puts the development of speaking skills at the center of a curriculum, and foreign language teachers need to design classes with sufficient amount of speaking practice. When teaching English as a second language (ESL), the task of developing speaking skills is easier as learners are surrounded by the target language outside of class. In an EFL context, opportunities for English use may exist only in the EFL classroom; consequently, in‐class interaction in the target language becomes crucial. This entry is aimed at informing teachers of EFL about effective strategies to improve teaching speaking through the use of active learning and online technologies.
Teaching Speaking inESLEnvironments
Authors: Marsh Schaeffer Karen
Published: January 2018

Language input alone is not enough for a language learner to become a competent speaker (Swain, 2005). Structured interaction in a language classroom helps build the learners' knowledge base and gives them opportunities to develop strategies to speak competently in multiple environments. This summary explains how teachers have arrived at current teaching practices for teaching speaking in ESL environments and gives six activities that can increase the interaction in the classroom.
Variation in
L2
Learner Speech
Authors: Murray Denise E.
Published: January 2018

For many decades, the target language variety in English language teaching has been one of the prestigious varieties in the inner‐circle countries, namely Standard British or American. However, in high immigrant countries such as Australia, Canada, and the United States, these standard varieties have not always been appropriate for immigrants trying to settle and integrate into local communities with their own varieties of English. In outer‐circle and expanding‐circle countries, the prestigious varieties of inner‐circle countries have been even less appropriate. Outer‐circle countries have their own varieties of English, while learners in expanding‐circle countries are more likely to interact with learners from other expanding‐circle countries than with learners from countries in the inner circle. Three areas of research and theory inform how teachers need to approach this dilemma: world Englishes, the question of which standard language is appropriate, and English as a lingua franca.
Vocabulary Development and Teaching Speaking
Authors: Akbarian Is'haaq
Published: January 2018

Research on vocabulary is vital to understanding the process of second language acquisition, and in recent years we have witnessed an increase in the number of studies on vocabulary learning. It is an obvious fact that English learners who have access to a large vocabulary will have less trouble communicating than learners with a small vocabulary. Thus vocabulary knowledge and development are significant factors in determining a learner's success at acquiring high levels of language proficiency. Vocabulary development is an important part of teaching all language skills, but it is especially important in teaching speaking, as the findings from recent empirical studies indicate. In this entry some recent research relevant to vocabulary development and L2 speaking will be reviewed and a number of important pedagogical implications will be considered.
Accent Reduction Versus Intelligibility
Authors: Susan Spezzini , Suzanne Franks , Carter Diane
Published: January 2018

Accent reduction and intelligibility refer to related yet distinct constructs. The purpose of accent reduction is for second language (L2) speakers to reduce their accentedness and attain near‐native pronunciation. The purpose of intelligibility is for L2 speakers to become as intelligible as possible to both first language (L1) and L2 listeners. Accent reduction is pursued mainly through medical and business models, while intelligibility is pursued mainly through an educational model, in other words teaching pronunciation. As English teaching methods transitioned, the desired ultimate attainment for L2 learners also transitioned, shifting from near‐native pronunciation (an often unattainable goal) to increased intelligibility (an attainable goal). Although research on intelligibility is not conclusive, it suggests that intelligibility is influenced more by suprasegmental features (i.e., stress and intonation) than by segmental features (i.e., vowel and consonant phonemes). In addition, accented speech does not necessarily imply low intelligibility. Additional research is needed to identify speech characteristics that promote intelligibility and to explore methods for teaching these characteristics.
Historical Perspectives on Teaching Speaking
Authors: Daskalovska Nina
Published: January 2018

There may be many different reasons for learning a foreign language, but for most language learners developing good speaking skills is essential. Communicative language teaching approaches that have been in vogue since the 1970s emphasize the importance of developing learners' communicative ability. Even though there have been other methods and approaches that tried to develop learners' speaking skills, their underlying principles or the techniques they used prevented them from producing fluent speakers of the target language. This entry gives an overview of the place and methods of teaching speaking throughout the history of language teaching and learning and the implications of using communicative language teaching approaches for developing learners' communicative competence.
Teaching Speaking to Adult Learners
Authors: Huang Li‐Shih
Published: January 2018

This discussion on teaching speaking to adult learners seeks to link theory to practice by first describing some of the key concepts by which the oral production of learners is often measured. It then briefly covers the theoretical basis of the model of communicative language ability, which further grounds the discussion of practical applications and recommendations for practitioners to consider when teaching adult learners.
Use of Corpora in Teaching Speaking
Authors: de Moraes Helmara F. R.
Published: January 2018

This entry offers an overview of what corpus linguistics is and the kinds of corpora that can be used to teach or enhance English language teaching practices. The purpose of the entry is to show the usefulness of either compiling your own corpus or making use of the online corpora in order to prepare instructional activities for teaching speaking. Some suggestions on how to develop activities are included, as well as information about spoken corpora that can be explored by teachers and students.
Local Materials Development Practices
Authors: Savova Lilia
Published: January 2018

Materials development practices, defined as anything that could be used in the English as an additional language (EAL) classroom, are a major curriculum component that is conceptualized within different curriculum models. They are further differentiated according to their linguistic and sociocultural features. Their historical development reflects changes in language development and foreign language education that resulted from local and global economic, political, scientific, ideological, and technological changes. Their current development follows the rise of English teaching as a profession, the recent access to and legitimization of spoken English, the search for enhanced teaching and learning opportunities through pragmatic analyses of authenticity, and the emergence of a new “local” that marks the end of “distance” in online materials for hybrid, blended, flipped, and distance education curricula. Overall, the issue of global vs. local materials design is shaped by the history of the profession and may resolve itself because of emerging global and technological realities.
Media and English
Authors: Sawin Thor
Published: January 2018

Much international media is produced in English, a fact seen as both evidence of globalization and motivation for learning English. The English variety presumed dominant in such media, originating in inner‐circle countries and reflecting constraints of printed text, has frequently formed the pedagogical model for English learners. Yet the 21st century global media landscape evidences disruption from technological innovations and destabilized patterns of content creation, with far‐reaching effects. Contemporary media platforms encourage content which is more multimodal, interactive, individualized, and translingual. Ideologies are changing, both about which English varieties belong where in the media landscape and how English text relates to other systems of meaning making. English learners themselves can now compose, publish, and discuss their own content within a rapidly democratizing media ecosystem. These ongoing technological and ideological changes will see a wider range of voices, varieties, identities, and modalities created and sought out by the media‐engaging public.
Building Student Background for Specific Academic Vocabulary
Authors: Qureshi Muhammad Asif
Published: January 2018

Students from different majors, such as music, medical sciences, and applied linguistics, likely understand the word “instrument” differently. Students in music might think of a tool used for producing melodic sounds; those from the medical sciences might connect the term to an apparatus used for delicate surgeries; students in applied linguistics might associate an instrument with a test or a task used for measuring learners' language proficiency. These diverse interpretations of the same word and different saliencies given to dissimilar words in diverse majors (e.g., the word “plot” in creative writing and “validity” in assessment) reinforce the need for developing students' background for specific academic vocabulary. After learners have mastered the 3,000 most frequent words in English, it is wise to direct vocabulary teaching to more specialized uses.
Teaching/Developing Vocabulary Through Guided Interaction
Authors: Ajayi Lasisi
Published: January 2018

Guided interaction is an important strategy in which teachers of English language learners (ELLs) design and teach students to learn English vocabulary words through interactions with more proficient adults (e.g., the teacher) and peers. In guided interaction, the teacher promotes a learning environment where students maximize their ability to interact with each other through Socratic student discussions, conversations, meaning negotiation, collaboration, and feedback. The teacher creates opportunities for students to use multiple strategies such as contextualized language, student interaction, and flexible groupings to enhance vocabulary learning. The teacher also promotes mutual respect and confidence building among students. Unlike teacher‐dominated instruction, the role of the teacher in guided interaction is that of a facilitator who coordinates the learning process and makes learning fun, interesting, and stimulating for students.
Teaching/Developing Vocabulary Using ICTs and Digital Resources
Authors: Elgort Irina
Published: January 2018

Having enough vocabulary to engage in a conversation with an English speaker, watch a movie, or read a book in English are ambitious goals for English as a foreign language (EFL) learners. Achieving them requires regular practice, time investment, and understanding of how to learn. This entry first reviews recommendations for teaching and learning vocabulary based on decades of applied linguistic research. It then considers how information and communication technologies (ICT) and digital resources can assist in making existing teaching and learning practices more effective and in developing novel vocabulary teaching and learning practices.
Teaching/Developing Vocabulary at Diverse Age Levels
Authors: Hellman Andrea B.
Published: January 2018

This entry discusses the role of age‐related variables in vocabulary learning. The biological effects of both maturation and aging are highly significant for language learning over the lifespan. While the biological capacity for acquiring nativelike grammar and pronunciation declines with age, the conditions for word learning improve through young adulthood due to growth in working memory capacity, conceptual knowledge, self‐regulation, and ability to deploy social compensations. Successful word learning at any age depends on building on learners' strengths and mitigating their age‐related weaknesses. There are definite advantages to having a systematic and continuous vocabulary development program based on word lists that are relevant to the learners' communicative needs. Learners need developmentally appropriate strategies to support their independence with word learning.
Teaching/Developing Vocabulary at Diverse Linguistic Levels
Authors: Hellman Andrea B.
Published: January 2018

This entry discusses the scope of word learning in terms of vocabulary size, depth of word knowledge, and fluency. It proposes an overall conceptual vocabulary development plan that reflects the incremental nature of word learning, sets learning targets according to their utility to learners, and fosters motivation and word consciousness, which are indispensable for success. The pedagogical implications detailed by linguistic levels can serve teachers to guide their students toward advanced proficiency and to differentiate vocabulary instruction for English learners at diverse linguistic levels.
Teaching/Developing Vocabulary Using Think‐Aloud and Read‐Aloud Strategies
Authors: Wolsey Thomas DeVere , Lapp Diane
Published: January 2018

Thinking aloud and reading aloud are two instructional strategies that provide models of proficient language use to listeners. While engaging students and fostering learning and academic language development, both strategies are powerful supports for all students, especially English learners because they facilitate their hearing academic language produced by a capable reader and speaker. This entry outlines the traditions of thinking aloud and reading aloud and then focuses on the use of these two techniques relative to vocabulary development.
Teaching Strategies for Independent Vocabulary Development
Authors: Wege Melissa Van De
Published: January 2018

Vocabulary development is a complex process, and for L2 learners exposure to the target language is limited to the classroom. Therefore independent work on the vocabulary is necessary for these students to achieve vocabulary development and acquire the related skills. This entry discusses the importance of direct and indirect language‐learning strategies and how instructors can teach certain strategies in the classroom to help their students build vocabulary independently. Students can then use those strategies outside the classroom when acquiring vocabulary on their own.
Teaching Phrasal Verbs
Authors: Mitchell Connie
Published: January 2018

The question of how to teach phrasal verbs in a second language classroom has created interesting discussions on the best way to do so. The dominant theories in the field recognize the difficulty students face when learning about phrasal verbs. Presently the literature leans toward teaching phrasal verbs in a given context rather than lists of words to be learned. This approach helps learners grasp the different collocations of phrasal verbs. In consequence, they will begin to use words appropriately. This entry discusses how to define phrasal verbs and what difficulties students face when learning about them and provides recommendations and practical applications related to teaching phrasal verbs.
Teaching Vocabulary for
PET
Authors: Mirzaii Mostafa
Published: January 2018

The Preliminary English Test (PET) is taken worldwide by a considerable number of English language learners who are seeking to improve their study or work prospects. Test‐takers are required to demonstrate knowledge of vocabulary through their performance within the broader domain of listening, reading, writing, and speaking. Teachers intending to prepare their learners for the test should first decide on which vocabulary to target. The second decision teachers should make regards the approach to teaching this target vocabulary. Research suggests that a well‐balanced program that incorporates learning vocabulary through meaning‐focused input, practicing vocabulary through meaning‐focused output, and deliberate vocabulary teaching can help teachers and learners get the most desired test results.
Teaching Vocabulary for Reading Success
Authors: Grabe William , Stoller Fredricka L.
Published: January 2018

Vocabulary knowledge is fundamental to overall reading abilities and essential for reading success. In discussions of second language reading development, vocabulary is often noted as important, but it is commonly seen as a goal of extensive reading and incidental learning. Second language readers, however, benefit from direct vocabulary instruction. A coherent approach to direct vocabulary learning that promotes reading success combines seven key components: (a) a framework for understanding how students learn words as a result of direct instruction; (b) a systematic approach to appropriate word selection; (c) effective ways to introduce words; (d) provisions for meaningful practice; (e) a commitment to teaching word‐learning strategies, including word‐collection strategies, that can translate into students' independent vocabulary building; (f) the maintenance of a vocabulary‐rich classroom environment; and (g) a commitment to vocabulary recycling.
Teaching Countable, Uncountable, Plural Nouns
Authors: Tanaka Shigenori
Published: January 2018

In discussing English articles, we refer to the distinction between countable nouns and uncountable nouns. A countable noun is expressed in the “a + noun” form (e.g., an apple) or the plural noun form (e.g., apples), whereas an uncountable noun in the “Ø + noun” form (e.g., apple). Distinguishing what is countable from what is not seems fairly straightforward, and the use of countable and uncountable nouns in English should be easy. L2 learners, however, consider that English articles are among the most difficult grammatical items. A cognitive linguistics, which is an alternative to the traditional way of presenting English articles, claims that the countable / uncountable distinction applies not to the word, but to the referent the word denotes. The perception‐based principle of countability and a more general principle of individuation will be discussed here to draw pedagogical implications.
Teaching Collocations
Authors: Rogers James M.
Published: January 2018

Collocational knowledge plays a central role in helping learners achieve native‐like fluency in a foreign language. However, a number of persistent issues pose a barrier for learners, teachers, and researchers in regards to acquisition of collocational knowledge despite the awareness of the value of it. This entry will discuss these issues and propose ways in which they can be circumvented to help improve upon the efficacy of acquiring collocational fluency.
Teaching Requests, Invitations, Suggestions, Greetings, Farewells, Special Expressions, and Thanks
Authors: Steadman Angel N. , Kayi‐Aydar Hayriye
Published: January 2018

In order for ESL/EFL speakers to use English clearly and appropriately, it is important for them to learn, understand, and perform speech acts in a given speech community. However, teaching and learning speech acts, such as requests, greetings, and farewells, and the necessary and related vocabulary are challenging in most ESL/EFL classrooms for various reasons outlined in this summary. The development of sociolinguistic competence as well as the use of pragmatic and politeness strategies are particularly important in teaching requests, invitations, suggestions, greetings, farewells, special expressions, and thanks. This summary describes the strong links between these concepts and offers practical implications supported by empirical evidence for ESL/EFL teachers and learners.
Teaching Idiomatic Expressions of
Make, Do, Have
, and Other Common Verbs
Authors: Liu Dilin , Lei Lei
Published: January 2018

Many common English verbs have fairly fixed idiomatic expressions (e.g.,
make a decision/plan, take a bus/shower,
but
do chores/homework
;
come alive/clean
but
go bankrupt/crazy
). Due to their high frequency and inter‐lingual differences in their use, these idiomatic common verb phrases are very important but simultaneously difficult for ESL/EFL students to learn. Like many other types of idiomatic expressions, these common verb phrases have been considered generally arbitrary expressions learned mainly as chunks using mnemonic strategies. Recent research has shown, however, that these idiomatic phrases are largely motivated and that helping students understand the motivations can enable them to learn these expressions more effectively. Both new teaching practices inspired by the recent research and established effective strategies for teaching idiomatic common verb phrases will be discussed.
Teaching Adjectives and Adverbs of Degree
Authors: Paquot Magali
Published: January 2018

Adjectives and adverbs of degree have semantic, collocational, and stylistic characteristics that can cause a myriad of difficulties toEFLlearners. It is therefore not pedagogically appropriate to teach degree adjectives and adverbs with decontextualized word lists. These items need to be the focus of awareness‐raising activities that focus on meaning differences, semantic restrictions, collocational preferences, stylistic specificities, and cultural differences.
Teaching Relative Clauses
Authors: Colovic‐Markovic Jelena
Published: January 2018

Relative clauses, also known as adjective clauses, are dependent clauses that perform the functions of adjectives or adjective phrases. They are widely used modifiers in both written and spoken English, but also employed with great variety across the registers. Learning to use relative clauses in speaking and writing is a daunting task for many ESL/EFL students. This brief entry examines the challenges many learners of English face in the learning of relative clauses and offers suggestions for instruction of relative clauses.
Teaching Abbreviations and Abbreviated Words
Authors: Collins Tim
Published: January 2018

Abbreviations are a common feature of spoken and written English. Though typically thought of as the shortening of a single word by eliminating letters, abbreviations can be formed from one or more words, can be formed from the initial letters of a name or a phrase, and can include contractions, acronyms, and syllabic abbreviations (combinations of individual syllables of two or more words). Abbreviations are widely used, but their pronunciation and spelling can vary based on convention and local usage. Learning targets for students can also vary based on variables such as student age and purposes for learning English, the subject matter, and the formality of the language.
Teaching Vocabulary Before, During, and After Reading
Authors: Calderón Margarita , Carreón Argelia
Published: January 2018

In 2003–2008, the Carnegie Corporation of New York funded the research on Expediting Comprehension for English Language Learners (ExC‐ELL). The empirical research focused on components testing in order to develop a professional development model for middle and high school teachers of English, science, mathematics, and social studies who teach English Learners (ELs) in mainstream classrooms. The study informed how to explicitly teach vocabulary across the content areas before, during, and after students read a text. Preteaching of keywords and phrases at the beginning of a lesson helped ELs understand the text better, develop stronger reading comprehension, and produce higher quality writing.
Activation of Prior Knowledge
Authors: Erten İsmail Hakki
Published: January 2018

This entry aims to outline the place of background knowledge and its activation in the process of reading in a second language. The entry first attempts to define and place the concept of background knowledge in the framework of reading comprehension. It then explores how background knowledge is activated and the possible effects of activated prior knowledge on reading comprehension. Finally, the entry explores ways in which teachers can help their students to activate their prior knowledge when engaged in a text and to become more strategic readers who can activate their background knowledge for an effective reading experience in a foreign language.
Identity, Investment, andTESOL
Authors: Darvin Ron , Norton Bonny
Published: January 2018

This chapter discusses how the constructs ofidentityandinvestmenthighlight language learning as a social practice implicated in relations of power. In an increasingly mobile world, English language learners navigate more complex, multiple spaces, where they need to continually reframe their identities and develop wider linguistic and non‐linguistic repertoires. Designed as a critical lens that can capture the dynamics of power in this new communicative order, an expanded model of language learning locates investment at the intersection of identity, capital and ideology. It challenges educators to reflect on their pedagogical practices, and to formulate a more critical approach to affirming and empowering language learner identities in the 21st century.
Multiple‐Measures Assessment
Authors: Benzehra Radia
Published: January 2018

Assessment has long been viewed as a performance‐testing tool in which a set of pre‐specified criteria is used for the purpose of identifying levels of attainment and awarding a mark or grade accordingly. This entry provides a rationale for using multiple, complementary measures to collect richer, more accurate evidence of learning. Important principles included in this entry constitute essential components of
meaningful
multiple‐measures assessment. The latter is multidimensional in that it focuses on higher, more sophisticated knowledge, performance, and critical thinking skills rather than on more easily measured basic skills. It is ongoing and involves more than one source or multiple judgments of learner performance over time, thus allowing observation of progress toward the desired outcomes. The entry highlights the far‐reaching and positive implications of multiple‐measures assessment for teachers and learners.