bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Time and Entrepreneurship
Authors: Schindehutte Minet
Published: January 2015

In this article, we examine the role of Time in three decades of entrepreneurship research, both the highlights and some of the challenges. We first refract the field through the prism of Time, specifically eight different perspectives – (1) subjective; (2) chronological; (3) evolutionary; (4) kairotic; (5) cyclical; (6) embedded; (7) dialectical; and (8) life course – and then fuse insights about different manifestation of Time in entrepreneurship's phenomena in a map with time‐based themes. A systematic analysis of important linkages between, and gaps within, each theme evokes exciting possibilities for future research. It also points towards four requirements – new thinking, new theories, new methodologies, and new questions – that are critical for advancement of a research agenda centered on Time in entrepreneurship. Importantly, our review uncovers the “event” as a neglected, yet essential, complement to the two dominant ontological domains: subject and object. (Re)surfacing the “event” as a conceptual tool suggests that the entrepreneurial opportunity is both time‐dependent and context‐dependent, and not trans‐temporal or trans‐situational as current treatments of it assume. The transient existence of its central constructs stresses the temporal exigency of entrepreneurship.
Undercapitalization
Authors: Fried Vance H.
Published: January 2015

Undercapitalization as a problem in entrepreneurial ventures is investigated. Comparisons are drawn between entrepreneurial firms and larger, established organizations in terms of the undercapitalization problems they experience, and the different causal factors that lead to undercapitalization. The causes are organized into three primary categories when it comes to the entrepreneurial. Implications are drawn for operating challenges and organizational performance.
Sovereign Risk
Authors: Chang Philip C.
Published: January 2015

Sovereign risk is the likelihood that sovereign debt issuers will default. The debt/GDPratio of a country is a popular but partial indicator for such a likelihood. When a state defaults because of a shortage of foreign reserves, it may forbid its private sector borrowers from remitting foreign exchange to their international lenders. For that reason, private sector international loans are always under the shadow of sovereign risk. The decision to default depends not only on the financial “ability” of the state but also the “willingness” to pay. Thus, sovereign default is both an economic and a political decision. Sovereign default was prevalent throughout history in industrialized as well as developing countries. Among theG7countries, only the United States, the United Kingdom, and Canada have no history of default. The three international rating agencies Moody, Standard and Poor, and Fitch provide sovereign credit rating but their track records are far from perfect. Other ways to evaluate sovereign risk include statistical modeling and market‐based measurements such as sovereign credit‐default swaps (CDS) and the price of debt at the secondary sovereign debt markets.
Contrarian Trading Strategies
Authors: Galariotis Emilios C.
Published: January 2015

Contrarian trading is a form of active portfolio management that seeks to profit from collective limitations in human behavior that lead to predictable patterns in investment returns. Relevant to these patterns, contrarian investors anticipate performance reversals, thereby taking long positions in past losers and short positions in past winners to exploit them. The returns of contrarian traders seem to be abnormal, although there have been evidence to the contrary, yet not universal.
Equity and Debt as Options
Authors: McColgan Patrick
Published: January 2015

This article explains how debt and equity contracts can be considered as options on the firm's assets. Treating interest and principal repayments on a debt instrument as the equivalent of the strike price on an option contract allows for a more detailed understanding of the payoffs to debt and equity investors conditional on future cash flows from the firm's assets. This treatment also allows for an improved understanding of the incentives of equity investors to take on financial risk by gearing up their firms in a limited liability environment for equity investors.
Panel Data: A Methodology for Model Specification and Testing
Authors: Pindado Julio , Requejo Ignacio
Published: January 2015

In this article, we provide guidance to financial economists on the choice of the proper panel data estimator for research. We first explain why the panel data methodology should be used if the unobservable heterogeneity problem arises. Additionally, we describe the alternative estimators that address the unobservable heterogeneity problem and that control for the endogeneity problem. Given that the latter problem is mitigated using an IV method, we explain the strategy to choose the right instrument set. The article also explains why the panel data methodology is particularly well suited to model specification and testing. Finally, we compare the different panel data estimators and offer researchers the key to choosing the most suitable one.
Rights Issues
Authors: Capstaff John
Published: January 2015

A rights issue is a method by which listed firms raise additional equity finance. The new shares are offered first to the existing shareholders, who are given the rights to buy the shares in proportion to the shares they already hold. As the new issues are invariably offered at a discount to the current market price, the rights protect the current shareholders against a transfer of value to new investors. In addition, rights issues generally incur lower flotation costs than other issue methods. Despite these benefits, rights issues are rarely used in the United States and are in steady decline in several other countries with rights issues traditions. This is something of a puzzle to capital market researchers who have searched for explanations, mainly related to the direct and indirect costs of alternative issue methods.
Price Momentum
Authors: Liu Weimin
Published: January 2015

One of the most intriguing properties of stock market behavior is that stock returns measured over intervals of less than a year (3–12 months) exhibit positive serial correlation or price momentum.
Catastrophe Futures and Options
Authors: Mann Steven V. , Niehaus Gregory R.
Published: January 2015

Catastrophe futures and options are derivative securities whose payoffs depend on insurers' underwriting losses arising from natural catastrophes (e.g., hurricanes).
Conditional Performance Evaluation
Authors: Farnsworth Heber
Published: January 2015

Conditional performance evaluation refers to the measurement of performance of a managed portfolio taking into account the information that was available to investors at the time the returns were generated.
Consolidation
Authors: Newton David P.
Published: January 2015

Because of their separate legal status, a parent company and its subsidiaries keep independent accounts and prepare separate financial statements.
Convertibles
Authors: Veld Chris
Published: January 2015

A convertible bond is a bond with an option for the holder to exchange the bond into new shares of common stock of the issuing company under a specified conversion price and during a specified conversion period. Special types of convertibles include mandatory convertible bonds and
LYON
s.
Corporate Governance
Authors: Garvey Gerald T.
Published: January 2015

The firm is a nexus of contracts, and the corporation is a firm whose equity claims have limited liability and are generally traded on liquid markets.
Cost of Capital
Authors: Lasfer Meziane
Published: January 2015

The cost of capital is the rate of return that investors in the market require in order to participate in the financing of an investment.
Dividend Policy
Authors: Davidson Ian , Webber Nick
Published: January 2015

Shares acquire value solely through the dividends they are expected to receive. The size of dividends are set by a firm's managers. A very important question is what policy the firm's managers should adopt in setting dividends. This article examines several key considerations in this decision.
Electronic Payments Systems
Authors: Goldschlager Leslie M. , Harper Ian R.
Published: January 2015

An electronic payments system is one in which financial transactions are conducted via computer and electronic communications devices, without the need to transfer any physical token.
Equity Premium, the Equity Premium Puzzle, and the Risk‐Free Rate Puzzle
Authors: Garrett Ian
Published: January 2015

The equity premium is simply the return on the stock market in excess of the risk‐free rate.
E
urocredit Markets
Authors: Melnik Arie L. , Plaut Steven E.
Published: January 2015

During the past decades various international financial markets have grown very rapidly.
Exotic Options
Authors: Paxson Dean A.
Published: January 2015

Exotic options are possibly defined as all options that are not “vanilla” options, with a predefined (or constant) exercise price and time to expiration, and where there is one underlying asset.
Fat Tails in Finance
Authors: Kofman Paul
Published: January 2015

Fat tails refer to extreme outcomes in financial time series. Empirical evidence suggests that these outcomes occur much more frequently than can be explained by normal distributions. Extreme value theory offers more accurate probabilistic assessment of financial booms and busts.
Futures and Forwards
Authors: Board John , Sutcliffe Charles
Published: January 2015

Futures are standardized contracts that trade on organized exchanges, while forwards are customized contracts negotiated between the parties and trade in over‐the‐counter markets.
Habit Formation
Authors: Hyde Stuart
Published: January 2015

The failure of the traditional time‐separable constant relative risk aversion consumption capital asset pricing model to explain the equity premium and risk‐free rate puzzles has led to numerous variations of the basic model being proposed.
Insider Trading Law (
US
)
Authors: Netter Jeffry , Seguin Paul
Published: January 2015

Federal regulation of insider trading occurs through three main sources: Section 16 of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, Securities and Exchange Commission (
SEC
) Rule 10b‐5, and
SEC
Rule 14e‐3.
International Initial Public Offerings
Authors: Tourani‐Rad A.
Published: January 2015

The initial public offering (
IPO
) of a company's equity is a milestone in its life and it denotes a turning point in the relationship between the company and its owners.
Investment Banking
Authors: Sinkey Joseph F.
Published: January 2015

The earliest known banks, temples, operated as repositories of concentrated wealth.
Leasing
Authors: Vora Premal
Published: January 2015

When an asset is rented instead of being purchased, it is considered to have been “leased.” This short entry on “leasing” explains the economics behind the lease versus purchase decision.
Market Efficiency
Authors: Poshakwale Sunil
Published: January 2015

Market efficiency denotes the relationship between information and share prices in the capital market literature.
Portfolio Performance Measurement
Authors: Blake David
Published: January 2015

The purpose of portfolio performance measurement is to assess how well a fund manager has performed relative to a benchmark. In order to do this, we need to calculate the ex post returns on the portfolio and then adjust these returns for the risk exposure assumed by the fund manager. These risk‐adjusted returns can then be compared against the benchmark. We can also identify to principal sources of the fund manager's performance, namely the return from market timing and the return from stock selection.
Portfolio Theory and Asset Pricing
Authors: Garrett Ian
Published: January 2015

The modern theory of asset pricing has its foundations in modern portfolio theory developed by Markowitz (1952, 1959).
Program Trading
Authors: Board John , Sutcliffe Charles
Published: January 2015

A program trade involves trading a basket of at least 15 different stocks. These trades account for a substantial proportion of NYSE volume, and have been argued to increase stock market volatility.
Project Financing
Authors: Aggarwal Reena , Leal Ricardo
Published: January 2015

Project finance is an alternative to fund power projects, transport facilities, and other infrastructure around the world, particularly in emerging markets. In project financing the cash flows of the project and its assets are directly linked to any loans or securities associated to the project. The sponsors of project finance may prefer this off‐balance sheet modality because it will not affect their credit ratings, as the credit risk of the sponsor and of the project are appraised independently. Other reasons are the, financial, legal and other advantages available only to the project, but not to the sponsors. Sponsors must carefully analyze several project specific issues involving economic, technological, political, environmental, and legal needs.
Risk Analysis
Authors: Siems Thomas F.
Published: January 2015

Risk analysis is a methodical approach used to identify and evaluate an entity's exposure to change and the likely impact from that change. Most risk analysis approaches are designed to break risk into components where the unwanted risks can be transferred and more easily managed. The three basic ways to manage risks are insurance strategies, portfolio management, and various hedging techniques using financial markets.
Rollover Risk
Authors: Neuberger Anthony
Published: January 2015

Traders will often maintain a long‐term position in a futures market by holding a contract until near to its maturity, closing out the position, and establishing a new position of similar size in a contract with a longer maturity.
Scrip Dividend
Authors: Lasfer Meziane
Published: January 2015

Scrip (or stock) dividends is a way of paying dividends in the form of shares rather than cash. Amongst the benefits of this decision are the ability of the firm to retain cash for future investments and the transaction costs savings by investors who want to reinvest their dividends. However, the practice is still controversial as, if used excessively, firms will end up issuing many shares and diluting their earnings per shares. The purpose of this article is to provide a brief summary of the issues surrounding this strategy.
Share Repurchases
Authors: Lasfer Meziane
Published: January 2015

Share repurchases are increasingly becoming the dominant method of returning cash to shareholders. However, this practice is most common in the United States, whereas in Europe and Asia, it is still not popular, partly because of cultural and legal concerns. The purpose of this article is to provide a brief summary of the methods used in practice to buyback shares and the drivers underlying this decision.
Stochastic Processes
Authors: Barone‐Adesi Giovanni
Published: January 2015

A stochastic process is a collection of random variables
X
(
t
) indexed by a parameter
t
, which usually represents discrete or continuous time.
Stock Market Indices
Authors: Helmenstein Christian , Haefke Christian
Published: January 2015

Stock market indices measure the value of a portfolio of stocks relative to the value of a base portfolio as a weighted average of stock prices.
Syndicated Euroloans
Authors: Melnik Arie L. , Plaut Steven E.
Published: January 2015

Syndicated euroloans consist primarily of medium‐term, unsecured, and secured credits provided by syndicates of international banks.
Tactical Asset Allocation
Authors: Vos Ed
Published: January 2015

Sharpe (1992) defines asset allocation as “the allocation of an investor's portfolio across a number of ‘major’ asset classes.
Threshold Models
Authors: Tsay Ruey S.
Published: January 2015

Nonlinearity is common in time‐series application and forecasting. Threshold autoregressive model is a widely applicable simple nonlinear time series model. It can adequately describe many nonlinear features commonly observed in practice. In this article, we briefly introduce the concept of threshold autoregressive models and discuss their applications in finance. The same idea applies to many other scientific fields.
Time‐Series Analysis
Authors: Taylor Stephen J.
Published: January 2015

A series of measurements made in chronological order is a time series. Time‐series analysis is a collection of statistical methods, that is used to understand the dynamic behavior of the measured quantity and to make forecasts about future values. The article reviews properties of time series of investment returns and emphasises that constructive forecasts of volatility can be made.
Valuing Flexibility
Authors: Triantis Alexander
Published: January 2015

Flexibility in production allows a firm to switch between alternative “states” of operation in order to respond to uncertainty in input and output product markets. Examples include real options to shut down, expand, or contract, or to switch between different inputs, outputs, or global production locations. Financial techniques based on contingent claims pricing, or options valuation, are able to quantity the value of flexibility. These real options valuation techniques allow firms to appropriately weigh the benefits of production flexibility against the significant costs associated with purchasing or developing such flexibility. Real options analysis can also determine the optimal switching policy, i.e. how a firm should optimally use its flexibility. This formal link between production strategy and financial valuation is important to establish. The value of flexibility depends on several factors including the volatilities and the correlations of the underlying uncertainties, as well as the life of the flexible capital, and the ease and frequency of switching between alternative modes. Complexities in valuation include specifying the processes for uncertainly resolution, accounting for the noise in observing the underlying variables, and addressing the presence of agency problems in making decisions about exercising flexibility.
Venture Capital
Authors: Schell Charles
Published: January 2015

Venture capital generally describes medium‐term equity investment in private enterprises. This term is used to describe both the investment activity and the industry, although much of the venture capital industry is also described as private equity. Venture capital investment is undertaken through both formal and informal channels; institutional venture capital is provided by firms that manage funds raised from institutional investors. Informal venture capital may also be provided directly by wealthy individual investors. This article provides a summary of the nature and varieties of venture capital, the process of venture capital investment, and the nature of the industry. It concludes with a brief discussion of the future of the industry.
Volatility Risk Pricing
Authors: Kapadia Nikunj
Published: January 2015

In both the academic and popular press, the subject of volatility risk has been an issue of debate.
Volatility Smile
Authors: Cakici Nusret
Published: January 2015

After the 1987 market crash, it became clear that the prices of derivative securities do not exactly follow the model of Black and Scholes (1973).
Warrants
Authors: Veld Chris
Published: January 2015

Warrants are rights issued by companies to buy a certain number of shares or bonds during the exercise period against the exercise price. Warrants are different from call options in the sense that the company creates new shares or bonds when the warrants are exercised.
Agency Theory
Authors: Mann Steven V.
Published: January 2015

When human interaction is viewed through the lens of the economist, it is presupposed that all individuals act in accordance with their self‐interest.
Asset Allocation
Authors: Ward Charles
Published: January 2015

In the analysis of portfolio management, the initial work of Markowitz (1959) was directed toward finding the optimal weights in a portfolio.
Bankruptcy
Authors: Camino David
Published: January 2015

A central tenet in economics is that competition drives markets toward a state of long‐run equilibrium in which inefficient firms are eliminated and those remaining in existence produce at a minimum average cost.
Behavioral Finance
Authors: Garrett Ian
Published: January 2015

Modern finance theory, or what has been referred to as the traditional finance paradigm (Barberis and Thaler, 2003), is based on rational economic agents making rational decisions based on available information and forming rational expectations about future events.
Bid–Ask Spread
Authors: Mann Steven V.
Published: January 2015

Security dealers maintain a continuous presence in the market and stand ready to buy and sell securities immediately from impatient sellers and buyers.
Black–Scholes
Authors: Gemmill Gordon
Published: January 2015

This is a famous equation for determining the price of an option, first discovered in 1972 by Fischer Black of Goldman Sachs and Myron Scholes of the University of Chicago and published in Black and Scholes (1973).
Employing the Older Worker
Authors: Kooij Dorien T.A.M.
Published: January 2015

Since workers are aging across the world, organizations face the challenge of how to manage and motivate their older workers. This article addresses three issues related to employing older workers. First, what is an older worker? Second, how do work motivation and performance change with age? Third, what are the implications of changes in work motives and performance for the management (i.e.,
HR
practices) of aging workers? Finally, future research avenues on these three issues are discussed.
Biographical History Inventories
Authors: Russell Craig J.
Published: January 2015

Biographical information (biodata) inventories and a brief history of their development into one of the most powerful predictors in personnel selection systems are described. Linked to the basis of the popular book and movie Moneyball, methods of theoretical and non‐theory (empirically) based item generation and scoring are described. Cutting edge biodata applications in the growing arena of online personnel selection systems have grown quickly because of its ability to work in non‐proctored testing environments.
Career Management
Authors: Guest David E.
Published: January 2015

Career management is a core HR activity concerned with seeking to influence the careers of employees. Activities include management of internal labor markets, identifying and developing talent, and succession planning. The process faces challenges from organizational changes and changes in employees' values. Associated challenges include the growth of the protean career and career self‐management as well as arguments about boundaryless careers.
Competency and Competencies
Authors: Williams Richard
Published: January 2015

This essay reviews the multiple interpretations of the terms competency and competencies and draws comparisons with “performance” and “dimensions” which have been defined using similar language. The essay concludes with a brief examination of the practice of job competency modelling.
Costing Human Resources
Authors: Cascio Wayne F.
Published: January 2015

The costs of human resources vary across industries, but in knowledge organizations, they typically comprise more than half of total operating costs. The costs of benefits and overhead easily can add another 75 percent to base pay. Although organizations incur HR costs in a number of key areas, one of the most common ones is employee absenteeism. The total cost absenteeism is comprised of three broad categories of costs: those associated with absentees themselves, the costs of managing absenteeism problems, and all other relevant costs. Free, Web – based software is available to do these calculations.
Delayering
Authors: Dunford Richard
Published: January 2015

Delayering is the reduction in the number of hierarchical levels in an organization. It is often driven by a belief that, a flatter structure will improve organizational performance through such factors as speeding decision‐ making, improving the accuracy of communication, cutting costs, increasing employee motivation, encouraging the use of initiative, and improving the quality of customer service. However, a counter‐argument holds that, delayering can have a detrimental effect on performance through such factors as an extended span of control means that, managers are spreading their efforts too thinly to maintain quality.
Diversity Management
Authors: Greene Anne‐Marie
Published: January 2015

Diversity management (
DM
) is the most prevalent contemporary label for organizational policy making in the equality arena. The language of DM (or managing diversity) is now commonly used to talk about issues that once would have fallen under labels such as equal opportunities (
EO
). The central tenets of DM are presented, namely the primacy of the business case, a focus on individual differences, and the need for organizational transformation. A critical presentation of research on the practice of DM within organizations is given, identifying the lack of evidence of distinctive DM approaches, difficulties of understanding of the concept by organizational stakeholders, problems with making a business case for DM, and lack of shared participation in and responsibility for DM. Finally areas for future research are identified.
Employee Attitudes/Attitude Surveys
Authors: Ravlin Elizabeth C.
Published: January 2015

Employee attitudes and their measurement using survey methodology continue to be important topics in both the study and practice of management. Because job attitudes relate to important organizational outcomes such as absenteeism, turnover, and performance, their evaluation is used both as an organizational assessment tool and as a critical component of research on antecedents to employee behavior. Attitudinal structure, antecedents, processes, and consequences all play key roles in our understanding of how employees act and react at work. Cross‐cultural and levels‐of‐analysis issues in conceptualization and measurement must also be considered in both practice and research.
Employer Branding
Authors: Edwards Martin R.
Published: January 2015

This section on employer branding outlines the key ideas behind employer branding. In addition, it highlights implications for the HR function of the involvement of marketing professionals, it discusses implications of employer branding for diversity and inclusion campaigns and outlines the recent growth in employer brand segmentation.
Equal Opportunities
Authors: Greene Anne‐Marie
Published: January 2015

Equal opportunities (EO) is a label for policies and practices in employment based on a principle of non‐discrimination. It is commonly used in the UK, and is directly comparable to Equal Employment Opportunity in the USA, and Employment Equity in Australia. The identity groups usually covered are women, black, and minority ethnic people, disabled people, lesbian and gay people, and younger and older people (under 25 and over 45 years). The liberal and radical models of EO are presented, distinguishing between approaches based around sameness or difference, groups or individuals, and equality of opportunity or outcome. Various associated policy formations are discussed including positive action, affirmative action, and positive discrimination. The main debates within the literature offering a critique of EO are also highlighted.
Evidence‐Based Human Resource Management
Authors: Briner Rob
Published: January 2015

Evidence‐based human resource management (
EBHRM
) refers to a set of related approaches that aim to increase the use of evidence in HR practice.
Human Resource Accounting
Authors: Dewe Philip
Published: January 2015

Human resource accounting a process designed to express in financial accounting terms the costs, and more particularly, the benefits that determine the value of human resources in an organization is accompanied by a rich history of debate and at times controversy. Exploring this rich history suggests that accounting for people has passed through at least three phases as it develops and captures the essence of the ever changing social, economic, political and financial environment. These three phase include a human asset accounting phase, a human resource accounting phase and a human resource costing and accounting phase. As these phases progress researchers and practitioners are encouraged to go beyond the more narrow framework of human resources as “assets” and adopt a more multidisciplinary approach that reflects the idea of intellectual capital. While the idea of intellectual capital has been robustly debated as a way forward it offers the opportunity to develop innovative and creative ways to measure and express individual growth and development and value creation of individuals in organizations. Such an approach merits attention and perhaps best expresses the nature of contemporary organizations.
HRMand Ethics
Authors: Greenwood Michelle
Published: January 2015

Human resource management (HRM) – as a field of research, study, and practice – has been immersed in ethical issues from its inception. By its very nature, the management of humans as resources raises ethical considerations. Surprisingly, ethical analyses of HRM have been limited in scope and prominence. Traditionally, ethical examinations of HRM have tended to focus at the microlevel: justice‐based principles of fairness and equity have been applied to specific HRM practices (e.g., recruitment and remuneration) and rights‐based principles have been considered with respect to employment issues (e.g., privacy and whistle‐blowing). In contrast, attempts at macrolevel ethical analyses of HRM have developed critiques of “soft” and “hard” HRM and advanced a pragmatic pluralist approach using stakeholder theory. More recently, internationalization of labor markets, shifts in employment (and concomitant employee experiences), and the prevalence ofstrategic human resource management(SHRM) have brought about a rejuvenation of interest in the ethical analysis of HRM. Future research is likely to focus on the experiences of HR practitioners; the role, meaning, and position of HR in the organization; the relationship between HRM and local/global society; and the interplay among these.
Models of International
HRM
Authors: Dickmann Michael
Published: January 2015

The models of international
HRM
(
IHRM
) section traces briefly traces the long history of cross‐border management. The text describes diverse top management mindsets within organizations before outlining key international HR configurations. Towards the end, strategic people management approaches in multinational organizations are explored.
Job Crafting
Authors: Ghitulescu Brenda E.
Published: January 2015

Job crafting refers to the actions employees take to shape or redefine their jobs and focuses on the self‐started, proactive changes employees make to their jobs. Despite evidence from a range of empirical studies that job crafting is a common and widespread phenomenon, there is little theory developed about this concept. This article reviews the key antecedents and outcomes of job crafting and the empirical evidence supporting them. More research is needed to understand the conditions under which job crafting has a positive or negative impact on job performance, co‐workers, and the organization. Job crafting theory recognizes the value of employees' proactivity at work and reveals a variety of ways that employees shape their jobs from the bottom‐up, providing a complementary view to the top‐down job design theory. Current trends in the world of work such as greater use of distributed work and self‐managing teams support an increased relevance of job crafting in the future.
Organizational Citizenship Behavior
Authors: Guest David E.
Published: January 2015

Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) is extra‐role behavior designed to support the social and psychological organizational environment. It takes a variety of forms including helping others and civic virtue activities. A range of antecedents have been identified including greater use of human resource (HR) practices. OCBs have also been associated with a range of other positive organizational outcomes.
Parental Leave
Authors: Needle David
Published: January 2015

Parental leave covers all forms of leave entitlement for employees to care for dependent
children and can extend beyond parents to all with such responsibilities. The leave may be paid or unpaid but in all cases offers some form of job protection. Provisions vary significantly from country to country both in the duration of leave and the amount of pay available. The trend in
most countries is toward increasing the level of provision. The key drivers are the need to improve work‐life balance, employee retention and child welfare as well as achieving greater gender equality and, in some cases, as an incentive to increase the birth rate. There remains
significant potential conflict between these different types of objective and existing provision is often criticized for the complexity of the regulations and the low take‐up rates of paternity leave.
Selection Interviewing: Current Issues and Future Research Directions
Authors: Macan Therese
Published: January 2015

Selection interviews are a popular method used to assess and select applicants for jobs. Interviewers want the opportunity to meet the candidate. Applicants expect to have the chance to explain their skills, abilities, and to evaluate their fit to the job. After more than 100 years of research, much is known about employment interviews to increase the chances of making a good hiring decision, yet more questions remain to be answered.
Social Capital Model on Socialization
Authors: Fang Ruolian
Published: January 2015

Newcomer socialization following organizational entry has practical implications for both newcomers and organizations. This article describes the social capital model on newcomer adjustment – newcomers' access to and mobilization of social capital embedded in their informal networks of relationships with organizational insiders for effective adjustment.
Talent Management
Authors: Collings David G.
Published: January 2015

Talent management has become one of the most discussed areas of human resource management practice. However, there is a lack of clarity as to the focus of talent management and its intellectual and conceptual boundaries. This entry presents a summary overview of the area of talent management.
Human Resource Department Effectiveness
Authors: Huselid Mark A.
Published: January 2015

For many organizations, effectively managing a global workforce is complex, difficult, and perhaps the single most important executive accountability and responsibility.
Human Resource Strategy
Authors: Boxall Peter
Published: January 2015

Firms depend on human resources – the knowledge, skills and productive potential of the people they choose to hire – to create and implement strategy. HR strategy encompasses those aspects of a firm's strategy that concern the critical goals it has for managing people and the critical means it adopts to reach them. It is very sensitive to the firm's societal, industry and organizational contexts, which help to shape the choices managers make in managing people. Within organizations, there are major variations in the HR systems that evolve to manage different workforce groups. How it manages people is always going to affect a firm's chances of survival and the quality of its performance. HR strategy has the potential to build the kind of human and social capital, that can help a firm to develop a sustained competitive advantage. The process of HR strategy is fragile, especially in large organizations in which the “black box” of HRM contains complex linkages, across the layers of management involved and between managers and other employees.
Recruiting
Authors: Breaugh James A.
Published: January 2015

Recruitment planning is an essential part of the recruitment process. It involves making informed judgments about how to conduct the recruitment process. Among the issues that should be addressed are: whom to recruit? how to reach these individuals? what message to convey? when to start.
Stress and Stress Management
Authors: Quick James Campbell , Quick Jonathan D.
Published: January 2015

Stress is a broad concept that includes the source of stress (stressor), the stress response, eustress (good outcomes), distress (bad outcomes), and individual modifiers and vulnerabilities. Stress management in an inclusive concept that ranges from organizational protection and prevention interventions that insure individual safety and security to individual prevention methods of self‐mastery and self‐regulation that strengthen the person and inoculate the person against distress. Stress management extends to tertiary prevention and care giving approaches, both self‐care and professional care when individuals are harmed or injured in the workplace. The risks and benefits of stress are addressed in a balanced approach.
Benchmarking and Competitor Analysis
Authors: Ulrich Dave
Published: January 2015

This article reviews the purposes and processes for HR benchmarking. It answers the why, what, and how of Benchmarking.
Career Anchors
Authors: Rodrigues Ricardo
Published: January 2015

Career anchors seek to capture the way people subjectively make sense of their careers. An anchor encompasses one's self‐perceived talents and abilities, career values, and motivations. Schein argues that anchors develop in the first years of work and that they guide and constrain one's career choices. Fit between anchors and employment settings lead to higher work‐related outcomes.
Career Choice
Authors: Stumpf Stephen A.
Published: January 2015

Career choice, defined as a decision about which career to pursue, is one of many work‐leisure decisions made by people throughout their lives.
Downsizing
Authors: Dunford Richard
Published: January 2015

Downsizing is the planned reduction in the size of an organization's workforce. It can take place reactively as a means of cutting costs in the face of a downturn in an organization's performance, or proactively in an attempt to improve the organization's ability to cope with an environment that is expected to become increasingly competitive. The effectiveness of downsizing remains a matter of considerable debate both in terms of financial/strategic and behavioural outcomes.
Exit Interviews
Authors: Jurkiewicz Carole L. , Giacalone Robert A.
Published: January 2015

Exit interviewing and surveying (
EIS
) are tools used to gather data from separating employees with the purpose of supporting business strategy development.
Graphology
Authors: Rothstein Hannah R.
Published: January 2015

Although graphology (handwriting analysis) remains a popular means of selecting employees in many areas of the world, its use is not recommended, due to low reliability and questionable validity. Any information gleaned from graphological analysis can be obtained using more valid and reliable tools.
Halo Effects
Authors: DeNisi Angelo S.
Published: January 2015

Halo effects have long been identified as a type of rating error in performance appraisals. There has been some consideration of the possible causes for halo effects, and there has been a great deal of attention paid to ways to minimize or eliminate halo effects. Yet, more recent views have suggested that halo effects may not always be evidence of rating errors, and, more critically, that increased halo effects may not be associated with less accurate performance ratings.
Human Resource Audits
Authors: Huselid Mark A.
Published: January 2015

A human resource audit is a series of systematic, formal procedures designed to evaluate the efficiency and effectiveness of the firm's human resource management (
HRM
) system, compare its performance to relevant internal and external benchmarks, evaluate the appropriateness of this system for implementing the firm's strategic and operational objectives, and thereafter provide a framework for improving the way in which the firm manages people.
Job Specification
Authors: Ellington J. Kemp , Brannick Michael T. , Levine Edward L.
Published: January 2015

A job specification is a written description of the human characteristics necessary for the successful performance of a job, and is derived by performing a job analysis. Job specifications are used in recruiting and staffing, and communicate the personal attributes that employers are looking for to job applicants and recruiters. Job specifications are also useful for informing training needs, such as identifying necessary knowledge and skills.
Learning Organization
Authors: Jain Vinod K.
Published: January 2015

Learning, most fundamentally, is the process of acquiring knowledge or skill.
Quality of Work‐Life
Authors: Peters Larry
Published: January 2015

Quality of work life (
QWL
) is an umbrella term used to capture a wide variety of organizational efforts aimed at improving a work setting to better support human needs. It has taken on a number of specific meanings in the research literature and has found its way into applied contexts as well. Recent books on high performance work settings speak to quality of work life as a key component, and a variety of organizations have provided rankings of best places to work that identify specific companies that exemplify high
QWL
.
Validity
Authors: Guion Robert M. , Schriesheim Chester A.
Published: January 2015

The psychometric term “validity” is discussed in terms of origin, current and previous definitions, proper and improper usage of the term, evidence for judging validity, and standards of evidence in validity judgment.
Wage and Salary Surveys
Authors: Dreher George F.
Published: January 2015

This article describes the procedure known as a “wage and salary survey.” It defines the concept and provides information on a) how such a survey is conducted, b) what data are collected, and c) how these data are combined and interpreted.
Affirmative Action
Authors: Lee Barbara A.
Published: January 2015

An employer who employs affirmative action uses race, sex, national origin, or some other characteristic typically unrelated to job performance to make an employment decision. It is designed either to remedy prior discrimination by an employer or to increase diversity of the workforce. It may be ordered by a court, required by legislation, or voluntary.
Changing Labor Markets Including Job Mobility
Authors: Marsden David
Published: January 2015

Labor markets across the Organisation for Economic Co‐operation and Development (OECD) countries have changed greatly over the past quarter of a century.
Big Five Personality Tests
Authors: Mount Michael K.
Published: January 2015

The views of many personality psychologists have converged regarding the structure and concepts of personality.
Psychological Test
Authors: Murphy Kevin R.
Published: January 2015

A psychological test is a sample of behavior obtained under standardized conditions, and employs specific scoring rules to obtain quantitative information from those behaviors about the attribute(s) the test is designed to measure (Murphy and Davidshofer, 1994).
Nonunion Employee Grievance Procedures
Authors: McCabe Douglas M.
Published: January 2015

Nonunion employee grievance procedures, defined as the procedural requirements with respect to the processing of employees' complaints in nonunion companies, are a form of employee voice, alternative dispute resolution procedures, and industrial justice systems.
Validity Generalization
Authors: Schmidt Frank
Published: January 2015

Validity generalization refers to the demonstration that the validities of various selection devices generalize across different settings. The degree of validity generalization is typically established through the use of meta‐analysis. Results have usually supported the case for validity generalization indicating that it is not necessary to conduct a new validity test in each new setting.
Accounting
Authors: McNett Jeanne M.
Published: January 2015

Accounting follows different patterns in different parts of the world, in part due to cultural differences. There are now two main accounting standards in the global arena. The private organization that establishes accounting standards in the United States is the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FSAB). The FASB's standards are the United States generally accepted accounting principles. The international body is the IASB, whose standards are the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS). There is a harmonization process underway that made initial progress but has recently slowed. Standardization would mean substantial cost reductions for companies and better information for everyone.

Increasingly, companies have made efforts to report on their environmental, social, and financial results. This reporting framework has been termedtriple bottom line (3BL).
Alliances and Joint Ventures
Authors: Prange Christiane , Mayrhofer Ulrike
Published: January 2015

Strategic alliances and JVs have become an integral part of firms' corporate and global strategies. Cooperating with other companies facilitates access to new resources and markets, accelerates the development of technological capabilities, reduces risks, and enhances market power. Indeed, successful cooperation can be considered a source of competitive advantage in today's global economy, which is evidenced both by the amount of revenues generated through alliances and their rising number. However, high failure rates illustrate that cooperative strategies are difficult to implement. Thus, insight into their management becomes paramount. This article identifies management challenges across different stages and emerging trends for future alliance management.
Asset Specificity
Authors: Arndt Felix
Published: January 2015

Asset specificity describes the degree to which investments are uniquely valuable to a transaction.
Banking and Finance
Authors: Kuznetsova Olga
Published: January 2015

This article introduces the notion of the industry of banking and finance, its role, institutions and its relevant operations.
Barter
Authors: Srdan Zdravkovic
Published: January 2015

Barter is the activity of trading one product or service for another. It is a method of exchange by which goods or services are directly exchanged for other goods or services without using a medium of exchange, such as money. Barter is being used today for several different reasons. Businesses use barter to attract new customers, to move excess inventory, to fully utilize production capacity, and to expand the number of distribution networks they might have at its disposal. All of these activities could lead to favorable outcomes such as gaining competitive edge and increasing profits.
Best Practices
Authors: Leih Sunyoung
Published: January 2015

Best practice refers to commercial or professional procedures that are accepted or prescribed as being correct or most effective (Oxford Dictionary). Examples include the innovations of less polluting practices and HR best practices such as extensive training. Strategy scholars argue that implementing best practices is not sufficient to sustain a long‐term competitive advantage because they are easily immitable by other competitors.
Capabilities and Capability Development
Authors: Tallman Stephen
Published: January 2015

Capabilities are sets of organized activities that are employed regularly and consistently by firms to marshal and apply their resources when faced with internal or external requirements for action. Capabilities are complex, organizationally embedded, path dependent, diffuse, and at least partially tacit firm‐specific knowledge resources capable of supporting competitive advantage in the marketplace.