bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Distributive Autonomy
Authors: Attanasio John
Published: March 2018

This chapter first explores the logical imperative that if autonomy is valuable for all, there must be rights for each person to have at least some baseline of autonomy. This baseline imposes duties on each person in society to do her part, including giving up some of her own autonomy to make a minimal amount of autonomy available to all. But once one accepts these duties, one accepts some kind of theory of bounded rather than unfettered individual liberty. The theory of bounded autonomy is more of a justification for the principle of distributive autonomy rather than a principle itself. This chapter articulates a first approximation of the principle of distributive autonomy. This first approximation provides a context for discussing the campaign finance cases in subsequent chapters. To further sketch the initial contours of the principle, the discussion shifts to how key autonomy and liberty theorists have approached this problem.
A Stronger Libertarian Paradigm and The Death of the New Deal Constitution
Authors: Attanasio John
Published: March 2018

McCutcheon v. Federal Election Commission (FEC) and Citizens United v. FEC have transformed the playing field. Citizens United allows those who run corporations to leverage their influence by using the massive funds accumulated by these entities. McCutcheon empowers a few individuals to make contributions to multiple campaigns around the entire country. Now a few individuals can influence entire elections cycles—essentially purchase public policy. Just one year after Citizens United was decided, the share of total campaign giving by the top 0.01 percent of all campaign donors rose over 50 percent. Following McCutcheon, the number of $500,000-plus gifts increased from 14 to 134, and the number of $1 million plus gifts skyrocketed from eight to sixty-three. This strong libertarian paradigm has caused legislators to align with the interests of donors rather than constituents. This violates any number of constitutional pillars including divided power, federalism, the right to vote, and constituent representation.
The Principle of Distributive Autonomy
Authors: Attanasio John
Published: March 2018

Modern libertarians regard themselves as ideological opposites to egalitarians. The principle of distributive autonomy is at strong odds with modern conceptions of libertarianism, but perhaps not so much with the original conception of John Stuart Mill. Modern individualistic libertarianism also has strayed from Immanuel Kant's conception of autonomy. This chapter applies Robert Nozick’s widely acclaimed, and richly elaborated, conception of liberty to demonstrate how the new theory of distributive autonomy differs. John Rawls’s principle of equal liberty proceeds from egalitarian starting points. In contrast, the principle of distributive autonomy uses the importance or value of autonomy itself to justify keen attention to its distribution, even in the area of first-order rights. The principle focuses on (but is not limited to) constitutive rights in foundational areas that constitute the government and larger society. The campaign finance cases violate rather than safeguard autonomy by reversing congressional efforts to protect distributive autonomy.
Distributive Autonomy, The Constitution, and Campaign Finance
Authors: Attanasio John
Published: March 2018

In Kovacs v. Cooper, the Supreme Court permitted government to regulate the volume of sound trucks. One opinion stated that free speech does not include freedom “to drown out the natural speech of others.” Campaign speech of by interests drowns out all other campaign speech. This problem heavily distorts both the speaker’s right to speak and the listener’s right to know. The distortions disadvantage poorly financed candidates and mislead voters. What people think are the most important issues will be distorted; so will intensity of feelings on those issues. Such distortions will systematically skew electoral behavior based on false information. These distortions impair distributive autonomy of both listeners and speakers. In 2016, both presidential candidates overwhelmingly catered to wealthy donors. In this milieu, wealthy donors comprise the political “in” group; that is, the group who dominates government. Everyone else (the vast majority of voters) is a political “out.”
Peer Relationships
Authors: French Doran C. , Cheung Hoi Shan
Published: March 2018

This chapter examines how adolescents’ peer relations are contextualized within cultural norms and values. Across cultures, differences in demography, time use, and activity settings are identified as contributors to the varying patterns observed in adolescent social networks, friendships, and romantic relationships. This chapter also reviews status hierarchies related to peer acceptance and rejection, popularity, and bullying in different cultures and discusses the contributions of peers to adolescents’ academic success and engagement in deviant behaviors. We conclude with a recommendation to conduct more research on peer relationships outside of North America, especially focusing on time use and peer activities, cultural norms and values, neurological development and the impact of these on adolescent social competence and risk-taking behavior.
Poverty, Risk, and Resilience
Authors: Koller Silvia H. , Santana Juliana Prates , Raffaelli Marcela
Published: March 2018

This chapter aims to present a selective review that can be used to identify some contradictions about street life; once recognized, this knowledge may be used to inform interventions and social policy initiatives. We begin by defining street children and adolescents; examining evidence of vulnerability and resilience in research on the daily lives of street-involved youth; discussing methodological and ethical challenges to advancing understanding of this population; and examining how research with street-involved youth can be used to advance local and global practice and policy. Our aim is to present literature from around the globe, but our discussion is informed by—and draws on—our long-standing program of research and practice in Brazil.
Young People’s Participation in Program Design Research, Monitoring, and Evaluation
Authors: Wridt Pamela
Published: March 2018

This chapter provides a global analysis of main concepts, approaches, and outcomes from engaging young people in participatory processes within development initiatives. The chapter summarizes factors and processes enabling meaningful participation of adolescents in program design research, monitoring, and evaluation. This analysis focuses on adolescents living under difficult circumstances, such as instability and protracted conflict, natural disasters, and health epidemics associated with climate change, systemic poverty, and other forms of social marginalization. These adolescents are often the recipients of international humanitarian and development agency support and programming, yet rarely have the opportunity to evaluate the relevance, effectiveness, and impact of these efforts for their daily lives and communities. As research demonstrated, the potential impact of these efforts far outweighs any barriers or challenges identified in the literature, and in the context of the Sustainable Development Goals, it is no longer an option to exclude young people’s voices in these processes.
Dispossession without Development
Authors: Levien Michael
Published: March 2018

Since the mid-2000s, India has been beset by widespread farmer protests against “land grabs.” Dispossession without Development argues that beneath these conflicts lay a profound transformation in the political economy of land dispossession. While the Indian state dispossessed land for public-sector industry and infrastructure for much of the 20th century, the adoption of neoliberal economic policies since the early 1990s prompted India’s state governments to become land brokers for private real estate capital—most controversially, for Special Economic Zones (SEZs). Using long-term ethnographic research, the book demonstrates the consequences of this new regime of dispossession for a village in Rajasthan. Taking us into the diverse lives of villagers dispossessed for one of North India’s largest SEZs, it shows how the SEZ destroyed their agricultural livelihoods, marginalized their labor, and excluded them from “world-class” infrastructure—but absorbed them into a dramatic real estate boom. Real estate speculation generated a class of rural neo-rentiers, but excluded many and compounded pre-existing class, caste, and gender inequalities. While the SEZ disappointed most villagers’ expectations of “development,” land speculation fractured the village and disabled collective action. The case of “Rajpura” helps to illuminate the exclusionary trajectory of capitalism that underlay land conflicts in contemporary India—and explain why the Indian state is struggling to pacify farmers with real estate payouts. Using the extended case method, Dispossession without Development advances a sociological theory of dispossession that has relevance beyond India.
On the Margins of a World City
Authors: Levien Michael
Published: March 2018

This chapter shows how SEZs represent the abandonment of the developmentalist ambition of broad-based economic transformation and a retreat into elite private enclaves. It shows, first, that public infrastructural investment by the Rajasthan government was entirely geared toward the needs of this emerging corporate city with little concern for the welfare of surrounding rural populations. Private investment in the zone’s export-oriented “knowledge economy,” secondly, generated few productive linkages with the surrounding rural economy. The first process relegated Rajpura’s dispossessed farmers to a disinvested urbanizing village on the margins of a “world city,” and the second confined them to a tertiary informal economy dominated by rents, petty trade, and usury. The chapter concludes by showing how this exclusionary growth left a majority of dispossessed households—and a vast majority of lower caste households—poorer and less food secure than before.
The Complexities of Land Reparations
Authors: Alexander Gregory S.
Published: March 2018

This chapter reveals that human history is replete with examples of unjustified expropriations of property by conquering states and other transitory regimes. Only in modern times, however, have nations attempted systematically to remedy historical injustices by providing reparations to the dispossessed owners or their successors. From the aboriginal peoples of the Antipodes to the Native Americans of Canada and the United States to the European victims of the German and Soviet communism, groups of people who were stripped of their land and possessions by fraud or force are demanding, and in many cases getting, reparations for these injustices. The thesis of this chapter is that the case for reparations for such expropriations of property is highly tenuous, both morally and in practical terms. Reparations claims in general face two serious challenges: human irrationality and the effects of time. While these challenges are not necessarily insuperable, they are formidable.
Transition Times in Memory
Authors: Porta Donatella della , Andretta Massimiliano , Fernandes Tiago , Romanos Eduardo , Vogiatzoglou Markos
Published: March 2018

The second chapter covers the main characteristics of transition time in the four countries: Italy, Greece, Spain, and Portugal. After developing the theoretical model on paths of transition, with a focus on social movement participation, the chapter looks at social movements and protest events as turning points during transition, covering in particular the specific movement actors, their organizational models, and their repertoires of action and frames. The chapter focuses on two dimensions: the role of mobilization in the transition period, which implies the analysis of how elites and masses interact, ally, or fight with each other in the process, and the outcome of transitions as continuity versus rupture of the democratic regime vis-à-vis the old one. It concludes by elaborating some hypotheses on how different modes of transition may produce different types and uses of (transition) memories.
The Politics of Police Reform
Authors: Marat Erica
Published: March 2018

What does it take to reform a post-Soviet police force? Across the region, the countries inherited remarkably similar police forces with identical structures, chains of command, and politicized relationships with the political elite. Centralized in control but decentralized in their reach, the police remain one of the least reformed post-communist institutions. As a powerful state organ, the Soviet-style militarized police have resisted change despite democratic transformations in the overall political context, including rounds of competitive elections and growing civil society. This book explores the conditions in which a meaningful transformation of the police is likely to succeed and when it will fail. Based on the analysis of five post-Soviet countries (Ukraine, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, and Tajikistan) that have officially embarked on police reform efforts, the book examines various pathways to transforming how the state relates to society through policing. It develops a new understanding of both police and police reform. Departing from the conventional interpretation of the police as merely an institution of coercion, this study defines it as a medium for state-society consensus on the limits of the state’s legitimate use of violence. Police are, according to a common Russian saying, a “mirror of society”—serving as a counterweight to its complexity. Police reform, in turn, is a process of consensus-building on the rationale of the use of violence through discussions, debates, media, and advocacy.
Transformative Violence and Mobilization
Authors: Marat Erica
Published: March 2018

Chapter 2 constructs a theoretical model on the pathways to police reform: that police reform takes place in the aftermath of police violence in urban areas in countries where civil society groups are able to take on a long-term and flexible approach in engaging with the government. The chapter demonstrates that incidents of tougher-than-usual means of policing against civilians—transformative violence—and popular resistance to government overreach lead to a mobilization of civil society against the ways ruling elites use the police to sustain public order. It then explains that civic actors’ motivations—from serving the community to achieving political goals—define their methods of persuading the Interior Ministry to implement change in the interest of the greater public.
Components of Police Reform
Authors: Marat Erica
Published: March 2018

Chapter 3 expands on the dynamics of police reforms in urban areas. It answers the question of why state crackdowns in urban areas trigger bottom-up demands for change, while similar crackdowns in rural areas often go unchallenged. When politically active citizens in Bishkek, Tbilisi, and Kyiv convened in antigovernment demonstrations, those who guided Soviet-inherited policing strategies were unwilling to either adequately protect the protestors from government provocateurs or peacefully disperse them. The tension between the growing sophistication of civic activism in urban areas and old-style policing culminated in the state committing an act of transformative violence. This led to a wider mobilization of the public against old methods of policing.
Rural Violence and Expansion of Policing in Kazakhstan and Tajikistan
Authors: Marat Erica
Published: March 2018

This chapter on transformative violence in rural parts of Kazakhstan and Tajikistan argues that unlike more democratic countries with diverse civil society, authoritarian states quickly move to suppress a dissenting community. Both countries upgraded policing in rural areas to improve intelligence gathering on the local population in order to predict the rise of any antigovernment activities. While doing that, however, leaders of both countries sought to frame their actions as an inclusive process that was sensitive to the grievances of the affected populations and sensitive to the voices of civil society. As a result, however, authoritarianism deepened in the aftermath of incidents of transformative violence.
Snap-Happy? The Promise and Problems of Photovoice
Authors: Lowndes Ruth , Braedley Susan
Published: March 2018

Although photovoice is often hailed as a method that includes and gives voice to those whose perspectives are left out of research, this chapter details limits of photovoice within the context of rapid ethnography and institutional research. Although photovoice proved its worth in offering a fun, interactive way to engage residents in research, and in generating rich data on their perspectives of care home life, we experienced challenges incorporating this method into the project. We were unable to obtain ethical approval for its use with our original target group of those living with dementia, a limitation that changed our use of the method considerably. We also faced time constraints: our ethnographies were not long enough to recruit, teach camera usage, take and develop pictures, and conduct a follow-up interview. Ethical restrictions were placed on publishing photographs, limiting the ability to connect visual representations to narratives, which impacted presentation of findings.
Threading the Strands
Authors: Armstrong Pat , Lowndes Ruth
Published: March 2018

The final chapter identifies some critical lessons learned during an eight-year project. Many in the team had worked on large grants and/or on ethnographic studies. Developing a new version of ethnography, however, required creative teamwork. So did moving beyond narrower forms of interdisciplinary and international research and more traditional approaches to mentoring in order to ensure collective, consultative, reflexive, as well as continuous knowledge creation and sharing. This chapter argues that such creative team work depends on building relationships and on organizing meetings that are stimulating intellectually and move the research forward. Those meetings must also be fun. Creative team work also requires significant preparation for the site visits, especially when those visits are intense and involved highly vulnerable populations. It means mentoring through sharing the entire research process in egalitarian ways. Finally, it means thinking about what happens to the team and the data after the funding ends.
Entanglement
Authors: Glausser Wayne
Published: March 2018

This introductory chapter offers a brief definition of entanglement and contrasts it with four other versions of the relationship between religion and secularity. Unlike these other four models, in which religion and secularity sit apart from each other as separate domains, entanglement presents a contentious but oddly intimate relationship. Neither side simply wins by displacing the other. Two examples flesh out this definition of entangled religious and secular interests. The first example comes from the so-called War on Christmas; the second comes from controversies surrounding stem cell research. In both of these cases, religious and secular elements entangle and complicate each other, even as they engage in adversarial conversation. The introduction then examines recent scholarly re-evaluations of the term “secularity” and connects it with the concept of entanglement.
Woolman the Prophet
Authors: Kershner Jon R.
Published: March 2018

John Woolman’s ministry efforts translated his vision of God’s will for human affairs into the physical realm. This state of union with God entailed an outward dimension consistent with the transformed state Woolman believed God intended for creation. Woolman was committed to his religious community and viewed himself as representing the best of what colonial society would become. He understood himself to be a prophet like the Hebrew prophet Jeremiah, and so he believed his actions to be within the prophetic tradition. This chapter explores Woolman’s sense of commissioning to the prophetic role and his conceptions of what such a role entailed. Then, this chapter demonstrates that the content of Woolman’s message was the application of his vision to human affairs. This message declared God’s claim over the whole world, renounced idolatrous influences, and challenged the alienation of sin.
Perfection
Authors: Kershner Jon R.
Published: March 2018

Woolman believed that he could perfectly hear and perfectly obey God’s will, a theological perfectionism that could transform human affairs. He did not claim to be sinless, but to have conquered the power of sin in the moment of conversion. This state of perfection required obedience to God’s will to maintain, but once established, the faithful experienced the imputation of the “mind of Christ” in a way that altered human reasoning and illumined the emergence of a new world on earth. Woolman’s perfectionism was not primarily one of self-purity but, rather, of enacting God’s will on earth, and so it was economically and politically subversive. His perfectionism explains how the eschaton could be enacted on earth through the faithful, and how corrupt and fallen human political structures were superseded by the “Government of Christ.”
Modernization, Existential Security, and Cultural Change
Authors: Inglehart Ronald F
Published: March 2018

Survey data from countries containing over 90% of the world’s population demonstrate that in recent decades, rising levels of economic and physical security have been reshaping human values and motivations, thereby transforming societies. Economic and physical insecurity are conducive to xenophobia, strong in-group solidarity, authoritarian politics, and rigid adherence to traditional cultural norms; conversely, secure conditions lead to greater tolerance of outgroups, openness to new ideas, and more egalitarian social norms. Existential security shapes societies and cultures in two ways. Modernization increases prevailing security levels, producing pervasive cultural changes in developed countries. But long before, substantial cross-sectional cultural difference existed, reflecting historical differences in vulnerability to disease and other factors. Analysts from different perspectives have described these cultural differences as Collectivism versus Individualism, Materialism versus Postmaterialism, Survival versus Self-expression values, or Autonomy versus Embeddedness, but all tap a common dimension of cross-cultural variation that reflects different levels of existential security.
From Local to Cross-Cultural to Global Work Motivation and Innovation
Authors: Erez Miriam
Published: March 2018

This chapter examines three phases of a programmatic research on work motivation. Phase one focuses on research on work motivation prior to considering the effect of culture on work motivation. This research identifies two boundary conditions of the goal-setting theory of motivation—knowledge of results, and goal commitment—two necessary conditions for goals to affect performance. It continues to examine the effect of participation in goal setting on goal acceptance and its consequent performance and discovers cross-cultural differences in the effect of participation on goal acceptance and performance. This has opened up phase two, which focuses on cross-cultural differences and similarities in work motivation. Phase three has paralleled the change toward a global, culturally diverse and geographically dispersed work context. This context stimulates new research questions and research paradigms that have specifically focused on understanding how to motivate employees’ behaviors in the global context and enhance their sense of belongingness to their multicultural teams.
The Old Orthodoxy (Aristotle) vs the New Orthodoxy (Dedekind–Cantor)
Authors: Hellman Geoffrey , Shapiro Stewart
Published: March 2018

This chapter summarizes a number of Aristotelian themes concerning continuity, points, and infinity, contrasting these with more contemporary accounts. The Aristotelian themes were dominant throughout most of the history of mathematics and science, until roughly the end of the nineteenth century. This chapter also contains an outline of the book.
Aristotelian and Predicative Continua
Authors: Hellman Geoffrey , Shapiro Stewart
Published: March 2018

This chapter, co-authored with Øystein Linnebo, presents a more Aristotelian theory, one that eschews both the existence of points (as parts of regions) and the use of actual infinity. Building on some previous work by Linnebo, the chapter shows how to take the “potential” nature of the usual operations seriously, by using a modal language, and it shows that modal and nonmodal approaches are equivalent. The chapter concludes with a predicative account of the continuum, one that, in a sense, fits in between the semi-Aristotelian and the Aristotelian theories.
Real Numbers on an Aristotelian Continuum
Authors: Hellman Geoffrey , Shapiro Stewart
Published: March 2018

This chapter is an attempt to recover “points” and (something like) real numbers in the more Aristotelian framework presented in Chapter 3. The techniques go beyond Aristotelian resources, borrowing from contemporary, constructive mathematics. Unlike the case with the semi-Aristotelean account from Chapter 1, here it turns out that the underlying gunky structure and the recovered “points” have very different structures. One is decomposable, the other is not.
Scorecard
Authors: Hellman Geoffrey , Shapiro Stewart
Published: March 2018

The study concludes with a brief sketch of different accounts of continuity: punctiform, intuitionistic, smooth, predicative, etc., and indicates the extent to which each captures several long-standing features that have been attributed to continuous entities. No one theory captures them all and, indeed, no one theory can capture them all. The leading intuitive properties of the continuous exhibit tensions with one another, and, it is submitted, pertain to a concept that is more up for sharpening in various incompatible ways, rather than one that would yield to more traditional, univocal philosophical analysis.
Enoch from Antiquity to the Middle Ages, Volume I
Authors: Reeves John C. , Reed Annette Yoshiko
Published: March 2018

This book provides scholars with a comprehensive collection of core references extracted from Jewish, Christian, and Muslim literature to a plethora of ancient writings associated with the name of the biblical character Enoch (Gen 5:214). It assembles citations of and references to writings attributed to Enoch in non-canonical Jewish, Christian, and Muslim literary sources (ranging in age from roughly the third century bce up through the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries ce) into one convenient thematically arranged repository, and it classifies, compares, and briefly analyzes these references and citations to develop a clearer picture of the scope and range of what one might term “the Enochic library,” or the entire corpus of works attributed to Enoch and his subsequent cross-cultural avatars. The book consists of two parts. The present volume, Volume 1, is devoted to textual traditions about the narratological career of the character Enoch. It collects materials about the distinctive epithets frequently paired with his name, outlines his cultural achievements, articulates his societal roles, describes his interactions with the celestial world, assembles the varied traditions about his eventual fate, and surveys the various identities he is assigned outside the purely biblical world of discourse within other discursive networks and intellectual circles. It also assembles a range of testimonies which express how writings associated with Enoch were evaluated by Jewish, Christian, and Muslim writers during late antiquity and the Middle Ages. Volume 2, currently in preparation, will concentrate upon textual sources which arguably display a knowledge of the peculiar contents, motifs, and themes of extant Enochic literature, including but not limited to 1 Enoch (the Ethiopic Book of Enoch) and 2 Enoch (the Slavonic Book of Enoch).
Enoch as Culture Hero
Authors: Reeves John C. , Reed Annette Yoshiko
Published: March 2018

This chapter gathers together a wide variety of sources which call attention to the kinds of intellectual and cultural accomplishments which are assigned to Enoch within literary works authored by Jews, Christians, and Muslims from the pre-biblical era to the Middle Ages. These include summary statements outlining a type of curriculum vitae for Enoch as well as statements about more specific achievements thematically arranged under the following categories: astronomical, astrological, and calendrical discoveries; insights into cosmological arcana; the invention of writing and contributions to book culture; traditions about the manufacture of garments; the determination of standards for weights and measures; and discoveries and writings pertaining to medicine and pharmacology.
The Books of Enoch and their Reputation
Authors: Reeves John C. , Reed Annette Yoshiko
Published: March 2018

This chapter forms a repository for traditions and testimonies largely unmentioned in the previous chapters which offer assessments by Jewish, Christian, and Muslim writers of the value of the numerous writings attributed to Enoch and his cross-cultural avatars. One section collects texts wherein Enoch’s books and their contents are judged positively, or which give at least no disparaging or critical remarks about them, whereas another section assembles texts which denigrate their worth. Also included in this chapter is a section devoted to the explication of a little-studied assemblage of medieval Shī‘ite traditions which allegedly provide quotations from ancient scrolls attributed to Enoch/Idrīs which were available in certain libraries in the Muslim East.
Historical Foundations, Strategic Visions, and World Order
Authors: Bolt Paul J. , Cross Sharyl N.
Published: March 2018

Chapter 1 explores perspectives on world order, including power relationships and the rules that shape state behavior and perceptions of legitimacy. After outlining a brief history of the relationship between Russia and China that ranged from cooperation to military clashes, the chapter details Chinese and Russian perspectives on the contemporary international order as shaped by their histories and current political situation. Chinese and Russian views largely coincide on security issues, the desirability of a more multipolar order, and institutions that would enhance their standing in the world. While the Chinese–Russian partnership has accelerated considerably, particularly since the crisis in Ukraine in 2014, there are still some areas of competition that limit the extent of the relationship.
Russia, China, and Contemporary International Conflicts
Authors: Bolt Paul J. , Cross Sharyl N.
Published: March 2018

Chapter 4 examines Russian and Chinese responses to the two major contemporary regional conflicts in Eurasia and the Middle East that are reshaping the international security environment and involving wide regional and global participation: Ukraine (2014–16), and Syria (2011–16). The cases of Ukraine and Syria demonstrate the capacity for Russia and China to serve as a counterbalancing influence to the United States and its allies in decisively influencing regional conflict situations challenging the norms and values of the liberal democratic order. Russia’s resurgence, China’s rise, and the burgeoning Sino–Russian strategic partnership suggest that the two countries possess the capacity to exert significant influence in provoking, managing, and resolving conflict situations not only in bordering areas, but on the wider global stage.
The Sino–Russian Strategic Partnership
Authors: Bolt Paul J. , Cross Sharyl N.
Published: March 2018

The Conclusion reviews the volume’s major themes. Russia and China have common interests that cement their partnership, and are key players in shaping the international order. Both seek better relations with the West, but on the basis of “mutual respect” and “equality.” While the relationship has grown deeper, particularly since 2014, China and Russia are partners but not allies. Thus, their relationship is marked by burgeoning cooperation, but still areas of potential competition and friction. Russia in particular must deal with China’s growing relative power at the same time that it is isolated from the West. While the Russian–Chinese relationship creates challenges for the United States and Europe and a return of major power rivalry, there is also room for cooperation in the strategic triangle comprising China, Russia, and the West. Looking ahead, the world is in a period of dramatic transition.
The Development of Cold Case Reviews
Authors: Allsop Cheryl
Published: March 2018

This chapter charts the development of interest among the police service for reviewing cold cases, considering how the key processes and systems for reviewing cold cases have emerged and evolved. What becomes clear is that from a police service initially disinterested in expending time and resources on reviewing historic crimes on a regular basis, the appetite for doing so has grown, as review teams began to conduct them far more systematically. A brief overview of the development of review policies more generally is set out, before going on to document how three police areas piloted the concept of reviewing cold case stranger rapes using new DNA profiling techniques. After that, Operation Advance will be introduced, before turning to Operation Stealth, a national cold case review operation focused on detecting unsolved murders.
Organizing the Organizational Memory
Authors: Allsop Cheryl
Published: March 2018

This chapter concerns ‘organizing the organizational memory’, that is, the fundamental processes, practices, and procedures required to enable cold case reviews to take place. The advances in DNA profiling techniques and technologies have created a growth of opportunities for reviewing cold cases, and in this chapter it will become clear how this investigative potential has created new problems requiring the development of a system of working before a review can take place, suggesting the need to look forward and back in the review process. What emerges is a process of ‘back engineering’ and forward planning, a collection of routine activities centred on finding opportunities to identify and connect suspects to the unsolved crimes revealing the realities of such work, which is often mundane, far from the gloss and glamour depicted by media representations. The challenges to achieving a successful detection are also laid out.
Putting Fallibilism to Work
Authors: Anderson Charity
Published: March 2018

The principle that when one knows p, one is in a good enough epistemic position to treat p as a reason for action is used to motivate pragmatic encroachment. When combined with fallibilism, this principle (Sufficiency) results in the rejection of purism, the view that pragmatic factors are irrelevant to knowledge. Fallibilism, purism, and Sufficiency each have substantial prima facie intuitive support; and yet the three seem to form an inconsistent triad. The author of this chapter challenges the account of reasons that underlies one prominent way of arguing for Sufficiency and then she delineates a position that manages to avoid the trilemma.
Pragmatic Approaches to Belief
Authors: Brown Jessica
Published: March 2018

A number of authors have recently argued for a pragmatic approach to belief on which full or outright belief is understood in terms of its role in practical reasoning. This approach has been motivated on the grounds that it deals with the threshold problem for belief and simultaneously explains why we need a notion of outright belief in addition to the notion of degrees of belief, or credence. This chapter argues that the pragmatic approach does not provide a satisfactory solution to these problems because of practically irrelevant beliefs, that is, beliefs which are not relevant for a person’s practical reasoning.
The Relevance of the Wrong Kind of Reasons
Authors: Heuer Ulrike
Published: March 2018

There is a wide-ranging discussion of two kinds of reasons for attitudes, which are sometimes called the right and wrong kinds of reasons. The distinction, some think, applies to a whole range of different attitudes such as beliefs and intentions, as well as pro-attitudes, e.g. admiration or desire, in similar ways. Explaining it may therefore contribute significantly to understanding the nature of reasons and normativity in general. This chapter argues for two claims: (1) we should sharply distinguish the wrong kind of reasons problem as it arises for fitting attitude theories from other problems that come under the same name; (2) the wrong kind of reasons problem outside of fitting attitude theory doesn’t have a very clear shape. In particular, there is no similarity between reasons to believe and reasons to intend in this regard, and therefore no hope for a unified explanation of the alleged phenomenon.
The Explanatory Problem for Cognitivism about Practical Reason
Authors: Lord Errol
Published: March 2018

Cognitivists about practical reason hold that we can explain why certain wide-scope requirements of practical rationality are true by appealing to certain epistemic requirements. Extant discussions of cognitivism focus solely on two claims. The first is the claim that intentions involve beliefs. The second is that whenever your intentions are incoherent in certain ways, you will be epistemically irrational (given that intentions involve beliefs). Even if the cognitivist successfully defends these claims, she still has to show that the epistemic requirements explain the practical requirements. This chapter argues that it is not plausible that the epistemic requirements explain the practical requirements. This shows that the cognitivists’ project will fail even if their controversial views about the relationship between the practical and epistemic are granted.
Pragmatic Encroachment
Authors: McGrath Matthew
Published: March 2018

The thesis of pragmatic encroachment about knowledge holds that whether a subject knows that p can vary due to differences in practical stakes, holding fixed the strength of the subject’s epistemic position with respect to p. Accepting pragmatic encroachment about knowledge brings with it a significant explanatory burden: if knowledge varies with the stakes, why does knowledge show so many signs of staying fixed with variations in the stakes? This chapter argues that explanatory burdens of this general kind are harder to avoid than is commonly thought: even if you deny the stakes-sensitivity of knowledge, you will be stuck accepting the stakes-sensitivity of other statuses which, like knowledge, show the same signs of staying fixed with variations in the stakes. The chapter discusses two such statuses: reason-worthiness and emotion-worthiness. If the arguments succeed, then, the problems of pragmatic encroachment are everyone’s problems.
Lattices of theories
Authors: Caramello Olivia
Published: March 2018

In this chapter, by using the duality theorem established in Chapter 3, many ideas and concepts of elementary topos theory are transferred into the context of geometric logic; these notions notably include the coHeyting algebra structure on the lattice of subtoposes of a given topos, open, closed, quasi-closed subtoposes, the dense-closed factorization of a geometric inclusion, coherent subtoposes, subtoposes with enough points, the surjection-inclusion factorization of a geometric morphism, skeletal inclusions, atoms in the lattice of subtoposes of a given topos, the Booleanization and DeMorganization of a topos. An explicit description of the Heyting operation between Grothendieck topologies on a given category and of the Grothendieck topology generated by a given collection of sieves is also obtained, as well as a number of results about the problem of ‘relativizing’ a local operator with respect to a given subtopos.
Examples of theories of presheaf type
Authors: Caramello Olivia
Published: March 2018

This chapter discusses several classical as well as new examples of theories of presheaf type from the perspective of the theory developed in the previous chapters. The known examples of theories of presheaf type that are revisited in the course of the chapter include the theory of intervals (classified by the topos of simplicial sets), the theory of linear orders, the theory of Diers fields, the theory of abstract circles (classified by the topos of cyclic sets) and the geometric theory of finite sets. The new examples include the theory of algebraic (or separable) extensions of a given field, the theory of locally finite groups, the theory of vector spaces with linear independence predicates and the theory of lattice-ordered abelian groups with strong unit.
Introduction to environmental DNA (eDNA)
Authors: Taberlet Pierre , Bonin Aurélie , Zinger Lucie , Coissac Eric
Published: March 2018

Chapter “Introduction to environmental DNA (eDNA)” defines the central concepts of this book. Environmental DNA (eDNA) corresponds to a mixture of genomic DNA from many different organisms found in an environmental sample such as water, soil, or feces. DNA metabarcoding can be defined as the simultaneous DNA-based identification of many taxa found in the same eDNA extract. It is usually based on the analysis of a metabarcode (i.e., a short and taxonomically informative DNA region). Metagenomics refers to the assembly and functional analysis of the different genomes found in an environmental sample, while metatranscriptomics examines gene expression and regulation at the sampling time based on the set of RNAs extracted from such a sample. Chapter also presents a brief history of eDNA, highlights the different steps of an eDNA study, and gives an overview of the different eDNA methods implemented in ecological research or biodiversity management.
DNA metabarcode choice and design
Authors: Taberlet Pierre , Bonin Aurélie , Zinger Lucie , Coissac Eric
Published: March 2018

Chapter “DNA metabarcode choice and design” develops the properties of the ideal metabarcode in a given context, including conservation of the primer annealing regions and resolution power across the target taxonomic group of interest. It also highlights the experimental constraints influencing the choice of a metabarcode in practice. A detailed tutorial illustrates how to design and test metabarcoding primers in silico with the programs ecoPrimers, ecoPCR, and the software suite OBITools. Command lines and example files are provided to design and test universal metabarcoding primers for Bacteria. Chapter 2 also gives statistics about the taxonomic resolution and primer conservation of more than 60 metabarcodes available for DNA metabarcoding analysis of a wide range of taxonomic groups.
Sampling
Authors: Taberlet Pierre , Bonin Aurélie , Zinger Lucie , Coissac Eric
Published: March 2018

Sampling is crucial to any ecological study. Chapter 4 “Sampling” aims at proving keys for a successful sampling campaign when using DNA metabarcoding. It first describes the origin, fate, and transport of environmental DNA in various environments, from freshwater streams to soils, and discusses the implication of the DNA cycle in the environment for answering ecological questions. The chapter presents guidelines to appropriately sample the target DNA population and maximize the representativeness of the retrieved ecological signal. Different sampling strategies at the level of the sampling area and sampling units are proposed for different environmental matrices and ecological questions. Sample storage methods maximizing the preservation of environmental DNA are also discussed.
DNA amplification and multiplexing
Authors: Taberlet Pierre , Bonin Aurélie , Zinger Lucie , Coissac Eric
Published: March 2018

After a brief reminder of the principles underlying the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), Chapter 6 “DNA amplification and multiplexing” discusses the choice of a DNA polymerase for the PCR. In particular, it warns against the use of proofreading polymerases, that can lead to a substantial loss of PCR specificity. Chapter 6 insists on the benefits of including different types of controls in the PCR (e.g., PCR negatives and positives, tagging system controls, etc.). The most common causes of PCR failures and their solutions are addressed, as well as the precautions to take to avoid and monitor contaminations. Chapter 6 also deals with the particular case of blocking oligonucleotides, which aim at reducing the amplification of undesired sequences. It gives some valuable guidelines to design such oligonucleotides and use them efficiently. Finally, Chapter 6 presents different strategies for tagging individual samples during the amplification, to allow subsequent multiplexing during the sequencing step.
Environmental DNA for functional diversity
Authors: Taberlet Pierre , Bonin Aurélie , Zinger Lucie , Coissac Eric
Published: March 2018

Chapter 10 “Environmental DNA for functional diversity” discusses the potential of environmental DNA to assess functional diversity. It first focuses on DNA metabarcoding and discusses the extent to which this approach can be used and/or optimized to retrieve meaningful information on the functions of the target community. This knowledge usually involves coarsely defined functional groups (e.g., woody, leguminous, graminoid plants; shredders or decomposer soil organisms; pathogenicity or decomposition role of certain microorganisms). Chapter 10 then introduces metagenomics and metatranscriptomics approaches, their advantages, but also the challenges and solutions to appropriately sampling, sequencing these complex DNA/RNA populations. Chapter 10 finally presents several strategies and software to analyze metagenomes/metatranscriptomes, and discusses their pros and cons.
Freshwater ecosystems
Authors: Taberlet Pierre , Bonin Aurélie , Zinger Lucie , Coissac Eric
Published: March 2018

Chapter 12 “Freshwater ecosystems” focuses on the study of freshwater organisms via eDNA analysis. It addresses the particularities of the production, persistence, transport, and detectability of eDNA in surface waters. Biomonitoring freshwater ecosystems is imposed by law in more and more countries (e.g., European Council 2000) and the potential of eDNA for this purpose has been identified relatively early. This chapter revisits several studies dealing with eDNA-based analysis of macroinvertebrates (e.g., to track seasonal variation in the ecosystem scale), diatoms (for water quality assessment purposes), aquatic plants (e.g., for invasive species detection), fish, amphibians, and other vertebrates (for species inventories and biomass estimation). Finally, Chapter 12 discusses whether rivers can be good conveyor belts of the biodiversity at the scale of an entire catchment.
Marine environments
Authors: Taberlet Pierre , Bonin Aurélie , Zinger Lucie , Coissac Eric
Published: March 2018

Chapter 13 “Marine environments” focuses on different applications of eDNA to study marine biodiversity. After a brief description of the current knowledge on DNA cycle in pelagic and benthic environments, this chapter revisits how DNA metabarcoding, and more generally environmental genomics have revolutionized the field of marine microbiology through the discovery of novel taxa and by unveiling large-scale patterns of diversity for marine bacteria, protists, and viruses. This chapter then presents recent applications of DNA metabarcoding for both basic research or biomonitoring purposes to study marine invertebrates and fish populations and diversity, as well as the detection of invasive species. Current gaps and methodological challenges are also discussed.