bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
High-Strength Stainless Steel by Deformation at Low Temperatures
Authors: Floreen S. , Mihalisin J. R.
Published: September 2009

A series of nickel-chromium stainless alloys made by air and vacuum melting were rolled 20 or 40 per cent at temperatures ranging from —320 to 400 F. Smooth and sharp-notched sheet-tensile properties were measured after heat treating the cold-rolled pieces for 24 hr at 800 F. Yield strengths up to 260 ksi were obtained. Hardening resulted primarily from martensite formation, and also from work hardening of the austenite prior to transformation. The yield strengths were correlated in terms of composition.

Lowering the silicon content to 0.1 per cent significantly raised the toughness. Over the ranges studied none of the remaining elements had effects comparable to silicon. The toughness at a given strength level also depended upon the rolling conditions, but not upon the per cent martensite.

Tests at −320 F with a low-silicon alloy showed a notch-tensile ratio of 1.0 at 297 ksi ultimate tensile strength. The results suggest that a low-silicon 301-type composition would have good cryogenic properties.
New Martensitic Age Hardening Stainless Steels
Authors: Aggen G. N. , Hammond C. M. , Lula R. A.
Published: September 2009

The development of three new martensitic stainless steels is described. As annealed these alloys possess a relatively soft martensitic structure which is amenable to cold processing and forming operations. Two of these alloys may be strengthened from 150,000 to 200,000 psi ultimate tensile strength by means of low temperature precipitation-hardening treatments. Some physical, mechanical, and corrosion properties of these alloys are shown. The anticipated areas of application for the alloys are described.
The Development of New High-Strength Stainless Steels
Authors: Hammond C. M.
Published: September 2009

Several maraging stainless steels have been developed from some basic information on the effect of certain alloying elements upon the martensite transformation (Ms) temperature, upon the suppression of delta ferrite, and upon the age-hardening response. This paper describes the research program which led to the development of these alloys.
Metallurgy of a Columbium-Hardened Nickel-Chromium-Iron Alloy
Authors: Eiselstein H. L.
Published: September 2009

Inconel alloy 718 is a relatively new high-strength, weldable alloy that is suitable for service at temperatures from −423 F up to 1300 F. The excellent properties of this alloy over this temperature range result from extensive research on the influences of various elements and heat treatments. This paper describes the metallurgical investigation relating the nature of the alloy to the development of optimum properties.
Creep-Rupture Properties of Stainless Steels at 1600, 1800, and 2000 F
Authors: Brickner K. G. , Ratz G. A. , Domagala R. F.
Published: September 2009

In recent years, there has been a trend toward the use of increasingly higher operating temperatures in many industrial processes to obtain greater operating efficiencies. This trend has created many design- and material-selection problems. As is now widely recognized, the difference between the behavior of metals at elevated temperatures and at room temperature necessitates an approach to the problem of design for elevated-temperature service different from that for room-temperature service. The occurrence of creep during elevated-temperature service, as well as the need for preventing actual rupture (the end result of creep), requires knowledge of the stresses and temperatures which materials must withstand without producing excessive creep or rupture. However, the designer is often faced with very limited engineering information of this type. For example, little information is available on the creep and creep-rupture properties of stainless steels at temperatures above 1500 F. To provide a basis for the selection of stainless steels for service between 1600 and 2000 F, creep and creep-rupture tests and metallographic and X-ray diffraction studies were conducted on sheet product of AISI Types 302, 309S, 310S, 314, and 316, and Type 310 Cb stainless steels at 1600, 1800, and 2000 F, and on sheet product of AISI Type 446 stainless steel at 1600 and 1800 F.
Evaluation and Application of Stainless Steels in Cryogenic Environments
Authors: Hurlich A. , Scheck W. G.
Published: September 2009

Cold-rolled stainless steel sheet possesses combinations of properties and characteristics which make it suitable for use as cyrogenic propellant tankage for large missiles and spacecraft. While extra cold-rolled Type 301 is used in both the Atlas and Centaur vehicles, other alloys including Types 304 L and 310 have also been evaluated for these applications by screening tests including tension, notched-tension, crack propagation, cross-tension, and shear tests on resistance spot welded joints, and static tension and cyclic fatigue tests of large complex weld joint specimens. Data are presented on the properties of the three alloys in base metal and weld joint configurations.

Type 301 stainless steel can be cold rolled to the highest tensile strength of the three alloys because of its lowest austenite stability, resulting in considerable transformation to martensite upon cold rolling. This factor is also responsible for embrittlement which is particularly manifested in reduced strength and fatigue resistance of welded joints tested at liquid hydrogen temperature. Use of more highly alloyed and more stable stainless steel such as Type 310 eliminates low-temperature embrittlement but at sacrifice in payload potential because of reduced strength.

Low-temperature embrittlement of cold-rolled Type 301 was overcome by incorporating sheet of nickel foil between two sheets of stainless steel to be resistance welded. The nickel alloys into the weld nugget and produces completely stable austenitic nuggets which are tough and ductile at −423 F. Both the strength and fatigue resistance of missile weld joints are markedly increased by the nickel foil, permitting reliable use of Type 301 in cryogenic tankage down to −423 F. Nickel also greatly increases the ability of radiography to detect weld defects in nickel enriched spot welds and has resulted in improvement in welding procedures and quality control.
Modified Type 316 Stainless Steel with Low Tendency to form Sigma
Authors: Spaeader C. E. , Brickner K. G.
Published: September 2009

A study was made to determine whether decreasing the chromium or the chromium and molybdenum contents of AISI Type 316 stainless steels would decrease the tendency for sigma-phase formation without impairing the elevated-temperature strength of the steel.

The results of this study showed that in comparison with AISI Type 316, a modified Type 316 steel with about 14 per cent chromium instead of the normal 16 to 18 per cent chromium had about the same coefficient of thermal expansion, similar room- and elevated-temperature tensile properties, similar creep and creep-rupture strengths, and slightly better hot workability. Moreover, the impact strength of modified Type 316 steel after exposure for 6000 hr at 1100, 1300, and 1500 F was markedly superior to that of AISI Type 316 steel. The results of X-ray and metallographic studies indicated that the superior impact strength of the modified Type 316 was the result of lesser amounts of sigma formed in the new steel.
Effect of Composition and Section Size on Mechanical Properties of Some Precipitation Hardening Stainless Steels
Authors: Clarke W. C. , Garvin H. W.
Published: September 2009

Applications have developed in which the high-strength properties associated with precipitation hardening stainless steel alloys are of considerable interest in large and medium section sizes. In a number of instances, transverse loading is involved. In common with other high strength materials, ductility in the transverse direction is lower than in the longitudinal direction. This paper presents transverse tension data obtained on a number of these alloys which serve to define this characteristic in a variety of shapes and sizes. The alloys discussed are 17-7 PH, PH 15-7 Mo, PH 13-8 Mo, 17-4 PH, and 15-5 PH. It is demonstrated that structural characteristics, particularly delta ferrite and certain precipitates, markedly influence transverse ductility and, in large section of 17-7 PH and PH 15-7 Mo, longitudinal ductility. Vacuum remelting does not help the directional ductility characteristics in compositions in which delta ferrite is a major controlling factor. Alloys in which composition changes have been incorporated to vary these structural factors have been developed. One of these is PH 13-8 Mo which is a composition employing aluminum as a hardening agent in which the analysis is adjusted to eliminate delta ferrite. This steel has excellent transverse ductility, especially in products made from double vacuum melted ingots. Another new material which has been called 15-5 PH contains copper as a hardening agent and is free of delta ferrite. In this modified composition the transverse ductility across the dead center of large sections is somewhat inferior to the transverse ductility obtainable at intermediate and surface locations in products made from air-melted ingots. Consumable electrode vacuum remelting eliminates the lower dead center transverse ductility in delta ferrite free products, such as 15-5 PH, by minimizing gross segregation, and excellent transverse ductility is obtained in any location.

Some discussion is presented on the effects of varying heat treatments on transverse ductility of several of these steels.
Time-Temperature-Sensitization (TTS) Diagrams for Types 347, 304L, and 316L Stainless Steels
Authors: Ebling H. F. , Scheil M. A.
Published: September 2009

Time-temperature-sensitization diagrams were developed for two heats of sheet materials of Types 347, 304L, and 316L stainless steels. Curves were derived from corrosion data obtained by the boiling nitric acid test of specimens heated to temperatures between 700 and 1500 F for times up to 35,000 hr. The results of these tests indicate that these types of stainless steels can become badly sensitized (susceptible to intergranular attack). In addition, these steels can recover from sensitization if held sufficiently long at some temperatures. These effects were studied with the material in the full annealed condition and in a stabilized condition (stabilized by heat treatment). The stabilized condition appears to benefit only the Type 347 material.
Further Studies on the Formation of Sigma in 12 to 16 per cent Chromium Steels
Authors: Ludwigson D. C. , Link H. S.
Published: September 2009

Sigma, a hard intermetallic phase in the iron-chromium system, has a complex tetragonal structure and was formerly thought to be the cause of 885 F embrittlement. Although previous investigators have found that sigma can form in ferritic stainless steels at chromium contents as low as 13 per cent and at temperatures as high as about 1500 F, the alpha — alpha plus sigma boundary of this system was not known with certainty at low chromium concentrations where equilibrium is established very slowly. The present study concerns the effects of exposures at 900, 1050, and 1200 F for durations up to 76,000 hr on annealed specimens and on cold-reduced specimens from a series of laboratory heats of simulated commercial purity steels containing nominally 12, 13, 14, 15, and 16 per cent chromium.

In the cold-reduced condition, all the steels developed sigma during exposure at 900 F, all but the 12 per cent chromium steel developed sigma at 1050 F, and none of the steels developed sigma at 1200 F. In the annealed specimens, sigma had formed within the time studied only in the 14, 15, and 16 per cent chromium steel specimens exposed at 1050 F.

As would be expected, the cold reduced specimens softened during exposure. However, precipitation hardening (885 F embrittlement) occurred in the annealed specimens containing 15 and 16 per cent chromium during exposure at 900 F. The 16 per cent chromium steel, and to a lesser extent the 15 per cent chromium steel, overaged after prolonged exposure at this temperature.

These results show that the alpha — alpha plus sigma boundary for commercial purity chromium steels is located at a lower chromium concentration than was heretofore reported. In addition, the observation—for what is believed to be the first time—of the reversal of 885 F embrittlement by overaging substantiates the prediction made by other investigators.
Relationship Between Metallurgical Structure and Properties of a Precipitation Hardening Stainless Steel
Authors: Aggen G. N. , Kaltenhauser R. H.
Published: September 2009

The mechanical properties and corrosion resistance of AM-355, a precipitation-hardening stainless steel, were found to be highly dependent upon carbide morphology. Corrosive attack in salt spray could always be associated with carbide precipitation at matrix discontinuities such as austenite or delta-ferrite grain boundaries. Continuous carbide precipitation at austenite grain boundaries was found to promote stress-corrosion failures in salt spray and to adversely affect certain mechanical properties such as ductility and impact strength.

Heat treatments, based upon the transformation characteristics of the alloy, were developed which produced uniform carbide dispersions. This structure resulted in significant improvements in mechanical properties and resistance to rusting, pitting, and stress corrosion in salt spray.

Carbide morphology was studied by light and electron microscopy as affected by: (1) heat treatment variables such as solutioning temperatures and times, cooling rates, and precipitation temperatures and times; (2) prior history of the alloy; and (3) transformation characteristics of the alloy.

Users of the alloy have accepted the new heat treatment that was developed. This has led to new applications for the alloy in relatively severe marine environments.
Materials Handling for Bulk Sampling
Authors: Manuele Joseph
Published: September 2009

Tremendous amounts of materials in bulk lots pass from vendor to vendee, and millions of dollars are paid out daily by purchasers, on the basis of the average quality of the products being exchanged. Continuous manufacturing processes are developed and their operations calculated on the basis of the average quality of the raw materials fed into the process. The average quality of these materials is expected to determine to a considerable degree the quality of the finished products resulting from the process. The charging of coke, limestone, scrap, pig iron, and other materials into a cupola, and the resulting cast iron coming from the cupola, is an example of this. The average quality of the ingredients charged into the cupola will determine, largely, the quality of the cast iron produced.
Economic Accumulation of Variance Data in Connection with Bulk Sampling
Authors: Tanner Louis , Lerner Melvin
Published: September 2009

Estimates of two variances, between and within, must be available in order to employ the technique for establishing sampling schedules for bulk materials discussed in the paper by Tanner and Deming, “Some Problems in the Sampling of Bulk Materials,” (1). Frequent or continuous redetermination of these variances is necessary to establish the continued applicability of a sampling schedule. When each secondary unit is inspected individually in routine operations, continuous data are available at no extra cost. But when testing is expensive, samples are usually composited, in which case the variance data are lost. A plan is discussed whereby these data may be made available for variance estimates even though samples are composited for economy in testing.
Coal Sampling Problems
Authors: Orning A. A.
Published: September 2009

Sampling a bulk commodity presents problems that are in part peculiar to the special commodity and in part common to all sampling problems. It is the purpose of this paper to present the peculiarities of coal sampling and the basis for design of coal sampling procedures.
Dip Soldering Printed Circuits
Authors: Miller Eugene S. , Johns Alfred A.
Published: September 2009

Early in 1953 the Eastman Kodak Co. built its first sub-miniature printed circuit system which recently has been described in the Technical Journals.
A Method for Testing and Evaluating the Joint Properties of a Copper Liner Soldered in an Aluminum Casting
Authors: Davis Moss V.
Published: September 2009

A testing method is described for measuring the strength of the solder bond between a copper liner and an aluminum casting used for making bi-metallic electrical conductor connections. The rupture of the solder bond as the result of a burnishing operation revealed the need for an adequate method to test the strength of the soldered joint.

The test described in this paper provides an empirical quantitative measurement of the joint strength of the solder bond. The stress required to peel the liner from the cable groove in the casting was measured by means of a straight spring balance.

The test results obtained from daily production samples were subjected to statistical quality control analysis. Charts of the results thus obtained are shown and discussed. Factors influencing the strength of the solder bond and its corrosion characteristics are discussed.
Proposed Numerical Evaluation System for Soft Solders, Solder Fluxes, and Solderability
Authors: Pessel L.
Published: September 2009

In the numerical evaluation system described in this paper, the nominal diameter of a sphere formed by a standardized solder specimen provides the zero per cent mark; the infinite thinness of the same solder mass spread as a film provides the 100 per cent mark, on a percentage scale. Intermediate values are determined by measurement of the height or thickness of the solder spots, obtained after melting, by means of a hand micrometer. The empirical spread-factor values thus obtained provide a simple, reproducible, visually significant numerical system. A general relationship to cos ϑ, where ϑ is the contact angle between liquid solder and solid base, is shown. Applications of this system for the evaluation of solders, fluxes, and metallic surfaces with respect to solderability are given.
Symposium Summation
Authors: Harnden G. H.
Published: September 2009

In summarizing the results of the Symposium on Solders, Fluxes, and Evaluation of Joints in Solder Applications up to 800 F, it appears desirable to classify the papers presented into three major groups identified with the symposium theme. In the first group, on the general subject of solders, five papers have been presented: two on soldering aluminum, one on soldering printed circuits, one on soldering semiconductors, and one on paste solder alloys.
Tension Test Methods for Wood, Wood-Base Materials, and Sandwich Constructions
Authors: Markwardt L. J. , Youngquist W. G.
Published: September 2009

The need for more efficient use of wood and wood-base products as engineering materials has led to a renewed interest in and need for data on basic strength properties. Of growing importance, therefore, is the tensile strength of wood, veneer, plywood, fiberboard, and paper. Although the character, orientation, and arrangement of the fibers make wood an anisotropic material, it may be treated mathematically as orthotropic, with three principal axes of symmetry. The wide difference in tensile and other properties associated with this orthotropy (properties along and across the grain) has increased the difficulty of developing satisfactory test methods. Nevertheless, investigations and standardization of test methods for these materials on a national and international basis date back many years and are still continuing. This paper presents a brief account of these activities as they concern tension testing, outlines the progressive development of some of the present test methods, and presents some of the experimental data on which these developments are based. Since wood-base materials frequently are used in sandwich constructions, a brief description of tension tests for sandwich constructions is also included.
Present Practices in Tension Testing of Paper in Industry
Authors: Fachet John , Plimpton F. T. P.
Published: September 2009

Basically, the tension tests of paper show the resistance of paper to breakage when subjected to a direct pulling stress and corresponding strain. This is similar to the tension test of other materials, but the manner of expressing tensile strength is different. For most materials tensile strength is usually expressed in terms of load per unit cross-sectional area, generally as pounds per square inch; but in the paper industry this property of tensile strength is expressed in terms of load per unit width of the test specimen, generally pounds per inch of width of sample. Due to the inherent structure of paper, the tensile strength is dependent on the kind of fibers and the way in which the fibers have been formed and bonded in the paper-making process. The tension test is an indication of the durability and serviceability of papers that are subjected to direct tensile stresses.
Summary
Authors: Webber A. C.
Published: September 2009

It appears from these papers on tension testing of five different types of materials that the premise we started out with is probably true: the only similarity among them all is that we take hold of them and pull, measuring force, and sometimes elongation, and the rest of it adds up to diversity.
Some Recently Developed Electroanalytical Techniques for Determination of Traces of Metals
Authors: Meites Louis
Published: September 2009

Within the confines of a reasonable length it would be impossible to describe all of the recent developments in electroanalytical chemistry that may prove to be applicable, or have already been shown to be applicable, to the determination of traces of metallic constituents. This paper is therefore restricted to the description of a few relatively new techniques. Two criteria have been employed in selecting these techniques: one is the probable extent of their utility to the practical analyst, and the other is the degree of interrelationship among the fundamental phenomena that they involve. Though admittedly arbitrary, the second criterion has been imposed for the sake of the simplification and condensation that it permits.
Radioactivation Analysis—Specific for Trace Element Determinations
Authors: Leddicotte G. W.
Published: September 2009

Nuclear technology developments concerned with the interpretation of nuclear particle production processes and the measurement of the resulting end products of the interactions of these particles with matter have made it possible to create very sensitive and specific analytical methods based on radioactivation analysis. Nuclear particle, particularly neutron, outputs from both accelerators and reactors that can be used in this analysis method are sufficiently intense to make it possible to determine very small amounts of most elements in many different types of sample materials. In effect, in a radioactivation analysis, the radioactivity of the radioisotope induced into a stable isotope of the element during a nuclear particle irradiation becomes a “fingerprint” of that stable isotope, and a measurement of its intensity makes it possible to determine quantitatively the concentration of the stable isotope in a sample.

A number of investigators routinely use radioactivation analysis in trace impurity problems. In many of these applications, limits of measurement much more sensitive than those possible by more conventional analytical methods have been obtained. Also, it has been observed that the half-life and the radiations emitted by a particular radionuclide being used as the “fingerprint” are never exactly duplicated by any other radionuclide; thus, radioactivation analysis is a very specific method. It is also extremely free of the contamination difficulties experienced in other analytical methods unless the contamination has been introduced into the sample before the start of the nuclear particle irradiation.

The most used method is that of neutron radioactivation. At Oak Ridge National Laboratory, neutron radioactivation analysis has been used to determine microgram and submicrogram amounts of almost all of the elements in many different sample materials. It is the intent of this report to describe certain neutron radioactivation analysis applications used in the determination of trace elements in metals. Information about multisample handling techniques, irradiation methods, processing of irradiated sample materials, and radioactivity measurements by means of gamma spectrometry employed in these applications are given. Typical data obtained in the analysis of high-purity metals such as silicon, titanium, bismuth, zirconium, aluminum, and columbium are reported. The paper concludes with some speculations about the use of commercially available irradiation equipment in routine activation analysis problems in the metals industry.
Use of the Electron Probe to Measure Low Average but High Local Concentrations
Authors: Birks L. S. , Seebold R. E.
Published: September 2009

In some problems of measuring very low average concentrations, the elements of interest actually occur in isolated high local concentrations. Air-borne dusts, corrosion layers, and segregations in alloys are examples. For such problems, the electron probe offers a unique approach with its ability to analyze selected localized areas 1 μ in diameter and comprising less than 10−12 g of material.
Measurement of Skid Resistance
Authors: Kummer H W , Meyer W E
Published: September 2009

The general problem of skid resistance control consists of the three phases: measurement, comparison, and correction. Existing friction testers are classified and discussed in accordance with their mode of operation. The principal factors that have a bearing on the several types of measured coefficients are dealt with in two groups. The first group includes factors that influence the magnitude of the frictional coupling between road surface and tire (or slider). The second group includes the design factors that influence the transmission of the tire-ground force to the force or torque transducer and that give rise to system errors. The factors that must be controlled in skid resistance tests are enumerated, and limits are given to which the factors should be held.
The Minimization of Variables in Equipment and Techniques for Performing Skid Trailer Tests
Authors: Goodwin W A , Whitehurst E A
Published: September 2009

A development program to improve equipment and field-testing techniques where skid trailers are involved has included revisions of the Tennessee trailer and changes in testing procedures.

This paper discusses (1) a reliable technique for measuring the pavementtire forces during skidding of a trailer test wheel, (2) equipment for controlling the quantity of water at the pavement-tire interface and for recording test vehicle speed, and (3) a procedure for evaluating tires so that test tires of different composition may be interchanged. Tire pressure is shown not to be important, whereas tire hardness materially influences measured coefficient. A procedure for recording longitudinal position of the test trailer is well suited for the torque type force-measuring system and is useful for long-term studies involving periodic measurements of friction on the same roadway surface.
Fiber-Elastomer Adhesion Variables
Authors: Patterson H. T.
Published: September 2009

A summary of factors important to adhesion research is presented as a starting point for a philosophy of adhesion. Adhesion of fabrics from nylon and polyester yarns to rubber with three adhesive systems (dips) is examined from the standpoints of: adhesion development with increased dip-curing time, location of specimen failure sites, effects on adhesion of polar and nonpolar liquids, and relationship of adhesion performance to wetting. Results are interpreted to demonstrate the types of adhesive bonds involved, the preferred type of adhesive for polyester fibers, and the importance of relating relative adhesive strength values to the sites of failure. An example of what appears to be mechanical adhesion to roughened polyester film is discussed.
Phenoxy Resin—A New Thermoplastic Adhesive
Authors: Bugel T. E. , Norwalk S. , Snedeker R. H.
Published: September 2009

This paper discusses a new high-molecular-weight thermoplastic polymer recently developed in the laboratories of the Union Carbide Plastics Co. Its repeating unit is the same as commercial solid epoxy coating resins, but differs in that it is much higher in molecular weight (30,000 versus 340 to 4000) and does not contain terminal epoxy functionality. It is thermally stable and can be fabricated by most techniques applicable to thermoplastics. The material is strong, tough, rigid, and exhibits good dimensional stability. It is completely amorphous with a major glass transistion temperature range in the area of 100 C.

Its relationship to epoxy resins is reflected in its adhesive nature. High bond strengths are obtained with numerous substrates—for example, 3300 psi tensile lap shear strength to aluminum. Such bonds are maintained to a large extent under a wide variety of environmental conditions with a maximum temperature range of 200 F.

Historically, one of the serious limitations of thermoplastic adhesives has been poor creep resistance. The performance of the subject material, however, surpasses that of commonly used thermosetting adhesives.
Evidence of Need for Wood-Failure Standard
Authors: Northcott P. L. , Hancock W. V. , Colbeck H. G.M.
Published: September 2009

This paper deals only with thermoset phenolic-plywood bonds. Evidence is presented in support of the hypothesis that since per cent wood failure is more sensitive to initial bond degradation than is breaking load, a concerted effort should be made to make use of this potentially superior measure of bond quality. It is suggested that more research is necessary before the most efficient definition of per cent wood failure can be defined and the best possible standard of wood failure established; however, a preliminary standard is required before this research can be undertaken. The plea is made that ASTM begin preparation of the necessary temporary standard.
Nondestructive Testing of Adhesive-Bonded Joints
Authors: Gonzalez H. M. , Cagle C. V.
Published: September 2009

The use of adhesive structural bonding has spread rapidly throughout the aerospace industry. Its wide acceptance is attributed, on one hand, to unique strength properties imparted to joined structures by the adhesives and, on the other hand, to the design flexibility and production simplification it provides. Adhesive bonding is, in many instances, replacing conventional techniques, such as welding, brazing, and mechanical fastening.

A major problem encountered in the effective application of structural adhesives, however, is determining the reliability of the bonded assembly. Up to the present time, the quality of a bonded structure has been difficult to establish without actually testing the structure to destruction. Test specimens bonded under the same process and at the same time, destructively tested, cannot provide complete quality assurance. The test specimens can exhibit and guarantee only that bonded assemblies are properly processed, that is, that proper surface preparation and cure treatment were used. The test coupons can, therefore, indicate the adhesive quality of a joint, but not the cohesive quality of the bondline.

A nondestructive testing procedure that provides an indication of the cohesive quality of a joint has been studied, developed, and applied to the production-line testing of bonded structures at Hughes Aircraft Co.

This paper briefly describes the background for this study, the procedure developed, and the technique used to generate the measurement criteria.
1963 Edgar Marburg Lecture: Adhesives—Past, Present, and Future
Authors: Blomquist R. F.
Published: September 2009

Although adhesives have been known at least from the time of the early Egyptians and are familiar to all the civilized world as useful means to hold things together, their use in industry is only now being fully realized. Adhesives have many advantages over other methods of fastenings and some important limitations. They open the door to many new combinations of materials with unusual properties unattainable in materials of one component. They can be engineered to produce structural components of unusual properties, such as prefabricated building components or high-speed aircraft, as well as such prosaic uses as holding labels on cans, paper on a wall, or sealing envelopes.

Use of adhesives is still largely an art, but a science of adhesion and adhesives applications is developing. Adhesives are formulated from many components—both natural and synthetic—and are further modified with other selected additives. Their complex molecular composition makes basic studies of interfacial phenomena in bonding difficult. However, significant strides are being made to understand the fundamental nature of adhesion to various substrates, cohesive properties of the adhesive film, and interactions between adherends and adhesives in joints as related to joint design and bonding conditions.

One of the most valuable contributions to adhesives technology in recent years has been the introduction of new man-made polymers, which, when properly formulated into adhesives, can produce strong and durable joints that can be used with confidence as primary fastenings in structures where service requirements are severe over long periods of time.

The wide variety of adhesives now available, together with the many new adhesives to be developed in the near future, challenge the engineer and fabricator. Standardized methods for evaluating and specifying adhesives for new uses are an important phase of current and future ASTM activities.
Establishing Specification Limits by Statistical Data Analysis
Authors: Carpenter C. A. , Oglio E. R.
Published: September 2009

Specification limits for test characteristics of road materials and for the control of processes such as compaction have usually been established on the basis of judgement reflecting experience in testing and working with materials. The limits have been set with the basic intention that compliance will be required. Generally, there is considerable operating room or built-in tolerance for the variations that occur as the operation of incorporating the materials in the job is carried out. As long as these normal variations in materials and processes do not result in failure to meet the specifications, quality is considered to be under control.

Suppliers of materials and contractors tend to operate close to the specification limits when it is financially advantageous. In this case many individual test results and sometimes half or more of all test results fall outside the specification limits, because of at least four specific factors: (1) natural, inherent variations in the material, (2) variations due to sampling, (3) variations due to proportioning and processing, and (4) variations attributable to testing procedures and techniques.

The Bureau of Public Roads has initiated a broad research and development project in cooperation with the State highway departments that participate, to determine the feasibility of establishing specification requirements through statistical analysis of large samples of test data. Early in November, 1962, a suggestion for such a project was sent to all members of the AASHO (American Association of State Highway Officials) Committee on Materials through the committee's secretary. Several States had already undertaken such studies and had accumulated and analyzed a considerable amount of data. The Bureau proposed to analyze any data that might be made available to it, using normal frequency distribution plots and related procedures as suggested in ASTM Manual of Quality Control of Materials (1).

Many highway departments participated, expressed their interest in participating, or agreed to the need for it although unable to participate because of limited personnel.

In order to develop illustrative material applying specifically to highway material, the Bureau made a very limited pilot study on one recent, Federal, construction project using the data from the control testing of the bituminous surfacing material. It distributed an informal report of this work to representatives of the State highway departments at the AASHO annual meeting early in December, 1962. The graphical material from this pilot study is presented in this paper to illustrate the potential of statistical attack.
Significance of Test Results Obtained from Random Samples
Authors: Shook James F.
Published: September 2009

Problems associated with applying test data obtained from random samples to highway specifications are discussed. Illustrations are given using data from the AASHO Road Test and other sources. The possibility is suggested that infrequent randomly chosen tests may be of little value. On the other hand, routine quality control tests frequently made as material is produced and placed should provide adequate information for acceptance of materials. A statistical procedure for routine acceptance of material or highway work is introduced.
Uniformity of Asphalt Concrete Plant Production
Authors: Graham M. D. , Burnett W. C. , Thomas J. J.
Published: September 2009

This study was undertaken to provide much needed information on the uniformity of surface-course asphalt concrete being produced for paving projects under the auspices of the New York State Department of Public Works. Over a two-year period, 39 hot-mix plants were visited, and more than 500 hot-bin samples were obtained. The average gradation from each plant was used as a base from which to compute uniformity. The differences between average gradations and individual sample gradations were analyzed statistically to obtain an indication of the uniformity of asphalt concrete production on a statewide basis. From this study it was concluded that:

1. There is now available a realistic indication of the uniformity of top-course asphalt concrete being supplied to New York State highway projects.

2. None of the plants studied produced a mix which was extremely variable or exceptionally uniform.

3. Using statistical coefficients, as developed in this study, it is possible to establish tolerance limits which reflect the actual variations encountered in the production of asphaltic concrete.
An Inspection Vane
Authors: Andresen A. , Sollie S.
Published: September 2009

The Norwegian Geotechnical Institute has recently developed a light inspection vane borer for field determination of the undrained shear strength in clay. The range of the instrument is from 0 to 2 tons/ft2 (0 to 20 tons/m2). It is primarily intended for use in trenches and excavations at a depth not influenced by drying and excavation procedure.
A Comparison of Soil Shear Strengths as Determined with Field and Laboratory Vane Shear Apparatus
Authors: Miller E. A. , Hall E. B.
Published: September 2009

The increasing use of the field vane shear apparatus3,4 has been noted during the past several years. Even with the many limitations it possesses, a defined degree of reliability has been attached to this method of determining the undrained shear strength of fine-grain plastic soils.

This paper presents a comparison of results of undrained shear strengths as obtained by the field vane shear test with those obtained by a laboratory vane shear device. Further comparisons are presented from the use of the “Q” type (unconsolidated-undrained) triaxial compression test on undisturbed specimens. A remolded strength was determined with the field and laboratory vane shear devices, and certain triaxial test specimens were remolded at unaltered water contents. This was also accomplished for comparative reasons. Close agreement under qualified conditions was found to exist between the strength values obtained by the two methods of vane testing as well as the triaxial tests. However, definite variation was found in the shear strengths obtained by laboratory vane testing within a given 30-in.-long undisturbed sample taken in a 3-in. diameter thin-walled tube with a piston sampler.
A Simple Shear Test for Saturated Cohesive Soils
Authors: Sibley E. A. , Yamane G.
Published: September 2009

A simple torsional vane shear device has been developed which provides a reliable and rapid measure of the shear strength of saturated cohesive soils. This device can be used both in the field and in the laboratory. It is lightweight, inexpensive, and easy to use. For an extensive foundation investigation with a large laboratory testing program, the torsional vane shear device will provide rapid results and will supplement the over-all program. For small investigations, this device can be used in evaluating site conditions and may reduce or, in some cases, eliminate laboratory testing. This paper describes the development and application of the device.
The Philosophy of Using Viscosity for Grading Asphalt Cements
Authors: York Welborn J.
Published: September 2009

Specifications for asphalt cement have been developed on a trial-and-error basis using empirical test methods. Research is now being directed to develop specifications based on the knowledge of fundamental properties of asphalt. Fundamental measurements of viscosity are of primary concern and interest. They can be applied to all grades of asphaltic materials and over the entire range of temperature of interest. The need for improved specifications to define the engineering properties, the potential advantages of using fundamental viscosity, and the research applications are reviewed by the author.
Texas Highway Department's Experience with Viscosity Grading of Paving Asphalts
Authors: Chaffin C. W.
Published: September 2009

The Texas Highway Department has completed two years of extensive use of paving asphalts based on viscosity grading instead of penetration according to the requirements of the Asphalt Institute Study Specifications of January, 1963. No problems have been encountered in viscosity testing by either the state or producer. Only one minor producer out of 16 sources had any difficulty in meeting the viscosity limits. Variation in consistency at 77 F is much greater among producers under viscosity grading. Due to the lack of a needed softer or lower viscosity grade, viscosity grading has encouraged the use of much harder asphalts. Viscosity grading is considered to be still in the experimental stage and further evaluation is needed particularly in relation to durability.
Critical Appraisal of Proposal to Grade Paving Asphalts by Viscosity at 140 F
Authors: McLeod N. W.
Published: September 2009

The proposal to grade asphalt cements by viscosity at 140 F, and to eliminate grading by penetration at 77 F, has been made to facilitate high temperature pavement construction operations, and particularly to eliminate delayed rolling.

This paper is critical of this proposed change to grading asphalt cements by viscosity at 140 F for the following reasons:

1. The effect this proposed change would have on long term pavement performance has been overlooked or ignored.

2. Elimination of delayed rolling can be achieved much more effectively by discarding steel-wheel rollers, and by employing properly operated pneumatic-tire rollers equipped for rapid adjustment of tire inflation pressure.

3. One of the proposed new viscosity grades, AC 12, would include all of the current paving grades, 40 to 50, 60 to 70, 85 to 100, 120 to 150, and 150 to 200 penetration, and this proposal implies, therefore, that pavement performance will be the same if asphalt cements ranging from 40 to 50 to 150 to 200 penetration are used.

4. Photographic evidence is presented to show the drastic difference in pavement performance that can occur when 85 to 100 versus 150 to 200 penetration asphalt cements are used under the severe climatic conditions that occur in the interior of Canada, and probably in the neighboring United States.

5. Differences of 50 and 70 per cent in Marshall stabilities of paving mixtures determined at 140 and 39.2 F, respectively, occur when they are made with asphalt cements of the same viscosity at 140 F, but with widely different penetrations at 77 F. These large differences in Marshall stability would influence both warm weather and cold weather pavement performance.

6. If the proposed grading by viscosity at 140 F were narrowed or circumscribed in any way, so as to eliminate asphalt cements with low penetrations at 77 F, this would exclude asphalt cements that satisfy current ASTM, AASHO, and Asphalt Institute specifications, which are based on grading by penetration at 77 F, and that have excellent records of service performance.

7. Grading asphalt cements by penetration at 77 F makes low viscosity asphalt cements available which, due to their lower resistance to compaction, facilitate: (a) attaining compaction to 100 percent of laboratory compacted density by rolling during construction, (b) achieving faster compaction by traffic to 100 per cent of laboratory compacted density, (c) achieving compaction to much higher density by rolling during cold weather construction; all of which will result in longer pavement life, in higher load carrying capacity per inch thickness of pavement, and in better pavement performance.
High-Temperature Alloys Developed for Aircraft Turbosuperchargers and Gas Turbines
Authors: Freeman J. W. , Reynolds E. E. , White A. E.
Published: September 2009

In recognition of the advantages to be obtained through the use of the gas turbine in aircraft power plants, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics started to sponsor research work in November, 1941, to develop suitable heat-resistant alloys. This paper describes the alloys which have evolved from the phase of their work conducted under contracts at the University of Michigan. Due to necessary restrictions under wartime conditions, the results have previously only been given limited circulation.
Resistance of Iron-Nickel-Chromium Alloys to Corrosion in Air at 1600 to 2200 F
Authors: Brasunas Anton deS. , Gow James T. , Harder Oscar E.
Published: September 2009

A series of iron-nickel-chromium alloys has been studied for the Alloy Casting Institute with reference to their resistance to corrosion in air at temperatures of 1600, 1800, 2000, and 2200 F. Most of the cast-alloy materials used in this investigation were prepared by the Research Laboratory of the American Brake Shoe Co. The chromium variation has been from 11 to 36 per cent at 5 per cent intervals, and the nickel content was varied from zero to approximately 70 per cent at the 11 per cent chromium level and from zero to about 50 per cent at the 31 per cent chromium level. For the most part, the carbon content has been about 0.45 per cent, but higher and lower carbon contents have been introduced to study the effect of carbon on certain compositions. The silicon and manganese contents have approximated 1.25 and 0.75 per cent, respectively. However, silicon, too, has been varied in certain compositions to study its effect on corrosion resistance. There has been substantial variation in the nitrogen content, but this element was not intentionally varied, and no study has been made of its effect on corrosion resistance.
An Application of Thermal Analysis to Household Waste
Authors: Cheng Zhongxian , Chen Hui-ling , Zhang Yan , Hack Pauline , Pan Wei-Ping
Published: September 2009

Thermal analysis combined with composition analysis has been used in this work to identify evolved gas when burning household waste. Thermogravimetry (TG) coupled with Fourier transform infrared (FITR) spectroscopy and mass spectrometry (TG-FTIR-MS) offers structural identi.cation of compounds evolved during thermal processes. Carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen elemental analysis and XRD offers raw materials information. All these combined can help to evaluate the chemical pathway for the degradation reactions by determining the decomposition products. For comparison purposes, emitted species concentrations are measured with multiple-sensors when burning household waste in a lab-scale .uidized bed combustor. There is excellent agreement between the two different approaches. The measured results also provided some insight into burning household waste as an energy source in large-scale incinerators.