bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Continuous measurement of air-water gas exchange by underwater eddy covariance
Authors: Berg Peter , Pace Michael L.
Published: August 2017

Abstract. Abstract. Exchange of gasses, such as O2, CO2, and CH4, over the air-water interface is an important component in aquatic ecosystem studies, but exchange rates are typically measured or estimated with substantial uncertainties. This diminishes the precision of common ecosystem assessments associated with gas exchanges such as primary production, respiration, and greenhouse gas emission. Here, we use the aquatic eddy covariance technique – originally developed for benthic O2 flux measurements – right below the air-water interface (~ 5 cm) to determine gas exchange rates and coefficients. Using an Acoustic Doppler Velocimeter and a fast-responding dual O2-temperature sensor mounted on a floating platform, the 3D water velocity, O2 concentration, and temperature are measured at high-speed (64 Hz). By combining these data, concurrent vertical fluxes of O2 and heat across the air-water interface are derived, and from the former, gas exchange coefficients. Proof-of-concept deployments at different river sites gave standard gas exchange coefficients (k600) in the range of published values. A 40 h long deployment revealed a distinct diurnal pattern in air-water exchange of O2 that was controlled largely by physical processes (e.g., diurnal variations in air temperature and associated air-water heat fluxes) and not by biological activity (primary production and respiration). This physical control of gas exchange is prevalent in lotic systems and adds uncertainty to common ecosystem assessments of biological activity relying on water column O2 concentration recordings. For example, in the 40 h deployment, there was close-to constant river flow and insignificant winds – two main drivers of lotic gas exchange – but we found gas exchange coefficients that varied by several fold. This was presumably caused by vertical temperature-density gradient formation and erosion in the surface water driven by the heat flux into or out of the river that controlled the turbulent mixing. This effect is unaccounted for in widely used empirical correlations for gas exchange coefficients and is another source of uncertainty in gas exchange estimates. The aquatic eddy covariance technique allows studies of air-water gas exchange processes and their controls at an unparalleled level of detail. A finding related to the new approach is that heat fluxes at the air-water interface can, contrary to those typically found in the benthic environment, be substantial and require correction of O2 sensor readings using high-speed parallel temperature measurements. Fast-responding O2 sensors are inherently sensitive to temperature changes, and if this correction is omitted, temperature fluctuations associated with the turbulent heat flux will mistakenly be recorded as O2 fluctuations and bias the O2 eddy flux calculation.
Effect of disorder on bulk sound wave speed: a multiscale spectral analysis
Authors: Shrivastava Rohit Kumar , Luding Stefan
Published: August 2017

Abstract. Disorder of size (polydispersity) and mass of discrete elements or particles in randomly structured media (e.g., granular matter such as soil) has numerous effects on the materials' sound propagation characteristics. The influence of disorder on energy and momentum transport, the sound wave speed and its low-pass frequency-filtering characteristics is the subject of this study. The goal is understanding the connection between the particle-microscale disorder and dynamics and the system-macroscale wave propagation, which can be applied to nondestructive testing, seismic exploration of buried objects (oil, mineral, etc.) or to study the internal structure of the Earth. To isolate the longitudinal P-wave mode from shear and rotational modes, a one-dimensional system of equally sized elements or particles is used to study the effect of mass disorder alone via (direct and/or ensemble averaged) real time signals, signals in Fourier space, energy and dispersion curves. Increase in mass disorder (where disorder has been defined such that it is independent of the shape of the probability distribution of masses) decreases the sound wave speed along a granular chain. Energies associated with the eigenmodes can be used to obtain better quality dispersion relations for disordered chains; these dispersion relations confirm the decrease in pass frequency and wave speed with increasing disorder acting opposite to the wave acceleration close to the source.
Os portugueses e a colonização do Brasil na Revue des Deux Mondes: mensageiros da civilização ou males de nossa terra?
Authors: Tosta Barbato Luis Fernando
Published: August 2017

Este artigo tem como objetivo compreender as representações sobre os portugueses e a colonização que empreenderam no Brasil, dentro das publicações da Revue des Deux Mondes do século XIX. A partir da leitura dos artigos publicados sobre o Brasil desse período, buscaremos compreender como os viajantes franceses enxergavam os portugueses, tendo como objeto principal de análise as relações entre os climas e a formação dos povos, importante elemento explicativo dentro das concepções do século XIX, e como isso se refletiu na colonização do Brasil que encontraram.
English for Tourism and Hospitality Purposes (ETP)
Authors: Zahedpisheh Nahid , B Abu bakar Zulqarnain , Saffari Narges
Published: August 2017

The quick development of the tourism and hospitality industry can straightly influence the English language which is the most widely used and spoken language in international tourism in the twenty-first century. English for tourism has a major role in the delivery of quality service. Employees who work in the tourism and hospitality industry are entirely and highly aware of its importance and they need to have a good command of English in their workplace. English for tourism and hospitality has been categorized under English for the specific purpose (ESP). It is an important and dynamic area of specialization within the field of English language teaching and learning. The necessity of teaching English for professional purposes and specifically in the area of tourism is irrefutable. Language proficiency is very important and essential in all professional fields specifically in the tourism and hospitality industry due to its specific nature and concepts. Thus, it is required that the educators understand the practical applications of this approach. This paper aims to provide an overview of the purpose of teaching ESP (English for Specific Purposes) and ETP (English for Tourism Purposes) to the learners and users. In addition, characteristic features of ESP and ETP concerning course development, curriculum planning, learning style, material development, English efficiency, types of activities and evaluation are outlined. Determining the ESP concepts and elements provides specific English instruction that could help the learners be well-prepared for meeting their workplace requirements.
Impact Atom Emission
Authors: Marakhtanov M. K.
Published: August 2017

It is shown, that if a steel plate is subjected to a projectile impact, the atomic emission is induced from the great amount of craters that appear on the plate’s side opposite to the place of impact application. The craters’ mean size and shape are same to cathode craters in a low-voltage vacuum arc. This similarity shows that the reasons of mechanical and electrical failure of metals can be identical in either case.
Effect of fishing tactics on the standardization of cardinalfish (Epigonus crassicaudus) catch rates in the demersal multispecies fishery off central Chile
Authors: Wiff R , Quiroz JC , Tascheri R , Contreras F
Published: August 2017

We analyzed the allocation of effective fishing effort and the standardization of cardinalfish (Epigonus crassicaudus) catch rates in the multispecies demersal trawl fishery off central Chile. The period analyzed covered from 1997 to 2004 and included detailed information about fishing hauls. Each haul that contained cardinalfish was assigned into a particular fishing tactic (cluster) by using multivariate analysis of their catch composition. The catch rate standardization was carried out by generalized linear models (GLM). Three fishing tactics were discovered: the first directed effort at cardinalfish, the second at common hake (Merluccius gayi gayi), and the third at Patagonian grenadier (Macruronus magellanicus). Fishing tactic was used as an explanatory variable in the proposed GLM. The fishing tactic effect was one of the most important factors in explaining the variance in the GLM. These results are discussed in the context of how the assignation of a fishing tactic allows unbiased abundance indices to be obtained in this kind of multispecies demersal fishery.
Genetic connectivity of Stegastes partitus in the South Caribbean evidenced by microsatellite analysis
Authors: Ospina-Guerrero SP , Landnez-García RM , Rodríguez-Castro DJ , Arango R , Márquez E
Published: August 2017

Bicolor damselfish Stegastes partitus (Poey 1986) has been used as a model for studies of the population structure of reef species as an aid for the designing and monitoring of marine protected areas. Studies using allozymes have shown gene flow between populations, but it has been suggested that the lack of structuring could be a consequence of the insensitivity of these markers. We used 11 polymorphic microsatellite loci to evaluate the genetic connectivity of 299 bicolor damselfish from four representative areas of the Colombian coast in the South Caribbean (Santa Marta, Rosario Islands, Capurganá, and San Andrés Island). Genotyping was made using detection by fluorescence of multiple alleles. Genetic differentiation among geographic populations and different oceanographic scenarios was analyzed using the statistic ΦST and analysis of molecular variance. The correlation between genetic and geographic distance was explored using the Mantel test. All loci were polymorphic, and showed a high number of alleles per locus and heterozygosity deficit with a consequent departure from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. We found evidence of gene flow between the geographic and oceanographic populations examined and a lack of correlation between the genetic and geographic distances. The information obtained can be used by the agencies responsible for the design and conservation of marine protected areas and as reference in the monitoring of the genetic diversity and structure of the population under study.
Mapping of the spatial distribution of benthic habitats in the Gulf of Batabanó using Landsat-7 images
Authors: Cerdeira-Estrada S , Lorenzo-Sánchez S , Areces-Mallea A , Martínez-Bayón C
Published: August 2017

The spatial distribution of benthic habitats in the Gulf of Batabanó obtained by remote sensing, using five images from the Landsat-7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) satellite sensor, is reported for the first time. The map covers a total underwater area of 21,305 km2 and is presented at the 1:250,000 scale. Five benthic habitats were identified within this area and located using the supervised classification technique: medium- to high-density seagrass, low-density seagrass, sand with scarce vegetation, mud with scarce vegetation, and rock. Seagrass covers 64.85% (13,818 km2) of the total area, while 35.15% (7,487 km2) corresponds to the remaining benthic habitats with or without scarce vegetation. Both the underwater vegetation (seagrass and macro seaweed) and the substratum types were considered. Results were confirmed by in situ measurements obtained from three research cruises between 2003 and 2005. This map represents an important characterization of the Cuban platform waters in order to better understand these ecosystems, and can be used in future change detection analyses to monitor the health of benthic habitats in the Gulf of Batabanó.
Pelagic ecosystem response to interannual variability off Baja California
Authors: Gaxiola-Castro G , Durazo R , Lavaniegos B , De La Cruz-Orozco ME , Millán-Nuñez E , Soto-Mardones L , Cepeda-Morales J
Published: August 2017

Seasonal anomalies of salinity, phytoplankton chlorophyll a, and zooplankton volume off Baja California were examined from data obtained during 2001–2007. The analyses helped to identify a strong effect of physical processes on the pelagic ecosystem, diminishing near surface salinity and water column integrated phytoplankton biomass, and enhancing zooplankton volume. These changes are associated with an increase of the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) index, characterizing a warm phase of the index from summer 2002 to at least summer 2006. Negative chlorophyll a anomalies appear to respond to zooplankton grazing activity, with a possible top down effect during this period. Empirical orthogonal functions (EOFs) of Ekman drift reveal the seasonal and interannual patterns that describe the influence of upwelling zones, and there was a strong response to changes in the equatorward wind forcing from 2002 to 2006. The relationship between negative salinity anomalies and the two temporal EOF modes of Ekman drift was evident as a result of relaxation of coastal upwelling during this period. After 2006, the PDO index showed more neutral or negative values, defining the beginning of a cool phase, with positive nearsurface salinity anomalies off Baja California.
Assessing sediment quality in Spanish ports using a green alga bioassay
Authors: Morales-Caselles C , Rico A , Abbondanzi F , Campisi T , Iacondini A , Riba I , DelValls A
Published: August 2017

Coastal zones are under environmental pressure due to human activities, and ports are the areas that probably present the highest levels of contaminants in their sediments. In the present study we have combined chemical data and biological effects to determine the sediment quality of six Spanish ports. Trace metals and organic contaminants have been analyzed, and an acute bioassay was carried out in sediment elutriate using the unicellular green alga Dunaliella tertiolecta. The toxicological parameter employed was EC50, which was estimated after exposure to different concentrations of elutriates during 72 h. The development of this alga may be affected when there is a xenobiotic in the environment, and growth inhibition can be quantified and linked to the levels of contaminants in the sediment in order to determine its quality. The results showed that the metals (Cd, Cr, Hg, and Zn) and organic contaminants (PAHs and PCBs) bound to the sediments reduced the normal growth of the alga, but no alterations were detected due to the presence of Cu. The main disadvantage observed was the hormesis produced by the presence of high levels of organic material in the sediment that might hide the toxicity of xenobiotics.
Influence of alkali treatment on agar from Gracilariopsis longissima and Gracilaria vermiculophylla from the Gulf of California, Mexico
Authors: Orduña-Rojas J , Suárez-Castro R , López-Álvarez ES , Riosmena-Rodríguez R , Pacheco-Ruiz I , Zertuche-González JA , Meling-López AE
Published: August 2017

The effect of alkali treatment on agar yield, sulfate content, and 3,6 anhydrogalactose content from two agarophyte species (Gracilariopsis longissima and Gracilaria vermiculophylla) was analyzed. In addition, gel strength was measured in each agar extract as well as gelling and melting temperatures. Agar was extracted after pretreatment with different concentrations of NaOH (3%, 5%, 7%, and 9%). Pretreatment with alkali significantly reduced agar yield from G. longissima from 13.2% in nontreated agar (native agar) to 5.4% in 5% NaOH, whereas in G. vermiculophylla it diminished from 25.2% to 9.6% in 9% NaOH treatment. Statistically significant differences were observed for native and all alkali treatments in G. longissima, whereas in G. vermiculophylla significant differences were only found among native and high alkali treatments (7% and 9% NaOH, P < 0.05). Sulfate content from G. longissima diminished gradually with increasing alkali concentration, from high (3.9%) in native agar to low (3.1%) in 7% alkali treatment, and was negatively correlated with gel strength (r = –0.92). Sulfate content in G. vermiculophylla native agar was twice as high as that found in G. longissima (7.8%) and did not show statistically significant differences with low alkali treatments, but it did with high NaOH treatments. Higher contents of 3,6 anhydrogalactose were found with 9% NaOH treatment in G. longissima (40.9%) and G. vermiculophylla (43%), and they were significantly correlated with gel strength (r = 0.89 and r = 0.91, respectively).
Environmental factors influencing the variability of Lingulodinium polyedrum and Scrippsiella trochoidea (Dinophyceae) cyst production
Authors: Peña-Manjarrez JL , Gaxiola-Castro G , Helenes-Escamilla J
Published: August 2017

This study analyzes the temporal variability of the abundance of Lingulodinium polyedrum and Scrippsiella trochoidea resting cysts in surface sediments, as well as the temporary cysts and vegetative cells of L. polyedrum in the upper water column of Todos Santos Bay (Baja California, Mexico). Samples were collected monthly from January 2002 to June 2005 at four sites. Multidimensional scaling analysis and analysis of similarities revealed that resting cysts are distributed heterogeneously according to the sedimentary environment. Surface water temperature, inorganic dissolved phosphate, and the abundance of temporary cysts were the main factors influencing the abundance of L. polyedrum resting cysts, while the variability of temporary cysts was explained by the abundance of planktonic cells. Scrippsiella trochoidea resting cysts showed no statistical relationship with the environmental factors considered. Local runoff during the rainy season and sewage from the city of Ensenada contribute to the eutrophication of the bay. This is an important factor for future blooms since inorganic dissolved nitrate + nitrite and daylight hours during the spring-summer season are not limiting factors for dinoflagellate growth. After the dinoflagellate blooms, there was massive cyst production of both species, and the new cysts settled on the surface sediments. Surface water temperatures between 17°C and 22.5°C during spring-summer appear to trigger excystment in these species.
Morphodynamics of carbonate beaches in the Yucatán Peninsula
Authors: Cuevas-Jiménez A , Euán-Avila J
Published: August 2017

The concept of beach morphodynamics was used to classify the swash zone of carbonate sandy beaches in the central part of the state of Yucatán (Mexico). Several topobathymetric profiles were analyzed to determine the slope of the swash zone, shape parameter A of Dean’s model, and shoreline advance and recession. Grain size and wave data were also analyzed to determine the dimensionless fall velocity (Ω). The slope of the swash zone was in general greater during the tropical storm season than during the northerly wind (Nortes) season. Mean profile values according to shape parameter A ranged from –0.186 to –0.074. The Ω values indicated intermediate beaches with a reflective tendency. Shoreline change relative to beach width helped to identify and rank security levels of beach segments.
Occurrence of a subsurface anticyclonic eddy, fronts, and Trichodesmium spp.
Authors: Aldeco-Ramírez J , Monreal-Gómez MA , Signoret M , Salas-de-León DA , Hernández-Becerril DU
Published: August 2017

Eddies and fronts created by geostrophic balance between counter-rotating currents are hydrodynamic processes that concentrate or dilute plankton and suspended material by physical processes of accumulation, retention, or dispersion. Over Campeche Canyon, in the southern Gulf of Mexico, observations revealed an anticyclonic eddy, a cyclonic current off the continental shelf, and an associated thermal front in their common boundary. Along this front there was high Trichodesmium spp. occurrence. Three water masses were found in the upper 120 m layer: Caribbean Tropical Surface Water (CTSW), Caribbean Subtropical Underwater (CSUW), and Gulf Common Water (GCW). The frontal zone between the warm core and cyclonic circulation was observed below the hot summertime mixed layer. The presence of Trichodesmium spp. was associated with the front, indicating its influence on the distribution of this diazotrophic cyanobacterium that enters the Campeche Canyon region via modified CTSW. The associated phytoplankton was dominated by tropical oceanic species of diatoms and dinoflagellates, especially species of Ceratium.
Off‐fault heterogeneities promote supershear transition of dynamic mode II cracks
Authors: Albertini Gabriele , Kammer David S.
Published: August 2017

The transition from sub‐Rayleigh to supershear propagation of mode II cracks is a fundamental problem of fracture mechanics. It has extensively been studied in homogeneous uniform setups. When the applied shear load exceeds a critical value, transition occurs through the Burridge‐Andrews mechanism at a well‐defined crack length. However, velocity structures in geophysical conditions can be complex and affect the transition. Damage induced by previous earthquakes causes low‐velocity zones surrounding mature faults and inclusions with contrasting material properties can be present at seismogenic depth. We relax the assumption of homogeneous media and investigate dynamic shear fracture in heterogeneous media using two‐dimensional finite element simulations and a linear slip‐weakening law. We analyze the role of heterogeneities in the elastic media, while keeping the frictional interface properties uniform. We show that supershear transition is possible due to the sole presence of favorable off‐fault heterogeneities. Subcritical shear loads, for which propagation would remain permanently sub‐Rayleigh in an equivalent homogeneous setup, will transition to supershear as a result of reflected waves. P wave reflected as S waves, followed by further reflections, affect the amplitude of the shear stress peak in front of the propagating crack, leading to supershear transition. A wave reflection model allows to uniquely describe the effect of off‐fault inclusions on the shear stress peak. A competing mechanism of modified released potential energy affects transition and becomes predominant with decreasing distance between fault and inclusions. For inclusions at far distances, the wave reflection is the predominant mechanism.
Intermetallic Compounds and Alloy Bonding Theory Derived from Quantum Mechanical One‐Electron Models
Authors: Lee Stephen , Fredrickson Daniel C.
Published: August 2017

This chapter traces, to the current day, one‐electron quantum mechanical concepts as applied to intermetallic compounds and alloys. Three main threads are followed: the evolution over time of the tight‐binding model, the role of nearly free‐electron theory, and the adaption of one‐electron ideas to experimentally derived phenomenological theories as applied to these systems.

Analysis of tight‐binding theory begins with the two‐electron bond: The case of hydrogen is contrasted to the alkali metals. The connection between tight‐binding theory and density functional theory is explored: Tight‐binding theory is found to reproduce well the more computationally precise DFT band structures. Models that emanate from tight‐binding theory include the COOP and COHP analysis of the metallic bond, site preferences (the coloring problem), and Mulliken populations. Tight‐binding moment theory is also shown to account for crystalline structural preferences. The Dronskowski–Landrum model for magnetically ordered systems is presented. Recent developments focused on localized orbitals (Wannier functions), and transition metal electron‐counting (for half‐Heusler, Nowotny chimney ladder phases, and other phases) is explored. Reversed approximation molecular orbital analysis to these latter systems is presented.

The role of nearly free electron theory and its role in the understanding of Hume‐Rothery electron phases is presented. The importance of the Jones zone is made clear, not just for these phases but also for more complex phases, including the Samson phase, Cd3Cu4, with 1124 atoms in its unit cell. Recent work combining the Jones model of orbital mixing with the Zintl concept of electropositive to electronegative atom electron transfer is found to lead to corrected Jones zones for the quasi‐crystalline approximant phase Li52.0Al88.7Cu19.3. An explanation of the unusual electron count of the 1e−/aγ‐brass structure Li33Ag19is derived. The role of pseudopotentials in accounting for structural distortions is reviewed.

Finally, a look at how well‐known phenomenological analyses have evolved into modern quantum theory‐based models is explored. Among these is the role of structure maps, where the Pettifor tight‐binding model for structure maps is presented. The phenomenological Pearson analysis of steric strain is shown to lead to chemical pressure analysis via ‐based Hückel theory. The classic Brewer analysis of electron transfer from electropositive to electronegative atoms evolves into the ‐Lewis acidity model.
Quasicrystal Approximants
Authors: Lidin Sven
Published: August 2017

The concept of quasicrystal approximants is best pursued with reference to the quasicrystals themselves. This makes the classification of approximants into classes congruent to those for quasicrystals useful, that is, axial and icosahedral. As noted by several authors, work on approximants has come full circle; the initial interest in approximants grew out of a desire to understand particularly the enigmatic structure of the quasicrystals, but lately it has become increasingly clear that not only the structure but also many of the physical properties of quasicrystals may be more conveniently probed and understood through the study of their approximants. Although the uniqueness of quasicrystals lies in their structures, the approximants approximate this to such an extent that most questions about quasicrystals can be addressed through the proxy of the approximant phases. This treatise deals mainly with the structural properties of approximants.
Introduction to the Crystal Chemistry of Transition Metal Oxides
Authors: Greedan J.E.
Published: August 2017

An attempt is made to introduce the subject of the structure of the vast class of materials known as transition metal oxides (TMO). Transition metals are defined as members of the d and f groups in the periodic table. After the introduction of a core of principles, which determine the crystal structure of TMO, six of the most important structure types and structures derived from these are presented: NaCl or rock salt‐, corundum‐, rutile‐, fluorite‐, perovskite‐, and spinel structures. Many examples are described with the use of 50 figures, 11 tables, and 186 references. Connections between structure and properties, both physical and chemical, are discussed.
High‐Pressure Methods in Solid‐State Chemistry
Authors: Huppertz Hubert , Heymann Gunter , Schwarz Ulrich , Schwarz Marcus R.
Published: August 2017

Solid‐state chemistry exhibits an intriguing variety of methods for the syntheses of new materials. The majority of these methods deal with variations of the reactive compounds including an enhancement of the temperature. The latter factor provides the reactions with the essential kinetic energy as one of the most important factors for a successful solid‐state synthesis. An alternative or additional route to supply the synthesis of solids with the necessary reaction energy is the use of high pressures. Technically, this way is much more demanding due to the fact that the stabilization of such extreme conditions requires sophisticated devices. This chapter will introduce into the main techniques of high‐pressure solid‐state chemistry giving a brief overview of the assets and drawbacks of each method. Additionally, the main principles of high‐pressure chemistry are explained including a chapter of recent advances in the field of high‐pressure solid‐state chemistry.
High‐Pressure Perovskite: Synthesis, Structure, and Phase Relation
Authors: Inaguma Yoshiyuki
Published: August 2017

A huge number of compounds with chemical formula ABX3adopt the perovskite (Pv)‐type structure or its distorted derivatives. Studies on Pv‐type and related compounds synthesized under high pressures and high temperatures or stable under high pressure have been developed by large contributions of earth science as well as materials science and engineering. In the field of solid‐state chemistry, the stabilization of Pv‐phase by high pressure, the phase relation under various pressure‐temperature conditions, and the structure and properties of obtained metastable Pv phases have been elucidated. This chapter reviews syntheses of high‐pressure Pv in terms of synthetic methods, phase stability, structure, and chemical bonding. Synthetic methods of Pvs aided by pressure, from relative low gas pressure of ∼1 MPa to hydrostatic pressure in solid medium on the order of 10 GPa and the examples.
Sol–Gel Synthesis of Solid‐State Materials
Authors: Kickelbick Guido , Wenderoth Patrick
Published: August 2017

Sol–gel synthesis is one of the most important techniques for the preparation of solid‐state compounds from molecular precursors under wet‐chemistry conditions. Due to the mild reaction conditions, the plethora of chemical compositions possible, and its various processing options it became one of the major tools in modern materials fabrication. In this chapter, we will introduce this technique based on its molecular mechanisms and the parameter field, which can be used to tailor the final materials. Different precursors lead to materials compositions from pure silica, over metal oxides, sulfides, and fluorides, to hybrid inorganic–organic materials. Not only the composition, but also the morphology of the final materials can be controlled from bulk‐ to nanoscale, and even the tailoring of porosity is easily possible. Based on the broad synthetic strategies it becomes clear that also many applications are under development or are even in market. Selected examples will also be presented.
Particle‐Mediated Crystal Growth
Authors: Penn R. Lee
Published: August 2017

The structure, microstructure, size, and shape of nanocrystals are strongly path‐dependent. However, rational and tight control over these same properties remains an ongoing challenge in materials synthesis. The crystal growth literature contains many reports describing crystals with textures, morphologies, and microstructures that cannot be explained by classical crystal growth. There are myriad examples of crystals that have features that are consistent with formation by nonclassical crystal growth, such as oriented attachment or other particle‐mediated crystal growth mechanisms. This chapter's primary focus is on solid‐phase particle‐mediated crystal growth. A particularly challenging aspect of elucidating crystal growth mechanisms is that multiple mechanisms often operate simultaneously. Thus, time‐resolved methods that enable characterization of crystals as they exist in their growth media across growth stages are essential to elucidating and quantifying crystal growth.
High‐Throughput Synthesis Under Hydrothermal Conditions
Authors: Aoki Nobuaki , Seong Gimyeong , Aida Tsutomu , Hojo Daisuke , Takami Seiichi , Adschiri Tadafumi
Published: August 2017

This chapter summarizes the specific features of continuous flow‐type reaction system, which enables high‐throughput synthesis of nanoparticles. First, the mechanism of the hydrothermal synthesis method is summarized with reviewing the water properties, solubility, and reaction rate and equilibrium. Nanoparticles synthesis, metallic nanoparticles formation, and organic modification are explained. Next, phenomena in the reactor are described, including mixing of fluids, kinetics of reaction, which is essential to design the flow reactors. Then, the applications of the methods are illustrated, which covers catalyst, metamaterials, medical applications, semiconductor applications, and hybrid materials.
Bio‐Inspired Synthesis and Application of Functional Inorganic Materials by Polymer‐Controlled Crystallization
Authors: Liu Lei , Yu Shu‐Hong
Published: August 2017

Biominerals present in organisms are typically inorganic–organic hybrid materials with unique complex form, hierarchically ordered superstructures, and superior materials properties. Bio‐inspired polymer‐controlled crystallization approaches, aiming to transform the optimized designs and formation mechanisms lurking in biominerals to artificial systems, have been successfully applied to the synthesis of a wide range of inorganic materials. In order to avoid duplication with previous reviews, in this chapter we only focus on the new branches of polymer‐controlled crystallization for the design and preparation of functional inorganic materials with novel structures and improved resulting properties. For clear understanding of the interactions between added polymers and growing crystals and their mediation over the final crystal structures, some basic principles of crystallization involving classical and nonclassical pathways are first introduced. Emphasis will be laid on latest developments and important advances of bio‐inspired synthesis of various kinds of functional inorganic materials via polymer‐controlled crystallization. Their resulting improvements in different properties and potential applications in diverse fields of energy transformation and storage, catalysis, sensing, environmental management, (bio)medical science, and so on are subsequently discussed and highlighted. The challenges of current studies and prospects for future research about this new branch topic are finally suggested.
Microcontact Printing
Authors: Yase Kiyoshi
Published: August 2017

It will be explained how to fabricate the TFTs on plastic sheet with large and fine pixel size at low temperature process.
Single‐CrystalX‐Ray Diffraction
Authors: Englert Ulli
Published: August 2017

X‐ray diffraction experiments on single crystals represent one of the most relevant characterization techniques. They continue to provide us with a plethora of structural details and invaluable structure–property relationships in many fields of natural sciences. The overview in this chapter will follow the sequence of a classical diffraction experiment: Symmetry plays a decisive role for understanding crystal chemistry and relationships between crystal structures. Diffraction will be addressed within the limits of kinematic theory, and a very short overview of instrumentation will be given. It will be followed by strategies to solve the phase problem and quality criteria for the structure model. We will then address the interpretation of the structure model and its documentation in databases, and we will conclude with suggestions for further reading. The subject of this chapter is slightly broader than the title might suggest: Twinned crystals will be covered together with single crystals, and a few benefits of synchrotron radiation will be mentioned. Powder diffraction and experiments with neutrons will be covered elsewhere in this handbook.
Laboratory and Synchrotron Powder Diffraction
Authors: Dinnebier R.E. , Etter M. , Runcevski T.
Published: August 2017

This chapter focuses on high‐resolution powder diffraction, which is a prerequisite for structure determination and refinement from powder diffraction data. It starts with a brief history and basics of (powder) diffraction, followed by a condensed description of the typical geometry of state‐of‐the‐art high‐resolution powder diffractometers in the laboratory and at synchrotrons. In correspondence to its importance, the chapter explains the Rietveld method in more detail, in particular mentioning alternative descriptions of crystal structures using symmetry modes, which are particularly suitable for the description of structural phase transitions. Among the many existing methods for structure determination from powder diffraction data, two established methods, one working in real space, the other in reciprocal space are exemplarily described. Finally, the chapter presents four research projects conducted by the authors that have been selected as case studies, as they allow tracing the process of powder diffraction data evaluation for typical problems in modern solid‐state chemistry.
Macroscopic Magnetic Behavior: Spontaneous Magnetic Ordering
Authors: Lueken Heiko , Speldrich Manfred
Published: August 2017

Automated, high‐accuracy measurements are state of the art in today's magnetic materials sciences. The measurements serve to determine electronic configurations of magnetically active ions, interatomic exchange interactions, diamagnetic contributions, metallic character, magnetic anisotropy, superparamagnetism, single‐molecule magnetism, delocalization of electrons in mixed valence systems, and multiferroic properties. In practical operation, the magnetic properties of compounds are examined as function of temperature (T) and the applied magnetic field (B). When considering magnetic properties, it is first necessary to define quantities that represent the response of these materials to the field. These quantities are magnetic moment (m) and magnetization (M). This chapter introduces crystal field theory (CFT) to describe the spectroscopic properties of transition metal complexes. CFT is based primarily on symmetry of ligands around a transition metal center and how this anisotropic (properties depending on direction) crystal field affects the atomic orbitals of the metal.
Porous Coordination Polymers/Metal–Organic Frameworks
Authors: Ryo Ohtani , Susumu Kitagawa
Published: August 2017

Porous frameworks that consist of metal‐complex components and adsorbed gas molecules were first observed in 1997, when porous coordination polymer/metal‐organic framework (PCP/MOF) chemistry began. This chapter describes fundamental synthetic procedures for PCP/MOF compounds, and subsequently introduces hot topics relating to both "porous" and "framework" functions, including important subjects such as "crystal engineering" and "physical chemistry" for PCPs/MOFs, with reference to representative works. Crystal engineering of PCPs/MOFs includes the preparation of hybrid crystals such as core‐shell‐type and solid‐solution‐type hybrid crystals, control of crystal sizes or crystal morphologies, crystal growth on substrates, and control of crystal assembly structures. The strength and stability of coordination networks are related to the durability and mechanical properties of PCPs/MOFs. In order to probe these properties in PCPs/MOFs, structural transformation, thermal expansion, crystal‐amorphous transition, and melting by heat and pressure have been investigated.
Materials for Tissue Engineering
Authors: Vallet‐Regí María , Salinas Antonio J.
Published: August 2017

Surgical procedures based on tissue engineering (
TE
) are used every day to reconstruct damaged or diseased tissues. These approaches look for the regeneration of living tissues by combining cells from the body with highly porous scaffold biomaterials decorated with biologically active molecules, signals, which act as templates for tissue regeneration to guide the growth of new tissue. This chapter describes the general concepts and main applications in which
TE
is based. Then, the requirements and types of scaffolds, cells, and signals used for bone tissue engineering (
BTE
) applications are described. The challenges and future research in this growing area are also presented.
Optical Properties of Hybrid Organic–inorganic Materials and their Applications – Part
II
: Nonlinear Optics and Plasmonics
Authors: Parola Stephane , Julián‐López Beatriz , Carlos Luís D. , Sanchez Clément
Published: August 2017

Research on hybrid inorganic–organic materials has experienced an explosive growth since the 1980s, with the expansion of soft inorganic chemistry based processes. Indeed, mild synthetic conditions, low processing temperatures provided by “chimie douce” and the versatility of the colloidal state allow for the mixing of the organic and inorganic components at the nanometer scale in virtually any ratio to produce the so‐called hybrid materials. Today, a high degree of control over both composition and nanostructure of these hybrids can be achieved allowing tunable structure–property relationships. This, in turn, makes it possible to tailor and fine‐tune many properties (mechanical, optical, electronic, thermal, chemical…) in very broad ranges, and to design specific multifunctional systems for applications. In particular, the field of “hybrid‐optics” has been very productive not only scientifically but also in terms of applications. Indeed, numerous optical devices based on hybrids are already in, or very close, to the market. This review describes most of the recent advances performed in this field. Emphasis will be given to luminescent, photochromic,
NLO
, and plasmonic properties. As an Outlook, we show that the controlled coupling between plasmonics and luminescence is opening a land of opportunities in the field of “hybrids‐optics.”
Chemical Bonding in Solids
Authors: Miller Gordon J. , Zhang Yuemei , Wagner Frank R.
Published: August 2017

Solids are typically identified by their physical properties, which originate from the nature of the forces holding atoms or molecules together in the condensed phase. As a result, an understanding of chemical bonding in solids lies at the heart of solid state chemistry. The idealized cohesive forces lead to four main types of solids:ionic,covalent,metallic, andmolecular. The first three of these categories also describe their corresponding bonding limits, whereas molecular solids rely on van der Waals forces or anisotropic electrostatic interactions, such as dipole‐dipole or hydrogen bonding forces, to condense individual atoms or molecules into the solid state. However, very few solids exclusively exhibit one kind of cohesive force. Most of them engender multiple bonding modes.

If solid‐state structures are viewed as molecules with quasi‐infinite numbers of atoms, then the same bonding concepts used in molecular chemistry should be appropriate for solid state chemistry. The atomic scale of solids, however, as compared to a single molecule, can bring about new collective features that lead to physical properties useful for technological applications. To reconcile these two extremes of atomic scale, quantum mechanics and the steady growth of computational capabilities have led to tremendous advances in how chemical bonding in solids, especially crystalline solids, can be analyzed and interpreted using localized and delocalized pictures of electronic structure. Yet, the experimental chemist relies significantly on simple valence electron counting rules to identify new synthetic targets, whereas the materials scientist and condensed matter physicist strive to relate the electronic structure of a solid to its measured properties. Both outlooks must be grounded in the computational results. With the goal of addressing these issues concerning chemical bonding in the solid state, this chapter is organized as follows: (1) a brief overview of fundamental characteristics and descriptions of chemical bonds in matter; (2) a summary of the types of solids and bonding motifs; (3) a description of how quantum mechanics is used to analyze chemical bonding in solids; (4) descriptions of important electron counting rules that are useful for experimentalists; and (5) selected examples of the synergies among chemical bonding, atomic structures, and properties.
Functional Materials for Gas Storage. PartI: Carbon Dioxide and Toxic Compounds
Authors: Reguera L. , Reguera E.
Published: August 2017

The first part of this overview on functional materials for gas storage is mainly focused on environmental applications, which include the separation and capture of carbon dioxide and air purification where adsorbent materials play a decisive role to remove a large diversity of toxic compounds. The exploitation of fossil fuels has generated huge amounts of gaseous pollutants, namely,CO2,NOx, and countless volatile organic compounds (VOCs), among others, which urge capture and reuse whenever possible. In many industrial processes, emission of harmful gases and vapors are common, which require their removal for personnel protection and odor control. This part of overview includes a brief discussion on the fundamentals of gases and vapors' adsorption. During the past decades, tens of thousands of porous solids have been prepared and evaluated as absorbents. To rationalize that huge volume of information, the available data are critically reviewed according to the nature of the guest–host interactions that determine the adsorption forces and the related adsorption heats. Carbon dioxide can be captured and stored by clathrate formation, which is also briefly discussed.
Nanocatalysis: Catalysis with Nanoscale Materials
Authors: Asefa Tewodros , Huang Xiaoxi
Published: August 2017

This chapter is intended to provide readers with basic information on the synthesis, characterization, and potential applications of nanostructured catalysts. The chapter starts with a brief introduction of nanomaterials and catalysis. It then introduces nanocatalysis. The chapter then delves into discussions of the different types of nanocatalytic materials and the notable synthetic methods used for making them, followed by the fundamental aspects of their size‐ and shape‐dependent catalytic properties and structure–catalytic property relationships. The chapter also includes discussion on the properties of various nanostructured catalysts. In each topic, there are mentions of the various applications or potential applications of nanoscale materials for catalysis of numerous important chemical reactions, ranging from those that enable the efficient production of commodity and value‐added chemical products to those that allow the generation of renewable energy. Finally, the chapter outlines the authors' opinions on the future outlooks of the field of nanocatalysis. Most of the discussions will rely on notable, but not exhaustive, examples from the literature.
Screening for Housing Instability and Homelessness Among Families Undergoing Child Maltreatment Investigation
Authors: Farrell Anne F. , Dibble Kate E. , Randall Kellie G. , Britner Preston A.
Published: August 2017

Highlights

Mixed methods, population survey of housing instability and homelessness.

Three‐question screening tool intended to identify housing instability and homelessness.

Housing problems and homelessness were associated with outcome of child welfare investigations.
Thomas Harriot at the National Gallery?
Authors: Molaro P.
Published: August 2017

The English astronomer Thomas Harriot is a shadowy figure. Although an eclectic and brilliant scientist, he seldom published his work. The only picture of him, hanging in the President's room of Trinity College, Oxford, is unconfirmed to this day. In this article, we note a close resemblance between the Trinity College portrait and that of the mathematician in a painting on display at the National Gallery. The sitter is not only a mathematician but also characterized as a cartographer and astronomer as Harriot was. Moreover, the sitter shows certain psychological traits that match Harriot's personality. This association may offer new clues to confirming whether the Trinity College portrait is really of Harriot, and may help lift the veil of mystery from the figure of the first modern British scientist.