bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Democracy and the State
Authors: Warren Mark E.
Published: September 2009

This article examines the logic that connects democracy to the state and argues that the functions of the state in enabling democracy are as important now and in the future as they have been in the past. It identifies the animating ideas and values of democracy and describes the ways in which these ideas are entwined with state power and the ways in which state institutions can become generative in ways that exceed the inherent limitations of the state's media of organization.
Historical Injustice
Authors: Ivison Duncan
Published: September 2009

This article examines the concept of historical injustice in the context of contemporary political theory. It examines the moral consequences of historical injustice for the descendants of both the perpetrators and the victims and outlines the six questions that any plausible defence of the idea of making reparations for past injustices must deal with. It suggests that taking historical injustice seriously is compatible with moral cosmopolitanism and it also helps with the understanding the nature of various kinds of inequalities that persist today.
Multiculturalism and its Critics
Authors: Spinner-Halev Jeff
Published: September 2009

This article examines multiculturalism, focusing on the so-called ethnocultural groups which are often ethnic and national cultural groups or intergenerational communities that have some shared practices and history that members believe are constitutive of the group. It explains that liberalist multiculturalists tend to view respect for cultural groups in instrumental terms while non-liberals often argue that cultures deserve respect because they are intrinsically valuable. It suggests that the non-liberal respect argument and the identity argument avoids some ambiguities involved in liberal multiculturalism since they do not argue for group-differentiated rights because of autonomy or self-respect.
Moral Universalism and Cultural Difference
Authors: Kukathas Chandran
Published: September 2009

This article examines the relationship between moral universalism and cultural difference. It analyses the problem of how to measure the claims of particular cultures against the demands of universal morality and discusses possible ways to resolve the tension between cultural minorities and the intrusion of the morality of Western liberalism. One prominent solution to this problem attempts to resolve it by identifying special rights to be accorded to cultural groups to enable them to hold on to their particular customs and traditions. The best-known and most influential theory here is that developed by Will Kymlicka, who put the case for the protection of cultural minorities in terms that were consistent with the universalist commitments of a liberal political outlook.
Training for Policy Makers
Authors: Dror Yehezkel
Published: September 2009

This article discusses training for policy makers; it focuses on a politically incorrect subject, which is the training of rulers in grand-policy thinking. A proposed core curriculum for the training is provided. The core curriculum covers a number of factors, such as being able to separate policy and politics, and achieving some form of intellectual and behavioural integration and absorption of different subjects. At the end of the article, several training requirements are presented.
The Origins of Policy
Authors: Page Edward C.
Published: September 2009

This article studies the origins of policy. The first section tries to clarify the differences in policy origins and defines the term ‘policy’. The next section deals with the four levels of abstraction, namely principles, policy lines, measures, and activities. This article determines that there is no simple answer to the question of the origins of policy. The best thing one can do is to indicate the proximate events that lead to the authorization or other form of adoption of policies.
Reframing Problematic Policies
Authors: Rein Martin
Published: September 2009

This article tries to reframe problematic policies, first by exploring the different types of situations that threaten instrumental means. The two most familiar situations are examined first: the ambiguity of ends and the conflict of values. The article then extends the list and considers other less popular dynamics, which reveals that the problematic ends are not free standing but are interdependent and mutually reinforcing. The article ends with a survey of the many ways of socially coping with these problematic ends. An extended discussion of ‘secondary reframing’ is also included in the article.
Policy in Practice
Authors: Laws David , Hajer Maarten
Published: September 2009

This article discusses practice in its relation to policy, and starts with a look at the notion of practice as a site of joint action and learning that is constituted around shared problems and a competence that resists reflection. The article studies and traces the developments in three adjacent fields related to practice, such as fluid organizational arrangements and the situated character of knowledge and the variety of forms it takes. The discussions in this article suggest that the concept of practice may allow a better grasp of the ‘units’ where learning and innovation occur.
Economic Constraints on Public Policy
Authors: Quiggin John
Published: September 2009

This article studies the economic constraints on public policy. It examines the relationship between accounting identities and economic constraints, and introduces the notions of ‘crowding out’ and ‘twin deficits’. These notions are referenced in the discussion on the relationship between budget balance constraints and external balance constraints. The article also considers the dual relationship between constraints and trade-offs; this relationship serves as the basis for a consideration of how public policy can respond to constraints and trade-offs.
Political Feasibility: Interests and Power
Authors: Galston William A.
Published: September 2009

This article discusses political feasibility, which is understood in its general sense. Political feasibility is also shaped by the interests of individuals in a society and the distribution of power among them. The article first discusses broad reflections on the concept of political feasibility, and then moves on to the historical or analytical examination of shifting conceptions of power. It studies the role of organized interests that are found within the institutional and cultural context of politics in the United States. The article concludes with a section on the collapse of President Clinton's proposal for universal health care.
Social and Cultural Factors
Authors: Bobrow Davis B.
Published: September 2009

This article discusses the social and cultural factors of public policy. It first looks at the intellectual history of these two factors, before discussing variety in public policy. One section shows how to come to terms with variety in public policy, while another section shows how to find variety in public policy.
Market and Non‐Market Failures
Authors: Kleiman Mark A. R. , Teles Steven M.
Published: September 2009

This article discusses market and non-market failures. The first section explores the various implications of three ideas: recognition of the scope of departures from the optimal in private choice, deference to voluntary action as a ‘default option’, and acknowledgement of the pervasiveness of government failure. When these three ideas are combined, they provide a template for responsible policy analysis.
Privatization and Regulatory Regimes
Authors: Scott Colin
Published: September 2009

This article examines the various privatization and regulatory regimes in public policy. Interdependence and regulatory regimes are discussed first, followed by the modalities of control. The article identifies the varieties of regulatory organization and style before introducing the concept of regulatory legitimacy.
Economic Techniques
Authors: Smith Kevin B.
Published: September 2009

This article discusses the various economic techniques that are used in policy analysis. These economic tools are used in a wide range of tasks in policy analysis. This article serves as a basic introduction to some of the analytical and conceptual tools borrowed from economics, which should serve as a better understanding and assessment of questions of social choice.
The Unique Methodology of Policy Research
Authors: Etzioni Amitai
Published: September 2009

This article provides a unique methodology of policy research, focusing on the various factors that differentiate policy research from basic research. It identifies malleability as a key variable of policy research, and this is defined as the amount of resources that would have to be expended to cause change in a given variable or variables. The scope of analysis/factors of policy research is shown to encompass all the major facets of the social phenomenon it is trying to deal with. Basic research, on the other hand, fragments the world into abstract and analytical slices, which are then studied individually. The last two differentiating factors of policy research and basic research, which are privacy and communication, are studied in the last two sections of the article.
The Politics of Retrenchment
Authors: Piven Frances Fox
Published: September 2009

This article discusses the theories of the political dynamics that underlie welfare state development in light of the sharp reversals that have recently occurred. It also presents the argument that the big theories dominating the interpretation of the welfare state lead people to expect gradualism and continuity. This leads to the presumption that these theories are not equal to the task of explaining ruptures with past practices.
Economic Institutions
Authors: Moran Michael
Published: September 2009

This article discusses the concept of economic institutions and its relationship with political institutions. It looks at economic institutions and institutionalism, economic institutions and economic regulation, and economic institutions and capitalism. The last section of the article discusses economic institutions and democratic government. The article also introduces the concept of principal-agent problems.
Comparative Constitutions
Authors: Colomer Josep M.
Published: September 2009

This article studies comparative constitutions. It begins with a look at the origins and evolution of constitutional models. The next section concentrates on the constitutional regime typologies. The last section of the article is about constitutional consequences.
Comparative Federalism
Authors: Galligan Brian
Published: September 2009

This article discusses comparative federalism. It first considers the changing global environment that favors federalism, and then discusses more familiar structures of country-specific federal systems. It also examines the changing international environment and historical setting of federalism, and how it fits within the changing global order. The article includes discussions on the robustness and flexibility of federalism, which is a result of its particular blend of institutions, and its dependency on a highly developed civic and constitutional culture.
Public Bureaucracies
Authors: Kettl Donald F.
Published: September 2009

This article looks at public bureaucracies, which are considered to be the locus of government action. It examines three key puzzles. The first is that bureaucratic actions are the locus of governmental power. The second is that much of the work of bureaucracy happens through the coordination of complex activities. The third puzzle shows that such power is important for democratic government, both to protect it from forces that try to destroy it and to empower it to do what the people want to be done. The article also includes a section on the challenges for public bureaucracies and the impulse for reform.
The Welfare State
Authors: Hacker Jacob S.
Published: September 2009

This article provides a review of the avenues of inquiry that students of the welfare state have recently pursued. These recent works have collectively and individually testified to the huge progress that has occurred. This article emphasizes writings on the American welfare state, which has provoked several of the liveliest scholarly debates of the past ten years. The five areas of recent debate are included in the discussion, namely: gender and social policy, the interplay of public and private benefits, race and the welfare state, the politics of welfare and state reform, and the role of business.
Bicameralism
Authors: Uhr John
Published: September 2009

This article provides a review of the current research on bicameralism. It argues that there is no single model of bicameralism and no single explanatory theory. It shows that contemporary bicameral systems blend ‘inheritance’ and ‘innovation’ to form distinctive legislative arrangements of political representation.
Judicial Institutions
Authors: Gibson James L.
Published: September 2009

This article considers the state of the literature on courts and the judicial process. It highlights the emerging literature on judicial independence and accountability, and aims to identify important research questions. Judicial decision-making, the legitimacy of judicial institutions, and judicial independence versus democratic accountability are also covered in this article.
The Judicial Process and Public Policy
Authors: McGuire Kevin T.
Published: September 2009

This article considers several issues that are related to the judicial process. It aims to shed some light on the policy capacities that the courts possess, as well as the impact of their decisions. The chapter focuses on the conditions that must be met in order for the courts to make effective policy. It describes how several of the basic features of the judicial process actually undermine the realization of those conditions. The discussion draws on several different strands of research that underscore different problems that are common to judges serving as policy-makers.
Direct Democracy
Authors: Budge Ian
Published: September 2009

This article examines direct democracy, starting with a discussion on democracy and direct democracy. The following section identifies varieties of direct democracy before addressing the question of whether direct democracy weakens political parties or not. It discusses the procedures of direct democracy, specifically referendum and initiative. The last two sections of the article focus on the policy areas that are covered by popular voting and setting parameters for a realistic debate about direct democracy.
International Political Institutions
Authors: Higgott Richard
Published: September 2009

This article looks at international political institutions and is divided into three main sections. The first section offers some theoretical and historical insights into the understanding of international organizations. The second section talks about the United Nations (UN), the European Union (EU), and several other regional actors as exemplars of contemporary international organizations. It notes that regional organizations are quickly becoming very important. The third main section of the article examines the different ways international organizations have been studied by scholars of international relations.
Encounters With Modernity
Authors: Beer Samuel H.
Published: September 2009

This article provides a personal commentary on the role of institutions in political science. It emphasizes the role of institutions and gives an account of this chapter's author's projects in the comparative study of the politics of the USA and Britain. It studies liberal democracy and liberal nationalism in detail.
The Organization of Democratic Legislatures
Authors: Cox Gary W.
Published: September 2009

This article looks at the organization of democratic legislatures. It is argued that the lure of office supports the formation of legislative parties and coalitions. It is noted that much recent theorizing about legislatures start by suggesting a certain structure of agenda-setting powers, before conclusions about various legislative outcomes are derived. A review of related literature is provided, which stresses the differences between veto power and proposal power; and between centralized and decentralized agenda power.
Interpersonal Comparisons of Well‐Being
Authors: Blackorby Charles , Bossert Walter
Published: September 2009

This article provides a short survey of the use of interpersonal comparisons in social evaluation. The focus of this discussion is on the principles for social evaluation that are welfarist, or those principles that use information about individual well-being to rank alternatives. The article reviews some of the most important characterization results for the welfarist social evaluation principles. A basic notation, along with a formal definition of social evaluation functionals, is introduced. The article then formulates some basic axioms for social evaluation orderings, and this is followed by an introduction to information invariance properties. The article also provides an overview of some important results.
The Non‐Politics of Monetary Policy
Authors: Lohmann Susanne
Published: September 2009

This article studies the non-politics of monetary policy. It argues that there is an urgent need for a macro political economy, which is stuck with an impoverished understanding of political institutions. It looks at the life cycle of social choice, public choice, and political economy and presents an assessment of the contribution of macro political economy. The last two sections are concerned with total special interest gridlock and the poverty of international institutions.
Political‐Economic Cycles
Authors: Franzese Robert J. , Jusko Karen Long
Published: September 2009

This article provides a survey of the theoretical and empirical work on political-economic cycles, such as cycles in economic outcomes induced by electoral and partisan competition. It also reviews the literature on electoral cycles and emphasizes how electoral context may heighten or limit incentives to electioneer. Another survey, which focuses on the theoretical and empirical literature linking economic policy to partisan electoral motivations, is provided as well.
The Political Economy of Exchange Rates
Authors: Broz J. Lawrence , Frieden Jeffry A.
Published: September 2009

This article discusses the political economy of exchange rates, the latter being prominent features of economic life. The article begins by separating the analysis of the international monetary system from the analysis of the policy choices of national governments. This separation allows us to simplify issues in each area and eventually present them in generic political economy terms. The article also discusses how these issues are to be analyzed jointly and across the domains.
Democratization
Authors: Grzymala-Busse Anna , Jones Pauline
Published: September 2009

This article discusses democratization, and looks specifically at its post-Communist implications. It draws upon the experience of post-Communist countries in order to show how structural preconditions allow elite action as much as they limit it. A review and contrast of the formal and informal approaches is provided, followed by a discussion of the post-Communist experience. The article concludes with an evaluation of the success of these approaches in explaining the variation in democratization outcomes.
National Borders and the Size of Nations
Authors: Spolaore Enrico
Published: September 2009

This article provides a brief review of some ideas and results from the political economy literature on the size of nations. It determines the benefits and costs of national size, and then presents a simple analytical framework for understanding several basic issues about the formation and break-up of nations. Compensations, redistribution, income inequality, borders, and conflict between nations are some of the topics that are also covered in this article.
Central Issues In The Study Of International Conflict
Authors: de Mesquita Bruce Bueno
Published: September 2009

This article discusses the central issues in the study of international conflict. It looks at some debates about international affairs and the ways conflict and peace are studied. It examines structural perspectives and the evolving research programs that look inside the state and try to explain how conflict or cooperation relates to ordinary politics. It then illustrates the differences between approaches by examining two empirical issues. A brief evaluation of how the different approaches address these issues is provided.
Democracy, Peace, and War
Authors: Reiter Dan , Stam Allan C.
Published: September 2009

This article discusses how variations in domestic political institutions affect the foreign policy behaviour of states. Although scholars have not agreed on a single theory of how institutions affect foreign policy, they do agree on the general framework. The sections in this article help lay out that general framework, and provide some specific theories that express different visions of how exactly domestic politics affect matters of war and peace.
Anarchy
Authors: Skaperdas Stergios
Published: September 2009

This article discusses anarchy and also introduces recent research from economics that models anarchy. It shows that this research has clear implications for thinking about interstate relations. There are also indications that such relations are becoming greater as well as a fruitful concern.
The Tool Kit of Economic Sociology
Authors: Swedberg Richard
Published: September 2009

This article discusses the tool kit of economic sociology. It begins by examining two of the most important concepts in modern economic sociology, namely: embeddedness and field. It is followed by a discussion of a sociological concept of interest and an interest-based concept of institutions. The article also presents some arguments posed in the text, one of which states that economic sociology would do well in some respects to follow the example of political economy and pay more attention to analytical economics and its general approach.
The challenges of ICTs
Authors: Mansell Robin , Avgerou Chrisanthi , Quah Danny , Silverstone Roger
Published: September 2009

Many scholars have documented the way information and communication technologies (ICTs) have been entwined with major changes in society since the invention of electrical telegraphy in the 1830s. For some, the early ICTs, as well as those stemming from the invention of the microprocessor in the late 1960s, are best characterized as being revolutionary. This is because of the cascade of opportunities they created for new forms of media and information and communication services and for new ways of organizing society. The book is organized around four themes covering topics that policy makers and those in other settings where ICTs are encountered will find informative: the knowledge economy; organizational dynamics, strategy, and design; governance and democracy; and culture, community, and new media literacies.
Markets and policies in new knowledge economies
Authors: Melody William H.
Published: September 2009

As new information and communication technologies and services (ICTS) are being applied ever more widely and intensively there is increasing evidence that the economies of technologically advanced countries are in the process of moving beyond the industrial capitalism of the twentieth century to information and communication based ‘knowledge economies’ for the twenty-first century. This transformation is exhibited not only by the rapid growth and development of new ICTS, but more importantly by their pervasive application throughout virtually all sectors of the economy. This article examines some of the generic developments and key characteristics of evolving twenty-first century new knowledge economies that are becoming evident, their implications for market development, and the important issues they are raising for government policy and regulation relating to market governance in the new economy.
Productivity and ICTs: A review of the evidence
Authors: Draca Mirko , Sadun Raffaella , Van Reenen John
Published: September 2009

This article offers a guided tour to some of the main aspects of ICTs and productivity. It discusses a neoclassical theoretical framework that has been extensively used (either explicitly or implicitly) by most of the studies we survey. It also considers extensions to these theoretical approaches. It details some of the econometric issues involved in estimating the productivity of ICT. This requires some consideration of the estimation of production functions, an area where there has been considerable econometric advance in recent years. It also discusses issues relating to the data, both ideal and actual. Finally, it discusses the results of the empirical studies covering both growth accounting and econometric approaches at the industry and firm level.
Information technology and the dynamics of organizational change
Authors: Jones Matthew , Orlikowski Wanda J.
Published: September 2009

Advancing the ongoing debates and accounting for these innovations in the relationship between technology and organizational change will require rich theoretical conceptualizations and new empirical insights. This article begins by briefly reviewing some key perspectives that have emerged in the information systems (IS) literature to account for the relationship between technology and organizational change. It then presents a short empirical account taken from a recent field study into the emergence of online news in the traditional newspaper industry since the mid-1990s. These data provide some grounded details about the nature and dynamics of technology-based organizational change. The article concludes by suggesting opportunities for further theoretical development in the IS research repertoire.
E‐democracy: The history and future of an idea
Authors: Coleman Stephen
Published: September 2009

The post-Athenian democratic relationship, in which political representatives speak for the absent demos and media gatekeepers translate between the intimate sphere of individualized experience and the impersonal, public sphere in which strangers must live together as citizens, is blighted by inevitable problems of miscommunication. Political representatives are accused of being ‘out of touch’ and not listening to the public. The media are blamed for being simplistic, cynical, and sensationalist. The public are depicted as lacking the attentiveness, political literacy, and moral energy required of active citizens. There is a powerful desire for more effective communicative structures, techniques, and technologies that can facilitate the free spread of information and unrestricted communication between citizens. The purpose of this article is to explore ways in which, theoretically and empirically, new digital media technologies can support the norms and practices of democratic political communication.
Governance and state organization in the digital era
Authors: Dunleavy Patrick
Published: September 2009

The article has three main parts. The first looks briefly at how successive waves of administrative and organizational theory have downplayed the role of administrative technologies and technological change affecting government organizations. Next it looks at the key issues in post-1995 ‘e-government’ debates and processes, briefly surveying the still little-researched changes of government arrangements brought in around web-based ICTs in advanced industrial countries. The third section sketches an emergent ideal type of ‘digital era governance’ focusing on the reintegration of government sector processes, a new effort at holism and a range of connected ‘digitalization’ changes in the organization of government information.
Privacy protection and ICT: Issues, instruments, and concepts
Authors: Raab Charles D.
Published: September 2009

This article focuses on the privacy of personal information. Following a short, indicative literature survey, it frames the discussion in terms of a very few illustrative themes that open up a larger number of avenues for further research; the cited literature, albeit not comprehensive, enables deeper understanding. Three prominent areas of information privacy are selected for review and comment, with a view to identifying some critical questions and issues that are to the fore in policy and governance debates as well as in research. The first area is the ways in which governments and other organizations have attempted to regulate the increasingly intensive, extensive, and global processing of personal data. The second concerns the prevalent practice of sharing data across organizational boundaries, giving scope to further invasions of privacy alongside benefits realized by organizations as well as individuals, and involving uncertainties about control and related matters. The third is especially, but not exclusively, associated with the contemporary preoccupation with terrorist and criminal threats to society, law, and order, and reflects on the effect of the safety and security agenda upon the protection of privacy. The first two involve the erosion, to one extent or another, of different kinds of boundary. All of these areas generate questions and policy issues for debate as well as items for an agenda of future research. The article concludes by drawing the latter together to point a way forward.
ICTs and inequality: Net gains for women?
Authors: Wajcman Judy
Published: September 2009

This article considers the gender relations of ICTs, canvassing both pessimistic and optimistic perspectives. Drawing on the social studies of technology, it argues that ideas about and practices of gender inform the design, production, and use of ICTs, and that, in turn, technical artefacts and culture are integral to the formation of gender identity. Technologies embody and advance political interests and agendas and they are the product of social structure, culture, values, and politics as much as the result of objective scientific discovery. While new ICTs can be constitutive of new gender dynamics, they can also be derivative of and reflect older patterns of gender inequality. The article argues that social science needs to continually engage with the process of technological change, as it is a key aspect of gender power relations.
Language as Internal
Authors: Bezuidenhout Anne
Published: September 2009

According to internalist conceptions of language, languages are properties of the mind/brains of individuals and supervene entirely on the internal states of these mind/brains. Hence, languages are primarily to be studied by the mind and/or brain sciences — psychology, neuroscience, and the cognitive sciences more generally (including linguistics and philosophy). This is not to deny that other sciences may contribute to our understanding too (e.g. evolutionary biology). The internalist conception of language is most associated with Chomsky, who has argued for it in many of his writings. Chomsky argues that one part of the human brain is specialized for language. This language system has an innate specification.
Propositional Content
Authors: Schiffer Stephen
Published: September 2009

Two philosophers may accept the face-value theory and therefore agree that the things we believe are propositions — abstract, mind- and language-independent entities that have truth conditions, and have their truth conditions both essentially and absolutely — but disagree about the further nature of those propositions. This article presents a brief critical survey of some of the options. There are problems with the Russellian face-value theory of belief reports. These problems were first clearly stated in Frege's ‘On Sense and Reference,’ published in 1892, where he renounced the Russellian face-value theory he formerly held and supplanted it with a theory examined in this chapter.
The Distinction between Semantics and Pragmatics
Authors: Szabó Zoltán Gendler
Published: September 2009

Semantics is the study of linguistic meaning, or more precisely, the study of the relation between linguistic expressions and their meanings. This article gives a sketch of the distinction between semantics and pragmatics; it is the intention of the rest of this article to make it more precise. It starts by considering three alternative characterizations and explain what the article finds problematic about each of them. This leads to the discussion of utterance interpretation, which situates semantics and pragmatics in a larger enterprise. But the characterization of their contrast remains sketchy until the final section, where the article discusses how truth-conditions and the notion of what is said fit into the picture.
Rigidity
Authors: Sosa David
Published: September 2009

For an expression to be rigid means (abstracting from some variations) that it refers to one and the same thing with respect to any possible situation. But how is this in turn to be understood? An example will help us work through the definition. Take a word like ‘Aristotle.’ That word is a proper name; and proper names are a clear case of a type of word that refers. ‘Aristotle’ refers to a particular person, the last great philosopher of antiquity; in general, a name refers to the thing of which it is the name. To continue working through the definition of rigidity, we need to make sense of referring with respect to. It is tempting, for example, but mistaken, to understand a word's referring with respect to a possible situation as it's being used, in that situation, to refer to something.
Deflationism
Authors: Bar-On Dorit , Simmons Keith
Published: September 2009

There is a core metaphysical claim shared by all deflationists: truth is not a genuine, substantive property. But anyone who denies that truth is a genuine property must still make sense of our pervasive truth talk. In addressing questions about the meaning and function of ‘true’, deflationists engage in a linguistic or semantic project, a project that typically goes hand-in-hand with a deflationary account of the concept of truth. A thoroughgoing deflationary account of truth will go beyond the negative metaphysical claim about truth and the positive linguistic account of the word ‘true’: it will also maintain that the concept of truth is a ‘thin’ concept that bears no substantive conceptual connections to other concepts to which it is traditionally tied.
Tense
Authors: Ludlow Peter
Published: September 2009

While most approaches to the semantics of tense have attempted to regiment tense away in a tenseless metalanguage, a good case can be made that this is not without cost (the same case could be made for regimentation of modality and other aspects of natural language as well). On the other hand, it is pretty clear that attempts to treat tense in a tensed metalanguage introduce serious complications. It is probably not so important which of these positions is correct at this point (we may be some distance from resolving that question), as it is that we understand the costs of the respective positions. Perhaps, by having a firm enough grasp on both approaches we afford ourselves a deeper insight into the nature of tense itself.
The Pragmatics of the Logical Constants
Authors: Edgington Dorothy
Published: September 2009

The logical constants are technical terms, invented and precisely defined by logicians for the purpose of producing rigorous formal proofs. Mathematics virtually exhausts the domain of deductive reasoning of any complexity, and it is there that the benefits of this refined form of language are felt. Pragmatic issues may arise — issues concerning the point of making a certain statement — for there will be more or less perspicuous and illuminating ways of presenting proofs in this language, and we may be puzzled or misled when we wonder why the mathematician is taking some particular step. But this is hardly a compulsory topic in the philosophy of language.
Quantifiers
Authors: Glanzberg Michael
Published: September 2009

The study of quantification in natural language has made remarkable progress. Quantification in natural language has been investigated extensively by philosophers, logicians, and linguists. The result has been an elegant and far-reaching theory. This article presents a survey of some of the important components of this theory. The first section presents the core of the theory of generalized quantifiers. This theory explores the range of expressions of generality in natural language, and studies some of their logical properties. The second section turns to issues of how quantifiers enter into scope relations. Here there is less unanimity than in the theory of generalized quantifiers. Two basic approaches, representative of the main theories in the literature, are sketched and compared. The final section turns briefly to the general question of what a quantifier is.
Logical Form and LF
Authors: Pietroski Paul M.
Published: September 2009

We can use sentences to present arguments, some of which are valid. This suggests that premises and conclusions, like sentences, have structure. This in turn raises questions about how logical structure is related to grammar, and how grammatical structure is related to thought and truth.
Realism and Antirealism
Authors: Miller Alexander
Published: September 2009

This article questions whether, once the conception of metaphysics as grounded in the philosophy of language has been jettisoned, Dummett's arguments against semantic realism can retain any relevance to the realist/antirealist debate. By focussing on realism about the external world as an example, it reaches the conclusion that even without Dummett's conception of philosophy as grounded in the theory of meaning, his arguments against semantic realism do retain a limited but nevertheless genuine significance for the metaphysical debate. It emerges, though, that a certain key assumption, connecting the notions of linguistic understanding and knowledge, and necessary if Dummett's arguments are to have even this limited significance, is both underexplained and underdefended. The article concludes with some brief remarks on the cogency of the manifestation argument against semantic realism.
Evolution In Knowledge
Authors: Gordenker Leon , Jönsson Christer
Published: September 2009

This article looks at the impact on the classroom and scholarship of the dominant approaches that come from Anglo-Saxon academia and think-tanks. These approaches are also reinforced by the authority of publishers and journals in North America and Europe. It also tries to examine how the proverbial woman in the street has responded to different levels of knowledge over the years. The article argues that unpacking the influences of both the UN of states and the UN of secretariats is a key research challenge, and that communicating with larger publics is a main civic challenge.
Economic and Social Council
Authors: Rosenthal Gert
Published: September 2009

This article examines the workings of what may be the most criticized principal organ in the UN: the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). The article shows that aside from doubling its size, the ECOSOC has endured criticisms over the years, such as its inability to pull together the various parts of an increasingly dispersed and complex UN system. The main weakness of the ECOSOC is its ambiguous relationship with the General Assembly, along with the incapacity to attract high-level policymakers to its meetings and the lack of focus.
International Court of Justice
Authors: Crawford James , Grant Tom
Published: September 2009

This article explores what is commonly called the ‘World Court’. It examines the slow and steady growth of the global rule of law in detail, starting with the juridical experiment of the League of Nations: the Permanent Court of International Justice. It points out that the Court goes against the grain of contemporary international relations and the proliferation of actors because of Article 34 of its Statute.
Peace Enforcement
Authors: Pugh Michael
Published: September 2009

This article examines the use of military force to back up Security Council decisions. It starts with an analysis of the elastic definitions related to the topic and provides a concise survey of the key cases after the renaissance of the UN in the 1990s. It documents the extent to which subcontracting to major powers and regional organizations was the only feasible way to project military force to support international decisions. The article further contests the notion that there has been a significant change in the underlying determinants of UN enforcement. This article also shows that UN peace operations are remarkably cheap.
Humanitarian Intervention
Authors: Thakur Ramesh
Published: September 2009

This article looks at the use of military force to protect human beings, or humanitarian intervention. This is the extension of fourth-century arguments by St. Augustine and seventh-century arguments by Hugo Grotius. The article first examines humanitarian interventions by colonial powers during the nineteenth century. It also discusses the fastest-moving normative development of modern times, namely that the rights of human beings sometimes trump those of the states where they live.
Terrorism
Authors: Boulden Jane
Published: September 2009

This article studies the efforts of the UN that began decades before 11 September 2001, which is viewed as having fundamentally changed many international security calculations, especially those of the United States. The two main points in UN discussions that have led to several important treaties are examined in this article. The first is that many countries view armed violence by those fighting for national liberation as legitimate. The second is whether ‘state terrorism’ should be included in any definition agreed by the majority of member states. The article also describes several new threats on the current agenda of the UN, and views these as unsettling future challenges.
Norms and Machinery
Authors: Ramcharan Bertrand G.
Published: September 2009

This article discusses the revolutionary implications of taking human rights seriously. It discusses two possible analytical lenses that can be used to examine the UN's story. One section highlights the struggle to move forward with the standard that societies should be governed by a basic respect for human rights and without discrimination. The acute difficulties of the UN using the bully pulpit while minding the principles of respect and confidence-building are also examined.
Women and Gender
Authors: Bunch Charlotte
Published: September 2009

This article discusses women and gender, and first identifies the differences between the concepts. It moves on to a critical examination of the norms and their institutional manifestations, along with selected UN system efforts to promote women's rights in development, peace and security, human rights, and health. The article also provides a balanced evaluation of how much things have changed for girls and women over the last sixty years.
Children
Authors: Beigbeder Yves
Published: September 2009

This article mostly discusses UNICEF, although it also examines other UN organizations. It provides a brief summary of the origins of the international children's movement and a review of the growing international legal framework of children's rights. It examines the world summits, movements, reports, and resolutions that have helped increase the awareness of political leaders and mass publics of children's issues. The role of UN bodies and other intergovernmental organizations in the promotion of children's rights is also discussed.
Human Security
Authors: Hampson Fen Osler , Penny Christopher K.
Published: September 2009

This article gives the benefits of redefining ‘security’ in order to emphasize human beings instead of states. It shows that human security is firmly embedded in today's language of world politics. Human security also reflects the role of the UN in advancing at occasionally enforcing new international norms that place the individual at the core of modern understandings of international security.
Coordinating Economic and Social Affairs
Authors: Fomerand Jacques , Dijkzeul Dennis
Published: September 2009

This article explores the historical and current intricacies of cooperation across the various specialized agencies. The article also examines the special programs and funds of the UN's extended development system. These identify several structural difficulties that are mixed with conventional bureaucratic politics and turf-consciousness. The article highlights the autonomy of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) that make the Bretton Woods institutions distinct from the UN system, despite being shown as linked components in the organizational chart.
Human Development
Authors: Jolly Richard
Published: September 2009

This article provides an overview of the approach of human development that has characterized much of UN development thinking since the early 1990s. This approach also helps emphasize the importance of numerous institutions in the UN development system that are not treated separately in this book. The article concentrates on the conceptual approach that has been repeatedly refined with the annual publication of UNDP — the Human Development Report — beginning in 1990. It also views the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) as a possible bridge between the UN system and the Bretton Woods institutions.
Autonomy
Authors: Jennings Bruce
Published: September 2009

No single concept has been more important in the contemporary development of bioethics, and the revival of medical ethics, than the concept of autonomy, and none better reflects both the philosophical and the political currents shaping the field. This article proposes to consider autonomy in three of its facets and functions: first, as a concept in ethical theory; second, as a concept in applied ethics; and finally, as what might be called an ideological concept — that is, one that both draws from and reinforces non-philosophical interests at work in the profession of medicine, biomedical science and technology, and the broader liberal individualistic culture of Anglophone countries, particularly the United States, where a bioethical discourse centred on autonomy has flourished.
Tiers Without Tears: the Ethics of a Two‐Tier Health Care System
Authors: Krohmal Benjamin J. , Emanuel Ezekiel J.
Published: September 2009

American health care reformers face a number of ethical issues, including familiar debates over the merits of a single-payer system and publicly provided universal health insurance. No matter how these debates are resolved, a further ethical question must be addressed. Both universal coverage and a single-payer system are compatible with permitting some patients to pay more for faster, better, or more health care choices. Should the United States continue to have a two-tier health care system in which wealth grants some patients access to medical services that others with the same needs cannot obtain? Critical evaluation of both principled objections to inequalities and practical objections to anticipated social and medical consequences of a two-tier health care system are needed.
Death is a Punch in the Jaw: Life‐Extension and its Discontents
Authors: Ackerman Felicia Nimue
Published: September 2009

This article deals both with greatly extended finite life and with immortality and uses the term ‘greatly extended life’ to cover both. Except where indicated, it proceeds from some assumptions adapted from Christine Overall. First, people would know the life expectancy in their society or would know (or at least have good reason to believe) that they were immortal. Second, everyone would have the opportunity to choose greatly extended life. Third, greatly extended life would not be mandatory; people would be able to opt out at any point.