bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Evaluating Rodenticide Use Impacts on Agricultural Production
Authors: Salmon TP
Published: February 2009

It is widely recognized that vertebrate pests cause serious economic losses by reducing agricultural production and by adding to production costs when control programs are conducted. Despite this, most vertebrate pest control programs are implemented without accurate knowledge of the potential losses prevented or the relevant economic benefits accrued from specific control strategies. One method of evaluating potential benefit/cost of vertebrate pest control is to establish the actual vertebrate pest damage sustained and compare that to control costs assumed necessary to prevent the vertebrate damage. This approach suffers from several shortcomings, including: (1) inherently large inputs required to assess damage over a large area; (2) limitations because data are influenced by current control programs; and (3) vertebrate damage averaged over large areas often appears small compared to other production costs, despite the fact that some crops (locations) may be intensively damaged. One method of overcoming these problems is to determine rodenticide use patterns, that is, type and quantity of material used, target species, and acreage and value of crops treated, and relate these to potential or theoretical crop protection. A range of damage levels can be used to develop “what if” scenarios relating to specific crops and target species. These create a picture of the potential protection afforded by the specific control program. While considerable efforts are required to obtain this data, they serve to demonstrate the theoretical value of a particular rodenticide or control program. This information is extremely important to regulators and others making decisions affecting current vertebrate pest control programs. Such an approach has been used to illustrate the impact of rodenticide use in one California county.
Metallic Flake Particle Markers for Determining the Feeding Behavior of Rats at Bait Points
Authors: Fall MW , Johns BE
Published: February 2009

Earlier work established the utility of coded particles incorporated in baits to identify animals that had recently eaten the material. Using a low-cost commercial product (Glowble), we have extended this technique for practical field use. Laboratory, pen, and field trials were conducted to test formulations and develop methods for positive identification of marked animals under field conditions. The technique allows determination of percentages of animals feeding on bait material and of specific bait sites where individual animals have fed. Our general approach required examination of carcasses to identify marked animals. Low cost, availability of several codes, and simplicity of identifying marked animals are the principle advantages over similar marking techniques.
A Methodology for Identifying Sources of Indirect Costs of Predation Control: A Study of Wyoming Sheep Producers
Authors: Jahnke LJ , Phillips C , Anderson SH , McDonald LL
Published: February 2009

Indirect costs of predation on livestock are defined to be those out-of-pocket costs, including costs incurred in attempts to reduce predation, that are in addition to the direct loss of marketable animals. A methodology based on personal interview is presented to assess most indirect costs of predation on sheep. In this study, producers are stratified by numbers of sheep owned and location of operation within Wyoming with a simple random sample of producers selected in each stratum. Recommendations are given for interview procedures and minimum sample sizes because predator control activities and costs vary substantially among producers.

Average indirect costs per animal are estimated for producers in Wyoming during 1981. Additional potential indirect costs of predation not adequately addressed in this study are briefly discussed.
A Review of Some Mule Deer Capture Operations
Authors: Godfrey MER , Browne RW , Smith LO
Published: February 2009

Wild mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) were successfully captured for use in trials to evaluate the hazard presented by their exposure to anticoagulant rodenticides. All captures were at night with 30 to 50 cm of snow on the ground and temperatures from −12 to 5°C. Panel traps proved unsatisfactory as the deer suffered injuries from “panic” behavior. A modified Palmer Cap-Chur rifle was used with considerable success; disposable darts contained a mixture of Vetalar and Rompun at 15 mg and 1.4 mg/kg body weight, respectively. Variations of over 35% in the explosive charges used to fire the darts were the major cause of injuries to the deer or missed shots. Weighing cartridges and selecting those within a narrow range reduced variation to about 10%.
Hydrogen Embrittlement of Plated High-Strength 4340 Steel by Galvanic Corrosion
Authors: Pollock WJ , Hinton BRW
Published: February 2009

Slow strain rate methods are used to quantify the degree of embrittlement in high-strength 4340 steel after coating with porous electroplated cadmium or ion-vapor-deposited aluminum and subsequently exposing to aqueous sodium chloride environments for various times. Porosity in the coatings is primarily responsible for the establishment of galvanic couples at the steel/coating interface, resulting in the generation and absorption of hydrogen in the steel. Data from hydrogen permeation and galvanic corrosion experiments are used to establish a model for hydrogen generation in coated tensile specimens. Estimates of the total hydrogen absorbed in cadmium-plated tensile specimens are consistent with the results of slow strain rate tests whereas similar calculations grossly underestimate the total hydrogen absorbed in aluminum-coated specimens where localized corrosion processes are believed to enhance the rate of hydrogen generation.
Use of the Microcomputer for Calculation of the Distribution of Galvanic Corrosion and Cathodic Protection in Seawater Systems
Authors: Astley DJ
Published: February 2009

Use of an assumption that electric current flows only in one direction in seawater-carrying equipment constructed of more than one metal enables rapid calculation of the corrosion rate distribution employing small-memory microcomputers. There is negligible error associated with this assumption for typical seawater systems of essentially cylindrical geometry. Analytical expressions can usually be obtained, depending upon the experimentally determined electrode kinetics. The scope of the modelling procedure is indicated by examples of various practical seawater systems that have been examined at the design stage.

The distribution of cathodic protection has been analyzed within copper-alloy pipework attached to a steel hull, or to a small sacrificial anode, and also in a mixed-metal marine propulsion unit protected by zinc anodes. The cathodic electrode kinetics involved various combinations of potential-independent current density and linearly potential-dependent current density.

The distribution of galvanic corrosion has been calculated within a heat-exchanger system consisting of a cathodic tube-bundle and tubeplate connected via a copper-alloy header to a 7-m long copper-alloy pipe. Assessment was made for linear cathodic electrode kinetics and anodic electrode kinetics of the Butler-Volmer type. Calculations were also made for when the header was electrically insulated at both of its flanges. Assessment of the heat-exchanger system has been extended to cater for the copper-alloy pipe being electrically connected to a steel hull, although physically separated by an intervening plastic pipe, and to cover the case where the header is made from a cathodic material.
Quantitative Assessment of Atmospheric Galvanic Corrosion
Authors: Doyle DP , Wright TE
Published: February 2009

The test method for assessing galvanic corrosion that is described in this paper is applicable to bare metals. Its main advantages over existing techniques are that the results are quantitative and require only a short exposure period—typically 90 days—in the environment of interest. The test units are quite simple in concept, and experience has shown that the results are reliable and reproducible. Because the results are quantitative they are less subject to bias by the evaluator. The test units involve winding a wire of the anodic component of the galvanic couple onto the threads of a bolt of the cathodic member of the couple. The weight loss of the wire after a short exposure period relative to that of a similar wire wound onto a threaded plastic bolt gives a measure of the galvanic activity at any given location. The basic idea for the test unit was developed at Bell Telephone Laboratories over 30 years ago, but it has not achieved widespread acceptance as a test method. The present authors adopted the technique several years ago and have improved the laboratory procedures for assembling the test units and determining the weight losses of the wires. Many thousands of specimens have been exposed at a variety of locations around the world. The main emphasis in these tests was to measure the marine or industrial corrosivity components of the atmosphere, or both. Several technical papers have been written on the results of this application of the technique. In the present paper emphasis will be placed on the use of the technique to measure the amount of galvanic corrosion between different combinations of metals rather than its use to measure the corrosivity of the atmosphere. Because the work has been prepared by an aluminum producer, where galvanic corrosion is, naturally, a sensitive issue, there was emphasis on the behavior of aluminum in contact with several metals.
Galvanic Corrosion of Duplex Fe-Cr-10% Ni Alloys in Reducing Acids
Authors: Yau YH , Streicher MA
Published: February 2009

The effect on corrosion of composition and microstructure in a series of Fe-Cr-10% Ni alloys with increasing chromium content has been investigated in reducing acids. In the range of 25 to 35% chromium there is a wide variation in the relative amounts of ferrite and austenite. In reducing acids (H2SO4 and HCl) there is preferential attack on the ferrite phases. However, the rate of attack on ferrite is considerably greater than expected on the basis of its chromium and nickel contents alone. This is because corrosion on the ferrite phase is significantly increased by galvanic action with the austenite in the microstructure. This galvanic effect is a function of the relative surface areas of the ferrite (anode) and the austenite (cathode).

Previous investigators have derived equations for the effect of relative surface areas of anodes and cathodes on galvanic corrosion of two dissimilar metals in the form of parallel sheets of constant composition. However, in the alloys of this investigation there are simultaneous changes, not only in the areas of ferrite and austenite, but also in the compositions of these two phases. In the analysis of the data on the Fe-Cr-10% Ni alloys, the mathematical treatment developed for relative areas with constant compositions has been used to separate this factor from that of the varying composition of ferrite and austenite. The results may contribute to an understanding of the action of duplex microstructures in castings, weldmetal, and duplex stainless steels when these are exposed to reducing acids during pickling and plant service.
Galvanic Corrosion on Automobiles
Authors: Baboian R , Haynes G , Turcotte R
Published: February 2009

Automobile manufacturers utilize a variety of metals to build a product that meets numerous functional and cosmetic demands. Since the auto environment is highly corrosive, they must consequently deal with galvanic corrosion problems. This paper describes some of the galvanic couples on automobiles, such as trim on painted auto-body steel, dissimilar metal fasteners, electroplated bumpers, galvanized steel, and dissimilar cooling system components. The resulting problems and mitigative measures for controlling galvanic corrosion are presented.
Avoiding Galvanic Corrosion Problems in the Telephone Cable Plant
Authors: Schick G
Published: February 2009

Telephone cable plant is exposed to practically all the corrosive environments that nature can provide. Designers of telephone plant components use various, sometimes galvanically incompatible, metals and alloys to satisfy strength, formability, conductivity, electrical safety, and cost requirements. Galvanic corrosion occurs when galvanically incompatible metallic couples are exposed to corrosive environments. Combinations of small cathode/anode surface area ratios, metallic and nonmetallic coatings, and cathodic protection are some of the means used to eliminate or reduce the harmful effects of galvanic corrosion. Examples of galvanic corrosion problems in the aerial, underground, and buried plant and solutions to these problems are described.
Galvanic Corrosion in Navy Ships
Authors: Morton AGS
Published: February 2009

Galvanic corrosion concerns in Navy ships are discussed including the role that cathodic protection plays on the ship hull. The specific causes of a number of shipboard examples of galvanic corrosion are identified, with proposed solutions to each. Most problems occur in seawater connected tanks and in the piping systems, with relatively few on the external ship hull, machinery spaces, and topsides. Nearly all of the problems could have been eliminated through the application of good corrosion engineering practice at the design or construction stage, although occasionally a unique unpredictable problem emerges. The predictability of the problems re-emphasizes the need for greater corrosion awareness by all associated with the design, building, and maintenance of ships and their mechanical systems.
Galvanic Corrosion in Power Plant Condensers
Authors: Gehring GA
Published: February 2009

The use of dissimilar metal construction in power plant condensers is a common practice. It is not unusual to encounter condensers fabricated with stainless steel or titanium tubes, copper alloy tubesheets, and cast iron or carbon steel waterboxes. Furthermore, condensers initially furnished with copper alloy tubes and copper alloy tubesheets are frequently being retubed with stainless steel or titanium tubes. In several instances, the use of dissimilar alloys in power plant condensers has led to severe galvanic corrosion, particularly of the tubesheet.

The primary factors affecting galvanic corrosion in a condenser include the electrochemical characteristics (that is, potential and polarization) of the different alloys, the effective area relationships of the different alloys, and the specific characteristics of the cooling water (for example, conductivity, temperature, and so forth). A number of studies have been conducted to develop a better understanding of the relative influence and the interrelationship of these various factors. These studies, conducted under simulated condenser flow conditions, have shown that (1) the length of tube involved in a tubesheet/tube galvanic cell can extend beyond 6 m down the tube, depending on the tube alloy and water salinity; (2) the use of either titanium or stainless steel tubes with a copper alloy tubesheet can result in significant galvanic corrosion of the tubesheet; (3) galvanically coupling a Muntz metal tubesheet to either stainless steel or titanium can cause severe dezincification of the tubesheet; (4) the intensity of galvanic attack will tend to diminish as the salinity of the cooling water decreases; (5) the intensity of the galvanic attack will tend to diminish as the cooling water temperature decreases; (6) certain copper alloy tubesheets may be galvanically compatible with either stainless steel or titanium tubes if the cooling water salinity or temperature is sufficiently low; (7) as a tubesheet alloy coupled to either stainless steel or titanium tubes, aluminum bronze (Alloy D) is significantly less susceptible to galvanic attack than Muntz metal; (8) cathodic protection properly implemented can effectively mitigate galvanic attack of copper alloy tubesheets caused by more noble alloy tubes, and (9) the cathodic protection current required to mitigate galvanic corrosion will be greater in higher salinity, higher temperature cooling water.
Bimetallic Joints in Multistage Flash Desalination Plants
Authors: Al Zaharani SG , Todd B , Oldfield JW
Published: February 2009

In order to achieve an optimum compromise of cost and performance, it is necessary to construct large multistage flash (MSF) desalination plants from a variety of materials, notably carbon steel, copper-base alloys, stainless steels, and titanium. This produces a number of situations where two or more materials are in contact, and special care is needed to ensure that serious galvanic corrosion is avoided. Examples of such bimetallic and multimetallic junctions in plants operated by the Saline Water Conversion Corporation of Saudi Arabia are titanium tube/aluminum bronze tubeplate and waterbox; carbon steel/stainless steel flash chamber linings; and copper alloy/carbon steel waterboxes and piping. Problems associated with some of these junctions in older plants and the techniques used to avoid problems in modern plants are described in the paper. It is concluded that by application of good corrosion engineering practice, serious galvanic corrosion at mixed-metal joints can be avoided.
Galvanic Corrosion of Piping and Fitting Alloys in Sulfide-Modified Seawater
Authors: Hack HP
Published: February 2009

Two wrought piping alloys, 70-30 and 90-10 copper-nickel, were each galvanically coupled to each of four fitting alloys in sulfide-modified seawater for 30 days. The fitting alloys used were bronze (Composition M), cast Monel®, wrought nickel-aluminum bronze, and cast 70-30 copper-nickel. The piping material to fitting material area ratio was 3:1 and the seawater velocity was 2.4 m/s. Results indicated that the galvanic relationship between M-bronze or Monel and 70-30 copper-nickel is affected by sulfide additions, in a manner that increases the corrosion of the fitting material, whereas similar couples with 90-10 copper-nickel show little effect of sulfide.
The Role of ASTM in Fire Modeling
Authors: Fowell AJ
Published: February 2009

In 1985, a new Subcommittee of Committee on E-5 on Fire Standards was formed to formulate ASTM's role in fire modeling and to provide the forum for managing appropriate actions related to fire modeling. The background for this decision and the areas of principal interest for Committee E-5 members are reviewed. The Subcommittee's scope and its principal tasks are defined in support of the expressed needs for guidance on use and limitations, data, validation, and documentation.
Release Rate Tests for a Mathematical Model
Authors: Smith EE , Green TJ
Published: February 2009

A standard ASTM Test Method for Heat and Visible Smoke Release Rates for Materials and Products (E906-83) is used to provide the basic reaction kinetic information for a mathematical model of a developing fire in a compartment. The model, which is a true predictive model, was designed to utilize experimental release rate data in a simple and straightforward manner without assumptions regarding the ideality of burning, the change in release rate with time, or heat flux to the solid surface or the plane of decomposition.

The premise on which the model is based may be stated: if (1) release rate characteristics of a material or product are known for the range of conditions to which it is exposed in a real fire situation; and (2) its exposure as a function of time is known or predictable, then the real fire performance of the material or product can be predicted. The fire performance of materials and products are found from release rate tests; the exposure conditions are calculated as a function of time and position using the model.

Interpretation of the basic release rate data and reduction to the format required by the model is described. Methods are given for deriving the instantaneous values of release rate from data obtained during the progressive involvement phase of the specimen. Importance of good release rate data to the accurate prediction of a fire's development is illustrated.

Several assumptions made in formulating the model have been examined. The flux-time product (FTP) concept, as defined and used in this model, has been tested experimentally and, for the materials checked, has shown to be a useful and reliable indicator of ignition. Cumulative (total) heat release (THR) has also shown to be a good parameter for correlating changes in heat release rate for char-forming materials with changes in flux and time.
Defining Characteristic Times in Forced Ventilation Enclosure Fires
Authors: Pagni PJ , Alvares NJ , Foote KL
Published: February 2009

Several characteristic times are identified for describing force-ventilated enclosure fires. Using the initial properties of an enclosure and a prescribed fire heat release rate, a set of appropriate times for hazard evaluation can be calculated. Three times, characteristic of the histories of the mass of gas in the room, the energy in the room, and the response of the enclosure walls, are proposed, defined, and tested. These parameters are independent indicators of quasi-steady conditions in force-ventilated enclosure fires.
Smoke and Soot Data Determinations in the Cone Calorimeter
Authors: Babrauskas V , Mulholland G
Published: February 2009

Two kinds of measurements often characterize the aerosols resulting from fires, direct optical measurements and measurements of the fraction of specimen mass that becomes particulate mass. The former consists of two components, absorption and scattering, but is measured more typically as the total extinction of a light beam. Such measurements have been made for a long time in connection with other-purpose fire tests, such as ASTM Test Method for Surface Burning Characteristics of Building Materials (E 84) or ASTM Test Method for Heat and Visible Smoke Release Rates for Materials and Products (E 906), or as separate tests, such as in ASTM Test Method for Specific Optical Density of Smoke Generated by Solid Materials (E 662). The latter often is considered the definitive measurement, and is referenced often for regulatory or specification purposes. Recent work at NBS points to a number of shortcomings of this test, including the limited irradiance range, the absence of continuous specimen mass loss measurements, and the small, fixed amount of oxygen available for combustion. The result is the development of both optical and gravimetric soot measuring techniques for the cone calorimeter. The cone calorimeter is a test method for flammability, recently published as ASTM Proposed Test Method for Heat and Visible Smoke Release Rates for Materials and Products Using an Oxygen Consumption Calorimeter (P 190), which comprises a flow-through system, with two specimen orientations, a wide specimen irradiance range, a load cell for real-time specimen mass loss determinations, and modern signal manipulation hardware. Smoke and soot production data have been obtained in the cone calorimeter for some reference materials and for actual furnishings. These data are seen to be free of the difficulties present with the earlier methods. A small amount of full-scale data is also available; a comparison of the bench-scale data against the full-scale performance shows a promising correlation.
Determination of the Input Data for a Model of the Heat Release Rate of Wood
Authors: Parker WJ
Published: February 2009

A computer model for the heat release rate of wood is summarized and its input data requirements are specified. Some methods of obtaining these data are discussed. An apparatus for measuring the heat of combustion of the volatiles and the kinetic parameters for the mass loss rate of the various chemical components of wood as a function of their degree of char is described. The results of some of the measurements on cellulose made with this apparatus are presented.
Quantitative Inclusion Ratings and Continuous Casting: User Experience and Relationships with Rolling Contact Fatigue Life
Authors: Hampshire JM , King E
Published: February 2009

The limitations of the Jernkontoret (JK) method of assessing inclusions as described in ASTM E 45 are pointed out and two alternative quantitative methods of inclusion assessment presented in detail. Close relationships are demonstrated between the rolling contact fatigue life and the quantitative inclusion assessments for 25 different casts of Society of Automotive Engineers SAE 52100 type steel. From this, the SAM B-type count shows the closest relationship with fatigue life. Inclusion of the SAM count in steel specifications has improved the monitoring of steel quality from suppliers. The quality of continuous-cast bearing steel from four European suppliers is described and rules are drawn up defining the optimum method of steel manufacture and mechanical working.
Effects of Material Properties on Bearing Steel Fatigue Strength
Authors: Schlicht H , Schreiber E , Zwirlein O
Published: February 2009

If rolling bearings are subjected to rolling contact stressing in case they are operated under elastohydrodynamic conditions, the formation of spalling in the raceway and consequently the failure of the rolling bearing are a result of fatigue of the material. Material properties have different effects on the rolling bearing life, depending on the contact pressure. Stressing conditions, therefore, must be precisely defined in order to describe these effects. A hypothesis, based on information obtained from the published literature and from our own research, is presented on the failure mechanism of bearings, the formation of spalling after subsurface cracks. The effect of material properties such as material discontinuities, strength, and residual stresses are discussed.
The Distribution and Quantitative Relationship of Oxygen and Inclusions in High-Carbon Ball Bearing Steel
Authors: Bombardelli B , Pacchiani G , Holzner H , Hoo JJC
Published: February 2009

This paper summarizes the results of a series of investigations conducted in various time periods, in conjunction with each innovative change of equipment and process at Acciaierie di Bolzano S.p.A. in Bolzano, Italy. The results discussed are limited to three major areas of qualitative improvement for high-carbon ball bearing steel equivalent to AISI E 52100 grade: macroinclusions, microinclusions, and oxygen content. Based on the latest results obtained from the most up-to-date technology, a simplified method is proposed for the quality assurance sampling and testing in the production of AISI E 52100 steel.
The Development of an ASTM Standard Analytical Method for the Determination of Oxygen in Steel
Authors: Diamondstone BI , Flinchbaugh DA
Published: February 2009

Efforts towards the development of a standard procedure for the determination of 5 to 50 ppm of oxygen in steel are described. This work is being carried out by ASTM committee E03 on Chemical Analysis of Metals, in cooperation with committee A-1 on Steel, Stainless Steel and Related Alloys. Data from three interlaboratory studies that have been carried out over the last six years are compared and improvement in the overall uncertainty of the proposed standard procedure is demonstrated. The various sources contributing to the uncertainty of oxygen measurements, including sample inhomogeneity and sample preparation procedures, are discussed, and suggestions for minimizing uncertainty are given. A short history of progress in Subcommittee E03.01 and suggestions for possible future courses of action are given.
Current Status of Round-Robin Testing of Oxygen Content in Bearing Steels
Authors: Green WB , Diamondstone BI , Hoo JJC
Published: February 2009

The results of round-robin testing for oxygen content are presented. These results represent 3 standards and 12 unknowns, analyzed by 16 international laboratories and institutions. The procedures for analysis methods were detailed by ASTM E03, Subcommittee E03.01, Proposed Method for the Determination of Oxygen in Steel and in Iron, Nickel and Cobalt Alloys, Draft No. 12, 29 April 1986. Statistical analysis of data is presented. The results show that reliable and reproducible oxygen analyses can be obtained from bearing steels by using proper procedures and commercially available analysis equipment.
Inclusion Assessment in Steel Using the New Jernkontoret Inclusion Chart II for Quantitative Measurements
Authors: Johansson S
Published: February 2009

The new Swedish standard SS 111116 for assessing the content of nonmetallic inclusions in steel is a manual image analysis method that uses a comparative picture chart for describing the content of inclusions in a microscopic field of view. With the aid of this new picture chart, it is possible to obtain the same results as with optical image analysis regarding basic parameters such as area percent, length and numbers of inclusions per unit area. The frequency distribution of the inclusion sizes can also be obtained. SS 111116 is a tool for inclusion assessment that retains the advantages of both the old comparative methods (ASTM E 45–85 and SEP 1570) and optical image analysis, but reduces the disadvantages to a minimum.
Quality of High-Carbon Chromium Bearing Steel Produced in the Electric Arc Furnace—Ladle Furnace—RH Vacuum Degassing Vessel—Vertical Continuous Caster
Authors: Uesugi T , Tsubota K
Published: February 2009

The quality of high-carbon chromium bearing steel, SUJ2 (SAE52100), produced by the electric arc furnace (EF)-ladle furnace (LF)-Ruhrstahl-Heraeus vacuum degassing vessel (RH)-vertical type continuous caster (CC) process, including the effects of impurities and cold working on its fatigue life, was investigated.

Bearing steel made in the experimental 100-kg induction furnace was also subjected to a fatigue life test in order to confirm the effect of impurities. The substantially low oxygen content of the CC bearing steel has resulted not only in high cleanliness which doubles the life of conventional ingot steel, but also in the reduction of buildup of nonmetallic inclusions on the inner surface of an immersion nozzle. Due to this reduction, approximately 10 000 metric tons (68 heats) of steel can be cast from one tundish-one nozzle without interruptions.

The fatigue life test was performed on specimens where the center segregation of bearing steel lay on their running surfaces with results that flaking sites did not tend to concentrate in the center portion. In other words, tests were done when center segregation did not affect the life of the specimen.

It has become clear that the fatigue life of the CC-bearing steel, despite reduced impurities, still depends mainly on the oxygen content of the steel. Also, the life test on the specimens made in the experimental furnace has confirmed that titanium and sulfur are hardly related to the life as long as their contents are kept at levels generally found in commercial bearing steel.

The life was further extended by cold working even when the oxygen content was extremely reduced. The bearing steel manufactured by the EF-LF-RH-CC-cold working process is accordingly considered to exhibit the longest life in commercially mass produced bearing steel.
New Developments in the Production and Testing of Bearing Steels
Authors: Dressel PG , Kremer K-J , Spitzer H , Vöge H , Weber L
Published: February 2009

The production routes for bearing steels, available in the works of Krupp Stahl AG, and developments to improve product quality and to lower production costs are described. The requirements for chemical composition, nonmetallic inclusions, and microstructure are discussed in respect to machinability and rolling contact fatigue life of bearings. Melting and refining of the bearing steel AISI 52100 (DIN 100 Cr 6) and its processing to billets, bars, and wire-rods are illustrated under the aspect of process technology developments and economical factors. The introduction of the continuous casting process and improvements in manufacturing technology will render the production of bearing steels less expensive at a high quality level. This, however, requires further research and development which should be assisted by appropriate requirements for bearing steel products.
Oxygen Content, Oxidic Microinclusions, and Fatigue Properties of Rolling Bearing Steels
Authors: Lund T , Åkesson J
Published: February 2009

Steels used in rolling bearing applications require high reliability and consistency. The SKF MR process developments carried out at Ovako Steel have led to the design of cleanliness specifications which correspond to such requirements. The reduction of oxygen content and harmful nonmetallic inclusions have led to significantly improved fatigue properties of rolling bearing steels.
How the Trophic Status of a Community Can Alter the Bioavailability and Toxic Effects of Contaminants
Authors: McCarthy JF , Bartell SM
Published: February 2009

Binding of hydrophobic organic and metal contaminants to particulate organic matter (POM) and dissolved organic matter (DOM) in aquatic systems affects the availability of contaminants and their subsequent dose to biota. Eutrophic systems that contain high levels of organic sorbents will have lower concentrations of freely dissolved, readily available toxicant, thus reducing the exposure of the biota. In more oligotrophic systems with lower levels of sorbents, toxic exposure may be greater. These interactions suggest a relationship between the trophic state of an ecosystem and its susceptibility to toxic effects. Studies on the binding of organic contaminants to POM and DOM and its effects on toxicant accumulation are reviewed. The role of system productivity in producing adverse effects is explored by computer simulations, using a combined fate and effects model to evaluate the impacts of naphthalene on the production dynamics and contaminant body burden in different model populations when the concentration of POM varied from 0 to 10 mg of carbon per litre. Higher levels of POM decreased body burdens and moderated the reduction in productivity resulting from the exposure to naphthalene. Any interpretation of functional tests used to evaluate hazardous substances should consider the interaction between the trophic state of the system and the potential dose of toxicant available to biota.
State Changes in Laboratory Microecosystems in Response to Chemicals from Three Structural Groups
Authors: David Yount J , Shannon LJ
Published: February 2009

Generic mixed-flask culture microecosystems derived from small lake and pond planktonic communities were used to evaluate the effects of selected alcohols, aniline derivatives, and aromatic amides on pH and dissolved oxygen—ecosystem state variables which reflect energy flow and nutrient cycling processes within the systems.

Using changes in these variables as indicators of effect, the relative toxicity rankings of compounds within each group were determined and compared with the toxicity rankings established by fathead minnow acute toxicity tests. The ecosystem-level relative toxicity of three alcohols agreed with the toxicity rankings based on fathead minnow 96-h lowest-observed-effect levels (LOELs). The toxicity rankings of aniline and three of its derivatives were similar to those for the alcohols. For both alcohols and anilines, the ecosystem state variables were more sensitive than the fathead minnow lethality for the least toxic members of the group. A group of aromatic amides, which included an inhibitor of photosynthesis and an uncoupler of oxidative phosphorylation, showed the most departure from the fathead minnow toxicity ranking. The amide compound that was least toxic to fathead minnows was most toxic at the ecosystem level.

These examples can be considered representative of situations that might be encountered in an early stage of ecosystem-level testing. For less well known toxicants, microcosm functional testing could assist in identifying chemicals that require more elaborate test procedures.
Environmental Chemicals and Biomembranes: Kinetics of Uptake and Influence on Membrane Functions
Authors: Ahlers J , Rösick E , Stadtlander K
Published: February 2009

The uptake kinetics, accumulation, and metabolism of several radioactively labeled environmental chemicals by the eucaryotic microorganism yeast were studied. The results have shown that this test system rapidly provides information about the extent of uptake and accumulation of such chemicals as a function of various external conditions. Thus, different forms of environmental hazard can be simulated.

In addition, in several cases a correlation between inhibition of functional membrane proteins (adenosine triphosphatase and transport systems) and reduction of the cell growth rate was observed, which suggests that the toxicity of an environmental chemical may often be caused by the result of an interaction with important membrane components. The agreement of these results with acute toxicity data from the literature indicate that yeast is suitable for detecting potential hazards to higher organisms from chemicals.
Comfort Factors of Protective Clothing: Mechanical and Transport Properties, Subjective Evaluation of Comfort
Authors: Cowan SL , Tilley RC , Wiczynski ME
Published: February 2009

The purpose of this research was to determine the mechanical and transport properties contributing to fabric comfort for a series of nonwoven fabrics known to resist spray penetration and to relate those properties to the subjective evaluation of comfort.

Seven fabrics that may be used in protective apparel were evaluated for their comfort properties. One hundred percent cotton woven chambray with and without a fluorocarbon finish served as control fabrics. Five nonwoven test fabrics known to resist spray penetration were selected. Three spun-laced or spun-bonded test fabrics contained 100% olefin fibers with either a fluorocarbon finish or a polyethylene coating. Both woodpulp, polyester-blended nonwovens had a fluorocarbon finish. One woodpulp, polyester fabric also contained a flame retardant finish.

For each fabric, standard ASTM test methods were used to measure air and water vapor permeability, fabric weight, thickness, flexural rigidity, breaking load and elongation, and bursting and tear strengths. The Kawabata Evaluation System (KES) was used to provide an objective evaluation of hand characteristics. A panel of judges subjectively ranked the seven fabrics on smoothness, stiffness, stretchiness, thickness, weight, and hand.

The woodpulp, polyester nonwoven fabric with a commercial finish was found to be the nonwoven fabric having comfort characteristics closest to those of the chambrays. Among the nonwovens, it was ranked the highest for hand by the panel of judges while the olefin nonwoven fabric with the polyethylene coating was ranked as having the least desirable hand. The woodpulp, polyester nonwoven with a commercial finish was comparable to the chambray fabrics in terms of fabric stiffness. Both woodpulp, polyester fabrics had better air and water vapor transmission properties than did the other nonwoven fabrics evaluated.

According to the subjective evaluations, the stiffer and smoother the fabric, the less desirable the hand. The olefin nonwoven fabric with the polyethylene coating strongly exhibited both of these characteristics. In the subjective evaluation, it was ranked as having the least desirable hand. Both spun-bonded olefins had the lowest air and water vapor transport properties of the fabrics evaluated. Lack of these properties makes the olefin nonwovens a poor choice for comfortable protective apparel.

The nonwoven fabrics had significantly weaker tensile and bursting strength properties compared to the two chambray fabrics. There were no significant differences between wet and dry strengths of the nonwoven fabrics. Therefore, the presence of moisture would not be expected to cause premature fabric failure. The spun-bonded olefins were the most durable of the nonwoven fabrics evaluated.
Evaluation of Psychological Reactions in Children When Using Respiratory Protective Devices
Authors: Mauritzson-Sandberg E , Sandberg L
Published: February 2009

Three experiments were carried out with the aim of evaluating psychological reactions in children (0 to 7 years) when using respiratory protective devices (PD). Psychological reactions like uncertainty, anxiety, claustrophobia, and physiologic distress are linked with clothing, design, and technical conditions. From a psychological point of view, aspects connected with the possibility of satisfying psychosogical requirements such as communication, supervision, and nursing are equally important as clothing, design, and technique when evaluating the effectiveness of the PD. Results show that reliability and confidence in the PD are important aspects when parents (adults) chose PDs for children. If two protective devices are technically equal, the one that is shown to be most reliable will be chosen.
A Standardized Dexterity Test Battery
Authors: Ervin CA
Published: February 2009

Though numerous investigators have studied the effects of various impediments on manual performance, few if any standardized test procedures have been developed even for particular conditions such as protective glove wear, climatic extremes, or drug use. The use of different dexterity tests, minor modifications of the same tests, and changes in experimental design result in frequent duplication of very similar experimentation. Standardized test batteries would streamline future research in this area by decreasing redundancy and making it possible to compare results from parallel studies. In developing a standardized test battery, several factors must be considered: availability and durability of equipment, control of learning effects, ease of scoring and administration, ability to discriminate between conditions being tested, and reliability. These factors, which were addressed in an investigation of the effects of chemical defense gloves on manual performance for the U.S. Air Force, are discussed here.
Thermal Protective Performance of Single-Layer and Multiple-Layer Fabrics Exposed to Electrical Flashovers
Authors: King MW , Li X , Doupe BE , Mellish JA
Published: February 2009

Utility workers can be exposed to an acute flammability hazard when they are working close to an arcing fault or flashover from electrical equipment or power lines. In the past, it has not been possible to recommend the type of protective clothing that should be worn in these circumstances because no laboratory test method has been available to measure the thermal protective performance (TPP) of fabrics and other laminae against exposure to a high intensity, infrared dominant, radiant energy source similar to that emitted from electrical flashovers. The study describes the use of a recently developed Flash Tester, which, by generating a controlled electrical discharge across welding electrodes, produces radiant flux densities in the 40 to 600 kW/m2 (1 to 15 cals/cm2/s) range. By exposing fabric layers equivalent to various clothing assemblies worn by utility linesmen and a range of 32 flame-retardant (FR) fabrics as single- and multiple-layer specimens, it has been shown that those parts of the body covered by only one fabric layer are exposed to the highest risk of burn injury, whereas for those covered with six or more layers, the risk of burn injury is negligible. The use of single-layer fabrics containing FR fibers or FR finishes provide some additional protection, particularly those with a high mass per unit area (fabric weight), while the use of thicker or lighter colored fabrics does not appear to influence the TPP ratings. More protection is obtained by using two or more fabric layers. However, two layers appear to be effective only when both layers contain fabrics that do not fuse together. Because of strong interactions between fabrics in a multiple-layer assembly, it is not possible to predict the TPP of combined layers worn together from tests of the individual layers.
Effect of Permanent Press Resin Finish on Cotton Fabric Thermal Resistivity
Authors: Shalev I
Published: February 2009

The effect of permanent press resin of the dimethylol ethelene urea (DMEU) type on 100% cotton fabric resistivity, as measured on a guarded hot plate, was studied. Increased add-on reduced average air pore size and increased solid content. A reduction in fabric thickness and an increase in actual contact area with a solid surface were also observed. A maximum of resistivity was obtained for an add-on of 4.4%. Further increase in add-on caused a reduction in resistivity as bulk density increased. These results were compared with theoretical models of heat transfer through randomly oriented fiber assemblies.
Setting Standards for the Resistance of Clothing to Molten Metal Splashes
Authors: Proctor TD , Thompson H
Published: February 2009

Comparisons are reported between two laboratory methods for assessing the resistance of clothing materials to splashes of molten substances. The methods, ISO DIS 9185:1986 and a modification using calorimeters, were found to rank materials in broadly the same way. The results, including the performance of clothing in industry, have shown that heat transfer occurs due to adhesion of molten substances to clothing and penetration of molten substances through clothing. Information is given on the extent of adhesion of molten iron, copper, brass, aluminum, slag, and the electrolyte used in aluminum smelting, to commonly found clothing materials in order to aid selection for specific uses. The structure of wool melton cloths to provide protection against molten iron, copper, and brass is considered.
Development and Testing of Extremely High-Temperature (1093°C and Over) Coatings for Safety Clothing
Authors: Dixit B
Published: February 2009

Various properties critical for satisfactory performance of the fabric at temperatures of 1093°C (2000°F) and over are described. There is a dramatic change in the properties of materials at high temperatures. Various coatings have been developed over the years to enhance the temperature capability of both organic and inorganic materials. These coatings are evaluated. The selection process and the effect of the coatings in different applications are described. The paper also describes the development of an inorganic coating that dramatically changes the high-temperature properties of fiberglass with very little outgassing or smoke. New test methods were developed to evaluate the performance of Zetex Plus made from highly texturized fiberglass yarn and coated with the inorganic treatment. The insulation properties and product life are significantly improved with the application of the Zetex Plus coating.