bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Antibiotics and the Aberdeen typhoid outbreak in 1964
Authors: Brodie J.
Published: May 2009

This paper gives an abbreviated account of part of a research programme which followed the Aberdeen typhoid outbreak of 1964. Chloramphenicol, the main antibiotic used in treatment, was shown to have a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of between 5 and 2.5 μg./ml. for the S. typhi phage type 34 of the outbreak. The MIC for methacycline was between 2.5 and 2 μg./ml. Whereas the deep and shallow broth techniques used gave similar results with these antibiotics, the MIC for ampicillin, and also cephaloridine, was less in the deep than in the shallow broths.

Serum assays in patients given ampicillin or cephaloridine yielded abnormally high concentrations of both antibiotics when S. typhi phage type 34 was the test organism whereas, with other test organisms, the concentrations were within expectation. These abnormally high values fell within expected values when the sera under investigation had first been heated to 56° C. for 30 min. before assay against the S. typhi of the outbreak.

The findings with ampicillin suggested that dosages given were satisfactory. With cephaloridine the concentrations found in patients' sera seemed to show that twice daily doses of 0.5 g. fell short of adequacy.
A preliminary study of the effect of contact with environmental mycobacteria on the pattern of sensitivity to a range of new Tuberculins amongst Ugandan adults
Authors: Stanford J. L. , Paul R. C. , Penketh Andrea , Thurlow Susan , Carswell J. W. , Barker D. J. P. , Barot Saroj
Published: May 2009

A range of new Tubercul ns prepared from extracts of living organisms belonging to 12 mycobacterial species has been used to assess the effect of BCG immunization and contact with environmental mycobacteria on Ugandan adults. A total of 2,456 tests were carried out on 562 people, 86% of whom came from three areas selected for special study. These areas were chosen on the basis of occurrence of leprosy andM. ulceransinfection and on data concerning the distribution of environmental mycobacteria. It was found that the effect of BCG was small compared with that previously observed amongst Kenyan schoolchildren, but that the effect of geographical origin was considerable. There was some correlation between the percentages of reactivity to the reagents and the frequency of mycobacteria in the environment.
The importance of agglutinin production in mice in the determination of the definitive serotype ofBordetella pertussis
Authors: Bronne–Shanbury Caroline J.
Published: May 2009

A schedule for the routine serotyping of strains ofBordetella pertussisbased on agglutinin production in mice to the K-antigens has been worked out. Mice have been found as satisfactory as rabbits but far more economical for the production of the very small volumes of serum which are required. Agglutinin production, used in conjunction with direct agglutination, provides definitive information about serotype.
The hamster as a secondary reservoir host of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus
Authors: Skinner H. H. , Knight E. H. , Buckley L. S.
Published: May 2009

Exposure of weaned hamsters to an environment contaminated with LCM virus shed by tolerantly infected mice led to short subclinical infections. If infection occurred in early pregnancy, the young appeared normal at birth but their tissues were highly infective. For two to three months their bites and urine were also highly infective. A viraemia did not persist long enough for successive vertical transmissions of the infection to be likely. However, the viruria persisted in most prenatally infected hamsters for at least eight months and under simulated field conditions was a potent virus source for contact infections, leading to further generations of prenatally infected young. In the absence of the natural reservoir host, such long-term carriers could have been a major factor in causing the build-up of infection in colonies of hamsters which, when purchased as household pets, led to a recent spate of human clinical infections in Germany and the U.S.A.
Epidemic of echovirus 19 in the north-east of England
Authors: Codd A. A. , Hale J. H. , Bell T. M. , Sims D. G. , Bacon C. J. , Gardner P. S.
Published: May 2009

We report the first large-scale outbreak of echovirus 19 infection. It occurred in the north-east of England during the summer and autumn of 1974. The virus was isolated from 268 patients in the region. The infection spread from the urban to more rural areas, reaching a peak in mid-August. Males were affected more often than females in the ratio 1·6:1. Half of the patients were under eight years of age, relatively few were over 35 years. Aseptic meningitis and upper respiratory infections were the commonest presentations, though a wide range of other diseases occurred including gastroenteritis, myalgia, pericarditis, undifferentiated pyrexia, rashes and a syndrome analagous to bacteraemic shock. There was no evidence that the pattern or severity of the disease changed during the outbreak. Infants under the age of six months were more seriously affected than older children and adults. All patients except one made an uneventful recovery. Of the routine tissue culture cells HEp2 and HeLa were by far the most satisfactory for virus isolation.
Isolation of salmonellas and Shigella sonnei from a laboratory bench
Authors: Price T. H.
Published: May 2009

An area of the laboratory bench on which slide agglutinations were performed in the diagnosis of salmonella and shigella infection was examined for these organisms. Impression plates and broth-moistened swabs were used for sampling. Both techniques gave satisfactory results, but the contact plates provided positive results a day earlier than the swabs. Suitable precautions to minimize contamination of the bench surface are discussed.
Bacterial dispersion in relation to operating room clothing
Authors: Whyte W. , Vesley D. , Hodgson R.
Published: May 2009

The effect of operating clothing on the dispersal of bacterial particles from the wearers was studied in a dispersal chamber. A comparison was made of six gowns as well as four types of trousers. The gowns were of three basic types, namely a conventional cotton type, disposable types made of non-woven fabric and those of the total-body exhaust system (Charnley type). The dispersal chamber could simulate conditions as expected both in down-flow unidirectional ultra-clean systems and in a conventional turbulent plenum-ventilated system. It was found that the disposable gowns would reduce the dispersal rate by about 30% in the simulated conventionally ventilated system and about 65% in the laminar flow system. The total-body exhaust system (Charnley) would reduce the count by 10-fold in the conventional ventilated system and by 66-fold in the laminar-flow system.

The poor performance of the gowns in conventionally ventilated systems was caused by the dispersal of bacterial particles from underneath the gown (about 80%). This was not reduced by the disposable gown and only partially by the Charnley type. This small drop would be further decreased in a conventionally ventilated operating-room as only scrubbed staff would wear the gown. In order to overcome this poor performance in conventionally ventilated operating-rooms impervious trousers would be required. Four types were studied and it was demonstrated that those made either from Ventile or non-woven fabric would reduce the bacterial dispersion fourfold.

As these tests had been carried out in an artificial environment checks were carried out in the unidirectional-flow operating-room during total-hip arthroplasty. This was done by comparing conventional cotton gowns with non-woven gowns and total-body exhaust gowns. The results showed good correlation between the operating room and the chamber with the non-woven fabric gown but the total-body exhaust system did not perform as well in the operating room (12-fold compared to 66-fold) the difference being possibly due to the contribution from the patient. However, as this comparison was that which would be most open to influence from other variables confidence could be placed on the chamber test results.

Values were also obtained for the total number of bacterial particles dispersed by persons during a standard exercise wearing different clothing. This count was dependent on the clothing worn but a median count of between 1000 and 1500 peatorial particlos/min. would be expected when conventional clothing was worn, with a range of between 300 and 19,000. This count could be reduced to about 100/min. if a total-body exhaust suit was worn (range 30–400).
Factors affecting the sensitivity of replicating McCoy cells in the isolation and growth of chlamydia A (TRIC agents)
Authors: Johnson F. W. A. , Hobson D.
Published: May 2009

Normal non-irradiated McCoy cell cultures provide a sensitive and reproducible method for the isolation of oculo-genital strains of chlamydia A directly from human secretions and for laboratory studies with these agents. Since September 1973, chlamydia have been isolated from 175 of 562 women (32·1%) attending venereal disease clinics. Freshly isolated and low passage strains have been used to determine the importance of centrifugation, constitution and pH of the tissue culture medium, and the temperature of incubation in controlling the efficiency of plating in the method.
Prevention of low temperature denaturation injury in T4Bo phage by low concentrations of traditional cryoprotective additives
Authors: Steele P. R. M.
Published: May 2009

The well known cryoprotective additives glucose, sucrose, glycerol, dimethyl sulphoxide, polyvinylpyrrolidone, dextran and ammonium acetate have been found to prevent inactivation of T4Bo phage frozen in sodium bromide solutions. Their protective effects in this experimental system could not be accounted for by a colligative mechanism. It is proposed that they may act by modifying the structure of the unfrozen aqueous phase rather than by direct interaction with the phage.
A modified haemagglutination inhibition test for rubella antibodies, using standardized, freeze-dried reagents. Report of a comparative multi-centre trial
Authors: van Weemen Bauke K. , Kacaki Jovan
Published: May 2009

A modified haemagglutination inhibition test for rubella antibodies, using standardized freeze-dried reagents, was developed and compared with haemagglutination inhibition tests using fresh erythrocytes. This comparison was made in collaboration with six European laboratories. A total of 4205 serum samples were tested. The results show that:

(1) Sensitivity and reliability of the modified test are good;

(2) the modified test can be performed in glass tubes as well as in polystyrene microtitration plates.
Salmonellosis in wild mammals
Authors: Jones P. W. , Twigg G. I.
Published: May 2009

One thousand two hundred and sixty-nine freeliving, wild mammals, representative of 16 species from estates in Berkshire, Oxfordshire and Surrey, were examined for the presence of salmonellas. Salmonella typhimurium was isolated from 1 and S. dublin from 7 house mice (Mus musculus). There were no isolations from the other species examined. It was concluded that the house-mice infected with S. dublin acquired the organism from experimentally infected cattle.

The wild mammal population does not at present appear to constitute a reservoir for infection of domestic animals.
A comparative field trial, conducted without pre-treatment census baiting, of the rodenticides zinc phosphide, thallium sulphate and gophacide against Rattus norvegicus
Authors: Rennison B. D.
Published: May 2009

The effectiveness of the single-dose poison treatments of farm rat infestations, analysed by comparing the weights of the post-treatment census bait takes in covariance with the weights of the prebait takes, showed that treatments with 2·5% zinc phosphide, 0·3% thallium sulphate or 0·3% gophacide were equally effective and significantly better than were treatments with 1% zinc phosphide or 0·1% thallium sulphate. The methodology and sensitivity of different analyses are also considered.
Intravenous infusion bottle plugs as a source of microbial contamination
Authors: Holmes C. J. , Allwood M. O.
Published: May 2009

A technique was described for the artificial contamination of the upper surface of intravenous infusion container plugs with viable micro-organisms. This technique was employed to assess the adequacy of decontamination of two designs of plug by the use of antiseptic swabbing. Results indicated that the MRO plug surface was more difficult to sterilize than that of the Tra venol plug. The possibility of contamination of the infusion fluid during insertion of the giving-set needle was examined. Results indicated that there was a risk of contamination through the administration-set port of the MRC plug if swabbing was inadequate.
The effect of colostrum-derived antibody on louping -ill virus infection in lambs
Authors: Reid H. W. , Boyce J. B.
Published: May 2009

The influence of colostrum-derived antibody to louping-ill virus on the course of experimental infection was investigated in lambs. Lambs that had high titres of antibody were refractory to infection. Lambs that had low titres of antibody did not develop a viraemia but either showed an antibody reaction or were sensitized as judged by the immune response, which was typical of an anamnestic response, after rechallenge. Animals that had no antibody 34–20 days before challenge had either no or very slight viraemia, but did develop an antibody response with titres as high as those of control lambs by day 21. Lambs that had been negative for longer periods responded in a similar fashion to controls.

These findings are discussed in relation to the occurrence of disease in lambs kept in louping-ill endemic areas. It is concluded that in such areas infections of lambs are likely to be of minor importance as a cause of mortality and of little epidemiological significance.
Salmonella crossness– a new serotype containing a new somatic (O) antigen, 67
Authors: Rowe B. , Hall Mary L. M. , McCoy J. H.
Published: May 2009

A new salmonella subgenus I serotype is described. Strain C.S. 1608/73, serotype 67: r: 1, 2, was isolated from activated sewage sludge and was assigned the nameS. crossness. The serotype is biochemically atypical in its ability to utilize sucrose and this ability appears to be controlled by a transferable plasmid.
Quality control of the isolation rate of pathogens in medical microbiology laboratories
Authors: Tillett Hilary E. , Crone P. B.
Published: May 2009

Two statistical analyses are suggested to compare the success rates in isolating and identifying pathogenic organisms from specimens achieved by different laboratories participating in a quality control scheme. An example is given in which the analyses are applied to 25 laboratories that received 30 simulated specimens.
Trials of the anticoagulant rodenticide WBA 8119 against confined colonies of warfarin-resistant house mice (Mus musculus L.)
Authors: Rowe F. P. , Bradfield A.
Published: May 2009

The efficacy of the newly developed anticoagulant rodenticide WBA 8119 was evaluated against the house mouse (Mus musculus L.) using individual and family groups of warfarin-resistant animals. WBA 8119 at 0·002 %, O % and 0.01 % in pinhead oatmeal bait gave complete kills of mice in ‘no-choice’ feeding tests carried out in cages and small pens. In replicated 21-day treatments on families of mice confined in larger pens and conditioned to feeding on plain foods, the overall mortalities obtained using the three formulated poison baits were 71/72, 62/63 and 57/57 respectively.

The results of the WBA 8119 toxicity tests are considered in relation to previous findings on other anticoagulant rodenticides, particularly difenacoum. In equivalent tests, WBA 8119 performed better than difenacoum. The data thus support the laboratory findings that WBA 8119 is the most active anticoagulant so far tested for the control of warfarin-resistant house mice.
Incidence of salmonella infection in animals in England and Wales, 1968–1974
Authors: Sojka W. J. , Wray C. , Shreeve Jean , Benson A. J.
Published: May 2009

Of a total of 23,609 incidents of salmonella infection reported during the period 1968–74, 20,326 occurred in cattle, 1744 in poultry and other birds, 675 in sheep, 558 in pigs and 306 in other species of animals.

Despite the large number of serotypes isolated (153), 88% of incidents were due to only two serotypes: S. dublin (15,929 incidents of which 15,446 occurred in cattle) and S. typhimurium (4842 incidents of which 3785 occurred in cattle and 732 in birds).

S. choleraesuis was the third (314 incidents which with only 5 exceptions occurred in pigs) and S. abortusovis (243 incidents all in sheep) was the fourth most commonly isolated serotype. The following six serotypes were each recorded in more than 100 incidents: S. newport (177), S. agona (170), S. virchow (169), S. anatum (152), S. enteritidis (150) and S. montevideo (111). The other 143 serotypes accounted for only 5·8% of total incidents.

The trends of annual incidence of salmonella infection in cattle, sheep, pigs, poultry and other birds during the 17-year period 1958–74 and the distribution of the main serotypes in the individual species of animals from 1968 to 1974 are discussed.
Neutralization kinetics studies with type SAT 2 foot-and-mouth disease virus strains. 1. Factors that influence the rate and pattern of neutralization
Authors: Rweyemamu M. M. , Booth J. C. , Pay T. W. F.
Published: May 2009

A study of the kinetics of inactivation of foot-and-mouth disease virus type SAT 2 strains revealed that in most cases the rate of neutralization was not rectilinear. Deviations from first-order kinetics observed represented biphasic or parabolic and stepwise reactions. The initial rate was rapid and showed no lag phase or shoulder. The effects of deviations from linearity could be minimized by dilution of antiserum to a suitable extent. Treatment of virus–antibody mixtures with anti-species globulin resulted in enhancement of the rate of neutralization of homologous and heterologous reactions without significantly altering the relation between the two. This treatment also considerably reduced the amount of the persistent fraction. In attempt to disaggregate virus it was observed that sodium dodecyl sulphate inhibited neutralization of virus by specific antiserum.
The germicidal effect of the open air in different parts of The Netherlands
Authors: de Mik G. , de Groot Ida
Published: May 2009

Using the microthread technique the survival ofEscherichia coliMRE 162 in open air was measured in different parts of The Netherlands.

The presence of bactericidal compounds (open air factor = OAF) could be demonstrated on several days and quantitated in relative units of OAF concentration.

In the absence of ozone the OAF concentration was always low. In the presence of ozone the OAF concentration was dependent on wind direction. At the selected microthread exposure sites air from areas with high traffic intensity contributed more to OAF production than air from industrial areas. OAF production is probably related to the nature of hydrocarbons in the air.
Mechanisms of inactivation of bacteriophage φX174 and its DNA in aerosols by ozone and ozonized cyclohexene
Authors: de Mik G. , de Groot Ida
Published: May 2009

The mechanisms of inactivation of aerosolized bacteriophage øX174 in atmospheres containing ozone, cyclohexene, or ozonized cyclohexene were studied by using32P-labelled phage. The inactivation of the aerosolized phage in clean air or in air containing cyclohexene is due to damage of the protein coat since the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) extracted from the inactivated phage retains its biological activity. Inactivation of the phage in air containing ozone is mainly due to protein damage whereas inactivation in air containing ozonized cyclohexene is due both to protein and DNA damage. Sucrose gradient analysis shows that aerosolized inactivated øX174 releases unbroken DNA. In contrast, the DNA from phage øX174 inactivated by ozonized cyclohexene is broken.

The inactivation of aerosolized phage øX174-DNA was studied in the same atmospheres using32P-labelled DNA. øX174-DNA aerosolized in clean air or air containing cyclohexene at 75% r.h. is inactivated by a factor of 2 in 30 min. The inactivated DNA is broken. Ozone as well as ozonized cyclohexene inactivates DNA very fast causing breaks in the molecule. This is in contrast with the intact bacteriophage in which ozone does not produce breaks in the DNA.
Influenza surveillance 1972–75
Authors:   The Public Health Laboratory Service Standing Advisory Committee on Influenza
Published: May 2009

The surveillance programme described in an earlier report was used to monitor outbreaks of influenza in three successive winters. Influenza virus A was active in all of them, but the only major outbreak of influenza B was in 1973–4. The highest incidence of influenza A was in the 0–4 age group in all three winters, but schoolchildren bore the brunt of infections by influenza virus B.
Experimental transplacental transmission of porcine cytomegalovirus
Authors: Edington N. , Watt R. G. , Plowrights W. , Wrathall A. E. , Done J. T.
Published: May 2009

Six serologically negative sows were infected by intranasal instillation of porcine cytomegalovirus (PCMV) between 31 and 85 days of pregnancy. Four sows showed an afebrile anorexia and lethargy 14–25 days after infection and all 6 developed significant increases in indirect immunofluorescent (IIF) antibody titres within 35 days. Virus was recovered from nasal and/or cervical swabs from 2 sows during life and from lung macrophage cultures after death.

At term the sows were killed and their fetuses harvested by caesarean section. The number of mummified and stillborn fetuses increased from 4/63 in 6 previous litters to 18/60 in the 6 present litters. Nine of 43 fetuses born alive were reared in isolators for up to 6 weeks but the majority were killed for examination on the day of birth. Virus was isolated from 16 piglets from 4 of the 6 litters examined; it was isolated most frequently from lungs and liver but also from spleen, kidney, brain and nasal mucosa. Unsuckled day-old pigs had insignificant IIF titres, irrespective of whether they were excreting virus or not. The 5 congenital excretors which were reared all died within 7 days but no deaths occurred among their 4 litter-mates. Post-natal infection of 2 of these piglets reared in contact with congenitally infected pigs was suggested by the recovery of virus from nasal swabs 17 and 27 days after birth and the subsequent rise in IIF titre to 1/256 by day 42.
Salmonella in pig carcasses for human consumption in Hong Kong: a study on the mode of contamination
Authors: Chau P. Y. , Shortridge K. F. , Huang C. T.
Published: May 2009

A very high proportion (75%) of the pigs slaughtered in Hong Kong were found to be infected with salmonellas. Seven serotypes including Salmonella choleraesuis were isolated but the majority (91%) were S. anatum and S. derby. These serotypes, especially S. anatum and S. derby, had been isolated frequently from clinical cases, symptomless carriers and in this study from abattoir workers, suggesting that the pig was a significant source of human salmonella infection.

The majority of pigs slaughtered are imported and the high level of apparent infection was thought to be due to cross-infection during transport of the pigs under stress. S. anatum and S. derby were also isolated from pigs on local farms but the incidence was threefold lower. Scalding the pigs at 60 °C for 5 min caused no great reduction in the degree of superficial contamination. The two predominant serotypes were isolated from the tank and from drain swabs, and also from the latter held under scalding tank conditions. Thus, in spite of the introduction of hygienic slaughter under modernized conditions employing an automatic conveyance system, 55% of the carcasses were superficially contaminated after dressing before despatch to customers. Control of infection before slaughtering would appear crucial and a more thorough rinsing or washing of the dressed carcasses desirable.
The reliability of the examination of foods, processed for safety, for enteric pathogens and Enterobacteriaceae: a mathematical and ecological study
Authors: Drion E. F. , Mossel D. A. A.
Published: May 2009

Because of the paucity of quantitative data on numbers of other enteric pathogens in food, the reliability of the examination of processed foods for Enterobacteriaceae was estimated takingSalmonellaas a model. For this purpose an assessment was carried out of the risk of acceptingSalmonellacontaminated consignments of foods, despite a negative outcome of (i) examination of 1·5 kg samples forSalmonella;(ii) examination of one or two 1 g samples for Enterobacteriaceae; (iii) simultaneous application of both tests. The computations were based on the results of the examination of 6830 samples of dried foods, processed for safety, out of a total of 18170 samples.

Only 69 samples permitted the exact calculation of the factor, defined as c.f.u./g of Enterobacteriaceae/c.f.u./g ofSalmonella;4642 were positive for the former group but ‘free’ fromSalmonella, and the rest were negative in both tests. Numbers of c.f.u./g for both groups, and hence the factors, varied widely between commodities and also between different consignments of the same food product. The average for amounted to 5·8 × 103, far from the base-line value of 0·75 × 103assessed earlier. In only 0·1% of samples did the Enterobacteriaceae test fail to achieve the required consumer protection.

This investigation therefore substantiates that testing foods processed for safety by examining accurately chosen quantities for ecologically well selected and taxonomically thoroughly defined index organisms is a most effective procedure in terms both of consumer protection and simplicity of examination without compelling the food industry to achieve hardly attainable microbiological quality standards.
Multiple skin testing of tuberculosis patients with a range of new tuberculins, and a comparison with leprosy andMycobacterium ulceransinfection
Authors: Shield M. J. , Stanford J. L. , Paul R. C. , Carswell J. W.
Published: May 2009

Four hundred and seventy tuberculosis patients were each skin tested with four of a range of 17 mycobacterial reagents in four countries in all of which tuberculosis and leprosy were endemic. Sixteen of the reagents were new tuberculins prepared from extracts of living mycobacteria disrupted by ultrasonic disintegration and the last was PPD, RT23.

The effect that tuberculosis exerted on the delayed-type skin test response to these antigens was assessed by comparing results for tuberculosis patients with those for Tuberculin positive and Tuberculin negative control populations. Tuberculosis patients on Rifampicin therapy showed no difference in their skin test responses to any of the antigens from those patients on other forms of anti-tuberculosis treatment.

Amongst the normal population it was found that possession of Tuberculin positivity was associated with an enhanced response to all the other mycobacterial antigens with the exception of A*-in which demonstrated a reciprocal relationship with Tuberculin in Burma. It was also noted, in Burma particularly, that sensitization to mycobacterial species other thanMycobacterium tuberculosis, especially to the slow growers, plays a role in determining responses to different mycobacterial species.

In tuberculosis patients enhanced skin test responses were also seen but only in those countries, e.g. Libya, where the prevalence of mycobacterial species was low. Where mycobacteria were common, as in Burma, the converse was true and tuberculosis was associated with a diminished skin test response to each antigen. The high prevalence of A*-in positivity in Burma, its reciprocal relationship with Tuberculin there and the results for all the antigens in the tuberculosis patients indicate that the cell mediated skin test response may have a threshold. If this is exceeded the skin test becomes negative so that non-reactors then include those who have been excessively sensitized as well as those who have not been sensitized. Despite this, a greater percentage of tuberculosis patients in each country responded to the specific reagent Tuberculin than did the control populations and their mean positive induration sizes were consistently larger. Nevertheless, amongst the tuberculosis patients in Burma 13% were complete non-reactors to Tuberculim and this apparent anergy also applied to the other reagents with which these individuals were tested.

This differs from lepromatous leprosy where the anergic state pertain exclusively toM. lepraeand a few seemingly closely related species. The breadth of anergy inM. ulceransinfection has not been measured but it is known to effect both Burulin and the PPD, RT23.

Just as in leprosy andM. ulceransinfection, tuberculosis can be shown to have a disease spectrum here detected by multiple skin testing. The significance of this spectrum and its similarities with and differences from that of the other mycobacterioses is discussed.
Inhibition of β-haemolysis by opacity factor in group A streptococci
Authors: Pinney Alison M. , Widdowson Jean P. , Maxted W. R.
Published: May 2009

Group-A streptococci belonging to opacity-factor (OF)-positive M types were poorly haemolytic on horse-blood agar, but members of OF-negative M types, and M-negative variants of OF-positive strains gave good haemolysis. Horse-serum extracts of strains of OF-negative serotypes 6 and 12, and M-negative variant cultures of OF-positive serotypes 4 and 49, had higher titres of streptolysin S than did similar extracts of OF-positive, M-positive cultures of types 4 and 49. However, much larger amounts of streptolysin S could be extracted with ribonuclease (RNAase)-digested yeast ribonucleic acid (RNA) and M-positive OF-positive cultures treated in this way gave extracts at least as strong as did their M-negative variants or the OF-negative strains. Extraction of streptolysin S from OF-negative strains by serum could be inhibited by previous incubation of the serum with extracellular OF, suggesting that the production of diffusable OF by M-positive variants of OF-positive serotypes interferes with the extraction of streptolysin S by serum and leads to poor haemolysis on blood agar.

The haemolysis of all strains on blood agar was greatly improved by the incorporation of 0·1% (w/v) RNAase-digested yeast RNA into the medium, but the improvement was most marked in OF-positive serotypes.
The response to inactivated influenza A (H3N2) vaccines: the development and effect of antibodies to the surface antigens
Authors: Smith A. J. , Davies Joan R.
Published: May 2009

A controlled trial of influenza vaccines in a boys' public school from November 1970 to October 1975 provided an opportunity to study the response to vaccine and the effect on subsequent natural challenge in boys with differing natural experience of influenza A strains. The response to influenza A (H3N2) vaccines was assessed by estimating homotypic and heterotypic antibodies to the surface antigens. Previous natural experience of influenza A was found to influence vaccine response and the effect of natural challenge. The antibody response to revaccination with the same strain showed a progressively poorer response to second and third doses. The protective effect of naturally acquired and vaccine-induced antibodies was assessed during two outbreaks of influenza A which occurred in the trial period.
Some Effects of Prolonged Vitamin E Deficiency in The Rat
Authors: Martin Archer John Porter , Moore Thomas
Published: May 2009

INan early preliminary communication we (Martin & Moore, 1936) reported that in rats maintained for prolonged periods on diets deficient in vitamin E a brown discoloration of the uterus occurred. Degeneration of the convoluted tubules of the kidneys was also found. In a more recent paper we (Martin & Moore, 1938) described a less intense discoloration in the skeletal muscles, which was localized in distribution. The muscles of the hindlegs, which displayed the paresis described by Ringsted (1935), were always noticeably discoloured. In both the uterine and leg muscles discoloration was found to be associated with muscular degeneration. The similarity of the condition in the leg muscles to the nutritional muscular dystrophy first reported by Goettsch & Pappenheimer (1931) in guinea-pigs was noted. The purpose of this communication is to give a detailed account of this work, including its most recent developments (Moore, 1939).
The History of Six Old Cultures of Mycobactebium Tuberculosis
Authors: Griffith A. Stanley
Published: May 2009

Instances are recorded in the literature of mammalian -tubercle bacilli having lost their virulence completely during long cultivation on artificial media. In a paper published in 1925 I gave an account of the results of investigating two such strains which had been deposited in the National Collection of Type Cultures by Dr Nathan Raw. These strains were stated by Dr Raw to be lineal descendants of strains which had been given to him in 1906, one (human) by Prof. R. Koch, who had isolated it from the sputum of a case of human pulmonary tuberculosis, the other (bovine) by Prof. A. Calmette, who had obtained it from a mesenteric gland of a cow.
Resurgence of cholera in Hong Kong
Authors: Lee S. H. , Lai S. T. , Lai J. Y. , Leung N. K.
Published: May 2009

Cholera is one of the three diseases subject to the International Health Regulations. After a period of over 30 years, the seventh pandemic of cholera, which started in South East Asia in 1961, still shows no sign of a decline. On the contrary, it has increased its severity and invaded many other countries in Africa and Latin America. In the last two years, there has been a recrudescence of the disease in South East Asia and Western Pacific Regions. The discovery of a new strain of Vibrio cholerae 0139 in these regions is causing concern in view of its potential to cause major epidemics and higher mortality. Hong Kong had two intensive outbreaks of cholera in the last two years. The cause of these outbreaks was not clear, but adverse environmental conditions and increasing pollution of coastal waters have been implicated. The spread of cholera knows no geographical boundaries. There is a need for intensified efforts among health authorities in the affected areas to prevent the international spread of the disease.
Hepatitis B virus infection in general population in Madagascar: evidence for different epidemiological patterns in urban and in rural areas
Authors: Boisier P. , Rabarijaona L. , Piollet M. , Roux J. F. , Zeller H. G.
Published: May 2009

To describe the features of hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection in Madagascar, a randomized sero-epidemiological survey was undertaken in the general population ≥ 1 year old of two provinces which represents 45% of the total population. In the 921 sera tested, the prevalence of HBV markers was 20·5% for HBsAg, 38·2% for anti-HBc and 6·9% for HBeAg. HBsAg and anti-HBc prevalence rates were significantly higher in males. A large difference in HBsAg prevalence was observed between urban (5·3%) and rural areas (26·0%). The same contrast in prevalence was noticed for the other HBV markers. In rural areas, HBV infection was more frequently acquired early in infancy, which suggests predominantly perinatal or postnatal transmission. The presence of HBV markers was not significantly associated with a history of blood transfusion, surgery or parenteral injection. High infectivity carriers represented 5·3% and the overall frequency of chronic carriers was 10·4%. These results place Madagascar among areas of high endemicity.
Seroprevalence of astrovirus types 1 and 6 in London, determined using recombinant virus antigen
Authors: Kriston S. , Willcocks M. M. , Carter M. J. , Cubitt W. D.
Published: May 2009

We have developed a microimmunofluorescence test (IF) which uses cells infected with a recombinant baculovirus which expresses the capsid proteins of astrovirus types 1 or 6. The IF test was sensitive and specific and the results for human astrovirus type 1 (HAst-1) were comparable to those obtained by immune electronmicroscopy and radioimmunoassay. Application of the test to a panel of 273 sera collected from patients and staff at two childrens hospitals in London showed that over 50% of the population were infected by Hast-1 between the age of 5 and 12 months rising to 90% by 5 years, whereas human astrovirus type 6 (HAst6) was relatively uncommon (10–30%) in all age groups.
The application of genotyping techniques to the epidemiological analysis ofCampylobacter jejuni
Authors: Jackson C. J. , Fox A. J. , Wareing D. R. A. , Hutchinson D. N. , Jones D. M.
Published: May 2009

Campylobacter jejuniserogroup reference strains and collections of sporadic and outbreak- associated isolates were examined for restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs), usingC. jejunirandom chromosomal and 16S rRNA gene probes. A collection of 48 Penner (HS) and 14 Lior (HL) serogroup reference strains, plus 10 clinical isolates, generated 35 RFLP and 26 ribotype patterns. In combination the two loci generated 48 distinct genotypes. Both probes were able to differentiate between certain random isolates of the same HS/HL serogroups but greater discrimination was obtained with RFLP than with ribotyping. Genotyping distinguished accurately between related and unrelated strains when applied to several outbreaks. Genotypic analysis ofC. jejuniby restriction fragment length polymorphisms is a valuable technique for epidemiological typing. Chromosomal variation detected by the two unlinked probe loci provides some information about the genetic relationship between isolates.
Cryptosporidiosis in Wisconsin: A case-control study of post-outbreak transmission
Authors: Osewe P. , Addiss D. G. , Blair K. A. , Hightower A. , Kamb M. L. , Davis J. P.
Published: May 2009

During March–April 1993, an estimated 403000 residents of the 5-county greater Milwaukee, Wisconsin area developed cryptosporidiosis after drinking contaminated municipal water. Although the number of cases dropped precipitously after the implicated water plant closed on 9 April, cases continued to occur. To investigate risk factors for post-outbreak cryptosporidiosis, 33 Milwaukee-area residents who had laboratory-confirmed Cryptosporidium infection with onset of diarrhoea between 1 May and 27 June 1993 were interviewed by telephone. Of these, 28(85%) had onset of diarrhoea during May, 12(36%) had watery diarrhoea during the outbreak, and 5 (15%) were HIV-infected. In a neighbourhood-matched case-control study, immunosuppression (matched odds ratio (MOR) not calculable, 95 % confidence interval (CI) 3·0, infinity) and having a child less than 5 years old in the household (MOR = 17·0, CI 2·0, 395·0) were independently associated with infection. When persons who had diarrhoea during the outbreak were excluded, immunosuppression remained significantly associated with illness (MOR not calculable, CI 1·6, infinity). Cryptosporidium transmission continued after this massive waterborne outbreak but decreased rapidly within 2 months.
Epidemiological patterns of hepatitis B virus (HBV) in highly endemic areasr
Authors: Edmunds W. J. , Medley G. F. , Nokes D. J. , O'Callaghan C. J. , Whittle H. C. , Hall A. J.
Published: May 2009

This paper uses meta-analysis of published data and a deterministic mathematical model of hepatitis B virus (HBV) transmission to describe the patterns of HBV infection in high endemicity areas. We describe the association between the prevalence of carriers and a simple measure of the rate of infection, the age at which half the population have been infected (A50), and assess the contribution of horizontal and perinatal transmission to this association. We found that the two main hyper-endemic areas of sub-Saharan Africa and east Asia have similar prevalences of carriers and values of A50, and that there is a negative nonlinear relationship between A50and the prevalence of carriers in high endemicity areas (Spearman's Rank,P= 0·0086). We quantified the risk of perinatal transmission and the age-dependent rate of infection to allow a comparison between the main hyper-endemic areas. East Asia was found to have higher prevalences of HBeAg positive mothers and a greater risk of perinatal transmission from HBeAg positive mothers than sub-Saharan Africa, though the differences were not statistically significant. However, the two areas have similar magnitudes and age-dependent rates of horizontal transmission. Results of a simple compartmental model suggest that similar rates of horizontal transmission are sufficient to generate the similar patterns between A50and the prevalences of carriers. Interrupting horizontal transmission by mass immunization is expected to have a significant, nonlinear impact on the rate of acquisition of new carriers.
Seroepidemiology of HTLV-I in relation to that of HIV-1 in the Gauteng region, South Africa, using dried blood spots on filter papers
Authors: Taylor M. B. , Parker S. P. , Crewe-Brown H. H. , McIntyre J. , Cubitt W. D.
Published: May 2009

The seroprevalence of human T-lymphotropic virus type I (HTLV-I), in relation to that of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1), was determined in a comparative unlinked anonymous antenatal and neonatal (for indirect measurement of maternal antibodies) serosurvey in the Gauteng region of South Africa, using dried blood spots (DBS) and modified particle agglutination assays. Samples were confirmed to be antibody positive by western blot. A total of 2582 DBS collected during 1993 and 1994 from subjects of African, European and coloured origin were tested. Ten were confirmed as positive for HTLV-I and 128 for HIV-1. No antibodies to HTLV-I or HIV-l were demonstrated in the 221 women of European and coloured origin who were screened. The HTLV-I seroprevalence rate in subjects of African origin appeared to increase from 0% in 1993 to 0·49% in 1994, while HIV-1 seroprevalence rates of 5·2% and 5·4% were recorded for 1993 and 1994 respectively. No significant differences in HTLV-I and HIV-1 seroprevalence rates were noted for the two areas investigated. These results indicate that HTLV-I should be included in infection control programs, and provide baseline data for monitoring the possible spread of HTLV-I in the heterosexual population in this region.
The use of mathematical models in the epidemiological study of infectious diseases and in the design of mass immunization programmes
Authors: Nokes D. J. , Anderson R. M.
Published: May 2009

Community-based immunization is the primary method available today by which to reduce the scale of morbidity, and, in certain countries, mortality, associated with the most common childhood viral and bacterial infections. The decline in the incidences of a number of important vaccine preventable infections, such as polio, diphtheria and measles, in many countries, and the worldwide eradication of the smallpox virus, is testimony to the effectiveness of this method of control.
Serratia marcescensinfection associated with early abortion in cows and buffaloes
Authors: Das A. M. , Paranjape V. L. , Pitt T. L.
Published: May 2009

Serratia marcescenswas isolated in pure culture from cases of septic abortion in 4 cows on one farm and 10 buffaloes on two other farms. A reddish vaginal discharge was observed after abortion in all animals and in the internal organs of the aborted fetuses. All but two of the isolates produced prodigiosin, and two of the isolates from buffaloes were atypical in that they fermented raffinose. O-serological, bacteriophage and bacteriocin typing revealed four different strains. All cows were infected by the same strain, and this strain was also isolated from the semen of a breeding bull on the same farm. In another farm a strain of serotype O 14 was isolated from 6 of 10 buffaloes, and two other distinct strains were isolated from the remainder. The strain from the cattle was sensitive to gentamicin and so were two of the buffalo isolates. The infected cows were treated with intra-uterine gentamicin and the organism disappeared from cervical mucus after 3 days. Each animal after abortion showed a raised titre of agglutinating antibody to their respective isolate. A survey of 1172 healthy buffaloes and cattle gave an incidence of 1·8% with raised titres towardsS. marcescens.
Serological tests in leprosy. The sensitivity, specificity and predictive valueof ELISA tests based on phenolic glycolipid antigens, and the implications for their use in epidemiological studies
Authors: Burgess P. J. , Fine P. E. M. , Ponnighaus J. M. , Draper C.
Published: May 2009

This paper examines the sensitivity and specificity of two ELISA assays for IgM antibodies toMycobacterium leprae, one employing natural phenolic glycolipid and the other employing a synthetic disaccharide glycoconjugate as antigen. Estimates of sensitivity and specificity are derived, based on a panel of sera from leprosy cases in Malawi and various non-leprosy controls from the UK. Though both assays were able to identify a high proportion of multibacillary patients, neither was able to detect a high proportion of paucibacillary patients without considerable loss of specificity. The implications of the inverse relationship between sensitivity and specificity are discussed with reference to the predictive value of such tests in such areas as Malawi, where the large majority of cases are paucibacillary.
Characterization of cytomegalovirus isolates from patients with AIDS by DNA restriction analysis
Authors: Taylor D. L. , Taylor-Robinson D. , Jeffries D. J. , Tyms A. S.
Published: May 2009

Thirty-seven isolates of cytomegalovirus (CMV) were obtained from a group of 20 promiscuous homosexual men, either suffering from the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) at the time of CMV isolation, or who developed AIDS subsequently. The isolates of CMV were characterized by the method of DNA restriction analysis. All epidemiologically unrelated strains of CMV exhibited different fragment migration patterns and no one strain appeared to be associated with AIDS or any particular disease pattern in these patients.

Sequential isolates of CMV were obtained from nine patients in the study group either from different sites at the same time or from the same site on different dates. In the case of seven of the men, viruses with minor differences in restriction profile were obtained, possiblyrepresenting sub-populations of an endogenous strain of CMV. In two of the patients, reinfection with different strains was apparent. We conclude that reinfections with CMV in AIDS patients can occur, but the isolation of strains exhibiting major differences in genome structure seen by restriction enzyme analysis was uncommon.
A study of HPV 1, 2 and 4 antibody prevalence in patients presenting for treatment with cutaneous warts to general practitioners in N. Ireland
Authors: Steele K. , Shirodaria P. V. , Pfister H. , Pollock B. , Fuchs P. , Merrett J. D. , Irwin W. G. , Simpson D. I. H.
Published: May 2009

Three hundred and seventy-six patients attending their general practitioner with cutaneous warts at five health centres in Northern Ireland were screened for human papilloma virus (HPV) types 1 and 2 IgM antibody using an indirect immunofluorescence test. Eighty-eight (23·4%) patients were positive for HPV type 1 IgM and 156 (41·5%) for HPV type 2 IgM. HPV 1 IgM antibody was significantly more likely to be associated with plantar warts than warts elsewhere (P 0·0001). HPV 2 IgM was present in 45 (34·1%) patients with plantar warts and 99 (45·6%) patients with warts at other sites (P=0·1). Evidence of multiple infection by HPV types 1 and 2 was demonstrated by the finding of HPV 1 and 2 IgM antibodies in the sera of 16 (4·3%). HPV 4 was found in only 1 out of 30 biopsies and HPV 4 IgM was undetectable in 50 randomly chosen sera.