bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A novel computational pipeline for var gene expression augments the discovery of changes in the Plasmodium falciparum transcriptome during transition from in vivo to short-term in vitro culture
Authors: Andradi-Brown Clare , Wichers-Misterek Jan Stephan , von Thien Heidrun , Höppner Yannick D , Scholz Judith AM , Hansson Helle , Filtenborg Hocke Emma , Gilberger Tim Wolf , Duffy Michael F , Lavstsen Thomas , Baum Jake , Otto Thomas D , Cunnington Aubrey J , Bachmann Anna
Published: January 2024

The pathogenesis of severe Plasmodium falciparum malaria involves cytoadhesive microvascular sequestration of infected erythrocytes, mediated by P. falciparum erythrocyte membrane protein 1 (PfEMP1). PfEMP1 variants are encoded by the highly polymorphic family of var genes, the sequences of which are largely unknown in clinical samples. Previously, we published new approaches for var gene profiling and classification of predicted binding phenotypes in clinical P. falciparum isolates (Wichers et al., 2021), which represented a major technical advance. Building on this, we report here a novel method for var gene assembly and multidimensional quantification from RNA-sequencing that outperforms the earlier approach of Wichers et al., 2021, on both laboratory and clinical isolates across a combination of metrics. Importantly, the tool can interrogate the var transcriptome in context with the rest of the transcriptome and can be applied to enhance our understanding of the role of var genes in malaria pathogenesis. We applied this new method to investigate changes in var gene expression through early transition of parasite isolates to in vitro culture, using paired sets of ex vivo samples from our previous study, cultured for up to three generations. In parallel, changes in non-polymorphic core gene expression were investigated. Modest but unpredictable var gene switching and convergence towards var2csa were observed in culture, along with differential expression of 19% of the core transcriptome between paired ex vivo and generation 1 samples. Our results cast doubt on the validity of the common practice of using short-term cultured parasites to make inferences about in vivo phenotype and behaviour.
Splicing factor SRSF1 is essential for homing of precursor spermatogonial stem cells in mice
Authors: Sun Longjie , Lv Zheng , Chen Xuexue , Ye Rong , Tian Shuang , Wang Chaofan , Xie Xiaomei , Yan Lu , Yao Xiaohong , Shao Yujing , Cui Sheng , Chen Juan , Liu Jiali
Published: January 2024

Spermatogonial stem cells (SSCs) are essential for continuous spermatogenesis and male fertility. The underlying mechanisms of alternative splicing (AS) in mouse SSCs are still largely unclear. We demonstrated that SRSF1 is essential for gene expression and splicing in mouse SSCs. Crosslinking immunoprecipitation and sequencing data revealed that spermatogonia-related genes (e.g. Plzf, Id4, Setdb1, Stra8, Tial1/Tiar, Bcas2, Ddx5, Srsf10, Uhrf1, and Bud31) were bound by SRSF1 in the mouse testes. Specific deletion of Srsf1 in mouse germ cells impairs homing of precursor SSCs leading to male infertility. Whole-mount staining data showed the absence of germ cells in the testes of adult conditional knockout (cKO) mice, which indicates Sertoli cell-only syndrome in cKO mice. The expression of spermatogonia-related genes (e.g. Gfra1, Pou5f1, Plzf, Dnd1, Stra8, and Taf4b) was significantly reduced in the testes of cKO mice. Moreover, multiomics analysis suggests that SRSF1 may affect survival of spermatogonia by directly binding and regulating Tial1/Tiar expression through AS. In addition, immunoprecipitation mass spectrometry and co-immunoprecipitation data showed that SRSF1 interacts with RNA splicing-related proteins (e.g. SART1, RBM15, and SRSF10). Collectively, our data reveal the critical role of SRSF1 in spermatogonia survival, which may provide a framework to elucidate the molecular mechanisms of the posttranscriptional network underlying homing of precursor SSCs.
Exploiting fluctuations in gene expression to detect causal interactions between genes
Authors: Joly-Smith Euan , Talpur Mir Mikdad , Allard Paige , Papazotos Fotini , Potvin-Trottier Laurent , Hilfinger Andreas
Published: January 2024

Characterizing and manipulating cellular behaviour requires a mechanistic understanding of the causal interactions between cellular components. We present an approach that can detect causal interactions between genes without the need to perturb the physiological state of cells. This approach exploits naturally occurring cell-to-cell variability which is experimentally accessible from static population snapshots of genetically identical cells without the need to follow cells over time. Our main contribution is a simple mathematical relation that constrains the propagation of gene expression noise through biochemical reaction networks. This relation allows us to rigorously interpret fluctuation data even when only a small part of a complex gene regulatory process can be observed. This relation can be exploited to detect causal interactions by synthetically engineering a passive reporter of gene expression, akin to the established “dual reporter assay”. While the focus of our contribution is theoretical, we also present an experimental proof-of-principle to illustrate the approach. Our data from synthetic gene regulatory networks in
E. coli
are not unequivocal but suggest that the method could prove useful in practice to identify causal interactions between genes from non-genetic cell-to-cell variability.
Circuit-based intervention corrects excessive dentate gyrus output in the Fragile X mouse model
Authors: Deng Pan-Yue , Kumar Ajeet , Cavalli Valeria , Klyachko Vitaly A.
Published: January 2024

Abnormal cellular and circuit excitability is believed to drive many core phenotypes in fragile X syndrome (FXS). The dentate gyrus is a brain area performing critical computations essential for learning and memory. However, little is known about dentate circuit defects and their mechanisms in FXS. Understanding dentate circuit dysfunction in FXS has been complicated by the presence of two types of excitatory neurons, the granule cells and mossy cells. Here we report that loss of FMRP markedly decreased excitability of dentate mossy cells, a change opposite to all other known excitability defects in excitatory neurons in FXS. This mossy cell hypo-excitability is caused by increased Kv7 function in
Fmr1
KO mice. By reducing the excitatory drive onto local hilar interneurons, hypo-excitability of mossy cells results in increased excitation/inhibition ratio in granule cells and thus paradoxically leads to excessive dentate output. Circuit-wide inhibition of Kv7 channels in
Fmr1
KO mice increases inhibitory drive onto granule cells and normalizes the dentate output in response to physiologically relevant theta-gamma coupling stimulation. Our study suggests that circuit-based interventions may provide a promising strategy in this disorder to bypass irreconcilable excitability defects in different cell types and restore their pathophysiological consequences at the circuit level.
Exceptional longevity of mammalian ovarian and oocyte macromolecules throughout the reproductive lifespan
Authors: Bomba-Warczak Ewa K , Velez Karen M , Zhou Luhan T , Guillermier Christelle , Edassery Seby , Steinhauser Matthew L , Savas Jeffrey N , Duncan Francesca E
Published: January 2024

The mechanisms contributing to age-related deterioration of the female reproductive system are complex, however aberrant protein homeostasis is a major contributor. We elucidated exceptionally stable proteins, structures, and macromolecules that persist in mammalian ovaries and gametes across the reproductive lifespan. Ovaries exhibit localized structural and cell-type-specific enrichment of stable macromolecules in both the follicular and extrafollicular environments. Moreover, ovaries and oocytes both harbor a panel of exceptionally long-lived proteins, including cytoskeletal, mitochondrial, and oocyte-derived proteins. The exceptional persistence of these long-lived molecules suggest a critical role in lifelong maintenance and age-dependent deterioration of reproductive tissues.
Gain neuromodulation mediates task-relevant perceptual switches: evidence from pupillometry, fMRI, and RNN Modelling
Authors: Wainstein Gabriel , Whyte Christopher J , Martens Kaylena A Ehgoetz , Müller Eli J , Medel Vicente , Anderson Britt , Stöttinger Elisabeth , Danckert James , Munn Brandon R , Shine James M
Published: January 2024

Perceptual updating has been hypothesized to rely on a network reset modulated by bursts of ascending neuromodulatory neurotransmitters, such as noradrenaline, abruptly altering the brain’s susceptibility to changing sensory activity. To test this hypothesis at a large-scale, we analysed an ambiguous figures task using pupillometry and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Behaviourally, qualitative shifts in the perceptual interpretation of an ambiguous image were associated with peaks in pupil diameter, an indirect readout of phasic bursts in neuromodulatory tone. We further hypothesized that stimulus ambiguity drives neuromodulatory tone leading to heightened neural gain, hastening perceptual switches. To explore this hypothesis computationally, we trained a recurrent neural network (RNN) on an analogous perceptual categorisation task, allowing gain to change dynamically with classification uncertainty. As predicted, higher gain accelerated perceptual switching by transiently destabilizing the network’s dynamical regime in periods of maximal uncertainty. We leveraged a low-dimensional readout of the RNN dynamics, to develop two novel macroscale predictions: perceptual switches should occur with peaks in low-dimensional brain state velocity and with a flattened egocentric energy landscape. Using fMRI we confirmed these predictions, highlighting the role of the neuromodulatory system in the large-scale network reconfigurations mediating adaptive perceptual updates.
A comprehensive exploration of machine learning techniques for EEG-based anxiety detection
Authors: Aldayel Mashael , Al-Nafjan Abeer
Published: January 2024

The performance of electroencephalogram (EEG)-based systems depends on the proper choice of feature extraction and machine learning algorithms. This study highlights the significance of selecting appropriate feature extraction and machine learning algorithms for EEG-based anxiety detection. We explored different annotation/labeling, feature extraction, and classification algorithms. Two measurements, the Hamilton anxiety rating scale (HAM-A) and self-assessment Manikin (SAM), were used to label anxiety states. For EEG feature extraction, we employed the discrete wavelet transform (DWT) and power spectral density (PSD). To improve the accuracy of anxiety detection, we compared ensemble learning methods such as random forest (RF), AdaBoost bagging, and gradient bagging with conventional classification algorithms including linear discriminant analysis (LDA), support vector machine (SVM), and k-nearest neighbor (KNN) classifiers. We also evaluated the performance of the classifiers using different labeling (SAM and HAM-A) and feature extraction algorithms (PSD and DWT). Our findings demonstrated that HAM-A labeling and DWT-based features consistently yielded superior results across all classifiers. Specifically, the RF classifier achieved the highest accuracy of 87.5%, followed by the Ada boost bagging classifier with an accuracy of 79%. The RF classifier outperformed other classifiers in terms of accuracy, precision, and recall.
Pirâmide financeira com criptomoedas e a vedação pela dupla punição em crimes contra a economia popular e o crime de estelionato
Authors: Vidal Mariana Azevedo Couto , Álvares Laís Botelho Oliveira
Published: January 2024

O artigo aborda basilarmente a problemática controvérsia da configuração de crime único e à ocorrência da dupla punição - bis in idem - diante da imputação do crime contra a economia popular, disposto no artigo 2º, inciso IX da Lei nº 1.521 de 1951 e da imputação do crime de estelionato, disposto no artigo 171 do Código Penal em casos de pirâmide financeira que envolvam criptomoedas. Analisar-se-á o artigo 171-A do Código Penal, acrescido pela Lei nº 14.478 de 2022, denominada de Marco Legal das Criptomoedas, que tipificou a conduta de fraude com a utilização de ativos virtuais, valores mobiliários ou ativos financeiros. Para tanto, recorre-se a uma análise jurisprudencial do Superior Tribunal de Justiça, que aplica a vedação da dupla punição em casos envolvendo estelionato e crime contra a economia popular. Abordar-se-á, ainda, o sujeito passivo e o conceito do crime contra a economia popular e do crime de estelionato a fim de elucidar o entendimento do Superior Tribunal de Justiça pela vedação da dupla punição. Por fim, o presente artigo é resultado dos debates ocorridos na disciplina Direito Penal Econômico ministrado no Programa de Pós-Graduação em Direito da PUC Minas.
MODIFICATION OF MUKHADOOSHIKARI LEPA INTO GEL
Authors: Raj Ajay , U Shailaja , Rao Prasanna Narasimha , Kadibagil Vinay
Published: January 2024

Facial expressions are crucial in interpreting emotions on first encounters, and everyone desires an attractive face to fit into society. Youvana Pidika/Mukhadooshika (Acne Vulgaris) is a skin disorder that can significantly impact young people's beauty and confidence. Cosmetology is a science focusing on beautification, with various treatment options, including topical therapies, antimicrobials, hormones, surgery, and UV radiation, each with its limitations. Ayurveda's unique beauty concept, characterized by effective, affordable, and long-lasting treatments, is highly sought after in cosmetology, mainly through shodhana and shamana chikitsa. External applications of Ayurveda's lepa, like Vachadi and Manjisthadi lepa, significantly impact youvana Pidaka's features but have disadvantages like patient acceptability, portability, and time consumption. The current research aims to modify the traditional lepa into a gel form for treating youvana pidika/mukhadooshika (Acne Vulgaris). Kashaya was prepared using drugs Usheera, Dhanyaka, Chanaka, Pushkara Mula, Vacha, Lodhra, and Manjishta and modified into the gel using additives like gelling agents. i.e. carbopol and preservatives i.e. parabens. On preliminary analysis, it was observed that the gel has a dark brown colour, 3.78 pH, 20.5% spreadability and 16 total suspended solids. Overall, this research project aims to improve the treatment experience for individuals with youvana pidika/mukhadooshika by developing a modified gel formulation that offers advantages such as lightweight, quick absorbability, non-greasy texture, and hydration.
ROLE OF AYURVEDA IN THE MANAGEMENT OF OBESITY (STHAULYA): A LITERARY REVIEW
Authors: Kadam Sanjivani Narsingrao , Khanolkar Gurunath D
Published: January 2024

In this era, most people are suffering from lifestyle disorders like cardiovascular diseases, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases, diabetes mellitus, etc. unhealthy diet, wrong sleeping patterns, less physical activity, stress all these things are leading people towards lifestyle disorders. The occurrence of these diseases is directly linked to the day-to-day habits of an individual. People are inclined towards a sedentary lifestyle that can lead to various chronic diseases, which can have life-threatening consequences. Today’s generation has become physically inactive due to the modernization and development of multiple technologies, which leads people towards a sedentary lifestyle. Obesity (Sthaulya) is one of the lifestyle disorders which is more complex and invites several complications like hypertension, multiple joint pain, diabetes mellitus, fatty liver, etc. In Ayurveda, it is described under the term medoroga. In Charaka Samhita Acharya Charaka has described sthaulya under ashtoninditiya purusha. The main factor in sthaulya vyadhi is the abnormal function of med-dhatvagni. A metabolic disorder occurs due to an imbalance between the intake of energy and its expenditure, which results in the growth of adipose tissue and increased body weight. Ayurveda is one of the most ancient sciences which describes fundamental and applied principles of health disease and its management. There are many drugs, various formulations, pathya-apathya, dincharya, rutucharya, and yoga which are helpful in the treatment and prevention of obesity. Ayurveda has preventive and treatment aspects about sthaulya (obesity), which this article studies. The objective of this study is to study the effectiveness of ayurvedic management in obesity, to study obesity, to study sthaulya, study medoroga.
A REVIEW ON MANAGEMENT OF EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIOURAL DISORDERS IN CHILDREN THROUGH SADVRITTA AND ACHARA RASAYANA
Authors: Kumar Amit , Dash Devasmita , Gupta Shilpy , Kumar Vijendra , Singh Gangadhar
Published: January 2024

A spectrum of mental issues in the form of behavioural and emotional disorders prevail in society. Not only the adult population but also children are not spared from it. Timely diagnosis and intervention in the form of behavioural modification can control the increasing prevalence of these emotional and behavioural disorders. Ayurveda has its way of prevention and cure; it implements a holistic approach to the management of physical as well as mental disorders. By following Sadvritta (good conduct), the mind and senses of a person gets controlled gradually, making him capable of avoiding indulgence in causative factors. Achara rasayana (rejuvenation through the right code of conduct) is the etiquette for a healthy social life. It is an art of inner reformation or building character, which, when practised, can build a calm and peaceful mind. It is the need of the hour to inculcate the practice of Sadvritta and Achara rasayana in children for proper social adjustment and good mental health.
IMPORTANCE OF YONI PRAKSHALANA IN THE EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT OF VAGINAL DISCHARGE WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO SHWETA PRADARA: A REVIEW
Authors: Narwade Pallavi , Rathnakar LV , C Swathi , BS Amrutha , Chaturvedi Ashutosh
Published: January 2024

Due to unhealthy dietary habits, unhygienic living conditions and lifestyle, most of the women get easily affected by yonirogas. Vaginal discharge is the most typical problem of women in India. Shweta Pradara is one of the most common yonirogas that women complain of. Shweta Pradara is characterized by white vaginal discharge. It can be considered both a pathological and physiological condition. If we don’t treat the condition in the acute stage, it starts hampering the day-to-day activities. The pathological part is considered when it disturbs a woman's regular routine. White vaginal discharge, along with itching, pain in the back, weakness, etc., is described as Shweta Pradara in Ayurvedic classics. Yoni prakshalan is one of the effective treatment modalities used in Shweta Pradara in daily practice. In Yoni prakshalan, warm decoction is used with sravaghna, dourgandhyahara and shulaghna properties, which helps break down the pathogenesis of Shweta Pradara effectively. This study, therefore, describes Shweta Pradara, its aetiopathogenesis, symptoms and therapeutic effect of Yoni prakshalan in the same.
Psychology as a Profession
Authors: Benjamin Ludy T. , DeLeon Patrick H. , Freedheim Donald K. , VandenBos Gary R.
Published: November 2003

The profession of psychology preceded the science of psychology before the term “psychologist” came into use. People have been trying to understand and help others with mental and emotional problems since humans roamed the earth. However, the early applications of the psychological science were begun only in the latter half of the nineteenth century. The applications were first in the fields of business, school, and individual counseling. With World War I, the recognition of the value of psychological measurements of individual capabilities created new opportunities for practitioners in psychology. With the 1920s came a popularization of psychology in the United States and the struggles for professional identity that followed. Professional psychology made great strides in the post‐World War II era. Organized psychology struggled with the role of clinical psychology and the appropriate training for practicing psychologists. The significant Colorado conference of 1949 set the pattern for training clinicians as both scientists and practitioners. In the last 50 years the profession has grown tremendously, with accompanying publications and other communications aiding the professional to keep up with the latest developments in the field. Battles between psychiatry and psychology for turf in the areas of psychotherapy, third‐party reimbursement, and more recently the prescription of psychotropic medication have characterized the widening areas of practice for psychologists. As we move into the twenty‐first century, the opportunities for professional psychologists are as challenging as they are multivaried.
Biological Psychology
Authors: Thompson Richard F. , Zola Stuart M.
Published: November 2003

The recent history of the broad field of biological psychology is reviewed in depth. Our focus is on the scientific study of behavior and experience and its neural/biological substrates. Scientific approaches to the study of mind began with the development of psychophysics, with the work of Weber and Fechner in the nineteenth century and continued through the work of Boring and Stevens to the modern field of signal detection theory. Scientific study of the brain has a much longer history, originally with neuroanatomy, the only method of study available until the nineteenth century. The question of localization of function in the brain has been—and—remains a key issue in the field. A major focus in the developing field of physiological psychology concerned the behavioral and biological mechanisms of sensory processes, highlighted here in the study of color vision and pitch perception. Another major focus was on brain substrates of learning and memory, pioneered by Lashley and Pavlov. Yet another major focus was on the behavioral and biological substrates of motivation and emotion, as in the classic views of William James and Walter Cannon. Cognitive neuroscience, the neural substrates of “higher” mental processes has become a major field with the development of methods to image the human brain and its functioning. Biological psychology continually self‐destructs in that as knowledge grows, areas like vision, audition, psychophysiology, and behavioral genetics leave biological psychology to become fields of science in their own right.
Comparative Psychology
Authors: Dewsbury Donald A.
Published: November 2003

Comparative psychology entails the search for general principles concerning the origins, control, and consequences of animal behavior. Interest in animal behavior can be traced from early cave paintings, to the ancient Greeks, and to later European philosophers, natural historians, and applied animal behaviorists before Darwin. The continuity of species suggested by Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection led to important writings by such Britishers as George Romanes, John Lubbock, Douglas Spalding, and C. Lloyd Morgan. The field reached disciplinary maturity, along with much of the rest of psychology, between 1890 and World War I. Prominent programs were established at Harvard, Clark, Cornell, the University of Chicago, and elsewhere. The war and pressures on comparative psychologists to shift interests led to a period of inactivity lasting into the 1920s. Between the two world wars there was a revitalization of comparative psychology led by psychologists such as Robert Yerkes, Karl Lashley, Calvin Stone, Frank Beach, T. C. Schneirla, and Harry Harlow. This generation sustained a continued presence and educated a new generation that ensured the continuation of the field. Since World War II, the field has grown and been influenced by such movements as European ethology, sociobiology, and cognitive science.
Emotion
Authors: Mandler George
Published: November 2003

The definition of emotion has commanded only limited consensus in its philosophical and psychological history. In part this has been due to differential stress on the components of emotion. Starting with pre‐Socratic and later Greek notions of its somatic and bodily aspects, Aristotle then added cognitive elements to emotional experience. These three characteristics in various combinations defined emotion then and later. With Descartes, a serious attempt started to specify basic emotions and their contribution to other emotional concepts, though again consensus was not achieved. With the nineteenth century, classification became a dominant theme, punctuated by the constructivist attempts of the James‐Lange approach and its derivatives. The dominance of William James lasted into the twentieth century. His hegemony was accompanied and followed by new contributions to emphases and distinctions between central vs. peripheral processes. By mid‐twentieth century, cognitive factors once again became a dominant emphasis, which dissipated into a spreading net of competing theories, some again centered on psychic/mental, others on somatic/visceral bases of emotional experience and behavior, with conflict theories holding the middle ground. With a variety of contesting approaches available at the beginning of the twenty‐first century, William James' question, “What is an emotion?” still has no unchallenged answer.
Developmental Psychology
Authors: Parke Ross D. , Clarke‐Stewart K. Alison
Published: November 2003

The history of developmental psychology is traced through five phases. During the beginning years (1880–1914) developmental psychology emerged as a separate and distinctive field. Many recurring themes—early experience, unconscious processes, and the dual role of nature and nurture in development—were identified. The second era (1915–1940) was characterized by both institutionalization and fragmentation. New institutes devoted to the understanding of children's normative development were established, while behavioral, maturational, and organismic approaches competed for dominance, In the third phase of expansion (1940–1960), a fusion of Hullian learning theory and psychoanalysis created a new paradigm for understanding the effects of childrearing on development. This era gave way to a fourth period (1960–1985) that saw the rise of social learning theory and the re‐emergence of cognition and emotion as dominant themes. In the current era (1985 to the present), a new interdisciplinary focus has emerged, with the fusion of recent advances in genetics and neuroscience and the continued contextualized study of social, cognitive and emotional development. The recurring nature of major developmental themes across time is emphasized.
Social Psychology
Authors: Morawski Jill G. , Bayer Betty M.
Published: November 2003

The history of twentieth century American social psychology is often told as a story of developing laboratory procedures to more scientifically comprehend the psychological dynamics of the social. This chapter expands upon that story by exploring a more inclusive perspective on social psychology's maturation. Considered in this more compressive historical review are the field's immediate predecessors who generated an eclectic and intellectually stimulating theories of social‐psychological processes. Considered, too, is the play of politics, both how social psychologists took up concurrent political concerns or mirrored prevalent political attitudes in their research and also how some researchers deployed research to challenge or critically investigate those politics. Social psychological investigations contributed substantively to the twentieth century's shifting understanding of the relations of the individual to the social world. New technologies, notably cybernetics and computers, were not only utilized in social psychology experimentation but were integral to this rethinking of the individual and social. Most recently, these technologies have guided researchers to conceptualize social psychological processes as faulty information processors; the discipline, however, did not—and has not—become monolithic and some researchers have generated quite different theoretical visions. Whether through confirming accounts or critically interventions, through applications in business or explorations of new views of human kinds, social psychology has been actively engaged in the making of American social life.
Psychology of Women and Gender
Authors: Marecek Jeanne , Kimmel Ellen B. , Crawford Mary , Hare‐Mustin Rachel T.
Published: November 2003

This historical overview of the field of psychology of women and gender emphasizes developments since the beginning of the second wave of feminism (c. 1970). Feminists in psychology have addressed deficiencies and inaccuracies in psychology's knowledge base, challenged biases in clinical practice and research methods, and policies of professional organizations that perpetuate social inequality. Research endeavors in the field include studies of gender difference and similarity, gendered power relations, the discursive construction of gender and sexuality, concealed aspects of women's experience, and the lives of women and girls marginalized by ethnicity, sexuality, or social class. Feminist researchers have also developed innovative modes of inquiry and interrogated conventional epistemological frameworks of psychology. Feminist clinicians and counselors have pioneered new approaches to diagnosis, assessment, prevention, treatment, and clinical supervision, as well as new frameworks for therapeutic ethics. Feminist‐inspired interventions for psychological problems include therapies for rape, problems with eating and body image, rape, and conflicts in couples and families, including intimate violence and the sexual abuse of children. The final portion of the chapter describes the origins and goals of a variety of organizations through which feminist psychologists pursue their professional goals and work for social justice.
Abnormal Psychology
Authors: Maher Winifred B. , Maher Brendan A.
Published: November 2003

This chapter traces the history of psychopathology and its treatments from the fifth century BCE to the present. The history is replete with myths, competing concepts, political agendas, legal issues, attempts at classification, and theoretical formulations that have recurred throughout the centuries.

Historically, mental illness was thought to be caused by noxious “humors” in the body or from spiritual sources inflicted due to “bad” behavior. Mentally ill persons were variously ostracized from the community, ridiculed, imprisoned, treated with potions and surgery, as well as cared for humanely. These approaches were consistent with the scientific thinking and cultural influences of the time. Over the centuries the methodologies have changed, but the basic approaches have remained remarkably similar, such as drug treatment today instead of the potions of earlier times.

The classic dichotomies between organic vs. functional etiologies, medical vs. behavioral treatments, and institutional vs. community placement remain largely unsettled.

The late 19thCentury and early 20thCentury brought many new techniques, such as hypnosis, to bear on understanding psychopathology. The modern era of psychotherapy, generally associated with Sigmund Freud and the introduction of psychoanalysis is carefully summarized, as are the later questioning and rejection of many of Freud's theories and interventions. Finally, the chapter discusses today's approaches, with the intensification of psychopharmacological treatments for anxiety and depressive disorders, in addition to increasingly popular cognitive‐behavioral interventions.
Forensic Psychology
Authors: Brigham John C. , Grisso J. Thomas
Published: November 2003

Forensic psychology can be viewed broadly, as the study of all aspects of behavior directly related to the legal process, or more narrowly as a subarea of clinical psychology involving evaluations of, and testimony about, individuals in reference to a legal question. This chapter traces the history of attempts to apply psychological concepts and data to the legal system, beginning with the evolution of the insanity defense in eighteenth‐ and nineteenth‐century England. As the field of psychology emerged at the beginning of the twentieth century, psychologists' early enthusiasm for applying psychological methods and knowledge to legal questions (e.g., Munsterberg and Freud) was not met with ready acceptance by the legal field. By the 1950s, attempts to inject relevant psychological knowledge into legal cases were becoming more widespread, both by means of clinical expert testimony and viaamicus curaie(friend of the court) briefs. Involvement of research psychologists in the legal system was sporadic until the 1960s, when an increased emphasis on social relevance led many psychologists to focus their research efforts toward the legal system, studying factors such as eyewitness memory, pretrial publicity, civil rights, judicial instructions, and jury decision making. Paralleling this research emphasis was the founding of professional organizations such as the American Psychology‐Law Society in 1969, the initiation of several psychology‐law journals in the last three decades, and the development of training programs focused on forensic psychology; some of these were joint degree (JD/PhD) programs, while others were within existing clinical or social psychology programs. Several emerging roles for psychologists in the legal system are discussed: providing forensic clinical evaluations, delivering scientific expert witness testimony, creating “science translation” briefs, and working as a trial consultant. In recent years, research intended to provide courts with relevant and useful information has been especially prevalent in the areas of eyewitness memory, ways to improve clinical forensic evaluations, and issues involving children and adolescents. We conclude that the future of forensic psychology looks bright, as communication between leaders in law and forensic psychology appears to be increasing in both frequency and understanding.
School Psychology
Authors: Fagan Thomas K.
Published: November 2003

This chapter describes the historical development of the field of school psychology over two broad periods referred to as The Hybrid Years (1890–1969) and The Thoroughbred Years (1970‐present). Within each period, the field's development is subdivided into chronological periods and their associated development contributed by specific persons, events, and trends. The field's development is traced across the twentieth century, including descriptions of early practices and their relationship to later service delivery. Organizational development is described as evolving primarily from associations for applied psychologists and the reorganized American Psychological Association, and then the founding of the National Association of School Psychologists at the start of The Hybrid Years. Developments in training, accreditation, credentialing, and literature are also presented. A section discussing future possibilities for the specialty is provided and there is a section on resources for the study of the history of school psychology. An overview of the present status of the field is also presented at the beginning of the chapter.
Community Psychology
Authors: Wilson Bianca D. M. , Hayes Erin , Greene George J. , Kelly James G. , Iscoe Ira
Published: November 2003

The history of Community Psychology is not just a history of professional developments in the field but also a history of the interaction between social events and the accomplishments of community psychologists. In this chapter, we document the evolution of community psychology within the context of events in U.S. history beginning at least twenty years before the field was founded. We propose that earlier cultural and historical events and circumstances are important contexts for the founding of the field at the 1965 Swampscott Conference. Furthermore, these same cultural and historical events have also provided a context for the emergence of three major and defining domains of community psychology. The first, working with the strengths of persons and communities, has served as a guiding value for the field's development. Second, ecological theory, has provided a theoretical framework for the work that community psychologists do. Finally, designing and conducting preventive interventions has become the primary way in which community psychology research has been translated into action. For each of these domains, we provide a review of significant empirical and theoretical developments in the filed. We conclude the chapter by providing critical observations and suggestions for future directions.
Undergraduate Education
Authors: McGovern Thomas V. , Brewer Charles L.
Published: November 2003

This chapter evaluates the history of undergraduate psychology in the United States. After reviewing the context of American higher education, the authors highlight two aspects of this history: (a) substantive content of the discipline, as reflected in courses and curricula, and (b) explicit learning outcomes expected of changing student populations. Three facets of academic psychology serve as organizing themes: teaching, scholarship, and service. In the section on teaching, the authors review results of catalog studies and surveys of courses in the undergraduate curriculum, and they discuss experts' recommendations concerning the purpose and structure of undergraduate programs. Concerning scholarship, the authors consider how the outcomes of undergraduate psychology programs have been defined and assessed. The section on service highlights the individual and organizational activities designed to enhance teaching and research in psychology at state, regional, and national levels. A final section considers the past as prologue for the future. Scholars and program developers interested in the history of undergraduate psychology in the United States will find a plethora of relevant information in this chapter.
Ethnic Minorities
Authors: Jenkins Adelbert M. , Albee George W. , Paster Vera S. , Sue Stanley , Baker David B. , Comas‐Diaz Lillian , Puente Antonio E. , Suinn Richard M. , Caldwell‐Colbert A. Toy , Williams Velma M. , Root Maria P. P.
Published: November 2003

This chapter presents historical issues from the perspectives of ten authors representing various ethnic orientations, with views on their thoughts and experiences in dealing with ethnic issues in the field of psychology.

Some of the vignettes are very personal and some reflect on important turning points in the history of psychology relating to ethnic minority issues. Each of the brief essays tells an aspect of the story which should be remembered as the science and profession of psychology moves into the 21stCentury.
Experimental Design
Authors: Kirk Roger E.
Published: November 2003

This chapter discusses three principles of good experimental design: random assignment, replication, and local control. A theme that runs throughout the chapter is that all complex experimental designs can be constructed from and understood in terms of three simple building block designs. The three designs are the completely randomized design, randomized block design, and Latin square design. Procedures for dealing with unequal cell
n
's in a completely randomized factorial design are illustrated using a regression model and a cell means model. The advantages of the cell means model are discussed in detail. To reduce the size of blocks or the number of treatment combinations in an experiment, researchers sometime use confounding. The merits of group‐treatment confounding in split‐plot factorial designs, group‐interaction confounding in confounded factorial designs, and treatment‐interaction confounding in fractional designs are examined. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the use of a concomitant variable (covariate) in experimental designs. The inclusion of a concomitant variable may enable a researcher to (1) remove that portion of the dependent‐variable error variance that is predictable from a knowledge of the concomitant variable thereby increasing power and (2) adjust the dependent variable so that it is free of effects attributable to the concomitant variable thereby reducing bias.
Methods for Handling Missing Data
Authors: Graham John W. , Cumsille Patricio E. , Elek‐Fisk Elvira
Published: November 2003

This chapter describes a general approach to handling missing data in psychological research. It provides a theoretical background in readable, nontechnical fashion. Our overall goal was to give practical, usable advice, rather than to give a detailed statistical treatment of issues surrounding analysis of incomplete data. We give an overview of the older, unacceptable methods for handling incomplete data, so that readers will know what approaches to avoid; although analysis of complete cases is sometimes an acceptable solution, we argue that pairwise deletion and mean substitution should be avoided. With respect to newer, acceptable methods, we give a general overview, including a brief discussion of the full information maximum likelihood structural equation modeling procedures (such as Amos, Mx, LISREL 8.5, and Mplus), but focus primarily on multiple imputation as a general solution. We give specific guidelines for making use of state‐of‐the‐art multiple imputation software and step‐by‐step instructions for using multiple imputation with Schafer's (1997) NORM program. Empirical examples of exploratory and data quality analyses and a substantive illustration involving multiple linear regression demonstrate the use of multiple imputation in practice. The chapter concludes with a discussion of some practical issues that often arise in connection with the analysis of incomplete data.
Preparatory Data Analysis
Authors: Fidell Linda S. , Tabachnick Barbara G.
Published: November 2003

Preparatory data analyses (data screening) are conducted before a main analysis to assess the fit between the data and the assumptions of that main analysis. Different main analyses have different assumptions that vary in importance; violation of some assumptions can lead to the wrong inferential conclusion (and a potential failure of replication) while violation of others yields an analysis that is correct as far as it goes, but misses certain additional relationships in the data. Assumptions that are often relevant for continuous variables are normality of sampling distributions, pairwise linearity, absence of outliers and collinearity, independence of errors, and homoscedasticity; these are evaluated by both graphical and statistical methods. When violation is detected, variables are often transformed or an alternative analytic strategy is employed. Relevant issues in the choice of when and how to screen are the level of measurement of the variables, whether the design produces grouped or ungrouped data, whether cases provide a single response or more than one response, and whether the variables themselves or the residuals of analysis are screened.
Factor Analysis
Authors: Gorsuch Richard L.
Published: November 2003

The purpose of this chapter is to provide a basic but comprehensive treatment of factor analysis. While use of no particular statistical package is assumed, the chapter also provides the information needed to select the options for a factor analysis that are most appropriate to the purpose of a study.

The chapter begins with the basic equations and definitions of factor analysis. This section introduces the terms needed to understand factor analytic models and variations in the models. The second section of the chapter presents factor models, including component analysis (CA) and common factor analysis (CFA). Common factor analysis includes both exploratory (ECFA) and confirmatory factor analysis. In addition, all of these variants can be used with correlated or uncorrelated factor models. With each model is presented the essential theoretical information to understand it and the essential practical information to use that model. Each section includes the procedures which now have sufficient empirical and theoretical support to be the generally desired procedures for that model.

The concluding section points to elements of all good research designs that need to be remembered in designing a factor analytic study. Included is this section are discussions of the need for high quality variables and how many cases are needed.
Clustering and Classification Methods
Authors: Milligan Glenn W. , Hirtle Stephen C.
Published: November 2003

The chapter by Milligan and Hirtle provides an overview of the current state of knowledge in the field of clustering and classification. Such methods are used to find groups in multivariate data sets. The methods are discussed within the context of exploratory data analysis, though some confirmatory or testing methods are reviewed. A survey of the issues critical to the analysis of empirical data is presented along with “best practice” recommendations for the applied user. Coverage includes sections on data preparation, data models, and data representation using distance and similarity measures. The section on clustering algorithms covers a wide range of classification methods. In addition, the algorithms section includes a discussion of the known cluster recovery performance of various selected clustering methods. The fourth section covers a variety of issues important for applied analyses such as data sampling, variable selection, variable standardization, choosing the number of clusters, and postclassification analysis of the results. Threaded into the discussion are three example applications of the methodology to empirical data. The examples are based on perceived kinship data, animal similarity data, and the classification of single malt scotch whiskies.
Clinical Forensic Psychology
Authors: Douglas Kevin S. , Otto Randy K. , Borum Randy
Published: November 2003

Clinical forensic psychology can be defined as assessment, treatment, or consultation that revolves around clinical issues occurring in legal contexts. This chapter discusses methodological challenges and approaches that arise in three primary areas of clinical forensic psychology—descriptive forensic assessment (e.g., psycholegal capacities), predictive assessment (e.g., violence risk assessment), and evaluation of legally relevant constructs (e.g., psychopathic personality and malingering). Forensic assessment research is challenged by varying legal definitions, lack of gold standards for validation, insensitive predictor and outcome measures, dichotomous legal outcomes versus continuous psychological outcomes, low and varying outcome base rates, ethical constraints placed upon researchers by legal realities, and studying constructs defined partially by deceitfulness. Research of descriptive questions include literature surveys, polling experts, theory‐based development, and evaluating agreement between test classification and clinicians' assessments. Although postdictive and pseudoprospective designs are common in predictive research, they have shortcomings best overcome through use of prospective designs that include multiple measures and sources of data. Repeated‐measures prospective designs, case‐crossover designs, and naturally occurring field experiments offer novel opportunities to study predictive questions. Research on psycholegal constructs commonly relies on factor analytic and prototypical approaches to explicating psycholegal constructs. Simulation and analogue studies are often used to study constructs such as malingering.