bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Tissue Apicomplexa
Authors: Gutierrez Yezid
Published: November 2023

Members of the Apicomplexa in human tissues other than the intestine and blood belong to the genera Sa cocystis and Toxoplasma of the family Sarcocystidae, characterized, as already stated, by two hosts in their life cycles. The Sarcocystis organisms occurring in the intestine of humans were studied in Chapter 8. The Sarcocystis organism parasitizing skeletal muscles and myocardium will be discussed here under the generic name S. lindemanni to denote several species not determined at present. Although the importance of S. lindemanni in human medicine is not as great as that of Toxoplasma, it is discussed in some detail because of the diagnostic problems it may pose for pathologists.
Rhabditida
Authors: Gutierrez Yezid
Published: November 2023

Rhabditida comprises all of the free-living forms, one of the largest groups of nematodes. Some genera have a parasitic phase, while others are only facultative parasites. One important member of Rhabditida is Strongyloides, with at least seven species known in humans, producing intestinal and dermal infections. One species, S. stercoralis in the intestine, may become opportunistic in certain immune-suppressed hosts to produce infections that are lethal if not treated. Halicephalobus ( = Micronema) deletrix produces sporadic, isolated cases of facultative parasitism in humans, establishing colonies in the tissues of parasitic females that produce eggs and larvae. Finally, Pelodera strongyloides has a larval stage that parasitizes the skin of humans and animals.
Spirurida-Dracunculus, Gnathostoma, And Others
Authors: Gutierrez Yezid
Published: November 2023

The order Spirurida comprises one of the largest groups of nematodes. These worms are characterized biologically by requiring one or more intermediate hosts in their life cycles and morphologically by having a cephalic end with bilateral, symmetric structures and an esophagus divided into two portions, the anterior muscular and the posterior glandular. The members of the order Spirurida occur in the gastrointestinal tract and other tissues; those important in human medicine belong to the following superfamilies (Beaver et al. 1984): Dracunculus medinensisDracunculiasis or Guinea Worm Infection The superfamily Dracunculoidea includes genera and species that usually inhabit the tissues of animals and humans. Two of its genera have species that occur in humans: Dracunculus medinensis, which is by far the most important, and a species of Phylometra, found once in an open lesion of the hand (Deaedorff et al. 1986).
Spirurida-Filariae Of The Lymphatics
Authors: Gutierrez Yezid
Published: November 2023

The superfamily Filarioidea is one of the largest superfamilies of the order Spirurida, with genera and species inhabiting almost every tissue, organ system, and body cavity of vertebrates. One family, the Onchocercidae, contains all the genera with species parasitic in humans: Wuchereria, Brugia, Onchocerca, Loa, Mansonella, Dirofilaria, and Meningonema. Two biologic aspects of filariids are as follows: (1) their developmental life cycle, like that of most spiruriids, requires an invertebrate intermediate host, and (2) they produce a microfilaria, an intermediate stage (embryo) between the egg and the fully developed larva. Females lay microfilariae in the tissues or body fluids of the host. In some species, the microfilariae retain the egg membrane, which becomes an elongated envelope for them. In other species, the microfilariae break out and shed the membrane, resulting in sheathed or unsheathed microfilariae, respectively.
Spirurida-Filariae Of The Subcutaneous Tissues And Body Cavities
Authors: Gutierrez Yezid
Published: November 2023

The filariids of the subcutaneous tissues and body cavities of humans are species of the genera Onchocerca, Loa, and Mansonella, which are natural parasites in humans, and of Dirofilaria, several species of which produce zoonotic infections. One species, D. immitis, occurs both in the skin as immature worms and in the pulmonary arteries (see Chapter 21 ). In human infections with Dirofilaria the worms generally do not attain maturity, and no infection becomes patent (i.e., no patients develop microfilaremia). The most important species of this group is 0. volvulus because of the morbidity it produces in endemic areas. Infections with zoonotic Onchocerca have also been described. Onchocerca-Onchocerciasis The genus Onchocerca has one species found in humans, 0. volvulus, and several other species that occur naturally in wild and domestic animals. Animals infected naturally with 0. volvulus have been a spider monkey and a gorilla; experimentally, the chimpanzee is a good host (Duke, 1962). This makes 0. volvulus almost exclusively a parasite of humans. The main morphologic characteristic of the genus is the presence of external transverse ridges and internal striations in the cuticle. These characteristics are useful in identifying Onchocerca in longitudinal and oblique sections of the parasite in tissues. Biologically, 0. volvulus is characterized by microfilariae that inhabit the skin and by having a fly as its intermediate host. The importance of Onchocerca as a pathogen lies in the capacity of the microfilariae to produce severe forms of dermititis and blindness due to their presence in the skin and their ability to invade the cornea and enter the eye.
Spirurida-Filariae Of The Lungs, Brain, And Eyes
Authors: Gutierrez Yezid
Published: November 2023

The adults of Dirofilaria immitis occur in the pulmonary arteries of dogs, their natural hosts, and ectopically in other blood vessels. The adults of Meningonema peruzzi are parasites of the brain stem of primates and humans. In addition, both immature and adult filarial worms of humans and animals can occur in the eye of humans. The filariae in these locations are the subject of this chapter. The manifestations and the lesions produced by microfilariae of lymphatic filariae in the lungs (tropical eosinophilia, Chapter 19), the brain (Loaloa, Chapter 20), and the eye (Onchocerca volvulus, Chapter 20) have already been discussed. Filariae of Lungs: Dirofilaria immitis-Pulmonary Dirofilariasis Immature filariae in pulmonary nodules resected because of a clinical diagnosis of carcinoma, mainly in the United States, were reported during the 1940s and 1950s. The review of these cases determined that D. immitis, the dog heartworm, is the agent responsible for the infection (Beaver, Orihel, 1965).
Trichinelloidea And Dioctophymatoidea
Authors: Gutierrez Yezid
Published: November 2023

The order Enoplida, comprising aphasmid nematodes (see the introduction to Part 11), has two superfamilies, Trichinelloidea and Dioctophymatoidea. In addition to the characteristics of the order, outlined in the introduction to Part II, the females of this group have a single genital organ: one ovary, continuing with the oviduct, the uterus, and the vagina. In members of Trichinelloidea the esophagus (stichosome) consists of a capillary tube surrounded by gland-like cells, the stichocytes, and there are eggs with mucous plugs at either end. The Dioctophymatoidea have a cylindrical, muscular esophagus. Trichinelloidea has two families: Trichuridae and Trichinellidae. The former consists of the genera Trichuris, Aonchotheca, Calodium, Eucoleus (included previously in the genus Capillaria), and Anatrichosoma. The latter has one genus, Trichinella, with several species in humans. These six genera have species that are important in human and veterinary medicine. Species of Trichuris and Trichinella are well-known human parasites, while the capillariids and Anatrich soma are parasites of animals that sometimes produce zoonotic infections in humans. Most infections produced by these parasites occur sporadically, but Aonchoteca philippinensis ( = Capillaria philippinensis) sometimes results in epidemics.
Biliary And Pancreatic Trematodes
Authors: Gutierrez Yezid
Published: November 2023

The trematodes of the biliary and pancreatic ducts of humans belong to three families: Fasciolidae, Opistorchiidae, and Dicrocoeliidae. Fasciolidae includes Fascia/a hepatica, which is endemic worldwide, producing important morbidity in certain geographic areas, and F. gigantica, with a more restricted distribution. The members of Opistorchiidae are widely distributed, producing a large number of infections but generally with low morbidity. Finally, the members of Dicrocoeliidae have species that usually occur in humans as sporadic zoonotic infections. All species in these families have two intermediate hosts. The first is a snail; the second, varying with the group, consists of either plants, fish, or arthropods (Beaver et al. 1984;Malek, 1980). The accompanying classification of these trematodes is provided only for general information. It follows Malek’s (1980) classification, showing only the genera and the species of human importance.
Intestinal, Pulmonary, Eye, And Other Trematodes
Authors: Gutierrez Yezid
Published: November 2023

Many species of trematodes in the intestinal tract of humans have been described; pulmonary infections with several species of Paragonimus also occur in many places. Ocular and disseminated infections due to trematodes are more rare. The majority of these infections, if not all, are zoonotic and have a restricted geographic distribution, mostly because of the food preferences of the populations involved. Often these infections consist of single cases or small clusters of cases that occur with low frequency in certain areas. Because of the morphologic similarities between the eggs of many of these trematodes, the diagnosis is often made at the generic level, for example species of heterophyids and echinostomes. Specific identification requires the adult worms, which are recovered during autopsies, in surgical specimens, or after treatment of patients. The classification of trematodes provided in the introduction to Part III and according to the organ system where they occur is followed here in discussing these infections.
Echinococcus-Hydatid Disease
Authors: Gutierrez Yezid
Published: November 2023

The genus Echinococcus has four species-E granulosus, E. multilocularis, E. vogeli, and E. oligarthrusthe adult stages of which are parasites in wild and domestic dogs and cats (Thompson, Lymbery, 1995). The larval stages, known as hydatid cysts, occur in many species of ungulates, rodents, and other animals, including humans. The infection produced by adult Echinococcus organisms in their definitive hosts is echinococcosis, and the infection produced by the larvae in animals and humans is hydatid disease or hydatid cyst. The term hydatidosis, as defined by some investigators, is the uncontrolled spread of a hydatid cyst, as in bone or as in secondary hydatidosis. However, these four terms are used interchangeably by most clinicians to refer to the human disease. The morphology and biologic behavior of the hydatid larvae are different for each of the four species of Echinococcus, resulting in different pathologic and clinical manifestations.
Introduction: Globalization from the Periphery
Authors: Mathews John A
Published: November 2023

Stan Shih was obsessed with his “Dragon dream”-the dream of building his tiny Taiwan-based computer firm into a global giant. Never mind that he lacked all the ingredients considered essential-a strong brand name, a network of global suppliers, and markets around the world. His company, Multitech, had only been started in 1976, and it took until 1983 to develop its first major product: an IBM-compatible PC. But by the mid-1980s, Shih was fired up to go international and was already fantasizing about global conquests.
The Acer Group: A Dragon Multinational
Authors: Mathews John A
Published: November 2023

Acer is the world’s largest and most successful Chinese high technology company-and it is barely 25 years old. Established in Taiwan in 1976 by entrepreneur Stan Shih, Acer has grown to become a diversified IT group and a world leader in the Personal Computer industry. It is the world’s third largest PC producer (of both branded and original equipment production) and is one of the Top 10 branded PC producers.
An Alternative OLI Framework for Latecomers
Authors: Mathews John A
Published: November 2023

The international business literature has by now developed a sophisticated conceptual and theoretical framework that seeks to account for the phenomena of multinational corporations, foreign direct investment, foreign production, and other firm activities such as R&D, and the organizational and management issues associated with the growth and administration of such enterprises.
IT Investments with Direct Returns
Authors: Lucas Henry C
Published: November 2023

In the type of IT investment where a direct return is obvious, it should be relatively easy to compute a ROI. In this chapter, we describe one such application at Merrill Lynch in some detail. Most of the other examples demonstrate cost savings or revenue enhancement, but we do not know the level of investment required to generate these returns. This chapter demonstrates that it is possible to obtain a measurable return from IT, though for most examples in the book it is not possible to provide actual ROI figures.
Introduction
Authors: Cole Robert E
Published: November 2023

The book deals with organizational learning in the context of the development of the American quality movement of the 1980s and 1990s. Paradoxically, this was also a period in which quality fads flourished. One of the major aims of this book will be to show, by studying the movement during these years, the conditions under which fads and organizational learning are compatible. The strong pejorative connotations associated with fads (and imitation) in American popular life are often quite misleading and indeed harmful to corporate competitive performance. To understand how this could be true, I begin with a brief historical perspective on our subject matter.
It Ain ‘t Rocket Science, But ...
Authors: Cole Robert E
Published: November 2023

If the last chapter was mostly about what American management did not do, this chapter describes and interprets American managers ‘ actual early responses to the quality challenge. Joseph Juran, that keen observer of the American quality movement, concluded in the mid-1990s that in retrospect the results of the quality initiatives of the 1980s were deeply disappointing (1995: 586). Surely, there were some real success stories, he argued, but, by and large, corporate efforts did not yield rapid improvements across a broad range of firms and industries. Improvements at leading companies like Ford and HP in the early 1980s were the exceptions, not the rule.
On Organizational Learning
Authors: Cole Robert E
Published: November 2023

After this long journey through the history of the modem American quality movement, what knowledge have we gained about how organizations learn? To clarify an answer is my charge for this final chapter. First, however, I need to clarify that ubiquitous term, organizational learning. Karl Weick and Frances Westley, with tongue firmly in cheek, have suggested it is an oxymoron. After all, to learn is to disorganize and increase variety, the very antithesis of organization (Weick and Westley, 1996: 440). Yet they go on to discuss the conditions under which our images of organizations can be consistent with learning.
Directionality of Movement in Ellipsis Resolution in English and Japanese
Authors: Abe Jun , Hoshi Hiroto
Published: November 2023

To account for this difference between English gapping and Japanese gapping, we proposed that elements in a full-fledged conjunct in elliptical constructions can move either leftward or rightward to create an appropriate structure for copying and that the directionality of movement is determined by independently motivated constraints. We argued there that Saito’s (1985) constraint on adjunction sites plays an important role in determining the directionality of movement involved in ellipsis. The constraint informally states that the head-initial or head-final requirements imposed by X' Theory must be preserved even after adjunction operations.
Investigating Second Language Attrition: An Introduction
Authors: Reetz-Kurashige Lynne Hanse,Anita
Published: November 2023

Language loss affects all of us. It occurs in every corner of the world, taking its toll among young and old alike. Only recently, however, has the forgetting of language attracted much scholarly attention. During the past three decades a new area of study examining language regression has grown out of the converging efforts of researchers from several fields. The facts they deal with are relevant to the various disciplines because they relate not only to what is being lost (the focus of linguists) but also to how it happens (the focus of psycholinguists and neurolinguists) and why it happens (the focus of sociolinguists, sociologists, and anthropologists).
Introduction: “The Judicial Usurpation of Politics”
Authors: Perry Michael J
Published: November 2023

I am about to sketch, in this introduction, a contemporary controversy about several important constitutional rulings by the Supreme Court of the United States. The rulings at issue were all handed down by the Court in the modern period of American constitutional law: the period since 1954, the year in which the Court made its historic and seminal decision in Brown v. Board of Education, striking down racially segregated public schooling.3 It bears mention, here at the outset, that controversy about one or more constitutional rulings by the Supreme Court-broad, deep, and persistent controversy-is not just a contemporary phenomenon. Such controversy, as students of American constitutional law well know, has been a perennial feature of American politics (as the date of this chapter’s epigraph, from Plessy v. Ferguson, serves to illustrate).
Ends Planning: Where to Go
Authors: Ackoff Russell L
Published: November 2023

In the discussion of reactive management (Chapter 2), I argued that effective management must be directed at getting what is wanted, not at getting rid of what isn’t. Ends planning is directed at making explicit exactly what is wanted. What an organization wants, its ends, is of three types: ideals, objectives, and goals. An ideal is an end that can never be attained, but that can be approached endlessly; the gap between an ideal and where we are can always be reduced.
Introduction
Authors: Fishman Joshua A
Published: November 2023

The literature on ethnicity is already huge and is constantly being added to. It is also international and, therefore, multilingual, large parts of it being regrettably inaccessible to readers who depend on English (or any other single language) for their familiarity with this topic. Finally, it is interdisciplinary and, therefore, highly diversified as to its underlying theories and assumptions. It is the goal of this handbook to bring to the nonspecialized reader a substantial se lection that reflects the above-mentioned regional and disciplinary variations in views toward and experiences with ethnicity.
Scandinavia
Authors: Lindgren Leena Huss Anna-Riitt A
Published: November 2023

The Nordic countries include Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden. Moreover, the Faroes and Greenland belong to Denmark, and the Aland Islands to Finland, as regions with considerable self-government. Majority languages of independent states in the area are: Danish in Denmark, Finnish in Finland, Ice landic in Iceland, Norwegian in Norway, and Swedish in Sweden. The language of the Aland Islands is Swedish; the main language in the Faroes is Faroese, and, in Greenland, Inuit.
Afro-Asian Rural Border Areas
Authors: Omoniyi Tope
Published: November 2023

Rural communities are often treated as completely distinct entities from urban ones. The inhabitants of both community types are presumed to have stereo typical characteristics that contrast almost perfectly. For instance, rural life is simple, whereas urban life is complex; rural environments lack the infrastructure that adorn urban spaces; rural folks lack the sophistication of urban folks; crime is a reality of urban life, but it is supposedly almost totally absent in rural areas. The contrasts can go on and on. However, in reality, some rural communities have an urban dimension to them, and the social context thus set up becomes unconventionally complex. Rural towns and villages that have international boundaries running through them exemplify such communities.
The Pacific
Authors: Lotherington Heather
Published: November 2023

The nations of the Pacific can be divided into Pacific Rim and Island Pacific countries. The Pacific Rim includes continents bordering on the Pacific Ocean, such as Asia, Australia, and the Americas. The Island Pacific comprises a series of archipelagoes that support island states of relatively small populations and economies across a vast continent of water. Papua New Guinea is by far the largest island country in terms of both population (4 million) and area (462,840 square km.), with over 800 spoken languages. Tokelau, conversely, has a population of 1,600 people who live on three atolls which comprise 12.2 square kilometers of dry land.1 The Island Pacific, together with Australia and New Zealand, make up Oceania.
Ex Vivo Expansion of Hematopoietic Stem Cells
Authors: Verfaillie Catherine M
Published: November 2023

There is increasing interest in strategies to manipulate hematopoietic stem cells (HSC) in vitro for clinical purposes (Table 9.1). One such clinical application is expansion of small HSC grafts either in the allogeneic or autologous setting. For instance, cord blood (CB) provides an interesting source of HSC for transplantation as the graft may be less immunocompetent (Roncarolo et al., 1996) and transplantation across partial HLA-disparity barriers may be possible (Wagner et al., 1996; Rubinstein et al., 1998).
Hematopoietic Stem Cell Gene Therapy: Progress and Prospects
Authors: Bodine David M
Published: November 2023

The goal of this chapter is to describe the introduction of novel genetic material into hematopoietic stem cells. The animal models and human trials that have demonstrated the potential of gene transfer will be reviewed, and the problems that need to be solved before gene therapy becomes a common treatment for diseases of the hematopoietic system will be discussed. The work described in this chapter comes from many fields of study and represents the contributions of many authors and laboratories. The references cited should be considered to be representative, not complete.
Zebrafish Hematopoietic Development
Authors: Lin Shuo
Published: November 2023

In-depth studies of developmental hematopoiesis often require comprehensive analyses of a single-animal model system using the tools of genetics, molecular biology, and embryology. Historically, the mouse has been the system of choice for studying the genetics of vertebrate hematopoiesis. The development of embryonic stem cell technology in the mouse has facilitated the application of techniques, such as homologous recombination, that make it possible to introduce a mutation into any gene suspected of playing a role hematopoietic development. Many genes that were first characterized biochemically by in vitro assays have now been characterized in vivo by using mouse knockouts (Orkin, 1998).
Blood Formation During Xenopus Embryogenesis
Authors: Evans Todd
Published: November 2023

Biologists have witnessed, in the past decade, tremendous progress in the use of genetic systems, including Drosophila and Caenorhabditis elegans, to identify conserved components of complex vertebrate developmental pathways. This has led to a clear appreciation for the advantage of integrating results from multiple experimental systems, particularly regarding early specification and differentiation programs.
Embryonic Induction of Mammalian Hematopoiesis and Vasculogenesis
Authors: Baron Margaret H
Published: November 2023

The determination of cell fate during embryogenesis is governed by instructive and permissive signals emitted and received between different populations of cells in a phenomenon called embryonic induction. Among the first differentiated cell types to form in the developing vertebrate embryo in response to induction of mesoderm (reviewed in Conlon and Beddington, 1995; Tam and Behringer, 1997) are blood and vascular endothelial cells. Primitive hematopoiesis, the formation of embryonic blood cells, and vasculogenesis, the de novo formation of blood vessels from endothelial cells, begin during gastrulation and occur essentially concurrently during early mouse development. The first site of hematopoiesis and vasculogenesis in nearly all vertebrate embryos is the yolk sac, an extraembryonic membrane that serves a placental function prior to the establishment of the embryonic circulation (Jollie, 1990).
Changes in Lymphoid Progenitor Populations During Mammalian Development
Authors: Cumano Ana , Godin Isabell , Delassus Sylvie , Dieterlen-Lievre, Françoise , Barreto Vasco
Published: November 2023

Lymphocytes are continuously generated throughout life, in the bone marrow. Like all cells of the hematopoietic system, lymphocytes are derived from multipotent hematopoietic stem cells (Wu et al., 1967). The developmental pathway that leads from multipotent stem cells to mature lymphocytes is characterized by a series of differentiation steps. Many of these steps can be recognized based on the appearance of proteins at the cell surface, such as growth factor receptors or lineage-specific molecules. These stages of differentiation can also be recognized based on functional assays. Two major types of assay systems have been developed: (J) in vivo repopulating assays, and (2) in vitro differentiation assays. These two systems are complementary in the analysis of lymphocyte differentiation.
Use of Embryonic Stem Cell In Vitro Differentiation in a Serum-Free Environment for Analysis of Mesoderm Formation and Hematopoietic Development
Authors: Wiles Michael V , Proetzel Gabriele
Published: November 2023

The microenvironmental influences that control the formation and development of mesoderm and the subsequent formation of hematopoietic cells are poorly defined. These stages occur during the first few days of mammalian development, where cells are few and relatively inaccessible. One approach to overcome these problems is to examine these changes using embryonic stem (ES) cell in vitro differentiation.
Involvement of Activins and TGF-βs in Hematopoiesis
Authors: Yu John
Published: November 2023

Activin acts on multiple tissues and plays a variety of roles in cellular function and proliferation (Vale et al., 1990). Originally, activin was shown to modulate the production of follicle-stimulating hormone by the anterior pituitary gland (Ling et al., 1986; Vale et al., 1986). It has subsequently been shown to be produced in large amounts by bone marrow stromal cells (Shao et al., 1992a), and to exert major effects on hematopoiesis, especially erythropoiesis (Yu et al., 1987, 1989; Broxmeyer et al., 1988).
Notch Signaling During Hematopoiesis
Authors: Moore Malcolm A S , Han Wei , Ye Qian
Published: November 2023

The Notch gene was first described in Drosophila melanogaster as a locus required for development of many structures (Poulson, 1937, 1940). It encodes a 300 kDa transmembrane protein with an extracellular domain of 36 epidermal growth factor (EGF)-like repeats and an intracellular domain with ankyrin repeats and a Q/PEST sequence (Poulson 1937, 1940; Wharton et al., 1985; Kidd et al., 1986).
Chemokines
Authors: Gerard Craig , LaRosa Gregory
Published: November 2023

Initially discovered as a family of cytokine-induced immediate early genes, the chemokines have emerged as a fundamental system governing mammalian leukocyte trafficking in both the basal and activated state. In this chapter, a brief overview of the chemokine system is presented. Importantly, EST (expressed sequence tags) sequences in the zebrafish have been identified that demonstrate that the chemokines function in these vertebrates as well. Thus, the power of zebrafish genetics will surely lead to important observations regarding the mammalian system.
Signal Transduction in Thymus Development
Authors: Sen Jyoti , Burakoff Steven J
Published: November 2023

Reciprocal interaction between bone marrow-derived lymphoid precursor cells and the thymic environment leadsthrough a series of developmental events-to the generation of a repertoire of diverse and functional T cells. The thymic environment provides stage-specific signals to the lymphoid cells, resulting from cell-cell interactions, locally produced cytokines, chemokines, and hormones. An exquisite balance between cellular proliferation, differentiation, cell death, and survival signals leads to the production of the requisite numbers of well-educated self-restricted T cells. Mature T cells are exported to the peripheral lymphoid organs, the spleen and lymph nodes, where, upon encountering antigen, naive T cells develop further into effector cells that provide cytolytic or T helper ITh) functions.
Human Bone Marrow Failure Syndromes
Authors: Sieff Colin A
Published: November 2023

Several human genetic diseases are characterized by bone marrow failure during early development, and result in the decreased production of blood cells, as well as other constitutional abnormalities. These conditions have been reviewed in detail elsewhere (Alter and Young, 1998). Since many are not yet understood at a molecular level, this chapter will focus on those inherited conditions in which recent molecular advances have led to insights into either the causative genes or genes involved in the pathogenesis of complications.
Mouse Genetics for the Analysis of Stem Cell Behavior
Authors: Muller-Sieburg Christa E
Published: November 2023

The mouse has been one of the prime organisms used for the study of hematopoiesis. Consequently, the depth of knowledge about the behavior, properties, and phenotype of mouse stem cells are without parallel in any other system, be it man, fish, frog, fowl, dog, sheep, or other rodents. Which features made the mouse such a broadly applicable organism for stem cell research? First, mice are a well-established paradigm for the physiology of hematopoiesis of most mammalian species, and particularly humans. There are some components of hematopoiesis that function differently amongst species.
Vascular Matrix and Disorders
Authors: Karttunen Leena , Felbor Ute , Vikkula, Miikka , Olsen Bjorn R
Published: November 2023

The formation of blood vessels de novo in early development-vasculogenesis-and the later sprouting of new vessels from pre-existing ones-angiogenesis-are complex processes of cellular proliferation, migration, and differentiation, accompanied by highly regulated and important events of degradation and synthesis of extracellular matrix (ECM) constituents. Extracellular matrices within basement membranes form essential supportive structures for cells of the vascular wall, influence the migration and differentiation of endothelial cells (EC) and smooth muscle cells (SMC), and modify cellular responses to soluble cytokines.
Distributive Universal Quantification and Aspect in Brazilian Portuguese
Authors: Postma Gertjan
Published: November 2023

Since Kayne (1975), Williams (1977), and May (1984), quantification has been the subject of debate in the generative literature. Since scope relations are thought to be established under quantifier movement, quantification has been a testing ground for syntactic principles, such as the Empty Category Principle (ECP), the Binding Theory, Path Containment Condition (PCC), Connectedness, and so forth. The universal quantifier every in English has been studied in some detail. However, languages have various other universal quantifiers.
Elements of CT and MR Neuroimaging
Authors: Nelson James S
Published: November 2023

Contemporary neuroimaging uses plain skull radiography, X-ray computed tomography (CT), and conventional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to detect anatomical features and single-photon-emission computed tomography (SPECT), positron emission tomography (PET), and transcranial Doppler ultrasound to demonstrate physiological processes. Among these techniques, CT and MR imaging have proven to be valuable aids to diagnostic surgical and autopsy neuropathologic examinations (Boyko et al., 1994; Burger et al., 1998). This chapter provides a brief summary of the imaging methods, terminology, and characteristics of common normal and abnormal findings associated with CT and MR imaging of the central nervous system (CNS). Two excellent sources of more detailed information are the monograph by Grossman and Yousem (1994) and the website edited by Johnson and Becker (1995). The complete citations for both are included in the references at the end of this chapter. Computerized Tomography Computerized tomography involves the use of a beam of parallel (highly collimated) X-rays (photons) that are differentially absorbed (attenuated) by various tissue components as the X-rays pass through the CNS and its coverings. A digital image is produced by a computerbased detection system that reflects the pattern of beam attenuation with gray-scale values between 1 (black) and 256 (white). In the CT image, tissues and lesions of high attenuation (hyperdense) are white; tissues and lesions of low attenuation (hypodense) are black. For example, bone and blood are hyperdense, and air, fat, and water (edema) are hypodense. Normal brain tissue is intermediate between these two extremes (Fig. 2.1).
Bacterial, Fungal, and Parasitic Diseases of the Central Nervous System
Authors: Bauserman Steven C , Naul L Gill
Published: November 2023

Bacterial infections of the nervous system continue to be life threatening and often leave serious sequelae. As in our previous edition, we choose to discuss these various entities as infections of the meninges, focal purulent accumulations, mycobacterial infections (predominantly tuberculosis), other granulomatous diseases, and spirochetal infections. Additional brief discussions of the neuropathologic features of cat-scratch disease and Whipple’s disease are presented below. Powerful molecular techniques such as 16S PCR RNA have been applied to many of these diseases; some diagnostic and therapeutic monitoring breakthroughs have been made, but the pathologic features are unchanged. Purulent Leptomeningitis Purulent leptomeningitis is an acute suppurative infection of the pia–arachnoid and subarachnoid space (SAS). The causative organism(s) varies with geography, patient age, and many socioeconomic factors. Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus) continues to be the most common pathogen in adults (Schuchat, 1997). Age subdivisions in the pediatric population are used to predict predominant organisms, especially to enable early diagnosis and therapeutic advantage.
Embryonal Tumors of the Central Nervous System
Authors: Rorke Lucy B
Published: November 2023

Central nervous system (CNS) tumors composed of embryonic neuroepithelial cells occur, not surprisingly, primarily in infants and children. Amongst the three major histological types, medulloepitheliomas are the least frequent, whereas primitive neuroectodermal tumors (PNETs) are the most common malignant CNS tumors of children. The atypical teratoid/rhabdoid tumor (AT/RT) is being diagnosed with increasing frequency now that it has been defined as a unique neoplasm, separate from PNETs with which it was typically confused (Rorke et al., 1996). Pathological and cytogenetic features of each tumor type will be described. Medulloepithelioma Medulloepitheliomas are biologically malignant CNS tumors that basically occur only in infants and young children; some are already quite large at birth. This tumor type was proposed as a unique entity by Bailey and Cushing (1926). Although such tumors may arise anywhere in the CNS, they are most common within the cerebral hemispheres. While much less frequent than gliomas in the pons, a few have developed in that site and have been misdiagnosed on clinical and radiological grounds (Molloy et al., 1996) (Color Fig. 17.1A in separate color insert). Boys and girls are equally affected. Tumors with the histological features of medulloepithelioma occur in the orbit or on a peripheral nerve, but in these sites, they are not necessarily confined to children, and many follow a different clinical course (Nakamura et al., 1982).
Inherited Tumor Syndromes Involving the Nervous System
Authors: Nelson James S
Published: November 2023

The inherited tumor syndromes involving the nervous system are a group of genetically determined disorders with neoplastic or dysplastic lesions in the nervous system and in extraneural tissues. The group includes the conditions discussed in this chapter: neurofibromatosis 1 (NF1), neurofibromatosis 2 (NF2), von HippelLindau disease (VHL), tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC), and Cowden/Lhermitte-Duclos disease (CLDD). Other syndromes of this type include the Li-Fraumeni syndrome, Turcot’s syndrome, and the nevoid basal cell carcinoma syndrome (Kleihues and Cavenee, 2000). NF1, NF2, VHL, and TSC have also been classified as neurocutaneous diseases (NCDs), or phakomatoses. The two terms are sometimes used synonymously. The NCDs are a collection of familial and spontaneously occurring disorders with lesions involving both the nervous system and the skin that are not necessarily neoplastic or dysplastic. The criteria defining this collection are arbitrary, because some of the conditions classified as NCDs do not include skin lesions—for example, VHL (Gomez, 1987, 1991). Phakomatosis is a term suggested by Van der Hoeve (1923) as a generic designation originally for two of the more common NCDs, NF1 and TSC. It is derived from the Greek word phakos, meaning “motherspot.” The motherspots referred to by Van der Hoeve were the malformative and dysplastic lesions often found in the brain, skin, and viscera of patients with the two diseases. The motherspots were considered similar, except for the absence of neval cells, to cutaneous nevi or birthmarks. The masses or tumors developing from the motherspots were called phakomas. They represented a spectrum of proliferative activity including benign and malignant neoplasms. Later, Van der Hoeve added VHL (1932) and SturgeWeber disease (1936) to the list of phakomatoses.
Neuromuscular Diseases
Authors: Heffner Reid R
Published: November 2023

From an organizational standpoint, it is useful to begin with a classification of neuromuscular diseases. The classification presented here is not meant to be comprehensive, but to enumerate disorders which are commonly encountered. This is a standard classification modified from Walton et al. (1994), generally accepted by the majority of U.S. and British physicians, which does not attempt to reconcile every nosology and all diverse viewpoints into a single system (Table 23.1). Many of the diseases appear in the table as a reminder to the reader and will not be discussed in the text. For further explanation and greater detail concerning the subject of neuromuscular diseases, a list of general references is provided at the conclusion of the chapter (Layzer, 1985; Engel and Franzini-Armstrong, 1994; Heffner and Schochet, 1994; Walton et al., 1994; Heffner, 1997, 1999). Clinical Information In order to save time in the pathological evaluation of the muscle biopsy and to avoid diagnostic errors, it is highly desirable that the tissue specimen be accompanied by adequate clinical data. The muscle biopsy is often the culmination of the diagnostic work-up of the patient, which begins with a thorough clinical history, physical examination, and clinical laboratory tests. In order to remind the clinician, who may be unaware of precisely what information is important in a particular case, to provide adequate clinical data, in our institution we supply a form that the requesting physician is expected to complete and return with the biopsy specimen (Fig. 23.1). After the biopsy is reviewed by the pathologist, frequently the referring clinician is contacted for additional information and is given a preliminary diagnosis if additional studies are necessary for a definitive interpretation.
Contextualizing the Exotic Few: Gender Dichotomies in Lakhota
Authors: Trechter Sara
Published: November 2023

The characteristics between male and female language are very peculiar. I think, before assuming the origin of the language as due to admixture of tribes, it might be well to consider whether the mannerism of speech of different social groups may not be a sufficient explanation. Take, for instance, our students’ slang, which is only used in conversation in college, but which the students readily drop when talking to other people.
Rebaking the Pie: The WOMAN AS DESSERT Metaphor
Authors: Hines Caitlin
Published: November 2023

venerable approach in language and gender scholarship has been to analyze the ways in which sexism is built into a language (usually English). Muriel Schulz’s classic article “The Semantic Derogation of Women” (1975) is one such careful deconstruction of linguistic chauvinism, using the tools of dictionary definitions and etymology. Despite much solid work, this entire line of inquiry was trivialized and branded as “radical feminism” based on the misunderstood and decontextualized claims of a few researchers in the 1970s (see especially Penelope 1990 (reprint of 1975 work); Todasco 1973; and, for a book-length articulation, Spender 1980). Language and gender studies moved on to the macro issues implied by sexist usage on the one hand, with gender seen as but one of many social variables speakers bring to the table (largely the concern of sociolinguistics), and to the micro issue of sexist usages in individual conversations on the other hand (exemplified by discourse analysis). Meanwhile, cognitive linguistics was establishing itself as a subfield dedicated to elucidating the interdependencies of thought and language, focusing mainly on the (ungendered) role of metaphors in constructing cognition. In this chapter I bring together these two disparate approaches, using each to illuminate the other.
From Folklore to “News at 6”: Maintaining Language and Reframing Identity through the Media
Authors: Cotter Colleen
Published: November 2023

The linguistic subdisciplines of language and gender on one hand and language preservation on the other have rarely overlapped despite their shared concern with the relationship between language and identity. The traditional lack of interaction between the two fields is attributable to biases on both sides: language and gender scholars overwhelmingly study speakers of English and other thriving Western languages, and researchers of endangered languages are generally more focused on cultural and linguistic identity than on gender identity. Yet the revitalization of a minority language that is on the brink of extinction provides a rich opportunity to consider gender and other aspects of identity in a particular situation of use, and gender-based analyses may suggest promising new directions for language-maintenance programs. The approach in this chapter involves a blend of ethnographically and interactionally oriented examinations of language and culture, the language being both the Irish language and the discourse forms specific to media, and the culture being the symbolic referents of the community within Ireland, as well as the practices and norms of the discourse community of media practitioners.
Financing Health Care Fairly
Authors: Fleck Leonard M
Published: November 2023

One of the saddest pictures I have ever seen in my life is that of a 100-year-old man, William Hart, in a wheelchair in San Diego who was caught robbing a bank of that he needed to pay for his heart medications (Associated Press, ). This is not someone without health insurance; he was covered by Medicare. But Medicare covers only about half the health expenses of the average elderly person in the U.S., which is why about of the elderly have and need MediGap coverage (the other need the coverage but cannot afford it).
Two Decades of Decline
Authors: Belzer Michael H
Published: November 2023

American truck drivers have ridden a roller coaster over the last few decades. Unfortunately, since the peak in 1973, the overall movement has been down. While unions—mainly the Teamsters—represented about 60% of all truck drivers twenty years ago, today they represent less than 25% of all drivers. Truckers’ wages, once among the highest in American industry, have plummeted, particularly among non-union drivers.
Congenital myasthenic Syndromes
Authors: Engel Andrew G , Ohno Kinji , Sine Steven M
Published: November 2023

Congenital myasthenic syndromes (CMS) are neither new nor uncommon disorders. In 1937, Rothbart described four brothers under the age of 2 years with a myasthenic disorder, and by 1972 Sarah Bundey was able to collect 97 familial cases of myasthenia with onset before the age of 2 years. After the discovery of the autoimmune origin of myasthenia gravis (MG) in the 1970s and of the Lambert-Eaton syndrome in the 1980s, it became apparent that myasthenic disorders occurring in a familial or congenital setting must have a different pathogenesis. In the 1970s and 1980s, ultrastructural, cytochemical, and in vitro microelectrode studies of CMS patients revealed a heterogeneous group of disorders: a presynaptic syndrome associated with a paucity of synaptic vesicles and decreased evoked release of acetylcholine (ACh) quanta; a presynaptic disease caused by a defect in the resynthesis or vesicular packaging of ACh; synaptic acetylcholinesterase (AChE) deficiency; and two postsynaptic syndromes, one at-tributed to slow closure of the acetylcholine receptor (AChR) ion channel? and one associated with AChR deficiency.
A Philosophical Basis for Organization Ethics
Authors: Spencer Edward M , Mills Ann E , Rorty Mary V , Werhane Patricia H
Published: November 2023

Recent upheavals in the way health care is delivered in the United States have called into prominence conflicts between traditional business goals such as efficiency, cost-effectiveness, and productivity, and the ends of such well-established and traditional professions as medicine, nursing, dentistry and the allied health professions. Since many healthcare workers suddenly find themselves playing dual roles as professionals and as employees of healthcare businesses, clashes between competing obligations and responsibilities are rife. The entry of businesses from other areas, such as insurance companies and multinational corporations, into what was traditionally the social welfare arena of health has produced crises, scandals, and increased public scrutiny that have turned health care into one of the most controversial fields of the 1990s.

Many of the most publicized issues have been cases of improper business practices easily analysed—and prevented—by already available understandings of legal and ethical business dealings. Much less visible are the tensions, frustrations, and conflicts produced within and between people struggling to carry out their traditional obligations responsibly under rapidly changing conditions. Physicians and other healthcare professionals in unprecedented numbers are confronting the problems of maintaining professional integrity in the absence of their traditional autonomy and control over their conditions of practice.