bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Calcium Channels
Authors: Bean Bruce P
Published: September 2006

Calcium channels are plasma membrane proteins containing
calcium‐selective pores that are opened by depolarization of the membrane
voltage. They produce calcium entry during action potentials in neurons,
muscle and other excitable cells.
Calcium Channels in Presynaptic Terminals
Authors: Llinás Rodolfo R , Moreno Herman
Published: September 2006

In vertebrates and invertebrates, neuronal communication is mediated by chemical synaptic transmission via release of transmitters that bind to receptors and result in a postsynaptic response. The release of the transmitter is mostly triggered by a transient release of intracellular calcium, brought about by activation of voltage‐gated calcium channels.
Cells of the Nervous System
Authors: Knott Graham , Molnar Zoltan
Published: September 2006

The principal and distinct classes of the nervous system are nerve cells (neurons) and neuroglial cells (glia). They can be divided into different cell classes according to their structure and the basic mechanisms they use to communicate.
Central Pattern Generators
Authors: Hooper Scott L
Published: September 2006

Central pattern generators (CPGs) are neural networks that can produce rhythmic patterned outputs without rhythmic sensory or central input. CPGs underlie the production of most rhythmic motor patterns and have been extensively studied as models of neural network function.
Chemosensory Systems
Authors: Spielman Andrew I , Brand Joseph G , Yan Wentao
Published: September 2006

Chemosensory systems detect soluble and volatile chemicals. Taste and smell are the best known examples.
Cocaine and Amphetamines
Authors: Rebec George V
Published: September 2006

As stimulants, cocaine and amphetamines heighten arousal and
increase behavioural activation. More ominously, rapid delivery of a high
concentration of these drugs to the brain triggers a state of euphoria (the
so‐called ‘flash’ or ‘rush’) that creates an
alarming potential for abuse. Cocaine and amphetamines are
phenylisopropylamines whose stimulant properties have been known for centuries.
Neuroendocrine Parvocellular Neurons
Authors: Watts Alan G
Published: September 2006

Two sets of neuroendocrine neurons in the hypothalamus form a critical interface between the nervous and endocrine systems. Neuroendocrine parvocellular neurons constitute one of these sets. They release chemical signals into the hypophysial portal vasculature to control the release of a series of hormones from the anterior pituitary gland.
Receptor Adaptation Mechanisms
Authors: Bahiraei Frohar , Shieh Bih‐Hwa
Published: September 2006

Receptor adaptation mechanisms involve regulation of the number, sensitivity and subcellular localization of receptors that detect environmental cues and convert extracellular signals into a change of intracellular events.
Receptor Transduction Mechanisms
Authors: Evans Jenafer , Sumners Colin , Gelband Craig H
Published: September 2006

Neurotransmitter and peptide signalling requires receptor‐mediated responses to affect the target cell. General principles of ionotropic and metabotropic receptor‐mediated signalling include membrane potential alterations, calcium signalling, and kinase activity.
Peptide Neurotransmitters and Hormones
Authors: Li Ka Wan
Published: September 2006

Neuropeptides are a structurally diverse class of chemical messengers that play important roles in the coordination of many physiological and behavioural events. The basic principles underlying neuropeptide biosynthesis, release and degradation in all endocrine and neuronal systems are the same.
The Pituitary
Authors: Murray Robert D , Melmed Shlomo
Published: September 2006

The pituitary gland is central to the regulation and functional integrity of many peripheral hormone systems. Based at the base of the brain, the pituitary integrates signals from higher centres with feedback from the peripheral endocrine glands, and in turn releases the requisite amount of hormone or trophic factor for the prevailing metabolic and physiological conditions.
Synaptic Plasticity: Short Term
Authors: Zucker Robert S
Published: September 2006

The strength of synaptic transmission can increase or decrease during repetitive presynaptic activity. These changes, usually due to variations in amount of transmitter released by each action potential, dynamically shape the information transfer characteristics of synapses.
Proprioceptive Sensory Feedback
Authors: Pearson KG
Published: September 2006

Signals from sensory receptors in muscles, joints and skin
collectively constitute what is described as proprioceptive sensory feedback
regulating the pattern of muscle activation during movement.
Sensory System Organization
Authors: Diamond Mathew E
Published: September 2006

The survival and reproduction of an organism, indeed every
action taken by an individual, depends on the knowledge of internal
conditions, as well as events in the immediately surrounding environment.
Sensory systems are the components of the nervous system that inform the
organism about itself and the surrounding world. Although each species has
evolved specialized sensory systems to extract the information most valuable
to its own behaviour, certain organizational principles generalize across
species.
Cortical Barrels: Maps and Plasticity
Authors: Simons Daniel J , Land Peter W
Published: September 2006

The somatosensory cortex of rodents contains clusters of neurons
called ‘barrels’ that are related in a one‐to‐one manner to
individual mystacial vibrissae on the contralateral face. Signals from the
sensory periphery influence the establishment of the system's
distinctive anatomical organization during development and regulate the
functional properties of cortical neurons throughout the animal's life.
Calcium Channel Diversity
Authors: Dolphin Annette C.
Published: September 2006

There are various subtypes of voltage‐dependent calcium channel which allow Ca
2+
levels in cells to be raised in response to depolarization.
Dendritic Spines
Authors: Harris Kristen M
Published: September 2006

Dendritic spines are important sites of excitatory synaptic transmission and changes in the strength of these synapses are likely to underlie important higher brain functions such as learning and memory. Spines form biochemical compartments for isolating reactions that occur at one synapse from those at other synapses thereby providing a possible way to ensure the specificity of connections between neurons in the brain.
Prey Detection by Bats and Owls
Authors: Moiseff Andrew , Haresign Tim
Published: September 2006

Owls locate prey by listening to the sounds produced by the prey whereas bats actively produce sounds and locate prey by listening to the echoes that bounce off the prey.
Dopamine Receptors: Molecular Pharmacology
Authors: Civelli Olivier , Zhou Qun‐Yong
Published: September 2006

Dopamine is an important neurotransmitter, or intercellular chemical messenger, that modulates aspects of brain function – in particular – control of movement, feelings of reward and reinforcement and hormone secretion. Dopamine acts by binding to a surprisingly diverse palette of specific receptors. These distinct dopamine receptors are being studied as the possible selective molecular basis for the numerous dopamine actions.
Drugs and the Synapse
Authors: Knapp Darin J , Breese Charles R , Mueller Robert A , Breese George R
Published: September 2006

The concept that centrally acting drugs influence behaviour by influencing neurotransmitter function at specific points controlling synaptic transmission is the basis of neuropharmacological research.The synapse is a specialized cellular interface that provides a physical and chemical link for facilitating communication between cells of the central nervous system (CNS).
Oestrogens, Mood and Cognition
Authors: Almeida OFX , Condé GL
Published: September 2006

Oestrogens are steroid hormones that act through specific receptors in the brain to influence sexual behaviour, as well as mood and cognition. Oestrogen actions include alterations of neuronal excitability, neurotransmitter synthesis and metabolism, neuronal circuitry and neuronal survival, one or all of which may contribute to their effects on mood and cognition.
Eye Anatomy
Authors: Litzinger Thomas C , Rio‐Tsonis Katia Del
Published: September 2006

The eye is a small yet multifaceted unit of anatomical machinery in which each structure works in accord with the next, refracting, constricting, dilating and chemically reacting to convert patterns of light into discernible images. Eyes can be divided into two broad categories: the ‘simple’ eye of vertebrates and the compound eye of invertebrates.
Glycine as a Neurotransmitter
Authors: Betz Heinrich , Harvey Robert J
Published: September 2006

Glycine serves as a major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the adult vertebrate central nervous system and is implicated in the control of many motor and sensory pathways. In addition, this amino acid functions as an excitatory transmitter during embryonic development and is an essential coagonist at glutamatergic synapses containing the
N
‐methyl‐
d
‐aspartate (NMDA) subtype of glutamate receptors.
Hippocampus
Authors: Cooper Edward C , Lowenstein Daniel H
Published: September 2006

The hippocampus is a structure in vertebrate brain that plays important roles in the formation of new memories, and, when damaged, in the cause of memory disorders and epileptic seizures.
Hormones and Behaviour
Authors: Silver Rae , Kriegsfeld Lance J
Published: September 2006

Hormones are chemical messengers that are produced by the body and act on target tissue within the same individual. Importantly, not only can hormones act to influence behaviour, but the behaviour of an individual can also affect its own hormones.
Huntington Disease
Authors: Gusella James F
Published: September 2006

Huntington disease is an inherited neurodegenerative disorder
caused by a gene defect on chromosome 4 that causes selective loss of neurons,
particularly in the striatum. The ‘gain‐of‐function’ mutation
involves an expanded CAG trinucleotide repeat that produces a long tract of
consecutive glutamine residues in huntingtin, a large protein of unknown
function.
Hypothalamus
Authors: Card J Patrick
Published: September 2006

The hypothalamus is a functionally diverse region of the forebrain which exerts profound regulatory influences over physiological and behavioural processes essential for survival. It possesses extensive synaptic connections with other regions of the nervous system and is the region of the brain responsible for controlling the functional activity of the pituitary gland. An essential feature of its function is the ability to convert synaptic information to humoral signals that exert regulatory control over peripheral organ systems and to respond to the functional activity of the peripheral systems that it controls.
Ion Channels
Authors: Lipscombe Diane
Published: September 2006

Ion channels are membrane proteins that allow ions to rapidly cross cell membranes. All cells of all organisms use ion channels to control many cellular functions.
Language
Authors: Wingfield Arthur , Goodglass Harold
Published: September 2006

Language is a universal human capacity and serves as the primary means by which all social and interpersonal interactions are realized.
Molluscs: Learning and Memory
Authors: Sahley Christie
Published: September 2006

There seems to be a large degree of similarity between learning in molluscs and learning in higher vertebrates and mammals. At the cellular level, recent work suggests that the encoding of long‐term memory may involve similar mechanisms in invertebrates and mammals.
Ligand‐Gated Ion Channels
Authors: Millar Neil S
Published: September 2006

Ligand‐gated ion channels (LGICs) form a diverse superfamily of cell‐surface neurotransmitter receptors that mediate rapid cell–cell signalling. They are multisubunit transmembrane proteins in which 3–5 subunits are arranged around a central ion channel pore. In addition to their role as receptors for neurotransmitters, LGICs have been implicated in several neurological disorders and are important target sites for drug therapy and drug development.
Locomotion
Authors: Pearson KG , Misiaszek JE
Published: September 2006

Locomotion is an animal's ability to move, on its own, from place to place.
Long‐term Depression and Depotentiation
Authors: Lisman John
Published: September 2006

Long‐term depression and depotentiation are activity‐dependent processes that weaken synapses. These processes are thought to work together with long‐term potentiation to encode memory.
Hallucinogenic Drugs
Authors: Bonson Katherine R
Published: September 2006

Hallucinogens are a class of drugs that produce complex
psychological and physical effects and constitute one of the oldest classes of
drugs used by humanity. Investigation of their neurochemical and behavioural
effects may indicate therapeutic applications. Their recreational use also
warrants continued investigation of their actions and effects.
Learning and Memory
Authors: Goshen‐Gottstein Yonatan
Published: September 2006

Learning and memory describe the ability of organisms to benefit from prior experience. While different terms are designated to describe this ability, no clear boundary differentiates between the meanings of these terms. For historical reasons, however, the term learning has been primarily used to refer to the ability as it applies to nonhuman organisms, while memory is primarily used in the context of human remembering.
Microglia
Authors: Stoll Guido , Jander Sebastian
Published: September 2006

Microglia are resident brain macrophages that respond to even
minor pathological events in the central nervous system. Microglia phagocytose
debris, present antigens to T cells, and contribute to brain damage by
production of neurotoxic factors.
Somatostatin
Authors: Chesselet Marie‐Francoise , Reisine Terry
Published: September 2006

Somatostatin is a neuropeptide, originally isolated from the hypothalamus as an inhibitor of growth hormone secretion. In addition to the regulation of growth hormone release, this neurohormone is involved in the regulation of insulin and glucagon secretion, neurotransmitter release and complex behaviours such as locomotion and cognition.
Headache
Authors: Silberstein Stephen D
Published: September 2006

Headache is described as a throbbing, pulsating or dull ache, often worsened by movement and varying in intensity. Headache can be a disorder unto itself, such as migraine, or a symptom of another disorder ranging from a head injury to a brain tumour.
Membrane Potential
Authors: Elmslie Keith S
Published: September 2006

A thin lipid bilayer membrane with embedded proteins surrounds all cells. The potential difference across this membrane depends on the ionic concentrations on either side of this membrane and the permeability of the membrane to those ions.
Modulatory and Command Interneurons for Behaviour
Authors: Edwards Donald H
Published: September 2006

Modulatory neurons change the properties of synapses and neurons, and thereby change the excitability or performance of neural circuits. Command neurons activate specific neural circuits that mediate discrete behaviour patterns. By operating on command neurons, on the inputs that excite them and on the circuits that they excite, modulatory neurons can transform individual patterns of behaviour and ensembles of behaviour in an adaptive manner.
Neural Networks and Behaviour
Authors: Chiel Hillel J , Beer Randall D
Published: September 2006

Neural networks are interconnected groups of neurons that can coordinate global behavioural responses such as escape, rhythmic movements, or complex voluntary actions.
Multiple Sclerosis
Authors: Vollmer Timothy L , Preiningerova Jana , Waxman Stephen G
Published: September 2006

Multiple sclerosis is a prototypic autoimmune disease of the central nervous system.
Nervous and Immune System Interactions
Authors: Dunn Adrian J
Published: September 2006

Several mechanisms by which the nervous and immune systems might interact have now been recognized. The nervous system may affect immune function via direct innervation of immune organs, by secretion of hormones from the pituitary and other glands, and via the autonomic nervous system. Cells of the immune system may influence nervous system function by secretion of a variety of chemical messengers, among which cytokines are the best recognized.
Substance P
Authors: Bremer Andrew A , Boyd Norman D , Leeman Susan E
Published: September 2006

Substance P is an 11 amino acid bioactive peptide that induces diverse biological responses in the central nervous system and the peripheral tissues through its functional interaction with the tachykinin NK‐1 receptor.
Synaptic Vesicle Fusion
Authors: Martin Thomas FJ
Published: September 2006

Neurotransmitter release from synaptic terminals occurs by the rapid, calcium‐dependent fusion of transmitter‐containing synaptic vesicles with the presynaptic membrane. The core machinery that mediates membrane fusion is thought to consist of the neuronal SNARE proteins (VAMP/synaptobrevin, syntaxin and SNAP‐25). Accessory proteins operate at various stages to mediate the priming of vesicles to fusion competence (NSF/SNAP, munc18, munc13) and the detection of calcium increases that trigger fusion (synaptotagmin).
Taste: Cellular Basis
Authors: Roper Stephen D
Published: September 2006

Taste is the sense that detects the chemical composition of foodstuffs. Taste is initiated in peripheral sensory organs termed taste buds. Chemical stimuli in the oral cavity are sensed by receptor cells in taste buds, which transit information to primary sensory afferents and on to higher centres in the brain.
Alzheimer Disease
Authors: Nowotny Petra , Kwon Jennifer M , Goate Alison M
Published: September 2006

Alzheimer disease is a major public health concern in the elderly. In the United States, it is the fourth leading cause of death and is the most common cause of dementia. Although some cases of Alzheimer disease are caused by genetic mutations, most cases are probably due to a number of genetic and environmental factors. There is currently no cure for this serious and debilitating disorder.
AMPA Receptors
Authors: O'Brien Richard J , Huganir Richard L
Published: September 2006

AMPA receptors are the major excitatory neurotransmitter receptors in the central nervous system. They mediate excitatory synaptic transmission between neurons and play a critical role in the synaptic plasticity underlying learning and memory and neuronal development.
GABAAReceptors
Authors: Stephenson F Anne
Published: September 2006

GABAAreceptors are fast‐acting, ligand‐gated anion channels that are the major mediators of inhibitory neurotransmission in the mammalian central nervous system. GABAAreceptor activity is regulated by phosphorylation as well as being modulated allosterically by a variety of drugs including the anxiolytic benzodiazepines and barbiturates.
Glycine Receptors
Authors: Harvey Robert J , Betz Heinrich
Published: September 2006

Glycine receptors are ligand‐gated chloride channel proteins that mediate postsynaptic inhibition in spinal cord, brain stem and other regions of the central nervous system. Mutations in glycine receptor subunits cause hereditary neuromotor diseases in humans and animals.
NMDA Receptors
Authors: Cull‐Candy Stuart G , Brickley Stephen G
Published: September 2006

NMDA receptors are activated during excitatory neurotransmission at most synapses in the central nervous system. Their unique properties allow them to play key roles in synaptic transmission and plasticity.
Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors in Neurons
Authors: Dani John A , Lester Robin AJ
Published: September 2006

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, like GABA and serotonin receptors, are members of the superfamily of ligand‐gated ion channels, all of which play a key role in synaptic transmission throughout the nervous system.
Olfactory Receptor Neurons
Authors: Firestein Stuart J
Published: September 2006

Olfactory receptor neurons are the primary sensory cell in a system designed to detect and discriminate between a large and diverse array of chemical ligands called odours. The mechanisms employed for this task are a model of biological engineering.
Traumatic Central Nervous System Injury
Authors: Stys Peter K
Published: September 2006

Neurotrauma is a major health problem worldwide, causing serious disability in hundreds of thousands of people every year. Research has begun to uncover the key biochemical processes that are unleashed after injury, which cause further damage to neurons and axons, as well as the biological signals that control regrowth of new functional structures to replace injured tissue. A coordinated interplay between acute neuroprotective treatment and stimulation of regeneration will offer new hope to patients suffering from the effects of brain or spinal cord injury.
Oscillatory Neural Networks
Authors: Ermentrout G Bard
Published: September 2006

An oscillatory neural network is any group of neurons and associated cells that together produce periodic or nearly periodic output, which may be a motor pattern, secretory output or behavioural output. Such networks are ubiquitous in biology.
Action Potentials: Generation and Propagation
Authors: Ruben Peter C
Published: September 2006

All cells maintain a voltage across their plasma membranes. Only excitable cells, however, can generate action potentials, the rapid, transient changes in membrane potential that spread along the surface of these unique cells. Action potentials transmit information within neurons, trigger contractions within muscle cells, and lead to exocytosis in secretory cells.
Dopamine
Authors: Bannon Michael J
Published: September 2006

Dopamine acts as a neurotransmitter, or chemical messenger, between cells in the brain and elsewhere, in a variety of organisms from simple invertebrates to humans. It exerts an important influence on many aspects of brain functioning, from control of movement to higher cognitive processes.
Neurons
Authors: Matus Andrew
Published: September 2006

Neurons are the cells that transmit information in the nervous system. To do this they have long extensions of the cell body that carry electrical signals and specialized contacts – synapses – where signals are transmitted between neurons. The exact shape and composition of these structures are critically important in determining how information is processed by the nervous system.
Neurotransmitter Release from Presynaptic Terminals
Authors: Schweizer Felix E
Published: September 2006

Neurotransmitter release from presynaptic nerve terminals is a central component of synaptic transmission, the major process by which neurons communicate with each other and with target cells. Neurotransmitter is packaged inside small vesicles in the presynaptic nerve terminal. Upon stimulation, the neurotransmitter‐filled vesicles fuse with the cell membrane, thereby releasing their contents into the synaptic cleft.
Neurotransmitter Transporters
Authors: Bergles Dwight E
Published: September 2006

Neurotransmitters are released into the extracellular space during synaptic transmission. The actions of these chemical signals are terminated through active uptake by transporters that are located in the plasma membrane of neurons and glial cells. Transporters harness electrochemical gradients to force the movement of transmitter back into cells against its concentration radient. These proteins play an important role in determining how long chemical signals persist, and as a result drugs that inhibit transporters produce profound behavioural effects.
Neurotransmitters
Authors: Schwartz James H
Published: September 2006

Chemical synaptic transmission is mediated by the release of one or more substances from a nerve terminal. These substances, called neurotransmitters, bind to receptors in the target cells.
Oligodendrocytes
Authors: Hudson Lynn D
Published: September 2006

Vertebrate axons are enwrapped by glial cells that form a myelin sheath. The myelinating cell type in the central nervous system, oligodendrocytes, originate from the same neural stem cell that generates neurons and astrocytes. The high resistance and low capacitance of the compacted oligodendrocyte membrane layers in the myelin sheath greatly accelerate conduction of electrical impulses in myelinated neurons.
Opiate Receptors
Authors: Law PY , Loh Horace H
Published: September 2006

The molecular basis for the observed pharmacological functions of opioid analgesic drugs is defined by multiple opioid receptors.
Archaeal Ribosomes
Authors: Harauz George , Musse Abdiwahab
Published: September 2006

The protein synthesis machinery (ribosomes) of archeae, the third kingdom of life, have adapted to function under conditions of extreme salt and/or temperature, and show many features similar to their bacterial and eukaryotic counterparts.
Bacterial Cell Division
Authors: Lutkenhaus Joe
Published: September 2006

Bacterial cell division is the process in which a bacterial cell is split into two daughter cells, each with a copy of the chromosome. It occurs through formation of the Z ring that recruits additional division proteins to form the septal ring, which leads to the formation of the septum separating the daughter cells.
Azotobacter
Cysts
Authors: Sadoff Harold L
Published: September 2006

Bacteria of the genus
Azotobacter
are nitrogen‐fixing, Gram‐negative organotrophs. At the end of exponential growth, some cells undergo a final division and initiate the formation of cysts. These differentiated cells are strikingly different from endospores formed by
Bacillus
spp. in their mode of synthesis, their chemical content and their resistance properties.
Bacterial Chromosome
Authors: Kellenberger Eduard , Li Jing‐Yan
Published: September 2006

Under conditions favouring most active growth, bacteria replicate their DNA and divide with generation times as short as 20–25 minutes; similary rapid rates are practically unknown in other taxa. In contrast to the typical eukaryotic cell, DNA transcription, translation and replication occur simultaneously and at nearby locations. The highly dynamic processes lead to a reticulation of DNA and RNA, permitting optimization of mRNA interaction (number of contacts) with ribosomes. Increased order in the chromatin seems to occur only with very much slower overall growth.
Bacterial Cytoplasmic Membrane
Authors: Weiner Joel H , Sambasivarao Damaraju , Rothery Richard A
Published: September 2006

The bacterial cytoplasmic membrane is composed of a phospholipid bilayer and proteins and encloses the contents of the bacterial cell. Hydrophobic in nature, it acts as a barrier, preventing the leakage of the hydrophilic cytoplasmic constituents and protecting the inside of the cell from environmental insult.
Bacterial Endospores
Authors: Marquis Robert E , Gerhardt Philipp
Published: September 2006

The spores of bacteria formed mainly by members of the genera
Bacillus
and
Clostridium
are termed endospores because they develop singly within mother or sporangial cells. Endospores are released into the environment after they are fully mature through autolysis of the sporangium.
Bacterial Pili and Fimbriae
Authors: Li Xin , Mobley Harry LT
Published: September 2006

Bacterial pili and fimbriae are hairlike structures extending from the cell surface that are involved in conjugation, adherence and twitching motility.
Cyanobacterial Heterocysts
Authors: Ernst Anneliese , Maldener Iris
Published: September 2006

Heterocysts are morphologically distinct cells of certain filamentous cyanobacteria that function in fixation of molecular nitrogen. They are specialized, nondividing cells that develop, in absence of alternative sources of nitrogen, in a semiregular pattern along the filament.
Streptomycete Spores
Authors: Locci Romano
Published: September 2006

Streptomycete spores are morphologically differentiated from other prokaryotes and are specialized for dissemination. They are commonly one‐celled, borne in chains, pigmented or not, with a smooth or variously ornamented surface.
Ultramicrobacteria
Authors: Cavicchioli Ricardo , Ostrowski Martin
Published: September 2006

Ultramicrobacteria are microorganisms with a cell volume of less than 0.1 μm3which have been cultivated from aquatic and soil environments. Nan(n)obacteria are reported to be even smaller than ultramicrobacteria and have been described in deep subsurface, meteorite and clinical samples. The size of these tiny microorganisms challenges views about the minimal size of a living cell.
Algal Calcification and Silification
Authors: Brownlee Colin , Taylor Alison R
Published: September 2006

The algae represent major producers of calcium carbonate and silica among the world's biota. Calcification involves the precipitation of CaCO
3
from Ca
2+
and

ions. Algal calcification may account for up to half of global oceanic CaCO
3
production. Silicification is less widespread among algal groups, which transform dissolved silicate to skeletal material. Diatoms play a key role in marine silica cycling. Diatomaceous deposits have long been exploited for building and filling materials, and the low‐temperature, low‐pressure biogenic formation of silica has potential for biotechnological application in novel industrial processes.
Algal Carbon Dioxide Concentrating Mechanisms
Authors: Moroney James V
Published: September 2006

The carbon dioxide concentrating mechanism is a variation of photosynthesis in which the algae raise the level of carbon dioxide in the cell many times over the environmental concentration of carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide concentrating mechanism enhances carbon dioxide fixation and growth in algae.
Algal Eyes
Authors: Hegemann Peter , Fischer Markus
Published: September 2006

‘Vision’ is defined in a very general sense as
recognition of the ambient light pattern by a motile organism and its use for
orientation in a local environment. The ‘eye’ is the organ or
organelle in which the light absorption and transformation into a transient
intracellular signal occurs.
Algal Flagella
Authors: Dutcher Susan K
Published: September 2006

Flagella are extremely complex machines that must assemble over 250 components and coordinate their function. The molecular motors dynein and kinesin are found in the flagella and are believed to be necessary for the generation of a waveform.
Algal Photosynthesis
Authors: Moroney James V
Published: September 2006

Algae are a very diverse group of predominantly aquatic photosynthetic organisms that account for almost 50% of the photosynthesis that takes place on Earth. Algae have a wide range of antenna pigments to harvest light energy for photosynthesis giving different types of algae their characteristic colour.
Algal Pigments
Authors: Gantt Elisabeth , Cunningham Francis X
Published: September 2006

A wide variety of pigments in algae allow the absorption of light energy which is then converted to chemical energy in the photosynthetic membranes. Such variety allows them to adapt successfully to environments of differing light conditions.
Brown Algae
Authors: Saunders Gary W
Published: September 2006

Brown algae form a natural class, the Phaeophyceae, including c. 265 genera with 1500–2000 species. They form rich underwater forests along much of the cold and temperate coastlines of our planet.
Green Algae
Authors: Buchheim Mark A
Published: September 2006

The green algae comprise a large and diverse group of organisms that range from the microscopic to the macroscopic. Green algae are found in virtually all aquatic and some terrestrial habitats.
Archaeal Ecology
Authors: Takacs Cristina D , Reysenbach Anna‐Louise , Boone David R
Published: September 2006

The Archaea represent one of the three domains of life as determined by molecular phylogenetic analysis based on comparisons of small subunit rRNA sequences. As a group, the Archaea are physiologically diverse and inhabit a wide range of ecosystems.
Barophiles and Piezophiles
Authors: Yayanos A Aristides
Published: September 2006

Barophiles are defined as bacteria that metabolize or function better at high pressure than they do at atmospheric pressure. Piezophiles are bacteria that have their maximum growth rate, over all permissible temperatures, at high pressure.
Biological Control by Microorganisms
Authors: Harper David R
Published: September 2006

Biological control is the use of natural enemies to reduce the numbers of a pest organism. Such natural enemies include pathogenic microorganisms. While biological control agents can be both expensive and susceptible to rapid inactivation, they can have significant advantages over the use of chemical pesticides. These include their high specificity and lack of damage to the environment, as well as their production of control over prolonged periods.
Antifungal Agents
Authors: Fostel Jennifer M
Published: September 2006

Antifungal agents are used to treat fungal infections ranging in severity from superficial to life‐threatening. Current agents available to treat serious, invasive fungal infections are effective but have limitations. New classes are being developed to improve treatment options for patients with infections refractory to current therapies.
Chytridiomycota
Authors: Longcore Joyce E
Published: September 2006

The Chytridiomycota is a phylum in the kingdom Fungi, whose members produce unwalled, asexual spores that swim by means of a single, posteriorly directed flagellum. Members of this group are microscopic saprophytes or parasites that inhabit fresh and saline water, soils and the guts of herbivores.
Fungal Fermentation: Industrial
Authors: Bigelis Ramunas
Published: September 2006

Industrial fermentation with fungi is used to produce a number of commercial products. Fungal metabolism is exploited to manufacture ethanol, citric acid, steroids, antibiotics and other substances with applications in the food, fuel, chemical and pharmaceutical industries.
Fungal Genetics
Authors: Fincham JRS
Published: September 2006

The fungal sexual cycle is, in its alternation of haploid and diploid phases, essentially the same as in higher plants and animals, with fusion of haploid gamete nuclei (karyogamy) to give diploidy, and meiosis to restore haploidy. Where most fungi differ from ‘higher’ eukaryotes is that, meiosis follows immediately after karyogamy, so that the diploid phase is confined to the meiotic cell. In the most studied groups of fungi, Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes, which are sexually reproducing, there are differences in their modes of formation of haploid spores.
Lichens
Authors: Hawksworth David L
Published: September 2006

Lichens are stable, self‐supporting associations between a fungus and an alga or cyanobacterium.
Archaeal Plasmids
Authors: Gardner Warren L
Published: September 2006

Archaeal plasmids are extrachromosomal elements isolated from organisms that belong to the domain of Archaea.
Circadian Rhythms in Cyanobacteria
Authors: Johnson Carl Hirschie , Golden Susan S , Kondo Takao
Published: September 2006

Cyanobacteria express circadian (daily) rhythms, even when growing with doubling times that are as fast as once every 8 hours. The fitness of cyanobacteria is improved when the circadian period is similar to the period of the environmental cycle. Three novel clock genes have been identified in the cyanobacterial genome.
Heat Shock Response
Authors: Schumann Wolfgang
Published: September 2006

In all organisms, a sudden increase in temperature leads to the accumulation of partially unfolded proteins which tend to form life‐threatening aggregates within cells. These non‐native proteins induce the transiently increased expression of a set of genes termed heat shock genes, and most of their products, designated as heat shock proteins, are involved in either refolding or degradation of the non‐native proteins. This reaction is termed the heat shock response
Magnetotaxis: Microbial
Authors: Frankel Richard B , Bazylinski Dennis A
Published: September 2006

Magnetotaxis is the orientation and migration of microorganisms along a magnetic field. Microaerophilic magnetotactic bacteria use magnetotaxis in conjunction with aerotaxis to efficiently locate an optimal oxygen concentration in their environment.
Phyllosphere
Authors: Morris Cindy E
Published: September 2006

The phyllosphere is the microbial habitat extending from the surface of the cuticle covering the leaf epidermis to the outer edge of the boundary layer surrounding the leaf and inward into the leaf tissues.
Phytopathology
Authors: Vidaver Anne K
Published: September 2006

Plant diseases have played a role in the rise and fall of human societies and continue to present challenges for the future, particularly for economically important plants that are the basis of the food, feed and fibre supply.
Psychrophiles and Psychrotrophs
Authors: Morita Richard Y
Published: September 2006

Psychrophiles are cold‐loving bacteria having an optimal temperature for growth at about 15°C or lower, a maximal temperature for growth at about 20°C and a minimal temperature for growth at 0°C or lower. Psychrotrophs are cold‐tolerant bacteria that have the ability to grow at low temperatures but have optimal and maximal growth temperatures above 15°C and 20°C, respectively.
Rhizosphere
Authors: Lynch James M , Brimecombe Melissa J , De Leij Frans AAM
Published: September 2006

The rhizosphere is that part of the soil ecosystem where plant roots, soil and the soil biota interact with each other. These interactions are often of benefit to plants, improve soil fertility and enhance the degradation of toxic chemicals.
Adenoviruses
Authors: Flint S Jane
Published: September 2006

Adenoviruses are nonenveloped viruses with double‐stranded DNA genomes that are generally associated with relatively mild, self‐limiting diseases in humans. They rely on cellular systems for expression of viral genetic information during reproduction in permissive cells and can transform normal cells in culture; some are tumorigenic in rodents.
Hepatitis Viruses
Authors: Zuckerman Arie J
Published: September 2006

Viral hepatitis is a major public health problem throughout the world, affecting many hundreds of millions of people. Hepatitis is a cause of considerable morbidity and mortality in the human population both from acute infection and chronic sequelae, which include, with hepatitis B and hepatitis C infection, chronic liver damage, chronic active hepatitis, cirrhosis and primary liver cancer.
Herpesviruses (Human)
Authors: Whitley Richard J
Published: September 2006

Human herpesvirus are a family of eight DNA viruses which commonly inflict individuals. They consist of
Herpes simplex virus type 1
(HSV‐1),
Herpes simplex virus type 2
(HSV‐2),
Varicella‐zoster virus
(VZV),
Cytomegalovirus
(CMV),
Epstein–Barr virus
(EBV),
Human herpesvirus 6
(HHV‐6),
Human herpesvirus 7
(HHV‐7), and
Kaposi sarcoma‐associated herpesvirus
(KSHV or HHV‐8).
Human Immunodeficiency Viruses (HIV)
Authors: Crandall Keith A
Published: September 2006

Human immunodeficiency viruses (HIV) are the aetiological agents of acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS).
Measles Virus
Authors: Rima Bertus K
Published: September 2006

Measles virus
is responsible for a childhood infection characterized by a maculopapular rash, dry cough, coryza, conjunctivitis and photophobia. Although mild in developed countries, the infection is associated with severe morbidity in developing countries.
Mumps virus
Authors: Rima Bertus K
Published: September 2006

Mumps virus is a nonsegmented negative‐stranded RNA virus belonging to the family
Paramyxoviridae
which causes a childhood disease characterized by swelling of the salivary glands (parotitis) and the testes (orchitis).
Oncogenic Viruses
Authors: McCance Dennis J
Published: September 2006

Since the isolation of
Epstein–Barr virus
from Burkitt lymphoma cells, there have been a number of other viruses (both DNA‐ and RNA‐containing) that have been demonstrated to be associated with the aetiology of human cancers.
Parvoviruses
Authors: Tattersall Peter , Cotmore Susan F
Published: September 2006

Parvoviruses are amongst the smallest known animal viruses, consisting of a single‐stranded DNA genome of approximately 5 kb, encapsidated in an icosahedral protein shell built from 60 copies of a single polypeptide. Viral DNA is replicated by a unique, unidirectional, leading‐strand specific mechanism dubbed ‘rolling hairpin replication’, which depends critically upon a virally‐coded nickase, and the sequential folding and unfolding of small palindromic terminal sequences.
Virus Host Cell Receptors
Authors: Hyypiä Timo
Published: September 2006

Viruses are intracellular pathogens that use receptor molecules on the cell surface for their entry. Viral receptors are therefore important determinants of tissue tropism and pathogenesis of the disease.
Viroids
Authors: Flores Ricardo , Daròs José‐Antonio , Hernández Carmen , Serio Francesco Di
Published: September 2006

Viroids are infectious small circular RNAs able to induce specific diseases in higher plants. They differ from viruses in fundamental aspects like structure, function and evolutionary origin.
Viral Replication
Authors: Cann Alan J
Published: September 2006

Virus particles are produced from the assembly of preformed components, whereas all other biological agents ‘grow’ from an increase in the integrated sum of their components and reproduce by division. Virus particles (virions) themselves do not grow or undergo division.
Viruses
Authors: Minor Philip D
Published: September 2006

Viruses are microbial parasites which make the infected host manufacture more virus. They do this purely by inserting information diverting the host system to their own ends, in ways which are both subtle and profound.
Bacterial Origins
Authors: Koch Arthur L
Published: September 2006

One line of descent from the Last Universal Ancestor generated a group of organisms now called Bacteria and another called the Archaea. Both groups are quite diverse and each is quite different from the other; they are collectively called prokaryotes.
Bacterial Genomes
Authors: Atlas Ronald M , Drell Daniel , Fraser Claire
Published: September 2006

The genomes of a number of bacterial species have been fully sequenced. Analyses of these genomes are providing useful insights into the evolution and functioning of diverse bacteria and bacterial pathogens.
Bacterial Evolution
Authors: Maniloff Jack
Published: September 2006

The Earth formed about 4600 million years ago and, 400–700 million years later, life originated and evolved to form metabolic pathways, information storage molecules, catalysts and membrane‐enclosed ‘organisms’. Evolution continued, with high levels of mutation and lateral gene transfer, to produce bacterial anaerobic heterotrophs, autotrophs, lithotrophs, phototrophs (anoxygenic and later oxygenic), and, by 2200 million years ago, aerobes.
Chlamydiae
Authors: Everett Karin DE
Published: September 2006

Chlamydiae are tiny bacteria that grow only inside human cells, animal cells or amoebae.
Crenarchaeota
Authors: Huber Harald , Stetter Karl O
Published: September 2006

The Crenarchaeota, one of the two kingdoms of the archaeal domain, consists primarily of hyperthermophiles, thriving at temperatures of up to 113°C. They have been isolated from submarine hydrothermal systems or from continental solfataric fields. So far, 3 orders with 18 genera and more than 30 species have been described.
Euryarchaeota
Authors: Huber Harald , Stetter Karl O
Published: September 2006

The Euryarchaeota, one of the two kingdoms of the archaeal domain, consists of the strict anaerobic methanogens, the extreme halophiles, the hyperthermophilic Archaeoglobales and Thermococcales, and the cell wall free Thermoplasmales
.
So far, 8 orders with 35 genera and more than 115 species have been described.
Green Sulfur Bacteria
Authors: Overmann Jörg
Published: September 2006

Green sulfur bacteria are a phylogenetically isolated group of predominantly aquatic bacteria which occur where light reaches anoxic water layers. The cells grow by anoxygenic photosynthesis, using reduced sulfur compounds as electron donor for carbon dioxide assimilation.
Microbiology
Authors: Lim Daniel V
Published: September 2006

Microbiology is the study of agents too small to be seen with the unaided eye. These agents (and their fields of study) are bacteria (bacteriology), fungi (mycology), protozoa (protozoology), algae (phycology) and viruses (virology).
Phylogeny Based on 16S
r
RNA
/
DNA
Authors: Stackebrandt Erko
Published: September 2006

Modern systematics of prokaryotes is based on comparative analysis of the evolutionarily conservative genes coding for 16S ribosomal RNA. Dendrograms of phylogenetic relatedness show the order in which organisms evolved in time, thus providing a basis for their classification.
Thermotogales
Authors: Huber Robert , Stetter Karl O
Published: September 2006

Members of the order Thermotogales show an outstanding phylogenetic position within the domain Bacteria, based on their 16S rDNA sequences. Some Thermotogales organisms or relatives have an upper temperature limit of growth at 90°C. Together with representatives of the order Aquificales, they represent the bacteria with the highest growth temperatures currently known.
Biodegradation of Organic Pollutants
Authors: Wackett Lawrence P , Ellis Lynda BM
Published: September 2006

Biodegradation refers to the microbial decomposition of compounds, typically of those that negatively impact human health, in the environment. The genes, enzymes and pathways have been elucidated to understand environmental processes, engineer remediation of polluted environments and to predict the fate of chemicals in the environment.
Bioremediation
Authors: Philp Jim C , Atlas Ronald M , Cunningham Colin J
Published: September 2006

Bioremediation refers to the clean‐up of pollution from soil, groundwater, surface water and air, using biological, usually microbiological, processes. It has left the confines of the laboratory and is established in some parts of the world, especially the USA, as a full‐scale, biotechnology‐based industry.
Catabolic Plasmids
Authors: Pemberton John M , Schmidt Radomir
Published: September 2006

Catabolic plasmids are circular, accessory DNA elements present in the cytoplasm of many soil bacteria. They confer on their host the ability to degrade and recycle complex, naturally occurring and synthetic molecules, including a vast array of environmental pollutants.
Dissimilatory Metal Transformations by Microorganisms
Authors: Lloyd Jonathan R
Published: September 2006

There has been a dramatic increase in the understanding of the biological mechanisms underpinning metal transformations in the environment. The techniques used to gain a better understanding of these microbial processes will be discussed, along with an overview of assimilatory, dissimilatory and detoxification transformations of a range of metals and radionuclides.
Immune Mechanisms Against Extracellular Pathogens
Authors: Autenrieth Ingo B , Hein Joachim , Schulte Ralf
Published: September 2006

Extracellular pathogens replicate and/or persist on mucosal surfaces or in host tissues outside host cells and may rapidly spread or establish an infection. In this habitat, however, they have to fight against several humoral (e.g. defensins, lactoferrin, antibodies) and cellular (phagocytes, T cells) immune defence mechanisms.
Immune Mechanisms Against Intracellular Pathogens
Authors: Nath Indira
Published: September 2006

Chronic infectious diseases in humans are caused by microorganisms that reside within phagocytes and epithelial cells. Host defence mechanisms against intracellular pathogens are primarily orchestrated by T lymphocytes via cytokine networks.
Immunity to Bacteria
Authors: Kennedy Ronald C , Watts Allison M
Published: September 2006

Bacterial infection causes an array of different immune responses from the host, dependent on the specific bacteria species involved. Understanding how bacteria cause disease provides insight into the medical approaches that can be used to treat infection and prevent disease.
Immunity to Protozoa
Authors: Röllinghoff Martin , Bogdan Christian , Gessner André , Lohoff Michael
Published: September 2006

Protozoan parasites that enter their host are often able to survive and multiply since they are adapted to the host's immune system.