bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Public Understanding of Crime and Policing
Authors: Innes Martin , Roberts Colin , Lowe Trudy , Innes Helen
Published: July 2020

This chapter situates Neighbourhood Policing in a social and policing context, arguing that in order to understand how and why it gained traction at the particular moment when it did, it is necessary to establish how it relates to a longer and deeper history of policing ideas. It proposes that, as a particular iteration of the community policing philosophy, Neighbourhood Policing reflects a defining tension in the police mission as to whether the principal focus should be upon crime management, or a broader notion of community support and order maintenance. This analysis develops a detailed discussion of the community policing tradition and how it has ebbed and flowed over time in terms of its popularity, outlining a theoretical framework for thinking about how and why community policing interventions impact upon public perceptions and experiences of crime, disorder, and security.
The Story of Reassurance Policing and How it Became Neighbourhood Policing
Authors: Innes Martin , Roberts Colin , Lowe Trudy , Innes Helen
Published: July 2020

What became established as Neighbourhood Policing in the United Kingdom was, to a significant extent, informed by its quasi-experimental predecessor the National Reassurance Policing Programme. In this chapter the key conceptual and practical contributions that the National Reassurance Policing Programme made to the formulation of Neighbourhood Policing are laid out. It is asserted that what the trialling of Reassurance Policing did was to establish a more structured and systematic delivery model, when compared with previous iterations of community policing. In engaging with these themes, the chapter also explores how and why the initial moves to revive this style of community policing engendered resistance in some sectors and how this was overcome.
Conclusions
Authors: Innes Martin , Roberts Colin , Lowe Trudy , Innes Helen
Published: July 2020

This final chapter in a volume charting the development and implementation of Neighbourhood Policing brings together a number of aspects of this policing model that have been described and considered in depth in earlier chapters. In concluding the volume, it considers the relative decline of Neighbourhood Policing as a consequence of reductions to public spending, together with a sense of ‘moral disinvestment’ as a result of falling rates of crime and disorder. It is argued that whilst some within policing have tried to maintain the Neighbourhood Policing ‘brand’, the hollowing out of neighbourhood-based capacity means that its defining qualities have not always be retained. In its place we have a rather looser and less defined notion of local policing. Instead of doing ‘more with less’—a phrase that has been the austerity mantra of a number of senior police leaders—police need to think about ‘doing less with more’. That is, intervening less often but with more impact.
Capitalist Development
Authors: Harrison Graham
Published: July 2020

The chapter constructs a theory of capitalist development based on a distinction between capital-ascendant and capital-dominant countries. It makes this analytical separation by distinguishing real, actual, and empirical levels in a political economy. The real level identifies the essential underlying processes in developing and developed countries. These distinct ‘realities’ generate different kinds of actual and empirical phenomena that can be observed in differential rates of growth, poverty, productivity, life expectancy, or literacy. Across all of these observable phenomena, a general real distinction between ascendant and dominant pertains. The chapter makes this argument using critical realist and Marxist political economy. It then finishes with a review of critical development theory and its historical methods in order to identify the chapter’s own framework and its merits.
The Post-Imperial Era and Japan
Authors: Harrison Graham
Published: July 2020

The chapter starts with an overview of the rise of modern development politics, showing how it was a manifestation of post-imperial sovereignty in a world order constructed by Britain, America, and other developed capitalist nations. It emphasizes the challenge of sovereignty and nationalism for post-colonial governance. It highlights the historical features of urgency, insecurity, and nationalism for post-colonial developmentalism. It then offers a treatment of Japan as a post-imperial developer. Commencing with the establishing of a national economy in the late 1700s, the chapter focuses on the Meiji politics of national development through imperialism and support for large companies. It focuses on the post-Second World War recovery and sustained transformation. It reviews the role of the state, the insecurities of post-war governance, the national vision of business, and the role of America. The chapter outlines the mass social improvements that resulted from capitalist transformation.
Conclusion
Authors: Harrison Graham
Published: July 2020

The chapter summarizes the argument and evidence of the book. It then makes a case about how capitalist development happens in a ‘profane’ way, that is, full of risk, coercive politics resistance, and instability. It returns to the normative questions raised by the case studies and makes an argument that the near-exclusive focus on rights is misleading. It argues that other norms and values cohabit politics: stability, economic improvement, national belonging, and commonwealth. The corollary here is that normative approaches to development are richer for a realist approach not impoverished. Norms and values emerge within capitalist transition as forceful political mobilizations.
The Constitution of the Roman Republic
Authors: Posner Eric A.
Published: July 2020

The constitution of the Roman Republic featured a system of checks and balances that would eventually influence the American founders, yet it was very different from the system of separation of powers that the founders created. The Roman senate gave advice but did not legislate; the people voted directly on bills and appointments in popular assemblies; and a group of magistrates, led by a pair of consuls, proposed bills, brought prosecutions, served as judges, led military forces, and performed other governmental functions. This chapter analyzes the Roman constitution from the perspective of agency theory, and argues that the extensive checks and balances, which were intended to prevent the recurrence of monarchy, may have gone too far. Suitable for an earlier period in which the population was small and the political class was homogenous, the constitution proved unworkable when Rome acquired a vast, diverse empire. The lessons of Roman constitutionalism for the American constitution are also discussed.
Law-Making and Economic Change during the Republic and Early Empire
Authors: Ligt Luuk de
Published: July 2020

When the Law of the Twelve Tables was promulgated, the Roman economy was overwhelmingly agricultural. As social and economic conditions became more complicated, the formalistic law of early republican times no longer sufficed. The rise of the ius honorarium can be seen as a response to these new circumstances. While scholars have tended to assign all important developments to the praetors of the second and first centuries BC, at least some important changes in the law took place earlier. The bigger picture that emerges is that, contrary to the tenets of institutionalism, Roman law developed pari passu with the economy. Roman law functioned as an autonomous discipline, governed by its own rules and principles. Law-making magistrates and jurists certainly responded to new juridical challenges created by the emergence of an increasingly sophisticated economy, but their principal aim was not to create legal rules that were conducive to economic development or growth but to find practical solutions to juridical problems created by economic developments. Finally, the Principate, to which a large proportion of the surviving evidence belongs, saw far fewer legal innovations than the last centuries of the Republic. The explanation must be that there was less need for legal innovation because most of the economic developments creating a need for new legal remedies had already taken place. Ironically, the period in which the pace of legal change had slowed down has produced most of the surviving evidence.
Setting the Rules of the Game
Authors: Cascio Elio Lo
Published: July 2020

This chapter analyses the mainly juridical evidence (from the Digest and the late antique Codes, as well as Cassiodorus’ Variae) on the working of the market in the Roman Empire and the role played by the imperial authority in regulating it, in the light of the conceptualizations of the new institutional economics. This evidence seems to suggest undeniably not only that the economy of the Roman Empire, from its very beginning in the late Republic to late antiquity, was characterized by the free market, but also that maintaining competitive markets was the consistent and deliberate policy of the Roman authority throughout the whole of Roman history.
Statistics in Ancient History
Authors: Temin Peter
Published: July 2020

This chapter uses new data to extend the argument that there was an integrated wheat market in the late Roman Republic and early Roman Empire. I explore the meaning of randomness when data are scarce, and I investigate how we recreate the nature of ancient societies by asking new questions that stimulate the discovery of more information. The case for a prosperous Roman society extending the length of the Mediterranean Sea is strong. This chapter draws on and extends work reported in my book: The Roman Market Economy (2013).
Roman Business Associations
Authors: Fleckner Andreas Martin
Published: July 2020

Roman businessmen eager to launch a joint business venture could choose among three legal forms: the societas, the societas publicanorum, and the peculium of a commonly held slave. None of these forms led to large capital associations, let alone business corporations with publicly traded shares. The high level of instability is one of the key explanations: under Roman law, it was virtually impossible to commit capital for the long term and finance capital-intensive enterprises. The societas was inevitably liquidated following numerous dissolution events; its members could withdraw their money at any time; and private creditors were not barred from seizing common assets. The peculium was even more unstable: In addition to the dissolution events of the societas, the joint venture came to an end and all peculium items reverted back to the masters when the commonly held slave died. While the societas publicanorum developed into a more stable institution over time, during the same period, its business almost disappeared as state authorities stopped putting capital-intensive projects out to tender. How can a modern reader make sense of the picture that emerges from the sources? The present chapter suggests that reservations in the social and political setting, rather than economic factors or oddities of Roman legal doctrine, caused business associations to remain small. This is an important lesson from history, both for the theory of the firm and for the role that law plays in it.
Law, Slaves, and Markets in the Roman Imperial System
Authors: Schiavone Aldo
Published: July 2020

There is a very close relationship between the development of the Roman legal system, grounded on the activity of the jurists, and the creation of an imperial network of commercial relationships in the Mediterranean Sea. We can see this in the late Republic, between the end of the third Punic War and the Augustan age—when Roman legal thinking transforms itself in a scientific knowledge, connected with the development of a world power. An essential feature of this society was slavery, as slaves played a crucial role in many aspects of the economy. During this period, Roman law created contracts and remedies essential to commerce, and so in many ways anticipated the commercial development of the modern world. But rather than defining commercial relations in such a way as to exclude slavery, Roman law reinforced the central role of slavery in Roman society.
The Practice of Manumission through Negotiated Conditions in Imperial Rome
Authors: Koops Egbert
Published: July 2020

Roman slaves often had to meet expressly negotiated conditions to obtain their freedom. The use of such conditions helps to explain why the Romans freed so many slaves. They are an expression of the economic considerations that underlie the extraction and manumission model of Roman slavery. Agreements between masters and slaves occurred in practice and were recognized at law. Conditions could be set among the living or by testament and could consist of settling accounts, money payments, or services in kind; some followed the slave and were actionable. The money to pay for freedom often came from the slave’s patrimony or peculium. Though evidence is scarce, conditions and the corresponding manumission prices seem to have been of a type that could be met within years rather than decades. Extracting a price from slaves for their freedom lessened the future claims of patrons. For a certain type of slave, negotiated manumission conditions may have been the norm.
Secured Transactions in Classical Roman Law
Authors: Verhagen Hendrik L. E.
Published: July 2020

In modern literature the Roman law of real security is often regarded as ineffective, to which it is usually added that this did not seriously hamper the granting of credit, as in classical Rome personal security was far more important than real security. In this contribution it will be argued that this view is not correct. The sophistication of the Roman law of real security suggests that it must have played a significant role in credit transactions. Moreover, it will be argued that the Roman law of real security satisfied nearly all the requirements for an effective law of secured transactions. Its main weakness was its lack of publicity for security created over real estate and its lack of protection of bona fide third parties in respect of movable assets. It seems, however, that for a long time social norms (infamia) and transactional practices, and later criminal liability (stellionatus), provided sufficient safeguards against a malfunctioning law of real security.
Land Demarcation in Ancient Rome
Authors: Libecap Gary D. , Lueck Dean
Published: July 2020

Ancient Rome was an expansive and wealthy empire that created a trading network that relied on common language(s), law, money, and a system of measurement. An important component of this network was the rectangular system (RS) of land demarcation known as centuriation, which was the forerunner of similar systems adopted in the United States and Canada and in other parts of the British Empire in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. This purposefully implemented demarcation system persists to the present and can be found in the landscape throughout the territories of the former Empire, especially in Italy and North Africa. It was typical as Rome expanded its territories to implement the RS system before new lands were settled by Romans. There was considerable variation in land demarcation patterns across the Empire. This chapter examines the determinants of centuriation by describing a model in which the state chooses between adopting RS to demarcate new lands or to utilize existing demarcation. The chapter examines data on centuriated areas and accounts from archeologists and classics scholars to examine the economic structure of Roman centuriation. The chapter generally finds that centuriation was adopted in flatter, more fertile lands, and later in time as survey techniques improved and administrative structures were expanded. The chapter also finds that alignment tended to be perpendicular to rivers and streams in order to minimize demarcation costs and to facilitate a network of canals for drainage. Finally, the chapter provides conjectures about the impact on centuriation on development and growth within the Empire.
The Institutions of Roman Markets
Authors: Arruñada Benito
Published: July 2020

The chapter analyzes the basis of the market economy in classical Rome, from the perspective of personal vs impersonal exchange and focusing on the role of the state in providing market-enabling institutions. It starts by reviewing the central conflict in all exchanges between those holding and those acquiring property rights, and how solving it requires reducing information asymmetry without endangering the security of property. Relying on a model of the social choice of institutions, the chapter identifies the demand and supply factors driving the institutional choices made by the Romans, and examines the economic circumstances that influenced these factors in the classical period of Roman law. Comparing the predictions of the model with the main solutions used by Roman law in the areas of property, business exchange, and the enforcement of personal obligations allows the chapter to propose alternative interpretations for some salient institutions that have been subject to controversy in the literature, and to conclude with an overall positive assessment of the market-enabling role of the Roman state.
One Step at a Time in Roman Law
Authors: Epstein Richard A.
Published: July 2020

This chapter argues that the Roman law system of a staged system of pleadings, which emerged in the mature formulary system and then was eventually carried over into the common law, offers a superior way to understand and classify legal doctrine in ways that lead to overall economic efficiency. The arguments here stress the conceptual formation of classical Roman law on matters that retain their full salience today. It does not deal with the details of the historical evolution of Roman procedure. Indeed, its main purpose is to contrast the genius of the staged system of Roman law pleading with a flaw in the modern conception of civil procedure, which funnels all disputes through a reasonableness inquiry. In dealing with practical legal disputes it is virtually impossible to generate some major rule that leads to optimal results in a wide range of cases. The pleading system takes the reverse tack and seeks to achieve optimality through a system of successive approximations, starting with the prima facie case, working through defenses, and most critically, replies and further pleadings, finishing with joinder of issue to incorporate all the elements that are traditionally thought relevant to systems of tortious (as the civil side of delict) and contractual responsibility. These elements include identifying those obligations that should be strict, those that are governed by negligence principles, and those as intentional harms on both the tort and contract side of the line. The approach should be understood as an explicit rejection of the dominant modern approach that removes all the hard-edge distinctions and uses a generalized conception of reasonableness as an umbrella conception that encourages decline of doctrine and the ad hoc resolution of particular disputes.
Collective Responsibility
Authors: Miceli Thomas J.
Published: July 2020

The concept of collective responsibility, or group punishment, for crimes or other harmful acts, was a pervasive feature of ancient societies, as exemplified by the Roman Senatus Consultum Silanianum, a resolution by the Roman senate in 10 CE, and the Greek notion of “pollution.” This chapter briefly surveys historical examples of collective responsibility, which have largely given way to the modern concept of individual responsibility, though vestiges of collective responsibility remain in modern culture and law (notably in the form of vicarious liability). The chapter then lays out a theoretical analysis of the choice between collective and individual responsibility that highlights those circumstances in which each is preferred as a law enforcement strategy.
What are Quantum Measurements?
Authors: Kurizki Gershon , Gordon Goren
Published: July 2020

Chapter 4 introduces a great QM mystery: the notion of quantum measurements. Henry is in a superposition of versions localized in several places, but when Eve measures Henry’s position she (as a classical observer) either sees Henry or she does not. Physical reality is made of such measurements. Eve’s measurement projects or collapses Henry’s superposition state to a single location. The meaning of quantum-state or wavefunction “collapse” and the role of the observer have been at the heart of the historical debate concerning the interpretation of QM. Whereas Von Neumann and Wigner stressed the inseparability of the observed (measured) world from the human mind, alternative “observer-free” views were suggested, such as Everett’s many-world interpretation or Zurek’s quantum Darwinism that replaces the observer by the environment. In the appendix to this chapter the notion of probability amplitudes is elucidated, new notations for operators are introduced and projection operators are presented.
What is Quantum Entanglement?
Authors: Kurizki Gershon , Gordon Goren
Published: July 2020

In this adventure, two quantum characters interact, because Henry has constructed a quantum suit for his cat, Schred. Henry and Schred end up in a quantum-entangled state. Remarkably, by measuring one of two entangled systems, the state of the other system is immediately collapsed, even if they are far apart. This bizarre feature of entanglement implies non-locality—synchronization or “collusion” between quantum objects, regardless of their distance. Cosmology provides an explanation: the universe emerged from a unified state describable as a quantum-entangled “hologram”. This notion resonates with the ancient Hindu view that the common essence of all things, the Brahman, can be revealed at every level of the natural hierarchy. The appendix to this chapter discusses operators that create entanglement.
Can Quantum Measurements Prevent Change?
Authors: Kurizki Gershon , Gordon Goren
Published: July 2020

In a strange dream, Henry is coherently transported towards his bride down the aisle. But just as a small portion of him arrives next to her, that portion disappears in a flash of light caused by a snapshot! Henry keeps trying to be united with his bride, but repeated snapshots cause Henry’s collapse to being far away from her. This dream illustrates the quantum Zeno effect (QZE): if a measurement collapses the quantum state with high probability to the initial state, then frequent repeated measurements can almost stop the change of the quantum state. Yet less frequent measurements cause the opposite, anti-Zeno effect (AZE), whereby change or decay increases. Thus, decay is controllable. These effects confirm Zeno’s argument that change is an illusion, as it is up to the observer to prevent or induce it by appropriate observation. The appendix to this chapter explains the QZE for coherent and decay processes.
Can Quantum Measurements Control Temperature?
Authors: Kurizki Gershon , Gordon Goren
Published: July 2020

Henry is trapped in a burning building because of Eve’s mischief. Henry’s entanglement with the hot environment is ominous: his states receive excessive energy from the environment, threatening his physiology. Can quantum effects rescue Henry from the fire? Unexpectedly, Eve comes to his rescue. She frequently measures his energy in a “quantum non-demolition” (QND) fashion which is expected to keep his state intact. Surprisingly, Henry grows hotter or colder depending on Eve’s measurement rate! These quantum effects seem to violate the laws of thermodynamics. Engraved in stone as these laws and the ensuing time directionality (time arrow) may be, they fail if the system is examined too frequently, whence time arrow loses its meaning. One may speculate over the role of such anomalies in the Big Bang. These anomalies support Parmenides’ view that time flow is determined by the observer’s choices. The appendix to this chapter elaborates on the dynamics induced by system–environment interaction changes.
What is Quantum Teleportation?
Authors: Kurizki Gershon , Gordon Goren
Published: July 2020

Eve (E) entangles herself to Schred (S) before taking off to a conference. There she barely escapes an assault, and calls Henry. Is he too far away to help? Henry (H) resorts to quantum teleportation: a split-second later, H and E, aided by S, have traded places despite being thousands of miles apart! Schematically, the unknown state of H is teleported to E upon measuring the entangled state of E and S and communicating the result to E, who then trades states with H. Since the measured result is communicated at the speed of light, there is no faster-than-light signaling involved. In the distant future, space travel may be partly replaced by large-scale teleportation. Teleportation has intriguing philosophical implications, as it separates the object essence, its quantum information, from its non-essential material substance. The appendix to this chapter presents a quantum teleportation protocol that involves qubits.
The Dawn of Quantum Information
Authors: Kurizki Gershon , Gordon Goren
Published: July 2020

Henry and Eve have finally tested their quantum computer (QC) with resounding success! It may enable much faster and better modelling of complex pharmaceutical designs, long-term weather forecasts or brain process simulations than classical computers. A 1,000-qubit QC can process in a single step 21000 possible superposition states: its speedup is exponential in the number of qubits. Yet this wondrous promise requires overcoming the enormous hurdle of decoherence, which is why progress towards a large-scale QC has been painstakingly slow. To their dismay, their QC is “expropriated for the quantum revolution” in order to share quantum information among all mankind and thus impose a collective entangled state of mind. They set out to foil this totalitarian plan and restore individuality by decohering the quantum information channel. The appendix to this chapter provide a flavor of QC capabilities through a quantum algorithm that can solve problems exponentially faster than classical computers.
Becoming a Merchant Adventurer
Authors: Leng Thomas
Published: July 2020

This chapter addresses recruitment to the Company of Merchant Adventurers, focusing on the institution of apprenticeship. As well as being the most common means to join the Company, apprenticeship was used to manage overseas trade, with apprentices commonly deployed as agents overseas. The chapter introduces the social settings of Company trade overseas—the mart towns—and their place in the merchant life-cycle. It considers the opportunities and challenges facing aspiring Merchant Adventurers in the mart towns as they sought to assume the status of independent merchant in their own households. It also identifies significant changes in the social structure of the mart towns, associated with rising numbers of long-term residents, which had the potential to divide the Company’s different residences in England and overseas.
Show Days
Authors: Leng Thomas
Published: July 2020

This chapter examines how Merchant Adventurers managed their businesses, focusing on the export of cloth. It considers how they constructed those networks necessary to the management of trade, and how this resulted in a densely interrelated community of merchants. It addresses whether membership of the Company precluded participation in some of the newer, import-driven and extra-European trades that emerged in the period. It argues that, although Merchant Adventurers were willing to participate in these trades, they were often not well placed to access networks necessary to do so. However, the business of the export of cloth is shown to be more complex and challenging than usually assumed, as is demonstrated through both qualitative and quantitative evidence, including statistics for the changing structure of cloth exports.
Running on the Exchange
Authors: Leng Thomas
Published: July 2020

This chapter considers how the Company of Merchant Adventurers and its members responded to the risks inherent to overseas trade in the premodern period. It considers the sources of merchant failure, and how failings unfolded across the social sites that comprised Company trade. A focal point is the mercantile exchange, which was a source of borrowing as well as transferring money across borders, and which was at the heart of most merchant failures. Borrowing on the exchange could lead a merchant’s reputation to come into doubt, and the failure of the Merchant Adventurer Richard Shepherd is used as an example to show how Merchant Adventurers could lose their status within their community. The chapter also considers how this community responded to merchant failure, and the strains it placed on the mercantile social order.
‘The odious name of a monopolist’
Authors: Leng Thomas
Published: July 2020

This chapter addresses contests within the Company of Merchant Adventurers following its expulsion from the Holy Roman Empire, in 1598, as a result of a mandate issued by the emperor declaring the Company to be a monopoly. These are shown to be a consequence of the divisions that had emerged in the Company following its departure from Antwerp in the 1560s, and its subsequent occupation of two different territories—the Netherlands and the Holy Roman Empire. Although the Company’s governors initially attempted to confine trade to the Netherlands following the mandate, many members insisted on continuing to trade to the Empire. In the ensuing contest, debates about the purposes of Company government were raised by members and non-members, and were advertised to an influential political audience. This debate is shown to have contributed to the bill for free trade that passed the House of Commons in the parliament of 1604.
‘A new & extraordinary service to be done to the state and Comonwealth of England’
Authors: Leng Thomas
Published: July 2020

This chapter considers the infamous Cokayne Project of 1614–17, whereby the Merchant Adventurers lost their privileges to a new company formed to convert the expert of semi-manufactured cloths with the fully finished product. It focuses on how the project was experienced by the Company and its members, as well as its long-term impact. The Cokayne Project is presented as an experiment in corporate commercial government which attempted to wed governed and free trade. As well as attracting outsiders, many Merchant Adventurers were drawn to its promise of breaking down corporate barriers between different markets. However, the project threatened the dissolution of the social structure of the Merchant Adventurers’ trade, leading to protests from the factors at Hamburg. Although these protests helped to keep alive the Company’s discursive traditions, the Cokayne Project presaged divisions within the Company’s ranks that would grow as the century went on.
The European Central Bank
Authors: Schmidt Vivien A.
Published: July 2020

Chapter 6 discusses the ECB’s pathway to legitimacy, as it moved from following “one size fits none” rules to doing “whatever it takes” in monetary policy. The chapter begins with the ECB’s sources of power, based in its autonomy as a central bank and its leaders’ charismatic qualities, and with its grounds for throughput legitimacy. These largely depend upon ECB accountability to technical forums, since it has minimal formal accountability to political forums (only to the European Parliament), although it has informally increased its accountability through dialogue with political leaders. The chapter follows with a discussion of the Janus-faced public perceptions of the ECB’s governance of the euro during the crisis, split between views of the ECB as hero saving the euro or as ogre imposing austerity and structural reform while railroading countries into programs. As hero, the chapter details ECB President Mario Draghi’s increasingly flexible reinterpretation of his mandate, hid “in plain view” as he transitioned from his predecessor’s “credibility” discourse to a “stability” discourse and from denials of the ECB being a lender of last resort (LOLR) to coming very close to one through quantitative easing (QE). As ogre, the chapter delineates the ways in which ECB President Jean-Claude Trichet coerced vulnerable countries into harsh conditionality programs and Draghi made his active interventions a quid pro quo for austerity and structural reform, as well as the ECB’s initial inefficacy; the continuing orthodoxy of its ideas, especially in contrast to the IMF; and its role in the Troika.
The EU Commission
Authors: Schmidt Vivien A.
Published: July 2020

Chapter 7 discusses the Commission’s pathway to legitimacy, as it moved from a rigid interpretation of the “one size fits all” rules of the European Semester to an increasingly flexible one. The chapter begins by analyzing the Commission’s powers, diminished by the Council’s increase in intergovernmental decision-making but enhanced by its ever-growing oversight responsibilities and discretionary authority, and its quandaries with regard to throughput legitimacy. These stem from the countervailing pressures from Northern Europe calling for more rigid rules application, and from Southern Europe calling for greater flexibility. Such pressures also contributed to Commission politicization, starting with Council appointment of José Manuel Barroso as Commission President in line with his political “color” and culminating with the Spitzenkandidat, Jean-Claude Juncker, and his self-declared “political” Commission. The chapter follows with a discussion of the Janus-faced public perceptions of the Commission in Eurozone crisis governance as “ayatollahs of austerity” or “Ministers of Moderation.” During the fast-burning crisis, the Commission appeared ayatollah-like in its rigid approach to governing by the rules and numbers that it had itself proposed to the Council. But as the crisis slowed, the Commission ministered greater moderation, with the Barroso Commission reinterpreting the rules while denying it, and the Juncker Commission fully admitting to its greater flexibility. The exception was the Commission’s Ayatollah-like stance in the Troika (as the voice of the Eurogroup). The chapter closes with a discussion of the deleterious impact of the European Semester on national sovereignty and democracy, in particular with regard to the Commission’s national budgetary oversight.
The European Parliament
Authors: Schmidt Vivien A.
Published: July 2020

Chapter 8 discusses the European Parliament’s pathway to legitimacy, and its transition from having “no size at all” in Eurozone governance to increasing influence. The chapter begins with an analysis of the EP’s sources of power—which were initially very few, given its marginalization in Eurozone governance—and of its growing throughput legitimacy. Although the most input legitimate of EU actors in principle, in practice it has had limited relevance to citizens and has been far removed from them as well as from national parliaments—themselves the biggest losers in Eurozone crisis governance. But the EP’s lack of remit did not stop it from using its input legitimacy to enhance its own procedural exercise of “voice,” deployed increasingly critically to demand accountability from other EU actors. The EP also slowly gained influence as the “go-to” body for other EU actors in search of legitimation via a political accountability forum. The chapter follows with a discussion of the Janus-faced public perceptions of the EP’s role in Eurozone governance, moving from views of the European Parliament as a talking shop increasingly toward its being a potential equal partner. The chapter shows that initially the EP was a talking shop that largely went along with Council and Commission initiatives, in keeping with its minimal powers, but that over time the EP gained increasing powers both formally, through legislation, and informally, in particular as other EU actors turned more and more to the EP for legitimation by giving accounts to an input-legitimate accountability body.
Wireless Nationalism, 1938–1939
Authors: Potter Simon J.
Published: July 2020

During the late 1930s international broadcasting was mobilized as a weapon for deployment in the coming conflict, an essential tool of propaganda. In 1938 the BBC began broadcasting to the Middle East in Arabic and to Latin America in Spanish and Portuguese. In running the Arabic Service in particular, the BBC was obliged to accept the input of civil servants from the Foreign Office and other branches of the state, particularly when it came to the editing of news bulletins. Material was carefully included and omitted to further British foreign policy goals. BBC officers sought to build up an Arabic Service that would appeal to listeners across the Middle East but made limited headway due to a lack of resources and the scarcity of listener feedback. Similarly, there seemed little evidence to suggest that the BBC Latin American Service developed a significant audience. Attempts to strengthen links between British and American broadcasters meanwhile continued. Only vestiges of wireless internationalism remained: these were years of wireless nationalism, driven by the expansion of fascist broadcast propaganda. The September Crisis of 1938 prompted the inauguration of BBC broadcasts in German, Italian, and French. In all these activities the BBC adhered closely to official policies of appeasement, and accepted government directions to avoid broadcasts that would provoke Germany and Italy. The British government also covertly broadcast to Europe from commercial stations on the Continent, particularly Radio Luxembourg, with the involvement of the Secret Intelligence Service.
The Whitechapel Group
Authors: Beasley Rebecca
Published: July 2020

This first interchapter tells the early history of ‘the Whitechapel Group’, the network of Russian Jewish artists and writers who grew up together in the East End of London. We tend to separate the members of this group into associations with different modernist sets—David Bomberg and Jacob Kramer with Wyndham Lewis’s vorticists, Mark Gertler with the Bloomsbury group, John Rodker with James Joyce and Ezra Pound, and Isaac Rosenberg with the war poets. When the Whitechapel Group’s collective identity has been considered, it has been almost exclusively in terms of the members’ Jewish ethnicity, but this chapter examines the significance of the other shared aspect of the Whitechapel Group’s heritage—that is, their families’ lives in, and departure from, the Russian Empire.
War Work
Authors: Beasley Rebecca
Published: July 2020

Alliance with tsarist Russia during the First World War presented a propaganda challenge for the British government: many believed that to support Russia against Germany was to support a barbarous nation against its own subjects, and to risk tipping the balance of power in Europe away from democracy. Russian literature was strategically deployed by the War Propaganda Bureau as evidence of Russia’s civilization, and writers and critics were marshalled to overturn the anti-tsarist interpretations of Russian literature put in place by the Russian populists. Russian literature now appeared in a new guise, read not through realism but symbolism, a movement introduced to Britain through the performances of the Ballets Russes, the travel writings of Stephen Graham, and reappraisals of Dostoevsky’s writings. The chapter concludes by examining the fiction of D. H. Lawrence, Katherine Mansfield, and John Middleton Murry, which resists wartime propaganda, and finds in Russian literature a critique of Western civilisation and its war.
Modern Languages
Authors: Beasley Rebecca
Published: July 2020

The third interchapter chapter looks at how Russian language and literature was taught and learned in Britain. While the main chapters show that the British canon of Russian literature was largely the creation of a small number of amateur translators and critics, at the turn of the century the study of Russian was becoming professionalized, with increasing numbers of schools and universities offering courses in Russian. Political imperatives shaped styles of teaching, and in particular the role of literature on Russian courses. The narrow association of Russian literature with realism, deployed by the populists of the nineteenth century, also served the purposes of those who promoted the teaching of Russian as a means of understanding a political and, it was hoped, commercial ally.
Against the Machine
Authors: Beasley Rebecca
Published: July 2020

The final chapter of Russomania explores how the war and the Russian revolutions of 1917 transform the role of Russian literature for British-based writers. The first part of the chapter examines debates about Russian and French literature in The Egoist, the home of imagist poetry. It focuses in particular on the emergence of style as a key criterion of literary modernity, championed by the editors Richard Aldington and T. S. Eliot, and the process of its rejection as materialist by Egoist contributors, John Cournos and John Gould Fletcher. Their aesthetics take on a particular, anti-Bolshevik pertinence in the wake of the October Revolution, which Cournos witnessed as a member of the Foreign Office’s propaganda bureau in Petrograd. The chapter surveys British knowledge of the Russian revolutions and early Soviet culture, and analyzes the literary response they elicited..
The Innate Right to Freedom
Authors: Varden Helga
Published: July 2020

This chapter presents a Kantian account of innate right in relation to the issues of abortion, sodomy, and obscenity laws. At first blush, Kant does not appear to have much to offer as we seek plausible philosophical accounts of the legal permissibility of abortion, authorizing consent for sexual activities, and the use of erotica. I demonstrate that, despite appearances, Kant’s legal-political writings do provide the philosophical resources required. Indeed, Kant’s philosophical ideas can help us capture the seriousness of the wrongdoing involved in outlawing abortion, non-procreative and non-binary sexual activities, and erotica for any rational social, embodied beings as well as the heinousness involved in enforcing them against rational embodied, social human beings. I argue that Kant’s account of human nature and evil can explain why we consider violations of bodily integrity—whether de facto legally permitted or not—particularly serious and heinous legal failings.
Photographs are to think with
Authors: Morton Christopher
Published: July 2020

Chapter 1 sets out the main arguments and contexts of the book. It begins with a discussion of why using the photographic archive to explore the fieldwork on which Evans-Pritchard’s celebrated writings was based is so transformative. It discusses the relationship between anthropology and colonialism in the 1920s and 1930s, and Evans-Pritchard’s equivocal positioning within this as someone directly funded by the colonial administration and yet having a critical relationship to it. It explores the way in which Evans-Pritchard sought to move anthropology away from the natural sciences and towards history and the humanities. It compares his fieldwork photography to other anthropologists of the period and challenges the assumption that anthropology in the period was not a visual endeavour.
Survivals, surveys, and struggles
Authors: Morton Christopher
Published: July 2020

Chapter 2 sketches Evans-Pritchard’s early career and intellectual influences, before setting the scene for his first piece of fieldwork among the Ingessana people in Sudan by describing the reasons why his teacher Seligman asked him to continue an ethnographic survey there, including his interest in diffusionist ideas of ancient Egyptian cultural influence, as well as Tylorian survivals. It then goes on to outline some of reasons why Evans-Pritchard and Malinowski fell out shortly after his return from fieldwork among the Azande. It then goes on to describe Evans-Pritchard’s other ethnographic surveys for Seligman among a number of cultural groups, and the way in which he used photography as part of the work.
Double alienation
Authors: Morton Christopher
Published: July 2020

The starting point for this chapter is the observation that the photographs that Evans-Pritchard took of the Azande are quite different in nature from those he took of the Nuer. This opens up a complex area of photographic investigation. Why should they be so different, given that they were taken by the same fieldworker, and at a similar time? The argument put forward is that Evans-Pritchard’s fieldwork photography is marked by differently patterned indigenous responses to the camera. The chapter argues that such differences as exist boil down to very different historical and cultural relations to outside influences within Zande and Nuer society in the early 1930s, and that this is inscribed within the archival record, played out in modes of self-presentation to Evans-Pritchard’s camera.
Liberia, Firestone, and the End of Slavery as a Political Cause
Authors: Lustig Doreen
Published: July 2020

Chapter 3 chronicles the interwar case of the Firestone Company in Liberia against the backdrop of the League of Nations’ Slavery and Forced Labour Conventions of 1926 and 1934. While Liberia differs from later postcolonial states in its unique history and early independent status, the case of Firestone in Liberia is a precursor to future relations between foreign companies and postcolonial states. Given the power balance between the company and Liberia, the government was incapable of introducing limitations on the private enterprise’s labour policies. Liberia’s engagement with the Firestone Company thus provides an intriguing prelude to the incapacity of the emerging international legal order to abolish the enslavement of humans, and further demonstrates how this very limitation was able to facilitate the enslavement of political communities.
Back to Informal Empire?
Authors: Lustig Doreen
Published: July 2020

Chapter 6 is devoted to the Abadan Crisis and the circumstances surrounding the decision of the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in the dispute between Britain and Iran over the ownership of oil in Iran, known as the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company case. The Iranians’ argument for their sovereign right to oil was based on the corporate veil of the state as a justification for the expropriation of the company’s assets and the corporate veil of the company to sustain the separation between ownership (the British Government) and control (the company’s management). The Iranian position used an old toolbox to promote a vision of a new postcolonial world order based on equality and distributive justice. The chapter juxtaposes the Iranian position with Philip Jessup’s theory of transnational law and the hermeneutics of legal realism in the British position and chronicles how the Iranian strategy and success in the ICJ eventually ushered the shift toward a new international investment law regime.
From the NIEO to the International Investment Law Regime
Authors: Lustig Doreen
Published: July 2020

Chapter 7 traces a ‘road not taken’ in the history of regulating global corporations in pursuit of economic democracy, the conditions that led to its failure, and the emergence of the contemporary regime that separates market and politics. The late 1960s saw a rare moment of unity in the struggle over the regulation of corporations among decolonized nations, which together formed the New International Economic Order and civil society of the Global North in a bid to defy unruly corporations. While North–South opposition to corporate power gained traction, the tensions between capital-exporting countries were augmented. These conditions opened a window of opportunity for a new international policy regime to regulate global corporations. But this window would not remain open for long. In the aftermath of the Barcelona Traction Case (1970), capital-exporting countries sought an alternative legal framework of a new regime of international investment law and redefined the normative content of corporate responsibility in human rights terms.