bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
European Security: New, Old and Borrowed
Authors: Sivonen Pekka
Published: March 2007

A conceptual distinction is made between the Cold War and the Cold War system. The former lasted from 1946-47 until about 1963, when the political freeze of East-West relations began to melt. However, the structural features of the system remained until 1989: the role of superpowers and politico-military blocs, the high peacetime level of military confrontation in Central Europe. This Cold War system was based on perceiving the risk of a major European war as both a problem (conflict escalation) and a solution (deterrence). However, over the years the dominant role of the superpowers and the alliances contributed to the management of tension reduction, and provided a framework for organizing negotiations. The system itself contributed to its own disappearance. Today, the organizational framework created during the years of the Cold War system plays a central role in managing the transformation towards increasing security dependence. Eventually, a comprehensive European security regime may emerge. Preparations for such a combined political and security order would seem to include developments on three dimensions: all-European security, military cooperation and politico-economic integration. Rather than systemic stability, the immediate objective should be predictability of change. In this situation, developing formal organizations is of secondary importance. What is urgent is to create a network of institutionalized rules for internal and international state behaviour.
The Potential Complementarity of Mediation and Consultation within a Contingency Model of Third Party Intervention
Authors: Fisher Ronald J. , Keashly Loraleigh
Published: March 2007

This article provides a conceptual rationale for the potential complementarity of international mediation and third party consultation or problem-solving within the context of a contingency model. Social conflict is viewed as a dynamic process involving a mix of objective and subjective factors which changes over time, thus creating opportunities for different third party interventions. In the model, the various methods of intervention (conciliation, pure mediation, consultation, power mediation, arbitration and peacekeeping) are matched to one of four stages of conflict escalation where they are deemed to have the most influence on de-escalation. In addition, third party interventions are sequenced within the model to show how combining different methods might work toward the eventual resolution of the conflict. Within this context, mediation and consultation are seen as having two main points of complementarity. In the first instance, consultation which improves the relationship between the parties can serve a useful prenegotiation function. The second point occurs at a higher stage of escalation wherein power mediation, which is deemed useful to control hostility and gain settlement on some substantive issues, is followed by consultation to analyse and de-escalate the conflict to a less intense level. The potential of the contingency model is illustrated through reference to the Cyprus conflict and the numerous third party interventions that have attempted to address it. The analysis indicates that the model helps provide some possible reasons for the success and failure of different interventions over a thirty-five year period. The article concludes that the matching and sequencing of different third party interventions may be necessary for positive influence, especially in highly escalated and protracted conflict.
Great Power Mediation: The USA and the May 1983 Israeli—Lebanese Agreement
Authors: Inbar Efraim
Published: March 2007

This article reviews the efforts of the Reagan Administration to mediate an agreement between Israel and Lebanon on the Israeli withdrawal, following its 1982 invasion of its northern neighbor. The USA, a superpower, was eventually successful in bridging the differences between the two disputants, whose contradicting interests are presented. Following procedural difficulties, the substantive points of contention were the nature of the security arrangements for Israel in southern Lebanon and the level of normalization between the two countries. The level of the American intervention in the talks gradually was raised to change the positions of the two sides and an agreement was reached only after the US Secretary of State engaged in shuttle diplomacy. A superpower is well suited for mediation. Yet, this article points out the limits on superpower leverage in pursuing its interests. The Israeli—Lebanese agreement was supposed to bring about a stronger central pro-Western Lebanese government. US mistakes, misperceptions and the domestic weakness of Lebanon were the reasons for the failure of this endeavor.
Sex Differences in Attitudes toward Nuclear War
Authors: GWARTNEY-GIBBS PATRICIA A. , LACH DENISE H.
Published: March 2007

This research considers the enduring, cross-cultural belief that women oppose war more than men do and seeks to disentangle it from competing explanations of anti-war attitudes. Focusing on correlates of pessimism and optimism about the imminence and survivability of nuclear war, support is found for hypotheses concerning psychic numbing, attenuated future plans, and political orientations, but not for hypotheses concerning hedonism and various demographic and background characteristics. The strongest finding is that women are significantly and substantially more pessimistic in their nuclear war attitudes than men, and this finding cannot be `explained away' statistically by the host of other variables considered in the analysis. Explanations of sex differences which refer to innate or socialized characteristics of women and men cannot be ruled out because data for direct tests are unavailable. But such explanations rely on women's unique childbearing capacity, and our best indicator of it - childbearing plans - is associated with nuclear war attitudes similarly for men as for women. A structural explanation of sex differences is offered; its advantages include greater promise for social change and parallels to other anti-war phenomena. An extensive literature review is included. Data come from sample surveys of university students in 1985 and 1987.
Military Spending and Economic Growth: A Comment on Cappelen, Gleditsch and Bjerkholt
Authors: Maneval Helmut , Rautsola Pasi , Wiegert Rolf
Published: March 2007

There is a sizeable theoretical and empirical literature on the relation between defense spending and important macro-economic variables, but a lack of specific models. In an interesting study published in this journal in 1984, Cappelen, Gleditsch & Bjerkholt (CGB) developed a theoretical model consisting of three equations, and tested it empirically for seventeen OECD countries in the period 1960-81. Their study suggests a negative relationship between economic growth and defense spending in OECD countries. This study focuses on a representation of this relationship for a comparable CGB model with the help of a homogeneous group of four neutral European nations. Estimation of structural parameters of the econometric model was conducted on the basis of time-series for the period 1960-87. Contrary to the results and conclusions by Cappelen et al., no similar trend could be established for the countries in the sample. Thus we conclude that the influences of defense spending on growth are not always significant and empirically evident in the estimation of econometric models which are reduced to the seemingly main influences within the frame of longitudinal data. It may be that the data basis for such investigations is also unsatisfactory, but no better basis is available.
Strength of Weakness: American-Indonesian Hegemonic Bargaining
Authors: KIVIMÄKI TIMO
Published: March 2007

The ability of some weak nations to outmanoeuvre superpowers in international negotiations has aroused the interest of many students of international relations. Several models have indicated how small and relatively weak powers such as Finland or Sweden can exercise power and avoid being crushed by the bigger powers. Traditionally, these explanations have been based on differences in the types of power, in the types of issues and in the kinds of interests involved in power relationships. The roles of the `defensive power' of the weak and the influence of the vitality of the issue and intensity of interests involved in power relationships have been stressed. The question of how weak and poor nations can resist disadvantageous superpower influences has been seen as a central issue of peace research: power relations of exploitation are rightfully seen as forms of violence in international politics. This article aims at contributing to the study of power relations between weak and strong nations by offering slightly different perspectives to the analysis. Here a conceptual distinction is made between `power' and `bargaining power'. Superpowers and great powers are expected to have power, while weaker powers can apply strategies to gain bargaining power. Second, this article draws some general conclusions on the basis of successful strategies used by a developing country, Indonesia, rather than the experiences of Finland or Sweden. Third, models of hegemonic order are employed to explain the bargaining power of weak and powerless countries.
The Systemic Bed-Rock of Transition
Authors: Lock Peter
Published: March 2007

Social science in general and peace research in particular have developed only insufficient tools with which to analyse Soviet-type societies. The confusing diversity of regions and nation-states on the territory of the former Soviet Union requires a meticulous analysis of its foundations, as a free discourse has become possible. The Soviet economy and the behavioural marks it burdened its people with will codetermine the transition towards a market-oriented economy. It is therefore most welcome that a number of recent publications highlight the mechanisms and institutional arrangements, some of which will last for a long time. Jacques Sapir's approach interpreting the Soviet economy as a cyclical spiral of priority regulation, `l'économie mobilisée or permanente Kriegswirtschaft', is a powerful analytical instrument with which to capture the essence of the system. Unfortunately the successors of the old `Sovietology', the `big bang' consultants, have so far paid little attention to the historical strings attached to their subject. Returning to Gerschenkron's analysis of economic backwardness dramatically highlights the dangers of `ignoring the basic peculiarities' of Russia and the other republics of the former Soviet Union.
Theory-Building in the Study of Crises
Authors: Hammarström Mats
Published: March 2007

Research about military-security crises has traditionally been pursued within separate fields of inquiry involving diverse theoretical approaches. It is therefore most welcome that two recent studies attempt to integrate the various aspects and approaches. Brecher presents comprehensive models of interstate crises, covering onset, escalation, de-escalation, and impact. These models, which include a large set of variables, are tested with aggregate data and further analyzed through case studies. Richardson examines the extent to which the outcome of a crisis depends on structural factors versus decisions and interactions. A wide range of theories are assessed through careful analysis of a small number of major power crises. This review discusses how the studies are related to three strategies for integrating theoretical approaches: (1) solution of puzzles, (2) use of several levels of analysis, and (3) conceptualization of conflict as a stage process. Specific contributions of the studies to theory-building are most easily discernible within the puzzle-solving strategy. However, by employing research designs which emphasize different levels of analysis (both studies) and crisis phases (Brecher), the authors provide fruitful suggestions for the long-term development of integrated approaches and general theories.
Commitment to Military Intervention: The Democratic Government as Economic Investor
Authors: Nincic Donna J. , Nincic Miroslav
Published: March 2007

Much of the work on US military intervention addresses the patterns it exhibits and the circumstances that lead to the decision to resort to force. This article deals with a somewhat different aspect of the issue: the structure of the incentives that determine the US government's commitment to persevere in the armed interventions it has chosen to undertake. Commitment is modeled in terms of the costs of the intervention and public support for the venture, and the model is based on an economic metaphor. The hypothesis is that the public responds to costs in the manner of consumers, making its support an inverse function of costs. By contrast, Government responds to costs in the fashion of an investor, viewing costs as an investment to be redeemed: up to a point, the higher the cost, the greater the commitment. The parameters of the model are statistically estimated for the wars in Korea and Vietnam, and the point at which public and governmental support coincide is discussed.
Explaining Territorial Disputes: From Power Politics to Normative Reasons
Authors: FORSBERG TUOMAS
Published: March 2007

Territorial disputes are traditionally regarded as the most common sources of war. Yet, research focusing on the question why territorial disputes arise has been rare, and has usually relied on power-political assumptions. Typically, the emergence of territorial disputes has been explained in terms of rational strategic and economic interests and changing power relations. This article argues that these modes of explanation are severely misleading, since many of today's territorial disputes can be better explained from a normative perspective, by referring to subjective conceptions of justice and international norms. As an emotive issue, territory is loaded with a number of emotional and normative elements which today are likely to surpass its `rational' economic or strategic value. Therefore attempts to resolve territorial disputes which do not take into account the normative dimension underlying such disputes are likely to fail.
Furthering the Investigation into the Effects of Arms Buildups
Authors: Sample Susan G.
Published: March 2007

Diehl & Crescenzi's discussion of my earlier article in the Journal of Peace Research and their general comments on the connections between arms races and war is a generally well-reasoned and valuable contribution. Although a number of the issues they discuss have been mentioned elsewhere, these references have usually been indirect or as passing comments in a larger work rather than in an explicit attempt to engage the researcher on this matter. My brief response will serve to reiterate some of their points, while addressing those few concerns I have about their suggestions for future research.
A Clash of Civilizations - An Idée Fixe?
Authors: Senghaas Dieter
Published: March 2007

Huntington's thesis on the prospective clash of civilizations is criticized in two directions: neither the original article or the book gives any systematic analysis of the inherent link between the cultural characteristics of civilizations and the actual behavior of core representatives of such civilizations. Although Huntington's thesis is more plausible at the micro-level, his argument is deficient here as well: most ethnopolitical conflicts in the modern world result from protracted socio-economic discrimination rather than from cultural roots. The culturalization of such conflicts is, as a rule, a relatively late phenomenon in an escalation process, turning socio-economic conflicts into identity conflicts once the level of collective frustration becomes high. In contrast to his empirical analysis, Huntington's political recipe of non-intervention, joint mediation and finding commonalities among key representatives of different civilizations can be applauded, but they are in strange contradiction to the book-length analysis presented by the author.
Cumulation, Evaluation and the Research Process: Investigating the Diffusion of Conflict
Authors: Star Harvey , Siverson Randolph M.
Published: March 2007

Broad analytic assessments of research areas can be invaluable for scholars because they can inform the ongoing feedback process between theory and research that is at the heart of scientific inquiry. Unfortunately, Simowitz's (1998) evaluation of diffusion analyses of conflict has several problematic characteristics that make it less useful to the research community than might otherwise be the case. The major difficulties we see in her article are: (1) the forced, idiosyncratic synthesis of the standard of scientific progress and its consequent application; (2) the excessively unilinear conception of scientific process (and progress); (3) the inaccurate understanding of some of the research on war diffusion; (4) the failure to include in the evaluation several studies and results that might have led to different conclusions; and (5) the absence of any constructive suggestion of where research on the topic of war and conflict diffusion might profitably be directed.
Attitudes of Palestinians toward Normalization with Israel
Authors: Mi'Ari Mahmoud
Published: March 2007

The Palestinian-Israeli conflict, originally a native-settler conflict, is one of the most durable and intractable conflicts since World War II. While the peace process between the Palestinians and Israelis has started, no final solution has been reached between the two sides, and Israel still occupies most of the Palestinian territories in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Under these conditions, an interesting question is raised about normalization between Palestinians and Israelis. Based on data collected in 1994 from a total sample of 270 students in Birzeit University, this article studies the attitudes of Palestinian students toward cultural normalization with Israel. Despite the fact that Israel still occupies the Palestinian territories, a major part of Palestinian students support normalizing cultural relations between Palestinians and Israelis. Support for normalization is significantly associated with social class or father's occupation. Students from the working class are more supportive of cultural cooperation with Israelis than those from other classes. This is explained by the working-class families' greater experience of contact with Israelis and a greater dependence on the Israeli labour market.
Using Military Spending Data: The Complexity of Simple Inference
Authors: Lebovic James H.
Published: March 2007

This study assesses the reliability of estimates of the direction of military spending growth obtained from two main sources - the US Arms Control and Disarmament Agency (ACDA) and Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI). It examines the average directional agreement between early and late ACDA and SIPRI spending estimates for a full sample of countries and for seven different regions (Africa, East Asia, Latin America, Middle East, South Asia, NATO Europe, and the Warsaw Pact). It shows that the direction of ACDA and SIPRI estimates diverge significantly over time and that the two data sources appear especially challenged when estimating the sign of smaller, and especially negative, growth-rate changes and of spending in regions (Africa and the Middle East) where growth-rates vary markedly. It further establishes that, when a single source publishes consistent directional estimates, these estimates can diverge considerably from those published by the other source. Based on the findings, this study proposes a set of simple validation procedures and tests their strengths and weaknesses on various sets of countries.
Defense Spending and Economic Growth in South Korea: The Indirect Link
Authors: Heo Uk
Published: March 2007

Due to the lingering food crisis, speculations about the collapse of the North Korean regime have intensified in recent years. The collapse of the North Korean regime is expected to generate a tremendous economic burden on the South Korean economy. Moreover, the current economic crisis in South Korea requires a tight fiscal policy. Thus, on the basis of the peace dividend argument, some suggest that South Korea should reduce its military expenditures to prepare for the upcoming extra economic burden. For this reason, the economic effects of defense spending on growth in South Korea are a significant concern for policymakers as well as scholars. I examined the economic effects of defense spending on growth in terms of time and magnitude by investigating the direct effects as well as the indirect impacts (via investment and export) of military spending on economic growth. A three-equation econometric model was specified and empirically tested using South Korean data for 1954-95. The findings of this study reveal that the overall economic effects of defense spending on growth are negative although they seem to be indirect or delayed.
Delinquent Problem-Solving: An Interpretive Framework for Criminological Theory and Research
Authors: BREZINA TIMOTHY
Published: March 2007

A sizable body of evidence suggests that much delinquency can be interpreted as a form of problem-solving behavior in response to the pressures of adolescence. Moreover, certain data indicate that delinquent responses are often experienced by the offender as a reasonably effective means of short-term coping. Thus, in contrast to pathological accounts, it may be legitimate to interpret much delinquency as a form of self-regulation. This article organizes the extant delinquency literature within a problem-solving framework, shows how a problem-solving perspective can shed additional light on the nature of adolescence-limited delinquency, and offers a number of novel research hypotheses to guide future research.
Developmental Associations Between Alcohol and Interpersonal Aggression During Adolescence
Authors: HUANG BU , WHITE HELENE R. , KOSTERMAN RICK , CATALANO RICHARD F. , HAWKINS J. DAVID
Published: March 2007

This study used yearly data from 808 males and females from the Seattle Social Development Project to explore the associations between alcohol use and interpersonal aggression from early to late adolescence. Nested structural equation modeling was used. With stability effects and cross-sectional correlations controlled, the authors examined the cross-lagged effects from alcohol use to interpersonal aggression, as well as those from interpersonal aggression to alcohol use. The data indicated a reciprocal effect of interpersonal aggression and alcohol use in later adolescence. Sex of the subject did not significantly moderate the observed relationships. When shared risk factors for alcohol use and interpersonal aggression were controlled, the relationships were not seriously attenuated. Although the results suggested that reducing one behavior will probably not have a long-term impact on the other, early prevention efforts aimed at shared risk factors may reduce both contemporaneously.
The Chronic Petty Offender: Law Enforcement or Welfare Problem?
Authors: Grygier Tadeusz
Published: March 2007

This is a summary account of an operational study closely re lated to social action. It is realized that repeated short-term sentences imposed on chronic inadequate offenders are serving no deterrent purpose and that they might even satisfy some social and emotional needs of the repeaters. The purpose of the investi gation carried out in Toronto reformatories was to determine more precisely the nature of these needs, so that more humane and more economical social action could be planned to meet them, possibly outside the penal system.

Results of the study challenge the soundness of many general izations derived from clinical and sociological data on the serious offender. The paper discusses implications of the study for social policy with regard to an important, and growing, segment of our criminal and socially inadequate population.
Decision-Making in a Parole Bureaucracy
Authors: Kingsnorth Rodney
Published: March 2007

This paper examines parole agent decision processes in a pa role bureaucracy. Legislation making all parolees eligible for dis charge when they successfully completed two years of parole re quired agents to submit case evaluations and recommendations to the California Adult Authority for final decision. Parole agent reports were analyzed across approximately fifty information items and related to the probabilities of recommendation for dis charge. Agents were found to vary widely in the types of infor mation they choose to report and in the impact of that informa tion on their decisions. Whether or not a particular client is discharged from parole seems to depend on circumstances of time and place rather than any overall rational assessment of his parole career.
Decision Process in Children's Court and the Social Background Report
Authors: Kraus Jonathan
Published: March 2007

Experts agree that there is a need to know more about the process of judicial decision-making and that this area has been comparatively ne glected by research workers. This study was concerned with the decision- making process of sentencing of male juvenile offenders by Children's Courts. Bayes's Theorem was used as the mathematical analog of the pro cess. It was found that, in sentencing, most weight is attached to Child Welfare Officer's recommendation. When no recommendation is made, the greatest weight is carried by the number of the offender's previous court appearances. Next in importance are the number of current charges, type of offense, the offender's plea, his age, and number of pre vious charges, in that order. Of least importance are the location of the court, circumstances of offender's current residence, and types of pre vious sentence. Apart from C.W.O.'s recommendation, in specific sen tencing decisions the number of previous court appearances is most weighty in committal to an institution and in admonishment, offender's plea and circumstances of residence carry most weight in admonishment, his age in fines, and types of previous sentence in decisions involving committal to an institution. The findings were discussed critically.
The Determinants of Larceny: an Empirical and Theoretical Study
Authors: Cohen Lawrence E. , Cantor David
Published: March 2007

This study ascertains the characteristics of individuals and their life styles that are differentially related to the risk of personal larceny victimization. Using the "rou tine activity" perspective recently explicated by Cohen and Felson (1979), we analyze 1975-76 National Crime Survey victimization data for the entire United States. The effects of age, race, income, major activity, and number of persons in the household are examined independently and in interaction, via log-linear tech niques. The data indicate that those with a family income of $20,000 or more a year, sixteen through twenty-nine year olds, people who live alone, and persons who are unemployed all face greater than average risks of being victimized by personal lar ceny. In contrast, those with a family income of less than $10,000 per year, those who are fifty or older, and those whose major activity is "keeping house" have less than average odds of being the victims of a personal larceny. These findings are discussed within the routine activity framework and are seen as providing substan tial support for this perspective, indicating that it holds considerable promise as a base from which to develop a general theory of criminal victimization.
Fear in the Neighborhoods: an Investigation of the Impact of Crime
Authors: Lewis Dan A. , Maxfield Michael G.
Published: March 2007

Residents in four Chicago neighborhoods were surveyed to determine the rela tionship between fear of crime and official crime rates. Several anomalies were found. Citizens' perceptions of dangerous areas in their neighborhoods match, for the most part, official records of crimes committed there. However, assessments of neighborhoods' specific crime problems and personal risks do not consistently cor respond with official statistics. The authors argue that citizens' perceptions of crime are shaped not so much by the neighborhood conditions reflected in the crime statistics, but rather by the level of incivility in their communities. Indicators of incivility are conditions, more frequently confronted, indicating that community social control is weak. These include abandoned buildings, vandalism, drug use, and loitering teenagers. The authors demonstrate the correspondence between levels of fear and concern about incivility. They suggest that fear of crime is trig gered by a broad range of neighborhood conditions, and argue that attempts to understand and control that fear should look beyond serious crime incidents as the sole source of the problem.
Relationships Between Crime Rates and Incarceration Rates: Further Analysis
Authors: McGuire William J. , Sheehan Richard G.
Published: March 2007

This paper presents an analysis of the relationships between aggregate crime rates and incarceration rates, with the intent of providing insights into the determinant relations between the series. A conceptual model specified in terms of primary path relations and feedback effects is first presented. This model is subsequently used as the basis for empirical investigations which draw on data for the period 1960-79. A statistical technique (Granger-Sims test) which is capable of explicitly allowing for the time-related interdependencies within and between the series is used. The re sults of estimation strongly suggest a positive relation for crime rates to incarcera tion rates and a negative relation for incarceration rates to crime rates. The public policy implications of these results are discussed, particularly with respect to Nagel's prison moratorium proposal.
The Elderly in Prison: Issues and Perspectives
Authors: Goetting Ann
Published: March 2007

The elderly prison inmate is described in terms of a personal profile, social-psychological effects of the prison environment, prison peer relationships and status hierarchy, participation in basic social institutions, and conformity to prison rules and parole. Additionally, results are reported of a recent survey conducted by the author on the existence or lack thereof of special policies, programs, and facilities for elderly inmates in United States prisons. Coverage of these topics is followed by a critique of research methods and recommendations for future research.
Juvenile Diversion: When Practice Matches Theory
Authors: OSGOOD D. WAYNE , WEICHSELBAUM HART F.
Published: March 2007

Research has shown that most juvenile diversion programs are precluded from reaching their goals of reducing coercion, social control, and stigma because they serve populations that are not, in fact, diverted from the justice system. The present study addressed the issue of whether properly implemented diversion programs would meet these goals. The question was examined in terms of service providers' and clients' views about diversion and justice programs. The study included samples from nine diversion programs and associated justice agencies. Findings for both service providers and clients were quite consistent across sites in demonstrating that diversion programs do constitute a true alternative to services from justice agencies. The study also compared the views of clients to those of service providers. It was found that clients considered diversion programs more oriented to coercion and social control and less oriented to serving clients' needs. On the other hand, clients believed that service providers held more positive views about clients than was actually the case. The findings indicate that labeling processes differ among alternative societal responses to deviance, but also that youths may not be very sensitive to the negative opinions others hold about them. The import of the study for social policy is that diversion programs hold considerable promise for reducing coercion, social control, and perhaps stigma, if problems of implementation can be overcome.
Male-Female Differences in Delinquency in a Minority-Group Sample
Authors: FARNWORTH MARGARET
Published: March 2007

This study employs multiple regression analysis with self-report data to assess two current theses concerning sex differences in delinquency: first, that the same etiological model serves to explain delinquency for males and females; and second, that sex affects delinquency in an indirect fashion through its prior influence on social relationships within the family and the school. These questions are addressed in an analysis estimating the additive and interactive effects of sex on each of four types of delinquency in a sample of black fifteen-year-olds from low-income families. Findings indicate that the significance of the sex effect and the manner in which sex operates to affect delinquency depend upon the type of delinquent outcome under investigation. The discussion focuses on the theoretical and research implications of these findings.
The Community Concept in Criminology: Toward a Social Network Approach
Authors: LEIGHTON BARRY
Published: March 2007

This article is a theoretical analysis of the concept of community in criminology. It imports a critique of the concept from urban sociology, where a guiding question has been over the decline and survival of community. A social network analytic approach is presented as an alternative model for community which captures the diversity of community types and respects its persistence as a social organizational form. The article then reviews some of the ways community has been used in criminology and offers some examples of its potential application. By freeing criminology from the traditional notion of community as a primarily local, territorially bounded phenomenon, the conceptualization of community as a network of personal networks draws attention to and facilitates insights into the nature of deviance, criminality, and the criminal justice system that might not otherwise be obtained.
Dimensions of Delinquency: Exploring the Correlates of Participation, Frequency, and Persistence of Delinquent Behavior
Authors: SMITH DOUGLAS A. , VISHER CHRISTY A. , JARJOURA G. ROGER , O'Leary Vincent
Published: March 2007

Proponents of a “criminal career” perspective argue that there are different dimensions of criminal activity-participation, frequency, seriousness, and duration-and that explanation of these dimensions may require separate explanatory models. Others maintain that different dimensions of criminal activity are realizations of a single underlying propensity toward delinquent or criminal behavior and that a general theory of criminal propensity is sufficient to explain variation in participation, frequency, and persistence of criminal activity. The article discusses theoretical and analytic issues in this debate and presents an exploratory empirical analysis on whether similar or different factors are related to participation in, frequency of, and persistence in delinquency.
Drug Testing and Pretrial Misconduct: An Experiment on the Specific Deterrent Effects of Drug Monitoring Defendants on Pretrial Release
Authors: BRITT CHESTER L. , GOTTFREDSON MICHAEL R. , GOLDKAMP JOHN S.
Published: March 2007

Recent attempts to improve the validity of prediction models of pretrial misconduct have incorporated the defendant's drug use, as indicated by drug test results. A related and important issue concerns the specific deterrent effect of drug testing the released pretrial population. Does drug monitoring of released defendants alter their drug use and chances for pretrial misconduct? The authors use experimental data from Pima County and Maricopa County, Arizona, where defendants were randomly assigned to drug monitoring and to nonmonitoring groups to explore this issue. Their findings show that in two Pima County samples, there was only a slight reduction in the rate of pretrial rearrest, and there were no differences for failure to appear at trial. In Maricopa County, their first sample shows no difference in the rate of pretrial misconduct between the monitored and nonmonitored groups. The second sample shows the monitored group to have a higher rate of pretrial failure, contrary to expectations. The authors conclude their discussion by noting the research and the policy implications these results hold for future pretrial drug testing efforts.
Social Perceptions of Third-Party Consent and the Reasonableness Test of Illinois v. Rodriguez
Authors: KAGEHIRO DOROTHY K. , LAUFER WILLIAM S. , TAYLOR RALPH B.
Published: March 2007

United States Supreme Court rulings on the reasonableness of third-party consent to warrantless searches have focused on the consentor's degree of possessory control over the place of search. The authors predicted that (1) laypersons perceive as reasonable third-party consentors only those individuals having high control over the place of search and a close social relationship with the target-person of the search (suspect); and (b) police detectives' perceptions of reasonable third-party consentors would fall intermediately between lay and legal perceptions as expressed in the caselaw. Forty-eight undergraduates and 35 police detectives were randomly assigned to experimental conditions. Two levels of third party's control over the place of search (low or high) were crossed with two levels of third party's social relationship with the target person of search (low or high). As predicted, lay perceptions regarding reasonable third-party consentors involve a more restricted range of people than legal perceptions. Contrary to expectation, police detectives' perceptions closely correspond with lay perceptions.
A Reconceptualization of General and Specific Deterrence
Authors: STAFFORD MARK C. , WARR MARK
Published: March 2007

The distinction between general and specific deterrence is widely recognized and accepted by deterrence researchers, and is used commonly to classify deterrence studies. However, the logical and empirical grounds for the distinction are not as clear as they might appear, and the conventional conception has done more to obfuscate than to clarify the deterrence process. Following a discussion of these issues, the authors propose a reconceptualization of general and specific deterrence, and apply it to several current controversies in the deterrence literature.
Defiance, Deterrence, and Irrelevance: A Theory of the Criminal Sanction
Authors: SHERMAN LAWRENCE W.
Published: March 2007

Increasing evidence shows great diversity in the effects of the criminal sanction. Legal punishment either reduces, increases, or has no effect on future crimes, depending on the type of offenders, offenses, social settings, and levels of analysis. A theory of “defiance” helps explain the conditions under which punishment increases crime. Procedural justice (fairness or legitimacy) of experienced punishment is essential for the acknowledgment of shame, which conditions deterrence; punishment perceived as unjust can lead to unacknowledged shame and defiant pride that increases future crime. Both “specific” defiance by individuals and “general” defiance by collectivities results from punishment perceived as unfair or excessive, unless deterrent effects counterbalance defiance and render the net effect of sanctions irrelevant. By implication, crime might be reduced more by police and courts treating all citizens with fairness and respect than by increasing punishments. A variety of research designs can be used to test, refine, or reject the theory.
Dealing with Design Failures in Randomized Field Experiments: Analytic Issues Regarding the Evaluation of Treatment Effects
Authors: GARTIN PATRICK R.
Published: March 2007

With an increasing number of criminal justice scholars conducting randomized field experiments, there are several analytic issues related to such studies that our discipline must begin to address more systematically. For example, treatment dilution and treatment migration are common forms of randomization implementation failure in field experiments, and a review of the criminological literature on experiments reveals a lack of consensus as to how these problems should be handled when evaluating treatment effects. In addition, issues related to statistical power and desired sample size remain unresolved. Given the relatively longer history of dealing with these issues in medicine, literature from that field is reviewed, providing additional insights regarding the dilemmas created by various design failures in randomized field experiments.
The Effect of Religion on Adolescent Delinquency Revisited
Authors: BENDA BRENT B.
Published: March 2007

This is a study of 1,093 adolescents who attended public high schools in rural Arkansas; Little Rock, Arkansas; or Baltimore, Maryland. The results do not support the hypothesis that antiascetic behaviors are more affected by religiosity than are criminal behaviors. Nor does the study support the theoretical hypothesis that religiosity is an antecedent factor that has effects that are fully mediated through other more proximate elements of social control. It also finds few real differences in the effects of religiosity on various forms of delinquency between Baltimore, Maryland; Little Rock, Arkansas; and rural areas of Arkansas. Implications of the study are discussed.
Compliance on Demand: The Public's Response to Specific Police Requests
Authors: MASTROFSKI STEPHEN D. , SNIPES JEFFREY B. , SUPINA ANNE E.
Published: March 2007

Police often attempt to restore order and prevent illegal activity by calling on citizens to alter their behavior. Achieving compliance in these circumstances is an important test of officers' skills and an essential element of effective governance. This article assesses citizen compliance with specific police requests for orderly, legal behavior in 346 encounters observed in Richmond, Virginia. Citizens were compliant in 78% of the encounters. The effects on compliance of several potential influences are estimated in a logistic regression model: instrumental factors concerning the calculation of outcomes for the citizens, factors about the legitimacy of the police intervention, personal characteristics reflecting the citizens' social status and predisposition to compliance, and the officers' skill and work orientation. Significant effects are found in each category of variables, but the results are in some cases contrary to expectations. Legitimating factors, citizens' social status, and police skill and work orientation show particularly strong effects. Implications of these findings for future research are discussed.
Excellence in Education Versus High-Stakes Standardized Testing
Authors: Hilliard Asa G.
Published: March 2007

The evidence is missing for high-stakes standardized testing of either intelligence or achievement as a reform tool, a tool for producing higher student achievement. The focus on invalid testing allows us to ignore the well-documented importance of the quality of teaching as a key factor in student achievement. There is no doubt that teachers can become powerful agents in raising the academic performance of children to high levels, regardless of common impediments such as poverty, bilingualism, and so forth. With the extreme and almost exclusive focus on high-stakes testing, we lose the opportunity to support valid staff development that would make all of our teachers powerful.
A Personal Response to those Who Bash Teacher Education
Authors: Berliner David C.
Published: March 2007

To each of a dozen common charges against formal programs of teacher education a personal response is made. Among other responses, it is argued that contextual knowledge of classrooms and schools is crucial for novice teachers; raw intelligence is insufficient for accomplished teaching; and as in other fields, accomplished performance will develop—if it ever develops—only over many years of effortful, deliberate practice. It is argued that programs of teacher education can offer the novice teacher the findings, concepts, principles, technologies, and theories from educational research that are relevant to teaching and learning, as they are provided to other professionals before they enter their fields of practice. It is concluded that high-quality teacher education programs are profoundly challenging, indispensable, inaugural components in the development of accomplished performance by teachers.
Teaching Against Globalization and the New Imperialism: Toward a Revolutionary Pedagogy
Authors: McLaren Peter , Farahmandpur Ramin
Published: March 2007

The globalization of capitalism has exacerbated the continuing reduction of education to a subsector of the economy. In the process, it has brought untold misery to the lives of millions of people throughout the world. Maintaining that critical pedagogy largely remains in the thrall of postmodern theory and politics, this article sketches out some fundamental perspectives for the development of what the authors refer to as “revolutionary pedagogy.” The aim of such a pedagogy is to encourage the development of critical consciousness among students and teachers in the interests of building working-class solidarity and opposition to global capitalism.
Characteristics Supporting Change in a Professional Development School
Authors: Rushcamp Sharon , Roehler Laura R.
Published: March 2007

We examine the work of one professional development school by studying the question, "What characteristics support change in a professional development school?" We suggest six guiding principles: (a) Role shifts of members of the school's steering group need careful nurturing; (b) the nature, direction, and pace of change need to evolve from the school community participants; (c) school community strengths need to serve as the foundation for change; (d) the expectation of continual growth needs to be established in the school community; (e) a balance needs to be struck between supporting and challenging professional development efforts; (f) the school community needs to acknowledge and embrace the complexities of curriculum and instruction.
Restructuring Schools for Multicultural Education
Authors: Sleeter Christine E.
Published: March 2007

A study of a 2-year staff development project in multicultural education that involved 30 teachers from 2 contiguous school districts is described. The discussion focuses on structural constraints to change, including time, class size, the required curriculum, the structure of programs, disjuncture between schools and communities, and the administrative and bureaucratic context of teacher work. An argument is made that staff development for multicultural education should be a part of a whole-school reorganization process, rather than a separate activity that focuses on changing teachers as individuals.
Mentors By Choice, Not Design: Help-Seeking by Beginning Teachers
Authors: Tellez Kip
Published: March 2007

This paper focuses on the informal help or advice that beginning teachers seek. The data reported in this study, gathered from 128 first-year teachers, suggest that beginning teachers are selective in whom they ask for help. They seek help from experienced teachers they perceive as friendly and caring, independent of whether the teachers are formally recognized as their mentors. Most of the teachers in the sample reported that they would seek help from someone other than their mentor if they had a serious problem in teaching. Satisfaction with help from other sources, an unwillingness to seek formal help, and organizational factors are explored as possible reasons why these beginning teachers reported that they would seek help from others rather than from their assigned mentors. Issues of teacher socialization are also discussed.