bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Fatty acid metabolism and cell proliferation: IV. Effect of prostanoid biosynthesis from endogenous fatty acid release with cyclosporin‐A
Authors: Lindsey Jenifer A. , Morisaki Nobuhiro , Stitts Judith M. , Zager Richard A. , Cornwell David G.
Published: November 2006

Cyclosporin‐A (Cyc‐A) stimulates prostanoid (PGI2) synthesis in confluent smooth muscle cells from guinea pig aorta through the release of endogenous fatty acid. Cyc‐A, like other stimulatory agents for prostanoids, promotes smooth muscle cell proliferation and prostanoid synthesis in these proliferating cells. Indomethacin, a cyclooxygenase inhibitor, and exogenous arachidonic acid block the Cyc‐A effect on cell proliferation.
Sterols from the gorgonianLephogorgia subcompressa
Authors: Rovirosa Juana , Muñoz Orlando , Martín Aurelio San , Seldes Alicia M. , Gros Eduardo G.
Published: November 2006

The free sterols of the gorgonianLephogorgia subcompressa were isolated and characterized by means of gas chromatography (GC) and gas chromatography‐mass spectrometry (GC‐MS) techniques. The mixture contains C27 derivatives as the major sterols besides minor quantities of C26, C28, C29 compounds and also a C30 compound, gorgosterol.
Reduction of hepatic stearoyl‐CoA desaturase activity in rats fed iron‐deficient diets
Authors: Ananda Rao G. , Crane R. Thomas , Larkin Edward C.
Published: November 2006

The effect of feeding iron‐deficient diets to rats on the hepatic stearoyl‐CoA desaturase activity was examined since iron is present in the Δ9 desaturation system. Separate groups of rats were fed low iron diets without fat (FF‐Fe) or containing either 14% hydrogenated coconut oil (HCNO‐Fe) or 14% corn oil (CO‐Fe) for 10 weeks. Diets supplemented with iron (FF+Fe, HCNO+Fe and CO+Fe) were fed to the corresponding control groups. Stearoyl‐CoA desaturase activity in the liver microsomes of rats in the CO+Fe group (2.55±0.17 nmol oleate produced/min/mg protein) was about half of that in the HCNO+Fe (4.76±0.15) and FF+Fe (5.38±0.18) diet groups. In rats which were fed iron‐deficient diets, hepatic desaturase levels were reduced significantly as compared to those of controls (1.0±0.06, CO‐Fe; 2.11±0.13, HCNO‐Fe; 3.65±0.1, FF‐Fe). The hemoglobin (Hb) and hematocrit (Hct) levels in blood showed moderate iron depletion only in the CO‐Fe group. Hence, dietary polyunsaturated fat promotes the onset of iron deficiency. Furthermore, even before the blood Hb and Hct values express iron depletion, the effect of feeding low iron diets was observed by the reduction of hepatic Δ9 desaturase activity in rats fed HCNO‐Fe and FF‐Fe diets.
Code-carrying theories
Authors: Jacobs Bart , Smetsers Sjaak , Schreur Ronny Wichers
Published: November 2006

This paper is both a position paper on a particular approach in program correctness, and also a contribution to this area. The approach entails the generation of programs (code) from the executable content of logical theories. This capability already exists within the main theorem provers like Coq, Isabelle and ACL2 and PVS. Here we will focus on issues portraying the use of this methodology, rather than the underlying theory. We illustrate the power of the approach within PVS via two case studies (on unification and compression) that lead to actual running code. We also demonstrate its flexibility by extending the program generation capabilities. This paper fits in a line of ongoing integration of programming and proving.
Interaction between flowers, ants and pollinators: additional evidence for floral repellence against ants
Authors: Junker Robert , Chung Arthur Y. C. , Blüthgen Nico
Published: November 2006

It has been commonly suggested that ants negatively affect plant pollination, particularly in the tropics. We studied ant–flower–pollinator interactions in a lowland rainforest in Borneo. Frequency and duration of pollinator visits were compared between flowers attended by ants and flowers from which ants were excluded. In all four plant species studied, the activity of ants decreased the rate and/or duration of the pollinators’ floral visits. For this and other reasons it is expected that plants repel ants from flowers during anthesis. We tested this prediction for a different set of plant species in which we observed the behaviour ofDolichoderus thoracicusants when encountering flowers. In eight out of 18 plant species studied, ants showed a significantly higher rejection rate when they encountered flowers than when they encountered controls. Our results are thus consistent with the hypothesis that ants may negatively affect plant fitness by reduced intensity of pollinator visits and that ants are repelled from flowers of many tropical plant species, although this repellence is clearly not ubiquitous.
Experimental investigation on the bi-directional growing mechanism of the foils laminate approach in AAO fabrication
Authors: Fan Jen-Yi , Chien Ming-Chun , Wang Gou-Jen
Published: November 2006

The foils laminate approach can be implemented to grow bi-directional porous pattern from both the top and bottom surfaces of an aluminum foil. It was intuitively inferred that leakage of etchant from the clamped area can be a feasible cause to have the upward pores grow in the notches of the unpolished surface. This leakage hypothesis has been disproved by the leakage blocking and triple layers laminate experiments. It is further inferred that the non-uniformity of the thickness or material properties of the aluminum foil causes non-uniformed anodization rate along the sample surface. The fast oxidized areas create a pathway for leakage such that a shorter porous array from the back side is observed. Experiments with the process time being reduced by two hours validate this inference
Pan‐heating of low‐linolenic acid and partially hydrogenated soybean oils
Authors: Soheili Kambiz C. , Artz William E. , Tippayawat Preevanooch
Published: November 2006

Genetically modified low‐linolenic acid soybean oil (LL‐SBO) was compared to partially hydrogenated soybean oil (PH‐SBO). Samples were heated on a Teflon pan at ∼180°C until a selected end point of ≥20% polymer content was reached. High‐performance size‐exclusion chromatography analysis indicated the PH‐SBO contained >20% polymer after 20 min of heating, whereas the LL‐SBO sample contained >20% polymer after 10 min. Supercritical fluid chromatography analysis indicated degradation rates of 0.161±0.011 min−1 for LL‐SBO and 0.086±0.004 min−1 for PH‐SBO. The volatile compounds were identified and quantitated with static head‐space‐GC‐MS. 1‐Heptene (239.9 ppm) and hexanal (1486.1 ppm) were present at the greates concentration among the volatile compounds in LL‐SBO. The volatile compounds present in the greatest concentrations in heated PH‐SBO were hexanal (376.9 ppm) and pentane (82.1 ppm). After 10 min of heating, the LL‐SBO oil FFA value (2.66%), p‐anisidine value (386.5 abs/g oil), Food Oil Sensor reading (18.75), and color intensity (Y=4.0, R=1.0) were significantly greater than those of PH‐SBO after 14 min of heating (4.28%, 298.5 abs/g oil, 16.08, Y=1.0, R=0.1, respectively). There was a significant difference in the degradation rates between LL‐SBO and PH‐SBO (P<0.05). The PH‐SBO was more stable than the LL‐SBO.
Simultaneous determination of ascorbyl palmitate and nine phenolic antioxidants in vegetable oils and edible fats by HPLC
Authors: Perrin Christian , Meyer Liliane
Published: November 2006

This study describes an HPLC method for the simultaneous determination of ascorbyl palmitate (AP) and synthetic phenolic antioxidants (SPA) in vegetable oils and edible fats in a single run. To achieve this, citric acid was used in combination with isoascorbic acid for stabilization of AP in standard and sample solutions and for deactivation of oxidizing agents in the HPLC system. SPA and AP were directly extracted from samples with methanol containing 1 mg/mL each of citric acid and isoascorbic acid. HPLC analytical and guard columns were pretreated with 90% methanol/acetonitrile 1∶1 (vol/vol), containing 4 mg/mL each of citric acid and isoascorbic acid, and 10% water at pH 3, for 30 min. Under these conditions, AP was stable for about 7 h at room temperature. The relative SD of repeatability for AP (0.5–3.6%) was comparable to that for SPA (0.3–2.8%). Average recovery from spiked samples was 100% for AP, 98–103% for SPA, and 85% for BHT (up to 90% using double extraction with methanol).
Effect of enzymatic transesterification with flaxseed oil on the high‐melting glycerides of palm stearin and palm olein
Authors: Long K. , Zubir I. , Hussin A. B. , Idris N. , Ghazali H. M. , Lai O. M.
Published: November 2006

The effects of enzymatic transesterification on the melting behavior of palm stearin and palm olein, each blended separately with flaxseed oil in the ratio of 90∶10 and catalyzed by various types of lipases, were studied. The commercial lipases used were Lipozyme IM, Novozyme 435, and myceliumbound lipases of Aspergillus flavus and A. oryzae. The slip melting point (SMP) of the palm stearin/flaxseed oil (PS/FS) mixture transesterified with lipases decreased, with the highest drop noted for the mixture transesterified with Lipozyme IM. However, when palm stearin was replaced with palm olein, the SMP of the palm olein/flaxseed oil (PO/FS) mixture increased, with the commercial lipases causing an increase of 41 to 48% compared to the nontransesterified material. As expected, the solid fat content (SFC) of the transesterified PS/FS was lower at all temperatures than that of the nontransesterified PS/FS sample. In contrast, all transesterified PO/FS increased in SFC, particularly at 10°C. Results from DSc and HPLC analyses showed that the high‐melting glycerides, especially the tripalmitin of palm stearin, were hydrolyzed. Consequently, 1,3‐dipalmitoylglycerol was found to accumulate in the mixture. There was no difference in the FA compositions between the transesterified and nontransesterified mixtures.
Noncatalytic alcoholysis kinetics of soybean oil
Authors: Dasari Mohanprasad A. , Goff Michael J. , Suppes Galen J.
Published: November 2006

Reaction kinetics for the alcoholysis of soybean oil with methanol, ethanol, and isopropanol were evaluated in the absence of catalyst. Metal reactor surfaces catalyzed these reactions, so the reactions were conducted in glass capillary tubes at 120, 150, and 180°C. The reactivity of the alcohols increased with decreasing carbon number. Higher temperatures promoted faster reactions. Higher alcohol stoichiometries did not significantly increase reaction rates; this was attributed to the limited solubility of the alcohol in the soybean oil. At less than 20% conversion, the solubility of the alcohol in the oil phase continuously increased, resulting in increased reaction rates. At approximately 20% conversion, the reaction systems became homogeneous until a glycerine phase was formed at high conversions. In addition to their fundamental value, these data provided a basis on which catalytic reactions can be investigated between 100 and 200°C.
Intrinsic sulfite content of isolated soy proteins
Authors: Stine C. J. , Boatright W. L. , Lu G.
Published: November 2006

Commercial isolated soy proteins (ISP) contain 22 and 31 ppm sulfite as measured by the optimized Monier‐Williams method (Sulfites in Foods,Official Methods of Analysis, 16th edn., AOAC, Washington, DC, 1995, Official Method 990.28). A method was developed to cryogenically trap and quantify the sulfur dioxide produced by this method using GC‐MS. The same commercial ISP samples were found to contain 17 and 26 ppm sulfite, respectively, with GC‐MS. ISP prepared in the laboratory contained 33 ppm sulfur dioxide, and defatted soybean flakes contained only a trace. Adding dithiothreitol after beginning the boiling step of the Monier‐Williams assay had no significant effect on the sulfite content of a commercial ISP, whereas adding dithiothreitol prior to bringing the sample to a boil reduced the sulfite content from 17 to about 1 ppm.
Quantification of soybean oil ethanolysis with 1H NMR
Authors: Costa Neto Pedro Ramos , Balparda Caro Miguel Soriano , Mazzuco Lilian Maria , Nascimento Maria da Graça
Published: November 2006

In this study, proton NMR spectroscopy (200 MHz) was used for quantifying the content of ethyl esters in known mixtures of soybean oil and ethyl soyate (biodiesel). For this purpose, the peak areas of ester ethoxy and glycerol methylenic peaks in the region of 4.05–4.40 ppm were measured and a calibration plot of the respective peak areas vs. the known composition of the oil/ethyl ester mixtures was used. The transesterification values determined in this way were compared with viscosity and total glycerol determinations and a good correlation was obtained. Therefore, for routine analysis, the conversion (in %) of oil to ethyl esters was determined. The methodology presented in this work proved to be quicker and simpler than others reported in the literature, such as GC and/or HPLC.
Detection of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in commonly consumed edible oils and their likely intake in the Indian population
Authors: Pandey Manoj K. , Mishra Krishn K. , Khanna Subhash K. , Das Mukul
Published: November 2006

Edible oils such as coconut, groundnut, hydrogenated vegetable, linseed, mustard, olive, palm, refined vegetable, rice bran, safflower, sesame, soybean, and sunflower were analyzed for the presence of light and heavy polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) residues using liquid‐liquid extraction, cleanup on a silica gel column, and resolution and determination by HPLC using a fluorescence detector. Ten PAH viz. acenaphthene, anthracene, benzo(a)pyrene, benzo(e)pyrene, benz(ghi)perylene, chrysene, coronene, cyclopenta(def)phenanthrene, phenanthrene, and pyrene were monitored. Analysis of 296 oil samples showed that 88.5% (262) samples were contaminated with different PAH. Of 262 contaminated edible oil samples, 66.4% of the samples showed PAH content of more than the 25 μg/kg recommended by the German Society for Fat Science. The total PAH content was highest in virgin olive oil (624 μg/kg) and lowest in refined vegetable oils (40.2 μg/kg). The maximum content (265 μg/kg) of heavy PAH was found in olive oil and the minimum (4.6 μg/kg) in rice bran oil. Phenanthrene was present in 58.3% of the oil samples analyzed, followed by anthracene (53%). Among the heavy PAH, benzo(e)pyrene was observed in 31.2% of the samples followed by benzo(a)pyrene (25.5%). The intake of PAH was highest through olive oil (20.8 μg/day) followed by soybean oil (5.0 μg/day) and lowest through refined vegetable oil (1.3 μg/day). Based on these monitoring studies, international and national guidelines for permissible levels of PAH can be prepared so as to restrict the intake of these toxic contaminants.
Regulating the β′→β polymorphic transition in food fats
Authors: Rousseau D. , Hodge S. M. , Nickerson M. T. , Paulson A. T.
Published: November 2006

Hydrogenated cottonseed oil (HCSO) is commonly used as a β′‐stable fat in margarines and shortenings. In the present study, the crystallization behavior of HCSO is altered via dilution, agitation, tempering regime, and the addition of an emulsifier [polyglycerol polyricinoleate (PgPr)]. Key properties assessed include crystal morphology (with polarized light microscopy), polymorphic behavior (with X‐ray diffraction), and crystallization kinetics (with DSC). It is demonstrated that on considerable dilution with canola oil (4% w/w), HCSO can be crystallized in the β′ or β polymorph with associated changes in crystal morphology, depending on tempering regime. Crystallization from the melt to 25°C results in the β′‐form, as there is insufficient supercooling to form the β polymorph but enough to form the metastable β′. With cooling from the melt to 5°C, there is adequate supercooling for the δ polymorph to form, with the presence of the canola oil facilitating the transformation toward this stable phase. Static vs. crystallization under agitation does not lead to visible changes in either polymorphic behavior or crystal morphology. However, there is extensive secondary nucleation and growth as a result of crystals breaking off accreting agglomerates. The presence of PgPr, added as a crystal modifier, does not affect the final crystal polymorph or morphology, except under one set of conditions—crystallization from the melt to 5°C with agitation, whereby it considerably alters crystallization behavior.
Enrichment of hazelnut oil with long‐chain n−3 PUFA by lipase‐catalyzed acidolysis: Optimization by response surface methodology
Authors: Can A. , Özçelik B.
Published: November 2006

Response surface methodology (RSM) was used to determine optimal conditions for the lipase‐catalyzed enrichment of hazelnut oil by incorporating n−3 PUFA from menhaden oil. A four‐factor, five‐level central composite design was used, and hazelnut oil containing n−3 PUFA was successfully produced. The effects of incubation time, temperature, substrate molar ratio, and water content on the incorporation ratio were investigated. From the evaluation of response surface graphs, the optimal conditions for incorporation of long‐chain n−3 PUFA into hazelnut oil were identified as 45–60°C for temperature, 30–40 h for reaction time, 1∶1–2∶1 (mol hazelnut oil/mol menhaden oil concentrate) for substrate molar ratio, and 3–5% (w/w) for water content. Experiments conducted at optimized conditions predicted by the model equation obtained from RSM yielded structured lipids with 19.6% n−3 PUFA. This value agreed well with that predicted by the model. This structured lipid containing PUFA may be nutritionally more beneficial than unmodified hazelnut oil.
Lesquerella fendleri protein fractionation and characterization
Authors: Wu Y. Victor , Hojilla‐Evangelista Mila P.
Published: November 2006

Lesquerella fendleri is a promising new crop whose seed contains hydroxy FATG with potential industrial uses as well as substantial amounts of valuable gums. The defatted L. fendleri seeds also contain more than 30% protein. The objective of this study is to process and characterize this protein component for possible future uses in food. Hexane‐defatted seed has more than 30% protein content. Defatted lesquerella meal was extracted sequentially with 0.5 M sodium chloride (2×), water, 70% ethanol, and 0.1 N sodium hydroxide (2×). Each sodium chloride extract was dialyzed against deionized water and centrifuged to separate the water‐soluble fraction (albumin) from the salt‐soluble fraction (globulin) before freeze‐drying. The ethanol extract and the neutralized sodium hydroxide extracts (glutelin) were dialyzed against water and freeze‐dried. Albumin had the highest proportion of lysine and sulfur amino acids per 16 g nitrogen among all the fractions analyzed. Glutelin and globulin accounted for the highest amount of protein nitrogen. SDS‐PAGE of the reduced albumin, globulin, and glutelin showed the presence of several protein bands with M.W. ranging from 7 to 98 kDa. Nitrogen solubility of defatted lesquerella meal from pH 2 to 12 indicated a solubility minimum of 15% around pH 4.2 and a solubility of 75% at pH 11.5. Nonprotein nitrogen of defatted meal was 12% of total nitrogen. Defatted lesquerella meal has the potential for food use based on good nitrogen solubility and good amino acid composition.
Production of quasi‐monodisperse emulsions with large droplets using a micromachined device
Authors: Izumida Yasuhiko , Sugiura Shinji , Oda Tatsuya , Satake Mitsuo , Nakajima Mitsutoshi
Published: November 2006

The development and operation of a modified method for the preparation of quasi‐monodisperse (CV<16%) emulsions are reported. The device uses a microfabricated‐nozzle (MN) array, produced by micromachining technology, to achieve a higher rate of emulsification [76.8 m3/(m2·h)] than previously reported for microchannel (MC) emulsification methods. The dispersed phase is extruded into a continuous phase through the MN, and the emulsions droplets are formed by viscous drag force of the continuous phase. The droplet diameter decreased with an increase in the flow velocity and viscosity in the continuous phase, which was explained by the theoretical model. The range of droplet diameters produced (130 to 370 μm) was larger than in previously reported MC emulsification, membrane emulsification, and shear‐rupturing methods.
Triacylglycerol composition of oil from Pistacia atlantica fruit growing in Algeria
Authors: Yousfi M. , Nadjemi B. , Belal R. , Bombarda I. , Gaydou E. M.
Published: November 2006

The distribution of FA between the sn‐2 and sn‐1,3 positions of TAG from Pistacia atlantica fruit oil of Algeria has been determined. Unsaturated FA showed a preference for the internal position. Linoleic and oleic acids occurred predominantly in the sn‐2 position with lesser amounts evenly distributed between the sn‐1 and sn‐3 positions, as generally found in vegetable oils. The oil was found to contain TAG that were trisaturated (0.93%), disaturated (15.06%), monosaturated (44.64%), and triunsaturated (38.10%). The distribution of the TAG calculated using the lipase hydrolysis technique is slightly different from that determined with HPLC. This is particularly true for trioleoyl and trilinoleoylglycerols. In contrast, the agreement between theory and experiment is good for TAG containing two palmitoyl and one oleoyl, one oleoyl and two linoleoyl, and one palmitoyl and two oleoyl chains.
Effect of randomization on the oxidative stability of corn oil
Authors: Wang Tong , Jiang Yongzhi , Hammond Earl G.
Published: November 2006

Randomized corn oil TAG oxidized much faster than natural oil, but after purification with alumina, they oxidized at the same rate. We showed that this effect could not be attributed to a difference, in total tocopherols in the randomized and natural oils. Polar material recovered from the alumina treatment was fractionated by TLC, and a pro‐oxidant effect was found in the fractions containing MAG and DAG. However, MAG and DAG, although mild pro‐oxidant could not account for the pro‐oxidant effect generated by randomization. No other compounds could be detected in the MAG fraction by MS. The pro‐oxidant effect of randomized oil disappeared when EDTA or citric acid was added in sufficient amounts. The pro‐oxidant effect of randomized corn oil was increased by the incorporation of additional copper or iron at a concentration that did not catalyze oxidation of the purified oil. Treatment of corn oil with ascorbic acid, ascorbyl‐6‐palmitate, ethyl acetoacetate, ethyl diacetoacetate, and acetylacetone did not reproduce the effect of the unknown pro‐oxidant. Although the identity of the pro‐oxidant is still unknown, we have confirmed that it is produced during randomization; it does not have pro‐oxidant activity alone, but it facilitates the catalytic activity of the transition metal ions.
In situ monitoring of solid fat content by means of pulsed nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometry and ultrasonics
Authors: Martini Silvana , Bertoli Constantin , Herrera Maria Lidia , Neeson Ian , Marangoni Alejandro
Published: November 2006

An ultrasonic technique was developed to study the crystallization process of edible fats on‐line. A chirp wave was used instead of the conventional pulser signal, thus achieving a higher signal‐to‐noise ratio. This enabled measurements to be made in concentrated systems [≈20% solid fat content (SFC)] through a 8.11‐cm thick sample without significant signal loss. Fat samples were crystallized at 20, 25, and 30°C at a constant agitation rate of 400 rpm for 90 min. The crystallization process was followed by ultrasonic spectroscopy and a low‐resolution pulsed nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometer. Specific relationships were found between ultrasonic parameters [integrated response, time of flight (TF), and full width half maximum] and SFC. TF, which is an indirect measurement of the ultrasonic velocity (v), was highly correlated to SFC (r2>0.9) in a linear fashion (v=2.601 SFC+1433.0).
Attenuation of ultrasonic waves: Influence of microstructure and solid fat content
Authors: Martini Silvana , Bertoli Constantin , Herrera Maria Lidia , Neeson Ian , Marangoni Alejandro
Published: November 2006

Ultrasonic technology can be used to monitor the crystallization of fats and determine solid fat content (SFC) online. Ultrasonic waves are attenuated as crystals form and grow, and this attenuation occurs first at higher frequencies. The attenuation of the ultrasonic signal does not depend on the induction times of crystallization of the systems, or on their thermal behavior; but it does depend on SFC and on microstructure, particularly on the crystal size. At low SFC values (≈5%), bigger crystals generate more attenuation. At intermediate SFC values (≈10%), crystal size does not affect signal attenuation and SFC is the key factor responsible for signal attenuation. At high SFC values (up to 20%), crystal size again seems to be the factor that controls attenuation.
Study by proton nuclear magnetic resonance of the thermal oxidation of oils rich in oleic acyl groups
Authors: Guillén María D. , Ruiz Ainhoa
Published: November 2006

The oxidation process of olive, hazelnut, and peanut oils at 70°C with circulating air has been studied by means of 1H NMR. The evolution of the process, including the rate of degradation of the acyl groups and of formation and degradation of primary oxidation products, as well as the rate of formation of secondary oxidation products such as aldehydes, is commented on and compared with the oxidation of oils rich in polyunsaturated acyl groups. Differences that are due not only to the rate of the processes but also to the nature and concentration of the generated aldehydes are observed. Oils rich in monounsaturated acyl groups generate smaller amounts of the geno‐and cytotoxic oxygenated aldehydes than oils rich in polyunsaturated acyl groups.
Comparative study of total lipids in beef using chlorinated solvent and low‐toxicity solvent methods
Authors: Tanamati Augusto , Oliveira Claudio C. , Visentainer Jesui V. , Matsushita Makoto , de Souza Nilson E.
Published: November 2006

Nine extraction methods (three using chlorinated and six nonchlorinated solvents) were compared for determining lipids in samples of low‐(<5%) and high‐fat (>20%) ground beef. The nine methods investigated were: Folch, Lees, and Sloane Stanley (FLS); Bligh and Dyer (BD); Bligh and Dyer modified by Undeland, Harrod, and Lingnert (BDU); Bligh and Dyer modified by Smedes (BDS); Hara and Radin (HR); Schmid, Bondzynski, and Ratzalaff (SBR); Roese‐Gottlieb (RG); Burton, Webb, and Ingold (BWI); and Soxhlet (SE). The BDS and HR methods do not include solvents such as chloroform and methanol and can be recommended for meat samples that have both low and high fat content. If the use of organic solvents is not critical, the FLS and the BD extraction methods yield the highest results, but the FLS is more expensive owing to the high amount of solvent required. Without considering the toxicity of the solvents, the three BD extraction methods provided the best yields.
Toward increasing erucic acid content in oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) through the combination with genes for high oleic acid
Authors: Sasongko Nurtjahjo Dwi , Möllers Christian
Published: November 2006

Erucic acid (22∶1) is a valuable renewable resource that has several applications in the oleochemical industry. High 22∶1 rapeseed (HEAR) contains around 50% 22∶1. For its technical use it is desirable to increase the 22∶1 content and to decrease the eicosenoic acid (20∶1), PUFA (18∶2+18∶3), and saturated FA (16∶0+18∶0) contents. In the present experiment, HEAR was crossed to high oleic acid rapeseed (ca. 85% 18∶1) with the hypothesis that a combination of the involved genes should lead to a reduced 18∶1 desaturation and to an increased availability of oleoyl‐CoA, which should result in enhanced 22∶1 synthesis. A NIR spectroscopic calibration for 22∶1 was developed for single seeds, and the calibration was used to select, in a nondestructive manner, F2 seeds high in 22∶1. Selected F2 seeds were sown in the field and F3 seeds were harvested. The results of the FA analysis showed recombinant genotypes with increased total monounsaturated FA (22∶1+20∶1+18∶1) of up to 89% and decreased PUFA (<8%) and saturated FA content (<3.5%). There was no significant difference in 22∶1 content, but a 3 to 5% increase in 20∶1 content was observed in comparison to the HEAR parental cv. Maplus. Results were confirmed following cultivation of selected plant material a second year in the field. The present study revealed that there are other biochemical limitations than the pool of available oleoyl‐CoA that restrict FA elongation to 22∶1 in rapeseed. The generated high 22∶1 plant material with an increased 18∶1 content may be useful in further studies to identify these limitations.
The effect of supercooling on crystallization of cocoa butter‐vegetable oil blends
Authors: Pérez‐Martínez David , Alvarez‐Salas C. , Morales‐Rueda J. A. , Toro‐Vazquez J. F. , Charó‐Alonso M. , Dibildox‐Alvarado E.
Published: November 2006

The solid fat content (SFC), Avrami index (n), crystallization rate (z), fractal dimension (D), and the pre‐exponential term [log(γ)] were determined in blends of cocoa butter (CB) with canola oil or soybean oil crystallized at temperatures (TCr) between 9.5 and 13.5°C. The relationship of these parameters with the elasticity (G′) and yield stress (σ*) values of the crystallized blends was investigated, considering the equilibrium melting temperature (TMo) and the supercooling (i.e., TCro−TMo) present in the blends. In general, supercooling was higher in the CB/soybean oil blend [TMo=65.8°C (±3.0°C)] than in the CB/canola oil blend [TMo=33.7°C (±4.9°C)]. Therefore, under similar TCr values, higher SFC and z values (P<0.05) were obtained with the CB/soybean oil blend. However, independent of TCr TAG followed a spherulitic crystal growth mechanism in both blends. Supercooling calculated with melting temperatures from DSC thermograms explained the SFC and z behavior just within each blend. However, supercooling calculated with TMo explained both the SFC and z behavior within each blend and between the blends. Thus, independent of the blend used, SFC described the behavior of G′eq and σ* and pointed out the presence of two supercooling regions. In the lower supercooling region, G′eq and σ* decreased as SFC increased between 20 and 23%. In this region, the crystal network structures were formed by a mixture of small β′ crystals and large β crystals. In contrast, in the higher supercooling region (24 to 27% SFC), G′eq and σ* had a direct relationship with SFC, and the crystal network structure was formed mainly by small β′ crystals. However, we could not find a particular relationship that described the overall behavior of G′eq and σ* as a function of D and independent of the system investigated.
Characterization of primary fatty amides produced by lipase‐catalyzed amidation of hydroxylated fatty acids
Authors: Levinson William E. , Min Kuo Tsung , Weisleder David
Published: November 2006

A novel hydroxylated primary fatty amide was produced from lesquerolic acid by direct amidation with ammonia catalyzed by immobilized Pseudozyma (Candida) antarctica lipase B (Novozym 435) in organic solvent. The amides of ricinoleic acid and oleic acid were also produced for comparison. The hydroxy FA were transformed at comparable rates to that of oleic acid. The rate of amide formation was greater for the longerchain lesquerolic acid than for ricinoleic acid. All products exhibited characteristic primary‐amide mass spectrum peaks with a base peak at m/z 59 and a strong ion fragment at m/z 72. Other peaks present are consistent with cleavage on either side of the hydroxyl position. The mass spectra, together with 1H and 13C NMR data, suggest that the products of lipase‐catalyzed direct amidation of ricinoleic acid and lesquerolic acid are 12‐hydroxy‐9(Z)‐octadecenamide and 14‐hydroxy‐11(Z)‐eicosenamide, respectively.
Performance of sunflower oil with high levels of oleic and palmitic acids during industrial frying of almonds, peanuts, and sunflower seeds
Authors: Marmesat S. , Mancha M. , Ruiz‐Méndez M. V. , Dobarganes M. C.
Published: November 2006

High‐oleic, high‐palmitic sunflower oil (HOHPSO) is a seed oil from a new mutant sunflower line characterized by increased levels of both oleic acid (>50%) and palmitic acid (>25%) and a high oxidative stability. In this study, its performance at frying temperature was compared with that of palm olein in thermoxidative assays (4 h, 180°C). Also, industrial discontinuous frying of almonds, peanuts, and sunflower seeds (200 kg of each product) was carried out to define both the performance of HOHPSO and the main changes undergone by the foods. The evaluation of polar compounds and their distribution in the main groups, i.e., polymers, oxidized monomers, and DAG, as well as changes in tocopherols and oxidative stability, demonstrated the excellent behavior of HOHPSO during thermoxidation and frying. The increase in polar compounds and the loss of tocopherols and stability were much lower for HOHPSO than for palm olein under identical heating conditions. Only 1.3% polar compounds were formed during industrial discontiuous frying for 4 h and the oil stability increased, probably due to the formation of antioxidant compounds. As for the foods, the FA composition of the surface oil was clearly different from that corresponding to the internal oil, the former denoting the presence of HOHPSO in high concentration, particularly in fried sunflower seeds. Changes in oil stability of the foods attributable to the frying process clearly demonstrate the interest in using a highly stable oil such as HOHPSO to protect the surface against oxidation during food storage.
Effect of sprouting on the quality and composition of canola seed and oil
Authors: Barthet Véronique J. , Daun James K.
Published: November 2006

Sprouting has been considered as a damage factor in grading canola. This project deals with the evaluation of the effect of sprouting on the quality and composition of canola seed and oil. Sprouted seeds had lower oil content than nonsprouted seeds as determined by exhaustive petroleum ether extraction. The difference, although statistically significant, was small, less than 0.1% oil at the maximum level of sprouting allowed in topgrade canola. There were no differences in chlorophyll contents or moisture contents between sound and sprouted seeds. Sprouted seeds had significantly higher levels of FFA and crude protein than sound seeds. Oxidation parameters (diene and aldehyde) were higher in oils from sound seeds than oils from sprouted seeds, but there was no statistically significant difference in PV. Sprouted seeds had higher levels of tocopherols and sucrose, but lower levels of raffinose, stachyose, and total sugars than sound seeds. There was no difference in overall FA composition of the oil between sound and sprouted seeds. The second extraction of the Federation of Oils Seeds and Fat Associations (FOSFA) extraction method, which allowed the extraction of more polar lipids, contained significantly more saturated FA. However, this was not significant in the overall FA composition of the oils because this fraction counted for about 2% of the total lipid content. The presence of sprouted seed had an effect on results for oil and crude protein determined by NIR as compared with results by FOSFA extraction, or pulsed NMR for oil and Dumas combustion for crude protein. Addition of sprouted seed samples to the NIR, calibration set overcame this problem. These results suggested that sprouting did not have a highly damaging effect on the quality and composition of canola seed and oil when less than 10% of the seeds in a sample were sprouting.
Biodiesel from an alkaline transesterification reaction of soybean oil using ultrasonic mixing
Authors: Colucci José A. , Borrero Ernesto E. , Alape Fabio
Published: November 2006

The feasibility of using ultrasonic mixing to obtain biodiesel from soybean oil was established. The alkaline transesterification reaction was studied at three levels of temperature and four alcohol‐to‐oil ratios. Excellent yields were obtained for all conditions. For example, at 40°C with ultrasonic agitation and a molar ratio of 6∶1 methanol/oil, the conversion to FAME was greater than 99.4% after about 15 min. For a 6∶1 methanol/oil ratio and a 25 to 60°C temperature range, a pseudo second‐order kinetic model was confirmed for the hydrolysis of DG and TG. Reaction rate constants were three to five times higher than those reported in the literature for, mechanical agitation. We suspect that the observed mass transfer and kinetic rate enhancements were due to the increase in interfacial area and activity of the microscopic and macroscopic bubbles formed when ultrasonic waves of 20 kHz were applied to a two‐phase reaction system.
A kinetic model for bleaching vegetable oils
Authors: Gomes de Oliveira Cristiana , Porto Luismar Marques
Published: November 2006

Very little data and very few kinetic models are available describing and evaluating the performance of bleaching processes, earths, and equipment. This work presents a general kinetic model for the adsorption of pigments by adsorbent earths in several edible oils. It reports the kinetic parameters found for two bleaching earths (one developed in the laboratory and one commercial) for the clarification of soybean oil, as well as their activation energies. The proposed kinetic model is second order in the dimensionless pigment concentration and is in good agreement with our experimental data. A very simple mechanistic explanation based on adsorption/deactivation is offered to justify its application. We also present mathematical modeling based on balance equations to show how the kinetic parameters can be used for bleaching earths and for industrial equipment evaluation and design, such as for the transient fed‐batch stirred bleaching vessel. The model seems appropriate to represent data under different operating conditions such as temperature and adsorbent load. The simulation shows that startup procedures are very important in the bleaching process—at least as important as the batch step, in which the oil color reaches its desired standard.
Solvent optimization for efficient enzymatic monoacylglycerol production based on a glycerolysis reaction
Authors: Damstrup M. L. , Jensen T. , Sparsø F. V. , Kiil S. Z. , Jensen A. D. , Xu X.
Published: November 2006

This study was aimed at screening solvent systems of varying polarities to identify suitable solvents for efficient and practical enzymatic glycerolysis. Several pure solvents and solvent mixtures were screened in a batch reaction system consisting of glycerol, sunflower oil, and Novozym® 435 lipase. Out of 13 solvents tested, tert‐butanol and tert‐pentanol were the only pure solvents suitable for a fast glycerolysis reaction with an acceptably high formation of MAG. In these systems, MAG contents of 68–82% were achieved within a few hours. Mixtures of tert‐butanol/hexane, tert‐pentanol/hexane, and tert‐butanol/tert‐pentanol in varying ratios also gave high MAG contents (58–78%). The tertiary alcohols tert‐butanol and tert‐pentanol, or mixtures of one of them with hexane, seemed to be the best choice among the solvents tested with respect to reaction efficiency, practical industrial applications, and steric hydroxyl group hindrance, which suppresses the ester formation with FA.
Lipase‐catalyzed transesterification of trilinolein or trilinolenin with selected phenolic acids
Authors: Sabally Kebba , Karboune Salwa , St‐Louis Richard , Kermasha Selim
Published: November 2006

The enzymatic transesterification of selected phenolic acids with TAG, including trilinolein (TLA) and trillinolenin (TLNA), was investigated in an organic solvent medium. Maximal bioconversion of 66% was obtained with a dihydrocaffeic acid (DHCA) to TLA ratio of 1∶2 after 5 d of reaction. Similarly, the highest bioconversion of 62% was obtained with a DHCA to TLNA ratio of 1∶2, but after 12 d of reaction. However, a ratio of 1∶4 DHCA/TLA decreased the bioconversion to 53%. Transesterification reactions of ferulic acid with both TAG, using a ratio of 1∶2, resulted in low bioconversion of 16 and 14% with TLA and TLNA, respectively. The overall results indicated that bioconversion of phenolic MAG was higher than that of phenolic DAG. The structures of mono‐ and dilinoleyl dihydrocaffeate as well as those of mono‐ and dilinolenyl dihydrocaffeate were confirmed by LC‐MS analyses. The phenolic lipids demonstrated moderate radical‐scavenging activity.
Lipase‐catalyzed acidolysis of menhaden oil with pinolenic acid
Authors: Kim In‐Hwan , Hill Charles G.
Published: November 2006

Lipase‐catalyzed acidolysis of menhaden oil with a pinolenic acid (PLA) concentrate, prepared from pine nut oil, was studied in a solvent‐free system. The PLA concentrate was prepared by urea complexation of the FA obtained by saponification of pine nut oil. Eight commercial lipases from different sources were screened for their ability to catalyze the acidolysis reaction. Two different types of structured lipids (SL) were synthesized. The first type, which has PLA residues as a primary FA residue at the sn‐1,3 positions of the TAG, was synthesized using a 1,3‐regiospecific lipase, namely, Lipozyme RM IM from Rhizomucor miehei. The second type of SL, which has PLA residues as a primary FA residue at both the sn‐1,3 and sn‐2 positions of the TAG, was synthesized using a nonspecific lipase, namely, Novozym 435 from Candida antarctica. The effects of variations in enzyme loading, temperature, and reaction time on PLA incorporation into the oil were monitored by GC analyses. The optimal temperature and enzyme loading for synthesis of the two types of SL were 50°C and 10% of the total weight of substrates for both enzymes. The optimal reaction time for the synthesis with Lipozyme RM IM was 16h, whereas the optimal reaction time for the synthesis mediated by Novozym 435 was 36 h. Pancreatic lipase‐catalyzed sn‐2 positional analyses were also carried out on the TAG samples.
Study on the composition of rice bran oil and its higher free fatty acids value
Authors: Gopala Krishna A. G. , Hemakumar K. H. , Khatoon Sakina
Published: November 2006

The compositions of rice bran oils (RBO) and three commercial vegetable oils were investigated. For refined groundnut oil, refined sunflower oil, and refined safflower oil, color values were 1.5–2.0 Lovibond units, unsaponifiable matter contents were 0.15–1.40%, tocopherol contents were 30–60 mg%, and FFA levels were 0.05–0.10%, whereas refined RBO samples showed higher values of 7.6–15.5 Lovibond units for color, 2.5–3.2% for unsaponifiable matter, 48–70 mg% for tocopherols content, and 0.14–0.55% for FFA levels. Of the four oils, only RBO contained oryzanol, ranging from 0.14 to 1.39%. Highoryzanol RBO also showed higher FFA values compared with the other vegetable oils studied. The analyses of FA and glyceride compositions showed higher palmitic, oleic, and linoleic acid contents than reported values in some cases and higher partial glycerides content in RBO than the commonly used vegetable oils. Consequently, the TG level was 79.9–92% in RBO whereas it was >95% in the other oils studied. Thus, refined RBO showed higher FFA values, variable oryzanol contents, and higher partial acylglycerol contents than commercial vegetable oils having lower FFA values and higher TG levels. The higher oryzanol levels in RBO may contribute to the higher FFA values in this oil.
The effect of intermittent and continuous heating of soybean oil at frying temperature on the formation of 4‐hydroxy‐2‐trans‐nonenal and other α‐, β‐unsaturated hydroxyaldehydes
Authors: Seppanen C. M. , Csallany A. Saari
Published: November 2006

4‐Hydroxy‐2‐trans‐nonenal (HNE) is a cytotoxic secondary lipid peroxidation product of linoleic acid. Previous investigations in this laboratory showed that HNE is formed in thermally oxidized soybean oil, which is high in linoleic acid. Continuous exposure of the oil to frying temperature (185°C) for up to 6 h graduallyincreased the formation of HNE and other polar lipophilic aldehydes. Additional investigations in this laboratory showed that HNE is absorbed into food fried in thermally oxidized oil in the same concentration as was found in the oil. In the present experiment, the effect of intermittent heating on the formation of HNE in soybean oil was compared with continuous heating. Soybean oil samples were heated either for 1 h each day for five sequential days or for 5 h continuously at 185±5°C. The thermally oxidized soybean oil samples were analyzed by HPLC for the presence of HNE and three other polar lipophilic α‐,β‐unsaturated hydroxyaldehydes: 4‐hydroxy‐2‐trans‐hexanal, 4‐hydroxy‐2‐trans‐octenal, and 4‐hydroxy‐2‐trans‐decenal. Under intermittent and continuous heating over a total of 5 h, the concentration of these compounds increased similarly. These results indicate that the formation of HNE and other hydroxyaldehydes at frying temperature is a cumulative result of oxidation of PUFA over time.
Chemical modification of vegetable oils for lubricant applications
Authors: Sharma Brajendra K. , Adhvaryu Atanu , Liu Zengshe , Erhan Sevim Z.
Published: November 2006

Owing to the unfavorable impact on the environment of mineral oil‐based lubricants, there has been a steady increase in the demand for biodegradable, environment‐friendly lubricants. However, development of a biodegradable base fluid that could replace or partially substitute conventional mineral oil is a big challenge. Vegetable oils are recognized as rapidly biodegradable and are thus promising candidates as base fluids in environment‐friendly lubricants. Vegetble oils have excellent lubricity, but poor oxidation and low‐temeprature stability. This paper presents a series of structural modifications of vegetable oils using anhydrides of different chain lengths. The reaction was monitored and products were confirmed by NMR, FTIR, gel permeation chromatography, and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). Experimental conditions were optimized for research quantity and for laboratory scale‐up (up to 4 lb=1.8 kg). The thermo‐oxidation stability of these new lubricant base fluids was tested using pressure differential scanning calorimetry and TGA. The chemically modified base fluids exhibit superior oxidation stability in comparison with unmodified vegetable oils. These base fluids in combination with suitable additives exhibit equivalent oxidation stability compared with mineral oil‐based formulations.
Effect of refining on the phenolic composition of crude olive oils
Authors: García Aranzazu , Ruiz‐Méndez M Victoria , Romero Concepción , Brenes Manuel
Published: November 2006

By definition, virgin olive oil is consumed unrefined, although a great proportion of the olive oil produced has to be refined to render it edible. Phenolic compounds are among the substances eliminated during the refining process; in the present work these were characterized by HPLC, and their evolution during the different refining steps was studied. The complete refining process removed most polyphenols from oils, but the behavior of individual compounds at each step also was observed. o‐Diphenols (hydroxytyrosol, catechol, and hydroxytyrosol acetate) and flavonoids (luteolin and apigenin) were eliminated first during the alkaline treatment. Tyrosol and 4‐ethylphenol remained in the oil until the deodorization step. A large amount of phenolic compounds was discovered in the refining by‐products such as soapstocks and deodorization distillates. In the latter streams, the concentrations of tyrosol and 4‐ethylphenol reached up to 149 and 3720 mg/kg by‐product, respectively. This high level of 4‐ethylphenol and its well‐known strong off‐odor can interfere during further processing of the deodorization distillates, and this must be taken into account when deciding what is to become of them. Similarly, the results of this work open the possibility of recovering phenolic compounds from the “second centrifugation olive oils” by adding a new washing step prior to the refining process. By including this new step, the most polar polyphenols, hydroxytyrosol and tyrosol, will diffuse from oil to water and a concentration of up to 1400 mg/L of hydroxytyrosol may be achieved.