bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Stokes Melvyn
Published: October 2023

In 1915, a movie was released that changed the history of American cinema. Directed by David W. Griffith, it was originally known as The Clansman. Soon after its West Coast première, however, it was renamed The Birth of a Nation. This film would bring about a revolution in American movie going. The Birth of a Nation was the first American film to be twelve reels long and to last around three hours. It was the first to cost $100,000 to produce. It was the first to be shown mainly in regular theaters at the same admission prices of up to $2 that were charged for live performances. It was the first to have a specially compiled musical score to accompany the film’s exhibition. It was the first movie to be shown at the White House, the first to be projected for judges of the Supreme Court and members of Congress, the first to be viewed by countless millions of ordinary Americans, some of whom had made long journeys to see it, the first to run in so many places for months at a time, the first to attract viewers who returned to see it, sometimes again and again, and the first to have its existence treated as a story in its own right in local newspapers. Although it was not the first motion picture in the United States to be distributed by means of road shows, it was the first to be shown so extensively this way. The men who advertised and publicized it created ways of promoting movies that would soon become standard across the American movie industry. In many ways, in fact, Birth of a Nation was the first “blockbuster”: it was the most profitable film of its time (and perhaps, adjusted for inflation, of all time), it helped open up new markets (including South America) for American films, and it may eventually have been seen by worldwide audiences of up to 200,000,000.
Fighting a Vicious Film
Authors: Stokes Melvyn
Published: October 2023

The long war over The Birth of a Nation began quietly. On January 20, 1915, a small subcommittee of the National Board of Censorship of Motion Pictures met in New York to watch The Clansman (soon to be renamed). The subcommittee was made up of ten people, including two members of the board’s general committee. It is impossible to identify the members of this group—the board insisted on the anonymity of its viewing committees. It was certainly all white and in all likelihood predominantly female: in the spring of 1915, the board had a general pool, the so-called Censoring Committee, of 116 censors, of whom 95 were women. All that is known about the committee for certain is that it approved Griffith’s film for general exhibition. The producers of The Clansman must have been pleased; the board’s decision seemed to suggest that the film would not be greatly troubled by censorship difficulties. Over the next few days and weeks, they would come to realize that this was an illusory impression.
Griffith’s View of History
Authors: Stokes Melvyn
Published: October 2023

A few days before Griffith gathered his cast together to announce his intention of filming The Clansman, Lillian Gish noticed that “his pockets were crammed with papers and pamphlets.” Unusual for a Griffith film, the director felt obliged to consult printed source materials before embarking on rehearsals and shooting. Even after shooting began, Gish recalled, he still carried around with him pamphlets, maps, and books “which he read during meals and the rare breaks in his hectic schedule.” Although Griffith had already made films based on historical events before The Clansman, including several “Civil War” pictures, clearly there were crucial differences between them and his new project. Like Dixon, who also claimed to have mastered huge amounts of reading before writing his two novels about the Klan and consequently justified his fiction in terms of its “historical accuracy,” Griffith defended his greatest movie as a faithful representation of the events of the Civil War and Reconstruction eras. When Griffith set out to turn The Clansman into a film, the loyalties of the Civil War and Reconstruction eras were still very much a part of the American political and cultural scene. Despite his own personal engagement with the “Southern” point of view represented in Dixon’s novels and play, the director must have known that many Northerners and some Southerners would reject it as biased and inaccurate.
After Birth
Authors: Stokes Melvyn
Published: October 2023

By the beginning of 1916, apart from statewide bans on the exhibition of The Birth of a Nation in Ohio and Kansas, the campaign to suppress the film run by the NAACP had largely failed. Over the next few years, however, the organization’s efforts to prevent screenings proved considerably more successful. Part of the reason for this success was that events encouraged the NAACP to adopt a new and more convincing argument. “The day may come,” observed Elijah Hodges with prophetic foresight in July 1915, “when we shall need the colored man’s help to defend the flag.” Black soldiers played a major part in the American expeditionary force led by Brigadier-General John J. Pershing that invaded Mexico in March 1916 in an attempt to capture Mexican revolutionary leader Francisco (“Pancho”) Villa, who had killed Americans on both sides of the border in an attempt to embroil the existing Mexican government in a war with the United States. The participation of these black soldiers was obviously very much in the mind of W. E. B. Du Bois a few months later when a proposal was made to show The Birth of a Nation at theaters patronized by soldiers in the Canal Zone in Panama. “Colored troops,” argued Du Bois, “have been giving too good an account of themselves recently to deserve having this vicious attack on their race in military posts.” Once the United States entered the First World War,3 and African American soldiers formed part of the American army fighting in France, arguments such as these were deployed with increasing strength and frequency.
General Introduction
Authors: wessels Bob , Markell Bruce A , Kilborn Jason J
Published: October 2023

When describing the historic development of the U.S. Bankruptcy Code, Charles Warren called bankruptcy a gloomy and depressing subject. To this he added that bankruptcy law was a dry and discouraging topic. Discouraging, maybe, but gloomy, depressing, or dry? Perhaps in the eyes of the general public when people are thinking about the law, the legal profession, and the legal system in which bankruptcy legislation plays its role.
Modeling Cross-Border Insolvency: The Role of UNCITRAL
Authors: wessels Bob , Markell Bruce A , Kilborn Jason J
Published: October 2023

The present global status of cross-border insolvency law has been brought about to a large extent by the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL). UNCITRAL was established in 1966 with the aim of providing the United Nations with a more active role in pushing back differences of national legal systems in the domain of international trade. UNCITRAL is composed of thirty-six member-states, chosen for a period of six years by the General Meeting of the UN.
Photography, Angiography, and Ultrasonography in Diabetic Retinopathy
Authors: Lam Andrew , Anderson Nicholas G , Regillo Carl D , Brown Gary C
Published: October 2023

Fundus photography is becoming a popular method of screening large populations for diabetic retinopathy. Fluorescein angiography is useful to identify areas of nonperfusion, increased vascular permeability, and neovascularization. Fluorescein angiography is useful to guide laser treatment of clinically significant macular edema. Ultrasound is useful when media opacity obscures visualization of the fundus and often helps determine appropriate timing of surgical intervention.
Clinical Studies on Treatment for Diabetic Retinopathy
Authors: Ferris Frederick L , Davis Matthew d. , Aiello, Llloyd m. , Chew emily y.
Published: October 2023

Diabetic retinopathy has been, and probably remains, one of the four major causes of blindness in the United States [1,2]. Without treatment, eyes that develop proliferative diabetic retinopathy (PDR) have at least a 50% chance of becoming blind within 5 years [3–5]. Appropriate application of treatments that have been developed in the last three decades can reduce this risk of blindness to less than 5% [6]. Medical treatments designed to maximize blood glucose control and reduce the development and progression of retinopathy can further reduce the risk of blindness [7]. This chapter discusses the treatments available, the evidence that the treatments are effective and whether the treatments are widely used.
Evolving Algorithms for Managing Diabetic Macular Edema
Authors: Do, Diana v. , Haller julia a.
Published: October 2023

The optimal management of diabetic macular edema (DME), the most common cause of moderate vision loss in individuals with diabetes mellitus, is complicated by the many systemic and ocular issues that impact on its therapy, the variable responses of individual eyes to treatment, and the increasing number of therapeutic approaches available to the clinician [1]. Because of this complex web of multifactorial and interrelated considerations, the disease is resistant to simple algorithmic formulations for its management.
Nonretinal Ocular Abnormalities in Diabetes
Authors: Scott, Ingrid u. , Flynn harry w.
Published: October 2023

Corneal abnormalities associated with diabetes include decreased corneal sensitivity, bacterial keratitis, neurotrophic ulcers, persistent epithelial defects, and recurrent epithelial erosions. There may be an association between diabetes and primary open-angle glaucoma, angle-closure glaucoma, neovascular glaucoma, and blood-associated glaucoma. Lens abnormalities associated with diabetes include refractive changes and cataract. Optic nerve abnormalities associated with diabetes include acute optic disc edema, Wolfram syndrome, optic nerve hypoplasia, and optic atrophy. Diabetes is associated with cranial nerve III, IV, and IV palsies. Diabetes is associated with an increased risk of endophthalmitis and mucormycosis.
A
Authors: Campbell Robert Jean
Published: October 2023

A filament protein that is immunoreactive to ALZ-50, a monoclonal antibody to the homogenates of ventral forebrain from patients with Alzheimer disease. The A68 protein/ antigen is not found in Guam-Parkinson dementia, dementia associated with Parkinson disease, Pick disease, or in neurologically normal controls. A68 is one of three ALZ-50 immunoreactive elements of ADAP (q.v.). See tau.
F
Authors: Campbell Robert Jean
Published: October 2023

FAB Frontal Assessment Battery; a fast, short test to assess frontal lobe dysfunction. It comprises six subtests: conceptualization, verbal fluency, motor series, conflicting instruction, go–no go, and prehension behavior.

fabrication See confabulation; Korsakoff psychosis.

Fabry disease An inborn error of glycosphingolipid metabolism, transmitted by an X-linked gene, characterized by the systemic accumulation of glycolipids and by deficiency of the enzyme ceramide trihexosidase. (Other inborn errors of lysosomal storage and glycosphingolipid metabolism are metachromatic leukodystrophy, Gaucher disease, and Tay-Sachs disease.)

face cells Found primarily in the inferior temporal cortex (IT) and superior temporal sulcus (STS), face cells are neurons that respond at least twice as vigorously to faces or components of faces (such as eyes or mouths) as they do to other complex visual stimuli. The IT cortex is more important for processing facial identity, whereas STS is more involved in processing facial expressions (including eye gaze direction) and other “biological motion “ inputs. See behavioral ecology; fusiform face area.

The evidence supports the idea that there are separate routes for face detection and face identification, with face detection being supported by a subcortical route. Studies have implicated the superior colliculus, pulvinar, and amygdala as the main structures on this fast pathway.
I
Authors: Campbell Robert Jean
Published: October 2023

I cell disease Mucolipidosis II; a type of mental retardation, probably an autosomal recessive trait, characterized by early onset of retardation, short stature, cytoplasmic inclusions (of cells) in fibroblasts (which also are deficient in lysosomal hydralases and have excessive lipids and mucopolysaccharides), and progressive course leading to death (usually from pneumonia and congestive heart failure) before puberty.

IADL Instrumental activities of daily living. See ADL.

IAP Inhibitor of apoptosis (q.v.). IAPs are tied to the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) pathways, but it is unknown how, or where, they exert their effect. A mammalian counterpart, discovered early in 1995, is the neuronal apoptosis inhibitor protein (NAIP).

iatrogenesis Molding of a patient ‘s illness by the (often incompetent) doctor ‘s own ministrations.

iatrogeny Production or inducement of any harmful change in the somatic or psychic condition of a patient by means of the words or actions of the doctor. The physician may tell the patient that he has an enlarged heart, for example, or low blood pressure, or a glandular disturbance, and such information may provide a nucleus around which the patient builds a neurosis or psychosis.

IB See body build, index of.

ibogaine A West African plant alkaloid, banned in the United States because of its potential neurotoxic effects (with effects similar to those of LSD or PCP), but legal in most of the world and purported to interrupt addiction and eliminate withdrawal. Its mechanism of action is not fully understood, but it may compete with heroin or morphine to fill opiate receptors. It also leads to increased secretion of GDNF (glial cell line–derived neurotropic factor), which some believe maintains or repairs dopamine receptors.
T
Authors: Campbell Robert Jean
Published: October 2023

T type See eidetic imagery.

TA Transactional analysis (q.v.).

tabes (L. “a wasting, emaciation “) Tabes dorsalis, locomotor ataxia; a chronic, progressive disease of the nervous system occurring rather late in a comparatively small percentage of persons affected with syphilis. The main pathological process involves the posterior spinal ganglia in a mild inflammation. The roots between the ganglia and the spinal cord, and, to some extent, the meninges are also involved. There is a degeneration of the nerve fibers with a selective degeneration of the posterior columns of the cord. The cranial nerves, especially the optic and those supplying the ocular muscles, are particularly involved. The symptoms are ataxia, or muscular incoordination, neuralgia, anesthesia, visceral crises, lancinating pains, and muscular atrophy. Trophic disorders of the joints (arthropathies) are frequent, atrophy of the optic nerve occurs, and paralysis may be a late symptom. Mental symptoms are not usually prominent, although a severe depression may occur.

tabes, congenital See neurosyphilis, congenital.

tabes, juvenile Juvenile tabes presents an essentially identical pathological process and clinical course as in the adult. The symptoms appear from the age of 10 onward in children who have congenital syphilis or who acquired the disease in infancy or early childhood. Ataxia is rather infrequent, while optic atrophy is very common in juvenile tabes. Mental symptoms and taboparesis occur frequently. The Wasserman blood reaction is often negative. The course is much more rapid than in the adult form, and the disease terminates fatally comparatively early.
V
Authors: Campbell Robert Jean
Published: October 2023

vaccinophobia A morbid fear or dread of being vaccinated.

VaD Vascular dementia; vascular cognitive impairment (VCI); the second most frequent cause of dementia following Alzheimer disease (AD). Compared with AD, in VaD episodic memory is relatively preserved, but verbal fluency and frontal executive functioning are more impaired. Subtypes of VaD have been described, but no one system of nomenclature has achieved universal acceptance. The subtypes include the following:

vagus nerve The tenth cranial nerve. The vagus nerve is motor to the muscles of the soft palate and pharynx, sends parasympathetic fibers to the thoracic and abdominal viscera, and is sensory to the pharynx, larynx, trachea, esophagus, and the thoracic and abdominal viscera. Symptoms of vagus nerve lesions include aphonia, dysphagia, paralysis of the soft palate with loss of the gag reflex, cough, bradycardia (with irritative lesions), or tachycardia (with vagus palsies).

vagus nerve stimulation VNS; an adjunctive therapy for patients with refractory partial epilepsy. It may be effective in patients with severe, chronic, treatment-resistant depression. The pacemaker device is implanted in the chest and stimulates the left vagus nerve. Typically, stimulation is on for 30 seconds and

then off for 5 minutes. Transient hoarseness is the most common adverse effect. Other possible effects include infection, voice alteration, CADASIL and CAA (qq.v.)
Juvenile Arthritis
Authors: Lehman Thomas J A
Published: October 2023

Arthritis is defined as pain, swelling, or limitation of motion in a joint. According to the criteria of the American College of Rheumatology, juvenile rheumatoid arthritis (JRA) is the proper diagnosis for any child with the onset of arthritis before sixteen years of age if the arthritis lasts at least six weeks in more than one joint or three months in a single joint, without other explanation.
Uveitis: Eye Complications of Juvenile Arthritis and Related Conditions
Authors: Lehman Thomas J A
Published: October 2023

In juvenile arthritis and related conditions, the eyes may be involved even when there is no evidence of active joint disease. Ocular complications may take several forms. Children with pauciarticular-onset, polyarticular-onset, and psoriatic arthritis are all at risk of developing eye inflammation (chronic anterior uveitis). In this condition, inflamed cells accumulate in the eye and the resultant irritation may cause damage to the colored part of the eye (iris), the lens, and other structures (see Fig. 5-1 in Chapter 5). The most worrisome aspect of this inflammation is that often it does not produce pain or redness, and so it may cause serious eye damage before it is detected.
Spondyloarthropathies: Enthesitis-associated Arthritis
Authors: Lehman Thomas J A
Published: October 2023

The term spondyloarthropathy does not refer to a specific disease. Meaning “arthritis involving the back,” it describes a pattern of inflammation that may occur in children with a variety of underlying conditions. For many years, children with spondyloarthropathies were considered to have JA, but now these children are described as having enthesitis-associated arthritis. Although enthesitis-associated arthritis is considered a subtype of juvenile arthritis, it is important to recognize that this is a very different disease from, for example, pauciarticular-onset arthritis. Remember, juvenile arthritis is being used as an umbrella term encompassing a large number of different conditions. In contrast to other types of arthritis, the spondyloarthropathies have a different pattern of joint involvement, a different prognosis, a different best medication, and a different cause.
Reconstructive Surgery
Authors: Lehman Thomas J A
Published: October 2023

The goal of every pediatric rheumatologist is to maintain and restore the fullest possible level of function. In an ideal world, every child would receive proper medical attention early in the disease course and respond dramatically to therapy. Unfortunately, in the real world children do not always receive proper medical attention early in the course of their disease. In addition, some of those who do receive proper medical attention nonetheless fail to respond well. For those patients, our ability to replace severely damaged joints provides one of the most dramatic improvements in their long-term prognosis.
Family Issues
Authors: Lehman Thomas J A
Published: October 2023

Most of the parents reading this book will not have a child with a serious chronic condition. They can skip this section. However, if your child does have a significant disability, or you think your child’s medical care is starting to take over your life, please read on.
Getting the Best Results for Your Child
Authors: Lehman Thomas J A
Published: October 2023

This is the most important chapter of this book. Everyone wants the best results for his or her child, but not everyone understands that you have to go out and get them. Reading this book means you are off to a good start.
Sjögren’s Syndrome Children with Dry Eyes and Dry Mouth
Authors: Lehman Thomas J A
Published: October 2023

Children with Sjögren’s syndrome are often sent to the rheumatologist by a dentist who has noted that they have unusually severe cavities or by an ophthalmologist who has noted that their complaints of eye discomfort are due to chronically dry eyes and poor tear production. Other children with Sjögren’s syndrome are sent to the rheumatologist because of Raynaud’s syndrome and a positive ANA or RF.
Dermatomyositis and Polymyositis
Authors: Lehman Thomas J A
Published: October 2023

Hillary was a delightful four-year-old. She had a younger sister who was just beginning to walk when the family noticed that Hillary was asking to be carried and was holding on much more often than she had previously. Her family thought this was a reaction to the increased attention given to her sister. But the next month, she became increasingly difficult. She often refused to walk and had tantrums if her parents would not carry her. Hillary’s bedroom was on the second floor. Although she would come downstairs in the morning, she insisted on being carried up to bed every night. One morning she wanted a doll from her bedroom but refused to go upstairs to get it. Her parents could not understand why she was getting so lazy. Over the next few weeks, they noted that she was holding on to the stair rail with both hands when coming down the steps and seemed to be falling unexpectedly.
Medications and Immunizations
Authors: Lehman Thomas J A
Published: October 2023

I do not discuss every possible medication in this chapter. I discuss the medications I commonly use. There are many choices and many individual styles. At the right time and in the right place, there are a number of medications that I use that are not covered here. The omission of a medication indicates only that I do not use it routinely or that I don’t think of it as a rheumatic disease drug (e.g., I don’t discuss antibiotics here).
Extension of the eXpanded Nystagmus Acuity Function to Vertical and Multiplanar Data
Authors: Jacobs Jonathan B , Dell’osso Louis F
Published: October 2023

The original eXpanded Nystagmus Acuity Function (NAFX),which was based on the Nystagmus Acuity Function (NAF), is a mathematically derived relationship that relates visual acuity to the attempts at foveation that occur within nystagmus waveforms, based on the duration and cycle-to-cycle stability of these foveation periods. In the original function, the foveation window was defined as the times at which the target was within ±0.5° of the fovea and not moving faster than ±4.0 deg/s with respect to it. However, there are many patients who could not meet these criteria, so their nystagmus could not be analyzed by the NAF, prompting the development of the NAFX, which allows for larger foveation windows (up to ±6° by ±10 deg/s) by varying i, the foveation duration constant. The collection of , for all combinations of position and velocity limits is called the “tau surface,” and is shown in Figure 18.1A. While the shape does, in general, appear to be regular, there are obvious irregularities in the surface, most notably along the lower position values (left side of Fig. 18.1A). This was a consequence of some of the data that were used to generate the original surface: the “pseudopendular with foveating saccades” (PPfs) waveform has two saccades per cycle, and as the position limit was increased, the slow phase following the braking saccade was included in the calculation, inadvertently increasing the measured foveation time.
Population
Authors: Post David G
Published: October 2023

Put aside, for the moment, any questions you may have about precisely where these numbers come from or how they were obtained; counting the number of computers on the Internet at any one time is a tricky business, for reasons we ‘ll take a look at shortly. But for now, we can take these as roughly accurate counts of the number of machines connected together on the global TCP/IP network, with no reason to suspect that they systematically overstate the number of those machines or the rate of growth of that population of machines.
Networks
Authors: Post David G
Published: October 2023

One thing that helped the fledgling TCP/IP network become “the Internet” was that it had a head start—and when it comes to networks, head starts can make a big difference.
The Problem Of Scale II
Authors: Post David G
Published: October 2023

There ‘s a lot more to the TCP/IP scaling story than this, however. The Internet could grow as fast as it did also because it is a very stupid network, thanks to a principle known as “end-to-end” (or “e2e”) design.
Interlude
Authors: Post David G
Published: October 2023

There is an old joke: There are two kinds of people in the world—those who think there are two kinds of people in the world, and those who don ‘t.1 But I ‘m with Jeff erson on this one; I think there really are two kinds of people in the world (though I am not as certain as he was that the division is founded in the nature of man—part of natural, as well as civil, history, as he put it elsewhere). He usually called them, using language that is now decidedly out of style, “whigs” and

“tories.” I prefer “Jeff ersonians” and “Hamiltonians.”
Governing Cyberspace I: Code
Authors: Post David G
Published: October 2023

Who controls the Internet? Who makes its law, and what does that law look like? Who governs there, and how?

As the fledgling TCP/IP inter-network grew to become “the Internet,” it was inevitable that more and more people would start asking these questions; they ‘re a lot more interesting, and a lot more important, in 2008 than they were in 1988, because the TCP/IP inter-network ‘s a lot bigger in 2008 than it was in 1988, and there has indeed been an accelerating stream of conferences, governmental white papers, scholarly books and articles, and the like focusing on them over the past decade or so.
Newton‘s Plow, And The Condition Of The General Mind
Authors: Post David G
Published: October 2023

Any system of laws applicable to Internet activities, wherever it comes from and whoever creates it and enforces it, must address two great and complex issues central to any legal order in cyberspace: first, where to draw the line between permissible and impermissible speech (a question of First Amendment law, in the United States) and, second, how much legal protection to provide for “intellectual property.”

These two issues have been featured in virtually all of the Internet ‘s Big Cases— the legal disputes generating lots of public debate and commentary, the ones that made it onto the docket of the Supreme Court or the front page of the New York Times—during the first couple of decades of its existence. It ‘s just what we would have expected (and what many people did expect). For one thing, with hardly anything but “speech” out there in cyberspace, people in one place communicating with people in another place, it ‘s no surprise that questions about the regulation of speech arose early on during the Internet ‘s rise in the public ‘s consciousness.
Nigeria: The Challenge of E-Commerce to Tax Laws and Administration in Nigeria
Authors: Ekisola Rudolf Ezeani Adejumo , Ezeani Ezeani
Published: October 2023

In 2007, Nigeria made a substantial and long-overdue review of some of its tax laws. The specific areas reviewed were the administration mechanism and system, the company income tax law, and the value-added tax regime. A lot more, however, still needs to be done. Taxation has become a hot topic for government in Nigeria because of the dwindling fortunes in oil exploration, production, and sales. Oil still accounts for about 40 percent of gross domestic product (GDP), 90 percent of exports, and 80 percent of government revenue. The Niger Delta area of the country, which is the source of most of the oil, has become notorious for disruptions in oil exploration and production. Other reasons for taxation’s rising profile include the current view of small- and medium-scale enterprises as the engine of growth in the economy and the attempt government’s attempts to attract much-needed foreign investment.
Spain: Permanent Establishment and Electronic Commerce
Authors: Bertolín Ignacio Arráez
Published: October 2023

The advent of the digital society gives the impression of being so extraordinarily accelerated that any effort to adapt always seems lame and insufficient. The vast majority of the old rules and regulations, which were drafted to face ancient problems and happened to be adequate for different societies and situations, appears less suitable for the present time.
United Kingdom: E-Commerce and Taxation: Cases of Goods, Digital Products, and Services
Authors: Jupe Erika
Published: October 2023

There are a number of ways in which goods and services can be provided over the Internet, which are, for the purposes of this chapter, categorized into two principal types: the classical model and the modern approach. The classical model is very similar to a typical brochure or catalog business. The e-business will set up a Web site to advertise its goods, and customers will make purchases online that are then delivered to them. The e-business’ Web site is similar to a traditional brochure or catalog. A good example of the classical model would be the original Amazon.com Web site, whereby customers could browse online and purchase a book in hard-copy form, which Amazon would deliver to them by postal service or other similar means.
Ukraine: E-Commerce Taxation in Ukraine
Authors: Losevska Olena V
Published: October 2023

Recently, Ukraine has observed an unprecedented increase of Internet users. Today, practically every Ukrainian family has a PC connected to the World Wide Web. The spread of Internet use among the population has led to more and more users buying goods on the Internet, in online shops and through Internet auctions, and acquiring e-products. The use of Internet technology in business life has become standard for Western and Ukrainian domestic companies. However, Western companies use the Web not only for mailing and accessing information but also to perform specific commercial transactions, from which stems e-commerce. Development of such technologies promotes loss reduction, accelerates business procedures, and, as a result, increases a company’s profitability.
Canada: E-Commerce: Canadian Considerations of Residency, Carrying on Business in Canada, Permanent Establishment, and the General Anti-Avoidance Rule
Authors: Chodikoff David W
Published: October 2023

There are no special Canadian income tax rules applicable to electronic commercial transactions. Undoubtedly, this will change in the not-too-distant future. In the short term however, current federal income tax laws provide one framework for federal e-commerce taxation. There are a number of concepts and provisions applicable to the Income Tax Act and Canada’s tax treaties that will continue to be the subject of intense discussion and review by Canadian legislators and bureaucrats in order to develop more precise and efficient ways to tax and administer e-commerce transactions. Central to these deliberations is the necessity for tax policy makers and specialists to fully understand the concepts of Canadian tax residency, carrying on business in Canada, the permanent establishment principle, and the application of the general anti-avoidance rule (GAAR).
United States: The Allocation and Sourcing of Service Income in E-Commerce for State Income Tax Purposes
Authors: Kaminski Stanley R
Published: October 2023

Currently, there are 45 states (and the District of Columbia) in the United States that impose some form of corporate income tax, as well as 4 states that impose a type of gross or adjusted gross revenue/receipts tax. While many of these taxes are similar in kind, there are exclusions, terminology, interpretation, and application differences that impact how these taxes are imposed. As to the taxation of income from the sale of services, differences in the sourcing or allocation of such services also arise depending on the type of service being sold. Nevertheless, income from the sale of services is generally sourced or allocated based on either (1) the location at which the service is performed (commonly cost of performance is used for this analysis); or (2) the location of the benefit of the service to the customer (sometimes customer receipt or billing location is used for this purpose).
St. Kitts & Nevis: E-Commerce Taxation in Saint Kitts & Nevis
Authors: Woodley K Alex
Published: October 2023

The islands of St. Kitts and Nevis, with a total population of about 40,000, are located in the northern part of the Leeward islands in the Eastern Caribbean. Tourism, investment, and financial services have fast emerged as the islands’ primary business attractions. Information technology and telecommunications also play a very important role in the economic development of the islands. The government of St. Kitts and Nevis is aware of the need to expand its infrastructure to deliver information and communication technology (ICT) services, and recognizes the high prices users pay for international calling, Internet use, and leased lines. These costs impact traditional industries, which depend on communications to market and sell their services and goods, but the cost is highest for new information-based sectors, hindering their ability to compete effectively in the global market.
A Powerful Healing Combination: Friendship, Resilience, and Compassion
Authors: Wicks Robert J
Published: October 2023

One of the key aspects of self-care that is worth special emphasis when we are focusing on remaining resilient is to have a well-rounded circle of friends. Anthropologist Margaret Meade once noted that “One of the oldest human needs is having someone to wonder where you are when you don’t come home at night.”
The First Drug Set
Authors: Shorter Edward
Published: October 2023

“If our descendants should ever look back at the present era in psychi- atry, they would probably call it the age of psychopharmacology,” said Harry Pennes, research director of a psychiatric hospital in Philadel- phia, at an after-dinner meeting at the New York Academy of Medicine in 1956.1 The remark was prescient. Between 1951 and 1959 a set of drugs was introduced into American psychiatry that even today has never been bested. This discovery so early of drugs that truly work is a remarkable development. One would not normally expect the first at- tempts at drug discovery to remain superior to those that came along a half century later. There is no counterpart anywhere else in medicine; it is as though the airplanes of the Wright brothers have continued to best today’s Boeing jets. In cardiology, cancer medicine, or any other medical field, we are accustomed to progress, to steady improvement, and to building upon the blocks laid down by previous generations. In psychopharmacology, such progress has not happened. If anything, we have lost knowledge, as the drugs available today are in no sense an improvement upon the pioneer generation of drugs whose efficacy we have forgotten.
Killer Drugs!
Authors: Shorter Edward
Published: October 2023

Taking down meprobamate was a real triumph for the Feds, the first time the formerly inert cop agency had stood up against a substantial company. Yet Carter-Wallace was not one of the majors. Hoffmann-La Roche was. In 1960, the American affiliate of this Swiss drug company, its headquarters in Nutley, New Jersey, launched the first of the benzodiazepine series, Lib- rium (chlordiazepoxide). Valium (diazepam) followed 3 years later. These drugs have customarily never been considered part of the first drug set. For one thing, the benzodiazepine period didn’t peak until well past the heyday of the first drug set. For another, the “benzos” were not “tranqui- lizers”; rather, as antianxiety drugs, a different clinical effect was claimed for them. But these terms are really just conventions: Carter-Wallace claimed tybamate (Solacen), meprobamate’s sister drug, to be an “antineu- rotic,” and there is no reason why the benzos should not also have been declared “antineurotics” (but for reasons of commercial competition never were). Whatever their designation, in terms of real-world effectiveness, the benzos have probably been the best drug class in history, for they have few side effects and deliver a significant therapeutic punch in a wide range of illnesses. It was therefore a decision of awesome import that in the 1960s, the Food and Drug Administration decided they must be destroyed.
Clubs Controlling the Opposition
Authors: Lubet Steven
Published: October 2023

The foundation of good poker is self-control, making only wise bets when you are likely to win and folding when the odds are unfavorable. But disciplined play will carry you only so far. The key to greater success is influencing the behavior of your opponents—making them fold when they might beat you and inducing them to keep betting when they are sure to lose. This ability separates the good players from the stars. Likewise in law, it is important to control witnesses’ testimony, making sure that you get precisely the answers you need. Better yet, you might even be able to lure your adversaries into ruinous mistakes. An excellent example of the latter occurred during the O. J. Simpson trial, when the late Johnnie Cochran outmaneuvered prosecutor Christopher Darden.

It should have been a moment of high drama for the prosecution, as Darden laid the foundation for admission of the infamous “bloody gloves,” one of which was recovered at the crime scene while the other was found at Simpson’s home.
Hellenic, Hellenistic, and Roman Medicine: Fifth Century BCE to Third Century CE
Authors: Jonsen Albert R
Published: October 2023

This era opens with the Greek physician Hippocrates of Cos (-460 to -370), and closes with the Roman physician Galen (+129-+199/216). This absurdly long piece of history is held together by the persistent attempt on the part of numerous authors to make medicine literate, that is, to record, analyze, and theorize about the work of healing in written books. The work of healing wounds and treating disease first appears in the Hellenic world, as it does in most early societies, as folk practice and as religious ritual.
British Medicine: Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries
Authors: Jonsen Albert R
Published: October 2023

In eighteenth-century England, medicine was a learned and gentlemanly profession. The ethics of that profession was framed by courtesy, the behavior proper to gentlemen, taught in a torrent of popular literature on social manners that had begun with Thomas Elyot’s Book Named the Governor (1531). This literature combined advice about etiquette with reflections on moral virtue; some volumes reflected ethical sincerity and others, like Lord Chesterfield’ s Letters to His Son (1774), profound cynicism. Sincere or cynical, the writings presented the gentle man as the paragon of morality and gentlemanliness as the prime virtue.
The Democracy Worry
Authors: Farber Daniel A , Sherry Suzanna
Published: October 2023

While the early struggles over judicial power involved questions of federalism and nationhood, the modern attacks on the courts stem from concerns about popular sovereignty and separation of powers. Why should unelected, politically unaccountable federal judges be permitted to second-guess legislation enacted by representatives of the people? In this chapter we examine the sources of this discomfort with judicial review, rebut its most exaggerated form, and show how an overdrawn version of the democracy worry has warped much of modern constitutional theory. At the outset, we should make clear the scope of our argument. We do not mean to argue that the courts are as responsive to shifts in majority opinion, or even to sustained majority opinion on specific issues, as the president and Congress. But we think that there is too frequently a tendency to view judges as if they were self-appointed, all-powerful Platonic guardians, while viewing the democratic qualities of the other branches through rose-tinted spectacles.
How to Think About Discretion
Authors: Farber Daniel A , Sherry Suzanna
Published: October 2023

What have we learned so far? First, judicial review is not an anomaly. Rather, it is a key part of our system of government. Complaints about judicial review are really complaints about constitutionalism (the idea of enforceable constitutional limits on government) and the separation of powers (limitations on the power of the legislature). And second, efforts to eliminate judicial discretion by providing recipes for deciding cases, like originalism or textualism, are ultimately frustrated by the inherent limits on the clarity of the constitutional text and constitutional history. Such theories cannot overcome the inevitable patches of vagueness and ambiguity in the Constitution. Consequently, hard cases inevitably involve judicial leeway; this is simply part of the system. Hard cases, almost by definition, require creative, critical thinking, which is not going to be reducible to a formula.
Reason and Relevance
Authors: Farber Daniel A , Sherry Suzanna
Published: October 2023

Reasoned justifications, based on relevant factors, are the bread and butter of judicial decision making. Or, as Sir Edward Coke put it several centuries ago, ‘Reason is the life of the law.’ True, the bottom line of any judicial decision is the outcome. Someone wins, someone loses; evidence is admitted or excluded; money is ordered to be paid or an injunction is issued requiring or prohibiting a certain action; the case is affirmed or reversed or sent back to a lower court. Sometimes a statute is held invalid or an executive decision nullified. And for many observers, especially nonlawyers, this bottom line may be all that matters. But in Anglo-American jurisprudence, the outcome is only a small portion of the decision actually issued by the court, and it is often not the most important part. At every level of the judiciary, but most prominently in appellate courts, judges write opinions explaining why they reached the result that they did. Judicial opinions are as varied as the judges who write them, but they all serve the same purpose: to present a reasoned elaboration of how the relevant legal analysis produces the particular outcome.
Respect for Precedent
Authors: Farber Daniel A , Sherry Suzanna
Published: October 2023

If you open a random page of the U.S. Reports and read a constitutional decision, you will be struck by how much of the space is devoted to discussing the Court’s previous rulings. Indeed, the constitutional text may only be mentioned in a footnote, and discussion of original intent may or may not be present—but discussion of precedent is universal and generally thorough. Respect for precedent is also called stare decisis, which means roughly ‘adhering to what has been decided.’ Some critics decry reliance on precedent, but whatever one may think about it, it is clearly a key part of long-standing judicial practice in countries that follow the common law.
Explaining Precedent
Authors: Farber Daniel A , Sherry Suzanna
Published: October 2023

In this chapter, we try to clarify how precedent functions in constitutional law. We begin by suggesting that respect for precedent actually extends beyond previous judicial decisions to include actions and statements by nonjudicial actors. We then explore the question of whether precedents (judicial or otherwise) should be read as establishing specific rules or as providing a source of evolving standards. Finally, we try to rebut the all-too-common belief that judges merely use precedents as after-the-fact rationales for outcomes, exemplified by Justice Scalia’s reference to common law judges as running backs who must dodge around precedents in order to reach the goal line.
Deliberation and Multiple Decision Makers
Authors: Farber Daniel A , Sherry Suzanna
Published: October 2023

Precedent is not the only constraint on judicial discretion. Other aspects of the structure of the judiciary also play a role. Scholars worried about the counter majoritarian difficulty often focus primarily on two aspects of the judiciary: the way in which judges are appointed and the provisions for controlling or removing them. In the case of federal judges, the fact that judges are not elected, but instead are nominated by the president and confirmed by the Senate, gives rise to the counter majoritarian difficulty. The discussion thus often centers on the extent to which the appointment process incorporates popular will; the relative responsiveness of the judiciary and the popular branches to public opinion; congressional control over the jurisdiction of the federal courts; and the effectiveness of impeachment as a method of popular control of judges. State court judges, on the other hand, are usually elected and are often subject to popular recall or removal procedures. This both reduces concern and provides a standard against which the federal judiciary can be measured.
Incrementalism
Authors: Farber Daniel A , Sherry Suzanna
Published: October 2023

Neither precedent nor principle nor reasoning dictates results. Judges must often make choices among plausible applications or extensions of existing doctrine. Those choices will be influenced by myriad factors, including the judge’s own policy preferences and views of the judicial role, the persuasiveness of the lawyers, the judge’s perception of public or legislative sentiment, and so on. These factors might sometimes counsel restraint and sometimes not. But one factor that influences judges always serves as a brake rather than as a goad: a preference for incremental rather than radical change.
Don’t Launch Your Lunch Anti-Nausea Therapy
Authors: Horton Charles N
Published: October 2023

One of the most dreaded, and unfortunately one of the most common, anesthetic complications is termed PONV: postoperative nausea and vomiting. Apart from being highly unpleasant, it can also be dangerous to the patient. Vomiting is associated with a sharp rise in both intracranial pressure (ICP) and intraocular pressure (IOP); this rise in IOP can jeopardize delicate surgical repairs to the eye, and a sharp ICP rise is likewise unwelcome after neurosurgery. It is therefore vital that we learn to control PONV as effectively as possible. Postoperative nausea and vomiting happens for a variety of reasons, not all directly related to the anesthesia or the surgery: almost all surgical patients receive opiates for post-op pain, and opiates themselves cause nausea in many patients.
Less Filling, Tastes Great A Few Anesthesia Controversies
Authors: Horton Charles N
Published: October 2023

Many issues in anesthesia have no clear-cut answer. While we all want the same things—greater patient safety, more efﬁcient ORs, cost savings—there are differing points of view about how to achieve those goals. Here are the competing points of view on a selection of modern anesthetic questions, to help you get up to speed on what we’re trying to settle.
What If?—A Brief Guide to Various Situations
Authors: Horton Charles N
Published: October 2023

First off, how big a line are you trying to start? Even cases when you’ll eventually be using introducers can often be started safely with a 20 gauge; remember that all volatile anesthetics are vasodilators, and starting a big IV will be easier (to say nothing of less painful!) after the patient is asleep. Second, where are you trying to start the IV? We typically start at the hands and work our way proximally, so that the fluid path from a successful IV to the heart will be comprised entirely of intact veins. With that said, some patients have very poor veins in their hands; while the antecubital fossa (elbow) and upper arms are unpopular sites for IVs and poor choices for routine use, they can be extremely useful in getting “tough stick” patients to sleep.