bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
International Criminal Law and the Subordination of Emancipation
Authors: Fletcher Laurel E.
Published: May 2020

This chapter is a critique of international criminal law (ICL) from the point of view of transitional justice, interrogating the former’s increasingly hegemonic role in relation to the latter. International criminal ‘legalism’, as this chapter argues, diverts attention from broader, emancipatory, social justice aims to address rights of victims or the structural, systemic dimensions that fuelled mass violence. It points out that the goals of transitional justice have always been framed more broadly, whereas ICL’s own goals are, at least nominally, much narrower (punishing individuals) and somewhat detached from their social finality. Yet for all its limitations, ICL does continue to command a high degree of authority, even within the field of transitional justice itself. This is in no small part because transitional justice is grounded in a rights-based approach that is itself committed to accountability. The chapter then tests this argument by looking at the Darfur crisis. It ends with a note of skepticism about the power of legalism, beyond its undeniable contribution to upholding the rule of law, to formulate an emancipatory social project.
Diagnosing Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia: A review of current methods and novel approaches
Authors: Bateman Marjorie , Oladele Rita , Kolls Jay K
Published: May 2020

Pneumocystis jirovecii can cause life-threatening pneumonia in immunocompromised patients. Traditional diagnostic testing has relied on staining and direct visualization of the life-forms in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. This method has proven insensitive, and invasive procedures may be needed to obtain adequate samples. Molecular methods of detection such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR), loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP), and antibody-antigen assays have been developed in an effort to solve these problems. These techniques are very sensitive and have the potential to detect Pneumocystis life-forms in noninvasive samples such as sputum, oral washes, nasopharyngeal aspirates, and serum. This review evaluates 100 studies that compare use of various diagnostic tests for Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia (PCP) in patient samples. Novel diagnostic methods have been widely used in the research setting but have faced barriers to clinical implementation including: interpretation of low fungal burdens, standardization of techniques, integration into resource-poor settings, poor understanding of the impact of host factors, geographic variations in the organism, heterogeneity of studies, and limited clinician recognition of PCP. Addressing these barriers will require identification of phenotypes that progress to PCP and diagnostic cut-offs for colonization, generation of life-form specific markers, comparison of commercial PCR assays, investigation of cost-effective point of care options, evaluation of host factors such as HIV status that may impact diagnosis, and identification of markers of genetic diversity that may be useful in diagnostic panels. Performing high-quality studies and educating physicians will be crucial to improve the rates of diagnosis of PCP and ultimately to improve patient outcomes.
X-raying molecular clouds with a short flare: probing statistics of gas density and velocity fields
Authors: Khabibullin I , Churazov E , Sunyaev R , Federrath C , Seifried D , Walch S
Published: May 2020

We take advantage of a set of molecular cloud simulations to demonstrate a possibility to uncover statistical properties of the gas density and velocity fields using reflected emission of a short (with duration much less than the cloud’s light-crossing time) X-ray flare. Such a situation is relevant for the Central Molecular Zone (CMZ) of our Galaxy where several clouds get illuminated by an ∼110 yr-old flare from the supermassive black hole Sgr A* . Due to shortness of the flare (Δt ≲ 1.6 yr), only a thin slice (Δz ≲ 0.5 pc) of the molecular gas contributes to the X-ray reflection signal at any given moment, and its surface brightness effectively probes the local gas density. This allows reconstructing the density probability distribution function over a broad range of scales with virtually no influence of attenuation, chemo-dynamical biases, and projection effects. Such a measurement is key to understanding the structure and star formation potential of the clouds evolving under extreme conditions in the CMZ. For cloud parameters similar to the currently brightest in X-ray reflection molecular complex Sgr A, the sensitivity level of the best available data is sufficient only for marginal distinction between solenoidal and compressive forcing of turbulence. Future-generation X-ray observatories with large effective area and high spectral resolution will dramatically improve on that by minimizing systematic uncertainties due to contaminating signals. Furthermore, measurement of the iron fluorescent line centroid with sub-eV accuracy in combination with the data on molecular line emission will allow direct investigation of the gas velocity field.
Neuronal Function and Dopamine Signaling Evolve at High Temperature in Drosophila
Authors: Jakšić Ana Marija , Karner Julia , Nolte Viola , Hsu Sheng-Kai , Barghi Neda , Mallard François , Otte Kathrin Anna , Svečnjak Lidija , Senti Kirsten-André , Schlötterer Christian
Published: May 2020

Neuronal activity is temperature sensitive and affects behavioral traits important for individual fitness, such as locomotion and courtship. Yet, we do not know enough about the evolutionary response of neuronal phenotypes in new temperature environments. Here, we use long-term experimental evolution of Drosophila simulans populations exposed to novel temperature regimes. Here, we demonstrate a direct relationship between thermal selective pressure and the evolution of neuronally expressed molecular and behavioral phenotypes. Several essential neuronal genes evolve lower expression at high temperatures and higher expression at low temperatures, with dopaminergic neurons standing out by displaying the most consistent expression change across independent replicates. We functionally validate the link between evolved gene expression and behavioral changes by pharmacological intervention in the experimentally evolved D. simulans populations as well as by genetically triggered expression changes of key genes in D. melanogaster. As natural temperature clines confirm our results for Drosophila and Anopheles populations, we conclude that neuronal dopamine evolution is a key factor for temperature adaptation.
Molecular profiles and immunomodulatory activities of glioblastoma-derived exosomes
Authors: Azambuja Juliana Hofstatter , Ludwig Nils , Yerneni Saigopalakrishna , Rao Aparna , Braganhol Elizandra , Whiteside Theresa L
Published: May 2020

Background

Glioblastoma is one of the most immunosuppressive human tumors. Emerging data suggest that glioblastoma-derived exosomes (GBex) reprogram the tumor microenvironment into a tumor-promoting milieu by mechanisms that not yet understood.

Methods

Exosomes were isolated from supernatants of glioblastoma cell lines by size exclusion chromatography. The GBex endosomal origin, size, protein cargos, and ex vivo effects on immune cell functions were determined. GBex were injected intravenously into mice to evaluate their ability to in vivo modulate normal immune cell subsets.

Results

GBex carried immunosuppressive proteins, including FasL, TRAIL, CTLA-4, CD39, and CD73, but contained few immunostimulatory proteins. GBex co-incubated with primary human immune cells induced simultaneous activation of multiple molecular pathways. In CD8+ T cells, GBex suppressed TNF-α and INF-γ release and mediated apoptosis. GBex suppressed natural killer (NK) and CD4+ T-cell activation. GBex activated the NF-κB pathway in macrophages and promoted their differentiation into M2 cells. Inhibition of the NF-κB pathway in macrophages reversed the GBex-mediated effects. GBex-driven reprogramming of macrophages involved the release of soluble factors that promoted tumor proliferation in vitro. In mice injected with GBex, the frequency of splenic CD8+ T cells, NK cells, and M1-like macrophages was reduced, while that of naïve and M2-like macrophages increased (P < .05).

Conclusions

GBex reprogrammed functions of all types of immune cells in vitro and altered their frequency in vivo. By creating and sustaining a highly immunosuppressive environment, GBex play a key role in promoting tumor progression.
Absence of hexavalent chromium in marine carbonates: implications for chromium isotopes as paleoenvironment proxy
Authors: Fang Ziyao , Qin Liping , Liu Wei , Yao Tao , Chen Xiaoyan , Wei Shiqiang
Published: May 2020

The oxygenation of Earth's atmosphere is widely regarded to have played an important role in early-life evolution. Chromium (Cr) isotopes recorded in sedimentary rocks have been used to constrain the atmospheric oxygen level (AOL) over geological times based on the fact that a positive Cr isotopic signature is linked to the presence of Cr(VI) as a result of oxidative continental weathering. However, there is no direct evidence of the presence of Cr(VI) in sedimentary rocks yet. Carbonates are most widely distributed over geological times and were thought to have incorporated Cr(VI) directly from seawater. Here, we present results of Cr valence states in carbonates which show Cr(III) is the dominant species in all samples spanning a wide range of geological times. These findings indicate that Cr(VI) in seawater was reduced either before or after carbonate precipitation, which might have caused Cr isotopic fractionation between seawater and carbonates, or marine carbonates preferentially uptake Cr(III) from seawater. As Cr(III) can come from non-redox Cr cycling, which also can cause isotopic fractionation, we suggest that positively fractionated Cr isotopic values do not necessarily correspond to the rise in AOL.
A partially fluorinated ligand for two super-hydrophobic porous coordination polymers with classic structures and increased porosities
Authors: Wang Chao , Zhou Dong-Dong , Gan You-Wei , Zhang Xue-Wen , Ye Zi-Ming , Zhang Jie-Peng
Published: May 2020

3-Ethyl-5-trifluoromethyl-1,2,4-triazole is synthesized by a one-pot reaction. Using this asymmetric triazole ligand bearing one trifluoromethyl and one ethyl as side groups, we construct two new porous coordination polymers, MAF-9 and MAF-2F, being isostructural with the classic hydrophobic and flexible materials, FMOF-1 and MAF-2, based on symmetric triazole ligands bearing two trifluoromethyl groups or two ethyl groups, respectively. MAF-9 and MAF-2F can adsorb large amounts of organic solvents but completely exclude water, showing superhydrophobicity with water contact angles of 152o in between those of FMOF-1 and MAF-2. MAF-9 exhibits very large N2-induced breathing and colossal positive and negative thermal expansions like FMOF-1, but the lower molecular weight and smaller volume of MAF-9 give 16% and 4% higher gravimetric and volumetric N2 uptakes, respectively. In contrast, MAF-2F is quite rigid and does not show the inversed temperature-dependent N2 adsorption and large guest-induced expansion like MAF-2. Further, despite the higher molecular weight and larger volume, MAF-2F possesses 6% and 25% higher gravimetric and volumetric CO2 uptakes, respectively. These results can be explained by the different pore sizes and side group arrangements in the two classic framework prototypes, which demonstrate the delicate roles of ligand side groups in controlling porosity, surface characteristic and flexibility.
Single-cell yolk-shell nanoencapsulation for long-term viability with size-dependent permeability and molecular recognition
Authors: Wang Li , Li Yu , Yang Xiao-Yu , Zhang Bo-Bo , Ninane Nöelle , Busscher Henk J , Hu Zhi-Yi , Delneuville Cyrille , Jiang Nan , Xie Hao , Van Tendeloo Gustaaf , Hasan Tawfique , Su Bao-Lian
Published: May 2020

Like nanomaterials, bacteria have been unknowingly used for centuries. They hold significant economic potential for fuel and medicinal compound production. Their full exploitation, however, is impeded by low biological activity and stability in industrial reactors. Though cellular encapsulation addresses these limitations, cell survival is usually compromised due to shell-to-cell contacts and low permeability. Here, we report ordered packing of silica nanocolloids with organized, uniform and tunable nanoporosities for single cyanobacterium nanoencapsulation using protamine as an electrostatic template. A space between the capsule shell and the cell is created by controlled internalization of protamine, resulting in a highly ordered porous shell-void-cell structure formation. These unique yolk-shell nanostructures provide long-term cell viability with superior photosynthetic activities and resistance in harsh environments. In addition, engineering the colloidal packing allows tunable shell-pore diameter for size-dependent permeability and introduction of new functionalities for specific molecular recognition. Our strategy could significantly enhance the activity and stability of cyanobacteria for various nanobiotechnological applications.
Schopenhauer and Hume on Will and Causation
Authors: Schroeder Severin
Published: May 2020

One aspect of Schopenhauer’s doctrine that the world is will, which can be assessed independently of his more ambitious metaphysical ideas, is the claim that our own agency provides us with a full understanding of causation which then permeates and structures our experience of the world in general. In this chapter, the author argues that this claim can be defended against Hume’s well-known objections because they are based on a volitional theory of voluntary action, which Schopenhauer rightly rejected. Schopenhauer quite plausibly located an immediate experience of causation between at least some kinds of motives and our consequent actions. However, he was wrong in suggesting that this experience might be the source of our understanding of causation since intentional action already presupposes that understanding and cannot provide it. It is more plausible to argue that an understanding of causation is derived from our bodily encounters with material objects.
Durkheim’s Signature Project
Authors: Cladis Mark S.
Published: May 2020

The development of a science of morality, or what he called rational moral art (l’art moral rationnel), is one of Durkheim’s most ambitious endeavors. The very idea of rational art will strike many as an oxymoron. Yet it is precisely at the intersection, and within the tension, of these two terms—art and the rational—that we find Durkheim’s most mature efforts at establishing a science of morality. On the one hand, this science is rational insofar as it is attentive to the actual, lived social practices and institutions of humans in various cultures at various times. On the other hand, this science is a form of art insofar as it employs practical judgment and creativity as it seeks to move from the detailed studies of the social scientist to the reformist critique of social institutions and practices. In short, Durkheim recommended that sociologists join sociohistorical skill to the moral imagination.
Conclusions and Future Directions for the Study of Accurate Personality Judgment
Authors: Letzring Tera D.
Published: May 2020

This chapter identifies several well-established findings and overarching themes within personality trait accuracy research, and highlights especially promising directions for future research. Topics include (1) theoretical frameworks for accuracy, (2) moderators of accuracy and the context or situation in which judgments are made, (3) the important consequences of accuracy, (4) interventions and training programs to increase judgmental ability and judgability, (5) the generalizability of previous findings, and (6) standardized tests of the accuracy of judging personality traits. The chapter ends by stating that it is an exciting time to be a researcher studying the accuracy of personality trait judgments.
Mindfulness-Based Interventions in the Treatment of Physical Conditions
Authors: Goyal Madhav , Rusch Heather L.
Published: May 2020

This chapter reviews the evidence for mindfulness-based therapies in the treatment of physical conditions. We reviewed the literature for numerous conditions including pain, cancer, blood pressure, diabetes, heart disease, lung disease, sexual function, insomnia, substance use, and immune function. There is moderate evidence that mindfulness-based therapies improve symptoms of pain in general, and low back pain in particular. There is preliminary evidence that mindfulness-based therapies improve symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome, some aspects of heart disease, sexual function, susceptibility to colds, and reduce Nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB), a transcription factor thought to play a role in promoting inflammation.
Negation in Event Semantics
Authors: Schein Barry
Published: May 2020

With events as dense as time, negation threatens to be trivial, unless ‘not’ is noughtly, an adverb of quantification. So revised, classical puzzles of negation in natural language are revisited, in which deviation from the logical connective, violating Excluded Middle, appears to prompt a special condition or special meaning. The language of events also contains negative event descriptions—After the flood, it not drying out ruined the basement and one could smell it not drying out—and these appear to founder on the logic of the constructions in which they occur and on reference to suspect negative events, events of not drying out. A language for event semantics with ‘not’ as noughtly resolves the puzzles surveyed—within classical logic, without ambiguity or special conditions on the meaning of ‘not’, and without a metaphysics of negative events.
Types of Negation
Authors: De Clercq Karen
Published: May 2020

This chapter discusses the well-known dichotomies between sentence negation and constituent negation on the one hand and external negation and internal negation on the other hand. It explains how the notions differ and where they show overlap. Crucial in this discussion is the presentation and critical review of some of the most relevant tests for negation as discussed by Klima (1964). The discussion leads to the observation that both sentence negation and constituent negation are umbrella terms for multiple scopal types of negation. The chapter further shows how a careful analysis of negative morphology can be insightful in putting up a more fine-grained classification that does better justice to the reality of negative markers than captured by the well-known dichotomies.
Metalinguistic Negation
Authors: Martins Ana Maria
Published: May 2020

This chapter introduces the reader to the concept of ‘metalinguistic negation’ as defined by Horn (1989), the extensive bibliography on the topic, and the main issues it considers and debates. Besides the pragmatic and semantic matters that have been at the heart of the literature’s discussions, the chapter also considers syntactic aspects of metalinguistic negation, extending the focus from not-sentences to a broader coverage of the ways metalinguistic negation can be grammatically expressed, including different types of unambiguous metalinguistic negation markers (e.g. idioms, such as like hell, wh- phrases, and locative/temporal deictics). The interaction between metalinguistic negation and polarity items is considered central to separate ‘metalinguistic’ from ‘descriptive’ negation. The distinction between metalinguistic negation and the concepts of denial and contrastive negation is also clarified. Brief notice is given of investigations in language acquisition, ERP and eye-tracking, which may put to the test the cognitive reality of metalinguistic negation.
The Typology of Negation
Authors: van der Auwera Johan , Krasnoukhova Olga
Published: May 2020

This chapter discusses a number of central phenomena in the typology of negation, building on state-of-the-art typological research. The focus lies on standard negation, prohibitive negation, existential negation, and the negation of indefinites. Cross-linguistic variation is central in the discussion, and for most phenomena the question is addressed as to what extent a certain pattern is frequent or rare. As far as it is possible, observed patterns are provided with explanations, which are often diachronic. Thus the chapter discusses the Jespersen and Negative Existential Cycles and ventures a hypothesis on the existence of an ‘Ascriptive negation cycle’. For a number of phenomena it also discusses areality.
The Negative Cycle and Beyond
Authors: Breitbarth Anne
Published: May 2020

The expression of negation shows significant typological variation, for example by adverbial particles or verbs. In some languages, the different strategies are diachronically related, and the formal expression of negation can undergo a cyclic renewal. This chapter discusses the different lexical sources for the grammaticalization of new negative markers, and the formal processes involved. It also broaches on some open questions, such as why some languages do not renew their expression of negation while others do, and why they do at different speeds.
Negation and the Brain
Authors: Grodzinsky Yosef , Jaichenco Virginia , Deschamps Isabelle , Sánchez María Elina , Fuchs Martín , Pieperhoff Peter , Loewenstein Yonatan , Amunts Katrin
Published: May 2020

This chapter reports an investigation into possible brain bases for negation. It begins with a review of negation experiments that used behavioral studies (measuring Reaction Time—RT), and functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) experiments that sought to identify local activations that correlate with the presence of negation. The chapter dwells on a major methodological problem that permeates the experimental study of negation processing, and proposes a solution: instead of overt negation, we study expressions that contain a covert negation—expressions that are Downward Entailing (DE) as evinced by their ability to reverse inferences and license NPIs in their scope. DE operators are thus taken to contain a hidden, or covert, negation, and contrast with the Upward Entailing counterparts (few vs. many; less vs. more). The chapter reviews behavioral experiments in healthy adults that indicate that DE has a processing cost, and an fMRI study that finds a single brain location for this computation. These results serve as a basis for an experiment on individuals with Broca’s aphasia. Tests with DE and UE quantifiers with these patients resulted in a mixed picture, which is discussed and its implications are derived.
Evolutionary Precursors of Negation in Non-Human Reasoning
Authors: Bohn Manuel , Call Josep , Völter Christoph J.
Published: May 2020

Logical reasoning has been argued to crucially depend on linguistic or symbolic representations. This suggests that animals are incapable of negation. Nevertheless, animals have been found to behave in ways that suggest reasoning by negation. This chapter discusses the findings from the animal cognition literature in light of theoretical accounts of negation based on propositional and non-propositional thought. Instead of engaging in negation proper, animals might engage in proto-negation, that is reasoning based on contrary pairs instead of negated propositions. While most of the current findings might be explained in terms of proto-negation, an accumulation of evidence might eventually render negation proper a more parsimonious explanation of the evidence. The chapter concludes with suggestions for future avenues of research and a discussion of the role of negation in the evolution of human reasoning.
The Possible Positioning of Negation
Authors: Poletto Cecilia
Published: May 2020

This chapter deals with movements of sentential negative markers from one negative position to another and puts forth the idea that there is a relation between the position of the negative marker and its etymology. It argues that negative markers target positions that are located in three areas of the clause where operator-like elements move (either quantifiers or focused or wh-items) or argumental clitics. It also shows that there is no link between the position of the negative marker and its standard or non-standard usage.
Negation and Constituent Ordering
Authors: Pearce Elizabeth
Published: May 2020

The addition of a marker of sentential negation to an affirmative sentence can give rise to effects in the morpho-syntactic make-up of the sentence. This chapter examines selected instances in languages where the constituent ordering of a sentence including a sentential negation marker differs from that of the corresponding non-negative sentence. For the data examined in this chapter, the greatest number of affirmative/negative ordering contrasts are observed when the negative is initial and especially when it has the characteristics of a verb. But disruptions to constituent ordering are found also when the negative is medial or final, and not just with negative verbs, but also when the negative is a particle or an affix. The study of disruptions in the surface sequencing of constituents in negative sentences has the potential to improve our understanding both of the possible location of negation in clauses and of syntactic processes more generally.
Form and Function of Negative, Tag, and Rhetorical Questions
Authors: Romero Maribel
Published: May 2020

While interrogative clauses often function as neutral requests for information, they do not always do so. We will concentrate on three question types which, besides raising an issue, convey speaker bias and in which negation and negation-dependent items play an important role: (i) biased information-seeking polar questions, (ii) tag questions, and (iii) rhetorical questions. To model the pragmatic use-conditions of these question types, a more articulated representation of discourse has been developed, encompassing different epistemic states, Common ground managing operators, complex speech acts, and/or the scoreboard discourse model.
Expletive Negation
Authors: Delfitto Denis
Published: May 2020

This chapter provides the state-of-the-art around expletive negation (EN), by discussing: (i) the relationship between EN and negative concord; (ii) EN as a real negation; (iii) EN as a special formative linked to an additional evaluative/expressive layer in the semantics of language. Moreover, the chapter offers a potentially unifying analysis of EN in comparative, exclamative, and temporal clauses: EN as an operator of implicature denial. This approach derives the fact that EN is logically and compositionally independent from what is said from the fact that EN shifts the semantics of negation to the layer of implicated meaning. Some of the interpretive effects normally linked to the expressive/evaluative analysis of EN can be arguably derived as side-effects of this semantic analysis. The proposal advanced here has a number of implications regarding the relationship among morpho-syntax, pragmatic enrichment, and the non-incremental analysis of negation in theories of negation processing.
Monitoring and Filtering: European Reform or Global Trend?
Authors: Frosio Giancarlo , Mendis Sunimal
Published: May 2020

This chapter analyses the evolution of a trend towards the imposition of proactive monitoring obligations on intermediaries along the entire spectrum of intermediary liability subject matters and focuses on the recent EU copyright law reform. Article 17 of the newly enacted EU Directive on copyright in the Digital Single Market has come under fire for the heightened level of liability it imposes on online services providers (OSPs) for copyright-infringing content stored or transmitted by them. Based on an analysis of case law from multiple jurisdictions and an overview of industry practice, this chapter seeks to locate the new European reform within a much wider global trend that aims to impose proactive monitoring and filtering obligations on OSPs. It argues that the impetus for the introduction of Article 17 is rooted in the ‘internet threat’ discourse and reflects a gradual shift in the perception of OSPs from being ‘mere conduits’ to ‘active gate-keepers’ of content uploaded and shared by users. Following an evaluation of the extent to which Article 17 diverges from the existing intermediary liability framework in the EU, the chapter concludes by analysing its potential impact on users’ fundamental rights and freedoms, particularly in the light of its propensity to motivate wider use of automated filtering systems and algorithmic enforcement mechanisms.
The Text of the Pauline Corpus
Authors: Holmes Michael W.
Published: May 2020

The relationship between the text and form of a Pauline letter as sent to its recipients (a single letter hand-written on a scroll or in a notebook) and as read today (edited, printed, and part of a defined corpus with a fixed sequence) is complex and only partially understood. This chapter surveys the witnesses to the text of the Pauline letters, discusses the classification and characterization of the letters’ textual tradition, and notes the methodological implications of the tradition’s textual characteristics. It also discusses the formation of various collections of those letters, because the textual history of the letters is inseparable from the history of their collection, a subject which in turn must be linked to theories regarding their origins and transmission, inasmuch as there is a synergistic relationship between ideas about the creation, transmission, collection, and text of the Pauline letters.
Saharan
Authors: Cyffer Norbert
Published: May 2020

The internal coherence of the Saharan languages (as a branch of Nilo-Saharan) is undoubted. Several common features of lexicon and grammar are attributed to the common genetic property of the family. It is likewise evident that the Saharan languages in their current form also share features with other languages of the contact area. This especially applies to the syntax of complex sentences. It can be assumed that contact features were adopted when the Saharan languages had separated into independent languages and formed individual categories through direct borrowing or calque processes. In addition, the elaboration of the TAM system also appears to be a result of contact. This chapter highlights major common genetic features, such as pronominal forms and verbal structure, but also points to traces of contact-induced change.
Baale
Authors: Dimmendaal Gerrit J.
Published: May 2020

Baale is a Surmic language spoken in the border area between Ethiopia and South Sudan. Whereas genetically it is closely related to Surmic languages farther towards the west (in South Sudan), it has converged towards more distantly related Surmic languages spoken farther towards the east, in Ethiopia, as a result of intensive language contact. This chapter presents a grammatical outline of Baale, and shows how contact phenomena affected the phonological, morphosyntactic, and semantic structure of this Nilo-Saharan language. In addition, the chapter presents prototypical features of a Surmic language, such as the tripartite number-marking system, case, and the distinction between conjoint and disjoint verb forms.
Reflections on the History of African Language Classification
Authors: Gerhardt Ludwig
Published: May 2020

Linguists trying to classify languages find it difficult to specify what in fact they intend to classify with any degree of precision. This is due to the fact that definitions of the concept of “language” that have been formulated in the history of linguistics are greatly at variance with one another. This chapter gives a brief overview of studies in African linguistic classification. It begins with a discussion of different kinds of linguistic relationship and classification (genetic, typological, areal, practical, geographic) and shows how and to what extent these were frequently confused in the course of the history of research far into the last century. Against the background of the era of Enlightenment and romanticism, the emergence of comparative linguistics in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries is worked out in the second part of the chapter.
Ideophones
Authors: Kilian-Hatz Christa
Published: May 2020

The major word classes nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, even interjections or exclamations as well as function words such as adpositions and particles are natural subjects of detailed descriptions in grammars. By contrast, words subsumed under the term “ideophone” are widely ignored in most grammars or are hard to find as a separate word class. This is irritating because some linguists confirm that ideophones may form a huge class of words with even hundreds of members in many languages. This chapter gives a brief introduction to the world of ideophones, highlights formal and discourse-pragmatic criteria that can be used to define an ideophone cross-linguistically, and describes their typical characteristics.
Proverbs
Authors: Bemile Sebastian K.
Published: May 2020

Language is a system established by a people to communicate their thoughts, desires, and feelings. It is a window through which one can view the psyche of the speakers. Language is basically oral and transient. It is also conventional and arbitrary. It may be supported by writing, a mnemonic and more permanent means of communication. Humans use language to preserve their history and their culture orally and in writing. Oral communication both predates and supersedes written communication. Several genres are employed in communication, e.g. narrative, drama, and poetry. This chapter highlights the oral rendering—orature—of these genres. It, however, focuses on the linguistic and literary aspects employed in the use of proverbs. It indicates how the language of proverbs often exposes the psyche of a people and how human beings may think in the same way but express themselves in different ways due to their historical and cultural heritage.
Language and Ethnobotany
Authors: Legère Karsten
Published: May 2020

This chapter deals with ethnobotany, folk taxonomy, and African languages. In its first part people’s structuring of the plant kingdom with particular reference to life forms, and generic and specific taxa is discussed. Reference is made to relevant folk taxonomic terms and plant names in Bantu languages from East Africa, especially Tanzania, Namibia, to some extent also from the Democratic Republic of Congo and the Central African Republic. It is interesting to note that on top of widespread taxa like TREE or PLANT habitat-related life forms were traced in various languages such as CLIMBER, VINE in Vidunda or BUSH, SHRUB in Kwangali, and THORN TREE in Ndonga, as well as other specific taxa. In this respect sub-life forms were also recorded and examples given. The second part of the chapter focuses on folk conceptualization and the system of Bantu noun classes.
Language and Education
Authors: Skattum Ingse
Published: May 2020

In most of Africa south of the Sahara, imported languages (English, French, Portuguese, Arabic) dominate as language of instruction (LOI), whilst children start school speaking only indigenous African languages. This hampers learning and contributes to school repeats and dropouts. Countries adopt different language policies to cope with this pedagogical challenge in highly multilingual societies. This chapter discusses some representative cases, based on recent empirical studies. Language policy defines, inter alia, if African languages are to be used as LOI and/or as subject matter, alone or in bilingual programs, in which classes and in which disciplines. The choice of LOI(s) depends on the languages’ demographic, social, political, and historical weight, economic issues (didactic material and teacher training in widely used/minority languages), language instrumentation (lexical development, standardization), and dialectal differences. This policy must also take into account people’s attitudes, grounded in both identity and utility needs, and meet them with adequate measures.
Bantu and Bantoid
Authors: Marten Lutz
Published: May 2020

The Bantu family is the largest African language family in terms of geographic and demographic spread: the 450–500 Bantu languages are spoken in 27 countries, by about 240 million speakers. The close linguistic relation between Bantu languages has been recognized since the nineteenth century and was the focus of the earliest comparative linguistic studies in Africa, leading to the establishment of a reconstructed proto-language. Following the work of Bleek, Meinhof, and Guthrie, contemporary work on the internal classification of Bantu languages employs computational and phylogenetic methods, insights from comparative work on smaller subgroups, as well as models of language contact. A particular concern of comparative Bantu has for a long time been the relation between classification and social history, and hypotheses about the spread of Bantu languages across central, eastern, and southern Africa have had considerable influence on models of African history.
Indigenous African Scripts
Authors: Rovenchak Andrij , Buk Solomija
Published: May 2020

The chapter begins with a brief introduction to the history of writing in Africa. It goes on to describe the indigenous African scripts: the Tifinagh family of scripts; West African syllabaries, which include Vai, Mende, Kpelle, Loma, and Bambara scripts; West African alphabets, which include Bassa, Nko, Wolof, and some Hausa scripts; Bamum and Bagam scripts; East African scripts, including Somali alphabets (Osmanya, Gadabuursi, and Kaddariya), Oromo script, Beria alphabet, and some Nubian scripts. A separate section is devoted to the invention of writing within religious communities (Obɛri Ɔkaimɛ, Yoruba “holy” script, and Mandombe). Then, several recent attempts at orthography development from the second half of the twentieth century and the beginning of the twenty-first century are analyzed: Fula alphabets, Bété syllabary, Nwagu Aneke Igbo syllabary, Aka Umuagbara script, Mwangwego script, and some others. A description of writing systems among African diasporas conclude the chapter.
Language Contact
Authors: Beyer Klaus
Published: May 2020

The chapter starts with a short history of contact studies related to Africa. It briefly looks at early works from Heine (pidgins in the Bantu area) and the French tradition exemplified in the LACITO series on language contact. Considerable space is given to the developments of the last ten years or so when areal linguistics (Aikhenvald and Dixon), linguistic geography (Heine and Nurse), and contact linguistics (Childs, Mesthrie) were put center stage in the African linguistic context. The second part of the chapter looks at methodological issues. Substantial space is given to social contexts in the description of contact-induced language change. The social network approach and other sociolinguistic tools are demonstrated by means of a brief case study from a West African rural contact zone.
Language and Archaeology
Authors: Bostoen Koen
Published: May 2020

Archaeology and historical linguistics have been crucial for the reconstruction of pre-colonial African history, as these two disciplines offer complementary approaches to societies of the past. Despite being fundamentally distinct, they do in fact share a number of key principles and concepts, such as stratigraphy, seriation, geographic distribution, and time-depth. This chapter offers an outline of these shared principles and their interpretation with reference to the Bantu Expansion, which was the main linguistic, cultural, and demographic process in Late Holocene Africa. The chapter also provides some thoughts on what a judicious interdisciplinary archaeo-linguistic approach to the African past might look like.
Seasonal variability of the fatty acid composition in Aurelia aurita (Cnidaria: Scyphozoa): implications for gelativore food web studies
Authors: Stenvers Vanessa , Chi Xupeng , Javidpour Jamileh
Published: May 2020

Jellyfish population play an important role in aquatic food chains, and many animals predate on this ‘mostly water containing’ organisms. However, what gelativores predators could gain from their prey is still poorly understood. This study provides insight into the nutritional value of the moon jelly (Aurelia aurita) by means of its fatty acid (FA) composition, while investigating seasonal variability and differences between its free-swimming life stages. A biweekly sampling was carried out in a temperate coastal ecosystem, the Kiel Fjord, Germany and during two consecutive years. FA profile of A. aurita showed significant seasonal variability, while mature medusae (due to reproductive tissues) possessed highest FA content. In addition, moon jelly contained several essential FAs (i.e. arachidonic acid, 20:4ω6; eicosapentaenoic acid, 20:5ω3; docosahexaenoic acid, 22:6ω3), which likely support predator’s vital physiological functions. Even though total FA contents proved to be low (7 × 10−3–34 × 10−3% per g dry weight), evidence supporting A. aurita’s capability to meet the dietary requirements of predators such as fish and crustaceans is provided. Finally, implications for gelativore and future food web configurations are discussed, while proposing that jellyfish are likely to be, and become, more than an opportunistic prey to many organisms.
How Hands-On Pain Skills Intensive Trainings Complement ECHO Pain and Opioid Management Programs: A Program Evaluation with the Indian Health Service
Authors: Katzman Joanna G , Gygi Kathleen , Swift Robin , Comerci George , Bhatt Snehal , Daitz Benson , Martin Chamron , Fore Chris
Published: May 2020

Objective

To evaluate the impact of Pain Skills Intensive trainings (PSIs) as a complement to the Indian Health Service (IHS) and the Chronic Pain and Opioid Management TeleECHO Program (ECHO Pain) collaboration.

Design

On-site PSIs conducted over two to three days were added to complement ECHO Pain at various IHS areas to enhance pain skills proficiency among primary care teams and to expand the reach of ECHO collaboration to ECHO nonparticipants.

Setting

This evaluation focuses on two PSI trainings offered to IHS clinicians in Albuquerque, New Mexico, and Spokane, Washington, in 2017.

Methods

The mixed-methods design comprises CME surveys and focus groups at the end of training and 12 to 18 months later. Quality of training and perceived competence were evaluated.

Results

Thirty-eight participants attended the two PSI workshops. All provided CME survey results, and 28 consented to use of their postsession focus group results. Nine clinicians participated in the virtual follow-up focus groups. IHS clinicians rated the PSIs highly, noting their hands-on and interdisciplinary nature. They reported above-average confidence in their skills. Follow-up focus groups indicated they were pursuing expanded options for their patients, consulting other clinicians, serving as pain consultants to their peers, and changing prescribing practices clinic-wide. However, rurality significantly limits access to ancillary and complementary services for many. Clinicians reported the need for additional training in integrating behavioral health into their practice.

Conclusions

Hands-on pain skills and information on medication-assisted treatment (MAT) are critical to the successful treatment of chronic pain and opioid use disorder. The PSIs provide clinicians with critical competencies in assessment and screening, pain management, and communication skills, complementing required IHS training and telementoring from ECHO Pain.
Default network interactivity during mentalizing about known others is modulated by age and social closeness
Authors: Laurita Anne C , DuPre Elizabeth , Ebner Natalie C , Turner Gary R , Spreng R Nathan
Published: May 2020

In young adults, mentalizing about known others engages the default network, with differential brain response modulated by social closeness. While the functional integrity of the default network changes with age, few studies have investigated how these changes impact the representation of known others, across levels of closeness. Young (N = 29, 16 females) and older (N = 27, 12 females) adults underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scanning while making trait judgments for social others varying in closeness. Multivariate analyses (partial least squares) identified default network activation for trait judgments across both age cohorts. For young adults, romantic partner and self-judgments differed from other levels of social closeness and were associated with activity in default and salience networks. In contrast, default network interactivity was not modulated by social closeness for older adults. In two functional connectivity analyses, both age groups demonstrated connectivity between dorsal and ventral medial prefrontal cortex and other default network regions during trait judgments. However older, but not young, adults also showed increased functional coupling between medial and lateral prefrontal brain regions that did not vary by category of known other. Mentalizing about others engages default and frontal brain regions in older adulthood, and this coupling is poorly modulated by social closeness.
Is it “Good” to Have a Stay-at-Home Mom? Parental Childcare Time and Work–Family Arrangements in Italy, 1988–2014
Authors: Dotti Sani Giulia M
Published: May 2020

This article investigates whether there are childcare penalties and premiums at the intersection of gender, work–family arrangements, and education among parents in Italy, a country with a familistic welfare state and a traditional division of labor within couples. The results indicate that children in male breadwinner households are not exposed to more childcare time than those living in a dual-earner arrangement, except when both parents are highly educated, in which case a childcare premium emerges. The implications for social inequalities are discussed in light of the societal transformations that have occurred in the country over the past few decades.
Gender, Violence, and Political Institutions: Struggles over Sexual Harassment in the European Parliament
Authors: Berthet Valentine , Kantola Johanna
Published: May 2020

The global #MeToo movement exposed the prevalence of sexual harassment across countries, in diverse contexts, and within institutions; including the supposedly gender-friendly European Parliament (EP). Using a unique set of interview data with key actors in the #MeTooEP campaign and Members of European Parliament and staff, this article analyzes the discursive struggles around sexual harassment in the EP. The analysis shows how these discourses fundamentally shaped the patchy institutional response to sexual harassment with findings that illuminate the resistance to institutional change.