bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Anatomy of the vascular system of the head and neck of the helmeted guineafowl Numida meleagris
Authors: Crowe T. M. , Crowe A. A.
Published: August 2009

The vascular anatomy of the head and neck of eight adult helmeted guineafowl (Numida meleagris) was investigated by latex injections and dissection, resin casting, and lipidol injections and X‐ray photography. The vascular anatomy of these regions is similar to that of the domestic fowl Gallus domesticus, the main differences being in the helmet, wattle and cere vascularization, and the presence of a nape‐cheek rete in N. meleagris. It is postulated that five vascular arrangements in the head and neck are important in brain temperature regulation. These arrangements are: the nape‐cheek rete, the temporal rete, fine arteriovenous networks in the wattles and cere, and the cavernous sinus‐intercarotid association. All but the last of these arrangements require pathways of blood flow to the brain other than the most direct route. Such pathways are discussed.
Social ontogeny and behavioural diversity: consequences for Bighorn sheep Oris canadensis inhabiting desert and mountain environments
Authors: Berger Joel
Published: August 2009

The development of social behaviour was studied in three natural populations of Bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis). Individuals in all populations exhibited the same behavioural repertoires, but the utilization of specific behaviours among both infants and adults differed between populations. It was suggested that differences in the adult utilization of behaviour patterns result in part from behaviours used during infancy. In turn, the social and physical environments affected the development of subsequent behaviour patterns in sheep older than lambs.

Desert sheep (in southern California) used mounting behaviours often, presumably because they matured sexually at an early age. Sheep in a more northern environment (British Columbia) used different behaviour patterns more frequently perhaps as a consequence of interactions experienced in larger bands. Additionally, playful interactions were reduced due to physical hazards in the desert, but they were at least nine times as frequent in the northern study population. Play in large groups resulted in the utilization of more different kinds of behaviour patterns. These behavioural findings are interpreted ecologically as consequences of inhabiting environments that differ socially and physically.
On the eye of the Goldeye Hiodon alosoides (Teleostei: Hiodontidae)
Authors: Best A. C. G. , Nicol J. A. C.
Published: August 2009

In the eye of the Goldeye the photoreceptors are arranged in bundles and the pigment epithelium contains a massive reflector or tapetum lucidum. Photoreceptor bundles are arranged in parallel rows, the bundles alternating in position from row to row. Each bundle contains about 60 photoreceptors, of which 30 or so are cones. Rod outer segments lie in the scleral half of the outer retinal region of the light‐adapted eye. Processes of the pigment epithelium cells extend vitread almost to the external limiting membrane; they envelop the bundles of rods and cones, and a ring of four processes surrounds each bundle. A process contains two kinds of reflecting crystals (composed of uric acid). A large part of the epithelium cell is packed with small disc‐shaped crystals (crystallites) enclosed in thin membranes; the tip of the process, in the region of the photoreceptor bundle, contains orderly arrays of small rod‐shaped crystals (rodlets). It is suggested that the crystallites form a diffuse reflector backscattering light into the rods; and that the rodlets reflect light regularly from their surfaces into the photoreceptor bundles. In the light‐adapted state, rods are enveloped by pigment and crystallites. The organization is compared with that of other fishes that have photoreceptors in bundles (grouped retinae) and tapeta lucida.
The identification of postlarvae of four species of Penaeus (Crustacea: Decapoda) from the Pacific coast of Mexico
Authors: Mair J. McD.
Published: August 2009

Livingand recently preserved postlarvae of Penaeus vannameiBoone, P. stylirostris Stimpson, P. californiensis (Holmes) and P. brevirostris Kingsley may be separated into species on chromatophore patterns and rostral lengths. These and other characters are illustrated and tabulated, and their usefulness and reliability are discussed.
The functional anatomy of the shoulder in the Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana)
Authors: Jenkins Parish A. , Weijs W. A.
Published: August 2009

The activity of 14 shoulder muscles and the excursions of the shoulder girdle and forelimbs were studied by simultaneous electromyography and cineradiography in nine opossums (Didelphis virginiana) walking on a treadmill at speeds of 0.52 m/sec to 0.95 m/sec. The relative magnitudes of vertical, propulsive, braking, and transverse forces engendered by the forelimb were measured by means of a force plate and correlated with skeletal postures determined by cineradiography. This study provides basic functional‐anatomical data on the shoulder of a generalized, noncursorial therian which bear on the interpretation of the structural evolution of the shoulder known from the fossil record of mammal‐like reptiles and early mammals.

The infraspinatus, supraspinatus, subscapularis, atlantoscapularis, rhomboid, triceps and the cervical part of the serratus ventralis usually begin activity during the swing phase and continue throughout most, but not all, of the propulsive phase. The thoracic part of the serratus ventralis, the posterior belly of the omohyoid, the pectoralis, and the posterior part of the latissimus dorsi are active principally during the propulsive phase; EMG signals begin after foot contact and terminate before the foot is lifted from the substrate. The teres major and the anterior part of the latissimus dorsi are active principally during the transition from propulsion to swing phase. The deltoid, posterior trapezius, and atlanto‐acromialis are predominantly active during the swing phase, although variable and intermittent activity frequently occurs in the propulsive phase.

Peak vertical forces engendered by the forelimbs are on the order of 57 % of body weight. During the propulsive phase the forelimb first exerts a braking and then a propulsive effect. Vectors representing vertical and longitudinal forces usually pass in front of the scapula during the initial part of the propulsive phase, through the scapula during mid‐propulsion, and behind the scapula by the end of propulsion. Transverse forces engendered by the forefeet are principally lateral.

During mammalian evolution, scapular structure was altered by the addition of a supraspinous fossa, loss of the procoracoid, reduction of the coracoid, and reorientation of the glenoid fossa. The activity patterns of the supraspinatus, infraspinatus, and other muscles support the hypothesis that the mammalian shoulder evolved compensatory stabilizing mechanisms at the same time that it specialized for mobility.
The population dynamics of small rodents in a tropical African grassland
Authors: Cheeseman C. L. , Delany M. J.
Published: August 2009

Monthly estimates were obtained of the density of small rodents in tropical grassland in Rwenzori Park, Uganda between April 1972 and September 1973. Of the 12 species of rodents present, the most numerous were Lemniscomys striatus, Lophuromys sikapusi, Mus triton, Mylomys dybowskii and Praomys natalensis. In a live trapping grid estimates were obtained using direct enumeration, numbers caught, Hayne's Lincoln Index and Jolly's method. Monthly estimates ranged between 16·67 and 63·32 animals per hectare. Intensive removal trappings were also undertaken and these gave estimates of 6·45 to 27·24 per hectare. The inconsistency of the two estimates may be accounted for by small microhabitat and vegetational differences.

Breeding occurs in Lemniscomys and Praomys during the wet season whilen Lophuromys it is more extended but nevertheless seasonal. There is considerable evidence of rapid population turnover as the five species examined in detail had a mean duration of residence between two and three months. Few animals were resident for more than eight months.

The monthly standing crop biomass ranged from 672 to 2221 g/ha on the live trapping grid and from 348 to 1126 g/ha on the intensive removal grids. Estimates of net annual production on the live trapping grid rely on a number of assumptions but are nevertheless relatively high ranging from 5897 to 7072 g/ha.

Fires had a significant indirect effect on the composition of the fauna. Mus triton and Lemniscomys increased their numbers in the five months following the burn to levels not previously attained whereas Mylomys and Lophuromys were less frequent during this period. Several species of avian, reptilian and mammalian predators are recorded.
Reproductive behaviour of the Grey seal (Halichoerus grypus) on Sable Island, Nova Scotia
Authors: Boness D. J. , James H.
Published: August 2009

We describe an unusual mating system, observed in a land‐breeding colony of Grey seal,Halichoerus grypus, in the western Atlantic. Males and females begin to visit the breeding beach about a week before the season begins, but none stay ashore for long until the first pup is born. The cows are gregarious, probably return to the same part of the beach to give birth from one year to the next, and tend to remain in the general vicinity of the birth site during their two and a half week sojourn ashore. Within these limits, however, they are quite mobile, and the size, location and composition of the temporary aggregations which they form vary from one day to the next. The cows become thinner and more sedentary as oestrus approaches, but otherwise they give no overt signs of receptivity. The males do not defend territories, nor do they form dominance hierarchies. Instead, they compete for tenure, the right to remain within the shifting population of females. Tenured bulls directly test the receptivity of nearby cows from time to time, and they continually manoeuvre in ways which maximize their chances of being next to cows which are either in oestrus or likely to become so in the near future. Bulls which fail to establish themselves amongst females try to intercept cows as they are leaving for the sea at the end of their season, but their reproductive success, estimated in several ways, is significantly lower than that of bulls with tenure.

The system would be adaptive for seals which breed on the pack ice, but it is unique amongst land‐breeding pinnipeds. If, as some circumstantial evidence suggests, Grey seals were originally pack‐ice breeders, the persistence of such a system in a land‐breeding colony raises some interesting questions about the plasticity of mating behaviour.
Foods of the Dartford warbler Sylvia undata on southern English heathland (Aves: Sylviidae)
Authors: Bibby Colin J.
Published: August 2009

This paper describes the invertebrates of Callunetum and gorse on lowland heaths in Dorset and relates how these were exploited by the Dartford warbler Sylvia undata, a scarce bird of interest to nature conservation and one of the small number of wholly insectivorous resident passerines in Britain. Gorse had a denser invertebrate fauna than Callunetum and was used for feeding at a frequency out of proportion to its abundance. Diets of adult birds closely reflected the taxonomic composition of the gorse and Callunetum faunas exploited in the observed proportions, though some noxious taxa were avoided and below a certain limit, creatures of above average size were selected. Major foods were beetles, spiders, lepidopteran larvae and bugs. Nestling birds received a diet differing in taxonomic composition and size from that of the adults, and variations between habitats were found which accorded with observations on the habitat preferences of the Dartford warbler. An experimental investigation showed the importance of gorse as a source of food for young and the adults flew considerable distances ignoring extensive deep stands of heather nearer to the nest. The possible influence of competing insectivorous vertebrates on Dartford warblers is discussed. Various mammals and reptiles appeared to be the major vertebrate predators in Callunetum, but little competition was anticipated in gorse. Scarcity of gorse on the heaths and low densities of invertebrates in heather explained the low densities at which Dartford warblers occur.
Allometry of the legs of running birds
Authors: Maloiy G. M. O. , Alexander R. McN. , Njau R. , Jayes A. S.
Published: August 2009

The principal bones, muscles and tendons of the legs have been measured in a selection of running birds, ranging in size from 0–1 kg quail to 40 kg ostrich. Maximum stride frequencies of the same species have been determined from films. Allometric equations have been derived. Most of the exponents agree well with McMahon's (1973, 1975a) theory of elastic similarity, which is discussed.
Mechanics of running of the ostrich (Struthio camelus)
Authors: Alexander R. McN. , Maloiy G. M. O. , Njau R. , Jayes A. S.
Published: August 2009

Ostriches have been filmed running fast in their natural habitat. A female ostrich has been dissected and the principal bones, muscles and tendons in a leg have been measured. It is calculated that stresses up to 240 kN m−2 and 40 MN m−2, respectively, act in the digital flexor muscles and their tendons during running. Tensile and compressive stresses up to about 70MNm−2 and 110 MNm−2 act in the tibiotarsus. A large proportion of the energy which would otherwise be required for running is probably saved by elastic storage in tendons. Comparisons are made with the legs of flying birds and of antelopes.
Attachment tissues of the teeth in Caiman sclerops (Crocodilia)
Authors: Berkovitz B. K. B. , Sloan P.
Published: August 2009

As the Crocodilia are the only non‐mammalian vertebrates with tooth sockets, the attachment tissues of the teeth were studied in Caiman sclerops mainly at the ultrastructural level and were compared with those of mammals. All three attachment tissues (alveolar bone, cementum and periodontal ligament) in the Caiman showed both similarities and differences with their mammalian counterparts. Highly organized, lamellated structures, probably representing specialized sensory nerve endings were observed within the Caiman ligament. No such structure has ever been described in the mammalian ligament.
Changes in egg shell characteristics of the Sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus) and Peregrine (Falco peregrinus) associated with exposure to environmental pollutants during recent decades
Authors: Cooke A. S.
Published: August 2009

In Britain since the late 1940s, the Sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus) and Peregrine (Falco peregrinus) have laid eggs with unusually thin shells. DDT and its metabolites have been blamed. This paper reports how various properties of modern shells differ from those of older shells of normal thickness.

For the shells of both species, there were roughly proportional reductions in thickness of the two main component layers, the mammillary and palisade layers, suggesting that thin shells resulted from a decreased rate of deposition. In addition, in modern Sparrowhawk shells, the resistant surface layer was especially deficient perhaps due to a further reduction in deposition rate or to slight premature termination. Shell thinning was associated with a proportionately greater decrease in shell strength. For the Peregrine, porosity, measured as the rate of passage of water vapour, was lower for the thin shells than for normal shells. This difference could not be explained by a change in the area of the pore channels, since the modern shells did not have fewer pores and the pore channels were the same size and shape in the two samples of shells. However, in the thin shells of both species, mammillae height increased relative to mammillary layer thickness, and in the Peregrine shells the extent of this increase was related to the change in porosity.
The effect of ambient temperature on body temperature and on ultrasonic behaviour in litters of albino laboratory mice deprived of their mothers
Authors: Sales Gillian D. , Skinner Nigel C.
Published: August 2009

Litters of mouse pups of various ages when deprived of their mother and kept for one hour at ambient temperatures of 3°C, 12°C and 22°C lose heat less rapidly than pups isolated individually at similar temperatures. The litters are able to maintain constant body temperatures of 35–37°C by day 8 at 22°C, by day 19 at 12°C and by day 21 at 3°C. Very little ultrasound is detected from litters of any age up to 21 days at 22°C while at 12°C ultrasound is mainly detected from pups of 4 and 6 days; very few calls are produced by older pups at this temperature. Considerably more calls are emitted at 3°C than at either of the two higher temperatures. At 3°C the total number of calls emitted during the hour‐long exposure period varied markedly with age. There were two peaks of calling, one on day 6 and the other on day 16. The temporal pattern of calling throughout the hour‐long exposure period at 3°C was similar in pups of 4 and 6 days and in pups of 8, 10, 12, 14 and 16 days, but differed between these two groups. In the younger group of pups the rate of calling rose to a peak and then decreased to zero as the pups became comatose; in the older pups the rate of calling was low initially then either rose throughout the rest of the hour or rose to a high level that was maintained. It is suggested that the various patterns of ultrasonic calling can be associated with the physiological development of mouse litters.
Influence of light and temperature on daily activity patterns of three Israeli forms of Ptyodactylus (Reptilia: Gekkoninae)*
Authors: Frankenberg Eliezer
Published: August 2009

Activity of the gecko Ptyodactylus hasselquistii was recorded by Aktograph in cyclic light and temperature, continuous darkness or light with constant 30°C or cyclic temperature. The northern P. h. puiseuxi was more diurnal and the southern P. h. cf. hasselquistii more nocturnal than the common P. h. guttatus. Except in constant temperature and continuous light, activity was not randomly distributed throughout the day. The more nocturnal the animal was, the more the temperature played a role in determining its daily activity pattern.
The distribution of glochidia of the Swan mussel, Anodonta cygnea (Mollusca) on the Three‐spined stickleback Gasterosteus aculeatus (Pisces)
Authors: Dartnall H. J. G. , Walkey M.
Published: August 2009

The pattern of infestation by glochidia of the Swan mussel, Anodonta cygnea, on a population of the Three‐spined stickleback, Gasterosteus aculeatus was studied over a period of 12 months. The results obtained are considered under the four headings of incidence, intensity, the effect of fish size and the toDoeraDhical distribution of oarasites on the host.
Moult and colour change in English weasels (Mustela nivalis)
Authors: King Carolyn M.
Published: August 2009

The moult pattern of the weasel is similar to that of the stoat (M. erminea). English weasels rarely turn white in winter but the winter fur is a paler shade of brown than the summer fur.
Age criteria and life expectancy of Roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) in coniferous forest in North‐eastern England
Authors: Ashby Kenneth R. , Henry Byron A. M.
Published: August 2009

In a comparative study of ageing techniques on 101 Roe deer from Hamsterley Forest, County Durham, it was found that cementum layering in the incisor was completely reliable and that in the molar slightly less so. Estimates of age from cusp wear and general attrition of the dentition were highly correlated with those from layering. The rate of tooth wear was high. The dry weight of the eye lens was of little value as an index of age. The annual static mortality of both sexes was apparently close to 30% throughout most of the life span, and the form of the life table similar to that of female Roe deer in Thetford Chase, East Anglia, and on the Kala estate in Denmark. The oldest individuals obtained were aged 9½ years.
Reproductive ecology of the Springhaas Pedetes capensis in Botswana
Authors: Butynski Thomas M.
Published: August 2009

The reproductive ecology of the Springhaas was studied in the Republic of Botswana (August 1971‐August 1974). Springhaas were collected over 24 consecutive months (153 foetuses and 560 juveniles and adults). Springhaas are monotocous. There was no difference between the number of implantations in each uterine horn. Seventy‐six per cent of adult females were pregnant, 46 % were lactating, and only 4 % were neither pregnant nor lactating. Neonates are confined to the burrow and totally dependent upon the mother until they attain a body weight of approximately 1.3 kg. The male to female ratio was 51:49, and the juvenile to adult ratio was 28:72. No seasonal peaks in reproductive effort were noted. The reproductive strategy of the Springhaas is considered. Predation is believed to be the primary mover in the evolution of the Springhaas reproductive strategy.
The role of fat and protein reserves in the annual cycle of the Grey‐backed camaroptera in Uganda (Aves: Syhidae)
Authors: Fogden M. P. L. , Fogden P. M.
Published: August 2009

The annual cycle of Camaroptera brevicaudata was studied close to the equator in Uganda, particular attention being paid to the role of fat and protein reserves. Camaropteras breed at irregular intervals, two or even three times per year, whenever rainfall and increased primary productivity result in a favourable insect food supply. However, there is no consistent relationship between the onset of breeding and the onset of rainfall or any other environmental variable. It is concluded that an adequate protein reserve is the proximate factor controlling the onset of breeding.

During the laying cycle the fat and protein reserves of female camaropteras fall significantly, though not synchronously. The decline of the fat reserve, which occurs on the days when eggs are being ovulated, appears to be related to loss of feeding time caused by searching for calcareous material needed for egg shell production. The decline of the protein reserve occurs almost throughout the laying cycle, but is small in relation to the total protein needed for the formation of a clutch of eggs. It is concluded that it represents a loss from a store of specialized protein needed for egg production, perhaps particular amino‐acids that are scarce in the normal diet. A similar small decline in the protein reserve of males may have a similar function in relation to sperm production. Courtship feeding of female camaropteras by the males is most intensive just before and during the laying cycle. It probably contributes to the nutrition of females by helping them attain adequate fat and protein reserves prior to breeding and by compensating for the time lost searching for calcareous material needed for egg shell production.

The moult of camaropteras begins at about the same time each year, the timing probably being determined largely by the timing of the first, post‐juvenile, moult. The moult is extremely flexible—it can be interrupted if conditions become suitable for breeding, and its rate can be slowed if it coincides with severe dry conditions. This is an adaptation to an environment in which favourable conditions are irregular and too short to accommodate both breeding and moult.
A comparative assessment of methods of individual tracking within a population of Microtus agrestis (Mammalia: Muridae)
Authors: Johns Andrew D.
Published: August 2009

Studies of spatial arrangement in small mammal populations are usually based on the results of live‐trapping, which is recognized as limiting in an investigation of this sort. The present paper examines the feasibility of two alternative methods using a population of Microtus agrestis as the test case.
Natural selection in House mice (Mus musculus) from South Georgia (South Atlantic Ocean)
Authors: Berry R. J. , Bonner W. N. , Peters Josephine
Published: August 2009

Mice living in tussock grass on a remote headland of the South Atlantic island of South Georgia (54°S) where the mean temperature is less than 2°C and the monthly average below 0°C for four months each year have been studied. They are big animals (although not as large as those on some North Atlantic islands) and have much brown fat, showing their response to their cold environment. Only two out of 27 gene loci scored electrophoretically were segregating (3·4% heterozygosity); these (Es‐6, Got‐2) are four cross‐over units apart on chromosome 8, and were in strong linkage disequilibrium. There were marked changes in allele frequencies with age which go in opposite directions in males and females, showing the action of stabilizing selection: Es‐6a increased from 16% in males of less than three months, to 35% in older animals; it declined in females from 36 to 19%.
Thyroid activity in adult and neonate Harp seals Pagophilus groenlandicus
Authors: Leatherland John F. , Ronald K.
Published: August 2009

Serum thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) levels were higher in neonate seals compared with adults. The appearance of the thyroid gland in neonates was markedly variable but in both neonate and adult Harp seals the thyroid appeared relatively inactive except in one of the specimens examined. The data suggest that the different hormone levels in adult and neonate represent the respective euthroid state for Harp seals at these stages in their life.
Mortality in Grey seal pups: incidence and causes
Authors: Anderson Sheila S. , Baker John R. , Prime John H. , Baird Anna
Published: August 2009

Pup production and mortality of beach breeding Grey seals was studied at two contrasting types of rookery, the cliff‐bound island of Ramsey, Dyfed, and the low, grassy island of Auskerry, Orkney. Thirty‐five per cent of pups died on Ramsey compared with 14 % on Auskerry. Almost half of the Ramsey mortality was accounted for by animals being lost from the beaches so that they were not available for analysis. The main proximate causes of death revealed by post‐mortem examination were starvation and infections. The other conditions which accounted for a small proportion of deaths were drowning, trauma, non‐viability, stillbirths, atelectasis, dystokia and heart abnormality. Certain pathogens associated with disease were common to both sites, while others were specific to Ramsey or Auskerry.

The most important ultimate cause of pup deaths appeared to be failure of the mother/pup bond. The differences in levels of mortality between the sites is thought to be due to differences in the topography of the beaches. Pup survival on the narrow cliff‐bound beaches, or in caves, on Ramsey was reduced either directly through pups being washed off, or indirectly by overcrowding of animals at high tide.
Recently extinct reptile populations from Mauritius and Réunion, Indian Ocean
Authors: Arnold E. N.
Published: August 2009

Previously unreported material of recently extinct reptiles from Mauritius and Reunion is discussed. It confirms the original presence on Mauritius of three species now largely or entirely confined to nearby Round Island: the gecko Cyrtodactylus serpensinsula, the skink, Leiolopisma telfairii and the boa, Casarea dussumieri. Leiolopisma telfairii is also recorded from Reunion for the first time. Leiolopisma telfairii and the extinct giant Dido–saurus mauritianus are shown to be very similar to each other and quite probably derivatives of a single invading species. D. mauritianus is consequently transferred to Leiolopisma. Apparently pathological tooth structure in this form is also reported.
Burrowing of Priapulus caudatus (Vermes) and the significance of the direct peristaltic wave
Authors: Elder H. Y. , Hunter R. D.
Published: August 2009

Priapulus caudatus is an active predatory animal found burrowing in soft mud. It may employ relatively high body fluid pressures during escape reactions (up to 6 kPa recorded) but normal burrowing probably involves much lower pressures (< 2 kPa). Three points d'appui are formed during the burrowing cycle. A characteristic direct peristaltic wave (DPW) occurs at a low pressure stage in each cycle (<0–5 kPa). The DPW is regarded as an adaptation to burrowing in soft mud. Its function appears to be to transfer body wall anteriorily, providing “slack”, which is used to allow the trunk to extend forward into the cavity vacated by retraction of the large praesoma at the end of each cycle. The circular and longitudinal muscles of the posterior trunk act synergically through most of the burrowing cycle.
The gaits of chelonians: walking techniques for very low speeds
Authors: Jayes A. S. , Alexander R. McN.
Published: August 2009

The gaits of three species of chelonians have been studied by filming and by recording the forces the feet exert on the ground. Chelonians could keep their bodies in equilibrium if they walked so as to have at least three feet on the ground at all times, and if the feet moved in appropriate sequence. However, they generally use a gait in which there are at times only two feet on the ground, and they do not maintain equilibrium, but pitch and roll through angular ranges of around 10°. Maintenance of equilibrium would require the feet to exert abruptly changing forces, which they are probably not capable of doing because of the slowness of chelonian muscle. Records of the forces exerted by the feet do not show abrupt changes. It is shown by mathematical modelling that if only slow changes of force are possible, the gaits and force patterns which chelonians use are close to the optimum which minimizes pitching and rolling. Gaits only a little different would be impracticable at low speeds because of excessive pitching and/or rolling. Slow muscle may be more efficient than fast muscle, and can maintain tension more economically.
Static allometry of mammalian teeth and the correlation of tooth size and body size in contemporary mammals
Authors: Creighton G. Ken
Published: August 2009

Functional least squares regression was used to fit the allometric equation, y= bxk, to data on head‐body lengths and body weights for 123 species of mammals. These measurements were found to be highly correlated and to scale isometrically. The scaling of M1 area with head‐body length was investigated for 288 species of terrestrial mammals. A method was described for estimating the body size of extinct mammals from M1 area and the tooth size‐body size relationships discovered among contemporary forms.
The duration of lactation in feral coypus (Myocastor coypus)
Authors: Gosling L. M.
Published: August 2009

The frequency of consecutive reproductive stages in a post mortem sample of 423 lactating coypus was used to estimate the mean post partum interval (Dpp) and the mean duration of lactation (D1). The estimates required a number of assumptions but the most important involved the validity of making time specific inferences from an “age” series. Variation statistics could not be calculated using conventional techniques and the jacknife method of estimation was used to obtain variances of the means and 95 % confidence intervals. Dpp was estimated as 21 ± 0–8 weeks. Some observations of retrapped wild animals showed that some animals conceived at an oestrus which occurred within a day or two of parturition. Dl was estimated in four different ways, three of which were quite closely related: these averaged 8–4 ± 10 weeks. But the fourth estimate, which is equally valid, was 70 weeks. A weighted average of the four estimates was 7–7 weeks with 95 % confidence limits of c. ± 10. The average suckling period of five captive females was 10–9 weeks. The most likely interpretation of the 42 % difference between this value and the estimate for wild females is attenuation as a result of a reduced nutrient intake in the feral population. DL is substantially longer than predicted from an expression relating maternal weight to DL in other mammals. This may be part of a maternal care strategy that centres on protection of space, and possibly of a food supply for milk production, rather than on defence of the young.
Diurnal variation in the distribution of lipid in the pectoralis muscle of the House sparrow (Passer domesticus)
Authors: Jones Marilyn M.
Published: August 2009

The content and distribution of lipid in avian muscle were investigated on a diurnal basis. The results were discussed with reference to shivering and with respect to apparently conflicting findings obtained by previous workers on the effects of exercise and starvation on intracellular lipid in muscle fibres.
Behaviour of does and leverets of the European hare (Lepus europaem) whilst nursing
Authors: Broekhuizen Sim , Maaskamp Frans
Published: August 2009

After birth in one particular place, the leverets of a litter dispersed after a few days. In the evening, the leverets were observed gathering at, or near, their birth place to await nursing. There the doe would arrive later, about one hour after sunset, to nurse the young gathered there. Individual recognition between leverets and their doe seemed of no importance, and meeting was dependent on time and place. The young were nursed for only a few minutes and their urine, excreted during nursing, was licked up by the doe, which finished nursing by jumping away from the young. The leverets dispersed again and kept apart from each other until they gathered again the next evening. Usually leverets are nursed for four weeks, but longer nursing periods were found in the last litters of the breeding season. The nursing behaviour is probably adapted to prevent discovery of leverets by predators.
The histochemistry and infrastructure of the coelomocytes of species of Lumbricillus, and observations on certain other enchyfraeid genera (Oligochaeta: Annelida)
Authors: Richards K. Sylvia
Published: August 2009

The main coelomocyte type–the granular mucocyte–of Lumbricillus mirabilis, L. reynold‐soni and L. rivalis has inclusions consisting of a mucopolysaccharide‐protein complex with very low lipid levels. Both neutral and carboxylated acid mucopolysaccharides occur, the latter predominating in the granules of L. rivalis in which protein levels are lower than in the other two species.

The Golgi‐derived granules of the mucocytes of L. mirabilis and L. reynoldsoni are electron dense when mature and are separated from each other by cytoplasm housing, generally, a single endoplasmic reticulum profile. The mucocytes arise from the peritoneum. In L. rivalis the inclusions are of finely fibrillar material typical of acid mucopolysaccharides. Studies on species of other genera show the species of littoral origin to possess mucocytes with an ultrastructure similar to that of the littoral L. mirabilis and L. reynoldsoni; those of non‐littoral origin are similar to the non‐littoral L. rivalis. The differences therefore appear to be eco‐physiological rather than taxonomic.

Amoebocytic coelomocytes occur and two types are described for L. mirabilis and L. reynoldsoni. Type I is finely pseudopodous and contains numerous small, electron dense inclusions. The origin of Type I from the peritoneum is demonstrated. Type II is characterized by fewer pseudopodia and large, electron dense inclusions similar to chloragosomes. Pinocytotic vesicles occur at the cell periphery. No intermediates between Type I and II were observed, and Type II was not seen in L. rivalis. Both types occur in Enchytraeus albidus, but only Type I in Fridericia bulbosa and no amoebocytes were observed in Mesen‐chytraeus sp.
Eggshell porosity and the water metabolism of the chick embryo
Authors: Simkiss K.
Published: August 2009

Chick embryos have been water stressed during the last week of incubation by either withdrawing 6 cm3 of allantoic fluid or by increasing shell porosity three to four fold. Despite the large increase in water loss from these eggs they were successfully incubated to produce hatchlings of apparently normal water content. The chicks produced by water deprivation were significantly smaller than controls and it appears that the growth of embryos is therefore modulated according to the metabolites available. If this interpretation is correct it suggests that the critical role of eggshell porosity in avian development has been over‐emphasized.
Non‐random, intra‐colony distribution of bridled guillemots Uria aalge
Authors: Birkhead T. R. , Biggins J. D. , Nettleship D. N.
Published: August 2009

Within the Common guillemot Uria aalge colony, at the Gannet Clusters, Labrador, Canada, there was no evidence of heterogeneity in the proportion of bridled birds in different parts of the colony. Nor was there any evidence for assortative mating among bridled guillemots. Examination of the distribution of bridled birds in rows of guillemots however, showed a significant degree of clumping. Two hypotheses are presented to explain this distribution pattern: (a) the environmental hypothesis, which proposes that bridled birds preferentially select particular micro‐habitats, or choose to breed where there are already bridled birds. (b) the return hypothesis, which proposes that one sex (probably female) returns to breed very close to where it was reared.
The diet of Impala (Aepyceros melampus) in the Sengwa Wildlife Research Area, Rhodesia
Authors: Dunham Kevin M.
Published: August 2009

The seasonal variation in the plant morphological part composition of the dict of Impala in the Sengwa Wildlife Research Area, Rhodesia, was determined by the analysis of rumen content samples from shot animals. The grass species composition of the diet was examined by microscopic identification of grass fragments found in the rumens. The seasonal variation in the dicotyledonous species composition of the diet was studied by direct observation of feeding animals. The protein contents of the rumen contents and faeces were used as measures of diet quality. In the wet season, grass was selected in preference to dicotyledonous plants, and grass leaf was the preferred plant part. In the late wet and early dry seasons, forbs were the principal food. The proportion of woody dicotyledons in the diet was at a maximum in the mid‐dry season, when diet quality was at a minimum. Diet quality was directly related to the proportion of grass in the diet. Female Impala had a significantly higher quality diet than males, probably as a result of differential habitat selection.
Vacuolated prolactin cells in the pituitary gland of several marine teleosts
Authors: Benjamin Michael
Published: August 2009

A morphometric study of prolactin cell ultrastructure in the pituitary gland of the Corkwing wrasse, Crenilabrus melops L., showed that cytoplasmic vacuoles, which accounted for 25% of the cell volume, were associated with signs of decreased secretory activity. The Golgi apparatus, mitochondria and rough endoplasmic reticulum, all contributed relatively little to the total cell volume, and there was no sign of secretory‐granule release by exocytosis. All vacuoles were intracellular and membrane‐bound, and probably derived from rough endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus and the nuclear envelope. It is thought that smaller vacuoles coalesce to form larger ones. The secretory granules were small and sparse, and this could account for the chromophobia of prolactin cells in light‐microscopy preparations. Similar vacuoles were reported in the prolactin cells of the gobiid fish, Chaparrudo flavescens, Pomatoschistus pictus, Pomatoschistus minutus and Pomatoschistus microps. The vacuoles in Chuparrudo were of similar ultrastructure to those in Crenilabrus.
The annual diet of the Roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) in the New Forest, Hampshire, as determined by rumen content analysis
Authors: Jackson John
Published: August 2009

By analysing rumen content samples from 105 dead specimens, the annual diet of the Roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) in the New Forest, Hampshire, was determined over the period from November 1970 to March 1973. Bramble and rose formed the bulk of the diet throughout the year, comprising the largest food fraction in all months except January and April. In January to March, foliage from felled conifers, Calluna, and ivy were major foods, plus lesser amounts of grasses, herbs and fungi. From May until early winter, herbs and grasses were important. New, tender, spring and summer growth from broadleaved deciduous trees, bilberry and holly was eaten in appreciable quantities. Acorns were a characteristic autumnal food. Abundant potential foods which Roe deer seldom selected included rushes, sedges, mosses, bark and dead hardwood leaves. Widespread species that Roe rarely consumed were Corsican pine, Erica tetralix, E. cinerea, gorses, bog myrtle and the grasses Agrostis setacea, Brachypodium sylvaticum, Deschampsia caespitosa and Molinia caerulea.
The fur coat of the Amsterdam Island fur seal Arctocephalus tropicalis
Authors: Condy P. R. , Green E. D.
Published: August 2009

The fur coat of adults and subadults of both sexes of the Amsterdam Island fur seal Arcto‐cephalus tropicalis, was described from pelts collected at Marion Island (46°54′S, 37°45′E) in the South Indian Ocean. Biopsy plugs 10 mm in diameter were cut from five sites on each pelt (neck, chest, sternum, abdomen and rump). Pelage colour at these sites is described qualitatively and quantitatively. Guardhair depth varied little with age, but was significantly longer (P>0·005) in the cow (x̄= 22·2 mm) than the bull (x̄= 18·3 mm), and slightly longer (not significant) in the subadult female (x̄= 20·0 mm) than the subadult male (x̄= 19·3 mm). Guardhairs were longest on the neck and shortest on the belly (sternum and abdomen). Underfur depth showed a similar pattern, and on average guardhairs were 43·7% longer than the underfur. Pilosebaceous unit density per 10 mm2 was significantly greater (P>0·0005) in the subadult male (x̄= 93·6) than the bull (x̄= 55·5), and slightly greater (not significant) in the subadult female (x̄= 87·4) than the cow (x̄= 84.7), and varied widely between body regions. The mean number of underfur fibres per pilosebaceous unit varied little with age and sex, being slightly greater (P>0·05) in the cow (x̄= 49·9) than the bull (x̄= 45·4) in the case of type A guardhairs, and significantly greater (P> 0·005) in the cow(x̄= 49.2) and subadult female (x̄= 51·1) than the subadult male (x̄= 45·1) with type B guardhairs. The micro‐structure and scale pattern of guardhair and underfur fibres are described.
Optimum walking techniques for quadrupeds and bipeds
Authors: Alexander R. McN.
Published: August 2009

A new theory is presented which describes quadrupedal as well as bipedal walking. It avoids errors which occurred in previous theories by evaluating separately the work done by each leg instead of deriving net work from mechanical energy fluctuations. It takes particular account of two parameters, the duty factor β (the fraction of the stride for which each foot is on the ground) and a parameter q which defines the time course of the force on each foot. It shows that for any given speed there is an optimum (β,q) which minimizes the energy cost of locomotion. These (β,q) are only a little different for bipeds and quadrupeds except near the critical speed at which the optimum moves abruptly from walking (high β) to running (low β). Walking men use (β, q) close to the theoretical optima, but with slightly higher q. Walking dogs and sheep use q which are lower than the optimum values except at very low speeds. Some of the energy which would otherwise be required for locomotion may be saved by storage of elastic strain energy in tendons etc. This mechanism is more effective in running than in fast walking, which may be why men change from walking to running at lower speeds than the inelastic theory suggests.
Interspecific competition in the shrews Sorex araneus and Sorex minutus (Soricidae, Insectivora): a population study of the Irish pygmy shrew
Authors: Ellenbroek Frans J. M.
Published: August 2009

Sorex araneus and S. minutus, which are likely to show a temporary vertical habitat segregation, are largely sympatric, except in Ireland, where S. minutus occurs alone. Two mechanisms for this segregation may be suggested: a direct interspecific interaction or an evolutionary fixed relationship.

Population densities and surface activity were measured, both in areas where the two species occur together (The Netherlands) and in areas in Ireland, in (order to investigate the possibility of a habitat shift and its influence on population density. No such effect was found in the present study.
Variation in digestion of prey by the Tawny owl (Strix aluco)
Authors: Lowe V. P. W.
Published: August 2009

Two Tawny owl chicks were collected from their nests and observations were made on their food consumption, digestion and pellet production. The female chick escaped after three months in captivity; the male continued to provide data for a further 23 months.
Territoriality and breeding behaviour of adult male Antarctic Fur seal, Arctocephalus gazella
Authors: Mccann T. S.
Published: August 2009

The social organization and behaviour of 35 individually recognizable territorial male Antarctic Fur seals (Arctocephalus guzellu), were studied during the breeding season at South Georgia. Adults of both sexes remain at sea throughout the winter. Among the first bulls ashore were those which had the longest territorial tenures. The mean period of tenure for 13 bulls seen to copulate was 34.3±9.0 days. New bulls continued to arrive and fight for territories on the breeding beach throughout the study period. Many were successful and mean territory size declined from about 60 m2 in mid‐November to 22 m3 in December. More than 3000 boundary displays between known bulls were recorded and analysed. These were largely ritualized although in 14% of displays bites were exchanged. Outright fighting was infrequent in relation to the total number of inter‐male encounters. 94% of of the fights occurred on the first day a pair of bulls became neighbours. Less than 50% of bulls holding territory were seen to copulate and the mean copulation frequency for these bulls was 10. During late December, by which time most females had mated, adult males ceased to maintain their territories actively and many abandoned them completely. Features of the social organization are compared with those of other otariid seals and the interrelationships between period of tenure, territory size, form of boundary display and copulation frequency are discussed in relation to environmental and social influences. Within fur seals and sea lions, differences in social organization during the breeding season do not seem to be related to phylogenetic differences.
The predatory behaviour of Caranx melampygus (Pisces) in the channel environment of Aldabra Atoll (Indian Ocean)
Authors: Potts Geoffrey W.
Published: August 2009

Aspects of the predatory behaviour of free ranging Curanx melampygus have been examined in the shallow channel environment of Aldabra Atoll, Indian Ocean. Differences in the frequency of occurrence and number of fish hunting at two adjacent observation areas are described. The numbers of Caranx moving through the area appears to be influenced by tidal factors and possibly the abundance of prey and other environmental factors. The percentage offish hunting increases progressively throughout the day and is most commonly performed by solitary fish or small groups. While approximately equal numbers of Caranx move up or down stream significantly more fish engage in hunting activity when moving down stream which suggests the mechanical advantage of moving with the flow of water has advantages to the hunting fish. Several types of interspecific feeding association are described in which the Caranx is able to scavenge from others or to exploit the hunting methods of other species. More small Caranx form associations than do large Caranx. There is a relationship between the length of a hunting Caranx and the size and/or type of prey that makes an avoidance reaction to it. This relationship between different group sizes and the prey avoidance response is less clearly defined and it is suggested that whether hunting in groups or singly the final interaction is between a single predator and single prey. Ways by which group advantages may occur on grouped prey are described and are considered the result of independent individual action rather than group co‐operation. Coastal observations indicate that Caranx use topographic features to shield their approach to areas of high prey density.