bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Religious Networks
Authors: Lachenicht Susanne
Published: March 2013

Research on religions and religious migrants in the Atlantic world (and beyond) has made evident that these groups had a rather important impact on historical change in the economy, societies, politics, and cultures within the Atlantic world and beyond. Particularly in the early modern period, the history of religious groups and their networks is central to our understanding of the history of the Atlantic world. Networks of religious communities are crucial for transnational, translocal, and circum-Atlantic exchange, including the exchange of goods, knowledge, and peoples. Religious networks were by no means exclusive networks, but were established within and without specific religious communities in order to satisfy these communities’ needs. While religious groups such as Sephardic Jews, Puritans, Quakers, Huguenots, Moravians, Anglicans, and others in the Atlantic world have been studied for a long time, thorough analyses of their internal and external networks are of a more recent date. Furthermore, up to the present day, most research has focused on one specific religious group, and it has included neither these various groups’ external networks nor their shared networks. Future research may focus more on religious groups’ “internal” and “external” networks and how they are intertwined. This will provide a better understanding of how religious migrants became “in-betweens” and “cross-cultural brokers,” linking peoples and regions with each other. It will also broaden our understanding of Atlantic exchange, entangledness, and reciprocity. Establishing the existence of religious networks in the Atlantic world, both internal and external, is difficult and can be a tedious undertaking. First, it requires an abundance of primary sources, such as correspondence, journals, and lists of transferred goods and peoples over long periods of time. For many religious communities within the Atlantic world, these primary sources have either not survived or are scattered over various countries, towns, and archives. Second, wherever primary sources relevant to establish networks have survived, it is a rather time-consuming task to reconstruct networks out of them. This bibliography looks at networks of a variety but not all of the religious groups within the Atlantic world. While other religious groups might have created and sustained important internal and external networks, they are understudied as of yet. Thus, this entry offers works on Anglican Church/SPG, Irish Catholics, Jesuits, Methodists, Moravians/Herrnhuters, New England Dissenters/Puritans, Lutherans/Pietists, Portuguese and Sephardic Jews, Quakers, and Reformed (Dutch Calvinist, German, Huguenot) networks. It also includes a section on Trade Networks, which were more often than not created and sustained by specific religious groups, and thus help us understand the role of these groups as agents of transfer and exchange.
Poverty in the Early Modern English Atlantic
Authors: Hitchcock David
Published: March 2013

Poverty in the early modern English Atlantic world was an economic reality that could touch the lives of everyone who lived within the orbit of the Atlantic Ocean and its networks of people, trade, and transport. The poor, however one defines them, were the most numerous and yet the most marginal group to make the crossing from the Old World to the New, either willingly or as indentured servants or slaves. British migrants and African slaves dominated the flow of European transatlantic migration, and the lands that they came to, as colonizers and new masters, or, more commonly, as servants and property, were unforgiving and vast and not at all like homes once known. According to Armitage and Braddick 2009 (cited under Introductory Works), the Lower South, the Chesapeake, and the Caribbean were “charnel houses” for the vast majority of poor Europeans who migrated there. Yet, the rate at which poor whites died was dwarfed by the misery and death of the Middle Passage and of forced black migration to the plantation economies of the English Atlantic. The “lower sort,” whether “deserving” or not, had to get by, or “make shift,” in their new environs as readily as they did in their previous homes and parishes. They often did so through a mélange of casual or temporary employment, menial labor, household economies, and recourse to legal systems of relief. Moreover, researchers examining poverty should read widely beyond a narrow historiography of poor relief alone. Therefore, this bibliography contains sections on related topics, such as migration and law, colonialism in Ireland and Scotland, and survey texts on the social history of the Atlantic world. The historiography of Atlantic poverty is an immense subject, even when divided by empire or by geography. But, despite disparate scholarly interests and changing trends over time, social historians generally share one overriding concern: recovering marginalized experiences once thought lost to posterity. Atlantic social history has never been more vibrant or more relevant than it is in the early 21st century. Within this burgeoning scholarly corpus, which explores the massive and deeply important social implications, convergences, and marginalities of this fluid geography, the study of poverty and economic inequality continues to occupy a central place. The English Atlantic world conceived of by contemporaries between 1500 and 1800 was impossible without the poor—without slaves, indentured servants, and subsistence migrants; and without schemes for relief, colonization, and the easing of need.
Genocide
Authors: Meierhenrich Jens
Published: March 2013

Genocide is a phenomenon that has confounded scholars and practitioners as well as ordinary readers. Notwithstanding the carnage of the 20th century, our understanding of genocide remains partial, not least because vocational, disciplinary, and methodological boundaries have inhibited intellectual progress. Popular, moralizing accounts about the contribution of “willing executioners” (Daniel Jonah Goldhagen) to the “problem from hell” (Samantha Power) have done their share to hinder understanding by advancing simple truths in an area where none are to be had. The goal of this bibliography is to deepen and broaden the intellectual foundations of genocide studies. Aimed primarily at scholars and students in the humanities and social sciences as well as general readers with an interest in collective violence, it is designed as an introduction to the myriad dimensions of this darkest of human phenomena, and to various ways of making sense of it—from autobiography to game theory. The collected contributions address—in widely divergent ways—fundamental questions in genocide studies: Whither conventional definitions of genocide? What role for alternative concepts? How powerful are existing theories of genocide? What role for memoirs, case studies, formal models, and data sets? Where have preventive efforts failed, where have they succeeded? Can genocide be predicted and prevented? To acquaint readers with the complexity of genocide—and outer boundaries of genocide studies—the bulk of this bibliography is organized around nine instantly recognizable themes that are central to study of the phenomenon: concepts: what is genocide?; causes: why does genocide occur?; courses: how does genocide unfold?; coverage: when is genocide reported?; consequences: what happens after genocide?; courts: who puts genocide on trial?; coping: can one come to terms with genocide?; compensation: who makes amends for genocide?; and cures: what can be done about genocide? Taken together, the aforementioned themes represent the phenomenon of genocide in all its complexity, drawing readers’ attention not only to contending explanations of genocidal campaigns (causes), but also to frequently overlooked differences in the conduct of these campaigns (courses) as well as to legal responses to the destruction, in whole or in part, of protected groups (courts). Moreover, the individual and social suffering of victims (consequences and coping) is a central concern, as is the ongoing debate over genocide forecasting and prevention (cures).
Critical Theory of International Relations
Authors: Roach Steven C.
Published: March 2013

Max Horkheimer, one of the founders of the Frankfurt Institute of Social Research established in 1923, coined the term critical theory in 1937. While the school failed to produce what could be called a systematic theory, it drew on, and interweaved, various philosophical strands and prominent themes of political and social thought, including historical materialism (Marxism/Western Marxism), Freudian analysis, cultural disenchantment, Hegelian dialectics, and totality. Yet by the 1940s, many of the first-generation Frankfurt school thinkers sought to counter the emasculation of critical reason, dialectics, and self-conscious theory with a focus on the negativity of dialectics. Later critics would claim that they had abandoned the progressive platform of the Enlightenment, or the project of emancipation from social and political oppression. In the 1980s, Jürgen Habermas’s communicative action theory would provide a so-called critical turn in Frankfurt school critical theory by resituating reason and social action in linguistics. It was during this time that international relations (IR) theorists would draw on Habermas’s theory and that of other critical theorists to critique the limits of realism, the dominant structural paradigm of international relations at the time. The first stages of this critical theory intervention in international relations included the seminal works of Robert Cox, Richard Ashley, Mark Hoffman, and Andrew Linklater. Linklater, perhaps more than any other critical IR theorist, was instrumental in repositioning the emancipatory project in IR theory, interweaving various social and normative strands of critical thought. As such, two seemingly divergent critical IR theory approaches emerged: one that would emphasize the role of universal principles, dialogue, and difference; the other focusing predominantly on the revolutionary transformation of social relations and the state in international political economy (historical materialism). Together, these critical interventions reflected an important “third debate” (or “fourth,” if one counts the earlier inter-paradigm debate) in IR concerning the opposition between epistemology (representation and interpretation) and ontology (science and immutable structures). Perhaps more importantly, they stressed the need to take stock of the growing pluralism in the field and what this meant for understanding and interpreting the growing complexity of global politics (i.e., the rising influence of technology, human rights and democracy, and nonstate actors). The increasing emphasis on promoting a “rigorous pluralism,” then, would encompass an array of critical investigations into the transformation of social relations, norms, and identities in international relations. These now include, most notably, critical globalization studies, critical security studies, feminism, postmodernism, and postcolonialism.
World War II Diplomacy and Political Relations
Authors: Weinberg Gerhard L.
Published: March 2013

As World War II recedes into the past, interest in it does not diminish. New publications about it appear steadily, and the public in many countries is clearly receptive. The television channels are so filled with programs dealing with the war that the History Channel is often referred to as the “Hitler Channel.” Three factors appear to be responsible. First, World War II was the largest war in world history, involving almost every country on earth and causing enormous loss of life—over fifty million dead—and unprecedented physical destruction. Second, the sheer drama of enormous victories for one side in the initial stages was followed by the crushing defeat of those who had initiated hostilities with such apparent success. Third, the element that continues to attract attention is the novelty of aspects of the conflict. The vast effort by the Germans to kill as many Jews as they could, now called the Holocaust, and the enormous expansion of bombing from its initiation in World War I are the subjects of controversy and publications. A further element in stimulating the continuing interest in the conflict has been the release—at times in dribbles, at times in torrents—of previously secret or unknown records and accounts of the belligerents. The world in the decades since the war is to a very large extent the product of the war and can be understood only by careful examination of its course and outcome. Debates about the war’s origins, the roles of both major and minor participants, the choices of key leaders, and the course and significance of specific campaigns and weapons have continued since 1945 and are unlikely to end any time soon. In the opening paragraph of The Peloponnesian War, Thucydides wrote, “Indeed this was the greatest movement yet known in history, not only of the Hellenes, but of a large part of the barbarian world—I had almost said of mankind.” The description also fits what has come to be called World War II. In view of the enormity of the war and the vastness of the literature on it, Oxford Bibliographies has divided the wider subject into two parts: the diplomatic and political issues, on the one hand, and the military operations, on the other. Because the broader issues of strategy and alliance politics frequently intersected with military decisions and operations, a certain amount of overlap is unavoidable, but the emphasis here will be on the diplomatic and broader strategic aspects.
Middle Classes
Authors: Fitzgerald Scott T.
Published: March 2013

Despite copious studies on the middle classes, there is no single, widely held definition of the middle class. Some scholars define the middle class in terms of the relation to the means of production, others in terms of relative incomes, and still others in terms of consumption patterns. A common working definition might include those with incomes in the middle third of the income distribution; who work as upper- or lower-level managers, professionals, or small-business owners; who graduated from a four-year college or university; and whose primary source of wealth is home ownership. The sociological study of the middle classes has a long and varied past and has been driven by both theoretical and empirical concerns. Theoretically, much attention has been given to conceptualizing the historical middle classes in relation to other social classes and also accounting for the emergence of the new middle class in the latter part of the 20th century. Neo-Weberian and neo-Marxist theories of class represent two influential perspectives on the middle class. Both perspectives emphasize the importance of market capacities in shaping life chances and how the middle classes differ from the working class and the upper class on this dimension. Neo-Marxist arguments differ primarily in their additional focus on the relationship to the means of production as a key dimension of the class structure. A third influential approach to studying class structure focuses on the role of tastes, consumption patterns, and cultural boundaries in defining class relations and identifying the middle classes. Empirically, the literature on the middle class addresses the structural forces shaping the emergence of the middle class in different national contexts and how the political, economic, and social trends of the time shape the experiences of the middle class. Since the late 20th century there has been considerable attention given to analyzing the “new middle class” and uncovering in what ways members of this class differ from other classes in terms of political orientations and activities. Other work has focused on how the changing economic landscape of the postindustrial economy has led to economic uncertainty for many members of the middle class, causing an increase in consumer debt, bankruptcies, and downward mobility. The notion of social reproduction and middle-class advantage (vis-à-vis the working class) is a theme running throughout work examining the education system and studies examining religion. Additional topics of research on the middle class include the intersectionality of gender, race, and ethnicity; the importance of geospatial dimensions of space and place; and cross-national comparative work and case studies of various subpopulations and nations.
Translation of Science to Practice and Policy
Authors: Brownson Ross C. , Cardick Lauren
Published: March 2013

One of the greatest challenges for public health researchers and practitioners is the translation of knowledge into evidence-based programs and policies. University-based research yields a growing supply of new discoveries, and practitioners, payers, and consumers are eager to benefit from this science. However, clinical and public health research findings are often “lost in translation” for fifteen to twenty years before their incorporation into practice. This translation gap prevents many nations from reaping the benefits of billions of dollars of funds spent on research, and it frustrates researchers and funders who are motivated to improve real-world practice. Over the past several years, much more attention has been paid to translational research in mainline medical and public health journals. Similarly, federal agencies and foundations are beginning to support translational research more fully. For example, recent funding announcements from the US National Institutes of Health show the higher priority being placed on translational research. Similarly, the Canadian Institutes of Health Research has increased its emphasis on funding translational research. This article provides a collection of resources that offer insight into the translation of science to practice and policy, organized into seventeen sections that are designed to highlight the key issues involved in shortening the translation gap.
Censorship
Authors: Winfield Betty Houchin
Published: March 2013

In a very large body of censorship scholarship spanning centuries, communication scholars point out that every civilization since antiquity has attempted to stop disagreeable expression. This bibliographic essay, focusing primarily on the United States, demonstrates that censorship can be institutional, individual, and by practice, a way to restrict or expunge objectionable material, information, or expression. Societies, as well as major institutions of the state, family, and church and their representatives, suppress expression thought to be dangerous, harmful, immoral, sensitive, or inconvenient. Historically, the research mostly focuses on political and legal censorship, which refers to any government restriction of the content of expression or its dissemination. Censorship can also be self-imposed. More recently, the research has emphasized corporate and Internet censorship. As a concept, censorship generally refers to three major areas of research: philosophical and legal controls juxtaposed with free expression values; theoretical constructs; and particular restrictions on specified media or content pushed by an organization or group. The kinds of controls are defined by governments or particular societal groups. The process of control can explain how suppression operates, such as by licensing as permission or approval to communicate or by government secrecy and closure of access to government meetings and information. Censorship has inhibited communication by punishments afterward with fines or imprisonment. The reasons for censorship can be numerous, most often in democratic societies to hide government malfeasance or as a necessity for survival during crises of national security and public safety. The following sections focus on censorship studies that would be useful for scholars: general overviews; references; ancient philosophical tenets to the later European basis, American foundations, legal case precedents, theoretical aspects, social responsibility expectations, restrictions by medium, crisis restrictions, and access issues; and self-censorship.
Semiotics
Authors: Danesi Marcel
Published: March 2013

Semiotics is the discipline studying the meanings, uses, and functions of signs and sign systems—a “sign” being defined as anything (a word, gesture, facial expression, and so on) that stands for something other than itself, to someone, in some capacity. Some designate this discipline as a science, others as an analytical tool or a critical method. One of its modern-day founders, the American philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce (b. 1839–d. 1914), called it a “doctrine,” in the sense of a set of principles. It has also been called “semiology” by Ferdinand de Saussure (b. 1857–d. 1913), another modern-day founder. The terms “significs,” coined by Victoria Lady Welby (b. 1837–d. 1912), and “sematology” are also sometimes used. The term “semiotics” was adopted by the International Association for Semiotics Studies in 1969, becoming, ever since, the main one to designate the discipline. Debate is ongoing today about whether semiotics is a science and if it should encompass the study of nonhuman as well as human sign systems. This has led to the rise to prominence of “biosemiotics,” which aims to do exactly that. Several theoretical debates have also characterized semiotics proper for more than a century. The most important one has been whether sign construction is, in its origin, an arbitrary process, producing sign forms with no sensory, experiential, or affective connection to their referents, or if it is a “motivated” process, or generating sign forms that do. This basic debate is discussed in several core texts and in many of the theoretical works listed here. In a general annotated bibliography such as this one, selections must be made, given the extensive amount of writing that has marked the field over the past century. Also, decisions have to be made to classify certain works under particular rubrics, rather than others, because of the built-in thematic overlap of a large portion of semiotic writing. So, some listings included here under one category may be found classified under some other category elsewhere. Also, only English-language works have been listed here. This in no way implies that works in other languages are less important. On the contrary, many non-English works have been critical to the establishment and development of semiotics as a discipline. They are not included here unless they have English translations.
Cognitive Dissonance
Authors: Stroud Natalie Jomini , Kim Soohee , Scacco Joshua M.
Published: March 2013

Humans strive for cognitive consistency, at least according to the theory of cognitive dissonance and a host of consistency theories that emerged in the mid-20th century. The theory of cognitive dissonance was advanced by Leon Festinger in the 1950s. It proposes that inconsistencies among our beliefs, attitudes, knowledge, and/or behavior can give rise to the uncomfortable feeling of cognitive dissonance. Upon experiencing this feeling, humans are motivated to reduce it in order to return to a more consistent state. Although Festinger theorized that cognitive dissonance can occur, he did not suggest that cognitive dissonance always occurs when people are faced with inconsistency. He noted that the experience of dissonance depends upon three factors: (a) the number of consonant elements, (b) the number of dissonant elements, and (c) the importance of each element. A more important dissonant belief will cause more cognitive dissonance than a less important dissonant belief. One dissonant belief and many consonant beliefs will produce less dissonance than many dissonant and many consonant beliefs. The experience of dissonance can motivate people to engage in any of a number of dissonance reduction strategies. The objectives of these strategies are to (a) increase the number and/or importance of consonant elements and/or (b) to decrease the number and/or importance of dissonant elements. This can be done by changing one’s attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors. This also can be done by seeking agreeable information and avoiding discrepant information. Over the years, many modifications to the theory have been proposed. Some researchers, for example, have argued that the theory works mainly with respect to cognitive elements related to the self. Despite proposed modifications, scholars continue to draw from the original theory. Although the theory was first introduced and examined by psychologists, it gained traction in the field of communication. The theory was helpful in explaining some earlier patterns observed by those researching the influence of communication, such as the seeming preference citizens displayed for like-minded information. In contemporary communication literature, the theory is most frequently referenced when scholars want to offer an explanation for why an effect may occur. Research is less frequently done specifically on the central tenets of the theory. This article focuses predominantly on articles that have been written in the field of communication rather than attempting to review the numerous studies that have been done on this topic in related fields, such as psychology and political science. Although research did yield articles from many different communication subfields, many citations were from the area of mass media as opposed to interpersonal communication, for example. This article emphasizes recent contributions and those that have garnered considerable attention through high rates of citation.
Political Knowledge
Authors: Hoffman Lindsay
Published: March 2013

Political knowledge is one of the primary variables in political communication research. In the United States, as well as other democratic nations, the study of political knowledge is rooted in democratic theory, which suggests that citizens should be informed if they are to participate in a democratic society. Political knowledge is also sometimes referred to as political sophistication or political expertise, but knowledge is generally defined as holding correct information—whether that is civic, issue, or candidate information, or the structural relationships among cognitions. Scholars often examine political knowledge as a dependent variable—for example, by examining media effects on political knowledge—but knowledge can also be examined as a predictor, moderator, or mediator in a variety of communication relationships. In this sense, political knowledge may lead to political discussion, or it may moderate the relationship between media use and political participation. However, just as general knowledge cannot be directly measured—rather, it is assessed via test scores or grades—political knowledge is directly immeasurable. In other words, the content of political knowledge, generally, cannot be fully captured in a series of test questions. For that reason, scholars often conceptualize political knowledge in varying ways. However, scholars have come to agree on some measures of political knowledge as good representations of the information citizens must have to participate fully in a democratic society.
Theories of Media Economics
Authors: Lawson-Borders Gracie
Published: March 2013

The business of media includes economics and research, and studies in the field examine numerous aspects of economics in the industry. The statement has increased in its impact in the digital economy, in which the digitization of data has had a profound effect on the operations of media organizations. The old commercial model based on two primary revenue streams of advertising and paid subscriptions has been usurped by a plethora of entry points in the digital arena. Theories are used to help explain this phenomenon, and as the field of media economics grew, the number of theories, paradigms, and approaches flourished. In addition, theories from other fields are used to study media industries. Research dating to the 1960s examined economic aspects of communication and media in numerous journals. Early research through the 1980s examines the economics of media, the makeup and strategies of organizations that capitalize on their audience and delivery of content. Theories from business and management relative to innovation, markets, and vertical and horizontal integration have been used to address media economics. As the field and scholars expanded the research throughout the latter part of the 20th century, more work honed in on the specifics of media industries and challenges faced due to the particulars of the field, from regulations to advertising and changing markets. In 1995, a special issue on theory and media economics in the Journal of Media Economics, cited under Journals, included work by scholars with various focus across industries on the business of media and economics. The field received a boost with the publishing of the Handbook of Media Management and Economics (Albarran, et al. 2006, cited under Central Texts). The edited text is a compilation of scholars addressing theories, methodological tools, application, emerging technologies, and other changes. Economist Eli Noam (Noam 2009, cited under Central Texts) provides a different perspective in his concentrated look at media ownership and concentration inclusive of the financial elements, markets, and strategies that have facilitated mergers and acquisitions, which created corporations with billion-dollar assets and vast influence on the public. Media economics focuses on the strategies and operations of media companies. In the following sections are samples of research, through articles and books that provide insight into scholarship examining the economics of media.
Militarism
Authors: Trauschweizer Ingo
Published: March 2013

Contemporary critics and scholars alike have associated militarism both with the military’s predominance in foreign policy and with the employment of military force, rhetoric, and symbols in order to ensure elite control of the populace. Two definitions from German scholars illustrate that range. Walter Benjamin’s “Critique of Violence” (Benjamin 1978, cited under Seminal Critiques) holds that militarism is “the compulsory, universal use of violence as a means to the ends of the state” (p. 284). And for Alfred Vagts (A History of Militarism; Vagts 1959, cited under General Overviews), “militarism . . . presents a vast array of customs, interests, prestige, actions, and thought associated with armies and wars and yet transcending true military purposes. . . . It may permeate all society and become dominant overall industry and arts” (p. 13). More recently, Andrew Bacevich (The New American Militarism; Bacevich 2005, cited under Contemporary) has added an intriguing twist to the discussion of American militarism since the end of the Vietnam War: a shift of agency from the state and its military institutions to civil society, which had previously been regarded as a victim or consumer of militarism and not as one of its originators. As a practical matter, modern militarism evolved from the upheaval of the social, political, and industrial revolutions of the 18th and 19th centuries in Western countries and in Japan. Industrialization and the rise of the lower classes threatened reactionary elites, the emergence of mass society forced the state to educate and indoctrinate its citizens, and technological advances made war more lethal and required both specialization of military functions and mass mobilization of society and economy. Proponents of the Sonderweg thesis argue that these developments were felt most intensely in Germany, where the modern nation-state was forged in war and where civil society was overtaken by nationalism and military culture. In public imagination, the two world wars firmly established Germany as the ideal type of modern militarism, in the sense of both aggression toward its neighbors and the predominance of military culture at home.
Stardom
Authors: D'Amelio Maria Elena
Published: March 2013

Although fascination with the film star dates back as far as Béla Balázs’s The Visible Man (1924), the study of stars and stardom did not become a commonplace of film studies until the 1980s. The discipline that first approached the mechanics of contemporary celebrity was sociology, which produced some important works in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Barthes’ The Face of Garbo (1972), Morin, The Stars (2005) (both cited under Theorizing Stardom), and Alberoni’s The Powerless Elite (1963) were among the first works to address stardom’s cultural and ideological implications from, respectively, semiotic, philosophical, and sociological standpoints. These three books were all published in the late 1950s and early 1960s, a time when celebrity culture was increasingly visible. These studies set the stage for an exploration of stardom, culture, and ideology that culminated with the publication of the influential work Dyer, Stars (1998) (cited under Theorizing Stardom). The author introduced the idea of the “star text,” a concept that stretched beyond an artist’s performances in films to include fan magazine articles, advertising posters, personal biographies, and rumors about actors, all of which contribute to the experience of modern celebrity. Since then, “stardom” has encompassed numerous issues in academic film studies, including the star as historical entity; the star as discursive formation and cultural commodity; the role of audience and fandom in the construction of the star; and the star as the intersection of cinematic language and technique with larger historical dynamics, such as gender, sexuality, youth, politics, and fashion.
Vertigo
Authors: White Susan
Published: March 2013

Alfred Hitchcock made Vertigo during an especially creative period of 1958–1960, when he released three historic films, Vertigo (1958), North by Northwest (1959), and Psycho (1960). Each took a radically distinctive approach to the “suspense thriller.” With its overtones of mystery, romance, and the supernatural, Vertigo resembles Rebecca (1940) pushed over into the realm of the fantastic, without the irony saturating the earlier film. Despite its stellar cast, James Stewart, Kim Novak (1958’s top female box-office star), and Barbara Bel Geddes, it inspired mediocre reviews and a relatively poor financial return. Truffaut’s extensive 1962 interviews with Hitchcock reveal that he was devastated by the film’s poor reception, blaming, among other factors, Stewart’s age (fifty—twice that of Novak) for the film’s unimpressive showing. Hitchcock withdrew Vertigo and several other films from circulation between 1973 and 1983, for financial reasons. But despite initial lukewarm reactions, and the film’s unavailability to the public, critics, and journalists for a decade, Vertigo is one of the most thoroughly documented and analyzed films in history. It has risen steadily in “Top Ten” polls, often reaching the number one or two spot. (As of 4 July 2011 it ranks ninth in the AFI’s 100 Years . . . 100 Movies poll, and fourth in Sight & Sound’s International Critics Poll.) Now regarded as a defining work in Hitchcock’s canon, Vertigo may be his most “personal” film. It metaphorically comments, with great profundity, upon the process and meaning of making films and seems to convey, through the suffering of its protagonists, the director’s own powerful emotions. Thematically, the film reiterates Hitchcock’s best-known obsessions, including the attractions of an “icy” blonde who turns out to be warm-blooded and sexual fetishes such as scopophilia. Although these themes richly inhabit other Hitchcock films, Vertigo places singular emphasis on male power and control over women, men’s fear of their own often ill-repressed femininity, the role of “theatricality” in film, and the nature of suspense. For students of film, following the critical fortunes of Vertigo offers an opportunity to study important currents in cinema theory and criticism, especially feminist film criticism, in which Vertigo has been considered a prime example of women’s oppression in mainstream cinema and Hitchcock’s confessional deconstruction of that oppression. This bibliography aims to represent in a balanced way the major journalistic and critical debates around Vertigo, highlighting representative books, essays, reviews, films, and visual works that approach Vertigo from diverse disciplines.
Race and Cinema
Authors: Negra Diane , Asava Zélie
Published: March 2013

Because of the influence that American cinema has had on ideas of race globally, both as film representations and as sociocultural concerns, and in keeping with the large output of its film industry and of American academic writing on issues of race in film studies, American films and film studies will form the central focus of this examination. Because the black/white binary defines the history of US racial discourse, this bibliography will centralize this binary and consider other racial groups (under terms constructed according to American discourse, using “black” as an umbrella term) in relation to black/white screen politics. Critical race theory has proven race to be a construction, yet racism remains a part of lived experience and racial stereotypes frequently recur even in an era marked by discourses of race transcendence and “postracial” cultural celebration. Hollywood can be read as an ethnographer, reinforcing the hegemony of whiteness onscreen by producing experiences of the black racial types it creates. Representations of blackness in early and silent cinema were largely characterized by the ideology of a landmark 1915 film Birth of a Nation, which would form the template (textually, visually, and in many ways, thematically) for filmmaking that followed. This film centers on racial politics and supports a white supremacist standpoint; here (as in most Hollywood films until the civil rights era), black men were loyal chattel or aggressive “Bucks,” black women were fat, caring housekeepers, and mixed-race women were tragic, disturbed beauties (see Bogle 2001 and Gaines 2001, both cited under Screening Blackness; Courtney 2005, cited under Casting and Representation). The American film industry has produced many distorted representations that have positioned screen characters as “Other” because of their designation as nonnormative (whether black, gay, etc.). In such ways, both visually and narratologically, film codes can position the Other as inferior to the white (male) hero, even where a superficial egalitarianism might seem to prevail (e.g., the “buddy movie,” where black men play foil to their white hero partner). Very recent cinematic productions, such as The Help (2011), deploy race knowledgeably but still problematically. Thus films may both deny and recognize the notion of race as visible given that social and cinematic language still uses “race” as a social framework. In fact, while it has been established that there is no biological basis for the idea of race, notions of racial difference are routinely dramatized by filmmakers and expressed through film and visual media technology.
Sports in Film
Authors: Baker Aaron
Published: March 2013

Since the start of the motion picture industry in the United States, sports have been a frequent subject for the movies. Hollywood has produced hundreds of films about sports for the same reason that synergistic ties have been established between American movies and other cultural forms, including theater, literature, fashion, television, advertising, and toys. From the documentary style “news films” of major prizefights and the World Series that were an important part of the early film industry to recent blockbusters such as The Blind Side (2009) and Moneyball (2011), collaboration with sports has helped sell the movies. Sports are rule-governed contests of physical skill in which humans compete against one another. In the sports film such athletic contests play a central role in defining the main characters. The Hollywood sports film in particular has two important conventions: a utopian view of the world that assumes that anyone who works hard, is determined, and plays by the rules will succeed and a need for plausibility based on resemblance to the actual sports world that qualifies its utopian outlook with the complexities of social difference. Put more simply, in their attempt to portray plausible athletes and sporting events to attract sports fans, Hollywood films often include historical forces that complicate their narratives, which are otherwise focused on individual characters as causal agents. The sources listed below fall into three categories: tools for teaching and research, writings on the general traits of films about athletics, and studies of the sports world shown in such movies.
Ethnographic Film
Authors: Wilson Pamela
Published: March 2013

The relationship between visual media and anthropology has a long history growing out of the imperializing impulses of the 19th century, and anthropologists—as well as others such as cultural explorers, scientists, geographers, journalists, and travel writers—have long used forms of visual media to document their impressions of and perspectives about what we might call the cultural “Other”: cultures that have seemed different, exotic, or fascinating to us. Until the 1980s, in fact, anthropologists traditionally studied small, isolated, and traditional communities, and these small-scale societies dominated the subfield of ethnographic film and visual anthropology. Today, the field of visual anthropology contains several distinct subfields, ranging from ethnographic film to indigenous media and media anthropology, and intersects as well with museum studies. In an effort to complement the Oxford Bibliographies article on Visual Anthropology by Marcus Bank, this bibliography charts the predecessors of ethnographic film as well as emerging fields most related to ethnographic film. It begins with the evolution from the early usage of visuals (photography, film, museum exhibits, and other forms of visual culture) to support and enhance traditional written ethnographic monographs, long considered the most valid form of expressing anthropological and imperial knowledge of the cultural Other. Then it moves quickly into the ethnographic film movement, peaking in the 1970s and 1980s, when anthropological filmmakers (or anthropologists in partnership with documentary filmmakers) created filmic records or documents of the cultures they were studying. Along the way, some intersections between ethnographic and experimental filmmaking are examined. Beginning in the late 1980s, the approach by which the anthropologists placed the cameras in the hands of their cultural subjects and encouraged them to create their own auto-ethnographic films blossomed out of the “postmodern” turn in anthropological thought, leading to a subfield of visual anthropology called “Indigenous Media,” which is introduced here. Also during this period, a spate of scholarly literature and documentary media was sparked by the feminist and postcolonial paradigms. Issues raised by ethnographic film and the scholarship surrounding it have invited a larger discourse, both scholarly and artistic, about broader forms of representation that represent what might be called the “ethnographic gaze” (such as Coco Fusco’s and Guillermo Gomez-Pena’s critical performance piece “Two Undiscovered Amerindians Visit the West”), but these are unfortunately beyond the scope of this bibliography.
Positivism
Authors: Kammerhofer Jörg
Published: March 2013

Legal positivism means different things to different scholars, and traditions of positivism differ among legal scholarship of municipal legal systems, international law, and theorists/philosophers of law. Therefore this article will separate legal theoretical writings on positivism from international legal scholarship on the topic. The differences between positivists are so considerable that it would be moot to try to impose a lowest common denominator or a definition of positivism. However, we can identify some typical positions held by legal positivists: (1) Either the identification or the method of creation of rules of law (legal norms) is based on “sources,” that is, on form, rather than on the content of the rule alone. (2) The positive law as object of scholarship is, in the original Latin sense, positus. It is somehow “put,” made more than fictive imaginings, for example, by social convention or by having a real act of will as its basis. (3) Positivism is also identified by the “separability thesis” (Hart 1957–1958, cited under Modern Approaches and Primary Texts): law can be separated from the realm of morals and can exist, and be valid law, independently from its moral value. This is sometimes also expressed by positivists in espousing a separation between the law in force and the law that is desirable (lex lata v. lex ferenda). (4) Equally, positivism can be defined by its traditional antipathy to the possibility or cognizability of “natural law” as a realm of absolute norms above positive law and controlling it. (5) With theses (3) and (4), positivists, to a greater or lesser degree, espouse a form of value relativism: no values (rules, norms, precepts, standards) are absolute and, by their very nature or content, are so much “better” than other values that they must necessarily exist and trump all others. (6) Positivists may also espouse the categorical distinction between the real world (or statements about what “is”) and the world of values (or statements about what “ought to be”), which is sometimes known as the is-ought dichotomy. Hans Kelsen is famous for the maxim “no is from ought, no ought from is alone.” However, the closer a positivist thesis is to legal realism, the less likely the scholar will separate strictly between “is” and “ought.” A scholar does not have to incorporate all of these to be called a positivist (particularly if writing before approximately 1945), but some of these elements will probably be present in all positivist writings.
A. C. Swinburne
Authors: Rooksby Rikky
Published: March 2013

Algernon Charles Swinburne (b. 1837–d. 1909) was a major Victorian poet and critic, as well as a central figure in the spread of ideas associated with Pre-Raphaelitism, aestheticism, and the Symbolists. After growing up on the Isle of Wight and in Northumberland, he was educated at Eton and Balliol College, Oxford. He left the university without a degree in 1860, having rejected the Christianity of his family upbringing. By then he had met the artists D. G. Rossetti, Edward Burne-Jones, and William Morris and was determined to be a writer. Swinburne’s second book, Atalanta in Calydon, modeled on Greek tragedy, brought him to the literary world’s attention in 1865. It combined beautiful language with outspoken antitheism. His fourth book, Poems and Ballads (Moxon, then Hotten, 1866), ignited a controversy that made him both a literary phenomenon and a cultural hero to those in Britain and abroad who felt contemporary mores were too restrictive. Bold rhythms and a lyrical style of poetry conveyed controversial political, sexual, and religious themes, as well as those of lost or failed love and transience. After completing the groundbreaking William Blake: A Critical Essay (1868), Swinburne focused his poetic energies on dealing with political events in France and Italy, most notably in Songs Before Sunrise (1871). The republicanism of these poems connects Swinburne to the radical tradition of Blake, Shelley, Landor, Mazzini, Hugo, and Whitman. Other significant books included two more volumes of Poems and Ballads in 1878 and 1889, respectively, and the Arthurian epic Tristram of Lyonesse. Alcoholism and depression undermined Swinburne’s health in the late 1860s and 1870s. His move to Putney in 1879 and a more regulated life ensured continuing productivity as a poet and writer. He also wrote two novels, one unfinished. As an intemperate but insightful critic, he championed neglected authors of the past and many contemporary writers. His influence during the second half of the 19th century has still to be fully assessed.