bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Efficacy of the Neo‐Liberal Individual Choice Model for Encouraging Post‐Disaster Change: Developments in the East Cape Region of New Zealand following Cyclone Bola (March 1988)
Authors: PARR ARNOLD R.
Published: December 2007

The government of New Zealand instituted a new policy of disaster response in an attempt to bring about change and development in the relatively remote agricultural region which was struck by a severe cyclone in March 1988. The new policy involved a change from payment for restoration to compensation for loss. This new policy was based on the neo‐liberal position that individual choice should prevail in decision making and that significant change will result from this adherence to an individual decision making approach. The new policy did not accomplish any significant degree of change in the intended areas of land ownership and land use. Most of the farmers used the compensation funds to carry out on‐farm restoration work which facilitated the resumption of pre‐cyclone farming activities. It is argued that the efficacy of a neo‐liberal individual choice model for accomplishing post‐disaster change and development is limited and that a more institutionally and organisationally based approach would be much more effective and efficient.
Recommended Methods for the Disposal of Sanitary Wastes from Temporary Field Medical Facilities
Authors: REED R.A. , DEAN P.T.
Published: December 2007

Emergency field medical facilities constructed after a disaster are frequently managed by medical staff even though many of the day‐to‐day problems of hospital management are unrelated to medicine. In this paper we discuss the short‐term management of one of these problems, namely the control and disposal of sanitary wastes. It is aimed at persons in the medical profession who may find themselves responsible for a temporary hospital and have little or no previous experience of managing such situations. The wastes commonly generated are excreta, sullage and refuse. In addition, surface water must also be considered because its inadequate disposal is a potential health hazard. The paper concentrates on short‐term measures appropriate for the first six months of the hospital or clinic's existence. Facilities expected to last longer are recommended to install conventional waste management systems appropriate to the local community and conditions. In most situations, wastes should be disposed of underground either by burial (for solids) or infiltration (for liquids). The design, construction and management of appropriate disposal systems are described.
Psychological Consequences of the 1992 Erzincan (Turkey) Earthquake
Authors: KARANCI A. NURAY , RÜSTEMLI AHMET
Published: December 2007

The long‐term psychological after‐effects of the 1992 Erzincan earthquake are examined. 461 subjects from Erzincan were administered a semi‐structured interview. Emotional distress was measured by a symptom checklist containing 40 items. 129 subjects from Ankara, the capital of Turkey, were also used as a comparison sample. The factor analysis revealed that distress symptoms can be grouped into phobic anxiety, somatization, depression and hostility. The comparison of the Erzincan and Ankara samples showed that the Erzincan sample had higher phobic anxiety scores, the females from Erzincan had higher distress as compared to the males from Erzincan and to both males and females from Ankara. Regression analyses showed that being female and evaluating one's home as insecure against future earthquakes were related to elevated levels of distress. Results showed that, even after sixteen months, Erzincan residents had higher phobic anxiety and that females seemed to be especially vulnerable to distress. Implications of the results for psychosocial intervention are discussed.
The American Print News Media ‘Construction’ of Five Natural Disasters
Authors: PLOUGHMAN PENELOPE
Published: December 2007

In 1985, five international ‘natural’ disasters received prominent print news media coverage in the United States. Content analyses of selected print news media accounts of these five disasters were conducted. The purported evidence of alleged cause‐effect relationships describing and explaining these disasters as ‘objective’ realities was evaluated in the light of the subjective selection of explanatory factors, themes, frameworks, and value assumptions which underlie the media's analysis and ‘construction’ of these events as ‘natural’ disasters. Analysis of the American print news media coverage of these disasters indicated an emphasis upon the dramatic, descriptive, climatological or geological qualities of these events rather than upon causal explanations emphasizing the role of human acts or omissions in the development of these disasters. The print news media ‘constructed’ these events as ‘natural’ disasters despite clear evidence of their hybrid, natural—human origins.
Structural Adjustment and Drought in Zambia
Authors: MULWANDA MPANJILWA
Published: December 2007

While drought is not uncommon in Zambia, the country is now facing the worst drought in history. The monetary and social costs will be enormous. Although it is too early to measure the economic and social costs of the drought on Zambia, it is obvious that the impact is catastrophic on a country whose economy is under pressure. The drought will affect the structural adjustment programme (SAP) unveiled by the new government which has embraced the market economy. The country has imported, and will continue to import, large quantities of maize and other foodstuffs, a situation likely to strain the balance of payments. Earlier targets with regard to export earnings, reductions in the budget deficit, and GDP growth as contained in the Policy Framework Paper (PFP) are no longer attainable due to the effects of the drought.
Towards a Redefinition of Security in Central America: The Case of Natural Disasters
Authors: PETTIFORD LLOYD
Published: December 2007

Over the past 25 years Central America has suffered a number of major disasters: the Managua Earthquake (1972), Hurricane Fifi (1974), the Guatemalan Earthquake (1976), the San Salvador Earthquake (1986) and Hurricane Joan (1988). These events are briefly described, with special reference to their political aspects and implications. Recognition of the political importance of disasters in Central America leads to a questioning of the traditional notion that security is essentially a matter of defending the state from outside aggression. It is suggested that the analysis of disasters should be part of the debate that is currently underway in international relations about redefining the concept of security in the post‐Cold War world.
Risk Factors for Death in the 27 March 1994 Georgia and Alabama Tornadoes
Authors: SCHMIDLIN THOMAS W. , KING PAUL S.
Published: December 2007

Field surveys were made one week after tornadoes killed 40 persons and injured over 300 in rural regions of Alabama and Georgia, USA, on 27 March 1994. Surveys were completed for samples of 20 persons who were killed and 31 persons who were in the paths of the tornadoes but survived to determine whether there were differences in personal characteristics, behavior or location between the two groups. Persons who died were significantly older than persons who survived, more likely to be in mobile homes or in rooms above ground with windows, less likely to be watching television before the tornado, and were aware of the approaching tornado for less time than survivors. There was no difference in gender, race, marital status, education, disability or previous experience with tornadoes between those who died and survivors.
The 1928 Eruption of Mount Etna Volcano, Sicily, and the Destruction of the Town of Mascali
Authors: DUNCAN ANGUS M. , DIBBEN CHRISTOPHER , CHESTER DAVID K. , GUEST JOHN E.
Published: December 2007

In November 1928 there was an eruption of Mount Etna, Sicily, which led to lava largely destroying the town of Mascali, situated low on the eastern flank of the volcano. Destruction of the town took just over a day but there was an orderly evacuation of its inhabitants and, with help from the military, families were able to remove furniture and fittings from their houses. Evacuees were relocated to nearby towns staying with relatives, friends or in hired apartments. Rebuilding Mascali provided an opportunity for the fascist government of the time to demonstrate efficient centralised planning. A completely new town was built on a grid‐iron plan with many of the buildings reflecting the ‘fascist architecture’ of the time. The town was complete by 1937 and housing condztzons were very advanced in comparison with other towns in the region. The 1928 eruption is important as it was the most destructive on Etna since 1669 when the city of Catania was overwhelmed. In terms of hazard and risk assessment the 1928 eruption demonstrates that lava can reach the lower flanks of the volcano within a short period after the onset of an eruption.
Structural vs Non‐structural Flood‐alleviation Measures in the Yangtze Delta: A Pilot Survey of Floodplain Residents' Preferences
Authors: RASID HARUN , SHUNCAI SUN , XIUBO YU , CHEN ZHANG
Published: December 2007

This study was initiated to test if structural flood‐alleviation measures were more popular than non‐structural measures among the floodplain residents of the Yangtze Delta, because of the long tradition of ‘living with embankments and other flood control structures’. The results of a pilot questionnaire survey among 239 respondents from four sample villages of two typical floodplains of the delta indicated that, contrary to expectations, the non‐structural measure of flood insurance attracted more favourable responses (97 per cent) than any one of the structural measures, although the latter were also frequently selected by the respondents (64 – 92 per cent). A number of multivariate logit regressions between each of the preferred flood‐alleviation measures and the respondents' flood adaptations identified some of the determinants of these preferences. For a more complete explanation of the causes of popularity of various flood‐alleviation measures, further research should incorporate a behavioural model with trade‐offs for alternative measures.
From Relief to Development: The Long‐term Effects of ‘Temporary’ Accommodation on Refugees and Displaced Persons in the Republic of Croatia
Authors: ELLIS SUE , BARAKAT SULTAN
Published: December 2007

The increasing scale of international intervention in conflict is generating new pressures on the humanitarian community. Increased expenditure on emergency relief, static levels of overseas development aid and subsequent lack of funds for development are dictating that agencies design relief projects that positively effect developmental reconstruction.

This paper examines the provision of shelter for refugees and displaced persons in the Republic of Croatia and identifies ways in which it has encouraged and discouraged sustainable reconstruction. It argues that to promote lasting reconstruction, programmes must focus on saving livelihoods as well as lives, thus minimising the long‐term psychological and physical impacts of aid on refugees, displaced persons and host communities.
Improving the Efficiency and Cost‐effectiveness of Food Aid Grain Delivery
Authors: WALKER DAVID J.
Published: December 2007

Grain food aid averages 13 million tonnes per year. Donors have a duty to deliver food aid grain in an adequate and acceptable condition at least cost. This paper reviews commodity procurement, packaging, inspection, shipping and storage with regard to overall quality assurance and cost‐effectiveness. Experience at ports of loading and discharge and in food aid delivery programmes indicates that sufficient attention is rarely paid to quality assurance and loss minimisation. Grain procurement specifications that are normally appropriate for safe handling and storage in temperate climates, particularly moisture content, are commonly inappropriate for tropical climates. The technology for safe delivery of food aid grain is well established but not always implemented. Procurement of food aid grain in developing countries has increased recently, creating a need to improve operational and management aspects of tendering and quality assurance procedures. Such purchases entail potential cost savings but are associated with lengthening delivery lead times for non‐urgent consignments. Although woven polypropylene sacks are cheaper to buy than jute ones, the losses associated with handling and storage problems indicate that jute sacks are preferable for food aid delivery.
The Health Effects of Earthquakes in the Mid‐1990s
Authors: ALEXANDER DAVID
Published: December 2007

This paper gives an overview of the global pattern of casualties in earthquakes which occurred during the 30‐month period from 1 September 1993 to 29 February 1996. It also describes some of the behavioural and logistical regularities associated with mortality and morbidity in these events. Of 83 earthquakes studied, there were casualties in 49. Lethal earthquakes occurred in rapid succession in Indonesia, China, Colombia and Iran. In the events studied, a disproportionate number of deaths and injuries occurred during the first six hours of the day and in earthquakes with magnitudes between 6.5 and 7.4. Ratios of death to injury varied markedly (though with some averages close to 1:3), as did the nature and causes of mortality and morbidity and the proportion of serious to slight injuries. As expected on the basis of previous knowledge, few problems were caused by post‐earthquake illness and disease. Also, as expected, building collapse was the principal source of casualties: tsunamis, landslides, debris flows and bridge collapses were the main secondary causes. In addition, new findings are presented on the temporal sequence of casualty estimates after seismic disaster. In synthesis, though mortality in earthquakes may have been low in relation to long‐term averages, the interval of time studied was probably typical of other periods in which seismic catastrophes were relatively limited in scope.
Evaluating the International Humanitarian System: Rationale, Process and Management of the Joint Evaluation of the International Response to the Rwanda Genocide
Authors: DABELSTEIN NIELS
Published: December 2007

The Rwanda evaluation has been termed a landmark in evaluation, not only because of its quality and the insights it has produced. It was also an unprecedented international collaboration to learn the lessons from the immense tragedy that was the genocide in Rwanda and its aftermath. This paper reports on the rationale, process and management of the joint evaluation of the international response to the Great Lakes crisis of 1994–5.
Why Aid Agencies Need Better Understanding of the Communities They Assist: The Experience of Food Aid in Rwandan Refugee Camps
Authors: POTTIER JOHAN
Published: December 2007

Refugee views on food aid reveal the ignorance of the international community regarding Rwandan culture, economy and politics. This ignorance carries a number of costs. On one level, the main cost is that a professional service is not carried out to the best of one's ability. Ignorance of Rwanda's North–South divide, for instance, has caused agencies to be insensitive to in‐camp discrimination based upon regional identity and its impact on programme activities. On a deeper level, agency ignorance about Rwandan culture, economy and the dynamics of camp politics, reduces refugee confidence in humanitarian agencies and workers. Better information would not only result in the greater likelihood of appropriate responses to specific needs, but would also encourage greater credibility in the political arena where the ultimate stake is to see lasting peace and a dignified return of refugees to their homes.
PRAWER'S KARL MARX AND WORLD LITERATURE
Authors: Swales Martin
Published: December 2007

Günter Eich Gesammelte Werke.
Chartism and the ‘Trade of Agitation’ in Early Victorian Britain
Authors: Pickering Paul A.
Published: December 2007

The Charter has been fruitful in many things ‐ much honesty, much patience, much usefulness and much quackery. There is a number of degraded men attached to the noble army of Chartists, who think how they can best live by the Charter. They invent blacking, and call it Chartist blacking; they make broadcloth, and appeal to the patriotism of Chartists to clothe their nakedness in none but Chartist materials. I have no doubt that we shall have every trade in the country hoisting the Charter for the sake of self.
The Second World War and Popular Radicalism: The Significance of the ‘Movement away from Party’
Authors: FIELDING STEVEN
Published: December 2007

Of course everybody talks about ‘f—Churchill’ or ‘that bastard Churchillrsquo; when war grievances are being aired. Sometimes one will hear a good word for Cripps these days; but I vividly remember a big Pioneer Corps guy from the North aged about 30 bellow at the end of a discussion ‘F—’em all, I say ‐ F—all politics!1
Telling it as it was? Thomas Nipperdey's History of Nineteenth‐Century Germany
Authors: BREUILLY J.J.
Published: December 2007

Deutsche Geschichte 1866–1918, Volume II: Machtstaat vor der Demokratie.By Thomas Nipperdey. Munich: Beck. 1992. 948pp. DM78.00.
What kind of Community measures for 1993?
Authors: Voirin Michel
Published: December 2007

During the ISSA General Assembly in Vienna in September 1989, a number of members from European Community countries expressed the wish that the ISSA should, as part of its programme, look into the social security consequences of the institution of the Single European Market after 1992. The ISSA General Secretariat consequently decided to carry out a survey of its member organizations in Community countries in order to draw up a directory of the studies carried out by these institutions, the aim being to identify problems related to the constitution of the so‐called European social area, particularly the free movement of persons and goods, and review the measures that had been or were being implemented and the experience of institutions at the Community level. As a rule, in the countries in question, the heads of social security organizations are excluded from the bodies in which recommendations and rules are drawn up; on the other hand, the implementation and management of social security schemes do form part of their field of competence.

Some 40 member organizations replied to the survey questionnaire, and the ISSA General Secretariat requested Mr. Voirin, a specialist on European questions, to write the present article analysing the results.
The provision of complementary pensions: Objectives, forms and constraints
Authors: Holzmann Robert
Published: December 2007

In all former centrally planned economies, the question of how to restructure old‐age income provisions and open the way to non‐governmental, complementary pension schemes is being posed. This paper deals with four main areas of that problem. First, the various objectives of public and complementary schemes are discussed. The paper argues that without a broad consensus among the major interested parties there is a considerable danger that envisaged objectives will not be achieved. The second section reviews the main forms of complementary pension scheme and discusses the central characteristics of occupational and personal schemes. The third section addresses two critical policy areas: the kind of regulations that may be required in order to enforce the social and economic objectives; and the likely social and economic implications. On the basis of experience in OECD countries and the specific situation in countries in transition, the final section offers some tentative conclusions for Czechoslovakia, the main one being that during the initial phase of economic transition preference should be given to a simple defined contribution plan. Such a complementary scheme would be consistent with the lack of developed financial markets and the privatization plan of the government and require neither a great number of highly trained accountants and actuaries nor the comprehensive set of regulations a defined benefit plan is likely to dictate.
From words to deeds: Health service reform in Poland
Authors: Wlodarczyk W. Cezary , Mierzewski Piotr
Published: December 2007

After two years of fundamental political changes in Poland a lot of enthusiasm has faded. The country is on its way towards a market economy but the process of transformation is proving more difficult than expected. The social sector in particular is being hampered. Budgetary cuts undermine any feeling of security. Society seems to be entirely unprepared to accept changes that lead to a reduction of social packages offered by former regimes. Hopes associated with 5the outcome of health care reform were aroused by the length of time taken to conceptualize the main proposals. The process started as early as 1980 and was supposed steadily to yield easier access and higher technology. When it became clear that this was unrealistic because of general economic crises, the pace of health service reform was slowed down. It was a painful process to abandon illusion. Now it is becoming accepted that the reform is to improve the elementary effectiveness and efficiency of health services. Thanks to this breakthrough it has been possible to make and put into practice two major decisions: the regional integration of health services, and the new law on health care institutions.
Social security in the USSR
Authors: George Vic
Published: December 2007

Social security systems reflect the political and economic realities of their country. The history of the Soviet social security system lends support to this thesis. Its basic features were drawn during Stalin's forceful drive towards heavy industrialization and they remained pretty much the same over the years despite many changes, often of significant detail. It was a system financed by the state, providing earnings‐related benefits to workers who fulfilled their work obligations and favouring those in the Communist Party, government and industry whose contribution was deemed to be most useful to the state and the economy. The absence of political freedom meant that open criticism of existing provisions was very difficult, while the emphasis of successive governments on defence and space exploration inevitably meant that state funds for social security suffered and with them the level and range of benefits. The collapse of the Soviet Union has resulted in widespread hardship among those relying on benefits and has created a situation where new social security systems are needed to reflect the new political and economic realities.
The Beveridge Report: Its origins and outcomes
Authors: Abel‐Smith Brian
Published: December 2007

The Beveridge Committee had an inauspicious start. It was intended by the British government to be a minor tidying‐up operation. When the report was completed, the government seriously considered not publishing it. The report advocated family allowances, a free health service and full employment, and that all social insurance benefits should be at flat rate and at subsistence level with the aim of abolishing poverty. But the actual recommendations would not have fully achieved Beveridge's aims. Although the report had a rapturous media reception, the government initially decided not to commit itself to action. But pressure from parliament forced Prime Minister Churchill to produce plans for legislation. When the report finally became law, the benefits were about a third less than Beveridge had recommended. As a result his social assistance safety net, intended to have a very small role, ended up giving ultimate protection to some 7 million persons. The report had a major influence in other countries by setting a much more ambitious agenda for social security than had generally been accepted before.
Welfare states and welfare outcomes in the 1980s
Authors: Mitchell Deborah
Published: December 2007

Welfare state typologies can be a useful means of grouping together countries with similar policy regimes. Whether the policy outcomes of these regimes are similar is an empirical question which could not be adequately addressed until the advent of the Luxembourg Income Study (LIS) project. Using evidence from the LIS data on income inequality and poverty, this paper examines the extent to which regime types and outcomes coincide. The findings suggest that while there is a broad coincidence, these typological frameworks are beset by boundary problems which result in the misclassification of some countries. In addition, as individual nations change policy direction, the task of sorting ideological postures from substantive change decreases the reliability of such typologies.
State social benefits in South Africa
Authors: Lund Frances
Published: December 2007

The growth of South African state‐provided social security is traced from its origins in British colonialism, through the consolidation under apartheid of racially discriminatory benefits mainly to protect white interests, to the present time of political change when there is a rapid move towards racial parity. It is a difficult system to understand, because of the fragmentation created by apartheid: benefits are delivered through 17 separate “governments”, geographically different from each other, using different information systems and, until recently, characterized by secrecy regarding information. This paper is based on interviews conducted in all administrations in 1991, and it focuses on the state social pensions and grants for elderly people, disabled people, child and family care, and poor relief. Major problems with the system are those of access, racial discrimination, inefficiency, corruption, and the way in which the means test is implemented. Does the social security system have a role to play in addressing the inequality and poverty produced by apartheid? In rural areas most beneficiaries live in three‐generational families, and the benefit is consumed by the household. It is suggested that its potential is greatly underestimated, and rather than being seen as an expensive burden, the social security system should be enthusiastically embraced. It is already in place; it can relatively easily be made more efficient.
Mutual benefit societies in Indonesia
Authors: Ingleson John
Published: December 2007

We do not know when or how mutual benefit societies first appeared in colonial Indonesia, but there is evidence that they were part of the lives of at least some of the ordinary people in the towns and cities by the last quarter of the nineteenth century. By the 1910s they were common in workplaces and kampung, the often less than salubrious parts of the towns and cities where wage labourers and their families lived. Large numbers of people joined and some of them handled significant sums of money. For many people, they were an essential help in coping with daily life on small incomes with no capacity to save and with the ever‐present threat of loss of work, sickness or death. The relationships between mutual benefit societies, labour unions political parties and other voluntary organizations which would contribute to Indonesian nationalism is of particular interest. Clearly, to be involved in, and to be seen to be involved in, mutual aid was important for all these urban organizations.1
Complementary retirement pensions: Towards a definition of terms
Authors: ApRoberts Lucy
Published: December 2007

One of the main difficulties in carrying out an international comparison of retirement systems is the task of establishing clear common terminology. Like other social institutions, welfare systems differ from country to country; confusion can arise when a given word is applied to different institutional structures because such usage can mask important differences. On the basis of a comparison of complementary pension plans in the United States, Ireland, the United Kingdom, France and Germany, this paper discusses and clarifies the meanings of some key terms. The distinction between “private” and “public“ retirement plans, commonly used by Americans, can be erroneously applied to other systems, particularly that of France, where complementary retirement plans resemble American “private” plans in some respects and “public” plans in others. The terms “occupational” and “supplementary”, often used in Europe, can be used interchangeably; however, each one stresses different aspects of complementary plans. The terms “funding” and “pay‐as‐you‐go” and their equivalents in French (répartition and capitalisation) have somewhat different meanings and quite different connotations. Finally, the author discusses the concept of “social insurance”, as applied to both social security and complementary pension plans, to end with some reflections on the definition of what constitutes a retirement plan.
Social policy and family relations: Choices for change
Authors: Gilbert Neil
Published: December 2007

This article examines the relationship between social security policies and the trend toward greater equality in family life. The declining birth rate and increasing labour‐force participation of women, among other factors, have altered the traditional division of labour in family life on which many social security policies were originally predicated. As the traditional guidelines dissolve, two schools of feminist thought suggest alternative ways that husbands and wives should divide their labour to fulfil domestic responsibilities. These perspectives on gender equality in family life are analysed in terms of their implications for social security policies. The merits of these approaches to policy are assessed in light of their impact on social choice, independence, self‐realization, and family stability.
The investment of social security reserves during periods of crisis: The experience of Cameroon
Authors: Mounbaga Emmanuel
Published: December 2007

The crisis which Cameroon has been going through since 1986 has affected the various sectors of its economic and social life. For the first time since its establishment, the social security system administered by the National Social Insurance Fund is experiencing serious difficulties. After a period of financial surplus during which it accumulated substantial reserves, the product of the Fund's contributions has not covered its expenditure since the 1988/89 financial year, thereby obliging it to draw upon its reserves to balance its budget. After examining the fundamental criteria which have to be followed in the investment of social security assets, in accordance with the objectives and principles governing the financing of the system, the author of this article looks at the various types of investment undertaken by the Fund during its period of prosperity. “he resulting assessment leads to a series of recommendations for the formulation of a sound investment policy and the rational management of social security investment portfolios”.
Financing retirement pensions: Pay‐as‐you‐go and funded systems in the European Union
Authors: Reynaud Emmanuel
Published: December 2007

The techniques used to finance retirement pensions in the European Union are extremely varied, as are schemes’institutional frameworks. The standard distinction between pay‐as‐you‐go and funded systems obscures the fact that there are four main types of schemes, each with very distinct methods of regulation and conditions of long‐term viability. An analysis of the current procedures reveals the extent to which the schemes’ways of operating differ, and points to considerable variations in the way the social actors participate in the process of regulation. The adaptation of pension systems to new realities is dependent on factors which go far beyond a simple choice between two basic methods of financing.
Indonesian social security in transition: An empirical analysis
Authors: Purwoko Bambang
Published: December 2007

Indonesia is one of the world's largest countries, with a population of some 190 million people. Although considered poor in terms of virtually every economic indicator at the start of the first national development plan some 25 years ago, the nation has consistently improved in performance year by year. This paper argues that the development of social security has been inextricably linked to the remarkable economic growth. The commencement of the second national development plan period (1994‐2019) offers a timely opportunity to review Indonesian social security progress to date, to consider the challenges ahead, and to speculate on how social security can best contribute towards national objectives such as the development of human resources and the alleviation and eradication of poverty.
Restructuring Australian retirement incomes: Implications of changing work and retirement patterns
Authors: Rosenman Linda , Warburton Jeni
Published: December 2007

Work and retirement patterns among older Australian women and men are changing. In this paper, the interactions between these patterns and social security policies are contrasted with the desirable direction of work and retirement later in life. The change in Australia's retirement incomes system towards the “three pillar model” described by the World Bank poses particular issues for late life employment and retirement, especially for older women.
The resurgence of poverty and the struggle against exclusion: A new challenge for social security in Europe?
Authors: Berghman Jos
Published: December 2007

This article overviews the important ships that have taken place during recent decades in scientific thinking with respect to poverty and social exclusion, and social security in Europe. Starting from this it points to the basic aims, achievements and shortcomings of social security policies in the fight against social exclusion. As the lack of labour demand presents itself as the ultimate challenge for social security, the need for a European perspective is addressed, together with the inadequacy of existing policy‐making structures.
Indexation of public pension benefits on a legal basis: Some experiences in European countries
Authors: Vording Henk , Goudswaard Kees
Published: December 2007

Legal provisions concerning indexation of social benefits to wage or price movements are a common feature of social security systems in European countries. At the moment, there is a lively debate in some countries whether such mechanisms should be continued in a modern, flexible Welfare State. This paper analyses whether indexation provisions are effective, i.e. whether they limit the range of political decision‐making on benefit adjustments. Evidence from Germany, the United Kingdom, France and the Netherlands shows that trends in benefit adjustment are quite pronounced in time and comparable between countries, indicating that changing economic circumstances may be of more importance to changes in benefit levels than the precise contents of indexation clauses. Also, indexation clauses have frequently been adjusted to changing circumstances. Nevertheless, it appears that the incorporation of indexation provisions in the law still has a strong symbolic meaning.
Reforming China's social security system: Facts and perspectives
Authors: Hu Aidi
Published: December 2007

This article overviews the social security reform started shortly after the commencement of the general economic system restructuring in China in 1978. The reform is remarkable not only for its scale in terms of population covered, territory affected and comprehensiveness sought, but also for the difficulties confronted, progress made and confidence achieved. Although there is still a long way to go to fulfil its ambitious ultimate objectives, 14 years of reforming exercises have built up a solid basis for a sound social protection system to be gradually extended to the non‐covered population. China now can share its experience with other nations in a similar situation.
A MATRIX FORMULATION OF SPECTACLE MAGNIFICATION
Authors: Keating Michael P.
Published: December 2007

Abstract The paraxial 4 × 4 astigmatic system matrix is used to derive a 2 × 2 blurred‐image magnification matrix, as well as a 2 × 2 spectacle magnification matrix. The 2 × 2 spectacle magnification matrix describes the meridional magnifications for any spherocyclidrical spectacle correction including a bitoric eikonic lens. The 2 × 2 spectacle magnification matrix can be approximated by the product of 2 × 2 power and shape factor matrices that have algebraic forms exactly analogous to the power and shape factor equations for spherical correcting lens.
TORIC LENS VOLUME
Authors: Churms P. W.
Published: December 2007

Abstract Theory is derived for the calculation of the volume of type‐ and barrel‐form torie lenses. The integral produced is evaluated using an approximate method of integration. Differences between the two volumes are considered insignificant in the corner of spectacle lens manufacture. Methods of approximating the Volumes of boil) type‐ and barrel‐form torie lenses are examined. An approximate method, relying upon standard formulae pertaining to the volume of the sphere and cylinder, is sufficiently refined for most practical purposes and obviates the use of a sophisticated calculator nr computer.
THE X‐CHROM LENS–A CASE STUDY
Authors: Taylor S. P.
Published: December 2007

Abstract A deuteranomalous male was filled with an X‐chrom tens in his non‐Dominant eye. The effect of wearing this lens on subsequent colour Vision classification as shown by a number of different test is described.
THE ANISEIKONIC MATRIX
Authors: Keating Michael P.
Published: December 2007

Abstract The matrix optics formulism for astigmatic systems is applied in aniseikonia, and aniseikonic matrix is defined. The aniseikonic matrix is particularly easy to compute even in the straight forwardness of the matrix formalism as applied to aniseikonia provides a conceptually clearer means of understanding aniseikonic optics.
SHORT‐TERM ADAPTATION TO THE INDUCED EFFECT
Authors: Lee David Y. , Ciuffreda Kenneth J.
Published: December 2007

Abstract The short‐term adaptation (1–4 h) to the induced effect was investigated on four subjects. A 4% meridional afocal magnifier axis 180 was worn before one eye in normal binocular conditions, which produced vertical retinal‐image disparity. In certain circumstances this vertical disparity will give rise to the induced effect, i.e. a surface in the objective frontal plane will appear to be rotated around a vertical axis with the apparently closer edge on the same side as the magnifying lens. Adaptation, which is considered as a reduction in the induced effect over time, was measured with a modified Howard‐Dolman apparatus. Both the maximal induced effect and the maximal short‐term adaptation occurred within the first 30 min and ranged from 40 to 85%. The final level of short‐term adaptation to the induced effect ranged from 20 to 45%. These results suggest a rapid recalibration of binocular depth perception by higher‐level perceptual centers.
THE MEASUREMENT OF SOFT LENS RADII BY PROXIMITY GAUGING
Authors: Port M. J. A.
Published: December 2007

Abstract Thirty hydrogel lenses with a water content of 60% were examined in the Kelvin Soft Lens Measurement Gauge in order to assess their back central optic radii (BCOR). The accuracy, repeatability and limitations of the equipment were considered. The proximity gauging principle avoids central touch of the lens by a probe at the time of measurement. This factor almost certainly contributed to the good measurement consistency obtained (a modal SD of 0.02 mm for four radius measurements).
THE VISUAL DISPLAY TERMINAL ISSUE: A CONSIDERATION OF ITS PHYSIOLOGICAL, PSYCHOLOGICAL AND CLINICAL BACKGROUND
Authors: Campbell F. W. , Durden K.
Published: December 2007

Abstract The publicity which has been given to Visual Display Terminals (VDTs) in recent years has been prompted by initial complaints from operators of visual and postural discomfort. The interest resulting from these complaints has led to much work being carried out on what appeared to be a potentially large problem. This work has precipitated recommendations and specifications from many quarters which in many cases are overcritical and rigid and do not take into account the great flexibility of the visual system and the need for mobility to maintain postural comfort. In this paper the VDT issue is considered with reference to: the known physiology of the visual and postural mechanisms; the psychological factors such as fatigue, boredom, stress and performance of operators; and the clinical aspects of ocular comfort.
STEREOPSIS WITH SPATIALLY‐DEGRADED IMAGES*
Authors: WOOD I. C. J.
Published: December 2007

Abstract Experiments are described in which stereo‐thresholds were determined under conditions of monocular and binocular dioptric blur, or when spatially‐filtered, computer‐generated images were used. The results show that, in general, monocular image degradation in combination with an undegraded image in the other eye produces a worse stereo‐performance than does the corresponding binocular combination of degraded images. High‐pass spatial‐frequency filtering, where image frequencies ≥ 4 c/deg are retained, provides better stereo‐acuity than low‐pass filtering, where only frequencies ≤ 4 c/deg are present.
THE TREATMENT OF CONGENITAL IDIOPATHIC NYSTAGMUS BY INTERMITTENT PHOTIC STIMULATION*
Authors: Mallett R. F. J.
Published: December 2007

Abstract An analysis is presented of the results obtained by treating 54 patients with congenital nystagmus using intermittent photic stimulation. The major beneficial effect has been to improve the visual acuity, though the nystagmus itself is sometimes reduced in amplitude or even eliminated; an unexpected bonus, in certain cases, is the improvement in stereoscopic acuity.
DIVERGENCE EXCESS: CHARACTERISTICS AND RESULTS OF TREATMENT WITH ORTHOPTICS
Authors: Daum Kent M.
Published: December 2007

Abstract This, paper retrospectively examines the results of the treatment of 18 subjects 111 males, seven females) with divergence, excess, using orthoptics. The mean age of the subjects was 15.8 years, which was significantly younger than the population from which this group was referred. Diplopia (89%) and asthenopia(56%) were the most frequently reported symptoms. Seventy‐two per cent of the subjects had intermittent deviations of the eyes. Over the mean necessary course of treatment of 5.2 weekly. the distance angle of deviation (slightly) and the positive vergenes at distance and near were found to have changed significantly. The near angle of deviation, the negative vergences. The near point of convergence. The amplitude of accommodation, and the threshold of stereopsis were found to have remained stables over the treatment period. Further results of the study are presented and the implications of these result with regard to the treatment of divergence excess are briefly discussed.
ON THE REDUCTION OF EYE‐STRAIN WHEN READING
Authors: Wilkins A. J. , Nimmo‐Smith I.
Published: December 2007

Abstract Successive lines of printed text form a pattern of stripes that may induce eye‐strain and headache. Volunteers suffering eye‐strain or headache from reading were asked to use a variety of aids, some of which merely guided the eye and some of which also attenuated the pattern of stripes above and below the passage of text being read. In two studies about one‐third of I lie volunteers benefited from the latter aids to the extent that they wished 10 continue using them despite the inconvenience involved. These volunteers tended to report more visual illusions when they looked at a pattern of striped lines.
DICHOTOMY OF PSYCHOPHYSICAL RESPONSES IN RETROBULBAR NEURITIS *
Authors: Alvarez Sara L. , King‐Smith P. Ewen
Published: December 2007

Abstract Thirty cases of retrobulbar neuritis (RBN) with varying degrees of myelin loss have been analyzed in terms of loss of chromatic function, loss of spectral flicker detection and reduction in visual acuity. We suggest, from the preliminary results of this study, that there may be two distinct types or stages in RBN. Both stages include moderate to severe impairment or damage to the colour‐opponent (and most likely the fine‐acuity) system. The second type or stage also involves a conduction block or failure, severely reducing sensitivity to fast flicker, although other luminance functions not involving fast‐flicker detection may be spared.
ADAPTATION OF TONIC ACCOMMODATION
Authors: Schor Clifton M. , Johnson Chris A. , Post Robert B.
Published: December 2007

Abstract We compared the resting (dark) focus of accommodation before and after adapting to accommodative stimuli placed nearer or farther from an initial baseline resting focus. Short‐term monocular adaptation (< 2 min) did not result in consistent after‐effects that were correlated with the adaptation stimulus. After short‐term adaptation, accommodation returned to its resting level in 2–15s. Long‐term monocular adaptation (30 min) to a 6‐D near stimulus resulted in a small (0.5‐D) average increase in the resting focus of accommodation beyond the normal 2–15‐s short‐term decay. These observations illustrate a tonic adaptation of accommodation that is small and requires longer durations of adaptation than an analogous adaptation of the fusional vergence system to prism.
SOME GEOGRAPHIC, ENVIRONMENTAL AND NUTRITIVE CONCOMITANTS OF MALIGNANT MYOPIA
Authors: Daubs J. Gorman
Published: December 2007

Abstract From an exploratory study of the population of 16 states in the Model Reporting Area for Blindness in The U.S. the incidence rate of reported blindness due to malignant myopia was found to be inversely related to distance to seacoast (r=−0.67) and with certain correlates of this distance; sunshine (r=−0.67), fluoride (r=−0.18–−0.77), calcium (r=−0.66), and selenium (r=−0.68). These findings are similar to those for dental caries. except for selenium which is said lo increase caries. Although these findings are analogous, do demonstrate an effect gradient, and are not biologically implausible, replication under less confounded conditions should precede a quantitative statement of causality.
THIRD‐ORDER THEORY AND ASPHERIC SPECTACLE LENS DESIGN
Authors: Atchison David A.
Published: December 2007

Abstract Third order equations are developed giving sagittal and tangential power errors corresponding to The eye rotating to look through the periphery of a spectacle lens. The equations are applicable for conicoid aspherical surfaces. From these, other equations are derived for elimination of oblique astigmatism and mean oblique error. Graphical examples show how aspherizing either lens surface affects the lens bendings required to eliminate oblique astigmatism.
COMPARISON OF LASER AND INFRARED TECHNIQUES FOR MEASUREMENT OF THE RESTING FOCUS OF ACCOMMODATION: MEAN DIFFERENCES AND LONG‐TERM VARIABILITY
Authors: Post Robert B. , Johnson Chris A. , Tsuetaki Tracy K.
Published: December 2007

Abstract The resting focus of accommodation was measured in the same subjects with both a laser optometer and a high‐speed infrared optometer. Although i.r. optometer and laser optometer measures produce similar estimates of the mean resting‐focus level in some subjects, others were found to have different levels of resting focus with the two techniques. Control studies, demonstrated that these differences were not due to the temporal sampling characteristics of the laser optometer, but resulted instead from making judgments about the direction of speckle motion during the laser optometer procedure. The temporal stability of the resting focus of accommodation was also investigated with i.r. measures obtained several minutes, 1 day, and 1 and 2 weeks apart. Results indicated long‐term variability similar to that previously reported with the laser optometer.
FRESNEL PRISM CORRECTION FOR TRAUMA‐INDUCED DIPLOPIA
Authors: Woo George C. , Lovasik John V.
Published: December 2007

Abstract—Fresnel prisms placed on the spectacle lenses of a patient with optic atrophy resulting from an accident eliminated constant diplopia in the remaining visual field. A reduction in vision due to Fresnel prisms was found to be more tolerable than diplopia.