bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Extrinsic Reward and Intrinsic Motivation: A Review with Implications for the Classroom
Authors: Bates John A.
Published: March 2008

The notion that certain systems of reward may inhibit children’s desire to participate in educational activities was investigated by reviewing recent research on intrinsic motivation. This research was critiqued from four theoretical perspectives: self-perception theory, personal causation, the overjustification hypothesis, and behavioral contrast. Studies were grouped according to the independent variables (reward systems) demonstrated to have the greatest effects on subsequent motivation. General trends observed in the results of this research included detrimental effects both of participation-contingent and of task-inherent rewards, and the motivational value of unambiguous social reinforcers. It was suggested that the contradictory nature of the bulk of reviewed results was partly due to the failure of researchers to commonly define intrinsic motivation, and further research using a variety of dependent measures was encouraged to facilitate evaluation of classroom reward systems.
Nonverbal Communication in Teaching
Authors: Smith Howard A.
Published: March 2008

The important role played by nonverbal communication in the teaching process is emphasized. Following a discussion of semantic issues and general nonverbal research, school-related research is reviewed under seven categories of nonverbal communication: environmental factors, proxemics, kinesics, touching behavior, physical characteristics, paralanguage, and artifacts. Characteristics of general educational theory and the process-product paradigm are outlined and the relationship of nonverbal research to these areas is discussed. Finally, several technological and statistical concerns are presented.
The Teaching of Concepts: A Review of Instructional Design Research Literature
Authors: Tennyson Robert D. , Park Ok-Choon
Published: March 2008

Reviewed are recent studies directly related to the teaching of concepts. The relationship of this educational research work with that in experimental psychology is defined with extended interpretation given to specifying a set of guidelines for design of concept learning environments. A four-step process for concept teaching is proposed from the literature. First, the taxonomical structure of the content should be determined. Second, a concept definition should be prepared in terms of the critical attributes, and examples should be selected on the basis of critical and variable attributes. Third, examples should be arranged in rational sets by appropriate manipulation of the attributes. Fourth, the presentation order of the rational sets should be arranged according to the divergency and difficulty level among examples of the concept. Areas of further research on concept teaching are identified.
The Impact of Electronic Calculators on Educational Performance
Authors: Roberts Dennis M.
Published: March 2008

Thirty-four empirical studies at the elementary, secondary, and college level were reviewed concerning the impacts of electronic calculators on mathematics-related achievement and attitudes. The dominant research design was pretest-post test with the principal analytic procedure being ANOVA. In the typical study, an experimental group (usually one or more classes) was allowed to use calculators during their mathematics instruction whereas students in the control group were not. Results showed support for the computational benefits due to calculator use, especially when the calculators were also allowed on criterion tests. However, support for conceptual benefits was minimal. Hypothesized changes in general attitudes toward mathematics for those using calculators was unsupported, although effects on immediate and task-specific, affective measures were found. Interpretation of the results of many of the studies was hampered by defective research designs including assignment of students to conditions, contamination of treatment with control groups, control of the teacher variable, and the lack of use of calculators on the posttests.
Current Theory and Research In Communicative Competence
Authors: Wiemann John M. , Backlund Philip
Published: March 2008

The concept of competence in speech communication situations is explored here, with emphasis on the identification of competency as an educational objective. A review of relevant research in the relatively new area of communicative competence is presented, as well as an examination of the theoretical and conceptual issues relating to it. Competence research reveals a number of “dimensions” or components of competence, the most clearly defined being empathy, behavioral flexibility, and interaction management. With a basic knowledge of which communication abilities are necessary for adequate functioning in society, educators are then challenged to devise educational strategies to give students the knowledge and experiential learning necessary to achieve competence in this vital area of their lives.
Agency and Achievement: Self-management and Self-regard
Authors: Thomas John W.
Published: March 2008

A research review and a discussion of the interrelationship of student self-management behaviors, academic motivation, and basic skills achievement are presented. Results from recent training studies in self-management, attribution, and achievement motivation are presented as providing important qualifications for the view that effective basic skills instruction requires teacher-centered control and structure. It is concluded that giving students some degree of control over their learning and some sense of responsibility for their successes and failures can result in the continued disposition to achieve without sacrificing the essential goals of the “back to basics” movement.
Integrating Information From Text: An Evaluation of Current Theories
Authors: Walker Carol H. , Meyer Bonnie J. F.
Published: March 2008

Knowledge integration is the incorporation of related facts into comprehensive memory structures. This article examines the research on knowledge integration, particularly in relation to text comprehension. The paper is divided into four sections. The first two sections contrast the knowledge integration theories of Bransford and Franks with the more recent theory of Hayes-Roth and Thorndyke. Factors affecting the probability of integrating information from text are discussed in the third section. The final section presents conclusions and some practical implications for educators.
The Generalization of Behavioral Teacher Training
Authors: Robinson Viviane , Swanton Christine
Published: March 2008

A conceptual framework is developed that is systematically applied to the published literature on the generalization of behavioral teacher training. The framework is based on the definition of generalization proposed by Stokes and Baer (1977) . Half of the studies reviewed met the two criteria for generalization; that is, (a) the training events, if any, which were scheduled in the nontraining condition, were both dissimilar to and less costly than those scheduled in the training condition, and (b) similar effects were demonstrated in the nontraining condition as in the training condition. The methodological adequacy of the generalization test is assessed in terms of (a) the number of data points presented, and (b) the conduct of reliability checks. Two variables are discussed which were hypothesized to explain the occurrence or nonoccurrence of generalization: the type of training provided and the teachers’ attitudes toward the training. Finally, it is suggested that further distinctions could be made between the studies demonstrating generalization. These distinctions involve the number and type of nontraining conditions, and the degree of unobtrusiveness of the monitoring procedures used in the nontraining condition.
Student-Faculty Informal Contact and College Outcomes
Authors: Pascarella Ernest T.
Published: March 2008

This paper is a critical review and synthesis of the research on the association between student-faculty informal, nonclass contact and various outcomes of college. Relevant investigations are summarized according to sample characteristics, independent and dependent variables, statistical or design controls, and findings. A synthesis of the results indicates that, with the influence of student preenrollment traits held constant, significant positive associations exist between extent and quality of student-faculty informal contact and students’ educational aspirations, their attitudes toward college, their academic achievement, intellectual and personal development, and their institutional persistence. Methodological problems and issues in the existing body of evidence are discussed, and directions for future research are suggested. A conceptual model to guide future inquiry in the area is offered and discussed briefly.
The Structural Analysis of Behavior: An Alternative to the Learning-Hierarchy Model
Authors: Bergan John R.
Published: March 2008

This article reviews Gagné’s learning-hierarchy model and the model-testing procedures used in empirical investigations of the model. It then suggests the use of structural modeling techniques as an alternative to the learning hierarchy representation. Various structural procedures such as latent structure analysis are described for use in representing Gagne’s prerequisite relations hypothesis and other associated hypotheses not considered in the learning hierarchy model. Structural modeling techniques based on path analysis are suggested to represent Gagne’s positive transfer hypothesis and other associated hypotheses. Implications of structural modeling techniques for research in hierarchical relations are discussed.
Women in School Administration: A Review of the Research
Authors: Adkison Judith A.
Published: March 2008

The research area of women in administration, management and leadership is receiving increasing attention. This review focuses on research published since 1974. The dominant approach has explained women’s underrepresentation in administration in terms of socialization to sex role stereotypes. In the past decade, other theories have been applied to explain women’s experiences in organizations. The processes of career socialization and structural characteristics of organizations maintain inequalities. Theories of devaluation of women and social power and status have been advanced to explain the behavior of men and women in organizations and in the larger society. The review examines research on minority women in school administration and discusses changes directed at improving women’s access to leadership positions.
Recent Approaches to the Study and Teaching of ‘Effective Learning’ in Higher Education
Authors: Ford Nigel
Published: March 2008

Several recent studies have developed measures of qualitatively different levels of understanding texts and complex academic topics. The question of whether skills in achieving understanding and retention of information at high levels of abstraction can be taught is addressed by analyzing some of the mental processes involved, and briefly reviewing a number of attempts that have been made to induce these processes. The discussion of learning outcomes is broadened to include the critical evaluation and personal valuing of information. Conclusions are drawn for the teaching of “effective learning.”
A Latent Trait Look at Pretest-Posttest Validation of Criterion-referenced Test Items
Authors: van der Linden Wim J.
Published: March 2008

Since Cox and Vargas (1966) introduced their pretest-posttest validity index for criterion-referenced test items, a great number of additions and modifications have followed. All are based on the idea of gain scoring; that is, they are computed from the differences between proportions of pretest and posttest item responses. Although the method is simple and generally considered as the prototype of criterion-referenced item analysis, it has many and serious disadvantages. Some of these go back to the fact that it leads to indices based on a dual test administration- and population-dependent item p values. Others have to do with the global information about the discriminating power that these indices provide, the implicit weighting they suppose, and the meaningless maximization of posttest scores they lead to. Analyzing the pretest-posttest method from a latent trait point of view, it is proposed to replace indices like Cox and Vargas’ Dpp by an evaluation of the item information function for the mastery score. An empirical study was conducted to compare the differences in item selection between both methods.
Research on Teachers’ Pedagogical Thoughts, Judgments, Decisions, and Behavior
Authors: Shavelson Richard J. , Stern Paula
Published: March 2008

This review assesses the progress made in research on teachers’ pedagogical thoughts, judgments, and decisions over the past decade and identifies areas of substantive and methodological research needed to improve the practice of teaching. Based on this research, we formulate “schema” or tentative “models” of teachers’ judgments, planning decisions, and interactive decisions. We then set forth recommendations for future research, including (1) the need to develop a taxonomy of critical teaching decisions, which link these decisions to their consequences in the classroom; (2) the need to intervene and alter teachers’ plans and decisions in our research, as well as describe them, with the goal of improving teaching; and (3) the need to link recommendations based on research to the implementation of them in practice.
Conceptual Development in the Moral and Conventional Domains: Implications for Values Education
Authors: Nucci Larry P.
Published: March 2008

This article reviews recent research and related theory indicating that individuals’ conceptions of social convention and morality are constructed with in distinct developmental systems emerging out of qualitatively differing environmental interactions. The research indicates that people of all ages distinguish between those actions (moral) having an intrinsic effect upon the rights or well-being of others, and actions (social conventional) whose propriety is determined by the societal context (i.e., implicit or explicit societal norms). In addition, the research demonstrates that concepts about morality and convention follow independent and distinct developmental patterns.

The article discusses the limits of current values education programs (e.g., Kohlbergian, values clarification) in terms of their failure to coordinate the teaching of social values with students’ differential conceptions of morality and convention.

In addition, the article presents implications for classroom management procedures, the design of social values curricula, and the measurement of social development, which flow from the position that values education differentially address the development of conceptions of morality and social convention.
Toward a Political Economy of Educational Innovation
Authors: Papagiannis George J. , Klees Steven J. , Bickel Robert N.
Published: March 2008

Many policymakers and researchers still maintain that “modernization” of education through sustained and well-focused investment in educational innovation can improve the quality of education, significantly ameliorate social and economic problems, and lower educational costs as well. By restructuring management and teaching practices, putting more reliance on prepackaged curriculum materials, exploiting the possibilities of computers, radio, and TV, and changing teachers’ roles, it is believed that children and youth would be better prepared to meet the requirements of the modern workplace.

We contend, however, that these benefits have failed to materialize. In an attempt to understand why the promise of educational innovation has not been realized, we critically examine educational innovation, its ideological and paradigmatic underpinnings, and the major stages of the innovation process. Review of a large body of research suggests that conventional theory fails to understand the nature of structural and institutional factors and processes that characterize class-based societies.

A political economy of educational innovation perspective is elaborated that focuses on the centrality of power and the generation of correspondence and contradiction as key analytical concepts. It is argued that this “radical” perspective better explains the failure of innovation. Recent arguments that the central ideas behind educational innovation are still valid, but that greater emphasis must be put on the implementation process and participation of potential adopters, are also critically reviewed and found to represent no substantive shift from the “failed” model of innovation.

Although shortcomings of the radical view are acknowledged and some of its theoretical weaknesses underscored, it demonstrates how the innovation process actively extends and creates a “technological” ideology that is self-legitimating, providing the illusion of change, not its substance. Yet despite the predominance of this reproductive function, we discuss how the radical paradigm also posits that educational innovation yields contradictions and resistances that have the potential for social transformation.
Interdependence and Interpersonal Attraction Among Heterogeneous and Homogeneous Individuals: A Theoretical Formulation and a Meta-analysis of the Research
Authors: Johnson David W. , Johnson Roger T. , Maruyama Geoffrey
Published: March 2008

This article presents a theoretical framework specifying the conditions under which physical proximity and interaction will lead to positive or negative relationships between (a) ethnically diverse individuals, (b) handicapped and nonhandicapped individuals, and (c) ethnically similar and nonhandicapped individuals. A review of literature supporting the theoretical framework is presented, including a meta-analysis of 98 studies conducted between 1944 and 1982 that yielded 251 findings. Three meta-analysis procedures were used: voting-method, effect-size method, and z-score method. The results of the meta-analysis indicate that (a) cooperation without intergroup competition promotes greater interpersonal attraction among both heterogeneous and homogeneous individuals than do interpersonal competition, individualistic efforts, and cooperation with intergroup competition; (b) cooperation with intergroup competition promotes greater interpersonal attraction among participants than does interpersonal competition or individualistic efforts; and (c) there tends to be no significant difference between interpersonal competition and individualistic efforts in promoting interpersonal attraction among participants. Through ANOVAs, correlational analyses, and a multiple regression analysis a number of potentially mediating or moderating variables for these results are identified.
Defining Classroom Writing Competence: A Paradigmatic Perspective
Authors: Mosenthal Peter
Published: March 2008

As various competing definitions of classroom writing competence emerge, researchers must essentially confront the question, “On what basis does one select one definition over another?” To answer this question, this paper argues the need to consider the sociopolitical dimension of this construct, in addition to the conceptual and design criteria dimensions. The paper begins by noting that all definitions of classroom writing competence represent partially specified, or simplified, definitions. To illustrate the principles of partial specification in writing research, six emerging paradigms of writing research are considered. It is shown that each of these paradigms makes contradictory claims as to what constitutes the principal causative context of classroom writing competence. The sociopolitical implications for each of these paradigm’s partial specifications are discussed in terms of five purposes of education. The paper concludes by reiterating the need to select definitions of classroom writing competence in terms of sociopolitical criteria.
The Impact of Intergovernmental Grants on Educational Expenditure
Authors: Tsang Mun , Levin Henry M.
Published: March 2008

In this paper we assess the impact of intergovernmental grants on educational spending. First we discuss the theoretical effects of different types of grants. Next we present the general features and findings of 40 published works from the past two decades within this theoretical frame-work. We highlight the studies for the specific problems they set out to analyze, the models constructed, and the statistical procedure used. Finally, based on the review of these studies, we provide some approximate estimates of the impact on educational spending of categorical grants, matching grants, block grants, and general revenue sharing grants. We also discuss some of the conceptual and statistical issues involved in assessing the impact of intergovernmental grants on educational spending.
Affect, Ability, and Science Achievement: A Quantitative Synthesis of Correlational Research
Authors: Steinkamp Marjorie W. , Maehr Martin L.
Published: March 2008

In a comprehensive review of the literature containing correlations among affect, ability, and achievement in science—and between each of these variables and gender—findings were synthesized quantitatively with a view to determining the size and direction of relationships as well as the degree to which the relationships were modified by gender, level in school, and content area within science. Retrieved from 66 articles and reports, the data base consisted of 255 correlations. We found that boys' and girls' science achievement is positively related to affect, but the relationship is weaker than was expected; science achievement correlates more strongly with cognitive abilities than with affect. In both boys and girls, affect is more strongly related to achievement level than to cognitive abilities. The data suggest that boys achieve slightly better than girls in science, and they tend to possess slightly more cognitive ability. In some content areas within science, boys demonstrate more positive affect than do girls; in other content areas the reverse is true.
A Synthesis of the Research for Improving Reading in the Social Studies
Authors: Wade Suzanne E.
Published: March 2008

This review of the literature for improving reading in the social studies resolves apparent conflicts among studies by examining what types of treatments are most effective for which pupils and under what circumstances. The review found that providing reading and study-skill instruction in the social studies curriculum can raise achievement scores in both reading and social studies to higher levels than what pupils would achieve without instruction. However, only some of the treatments were successful. In those that were, teachers played an important role in designing the instructional program, were able to implement the treatment of their choice, and/or modified it during the implementation phase. Also, treatments that were multidimensional had a higher success rate than those that consisted of only one or a few activities or materials. And finally, in the successful treatments the teacher played an active role in the classroom rather than relying on written overviews and exercises used by pupils alone or in small groups. Because of these characteristics, successful treatments could be sustained over time, a necessary condition for real change to occur in pupils' reading and study skills.
Reward-Induced Decrements and Increments in Intrinsic Motivation
Authors: Morgan Mark
Published: March 2008

The circumstances under which rewards undermine or enhance intrinsic interest are examined. It emerges that the recipient’s perception of the functions of the dispensed reward is critically important. In particular, the distinction between reward instrumentality and rewards as symbols of success explains a vast array of otherwise contradictory findings. Quality and quantity of reward are shown not to be important per se, nor is there any evidence that undermining effects are associated with other disruptive effects on performance. A feature of current explanations of overjustification effects is the extent to which they carry implications for classroom practice. However, no extant explanation seems capable of incorporating all the available findings. Important directions for future research concern the interaction of reward-induced effects and other influences on intrinsic motivation and the relationship between school achievement and intrinsic interest in school activities.
The Formation of Ability Conceptions: Developmental Trend or Social Construction?
Authors: Rosenholtz Susan J. , Simpson Carl
Published: March 2008

This paper examines a growing literature on the ways in which children develop conceptions of their own and their peers’ intellectual abilities, a phenomenon we will call ability formation. We show that this literature may be integrated usefully under a recently developed theory regarding the ways in which schools construct academic ability as a reality experienced by students. We argue that this perspective offers an advance on developmental interpretations of findings in this area.
Exceptional Performance
Authors: Walberg Herbert J. , Strykowski Bernadette F. , Rovai Evangelina , Hung Samuel S.
Published: March 2008

Educators and educational researchers often assume that knowledge, learning, and human behavior in general are normally distributed. But considerable evidence shows that positive-skew distributions characterize many objects and fundamental processes in biology, crime, economics, demography, geography, industry, information and library sciences, linguistics, psychology, sociology, and the production and utilization of knowledge. The evidence in these fields and in learning research suggests possible modifications in educational theory, research, measurement, philosophy, and practice.
Perceived Problems of Beginning Teachers
Authors: Veenman Simon
Published: March 2008

Perceived problems of beginning teachers in their first years of teaching are reviewed. Studies from different countries are included. Issues such as the reality shock and changes in behaviours and attitudes are considered also. The eight problems perceived most often are classroom discipline, motivating students, dealing with individual differences, assessing students’ work, relationships with parents, organization of class work, insufficient and/or inadequate teaching materials and supplies, and dealing with problems of individual students. There is a great correspondence between the problems of elementary and secondary beginning teachers. Issues such as person-specific and situation-specific differences, views of the principals, problems of experienced teachers, and job satisfaction of beginning teachers are discussed also. Three frameworks of teacher development are presented which provide conceptualizations of individual differences among beginning teachers. Finally, forms of planned support for beginning teachers are noted. Research using an interactionistic model for the explanation of behaviour is needed.
The Effects of Nonpromotion on Elementary and Junior High School Pupils: A Meta-Analysis
Authors: Holmes C. Thomas , Matthews Kenneth M.
Published: March 2008

In this study data from all studies identified as meeting the selection criteria were mathematically integrated to determine the effect of grade-level retention on elementary and/or junior high school pupils. When each effect size calculated was treated equally, a grand mean effect size of −.37 was obtained indicating that, on the average, promoted children scored .37 standard deviation units higher than retained children on the various outcome measures. When the effect sizes within each study were first averaged so that each study could be given equal weight, a grand mean of −.34 was obtained. By using the effect sizes from only those studies in which the promoted and nonpromoted pupils had been matched, a grand mean of −.38 was calculated. The high degree of consistency in these measures lends credibility to the validity of these findings.

In addition to the grand means, effects sizes were calculated on various dependent variable measures, including academic achievement (further subdivided into various areas), personal adjustment (which included self-concept, social adjustment, and emotional adjustment), and attitude toward school, behavior, and attendance. In all cases, the outcomes for promoted pupils were more positive than for retained pupils.
The Use of High-Inference Measures To Study Classroom Climates: A Review
Authors: Chávez Rudolfo Chávez
Published: March 2008

This paper reviews the impact high-reference measures had on studying classroom climates. Early literature of classroom climates from the late twenties through the early sixties is reviewed. It is noted that the study of classroom climates had two distinct, unrelated beginnings. As a result, the use of high-inference measures to study classroom climates was not prevalent in the literature until the mid-sixties, whereas the study of classroom climates using other measures was well established by the early sixties. The review then discusses several high-inference measures developed in the last 30 years. Also, pertinent classroom climate literature that incorporates specific high-inference measures has been reviewed.
Implications of Cognitive Theory for Instruction in Problem Solving
Authors: Frederiksen Norman
Published: March 2008

Cognitive theories of problem solving and suggestions made by cognitive psychologists regarding how to teach problem solving are reviewed. Theories and suggestions from creativity research are also considered. The results are summarized in a description of how high levels of proficiency in problem solving are acquired and how problem solving skills might best be taught, keeping in mind a distinction between well-and ill-structured problems. The need for practice materials is discussed, and some desirable qualities of such materials are suggested. Finally, several unresolved issues regarding instructional methods are considered.
Self-Questioning Instructional Research: A Review
Authors: Wong Bernice Y. L.
Published: March 2008

Studies in self-questioning designed to improve students’ prose processing are reviewed in the context of theoretical issues and instructional implications that stem from three theoretical perspectives: the active processing perspective, metacognitive theory, and schema theory. The review indicates that the effects of self-questioning training on students’ prose processing are successful. Moreover, it indicates the need to consider the issue of constraints in self-questioning. The constraints of content knowledge and metacognitive deficiencies on self-questioning are illustrated. Subsequently, methodological problems underlying instructional failures in self-questioning research are examined. These include level of criterion in training, processing time allowed the subjects, explicitness in instruction, and maintenance and transfer tests. Last, potential directions of future research are discussed.
Implications for Altering the Context in Which Test Items Appear: A Historical Perspective on an Immediate Concern
Authors: Leary Linda F. , Dorans Neil J.
Published: March 2008

Research into the effects of item arrangement has been motivated by the need to know the potential effects on item statistics of different item arrangement schemes. This review of the literature confirms that many of the salient and common features of the research can be identified as a function of the practical psychometric concerns of the time. The studies are separated into three periods. The earliest studies investigated the simple main effect of item order on test performance; the late 1960s reflected a change in emphasis to a design that included interactions between item order and factors of examinees’ psychological and biological characteristics; current concern with test disclosure and development of individual adaptive testing instruments has shifted the emphasis to the effects of item order on the stability of item parameters. The literature has produced evidence of context effects, but has not demonstrated that the effects are so strong as to invalidate test theory or practice that is dependent on an assumption of item parameter invariance.
Raising Standards and Retaining Students: The Impact of the Reform Recommendations on Potential Dropouts
Authors: McDill Edward L. , Natriello Gary , Pallas Aaron M.
Published: March 2008

This paper examines the potential influence of school reform policies on the high school dropout rate. We summarize a diverse set of reports on American education that recommend increasing academic standards in schools as a means for improving secondary school performance. We also describe our understanding of the processes by which youngsters drop out of school. In light of these diverse literatures, we show that raising standards may have both positive and negative consequences for potential dropouts. On the positive side, raising standards may encourage greater student effort and time on schoolwork, and thus lead to higher levels of achievement. On the negative side, raising standards may increase academic stratification in schools and cause more school failure, with no apparent remedies. We propose an agenda for further research designed to clarify the impact of the higher standards.
Family Choice Arrangements in Public Schools: A Review of the Literature
Authors: Raywid Mary Anne
Published: March 2008

This paper reviews the history of family choice opportunities in public schools. It looks first at the development of tracking, of individual alternative schools, and of options systems. Then, after exploring the possible targets of choice (curriculum, instructional periods, teachers, schools), it offers detailed examinations of the several choice models that have proved widespread: open enrollment plans, magnet schools, schools within schools, satellites and separate alternatives, and inter-district choice plans.
The Validity of Direct Observation Measures of Pupil Classroom Behavior
Authors: Hoge Robert D.
Published: March 2008

An evaluation of the validity of direct observation measures of pupil classroom behaviors is presented. The evaluation is based on a survey of analyses bearing on their construct, criterion-related, and treatment validities. Three types of measures are discussed. These include molar measures, where the focus is on broad dimensions of classroom behavior (e.g., “on-task” vs. “off-task”), molecular measures, where the focus is on more specific dimensions of behavior, and molecular-composite measures, where the data are collected in terms of molecular units but scored in terms of composite categories. Consistent support for the validity of molar and molecular-composite types of measures was revealed, but support for the molecular schedules was less consistent. The paper also contains a set of recommendations for users of these instruments and some suggestions for future research on the measures.
Educational Research: A Personal and Social Process
Authors: Allender Jerome S.
Published: March 2008

Sources for thinking about and doing new paradigm research are reviewed. The discussion includes a large variety of nontraditional approaches that directly address the role of subjectivity and consensus in research. Sources include literature on traditional research methods, qualitative methods, humanistic psychology, and action research. The review is organized in terms of the personal and social processes that affect an investigator, including a consideration of how our construction of reality depends on the methods of study we choose.
A Review of Strategies for Sequencing and Synthesizing Instruction
Authors: Van Patten James , Chao Chun-I , Reigeluth Charles M.
Published: March 2008

This paper reviews instructional theory and research relating to three design criteria: (a) the order of presentation of instruction (sequencing), (b) the kinds of content relationships that should be taught, and (c) the way content relationships should be taught (synthesis). With respect to sequencing, theory and research on the following are reviewed: scrambled versus logical sequences; micro level sequences such as rule-example versus example-rule and the order of instances in the form of examples or practice; and macro level sequences such as Bruner’s spiral approach, Ausubel’s general-to-detailed sequence based on “progressive differentiation,” Gagne’s hierarchical sequence for intellectual skills, the “shortest path” sequence for teaching complex procedures advocated by P. Merrill, Scandura, and others, and the Elaboration Theory’s three simple-to-complex sequences proposed by Reigeluth. With respect to synthesis, theory and research are reviewed on Ausubel’s advance organizers, Dansereau’s networking, Anderson’s mapping, Novak’s concept mapping, and the Elaboration Theory’s synthesizers. Also, research on the relations between sequencing and synthesis is reviewed. A variety of recommendations for future research are provided, and the importance of model building and theory construction are emphasized.
Producing Written Summaries: Task Demands, Cognitive Operations, and Implications for Instruction
Authors: Hidi Suzanne , Anderson Valerie
Published: March 2008

Theoretical views regarding the cognitive processes of summarization are reviewed and some of the specific cognitive operations involved in summarization are considered. In particular, we argue that the cognitive demands of summarization are dependent upon the qualities of the text to be summarized, the whereabouts of the text during summarization, and the type of summary to be produced. To this latter point, a distinction is made between a summary written for oneself (writer-based) and a summary written for others (reader-based). Developmental differences among summarizers are then described in terms of awareness of task demands, sensitivity to importance, and ability to condense material and select and create topic sentences. Finally, instructional suggestions are made for how the beginning summarizer might be taught to produce more sophisticated summaries.
Theories of Knowledge Restructuring in Development
Authors: Vosniadou Stella , Brewer William F.
Published: March 2008

This paper reviews recent work on knowledge acquisition with a focus on knowledge restructuring. This work suggests that it may be possible to replace Piagetian theories of global restructuring with a more domain-specific approach. Some forms of learning may give rise to a weak restructuring involving the accumulation of new facts and the formation of new relations between existing concepts. Other forms of learning may involve a radical restructuring that includes a change in core concepts, a change in structure, and a change in the phenomena to be explained. The restructuring view raises important questions about the similarities and differences in the child’s and the scientist’s acquisition of knowledge, and about the role of prior knowledge in instruction. The domain of observational astronomy is used as an example of how these issues can be applied to study the child’s development of knowledge. Several mechanisms for knowledge restructuring are discussed and it is argued that these issues are crucial for a theory-based approach to the study of instruction.
The Role of Wait Time in Higher Cognitive Level Learning
Authors: Tobin Kenneth
Published: March 2008

Wait time is defined in terms of the duration of pauses separating utterances during verbal interaction. The paper reviews studies involving wait time in a range of subject areas and grade levels. When average wait time was greater than a threshold value of 3 seconds, changes in teacher and student discourse were observed and higher cognitive level achievement was obtained in elementary, middle, and high school science. Achievement increases were also reported in middle school mathematics. Wait time appears to facilitate higher cognitive level learning by providing teachers and students with additional time to think.
Values, Evidence, and Mastery Learning
Authors: Anderson Lorin W. , Burns Robert B.
Published: March 2008

The decision about learning and learners [is a decision] about an ideal, about how we [conceive] what a learner should be in order to assure that a society of a particular valued kind could be safeguarded. … At the heart of the decision process there must be a value judgment about how the mind should be cultivated and to what end. ( Bruner, 1985 , p. 5)
Teacher Receptivity to Systemwide Change in the Implementation Stage
Authors: Waugh Russell F. , Punch Keith F.
Published: March 2008

This review examines studies relating to the implementation of systemwide educational change and, in particular, focuses on teacher receptivity to those changes. It provides a brief historical summary of this literature from the past 40 years and presents as well the general variables that seem to be related to teacher receptivity. It is assumed that there are fundamental generalizations common to all such changes and that these can be embodied in ideal-type models of implementing change. The important general variables that should be included in such models appear to be teachers’ personal cost appraisal of the change, practicality of the new educational system in the classroom, perceived support for teacher roles at school with respect to the main referents of the new educational system, alleviation of fears and uncertainties associated with the change, and perceived expectations and beliefs concerning the important aspects of the change. In addition, there are a number of other important general variables, such as beliefs on general issues of education relating to the change and overall feelings and attitudes towards the previous educational system.
The Context of Instruction and Student Learning: An Examination of Slavin’s Assumptions
Authors: Hiebert Elfrieda H.
Published: March 2008

The foregoing review rests on several assumptions about the role of the instructional context on student learning, the structure of subjects such as reading, and the nature of educational innovations. These assumptions influence the selection of studies for review and the interpretation of findings. An examination of these assumptions in light of recent theory and research produces a different perspective on the conclusions of the review. This examination suggests that, although the review provides an interesting historical analysis, its conclusions and recommendations are inadequate for guiding future research, policy, and practice.
Comment on Willig’s “A Meta-Analysis of Selected Studies in the Effectiveness of Bilingual Education”
Authors: Baker Keith
Published: March 2008

A meta-analysis of a subset of the bilingual education evaluation literature failed in its attempt to compare meta-analysis and narrative review because the meta-analysis (a) included only one third of the studies in the narrative review, (b) addressed different questions than did the narrative review, and (c) redefined a study demonstrating the failure of bilingual education as a success. Moreover, the meta-analysis is not an appropriate analytic technique for this literature because (a) inappropriate statistics were applied to the data, (b) the bilingual education treatment was confounded with other treatments in several of the studies reviewed, and (c) the studies reviewed were not sufficiently homogeneous to support a meta-analysis. Finally, the author’s conclusion that bilingual education is effective was not supported because (a) the results of the analysis do not generalize, (b) inappropriate statistical analysis was used to arrive at this conclusion, and (c) the effects of confounded treatments were not considered.
Examining Bilingual Education Research Through Meta-Analysis and Narrative Review: A Response to Baker
Authors: Willig Ann C.
Published: March 2008

In this response to Baker’s (1987) “Comment on Willig’s ‘A Meta-Analysis of Selected Studies on the Effectiveness of Bilingual Education,’” I address major questions raised by Baker and present counter arguments to each. First, I contend that the questions addressed in the meta-analysis were more appropriate for answering the concerns of the White House review team than were those addressed in Baker and de Kanter (1981) ; second, I provide evidence suggesting that one of Baker’s major points—that Willig (1985) did not include the studies from Baker and de Kanter (1983) —is primarily a rhetorical strategy; third, I explain the process of information gathering in the meta-analysis and compare my information from specific studies to that reported in Baker and de Kanter (1981) , demonstrating pitfalls in Baker’s review methods; fourth, I present my rationale for the exclusion of specific studies not included in the meta-analysis and demonstrate that Baker’s treatment of these studies is flawed; finally, I clarify several technical questions raised by Baker.
The Vital Agenda for Research on Extracurricular Influences: A Reply to Holland and Andre
Authors: Brown B. Bradford
Published: March 2008

On the whole, studies of extracurricular participation in secondary school have been surprisingly bereft of a conceptual framework, rife with methodological problems, and prone to include overstatements or “overinterpretations” of findings. Holland and Andre’s (1988) recent review of this literature points out these shortcomings, but provides an unduly beneficent or optimistic summary of many studies and stops short of the decisive directives needed to yield more enlightening studies. I emphasize the compelling needs to derive appropriate conceptual/theoretical frameworks, to expand samples and methods, to focus more on processes of influence than on differences in outcomes between participants and nonparticipants, and to study extracurricular influences within the broader context of high school students’ lives.
Implementation Problems in Meta-Analysis
Authors: Abrami Philip C. , Cohen Peter A. , d’Apollonia Sylvia
Published: March 2008

The paper probes implementation problems in meta-analysis by comparing six quantitative reviews of the research on the validity of student ratings of instructional effectiveness. The disparate conclusions of the reviews are explained by comparing the syntheses at each step in a meta-analysis: specifying inclusion criteria, locating studies, coding study features, calculating individual study outcomes, and data analysis. In addition, the resolution of implementation problems is explored, and several suggestions are offered for improving the practice of quantitative synthesis including the following: techniques for the specification of inclusion criteria, guidelines for the systematic summary of study features, a call for the analysis of statistical power and the reduction of Type II errors, and a discussion of the analytical problems posed by the presence of between- and within-study findings.
Controlling Variables: A Meta-Analysis of Training Studies
Authors: Ross John A.
Published: March 2008

Meta-analysis techniques were used to synthesize research on teaching students how to control variables (CV). Sixty-five controlled studies were included in the review. The mean effect size on posttest scores was .73. The main findings, not all of which were based on statistically significant differences in effect sizes, were: (a) Outcome measures that were demanding in task complexity, that focused on the specific elements of the CV schema, and that required performance across a range of context domains were more likely to reveal treatment impacts; (b) The effectiveness of treatments was enhanced by using motivational strategies based on cognitive conflict and appeals to student interest; (c) Strategies for introducing new learning were more effective if students were provided with explicit rules describing how to control variables; (d) Consolidation strategies had a greater impact when explicit attention was given to the elements of the CV schema in practice tasks and in feedback procedures; (e) Treatment impact increased with the range of contexts in which CV practice was provided. The results of the training studies are of high potential rather than actual use to teachers. Nonuse of the findings is attributed to an over reliance upon inadequate textbooks.