bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Training for Endurance Sports
Authors: MacDougall Duncan , Sale Digby
Published: September 2023

This chapter reviews the replenishment of high-energy phosphate stores and the removal of lactate and H+ following bursts of high-intensity activity that occur through oxidative processes. It describes how endurance-trained athletes are able to recover more quickly after brief maximal intensity efforts than sprint-trained athletes. It also analyszes the pattern of team sports, which consists of brief bursts of maximal sprint-type efforts followed by lower-intensity recovery intervals. The chapter assesses key variables that must be considered when designing a training program for an athlete in a given sport, which include the intensity of the training stimulus, the duration of the training stimulus, and the optimal amount of recovery time following each training session. It details training for endurance sports, wherein intensity is conventionally quantified relative to the athlete's maximal aerobic power.
Blood cell genesis: red cell, white cell and platelet families
Authors: Knight Gavin
Published: September 2023

This chapter evaluates the types of blood cell found within peripheral blood. It begins by explaining blood cell production and the structure of the bone marrow. The red colouration of our blood is derived from the red blood cells, also called erythrocytes, and in particular the intracellular respiratory pigment haemoglobin. Meanwhile, our capacity to fight infection comes from heterogeneous populations of white blood cells, also called leucocytes, with each population having a different function. Under the umbrella term of white blood cells are three types of cell characterized by the types of granule within their cytoplasm. These cells are broadly called granulocytes, and more specifically are neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils. The chapter then looks at stem cells, haemopoiesis, erythropoiesis, thrombopoiesis, haemostasis, granulopoiesis, and monopoiesis.
Digestive system
Authors: Warford Tony , Madgwick Tony
Published: September 2023

This chapter addresses the digestive system, which is a complex association of different integrated anatomical components with the primary task of extracting nutrients, water, and electrolytes from ingested food before collecting and excreting the indigestible waste. Thus, the system can be divided into a region for mechanical disruption and initial digestion of food (the oral pharynx), with delivery of this mass via the oesophagus to the stomach for further processing by extracellular digestion. Most nutrient uptake occurs in the small intestine (further divided into the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum), while water and electrolyte absorption occurs mainly in the colon. Finally, the undigested remnants are collected in the distal colon and rectum before expulsion by defaecation. A secondary, but important, function is that of immune surveillance provided by aggregates of lymphoid tissue associated with the entire alimentary tract.
Mössbauer spectroscopy and nuclear quadrupole resonance (NQR) spectroscopy
Authors: Weller Mark T. , Young Nigel A.
Published: September 2023

This chapter highlights Mössbauer spectroscopy and nuclear quadrupole resonance (NQR) spectroscopy. In Mössbauer spectroscopy, the absorption of γ-rays excites transitions between the nuclear energy levels. Laboratory-based Mössbauer experiments use γ-rays produced by the radioactive decay of the same isotope that is present in the sample under study. However, unless the isotope has a long half-life, it is often produced in-situ by the decay of another radionuclide. With the advent of synchrotron radiation sources, it is also possible to use these as very high energy X-ray or γ-ray sources for Mössbauer spectroscopy. Meanwhile, NQR spectroscopy involves transitions within nuclear energy levels and, therefore, uses the concepts introduced in both NMR and Mössbauer spectroscopy. The NQR spectrum can provide specific characterization information on the number of different, and type of, local environments of the quadrupolar nucleus under investigation.
Diffraction methods and crystallography
Authors: Weller Mark T. , Young Nigel A.
Published: September 2023

This chapter examines diffraction methods and crystallography. Diffraction techniques, particularly those using X-rays, are the most important structure determination methods available to the chemist. Diffraction methods provide a complete description of the structure of a crystalline compound, including the positions of atoms, ions, and molecules, and the bond lengths and bond angles between them. This derived structural information can be interpreted in terms of sizes of atoms and how they bond and pack together in a solid. X-ray diffraction methods may also be used to investigate the purity, particle size, and composition of powders which makes them useful tools in quality control and forensic applications. There are two principal X-ray diffraction techniques: powder diffraction, in which the material being studied is in a polycrystalline or powdered form; and single-crystal diffraction, where the sample is a single-crystal with dimensions of several tens of micrometres or larger.
Bio-elements in the periodic table
Authors: Rehder Dieter
Published: September 2023

This chapter provides a brief overview of chemical elements that have biological and medicinal functions. It discusses metals that have a direct impact on physiological activity, as well as toxic compounds based on mercury, lead, and arsenic. It presents a periodic table of bio-elements and provides a summary of their main biological function and/or medicinal application. The chapter also tackles the main ligands and ligand functions available for metal ions in biological systems. It uses the term metal ion in a broader sense, including metalloids. Furthermore, the chapter highlights that ligands do not only mediate the transport and storage of metal ions but also fine-tune the metal's physiological actions.
The biochemistry of zinc
Authors: Rehder Dieter
Published: September 2023

This chapter takes a closer look at zinc, the most abundant transition metal in all living organisms next to iron. It provides examples for the following five main categories of proteins in which zinc attains a structural function and/or mediates catalytic processes: Enzymatic activity in hydrolytic processes; substrate activation for oxidative detoxification; interconversion between carbon dioxide and hydrogencarbonate; transcription of the genetic information contained in deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) for protein synthesis; and demethylation — and thus repair — of DNA damaged by methylation. The chapter addresses questions on how zinc ions mediate the breakdown of proteins in our food, making available amino acids for resorption and thus usage in the synthesis of our body's own proteins; how ethanol is converted to acetaldehyde; how metabolically released carbon dioxide is processed for transport into the lungs; and how the small proteins called thioneins contribute to controlling zinc homeostasis in the body.
Inorganics in medicine
Authors: Rehder Dieter
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on the health-related consequences of the disruption of iron and copper homeostasis — particularly, as far as copper is concerned, in the context of Menkes disease, Wilson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease. The chapter also considers the mode of operation of drugs based on platinum and gold, as well as the role of bismuth in the treatment of irritations of the gastric mucosa, the therapy of bipolar disorder with lithium prescriptions, and the use of silver as a medicinal disinfectant. Furthermore, it discusses the potential of the phosphate analogue vanadate as an insulin-enhancing, and thus anti-diabetic, agent. The chapter likewise introduces the application of short-lived radionuclei in the treatment of malignant tumours and in the palliation of patients suffering from metastasized bone cancer. Finally, it reviews Paracelsus's relativizing statement on toxic substances in conjunction with the gases carbon monoxide, nitric oxide, and hydrogen sulfide.
Body fluid regulation: principles and processes
Authors: Butler Patrick J. , Brown J. Anne , Stephenson D. George , Speakman John R.
Published: September 2023

This chapter evaluates body fluid regulation of animals. The bulk of the body mass of animals is water, distributed between intracellular fluid (ICF) inside the cells and extracellular fluid (ECF) outside the cells. In aquatic animals, the osmotic concentration of fluids on either side of their permeable external epithelia influences the rate of water flow by osmosis. Body fluid regulation depends on solute and water transport across epithelial cells via paracellular pathways between the cells passing through ‘tight’ junctions at the apical border and a transcellular route across apical and basolateral membranes, passing through the cell cytoplasm. Cell volume regulation is also required for normal cell function in animals. Cell volume regulatory responses result from changes in the cell content of inorganic osmolytes and/or organic osmolytes that are typically compatible solutes, i.e. do not interfere with the functioning of enzymes and other cellular proteins.
How animals sense their environments
Authors: Butler Patrick J. , Brown J. Anne , Stephenson D. George , Speakman John R.
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on how animals sense their environments. The world as perceived by animals is defined by their senses, which receive and interpret only a small fraction of the potential sensory information available in their environment. Each individual group of animals has evolved different sensory priorities and specific abilities to ensure their survival in a particular environment. Sensory information in the environment is captured by specific sensory receptors, which act as selective amplifiers of specific types of stimulus energy. Sensory receptors are either modified neurons or are closely associated with sensory neurons. The chapter then looks at photoreception, chemoreception, mechanoreception, thermoreception, nociception, electroreception, and magnetoreception.
Reproduction
Authors: Butler Patrick J. , Brown J. Anne , Stephenson D. George , Speakman John R.
Published: September 2023

This chapter describes the process of sexual reproduction in animals. Sexual reproduction involves the meeting of two specialized cells called gametes, one from each parent, normally of the same species. Fertilization occurs either within a female or in the surrounding environment, depending on the species. The chapter then differentiates between oviparous animals, ovoviviparous animals, and viviparous animals. Genetic sex determination occurs in most animal species, but not all. Sexual differentiation, the development of gonadal, neural and endocrine tissues, determines an animal's phenotypic sex. The chapter also illustrates the male and female reproductive systems of vertebrates, before considering asexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction allows rapid expansion of populations, but without genetic change, which limits the population's scope to cope with environmental changes.
Autoimmune skin disease
Authors: Hall Angela , Scott Chris , Buckland Matthew
Published: September 2023

This chapter looks at autoimmune skin diseases such as pemphigoid and pemphigus. It notes how auto-antibodies are directed against protein at the dermal-epidermal junction in the pemphigoid, while pemphigus has auto-antibodies directed against cell junctions in the epidermis. The chapter indicates that specific auto-antibodies are associated with disruption of the skin structure leading to blistering. Biopsies or serums can demonstrate the presence of auto-antibodies as well. The chapter shows how treatment can include steroid, topic, systemic, steroid-sparing systemic immune suppression, high dose intravenous immunoglobulin, plasmapheresis in conjunction with systemic immune suppression, or monoclonal antibody therapy targeting B lymphocytes. In addition, it references other autoimmune blistering skin disorders such as dermatitis herpetiformis and toxic epidermal necrolysis.
Neuroimmunology
Authors: Hall Angela , Scott Chris , Buckland Matthew
Published: September 2023

This chapter looks into the developments of neuroimmunology. It then explores the diversity and complexity of devastating nervous system impacts of immune-mediated processes involving the curtailment of a neoplasm. The chapter highlights the discovery of highly specific anti-neuronal antibodies that can deliver an invaluable adjunct for diagnosing paraneoplastic syndromes or an underlying tumour. It also includes the clinical features of paraneoplastic syndromes. The chapter emphasizes the need for an early and quick diagnosis and treatment by referencing that paraneoplastic neurological antibodies are good early diagnostic marks. Additionally, it notes the greater chance of stabilizing the condition and preventing further mortality of neuronal cells and permanent disabilities.
Flow cytometry and primary immunodeficiency
Authors: Hall Angela , Scott Chris , Buckland Matthew
Published: September 2023

This chapter explores immunodeficiency and flow cytometry. It regards immunodeficiency as a sign of defects in the immune system resulting in gaps in the body's defensce against pathogens. The chapter also references severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) and combined variable immunodeficiency (CVID) to emphasize primary immunodeficiencies. In addition, it recognizes how flow cytometry plays a role in the diagnosis of primary immunodeficiencies. A direct approach to the matter is needed to ensure the correct test is delivered. The chapter notes how numerous techniques are available to enable intracellular proteins and cell function to be assessed. Lastly, it looks at functional assays such as T cells and NK cells.
Histocompatibility and immunogenetics
Authors: Hall Angela , Scott Chris , Buckland Matthew
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) system and its role in disease, clinical transplantation, and disease association. It also covers the methods used in the histocompatibility and immunogenetics (H&I) laboratory to identify the antigens, genes, and the WHO-approved nomenclature system. Moreover, the chapter expounds on the major histocompatibility complex which is a gene-dense region. It looks into the concepts of solid organ and haematopoietic progenitor cell transplantations. The chapter also highlights the importance of HLA matching in transplant organ survival. Moreover, it notes that HLA antibodies can be detected by complement-dependent cytotoxicity (CDC), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), or luminex.
A look at some of the history and techniques of cell signalling
Authors: Hancock John T.
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on the history of cell signalling and provides an overview of some of the main techniques that could be used to study cell signalling. It presents a wide range of technologies which can be adopted for signalling studies: the use of antibodies, fluorescent probes and confocal microscopy, and traditional biochemical approaches. The chapter also looks at how the development of modern molecular biology techniques furthered our understanding of how many of these proteins function through the use of gene sequence analysis, overexpression, and knock-out and knock-down studies. It also discusses the post-genomics technologies, such as microarray analysis, RNA-seq and proteomics. The chapter also considers the ambition of ‘systems biology’.
Signalling in development and for the regulation of gene expression
Authors: Hancock John T.
Published: September 2023

This chapter looks at the complex world of development, starting with some mechanisms of controlling transcription factor activity and the levels of gene expression. It explains that the control of gene expression plays an important role in the control of organism development. The chapter also discusses some examples of cell signalling systems that are studied in the context of developmental biology. The chapter then shifts to a discussion of transforming growth factor β—an important group of signalling proteins. It also reviews how notch signalling allows cells to have direct cell-to-cell communication and highlights hedgehog signalling, noting that it is important for developmental signalling. Finally, the chapter explores how toll-like receptors (TLRs) are used in the immune response.
The endocrine system
Authors: Kay Ian , Evans Gethin
Published: September 2023

This chapter reviews how the endocrine system, together with the nervous system, controls the multitude of physiological processes in the body and ensures that homeostasis is achieved. It discusses the formation of hormones from derivatives of amino acids, peptides and proteins, and lipids. It also analyszes the chemical nature of the process by which anan individual hormone determinesing where its receptor is located. The chapter clarifies how the overall plasma levels are maintained at the appropriate level proportion by negative feedback mechanisms, although hormone secretion may display circadian rhythms. It mentions the pituitary gland. This is described as the master endocrine gland by virtue of the number of physiological processes it controls.
Gastrointestinal physiology
Authors: Kay Ian , Evans Gethin
Published: September 2023

This chapter deals with the digestive system, which is considered as one of the most important systems in the human body. The digestive system is described to be a hollow tract that runs from the mouth to the anus with other associated organs. The chapter outlines the functions of the digestive system, which is the digestion and absorption of nutrients and the defence, transport, and elimination of waste products. It also explains how ingested nutrients are broken down into their constituent parts by physical and chemical processes. The chapter refers to the stomach as the organ which acts as a reservoir allowing digestion to occur so that effective absorption can take place. It discusses the absorption of nutrients and water that takes place in the intestine, with the vast majority occurring in the small intestine.
Organometallics and Catalysis
Authors: Bochmann Manfred
Published: September 2023

Organometallics and Catalysis consists of three parts. Part I looks at the organometallic compounds of the main group elements. Part 2 focuses on the organometallic compounds of the transition metals. Part 3 examines homogeneous catalysis with organometallic transition metal complexes. There are also four appendices: the first one covers commonly used solvents and their properties; the second one, number and symmetry of infrared-active vibrations of metal-carbonyl complexes; and the other two appendices present answers to exercises and further readings.
Homogeneous Catalysis with Organometallic Transition Metal Complexes
Authors: Bochmann Manfred
Published: September 2023

This chapter stresses that alkaline earth elements are more electronegative than the alkali metals and that their M–C bonds are more covalent. It emphasizes that alkaline earth compounds are Lewis acids and can coordinate two or more neutral ligands. This Lewis acidity is responsible for their high reactivity. The chapter then presents the bonding characteristics of Beryllium, as the alkaline earth element with the smallest radius. It shows the synthesis of magnesium and the formation of Grignard reagents. It also reviews how the metal–halogen exchange and C–H metallation. Next, it examines the structures of magnesium reagents and the reactions of magnesium reagents. The chapter then analyses the organometallic derivatives of the heavier alkaline earth metals — calcium, strontium, and barium.
The ‘macro’ RNAs: long non-coding RNAs and epigenetics
Authors: Elliott David , Ladomery Michael
Published: September 2023

This chapter deals with long non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) which are transcribed from separate genes and are between 5,000 and 15,000 individuals. It explains that long ncRNAs are transcribed by RNA polymerase II and are spliced to give the final ncRNA, but do not have any open reading frames to encode proteins. It also focuses on the long class of ncRNAs. These are referred to as macroRNAs, which are involved in the epigenetic regulation of gene expression. The chapter mentions important groups of shorter ncRNAs that have partially overlapping functional roles in directing epigenetics, including the siRNAs and rasiRNA. It discusses the specific roles of RNA molecules in controlling gene expression through epigenetic mechanisms.
Hyperuricaemia and gout
Authors: Marsden Joanne
Published: September 2023

This chapter outlines the sources of uric acid and describes its metabolism, before discussing the diagnosis, clinical investigations, and management of conditions associated with hypouricaemia and hyperuricaemia. Sources of purines are foods such as red meat, shellfish, and cream sauces, their de novo synthesis and the salvage pathway. The purine synthetic pathway involves a series of enzyme-catalysed reactions that result in the formation of uric acid. Hyperuricaemia is a concentration of uric acid in plasma above the reference range and may result from overproduction or decreased excretion of uric acid. Meanwhile, gout is an inflammatory disease diagnosed by hyperuricaemia and the presence of crystals of monosodium urate in the synovial fluid. There are four stages of gout: asymptomatic, acute, intercritical, and chronic tophaceaous gout. Gout is treated with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and analgesics.
Abnormalities of lipid metabolism
Authors: France Mike
Published: September 2023

This chapter explores the role of lipids in the development of cardiovascular disease. Different types of lipids occur in the body and include fatty acids, triacylglycerol, phospholipids, and cholesterol. Lipids are insoluble in water and associate with apoproteins in the blood to give lipoproteins, and this is the form in which they are transported in the circulation. Lipid disorders can either be genetic in origin or secondary to other diseases, drug treatment, or defective nutrition. The chapter then looks at hypercholesterolaemia, hypocholesterolaemia, and hypertriglyceridaemia. Deposition of lipids in arterial walls and the subsequent formation of an atheroma are key features of atherogenesis and coronary heart disease. Management of hyperlipidaemia involves using a combination of lifestyle changes aimed at reducing risk factors and the use of lipid-lowering drugs such as statins.
Abnormal pituitary function
Authors: McDowell Garry
Published: September 2023

This chapter reviews the general functions of hormones, their chemical nature, mechanism of action, and regulation, before focusing on disorders of hormones released by the pituitary gland. Hormones are chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands that circulate in the blood and act on target cells via receptors. The pituitary gland is influenced by release of peptides from the hypothalamus and also releases peptide hormones itself, which influence release of hormones from other endocrine glands located in the thyroid, adrenals, and gonads. The chapter then differentiates between hyperfunction and hypofunction of the anterior pituitary. Posterior pituitary dysfunction can result in low antidiuretic hormone (ADH) secretion, which presents clinically as cranial diabetes insipidus. Release of hormones from the pituitary gland can be investigated by measuring the concentration of single hormones in serum or by dynamic function testing.
Foundations of Molecular Structure Determination
Authors: Duckett Simon , Gilbert Bruce , Cockett Martin
Published: September 2023

Foundations of Molecular Structure Determination begins with an overview of the topic and an examination of energy levels and the electromagnetic spectrum. The next chapter covers rotational and vibrational spectroscopy. There follows a chapter looking at electronic (ultraviolet-visible) absorption spectroscopy. The text also discusses nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. The final two chapters cover mass spectrometry and X-ray diffraction and related methods.
Atoms, Molecules, and Chemical Bonding—a Review
Authors: Okuyama Tadashi , Maskill Howard
Published: September 2023

This chapter presents an overview of organic chemistry and looks at the compounds of carbon. It argues that there are hugely more compounds of carbon than of all other elements combined. The chapter then discusses the special properties of the element, and the characteristics of the carbon atom. It begins the study of organic chemistry by reviewing the nature of atoms and, in particular, their electronic structures. The chapter also looks at valence electrons and ionic and covalent bonds. It then explains the method of representing atoms which gave prominence to their valence electrons and facilitated comparisons between different elements. The chapter then demonstrates the periodic table by looking at the Lewis representations of atoms. Finally, the chapter analyzes several scales to quantify electronegativity. It also considers bond polarity and an introduction to resonance.
Conformation and Strain in Molecules
Authors: Okuyama Tadashi , Maskill Howard
Published: September 2023

This chapter explores how internal rotations about single bonds cause some molecules to be flexible rather than to have single fixed shapes. It recalls that four single bonds radiate in tetrahedral directions from a saturated (sp3-hybridized) carbon atom, which leads to organic molecules having three-dimensional structures. The chapter then argues that molecules are not rigid because molecular vibrations cause bond lengths and bond angles to be oscillating constantly about their average values. The chapter then shifts to examine what causes strain in a molecule, and how molecular strain affects the three-dimensional shape of a molecule. It employs several methods to represent the three-dimensional structures of organic molecules in two dimensions, which help us to generate mental images of three-dimensional shapes of organic molecules, and hence better understand stereochemical aspects of organic chemistry. The chapter concludes by discussing conformations of alkanes and cycloalkanes, as well as
cis-trans
Isomerism in cycloalkanes.
Zoo Animals
Authors: Hosey Geoff , Melfi Vicky , Pankhurst Sheila
Published: September 2023

Zoo Animals starts with an introduction to the topic. It then moves to look at the history and philosophy of zoos: why do we have zoos? The book explains that, since there is a certain amount of regulation associated with zoos, zoos have to consider animal identification and record-keeping, housing and husbandry, and animal welfare in their work. It also covers environmental enrichment, small population management, conservation, health, feeding, and nutrition. Finally, the text examines people in zoos and looks towards future research.
History and philosophy of zoos
Authors: Hosey Geoff , Melfi Vicky , Pankhurst Sheila
Published: September 2023

This chapter explores the history, philosophy, and ethics of zoos. It starts with a basic definition of zoos before going through the history of ancient menageries. It mentions the Roman gladiatorial menageries and royal European menageries. Then, the chapter discusses the development of modern zoos by using various accredited zoos as examples, such as the Regent’s Park Zoo in London. It discusses the advent of ecosystem exhibits, bioparks, safari parks, and wildlife parks. Next, the chapter provides a history of aquariums. The genetic management of zoo animals to reduce inbreeding and to maintain genetic diversity may result in the animals’ sterilisation or removal from breeding groups. The chapter also looks into the conservation versus welfare ethics debate which gave rise to the argument of the anti-zoo campaign.
Feeding and nutrition
Authors: Hosey Geoff , Melfi Vicky , Pankhurst Sheila
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on the feeding and nutrition of zoo animals. It discusses feeding ecology while looking at different categories of animals such as omnivores, carnivores, and herbivores. The chapter also discusses basic nutritional theory alongside the dietary requirements of animals, covering metabolizable energy. It introduces Zootrition asa major nutritional software package and database which includes an energy requirement calculating the basal metabolic rate (BMR). Additionally, the chapter alludes to the guidelines and legislation on feeding zoo animals in the UK and European Union. It then turns to discussing the storage, preparation, supply, and presentation of food given to animals. It highlights possible nutritional problems of zoo animals such as metabolic bone diseases, iron storage disease, malnutrition, mineral deficiencies, and obesity.
Quantitative Genetics
Authors: Thomas Alison
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on quantitative genetics, which analyses the inheritance of complex traits. Complex traits are multifactorial: their expression is influenced by multiple genes and various environmental factors. Most complex traits exhibit continuous phenotypic variation and threshold traits exhibit just two phenotypes. Susceptibility to express a threshold trait is quantitative: it is determined by numerous genetic and environmental factors. The chapter also looks at the role of additive genes, the statistical analysis of continuous traits, heritability, human quantitative traits, and quantitative trait loci (QTL), which are genes that influence quantitative traits. Heritability values indicate the relative input of genetic and environmental factors in determining a phenotype.
Measuring protein–protein interactions: qualitative approaches
Authors: Avis Johanna M. , Nilapwar Sanjay
Published: September 2023

This chapter outlines the major qualitative methods used to detect and measure protein-protein interactions. It explains techniques such as the pull-down assay, which relies on a high-affinity interaction and can be used to confirm an interaction between two proteins, or as a screen to identify possible unknown interaction partners; the phage display, wherein a library is constructed in which the proteins or peptides are expressed on the surface of a bacteriophage and are amplified through culture growth; and the yeast two-hybrid system, which can evaluate protein-protein interactions within the context of a yeast cell. The chapter enables readers to understand that these methods have a variety of requirements with respect to the production of translational fusions of proteins and the quantity and quality of protein required.
Biological membranes
Authors: Wang Qiuyu , Smith Chris , Davis Emma
Published: September 2023

This chapter highlights biological membranes, which form the boundary of the cell and separate it from its external environment. It explains that membranes are composed mainly of lipids and proteins and clarifies that the accepted structure of biological membranes is described by the fluid mosaic model. It also notes how archaeal membranes differ from those of eucarya and bacteria as they lack fatty acid residues. It notes that proteins of archaeal membranes are arranged in a similar manner to those of bacteria and eukaryotes. The chapter considers membranes as asymmetric structures, such as the carbohydrate of plasma membranes which is found attached in glycoproteins and glycolipids of the outer leaflet. It discusses the major general function of the lipid bilayer, which forms a permeability barrier around cells.
The endoplasmic reticulum
Authors: Wang Qiuyu , Smith Chris , Davis Emma
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), which forms part of the endomembrane system of eukaryotic cells. It clarifies that the ER membrane is continuous with the outer nuclear membrane and encloses a space called the lumen which is continuous with the perinuclear space. It also describes ER as a dynamic system, the structure of which is constantly being rearranged to meet the needs of the cell, providing a large surface area within the eukaryotic cell for the attachment of enzymes and ribosomes. The chapter covers the cellular activities associated with the ER, which include forming an extensive transport system within the cell, biosynthesis and the distribution of lipids, and the detoxification of certain drugs and poisons. It details how the ER is organized into an interconnected series of flattened sacs or cisternae and tubules.
Quantum Mechanics and Spectroscopy
Authors: Granger Robert M. , Yochum Hank M. , Granger Jill N. , Sienerth Karl D. , Granger Robert M. , Yochum Hank M. , Granger Jill N. , Sienerth Karl D.
Published: September 2023

This chapter reviews the basic quantum mechanics of spectroscopy, analyzing forms of spectroscopy based on the measurement of energy as an atom or molecule undergoes a change in quantum states. It looks at different aspects of quantum mechanics in order to understand instrumental techniques and analysis involving the interaction of light and matter. It also looks at how spectroscopy explores particular energy level differences between quantum states in molecules and atoms. The chapter stresses the importance of quantum mechanics in the development of spectroscopic techniques used to investigate atomic composition and chemical structures. It cites an example that outlines the quantum mechanic events that led to the line spectrum of hydrogen in a gas in a discharge tube.
Water and Temperature Relations
Authors: Harvey Pough F. , Andrews Robin M. , Crump Martha L. , Savitzky Alan H. , Wells Kentwood D. , Brandley Matthew C.
Published: September 2023

This chapter assesses biophysical ecology, which is the study of how animals exchange heat and water with their environments. Reptiles and amphibians have been especially important in the development of this field because interaction with the physical environment is such a conspicuous part of their lives. Regulating the amount of water in the body requires balancing gain and loss. In a steady state (i.e. no change in body water content), the total intake of water must equal the total water loss, and each side of the water-balance equation has several components. This is a general equation that fits terrestrial or aquatic amphibians or reptiles, but some of the details of water movement apply only to particular situations or certain kinds of animals. The chapter then looks at the mechanisms of thermoregulation, considering heliothermy, thigmothermy, and kleptothermy.
Energetics and Performance
Authors: Harvey Pough F. , Andrews Robin M. , Crump Martha L. , Savitzky Alan H. , Wells Kentwood D. , Brandley Matthew C.
Published: September 2023

This chapter addresses energetics and performance of amphibians and reptiles. Metabolic characteristics have equally profound effects on the day-to-day activities of amphibians and reptiles. Because the physiological characteristics of amphibians and reptiles are so clearly reflected in their behaviour and ecology, these animals have played an important role in studies of ecological and evolutionary physiology. The chapter traces some of those relationships, emphasizing the close connections between physiology and the behaviour and ecology of amphibians and reptiles. It starts with the structures used for gas exchange before considering the cardiovascular system, which transports oxygen and other substances throughout the body. The chapter then looks at how the production of ATP meets the needs of different ways of life and the energy costs of natural activities. It also studies metabolic depression, discussing aestivation, hibernation, and freezing.
Reproduction and Life Histories of Reptiles
Authors: Harvey Pough F. , Andrews Robin M. , Crump Martha L. , Savitzky Alan H. , Wells Kentwood D. , Brandley Matthew C.
Published: September 2023

This chapter explores the reproduction and life histories of reptiles, including the behaviours associated with mating, sex determination, and embryonic development. Regardless of the nature of day-to-day social interaction, the annual cycles of nearly all reptiles include at least one social event, mating. Physiological, morphological, and behavioural events that lead up to mating include the maturation of gonads, the development of secondary sexual structures, and courtship. Mating by some species is associated with high levels of gonadal activity, whereas in others it occurs when levels of sex steroids are low and the gonads are undeveloped. In this latter situation, mating is not followed immediately by fertilization, and sperm are stored for later use.
Communication
Authors: Harvey Pough F. , Andrews Robin M. , Crump Martha L. , Savitzky Alan H. , Wells Kentwood D. , Brandley Matthew C.
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses intraspecific communication in amphibians and reptiles. Communication has been defined in different ways by different investigators, but central to any definition is the idea that communication involves interactions between at least two individuals, a signaler signaller and a receiver. In fact, there may be more than one signaler signaller and more than one receiver, and individuals may alternate between roles as signaler signaller and receiver. Herpetologists have used many different terms to describe the signals and displays of amphibians and reptiles, but most can be sorted into a few simple categories, depending on the context in which they are produced. These include advertisement, courtship, aggressive, submissive, contact, and alarm signals. The chapter then looks at communication by salamanders, anurans, turtles, crocodylians, and squamates.
Mating Systems and Sexual Selection
Authors: Harvey Pough F. , Andrews Robin M. , Crump Martha L. , Savitzky Alan H. , Wells Kentwood D. , Brandley Matthew C.
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses intraspecific communication in amphibians and reptiles. Communication has been defined in different ways by different investigators, but central to any definition is the idea that communication involves interactions between at least two individuals, a signaler signaller and a receiver. In fact, there may be more than one signaler signaller and more than one receiver, and individuals may alternate between roles as signaler signaller and receiver. Herpetologists have used many different terms to describe the signals and displays of amphibians and reptiles, but most can be sorted into a few simple categories, depending on the context in which they are produced. These include advertisement, courtship, aggressive, submissive, contact, and alarm signals. The chapter then looks at communication by salamanders, anurans, turtles, crocodylians, and squamates.
Classification and System in Flowering Plants: Historical Background
Authors: Judd Walter S. , Campbell Christopher S. , Kellogg Elizabeth A. , Stevens Peter F. , Donoghue Michael J.
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses the principal ways in which botanists have classified plants and some of the reasoning behind those classifications. It discusses the early collections on which plant systematics is based. These collections are intimately connected with European colonial expansion, what price owners of private herbaria were prepared to pay for specimens, and what kind of specimen they preferred. The chapter also describes the history of botanical classification and highlights the longstanding and continuing tension between the makers and the users of classifications. It clarifies how relationships are understood, how nature is visualized, and how higher taxa are delimited.
Plants, Genes & Agriculture
Authors: Chrispeels Maarten J. , Gepts Paul
Published: September 2023

Plants, Genes, and Agriculture looks at the human population and the food supply now and how the global food system has changed over time. It looks at the role of plants in the human diet. It considers the importance of genes, genomics, and molecular biology. It asks how we can convert solar energy into crop-production and considers innovations in agriculture. The text also looks at soil ecosystems, plant nutrition, biotic challenges from weeds, plant diseases, biotic changes, and abiotic stress. The text then considers food safety, and asks specifically if foods made from GE crops are safe to eat. It ends looking at how technology has impacted plants and agriculture over the last few years.
From Classical Plant Breeding to Molecular Crop Improvement
Authors: Gepts Paul , Pfeiffer Todd
Published: September 2023

This chapter addresses plant breeding, where humans deliberately make crosses and choose specific plant varieties with characteristics that are desirable for food, feed, fibre, and fuel production. Crop improvement requires a never-ceasing pursuit of genetic diversity to introduce new alleles and new gene combinations into elite cultivars. This diversity originates in a wide range of sources, including other cultivars, landraces, wild progenitors, other crossable species, and transgenes. Plant breeding is a well-established science that, since the 1930s, has adopted approaches aimed to increase the efficiency of selection. These approaches include the use of quantitative genetics, artificial mutagenesis, and marker-assisted selection. More recent tools include genome-wide association studies, genomic selection based on extensive genome sequencing, and high-throughput phenotyping.
Introduced Traits That Benefit Farmers and Industry
Authors: Chrispeels Maarten J. , Herman Eliot M.
Published: September 2023

This chapter addresses the crop-plant traits that primarily benefit farmers and the food production and processing industry. Genetically engineered (GE) crops were introduced in the mid-1990s and have been extensively planted in many developed and developing countries by millions of farmers. Herbicide-tolerant genes make GE plants tolerant of herbicides that were already in use when the GE crops hit the market, while insect-resistant GE crops rely on the effects of Cry proteins, encoded by Bt genes, on insect larvae. The chapter then looks at nitrogen assimilation and phosphate starvation tolerance. It also considers pod shatter-resistant canola, genetically engineered forest trees, and hybrid seed production.
Global Patterns and Drivers of Biodiversity
Authors: Cardinale Bradley J. , Primack Richard B. , Murdoch James D.
Published: September 2023

This chapter investigates the geologic history of biodiversity on Earth, the global patterns of biodiversity in the modern era, and the primary ecological and evolutionary processes that control biodiversity. Biodiversity on our planet has varied greatly throughout Earth's history, fluctuating between dramatic lows after mass extinctions, to intervening peaks of diversification. While there are more species on Earth now than any previous time in geologic history, modern biodiversity is unequally distributed across the planet. The chapter then looks at estimates of how much biodiversity presently exists, and describes where it is found. These geologic trends and global patterns of biodiversity have all been driven by a common suite of evolutionary and ecological processes. These include genetic variation, natural selection, genetic drift, and speciation.
Species-Level Conservation
Authors: Cardinale Bradley J. , Primack Richard B. , Murdoch James D.
Published: September 2023

This chapter discusses issues related to the conservation of small populations, which are a common target for species-level conservation. It looks at the challenges that small populations face, before considering some ways to estimate population size and model how we expect populations to grow or change over time. Estimating and predicting population size can be crucial for planning conservation actions and making decisions to protect a given population. The chapter then introduces the concept of minimal population size and uses a simple model to conduct a population viability analysis that aims to evaluate a population's long-term viability. Finally, it studies the trade-offs of any species-level conservation effort.
Translocation in the Phloem
Authors: Taiz Lincoln , Zeiger Eduardo , Møller Ian Max , Murphy Angus
Published: September 2023

This chapter studies translocation in the phloem of angiosperms, because most of the research has been conducted on that group of plants. The phloem is the tissue that transports (translocates) the products of photosynthesis, particularly sugars, from mature leaves to areas of growth and storage, including the roots. Along with sugars, the phloem also transmits signals in the form of regulatory molecules and redistributes water and various compounds throughout the plant body. All of these molecules appear to move with the transported sugars. The compounds to be redistributed, some of which initially arrive in the mature leaves via the xylem, can be either transferred out of the leaves without modification or metabolized before redistribution. The fluid that flows through the phloem—the water plus all its solutes—is called phloem sap. The chapter also considers the pressure-flow model, phloem loading and unloading, photosynthate distribution, and the transport of signaling molecules.
Seed Dormancy, Germination, and Seedling Establishment
Authors: Taiz Lincoln , Zeiger Eduardo , Møller Ian Max , Murphy Angus
Published: September 2023

This chapter evaluates the processes of seed germination, hypocotyl and coleoptile growth, and seedling establishment. The seed tissues surrounding the embryo form a barrier that protects the embryo from the environment. In addition, the seed tissues provide stored foods that nourish the embryo throughout embryogenesis and early seedling development. Because germination is tightly coupled to the mobilization of these food reserves, the chapter begins with a description of seed structure and composition. It then considers various types of seed dormancy, which in some cases must be overcome before germination can take place. The chapter also discusses the mobilization of stored food reserves in different types of seeds, as well as the role of hormones in coordinating the processes of seedling growth and food mobilization. Finally, it looks at phototropism and gravitropism, the processes by which plants orient themselves to light and gravity.
Vegetative Growth and Senescence
Authors: Taiz Lincoln , Zeiger Eduardo , Møller Ian Max , Murphy Angus
Published: September 2023

This chapter focuses on vegetative growth and plant senescence. During seedling establishment, the basic polarities of the seedling axes are set up and the major tissue types are differentiated. The next developmental stage produces the mature primary plant body. In the shoot, numerous leaves form and specialized cell types differentiate. Throughout the vegetative life of the plant, the process of leaf senescence recycles organic constituents and mineral nutrients from old to newly formed leaves. Eventually, the whole plant undergoes senescence as a result of a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The chapter then looks at the shoot apical meristem, leaf structure and phyllotaxy, epidermal cell types, venation patterns in leaves, shoot branching and architecture, shade avoidance, root system architecture, and leaf abscission.
Soil and Terrestrial Plant Life
Authors: Gurevitch Jessica , Scheiner Samuel M. , Fox Gordon A.
Published: September 2023

This chapter seeks to answer the questions like: What is soil made of, and how is it created? What role do living organisms play in making soils what they are, and what role do soils have in determining the nature of plants and plant communities? Most terrestrial plants are rooted in the soil and depend on it for support, water, and mineral nutrients. The chapter assesses what plants get from the soil, and how soil structure and composition affect plants. It also investigates how soils in different parts of the world differ. The chapter looks down and examines some of the surprisingly complex things going on right under our feet. It looks at the characteristics and properties of soils and shows how those properties affect the availability of water for plants. It considers some of the interactions between plant roots and the organisms in soils.