bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Use of Force in Armed Conflicts Conduct of Hostilities, Law Enforcement, and Self-Defense
Authors: Gaggioli Gloria
Published: December 2018

In modern warfare, military forces are expected to use lethal or potentially lethal force in a variety of contexts ranging from combat operations against the adversary to maintaining law and order or responding to imminent threats to life or limb. In practice, it may not be easy to distinguish between these various situations, which may overlap, as for instance when fighters hide among rioting civilians or demonstrators. Situations of violence may also be volatile and quickly evolve from mere civilian unrest to armed clashes. This factual or operational complexity is accompanied by a legal complexity. Different legal regimes and “paradigms” govern the use of force. From an international law perspective, the use of force by armed forces and law enforcement officials is governed by two different paradigms: the conduct of hostilities paradigm, derived from international humanitarian law (IHL), and the law enforcement paradigm, mainly derived from international human rights law (IHRL). Additionally, armed forces frequently refer to the concept of self-defense at various levels (State, unit, personal) as encompassed in numerous rules of engagement. The legal sources of these concepts and interplay with IHL and HRL remain often unsettled and deserve being clarified. This chapter aims at addressing the legal complexities in identifying governing use of force rules through the analysis of various situations/scenarios that are typical of contemporary military operations.
Hybrid Conflict and Prisoners of War
Authors: Kahn Jeffrey
Published: December 2018

The conflicts in eastern Ukraine and Crimea are not the first time sovereign States have clashed under murky and confused circumstances. The law governing international armed conflict, i.e. the law regulating war between States, has long recognized this fact; the threshold to trigger it is a very low one, and it applies “even if the state of war is not recognized by one of them.” Nevertheless, some perceive Ukraine as a case of “hybrid war” for which the old rules are ill-fitting at best, and no longer capable of regulation or restraint. What happens to international humanitarian law (IHL) when, according to Russian General Valériy Gerasimov, the hybrid nature of recent conflicts produces a “tendency to erase differences between the states of war and peace?” This chapter argues that there are in fact two distinct armed conflicts ongoing in eastern Ukraine. First, there is an ongoing but unacknowledged international armed conflict (IAC) in eastern Ukraine between Ukraine and Russia. Second, there is also fighting sufficiently intense and involving sufficiently organized non-State actors to be considered a non-international armed conflict (NIAC) between the Ukrainian State and rebel forces in Donetsk and Luhansk. Adding another layer of complexity, at certain times and places, it may be that this NIAC might have transformed into an IAC because of Russia’s overall control of these non-State actors.
The Principle of Proportionality in an Era of High Technology
Authors: Beard Jack
Published: December 2018

This chapter explores the application of a key principle of the law of armed conflict—proportionality—in the context of new and emerging weapons systems and methods of warfare. The relentless pursuit of new military technologies by States continues to yield expanding lists of technology-related issues for lawyers to consider in applying the law of armed conflict in complex battlespaces on land, on sea, in air, in space, and in cyberspace. Foremost among these issues is the challenge presented by the principle of proportionality, requiring military forces to refrain from causing excessive damage to civilians and civilian objects when attacking military objectives. New weapons systems in complex battlespaces continue to increasingly force lawyers and decision makers to revisit, re-evaluate, and struggle in new contexts with the “equitable balance between humanitarian requirements and the sad necessities of war.” Some technological developments may, however, also present opportunities for the principle of proportionality to achieve greater relevance to the conduct of armed conflicts and even contribute to improved compliance by States. To illustrate these challenges and opportunities, this chapter examines the application of the principle of proportionality in modern armed conflicts with respect to several critical yet still evolving military technologies: unmanned aerial vehicles, autonomous weapons systems, cyber capabilities, and outer space technologies.
Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems
Authors: Meier Michael W.
Published: December 2018

Over the past decade, there has been a proliferation of remotely piloted aircraft or “drones” being used on the battlefield. Advances in technology are going to continue to drive changes in how future conflicts will be waged. Technological innovation, however, is not without its detractors as there are various groups calling for a moratorium or ban on the development and use of autonomous weapons systems. Some groups have called for a prohibition on the development, production, and use of fully autonomous weapons through an international legally binding instrument, while others view advances in the use of technology on the battlefield as a natural progression that will continue to make weapons systems more discriminate. The unanswered question is, which point of view will be the right one? This chapter approaches this question by addressing the meaning of “autonomy” and “autonomous weapons systems.” In addition, this chapter looks at the U.S. Department of Defense’s vision for the potential employment of autonomous systems, the legal principle applicable to these systems, and the weapons review process.
New Technologies and the Interplay between Certainty and Reasonableness
Authors: Blank Laurie
Published: December 2018

Underlying ongoing and intensive efforts to understand how the law of armed conflict (LOAC) does, could, and should apply to the use of new technologies is an equally comprehensive effort to understand precisely what these new weapons are and how they work. Many new technologies introduce unique questions for human understanding, often driven and exacerbated by the fact that the technology is out of sight or out of reach of human senses, making actual concrete understanding of how it works challenging and elusive. Effective legal analysis and guidance for the use of any weapon rests on an accurate understanding of how that weapon works. This uncertainty and quest for more determinative information about the nature of certain new technologies has the potential for unintended and possibly untoward effects on the very implementation and application of the law itself—in effect, it has the potential to change the law. As in many other legal regimes, critical components of legal analysis and interpretation in LOAC involve reasonableness: that is, whether the actions of a commander were reasonable in the circumstances prevailing at the time. In contrast, the need to understand how a new technology works and what it might do in a given situation, particularly with regard to autonomy, is not an inquiry resting on reasonableness, but rather on the desire for as much certainty as possible. This chapter examines how the development and use of new technologies in weapons may impact the balance between reasonableness and certainty in LOAC, in particular whether a quest for certainty will bleed over into the application and interpretation of the law and, over time, affect the development and understanding of the law itself.
Cyber National Security
Authors: Corn Gary P.
Published: December 2018

When the first host-to-host message was sent across the ARPANET in October 1969, few could have fully anticipated the degree to which the internet, and now the internet of things, would explode across the globe and revolutionize nearly every facet of public and private life. Nor could anyone have predicted the degree to which it would establish an entirely new realm—cyberspace—through which States could engage in traditional, and not-so-traditional, statecraft and conflict. However, it is now clear that States have fully embraced cyber operations as a means to pursue their national interests and gain low-cost asymmetric advantages over their adversaries. Cyberspace has become a new instrument of statecraft and presents novel and challenging questions about the applicability of existing legal orders. Adversaries are leveraging and exploiting the numerous technical, policy, and legal ambiguities surrounding cyberspace operations to conduct a range of intrusive and increasing aggressive activities. While some of these cyber operations have been conducted as part of ongoing armed conflicts, the vast majority have taken place in the so-called gray zone—the far more uncertain space between war and peace. Also known as gray-zone challenges or gray-zone conflicts, these activities are more accurately understood as actions that are coercive and aggressive in nature and rise above normal, everyday peacetime geo-political competition, yet remain below the threshold of war. This chapter will identify and consider some of the more challenging domestic and international legal issues raised by the conduct of cyber operations in the gray zone between peace and war.
Describing the Data and Issue Areas
Authors: Miller Banks , Curry Brett
Published: December 2018

This chapter thoroughly describes the data we use to test our hypotheses. Included in that description is a discussion of the five issue areas we study: immigration, narcotics, terrorism, weapons, and white-collar. The chapter considers the salience and complexity of these substantive areas and characterizes partisan preferences in each as they relate to case filings and sentence length. It also explores how trends in both filings and sentencing have changed over time and provides descriptive evidence about changes in the centralization of priorities across issue areas within the DOJ. Additionally, the chapter contains an overview of the post-service careers of U.S. Attorneys (USAs).
Introduction
Authors: Chatzopoulou Katerina
Published: December 2018

The introductory chapter provides the basic facts on the diachrony of negation in Greek, the renewal of NEG1 and persistence of NEG2 in its core functions. A periodization of the Greek language is given along with details on the methodological approach and text selection. A brief historical overview on the matter of negator selection in Greek is provided starting from the Classical scholars of the 18th to early 20th century until more recent studies within generative grammar. The general reasoning of the argumentation and analysis is condensed regarding the positing of a Nonveridicality syntactic projection, discussed in relation to the notion of markedness, for which pragmatic grounding is posited: the Gricean maxim of quality.
The World’s Wallet?
Authors: Jenkins Rhys
Published: December 2018

China’s economic success has led to the accumulation of the world’s largest foreign exchange reserves. The chapter discusses the role played by Chinese sovereign wealth funds in reinvesting reserves abroad, as well as the growth of foreign lending by the Chinese banks and the expansion of export credit, with particular attention to the activities of the China Development Bank and the China Exim Bank. Chinese aid has been particularly controversial, with widely differing claims regarding the volume of aid that China gives. The chapter discusses the scale of aid and the key features of the way in which Chinese aid is organized. It identifies the main drivers of Chinese financial flows, distinguishing between the different types. It concludes with a discussion of the wider implications of the growth of Chinese finance for development finance and the access of countries which have been marginalized by traditional lenders.
China’s Economic Impacts on Latin America
Authors: Jenkins Rhys
Published: December 2018

The chapter considers three aspects of China’s economic impact on Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). It looks first at the direct and indirect effects of increased Chinese demand for commodities, which benefitted a number of LAC economies in the short and medium term. China’s role in financing and building infrastructure in the region has been less significant than in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The impact on manufacturing has been of much greater concern, with all the main countries in the region facing increased competition in the domestic market, and those that had developed significant exports of manufactures also losing out in third markets. Three case studies of Brazil, Mexico, and Chile illustrate different patterns of economic relations between China and Latin America.
A Comparative Perspective on China’s involvement in Sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America and the Caribbean
Authors: Jenkins Rhys
Published: December 2018

The chapter brings together the findings of the previous two parts of the book to provide a systematic comparison of China’s economic involvement in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC). It compares the history of relations between China and the two regions, and discusses the key actors involved. It shows that Chinese interests in economic engagement in SSA and LAC are broadly similar. However, there are important economic, political, and institutional differences between the two regions which lead to important differences in terms of economic, social, political, and environmental impacts. However, it is also important not to lose sight of the heterogeneity that exists within each region.
The Quest for Universalism
Authors: Leisering Lutz
Published: December 2018

The ubiquitous global call for ‘social security for all’ reflects the world cultural principle of universalism, which is the ultimate background of the global spread of social cash transfers to the poor. This chapter examines the institutional varieties and the pitfalls of universalism. It is argued that universalism can be institutionalized in various ways (including the Basic Income), and that all involve substantial inequalities. The pitfalls of the global universalistic culture are highlighted, questioning widespread egalitarian and monistic notions of universalism. The limitations of the current state of cash transfers can be traced to these pitfalls. Universalism has a price: universalistic world culture is often phrased in vague terms, encouraging decoupling, doubletalk, and particularistic interpretations, as found in policy proposals by international organizations and in actual cash transfer regimes. Universal social citizenship creates new inequalities and spaces of social control, reflecting the double-edged nature of modern social interventionism.
The Legal Regulation of Political Parties in Long-Lived Democracies
Authors: Bolleyer Nicole
Published: December 2018

This chapter first explores what we miss when we focus on party-specific legal regulation (which explicitly names parties or regulates party-specific functions) as the core of political parties’ legal environments. It then shows that, while party-specific regulation has gained prominence in many democracies, parties are nonetheless often subsumed under broader legal categories such as ‘private association’ or ‘company by limited guarantee’ and hence regulated through NPO (non-profit) regulation. Such ‘legal inclusiveness’ can be found across all developmental stages of parties’ life cycles—formation, operation, and dissolution. Covering nineteen long-lived democracies, the chapter includes detailed comparative analyses of party-specific regulation and NPO-regulation applicable to parties in each stage, covering a wide range of aspects, such as how parties can acquire legal personality (formation), the regulation of direct and indirect party resources (operation), as well as the regulation of party bans (dissolution) and the supervision structures underpinning regulation.
The Regulation of Interest Groups and Public Benefit Organizations in Long-Lived Democracies
Authors: Bolleyer Nicole
Published: December 2018

This chapter presents a detailed empirical assessment of cross-country variation in the regulation of interest groups and public benefit organizations in the stages of organizational formation and dissolution across nineteen long-lived democracies. More specifically, it covers constitutional rights, ban regulations, and legal incorporation. On that basis, it assesses differences between non-profit (NPO) regulation and the regulation of public benefit organizations (PBO regulation). The analysis stresses the importance of ‘legal inclusiveness’—that is, NPO regulation applying to public benefit organizations as well as the entanglement between NPO and PBO regulation reflecting the blurred boundary between the types of organizations such legal regulation applies to.
Divine Providence
Authors: Abraham William J.
Published: December 2018

The doctrine of providence works out the connection between the active power of God, divine foresight, and the divine provision for human needs. It speaks of God conserving all things in being, his governance of history, and his actions as they relate to evil. The really tough case is the case where God works through the evil actions of human agents. This instance of providence can be defended by developing a weak theory of providence where God cooperates with the actions of human agents. Much damage is done to the doctrine when we misread the idea of divine power and when God’s power is divorced from God’s kindness.
The Church
Authors: Abraham William J.
Published: December 2018

The church can be identified either as the church universal (all believers through space and time and beyond time) or as a local congregation (and clusters of local congregations). It should be distinguished but not separate from the kingdom of God. There is no agreement on its identity because “church” is an essentially contested concept. All that use the term cannot agree on its content or referent. It is best seen as the gift of the Holy Spirit and its varied descriptions (both adjectives and images) should be seen aspirationally as promises of what the church can be in the wisdom and power of the Spirit.
Conclusions
Authors: Zanou Konstantina
Published: December 2018

These three chapters together attempted to answer an ostensibly simple question: why did these three poets and intellectuals, born on the same little island and within a few years of each other, become the ‘national poets’ of two different countries? What does this tell us about the world in which they lived, about the wider issues of their epoch? By reframing their biographies and by highlighting aspects that have been overlooked, I have tried to show how these three microhistories, viewed together, tell us something about the macrohistorical processes unfolding in the Adriatic at the end of the eighteenth and during the first decades of the nineteenth century. These processes involved the transition from the old Venetian Empire to the new empires which by turns appeared and disappeared from the region (the Napoleonic, the Austrian, the Russian, and the British), as well as to the emerging nationalisms and the resulting nation-states. This transition did not signify only the slow and uneven passage from empire to nation-state. It also marked the radical transformation of the concept of ‘patria’, from a cultural and local community into a political and national entity. It meant the gradual reconceptualization of language that was transformed from an index of social mobility into an attribute of national identity, as well as of poetry, which was now reconfigured as committed and national. What is more important, this transition amounted to the dissolution of the common Adriatic space and to the shattering of its Venetian cultural continuum. It meant a shift in political and cultural geographies—in the case of the Ionians, loyalties shifted from the centre that Venice used to be to the centre that Athens was now becoming, while there was an in-between moment when the statelet of the Ionian Islands was configured as an autonomous space. Overall, these processes led to the total restructuring of space and to the tracing of new boundaries between homelands and languages: in the world that was now emerging, a world of mutually exclusive nationalisms, the Adriatic Sea was slowly being transformed from a bridge into a border....
Serial Verbs
Authors: Aikhenvald Alexandra Y.
Published: December 2018

In many languages of the world, a sequence of several verbs act together as one unit. These sequences—known as serial verbs—form one predicate and contain no overt marker of coordination, subordination, or syntactic dependency of any sort. Serial verbs describe what can be conceptualized as one single event. They are often pronounced as if they were one word, and tend to share subjects and objects. The whole serial verb will have one value for tense, aspect, mood, modality, and evidentiality. Their components cannot be negated or questioned separately without negating or questioning the whole construction. Asymmetrical serial verbs consist of a ‘minor’ verb from a closed class and a major verb from an open class. The minor component tends to grammaticalize giving rise to markers of aspect, directionality, valency increase, prepositions, and coordinators. Symmetrical serial verbs consist of several components each from an open class. They may undergo lexicalization and become non-compositional idioms. Various grammatical categories—including person, tense, aspect, and negation—can be marked on each component, or just once per construction. Serial verb constructions are a powerful means for a detailed portrayal of various facets of one event. They have numerous grammatical and discourse functions. Serial verbs have to be distinguished from verb sequences of other kinds, including constructions with converbs and auxiliaries, and from verbal compounds. The book sets out cross-linguistic parameters of variation for serial verbs based on an inductive approach and discusses their synchronic and diachronic properties, functions, and histories.
Formal properties of serial verbs
Authors: Aikhenvald Alexandra Y.
Published: December 2018

Components of a serial verb can be contiguous or non-contiguous. A serial verb may consist of one grammatical word, or form several grammatical words. Correlations between contiguity and wordhood of serial verbs allow us to establish four types of constructions, each with its own analytical problems. The surface marking of person of the subject on the verb and within the verbal phrase containing a serial verb construction can be concordant—then the subject is marked on every component of a serial verb. Concordant marking can be obligatory or optional. Alternatively, the subject can be marked just once per construction. Objects are always marked just once. Verbal clausal categories—tense, aspect, modality, evidentiality, mood, and reality status—can be marked concordantly, on each component. Or they can receive truncated or optional marking. In some languages with strict transitivity, all components of serial verbs have to have the same transitivity value.
What are serial verbs good for?
Authors: Aikhenvald Alexandra Y.
Published: December 2018

Serial verb constructions can express a multitude of grammatical meanings—including directionality, aspect, comparison, increasing valency, and many more. These meanings may be expressed with affixes in other languages. Using a serial verb may help express definiteness and focus. Detailed portrayal of various facets of one single event is a function of symmetrical serial verbs. Languages with serial verbs—or ‘serializing’ languages—are not exclusively associated with any particular type of language. Serial verbs are a major means of expressing grammatical meanings in languages with few if any bound morphemes. Many of these languages are highly analytic and isolating in their profile. Languages with little verbal morphology tend to rely on serial verbs for expressing the relevant meanings. Prolific use of serial verbs is a corollary of the language having a comparatively small number of verbs with a wide range of meanings.
The rise and fall of serial verbs
Authors: Aikhenvald Alexandra Y.
Published: December 2018

We have identified three scenarios for the emergence of serial verb constructions: clause fusion scenario, whereby serial verbs emerge out of sequences of clauses; the verbal modification scenario, and the concurrent grammaticalization scenario. The development of serial verbs may correlate with the expansion of analytic structures and the loss of inflectional morphology. Serial verbs in some language families are of fair antiquity. In many instances their emergence can be accounted for by language contact. Serial verbs in Creole languages often reflect the substratum influence of the languages which contributed to their formation. In the course of language history, serial verbs can lose their status as such. Minor components in asymmetrical serial verb constructions become grammatical markers—auxiliaries, or bound morphemes. Symmetrical serial verbs become lexicalized units no longer separable. Serial verbs tend to be acquired by children at an early age.
The essence of serial verbs
Authors: Aikhenvald Alexandra Y.
Published: December 2018

This chapter provides an integrated summary of the properties of serial verbs discussed throughout the book, and their parameters of variation. The definition of serial verbs with their characteristic properties is followed by the principles of argument sharing within serial verbs. In terms of their composition, serial verbs divide into symmetrical and asymmetrical types. There can be nesting within serial verb constructions. The two broad kinds of constructions are contrasted in terms of their semantics, order of components, and propensities towards grammaticalization or lexicalization. Contiguity and wordhood are further typological parameters of variation within serial verbs. Grammatical categories such as person of the subject, aspect, tense, modality, evidentiality, or mood, can be marked concordantly on each component, or just once per construction. Serialization can be productive or limited. It is essential to distinguish serial verbs from multi-verb sequences of other kinds. Origins and development of serial verbs are briefly summarized.
A fieldworker’s guide
Authors: Aikhenvald Alexandra Y.
Published: December 2018

These guidelines are intended for linguists working on a comprehensive grammar of a language. They provide orientation to the questions to be addressed in order to establish a complete picture of serial verb constructions. Ideally, the analysis of serial verb constructions ought to deal with as many as possible of the topics listed below. These points will be useful for linguists working on previously undescribed or insufficiently documented languages, and for those who work on better-known languages, concentrating on subtle details of use which have not been accounted for before. This is by no means a questionnaire. It is a checklist of features which need to be described, analysed, and illustrated, for an indepth view of serial verbs in a given language. Relevant sections of this book are indicated in parentheses....
Lippi sings the blues
Authors: Karlin Daniel
Published: December 2018

In Robert Browning’s poem ‘Fra Lippo Lippi’, the painter is caught playing truant in the red-light district of Renaissance Florence. Lippi, a child of the streets who has attracted the patronage of the Catholic Church and the ruler of Florence, Cosimo de’ Medici, plays throughout his monologue with songs derived from a Tuscan folk-song known as the stornello. As he tells the story of his life to the officer of the watch who has arrested him, he quotes, or makes up, half a dozen of his own stornelli. He appropriates the form for his own purpose—but the stornelli say more about him than he intends. Browning’s appropriation of the stornello overrides Lippi’s; it becomes one of the indices of Lippi’s failure as an artist, one he attributes to his enforced dependency on the Church and the ruling class, but whose roots go deeper than he is willing to acknowledge.
The voice of an ancient spring
Authors: Karlin Daniel
Published: December 2018

In Virginia Woolf’s Mrs. Dalloway, an old beggar woman is heard singing outside Regent’s Park underground station. The song itself cannot be fixed: it is given to us, first, as a string of meaningless syllables, then ‘translated’ by the narrator of the book into an ancient, primordial song of sexual love, and then heard in the form of a modern German lied—a melancholy fin-de-siècle art-song which is inconceivable as a song sung by a beggar on a London street in 1925. The solid foundation of realism dissolves in Woolf’s playful handling, but she has good reasons for refusing to pin the song down to a single determinate form. The characters who see and hear the old woman—Peter Walsh, Rezia and Septimus Smith—do not really ‘see’ her for what she is, and do not understand that she is not begging, but offering; and they pass her by.
Voulez ouyr les cris de Paris?
Authors: Karlin Daniel
Published: December 2018

In an episode of La Prisonnière, the sixth volume of Marcel Proust’s À la recherche du temps perdu, the narrator listens from his bedroom to the cris de Paris, which like the ‘Cries of London’ had long been enshrined in music and visual art. The pleasure the narrator takes in associating the cries he hears with Gregorian plainchant, or the music of Debussy and Mussorgsky, suggests his interest is purely aesthetic. But this aesthetic surface is a mask; in the street-vendors’ cries he hears a different song, the song of the Sirens, tempting his lover Albertine into the streets, ‘translating’ foodstuffs and trades into offers of sexual pleasure, and in particular promising to satisfy her desire for other women. Albertine’s lesbianism is the secret each withholds from the other—she refusing to admit what he refuses to tell her he already knows—and this secret is cried in the street.
The poet and the knife-grinder
Authors: Karlin Daniel
Published: December 2018

Walt Whitman’s short poem ‘Sparkles from the Wheel’ describes an encounter on a Manhattan street with a knife-grinder who ‘works at his wheel sharpening a great knife’: the ‘sparkles from the wheel’ form the knife-grinder’s song. The poem, with its narrator observing a group who are watching the knife-grinder’s magical performance, circles back to Wordsworth’s ‘Power of Music’, with which I began. But the way the narrator places himself in the scene, the description of the old man at work, and the implied politics of the urban landscape are all radically different. In the knife-grinder’s long literary and visual history, there are very few images that ennoble his ‘art’, and some that carry the darkest intimations of violence. Whitman deliberately refrains from investing the knife-grinder with attributes ‘above his station’. What is transcendent is not the knife-grinder himself, but his utterance—matched by that of the poet.
Violence and Crimes Beyond the Battlefields
Authors: Böhler Jochen
Published: December 2018

Chapter 4 reminds the reader that the described conflicts were fought out on territories which had been already heavily affected by the casualties and destructions of the Great War. Postwar Central Europe witnessed epidemics, famine, and a massive refugee crisis. Between 1918 and 1921, Poland’s population was fighting for mere survival. In the meantime, it was menaced by the very men who were meant to protect it: its soldiers. The Polish Army was built from scratch. Desertion, insubordination, and rebellion of whole units was the order of the day. Bands of marauding soldiers harassed the civil population, killing hundreds of Jews. While the border conflicts were state policy put into practice, this wave of paramilitary violence beyond the battlefields was a mixture of cynical pragmatism (shortage of supply), opportunity (possession of arms), and mentality (a sense of superiority of “elite” units towards “ethnic aliens” in general, and Jews in particular).
Epilogue
Authors: Böhler Jochen
Published: December 2018

At the outset of this book, I asked the question “Who is a Pole?,” and the reader might have noticed with growing irritation that throughout its pages I have not really answered it. Frankly, I think that from an academic perspective, this is impossible to do. In my personal view, a Pole is somebody who identifies as a Pole, usually has been born in Poland or brought up by people who were, and has developed a strong feeling towards this country. It does not necessarily have to be love, but for sure it is neither hate nor indifference, it is a feeling which makes one care for the country’s history and fate. I am convinced that nobody else can tell this person that she or he is not a Pole, producing “evidence” such as following the “wrong” religion, political conviction, worldview, or lifestyle, or featuring the “wrong mixture” of blood and genes. I regard such lines of argument as an absurd form of modern paganism....
Revisiting the anasynthetic spiral
Authors: Haspelmath Martin
Published: December 2018

Grammaticalization is nowadays often seen primarily as a kind of semantic-pragmatic change, but in the 19th century it was more typically seen in a holistic typological perspective: the idea was that synthetic languages develop from analytic languages, and that they may become analytic again. This kind of development is indeed occasionally observed in entire languages, as in the Romance languages and in Later Egyptian, but it is quite unclear whether such holistic changes are at all common. Similarly, there seems to be no good evidence that changes from agglutinative patterns to isolating patterns go through an intermediate flective or fusional stage. By contrast, there is abundant evidence for the old observation that older tightly bound constructions often face competition from new constructions based on content items, which may eventually replace the older patterns (I call this kind of process ‘anasynthesis’). Such anasynthetic changes are driven by inflationary processes that can be observed elsewhere in language and culture, not by therapeutic motivations.
Grammaticalization in Japanese and Korean
Authors: Narrog Heiko , Rhee Seongha , Whitman John
Published: December 2018

In this chapter, we try to present typical processes of grammaticalization in Japanese and Korean, and investigate which processes may particularly contribute to the discussion of theoretical aspects of grammaticalization. The processes introduced in some detail are the grammaticalization of converbs, of deverbal postpositions, and of nouns marking categories in the verb phrase as typical processes. We then discuss the morphological properties of grammaticalization in the two languages, and the high frequency of grammaticalization into interpersonal domains. Both features support extant ideas about grammaticalization rather than contradicting them. In contrast, a third point—that grammaticalizations may enter the language through writing rather than conversation—may be a challenge for ideas about grammaticalization that seek the source of grammaticalizations solely in speaker–hearer interaction.
Grammaticalization processes in the languages of South Asia
Authors: Coupe Alexander R.
Published: December 2018

This chapter describes grammaticalization patterns in a broad selection of languages of South Asia, a multilingual region of the world known to constitute a linguistic area in which unrelated languages demonstrate evidence of linguistic convergence. In addition to presenting representative examples of grammaticalization, the chapter specifically considers whether widely recurring patterns in unrelated languages could be induced by language contact. The investigation finds robust evidence for the transfer of seemingly identical cognitive schemas across the genetic boundaries of languages in contact. These target morphemes or constructions with identical meanings in unrelated languages, and they produce grammaticalization outcomes that are not attested in related languages located outside South Asia. Such replicated patterns must cater to a multilingual community’s communicative needs, while at the same time reducing the cognitive burden imposed by multilingualism in a linguistic area.
Grammaticalization in isolating languages and the notion of complexity
Authors: Ansaldo Umberto , Bisang Walter , Szeto Pui Yiu
Published: December 2018

This chapter consists of four related arguments. We first review the claims about the nature of grammaticalization in isolating languages, specifically those of East and Mainland Southeast Asia (EMSEA); based on this, we present a view that suggests that grammaticalization is indeed a type-specific, or areal, phenomenon. Following on that, we propose that morphological elaboration is likewise type- or area-specific; and to conclude we discuss the significance of this in terms of language evolution. Our arguments lead us to posit that elaboration of morphological structure only happens in a certain type of languages, and cannot be taken as an overall diagnostic of age across the world?s languages. In other words, ‘mature’ linguistic phenomena are not necessarily morphologically complex, nor are all morphologically free languages ‘young’.
Grammaticalization and typology in Australian Aboriginal languages
Authors: Mushin Ilana
Published: December 2018

While grammatical change has been a key area of interest for Australian historical linguistics, only a few studies have sought to explain the development of grammar in terms of processes of grammaticalization. This chapter explores the key reasons for the relative absence of grammaticalization studies in the Australianist tradition. It then shows how the development of a particular areal feature—second-position clitic constructions—may be explained in term of both grammaticalization and constructionalization. The chapter also discusses the development of dual-pronoun systems in Australian languages, and shows that it can be reasonably assumed that erstwhile bound pronouns have developed into free pronouns, in contrast to previous research claiming the emergence of bound pronouns from free pronouns.
Shaping typology through grammaticalization: North America
Authors: Mithun Marianne
Published: December 2018

North America shows great genealogical diversity, yet many of the languages share a fundamental typological characteristic: elaborate morphology. Certain kinds of elaboration show areal distributions, suggesting contact effects. Many bound morphemes show the kinds of meanings expected of grammatical affixes, such as the Wintu perfective suffix -suk. But others show surprisingly concrete meanings, like the Kutenai suffix ‑quwaʔt ‘fur’. A well-known effect of grammaticalization is the loss of concrete lexical content, with abstraction and generalization over time. But other factors can come into play as well. One is the sequencing of grammaticalization processes, whether semantic/pragmatic changes precede univerbation or follow. Another is the moment at which contact enters in. Here pathways of development exemplifying these variables are traced, with first grammaticalization via auxiliation in Northern California, and second grammaticalization via compounding in the Northwest and elsewhere. Both can be seen to have spread in contact-induced grammaticalization.
Areal diffusion and the limits of grammaticalization
Authors: Aikhenvald Alexandra Y.
Published: December 2018

Intensive contact brings about diffusion of grammatical categories. Grammaticalization of lexical items is one of the mechanisms at play as languages converge and new categories develop. In a situation of intensive contact-induced change, the forms to be grammaticalized, and semantic changes involved, may turn out to be somewhat unexpected, forcing us to reconsider potential constraints on grammaticalization. We focus on a number of instances of hitherto undescribed grammaticalization paths in the languages of the Vaupés River Basin linguistic area in northwest Amazonia (especially Tariana, the only extant Arawak language), and then discuss further examples of typologically unusual instances of grammaticalization in Amazonian languages.
Democracy without the People
Authors: Ramos Rui
Published: December 2018

In Portugal, as in Spain, traditions of mixed monarchy made it possible to conceive of ‘democracy’ as an element in the traditional constitution. The revolution of 1820, which instituted a broadly based representative system, reflected confidence in a people who had rallied against Napoleonic invasion, and wide agreement that the king’s absence in Brazil constituted a national crisis. But consensus proved hard to achieve: supporters of liberal solutions divided among themselves; an absolutist coup set the scene for civil war. Ultimately victorious liberals were prompted by their experiences to develop a notably thoroughgoing, top-down version of liberalism. Though distinctions between ‘conservative’ and ‘progressive’ liberals re-emerged, and progressives were sometimes labelled or claimed the name of democrats, in fact, a moderate form of liberalism generally held sway. As embodied in the so-called Regeneration regime, this came to present itself as leading the country towards democracy, but leadership remained the dominant theme.
Exile, Secret Societies, and the Emergence of an International Democratic Culture
Authors: Peyrou Florencia , Simal Juan Luis
Published: December 2018

Political activism acquired an international dimension in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, as ideologically committed individuals followed developments elsewhere, made choices in the light of experience elsewhere, and forged fraternal links with the like-minded in other states. There were many reasons for activists to travel, political and otherwise; political changes that sent waves of exiles into the wider world were one contributing source. In the post-Napoleonic era, restrictions on political activity encouraged the establishment of secret societies to support national or international networks; fearful officials probably exaggerated their real potential to leverage change, though they did play some role in revolutions of the 1820s, and later. From the 1830s, the consolidation of some liberal regimes increased space for open forms of political activity. As a self-consciously ‘democratic’ challenge to narrower forms of liberalism took shape, an international democratic culture began to form, supporting the construction of a canon of democratic gurus and heroes.
Gender and emotions in the visual and intellectual imagination
Authors: Kounine Laura
Published: December 2018

This chapter examines representations of the witch in the visual and intellectual imagination. Early sixteenth-century images show witches as female and eroticized. Yet by the seventeenth century, these ‘typical’ representations break down, and visual depictions include large groups of men and women. As the gendered profile changes, so do the emotions depicted: from female lust to collective debauchery, from envy to fear. We witness the same ambiguity in depictions of the witch in early modern intellectual thought. Focusing on Nicolas Remy’s Daemonolatria (1595), this chapter shows that intellectual thought could conceptualize both male and female witches, which challenges the idea that witches were women, because of their heightened emotions and their increased vulnerability to the Devil’s temptations. Instead, witchcraft could be understood through the lens of a violent Devil, who, driven by jealousy and anger, subjugated both men and women through force.
Quaternionic Geometry in Dimension 8
Authors: Conti Diego , Madsen Thomas Bruun , Salamon Simon
Published: December 2018

This chapter describes the 8-dimensional Wolf spaces as cohomogeneity one SU(3)-manifolds, and discover perturbations of the quaternion-kähler metric on the simply connected 8-manifold G2/SO(4) that carry a closed fundamental 4-form but are not Einstein.
Boundary Value Problems in Dimensions 7, 4 and 3 Related to Exceptional Holonomy
Authors: Donaldson Simon
Published: December 2018

The variational point of view on exceptional structures in dimensions 6, 7 and 8 is one of Nigel Hitchin’s seminal contributions. One feature of this point of view is that it motivates the study of boundary value problems, for structures with prescribed data on a boundary. This chapter considers the case of 7 dimensions and G2 structures. It briefly reviews a general framework and then goes on to examine in more detail symmetry reductions to dimensions 4 and 3. In the latter case, the chapter presents an interesting variational problem related to the real Monge–Ampère equation and describes a generalization of this.
Mirror Symmetry with Branes by Equivariant Verlinde Formulas
Authors: Hausel Tamás , Mellit Anton , Pei Du
Published: December 2018

This chapter finds an agreement of equivariant indices of semi-classical homomorphisms between pairwise mirror branes in the GL2 Higgs moduli space on a Riemann surface. On one side of the agreement, components of the Lagrangian brane of U(1,1) Higgs bundles, whose mirror was proposed by Hitchin to be certain even exterior powers of the hyperholomorphic Dirac bundle on the SL2 Higgs moduli space, are present. The agreement arises from a mysterious functional equation. This gives strong computational evidence for Hitchin’s proposal.
Vertex Algebras and 4-Manifold Invariants
Authors: Dedushenko Mykola , Gukov Sergei , Putrov Pavel
Published: December 2018

This chapter proposes a way of computing 4-manifold invariants, old and new, as chiral correlation functions in half-twisted 2d N=(0,2) theories that arise from compactification of fivebranes. Such a formulation gives a new interpretation of some known statements about Seiberg–Witten invariants, such as the basic class condition, and gives a prediction for structural properties of the multi-monopole invariants and their non-abelian generalizations.
Irreducibility of Moduli of Semi-Stable Chains and Applications to U(p, q)-Higgs Bundles
Authors: Bradlow Steven , García-Prada Oscar , Gothen Peter , Heinloth Jochen
Published: December 2018

This chapter gives necessary and sufficient conditions for moduli spaces of semi-stable chains on a curve to be irreducible and non-empty. This gives information on the irreducible components of the nilpotent cone of GLn-Higgs bundles and of moduli of systems of Hodge bundles on curves. As it does not impose coprimality restrictions, it can apply this to prove connectedness for moduli spaces of U(p, q)-Higgs bundles.
Involutions of Rank 2 Higgs Bundle Moduli Spaces
Authors: García-Prada Oscar , Ramanan S.
Published: December 2018

This chapter considers the moduli space of rank 2 Higgs bundles with fixed determinant over a smooth projective curve X of genus 2 over ℂ, and studies involutions defined by tensoring the vector bundle with an element α of order 2 in the Jacobian of the curve, combined with multiplication of the Higgs field by ±1. It describes the fixed points of these involutions in terms of the Prym variety of the covering of X defined by α, and gives an interpretation in terms of the moduli space of representations of the fundamental group.
Holonomic Poisson Manifolds and Deformations of Elliptic Algebras
Authors: Pym Brent , Schedler Travis
Published: December 2018

This chapter introduces a natural non-degeneracy condition for Poisson structures, called holonomicity, which is closely related to the notion of a log symplectic form. Holonomic Poisson manifolds are privileged by the fact that their deformation spaces are as finite-dimensional as one could ever hope: the corresponding derived deformation complex is a perverse sheaf. The chapter develops some basic structural features of these manifolds, highlighting the role played by the divergence of Hamiltonian vector fields. As an application, it establishes the deformation invariance of certain families of Poisson manifolds defined by Feigin and Odesskii, along with the ‘elliptic algebras’ that quantize them.