bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Rainforest Boundaries and the Problem of Mixed Forests
Authors: Adam Paul
Published: November 2023

The total area of rainforest in Australia is small, and is composed of numerous discrete stands. Within the broad geographical regions which contain rainforest there appear to be many sites with climatic and soil conditions appropriate for rainforest growth but which support other natural communities.
The Rainforest Fauna
Authors: Adam Paul
Published: November 2023

The vertebrate fauna provides a number of the symbols by which Australia is known internationally-kangaroos, koalas, emus, and budgerigars; these are all creatures of either the arid zone or sclerophyll communities. What of the fauna of rainforests, how distinctively Australian is it, and how is it related to the fauna outside the rainforest? The extent of knowledge of the fauna varies considerably between taxonomic groups, with vertebrates being better studied than most invertebrates. For a number of major groups, it is known that highest species richness occurs in regions where rainforest is well represented (particularly north-east Queensland and the Border Ranges region). This pattern is shown by, for example, marsupials, birds, frogs (Pianka and Schall 1981), mygalomorph spiders, land snails, and butterflies (Main 1981; Bishop 1981; Kitching 1981). But, by contrast, lizards, for example, show greatest diversity in the arid zone (Pianka and Schall 1981).
The Human Influence
Authors: Adam Paul
Published: November 2023

Australian rainforests and their biota reflect the consequences of millions of years of selection by, and adaptation to, environmental change. In Chapter 6, it was shown that the trend towards aridity in the centre of the continent which commenced in the Miocene was responsible for a contraction of rainforest towards the east coast and its fragmentation into numerous small areas with especially favourable climatic and/or edaphic conditions. From some time in the late Pleistocene, human influence was added to the list of significant impacts on rainforest.
Diversity of cells in tumours
Authors: Woodruff Michael
Published: November 2023

The appropriate generic term for the pathological entities with which this book is concerned is neoplasm; the primary subdivision of neoplasms is into those classed as benign and those classed as malignant. What constitutes a neoplasm? Various definitions have been proposed; none is entirely satisfactory. Invasive growth, capacity to metastasize, and damage to the host that is independent of the site of the lesion, often suffice to characterize a neoplasm as malignant; but it is difficult to devise criteria by which to distinguish between benign neoplasms and non-neoplastic hyperplasia. Lesions regarded as benign neoplasms are typically localized and often solitary, while conditions such as fibroadenosis of the breast and nodular goitre, which are not regarded as neoplastic, are usually diffuse, but there are many exceptions. Thus neuro-fibromas of the skin and fibromyomas of the uterus are often multiple, and fibroadenomas of the breast are multiple occasionally; on the other hand, fibroadenosis of the breast may be localized, and nodular goitre sometimes takes the form of a solitary nodule. Another distinction that is sometimes drawn is that non-neoplastic hyperplasia is often attributable to endocrine stimulation whereas little or nothing is known about the aetiology of benign neoplasms except when, as in the case of the common wart, a virus is clearly involved. But ignorance of aetiology seems a poor basis on which to construct a classification.
The vanishing tropical rain forest as an environment for bryophytes and lichens
Authors: Gradstein S Rob
Published: November 2023

Tropical forests make up about half of the world ‘s closed forests, yet are rapidly being destroyed. By the end of the 1970s, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAQ) of the United Nations estimated that about 46 per cent of the tropical forests were already gone and the remainder were disappearing at a rate of over 2 per cent per year, either by clear-cutting or by shifting cultivation (Raven 1988). The conclusion was that all tropical rain forests would be destroyed by the middle of the next century, while the seasonal forests, occurring in regions with more pronounced fluctuations in rainfall and usually more suitable for human inhabitation, would already have disappeared long before.
Ecophysiological effects of acid rain on bryophytes and lichens
Authors: Farmer, Andrew m.
Published: November 2023

The term ‘acid rain ‘ encompasses a range of different pollutants. In its widest sense it includes wet acidic deposition, gaseous acidic and oxidant pollutants, and even ammonia and its derivatives. All of these pollutants can cause detrimental effects to lichens and bryophytes. We shall mostly discuss wet-deposited pollutants, which occur in rain, snow, and mist, the latter being termed ‘occult ‘ deposition. The effects of SO2 on bryophytes and lichens are well reviewed elsewhere (see Hawksworth and Rose 1976; Richardson and Nieboer 1983; Richardson 1988; Fields 1988; Winner 1988) and so only a brief overview is given here. Some attention will also be given to photochemical oxidant pollutants and nitrogen oxides (NOx), which have been the subject of recent studies with cryptogams, but have not been reviewed elsewhere. The effects of NH, on bryophytes and lichens, which may be of increasing importance in Western Europe are considered in Chapters 6 and 10.
The evolutionary capacity of bryophytes and lichens
Authors: shaw A Jonathan
Published: November 2023

14.1 Introduction

Most information about evolution in plants is derived from studies of flowering plants. The angiosperms are hardly typical of plants in general, however, having undergone an explosive adaptive radiation within the last 60-100 million years. It is the purpose of this chapter to summarize data on evolutionary change in natural populations of lichens and bryophytes. Although the bryophytes and lichens are often discussed together, they are not, of course, phylogenetically related.

Lichens are symbiotic organisms consisting of a fungus (the mycobiont, generally an ascomycete) and an alga (the phycobiont orphotobiont, generally Chlorophyta). Weber (1977) discussed the lichen symbiosis in terms of the gene-for-gene hypothesis developed from studies of plant-hostlfungal¬ pathogen genetic interactions. Although validity of this theory has been questioned (Barrett 1983), concepts of lichen evolution need to consider models of coevolution. A most pressing issue in lichen evolutionary biology is how closely coevolved the fungal and algal symbionts are. Genetic interactions between the mycobionts and phycobionts of lichens may be analogous to epistatic interactions between non-allelic genes in other organisms. That is, the fitness value of any gene in the mycobiont may depend upon its own genetic background as well as the genetic background provided by the phycobiont. The degree to which these epistatic interactions result in close genetic coadaptation between the fungus and alga depends in part upon the degree of taxonomic specificity between symbionts (Howe 1984).
Conditional Interactions In Ant-Plant-Herbivore Mutualisms
Authors: Cushman J Hall , Addicott John F
Published: November 2023

Ecologists traditionally classify species interactions into categories such as competition, predation, parasitism, and mutualism. While this typological approach has obvious benefits, it ignores the variation that characterizes species associations in nature, and creates significant problems for understanding their ecology and evolution (Thompson 1988). Species interact within a biotic and abiotic matrix that exhibits complex patterns of spatial and temporal heterogeneity, leading to variation in the occurrence, strength, and outcome of species interactions.
Variation In The Attractiveness Of Lycaenid Butterfly Larvae To Ants
Authors: Pierce N E , Nash D R , Baylis M , Carper E R
Published: November 2023

Although this volume is primarily concerned with ant-plant interactions, the association between Iycaenid butterflies and ants brings an extra dimension to bear on such relationships by introducing an additional trophic level, or, to be slightly more accurate, an additional organism that links two levels. As has been argued by May (1973), the length of a food web can be related to its stability. Communities with many species are likely to be less stable following perturbation than those with fewer species, and variations are amplified as they propagate through the system when the food web is more complex (Pimm 1982). Discussions of stability and complexity have largely focused on food webs whose third-level trophic interactions are essentially antagonistic: for example, the role of predation and parasitism in structuring herbivorous insect communities has been considered at length (Price et al. 1980; Strong et al. 1984). Somewhat less attention has been paid to how mutualisms may influence community structure and diversity (Addicott 1986; Cushman and Addicott, Chapter 8, this volume).
Bracken And Ants: Why Is There No Mutualism?
Authors: Rashbrook V K , Compton S G , Lawton J H
Published: November 2023

One of the advantages of studying a plant as cosmopolitan and ubiquitous as bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn), is that ecological comparisons can be made between different areas of its world-wide range (Lawton 1982, 1984; Compton et al. 1989). Bracken was initially assumed to be relatively immune to herbivory and thought to possess a scant arthropod fauna (Darwin 1877). However, although the plant does contain an array of secondary plant compounds (Lawton 1976; Cooper-Driver et al. 1977), it is by no means under-exploited by insect herbivores in comparison with other common plant species, and supports a diverse arthropod fauna in different parts of its range. Areas surveyed so far include continental Europe (Simmonds 1967), the UK (Lawton 1976, 1982), Papua New Guinea (Kirk 1977, 1982), south-west USA (Lawton 1982), Hawaii (Lawton 1984), Australia (E. Shuter and M. Westaby, unpublished work), New Zealand (Winterbourne 1987), and South Africa (Compton et al. 1989).
Phylogenetic Analysis Of Pseudomyrmecine Ants Associated With Domatia-Bearing Plants
Authors: Ward Philip S
Published: November 2023

The close relationship between domatia-bearing plants and certain ants has long held the attention of naturalists and raised questions about the nature and origin of such interactions (Belt 1874; Muller 1876; Ule 1906; Spruce 1908; Bequaert 1922; Wheeler 1942; recent reviews in Benson 1985; Huxley 1986; Jolivet 1986 ). Tropical arboreal ants of the subfamily Pseudomyrmecinae are especially prone to involvement in intimate associations with plants, and their behaviour in defence of the plant is often quite apparent, at least to sting-vulnerable observers. Indeed, studies on pseudomyrmecines inhabiting swollen-thorn acacias in Central America and Barteria (Passifloraceae) in Africa have provided some of the best evidence of the mutualistic nature of such ant-plant interactions (Janzen 1966, 1972).
Ants, Plants, And Beetles; A Triangular Relationship
Authors: Jolivet Pierre
Published: November 2023

Although many invertebrates are successfully removed or deterred by the ants of ant-plants, there are also many phytophagous insects which have evolved ways of appeasing or repelling the ants (Jolivet 1987a). Different solutions are used by beetles and also by a range of other arthropods. The biocoenoses of myrmecophytic plants are usually less diverse and abundant than those of non-myrmecophytic congeners, but consist of more specialized insects (Table 26. I). The most extraordinary case of adaptation to an anttree is that of the beetle Coelomera (Galerucinae) to Cecropia in tropical America, and there are other cases where beetles mimic ant species. These beetles feed with impunity on ant eggs and on plant food bodies.
The Greasy Pole Syndrome
Authors: Harley Ray
Published: November 2023

While there are many examples of plant adaptations which attract ants to the mutual benefit of both plant and ant, there are very few known examples of mechanisms which actively deter them. Ants, while readily attracted to nectar, are unreliable pollinators and act as nectar thieves. Most of the cited examples of ant deterrence involve systems within the flower, either due to unpalatable nectar (van der Pijl 1955, Janzen 1977) or chemical or morphological modification of the floral tissues themselves (Guerrant and Fiedler 1981).
Ecology and evolution of cannibalism
Authors: Elgar Mark A , Crespi Bernard J
Published: November 2023

Traditionally, cannibalism has been regarded as abnormal behaviour and of little evolutionary or ecological interest. Sociological reasons may partly explain why cannibalism has been neglected in the biological literature, but it is also likely that the relatively rare frequency of cannibalism, compared with other behaviours, is an important contributing factor. Most reports of cannibalism are either anecdotal observations or records of occasional instances among captive individuals. Consequently, the evolution of cannibalism has received relatively little theoretical attention compared with other fields of evolutionary biology.
Cannibalism in gastropods
Authors: Baur Bruno
Published: November 2023

Gastropods (snails and slugs) constitute by far the largest and most diverse class of Mollusca, with an estimated 40 000 marine, 3000 freshwater and 24 000 terrestrial species (Solem 1974). They are characterized by a distinct head with eyes and tentacles, and a usually coiled shell. Slugs are snails in which the shell is lost or reduced to a remnant.
Empirical Studies Of Cannibalism In Fish
Authors: FitzGerald Gerard J , Whoriskey Fredrick G
Published: November 2023

Cannibalism can be classified as heterocannibalism, the killing and consumption of unrelated conspecifics, and filial cannibalism, the eating of kin. How distantlyrelated individuals must be, in order to be considered as non-kin by a fish is not known. However adult guppies prefer to eat their neighbour’s offspring rather than their own (Loekleet al.1982). Cannibalism is widespread and can have profound consequences on an individual’s inclusive fitness. Behavioural ecologists are concerned with quantifying cannibalism in natural populations and identifying what selective advantage, if any, the behaviour confers to the cannibal. The existing theoretical framework explaining cannibalism in mammals can be attributed to Hrdy (1979) and for fishes to Dominey and Blumer (I 984). Suggested benefits to cannibals include: (1) nutrition; conspecifics are a high quality food, (2) reduced resource competition; the number of potential competitors for food and space are reduced, (3) parental manipulation; the cannibal terminates parental care in order to improve its own survivorship or those of its other offspring, and (4) sexual selection; reduced competition for mates. Glasset al.(1985) provide an explanation for the adaptive significance of infanticide (relevant to cannibalism in fishes) which emphasizes a cost-benefit approach. They used game theory to reject a ’maladaptive’ explanation for infanticide. Infanticide confers a relative advantage to the perpetrator when other population members are non-infanticidal. For additional discussion of the theoretical aspects of cannibalism, see Sargent (this volume).
Cannibalism in birds
Authors: Stanback Mark T , Koenig Walter D
Published: November 2023

Cannibalism in birds has generally been relegated to the realm of the anecdote. Any fitness benefits of cannibalism were often thought to accrue at the species level via population regulation (e.g. Wynne-Edwards 1962). This limited view of the significance of intraspecific killing and cannibalism changed following the publication of Hamilton’s (1964) theory of kin selection. Inclusive fitness might be increased not only by killing and eating conspecifics, but even, in particular circumstances, by being eaten by a closely related conspecific (e.g. Alexander 1974; O’Connor 1978).
Why dunnocks?
Authors: Davies N B , Quinn David
Published: November 2023

‘Unobtrusive, quiet and retiring, without being shy, humble and homely in its deportment and habits, sober and unpretending in its dress, while still neat and graceful, the dunnock exhibits a pattern which many of a higher grade might imitate, with advantage to themselves and benefit to others through an improved example’. With these carefully chosen words, the Reverend F.O. Morris (1856) encouraged his parishioners to emulate the humble life of the dunnock, or hedge sparrow Prunella modularis.A gentle stroll around an English garden in spring might well lead the casual observer to endorse this view. The dunnock is indeed unobtrusive, as it shuffles about under the bushes searching for tiny insects and seeds, and its plumage does not, at first, catch the eye, some identification guides concluding with apparent exasperation that it ‘lacks any conspicuous features’. But a closer look will reveal that the sober and unpretending brown dress is subtly and beautifully streaked with darker markings on the back and flanks, with the head and neck a delicate shade of grey. A bird watcher who pauses for a while will hear the male’s warbling song and a search in the hedgerow may reveal a moss-lined nest with a clutch of glossy, turquoise-blue eggs, or a brood of young with the adults hard at work nearby, collecting billfuls of prey.
Mate guarding and mating: sexual conflict
Authors: Davies N B , Quinn David
Published: November 2023

At the end of Chapter 4, we were left with two scenarios as mating combinations formed at the start of the breeding season. One was of some males coming to an amicable agreement to share the defence of a territory with a subordinate beta male. The other was of females playing no active part in determining the mating system and apparently ignoring males altogether when they set up their breeding territories in relation to food distribution and nest sites.
How males allocate effort between broods in polygyny and polygynandry
Authors: Davies N B , Quinn David
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 9 I considered the question of which mating system best maximised an individual’s reproductive success and concluded that for males it was best to breed with more than one female. This chapter, like the previous one, attempts to go back a step and ask, given the choice of mating system how should a male best allocate his mating and parental effort? It is the outcome of these choices which determines the reproductive payoffs and so sets the stage for the behavioural conflicts described earlier in the book.
Introduction
Authors: Kirkwood James K , Stathatos Katherine
Published: November 2023

Captive propagation is an important component of primate conservation (Mittermeier 1982; Foose et al. 1987). Although keeping primates for display in zoos, for research, and as pets has a long history, it is only relatively recently that species have been bred in captivity on a large scale. Progress in captive primate husbandry, driven by the need for healthy animals for research and, more recently, by the recognition of the importance of captive breeding as part of a conservation strategy, has been remarkably rapid. It is surprising, now that marmosets are bred in large numbers in research and zoo colonies all over the world, that just 25 years ago Lee S. Crandall (1964) observed in his book on the management of wild mammals in captivity that: ‘General and usually unhappy experience has convinced most zoo authorities that marmosets are too delicate to survive under ordinary conditions.’
Ruffed lemur
Authors: Kirkwood James K , Stathatos Katherine
Published: November 2023

There are two subspecies Varecia variegata variegata, the black and white ruffed lemur and V. v. rubra, the red ruffed lemur. The former occurs in eastern madagascar and the latter in a restricted area in the north-east of the island (Jolly 1986). The species is classified as endangered International Union for the Conservation of Nature, (IUCN 1990). Numbers in the wild have declined rapidly Tattersall 1982).
Senegal or lesser bush-baby
Authors: Kirkwood James K , Stathatos Katherine
Published: November 2023

There are nine subspecies, distributed throughout much of Subsaharan Africa, excluding the ZaЇre river basin and the southern tip of the continent (Doyle 1974; Wolfheim 1983). Lesser bush-babies occur mainly in savanna and woodland habitats, and are common in some areas (Wolfheim 1983). The species was classified as not threatened (Lee et al. 1988).
Bosman’s potto
Authors: Kirkwood James K , Stathatos Katherine
Published: November 2023

Five subspecies are recognized (Wolfheim 1983). It is a species which inhabits a wide range of forest habitats in western and central Africa from Guinea to western Kenya, in a belt extending 5 to 10 degrees on either side of the Equator (Wolfheim 1983). It was classified as not threatened by Lee et al. (1988).
Cotton-top tamarin
Authors: Kirkwood James K , Stathatos Katherine
Published: November 2023

The cotton-top tamarin is an endangered species (IUCN, 1990). It is found in parts of Colombia and the population is thought to be between 1000 and 10 000 (Neyman 1977). Tardif (1986) estimated the captive population at 1450, with 40 per cent in zoos and 60 per cent in research colonies.
Golden lion tamarin
Authors: Kirkwood James K , Stathatos Katherine
Published: November 2023

There are three subspecies of Leontopithecus r. rosalia, the golden lion tamarin, L.r. chrysomelas, the golden-headed lion tamarin, and L.r. chrysopygus, the golden-rumped or black lion tamarin. These species are restricted to the Atlantic forest of Brazil, and their ranges have been reduced to tiny isolated fragments (Mittermeier 1986). All three subspecies are endangered (Mittermeier et al. 1986, IUCN 1990). Leontopithecus r. chrysopygus is the rarest and Mittermeier (1986) considered that the wild population was unlikely to exceed 100. Coimbra-Filho and Mittermeier (1977) estimated the number of wild populations of L.r. chrysomela to be 100 to 200, and Kleiman et al. (1986) suggested that there were 250 to 350 wild L.r. rosalia.
Lar gibbon
Authors: Kirkwood James K , Stathatos Katherine
Published: November 2023

Status, subspecies, and distribution Opinions differ about the taxonomy of gibbons, but Wolfheim (1983) recognized eight subspecies of H. lar: agilis, moloch, muelleri, abbottii, vestitus,  entelloides, carpenteri, and lar. The species occurs from southern China, through Burma, Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia (Java, Sumatra, and Borneo) (Robbins Leighton 1987). It is highly arboreal and is found in many different types of forest (Wolfheim 1983).
The structure and sequence of insulin
Authors: Derewenda U , Dodson G G
Published: November 2023

9.1 Some early history of insulin

In 1922 Banting and Best (Banting and Best 1922) finally extracted a hormone factor from the dog pancreas and showed that it was responsible for controlling the level of blood sugar. This hormone was named insulin. It was one of the first proteins to be obtained in a sufficiently pure form for pharmaceutical purposes and was also the first protein for which the full amino-acid sequence was determined (Sanger et al. 1955; Sanger 1959).

The first crystals of insulin were obtained by J. J. Abel in 1926 (Abel 1926). Due to the impurities of the first insulin preparations, these early crystals were not always reproducible. The discovery of zinc in crystalline insulin was made by J. Brown in 1931 (Jukes 1979) and then by Scott (Scott 1934). The first X-ray diffraction photographs were taken from zinc­ containing crystals. The first crystal structure of insulin to be solved by X-ray crystallography was also that of zinc insulin. The first electron density map was calculated at 2.8 Ä resolution (Adams et al. 1969). Today the molecular structure of insulin is known to 1.5 Ä resolution (Baker et al. 1988), which allows one to locate individual atoms with 0.1-0.2 Ä accuracy.
Oligonucleotides
Authors: Kennard Olga , Hunter William N , Moore Madeleine H
Published: November 2023

10.1 Single-crystal X-ray structure determination of oligonucleotides containing four or more bases

Tables 10.1-10.5 list the principal references to structure determinations published between 1979 and mid-1989.

There are three main families of double-helical oligonucleotide structures. These are the right-handed A- and B-forms and the left-handed Z-form. Figures 10.1-10.3 show examples of each family, based on a single-crystal structure determination using coordinates deposited in the Brookhaven Protein Data Bank (Bernstein et al. 1977). Useful references to the polymorphic variants of DNA are Rich et al. (1984), Shakked and Kennard (1984), Jovin et al. (1987) and Drew et al. (1988). Detailed numeric data on oligonucleotide studies can be found in the Landolt-Bornstein Tables (Kennard and Hunter 1989a) and a recent review in Quarterly Reviews of Biophysics (Kennard and Hunter 1989b).
Unassigned or nonsense codons
Authors: Osawa Syozo
Published: November 2023

The genomic G + C content of Micrococcus luteus is 75 per cent, the highest of all the organisms that have been examined. Figure 4.1 shows that codons ending with G or C comprise 95 to 100 per cent of all codons (Obama et al., 1990a). In the NNY pair, use of the NNC codon does not reach 100 per cent, and a small amount of NNU is utilized. This is because codons NNC and NNU are normally read by a single anticodon, GNN (except for family boxes in mitochondria and Mycoplasma capricolum), so that the NNU codon can be regenerated by backmutation from NNC (or NNG in family boxes) to some extent. On the other hand, NNG usage is 100 per cent in six out of 14 NNR pairs. In high G + C bacteria, NNR codons are read by two anticodons; NNA by anticodon *UNN (or + UNN in family boxes) and NNG mainly by CNN, and inefficiently by *UNN, especially in 2-codon sets. Therefore, complete conversion of an NNA codon to its synonymous NNG codon by GC-pressure, together with positive selection of NNG by anticodon CNN, is likely to occur if the *UNN anticodon is deleted. If this happens, the NNA codon regenerated by back-mutation from NNG is subjected to negative selection. Even if GC-pressure is weakened during evolution, with an increase in mutation rate from NNG to NNA, NNA cannot appear because of the absence of the *UNN anticodon that translates it. In effect, such an NNA codon cannot exist in the coding frames. Such a codon is called an unassigned or nonsense codon.
Selenocysteine is coded by UGA
Authors: Osawa Syozo
Published: November 2023

abstract

Selenium (Se) is an essential nutritional trace element in the diet of animals. Some selenoproteins, such as mammalian glutathione peroxidase and E. coli formate dehydrogenase, contain Se in the form of selenocysteine (Sec) at the active centre of the corresponding enzyme. Sec plays an essential role in maintaining a lower redox potential for these enzymes through the resulting selenol group as compared with the thiol group of Cys. This may be advantageous for anaerobic environments. In fact, selenite is required for the production of formate dehydrogenase activity in E. coli, which is expressed and is active under anaerobic conditions (Pinsent, 1954). Replacement of Sec by Cys results in a 75 per cent reduction in enzyme activity (Zinoni et al., 1986).
Amino acid composition of proteins and the genetic code
Authors: Osawa Syozo
Published: November 2023

Constraints that affect the amino acid composition of proteins include the composition of the genetic code, the relation of amino acid sequence and content to function, the existence of variable and conserved regions, and the presence of GC/ AT-pressure in the genome (see below). Some proteins, e.g. the histones, evolve much more slowly than others, e.g. fibrinopeptides. Near-neutral amino acid changes are found in variable regions of proteins and are more common in rapidly evolving proteins.
Epilogue
Authors: Osawa Syozo
Published: November 2023

In general, it may be best to keep theories of evolution of the code as close as possible to existing experimental findings and flexible enough to accommodate future discoveries. It is unlikely that some mathematical solution will be found to explain, in a single tour de force, the nature of the code, although efforts to achieve this are numerous. The early evolution of the genetic code has been the subject of speculation. Theories to explain it are numerous; some of these are aesthetically pleasing but cannot be verified. This chapter endeavours to discuss those with some experimental support.
Territoriality
Authors: Grant James WA
Published: November 2023

When competing for resources, animals commonly defend access to the resource or its means of production by attempting to exclude others from specific areas. Like other animals, fish often defend food, shelter, mates, nest sites, spawning sites and offspring (Noakes 1978). The importance of such territorial behaviour in the lives of many fishes is obvious to anyone that has snorkelled on a coral reef or kept cichlids in an aquarium. One of the classical model systems of early ethology was the male stickleback, Gasterosteus aculeatus, pugnaciously defending its nest (Lorenz 1952). Nevertheless, this rich natural history is often overwhelmed in general reviews of territoriality by the extensive bird literature, which seems to have dominated this field ever since Howard’s (1920) book on ‘Territory in bird life’.
Evading predators
Authors: Godin Jean-Guy J
Published: November 2023

Predation is known to affect the behaviour, morphology and life history of prey animals, as well as their populations and communities, over both evolutionary and ecological time scales (reviewed in Endler 1986, 1991, 1995; Sih 1987; Lima and Dill 1990; Milinski 1993; Persson et al., Chapter 12). Predation events typically follow a sequence of consecutive conditional stages, namely, prey encounter, detection, identification, approach (attack), subjugation (capture) and consumption (Endler 1986, 1991; Lima and Dill 1990; see also Fig. 7.1 in Smith, Chapter 7). An individual’s risk of predation can thus be defined as its probability of being eaten by a predator during some discrete time period. This can be expressed as P (death) = 1 - exp ( - α d T), where a is the prey’s rate of encounter with predators while vulnerable, d the probability of death given an encounter, and T the time spent vulnerable to an encounter (Lima and Dill 1990). Predators vary widely in their ability to detect, capture and consume prey, while prey vary in their ability to detect, avoid and escape predators (Curio 1976; Vermeij 1982; Sih 1987; Lima and Dill 1990; Endler 1991; Fuiman and Magurran 1994; Reimchen 1994; Smith, Chapter 7). Such variation in the risk of predation determines the potential for the evolution of antipredator defences in prey (Vermeij 1982; Reimchen 1994).
Mating systems and sex allocation
Authors: Berglund Anders
Published: November 2023

Genes that do not endow their possessors with the capacity to reproduce successfully (i.e. produce offspring that in turn survive to reproduce) will eventually be lost. It is therefore of paramount importance to all organisms to reproduce successfully. The objective of this chapter is to review the multitude of ways through which mating can be achieved in fishes: under what circumstances can we for instance expect promiscuity, polygamy, monogamy, iteroparity, semelparity, alternative strategies, sex change, simultaneous hermaphroditism or asexual reproduction? In the first part of the chapter I deal with mating systems. Fishes are a highly diverse taxonomic group and therefore ideally suited for discussing such systems in relation to partners (i.e. polygamy versus monogamy) and to time (i.e. breeding cycles, and semelparity versus iteroparity).
Flexibility in fish behaviour: consequences at the population and community levels
Authors: Persson Lennart , Diehl Sebastian , Eklöv Peter , Christensen Bent
Published: November 2023

Flexible behaviour of organisms in response to food resources and predators has been a major topic in ecology during the last decade (Lima and Dill 1990; Persson and Diehl 1990; Werner 1992; see also Kramer et al., Chapter 3; Grant, Chapter 4; Hart, Chapter 5; Hughes, Chapter 6; Smith, Chapter 7; Godin, Chapter 8; Sargent, Chapter 11). The purpose of this chapter is to review current theoretical and empirical knowledge of the consequences of flexible behaviour for population and community processes in fishes. Understanding these consequences is important for both population and community ecologists and behavioural ecologists, because the behaviour of individuals influences population- and community-level processes, and vice versa.
Introduction: cell proliferation and carcinogenesis
Authors: Pusztai L , Cooper K
Published: November 2023

The size of any cell population within a multicellular organism is strictly controlled by the balance of complex signals which stimulate or inhibit the proliferation, differentiation, and survival of cells. Disturbances in the intra- and extracellular events that regulate these cellular functions may result in changes of the number of cells in a particular tissue. Such changes very often underlie pathological events. Reduction in the number of cells is often presented as involution, atrophy or hypoplasia of the tissue. An abnormal increase of cell number may result in hyperplasia or neoplasia.
The role of cytokines in tumour progression
Authors: Naylor M S , Balkwill F R
Published: November 2023

Cytokines make up the fourth major class of soluble intercellular signalling mole cules alongside hormones, neurotransmitters, and prostaglandins/leukotrienes. They possess a number of common features despite the variety of molecular structures and properties. Cytokines are all polypeptides of low molecular weight (generally less than 80 kDa) that bind to high affinity cell surface receptors and cause changes in macromoleculer synthesis in target cells. Cytokines may act in a paracrine, autocrine (including intracellular autocrine loops), and juxtacrine manner (i.e., cytokines expressed on the surface of one cell may affect specific receptors on adjacent cells) at picomolar concentrations, leading to alterations in cell behaviour. Most cytokines are pleiotropic and have multiple biological activities regulating cell proliferation, differentiation, and cell death. Their production in vivo is normally transient and tightly controlled. They are produced by more than one cell type, have overlapping biological activities, and generally act over short distances. Most mammalian cells secrete a range of cytokines and respond to a variety of these molecules (Table 5.1). Cytokines are thought to co-ordinate local tissue organization. This effect is ensured by the short half-life of these molecules in the extracellular space, and by their association with extracellular matrix elements and various binding proteins.
Abnormal growth factor networks in neoplasia
Authors: Tahara E , Yasui W , Yokozaki H
Published: November 2023

Human tumours often exhibit aberrant expression or genetic alterations of growth factors and their receptors (Table 6.1), that may confer growth autonomy or interfere with programmed cell death by autocrine, paracrine, and juxtacrine mechanisms. A number of growth factors, receptors, and protein kinases involved in growth factor-induced signalling are encoded by proto-oncogenes (1, 2). Tumour progression and invasion are thought to require the accumulation of multiple growth factor anomalies (3).
The potential application and limitation of cytokine/ growth factor manipulation in cancer therapy
Authors: Okada M , Kishimoto T
Published: November 2023

Many cytokines/growth factors and their receptors have been identified and characterized at the molecular level. Studies with recombinant cytokines and their monoclonal antibodies have revealed that most cytokines are pleiotropic and have overlapping activities (redundancy). The production of cytokines by recombinant DNA technology has facilitated assessment of their in vivo therapeutic potential, and led to renewed hope for an immunotherapeutic solution to cancer. Some cytokines either singly or in combination, have already shown promise in animal and clinical trials. Systemic cytokine toxicity has been the major con straint on this type of therapy, since most cytokines function pleiotropically, exhibiting a wide range of biological effects on cells. To maximize the therapeutic potential of cytokines against cancer, novel models of cytokine gene therapy has been investigated. This method strongly induces local antitumour immune responses while causing minimal systemic toxicity. The antitumour effect of these cytokines is exerted by the activation of cytotoxic T cells (CTLs), macrophages or eosinophils, although direct inhibitory effect on the proliferation of tumour cells by some cytokines has been demonstrated.
Hormonal regulation of cancer cell growth
Authors: Wasan H , Waxman J
Published: November 2023

The earliest recorded observations of breast cancer were made by Hippocrates around 400 BC, who attributed its origin to the cessation of menstruation. In 1889, Schinzinger proposed a link between ovarian function and breast cancer and 5 years later Beatson demonstrated the palliative effect of oophorectomy in breast cancer (1). Furthermore, in 1896, White demonstrated the benefits of castration for prostate cancer (2). Between 1905 and 1935, the principal steroid and polypeptide hormones in these phenomena were identified. Experimentation in animal models of hormone-dependent cancer began in 1932 when Lacassagne induced mammary tumours in mice with oestrone benzoate (1). Modern hormonal manipulation began in 1941 when Huggins and Hodges treated patients with prostatic cancer with the non-steroidal oestrogen analogue, diethylstilboestrol, 6 years after the compound was synthesized by Dodds (3, 4).
Retinoids in neoplasia
Authors: Ross S A , Chen L -C , Dar Wi Che N , De Luca L M
Published: November 2023

The realization of the importance of retinoids as regulators of growth and differentiation came first to nutritionists, when the stunted growth of vitamin A-deficient animals was observed (1), and then to pathologists, when squamous metaplasia of mucociliary epithelia was reported to occur in the vitamin A deficient rat (2). With the recent finding that retinoids function as transcriptional regulators by binding to nuclear receptors, this field has become the realm of much molecular biological investigation. In the light of this recent interest, several discoveries directly relevant to neoplastic diseases will be highlighted in this chapter.
Cell differentiation and its role in carcinogenesis and therapy
Authors: Rifkind R A , Michaeli J , Richon V M , Kiyo Kawa H , Busquets X , Leng L , Marks P A
Published: November 2023

Although current evidence points to the conclusion that the molecular basis of carcinogenesis consists of a complex set of changes in gene expression involving cellular proto-oncogenes, suppressor genes, and other elements of the inter- and intracellular signalling apparatus, it is also clear that at a broader level neoplastic disease is characterized by an acquired inappropriate relationship between the rates of cellular proliferation and differentiation. A common definition, that cancer cells have experienced a blockade to normal differentiation within the developmental lineage of the organ of tumour origin, is probably overly simplistic. Almost all tumours contain a proportion of cells expressing some features characteristic of the differentiated tissue of derivation (1–3), and there is ample evidence that neoplastic transformation per se does not destroy the potential for the expression of differentiated characteristics, under certain natural as well as experimental conditions.
Introduction
Authors: Cook Christopher D K
Published: November 2023

The definition of ‘aquatic’ used in this book remains the same as presented by Cook (1990). Vascular aquatic plants are interpreted as all Pteridophytina (ferns and fern allies) and Spermatophytina (seed-bearing plants) whose photosynthetically active parts are permanently or, at least, for several months each year partly or wholly submerged in water or which float on the surface of water. The definition of a wetland plant is rather more difficult and perhaps potentially dangerous to the future of wetlands; recent legislation in the USA defines a wetland as a place where 80 per cent or more of the plants growing there are wetland plants. The subject of what a wetland is and what a wetland plant is has been reviewed by Gopal (1990) for India and Tiner (1991) for the USA.
Anaerobic prokaryotes: competition and syntrophy
Authors: Fenchel Tom , Finlay Bland J
Published: November 2023

The most obvious impact of fermentation in the contemporary world is on human and animal nutrition. The community of fermenting microbes living in the forestomach of herbivorous mammals is completely responsible for decomposing grass and other plant material to the fatty acids on which the host depends for growth; and wood-eating termites would find life impossible without fermenting microbes providing the same service in their hindguts. The direct exploitation by man of fermentation processes has also had a long history in most human cultures (e.g. the production of yoghurt and cheese, and the production of wine and other alcoholic beverages). Free-living fermenting microbes are also important on a global scale; especially in the anoxic strata of marine and freshwater sediments, where fermenters provide the substrates (e.g. H2 and volatile fatty acids) used by methanogens and sulphate-reducing bacteria (producing methane and hydrogen sulphide respectively).
The structure of anaerobic communities
Authors: Fenchel Tom , Finlay Bland J
Published: November 2023

To animal and plant ecologists the term community structure means the description of ecological systems in terms of interactions (such as prey-predator relations, competition and mutualism) between species populations. Regarding microbial communities, the basic properties of syntrophic interactions and the competition for substrates between pairs of species has already been discussed in Sections 2.1-2.3 and 3.4. In microbial ecology, an additional approach has been to consider functional groups (rather than individual species) as the basic units of the communities.
Invasion of competing species
Authors: Shigesada Nanako , Kawasaki Kohkichi
Published: November 2023

So far we have focused our attention on the spread of an invading species without referring to its effects on the pre-existing ecosystem. In reality, however, an invading species will always interact with the resident species, often in the form of predation (including host-parasite interaction) or competition, at times even resulting in the extinction of the resident species. In this chapter, we look at the case when an invading species is in competition with a resident species for habitat or food, and examine how the range boundary between the invading and resident species will shift as the invasion proceeds. There are three possible strategies whereby an invading species can persist: (1) it takes over the resident species' habitat through direct competition; (2) competition with the resident species is not so aggressive that it coexists with the resident species after establishment; (3) even though competitively weak, it survives by moving into open spaces that arise either occasionally or periodically.
The incredible birds of paradise —an introduction
Authors: Frith Clifford B , Beehler Bruce M , Cooper William T , Mcguire Michael
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we provide a concise introduction to the bird of paradise family Paradisaeidae and also highlight the range of issues and topics that will appear in much greater detail in the chapters and species accounts that follow. This introductory discussion largely parallels that of Chapters 2-8, but touches only on the main points of interest about the group, its biology, and its history of discovery and study. In this manner the reader can gain a quick overview of the contents of this book, which will allow a focused followup on particular topics of interest.
Nesting biology and parental care
Authors: Frith Clifford B , Beehler Bruce M , Cooper William T , Mcguire Michael
Published: November 2023

The nesting biology of the birds of paradise has not been reviewed previously, in large part due to limited knowledge of the subject. Notwithstanding the fact that the greatest ornithologists of their time eagerly encouraged collectors to seek out the nests and eggs of birds of paradise, few were found until the twentieth century. When Bowdler Sharpe wrote his monograph (1891-8) on the birds of paradise and bowerbirds, all he could include on the nesting biology of the former group were brief descriptions of the nest and eggs of four species and the eggs of two additional ones. Nothing was known of the incubation and nestling periods, parental care, nestling diet, or growth and development of even a single species (Table 6.1).
Overview
Authors: Lawton John H , Barbault Robert , Combes Claude , Gregory Richard D
Published: November 2023

Imagine an internationally renowned museum, housing priceless objects, that does not know what they are, or in which rooms most of them are stored, has no acquisition strategy, and only a ramshackled and makeshift restoration and conservation programme. It is, of course, unthinkable! Unthinkable at least in the world of art, but not in the natural world. It is a disgrace that we still have only the haziest notion of how many species there are on earth, how they are distributed, and how to ensure the survival of most of them into the twenty-second century and beyond, in the face of relentless and rapidly expanding human pressures.
Spatial covariance in the species richness of higher taxa
Authors: Gaston Kevin J
Published: November 2023

As a field of study, biodiversity engenders a variety of responses. In some quarters it retains the status of a ‘band wagon’, and is argued to embody nothing distinctive. In others it is viewed as an important new area of work with a clear agenda of its own.
Zoogeography
Authors: Hayward P J
Published: November 2023

The bryozoan collections of the Belgica Expedition were the first strictly Antarctic samples to be made available for specialist study. Their importance was fully appreciated by A.W. Waters (1904), who considered that they demonstrated the existence of a highly distinctive Antarctic fauna that would prove to be very much more diverse than these first collections showed. In his discussion of geographical distributions Waters (1904) brusquely disposed of the bipolar theory of distribution, applied to Bryozoa by Pfeffer (1890), and remarked that Pfeffer’s material consisted of just 18 species, of Subantarctic rather than Antarctic origin, which were anyway probably incorrectly identified. The first systematic treatment of Antarctic bryozoan distribution patterns was that of Hastings (1943), who carefully distinguished between the Antarctic and Subantarctic realms, and assigned the islands of the Southern Ocean to one or other of the two on hydrological and faunistic grounds. She tabulated the distribution of 60 species and varieties of (mostly) Buguloidea represented in the Discovery collections, including 17 that had occurred only at abyssal depths. Only seven of these taxa were collected from both Antarctic and Subantarctic localities, and of these only Caberea darwinii achieved a wide geographical distribution in both realms. Hastings (1943) noted the faunal similarities between the deep outer Patagonian Shelf and the Antarctic peninsula, which appeared to support one prevalent view for the origins of the Antarctic fauna as a whole. Another opinion, that the Antarctic fauna arose through the immigration of ancestral stocks from abyssal habitats (Levinsen 1917), was not favoured by the Discovery results.
Key to Genera of Antarctic Cheilostolviatida
Authors: Hayward P J
Published: November 2023

1. Colony form unique (Fig. 7): consisting of a closely encrusting, branching, stolonal portion, swollen at regular intervals, with a slender, erect cylinder, 0.5-1.5 mm long, bearing a terminal frontal membrane, rising from each swelling ........................................... Aetea.