bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Representativeness and Counterfactual Thinking: The Principle that Antecedent and Outcome Correspond in Magnitude
Authors: Sim Damien L. H. , Morris Michael W.
Published: March 2007

Past research has found that when people imagine how an outcome might have turned out differently, their "if only" thoughts consistently focus on particular types of antecedent conditions. The authors propose that one principle people follow is to focus on an antecedent that fails to correspond in magnitude to the imagined counterfactual outcome. Specifically, they propose that people focus on such antecedents and change them in the direction of increasing correspondence to the imagined counterfactual outcome. In a series of four experiments, they find evidence that people follow the principle of magnitude correspondence and that it is independent of previously identified principles in counterfactual thinking such as tendencies to focus on exceptional rather than normal antecedents and tendencies to focus on antecedents that correspond to the actual outcome in normality or valence.
Multiple Facets of Self-Esteem and their Relations to Depressive Symptoms
Authors: Kernis Michael H. , Whisenhunt Connie R. , Waschull Stefanie B. , Greenier Keegan D. , Berry Andrea J. , Herlocker Caryn E. , Anderson Craig A.
Published: March 2007

The authors examined whether stability and level of self-esteem interact with daily hassles in predicting severity of depressive symptoms. As predicted, Time 2 depression scores (with Time 1 scores controlled) were highest among individuals with unstable self-esteem who reported considerable daily hassles. By contrast, self-esteem level did not interact with daily hassles to predict Time 2 depressive symptoms. These findings held even after negative self-concept items were eliminated from the depressive symptom inventories. Additional analyses revealed that self-esteem stability accounted for variance independent of the tendency to over generalize following failure or negative event attributional style. These findings support the contention that unstable self-esteem reflects fragile feelings of self-worth that exacerbate depressive symptoms under certain circumstances.
Motivations for Unreciprocated Love
Authors: Aron Arthur , Aron Elaine N. , Allen Joselyn
Published: March 2007

Consistent with a mini-theory of motivational factors in unreciprocated love, (a) perceived potential value of a relationship with another; perceived probability of such a relationship; and desirability of the state of being in love with this other, even if it is unreciprocated, were each significantly and independently predictive of reported intensity of unreciprocated love; (b) incidence of unreciprocated love was greatest for those whose self-reported attachment style was anxious/ambivalent; and (c) perceived potential value of the relationship was most predictive of intensity for anxious/ambivalents and perceived desirability of the state was most predictive of intensity for avoidants. Findings are based on structural equation modeling analyses of questionnaire responses from a moderately large sample of U.S. undergraduates and were not qualified by gender.
Effects of Stimulus Valence on Recognition Memory and Endogenous Eyeblinks: Further Evidence for Positive-Negative Asymmetry
Authors: Ohira Hideki , Winton Ward M. , Oyama Makiko
Published: March 2007

Japanese college students viewed a series of positive and negative stimulus words printed in katakana, a Japanese syllabary. Jacoby's process-dissociation procedure was used to assess the roles of conscious and unconscious processes in stimulus recognition. There was a stronger conscious recollective component in recognition of negative items and a higher correct rejection rate for negative stimuli, replicating American findings reported by Robinson-Riegler and Winton, and Ortony, Turner, and Antos. In addition, during the encoding phase, negative stimuli were associated with more eyeblinks and longer eyeblink latencies than positive stimuli; this pattern suggests greater cognitive activity in response to negative stimuli, consonant with Taylor's mobilization-minimization hypothesis. The eyeblink response, as measured in the present research, represents a new method for assessing the positive-negative asymmetries that are characteristic of the mobilization process.
Contributions to the Method of Paired Comparisons
Authors: Kaiser Henry F. , Serlin Ronald C.
Published: March 2007

A least-squares solution for the method of paired comparisons is given. The approach pro vokes a theorem regarding the amount of data necessary and sufficient for a solution to be ob tained. This theorem establishes that it is possible to find a solution when there is a great deal of missing data. A measure of the internal consistency of the least-squares fit is developed. It is indicated that the method of paired comparisons need not be applied only to data obtained experimentally from the law of comparative judgment; indeed, an exam ple (rating university football teams) involving ob servational data is worked out.
Longitudinal Stability of Person Characteristics: Intelligence and Creativity
Authors: Magnusson D. , Backteman G.
Published: March 2007

An empirical study based on a heterogeneous sample of approximately 1,000 boys and girls concerns longitudinal stability in intelligence and creativity data. Group-administered intelligence tests were given at ages 10, 13, and 15; and different creativity tests were administered at ages 13 and 16. The three main features of the present study were that (1) intelligence and creativity data were collected and used for the same group of individuals; (2) the individuals constituted an unselected, representative group; and (3) the data were analyzed in a multivariable-multioccasion paradigm. The requirements for construct validity proposed by Campbell and Fiske (1959) were reformulated in terms of stability over time. The two main requirements that were derived are that (1) coefficients between measurements of the same variable on different occasions must be significantly greater than zero, and (2) a stability coefficient for a certain variable must also be higher than the correlation between data for this variable at the first occasion and data for any other type of variable at the other occasion. These two requirements were fulfilled for both intelligence and creativity data in all time intervals. For intelligence measured at ages 10 and 15, a stability coefficient of about .75 for both boys and girls was obtained. Correlations of .45 and .42 for boys and girls, respectively, were found between measures of creativity taken at ages 13 and 16. These results are in agreement with earlier studies of stability in intelligence and creativity, and support the construct validity of the creativity construct.
Construct Validation of the Inventory of Learning Processes
Authors: Schmeck R.R. , Ribich F.D.
Published: March 2007

Two correlational investigations are described which are aimed at establishing the construct validity of the dimensions assessed by the scales of the Inventory of Learning Processes. The Synthesis- Analysis scale is assumed to assess "deep" (e.g., semantic) information-processing habits. It was positively related to critical thinking ability, curiosity, and both independent and conforming achievement-striving behaviors but negatively related to anxiety. The Study Methods scale is assumed to assess the habits of promptly completing all assignments, attending all classes, and generally "studying" a lot. It was positively related to curiosity and conforming types of achievement striving and negatively related to critical thinking ability. The fact that critical thinking ability is related positively to Synthesis- Analysis and negatively to Study Methods suggests that students with low critical thinking ability but high achievement motivation might substitute conventional repetitive study for "deep processing" because they find it difficult to engage in "deep processing." The Fact Retention scale is assumed to assess attention to and proneness to retain detailed, factual information. It was positively related to conforming achievement behaviors and negatively related to anxiety. The Elaborative Processing scale is assumed to assess the habit of restating and reorganizing information so as to relate it to one's own experiences. It was positively related to mental imagery ability and curiosity.
Empirical Versus Random Item Selection in the Design of Intelligence Test Short Forms— The WISC-R Example
Authors: Goh David S.
Published: March 2007

This study demonstrated that the design of cur rent intelligence test short forms could be improved by employing a more effective method of item selec tion based on psychometric theory. Two short forms of the recently published WISC-R were developed, one employing a design determined by empirical item analysis results of the standard test battery and the other employing the well-known Yudin scheme determined by systematic random selection of test items. In all analyses the item analysis method of item selection was shown to yield more accurate results than the Yudin procedure. Practi cal usefulness as well as limitations of the present WISC-R Short form are discussed.
Calculation of Adjusted Response Frequencies Using Least Squares Regression Methods
Authors: Overall John E.
Published: March 2007

The use of general linear regression methods for the analysis of categorical data is recommended. The general linear model analysis of a 0,1 coded re sponse variable produces estimates of the same re sponse probabilities that might otherwise be esti mated from frequencies in a multiway contingency table. When factors in the design are correlated, the regression analysis estimates the same response probabilities that would be estimated from the simple marginal frequencies in a balanced ortho gonal design. The independent effects that are es timated by the regression analysis are the un- weighted means of the response probabilities in various cells of a cross-classification design; how ever, it is not necessary that all cells in a complex design be filled in order for the estimates to have that interpretation. The advantages of the general linear model analysis include familiarity of most psychologists with the methods, availability of computer programs, and ease of application to problems that are too complex for development of complete multiway contingency tables.
The Criterion Problem: What Measure of Success in Graduate Education?
Authors: Hartnett Rodney T. , Willingham Warren W.
Published: March 2007

A wide variety of potential indicators of graduate student performance are reviewed. Based on a scrutiny of relevant research literature and ex perience with recent and current research projects, the various indicators are considered in two ways. First, they are analyzed within the framework of the traditional "criterion problem," that is, with re spect to their adequacy as criteria in predicting graduate school performance. In this case, empha sis is given to problems with the criteria that make it difficult to draw valid inferences about the re lationship between selection measures and perfor mance measures. Second, the various indicators are considered as an important process of the graduate program. In this case, attention is given to their adequacy as procedures for the evaluation of stu dent performance, e.g., their clarity, fairness, and usefulness as feedback to students.
The Predictive Validity of Eye Movement Indices for Technical School Qualifying Test Performance
Authors: Dillon Ronna F. , Wisher Robert A.
Published: March 2007

The study was designed to determine the predic tive validity of a series of eye scan indices, collected during analogical reasoning, with respect to techni cal school qualifying test performance. The scan patterns of 11 male Navy recruits were recorded during solution of 12 items taken from the 1962 Advanced Progressive Matrices. Significant positive relationships with performance on the Armed For ces Qualifying Test were identified for (1) the per centage of the total number of fixations occurring within the main stimulus array prior to the first ex cursion to the distractor field; (2) the proportion of total row scans to binary row scans; and (3) the proportion of total column scans to binary column scans. Significant negative relationships with quali fying test performance were identified for (1) the number of excursions from a point in the stimulus array to a point in the distractor field and (2) the total number of fixations. Results are discussed within the framework of employing indices of cog nitive processes to develop selection and training procedures from an individual differences perspec tive.
Item Bias in a Test of Reading Comprehension
Authors: Linn Robert L. , Levine Michael V. , Hastings C. Nicholas , Wardrop James L.
Published: March 2007

The possibility that certain features of items on a reading comprehension test may lead to biased esti mates of the reading achievement of particular sub groups of students was investigated. Eight nonover lapping subgroups of students were defined by the combinations of three factors: student grade level (fifth or sixth), income level of the neighborhood in which the school was located (low and middle or above), and race of the student (black or white). Es timates of student ability and item parameters were obtained separately for each of the eight subgroups using the three-parameter logistic model. Bias in dices were computed based on differences in item characteristic curves for pairs of subgroups. A cri terion for labeling an item as biased was developed using the distribution of bias indices for subgroups of the same race that differed only in income level or grade level. Using this criterion, three items were consistently identified as biased in four independent comparisons of subgroups of black and white stu dents. Comparisons of content and format charac teristics of items that were identified as biased with those that were not, or between items biased in dif ferent directions, did not lead to the identification of any systematic content differences. The study did provide strong support for the viability of the esti mation procedure; item characteristics, estimated with samples from different populations were very similar. Some suggestions for improvements in methodology are offered.
Comparison of a Rasch Model Scale and the Grade-Equivalent Scale for Vertical Equating of Test Scores
Authors: Guskey Thomas R.
Published: March 2007

Wright (1977) outlined procedures for equating tests and test scores using the Rasch model. This paper summarizes the results of a study in which those Rasch model procedures are used to calibrate and then to link vertically six levels of the Reading Comprehension Test of the Iowa Tests of Basic Skills. The derived Rasch ability scale estimates are then compared to norm-referenced, grade-equiva lent scale estimates for scores across the test levels. The results of these comparisons suggest that where discrepancies in the two scales emerge, the more accurate and perhaps more useful measure is provided by the Rasch scale.
Measuring Equity in Intimate Relations
Authors: Traupmann Jane , Petersen Robert , Utne Mary , Hatfield Elaine
Published: March 2007

It has been suggested that equity theory, a social psychological theory concerned with the fairness in casual relationships, should be applicable to inti mate relations as well. As a first step in that direc tion, this report describes the development of the Traupmann-Utne-Walster Equity/Inequity Scales, which measure the level of equity that intimate couples perceive in their relationships. The scales, which include items from four areas of concern for intimates—personal concerns, emotional concerns, day-to-day concerns, and opportunities gained or lost—are described, and data from two empirical studies are reported. The first study demonstrates the internal consistency reliability of the scales. The second study reports data relevant to the construct validity of the scales. Two constructs derived from equity theory—affect and satisfaction—are shown to behave in the predicted way when the Traup mann-Utne-Walster Scales are used as the measure of inequity.
Individual Differences in the Validity of a Cognitive Processing Model for Responses to Personality Inventories
Authors: De Boeck Paul
Published: March 2007

An individual difference hypothesis was tested with respect to the validity of a vector type cognitive processing model for inventory responses. The va lidity index may be also considered an index of the conformity of inventory responses to the meaning structure of the items. Three short adjective and sentence type inventories were used, two of them consisting of mixed sets of items and one consisting of positive sets. It was concluded from the only low positive intercorrelations of the validities that indi vidual differences are minor. Furthermore, evidence was found for an effect of the order of presentation of the inventories and for an effect of the inventory composition (positive or mixed), but not for a higher validity of the model for adjective than for sentence types of inventories.
Misspecifications That Can Result in Path Analysis Structures
Authors: Gallini Joan
Published: March 2007

Structural equation modeling provides the behav ioral and social science researcher with a sophisticated methodology to investigate causal relationships among variables within a theoretical framework. However, the researcher must guard against specification error that can result from an inadequate theoretical model. The issue of specification error is a concern in any type of causal structure, from the simplest to the most complex. In this article discussion of specification er ror focuses on path analysis structures, a restricted type of causal model. Such structures imply rather stringent assumptions. Violations of the assumptions are discussed as possible sources of specification error in path analysis models. Alternative models are for mulated and empirically estimated to demonstrate the possible consequences of misspecified models. The discussion is extended to address the issue of specifi cation error in LISREL-type models as well.
Restriction of Range Corrections When Both Distribution and Selection Assumptions Are Violated
Authors: Gross Alan L. , Fleischman Lynn
Published: March 2007

In validating a selection test (x) as a predictor of y, an incomplete xy data set must often be dealt with. A well-known correction formula is available for esti mating the xy correlation in some total group using the xy data of the selected cases and x data of the unse lected cases. The formula yields the ryx correlation (1) when the regression of y on x is linear and homosce dastic and (2) when selection can be assumed to be based on x alone. Although previous research has con sidered the accuracy of the correction formula when either Condition 1 or 2 is violated, no studies have considered the most realistic case where both Condi tions 1 and 2 are simultaneously violated. In the pres ent study six real data sets and five simulated selection models were used to investigate the accuracy of the correction formula when neither assumption is satis fied. Each of the data sets violated the linearity and/or homogeneity assumptions. Further, the selection models represent cases where selection is not a func tion of x alone. The results support two basic conclu sions. First, the correction formula is not robust to vi olations in Conditions 1 and 2. Reasonably small errors occur only for very modest degrees of selection. Secondly, although biased, the correction formula can be less biased than the uncorrected correlation for cer tain distribution forms. However, for other distribution forms, the corrected correlation can be less accurate than the uncorrected correlation. A description of this latter type of distribution form is given.
Comparison of Difficulties and Reliabilities of Quantitative Word Problems in Completion and Multiple-Choice Item Formats
Authors: Oosterhof Albert C. , Coats Pamela K.
Published: March 2007

Quantitative word problems were written as parallel completion and multiple-choice items, and were ad ministered to 232 undergraduate students to compare the reliabilities and item difficulties associated with these formats. The multiple-choice options were writ ten using specific numerical responses for each of five alternatives, revised by replacing the fifth option with "none of the above," and also by replacing each of the five responses with ranges of numerical values. Differences in distributions of scores imply a need to reestablish standards if changes are made in the pro portions of completion and multiple-choice items in cluded in a test. Findings did not support camouflag ing the correct response by using "none of the above" or ranges of numerical values as multiple-choice alter natives. The increased time required to develop and administer a multiple-choice test with reliability equal to that of a completion test suggests use of the latter even in classes with relatively large enrollments.
A Simulation Study of Item Bias Using a Two-Parameter Item Response Model
Authors: McCauley Cynthia D. , Mendoza Jorge
Published: March 2007

Possible underlying causes of item bias were exam ined using a simulation procedure. Data sets were generated to conform to specified factor structures and mean factor scores. Comparisons between the item pa rameters of various data sets were made with one data set representing the "majority" group and another data set representing the "minority" group. Results indicated that items that required a secondary ability, on which two groups differed in mean level, were generally more biased than those items that do not re quire a secondary ability. Items with different factor structures in two groups were not consistently identi fied as more biased than those having similar factor structures. A substantial amount of agreement was found among the bias indices used in the study.
A Study of a Network-Flow Algorithm and a Noncorrecting Algorithm for Test Assembly
Authors: Armstrong R.D. , Jones D.H. , Xuan Li  , Wu Ing-Long
Published: March 2007

The network-flow algorithm (NFA) of Armstrong, Jones, & Wu (1992) and the average growth approxi mation algorithm (AGAA) of Luecht & Hirsch (1992) were evaluated as methods for automated test assem bly. The algorithms were used on ACT and ASVAB item banks, with and without error in the item parameters. Both algorithms matched a target test information function on the ACT item bank, both before and after error was introduced. The NFA matched the target on the ASVAB item bank; however, the AGAA did not, even without error in this item bank. The AGAA is a noncorrecting algorithm, and it made poor item selec tions early in the search process when using the ASVAB item bank. The NFA corrects for nonoptimal choices with a simplex search. The results indicate that reason able error in item parameters is not harmful for test as sembly using the NFA or AGAA on certain types of item banks.
Coefficient Alpha and Composite Reliability With Interrelated Nonhomogeneous Items
Authors: Raykov Tenko
Published: March 2007

The relationship between Cronbach's coefficient alpha (a) and the reliability of a composite of a prespecified set of interrelated nonhomogeneous components is examined. It is shown that a can over- or underestimate scale reliability at the population level. The bias is expressed in terms of structural parameters and illustrated on simulated data. The relevance of substantive considerations about, and examination of, the latent structure of an item set prior to estimation of composite reliability using at is emphasized and demonstrated using a structural equation modeling approach.
Methodology Review: Nonparametric IRT Approaches to the Analysis of Dichotomous Item Scores
Authors: Sijtsma Klaas
Published: March 2007

This paper reviews developments in nonparametric item response theory (NIRT). Historically, Mokken's (1971) item response theory (IRT) model and procedure of scale analysis have been the starting point for NIRT models; the developments that Mokken's work have inspired and those that originated independently are discussed here. Attention is focused on results pertaining to dichotomously scored items. The usefulness of new theoretical results for practical test construction is explained. NIRT is especially useful when the purpose of test application is to order persons, items, or both. The assumptions inherent in several NIRT models, model-data fit methods, item selection procedures, and reliability methods are discussed. NIRT models often allow more items into a test than stronger models, yielding higher reliability and better coverage of the latent trait. Moreover, the theoretical results from NIRT are often relevant to parametric IRT. Examples include conditional association and manifest monotonicity, as well as recent results for polytomous NIRT models that concem the ordering of persons, which also hold for several parametric IRT models.
The Recent Shift of United States Population to Nonmetropolitan Areas, 1970-75
Authors: Beale Calvin L.
Published: March 2007

Net movement of people into the nonmetropolitan areas of the United States has developed in recent years, reversing a long term trend of out-movement. This new trend is not limited to counties adjacent to metropoli tan areas. The association between 11 demographic, economic, and regional characteristics of nonmetropolitan counties weakened considerably between the 1960-70 and 1970-75 periods, as these areas shifted from a predominant pattern of declining or nearly stationary population to one of growth. Some of the major regions of the country deviate substantially from the national pattern in the factors associated with recent nonmetropolitan change and in the strength of the associations, but the existence of a reversal of trend is very pervasive.
Spatial Interaction in Sparsely Populated Regions: An Hierarchical Economic Base Approach
Authors: Chalmers James A. , Anderson Eric J. , Beckhelm Terrance , Hannigan William
Published: March 2007

Ideas from the central place literature are applied to the problem of describing the economic interaction that occurs among centers in sparsely settled regions. A method is proposed that allows the impact of an exogenous change in income or employment to be traced through the functional economic hierarchy. The model is estimated from cross section data for a sample of over 100 counties. The results are shown to have operational significance for estimating the size and spatial distribution of induced employment and income effects resulting from any given spatial distribution of basic economic activity. The approach is relevant to the formulation of economic forecasting models and to economic impact assessment, especially in resource based areas in which interindustry transactions within the manufacturing sector are relatively unimportant.
Population Stabilization and National Spatial Policy of Public Investment: The Japanese Experience
Authors: Mera Koichi
Published: March 2007

Spatial investment decisions of a government may be the result of a clearly stated and pursued policy. Often, however, investment decisions are made without such a policy, in contradiction to it, or ignoring it. This paper presents a new method that can be used to reveal the policy objectives with which actual public investment decisions are consistent. Japanese regional investment expenditures from 1958 to 1978 are analyzed, and the dominant policies in effect during this period are identified using this method. A connection between Japanese regional public investment policies and the convergence of population growth across regions is suggested.
Regional Consequences of Structural Changes in the National and International Division of Labor
Authors: Hansen Niles
Published: March 2007

This paper argues that for the past two decades regional scientists have not been successful in anticipating structural changes in the spatial division of labor. A major reason has been the excessive emphasis placed on static analytic constructs based on city sizes and systems of cities. A more instructive approach would analyze the dynamic interrelations among the three functional levels through which changes in the division of labor operate, that is, workplaces, business organization, and spatial systems. The product cycle, the manufacturing process cycle, and a more broadly conceived view of regional production processes are considered in this context.
External Control and Regional Development within the Federal Republic of Germany
Authors: Schackmann-Fallis Karl-Peter
Published: March 2007

This article reports the results of a questionnaire-based survey of externally controlled manufacturing plants in Trier, a peripheral region of the Federal Republic of Germany. Characteristics of the externally controlled plants are compared to those of independent plants in order to evaluate several hypotheses from the literature. Among the findings are that branch plants, in particular, tend to be more rapidly growing with employment relatively concentrated in production and lower skill occupations. They also have weaker input linkages within the region. Thus, the internal functional division of labor in multi-establishment firms produces positive quantitative effects on peripheral regions, but less encouraging qualitative effects that will affect their indigenous growth potential.
Siberian Development under Gorbachev
Authors: Shabad Theodore
Published: March 2007

There are indications that interest in Siberian development is waning under the Gorbachev administration. When analyzed in spatial terms, the basic principles of the Gorbachev economic program favor investment in the established manufacturing potential of the European USSR, not in costly new resource development projects in Siberia. This article examines the evidence and draws implications for Siberia's role in international affairs.
The NRIES II Multiregional Macroeconomic Model of the United States
Authors: Lienesch Thomas , Kort John R.
Published: March 2007

This article describes the evolution over the last decade of the National-Regional Impact Evaluation System II (NRIES II) macroeconomic model of the United States developed at the Bureau of Economic Analysis. The general structure of a typical model in the NRIES II system is presented, along with more detailed examinations of the state models' components and specifications and the national model. Means of evaluating the model's performance, an application of the model, and some of the strengths and weaknesses of NRIES II are also discussed.
What can be Learned about Regional Development from the Ex-Communist World? A Comment
Authors: Alonso William
Published: March 2007

Due to the remarkable events of the past few years, the Second World has emerged into the forefront of economic study. As the formerly Communist countries try to find their way to liberal democracy and effective market systems, they reveal dimensions of social, economic, and political processes not apparent from observations of the First or Third Worlds. For example, two factors important to regional processess, institutional infrastructure and regional nationalism, have been neglected in much of the regional science literature. While ex-Communist countries may be able to learn from the American experience, Americans and others may also learn a great deal from the struggles and developments in the former Communist countries.
Methods for Planning Urban Facilities in Rural Areas of Developing Countries: A Comparison of Approaches
Authors: Rietveld Piet
Published: March 2007

This article provides a short review of issues raised in the debate about the urban functions in rural development approach to planning and whether location-allocation models are appropriate as an alternative. Spatial versus nonspatial aspects of the rural development problem, the importance of transport in rural development, and the role of equity considerations are discussed. Special attention is paid to the nature of linkage effects between agricultural and nonagricultural activities in rural areas. Both negative and positive linkage effects should be taken into account.
The Evolution of the Economic Development Initiatives of Nonmetropolitan District Councils in England and Wales, 1980—1992
Authors: Armstrong Harvey , Izadi Hooshang
Published: March 2007

This article examines the evolution and spatial variation in economic development policies adopted by nonmetropolitan district councils in England and Wales. Results from a recent survey reveal four distinct clusters of development strategies that range from activist to non-activist. Areas have tended to become more interventionist over time, with most district councils simply adding new programs to previous initiatives rather than starting over from scratch.
Interpreting Invention as a Cognitive Process: The Case of Alexander Graham Bell, Thomas Edison, and the Telephone
Authors: Gorman Michael E. , Carlson W. Bernard
Published: March 2007

Historians of technology have provided important accounts of technological innovation, but they rarely employ concepts which permit a rigorous analysis ofinvention as a mental or cognitive process. This article seeks to address this theoretical lacuna by using concepts adapted from cognitive psychology to compare the mental processes of two telephone inventors, Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas Edison. Specifically, we suggest that invention may be seen as a process in which inventors combine ideas with objects, or what we call mental models and mechanical representations. The strategies by which inventors generate and manipulate these mental models and mechanical representations are what we refer to as heuristics. Using these concepts to narrate the development of the telephone, this article shows how invention can be interpreted as being much more than simply a mysterious act of individual genius.
Civil Politics in the Animal Rights Conflict: God Terms versus Casuistry in Cambridge, Massachusetts
Authors: Sanders Scott , Jasper James M.
Published: March 2007

Many public debates become polarized, degenerating into a pattern of mutual suspicion and name-calling that preclude communication or compromise. The debate over animal research has typically followed this path. To understand how polarization might be avoided, we examine the factors that helped prevent it in one local controversy: Cambridge, Massachusetts in the late 1980s. These factors include the personal style of the leader of the main animal protection group, the financing for the group, the group's ability to win a symbolic victory in the form of a relatively toothless city ordinance, and, especially, the relative avoidance by both sides of rigid ideological posturing in favor of "casuistic" argumentation about specific cases and policies.
Convergence of Basic and Applied Research? Research Orientations in German High-Temperature Superconductor Research
Authors: Jansen Dorothea
Published: March 2007

In the industrialized countries university research and state-financed research are increasingly evaluated from the point of view of their contribution to technology transfer, industrial innovation, and the competitiveness of national industries. Political debates on the viability of orienting basic research toward practical applications are paralleled by discussions, among social scientists, about the risks and opportunities of political direction over science. These debates are the frame of reference for this study, which analyzes the differences between basic and applied research, their correlates and consequences, in high-temperature superconductor research in the Federal Republic of Germany. It will be shown that basic and applied research are fundamentally different in their social organization, their research goals, and their research strategies. These differences are in contrast to the call of science policy for more intense interaction and assimilation. Nevertheless, there are conditions under which basic or applied re searchers will partially follow "foreign" orientations and strategies. These conditions may, in part, be shaped by policy decisions.
Increasing Response Rates to a Smoking Survey for U.S. Navy Enlisted Women
Authors: Woodruff Susan I. , Conway Terry L. , Edwards Christine C.
Published: March 2007

This study examined the effectiveness of several persistent strategies to increase the response to a smoking survey among newly enlisted U.S. Navy women. The stepped approach, which included the use of incentives, repeated mailings, alternative survey administration modes, and reminders, was evaluated in terms of effects on response rates and response bias. Demographic and baseline smoking-related characteristics were compared for those responding on time to the initial mailed follow-up survey, reluctant respondents who did not respond initially but eventually completed a survey after further prompting, and nonrespondents. Results showed that incentives and persistent efforts were effective in substantially increasing the response among 2,231 eligible participants, more than doubling the response rate (from 24.9% to 52.7%). The characteristics of ontime, reluctant, and nonrespondents did not differ significantly in terms of sociodemographic characteristics. On the other hand, on-time respondents were different from both reluctant respondents and nonrespondents in terms of smoking-related behaviors.
Cost-Benefit Analysis
Authors: Bootman J. Lyle , Rowland Clayton , Wertheimer Albert I.
Published: March 2007

This article reviews the evaluation methodology known as cost-benefit analysis. Studies which have utilized this technique are presented and briefly reviewed. In addition, the closely related technique known as cost-effectiveness (C-E) analysis is described and contrasted with cost-benefit analysis. Several research articles utilizmg C-E are described. It is recommended that cost-benefit analysis be used as a mechanism to evaluate innovative health programs. This may be the sole mechanism that will enable health practitioners to cost- justify their innovative services to the federal government and other third-party payers.
Decision-Making in Basic Medical Sciences Examinations
Authors: Algina James , Gross Leon J.
Published: March 2007

This study was prompted by concern that the criterion of an overall cutoff score on Basic Medical Sciences (BMS) examinations allows students to advance to their clinical training despite possible deficien cies in specific disciplines. To examine the validity of this concern, pass-fail decisions on four Basic Medical Sciences comprehensive examinations were compared with the passing criterion based on the overall cutoff score and on the discipline subtest cutoff scores. The data from the latter procedure did not support the original concern. Alternative strategies for dealing with this problem were subsequently discussed.
Rehabilitation Medicine Educational Experiences
Authors: Dobmeyer Thomas W.
Published: March 2007

The purpose of this study is to determine whether exposure to rehabilitation medicine (RM) educational experiences during medical school is associated with physicians' awareness of rehabilitation medicine; attitude toward the specialty; an inclination to properly manage long-term care; and a tendency to seek expert con sultation and patient referral when indicated. The study utilizes a retrospective research design intended to take advantage of natural situations and events which occurred in four medical schools. Based on responses to a mail survey questionnaire, the study assesses the outcomes associated with the methods used to acquaint medical students with RM in three select schools acknowledged to have strong RM departments, and one "comparison school" which, until recently, had a somewhat limited medical school RM curriculum. Results suggest that practicing physicians who attended medical schools with relatively strong RM departments express greater familiarity with RM and, in addi tion, reported greater satisfaction with their RM medical school experiences. Further, they are more likely to both consult with physiatrists and refer severely physically disabled and chronically ill individuals to physiatrists than are the graduates of the comparison school. Medical school officials might make use of the study's findings when making decisions concerning the allocation of resources to support medical school rehabilitation medicine curricula.
Housestaff Evaluation Using Patient Instructors:
Authors: Rutala Paul J. , Stillman Paula L. , Sabers Darrell L.
Published: March 2007

Chronically-ill nonphysician patient instructors (PIs) with stable cardiovascular or pulmonary findings were trained by physicians to evaluate objectively the physical diagnosis skills offirst-year house- officers (PGY-1s). Each PGY-1 received a performance score, reflecting thoroughness of examination, and a content score, reflecting ability to identify and describe findings. There was no significant correlation between performance and content scores in either specialty or between scores obtained on the two specialty examinations. Scores for the PI evaluations were correlated with traditional assessment methods. Evaluation of PGY-1s by program directors correlated positively with performance scores; peer ratings correlated positively with content scores. Internship acceptance committee rankings correlated positively with cardiovascular content scores and peer evaluations. The use of PIs to evaluate physical diagnosis skills of PGY-1s provides numerical objective data not previously available from any other single source.
Overcoming Design Problems in Evaluating Health Behavior Programs
Authors: Flay Brian R. , Best J. Allan
Published: March 2007

The increasing importance of high-quality evaluative research on health lifestyle change programs is established. Failure to ask the right evaluative research questions and problems of research design are identified as two major reasons for the dearth of well-controlled, interpretable evaluations in this area. Thirteen issues of research design that need to be considered if interpretable answers to evaluative research questions are to be obtained are identified and discussed. Solutions to these problems and design recommendations are offered.
The Empirical Validation of Clinical Teaching Strategies
Authors: Petzel R. A. , Harris I. B. , Masler D. S.
Published: March 2007

The precepts for teaching recommended to clinical teachers tend to be based on common sense, practical wisdom, and expert opinion rather than on empirical validation against appropriate outcome measures of learning. This article describes an initial attempt to validate empirically the effectiveness of certain clinical teaching strategies in an Introduction to Clinical Medicine (ICM) course. Students' assessments of their first-year ICM tutors' teaching skills were correlated with those same students' clinicalperformances, as assessed by the students' second-year clinical tutors. There were statistical significant positive correlations between students' ratings of some ICM tutor teaching skills and some aspects of student performance, as evaluated by the second-year clinical tutors. The results suggest that clinical teachers who follow what are generally considered to be "good basic educational principles," such as setting clear expectations, providing adequate supervision, providing feedback, and showing concern for students' progress, have a positive impact on the subsequent clinical performance of their students. Implications for faculty development and further research are discussed.
The Cost of Quality Assurance in Medicine
Authors: Thompson Mark S. , Palmer R. Heather , Rothrock Janet K. , Strain Rose , Brachman Laura H. , Wright Elizabeth A.
Published: March 2007

Cost analysis has beenfrequently neglected in program evaluations but is currently of high relevance in policy decisions on quality assurance in medicine. The Ambulatory Care Medical Audit Demonstration (A CMAD) Project implemented and evaluated a program of medical record-based quality assurance in eleven sites for nine medical topics. Total direct costs for the project were $1.22 million over five years; indirect costs, $694,000. A computerized data system enabled disaggregation of the cost data by person, timing, type of work, project phase, health topic, health center, and research or operational nature. Of the costs incurred, 79% were for operational reasons, with 21% incurred for research reasons. Costs per audited case were 31% higher in hospitals than in neighborhood health centers. Audit topics of low per-case costs tended to have automated case findings, straightforward and limited abstracting, little need to examine multiple visits, anda low proportion ofcase-foundpatients ineligible for audit.
Ensuring Quality of Care in a Comprehensive Mental Health Center
Authors: Quinn John
Published: March 2007

A six-phase process is currently being utilized by a large comprehensive mental health center to ensure delivery of the highest quality of care to its patients. In the first phase, during the admission process, each patient's assets and liabilities are determined. The second phase involves a disposition team that reviews and assigns each case. The thirdphase involves both the clinician and patient in developing a treatment plan. The fourth phase is a periodic review of each patient 'sfile by the clinician 's supervisor. The fifth phase involves a peer review of randomly selectedfiles. The final phase is a retrospective review of randomly selected patients who are no longer receiving services, comparing the current assets and liabilities with those on the initial assessment to determine if progress did occur and was sustained.
A General Framework for Evaluating the Reliability of Medical Measurement Systems
Authors: Mazzeo John , Seeley George W.
Published: March 2007

Measurements of physical and social phenomena are often used in the decisionmakingprocess despite the error introduced by human and context variation. It would be advantageous to a decision maker to know the sources and magnitudes of such errors in using a measurement system or in choosing among alternative measurement systems. This paper describes an approach to determining the reliability of a measurement procedure called generalizability (G) theory. G theory uses the results of a random-effects analysis of variance to estimate the magnitude of error variability associated with each of several potential sources. These estimates can then be used to calculate a number of indices which typify the amount of precision provided by a measurement system in a particular context of usage. The major concepts of G theory are described and illustrated in the context of evaluating a radiologic total lung capacity measurement system.
A System for Assessing Use of Patients' Time
Authors: Pichert James W. , Hanson Stephanie L. , Pechmann Connie A.
Published: March 2007

Education and patient education literature provide evidence that time spent in instruction, particularly when the student orpatient is actively involved, is positively related to understanding. Time spent on other tasks is not positively related to outcomes. The way in which health professionals and patients spend their time together, however, has not been adequately researched. A system is describedfor assessing howpatients spend their time in environments where health care is delivered. When the system was employed in a multidisciplinary diabetes clinic, it wasfound that almost twothirds ofpatient nonwaiting time was spent in assessment. Only 20%o, or 12 to 15 minutes, was spent in instruction; in only four of these minutes were patients actively involved. Although it may be common sense that people learn better when actively participating in an instructional session, these data suggest that common sense may not be common patient education practice.