bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Effect of Urbanization on Objectively Measured Physical Activity Levels, Sedentary Time, and Indices of Adiposity in Kenyan Adolescents
Authors: Ojiambo Robert M. , Easton Chris , Casajús Jose A. , Konstabel Kenn , Reilly John J. , Pitsiladis Yannis
Published: August 2016

Background:

Urbanization affects lifestyles in the developing world but no studies have assessed the impact on objectively measured physical activity in children and adolescents from sub-Saharan Africa.

Purpose:

To compare objectively measured habitual physical activity, sedentary time, and indices of adiposity in adolescents from rural and urban areas of Kenya.

Methods:

Physical activity and sedentary time were assessed by accelerometry for 5 consecutive days in 97 (50 female and 47 male) rural and 103 (52 female and 51 male) urban adolescents (mean age 13 ± 1 years). Body Mass Index (BMI) and BMI z-scores were used to assess adiposity.

Results:

Rural males spent more time in moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity (MVPA) compared with urban males (68 ± 22 vs. 50 ± 17 min, respectively; P < .001). Similarly, Rural females spent more time in MVPA compared with urban females (62 ± 20 vs. 37 ± 20 min, respectively; P < .001). Furthermore, there were significant differences in daily sedentary time between rural and urban subjects. Residence (rural vs. urban) significantly (P < .001) influenced BMI z-score (R2 = .46).

Conclusion:

Rural Kenyan adolescents are significantly more physically active (and less sedentary) and have lower indices of adiposity compared with urban adolescents and this is a likely refection of the impact of urbanization on lifestyle in Kenya.
Preliminary Evidence for School-Based Physical Activity Policy Needs in Washington, DC
Authors: Goodman Emily , Evans W. Douglas , DiPietro Loretta
Published: August 2016

Background:

The school setting could be a primary venue for promoting physical activity among inner-city children due to the structured natured of the school day. We examined differences in step counts between structured school days (SSD) and weekend days (WED) among a sample of public school children in Washington, DC.

Methods:

Subjects (N = 29) were third- to sixth-grade students enrolled in government-funded, extended-day enrichment programs. Step counts were measured using a pedometer (Bodytronics) over 2 SSD and 2 WED. Differences in mean step counts between SSD and WED were determined using multivariable linear regression, with adjustments for age, sex, and reported distance between house and school (miles).

Results:

Recorded step counts were low on both SSD and WED (7735 ± 3540 and 8339 ± 5314 steps/day). Boys tended to record more steps on SSD compared with girls (8080 ± 3141 vs. 7491 ± 3872 steps/day, respectively), whereas girls recorded more steps on the WED compared with boys (9292 ± 6381 vs. 7194 ± 3669 steps/day). Parameter estimates from the regression modeling suggest distance from school (P < .01) to be the strongest predictor of daily step counts, independent of day (SSD/WED), sex, and age.

Conclusion:

Among inner-city school children, a safe walking route to and from school may provide an important opportunity for daily physical activity.
Interaction of Perceived Neighborhood Walkability and Self-Efficacy on Physical Activity
Authors: Kaczynski Andrew T. , Robertson-Wilson Jennifer , Decloe Melissa
Published: August 2016

Objectives:

Few social ecological studies have considered the joint effects of intrapersonal and environmental influences on physical activity. This study investigated the interaction of self-efficacy and perceived neighborhood walkability in predicting neighborhood-based physical activity and how this relationship varied by gender and body mass index.

Methods:

Data were derived from a cross-sectional investigation of environmental and psychosocial correlates of physical activity among adults (n = 585). Participants completed a detailed 7-day physical activity log booklet, along with a questionnaire that included measures of neighborhood walkability, self-efficacy, and several sociodemographic items. Factorial analysis of variance tests were used to examine the main effects of and interaction between walkability and self-efficacy.

Results:

In predicting neighborhood-based physical activity, significant interactions were observed between self-efficacy and neighborhood walkability for females (but not for males) and for overweight/obese participants (but not for healthy weight individuals). Women and overweight/obese individuals with low self-efficacy demonstrated substantially greater physical activity when living in a high walkable neighborhood.

Conclusions:

Physical activity research and promotion efforts should take into account both environmental and personal factors and the interrelationships between them that influence active living.
Physical Activity, Gender, Weight Status, and Wellbeing in 9- to 11-Year-Old Children: A Cross-Sectional Survey
Authors: Breslin Gavin , Gossrau-Breen Diana , McCay Naomi , Gilmore Gillian , MacDonald Lindsay , Hanna Donncha
Published: August 2016

Background:

The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between physical activity and wellbeing in children, and to further explore the extent to which this may vary by gender and weight status.

Method:

A representative sample of 1424 9- to 11-year-olds completed a self-report measure of physical activity, the Child Health and Illness Profile, KIDSCREEN, and a self-esteem scale. Body Mass Index (BMI) measurements were also obtained.

Results:

24% of children achieved the recommended level of 60 minutes of moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity (MVPA) per day, with more boys than girls achieving this level. Children achieving the recommended level of MVPA scored significantly higher on measures of the Child Health and Illness Profile (F(5, 1354) = 5.03; P < .001), KIDSCREEN (F(3, 1298) = 4.68; P = .003), and self-esteem (F(1, 1271) = 18.73; P = .003) than less active children although the effect sizes were small (ηp2 ≈ .01). Substantial gender differences in wellbeing were found reflecting gender specific behaviors and socialization. Weight status had negligible influence on wellbeing.

Conclusions:

Children who meet the recommended guidelines of MVPA were more likely to have better wellbeing. When attempting to raise children’s physical activity levels consideration should be given to the specific relationships between wellbeing and physical activity.
Environmental Characteristics and Student Physical Activity in PE Class: Findings From Two Large Urban Areas of Texas
Authors: Skala Katherine A. , Springer Andrew E. , Sharma Shreela V. , Hoelscher Deanna M. , Kelder Steven H.
Published: August 2016

Background:

Physical education (PE) classes provide opportunities for children to be active. This study examined the associations between specific environmental characteristics (teacher characteristics; class size, duration and location; and lesson context) and elementary school-aged children’s moderate-to-vigorous activity (MVPA) during PE.

Methods:

Environmental characteristics and student activity levels were measured in 211 third-, fourth-, and fifth-grade PE classes in 74 Texas public schools using SOFIT direct observation.

Results:

Students engaged in less than half their PE class time in MVPA (38%), while approximately 25% of class time was spent in classroom management. Percent time in MVPA was significantly higher in outdoor classes compared with indoors (41.4% vs. 36.1%, P = .037). Larger (P = .044) and longer (P = .001) classes were negatively associated with percentage of MVPA and positively correlated with time spent in management (P < .001).

Conclusions:

Findings suggest that children’s activity may be influenced by environmental factors such as class size, location, and lesson contexts. These findings hold important policy implications for PE class organization and the need for strategies that maximize children’s MVPA. Further research is needed to test the causal association of these factors with student MVPA.
Physical Activity, Sedentary Lifestyle, and Obesity Among Indian Dental Professionals
Authors: Singh Abhinav , Purohit Bharathi
Published: August 2016

Background:

Regular physical activity is well recognized as an important lifestyle behavior for the development and maintenance of individual and population health and well-being. This study was conducted to evaluate physical activity, sedentary lifestyle, and obesity among Indian dental health professionals.

Methods:

Global Physical Activity Questionnaire was used to assess physical activity among 324 dental health care professionals. Metabolic equivalents (MET) were used to express the intensity of physical activities. Obesity was recorded corresponding to Body Mass Index. Individuals were considered in high risk group to develop obesity if energy expenditure was < 600 MET min/week.

Results:

Total physical activity measured in mean MET minutes per week was 625.6, 786.3, 296.5, and 296.5 for third year, final year, interns, and faculty, respectively (P ≤ .05). Obesity was observed in 22.4% of third-year students, 16.3% of final-year students, 20.4% of interns, and 40.8% of faculty members (P ≤ .001).

Conclusion:

The sedentary lifestyle of dental health care professionals is a major threat to the present and future health of the professionals by which the entire community could be prone to an epidemic of chronic disease.
Reliability Testing of the Pedestrian and Bicycling Survey (PABS) Method
Authors: Forsyth Ann , Krizek Kevin J. , Agrawal Asha W. , Stonebraker Eric
Published: August 2016

Background:

The Pedestrian and Bicycling Survey (PABS) is a questionnaire designed to be economical and straightforward to administer so that it can be used by local governments interested in measuring the amount and purposes of walking and cycling in their communities. In addition, it captures key sociodemographic characteristics of those participating in these activities.

Methods:

In 2009 and 2010 results from the 4-page mail-out/mail-back PABS were tested for reliability across 2 administrations (test-retest reliability). Two versions—early and refined—were tested separately with 2 independent groups of university students from 4 universities (N = 100 in group 1; N = 87 in group 2). Administrations were 7 to 9 days apart.

Results:

Almost all survey questions achieved adequate to excellent reliability.

Conclusions:

Transportation surveys have not typically been tested for reliability making the PABS questionnaire an important new option for improving information collection about travel behavior, particularly walking and cycling.
Motivated but Not Active: The Dilemmas of Incorporating Interactive Dance into Gym Class
Authors: Gao Zan
Published: August 2016

Background:

Dance Dance Revolution (DDR) is considered a tool to help children promote a healthy active lifestyle. Empirical studies in this field have been largely unexplored. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between students’ mastery experiences, situational motivation, and physical activity levels in DDR.

Methods:

One hundred and ninety-five seventh, eighth, and ninth graders participated in a 2-week DDR unit. Students’ physical activity levels and situational motivation [intrinsic motivation (IM), identified regulation (IR), external regulation, and amotivation) were measured for 3 classes.

Results:

Students were motivated to play DDR, but their moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) was low (ie, mean = 4.95%). In addition, students with successful mastery experiences had significantly higher IM, IR, and MVPA.

Conclusions:

Although students were motivated for DDR, they were not physically active in DDR. In addition, successful mastery experience played an important role in students’ motivation and physical activity levels in DDR.
Gender Differences in Sociodemographic and Behavioral Influences of Physical Activity in Mexican-Origin Adolescents
Authors: Strong Larkin L. , Anderson Cheryl B. , Miranda Patricia Y. , Bondy Melissa L. , Zhou Renke , Etzel Carol , Spitz Margaret , Wilkinson Anna V.
Published: August 2016

Background:

Understanding the factors that contribute to physical activity (PA) in Mexican-origin adolescents is essential to the design of effective efforts to enhance PA participation in this population.

Methods:

Multivariable logistic regression was used to identify sociodemographic and behavioral correlates of self-reported PA in school and community settings in 1154 Mexican-origin adolescents aged 12–17 years in Houston, TX.

Results:

The majority of adolescents were born in the US (74%), approximately half (51%) were overweight or obese, and nearly three-quarters (73%) watched more than 2 hours of weekday television. Similarities and differences by setting and gender were observed in the relationships between sociodemographic and behavioral characteristics and PA. In boys, parental education and attending physical education (PE) were positively associated with PA across multiple PA outcomes. Adolescent linguistic acculturation was inversely associated with participation in community sports, whereas parental linguistic acculturation was positively associated with PA at school. In girls, PA in school and community settings was inversely associated with TV viewing and positively associated with PE participation.

Conclusions:

These findings highlight similarities and differences in correlates of PA among boys and girls, and point toward potential sources of opportunities as well as disparities for PA behaviors in Mexican-origin adolescents.
Difference in Caloric Expenditure in Sitting Versus Standing Desks
Authors: Reiff Christopher , Marlatt Kara , Dengel Donald R.
Published: August 2016

Background:

Traditional desks require students to sit; however, recently schools have provided students with nontraditional standing desks. The purpose of this study was to investigate differences in caloric expenditure of young adults while sitting at a standard classroom desk and standing at a nontraditional standing classroom desk.

Methods:

Twenty (10 male/10 female) young (22.8 ± 1.9 y), healthy participants reported to the laboratory between the hours of 7:00 AM and 2:00 PM following a 12-h fast and 48-h break in exercise. Participants were randomly assigned to perform a series of mathematical problems either sitting at a normal classroom desk or standing at a nontraditional standing desk. Inspired and expired gases were collected for 45-min for the determination of oxygen consumption (VO2), carbon dioxide production (VCO2), and minute ventilation (VE) using a metabolic gas system.

Results:

There were significant increases from sitting to standing in VO2 (0.22 ± 0.05 vs. 0.28 ± 0.05 L·min−1, P ≤ .0001), VCO2 (0.18 ± 0.05 vs. 0.24 ± 0.050 L·min−1, P ≤ .0001), VE (7.72 ± 0.67 vs. 9.41 ± 1.20 L·min−1, P ≤ .0001), and kilocalories expended per minute (1.36 ± 0.20 kcal/ min, P ≤ .0001 vs. 1.02 ± 0.22 kcal/min, P ≤ .0001).

Conclusions:

Results indicate a significant increase in caloric expenditure in subjects that were standing at a standing classroom desk compared with sitting at a standard classroom desk.
Modeling the Impact of Prepregnancy BMI, Physical Activity, and Energy Intake on Gestational Weight Gain, Infant Birth Weight, and Postpartum Weight Retention
Authors: Montpetit Amy E. , Plourde Hugues , Cohen Tamara R. , Koski Kristine G.
Published: August 2016

Background:

A “fit pregnancy” requires balancing energy expenditure with energy intake (EI) to achieve appropriate gestational weight gains (GWG), healthy infant birth weights (IBW), and minimal postpartum weight retention (PPWR). Our objective was to develop an integrated conceptual framework to assess the contribution of prepregnancy weight (PP-BMI), EI, and physical activity (PA) as determinants of GWG, IBW, and PPWR.

Methods:

Pregnant women (n = 59) were recruited from prenatal classes. Energy intake was estimated using 3 24-hr diet recalls and PA using a validated PA questionnaire and a pedometer. Telephone interviews at 6-weeks postpartum assessed self-reported GWG, IBW, and PPWR. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses were used to explore the potential predictors of GWG, IBW, and PPWR.

Results:

Prepregnancy BMI was associated with GWG, and EI was associated with IBW; each model captured only 6%–18% of the variability. In contrast, PPWR was predicted by PP-BMI, GWG, and EI, which together explained 61% of its variability, whereas GWG alone explained 51% of the variability in PPWR.

Conclusions:

Modeling the relationship using hierarchical models suggests that PP-BMI, prepartum PA, and EI differentially impact GWG, IBW, and PPWR.
Physical Activity in Rheumatoid Arthritis: A Systematic Review
Authors: Tierney Marie , Fraser Alexander , Kennedy Norelee
Published: August 2016

Background:

Physical activity is associated with improved health outcomes in many populations. It is assumed that physical activity levels in the rheumatoid arthritis (RA) population may be reduced as a result of symptoms of the disease. The objective of this review is to establish the current evidence base for levels of physical activity in the RA population.

Methods:

A systematic review was performed of 7 databases (Ema-base, MEDLINE, AMED, Biomedical Reference Collection Expanded, CINAHL, Nursing and Allied Health Collection, and SportsDiscus) up to February 2011 to examine the evidence in the area.

Results:

One hundred and thirty-six studies were identified through electronic searching. One hundred and six were excluded based on title and/or abstract analysis and a further 14 were excluded based on full text analysis. Sixteen studies meeting the criteria were deemed suitable for inclusion. The results of the included studies indicate that the level of physical activity may be lower among individuals with RA when compared with healthy controls or normative data.

Conclusions:

There are a number of methodological considerations at play within the studies reviewed which prohibits definitive conclusion on the physical activity levels of this population group. Given the known health benefits of physical activity, further research in this area appears indicated.
Validation and Comparison of 3 Accelerometers for Measuring Physical Activity Intensity During Nonlocomotive Activities and Locomotive Movements
Authors: Hikihara Yuki , Tanaka Shigeho , Ohkawara Kazunori , Ishikawa-Takata Kazuko , Tabata Izumi
Published: August 2016

Background:

The current study evaluated the validity of 3 commercially-available accelerometers to assess metabolic equivalent values (METs) during 12 activities.

Methods:

Thirty-three men and thirty-two women were enrolled in this study. The subjects performed 5 nonlocomotive activities and 7 locomotive movements. The Douglas bag method was used to gather expired air. The subjects also wore 3 hip accelerometers, a Lifecorder uniaxial accelerometer (LC), and 2 triaxial accelerometers (ActivTracer, AT; Actimarker, AM).

Results:

For nonlocomotive activities, the LC largely underestimated METs for all activities (20.3%–55.6%) except for desk work. The AT overestimated METs for desk work (11.3%) and hanging clothes (11.7%), but underestimated for vacuuming (2.3%). The AM underestimated METs for all nonlocomotive activities (8.0%–19.4%) except for hanging clothes (overestimated by 16.7%). The AT and AM errors were significant, but much smaller than the LC errors (23.2% for desk work and –22.3 to –55.6% for the other activities). For locomotive movements, the 3 accelerometers significantly underestimated METs for all activities except for climbing down stairs.

Conclusions:

We conclude that there were significant differences for most activities in 3 accelerometers. However, the AT, which uses separate equations for nonlocomotive and locomotive activities, was more accurate for nonlocomotive activities than the LC.
Screen Time and Physical Activity in Youth: Thief of Time or Lifestyle Choice?
Authors: Sandercock Gavin R.H. , Ogunleye Ayodele , Voss Christine
Published: August 2016

Background:

This study aimed to examine the relationship between screen time and physical activity (PA) in children and adolescents but also to determine specific elements of PA that were most closely associated with screen time.

Methods:

We studied a cross-sectional sample of 6176 10.0–15.9 year olds (53% boys, 12.9 ± 1.5 years) who completed the Physical Activity Questionnaire for Children/Adolescents and reported daily screen time. Differences in total PA and specific elements of PA were examined between groups reporting: < 2 h, 2–4 h, and > 4 h daily screen time.

Results:

There were significant differences between screen time groups in: total PA, number of bouts of PA reported, after school PA, evening PA and weekend PA (P < .0001). There was a graded, negative association between higher screen time and lower free-time PA. Participants reporting < 2 h screen time were also significantly more active during school lunch breaks than those reporting > 2 h. Boys reporting > 4 h screen time were less active during physical education lessons.

Conclusions:

Screen time is significantly and negatively associated with PA in British youth. Screen time may displace active pursuits out of school but is also associated with lower PA during school. Daily screen time should be limited to < 2 h in line with current recommendations.
Differences in Physical Activity Among Adults in Households With and Without Children
Authors: Candelaria Jeanette I. , Sallis James F. , Conway Terry L. , Saelens Brian E. , Frank Lawrence D. , Slymen Donald J.
Published: August 2016

Background:

The study aim was to assess the relation of parent status to physical activity (PA) and the impact of parental roles, age and number of children on PA.

Methods:

Data for 909 women and 965 men, aged 20–57, were analyzed. Mixed Models were used to assess differences in PA between parents and adults without children, with analyses stratified by sex. The primary outcome was accelerometer-measured total daily minutes of moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA).

Results:

Parenthood was not related to MVPA, but mothers reported more total PA than nonmothers. For mothers and fathers, self-reported household activity was higher and sitting time lower, compared with nonparents. Both men and women with children aged 0–5 reported the highest household activity and the lowest sitting time, with household PA higher and sitting time lower with more children. There was no evidence that leisure, transport, or occupational activity varied by parenthood.

Conclusions:

Considering the potential impact of child-rearing on parent time demands, there was little difference in parents’ objectively measured MVPA compared with nonparents. Educational interventions or extracurricular programs for students and parents could target families with school-aged children. Development of tools to obtain parent reports of child care-specific PA behaviors would be useful.
The Influence of Neighborhood Socioeconomic Status and Walkability on TV Viewing Time
Authors: Coogan Patricia F. , White Laura F. , Evans Stephen R. , Palmer Julie R. , Rosenberg Lynn
Published: August 2016

Background:

Influences on TV viewing time, which is associated with adverse health outcomes such as obesity and diabetes, need clarification. We assessed the relation of neighborhood socioeconomic status (SES) and walkability with TV viewing time in the Black Women’s Health Study, a prospective study of African American women.

Methods:

We created neighborhood SES and walkability scores using data from the U.S. census and other sources. We estimated odds ratios for TV viewing 5+ hours/day compared with 0–1 hours/day for quintiles of neighborhood SES and walkability scores.

Results:

Neighborhood SES was inversely associated with TV viewing time. The odds ratio for watching 5+ hours/day in the highest compared with the lowest quintile of neighborhood SES was 0.66 (95% CI 0.54–0.81). Neighborhood walkability was not associated with TV viewing time.

Conclusions:

Neighborhood SES should be considered in devising strategies to combat the high levels of sedentariness prevalent in African American women.
A Systematic Approach to Selecting an Appropriate Measure of Self-Reported Physical Activity or Sedentary Behavior
Authors: Sternfeld Barbara , Goldman-Rosas Lisa
Published: August 2016

Context:

Numerous instruments to measure self-reported physical activity (PA) exist, but there is little guidance for determining the most appropriate choice.

Objective:

To provide a systematic framework for researchers and practitioners to select a self-reported PA instrument.

Process:

The framework consists of 2 components: a series of questions and a database of instruments. The questions encourage users to think critically about their specific needs and to appreciate the strengths and limitations of the available options. Instruments for the database were identified through existing literature and expert opinion.

Findings:

Ten questions, ranging from study aim and study design to target population and logistical consideration, guide the researcher or practitioner in defining the criteria for an appropriate PA instruments for a given situation. No one question on its own determines the optimal choice, but taken together, they narrow the potential field. The database currently includes 38 different self-reported PA instruments, characterized by 18 different parameters.

Conclusions:

The series of questions presented here, in conjunction with a searchable database of self-report PA instruments, provides a needed step toward the development of guiding principles and good practices for researchers and practitioners to follow in making an informed selection of a self-reported PA instrument.
The Effects of Gender and Experience on Perceived Exertion
Authors: Winborn Mark D. , Meyers Andrew W. , Mulling Carol
Published: August 2016

This study investigated the influence of gender and athletic experience on individuals' ratings of their perceived exertion (RPE). Twelve males with high athletic experience, 12 with low athletic experience, 12 females with high athletic experience, and 12 with low athletic experience were recruited from university classes and athletic teams. An estimate of each individual's maximum oxygen uptake (est VO2max) was obtained from a submaximal bicycle ergometer test. Subjects were then presented with ergometer workloads at 30, 50, and 70% of their estimated VO2max. Heart rate readings and RPEs were obtained during each workload presentation. Low athletic experience females were the least accurate in their RPEs, followed by low athletic experience males. High athletic experience males were the most accurate in their RPEs, followed by high athletic experience females. Results indicated that differences in RPE accuracy scores may be influenced by gender but that exposure to athletic experiences appears to override any potential gender differences.
Tie Effects of Performance Feedback on Female Self-Confidence
Authors: Petruzzello Steven J. , Corbin Charles B.
Published: August 2016

Research has suggested that females lack self-confidence in their abilities to perform in certain physical activity situations. This "situational vulnerability," however, is not characteristic of all age levels. The present research was designed to determine if situational vulnerability was characteristic of college-age females and to determine if postperformance feedback would enhance self-confidence. Further, the research was designed to determine if feedback-enhanced self-confidence would generalize to a different task. In Study 1, males and females (N=381) rated the gender appropriateness of several motor tasks and made confidence ratings. In Study 2, high and low confidence college-age women (N=69) were tested to determine if feedback increased confidence on a gender-neutral task.. Subjects were then tested for confidence after performing a different task to determine if feedback-produced confidence differences were enduring. The results indicated that both tasks were rated as gender-neutral, but college-age females lacked confidence when compared to males. Feedback did improve confidence for low confidence females, but this feedback-enhanced self-confidence did not generalize to a different motor task. It is suggested that a fourth factor, namely lack of experience, be added to Lenney's (1977) situational vulnerability hypothesis as a factor likely to affect female self-confidence.
Social Perception of Bodybuilders
Authors: Freeman Harvey R.
Published: August 2016

Engaging in bodybuilding, especially by a woman, may have a pervasive influence on the impressions others have of the bodybuilder. The first experiment examined the effects of the label bodybuilder on subjects' ratings of the probability that the stimulus person possessed gender-related characteristics. The second experiment was designed to determine whether female bodybuilders, compared to attractive and unattractive female nonbodybuilders, are (a) assumed to possess less socially desirable personality traits, (b) expected to lead less successful lives, and (c) viewed as less physically attractive. Results indicate that bodybuilding information plays a dominant role in influencing judgments. Stimulus persons who engage in bodybuilding are judged to be more likely to perform masculine role behaviors and less likely to be employed in feminine occupations, irrespective of gender. Female bodybuilders are viewed as relatively unattractive and are attributed with less desirable personality traits than are attractive female nonbodybuilders. The significance of these findings in understanding the perpetuation of stereotypes is discussed.
The Effects of Mastery, Competitive, and Cooperative Goals on the Performance of Simple and Complex Basketball Skills
Authors: Giannini John M. , Weinberg Robert S. , Jackson Allen J.
Published: August 2016

This study investigated the effects of different goal and feedback conditions on performance of a basketball shooting task and a more complex one-on-one offensive basketball task. Subjects (N= 1(D) were matched, based on pretest performance, into one of five conditions: competitive goal, cooperative goal, mastery goal, "do your best" with feedback, and "do your best" without feedback. Subjects also responded to questionnaires to allow an assessment of the strength of mastery, competitive, and social goal orientations, which reflected personal achievement goals held before goal-setting instructions were offered. Results indicated that the competitive goal group performed significantly better than the do-your-best-without-feedback group in one-on-one posttest trials. No other between-group performance differences were significant. Subjects' goal orientations were not related to performance in the competitive and cooperative goal conditions, but significant relationships were found for mastery goal group subjects. The results are discussed in terms of Locke's theory of goal setting as well as achievement motivation research on goal orientations, and future directions for research are offered.
An In-depth Study of Former Elite Figure Skaters: I. Introduction to the Project
Authors: Scanlan Tara K. , Ravizza Kenneth , Stein Gary L.
Published: August 2016

This article introduces a project focused on the sources of sport enjoyment and stress, and the role that significant others have in these experiences. These issues were studied in depth using primarily qualitative interview techniques that were then complemented by quantitative assessments. Study participants were 26 former elite figure skaters who had competed at the national level and were currently coaching. The interviews lasted an average of 2 1/2 hours and yielded over 1,000 transcribed pages. The purpose of this manuscript is to provide an underlying coherency to a series of articles through which this wealth of information will be presented. Information common to all articles and the methodological framework to the entire project are discussed. Details about the talented individuals studied, including descriptive data regarding their development of commitment to their sport, are presented. Consistent with research concerning other talent domains (Bloom, 1985), the findings show a progression from initial casual involvement to intense dedication.
The Effects of Subjective and Objective Competitive Outcomes on Intrinsic Motivation
Authors: McAuley Edward , Tammen Vanee V.
Published: August 2016

The present study was designed to assess the effects of subjective and objective competitive outcomes on intrinsic motivation following completion of a one-on-one basketball jump-shooting competition. Researchers all too often operationalize competitive outcomes in terms of winning and losing, and neglect to examine performance from the subjective perspective of the individual. The intrinsic motivation of winners and losers and individuals high and low in perceived success were compared by employing a multidimensional measure of intrinsic motivation. Results indicated that both winners and high success individuals displayed significantly greater intrinsic motivation than losers and low. success individuals, respectively. However, multivariate analyses of variance demonstrated significant differences only between the perceived success groups when intrinsic motivation was examined at a multidimensional level. Specifically, high success individuals perceived themselves as trying; harder, being more competent, and enjoying' the activity "more. These findings are discussed from a cognitive evaluation perspective that: focuses on the role played by self-perception of events in relation to motivational processes.
Cross-cultural Analysis in Exercise and Sport Psychology: A Void in the Field
Authors: Duda Joan L. , Allison Maria T.
Published: August 2016

The-role of race and ethnicity in explaining variability in human behavior has long been considered in the anthropological and sociological studies of play, games, and sport. This paper suggests ways in which the field of sport and exercise psychology might more systematically begin to incorporate factors of race and ethnicity into its research agendas. The paper is divided into four major sections. The first section provides evidence of a dearth of such research in the field of sport and exercise psychology. The second section presents an overview of current work that highlights ethnic/racial differences in motor performance, physical activity levels, and recreational sport participation. The third section explores the theoretical relevance of comparative research on ethnic/racial similarities and differences in psychological processes and behavior. Finally, potential research methodologies that might be used in psychological research in sport and exercise contexts are presented. Implications for both basic and applied work are offered.
Effect of Goal Difficulty and Positive Reinforcement on Endurance Performance
Authors: Weinberg Robert , Garland Howard , Bruya Lawrence , Jackson Allen
Published: August 2016

The present investigation tested the interactive effects of goal difficulty and positive reinforcement in the form of verbal persuasion on endurance performance. Two experiments were conducted in laboratory and field settings. In Experiment 1, subjects (n=87) were assigned to a realistic or an unrealistic goal condition and either received or did not receive positive reinforcement while performing the 3-minute sit-up test over the course of 5 weeks. In addition, two control conditions were utilized including a do-your-best group and a no-treatment control group. Results indicated no significant main or interaction effects for the goal setting or positive reinforcement conditions. In Experiment 2, subjects (n=120) squeezed a hand dynamometer for as long as they could. Experimental conditions were similar to those in Experiment 1 except that the verbal persuasion was individualized since it was group oriented in the first experiment. Results again indicated no significant between-subjects main effects or interactions. Questionnaires revealed that subjects accepted their assigned goals, tried extremely hard, were committed to achieving their goals, and felt their goals were important. Results are discussed in terms of the goal attainability notion (Garland, 1983) and self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 1977). Future directions for research are offered.
The Effects of Group Size in Sport
Authors: Widmeyer W. Neil , Brawley Lawrence R. , Carron Albert V.
Published: August 2016

Although group size has been one of the most frequently examined small-group variables, it has rarely been studied in sport. In Study 1 the effects of number of team members on cohesion and performance were examined. Teams of 3, 6, and 9 members participated in a 3-on-3 basketball league. Discriminant function analyses indicated that team size was related to pre-and postseason task cohesion and postseason social cohesion. Study 2 determined effects of action-unit size (number from one team on the field of action) on enjoyment and cohesion. Relationships between these outcomes and five more immediate outcomes were also investigated. As predicted, enjoyment and cohesion decreased as size increased. This decrease was also observed for the more immediate outcomes of exercise/fatigue, influence/responsibility, and organization/strategy whereas feelings of crowding increased with size. The best predictor of enjoyment was exercise/fatigue in smaller units and reduced influence/responsibility in large units. Organization/strategy was the best predictor of cohesion for all action-unit sizes.
Physical Activity Participation: Social Cognitive Theory versus the Theories of Reasoned Action and Planned Behavior
Authors: Dzewaltowski David A. , Noble John M. , Shaw Jeff M.
Published: August 2016

Social cognitive theory and the theories of reasoned action and planned behavior were examined in the prediction of 4 weeks of physical activity participation. The theories of reasoned action and planned behavior were supported. Attitude and perceived control predicted intention, and intention predicted physical activity participation. The social cognitive theory variables significantly predicted physical activity participation, with self-efficacy and self-evaluation of the behavior significantly contributing to the prediction. The greater the confidence in participating in physical activity and the greater the satisfaction with present physical activity, the more physical activity performed. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that perceived control and intentions did not account for any unique variation in physical activity participation over self-efficacy. Therefore the social cognitive theory constructs were better predictors of physical activity than those from the theories of reasoned action and planned behavior.
Effects of Travel and Length of Home Stand/Road Trip on tie Home Advantage
Authors: Courneya Kerry S. , Carron Albert V.
Published: August 2016

The present study investigated the effects of season game number, series game number, length of home stand, length of visitor's road trip, home travel, and visitor travel on the home advantage in minor league Double A baseball (N= 1812 games). Initial analysis indicated that the home team won 55.1% of the games (p<.001). Forced-entry multiple regression analyses determined that the combined main and interaction effects of the predictor variables explained less than 1.2% of the variance in win/loss outcome (p>.49). Chi-square analyses revealed that the variable of length of visitor's road trip produced the greatest change in the magnitude of home advantage. When the length of visitor's road trip was cross-tabulated with the length of home stand, me change in home advantage was statistically significant for the home team's later series (p<.05). The implications of these results for the various home advantage explanations are discussed, and future directions for home advantage research are offered.
The Relationships Among Competitive Orientation, Sport-Confidence, Self-Efficacy, Anxiety, and Performance
Authors: Martin Jeffrey J. , Gill Diane L.
Published: August 2016

We examined the relationships among trait and state psychological variables and performance in male high school distance runners using the Sport Orientation Questionnaire (SOQ; Gill & Deeter, 1988), the Competitive Orientation Inventory (COI; Vealey, 1986), the Trait Sport-Confidence Inventory (TSCI; Vealey, 1986), the State Sport-Confidence Inventory (SSCI; Vealey, 1986), the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2; Martens, Burton, Vealey, Bump, & Smith, 1990), and separate self-efficacy scales for performance (time) and outcome (place). As hypothesized, trait sport-confidence predicted state sport-confidence and outcome self-efficacy. However, competitive orientation did not contribute to the prediction of state measures. State sport-confidence and self-efficacy predicted performance, as hypothesized. Surprisingly, outcome self-efficacy was a stronger predictor than performance self-efficacy, which did not contribute to the prediction of performance time or place. The runners' youth and lack of competitive track experience may have prevented them from forming accurate performance self-efficacy judgments. In contrast, the familiar and small competitive field may have allowed these athletes to form accurate outcome self-efficacy judgments.
Attentional Style and Basketball Performance
Authors: Summers Jeffery J. , Miller Kerryn , Ford Stephen
Published: August 2016

The Test of Attentional and Interpersonal Style (TAIS) has been used to examine the attention-performance relationship in sport with mixed results. However, sport-specific versions of the TAIS attentional subscales appear to provide improved measurement of attentional processes in sport. The present study farther evaluated the utility of a sport-specific TAIS. A secondary aim was to examine the relationship between attentional style and competitive trait anxiety. The TAIS and a basketball-specific form (BB-TAIS) were administered to 110 basketball players classified into three skill-level groups. Both instruments were psychometrically similar. The bandwidth dimension was supported, although it appeared to be multidimensional. The validity of the direction dimension, however, remains inconclusive. Neither instrument was able to reliably discriminate between basketball players of different skill levels. Predicted relationships, however, were obtained between the BB-TAIS subscales and measures of competitive trait anxiety. The use of the TAIS as a research instrument for examining attentional styles in sport is questioned.
Perfectionism and Reactions to Athletic Competition
Authors: Frost Randy O. , Henderson Katherine J.
Published: August 2016

This exploratory study examined the relationship of perfectionism (from a recently devised multidimensional measure) with female athletes' reactions to athletic competition and coaches' ratings of reactions to mistakes during competition. Athletes who rated high in Concern Over Mistakes (one dimension of perfectionism) reported more anxiety and less self-confidence in sports, displayed a general failure orientation toward sports, reacted negatively to mistakes (by their report and by coaches' ratings), and reported more negative thinking in the 24 hours prior to competition. A second dimension of perfectionism, High Personal Standards, was associated with a success orientation toward sports and more dreams of perfection prior to competition. The possible influence of perfectionism on motivation and performance in sports is discussed.
Goal Setting and Performance in a Novel Coordination Task: Mediating Mechanisms
Authors: Smith Matthew , Lee Christina
Published: August 2016

This study examined the facilitatory effect of goal setting in physical performance. Three potential mechanisms that may mediate this effect are described: increases in time spent practicing, promotion of effective training strategies, and increases in commitment resulting from public goal setting. Students (N=51) performed a novel task under one of three conditions: public goal setting, private goal setting, and no goal setting. Goals selected, time spent practicing, strategies used during practice, and actual performance were assessed. Subjects in the two goal-setting groups showed better performance than those in the control-group; those in the public goal-setting group spent the most time in practice, but this was not reflected in better performance. Test performance was predicted by baseline performance and by the goal set; practice time, training strategy, and public goal setting did not account for further variance in performance. Although this study failed to find a mediating effect for these three mechanisms, the results must be interpreted with caution.
Perceived Physical Competence in Adults: An Examination of the Physical Self-Perception Profile
Authors: Sonstroem Robert J. , Speliotis Elias D. , Fava Joseph L.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this research was to assess the structure and validity of the Physical Self-Perception Profile (PSPP) when used with adults in their middle and later years. Females (n=149) and males (n=111) completed the four subdomain scales (sport competence, physical condition, attractive body, strength); the more general domain scale, physical self-worth; and a global self-esteem scale. PSPP scales manifested strong internal consistency, validly separated exercisers from nonexercisers (Canonical R=.71 for females, .64 for males, and predicted degree of exercise involvement (Canonical R=.73 for females, .64 for males). Principal-component analyses revealed scale overlap for the scales for physical self-worth and attractive body. Although future PSPP users are warned of probable redundancy in these two scales, continued use and study of PSPP scales is strongly encouraged.
The Relationship of Perceived Motivational Climate to Intrinsic Motivation and Beliefs about Success in Basketball
Authors: Selfriz Jeffrey J. , Duda Joan L. , Chi Likang
Published: August 2016

Drawing from contemporary goal perspective theories of achievement motivation, this investigation had as its primary purpose to determine the relationship of perceived motivational climate to intrinsic motivation and attributional beliefs in a sport setting. This study also examined the degree to which the dependent variables of interest are a function of situational goal structure, dispositional goal orientations, or both. Subjects, 105 male basketball players from nine varsity high school teams, were requested to complete the four instruments. Results indicated that the Perceived Motivational Climate in Sport Questionnaire was comprised of two valid and reliable subscales, the Mastery and Performance Climate scales. Perceptions of a mastery-oriented climate positively related to reported enjoyment and the belief that effort leads to achievement. Perceptions of a performance-oriented climate were associated with the view that superior ability causes success. In general, indices of intrinsic motivation and attributional beliefs were best predicted by dispositional goal orientation.
The Role of Domain and Gender-Specific Provisions of Social Relations in Adherence to a Prescribed Exercise Regimen
Authors: Duncan Terry E. , Duncan Susan C. , McAuley Edward
Published: August 2016

The present study investigated the role of domain-specific combinations of social support provisions in adherence to a prescribed exercise regimen. Research participants were middle-aged, sedentary, males and females (N = 85). Separate discriminant function analyses for males and females revealed that among females, the social provisions of guidance and reassurance of worth significantly discriminated adherers and nonadherers. The two provisions of social integration and guidance significantly discriminated adherers and nonadherers among males. Results are discussed with reference to the importance of social provisions in exercise settings, male and female differences, and the implications of social support interventions for enhancing exercise compliance.