bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Observations on reproduction, hormones, copulatory behavior, and neonatal mortality in captive Lemur mongoz (Mongoose lemur)
Authors: Perry Jean M. , Izard M. Kay , Fail Patricia A.
Published: June 2005

This study examines correlates of reproduction in Lemur mongoz, an endangered prosimian primate with a history of poor captive reproduction. Male testicular growth and regression were quantified via testicular indices (TI). Although TIs could be used to predict male breeding condition, they were not indicators of ability to sire offspring. Serum estradiol (E2) and progesterone (P) concentrations, along with vaginal cytology, were used to monitor female reproductive cyclicity. E2 and P profiles showed no abnormalities. An elevation of E2 with low P, approximately one estrous cycle length (31.4 days) prior to the onset of fertile cycles, was consistent with the phenomenon of ‘pseudoestrus’ observed in other lemur species. The copulatory pattern, consisting of thrusting, multiple intromissions, single or multiple ejaculations, and no copulatory lock, was more complex than expected for an animal with a supposedly monogamous mating system. The preference for natural arboreal substrata during copulation suggests that enclosure furnishings may influence copulatory behavior. A 30% neonatal mortality rate tempered recent success in breeding L. mongoz at the Duke University Primate Center (DUPC). Although infant sex and parity of the mother were not predictive of neonatal mortality, mother's natal status was, with captive‐born females having a 67% infant mortality rate, compared with 15% in wild‐caught females. Based on these observations, a number of factors, including housing, behavior, and photoperiod, may be relevant to successful captive propagation of L. mongoz. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Adaptation of captive‐bred cotton‐top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) to a natural environment
Authors: Price Eluned C.
Published: June 2005

The reintroduction to the wild of captive‐born individuals could have an important role in saving some endangered species from extinction. However, such individuals may not have the necessary skills to survive in the wild. In order to assess their locomotor and orientation capabilities in a natural environment, a family of five captive‐bred cotton‐top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) was released into a wooded area in the grounds of the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust. Descriptive and quantitative data were collected during an intensive 10‐week study and a further 6 weeks of systematic monitoring. The tamarins coped well with the change of environment from cage to wood. As the study progressed, they used a wider range of strata, from the ground to heights of more than 15m, and began to use relatively thin (less than 10 cm diameter) diagonal branches rather than fixed horizontal supports such as nestboxes. Their range increased in area, and they spent less time resting and more time moving and feeding. Studies like this can provide information on the skills already possessed by captive‐born animals, as well as those which will have to be improved by more structured training programs, and therefore have important implications for the preparation of captive‐born primates for reintroduction to the wild. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Assessing reproductive cycles and pregnancy in cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) by vaginal cytology
Authors: Asa Cheryl S. , Junge Randall E. , Bircher J. Stephen , Noble Gary A. , Sarri Kristen J. , Plotka Edward D.
Published: June 2005

Vaginal cytology was used to monitor ovarian cycles, two pregnancies, and three pseudopregnancies. Vaginal smears were collected two or three times per week from three adult females; smears plus blood samples were collected once per week from a fourth, adolescent female. Mean cycle lengths, based on intervals between onset of leukocyte infusions, were 11.9 ± 4.9 days (n = 43 cycles), 10.8 ± 5.1 days (n = 49), and 12.3 ± 6.3 days (n = 7) for the three females. Weekly hormone data from the adolescent female revealed a correlation between serum estradiol and percent anuclear cells, suggesting that these cells may be indicative of estrus. The fourth female experienced two sustained, 6‐week increases in serum progesterone, one spontaneous and the other following follicle‐stimulating hormone (FSH) administration. Leukocyte infusions continued during these periods of increased progesterone secretion. However, leukocyte infusions ceased during the two pregnancies of one adult female and during two FSH‐induced pseudopregnancies of another. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Intracelomic use of tricaine methanesulfonate for anesthesia of bullfrogs (Rana catesbeiana) and leopard frogs (Rana pipiens)
Authors: Letcher James
Published: June 2005

The use of intracelomic injection of dissolved tricaine methanesulfonate (MS‐222) as an anesthetic agent in two anuran species was studied. Intracelomic MS‐222, at dosages of 100, 250, and 400 mg/kg, rapidly induced tranquilization or anesthesia. Effects were less pronounced or nonexistent at the 50 mg/kg dosage. Depth and duration of anesthesia were dosage related. At the 100, 250, and 400 mg/kg dosages, Rana pipiens attained a greater depth of anesthesia and remained anesthetized for a significantly greater duration than did R. catesbeiana. Dosages of between 250–400 mg/kg reliably induced deep anesthesia without mortality in bullfrogs. Dosages of less than 250 mg/kg are recommended for leopard frogs, since variable mortality was noted with higher dosages. Solubilized tricaine methanesulfonate did not cause gross or histopathological lesions to celomic tissues. Tricaine methanesulfonate injected intracelomically can provide rapid, efficient anesthesia in some anuran species. However, due to the observed intra‐ and interspecies variation in effect, it should be used cautiously, especially in unfamiliar species. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss Inc.
Effects of management practices on the timing of captive chimpanzee births
Authors: Alford P. L. , Nash L. T. , Fritz J. , Bowen J. A.
Published: June 2005

Most wild and captive nonhuman primates give birth nocturnally. Circadian rhythm mechanisms are a principal determinant of the nonrandom initiation of labor, but it has been suggested that the decreased human activity and increased seclusion over the weekend in laboratory primate colonies may result in an effect whereby births are confined mainly to the quiet periods. This study tests for such an effect in the timing of 153 live, term births in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) housed in three institutions with various management practices. Eighty‐four percent of births occurred nocturnally, and peak delivery time was between 2400 and 0700 hours. When the total number of births was examined, significantly fewer births occurred on Wednesdays and Thursdays, during the mid‐week peak in colony activity, and significantly more births occurred on Sundays and Mondays. In facilities having marked alterations between weekday and weekend activity, significantly more births occurred Sunday and Monday. In the colonies where weekend and weekday surveillance and activity were similar, births were more evenly distributed throughout the week. These data suggest that parturition may be inhibited by routine colony activities that are perceived as stressful by some animals, and that the decreased activity and increased privacy on weekends may allow relaxation of parturient females, resulting in delivery during or immediately following the weekend. Colony managers should minimize colony activities that are potentially stressful to prepartal females in order to reduce risks to the fetus that may occur with delay or disruption of normal parturition. © 1992 Wiley‐Liss Inc.
Some notes on the physiological and behavioral ontogeny of okapi (Okapia Johnstoni) calves
Authors: Bennett C. , Lindsey S. Lyndaker
Published: June 2005

Four okapi calves were monitored from birth for specific behavioral and physiological developmental phenomena. Substantial changes are appropriate in defining normal ranges and averages of some behavioral landmarks previously reported in the literature (i.e., birth weight, first time standing, first attempt to nurse, first successful nurse, and first defecation). Simple, minimally invasive habituation techniques were used to collect daily body temperatures and weights for the four calves from birth to at least 90 days of age. Body temperatures for this time period averaged 38.07°C. Okapi calves appear to take from 51 to 60 days of age to thermoregulate efficiently. The calves grow rapidly, doubling their birth weight within approximately four weeks (28 days), and tripling it by seven weeks of age (49 days). © 1992 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Comparative evaluation of seminal, vaginal, and rectal bacterial flora in the cheetah and domestic cat
Authors: Howard JoGayle , Munson Linda , McAloose Denise , Kriete Martin , Bush Mitchell , Wildt David E.
Published: June 2005

To determine the status and potential impact of microorganisms on reproductive health, bacterial cultures were evaluated from cheetah seminal, vaginal, and rectal swabs and the results compared to those from clinically healthy, domestic cats. Aerobic bacteria were isolated in the semen from 26 of the 40 (65.0%) cheetahs and 25 of the 27 (92.6%) domestic cats. Gram‐negative organisms predominated in the electroejaculates of both species, accounting for >70% of the total bacterial isolates. The most common seminal organism in both species was hemolyticEscherichia coli. Bacteria were isolated from vaginal samples obtained from 49 of the 67 (73.1%) cheetahs and 46 of the 49 (93.9%) domestic cats. Gram‐negative organisms dominated, representing >63% of the vaginal bacteria, and again hemolyticE. coliwas the most prevalent isolate in both species. None of the cheetah or domestic cat vaginal cultures containedMycoplasma spp. orUreaplasma spp. Numerous gram‐negative and gram‐positive bacteria were identified in rectal cultures of 73 cheetahs and 60 domestic cats, but hemolyticE. coliclearly was the most common isolate. Within each species, a comparison between electroejaculates that were positive vs. negative for hemolyticE. coligrowth revealed no differences in sperm concentration, sperm motility ratings, or the proportion of structurally abnormal spermatozoa. Neutrophils were not detected in any of the 67 felid ejaculates, and the presence of seminal hemolyticE. coliwas unrelated to fertility, on the basis of past ability to sire young or fertilize oocytes in vitro. Vaginal cytologic evaluations in both the cheetah and domestic cat indicated that hemolyticE. coliwas not associated with a pathologic inflammatory response. Overall fecundity and proven ability to produce young were similar between females producing positive or negative vaginal cultures forE. coli. These findings indicate that commensal bacteria exist in the reproductive tract of the cheetah and domestic cat, and these organisms constitute normal, apparently innocuous bacterial microflora in the semen and vagina. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Infectious disease surveillance in captive and free‐living cheetahs: An integral part of the species survival plan
Authors: Evermann James F. , Laurenson M. Karen , McKeirnan Alison J. , Caro T. M.
Published: June 2005

During the formulative stages of developing the Species Survival Plan (SSP) for the cheetah, the impact of infectious disease upon its survival in captivity was of prime consideration, together with genetics, nutrition, physiology, and behavior. This paper summarizes the results of an infectious disease surveillance program, initially designed to monitor the infectious agents associated with clinically normal and clinically ill cheetahs in captivity, but subsequently supplemented with data from free‐living cheetahs. The focus was on two viral infections, feline infectious peritonitis (FIP) and feline rhinotracheitis virus. Results indicated that between 1989 and 1991, there was an increase in the seroprevalence (number antibody‐positive animals) of cheetahs to feline coronavirus from 41% to 64% in captivity. During this same time period, there were only two documented cases of FIP in cheetahs in the United States. The results suggest that feline coronavirus (feline enteric coronavirus‐‐feline infectious peritonitis group) or a closely related coronavirus of cheetahs is becoming endemic in the captive cheetah population.

Further serologic results from 39 free‐living cheetahs demonstrated that there was a high seroprevalence (61%) to feline coronavirus, although serum antibody titers were considerably lower than those encountered in captive cheetahs. The observation of a high percentage of free‐living cheetahs, which were seropositive to feline herpesvirus (44%), was unexpected, since it has been generally regarded that this infection is primarily associated with cheetahs in captivity. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Noninvasive semen collection from an adult orangutan
Authors: Vandevoort Catherine A. , Neville Laurie E. , Tollner Theodore L. , Field Leslie P.
Published: June 2005

Preservation of the genetic diversity of the captive orangutan, especially the wild‐caught founders, is critical in maintaining a long‐term population in zoological parks. One solution to the problem of maintaining maximum genetic diversity would be to initiate a program of artificial insemination for genetically underrepresented individuals through the banking and interinstitutional use of cryopreserved semen. However, little is known about basic orangutan semen characteristics, and current methodology is inadequate to support such a program. In this paper, we report the results of semen collection from an adult Sumatran orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus abelli), using an artificial vagina without anesthesia or electrical stimulation. A total of 27 ejaculates were evaluated during a 1‐year period. The total and liquid volumes of the ejaculates at 1 h following collection were 6.1 ± 0.6 ml and 2.6 ± 0.4 ml, respectively (mean ± SEM). The liquid portion continued to exude semen for 2 h; however, 90% of the motile sperm was exuded within the first 30 min. The total number of sperm in the ejaculate was 164 ± 106 ± 16.5, and the percentage of motile cells was 60 ± 2.7%. We conclude that the artificial vagina provides a promising technique for semen collection in the orangutan, and view these results as an initial step in developing methods for in vitro sperm capacitation, sperm cryopreservation, and artificial insemination. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
The gross anatomy, cellular structure, and fatty acid composition of adipose tissue in captive polar bears (Ursus maritimus)
Authors: Colby Richard H. , Mattacks Christine A. , Pond Caroline M.
Published: June 2005

The gross anatomy, microscopic structure, and fatty acid composition of adipose tissue in four elderly polar bears (Ursus maritimus), that had each been in captivity for more than 24 years, were compared with that of young wild specimens. Total dissections were performed on two specimens. In both, the proportion of adipose tissue in the body was similar to that of younger wild bears, but the total adipocyte complement was smaller than that of the wild bears in one specimen, and within the normal range in the other. There was proportionately more intra‐abdominal adipose tissue, particularly in the inner ventral wall of abdomen depot, in which the number of adipocytes was substantially greater than expected. The fatty acid composition of the triacylglycerols differed substantially from that of the wild bears, reflecting their diet of fish, domesticated herbivores, bread, and fruit, but there were also significant differences between cage‐mates eating similar diets. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Hybridization between ocelot (Felis pardalis) and puma (Felis concolor)
Authors: Dubost Gérard , Royère Jean‐Yves
Published: June 2005

A captive‐living male Felis pardalis and female F. concolor produced four litters between 1990 and 1992. Both the body size and spot pattern of the offspring showed characteristics intermediate between those of the parents, but, in general, there was greater phenotypic similarity to the sire. Contrary to previous cases of felid hybridization, neither equal body size of the partners nor male physical dominance was necessary for copulation in these felids. This successful interbreeding confirms the position of the puma in the genus Felis, but also raises questions about phylogenetic relationships within the genus. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Old, socially housed rhesus monkeys manipulate objects
Authors: Novak Melinda A. , Musante Amy , Munroe Heather , O'Neill Peggy L. , Price Cristofer , Suomi Stephen J.
Published: June 2005

Recent research has indicated that old, individually housed monkeys show little interest in novel objects. Yet unanswered is whether this effect is caused primarily by age or housing condition. The purpose of this study was to assess the role of social living in promoting responsiveness to objects. We measured the rates of object manipulation in older animals, assessed responsiveness over time to particular objects as a measure of habituation, and examined social influences on object use. Several social groups of rhesus monkeys that contained older adults were studied. These groups were housed in indoor pens or in an outdoor enclosure, and all monkeys had continuous access to a variety of objects in their home environment. In contrast to previous studies of individually housed monkeys, our group‐housed monkeys showed sustained interest in objects. Old monkeys manipulated objects extensively, and this response was all the more significant, given that the objects were not novel. Monkeys housed in an outdoor enclosure showed object manipulation patterns that were not different from monkeys housed in indoor pens. However, females exhibited much higher object‐related responses than males. Social facilitation played a role in the reactions of some monkeys to objects. Patterns of social facilitation as well as avoidance were present in two of the three indoor groups that were observed. Failure to manipulate objects in rhesus macaques appears to be more a function of individual housing than of old age. Factors such as environmental complexity, social needs, and early experience should be considered in order to understand why individually housed rhesus monkeys are unresponsive to objects. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Enticing nonhuman primates to forage for their standard biscuit ration
Authors: Reinhardt Viktor
Published: June 2005

Ordinary feeder‐boxes for macaques were converted into food puzzles by remounting them onto the square mesh (22 × 22 mm) of the front of the cages, away from original access holes. Feeding a standard ration of bar‐shaped biscuits (40 × 24 × 16 mm; Purina Monkey Chow #5038; 236 g per animal), 8 adult pair‐housed male rhesus macaques spent, on average, 61.0±15.6% of the first 30 min retrieving biscuits from food puzzles, but only 0.5±0.1% from feeder‐boxes. Their total amount of time engaged in gathering food was, on average, 141 times higher at food puzzles (42.2±7.2 min) than at feeder‐boxes (0.3±0.1 min). It was concluded that using feeder‐boxes as food puzzles, baited with the standard biscuit ration, offers a cost‐ and work‐effective way to promote foraging activities in captive nonhuman primates. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Molecular identification of a Mandrillus hybrid using mitochondrial DNA
Authors: Painter J. N. , Crozier R. H. , Westerman M.
Published: June 2005

The purity of the Melbourne Zoo mandrill (Mandrillus sphinx) population has been questioned, based on the facial coloration of the female members. Consequently, it is believed that the original founding female of the Melbourne Zoo “mandrill” population was a drill–mandrill hybrid. This individual, whose mother was suspected to be a drill (Mandrillus leucophaeus), is the only female to have contributed mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) to the population. The strictly maternal inheritance of mtDNA in vertebrates makes this molecule an ideal marker for the tracing of maternal gene flow. DNA sequence data from a 307‐base pair (bp) region of the mitochondrial gene cytochrome b, amplified via the poly‐merase chain reaction (PCR), was obtained from the Melbourne Zoo individuals, and compared to the homologous sequences from known specimens of both mandrill and drill. The results obtained show that all current members of the “mandrill” population possess drill mtDNA, supporting the belief that the original female founder was a hybrid. This type of genetic study has significant implications for the conservation and future management of this and other captive populations. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Aquarium science: The substance behind an image
Authors: McCormick‐Ray M. Geraldine
Published: June 2005

A change occurring in commercial aquaria is transforming them from centers of entertainment to places that emphasize education, science, and wildlife conservation. If this transformation is to be authentic, it must be based on a greater understanding of the animals in their captive environment. A stronger scientific basis for husbandry management, education, and conservation is needed.

A systems approach to aquariology, aimed at both the individual holding facility and the aquarium institution, is suggested. A science of “aquariology,” i.e., the study of animals in controlled aquatic systems, needs to be advanced, and a program instituted in which research, management, education, and conservation goals are integrated. Aquarium science should emphasize an ecosystem approach and consider the evolutionary history of the species held. Exhibits could focus on the role of organisms in ecosystems to better encourage public understanding and support for aquatic conservation. A systems approach could also facilitate communications among managers, staff, and outside experts, as well as contribute to the long‐term care of the organisms and their capacity to adapt. A systems approach is essential if the aquarium image is based more on understanding and conserving aquatic life and less on public relations and exploitation of wild species. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Exceptional growth rates of captive loggerhead sea turtles, Caretta caretta
Authors: Swingle W. Mark , Warmolts Douglas I. , Keinath J. A. , Musick J. A.
Published: June 2005

Twelve loggerhead sea turtle hatchlings (Caretta caretta) were removed from a nest site (A) at the Back Bay National Wildlife Refuge (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service), Virginia Beach, VA. Hatchlings were distributed among study participants, and raised in captivity for a period of two years. Growth of the loggerheads was recorded weekly by straight‐line caliper measurements of carapace lengths as well as measurements of total weights. Growth rates from the present study were much greater than those measured in previous studies. Mean weights for Nest A turtles at 1.5 years ranged from 10.3 to 17.6 kg, with one exceptional individual reaching 20.0 kg. The data from this study provide new insights into the early growth potential of loggerhead sea turtles. How this accelerated development may affect sexual maturity and post‐release viability remain to be determined. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Effects of age at pairing on reproduction in captive California condors (Gymnogyps californianus)
Authors: Hartt Ernest W , Harvey Nancy C. , Leete Allison J. , Preston Kris
Published: June 2005

The lack of breeding behavior seen in some pairs of adult California condors, Gymnogyps californianus, is of great concern for the captive breeding program. One possible cause for absent or delayed breeding in what are otherwise seemingly compatible animals is inbreeding avoidance behavior. To examine this possibility, housing and reproduction records were examined for all adult California condors. The influence of housing on reproduction of birds that had been exclusively paired for at least one full breeding season was examined with linear regression, and the age of females at the age of exclusive pairing was shown to have a significant influence on fertility, which increased with increased age at pairing. Behavioral data from adult pairs at the San Diego Wild Animal Park corroborated these findings, as mounts and copulations were observed at significantly lower frequencies in pairs that had been formed when the female was less than two years old. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Performance of African elephants (Loxodonta africana) and California sea lions (Zalophus californianus) on a two‐choice object discrimination task
Authors: Savage Anne , Rice James M. , Brangan Jon M. , Martini David P. , Pugh James A. , Miller C. Daniel
Published: June 2005

This study documents the ability of African elephants (Loxodonta africana) and California sea lions (Zalophus californianus) to perform a two‐choice object discrimination task. Both species were able to perform this task. However, California sea lions took fewer trials overall to reach a criterion of 10 consecutively correct responses than did African elephants. The performance of California sea lions did not change significantly during this study. However, African elephants showed a gradual learning of the task, as exhibited by a gradual decrease in the number of trials needed to reach criterion. This performance difference may reflect differences in either visual abilities or cognitive functioning, which in turn may be influenced by either different evolutionary pressures exerted on herbivores and carnivores, or by the context in which visual information is used in the lives of these animals. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Scale variation in a laboratory colony of amelanistic diamondback rattlesnakes (Crotalus atrox)
Authors: McCrady William B. , Murphy James B. , Garrett Clay M. , Roberts David T.
Published: June 2005

Inbreeding for 6 generations has produced a strain of amelanistic western diamondback rattlesnakes (Crotalus atrox) with extremely variable scalation. Forty‐four siblings varying from virtually no body scalation to normal scalation have been produced in the latest generation. Two of the 3 most extreme “scaleless” snakes were stillborn; the third was maintained for > 1 year. Two of 7 snakes with greatly reduced head and body scales have died; however, the remaining 5 are being maintained and appear to be growing and healthy at 5 or 6 years of age. All snakes with reduced body scales have abnormal ventral scutes. Fifteen snakes with predominantly normal body scales have anomalous head scales, head scale patterns, and ventral scutes. One snake has predominantly normal scalation except for aberrant ventrals. A total of 18 Generation VI snakes have been classified as “normal,” although all snakes were not closely examined before disposition. Nine of the more normally scaled generation VI snakes are also being maintained in the laboratory. It is difficult to separate the genetic and environmental components of these phenotypes with existing information; however, it seems apparent that more than a single locus is involved. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Spatial selection in captive adult female chimpanzees
Authors: Bettinger Tammie , Wallis Janette , Carter Tracy
Published: June 2005

Spatial selection refers to an animal's frequent use of certain areas of its enclosure or range. Through differential use of habitat, an individual can limit the amount of time spent in close proximity to other group members. The four adult female chimpanzees at the Tulsa Zoo were studied to determine if they used their enclosure differently from one another, if each had selected areas it occupied most frequently, and if an individual's preferred area was used by other female group members. Pairwise comparisons showed that the females used their island habitat differently from one another with the exception of one pair. Although these two females overlapped in their use of the enclosure, they separated their use temporally, thereby reducing the amount of time spent in close proximity to one another. Each female had a selected site that she occupied more frequently than did the other females. However, there was variation in the extent to which the females occupied each other's selected sites. Time of day and temperature had no effect on use of the habitat, however, one female showed a seasonal variation in her use of the enclosure. The spatial selection exhibited by these females may be comparable to the use of core areas by wild female chimpanzees. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Influence of regional crossbreeding between rhesus macaques on the rate of weight gain of their offspring
Authors: Smith David Glenn
Published: June 2005

To evaluate potential heterosis resulting from breeding between rhesus macaques of Chinese and Indian origin in a captive social group, the rates of weight gain of Indian (nonhybrid) rhesus monkeys were compared with those of their hybrid (half Chinese/half Indian) peers. The coefficients for the linear regression of age on weight were estimated for each animal for each exact age between 1 and 4, when that regression is strictly linear, at which he/she lived in the group. The average rates of weight gain of hybrids and nonhybrids were compared using the t statistic. Both male and female hybrids exhibited statistically significantly higher rates of weight gain than their nonhybrid peers before, but not after, age 4. No evidence could be found that either hybrid status or rate of weight gain increases fitness, at least under captive conditions. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Locomotion of free‐ranging golden lion tamarins (Leontopithecus rosalia) at the National Zoological Park
Authors: Stafford Brian J. , Rosenberger Alfred L. , Beck Benjamin B.
Published: June 2005

Locomotor behavior and substrate use of cage‐reared golden lion tamarins (Leontopithecus rosalia), newly released and free‐ranging on the grounds of the National Zoological Park, were studied to determine if locomotion changed following exposure to naturalistic conditions. The animals employed a predominantly quadrupedal locomotor profile, incorporating leaping and vertical climbing to a lesser degree. There was no clear evidence of a change in locomotion due to the high degree of variability in these behaviors. The locomotor repertoire of the free‐ranging group differed from that of groups occupying unenriched but relatively large conventional enclosures, indicating that whereas locomotion is plastic with respect to environment, substrate characteristics influence locomotor behavior and may promote stereotypical behavior. However, due to anatomical constraints, the locomotor repertoire tended to be less variable than substrate use. Similar behaviors were used in moving through a variety of habitat features in spite of strong associations between specific locomotor styles and substrate classes. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Crested gibbon (Hylobates [Nomascus]) identification using noninvasively obtained DNA
Authors: Garza John Carlos , Woodruff David S.
Published: June 2005

The development of captive breeding programs for the crested gibbons (Hylobates [Nomascus]) of Indochina is hindered by the difficulty of sorting individuals into their correct species and subspecies groups. We describe taxon‐specific DNA sequence variation in a 252‐base pair region of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene, which can be used to identify individuals of the three taxa of crested gibbon commonly found in Western zoos. These molecular genetic markers can be amplified from plucked hair and will permit the identification of morphologically similar females and crested gibbons of either sex of unknown origin. Noninvasive genotyping of captive animals will facilitate the genetic management of these critically endangered primates. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Variation in the parental care systems of mammals and the impact on zoo breeding programs
Authors: Baker Anne
Published: June 2005

The identity of mammalian caregivers, the types of care each may provide to young, and the developmental, ecological, and social factors that influence the amount and distribution of care are discussed. Care is distinguished from use and abuse in terms of the impact on the survival of young. Some effects of the failure to allow for adequate maternal care are described, and various management strategies to promote adequate and appropriate care behaviors are identified. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Mammalian sociobiology and zoo breeding programs
Authors: Kleiman Devra G.
Published: June 2005

This report discusses the impact of the social and physical environment on the potential for reproductive success of mammals in zoos. Several examples are provided of the importance of understanding the physical requirements as well as the mating system and social dynamics of a species (rather than just the group size and demography) when deciding on a management strategy. Additionally, the effects of social characteristics are stressed, such as familiarity on reproductive inhibition and stimulation both within and between the sexes and the impact these may have on the success or failure of a breeding program. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Personality assessment in the gorilla and its utility as a management tool
Authors: Gold Kenneth C. , Maple Terry L.
Published: June 2005

Goals of the Gorilla Species Survival Plan (SSP) include increased captive propagation, maintenance of genetic diversity, and consideration of the psychological well‐being of the population. The SSP Propagation Group has attempted to accomplish these goals through recommendations based on assessment of genetic, behavioral, and demographic variables. A need is recognized for the development of a methodology to assess behavioral variables that contribute to the success of animal moves. Personality profiles have been used in the past to aid animal management decisions in laboratory settings. This paper describes personality assessment techniques, reviews historical perspectives on primate personality assessment, and reports on a study to assess gorilla personality.

The Gorilla Behavior Index (GBI), a subjective assessment instrument consisting of behaviorally based adjectives, was completed for 298 of 303 captive gorillas over 1 year of age. The results were subjected to common factor analysis, resulting in the identification of four main factors: extroverted, dominant, fearful, and understanding. Frequency distributions were calculated illustrating the ranges of each factor. Potential management uses for the GBI scores are discussed. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Aging in snakes: Results of long‐term captivity on rattlesnake (Crotalus viridis oreganus) predatory behavior
Authors: Alving Wendy Rockhill , Kardong Kenneth V.
Published: June 2005

Conservation, scientific study, rehabilitation, and public education concerning animals often require or take advantage of captive individuals. The long‐term effects of captivity may affect the success and strategies used in such programs. For reptiles in particular, little is known about the effects of long‐term captivity. We compared the predatory behavior of the same eight Northern Pacific Rattlesnakes before and after 7 years in captivity. We found few changes in predatory behavior. Most changes were in the rate of tongue flicks before the strike and during recovery of prey; these changes seemed related to accommodation of the snakes to conditions of captivity. However, most aspects of rattlesnake predatory behavior remained unchanged, including the normal ability to target the prey accurately and kill it quickly. Although the snakes had spent over half their lives in captivity and reached a relatively old age, their ability to strike, dispatch, and relocate prey normally was relatively unaffected by captivity or by aging. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Quantitative assessment of pair formation behavior in captive whooping cranes (Grus americana)
Authors: Nelson Jay T. , Small Christine R. , Ellis David H.
Published: June 2005

Instantaneous scan sampling for mean distance and synchronous action patterns and all‐occurrence sampling for unison call, dance, strut, and hoover‐up behaviors were conducted for five potential whooping crane pairs at Patuxent Environmental Science Center, Laurel, Maryland. Dance, strut, and hoover‐up differed among pairs, as did total frequency of social behaviors. It was unclear whether or not total frequency of social behaviors during pair formation can be used as an index for potential breeding success. The relative importance of different action patterns should be used as indices of pair compatibility in captive whooping cranes. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Maternal aggressive contact vocalizations in captive bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus): Wide‐band, low‐frequency signals during mother/aunt‐infant interactions
Authors: McCowan Brenda , Reiss Diana
Published: June 2005

The mother‐infant bond in bottlenose dolphins is critical to infant survival and has been reported to last from 3‐10 years in both captive and wild populations. Little information on mother‐infant communication during early development has been collected. This paper reports on a newly discovered dolphin vocalization, termed thunk, which is predominantly used by mothers toward infants. Four mother‐infant pairs and one aunt‐infant pair were the subjects for this study. Methods included a focal animal sampling technique using 2.5 min interval and event/continuous sampling regimes on audio‐ or videotape. Results indicated that thunks are produced by mothers or aunting females during infant departures (distances greater than 5 feet) and are frequently followed by disciplinary activity by the mother or aunt. In addition, thunks appeared to cease at approximately 9‐10 months after birth, concurrent with a decrease in infant dependence. Thunks also were analyzed acoustically for frequency and duration parameters. Thunks have a harmonic structure with an energy peak in the 273–350 Hz range and ranged from 129–5,556 Hz in frequency and from 21–171 ms in duration. They appear to function as aggressive contact vocalizations produced by mothers and other adult females toward infants in order to maintain infant proximity. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Reproduction in captive Taiwan macaques (Macaca cyclopis) in comparison to other common macaque species
Authors: Petto Andrew J. , LaReau‐Alves Michele N. , Ellison Peter T. , Abbruzzese Martha C.
Published: June 2005

Twenty‐five years of reproductive and birth data from a Macaca cyclopis colony at the New England Regional Primate Research Center (NERPRC) indicate that these animals are seasonal breeders with a birth peak between February and May. Interbirth intervals have a mean of 587.5 ± 45.6 days. The age at first reproduction for females is 5.08 ±.357 years and for males 5.01 ± .94. The normal menstrual cycle length ranges from 24–31 (mean 27.9 ± .506) days, with “offseason” long cycles ranging from 43–69 days. For 10 females studied prospectively, the sex skin color cycle ranged from 23–34 days and exhibited no long cycles. The peak estradiol value was 1.35 nmol/L on day 11 (range 10–12) of the menstrual cycle. Estradiol values ranged from 0.7–2.0 nmol/L. The peak progesterone value was 23 nmol/L on day 21 (17–23). Progesterone levels ranged from 10–42 nmol/L. The observed lower fecundability of M. cylopis in a timed mating program is consistent with later ages at first reproduction and longer interbirth compared to the other species in breeding colonies at NERPRC. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Effectiveness of acoustic “prey”: Environmental enrichment for a captive African leopard (Panthera pardus)
Authors: Markowitz Hal , Aday Cheryl , Gavazzi Anita
Published: June 2005

In the course of developing active naturalistic exercise opportunities for zoo felines at moderate cost, a computer‐controlled acoustic prey device was established. Changes in the behavior of a 16‐year‐old melanistic leopard (Sabrina) were studied as she learned to actively pursue bird sounds and obtained food treats as a function of the activity. By the twenty‐ninth day she began to capture all 24 bird parts supplied on the feeder belt and continues to actively use the opportunity on a daily basis. General activity and apparent well‐being have been enhanced, while stereotypic behaviors have decreased. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Use of foraging racks and shavings as enrichment tools for groups of rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta)
Authors: Lutz C. K. , Novak M. A.
Published: June 2005

Searching for and processing food are important activities of free‐ranging primates. In contrast, captive primates spend little time foraging. Their food is readily available, easily obtained, and can be consumed quickly. The present study compared the use of foraging racks and a shavings substrate as two manipulations used to alter feeding behavior in nonhuman primates. Each method was tested in between two baseline periods (no racks or shavings present). Behavioral data were collected using a 30‐sec scan sampling procedure for 1 hr during the feeding period. Both the rack conditions and the shavings condition decreased passive feeding behavior in the subjects. The use of racks also resulted in increased cage usage, activity, and movement, and decreased social proximity; the use of shavings resulted in decreased agonism. This study suggests that foraging racks and shavings are useful devices for environmental enrichment. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
ISIS database: An evaluation of records essential for captive management
Authors: Earnhardt Joanne M. , Thompson Steven D. , Willis Kevin
Published: June 2005

Species databases are essential for the scientific management of species and specimens in captive wildlife populations. Population managers in North America base their decisions on information in two databases:the International Species Information System (ISIS) and American Zoo and Aquarium Association (AZA) approved regional studbooks. Genetic and demographic management of species relies on studbooks, whereas regional collection planning and management by Taxon Advisory Groups (TAGs) may use a combination of studbooks, direct surveys, and data from ISIS. Use of ISIS data as the primary basis for population management and collection planning is increasing, yet there has been no assessment of how ISIS data differ from studbooks. Thus these databases were compared to determine if they are interchangeable for the purposes of regional collection planning or species management. Population sizes of living individuals in 68 SSP© taxa were compared to assess the magnitude of differences between the databases. Differences in population size were considerable and highly variable; ISIS on average underestimated the number of living animals in SSP© taxa populations. Ten studbooks were also analyzed in detail to identify specific types of discrepancies between the two databases. On average, 19.2 ± 2.2% of the information in the ISIS database differed from that in the studbook. Most discrepancies derived from data that were either missing from, or incorrect in, the ISIS database. The most common discrepancies involve parents who were either unidentified or misidentified in the ISIS database (x̄ = 37.5 ± 5.7% of all records). No single type of discrepancy, however, was prevalent across all 10 species; the overall rate of discrepancies per species was attributable to a combination of discrepancies peculiar to each species. Protocols concerning data entry standards, data collection, and the scope of data collected are likely causes of most discrepancies. In its present form, the ISIS database is not appropriate for single species management; if used cautiously, it can be of assistance in the development of regional collection plans. Development of an ISIS database that is suitable for population management will require an increased commitment to data quality by records keepers, zoological institutions, and ISIS. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Seminal characteristics and artificial insemination of Chinese pheasants, Tragopan temminckii, Lophophorus impeyanus, and Lophophorus lhuysii
Authors: Durrant Barbara S. , Burch Catherine D. , Yamada Joan K. , Good Jackie
Published: June 2005

Long‐term conservation plans for endangered species of birds include the study of basic reproductive functions and the development of artificial reproductive techniques. This 6 year study of Chinese pheasants resulted in the description of seminal characteristics and the production of chicks from artificial insemination in each of three species. Semen was collected three times a week from February through June from two Temminck's tragopans (Tragopan temminckii), four Himalayan monals (Lophophorus impeyanus), and one Chinese monal (Lophophorus lhuysii). Ejaculates were analyzed for volume, concentration, and motility; some were extended and used for artificial insemination (AI). A semen quality index (SQI) was calculated from all measured semen parameters to generate a single number to facilitate the comparison of males, years, and species. For all three species, insemination of fresh semen began the day a hen laid an egg and continued two or three times a week until the end of the study. Over all years, tragopan 2 produced semen with a higher SQI than tragopan 1. Variation within individual Himalayan monals was also recorded with SQIs ranging from a low of 10.8 for male 4 to a high of 25.8 for male 1. When all males were compared by species, the Chinese monal, collected only in 1 year, exhibited a higher SQI than the tragopans or the Himalayan monals. During one 54 day period, a single tragopan hen was inseminated twice, 28 days apart to assess the longevity of inseminated sperm in the female reproductive tract. Fertile eggs were laid for 21 days following the first insemination and for 26 days following the second insemination. AI of tragopans and Himalayan monals resulted in 100% hatchability; for Chinese monals, the figure was 57%. It is believed that this study represents the first report of successful artificial insemination in Himalayan and Chinese monals. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Use of statistical models based on radiographic measurements to predict oviposition date and clutch size in rock iguanas (Cyclura nubila)
Authors: Alberts Allison C.
Published: June 2005

The ability to noninvasively estimate clutch size and predict oviposition date in reptiles can be useful not only to veterinary clinicians but also to managers of captive collections and field researchers. Measurements of egg size and shape, as well as position of the clutch within the coelomic cavity, were taken from diagnostic radiographs of 20 female Cuban rock iguanas, Cyclura nubila, 81 to 18 days prior to laying. Combined with data on maternal body size, these variables were entered into multiple regression models to predict clutch size and timing of egg laying. The model for clutch size was accurate to 0.53 ± 0.08 eggs, while the model for oviposition date was accurate to 6.22 ± 0.81 days. Equations were generated that should be applicable to this and other large Cyclura species. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.