bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Meiofauna winners and losers of coastal hypoxia: case study harpacticoid copepods
Authors: Grego M. , Riedel B. , Stachowitsch M. , De Troch M.
Published: January 2014

Abstract. The impact of anoxia on meiobenthic copepod species was assessed by means of a field experiment. Four plexiglass chambers were deployed in situ in 24 m depth to simulate an anoxic event of 9 days, 1 month, 2 months and 10 months. From normoxic to anoxic conditions, we recorded a drop in copepod density and species richness. With increasing duration of anoxia the relative abundance of the individuals of the family Cletodidae increased, and they survived the 1 month and 2 month anoxia, the latter with few specimens. They were the true "winners" of the experimentally induced anoxia. Dominance did not increase in the deployments because not one, but several species from this family were tolerant to anoxia. The overall rate of survival was the same for males and females, but no juvenile stages of copepods survived in anoxia. During a recovery phase of 7 days after a short-term anoxia of 9 days, harpacticoid copepod density did not increase significantly, and there was only a slight increase in species diversity. We concluded that no substantial colonisation from the surrounding sediment took place. The survivors, however, showed a high potential for recovery according to the number of gravid females, whose number increased significantly once the oxygen was available again. These findings imply that substantial energy is allocated to reproduction in the recovery phase.
Seasonal contribution of terrestrial organic matter and biological oxygen demand to the Baltic Sea from three contrasting river catchments
Authors: Reader H. E. , Stedmon C. A. , Kritzberg E. S.
Published: January 2014

Abstract. To examine the potential influence of terrestrially derived DOM on the Baltic Sea, a year-long study of dissolved organic matter (DOM) was performed in three river catchments in Sweden. One catchment drains into the Bothnian Sea, while two southern catchments drain into the Baltic Proper. Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentrations were positively correlated with discharge from forested catchments over the year and while the overall concentrations of DOC were several times higher in the southern two catchments, annual loading of DOC was on the same order for all three catchments, due to differences in discharge. Biological oxygen demand (BOD) was used as a proxy for the lability of carbon in the system. The range of BOD values was similar for all three catchments, however, the ratio of BOD to DOC (an indication of the labile fraction) in Ume älv was four times higher than in the southern two catchments. Total annual BOD loading to the Baltic Sea was twice as high in the northern catchment. Lower winter temperatures and preservation of organic matter in the northern catchment combined with an intense spring flood help to explain the higher concentrations of labile carbon in the northern catchment. Lower lability of DOM as well as higher colour in the southern catchments suggest that wetlands (i.e. peat bogs) may be the dominant source of DOM in these catchments, particularly in periods of low flow. With climate change expected to increase precipitation events and temperatures across the region, the supply and quality of DOM delivered to the Baltic Sea can also be expected to change. Our results indicate that DOM supply will be more stable throughout the year, and potentially have a lower bioavailability.
Spatial evapotranspiration, rainfall and land use data in water accounting – Part 2: Reliability of water accounting results for policy decisions in the Awash basin
Authors: Karimi P. , Bastiaanssen W. G. M. , Sood A. , Hoogeveen J. , Peiser L. , Bastidas-Obando E. , Dost R.
Published: January 2014

Abstract. Water Accounting Plus (WA+) is a framework that summarizes complex hydrological processes and water management issues in river basins. The framework is designed to use satellite based measurements of land and water as input data. A concern associated with the use of satellite measurements is their accuracy. This study focuses on the impact of the error in remote sensing measurements on water accounting and information provided to policy makers. The Awash basin in the central rift valley in Ethiopia is used as a case study to explore the reliability of WA+ outputs, in the light of input data errors. The Monte Carlo technique was used for stochastic simulation of WA+ outputs over a period of three years. The results show that the stochastic mean of the majority of WA+ parameters and performance indicators are within 5% deviation from the original values. Stochastic simulation can be used as part of a standard procedure for WA+ water accounting because it provides the error bandwidth for every WA+ output, which is essential information for sound decision making. The majority of WA+ parameters and performance indicators have a Coefficient of Variation (CV) of less than 20% which implies that they are reliable. The results also indicate that the "utilized flow" and "basin closure fraction" (the degree to which available water in a basin is utilized) have a high margin of error and thus a low reliability. As such it is recommended that they are not used to formulate important policy decisions.
Maskevarri Ráhppát in Finnmark, North Norway – is it an earthquake induced landform complex?
Authors: Sutinen R. , Aro I. , Närhi P. , Piekkari M. , Middleton M.
Published: January 2014

Abstract. The Sami word ráhppát means rough bouldery/stony terrain with sharp-relief topography in Finnmark, North Norway. Ráhppáts are common features in the region of the Younger Dryas landforms, yet their origin has remained obscure. The timing of the Younger Dryas is concomitant with the maximum neotectonic fault instability in Fennoscandia, hence earthquake activity was one of the contributing factors for the Younger Dryas morphologies. Ráhppát on the Maskevarri fell, classified as a part of Tromsø-Lyngen sub-stage of the Younger Dryas, was studied by means of geomorphology and measurements of electrical-sedimentary anisotropy. Ráhppát was found to be built up of a network of stony ridges and mounds on fell terraces bordered with arch-shaped and sinusoidal ridges. These bordering ridges exhibit sedimentary (azimuthal soil electrical conductivity) anisotropy parallel-to-ridge trends and were interconnected to meltwater gullies suggesting generation through short-lived conduit infills. We did not find electrical-sedimentary evidence to support the concept of englacial thrusting and/or compression, often described for Younger Dryas moraines. Maskevarri Ráhppát is typified by ~ 500 ponds and small lakes on three different terrace elevations descending in an up-ice direction. These escarpments may have generated trough late glacial earthquake(s) contributing to subglacial deformation of Maskevarri Ráhppát.
Updated cloud physics in a regional atmospheric climate model improves the modelled surface energy balance of Antarctica
Authors: van Wessem J. M. , Reijmer C. H. , Lenaerts J. T. M. , van de Berg W. J. , van den Broeke M. R. , van Meijgaard E.
Published: January 2014

Abstract. In this study the effects of changes in the physics package of the regional atmospheric climate model RACMO2 on the modelled surface energy balance, near-surface temperature and wind speed of Antarctica are presented. The physics package update primarily consists of an improved turbulent and radiative flux scheme and a revised cloud scheme that includes a parameterisation for ice cloud super-saturation. The ice cloud super-saturation has led to more moisture being transported onto the continent, resulting in more and optically thicker clouds and more downward long-wave radiation. Overall, the updated model better represents the surface energy balance, based on a comparison with >750 months of data from nine automatic weather stations located in East Antarctica. Especially the representation of the turbulent sensible heat flux and net long-wave radiative flux has improved with a decrease in biases of up to 40%. As a result, modelled surface temperatures have increased and the bias, when compared to 10 m snow temperatures from 64 ice-core observations, has decreased from −2.3 K to −1.3 K. The weaker surface temperature inversion consequently improves the representation of the sensible heat flux, whereas wind speed biases remain unchanged. However, significant model biases remain, partly because RACMO2 at a resolution of 27 km is unable to resolve steep topography.
Interpretation of Public Feedback to Transportation Policy:
Authors: Krishen Anjala S. , Raschke Robyn L. , Kachroo Pushkin , Mejza Michael , Khan Alauddin
Published: January 2014

Due to inadequate funding for road maintenance and expansion, many state governments are exploring the implementation of a vehicle-miles-traveled (VMT) policy. Such a policy requires adequate communication to the public that not only informs but also communicates the issues of concern to the constituents. As part of this communication, the Nevada Department of Transportation began by conducting workshops, while local newspapers allowed Internet-based response to the basic idea of this tax. Our article takes the qualitative data obtained from these multiple sources and analyzes it via a two-pronged qualitative methodology. First, we ascertain common profiles through iterative coding, and then we use concept maps to delve into the relationships between themes within these segments. Our findings indicate that by using qualitative segmentation followed by concept mapping of open-ended customer data, public policy officials can find genres or issues of interest to large segments and address those in communication endeavors.
The strategies for an organizational self-assessment of diversity-inclusiveness of policy and practice in a hospital setting
Authors: Reitmanova Sylvia , Spitzer Denise L.
Published: January 2014

Drawing on the data collected through anonymous semi-structured surveys with four clinical nurse managers and 70 female hospital service users of various minority backgrounds, this study examined how the reproductive health needs of minority women were addressed by healthcare services in the Ottawa Hospital. Participating minority women included non-white Canadian-born women, Aboriginal women, immigrant women, single mothers-by-choice, women with disabilities as well as lesbian and bisexual women in reproductive age. The results indicated that there is great room for improving inclusivity and equity in all aspects of hospital operations: institutional policies and practices, service planning, staff recruitment and training, as well as physical environment and health education materials. A considerable number of surveyed women reported that their cultural, social, linguistic, physical and mental needs were not satisfactory addressed, or understood and respected by hospital staff. The majority of women also indicated that the hospital ambiance and health education materials did not reflect their minority status or their ideas and experiences of health and maternity. The study findings provide an important ground-work for an organizational self-assessment of diversity-inclusiveness of hospital policies and practices of individual healthcare professionals. The assessment of these policies and practices is the first step toward the improvement of quality of service for minority women and building a healthier and more equitable working environment for hospital employees.
Optimization of Dockounou Manufacturing Process Parameters
Authors: Edwige Akoa Essoma Flore , Severin Kra Kouassi , Rose-Monde Megnanou , Joseph Kouadio Natia , Sebastien Niamke Lamine
Published: January 2014

The present study aimed to determine optimum values of the process factors to obtain a standard method of preparation with best quality of dockounou.

Several samples of dockounou were prepared with different proportions (75 to 95%) of senescent plantain, cooking time, fermentation time and temperature of oven. Sensorial characteristics of the samples were investigated. Optimal values (scores) of both boiled and baked dockounou prepared with maize or rice flour were identified through tasters’ evaluation. Hence, the best scores were recorded with 90 and 85% of plantain paste proportion, respectively with maize and rice flours. Concerning cooking time, optimal values were registered at 60 minutes with maize-dockounou, and at 75 minutes with rice-dockounou flour. About fermentation time, the best sensorial characteristics were obtained at 4 hours for rice or maize-dockounou, but at 0 hours for the boiled rice one. Results revealed moreover that 160 °C would be the optimal baking temperature.

The optimized maize-dockounou would be better than the rice one on sensorial basis. Optimized maize-dockounou uses a larger quantity of plantain paste than optimized rice dockounou. This optimized dockounou uses shorter fermentation time than the traditional one. In general, the optimized dockounou is better than the traditional. It presents better characteristics and is more appreciated. Thus, optimized-dockounou is a real opportunity to convert rejected senescent plantains into foodstuff to help to feed the populations. That could be a way of food security.
Intra-Articular Injection of Human Meniscus Stem/Progenitor Cells Promotes Meniscus Regeneration and Ameliorates Osteoarthritis Through Stromal Cell-Derived Factor-1/CXCR4-Mediated Homing
Authors: Shen Weiliang , Chen Jialin , Zhu Ting , Chen Longkun , Zhang Wei , Fang Zhi , Heng Boon Chin , Yin Zi , Chen Xiao , Ji Junfeng , Chen Weishan , Ouyang Hong-Wei
Published: January 2014

Meniscus injury is frequently encountered in clinical practice. Current surgical therapy involving partial or complete meniscectomy relieves pain in the short-term but often leads to osteoarthritis (OA) in the long-term. In this study, we report a new strategy of articular cartilage protection by intra-articular injection of novel human meniscus stem/progenitor cells (hMeSPCs). We found that hMeSPCs displayed both mesenchymal stem cell characteristics and high expression levels of collagen II. In the rat meniscus injury model, hMeSPC transplantation not only led to more neo-tissue formation and better-defined shape but also resulted in more rounded cells and matured extracellular matrix. Stromal cell-derived factor-1 (SDF-1) enhanced the migration of hMeSPCs, whereas AMD3100 abolished the chemotactic effects of SDF-1 on hMeSPCs, both in vitro and in vivo. In an experimental OA model, transplantation of hMeSPCs effectively protected articular cartilage, as evidenced by reduced expression of OA markers such as collagen I, collagen X, and hypoxia-inducible factor 2α but increased expression of collagen II. Our study demonstrated for the first time that intra-articular injection of hMeSPCs enhanced meniscus regeneration through the SDF-1/CXCR4 axis. Our study highlights a new strategy of intra-articular injection of hMeSPCs for meniscus regeneration.
Consumer Education Is Key to Effective Conservation
Authors: D'Angelo Cliff
Published: January 2014

Trillions of gallons of water are wasted each year, despite the best efforts of water utilities to efficiently use water resources. There are numerous opportunities for utilities to educate their customers about ways to optimize consumption and reduce waste.
Comparing Learning Styles of Western and Eastern Students in Postgraduate Design Management Programmes
Authors: Lam Busayawan , Choi Youngok
Published: January 2014

As design management programmes in the UK have become multicultural and multinational, there is a need to make sure that teaching and learning strategies are relevant and effective for all groups of students. In the present study, Western and Eastern students' preferences for particular learning styles were compared to find out whether there were any differences. Three sets of questionnaires were distributed to three groups: current students, recent graduates and lecturers/programme directors. Teaching multicultural and multinational groups of students was considered challenging by most staff. Nevertheless, there was no significant difference in terms of learning style. Interestingly, the majority of design management students (both Western and Eastern) adopt the converging approach (learning by doing and thinking), as most of them are interested in the application of theories and in practical coursework. There were minor differences in their preferences for teaching and learning activities. While some tasks (e.g. expert interviews) came naturally to Westerners, Easterners needed more time to become familiar with them, and vice versa.
Dynamics Design and Analysis of Direct-Drive Aerostatic Slideways in a Multi-Physics Simulation Environment
Authors: Li Tianjian , Ding Hui , Cheng Kai
Published: January 2014

Direct-drive aerostatic slideways work in a multi-physics environment by coupling with electrical actuation, heat, force and pressured airflow conditions. In this paper, the relationship between multi-physics coupling data within the design and analysis of the direct-drive aerostatic slideway is investigated. A corresponding design and analysis platform has been developed so as to obtain the optimal performance of the slideway at nanometric levels of accuracy in dynamic working conditions. The fluctuating characteristics of slideways together with load, multiple heat sources and gas fluid environment were investigated using the platform. Microscopic deformations of the slideway as a function of film thickness and temperature were identified. The main differences from the design nominal values caused by multi-physics interactions are analyzed and compared with non-coupling design and test data. The case study data are in accordance with the predicted results. The proposed investigation scheme is efficient in identifying the transient deviation in bearing capacity, stiffness of the slideway, and the micro-morphology of the floating surface, such as thermal deformation of the slideway. A multi-physics simulation environment is essential to realize the seamless integrated design and analysis of aerostatic slideways at a nanometric level of accuracy. It can be also extended as a system for education and training purposes.
Sleep Problems, Posttraumatic Stress, and Mood Disorders Among Active-Duty Service Members
Authors: Lande R. Gregory
Published: January 2014

Context: Sleep problems among active-duty service members are pervasive and complicate the recovery from comorbid posttraumatic stress and mood disorders.

Objective: To better understand chronic sleep problems among active-duty service members.

Methods: Medical records for active-duty service members who completed enhanced sleep assessments during an 18-month period beginning in October 2010 at the Walter Reed National Military Medical Centers' Psychiatry Continuity Service were retrospectively reviewed. Sleep assessment measures included the Pittsburgh Insomnia Rating Scale, the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test, the Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale, the Zung Self-Rating Anxiety Scale, the Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist – Military Version, the Epworth Sleepiness Scale, the Pre-Sleep Arousal Scale, and a home sleep study.

Results: A total of 76 records met the study criteria. Twenty-two participants (29%) had an apnea/hypopnea index that suggested mild to moderate sleep apnea. Service members with higher self-reported posttraumatic stress scores also reported a higher degree of both somatic and cognitive factors interfering with sleep initiation. Compared with those who had low self-reported posttraumatic stress scores, service members with high posttraumatic stress scores also had less total sleep time (mean difference, 38 minutes) and higher scores on the apnea/hypopnea index, the respiratory disturbance index, and the oxygen saturation index.

Conclusion: Enhanced sleep assessments that include traditional self-report tests and a home sleep study can help identify previously undiscovered behavioral and respiratory problems among service members, particularly those with higher posttraumatic stress scores.
Preventing Early Cardiovascular Death in Patients With Familial Hypercholesterolemia
Authors: Repas Thomas B. , Tanner J. Ross
Published: January 2014

Familial hypercholesterolemia (FH) is an autosomal dominant disorder resulting in severe elevation of total and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels. There are more than 600,000 individuals in the United States with FH. Individuals with FH tend to experience premature cardiovascular disease and often die from sudden cardiac death at a young age. Statins alone or in combination with other lipid-lowering medications are effective in managing FH and preventing cardiovascular events. For patients who do not respond to or are intolerant of pharmacotherapy, low-density lipoprotein apheresis is available as a nonpharmacologic treatment option. Despite the prevalence of FH, it is undiagnosed and untreated in the majority of patients. Screening, combined with appropriate drug therapy, can save lives. The authors review the screening, diagnosis, and management of FH.
Mini–Medical School Programs Are an Effective Tool to Introduce Students to Osteopathic Medicine
Authors: Kaye Kathryn E. , Berns Alyssa L. , Cress Lyndsi R. , Nazar Andrea M.
Published: January 2014

Context: Mini–medical school programs are designed to give participants, usually high school students, a more realistic perception of medicine and to leave students with a stronger desire to pursue a career in medicine.

Objective: To determine if the annual High School Mini–Medical School program hosted by the West Virginia School of Osteopathic Medicine increased interest in osteopathic medicine among high school students.

Design: A survey was conducted before and after the program to test the program's effectiveness.

Setting: West Virginia School of Osteopathic Medicine's Clinical Education Center.

Participants: High school students from Charleston, Fairmont, and the Greenbrier Valley in West Virginia.

Interventions: The participants attended an outreach program designed to interest them in a career in medicine and specifically osteopathic medicine.

Results: Sixty-nine participants came away with an improved understanding of a physician's life and medical school after the program. There was a mean increase in positive responses for the survey items “I understand what medical school life is truly like” (P=.0066) and “I understand what life as a doctor is really like” (P=.0004). Participants left the program with a stronger desire to pursue a career in medicine (P<.0001).

Conclusion: Mini–medical school programs are an effective tool to inspire high school students to pursue careers in medicine, including osteopathic medicine.
Osteopathic Manipulative Treatment in the Management of Biliary Dyskinesia
Authors: Heineman Katherine
Published: January 2014

Biliary dyskinesia is a functional gastrointestinal disorder of the gallbladder and sphincter of Oddi. Diagnosis is made on the basis of symptoms of biliary colic in the absence of cholelithiasis and gallbladder inflammation. Palpatory findings of tissue texture changes at midthoracic levels (T6-T9) may correspond to visceral dysfunction related to the biliary system. Osteopathic manipulative treatment (OMT) of the T6-T9 segments can remove the feedback related to the somatic component, thereby affecting nociceptive facilitation at the spinal level and allowing the body to restore autonomic balance. Few reports in the current literature provide examples of treatment for patients with biliary dyskinesia using OMT. The author describes the case of a 51-year-old woman who presented with symptoms consistent with biliary dyskinesia. Her biliary colic completely resolved after OMT. Osteopathic evaluation and OMT should be considered a safe and effective option for conservative management of biliary dyskinesia.
Passivation quality of a stoichiometric SiNx single passivation layer on crystalline silicon prepared by catalytic chemical vapor deposition and successive annealing
Authors: Thi Trinh Cham , Koyama Koichi , Ohdaira Keisuke , Matsumura Hideki
Published: January 2014

A silicon nitride (SiN
x
) single passivation layer, prepared by catalytic chemical vapor deposition (Cat-CVD) and successive annealing, shows high passivation quality on crystalline silicon (c-Si) wafers. Effective minority carrier lifetime (τeff) monotonically increases with increase in deposition substrate temperature (T
s) for samples passivated by as-deposited SiN
x
films, while more significant increase in τeff by annealing tends to be seen for the samples with SiN
x
films deposited at lower T
s. The τeff obtained for the sample deposited at T
s of 100 °C and pressure (P) of 10 Pa, after annealing at 350 °C for 30 min in N2, is about 3.0 ms, corresponding to a surface recombination velocity (SRV) of 5.0 cm/s. According to measured H content and fixed charge density (Q
f) in the SiN
x
films, Q
f partly contributes to the passivation quality of the films particularly before annealing, while H content plays an important role on improving passivation quality of the films after annealing.
The anisotropic scattering coefficient of sea ice
Authors: Katlein Christian , Nicolaus Marcel , Petrich Chris
Published: January 2014

Radiative transfer in sea ice is subject to anisotropic, multiple scattering. The impact of anisotropy on the light field under sea ice was found to be substantial and has been quantified. In this study, a large data set of irradiance and radiance measurements under sea ice has been acquired with a Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV) in the central Arctic. Measurements are interpreted in the context of numerical radiative transfer calculations, laboratory experiments, and microstructure analysis. The ratio of synchronous measurements of transmitted irradiance to radiance shows a clear deviation from an isotropic under‐ice light field. We find that the angular radiance distribution under sea ice is more downward directed than expected for an isotropic light field. This effect can be attributed to the anisotropic scattering coefficient within sea ice. Assuming an isotropic radiance distribution under sea ice leads to significant errors in light‐field modeling and the interpretation of radiation measurements. Quantification of the light field geometry is crucial for correct conversion of radiance data acquired by Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs) and ROVs.
Testing the accuracy of a 1‐D volcanic plume model in estimating mass eruption rate
Authors: Mastin Larry G.
Published: January 2014

During volcanic eruptions, empirical relationships are used to estimate mass eruption rate from plume height. Although simple, such relationships can be inaccurate and can underestimate rates in windy conditions. One‐dimensional plume models can incorporate atmospheric conditions and give potentially more accurate estimates. Here I present a 1‐D model for plumes in crosswind and simulate 25 historical eruptions where plume height Hobs was well observed and mass eruption rate Mobs could be calculated from mapped deposit mass and observed duration. The simulations considered wind, temperature, and phase changes of water. Atmospheric conditions were obtained from the National Center for Atmospheric Research Reanalysis 2.5° model. Simulations calculate the minimum, maximum, and average values (Mmin, Mmax, and Mavg) that fit the plume height. Eruption rates were also estimated from the empirical formula Mempir = 140Hobs4.14 (Mempir is in kilogram per second, Hobs is in kilometer). For these eruptions, the standard error of the residual in log space is about 0.53 for Mavg and 0.50 for Mempir. Thus, for this data set, the model is slightly less accurate at predicting Mobs than the empirical curve. The inability of this model to improve eruption rate estimates may lie in the limited accuracy of even well‐observed plume heights, inaccurate model formulation, or the fact that most eruptions examined were not highly influenced by wind. For the low, wind‐blown plume of 14–18 April 2010 at Eyjafjallajökull, where an accurate plume height time series is available, modeled rates do agree better with Mobs than Mempir.
The importance of observed gradients of air temperature and precipitation for modeling runoff from a glacierized watershed in the Nepalese Himalayas
Authors: Immerzeel W. W. , Petersen L. , Ragettli S. , Pellicciotti F.
Published: January 2014

The performance of glaciohydrological models which simulate catchment response to climate variability depends to a large degree on the data used to force the models. The forcing data become increasingly important in high‐elevation, glacierized catchments where the interplay between extreme topography, climate, and the cryosphere is complex. It is challenging to generate a reliable forcing data set that captures this spatial heterogeneity. In this paper, we analyze the results of a 1 year field campaign focusing on air temperature and precipitation observations in the Langtang valley in the Nepalese Himalayas. We use the observed time series to characterize both temperature lapse rates (LRs) and precipitation gradients (PGs). We study their spatial and temporal variability, and we attempt to identify possible controlling factors. We show that very clear LRs exist in the valley and that there are strong seasonal differences related to the water vapor content in the atmosphere. Results also show that the LRs are generally shallower than the commonly used environmental lapse rates. The analysis of the precipitation observations reveals that there is great variability in precipitation over short horizontal distances. A uniform valley wide PG cannot be established, and several scale‐dependent mechanisms may explain our observations. We complete our analysis by showing the impact of the observed LRs and PGs on the outputs of the TOPKAPI‐ETH glaciohydrological model. We conclude that LRs and PGs have a very large impact on the water balance composition and that short‐term monitoring campaigns have the potential to improve model quality considerably.
Content Analysis
Authors: A. Mackey David
Published: January 2014

Content analysis is defined as “any technique for making inferences by systematically and objectively identifying special characteristics of messages.” Data sources amenable to content analysis include political speeches; open‐ended survey items; newspaper articles; electronic or print communications such as e‐mail, interview transcripts, and audio recordings; and imagery such as photographs, video, graffiti, and even tattoos.
Warehousing Prisoners
Authors: Berthelot Emily R.
Published: January 2014

Warehousing prisoners has been a persistent problem in the United States for over 30 years. Strategies to reduce prison populations include limiting admissions to prison and reductions in length of sentences. Nonviolent offenders, particularly drug offenders, account for a large proportion of both federal and state prison populations, mostly due to sentencing changes associated with the war on drugs. Sentencing changes based on three‐strikes legislation and mandatory minimums have also influenced prison overcrowding. Minorities, especially black males, are disproportionately represented in prison populations.
Official Records
Authors: Perkins Elizabeth B. , Laurin Matthew
Published: January 2014

The official records of criminal justice agencies can be used to better understand crime, its occurrence, and how it can be controlled. Although official records have limitations as a source of data for research, they usually contain uniform data on crime and offenders.
Voyeurism and Exhibitionism
Authors: Calvert Clay
Published: January 2014

Voyeurism and exhibitionism reside at the intersection of psychiatry and law. Both behaviors can, but do not always, constitute sexual disorders and/or criminal offenses. Indeed, voyeurism may be the most common, potentially law‐breaking, sexual behavior. Other data suggest exhibitionism is the most widespread sexual offense. Voyeurism centers on nonconsensual observation of the sexual activity of others, while exhibitionism pivots on the illicit exposure of genitalia to an unwilling audience. Both voyeurism and exhibition are thus considered hands‐off sexual behaviors, as neither requires physical contact with a victim, unlike rape, which requires penetration.
Shock Probation
Authors: Lowe Nathan C. , Matz Adam K.
Published: January 2014

Shock probation is a program built on the assumption that specific deterrence is effective in reducing probationer recidivism. Similar to a split sentence, shock probation combines a brief stay in prison with release in the community under probation supervision. Generally used for nonviolent offenders, the
shock
of short‐term incarceration serves as the motivation for offender behavior change. The brevity of the stay, ranging from 30 to 120 days, avoids the negative aspects of long‐term exposure to correctional institutions. Though more often available to first‐time offenders, shock probation is also available to some probationers whose probation is revoked for violating conditions of release or arrest for a new crime. Though the concept of combining incarceration with probation has been in practice in some form since the 1920s, it has not been subjected to sound scientific evaluation, thus the effectiveness of shock probation programs continues to be debated.
Blumstein, Alfred
Authors: Pleggenkuhle Breanne
Published: January 2014

Alfred Blumstein is an iconic figure in the field of criminology and criminal justice. His work is best known for connecting research and policy, which creates an essential praxis between scholars and practitioners. Blumstein's background in engineering physics and operations research is unique, and his expertise in these and other areas has created an important legacy.
Vollmer, August
Authors: Rennison Callie Marie
Published: January 2014

August Vollmer, the father of American policing, is recognized for his innovative approaches to professionalizing the occupation. His contributions to modern policing strategies are numerous. Vollmer became the first chief of police in Berkeley, California. He was the first to require college degrees for officers and the first to place officers on motorcycles and in patrol cars. His police reform efforts to curb corruption are legendary in the history of policing in the United States.
A
dler,
F
reda
Authors: Rennison Callie
Published: January 2014

Freda Adler was one of the first women to break the glass ceiling of male criminology. She gained considerable fame for her 1975 publication of
Sisters in Crime
. The book first introduced and examined rising crime rates among females and predicted that, as women moved from the home to the workplace, crime would increase among women. Adler's work has contributed to a wide variety of areas in criminology, including international, courts, offending, feminism, and substance abuse.
Families of Law
Authors: Dawkins Marika , Server J. D. Ronald
Published: January 2014

While a country's legal system is influenced by its legal tradition and history, most legal systems have certain commonalities in terminologies and processes, which allow them to be grouped into families of law. There are four major families of law currently operating in the world.
Education and Crime
Authors: Pearman Joshua Frank
Published: January 2014

This entry discusses how educational levels correlate with criminal activity. In general, those with higher levels of educational achievement are less likely to participate in criminal activity. Education is a form of socialization that is taught to individuals at a very young age. People are often taught to obey the rules and respect authority figures through education. This socialization process then translates into the way people act when they get older. Early education is examined to illuminate the importance of behaviors learned at a young age and how such education can benefit individuals as they get older. A discussion is formulated to show how correctional facilities are also moving towards an educational approach to reduce recidivism rates.
Classical Criminology
Authors: Valasik Matthew
Published: January 2014

The classical school of criminology was a response to the brutal and arbitrary criminal justice system of eighteenth‐century Europe. Classical criminology emphasizes both the government's role in regulating and punishing inappropriate behavior and individuals' ability to guide their own actions. Individuals are considered to be rational actors who are able to logically determine if the pleasure received from a criminal act is greater than the potential sanction. Thus, individuals can be inhibited from engaging in criminality if the punishments outweigh the rewards. Specifically, a deterrent must have three components—severity, certainty, and celerity—if it is to be successful. The absence of one component reduces a rational actor's ability to calculate the benefits from the disadvantages, diminishing the deterrent effect. Classical criminology has been the foundation for several paramount theories in the discipline, including rational choice, self‐control, and routine activity theories.
Fear of Crime
Authors: Farrall Stephen
Published: January 2014

The fear of crime is a significant social problem for two reasons. First, because a large portion of citizens report being worried about crime, and second, because worry is assumed to shape people's lives. Worry is believed to erode well‐being, promote precaution, restrict movement, encourage the “flight” from deprived areas by “respectable” citizens, harm social trust, intergroup relations, and the capacity of communities to exercise social control. This entry focuses on a “secondary literature” of studies of the fear of crime. This literature has tried to unpack the questions surrounding the origin of interest in the fear of crime and, in so doing, uncovered political influences on the criminological research agenda.
Juvenile Sex Offenders
Authors: Farina Katie A. , Mahoney Margaret
Published: January 2014

In recent years, three aspects of juvenile sexual offenders have been largely investigated: the motivations of offenders, types of offenses committed, and treatment options. It has been found that juvenile sex offenders may have experienced previous distressing situations such as abuse or discord in the household, which can result in a negative self‐image and poor coping skills. It is also possible that juvenile sex offenders fit into different offending typologies: molesting children or assaulting peers. Finally, it has been suggested that group‐based cognitive therapy may be beneficial in rehabilitating juvenile sex offenders. However, such treatment options are rare, since the juvenile court system has become increasingly more punitive in its approaches, often transferring juveniles to adult court so they can be tried as adults.
Workplace Violence
Authors: Calnan Kate , Kelloway E. Kevin
Published: January 2014

This entry provides an introductory overview of workplace violence. Key constructs such as workplace violence and aggression are defined, along with a variety of other terms frequently found in the literature. The parallels and differences among several of the major concepts (e.g., workplace violence, bullying, harassment) are explored. Additionally, the sources (i.e., Type I, Type II, Type III, and Type IV) of workplace violence are described and discussed in detail, along with the prevalence of each. Situational and imminent risk to violence while at work is also discussed via the SAV‐T first model. Lastly, the entry identifies common strategies for preventing, reducing, and coping with the trauma of workplace violence. Specifically, three approaches for dealing with workplace violence are presented (administrative interventions, target hardening, and behavioral interventions), along with examples of intervention techniques most commonly employed by organizations.
Obstruction of Justice
Authors: Siffert John S. , Malizia Kathryn E.
Published: January 2014

Obstruction of justice is the crime of interfering with the orderly administration of the law. Common examples include intimidating jurors or witnesses, lying under oath or to government officials, bribing court officers or jurors, and altering or destroying evidence. Many states also prohibit a wide and varied range of wrongdoing that extends beyond the courtroom to interference with police officers, firefighters, and other public officials in the execution of their duties.
Intimate Partner Violence
Authors: McDonald Courtney , Belknap Joanne
Published: January 2014

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a frequent and significant force, yet it remains hidden from the general public. This entry defines IPV and the different behaviors it entails, reports on the frequency of IPV, describes the feminist movement's response to IPV, and discusses research on the criminal legal system responses to IPV victims and offenders.
Race/Ethnicity
Authors: Donner Christopher M.
Published: January 2014

Race and ethnicity have always been a significant topic of interest and research in the United States. Specifically, the relation between race/ethnicity and crime continues to be an important and noteworthy area of inquiry in criminology and criminal justice. This entry covers a number of topics within the realm of race/ethnicity and crime, including the conceptualization of race, the disproportionality of racial/ethnic groups in the criminal justice system, the history of race/ethnicity in the United States and in the criminal justice system, racial profiling, race/ethnicity and sentencing, race/ethnicity and the death penalty, and the collateral consequences of criminal justice involvement for racial minorities.
Immigration, Crime, and Criminal Justice
Authors: McDonald William F.
Published: January 2014

Immigration and crime are an old topic that has fluctuated as a public concern over centuries from the vagrancy laws of the Middle Ages to today's campaign against human trafficking. Many but not all criminological studies have found that immigrants appear to be less involved in crime than natives. Despite such findings, the public continues to believe that immigrants are crime‐prone. Anti‐immigrant prejudice varies by a country's experience with immigration. Second‐generation immigrants tend to be more involved in crime than natives but not everywhere. Research on immigrants and crime is seriously hampered by the lack of data regarding the immigrant status of criminals and victims. Studies indicate that immigrants are primarily the victims of other immigrants for conventional crime. Living in ethnic enclaves tends to protect immigrants from intergroup conflict but exposes them to intragroup conflict. The deportation of immigrants who have committed crimes has contributed to new crime problems in less‐developed countries as well as the growth of transnational gangs. The criminalization of immigration policy has provided governments with a means to achieve crime control objectives via immigration rules which do not abide by the traditional safeguards against the unfair use of power or the infliction of excessive punishment.
Transnational Organized Crime
Authors: Siegel Dina
Published: January 2014

The globalization of the world's economy and culture has led to the spread of the activities of old and established criminal groups to other parts of the world. In addition, new criminal markets, products, and services emerge as a part of transnational organized crime activities. Today transnational organized crime is involved in the provision of illicit services and goods and is associated with three main cross‐border activities, namely drug trafficking, human trafficking, and human smuggling.
Victimless Crime
Authors: A. Veneziano Carol
Published: January 2014

When there is a consensus that classifying an act or behavior as a crime is no longer justifiable, is unenforceable, or society simply no longer views it as a threat, decriminalization offers a means to remove the criminal sanctions attached to the act or behavior. This occurrence is most closely associated with victimless crimes, but the specific crimes discussed for decriminalization vary from area to area, such as prostitution in the US and homosexuality in Germany. The crime most associated with debates about decriminalization is drug use, more specifically, marijuana use. Although frequently discussed, marijuana decriminalization has only occurred in limited areas due to concerns over increased marijuana use after decriminalization and the possibility of a gateway effect toward other illicit substances. Despite these concerns, research has shown only minimal increases in drug use in areas following decriminalization that often mirrors increases in areas that have not decriminalized.
Cruel and Unusual Punishment and the Eighth Amendment
Authors: De Leon Jennifer , Fowler, Jr James E.
Published: January 2014

The Eighth Amendment of the Constitution provides that people residing in the United States will not be subjected to cruel and unusual punishment by the government. This guarantee also applies to prisoners. What constitutes cruel and unusual punishment is open to interpretation, thus prisoners and prison systems often disagree. The Supreme Court, guided by evolving standards of the day, establishes boundaries of cruel and unusual punishment in landmark cases. Some examples of cruel and unusual punishment include inhumane prison conditions and corporal punishment.
Human Trafficking
Authors: Winterdyk John , Kaye Julie
Published: January 2014

Domestic and international attention to human trafficking—a gross violation of human rights—continues to expand, particularly as more countries adopt and implement counter‐trafficking policies and laws. Yet, human trafficking is a complex crime and definitions of trafficking are contested by a number of stakeholders involved in the response. In this context, the following discussion of human trafficking provides an overview of the United Nations definition, including some key challenges associated with definitions of trafficking. We also discuss the extent of human trafficking and some initiatives aimed at responding to the problem. We recommend a comprehensive and highly coordinated approach to counter‐trafficking approaches.
Sykes, Gresham
Authors: Schaible Lonnie
Published: January 2014

Gresham M. Sykes, a celebrated sociologist and criminologist, is best known for his groundbreaking book on prisons,Society of Captives, which examines how the context of the penal environment shapes the behaviors of correctional officers and inmates. He is also widely cited for his contribution to the development of techniques of neutralization.
Capital Punishment and Legal Standing
Authors: McConnell Elizabeth H. , McConnell John A.
Published: January 2014

Capital punishment was once common throughout the world. As of January 2009, most countries, 135, had abolished the death penalty in law or in practice, while 62 countries continued its use. In fact, 2,390 people were executed in 25 countries in 2008, with six countries being responsible for 95% of the people executed. The countries, listed from highest to lowest number of confirmed executions in 2008, include China, Iran, Saudi Arabia, United States, Pakistan, and Iraq.
Wilderness Programs
Authors: Bora Dhruba J.
Published: January 2014

This entry describes the role of wilderness programs in the context of juvenile justice and delinquency prevention.
Treason
Authors: Bein Steven
Published: January 2014

Treason has always been viewed as the most serious offense against a higher authority. It is considered an act against not only an individual but also society as a whole, embodied in the ruling authority, whether individually as in the monarch or collectively as in the government. It is indeed the act or attempt to destroy one's nation. While harsh penalties have been used to deter such offenses, the very reason that such acts are considered the worst of crimes are the same motives which drive people to commit them. Those who seek freedom from the oppression of uncontrolled governance often are those who would be considered as a threat to the same.