bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Deformation Testing of Foods.
Authors: BOURNE M. C.
Published: August 2006

SUMMARY— A technique is described for using certain of the special characteristics of a universal testing machine which permits small distances to be measured with precision. A number of foods were compressed to a standard force, and the deformations of the foods were then measured off the strip chart recorder which is an integral part of the machine. The high degree of precision is obtained by driving the chart at a speed which is an exact multiple of the speed of the compressing plate. Differences between the deformation characteristics of different foods are shown. The advantage of using a standard size and shape of test piece is discussed. A method is shown for overcoming the effect of small imperfections in shape of standard pieces. It is also shown that a small deforming force will usually give a better resolution between similar samples than does a large deforming force.
Thin‐Layer Chromatographic Study on the Lipid Components of Cocoa Beans and Cocoa Butter
Authors: LEVANON YEHUDA , ROSSETINI STELA M.O. , RASKIN MATHILDE , MESQUITA MATILDE T. P.
Published: August 2006

SUMMARY— After thin‐layer chromatography, cocoa bean cotyledon section presented only one chromatographic spot whereas cocoa butter showed five spots. Apparently, the lipids naturally occurring in cocoa beans are not modified during farm fermentation.
A Probable Flavoring Principle in Vegetable‐Protein Hydrolysates
Authors: SULSER H. , DePIZZOL J. , BÜHI W.
Published: August 2006

SUMMARY— The characteristic seasoning flavor of hydrolyzed vegetable proteins has previously been attributed to α‐ketobutyric acid formed from threonine under the conditions of acid‐hydrolysis. However, pure α‐ketobutyric acid is virtually odorless and tasteless, and it develops the characteristic flavor only upon ageing. The true flavoring principle is probably α‐hydroxy‐β‐methyl‐Δ.α,β‐γ‐hexenolactone, which is formed from the acid by dimerization, lactonization, and decarboxylation. This conversion occurs spontaneously, but is greatly accelerated under acidic conditions.
Influence of the Physical State of Tissue during Rigor Mortis upon Protein Solubility and Associated Properties of Bovine Muscle
Authors: COOK C. F.
Published: August 2006

SUMMARY— Protein solubility and associated properties were studied in bovine sternomandibularis muscle allowed to pass into rigor in three physical states. Thirty min post‐mortem, samples were incubated at 7°C for 48 hr in one of the following conditions: minced through 1/8‐in. plate, free to shorten in a vertical position, stretched to 150% of equilibrium length. Stretched muscle exhibited greater protein solubility, higher pH values and longer sarcomeres than the remaining samples. For post‐rigor muscle, protein solubility may be related to sarcomere length and moisture press ratio. Variations in sarcomere length may be related to post‐mortem changes in pH. Possible relationships between the contractile state of proteins and the chemical, physical and quality characteristics of muscle are discussed.
An Objective Evaluation of Changes in Firmness of Ripening Bananas Using a Sonic Technique
Authors: FINNEY E. E. , BEN‐GERA ITAMAR , MASSIE DAVID R.
Published: August 2006

SUMMARY— Firmness in fruits is sometimes evaluated as being the force necessary to attain a given deformation within the product. Since modulus of elasticity is defined as the ratio of stress to strain, it should measure resistance to force and, hence, the firmness of a material. Using a sonic technique, the resonant frequencies of cylindrical specimens of flesh from Valery bananas were measured and Young's modulus of elasticity was calculated. Softening of the banana during ripening was associated with a decrease in Young's modulus of elasticity from 272 × 105 dynes/cm2 at ripeness corresponding to a light green peel color to 85 × 105 dynes/cm2 at the yellow stage. Modulus of elasticity was significantly and directly correlated with starch content, but inversely correlated with luminous reflectance and the logarithm of percent reducing sugars.
Apple Anthocyanins: Identification of Cyanidin‐7‐Arabinoside
Authors: SUN BONNIE H. , FRANCIS F. J.
Published: August 2006

SUMMARY— The anthocyanin pigments of Red Delicious apples were isolated and identified from their chromatographic, spectral and chemical properties. The maior pigment was cyanidin‐3‐galactoside. The minor pigments were cyanidin‐3‐arabinoside and cyanidin‐7‐arabinoside. Cyanidin‐7‐arabino‐side was isolated from a natural source for the first time. Three pigments were isolated from 74 varieties of apples, two from six varieties and only one from two varieties.
Volatiles from Injured and Uninjured Valencia Oranges at Different Temperatures
Authors: NORMAN SHIRLEY , CRAFT C. C. , DAVIS P. L.
Published: August 2006

SUMMARY— Volatiles emanating from injured and uninjured Valencia oranges increased in number and amount with increasing temperature. The amount of emanated volatiles increased about 20‐fold from uninjured fruit and about 50‐fold from injured fruit between holding temperatures of 2 and 38°C. The average amount of volatiles emanating from injured oranges was nearly 75 times as great as that from uninjured fruit; the number of components did not increase. These results demonstrate the need for caution in interpretation of aroma patterns from oranges and for strict standardization of experimental conditions.
Some Volatile Components of Vitis Vinifera Variety White Riesling. 2. Organic Acids Extracted from Wine
Authors: VAN WYK C. J. , KEPNER RICHARD E. , WEBB A. DINSMOOR
Published: August 2006

SUMMARY— The acids of a table wine from Vitis vinifera var. White Riesling were recovered by basic extraction from a methylene chloride extract of the wine. The acids were identified by gas chromatographic retention times and by infrared spectroscopy, in most cases both on the free acids and on the methyl, ethyl or hexyl esters. The major acids identified in the wine are: acetic, n‐butyric, n‐caproic, n‐caprylic, n‐capric, 9‐decenoic, succinic, and ethyl acid succinate. Acids present in smaller amounts are: formic, propionic, isobutyric, 2‐methylbutyric, isovaleric, lactic, 2‐hydroxyisocaproic, n‐pelargonic, and malic.
A Procedure for Gas Chromatographic Analysis of Free Amino Acids in Meats
Authors: SATTERLEE L. D. , LILLARD D. A.
Published: August 2006

SUMMARY— A gas liquid chromatography (GLC) procedure was developed to quantitatively measure the free amino acid content of meat and meat products. The amino acids were extracted from the meats with water and purified using dialysis and ion exchange chromatography. n‐Butyl N‐trifluoro‐acetyl amino acid derivatives were prepared and analyzed on the gas chromatograph. Factors used for quantitative purposes were calculated using the peak areas and concentrations of known amino acid derivatives.

The isolation and purification procedures were able to remove all carbohydrates, proteins, and 98% of all inorganic salts from the amino acid solutions. Eleven of the common amino acids were completely resolved using the GLC condition described in this investigation. In addition, three GLC peaks contained two amino acids each. The procedure was able to detect free amino acid in sausage in concentrations as low as .01mg/g.
Determination of 4,6‐Dinitro‐o‐set‐butylphenol Residues in Fruits and Almonds by Electron‐Capture Gas Chromatography
Authors: WHITE ROBERT , KILGORE WENDELL W.
Published: August 2006

SUMMARY— A procedure for the analysis of 4,6‐dinitro‐o‐set‐butylphenol (DNOSBP) in fruits and almonds by electron‐capture gas chromatography is described. The alkanolamine salts of DNOSBP are converted to DNOSBP with acid prior to extraction with benzene. The extracted DNOSBP is then cleaned‐up by column chromatography, methylated with diazomethane, and analyzed as the methyl ether. The overall average recovery of DNOSBP residues on almonds, cherries, peaches, and apricots (fortified with 0.01–0.5 ppm DNOSBP) was 90%.
Volatiles from Oranges.
Authors: SCHULTZ T. H. , BLACK D. R. , BOMBEN J. L. , MON T. R. , TERANISHI ROY
Published: August 2006

SUMMARY— Orange essence was stripped from freshly reamed California Valencia orange juice and concentrated to about 150‐fold by the Western Utilization Research vacuum‐aroma‐column (WURVAC) method. The organic volatiles were extracted from the aqueous essence with ether and analyzed by combined gas‐liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry. Chromatograms indicated the presence of more than 100 constituents; 39 of these were identified. Compounds previously unreported as orange volatiles are I‐penten‐3‐01, methyl butyrate, methyl hexanoate, benzaldehyde, and γ‐decanolactone.
Irradiation Effects on the Ripening of Kent Mangoes
Authors: DENNISON R.A. , AHMED E.M.
Published: August 2006

SUMMARY— Kent mango fruit irradiated with 0, 100, 200, and 300 Krad were ripened at 20°C for 0, 4, and 8 days.

Irradiated mangoes were less firm than control fruit immediately after irradiation, but fruit softening due to ripeness was more pronounced than softening induced by irradiation. Irradiated fruit contained higher water‐soluble and lower Versene‐vinsoluble pectic fractions as compared to unirradiated fruit. NO differences were observed in the content of the Versene‐soluble fraction among all irradiation dosages. Higher PE activities were exhibited by the irradiated fruit throughout the ripening period. Irradiated fruit contained higher AIS and lower soluble solids than control fruit. No differences in sucrose content due to irradiation were observed, but there were less reducing and total sugars at the 300 Krad dose as compared to other dosages.

Changes in pectic fractions and PE activity were more pronounced immediately following irradiation in comparison to those occurring during ripening. The increase in soluble solids as well as sucrose, and the decrease in AIS, titratable acidity, reducing sugars and firmness during ripening proceeded at faster rates in control fruit than in the irradiated fruit. These variable rates of change were reflected by the significant irradiation dose and storage duration interactions.

Results suggest that irradiation induces a delay in ripening of Kent mangoes.
Rosé Wine Color Preference and Preference Stability by an Experienced and an Inexperienced Panel
Authors: OUGH C. S. , AMERINE M. A.
Published: August 2006

SUMMARY— A comparison was made between an experienced and an inexperienced panel for their ability to form preferences for five rose wines of differing color characteristics and to maintain the preferences over a period of several months. A definite preference pattern for certain hues and brightnesses were established by comparison of the patterns to measured tristimulus color values. The inexperienced subjects were less consistent among themselves as to color preferences at the first testing but became more consistent at the second testing. The experienced panel had significantly more stable preferences than did the inexperienced group. Both groups showed similar preference patterns.
Biochemical and Quality Changes Occurring During Freezing of Poultry Meat
Authors: KHAN A. W. , van den BERG L.
Published: August 2006

SUMMARY—

Comparative studies on muscle from fresh (unfrozen) and freshly frozen chickens showed that freezing caused small, but detectable changes in eating quality and that changes in muscle proteins during freezing depended on freezing rate. Slow freezing caused a larger loss of drip on thawing, a larger loss of nitrogenous constituents and nucleic acid derivatives to the drip, and a larger loss of water‐holding capacity of meat, than fast freezing. In addition, slow freezing, as compared to fast freezing, increased proteolysis and caused a greater decrease in the adenosine‐triphosphatase activity of myofibrillar proteins. Taste panel comparisons of fresh and frozen chicken meat showed that freezing caused a significant change in the odor of uncooked breast and leg meat and a decrease in tenderness of cooked breast meat. The results suggest that rapid freezing preserves the integrity of muscle proteins to a greater extent than slow freezing.
Studies on Salting and Drying Fish. I. Equilibrium Considerations in Salting
Authors: DEL VALLE F. R. , NICKERSON J. T. R.
Published: August 2006

SUMMARY—

The following variables were determined at equilibrium between fish muscle and brine, all as functions of the salt concentration in the brine: salt concentration in the muscle, based on the volume of the muscle; salt concentration in the tissue water of the muscle; distribution coefficient of salt between muscle volume and brine; distribution coefficient of salt between muscle tissue water and brine. Secondary variables which further described the salting equilibria were also found as functions of salt concentration in the brine as follows, all based on unit weight of non‐salt solids in the salted muscle: weight of salt (S/NSS), weight of water (W/NSS), and volume (V/NSS).

The salt concentration based on the muscle volume was found to increase continually with increasing brine concentration, as did the salt concentration in the tissue water and the salt content expressed as S/NSS. The distribution coefficient based on the muscle volume and the water and volume contents (W/NSS) and (V/NSS) were found to increase at first, pass through a maximum, and then decrease, all with increasing brine concentration. Within the limits of experimental error, the salt concentration in the tissue water was found to equal the salt concentration in the brine, so that the distribution coefficient calculated on this basis was always equal to unity and was independent of the salt concentration in the brine.

The volume per unit weight of non‐salt solids (V/NSS) was found to be a direct linear function of the water content per weight of non‐salt solids (W/NSS) at all temperatures studied. Little difference was found between the equilibrium salting variables when salting was carried out at 5 and at 25°C; on the other hand, possibly due to “cooking” or heat denaturation of the muscle with consequent loss of water at that temperature, all variables were considerably lower when salting was carried out at 37°C. The “mean molar activity coefficient” of sodium chloride in fish muscle was determined as a function of salt concentration in the muscle. It was found to be always greater, and to vary more sharply with salt concentration, than the corresponding activity coefficient of salt in aqueous solution.
Irradiation Induced Gases in Packaged Foods. I. Identification and Measurements
Authors: PRATT G. B. , KNEELAND L. E. , HEILIGMAN F. , KILLORAN J. J.
Published: August 2006

SUMMARY—

If foods are packaged without allowing sufficient headspace, they may show swelling after irradiation. Hydrogen gas evolution is the primary cause of the swelling. Other gases, such as CH4, CO, and CO2, may also be present in small amounts. In model systems, the amount of induced gas was found to vary directly with irradiation dose, and to a lesser extent with the concentration of particular food components. In a study of packaging materials, tinplate and glass had no effect on the type or quantity of gas produced. Packaging in a polyolefin plastic material caused a small increase in H2. Product temperature during irradiation had a pronounced effect on gas production; approximately half as much gas was produced by irradiation at temperatures below O°C as by irradiation above this temperature. A mathematical model for estimating the production of induced gases from proximate analysis successfully predicted gas productions in the five food products investigated.
Post‐Mortem Changes in Protein Extractability in Beef, Pork, and Chicken Muscle
Authors: McINTOSH ELAINE NELSON
Published: August 2006

SUMMARY—

The extractability of beef, pork, and chicken muscle with post‐mortem aging was studied. There was a general increase in viscosity and nitrogen content of the extracts with aging. Extractability of nitrogen and actomyosin reached a maximum at 2 weeks in both beef and pork. In chicken, maximum nitrogen and actomyosin extractability occurred at 4 and 6 days, respectively. Thus, in pork as well as in beef, two weeks' aging apparently are required to complete postmortem changes in muscle protein. The results suggested that chicken should be aged from 4 to 6 days prior to consumption.
Studies on Salting and Drying Fish. II. Dynamic Aspects of the Salting of Fish
Authors: DEL VALLE F. R. , NICKERSON J. T. R.
Published: August 2006

SUMMARY—

The diffusion coefficient for the penetration of salt into swordfish muscle was not constant but depended upon the salt concentration in the muscle and upon the temperature; the coefficient‐salt concentration curve for 25°C had a minimum value at a salt concentration of approximately 1.5 moles/liter and was always lower in fish muscle than in aqueous salt solutions of the same salt concentration as the muscle. Other parameters which also served to characterize the migration of salt in fish muscle were determined as follows: the equivalent conductance of salted fish muscle was found to be an inverse linear function of the square root of the salt concentration in the muscle and to be always lower in muscle than in aqueous solutions of the same concentration as the muscle; the sodium and chloride ion transference numbers, found to be approximately of the same magnitude in muscle and in water, exhibited the same qualitative variation with salt concentration and with temperature in both media.

As in aqueous solution, the diffusion coefficient and the equivalent conductance of salt in fish muscle were found to increase with increasing temperature. It was found that experimental values of the diffusion coefficient at a given temperature agreed reasonably well with values predicted by the equation is the diffusion coefficient in the muscle at infinite dilution and γ is the “mean molar activity coefficient” of salt, also in the muscle, at concentration c. The activation energies for salt diffusion in fish muscle and in water at infinite dilution were both found to be of the order of 4700 calories per gram‐mole, a value within the region of hydrogen‐bonding energies.
Antimicrobial Action of Citrus Oils
Authors: SUBBA M. S. , SOUMITHRI T. C. , RAO R. SURYANARAYANA
Published: August 2006

SUMMARY—

The inhibitory effect of essential oils of orange and lemon oil and the antibiotics tylosin and nisin was tested on bacteria and fungi in nutrient media. Though the degree of inhibition varied with the culture, orange oil was a more effective antimicrobial agent than lemon oil. All other conditions being identical, 2, 000 ppm of orange oil had an effect similar to 10 ppm of tylosin, on all the gram‐positive cultures tried, including the spores of Bacillus subtilis. Moreover, orange oil was the only additive that showed inhibition of growth of the gram‐negative cultures, excepting Serratia marcescens. Yeasts, in general, were more sensitive than bacteria to orange oil, the effective dose being 500 ppm, at a cell concentration of 1 million/ml. This was a definite advantage over the antibiotics, which had no action on fungi. Though not so sensitive as the yeasts, the molds were also suppressed by orange oil at 2, 000 ppm. The possibility of using orange oil as a preservative in foods is indicated.
Effect of pH on Fungal Metabolites Used as Indicators of Quality of Foods
Authors: FIELDS M. L. , RICHMOND B.
Published: August 2006

SUMMARY—

Rhizopus nigricans, Mucor sp., Botrytis cinerea. Alternaria tenuis, and Rhizoctonia solani were used to determine the influence of pH 4.0 and 7.0 on the production of metabolites. The media were tested for acetylmethylcarbinol (AMC), ethyl alcohol, volatile acids (expressed as acetic), nonvolatile acids (expressed as lactic), and utilization of sugar. Lactic acid values were the most constant, showing the greatest promise as a single chemical indicator of the fungi tested. The quantities of AMC, ethyl alcohol, and volatile acids varied with the organisms. The influence of pH varied with the organism and the metabolite.
The Maillard Reaction in Food Products Carbon Dioxide Production
Authors: COLE S. J.
Published: August 2006

SUMMARY—

The nonenzymic production of gas in food products stored under tropical conditions can, in many cases, be attributed to the reaction between free amino acids and reducing sugars. Carbon dioxide production in model systems has been studied and its relationship to brown pigment and conjugated unsaturated carbonyl compounds investigated.

Over a wide range of pH the variations of sugar, amino acid and temperatures used showed that the type of sugar was the limiting factor in rate of carbon dioxide production rather than the amino acid. Rate increased from disaccharide to hexose to pentose and with rise in pH and temperature. However relative reactivity is a temperature dependent function for lactose and glucose because of the different activation energy involved.

Carbon dioxide was formed mainly via the Strecker degradation but it has been demonstrated that another unidentified pathway is available for the formation of carbon dioxide from sugars in the presence of amino compounds.

Evidence for the similarities in reaction pathways for the formation of the three end products—carbon dioxide, brown pigment and conjugated unsaturated carbonyl compounds‐is presented. The possibility of using the determination of carbonyl compounds as a sensitive indicator of future spoilage due to gas formation is suggested.
Polyphenolic Compounds in Canned Cling Peaches
Authors: LUH B. S. , HSU E. T. , STACHOWICZ K.
Published: August 2006

SUMMARY—

Cling peaches (Prunus persica var. ‘Halford’) were canned with 36° Brix syrup in no. 2% cans as peeled halves. The polyphenolic compounds were extracted from the drained peaches with 95% ethanol containing 0.1% HCl. The extract was concentrated in a flash evaporator under vacuum to remove the ethanol, and with petroleum ether to remove carotenoids. The polyphenolic compounds were extracted from the concentrate with ethyl acetate and separated by two‐dimensional paper chromatography, with n‐butanol‐acetic acid‐water (4:1:5 v/v) and 2% acetic acid as solvents.

Shown to be present in the extract were four chlorogenic acid isomers, five leucoanthocyanidin isomers, catechin, epicatechin, isoflavone, two p‐coumarylquinic acids, and caffeic acid. Chlorogenic acids, leucoanthocyanidins, and catechin were present in larger amount than the others.
Changes in Crystallinity of Cellulose During Dehydration
Authors: SHIMAZU F. , STERLING C.
Published: August 2006

SUMMARY—

Samples of onions and bell peppers were taken during various stages of high‐ and low‐temperature dehydration and lyophilization to ascertain the step‐wise changes that occur in the crystallinity of cellulose. Cellulose crystallizes mainly during the later stages of drying in all three processes, and freezing produces only a minor amount of crystallization. Most of the water loss and loss of rehydration capacity occurs at the start of dehydration. The latter is ascribed to cell death and loss of differential permeability in protoplasmic membranes. Rehydration volume is related to crystallinity of cellulose in these materials within each method of dehydration.
The Carotenoids of Queensland Fruits ‐Carotenes of the Watermelon (Citrullus vulqaris)
Authors: MORGAN R. C.
Published: August 2006

SUMMARY—

Twenty‐one pigments were isolated from the hydrocarbon fraction of watermelon carotenoids. Fourteen of these are naturally occurring carotenes, the remaining seven are stereoisomers and probably artifacts. Lycopene and its neo‐isomers were the major pigments (73.7% and 7.6%, respectively, of the total pigment). Other pigments present in appreciable quantities were phytoene (2.1%), phytofluene (1.4%), beta‐carotene (4.1%), zeta‐carotene (1.6%) and gamma‐carotene (0.4%). Alpha‐carotene, poly‐cis‐lycopenes and an unknown pigment were also present in small quantities.
Volatiles from Delicious Apple Essence—Extraction Methods
Authors: SCHULTZ T. H. , FLATH R. A. , BLACK D. R. , GUADAGNI D. G. , SCHULTZ W. G. , TERANISHI R.
Published: August 2006

SUMMARY—

The organic volatiles in commercial Delicious apple essence were extracted and reduced to an oil by five different extractants: isopentane, diethyl ether, charcoal (with elution by ether), liquid carbon dioxide, and 1,2‐dichloro‐1,1,2,2‐tetrafluoroethane. Identification and quantitative estimation of the maior constituents were made by gas‐liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry. Isopentane and the fluorocarbon were similar in action. Compared with ether they gave lower recoveries, especially for the low‐molecular‐weight alcohols, but they gave extracts with higher concentrations of esters and aldehydes and thus are useful for further composition studies. Liquid carbon dioxide gave an extract similar to that given by ether.

Adsorption on charcoal gave generally good recoveries and was outstanding for alcohols. Panel tests indicated that the low‐molecular‐weight alcohols have only minor importance, if any, to apple aroma. A major proportion of the principal aroma‐bearing constituents was extracted by the methods used.
Heat Induced Changes of Moisture in Turkey Muscles
Authors: ROGERS PATRICIA J. , GOERTZ GRAYCE E. , HARRISON DOROTHY L.
Published: August 2006

SUMMARY—

Effects of end point temperature in unheated (10°C) muscle and muscle heated (dry heat, 176°C) to 25, 35, 45, 55 and 65°C on moisture measured by selected methods, Warner‐Bratzler shear values, and pH values of breasts and thigh‐legs from tom turkeys were investigated. Also, rate of heat penetration, temperature differentials, and post‐oven temperature increases of breasts and thigh‐legs were noted.

Increase in temperature in each of three positions in breasts and thigh‐legs tended to follow a similar pattern for all pieces of the same type. End point temperature significantly (P = 0.05) affected anterior‐posterior, and posterior‐mid‐position temperature differentials in breasts, but affected only distal‐mid‐position temperature differential in thigh‐legs. Post‐oven temperature increases decreased with increase in end point temperature, and were significantly (P = 0.05) different between 35 and 45°C for breasts, and for all temperatures except between 4.5 and 55°C for thigh‐legs.

Mean data for the majority of measurements of moisture indicated that greatest changes occurred between 10 and 25°C. Weight losses, heating time, pH values, Warner‐Bratzler shear values for gluteus medius (GM), “immobilized water” for semimembranosus (SM), and percentage moisture in expressed centrifuged Juice (ECJ) from ground light muscle gradually increased as the end point temperature increased to 65°C. whereas “loose water” and shear values in pectoralis major (PM) increased only to 45°C.

Total moisture (TM), percentage moisture in centrifuged muscle (CM) of ground light and ground dark composite muscles, and expressible moisture index (EMI) for PM and SM gradually decreased as the end point temperature increased. No consistent pattern with end point temperature was observed for “loose water” for SM, “immobilized water” for PM or for volume of ECJ and percentage moisture in ECJ from ground dark muscle.

The two methods of calculating EMI and measuring TM were closely related. Press methods for measuring moisture were not definitely related to any other moisture measurements. Also, weight losses, pH and shear values were not related to the majority of moisture measurements.
Effects of Microwaves on Egg White. I. Characteristics of Coagulation
Authors: BALDWIN RUTH E. , MATTER JILL C. , UPCHURCH RUTH , BREIDENSTEIN DIANA MERRILL
Published: August 2006

SUMMARY—

Coagulation proceeded from the center to the outside of the albumen with electronic exposure, and with conventional heat coagulation progressed from the exterior to the interior. Distribution of dye during heating suggested some transfer of heat by convection in both methods, although heating by microwaves is understood to be chiefly a radiation phenomenon. Albumen held in an ice bath appeared to coagulate at a lower temperature when microwaves rather than a thermostatically controlled burner caused the heat. Egg white, heated electronically to 54.9°C, appeared to be more viscous than that heated conventionally to the same temperature.

When egg white was diluted with water, there was less increase in tenderness of the gels cooked electronically than in those cooked conventionally. As dilution with water was increased in egg white cooked in the electronic range, the final temperature of the coagula decreased. Conversely, with increased dilution, progressively higher final temperatures were attained in conventionally cooked gels. The electronic method resulted in less evaporation, although within methods amount of dilution did not affect degree of evaporation.

Tenderness of gels increased when egg white was adjusted to the acidic pH range regardless of the method of heating. No differences were found in relative viscosity, percent transmittance, and time to reach 59°C between egg whites exposed to microwaves while thermal response was prevented, and those not exposed to microwaves.
Isolation of structural elements of food products by preparative ultracentrifugation: ice cream and ice‐cream mix *
Authors: WREN J. J. , BULLIMORE B. K.
Published: August 2006

Summary. The potential value of this technique is illustrated. With minimal risks of rearrangement or degradation it resolves a variety of food products into layers containing structural elements of different density. When ice cream was melted at 2°C and centrifuged for 90 min at 176,000 g (maximum) it yielded eight layers (other than the air layer) that were different in appearance, texture and chemical composition. The largest layer was clear serum; above this were fat‐rich layers containing some protein and below were protein‐rich layers containing some fat. Under the same conditions, icecream mix gave a somewhat different pattern of layers, which could be related to the effects of ‘fat clumping’ and air incorporation during the freezing of ice cream. Analyses indicated that the layers contained a system of lipoprotein particles of different sizes, all coated with monoglyceride, diglyceride and protein. The triglycerides of all layers of both ice cream and mix had very similar fatty‐acid compositions.
Studies on mechanical factors affecting dough development *
Authors: HEAPS P. W. , WEBB T. , EGGITT P. W. RUSSELL , COPPOCK J. B. M.
Published: August 2006

Summary. Doughs of wheat flour, salt and water have been mixed at various rates and to various levels of mechanical work input. Rheological tests have confirmed that there exists a definite level of work input which gives maximum dough development for any one flour; the results suggest, moreover, the existence of an optimum rate of work input for producing the most stable dough and the best bread.

Baking tests have been used to relate the rheological parameters of the doughs with their baking performance.
Measurement of the flow properties of powders
Authors: WHITE G. W. , BELL A. V. , BERRY G. K.
Published: August 2006

Summary. Published literature on the flow of powders through orifices is reviewed. A new powder flow meter is described, and results obtained with some powdered food products are given. The mass flow rate is found to be proportional to the bulk density and to the 28th power of the orifice diameter. The flow meter permits comparison of the flow properties of powders and prediction of their behaviour in food machinery and plant.
Preventing denaturation of the proteins in frozen fish muscle and fillets I. Effects of additives on the quality of frozen minced fish muscle
Authors: AKIBA M. , MOTOHIRO T. , TANIKAWA E.
Published: August 2006

Summary. In Japan, frozen minced fish muscle has recently tended to be used as the raw material for making Japanese‐style fish paste, such as ‘Kamaboko’, ‘Chikuwa’, fish sausage and ham. The effect of additives on the quality of frozen minced fish muscle has been studied. Among such, the use of a mixture of sugars (5% by weight) and alkaline polyphosphate (0.5% by weight) was the most effective way to keep high the quality of the frozen raw muscle. In addition to these substances, egg‐white (5% by weight) was also effective in preserving the quality. Other high molecular weight substances, such as starches, casein, gluten, carboxymethylcellulose and sodium polyacrylate, showed little effect. Olive oil, shortening oil or lecithin were partially useful as additives accompanying the use of sugars and polyphosphates. Inorganic substances, including potassium bromate, aluminium chloride and sodium chloride, were not effective in improving the quality. A water‐leaching procedure prior to the grinding of raw fish muscle always gave a better product than that produced without leaching.
Volatile carbonyls in cooked chicken
Authors: LEA C. H. , HOBSON‐FROHOCK A.
Published: August 2006

Summary. Colorimetric determination of volatile carbonylic substances in low temperature vacuum distillates from roast chicken showed marked differences for small variations in treatment.
The Histology of Pre‐Rigor and Post‐Rigor Ox Muscle Before and After Cooking and Its Relation to Tenderness
Authors: WEIDEMANN J. F. , KAESS G. , CARRLJTHERS L. D.
Published: August 2006

SUMMARY—Pre‐rigor and post‐rigor semitendinosus muscle was examined under the light microscope and in the electron microscope before and after cooking. During cooking, pre‐rigor samples were unrestrained or restrained on stainless‐steel frames at normal length and at 130% normal length. Samples which passed at 0°C into rigor unrestrained, or while restrained to the same degrees of stretch as above, were cooked post‐rigor without mechanical restraint after various periods of storage. The treatments produced differences in tenderness of the muscle pieces which were related to differences seen in the ultrastructure in the micrographs. It was concluded that, provided the effects of gross connective tissue are small, tenderness in beef muscle is produced by disruption of the actin filaments and by a breaking down of the linkages between the actin and myosin filaments in the sarcomeres.
Histochemical Observations of Porcine Muscle as Related to Lipid Accumulation
Authors: ALLEN E. , BRAY R. W. , CASSENS R. G.
Published: August 2006

—Four porcine muscle fiber types were determined on the basis of histochemical tests. Lightweight boars had a significantly higher percentage of β‐hydroxybutyric‐dehydro‐genase‐positive fibers in the longissimus dorsi than did gilts. Heavyweight boars had significtanly more esterase‐positive fibers in all muscles sampled (except gluteus medius) and significantly more β‐hydroxybutyric‐dehydrogenase‐positive fibers in the longissimus dorsi than either barrows or gilts. The number of esterase‐positive fibers in all four muscles from boars tended to be higher in the heavyweight than in the lightweight group, with the difference being significant for the dark biceps femoris. The trend between weight groups was opposite for all muscles from barrows and gilts. The quantity of intramuscular lipid in the longissimus dorsi increased with slaughter weight and tended to be lowest in the boars. It was postulated that the tendency for a greater accumulation of intramuscular lipid in the longissimus dorsi muscle of barrows and gilts than in boars could be attributed partially to the smaller percentage of fibers positive for enzymes (esterase and β‐hydroxybutyric dehydrogenase) necessary in removing lipid from muscle. Differences were noted between light and dark muscles in the distribution and size of blood vessels.
Changes in Fatty Acid Composition of Porcine Muscle Lipid Associated with Sex and Weight
Authors: ALLEN E. , BRAY R. W. , CASSENS R. G.
Published: August 2006

—The fatty acid composition of porcine longissimus dorsi muscle lipid was determined for 30 animals slaughtered at two live weights (49.6 and 94.1 kg) and consisting of an equal number of boars, barrows, and gilts. The lipid was separated into the neutral lipid and phospholipid fractions prior to analysis.

Odd‐numbered fatty acids Cl1, C13, C15, and Cl7 were significantly higher in the phospholipid fraction. Fatty acid Cl7 was never detected in the neutral lipid fraction.

Both weight and sex effects were quite restricted to the neutral lipid fraction. Weight had a significant effect on amount of fatty acids C10, C11, C12, C14, C16, and Cl8 in one or more of the sexes. The most interesting result was the marked increase in fatty acid Cl8 of the heavy (94.1 kg) gilts and barrows over its very constant level in the muscle from boars of both weights. This difference, coupled with significantly lower C18–1 values in heavy barrows and gilts than in boars, resulted in a markedly higher mean ratio of fatty acid C18–1 to Cl8 for heavy boars. Thus these data suggest that much of the increase in saturation of intramuscular lipid that occurs after about 5.5 kg live weight can be attributed to the ratio of fatty acid C18–1 to C18. This change is probably dependent upon sex hormones and is restricted to the neutral lipid fraction.
Degradation of Nucleotides in Ice‐Stored Halibut
Authors: SPINELLJ JOHN
Published: August 2006

—The course and rate of nucleotide degradation in muscle was determined on ice‐stored halibut of different sizes. The distribution of nucleotides and hypoxanthine was also determined. ATP dephosphorylation and AMP deamina‐tion proceeded very rapidly in halibut post‐mortem, but dephosphorylation of IMP was comparatively slow. Approximately 2.0μM IMP per gram was found in halibut stored on ice for 21 days; 0.5μM per g was found in some of the halibut after 41 days. The rate of IMP dephosphorylation and hypoxanthine accumulation varied between fish; size, however, did not correlate with these rates. Both nucleotides and hypoxanthine showed a fairly even distribution throughout halibut muscle. The work indicates that the determination of nucleotides and hypoxanthine can be used to estimate the storage time of halibut on ice, but reliability is poor during the first 21/2 weeks of storage.
Citrus Carotenoids. I. Comparison of Carotenoids of Mature‐Green and Yellow Lemons
Authors: YOKOYAMA HENRY , VANDERCOOK CARL E.
Published: August 2006

—Lemons, both mature‐green and yellow, yield a complex mixture of carotenoids. The lighter color of the pulp and flavedo of yellow lemons may be attributed to much lower concentrations of carotenoids than in oranges. A comparison of the pigment mixtures shows that, as the lemons ripen and coincident with the disappearance of chlorophyll, alpha‐carotene disappears and zeta‐carotene and an eta‐carotene‐like compound appear in both the pulp and peel. The eta‐carotene‐like compound has not been previously reported in citrus. Furthermore, small but significant amounts of beta‐carotene 5,6‐monoepoxide and its isomeric 5,8‐epoxide, mutatochrome, are present in the pulp of yellow lemons.
Storage Changes in the Free Amino Acids of Foam‐Mat Dried Tomato Powder
Authors: GEE MILDRED , GRAHAM ROBERT P. , MORGAN A. I.
Published: August 2006

—Changes in the free amino acid fraction of foam‐mat dried tomato powder during storage were studied using gas‐liquid chromatography. An increase of individual amino acids was found to be independent of storage temperature and possibly caused by proteolytic reaction. A simultaneous decrease in certain amino acids was accelerated at higher storage temperatures. This loss of amino acids may be involved in non‐enzymatic browning reactions.
The Effect of Cations on the Viscosity of Lambda‐Carrageenan
Authors: ZABIK MARY E. , ALDRICH PEARL J.
Published: August 2006

—Viscosity readings with three rates of shear for each of six time intervals were obtained for 0.5% dispersions of lambda carrageenan ion‐exchanged with AICI3, NH3Cl, CaCl2, FeCl2 MgCl2, NaCl, and SnCl2 in deionized water and in solutions of increasing concentrations of the respective salts, Similar data was collected for unexchanged lambda‐carrageenan in deionized water and in solutions of increasing concentrations of the forementioned salts and KCI. The addition of any salt to the water in which lambda‐carrageenan was dispersed or to the carrageenan itself through ion‐exchange caused a highly significant decrease in viscosity. Salts of Al, Fe+2, Fe+, and Sn caused severe reductions of viscosities to l/7–1/10 that of the original sample. Increasing concentrations of the monovalent cations caused further viscosity reductions. However, the dispersions containing the divalent cations were more viscous at 0.05N level of concentration than at the 0.0125N level, but they did not approach the viscosity of the sample in deionized water alone. Similar trends for the effect of cations were found in both the ion‐exchanged and the unexchanged lambda‐carrageenan series.
Influence of Microorganisms on the Flavor of Selected Precooked Frozen Foods
Authors: DALTON NATHOLYN F. , STRONG DOROTHY H.
Published: August 2006

—Macaroni and cheese, blueberry. pie, and beef gravy served as carriers for various bacteria including Escherichia coli, Proteus vulgaris, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Pseudomonas geniculata, or a mold, Chrysosporium pannorum. The foods were inoculated with l,000,000 bacterial cells per gram or 250 mg, wet weight, of mold and compared with uninoculated samples after various intervals of frozen storage. Special effort was made to reduce the holding period both previous to freezing and for thawing to a minimum. A taste panel evaluated storage time and types of microorganisms for their effects on flavor and aroma, and found that in a limited number of instances the presence of certain microorganisms appeared to influence the flavor and aroma of food directly. More frequently, however, alterations in flavor or aroma developing during frozen storage seemed to be attributable either partially or wholly to factors other than the presence of or reactions incited by the microorganisms.
Time‐Temperature Effects on the Bacteriological Quality of Stored Shellfish.
Authors: HOFF J. C. , BECK W. J. , ERICKSEN T. H. , VASCONCELOS G. J. , PRESNELL M. W.
Published: August 2006

‐The effects of storage at 10, 20, and 27.5°C on the bacteriological quality and pH of living oyster and clam shellstock was studied. Bacteriological indices used were coliform MPN, fecal coliform MPN, and 35°C plate counts. Twelve lots of each oyster species and eleven lots of each clam species were studied. No distinct seasonal patterns in bacteriological changes were found. The 35°C plate count showed the most consistent response, the rate of increase being more rapid at the higher temperatures. Coliform MPN changes were less consistent in their response to temperature, and patterns of change were observed in different species. The fecal coliform MPN showed the greatest stability, with increases occurring only at 27.5°C. The pH changed little at any of the three temperatures.
Development of a Food Mixture for Infants and Young Children in Brazil
Authors: DUTRA de OLIVEIRA J. E. , de SOUZA NELSON , ALVEZ de REZENDE TIBERE , VALENTE LIA R. , BOYD V. F. , DAGGY ELMER E.
Published: August 2006

SUMMARY‐The development of food mixtures containing vegetable protein concentrates, minerals, and vitamins represents an important approach to the problem of protein‐calorie malnutrition of preschool children in many parts of the world. In Brazil, soy flour is the most readily available good‐quality protein for this purpose. Protein efficiency‐ratio studies in rats demonstrated that soy flour with a PER value of 1.99 was available in large quantities. Accordingly, a formula containing 19.50% soy flour, 4.50% nonfat milk powder, 32.28% corn starch, 39.00% sucrose, and 4.72% vitamins and minerals was thoroughly tested as an infant food. The PER value of the protein in rats was 2.31. Amino acid assay demonstrated that the protein compared favorably with the essential amino acid pattern of the FAO/WHO reference protein (FAO/WHO, 196.5) except for methionine‐cystine, The formula was well accepted and tolerated by children and adults. Average nitrogen absorption and retention of the formula as the sole food of malnourished children were 72.68 and 23.82%; values for milk protein were 80.17 and 30.13%. Average nitrogen absorption and retention were 63.4 and 22.0% when the formula provided one‐half (15 g) of the daily protein for normal children consuming a typical diet of the region, comparing favorably with values of 69.3 and 21.3% for milk protein.
Volatile Constituents of Fish Protein Concentrate
Authors: WICK EMILY L. , UNDERRINER EDWARD , PANERAS EVAN
Published: August 2006

SUMMARY— Progress in an investigation of the chemistry of flavor in fish protein concentrate (FPC) prepared by extraction of red hake (Urophycis chuss) with iso‐propanol is described. Lyophilization of slurries of FPC yielded condensates from which a neutral fraction and a mixture of amine hydrochlorides were isolated. The quantity of amine mixture present was dependent on processing conditions used in the FPC preparation and was related to the flavor intensity observed. The contribution of neutral components to flavor was not determined. Based on chromatographic separations and direct investigation of components by mass spectrometry, dimethylamine, trimethylamine, ammonia, ethylamine, diethylamine, n‐propyl‐amine and a butylamine were identified. The probable presence of methylamine, methylethylamine and iso‐propylamine was indicated.
Identification of 2‐Pentyl Furan in Fats and Oils and Its Relationship to the Reversion Flavor of Soybean Oil
Authors: KRISHNAMURTHY R. G. , SMOUSE T. H. , MOOKHERJEE B. D. , REDDY B. R. , CHANG STEPHEN S.
Published: August 2006

SUMMARY— 2‐Pentyl furan is identified as a component of the volatile decomposition products of slightly autoxidized soybean and cottonseed oils and those of thermal oxidation of corn oil and hydrogenated cottonseed oil. The flavor threshold of this compound in oil at room temperature is 1 ppm. At concentrations of 1‐10 ppm, it imparts to the oil a characteristic beany odor and flavor reminiscent of those of a reverted soybean oil. Expert organoleptic panels consistently identified a deodorized cottonseed oil containing 5 ppm of 2.pentyl furan as a reverted soybean oil. It is proposed that this compound is formed by autoxidation of linoleic acid.
Relationship of Color with Certain Chemical and Physical Properties of Porcine Muscle
Authors: JANICKI M. A. , KORTZ J. , ROZYCZKA J.
Published: August 2006

SUMMARY— The dominant wavelength of muscle color depended almost exclusively on pH. A high pH was associated with a high dominant wavelength. Muscle color saturation was associated with moisture content, pH, water‐holding capacity, and myoglobin content. The color exhibited the highest degree of purity in muscles that were high in myoglobin content and low in pH, water‐holding capacity, and water content. Color lightness was negatively associated with pH, water‐holding capacity, and muscle pigments.
The Precursors of Chocolate Aroma: Production of Free Amino Acids during Fermentation of Cocoa Beans
Authors: ROHAN T. A. , STEWART T.
Published: August 2006

SUMMARY— Amino acids are produced during the fermentation of cocoa beans at a rate which is in agreement with the already established rapid rate of flavour and aroma development. The role of these compounds as aroma precursors receives further confirmation as a result of these studies, and an objective method of assessing the “degree of fermentation” of cocoa beans has been described and tested on a number of different commercial varieties of cocoa.
Cysteine Induced Odor Intensification in Onions and Other Foods
Authors: SCHWIMMER SIGMUND , GUADAGNI D. G.
Published: August 2006

SUMMARY— Adding cysteine to food products prepared from onion and other species of the genus Allium results in lo‐to 40‐fold increase in odor intensity and in alteration of GLC patterns of the volatiles. Other nonvolatile sulfhydryl compounds, but not ascorbic acid, also intensify the odor. The reactions responsible for this cysteine effect are not directly enzymatic in nature and appear, at least in part, to involve a series of sulfhydryl‐disulfide type interchanges among cysteine and the sulfur‐containing products of the enzymatic breakdown of flavor precursors in these foods.