bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
B
oethius (c.480–524/526)
Authors: Jordan Jessy
Published: January 2012

According to tradition, Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius (born c.480 in Rome) died as a Christian martyr in Pavia between 524 and 526. He was a philosopher, theologian, and statesman; as a translator and commentator he is often considered the most important intermediary between the ancient Greek intellectual tradition and the Latin Middle Ages. As the “last Roman” and the “first of the Scholastics,” he is best known for the
Consolation of Philosophy
, a prison text treating the transitory nature of this world and the soul's ascent toward rest in an eternal God.
B
off,
L
eonardo (
b
. 1938)
Authors: García Alberto L.
Published: January 2012

Genezio Darci Boff was born in Concórdia in the Brazilian state of Santa Catarina to immigrant Italian parents. One of the most influential and controversial liberation theologians, Boff is especially known for his active work of solidarity with the poor. He was present at the first reflections of the development of liberation theology and “shares his life and dreams” with Maria Monteiro de Miranda, a defender and educator of human rights. He is the author of over 60 books, many of which have been translated into several languages.
Bolivian Christianity
Authors: Bigalke Ron J.
Published: January 2012

Bolivia, named after independence fighter Simón Bolívar, is a landlocked country of central South America, situated in the widest expanse of the Andean mountains. The hills and valleys of Bolivia are located in the Amazon and Parana basins. Of all South American countries, it is the highest and most isolated. The western Altiplano highlands and humid eastern lowlands are home to one of the continent's most indigenous cultures. The majority of the population practices an amalgamation of traditional Aymara and Inca religion with Roman Catholicism (the Jesuits were expelled in 1667). Of the South American countries, Bolivia is one of the least influenced by Protestantism.
B
ooth,
W
illiam (1829–1912)
Authors: Ringenberg William C.
Published: January 2012

William Booth (1829–1912) was an English evangelist, social reformer, and, with his wife Catherine, founder of the Salvation Army. Perhaps no Protestant organization matched the success of Booth's Salvation Army in giving dignity to the lowest classes in the cities of the industrial era.
B
orromini,
F
rancesco (1599–1667)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

Italian sculptor and architect. He was a contemporary of Bernini and worked for him at one time.
B
osch,
H
ieronymus (
c
.1450–1516)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

Dutch painter, who took his name from the town of 's‐Hertogenbosch. He belonged to the Brotherhood of Our Lady, a society similar to the Brethren of the Common Life.
B
raaten,
C
arl
E
. (b. 1929)
Authors: García Alberto L.
Published: January 2012

Carl E. Braaten was born on January 3, 1929, in St. Paul, Minnesota. He is a world‐renowned systematic theologian and prolific author, who has distinguished himself as a theologian of hope in the areas of Christology, Catholic Evangelical ecumenism, and mission theology.
Brahms,Johannes (1833–1897)
Authors: Stoltzfus Philip
Published: January 2012

German composer representative of the Romantic temperament in 19th century music, Brahms is known for his expansive symphonic and chamber music, intimate songs and piano pieces, and choral works.
B
ramante,
D
onato (1444–1514)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

Also known as Donato di Angelo. Italian architect and painter. His approach to architecture was strongly influenced by painters, such as Mantegna. His first church was Sta Maria presso S. Satiro in Milan in the late 1470s. Here he makes brilliant use of perspective to create the illusion of a three‐bay choir on a flat wall. In the 1470s he added a tribune to Sta Maria delle Grazie. Later he went to Rome where he worked on the cloister of Sta Maria della Pace between 1500 and 1504. His next work was the Tempietto in the courtyard of San Pietro in Montorio where he designed a centrally planned martyrium using the Doric order and carving the instruments of the Mass on the colonnade surrounding the cella of the chapel. This led to his appointment as architect of the rebuilding of the Old St. Peter's. Bramante's original design was for a centrally planned church with identical arms. The foundation stone was laid by Pope Julius II. Bramante's plan was abandoned as other architects took over the project, but it inspired Michelangelo, whose grander vision ultimately prevailed. Bramante was also a painter whose somber and poignant
Christ at the Column
shows the influence of Leonardo.
Brethren
Authors: Baker Dwight P.
Published: January 2012

The Brethren Church presents a particularly well‐documented case for study both of the maintenance of religious and cultural identity across three centuries and 15 or more generations and of differential acculturation to wider religious and societal mores. The origin of the Brethren Church can be dated to 1708, when eight believers gathered on the banks of the Eder River at Schwarzenau, Germany, for a baptismal service. One person, chosen by lot, baptized the leader, Alexander Mack. Then Mack baptized the members of the group. In doing so they broke with the state church, which held a monopoly, backed by official sanctions, on religious instruction and the performance of religious rites.
B
roadus,
J
ohn
A
lbert (1827–1895)
Authors: Dockery David S.
Published: January 2012

John A. Broadus was born on January 24, 1827 in Culpepper County, Virginia. When he died on March 16, 1895, he was regarded as one of North America's most capable Christian scholars of the 19th century and certainly one of the world's greatest preachers. Following his graduation from the University of Virginia he accepted a pastorate in Charlottesville, Virginia as well as an appointment to serve at his
alma mater
as assistant professor of Latin and Greek. He was then able to continue his dual loves of teaching and preaching. Eight years later in 1859 he responded to an invitation to serve as a member of the founding faculty at the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary. Broadus served as professor of New Testament and preaching until 1889 when he was elected as the second president of the seminary.
Church Communities International/Bruderhof
Authors: Essick John Inscore
Published: January 2012

Church Communities International (CCI), commonly known as the Bruderhof (place of brothers), is a group of religious communities founded by Eberhard Arnold (1883–1935) in Sannerz, Germany, in 1920. Arnold's approach to communal religious life was influenced by the Hutterites, who were living in America, and upon visiting them in 1930 he was ordained as a Hutterite minister. The Sannerz community encountered severe persecution under the Nazi regime and was forced to relocate several times, finally settling in Paraguay in 1941. In time many Americans expressed interest in joining the community and traveled to Paraguay, prompting the group members to relocate to America in 1954, where they purchased the Woodcrest estate in New York. Additional communities appeared in Pennsylvania and Connecticut during the 1950s. There have been several attempts at a union with the Hutterites, but to date all have been unsuccessful. Presently, CCI has communities in the United States, England, Germany, and Australia, with a population totaling more than 2,500.
B
runelleschi,
F
ilippo (1377–1446)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

Florentine architect and sculptor, founding father of Renaissance architecture. His first known work was the relief of the
Sacrifice of Abraham
that he entered for the Baptistery doors in Florence but which failed to win acceptance. Later he was given the commission to design the dome of the Florence cathedral. He was also involved in the construction of the two basilicas of San Lorenzo. He pioneered the concept of the centrally planned chapel in which the external and internal parts are all mathematically in harmony. The same adherence to mathematical proportions is to be found in the loggia of the Innocenti (the Foundling Hospital, 1419–1424) and in his unfinished Sta Maria Degli Angeli (1434–1437). Vasari in his
Lives of the Painters
credits Brunelleschi with the central vanishing point perspective. His interests in mathematics and geometry led Brunelleschi to design churches based on the circle, which is the perfect geometrical form.
B
ucer,
M
artin (1491–1551)
Authors: Schirrmacher Thomas
Published: January 2012

Martin Bucer (German, Butzer; Latin, Martinus Bucerus), German Protestant Reformer of Strasbourg, was the most important German‐speaking Reformer of the first generation after Martin Luther and Philip Melanchthon. Well known for trying to reunite a Christianity that was breaking apart, he was also the author of many books on dogmatics, ethics, counseling, and church organization, and of bible commentaries. Originally a Dominican, Bucer was won for the Reformation when as a student he heard Luther speak at the Heidelberg Disputation in 1518. For decades he was the leader of the Reformation in Strasbourg at the French border and the spokesman for the Reformation in the whole of southern Germany.
B
ullinger,
H
einrich (1504–1575)
Authors: Schirrmacher Thomas
Published: January 2012

Heinrich Bullinger was a major Swiss reformer, the successor of Ulrich Zwingli as head of the Protestant Church in Zurich and probably the most influential author of theological books and confessions of his time. A much less controversial figure than John Calvin or Martin Luther, his importance has long been underestimated. Recent research has shown that Bullinger was one of the most influential Reformed theologians of the 16th century, who wrote more books than any other theologian. As adviser to church leaders and politicians all over Europe, author of major confessions (especially the Second Helvetic Confession), and father of the covenant theology and the synodal constitution of churches, he formed church and state in Switzerland and left his mark on all Protestant churches in Europe.
B
ultmann,
R
udolf (1884–1976)
Authors: Köstenberger Andreas J.
Published: January 2012

Rudolf Karl Bultmann is regarded by many as the most influential New Testament scholar of the 20th century. He was born on August 20, 1884, in Wiefelstede, a village in the duchy of Oldenburg, Germany. Several members of his family had served in the German Lutheran Church. His father was a pastor, as were his grandfather and great‐grandfather. In 1903, Bultmann graduated from the
Gymnasium
in Oldenburg and went on to study theology at the Universities of Tübingen, Berlin, and Marburg. Bultmann's teachers included Wilhelm Herrmann, Johannes Weiss, and Wilhelm Heitmüller. Heitmüller, together with the writings of Richard Reitzenstein and Wilhelm Bousset, exposed Bultmann to the history of religions school, which sought to understand early Christianity by comparing it to other religious movements of the same period, such as Jewish apocalypticism or Hellenistic gnosticism. Bultmann earned his first degree at Marburg in 1906; he completed his doctorate in 1910 and his postdoctoral dissertation in 1912. In the same year, he joined the faculty at Marburg; after brief tenures in Breslau (1916–1920) and Giessen (1920–1921), he returned to Marburg in 1921, where he taught until his retirement. Rudolf Bultmann died on July 30, 1976, at the advanced age of 91.
B
unyan,
J
ohn (1628–1688)
Authors: Veith Gene Edward
Published: January 2012

Born near Bedford, England. His father, Thomas, was a tinker, a repairer of metal household utensils. Having had only two to four years of education, John took up the trade. Despite these humble origins, John Bunyan became the author of
The Pilgrim's Progress
, one of the most popular books ever written.
B
uxtehude,
D
ietrich (1637–1707)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

Danish composer, the most influential composer of organ music in the 17th century. He is particularly associated with the category of sacred vocal music known as cantatas. Born in Holstein of German parentage, he was trained by his father, an organist and school teacher whom he succeeded as organist at Helsingborg about 1657. From 1660 to 1667 he served as organist at the Marienkirche in Helsingor (Elsinore). In 1668 he won a competition to serve as organist of Marienkirche in Lubeck in Germany where he spent the next 40 years. Here he led the famous concerts known as
Abendmusiken
held annually on five Sundays between Martinmas and Christmas. Under his direction the concerts featured sacred musical works, organ recitals, and chamber concerts. Contemporaries described these concerts as
Starke Musiken
or powerful music.
Ryrie,CharlesCaldwell (b. 1925)
Authors: Bigalke Ron J.
Published: January 2012

Charles Caldwell Ryrie was born the son of John A. and Elizabeth (Caldwell) Ryrie in Alton, Illinois, on 2 March 1925. His father was a banker and gentleman farmer, and his mother was a homemaker. Whereas his older brother, George, became a banker, Charles pursued academics and music. He attended the Stony Brook School on Long Island, which kept him from home for much of his adolescence. Ryrie intended to follow his father in the career of banking and finance. However, a meeting with Lewis Sperry Chafer in 1943 convinced him of God's call into the ministry and he transferred to Dallas Theo‐logical Seminary. He earned a B.A., majoring in mathematics, from Haverford College in 1946. In 1947, he was ordained to the ministry by the First Baptist Church of Alton. At Dallas Seminary, he completed the Master of Theology in 1947 and the Doctor of Theology in 1949.The Basis of the Premillennial Faith(1953) was the result of his studies at Dallas Seminary. He taught for several years as professor, and later as Dean of Men and chairman of biblical studies and philosophy at Westmont College in Santa Barbara. In 1951, he continued his studies in Scotland at the University of Edinburgh, where he earned the Ph.D. in 1954.The Role of Women in the Church(1958) was the result of his studies in Scotland.
Calling
Authors: Emerick Christopher C.
Published: January 2012

Calling describes one's career in life and the process by which one is summoned into service. One's calling can be intense and described as a passion for a particular profession. Thus, in addition to meeting a need in one's field of service or employment, pursuing a calling usually benefits one personally apart from any financial gain.
Calvary Chapel
Authors: Bigalke Ron J.
Published: January 2012

Calvary Chapel is a movement begun by Chuck Smith (1927–) during the late 1960s when most traditional churches rejected the “hippies” of that era due to their counterculture lifestyle.
Calvinism
Authors: Culpepper Scott
Published: January 2012

“Calvinism” is a popular term that has been coined to describe the Reformed theological tradition. The name of 16th century French theologian John Calvin has become closely identified with Reformed theology because of his classic presentation of the system in hisInstitutes of the Christian Religion(1536–1559). Reformed theologians typically point beyond Calvin to Pauline theology (particularly in Paul's Epistle to the Romans) and the later works of Augustine of Hippo (354–430) as the earliest roots of the formal system named after Calvin.
Cambridge Platonists
Authors: Carrigan Henry L.
Published: January 2012

The Cambridge Platonists were an influential group of 17th century philosophers and clergy whose teachings on philosophy and theology later influenced Leibniz, Locke, the Scottish common sense philosopher Thomas Reid, and Kant. They thrived at Cambridge largely between 1633 and 1678, though their younger disciples carried their thinking into the early 18th century. They identified themselves neither with the Puritans nor the High Anglicans, and they encouraged toleration within the church. The Cambridge Platonists drew on the dualistic philosophies of mind and matter of Plato (427–347bce) and Plotinus (ce205–270), contending that mind is prior to matter and that reason is superior to knowledge derived from the senses. They developed the ideas that reason and morality reside in the human mind and that reason is indeed the indwelling of God in the mind that allows individuals to judge both natural and divine revelation. This group of thinkers, who were among the first to write philosophy primarily in the English language (rather than in Latin or French), believed that the rational and the spiritual could go hand‐in‐hand. These philosophers taught that human nature possessed an innate tendency toward goodness and that human nature was perfectible. Humans possess free will, and they learn rationally the wisdom of practicing Christ's universal love. Thus, while the Cambridge Platonists devoted their energies to metaphysical questions regarding the immortality of the soul and the existence of God, they also attended closely to morality and the principles of daily living.
C
ampbell,
A
lexander (1788–1866)
Authors: Brenneman Todd M.
Published: January 2012

Minister, author and religious leader. Alexander Campbell was born in Ireland in 1788 to Thomas and Jane Campbell. In 1808 Thomas immigrated to the United States for health reasons, intending to have his family follow him soon after. Due to several difficulties, including a shipwreck, the rest of the Campbell family was unable to do so. In the interim, Alexander pursued scholarly studies in Glasgow, Scotland. Here he became acquainted with the teachings of the Haldanes and Robert Sandeman, leading Alexander to question his Seceder Presbyterian approach to biblical interpretation. Drawing on Scottish Commonsense realism, Lockean empiricism, and Baconian naturalism, Alexander claimed that he would approach the Bible as if he never read it before. Based on this experiment, he began to question his allegiance to the Presbyterian Church.
Canterbury
Authors: Quantz Amanda D.
Published: January 2012

This ancient Roman town in southeast England was founded between 43 and 150
ce
. Its original name was Durovernum meaning “the stronghold amidst alders.” There were Christians in this Roman town almost from its inception but around the year 450 it suffered from Saxon invasions. In the 6th century the town was renamed Cantawaraburgh which means “the town of the Kentishmen.” In 561, Ethelbert became King of Kent, making Cantawaraburgh his capital. A bishopric was established there in 597 when the Roman monk Augustine arrived with a few dozen companions on a mission from Pope Gregory the Great to the people of England. King Ethelbert and his French Christian queen, Bertha, provided Augustine with the Church of St. Martin, which had been established during the city's Roman period. Today St. Martin's is the oldest of the continually used churches in Englandand has served as a pilgrimage destination for 1,500 years.
Capital Punishment
Authors: Montgomery John Warwick
Published: January 2012

Today this form of punishment is rare in the Western world. The European Convention of Human Rights, to which all member states of the European Union must subscribe, bans it unqualifiedly, and extradition of criminals to the United States is made contingent on American authorities' covenanting that they will not seek the death penalty for the accused. The US Supreme Court's position today is that the constitutional prohibition against “cruel and unusual punishment” does not apply to capital punishment per se, but only to painful and degrading methods of carrying it out. Considerable pressure, however, is continually being exercised by American opponents of the death penalty, especially in light of the high proportion of executions involving members of minority races and the significant number of miscarriages of justice revealed by subsequent DNA testing.
C
aravaggio,
M
ichelangelo
M
erisi
D
a (1571–1610)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

Italian painter, founder and chief exponent of the naturalistic school of painting. Born at Caravaggio, near Bergamo, he left for Rome after the death of his parents. Here he attracted the attention of Cardinal del Monte, who obtained for him the commission for his first major work. It was a series of three pictures for the Contarelli Chapel in S. Luigi dei Francesi depicting the
Calling of St. Matthew
,
Martyrdom of Saint Matthew
, and an altarpiece of
The Inspiration of St. Matthew
(1599–1603). The Contarelli Chapel paintings were the first of six major Roman church commissions, including the masterpiece
The Death of the Virgin
. Caravaggio's crude and down‐to‐earth realism was thought to be revolutionary, especially the dirty feet and sweaty clothes of the poor pilgrims in
Madonna di Loreto
(1604–1605), the coarse peasants in
Madonna dei Palafrenieri
(1605), and the deep pathos of the poor and outcast in
The Entombment of Christ
(1602–04). Caravaggio completed a second major public commission, two paintings for the Cerasi Chapel in S. Maria del Popolo showing the
Crucifixion of St. Peter
and the
Conversion of St. Paul.
Caribbean Christianity
Authors: Gerloff Roswith
Published: January 2012

Caribbean history of Christianity can be divided, with overlaps, into four main periods: the rather monolithic form of Spanish Catholicism from 1492, and of the Church of England from 1620; the arrival of the Evangelicals or nonconformist missionaries, Moravians, Methodists, Baptists, Congregationalists, and Presbyterians from the mid 18th century; consolidation and growth of various European denominations in the region in uneasy tension with the proliferation of independent black Christian groups and African religions in the post‐emancipation era from 1833; and the contest for political, economic, and religious independence after 1870, including the shift from British imperial intervention and influence to those from North America, and national independence after 1962.
C
arissimi,
G
iacomo (1605–1674)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

Italian composer of oratorios and cantatas. As a youth he became a singer at the Tivoli Cathedral. From 1629 he was the
maestro di cappella
at the Church of Sant'Apollinare, Rome. Later he assumed the same position at the Collegio Germanico also in Rome. In 1637 he became a priest. After 1650 he directed music at the Oratory of the Most Holy Crucifix, the Center for Latin Oratorio in Rome, and later entered the service of Queen Christina of Sweden.
Carthusians
Authors: Beiting Christopher J.
Published: January 2012

The Carthusian Order is a strictly contemplative monastic order, founded in 1084 by St. Bruno of Cologne (1030–1101), at La Grande Chartreuse, north of Grenoble, France. The name comes from the medieval Latin
Carthusianus
, derived from the French
Chartreuse
, which is itself the source of the English term “charterhouse.”
Catechetical Schools
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

As Christianity spread from Jerusalem to various parts of the Roman Empire, it developed schools for those desirous of becoming members of the church and also for those who wanted in grow in knowledge and understanding after they had become baptized members. The first noteworthy Christian school was the catechetical school (Didaskaleion) in Alexandria, Egypt. This school added to Alexandria's academic reputation.
Catholic Social Teaching
Authors: Berendt Emil B.
Published: January 2012

Catholic social teaching includes the corpus of teaching that applies moral theology to social issues. It builds upon Scripture, the tradition of the church (e.g. the early church fathers and the doctors of the church), and the natural law tradition (Compendium, #87). Rooted in the biblical imperative to care for the poor, the purpose of Catholic social teaching is to give guidance in social life (Catechism, #2423). In particular, it addresses issues of justice and charity in three social spheres — civil, political, and economic. It also evaluates modern ideologies and social structures from a moral perspective.
Catholic Worker Movement
Authors: Watts Thomas D.
Published: January 2012

The Catholic Worker Movement was founded in New York City in 1933 by journalist Dorothy Day (a convert to Catholicism) and Peter Maurin. The
Catholic Worker
is a newspaper published by the organization. A four point program was espoused by Maurin: 1) the distribution of a labor newspaper for workers and the unemployed; 2) the establishment of houses of hospitality for people who are hungry and homeless; 3) round‐table discussions for clarification of thought about questions pertaining to the social order; and 4) the establishment of farming communes to employ the unemployed and provide food for the houses of hospitality. Maurin was a French, itinerant, Catholic activist, idealist, and utopian, interested in creating a nonviolent, communitarian‐oriented society. Dorothy Day, of similar mind, helped put these lofty ideals into action. There are now over 185 Catholic Worker communities providing hospitality for the homeless, hungry, and forsaken, committed to nonviolence, voluntary poverty, prayer, advocacy for the needy and the oppressed in society, and addressing the unequal distribution of wealth in society.
Catholicism
Authors: Hayes Patrick J.
Published: January 2012

The term Catholicism, probably of 17th century French derivation, applies to the nature and state of affiliation to the Roman Catholic Church. Today Catholicism is seen as a way of life by adherents and is frequently described as a complex of (sometimes competing) ideologies and practices. Catholicism has been interjected into the cultures of the earth with remarkable facility and tenacity, often in the face of inhospitable conditions, and simultaneously it has been enhanced by those same cultures in which it finds itself. Although the church has devised numerous tests for membership over the centuries, there are some general themes around which one's Catholicism is both identified and actualized. These themes include liturgical participation, assent to the Magisterium, popular piety, missionary outreach, intellectual contributions, and adherence to a long tradition of personal and social morality.
Celtic Christianity
Authors: Boyd Matthieu
Published: January 2012

The phrase “Celtic Christianity” attempts to describe the style or brand of Christianity that was practiced in the Celtic‐speaking countries (the modern nations of Ireland, Scotland, the Isle of Man, Wales, Cornwall, and Brittany, as well as Roman Britain) from the 4th century until the 12th. It is also a label for more recent attempts to revive, imitate, or derive inspiration from Celtic spirituality of this period. Such attempts (which are not within the scope of this entry) show varying degrees of concern, or unconcern, for historical fact and authenticity.
Censorship
Authors: Koh Daniel K. S.
Published: January 2012

Censorship, for most people in a liberal society, carries a negative connotation usually seen as an irreconcilable enemy of freedom of expression. It is associated with suppression of ideas and regulation of thoughts conveyed in speech, writings, drama, the arts, and media. Censorship, as a preventive measure, preempts the publication and dissemination of materials deemed to be undesirable and, as a punitive measure, it punishes those who disregard the prohibition. It has often been used by the state and religious institutions, since antiquity, to control the morals and life of people under their charge. In 443
bc
, Rome introduced an office of censor, among other duties, to oversee public morality. In Greece, though Socrates was martyred (399
bc
) for exercising freedom of inquiry against accepted norms, his student, Plato, in his
Laws
(360
bc
) supported censorship to maintain certain purity of thoughts. Ancient China, under the first emperor, Qin Shi Huang, destroyed books deemed to undermine imperial ideology.
C
harlemagne (742 or 747/748–814)
Authors: Casiday Augustine
Published: January 2012

Charlemagne was King of the Franks (768–814) and the Lombards (774–814); on Christmas Day 800, Pope Leo III (795–816) crowned him Emperor of the Romans, and under his reign the Holy Roman Empire embarked upon a period of cultural flourishing. Charlemagne was son of Pippin the Short and grandson of Charles Martel, who at the Battle of Tours (732) had halted the advance of the Ummayads from the emirate of Cordoba deeper into Western Europe. In their roles as mayor of the palace and duke of the Franks, Charles Martel and his son Pippin had insinuated themselves into effective control of the Merovingian dynasty that ruled the Franks. Pippin deposed the last Merovingian king with the tacit approval of Pope Zachary (714–752) and became King of the Franks. Pippin consolidated his family's preeminence by having his sons Charlemagne and Carloman (751–771) anointed by Pope Stephen II (752–757) who had come to Paris to anoint Pippin. Stephen sought from Pippin and his line support against the Lombards who had turned southwards and were encroaching on papal territories. So Charlemagne inherited from his father not only the rule over the Franks, but also a standing relationship of support and reciprocal legitimization from the papacy.
Chiliasm (Millenarianism)
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

The word “chiliasm” comes from the Greek word
chilias
, meaning one thousand. A related word for chiliasm is millenarianism. It is derived from the Latin
mille
that also means one thousand. Both pertain to the theological belief on the part of some Christians that Christ will reign personally with his saints on earth in great glory for a thousand years. After this reign the resurrection of the wicked and the final Judgment will occur. Many chiliasts or millenarians also believe there will be a general, large‐scale conversion of the Jews to Christianity at the millennium.
Chinese Christianity
Authors: Thompson Glen L.
Published: January 2012

For most of the past two millennia Chinese civilization has been xenophobic and resistant to what it has seen as a hostile and threatening rival culture — Christianity. Although Christianity has never been a dominant force numerically in China, there have been five periods during which inroads were made, and today, while theoretically under government control, Christianity is growing at a rapid pace. While its prospects have never looked stronger, the ultimate shape and impact of Christianity in China cannot yet be gauged.
C
hing‐
C
hing (
A
dam) (
c
.750
ce
(?)–after 782
ce
)
Authors: Knowles Brett
Published: January 2012

Ching‐ching, a Persian Nestorian monk‐bishop and missionary scholar in T'ang dynasty China, was the grandson of a Persian priest‐missionary from Balkh (northern Afghanistan) and worked as a Nestorian monk‐bishop and missionary scholar in China during the late 8th century. Although a foreigner from the West, he is usually referred to by his Chinese name (Ching‐ching), rather than by his Persian name (Adam). He was famous for his scholarship in Chinese literature and language and was the chief composer of the elegant inscription on the Hsian‐fu monument, erected in 781 to commemorate 146 years of Christian activity in T'ang‐dynasty China.
Christ as Redeemer
Authors: Macchia Frank D.
Published: January 2012

Redemption metaphors in the New Testament were drawn from the ancient contexts of slavery or war in order to depict the work of Christ as “redeeming” people, or setting them free and “winning them back” from servitude or capture.
Christendom
Authors: Shields Candace C.
Published: January 2012

The word Christendom encompasses the Medieval and Renaissance idea of the central place of Christianity in the lives of nations, countries, states, and individuals. The definition of Christendom is a group of people or nations under a Christian set of morals and values. The term Christendom refers to the impact of Christianity on the world. It refers not just to a group of people, but also to territory where Christianity became a vital part of the inhabitants' lives. Christendom in its earlier stages came to refer to Christians united into one body. This unity was very significant because it was a unity of religion, but it was also a political unity creating powerful alliances. Thus the east and west were united in belief in one Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church. It is a historical term, which designates how Christianity was a unifying force and lent its tenets to be the basis by which nations, countries, and individuals lived during the time of Christendom. It is the time when Christianity regarded itself as the foundation for all civilized society. During this time the beliefs and values of Christianity became the guiding factor in the lives of those living in Christendom. Christendom is the impact of Christianity on the Roman Empire, moving through western Europe and on into areas of Scandinavia. Christendom marks the time in history when Christianity's prominence was in every detail of an individual's life. Christianity was the foundation by which society's culture was formed. The moral of society, the faith by which life was lived, and the values that established how individuals were to live became the marks of Christendom.
What's New in the History of Christianity?
Authors: Thayer Anne T
Published: January 2012

Two overarching themes guide current research in the history of Christianity. First, the geographical range of Christianity has expanded. New churches around the globe and old churches in places new to western scholarly attention are being studied and are telling their own histories. Historiography will itself expand and change as these stories are incorporated into the overall history of Christianity. Second, new interests are complexifying standard narratives. Scholars are becoming increasingly aware of the diversities that exist and have existed among those who identify themselves as Christians. Minority traditions and the history of groups not previously included are receiving focused attention. Studies of “lived religion” proliferate. Within these themes, methodological diversity is embraced as historians stress the multiple layers of interaction shaping lives of faith.
Christian Humanism
Authors: Doyle Dominic
Published: January 2012

Throughout the history of theological reflection, this term has acquired various and complex meanings. The basic idea, however, derives from the claim in the Hebrew scriptures that God created the human person in God's image, “a little less than God, crowned with glory and honor” (Ps. 8). This dignity accorded to the human person deepens through the Christian belief in the Incarnation, the claim that God became human in Jesus Christ out of love for the world. Consequently, Christian humanism claims that the more one comes to understand and love humanity, the more one will resonate with Christianity as good news, because God is a lover of humanity. Indeed, it believes Jesus Christ embodies this love so perfectly that, in him, God and humanity are intimately united. These basic convictions find theological expression in various ways: Irenaeus's claims about deification (paraphrased as “Christ became human, so that humans might become what He is Himself,”
Against Heresies
, bk. V, preface); his positive assessments of the theological significance of the
humanum
(“the glory of God is the human person fully alive,”
Against Heresies
, bk. IV, ch. 20, pt. 7); and medieval appropriations of Aristotle's account of friendship to describe humanity's union with God (Thomas Aquinas'
Summa theologiae
, which includes the important Christian humanist slogan “grace does not destroy nature, but perfects it,” [I.1.8 ad 2]).
Christian Identity
Authors: Rhee Helen
Published: January 2012

What makes an individual a Christian and what does it mean to be a Christian? Answers to these questions of Christian identity are not as simple as they might first appear to be. The concept of identity is a 20th century notion typically associated with modern individualism, and scholars tend to qualify its usage when speaking of the “emergence of Christian identity” in the first two centuries. Nevertheless, it is still possible to speak of “Christian identity” in constructing a sense of Christian continuity and common boundaries in relation to (or in terms of) otherness and differentiation; boundaries of Christian identity “involve selection out of both similarity and difference, and promote interchange as well as distancing” (Lieu 2002: 311). This identity is constructed in constant social interactions with the surrounding societies and cultures, “others,” and defines and redefines those “others,” such as Jews, pagans, heretics, etc. Therefore, as with other identities, Christian identity is “contextualized and contingent” (Lieu 2004: 18) in history, yet it also presents and projects Christian ideals and universal claims through the selective process of self‐definition (Rhee 2005: 7). Christians in the last two millennia have wrestled to define and live out their Christian identities in the changing contexts of culture, time, and space. In this age of globalization and postmodern world, the question of Christian identity is all the more poignant and complex. The following section offers not comprehensive but representative Christian identity markers throughout history that display both extensive diversity and manifestations of contextualization of Christianity and its universal ideals and claims in broad categories.
Literature,ChristianArabic
Authors: Amar Joseph P.
Published: January 2012

This body of literature comprises works written by Christians in Arabic after the rise of Islam, most of which originate in the Chalcedonian (Melkite) monasteries of Palestine. While Christianity existed among certain tribes prior to the rise of Islam, it has left no textual evidence. The emergence of Christian literature in Arabic signaled the fact that Arabic had become the language of daily life even among Christians throughout Dār al‐Islām fromad750, following the establishment of the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad.
Christian Political Parties
Authors: Harold Philip J.
Published: January 2012

Modern political parties first developed in the 19th century in Europe and North America. During that century Christian political participation in democratic states on the European continent was problematic, as the advance of liberalism was coupled with hostility to Christianity, and Christians themselves were very distrustful of democracy up until World War II. Liberal freedoms and social organization eventually came to be accepted by Christians and used as the means by which they could keep their institutions and engage the political order with a Christian perspective. For most of the 19th century this problem of how to keep liberalism at arm's length was mainly a Catholic one, but in its last two decades Protestants, particularly in Germany, saw the need for an independent political force.
Christianity and the Turks
Authors: Faroe Charles E.
Published: January 2012

A thorough discussion of Christian civilization should include the Turks. Muslim Turks conquered the birthplace of Christianity, ended the Eastern Christian Empire and ruled over Christians for centuries. The Reformation was born against the terrifying backdrop of Ottoman Turkish armies advancing within Europe. (Luther wrote treatises entitled
On War Against the Turk
and
Exhortation to Pray Against the Turk
.) Further, the role of Christians contributed to both the flourishing and the demise of the 600 year Ottoman Empire. Likewise, the Ottoman Empire profoundly affected the churches under its rule and left a lasting imprint on the Christians of the Balkans and the Middle East.
I
ndian and
P
akistani
C
hristianity
Authors: Schirrmacher Thomas
Published: January 2012

Following Hinduism and Islam, Christianity is India's third‐largest religion. Its presence goes back to the Thomas Christians probably since the 1st century
ad
, then followed by European contacts from the 16th century on, then by intense mission work in the time of the British rule in the 19th and 20th centuries, but it has undergone a major transformation in recent decades, becoming totally indigenous and independent from abroad.
Christianity's Contribution to Science
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

Alfred North Whitehead, the renowned philosopher of science, once remarked that “faith in the possibility of science, generated antecedently to the development of modern scientific theory, is an unconscious derivative from medieval theology.” Similarly, Lynn White, the historian of medieval science, has stated that “the [medieval] monk was an intellectual ancestor of the scientist.” And the German physicist Ernst Mach once said, “Every unbiased mind must admit that the age in which the chief development of the science of mechanics took place was an age of predominantly theological cast.”
Christological Cults
Authors: Bigalke Ron J.
Published: January 2012

Scripture warns about belief in another Jesus (2 Cor. 11:4). Belief in another Jesus is a false gospel (Gal. 1:6–9). Jesus Christ warned about false prophets, who appear religious, but inwardly deny the Gospel. During these last days between the first and second comings of Christ, there is warning about many false christs who will deceive many (Matt. 7:15–16, 21–23; 24:5). Whereas cults may use the same language and terminology as Christians, they always reject the person and work of Jesus Christ. They invariably deny the preexistence of Christ, in addition to denying the full deity and full humanity of Christ (i.e. the hypostatic union). Orthodox Christians believe in both the full deity and perfect humanity of Jesus Christ. As the infinite God‐man, Jesus Christ is the image of the invisible God, that is, he is himself very God, one with the Father and the Holy Spirit, the same in substance, eternally equal in glory and power; he took upon himself human nature, being conceived of the Holy Spirit, born of the virgin Mary, lived a sinless life; he died upon the cross sufficiently and efficiently as a substitutionary sacrifice; he died and arose bodily the third day in the body in which he was crucified; he ascended in that glorified body into heaven, where he is now at the right hand of the Father, as interceding High Priest of all who believe in him; he will come again bodily, personally, and visibly; and will judge the quick and the dead (Deut. 6:4; Isa. 6:8; Matt. 1:18 –25; 25:31–46; 28:19; Luke 24; Acts 1:9–11; 2:31–36; 1 Cor. 8:6; 2 Cor. 13:14; Eph. 1:3–14; Phil. 2:5–8; Col. 1:15; 1 Thess. 4:16–18; Heb. 4:14–16; 1 Pet. 2:24–25; Rev. 11:15–17; 20:4–6, 11–15). Any faith group or religious system that does not affirm these fundamental truths concerning Jesus Christ, although they may use Christian language and terminology, should be regarded as false in their beliefs and teachings, and is appropriately regarded as a cult, that is, a pseudo‐Christian or non‐Christian group.
C
hrysostom,
S
aint
J
ohn (c.349–407)
Authors: Naidu Ashish J.
Published: January 2012

John, better known by his title “Chrysostom,” was born in Antioch (modern Antakya, Turkey). Having spent his early years as a student of rhetoric, philosophy, and the Bible, he was ordained as a deacon in 381, and then five years later as a priest. Chrysostom subsequently became the Bishop of Constantinople in 398, outshining several key individuals to become one of the leading figures of the Eastern Church. Augustine, his slightly younger Western contemporary, described him as
eruditus et erudiens
in the Catholic faith and esteemed him as a distinguished witness and defender of the faith, placing him among the most celebrated learned men and saints (
Contra Julianum
, 1.6.22).
Church Calendar
Authors: Johnson R. Kevin
Published: January 2012

The church calendar (also known as the liturgical calendar and the Christian year) is designed by season to trace the life and ministry of Christ, his death, burial, and resurrection, and the hope of his coming again to redeem his people. Briefly, the church calendar should be viewed as a reflection on the life and ministry of Jesus Christ. The feasts and fasts celebrated in Roman Catholic and Orthodox traditions are omitted from Protestant church calendars; however, the basic structure of the Christian year is common to all traditions. Many churches follow a lectionary, a three‐year cycle of scriptural texts providing an Old Testament lesson, a Psalm, a New Testament lesson, and a Gospel lesson for each Sunday in the Christian year. In the Christian denominations and churches that use a lectionary, ministry is enhanced through the emphasis on the major themes of the Christian story told over the course of a calendar year.
Church Fathers
Authors: Bruce James E.
Published: January 2012

The period of the Church Fathers begins with those earliest Christians who were not themselves eyewitnesses to Christ's earthly ministry, yet knew eyewitnesses, and ends sometime after the 5th century — after the Council of Chalcedon and the overthrow of the Western Roman Empire by Germanic invaders — but before the 8th. The Patristic period — so called from the Greek and Latin words for
father
— thus extends from the Apostolic Age to the early Middle Ages, and
Patristics
is the study of those early Christian leaders, affectionately termed
Fathers
, who negotiated the doctrinal controversies that arose during this time. The best way to understand the controversies of the period, and the disputants in the controversies, is to consult the writings of the Fathers themselves. Considering that this age spans hundreds of years, this entry presents at best an introduction into a lively, exciting period in the history of the church, and the world.
Church Government
Authors: Köstenberger Andreas J.
Published: January 2012

Church government is concerned with the proper administration of Christian churches, whether local congregations or larger regional or global bodies. One of the most important aspects of the question of church government is the issue of the locus and proper exercise of authority (Carson 2001). Related questions are the number of recognized offices and qualifications for church leaders.
Church Growth Movement
Authors: Rance DeLonn
Published: January 2012

The Church Growth Movement centers on the biblical conviction that the gospel of Jesus Christ is for every person from every culture and segment of society. People are eternally lost unless they repent of their sins, receive Christ as Savior and King and are incorporated into his body, the church. The task of the church is to seek the lost and communicate the good news to all nations. Church growth as a discipline of missiology investigates the nature, expansion, planting, multiplication, function, and health of Christian churches in relation to the effective fulfillment of the Great Commission to make disciples of all nations.
Church Mission Society
Authors: Olabimtan Kehinde
Published: January 2012

The Church Mission Society (CMS) is an
e
vangelical, Anglican missionary society founded in 1799 at Clapham by evangelical lay Christians of the Church of England as “the Society for Missions in Africa and the East.” In 1812 it adopted the name “The Church Missionary Society” and in 1995 modified it to the present one. The circumstances of its evolving from the popular religious awakening of 18th century England shaped its vision and threatened its legitimacy. It informed its vision to plant overseas indigenous churches that were evangelical and so distinct from the high church model being planted by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts (SPG) established in 1701. The established church viewed the society with suspicion, but under the leadership of its clerical secretaries Josiah Pratt (1802–1824) and Henry Venn (1841–1872), it gained the confidence of the church.
New Church (General Church of the New
J
erusalem)
Authors: Streett R. Alan
Published: January 2012

The New Church, or the General Church of the New Jerusalem, is a worldwide Christian denomination based on the teachings of Swedish scientist and government official Emanuel Swedenborg (1688–1772), who at the age of 57 abandoned his distinguished career to pursue a life of mysticism.