bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Urinary steroid evaluations to monitor ovarian function in exotic ungulates: III. Estrone sulfate and pregnanediol‐3‐glucuronide excretion in the Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis)
Authors: Kasman Lonnie H. , Ramsay E. C. , Lasley B. L.
Published: June 2005

A study was undertaken to identify urinary estrogen and progesterone metabolites in the female Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis). Measurements of these metabolites were then used to monitor ovarian function and establish normal levels and patterns of steroid excretion during the estrous cycle and pregnancy. Urine samples were analyzed for estrone sulfate and pregnanediol‐3‐glucuronide (PDG) by direct radioimmunoassays. Both hormones produced discrete profiles reflecting ovarian activity in nonconceptive cycles. The estrous cycle was observed to be 48 days (range 39–64) with a mean follicular phase of 14.8 days (range 13–19), followed by a mean luteal phase of 19 days (range 17–21). Of the single gestation monitored, PDG levels rose above luteal phase levels by the third month after breeding and remained elevated throughout gestation. The combined estrogen and progesterone metabolite profiles present a complete evaluation of ovarian steriod production in the mature female Indian rhinoceros.
Study of morphological and cytological parameters indicating oestrus in Lemur fulvus mayottensis
Authors: Cranz Claudine , Ishak Bassam , Brun Bernard , Rumpler Yves
Published: June 2005

Lemur fulvus mayottensis females were presented each day to vasectomized males. A simultaneous study of parameters of vaginal smears, external genital organs, and the cervix was carried out on the same females. Results from the two methods allow the determination of oestrus, that is, the best period for artificial insemination.
Twenty‐four‐hour variations in activity, core temperature, metabolic rate, and respiratory quotient in captive chinese pangolins
Authors: Heath Martha E.
Published: June 2005

The circadian rhythms in activity, core temperature (Tc), O2 consumption, CO2 production, and respiratory quotient (RQ) were monitored in four captive Chinese pangolins (Manis pentadactyla). The pangolins were strictly nocturnal, never emerging from their nest before 1600 h, and their intermittent activity continued no later than 0230. As is usual in nocturnal mammals, the highest values observed in Tc, O2 consumption, and CO2 production occurred during the night; the lowest values occurred during the day. The magnitude of the variation in Tc, O2 consumption, CO2 production, and RQ averaged 1.2°C, 1.3 ml O2 kg−1 min−1, 1.2 ml CO2 kg−1 min−1, and 0.24, respectively. The circadian pattern in RQ was independent of activity, Tc, and the metabolic parameters and was of a different character than the patterns exhibited in the other variables. RQ remained constant at either a high or low level for long periods (8–10 h) and then increased or decreased relatively rapidly (1–2h) to the other level as in a square wave, whereas the rhythms in the other variables are similar to sine waves. The sharp increase in RQ was followed by a slow decline in Tc, and the sharp decline in RQ was followed by a slow increase in Tc.
Mother‐young relationships in captive ungulates: Spatial and temporal patterns
Authors: Ralls Katherine , Lundrigan Barbara , Kranz Karl
Published: June 2005

Ungulates are often divided into two groups—the followers and the hiders—characterized by differing spatial and temporal patterns of mother‐young behavior. We assessed the relative roles of mother and young in maintaining these patterns by recording standardized quantitative measures on 37 mother‐young pairs representing eight species. We found no differences between followers and hiders on any of our measures. The mother was largely responsible for maintaining the species characteristic spacing distances between mother and young, although young sometimes contributed. The mother usually initiated activity bouts of the young. Activity bouts of young were longer and more frequent when the mother was active than when she was lying down. Young often stood when their mother was lying, but these activity bouts were brief. Young usually terminated their own activity bouts. Hinde's measure, a measure designed to quantify the relative roles of primate mother and young in maintaining proximity, proved less satisfactory for ungulates, due to the multiple interpretations possible for low values of the measure and the difficulty of adequately defining approaches and departures.
Evidence for African origins of founders of the asiatic lion species survival plan
Authors: O'Brien S. J. , Joslin P. , Smith G. L. , Wolfe R. , Schaffer N. , Heath E. , Ott‐Joslin J. , Rawal P. P. , Bhattacharjee K. K. , Martenson J. S.
Published: June 2005

The Asiatic lion (Panthera leo persica) exists in the wild as a single relict population of approximately 250 individuals in the protected Gir Forest Sanctuary in western India. In 1981, a species survival plan (SSP) for the Asiatic lion was established by the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums to manage the 200 + descendants of Asiatic lions in captivity in western zoological facilities. This captive population was derived from seven founders. In order to compare the genetic structure of the Gir Forest population with that of the captive SSP population, a genetic survey of 46 electrophoretic allozyme systems resolved from extracts of lion blood was undertaken by using 29 SSP Asiatic lions and 28 wild‐caught or captive‐bred lions maintained at the Sakkarbaug Zoo in India but originally derived from the Gir Forest. The Gir lion population was found to be genetically monomorphic at each of 46 allozyme loci. This was in contrast to several African lion (Panthera leo leo) populations, which show moderate levels of allozyme variation at the same loci. The SSP lion population was polymorphic at three allozyme loci (IDHI, TF, and PTI) for alleles that were previously found only in African lion populations. Pedigree analysis of the genetic transmission of these three biochemical loci demonstrated that two of the five primary founder animals of the SSP Asiatic lion population (a breeding pair originally imported from the Trivandrum Zoo in southern India) were descendants of the African subspecies. Three other founder animals were pure Asian. A retrospective SSP pedigree analysis of two morphologic characters (prominent abdominal fold and pairing of infraorbital foramen) that are partially diagnostic for persica vs leo was consistent with this conclusion as well. The implications for the management of small captive populations of threatened species and of the Asiatic lion SSP population are discussed.
Cover‐seeking behavior in red spitting cobras (Naja mossambica pallida): Effects of tactile cues and darkness
Authors: Chiszar David , Radcliffe Charles W. , Boyer Thomas , Behler John L.
Published: June 2005

Eleven red spitting cobras, Naja mossambica pallida, used clear Plexiglas hiding boxes as frequently as they used dark ones in a successive discrimination paradigm (experiment 1), which indicated that thigmotaxic cues can satisfy the cover‐seeking needs of the snakes. In simultaneous discrimination tests, however, dark places were always preferred by the snakes (experiments II, III). Therefore, although thigmotaxic cues are sufficient, these plus darkness constitute a more favorable alternative for N m pallida. The husbandry advantages associated with clear hiding boxes, together with their sufficiency for the snakes, argue strongly for their use in many captive environments.
Genetic variability in a captive herd of Speke's gazelle (Gazella spekei)
Authors: Templeton Alan R. , Davis Scott K. , Read Bruce
Published: June 2005

A captive herd of Speke' gazelle was screened for genetic variability at 28 enzyme‐coding loci, the nuclear ribosomal DNA (rDNA), and the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). There is one variable restriction site out of 52 in the rDNA and three variable sites out of 41 in the mtDNA. This amount of mitochondrial diversity is low for a mammal, but is about the maximum to be expected given that the entire herd is derived from three females. However, 14% of the enzymecoding loci were polymorphic, a figure typical for mammals. Hence, despite the fact that the herd was founded by one male and three females, much genetic variation is still present. It is therefore important to continue breeding programs designed to maintain genetic diversity.

MtDNA is maternally inherited, so tracing back from the current animals through females allowed us to infer that each founding female had a distinct mtDNA haplotype. Hence, the founding females could not have shared the same mother.

The nuclear variability could also be traced back through the pedigrees to the founders. One female was found to have contributed none of the assayed genetic variability to the current herd. “Gene drop” simulations of the herd indicated that this was the only founder for which much genetic variability had already been lost because of breeding decisions made during the early history of the herd. This illustrates the importance of implementing breeding programs designed to preserve genetic variability as soon as possible.
Management and husbandry of ruffed lemurs, Varecia variegata, at the San Diego Zoo. I. Captive population, San Diego Zoo housing and diet
Authors: Brockman Diane K. , Willis Mary S. , Karesh William B.
Published: June 2005

The captive history of the ruffed lemur is presented with concentration on taxonomy, captive population and husbandry of the San Diego Zoo population. At the conclusion of 1985, the living population of black and white ruffed lemurs numbered 358; red ruffed lemurs totaled 125. The San Diego Zoo population, established between 1965 and 1970, began with two pairs of each subspecies. Intensive breeding at the Primate Propagation Center resulted in the birth of 135 black and white ruffed lemur infants and 95 red ruffed lemur infants as of January 7, 1986. Housing specifications are presented for the off‐exhibit 96‐unit breeding facility, describing enclosure size, material, nest box composition, and enclosure furniture. The diet is described, which emphasizes high‐protein, high‐fiber foods and leaves.
Parental care in captive siamangs (Hylobates syndactylus)
Authors: Alberts Susan
Published: June 2005

Siamangs exhibit paternal care to the extent that the male of a monogamous unit carries its infant offspring beginning late in the infant's first year of life. Field studies have documented this but without behavioral detail. It has been hypothesized that the transfer is facilitated by a desertion of the infant by the female. An infant siamang born in captivity at the Washington Park Zoo, Portland, Oregon, was observed through its first year of life. The infant transfer to the male was documented in captivity and was associated with a high rate of infant‐initiated contact with the male and a high rate of infant retrieval by the female. The study concludes that the infant probably played a key role in facilitating the transfer to the male.
Responsiveness of a male Mueller's gibbon to his own species‐song, that of a lar gibbon, and a synthetic song of similar frequency
Authors: Haraway M. M. , Maples E. G. , Tolson J. S.
Published: June 2005

The study compared the responsiveness of a captive male Mueller's gibbon to audio recordings of dawn songs of wild‐living male Mueller's gibbons and lar gibbons, and to a synthetic song constructed from screech owl vocalizations. Though wild‐caught, the subject had not been exposed to songs of his own species for at least 10 years, and in fact, only rarely performed the dawn song himself. Initially, the subject responded vigorously to all three recordings, with no preference being shown for the recording of his own species. However, a very strong preference for Mueller's vocalizations did develop following a period of concentrated and exclusive exposure to Mueller's songs.
Activity budgets and use of enclosed space by wild boars (Sus scrofa) in captivity
Authors: Blasetti A. , Boitani L. , Riviello M. C. , Visalberghi E.
Published: June 2005

This research was conducted on a captive group of eight wild boars: Four wildborn adults (one male and three females) and four piglets (one male and three females), born in captivity two months before the beginning of the study. They were housed in the Rome Zoo in a 1,000 sq m enclosure furnished with trees, mud pools, a water basin, and two small barns.

Data on eight behavioral states (sleeping, resting, rooting, eating, walking, standing, scratching, and nursing) were collected by instantaneous sampling at 10‐minute intervals. The spatial location of each subject was also noted, as well as closeness to conspecifics.

Results showed that adults and piglets differed in their activity budgets. Activity patterns showed a significant correlation with the mean temperatures. Furthermore, there was a significant difference in the use of the exhibit areas between adults and piglets.

This study suggests a social structure in which the core is constituted by females and their yearlings. The nonbreeding female has a more marginal position than the breeding ones. Finally, the male tends to be even more peripheral and solitary. Our results are partly consistent with the data obtained in studies on free‐ranging wild boars (Mauget, 1980; Dardaillon, 1984).
Microbiological characterization of three Atlantic whiteside dolphins (Lagenorhynchus acutus) from stranding through captivity with subsequent rehabilitation and release of one animal
Authors: Buck John D. , Bubucis Patricia M. , Spotte Stephen
Published: June 2005

Three live Atlantic whiteside dolphins (Lagenorhynchus acutus) were found beach‐stranded on Cape Cod in Massachusetts and were shipped to Mystic Marinelife Aquarium in Connecticut and held in captivity. Swab samples were collected routinely from the anus and blowhole of live animals and from internal organs at necropsy for microbial culture. Despite antibiotic therapy, one animal died on day 9 of captivity, and one died after 110 days. The survivor was released after 126 days of captivity. Klebsiella pneumoniae septicemia and staphylococcal pneumonia were likely responsible for the two deaths. A total of 26 different organisms (or groups of organisms) were recovered from the three dolphins, including several (e.g., Pseudomonas spp, Streptococcus faecalis Candida albicans, Proteus‐Morganella spp, Vibrio spp) that, in addition to the above organisms, could be potentially pathogenic for debilitated animals. Newly rescued marine mammals should be segregated from healthy animals if possible.
Aggression with mixed age‐sex groups of bolivian squirrel monkeys following single animal introductions and new group formations
Authors: Williams L. E. , Abee C. R.
Published: June 2005

The social organization of the Bolivian squirrel monkey (Saimiri boliviensis boliviensis) is thought to be sexually segregated, with males and females forming separate social groups during the nonbreeding season. To investigate the influence of this social order on patterns of aggression, controlled single animal introductions within established groups and establishment of new groups were studied in a systematic manner. Behavioral observations were made using an all‐occurrences technique to sample all agonistic interactions. In study I, 4 animals of each age‐sex class (adult males and females, juvenile males and females) were introduced one at a time into 4 different social groups composed of 1 adult male and 8 to 10 adult females. Behavioral observations were made prior to and after the introductions. Newly introduced adult males received significantly more contact aggression than other age classes. Only the adult females increased aggression after the introduction of new animals. In study II, new social groups were formed and behavioral observations were made following formation. One group was formed from 7 pairs of familiar females and an unfamiliar adult male. This group had a high frequency of aggression during the first half hour, with contact aggression rising to peaks at 3 and 5 h. The second group consisted of 10 familiar females, 2 pairs of familiar females and an unfamiliar male. There was a significant peak in contact aggression 3 h into the observation.
Circulating levels of vitamin E in captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus)
Authors: Dierenfeld Ellen S. , Dolensek Emil P.
Published: June 2005

Circulating levels of α‐tocopherol (vitamin E) were examined via high‐performance liquid chromatography in four female Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) at the New York Zoological Park between 1983 and 1987. Plasma vitamin E averaged 0.08 μg/ml in 1983, and was considered deficient. Over a four‐year period of dietary supplementation ranging from 0.7 to 3.7 IU vitamin E/kg body mass (approximately 50 to 250 IU/kg diet as fed), mean plasma α‐tocopherol increased to 0.6 μg/ml. Plasma and dietary vitamin E were found to be significantly correlated (p < 0.025) in these animals. Serum or plasma vitamin E measured in an additional 20 elephants from eight other zoological institutions in the United States and Canada averaged 0.5 μg/ml, but values were not significantly correlated (p > 0.05) with calculated dietary levels of the vitamin. To achieve the mean value for circulating α‐tocopherol in captive elephants (0.5 μg/ml), feed must provide at least 1.0, and more likely 2.0 to 2.5 IU vitamin E/kg body mass (approximately 130 to 167 IU/kg diet).
Genetic variation in the zoo population of the red panda subspecies Ailurus fulgens fulgens
Authors: Princée Frank P. G.
Published: June 2005

Genetic variation present in the global and regional zoo populations of the red panda is estimated by computer simulations. In this study it is demonstrated that inbreeding depression could occur on the short term in the regional populations. Migration between regional populations is recommended to ensure the future survival of the red panda in captivity. More genealogical lineages should be represented in the breeding program.
Management and husbandry of ruffed lemurs, Varecia variegata, at the San Diego Zoo. III. Medical considerations and population management
Authors: Brockman Diane K. , Willis Mary S. , Karesh William B.
Published: June 2005

Medical aspects of maintaining the ruffed lemurs, Varecia variegata, at the San Diego Zoo and recommendations for population management of the species are presented. Common clinical problems include diarrhea, hair balls, chapped feet in young animals, and canine‐tooth abscesses. Congenital abnormalities in animals at San Diego involve scoliosis, incomplete skull formation, internal organ anomalies, and neuromuscular disease, all of which may be related to the small number of founders. Population‐management recommendations vary in complexity with the subspecies. Of primary importance for Varecia v. variegata is equalization of founder contributions and controlled breeding. Critical issues for Varecia v. rubra include acquisition of wild‐born stock, equalization of founder representation, increased population, and the location of captive habitat. The creation of four or five major breeding centers for Varecia is proposed; the centers would be designed to house wild‐born and underrepresented founder lines that could be genetically manipulated and rapidly expanded over a short time period. The creation of a self‐sustaining population of ruffed lemurs in captivity depends on international cooperation and the development of a ruffed lemur master plan.
An evaluation of supplementing bacterial filtration with algae scrubbers in a recirculating marine aquarium
Authors: Pryor Warren W. , Morris Daniel J. , Simmons Lee G.
Published: June 2005

The 4.5 m2 algae scrubbers were shown to have no significant impact on the amount of attached or suspended algae in the 30,000 liter display or on the concentrations of ammonia, nitrite, nitrate, phosphate, or dissolved oxygen in the water. Algae scrubbers significantly raised the water's copper concentration. The month‐long experiment was conducted in the Coral Reef Tank at the Omaha Zoo.
Behavior of the mayotte lemur, Lemur fulvus mayottensis, in captivity
Authors: Hosey Geoffrey R.
Published: June 2005

A group of one male and two female Mayotte lemurs was observed at Chester Zoo, and their behaviors compared with published observations of wild populations of this and related forms of the brown lemur. It was found that the captive animals were active by both day and night, but that the pattern of activity was different from wild lemurs. The captive lemurs were less active than their wild counterparts and showed different timing of activity because of the feeding regimen at the zoo. The animals did not ignore the public at the zoo, but, on the contrary, directed some behaviors at the zoo visitors, particularly if the zoo visitors attempted to interact with the lemurs; under these conditions there was also an increase in the movements of the lemurs in the cage. Levels of aggression in the zoo lemurs were higher than those reported for wild populations, and aggression appeared to occur predominantly in the birth season. Levels of affiliative behaviors, particularly allogrooming, were comparable with those in the wild. Olfactory behaviors such as scent marking and anogenital sniffing also showed seasonal peaks and again appeared to occur at higher rates than in the wild.
Effect of food preparation on feeding behavior of lion‐tailed macaques
Authors: Smith Amy , Lindburg D. G. , Vehrencamp S.
Published: June 2005

Ten group‐living lion‐tailed macaques (Macaca silenus), accustomed to receiving fruits and vegetable items of the diet in chopped form, were given these same foods in whole form to compare reactions to the non‐nutritional properties of food. Contrary to common belief, the access of individuals to the different food items was not equalized through chopping into bite‐sized morsels. Mean dietary diversity actually increased with presentation of whole foods, as did time spent feeding and total amount of food consumed. The widespread practice of chopping of food for captive primates has little to commend it in light of these findings.
Mirror reactions in a zoo colony of Cebus monkeys
Authors: Collinge Nancy E.
Published: June 2005

The extensive research investigating the reactions of a number of species of nonhuman primates to their mirror images has revealed that monkeys have never been observed to react with self‐directed behaviors, as have some species of higher apes. The intermittent exposure of captive Cebus monkeys to a mirror over a 5‐week period produced species‐specific social reactions to the mirror, supporting the suggestion that at least in some instances the monkeys were viewing their mirror image as a conspecific. The variability in the duration and expression of mirror‐directed behaviors observed in the study appeared to be related to the age and past experience of the monkeys. The duration of mirror viewing of subadults was over twice that of the adults, while the young, hand‐reared animals exhibited more manipulative and fewer social behaviors than did the young animals raised in the zoo. The average viewing time of the zoo colony decreased substantially over the course of the study but the monkeys were still spending an appreciable time at the mirror after 5 weeks.
Analysis of founder representation in pedigrees: Founder equivalents and founder genome equivalents
Authors: Lacy Robert C.
Published: June 2005

The concepts of “founder equivalent” and “founder genome equivalent” are introduced to facilitate analysis of the founding stocks of captive or other populations for which pedigrees are available. The founder equivalents of a population are the number of equally contributing founders that would be expected to produce the same genetic diversity as in the population under study. Unequal genetic contributions by founders decrease the founder equivalents, portend greater inbreeding in future generations than would be necessary, and reflect a greater loss of the genetic diversity initially present in the founders. The number of founder genome equivalents of a population is that number of equally contributing founders with no random loss of founder alleles in descendants that would be expected to produce the same genetic diversity as in the population under study. The number of founder genome equivalents is approximately that number of wild‐caught animals that would be needed to obtain the same amount of genetic diversity as is in the descendant captive population. Founder equivalents and founder genome equivalents allow comparison of the genetic merits of adding new wild‐caught stock vs. further equalizing founder representations in a captive population.
Moving callitrichid monkeys from cages to outside areas
Authors: Chamove Arnold S. , Rohrhuber Brigitte
Published: June 2005

To assess the important aspects of a large area for environmental enrichment, the behavior of families of common marmosets Callithrix jacchus and cotton‐top tamarins Saguinus oedipus when in laboratory cages and when in much larger outside areas was compared. All animals avoided areas with little cover. The two tamarin families preferred an indoor cage to a large open area with little cover and consequently only showed a limited range of behavior when outside. When dense cover was provided to the marmoset family, they used this area extensively, showing a wider range of behavior than when in cages and shifting to less active behavior patterns. By feeding marmosets in a central area, it was possible to allow unlimited access to the outside while effectively containing them.
Hummingbird nutrition: Development of a purified diet for long‐term maintenance
Authors: Brice A. T. , Grau C. R.
Published: June 2005

A purified liquid diet containing 25% solids (by weight) was developed for maintenance of adult hummingbirds so that nutritional studies could be conducted. Calypte anna and C. costae were fed the diet for at least 1 year, during which time they maintained body weights and general good health, and they molted normally. A diet containing 3% protein (dry weight basis), supplied by isolated soybean protein plus methionine, met the need for nitrogen. It was found that Calypte anna and C. costae do not need ascorbic acid in their diets.
Use of surrogate parental models and age periods in a successful release of hand‐reared sandhill cranes
Authors: Horwich Robert H.
Published: June 2005

Ten sandhill crane chicks were reared in isolation from humans to prepare them for an experimental wild release. They were imprinted on realistic models using crane brooding calls and were fed by crane‐like puppets. Six of the chicks were simultaneously imprinted on a human in a crane costume. The other four chicks were introduced to this surrogate parent at 5–7 days of age. The chicks were fed natural foods by the parent at two wild sites, one of which, the release site, was a staging area for migratory cranes. Observations were made on their behavioral development, including the time spent close to the model or costumed parent and the percentage of time spent foraging. The chicks spent the initial month close to the surrogate parent but moved away more to forage during the second month. The chicks regressed to again spend a great deal of time near the parent during the third and fourth months. They were released during this regressive period by removing the surrogate parent. All five of the released chicks showed increased interest in wild cranes within days of the release and formed a continuous association with wild cranes within 30 days. Four of the five were relocated by telemetry the following spring back in Wisconsin. These young juvenile cranes were excellent candidates for release due to their adaptable nature and their level of social development. The artificial stimuli of the surrogate parent helped the chicks to generalize their attachment to wild cranes. Once with wild cranes they quickly learned additional survival skills.
Coated nuts as an enrichment device to elicit tool use in tufted capuchins (Cebus apella)
Authors: Visalberghi Elisabetta , Vitale Augusto F.
Published: June 2005

The present paper describes a simple technique that hardens the shell of nuts and makes the use of a tool to crack them open more compelling. Walnuts were coated with a dough of sawdust and nontoxic white glue in different combinations; they were tested for hardness by using machines normally used to test different kinds of wood. Data on relative hardness for uncoated walnuts and walnuts coated with dough of two different combinations are presented. The coated walnuts were significantly harder to break than the uncoated ones, whereas no significant difference was found when comparing the hardness of two types of coated walnuts. Furthermore, observations on a captive group of tufted capuchins (Cebus apella) are described. The monkeys needed significantly more time to break open the coated walnuts. Early results show that coated walnuts may favor acquistion of tool use skills in a juvenile capuchin.
Reproductive management plan of Toledo Zoo lowland gorillas over the past 25 years
Authors: Reichard T. A. , Favata G. F. , Petiniot C. , Gheres A. , Czekala N. M. , Lasley B. L.
Published: June 2005

The breeding program for gorillas at the Toledo Zoo up to 1983 had resulted in five pregnancies over an 18 year period. In 1983, we began a multifaceted effort designed to improve reproduction through behavioral, physical, dietary, and physiological evaluations. Measurement of steroidal hormones in urine proved useful in monitoring ovarian activity and, in one case, led to successful treatment of a luteal‐phase deficieny in pregnanediol‐3‐glucuronide. Various social manipulations of colony members and infant‐rearing regimes are described.
Breeding orangutans at Perth Zoo: Twenty years of appropriate husbandry
Authors: Markham Rosemary J.
Published: June 2005

The Perth Zoo orang‐utan husbandry strategy, which has been the foundation of 20 years of success in breeding, health, and longevity, is based on respect for the solitary arboreal nature of the species. The orang‐utans are housed singly at night and fed only in their night dens. Diets are based on the weight and energy expenditure of the individuals. During the day they are housed singly or in very small groups that correspond in size and structure to wild population units. Adult males and females are only introduced for breeding purposes. Large climbing frames, which permit visual and vocal contact, dominate the day enclosures. A wide variety of manipulable objects are provided daily to enhance activity levels.

Since 1968 there have been 21 births, 14 surviving infants, and no post‐infancy deaths. All the mature animals are fertile. The major health problems of captive orang‐utans and the most common causes of adult mortality have been absent from the colony. The husbandry method used has made it possible to record detailed reproductive data including complete menstrual cycle records for 8 females since 1981, the observation and quantification of cyclic proceptivity for all mature females, the calculation of 19 gestation periods, and the measurement of post‐partum amenorrhea and interbirth intervals. Urinary hormone analysis is used regularly to confirm ovulation. A long‐term study of the hormones mediating the development of secondary sexual characteristics in males was started in 1988.

Captive orang‐utans do not have a fertility problem, but the captive population is threatened by the unacceptably high mortality rate in young adults. This appears to be related to inappropriate husbandry methods. The most neglected aspect of orang‐utan husbandry is natural social group size and structure.
Behavior and blood catecholamines of captive belugas during playbacks of noise from an oil drilling platform
Authors: Thomas Jeanette A. , Kastelein Ronald A. , Awbrey Frank T.
Published: June 2005

Belugas (Delphinapterus leucas) depend on sounds for communication and echolocation. To address the concerns that noise from oil platforms may have adverse effects, we examined behavioral responses of four captive belugas to playbacks of noise from SEDCO 708, a semi‐submersible drilling platform. Swim patterns, social groups, and respiration/dive rates were not statistically different before and during playbacks. We assayed levels of blood catecholamines before and after playbacks as a measure of stress. Blood epinephrine and norepinephrine levels measured immediately after playbacks were not elevated. Using the parameters we selected, we could not detect any short‐term behavioral or physiological effects of drilling noise playbacks on these captive belugas. However, care should be taken in extrapolating these results to the behavior of wild belugas around oil platforms.
Environmental enrichment for zoo bears
Authors: Carlstead Kathy , Seidensticker John , Baldwin Robert
Published: June 2005

The high incidence of stereotypic behaviors in zoo bears (van Keulen‐Kromhout: International Zoo Yearbook 18:177–186, 1978) suggests that the environment of these animals lacks essential stimuli for guiding normal behavior. Three experiments investigated ways in which bear husbandry procedures can be altered to promote normal behavior. In experiments 1 and 2, honey‐filled logs were given to a sloth (Melursus ursinus), American black (Ursus americanus), and brown bear (Ursus arctos) to determine 1) the role of food in stimulating investigatory behavior, 2) the rate of habituation to manipulable objects introduced into the exhibit, and 3) effects on locomotory behaviors. Results show specific and general habituation to the introduced objects that can be counteracted by refilling the logs with honey and by providing multiple logs in the exhibit. Investigatory activity directed toward honey‐logs replaces pacing and walking in the sloth bear and is most effective in doing so when the log is novel. Experiment 3 examined the behavioral effects of feeding an American black bear in three different ways: 1) once daily in the den, 2) once daily with supplemental food from a mechanical feeder, and 3) once daily with food hidden in the exhibit in manipulatable objects. The latter method reduced stereotypic pacing from a median of 150 min/day to 20 min/day; the mechanical feeder method had no such effect. The results of a survey of 67 zoos concerning the diet and manner of feeding these three species of bears, as well as Asian black bears (Ursus thibetanus) are presented. Results are discussed with respect to the ways in which husbandry procedures can be improved to stimulate functional foraging and feeding behavior in confined bears.
Retinol and α‐tocopherol concentrations in whole fish commonly fed in zoos and aquariums
Authors: Dierenfeld Ellen S. , Katz Nancy , Pearson Jack , Murru Frank , Asper Edward D.
Published: June 2005

Retinol (n = 17 spp.) and α‐tocopherol (n = 9 spp.) concentrations in whole fish utilized for captive animal feeding programs were determined by high‐performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) following routine storage and preparation after commercial purchase by two zoological institutions. Vitamin A activity was calculated from retinol values and ranged from 55 IU/100 g (immature herring) to >2,000 IU/100 g (salmon) on an as‐fed basis. α‐Tocopherol values, a measure of vitamin E activity, ranged from 0.9 IU/100 g (butterfish) to 12.3 IU/100 g (tilapia) on a wet basis. Vitamin levels in whole fish were intermediate to values previously quantified for muscle or liver tissues alone. Vitamin concentrations in fish livers were quantified separately in seven of these species; liver contributed 35–63% of total retinol measured and 8–34% of total α‐tocopherol. Based on these analyses, whole fish commonly fed in zoos, aquariums, and marine zoological parks would appear to meet vitamin A requirements established for most species without additional supplementation, whereas levels of vitamin E quantified indicate a need for supplementation of diets for piscivores.
Social behavior of Matschie's tree kangaroos (Dendrolagus matschiei) and its implications for captive management
Authors: Hutchins Michael , Smith Grace Mann , Mead David C. , Elbin Susan , Steenberg Judie
Published: June 2005

Social behavior was studied in four (one male and three females) adult, captivebred Matschie's tree kangaroos (Dendrolagus matschiei) over a 124 day span in a large, naturalistic exhibit at the Woodland Park Zoological Gardens, Seattle, WA. A relatively high rate of social interaction occurred (15.2 per hour), over half of which consisted of approaches and nose contacts. The male initiated 54.1% of all social behaviors. Females tended to respond aggressively toward the male (avoid, bite, cuff, or swipe). The male initiated more affiliative behaviors and the females initiated more agonistic behaviors toward both the male and other females. A clear‐cut dominance hierarchy could not be determined; reversals (i.e., cases in which the “subordinate” supplanted the “dominant”) occurred 43% of the time overall. Non‐aggressive contact behavior consisted primarily of olfactory examination (nose contact). Allogrooming was extremely rare. The high level of agonism and lack of consistent association among individuals suggests that this species may be solitary in the wild. Two joeys were found dead on the floor during the course of the study, and based on previous findings, infanticide or behavioral stress was suspected to be the cause. Successful reproduction did not occur until females were isolated by removing other conspecifics from the enclosure.
Stereotypies in polar bears
Authors: Wechsler Beat
Published: June 2005

The spatial and temporal patterns of stereotypies in three captive polar bears (Ursus maritimus) were analysed. There was considerable variation in the time budgets of the three animals: stereotypies made up 16.0%, 24.4 %, and 76.5 % of the observation time between 8.00 A.M. and 4.00 P.M. Stereotyped walking or swimming bouts were of significantly longer duration than variable walking or swimming bouts. Seventy‐five bouts of stereotyped walking were observed in detail to test the hypothesis that stereotypies can reduce arousal level. The bouts were composed of regular laps. At a given site, each lap consisted of a fixed number of steps, and there was little variation in the duration of a lap. In one individual the walking speed decreased significantly in the course of stereotyped walking bouts. Generally, however, stereotyped walking bouts were not preceded by high activity levels and followed by low activity levels. Stereotyped walking was regularly associated with yawning and tongue‐flicking. Qualitative observations suggest that polar bears remain attentive while stereotyping. It is hypothesized that stereotyped walking in polar bears does not originate from frustrated migratory activity, but from frustrated appetitive behavior.
Urinary steroid evaluations to monitor ovarian function in exotic ungulates: VIII. Correspondence of urinary and plasma steroids in the llama (Lama glama) during nonconceptive and conceptive cycles
Authors: Paul‐Murphy J. , Tell L. A. , Bravo W. , Fowler M. E. , Lasley B. L.
Published: June 2005

Ovarian function was evaluated in mature female llamas (n = 2) during seven ovulations in 2 conceptive and 5 nonconceptive ovarian cycles by measuring urinary and plasma hormone concentrations. Ovulation was induced by three different methods; administration of gonadotropin‐releasing hormone (GnRH), copulation with a vasectomized male and copulation with an intact male. Plasma estradiol and progesterone concentrations, and urinary concentrations of estrogen conjugates and two progesterone metabolites, pregnanediol‐3‐glucuronide (PdG), and immunoreactive (iPdG), concentrations were compared to determine their value in monitoring ovarian function.

Estrogen concentrations in urine corresponded to estradiol levels in plasma and accurately reflected changes in follicular activity when evaluated over several daily samples. Plasma progesterone and urinary iPdG were reliable indicators of luteal function. These data represent the first comparison of blood and urinary hormone measurements for monitoring the complete ovarian cycle of an ungulate, and demonstrates that either can be used to assess changes in ovarian activity in this species.
Evaluation of liquid nitrogen and dry ice–alcohol refrigerants for freeze marking three mammal species
Authors: Rice Clifford G. , Kalk Penny
Published: June 2005

Degus (Octodon degus), Patagonian cavies (Dolichotis patagonum), and mouflon (Ovis musimon) were freeze marked with instruments refrigerated in liquid nitrogen or a mixture of dry ice and alcohol. The instruments were pressed against the skin of the animal for various trial durations. Recommended exposure durations with dry ice‐alcohol refrigerant were: degus—28 sec; cavies—≈ 18 sec (estimated); mouflon—12 sec. While unsatisfactory results were obtained with the liquid nitrogen refrigerant on degus and cavies, an exposure duration of 8 sec was recommended for mouflon. With mouflon, the site of the mark influenced the appropriate exposure duration for both refrigerants. With degus, moderate overexposure resulted in acceptable marks as much of the length of peripheral white hairs was exposed due to the lack of hair in the central bare area. The dry ice‐alcohol refrigerant yielded much greater exposure latitude and consistency, indicating its superiority for freeze marking, especially in a zoo setting.
Electrocardiography of the Asian small‐clawed otter (Aonyx cinerea)
Authors: Samuels Michael S. , Cook Robert A.
Published: June 2005

For electrocardiography to be a useful diagnostic tool, it is important to establish the electrocardiographic parameters of a specific population under similar conditions of data collection. Electrocardiograms (ECGs) collected from 14 (4.10) Anoyx cinerea, chemically immobilized with a ketamine/midazolam combination, are analyzed for their mean, range, and standard deviation of parameters. A mean dosage of 10.7 mg/kg ketamine combined with 0.23 mg/kg midazolam is required for immobilization. The effects of chemical immobilization on ECG parameters were found to be minimal, with the exception of an increase in heart rate.
Infant care in a family of siamangs (Hylobates syndactylus) with twin offspring at Berlin Zoo
Authors: Dielentheis Thomas F. , Zaiss Elke , Geissmann Thomas
Published: June 2005

Infant‐carrying in a family group of siamangs with twin offspring was observed during a 2‐week period. The twins were about 11 months old at the time of the study. One or both twins were usually carried by their father, but hardly ever by their mother. A considerable amount of infant‐carrying was also contributed by the twins' juvenile brother. Helping behavior (defined as the care of offspring by individuals who are not their parents) is not normally known to occur in siamangs or other hylobatids. We suggest that the presence of multiple offspring may have facilitated the occurrence of infant‐carrying exhibited by a nonparental family member. This finding may point to one of the mechanisms influencing the occurrence of helping behavior in general.
Nursing behavior and early development of impala at San Diego Wild Animal Park
Authors: Mooring Michael S. , Rubin Esther S.
Published: June 2005

Because impala are commonly exhibited and handreared in zoos and their natural nursing behavior had not previously been studied, we examined nursing and early development in five impala calves housed in a large, naturalistic enclosure. Calves were observed for the first 5 weeks of life during 12‐hr continuous watches and 20‐min focal animal samples. Total daily suckling time decreased while time grazing and feeding on concentrates increased from 1–5 weeks of age. An increasing proportion of nursing bouts were terminated by the dam as calves matured, with dams terminating almost 70% of bouts during the first week. Suckling success and maternal grooming also decreased after week I, suggesting that impala mothers cut back early on nursing and grooming of offspring. Rapid decline in mother‐young spatial proximity and a concomitant increase in calf association with age‐mates over time suggests that the mother‐young bond is weak and ephemeral in impala. An example of the implications of our results for improving handrearing programs would be that newborn calves should be started on a daylight feeding schedule of one bottle‐feeding every three hours, and that they not be allowed to gorge themselves at any one of these feedings.
Reproductive biology and management of captive black‐footed ferrets (Mustela nigripes)
Authors: Williams E. S. , Thorne E. T. , Kwiatkowski D. R. , Anderson S. L. , Lutz K.
Published: June 2005

A captive breeding program is being conducted with black‐footed ferrets (Mustela nigripes), an endangered species. Results of 5 years of study are reported. Simple, but specialized, nontraumatic handling techniques allowed assessment of reproductive status with minimal stress, which was important in breeding management. Black‐footed ferrets are sexually mature and may successfully reproduce in their 1st year. Proestrus lasts approximately 2‐3 weeks. Duration of estrus in unbred females was 32–42 days; females usually bred within 20 days. Most breeding activity occurred during April. Mean gestation length was 42.7 days (±0.7, range 42–45 days), litter size averaged 3.0 kits (±1.4, range 1–6 kits), and weaned kits/litter averaged 2.4 (±1.7, range 1–6 kits). Weaning rate of kits was 80%. Sex ratio of kits was essentially 1:1. Productivity was greatest among females ⩽3 years of age. Rapid expansion of the captive population is possible and will be important for genetic management of the species and for achieving the primary goal of the recovery program, which is to return black‐footed ferrets to the wild.
Genetic variability in the Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx)
Authors: Vassart Marc , Granjon Laurent , Greth Arnaud
Published: June 2005

An electrophoretic survey of blood markers of the Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx) was undertaken in order to ascertain the genetic variability in a sample of 85 individuals, mainly from Saudi Arabian (Taíf) and Jordanian herds. Three out of 18 loci were found to be polymorphic (P = 16.7%) and the mean heterozygosity (H = 0.052) appears to be relatively high with respect to the severe demographic bottlenecks expressed by the species since the 1960s. No genetic differentiation was found between Arabian and Jordanian samples considered. Consequences of these findings for the management of the Taíf herd and for such procedures as pedigree determination are discussed, and an example of this latter application is given for a case of doubtful parentage.
Saudi gazelle (Gazella saudiya) is not a subspecies of Dorcas gazelle
Authors: Rebholz Wilhelmus E. R. , Williamson Douglas , Rietkerk Frank
Published: June 2005

Karyotypes of Saudi gazelle (2n = 47 female, 2n = 50/51 male) are presented for the first time. The three karyotypes shown here vary in the numbers of metacentric chromosomes, but the cause of this variation is not yet known. Although Saudi gazelle are often regarded as a subspecies of Dorcas gazelle, the chromosome numbers and karyotypes of Saudi gazelle are too different from Dorcas gazelle (2n = 30 female, 2n = 31 male) for them to be considered a subspecies. It is also unlikely that these species would interbreed. In view of the present findings, the taxonomic status of this highly endangered gazelle needs to be resolved as soon as possible.
Conservation prospects for lion‐tailed macaques in Karnataka, India
Authors: Karanth K. Ullas
Published: June 2005

A substantial proportion of the wild lion‐tailed macaque population occurs in Karnataka State, India. In this paper, problems of protecting the macaques and their habitats are discussed. Fairly large portions of the Karnataka habitat remain available. These are free of large‐scale shrinkage in area, but are experiencing deterioration in quality due to pressures from enclaves of human settlements, from developmental projects, and from timber/minor forest produce extraction. Illegal hunting is another threat to the population. A pragmatic, cost‐effective approach to conservation of rain forest habitats, centered around protection of nature reserves, with the lion‐tailed macaque as a flagship species, as opposed to a strategy based on captive propagation, is advocated.