bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Theological Systems and Their Derivations
Authors: Kvanvig Jonathan L.
Published: July 2021

Our first task in this chapter is to assess what we have learned to this point, tabulating what we have learned from our discussions in the two previous sections. Our second task is to note the attributes of deity that carry weight in assessing a metatheology that don’t fall under the starting points of the metatheologies we are considering and weren’t covered in our discussion of the initial shared ground. For this task we can begin by listing some of the common attributes of God that we have not discussed to this point, and assess the capacity of each of our metatheologies for deriving these attributes.
Conclusion
Authors: Kvanvig Jonathan L.
Published: July 2021

Here we trace the beginning of metatheology to the differences between Anselm and Aquinas, through the Protestant Reformation, arguing that the golden age for metatheology is in post-Kripke twentieth century thought. We then note the ways in which it is much to easy to mix and confuse theological projects with metatheological projects. The results of our study are then summarized in terms of an endorsement of Metatheological Anti-Fundamentalism, the viewpoint that rejects the claim than any of our three metatheologies can be adequate. Instead, the proper version of Anti-Fundamentalism claims that God is best depicted at the fundamental level in terms of being the asymmetrical source of all else who is also supremely worthy of the highest worship.
The Probability of Escalation Principle
Authors: Brunstetter Daniel R.
Published: July 2021

Understanding the risk of escalation is key to discerning the just and unjust uses of limited force. Insofar as limited force is categorically different from war because it avoids the latter’s large-scale destruction and unpredictability, then holding onto a presumption against escalation from limited force to war is essential to keeping them distinct. The probability of escalation principle, introduced as part of the set of jus ad vim principles, helps to gauge the likelihood of this happening. The chapter begins by explaining what escalation is and why thinking about escalation matters for determining whether the use of limited force is just or unjust. This reveals the core of jus ad vim—the presumption against escalation maxim—which relates the strong moral penchant against making the shift from the narrow destruction of vim to the wide and unpredictable destruction of bellum. The chapter continues by exploring five archetypes of escalation—initiator, regional, on the ground, prospective, and retaliatory—along with the ethical concerns they engender to help tease out the telltale signs of when using limited force is likely to lead to escalation, as well as ways states can signal to others that escalation to war is not the intention. The chapter concludes by examining an important caveat—the conditions under which this principle might be overridden, thus making escalation to war permissible. This could be the case only in the context of humanitarian intervention to protect innocents from on-the ground escalation, and only if shaped by the principles of jus post vim.
Jus post vim Revisited
Authors: Brunstetter Daniel R.
Published: July 2021

This chapter revisits the theme of jus post vim in the non-ideal form. It begins by looking at the grey area between vim success and failure, characterized by shaky containment (the lingering doubt that the enemy is really contained) or by persistent contested order that threatens the ability of law enforcement mechanisms to uphold a minimalist view of order in certain states. Among the vim failures are the unjust escalation to war, the unfazed enemy outcome, the recurring last straw scenario, and the intractable contested and fragmented sovereignty dilemma. The chapter continues by exploring jus ex vi, or the ethical consideration of terminating the use of limited force, further to tease out what success and failure might look like. The key to defining success and knowing when to end vim operations depends on the just management of military risk principle. The chapter concludes by exploring moral options in cases of failure. Building on the observation that framing the use of force as punishment can be more restrictive than open-ended justifications based in self-defense constructed as prevention or protection against future acts of aggression, the chapter concludes by arguing states might have recourse to the punishment principles. Drawn from an interpretation of the just war tradition privileging a presumption against war as being at the heart of just war thinking, the escalation management and demonstrable retribution criteria depict the narrow moral logic where the legitimate goal of limited force is something other than the moral truncated victory of jus post vim.
Party Personnel Strategies
Authors: Shugart Matthew S. , Bergman Matthew E. , Struthers Cory L. , Krauss Ellis S. , Pekkanen Robert J.
Published: July 2021

The chapter introduces the notion of “party personnel strategies.” The concept refers to the process by which political parties allocate their elected members to legislative committees. The theory is grounded in the resource-based view (RBV) of the firm. The legislators are the pool of “personnel” from which the party draws when staffing specialized standing committees of the legislature. Party strategy is conditioned by both policy goals and the imperatives of the electoral system under which seats are won. Parties engage in a “personnel practice,” which is their observed pattern of assigning members with certain individual background characteristics to given committees. The chapter establishes the cases on which the book’s arguments are tested: Britain, Germany, Israel, Japan, New Zealand, and Portugal. The chapter lists the elections and the thirteen major political parties covered for each country.
How to Assess Quantitatively Party-Level Committee Placements
Authors: Shugart Matthew S. , Bergman Matthew E. , Struthers Cory L. , Krauss Ellis S. , Pekkanen Robert J.
Published: July 2021

This chapter explains methodological choices. It offers greater detail about how the dependent variable is coded. Because of the three-outcome variable (high policy, public goods, or distributive committee type), the discrete choice method of multinomial logistic (MNL) regression is used. It permits assessing the extent to which parties make tradeoffs across both committee types and models of party personnel (expertise and electoral–constituency). The chapter explains the reasons why MNL is preferable to binomial logistic regression by a comparison of results on one of the book’s party cases (the German Christian Democratic Union) under either regression format and calculates predicted probabilities for Bundestag committee placement using some of our independent variables. It also explains that some parties (those in Israel and Japan) do not make tradeoffs across committee types to the same degree as parties in our others cases, and are therefore analyzed with binomial logistic regression instead. An index of overlap of committee types on which individual members serve is developed and shown for all parties covered in the book.
Japan
Authors: Shugart Matthew S. , Bergman Matthew E. , Struthers Cory L. , Krauss Ellis S. , Pekkanen Robert J.
Published: July 2021

This chapter focuses on the case of Japan, and its electoral reform, analyzing both the current mixed-member majoritarian (MMM) system and its former single nontransferable vote (SNTV) system. The chapter tests for impacts of electoral system change in the Liberal Democratic Party’s assignment of members to committees in the House of Representative of the Diet. It finds that the some aspects of the expertise model apply more strongly under MMM than under SNTV, but that the party follows the logic of the electoral–constituency model more than the expertise model, even under MMM. Both findings conform to theoretical expectations. The chapter also analyzes the main alternative parties in each electoral system era: the Japan Socialist Party (under SNTV) and the Democratic Party of Japan (under MMM). For these two left-leaning parties, we find considerable evidence that a party’s issue ownership matters to party personnel practices.
Portugal
Authors: Shugart Matthew S. , Bergman Matthew E. , Struthers Cory L. , Krauss Ellis S. , Pekkanen Robert J.
Published: July 2021

This chapter focuses on Portugal and its districted, closed-list proportional representation system of elections to the Assembly of the Republic. The closed party lists imply that individual candidates have little to benefit from cultivating a personal vote. Parties control the order in which their members are elected and can be expected to be relatively free to deploy their personnel in a manner that enhances the collective reputation of the party. On the other hand, Portugal’s electoral system is one in which geographic location of votes matters to seat maximization, because instead of nationwide proportional representation, the country has several regional districts of varying, population density, and district magnitude. The results show some tendency of the major parties to use both the expertise and electoral–constituency models in assigning members to legislative committees, although stronger in the Socialist Party than in the Social Democratic Party.
Conclusion
Authors: Shugart Matthew S. , Bergman Matthew E. , Struthers Cory L. , Krauss Ellis S. , Pekkanen Robert J.
Published: July 2021

This chapter summarizes the book’s contribution to understanding the role of individual legislators’ attributes in the collective goal pursuits of political parties. It assesses the performance of parties on the premises derived from our theory by calculating for each party a “batting average” describing the degree to which premises of the expertise model, electoral–constituency model, and issue ownership hold for each party. It graphically depicts the parties in the book’s two-dimensional space regarding how a country’s electoral system affects a party’s dependence on the geographic location of votes and the personal votes of individual legislators. In this manner, it reveals considerable support for the theory, which states that the less parties depend on these electoral factors to maximize seats, the more they tend to use the expertise model. The more dependence in either dimension, the more the electoral–constituency model tends to explain a party’s personnel strategy. The chapter expands on the role of electoral system variation—including electoral reform in Japan and New Zealand—on party personnel practices. It discusses how our results provide new evidence for the proposition that mixed-member proportional (MMP) systems may offer “the best of both worlds” in representation, and offers a discussion of further extensions of the theory and applications of the resource-based view (RBV) of the firm to competing political parties.
Russia and the Right to Self-Determination in the Post-Soviet Space
Authors: Socher Johannes
Published: July 2021

As a concept of international law, the right to self-determination is widely renowned for its lack of clarity. Broadly speaking, one can differentiate between a liberal and a nationalist tradition. In modern international law, the balance between these two opposing traditions is sought in an attempt to contain or ‘domesticate’ the nationalist conception by limiting it to ‘abnormal’ situations, that is to colonialism in the sense of ‘alien subjugation, domination and exploitation’. Essentially, this distinction between ‘normal’ and ‘abnormal’ situations has since, the distinction was made, been the heart of the matter in the legal discourse on the right to self-determination, with the important qualification regarding the need to preserve existing borders. This book situates Russia’s approach to the right to self-determination in that discourse by way of a regional comparison vis-à-vis a ‘Western’ or European perspective, and a temporal comparison with the former Soviet doctrine of international law. Against the background of the Soviet Union’s role in the evolution of the right to self-determination, the bulk of the book analyses Russia’s relevant state practice in the post-Soviet space through the prisms of sovereignty, secession, and annexation, illustrated by a total of seven case studies on the conflicts over Abkhazia, Chechnya, Crimea, Nagorno-Karabakh, South Ossetia, Tatarstan, and Transnistria. Complemented by a review of the Russian scholarship on the right to self-determination, it is suggested that Russia’s approach may be best understood not only in terms of power politics disguised as legal rhetoric, but can be seen as evidence of traits of a regional (re-)fragmentation of international law.
Russia, the Right to Self-Determination and Annexation
Authors: Socher Johannes
Published: July 2021

Chapter 4 is the last of three chapters analysing Russia’s post-Soviet state practice with regard to the right to self-determination. It shows how Russia (ab)used the right of peoples to self-determination as a pretext to justify territorial acquisitions by the threat and use of force, in particular in the context of Russia’s annexation of Crimea in 2014, but also in its retrospect evaluation of the Soviet Union’s annexation of the Baltic states in 1940. Apart from a ‘referendum’, Russia’s main legal argument for the legality of Crimea’s incorporation into the Russian Federation was based on the reading that the Ukrainian Revolution had created an ‘extreme situation’ in which Crimea’s right to self-determination could not be exercised any longer in the constitutional framework of Ukraine. As in the cases of South Ossetia and Abkhazia, the claim of a right of secession had however no sufficient factual basis, although the underlying legal view—that the right of peoples to self-determination may confer a right of secession in ‘extreme situations’—was consistent with earlier state practice. ‘Crimea’ arguably marked a shift away from legal argumentation towards recourse to eclectic historical claims and restoration of hegemonic power, in which the right of peoples to self-determination continues to function as a central legal argument, but legal reasoning more generally loses its dominant position in the official justification of Russia’s state practice in the post-Soviet space.
Thomas White on Location and the Ontological Status of Accidents
Authors: Adriaenssen Han Thomas
Published: July 2021

The work of Thomas White represents a systematic attempt to combine the best of the new science of the seventeenth century with the best of Aristotelianism. This attempt earned him the criticism of Hobbes and the praise of Leibniz, but today, most of his attempts to navigate between traditions remain to be explored in detail. This chapter does this for his ontology of accidents. It argues that his criticism of accidents in the category of location as entities over and above substances was likely aimed at Francisco Suárez, and shows how White’s worries about the analysis of location were linked with his broader cosmological views. White rejects real qualities, but holds that the quantity of a substance is in some way distinct from its bearer. This reveals a common ground with some of his scholastic interlocutors, but lays bare his disagreement with thinkers like Descartes on the nature of matter.
The Univocity of Real Essence in Locke
Authors: Kuklok Allison
Published: July 2021

I argue that Locke’s various descriptions of real essence pick out one and the same thing, namely a nature that can be ascribed to many things, and in terms of which we can get matters of classification right or wrong. On my reading, Locke does not attack real essences of the sort that are the essences of real species, but rather the presumption that a sorting according to our species concepts and their names is a sorting of things according to their real essences. And the lesson of Locke’s empirical argument against that presumption, I argue, is that our species concepts often function more like higher taxa, grouping together things that knowledge of their real essences would distinguish into distinct lowest species.
Leibniz’s Imaginary Bridge
Authors: Ottaviani Osvaldo
Published: July 2021

This chapter discusses the analogy between bare possibles and imaginary numbers, developed by Leibniz during his Paris years. In this period, he came to realize that imaginary quantities are not impossible in themselves, but they cannot be geometrically represented, for they cannot be ordered within the number line. Similarly, he regarded actual things as belonging to a single ‘series of things’, where each member is connected to every other by relations of position and succession. Bare possibles, on the contrary, can be placed nowhere in the series and, therefore, must be regarded as fictions (though reference to them is in a sense unavoidable, like the use of imaginary quantities in algebra). The young Leibniz does not extend the model of a ‘series of things’ to possibles, thus in this period he seems to reject the very idea of a plurality of possible worlds.
Space, Monads, and Incompossibility
Authors: McDonough Jeffrey K.
Published: July 2021

This chapter offers a novel account of how to understand Leibniz’s views on compossibility when applied to infinite worlds constituted by unextended, immaterial substances or ‘monads’. The first section sets the stage by taking up some essential questions about the relationship between monads and space. The second section argues that—with a better understanding of that relationship—it is possible to see how the so-called ‘packing strategy’ can be applied quite directly, even intuitively, to monadic worlds and substances. The third section argues that thinking through the application of the packing strategy to monadic worlds highlights an important, neglected Leibnizian commitment and reveals surprising affinities between the packing strategy and recent cosmological interpretations.
Participatory Budgeting in Global Perspective
Authors: Wampler Brian , McNulty Stephanie , Touchton Michael
Published: July 2021

Participatory Budgeting (PB) incorporates citizens directly into budgetary decision-making. It continues to spread across the globe as government officials and citizens adopt this innovative program in the hopes of strengthening accountability, civil society, and well-being. Governments often transform PB’s rules and procedures to meet local needs, thus creating wide variation in how PB programs function. Some programs retain features of radical democracy, others focus on community mobilization, and yet other programs seek to promote participatory development. This book provides a theoretical and empirical explanation to account for widespread variation in PB’s adoption, adaptation, and impacts. The book first develops six “PB types,” then, to illustrate patterns of change across the globe, four empirical chapters present a rich set of case studies that illuminate the wide differences among these programs. The empirical chapters are organized regionally, with chapters on Latin America, Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, Europe and North America. The empirical chapters demonstrate that there are temporal, spatial, economic, and organizational factors that produce different programs across regions but similar programs within each region. A key finding is that the change in PB rules and design is now leading to significant differences in the outcomes these programs produce. We find that some programs successfully promote accountability, expand civil society, and improve well-being, but, that we continue to lack evidence that might demonstrate if PB leads to significant social or political change elsewhere.
Theorizing PB’s Effects on Individuals and Communities
Authors: Wampler Brian , McNulty Stephanie , Touchton Michael
Published: July 2021

This chapter develops an original “theory of change” that connects PB programs to three community-level outcomes: the promotion of accountability, expansion of civil society, and improvements in well-being. To explain the variation in outcomes, this explanatory framework includes macro-level (political context, decentralization, economic conditions) and meso-level (government support, configuration of civil society, state capacity) factors that condition PB programs’ impacts. The discussion then moves beyond the macro and meso to drill down to “variation in program design.” The chapter identifies several rules (scale/level of adoption, presence of social justice rules, program emphasis on social inclusion, vote rules, and oversight process) that significantly influence the outcomes that PB programs produce. Thus, this chapter illuminates how variation in the macro, meso, and PB design rules condition and constrain the types of outcomes associated with PB. The chapter concludes by linking the theory of change to the PB Types (introduced in Chapter 1) to theorize how each PB program type is likely to be associated with distinct impacts.
Re-engaging Citizens in Europe and North America
Authors: Wampler Brian , McNulty Stephanie , Touchton Michael
Published: July 2021

The spread of PB in the North Atlantic region (Europe, the United States, and Canada) is taking place as citizen apathy, declining trust, social exclusion, and growing inequalities spread in these wealthier democracies. By 2016, major cities such as New York City, Paris, Madrid, Barcelona, Lisbon, Chicago, Boston, Seattle, Toronto, and Seville adopted some form of PB. The national governments in Poland and Portugal now mandate some form of PB. The authors see significant institutional innovation in these PB processes as PB’s original rules have been reimagined to address different types of problems. New York City and Chicago initiated their PB programs at sub-municipal levels. Paris, Madrid, and Barcelona had adapted their PB programs to strongly emphasize online participation. At the broadest level, PB in Europe and North America is more heavily geared toward civic education and community empowerment than toward the redistribution of spending priorities. In some place PB remains a democratic institution that retains some of the radical features of the first wave but it is also a policymaking tool in other places, designed to generate government efficiencies. Most importantly, most programs retain the radical idea that a wide variety of citizens, especially those from politically weaker and more marginalized groups, should be directly involved in decision-making.
South-to-South and Donor-driven Diffusion in Sub-Saharan Africa
Authors: Wampler Brian , McNulty Stephanie , Touchton Michael
Published: July 2021

Governments in sub-Saharan Africa began to adopt PB in the early 2000s. The World Bank, USAID, DFID, and other international organization led the push to expand PB. By 2019, the region included more than nine hundred programs. PB’s diffusion across sub-Saharan Africa has led to its transformation in scale, rules, and impact. Most PB programs in sub-Saharan Africa focus on building accountability and allowing participants to select small-scale development projects. These programs are located both in major cities (Maputo, Nairobi) as well as in poor, rural areas across the region. These programs are intended to improve local governance, but the involvement of international donors means that local governments must address their concerns as well as those of participants. The programs also emphasize placing new development projects in poor, marginalized communities, thus retaining potential for improving well-being. This chapter documents these trends by focusing on PB in Kenya, Madagascar, Mozambique, Senegal, South Africa, and Uganda.
Competition as sense making
Authors: Sands Daniel , Cattani Gino , Porac Joseph , Greenberg Jason
Published: July 2021

At the root of the conceptual difficulties in determining the competitive structures that underpin markets is the fact that firms and their product offerings can be described along a large number of attributes, and so be viewed as more or less similar depending on the attributes used for comparison. Our chapter exposes the multi-level cognitive embeddedness of competition among restaurants in New York City. Using field interviews and archival data on restaurant evaluations, categories, pricing, and menus, we employ qualitative counterfactual analysis to address fundamental issues concerning competitive boundaries that cut across categorical, organizational, and transactional perspectives of competition. We argue that conceptualizations of competition are only loosely coupled across different perspectives, and we contend that competitive judgments are better construed as a collective sensemaking process where different actors interact and competitive boundaries are constantly defined, contested, and redefined. Thus, we propose a heuristic framework for understanding the cognitive embeddedness of competition as part of a broader sensemaking perspective of competition.
Competition by mutual adjustment
Authors: Aspers Patrik
Published: July 2021

This chapter looks at competition, asking how it comes about and how it develops, with a focus on mutual adjustment. Mutual adjustment covers the social process due to decisions that actors make for themselves and not for others. Though all actual competition involves mutual adjustment, the focus here is on how a state of competition arises as a consequence of actors who mutually adjust to one another. Competition is seen as an unintended consequence created by actors who may have different desires and intentions and who are observing, adjusting, mimicking, and relating in different ways to what others are doing. The chapter analyses the relationship between mutual adjustment and organized competition and offers empirical examples of the state of competition due to mutual adjustment.
The origins of competition: institution and organization
Authors: Arora-Jonsson Stefan , Brunsson Nils , Hasse Raimund
Published: July 2021

Institutional conditions and organizational efforts are key for understanding how and why the elements constituting competition come about. Several contemporary institutions favour the construction of competition. States, organizations, and individuals are increasingly being seen as actors that are able to compete with each other, and globalization and other recent institutional developments have increased the number of relationships that they can construct. An impressive economic development during the last century has not prevented a continued sense of scarcity and new desires have emerged, not least the desire for status positions. Fourth parties organize social life in ways that create competition by intention or unintentionally. Organizers of contests in politics, markets, sports and many other sectors construct actors, relationships, and scarcity for something desired. Similar efforts have been an essential part of many recent reforms of organizations and markets. The increasing number of prizes and rankings in almost any area of life produces scarcity and is likely to create new desires for goods that per definition are scarce.
Competition and auditing: esteemed but incompatible ideas
Authors: Brunsson Karin , Rahnert Katharina
Published: July 2021

The ideas of competition and financial auditing are both socially esteemed and expected to benefit the national economy. Applying a historical perspective, the chapter clarifies how the relationship between the two ideas emerged and developed. Was it possible for financial auditors to simultaneously compete for the appreciation of two stakeholder groups with conflicting interests—client firms and the users of financial statements? It is concluded that combining the idea of competition with that of financial auditing does not elicit the expected benefits of any of the ideas. Auditors, regulators, and academics all relate the idea of competition to economic relationships with client firms, whereas relationships with other stakeholders are observed rhetorically. Yet these stakeholders constitute the very rationale for financial auditing. The compatibility of institutionalized, socially esteemed ideas is ignored even though this goes contrary to the expected benefits of these ideas.
Debunking the holy trinity: competition, individualism, and meritocracy
Authors: Kohl Sebastian , Sapién Abraham
Published: July 2021

This chapter draws on conceptual resources from debates on collective intentionality and responsibility to call into question the close links between competition, ontological atomism, and individual responsibility implied by meritocracy. Against this ‘holy trinity’, we argue that competition is not reducible to an ontology of atomized agents and individual notions of responsibility, which supposedly justify meritocratic justifications of unequal outcomes in competition. By offering a non-individualist concept of competition, we argue that competitive actions are collective and relational. As a result, responsibility in competition is much more shared between competitors and within competitive teams than is commonly thought. This argument implies that the collective foundations of competition should be more appreciated and that the redistribution of recognition among winners and losers in competition should be reconsidered.
Competition unbundled: taking stock and looking forward
Authors: Arora-Jonsson Stefan , Brunsson Nils , Hasse Raimund , Lagerström Katarina
Published: July 2021

In this final chapter, we discuss how the preceding chapters illuminate some fundamental questions about competition. How is it constructed? How are the behaviours resulting from competition managed? What are the consequences of competition? How can competition be removed? And, how do these factors vary with the good people compete for? Our aim is to provide an outline of a social science research programme on competition that is long overdue. A central message of the book is that competition seems ubiquitous but that it should not be taken for granted or be naturalized as an inevitable aspect of human existence. Its emergence, maintenance, and change are often the result of intention and purposive efforts, and a central challenge for social science is to learn more about these developments.
The Community Plant Variety Office
Authors: Würtenberger Gert , van der Kooij Paul , Kiewiet Bart , Ekvad Martin
Published: July 2021

This chapter is about the Community Plant Variety Office (CPVO), which was created by Council Regulation (EC) No 2100/94 of 27 July 1994 on Community plant variety rights or the Basic Regulation. It explains the purpose of the implementation and application of the Basic Regulation. It also describes CPVO as an agency of the European Union (EU), which is a body governed by European public law that is distinct from the EU institutions. This chapter describes the resources that led the European Parliament, the EU Council, and the European Commission to launch an inter-institutional dialogue on decentralized agencies in 2009. It points out, as stated in the Basic Regulation, that the decisions of the CPVO will be taken by a committee of three members of its staff.
Substantive Law
Authors: Würtenberger Gert , van der Kooij Paul , Kiewiet Bart , Ekvad Martin
Published: July 2021

This chapter looks at the system laid down in the International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV) Convention, which implies that only the breeder of a variety has a claim on a plant breeders' right. It analyses the UPOV definition that qualifies the employer of the person who bred, or discovered and further developed, the variety of plants as the breeder. It also elaborates the responsibility of the Community Plant Variety Office (CPVO) in examining the entitlement to a Community plant variety right. This chapter reviews the technical questionnaire that requires the applicant to indicate 'breeding scheme, parents, other relevant information' for the completion of the form to confirm the credibility of plant breeders. It talks about the practice of the CPVO, which shows that the notion of breeding encompasses all techniques that are aimed at the creation of a new variety.
Remedies against Decisions of the Office and Further Proceedings
Authors: Würtenberger Gert , van der Kooij Paul , Kiewiet Bart , Ekvad Martin
Published: July 2021

This chapter looks at decisions relating to the application and the granting procedure that may be appealed to the Board of Appeal. It analyses certain decisions that may be appealed directly to the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) and the Ombudsman, who also plays an important part in supervising the administration of the institutions and agencies. It also mentions the Commission that controls Administrative Council acts on the budget of the Community Plant Variety Office (CPVO). This chapter discusses the scope of the competence of the Board of Appeal that is set out in Article 67, such as the nullification or cancellation of a Community plant variety right. It analyses the appeal against a decision that does not terminate proceedings with regard to one of the parties that are made in conjunction with an appeal against the final decision.
Trailhead
Authors: Lawrence Gavin
Published: July 2021

Chapter 2 focusses on Statesman 257a1-259d6 and argues that Plato’s non-elenchtic methodology, although often characterized as ‘collection and division’, is a much richer combination of elements. The methodology exposes ways ordinary language may mislead the scientific project: it itself involves paradigms, especially that of weaving, definition as both demarcation and explanation, and special care in positing the initial step and in collection under genuinely principled kinds, (eidē). The argument for the Unity of expertise in king, statesman, head of household, and master (258e8-259c5) illustrates this last. But both its validity and its relation to the Allocation of political expertise in the first ‘cut’ or division (259c6-d2) are problematic. The chapter argues that the Unity argument’s relation to the Allocation is as a methodological prerequisite, and not, as others suppose, a step in an argument for the latter. Regarding its invalidity, the chapter takes issue with three attempted solutions, and, appealing to Aristotle’s Politics, suggests that an effective argument can be restored by supposing a remark fallen out before Robinson’s transposition of 259d4-6.
Weaving together Natural Courage and Moderation
Authors: Kamtekar Rachana
Published: July 2021

Chapter 11 discusses Statesman 305e8-308b9, where the Visitor identifies, as a source of civic conflict, disagreements about whether a course of action or a person is courageous or rash, moderate or cowardly, disagreements he analyses as conducted using thick ethical terms. He claims that these disagreements are rooted in natural temperamental differences among human beings (some are naturally courageous and others naturally moderate) and are to be reconciled by political expertise’s production of shared true opinions among citizens about what is fine, good, and just. The chapter develops an account of how political expertise might use the two expertises of measurement (metrētikē) described at Plt. 283c-285c to give citizens of opposing outlooks shared beliefs about what is just, fine, and good (309c-311a), and points to some counterparts in the Laws to the account, developed from the Statesman, that expertise enables one to hit the mean.
The Principle of Emancipation
Authors: Näsström Sofia
Published: July 2021

The chapter inquires into the spirit of the democratic revolution. Instead of focusing on its nature—the symbolic shift from the sovereign king to the sovereign people—it concentrates on its principle: How could the monarchical principle of honor, and its designation of society into a hierarchy of social classes give way to a revolutionary quest for equality? Assuming that part of the answer lies in the overwhelming experience of uncertainty that accompanies the democratic revolution, the chapter distinguishes between three meanings of uncertainty—cosmic, human, and political—and reconstructs the democratic meaning of emancipation. The aim is to show that a democratic political lifeform tames uncertainty by sharing and dividing it equally. It emancipates us from a state of self-incurred tutelage.
Citizenship Status
Authors: Näsström Sofia
Published: July 2021

The chapter examines the corruption, disintegration, and renewal of democracy in relation to citizenship status. It shows that the prerogative of sovereign peoples to control migration and decide their own membership criteria undermines the commitment needed for democracy to sustain over time. Instead of making citizens sentient to how uncertainty travels across borders—and the need for reaching outside existing class affiliations to tame it—it spurs overconfidence in the ability of particular peoples to cope with migration. By basing membership on distinction (qualifications, skills, and resources) and virtue (loyalty to country and law), one reinforces class status over citizenship status, both at home and abroad. The chapter ends by offering a definition of citizenship status able to avoid this dilemma, and transform present-day uncertainties into a call for democratic renewal.
Opening Moves
Authors: Weddle Kevin J.
Published: July 2021

This chapter sets the political, strategic, and operational context for the Saratoga campaign. Many of the key personalities are introduced to the reader including General Sir William Howe, Admiral Lord Richard Howe, General Sir Guy Carleton, General George Washington, Major General Horatio Gates, Major General Philip Schuyler, and Major General Benedict Arnold. This chapter also covers the American Revolution’s initial military operations including the battles and siege of Boston, the battles on Long Island and Manhattan, and the failed American invasion of Canada, including the attack on and siege of Quebec. The chapter concludes with Washington’s twin victories at Trenton and Princeton and his adoption of a modified Fabian military strategy.
The First Invasion
Authors: Weddle Kevin J.
Published: July 2021

This chapter describes the first British invasion of New York via the historic Lake Champlain, Lake George, and Hudson River route in the autumn of 1776. It starts with General Sir Guy Carleton’s successful defense of Canada and repulse of the American attempt to seize Quebec. The increasingly fraught relationship between Carleton and Lord George Germain is also addressed as is the naval arms race between the Americans and the British. This race delayed Carleton’s offensive south on Lake Champlain more than the celebrated Battle of Valcour Island, and he was forced to abandon the offensive after he reached Crown Point, much to the dismay of his second-in-command, Lieutenant General John Burgoyne. This failed first invasion planted the seeds for a new plan created in part by Burgoyne.
Laying the Groundwork
Authors: Weddle Kevin J.
Published: July 2021

This chapter discusses the preparation in Canada for Burgoyne’s expedition south to Albany. It introduces the key British leaders for the campaign including Major General William Phillips, Major General Friedrich Riedesel, and Brigadier General Simon Fraser, and the army’s organization. It also discusses the issues surrounding the use of German troops and Indian auxiliaries. Burgoyne’s overconfidence and disregard of Howe’s letter confirming that he was taking his army to Philadelphia and not up the Hudson River to Albany is covered at length. Finally, the logistics preparation for the campaign and the critical shortage of transport—horses, oxen, and carts—is covered in depth.
Aftershocks
Authors: Weddle Kevin J.
Published: July 2021

This chapter discusses Major General Philip Schuyler’s attempt to rebuild the shattered and demoralized American Northern Army after the disastrous performance at Fort Ticonderoga, and to slow down Burgoyne’s advance. The chapter also discusses the reaction of the American soldiers, the press, Congress, state governments, and George Washington to the unexpected and shocking loss of Ticonderoga, the post that everyone believed would stop Burgoyne’s invasion. The chapter also introduces the American diplomatic effort in France to convince that country to come into the way opening as an ally of America. Finally, the chapter also discusses the British reaction to the news of the seizure of Fort Ticonderoga, which led strategy makers to believe that their strategy was working out as planned and indeed, was progressing ahead of scheduled.
Cat and Mouse
Authors: Weddle Kevin J.
Published: July 2021

This chapter discusses the first phases of a major part of the British military strategy for 1777, the Philadelphia campaign. Howe’s plans called for a major offensive with the main army to seize Philadelphia to decisively defeat Washington and the main American army. Before boarding his brother’s ships for the journey to Philadelphia by sea, Howe attempted a series of maneuvers against Washington in New Jersey, but the Americans avoided Howe’s traps. Once Howe, his army, and supplies sailed, they had a huge advantage in mobility due to the Royal Navy. In the weeks at sea, Washington had to rely on limited and fragmentary intelligence as he tried to figure out Howe’s ultimate destination. It was during this period—mid-July to August—that Washington proved himself to be a true commander-in-chief compared to Howe, who acted more as an army commander and not a commander-in-chief.
Sir Henry Clinton to the Rescue
Authors: Weddle Kevin J.
Published: July 2021

The chapter discusses the attempt by Lieutenant General Sir Henry Clinton to support Burgoyne’s army. Clinton was Howe’s second-in-command and remained in New York with a small force while Howe went to Philadelphia with the main army. Clinton had received only positive reports from Burgoyne, but on September 22, he received a message that Burgoyne was in dire trouble. Clinton organized a small force to go up the Hudson River, hoping to pull Gates south and away from Burgoyne. Burgoyne dug in to wait for Clinton. Clinton quickly captured the American forts Clinton and Montgomery in the Hudson Highlands, but after burning Esopus, New York (present-day Kingston), Clinton’s force—now under Major General John Vaughan—was forced to return to New York City. In the meantime, Howe had captured Philadelphia, but was unable to defeat Washington in a decisive battle, despite winning the battles of Brandywine and Germantown.
Climate, Catastrophe, and Faith
Authors: Jenkins Philip
Published: July 2021

Repeatedly through history, the world has been subject to severe climate-driven shocks, which have caused famine, disease, violence, social upheaval, and mass migration. Commonly, such episodes have been understood in religious terms, through the language of apocalypse, millennium, and Judgment. Often too, such eras have sparked far-reaching changes in the nature of religion and spirituality. Depending on the circumstances, the response to climatic visitations might include explosions in religious passion and commitment; the stirring of mystical and apocalyptic expectations; waves of religious scapegoating and persecution; or the spawning of new religious movements and revivals. In many cases, such responses have had lasting impacts, to the point of fundamentally reshaping particular faith traditions. From those eras have emerged passionate sects—some political and theocratic, some revivalistic and enthusiastic, others millenarian and subversive. The movements and ideas emerging from such conditions might last for many decades and become a familiar part of the religious landscape, although with their origins in particular moments of crisis increasingly consigned to remote memory. By stirring conflicts and provoking persecutions that defined themselves in religious terms, such eras have redrawn the world’s religious maps and created the global concentrations of believers as we know them today. Whether we are looking at the Christian tradition or at Jews, Muslims, or Buddhists, the history of religions must take account of this climate dimension. In the modern world, it is very likely that the growing climate crisis will likely have a comparable religious impact across much of the global South.
Ages of Gold
Authors: Jenkins Philip
Published: July 2021

One way to appreciate the potential role of climate in human affairs is to observe what happens when—at least from a human-centric perspective—matters are going very well and the heavens appear to be smiling. Despite the occasional emphasis on eras of climate-driven disaster and deprivation, some historical epochs were wonderfully benevolent, times when the Sun’s warmth evidently manifested God’s bounty. One such era was the High Middle Ages, which coincided with a period of warming over large parts of the globe. Trade and commerce flourished, abundant harvests produced generous food supplies, and prosperity was conspicuously manifested in religious experiment and innovation. Such eras are often recalled through legendary and even exalted figures, such as St. Francis or Thomas Aquinas in the medieval European context. Whatever we term them, cultural golden ages have existed, and they have their foundations in climate conditions.
Who Can Stand Before His Cold?
Authors: Jenkins Philip
Published: July 2021

The years from 1739 to 1742 were marked by extreme cold across the Atlantic world. State mechanisms were better developed than in earlier centuries, while forms of media and communication were much more sophisticated. This new world allowed the circulation of ideas and beliefs on an international and intercontinental scale. Popular fears were channeled into radical new forms of enthusiastic revivalist religion. New denominations and sects emerged within particular faiths, and many become globally significant in their own right. The result was the Great Awakening.
Approaches to Preventing and Intervening With Gun Violence
Authors: Delgado Melvin
Published: July 2021

The importance of local context cannot be overly emphasized in shaping how helping professions can best aid in preventing and intervening early in gun violence, but that does not mean that the national picture cannot provide a broader context to help understand local situations. Interventions requiring many different institutional and community partners have garnered saliency as pathways to solving gun violence. Multifaceted interventions by their nature are complex, requiring contextual grounding to maximize success and taking localized circumstances into account. A cookie-cutter approach is ill-advised. Successful interventions also require cooperation of multiorganizational entities, all requiring considerable expenditure of time, energy, and other resources. In addition, these approaches require engendering trust. This chapter grounds readers with various approaches to dealing with urban gun violence.
Cross-Cutting Themes
Authors: Delgado Melvin
Published: July 2021

This chapter provides a pause and the opportunity to integrate case illustration insights with the vast literature on urban gun violence. Bringing together these two worlds—practice and theory—allows the ability to garner lessons for moving forward in crafting urban interventions addressing this key issue. Those who are practice oriented can take these lessons and craft interventions that take into account local circumstances, which is a key element in best practices. Academics can take marching orders for furthering scholarship on this violence. Readers can see cross-cutting themes that emerged with implications for how academic disciplines and helping professions can collaborate with urban self-help organizations in helping them, and readers, carry out their respective missions. Opportunities for youth to connect with caring adults is also important in efforts to interrupt gun-carrying behavior, and they must also be part of the equation within self-help organizations, as seen in these case illustrations and throughout the book. Changing youth attitudes and behaviors influences future gun use by these individuals as they survive youth-hood and emerge as adults. The focus must be on the present with an eye toward the future and respect for the past.