bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Foundational Ways
Authors: Feferman Solomon
Published: November 2023

In this century mathematicians have become conscious of the unity and structure of their subject to an unprecedented extent. Early on, logic offered grand claims to explain this and to rescue mathematics from its “crisis,” which if it threatened one, seemed to threaten all. Global views about the nature of mathematics were propounded. These then took hold of foundational discussions to such an extent that the logical foundation of mathematics is currently thought of only in terms of such grand positions: logicism, formalism, platonism, and constructivism. They are all rather tired-looking now, if not suffering from senescence and still more basic ills. Long since, most mathematicians have given up worrying about the crises and gone about their daily affairs, attending to logical hygiene only as needed. If asked, they will say they are really formalists, or that Zermelo Fraenkel meets their needs, or whatever.
Gödel’s Life and Work
Authors: Feferman Solomon
Published: November 2023

Kurt Godel’s striking fundamental results in the decade 1929 through 1939 transformed mathematical logic and established him as the most important logician of the twentieth century. His work influenced practically all subsequent developments in the subject as well as all further thought about the foundations of mathematics. The results that made Godel famous are the completeness of first-order logic, the incompleteness of axiomatic systems containing number theory, and finally, the consistency of the Axiom of Choice and the Continuum Hypothesis with the other axioms of set theory. During the same decade he made other less dramatic but still significant contributions to logic, including the work on the decision problem, intuitionism, and notions of computability.
Kurt Godel: Conviction and Caution
Authors: Feferman Solomon
Published: November 2023

In the course of preparing an introductory chapter on Godel for a comprehensive edition of his works,* I was struck by the great contrast between the deep platonistic convictions which Godel held concerning the objective basis of mathematics and the special caution that he exercised in revealing those convictions. Godel said that he had arrived at a position of philosophical realism early in his university years, and he credited his enormous successes in mathematical logic during the 1930s almost entirely to his holding this point of view.1 Yet there is hardly a word throughout that period giving any indication of his attitude; indeed, the first open expression of it came only in 1944. I was led to seek the reasons for his guarded disposition and to speculate on whether it might have affected his work and choice of problems, especially whether there were things that he refrained from doing in consequence. In particular, it seemed to me that he could well have been more centrally involved in the development of the fundamental concepts of modern logic-truth and computability-than he was; in fact his role turned out to be peripheral in both cases.
Introductory Note to Godel’s 1933 Lecture
Authors: Feferman Solomon
Published: November 2023

This rich and, in certain respects, remarkable article is drawn from the handwritten text for an invited lecture which Godel delivered ( under the same title) to a meeting of the Mathematical Association of America, held jointly with the American Mathematical Society in Cambridge, Massachusetts, 29-30 December 1933. A report of the meeting is in the American Mathematical Monthly (vol. 41, 1934, p. 123-131). According to that report, Godel’s paper was supposed to appear in a later issue of the Monthly. However, we have no evidence that the paper was ever actually prepared for publication, let alone submitted.
Introduction
Authors: Castle Terry
Published: November 2023

If I may start with a paradox: the crucial essay in this volume, containing articles I have published over the past ten years about eighteenth century English literature and culture, is not to be found in the table of contents. It isn’t to be found there, I’m chagrined to say, because I didn’t write it. I refer to Sigmund Freud’s magnificent, troubling, and inspired essay of 1919, “The ‘Un canny.”‘ It’s not here and yet-like an optical illusion, or one of those strange retinal “ghosts” that seem to float up in space after one stares too long at a word or line of type-Freud’s essay haunts this volume, its magus-pages everywhere inter leaving with my own. For after ten years, I discover, it is precisely Freud’s unsettling, unflinching meditation on the problem of enlightenment-so profound in its implications-that most deeply shapes my own thinking about the eighteenth century and links the various essays in this book, one to one another. How so? one may ask. The essays here were not written in concert, nor did I have “The ‘Uncanny”‘ in mind (though I had certainly read it) when I began working on them over a decade ago. It is true, I find now, that I cite Freud’s essay-fleetingly-in my title-piece, “The Female Thermometer” from 1986, and in an essay on Ann Radcliffe’s Gothic fiction from 1989.
Rights, Claimants, and Beneficiaries
Authors: Lyons David
Published: November 2023

To have a right, Bentham held, is to be the beneficiary of another’s duty or obligation. This theory, one of the more attractive and plausible suggestions about the nature of rights, appears supported by innumerable cases. It is reflected in the notion common to laymen, lawyers, and philosophers that someone with a right is on the advantageous side of a legal or moral relation. It promises to explain why rights are such valuable and important commodities. And it seems bolstered by a variety of facts, for example, that compensation or reparation is often required, and might always be required, when one’s rights are violated or infringed. But Bentham’s theory has been criticized, most notably by H.L.A. Hart, and it is not now, I think, very widely or seriously entertained.
Mill’s Theory of Morality
Authors: Lyons David
Published: November 2023

Many have assumed that utilitarianism requires one always to “maximize utility,” regarding any other way of acting as wrong. This “actutilitarian” doctrine has been criticized for imagining duties where none exist while ignoring special obligations that we bear towards other persons. In recent years, however, “rule-utilitarian” theories have said we should judge acts by reference to useful rules, which might account for special obligations and not require one to maximize utility. These developments have influenced our understanding of the classical utilitarians.
Mill’s Theory of Justice
Authors: Lyons David
Published: November 2023

It is time we reconsidered the relations between justice and utilitarianism.1 Thanks to a convergence of political and philosophical development, interest in political philosophy and the problem of justice is greater than it has been for many years. Significant contributions have recently been made to the field.2 But our understanding of the political face of utilitarianism is, by contrast, rather crude. By reexamining Mill’s theory, I shall try in this essay to help us gain a better grasp upon the utilitarian view of justice.
Utility and Rights
Authors: Lyons David
Published: November 2023

Two notions concerning the relation of rights to utilitarianism seem widely accepted, by both utilitarians and their critics. The first is that utilitarianism is hostile to the idea of moral rights. The second is that utilitarianism is capable of providing a normative theory about legal and other institutional rights. This chapter chiefly concerns the second thesis, and argues against it. But it also says something about the first. In previous writings I have challenged the first thesis, but here I shall suggest that it is sound. The upshot is that utilitarianism has a great deal of trouble accommodating rights.
Problems of the Self
Authors: Van Cleve James
Published: November 2023

Kant thinks that these arguments must inevitably fail (as would arguments on the other side). Their conclusions would be synthetic and a priori, and he believes that synthetic a priori knowledge is to be had only of propositions about objects of possible experience. Yet the self, Kant believes in company with Hume, is not an object of possible experience. We may refer to it in our thoughts, but we have no intuition of it and hence no knowledge of its nature. “It is obvious,” he says, “that in attaching ”; to our thoughts we designate the subject of inherence only transcendentally, without noting in it any quality whatsoever-in fact, without knowing anything of it either by direct acquaintance or otherwise [zu kennen, oder zu wissen]” (A355).
Rational Theology
Authors: Van Cleve James
Published: November 2023

Kant tells us that there are exactly three ways of proving the existence of God by speculative reason. In the first, we begin from “determinate experience and the specific constitution of the world” and ascend from there to a supreme cause. “The world presents to us so immeasurable a stage of variety, order, purposiveness, and beauty” (A622/B650) that we may infer a sublime and wise cause (A625/B654). This is the physico-theological proof or argument from design. In the second, we begin from indeterminate experience or “experience of existence in general” and proceed once again to a cause. Here it does not matter what the world is like, but only that it exists; if the cosmos consisted of nothing but a speck of dust, we would still need to posit a cause for it. This is the cosmological proof.
Law and Truth
Authors: Patterson Dennis
Published: November 2023

Patterson applies the modern debate between Realism and Anti-realism to the question of the nature of law. Starting from the question ‘What is legal knowledge?’ he examines the answers provided by the principal comtemporary theories of jurisprudence, concluding that they are all inextricably bound uo with the nature of justification. He concludes with a novel aaccount of legal knowledge as pragmatism.
Legal Formalism: On the Immanent Rationality of Law
Authors: Patterson Dennis
Published: November 2023

Formalism is the most maligned contemporary approach to jurisprudence. Yet, after countless dismissals, formalism survives. One explanation for its survival is that, at some level, it appeals to our deepest intuitions about law. If anything is to be ordered, structured, or internally coherent, law should be a prime candidate. But if there is a structure to law—a form—what is it? If the law embodies a certain form, an intelligible order, is the order there to be found or is it we who put it there? These are some of the questions at issue in the formalist approach.

Ernest Weinrib’s defense oflegal formalism is the most sophisticated articulation of a formalist jurisprudence in the literature. The central claim of Weinrib’s argument lies in the primacy of what he refers to as immanent intelligibility. Weinrib believes that the only way to maintain the dichotomy between law and politics is to understand law on its own terms or, as he puts it, “from the internal point ofview.” Fundamental to Weinrib’s argument for formalism is his belief that an enterprise such as law can (indeed, must) be understood strictly on its own terms.
Moral Realism and Truth in Law
Authors: Patterson Dennis
Published: November 2023

As noted in the introduction, realism—explaining truth by resort to something that transcends a particular enterprise—is a widely defended philosophical position. One finds the fullest convergence between realist philosophers and realist lawyers with respect to a certain picture of truth. The central question for realists is “What is it that makes our (moral or legal) beliefs true?” For moral philosophers and lawyers of a realist orientation, the answer is the same: facts. Of course, once one claims there is some fact of the matter about a moral or legal proposition, then one must ask what it is that makes the proposition in question true or false. Realists of whatever stripe or discipline are united in the opinion that whatever renders a claim true, it is not a belief. Beliefs, realists argue, make nothing true (or false). This point is often made in the form of the assertion that the truth of propositions is “mind independent.”
Legal Positivism
Authors: Patterson Dennis
Published: November 2023

Legal positivism is a theory about the nature of law and legal institutions. Apropos of the present study, positivism is also a theory about the truth conditions for propositions of law. The focus of this chapter will be on the work of the most important legal positivist of the twentieth century, H. L. A. Hart. In his most celebrated work, The Concept of Law, Hart advances both an account of the idea of a legal system as well as a theory of adjudication. The present chapter focuses on Hart’s theory of law, with particular emphasis on a central feature of his jurisprudence, the rule ofrecognition. Hart embraces a truth-conditional account of legal propositions. The rule of recognition is the source for the criteria for evaluating the truth status of propositions of law. For the present study, this is the most important aspect of Hart’s jurisprudence.
Law as Interpretation: The Jurisprudence of Ronald Dworkin
Authors: Patterson Dennis
Published: November 2023

Without a doubt, ours is the age of interpretation. From the natural sciences to the social sciences, the human sciences, to the arts, overwhelming evidence exists that interpretation is a central organizing theme of the late twentieth century. In law, the importance of the “interpretive turn” can hardly be overestimated. In addition to a plethora of symposia, books, and articles by leading scholars in all fields of substantive law, the growth of interest in law on the part of academics in the humanistic disciplines confirms that questions of textual meaning are the central, if not the organizing, concern of many sophisticated legal theorists.
The Original Three Systems
Authors: Yaqub Aladdin M
Published: November 2023

Formalizing the revision theory of truth is not a sheer technical curiosity, rather it is part of our philosophical defense of the theory. One objective of our defense is to show that the theory is consistent; a second objective is to confirm its material adequacy. In Section 2.3 we established the consistency claim by producing a formal representation of the revision process within a mathematical theory, namely the theory of sets, which is evidently, though perhaps not demonstratively, consistent.1 The second objective can be met by developing a formal semantical system that is a “faithful” representation of the revision process, and then showing that it yields the intuitively correct results when it is applied to fairly expressive languages (so that a rich variety of problematic and unproblematic sentences can be formed). The task of producing such a semantical system is carried out in the next chapter. But in order to understand fully how that system succeeds in representing faithfully the revision process, we need to examine how other systems fail. This is our project in this chapter.
Sensory Ecology and Orientational Behaviors
Authors: Brownell Philip
Published: November 2023

Sensory organs are among the most intricately structured features that animals possess. Beyond structure, the biochemical, physiological. and integrative capacities of sensory tissues provide some of biology’s most exquisite examples of evolutionary adaptation to specialized environments. This intricacy of sensory structure and function has been shaped, through natural selection, for acquisition of information important to the animal’s survival in a particular environment. A major concern of sensory ecology is to determine how this sensory information is generated, transmitted, and altered by passage through the environment.
Encoded Walks and Correlations in Sequence Data
Authors: Dewey T Gregory
Published: November 2023

The statistical analysis of sequence data has generated ongoing interest. The statistical properties of nucleic acid and protein sequences (see Doolittle, 1990; Volkenstein, 1994) provides important information on both the evolution and thermodynamic stability of biomacromolecules. In addition to conventional statistical approaches (for reviews, see, Karlin et al. (1991) and White (1994), fractal analyses of DNA and protein sequences have: given new insight into sequence correlations (Peng et al., 1992; Voss, 1992; Buldyrev et al., 1993; Dewey, 1993; Pande et al., 1994; Balafas and Dewey, 1995). In this chapter, we consider such analyses. They represent a problem in discrete dynamics very different from those discussed in the previous chapter. Lattice walks can be constructed from sequence information in a variety of ways. These encoded walks result from assigning a specific numerical value and spatial direction to the members in the sequence. For instance, in DNA problems it is common to give purines a+ 1 step on a one-dimensional lattice and pyrimidines a—1 step (Peng et al., 1992; Voss, 1992; Buldyrev et al., 1993). Similar walks have been studied in protein sequences and have been based on a specific chemical or physical property of the monomeric unit (Pande et al., 1994). The resulting trajectories of these encoded walks can be analyzed as diffusion problems. Deviation of the encoded walk from random behavior provides evidence for long-range correlations.
Philosophy of Mathematics and Mathematical Practice in the Early Seventeenth Century
Authors: Mancosu Paolo
Published: November 2023

In the last forty years one of the most active areas of research in the history and philosophy of science has been the study of the Galilean revolution in physics. In particular, scholars have focused their attention on the relationship between the emergence of Galilean science and the scientific developments of the Middle Ages. Already Duhem at the beginning of the century in his ten-volume work Le Système du Monde had uncovered the existence of a vital scientific thought in the medieval period. In the English-speaking world, the work that has done most to bring about awareness of the deep links between medieval and seventeenth-century science has been Crombie’s Augustine to Galileo (1952). In this justly celebrated book, Crombie defends a strong version of the continuity thesis. In the preface to the second edition (1958), he describes his effort as follows: “Especially I have tried to bring out, what I believe to be the most striking result of recent scholarship, the essential continuity of the Western scientific tradition from the Greek times to the seventeenth century and, therefore, to our own day.” In his Robert Grosseteste and the Origins of Experimental Science, 1100-1700 (1953), Crombie singled out Grosseteste’s commentary on Aristotle’s Posterior Analytics as representative of a new conception of scientific methodology.
Descartes’ Géométrie
Authors: Mancosu Paolo
Published: November 2023

Earlier I claimed that the development of mathematics, and therefore of the philosophy of mathematics, in the seventeenth century is marked by the invasion of infinitary techniques and by the widespread use of analytic techniques. In Chapter 2 I dealt with the issue of Cavalieri’s appeal to infinitary techniques, now I shall analyze one of the most important texts in the complex development of the algebraization of geometry, Descartes’ Géométrie.

First, I shall present some of the most important results contained in the Géométrie and investigate the foundational assumptions on which the Cartesian project is founded. I hope to acquaint the reader with some important critical contributions. And I give a detailed analysis of Descartes’ most important foundational move—the exclusion of the mechanical curves from the geometrical realm. Secondly, I shall investigate the foundational problems raised by the algebraization of mathematics.
Paradoxes of the Infinite
Authors: Mancosu Paolo
Published: November 2023

In the introduction to Paradoxien des Unendlichen Bernard Bolzano remarked that most paradoxical results found in mathematics rest on the concept of the infinite. The seventeenth century provided many of the paradoxes of the infinite that constitute the topic of Bolzano’s treatise. If one restricts attention only to those paradoxes that generated foundational discussions, two classes emerge from the plethora of surprising results provided by seventeenth-century mathematicians and philosophers. First are the paradoxes having to do with what Bolzano would have called the general theory of magnitudes, especially the composition of continuous quantities. These will be analyzed with reference to the theory of indivisibles (Cavalieri, Galileo, Torricelli, Tacquet, and Leibniz). Second are the paradoxes relating to the theory of space. These will be investigated with reference to Torricelli’s cubature of an infinitely long solid and the varied philosophical reactions generated by this result, or plane versions of it. The use of infinity in the Leibnizian calculus is the topic of chapter 6.
Race, the American Language, and the Americanist Avant-Garde
Authors: North Michael
Published: November 2023

The coincidence that The Waste Land and Harlem Shadows were published in the same year may seem merely to dramatize the differences between the literary movements these works have come to represent. After all, when Eliot and McKay both returned to the United States in the mid-1930s after long absences, transatlantic modernism was an accepted literary fact and Eliot was given a respectful and even distinguished reception, while McKay found the Harlem Renaissance virtually moribund and so few opportunities for himself he soon ended up in a state work camp. The distance between Eliot, delivering his most notoriously narrow-minded opinions on race and culture before an audience at the University of Virginia, and McKay, doing manual labor with a crew of partially detoxified alcoholics, could not be greater. Such differences are so hard to ignore that modernism and the Harlem Renaissance have come to seem not just mutually exclusive but even inimical terms. Yet there was a time when it seemed natural to couple the two, when at least some Harlem writers sought an alliance with their white compatriots in the modernist avant-garde, albeit a modernist avant-garde rather different from the one that Eliot had come to represent.
Responsibilities to Persons: An Explanation of Inescapable Moral Distress
Authors: Gowans Christopher W
Published: November 2023

The detractors of the idea of “moral dilemmas” rightly suppose, as I argued in chapter 4, that it is incoherent to think correct conclusions of an agent’s moral deliberation about what to do could conflict with one another. For this reason, it is a mistake to think that there are situations in which an agent would violate a correct conclusion of moral deliberation no matter what. In this sense, moral wrongdoing cannot be inescapable. But it is a further question, as I argued in the last chapter, whether or not moral wrongdoing in any other sense is some times inescapable. With regard to this question, the remainders view asserts that there are moral conflicts in which, whatever the agent does, he or she will do something that is morally wrong in the sense of transgressing some moral value. On the other hand, the elimination view denies this: It maintains that there is no sense of ‘moral wrongdoing’ in which an agent will do something morally wrong no matter what. It is the debate between these two views with which I am presently concerned.
Utilitarian Critiques of the Phenomenological Argument
Authors: Gowans Christopher W
Published: November 2023

In the last chapter I argued that the responsibilities to persons account shows how inescapable feelings of moral distress can be reasonable responses to situations in which a form of moral wrongdoing is inescapable. My argument was that this account provides a good explanation of these feelings, and hence that it gives us a good reason to accept the remainders view. But the phenomenological argument also requires that this be a better explanation than alternatives, in particular those that purport to give a good account of these feelings while denying the possibility of inescapable moral wrongdoing. Most of these explanations are rooted in the utilitarian or Kantian traditions. I I consider utilitarian critiques in this chapter and Kantian ones in the next. In each case, I argue that these critiques are unconvincing, both in their theoretical understanding of moral obligation and moral conflict and in their explanation of inescapable feelings of moral distress. I also suggest that, different as these traditions are, there are some similarities in the ways they go wrong. It will help to begin with some general and intuitive observations about the utilitarian and Kantian approaches. Both are associated with the covering law model. Utilitarians and Kantians commonly suppose that there is an abstract, first principle-such as the greatest happiness principle or the categorical imperative which, in conjunction with factual premises, entails particular conclusions of moral deliberation, conclusions that cannot conflict.
Genetic Determinants of Myocardial Infarction
Authors: Dammerman Marilyn , Breslow Jan L
Published: November 2023

Until recently, there has been little need to discuss in detail genetic issues related to cardiovascular disease prevention, except to state that a family history of premature atherosclerosis constitutes an independent risk factor and that several lipid abnormalities appear to be related to specific inherited defects. In recent years, however, there has been a remarkable increase in information on the role of genetics in a wide variety of cardiovascular diseases. As genetic testing becomes widely available, clinicians and their patients will be faced for the first time with critical information likely to have major importance for personal risk factor modification as well as reproductive decision-making. Thus, detailed discussions of genetic issues in cardiovascular disease prevention are now required so that the prevention-oriented physician can begin to integrate this developing field into daily practice.

In this chapter, several important cardiovascular disorders that have been linked to specific genes are discussed, while particular attention is given to the genetics of lipoprotein metabolism, diabetes, obesity, and hypertension. In addition, genetic issues surrounding new markers of hemostatic and thrombotic risk are presented. While the utility of genetic screening for coronary heart disease in the general population is currently unknown, the information in this chapter should form a basis for deciding when to screen patients who have presented with premature atherosclerosis. In tum, identification of such genetically high-risk individuals provides a critical mechanism to single out families for whom early intervention and lifestyle changes should have disproportionate benefit.
Postmenopausal Hormone Therapy
Authors: Groostein Francine , Manson JoAnn E , Stampfer Meir J
Published: November 2023

Cardiovascular diseases remain the leading cause of death in American women. Sev eral lines of evidence suggest that estrogen is an important mediator of women’s risk of heart disease. Rates of coronary heart disease (CHO) are relatively low among premenopausal women, but rise sharply with age. Furthermore, the ratio of rates be tween men and women grows narrower with increasing age (Figure 16.1). In addition, there is evidence of an increased risk of CHD among young women with bilateral oophorectomy (Stampfer 1990), unless they are treated with estrogen. Finally, accumulating data demonstrate that women who use estrogen replacement therapy (ERT) after menopause have lower rates of heart disease. In this chapter we review these data, including possible biologic mechanisms, and comment on the risk and benefit calculations which take into account all of the potential advantages and disadvantages of hormone use.
A Song
Authors: Wilson Carol Shiner
Published: November 2023

They will not cough, but they’ll talk in their grave, Tis ominous to treat a poet ill, As tis our merry chimny guests to kill A poet like a cricket where he comes, Bodes good or ill, as he findes warmth or crums. Perhaps one cause, of mischief to mankind, Poets and saints, till dead no kindness find, The world admir’d, this mighty Cowleys wit But more admir’d, he had not bread to eat, Not only his, but Hudibras’s name, Serves to immortalize mans crying shame, In true necessity his days he pass’d, And by the parish, was inter’d at last.
Practical Oughts and Prohibitions
Authors: Greenspan P S
Published: November 2023

Let us first turn to the problems raised by dilemmas for the logical principles governing ought-judgment. Williams’s early article focused attention on the clash between the principle that “ought” implies “can” and the principle of agglomeration-that OA and OB imply O(A & B)-both of which seem intuitively to characterize a strong action-guiding sense of “ought.” The same can be said of two other principles of standard deontic logic that later authors have brought into conflict on the assumption that dilemmas exist: the principle that “ought” implies “permissible” and the principle of deontic closure.
You Are What You Eat
Authors: Furman C Sue
Published: November 2023

For years, scientists have been trying to convince us that what we eat or don’t eat-directly affects our health. This is certainly true during the years following menopause when women face increasingly high risks for cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis, and some forms of cancer. These risks can be substantially magnified by dietary factors. For example, excess weight and a diet high in cholesterol, fat, and salt elevates the risk of cardiovascular disease. Excess use of alcohol and caffeine appears to increase the probability for both cardiovascular disease and osteoporosis.
Faraway Fields Are Green
Authors: Abraham William J
Published: November 2023

Many people, when they hear that I was born and brought up in Northern Ireland, respond with a mixture of pity and curiosity. They feel pity because they are aware of the long history of strife and terror in Northern Ireland, and they wonder if I have lost friends or relatives. Unfortunately, this is indeed true. They express curiosity, partly because there is a natural interest in anything Irish and partly because they wonder how anyone could really take Christianity seriously given the connection between religion and conflict that has existed in Ireland for centuries. It is difficult to know how to react to this. Sometimes I am tempted to launch into a quick analysis of “The Troubles,” as we affectionately call the strife. Sometimes I want to provide a catalog of the extraordinary goodness of the people I know at home.
The Play of Language
Authors: Brater Enoch
Published: November 2023

In 1981 Alan Schneider traveled to London with Danny Labeille to rehearse Billie Whitelaw in her dual role as Woman and Voice for a new play called Rockaby. He faced an impossible problem: how to make a complete evening of theater out of a technically complex drama whose performance time was to run slightly less than fifteen minutes. Beckett’s other play that dates from the same period, Ohio Impromptu, was clearly not a practical option for the kind of one-woman show the director had in mind. The evocation of this stage image was conceived for two seated male figures and required wigs, costume, makeup, and posture “as alike in appearance as possible.”1 That piece had in any case been promised to Stan Gontarski for the international Beckett symposium he was then organizing at the Ohio State University in Columbus. The solution Schneider came upon was ambitious but imperfect: with the playwright’s reluctant consent, Whitelaw would offer a staged reading of the short story Enough2as opener and preview.
Introduction
Authors: Brody Baruch A
Published: November 2023

In February of 1997, the world was stunned to learn that a Scottish research group, headed by Ian Wilmut, had created a living lamb, Dolly, through cloning from an adult cell. The immediate reaction was a combination of wonder at this new scientific advance and of ethical concern about this new technological capacity. The ethics of research on cloning humans attracted particular concern. Throughout the world, political leaders (such as President Clinton of the United States, President Santer of the European Commission, and President Chirac of France) called upon their bioethics advisory committees to advise them about whether new official policies were needed to deal with this new issue of research ethics. These political leaders took for granted that new issues of research ethics were of concern to their governments and that there might be a need for new official ethics policies to be developed by official bioethics advisory boards.
Cooperative Phenomena
Authors: Scheiner Steve
Published: November 2023

The formation of a H-bond causes certain changes in the internal geometries of each monomer. For example, the bridging hydrogen moves a little farther away from the donating atom. In addition to the deformations of the nuclear positions, the H-bond formation is accompanied by real redistributions in the electronic structure of each subunit. These polarizations are readily apparent from experimental spectra, as well as from molecular orbital calculations. Taking into account the above perturbations of the two molecules involved in a H-bonded dimer, it is reasonable to presume that the ability of either of these two molecules to form another H-bond is altered by their participation in the first bond.
A Latter-Day Lockean
Authors: Sreenivasan Gopal
Published: November 2023

Since my aim is to ascertain the particular kind of private property right that can still be successfully established on Lockean grounds, I shall have to relax the constraint, under which I was operating in the previous chapter, of considering only how far the Lockean argument succeeds ‘on its own terms.’ Relaxing this constraint requires me to bracket the contribution of those premisses of the Lockean argument that are no longer generally tenable and so to consider how far the argument succeeds without their support.
The Logic of Reliable Inquiry
Authors: Kelly Kevin T
Published: November 2023

There are many proposed aims for scientific inquiry--to explain or predict events, to confirm or falsify hypotheses, or to find hypotheses that cohere with our other beliefs in some logical or probabilistic sense. This book is devoted to a different proposal--that the logical structure of the scientist’s method should guarantee eventual arrival at the truth given the scientist’s background assumptions. Interest in this methodological property, called “logical reliability,” stems from formal learning theory, which draws its insights not from the theory of probability, but from the theory of computability. Kelly first offers an accessible explanation of formal learning theory, then goes on to develop and explore a systematic framework in which various standard learning theoretic results can be seen as special cases of simpler and more general considerations. This approach answers such important questions as whether there are computable methods more reliable than Bayesian updating or Popper’s method of conjectures and refutations. Finally, Kelly clarifies the relationship between the resulting framework and other standard issues in the philosophy of science, such as probability, causation, and relativism. His work is a major contribution to the literature and will be essential reading for scientists, logicians, and philosophers
Fat
Authors: Morgan Elaine
Published: November 2023

In 1930 a young marine biologist called Alister Hardy returned from an Antarctic expedition and read a book by the eminent anatomist Professor Frederick Wood Jones. In it he came across the following passage:

The peculiar relationship of the skin to the underlying fascia is a very real distinction, familiar enough to anyone who has repeatedly skinned human sub jects and any other member of the Primates. The bed of subcutaneous fat adherent to the skin, so conspicuous in Man, is possibly related to his apparent hair reduction; though it is difficult to see why, if no other factor is involved, there should be such a basal difference between Man and the Chimpanzee.

Hardy was forcibly struck by what he read because he knew from first-hand experience that just such a layer of fat, bonded to the skin, was a common characteristic of most aquatic mammals.
The International System Of Units (Si Units) 1
Authors: Salisbury Frank B
Published: November 2023

As modern science came into being, it depended more and more upon the accurate measurement of physical quantities. Such measurement requires a system of standards that is recognized and accepted by all those who would communicate their measurements to each other. In response to this need, the metric system of measurement was devised during the French Revolution (1789 to 1799). It was an attempt to devise a decimal system of measures that would simplify and unify calculations. Nearly a century later, recognizing the need to further improve the system, the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (BIPM) was set up by the Convention du Metre signed in Paris in 1875 by seventeen States; the Convention was amended in 1921. The task of the BIPM is to ensure worldwide unification of physical measurements. It operates in offices and laboratories in Sevres, near Paris, France, under supervision of the Comite International des Poids et Mesures (CIPM), which consists of 18 members, each from a different State. The CIPM itself comes under the authority of the Conference Generate des Poids et Mesures (CGPM), which consists of delegates from all the Member States (46 States in March, 1991) of the Convention du Metre. The CGPM meets at present every four years, but the CIPM meets every year.
Water Relations
Authors: Dainty Jack
Published: November 2023

In organisms in general, but particularly in plants, the movement of water is of special importance. Its movement by diffusion or bulk flow follows the same thermodynamic principles as the movement of other substances, but its prevalence in living systems has provided an impetus for special study and for a special set of terms and measurements. At present, authors of technical papers use one or the other of the two ways of expressing the solute effect on the chemical potential of water: the osmotic pressure or osmotic (solute) potential. Osmotic pressure, which expresses the effect of solutes as a positive number with dimensions of pressure, is the traditional approach, but osmotic potential, which considers the solute effect as a component of the water potential, expresses the effect as a negative number, usually also with dimensions of pressure (see Chapter 4 on thermodynamics). In spite of tradition, the concept of potentials seems most logical from the standpoint of thermodynamics, which is the basis for the universally accepted concept of water potential. In the following summary of recommended symbols and units, both approaches are presented, but the use of potentials is strongly encouraged.
Energy Transfer
Authors: Salisbury Frank B
Published: November 2023

An excellent example of plant biophysics is the application of physical principles to understand the energy exchange between a plant and its environment. Here, we present a summary table of terms, symbols, and units that are appropriate for this endeavor followed by some equations that are often used.
Phloem Transport
Authors: Geiger Donald R , Bel Aart J E Van
Published: November 2023

Flow of photo assimilates into various compartments or biochemical pathways within source and sink regions. In source organs, carbon is allocated to various uses including export. In a sink organ, carbon enters into compartments or is used for synthesis, storage, or energy metabolism.
Plant Molecular Biology And Gene Designations
Authors: Reardon Ellen M , Waksman Carl A Price
Published: November 2023

The words defined in this section represent terminology common to molecular biology integrated with certain phrases useful in biochemistry, microbiology, and genetics. A few terms are defined within other definitions; these are also printed in boldfaced type. Words in italics are themselves defined elsewhere although italics may also be used for scientific names and even for emphases.
Growth Analysis And Yield Components
Authors: Bugbee Bruce G
Published: November 2023

Plant growth analysis values and yield components can easily and conveniently be expressed with SI units, and yet SI units are often incorrectly used to report these measurements. Like many units reported in the literature, the reasons are historical. A major reference book on the subject of plant growth analysis (Hunt, 1982) used metric and not SI units. However, a recent update of this book (Hunt, 1990) is now consistent with SI rules, except for the use of non-base units in the denominator (mg, weeks), which could be avoided (see Chapter 1). The widespread use of the hectare as a unit of area has caused this unit to remain allowable in many applied agricultural journals, but its use creates a communication barrier between basic and applied researchers that could be resolved if both groups used the SI unit for area: m2 .
Real Rights and Duties
Authors: Wellman Carl
Published: November 2023

We have examined in some detail various ways in which judicial reasoning, moral reasoning, and even broadly practical reasoning can resolve alleged conflicts of rights. What this reasoning shows is that although some of these conflicts are real, others are merely apparent and some entirely illusory. It also typically enables us to reach one of three conclusions about the rights alleged to be in conflict: that at least one of the alleged rights is unreal; that although both rights are real, one or both are limited so that they do not conflict in the case at issue; or that both rights are real and they really do conflict. Of these conclusions, the first and third are of greatest importance for any theory of rights.
The Mind-Relativity of Content
Authors: Rocca Michael Della
Published: November 2023

As I mentioned near the end of the previous chapter, Spinoza’s containment thesis—the claim that the ideas in my mind are numerically identical with certain ideas in God’s mind—underlies a claim about the mind-relativity of content. In particular, the containment thesis underlies Spinoza’s view that the content of an idea insofar as it is in God’s mind differs from the content of that very same idea insofar as it is in the human mind. In this chapter, I will show that this is indeed Spinoza’s view by defending particular interpretations of Spinoza’s claims about representation in God’s mind and in the human mind. In chapters 4 and 5, I will trace Spinoza’s reasons for espousing the mind-relativity of content and certain other, related aspects of his theory of representation.

I should note that, in this and subsequent chapters, when I speak of ideas as representing things, I will be assuming the view, defended in chapter 1, that the representative items in question are psychological states and not mere logical entities, such as propositions.
Complete Associationism: Archibald Alison
Authors: Dickie George
Published: November 2023

I shall begin my discussion of Archibald Alison’s complicated and elaborately presented theory with a summary description of his account of the experience of taste. I hope this characterization will help the reader get a clear idea of a theory of heroic, Rube Goldbergian intricacy. In presenting this abbreviated account, I shall be following Alison, who summarizes his theory in a brief introduction to his Essays on the Nature and Principles of Taste (1790). He understands experiences of taste to be either experiences of beauty or experiences of sublimity.

Alison’s theory of taste is developed, as are Hutcheson’s and Gerard’s, within the framework of Locke’s scheme of mind and perception. According to the Lockean account, characteristics of the external world cause ideas (objects of perception) to occur in a person’s experience (in the mind). Experience is conceived of as a collection of ideas.
Moral Dilemmas and Rights
Authors: Sinnott-Armstrong Walter
Published: November 2023

It is pointless to argue about whether moral dilemmas are possible unless the arguers agree about what a moral dilemma is. It doesn’t help to define moral dilemmas in terms that are unclear or disputed. It also doesn’t help to ask which definition of “moral dilemma” is the correct one: “Moral dilemma” is a technical term in these contexts, and different philosophers use it to refer to different kinds of situations. Thus, the only reasonable approach is to construct a series of definitions and ask which of these kinds of situations are possible. That is what I will do here. I hope that we will find general agreement on which kinds of situations are possible. If so, then we can move beyond verbal disputes and ask more interesting questions about whether and how the possibilities that do exist are important for moral theory.
The Moral Dilemmas Debate
Authors: Mothersill Mary
Published: November 2023

The question under debate is whether there are any moral dilemmas, that is, any “real” or “genuine” ones as distinct from those that are “merely apparent.” Some—call them the “pro-Ds”—say that there are and draw the consequences for ethical theory; others say that there are not—call them the “rationalists”—and draw a different set of consequences. The question itself, with its epistemological overtones, may strike us as odd. A stick that is really straight is one that would look bent in water even if it is never put in water. A genuine dilemma is one that, given the right conditions, would appear to be . . . appear to be what? Neither the pro-Ds nor the rationalists put the question quite this way: they start from the appearances and go on to present their respective views about whether there is, so to speak, such a thing as the genuine article. We should begin by asking what it takes to be as much as a candidate, that is, what we understand by “moral dilemma.” Everyone agrees on certain requirements: an agent in a dilemma has to choose between conflicting obligations, each of which is supported by strong, ordinarily decisive reasons. He cannot discharge both obligations, but failure on either count would be morally wrong.
Epilogue: Save the Last Dance for Me
Authors: Flanagan Owen
Published: November 2023

When it is over, when the bell tolls, when time is out on this life, I want it to be just the two of us, you and me, face to face, one on one. Possibly there will be no time to think about it-this life, and its meaning, that is. Perhaps there will be time. But it will, if we are lucky, be just the two of us: me thinking about you-where “you” are the way this life has been, has gone, and where “I” am this thinking thing looking back at you over an instant, ‘jumping-jack-flash”-a moment, only a moment ahead of you. Perhaps we should do this sooner, this dance, maybe even on a regular basis, since there might be, as I’ve said, no chance in reality for that last dance with each other, not at least the way I am envisaging it.
Optical Rheometry of Complex Fluids
Authors: Fuller Gerald G
Published: November 2023

This book provides a self-contained presentation of optical methods used to measure the structure and dynamics of complex fluids subject to the influence of external fields. Such fields (hydrodynamic, electric and magnetic) are commonly encountered in both academic and industrial research, and can produce profound changes in the microscale properties of liquids comprised of polymers, colloids, liquid crystals or surfactants. Starting with the basic Maxwell field equations, this book and Mueller calculus, and then covers the transmission, reflection and scattering of light in anisotropic materials. Spectroscopic interactions with orientated sytems such as absorptive dichroism, small wide angle light scattering, and Raman scattering are discussed. Applications of these methods to a wide range of problems in complex fluid dynamics and structure are presented, along with selected case studies on particular studies chosen to elucidate the range of techniques and materials that can be studied.