bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Degrammaticalization of pronominal clitics in Slavic
Authors: Jung Hakyung , Migdalski Krzysztof
Published: April 2021

This paper examines the reanalysis of pronominal clitics as weak pronouns in the Slavic languages. It demonstrates that the change occurred historically in Old Polish and Old Russian, and that currently it is also taking place in Macedonian. We interpret the reanalysis as a case of degrammaticalization. We assume that in syntactic terms degrammaticalization involves the reinterpretation of heads as phrasal elements. Furthermore, the paper identifies the trigger of the process, which is the weakening of the tense system in the respective languages, evidenced through the loss of the aorist and imperfect tense forms. On the theoretical side, the paper shows that grammaticalization is clearly reversible and that it can be disturbed by general syntactic principles.
Introduction
Authors: Netzer Falko P. , Noguera Claudine
Published: April 2021

In the introductory chapter, the stage is set for the title materials, oxide thin films and nanostructures, and their widespread occurrence and importance in everyday life, science and technology are pointed out. The “nanostructure” term is defined and the specific characteristics of nanomaterials, distinguishing them from macroscopic bulk materials, are lined out. A preview of the following eight chapters gives an impression of the content of the book.
Introduction
Authors: Hearne Siobhán
Published: April 2021

This chapter maps prostitution onto the shifting social, political, and economic landscape of modernizing Russia. It outlines the system for the regulation of prostitution in the Russian Empire and pays attention to the significant expansion of the system during late nineteenth-century industrialization and urbanization. The chronological setting of the study is analysed as a period of flux, in which social identities, cultural practices, and traditional gender roles were destabilized. Amid this fluctuation, the imperial authorities attempted to tighten their grip over the Empire’s vast lower class population, using emerging technologies (such as photography, fingerprinting, and statistical analysis) to ‘know’ and monitor those at the social margins. Women who sold sex were certainly one key focus of this attention, as local police forces attempted to compile accurate records of their names, ages, addresses, social classes, and ethnicities. Thereafter, the chapter explores how the Russian imperial state attempted to enforce a paternalistic relationship between those in authority and their subjects. Official approaches to the Empire’s lower classes combined strict discipline with custodial care and supervision. This paternalism was at the heart of the state regulation of prostitution, under which officialdom monitored the bodies and behaviour of registered prostitutes, and to a certain extent, their clients and managers.
Paying for Sex
Authors: Hearne Siobhán
Published: April 2021

This chapter focuses on men who paid for sex, a group that are often silent in histories of prostitution. It draws on letters written by male clients who denounced women as ‘clandestine prostitutes’ (as in, working outside the legal parameters of regulation). The chapter then moves on to address how the imperial state regulated the bodies of specific types of male client, including migrant workers and military personnel, for the purposes of public health. Rather than nameless and blameless clients, some men who paid for sex were regularly examined and their behaviour was scrutinized by those in authority. Finally, the chapter provides a case study of the regulation of male sailors within the Port of Emperor Alexander III in Libava (now Liepāja, Latvia).
Policing Commercial Sex
Authors: Hearne Siobhán
Published: April 2021

This chapter examines the institutions in charge of policing prostitution, namely provincial governments, municipal authorities, and medical-police committees. The devolved nature of Russian imperial governance meant that the severity with which regulation was applied varied widely from place to place, often depending on the specific economic, social, and environmental conditions of localities. The dynamics of medical-police committees are discussed, particularly the tension between the police and medical personnel. The chapter also explores the complex relationship between ‘policer’ and ‘policed’ in examining the (often informal) relationship between registered prostitutes and the police. Urbanization, limited resources, and the inability, or unwillingness, to enforce policy meant that regulation consistently failed to meet its medical and moral objectives. In the early twentieth century, the Russo-Japanese and First World Wars widened the gulf between state ambitions and realities even further.
Conclusion
Authors: Hearne Siobhán
Published: April 2021

This chapter provides a summary of the key arguments of the book: that reactions to regulation were complicated and multifaceted; that regulation varied widely from place to place; and that there was a huge gulf between the ambitions of the tsarist authorities for policing prostitution, and the corresponding reality. Thereafter, the chapter examines the abolition of the regulation system in July 1917 by the Provisional Government. The social and economic dislocation of the First World War, revolution, and Civil War undoubtedly saw many more women engaging in prostitution. After seizing power from the Provisional Government in October 1917, the Bolsheviks set out to eradicate prostitution as they regarded it as an unwanted remnant of the bourgeois, capitalist past. However, prejudices against women who worked as prostitutes that had been established under the regulation system were difficult to shift, particularly the perception that women who sold sex were responsible for the transmission of venereal diseases. These stubborn ideas meant that attempts to eliminate prostitution in the early Soviet period were destined to be unsuccessful.
Field models
Authors: Buchbinder Iosif L. , Shapiro Ilya L.
Published: April 2021

This chapter provides constructions of Lagrangians for various field models and discusses the basic properties of these models. Concrete examples of field models are constructed, including real and complex scalar field models, the sigma model, spinor field models and models of massless and massive free vector fields. In addition, the chapter discusses various interactions between fields, including the interactions of scalars and spinors with the electromagnetic field. A detailed discussion of the Yang-Mills field is given as well.
Perturbation theory
Authors: Buchbinder Iosif L. , Shapiro Ilya L.
Published: April 2021

This chapter provides a general description of perturbation theory in terms of Feynman diagrams. The general prescriptions of constructing Feynman diagrams in momentum space are given, including for an S-matrix. The connected Green functions and the corresponding generation functional are defined with full proofs. After introducing effective action, the chapter addresses loop expansion. The chapter ends with a discussion of Feynman diagrams in fermionic theory.
The Ivorian Regime and the French Security Guarantee
Authors: Wyss Marco
Published: April 2021

In contrast to his Nigerian counterpart, the Ivorian leader did not have to face any meaningful opposition, and could rely on a strong presidential constitution, a one-party system, and his moral and tribal authority. But fearful of the potential of foreign-, especially Ghanaian-sponsored subversion to his regime, he entered into secret arrangements that put French forces in charge of his personal and regime’s security. When in 1963 subversion became a reality in francophone Africa, Houphouët-Boigny became increasingly paranoid. Detecting subversive activities and coup attempts in Côte d’Ivoire itself, he thus moved against supposed conspirators and simultaneously reasserted his authoritarian rule. The French support he thereby received was, however, limited, because Paris was concerned that too heavy an involvement in the domestic security of African states could be detrimental to its international reputation.
The Prosecutorial Targets Question
Authors: Sander Barrie
Published: April 2021

This chapter examines the practices that have influenced the selection of prosecutorial targets in different institutional settings and the implications for the scope and content of the historical narratives constructed by international criminal courts in their judgments. For this purpose, the chapter distinguishes between two forms of selectivity: first, situational selectivity, which concerns the mass atrocity situations that have been targeted for investigation within international criminal courts; and second, case selectivity, which concerns the individuals that have been targeted for prosecution within each situation. After revealing the prevailing influence of the political context on the prosecutorial focus of international criminal courts, the chapter turns to examine different strategies that have been deployed by defendants and their counsel—often in vain—in an effort to counter this hegemonic orientation.
Perceptual Reasons and Defeat
Authors: Schroeder Mark
Published: April 2021

Perceptual evidence about the external world is paradigmatically defeasible. If something looks red to you, it is reasonable to believe that it is red, but if you are wearing rose-tinted glasses, it may not be reasonable at all to believe this, unless you have some independent source of evidence. In this paper, I will compare four models for how to understand this phenomenon. These models differ in their answers to two questions: what evidence we get about the external world through perception, and what our having that evidence consists in. I like one of these models better than the others, but in this paper my primary concern will be to compare their virtues and vices.
Armenian Transnational Social Field and Diaspora Entrepreneurs
Authors: Koinova Maria
Published: April 2021

This chapter and the following Chapter 9 are interconnected as they both discuss Armenian diaspora mobilizations. This chapter focuses on the transnational social field and the four types of diaspora entrepreneurs. Armenians have lived in the Caucasus and the Middle East prior to the 1915 Armenian genocide, a defining moment historically and especially for the diaspora. Self-determination claims of Armenia and Nagorno-Karabakh have been interconnected historically, considered part of ‘Eastern Armenia’. They both seceded from the Soviet Union in 1991. An independent Armenia was internationally recognized as a state, unlike the de facto state of Karabakh, unrecognized at present. A devastating 1988 earthquake and a war between Armenia and Azerbaijan over Karabakh (1992–4) created opportune moments for the diaspora in Western countries to connect to Armenia and Karabakh. The diaspora in Europe was primarily formed by survivors and descendants of the Armenian genocide, with roots in ‘Western Armenia’ in Turkey and the larger Middle East, and organized by diaspora parties. Fragility of statehood in Armenia and Karabakh, and recurrent violence and authoritarianism in the Middle East continued to create push factors for Armenians to emigrate across the globe and for the diaspora to mobilize. The highest priority in the diaspora, especially in Europe, remained the recognition of the Armenian genocide, while Karabakh’s recognition and supporting Armenia took a back seat. The chapter presents data on migration in the Armenian field, in the Caucasus, the Middle East and globally, and specifies the individual profiles of Armenian diaspora entrepreneurs.
Making deeper insights part 1
Authors: Petchey Owen L. , Beckerman Andrew P. , Cooper Natalie , Childs Dylan Z.
Published: April 2021

Data analysis is not just about physically performing the analyses. We also need to think carefully about our data, and various issues that they might have. In this chapter, we explore conceptual issues raised by the bat diet workflow demonstration. This chapter discusses statistical variables, populations and samples, independence and non-independence in data, and working with numeric and categorical variables. In the last two items of that list, we look both at quantitative summaries of variables and relationships and also at graphical summaries.
Structuralist Contributions to Development Thinking
Authors: Cantore Nicola , Alcorta Ludovico
Published: April 2021

This chapter reviews the structuralist contributions to thinking about economic growth and development. The chapter begins by tracing the roots of structuralism back to the classical economists such as Smith, Ricardo, and Quesnay. The common denominator of structuralist thought is the emphasis on breaking down the economy into different industrial sectors and examining the effects of sectoral developments on aggregate economic development. This contrasts with neoclassical thinking, which in all its varieties, tends to focus on the macro-economy without a breakdown into sectors. The authors go on to discuss early contributions, post-war contributions, and recent contributions. They analyse the major drivers of structural change. These include technology which changes the structure and composition of demand, productivity trends within sectors, and the role of demand and income elasticity.
The Rise of the Service Sector in the Global Economy
Authors: Owusu Solomon , Szirmai Adam , Foster-McGregor Neil
Published: April 2021

This chapter examines the implications of the rapid rise of the service sector in the global economy and sub-Saharan Africa. The chapter discusses the growing importance of the service sector and key issues such as service sector productivity, the contribution of the service sector to aggregate growth and productivity, and the potentially positive contributions of services to other sectors. The review touches upon key issues such as the Baumol hypothesis of a stagnant service sector. The second half of the chapter focuses on tertiarization trends in sub-Saharan Africa. The chapter finds robust evidence of relationships between development in services and manufacturing performance and evidence of strong inter-industry linkages between the service sector and manufacturing. Countries differ in terms of which specific service sectors matter for manufacturing performance. It is important for policymakers to take these trends into consideration in industrial policy design to achieve the optimal outcome from any such policy.
Structural Change in Exports
Authors: Timmer Marcel P. , Pahl Stefan
Published: April 2021

Trade analysis on the basis of countries’ export baskets can be misleading when production is globally fragmented. The chapter argues for a switch to an analysis of the type of activities that are embodied in exports. The chapter discusses two steps towards this goal. It first discusses the transition in trade studies from product to vertical specialization. A country’s vertical specialization in trade is measured as the share of domestic value added in its gross exports. The chapter identifies three waves of vertical specialization in the world economy since 1970 and documents the servicification of manufacturing exports. Results from cross-country analysis show a robust association between specialization and productivity growth, but not between specialization and employment growth. Next, the chapter considers functional specialization in trade based on the measurement of distinct activities in exports such as fabrication, marketing and R&D, based on an occupational classification of workers. It documents how advanced economies continued to specialize in headquarter activities, while quickly moving out of fabrication activities. It also shows that there are many idiosyncratic determinants of a country’s specialization pattern beyond its general development level. The chapter ends with suggestions for further research, given that the measures of trade in value added and activities presented are still in a development phase.
FDI, Multinationals, and Structural Change in Developing Countries
Authors: Pineli André , Narula Rajneesh , Belderbos René
Published: April 2021

This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the extant knowledge linking activities of multinational enterprises (MNEs) and structural change in developing countries. The balance of payments approach, which focuses on investment, is criticized. The exact configuration of the MNE will result from the interaction between the ownership of assets of the firm and the location-specific assets of countries, and the extent to which the firm perceives it to be in its best interest to organize these assets within the firm boundaries, that is, to internalize the market. The East Asian experiences suggest that FDI is just one of the possible vehicles of knowledge acquisition, and that the investment development path could be redefined in terms of technological catching-up. Cross-country differences in the FDI–structural change nexus seem to be associated with the financial development and the level of control of corruption of the countries but not with trade openness.
Introduction
Authors: Njoroge Patrick , Murinde Victor
Published: April 2021

The introductory chapter provides the motivation of the book and a summary content of all the chapters. The main aim of the book is to document key milestones traversed by the Central Bank of Kenya over the last 50 years, in line with evolution of central banking globally and within the East African region, and, reflects on the future prospects and challenges. The chapter also outlines the contents of the book, which is structured into two parts. Part 1 provides a background of international issues, including theory as well as evidence, relating to central banking in general. Part II builds on this background and provides specific insight into central banking in Kenya. The book is envisaged to be a useful resource to many readers interested in understanding the role and evolution of monetary and financial policy, globally and its influence on Kenya for the past 50 years.
Responsibility, Criminalization, and Political Economy
Authors: Farmer Lindsay
Published: April 2021

One of the most important and distinctive themes of Lacey’s recent work has been the analysis of penal practices from the perspective of political economy. However, it is arguably the case that ‘political economy’ is primarily viewed as a dimension of the context in which the criminal law develops rather than as a method of legal analysis. In this chapter I explore the meaning and critical potential of the concept of political economy—how it is used by Lacey, the different traditions that she draws on—and what the perspective and theory of political economy contributes to our understanding of criminal law. I seek to deepen the relevance of political economy to the analysis of criminal responsibility by exploring how the development of the modern conception of English criminal law in the early nineteenth century was itself shaped by contemporary understandings of political economy. Most historical work on the development of the modern criminal law has focused on the impact of utilitarianism to show how changes in penal laws and institutions were linked to new efforts to shape individual conduct in society. However, equally important to the intellectual and political culture of the early nineteenth century were understandings of the new ‘science’ of political economy. This chapter explores the ways in which theories of political economy shaped the modern criminal law in this period and thereby to open up new possibilities for exploring connections between criminal law, criminal responsibility, and political economy—and thus for critical criminal law theory.
David Malouf’s Fly Away Peter (1982)
Authors: Riley Kathleen
Published: April 2021

The final chapter of Part I examines the theme of impossible nostos within David Malouf’s novella Fly Away Peter, which is set at the time of the Great War. The story traces the journey of a young Australian, Jim Sadler, from an Edenic bird sanctuary on the Queensland coast to the perverted pastoral of the Western Front where he realizes he has hitherto been living ‘in a state of dangerous innocence’. The principal motif Malouf employs is the miracle of bird migration, through which he explores the idea of homecoming, what it means to belong, to leave one’s home, and to return. The chapter concludes by focusing on the unconventional Penelope figure, Imogen Harcourt, whose solitary ruminations extend the book’s philosophical enquiry from the nature of home to the nature of being.
Vibration Isolation
Authors: Chen C. Julian
Published: April 2021

This chapter discusses vibration isolation of STM and AFM. First, the basic concepts of vibration isolation are illustrated by a one-dimensional system using elementary mechanics. The source of vibration, the environmental vibration, its characteristics, and methods of measurement are presented. The importance of vibration isolation at the laboratory foundation level and the proper mechanical design of STM and AFM are then discussed. The focus of this chapter in on the most important vibration isolation system: two-stage suspension spring with eddy-current damping. A detailed analysis of the two-stage spring system as well as aspects of practical design is presented. The principles and design charts for eddy-current damping system are discussed. Finally, the commercial pneumatic vibration isolation system is briefly discussed.
Clearing the Ground
Authors: Papineau David
Published: April 2021

This chapter sets the stage. It clarifies ‘sensory experience’ and related concepts. It offers arguments against both naïve realism and sense-datum theories. It distinguishes different kinds of representationalism about sensory experience along with a number of further issues that can be put to one side.
Empirical Challenges Comparing Inequality across Countries
Authors: Checchi Daniele , Cupak Andrej , Munzi Teresa
Published: April 2021

This study presents new empirical results, using microdata from the Luxembourg Income Study (LIS) database, on development patterns in economic inequality for a set of countries that are less covered in the empirical literature, mostly due to a lack of appropriate data. After discussing the main challenges when harmonizing income and consumption microdata from middle-income countries, we focus on Brazil, China, India, Russia, and South Africa, in a comparative perspective, and we compare them with a selection of benchmark middle- and high-income countries. We also run country-level regressions to correlate the inequality measures with selected macroeconomic indicators.
China
Authors: Li Shi , Sicular Terry , Tarp Finn
Published: April 2021

This chapter describes the major trends in China’s income inequality over the past forty years and explains them as the outcome of four interleaved stories. The first story is a standard development story characterized by structural change, market development, labour absorption, and the Kuznets inverted-U path of inequality. The second is the economic transition story, in which changes in income distribution result from the shift from plan to market. The third is incomplete transition, with opportunities for rent-seeking, corruption, and hidden income. The fourth is the story of government efforts to moderate inequality through social and welfare policies.
Mexico
Authors: Campos-Vazquez Raymundo M. , Lustig Nora , Scott John
Published: April 2021

This chapter focuses on income inequality in Mexico, which increased between 1989 and 1994. Between 1994 and 2006, inequality declined; between 2006–14, inequality was again on the rise. The authors apply decomposition techniques to analyse the proximate determinants of labour income inequality and fiscal incidence analysis to estimate the first-order effects of taxes and social spending on the distribution of income. The key component that underlies the ‘rise–decline–rise again’ pattern was the evolution of returns to skills. In addition, while changes in fiscal policy in the 1990s were progressive and pro-poor, the redistributive effect has declined significantly since 2010, as transfers have become less progressive and net indirect taxes have increased.
China and the United States
Authors: Weide Roy van der , Narayan Ambar
Published: April 2021

The United States and China are the world’s largest economies. Together they are responsible for about one-third of the world’s economic output. This chapter aims to examine whether the two economic giants are also lands of opportunity where resources are allocated in a way that minimizes unrealized human potential. Our analysis shows that despite stark differences in their levels of development, the US and China report remarkably similar levels of socioeconomic mobility—levels considered low by international standards. The US’s level of mobility has historically been low. Before it embarked on its transition from planned to market economy, socioeconomic mobility was relatively high in China. However, as it underwent a period of rapid economic growth, China’s socioeconomic mobility declined significantly. The chapter concludes that the world’s two major economic powers have converged to a low level of socioeconomic mobility where talent from disadvantaged backgrounds is excluded.
Correlations, response, and dissipation
Authors: Sethna James P.
Published: April 2021

This chapter studies how systems wiggle, and how they respond and dissipate energy when kicked. The wiggling fluctuations are described using correlation functions, the yielding and dissipation are described using susceptibilities. The intricate relations between these quantities are explored using the Onsager regression hypothesis, fluctuation--response and fluctuation--dissipation theorems, and the Kramers--Kronig relation derived from causality (the response cannot precede the kick). The powerful tools of linear response theory described here are basic tools in our exploration of materials with scattering of sound, light, X-rays, and neutrons, and have become our primary description of the behavior of materials. Exercises describe applications to noise in nanojunctions, humans on subways, magnetic spins, molecular dynamics and Ising models, liquids and magnets, materials at critical points, and fluctuations in the early Universe.
Outline of a theory of justification
Authors: Rosenkranz Sven
Published: April 2021

Core theses of the novel account of justification to be developed are first stated: one has propositional justification for p just in case one is in no position to know that one is in no position to know p; and one has doxastic justification for p just in case one is in no position to know that one does not know p. Unlike other theories that conceive of justification in terms of the metaphysical possibility of knowing, the present account thus construes it as a distinctive kind of epistemic possibility. It treats propositional justification as non-factive, both its presence and its absence as luminous conditions, and by assuming a weak non-normal modal logic for knowledge and being in a position to know, validates principles of positive and negative introspection for it. The account thereby attributes features to justification that internalists care about. But it does so without construing justification as an internal condition. The account allows one to systematically distinguish between the condition of being justified and the metaphysical grounds for its obtaining, thereby heeding externalist insights into the difference between the good cases and the bad cases envisaged by radical scepticism. Lines of argument that show the account’s potential, e.g. in dealing with the preface and lottery paradoxes, are previewed, and so are lines of defence against challenges and objections, including prominent anti-luminosity arguments.
Concluding Remarks
Authors: Rosenkranz Sven
Published: April 2021

According to the account of epistemic justification developed in this book, one has propositional justification for p just in case one is in no position to know that one is in no position to know p; and one has doxastic justification for p just in case one is in no position to know that one does not know p. The account gives internalists much of what they want from a theory of justification—in particular, a notion of justification according to which propositional justification is non-factive and luminous, underwrites principles of positive and negative introspection, and remains available to the victims of systematic deception. All the while, that notion is explained in terms of other notions that clearly belong to the knowledge-firsters’ toolkit, and coheres with an externalist account of the grounds for justification.
Sovereignty and Debt in Nineteenth-Century Latin America
Authors: Zendejas Juan Flores , Cole Felipe Ford
Published: April 2021

After their independence from Spain and Portugal, Latin American governments became frequent borrowers in international capital markets. However, the region’s political and economic instability also led to recurrent episodes of sovereign defaults. During the particular historical context of the nineteenth century, remedies to debt defaults were not limited to bilateral negotiations between creditors and governments. They also encompassed military interventions or control commissions formed by foreign governments, bondholders, or merchant bankers. In North Africa and the Middle East, debt defaults could even trigger military interventions from creditor states ending in the establishment of colonial regimes. This paper shows that such interventions were rare in Latin America, as creditors only enlisted their governments’ military intervention in the most extreme cases. In most cases, external control was exerted privately by bondholders and merchant banks through the imposition of economic policies promoting trade openness and fiscal management. Additionally, bondholders turned to legal methods of contractual enforcement to obtain debt settlements that limited the sovereignty of debtor states over their land, infrastructure, and resources. By the end of the century, Latin American jurists began to respond to the increasing use of legal techniques to settle sovereign debts by developing counter-legal discourses aimed at limiting foreign intrusion in sovereign affairs.
Independence and the Effect of Empire
Authors: Degive Nicolas , Oosterlinck Kim
Published: April 2021

‘Sovereign’ bonds issued by colonies are often supposed to benefit from an implicit imperial guarantee. This guarantee is usually presented as the main reason why yields on colonial bonds are exceptionally low. This paper investigates investors’ perception of this guarantee during the interwar period, a period during which the guarantor faced financial turmoil and some colonies began their journey towards independence. On the basis of an original database tracking the yields of six colonial bonds we show that, in general, market participants believed the guarantee would be honoured. This general observation needs, however, to be nuanced. In 1931 when Britain left the gold standard, investors felt the British guarantee was less valuable. Furthermore, when colonies were facing extreme financial distress, markets reassessed the likelihood the guarantee would be honoured. This was also the case when it became clear that India would become independent.
The Uses of Intrinsic Value
Authors: Queloz Matthieu
Published: April 2021

This chapter explores Bernard Williams’s genealogy in Truth and Truthfulness and argues that by emphasizing the historicity of needs and the ways in which practices can acquire or lose their points, Williams brings pragmatic genealogy from its Neo-Humean phase into its Neo-Nietzschean phase. The chapter begins by reconstructing Williams’s notoriously elusive genealogy and reveals its affinities with Cambridge pragmatism. It then addresses three influential challenges raised by Colin McGinn. Williams’s notion of intrinsic value is elucidated and his position distinguished from indirect utilitarianism. It emerges that Williams’s distinctive contribution to the pragmatic genealogical tradition is to identify the practical pressures driving thought away from a stance of instrumental valuation to a stance of intrinsic valuation, thus showing how intrinsic values have their uses, and to illustrate how the method equips one to do justice to self-effacingly functional practices. The chapter concludes by considering the depth of Williams’s debt to Nietzsche.
Desire and Action
Authors: Charles David
Published: April 2021

Aristotle held, it is argued, that desire, like anger, is to be defined as inextricably psycho-physical process (or activity), a specific type of bodily change. It is the realization of a goal-directed essentially material capacity. This is the type of capacity required if desire is to be the efficient cause of bodily movements, their origin and controller. Its form, if constituted by this capacity, needs to be, in its own nature, an enmattered form to be their cause. This account of desire is an instance of the Impure Form Interpretation developed in Chapters 1 and 2. It is argued that this interpretation best capatures Aristotle’s own positive theory and his critical remarks on alternatives, such as the ‘harmony theory’. Attempts to understand his account of desire in terms of two definitionally distinct components, one purely psychological, one purely physical, are rejected as inadequate because they cannot properly accommodate the efficient causal role he attributed to its form.
Accounting for Natural Capital
Authors: Barker Richard
Published: April 2021

Chapter 13 sets out the principles that lie behind designing a system of accounting for responsible business. It considers this in the context of accounting for natural capital. It describes how accounting in a mutual context has to be intrinsic in the sense of promoting the enhancement of natural capital for its own ends, not extrinsic to shareholder interests in being motivated by a desire to enhance profit and shareholder value. Secondly, the accounting system should reflect the full impact of a company on natural capital. Thirdly, accounting needs to recognize the strong non-linearities in natural capital—for example, threshold levels below which it is prone to collapse. Finally, accounting for natural capital should reflect a corporate purpose that places the intrinsic benefits of natural capital at its heart.
Services, Public Functions, and Transport
Authors: Fry Chris
Published: April 2021

This chapter focuses on services and public functions and transport provisions. Both are covered by Part 3 of the Equality Act 2010, which deals with discrimination in services and public functions. As with other Parts of the Act, Part 3 consolidates and harmonizes previous legislation. Compared to the previous enactments, one of the most significant changes made by the Act is to introduce a new ban on age discrimination in services and public functions, which applies to service users aged 18 and over. Another significant change to Part 3 of the Act was made necessary following the 2011 decision of the Court of Justice of the European Union in the case of Association Belge des Consommateurs Test-Achats. This decision established that the EU Gender Directive provision that permits proportionate differences between men and womens’ insurance premiums and insurance benefits was unlawful. In response to this decision, regulations made by HM Treasury repealed the insurance exception in paragraph 22 of Schedule 3 relating to sex and gender reassignment and pregnancy and maternity.
Technical Elements of Machine Learning for Intellectual Property Law
Authors: So Anthony Man-Cho
Published: April 2021

Recent advances in artificial intelligence (AI) technologies have transformed our lives in profound ways. Indeed, AI has not only enabled machines to see (eg, face recognition), hear (eg, music retrieval), speak (eg, speech synthesis), and read (eg, text processing), but also, so it seems, given machines the ability to think (eg, board game-playing) and create (eg, artwork generation). This chapter introduces the key technical elements of machine learning (ML), which is a rapidly growing sub-field in AI and drives many of the aforementioned applications. The goal is to elucidate the ways human efforts are involved in the development of ML solutions, so as to facilitate legal discussions on intellectual property issues.
Artificial Intelligence and Trademark Assessment
Authors: Moerland Anke , Freitas Conrado
Published: April 2021

Artificial intelligence (AI) has an unparalleled potential for facilitating intellectual property (IP) administration processes, in particular in the context of examining trademark applications and assessing prior marks in opposition and infringement proceedings. Several stakeholders have developed AI-based algorithms that are claimed to enhance the productivity of trademark professionals by carrying out, without human input, (parts of) the legal tests required to register a trademark, oppose it, or claim an infringement thereof. The goal of this chapter is to assess the functionality of the AI tools currently used and to highlight the possible limitations of AI tools to carry out autonomously the legal tests enshrined in trademark law. In fact, many of these tests are rather subjective and highly depend on the facts of the case, such as an assessment of the distinctive character of a mark, whether the relevant public is likely to be confused or whether a third party has taken unfair advantage of a mark. The chapter uses doctrinal research methods and interview data with fourteen stakeholders in the field. It finds that AI tools are so far unable to reflect the nuances of the subjective legal tests in trademark law and, it is argued, even in the near future, AI tools are likely to carry out merely parts of the legal tests and present information that a human will have to assess, taking prior doctrine and the circumstances of the case into account.
Ghosts
Authors: Dean Andrew
Published: April 2021

This chapter examines how Philip Roth responds to Jewish American readers and contexts in his fiction. Roth exploits the tensions and transitions in Jewish American political aspirations in the period, setting heated political debates about assimilation and particularism against different measurements of value in the novel. By using live cultural debates from the period, Roth courts ethnic categorization, while ultimately relativizing such categories in his attempt to pursue alternative understandings of literary value. In Roth’s earlier ‘Nathan Zuckerman’ fictions, the comedy and intelligence emerge through his practice of contrasting the ‘humble needs’ of a desiring body with the rush either to pass political judgement or to withdraw the novel from the complications of embodied life. The second half of the chapter demonstrates how Roth engages both directly and indirectly with the work of Hannah Arendt and the 1950s context for thinking about the Holocaust. This section of the chapter focuses in particular on an unpublished screenplay housed in Roth’s literary archive.
Hebraism in Religion, History, and Politics
Authors: Grosby Steven
Published: April 2021

This work is an investigation into Hebraism as a category of cultural analysis within the history of Christendom. Its aim is to determine what Hebraism means or should mean when it is used to refer to a culture or characteristics of a culture. In tracing those characteristics that arose in the changing relation between a doctrinally orthodox Christianity and the nation of a ‘new Israel’, sovereignty, and their legal anthropology, Hebraism refers to the development of a ‘Jewish Christianity’ or an ‘Old Testament Christianity’. It represents a ‘third culture’ in contrast to the cultures of the Roman or Hellenistic empires and Christian universalism. While the initial formulation of Hebraism as a cultural category was by Matthew Arnold, an earlier approximation is found in the work of John Selden, with considerable refinements by several scholars in the twentieth century. The categories of Hebraism and Hebraic culture provide a means by which to examine differently the history of religion and the history of early modern Europe.
Conclusion
Authors: Grosby Steven
Published: April 2021

Hebraism has to do with the changing relation between Christianity and Judaism, between the New and Old Testaments, made possible by the cultural phenomenon of different contents coexisting within a symbol, for example, Israel. This concluding chapter provides a summary of the characteristics of Hebraism as a ‘Jewish Christianity’ or ‘Old Testament Christianity’, including patriotism. The chapter further situates Hebraism within the analysis of the axial age. In doing so, the distinctiveness of religion is taken up, as well as the place of pluralism in cultural history that requires the distinction between unity and uniformity. The chapter also discusses the place of sovereignty in Hebraic culture.
Educational Inequality Regimes amid Algebra-for-All: The Provision and Allocation of Expanding Educational Opportunities
Authors: Hanselman Paul , Domina Thurston , Hwang NaYoung
Published: April 2021

Schools can approach the task of sorting students to privileged learning opportunities in different ways, potentially creating distinct and durable educational inequality regimes. We test this idea by exploring variation in socioeconomic inequalities in advanced mathematics course-taking across California middle schools during a statewide algebra-for-all initiative. This case provides unique insight into local stratification processes since the state pressured schools to boost advanced course enrollments but provided little guidance about how to do so. We distinguish two critical organizational processes: the provision of different types of opportunities and the allocation of students to opportunities. The former, we argue, creates the potential for inequality; the latter determines what level of inequality is realized. Using panel data for all public middle schools in the state over a decade, we demonstrate a curvilinear association between opportunities and inequality, with disparities highest when opportunities are most differentiated. However, allocations at most schools were less unequal than would be expected under a test-based meritocratic allocation regime. Further, we find substantial school-level variation which is systematically related to organizational characteristics and consistent over time. These patterns provide evidence for local educational inequality regimes.
The Distribution of Fusarium graminearum and Fusarium asiaticum Causing Fusarium Head Blight of Wheat in Relation to Climate and Cropping System
Authors: Xu Fei , Liu Wei , Song Yuli , Zhou Yilin , Xu Xiangming , Yang Gongqiang , Wang Junmei , Zhang Jiaojiao , Liu Lulu
Published: April 2021

In the main wheat production area of China (the Huang Huai Plain [HHP]), both Fusarium graminearum and Fusarium asiaticum, the causal agents of Fusarium head blight (FHB), are present. We investigated whether the relative prevalence of F. graminearum and F. asiaticum is related to cropping systems and/or climate factors. A total of 1,844 Fusarium isolates were obtained from 103 fields of two cropping systems: maize–wheat and rice–wheat rotations. To maximize the differences in climatic conditions, isolates were sampled from the north and south HHP regions. Based on the phylogenetic analysis of EF-1α and Tri101 sequences, 1,207 of the 1,844 isolates belonged to F. graminearum, and the remaining 637 isolates belonged to F. asiaticum. The former was predominant in the northern region: 1,022 of the 1,078 Fusarium isolates in the north were F. graminearum. The latter was predominant in the southern region: 581 of the 766 Fusarium isolates belonged to F. asiaticum. Using an analysis based on generalized linear modeling, the relative prevalence of the two species was associated more with climatic conditions than with the cropping system. F. graminearum was associated with drier conditions and cooler conditions during the winter but also with warmer conditions in the infection and grain-colonization period as well as with maize–wheat rotation. The opposite was true for F. asiaticum. Except for the 15-acetyldeoxynvalenol genotype, the trichothecene chemotype composition of F. asiaticum differed between the two cropping systems. The 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol genotype was more prevalent in the maize–wheat rotation, whereas the nivalenol genotype was more prevalent in the rice–wheat rotation. The results also suggested that environmental conditions in the overwintering period appeared to be more important than those in the infection, grain-colonization, and preanthesis sporulation periods in affecting the relative prevalence of F. graminearum and F. asiaticum. More research is needed to study the effect of overwintering conditions on subsequent epidemic in the following spring.
Diagnostic Kompetitive Allele-Specific PCR Markers of Wheat Broad-Spectrum Powdery Mildew Resistance Genes Pm21, PmV, and Pm12 Developed for High-Throughput Marker-Assisted Selection
Authors: Zhang Xu , Wang Wenrui , Liu Cheng , Zhu Shanying , Gao Huiming , Xu Hongxing , Zhang Lipei , Song Jiancheng , Song Wenyue , Liu Kaichang , He Huagang , Ma Pengtao
Published: April 2021

Wheat powdery mildew is a devastating disease that seriously threatens yield worldwide. Utilization of host resistance is considered an effective strategy to minimize powdery mildew damage. Pm21, PmV, and Pm12 confer broad-spectrum resistance to wheat powdery mildew in China, of which Pm21 and PmV are allelic genes derived from the 6VS chromosome of Dasypyrum villosum, and Pm12 is derived from the 6SS chromosome of Aegilops speltoides and most likely orthologous to the former two genes. To accurately and efficiently transfer and pyramid these genes using marker-assisted selection (MAS), distinctive single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) among the exon sequences of Pm21, PmV, and Pm12 and their homologous sequences in the common wheat genome were identified and then used for developing diagnostic Kompetitive Allele-Specific PCR (KASP) markers. The markers were validated in different genotypes including transgenic vectors, transgenic lines, translocation lines, resistance stocks with documented Pm genes, and in multiple susceptible cultivars without Pm genes. As a result, we initially developed a KASP marker that can simultaneously diagnose Pm21, Pm12, and PmV. Subsequently, we obtained a highly diagnostic KASP marker for each of the three genes that could distinguish among the three genes and also accurately distinguish them from other resistant stocks with documented Pm genes and from multiple susceptible genotypes. Compared with previously reported markers, the highly diagnostic KASP markers developed in this study have the advantages of low cost, easy assay, accuracy, and potentially high throughput for MAS.