bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Family, the Workplace, and Work Technology
Authors: CARTER VALERIE J.
Published: March 2007

This study argues that job and workplace characteristics, in addition to individual and household characteristics, are important predictors of class identity among women office workers. This expands on earlier research findings on the importance of women's own socioeconomic status (SES) characteristics as predictors of class identity. The author also addresses whether class identity is related to (a) “proletarianized” working conditions, (b) office automation, and (c) organizational context. The results show that both intrinsic job rewards and work autonomy are associated with a more middle-class identity. Although greater use of video display terminals is linked with a more working-class identity, office workers in small office settings become more middle class in their identity the longer the office has been automated. This suggests that organizational context may mediate the relationship between automation and class identity.
Race and Unemployment: Labor Market Experiences of Black and White Men, 1968-1988
Authors: WILSON FRANKLIN D. , TIENDA MARTA , WU LAWRENCE
Published: March 2007

This article addresses two questions: First, why is Black unemployment persistently higher than White unemployment? Second, how can this fact be reconciled with narrowing Black/White differentials in educational attainment, occupational position, and earnings? We show that the persistent racial gap in unemployment is due to differential access to employment opportunities by region, occupational placement, labor market segmentation by race, and labor market discrimination. Our findings showing that the racial gap in unemployment is greatest for college-educated men and are consistent with the view that Blacks still encounter barriers to employment in the labor market.
A Micromechanical Prediction of Elastic Properties of Composites with Spherical Particles
Authors: Lindeman Zdzislaw R. , Witemberg-Perzyk Danuta , Perzyk Marcin A.
Published: March 2007

A corrected solution of the stress and strain distribution problem around a single spherical elastic inclusion in an elastic body is presented. Subsequent ly, by an appropriate selection of boundary conditions and elastic energy balance equations, the stress and strain distribution in a composite material, consisting of a matrix and regularly arranged spherical particles, is approx imated. In the result the Young's modulus and the Poisson's ratio of the composite considered as a continuous medium is obtained. These values are presented graphically as a function of the elastic properties and concentra tions of both components. A partial experimental verification of the theoretical calculations, based on some published experimental results of other authors as well as experiments performed especially for this purpose, has been carried out. A good agreement with the presented theory has been achieved.
Structural Integrity Studies in Particulate Composites by Means of Thermal Capacity Measurements
Authors: Theocaris P.S. , Papanicolaou G.C. , Sideridis E.P.
Published: March 2007

Glass-transition temperatures Tg for iron-epoxy composites were deter mined from heat-capacity measurements. The effect of several parameters, such as the heating rate, the filler-volume fraction and the particle diameter on Tg was investigated and conclusions concerning the thickness of the boun dary interphase were derived. Tg-values obtained from TMA-measurements were compared to the respective values obtained from DSC-measurements.
A Double Cantilever Beam Test for Characterizing Mode I Delamination of Composite Materials
Authors: Whitney J.M. , Browning C.E. , Hoogsteden W.
Published: March 2007

The double cantilever beam test is examined as a candidate for measuring in terlaminar fracture resistance as related to normal stress induced delamina tion. A number of approaches to data reduction schemes used in conjunction with this test method for determining critical strain energy release rate are discussed. Experimental data on unidirectional tape and bidirectional cloth graphite fiber reinforced polymeric matrix composites are compared to assess the potential of the double cantilever beam test as a materials screening tool. Matrix materials of varying inherent toughness were chosen for comparative purposes. Center notch data for 90-degree unidirectional graphite-epoxy composites were also obtained as a basis for test method comparison.
Effects of Temperature and Moisture on Sheet Molding Compounds
Authors: Springer George S.
Published: March 2007

A summary is given on the effects of moisture and temperature on the properties of chopped fiber reinforced sheet molding compounds. The properties surveyed include tensile strength and modulus, compression strength and modulus, shear strength and modulus, flexural strength and modulus, fatigue, creep, vibration damping, moisture absorption characteristics, and thermal expansion.
Experimental Estimation of Saint-Venant's End Effects for Cruciform Fabric Specimens
Authors: Stubbs Norris
Published: March 2007

A method of experimentally estimating the applicability of Saint-Venant's principle to a class of materials and a specific biaxial testing arrangement is proposed. A theory of the method is presented and is then utilized to estimate the true values of stresses at the center of a biaxially-loaded, vinyl-coated, polyester reinforced, cruciform fabric specimen.
Deterioration in Compressive Performance of a Graphite/Epoxy Laminate as a Consequence of Environmental Exposure and Fatigue Loading
Authors: Mohlin T.
Published: March 2007

The primary object of this study was to investigate the influence of the environment on the mechanical and fatigue properties of a notched (hole) graphite/epoxy laminate. Static compression strength and residual compression strength after fatigue loading have been measured at different temperatures and different moisture contents.
Acoustic Emission Monitoring of Damage Progression in Graphite/Epoxy Laminates
Authors: Shippen Norris C. , Adams Donald F.
Published: March 2007

The use of an acoustic emission system to conduct a test program involving five dif ferent graphite/epoxy laminates is presented. The system includes count-rate and amplitude distribution capabilities, which are interfaced with a computer-based data acquisition system.
Crack Propagation and Bifurcation in Fiber-Composite Models: I. Soft-Hard-Soft Sequence of Phases
Authors: Theocaris P.S. , Siarova M. , Papadopoulos G.A.
Published: March 2007

The influence of the hard fiber and the mesophase layers in a soft-hard-soft com bination of a biphase plate subjected to a dynamic tensile load, on the fracture mode and bifurcation process in both phases was investigated. It was assumed that the soft matrix envelops the hard-fiber layer of the plate, so that this plate constitutes a merid ianal section of a representative volume element of a unidirectional fiber com posite.
Mode II Interlaminar Fracture of Graphite/Epoxy and Graphite/PEEK
Authors: Carlsson L.A. , Gillespie J.W. , Trethewey B.R.
Published: March 2007

The end notched flexure (ENF) specimen is employed in an investigation of the in terlaminar fracture toughness in Mode II (skew symmetric shear) loading of unidirectional graphite/epoxy and graphite/PEEK composites. Important experimental parameters such as the influence of precracking and the data reduction scheme for the Mode II toughness are discussed. Nonlinear load-deflection response is significant for the tough thermo plastic resin composite but is also present for the brittle thermoset composite. The ob served nonlinearities, which are highly rate dependent, are attributed to a combination of slow stable crack growth preceding unstable crack growth and material inelastic behavior in the process zone around the crack tip.
Stress Analysis of Wooden Structures Exposed to Elevated Temperatures
Authors: Chang Fu-Kuo
Published: March 2007

An analytical method is presented for calculating stresses and strains inside wooden structures exposed to elevated temperature. The method combines stress analysis of elasticity with thermal analysis of heat transfer and property degradation models. Finite element methods were used for the analyses. Numerical results were generated for two different types of wooden structures made of Southern Pine. Stresses and deformations were calculated for the structures exposed to different environmental loading conditions. It was found that, based on the proposed analysis, the order of thermal and mechanical loading sequence had no effect on resulting stress distributions inside the wooden struc tures.
Fracture Studies of Discontinuous Fiber Reinforced Thermoplastic Composites
Authors: Crosby J.M. , Drye T.R.
Published: March 2007

The strength and toughness of discontinuous fiber reinforced composites were evaluated as a function of fiber length, fiber type, fiber volume and resin-fiber adhesion. Glass, car bon and aramid fiber reinforced nylon 6/6 composites, prepared by both extrusion com pounding and long fiber pultrusion techniques, were injection molded and characterized in tensile, Izod impact, and instrumented falling dart impact testing.
Tubular Composite Compression Members-Design Considerations and Practices
Authors: Maass David P.
Published: March 2007

Tubular structures made from advanced composites offer the potential to achieve a greater portion of the theoretical weight savings offered by these materials than more com plex structures. Simple loaded paths, optimum structural geometry, and the absence of ex tensive fastening requirements implies that the weight savings achievable approaches the limit of the appropriate material parameter. In this paper, design and manufacturing con siderations are presented for a specific loading, axial compression, which is of broad general application. Procedures for selecting the optimum material, laminate configura tion, and tube dimensions are presented for three design situations—unconstrained, wall thickness constraint, and diameter constraint. It is seen that the nature of the constraint determines the design configuration and material selection. A brief discussion of methods of attachment is then presented. The advantages of several alternate manufacturing methods are compared for the specific requirements of this application. Weight savings of 40-60 % are achievable over comparable aluminum structures.
Evaluation of Interfacial Grafting Between Matrix and Gel Inclusions in High Impact Polystyrene
Authors: Theocaris P.S. , Kefalas V. , Spathis G.
Published: March 2007

The interfacial grafting between the glassy polystyrene matrix and the rubber-like par ticle phase (gel phase) of High Impact Polystyrene (HIPS) is known to be important to the fracture toughness of the material [1].

A simple quantitative model is developed to determine interfacial grafting from the observed shifts between the glass transition temperature of pure matrix polystyrene and three commercial types of HIPS.
Transient Response of a Pultruded Fiber-Reinforced Plastic Rod Subject to Impact Loading
Authors: Jenq S.T. , Fan J.W.
Published: March 2007

This work is concentrated on investigating the transient response of a pul truded fiber-reinforced plastic rod subject to impact loading. Both impact tests and corre sponding numerical simulation are performed. The target rod made of S-glass/epoxy, with a diameter of 9.7 mm, is clamped on one end. The other end of this rod is struck by a cy lindrical flat-ended steel rod weighing 16 gm. The diameter of the impactor is equivalent to the target rod. A pneumatic gun is utilized to launch the impactor with a velocity up to 60 m/s. The dynamic response of the composite rod is detected by using a pair of strain gages (TML, type FLK-6-11, 120 Ω) and associated facilities. A digital oscilloscope (Nico let 4094C) is used here to record transient signals. Several tests have been conducted in order to obtain the longitudinal waveform of the composite rod due to impact loading. Corresponding numerical simulation based on explicit Lagrangian finite element method is also performed to check against experimental observation. This code is capable of han dling the orthotropic constitutive relationship, large displacement mechanism, and also the lateral effect. Numerical results show that the pulse duration agrees well with test findings. However, the computed peak longitudinal strain is greater than that of the test result. This discrepancy is due to employing the static mechanical properties in numerical analysis. It is found that the computed peak longitudinal response agrees more closely with the test result when corresponding mechanical properties, such as Young's modulus, are increased. This increment is expected for composite material under high strain rate loading.
On the Increase in Fracture Energy with Thickness in Delamination of Unidirectional Glass Fibre-Epoxy with Cut Central Plies
Authors: Wisnom Michael R.
Published: March 2007

The effect of thickness on delamination is investigated by means of static tension tests on unidirectional glass fibre-epoxy specimens with cut central plies. It is found that the delamination stress decreases with increasing thickness, but by significantly less than predicted on the basis of classical fracture mechanics. This indicates that the fracture energy is not constant and therefore cannot be considered to be a material prop erty. Tests on specimens with 8 cut and 32 continuous plies showed an increase of 69% in the fracture energy compared with specimens with 1 cut and 4 continuous plies. Tests on specimens with different ratios of cut to continuous plies suggest that it is the number of cut plies and the magnitude of the applied stress which influence the fracture energy. It is postulated that the fracture energy is a function of the size of a plastic zone which is dependent on the specimen geometry and applied stress. Caution therefore needs to be exercised in using values of fracture energy in situations different from the ones under which they were measured.
Geometrically Non-Linear Analysis of Doubly Curved Laminated and Sandwich Fibre Reinforced Composite Shells with a Higher Order Theory and C° Finite Elements
Authors: Kant T. , Kommineni J.R.
Published: March 2007

An isoparametric C° finite element formulation based on a higher order displacement model for linear and geometrically non-linear analysis (that accounts for large displacements in the sense of von Karman) of doubly curved laminated composite and sandwich shells under transverse loads is presented. The displacement model ac counts for cubic and constant variation of tangential and transverse displacement compo nents respectively through the shell thickness. The assumed displacement model elimi nates the use of shear correction coefficients. The discrete element chosen is a nine-noded quadrilateral element with nine degrees of freedom per node. The accuracy of the for mulation is then established by comparing the present results with the available analytical closed-form solutions, three-dimensional elasticity solutions and other finite element solu tions.
Thermoelastic Damping of a Laminated Beam in Flexure and Extension
Authors: Bishop J.E. , Kinra V.K.
Published: March 2007

In a classic paper, Clarence Zener [1] considered transverse vibrations of an isotropic, homogenous, thermoelastic beam. He observed that the tensile side of such a vibrating beam cools while the compressional side heats up, resulting in irreversible heat transfer. This observation led him to predict the existence of thermoelastic damping. Pas sive damping is a critically important property from the viewpoint of vibration suppres sion in large, flexible space structures. Unfortunately, Zener's model cannot be extended to calculate damping in heterogeneous materials; therefore, in this article a more funda mental approach is taken. The Second Law of Thermodynamics is taken as the starting point, and the thermoelastic damping is calculated from the entropy created by the irre versible heat transfer in the medium. As a first step toward constructing a general theory for thermoelastic damping in composite materials, we solve the problem of a three-layer beam subjected to uniaxial tension and pure flexure.
Sensitivity Analysis of Delamination Characterization in Composite Tapered Beams
Authors: King Y.F. , Chan W.S.
Published: March 2007

A composite tapered beam consisting of a S2/SP250 glass/epoxy laminate with (02, ±453)s in the thick section and (02, ±452) s in the thin section is investigated for sensitivity of the interlaminar normal stress and total strain energy release rate at free edge due to variations of taper angle as well as ply angle. Explicit equations of sensitivity analy sis for the tapered beam under both tension and bending are formulated. It is found that variation of σz is more sensitive at the taper root for a given change in the taper angle than at the other locations. However, variation of GT is less sensitive. The variation of σz is less sensitive as the taper angle decreases. For sensitivity due to ply angle variation, it is observed that the outer 0° ply is more sensitive in σz and GT variations than are any other plies. Sensitivity of σ z and GT for the tapered beam under a constant curvature was also investigated. Similar trends of sensitivity in these quantities are observed as for the case in tension. However, the degree of sensitivity due to bending is much less.
Compressive Strength of Axially Loaded Composite Cylinders
Authors: Kollar László P. , Springer George S. , Spingarn Jay , Mccolskey J. David
Published: March 2007

Tests were performed to measure the failure loads of axially compressed glass-fiber-reinforced and graphite-fiber-reinforced composite cylinders. The data were compared with the results of a previous model, which was based on a three-dimensional stress analysis and the Tsai-Wu quadratic first-ply failure criterion. This model predicted the failure loads for glass-fiber-reinforced composites with good accuracy, but less accu rately for failure loads of graphite-epoxy composites.
Mechanical Properties of Warp-Knitted, Fabric-Reinforced Composites
Authors: Wu Wei-Liang , Kotaki Masaya , Fujita Akihiro , Hamada Hiroyuki , Inoda Miyako , Maekawa Zen-Ichiro
Published: March 2007

A study of the mechanical properties of basic warp-knitted, fabric-rein forced composites is presented. Three basic knitted structures have been adopted. It is found that knitted structures greatly affect the in-plane anisotropic nature, tensile strength, and modulus of warp-knitted, fabric-reinforced composites. The density of the knitted structure, which influences the tensile properties has also been taken into account. From the observation of fracture surface, two fracture modes are suggested: fracture that occurs at the extreme low volume fraction region in the course direction, and fracture that occurs due to stress concentration at the loop interlocking region in the wale direction
An Interlaminar Bonding Theory for Delamination and Nonrigid Interface Analysis
Authors: Liu Dahsin , Lan Xu  , Xianqiang Lu
Published: March 2007

This study presents a theory for investigating composite laminates with delamination or nonrigid interfaces. It is extended from a previous study, the so-called Interlayer Shear Slip Theory (ISST), in examining composite laminates with shear slip in terfaces. The ISST consists of the Interlaminar Shear Stress Continuity Theory (ISSCT) and a shear slip theory. It has been proved to be feasible for studying composite laminates with shearing-mode (mode II and mode III) fractures. Based on a previous study on the Interlaminar Stresses Continuity Theory (ISCT), the present study adds both shear slip and normal separation to the composite interfaces. It then is useful for studying open- mode (mode I) and mixed-mode fracture problems.
Utilization of PVDF Sensors to Determine Impact Damage in Graphite/Epoxy Plates by Acousto-Ultrasonic Technique
Authors: Smith I.C. , Hoa S.V.
Published: March 2007

The scope of this study into the use of metallized polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) foil sensors in the detection of impact damage of graphite/epoxy plates is twofold. First, it establishes that low energy impact damage, undetectable through visual examination and ultrasonic C-scan, can be detected through the acousto-ultrasonic (AU) technique. Secondly, it assesses the utility of PVDF sensors in obtaining AU signals. The AU approach to verification of material integrity is based on the premise that structural flaws will cause a greater attenuation of the ultrasonic pulse when compared to the attenuation of the signal through unflawed material. Through AU technique, material structural integrity can be determined by comparative means. Graphite/epoxy test plates were ultrasonically C-scanned, the PVDF sensors were adhesively bonded to the test plates and used to evaluate the structural integrity prior to impact testing. The plates were then subjected to impact and subsequently ultrasonically C-scanned to determine signal attenuation due to impact damage. Pattern classification was used to correlate impact damage with waveform changes and investigate waveform pattern repeatability. Acoustic signal characterization was accomplished using ICEPAK software.
Structure and Thermo-Elastic Properties of SMC
Authors: Kabelka J. , Ehrenstein G.W.
Published: March 2007

A calculation process was developed to determine the whole set (in-plane as well as in the cross direction) of thermo-elastic properties of SMC materials on the basis of known properties of components. A typical feature of SMC structure (that the ma jority of reinforcing fibres remain collected in bundles acting as a sieve during the wetting process) is discussed. SMC-composite is held for a transverse isotropic material and is modeled by a symmetric three-layer composite with the centre layer consisting of plane isotropically reinforced fibre composite and the border layers represented by the isotropic particulate composite. The classical laminate theory is used to find the effective deforma tion characteristics of SMC.

The properties of the centre layer are expressed in terms of a UD composite. The Kerner-Hashin theory has been proven satisfactory for prediction of particle composite properties in the case when the particle form doesn't differ too much from the spherical one (e.g., the case of a CaCO3 filler). The application of the Lewis-Nielsen theory allows a good agreement between theoretical and experimental values when platelet particle form must be considered (the case of a kaolin filler). An application of a low-profile additive reduces the stiffness of the resin and enhances its thermal expansion. This effect was found especially significant at higher temperatures and could not be described by means of a mechanical model only.
Enhancement of Ultrasonic Images of Defects in 3-D Composite
Authors: Long Edward R.
Published: March 2007

Image enhancement and analysis methods are applied to ultrasonic C-scans of stitched, resin transferred molded 3-D composites to make their quality for visual determination of the amount of porosity defect equal to that for 2-D composites con ventionally fabricated from prepreg. The application of these methods is necessary because the 3-D reinforcing fiber architecture, along which the porosity tends to form dur ing fabrication, is also imaged in the ultrasonic c-scans, thus severely limiting the visual determination of the amount of porosity present. Comparisons are made of the C-scan im ages of a stitched panel before and after the application of image enhancement and analysis methods to demonstrate the value of the methods. The importance of the number of shades of gray in the image for visual interpretation of defects and for the application of the enhancement methods is also discussed.
Development of a Novel Lower Limb Prosthesis Using Low Cost Composite Materials
Authors: Bartkus Eric K. , Colvin James M. , Arbogast Robert E.
Published: March 2007

The increased use of graphite-reinforced advanced composites in pros thetics has increased both function and comfort for the amputee. However, lower income or less active amputees now have a more limited choice of affordable products. A new below-knee prosthetic system has been developed which utilizes low cost fiber-reinforced composite materials and innovative alignment methods to provide a comfortable and durable limb at an economical cost. A key to the design of the new limb is the use of high strength, long fatigue life fiber-reinforced sheet molding compounds (SMC) and high strength, low cost pultruded components.
3D Thermostructural Response in Thick Laminated Composites: A Finite Element Approach
Authors: Mukherjee Nilanjan , Sinha P.K.
Published: March 2007

The dynamic thermostructural response problem in thick laminated com posites is investigated employing a 3D Galerkin finite element technique. A quadratic brick based isoparametric element is designed to discretize the thermal and structural fields. The thermal model includes all modes of heat transfer, namely, conduction, convec tion and radiation. The model also incorporates external flux and internal heat generation sources. The transient dynamic thermostructural problem is solved using implicit time in tegration schemes. A 3D layered material model is proposed where the thermoclastic properties of the laminate are evaluated from those of the constituent fiber and matrix. In the example analysis, the effects of a complex thermal environment are studied on several thermostructural parameters for a host of metal matrix composites.
Analytical and Experimental Investigations of Prestressed Laminated Composite Beams with Constrained Viscoelastic Damping Layer
Authors: Rao V.S. , Sankar B.V. , Sun C.T. , Gibson R.F. , Mantena P.R.
Published: March 2007

The damping characteristics of prestressed composite beams with con strained viscoelastic damping layers on one surface of the beam are investigated both ana lytically and experimentally. The analytical method involves derivation of finite element equations for the analysis of beam and plate structural elements with continuous or discon tinuous constrained viscoelastic damping layer with prestress. The experimental method is an impulse-frequency response technique which is used on preloaded laminated beams. Results for loss factors and natural frequencies of [90/90/0/90/90] and [903/03/90 3]s T300/934 graphite-epoxy laminated beams with a 3M SJ-2052X constrained viscoelastic tape attached on one surface are presented. Numerical results based on the finite element prediction agree reasonably well with the experimental results under different tensile and compressive preloads.
Multidimensional Assessment of the Elderly Client: A Training Program for the Development of a New Specialist
Authors: Janik Stephen W. , Wells Karen S.
Published: March 2007

It is generally recognized that aging-services workers must deal with a variety of providers to serve an elderly clientele, but integration of evaluation and assessment techniques with appropriate referral and placement skills has been limited. A train ing series on geriatric clinical evaluation was designed, completed, and evaluated in terms of participants' abilities to deal with elderly clients from a multidisciplinary perspective. Trainees and controls (matched by agency) were observed in a field situation and rated on an 87-item checklist of behaviors associated with a multidimensional assessment approach. In an assessment of service strategies, trainees were found to be significantly more likely to reflect a multidimensional service orientation than controls in striving to maintain clients in a situation of maximum independence. The results suggest that geriatric clinical evaluation training provides an excellent and cost-effective approach to the development of new professionals and paraprofessionals who are sensitive to the full range of the needs of the elderly client and who are able to make best use of the range of services available. The training also provides the opportunity for experienced staff members to upgrade their knowledge and skills relevant to the elderly client population.
Differences Between Elderly Public Housing Tenants and Community Residents: A Case-Control Study
Authors: Weinberger Morris , Darnell Jeffrey C. , Martz B.L. , Hiner Sharon L. , Tierney William M.
Published: March 2007

Recent gerontological research has begun to focus on elderly public housing tenants, a large group at increased risk for adverse health outcomes. We identified a cohort of functionally independent tenants and selected age-race-sex matched controls who reside in the community. Generally, the two cohorts were comparable in their self-reported physical and mental health status. However, tenants had a significantly higher hospital admission rate, with almost half of the tenants hospitalized during a 1-year period. Despite tenants having significantly weaker social support systems, social support was not associated with hospital admissions. Extraordinarily high hospital admission rates indicate the needfor interventions in this patient population, and tenants' location in a single site enhances the opportunity for intervention.
The Role of the Church in Providing Services for the Aging
Authors: Sheehan Nancy W. , Wilson Richard , Marella Lisa M.
Published: March 2007

We examined the responsiveness of churches and synagogues to the aging of their members. Employing a sample of 212 churches and synagogues, we described the availability of church-based aging programs, factors related to their development, linkages between churches and community agencies, and the clergy's perception of unmet needs among older persons. Overall, churches that offered more church-based aging programs were those that envisioned their role as encompassing the social needs of members. The percentage of older persons in the congregation was unrelated to the number of programs for the aging. We discuss the implications for education and program planning.
Minority Caregivers of Dementia Victims: A Comparison of Black and Hispanic Families
Authors: Cox Carole , Monk Abraham
Published: March 2007

The experiences of 31 Black and 19 Hispanic families caring for dementia victims at home were examined through data collected in two interviews six months apart. Caregivers'health status, mental well-being, attitudes towards caregiving, and use of informal and formal supports were measured. Data were also collected on the patient's degree of mental and physical impairment. The findings indicate that both groups maintain strong feelings of filial support for the aged and have actively involved informal support networks. Formal services are also used, although the attitudes towards them and the factors related to their use varied between the Black and Hispanic respondents. For both groups, the increased use of formal services at the second interview was related to a decrease in informal supports. Health of the caregivers did not appear to be affected although the Hispanics gave evidence of depression. The article discusses implications of these findings.
Respite Service to Family Caregivers by the Senior Companion Program: An Urban-Rural Comparison
Authors: Lee Che-Fu , Gray Lois C.
Published: March 2007

The Senior Companion Program (SCP), a federally sponsored progrant, aims to enlist older volunteers to provide in-home services to the homebound elderly. A survey of 48 sample SCP projects providing family caregiver services reveals a distinctly different trajectory of urban and rural project development. In both environments, the longer a project has been in existence, the greater the number of volunteers in service. However, the number of clients served increases for urban projects, but not for rural projects. Relatedly, the unmet need for family care giver services, the number of referrals unserved by the project, is considerably greater in rural areas. These results suggest that because offactors unique to rural areas, the expansion of clientele may be more restricted in ruml settings compared to that in urban settings, thereby implying that rural-urban differences should be reflected in project planning and implementation.
Poverty Among Rural Elders: Trends, Context, and Directions for Policy
Authors: Glasgow Nina
Published: March 2007

Despite the improvedfortunes of the elderly in general, rural elders continue to face substantial economic hardships. In 1990, 16.1% of nonmetropolitan elders were poor compared with 10.8% of their metropolitan counterparts. This article develops a conceptualframework to analyze the higher than average poverty rates experienced by this group. Understanding the causes of poverty among the rural elderly requires a different conceptual framework than that used to explain poverty among working aged persons. Poverty among rural elders represents the accumulated effects of life experiences in environments of relative economic deprivation and of life course transitions, such as widowhood, that have exposed them to elevated risks of poverty. The effect of community of residence on rural elders' economic well-being is more likely to be through the public sector than through the local economy, as would be the case for younger poor people. A multilevel approach that emphasizes the life course and public sector capacity in the present area of residence is required to understand rural older people's disadvantaged position in U.S. society.
Nonmetropolitan Elderly Women: A Portrait of Economic Vulnerability
Authors: McLaughlin Diane K. , Holden Karen C.
Published: March 2007

Women are a majority of elders in America, and they face a greater risk of being poor. This article examines the poverty status of elders, paying special attention to the circumstances of elderly women in nonmetropolitan areas. The oldest women, minorities, divorced or separated women, and widows are particularly likely to be or become poor in old age in both metropolitan and nonmetropolitan areas. Nonmetropolitan women, however, report higher poverty rates and have lower incomes, placing them at greater risk offalling into poverty should unexpected events occur. By examining various levels and sources of income available to metropolitan and nonmetropolitan women the authors found that nonmetropolitan women have lower wage and salary income, receive less Social Security, and have lower total own income than do metropolitan women. It is suggested that higher poverty incidence among nonmetropolitan than among metropolitan women is linked to a legacy of poorer economic opportunities in nonmetropolitan areas as well as to the apparently greater costs for women of expenencing nontraditional life cycle patterns (e.g., divorce or separation) in nonmetropolitan areas.
Social Isolation and Social Support: An Applied Perspective
Authors: Rubinstein Robert L. , Lubben James E. , Mintzer Jacobo E.
Published: March 2007

Considerable empirical evidence substantiates the importance of social networks and support to health and well-being among the elderly. But considerably more research is necessary before successful interventions can be more generally implemented to positively alter an elder's network. In this article, the authors discuss social supportand isolationfrom an appliedperspective. They have combined presentations originally made at a National Institute on Aging-sponsored symposium on applied gerontology held in August 1992. They make some general observations concerning the field of applied social relations in later life, describe the mental health aspects of these relations, list some fundamental principles and existing technology for this field, describe the use of a brief screening instrument for social isolation developed by one of the authors (Lubben), and explore varying domains of knowledge concerning elder soical relations. They conclude by outlining some areas that they see as requiring the attention of an applications perspective to social support and isolation m the near future.
Impact of Proxy-Reported Data on the Relationship Between Income and Severity of Functional Impairment Among Impaired Elderly
Authors: Semaan Salaam
Published: March 2007

This cross-sectional study examined whether the relationship between income and severity of functional impairment in basic activities of daily living was influenced by source of data (self vs. proxy respondent). The relationship was examined in a national sample of community-resident functionally impaired elderly with 29% of data provided by proxy respondents (n = 3,649). The data source was the 1982 National Long-Term Care Survey (NLTCS). The analysis was carried out among self-respondents, among elderly who had proxy respondents, and in the combined data set. Multivariate results provided strong support for the conclusion that data provided by proxy respondents did not bias the relationship under investigation in this study sample. Results of the study are only generalizable to community-resident functionally impaired elderly and as reflected by the NLTCS definition of functional impairment. Implications of this analysis for use of proxy respondents in the elderly population are discussed.
Discharge Planning Decision Making by Hospitalized Patients
Authors: Weaver Frances M. , Ross Caroline K. , Chapman Gretchen , O'Brien Maureen , Elstein Arthur S.
Published: March 2007

Although studies have examined decision making in discharge planning, few have studied the decision-making process from the patient's perspective. Using structured cases, this pilot study examined patients'decisions fordischarge planning. Four variables were manipulated to create 24 unique cases. These variables included patient living situation, personal assistance needs, home assistance needs, and complexity of medication regime. Respondents rank ordered the appropriateness of four discharge options (i.e., outpatient clinic, housekeeping/chore, home health nursing, and nursing home care) for each case. Eighty chronically ill hospitalized patients from two VA hospitals served as subjects. Patient living arrangement, home assistance needs, and personal assistance needs had strong relationships with the perceived appropriateness of outpatient and nursing home care. When patient status was good, nursing home care was clearly an inappropriate solution from the patients' perspective. Outpatient care was ranked as less appropriate when patient status deteriorated. The only significant association with home health care was personal assistance needs. Medication complexity had no significant association with the four discharge options.
Frailty and Mortality Among the Elderly
Authors: Macey Susan M. , Schneider Dona F.
Published: March 2007

Society's image offrailty in old age may be characterized as one of a poor, wizened, old woman, wasting away from neglect until her heart finally stops. This article seeks to develop a more scientific profile of the "frail" elderly by examining mortality records of those deaths listed under International Classification of Diseases Ninth Revision code, E-904, distinguishing deaths due to neglect, lack offood or water, exposure, and privation, for the period from 1979 to 1985. Approximately 200 deaths for people over 60 years old were listed under this code annually. An analysis of the demographic and locational characteristics of these decedents yielded two distinct profiles. Hunger decedents were older, White, and female, fitting the frail elderly stereotype. Exposure decedents were younger, male, and more likely to be nonmetropolitan or minority elderly. Strategies to reach these two groups are discussed.
Family Care of Alzheimer's Patients: The Role of Gender and Generational Relationship on Caregiver Outcomes
Authors: Barber Clifton E. , Pasley B. Kay
Published: March 2007

In this study of 262 individuals caring for victims of Alzheimer's disease, the time-invariant factors of caregiver gender and generational relationship were analyzed for their negative impacts on caregiving. Caregiving impacts included strain in family relationships, restrictions in social activity, and decline in health. Results indicate that the impacts of caregiving are not distributed uniformly among caregivers but vary according to both caregiver gender and the generational relationship between the caregiver and the care recipient. Caregiver gender influences strain in family relationships and decline in caregiver health; generational relationship affects restrictions in caregiver social activity. To a lesser extent, caregiving involvement is affected by both gender and generational relationship.
Implications of Retirement Development in High-Amenity Nonmetropolitan Coastal Areas
Authors: Gordon Bennett D.
Published: March 2007

Retirement migration has been well documented over the past 2 decades. Initially, there were many reservations expressed about the economic impact of retirees on receiving communities; however, several recent studies have documented a positive financial benefit of retirement migration for the destination areas. Although acknowledging the economic benefit of retirees on receiving communities, this article addresses the broader implications of the retirement boom on sparsely populated, nonmetropolitan coastal counties. The relationship between this aspect of economic development and the rise of the tourist industry in these areas is also examined. Other issues investigated include infrastructure requirements; environmental concerns; medical facilities and personnel, and rising taxes, utilities, and other costs.
The Transition Away from Traditional Incarceration: Community-Based Corrections
Authors: Alonzo Thomas M.
Published: March 2007

In the search for alternatives to traditional correctional efforts, community based corrections has emerged. Through a review of the literature, this paper examines what community-based corrections means today, why it has become increasingly popular and its future implications.
Stress Prevention and Alleviation Strategies for the Police
Authors: Webb Stephen D. , Smith David L.
Published: March 2007

While the available evidence suggests that at least some aspects of police work are stressful, our knowledge of the causes and consequences of that stress is based largely on conjecture. Stress research is exceedingly complex. After literally hundreds of studies on various facets of occupational stress, the results remain ambivalent and our knowledge meagre. Given that stress research is still in an exploratory stage, it is argued that the immediate attention of occupational stress studies among the police should focus on treatment and prevention strategies rather than on the sources or consequences of stress.

Toward this end, this paper reviews a wide variety of programs aimed at preventing or alleviating police stress. The proposed strategies are classified here as either proactive or reactive. Proactive strategies are meant to prevent the development of stress through training and selection programs, better selection criteria, and a variety of administrative methods. The reactive strategies, such as counseling or rehabilitation programs, are aimed at alleviating the consequences of stress. Other direct relaxation techniques, e.g., biofeedback and meditation, are also reviewed along with the issue of disability compensation for stress related illnesses.
Mandatory Arrest for Domestic Violence: The Courts' Response
Authors: Martin Margaret E.
Published: March 2007

Few domestic violence offenders are prosecuted for their crimes, but it is not known which offenders are most likely to receive this most serious treatment. This study examines the nature of prosecution within a state that employs a mandatory arrest policy. A population of 448 cases of intimate family violence was examined using court and police records. Only 14 percent of the offenders were found to have been prosecuted and convicted. The legal characteristics of the crime and the offender most clearly distinguished prosecuted cases from cases that were dismissed or nolle prosequi. Social factors, such as the age and relationship of the defendant, however, may have influenced the decision not to prosecute. Variations in the treatment across courts and dual arrest are implementation problems of this new policy.
The Micro-Structure of Nonlethal Force: Baseline Data from an Observational Study
Authors: Klinger David A.
Published: March 2007

Despite the fact that the capacity to use force lies at the core of the police role, very little is known about how officers exercise their coercive powers. The lack of knowledge is particularly acute where nonlethal force is concerned. Although recent decades have seen the development of a respectable body of literature on police shootings, the number of academic studies of less severe types of force can be counted on the fingers of one hand. The present paper adds to this short list. Using data from an observational study, it examines officers' use of less than lethal force in encounters with citizens, discusses the implications of the findings, and offers suggestions for future research.
Design of Landfill Daily Cells to Reduce Cover Soil Use
Authors: Milke Mark W.
Published: March 2007

Daily cell design for a landfill is analysed from the viewpoint of minimizing the use of daily cover soil. The landfill's daily cell is idealized to be in the shape of a parallelopiped. To minimize cover soil use and for fixed values of the working face length, volume of refuse, and slope of compaction, the optimal ratio of length to height for the daily cell is found to be the slope gradient (horizontal to vertical). For this optimum ratio, an equation is provided relating the soil-to-refuse ratio to daily cell design parameters. For situations away from the optimum length-to-height ratio, an equation is provided to estimate the excess soil required. These equations can help designers evaluate tradeoffs when a designer attempts to minimize cover soil use. © 1997 ISWA
Waste Minimization and Re-Use of Paper Sludges in Landfill Covers: a Case Study
Authors: Moo-Young Horace K. , Zimmie Thomas F.
Published: March 2007

This investigation attempted to find a beneficial use for waste water paper mill sludges by using paper mill sludges as the impermeable barrier in landfill covers. This study investigated the geotechnical properties of seven paper mill sludges for use as the impermeable barrier in landfill covers. Paper mill sludges have a high water content and a high degree of compressibility and behave like a highly organic soil. Consolidation tests reveal a large reduction in void ratio and high strain values that result from the high compressibility. Laboratory permeability tests were conducted on in situ samples, and these samples met the regulatory requirement for the permeability of a landfill cover To determine the effectiveness of paper sludge as an impermeable barrier layer, test pads were constructed to simulate a typical landfill cover with paper sludge and clay as the impermeable barrier and were monitored for infiltration rates for 5 years. Long-term permeability values estimated from the leachate generation rates of the test indicate that paper sludge provides an acceptable hydraulic barrier. © 1997 ISWA
The Structure of the Dutch Waste Sector and Impediments for Waste Reduction
Authors: de Jong Paulien , Wolsink Maarten
Published: March 2007

The way in which organizations collect, treat and dispose of waste in The Netherlands frustrates the achievement of waste reduction goals. The possibility that directed modification of the structure of the waste sector may contribute to stimulating consumers (i.e. all waste producers using services from collectors) to limit the generation of waste at the source by means of source reduction, re-use and recycling, is the subject of research of which the first results are presented here. This article describes the structure of the Dutch waste sector and indicates impediments for waste reduction linked to it. The analysis starts with a categorization of organizations with vested interests in the handling of waste. The ways in which these organizations manage to gain influence on the manner in which waste is handled will be explained, as well as the mutual relationships between organizations. © 1997 ISWA