bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Offshore renewable energy: ecological implications of generating electricity in the coastal zone
Authors: GILL ANDREW B.
Published: August 2005

Global‐scale environmental degradation and its links with non‐renewable fossil fuels have led to an increasing interest in generating electricity from renewable energy resources. Much of this interest centres on offshore renewable energy developments (ORED). The large scale of proposed ORED will add to the existing human pressures on coastal ecosystems, therefore any ecological costs and benefits must be determined.

The current pressures on coastal ecology set the context within which the potential impacts (both positive and negative) of offshore renewable energy generation are discussed.

The number of published peer‐review articles relating to renewable energy has increased dramatically since 1991. Significantly, only a small proportion of these articles relate to environmental impacts and none considers coastal ecology.

Actual or potential environmental impact can occur during construction, operation and/or decommissioning of ORED.

Construction and decommissioning are likely to cause significant physical disturbance to the local environment. There are both short‐ and long‐term implications for the local biological communities. The significance of any effects is likely to depend on the natural disturbance regime and the stability and resilience of the communities.

During day‐to‐day operation, underwater noise, emission of electromagnetic fields and collision or avoidance with the energy structures represent further potential impacts on coastal species, particularly large predators. The wider ecological implications of any direct and indirect effects are discussed.

Synthesis and applications. This review demonstrates that offshore renewable energy developments will have direct and, potentially, indirect consequences for coastal ecology, with these effects occurring at different scales. Ecologists should be involved throughout all the phases of an ORED to ensure that appropriate assessments of the interaction of single and multiple developments with the coastal environment are undertaken.
Ototoxic eardrops and tympanic membrane perforations: Time for a change?
Authors: Coates Harvey
Published: August 2005

Abstract:  Until recently the only available antibiotic eardrops for treatment of the discharging middle ear and mastoid cavity have been potentially ototoxic. With the advent of non‐ototoxic fluoroquinolone eardrops, consensus panels in the USA, Canada and the UK have advocated the preferential use of these agents in the open middle ear. However, in Australia, no fluoroquinolone topical agent is approved for use with tympanic membrane perforations, and when used as an ‘off label’ eardrop, none is on the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme. This creates an ethical dilemma, particularly with best practice management of chronic suppurative otitis media in indigenous children. Despite concerns regarding resistance issues with ototopical use of systemic antibiotics, bacterial resistance has not been documented in major studies. For equity and ethical reasons, Australian regulatory authorities should consider approving a sterile non‐ototoxic eardrop for use in the open middle ear.
Pulmonary aspiration of gastric contents and the sudden infant death syndrome
Authors: Alex Nishi , Thompson John MD , Becroft David MO , Mitchell Ed A
Published: August 2005

Objective: To determine ante‐mortem and post‐mortem risk factors for the finding of gastric contents in pulmonary airways (aspiration of gastric contents) at post‐mortem examination in the sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS).

Methods: There were 217 post‐neonatal deaths in the Auckland region of the New Zealand Cot Death Study. No deaths were certified as due to aspiration of gastric contents. There were 138 SIDS cases. The parents of 110 (80%) of these cases were interviewed. Histological sections from the periphery of the lungs in 99 of the 110 cases were reviewed for evidence of aspiration of gastric contents. A wide range of variables were analysed in SIDS cases with and without aspiration to determine risk factors.

Results: Aspiration of gastric contents was identified in 37 (37%) of SIDS cases. Aspiration was of mild‐to‐moderate degree and in no case was severe and a potential cause of death. Finding infants on their backs at death (P = 0.024) and conducting the post‐mortem on the day after the death or subsequently (P = 0.033) were statistically significant variables linked to identification of aspiration. Position placed to sleep, symptoms of gastro‐oesophageal reflux and other variables were not related to aspiration.

Conclusions: The only determinants for aspiration of gastric contents identified were agonal or post‐mortem events, supporting the contention that aspiration has limited relevance to the mechanism of SIDS.
Inpatient care of children with cerebral palsy as perceived by their parents
Authors: Phua Vanessa , Reid Sue M , Walstab Janet E , Reddihough Dinah S
Published: August 2005

Objectives: Children with cerebral palsy (CP) have special health care needs. The aim of the study was to evaluate the inpatient care of children with CP, as perceived by their parents.

Methods: Forty parents of children with CP and 90 parents of able‐bodied children completed a questionnaire designed to evaluate their perception of their child's hospital admission, including the care provided. The parents also completed the Perceived Stress Scale.

Results: Overall, parents of able‐bodied children were more satisfied with the hospitalization than parents of children with CP (P < 0.0001). Significant differences were found in four of the five areas assessed: the admissions process (P = 0.0002); the care that their child received (P < 0.0001); their communication and confidence in doctors and nurses (P < 0.0001); and their personal experience of the hospital (P = 0.0076). Parents of disabled children displayed a much higher mean score on the Perceived Stress Scale, but no correlation was found between this scale and the satisfaction questionnaire for either group.

Conclusion: The results of this study show that parents of children with CP were, as a group, less satisfied than parents of able‐bodied children with their inpatient experience. Although these children have complex needs and often require more care than able‐bodied children, it is imperative that their needs are met and that parents are satisfied with all aspects of the care they receive in hospital.
Diagnosing symptomatic urinary tract infections in infants by catheter urine culture
Authors: Cheng Yan‐Wah , Wong Sik‐Nin
Published: August 2005

Background: Diagnosing infantile urinary tract infection (UTI) is difficult due to contamination during urine collection. Catheterization is convenient but diagnostic criteria (colony‐forming units per millilitre (CFU/mL)) is controversial, especially in uncircumcised males.

Objectives: To study the value of catheter urine cultures in terms of likelihood ratios (LRs), sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative predictive values of different CFU/mL in uncircumcised boys and girls.

Methods: Infants aged 1–18 months who had catheter urine cultures from July 1999 to June 2002 were reviewed to decide if they had symptomatic UTI (group A) or not (group B). Urinary tract infection was confirmed if patients had a positive urine culture plus acute fever, pyuria, positive leucocyte esterase and nitrite tests and good response to antibiotics, with pyelonephritic evidence on early dimercaptosuccinc acid (DMSA) scans in doubtful cases. Group B included infants with negative urine culture results, and those with positive results but were asymptomatic and admitted for micturiting cystourethrogram.

Results: Nine hundred and fifty‐two patients were studied (492 boys, 460 girls; 212 in group A, 740 in group B). No single cut‐off CFU/mL has high sensitivity and specificity to simultaneously diagnose and exclude UTI. The CFU counts of 100–103, 103–104, 104–105 and >105 were associated with LRs of 0.11, 0.45, 1.52 and 20.5, respectively in uncircumcised boys, and with LRs of 1.39, 2.49, 8.95 and 18.8, respectively in girls. The LR for mixed growths was 0.21.

Conclusion: Unlike suprapubic tap urine, catheter urine culture has to be interpreted against the clinical context or pretest probability and in terms of probability. In the scenario of a febrile infant where the pretest probability of UTI was about 5%, UTI was highly likely if counts exceeded 105/mL, and unlikely if counts were below 104/mL in uncircumcised boys. In female infants, UTI was highly likely if counts were >104 CFU/mL, but lower counts could not exclude UTI.
Developmental assessment of children: A survey of Australian and New Zealand paediatricians
Authors: Beggs Sean , Sewell Jill , Efron Daryl , Orkin Carl
Published: August 2005

Objectives: To determine the current practice for developmental assessment of children by Australian and New Zealand paediatricians. To determine factors associated with higher levels of self‐reported confidence and expertise in developmental paediatrics and factors associated with better practice.

Methods: A cross‐sectional postal survey of Australian and New Zealand paediatricians conducted in 2003, enquiring about their training in developmental paediatrics and their practice for evaluating development.

Results: Of 811 questionnaires sent, 590 (73%) were returned. Ninety‐one respondents indicated that they did not see children with developmental issues leaving 499 surveys for analysis. The overwhelming majority of paediatricians felt that more training was required in developmental paediatrics (88%) and that there was a need to be taught a formal developmental assessment tool (83%). Higher self‐ratings of confidence and expertise in developmental paediatrics were associated with a period of formal developmental training (OR (95% CI) 2.7 (1.6–4.4), 3.4 (2.0–5.8), respectively), and being taught a formal developmental assessment tool (OR (95% CI) 2.0 (1.2–3.2), 2.2 (1.3–3.7), respectively). Predictors of paediatricians performing a formal developmental assessment included formal developmental training (OR (95% CI) 2.0 (1.1–3.8)) being taught an assessment tool (OR (95% CI) 2.8 (1.5–5.2)) and mandatory training (OR (95% CI) 2.4 (1.4–4.1)).

Conclusions: Developmental paediatrics is a significant and important part of paediatric practice. This survey suggests, however, that paediatric training and continuing education should have not reflected this practice. The overall method and content of developmental training including whether formal assessment tools should be taught needs to be reviewed and revised.
Symptomatic infant characteristics of congenital cytomegalovirus disease in Australia
Authors: Munro Sian C , Trincado Daniel , Hall Beverley , Rawlinson William D
Published: August 2005

Background: Human cytomegalovirus (CMV) is the most common cause of viral intrauterine infection. In utero transmission can occur during primary maternal infection, reactivation or reinfection of seropositive mothers.

Objective: To describe the aetiology and clinical features of infants diagnosed with congenital CMV and to document maternal factors that were presented.

Methods: Active national surveillance was initiated in 1999 in collaboration with the Australian Paediatric Surveillance Unit.

Results: Monthly notifications resulted in 70 cases of congenital CMV being identified between 1999 and 2003. Nearly all of the cases were symptomatic with the most common clinical sequelae reported in infected infants being jaundice, thrombocytopaenia, hepatomegaly, petechiae, purpura and splenomegaly. Almost half (43.5%) of the infants had central nervous system (CNS) complications, such as microcephaly, chorioretinitis, sensorineural hearing loss, intracranial calcifications, developmental delay or seizures, with over half presenting two or more CNS abnormalities. Maternal febrile illness was noted in 54.8% of the cases. The majority of mothers were primiparous (46.4%) or secundiparous (39.3%), indicating two different population groups at risk of primary CMV infection.

Conclusion: This study documents symptomatic congenital CMV cases in Australia.
Diagnosis of autistic spectrum disorders in Queensland: Variations in practice
Authors: Skellern Catherine , McDowell Michael , Schluter Philip
Published: August 2005

Objective: For both paediatricians and child psychiatrists, referrals to assess possible autistic spectrum disorders (ASD) are increasing. This study examines current practices of medical specialists in the assessment of these disorders.

Methods: An anonymous, self‐report questionnaire was sent to all Queensland paediatricians and child psychiatrists. The survey elicited frequencies of consultation for ASD, diagnostic method, advice provided and perceived adequacy of training for this work.

Results: Responses were received from 79 (85%) eligible paediatricians and 26 (58%) eligible child psychiatrists. For one‐third of all clinicians, new consultations for possible ASD occurred as often as 2–3 times per week. Most specialists approached the clinical diagnosis of ASD by considering history from different sources and professional assessments. Paediatricians (86%) were more likely than child psychiatrists (62%) to request genetic studies for children with severe autism (P = 0.01). Both general paediatricians and developmental paediatricians perceived level of training for possible ASD consultations was significantly worse than child psychiatrists (P < 0.001 and P = 0.02, respectively), but no difference was found between paediatric groups (P = 0.27). Perceived adequacy of specialist training was not associated with length of experience in clinical practice.

Conclusion: Medical practice in Queensland around diagnosis of ASD is characterized by considerable variability. There is still a long way to go if we are to achieve consistency around medical issues of organic diagnosis and practices impacting on health as well as consideration of differential developmental diagnoses. The finding that recently trained paediatricians felt just as unprepared for this work as their older colleagues suggests that the graduate training response to this ‘new morbidity’ has not been adequate.
Epidemiology of nocturia
Authors: Hunskaar Steinar
Published: August 2005

The incidence of nocturia episodes increases with age and is associated with interrupted sleep and distress. There are no large differences in the incidence of nocturia between men and women, but young women tend to have it more frequently than young men, and very old men have it more often than very old women. The International Continence Society has defined nocturia as ‘the number of voids recorded during a night's sleep: each void is preceded and followed by sleep.' This simple and useful definition should facilitate further epidemiological study of nocturia. Although there are many direct prevalence studies of nocturia, there is a great need for more advanced analytical epidemiological data on risk factors and comorbidity. Clinicians should question patients about nocturia and should consider this symptom in a broader sense than in its traditional association with benign prostatic obstruction in men and incontinence in women. There are several classic studies of nocturia. The nature of future epidemiological research will depend on the resolution of several methodological issues. Further evaluation of nocturia is warranted because of its high incidence among the general adult population.
Health‐related consequences of overactive bladder: an economic perspective
Authors: Hu Teh‐Wei , Wagner Todd H.
Published: August 2005

About 34 million people in the USA have an overactive bladder (OAB), a condition characterized by urinary urgency, with or without urinary incontinence, and usually frequency and nocturia. This condition is associated with increased health risks (e.g. urinary tract infection, falls and fall‐related injuries, including broken bones), as well as admission to nursing homes and prolonged hospital stays. The annual costs associated with OAB in the community setting are >$9 billion, including $2.9 billion for diagnosis and treatment, $1.5 billion for routine care, $3.9 billion for treatment of health‐related consequences, and $841 million in lost productivity. These cost patterns raise the possibility that treating OAB at an early stage may both improve patient care and minimize overall use of healthcare resources. However, before a thorough economic analysis of OAB can be undertaken, more data are needed about the long‐term costs and the pathogenesis of OAB‐related conditions.
Sexual Arousal Patterns of Bisexual Men
Authors: Rieger Gerulf , Chivers Meredith L. , Bailey J. Michael
Published: August 2005

There has long been controversy about whether bisexual men are substantially sexually aroused by both sexes. We investigated genital and self-reported sexual arousal to male and female sexual stimuli in 30 heterosexual, 33 bisexual, and 38 homosexual men. In general, bisexual men did not have strong genital arousal to both male and female sexual stimuli. Rather, most bisexual men appeared homosexual with respect to genital arousal, although some appeared heterosexual. In contrast, their subjective sexual arousal did conform to a bisexual pattern. Male bisexuality appears primarily to represent a style of interpreting or reporting sexual arousal rather than a distinct pattern of genital sexual arousal.
The Least Likely of Times
Authors: Morewedge Carey K. , Gilbert Daniel T. , Wilson Timothy D.
Published: August 2005

Atypical events are both memorable and unrepresentative of their class. We tested the hypotheses that (a) people tend to recall atypical instances of events, and (b) when they are unaware of this, they rely on these atypical instances in forecasting their affective reactions to future events. In three studies, participants who were asked to recall an instance of an event and participants who were asked to recall an atypical instance of an event recalled equally atypical instances. However, only the former participants made extreme forecasts about their reactions to future events. The results suggest that the impact bias (the tendency to overestimate the affective impact of future events) may be due in part to people's reliance on highly available but unrepresentative memories of the past.
The Meaning of “Natural”
Authors: Rozin Paul
Published: August 2005

The meaning of the desirable attribute “natural” was explored in two samples, American college students and adults in the Philadelphia jury pool. Participants rated the naturalness of a variety of “natural” entities, before and after they were transformed by operations such as freezing, adding or removing components, mixing with other natural or unnatural entities, domestication, and genetic engineering. Results support four hypotheses. First, the principle of contagion accounts for many aspects of the reduction of naturalness by contact with unnatural entities. Second, chemical transformations reduce naturalness much more than physical transformations do. Third, the history of an entity's processing is more important in determining its naturalness than is the nature of the entity's contents. Fourth, mixing like natural entities (e.g., water from different sources) does not markedly reduce naturalness. The insertion of a gene from another species, the process used in producing genetically modified organisms, produces the biggest drop in naturalness; domestication, a human-accomplished activity that changes genotype and phenotype in major ways, is considered much less damaging to naturalness.
In the light of stomatal opening: new insights into ‘the Watergate’
Authors: Roelfsema M. Rob G. , Hedrich Rainer
Published: August 2005

Stomata can be regarded as hydraulically driven valves in the leaf surface, which open to allow CO2uptake and close to prevent excessive loss of water. Movement of these ‘Watergates’ is regulated by environmental conditions, such as light, CO2and humidity. Guard cells can sense environmental conditions and function as motor cells within the stomatal complex. Stomatal movement results from the transport of K+salts across the guard cell membranes. In this review, we discuss the biophysical principles and mechanisms of stomatal movement and relate these to ion transport at the plasma membrane and vacuolar membrane. Studies with isolated guard cells, combined with recordings on single guard cells in intact plants, revealed that light stimulates stomatal opening via blue light‐specific and photosynthetic‐active radiation‐dependent pathways. In addition, guard cells sense changes in air humidity and the water status of distant tissues via the stress hormone abscisic acid (ABA). Guard cells thus provide an excellent system to study cross‐talk, as multiple signaling pathways induce both short‐ and long‐term responses in these sensory cells.ContentsSummary665I.Introduction665II.The hydrodynamic valve666III.Regulation of ion transport in guard cells678IV.Interaction between guard cell signaling pathways682V.Outlook684Acknowledgements685References685
The morphogenesis of lobed plant cells in the mesophyll and epidermis: organization and distinct roles of cortical microtubules and actin filaments
Authors: Panteris Emmanuel , Galatis Basil
Published: August 2005

The morphogenesis of lobed plant cells has been considered to be controlled by microtubule (MT) and/or actin filament (AF) organization. In this article, a comprehensive mechanism is proposed, in which distinct roles are played by these cytoskeletal components. First, cortical MT bundles and, in the case of pavement cells, radial MT arrays combined with MT bundles determine the deposition of local cell wall thickenings, the cellulose microfibrils of which copy the orientation of underlying MTs. Cell growth is thus locally prevented and, consequently, lobes and constrictions are formed. Arch‐like tangential expansion is locally imposed at the external periclinal wall of pavement cells by the radial arrangement of cellulose microfibrils at every wall thickening. Whenever further elongation of the original cell lobes occurs, AF patches assemble at the tips of growing lobes. Intercellular space formation is promoted or prevented by the opposite or alternate, respectively, arrangement of cortical MT arrays between neighboring cells. The genes that are possibly involved in the molecular regulation of the above morphogenetic procedure by MT and AF array organization are reviewed.
Microtubules guide root hair tip growth
Authors: Sieberer Björn J. , Ketelaar Tijs , Esseling John J. , Emons Anne Mie C.
Published: August 2005

The ability to establish cell polarity is crucial to form and function of an individual cell. Polarity underlies critical processes during cell development, such as cell growth, cell division, cell differentiation and cell signalling. Interphase cytoplasmic microtubules in tip‐growing fission yeast cells have been shown to play a particularly important role in regulating cell polarity. By placing proteins that serve as spatial cues in the cell cortex of the expanding tip, microtubules determine the site where excocytosis, and therefore growth, takes place. Transport and the targeting of exocytotic vesicles to the very tip depend on the actin cytoskeleton. Recently, endoplasmic microtubules have been identified in tip‐growing root hairs, which are an experimental system for plant cell growth. Here, we review the data that demonstrate involvement of microtubules in hair elongation and polarity of the model plants Medicago truncatula and Arabidopsis thaliana. Differences and similarities between the microtubule organization and function in these two species are discussed and we compare the observations in root hairs with the microtubule‐based polarity mechanism in fission yeast.

Contents

Summary
711

I.
Introduction
711

II.
Root hair tip growth
712

III.
Microtubule organization and dynamics in elongating root hairs
713

IV.
Microtubules and their role in root hair cell polarity
714

V.
Microtubules and their putative role in targeting polarity markers to the very tip of elongating root hairs: what we might learn from Schizosaccharomyces pombe
716

VI.
Conclusion
717

References
717
Erosive disease associated with higher bone resorption and lower bone density in women with rheumatoid arthritis
Authors: SURYANA Bagus P. P. , WILL Robert K. , LIM Annie , BREIDAHL Bill
Published: August 2005

Objective:  To evaluate the bone density and bone metabolism in women with rheumatoid arthritis (RA), focusing on disease activity, joint erosion, and RA‐epitope.

Methods:  Disease activity was assessed using erythrocyte sedimentation rate, C‐reactive protein, rheumatoid factor, Ritchie articular index (RAI), and disease activity score (DAS). The presence of joint erosion was assessed using wrist‐hand and feet X‐ray, and wrist‐hand magnetc resonance imaging. A fasting metabolic bone study was done including serum calcium, phosphate, 25(OH) vitamin D, parathyroid hormone (PTH), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), osteocalcin, and urine deoxypyridinoline/creatinine (DPD/Cr) ratio. Bone mineral density (BMD) was measured at hip, spine, distal forearm, hand, and total body using dual energy X‐ray absorptiometry (DEXA) machine. HLA‐DRB1 genes were examined using DNA sequencing based typing.

Results:  Seventy‐six women with RA according to 1987 American College of Rheumatology (ACR) criteria with clinical onset equal to or less than 5 years were examined. Mean (SD) of age was 55.4 (13.7) years, disease duration 34.9 (36.4) months, and 96% with ACR functional criteria class I and II. HLA typing demonstrated that 61.4% of them have the RA shared‐epitope (QRRAA or QKRAA or RRRAA) in their HLA‐DRB1 alleles. Most of them had been receiving disease‐modifying antirheumatic drugs and glucocorticoid. Erosive disease was significantly correlated with intertrochanter BMD (P = 0.044), serum calcium (P = 0.005), and urine DPD/Cr ratio (P < 0.001). Patients with erosive disease had higher DAS (P = 0.017), lower serum calcium (P = 0.006), and higher urine DPD/Cr ratio (P < 0.001). There were no statistically significant differences in serum ALP, osteocalcin, 25(OH) vitamin D, and PTH. Patients with erosive disease had lower BMD at all sites including hip, forearm, hand, lumbar spine, and total body, though only statistically significant at intertrochanter (P = 0.042). Bivariate correlation demonstrated that at all sites BMD, except femoral neck and hand BMD, negatively correlated with urine DPD/Cr ratio. Logistic regression model showed that erosive disease was a significant factor for low bone density (T‐score < −1) at intertrochanter (OR = 6.0; 95% CI = 1.3–27.3; P = 0.020), total hip (OR = 5.5; 95% CI = 1.1–26.8; P = 0.035), and distal radius‐ulna (OR = 3.9; 95% CI = 1.1–14.0; P = 0.041).

Conclusion:  Patients with erosive disease demonstrated lower BMD, lower serum calcium level, and higher bone resorption. Erosive disease was a significant factor for osteopenia or osteoporosis.
Prevalence, outcome and risk for falling in 155 ambulatory patients with rheumatic disease
Authors: BRAND Caroline , AW Juan , LOWE Adrian , MORTON Catherine
Published: August 2005

Aim:  Older people are at greater risk of falls and fall‐related adverse outcomes. Risk for falls is multifactorial, and relative importance of risk factors (RF) may vary according to the population studied. Although several population studies identify musculoskeletal factors as one of many RFs, there have been few studies of falls in populations with rheumatic disease. In this study we aim to assess the incidence of falls, prevalence of falls RFs and outcomes of falls in an ambulatory population with rheumatic disease.

Methods:  Using a retrospective cohort study design, consecutive patients attending rheumatology outpatient clinics completed a self‐administered falls questionnaire that investigated falls within the previous 12 months, risk for falling and fear of falling.

Results:  One hundred and fifty‐five patients, with a mean age of 59.7 years (SD 15.0) completed the survey. Seventy‐six patients (49%) reported one or more falls in the previous 12 months. Fifty‐eight (76.3%) reported an adverse outcome which included fracture in 12 (15.8%) and hospital attendance or admission in 20 (26.7%). Fear of falling was also common, being reported in 81 (52.3%) patients. Moderately or severe fear of falling was reported in 26 (16.8%) among the whole group and in 10% of the 78 patients who had not yet experienced a fall.

Conclusions:  The findings of this study highlight the high incidence of falls and fear of falling in patients with rheumatic disease and identify groups likely to be at higher risk. These patients should be considered for falls prevention programs that have been shown to reduce falls risk and improve self‐efficacy.
The side‐effects and efficacy of leflunomide in Japanese patients with rheumatoid arthritis
Authors: KANBE Katsuaki , INOUE Kazuhiko , CHIBA Junji , NOGUCHI Masahiko , HIGUCHI Yoriko , MURATA Minako
Published: August 2005

Aims:  To investigate the efficacy and safety of leflunomide, including the side‐effects, we assessed 84 rheumatoid arthritis (RA) patients who received leflunomide treatment.

Methods:  We analyzed the C‐reactive protein (CRP), white blood cell count (WBC), KL‐6, and visual analogue scale (VAS) scores, modified Stanford Health Assessment Questionnaire (MHAQ) score, American Rheumatism Association score (ACR20 and ACR50) within a time course after treatment with leflunomide. We treated 84 RA patients, 12 male and 72 female from 28 to 81‐years‐old, with an average age of 63.5 years. The patients were divided into three groups: a group consisting of 38 patients who received 100 mg/day of leflunomide for 3 days followed by 20 mg/day thereafter; a second group of 11 patients who received a no‐loading dose of 10 mg/day; and a third group of 35 patients who received a no loading dose of 20 mg/day.

Results:  The 50% decrease of CRP seen in 2 weeks was 52% of the total of 84 patients. The WBC score did not change significantly after the medication was given. The KL‐6 score did not change significantly, either. The VAS pain score improved 4 weeks later, and then further improved 8 weeks later. Therefore, RA patients using leflunomide obtained pain relief 4 weeks after commencing medication. The MHAQ score did not change significantly until 8 weeks after the patients started the medication. ACR20 was 62% and ACR50 was 38% at 8 weeks after treatment. The side‐effects of leflunomide observed in our patients were rash, respiratory infection, diarrhea, nausea, alopecia, muscle pain, headache, dizziness and general fatigue. Twenty‐three out of 84 patients experienced side‐effects (27%), and 48/84 (57%) experienced withdrawal. In our hospital, there were no patients who developed severe interstitial pneumonia (IP) or who died after taking leflunomide; however, the incidence of side‐effects of the 100 mg/day loading dose (42.1%) was 2.5 times higher than in the patients who received 20 mg/day (17.1%) of a no‐loading dose.

Conclusion:  Because of this, it is possible that a 100 mg/day loading dose is a relatively high risk dose in terms of causing side‐effects, especially for severely ill RA patients with a high CRP level.
Open access harvesting of wildlife: the poaching pit and conservation of endangered species
Authors: Bulte Erwin H.
Published: August 2005

We extend the traditional G–S model of open access by defining a non‐concave harvesting function. We demonstrate the possible existence of multiple equilibria and perverse comparative statics and show that small changes in the underlying economic parameters may trigger large jumps in species' abundance. Finally, we briefly discuss implications for management.
Trade policy, biotechnology and grain self‐sufficiency in China
Authors: Felloni Fabrizio , Gilbert John , Wahl Thomas I. , Wandschneider Philip
Published: August 2005

Over the past 20 years the growth of China's agricultural economy has been extraordinary. However, it seems unlikely that China will maintain self‐sufficiency in grains by 2005 without substantial intervention. We develop a CGE model to assess the options available to Chinese policy makers. We compare the welfare effects of import tariffs and domestic support, and explore the potential of biotechnology as a means to achieve self‐sufficiency through improvements in agricultural productivity. Our results indicate that the price interventions that would be required to maintain China's desired self‐sufficiency ratios are considerable, and are unlikely to be compatible with WTO accession. The productivity improvements required are also significant, and likely beyond the current potential of biotechnology.
Market structure and the demand for veterinary services in India
Authors: Ahuja Vinod , Umali‐Deininger Dina , de Haan Cees
Published: August 2005

The livestock sector is emerging as one of the fastest growing agricultural sub‐sectors in India and the expectations are that this growth could further accelerate due to growing incomes and the high income elasticity of demand for livestock products. Given the size and relatively equitable distribution of livestock in India, this presents an excellent opportunity for the country to boost rural incomes and accelerate the pace of poverty reduction. But, successful capitalisation of such opportunities requires a policy regime that facilitates growth in productivity at the farm level as well as in the processing sector. The productive potential of animals depends crucially on the quality of nutrition, genetic material and the animal health system, and on all these counts, India has a poor record. The public sector continues to be the primary provider of veterinary services, and the deteriorating fiscal situation of most state governments is making it extremely difficult to either expand the reach of these services or improve the quality of service delivery. Although, on efficiency grounds, there is good rationale for commercialised delivery of these services, serious concerns prevail in India about the equity implications of private sector delivery or full cost recovery within the government system.

Evaluation of the desirability of user fees or private delivery of livestock services requires an understanding of the factors influencing the demand for these services. This paper examines the nature of demand for veterinary services in three states of India and presents first estimates of demand elasticities for veterinary services. The results indicate that price is not an important determinant of the decision to use these services. Also, practically no variation is found in price elasticities across income groups. These results suggest that the fears of sharp declines in the use of these services as a result of full cost recovery and/or private sector delivery are unfounded.
Estimating the benefits of farm animal welfare legislation using the contingent valuation method
Authors: Bennett Richard M. , Blaney Ralph J.P.
Published: August 2005

This paper presents the method and findings of a contingent valuation (CV) study that aimed to elicit United Kingdom citizens' willingness to pay to support legislation to phase out the use of battery cages for egg production in the European Union (EU). The method takes account of various biases associated with the CV technique, including ‘warm glow’, ‘part‐whole’ and sample response biases. Estimated mean willingness to pay to support the legislation is used to estimate the annual benefit of the legislation to UK citizens. This is compared with the estimated annual costs of the legislation over a 12‐year period, which allows for readjustment by the UK egg industry. The analysis shows that the estimated benefits of the legislation outweigh the costs. The study demonstrates that CV is a potentially useful technique for assessing the likely benefits associated with proposed legislation. However, estimates of CV studies must be treated with caution. It is important that they are derived from carefully designed surveys and that the willingness to pay estimation method allows for various biases.
Access to credit, plot size and cost inefficiency among smallholder tobacco cultivators in Malawi
Authors: Hazarika Gautam , Alwang Jeffrey
Published: August 2005

Using data from the Malawi Financial Markets and Household Food Security Survey, this paper examines the effect of access to credit from formal sources, and tobacco plot size, on cost inefficiency among Malawian smallholder tobacco cultivators. Farm‐specific cost inefficiency is estimated within the framework of stochastic frontier analysis. Access to credit is measured as the sum of household members' self‐reported credit limits at credit organisations, arguably a truer measure of an exogenous credit constraint than credit program participation or actual loan uptake. It is found that tobacco cultivation is significantly less cost inefficient per acre on larger plots. While access to credit by itself has no statistically discernible effect on cost inefficiency, it reduces the gain in cost efficiency from a larger plot size.
Technological change and risk management: an application to the economics of corn production
Authors: Kim Kwansoo , Chavas Jean‐Paul
Published: August 2005

The paper investigates the linkages between technological change and production risk, with an application to corn. The effects of technology on risk exposure are analyzed. We define technological progress to be risk‐increasing (risk‐decreasing) if it increases (decreases) the relative risk premium. The analysis is applied to panel data from Wisconsin research stations. Conditional moments (including mean, variance and skewness) of corn yield, grain moisture and corn profit are estimated for different sites. We investigate how the trade‐off between expected return and the risk premium varies over time and over space. The empirical results indicate that technological progress contributes to reducing the exposure to risk as well as downside risk in corn production, although this effect varies across sites. They also stress the role of the relative maturity of corn hybrids as a means of managing risk.
Energy substitutability in transition agriculture: estimates and implications for Hungary
Authors: Shankar Bhavani , Piesse Jenifer , Thirtle Colin
Published: August 2005

Subsidised energy prices in pre‐transition Hungary had led to excessive energy intensity in the agricultural sector. Transition has resulted in steep input price increases. In this study, Allen and Morishima elasticities of substitution are estimated to study the effects of these price changes on energy use, chemical input use, capital formation and employment. Panel data methods, Generalised Method of Moments (GMM) and instrument exogeneity tests are used to specify and estimate technology and substitution elasticities. Results indicate that indirect price policy may be effective in controlling energy consumption. The sustained increases in energy and chemical input prices have worked together to restrict energy and chemical input use, and the substitutability between energy, capital and labour has prevented the capital shrinkage and agricultural unemployment situations from being worse. The Hungarian push towards lower energy intensity may be best pursued through sustained energy price increases rather than capital subsidies.
Technology and efficiency in a panel of Italian dairy farms: an SGM restricted cost function approach
Authors: Pierani Pierpaolo , Rizzi Pier Luigi
Published: August 2005

This article employs a short‐term specification of the symmetric generalised McFadden (SGM) cost function capable of accommodating quasi‐fixed factors and variable returns. Temporary equilibrium and scale economies are investigated while maintaining the consistency of the estimated model with microeconomic theory and approximation properties. It also makes use of a two‐step procedure to estimate first the technology parameters and then time‐varying efficiency at farm level. No distributional assumptions are required on efficiency as we consider a fixed effect model. A balanced panel of Italian dairy farms during the years from 1980 to 1992 serves as the case study. The results suggest a rigid productive structure during the pre‐ and post‐quota period. Moreover, Italian milk producers are found to exhibit considerable excess capacity and rather low input technical efficiency.
Estimating the benefits of plant breeding research: methodological issues and practical challenges
Authors: Morris M.L. , Heisey P.W.
Published: August 2005

Impact assessment studies consistently show that the benefits generated by plant breeding are large, positive and widely distributed. Numerous case studies have concluded that investment in plant breeding research generates attractive rates of return compared to alternative investment opportunities, that welfare gains resulting from the adoption of modern varieties (MVs) reach both favoured and marginal environments, and that benefits are broadly shared by producers and consumers. But just how reliable are the results of studies that estimate the benefits of plant breeding research? This article reviews methods used to estimate the benefits of plant breeding research and discusses theoretical and empirical issues that often receive inadequate attention in applied impact assessment work. Our objective is not to question the validity of the theoretical frameworks commonly used to estimate the benefits of plant breeding research, but rather to examine problems that can arise when the widely accepted theoretical frameworks are used for empirical analysis. Most of these problems can be grouped into three basic categories: (1) problems associated with measuring adoption and diffusion of MVs, (2) problems associated with estimating benefits attributable to adoption of MVs, and (3) problems associated with assigning credit among the various plant breeding programmes that participated in developing the MVs.
The economic costs and benefits of a participatory project to conserve maize landraces on farms in Oaxaca, Mexico⋆
Authors: Smale M. , Bellon M.R. , Aguirre J.A. , Rosas I. Manuel , Mendoza J. , Solano A.M. , Martínez R. , Ramírez A. , Berthaud J.
Published: August 2005

Conventional methods were used to assess the benefits and costs of an unconventional project whose purpose was to test whether participatory crop improvement can encourage Mexican farmers to continue growing maize landraces by enhancing their current use value. Findings suggest that farmers as a group earned a high benefit‐cost ratio from participating, though from the perspective of the private investor the returns were low. The project also generated social benefits, but these would be difficult (and costly) to measure. There was a gender bias in both participation and benefits distributions, though there is some evidence of a welfare transfer to maize deficit households. Application of other valuation approaches will be necessary in order to assess both the private and social benefits of similar projects.
The distribution of benefits from public international germplasm banks: the case of beans in Latin America
Authors: Johnson N.L. , Pachico D. , Voysest O.
Published: August 2005

The unrestricted international flow of genetic resources from international genebank collections is the source of perhaps one of the greatest impacts of international agricultural research. This paper examines the distribution across countries in Latin America of benefits generated from bean genetic resources held by the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). The genealogies of commercial bean cultivars released since 1976, containing materials from the collection, are analysed to calculate for each country the source of the genetic resources used. All countries in the region are shown to be heavily dependent on imported genetic resources for their commercial cultivars. From the available information on the economic impact of these improved bean varieties, the share of economic productivity benefits associated with imported germplasm by country of origin is calculated. The benefits received by each country from improved bean germplasm are compared with the contribution of that country's germplasm to other countries. Some of the patterns in the flow and use of genetic resources are analysed.
The economic costs of conserving genetic resources at the CGIAR centers⋆
Authors: Koo B. , Pardey P.G. , Wright B.D.
Published: August 2005

The 11 genebanks of the Consultative Group on International Agriculture (CGIAR) have grown considerably in size over the past few decades, currently holding about 666,000 accessions of germplasm. Conserving germplasm is a very long run, if not in perpetuity, proposition. The mismatch between the mainly annual funding support for this conservation effort and its very long‐term nature and intent is a serious concern. Using the results of five CGIAR genebank case studies (accounting for 87% of the total CGIAR genebank holdings), we estimate the size of an endowment or trust fund that would be required to assure a funding stream to conserve this genetic material for future generations. The annual cost (in year 2000 US$) of conserving and distributing the genetic material presently held in all 11 CGIAR genebanks is estimated to be 5.7 million US$ (mUS$), which could be maintained for all future generations by setting aside a fund of 149 mUS$ (invested at a real rate of interest of 4% per annum). This would be sufficient to underwrite the costs for the CGIAR's current conservation activities in perpetuity (estimated to be 61 mUS$), as well as the cost of maintaining the distribution activities (88 mUS$) that provide germplasm to breeders, scientists, farmers and others world wide.
Adoption of improved maize varieties in the hills of Nepal
Authors: Ransom J.K. , Paudyal K. , Adhikari K.
Published: August 2005

Maize (Zea mays L.) is the most important cereal crop in the hills of Nepal, where the grain is used for human consumption and the stover for animal fodder. Maize farms are small, and population pressure necessitates the intensification of existing farming systems. Maize research directed at developing technologies for maize production began in Nepal in 1965. In 2000, a survey was carried out in two districts to determine the current level of adoption of improved maize production practices. In each of these districts, remote and accessible village development committees (VDCs) were surveyed. Questionnaires were administered to 54 randomly selected households in each VDC. A Tobit analysis was used to determine socio‐economic, physical and technology factors that influence the use of improved varieties by farmers. All households use composted farmyard manure, and in the more accessible areas, urea as part of their soil fertility management strategy. Use of improved varieties was less than 60% for all VDCs and only 15% in the most remote VDC. In three of the four VDCs, adoption of improved varieties primarily occurred during the past 5 years. Based on a Tobit analysis, Khet land area, ethnic group, years of fertiliser use, off‐farm income, and contact with extension significantly and positively affected adoption of improved varieties. Farmers in VDCs in central Nepal reported lack of seed to be the major constraint to the adoption of improved varieties, while lack of knowledge of new varieties was the major constraint for farmers in the western VDCs. The results from this survey suggest that the strategy for improving the adoption of new varieties will differ depending on infrastructure and the socio‐economic conditions of the farmers in a given area.