bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Auditory Perception, Psychology of
Authors: Handel Stephen , Hedrick Mark
Published: December 2005

The production of all sounds creates regularities in the air‐pressure sound wave that reaches the listener. The physiological mechanisms and cognitive processes involved in locating and identifying the source of those sounds take advantage of these regularities.
Autism, Psychology of
Authors: Jarrold Christopher , Happé Francesca
Published: December 2005

Autism is a disorder that has a biological cause but is diagnosed on the basis of problems in socialization, communication, and imagination. Psychological explanations of the condition aim to account for this pattern of behavioral difficulties, and for the strengths that individuals with autism show in other areas.
Automaticity
Authors: Palmeri Thomas J
Published: December 2005

Automaticity refers to the way we perform some mental tasks quickly and effortlessly, with little thought or conscious intention. Automatic processes are contrasted with deliberate, attention‐demanding, conscious, controlled aspects of cognition.
Neuropsychological Development
Authors: de Haan Michelle , Johnson Mark H
Published: December 2005

Neuropsychological development concerns the growth in the structure and function of the brain and nervous system in relation to mind and behavior, and has been shown to involve an interaction of genetic inheritance and environmental experience.
Causal Reasoning, Psychology of
Authors: Spellman Barbara A , Mandel David R
Published: December 2005

Causal reasoning is an important universal human capacity that is useful in explanation, learning, prediction, and control. Causal judgments may rely on the integration of covariation information, pre‐existing knowledge about plausible causal mechanisms, and counterfactual reasoning.
Color Perception, Psychology of
Authors: D'Zmura Michael
Published: December 2005

The psychology of color perception concerns color appearance and the visual processing of light spectral information. Researchers in this area seek to determine the relationships among visual stimuli, activity in the human nervous system and the conscious representation of color.
Comparative Psychology
Authors: Wasserman Edward A
Published: December 2005

Comparative psychology explores the behaviors of different species of animals with a special interest in any similarities and differences that may reveal the evolutionary origins of those behaviors.
Idioms, Comprehension of
Authors: Tabossi Patrizia
Published: December 2005

Idioms are fixed expressions whose meaning is not a direct function of the meanings of their parts. Their comprehension involves both recognition and parsing processes, and hinges upon people's pragmatic as well as syntactic and semantic competence.
Concept Learning
Authors: Love Bradley C
Published: December 2005

Concept learning is the process of acquiring knowledge structures that enable an agent to make predictive inferences.
Constructivism
Authors: Brooks Jacqueline Grennon
Published: December 2005

Constructivism is a learning theory based on the notion that learners generate meaning through iterative mental formulation and reformulation of theories that satisfy the search for understanding.
Counterfactual Thinking
Authors: Roese Neal J , Olson James M
Published: December 2005

Mental constructions of alternatives to facts or events. These thoughts of ‘what might have been’ are linked to a variety of emotional and judgmental consequences.
Language Development, Critical Periods in
Authors: Newport EL
Published: December 2005

First language acquisition typically occurs in infancy and early childhood. An important question concerns whether the acquisition of a first or a second language shows a critical or sensitive period: that is, whether acquisition displays a normal course and leads to full proficiency in the language only when it begins early in life.
Culture and Cognitive Development
Authors: Cole Michael
Published: December 2005

Although it is widely believed that culture is fundamental to cognitive development, theoretical and empirical advances are impeded by severe methodological problems which render firm conclusions elusive.
Deductive Reasoning
Authors: Johnson‐Laird PN
Published: December 2005

Deductive reasoning yields conclusions that must be true given that the premises are true. The challenge to cognitive scientists is to discover the valid conclusions that human reasoners are competent to draw, and the mental processes underlying deductive performance.
Delusions
Authors: O'Donohue William , Lloyd Andrew
Published: December 2005

Delusions are strongly held false beliefs about reality. Although there is only moderate agreement as to what counts as a delusion, delusional beliefs and associated behaviors have long been regarded as evidence of insanity.
Depression
Authors: Abramson Lyn Y , Alloy Lauren B , Panzarella Catherine
Published: December 2005

Depressive disorders are characterized by persistent depressed mood or loss of interest (normally for at least two weeks) and at least four other symptoms such as change in eating patterns or appetite, sleep disturbance, psychomotor agitation or retardation, fatigue or loss of energy, feelings of worthlessness or guilt, difficulty in concentration, and suicidal thoughts, plans, or attempts.
Categorization, Development of
Authors: Mandler Jean M
Published: December 2005

Categorization occurs when individual items that can be discriminated from one another are considered to be the same or belong together because they are alike in some way.
Causal Perception, Development of
Authors: Oakes Lisa M
Published: December 2005

The perception of causality develops during the first year of life. In general, this development progresses from infants perceiving the individual elements of events (e.g. particular objects, whether or not those objects touch) to their perceiving the relationship between those objects.
Naive Theories, Development of
Authors: Gelman Susan A
Published: December 2005

A naive theory (also referred to as commonsense theory or folk theory) is a coherent set of knowledge and beliefs about a specific content domain (such as physics or psychology), which entails ontological commitments, attention to domain‐specific causal principles, and appeal to unobservable entities.
Object Concept, Development of
Authors: Baillargeon Renée , Luo Yuyan
Published: December 2005

How do infants conceive of objects? In particular, do infants realize that objects continue to exist when hidden? Recent research indicates that although infants represent hidden objects from a very early age, their ability to reason about these objects improves dramatically during the first year of life.
Speech Perception, Development of
Authors: Jusczyk Peter W
Published: December 2005

To acquire a language infants must be able to perceive its basic speech sounds. Infants are born with excellent abilities to discriminate a wide range of speech sounds. During the course of their first year, these capacities become more specialized for processing the sound patterns of their native language.
Developmental Disorders of Language
Authors: Benasich April A , Thomas Jennifer J
Published: December 2005

A developmental disorder of language is a significant delay or impairment in the expression and/or comprehension of language in the absence of a known cause.
Perception: The Ecological Approach
Authors: Turvey MT
Published: December 2005

The ecological approach to perception is a theoretical perspective on how animals, including humans, can be aware of their surroundings. It emphasizes the relevance of activity to defining the environment to be perceived.
Emotion
Authors: Niedenthal Paula M
Published: December 2005

Emotions are sets of processes involved in an organism's response to significant, goal‐relevant life events. Such processes include expressive behavior, cognitive appraisals, physiological arousal, action tendencies and subjective feelings.
Learning and Memory, the Ecology of
Authors: Galef Bennett G
Published: December 2005

Specialized learning and memory mechanisms have sometimes evolved in response to the particular demands of the ecological niches occupied by different species.
Psychology: Experimental Methods
Authors: Proctor Robert W , Capaldi EJ , Vu Kim‐Phuong L
Published: December 2005

Experimental methods in psychology are the procedures used to isolate the effects of manipulations on behavioral measures.
Cognitive Science: Experimental methods
Authors: Nickerson Raymond S
Published: December 2005

Cognitive activity can be studied in a variety of ways, including observation, simulation by computer modeling, and controlled experimentation.
Expertise
Authors: Lehmann Andreas C , Ericsson K Anders
Published: December 2005

Expertise refers to the cognitive, perceptual‐motor, and physiological mechanisms that allow experts to attain consistently superior levels of performance on representative activities in their domains.
Eye Movements
Authors: Tanenhaus Michael K
Published: December 2005

The organization of the retina requires the eyes to be able to move to alter the fixation of the gaze. These eye movements are closely linked to shifts in attention and have an important role in visual search, perception of scenes, and complex visual tasks.
Face Perception, Psychology of
Authors: O'Toole Alice J
Published: December 2005

Perceptual information from the human face can be used to determine the identity, sex, race, age, and current mood of an individual. It may serve also as a guide for social interaction, providing us with continually changing feedback about the emotional state of the people with whom we interact.
False Memory
Authors: Loftus Elizabeth F
Published: December 2005

False memory refers to the experience of thinking that we remember something from our past that did not really happen.
Gamma Oscillations in Humans
Authors: Tallon‐Baudry Catherine , Bertrand Olivier
Published: December 2005

Gamma oscillations in human electroencephalographic signals are defined by their frequency range, from 20 Hz up to 100 Hz. Different types of oscillations are related to arousal states, early sensory processes, and neural mechanisms of sensory or cognitive binding by oscillatory synchronization.
Gender Differences in Cognition and Educational Performance
Authors: Linn Marcia C , Kessel Cathy
Published: December 2005

Gender differences in cognitive and educational performance refer to the apparent differences in the cognitive abilities of men and women, especially with respect to spatial and verbal tasks. They have been ascribed to both cultural and biological influences.
Sex Differences in Cognition
Authors: Kimura Doreen
Published: December 2005

Men and women are known to differ reliably on a number of cognitive and motor abilities. Some biological influences on such abilities are reviewed.
Generalization
Authors: Urcuioli Peter J
Published: December 2005

Generalization is the finding that behavior explicitly conditioned to a stimulus also occurs without additional training to other, similar stimuli.
Perception, Gestalt Principles of
Authors: Enns James T
Published: December 2005

Gestalt principles of perception are those aspects of perception that cannot be defined in terms of smaller, constituent elements.
Gestalt
is a German word which translates in English as whole, configuration, or pattern.
Human–Computer Interaction
Authors: Carroll John M
Published: December 2005

Human–computer interaction is an area of applied cognitive science and engineering design. It is concerned both with understanding how people make use of devices and systems that incorporate computation, and with designing new devices and systems that enhance human performance and experience.
Human Factors and Ergonomics
Authors: Hancock Peter A , Parasuraman Raja
Published: December 2005

Human factors and ergonomics is the study and practice of designing technology around the capabilities, both physical and mental of the user. Included in the chapter are brief descriptions of neuroergonomics, the combining of neuroscience and ergonomics, and human factors and ergonomics in the twenty‐first century.
Hypnosis and Suggestion
Authors: Lynn Steven Jay , Kirsch Irving , Rhue Judith W , Green Joseph P
Published: December 2005

Hypnosis has been defined as a procedure in which a person designated as a hypnotist gives suggestions to a person designated as a subject, client, or patient for changes in sensations, perceptions, thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
Imagery
Authors: Wraga Maryjane , Kosslyn Stephen M
Published: December 2005

A mental image is an internal representation that produces the experience of perception in the absence of the appropriate sensory input.
Implicit Learning
Authors: Reber AS
Published: December 2005

Implicit learning is essentially learning without awareness. Knowledge that has been acquired implicitly is knowledge that has been acquired and held largely without conscious effort.
Individual Differences
Authors: Lubinski David , Webb Rose Mary
Published: December 2005

Variation among individuals is observed on various behavioral attributes, including global dimensions of human cognitive ability, interest, and personality, as well as more specific attributes. The scientific study of the nature and causes of human variation is known as the study of individual differences or differential psychology.
Inductive Reasoning, Psychology of
Authors: Sloman Steven
Published: December 2005

Inductive reasoning is the capacity to draw uncertain conclusions from known facts. Despite lacking a sound justification, people make inductions in systematic ways.
Infant Cognition
Authors: Woodward Amanda L
Published: December 2005

Cognition comprises the mind's processes for acquiring, interpreting, and storing information, as well as processes for reasoning and thinking abstractly. The period of infancy in humans is generally agreed to be the first two years of life, a time during which children are largely preverbal.
Information Processing
Authors: Townsend James T , Torii Kan
Published: December 2005

The information‐processing approach in cognitive science assumes mental architectures with various components that interact in order to manipulate incoming information.
Intuitive Physics
Authors: Proffitt Dennis R , Kaiser Mary K
Published: December 2005

Intuitive physics describes the common‐sense beliefs that people hold about how the world works. The study of intuitive physics has focused on people's beliefs about biology and physical mechanics.
Knowledge Representation, Psychology of
Authors: Markman Arthur B
Published: December 2005

‘Knowledge representation’ is an umbrella term for the methods by which information is stored in the mind for later use.
Language Comprehension
Authors: Gernsbacher Morton Ann , Kaschak Michael P
Published: December 2005

Language comprehension is the process whereby linguistic input (spoken or written) is transformed into meaning.
Learning, Psychology of
Authors: Hall Geoffrey
Published: December 2005

In its psychological usage, ‘learning’ refers to the process by which an animal (human or non‐human) interacts with its environment and becomes changed by this experience so that its subsequent behavior is modified.
Lexical Ambiguity Resolution
Authors: Van Petten Cyma
Published: December 2005

Most words have several meanings, yet readers and listeners are able to determine a writer's or speaker's intent from the word's context. Research on the resolution of lexical ambiguity has developed not only theories on how comprehenders settle on a single meaning, but also experimental paradigms for examining this process.
Linguistic Relativity
Authors: Boroditsky Lera
Published: December 2005

Languages differ dramatically from one another in terms of how they describe the world. Does having different ways of describing the world lead speakers of different languages also to have different ways of thinking about the world?
Memory, Long‐Term
Authors: Richardson‐Klavehn Alan , Bjork Robert A
Published: December 2005

Long‐term memory is central to cognitive functioning. Taking a wide variety of forms, from skills to general knowledge to memory for personal experiences, it is characterized by dynamic interactions between encoding and retrieval processes and by constructive processes, and thus differs fundamentally from current human‐made information storage systems.
Memory: Implicit versus Explicit
Authors: Mulligan Neil W
Published: December 2005

Human memory is expressed via conscious recollection (explicit memory) as well as through unconscious changes in behavior (implicit memory). Numerous dissociations indicate that these are distinct forms of memory mediated by different parts of the brain.
Memory Models
Authors: Murdock Bennet B
Published: December 2005

Memory models are formal (analytic or simulation) models of human episodic memory. Their goal is to help in the understanding of human episodic memory, and the test of their adequacy is their ability to fit or predict experimental findings.
Memory Mnemonics
Authors: Best John
Published: December 2005

Mnemonics are techniques that are used to improve both the amount of information that a person might retrieve from memory, and its accuracy. These techniques typically use highly overlearned organizational schemes and visual imagery.
Working Memory
Authors: Dosher Barbara A
Published: December 2005

Working memory is the capacity to manipulate and maintain information over short periods (2–15 seconds) in order to support simple memory tasks such as remembering a telephone number, or more general cognitive tasks such as problem solving, simple reasoning, or reading. Working memory consists of several distinguishable memory capacities, together with executive functions that manage information retrieval, reactivation, and transformation.
Mental Models
Authors: Brewer William F
Published: December 2005

A mental model is a form of mental representation for mechanical–causal domains that affords explanations in these domains. The term ‘mental model’ is also used to refer to specific mental representations of static spatial domains, and for model‐based reasoning about logic problems.
Metacognition
Authors: Scheck Petra , Nelson Thomas O
Published: December 2005

Metacognition is ‘cognition about one's own cognition’. Judgments about past or future memory performance can be examined with respect to their basis, their similarities to other judgments, and their accuracy at predicting memory performance.
Model Fitting
Authors: Myung In J , Pitt Mark A
Published: December 2005

In model fitting, the computational model under investigation is evaluated for its adequacy in describing the underlying regularities of observed data.
Motivation
Authors: Liberman Nira
Published: December 2005

The study of human motivation focuses on the objects of human pursuit, and how pursuit of these objects is structured and organized.
Motor Control and Learning
Authors: Mon‐Williams Mark , Tresilian James R , Wann John P
Published: December 2005

Motor control is concerned with the processes that allow the central nervous system to interact with the world. How we learn to control movement is central to our understanding of all human behavior.
Multidimensional Scaling
Authors: Steyvers Mark
Published: December 2005

Multidimensional scaling is a family of techniques for fitting spatial distance models to proximity data for the purpose of exploratory data analysis and/or analysis of the structure of mental representations.
Music Cognition
Authors: Palmer Caroline , Jungers Melissa K
Published: December 2005

Music cognition addresses the mental activities involved in perceiving, learning, remembering, and producing music.
Perception: Overview
Authors: Pomerantz James R
Published: December 2005

Perception is the complex sequence of processes by which we take the information received from our senses and then organize and interpret it, which in turn allows us to see and hear the world around us as meaningful, recognizable objects and events with clear locations in space and time.
Object Perception, Development of
Authors: Johnson Scott P
Published: December 2005

Infants are born with the ability to detect visible surfaces as separate from one another, but not to perceive them as linked behind an occluder. This latter ability develops rapidly across the first several months after birth.
Priming
Authors: Neely James H
Published: December 2005

Priming is a change in the response to a stimulus (the target) due to a recent exposure to it or a similar stimulus (the prime).
Priming in Psychopathology
Authors: Maher Brendan
Published: December 2005

Priming is a process involved in memory and in the preparation of responses to coming events. Anomalies in priming have been identified in some kinds of psychopathology, especially in the schizophrenias. Studies of priming by psychopathologists have been primarily interested in priming as a technique for the investigations of the influence of the activation of associations to a presented stimulus upon responses to subsequent stimuli. In this respect their purposes have differed somewhat from those of cognitive scientists interested in dissecting the components of normal cognition.
Problem Solving, Psychology of
Authors: Novick Laura R
Published: December 2005

Problem‐solving is the process by which a person represents the goal to be accomplished, determines a procedure for reaching the goal, executes that procedure, and evaluates the success of the solution attempt.
Prototype Representations
Authors: Hampton James A
Published: December 2005

Prototype representations represent classes in terms of their central or most typical example – the prototype – rather than in terms of an explicit definition of the class boundary. Classification is based on whether similarity to the prototype is above some threshold criterion value.
Psychoactive Drugs
Authors: D'Souza Deepak Cyril , Krystal John Harrison
Published: December 2005

Psychoactive drugs are chemical substances that influence the mind or mental processes by their effects on brain chemical messengers.
Quantitative Reasoning
Authors: van Marle Kristy , Wynn Karen
Published: December 2005

Quantitative reasoning refers to human and non‐human animals' sensitivity to and ability to represent different types of numerical information, including both discrete and continuous quantities, and to perform mental operations over these representations.
Reasoning
Authors: Oaksford Mike
Published: December 2005

Reasoning is a mental process by which given information is transformed into a new and more useful form.
Reading, Psychology of
Authors: Garrod Simon , Daneman Meredyth
Published: December 2005

The psychology of reading investigates the process by which readers extract visual information from written text and make sense of it.
Religious Thought
Authors: Lawson E Thomas
Published: December 2005

Religious thought is a type of cognitive processing that exploits, and is parasitic on, ordinary cognitive resources by minimally modifying standard conceptions of action and agency. Its cultural transmission is determined by its symbolic evocativeness, its subtle combination of intuitive and counter‐intuitive features, and its inferential potential.
Schemas in Psychology
Authors: Heit Evan
Published: December 2005

A schema is a source of general knowledge that tells us what to expect from observations, as well as providing a structure for understanding them.
Signal Detection Theory
Authors: MacDonald Justin A , Balakrishnan JD
Published: December 2005

Signal detection theory is one of the first attempts by psychologists to model the processes involved in elementary perceptual recognition tasks. The theory's main feature is a rigorous distinction between performance limits due to the quality of information provided by the senses (sensitivity), and limits arising from decision‐making strategies (bias).
Skill Learning
Authors: Carlson Richard A
Published: December 2005

Skill learning is the acquisition and improvement of mental or physical abilities through practice.
Sleep and Dreaming
Authors: Hobson J Allan
Published: December 2005

Sleep and dreaming have an important role in the regulation of cognition. New investigative techniques suggest that brain activity during sleep is fundamental to learning.
Social Cognition
Authors: Quinn Kimberly A , Macrae C Neil , Bodenhausen Galen V
Published: December 2005

Social cognition refers to the mental processes by which we make sense of our social worlds. The basic claim of the social cognition perspective is that accounting for the complex dynamics of social behavior requires an understanding of the cognitive structures and processes that shape the individual's understanding of the social situation.
Speech Production
Authors: Vigliocco Gabriella , Vinson David P
Published: December 2005

‘Speech production’ refers to the processes by which speakers make their thoughts and intentions known to listeners through the use of language. This includes retrieving information from memory (e.g. words), integrating different parts of information into a coherent whole (e.g. sentences), and physically producing the sounds that are required to realize an utterance.
Statistical Methods: Overview
Authors: Kruschke John K
Published: December 2005

Statistical methods specify how confident we can be to confirm or deny a claim.
Stereotypes
Authors: Fein Steven , von Hippel William
Published: December 2005

Stereotypes are consensual beliefs about group characteristics that influence the perception, interpretation, and evaluation of others, sometimes blatantly but often in a manner so subtle that they are outside awareness. Because they serve basic cognitive and motivational functions, stereotypes are highly resistant to change.
Spatial Cognition, Psychology of
Authors: Tversky Barbara
Published: December 2005

People think about space in terms of the elements in space and their spatial relations, not in metric terms. Different spaces are conceptualized differently: the space of the body, the space around the body, the space of navigation, and the metaphoric or miniature space of graphics.
Theory of Mind
Authors: Whiten Andrew
Published: December 2005

Theory of mind refers to the everyday psychology that we use to understand and explain our own and others' actions by reference to mental states, such as ‘desiring’, ‘knowing’ and ‘believing’.
Time Perception
Authors: Church Russell M
Published: December 2005

People and other animals are able to perceive the duration of intervals between events, and the accuracy of their perceptions can be assessed. In situations in which there are many different time intervals, these can be combined for the assessment of the typical interval. Associative learning is dependent upon time perception, and the mechanisms of time perception involve an internal clock.
Vision: Early Psychological Processes
Authors: Bennett Patrick J
Published: December 2005

Early visual processes encode the spatial and temporal distributions of light intensity in the two retinal images that carry information about the arrangement of surfaces in a scene. These early processes are important for visual perception because they constrain higher‐level processes such as object recognition.
Vision: Form Perception
Authors: Hoffman Donald D , Singh Manish
Published: December 2005

Human vision constructs the perceived two‐dimensional and three‐dimensional shapes of visual objects and scenes from retinal images that are inherently ambiguous. In the process it consults a variety of sources of information, including motion, shading, texture, occlusion, binocular disparity, and image contours.
Vision: Occlusion, Illusory Contours and ‘Filling‐in’
Authors: Kellman Philip J
Published: December 2005

Visual interpolation processes allow humans to perceive complete objects despite input that is fragmentary in space and time owing to occlusion. Mental representations of objects and surfaces, and their correspondence to real objects, depend heavily on interpolation processes that create both contour and surface connections among visible areas.
Vision: Object Recognition
Authors: Tarr Michael
Published: December 2005

Object recognition is the process whereby observers are able to recognize three‐dimensional objects despite receiving only two‐dimensional input that varies greatly depending on viewing conditions. Theories explaining this process differ in the nature of the underlying features, varying from two‐dimensional image properties to three‐dimensional parts.
Visual Scene Perception
Authors: Intraub Helene
Published: December 2005

When studying a scene, viewers can make as many as three or four eye fixations per second. A single fixation is typically enough to allow comprehension of a scene. What is remembered, however, is not a photographic replica, but a more abstract mental representation that captures the ‘gist’ and general layout of the scene along with a limited amount of detail.
Vision: Top‐Down Effects
Authors: Peterson Mary A
Published: December 2005

‘Top‐down effects’ are effects that originate in high levels of the hierarchy of visual processes and exert an influence at lower levels. Examples of visual information thought to reside at, or arise from, high levels in the hierarchy are: the perceiver's intentions, expectations, attentional goals, and memories established on the basis of past experience.
Word Meaning, Psychology of
Authors: Schwanenflugel Paula J , Parault Susan J
Published: December 2005

The psychology of word meaning concerns how words are organized, mentally depicted, and processed cognitively.
Word Recognition
Authors: Grainger Jonathan
Published: December 2005

Psychological research on visual word recognition aims to describe the information processing involved in identifying a given string of letters as a specific word during the reading process.
Language Comprehension and Verbal Working Memory
Authors: Waters Gloria S , Caplan David
Published: December 2005

Working memory is considered to be a specialized component of memory that is responsible for the temporary storage and manipulation of information necessary to accomplish a cognitive task. Language processing is an examplepar excellenceof a task that requires temporary storage and manipulation of information, and that therefore provides a domain in which ideas about working memory can be explored.
Prejudice
Authors: von Hippel William , Fein Steven
Published: December 2005

Prejudice is conscious or unconscious animosity towards members of other groups. Although far fewer people openly express dislike of other groups today than in the past, unconscious forms of prejudice are still common, and have a subtle influence on how people treat each other.
Self, Psychology of
Authors: Baumeister Roy F
Published: December 2005

Social psychology of self is the study of structures and processes through which people know and evaluate themselves, present themselves to others, and exert control.
Action
Authors: Adam Jos J , Buekers Martinus J
Published: December 2005

Action is the ability to move the body or body parts in a purposeful, coordinated manner in order to physically interact with the environment. It is based on the integration and cooperation of sensory and motor systems.
Addiction
Authors: Rebec George V
Published: December 2005

The essence of addiction is persistent performance of a behavior despite increasingly aversive consequences. This definition is most commonly used to describe the compulsive taking of drugs. An addict endures deteriorating health, social isolation, and other setbacks in maintaining a drug habit. In effect, addiction is the loss of control over drug use.
Tolman,EdwardC.
Authors: Innis Nancy K
Published: December 2005

American psychologist Edward C. Tolman (1886–1959) was author of the learning theory known as purposive behaviorism. Tolman is also noted for introducing important psychological concepts, such as the intervening variable and the cognitive map, which are widely used today.
T
versky,
A
mos
Authors: Bar‐Hillel Maya
Published: December 2005

Amos Tversky is best known for his pathbreaking work, along with Daniel Kahneman, on heuristics and biases in judgment under uncertainty, and for prospect theory, a theory of decision under uncertainty. His research showed that people are ‘irrational’, namely, their judgments and decisions deviate in systematic ways from normative dictates.
F
echner,
G
ustav
T
heodor
Authors: Link Stephen
Published: December 2005

Gustav Theodor Fechner (1801–1887) was a German physicist and philosopher whose application of mathematical and scientific methods to psychological theory established the science of psychophysics and laid the foundations of experimental psychology.
P
avlov,
I
van
P
etrovich
Authors: Bowen Richard
Published: December 2005

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849–1936) was a Russian physiologist most famous for his research on the conditioned response. His work provided a firm experimental grounding for many of the concepts currently accepted in psychology.
E
bbinghaus,
H
ermann
Authors: Hoffman Robert R , Bamberg Michael
Published: December 2005

Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909) was a German psychologist whose books, research, and ideas had a great effect on early psychological theory. He is often credited with founding the experimental psychology of the ‘higher mental processes’.
Helmholtz, Hermann von
Authors: Street Warren R , Tolin Philip
Published: December 2005

Hermann von Helmholtz (1821–1894) was one of the most productive and versatile scientists of the nineteenth century. His experimental, theoretical, and technical accomplishments advanced the fields of optics, physiology of hearing and vision, epistemology, electrodynamics, hydrodynamics, meteorology, mathematics, music, and the emerging science of experimental psychology.
Gibson,JamesJ.
Authors: Gibson Eleanor
Published: December 2005

James J. Gibson (1904–1979) was a leading American scholar and researcher in the field of perception. His dynamic and functional approach radically changed perceptual theories of the time and led to his own theory, the ecological approach to perception.
Wundt,Wilhelm
Authors: Rieber Robert W
Published: December 2005

Wilhelm Wundt is generally recognized as the founder of experimental psychology. He taught the first formal academic psychology course and helped establish psychology as a separate science.
F
reud,
S
igmund
Authors: Macmillan Malcolm
Published: December 2005

Sigmund Freud founded psychoanalysis between 1895 and 1900 as a therapy for neuroses but developed it as a method for investigating mental processes and as a general psychology. He applied psychoanalysis to such fields as anthropology, sociology, and literature, and it became one of the most influential of all twentieth‐century systems of thought. However, neither his original theory nor the variants descended from it have been widely accepted.
Lewin,Kurt
Authors: Kruse Lenelis , Graumann Carl F
Published: December 2005

Kurt Lewin (1890–1947) was one of the prominent figures in twentieth century psychology. His impact on psychology was fundamental to the development of experimental social psychology, cognitive psychology, and action research.
Phonology, Neural Basis of
Authors: Munhall KG
Published: December 2005

The phonology of a language includes a representation of the set of sounds used in the language and a representation of the rules for producing and perceiving the sounds in sequences. Clinical evidence from aphasic patients indicates that phonological impairment on language perception and production results from both anterior and posterior cortical lesions. Functional imaging research has confirmed this pattern and using these techniques a more detailed neural mapping of the neural basis of phonology is beginning.
H
ull,
C
lark L.
Authors: Smith Laurence D
Published: December 2005

Clark L. Hull (1884–1952) was a prominent American behaviorist and learning theorist, known for his influential book
Principles of Behavior
. He designed machine simulations of intelligence and proposed a mechanistic psychology that bridged behaviorism and cognitive psychology.
Instruction and Cognition
Authors: Mayer Richard E
Published: December 2005

During learning, instruction can guide cognitive processing, which in turn influences what is learned.
Memory
Authors: Bjorklund David F , Schneider Wolfgang , Blasi Carlos Hernández
Published: December 2005

Memory can be defined as the mental storage of information and the processes involved in the acquisition, retention, and retrieval of that information.
Thinking Skills
Authors: Halpern Diane F
Published: December 2005

There are many different types of thinking skills and frameworks for categorizing them. Good or clear thinking is called ‘critical thinking’. Critical thinking skills are those skills that increase the probability of a desirable outcome, and are essential to problem‐solving and decision‐making.
Self‐Regulated Learning
Authors: Schraw Gregory , Kauffman Douglas F , Lehman Stephen
Published: December 2005

Self‐regulated learning relates to our ability to understand and control our learning environments.
Cooperative and Collaborative Learning
Authors: O'Donnell Rutgers Angela M
Published: December 2005

Forms of cooperative or collaborative learning have been used for centuries and a variety of peer learning techniques have emerged. The underlying premise of these techniques is that learning is enhanced by peer interaction.
Learning Aids and Strategies
Authors: Sweller John
Published: December 2005

Knowledge about human cognitive architecture has transformed instructional design. The fact that we have a limited working memory and an effectively unlimited long‐term memory holding automated schemata can be used to derive principles that guide the manner in which information is presented and the activities learners should engage in.
Intellectual Ability
Authors: Sternberg Robert J
Published: December 2005

Intellectual abilities comprise those higher‐order cognitive skills that are involved in coping with the environments in which we live, including but not limited to learning and thinking skills. Intelligence, creativity, and wisdom are three of the major intellectual abilities.
Literacy: Reading (Early Stages)
Authors: Vellutino Frank R
Published: December 2005

Literacy is the ability to read and write. Early literacy development consists of a prealphabetic period wherein the child begins to learn about the nature and purpose of print; an alphabetic period wherein the child becomes conversant with the alphabetic code and acquires increasingly functional word identification and text processing skills; and an advanced alphabetic/orthographic period wherein the child masters the alphabetic code and becomes increasingly fluent in word identification and text processing.
Literacy: Reading (Later Stages)
Authors: Pressley Michael
Published: December 2005

The later stages of reading are largely concerned with comprehension or the construction of meaning, which requires both conscious and unconscious cognitive activity.
Mathematical Processes
Authors: Alibali Martha W
Published: December 2005

Mathematical thinking in the domains of number, arithmetic and algebra involves both core concepts and procedural skills. Understanding how mathematical knowledge is acquired and used can inform the design of mathematics instruction.
Learning and Instruction, Cognitive and Situative Theories of
Authors: Derry Sharon J , Steinkuehler Constance A
Published: December 2005

Cognitive theory, which views cognition as symbolic computation, and situativity theory, which views cognition as (inter)action in the social and material world, are two alternative theoretical perspectives on the nature of human learning. These theories are contrasted in terms of their implications for educational research and practice.
Instructional Design
Authors: Molenda Michael , Reigeluth Charles M , Nelson Laurie Miller
Published: December 2005

Instructional design is that branch of knowledge concerned with theory and practice, related to instructional strategies and systematic procedures for developing and implementing those strategies.
Speaking and Listening Skills
Authors: Abbeduto Leonard
Published: December 2005

Speaking and listening are conceptualized as goal‐directed, collaborative activities that reflect social practices and constraints inherent in the human information processing system. Research has focused on how these activities develop and vary across individuals and cultures.
Second Language Learning and Instruction
Authors: Graves Barbara
Published: December 2005

Our understanding of language development and second‐language learning has been narrowly conceived and has underestimated the interrelated and dialectical processes involved.
Phonetics
Authors: Roca IM
Published: December 2005

Phonetics is the discipline concerned with the study of the articulation, acoustics, and perception of the sounds of speech.
Games: Trust and Investment
Authors: Dickhaut John , Rustichini Aldo
Published: December 2005

Trust and investment games are experimental methods for assessing behaviorally the presence of trust and reciprocity.
Games: Centipede
Authors: Rapoport Amnon
Published: December 2005

The centipede game is a finiteN‐person extensive form game with perfect information for which the backward induction solution yields paradoxical results. It raises important questions concerning beliefs, knowledge, and rationality in interactive decision‐making, which can be examined both theoretically and experimentally.
Games: Coordination
Authors: Goeree Jacob K , Holt Charles A
Published: December 2005

Coordination games typically possess multiple Nash equilibria, some of which are preferred by one or more players. Coordination on desired equilibria can be facilitated by communication, repetition, and introspection.
Games: Signaling
Authors: Camerer Colin F
Published: December 2005

In a signaling game, a player who is informed privately about an unobservable quality that he or she has chooses an observable signal, which an uninformed player observes and reacts to. Game theory describes how players' choices and beliefs match (‘equilibrium’). Experiments show that behavior generally conforms to an equilibrium after players gain experience.
Games: Dictator
Authors: Rigdon Mary
Published: December 2005

A dictator game is a game between two players, a ‘dictator’ and a ‘serf’. The task is for the dictator to split some amountMof money between the two of them.
Theory‐of‐Mind in Two‐Person Experiments
Authors: Rigdon Mary
Published: December 2005

The theory of mind or folk psychology is appealed to by game theoretic concepts and explains behavior in a variety of bargaining environments.
Economics Experiments, Learning in
Authors: Goeree Jacob K , Holt Charles A
Published: December 2005

Models of learning in economics are used to explain how people use information about past prices and other signals to make good decisions. These models can be tested with economics experiments in which decisions are made in a sequence of rounds or trading periods.
Bayesian Learning in Games
Authors: Jordan JS
Published: December 2005

Bayesian learning is a method by which players in a game attempt to infer each other's future strategies from the observation of past actions. Under certain assumptions, learning is successful in the sense that players' expectations converge to Nash equilibria of the game.
Bidding Strategies in Single‐Unit Auctions
Authors: Wilson Bart
Published: December 2005

Economists have developed models of auctions to enhance our understanding of one of the most commonly observed exchange institutions. Auction models are used to examine the allocation of products from an auctioneer to a number of bidders. The optimal bidding strategies and efficiency of four different auction institutions (first‐price sealed bid, second‐price sealed bid, English, and Dutch) can be analysed.
Asset Market Experiments
Authors: Friedman Daniel , Kelley Hugh M
Published: December 2005

Laboratory evidence indicates that prices of financial assets such as stocks and bonds respond to changes in the assets' fundamental value but are also sometimes distorted by investors' cognitive and other biases.
Decision‐Making, Intertemporal
Authors: Laibson David
Published: December 2005

Intertemporal decisions imply trade‐offs between current and future rewards. Intertemporal discounting models formalize these trade‐offs by quantifying the values of delayed pay‐offs.
Minimal Group Experiments
Authors: Kurzban Robert
Published: December 2005

The ‘minimal group paradigm’ is an experimental method in which people are assigned to arbitrary groups, and then required to allocate rewards to members of their group or another group. The surprising result of these studies is that ingroup favoritism is elicited under these conditions, suggesting that merely placing people into different groups, even meaningless ones, leads to discrimination.
Inducing Risk Preferences
Authors: Dickhaut John , Prasnikar Vesna
Published: December 2005

Inducing preferences is a method of creating a laboratory commodity that enables tests of expected utility in both single‐person and multi‐person economic environments.
Neuroeconomics
Authors: McCabe Kevin
Published: December 2005

Neuroeconomics is the study of how the embodied brain interacts with its external environment to produce economic behavior. Research in this field will allow social scientists to better understand individuals' decision making, and consequently to better predict economic behavior.
Human Evolution
Authors: Lahr Marta Mirazón
Published: December 2005

The origin of human species and their relationships with the apes have been reassessed in the light of genetic studies. Hominins are now believed to have emerged in Africa about 7–5 million years ago.
Human Behavioral Ecology
Authors: Smith Eric Alden , Winterhalder Bruce
Published: December 2005

Human behavioral ecology applies theory and method developed in evolutionary biology, anthropology and economics to elucidate adaptive variation in human behavior, particularly social behavior. Hypotheses about resource use, mating and parenting strategies, cooperation and competition, and life history are derived from models using a selectionist logic, and empirically tested to increase our understanding of how humans adapt to their natural and social environments.
Gene–Culture Coevolution
Authors: Laland Kevin N
Published: December 2005

Evolution in species with a dynamic, socially transmitted culture may be different from evolution in other species. Population geneticists have proposed the gene–culture coevolutionary approach to describe the way in which cultural change may drive a population's biological evolution.
Human Brain, Evolution of the
Authors: Corballis Michael C
Published: December 2005

The human brain has evolved to be about three times as large as predicted in a primate of our body size. This may explain such uniquely human attributes as language and theory of mind.
Cultural Transmission and Diffusion
Authors: Aunger Robert
Published: December 2005

Cultural diffusion is the process by which information is disseminated through a population, typically by information exchanges among population members (cultural transmission), presumably with the involvement of social learning mechanisms.
Human Reproduction and Life Histories
Authors: Bentley Gillian R , Mace Ruth
Published: December 2005

Life history theory can explain varying patterns of human reproduction in different human societies given that organisms must allocate energy between the competing demands of growth, maintenance, and reproduction. One enigma to evolutionary theory is the demographic transition when humans began voluntarily to reduce fertility to what appear to be maladaptive levels.
Human Altruism
Authors: Batson C Daniel , Lishner David A , Stocks EL
Published: December 2005

Altruism is a motivational state with the ultimate goal of increasing another's welfare. It is contrasted with egoism, which is a motivational state with the ultimate goal of increasing one's own welfare.
Cooperation and Conflict, Large‐Scale Human
Authors: Gil‐White Francisco J , Richerson Peter J
Published: December 2005

Along with a few other animals such as bees, termites, ants and wasps, humans live in societies that cooperate for a common goal. Serving the greater good seems to go against basic Darwinian theory, so the question is, how and why have complex, cooperative societies developed in some species? In spite of so much cooperation, why do human societies remain so conflict ridden?