bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Jesus in the Underworld
Authors: Elliott J K
Published: November 2023

The Christian affirmation of belief in Jesus ‘ descent to Hades is in the Apostles ‘ Creed and in the so-called Athanasian Creed, as well as being article III in the Anglican Thirty-Nine Articles. The Biblical origin for this belief, which is a major and normative part of Christian tradition, seems to be based on a particular interpretation of I Peter 3: 19 ( ‘In the spirit he (Christ) went and preached to the imprisoned spirits ‘). Not that statement encouraged later generations of Christians to elaborate what was meant by Jesus ‘ appearance before imprisoned spirits. The apocryphal stories of Jesus ‘ descent to the underworld reflect those elaborations. The main text describing these events is the fifth-sixthcentury Descensus ad Inferos (the Descent of Jesus to Hades), found in several manuscripts as the second half of the Gospel of Nicodemus, the first half being the Acts of Pilate. Extracts from this text are printed under (1) below. In this tradition Jesus ‘ arrival in Hades after his death by crucifixion spells the end of death as a permanent state. ‘Hades ‘ by transference is the domain of the character, Hades (known elsewhere in mythology as Pluto). He rules over the world of departed spirits. This realm seems close to the idea of the Hebrew Sheol. (In the creeds the word ‘hell ‘ is erroneous and confusing.) Hades is not hell or Tartarus-those are names for the place of eternal punishment, and the opposite of heaven, the place of the eternally blessed. We read of heaven and hell in Chapter 15.
Introduction
Authors: Ward Keith
Published: November 2023

There is no one proper starting-point in theology, since every question leads on to every other. I have chosen to begin with an attempt to say what sort of discipline theology is, and what the proper methods of theological investigation are. Only when the study is complete will one be able to check back to see if such a preliminary analysis was correct. Theology is in fact a well-established intellectual discipline, which the most ancient universities in Europe, including my own, were founded to teach. So rather than beginning completely anew, it seems appropriate to start by examining the definition of one of the greatest of classical theologians, Thomas Aquinas. Accepting a modified version of Thomas’s account of theology as the rational elucidation of revealed truth, it is natural to proceed to a study of what revelation is. The main body of this volume is concerned with an investigation into the nature, sources, and limits of revelation.
Towards a Comparative Theology
Authors: Ward Keith
Published: November 2023

‘Christian theology should be pronounced to be a science.’ So declares Thomas Aquinas in article 2 of question I of the Summa Theologiae. The pronouncement seems alien to an age which recognizes physics, chemistry, and biology as sciences, but which is apt to regard theology as a rationalization of personal opinions. Scientific knowledge, since the seventeenth century, has been seen primarily as knowledge of the physical world obtained by observation and experiment. It may issue in universal and mathematically formulable laws, as in Newtonian mechanics, or it may be more a matter of classification based on careful and, where possible, repeated observations, as in some parts of botany. In either sense, there is an emphasis on observation which is repeatable in principle by any competent observer, and on the formulation of general principles of classification and regularity which clarify or explain very complex data.
Four Scriptural Traditions
Authors: Ward Keith
Published: November 2023

I have suggested that the primal religions which exist in the world today contain and are in large part dependent upon ideas of revelation. They provide living examples of traditions which contain many similar features to those from which the major world faiths sprang. Thus they provide insights into the development of notions of revelation which antedate those formulated by the world faiths. Such notions depend very much on unwritten tribal traditions, which are accepted as purely local, even when given a cosmic significance. It is characteristic of what are often called the ‘world faiths’ that they claim to possess a universal and definitive revelation, usually enshrined in a written canonical Scripture.
The Working Definition of Compliance
Authors: Hutter Bridget M
Published: November 2023

Inherent in the legal and administrative definitions of compliance is the assumption that no one definition is necessarily sufficient to cover all situations. Some discretion will inevitably be available to field-level officials, since full enforcement of the law is an impossibility: judgements always have to be made about both the meaning of the legal rule and its applicability to the problems encountered by officials. The resulting working definition of compliance is therefore not static, but is a fluid concept which comprises a variety of dimensions.
Responding to Complaints and Accidents: Reactive Enforcement Methods
Authors: Hutter Bridget M
Published: November 2023

In contrast to the relative predictability and routine of proactive methods of enforcement, reactive work is comparatively unpredictable and unstructured. There were two ways in which inspectorates were prompted to organize reactively: first, in response to complaints and secondly, in response to accidents and incidents.
Some Aspects of Service out of the Jurisdiction in English Law
Authors: Collins Lawrence
Published: November 2023

When this article was written in 1972, it was widely accepted that English law did not have a general rule that the court could decline to exercise its jurisdiction on the ground that another court was the more appropriate forum. Shortly before it was published the Court of Appeal had reaffirmed that, where the court had jurisdiction as a result of the defendant having been sued in England, mere balance of convenience was not a sufficient ground for depriving a plaintiff of the advantage of prosecuting his action in an English court: to justify an application for a stay of the proceedings, the defendant had to prove that continuance of the proceedings would be oppressive or an abuse of the process: Maharanee of Baroda v. Wildenstein [1972] 2 QB 283 (CA).
Decision
Authors: Westberg Daniel
Published: November 2023

Decision precedes deliberation in the sequence of action in the Summa. This seems curious, but it highlights the primary role of choice, basic to all voluntary human action, and the secondary role of deliberation. St Thomas states that when the judgement about an action is clear, then deliberation is not required.
Error, Sin, and Defective Action
Authors: Westberg Daniel
Published: November 2023

The practical intellect differs from the theoretic in the way it relates to reality. Because practical reason relates to action appetite is involved, and reality is considered under the aspect of a good, as the purpose of action. Practical intellect qua intellect, however, seeks not good (as that is formally the object of the will) but truth—truth related to action. Thus the general operation of the intellect involves relation to truth, with the possibility of good and bad understanding. The explanation of the origin of error in the intellect in general forms the basis for a preliminary account of error and sin in action as well.
Prudence as a Virtue
Authors: Westberg Daniel
Published: November 2023

One of the reasons for the growing emphasis on the will in medieval theology was its usefulness in explaining the possibility of sin: if the agent knows what he should or should not do, but acts contrary to this knowledge, the readiest explanation is lack of willpower, disobedience, or some other defect in the will.
Double Criminality
Authors: Stanbrook Ivor , Qc Clive Stanbrook
Published: November 2023

The general principles of extradition law, like those of international customary law, are founded on ‘the constant and uniform usage practised by States’. When States have a clear and continuous habit of acting in a certain way under the conviction that those actions are obligatory under international law, a firm and binding principle is established. In this sense, some common features of extradition arrangements between States may be said to have the authority of general principles whether or not they are expressed in treaties or endorsed by other sources of law.
Appeal: Habeas Corpus and Review
Authors: Stanbrook Ivor , Qc Clive Stanbrook
Published: November 2023

The final stages in the process of extradition from the United Kingdom involve an order made by the Secretary of State, acting on the magistrate’s committal order, for the return of the accused person to the requesting country. The order is not made until certain procedures have been followed.
Inward Extradition from the Irish Republic
Authors: Stanbrook Ivor , Qc Clive Stanbrook
Published: November 2023

Extradition arrangements between the Irish Republic and the United Kingdom are unique. Whereas the domestic law governing extradition between the United Kingdom and all other States is provided by the Extradition Act 1989, between the United Kingdom and the Republic the process is subject to separate legislation, enacted reciprocally. The British component of the process is the Backing of Warrants (Republic of Ireland) Act 1965 together with the Criminal Jurisdiction Act 1975. The Irish component is contained in Part III of the Republic’s Extradition Act 1965 as amended by the Extradition (European Convention on the Suppression of Terrorism) Act 1987 and the Extradition (Amendment) Act 1987 together with the Criminal Law (Jurisdiction) Act 1976.
Introduction
Authors: Prechal Sacha
Published: November 2023

Firstly, there is the impossibility of ‘ capturing’ the directive in terms of legal acts existing in national and international law. Although it was very quickly recognized that directives have no equivalent under either national or international law, this realization in no way facilitated legal analysis. Some authors attempted to overcome this difficulty somewhat by drawing parallels with framework legislation but this also failed to elucidate the matter. Secondly, the deficient definition given in Article 249(3) provoked a whole series of questions, leading some authors to propose the abolition of this instrument, which they believed to be rather a failure. The Commission itself even described.
Educating Oneself in Public
Authors: Moore Michal S
Published: November 2023

The eleven essays in Educating Oneself in Public: Critical Essays in Jurisprudence constitute an education in the Anglo-American jurisprudence of the second half of the twentieth century. The book examines both the thought of major figures such as H. L. A. Hart, Joseph Raz, Ronald Dworkin, Lon Fuller, and Richard Rorty, and the general themes of major movements such as legal realism, post-modernism, and pragmatism. Despite this focus on the thoughts of others the book is not a survey but is a critical probing of particular ideas often attributed to such figures. Detailed depth of understanding is sought about: Hart’s conception of a ‘general jurisprudence’ that describes law in general; Dworkin’s conception of an ‘internal jurisprudence’ that interprets the concept of law of our legal culture; Fuller’s ideal of a ‘functional jurisprudence’ that seeks the essence of law in the values it serves; the place of rules in legal and moral reasoning; Raz’s idea that laws give ‘exclusionary reasons’ to legal actors subject to such laws; how judges should reason, according to the legal realists; whether there are right answers to all disputed law cases; whether behind the obvious law of legal rules there can exist an unobvious law of legal principles; Finnis’s conception of the common good as the function law uniquely serves; in what sense law practice and legal theory are interpretive activities; whether all knowledge, or some discrete realm of knowledge, is peculiarly interpretive in character. Michael Moore’s views on each of these topics are detailed and original, even if the springboards for each discussion are the writings of those who introduced such topics into modern discussions. The introductory chapter includes responses by many of the figures examined in the other essays, together with the author’s rejoinders.
Agricultural support: the international context
Authors: Usher J A
Published: November 2023

Agriculture is an area where the trade of developed countries appears to be conducted on a highly artificial basis reflecting the system of support used in their internal markets. The reality is that agricultural trade is an area where developed countries have not been willing to allow free reign to market forces. Using OECD figures which compare agricultural support in terms of producer subsidy equivalent, whether it takes the form of price support or the form of a subsidy as such, the average level of support in the OECD member countries in 1999 was the equivalent of a producer subsidy of 40 per cent—which makes the Community figure of 49 per cent seem not far out of line.
Structural and guidance measures
Authors: Usher J A
Published: November 2023

The references in art 33 of the EC Treaty on the one hand to increasing agricultural productivity and on the other to the need to take account of the structural and natural disparities between the various agricultural regions themselves have indicated from the outset that the common agricultural policy must do more than simply offer a system of price or producer support. This view is further evidenced by the reference in art 34(3) to an agricultural guidance fund as well as to an agricultural guarantee fund. Indeed, the problems caused by large numbers of small farms were well recognized even when Community agricultural legislation was first discussed, and the Commission did propose the establishment of a separate European Fund for Structural Improvement. However, the Council decided to add structural measures to the Guidance Section of the general European Agricultural Guidance and Guarantee Fund (EAGGF), when that was split into two sections in Council Regulation 17/64.
The Sepulchre of Christ and the Medieval West
Authors: Morris Colin
Published: November 2023

The tomb of Christ at Jerusalem was a vital influence in the making of Western Europe. Pilgrimage there influenced the development of society and its structures. The desire to ‘bring the Sepulchre to the West’ in copies or memorials shaped art and religion, while the ambition to control Christ’s tomb was a central objective of the crusades. Western Europe responded to the loss of Jerusalem by creating a new pilgrimage to the East, by making kingdoms ‘holy lands’ for their subjects, and by creating new pilgrim centres at home. This book brings together social, political, and religious themes often considered in isolation.
Christendom Refashioned
Authors: Morris Colin
Published: November 2023

Scholars have doubted whether the crusades contributed much to the new Christendom: ‘probably the apricot was the only benefit brought back from the crusades by the Christians’. Even this negative judgement pales in the light of the onslaught upon the crusades delivered in the closing pages of Steven Runciman’s monumental history, where he argues that ‘seen in the perspective of history the whole crusading movement was a vast flasco’. These perceptions were formed from the distant landscape of the twentieth century; indeed, Runciman’s judgement seems to be delivered in the light of eternity.
Demystifying the role of sanctity in Western Christendom
Authors: Hayward Paul Antony
Published: November 2023

In the Stenton and Haskell Lectures, delivered in 1976 and 1978, Peter Brown completed the project he began with the publication of the ‘Holy Man’ article in 1971. Whereas the earlier paper examined the rise and function of the cult of saints in the Roman Empire’s eastern half, these lectures addressed the cult’s rise and function in its western half, where the veneration of the dead saint bulked larger in the sources than the activities of the living holy man. Here, apparently, the cult was centred upon the bodily remains of past heroes of the Church, who continued to preside over everyday life, directing good fortune to those who had attended to their requirements and bad fortune to those who had not. The aim of this essay is to discuss some strengths and weaknesses of Brown’s analysis and to identify insights upon which scholars might continue to build. It is useful to begin by elucidating the intellectual origins of Brown’s position.
The missionary Life
Authors: Wood Ian N
Published: November 2023

The great tale of the evangelization of pagan peoples, which encompasses Europe east of the Rhine from the late seventh century, is usually seen as a succession of saintly histories. This is scarcely surprising for the tale itself has to be reconstructed in large measure from saints’ Vitae. These and a handful of related texts provide us with the vast majority of our narrative information for mission, at least from 750 until the eleventh century; and even if Adam of Bremen marks a change in the second half of that century, his account of the missions to Scandinavia before 900 is essentially a paraphrase of Rimbert’s Life of Anskar and the anonymous Life of Rimbert.
Origins of the Thecla Cult
Authors: Davis Stephen J
Published: November 2023

For Christians living in the late Roman Empire, holiness was by no means simply a private matter. Not only were holy virtues preached to the laity from public pulpits, but ‘holy persons’ —especially heroic monks and martyrs—were understood by many to be conduits of both spiritual and social power. In the eyes of the faithful, such figures played important civic roles as healers, exorcists, patrons, counsellors, and arbiters of disputes. During life, their personal sanctity attracted cadres of adher- ents and onlookers; after death, their exploits were retold (and multiplied) in hagiographical narratives.
The Environment and Constitutional Change
Authors: Macrory Richard
Published: November 2023

This chapter considers one sector of policy, the environment, and its relationship to constitutional change in this country. The last twenty-five years have seen an extraordinary development in the politics of the environment. Major international environmental treaties have been negotiated, the national legal framework has changed beyond recognition, and there have been significant developments to the structures of UK administration responsible for the regulation and delivery of environmental policy. Membership of environmental organizations in the early 1990s exceeded the total membership of political parties. A number of the themes discussed in previous chapters, such as the development of legal rights to information and participation, and the principle of subsidiarity, were first played out on the environmental stage. Elements of constitutional changes now under way, including devolution, an enlarged European Union, and the incorporation of the European Convention on Human Rights can be expected to influence profoundly the context in which environmental policies are negotiated and developed in the future.
Government Formation from Hung Parliament
Authors: Brazier Rodney
Published: November 2023

The election of a hung Parliament1presents a broad range of possible procedures and resulting government structures: there are precedents this century which provide a dazzling array of choice. So a Prime Minister, having failed to secure a majority at the general election, might resign immediately, or stay in office to negotiate a coalition, or wait to meet Parliament to have his fate decided on the motion on the loyal address in reply to the Queen’s Speech. The Sovereign might take some part in the resolution of the crisis, or none. There could be a protracted succession, or a resolution almost as speedy as if the electorate had returned a majority government.
The Prime Minister
Authors: Brazier Rodney
Published: November 2023

A careful reading of histories and biographies makes me feel that the power of a Prime Minister has steadily grown ... [T]he very comple:x1ty of affairs leads to a concentration of authority in his hands (Harold Macmillan, writing in 1972).
Exclusive rights and state Monopolies under Ec law
Authors: Sierra Jose Luis Buendia , Read Andrew
Published: November 2023

The understanding of Article 86 (formerly Article 90) of the EC Treaty is vital to any competition lawyer working in Europe. Writing with first-hand experience of dealing with Article 86 cases at DG IV, the author provides the first such detailed examination of this Article and the law concerning exclusive rights and State monopolies. Clearly written, with penetrating analysis of the relevant case-law, this study pays attention to all the key areas including: the definition of 'exclusive rights' and 'economic activities', the remedial possibilities offered by the often neglected Article 31(formerly Article 37), the application of Article 86(1) in conjunction with the competition rules (Article 82 (formerly Article 86)), proportionality in the context of Article 86(2) and decisions and directives under Article 86(3) and their relationship with harmonization directives. With practical insights and intelligent solutions to many of the problems posed by the applications of these rules, Exclusive Rights and State Monopolies under EC Law will become an indispensible work for all practitioners in this field.
The Exception Contained In Article 86(2) (Formerly Article 90(2)) Of The Ec Treaty
Authors: Buendia Sierra Jose Luis , Read Andrew
Published: November 2023

The previous chapters have analysed the extent to which Articles 31 and 86(1) (formerly Articles 37 and 90(1)) in conjunction with other Treaty provisions prohibit Member States from granting or maintaining exclusive rights in favour of certain undertakings. From these chapters it is clear that to the extent that the activity in question is an economic activity and trade between Member States may be affected, the majority of exclusive rights infringe one of the prohibitions contained in the Treaty. However, this does not mean that all these exclusive rights are incompatible with the Treaty. To reach such a conclusion it is not enough simply to show that a Treaty provision has been infringed: it is also necessary to check to see whether the exceptions provided by the Treaty apply or not.
Institutional And Procedural Questions-Article 86(3) (Formerly Article 90(3)) Of The Ec Treaty
Authors: Buendia Sierra Jose Luis , Read Andrew
Published: November 2023

The question of the application procedures of the Community rules regardingexclusive rights is much more complicated and of greater scope than may first appear. In fact, Article 86(3) (formerly Article 90(3)) provides a special procedure intended not only to bring an end to infringements of Article 86( 1) committed by Member States, but also to adopt general measures designed to define the scope of the obligations under Article 86(1) and/or to prevent future infringements.
A Plan For The Future Of Music Performance Rights Organizations In The Digital Age
Authors: Lincoff* Bennett m.
Published: November 2023

Collective management of music performance rights has been the standard practice since 1851 when SACEM,1 the French rights society, was estab lished. Today, a worldwide network of affiliated performance rights organi zations (PROs) is in operation. Each functions within its own territory as a clearinghouse, making markets between those who own copyrighted music and those whose public performance of it requires the owner’s authorization.
A Public-Regarding Approach To Contracting Over Copyrights
Authors: elkin-koren* Niva
Published: November 2023

Not long ago, book publishers and record companies, movie producers and software publishing-houses, perceived cyberspace as the biggest threat ever to their hegemony over the market for content. Many pages of law review arti cles and committee reports were devoted to the challenges created by digital technology to the interests protected by copyright law. Cheap and easy copy ing, we were warned, would bring about the death of copyright and signal the end of the content industries.
A Political Economy Of The Public Domain: Markets In Information Goods Versus The Marketplace of Ideas
Authors: * Yochai benkler
Published: November 2023

Here’s one for freedom of the press. The Washington Post and the Los Angeles Times are trying to get the government to prevent some readers from debating the political implications of their stories on a web-based forum. Well, not quite, but too close for comfort. The website is called Free Republic. It includes a forum where conservatives share news clippings and exchange opinions online. Users who read articles they think deserve com ment cut and paste them onto the forum
Balancing proprietary and public domain interests: inside or outside of proprietary rights?
Authors: dreier* Thomas
Published: November 2023

As the previous chapters have demonstrated, there is little consensus-possi bly less than ever before in the history of intellectual property protection-as to what constitutes an adequate balance between proprietary intellectual property rights and the public interest. Such debates are by no means new. Ever since the inception of modern intellectual property law, the monopoly character of exclusive rights has been subjected to examination. In repeated waves of criticism, both the rationale for granting intellectual property pro tection to intangibles and the details of this protection, have undergone scrutiny. So far, intellectual property rights have more than resisted these attacks: indeed, the last decades have seen a trend of ever increasing protec tion. The crucial question now is whether intellectual property can withstand the attacks of the future. The answer depends on the extent to which intellec tual property law will be capable of accommodating nonproprietary interests and on the extent to which public values must be safeguarded by legal instru ments outside of intellectual property protection.
Policy Versus Principle
Authors: Lewis Richard
Published: November 2023

This chapter examines the main reasons used to justify the different results which the law may reach when faced with the collateral benefit problem. We have already identified the three basic policy solutions which are available, and these form the basis for the organisation of much of this first part of the book.
The Policy of Cumulation
Authors: Lewis Richard
Published: November 2023

Cumulation occurs where damages take no account of the other contributing sources of compensation. The claimant receives damages in full, irrespective of the extent to which his losses already may have been made good by other sources. For claimants, this is the most favourable of the three policy solutions identified in this part of the book because it enables them to receive multiple compensation without being required to repay their collateral sources.
Particular Problem Areas
Authors: Lewis Richard
Published: November 2023

Although the recovery scheme operates in a straightforward manner in relation to the great majority of claims for damages for personal injury, there are several areas where particular difficulties exist and special rules have been made. The main examples concern the payment of damages not in one lump sum but by two or more installments.
Taking Security in France
Authors: Gdanski Martin
Published: November 2023

Other chapters have explained that, in Anglo-American legal systems, it is frequently possible for a creditor to obtain security over all present and future assets of the debtor. In the United Kingdom a debenture may contain fixed charges over those present and future assets which are susceptible to a fixed charge and contain a floating charge over all other present and future assets of the company. Such security is relatively easy to create and can often be created by one document, although it does require to be registered at Companies House.
Outlines of Security Interests under German Law
Authors: Jakel Dr Burkhard
Published: November 2023

Access to capital is indispensable for the functioning and prosperity of a modern market economy. Capital is the basis for investment by a company, which ideally will deploy the capital to create jobs and growth to the benefit of the economy as a whole.
The Regulation of Territorial Restraints in Intellectual Property Right Licensing Agreements under Article 85
Authors: Anderman Steven D
Published: November 2023

The degree of territorial exclusivity which the licensor can offer the licensee is at the heart of the commercial exchange in a technology licensing agreement. For the licensee the acquisition of a licence means that it is prepared to take on the risks of investing capital in manufacturing premises and plant and a distribution system rather than the costs of an elaborate in-house R&D programme. However, unless there is some protection from competition from the licensor and other licensees in its home territory it will have little incentive to take on such risks. The licensee’s need for time to tool up, to acquaint itself with the technology and to establish itself as a manufacturer with a distribution system before being subjected to competition from the licensor or other prior licensees is often so great that without such contractual protection many licensees would be deterred from making the investment.
Discriminatory Pricing and Intellectual Property Rights
Authors: Anderman Steven D
Published: November 2023

Discriminatory pricing is prohibited by Article 86(c) which defines it as ‘applying dissimilar conditions to equivalent transactions with other trading parties thereby placing them at a competitive disadvantage’.
Graph Theory as I Have Known It
Authors: Ball John , Welsh Dominic
Published: November 2023

This book provides a unique and unusual introduction to graph theory by one of the founding fathers, and will be of interest to all researchers in the subject. It is not intended as a comprehensive treatise, but rather as an account of those parts of the theory that have been of special interest to the author. Professor Tutte details his experience in the area, and provides a fascinating insight into how he was led to his theorems and the proofs he used. As well as being of historical interest it provides a useful starting point for research, with references to further suggested books as well as the original papers. The book starts by detailing the first problems worked on by Professor Tutte and his colleagues during his days as an undergraduate member of the Trinity Mathematical Society in Cambridge. It covers subjects such as comnbinatorial problems in chess, the algebraicization of graph theory, reconstruction of graphs, and the chromatic eigenvalues. In each case fascinating historical and biographical information about the author's research is provided.
Integrating paradigms, methodological implications
Authors: Breakwe11 Glynis M
Published: November 2023

This has major implications for the empirical approaches which should be adopted when exploring social representations. It suggests that intra-group dynamics and inter-group relations will direct or channel the formation of any specific social representation. This requires that the theorist should formulate clear predictions concerning the structure of a representation as revealed in the thought, utterances, and action of the individual in relation to that individual’s position in a group. It calls for the analysis of likely implications of changes in group structure for the representation. It necessitates consideration of the inter-group processes which promulgate the social representation and afford it a venue in which to be used. It emphasizes that representations are embedded in complex representational networks and that they are liable to change, whether in a subtle or a global way, as a result of their relationships to each other.
Social representations of mental illness: lay and professional perspectives
Authors: Zani Bruna
Published: November 2023

This topic has been the subject of considerable discussion and debate in Italy over the past few years, following the profound changes in the fields of psychiatry and health care. Indeed, reforms were passed in 1978 that initiated an extremely important process of change affecting not only the theoretical categories used to interpret mental illness, but also the methods of psychiatric assistance: the juridical concept of ‘social dangerousness’ of the mentally ill has disappeared; psychiatric hospitals have been closed to new inmates; decentralized services at a local level have been strengthened; and psychiatry’s primary function as custodian (curing was only secondary) has become health-orientated, centred around prevention and therapy.
Regions and Subregions of the Cingulate Cortex
Authors: Vogt Brent A
Published: November 2023

The regional and subregional organization of the primate cingulate cortex is in dispute long after the seminal cytoarchitectural work of Brodmann (1909). He defined the anterior and posterior cingulate cortices and their component areas; however, no functions were known for these regions a century ago and this duality only referred to broad anatomical variations. Recent human neuroimaging studies seek to localize functional responses and refer to parts of the cingulate gyrus in terms of anterior or posterior locations and the Brodmann areas based on the co-registration of the Brodmann’s map to a single case by Talairach and Tournoux (1988). Since most neuroimaging studies do not draw conclusions about the cytoarchitectural bases of functional observations and the Brodmann duality is generally taken at face value, a confusing overlay of adjectives has evolved for different parts of the cortex. Thus, functional references to places on the cingulate gyrus do not refer to a comprehensive model with predictive power or histologically bounded areas, but provide site coordinates with general functional inferences. It is striking that no functional study has ever activated the entire anterior cingulate cortex of Brodmann to demonstrate its functional uniformity as implied by current usage of Brodmann’s hypotheses. An alternative approach to cingulate cortex is embodied in the concept of a neurobiological model that is derived from more than one disciplinary research resource, it is based on structure/function correlations and connections, and it makes predictions about the role of a region in specific aspects of information processing.
µ-opioid receptors, placebo map, descending systems and Cingulate-Mediated Control of Vocalization and Pain
Authors: Vogt Brent A , Vogt Leslie J
Published: November 2023

Efforts to control pain, anxiety, depression, and chronic stress syndromes increasingly seek to target the cingulate cortex as one of the privileged sites of “top–down regulation” of emotional motor systems. Its role in anticipation, the expectation of pain control via placebo events and hypnosedation are discussed throughout this section of the book in great detail. Although critical information processing including access to emotional memories, valenced objects and contexts, assessment of behavioral outcomes and links to internal states depend on cingulate cortex, its role in implementing control of emotional motor systems is equally important. Indeed, cingulate cortex has one of the most extensive cortical and subcortical projection systems to regulate emotional output of the cerebral cortex as outlined below. The pivotal location of opioid receptors (MOR) in anterior cingulate and midcingulate cortices (ACC, MCC, respectively) assures a role for opioids in mediating these massive output systems and is likely why the opiate placebo is such a powerful event in medical practice and pharmaceutical interventions. Classical views of limbic cortex emphasized the role of cingulate cortex in emotion and family-related behavior (MacLean, 1990, 1993). Although the MacLean Papez model (MacLean, 1954) did not have specific sites for control of emotional motor systems, MacLean’s later formulation of the thalamocingulate division of the triune brain identifies maternal–infant interactions as a key example of family-related behavior and its mediation by vocalization, the separation cry, and even pain associated with separation.
Impact Of Functional Visceral And Somatic Pain/Stress Syndromes On Cingulate Cortex
Authors: Derbyshire Stuart W G , Bremner J Douglas
Published: November 2023

In contrast to many clinical pain syndromes, wherein a medical history and physical examination usually lead to the diagnosis of a structural lesion or biochemical alteration, the functional pain syndromes are without fixed organic peripheral changes. The functional pain disorders include fibromyalgia (FM), atypical facial pain (also termed idiopathic facial pain), non-specific low-back pain (NSLBP), and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), and are characterized by their persistence, intractability, and apparent absence of peripheral disease. Various psychiatric designations have been applied to pain disorders that are characterized by medically unexplained symptoms: somatization, somatoform disorders, psychogenic disease, chronic multisymptom illness, affective spectrum disorders, and central sensitization syndromes as well as functional disorders (Barsky & Borus, 1999; Clauw & Chrousos, 1997; Clauw et al.,1997; Hudson et al.,1992; Hudson & Pope, 1989; Wessely et al.,1999). A functional disorder is one that, after appropriate medical assessment, cannot be explained in terms of a conventionally defined medical disease based on biochemical or structural abnormalities (Derbyshire et al.,2004; Wessely et al.,1999; Drossman et al.,2000).Although these disorders are routinely assessed and viewed as separate clinical entities, combining these systemic and regional conditions in a review is justified by several observations: (1) there is considerable overlap in the case definitions of specific syndromes, (2) the disorders co-aggregate in individuals, (3) patients with different syndromes share non-symptom characteristics, (4) the functional syndromes all respond to similar therapies, (5) the syndromes share common neurobiological mechanisms, such as abnormal sensory processing, neuroendocrine, and autonomic dysfunction (Wessely et al.,1999),
One-Dimensional Flows in a Simple Shock Tube
Authors: Glass Irvine I , Sislian J P
Published: November 2023

The shock-tube problem, which is a particular case of the more general Riemann problem (see [1] of Chapter 3), can be stated as follows: given an inviscid, perfect gas at high pressure and another at low pressure, separated by a diaphragm in an infinite tube of uniform cross section, what type of flow is generated when the diaphragm is removed instantaneously? The resulting wave system can be established by considering transition relations for shocks and isentropic waves in the (u, p)-plane and their graphical representation ([1] of Chapter 3).
Two-Dimensional Studies of Oblique Shock-Wave Reflection and Diffraction
Authors: Glass Irvine I , Sislian J P
Published: November 2023

The nonstationary interaction of shock waves is one of the most important and unsolved problems of gas dynamics. These interactions usually entail a complex system of oblique shock waves and up until recently were practically difficult to predict analytically or by computational fluid-dynamic methods. Therefore, such interactions were mainly investigated experimentally in shock tubes. They are of interest for two main reasons: first, they involve a great deal of high-temperature, gas-dynamic effects and, secondly interferometric shock-tube data provide for computer code validation relevant to explosion dynamics. Computational data provide engineers with the pressure, velocity, and other flow properties required to build explosion-resistant structures.
Ray matrices and Gaussian beams
Authors: Brooker Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

A Gaussian beam is a beam of light whose profile varies in a Gaussian way with radial distance from its central axis. Such beams are of great importance in modern optics because the output from a laser is very often of this form. This chapter starts with an introduction to matrix methods. Although the connection is not at first obvious, it turns out that these matrices are just what we need to describe the way in which a Gaussian beam propagates.
Coherence: qualitative
Authors: Brooker Geoffrey
Published: November 2023

Real light is not exactly monochromatic, but contains a range of frequencies. A single spectral line covers a frequency range, its linewidth, typically a few gigahertz. Even the output from a laser contains a range of frequencies.
Education and the emergence of a literate society
Authors: Black Robert
Published: November 2023

Literacy was remarkably widespread in north-central Italy during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. In 1288 Bonvesin da la Riva declared that, in his native city of Milan, ‘there were more than 70 elementary masters teaching reading and writing’. Giovanni Villani, writing at the end of the 1330s, said that ‘8000 to 10,000 boys and girls’ were ‘learning to read’ in Florence.2 According to one estimate, this means that ‘Florence had a male schooling rate of 67 to 83 percent’. Although the accuracy of Villani’s figures has been doubted, they tally with the picture of literacy disclosed by the Florentine tax records (Catasto) of 1427. Each head of household was obliged to submit a declaration copied in his own hand. The vast majority of householders complied, and roughly 20 percent had to have their submissions written by a relative, notary, or friend because they were illiterate, which confirms an overall male literacy rate of about 80 percent for the city.
The power of the elites: family, patronage, and the state
Authors: Kent Dale
Published: November 2023

Most states of Renaissance Italy were governed de facto, if not de jure, by a small group of elite families in whose hands power, usually associated with wealth, was concentrated. From 1300, the golden age of the independent communes, to 1550, when great territorial states like Florentine Tuscany and Milanese Lombardy were ruled under the aegis of the Spanish Empire, through changes of regime and constitution, despite recurrent plagues after 1348 and invasions beginning in 1494, the elites endured.This was true of both republics and the principates ( signorie) that were once misleadingly regarded as despotisms or tyrannies on the assumption that the rule of their lords was absolute.
Ecclesiastical institutions
Authors: Azzara Claudio
Published: November 2023

Early Christianization of the Roman world took place mainly in the cities in ways that reflected the peculiarly urban character of the empire. Following the Edict of Theodosius of 380 that made Christianity the sole state religion, ecclesiastical institutions that had previously developed slowly and with little unity now began to be organized in more stable and permanent ways.

Each local Christian community was headed by an episcopus (bishop, ‘overseer’) who acted as ruler, teacher, and administrator of the sacraments, starting from the ordination of priests and confirmation.
Lay and ecclesiastical culture
Authors: Villa Claudia
Published: November 2023

The cultural history of the two centuries from the arrival of the Lombards in Italy to the collapse of their kingdom in 774 has long posed problems of evaluation. As early as the eighteenth century the Italian antiquary Gerolamo Tiraboschi (1731-94) noted the very limited quantity and quality of literary productions surviving from this era, which led him to question the judgement of Ludovico Mura tori (1672-1750 ). Muratori had been more attentive to juridical aspects and so readier to think well of the two centuries of Lombard domination, and saw in the long period of peace evidence that the groups indentified as Lombards and Romans had been able to live and work together.
The Reformed Tradition
Authors: Ward Keith
Published: November 2023

The unity of the church has always been a main preoccupation of Christendom. Cyprian had argued for the maintenance of that unity through obedience to an apostolic succession of bishops, who were themselves to be united through regular general councils of the church. But each general council managed to produce further divisions in the church, as large bodies of bishops found themselves unable to accept the conciliar decisions. The Eastern Patriarchates allied themselves with the Byzantine emperor, and anathematized the Arian, Monophysite, and Nestorian churches. These Patriarchates lost almost all influence after the collapse of the Byzantine Empire, and the Eastern ‘churches of the seven councils’ developed into a number of national churches, most notably the Greek and Russian, which on the whole set their face against any innovation whatsoever.
The State And New Industrial Relations
Authors: Clark Ian
Published: November 2023

The practices and process of ‘new industrial relations’ and human resource management have become the primary agenda of industrial relations research and teaching whether prescriptive or critical (see Storey 1992, 1995; and Edwards 1995); notwithstanding this primacy new industrial relations and human resource management are of no use in themselves; they are propagated as mechanisms to rejuvenate the British economy, its manufacturing sector :in particular, and connect with current dynamics in capitalist production. Without an evaluation of the problematic nature of the wider dynamics of capitalist production new industrial relations and human resource management are both abstract and decontextual.
Trade Union Law Since 1979
Authors: Dunn Stephen , Metcalf David
Published: November 2023

Allan Flanders once suggested that ‘the tradition of voluntarism cannot be legislated againsf (1974: 365). By voluntarism he meant the collective bargaining system that had developed over the century in the UK with scant help or hindrance from the law (Kahn-Freund’s ‘collective laissez faire’ (1959) ). His judgement was made when the Industrial Relations Act, an ambitious labour code introduced at a stroke, was nearing the end of its short, blighted life. The Act’s failure reinforced a then conventional academic wisdom that legislation was unhelpful in reforming Britain’s troubled system. As Flanders himself stated ‘it is clear that the law is a very inadequate, dangerous and dubious means for trying to modify any established modes of conduct of trade unions’ (1974: 365).
Japanization And New Industrial Relations
Authors: Grant David
Published: November 2023

By the end of January 1993 there were 167 Japanese manufacturers in the UK employing a total of 50,315 local workers (AJEI 1992; JETRO 1993).1 These companies are portrayed as being in the vanguard of employers who have implemented new industrial relations practices in the UK (Bassett 1986; Wickens 1987; White and Trevor 1983; Trevor 1988; IRS 1990; Roberts 1988; Gleave and Oliver 1990; Reitsperger 1986a; Garrahan and Stewart 1992). So as to survive both the direct challenge of Japanese competitors and the economic climate of the 1980s and 1990s Japanese management techniques have also been widely adopted among UK companies. In the sense that Japanese management techniques are representative of new industrial relations practices this further embellishes the argument that they are a key characteristic of new industrial relations in the UK.
George Eliot
Authors: Ashton Rosemary
Published: November 2023

Definitive, concise, and very interesting. From William Shakespeare to Winston Churchill, the Very Interesting People series provides authoritative bite-sized biographies of Britain’s most fascinating historical figures—people whose influence and importance have stood the test of time. Each book in the series is based upon the biographical entry from the world-famous Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.