bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Chemical and Tensile Properties of Unsaturated Polyester and Polyacrylonitrile Semi-interpenetrating Polymer Network Coated Bamboo Fibers
Authors: Kumar H. , Siddaramaiah  , Roopa S.
Published: January 2005

The semi-interpenetrating polymer networks (SIPNs) of unsaturated polyester (USP) with polyacrylonitrile (PAN) in proportions of 50/50 and 70/30 USP/PAN by weight has been coated on the surface of alkali-treated and untreated bamboo fibers (Bambusa balcooa). The tensile load at break and chemical resistance of bamboo fibers before and after coating with IPNs has been studied. It is observed that the tensile load at break and chemical resistance of bamboo fibers increased on coating, indicating that USP/PAN and bamboo fibers are favorable materials for making composites.
Understanding and Managing the Unknown
Authors: Abbott John
Published: January 2005

Individuals, organizations, and urban regions face a complex and uncertain future. Planning is about changing the future and therefore must try to understand what is known and unknown about the future. Planning involves understanding and managing uncertainty—focusing on what is unknown as well as what is known. Uncertainty arises from the environment or planning context— environmental uncertainty—but also from the planning process itself— process uncertainty. This article builds on research and practice to identify dimensions of uncertainty in planning. Understanding these dimensions will assist planners in establishing planning processes and in managing their ongoing dynamics. To be effective, planning needs to push the bounds of possibility, and this will raise uncertainty and the possibility of disagreement and failure.
A Choice-Based Rationale for Land Use and Transportation Alternatives
Authors: Levine Jonathan , Inam Aseem , Torng Gwo-Wei
Published: January 2005

The usefulness of land use and transportation approaches including new urbanism, smart growth, transit villages, and jobs-housing balance is frequently assessed based on the capacity of these innovations to reduce auto use. This study, in contrast, argues that regulatory barriers to these approaches underpin their relative scarcity and that removal of these barriers demands no justification in proof of travel-behavior modification. Rather, such reform can improve the fit between people’s transportation-land use preferences and actual neighborhood choices. This fit is compared here between two distinct U.S. metropolitan areas: Boston and Atlanta. In providing a greater range of neighborhood types, Boston allowed a closer fit between household transportation-land use preference and actual neighborhood choice than did Atlanta. This suggests the potential gains in household choice from removal of barriers to alternative development forms.
How to Think about Place and People Approaches to Poverty
Authors: Spencer James H.
Published: January 2005

Spatially concentrated poverty has been the subject of scholarly research and policy debates since at least the late 1980s. The frameworks for understanding these studies and debates have focused on causes related to individuals, or “people,” and neighborhoods, or “places.” This article reviews the literature on people-based and place-based policy, suggesting that the dichotomy obscures important spatial impacts of individual entitlements and the impact of place-based policies on individual residents. The study empirically examines the implementation of the Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) in Los Angeles and compares its spatial characteristics with the public investments associated with the place-based Enterprise Zone (EZ) program. Findings show that the EITC represents a significantly greater, though unintended, investment in poor neighborhoods than does the EZ and suggest new scholarly research and policy directions.
Teaching Integrated Land Use-Transportation Planning
Authors: Krizek Kevin , Levinson David
Published: January 2005

Planning pedagogy is increasingly focused on teaching interdisciplinary topics in an integrated and synergistic manner. The intersection of land use and transportation is that of two topics that have risen to be front and center for the planning profession. This article focuses on the manner in which planning programs and, in particular, specific courses address land use and transportation planning. After describing the context in which such courses exist, this article analyzes syllabi from fifteen courses in North American planning programs in two respects. The first examines the list of topics covered within each course by discussing the nature of primary, secondary, and peripheral topics. Second, the analysis uncovers the frequency with which specific readings are employed in each course. The article closes by discussing the nature of a land use-transportation course from the University of Minnesota in which there is a lecture and laboratory component.
Security versus Status?
Authors: Sanchez Thomas W. , Lang Robert E. , Dhavale Dawn M.
Published: January 2005

For most people, the term gated communities conjures up images of exclusive developments with fancy homes and equally fancy lifestyles. Much of the popular and academic literature on gated communities promotes this view. Yet the common perception of gated communities as privileged enclaves turns out to be only partly correct based on our analysis of the first ever census survey of these places. There are gated communities composed of mostly White homeowners with high incomes that have a secure main entry—the kind of classic gated community in the public mind. But there are also gated communities that are inhabited by minority renters with moderate incomes. We expected that this dichotomy reflects a divide between gated communities, one based on status versus one motivated by concern for security. Using the 2001 American Housing Survey (AHS), we attempted to explain the differences between gated homeowners, nongated homeowners, gated renters, and nongated renter households.
A Revisionist Model of Suburbanization and Sprawl
Authors: Byun Pillsung , Esparza Adrian X.
Published: January 2005

This article proposes a process-based conceptual model that explains sprawl in the United States since the 1970s. In contrast to traditional explanations that look to “natural,” or ecological, processes, our explanation of sprawl focuses on the local regulatory environment and the ways in which residents and homebuilders respond to it. We look at the way in which growth controls—given fragmentation—produce “spillovers” and whether spillovers have been a principal force (process) fueling suburbanization and exurbanization in recent decades. Although the role of spillovers has received some attention recently, few scholars have launched comprehensive analyses of its impact on the contemporary urban landscape. Our spillovers-based explanation of sprawl will likely hold for metropolitan regions in which growth management/control has been imposed in the absence of statewide or regionwide coordination.
Community-Wide Planning for Faith-Based Service Provision: Practical, Policy, and Conceptual Challenges
Authors: Harris Margaret , Hutchison Romayne , Cairns Ben
Published: January 2005

The context for this article is the public policy interest in the United States and the United Kingdom in the contribution that faith-based organizations can make to the provision of welfare and other public services, and the corresponding demands on such organizations to consider how they plan and deliver services. The authors present findings from a major research program that aimed to facilitate the planning of service provision within one faith group, theU.K.Jewishcommunity.Theauthorsoutlinetheopportunitiesandobstacles found to be facing this “Jewish voluntary sector” and then discuss the lessons to be drawn from this kind of community-wide approach to the planning of services within and across a faith group in the current public policy climate. Specifically, the authors look at implications for planning in the U.K. Jewish community and other faith groups, for the research agenda on faith-based organizations, and for public and social policy.
America Gives: A Survey of Americans’ Generosity After September 11
Authors: Steinberg Kathryn S. , Rooney Patrick M.
Published: January 2005

This article describes a telephone survey (called “America Gives”) that asked 1,304 randomly selected adults about their philanthropic behavior (giving of time and treasure) after the events of September 11, 2001. The questions were part of a larger national study (n = 4,200) on giving and volunteering that was being conducted at the time of the September 11 attacks. This article provides a brief description of that study, the methodological considerations resulting from the immediate philanthropic response to the September 11 events, and steps that were taken to adapt the study to the changing national conditions. Next, the authors provide descriptive results from the survey, along with multivariate analyses of the determinants of giving and volunteering in this unique situation. Finally, the authors provide some caveats for researchers who may want to assess household giving and volunteering, and discuss implications for nonprofit managers and policy makers.
The Nonprofit/For-Profit Continuum: Theorizing the Dynamics of Mixed-Form Markets
Authors: Marwell Nicole P. , McInerney Paul-Brian
Published: January 2005

A growing body of research has emerged on “mixed-form” markets—markets for goods and services in which for-profit, nonprofit, and government providers coexist. This article seeks to understand the dynamics between nonprofit and for-profit organizations operating within the same market. The authors propose a five-step theoretical framework that includes both nonprofit and for-profit actors to capture what is fundamentally a temporal process: market identification; market growth; increasing cost for goods/services; increasing price for goods/services; and cross-sector competition. The authors use data from extended qualitative investigations in distinct service markets to analyze the unique contributions and capacities of each organizational form, and the transformation of market structure over time. The authors conclude that the dynamic interplay between nonprofit and for-profit forms within markets produces three possible outcomes: stratified, displaced, and defended markets.
Chinese visitors to New Zealand—Demographics and perceptions
Authors: Ryan Chris , Mo Xiaoyan
Published: January 2005

The paper reports the findings derived from a study of 400 visitors from the People’s Republic of China to New Zealand. New Zealand has enjoyed designated status as a tourist-receiving country from China since 1998. Consequently, visitor numbers increased to about 27,752 in the 12-month period ending April 2000. It is a new market for New Zealand, and little is known about it. The demographic profile of these visitors revealed a well-travelled segment with aboveaverage incomes and educational attainment. The main motive for their holidays is to see new places not previously visited, and general holiday motives tend to dominate with New Zealand-specific issues playing a subsidiary role. Nonetheless, they are important, but more research is required to understand better the decision-making process of these visitors. An interesting subsample was revealed whereby it seems that about 8 per cent of the visitors are actively using their holiday to assess educational and business opportunities in New Zealand. It is suggested that at present the market corresponds to an innovative, explorer market segment.
Marketing China overseas: The role of theme parks and tourist attractions
Authors: Richards Greg
Published: January 2005

In a competitive global tourism market, the creation and maintenance of national and regional images becomes crucial to the marketing process. As attraction visiting becomes a central element of everyday life, the role of attractions in image formation is also growing. This is the rationale behind the creation of the Splendid China cultural parks, which present famous Chinese landmarks in miniature. This paper examines the role of the parks in China, Florida and the Netherlands in creating an image of China, and in particular examines the familiarity of visitors and nonvisitors with the markers presented in these parks. Interviews with Dutch and overseas Chinese respondents are used to analyse their familiarity with the markers presented in the park, and to elicit their overall image of China as a tourism destination. This analysis shows that while Dutch nonvisitors have a fairly naïve image of China, Dutch respondents are fairly conversant with the major cultural attractions of the country. In contrast, overseas Chinese respondents are not so familiar with these attractions, owing to the ‘visiting friends and relatives’ (VFR) nature of their tourism consumption. The research emphasises the importance of targeting images to the needs of different visitor groups.
Tourism marketing opportunities for Australia in China
Authors: Pan Grace Wen , Laws Eric
Published: January 2005

This paper provides an analysis of the growing demand for outbound tourism from China and describes the special characteristics of the market. It analyses the significance of guanxi, the special relationship which underpins traditional Chinese business networks. The paper discusses opportunities for Australian inbound tour operators to improve the service they provide to visiting Chinese groups organised by Chinese travel agencies, and notes some problems requiring attention.
Entry strategies into China for foreign travel companies
Authors: Guo Wenbin , Turner Lindsay W.
Published: January 2005

The opening up of the Chinese economy has led to rapid growth in international tourism, with extensive potential growth in numbersand destinations throughout the world. The structure of the Chinese travel industry is examined here, with particular emphasis upon the future changes likely to take place in the provision of travel services. Some of these changes are evolutionary with free market growth, and some will be caused by the requirements of World Trade Organisation entry for China. This paper focuses upon the issue of whether foreign companies can become more involved in the potentially huge Chinese travel market, and if so in what way they should develop their market entry strategies. In conclusion, it is determined that companies must make a strategic choice between the advantages of early entry strategies or waiting for a clear distinction between the wholesaling and retailing functions of tourism selling to evolve and then implementing a late entry strategy.
Intercultural communication and mediation: A framework for analysing the intercultural competence of Chinese tour guides
Authors: Yu Xin , Weiler Betty , Ham Sam
Published: January 2005

This paper draws on theories of intercultural communication and mediation to develop a conceptual framework and research approach for examining the intercultural competence (IC) of Chinese tour guides and the relationship of guides’ IC to Chinese tourists’ experiences. The paper begins with a discussion of the importance of the Chinese inbound market globally, and in particular for Australia, and then examines the role of tour guides in intercultural settings. These discussions, which are offered to establish the need for systematic enquiry in this area, are followed by a detailed presentation of a research rationale and conceptual model in which key variables and proposed relationships are discussed, measurement issues are addressed, and implications for research are given.
Timeshare Opportunities in China: An evaluation of the conditions for market development
Authors: Liu Jue , Pryer Melvyn , Roberts Andy
Published: January 2005

In recent years the Chinese government has greatly influenced tourism development by shifting its role from operator and regulator to that of investment coordinator, stimulator and educator. The rapid worldwide growth of timeshare has attracted the attention of the Chinese National Tourism Administration (CNTA). This paper focuses on the social, economic and institutional frameworks existing in and affecting the development of timeshare in China. The cultural issues and the concept of property ownership, the lack of experience in the supply sector and the general infrastructure standards are issues that may inhibit the growth of a timeshare industry. However, the emerging middle class in China, the political response to the tourism industry and the economic climate do signify that the development and expansion of a Chinese timeshare industry has potential.
Destination marketing organisations—Connecting the experience rather than promoting the place
Authors: King John
Published: January 2005

Destination marketing organisations (DMOs) have long been structured and their strategies influenced by traditional distribution processes and passive customers. Now things have changed, with the customer taking over the process and rendering the previously normal processes redundant. DMOs need to get away from promoting the destination to a mass market and relying on an outdated distribution system, and instead engage the customer to ensure they effectively promote and provide the experience they are wanting. This will require a major change in the role, the structure and the skills of destination marketing organisations.
Marketing research and small travel agents: An exploratory study
Authors: Yaman H. Ruhi , Shaw Robin N.
Published: January 2005

The research study reported on in this paper examined the marketing research (MR) orientation of small Australian travel agents. A survey was undertaken involving personal interviews with 91 travel agents in Melbourne, each agency having fewer than 20 employees. Agents were asked about their organisation with regard to MR, which MR activities were undertaken and wich MR techniques were employed. Additional questions gathered data on organisational and individual demographics, and some perceptual and attitudinal data. Although approximately half the respondents had no employee assigned to MR, the majority of agents reported engaging in most of the MR activities nominated, although most agents did not use most of the MR techniques covered in the study. Most general demographics were not related to MR participation, although greater devotion of resources to MR was reflected in more comprehensive usage of MR, and a more positive attitude to the cost-effectiveness of MR in small organisations. The desirability of travel agents considering seriously the role of MR in assisting in clarifying the future options for the sector is noted.
A destination case study of marketing tourism online: Banff, Canada
Authors: Hudson Simon , Lang Norma
Published: January 2005

This paper focuses on the marketing of tourism and hospitality operations online. It examines the current Internet marketing efforts or tourism operators from Banff in the Canadian Rockies, and draws from website statistics and data for over 100 tourism operations. Doing so, it highlights the latest trends in the use of the Internet as a marketing tool for operators, tourism website development and the use of the Internet for travel planning.
Marketing of tourism destinations during a prolonged crisis: Israel and the Middle East
Authors: Beirman David
Published: January 2005

Disaster management for tourism has often focused on the post-crisis recovery phase. Unlike natural disasters, political crises can continue to impact on the image of a destination for months if not years. This paper outlines the strategy of the Israel Tourism Office in Australia and the Israel Ministry of Tourism worldwide as it has attempted to minimise the loss of tourism experienced in Israel since the outbreak of Israeli-Palestinian violence following the breakdown of the peace process at the end of September 2000. The paper deals with the approach to distribution channels (tour operators, airline,s hoteliers and travel agents), consumers, government nad the media taken by Israel. The Israeli-Palestinian political crisis has also impacted on the Jordanian and Palestinian travel industries, and the paper carries a discussion of the approaches taken by Jordan as a collateral victim of the crisis. The destination marketing management of a prolonged crisis is a core issue in this paper.
Bermuda, tourism and the visiting cruise sector: Strategies for sustained growth
Authors: Dale Crispin , Robinson Neil
Published: January 2005

Previous studies have analysed the impact tourism has had on the economic, physical and socio-cultural environment of small islands and highlighted the need for a ‘sustainable’ approach to the management of tourism in these areas. However, there has been minimal analysis of sustainability issues on small islands from a marketing perspective. This paper attempts to readdress this balance by providing an analysis, from a sustainable marketing perspective, of Bermuda’s cruise market and its total tourism product. A number of potential strategies are suggested to ensure that Bermuda has sustained growth in the future.

The intention of the paper is to analyse Bermuda in the context of the cruise holiday market. The discussion will initially analyse the significance of tourism to Bermuda and evaluate its present situation in terms of tourist arrivals. The paper will then go on to address a number of sustainable marketing issues and apply these to Bermuda’s present market postion. The nature of the global cruise market and the developments that are occurring within this sector will then be analysed and finally a number of possible marketing strategies for sustainable growth with in Bermuda will be suggested.
Exploring the future of the traditional UK zoo
Authors: Turley Sophie K.
Published: January 2005

In light of the increasingly competitive day visit market and concern about the keeping of wild animals in captivity for human amusement, traditional UK zoos must balance carefully the demands of the paying visitor with those of maintaining credibility as conservation and education-oriented organisations. Utilising the model of the product life cycle this paper analyses the current position of UK zoos in the visitor attraction market. Issues surrounding their future success are explored and, following a national survey of visitors (n = 241) and latent visitors (n = 304), the core strengths and weaknesses of their unique offering are examined. Views on zoos offer hope. Visitor numbers are likely to be steady, but at a lower level, and while some zoos may falter, there is scope for success and continued existence.
Experiential perceptions of two winter sun destinations: The Algarve and Cyprus
Authors: Vaughan D. R. , Edwards J. R.
Published: January 2005

The image, or perception, of destinations is a significant influence on the decision-making process of tourists. To identify whether the images of apparently similar destinations might differ, this paper explores the perceptions of tourists visiting two winter sun destinations: the Algarve in Portugal and Cyprus. The paper examines the primary (the motivations for the visit), the cognitive (attribute-based beliefs describing the destination) and the affective (the emotional reaction) images of each of the destinations. The results presented, based on surveys of visitors to each of the destinations, demonstrate that while the two destinations may have similar brochure images, appealing to similar markets, the images, and in particular the experiential images, held by visitors are probably different: a difference which is important for those responsible for ‘selling’ the destinations.
Indefence of the mid-market
Authors: Bailey David , Kemp Julian
Published: January 2005

Mid-market hotel groups have come under close scrutiny in recent months. Among journalists, analysts and industry leaders alike, those of a bearish nature have forecase the demise of the traditional UK three-star hotel industry and, along with it, the doomed prospects of the mid-market hotel group operators. This descent into oblivion is expected in the next recession, whenever that is, according to these pundits. Their reasoning is that a number of mid-market (three-star) hotel chains, such as Regal, Jarvis and MacDonald, acquired a number of so-called ‘obsolete’ hotels from the larger quoted hotel chains during the 1990s. These hotels were written off for their poor performance in the last recession, and it is held that they will therefore necessarily underperform again in the next recession. Repetition of such views has become increasingly common, almost a mantra — ‘four-star and budget good, three-star bad’. The authors believe that this view is ill considered and should be challenged. This report makes that challenge.
Hospitality 2000 — The Technology: Building customer relationships
Authors: Cline Roger S.
Published: January 2005

The strategic use of technology in marketing is one of the most significant challenges facing the hospitality industry. This paper reports on findings of a survey of global executives and addresses strategy, organisation, sales and marketing, customer information and operations as they relate to technology and its future role in the industry. It then focuses on the management of customer relationships using technology.
Accreditation of Queensland Visitor Information Centres: A consumer-based perspective
Authors: Hobbin Sarina
Published: January 2005

Visitor Information Centres (VICs) in Queensland play an important role in the rourism equation, particularly from a regional perspective, although their influence on the flow and distribution of visitors tos and within queensland and their impact on subsequent travel and expenditure in the region have been unclear. This study was therefore undertaken to provide an exploratory insight into these influences from a Queensland perspective, and to provide a consumer-based perspective on Queensland’s VIC Accreditation Program.

Broadly speaking, the study found that the VICs surveyed do generate a modest, net increase in visitor nights and expenditure in their regions. Their influence in the trip-planning process prior to leaving for the trip appears to be minimal; however, once in the region VICs play an important and influential role in assisting visitors to decide what to see and do. Visitors were highly satisfied with the products and service provided by the VICs used in the study.
Internet marketing strategies used by travel agencies in Australia
Authors: Standing Craig , Vasudavan Thandarayan
Published: January 2005

Traditionally retail travel agenices have acted as intermediaries between airline companies and wholsale travel companies and the consumer. The Internet and the World wide Web provide a whole new set of challenges and opportunities for this business sector. The major threat stems from airlines and wholesale travel companies offering their products and services directly to the customer without the assistance of travel agencies. Large online agencies have gained significant attention in the travel industry and provide some evidence of a restructuring of the travel industry sector.

Although there has been much speculation in terms of the impact of the Internet and the threat of sidintermediation, there has been little work carried out on the Internet marketing models and strategies that travel agencies have adopted. This paper reports the findings of a large survey of Australian travel agencies’ websites and the marketing methods used.

The survey analysed the functionality of the travel agencies’ webites, the marketing models used, and the types of information provided in the websites. The results found that the majority of agencies had a Yellow Pages or cyber brochure model for their website. A small percentage of websites allowed transactions to e performed but a significant number provided information on a range of destination and service-related topics. Approximately half of the sites monitored captured information on the Internet surfer but interestingly fewer captured the surfer’s e-mail address. The paper offers suggestions for travel agencies in using the Internet as a marketing tool and proposes ways for them to re-engineer their businesses via the Internet.
The virtual re-intermediation of travel services: A conceptual framework and empirical investigation
Authors: Palmer Adrian , McCole Patrick
Published: January 2005

Direct marketing has often been held out as the death knell for travel intermediaries as airlines, hotels and car rental companies communicate directly with their customers. The prospect of entering a one-to-one dialogue with customers while retaining the sales commission for themselves has seemed an undeniable attraction to service principals. However, a review of the roles of travel intermediaries leads to the proposition that talk of such ‘disintermediation’ is premature and the reverse process of ‘re-intermediation’ may be more appropriate in the travel and tourism sector. Research is reported which demonstrates the benefits of using intermediaries for a specific travel package. While traditional high-street travel intermediaries may be facing serious threats, a new breed of travel infomediary is becoming firmly established.
Consumer evaluation of direct mail in the travel and leisure sectors
Authors: Howard-Brown Jo
Published: January 2005

This paper examines usage and consumer perceptions of direct mail in the travel sector and certain sections of the leisure industry. It builds on ten years of on-going research conducted by the Direct Mail Information Service which latterly has expanded to become sector specific, examining both sectors which are long term users of direct mail and those which are relatively new to the medium. By tracking consumer views the paper clearly highlights areas of opportunity for marketeers in both sectors.
Changing attitudes to ‘mass tourism’ products—The UK outbound market perspective
Authors: Carey Sandra , Gountas Yani
Published: January 2005

This paper examines the attitudes, preferences and behaviour of the outbound ‘mass’ holiday market. There are many assumptions made concerning the expectations of the UK package holiday consumer by researchers, the trade, overseas suppliers etc. These often reflect characteristics identified by Plot1 and Cohe 2 in their tourist typologies. However, recent research indicates that as the market matures and gains more experience there are subtle but significant changes in the general consumer consensus of what comprises a good product offering. Knowledge of changes in consumer behaviour is becoming increasingly vital to suppliers and principals in the tourism industry. In particular, the mainstream tour operators need to understand the market in order to differentiate their product development, marketing activities and image from those of their many competitors.
Best Kept Secrets: An evaluation of South Australia’s direct marketing campaign
Authors: Trembath Richard
Published: January 2005

In 1998 the South Australian Tourism Commission launched an innovative marketing campaign known as ‘Best Kept Secrets’ to attract visitors to the state from external domestic markets. The campaign involved direct mail, and was supported with cinema and print advertising. The centrepiece of the campaign was a magazine-style 148pp direct mail piece known as ‘The Book of Best Kept Secrets’ that was distributed to 1.4 million households in targeted geographic areas. Evaluation of the campaign indicates that it had a substantial impact in raising awareness of the state, stimulating interest in visiting and delivering a motivational and travel planning document that was valued and retained by a substantial proportion of recipients.
The Educative Effects of Ballot Initiatives on Voter Turnout
Authors: Tolbert Caroline J. , Smith Daniel A.
Published: January 2005

Scholars have begun examining what Progressive reformers called the educative effects of direct democracy, especially the effect ballot initiatives have on voter turnout. Research based on aggregate-level voter age population (VAP) turnout data indicates that ballot measures increase turnout in low-information midterm elections but not in presidential elections. We analyze the impact of ballot initiative use on voter turnout from 1980 through 2002 using voter eligible population (VEP) turnout rates. Cross-sectional time-series analysis reveals that (a) ballot initiatives increase turnout in midterm as well as presidential elections and (b) the turnout effect in midterm and especially presidential elections is considerably larger than previously thought. On average, turnout in presidential elections increases by 0.70% with each initiative on the ballot, whereas turnout in midterm elections increases by 1.7%, all else equal. Given the closeness of the Electoral College contests, it is possible that the mobilizing effects of statewide ballot questions could be the determining factor in future presidential elections.
Evaluating the Effects of Direct Democracy on Public Policy
Authors: Gerber Elisabeth R. , Phillips Justin H.
Published: January 2005

This research addresses two interrelated questions about direct democracy: How does direct democracy affect public policy? And why do citizens and interest groups sometimes pursue policy change through direct democracy? We study these questions by testing for differences between urban growth boundaries (UGBs) that were enacted by city councils and by direct democracy in a large sample of California municipalities. We find that laws adopted at the ballot box are more extreme and are more difficult to amend or repeal. However, we also find that direct democracy does not result in less coherent or more fragmented policy regimes. In addition, we develop and test a model of the factors that lead political actors to pursue each strategy for policy change. Our results demonstrate that decisions to use the initiative process are largely a function of characteristics of local legislatures rather than citizen preferences for extreme policies.
Coalition Building in Direct Democracy Campaigns
Authors: Manweller Mathew
Published: January 2005

Common to many social movement studies is the argument that ideological heterogeneity causes organizational dilemmas. Yet, few scholars consider, let alone test, the impact of ideological heterogeneity on direct democracy campaigns (DDCs). Drawing from the extant social movements literature, I argue that DDCs function like short-term social movements. Based on in-depth interviews of initiative activists, and in some cases participant-observation opportunities, I conclude that ideological heterogeneity is also a contributing cause of DDC failure. Ideological heterogeneity within DDCs either results in factionalism that wastes time and resources, or the development of homogeneous groups that pursue policies unacceptable to the median voter. I also conclude that ideological heterogeneity is more destructive to DDCs than social movements. Whereas social movements can adapt over time, DDCs must achieve a singular electoral victory, within a specific electoral cycle, in order to succeed. Therefore, time constraints make factionalism more problematic for DDCs.
Voter Turnout in the California Recall
Authors: Arbour Brian K. , Hayes Danny
Published: January 2005

Prior to the 2003 California recall election, pundits and academics pondered how a host of factors—including the historic nature of the election and the unusual cast of characters on the ballot—would influence voter turnout. Here, we examine two questions to shed some light on the turnout dynamics of the election: How was the recall electorate different from its 2002 counterpart, and what explains the 10% increase in registered voter turnout compared to 2002? Using the statewide voter file, we find the recall produced a younger, less partisan, and less politically experienced electorate. Citizens who stayed home in 2002 but cast ballots in 2003 tended to be intermittent voters. Media attention appears to have helped boost turnout, confirming in a new context other studies that find that lowering the costs of voting affects most strongly those citizens with demographic characteristics somewhere between habitual voters and hard-core and nonvoters.
The Davis Recall and the Courts
Authors: Miller Kenneth P.
Published: January 2005

The recall of California Governor Gray Davis generated intense litigation as recall opponents sought, without much success, to convince courts to block, modify, or postpone the election. Using an interpretive case study approach, this article analyzes these outcomes and develops the theory that the courts’ reluctance to intervene in the Davis recall process was largely dictated by the nature of the recall device itself. More specifically, the recall’s only substantive question was nonjusticiable, so litigants were limited to procedural challenges, and on most of the procedural issues, courts deferred to local election officials. The constraints on judicial review of recall highlight differences between recall and initiative, a direct democracy process courts more actively check.
Improvement of Motor Function with Noninvasive Cortical Stimulation in a Patient with Chronic Stroke
Authors: Hummel Friedhelm , Cohen Leonardo G.
Published: January 2005

This manuscript reports the effects of transcranial DC stimulation (tDCS), a technique that enhances cortical plasticity in healthy humans, on motor function in a patient with chronic subcortical ischemic stroke. tDCS but not sham applied in a double-blind protocol to motor regions of the affected hemisphere led to improvements in pinch force, Jebsen-Taylor Hand Function Test, and simple reaction times in the paretic hand that outlasted the stimulation period for at least 40 min. These changes were accompanied by increased corticomotor excitability identified by enhanced recruitment curves and reduced intracortical inhibition to transcranial magnetic stimulation. These results document a beneficial effect of noninvasive brain stimulation on motor function in a human patient with stroke and raise the hypothesis of its potential application in neurorehabilitation.
Modified Constraint-Induced Therapy in Acute Stroke: A Randomized Controlled Pilot Study
Authors: Page Stephen J. , Levine Peter , Leonard Anthony C.
Published: January 2005

To determine modified constraint-induced therapy (mCIT) feasibility and compare its efficacy to traditional rehabilitation (TR) in acute stroke patients exhibiting upper limb hemiparesis. Method. Before-after, multiple baseline, randomized controlled pilot study. Setting. Rehabilitation hospital. Patients. Ten stroke patients < 14 d poststroke and exhibiting upper limb hemiparesis and affected limb nonuse. Interventions. Five patients were administered mCIT, consisting of structured therapy emphasizing more affected arm use in valued activities 3 d/week for 10 weeks and less affected arm restraint 5 d/week for 5 h. Five other patients received 1/2 sessions of traditional motor rehabilitation for the affected arm, which included affected limb manual dexterity exercises and stretching, as well as compensatory strategies with the unaffected limb. The TR regimens occurred 3 d/week for 10 weeks. Main Outcome Measures. The Fugl-Meyer Assessment of Motor Recovery (Fugl-Meyer), Action Research Arm Test (ARA), and Motor Activity Log (MAL). Results. Before intervention, all patients exhibited stable motor deficits and more affected arm nonuse. After intervention, mCIT patients displayed increased affected arm use (+ 2.43 on the MAL amount of use scale), uniformly exhibited increases on the Fugl-Meyer and ARA (mean change scores = + 18.7 and + 21.7, respectively), and were able to again perform valued activities. TR patients exhibited nominal change in affected limb use (+ 0.07 on the MAL amount of use scale) and modest changes on the Fugl-Meyer and ARA (+ 4.4 and + 4.8, respectively). Fugl-Meyer and ARA changes were significant for the mCIT group only (P < 0.01). Conclusions. mCIT is a promising regimen for improving more affected limb use and function in acute cerebrovascular accident. However, larger confirmatory studies need to be performed.
Admission Ambulation Velocity Predicts Length of Stay and Discharge Disposition Following Stroke in an Acute Rehabilitation Hospital
Authors: Rabadi Meheroz H. , Blau Alan
Published: January 2005

Poststroke functional outcome and discharge disposition are influenced by age, lesion location and size, severity of neurological insult, prior functional ability, and social support. The effect of admission ambulation velocity on length of stay and discharge disposition has not been previously reported. Design. Prospective, cohort study. Setting. Designated acute stroke rehabilitation unit. Method. 373 patients consecutively admitted to a designated inpatient stroke rehabilitation unit were studied. The study sample was divided into 2 groups, based on admission ambulation velocity (meters/second) during a 2-min timed walk test. Fast ambulators had an ambulation velocity of greater than 0.15 m/s, whereas slow ambulators had an ambulation velocity of 0.15 m/s or less, and also included nonambulators. Interventions. None. Outcome Measures. Primary outcome measures were length of stay and discharge disposition. Secondary outcome measures were change in the Functional Independence Measure (FIM) scores and change in ambulation velocity per week. Continuous, ordinal, and nominal variables were analyzed using the Student t test, Mann-Whitney U test, and chi-square test, respectively. Sensitivity, specificity, and positive and negative predictive values assessed admission ambulation velocity as a predictor of discharge disposition. Results. Patient variables for slow ambulators (n = 226) versus fast ambulators (n = 147) were as follows: age (68 ± 13 SD vs. 69 ± 12, P = 0.32), male-female ratio (100:126 vs. 78:69, P = 0.09), admission total FIM score (52 ± 17 vs. 77 ± 16, P < 0.0001), change in total FIM score (20 ± 12 vs. 16 ± 12, P < 0.003), change in ambulation velocity per week (0.05 ± 0.06 vs. 0.13 ± 0.30, P < 0.0001), length of stay in days (30 ± 28 vs. 17 ± 19, P < 0.0001), and discharge disposition: home/skilled nursing facility (133/91 vs. 133/13, P < 0.0001). Sensitivity, specificity, and positive and negative predictive values (based on chi-square analyses) for admission fast ambulators as a predictor of home discharge were 0.5, 0.87, 0.91, and 0.41, respectively. Admission ambulation velocity alone correctly identified discharge disposition in 78% of the patient population, based on logistic regression analysis (P < 0.0001). Conclusion. Admission ambulation velocity can predict length of stay and discharge disposition poststroke. This effect is independent of age and admission total FIM score.
Quantitative Reduction of Saliva Production with Botulinum Toxin Type B Injection into the Salivary Glands
Authors: Turk-Gonzales Melissa , Odderson Ib R.
Published: January 2005

Drooling is common in patients with neurological disorders. Recently, botulinum toxin type B has been shown to be effective in the treatment of drooling. The authors present a unique case of a 57-year-old man with a history of a brainstem stroke and severe drooling. The patient’s parotid and submandibular glands were injected under ultra-sound guidance with botulinum toxin type B. Saliva was collected and quantified before and after the injections by 2 different collection methods: suctioning and dental rolls. Total saliva production decreased by 23.8% after injection of the parotid glands and by 85.8% after submandibular injection compared to the preinjection level. The 2 methods demonstrated similar results. In addition, the patient experienced less drooling and increased participation in therapies without any side effects. This case demonstrates that saliva secretion and drooling can effectively be treated by injections of botulinum toxin type B into the salivary glands.
The Potential for Utilizing the “Mirror Neurone System” to Enhance Recovery of the Severely Affected Upper Limb Early after Stroke: A Review and Hypothesis
Authors: Pomeroy Valerie M. , Clark Christopher A. , Miller J. Simon G. , Baron Jean-Claude , Markus Hugh S. , Tallis Raymond C.
Published: January 2005

Recovery of upper limb movement control after stroke might be enhanced by repetitive goal-directed functional activities. Providing such activity is challenging in the presence of severe paresis. A possible new approach is based on the discovery of mirror neurons in the monkey cortical area F5, which are active both in observing and executing a movement. Indirect evidence for a comparable human “mirror neurone system” is provided by functional imaging. The primary motor cortex, the premotor cortex, other brain areas, and muscles appropriate for the action being observed are probably activated in healthy volunteers observing another’s movement. These findings raise the hypothesis that observation of another’s movement might train the movement execution system of stroke patients who have severe paresis to bring them to the point at which they could actively participate in rehabilitation consisting of goal-directed activities. The point of providing an observation therapy would be to facilitate the voluntary production of movement; therefore, the condition of interest would be observation with intent to imitate. However, there is as yet insufficient evidence to enable the testing of this hypothesis in stroke patients. Studies in normal subjects are needed to determine which brain sites are activated in response to observation with intent to imitate. Studies in stroke subjects are needed to determine how activation is affected after damage to different brain areas. The information from such studies should aid identification of those stroke patients who might be most likely to benefit from observation to imitate and therefore guide phase I clinical studies.
Massed Practice versus Massed Practice with Stimulation: Effects on Upper Extremity Function and Cortical Plasticity in Individuals with Incomplete Cervical Spinal Cord Injury
Authors: Beekhuizen Kristina S. , Field-Fote Edelle C.
Published: January 2005

To determine the effect of massed practice (MP) versus massed practice combined with somatosensory stimulation (MP+SS) on cortical plasticity and function in persons with incomplete tetraplegia. Methods. Ten subjects were assigned to either MP or MP+SS. Median nerve stimulation (500 ms train, 10 Hz, 1 ms pulse duration) was delivered at the intensity eliciting a motor threshold response. Training sessions were 5 d/week for 3 weeks at 2 h/session. Outcome measures included 1) motor-evoked potentials (MEPs) elicited via transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), motor threshold (MT) and MEP amplitude at 1.2 MT; 2) maximal pinch grip force; 3) Wolf Motor Function Test (WMFT) and Jebsen Hand Function Test. Results. The MP+SS group demonstrated significant improvements (P < 0.05) in pinch grip strength (190%), WMFT scores (52%), and Jebsen test scores (33%), whereas the MP group demonstrated significant improvement (P < 0.05) only in Jebsen test scores (11%). No significant changes were detected in cortical excitability in the MP+SS or MP group. Conclusions. The findings of this preliminary study suggest that MP+SS results in greater increases in pinch strength and timed functional test scores than MP. Optimal stimulation paradigms and training methods are needed to further test this strategy.