bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The nature of the problem: why do we need pancreatic transplantation?
Authors: Press Martin
Published: November 2023

Diabetes is one of the cruellest of diseases. Not only does it shorten life expectancy, but it can seriously compromise quality of life in the process. It remains the most common cause of blindness in people of working age, causes renal failure, impotence, neuropathy, foot ulcers, amputations, and heart disease.

This makes it a very expensive disease. In the United Kingdom it accounts for some 9 per cent of the NHS budget [1]. In the United States, 14.6 per cent of the health care budget, amounting to some $100 billion per year, was spent on the 4.5 per cent of the population with diabetes [2]. Of this, half was accounted for by medical costs directly related to diabetes (mostly the treatment of advanced diabetic complications, including haemodialysis, foot ulcers, and amputations) and half by societal costs (including long-term disability and loss of earnings due to blindness, amputations, and premature death). Even without complications, a child who develops diabetes at the age of 7 years will have faced costs of $52 000 by the time he is 40 years old [3].
Pancreas transplantation: early perioperative management
Authors: Koffron Alan J , Kaufman Dixon B
Published: November 2023

The collective advances in cadaveric organ donor management, candidate pretransplant evaluation, graft preservation, immunosuppression, and surgical technique have all combined to improve longterm outcomes of pancreas transplantation. The careful management of recipients during the perioperative course is the initial determinant for optimizing outcomes, since significant morbidity early postoperatively can result in prolonged hospital admission and threaten a patient’s well being. This chapter provides an overview of the essential aspects of perioperative care with particular emphasis on the various potential early complications of pancreas transplantation.
The economics of pancreas transplantation
Authors: Stratta Robert J
Published: November 2023

Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) is a very costly disease despite current medical knowledge and treatment practices. In addition to the incalculable costs on quality of life, IDDM causes a tremendous economic burden on the individual and the health-care system. In 1997, the direct and indirect costs of diabetes approached $98 billion, which was nearly 10 per cent of total health-care expenditures in the United States for that year [1] (prices in this chapter are given in American dollars). Since diabetic nephropathy is the leading cause of endstage renal disease (ESRD), renal replacement therapy for diabetic ESRD represents a major concern in planning allocation of resources in this era of managed care [2,3]. In addition to the differential survival (outcome) between the various forms of dialysis and transplantation for the diabetic patient, the economic impact (resource utilization) of these modalities must be considered. Studies have shown that renal replacement therapy by kidney transplantation alone (KTA) for diabetic ESRD not only improves survival and quality of life but is also cost-effective in the long term when compared to dialysis [3–14].
Benjamin Franklin
Authors: Tanford Charles
Published: November 2023

What is truly astonishing, most difficult to relate to today ‘s world, is that such a giant figure in the world of men and nations as Benjamin Franklin should ever have engaged in simple, prosaic scientific experiments at all; and that he should have done so and described his results in such fashion that we can still be genuinely fascinated by them today. I am not speaking here of the famous kite experiment, because that was a grand spectacle, a daring (and dangerous) effort to solve a great mystery of heaven and earth. It promised acclaim from scholars and from the public alike. It was in character for a man of destiny.
One Hundred Years Later. Science Comes of Age
Authors: Tanford Charles
Published: November 2023

The story moves to London in 1890, the heart of the British Empire, the most important city in the world. Queen Victoria was on the throne, nearing the end of her long reign. She was Empress of India now (since 1876), as well as monarch of the British Isles, and nominal ruler over the vast areas of Africa and Asia that had been annexed to the empire to provide new markets and to safeguard trade routes. At home it was the era of Liberal/Conservative alternation in Parliament, where members battled over such issues as Home Rule for Ireland.
Comrades in the Search. The Flavor of Late Nineteenth-Century Physics
Authors: Tanford Charles
Published: November 2023

In chapter 3 short biographies of some of Benjamin Franklin ’s contemporaries were given, scientists with whom he associated in London when not engaged in diplomatic work. These biographies served to illustrate the flavor of the times, the enlightened amateur spirit. The present chapter provides similar information for a sampling of Lord Rayleigh ’s and Miss Pockels ’s contemporaries. They are quite different from their eighteenth-century counterparts: science is their all-absorbing occupation and most of them are actually famous — giants in the history of science. Nevertheless, they are actually a remarkably varied group.
The Act of Creation
Authors: Medawar Peter
Published: November 2023

The author of Darkness at Noon must be listened to attentively, no matter what he may choose to write upon. Arthur Koestler is a very clever, knowledgeable, and inventive man, and The Act of Creation I is very clever too, and full of information, and quite wonderfully inventive in the use of words. Many of the points it makes are not likely to be challenged.
Two conceptions of science
Authors: Medawar Peter
Published: November 2023

My theme is popular misconceptions of scientific thought. I shall argue that the ideas of the educated lay pubiic on the nature of scientific enquiry and the intellectual character of those who carry it out are in a state of dignified, yet utter, confusion. Most of these misconceptions are harmless enough, but some are mischievous, and all help to estrange the sciences from the humanities and the so-called ‘pure’ sciences from the applied.
J.B.S.
Authors: Medawar Peter
Published: November 2023

The lives of scientists, considered as Lives, almost always make dull reading. For one thing, the careers of the famous and the merely ordinary fall into much the same pattern, give or take an honorary degree or two, or (in European countries) an honorific order. It could hardly be otherwise. Academics can only seldom lead lives that are spacious or exciting in a worldly sense. They need laboratories or libraries and the company of other academics. Their work is in no way made deeper or more cogent by privation, distress or worldly buffetings.
Florey story
Authors: Medawar Peter
Published: November 2023

Howard Walter Florey was a great man and no mistake. He devoted the more important part of his professional life to a single wholly admirable purpose which he pursued until he achieved it, showing, in spite of many setbacks and rebuffs, the magnanimity that is the minimal entry qualification for being considered ‘great’.
Eugenics and Human Rights
Authors: Gilover Jonathan
Published: November 2023

In this chapter I want to address a number of questions surrounding developments in genetics. The first of these will be the question of how fair we should be guided by deep emotional reactions, sometimes called the ‘yule factor’, in our deliberations about applications of genetic engineering in humans.
What Are We Going to Call This Thing?
Authors: Gillies Jamaes , Cailliau Robert
Published: November 2023

Whilst Tim Berners-Lee was working at CERN, things had been moving back in Southampton. D. G. Nash Limited was run by two of Tim’s friends, Dennis Nash and John Poole, and once the company was up and running, Poole decided to set up on his own. Tim had briefly helped Poole before he left for CERN and when his six months were up, Poole invited him back as a director of the new company, Image Computer Systems Limited. Tim was responsible for software development and made a profound impact on the company’s future success. ’Most of my company’s products,’ Poole would later recall, ’are the result of his extensive involvement in their conception and implementation.’ Over the years Image Computer Systems has evolved to become a successful specialist in the systems for printing labels and for making and reading bar codes. But Tim didn’t stay to share in its success. By 1983 he was looking for new challenges and he remembered his old job at CERN.
What Matters In Our Survival: Distinctions, Compromises And Limits
Authors: Unger Peter
Published: November 2023

The current literature abounds with lively discussions of what matters in our survival. On one extreme, there are those who hold the absolutely deflationary view of what matters in our survival: Strict survival itself never really, or fundamentally, matters at all. Rather, what matters always might be, for example, the holding of certain continuities that, in favored cases, happen to underpin the truth of strict survival claims. Diametrically opposed to this, there are those who hold the strict view of what matters: All that ever matters in a given person’s survival is the fact that the very person himself will still exist.
Pre-Christian Healing Places
Authors: Risse Guenter B
Published: November 2023

During the early summer in about the year 145 AD, Aelius Aristides, a famous and wealthy orator from Mysia, in Asia Minor, dreamed that the Greek healing god Asclepius had invited him to visit the Asclepieion at Pergamon for a cure. Temporarily living in Smyrna, one of the most important urban centers in the region, Aristides, by his own admission, was not well. After buying a house in the city, he had for the past six months shuttled to nearby warm springs seeking relief. Months earlier, as the unspecified symptoms of his illness intensified, Aristides had visited a local temple dedicated to the Egyptian goddess Isis, offering “at her command” two geese.
Church and Laity Partnership in Hospital Care
Authors: Risse Guenter B
Published: November 2023

In the year 1140, Theodoros Prodromos, royal poet to the court at Constantinople during the reigns of Alexius Comnenus (1081-1118) and John II Comnenus (1118-1143) and a well-respected philosopher and theologian, suddenly became dangerously ill with a fever. In a personal letter composed during the early stages of his illness, the 40-year-old Prodromos shared his troubles with a friend, the provincial bishop Stephanos Skylitzes of Trapezus, an ancient port on the Black Sea. “God hit me with a painful sore throughout the whole body,” he wrote, adding that “ I say this for I have now been thrown into the most disgraceful condition to look at and suffer pestilence.”
Hospitals as Segregation and Confinement Tools Leprosy and Plague
Authors: Risse Guenter B
Published: November 2023

In a letter dated June 24, 1492, a panel of seven jurors belonging to the main parish of Deisenhofer, part of the bishopric of Metz in Lorraine, requested the examination of a fellow parishioner. The petition was addressed to the municipal authorities of Cologne. This old Roman settlement on the banks of the Rhine River was an important, large Reichsstadt among the patchwork of principalities and free cities comprising the Habsburg Empire under Frederick III. In spite of hefty losses from the plague, the total population, including that of its suburbs, remained at about 40,000.2
Caring for the Incurable: AIDS at San Francisco General Hospital
Authors: Risse Guenter B
Published: November 2023

By early 1984, while Faith, Patty, and Nancy were receiving dialysis treatments, the San Francisco gay community was in turmoil. For about three years, a growing number of its members had been coming down with what appeared to be a new disease with severe and protean clinical manifestations. Doctors called it AIDS, an acronym for the medical term acquired immune deficiency syndrome. This scientific label described a progressive loss of immunity responsible for a host of infections and cancers ending in death. Since the 1960s a favorite destination for hippies and gays, San Francisco was turning into a graveyard for many of its vibrant young newcomers. Victims of some still poorly understood disorder that robbed them of their inner defenses, some gay men were wilting and shrinking.
The Reason View
Authors: Wolf Susan
Published: November 2023

In the early part of Chapter 3 we saw that the ability to act autonomously could be confused with the ability to act in accordance with Reason. Once these abilities had been distinguished, moreover, we saw that the latter seemed more relevant to our status as responsible agents than the former. For within the class of agents who share the ability to act in accordance with Reason, the difference between autonomous and nonautonomous agents consists in the former’s having the ability to act in discordance with Reason, an ability that at best seems irrelevant to our status as responsible agents and at worst bespeaks a position directly incompatible with that status.If one has the ability to act in accordance with Reason, in other words, it seems that one may be responsible even without being autonomous. We might also point out that if one lacks the ability to act in accordance with Reason, one cannot be responsible even if one is autonomous. For dogs and psychopaths might conceivably be autonomous in the sense that they might be ultimate sources of their own actions, able to act on no basis.
Microorganisms and Macromanagement: Beadle’s Return to Caltech
Authors: Kay Lily E
Published: November 2023

In 1937 Beadle’s path-breaking investigations, which began at Caltech in 1934 with Ephrussi, inched on uneventfully. Beadle had just moved from Harvard to Stanford and was looking for a “biochemist to work on hormone-like substances that are concerned with eye pigments in Drosophila.”; Against the advice of his academic elders at the University of Wisconsin, Edward Tatum accepted Beadle’s offer, foregoing the safer and more lucrative research in dairy microbiology in favor of the challenge of biochemical genetics. Given the wide chasm separating the two disciplines, attracting biochemists to genetics was no easy task; the move would entail professional risks. Beadle recalled that one day as Edward Tatum’s father, the prominent Wisconsin pharmacologist Arthur Tatum, was visiting the laboratory he called him aside to tell him he was concerned about the professional future of his son. “Here you have him [Tatum Jr.] in a position in which he is neither a pure biochemist nor a bona fide geneticist,” the senior Tatum observed, expressing his fear that his son “will find no appropriate opportunity in either one.”
The Analysis of Inorganic and Organic Surfaces by Ionization of Desorbed Neutrals with Untuned Ultraviolet (UV) and Vacuum Ultraviolet (VUV) Lasers
Authors: Becker Christopher H
Published: November 2023

This chapter is concerned with surface chemical analysis and material analysis with both lateral and in depth spatial resolution. The approach in this work, as with all of the work described in this book, is based on mass spectrometry. Mass spectrometry has played a very honored role in the history of modern science. It is a tremendously powerful and general tool, still playing a vital role in fields from atomic physics to biochemical analysis to coal pyrolysis to the thermodynamics of inorganic substances. Mass spectrometry, fundamentally, is a vacuum-based technique performed on gaseous ions. When considering material surfaces, it is necessary to address the problem of how to produce gaseous ions from surfaces in a way that is characteristic of that material.
Laser Micro Mass Spectrometry for Direct Analysis of Coal Macerals
Authors: Morelli John J
Published: November 2023

The physical nature of coal has long been examined on a microscale; however, examination of the microchemistry of coal is a more recent development. The microchemical nature of inorganic (minerals) and organic (macerals) components of coal is fundamental to understanding coalification processes. Several techniques such as electron spin resonance, gas chromatography/mass spectrometry, nuclear magnetic resonance, Curie-point pyrolysis mass spectrometry, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy6 are used to obtain structural information on bulk coal.
Cognitive Constraints on Empirical Concepts
Authors: Kitcher Patricia
Published: November 2023

At the beginning I claimed that denying the transcendental psychology of the Critique has two harmful effects. Kant scholars must try to interpret a difficult text without engaging one of its central themes. By this point I hope to have shown that taking transcendental psychology seriously does not lead to embarrassment. Rather, it allows us to make better sense of the Aesthetic ‘s doctrine that space is the form of outer sense, better sense of the complex role of the principle of apperception in the Deduction, better sense of the argument for the indispensability of the categories, and better sense of the critique of Rational Psychology.
Classes of Abundant Genetic Variation
Authors: Mitton Jeffry B
Published: November 2023

For more than three decades, population geneticists have been using molecular techniques to estimate the levels of genetic variation in populations. Fisheries biologists (Frydenberg et al. 1965; Sick 1961, 1965a, b) and human geneticists (Allison 1955, 1964; Boyer 1961; Fildes and Parr 1963; Hopkinson, Spencer, and Harris 1964; Pauling et al. 1949; Robson and Harris 1965; Spencer, Hopkinson and Harris 1964) used electrophoresis to describe population structure before Johnson et al. (1966a, b), Harris (1966), and Lewontin and Hubby (1966) first used electrophoretic surveys of proteins to estimate levels of genetic variation. Electrophoretic analyses of more than 3,000 species showed the percentage range of polymorphic loci to be from zero to 100%, with a mean between 33 and 50% (Brown 1979; Hamrick and Godt 1990; Hamrick, Mitton, and Linhart 1979; Johnson 1976; Nevo 1978; Nevo, Beiles, and Ben-Shlomo 1984; Powell 1975; Selander 1976; see chapter 9). Two concerns, however, have haunted the use of electrophoresis to estimate genetic variability—accuracy and generality.
Class and the Strategies of Sympathy
Authors: Lang Amy Schrager
Published: November 2023

In 1851 the North American Review published a series of articles on political economy written by Francis Bowen, editor of the Review from 1843 until 1854 and, later, Alvord Professor of Natural Religion, Moral Philosophy, and Civil Polity at Harvard University. “There is a danger,” Bowen wrote, “from which no civilized community is entirely free, lest the several classes of its society should nourish mutual jealousy and hatred, which may finally break out into open hostilities, under the mistaken opinion that their interests are opposite, and that one or more of them possess an undue advantage, which they are always ready to exercise by oppressing the others.”1 In the particular case of the United States, Bowen insisted, this mistaken opinion could only be held by those who failed to appreciate the “peculiar mobility” of American society. Today’s pauper was, after all, tomorrow’s merchant-”the man who labored for another last year,” Abraham Lincoln declared, “this year labors for him self, and next year he will hire others to labor for him.”
Before Being or Not-Being Was: Logos and Logic Among the Preplatonics
Authors: Swearingen C Jan
Published: November 2023

When neither Being nor Not-being was Nor atmosphere, nor firmament, nor what is beyond. What did it encompass? Where? In whose protection? What was water, the deep, unfathomable? Neither death nor immortality was there then. No sign of night or day. That One breathed, windless, by its own energy: Nought else existed then. In the beginning was darkness swathed in darkness; All this was but unmanifested water. Whatever was, the One, coming into being, Hidden by the Void, Was generated by the power of heat.
The Resolutions of the Difficulties
Authors: Meinwald Constance C
Published: November 2023

Now that we have come to a satisfactory understanding of the second part of the Parmenides, we are in a position to consider the question of the relation between the two parts of the dialogue. In chapter l, I conceded that we could not take Parmcnides’ remarks as guaranteeing that the dialectical exercise would yield solutions to the famous problems of the immature Socrates—thc exercise could be merely preparatory. Nevertheless it seems indisputable that if the developments of the second part of the dialogue do provide a respond to the problems, that is the response that will have been Plato’s. Thus the purpose of the present chapter is to access whether the exercise in which we have been engaging gives us resources relevant to the famous difficulties. But before turning to detailed consideration of the particular arguments, let us consider the situation in a general way.
Expert Opinion in Practice
Authors: Cooke Roger M
Published: November 2023

Expert opinion has been used in a more or less systematic way in many fields. This chapter discusses uses in the aerospace program, in military intelligence, in nuclear energy, and in policy analysis. The latter field is extremely broad and contains many methodologies that are only marginally related to the central theme of this book, namely the representation and use of expert uncertainty. Techniques such as time series analysis and regression analysis have been extensively used in economic forecasting, for example, but cannot be called methodologies for using expert opinion. Hence, the items chosen from the general field of policy analysis will focus on expert opinion and will not constitute a representative sample from this very wide field.
Probabilistic Thinking
Authors: Cooke Roger M
Published: November 2023

This chapter discusses the general problem of representing reasoning under uncertainty. The introduction of artificial intelligence systems, or expert systems, for modeling scientific reasoning under uncertainty on computers has made this a problem of great practical importance. The first section is devoted to “thinking” in general, and attempts to show why and how probabilistic thinking differs from ordinary logical inference. The second and main section of this chapter discusses developments in artificial intelligence relating to the representation of reasoning under uncertainty.
Heuristics and Biases
Authors: Cooke Roger M
Published: November 2023

When called upon to estimate probabilities or determine degrees of belief, people do not usually perform mental calculations, but rely instead on various rules of thumb. Such rules are called heuristics. Heuristics may be adequate for everyday life, but they can lead to predictable errors. The word “error” must be used gingerly in this context, since a degree of belief is subjective. By error we shall mean either a violation of the axioms of probability, or an estimate that is not really in accord with the subject’s beliefs and that he/she would want to correct if the matter were brought to his/her attention.
Building Rational Consensus
Authors: Cooke Roger M
Published: November 2023

The foregoing four chapters have explored a very wide range of subjects, all connected with the use of expert opinion in science. Part II is devoted to assembling the mathematical modeling tools that will be needed in Part III. Before embarking on mathematical modeling, it is useful to gather some conclusions from the previous chapters and to form a preliminary picture of what we would like to accomplish in Part III. Chapter 1 ended with a question, what does it mean to represent uncertainty adequately for purposes of science? We shall not answer this question here. Rather, we return to the fundamental aim of science and derive some general principles that a methodology for using expert opinion in science should satisfy. At the same time, we review the existing practice, as it has evolved, and determine whether science’s fundamental aims are presently being served.
Savage’s Normative Decision Theory
Authors: Cooke Roger M
Published: November 2023

L. J. Savage’s Foundations of Statistics appeared in 1954 and provided a powerful synthesis of many ideas surrounding uncertainty and the interpretation of probability. In particular, he linked the problem of representing uncertainty with the problem of representing rational preference and modeling rational decision. He showed that rational preference can be uniquely decomposed into subjective probability and (affine unique) utility.
Projects and the Nature of Ethics
Authors: Lomasky Loren E
Published: November 2023

It was argued in Chapter 2 that the standing of human beings as project pursuers is a fact so portentous that any account of morality that explicitly or implicitly denies that project pursuers have reason to be partial to their own abiding commitments is thereby disqualified as an adequate moral theory for beings like us. It follows, then, that a wide range of ethical theorizing, most notably utilitarianism in its various guises, but also numerous other incarnations of the Foil, is fundamentally deficient. The critique was negative, clearing away unqualified pretenders but not itself nominating an acceptable candidate. That latter task remains.
Beyond Basic Rights
Authors: Lomasky Loren E
Published: November 2023

Rights occupy a strategic position within the overall structure of moral theory, responding as they do to the fundamental separateness of persons and their projects and to the incommensurability of personal value among individuals. However, fidelity to the demands of rights is by no means the whole of what makes for moral rightness-an action can be in accord with rights but yet be manifestly wrong-so the theory of rights finds its place within deontic theory of what we ought and ought not to do. Deontology is in tum embedded in axiology, the study of what (actions or states of affairs) has value. That is, respect for rights is a subclass of the right, and the Theory of the Right is incomplete unless accompanied by the Theory of the Good.
It Does Not Suit Man’S Nature To Live Without Law
Authors: Carr Craig L
Published: November 2023

Now that we have given a general account of moral matters in the previous book, and of the most frequently used terms (whose random insertion into our system would have interrupted its flow), we must focus more directly on our intended object by asking, first of all, whether it was appropriate for man to pass through this life without any law. This will make it clear why the Good and Great Creator did not bestow on man the freedom to do whatever pleases him, or to act according to the vagaries of impulse, without being accountable to any law, rule, or necessity. For since God gave man a will, namely, a faculty of turning himself by a sort of internal impulse toward those things that seem to suit him, and away from those that displease him (a will, moreover, which cannot be compelled), one may certainly wonder whether it did not befit God’s goodness to allow man an undiminished and unimpeded use of that flexible faculty. For why did He give man a flexible will if He then demanded that it follow definite rules? Just as fetters render useless the mobility of our limbs, so it seems that the freedom of our will also amounts to nothing if we can will many things that we ought necessarily to omit and reject many that we ought necessarily to undertake.
Computer-Aided Sperm Analysis and Sperm Kinematics
Authors: Mortimer David
Published: November 2023

There are several commercial systems using digital image analysis technology for the automated analysis of sperm concentration, sperm motility, and sperm movement characteristics. This new area of andrology has come to be known as computer-aided sperm analysis (CASA) (Boyers et al., 1989). Occasionally, CASA is used to mean computer-assisted semen analysis, or the alternative acronym CASMA (computer-aided/assisted/automated sperm motility analysis) may be seen.
Who Are “The Philosophers of the Future”?: A Reading of Beyond Good and Evil
Authors: Nehamas Alexander
Published: November 2023

Though it is one of Nietzsche’s most popular and most widely read books, Beyond Good and Evil remains, in structure and content (if we can provisionally distinguish between them), a work of dazzling obscurity. Two reasons make this oxymoron appropriate. In a very elementary sense, we still do not know how to read this book. We simply do not understand its structure, its narrative line. Indeed, we do not even know whether it has any narrative line at all. And the reason why, which is also precisely the reason why the structure of Beyond Good and Evil still remains obscure, is the sheer brilliance, the dazzle, of many of the two hundred and ninety-six sections of which (along with its preface and “Aftersong”) the work consists.
The Problem of Heredity
Authors: Darden Lindley
Published: November 2023

A discussion of the origin of Mendelism cannot start by following the reasoning that led Mendel and others to the important early discoveries in Mendelism; few historical records exist to provide evidence about such discoveries. This is not a historical account of how any person actually discovered what came to be called “Mendel’s first law.” It is not an exercise in trying to rethink the thoughts of Mendel or some other historical person.
The Molecular Basis of Mendelian Disease
Authors: Ostrer Harry
Published: November 2023

Our understanding of the molecular basis of genetic disease was developed by identifying mutations in genes that showed Mendelian transmission and the effects of these mutations on the encoded polypeptides. Thus we learned that disease occurs when an anatomic or physiological system is disrupted in such a way that the individual cannot mount a sufficient compensatory response. Initially it was thought that all mutations knocked out the functions of a gene. Subsequently, it was learned that mutations may alter the stability of the gene product or confer novel functions on that product. The molecular basis of genetic disease instructs not only on the functions of genes but also on the mechanisms by which genetic variation occurs and on the physiology of the system that is disrupted.
Deviations From The Mendelian Paradigm
Authors: Ostrer Harry
Published: November 2023

The familial transmission of color blindness in humans demonstrates that Mendel’s laws are insufficient to explain the genetics of this condition in humans. Typically, the color-blind individual is born to unaffected parents, and on aver age, one-quarter of the offspring in these families have the condition. The uninformed observer might conclude that color blindness is a recessive condition based on the ratio of 3:1 for affected to unaffected. Yet the same observer would be hard-pressed to fit a model of autosomal recessive inheritance based on its occurrence only in male offspring and the presence of the same condition in the transmitting mother’s brothers and maternal uncles. In some families, hemophilia A is transmitted along with color blindness. When confronted with this problem, Bell and Haldane concluded (correctly) that the genes for the two traits were linked.
Sex Chromosome Transmission
Authors: Ostrer Harry
Published: November 2023

Sex-linked transmission was the first exception to Mendel’s rules to be identified in humans. In his work with sex-limited transmission, Wilson identified two key features. First, males and females have different sex chromosome constitutions; thus, the mechanism of sex determination is genetically mediated and demonstrates a paternal origin effect. Second, X-linked traits in males demonstrate a maternal origin effect in their transmission. The third feature of the story, inactivation of one of the X chromosomes in the somatic cells of females, resulting in the equivalent expression of X-linked genes in the somatic cells of males and females, was identified half a century later by Mary Lyon.2 Other features of sex chromosome transmission were discovered only in recent years.
Genomic Imprinting
Authors: Ostrer Harry
Published: November 2023

Certain genes demonstrate a parent-of-origin effect in their expression. This parent-of-origin effect occurs because these genes are modified during their transmission via oocytes or spermatocytes. The process of germ cell-specific modification of a gene is known as genomic imprinting, a term that was coined by Helen Crouse. In 1960, she described the phenomenon in this way. A chromosome which passes through the male germ line will acquire an “imprint” which will result in behavior exactly opposite to the “imprint” conferred of the same chromo some by the female germ line. In other words, the “imprint” a chromosome bears is unrelated to the genie constitution of the chromosome and is determined only by the sex of the germ line through which the chromosome has been inherited.
DNA Evolution
Authors: Gillespie John H
Published: November 2023

As we have seen, our interest in the evolution of protein sequences tends to be focused on locus-specific examples. The evolution of insulin in the hys-tricomorph rodents, for example, has little in common with the evolution of hemoglobin in Riippell’s griffon. We can discuss one without making reference to the other. By contrast, when discussing the evolution of DNA, we tend to focus on properties that hold for much or all of the genome. The distinction will be evident in the contrasting approaches of this chapter and the previous one. Implicit in our new approach is a belief that most nu cleotide substitutions that do not change amino acids (silent substitutions) are the product of similar evolutionary processes no matter which locus is involved. Many workers believe, for example, that the evolution of silent sites and noncoding DNA is driven solely by the interaction of drift and mutation.
Selection Theories
Authors: Gillespie John H
Published: November 2023

In this, the final chapter, I will present a theory of molecular evolution and polymorphism based on the combined forces of natural selection, genetic drift, and mutation. The theory is intended to apply to amino acid variation, although it may eventually be extended to include silent variation as well. Before jumping in, I will summarize some of the evidence that created the need for such a theory.
The Disease of Young Women
Authors: Silverstein Brett , Perlick Deborah
Published: November 2023

During the 1970s, psychologists, psychiatrists, and the general public became increasingly aware of forms of disordered eating that appeared new. Obesity and overeating had been well known for many years, but not until the late 1960s, or so it seemed, did significant numbers of women exhibit the self-starvation of anorexia. A few more years had to pass before the syndrome of bingeing alternating with purgeing, referred to as bulimarexia, or bulimia for short, was recognized. Mental health professionals were intrigued-and perhaps even a little bit shocked-by what seemed to be the sudden increase in cases of what had been considered a “curiosity and a rarity.” Modem industrial societies place a great deal of emphasis on novelty, newness, originality. This is particularly true of the United States, the center of much recent medical research, with its short history and its pride in not being tainted by the old fashioned, feudal roots of Europe and Asia. To most of the general public, and to many professionals involved in studying or treating eating disorders, anorexia and bulimia were new phenomena. This is true despite the outbreak of self-starvation among young women that occurred during the 1920s, a period experienced by millions of Americans alive today.
Logical Atomisms: Modal and Nonmodal
Authors: Bradley Raymond
Published: November 2023

Ludwig Wittgenstein and Bertrand Russell are commonly referred to as “logical atomists”. True, the term was not Wittgenstein’s; it was Russell who coined it. But the doctrines that Russell used it to label, those set forth in his 1918 lectures entitled “The Philosophy of Logical Atomism”, were ones that he claimed had originated with Wittgenstein.
Emily Dickinson and the Wicked Sisters
Authors: Erkkila Betsy
Published: November 2023

“What if the ‘goods’ refused to go to market?” asks Luce Irigaray in “Des marchandises entre elles” ( “Female Commodities Among Themselves”). Reflecting on the use of women as objects of mediation, exchange, and transference between men in a patriarchal and ultimately homosexual economy, Irigaray wonders: “What if they maintained among themselves ‘another’ kind of trade?” (Marks and de Courtivron 110). Emily Dickinson’s interaction with a select circle of women friends was her means of refusing to go to market. Getting the goods together in a separate community of female language and desire, Dickinson sought to maintain among women another kind of trade. Dickinson’s community of women included her sister, Lavinia, and her sister-in-law, Susan Gilbert; her childhood friends Abiah Root, Abby Wood, Emily Fowler Ford, and Jane Humphrey; and later her friend Elizabeth Holland and her cousins Louise and Frances Norcross. Complementing the written “correspondence” that she carried on with her women friends, Dickinson also located herself within a tradition of literary women that included the Bronte sisters, Elizabeth Barrett Browning, and George Eliot.
Mechanism of Latent Image Formation
Authors: Tani Tadaaki
Published: November 2023

As shown in Fig. 3 in Chapter 1, the photographic process is composed of the capture of incident light by silver halide emulsion grains (sensing), formation of latent image centers on the silver halide grains (memory), and image formation by the catalytic action of the latent image centers for the reduction of silver halide grains to silver (display). It was first suggested by Sheppard, Trivelli, and Loveland1 in 1925 and is now accepted that a latent image center is an aggregate of silver atoms. Therefore, it is important that the mechanism of photographic sensitivity explain the concentration principle by which a silver aggregate is photolytically formed as a latent image center on a silver halide grain.
Spectral Sensitization
Authors: Tani Tadaaki
Published: November 2023

As described in Chapter 1, the ability to form color images is one of the most important properties of photosensitive materials. In order to form color images, photosensitive materials are required to be sensitive to the three primary colors, that is, blue, green, and red. As described in Chapter 3, silver halide itself absorbs ultraviolet and blue light, and is thus sensitive only to blue light in the visible region. Spectral sensitization was discovered by Vogel1 in 1873 and is now widely used to render silver halides sensitive to wavelengths longer than that of blue light, such as green, red, and infrared, by use of sensitizing dyes that absorb light in these spectral regions.
Getting the Lay of the Land: Introducing North American Native Grasslands
Authors: Anthony joern , Keeler kathleen H
Published: November 2023

The expected catastrophic extinction of species (already under way in many places) will alter the planet’s biological diversity so profoundly that, at the known rate of extinction, it will take millions of years to recover. Yet few ecologists study extinction. Indeed, very little ecology deals with any processes that last more than a few years, involve more than a handful of species, and cover an area of more than a few hectares. The temporal, spatial and organizational scales of most ecological studies are such that one can read entire issues of major journals and see no hint of impending catastrophe. The problems that ecologists face are so large; how do we contemplate processes that last longer than our research careers and that involve more species than we can count, over areas far too large for conventional experiments? The problems are also complex; understanding ecological processes at these large scales is far more of an intellectual challenge than is the stupefying tedious sequence of the human genome. The problems are also more important. With complete certainty, I predict that human genomes will be around in fifty years to sequence; with somewhat Jess certainty, I predict that there will be ten billion of them, dying from many causes each of which is orders of magnitude more important than the genetic causes the human genome sequencing will uncover. If we do not understand ecological processes better than at present, these ten billion humans will be destroying our planet more rapidly than we are now.
Introduction: Form and Content,Philosophy and Literature
Authors: Nussbaum Martha C
Published: November 2023

How should one write, what words should one select, what forms and structures and organization, if one is pursuing understanding? (Which is to say, if one is, in that sense, a philosopher?) Sometimes this is taken to be a trivial and uninteresting question. I shall claim that it is not. Style itself makes its claims, expresses its own sense of what matters. Literary form is not separable from philosophical content, but is, itself, a part of content―an integral part, then, of the search for and the statement of truth.
Migration, Movement, and Other Spatiotemporal Considerations
Authors: Quinn II Terrance J , Deriso Richard B
Published: November 2023

Many fish populations exhibit migration or movement during some phase of their life histories. Migration is considered to be consistent, directional movement of some component of a population. Movement refers more generally to any change in the location of individuals in a population. Migrations may be seasonal, such as movement from summer feeding grounds to winter spawning areas, as for Pacific halibut. Or migrations may be annual or longer, such as the movement of young fish from nursery areas to areas where adults are found. Homing of salmon to natal streams after some years in the marine environment is the best known example. For species where eggs and larvae drift far from spawning grounds, compensatory movement is clearly needed to maintain population viability. We use the terms movement and migration interchangeably and leave the specification of terms to the interpretation of data from a given population. Mathematically, consistency in movement can be handled by making movement parameters constant over some time dimension.
Main Routes and Carriers
Authors: Holmes Frederic Lawrence
Published: November 2023

During 1936 Hans Krebs was only one of a number of biochemists who directed their attention at problems closely connected with the intermediate stages of oxidative carbohydrate metabolism. The work of Szent-Gyorgyi’s school was stimulating a great deal of interest, particularly in the role of the C4 dicarboxylic acids in tissue respiration. Early in the year, for example, Guy Greville, a former associate of Frank Dickens now at the Courtauld Institute of Biochemistry in London, undertook a “critical study of Szent-Gyorgyi’s theory.” To acquaint himself with the methods behind it, Greville worked in Szent-Gyorgyi’s laboratory in Szeged. On his return Greville confirmed some of the experimental results of the Szeged group, but raised questions about the conditions under which some of them were obtained, and concluded that “the establishing of Szent-Gyorgyi’s theory will be very difficult.” At Cambridge, Frederick J. Stare and Carl A. Baumann in the Molteno Institute confirmed that catalytic quantities of fumaric acid “preserve” the respiration of pigeon breast and pig heart muscle. In the Biochemistry Department, Jean M. Innes also began experiments intended to test Szent-Gyorgyi’s conclusions. Krebs knew Stare, and must have kept in touch with these developments during his visits to Cambridge.
Reflections
Authors: Holmes Frederic Lawrence
Published: November 2023

Like the ornithine cycle, the citric acid cycle was not a revolutionary discovery. It conformed to all the accepted methodological rules for establishing intermediate metabolic reactions. It incorporated as essential substrates substances that had long been considered central to cellular respiration, and it relied upon general types of reactions-dehydrogenations, dehydrations and hydrations, decarboxylations, and dismutations-that comprised the standard repertoire invoked in metabolic reaction mechanisms. The more novel intermediates supplied by Martius were still connected by analogy to the previously known ones. Nor was the cyclic pattern novel.
Approaches for Measuring Inequality
Authors: Temkin Larry S
Published: November 2023

At the end of chapter 2, I observed that once we see what the notion of inequality involves, we may come to think it as either largely inconsistent and severely limited, or complex, multifaceted, and partially incomplete. Even if we ultimately decide that the notion of inequality is “merely” complex rather than inconsistent, as I have been assuming since chapter 2, its practical significance will be fairly minor unless we are generally able to compare situations regarding inequality. After all, it can be of little consequence that we regard inequality as bad, if we can’t usually tell whether one situation’s inequality is worse than another’s. Eventually, therefore, the egalitarian would like to arrive at a measure that would enable her to accurately compare situations regarding inequality. In this chapter, I examine some measures of inequality economists have offered. In doing this, I note some significant parallels, as well as points of disagreement, between my work and theirs. I then offer my own suggestion for how one might best proceed if one wants to capture accurately a complex notion like inequality.
Conclusion
Authors: Temkin Larry S
Published: November 2023

Let me conclude this book by summarizing the first nine chapters; reconsidering the charge that the notion of inequality is inconsistent; discussing some possible practical implications; and commenting, a final time, on the plausibility of my individualistic approach to inequality.

Chapter 1 was mainly introductory. It provided an overview of the book and introduced a slew of preliminary comments. I acknowledged that in many cases my terminology, presuppositions, and methodology were controversial, but begged the reader’s patience and indulgence. Moreover, I claimed that “since even mistaken views can be illuminating, there is reason to hope this book’s approach will shed light on the nature of inequality even for those rejecting its central tenets.” I trust I was not being unduly optimistic. Although this book is no doubt filled with questionable assumptions, shaky arguments, and controversial conclusions, I believe it raises and illuminates many issues about the notion of inequality.
Self-Organization and Adaptation in Complex Systems
Authors: Kauffman Stuart A
Published: November 2023

Eighteenth-century science, following the Newtonian revolution, has been characterized as developing the sciences of organized simplicity, nineteenth-century science, via statistical mechanics, as focusing on disorganized complexity, and twentieth- and twenty-first-century science as confronting organized complexity. Nowhere is this confrontation so stark as in biology. Nowhere are new conceptual tools so deeply needed. In this chapter, I describe some of those tools.
Self-Deception: The Paradox of Belief
Authors: Mele Alfred R
Published: November 2023

Although incontinent believing has received scant attention in the literature, quite the reverse is true of self-deception. A great many attempts have been made in recent years to purge self-deception of paradox. Ironically, these efforts often make the phenomenon much more difficult to understand than we have reason to believe it to be. This chapter and the next address two interrelated paradoxes. The first-which is often regarded as the paradox of self-deception-is directly concerned with what the self-deceived person believes and with the possibility of his believing what he (apparently) does. The second, examined in Chapter 10, focuses on the process or activity of self-deception.