bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Health Legislation and Public Policies
Authors: Cheak-Zamora Nancy , Reid-Arndt Stephanie A. , Hagglund Kristofer J. , Frank Robert G.
Published: February 2013

As demographics shift to include more elderly populations and those living with chronic medical conditions, costs for health care services continue to escalate. As a result, health care systems around the world increasingly struggle to provide cost-effective, coordinated, and quality health care to those they serve. Significant policy, procedural, and practice changes are essential in solving these growing problems. With experience in interdisciplinary teams, rehabilitation psychologists and other psychological providers have a clear vantage point from which to help guide movement toward an integrated health care model that values health promotion, prevention, and collaborative care. Psychologists can be an integral part of this new “interdisciplinary team,” but, as a profession, we must advocate for this inclusion and position ourselves to take on this new role through education and training.
Aspects of Culture Influencing Rehabilitation and Persons with Disabilities
Authors: Mpofu Elias , Chronister Julie , Johnson Ebonee T. , Denham Geoff
Published: February 2013

Disability is largely defined by the sociocultural context in which it is perceived and in relation to the atypicality with which a person identified as having a disability participates in ordinary activities of daily living. The ways in which social others perceive the category of disability influences access to resources for participation, so that some disabilities may result in more restrictions to participation than others. Rehabilitation interventions for people with disabilities seek to maximize quality of daily life in typical community settings. Communities as participation environments differ in the extent to which they are structured to enable the full inclusion of others who may have disabilities. Concepts rooted in a human rights perspective to disability enable checks on assumptions on which opportunities for community participation are configured and distributed to accommodate the full range of human attributes, thus making it likely for changes to occur toward disability-inclusive sociocultural systems. Culturally safe contexts for participation are those that enable those with a disability to have the same access to resources for activities of daily living as those without disability. Research is needed on sociocultural systems to determine full community participation of people with disabilities and how this can best be implemented.
Rehabilitation Psychology: The Continuing Challenge
Authors: Kennedy Paul
Published: February 2013

This book has explored a range of applied psychological models, the factors associated with adjustment, and the predictors of health outcomes. There is a need to move away from linear models and include broader themes, such as, genetic, social, and environmental factors. Although research is increasing in volume, we also need to be aware of engaging in initiatives that foster translational research. This afterword reports on a number of suggestions to enhance outcomes and value for rehabilitation providers. It highlights the remaining opportunities to develop the discipline and practice of rehabilitation psychology to address the challenges of the 21st century.
India and the World Economy, 1757–1947
Authors: Roy Tirthankar
Published: February 2013

In the two centuries during which India became a part of the British colonial empire (ca. 1757–1947), the world economy experienced an unprecedented transformation. Britain, followed by Western Europe and European settler regions in North America, industrialized. International transactions in goods, labor, and capital grew in scale and diversified in destination as never before. Knowledge of institutions and technologies traveled far and wide. And much of the land located in tropical and equatorial Asia and Africa became colonies of major European nations. The Indian subcontinent was an important player in this transformation process. The region traded heavily with Europe. Indian workers populated tropical plantations in the Caribbean, the Pacific, and Southeast Asia. Indian entrepreneurs bought machines and hired foremen abroad in order to start modern factories. Foreign investment funded the railways and manufacturing industry in India. Many useful and valuable technological skills were transmitted from Europe to India, as were ideas and practices about property rights and contract law.
Performance of Indian Manufacturing in the Postreform Period
Authors: Gupta Poonam , Kumar Utsav
Published: February 2013

This article discusses the empirical evidence which shows the way in which various factors have affected industrial performance in India. It compares the Indian growth experience across sectors with the cross-country experience. It also compares the Indian manufacturing sector with that in selected other countries. The article provides an overview of the changes in the regulatory framework introduced in the industrial sector in India and discusses empirical evidence which shows how these regulatory changes have affected the manufacturing sector. It discusses the factors that have inhibited growth in the industrial sector, and looks at the way some of these factors have affected the relative size of the services and industrial sectors.
Fiscal Rules in India: are they Effective?
Authors: Buiter Willem H. , Patel Urjit R.
Published: February 2013

This article considers India's experience with fiscal (responsibility) rules during the past decade. The article first provides an analytical foundation on how to think about debt sustainability in the Indian context. It argues that the fiscal space “vacated” in recent years by states has been usurped by the central government. The recommendations of the 13th Finance Commission regarding a roadmap for fiscal consolidation are also examined numerically—something that would be useful to policy makers. Some of the dimensions along which the assessment of fiscal rules takes place—for fiscal policy in Indian going forward—include scope for eliciting time-consistent behavior, features that encourage countercyclical behavior and safeguards against political opportunism.
Financial Frictions and Monetary Policy Transmission in India
Authors: Kletzer Kenneth
Published: February 2013

This article focuses on how the institutional structure of the financial sector and the role of financial intermediation in the Indian economy affect the transmission of monetary policy to the real economy. The article reviews a large amount of empirical literature on monetary transmission within the Indian context (with bank lending and the credit channel being more prevalent). One aspect that emerges from this discussion is that the effect of monetary disturbances on market interest rates, output, and prices, depends on the response of such disturbances to the yield curve. However, recent research on emerging markets shows that long-term rates are not responsive to changes in short-term rates. Thus, monetary policy has smaller effects on output and prices in emerging markets. In the Indian context, the shortcomings of the transmission mechanism further arise because of an underdeveloped financial system and the problem of credit rationing by formal sector banks.
Normative Systems: Logic, Probability, and Rational Choice
Authors: Chater Nick , Oaksford Mike
Published: February 2013

Normative theories of how people should reason have been central to the development of the cognitive science of thinking and reasoning, both as standards against which how thought is assessed and as sources of hypotheses about how thought might operate. This chapter sketches three particularly important types of normative system: logic, probability, and rational choice theory, stressing that these can each be viewed as providing consistency conditions on thought. From the perspective of understanding thought, logic can be viewed as providing consistency conditions on beliefs; probability provides consistency conditions on degrees of beliefs; and rational choice provides consistency conditions on choices. Limitations of current normative approaches are discussed. Throughout this chapter, we provide pointers concerning how these ideas link with the empirical study of thinking and reasoning, as described in this book.
Computational Models of Higher Cognition
Authors: Doumas Leonidas A. A. , Hummel John E.
Published: February 2013

Process models of higher cognition come in three basic varieties: traditional symbolic models, traditional connectionist models, and symbolic-connectionist models. This chapter reviews the basic representational and processing assumptions embodied in each of these approaches and considers the strengths and limitations of each.
Insight
Authors: van Steenburgh J. Jason , Fleck Jessica I. , Beeman Mark , Kounios John
Published: February 2013

In the century since the Gestalt psychologists introduced insight as a component process of perception and problem solving, researchers have studied the phenomenological, behavioral, and neural components of insight. Whether and how insight is different from other types of problem solving, such as analysis, has been a topic of considerable interest and some contention. In this chapter we develop a working definition of insight and detail the history of insight research by focusing on questions about the influence of the problem solver's prior knowledge, the origins and significance of representational change, and the roles of impasse and incubation. We also review more recent investigations of the neurological correlates of insight, discuss neurobehavioral states that facilitate or inhibit insightful problem solving, and highlight new methods and techniques that are proving useful in extending our knowledge of insight.
Development of Thinking in Children
Authors: Gelman Susan A. , Frazier Brandy N.
Published: February 2013

Children's thinking is of broad relevance to the study of thinking and reasoning, because it provides insight into fundamental issues concerning the building blocks of cognition, the role of experience, and how conceptual change comes about. The present chapter reviews four main aspects of children's thinking: (1) developmental changes, and how best to characterize such changes; (2) early cognitive capacities in infancy and early childhood, and the methodological tools that reveal these capacities; (3) causal reasoning and naive theories in childhood; and (4) the ways in which children are prepared to learn from the actions and testimony of others. The chapter ends with open questions and directions for future research.
An Integration of Normal and Abnormal Personality Structure: The Five-Factor Model
Authors: Widiger Thomas A. , Samuel Douglas B. , Mullins-Sweatt Stephanie , Gore Whitney L. , Crego Cristina
Published: February 2013

It is evident that the conceptualization, diagnosis, and classification of personality disorder is shifting toward a dimensional model and, more specifically, the Five-Factor Model (FFM) in particular. The purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of the FFM of personality disorder. It will begin with a description of this dimensional model of normal and abnormal personality functioning, along with a brief overview of its empirical support. This will be followed by a discussion of its potential advantages, and a comparison with the current proposals for DSM-5.
Cultural Aspects of Personality Disorder
Authors: Mulder Roger T.
Published: February 2013

Personality disorders are Western clinical entities. Their classification is based on a concept of the self and on values that have evolved in Western societies. Personality disorders illustrate the process of medicalization of social behavior, which is spreading throughout the world. Nevertheless many of the behaviors described in personality disorder classifications are pan-cultural. Individual personality disorders, notably antisocial personality disorder, have been described in most cultures, but rates vary significantly. Higher order personality domains have a similar structure in different countries. Personality traits such as the Big Five appear to be reproducible across different societies. Evolutionary psychology suggests that this universality reflects a fundamental similarity of human interests in status and reproduction. Western cultures are largely individualist, encouraging people to be independent, autonomous, and to strive for personal goals. Other cultures are more collectivistic, encouraging interdependent and cooperative behaviors. There is reasonable evidence that the “goodness of fit” between an individual’s personality style and his or her society is associated with self-reported psychological distress. Immigration and modernization may therefore be associated with increasing rates of personality disorders, although the evidence about this association is mixed. More cross-cultural research on personality disorders would be helped by a classification system with fewer, simple behaviorally based domains. Assessment of cultural factors as part of personality disorder diagnoses is mandatory given the cultural relativism of the diagnoses. Personality disorders reflect the interplay between culture and social-historical concepts of personality as well as neurobiology and developmental processes.
Schizotypal Personality Disorder: An Integrative Review
Authors: Kwapil Thomas R. , Barrantes-Vidal Neus
Published: February 2013

Schizotypal personality disorder (SPD) first appeared in the American Psychiatric Association diagnostic nosology in 1980. However, its roots stretch back more than 100 years under the guise of labels such as borderline, ambulatory, and latent schizophrenia. It is currently characterized as involving marked interpersonal deficits, cognitive and perceptual distortions, and odd and eccentric behaviors. SPD stands at a unique crossroads in the characterization and treatment of psychopathology in that it is conceptualized both as stable personality pathology and also as a milder manifestation of schizophrenia. SPD’s etiological relation with schizophrenia is supported by extensive genetic, neurobiological, neurocognitive, psychosocial, and clinical research. However, research has also identified biopsychosocial factors that differentiate SPD from schizophrenia and may protect SPD patients from deteriorating into psychosis. The chapter reviews this literature and current controversies surrounding SPD in light of the upcoming release of DSM-5.
Girlhood Songs, Musical Tales, and Musical Games as Strategies for Socialization into Womanhood among the Baganda of Uganda
Authors: Nannyonga-Tamusuza Sylvia
Published: February 2013

This article examines how children’s songs, musical tales, and games contribute to the socialization of rural Baganda girls in womanhood. Through metaphoric, symbolic, and idiomatic language; girlhood lullabies, musical tales, and games, gendered information is “dressed-up” to communicate a discourse that is otherwise only acceptable in private. Although the girls may not understand the gendered private discourse, the repeated performance of girlhood songs, tales, and games enhances memorization and storage of this information for use at a later time when the girls get married. Indeed, children’s music is important in the socialization of girls into womanhood and the life of a Baganda wife and mother.
Georgian (Caucasus) Children’s Polyphonic Conception of Music
Authors: Vallejo Polo
Published: February 2013

This article explores the musical culture of children in Georgia, focusing on the phenomenon of vocal polyphony. It considers the possibility that if children can sing polyphonic songs with features that are similar to those of adults, then it should be possible to find in the children’s repertoire more “rudimentary” chords and/or simplified harmonic syntax processes. The aim is to determine whether children's polyphonic performance uses less complex harmonic structures that would then provide a key to a better understanding the complexities of Georgian music.
Integration in Mexican Children’s Musical Worlds
Authors: Sturman Janet
Published: February 2013

This article examines the musical lives of children in Mexico. Mexican children enjoy music for the interactions it promotes with friends, family, and people they admire. Musical activities also help them reconcile the contrasting worlds that shape their lives. From centralized, government-sponsored programs and formal instruction, to regional drama and individual play, children learn from a very young age that there are many ways to be Mexican in the modern world. Ultimately, being musical is a way for children to connect with others. Despite new media and technology, the traditional method of learning music from one’s parents or close relatives, and by performing alongside them in family and community events, persists and influences even formal music instruction in conservatory and school settings.
Children’s Urban and Rural Musical Worlds in North India
Authors: Sarrazin Natalie
Published: February 2013

This article examines the musical lives of children in urban and rural India. It focuses on three groups of children in North India: one in an urban area on the outskirts of Delhi—India’s capital city region of over 18 million people; one in a rural village in Bihar—India’s poorest and most illiterate state; and a child of a domestic servant. It addresses questions such as: what might a North Indian urban child’s musical repertoire look like? How might the repertoire differ from their rural counterpart? What is the impact of the media on traditional repertoires? It is shown that middle class children in urban and rural India enjoy rich musical lives, as schools and social rituals provide musical experiences and repertoires with both traditional and modern influences. While classical, folk, and national songs form the core of the public and private school canon, the deeply entrenched traditional and regional music survive alongside a cultural shift towards popular music.
Enjoyment and Socialization in Gambian Children’s Music Making
Authors: Koops Lisa Huisman
Published: February 2013

This article examines the musical socialization and enjoyment of children in Gambia. It presents vignettes and observations drawn from fieldwork in a densely populated, multi-ethnic, suburban area near the capital city, Banjul. Music helped children to better understand and affirm their place in their family, community, and school. It enabled them to acquire the knowledge necessary to participate in their culture, from religious traditions to courting rituals. It also allows then join in an enjoyable and prevalent part of cultural expression—music making.
Children’s and Adolescents’ Musical Needs and Music Education in Germany
Authors: Kertz-Welzel Alexandra
Published: February 2013

This article explores the musical cultures of children and youth in Germany. The study draws upon the views of both children and scholars, in order to understand the impact of the German tradition of music education on children’s lives and to find ways to improve music education theory and practice. It discusses why music education is the least popular subject in German schools, suggesting a mismatch between student needs and the knowledge and skills music education offers them. It concludes that music education in Germany must address the musical needs of students and develop pathways for them to become self-determined musical individuals who use music they way they need it.
Why Behaviorism Isn't Satanism
Authors: Barrett Louise
Published: February 2013

The history of comparative evolutionary psychology can be characterized, broadly speaking, as a series of reactions to Cartesian versus pragmatist views of the mind and behavior. Here, a brief history of these theoretical shifts is presented to illuminate how and why contemporary comparative evolutionary psychology takes the form that it does. This brings to the fore the strongly cognitivist research emphasis of current evolutionary comparative research, and the manner in which alternative accounts based on learning theory and other behaviorist principles generally receive short shrift. I attempt to show why many of these criticisms of alternative accounts are unjustified, that cognitivism does not constitute the radical lurch away from behaviorism that many imagine, and that an alternative “embodied and embedded” view of cognition—itself developing in reaction to the extremes of cognitivism—reaches back to a number of behaviorist philosophical principles, including the rejection of a separation between brain and body, and between the organism and environment.
Social Complexity and Intelligence
Authors: Dunbar R.I.M. , Sutcliffe A.G.
Published: February 2013

The social brain hypothesis (SBH) offers a framework for integrating evolutionary and social psychological perspectives on human social complexity. SBH offers an explanation for the evolution of unusually large brains among primates and we outline briefly the background theory and evidence. SBH predicts a natural community size of ∼150 for modern humans, and there is now considerable evidence confirming that this is the typical size of both personal social networks and key types of human community. Human communities are highly structured, with a distinct signature of grouping levels that scale with a ratio of ∼3 (i.e., layers at 5, 15, 50, 150, etc.). We argue that the layering arises from a trade-off between the costs of maintaining relationships (a linear function of time spent interacting) and the benefits that accrue from a particular level of investment (an asymptotic function of time). We suggest that trust is a particularly important mechanism in the stability and functionality of relationships.
Metacognition across Species
Authors: Smith J. David , Coutinho Mariana V. C. , Boomer Joseph , Beran Michael J.
Published: February 2013

Humans can feel consciously uncertain and know when they do not know. These feelings and the responses to them ground the research literature on metacognition. It is a natural question whether nonhuman animals share this sophisticated cognitive capacity, and, thus, animal metacognition is an active research area within contemporary comparative psychology. This chapter summarizes this research area. We illustrate the area's original studies and describe recent approaches that addressed possible flaws in the original studies. We summarize the current empirical status of the field. We discuss the phylogenetic breadth of metacognition and consider the appropriate psychological interpretation of uncertainty responding by animals. Finally, we discuss the potential for animal metacognition research to reveal the evolutionary emergence of reflective mind more broadly construed.
Communication in Nonhuman Primates
Authors: Zuberbühler Klaus
Published: February 2013

Three major evolutionary trends are visible in primate communication. The first one has to do with the basic signal production mechanisms being increasingly controlled by complex cognition. This is evident by audience effects with gestural and vocal signals and by context-specific call sequences. The second transition has to do with increased control over signal morphology, a feature somewhat visible in ape vocal and gestural communication and particularly human language. The third transition is apparent in signal-processing mechanisms, which are increasingly based on learned world facts, rather than mere stimulus-response conditioning. Human communication appears to differ only gradually from other primates in these domains, apart from a highly cooperative social motivation, which influences human communication in profound ways.
Apes and the Evolution of Language: Taking Stock of 40 Years of Research
Authors: Lyn Heidi
Published: February 2013

In 1969, Allen and Beatrice Gardner published the first account of sign language-acquisition in a chimpanzee in Science. This paper stimulated numerous ape language studies using artificial communication systems. These reports and others set the stage for a long-standing debate that continues today concerning the extent to which nonhuman apes are capable of human language, and to what extent those abilities inform scientists seeking to understand the evolution of language. Despite its relatively short history, the field of ape language has been beset with considerable controversy, including debates over human influence on animal abilities, as well as relevance of such work for discussions on the evolution of language. This chapter will address these issues and the arguments involved and will also review the species, methodologies, and findings of the most prominent ape language projects.
Culture and the Evolution of Human Sociality
Authors: Mesoudi Alex , Jensen Keith
Published: February 2013

Compared to other species, humans are unusual in both our capacity for extensive and cumulative culture and our large, non-kin-based cooperative societies. In this chapter we review recent theories that draw links between these two unusual traits. Theories of indirect reciprocity posit that language allows cooperation to be maintained in human groups through the formation of reputations, and cooperation can also be maintained through altruistic or third-party punishment of noncooperators. The theory of cultural group selection holds that cooperative tendencies arose as a result of competition between internally cohesive cultural groups in human prehistory. We also discuss the role of social emotions in maintaining cooperative societies. Finally, we review recent work that suggests that population size can set limits on the degree of cultural complexity that can be maintained, suggesting a two-way interaction between culture and sociality.
Evolutionary Perspectives on Violence, Homicide, and War
Authors: Liddle James R. , Shackelford Todd K. , Weekes-Shackelford Viviana A.
Published: February 2013

We review and discuss the evolutionary psychological literature on violence, homicide, and war in humans and nonhumans, and in doing so we argue that an evolutionary perspective can substantially enhance our understanding of these behaviors. We provide a brief primer on evolutionary psychology, describing basic tenets of the field. The theories of sexual selection and parental investment are explained and subsequently used to highlight the evolutionary logic underlying the use of violence by humans and other animals. Our examination of violent behavior begins with a focus on nonhuman animals, reviewing the different contexts in which violence occurs and discussing how an evolutionary perspective can explain why it occurs in these contexts. We then examine violence in humans and illustrate the similarities and differences between human and nonhuman violence. Finally, we summarize what an evolutionary perspective can offer in terms of understanding violence, homicide, and war, and we discuss directions for future research.
Chastity, Fidelity, and Conquest: Biblical Rules for Women and War
Authors: Hartung John
Published: February 2013

The Bible instructs men to take a proactive approach to their problem with paternity – the possibility that a man's putative child may be another man's genetic offspring – by stoning brides who do not bleed on first penetration, by burning women who have become pregnant out of wedlock, by torturing and poisoning wives who are suspected of adultery, by executing women who have committed adultery and by murdering female prisoners of war who are not virgins. In addition to enhancing men's assurance of paternity, control of women reduces conflict between men over women, which enhances male-male solidarity and thus a society's capacity for military conquest. Concomitant to instructions for controlling women, the Bible commands adherents to commit absolute genocide against people whose land they wish to occupy, kill men in surrounding nations unless they agree to be slaves, and take their virgin women and girls as booty.

Although some non-Western cultures also sanctify such practices, in other traditional societies women have been “very free and at liberty in doing what they please with themselves” (Barbosa, 1500/1866) and military conquest has not been a religious obligation. It follows that the Bible's dark legacy is not a requirement of human nature.
Siblicide in Humans and Other Species
Authors: Salmon Catherine
Published: February 2013

Sibling conflict is common across a wide variety of species, including humans. It is an expected process because offspring compete for dominance as well as food resources (most common in nonhuman species) and also for parental attention, money, and other personal resources in the case of human children. While most conflict in humans has no long lasting effects, under some circumstances, sibling conflict can turn violent and even result in death, what is commonly referred to as siblicide. While siblicide is quite rare in humans, from an evolutionary perspective, we would expect it to be influenced by some of the same factors as less intense sibling conflict. Such factors include sex of sibling, resource availability, birth spacing, and relatedness. These factors will be discussed with respect to research on sibling conflict and siblicide in human and nonhuman species.
Animal Abuse and Cruelty
Authors: Patterson-Kane Emily G. , Piper Heather
Published: February 2013

This chapter addresses animal abuse and animal cruelty, along with some of the explanations that a range of disciplines have proffered when seeking to understand and predict such behaviors, with a focus on evolutionary biology. While providing yet another theory from which to explain violence and cruelty is not the main endeavor of this chapter, nevertheless some suggestions are made that may help future consideration of cruelty and violence. In particular, the need for inter/multidisciplinary research on animal abuse and cruelty is highlighted. Also, it is suggested that the study of morally weighted behavior benefits from moving between paradigms to distinguish issues of causality and consequence from issues of social approbation and political agendas.
War Histories in Evolutionary Perspective: Insights From Prehistoric North America
Authors: Lambert Patricia M.
Published: February 2013

This chapter takes an evolutionary perspective on the causes of violence and warfare in prehistoric North America. Three culture areas of western North America—the Santa Barbara Channel Area of southern California, the Four Corners region of the American Southwest, and the northeastern Great Plains—provide geographic foci for exploring the relationship between environmental variables and levels and types of violence as indicated by archaeological settlement data and injuries in human skeletal remains. All three regions reveal an association between unpredictable, drought-prone conditions and the escalation of serious warfare during the Late Prehistoric period (ca. ad 1000–1500). In all three areas males emerge as the primary, though not exclusive, targets in violent conflict and to the extent ascertainable, also its primary participants. These data shed light on environmental contexts that may be conducive to war, and they support a multitiered explanatory model of warfare causation ultimately rooted in the evolutionary history of our ancestors.
Ethical Perspectives and Concepts
Authors: Øvreeide Haldor , Matjan Polona
Published: February 2013

This chapter gives an outlook on ethics and provides a discussion of some relevant concepts that may deepen the understanding of the text in ethical codes, and provide assistance in solving ethical dilemmas and challenges. The topics discussed are not discrete, independent entities that add up to a comprehensive ethical theory, or one perspective on ethics. They are to be understood more as ways of looking at similar questions from different social and intellectual positions. Some of the ideas presented have sprung from discussions in the group of European colleagues who developed the text of the Meta-Code of Ethics for European Psychologists (European Federation of Psychologists Associations, 2005).
Global Test Security Issues and Ethical Challenges
Authors: Foster David , Miller Harold L.
Published: February 2013

The lack of adequate test security for important exams is a growing worldwide problem. As tests are relied upon globally more and more for critical educational and work-related decisions, there is a corresponding increase in attempts to steal test content or to cheat on tests. These threats to the valid use of tests have led to important ethical issues within the testing community. Five ethical dilemmas are presented, along with specific recommendations for resolving these issues.
North America: Canada and the United States
Authors: Koocher Gerald P. , Hadjistavropoulos Thomas
Published: February 2013

Professional licensing and ethics codes of psychologists in the United States and Canada have very similar roots, but also many distinctive elements that represent regional and national jurisdictional differences and traditions. Each national psychological association has a distinctive ethics code with foundations in a strong national consensus. Both nations require substantial standardized educational and credential requirements as prerequisites for psychological practice. Few psychologists in the United States have any awareness of the International Union of Psychological Science or its relatively recent Universal Declaration of Ethical Principles, although many of the fundamentals of the Canadian code align more homogenously with that document.
Mergers, Acquisitions, and Alliances
Authors: Grabowski Henry G. , Kyle Margaret
Published: February 2013

This article considers the determinants and effects of M&As in the pharmaceutical industry, with a particular focus on innovation and R&D productivity. As is the case in other industries, mergers in the pharmaceutical field are driven by a variety of company motives and conditions. These include defensive responses to industry shocks as well as more proactive rationales, such as economies of scale and scope, access to new technologies, and expansion to new markets. It is important to take account of firms' characteristics and motivations in evaluating merger performance, rather than using a broad aggregate brushstroke. Research to date on pharmaceuticals suggests considerable variation in both motivation and outcomes. From an antitrust policy standpoint, the larger horizontal mergers in pharmaceuticals have run into few challenges from regulatory authorities in the United States and the European Union, given the option to spin off competing therapeutic products to other drug firms.
Why Do Conflicts Become Intractable? The Dynamical Perspective on Malignant Social Relations
Authors: Vallacher Robin R. , Coleman Peter T. , Nowak Andrzej , Bui-Wrzosinska Lan
Published: February 2013

Conflict is generally a constructive process, but in a small proportion of cases it can degenerate into a self-sustaining pattern of negative interpersonal and intergroup relations that seem impervious to change. We conceptualize these seemingly intractable conflicts within a dynamical systems perspective. Intractable conflict develops when a social system loses its complexity and converges on a narrow range of mental and behavioral states—an attractor—and becomes resistant to external influence that might otherwise promote a different set of states. Beyond its manifest attractor, a system may have a latent attractor representing a different set of mental and behavioral states. A latent attractor creates the potential for a rapid, nonlinear change in the relations between individuals or groups—from destructive to benign or vice versa. Beyond providing insight into the nature of intractable conflict, the dynamical perspective offers 3 general strategies for the transformation of such conflict into positive relations.
Divergent Intergroup Perspectives
Authors: Dovidio John F. , Saguy Tamar , West Tessa V. , Gaertner Samuel L.
Published: February 2013

Interactions between members of different groups are substantially more challenging cognitively, emotionally, and socially than are exchanges between members of the same group. This chapter considers how these processes form a psychological basis for divergent intergroup perspectives. In particular, perceptions of membership in different social categories influence evaluations and expectations of others. These processes create initial biases that may systematically be reinforced by the ways people behave (often automatically and unconsciously) toward others, how they interpret others' behaviors, and the different goals they have in intergroup interaction. Efforts to appear unbiased can also sometimes backfire, contributing to miscommunication and increasing tension. Nevertheless, divergent group perspectives and consequent misunderstandings, tension, and conflict are far from inevitable. Structural, contextual, and psychological interventions can promote mutual understanding and coordinated efforts to improve intergroup relations, reduce conflict, and achieve peace.
Interventions Aimed at the Reduction of Prejudice and Conflict
Authors: Paluck Elizabeth Levy
Published: February 2013

This chapter reviews real-world interventions aimed at prejudice and conflict reduction. Which work? How effective are they? How do we know? I pay specific attention to the research methods used to study the impact of prejudice and conflict reduction interventions, to determine whether the methods allow for conclusions about the interventions' causal impact. This chapter also discusses the different theoretical bases of prejudice and conflict reduction interventions. Some theoretically driven strategies focus on individual thought and action that give rise to prejudice and conflict, whereas others focus on the environment in which individuals operate. The combined perspectives of social psychology and peace psychology suggest that interventions would do well to use both perspectives. The chapter concludes with recommendations for evaluating and learning from theoretically driven prejudice and conflict reduction interventions.
Introduction
Authors: Spencer Patricia Elizabeth , Marschark Marc
Published: February 2013

This Introduction presents a summary of the contents of this book, explaining the reasoning behind the order of analysis presented here. The work presented in this book, representing the cooperation of researchers and authors from so many different perspectives and specialties, will increase not only readers’s knowledge but also their appreciation of the excitement that characterizes research efforts in Deaf studies, education, and language.
Curriculum: Cultural and Communicative Contexts
Authors: Power Des , Leigh Greg
Published: February 2013

In this chapter “curriculum” is taken to refer to all of the arrangements that are made for student learning—planned and unintended—not just the documents that outline content, objectives, and procedures (the syllabus). For students who are deaf or hard of hearing, aspects of the curriculum will be determined by how deafness is defined, what is valued, and perceptions of what a “deaf life” may mean. In particular, issues such as the developers’ perspectives on deafness (“sociocultural” or “medical”), program location (regular or separate school), methods of communication (auditory-oral only, sign language, or some combination), and the likely nature of post-school life for deaf people (engagement with the Deaf community) will be critical in determining curriculum content and outcomes. This chapter considers these issues and argues that the curriculum development process should consider the full range of possible social, cultural, and communicative contexts for deaf learners in establishing objectives and learning experiences for them. The determination of curriculum objectives for deaf and hard hard-of of-hearing students is also influenced by the often-noted difficulties they have with the language of education. The chapter considers “curriculum areas” such as mathematics, science, and social studies and recent developments in the use of multi-media applications from the particular perspective of deaf learners. The role of “Deaf Studies” in school curricula is also canvassed, as are the implications for deaf students of their placement in regular or separate educational settings. Finally, assessment of curriculum outcomes is considered, both within the school setting and for deaf students’ participation in state and national testing regimes.
Early Intervention: Birth to Three
Authors: Sass-Lehrer Marilyn
Published: February 2013

Research and legislative and policy initiatives have greatly facilitated the provision of services for infants and toddlers who are deaf or hard of hearing and their families. The expansion of newborn hearing screening programs has resulted in more children enrolled in birth-to-three programs at earlier ages. Results from an increasing number of studies that focus on young children who are deaf or hard of hearing and their families have contributed to an expanding knowledge base regarding the significance of specific family-involvement variables, the acquisition of language and communication skills, collaboration and partnerships, and program characteristics that impact child and family outcomes. Advances in early identification of hearing loss and improved auditory and visual technologies are challenging the field to provide high quality professionals able to implement comprehensive and effective programs. Expectations for young deaf or hard-of-hearing children and their families have never been higher. Yet challenges remain to ensure that all children achieve linguistic and developmental milestones equal to those of their hearing peers.
Expressing Meaning: From Prelinguistic Communication to Building Vocabulary
Authors: Lederberg Amy R. , Beal-Alvarez Jennifer S.
Published: February 2013

This chapter reviews research on communication and vocabulary development of deaf and hard of hearing children with hearing parents from infancy through preschool, as well as features of their language learning environment. Important aspects of early development include the acquisition of complex vocalizations or babbling, intentional communication, joint attention, and the pragmatic function and role of language in communication with others. Vocabulary development is described by exploring changes in vocabulary size, growth rate, lexicon content, and the ability to learn novel words quickly. The final section reviews research on the characteristics of parental input that may affect the rate of vocabulary development. Throughout the chapter, changes in developmental trajectories resulting from early identification and intervention, and improved technologies (i.e., digital hearing aids and cochlear implants) are described.
Origins of Sign Languages
Authors: Armstrong David F. , Wilcox Sherman
Published: February 2013

This chapter maintains that human languages emerge from purposeful human behavior, the most common of which are visible gestural behaviors. We further suggest that sign languages were probably the first human languages. These assertions are based on the observation that gestural communication is exhibited by all of the Hominoidea, the primate superfamily that includes apes and human beings; the fact that iconic and indexic gestures have been identified in the behavior of feral chimpanzees; and by noting that this sort of behavior was probably part of the repertoire of the common ancestors of chimpanzees and humans, thus of the earliest hominids. We propose an evolutionary model for the emergence of language based on semantic phonology and further demonstrate how spoken languages developed subsequently out of vocal gestures. Rationales are provided for the eventual predominance of speech as the primary medium for human language and for the maintenance of sign systems and gestural systems in conjunction with speech by hearing communities. Finally, we discuss evidence for the emergence of full sign languages whenever numbers of deaf people reach critical mass. Key aspects of this discussion include homesigns and sign systems used in small scale societies with significant numbers of deaf members; the earliest evidence for deaf communities with sign languages; the origin of Langue des Signes Française and ASL; and the origin and elaboration of Nicaraguan Sign Language, especially with respect to what the emergence of a new language tells us about the human language faculty.
Sign Language Structures
Authors: Fischer Susan D. , van der Hulst Harry
Published: February 2013

This chapter provides an introduction to the linguistic (i.e. grammatical) structure of sign languages. The main components of sign languages are described in terms both of major research results and of controversies and problem areas. The section on word formation (or morphology) discusses various processes of inflection (agreement, aspect, plurals, and tense) and provides some illustration of derivational processes (change of word class, classifiers, and compounding). The section on phonology deals with the compositional organization of signs in terms of features for handshape, orientation, place, and movement, with specific attention to questions regarding the way that these units are organized in structures of increasing size, ranging from segment, syllables, and prosodic words to phonological and intonation phrases. This section also provides examples of phonological processes and phonotactic restrictions. A third section focuses on syntax and deals with the basic and derived constituent order, and addresses issues such as topicalization, anaphoric relations, the role of nonmanuals (e.g., facial expressions and head and body postures), and complex sentences. Although much of the discussion is based on American Sign Language (ASL), other sign languages are also examined for comparison. Additionally, the relationship between sign languages and spoken languages is addressed.
Modality and the Structure of Language: Sign Languages Versus Signed Systems
Authors: Wilbur Ronnie B.
Published: February 2013

Sign language research provides an opportunity to evaluate proposed models of natural language from a different perspective—signed instead of spoken, seen instead of heard. This chapter views fully developed sign languages from the perspective of universal grammar (UG) by discussing the “design features” of a model of language that is intended to be universal for all languages. From this perspective, the capacity for language is simultaneously universal to all humans, varied across languages, and individual to each person’s own experience and learned grammar. The study of sign languages has made it clear that natural language is not the same thing as speech. The goal is to provide an explanation for the characteristics of natural sign languages that separate them from artificially created signing systems. With that goal in mind, it explains layering as a largely ignored design feature of natural language, illustrates how it works in various sign languages, and then considers the implications of its absence in signed English (SE). Spoken languages have more segmental/sequential options available, and layered options are less frequently used (but not missing). Sign languages are more likely to use simultaneous/layered options (however, not exclusively), and which options will be used and what functions they are assigned differ from language to language. What the study of sign languages tells us about “language” is that natural languages share certain design features, specifically those that maximize information coding in a way that permits efficient production, perception, and processing.