bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
‘From Those Flames No Light’
Authors: Murray Chris
Published: September 2020

The Second Opium War concluded in 1860 with Anglo-French forces looting and sacking the Summer Palace at Yuanmingyuan. Commentators such as Victor Hugo delighted that these incidents occurred under the leadership of Lord Elgin, whose father instigated the Parthenon Sculptures controversy. Memoirists and journalists show that the Summer Palace incident was divisive: looting posed a threat to military discipline, and the wanton destruction occasioned a debate over whether Britain was civilized or barbaric. To some, the melancholy victory evoked the Aeneid. Inevitably debates over repatriation of Summer Palace treasures have invoked discussion of the Parthenon Sculptures. Yet commentators like artist Ai WeiWei show that sculptures that the Chinese Communist Party made emblematic of National Humiliation are not really Chinese and were probably not removed by Europeans. Chinese efforts to retrieve the sculptures demonstrate that modern China, like Victorian Britain, reaches to the cultural past for stability amidst bewildering change.
Coda: ‘All Things Fall and Are Built Again’
Authors: Murray Chris
Published: September 2020

Yeats’s ‘Lapis Lazuli’ responds to a Chinese stone etched with a poem attributed to the Qianlong Emperor. Yeats describes the stone in Keatsian ekphrasis. He demonstrates the influence of Daoism, particularly Zhuangzi, as he interprets the stone philosophically. To Yeats the lapis offers consolation amidst upheaval. The object appears prophetic of the fall of the Qing Dynasty, and Yeats finds its optimism pertinent as the Second World War approaches. The stone’s portrayal of sages on mountains prompts Yeats to invoke Daoism to correct the pessimism of Matthew Arnold’s Empedocles on Etna. The lapis expresses a universal wisdom that Yeats finds alike in Lucretius and in his Nietzschean reading of tragedy. As in his enthusiasm for ‘half-Asiatic Greece’—exemplified by the sculptor Callimachus—Yeats urges a fusion of classical and Asian values.
Community Dynamics
Authors: Fogarty Michael J. , Collie Jeremy S.
Published: September 2020

Ecological theory indicates that increasing the number of species, the number of interactions, and the strength of these interactions all tend to make communities less stable. Conversely, stability is enhanced by strong intraspecific density dependence, low connectivity, or weak trophic links. These theoretical predictions are borne out in many fish communities. Species diversity is an important metric for ecological communities. Organizing species into groups according to size, function, or diet composition can reduce the dimensionality of fish community models. Analyses of fish communities from around the world lend support to the prediction of strong compensation within functional groups, with weaker predator–prey links among groups. Size spectra describe the distribution of individuals across size classes irrespective of their species. Qualitative models can be used to assess the indirect effects of species on each other and the overall stability of the community.
Harvesting at the Ecosystem Level
Authors: Fogarty Michael J. , Collie Jeremy S.
Published: September 2020

Energy entering at the base of the food web places inherent constraints on total harvest from an ecosystem. Empirical relationships have been established between fishery yield and factors such as chlorophyll concentration, primary production, and other lower trophic level variables to guide management actions. Extension of network models to include harvesting has a long lineage and these models are now being employed worldwide to help guide management decisions. These static mass-balance models have been augmented with a fully dynamic modeling component to explore management options. Biomass spectrum models for exploited ecosystems have also been developed. In addition to direct effects on target species, fisheries can affect the structure and function of ecosystems through habitat damage and incidental catch of non-target organisms, including threatened and endangered species. Increasingly, the effects of climate change are being addressed in ecosystem models through their potential effect on production at all levels of the ecosystem.
The Linguistics of Humor
Authors: Attardo Salvatore
Published: September 2020

This book is the first comprehensive systematic introduction to the linguistics of humor. Assuming no background in humor studies at all, and an elementary knowledge of linguistics, all the terminology and conceptual apparatus of humor studies are introduced, as well as all the linguistic concepts necessary to understand the most up-to-date formulations in the linguistics and applied linguistics of humor. The book is not limited to the theoretical linguistic analyses of humor (for example the General Theory of Verbal humor or the Isotopy Disjunction Model), but has a broad approach encompassing pragmatics, conversation and discourse analysis, ethnomethodology, interactionist and variationist sociolinguistics. Chapters on puns, on the main theories of humor, the semiotics of humor, and on the incongruity-resolution model elucidate the foundations of humor studies, while chapters on the performance of humor, on humor in conversation and discourse, provide the first-ever in-depth discussion and synthesis of the field of the applied linguistics of humor. Chapters on the translation of humor, and on humor in the classroom and in literature broaden the discussion to applications in fields other than linguistics. For the first time ever in a discussion of the linguistics of humor all the fields of linguistics, theoretical and applied alike are given equal treatment and theoretical importance. Thus this book is both a summary of the acquired knowledge about humor and linguistics and a proposal to unify most of the strands of research in a coherent vision.
Humor studies: a few definitions
Authors: Attardo Salvatore
Published: September 2020

This chapter opens the first part of the book on humor studies (chapters 1-5). It addresses the persistent problem in humor studies of terminological definition. It explain why there has been a consensus on using the term “humor” as an umbrella term subsuming all forms of humor (joke, irony, ridicule, mockery, wit, whim, puns, etc.). It further establishes the fundamental distinction between humor, mirth, and laughter/smiling, which are respectively the stimulus, emotional response, and physical response. It further distinguishes verbal and linguistic humor and meta-humor. A section also outlines the history of the field of humor studies.
The Edinburgh Book Trade and Vernacular Literature, 1500–1660
Authors: Fox Adam
Published: September 2020

Chapter 2 surveys the development of the book trade in Edinburgh during the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries with a particular emphasis on the production and circulation of more popular works in Scots and English. It traces the development of printing in Edinburgh, looks at the expansion of booksellers in the city, and examines the role of travelling chapmen in disseminating literature across Scotland and into England. The remarkable inventories of Thomas Bassandyne and Robert Gourlaw are examined in some detail in order to shed light on the extensive range of vernacular literature from the London market that was being sold in the Scottish capital in the later sixteenth century.
Little Pamphlets and Story Books
Authors: Fox Adam
Published: September 2020

Chapter 10 charts the development of the little pamphlets and booklets printed in early modern Scotland. Most were produced from single sheets of paper and sometimes from half-sheets. They contained works of edification, instruction, and entertainment. Some of these ‘story books’ were reprinted from the English market and others were of Scottish provenance; some were in verse and others in prose. Their contents included sermons, godly tales, and collections of songs or ‘garlands’, together with compilations of humorous anecdotes and jests. During the eighteenth century these small tracts became one of the most popular forms of reading matter and they remained so into the nineteenth century, when they first came to be known in Scotland as ‘chapbooks’.
Rethinking 1652
Authors: Parrott David
Published: September 2020

The first section of the chapter offers an overview of the historiography of the Fronde, looking at the evolution of different interpretations and emphases from the eighteenth century to the present day. The contribution of 1652 to this debate is summarized: the study looks as much at the consequences of the 1652 crisis as at its origins, above all its impact on the ensuing decade of Mazarin’s ministry; it emphasizes the role of contingency in what has frequently been seen as a pre-determined triumph of monarchical authority; it explores the collision of civil war waged across much of France with a dramatic worsening of climatic conditions and the impact of both on a vulnerable subsistence economy. The second half of the chapter examines the nature of ministerial government in France through Richelieu’s ministry, as well as Mazarin’s emergence as first minister during the regency which followed the death of Louis XIII in 1643, and looks at the unfolding of the Fronde down to the end of 1649. It explores in particular the close links between the burdens of foreign and military policy and the development of a ministerial ‘extraordinary regime’ which bypassed or overruled much of the existing government to give extensive, and in the eyes of many illegitimate, authority to the cardinal ministers. The chapter culminates in the miscalculations made by Mazarin which precipitated the opening rebellion of the Fronde. In order to bring the frondeurs back into obedience, Mazarin was forced to rely on the prince de Condé, who blockaded Paris with the royal army on behalf of the crown.
The Altaic languages
Authors: Rybatzki Volker
Published: September 2020

This chapter presents a general overview of the three language groupings, i.e. Tungusic, Mongolic, and Turkic, that are traditionally covered by the term “Altaic”. Each language family is briefly discussed in terms of its geographical distribution and classification as well as its current sociolinguistic profile, i.e. the estimates of the number of speakers. The chapter provides a detailed overview of the script systems used by the speakers of Tungusic, Mongolic, and Turkic throughout their history, such as the Jurchen script, the hPags-pa script, and the Turkic runiform script. A special focus is on the major written sources attesting the historical varieties of each family in question, most notably Manchu, Middle Mongol, and Old Turkic.
The classification of the Transeurasian languages
Authors: Robbeets Martine
Published: September 2020

Even if the hypothesis of Transeurasian affiliation is gradually gaining acceptance, supporters do not coincide on the internal structure of the family. Over the last century, a range of different classifications has been proposed. While these proposals show some remarkable overlap, the position of the Tungusic branch in the family tree remains a recurrent issue. Here the best supportable tree for the Transeurasian family is inferred, notably a binary topology with a Japano-Koreanic and an Altaic branch, in which Tungusic is the first to split off from the Altaic branch. To this end, the power of classical historical-comparative linguistics is combined with computational Bayesian phylogenetic methods. In this way, a quantitative basis is introduced to test various competing hypotheses with regard to the internal structure of the Transeurasian family and to solve uncertainties associated with the application of the classical historical-comparative method.
Japanese and the mainland dialects
Authors: Shibatani Masayoshi
Published: September 2020

After a brief discussion on the relationships between modern mainland dialects with the two varieties of Old Japanese, Central Old Japanese and Eastern Old Japanese, the salient features of Standard Japanese are described from the new perspective of grammatical nominalizations. Then cross-dialectal studies are presented on selected topics, centering on case particles and the conclusive/adnominal verbal patterns. Also presented for the first time in English is a reasonably detailed description of the isolated dialect of Hachijō Island, which, like Ryūkyūan, retains many archaic features of Old Japanese.
Miyako, Ishigaki, and Yonaguni, the Southern Ryūkyūan Languages
Authors: Bentley John R.
Published: September 2020

The Sakishima area in the southern Ryūkyūs consists of three main languages: Miyako (represented by Hirara, but with some data also drawn from Irabu), Ishigaki, and Yonaguni. While these three languages are mutually unintelligible, even a cursory examination demonstrates that these languages are related. After a brief outline to the historical connections, the phonology, morphology, syntax, and lexicon are described, comparing and contrasting data from these three languages. These languages are critical to a better understanding of the language history of the languages throughout the Japanese archipelago.
Dagur
Authors: Yamada Yohei
Published: September 2020

Dagur is a Mongolic language spoken mainly in Northeast China. It is said that this language maintains some Middle Mongolian features, such as a verbal negative marker ul and predicative personal markers. The negative marker ul, which is placed before the verb, is found in Middle Mongolian and some other colloquial Mongolic languages, but lost in central Mongolian. Predicative personal markers, which are placed subsequent to the indicative verbal predicate or the nominal predicate and display agreement with the subject, are shown in Northern Mongolic languages such as Buryat. These features might suggest that Dagur contributes to tracing the historical development of Mongolic languages.
A comparative approach to nominal morphology in Transeurasian Case and plurality
Authors: Gruntov Ilya , Mazo Olga
Published: September 2020

Plurality and case markers in Transeurasian languages have different morphological statuses, varying from case particles to affixes. Particles preserve a certain autonomy; they are usually invariable and do not depend on the morphophonological features of the preceding stem. Affixes participate in internal morphophonological processes depending on the preceding stem. However, in many cases we can observe the process of grammaticalization turning particles or postpositions into affixes. All Transeurasian languages that preserve case and plurality markers follow the same stem—plurality marker—case marker scheme. Cross-linguistically recurrent paradigmatic patterns imply that observed material and functional similarity is not coincidental. The chapter summarizes previous studies in the field, proposes a reconstruction of case and number systems in the individual language families within Transeurasian, and discusses the common patterns among them.
A comparative approach to the pronominal system in Transeurasian
Authors: Schwarz Michal , Srba Ondřej , Blažek Václav
Published: September 2020

The present chapter focuses mostly on personal pronouns in Transeurasian languages. A brief introduction describes the main typological similarities and differences among the pronominal systems of all branches. The main part gives a summary of the declension of personal pronouns in the five branches. The overview is based on sets of tables with declensions of Turkic (separately for subgroups), Mongolic, Tungusic, Korean, and Japanese branches. Further tables reconstruct pronominal declensions for the daughter protolanguages and the final result is an attempt to reconstruct and comment on the Transeurasian protosystem. The third part gives an overview of other types of pronouns, mainly demonstratives, possessive and reflexive forms, interrogatives with related indefinite and negative forms. At the end of the chapter, internal loanwords and elements borrowed from other than Transeurasian languages are mentioned.
Kinship-term paradigms in the Transeurasian languages
Authors: van Berlo Milan
Published: September 2020

All languages have kinship-term paradigms that vary both formally and semantically. This chapter aims to give an overview of the kinship-term paradigms in the Transeurasian languages, focusing on the semantics of sibling terminology and with special reference to Old Japanese. Terms are compared, but the emphasis is on the structure of the paradigms rather than the presence or absence of any formal similarities between terms. The semantics of the sibling terms are analyzed by their distinctive features and the distribution of those features within the paradigm. These paradigms are compared to one another in their geographical and genetic contexts.
Contact between genealogically related languages
Authors: Francis-Ratte Alexander T. , Unger J. Marshall
Published: September 2020

Although the reconstruction of Proto-Japano-Koreanic is still a work in progress, it is already sufficiently robust to establish a genetic relationship between Korean and Japanese. Furthermore, against the background of the cognates that have been reconstructed so far, the roughly three dozen clearly identifiable borrowings from Old Korean into Old Japanese amount to only about six percent of all matches. Claims that all structural similarities between Korean and Japanese are due to ancient borrowings must therefore be rejected. To answer the question of whether Proto-Japano-Koreanic is better regarded as a first-order daughter of Transeurasian or as a branch of Macro-Tungusic, it would be better to compare reconstructed Proto-Japano-Koreanic forms “by hand” separately with forms in Proto-Tungusic, Proto-Mongolic, and Proto-Turkic than to rely on statistical analyses of so-called core vocabulary.
Form and pattern borrowing across Siberian Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic languages
Authors: Anderson Gregory D. S.
Published: September 2020

When examining data from languages belonging to the Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic families, two virtually opposite views have been expressed: One attributes some commonalities to inheritances from a protolanguage, the other asserts that all commonalities derive from lateral feature transfer between originally unrelated groups. However, some shared features from the domains of lexicon, phonology, morphology, and syntax showing a network of transfer paths—Turkic > Tungusic, Turkic > Mongolic, Mongolic > Turkic, Mongolic > Tungusic, Tungusic > Mongolic and Tungusic > Turkic—among these, three groups are clearly secondary, and reflect processes of lateral feature transfer postdating the breakup of any possible original Transeurasian protolanguage. Thus, one must periodicize different contact layers in the histories of these language groups to arrive at a nuanced point of argumentation to try to bridge the gap between the increasingly polemical positions expressed by the so-called pro- and anti-Altaicist camps.
The Transeurasian homeland: where, what, and when?
Authors: Robbeets Martine
Published: September 2020

The Farming Language Dispersal Hypothesis boldly claims that agricultural dispersal is an important factor in shaping linguistic diversity. This view has been sharply criticized, especially for the regions currently occupied by the Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic languages, where farming is often unviable. Here, the power of linguistic scholarship is combined with archeological and genetic research to show that the spread of the Transeurasian languages (i.e. Japonic, Koreanic, Tungusic, Mongolic, and Turkic languages) is indeed driven by agriculture. The integration of the three disciplines in a single approach, for which I use the term “triangulation,” reveals a sequence of linguistic expansions that can be linked to the spread of millet and rice agriculture as well as to the dispersal of the Ancient North and South East Asian gene pool in Neolithic and Bronze Age North East Asia.
Hesiod's Verbal Craft
Authors: Vergados Athanassios
Published: September 2020

This study aims to define Hesiod’s place in early Greek intellectual history by exploring a network of issues related to language, knowledge, and authority in Hesiod’s Theogony and Works and Days. Part I demonstrates how much we can learn about the poet’s craft and his relation to the poetic tradition if we read his etymologies carefully. At the same time, Parts I and II together discuss aspects of the ‘correctness of language’: this correctness does not amount to a naïvely assumed one-to-one correspondence between signifier and signified. Correct names and correct language are ‘true’ because they reveal something particular about the concept or entity named as numerous examples have shown. More importantly, however, correct language is imitative of reality, in that language becomes more opaque, ambiguous, and indeterminate as we delve deeper into the exploration of the condicio humana and the ambiguities and contradictions that characterize it in the Works and Days. Part III addresses three moments of Hesiodic reception. Chapter 10 compares the results of Parts I and II (Hesiod’s implicit theory of language and cognition) with the more explicit statements found in early mythographers and genealogists and shows that these later prose authors use discursive techniques similar to Hesiod’s. Chapter 11 demonstrates the importance of Hesiod’s poetry for Plato’s etymological project in the Cratylus. Finally, chapter 12 discusses the ways in which some ancient philologists treat Hesiod as one of their own, an expert reader of poetry who, however, misunderstood the Poet and spun out some of his narratives which he supported through the use of etymology.
Hesiod in the Homeric Scholia, or
Authors: Vergados Athanassios
Published: September 2020

This chapter explores an aspect of Hesiod’s reputation as linguistic expert in antiquity that has not been studied adequately thus far, viz. the references to Hesiod’s poetry found in the Homeric scholia. The Homeric scholiasts’ treatment of Hesiod resonates with the agonistic relation between the two poets that developed in the biographical traditions. The chapter is articulated in three parts: first, it examines the scholia that treat Hesiod as a source of linguistic parallels and Realien. Thereafter attention is focused on the scholia which draw inferences regarding the two poets’ relative chronology. Finally, the chapter deals with scholia claiming that Hesiod, as the more recent of the two poets, was familiar with Homer’s work which he had read but misunderstood. The misinterpretation of the poet’s verses often led him to invent (πλάσσειν‎, ἀναπλάσσειν‎, διαπλάσσειν‎) some of the stories we find in his poems, especially in the Theogony. In this way, several sections of the Theogony appear in the eyes of some Homeric critics as the result of Hesiod’s mistaken interpretation of specific Homeric passages. Moreover, when the Homeric scholiasts criticize Hesiod in this way, they often designate Hesiod’s ‘errors’ through technical terms, elsewhere found in the scholia when critics expressly argue against the views of other philologists, as parallels both from the Homeric scholia and other scholiastic corpora show. In this way the activity of the critic is projected on the archaic poet, and Hesiod is conceived of as a literary critic. In other words, the poet is simultaneously also a κριτικός‎.
Conclusions
Authors: Vergados Athanassios
Published: September 2020

This section summarizes the main findings of this study from which Hesiod emerges as a thinker who reflects seriously, in poetic form, on the authority of human speculation about the cosmos, the divine, and the human condition, as well as on the means—that is, language and the ways it represents reality—that make his didactic message possible.
Rhetoric and Religious Identity in Late Antiquity
Authors: Flower Richard , Ludlow Morwenna
Published: September 2020

This chapter provides an overview of scholarly trends and approaches to this topic and outlines the place of this volume and its individual chapters within recent developments. In doing so, it considers a number of linked issues, including what was perceived as falling within the sphere of ‘the religious’ in late antiquity; how religious identities were constructed, activated and expressed; how the notion of late-antique religious identity should be understood and classified by scholars; where ‘rhetoric’ can be located within methods of cultural expression including, but not limited to, traditional literary forms and paideia; and how these methods were employed for the creation and reshaping of concepts of religious identity.
Epilogue
Authors: Louth Charlie
Published: September 2020

This living hand…

Keats

An unspoken and intermittent preoccupation of this book has been with the presence of the hand in Rilke’s poems. There are Lou Andreas-Salomé’s hands in Dir zur Feier, into which the Stunden-Buch is later laid (i. 250); and the protective-disconcerting hands of the later poems ‘Laß dir…’ and ‘Die Hand’, or the girls’ ordering hands in the ...
Conditional Reasoning Part I
Authors: Langland-Hassan Peter
Published: September 2020

Three types of conditional are distinguished: the material conditional, indicative conditional, and subjunctive/counterfactual conditional. The apparent difference in truth conditions of each is suggestive of different psychological procedures used in the evaluation of each. The psychology of the material conditional is then examined. Despite procedures in formal logic that are suggestive of sui generis imaginative states (e.g., “assuming” a proposition for conditional proof, or for reductio), we need not countenance the use of such states within the psychological procedures used to carry out the inferences. Further, work in psychology has long suggested that humans do not, as a rule, reason in accordance with normative standards appropriate to the material conditional. A popular alternative proposal in psychology is that conditional reasoning involves the use of mental models (Johnson-Laird & Byrne, 2002). The use of mental models is shown to be consistent with conditional reasoning involving only sequences of beliefs.
Conditional Reasoning Part II
Authors: Langland-Hassan Peter
Published: September 2020

The influential idea that the Ramsey test provides a proper analysis of the psychological means by which we evaluate indicative and subjunctive conditionals is explained. Several recent views have implicated sui generis imaginative states in the psychological implementation of the Ramsey test. The comparative relevance of the Ramsey test to indicative and subjunctive conditionals is explained. It is then argued that one can accept the basic insight afforded by the Ramsey test without concluding that sui generis imaginative states are used in conditional reasoning. A simpler, more parsimonious approach involves only beliefs. Anyone who could have used sui generis imaginative states to arrive at a belief in a new conditional via the Ramsey test could have, with equal warrant, inferred the conditional from their standing beliefs. Finally, it is shown how the imaginings that occur in response to philosophical thought experiments can in fact be sequences of beliefs.
Creativity
Authors: Langland-Hassan Peter
Published: September 2020

Comparatively easy questions we might ask about creativity are distinguished from the hard question of explaining transformative creativity. Many have focused on the easy questions and, in so doing, have offered no reason to think that the imagining relied upon in creative cognition cannot be reduced to more basic folk psychological states. The relevance of associative thought processes to songwriting is then explored as a means for understanding the nature of transformative creativity. Productive artificial neural networks—known as generative antagonistic networks (GANs)—are recent examples of how a system’s ability to generate creative products can be both finely tuned by prior experience and grounded in strategies that are inarticulable to the system itself. Further, the kinds of processes exploited by GANs need not be seen as incorporating anything akin to sui generis imaginative states. The chapter concludes with reflection on the added relevance of personal character to explanations of creativity.
Against Following Orders
Authors: Tadros Victor
Published: September 2020

This chapter argues against the popular thought that superiors in the armed forces can issue authoritative commands to those below them in the chain of command. This culture of subservience is widely supported. The chapter suggests that whilst combatants sometimes have a duty to do what they are commanded to do, this is not because those giving them commands have authority. In doing so, it argues against popular instrumental accounts of practical authority, such as Joseph Raz’s service conception of authority. These arguments can be extended to a further set of cases where instrumental defences of authority have been influential: the solution of coordination problems.
Why Law and Morality Should Converge
Authors: Tadros Victor
Published: September 2020

Many people reject equality of combatants, and non-combatant immunity, as moral matters. They think that it is normally wrong to kill just combatants, and sometimes permissible to kill some non-combatants. Many with this view also think that their moral views should not be reflected in the law. The main arguments that have been given for this view are based on the incentives that combatants would have were law to reflect morality. This chapter argues against these views, suggesting that there are other ways to alter the incentives given to states and combatants that do not rely on altering substantive law.
The Roots of Modern Political Satire
Authors: Hale Meredith McNeill
Published: September 2020

This chapter considers the evolution of the political print from 1500 through the mid-seventeenth century. This discussion examines satirical strategies employed by printmakers working at four key historical moments—the Reformation in Germany, the Dutch revolt from Spain, the French wars of religion, and the Commonwealth in England—in order to provide a larger context for the assessment of Romeyn de Hooghe’s innovation of the genre. Two strategies dominate the political prints considered in this chapter: (i) those that employ animal imagery, such as the animal fable and the animal hybrid; and (ii) those that feature individual human protagonists. This chapter introduces three themes that feature prominently throughout the book: (i) the elision of boundaries between man and animal; (ii) the treatment of the satirized body; and (iii) the inter-relationship between text and image. It is shown that the finished, closed, and choreographed body of formal portraiture that dominates earlier political prints gives way in De Hooghe’s satires to the expansive, gaping, and uncontrollable body that has been associated with the genre ever since.
Text, Image, and the Performance of Satire
Authors: Hale Meredith McNeill
Published: September 2020

This chapter considers the relationship between text and image in De Hooghe’s satires: how it functions and what it tells us about how the satires were produced and who their intended audience/s might have been. De Hooghe’s satires were issued in the form of broadsheets, the typeset text appearing beneath the print in the form of a spoken (or sometimes sung) dialogue accompanied by letters or numbers identifying the figures in the scene. Neither text nor image is effective alone: the viewer is required to cross-reference them repeatedly in order to understand the satire. While the textual component of De Hooghe’s satires may seem to suggest a relationship to newspaper and pamphlet production, their emphatic rejection of narrative in favour of the discursive places them in the realm of dramatic literature and the theatre, genres more readily suitable to conveying the fictive and often whimsical violence of satire. This discussion includes material considerations, among them the format of the satires and how they were produced, and considers the satires in light of other contemporary printed media, among them the pamphlet, the news sheet, and the ballad. The particular relationship between text and image in De Hooghe’s satires and the distinctly performative quality it engenders shed critical light on their audience and function.
Populations, values, and health
Authors: Viens A.M.
Published: September 2020

This chapter explores some of the philosophical and ethical presuppositions of population healthcare; it investigates the implications for how we should understand the jurisdiction, aims, and evaluation of population healthcare. The jurisdiction of population healthcare is primarily within the healthcare system but necessarily extends beyond the walls of clinics and hospitals, given the need for social coordination to bring about healthcare access at the population level. The dual aims of population healthcare in maximizing population benefits of healthcare and reducing health inequalities are clearly moral in nature, but they can give rise to conflicting goals that the ethics of population healthcare should seek to resolve. While population healthcare’s aim is to advance a value-based approach to healthcare, which seeks to promote what is called technical, allocative, and personalized value, there are a number of questions that remain unanswered: in particular, the justification and evaluation of personalized value, and why the satisfaction of individual preferences in relation to health outcomes should be a population-level concern alongside promoting health and health equity.
Healthcare needs assessment
Authors: O’Shaughnessy Andrew , Wright John
Published: September 2020

Healthcare needs assessment is an evaluative process that aims to quantify population needs for healthcare. Need is defined as the capacity to benefit from healthcare. It is characterized by a deficit in health linked to the potential for effective healthcare intervention. The epidemiological approach to needs assessment considers the burden of illness in terms of the incidence, prevalence, and mortality of a disease or health condition. This approach also draws on estimates of clinical and cost effectiveness from systematic reviews of well-designed studies. These estimates can be mapped to existing patterns of service utilization to identify potential gaps in services. Needs assessment should evaluate inequalities in health needs and access to services in key population subgroups. The comparative approach to needs assessment contrasts locally derived estimates with data from comparator areas as well as national benchmarks and other normative data. The corporate approach engages with stakeholders, including service providers and patients, to understand their perspectives and concerns. Epidemiological, corporate, and comparative assessments of need should be summarized to make quantified recommendations for changes to existing services, informing the development of a business case, and being integrated into service commissioning.
Access to healthcare
Authors: Gulliford Martin
Published: September 2020

Access to healthcare is concerned with the processes of gaining entry to the healthcare system. Analysis of access focuses on inequality and inequity in the availability and use of health services. In order to address global inequalities in access to healthcare, international organizations have promoted access to healthcare as a human right. This is linked to the ideal of universal health coverage, with shared funding of some or all healthcare for everyone, as a key strategy for achieving this. At a national level, rational strategies for resource allocation and priority setting are used to promote equity of access in terms of equal access for equal need, but historical inequalities based on the ‘inverse care law’ have been resistant to change. In health systems led by primary care, access to a general practitioner (GP) tends to reduce inequalities in ‘entry’ access to the health system, but the gatekeeping role of GPs may contribute to the development of inequalities of ‘in-system’ access. Wide variations in the utilization of both primary and secondary care services are indicative of access inequalities, but these variations may sometimes reflect clinical uncertainty or poor-quality care. Access inequalities may also arise from personal, social, and cultural barriers experienced by patients in accessing healthcare. These barriers typically represent more severe obstacles for marginalized groups in the population. Promoting equity means ensuring that services are responsive and acceptable to all groups, including those with stigmatized conditions.
Healthcare redesign and population health
Authors: Alderwick Hugh , Dixon Jennifer , Bibby Jo
Published: September 2020

Healthcare systems across the globe face the challenge of redesigning services to respond to their population’s changing health needs. Existing models of care are often outdated, fragmented, and imbalanced towards treating illness rather than preventing it upstream. This chapter provides a broad framework for thinking about healthcare redesign for improving population health—from understanding population health needs and setting shared objectives, to designing and testing new services—focusing in particular on the role of healthcare systems in disease prevention, and working with other services and sectors to address the wider determinants of health. While greater policy attention on the role of healthcare systems in disease prevention is welcome, the chapter emphasizes that healthcare systems can only do so much: broader policy decisions will continue to shape the underlying social and economic conditions that fundamentally determine population health.
Evaluating healthcare systems and services
Authors: Jessop Edmund
Published: September 2020

Any jurisdiction needs to assess whether its healthcare system is performing well. There are many dimensions of evaluation, but a basic set includes saving life, relief of suffering, and treating patients with dignity: these may be monitored by statistics of mortality, quality of life, and patient experience. Sets of indicators can give a system-wide overview, and aspects of individual services can be evaluated by clinical audit. Confidential enquiries are useful for rare, serious events. Investigation may need to be followed by action, but the decision to act is never simple. New health systems can be evaluated by the standard research designs, but qualitative investigation is important.
Digital healthcare public health
Authors: Gulliford Martin , Jessop Edmund , Yardley Lucy
Published: September 2020

New digital technologies are having important impacts on the practice of public health and the organization and delivery of healthcare. Developments in information technology ensure that public health information is now available in more timely and accessible formats; data linkage has enriched public health information by making it possible to analyse multiple data sources simultaneously; and the use of smart devices and smart cards is generating even larger data resources that may be utilized for public health benefit. Computationally intensive approaches, derived from machine learning and artificial intelligence research, can be employed to develop algorithms that may efficiently automate healthcare-related tasks that previously relied on human analytical capabilities. Prediction modelling and risk stratification are being developed to promote precision public health. Increasing population coverage, with smartphones and other smart devices, makes it possible to deliver health-related interventions remotely, blurring the distinction between healthcare and public health. The availability of social media makes the exchange of knowledge and opinion more open, but this may also contribute to the propagation of false information that may be detrimental to public health. Public health needs to embrace and understand these developments in order to be at the forefront in harnessing these new technologies to improve population health and reduce inequalities. This must be accompanied by awareness of some of the ethical challenges of big-data analysis, the potential limitations of new analytical techniques, the relevance of behavioural science in understanding the human–machine interface, and the importance of critical evaluation in an era of rapid change.
Terminological Discussion
Authors: Treiber Hubert
Published: September 2020

This chapter distinguishes between juristic and sociological definitions of law and validity. If one is to follow Max Weber, then one can, on the one hand ‘interrogate the meaning of a particular legal proposition’ in a dogmatic manner; in other words, one can ask what a ‘correct’ judicial judgement would look like, if one is to apply the relevant legal proposition as a ‘norm conceived in general and hypothetical terms’. On the other hand, one can also submit this legal proposition to sociological consideration, proceeding on the assumption that when the preconditions for this legal proposition (the facts of the case) are met, then there is the ‘real probability’ (chance) that ‘real consequences of a particular nature will arise’. This means, on one hand, that there is a chance that the norm ‘intrinsic’ to the legal proposition will be respected and observed but, on another, that this norm ‘may only be valid to a certain degree’. Using a pointed but memorable formulation, Weber makes clear that the two different perspectives also have to be applied to the idea of validity: ‘The validity of a legal proposition in the sociological sense is an empirical instance of factual probability; validity in a juristic sense is a logical ought’. The chapter then looks at Weber's notions of order and the legal order.
Weber’s Aims in the ‘Sociology of Law’
Authors: Treiber Hubert
Published: September 2020

This chapter discusses Max Weber's aims in the ‘Sociology of Law’. Before exploring in detail Weber's ‘Sociology of Law’, its essential assumptions and conclusions, as well as its conceptual apparatus, it is necessary to outline briefly its two opening sections. In the first section, established areas of the law are treated in brief, such as public law, private law, criminal law, procedural law, and substantive law. In the second section, the most important forms/categories of subjective law are presented in overview, including the classical civil rights and liberties. Weber also provides an overview of contract and the development of freedom of contract. For all their heterogeneity, Weber's remarks in his ‘Sociology of Law’ can be brought together into a historically grounded ‘theory’ of the rationalization of the law and its developmental conditions. This theory of the rationalization of the law has various basic ‘building blocks’. First and foremost, it requires a standard measure for the level of rationalization that has been reached. In a process of rationalization, ideal-typical stages of development are required. Weber also pays particular attention to two basic types of legal training or legal teaching: first, the ‘craft’ approach in the sense of the ‘empirically’ driven training of lawyers; and second, university education organized in a theoretical and academic manner.
Introduction
Authors: Rendle Matthew
Published: September 2020

The introduction outlines the key themes that underpin the book, from the role of law in revolution and Bolshevik understandings of law to the ambiguous relationship between law and violence. Arguing that historians have not appreciated the role of law in the Russian Revolution and Civil War in part because the role of law in revolution more generally has been understudied, it goes on to outline how the Bolsheviks understood this role and, then, how they saw this role as distinct from, and supplementary to, the role of violence. The introduction finishes by explaining the structure of the rest of the book.
Categorizing Counter-Revolution
Authors: Rendle Matthew
Published: September 2020

Chapter 3 examines how the Bolsheviks categorized counter-revolutionary crimes and, in doing so, exerted control over definitions of the revolution and sought to establish new ‘norms’. Initial conceptions of counter-revolution revolved around revolts, plots, or sabotage conducted by obvious political and social enemies, but the Bolsheviks faced an increasing array of problems as the civil war intensified, and more activities were soon included. The elasticity of the term ‘counter-revolution’ provided law and tribunals with much of their power, but this did not inevitably mean ‘lawlessness’ or ‘arbitrariness’; there may have been no formal law codes, but there were numerous decrees and tribunals targeting specific threats based on the state’s evolving fears and ambitions. Nevertheless, as the category of counter-revolution expanded, particularly with a growing focus on mass crimes and ‘shock’ campaigns, so too did the social backgrounds of counter-revolutionaries to encompass primarily lower-class ‘criminals’, which had significant implications for broader state–society relations. This chapter uses both quantitative and qualitative approaches before finishing with an analysis of the impact of the new law codes of 1922 on categories of crime.
Velar palatalization
Authors: Recasens Daniel
Published: September 2020

An analysis of the conversion of velar stops before front vocalic segments, and in other contextual and positional conditions, into plain palatal, alveolopalatal, and even alveolar articulations is carried out using descriptive data from a considerable number of languages. Articulatory data on (alveolo)palatal stops reveal that these consonants are mostly alveolopalatal in the world’s languages, and also that their closure location may be highly variable, which accounts for their identification as /t/ or /k/. It is claimed that velar palatalization may be triggered by articulatory strengthening through an increase in tongue-to-palate contact in non-front vocalic environments.
Sin, Atonement, and Christian Ways of Life
Authors: Robbins Joel
Published: September 2020

The topics of sin and salvation have played important roles in anthropological work on Christianity. But surprisingly, theological debates about atonement have not. From an anthropologist’s perspective, theological discussions of this topic are particularly rich because they are diverse and unsettled. Correlating the range of cross-cultural ethnographic data on approaches to issues of sin and salvation with the range of positions on atonement found in theological debate, this chapter argues that drawing concepts from the theological literature can not only help anthropologists recognize patterns of ethnographic variation in this area, but can also help them to make some important contributions to the currently developing anthropology of ethics. And for theologians, this chapter provides an opportunity to consider with fresh data the different kinds of social lives diverse theologies of atonement support. These arguments are developed through ethnographic materials from Papua New Guinea and sub-Saharan Africa.