bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Slave Society Goes To War
Authors: Blair William
Published: October 2023

After learning the fate of Fort Sumter and Lincoln’s call for 75,000 troops to quell the rebellion, a Shenandoah Valley farmer assembled his sons. “Boys,” began the Augusta County Unionist, “this war is over the nigger. You can do what you want to fight or get substitutes.” Joseph, the second oldest son, replied: “Well, I have the niggers-guess I ‘ll fight.”1 Few phrased matters so crudely or linked the war so closely to slavery. Instead, most Confederate Virginians pointed to Lincoln’s proclamation as “revolutionizing” the state by providing compelling evidence that “subjugation was the object, subjugation of all who would not subscribe to the creed of the conqueror.” Although a Richmond editor proclaimed that slavery “begets and fosters the war spirit,” people interpreted dissolution of the Union as necessary to preserve liberty against an increasingly tyrannical government that would use force against southerners-a statement easily proved by the army gathering across the Potomac River.Z Virginia offers a fairly typical example of the way Confederates understood their reasons for separz,ting from the Union.
Deciding to Go to Graduate School
Authors: Bloom Dale F , Karp Jonathan D , Cohen Nicholas
Published: October 2023

Some of you think that deciding to go on to graduate school is the easiest decision in the world. And it is. You love learning about the natural world, delight in the thought of the investigative process, and are enticed by the idea of contributing to society and its body of knowledge. You have a calling, and proceeding on to advance your education is an effortless move that is undertaken with relish. For you, deciding not to go on to graduate school is the difficult decision to make. You probably have heard through the grapevine that there is little employment opportunity, money, or job security in science today. Funding for research is tight, and hard work and dedication no longer guarantee a career. If you are convinced that there is nothing you would rather do than dedicate your life to science, then these Ivery true) observations probably should not dissuade you; do not give up on your dream. Likewise, if you love science, and strongly desire a career in a science related field !such as wildlife management) where a graduate degree would be helpful, the trials you are about to encounter should be bearable. However, if your interest is piqued by science, but you are unsure if you want to make it a career, graduate school may not be for you. Without a powerful drive, the full-time effort and unflagging perseverance required, combined with the gloomy employment situation, will make you miserable. Graduate school is a long, hard road, with inherent major stresses, and, although good times and enchanted moments will certainly transpire, the many years that you will spend there will be no picnic. You will work very hard, be tested and challenged repeatedly, forfeit much, and feel overwhelmed much of the time.
Classes, Tournal Clubs, Lab Meetings, and Seminars
Authors: Bloom Dale F , Karp Jonathan D , Cohen Nicholas
Published: October 2023

While a first- or second-year graduate student may spend a lot of time working on research, he or she is also expected to partake in a number of important activities away from the field or lab bench. Of these, attending classes will be the most time-consuming, although the other activities, including seminars, lab meetings, and journal clubs, which continue throughout the graduate years, are equally important for his education. It is only through many fronts that a naive student is molded into a functioning scientist. Classes The class requirements for first-year graduate students vary from department to department and from university to university. A past trend to reduce the number of required courses has resulted in some departments making few demands in this area. Still, today most departments do insist that students take a number of classes during their first, and usually second, years. These classes, some of which are left to the student’s discretion, provide general and some specific background knowledge of a discipline so that research can be carried out intelligently. (It is often possible to petition to substitute an unrequired course for a required one, or to drop a core requirement altogether if one’s background warrants it. Petitioning to make exceptions in one’s case concerning requirements or rules of all types is quite common in graduate school.) Some of the electives can be chosen (in consultation with the advisor) to provide the tools of the trade.
Some Additional Aspects of Graduate School Life: Lab Notebooks, Etiquette, Competition, Luck
Authors: Bloom Dale F , Karp Jonathan D , Cohen Nicholas
Published: October 2023

Scientists who have long been involved in research know from experience that there is nothing as important as taking careful and detailed notes on the experiments they run. New students know this, too, but not from the same perspective. Students often view the practice of keeping a carefully detailed notebook as something one does to appear orderly and productive; a notebook is seen as a dated “list” in essence, an account of what one has worked on. But a notebook should not be looked upon as merely a dusty record of labors past. It is a dynamic and active part of the research process, as important to the interpretation of the data as the data themselves.
The End Is in Sight: Writing the Dissertation
Authors: Bloom Dale F , Karp Jonathan D , Cohen Nicholas
Published: October 2023

Something strange happens to students in their last year as they struggle to finish up their final experiments. As they see the end approaching, as they perform techniques for the last few times (techniques they may have performed hundreds of times before), they grow more and more restless, more and more impatient. Even recalling what they have been through-the stress, the hurdles, the physical work-is exhausting. These students are weary of the whole graduate school thing, weary even of the projects that once held their interest. In short, they have reached the point where they can no longer stand being students. They picture what life will be like at the next, perhaps postdoctoral, stage of their careers; they seek a fresh start on exciting new research in some other lab, perhaps in some other part of the country. The work they are doing now is holding them back; every little delay at this point, such as the need to do another analysis, an experiment that has to be repeated, an error that has to be rectified, is irksome and intolerable. They have reached the breaking point. They want out.
Firms, Markets, and Hierarchies Introduction and Overview
Authors: Carroll Glenn R , Teece David J
Published: October 2023

This book is about transaction cost analysis, a major theoretical perspective of the social sciences. Transaction cost analysis originated in economics with several seminal articles by Ronald Coase, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize. The perspective has since broadened its base and now envelops all the social sciences and addresses a variety of research questions not previously considered the purview of economic theory. It is perhaps the single most influential theory found in the social sciences.
Revisiting Legal Realism The Law, Economics, and Organization Perspective
Authors: Williamson Oliver E
Published: October 2023

The contrast between American Legal Realism, which ‘ran itself into the sand’ (Schlegel, 1979, p. 459), and the law and economics movement, which is ‘perhaps the most important development in legal thought in the last quarter century’ (Posner, 1986, p. xix), is dramatic. That one foundered while the other flourished is explained largely by the absence of an intellectual framework for Legal Realism and the use by law and economics of the powerful framework of neoclassical economics.
The Study of Organizations and Evolving Organizational Forms through History Reflections.from the Late Medieval Family Firm
Authors: Greif Avner
Published: October 2023

Williamson, 1982, has observed that the data source most suitable for the study of organizations and organizational innovations is business history. The diversity of economic environments and organizations utilized through out history may provide the variety required for evaluating the extent to which organizations effect economic growth and the generality of organizational theory. Furthermore, historical studies of organizations are likely to stimulate the extension of organizational theory and provide a unique perspective regarding organizational innovations.
Planning the Analysis
Authors: Murray David M
Published: October 2023

Because group-randomized trials have complex designs, their analysis is usually more complex than that of studies based on simpler designs. Thus, careful planning is required for a valid analysis of the data. Following a review of the fundamentals of data analysis, this chapter will address each of the components of the planning process.
Applications of Analyses for Nested Cross-Sectional Designs
Authors: Murray David M
Published: October 2023

This chapter illustrates the analyses appropriate for data from nested cross- sectional designs, including examples for most of the analyses presented in Chapter 5. The analyses are illustrated with data from the cross-sectional survey of the Minnesota Heart Health Program (MHHP).
Applications of Analyses for Nested Cohort Designs
Authors: Murray David M
Published: October 2023

The analyses appropriate for data from a nested cohort design are illustrated in this chapter with data from the cohort survey of the Minnesota Heart Health Program (MHHP). The MHHP design supports most of the analyses presented in Chapter 6.
Knowledge And Belief In American Public Life
Authors: Kloppenberg James T
Published: October 2023

Knowledge Is Not What it used to be. Almost three decades have passed since Thomas Kuhn first rocked the confidence of the scientific community by explaining scientific revolutions in terms of paradigm shifts rather than as straightforward advances in knowledge. Since that time, students of the human sciences have followed Kuhn’s lead, teaching us to speak less of progress than of historicity, less of certainty than of undecidability, less of explanation than of thick description, less of universals than of prejudices, forms of life, and communities of discourse. Foundations have evaporated across the disciplines; establishing authoritative claims has grown increasingly problematical as all knowledge has fallen under the scrutiny of a hermeneutics of suspicion.
Cognitive Changes Associated with Persisting Behavioral Effects of Early Psychosocial Stress in Rhesus Monkeys: A View from Psychobiology
Authors: Kraemer Gary W , ier Jocelyne Bacheval
Published: October 2023

Until the mid-1950s, it was commonly accepted that insults to the usual psychosocial or cognitive development of the child were causal factors in the later development of psychopathology. There was considerable diversity in proposed causal mechanisms. Psychoanalytic theory focused on challenges to the formation of the ego and defense mechanisms and on later inability to cope with ongoing stressors as a result of unresolved conflicts (Freud, 1969). Behaviorist theory focused on early conditioning and learning that leads to abnormal responses to stressors and deficient coping behavior later in life (Skinner, 1953). Psychological explanations of the cause of abnormal behavior became less prominent, however, following the discovery of pharmacological agents that were effective in treatment of depression and schizophrenia.
Theoretical Integration
Authors: Dohrenwend Bruce P
Published: October 2023

In the preceding chapter, I argued that there are three groups of studies that provide an environmental analogue to the behavioral genetic twin, family, and adoption studies that have proved so persuasive in demonstrating a role for genetic factors in most major types of psychiatric disorder. The environmental triad consists of studies of extreme situations such as exposure to combat and natural disasters; epidemiological research showing that overall prevalence of psychiatric disorders and, in men or women, the specific subtypes of schizophrenia, major depression, antisocial personality disorder, alcoholism, substance use disorders, and post-traumatic stress dis order (PTSD) are inversely related to socioeconomic status (SES); and a quasi-experimental investigation of the social causation-social selection issue posed by these SES differences.
Looking the Other Way (1920-1930)
Authors: Geisst Charles R
Published: October 2023

The 1920s were years of great contradiction. Business, employing new technologies eagerly sought by the public, began to circumvent the antitrust laws as flagrantly as at any time in the past. It became the decade of the consumer, who was bitten by the urge to purchase automobiles, radios, and appliances as never before.
A Religious Sect: The Unification Church
Authors: Galanter Marc
Published: October 2023

The Unification Church was established in the United States early in the course of its evolution as a religious sect, at a time when intense conversion experiences and fervent commitment were reflected in the way new members were engaged. Because of this, studies of the church during this period of expansion and active recruitment offer insight into the nature of the zealous feelings that can emerge in the early stages of such sects. The church provides examples of the idiosyncrasies of a religious sect, yet it also illustrates the underlying principles governing behavior in those charismatic groups that reach some form of accommodation with the society around them.
Alternative Healing In The Medical Mainstream
Authors: Galanter Marc
Published: October 2023

Two recent developments illustrate how spiritually oriented recovery movements are entering into medical settings. One is religious, the other secular. They show how ideologic commitment can introduce an alternative medical technique into established medical settings. In the first, an organization of fundamentalist Christian psychiatrists has drawn on their beliefs to treat patients who share the same faith. The second is quite different: zealous alcoholic patients have co-managed a hospital-based clinic with its medical staff, promoting stronger engagement of new patients and greater cost efficiency. We will see how accepted standards for health care can be modified by such developments, where the forces observed in charismatic groups play a role in conventional medical care.
The Aa Example
Authors: Galanter Marc
Published: October 2023

A contemporary charismatic healing group such as Alcoholics Anonymous provides a model of an effective, inexpensive social instrument that can be used to treat certain psychological problems, and the operation of this group can be understood by comparing it with charismatic religious sects. Members of M healing groups are highly cohesive; they maintain a system of shared beliefs and their behavior is strongly influenced by the group. Despite these points of similarity to religious sects, however, important differences emerge. For example, the behavioral demands of such a healing group relate only to the recovery from illness, not to unrelated aspects of their members’ lives such as the occupation they should pursue or how they should manage their family relations. Religious sects generally have a universalist philosophy and a code of behavior touching on all aspects of the lives of their adherents.
Policy
Authors:   Aaas
Published: October 2023

Science Education Reformers have identified three barriers to change in American classrooms: the state of science curricula, the state of teachers’ knowledge, and public awareness of the need for educational reform in science. Most current science curricula are designed to have students memorize a vast number of unrelated facts rather than having them explore in depth an integrated series of concepts and principles that cut across traditional disciplines and prepare them for a lifetime of learning. Most teachers have been trained in the former style of curriculum and therefore are often unprepared to implement the latter. The public is generally unaware of these issues and is less interested in science education than in reading and mathematics, for example.
Finance
Authors:   Aaas
Published: October 2023

What Fiscal Issues might arise from implementing reforms in science education? How might we deal with the related problems? This chapter answers these questions by assessing the existing resource base for education; reporting what we know about how these resources are being spent currently; reviewing the contemporary debate over whether and how dollars make a difference in the improvement of pupil performance; and assessing the costs of implementing an ambitious reform initiative with goals such as Project 2061’s. The chapter argues that there is more to understanding the fiscal implications of science education reform than developing projections of expected dollar costs and speculating about how easy or hard it will be to raise the necessary money. It concludes with recommendations for enhancing the prospects of the successful implementation of the Project 2061 vision of reform at several levels of the educational system.
School Organization
Authors:   Aaas
Published: October 2023

How Schools Are Organized and how well they can accomodate change are critical to success in educational reform. This chapter discusses organizational changes in governance, curriculum, assessment and evaluation, students, time, staff, space, and instruction that can help educators to implement Project 2061’s vision of science, mathematics, and technology education reform.
Materials and Technology
Authors:   Aaas
Published: October 2023

Perhaps At No Time in the history of schooling in the United States has the use of technology1 in schools been more widely hailed as a crucial ingredient for quality education. There seem to be countless potential uses for satellite-linked classrooms, for CD-ROMs that hold previously unimagined amounts of information, and for an “information superhighway” whose power has just begun to be tapped. Educators and the general public are eager to see some of those potential uses put into practice. Likewise, science and mathematics education reformers are eager to see technology used effectively in American classrooms. However, while we believe wholeheartedly in the power of technology to make a positive impact on education, we urge educators, policymakers, and the public at large to approach educational technologies with an eye towards their educational value first and their technological glamour second.
The Civil War and its Consequences
Authors: Ayers Edward L , Mittendorf Bradley C
Published: October 2023

The Civil War was the most important event in the history of the South. Free or slave, black or white, male or female, rich or poor, the war changed the landscape of people’s lives. From the moment it began, the war unleashed changes few could have imagined. To the surprise of virtually everyone, it brought slavery to an abrupt end. It brought death to one fourth of the white men of military age in the South. It brought a lifetime of suffering to those Southerners who survived as wounded veterans or as widows and orphans. It brought the devastation of the agricultural economy. It brought an ignominious end to the national political power of the white South.
Track 2: Crime Prevention
Authors: Lewy Guenter
Published: October 2023

The Nazis’ rise to power was helped by widespread concern in German society about moral decay and the spread of crime. Much of the apprehension about the alleged crime wave resulted from sensational media reporting. The Nazis took advantage of public anxieties and presented themselves as the champions oflaw and order. They would end, they pledged, the constitution al restrictions that had tied the hands of the police and led to the coddling of criminals. After Hitler assumed power in January 1933, the new government soon adopted measures that promised to attack the problem of crime “at its root.” Gypsies were one of several groups caught in a steadily widening net of presumed criminals.
The Special Case of the Austrian Gypsies
Authors: Lewy Guenter
Published: October 2023

In the early hours of March 12, 1938, German troops crossed into Austria. A day later, the so-called Anschluss law made Austria a province of the German Reich, and this annexation was ratified in a plebiscite held on April IO. Austria had ceased to exist as an independent state. About 11,000 more Gypsies had come under Nazi rule.
Deportation to Auschwitz
Authors: Lewy Guenter
Published: October 2023

In 1939, and again in 1940, attempts to deport all Gypsies in the Reich to the East had come to naught. Some 2,500 German and 5,000 Austrian Gypsies had been sent to the General Government and the Warthegau in 1940 and 1941 respectively, but most Gypsies continued to live in the places to which they had been assigned at the outbreak of the war. On December 16, 1942, Himmler issued his so-called Auschwitz decree that led to the deportation of more than 13,000 German Gypsies, considered to be inferior Mischlinge (persons of mixed ancestry), to a special Gypsy camp in Auschwitz. This mass deportation began in March 1943, and for most of the deported it turned out to be a one-way journey. All the details of the decision-making process that led to this deportation are not known, but the key departments and persons involved in these fateful events can be identified.
A Calendar of Events Associated with Slavery, the Slave Trade, and Emancipation, 1770-1823
Authors: Davis David Brion
Published: October 2023

FR Abbe Raynal’s Histoire philosophique et politique des etablissemens et du commerce des Europeens dans les deux lndes calls for a “Black Spartacus” to arise in the New World to avenge the rights of nature. US A bill passed by the Massachusetts assembly to end slave importations fails to win the governor’s assent.
What the Abolitionists Were Up Against
Authors: Davis David Brion
Published: October 2023

The concept of chattel slavery, which must be distinguished from historical varieties of servitude and dependence, has always embodied a profound though subtle contradiction. Since man has a remarkable capacity to imagine abstract states of perfection, he very early imagined a perfect form of subordination. Plato compared the slave to the human body, the master to the body’s soul. Slaves incarnated the irrationality and chaos of the material universe, as distinct from the masterlike Demiurge. There was thus a cosmic justification behind Aristotle’s dictum that “from the hour of their birth, some men are marked out for subjection, others for rule.” The true slave, according to Aristotle, could have no will or interests of his own; he was merely a tool or instrument-the extension of his owner’s physical nature.
The Emancipation of America, I
Authors: Davis David Brion
Published: October 2023

The doctrines of the American Revolution, we have often read, presented a direct challenge to Negro slavery. By the end of the war, according to Winthrop D. Jordan, “it was perfectly clear that the principles for which Americans had fought required the complete abolition of slavery; the question was not if, but when and how.”Although Jordan acknowledges that the majority of Americans failed to face the question of “when and how,” he tends to confuse liberal principles with antislavery commitment. He thus concludes, along with many other historians, that the last quarter of the eighteenth century was a time of missed opportunity. Perhaps, he suggests, the bitter legacy of Garrisonian abolitionism, Civil War, and Reconstruction could have been avoided.
The Preservation of English Liberty, I
Authors: Davis David Brion
Published: October 2023

The English Context Compared with That of America and France The ideology of the American Revolution was largely British in origin, and the arguments that American reformers used against Negro slavery had long been commonplace in British political and moral philosophy. Yet by the 1770s antislavery thought had considerably different implications in the two countries. In England there was no “fundamental shift in values” that mobilized the society into revolution. There was no counterpart to the American need for self-justification. No new hopes or obligations arose from an attempt to build a virtuous republic. Such phrases as “created equal,” “inalienable rights,” and “the pursuit of happiness”-all of which had appeared in classic liberal texts-were qualified by a reverent constitutionalism that looked to Saxon precedent to legitimize ideals of freedom. The notion of man’s inherent rights, when assimilated to the historical concept of British “liberty,” implied little challenge to traditional laws and authorities. And by the 1790s the very idea of inherent rights was giving way to radical and conservative forms of Utilitarianism. Like the Americans of a later generation, most Englishmen looked back to a long sanctified revolution-the Glorious Revolution of 1688-which had supposedly restored the foundations of a free society.
Introduction
Authors: Arend Anthony Clark
Published: October 2023

As the world enters the twenty-first century, one of the greatest uncertainties facing both scholars and practitioners of international relations is the future of the international system. As the cold war was coming to an end, many commentators began to speak of the emergence of a “New World Order.” While it was unclear precisely what that phrase meant—indeed, it undoubtedly meant many different things to different people—the concept of the New World Order expressed a hope that the international system was becoming more peaceful and just. In such a new system, many assumed international legal rules would be strengthened and multilateral organizations would play a significant role in managing international conflict. But as the tragedies of Somalia, Rwanda, and the Balkans played themselves out, the expectations for a better international system seemed premature. International legal rules seemed impotent and international organizations seemed incapable. Many believed that the world would settle back into a competitive balance-of-power system.
The Creation Of International Legal Rules
Authors: Arend Anthony Clark
Published: October 2023

At every level, political systems have processes whereby legal rules are created. The city, the county, the province, and the state all have wellestablished and institutionalized mechanisms for developing legal rules. Likewise, over the centuries, an extremely sophisticated process has evolved for the formulation of international legal rules. What is this process? How do international legal rules develop? How does this process differ from the domestic legislative process? The purpose of this chapter is to examine the process of creating international legal rules.
The Future Of The International Legal System
Authors: Arend Anthony Clark
Published: October 2023

The preceding chapters of this book have attempted to present several basic propositions about international legal rules in the contemporary international system. First, I have contended that international legal rules are distinctive; they are perceived by the decision-making elites in states to be qualitatively different from other types of rules. Second, I have argued that these legal rules are created by states through their consent. As a consequence, I have developed a methodology for determining when that consent has been given. Third, I have sought to demonstrate that legal rules matter-that they play a critical role in international politics. All these propositions are based on the assumption that the international system remains essentially as it has been for the past several hundred years-an anarchic system in which states are the primary actors. But, as noted in the introduction to this book, the international system has been subjected to unprecedented developments since the end of the cold war. I believe that the fundamental nature of this system has not yet changed. It is stilI a system of sovereign states. Nonetheless, the trajectory of some of these recent developments could indeed indicate that the future-indeed perhaps the very near future may hold such fundamental systemic changes.
Legal Rules And International Society
Authors: Arend Anthony Clark
Published: October 2023

In the introduction to this book, I set forth several reasons for undertaking a fresh examination of international legal rules. First, I noted the need to rehabilitate the study of international law within the discipline of international relations. Second, I cited the need to return legal scholarship to a closer examination of empirical data-state practice. Finally, I mentioned the need to reexamine the nature of international legal rules in the wake of changes in the international system. In the light of these propositions, this book has sought to accomplish four major tasks. First, it has endeavored to demonstrate that international legal rules are distinctive-they are different from other types of rules in international politics. Second, this work has developed a new methodology for examining state practice to determine the existence of international legal rules. Based on the premise that legal rules are created through the consent of states, I have sought to provide a methodology that both scholars and practitioners can use to determine whether a putative rule is, in fact, a legal rule. Third, using a constructivist approach, this book has argued that legal rules play a critical role in contemporary international politics.
The Establishment of the Welfare State in the Health Care Arena
Authors: Tuohy Carolyn Hughes
Published: October 2023

In the comparative history of health policy in the three nations with which this book is concerned, the 1940s, 1960s, and 1990s were critical epochs. In each of these periods, extraordinary episodes of policy change occurred in the health care arena of at least one of these nations-episodes in which the structural balance among interests and the institutional mix of instruments were altered in significant ways. In the 1940s in Britain and the 1960s in Canada and the United States, the essential features of the welfare state in the health care arena were put in place. In the 1990s attempts were made (successfully in Britain and unsuccessfully in the United States) to make major changes in the public policies governing these arrangements. A comparison of the experience of these nations in each of these periods can shed light on the conditions under which windows of opportunity for policy change in health care open. It can also demonstrate the importance of the timing of the opening of these windows in determining the types of changes that occur as a result.
Britain:The Logic of Corporatism Meets the Internal Market
Authors: Tuohy Carolyn Hughes
Published: October 2023

While the market-oriented U.S. system generated a relative increase in hierarchical mechanisms, ironically the British system moved in the other direction. The NHS’s particular corporatist blend of hierarchy and collegiality was modified by the adoption of mechanisms based on market principles. This shift was brought about not through the playing out of the logic of the corporatist system but rather through a political intervention generated outside the health care arena and heavily influenced by ideas developed in the United States.
Respect for Human Embryos
Authors: Steinbock Bonnie
Published: October 2023

How ought we to think about human embryos? Are they due the respect owed to any human person? Do they have the same human rights? These questions are crucial to diverse topics, from abortion and contraception (because some forms of contraception, such as the intrauterine device, work by preventing implantation of a very early embryo) to embryo research, assisted reproductive technology (ART), and germ-line genetic manipulation, in which early embryos are genetically changed, without, it hardly needs to be said, their consent, informed or otherwise. Most recently, the topic of somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) cloning has raised the question of the moral status of human embryos, as this technique, should it prove successful, would in effect tum every cell in the human body into a potential embryo. We need to know, then, what is morally permissible to do to embryos and what is not. To answer this question, we tum to theories of moral status, of which there are basically three.
The Law Meets Reproductive Technology: The Prospect of Human Cloning
Authors: Forster Heidi , Ramsey Emily
Published: October 2023

This chapter addresses the current legal issues associated with the prospect of human cloning. Samples of proposed legislation at both the federal and state levels are provided and international initiatives are briefly mentioned. United States Constitutional issues related to cloning legislation are then described, and pro-creative liberty is discussed. Finally, some issues and concerns raised in earlier discussion are addressed, including perceived harms and benefits of human cloning through the use of the somatic cell nuclear transfer technique.
The Norms Of International Copyright
Authors: Goldstein Paul
Published: October 2023

I he evolution of substantive international copyright norms has generally been in the direction of increased minimum standards, both for protected subject matter and for exclusive rights. The patterns of protection have also become more complex. The norms of copyright and neighboring rights today are embodied in an interlocking network formed by the Berne and Universal Copyright Con ventlons and the WIPO Copyright Treaty, as well as by the neighboring rights treaties-the Rome, Geneva, 5 and Brussels Conventions and the WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty. The substantive and procedural norms of the TRIPs Agreement affect both copyright and neighboring rights.
Territoriality, National Treatment, And Choice Of Law
Authors: Goldstein Paul
Published: October 2023

The international exploitation of copyrighted works often Implicates questions of territoriality, national treatment, and choice of law. Copyright Is territorial: a French or Japanese copyrigh t does not exist outside France or Japan. The treaty obligation of national treatment requires member countries to give works originating in other member countries no less favorable treatment than they give to works of their own nationals: under the Berne Convention, for example, a Japanese work will as a rule receive in France the same protection that a work by a French national would receive in France.
Protection Under Copyright And Neighboring Rights
Authors: Goldstein Paul
Published: October 2023

Copyright systems around the world have historically protected a wide array of Intellectual productions created through traditional forms of individual authorship. Novels, dramas, and poems have long come within copyright subject matter. as have musical compositions. paintings. drawings. and prints. However. legislation varies from country to country In the treatment of less traditional forms of creative productions, particularly those that are connected to industrial technology and are the product of team effort rather than individual authorship.
Syringomyelia and Spinal Hemorrhage
Authors: Byrne Thomas N , Benzel Edward C , Waxman Stephen G
Published: October 2023

Syringomyelia is characterized by cavitation of the spinal cord, resulting in myelomalacia and cystic cavitation. Although it has protean manifestations, traditionally it has been considered to be a chronically progressive disorder that is clinically manifested by brachia! amyotrophy, dissociated anesthesia, neurogenic arthropathies, and long tract signs.1 Its pathogenesis is controversial. Barnett et al. have suggested that syringomyelia be classified into communicating and noncommunicating forms (Table 10—1). The communicating types are usually associated withobstructive lesions of the foramen magnum, leading some authors to propose a hydrody-namic theory for its development. The noncommunicating type is usually associated with other diseases of the spinal cord, discussed below.
Management of the Spinally Impaired Patient
Authors: Byrne Thomas N , Benzel Edward C , Waxman Stephen G
Published: October 2023

The incidence of spinal cord injury (SCI) ranges from 11.5 to 53.4 hospitalized patients, per million, per year. The definition of SCI used, however, affects these statistics. For example, an aggressive definition of SCI, that included an isolated nerve root deficit or a vertebral body fracture without nerve element injury, would result in a higher incidence ofSCI computed to a less aggressive definition.

Life expectation tables have been used to determine the relationship between survival, and age, extent, and level of injury. It has been shown that an improved outcome is achieved when specialized SCI centers are utilized. Early aggressive care of the SCI patient is imperative.

In the pages that follow, the treatment strategies for spine injury and SCI are reviewed. Medical, structural spine and neural element issues are addressed.
Introduction
Authors: Miringoff Marc , Miringoff Marque-Luisa
Published: October 2023

In the media and in the speeches of our national leaders, we are often presented with an official portrait of America’s progress. This portrait typically includes the Gross Domestic Product, the stock market, the Index of Leading Economic Indicators, the balance of trade, the inflation rate, and other similar measures. The view created by these measures molds our perception of the state of the nation and supplies a well-de­ fined, accessible, and timely answer to the question: “How are we doing?”
There’s Something Else Out There
Authors: Miringoff Marc , Miringoff Marque-Luisa
Published: October 2023

It is not surprising that Americans feel uncertain about the well-being of society. While the economy has been doing relatively well, there is a sense that the nation remains off-course in many critical areas that affect the day-to-day lives of its citizens. The insight that sustained economic growth alone does not create well-being for the broader public has long been acknowledged by those who study developing countries, but only later gained influence in developed countries. Ian Miles, for example, a development analyst, observes, “during the 1960s it had ... become apparent that GNP growth was not necessarily benefiting the masses of the poor in Third World countries. Indeed, evidence began to be accumulated that in some instances, absolute poverty was being increased by a process of ‘immiserizing’ growth Over the last decade ... it has been widely questioned whether GNP is appropriate to the First World too.” Senator Robert F. Kennedy framed this idea most poetically in a speech more than thirty years ago.
Indicators of Improving Performance
Authors: Miringoff Marc , Miringoff Marque-Luisa
Published: October 2023

Several key indicators have shown consistent improvement over time and represent important national achievements in social health. These include: Infant mortality High school dropouts Poverty, aged 65 and over Life expectancy Improvements in infant mortality and life expectancy are due largely to advances in medical technology, drugs, treatments, nutrition, health education, and access to needed services. High school dropout rates have shown a small improvement over time as the nation’s demand for greater skills has increased at all levels of employment. The reduction in poverty among the aging represents one of the great successes of American domestic policy. A combination of Social Security and Medicare payments has transformed the elderly, once the country’s poorest age group, into the least poor group.
Advancing the Field
Authors: Miringoff Marc , Miringoff Marque-Luisa
Published: October 2023

Empirical Research and the Development of Economic Science, 1946 PartTwo began the process of assessing the social health of the nation. It shaped a perspective that includes vital aspects of our progress that are absent from the official business-economic indicators. The data included represent an important part of what is needed to help enrich our public dialogue about social conditions. The final section of the book presents a series of initiatives designed to create a more fully developed concept of social health—one that can be measured, monitored, and communicated to the makers of policy and to the American people.
Introduction
Authors: Herlihy Patricia
Published: October 2023

Vodka and its use and abuse in Russian society generated a flood of printed material in the Russian press for three decades before its prohibition in 1914. People of various walks of life and political persuasions used the perceived problem of alcohol as an explanation for a host of other social ills, as did Father Bulgakovskii, cited in the epigraph to this chapter. Allegedly, alcohol was hurting the health of the people, debilitating their mental and physical energies, provoking accidents and absenteeism in the workplace, and contributing to suicides and crimes. Purportedly, more people died of drink in Russia than were murdered. A writer for the temperance journal Deiatel’ came to the gloomy conclusion that “madness, crime, idiocy, and death are the fateful companions of this social ailment.”
Singing One’s Way To Sobriety
Authors: Herlihy Patricia
Published: October 2023

When the state set up its own temperance organization, the Guardianship of Public Sobriety, it inadvertently galvanized private temperance groups—headed by physicians, the Orthodox clergy, and lay societies—into proclaiming that their own methods, approaches, and expertise were superior to those of the lethargic, bureaucratic, mammoth state organization. The private groups sought to address the problem, whereas it appeared that the state attempted only to amuse and distract the people from drink. Some critics claimed that the Guardianship’s use of popular theater as a vehicle for amusement and education reached the middle class more readily than the target audience: peasant workers. Others affirmed that the educational and artistic mission was successful; workers did indeed profit from plays, operas, and lectures, perhaps not in forswearing drinking but in acquiring culture. Workers gained a sense of autonomy and individuality from viewing plays; ironically, the same system that entertained them led to a heightened consciousness of their oppressive environment.
Drugs Are Our Business
Authors: Herlihy Patricia
Published: October 2023

By the 1890s, the perceived dimensions of the liquor problem demanded the ever closer attention of the medical profession, especially, but not exclusively, of psychiatrists. In 1897, the eminent professor of psychiatry I. A. Sikorskii called alcoholism “the disease of our century.” In 1913, Dr. D. P. Nikol’skii, a factory doctor, instructor of industrial hygiene at the Technological, Metallurgical, and Polytechnic Institutes, and a specialist in alcoholism among the youth, proclaimed that “alcoholism is the greatest social disaster, bringing with it economic destruction, physical degeneration, and moral and mental decline into the midst of the population.” He stressed that “alcohol is a poison, destroying the organism, acting de structively not only on those who drink but also on the descendants of drinkers.”
Tea and Symphony
Authors: Herlihy Patricia
Published: October 2023

As if to balance the large number of virtually unknown lay temperance leaders, perhaps the most famous writer in Russia, Count Leo Tolstoi, organized his own temperance society, the Union against Drunkenness (Soglasie protiv P’ianstva), in 1887. It preceded the establishment of the State Vodka Monopoly by eight years and the first large lay temperance society in St. Petersburg by three years. Significantly, the regime that would later subsidize the Guardianship of Public Sobriety refused to recognize his organization. The state’s interest in temperance came only with the introduction of the vodka monopoly in 1894.In 1896, nearly ten years after creating his own temperance society, Tolstoi was made an honorary member of the First Moscow Temperance Society, which was organized by laymen, but he was expelled after his excommunication by the Orthodox Church in 1901.

It is understandable that Tolstoi would take action to combat alcoholism: drunkenness for the philosopher was not simply one of a host of sins but the cardinal sin, the root of all evil, for without drunkenness violence and sins of the flesh would not occur.
Senior Apprentice and Assistant, 1830-1836
Authors: Vinten-Johansen Peter , Brody Howard , Paneth Nigel , Rachman Stephen , Rip Michael
Published: October 2023

Now Was Seventeen When he read John Frank Newton’s essay The Return to Nature: A Defence of the Vegetable Regimen. The argument convinced him that a vegetarian diet would reduce irritation of the intestines and promote personal health. Newton’s form of vegetarianism included a fastidious attention to drinking water, purifying it by distillation and testing its purity chemically. Newton’s essay convinced Snow that diet, pure water, and a healthy colon were essential to one’s well-being.

Newton wrote Return to Nature to popularize an “important discovery” by the physician William Lambe. Newton, a lawyer, believed that Lambe had shown that all medical and social problems result from “the dire effects on the human frame of animal food, cooperating with that baneful habit, the use of water, or of something more pernicious [fermented drinks], to allay the thirst which that food occasions.” When Newton shifted to a “regimen of distilled water and vegetable diet,” his chronic intestinal distress disappeared within two years. In gratitude he wrote Return to Nature to make Lambe’s hypothesis known to a wide audience.
Forging a London Career, 1838–1846
Authors: Vinten-Johansen Peter , Brody Howard , Paneth Nigel , Rachman Stephen , Rip Michael
Published: October 2023

In October 1838 John Snow “nailed up his colours” as a surgeon at 54 Frith Street, part of the parish of St. Anne-Soho, one of Victorian London’s most densely populated areas. A jumble of trades, shops, markets, offices, and residences, Snow’s new neighborhood was a mixture of the genteel and the humble, of family and industry. Once home to foreign aristocrats and Huguenot immigrants, this part of Soho was by the 1830s an area in flux. At its northern end was Soho Square, built around a central garden, with houses occupied by lawyers, dentists, architects, the publisher Routledge, and Crosse and Blackwell’s manufactory of condiments. At the northwestern edge of the square was the Soho Bazaar, a closed market originally established at the end of the Napoleonic Wars as a venue where the widows and daughters of army officers could rent stalls cheaply by the day to sell their handicraft, mainly jewelry, millinery, gloves, lace, and potted plants. Snow lived at the opposite end, near where Frith dead-ends into King Street.