bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Method and Critique
Authors: Nail Thomas
Published: July 2020

The aim of this chapter is to show the previously unacknowledged continuity between Marx’s earlier method of kinetic materialism with the methodology he lays out at the beginning of Capital. Furthermore, and more generally, it shows that Marx’s critical method in Capital has nothing to do with any sort of determinism, reductionism, or anthropocentrism. Instead, this chapter argues that Marx’s method is consistent with and anticipates the method of new materialism. Marx offers new materialism a historical new materialism in which history plays an important role in shaping the present. This chapter offers a close reading of the first few lines of Capital and a new materialist theory of critique.
The Birth of Value
Authors: Nail Thomas
Published: July 2020

The goal of this chapter is to show the material conditions for the idea of use-value through a close reading of the first two pages of Capital. Distinct from most interpretations, it begins from Marx’s earlier theory of things, of which commodities are particular types, and his theory of material production, within which human labor is one particular type. Chapters 1 and 2 have laid some of this groundwork. This chapter aims to remedy one of the shortfalls of previous interpretations of Capital: that they have tended to begin and end the analysis of the commodity and of labor strictly at the level of the human. This chapter looks more closely at the material and nonhuman basis of the commodity.
Metabolic Drift
Authors: Nail Thomas
Published: July 2020

This chapter contains two parts. The first shows the continuity of the concept of metabolism with other key ideas in Marx’s work from his dissertation leading up to Capital. Again, a close reading of Marx’s dissertation can help offer a new rereading of key ideas in his mature work. This unique starting point provides the larger conceptual context for seeing how the concept of metabolism works in Marx’s theory of value. The second, and much larger, part shows precisely how the concept of a “metabolic drift” supports thinking on the twofold movement of appropriation and value creation.
Kinetic Theory of Value II
Authors: Nail Thomas
Published: July 2020

This chapter argues that the other three value-forms each unfold (entfaltete) continually from the onefold movement introduced in chapter 7. Money emerges not from natural value or from divine command but strictly from the material-kinetic conditions of transport that bear and support it through each of the value-forms. The simplex form is therefore not something merely inadequate to money but in fact a constant and constitutive kinetic condition of relationality that supports and bears money as a general equivalent. Money, therefore, is not a thing but a kinetic process of value creation that emerges historically and must be continually reproduced through the devalorization process that bears its motion. The key original thesis of this chapter is that the origins of money are not, as is commonly thought, in the “movement of value” but in the movement of matter that bears and transports value.
Developmentalism
Authors: Harrison Graham
Published: July 2020

When we talk about development, we are talking about capitalist development. Taking a historical-comparativ e approach, Harrison understands development as a transformation which involves a deep and integrated political economy of change: a shift from a state of ‘capital-ascendance’ to ‘capital-dominance’. It is only through a transformation towards capital dominance that mass poverty reduction and the construction of a commonwealth are possible. However, capitalist development is extremely difficult and requires a highly exacting political endeavour. The politics of development is conceptualized as developmentalism: a strategy and ideology in which governments exercise heavy directive power, endure instability and crisis, and secure a rudimentary legitimacy for their efforts. The political exertions required to generate and sustain a developmentalist strategy are too great to be met by the simple desire to develop. Harrison argues that developmentalism requires a conflation of successful capitalist transformation with some form of existential insecurity of the state itself. Developmentalism flourishes when capitalist transformation connects to profound questions of sovereignty, statehood, nation-building, and elite survival. Authoritarian state action is intrinsic to developmentalism, which the book addresses by adapting a realist approach to politics in which political norms and values are generated within the agonies of suffering and benefit generated by an ascending capital. Taking case studies from the last 250 years, Developmentalism shows the deep contextualization of capitalist transformation as well as the massive improvements in material life that it has generated.
Britain
Authors: Harrison Graham
Published: July 2020

This chapter sets out a detailed account of Britain’s capitalist transformation from the late seventeenth century. It emphasizes the agrarian origins of capitalism and the use of the state to enclose land. It connects this to the emergence of industrial capital and the class relations it creates. It shows how uncertain the rise of industry was and how it relied on an increasingly proactive state which saw economic growth as key to its position in Europe and the world. It shows how radically the economy transformed and the ways in which this generated broader social improvements. It also connects the rise of capitalism in Britain to empire. It concludes by showing how Britain’s capitalism created a global context for other countries.
Rwanda and China
Authors: Harrison Graham
Published: July 2020

This chapter reviews the contrasting experiences of Rwanda and China. It does so to show how an early-stage and late-stage capitalist transformation might reveal risk involved in developmentalism. Rwanda’s post-genocide government is analysed as early-developmentalist. Here the focus is on agricultural transformation. An analysis of Rwanda’s developmentalism focuses on the insecurity of the elite, the insecurities of the region, and the challenges of reconstruction. The Chinese case starts with the accession to power of the Chinese Communist Party. It looks at the violence of the Great Leap Forward and then the post-Mao period. It analyses the sources of growth in China since 1978, showing how the state’s legitimacy shifted from socialist nationalism to a growth obsession in which capitalist accumulation became the source of legitimacy. It emphasizes China’s massive nut incomplete progress in poverty reduction and transformation.
Conceptualizing Legitimacy
Authors: Schmidt Vivien A.
Published: July 2020

Chapter 2 investigates questions of democracy and legitimacy in the EU; defines the three legitimizing mechanisms of output, input, and throughput; and then examines the five main criteria for throughput legitimation—efficacy, accountability, transparency, inclusiveness, and openness. The chapter begins with foundational definitions of legitimacy in liberal democracy based not only on a governing body’s authority but also on its activities. For the latter, it then explores the concepts of input, output, and throughput legitimacy; sets them in historical philosophical perspective; and differentiates them from one another. Lastly, the chapter discusses the different criteria that make up throughput legitimacy, provides examples from EU governance, and discusses their interaction effects. Efficacy is defined in terms of efficiency in policymaking, with illustrations drawn from the challenges EU actors have faced to improve governance processes. Accountability is first defined generally as public officials giving account and being held to account in technical and political forums, and then discussed in terms of EU actors’ accountability and the forums to which they may (or may not) be accountable. Transparency is defined as ensuring citizen access to information about governance policies and processes, with examples of the ways in which EU actors may (or may not) be transparent for good (or bad) reasons. Inclusiveness and openness are defined as EU actors’ willingness to engage with citizens (mainly organized in interest groups) and discussed in terms of their successes or failures to bring in citizens in ways that ensure balance and fairness in representation.
Split-Level Legitimacy and Politicization in EU Governance
Authors: Schmidt Vivien A.
Published: July 2020

Chapter 3 explores the dilemmas of the EU’s “split-level” legitimacy, where output and throughput operate primarily at the EU level and input at the national, and then examines the impact of politicization on both national and EU levels. The chapter begins by considering the EU’s legitimacy problems stemming from the fragmentation of its governing activities, with policies and processes located mainly at the EU level while politics remains national. While the EU has been largely successful in improving legitimacy in all three categories over time, it has faced major challenges to legitimacy. In the Eurozone crisis, citizens’ sense of EU legitimacy has suffered even if their EU-related identity may not have. The chapter then focuses on the EU’s biggest challenge, the politicization of EU governance. After briefly describing the longstanding depoliticization of EU technocratic governance, this section argues that the EU’s politicization has been increasing not only at the bottom, as evidenced by the weakening of mainstream parties to the benefit of populist challengers, or from the bottom up, as national politics influences EU actors, but also at the top, where EU actors have become more politicized. The chapter uses the debates about who is in charge or control of EU governance to show how scholars’ defense of “their” actor through “new” or traditional versions of intergovernmentalism, supranationalism, and parliamentarism actually demonstrates the EU’s increasingly political dynamics of interaction. This chapter ends with the question: Is such politicization a good thing or a bad thing?
National “PoliticsagainstPolicy” in the Eurozone Crisis
Authors: Schmidt Vivien A.
Published: July 2020

Chapter 10 explores the input legitimacy of Eurozone crisis governance as seen through its impact “at the bottom,” on national politics. The chapter first details citizens’ rising Euroskepticism against a background of declining trust in national and EU political institutions, fueled by socioeconomic and sociocultural sources of discontent. But Euroskepticism also stems from a range of other EU-related beliefs and plays out differently as a result of political institutional and geopolitical factors. All such factors help explain the EU’s increasing political polarization and party realignments during the Eurozone crisis, along with the electorate’s crosscutting cleavages of right versus left and open/cosmopolitan versus closed/communitarian. The chapter next charts the fate of mainstream parties during the crisis, first detailing the declining fortunes of center-left and right parties in the periphery, including Ireland, Greece, Spain, and Italy, with the exception of the center left in Portugal. It then considers the fate of such parties in core countries, first in Germany, where the center left has fared worse than Angela Merkel’s center right, and then in France, where center left and right have succumbed to the “critical center” of Emmanuel Macron. The chapter follows by considering the rise of populist parties across Europe, but in particular on the extremes of the right with France’s Marine Le Pen and Italy’s Matteo Salvini, on the extremes of the left with France’s Jean-Luc Mélenchon and Greece’s Alexis Tsipras, and in the “radical center” with Italy’s Beppe Grillo and his successor, Luigi di Maio.
Wireless Internationalism and Distant Listening
Authors: Potter Simon J.
Published: July 2020

During the 1920s and 1930s radio was transnational in its reach and appeal, attracting distant listeners and encouraging hopes that broadcasting would foster international understanding and world peace. As a new medium, radio broadcasting transmitted speech, music, news, and a range of exotic and authentic sounds across borders to reach audiences in other countries. In Europe radio was regulated through international consultation and cooperation to restrict interference between stations and to unleash the medium’s full potential to carry programmes to global audiences. A distinctive form of ‘wireless internationalism’ emerged, reflecting and reinforcing the broader internationalist movement and establishing structures and approaches which endured into the Second World War, the Cold War, and beyond. Distant listeners, meanwhile, used new technologies and skills to overcome unwanted noise, tune in as many stations as possible, and comprehend and enjoy what they heard. The BBC and other international broadcasters sought to produce tailor-made programmes for audiences overseas, encouraging feedback from listeners and using it to inform production decisions. The book revises our understanding of early British and global broadcasting, and of the BBC Empire Service (the precursor to today’s World Service), and shows how government influence shaped early BBC international broadcasting in English, Arabic, Spanish, and Portuguese. It also explores the wider European and global context, demonstrating how fascism in Italy and Germany, the Spanish Civil War, and the Japanese invasion of China, combined to overturn the utopianism of the 1920s and usher in a new era of wireless nationalism.
Washington’s Napkin
Authors: Meer Sarah
Published: July 2020

This chapter traces the origins of Nathaniel Hawthorne’s The Marble Faun to his abandoned claimant novel (‘The Ancestral Footstep’), and argues that the novel transfers the inheritance theme to its depiction of American artists in Rome. It suggests an undercurrent of competition in Hawthorne’s depiction of the sculptors, and conflicted feelings about Hiram Powers and William Wetmore Story, particularly their self-chosen exile: conflict expressed in terms of the Yankee type. In Rome, the transatlantic difference that is so often signalled in clothes settles on nudity in statuary, a particular anxiety for Hawthorne. Transatlantic relationships also become triangular, British and American writers bonding in Rome; William Wetmore Story aspires to address American slavery by portraying African figures in classical terms.
Sexual and Affectionate Love
Authors: Varden Helga
Published: July 2020

This chapter presents a Kant-based account of the challenges involved in realizing affectionately loving, sexual, and gendered lives in ways that are emotionally healthy and morally responsible. To this end, I introduce and make use of Kant’s accounts of the predisposition to good, the propensity to evil, the faculty of desire, truthfulness as our sacred moral duty, the highest good, vital forces, perfect and imperfect duties, characters (temperaments), and friendship. If we are genuinely committed to truthfulness, I argue, our faculty of desire—through its abstract conceptual, associative, and aesthetic-teleological powers—can enable us to develop our sexual, loving, gendered selves such that they are consistent with striving for the highest good understood as a union between happiness and morality, and between our natural and moral vital forces.
Kant on Sex. Reconsidered
Authors: Varden Helga
Published: July 2020

This chapter argues that in order to overcome the problems haunting Kant’s own account, we simply need to do what he should have done. We need to correctly incorporate Kant’s complex account of human nature and freedom into our theory of sex, love, and gender. Kant’s writings can show us a way to rethink sexual or gender identity and sexual orientation as capturing the various ways in which we subjectively (first-personally) experience our own embodied, sexual, and affectionate forcefulness—a basic way of feeling directed toward ourselves and others as embodied, social beings—that any good development of our sexual, affectionately loving, gendered selves must be attuned to. Additionally, once we unhook Kant’s analysis of our teleological and aesthetic employment of the imagination regarding sexuality from his unjustifiable binary assumptions, we can engage the richness of human sex, love, and gender in the necessary nuanced, respectful ways.
Kant on Sexual Violence and Oppression
Authors: Varden Helga
Published: July 2020

This chapter links Kant’s account of human nature to unruly sexual activity and to the consequences of sexual or gendered violence and oppression. I use the account to explore the temptation of engaging in sexual violence and oppression, the damage sexual wrongdoing can do, why and how we can heal from sexual violence, why there are historical patterns to sexual violence and oppression, and why, despite the fact that our sexually loving selves are unruly and have as possible corollaries the strongest of human emotions (passions), we are morally (ethically and legally) responsible for them. This chapter also shows how sexualized wrongdoing can be used as part of violent oppression and atrocities. Additionally, Kant’s accounts of barbarism and of formal and material wrongdoing enable us to describe how human beings can face conditions or situations in which there is no morally good way out, without abandoning Kant’s idea of absolute moral prohibitions.
Without the Corporate Entity?
Authors: Lustig Doreen
Published: July 2020

Chapter 5 analyses the possible influence of competing conceptions of the corporate structure of authority, its ethos, and popular perceptions as a possible explanation to the treatment of corporate officials in the industrialist trials. The chapter draws inspiration from Max Weber’s typology of legitimate authority and analyses how the bureaucratic features of the Farben enterprise, the association of the Krupp officials with the tradition of German militarism, and the persona of the charismatic Friedrich Flick all contributed to their ascriptions of legitimacy and scope of their recognized responsibility. Furthermore, it analyses how conceiving the structure of authority of the German companies primarily as monopolies or cartels served to delegitimize them and thus justify harsh legal measures against them. The chapter develops a critique on the decision not to engage with a rigorous analysis of corporate structures of authority in the Industrialist Trials as part of the legal reasoning required to establish the responsibility of corporate officials in international law.
Realism, Objectivity, and Evaluation
Authors: Clarke-Doane Justin
Published: July 2020

This chapter discusses “realist pluralism” in mathematics and morality. It argues that, under the assumption of pluralism, factual questions get deflated while practical -- i.e., what-to-do -- questions do not. It then uses this contrast to formulate a radicalization of Moore’s Open Question Argument. Practical questions remain open even when the facts, including the evaluative facts, come cheaply. The chapter concludes that practical realism must be false, but practical questions are objective in a paradigmatic respect. Conversely, mathematical realism is true, but mathematical questions fail to be objective. An important upshot of the discussion is that the concepts of realism and objectivity, which are widely identified, are actually in tension.
Species coexistence
Authors: Chesson Peter
Published: July 2020

In most places on Earth, many similar species are found coexisting. This key observation is often explained in terms of ecological differences in how species interact with their shared environment, that is, in terms of their niche differences. Niche differences can to lead to stable coexistence in contrast to the ecological drift predicted by the neutral theory of community ecology. Coexistence becomes stabilized as density feedback within species is strengthened relative to density feedback between species. Coexistence is reflective of two distinct niche comparisons, niche overlap, and species relative average fitness. In general, low niche overlap (dissimilarity in use of the environment) and similar average fitnesses (similar average performance) favor coexistence. For a unified theory of species coexistence, it is shown how the Lotka–Volterra competition model can reflect and quantify several types of niche comparison, including comparisons of resource use, susceptibility to natural enemies, and temporal variation in activity.
Introduction
Authors: Pettitt Clare
Published: July 2020

This introductory chapter suggests that the form of the serial is more pervasive in early nineteenth-century culture than has been recognized. Starting with the growing popularity of print serials, the introduction suggests the category of seriality can be applied beyond print and used more widely to think about an emergent political and social culture in London after the Napoleonic Wars. A survey of theoretical work on seriality from different subject areas is used to show that disciplinization has tended to obscure the extent and depth of the social and political effects of seriality. The introduction suggests that the idea of an ‘historical present’ is created by a growing daily news culture and an emergent popular interest in history which were vitally connected by their serial formats.
Psychological Blackout
Authors: Pong Beryl
Published: July 2020

Chapter 2 examines the fear of ‘civilians with shell shock’ that pervaded the interwar and early wartime years, through the imagery and metaphor of the blackout. It considers the divided subjectivities and temporalities featured in three novels: Patrick Hamilton’s Hangover Square (1941), Graham Greene’s The Ministry of Fear (1943), and Henry Green’s Caught (1943). Through memory loss or amnesia, these novels create recursive, discontinuous, or abortive narrative temporalities where the past, contrary to how it is portrayed in propaganda, creates problematic legacies for the wartime present. With a particular self-reflexivity about the role of literature and narrative, these novels address and critique how the ideology of the People’s War came to be told and represented.
China, the UN, and Human Protection
Authors: Foot Rosemary
Published: July 2020

Over a relatively short period of time, Beijing moved from passive involvement with the UN to active engagement. How are we to make sense of the People’s Republic of China’s (PRC) embrace of the UN, and what does its engagement mean in larger terms? Is it a ‘supporter’ that takes its fair share of responsibilities, or a ‘spoiler’ that seeks to transform the UN’s contribution to world order? Certainly, it is difficult to label it a ‘shirker’ in the last decade or more, given Beijing’s apparent appreciation of the UN, its provision of public goods to the organization, and its stated desire to offer ‘Chinese wisdom and a Chinese approach to solving the problems facing mankind’. This study traces questions such as these, interrogating the value of such categorization through direct focus on Beijing’s involvement in one of the most contentious areas of UN activity—human protection—contentious because the norm of human protection tips the balance away from the UN’s Westphalian state-based profile, towards the provision of greater protection for the security of individuals and their individual liberties. The argument that follows shows that, as an ever-more crucial actor within the United Nations, Beijing’s rhetoric and some of its practices are playing an increasingly important role in determining how this norm is articulated and interpreted. In some cases, the PRC is also influencing how these ideas of human protection are implemented. At stake in the questions this book tackles is both how we understand the PRC as a participant in shaping global order, and the future of some of the core norms that constitute global order.
Conclusion
Authors: Foot Rosemary
Published: July 2020

This chapter begins with a summary of the main findings deriving from the issue areas covered in this study. It also assesses the extent to which China’s growing power has been used in service of the firmer articulation of its ideological beliefs, together with an effort to reconstitute what it means to be a responsible great power in the global system. The chapter concludes that China’s own triadic model linking together developmentalism, the strong state, and social stability has established a place in the UN’s understanding of how human protection can best be obtained, leading to a potential diminution in the UN’s attachment to and association with its three-pillar structure of development, peace and security, and human rights as the best guarantees of the wellbeing of humankind. China is found to be a conservative actor, working to restrict the human protection focus of the UN Security Council, and to weaken the emphasis on civil and political rights as major sources of protection. The Chinese leadership’s preference is for the UN to reinforce its position as an inter-state governance mechanism where national authorities decide on priorities, and international actors are enablers of the government in power. However, the UN’s resilience in liberal normative areas and resistance to change should also not be overlooked, and remain capable of constraining China’s ability to shape new understandings of human protection. This is especially so where the different constituencies working within the UN remain attentive to the opportunities that its design, membership, and embedded procedures have provided it.
Nutricula causidicorum
Authors: Dolganov Anna
Published: July 2020

The Roman imperial system of law, courts and jurisdiction was a sphere in which the Roman empire exercised a profound impact on the society and culture of its provinces. In Roman Africa, law and courts were central to what it meant to be and become ‘Roman’. This was the case both in the sense of adopting Roman legal forms and institutions, and also in the sense of adopting a Roman model of elite education, where training in forensic rhetoric and pleading in the courts was instrumental for the making of successful careers in politics and administration. This chapter examines the development and professionalization of legal and forensic activity in Roman Africa, from the establishment of the Principate to the age of Augustine (c.31 BCE–435 CE). Key topics that are addressed include: career structures, the typology and social profile of ‘lawyers’ (advocates, legal consultants, assessors, judges, notaries), the place of law in the rhetorical curriculum, profession and professionalization as analytical categories.
Poetry, Publishing, and Visual Culture from Late Modernism to the Twenty-first Century
Authors: Pollard Natalie
Published: July 2020

This book examines why it is important to appreciate cultural artefacts such as poems, sculptures, and buildings not as static, perfected objects, but as meshworks of entangled, mutable, and trans-personal forces. Offering six such case studies across the long twentieth century, the book focuses on how poetic works activate closer appreciation of literature’s hybridity. The book analyses how such texts are collaborative, emergent, and between-categories, and shows why this matters. It focuses, first, on how printed poetry is often produced collaboratively, in dialogue with the visual and plastic arts; and second, how it comes about through entangled and emergent agencies. Both have been overlooked in contemporary scholarship. Although this proposal makes some trouble for established disciplinary modes of reception and literary classification, for this reason, it also paves the way for new critical responses. Chiefly, Fugitive Pieces encourages the development of modes of literary critical engagement which acknowledge their uncertainty, vulnerability, and provisionality. Such reading involves encountering poems as co-constituted through materials that have frequently been treated as extra-literary, and in some cases extra-human. Focusing on works by Djuna Barnes, David Jones, F.T. Prince, Ted Hughes, Denise Riley, and Paul Muldoon, Fugitive Pieces fosters closer attention to how literary works operate beyond the boundaries of artistic categorization and agency. It examines the politics of disciplinary criticism, and the tensions between anthropocentric understandings of value and intra-agential collaborative practices. Its purpose is to stimulate much-needed analysis of printed works as combinatorial and hybrid, passing between published versions and artforms, persons and practices.
Lunatic Forms
Authors: Pollard Natalie
Published: July 2020

Chapter 1 examines derivation and re-animation in Djuna Barnes’s early-twentieth-century lyric novel, Nightwood, focusing on redeployed aesthetic figures: the sleepwalker, the unstoppable narrator, the animate statue. It shows how Barnes’s resurrection of character types is informed by the genre-fusing innovations of the commedia dell’arte. It reads Barnes in dialogue with both Laforgue’s and Verlaine’s development of the Pierrot-figure, and the sad and ominous clowns in grotesque theatre, which inform Chaplin’s Tramp and Beckett’s clowns, as well as Barnes’s characterization of the ‘doctor’. Does Nightwood cast its characters in stone, locking them into old, ritualized narrative strategies? Or are these types themselves on the move; re-animating generations of performances and forms, from Shakespeare’s bawdy, to Rabelais’s carnivalesque, to Aphra Behn’s moon-philosopher, Doctor Balierdo?
Rational Choosers
Authors: Weale Albert
Published: July 2020

From some points of view, Harsanyi stands apart from other theorists discussed in this book. He was a utilitarian, and he focuses on the hypothetical choices of a single individual. Nevertheless, his construction has been influential, and he has good claim to be the founder of the device of the veil of ignorance. He uses the orthodox utility theory of rationality to show that behind a veil of ignorance in which a hypothetical individual had an equal chance of being anyone in society, rationality would lead to that person adopting the principle of maximizing average utility. Utilitarianism can be represented as the maximizing choice of a rational individual behind the veil of ignorance. A central element in Harsanyi’s construction is the idea of ethical individualism, which he holds is captured in an axiom of independence defining the rationality of choice. He also revives the idea of the interpersonal comparability of utility. His reliance on interpersonal comparisons is a potential point of criticism, as is the argument that, strictly speaking, he has not shown that utilitarianism is required, as distinct from merely being consistent with, his principles of rational choice. A more fundamental criticism is that the phenomenon of preference reversals, well established in empirical literature, call into question the independence axiom. Preference reversals are intelligible. In relation to some cases, they suggest too an important distinction between rational choice and prudent choice.
Social Contract as Domination
Authors: Weale Albert
Published: July 2020

Social contract theory aimed to provide the philosophical vindication of a democratic, just, and liberal society that utilitarianism had aspired to. However, one important strand of normative criticism is that, in effect, contract theory underwrites domination rather than emancipation, in respect of race and gender. A proper understanding of contract theory can admit that, in empirical terms, contracts can be partial rather than general, underwriting the domination of particular social groups. However, insofar as the argument relies upon a distinction between empirical and normative contracts, it relied upon assumptions that are auxiliary to the core of contract theory. The argument from the sexual contract is more radical, not least because it claims that the effect of contract theory is to distort a truthful understanding of human relations. However, it has to assume that the contract theorist is committed to libertarianism and it neglects the extent to which domination has to be sustained by force rather than the free assent that contract theory requires.
Washing Linens
Authors: North Susan
Published: July 2020

Laundry was the process by which the hygienic function of linen—as required by propriety and medicine—was regularly renewed. Chapter 9 surveys the process of washing linens (washing, bucking, drying, starching, ironing) and the tools and resources it required (water, boilers, soap, irons, clothes lines, etc). Inventories reveal which tools and materials for laundry early modern English people owned and in what spaces this work was done. Household accounts document the necessary consumables (soap and starch), how frequently and in what quantities these were purchased, and what these patterns tell us about laundry.
Sweet and Clean
Authors: North Susan
Published: July 2020

Chapter 12 draws together the evidence from the preceding ten chapters to reassess theories and practices of cleanliness in early modern England. Those with servants had both clean laundry and the necessary materials for washing or bathing regularly provided. But all of these cost money and not everyone could afford them, so one’s ability to be clean was defined by class. Cleanliness of bodies and clothes is examined through the perspective of disease, in particular typhus. Its aetiology demonstrates that it can be prevented by the regular changing and washing of underwear. Its occurrence in early modern England indicates the degree to which everyone kept their linens clean and how widely medical theories about linen and contagion might have been understood. What kept bodies and clothes clean were the habits established in infancy and propriety’s insistence on these standards.
Introduction
Authors: Cornell Agnes , Møller Jørgen , Skaaning Svend-Erik
Published: July 2020

Against the backdrop of the economic crisis that began in 2008 and the rise of populist parties, a new body of research has used interwar political developments to warn that even long-established Western democracies are fragile. We challenge this interwar analogy based on the fact that a relatively large number of interwar democracies were able to survive the recurrent crises of the 1920s and 1930s. The main aim of this book is to understand the striking resilience of these democracies, and how they differed from the many democracies that broke down in the same period. Previous theoretical accounts, which can be divided into structuralist, elitist, associational, and performance-based perspectives, do not adequately explain this variation. We advance an explanation that nests an associational perspective in a structuralist perspective. The model centres on democratic legacies and strong associational landscapes (i.e. vibrant civil societies and party institutionalization). These factors are rooted in a set of structural conditions associated with socio-economic development and state- and nation-building processes. Our empirical strategy consists of a combination of systematic comparisons of all interwar democratic spells and in-depth case-studies.
Demobilization vs. Mobilization
Authors: Tasić Dmitar
Published: July 2020

Chapter II deals with immediate post-war situation in countries that are a focus of the study and the repercussions of their newly acquired status of either vanquished or victorious. It shows how in practical terms most of the Balkan paramilitaries didn’t step out from the war but remain ‘mobilized’ for future engagement. While Serbian chetniks were the first summoned to answer to numerous security challenges, komitajis of the IMRO and Albanian kachaks led by the Kosovo Committee didn’t want to accept new order and new realities so visible in creation of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes and the fact that Macedonia and Kosovo and Metohija became integral part of new South Slav state. While old actors and organizations continued their struggle, new one appeared as well, such as Military or Officers League—secret organizations of Bulgarian officers who were discharged from active duty after Bulgaria as other defeated countries had to drastically reduce its armed forces and abolish conscription. As others they refused to accept new realities and were ready to work in favour of revision of existing order. Balkans also witnessed arrival of thousands of Russian emigrants as well as their former adversaries who fought on the side of the Bolsheviks. Both groups were ready to continue the struggle and immediately upon arrival they started either creating their own paramilitary structures—like communists—either wanted to preserve existing military organizations—like ‘White’ Russians.
Ethical Concepts and Problems
Authors: Løgstrup K. E. , Fink Hans
Published: July 2020

This book concerns the nature of ethics and the relation between ethics and politics in the philosophy of Danish philosopher and theologian K. E. Løgstrup. In the book, Løgstrup argues that apart from deontology and teleology, there is a third main tradition within philosophical ethics, which he calls ontological ethics. According to Løgstrup, ontological ethics is rooted in the fundamental conditions of human life and is closely related to Martin Luther’s natural law ethics. Løgstrup sees the fundamental ethical relationship between humans as one of interdependence based on mutual vulnerability. In this respect, Løgstrup is reprising ideas from his earlier work The Ethical Demand (1956), where he introduced his ethical position. In the present book, Løgstrup connects his understanding of the ethical demand with his new key ethical conception of sovereign expressions of life, a concept he introduced a few years earlier in his 1968 Controverting Kierkegaard, but did not then discuss in relation to the ethical demand. Finally, Løgstrup also ventures into the area of political philosophy, discussing how it is possible to connect his own ontological ethics to politics.
Choice, Decision, and Resolution
Authors: Løgstrup K. E. , van Kooten Niekerk Kees , Lykke Cobos Kristian-Alberto , Fink Hans , Rabjerg Bjørn , Stern Robert
Published: July 2020

This very short chapter distinguishes between the three closely related concepts choice, decision, and resolution. In choices, we are the masters of the situation and are able to choose as we prefer. In the decision situation there is no possibility for indifference; whatever we do or refrain from doing alters our life. Finally, resolution differs from choice in that it requires deliberation, where a choice can be made in an instant.
The Annals of Æthelred and the Early Years of Cnut
Authors: Stafford Pauline
Published: July 2020

This chapter considers the group of annals now found in Chronicles C, D, and E covering the reign of Æthelred II and the early years of the Danish conqueror Cnut. It discusses the identity of this group and their transmission, arguing for D and E’s close connections. The focus is on Danish invasions, but there is unusual attention to archbishops. On the basis of some annals in D, it argues, again, that D’s predecessor was in the hands of Archbishop Wulfstan II, and that these annals were thus already attached to his copy of the Northern Recension by the early 1020s. This group of annals is, it is argued, a passionate, partisan, and powerful retrospective story. It was self-consciously within the tradition begun at Alfred’s court; but in those chronicles where it is found it altered the story of the chronicle produced there.
Chronicle F and Canterbury Post-1066
Authors: Stafford Pauline
Published: July 2020

This chapter considers the range of work on Anglo-Saxon vernacular chronicles at Canterbury after the Norman Conquest, including additions to Chronicles A and B, and the making of the bilingual Latin and Old English Chronicle F. The scribe of Chronicle F and his monastic house, Christ Church, connected to Canterbury’s archbishops, emerge as major players. The range, which included contact with Chronicle D, the use of Chronicle /E, and the making of a brief Chronicle I, suggests a conscious engagement with the tradition of vernacular chronicle writing and an awareness of what united it. The voice of F is more overtly monastic, with Christ Church history incorporated into the story. The bilingual F, including new Latin annals, some on Norman history, in both F and /E, addressed a new mixed audience and the new situation the Conquest had created. Additions on popes and their relations with archbishops address wider European changes.
Hugo Grotius and the God of International Society
Authors: Bain William
Published: July 2020

This chapter presents Hugo Grotius as a theorist of immanent order. Uncovering the theological presuppositions of Grotius’s thought suggests that the claims of the ‘Grotian tradition’ of international society are substantially incorrect. Grotius is neither the far-sighted jurist nor the pioneer of modernity that he is typically made out to be. Investigating his conception of God as both rational and free informs a hierarchical and interconnected pattern of order that is luminous to reason, consistent with the theory of immanent order. The chapter argues that, despite being credited with secularizing natural law, Grotius’s thinking about law and rights is accommodated within God’s rational plan of the universe. This leads to two further claims. First, Grotius’s thought is less modern and less secular than it is typically portrayed by theorists of international order. Second, his thought exemplifies one of two poles (the other is represented by Hobbes) between which modern theories of international order oscillate. However, the theory of immanent of order survives mainly as a rhetoric that is set against what is done in the name of will and artifice.
Political Theology I
Authors: Bain William
Published: July 2020

This chapter argues that the idea of a system of states exemplifies the theory of imposed order. The chapter begins by exploring the relation between theology and early modern mechanical philosophy. Comparing the operation of political systems to the operation of impersonal machines commonly rested on a parallel between the creative activity of human beings and the creative activity of God. This parallel retains the structure of a theological mode of argument, although God plays no direct role in explaining how such a system produces and maintains order. The structure of this mode of argument is present in prominent accounts of anarchy and the balance of power and it is reflected in analogies and metaphors that are invoked to explain how a system of states works. The chapter illustrates the logical efficacy of this argument in the context of Kenneth Waltz’s structural realism. Waltz translates the nominalist mental universe of singular existents, radical contingency, and a system of external relations into a states system composed of atomistic units, uncertainty born of abiding insecurity, and a pattern of order that springs from self-help. When this theological ground is uncovered it is possible to imagine a states system theorized in terms of anarchy and balance of power as the political analogue of the theological problem of reconciling God’s freedom with the regular order of nature.
Military Conditioning and Moral Damage
Authors: Dobos Ned
Published: July 2020

Wherever there is a military establishment, men and women must be recruited into it and conditioned to be effective war-fighters. Whether or not they are ever deployed, there is a respect in which this conditioning is morally damaging to those involved. Combat training is geared towards making soldiers more comfortable with killing, so that they can do it repeatedly and efficiently in battle, without thinking too much or feeling too deeply. One of its aims is to enable recruits to use lethal violence without suffering emotional distress. But a morally decent person would experience distress in these circumstances. The upshot is that military conditioning is (or tries to be) morally damaging, or corrosive of virtue. It is morally injurious not by accident, but by design.
Martial Values in Civilian Life
Authors: Dobos Ned
Published: July 2020

Wherever there is a professional military organization, certain values must be cultivated in and celebrated by it, in order for it to effectively deploy organized violence on behalf of the state. But when these values penetrate into civilian society—as they almost invariably do—there can be pernicious results. This chapter takes a sample of three civilian domains—law enforcement, business, and education—and draws attention to some of the adverse consequences that their cultural ‘militarization’ has had. This analysis suggests that when the values, ideals, and assumptions of the armed forces encroach into, and take root in, civilian institutions, the proper functioning (or telos) of those institutions can be compromised.
Case Study
Authors: Leigland James
Published: July 2020

This chapter presents a case study of a recent water public–private partnership (PPP) in Rwanda, which has many of the hybrid features discussed in earlier chapters, including the use of blended finance. But the extensive use of blended finance needed to make this PPP commercially viable raises questions about how that blended finance was justified. How much subsidy in support of private finance is too much? Is it possible that a project like this may exceed a threshold beyond which it would be less expensive and more sustainable if implemented as a public project supported by concessional lending, rather than as a PPP with a relatively small measure of private finance (but all the costs and complexities that come with PPPs)? Are there more traditional contracting mechanisms that might work better than PPPs? Countries like India are experimenting with such alternatives to PPPs for less commercial projects in poorer regions.
Conclusions
Authors: Leigland James
Published: July 2020

For reasons discussed in preceding chapters, public–private partnerships (PPPs) are unlikely to have major positive impacts on achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) or on the provision of transformational regional infrastructure, as envisioned by the G20. PPPs will continue to play modest but still important roles in the cost-effective provision of infrastructure service in many developing countries, as long as they are well structured, appropriately supported, and carefully monitored and evaluated. But PPPs made sustainable with large measures of concessional finance will do a disservice in the developing world if they distract from the fact that the fundamental causes of poor infrastructure service delivery in developing countries have very little to do with the availability of private investment. Those causes involve things like government policies, institutions, technical capacity, as well as the political economy realities of these countries and their relationships with development partners
The Last Testament of the ICTY
Authors: Agius Carmel
Published: July 2020

This chapter presents reflections of Judge Agius, the last president of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), on the experiences of the tribunal and its legacies. It discusses the emergence and unique nature of the tribunal, including its impact on other international criminal institutions. This contribution discusses the specific areas of legacy of the Tribunal, the role of different agents (judges, prosecutors, defence counsels, legal officers, and staff) and the ICTY’s larger contribution to a new era of accountability. The chapter weighs the successes and challenges of the ICTY, such as bringing perpetrators of sexual violence during conflict to justice; the protection of witnesses and victims before the ICTY; the importance of Outreach; and gender parity inside the Tribunal work. The chapter argues that the ICTY overall legacy is positive. However, much remains to be done, within and beyond the IRMCT, to encourage cooperation and genuine investigations and prosecutions at the domestic level.