bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Introduction: The Powers of Association
Authors: Fullwiley Duana
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores prevailing attitudes in Senegal about sickle cell anemia and its biomedical and political stewards. It also looks at how the Senegalese have had to perform the discursive double duty of protesting public neglect and political apathy with regard to the disease, while promoting a self-based conception of vitality for those who have the capacity to “live well” with it. Their frustration that Senegal's health ministry, and larger government, has long ignored sickle cell as a public health problem, is articulated alongside their own strength and will to live “normally.” This chapter takes a closer look at this configuration of crisis and subsequent contrary affirmation of an intuited, lived (but not yet officially sanctioned) description of the nature of things.
Healthy Sicklers with “Mild” Disease: Local Illness Affects and Population-Level Effects
Authors: Fullwiley Duana
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on how “sicklers” with varied economic situations and philosophical stances have succeeded in transforming their disease states into “health” statuses through a range of normalization techniques. As discussed in the previous chapter, clinicians and geneticists in Francophone sickle cell circles have adopted an optic of seeing African sicklers in terms of population groups that exhibit differences in disease expression. However, a key slippage occurs when scientists observe biological “outcomes” and assume, as a first response, that these should be attributed to distinct genetic sequences, which those same populations possess at different frequencies. This chapter thus examines how such scientific methods and assumptions may miss complex congeries of behaviors and relationships that influence people's disease experiences and biological expressions of sickle cell anemia.
Explaining Regulatory Policy Divergence
Authors: Vogel David
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores several alternative explanations for the divergence in transatlantic risk regulation, and discusses the policy shifts that have taken place on both sides of the Atlantic since around 1990. The United States and the fifteen member states of the EU are affluent democracies with sophisticated public bureaucracies, substantial scientific capacities, and strong civic cultures. Their regulatory officials have access to much of the same scientific expertise and there is extensive communication among policy makers, scientists, business managers, nongovernment organizations, and citizens. The chapter shows how divergent risk regulations between the United States and the EU add to the costs of transatlantic commerce and also raise the costs of international trade as some countries adopt European standards and others adopt American ones.
Air Pollution
Authors: Vogel David
Published: November 2017

This chapter compares regulations that address the risks of air pollution—one of the most critical dimensions of environmental regulation. It specifically examines the policies in the United States and Europe and their decisions toward the health and environmental risks of mobile (vehicular) source pollutants, ozone-depleting chemicals, and global climate change. The politics of global climate change reveals a very divergent pattern. In this case, the preferences of American policy makers were more polarized than in Europe. American public policies toward the risks of global climate change have been significantly affected by partisan differences, which increased substantially during the 1990s. By contrast, European policies toward global climate change have been much less affected by differences in the political preferences of center-left and center-right policy makers.
Consumer Safety
Authors: Vogel David
Published: November 2017

This chapter analyzes European and American policies toward a range of consumer safety risks; including drugs, children's products, and cosmetics. It shows how European and American risk regulations have converged, though the dynamics through which this occurred differed substantially. Pharmaceutical regulation constitutes the most important exception to the broader pattern of increased transatlantic regulatory policy divergence. What makes this area of regulatory policy distinctive is that its political salience increased in the United States but not in Europe. Pharmaceutical regulation also represents an important exception to the dominant pattern of transatlantic regulatory policy diffusion. In this case, European regulatory policies did affect those of the United States, first by highlighting the transatlantic drug lag, and more recently by American decisions to adopt some European practices to expedite drug approvals.
The Law and Politics of Risk Assessment
Authors: Vogel David
Published: November 2017

This chapter describes how and explains why American regulatory policies have moved away from and European policies moved toward a precautionary approach to assessing and managing risks. It begins by documenting the precautionary basis of many of the risk regulations adopted by the United States, primarily before 1990, providing further evidence that there is nothing distinctively “European” about a precautionary approach to risk regulation. It then turns to the increasingly important role of regulatory impact analyses in the United States, which include both scientific risk assessments and cost–benefit analyses. The United States also experienced an influential backlash that questioned the rationale behind many of the highly risk-averse regulations it had previously adopted, claiming that many were false positive policy errors.
Decolonization and Migration
Authors: Mandel Maud S.
Published: November 2017

This chapter builds on the link between French colonial policies and Muslim–Jewish relations in the metropole by tracing how decolonization throughout North Africa changed the way a diverse set of social actors, including French colonial administrators, international Jewish spokesmen, and a wide range of indigenous nationalist groups conceptualized Jewish belonging throughout the region. It argues that the process led to the emergence of the “North African Jew,” a category to which no individual ascribed but that worked rhetorically to unite the diverse Moroccan, Tunisian, and Algerian Jewish populations into a collective often understood to be in conflict with “North Africans,” “Muslims,” or “Arabs.”
Particularism versus Pluriculturalism
Authors: Mandel Maud S.
Published: November 2017

This chapter traces the rise and fall of a Muslim–Jewish alliance to fight racism in 1980s France. It argues that the widespread excitement over the joint anti-racist campaign in the mid-1980s overlooked ongoing tensions between “particularistic” and “pluricultural” approaches to ethno-religious participation in the French state. Divisions over the Palestinian–Israeli conflict both prior to and during the 1991 Gulf War made these tensions evident as, once again, debates over the Middle East became a means of making sense of politics at home. Although calls for joint anti-racist campaigns never disappeared, by the end of the 1980s, those who articulated such appeals had backed away from a “pluricultural” model. While Muslims and Jews should work together, they argued, their perspectives and goals were necessarily divergent.
From Neighborhoods to Nations
Authors: Ioannides Yannis M.
Published: November 2017

Just as we learn from, influence, and are influenced by others, our social interactions drive economic growth in cities, regions, and nations—determining where households live, how children learn, and what cities and firms produce. This book synthesizes the recent economics of social interactions for anyone seeking to understand the contributions of this important area. Integrating theory and empirics, the book explores theoretical and empirical tools that economists use to investigate social interactions, and shows how a familiarity with these tools is essential for interpreting findings. It makes work in the economics of social interactions accessible to other social scientists, including sociologists, political scientists, and urban planning and policy researchers. Focusing on individual and household location decisions in the presence of interactions, the book shows how research on cities and neighborhoods can explain community composition and spatial form, as well as changes in productivity, industrial specialization, urban expansion, and national growth. It examines how researchers address the challenge of separating personal, social, and cultural forces from economic ones. It provides a toolkit for the next generation of inquiry, and argues that quantifying the impact of social interactions in specific contexts is essential for grasping their scope and use in informing policy. Revealing how empirical work on social interactions enriches our understanding of cities as engines of innovation and economic growth, the book carries ramifications throughout the social sciences and beyond.
Social Interactions
Authors: Ioannides Yannis M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the theory and empirics of social interactions, with particular emphasis on the role of social context in individual decisions. It begins by introducing a sequence of models that highlight applications in different empirical social interaction settings, including a simple static model that is used to link social interactions theory with social networks theory, notably random graph theory. A dynamic model, where the social structure accommodates a variety of social interaction motives, is then described and solved as a dynamic system of evolving individual actions. The solution links social interactions theory with spatial econometrics. The chapter examines the econometrics of social interactions in social networks and social learning in urban settings before concluding with a review of the literature on social interactions in economics.
Location Decisions of Individuals and Social Interactions
Authors: Ioannides Yannis M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the location decisions of individuals, with particular emphasis on neighborhood effects in housing markets and how they relate to the role of prices in rationing admission to communities and neighborhoods in market economies. It begins by introducing models of individual location decisions that rely on the characteristics approach in the presence of contextual effects and use individual dwelling units as the object of choice. It then presents examples of sorting models that allow for choice of neighborhood with endogenous contextual effects, followed by a discussion of models and associated empirical results for neighborhood choice and housing as a joint decision that allow for social effects. It also describes models of location decisions, proposed by Thomas Schelling, that take into account the influence of racial preferences and neighbors' reactions. Finally, it looks at hierarchical models of community choice with social interactions.
Intercity Trade and Long-Run Urban Growth
Authors: Ioannides Yannis M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the link between intercity trade and long-run urban growth. It begins by introducing a Ventura-type model of the growth of isolated cities that allows for investment in physical capital and in urban transportation as ways to increase urban productive capacity. It then considers a sample of growth empirics for the United States, European, and Brazilian systems of cities with an emphasis on transportation improvements and factor accumulation. It also describes a model of economic growth in a system of cities that leads to a precise description of the law of motion in dynamic settings of either autarkic cities or specialized cities engaged in intercity trade. Finally, it explores the interrelationships between economic integration, urban specialization, and growth; the Rossi-Hansberg–Wright model of urban structure and its evolution; empirical aspects of urban structure and long-run urban growth; and sequential urban growth and decay.
Family Values
Authors: Brighouse Harry , Swift Adam
Published: November 2017

The family is hotly contested ideological terrain. Some defend the traditional two-parent heterosexual family while others welcome its demise. Opinions vary about how much control parents should have over their children's upbringing. This book provides a major new theoretical account of the morality and politics of the family, telling us why the family is valuable, who has the right to parent, and what rights parents should—and should not—have over their children. The book argues that parent–child relationships produce the “familial relationship goods” that people need to flourish. Children's healthy development depends on intimate relationships with authoritative adults, while the distinctive joys and challenges of parenting are part of a fulfilling life for adults. Yet the relationships that make these goods possible have little to do with biology, and do not require the extensive rights that parents currently enjoy. Challenging some of our most commonly held beliefs about the family, the book explains why a child's interest in autonomy severely limits parents' right to shape their children's values, and why parents have no fundamental right to confer wealth or advantage on their children. The book reaffirms the vital importance of the family as a social institution while challenging its role in the reproduction of social inequality and carefully balancing the interests of parents and children.
Equality and the Family
Authors: Brighouse Harry , Swift Adam
Published: November 2017

This chapter sets out the various kinds of conflict between the value of equality and the value of those parent–child relationships that constitute the family. It offers two reasons not to pursue fair equality of opportunity all the way. On the one hand, we must be prepared for children of similar talent and ability raised by different parents to enjoy somewhat unfairly unequal prospects of achieving the rewards attached to different jobs, since the alternative would cost too much in terms of familial relationship goods. On the other hand, some unfairness in the distribution of those prospects could be beneficial for those who have unfairly less. In both cases, then, there are conflicts between fair equality of opportunity and other values.
Conferring Advantage
Authors: Brighouse Harry , Swift Adam
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers familial relationships as obstacles to the realization of egalitarian ideals. It has been argued that the conflict between the family and equality is in fact much less stark than is commonly recognized. Parents and children can enjoy healthy familial relationships, and parents can exercise all the rights needed for those relationships to make their distinctive contribution to well-being, without our having to tolerate anything like the kinds of inequalities of opportunity to which familial interactions currently give rise. This argument, however, still has family values on one side of the line and distributive considerations on the other. The chapter suggests the former be incorporated into the latter, as it were, by treating familial relationship goods as distribuenda: that is, as among the goods that people should have opportunities, perhaps equal opportunities, for.
Muslims in India and China
Authors: van der Veer Peter
Published: November 2017

This chapter scrutinizes some of the elements of the “minoritization” of Muslims in India and China. Indian Muslims have a history that gives them a centrality in processes of state formation in India, as exemplified by the Mughal Empire, but also by the postcolonial formation of Pakistan and Bangladesh, which cannot be found in the history of Chinese Muslims. In the comparison between India and China, the chapter highlights that despite the differences in numerical strength it is the transformation of Muslims from a variety of different groups into a “minority” that in both cases require scrutiny in relation to the construction of a national majority.
The Challenge to the Unitary Individual in Western Thought
Authors: Saint-Paul Gilles
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores the strands of thought challenging the hypothesis of a rational unitary individual. One prominent critic was Friedrich Nietzsche. For Nietszche, the individual's attempt to develop a consistent self and to make sense of and conceptualize objective reality is a miserable lie that is socially constructed by weaker individuals in order to rationalize their lack of vitality. Accordingly, the human ideal proposed by Nietzsche rejects self-consciousness which is another illusory property of the language; therefore, there is no sense in which he would be unitary or even care about optimizing his behavior according to consistent preferences. He is some kind of beast (the “blonde beast”) who gives in to his instincts and the immediate stimuli of his environment. Ultimately, Nietzsche's thought had numerous influences, most notably on Freudianism and the late twentieth century's Postmodernists.
The Policy Prescriptions of Behavioral Economics
Authors: Saint-Paul Gilles
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the policy prescriptions that arise from the research in behavioral economics. A frequent prescription, in various contexts, is to restrict people's choice set—which falls in the category of strong paternalism. The most compelling case for paternalistic intervention is that of higher taxes for addictive goods, or the so-called sin taxes. Such a tax reduces the current consumption of an addictive good by time-inconsistent consumers; this, in turn, reduces consumption of the good by consumers' future incarnations. Moreover, rivalry should be priced by using Pigovian taxation. The chapter then looks at the mildest form of manipulation—libertarian paternalism—which occurs whenever the government, having decided which outcome is “good” for the people, fools them into making the “right” decision, not by restricting their choices but by framing their choice problem so as to favor the preferred outcome.
The Role of Science
Authors: Saint-Paul Gilles
Published: November 2017

This chapter describes the social sciences. Unlike the natural sciences, the social sciences are inevitably statistical. When documenting human behavior, for example, they can at most claim that a trait is present in a certain fraction of the population. However, the social engineer of the paternalistic state must take into account that the “science of happiness” that is being implemented does not apply uniformly to all individuals. A policy that benefits some by preventing mistakes or removing their biases harms those who are immune to these issues. This difficulty, however, entirely disappears as long as the state is utilitarian or, more generally, pursues any objective that aggregates welfare between individuals, for the statistics are the only thing the utilitarian needs to know. Once the population distribution of the relevant effects and mechanisms is known, the social planner can safely use it to balance gains and losses across incarnations and perform the cost-benefit analysis of its policies.
The ˋNdrangheta in Piedmont and Veneto
Authors: Varese Federico
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on the 'Ndrangheta, a loose confederation of mafia families, most of which (eighty-six) operate in the province of Reggio Calabria in southern Calabria. This mafia has systematically forced local entrepreneurs to pay protection money, corrupted officials, and penetrated politics. Politicians have been threatened, wounded, and killed, while bosses have successfully stood in local elections. In the 1990s, the Italian government disbanded eighteen city councils due to the 'Ndrangheta's ability to pervert local electoral processes. In 2007, killers from San Luca, this mafia's stronghold, murdered six people outside an Italian restaurant in Duisburg, in northwestern Germany, bringing the ruthless nature and international reach of the organization home to the European public.
Evolution of Flowers, Pollination, and Plant Diversity
Authors: Willmer Pat
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the evolution of flowers, pollination, and plant diversity. There is good evidence for pollinator-mediated selection and appropriate trait heritability in flowers, and there are well-established mechanisms by which this could bring about floral change, reproductive isolation, and evolutionary divergence or specialization. The chapter first considers the origin and early evolution of flowers before discussing the diversification of angiosperms. It then explores the advantages of animal pollination and goes on to discuss the extent to which pollination may have contributed to floral variation, plant speciation, and plant diversification. In particular, it explains whether pollinators select for floral divergence and describes five ways in which floral divergence could arise by selection: adaptation to distinct niches, character displacement, adaptive “wandering,” character correlations, and genetic drift.
Advertisements 1: Visual Signals and Floral Color
Authors: Willmer Pat
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines how color interacts with the other visual signals from floral size, shape, and outline in enhancing floral attraction to visitors. Visual attraction by flowers is linked to floral shape and size. For most pollinators, color and color patterns are attractive. Most of today’s key pollinating taxa have good color vision, and flowers should have been selected to interact with their visitors’ visual abilities. The chapter first considers floral pigments and floral color before discussing the problems of defining and measuring color in flowers. It then explains how animals perceive flower color and proceeds by analyzing color preferences in animals, along with the ecology and evolution of flower color and color preferences. It also explores nectar guides, how floral color change can control pollinators, and other visual cues used for advertisement. Finally, it asks why flower colors diverge, citing the role of selection.
Advertisements 2: Olfactory Signals
Authors: Willmer Pat
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines how flowers use olfactory signals to attract pollinators. Floral scents mostly result from the production of small amounts of simple volatile organic compounds. The molecular size of these components largely determines their volatility, and hence the distance they will travel from the plant over a given time span. Plant volatiles emitted as scents are typically lipophilic compounds, all of which are able to cross biological membranes and evaporate into the atmosphere readily. The chapter frst describes different types of floral scents before discussing the techniques used in the collection and measurement scents. It then considers variation in floral scents, along with the discrimination and detection ranges of floral odors. It also explains the importance of odor learning to visitors’ ability to discriminate and to maintaining reproductive isolation for the plant. Finally, it provides an overview of interactions of scents with other floral signals used for advertisement.
Wind and Water: Abiotic Pollination
Authors: Willmer Pat
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines abiotic pollination via wind or water. It begins with a discussion of wind pollination or anemophily, which is a common occurrence in modern plants, especially in most gymnosperms, in the catkin-bearing angiosperm trees, and in cereals (Poaceae and Cyperaceae). Anemophily is predominantly a derived condition in angiosperms, associated with ecological conditions where zoophily is difficult. Transition from zoophily to anemophily has occurred at least sixty-five times in such circumstances. The chapter looks at wind-pollinated angiosperm and conifer flowers and goes on to consider critical factors affecting pollen movement in anemophilous plants. It concludes with an overview of hydrophily, or water pollination.
Living with Other Flowers: Competition and Pollination Ecology
Authors: Willmer Pat
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines competition in the context of pollination ecology. Competition is typically treated from the perspective of the plants, but it is also likely to occur among and between the pollinators. Furthermore, competition can occur at various levels—as a structuring factor in communities, as a selective force on an individual plant’s phenology, morphology, or rewards, and at a genetic level structuring competition for pollens between males, and female choice between possible mates. The chapter first considers several types of of competition in pollination ecology, potential outcomes of competition, and competition between pollinators before discussing how selection reduces intraspecific competition among plants and competition among pollinators. It also explores paternity, maternity, and gene flow in coflowering communities, focusing in particular on male competition and female choice, along with gene flow via pollen dispersal and seed dispersal.
The Global Pollination Crisis
Authors: Willmer Pat
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on the global pollination crisis. For nearly three decades now there has been evidence of declines in pollinators worldwide, and the problems were explicitly recognized in the United Nations Sao Paulo declaration (1998–1999). However, the ecosystem-level effects of this pollinator decline remain unclear. Therefore long-term data collections are needed to track the changes and to understand their underlying causes with a view to finding sustainable solutions. This chapter examines the needs for assessment of pollinator declines, along with some of the key threats to pollinators and to pollination services including: habitat degradation and destruction; habitat fragmentation; intensive agriculture; increasing prevalence of fires in areas where human impacts are substantial; introduced animal species and pollinators; invasive plant species and changing floras; diseases and other natural threats to key pollinators; and climate change.
Suggested Homework
Authors: Eshel Gidon
Published: November 2017

This chapter presents some homework exercises on the topics discussed in chapters 3–8, along with their corresponding solutions. It also provides a suggested midterm exam and a final exam.
Evolutionary Branching in a Classical Model for Sympatric Speciation
Authors: Doebeli Michael
Published: November 2017

This chapter begins by considering the Maynard Smith model. Much of this work concentrated on the genetic mechanisms for assortative mating and reproductive isolation, based on the assumption that the underlying niche ecology would generate disruptive selection. However, understanding the conditions under which disruptive selection arises in the first place is equally important, and indeed necessary for assessing whether diversification is a general outcome in the Maynard Smith model. The chapter then shows that disruptive selection and polymorphism are scenarios that occur generically, that is, for a wide range of parameters, in a classical and widely used speciation model. It also provides an introduction to some of the basic concepts of adaptive dynamics theory.
Adaptive Diversification Due to Resource Competition in Sexual Models
Authors: Doebeli Michael
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines evolutionary branching in sexual populations. As sexual populations converge to what would be a branching point in clonal models, splitting obviously becomes a problem, because mating between different marginal phenotypes generally creates intermediate phenotypes. Through segregation and recombination, sexual reproduction can prevent the establishment of diverging phenotypic clusters in randomly mating populations. To allow for a phenotypic split, mating needs to be assortative with respect to the ecological trait that is under disruptive selection. Thus, the question of evolutionary branching in sexual populations, that is, of adaptive speciation, is intimately tied to questions about the evolution of assortative mating. If evolutionary branching occurs in sexual populations due to the presence of assortative mating mechanisms, the diverging phenotypic clusters will show prezygotic reproductive isolation at least to some extent, and hence they can be viewed as representing incipient species.
F.B. Eyes
Authors: Maxwell William J.
Published: November 2017

Few institutions seem more opposed than African American literature and J. Edgar Hoover's Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). But behind the scenes, the FBI's hostility to black protest was energized by fear of and respect for black writing. Drawing on nearly 14,000 pages of newly released FBI files, this book exposes the Bureau's intimate policing of five decades of African American poems, plays, essays, and novels. Starting in 1919, year one of Harlem's renaissance and Hoover's career at the Bureau, secretive FBI “ghostreaders” monitored the latest developments in African American letters. By the time of Hoover's death in 1972, these ghostreaders knew enough to simulate a sinister black literature of their own. The official aim behind the Bureau 's close reading was to anticipate political unrest. Yet, as this book reveals, FBI surveillance came to influence the creation and public reception of African American literature in the heart of the twentieth century. This book details how the FBI threatened the international travels of African American writers and prepared to jail dozens of them in times of national emergency. All the same, it shows that the Bureau's paranoid style could prompt insightful criticism from Hoover's ghostreaders and creative replies from their literary targets. For authors such as Claude McKay, James Baldwin, and Sonia Sanchez, the suspicion that government spy-critics tracked their every word inspired rewarding stylistic experiments as well as disabling self-censorship. Illuminating both the serious harms of state surveillance and the ways in which imaginative writing can withstand and exploit it, this book is a groundbreaking account of a long-hidden dimension of African American literature.
Mutualistic Networks
Authors: Bascompte Jordi , Jordano Pedro
Published: November 2017

Mutualistic interactions among plants and animals have played a paramount role in shaping biodiversity. Yet the majority of studies on mutualistic interactions have involved only a few species, as opposed to broader mutual connections between communities of organisms. This is the first book to comprehensively explore this burgeoning field. Integrating different approaches, from the statistical description of network structures to the development of new analytical frameworks, the book describes the architecture of these mutualistic networks and shows their importance for the robustness of biodiversity and the coevolutionary process. Making a case for why we should care about mutualisms and their complex networks, this book offers a new perspective on the study and synthesis of this growing area for ecologists and evolutionary biologists. It will serve as the standard reference for all future work on mutualistic interactions in biological communities.
Regulating the Admission and Rights of Migrant Workers
Authors: Ruhs Martin
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the drivers of the relationships between openness, skill levels of workers, and migrant rights in high-income countries. It considers each of the three relationships—between openness and skills, rights and skills, and openness and rights—providing short case studies of where they occur, and why. It also looks at examples of policies that are not characterized by these relationships and analyzes the reasons for these exceptional cases. The case studies cover a wide range of political systems, welfare states, labor markets, and geographic regions of the world. They thus include labor immigration policies that are made in different national policy spaces. The chapter shows that policy decisions on how to regulate the admission and rights of migrant workers in high-income countries are firmly based on assessments of the consequences of admitting migrants as well as granting/restricting rights for the national interests of migrant-receiving countries.
Introduction to Information Theory
Authors: Vidyasagar M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter provides an introduction to some elementary aspects of information theory, including entropy in its various forms. Entropy refers to the level of uncertainty associated with a random variable (or more precisely, the probability distribution of the random variable). When there are two or more random variables, it is worthwhile to study the conditional entropy of one random variable with respect to another. The last concept is relative entropy, also known as the Kullback–Leibler divergence, which measures the “disparity” between two probability distributions. The chapter first considers convex and concave functions before discussing the properties of the entropy function, conditional entropy, uniqueness of the entropy function, and the Kullback–Leibler divergence.
On the Seemingly Relentless Progress in Americans’
Authors: Davis James A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter extends existing research on tolerance for nonconformity into the 2000s, following up on one of the very first articles based on the General Social Survey. Drawing on Stouffer's (1955) conceptualization, it defines tolerance as the willingness to accord First Amendment-guaranteed rights of free expression to groups espousing unpopular views (e.g., atheists or racists) or lifestyles (homosexuals). Anchored on Stouffer's McCarthy-era baseline reading, it documents a steady rise in tolerance into the 2000s, but suggests that this may be decelerating. The chapter concludes that generally liberal outlooks, not sentiments toward particular “target” groups, underlie rising tolerance. The growth in tolerance can be attributed to the replacement of older, less-educated cohorts by more recent ones. But because the two principal drivers of higher tolerance—education and generally liberal outlooks—have stopped rising, tolerance may soon reach a plateau.
Deep South Enclaves on the Eve of the Transition
Authors: Mickey Robert
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines four important features of Deep South authoritarian enclaves on the eve of the transition: their political geography, centralization of political authority, party factionalism, and latent strength of their indigenous opponents. A review of these and other characteristics of these polities suggests that modernization cannot fully explain the variation in Deep South democratization experiences. The chapter considers a causal account emphasizing the importance of regime defenders, opponents, and the institutional topography on which they battled one another. It compares the degree to which authority was centralized in South Carolina, Mississippi, and Georgia and highlights the factionalism within Democratic parties. It concludes with a discussion of black protest capacity on the eve of the transition.
Suffrage Restriction under Attack, 1944–47
Authors: Mickey Robert
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the U.S. Supreme Court's ruling in Smith v. Allwright that challenged the restriction on suffrage: it invalidated the all-white Democratic primary and struck at the heart of southern politics—one-party rule based on white supremacy. It first considers the Supreme Court's challenge to the white primary in relation to rulers' dilemmas, opportunities, and options before discussing narratives of enclave experiences with the white primary challenge in South Carolina, Mississippi, and Georgia. It then compares outer South and Deep South responses to Smith, showing that Georgia and South Carolina featured more impressive black mobilizations than Mississippi. However, the consequences of these episodes were not driven solely by such forces as economic development or black protest infrastructure. Rather, given different configurations of intraparty conflict, party–state institutions, and levels of black insurgency, Smith and the responses it invoked had different consequences for each enclave.
Driven from the House of Their Fathers
Authors: Mickey Robert
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines President Harry S. Truman's commitment of the National Democratic Party to the cause of racial equality and the responses to them by Deep South authoritarian enclaves. It first provides an overview of the central state, national party, and southern enclaves during the period 1932–1946 before discussing the causes and consequences of the revolt by the States' Rights Party (SRP), also known as the Dixiecrats. It then considers southern enclaves' growing unease with the national party through the 1930s and 1940s, along with the experiences of South Carolina, Mississippi, and Georgia. It shows that the Truman shock and responses to it varied within the Deep South depending on different configurations of intraparty conflict and party–state institutions.
“No Solution Offers Except Coercion”
Authors: Mickey Robert
Published: November 2017

There is no one way, but many. … The South proposes to use all of them that make for resistance. [Brown] tortured the Constitution—the South will torture the decision.

—John Temple Graves, strategist of massive resistance (1955)

Must South Carolina indulge bluster and vituperation in place of summoning candor and courage? Have ignorance, poverty, and prejudice fed on each other until the white community has sunk to second-rate capacity? … Some will say that the conscience of the state is dead. … If that is true, no solution offers except coercion, while we entertain the hope that prudent acquiescence will substitute for more valorous self-correction. If the white people of South Carolina furnish no worthy response in the crisis, then humiliation and rehabilitation by other hands is their portion....
Legacies and Lessons of the Democratized South
Authors: Mickey Robert
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the legacies and lessons of the southern enclaves' different paths to democratization. It first summarizes the book's findings, showing how, from the abolition of the white primary in 1944 until the McGovern–Fraser National Democratic Party reforms of the early 1970s, democratizers assaulted the authoritarian enclaves of the Deep South. It then offers a way to supplement existing approaches to the study of contemporary electoral and economic change, focusing in particular on how the framework of authoritarian enclaves might enhance our understanding of the rise of southern Republicans and the South's uneven economic development. It concludes by considering some implications of the book's findings for the study of the South, American political development, and regime change.
Speer’s Appointment as Dictator of the German Economy
Authors: Neumann Franz , Sweezy Paul
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on the appointment of Albert Speer as dictator of the German economy and the Reich Minister of Economics Walther Funk as a member of the Central Planning Board. Both appointments were made by Adolf Hitler as part of a decree he issued on September 2, 1943, which put the Reich Minister for Armaments and Munitions in control of total German production for the duration of the war, while the Reich Minister of Economics was to be responsible for the general economic policy, among other functions. The chapter first provides a background on the careers of Funk and Speer before discussing the relative position of Funk, Speer, Hermann Göring, and certain commissioners in the German war economy. It also considers the organizational meaning of Hitler's decree, along with the possibility that the new measure will deepen the antagonism between industry and the Nazi Party.
Morale in Germany
Authors: Marcuse Herbert , Neumann Franz , Meyerhoff Hans
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on morale in Nazi Germany. Psychological warfare operations are not concerned with what people feel and think about their governments but rather to what extent these feelings and thoughts will and can affect their behavior within the framework of the enemy society. The answer to this question cannot be sought in what is understood by “morale” but rather in the sum total of the enemy's institutional and social arrangements. The system of National Socialism was devised for the very purpose of making a repetition of 1918 impossible—that is, to make morale dispensable. Morale, so to speak, had become a democratic luxury. The chapter considers the morale of various groups in Germany, including the ruling groups and the middle classes.
Dissolution of the Nazi Party and its Affiliated Organizations
Authors: Marcuse Herbert
Published: November 2017

This chapter proposes the dissolution of the Nazi Party and its affiliated organizations. The reports suggests When the Allies march into Nazi Germany, they will probably find the regime in a state of disintegration. Some of the agencies and institutions of Nazism may still be functioning, but the key positions of political control and terror will have been abandoned. The occupying authorities are committed not only to safeguarding the security of the Allied forces and to maintaining public law and order, but also to the destruction of Nazism. Nazism can be eliminated only through an internal political movement in Germany. The first step in this undertaking would be the dissolution of the National Socialist Party as well as its affiliate and controlled organizations, and the removal and apprehension of all officials who participated in the formulation of policy or had considerable responsibility in carrying it out.
The Treatment of Germany
Authors: Neumann Franz
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers a variety of methods of treating Germany. The main objective of the United Nations in the treatment of Germany is to prevent it from ever again becoming a threat to the security of the world. The problem of securing this objective could be approached through destruction of Germany's industrial potential, destruction of Germany as a political entity, and removal from German society of the causes of aggression. The chapter shows that the first two solutions should be deferred until it is clear that the third alternative proves unworkable. In order to eliminate the causes of aggressiveness in German society, temporary and long-term disabilities should be imposed upon Germany. The chapter also examines the causes of German aggression, the United States' policy toward Germany, short-term measures during the period of military government, conditional measures during the probationary period, and permanent impositions upon Germany.
Status and Prospects of German Trade-Unions and Works Councils
Authors: Marcuse Herbert
Published: November 2017

This chapter evaluates the status and prospects of trade unions and works councils in Nazi Germany. The report details that the German trade-union movement has developed in a different direction from American unionism. The German unions were affiliated with political parties: the Free Trade-Unions with the Social Democratic Party; the Christian-National Trade-Unions with the Center Party and the German National People's Party; and the German Trade Associations (Hirsch-Duncker) with the Democratic Party. The chapter first provides an overview of trade unionism in Germany prior to Adolf Hitler's ascension to power before discussing the spontaneous revival of trade unionism after the collapse of the Nazi regime. It then considers trade-union development in the Allied zones of occupation and in the Soviet zone of occupation, along with the revival of the works councils or shop stewards movement. It also addresses the question of the “political neutrality” of the trade-union movement.
Chemical Biomarkers in Aquatic Ecosystems
Authors: Bianchi Thomas S. , Canuel Elizabeth A.
Published: November 2017

This textbook provides a unique and thorough look at the application of chemical biomarkers to aquatic ecosystems. Defining a chemical biomarker as a compound that can be linked to particular sources of organic matter identified in the sediment record, the book indicates that the application of these biomarkers for an understanding of aquatic ecosystems consists of a biogeochemical approach that has been quite successful but underused. This book offers a wide-ranging guide to the broad diversity of these chemical biomarkers, is the first to be structured around the compounds themselves, and examines them in a connected and comprehensive way. This book is appropriate for advanced undergraduate and graduate students seeking training in this area; researchers in biochemistry, organic geochemistry, and biogeochemistry; researchers working on aspects of organic cycling in aquatic ecosystems; and paleoceanographers, petroleum geologists, and ecologists.
Anthropogenic Markers
Authors: Bianchi Thomas S. , Canuel Elizabeth A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the application of anthropogenic compounds as biomarkers. Since World War II, human activities have introduced a wide array of compounds into the environment, including insecticides such as dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane and pesticides, halocarbons (chlorofluorocarbons), sewage products (coprostanol), and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). The chapter introduces structural features of these compounds, their distribution and transformation in the environment, and their potential use(s) as tracers. It presents examples of how relationships between anthropogenic markers and biomarkers can be used to provide information about the sources, delivery, and fate of natural organic matter in aquatic ecosystems. It introduces various emerging contaminants (personal care pharmaceutical products, caffeine, and flame retardants) and their potential use as tracers for anthropogenic organic matter in aquatic ecosystems. It describes how δ‎13C, stable isotopes of Cl and Br, and radiocarbon can be used to apportion sources of organic contaminants (e.g., PAHs and PCBs).
The Balance of Nature: What Is It and Why Care?
Authors: McCann Kevin S.
Published: November 2017

This book explores how interaction strength affects the dynamics of food webs. It aims to conceptually synthesize our current understanding of one of the big questions in ecology and evolution: What governs ecological stability? The book discusses the consequences of human impacts for the intricate, detailed spatial and temporal structure that underlies most pristine ecosystems. It asserts that ecologists never saw the balance of nature as a perfect equilibrium process. This chapter defines stability and examines the role whole systems play in governing stable ecosystem function. It also considers the stability problem by presenting examples that illustrate how humans cause ecological instability and ecosystem collapse. It concludes with an overview of the book's proposed theory about food webs and ecosystems that can help elucidate the ways that perturbations (such as human impact) ought to influence the sustainability of ecosystems.
Excitable and Nonexcitable Population Dynamics
Authors: McCann Kevin S.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the dynamics of basic population models, with a particular focus on the general biological conditions under which population dynamics are stabilized, or destabilized, by increased population growth rates. Three classes of population models are discussed in relation to excitable and nonexcitable interactions: continuous logistic growth models, discrete equations, and continuous models with stage-structured lags. The chapter shows how increasing per capita growth rates tend to stabilize population models as a result of excitable interactions; that is, when dynamic trajectories monotonically approach an equilibrium after a localized perturbation. However, lags in population models tend to give rise to dynamics with oscillatory decays to equilibrium or sustained oscillations around the carrying capacity. Such oscillatory decays or sustained oscillations are only further destabilized by increased growth or production rates. The chapter concludes with a review of empirical evidence for excitable dynamics.