bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Euplotes
(Dorsoventrally‐Flattened Ciliates)
Authors: Heckmann Klaus , Kuhlmann Hans‐Werner
Published: September 2006

Euplotes
is a dorsoventrally flattened ciliate with an extreme difference in the ciliature of the dorsal and ventral surfaces. Over 50 species of this genus are known. They live in freshwater and marine habitats and have frequently been used in genetic and experimental work.
Ciliophora
Authors: Lynn Denis H
Published: September 2006

Ciliophora is the name for a phylum of protists commonly called the ciliates or infusorians. These protists are the most complex of cells, having an elaborate cytoskeleton, cilia and two different kinds of nuclei.
Paramecium
Authors: Aufderheide Karl J , Janetopoulos Christopher
Published: September 2006

Paramecia (from the Greek, meaning elongated or boat‐shaped) are the members of a genus of ciliated protozoa with a characteristic elongated shape (length approximately three to four times the width), a uniform distribution of cilia over the cell surface, and a ciliated oral groove leading from the anterior of the cell to the mid‐ventral deep oral cavity. The oral apparatus is shaped like a funnel, with 12 rows of oral cilia in a helical array inside.
Plasmodium
Authors: Sherman Irwin W
Published: September 2006

Plasmodium
, a genus of parasitic protozoons that are the causative agents of the disease malaria.
Tetrahymena
Authors: Frankel Joseph
Published: September 2006

Tetrahymena
is a genus of free‐living ciliated protozoa that is intensively employed to investigate and solve fundamental problems in molecular, cell and developmental biology.
Trypanosoma
Authors: de Souza Wanderley
Published: September 2006

The trypanosomes comprise a large number of species of pathogenic protozoa of animals and plants. Some present a simple life cycle in the insect; others, however, present a complex life cycle involving vertebrate and invertebrate hosts, with the participation of different developmental stages, some of which are localized within cells of the vertebrate host.
Vorticella
Authors: Buhse Howard E , Clamp John C
Published: September 2006

Vorticellais a widespread, common genus of ciliates that live as suspension feeders in many aquatic habitats. The unicellular body is anchored to the substrate by a distinctive, helically twisted, contractile stalk and one of the current research interests centres on determining the molecular basis of stalk contraction that does not require ATP but is solely dependent on the level of available calcium.
Dinoflagellates
Authors: Taylor FJR
Published: September 2006

Dinoflagellates are marine or freshwater, photosynthetic or nonphotosynthetic protists that swim by two dissimilar flagella, usually present on the side; one is ribbon‐like, winding around to the cell's left, and the other trails behind. Most dinoflagellates have an unusual nucleus, the dinokaryon, throughout their life cycle. Cells are naked or have a theca consisting of cellulose plates lying under the cell membrane; resting cysts have a tough dinosporin wall, which can fossilize readily.
Microsporidians
Authors: Vossbrinck Charles R
Published: September 2006

The phylum Microsporidia is a group of obligate intracellular single‐celled parasites of animals; some are species‐specific, whereas others appear to have a broader host range. A few Microsporidia are clinically important as opportunistic parasites of immunocompromised humans.
Myxozoa
Authors: Kent Michael L , Palenzuela Oswaldo
Published: September 2006

Myxosporidians, members of the phylum Myxozoa, are common multicellular parasites of cold‐blooded vertebrates, primarily fishes. They have a complex life cycle and many species are highly pathogenic in commercially important fishes, particularly in aquaculture.
Radiolaria
Authors: Febvre‐Chevalier Colette , Febvre Jean
Published: September 2006

Radiolaria are marine unicellular microorganisms characterized by skeletons of silica and the presence of cytoplasmic processes radiating from the cell body. Both the fine structure and architectural diversity of the skeletons are used as taxonomic criteria. They have been joined with Acantharia in the phylum Radiozoa Cavalier‐Smith, 1987. Radiolaria are used as stratigraphy markers.
Rhizopoda
Authors: Anderson O Roger
Published: September 2006

Rhizopoda are a broad group of protozoan amoeboid organisms placed in the kingdom Protista. The shape of the pseudopodia, usually with a branching or network organization known as rhizopods, and the morphology of the enclosing shell or test, when present, are major defining taxonomic characteristics.
Trichomonads
Authors: Yarlett Nigel
Published: September 2006

Trichomonads are flagellate protozoa that contain an intracellular fibrous rod composed of thousands of microtubules termed the axostyle.
Plasminogen Activation System
Authors: Andreasen Peter A
Published: September 2006

The plasminogen activation system is a vertebrate extracellular enzyme system consisting of serine proteinases, proteinase inhibitors of the serpin family, and various binding proteins. The plasminogen activation system generates extracellular proteolytic activity for physiological and pathophysiological fibrinolysis and tissue remodelling.
Antimicrobials: Susceptibility Testing
Authors: Williams John D
Published: September 2006

The ability of bacteria to resist the damaging effects of antimicrobials may be a normal characteristic of a particular species or may be acquired by a variety of genetic changes. Testing of bacteria to determine whether or not resistance is present is called susceptibility testing because the most frequent reasons for carrying out such tests is to monitor antibiotics to confirm that they are suitable for treatment of bacteria isolated from individual patients.
Antimicrobials against Streptococci, Pneumococci and Enterococci
Authors: Woodford Neil , Palepou Marie‐France I , Johnson Alan P
Published: September 2006

Streptococci, pneumococci and enterococci are important bacterial pathogens of humans and can cause a range of disease. Although effective antibiotic treatments exist, threats to public health are posed by antibiotic‐resistant strains of these bacteria.
Antimicrobials against Anaerobic Bacteria
Authors: Brazier Jon , Duerden Brian I
Published: September 2006

Anaerobic bacteria including
Bacteroides
species and
Clostridium difficile
are important causes of infection that usually require specific antimicrobial therapy.
Antimicrobial Resistance: Epidemiology
Authors: O’Brien Thomas F
Published: September 2006

Antimicrobial resistance advances as epidemics of emerged resistance genes variably linked within a variety of genetic elements that spread through interconnecting bacterial populations of antimicrobial‐exposed people, animals and places.
Antimicrobial Resistance: Control
Authors: Huovinen Pentti
Published: September 2006

Antimicrobial resistance of microbes is a major threat to public health. Control of this problem is essential to maintain the efficacy of antimicrobial agents.
Cystic Fibrosis
Authors: Davies Jane C , Griesenbach Uta , Geddes Duncan M , Alton Eric WFW
Published: September 2006

This article has sections titled

Introduction

The CF Gene

The
CFTR
Protein and Its Function

Pathophysiology

Mutations in the
CFTR
Gene

Genotype/Phenotype Correlation

Presentation

Abundance of
CF
Heterozygotes in Non‐CF Disease Populations

Diagnostic Tests

Conventional Clinical Management

The Development of New
CF
Therapies

Conclusions
Autosomal Recessive Traits and Diseases
Authors: Teebi Ahmad S , Kennedy Shelley J
Published: September 2006

Autosomal recessive traits and diseases comprise a large sector of genetically determined phenotypes. They result from homozygosity or compound heterozygosity of a mutant gene. Variable frequencies are seen in different populations where consanguinity may play an important role.
Plant Synteny, Colinearity and Genome Evolution
Authors: Bennetzen Jeffrey L , Devos Katrien
Published: September 2006

Plant genomes exhibit a tremendous range of chromosome size and number, however, gene numbers and types do not appear to vary a great deal between different plant species. Genomic colinearity provides some insight into genome evolution and a tool for gene isolation and characterization.
Ploidy Variation in Plants
Authors: Birchler James A
Published: September 2006

Ploidy variation involves changes in the number of whole sets of chromosomes. Aneuploid variation involves changes in the number of individual chromosomes. The two types of chromosomal changes have different consequences for gene expression patterns.
Plant Genome Projects
Authors: Schmidt Renate
Published: September 2006

A genome project aims to discover all genes and their function in a particular species. Plant genome projects have focused on a few model organisms that are characterized by small genomes or their amenability to genetic studies.
Plant Mutagenesis and Mutant Screening
Authors: Malmberg Russell L
Published: September 2006

Plant mutagenesis is the induction of new genetic variants, frequently by treatment with chemicals, ionizing radiation, or mobilization of insertion elements. The new genetic variation may be used to give insight into almost any biological process.
Gene Silencing in Plants
Authors: Meyer Peter
Published: September 2006

The term gene silencing refers to an epigenetic phenomenon, the reversible inactivation of gene expression. Although mainly studied for plant transgenes, gene silencing also affects endogenous plant genes.
Plant Breeding and Crop Improvement
Authors: Caligari Peter DS
Published: September 2006

To respond to the increasing need to feed the world's population as well as an ever greater demand for a balanced and healthy diet there is a continuing need to produce improved new cultivars or varieties of plants, particularly crop plants. The strategies used to produce these are increasingly based on our knowledge of relevant science, particularly genetics, but involves a multidisciplinary understanding that optimizes the approaches taken.
Mice as Experimental Organisms
Authors: Silver Lee M
Published: September 2006

The mouse is extensively used as a model system to understand the genetic control of human development and disease.
Arabidopsis thaliana
as an Experimental Organism
Authors: Koornneef Maarten , Scheres Ben
Published: September 2006

Arabidopsis thaliana
has become the model for plant genetics and plant development because of its genetic characteristics, such as short generation time, the small size of its genome and the availability of its complete DNA sequence.
Evolution of Photosynthesis
Authors: Vermaas Wim FJ
Published: September 2006

Photosynthesis is an ancient process. Photosynthetic reaction centres, which use light energy to drive chemical reactions, from different groups of photosynthetic organisms are compared. Commonalities are highlighted between membrane‐spanning regions of different types of photosynthetic reaction centre proteins, suggestions are made that current photosynthetic reaction centre complexes all evolved from a common ancestor, and new insights into how the rather complex and diverse photosynthetic structures may have evolved are provided. These structures may have originated by several rounds of duplication, divergence, and fusion of genes for small pigment‐binding polypeptides. The model proposed presents a rather simple and straightforward way in which two different types of photosynthetic systems are likely to have evolved from a common ancestor.
Apomixis
Authors: Chaudhury Abed , Koltunow Anna , Dennis ES , Peacock WJ
Published: September 2006

Apomixis is the formation of seeds by asexual processes. Apomixis comprises an ensemble of developmental processes that together alter the reproductive functions in the ovule of flowering plants, converting the sexual programme to an asexual one. The result of these alterations is that the apomictically derived embryo is not a product of male and female gamete fusion as occurs in sexual reproduction but is derived solely from cells in maternal ovule tissues.
Gametophyte and Sporophyte
Authors: McCormick Sheila
Published: September 2006

The gametophyte produces gametes which fuse to form the zygote. The zygote develops into the sporophyte. The sporophyte has no germline, but a few specialized cells on the sporophyte undergo meiosis and the meiotic products form the gametophyte.
Pollen: Structure, Development and Function
Authors: Twell David
Published: September 2006

The pollen grains of seed plants are both remarkable and intensively studied structures that have evolved to ensure delivery of the male gametes to the embryo sac during sexual reproduction.
Plant Embryogenesis (Zygotic and Somatic)
Authors: Harada John J , Kwong Raymond W
Published: September 2006

In higher plants, embryogenesis describes the developmental period in which a cell, usually the zygote, undergoes a sequential series of partitioning events that lead to the formation of a mature embryo possessing cotyledons, shoot apical meristem, hypocotyl, root, root apical meristem and three embryonic tissue systems.
Fruit
Authors: Ingrouille Martin
Published: September 2006

Fruit is produced by flowers after pollination and fertilization. Fruit may be dry or fleshy, dehiscent or indehiscent, and is adapted in a great variety of ways for the dispersal of seeds.
Plant Reproduction
Authors: Zinkl Gregory M
Published: September 2006

Plants reproduce asexually and sexually. Asexual plant reproduction includes offspring arising from plant parts and by apomixis. Sexual plant reproduction allows for the exchange of genetic material, increasing diversity among the offspring, and consists of the fusion of gamete cells to form the new plant.
Seed Germination and Reserve Mobilization
Authors: Bewley J Derek
Published: September 2006

When dry seeds take in water, a chain of metabolic events is initiated that results in the emergence of the radicle, thus completing germination. Thereafter, the major stored reserves within the seed are mobilized, providing nutrients to support early seedling growth.
Apical Meristems
Authors: Francis Dennis
Published: September 2006

The cells in the meristem do not all divide at the same rate; the control of the cell cycle in meristems is the subject of current research.
Floral Meristems
Authors: Schneitz Kay , Balasubramanian Sureshkumar
Published: September 2006

Floral meristems are a group of dividing cells that give rise to flowers. The formation of a floral meristem, and its subsequent fate, are under both environmental and molecular control. Several exogenous environmental factors and a complex network of genes control this process.
Shoots and Buds
Authors: Groß‐Hardt Rita , Laux Thomas
Published: September 2006

The shoot of higher plants carries the branches, foliage and flowers. Repetitive organ formation takes place at the tip of shoots and in floral buds by the activity of stem cell systems, the shoot and flower meristems.
Plant Organ Primordia
Authors: Torii Keiko U
Published: September 2006

Plant organ primordia are generated in a reiterative manner during the entire life of the plants. Complex patterning events, including boundary and polarity establishment and acquisition of cell fates, take place at the organ primordia initials. The phytohormone auxin plays an important role in initiation, outgrowth and positioning of the organ primordia.
Roots and Root Systems
Authors: Kerk Nancy M , Sussex Ian M
Published: September 2006

Roots, together with stems and leaves, constitute the major organs of vascular plants. The main functions of the root system are to anchor and support the plant, to seek out, absorb, and transport water and ions from the soil, and to transport and store the products of photosynthesis from the shoot system.
Lateral/Secondary Roots
Authors: Van der Zaal Bert J , Neuteboom Leon W
Published: September 2006

Lateral or secondary roots usually develop from the base of the primary root towards its tip. The reiteration of lateral root formation gives rise to tertiary roots.
Plant Biomechanics
Authors: Vincent Julian FV
Published: September 2006

The mechanical design of plants is based on the tensile properties of cellulose, from which the cellular structure is mainly constructed. This leads via a hierarchy of structural and chemical and morphological modifications to the entire plant, whether a grass or a tree.
Positional Information in Plant Development
Authors: Sessions Allen , Yanofsky Martin
Published: September 2006

Cell fate determination in plants has been shown to be largely dependent upon the position of the differentiating cell in the plant body, and not by lineage. The underlying mechanisms mediating positional information in plants are beginning to be unravelled.
Plant Tissues
Authors: Schnittger Arp , Hülskamp Martin
Published: September 2006

Higher plants are organized into three tissue layers: the epidermis, the ground tissue and the vascular system. The separation of the three layers is established in the meristems and they are largely maintained as separate tissues, reflecting their separate cell lineages.
Bark
Authors: Lev‐Yadun Simcha
Published: September 2006

Bark comprises all the tissues outside the vascular cambium of a plant.
Silica
Authors: Perry Carole C
Published: September 2006

The element silicon is used by all living organisms either in molecular processes or in the formation of the mineral silica.
Sclerenchyma
Authors: Jarvis Michael C , His Isabelle
Published: September 2006

Sclerenchyma is a specialized tissue, adapted to withstand both compressive and tensile stresses in plants.
Collenchyma
Authors: Jarvis Michael C
Published: September 2006

Collenchyma is a specialized plant tissue with thickened primary cell walls. It combines high strength in tension with the ability to grow in length.
Companion Cells
Authors: Lalonde Sylvie , Franceschi Vincent R , Frommer Wolf B
Published: September 2006

Companion cells are responsible for the life maintenance of the sieve element. Based on its ontogeny, the companion cell is an intrinsic part of the phloem.
Plant Growth Factors and Receptors
Authors: Berger Dieter , Müssig Carsten , Altmann Thomas
Published: September 2006

Plant growth factors are compounds of low relative molecular mass that control cell growth, cell division and cell differentiation. Their action is essential for proper growth and morphogenesis of plants as well as the integration of responses to environmental conditions and stimuli.
Blood Group Incompatibility
Authors: Poole Joyce
Published: September 2006

Blood group antibodies present in plasma can bind with blood group antigens on red cells and cause a reaction (blood group incompatibility). Antigen–antibody reactions can occur as a result of transfusion (incompatible donor cells) or pregnancy (incompatible fetal cells).
Archaeal Chromosome
Authors: Thomas Nikhil A , Faguy David M , Jarrell Ken F
Published: September 2006

The archaeal chromosome consists of a single circular molecule within the size range reported for bacterial chromosomes. However, within the archaeal genome are both bacterial‐like genes and eukaryotic‐like genes, as well as archaeal‐specific genes, all transcribed from promoters very different from those of bacteria.
Pneumocystis
Authors: Kaneshiro Edna S
Published: September 2006

Pneumocystis carinii
is an opportunistic fungus which causes a type of pneumonia by proliferating extracellularly in the lung alveolus in immunodeficient mammalian hosts, such as patients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome and individuals undergoing immunosuppressive treatment for cancer or organ transplant.
Vitamin C Deficiency
Authors: Meydani Mohsen , Zubik L , Tang F‐Y
Published: September 2006

Vitamin C is an essential micronutrient involved in many biological and biochemical functions. Nutritional vitamin C deficiency is rare in developed countries but is seen in individuals on restricted diets.
Cardiac Arrhythmias
Authors: Kastor John A
Published: September 2006

Cardiac arrhythmias are disturbances in the rhythm of the heart manifested by irregularity or by abnormally fast rates (‘tachycardias’) or abnormally slow rates (‘bradycardias’).
Pulmonary Embolic Disease
Authors: Alpert Joseph S
Published: September 2006

Pulmonary embolism is a serious medical condition in which blood clots (thrombi) are released into the venous circulation and eventually find their way to the pulmonary vascular bed. Most of these clots originate in the leg veins as the result of an episode of phlebitis. The larger the volume of blood clot in the pulmonary circulation, the greater is the obstruction to normal blood flow through the lungs and the greater the circulatory compromise. Massive pulmonary embolism is often fatal.
Renal Failure: Introduction
Authors: Winearls CG
Published: September 2006

Renal failure is the state resulting from a reduction in renal excretory function sufficient to have adverse physiological effects. It may be chronic and irreversible or acute and potentially reversible; in its extreme form it is fatal. Treatment requires the use of artificial blood purification techniques, usually dialysis, or kidney transplantation.
Renal Failure
Authors: Gokal Ram
Published: September 2006

Renal failure is the state resulting from a reduction in the capacity to fulfil the essential functions of the kidney (excretory, acid–base and fluid electrolyte control). It may be acute and potentially reversible, or chronic and irreversible. It may require artificial blood purification techniques (dialysis and transplantation), but in its extreme form can be fatal.
Glomerulonephritis
Authors: Cockwell Paul , Adu Dwomoa
Published: September 2006

Glomerulonephritis refers to inflammation of the glomerulus, a very common cause of kidney disease.
Polycystic Disease of the Kidney
Authors: Harris PC
Published: September 2006

A number of genetic diseases cause significant morbidity and mortality due to renal cyst development and result in renal failure. The disorders range in severity from those causing neonatal death to mild cystic disease in old age.
Hypoxia
Authors: Gleadle Jonathan , Ratcliffe Peter
Published: September 2006

The dependence of many cells on aerobic respiration as an obligatory energy source requires a variety of responses to oxygen lack or hypoxia.
Respiratory Failure and Assisted Respiration
Authors: Shneerson John
Published: September 2006

Respiratory failure is the inability to exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide with the inhaled gas in the lungs. This can be improved by providing mechanical assistance to the ventilation of the lungs.
Diffuse Parenchymal Lung Disease
Authors: Ranasinha CD , Bois RM du
Published: September 2006

Diffuse parenchymal lung diseases predominately affect the acinar regions of the lung. Some types of the disease are relatively common, while others are extremely rare, but taken together they affect roughly 1 in 3–4000 of the UK population and in many cases there is irreversible scarring.
Sprue and Intestinal Malabsorption in Tropical Climates
Authors: Cook Gordon C
Published: September 2006

The inability to absorb nutrients normally from the small intestine.
Amyloidosis
Authors: Benson Merrill D
Published: September 2006

The amyloidoses are a group of β‐structure protein deposition diseases that may be systemic or localized, sporadic, hereditary or associated with chronic inflammation. Pathology is the result of displacement of normal tissue structures.
Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
Authors: Schur Peter H
Published: September 2006

Systemic lupus erythematosus is a chronic inflammatory disease of unknown cause which can affect the skin, joints, kidneys, lungs, nervous system, serous membranes and other organs in the body, in various combinations, especially in young women, and which is characterized by immune abnormalities, in particular antibodies to nuclear constituents. Treatment is based both on preventive measures, alleviation of symptoms, but in particular anti‐inflammatory agents including nonsteroidal anti‐inflammatory drugs, corticosteroids, and immunosuppressive medications.
Immune Haemolytic Anaemia
Authors: Packman Charles H
Published: September 2006

The immune haemolytic anaemias comprise a set of diseases characterized by shortened red blood cell survival (haemolysis) mediated by the action of antibodies and serum complement. The haemolysis is evidenced by a raised reticulocyte count in the absence of blood loss. Activity of the immune system is diagnosed by the presence of antibody and/or fragments of complement components (mainly C3 and C4) on the red blood cell surfaces.
Sjögren Syndrome
Authors: Venables Patrick
Published: September 2006

Sjögren syndrome is an autoimmune disease of unknown aetiology characterized by inflammation and dysfunction of exocrine glands. Current treatments are symptomatic. Study of its aetiopathogenesis may be a key to understanding autoimmune disease in general.
Bone Marrow Failure
Authors: Gordon‐Smith Edward C
Published: September 2006

Bone marrow failure implies loss of blood cell production due to primary failure of haematopoiesis in the absence of malignant infiltration. Aplastic anaemia, acquired or congenital, is the typical syndrome with loss of bone marrow cellularity but there is overlap with myelodysplastic syndromes.
Atopy and Asthma
Authors: Yates Anne B , deShazo Richard D
Published: September 2006

Atopy is the genetic propensity to develop an immunoglobulin E antibody response to common allergens. The most common clinical manifestations of atopy are allergic rhinitis, asthma and atopic dermatitis.
Interferons: Therapeutic Uses
Authors: Penny Ronald , Stuart‐Harris Robin
Published: September 2006

Interferons were the first cytokines to be used therapeutically as naturally derived and as recombinant forms in humans. Their broad biological activity has resulted in clinical benefits in diseases ranging from infectious (such as viral hepatitis), autoimmune (in particular multiple sclerosis) to neoplastic (lymphomas and carcinomas).
Lymphadenopathy
Authors: Gatter Kevin
Published: September 2006

Lymphadenopathy is the enlargement of a lymph node, or nodes, which brings a patient to medical attention. There are a variety of causes and the condition needs to be investigated systematically with the aim of identifying malignancies or serious infections.
Non‐Hodgkin Lymphomas
Authors: Magrath Ian T
Published: September 2006

Non‐Hodgkin lymphomas are malignant neoplasms of lymphocytes and their precursor cells. Antigen receptor gene rearrangement, in concert with genetic lesions necessary for the induction of neoplasia, can be considered as a defining characteristic of neoplastic lymphoid cells.
Acute Lymphoblastic Leukaemia
Authors: Chessells Judith M
Published: September 2006

Lymphoblastic leukaemia is a heterogeneous disease of children and adults resulting from clonal expansion of progenitor cells. Treatment with intensive cytotoxic therapy is effective in the majority of children, but treatments for adults are less effective, probably because the disease originates from relatively drug‐resistant stem cells.
Monoclonal Antibodies: Therapeutic Uses
Authors: Zola Heddy
Published: September 2006

Monoclonal antibodies are biological products made in the laboratory. They have some current, and many potential applications in treating a number of major diseases that are currently not satisfactorily treated.
Neonatal Infectious Disease
Authors: Lyall EGH , Levin M
Published: September 2006

Manifestation of different infections in the newborn depends on the timing of infection (in utero, around delivery, or after birth), the organism, the presence or absence of maternal immunity, and the immune response of the infant.
Spleen: Consequences of Lack of Function
Authors: Lewis S Mitchell
Published: September 2006

Loss of splenic function may be absolute or partial; it may be primary (e.g. splenectomy) or secondary to a range of medical disorders. The haematological effects and clinical complications depend on the extent to which various functions are compromised. The most serious complication, requiring lifelong control, is overwhelming postsplenectomy infection (OPSI).
Polymorphism of TNF Genes and Disease Susceptibility
Authors: Knight Julian Charles , Keating Brendan James
Published: September 2006

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) sequence variation (polymorphism) occurs commonly between individuals. Polymorphism of the
TNF
(encoding tumour necrosis factor) gene region has been implicated in defining susceptibility to many infectious, inflammatory and autoimmune diseases.
Cerebrospinal Fluid and its Abnormalities
Authors: Amin‐Hanjani Sepideh , Chapman Paul H
Published: September 2006

Cerebrospinal fluid bathes the central nervous system, providing mechanical support and maintaining a stable environment. Alterations in its production, circulation or absorption result in a pathological condition termed hydrocephalus, characterized by an accumulation of fluid within the cranium, usually in the ventricles of the brain. The management of hydrocephalus relies primarily on neurosurgical intervention.
Cerebral Cortex Diseases and Cortical Localization
Authors: Thompson Paul M , Toga Arthur W
Published: September 2006

The cerebral cortex, or outer cell layer of the brain, is divided into a mosaic of discrete areas with different functions: specific regions control vision, sensory and motor function, hearing, and language. Cortical degeneration, abnormality and disease affect brain function and behaviour.
Benign Intracranial Hypertension
Authors: Speed William G
Published: September 2006

Benign (idiopathic) intracranial hypertension, or pseudotumour cerebri, is characterized by a sustained increase in intracranial pressure in the absence of tumour, infection or obstruction. There are persistent, usually low grade, headaches and frequently there is impairment of visual acuity.
Pain: Control
Authors: Russo Cathy M
Published: September 2006

Pain is an unpleasant sensation coupled with individualized unpleasant emotions. It is easier to treat acute pain than chronic pain because chronic pain can lead to maladaptive behaviour. Chronic pain is best controlled with multidisciplinary pain management.
Chronic Fatigue Syndrome
Authors: Cleare Anthony James , Wessely Simon
Published: September 2006

Chronic fatigue syndrome represents an operationally defined condition with substantial, disabling and prolonged fatigue as its main symptom. It has a prevalence of about 1% and makes a substantial public health impact.
Syringomyelia and Related Diseases
Authors: Heiss John D , Oldfield Edward H
Published: September 2006

Syringomyelia is a medical condition in which a cyst (syrinx) develops in the spinal cord. Untreated, the syrinx will displace, injure and destroy the spinal cord, resulting in neurological deterioration in the affected region of the body.
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Authors: Stowe Robert M , Taylor Steven
Published: September 2006

Posttraumatic stress disorder is a clinical condition that develops in some individuals after exposure to major psychological trauma. It is characterized by distressing symptoms, including re‐experiencing of the inciting event(s), hypersensitivity to trauma‐related stimuli and chronic hyperarousal.
Brain Death and the Vegetative State
Authors: Jennett Bryan
Published: September 2006

A brain‐dead patient is unconscious and has lost the capacity to breathe (apnoea) and requires manual ventilation; even with full supportive treatment the heart of the brain‐dead patient soon stops, usually after only a few days. The vegetative patient is unconscious but has periods of eye opening and can breathe on his or her own but requires artificial feeding; given adequate support the vegetative patient can survive for years.
Vestibular System Disorders
Authors: Kennard Christopher
Published: September 2006

The vestibular system provides vital sensory information for the control of balance and posture. Disorders of the vestibular system, either peripheral or central, often give rise to the sensory illusion of rotation, vertigo, a common symptom in clinical practice.
Respiratory System: Bacterial Infections
Authors: Macfarlane John T
Published: September 2006

Bacteria are a common cause of both upper and lower respiratory tract infections. An understanding of the classification, likely pathogens, clinical presentation and investigation is needed to plan the logical management of patients.
Tuberculosis
Authors: Davies Peter DO
Published: September 2006

Tuberculosis (TB) is a disease caused by
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
. It normally affects the lungs, causing chronic, progressive symptoms of cough, weight loss and malaise. The disease is normally curable with a six‐month course of appropriate antibiotics.
Septicaemic Shock
Authors: Munford Robert S
Published: September 2006

Septicaemic (or septic) shock is the body's most extreme response to invading microbes or their toxins.
Cytomegalovirus Infections in Humans
Authors: Griffiths Paul D
Published: September 2006

Cytomegalovirus is a herpesvirus that causes severe disease in the immunocompromised.
Epstein–Barr Virus
and Cancer
Authors: Rowe Martin , Rickinson AB
Published: September 2006

Epstein–Barr virus
is widespread in all human populations, and is usually carried as an asymptomatic persistent infection. In a small minority of infected individuals the virus is associated with the pathogenesis of certain types of lymphoid and nonlymphoid cancers, including Burkitt lymphoma, posttransplant lymphomas, Hodgkin disease and nasopharyngeal carcinoma.
Fungal Infections in Humans
Authors: Fries Bettina C , Casadevall Arturo
Published: September 2006

Fungi cause a variety of diseases in normal and immunocompromised hosts. Successful treatment requires accurate diagnosis and often the combination of different treatment modalities.
Hepatitis as a World Health Problem
Authors: Lam ECS , Bain VG
Published: September 2006

Viral hepatitis is a health problem affecting hundreds of millions of people worldwide. Although our knowledge of its genetics, epidemiology and treatment options is increasing, prevention remains the most cost effective method of controlling viral hepatitis.
AIDS
as a World Health Problem
Authors: Aichelburg Alexander C , Pett Sarah L , Cooper David A
Published: September 2006

In the almost 20 years since acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) was first recognized as a disease entity, infection with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and the subsequent development of AIDS has erupted into a global epidemic of Biblical proportions.
HIV Life Cycle and Inherited Coreceptors
Authors: Bukrinsky Michael I
Published: September 2006

Human immunodeficiency virus
(HIV), is a lentivirus of the family
Retroviridae
, members of which cause a number of neurological and immunological diseases in humans and animals. HIV is the causative agent of the acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS).
Poxvirus Infection in Humans
Authors: Jiang Hua , Wang Frederick CS
Published: September 2006

Poxviruses are a group of genetically related DNA‐containing viruses that have provided important scientific insights and are associated with various human diseases.
Trematode Infections including Schistosomiasis
Authors: Vennervald Birgitte Jyding
Published: September 2006

Trematodes are parasitic flatworms (flukes) infecting both humans and animals. They can cause serious disease and are of economic importance owing to the high number of infections worldwide.
Alcohol and Pregnancy and the Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
Authors: Streissguth Ann P , Bonthius Daniel J
Published: September 2006

Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) is a specific pattern of birth defects caused by prenatal alcohol exposure; the term fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) includes the broad range of offspring effects caused by
in utero
alcohol exposure. Alcohol is a teratogenic drug to which the developing brain is particularly vulnerable; thus, many alcohol‐exposed people, even without FAS, can have alcohol‐induced neurodevelopmental sequelae, ranging from mild to severe, depending on the dose, timing and conditions of exposure.
Thyroid Disease
Authors: Hunt Penelope J , Wass John AH
Published: September 2006

The thyroid gland produces thyroid hormones which are essential for many metabolic processes. Diseases of the thyroid gland are common and usually result from enlargement of the thyroid gland, called a goitre, or the production of too much or too little thyroid hormone.
Adrenal Disease
Authors: Elsheikh Mohgah , Wass John AH
Published: September 2006

The adrenal gland comprises the adrenal medulla, which secretes noradrenaline (norepinephrine) and adrenaline (epinephrine), and the adrenal cortex, which is responsible for glucocorticoid, mineralocorticoid and androgen production. Disorders of the adrenal gland result in either excessive or deficient production of these hormones.
Cardiovascular Disease: Epidemiology
Authors: Meade TW
Published: September 2006

Coronary heart disease (CHD) is the commonest form of degenerative arterial disease, which also includes stroke and lower‐extremity arterial disease. High levels of cholesterol and fibrinogen, raised blood pressure and cigarette smoking are the main risk factors for CHD, and can be avoided to a large extent (entirely in the case of smoking) by lifestyle modifications or pharmacological methods.
Folate Deficiency in Humans
Authors: Hoffbrand Allan V
Published: September 2006

Folate is a B group vitamin; its deficiency has a wide variety of causes including poor dietary intake, malabsorption and excess utilization. The consequences are anaemia and other widespread tissue abnormalities. Diagnosis is usually by measurement of serum and red cell folate and treatment is with folic acid.
Thalassaemias
Authors: Weatherall David
Published: September 2006

The thalassaemias are the commonest genetic disorders in humans and present an increasing public health problem in the tropical countries in which they occur at a high frequency.
Inborn Errors of Metabolism
Authors: Leslie Nancy D , Grabowski Gregory A
Published: September 2006

The inborn errors of metabolism are a heterogeneous group of conditions that result from the defective activity of an enzyme or enzymes important to the functioning of a cell. Such enzymes have roles in the synthesis, conversion or degradation of essential chemicals in the body's cells, tissues and fluids.
Iron Deficiency
Authors: Bridges Kenneth R
Published: September 2006

Iron deficiency is a leading cause of anaemia, affecting more than half a billion people worldwide. Depletion of iron stores precedes impaired production of iron‐containing proteins, most importantly haemoglobin. The two important stages of iron deficiency are: (1) depletion of iron stores without anaemia, and (2) depletion of iron stores with anaemia.
Iron Overload and Chelation Therapy
Authors: Bridges Kenneth R
Published: September 2006

Iron overload (haemochromatosis) is a disorder of iron metabolism commonly due to hereditary haemochromatosis or chronic transfusions. Chelation is the only available treatment for transfusional iron overload.
Mitochondrial Respiratory Chain Disorders
Authors: Poulton Joanna , Bindoff Laurence
Published: September 2006

Mitochondrial diseases are rare multisystem diseases primarily affecting muscle, brain, heart and liver. The unique biology of the mitochondrion causes variability in phenotypic severity and transmission.
Rhesus Haemolytic Disease of the Newborn
Authors: Letsky Elizabeth A
Published: September 2006

Rhesus (Rh) haemolytic disease of the newborn arises from maternal anti‐D immunoglobulin (Ig) G antibodies which cross the placenta and are directed against paternally derived D antigens which the fetus carries and the mother lacks. Untreated, this condition can result in intrauterine death from anaemia and cardiac failure (hydrops) or neonatal neurological problems and death following the development of severe jaundice and kernicterus.
Selection and Common Monogenic Disease
Authors: Clegg John
Published: September 2006

Major environmental changes following the development of agriculture have had a profound effect on the human gene pool by means of adaptive responses to new ecological relationships. The frequent occurrence of serious inherited red cell diseases in many parts of the world as a direct result of chronic exposure to malaria is an example that probably has many parallels with other genetic and infectious diseases.
Leprosy
Authors: Britton Warwick J
Published: September 2006

Leprosy is a chronic infectious disease of humans caused by
Mycobacterium leprae
, in which the skin and peripheral nerves are damaged by chronic inflammation initiated by the cellular immune response to the organism.
Eating Disorders
Authors: Fairburn Christopher G
Published: September 2006

The eating disorders anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa arise
from a complex interplay of biological, psychological and social processes, and are an important source of physical and psychosocial morbidity in adolescent girls and young women.
Asthma
Authors: Salvi Sundeep S , Sampson Anthony P , Holgate Stephen T
Published: September 2006

Asthma is a major chronic inflammatory disorder of the airways that is characterized by sporadic attacks of breathlessness, coughing and wheezing. Both genetic and environmental factors appear to play a role in the disease which poses a serious public health problem throughout the world.
Crohn Disease and Ulcerative Colitis
Authors: Simmons Jonathan , Jewell Derek
Published: September 2006

Crohn disease and ulcerative colitis are inflammatory diseases of the gastrointestinal tract of unknown aetiology. They are chronic conditions characterized by intermittent remission and relapse.
Rheumatoid Arthritis
Authors: Wordsworth Paul
Published: September 2006

Rheumatoid arthritis is a common inflammatory disorder primarily affecting synovial joints but also other organs. It is characterized by immune‐driven chronic inflammation, relapses and remissions and progressive disability. It is strongly associated with the presence of rheumatoid factor in the blood and has a significant genetic predisposition, notably from certain immune response genes.
Infertility: Causes, Investigation and Management
Authors: McVeigh Enda , Barlow David
Published: September 2006

In Western practice infertility, though not a disease or a symptom in the usual sense, is managed as an aspect of medicine, usually led from the gynaecological perspective but with major involvement of urologists, endocrinologists and others.
Migraine
Authors: Pearce JMS
Published: September 2006

Migraine represents a disorder of function with no demonstrable structural disease of the brain. Classification is complex, largely because of inexact clinical criteria, variability in patients’ relating of symptoms, and both the apparent overlap and coexistence of common migraine and tension headache.
Motor Neuron Diseases
Authors: Donaghy Michael
Published: September 2006

Motor neuron disease is an umbrella term referring to a group of diseases in which there is death of the lower motor neurons and/or the upper motor neurons. Some of these diseases are genetic, but most occur sporadically, that is unpredictably without any identified environmental or genetic cause.
Fungi and the History of Mycology
Authors: Kendrick Bryce
Published: September 2006

Fungi, broadly defined, (1) are eukaryotic, (2) have no plastids or photosynthetic pigments, (3) are therefore heterotrophic (unable to make their own food from inorganic components), (4) are osmotrophic (absorb rather than ingest food), (5) are often opportunistic and capable of exploiting many different substrates, (6) are never amoeboid at any stage, (7) almost always live inside branching networks of microscopic, apically extending, tubular structures known as hyphae, (8) almost all reproduce by unicellular or multicellular spores, (9) generally have haploid somatic nuclei, and (10) mostly do not produce flagellate cells. Mycology is the branch of science that studies these organisms.
Transcriptional Gene Regulation in Eukaryotes
Authors: Latchman David S
Published: September 2006

Regulation of gene transcription is the primary means by which gene expression is controlled to produce different proteins in different cell types or in response to different stimuli. This process is controlled by transcription factors that activate or repress the expression of specific genes and are themselves regulated by controlling their synthesis and/or activity.
SRY and DNA‐bending Proteins
Authors: Koopman Peter
Published: September 2006

SRY, the Y‐chromosome‐encoded male sex‐determining factor, is an example of a class of proteins that are thought to regulate gene transcription through binding to specific DNA sequence motifs and causing the DNA to bend – so‐called architectural transcription factors.
Signal Transduction Pathways in Development: Hedgehog Proteins and their Receptors
Authors: van den Heuvel Marcel
Published: September 2006

The Hedgehog proteins comprise a family of secreted signalling proteins of crucial importance for development of metazoan animals. The signalling pathway downstream of Hedgehog proteins is highly conserved in evolution. Loss or misactivation of the Hh signalling pathway can lead to pathogenesis.
Signal Transduction Pathways in Development: the
JAK
/
STAT
Pathway
Authors: Kawazoe Yoshinori , Naka Tetsuji
Published: September 2006

The JAK/STAT pathway is activated not only by various cytokines such as interferon and interleukin, but also by many growth factors. This pathway plays a crucial role in the signal transduction of these factors.
Harmful Algal Blooms
Authors: Dortch Quay
Published: September 2006

Harmful algal blooms result from the excessive growth of algae, with deleterious effects on human or animal health or on ecosystems; many produce biotoxins. The incidence of harmful algal blooms may be increasing as a result of eutrophication, transport to new areas by ballast water, or aquaculture/mariculture.
Agassiz, Jean Louis Rodolphe
Authors: Lagueux Olivier
Published: September 2006

1807–1873 Swiss ‐born American zoologist, palaeontologist and geologist who introduced scientific zoology to the United States.
Avery, Oswald Theodore
Authors: McCarty Maclyn
Published: September 2006

1877–1955 Canadian ‐born US medical microbiologist whose work with pneumococcus led not only to important advances related to pneumonia but, surprisingly, to the discovery of the genetic role of DNA.
Banting, Frederick Grant
Authors: Herrick Claire EJ
Published: September 2006

1891

–

1941

Canadian

physician

who

first extracted insulin

.
Bateson, William
Authors: Forsdyke Donald R
Published: September 2006

1861–1926 British biologist and champion of Mendel's ideas in the English‐speaking world, who postulated a nongenic ‘residue’ involved in speciation.

William Bateson (1861–1926).

image
Beijerinck, Martinus Willem
Authors: Wilkinson Lise
Published: September 2006

1851

–

1931

Dutch

microbiologist

whose studies of the agent of tobacco mosaic disease, which he termed
contagium vivum fluidum
, yielded important early information for formation of the concept of ‘filterable’, ‘invisible’, viruses.

Martinus Willem Beijerinck (1851–1931).

image
Blumberg, Baruch Samuel
Authors: Sankaran Neeraja
Published: September 2006

1925

–

American

virologist

and

research physician

who

discovered the ‘Australia antigen’ of the hepatitis B virus

.
Bonnet, Charles
Authors: Ratcliff MJ
Published: September 2006

1720–1793A Geneva (now part of Switzerland) naturalist and philosopher who discovered the parthenogenesis of aphids.

Charles Bonnet (1720–1793).

image
Broca, Pierre Paul
Authors: Jacyna S
Published: September 2006

1824–1880 French surgeon, neurologist, anatomist and anthropologist who laid the foundations of the modern doctrine of cerebral localization.
Buchner, Eduard
Authors: G Coley, Noel
Published: September 2006

1860

–

1917

German

biochemist

who discovered

cell‐free fermentation and began the modern study of enzymes and biochemistry

.
Cannon, Walter Bradford
Authors: Herrick Claire EJ
Published: September 2006

1871–1945 American physiologist, who helped to elaborate the nature and function of the sympathetic nervous system.
Carrel, Alexis
Authors: Cruse JM , Lewis RE
Published: September 2006

1873

–

1944

French

surgeon

who successfully joined blood vessels by end‐to‐end anastomosis with triangulation sutures, thereby permitting the rapid reestablishment of blood circulation to a transplanted organ.