bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Political and moral myths in American foreign policy: the neoconservative question
Authors: Langille Chris
Published: February 2009

The United States, under the two presidential terms of George W. Bush, entered in two major wars and saw enacted a series of controversial anti-terrorism measures (warrantless wiretapping, military prison at Guantanamo Bay, the use of enhanced interrogation techniques [torture]). In
light of these extreme policies in post-September 11 America, much attention has been paid to the neoconservative ideology and its shaping of Bush Administration policy. Appropriately, opponents of the policies of the Bush administration including John Kerry in 2004 and Barack Obama in 2008
have suggested a return to a traditional American foreign policy, emphasizing military restraint and multilateral cooperation. Underlying these appeals is the notion that neoconservatism represents a break from American foreign-policy tradition, an aberration that can be reversed. The approach
in this essay instead treats neoconservatism not as an aberration in American thought, but as a virulent strain of the enduring American ideology, chiefly exceptionalism. The recurring moral motifs in America's foreign policy are examined, with particular focus on the Cold War era and the
subsequent post-Soviet era, which culminated in today's War on Terror. It is further argued that the recurring rhetorical themes of US foreign policy its moral example, its democratic mission, permanent threats to democracy were drawn upon to justify the War on Terror, and more particularly,
the Iraq war. Because of the nature of the enemy in this case (Islamofascists in their parlance), this American narrative took on interesting mutations, stressing the supposed medievalism and backwardness of the enemy which drew upon well-established Orientalist motifs and stereotypes; the
selling of the war was hence facilitated by these cultural reference points, which characterized America's War on Terror as a struggle between modernity and the premodern.
Britain's democratic vision for Iraq: strategic interest or contingency?
Authors: Strawson John
Published: February 2009

The British government claimed that one of the objectives of the Iraq war 2003 was to establish democracy and to protect human rights. This article tracks the manner in which Iraq features in successive Foreign and Commonwealth Office annual Human Rights Reports, before and after the war. British initiatives at the United Nations were carefully choreographed so that British policy on Iraq would appear consistent with the international community. After the war, Britain's commitment to building a human rights culture in Iraq was much trumpeted but its actual policies were thin on the ground. This was a war in which both Iraqis and human rights were to be the losers.
Defying the hegemon: Syria and the Iraq War
Authors: Hinnebusch Raymond
Published: February 2009

What are the explanations for and consequences of Syria's defiance of the United States over the Iraq war? Although President Bashar al-Asad had sought to realign Syria westward, the failure of the SyriaIsrael peace process and Syria's oil deals with Iraq soured USSyrian relations while
Syria's opposition to the invasion of Iraq created a crisis in which US threats and sanctions targeted Damascus. Syria's Arab nationalist identity made regime acquiescence in overt aggression against an Arab state is impossible. The regime adapted to US pressures with a mix of concessions
and counter-pressures. It held stubbornly to its regional cards, bending when pressures were maximized, but seemingly outlasting the US campaign against it.
Adaptation as Education: A Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District
Authors: Chapple Freda
Published: February 2009

Changing perceptions is a learning process. When Shakespeare's play text Macbeth was appropriated by Nikolai Leskov in his novella A Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District (1865), which was adapted by Dmitri Shostakovich and remediated into the opera Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk
(1934), which was adapted again and remediated into an opera film by Shapiro as Katerina Ismailova in 1967, each new remediation carried the politics of theatrical performance inherent in Shakespeare's play, and thus the education of those who read or participated in the performance
of each manifestation of the adaptation. Through discussion of the changes that take place as Shakespeare's Macbeth is remediated to A Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk in Russian literature, and Soviet opera and opera on film, I argue that each historically situated remediation presented
a coded criticism of the way in which the authorities ruled and educated the Russian nation: adaptation as education.
In Praise of Treason: Translating Calabar
Authors: de Senna Pedro
Published: February 2009

Taking as a starting point Oswald de Andrade's concept of anthropophagy as a metaphor for cross-cultural interactions, this article examines some of the issues involved in translating (or adapting to a different cultural environment) a text that is itself a cannibalisation. Buarque
and Guerra's play Calabar: In Praise of Treason (Editora Civilizao Brasileira), originally published in 1973, was rewritten in 1979, adapting to the new socio-political climate under which it was to be staged. The writers make use of a number of intertextual sources in order to create
a text that demands constant watchfulness of their reader-translator-reader. Introducing this important Brazilian play to Anglophone audiences, this article moves on to explore some of the more practical aspects of translation in general and, in particular, of translating a political stage
musical. Drawing on post-colonial theories of translation (and from ideas contained in the play itself) the article makes the case for the ubiquity and indeed necessity of treason as tool in such interactions.
Uncle Tom's Cabin as Dominant Culture
Authors: O'Loughlin Jim
Published: February 2009

In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries,Uncle Tom's Cabinwas the most frequently performed play in the United States. This article applies Raymond Williams's concept of epochal analysis to make sense of the dizzying array of adaptations of this text taking place well after the end of slavery in the United States. By 1876,Uncle Tom's Cabinwas part of the dominant culture, and the Tom plays themselves appropriated other newly emergent aspects of popular culture, including jubilee singers, World's Fairs, and circuses. These examples illustrate a process of adaptation that had little to do with fidelity to an original text and much to do with tapping into the power of iconic images. These performances, including Edwin S. Porter's 1903 cinematic adaptation,Uncle Tom's Cabin or Slavery Days, provide a fascinating window onto the concerns and preoccupations of post-Civil War America.
Translating the City: A Community Theatre Version of Wim Wenders' Wings of Desire in Newcastle-upon-Tyne
Authors: Radosavljevi Duka
Published: February 2009

In Alan Lyddiard's 2003 adaptation of Wim Wenders' Wings of Desire the setting of the late-1980s Berlin was fully translated into the present-day Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Designed by Neil Murray and incorporating John Alder's original film footage, the production also featured members
of the community in conjunction with the Northern Stage ensemble. Partly forming a retrospective analysis of the process from my point of view as the company and production dramaturg, this essay explores the ways in which the Newcastle production functioned as an exercise in translating a
city. The account of the adaptation process is framed by an analytical discussion of the original text and its transition into a particular socio-political context, in conjunction with an interrogation of the phenomenology of translation and Wenders' deliberate synaesthetic approach to the
material. Finally, the article seeks to conceptualize the text with regard to its apparent inter- and cross-cultural mobility.
Ran: Chaos on the Western Frontier
Authors: Griggs Yvonne
Published: February 2009

This article looks at the relationship between Akira Kurosawa's Ran, Shakespeare's King Lear and genre cinema. Instead of seeking to prove Ran's debt to Shakespeare, debate centres on Kurosawa's inventive intertextualization, part of which involves his manipulation
of the generic codes of Eastern and Western cinema. The article argues that although widely regarded as part of the canon of Shakespeare on screen and appropriated by a Shakespearean heritage of global proportions Kurosawa's Ran refuses to be consumed by Western academia. The film offers
a social critique of patriarchal systems across a range of genres, from Japanese jidai-geki epic to Renaissance tragedy, to Hollywood western, linking the concerns embedded in Shakespeare's King Lear with those of other historical eras, other nations, other mythologies.
Researching the Method: Some Personal Strategies
Authors: Fry Michael
Published: February 2009

In considering two of my stage adaptations, Tess of the d'Urbervilles (1997) and Emma (1996), I will explain the challenges involved in matching authorial method to theatrical inventiveness. Aspects discussed include the consideration of style, tone and authorial voice,
and a comparison between prose and dramatic narrative. Hardy's and Austen's backgrounds, correspondence and literary tastes are referred to, and the impact of this exploration on the respective dramatic methods is illustrated. The production elements are discussed in as much detail as the
scripts themselves, including descriptions of the design, musical and movement aspects. Actor challenges, including the depiction of caricature as well as character, are examined. Finally, the context for the adaptations is broached, including my background as a director and artistic director,
and how cast-size and resources can often determine the nature of an adaptation as much as the artistic vision.
Loving Geographies: queering straight migration to Italy
Authors: Duncan Derek
Published: February 2009

This article looks at male migration to Italy from Eastern Europe in a range of recent films through the prism of Queer Theory. The men who feature in these films are not gay, but their representation constructs a non-normative heterosexual subject whose presence in Italy depends on
his productive role in the workplace, and excludes any kind of reproductive function. The central narrative device of these films is the unsuccessful romance between a migrant man and an Italian woman. These catastrophic plots introduce the spectator to a pedagogy of the non-national body
by queering the heterosexual romance narrative. Italy itself is queered by the insinuation of the foreign worker into a medium that has been seen as the privileged cultural vehicle for the construction of Italian national identity. Yet the queering is only temporary as these films envisage
the eradication of the foreign body from the national landscape.
Queering the Orientalist porn package: Arab men in French gay pornography
Authors: Cervulle Maxime , Rees-Roberts Nick
Published: February 2009

This article charts the shift in focus from orientalist to postcolonial porn production in the French context. We set contemporary digital video production by local studio Citbeur against old-school racial fetish porn made famous by Jean-Daniel Cadinot (Harem, 1984) and later
by Jean-Nol Ren Clair in the Studio Beurs series. Unlike the blatant sexual tourism of the colonialist porn produced by Cadinot and JNRC, we argue here that Citbeur marks a break with the exploitative gaze of white pornographers intent on hunting out niche markets for the expanding
sector of ethnic pornography. In short, there is a radical shift in focus from the neo-colonial sex and class tourism in Cadinot and JNRC to the multi-ethnic independent production of studio Citbeur, in which the gay beur subculture attempts to mark both a visual distance from stereotypical
imagery of Arab masculinity as savage and a political distance from institutional gay culture.
Causes of Color Change and Sediment Formation in Navy Distillate Fuels
Authors: Bhan OK , Green JB , Brinkman DW , Carley B
Published: February 2009

The military has unusual requirements for storage of large quantities of fuel for long periods of time as strategic war reserves. Because of the location of these supplies, it is often expensive to remove old fuel and refill the tanks. Thus, recent experience in which Navy distillate fuels have been going off color and showing a tendency to form unacceptable levels of solids in a relatively short period of time has drawn serious attention. This paper will describe the detailed compositional studies of companion diesel fuels that did and did not exhibit problems, with a discussion of the differences observed and the probable mechanisms leading to the problems. Our work suggests that oxidation of neutral components present in fuel to polar intermediates may be a major pathway for sediment formation and darkening of diesel fuels. Within a given compound class, the more aromatic, higher molecular weight members were usually more active in sediment formation.
Effects of an Unstable Diesel Fuel on Injector Coking and Vehicle Performance
Authors: Halsall R
Published: February 2009

The short-term effects of an oxidatively unstable diesel fuel were investigated in a 1982 General Motors 4.3-L V-6 diesel vehicle in city-suburban service. Effects on injector coking, Federal Test Procedure (FTP) emissions, fuel economy, cold-idle passenger compartment sound pressure, and driveability were monitored. The unstable test fuel caused frequent severe vehicle fuel filter plugging, despite the fuel having been pre-filtered with a filter having a pore size half that of the vehicle fuel filter. Filter plugging caused by fuel gum resulted in excessive smoke emission and power loss in highway operation and a tendency for the engine to stall easily when cold. It was concluded that vehicle fuel filter plugging can cause some of the complaints (for example, poor driveability and excessive smoke) attributed to injector coking. Injector coking was also observed, but the extent was insufficient to cause adverse effects on the measured parameters.
Factors to Consider in Testing Biocides for Distillate Fuels
Authors: Rossmoore HW , Wireman JW , Rossmoore LA , Riha VF
Published: February 2009

Control of microbial activity in fuel may require the use of chemical biocides. In their evaluation in distillate fuels, a number of variables must be considered. These include the oil/water ratio, the biocide's partition coefficient, the stability of the biocide, the longevity of contamination, the presence of other nonbiocidal additives, and the microbiological spectrum (including specific recovery methods for these microorganisms). This paper will present data dealing especially with test method development, taking into account the above permutations.
The Defense Fuel Supply Center's (DFSC) Quality Assurance Program
Authors: Martin CJ
Published: February 2009

The Defense Fuel Supply Center (DFSC) is responsible for the procurement, transportation, and storage of bulk petroleum products for the U.S. Military Services and Federal Civilian Agencies worldwide. This paper will describe the quality assurance program developed and utilized by the DFSC to prevent quality problems and to ensure specification products are acquired and delivered to its customers. In so doing, it will describe the specification and contract requirements for inspecting jet fuels, marine and automotive diesel fuels, motor gasolines, and heating fuels. The inspection and cleanliness criteria established for shipping containers, such as tankers, barges, tank trucks, railcars, and pipelines, will also be discussed. Additionally, the training and certification of field quality assurance personnel (inspectors) will be reviewed.
Method of Managing Long-Term Diesel Fuel Integrity
Authors: Melton PM , McGaughey LS , Goldwire AM
Published: February 2009

Deteriorating fuel quality, disposal problems, the effects of storage facilities' installation, and fuel cost have created a need for intelligent stored diesel fuel management. Alternative methods of cleaning or treating, or both, contaminated diesel fuels stored under “real world” conditions were tested, and results analyzed to determine methods of managing stored fuel integrity. The methods tested include: (1) mechanical centrifugation/filtration, (2) filtration/chemical treatment, (3) chemical treatment without filtration, and (4) the combination of (1) and (3). Each method is discussed in detail in addition to concluding remarks addressing the most viable method supported by the test results.
Effective Treatment of Microbially Contaminated Fuel Storage Tanks
Authors: Dorris MM , Pitcher D
Published: February 2009

Once microbial contamination of a fuel storage tank occurs, the clean up can be a time-consuming and expensive job. This paper will discuss several methods of treatment for contaminated storage tanks including the selection of biocides and preventing future contamination problems.
Effects of Unstable and Microbially Contaminated Fuel on Vehicle Operations: A Diesel Fuel Preventive Maintenance Program
Authors: Francis DE
Published: February 2009

During 1983, the Georgia Power Company experienced a problem that appeared to be fuel related. Specifically some of the new light duty trucks equipped with diesel engines began experiencing fuel pump failures and severely fouled filters. Analysis of fuel specimens from in-ground fuel storage tanks and the fuel filters indicated a high level of microbial activity in both areas and a destabilized fuel, which exhibited a tendency to form insolubles when heated. In addition, water found in some of the in-ground diesel storage tanks was of sufficient quantity to be of great concern. As a result of these findings the following steps were taken: (1) The in-ground diesel fuel storage tank fill pipe area was raised and a new fill pipe cap fitted with a proper seal. (2) Water and microbial sludge were pumped from the system and sampling was done to insure their removal. (3) A biocide and multifunctional fuel stability compound were added to the fuel, and subsequent tests for continuing activity were conducted. (4) A program for continuing preventive maintenance and testing was established for the entire fleet. This paper will deal with the details of the problem, identification of the source, and the corrective action taken.
Fuel Quality Program for Long-Term Storage of Gas Turbine Distillate Fuel in Large Tanks
Authors: Pickering TH
Published: February 2009

In 1981 advanced microbial activity was discovered in several large gas turbine fuel storage tanks. Additional testing revealed that the fuel had formed insoluble material and exhibited unstable characteristics when heated. Analysis of fuel from more tanks in the Florida Power & Light system showed similar results. After several floating fuel feed lines sank to the tank bottom at the Fort Myers Plant, a program based on Diesel Fuel Stabilizer Additive (MIL-S-53021) was established. Because of the low fuel turnover and the large volume of fuel involved, tank entry was not possible for several years. A program of continuing analysis showed several phenomena. Bottom activity appeared to increase after initial biocide treatment with subsequent activity counts reduced slowly to zero. After tank entry was made, large amounts of dead debris were discovered both on the tank bottom and as high as 30 ft (9 m) on the tank walls. This paper will cover the problems, the solutions, and the on-going program to prevent a future occurrence.
Response of Aquatic Microbial Communities to Surfactants
Authors: Ventullo RM , Lewis MA , Larson RJ
Published: February 2009

The response of microbial communities to three classes of surfactants was studied in a stream and lake ecosystem. Dodecyltrimethylammonium chloride (TMAC, cationic) had no effect on bacterial biomass or carbon turnover in the sediment, water column, or epilithon in a first-order stream that was continuously dosed with TMAC for 23 days. Biodegradation of TMAC was evident at all sites and showed a time-dependent increase only at the highest (0.25 mg/L) dose site. The effects of long-chain nonionic (linear primary alcohol ethoxylate: Neodol 45-7) and anionic (linear alkylbenzene sulfonate) surfactants were studied in situ in Acton Lake, Ohio. The chemicals were tested over a concentration range of 0.001 to 10 mg/L in both short-term (3 h) and long-term (21 day) exposures. Neither of the chemicals had averse effects on the microbial biomass as measured by acridine orange direct counts. In the acute test of these chemicals, decreased turnover of glucose was noted in the concentration range of 0.1 to 10 mg/L surfactant. However, in chronic tests (21 day) the communities recovered, and carbon turnover returned to preexposure levels. Chronic exposure also resulted in an adaptive response as indicated by increased degradation of the chemicals after exposure. Our studies indicate that exposure of lake and stream microbial communities to surfactants had no long-term detrimental effects on bacterial heterotrophy and resulted in increased biodegradation of these materials.
Bacterial Adaptation to Chlorobenzoate Contamination in the Niagara Region Investigated by DNA:DNA Colony Hybridization
Authors: Fulthorpe RR , Straus NA , Wyndham RC
Published: February 2009

Chloroaromatic biodegradation was studied in samples of water and the sediment-water interface of Bloody Run Creek, a tributary of the Niagara River with a source adjacent to the Hyde Park Industrial Landfill in New York State. Alcaligenes spp. were found which metabolized chlorobenzoates by virtue of an 85 kilobase plasmid, pBR60. These isolates were obtained following continuous culture enrichment of populations from the sediment-water interface, selecting isolates for their metabolism of 3-chlorobenzoate as a carbon and energy source. To determine whether plasmid deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) sequences were present in a significant number of organisms in the water and surface sediments of the creek, samples were diluted and spread on nitrocellulose niters overlying solid media containing chlorobenzoates and traces of yeast extract. A control creek with a similar superficial geology but lacking contaminants was also sampled. Colony hybridization with phosphorus-32 (32P)-labeled pBR60 revealed differences between samples from the two creeks in both the number of positive signals and the signal strength. Isolates, obtained from the creek water and surface sediments, which were capable of growth on 3-chlorobenzoate were screened by dot-blot hybridization using a specific probe, derived from pBR60, which detected sequences involved in chlorobenzoate catabolism. Evidence for the mobility of the plasmid between Alcaligenes and Pseudomonas species was also obtained. Technical problems with this approach, alternative methods, and applications are discussed.
Effect of the Mud-Water Interface on the Chemical Life of Lakes
Authors: Cowgill UM
Published: February 2009

There is scant information concerning the chemical composition of the mud-water interface in shallow, aerobic, eutrophic bodies of water. A little more is known of this region in deep eutrophic lakes with periodically anaerobic hypolimnions. The object of this paper is to compare the composition of the mud-water interface in two such limnological systems and to demonstrate the effect this region exerts on the chemical life of lakes.

The shallow lake used as an example is the preserve of Lake Huleh, Israel, which is hypereutrophic and rarely contains water to a depth greater than 35 cm but has an area of 46.9 ha (116 acres). Linsley Pond, Connecticut, will be used as an example of a deeper (14.6 m) eutrophic lake which is thermally stratified except for the autumnal and vernal isothermal periods.

In a shallow aerobic pond such as the Huleh Preserve, elements that are sorbed by the mud fall into two groups: those that are sorbed and retained by the organic matter, and those that move in concert with the ferric hydroxide complex. Under anaerobic conditions such as those present in Linsley Pond much of the year, those same elements diffuse from the mud into the hypolimnion.

Those elements held most strongly in the surface waters, as contrasted to the mud-water interface in shallow aerobic systems such as the Huleh Preserve, diffuse from the reduced mud surface in anaerobic systems such as Linsley Pond.

Some elements diffuse from a reduced mud surface and under aerobic conditions attain equilibrium. These are rubidium, lithium, and aluminum.

Sodium, boron, silicon, chromium, nickel, and chlorine do not diffuse from a reduced mud surface. In aerobic systems chlorine attains equilibrium, while in the shallow Huleh Preserve the sodium concentrates in the surface water. Boron, silicon, chromium, and nickel in shallow systems become enriched in surface waters in contrast to the liquid or solid portion of the mud-water interface.

All elemental concentrations reported in this study represent the total amount detected. Speciation is not addressed. The cyclical nature of elemental concentrations noted in this study should provide a much-needed background for sediment quality criteria.
Toxicity of Percolate from Decontaminated Pesticide-Contaminated Soils
Authors: Graves DA , Foltz JW , Colcolough JJ , Horton PM
Published: February 2009

Pesticide storage sites and aerial application landing sites all represent potential sources of surface and groundwater contamination. Cleansing operations associated with spraying equipment and leakage of containment areas during torrential rains both represent vehicles for pesticide contamination of adjacent soils. The objectives of this research were to measure toxicity of percolate from treated contaminated soils and to determine what level of treatment would produce a nontoxic percolate. Two treatments were examined, activated carbon and agricultural limestone. Treatments were applied to soils contaminated with either toxaphene (1167 mg/kg), chlorpyrifos (96 mg/kg), or carbofuran (876 mg/kg). The toxicity of control water and percolates from uncontaminated soils (control), contaminated soil, and treated soils were measured with fathead minnows. Agricultural limestone was not effective in reducing the toxicity of contaminated soils. Percolate from contaminated soils resulted in 100% mortality and percolate from uncontaminated soils resulted in no mortality. Levels of activated carbon required for 50% survival of fathead minnows at 96 h were 62.7, 0.3, and 46.3 g of activated carbon per kilogram of soil for toxaphene, chlorpyrifos, and carbofuran contaminated soils, respectively. Expressed relative to soil contamination levels, the application rates which would produce 50% survival were 54, 3, and 57 mg of activated carbon per milligram of soil pesticide for toxaphene, chlorpyrifos, and carbofuran, respectively.
Application of a Risk Assessment Framework for Marine Disposal of Sewage Sludge at Midshelf and Offshelf Sites
Authors: Nocito JA , Walker HA , Paul JF , Menzie CA
Published: February 2009

A risk assessment framework was developed for predicting impacts from midshelf and offshelf disposal of sewage sludge. In the application presented, only the impacts resulting from bioaccumulation of the contaminants were considered. Disposal sites were assumed to be characteristic of sites in the Middle Atlantic Bight. The contaminant transport model used assumed all contaminants were associated with particulates and calculated the flux through the water column and into the sediments. Since degradation losses and resuspension were not explicitly included in the model, results obtained represented upper-bound estimates of time-averaged contaminant flux to the sediments. Cross-shelf profiles of maximum concentrations in the sediment surface layer were calculated by using an expression that accounted for mixing in the bioturbated zone. By assuming that organisms reach equilibrium with the surrounding sediment, concentrations of neutral hydrophobic organic contaminants in infaunal organisms were computed by using a preference factor (PF) based upon the organic carbon content of the sediments and the lipid content of the organisms. Results indicated that body burdens may be at least a half-order of magnitude higher in organisms living in the vicinity of the midshelf site than those living offshelf. Predicted tissue residues were compared with the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) tolerance level for polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and the action level for chlordane to determine potential impacts from bioaccumulation of these contaminants in the tissues of organisms. By using the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS), the reference dose (RfD) for chlordane was obtained and used to evaluate the risk to humans based on a dose to man calculation. Carcinogenic risk estimates were made using estimated potency factors. Projected results indicated that tissue concentrations resulting from sludge disposal would be at least an order of magnitude lower than the FDA tolerance level for PCBs at both sites, even after 100 years of disposal. The simulated midshelf disposal for a 100-year period resulted in body burdens of 0.28 ppm chlordane compared to the FDA action level of 0.3 ppm. However, the calculated RfD for chlordane was exceeded after 70 years of midshelf disposal. Although higher noncarcinogenic risks were associated with midshelf disposal of chlordane after 100 years, higher carcinogenic risks were associated with midshelf disposal of PCBs. Because of large uncertainties in modeling the various processes affecting transport, fate, and contaminant uptake in the benthic food chain, the results are only intended to provide estimates of relative risks related to midshelf versus offshelf disposal options. Based on relative comparisons made in this analysis, higher human health risks would be associated with midshelf disposal than with offshelf disposal.
Use of Fractionation and Chemical Analysis Schemes for Plant Effluent Toxicity Evaluations
Authors: Doi J , Grothe DR
Published: February 2009

A new field of analysis has arisen for the evaluation of wastewater samples in response to forthcoming regulations. Instead of using current methodology to determine if target compounds are present in environmental water samples (for example, priority pollutant analysis), Monsanto's Environmental Sciences Center (ESC) has developed a scheme to identify compounds that are either toxic to aquatic organisms or major sources of total organic carbon in wastewaters. This procedure may be necessary with the upcoming toxicity reduction evaluation (TRE) program sponsored by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). The ESC scheme uses simple column chromatography techniques to initially fractionate the wastewater into separate inorganic and organic constituents. Each fraction is evaluated for toxicity to a common test organism, Daphnia magna. The fraction containing the toxicity is then analyzed to identify the sources of toxicity. Several case studies are presented to show how the ESC fractionation and chemical analysis scheme has been used to isolate and identify the factors responsible for wastewater toxicity.
Long-Term Multispecies Toxicity and Effluent Fractionation Study at a Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plant
Authors: Goodfellow WL , McCulloch WL , Botts JA , McDearmon AG , Bishop DF
Published: February 2009

Characterization of the acute and chronic toxicity of effluent samples from the Patapsco Wastewater Treatment Plant (WWTP), Baltimore, Maryland, was performed approximately twice weekly from April 1986 to January 1987. Acute toxicity of both the primary and secondary effluents was evaluated using Ceriodaphnia dubia, Mysidopsis bahia, and Microtox [a luminescent marine bacteria Photobacterium phosphoreum (Beckman Instruments, Inc.)]; chronic toxicity was evaluated using the C. dubia seven-day chronic test. The data indicate that C. dubia was the most sensitive indicator of acute toxicity for both primary and secondary effluent wastewaters. The acute responses for M. bahia and Microtox were considerably less sensitive than those for C. dubia. The 48-h median lethal concentration (LC50) values for C. dubia ranged from 0.5 to 23.4% secondary effluent and 0.1 to 6.5% primary effluent wastewaters. Microtox 5-min median effective concentration (EC50) values ranged from 9.4 to 100% secondary effluent and 0.6 to 19.5% primary effluent, respectively. M. bahia 96-h LC50 values were 8.9 to 100% secondary effluent and 14.8 to 35.4% primary effluent, respectively. The seven-day C. dubia chronic values (ChV) for the primary and secondary effluents were only slightly lower than the acute responses, ranging from <0.1 to 9.4% secondary effluent and <0.1 to 6.5% primary effluent, respectively.

As an additional characterization of the plant's treatment process effectiveness, influent and effluent samples were fractionated in an attempt to identify specific components of acute toxicity entering and leaving the WWTP. As a result of the fractionation study, nonpolar organic compounds appeared to be the major toxic component of the samples fractionated. While identification of the specific compounds causing toxicity in the nonpolar organic fractions was not possible, the octanol/water partition coefficient (Log P) values for the most toxic fractions were estimated to be approximately 6 to 9 in the summer samples and approximately 3.6 to 8.3 in the winter samples. Cations, anions, and polar organic compounds do not appear to be major contributors to the toxicity of the effluent samples fractionated. The percentage of toxicity reduction across the plant was approximately 50 to 90% for the three species tested.
Comparison of Estimates of Effects of a Complex Effluent at Differing Levels of Biological Organization
Authors: Pratt JR , Mitchell J , Ayers R , Cairns J
Published: February 2009

Impact of a toxic municipal sewage effluent containing textile dyes was evaluated using standard acute and chronic single-species tests and a microcosm test using indigenous microbiota from the receiving stream. Estimated effect levels were compared with the calculated in-stream waste concentration and measured impacts on stream microbiota and macrobenthos. Acute tests examined effluent effects on Daphnia pulex, and short-term chronic effluent dilution tests were conducted using Ceriodaphnia dubia and larval Pimephales promelas. Microcosm tests examined effluent effects on the structure and function of microbial communities on artificial substrates. Additional tests examined effects of receiving stream water on C. dubia and microcosms.

Effluent concentrations of 70% were acutely toxic in median effective concentrations) to D. pulex. Estimates of the no-observable-effect concentration (NOEC) were 10 and 7.5% for C. dubia and P. promelas, respectively. Responses in the microcosm systems were nonlinear and showed significant subsidy of both structure and function at concentrations of >30% and toxicity at concentrations >30%. Tests of receiving stream water below the effluent outfall showed a slight depression of reproduction in C. dubia and recovery to upstream levels for water sampled from farther downstream. Microcosms treated with ambient stream water did not show effects on taxonomic richness, but reduced midmorning oxygen levels were observed for microcosms dosed with water from stations below the effluent outfall. Surveys of in-stream microbiota and macrobenthos confirmed adverse impacts below the discharge and indicated recovery 11 km downstream. Microcosm tests were generally less sensitive than single-species tests in detecting toxicity of the effluent. None of the laboratory tests corresponded to observed in-stream effects. The sensitivity of the tests may have been improved by improving the test conditions, including continuous replacement of effluent, as was done in larval P. promelas tests. To be effective in predicting in-stream effects, the design of intensive toxicity surveys should make every effort to mimic local conditions.
Evaluation of Lethal Levels, Release Criteria, and Water Quality Objectives for an Acid-Mine Waste
Authors: Finlayson BJ , Wilson DC
Published: February 2009

Acid-mine discharges from the Spring Creek drainage contribute large quantities of toxic copper, zinc, and cadmium to anadromous chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) and steelhead trout (Salmo gairdneri) fisheries below Keswick Dam after regulated release with the Sacramento River, California. Release criteria and water quality objectives for the protection of salmonids from the metals in the waste have been developed using laboratory toxicity tests and field monitoring studies. These metal criteria and objectives were evaluated by on-site toxicity tests and additional monitoring studies.

Chinook salmon and steelhead trout fry were exposed to Spring Creek acid-mine waste in on-site toxicity tests. Acutely lethal concentrations of copper, zinc, and cadmium from the waste were similar to those from laboratory tests on metal sulfate mixtures, indicating that these metals are the major toxic components of the waste. Monitoring the waste in the Sacramento River after controlled dilution using criteria for copper and zinc indicated the following: (1) mean concentrations of the metals approached or exceeded incipient lethal levels (96-h LC10 values); (2) short-term (<5 out of 24 h) peak concentrations of copper, zinc, and cadmium in the Sacramento River exceeded median lethal levels (96-h LC50 values) under normal operating conditions; and (3) no measurable loss of copper from adsorption onto particulate matter and subsequent precipitation and deposition occurred when the waste was diluted to levels tolerable to fish. New criteria for zinc and new release schedules for the copper criteria that will protect against acutely lethal levels should be developed.
Yearly Chronic Toxicity Comparisons of Stream Sediments and Waters
Authors: Westerman A
Published: February 2009

Three years of fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas) embryo-larval chronic toxicity tests were conducted on stream sediments and waters collected from eight localities in the Yellow Creek drainage, in Kentucky. Test sites were chosen to assess the impact from the following point and nonpoint sources: (1) a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP), (2) urban runoff, (3) coal mining and washing activities, (4) septic tank seepage, and (5) dumping of trash into the creek. All tests were conducted in replicate, and sediments and water were analyzed for heavy metals (high concentrations of metals have historically been measured in the area). The toxicity of stream sediments and water decreased downstream from the WWTP with dilution and distance from the outfall. Results of the solid-phase sediment tests were very similar over the three years. However, considerable differences were noted in the yearly water testing. Sediment samples collected immediately below the WWTP demonstrated 82% toxicity in 1984, 81% toxicity in 1985, and 78% toxicity in 1987. Water samples from that location produced 21% lethality in 1984, 100% lethality in 1985, and 21% lethality in 1986. Control sediments and waters from the basin demonstrated very high survival over the three years (range 95 to 98%). From these data, solid-phase sediment toxicity tests are useful indicators of long-term impacts (over three years) while water-column toxicity tests are more representative of short-term effects. Under the constraints of time and resources that are placed on federal and state agencies and in areas that are monitored infrequently, sediment toxicity testing would be preferable to water-column testing to assess overall instream toxic conditions.
Performance and Validation of an On-Line Fish Ventilatory Early Warning System
Authors: Gruber D , Diamond J , Johnson D
Published: February 2009

A continuous, automated biological early warning system for rapidly detecting acutely toxic wastewater was developed and tested over a two-year period at an ammunition manufacturing plant. The computerized system simultaneously tracked and analyzed the ventilatory frequency of control and exposed bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus), generating either “warnings” or “alarms” depending on the toxicity of the exposure water. Standard acute flow-through toxicity tests (96 h) were concurrently performed on the wastewater to validate the results of the ventilatory system. Standard water quality and chemical monitoring were also performed during the study to interpret the results of the early warning system.

Several preliminary trials indicated that a data assessment interval of 10 min and a sampling rate of 60 Hz for each fish was generally sufficient for detecting acutely toxic conditions. Alarms (statistically significant changes in ventilatory rate over time) were usually generated within 30 min of exposure to effluent concentrations approximating the 96-h median lethal concentration (LC50) value. Time to alarm was inversely related to the toxicity (percentage of the LC50) of the effluent; longer times to alarm occurred with decreasing effluent toxicity (R2 = -0.88). The system was capable of detecting 10% of the 96-h LC50 concentration within 24 h. Less toxic effluent concentrations were not reliably detected with the present system.

Water quality and chemical monitoring data generally contributed little information in this study. A general lack of analytical sensitivity may have contributed to this finding. It was thought that better analytical sensitivity would have yielded stronger correlations between the chemical composition of the effluent and toxicity effects. Regression analyses indicated that 35% of the variability in the toxicity tests and ventilatory data was explained by the available chemical data.

Two general problems were evident in this system. First, ventilatory rate alone was occasionally an insufficient parameter for detecting acute toxicity. In several runs, ventilatory amplitude and waveform patterns were more informative response variables than frequency. Second, due to the insufficient information generated at times by frequency data alone, false alarms or lack of alarms were evident, reducing the reliability of the system. Results of this study confirm that fish ventilatory systems can serve as useful early warning tools for monitoring wastewaters and that all facets of ventilatory behavior need to be monitored to ensure system reliability. This study also shows that validation of early warning systems, through traditional toxicity tests and chemical monitoring, is crucial to the development of sound approaches for rapidly detecting toxics in surface waters.
Topics on Expressing and Predicting Results of Life-Cycle Tests
Authors: Stephan CE
Published: February 2009

In April 1967, Mount and Stephan published results of two life-cycle toxicity tests with the fathead minnow and introduced the terms maximum acceptable toxicant concentration (MATC) and laboratory fish production index. Although the methodology for life-cycle tests has been improved substantially, and such tests can now be conducted with a variety of fishes and invertebrates, major issues exist concerning the ways in which results of these tests can be calculated and presented. The purpose of this paper is to present the rationale to answer three questions. First, is it better to calculate results by considering data for a smorgasbord of individual biological measurements or for one or a few integrated effects that are commercially, recreationally, or ecologically important? Second, is it better to calculate results using hypothesis testing or regression analysis? Third, what terminology is appropriate for expressing results of life-cycle chronic tests? The usefulness of various other tests for predicting results of life-cycle tests cannot be adequately assessed until some of these issues are resolved.
Evaluation of the Intrinsic Rate of Increase as an Endpoint for Ceriodaphnia Chronic Tests
Authors: Barbour MT , Graves CG , McCulloch WL
Published: February 2009

Fecundity and survival data can be used to calculate a number of demographic measures which characterize populations including net replacement rate, generation length, life xpectancy, and reproductive value. Another measure is r, lternately called the intrinsic or instantaneous rate of population increase. This statistic is a measure of the capacity of a population to increase in an unlimited environment and is in estimate of ecological growth potential. The equation of Lotka (1925) for calculating the intrinsic rate of increase is 1=∑x=0nlxmxe−rx Where n is the number of age classes, lx is the probability of survival from birth to Age Class x, and mx is the average number of births per individual in Age Class x.

The intrinsic rate of increase, r, has been calculated for >50 chronic toxicity tests on effluents from publicly owned treatment works (POTWs), metal refinishers, and acid-mine drainage. The hypothesis was that the intrinsic rate of increase is a sensitive endpoint for estimating toxicity to populations exposed to toxicants in laboratory experiments. Results of analyses performed on seven-day Ceriodaphnia tests indicate that r is actually less sensitive than the other chronic endpoints examined for toxicity tests with limited observation days which serve as age classes. These results suggest that for the type of toxicity test examined (short-term chronic), the calculation of r does not add to the interpretation of toxic response that can be made from evaluating fecundity and survival data as separate measures. Although r is a useful chronic endpoint, it is not cost effective to calculate when simpler estimates of toxicity are available.
Inferring Population-Level Significance from Individual-Level Effects: An Extrapolation from Fisheries Science to Ecotoxicology
Authors: Barnthouse LW , Suter GW , Rosen AE
Published: February 2009

This paper discusses the concepts and operational definitions of significance used in fisheries management and environmental impact assessment, and demonstrates their applicability to contaminant hazard assessment. Methods of linking chronic test data to models commonly used in fisheries assessments are demonstrated, using the Chesapeake Bay striped bass population as a representative species of regulatory interest. These models can (1) integrate concentration-response functions for the separate components of life cycle chronic tests into a single measure of population-level effects, and (2) translate experimental variability into uncertainty concerning consequences of contaminant exposure. We compared population-level risk functions derived from five life-cycle toxicity data sets to maximum acceptable toxicant concentrations (MATCs) derived from the same five data sets. The comparison showed the MATC to be an inadequate measure of significant population-level effects because (1) several life stages frequently contribute to the effect associated with a given exposure, and (2) test responses such as fecundity, which are both highly sensitive and highly variable, are systematically undervalued in the calculation of the MATC. We discuss several approaches for enriching ecotoxicology through the use of population models and other methods outside the current domain of the field.