bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Calvinism
Authors: Murdock Graeme
Published: February 2012

Calvinism was a term first used by Calvin’s opponents. Calvinism has become a widely used label to describe the ideas adopted by Reformed churches across Europe. Some writers prefer to use the label “Reformed” or “Reformed Protestant” to describe a movement that owed much to the insights of a range of reformers and was certainly not solely reliant on John Calvin’s leadership. Calvinism was distinctive among 16th-century reform movements because of particular ideas about God’s plan for the salvation of humanity, about the meaning and celebration of the sacraments, and about the danger posed by idolatry. Calvinism spread quickly across the Continent during the middle decades of the 16th century as a dynamic and transnational reform movement. International connections were maintained by contacts between reformers and Reformed churches. A strong sense of belonging to an international religious community was felt by many Calvinists, and in particular by exiles and refugees fleeing religious persecution. There were differences between the beliefs and practices of Reformed churches in a range of distinct political and social contexts. Reformed communities in France and the Netherlands had to fight for the right to worship. This gave Calvinism a certain reputation for political radicalism. However, Calvinism also received the support of monarchs and princes in parts of the Holy Roman Empire, Central Europe, and the British Isles. Different Reformed churches developed a variety of structures. One important institution in many churches was the consistory, used to promote moral and social discipline. Historians and theologians have examined the nature of Calvinist ideas, the dynamic growth of Calvinism, the international character of Calvinism, and the complex impact of Calvinism on the political and cultural history of diverse European societies from Ulster to Transylvania.
John Calvin
Authors: Murdock Graeme
Published: February 2012

John Calvin left his native France in fear of persecution because of his association with a circle of reform-minded intellectuals. He found refuge in Geneva in 1536, in the wake of the city’s revolt against the authority of Catholic Savoy. Calvin was employed by the city council to preach, but his relationship with the Genevan authorities broke down in 1538. Calvin moved to work in Strasbourg but returned to Geneva in 1541 and remained in the city until his death in 1564. On Calvin’s return, the council agreed to his plans for reforms to the structure of the Genevan church. They agreed to establish a consistory of clergy and lay elders who were charged to monitor religious orthodoxy and moral conduct in Geneva. Calvin became the dominant figure among the town’s clergy. His authority was based above all on his scholarship. Calvin’s abilities as a writer and speaker are clear from surviving sermons, polemic tracts, commentaries on the Bible, and most notably from the Institutes of the Christian Religion. His intellectual authority was matched by his relentless energy, single-minded determination, and excellent organizational abilities. Calvin had a certain personal charisma, at least for his friends and admirers. At the same time, he was dismissive of opponents and ready to oppose anyone who disagreed with his vision of church life. Calvin’s influence extended well beyond Geneva’s walls. To build Reformed religion beyond Geneva, he engaged with church leaders in southern German and Swiss towns and territories. Indeed, it would be a profound mistake to see Calvin alone as responsible for the dynamic spread of Calvinism or Reformed Protestantism across Europe (see the article Calvinism). Reformed religion developed as Calvin worked with other reformers to come to a consensus on key points of theology. Much of Calvin’s attention was devoted to efforts to achieve the conversion of his homeland. Toward the end of his life, an academy opened in Geneva to train ministers to be sent into France as civil war spread across the kingdom. Since his death, Calvin has held the attention of many, theologians and historians alike. They have analyzed Calvin’s published work, his sermons, and his correspondence to try to understand his impact on Reformation Europe.
Mechanisms of Representation
Authors: Jennings Will
Published: February 2012

“Mechanisms of representation” relate to the organization of politics and its consequences, and the processes through which interests or preferences are represented in the political system and the outcomes of public policy. This article explores a diverse set of mechanisms through which politics is organized, and through which the preferences or interests of the public, voters, groups, and economic interests are either advanced or obstructed. Traditional approaches of political science often adopted a narrow focus on the formal democratic qualities of elected government and the pluralism of the political system in incorporating different interests or preferences into the decision-making process and policy outcomes. Later waves of research sought to explore bias in mechanisms of representation, such as the disproportionate influence of interest groups in the governmental process and the power of agenda setting in determining which issues make it onto the decision-making table and when. Nevertheless, there continues to be considerable interest in the role of formal political institutions in determining the performance of representative democracy, how political parties act as vehicles for representation, and how elections can provide mandates to governments and enable voters to reward or punish political parties or candidates for the quality of their representation or performance. Indeed, a growing field of enquiry identifies a direct link between the preferences of the public and their representatives, either in the representation of constituency opinion or in the responsiveness of the political system as a whole. Despite this pervasive concern throughout the discipline of political science with the functioning of democratic politics, important changes in modern states, economies, and societies occurring outside elected institutions also shape representation, particularly as executive governance and politics has assumed increasing importance. The conventional understanding of mechanisms of representation is built upon shifting sands, with the emergence of the “regulatory state” and the decline of traditional distributive and command activities of government, and with ever more “networked,” “nonhierarchical,” and “transnational” modes of governing—often by unelected authorities. These changing institutional arrangements also reflect a response to the rise of risk as a focus of organization, as traditional social and economic cleavages are redrawn and reconstructed around questions of risk—often manmade, created through scientific innovation or economic progress. These changes point toward the changing battleground for representation both of public and political interests and the increasing importance of understanding questions of bureaucratic politics and control, transnational regulation, the management of risk, and the preoccupation of officeholders with the avoidance of blame. Mechanisms of representation shed light on all these things and more, encompassing the role of institutions in reflecting public or private interests in the decision-making process.
Political Development of Iran
Authors: Banai Huss
Published: February 2012

Iran’s political development has undergone momentous changes over the past century: the advent of constitutionalism in 1906–1911; the period of absolutist rule and stealth modernization under two Pahlavi monarchs; the brief period of parliamentary democracy under the premiership of Mohammad Mossadeq; the Islamic revolution in 1979 with its attendant conservative, pragmatic, reformist, neoconservative, and neopragmatist incarnations. During each of these periods, Iranian society and politics underwent significant transformations that were often imposed from above. These changes were also compounded by the fact that Iran has historically occupied an important geopolitical position in international politics, a pawn in, and an irritant to, the great powers at the heart of the oil-rich Middle East. The diverse sources compiled in this article explore different dimensions of Iran’s political development over the past century. All of the sources are in English and most are works by highly respected scholars of Iran both inside and outside of the country.
Public Opinion in New Democracies and Developing Nations
Authors: Shin Doh Chull , Dalton Russell J.
Published: February 2012

Although political development depends on many factors, an important component is the social and political values of the public. For the first time in human history, we have systematic evidence on some aspects of public opinion for the vast majority of nations in the world. These tend to focus on the cultural prerequisites for democracy, the development of democratic elections, and the policy priorities of these publics. The following resources and readings highlight the new research being done in developing nations, which is one of the most rapidly growing areas of public opinion research.
Welfare State Development
Authors: Cook Linda
Published: February 2012

The modern welfare state originated in industrializing Europe, in the English system of “poor laws” that supplemented private and church-based charity, and more fully, in the workers’ social security system established by Bismarck in 19th-century Germany. Welfare provision in Europe expanded after both world wars, growing into systems that provided publicly funded social insurance, health care, education, income security, and family supports, with the United States seen as a “welfare laggard” in comparison with European systems. In the industrial democracies the welfare state experienced its golden age of expansion in scope and generosity from 1945 to 1980. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, globalization, demographic change, and other factors have produced pressures for retrenchment. Scholarship initially focused on Organisation for Economi Co-operation and Development (OECD) welfare states and entitlements linked to formal employment, then extended to include Communist and developing states, women and “care work,” and broader issues of global stratification, privatization and informalization, clientelism, and nonstate provision.
Caste
Authors: Jodhka Surinder S.
Published: February 2012

Caste is popularly understood as a uniquely Indian and Hindu system of social organization. In the sociological writings, it is often viewed as a “closed system” of social stratification in which social groups, often divided on the basis of their occupations, strictly follow a code of behavior prescribed by tradition regarding marriage and kinship alliances. Caste groups are unequal, ranked on a scale of hierarchy on the basis of their ritual status, from pure to impure. The hierarchy is sanctioned by the Hindu religious belief. Their “status” or position in the system determines with whom they can and cannot interact.
Social Stratification
Authors: Andersen Robert
Published: February 2012

Broadly defined, social stratification is an important part of many areas of study in sociology, but it also constitutes a distinct field on its own. Simply put, social stratification is the allocation of individuals and groups according to various social hierarchies of differing power, status, or prestige. Although divisions are often based on gender, religion, or race and ethnicity, the present entry focuses largely on socioeconomic inequalities, for the most part leaving other forms of social inequality to other entries. In this regard, social stratification is found in every society, even if it takes on slightly different forms. Uncovering what accounts for differences in social stratification—among societies and within particular societies over time—is a long-standing goal of the field. The classic works of early stratification sociologists—spurred by the work of Marx, Weber, and Durkheim—tended to be concerned with the question of “why” and “how” stratification arose in the first place. Although this debate continues to be an underlying motivation for much research on stratification, empirical research typically tackles questions for which evidence is more tangible. By the 1950s, stratification research was increasingly concerned with social mobility, though mostly within individual countries. By the 1980s, explaining cross-national differences in stratification became an important goal of the field. By now, stratification research is characterized by several debates. Although it has received somewhat less attention in the past decade or so, a classic debate centers on how socioeconomic position should be measured. Emphasis here has been on the applicability of measures of social class, status, and prestige. Although there are certainly important exceptions, differences in approach generally fall along territorial lines. European sociologists have tended to focus on relevance of occupation-based measures of social class, while North American sociologists have tended to rely on measures of socioeconomic status, which incorporate education as well as occupation. There have also been debates regarding the most effective ways to measure class and socioeconomic status. Yet other debates center on the importance of incorporating race and gender in studies of stratification. Finally, in recent decades emphasis has moved to the importance of education, both as a source of stratification on its own, and how it affects economic inequalities.
Teacher Preparation
Authors: Meeuwsen Joyce L.
Published: February 2012

Teacher education programs strive to prepare teachers who are knowledgeable in their content areas, well informed about research-based curriculum and instructional practices, grounded in the foundations of learning theory and educational decision making, and equipped to meet the needs of diverse learners. While most teacher preparation programs share similar goals, there is less consensus on the best path for achieving desired results. To further complicate the field of teacher preparation, requirements for teacher licensure vary significantly by state, as do accreditation criteria for teacher education programs. For example, teacher preparation programs in some universities may consist of graduate-level “5th year” teacher candidates, while other programs may offer education courses to students as early as the freshman year of college or university. In light of these differences, education faculty members rely on a variety of resources to define a core body of knowledge. Recent policy initiatives and growing public interest in improving teacher quality are drawing greater attention to the field of teacher preparation. For decades, prominent federal programs and a series of interventions have been aimed at narrowing the achievement gap between students from various backgrounds. Subsequently, considerable debate surrounded the question of how best to meet the needs of disadvantaged learners. Rather than continued examination of district initiatives and curricular overhauls as levers of change, recent efforts shifted attention to the classroom as the unit of analysis. This focus has resulted in an elevated sense of urgency to examine classroom-level issues of teacher and instructional quality. Accordingly, the field of teacher preparation is under greater scrutiny as more questions are asked about what teachers should know and be able to do as they enter the classroom. Just as discussions about national standards for student learning are becoming more common, so, too, are discussions of national standards for the teaching profession. While debate continues about how high-quality teaching is defined, measured, accessed, and improvedboth at the entry point of the profession and within the profession—few would argue with the importance of high-quality teaching in improving student achievement. The criticality of teacher preparation as a mechanism for improving teacher quality suggests that preservice programs provide prospective teachers with training in the following categories: introduction to the field of education, human development and learning, classroom management, instruction, inclusive educational practices, assessment, educational decision making, and career resources. This bibliography focuses on general resources for prekindergarten through twelfth-grade (PK–12) education in these areas, emphasizing a combination of practical and theoretical resources selected for their value in a professional teacher’s library. Subject and grade-level-specific recommendations will be presented in subsequent bibliographies.
Women in Music
Authors: Hadlock Heather
Published: February 2012

Our current understanding of women in music began to take shape within the context of second-wave feminist activism of the 1970s, with its mission of promoting women’s voices and perspectives in contemporary arts and in the history of the arts. In the domains of both popular and art music, female musicians promoted each others’ work through women-centered orchestras, choruses, bands, and ensembles; concerts and festivals of women’s music; female networks for teaching, collaboration, and mentorship; and independent labels for recording and distributing music by women. Composers such as Pauline Oliveros explored and cultivated feminist musical aesthetics. Historical researchers sought to recover female composers previously neglected by historians, and to integrate their lives and works into the music-historical narrative and art music canon. At the same time, the framing of issues in terms of “women and music” created new tensions. Gender-based advocacy, in the form of courses, journals, concerts, festivals, and record labels, was indispensable for raising awareness and creating opportunities for women in music, but also threatened to perpetuate their status as marginal to the dominant discourses and institutions of music. Third-wave feminists of the late 1980s and 1990s pointed out that norms of feminine and masculine roles and behavior vary widely across social contexts, and that there is no universal experience of “women.” Research on women in music increasingly focuses on how gender is enmeshed with other categories such as race, ethnicity, social class, geographic region, political affiliation, and sexual orientation. In any particular time and place, the intersection of all these factors creates the conditions for women’s access to musical training, resources, audiences, publication, and professional careers. Women’s musical activities and contributions have become more visible in musicology as the discipline has deepened its engagement with performers, with popular music, with nonwritten musical activities, and with music as social event and embodied practice. The study of women in music thus takes place within broader theoretical investigations of how music reproduces, affirms, subverts, and transforms cultural norms of gender and sexuality.
Media Anthropology
Authors: Pardo Rebecca , ErkenBrack Elizabeth , Jackson John L.
Published: February 2012

Although anthropologists have long addressed topics related to media and communications technologies, some have argued that a truly institutionalized commitment to the anthropology of media has only developed within the past twenty years. This might be due, at least in part, to a traditional disciplinary emphasis on “primitive” communities lacking the ostensible features of modernity, including electronic forms of mass mediation. Thick description, a central aim of ethnography as touted by Clifford Geertz, was historically geared toward small-scale societies and precluded the study of contemporary forms of mass media in modern life. However, anthropologists have begun to develop productive ways of including mass mediation into their ethnographic accounts. Indeed, it is becoming increasingly difficult to talk about cultural practices at all without some nod to the ubiquity of global media. From an anthropological perspective, it is important to consider varying cultural contexts of mass-media production, consumption, and interpretation. And this begs a question that several anthropologists have begun to answer. What is the most appropriate way to study “the media” as a cultural phenomenon? Content analyses of media texts? The measuring and identifying of media’s social effects and influence? Ethnographic studies of “reception” and “production”? Or something else entirely? Anthropologists engage in all of these and more. Additionally, new questions are emerging about how anthropology might best address digital media and online communities. There are multiple ways in which anthropologists have engaged with “the media” both as a tool of representation and an object of study. To outline some of those ways, it makes sense to provide a history of developments in the field, summarizing several thematic topics that have recently been of central focus to anthropologists of media, including religion, globalization, and nationalism. It also makes sense to think about approaches to studying mass media that other disciplines deploy—disciplines that are in conversation with anthropologists on this subject, including and especially media studies, communications studies, and cultural studies. The categorical divisions here attempt to reflect anthropology’s historical commitments to various analytical, thematic, and medium-based modes of inquiry.
Museum Anthropology
Authors: Wali Alaka , Cabrera Rosa , Anderson Jennifer
Published: February 2012

The field of museum anthropology predates the institutionalization of anthropology as an academic discipline in universities. The formation of collections from as early as the 17th century spurred the study of the cultures that produced the objects destined for display. Early on, anthropology collections were integrated either into national museums (e.g., the British Museum), museums of “folk culture,” or, especially in the United States, natural history museums. The first major anthropology and archaeology museum was the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, founded in 1866. Eventually, the collections became the foundation for research and documentation of the lifeways, material circumstances, and human ecology of diverse cultures. For more than a century, anthropologists situated in museums curated the collections by documenting them through catalogues and publications and by creating public displays. However, after the 1970s, museum anthropology became more research oriented, moving beyond collections-based documentation to an emphasis on field research. Simultaneously, it became more difficult to acquire objects because of diminishing resources and international and national policies on cultural patrimony. In the 1980s, a growing critique of the representation of cultures began to emerge from outside the museum walls. The critiques concerned the ahistorical, evolutionary-oriented display of non-European cultures, and the lack of inclusion of “first voice” (the perspective of the peoples themselves). The authority of the curator was questioned, as were the colonialist perspectives that museum displays embodied. Critiques came from academically situated scholars as well as from the communities whose cultures were represented in museum displays. The response from within the museum has been transformative. Curators developed new forms of representation, more attuned to contemporary theory, and they began to collaborate with communities to include their perspectives. Studies of material culture and human ecology continue to dominate museum anthropology, but they are very diverse and cover a huge geographical terrain. Interest has also revived in material-culture studies outside of museums, and we have included some sampling of this work here. Museum-based education programs and publications oriented toward the general public cover the classic four fields of anthropology. Museums of specific cultural groups or heritage-based museums may not always include anthropologists on staff; however, their work represents an important contribution to the understanding of the role of culture and ethnicity in social life. “Eco-museums,” museums dedicated to a single place or a single cultural heritage, represent an important trend of this kind.
Sexuality
Authors: Parker Richard G. , Murray Laura R.
Published: February 2012

Research on sexuality (and related topics such as gender, reproduction, and kinship relations) has figured prominently in anthropology since the formative years of the discipline. Work carried out in the 1920s and 1930s by anthropologists such as Margaret Mead and Bronislaw Malinowski was pioneering both in developing cross-cultural comparisons of diverse sexual mores and customs and in legitimizing ethnography as a key methodological approach for the study of sexuality. Research on these issues expanded significantly beginning in the 1970s, heavily influenced by changes in social norms and values that had taken place in the 1960s, and was stimulated in important ways by the emerging feminist and lesbian and gay movements, and by scholarly work in women’s studies and gay and lesbian studies. Much of this work focused on what were described as “sexual meanings” and sought to explore the ways in which gender, sexuality, and reproductive relations vary across cultures. Anthropological research has focused on the investigation of sexual cultures and the social and cultural construction of sexual practices, playing an especially important role in documenting sexual diversity and same-sex sexual relations in different societies, including contemporary Western society. As this body of work developed during the 1980s and the 1990s, it also addressed the cultural and social dimensions of a range of important practical issues, such as the HIV epidemic, the changing shape of reproductive health and new reproductive technologies, sex work, tourism, migration, same-sex marriage, and globalization. Since the mid-1990s, growing anthropological attention has also focused on structural factors that shape sexuality in different social settings, and on political struggles that have emerged in relation to sexuality and sexual rights. As the research focus has expanded to these areas of social concern, anthropologists studying sexuality have been increasingly influenced by work in feminist theory, queer theory, history, and other social sciences, and have also emphasized the ways in which sexuality intersects with other axes of power and identities.
Military Government in Latin America, 1959–1990
Authors: Loveman Brian E.
Published: February 2012

Latin America’s armed forces have played a central role in the region’s political history. This selective annotated bibliography focuses on key sources, with varying theoretical, empirical, and normative treatments of the military governments in the region, from the Cuban Revolution (1959) until the end of the Cold War (1989–1990). The article is limited to those cases in which military governments or “civil-military” governments were in power. This excludes personalist dictatorships, party dictatorships, and civilian governments in which the armed forces exercised considerable influence but did not rule directly. No pretense is made of comprehensiveness or of treating the “causes” of military coups (a vast literature) and of civil-military relations under civilian governments. Likewise, the closely related topics of guerrilla movements during this period, human rights violations under the military governments, US policy and support for many of the military governments, and the transitions back to civilian government (including “transitional justice”) are not covered in depth, but some of the selections do treat these topics and direct the reader to a more extensive literature on these subjects. Long-term military governments, with changing leadership in most cases, controlled eleven Latin American nations for significant periods from 1964 to 1990: Ecuador, 1963–1966 and 1972–1978; Guatemala, 1963–1985 (with an interlude from 1966–1969); Brazil, 1964–1985; Bolivia, 1964–1970 and 1971–1982; Argentina, 1966–1973 and 1976–1983; Peru, 1968–1980; Panama, 1968–1989; Honduras, 1963–1966 and 1972–1982; Chile, 1973–1990; and Uruguay, 1973–1984. In El Salvador the military dominated the government from 1948 until 1984, but the last “episode” was from 1979 to 1984. Military governments, though inevitably authoritarian, implemented varying economic, social, and foreign policies. They had staunch supporters and intense opponents, and they were usually subject to internal factionalism and ideological as well as policy disagreements. The sources discussed in this article reflect that diversity.
Rafael Trujillo
Authors: Roorda Eric Paul
Published: February 2012

Rafael Trujillo (b. 24 October 1891–d. 30 May 1961) was the archetypal Latin American dictator. In control of the Dominican Republic from February 1930 until his assassination thirty-one years later, Trujillo remains a controversial figure, as he was during his lifetime. The literature about him and his government tends to be either harshly critical or ardently favorable. However he is viewed, Trujillo has been the subject of a large volume of work, much of it produced during the self-proclaimed “Era of Trujillo” to praise the dictator, publicize his efforts to modernize the Dominican Republic, and heighten its people’s national pride and self-awareness. At the same time, the increasing number of critics of his regime—political exiles, foreign diplomats, and investigative journalists among them—countered the flood of pro-Trujillo publications with their own exposés of his brutal regime. The trujillato, or era of Trujillo, ended in assassination in May 1961, but the impact of Trujillo’s long-term domination of the Dominican Republic and his influence in the Caribbean was felt for years afterward, stimulating postmortem scholarship analyzing his regime. Beginning in the early 1980s, Bernardo Vega’s Fundación Cultural Dominicana in Santo Domingo began publishing compilations of Dominican and US government documents revealing further details of Trujillo’s domestic repression and foreign policy. In more recent decades, several fictional evocations of Trujillo have gained international attention and acclaim, broadening public awareness of him and casting him in a starkly unfavorable light. At the same time, a range of more nuanced scholarly studies have been published about him, which are based on new research, questioning claims that his power came from oppression and not popular support, and that he was a puppet of the United States and not an independent geopolitical operator. A half-century after his death, Trujillo remains the subject of deeply divided opinions among scholars and in the popular culture.
Women in Modern Latin American History
Authors: Hutchison Elizabeth Quay
Published: February 2012

Sources for the study of the history of women in Latin America’s national period grew exponentially in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, both in the English-speaking world and, to a lesser extent, in Latin America itself. Fueled by women’s movements and the growing presence of female scholars in the humanities and social sciences in the 1960s, early research on Latin American women focused on women, religion, and the family in colonial period—partly in a search for the “origins” of gender inequalities evident in the present day. Studies of women in the national period, by contrast, emphasized women’s participation in family, economy, and politics, documenting women’s contributions to social change in Latin America and the Caribbean, particularly in the arenas of female employment, education, and suffrage. At the height of the cold war, scholarly attention focused predictably on women’s (and feminists’) extraordinary presence in antiauthoritarian struggles and the promise of socialist revolutions for greater gender equality, generating considerable interest in questions of gender identity and state–society relations in the process of state formation and national development. Finally, a wave of North American scholarship inspired by the questions and methods linked to gender analysis in the 1990s made the study of women and gender an intrinsic part of broader historiographical concerns with Latin American economic, political, and cultural development in the national period. One result of this development is that works not centrally concerned with “women’s history” regularly incorporate women as historical subjects and consider the importance of gender relations to the broader topic under examination, often in research ranging from US–Latin American relations and the history of medicine to agricultural production and historical memory. Women’s history has, in this respect, become ubiquitous, particularly in the English-language scholarship on modern Latin America. This North–South imbalance, as well as the greater distribution of English-language compared to Latin American publications, is certainly reflected in this bibliography, which privileges research by US scholars. This selection also documents the relatively lesser attention scholars have granted to the relationship between gender and racial/ethnic hierarchies as well as female religious identity and participation in the modern period. This bibliography nevertheless builds on this rapid and diverse historiographical development to offer a selection of significant historical works for the study of Latin American women after independence.
Phonology
Authors: de Lacy Paul
Published: February 2012

The term “phonology” has several meanings. It is often used to refer to generalizations about sounds and sound combinations (often called sound patterns) in and across languages. In contrast, within generative grammar “phonology” refers to a particular cognitive module. Many generative theories propose that the module takes inputs, consisting of strings of symbols (called phonological symbols, segments, phonemes, underlying forms, or the input, depending on the theory). The symbols may be accompanied by information about morphology, syntax, and perhaps even some aspects of meaning. The module produces an output representation, which serves as the input to the phonetic modules; these modules ultimately provoke muscle movements that can result in speech sounds. A common point of confusion is the belief that the phonological module manipulates speech sounds; in fact the phonology manipulates representations that are sent to the phonetic module, which then converts them into phonetic representations that are then implemented as muscle movements that, given the right factors, can produce audible sound. The two meanings of “phonology” are not in opposition. Phonology (sound patterns) makes up some of the data used in theorizing about the phonology (the cognitive module). There are large variations in sound patterns across languages. For example, Hawai’ian has nine contrastive consonants, whereas Ubykh has eighty-six. However, there are commonalities too, though many are disputed. For example, every language has either an alveolar voiceless stop of some kind or a glottal stop or both. Similarly, no language lacks words that start with a consonant. There are also large variations in phonological modules among humans; however, a great deal of research contends that all phonological modules share common properties, at least in their underlying structures. Although the outputs of languages are diverse, much work has argued that the representations and processes used to generate phonological outputs are very similar—perhaps identical—in all phonological modules, with only certain aspects of the phonological module (e.g., rules, constraint ranking) differing between modules.
Sociolinguistics
Authors: Mallinson Christine , Inscoe Jonathan , López Valdez Lydda
Published: February 2012

Sociolinguistics is the study of the effects of language use within and upon societies, and the reciprocal effects of social organization and social contexts on language use. Linguistics is viewed as its parent discipline; yet, the influence of and contributions from related disciplines, including anthropology, sociology, philosophy, and psychology, are also recognized. In turn, sociolinguistic scholarship has traveled beyond the boundaries of linguistics proper to influence these related fields, and there is the potential for greater future impact as interdisciplinary ties between sociolinguists and scholars from other fields continue to strengthen. Although some scholars have debated whether and to what extent sociolinguistics should incorporate insights from other fields and expand its interdisciplinary influence, it is unquestionable that the study of the relationship between language and society constitutes a vast and complex topic that has, to date, yielded an extensive and multifaceted body of scholarship.
Generative Syntax
Authors: Taraldsen Knut Tarald
Published: February 2012

Generative syntax is a major subfield of generative grammar, an outgrowth of American structuralism in its insistence on rigorous formal modeling of linguistic patterns. Generative syntax breaks with the structuralist tradition by attaching no significance to discovery procedures and by not seeing accurate description of individual languages as the ultimate goal of linguistics. Rather, the goal is to extract cross-linguistic commonalities in order to characterize a core system of grammar shared by all natural languages. This core system, called Universal Grammar, is seen as a system of primitives and principles that determine how these primitives can be put together to form complex linguistic structures by recursive structure-building operations that will construct an infinite set of sentences and characterize the relations between them. The most interesting and controversial feature of generative grammar lies on the conceptual side. By seeing Universal Grammar as rooted in an innate language faculty specific to humans, generative grammar places the study of language within the cognitive sciences. Since its inception in the 1950s, the generative theory of syntax has spawned a number of approaches that differ from one another with respect to many theoretical assumptions but still seem to agree that natural language syntax is rooted in a species-specific cognitive capacity dedicated to language. These various theoretical developments can be grouped into two major categories for expository purposes. On the one hand, lexical-functional grammar (LFG) and head-driven phrase structure grammar (HPSG) develop architectures sufficiently different from that of Chomskyan generative syntax to be regarded as distinct branches of the generative enterprise. On the other hand, five different stages can be identified within the line of development that has continued to be informed by Noam Chomsky’s own work: early generative syntax, 1957–1965; the aspects theory (also known as the standard theory), 1965–1973; the (revised) extended standard theory, roughly 1973–1981; government and binding theory, 1981–1993; and minimalism, 1993 onward, which must in the early 21st century be regarded as the mainstream paradigm. The research questions that arise concern both the internal organization of the syntactic component (levels of representation) and the interaction between syntax and other components of grammar, such as morphology, phonology, and semantics. These questions are intimately linked to the effort to isolate the essential properties of syntactic structures and of the syntactic operations and the general principles that govern their application.
Arms Control and Disarmament
Authors: Moyar Mark
Published: February 2012

Humans have wielded weapons since the beginning of recorded history, both against other humans and the beasts that threatened them or provided them sustenance. With the rise of the modern nation-state, every nation accumulated weapons for waging wars with other nations, or for deterring them. But not until the 20th century, with the proliferation of new ideas and extraordinarily destructive weapons, did nations seek to regulate the accumulation of armaments. In the aftermath of World War I, the victorious powers imposed stringent limitations on German armaments and agreed with one another to limit their naval weaponry in the hope of forestalling arms races and avoiding another major war. These efforts failed to prevent the rearmament of Germany and the revival of arms races among the great powers in the 1930s, which, in turn, led to World War II. In the aftermath of World War II, fear of nuclear holocaust led the great powers to concentrate on limitation of nuclear weapons, with results that remain hotly disputed among historians. Other forms of arms control have also proliferated since that time. Biological and chemical weapons have been the subject of numerous treaties. During and after some low-intensity insurgencies, foreign powers and indigenous governments have sought to remove small arms from the population as a means of reducing violence.
Arctic Warfare
Authors: Lajeunesse Adam
Published: February 2012

Warfare in the Arctic has, for the most part, been a historical oddity. The region boasts few significant cities to capture, small populations, a harsh environment, and little transportation infrastructure. As R. J. Sutherland states in his “Strategic Significance of the Canadian Arctic,” the Arctic offers “no place to go from a military point of view and nothing to do when you got there.” Prior to World War II there was little regular warfare in the circumpolar region, whereas the war itself saw relatively limited action. It was during the Cold War that the Arctic became a recognized area of strategic importance—primarily for strategic bombers and later for nuclear submarines. Although these weapons were never used, an enormous amount of energy and resources went into preparing to fight in the region. The definition of Arctic itself often varies and can be defined on geographic, climactic, or political grounds. This article uses the geographic delimitation of 60 degrees north latitude. This region includes the entire Canadian North, Finland, the Soviet/Russian North, and most of Norway and Alaska. Parts of Alaska south of 60 degrees have been included because they are traditionally characterized as Arctic, whereas warfare on the Baltic Sea has been omitted simply because this area has traditionally not been considered as such.
Chinese Civil War, 1945-1949
Authors: Tanner Harold
Published: February 2012

For the Allies and for Japan itself, the Japanese surrender in August 1945 signaled the arrival of peace. For China, it marked the resumption of the civil war between Chiang Kai-shek’s Nationalist Party (Kuomintang, or KMT) and Mao Zedong’s Chinese Communist Party (CCP). The conflict began with deployments and military clashes as each side tried to position itself to control North China and Northeast China (Manchuria). The military struggle took place in the context of an international diplomatic contest in which the Soviet Union and the United States each tried to advance their interests in China while avoiding any military involvement themselves. While the Soviets and the Americans each offered limited military assistance to their Chinese protégés, they also pushed them into negotiations, first at Chongqing from August to October 1945, and then from December 1945 through January 1947, in Chongqing and in Nanjing under the auspices of General George Marshall. Both the Communist and the Nationalist leaders engaged in “talking while fighting,” trying to use the dynamic relationship between negotiations and combat in order to maximize gains both at the negotiating table and on the battlefield. By the summer of 1946, it was evident that the negotiations had failed and that the contest between the two parties would be settled by force. While General Marshall continued his efforts at negotiation until January 1947, full-scale civil war broke out, first in China south of the Great Wall, and then with a resumption of hostilities in the Northeast. The military conflict was accompanied by severe economic problems and by intense internal social and political struggles, both in the rural areas and in the cities. The military situation developed rapidly. In the autumn and winter of 1948–1949, the Communists, no longer simple guerrilla forces, defeated Chiang’s armies in three major campaigns: the Liao-Shen, Ping-Jin, and Huai-Hai campaigns. By the end of 1949, Chiang was forced to withdraw to Taiwan. Because the Chinese Civil War had military, political, and social dimensions, and because it unfolded in the context of the Cold War and with the involvement of both the Soviet Union and the United States, there is a vast array of literature that at least touches on the subject. The aim of this bibliography is to focus on the scholarly literature on the civil war itself, while touching on at least some of the major works dealing with the political, social, and particularly the diplomatic context in which the war took place.
Civilians
Authors: Seipp Adam R.
Published: February 2012

The concept of the civilian in wartime as a legal category is fairly new, but the problem is far older. Noncombatants have been a target of organized violence throughout history, with records of mass killing and the systematic destruction of infrastructure dating to the earliest written descriptions of armed conflict. In medieval and early modern warfare, noncombatants were targets of military violence as well as crucial to the supply and operation of armies. The relationship among civilians, military conflict, and the state began to change with the creation of national states after the revolutionary wars of the late 18th and early 19th centuries. This process accelerated dramatically during the one hundred years that followed the middle of the 19th century, an age characterized by the rise of “total war.” The boundaries that separated civilians from soldiers, combatants from noncombatants, and frontline from home front blurred and sometimes all but vanished. A host of reasons account for this, including technological advances that extended combat far into the enemy’s rear area, mass mobilization, the close relationship between war and industrial production, and totalizing ideologies that sanctioned violence against civilians. At the same time, the early 20th century also saw systematic international efforts to protect noncombatants in wartime and to legally classify them as civilians. The period since the end of World War II has witnessed an international effort to formally define and shield civilians from state-sanctioned violence and targeting by nonstate actors. Global events since the fall of Communism have not been particularly encouraging in this regard. This bibliography intends to introduce readers to major works that examine this problem throughout history, with a particular focus on the period from 1800 to 2000. It will also provide guidance for those seeking to learn more about specific aspects of the civilian experience of war, such as strategic bombing, international humanitarian law, and genocide.