bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Cognition and the Creation of Ideas
Authors: Smith Steven M. , Ward Thomas B.
Published: February 2013

The cognition that gives rise to creative thinking is not a singular process or operation; rather, it consists of many different cognitive structures and processes that can collaborate in a variety of ways to construct different types of creative products. Cognition that is often relevant to creativity includes remote association, conceptual combination, visualization, retrieving and mapping analogies, reasoning, insight problem solving, implicit and explicit cognition, abstraction, and mental models.
New Perspectives on Language and Thought
Authors: Gleitman Lila R. , Papafragou Anna
Published: February 2013

In this chapter we discuss the question of whether, how, where, and to what extent language plays a causally fundamental role in creating categories of thought, and in organizing and channeling thought that is already mentally present. In general, both logic and currently available evidence suggest a disclamatory view of strongest proposals (Benjamin Whorf 1956) according to which particulars of certain human languages are important progenitors of thought, such that elements of perception or conception would be permanently altered by learning one or another language. However, several credible lines of experimental and developmental evidence suggest significant influence of linguistic representation during online processing in many cognitive and perceptual domains: Insofar as languages differ in the short-term processing demands that they pose to listeners, interpretational outcomes and styles, including characteristic ambiguity resolution, may look quite different cross-linguistically as a function of concomitant population differences (e.g., age-group) and task demands.
Visuospatial Thinking
Authors: Hegarty Mary , Stull Andrew T.
Published: February 2013

Visuospatial thinking includes thinking about space at the smaller scale of objects and at the larger scale of environments. It also includes situations in which we use visuospatial representations to think about nonspatial entities. At the scale of objects, this chapter reviews the types of representations and processes that underlie object recognition and categorization, the nature of visuospatial mental images of objects, and how these are processed in interactions with objects and in reasoning and problem solving. At the scale of environments, we examine the nature of environmental spatial representations and the processes that operate on these to keep us oriented in space, to reorient ourselves when we are lost, to learn the layout of new environments, and to plan routes through familiar environments. Finally, the chapter reviews how spatial representations are used metaphorically, to think about nonspatial entities, in language, reasoning, and graphics.
Scientific Thinking and Reasoning
Authors: Dunbar Kevin N. , Klahr David
Published: February 2013

Scientific thinking refers to both thinking about the content of science and the set of reasoning processes that permeate the field of science: induction, deduction, experimental design, causal reasoning, concept formation, hypothesis testing, and so on. Here we cover both the history of research on scientific thinking and the different approaches that have been used, highlighting common themes that have emerged over the past 50 years of research. Future research will focus on the collaborative aspects of scientific thinking, on effective methods for teaching science, and on the neural underpinnings of the scientific mind.
Medical Reasoning and Thinking
Authors: Patel Vimla L. , Arocha Jose F. , Zhang Jiajie
Published: February 2013

The practice of medicine requires art as well as science. The latter argues for a deeper understanding of the mechanisms underlying disease processes and use of scientific evidence in making patient care decisions. The study of medical reasoning and thinking underlies much of medical cognition and has been the focus of research in cognitive science and artificial intelligence in medicine. Expertise and medical knowledge organization, the directionality of reasoning, and the nature of medical errors are intricately tied to thinking and decision-making processes in medicine. With the recent advancement of technology in medicine, technology-mediated reasoning and reasoning support systems will be a focus for future research. This chapter discusses these issues within historical and current research perspectives.
Introduction
Authors: Widiger Thomas A.
Published: February 2013

This article presents an overview of the book's six parts. Part I provides historical background and a discussion of the diagnosis and assessment of personality disorders. Part II deals with the construct validity support for personality disorders. It covers research concerning behavior and molecular genetics, childhood antecedents, epidemiology, gender, co-occurrence among the personality disorders, co-occurrence with other mental disorders, universality, and course. Part III concerns alternative models for the pathology of personality disorders. Part IV covers individual personality disorder types or particular constellations of maladaptive personality traits. These include all of the types included currently within DSM-IV-TR and likely to remain in DSM-5 (e.g., borderline and antisocial). Part V discusses treatment and Part VI concludes.
Historical Developments and Current Issues
Authors: Widiger Thomas A.
Published: February 2013

The purpose of this chapter is to provide an historical understanding of the conceptualization and diagnosis of personality disorders, beginning with the first edition of the American Psychiatric Association’s diagnostic manual, and proceeding through each subsequent edition. The chapter concludes with an overview of the issues and concerns with regard to the forthcoming, fifth edition.
Diagnosis and DSM-5: Work in Progress
Authors: Skodol Andrew E.
Published: February 2013

A new hybrid dimensional-categorical model for personality and personality disorder assessment and diagnosis has been proposed for DSM-5 field testing. The justifications for the proposed modifications in approach to diagnosing personality disorders include lack of specificity in the DSM-IV-TR definition of personality disorder, inadequate representation of personality disorder severity and arbitrary thresholds for diagnosis, excessive comorbidity among personality disorders, limited validity for some existing types, heterogeneity within types, and instability of current personality disorder criteria sets. This chapter reviews the development of the revised personality assessment model, including summaries of literature reviews, experiences in workshops, comments from the field, and published critiques. The next major step in the development of the DSM-5 personality assessment and diagnosis model will be the DSM-5 field trials. Further revisions are anticipated.
Childhood Antecedents of Personality Disorders
Authors: De Fruyt Filip , De Clercq Barbara
Published: February 2013

The personality disorders of the American Psychiatric Association would have antecedents in childhood and adolescence, but this has been a relatively weak area of investigation. This absence is the more remarkable given the abundant evidence that has accumulated over the years on the stability of psychopathology, the presence of prodromal signs of adult psychopathology in childhood, and the empirical support for temperament and personality traits in childhood and adolescence. This chapter begins with a review of personality disorder antecedents through the history of the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders and follows with a discussion of the most recent evidence underscoring the importance of incorporating such a perspective for a better conceptual representation, assessment, and understanding of personality pathology across the life span.
Gender and Personality Disorders
Authors: Oltmanns Thomas F. , Powers Abigail D.
Published: February 2013

Epidemiological studies have reported varying rates of personality pathology; some report similar overall rates among men and women, while others have found slightly higher rates of personality disorders (PDs) in men. Only antisocial PD has consistently shown large gender differences, with men showing a lifetime rate of approximately 5%, while women show a rate of approximately 1%. Gender differences in PDs seem to reflect gender differences in normal personality traits, where men tend to score higher on traits such as assertiveness and excitement seeking, while women score higher on traits such as anxiousness, depression, vulnerability, and warmth. Psychometric studies have found some evidence of systematic gender bias in the diagnostic criteria for DSM-IV-TR PDs, and this area requires more extensive investigation. More evidence is also needed regarding the differential impact of PDs on the social functioning of men and women.
Cognitive Contributions to Personality Disorders
Authors: Lobbestael Jill , Arntz Arnoud
Published: February 2013

The purpose of this chapter is to provide an understanding of the pathology of personality disorders from a cognitive perspective. The chapter begins by outlining cognitive schemas, particularly those developed by Drs. Beck and Young, along with a summary and discussion of the relevant empirical research. This is followed by a discussion of schema modes. Next is a discussion of cognitive biases; more specifically, biases in attention, interpretation, and memory. This is followed by a discussion of dichotomous thinking and then the implicit assessment of cognitive concepts. The chapter ends with final conclusions and suggestions for future research.
Psychodynamic Models of Personality Disorders
Authors: Fonagy Peter , Luyten Patrick
Published: February 2013

This chapter provides an overview of psychodynamic approaches to personality pathology and their core assumptions, and it reviews empirical research supporting these approaches. It also includes a review of contemporary psychodynamic approaches to classification, diagnosis, and treatment of personality disorders. Finally, a summary of findings concerning the effectiveness of psychodynamic treatments for personality disorder is provided.
Dependent Personality Disorder
Authors: Bornstein Robert F.
Published: February 2013

Dependent personality disorder (DPD) diagnostic criteria have evolved considerably during the past 60 years, and researchers continue to explore the etiology and dynamics of problematic dependency in children, adolescents, and adults. This chapter reviews theoretical, clinical, and empirical writings on trait dependency and DPD. After tracing the evolution of DPD in successive editions of The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), I discuss epidemiology, differential diagnosis, and comorbidity. Following a brief review of widely used assessment tools, influential theoretical frameworks for conceptualizing dependency and DPD are examined, along with research relevant to each framework. Three contemporary DPD treatment approaches (psychodynamic, behavioral, and cognitive) are described, and current trends in dependency research are discussed. These include exploration of the factors that underlie gender differences in DPD, maladaptive and adaptive expressions of dependency, dependency and aging, implicit and self-attributed dependency, health consequences of dependency, the dependency-attachment relationship, and DPD in the DSM-5.
The Death of Histrionic Personality Disorder
Authors: Blashfield Roger K. , Reynolds Shannon M. , Stennett Bethany
Published: February 2013

Histrionic personality disorder (HPD) is a diagnosis in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, text revision (DSM-IV-TR) and the International Classification of Diseases, tenth edition (ICD-10). The first section of this chapter defines HPD and discusses its history, starting with hysteria. The emphasis of this section is the documentation that HPD is a dying disorder that has generated little clinical or research interest as shown by the small empirical journal literature and the minimal textbook coverage. The second section of the chapter discusses the issues associated with the demise of HPD. These issues are (1) the belief that HPD is a sex-biased diagnosis, (2) the apparent failure of HPD to carve out a descriptively unique syndrome, (3) the associated loss of influence of psychoanalytic thinking in psychiatry and psychology, and (4) current efforts to overhaul the personality disorders in the upcoming DSM-5 by introducing a hybrid model and deleting categorical diagnoses with less clinical and/or empirical support.
Racism and Pathological Bias as a Co-Occurring Problem in Diagnosis and Assessment
Authors: Bell Carl C. , Dunbar Edward
Published: February 2013

The purpose of this chapter is to explore the social and psychological etiology of racism, to explicate racism as a public health pathogen (i.e., how racism harms our society), and to examine the controversy of whether racism can be considered, in some instances, a personality disorder or other form of psychopathology.
Cognitive Therapy for Personality Disorders
Authors: Leahy Robert L. , McGinn Lata K.
Published: February 2013

Personality disorders are prevalent and common among patients presenting for treatment. Research suggests that personality disorders are associated with significant impairment and can exert a negative impact on psychological and pharmacological treatments for Axis I disorders. Despite this, treatment development and research for personality disorders has lagged behind those of Axis I disorders. The present chapter describes two major cognitive models of personality disorder—the cognitive model advanced by Beck, Freeman, and colleagues and the schema model advanced by Young and colleagues (a brief review of the dialectical behavior therapy model is also provided). The chapter presents research on both theoretical models and outlines similarities and differences between the two theoretical formulations. A description of the therapeutic relationship in cognitive therapy is also provided. The components of treatment are presented followed by a case example for purposes of illustration. Finally, the chapter summarizes the extant research on the treatment of personality disorders. Although the data are encouraging, suggesting that personality disorders are responsive to treatment, further controlled trials are still needed.
Interpersonal Psychotherapy for Personality Disorders
Authors: Markowitz John C.
Published: February 2013

Interpersonal factors figure importantly in personality disorders. Several interpersonal psychotherapeutic approaches have been proposed as treatments for personality disorders, although the empirical evidence to support their use ranges from nonexistent to fragmentary. This chapter reviews interpersonal aspects of personality disorders and interpersonal psychotherapies for personality disorders, focusing particularly on interpersonal psychotherapy as a potential treatment for borderline personality disorder.
Future Directions of Personality Disorder
Authors: Widiger Thomas A.
Published: February 2013

The purpose of this chapter is to consider common issues and concerns addressed throughout this text and consider what might be in store for the future. Considered herein will be the diagnosis of personality disorder (along with the individual diagnoses), construct validity, pathology, and treatment.
Youth Music at the Yakama Nation Tribal School
Authors: Pitzer Robert
Published: February 2013

This article discusses the history of the Yakama Nation and the musical lives of four youths involved in the traditional music program offered by the Yakama Nation Tribal School (YNTS). YNTS, founded in 1980 and located in Toppenish, Washington, currently serves about 100 students in grades 7 through 12. It was originally founded as an alternative school to serve tribal youth experiencing difficulties in the public school system. However, over the past ten years the school has emphasized the teaching and preservation of Yakama culture. As a part of this focus, a program teaching native drumming and flute has been established in the past several years.
Reform Jewish Songleading and the Flexible Practices of Jewish-American Youth
Authors: Cohen Judah M.
Published: February 2013

This article examines children’s musical cultures by focusing on the practice of songleading at American Reform Jewish youth summer camps. Songleading and its associated musical knowledge allow individuals to transition from childhood into positions of increasing authority. Many songleaders eventually assume positions of communal leadership in Reform Judaism, including several who trained to become ordained clergy. However, the transition to mastery did not always mean a transition away from childhood and into adulthood. Rather, the practice of songleading adapted to maintain a dual relationship with both youth experiences and the spiritual practices of ever-older peer groups. Even as the repertoire expended into the adult world, songleaders of all ages continually returned to camps for alumni weekends, songleading conventions, and religious and communal inspiration.
The Musical Socialization of Children and Adolescents in Brazil in Their Everyday Lives
Authors: Kleber Magali , Souza Jusamara
Published: February 2013

This article examines the musical socialization of children and adolescents in Brazil. Children and adolescents were observed and interviewed in environments such as the non-governmental organizations Projeto Villa Lobinhos and Meninos do Morumbi, and at Escola de Porto Alegre, a school that helps homeless children and adolescents. Music education was a positive factor that changed individuals and groups socially.
Musical Childhoods across Three Generations, from Puerto Rico to the USA
Authors: Berríos-Miranda Marisol
Published: February 2013

This article explores the musical childhoods of three generations—represented by the author’s mother, herself, and her children—and moving from the community of Santurce, Puerto Rico, where the author was born, to Seattle, Washington, where her children grew up. She says that the continuities between these generations have helped her survive and prosper as an immigrant to the mainland U.S. Music became a source of cultural security, a marker of identity, and a mode of interaction that helped her know where and with whom she belonged. Reflecting on her musical childhood has also helped her understand some of the more broadly human dimensions of musical experience, such as the social conversation and negotiation that occur in the act of dancing.
The Musical Worlds of Aboriginal Children at Burrulula and Darwin in the Northern Territory of Australia
Authors: Mackinlay Elizabeth
Published: February 2013

This article examines the musical lives and experiences of Aboriginal children in Australia. It focuses on the Yanyuwa and Garrwa children living in the remote community at Burrulula in the south-west Gulf of Carpentaria, and urban Aboriginal children in Darwin. One of the biggest challenges faced by the children is the conflict of trying to be Aboriginal in a non-Aboriginal mainstream society. This tension is reflected in their musical choices, activities, and understandings. The children also struggle with the same questions relating to their identity as Indigenous Australians: should they be “shame” to be Aboriginal or should they be proud? Should they listen to Aboriginal music because that’s who they are? Or should they listen to the music that has meaning for them in their lives as children?
The Interweaving Threads of Music in the Whariki of Early Childhood Cultures in Aotearoa/New Zealand
Authors: Bodkin-Allen Sally
Published: February 2013

This article examines the musical experiences provided by early childhood education in Aotearoa/New Zealand. It focuses on four early childhood education environments: kindergartens, childcare centers, a’oga amata (Samoan immersion centers), and te kōhanga reo (Māori immersion centers). Kindergartens and childcare centers emphasize specific values of Pakeha culture, kōhanga with Māori, and a’oga amata with Samoan, even while all follow the early childhood curriculum, Te Whāriki. Pop songs and music from the mass media are present all centers devoted to the education of young children. Connections to nationhood are evident through the singing of songs which feature the Māori language and reflect Aotearoa/New Zealand’s bicultural status.
Balancing Change and Tradition in the Musical Lives of Children in Hong Kong
Authors: Chen-Hafteck Lily
Published: February 2013

This article examines the influence of culture, environment, and education on the musical lives of Hong Kong Chinese children. It shows that the musical expression and creativity of children feature a combination of tradition and change, and Chinese and Western attitudes and culture. Children express delight and heartfelt enthusiasm for the fun and sheer pleasure that music brings to them. They believe that music helps them achieve a balanced and healthy development.
Tradition and Change in the Musical Culture of South Korean Children
Authors: Kim Young-Youn
Published: February 2013

This article explores the musical experiences of children in South Korea. It describes Korean social settings and educational priorities, the scope of children’s daily lives, and their musical involvements and environments. South Korea children have access to various music styles, and are exposed to rich musical environments in their developmental years. Music is a mandatory subject in South Korean schools, and parents support children’s music learning in their early years of schooling. However, by adolescence the attention to music wanes as families shift their attention to children’s studies to prepare them for successful college entrance examinations. Children find music in various places, be it at home, in shopping centers and public spaces, or community venues, and technologies are critical to their listening pleasure.
Enculturational Discontinuities in the Musical Experience of the Wagogo Children of Central Tanzania
Authors: Mapana Kedmon
Published: February 2013

This article examines the musical enculturation process among the Wagogo people in Tanzania in order to understand their informal learning of culture (and musical culture). A framework is then proposed for the development of a music curriculum that removes enculturational discontinuities and helps sustain cultural identity. It is argued that enculturation is a natural process that need not be dismissed and discontinued as mandatory schooling moves children from their homes and families and into a formal learning environment. The songs, rhythms, and movements that children learn at home constitute are part of their deepest cultural roots. This music must be nurtured through a school curriculum that continues to build upon the local experiences of children’s early years.
Economics, Class, and Musical Apprenticeship in South Asia’s Brass Band Communities
Authors: Booth Gregory D.
Published: February 2013

This article examines the place and meaning of music in the lives of two young men, Pappu (b. 1986) and Imran (b. 1994), living with their family in Northern India. The study is based on ethnographic research in the world of Indian wedding bands and bandsmen, which began in 1988. It shows professional musicianship and an engagement in this music trade has negative implications for children in this community. Although the boys have grown up in an intensely musical environment and have inherited a level of respect and enjoyment for classical and light classical music from their father, they are coming to the realization that music is an economically uncertain source of income.
A Historical Look at Three Recordings of Children’s Musicking in New York City
Authors: Roberts J. Christopher
Published: February 2013

This article explores children’s musical cultures in New York City as seen through three recordings released by the Folkways record label in the middle of the twentieth century: 1, 2, 3, and a Zing Zing Zing (1953); Songs for Children from New York City (1978); and Street and Gangland Rhythms: Beats and Improvisations of Six Boys in Trouble (1959). The first two albums featured songs of children playing. The third album featured songs and music performed by six 11- and 12-year old African-American boys, most of whom were members of New York City street gangs.
Whose Songs in Their Heads?
Authors: Wiggins Trevor
Published: February 2013

This article examines the musical experiences of children in Nandom, northern Ghana. Children use music to structure and order their world, sometimes not understood by the adult world. The differences involve the extra-musical meanings loaded onto the music; the significance of one music over another that indicates allegiance to traditional Dagara culture, to Ghanaian culture, to the Christian church, or to membership of a global popular music audience, with a particular focus on the perceived wealth of the USA. The radio station and the church also play a crucial role as the providers of alternative cultural materials.
Confronting Language, Representation, and Belief: A Limited Defense of Mental Continuity
Authors: Andrews Kristin , Radenovic Ljiljana
Published: February 2013

According to the mental continuity claim (MCC), human mental faculties are physical and beneficial to human survival, so they must have evolved gradually from ancestral forms and we should expect to see their precursors across species. Materialism of mind coupled with Darwin's evolutionary theory leads directly to such claims and even today arguments for animal mental properties are often presented with the MCC as a premise. However, the MCC has been often challenged among contemporary scholars. It is usually argued that only humans use language and that language as such has no precursors in the animal kingdom. Moreover, language is quite often understood as a necessary tool for having representations and forming beliefs. As a consequence, by lacking language animals could not have developed representational systems or beliefs. In response to these worries, we aim to mount a limited defense of the MCC as an empirical hypothesis. First, we will provide a short historical overview of the origins of the MCC and examine some of the motives behind traditional arguments for and against it. Second, we will focus on one particular question, namely, whether language as such is necessary for having beliefs. Our goal is to show that there is little reason to think language is necessary for belief. In doing so, we will challenge a view of belief that is widely accepted by those working in animal cognition, namely, representational belief, and we will argue that if belief is nonrepresentational, then different research questions and methods are required. We will conclude with an argument that to study the evolution of belief across species, it is essential to begin the study of subjects in their social and ecological environment rather than in contexts that are not ecologically valid along the social and ecological dimensions. Thus, rather than serving as a premise in an argument in favor of animal minds, the MCC can only be defended by empirical investigation, but importantly, empirical investigation of the right sort.
Episodic Memory and Planning
Authors: Raby Caroline R. , Clayton Nicola S.
Published: February 2013

Episodic memory in humans is the recall of a specific event in the past, which the rememberer has the sense of having personally experienced. Semantic memory is knowledge of the past without the accompanying phenomenological experience. Most life events are remembered episodically for a short time, but some memories are retained episodically long term. The episodic memory system and personal future planning are closely related, and we refer to this as the episodic cognitive system. Key uses of episodic memory are in maintaining a sense of self-continuity, successful social interaction, and using information from past events to direct future behavior. Most, but not all, researchers believe that the episodic cognitive system emerged later in evolution than the semantic cognitive system. There is some evidence that some mammals and birds have some aspects of episodic memory and future thinking, but much more data is needed and on a greater variety of species. It is possible that animals have “event memory,” an evolutionary forerunner of human episodic cognitive abilities that allow them to act on specific past events and take actions for the future but that do not necessarily comprise the experience of mental time travel or of autonoesis.
The Ecology and Evolution of Social Behavior and Cognition in Primates
Authors: Boesch Christophe
Published: February 2013

The social lives of animals present them with a constant yet varying series of challenges that they must solve daily if they want to survive and reproduce. An evolutionary approach to the evolution of social behavior and cognition predicts the convergent emergence of similar patterns and abilities in animal species facing similar challenges, as well as the emergence of a large diversity of behavioral and cognitive abilities within species facing different socio-ecological challenges. In primates, evidence supporting these predictions contradicts a Cartesian approach that many psychologists have adopted favoring captive studies and minimizing the role of experience and ecology. Social grouping is largely the result of a balance between increased predation protection, which is higher in larger groups, and decreased intragroup feeding competition, which is less intense in smaller groups. However, within such optimally sized groups, a great deal of flexibility in how social life can be organized is still possible. Cooperation, altruism, and reciprocity are observed with different levels of prevalence by individuals living in different ecological niches. In many monkeys and chimpanzees, we see that ecological factors play a decisive role in favoring the evolution of cooperation and altruism. The underlying cognitive abilities required to master them will develop according to how important the abilities are for the survival of the individuals. Different aspects of the ecological niche select for different abilities, which prevents a simple model of the evolution of social behavior and cognition. As a rule, the captive environment, a habitat that is particularly unchallenging and safe, selects for less demanding social cognitive development in many primate species, including humans. If we want to gain a better understanding of the evolution of social behavior and cognition, more research should be directed toward primates that face different types and levels of ecological challenges.
The Evolution of a Cooperative Social Mind
Authors: Cheney Dorothy L. , Seyfarth Robert M.
Published: February 2013

It has long been hypothesized that the demands of establishing and maintaining social relationships in complex societies place strong selective pressures on cognition and intelligence. What has been less clear until recently is whether these relationships, and the skills they require, confer any reproductive benefits, and whether such benefits vary across individuals. During the last few years, much progress has been made in resolving some of these questions. There is now evidence from a variety of species that animals are motivated to establish close, long-term bonds with specific partners, and that these bonds enhance offspring survival and longevity. The cognitive and emotional mechanisms underlying cooperation, however, are still not understood. It remains unclear, for example, whether animals keep track of favors given and received, and whether they rely on memory of past cooperative acts when anticipating future ones. Although most investigations with captive primates have indicated that cooperation is seldom contingency based, several experiments conducted under more natural conditions suggest that animals do take into account recent interactions when supporting others. Moreover, although interactions within dyads are often unbalanced over short periods of time, pairs with strong bonds have strongly reciprocal interactions over extended time periods. These results suggest that the apparent rarity of contingent cooperation in animals may not stem from cognitive constraints. Instead, animals may tolerate short-term inequities in favors given and received, because most cooperation occurs among long-term reciprocating partners.
When Things Go Wrong: On Mediation, Arbitration, Corrective Actions, and Disciplinary Sanctions
Authors: Koene Casper
Published: February 2013

Sometimes, psychologists’ conduct may lead to discomfort. Sometimes, expectations about their interventions and professional evaluations might have been inadequate. But things can go wrong, too. Errors are made. Unethical conduct will occur. Psychologists need to face this. Individual psychologists need to be open to look critically into their own behavior and thus to be loyal in having their professional conduct scrutinized. In this chapter, the different modalities of dealing with possible infringements of ethics are described. Coming to a settlement with the complainant as a result of a mediation process might be a preferable option to restore the relationship. However, in criticizing the psychologist's professional conduct in retrospect, the imposition of sanctions by the professional association or a legal disciplinary board may be unavoidable.

Yet, to take corrective actions (e.g., requiring additional training) might be more constructive to improve the ethical quality of future professional conduct.
The Tale of Two Universal Declarations: Ethics and Human Rights
Authors: Gauthier Janel , Pettifor Jean L.
Published: February 2013

In 1948, in the aftermath of WWII, and before the development of ethics codes in psychology, the United Nations adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights to protect people of all nations from harm. In 2008, 60 years later, in an increasingly globalized world, the International Union of Psychological Science and the International Association of Applied Psychology adopted the Universal Declaration of Ethical Principles for Psychologists. This latter declaration commits psychologists world-wide to be guided by fundamental ethical principles of respect and caring in all of psychology's interactions with persons and peoples. This chapter demonstrates how fundamental human rights in the world and ethical principles in psychology were each recognized through a universal declaration, how the approach to building a better world has evolved over time, and how the two universal declarations complement and strengthen each other in meeting today's global challenges for achieving freedom, justice, and peace in the world.
Ethical Issues and Ethics Reviews in Social Science Research
Authors: Wassenaar Douglas R. , Mamotte Nicole
Published: February 2013

Although the ethics of social science research has not enjoyed as much scholarly attention as the ethics of biomedical research, social scientists continue to debate the relevance of research ethics and ethics review to social science research. Like social scientists, biomedical scientists have also objected to ethical review of biomedical research, and much has been gained from the ensuing debates. This chapter reviews much of this recent debate, and proposes the application of a framework developed by Emanuel, Wendler, and Grady (2008). We argue, however, that social scientists are generally inadequately trained in research ethics and may still espouse a dangerous view, common among behavioral scientists in the 1950s, that ethical concerns reflect a kind of methodological or scientific naiveté. We provide grounds for arguing, further, that social science research, with a few clear exceptions, should be rigorously ethically reviewed, and that research ethics committees have an obligation to be competent in the appropriate review of social science research, including qualitative research. Although the chapter refers largely to social science research, we include psychological research as a major domain of social science research.
Insurance and Drug Spending
Authors: Pauly Mark V.
Published: February 2013

This article discusses the conceptual, theoretical, and empirical research on insurance coverage for drugs in the context of a comparison with this idealized model. Deviations from it include (but are not limited to) the inability of insurers to determine and make benefit payments based on an objective health state, the absence of uniform predetermined prices, insurance policies that cover only certain products (e.g., drugs) or that take account only of current-period costs, imperfect information for consumers and providers about what the marginal benefits from drugs and other treatments really are, and the possibility of income effects from benefit payments or coverage per se.
Empirical Evidence on the Value of Pharmaceuticals
Authors: Garthwaite Craig , Duggan Mark
Published: February 2013

This article begins by summarizing the existing evidence concerning the effect of pharmaceuticals on overall health. It then examines evidence of the health benefits of pharmaceuticals for the most commonly used treatments for widespread chronic and life-threatening conditions. It focuses on the most widespread conditions and those for which the utilization of prescription medication has changed the most dramatically over the last two decades. A broader question about the total value of pharmaceuticals involves the net benefit of these medications. There is a growing debate in the literature specifically about whether new drugs are worth more than their costs. The largest debate focuses on whether spending on these new drugs leads to even larger decreases in nonprescription drug spending whether the new drugs are cost-effective (i.e., providing enough health benefits to outweigh their costs relative to an alternative treatment method), or neither. The article considers existing evidence on the net benefits of these medications in terms of cost savings from nondrug health spending. Finally, it discusses the growing body of literature focusing on the nonhealth benefits of pharmaceuticals.
Promotion to Physicians and Consumers
Authors: Kenkel Don , Mathios Alan
Published: February 2013

This article reviews research on the economics of pharmaceutical promotion and advertising. The economics of advertising is a long-standing part of the field of industrial organization. The economics of pharmaceutical advertising is beginning to emerge as a separate subfield, at the intersection of industrial organization and health economics. The review tries to put recent research on pharmaceutical advertising into this broader context, placing special emphasis on empirical research. It provides some history about the regulatory environment that governs the promotion of pharmaceutical products, and briefly considers data on its recent level and trends. It sketches a simple model of advertising decisions by pharmaceutical firms and uses the model as a framework to understand broad patterns in advertising practices. Next, it reviews empirical research concerning the impact of advertising on the demand for prescription drugs, emphasizing the challenges posed by data aggregation and endogeneity issues. The final section concludes by outlining possible directions for future work.
The Economics of Vaccines
Authors: Sloan Frank A.
Published: February 2013

This article discusses preventive vaccines, focusing on features that differentiate these vaccines from other biopharmaceuticals. The external costs of infectious diseases imply external benefits from effective vaccines, and this has motivated public mandates, purchasing, and subsidies to demand for vaccines in most countries and government subsidies to supply for particular products, such as Project Bioshield in the United States. The article reviews these issues and then discusses factors that have contributed to the existence of few or sole suppliers of individual vaccines in the United States and possible policy responses.
Life Span Development: Childhood, Adolescence, and Adulthood
Authors: Juntunen Cindy L. , Bauman Stephanie San Miguel
Published: February 2013

This chapter examines human development in the context of multiple identities. It begins with an exploration of the complexity of human development through the lens of ecological systems theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1977; Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006), as augmented by multicultural and feminist psychology (Gilligan, 1982, 1996; Hurtado, 2010; Neville & Mobley, 2001; Yakushko, Davidson, & Williams, 2009). The roles of resilience and empowerment in development are then presented in the context of social identities. The remainder of the chapter explores important developmental concerns across the life span, including physical, emotional, social, and cognitive and academic/vocational development. Across each of these life domains, the specific contributions of feminist multicultural counseling psychology perspectives are identified, with an emphasis on fostering positive development throughout the life span.
Feminist Therapy in Counseling Psychology
Authors: Remer Pam A. , Oh Katharine Hahn
Published: February 2013

In this chapter, the authors discuss the development of feminist psychological practice and identify similarities between feminist approaches and counseling psychology, including multicultural and social justice perspectives. Empowerment Feminist Therapy (Worell & Remer, 1992, 2003) is highlighted as a model of feminist practice that applies the Guidelines for Psychological Practice with Girls and Women (APA, 2007) and incorporates social justice principles. The authors explain methods for using feminist assessment and conceptualization as collaborative and empowering interventions. They describe specific techniques for cultural analysis, exploration of privilege and oppression, analysis of identity development, and exploration of intersecting identities. The authors explore feminist perspectives on several ethical issues and stress the importance of using the Guidelines as a model of effective practice. Future directions for feminist theory and practice are provided.
Peace Interventions Tailored to Phases Within a Cycle of Intergroup Violence
Authors: Christie Daniel J. , Louis Winnifred R.
Published: February 2013

This chapter discusses intervention strategies for intrastate violence with emphasis on preventing and mitigating cycles of organized violence. We distinguish three phases of a cycle of violence (intergroup conflict, organized violence, and postviolence), discuss characteristics of each phase, and suggest peace intervention strategies that are particularly well suited for each phase. When discussing the limitations of our perspective and future research directions, we point to the narrow focus of research and practice on peace interventions aimed at promoting the absence of organized violence (i.e., negative peace) without concomitant efforts to promote social justice (i.e., positive peace) and sustainable development. We maintain that durable forms of peace require the application of both negative and positive peace interventions.
Intergroup Reconciliation: Definitions, Processes, and Future Directions
Authors: Nadler Arie
Published: February 2013

The chapter begins by considering the concept of reconciliation in scientific study in general, and research on intergroup relations in particular. On the basis of this review it proposes a distinction between structural, relational and identity-related aspects of intergroup reconciliation and suggests that these aspects are hierarchically organized. It continues to focus on relational and identity-related aspects of intergroup reconciliation by discussing the distinction between processes of instrumental and socio-emotional reconciliation. It continues to analyze the psychological dynamics in identity-related reconciliation and describes the need based model of reconciliation and relevant empirical support. Subsequent sections consider the effects of ‘truth-telling’ in the post-conflict era on societal and individual healing. A final chapter focuses on the distinction between false and genuine reconciliation and reviews scholarly work that emphasizes the place of victim resentment in genuine intergroup reconciliation.
Apology and Reparation
Authors: Iyer Aarti , Blatz Craig
Published: February 2013

Apology and reparations can facilitate the transition from conflict to peace, but the processes of deciding to offer them, determining their content, and deciding whether to accept their terms can themselves give rise to additional conflict. We examine these processes in this chapter, starting with a discussion of the parties involved: victims, perpetrators, group representatives, and third parties. Next, we consider the steps needed to bring about offers of apology and reparations: acknowledgment of illegitimate harm by a perpetrator group, and acknowledgment that restitution is feasible. In the third section we outline the various forms that apology and reparation have taken in intergroup conflict. We then focus on the aftermath of apology and reparation: when are victims and perpetrators likely to support such offers? We conclude that apology and reparation can help resolve conflict, but that they also require careful negotiation. We outline some unanswered questions and directions for future research.
Perspectives on the History of Deaf Education
Authors: Lang Harry G.
Published: February 2013

A history of the education of deaf persons is by its very nature a study of societal and cultural change. This notion is epitomized in tracing prevailing attitudes about deaf people and how they learn. Certain fallacious attitudes, for instance, have lingered, taking on new forms over time, even with the more recent efforts of scholars to examine the issues systematically. This is especially true with regard to the issue of language and its relationship to academic achievement. That deaf students are visual learners and may benefit from a visual language, rather than an auditory one, has never been universally accepted as an established tenet guiding formal instruction. Whether speaking of the seventeenth century’s metaphysical association of the human voice with the soul or divine spirit, or twenty-first-century decisions in some schools to forbid the use of signs by children with cochlear implants, misconceptions, as well as insufficient bridging of research and practice, have thwarted efforts to effectively teach language and academic content to deaf children. The well-documented cognitive and linguistic developmental delays in deaf children continue to be viewed by many as the result of deafness per se. But as Marschark, Lang, and Albertini (2002) summarize, “if there is a problem, it is much more likely to be found in the way we teach and what we expect from deaf students than in the students themselves” (p. 7). Such an understanding of deafness as an educational condition shapes the historical highlights discussed in this chapter.
Approaches to Reading Instruction
Authors: Schirmer Barbara R. , Williams Cheri
Published: February 2013

The aim of this chapter is to provide an overview of the research on approaches to reading instruction with deaf students. Although the body of research literature on the reading processes of deaf students consistently generates implications for instruction, relatively few studies have investigated instructional interventions with deaf readers. Brief descriptions of the research published before 2000 are offered in this chapter, except in cases of early seminal studies and lone studies in major areas, as a foundation for understanding the current research that is described in greater detail. The chapter concludes with a discussion of implications for future research on instructional approaches that could serve to inform teacher practice.