bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Improving complementary feeding in Ghana: reaching the vulnerable through innovative business—the case of KOKO Plus
Authors: Ghosh Shibani , Tano‐Debrah Kwaku , Aaron Grant J. , Otoo Gloria , Strutt Nicholas , Bomfeh Kennedy , Kitamura Satoshi , Suri Devika J. , Murakami Hitoshi , Furuta Chie , Sarpong Daniel , Saalia F. , Nakao Youzou , Amonoo‐Kuofi Harold , Uauy Ricardo , Toride Yasuhiko
Published: December 2014

Reaching vulnerable populations in low‐resource settings with effective business solutions is critical, given the global nature of food and nutrition security. Over a third of deaths of children under 5 years of age are directly or indirectly caused by undernutrition. The Lancet series on malnutrition (2013) estimates that over 220,000 lives of children under 5 years of age can be saved through the implementation of an infant and young child feeding and care package. A unique project being undertaken in Ghana aims to bring in two elements of innovation in infant and young child feeding. The first involves a public–private partnership (PPP) to develop and test the efficacy and effectiveness of the delivery of a low‐cost complementary food supplement in Ghana called KOKO Plus™. The second involves the testing of the concepts of social entrepreneurship and social business models in the distribution and delivery of the product. This paper shares information on the ongoing activities in the testing of concepts of PPPs, social business, social marketing, and demand creation using different delivery platforms to achieve optimal nutrition in Ghanaian infants and young children in the first 2 years of life. It also focuses on outlining the concept of using PPP and base‐of‐the‐pyramid approaches toward achieving nutrition objectives.
strap: an R package for plotting phylogenies against stratigraphy and assessing their stratigraphic congruence
Authors: Bell Mark A. , Lloyd Graeme T.
Published: December 2014

strap (Stratigraphic Tree Analysis for Palaeontology) is a new package for the freely available statistical programming language R designed to perform three main tasks: (1) to time‐scale phylogenies of fossil taxa; (2) to plot those time‐scaled trees against stratigraphy; and (3) to assess congruence between phylogenies and stratigraphy. Time‐scaling is performed with the DatePhylo function, with three approaches offered. Plotting trees against a choice of five different geological time scaless is possible using the geoscalePhylo function. Finally, the function StratPhyloCongruence calculates stratigraphic congruence measures for one or more input phylogenies, with no taxon limit. All three major congruence measures are offered: Stratigraphic Consistency Index (SCI), Manhattan Stratigraphic Measure (MSM*) and the gap excess ratio (GER; including GERt and GER*), as well as the pseudocongruence measure, the Relative Completeness Index (RCI). Each measure has an accompanying significance test that works by comparing the input trees against a user‐defined number of randomly generated topologies with the same taxon set and age ranges. Additional options for generating these random topologies allow the user to fix the outgroup or retain the input tree shape to make fairer comparisons. A tutorial that assumes no prior knowledge of R showcases all three functions using two different example data sets.
Randomized, double‐blind comparison of standard‐dose vs. high‐dose trivalent inactivated influenza vaccine in pediatric solid organ transplant patients
Authors: GiaQuinta Sarah , Michaels Marian G. , McCullers Jonathan A. , Wang Li , Fonnesbeck Christopher , O'Shea Alice , Green Michael , Halasa Natasha B.
Published: December 2014

Children who have undergone SOT mount a lower immune response after vaccination with TIV compared to healthy controls. HD or SD TIV in pediatric SOT was given to subjects 3–17 yr and at least six months post‐transplant. Subjects were randomized 2:1 to receive either the HD (60 μg) or the SD (15 μg) TIV. Local and systemic reactions were solicited after each vaccination, and immune responses were measured before and after each vaccination. Thirty‐eight subjects were enrolled. Mean age was 11.25 yr; 68% male, 45% renal, 26% heart, 21% liver, 5% lung, and 5% intestinal. Twenty‐three subjects were given HD and 15 SD TIV. The median time since transplant receipt was 2.2 yr. No severe AEs or rejection was attributed to vaccination. The HD group reported more tenderness and local reactions, fatigue, and body ache when compared to the SD cohort, but these were considered mild and resolved within three days. Subjects in the HD group demonstrated a higher percentage of four‐fold titer rise to H3N2 compared to the SD group. HD influenza vaccine was well tolerated and may have increased immunogenicity. A phase 2 trial is needed to confirm.
Retinal dysplasia inAmerican pit bull terriers – phenotypic characterization and breeding study
Authors: Rodarte‐Almeida Ana Carolina Veiga , Petersen‐Jones Simon , Langohr Ingeborg M. , Occelli Laurence , Dornbusch Peterson T. , Shiokawa Naoye , Montiani‐Ferreira Fabiano
Published: December 2014

Objective

The purpose of this study was to investigate the inheritance and phenotype of retinal dysplasia (RD) in the American pit bull terrier.

Animals Studied

A breeding colony established from a single female pure‐bred American pit bull terrier dog withRD.

Procedures

A female pure‐bred American pit bull terrier withRDwas donated to the Veterinary Hospital of Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil. A breeding colony was established and the phenotype and inheritance of the condition investigated. Regular ophthalmic examinations and fundus photography were performed on three generations of offspring from the founder animal. Some animals were additionally studied by optical coherence tomography. Ocular histopathology was performed on some animals from the colony.

Results

Fifty‐seven offspring were produced in two generations from the affected founder female. Thirty‐two were diagnosed withRDand showed a spectrum of severity of lesions including multifocal, and or geographic lesions and some developed retinal detachment. Histologic examination demonstrated retinal folds, rosettes, and areas of retinal detachment. The affected dogs were shorter in stature than the unaffected littermates. Breeding studies suggested the trait has an autosomal dominant mode of inheritance.DNAtesting showed that the affected dogs were negative for the known gene mutations for canine dwarfism with RD.

Conclusion

This is a report of a novel inherited form of RD that affects American pit bull terriers.
Disrupted Airports and Disruptive Technology: A Recipe for Mutual Advantage?
Authors: Regan Padraic
Published: December 2014

Much work has been undertaken showing that executive air travel can have stress-related consequences. As greater use of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) has been put forward as a substitute for air travel, then such activity would appear to be a realistic strategy to relieve air travel-related stressors. Although one projection estimated the potential substitution effect at 70%, to date however, empirical studies have come up with much more modest numbers. This paper aims to update the literature on two relatively recent developments in respect of these substitution effects, viz. increased congestion at European airports and advances in mobile technologies. The results suggest that the combined impact of these developments will result in more business communications being undertaken in relatively stress-free environments thus providing potential benefits for both sectors.
The influence of conjugation of cholic acid on its uptake and secretion: hepatic extraction of taurocholate and cholate in the dog
Authors: O'Máille E. R. L. , Richards T. G. , Short A. H.
Published: December 2014

1. Sodium taurocholate or cholate was administered systemically at a constant rate of about 2·9 μmole/min.kg body wt. to anaesthetized dogs in which the common bile duct had been cannulated. In steady‐state conditions blood was sampled from systemic and hepatic veins and the fraction of bile salt removed in a single passage through the liver was determined. Total hepatic blood flow was estimated by application of the Fick principle.

2. The hepatic extraction fraction for synthetic taurocholate in ten experiments was 92%±5% (
S.D.) over the blood flow range encountered (1·1‐2·8 ml./min.g liver). The extraction of cholate extensively conjugated in the liver before excretion into bile was 79%±8% (
S.D.) (twenty‐one observations, thirteen experiments). In circumstances of similar hepatic blood flow the extraction of cholate transferred to bile in the free form (after acute taurine depletion) was significantly less than that of either synthetic taurocholate or cholate which could be actively conjugated before excretion. These results, which are discussed and criticized, support previous work on the advantage of conjugation in the transfer of cholic acid from blood to bile.

3. The hepatic clearance of bile salt decreases with increasing administration rate, but the values obtained may be influenced by changes in hepatic blood flow. With regard to taurocholate an increase in total hepatic flow was observed when its administration rate exceeded about 5 μmole/min.kg body wt.

4. The secretory maximum for glycocholate, a bile salt not normally found in dog bile, was of the same order as that for taurocholate.
The pH sensitivity of the chloride conductance of frog skeletal muscle
Authors: Hutter O. F. , Warner Anne E.
Published: December 2014

1. The effect of changes in the pH of the extracellular solution on the membrane conductance of frog sartorius and toe muscle fibres was measured with intracellular micro‐electrodes.

2. In Ringer solution the membrane conductance was found to be highly sensitive to changes in pH between 5·0 and 9·8. In alkaline solution the conductance rose; in acid solution it fell.

3. After replacement of chloride by the relatively impermeant methylsulphate ion the membrane conductance showed little change when pH was altered. It is concluded that chloride is the ion species principally concerned in the pH sensitivity of the resting membrane conductance.

4. The relation between pH and the chloride conductance was sigmoid, with the steepest part of the curve lying in the region of neutrality.

5. The membrane conductance of muscles equilibrated in a 100 m
M‐K 216 m
M‐Cl solution was also sensitive to changes of extracellular pH. As in Ringer solution, the membrane conductance rose in alkaline and fell in acid solutions in a sigmoid fashion.

6. Sartorius muscles in isotonic potassium methylsulphate solution showed no change in membrane conductance at different pH values.

7. In chloride‐free solution a fall in pH tended to cause depolarization; a rise in pH had the opposite effect.

8. In Ringer solution the initial effect of a rise in pH was usually a transient depolarization. The indication is that the intracellular concentration of chloride ions may be slightly in excess of that which corresponds to the resting potential. The long‐term effects of changes in pH on the membrane potential in Ringer solution were in the same direction as in the absence of chloride.

9. The transient potential changes produced on addition and withdrawal of chloride ions were found to be larger in alkaline solutions than in acid solutions. This is further evidence for a higher chloride permeability in alkaline solutions.
Responses of the pyramidal tract to stimulation of the baboon's motor cortex
Authors: Kernell D. , Chien-Ping Wu
Published: December 2014

1. The arm area of the baboon's precentral motor cortex was stimulated by brief surface‐anodal pulses, and the discharge of the corticospinal tract (the ‘pyramidal tract waves’) was recorded by an electrode resting on the dorsolateral surface of the cervical spinal cord.

2. Some properties of the pyramidal tract waves were described, and they were also studied in relation to the firing of single cortico spinal fibres.

3. The results led to the conclusion that the later pyramidal tract waves (the ‘I waves’) were almost exclusively due to a semi‐synchronous repetitive discharge of the same fast cortico spinal fibres as those responsible for the initial wave (the ‘D wave’).

4. Some problems concerning the origin and significance of the I waves were discussed.
The variation of hand tremor with force in healthy subjects
Authors: Sutton G. G. , Sykes K.
Published: December 2014

1. Total root‐mean‐square (r.m.s.) error over an effectively unrestricted band, and error power spectra from 0·256 to 12·5 c/s were measured for four subjects attempting to maintain fixed forces of 1‐6 Lb. (0·45‐2·72 kg) on a pressure joystick. The subject could see his errors as the deflexion of a cathode ray tube spot.

2. The total r.m.s. error increases linearly with force with a considerable (positive) intercept when the line is extrapolated to zero force. Hence accuracy in the sense (r.m.s. error)/(force) increases with force for this type of control.

3. The rate of increase of total r.m.s. error with force is greater in subjects with prominent tremor peaks in their power spectra at 8‐10 c/s.

4. At each frequency the r.m.s. error per unit bandwidth also increases linearly with force. Except at the very lowest frequencies the rate of increase is greater in subjects with prominent tremor peaks at 8‐10 c/s. This is thought to account for the observation described in paragraph 3.

5. The frequency of the tremor peak near 8‐10 c/s is almost independent of the force exerted.
Transport of caesium in frog muscle
Authors: Beaugé L. A. , Sjodin R. A.
Published: December 2014

1. The entry of caesium into sartorius muscle cells is strongly suppressed by the presence of 10−5
M strophanthidin in Ringer solution.

2. The amount by which caesium entry is reduced in the presence of strophanthidin is dependent on the intracellular sodium concentration and is greater the higher the intracellular sodium concentration.

3. The magnitude of caesium influx in the absence of strophanthidin is highly dependent on the intracellular sodium concentration.

4. Caesium uptake by muscles in which sodium has been largely replaced by lithium is reduced to very low values.

5. Caesium can promote the extrusion of sodium from muscles with high intracellular sodium concentrations. The effects of 25 m
M caesium and 5 m
M potassium on sodium extrusion are roughly the same.

6. External potassium inhibits the entry of caesium ions into muscle cells presumably by competing for transport sites.

7. The drug strophanthidin has no effect on 134Cs efflux provided that muscles have been loaded with tracer ions for a long period of time. Caesium efflux from the intracellular compartment appears to occur by a process not mediated by metabolism.

8. The action of strophanthidin on 134Cs efflux from muscles exposed to tracer for short times suggests that caesium ions are transported inwardly by an active process after first accumulating in a superficial reservoir.
Receptive fields and functional architecture of monkey striate cortex
Authors: Hubel D. H. , Wiesel T. N.
Published: December 2014

1. The striate cortex was studied in lightly anaesthetized macaque and spider monkeys by recording extracellularly from single units and stimulating the retinas with spots or patterns of light. Most cells can be categorized as simple, complex, or hypercomplex, with response properties very similar to those previously described in the cat. On the average, however, receptive fields are smaller, and there is a greater sensitivity to changes in stimulus orientation. A small proportion of the cells are colour coded.

2. Evidence is presented for at least two independent systems of columns extending vertically from surface to white matter. Columns of the first type contain cells with common receptive‐field orientations. They are similar to the orientation columns described in the cat, but are probably smaller in cross‐sectional area. In the second system cells are aggregated into columns according to eye preference. The ocular dominance columns are larger than the orientation columns, and the two sets of boundaries seem to be independent.

3. There is a tendency for cells to be grouped according to symmetry of responses to movement; in some regions the cells respond equally well to the two opposite directions of movement of a line, but other regions contain a mixture of cells favouring one direction and cells favouring the other.

4. A horizontal organization corresponding to the cortical layering can also be discerned. The upper layers (II and the upper two‐thirds of III) contain complex and hypercomplex cells, but simple cells are virtually absent. The cells are mostly binocularly driven. Simple cells are found deep in layer III, and in IV A and IV B. In layer IV B they form a large proportion of the population, whereas complex cells are rare. In layers IV A and IV B one finds units lacking orientation specificity; it is not clear whether these are cell bodies or axons of geniculate cells. In layer IV most cells are driven by one eye only; this layer consists of a mosaic with cells of some regions responding to one eye only, those of other regions responding to the other eye. Layers V and VI contain mostly complex and hypercomplex cells, binocularly driven.

5. The cortex is seen as a system organized vertically and horizontally in entirely different ways. In the vertical system (in which cells lying along a vertical line in the cortex have common features) stimulus dimensions such as retinal position, line orientation, ocular dominance, and perhaps directionality of movement, are mapped in sets of superimposed but independent mosaics. The horizontal system segregates cells in layers by hierarchical orders, the lowest orders (simple cells monocularly driven) located in and near layer IV, the higher orders in the upper and lower layers.
The dependence of calcium efflux from cardiac muscle on temperature and external ion composition
Authors: Reuter H. , Seitz N.
Published: December 2014

1. Exchangeable Ca in guinea‐pig auricles and ventricular trabeculae of sheep and calf hearts was labelled with 45Ca and the loss of radioactivity into inactive rinsing solutions of different ion composition was measured for periods up to 6 hr. At no time did the decrease of radioactivity in the muscle follow a single exponential course, while the rate coefficient k (= fraction of 45Ca lost per minute from muscle into rinsing solution) decreased slightly with time.

2. On the basis of the temperature‐sensitivity of Ca efflux from auricles the activation energy has been calculated to have a value of 5900 cal/mole, corresponding to a Q10 of 1·35. 2,4‐Dinitrophenol (5·5 × 10−5 ‐ 5·5 × 10−4
M) had either no effect on Ca efflux or increased it slightly.

3. Compared to control efflux in 1·8 m
M [Ca]o Ca efflux decreased to 70% in Ca‐free solution, to 20% in Ca‐free, Na‐free solution and to 65% in Ca‐containing, Na‐free solution, NaCl being replaced by either sucrose or LiCl. Quantitatively, Ca efflux from auricles has been shown to depend to a large extent on the ratio [Ca2+]o/[Na+]o2. The affinity for Na of the activation site for Ca efflux (carrier) is much less than for Ca.

4. The efflux from muscles soaked for about 2 hr in Ca‐free solution was not linearly related to Ca‐concentration in the tissue but followed a square law.

5. While Ca content in auricles increased in Ca‐containing, Na‐poor solution it decreased again when Tyrode solution was readmitted indicating a Na‐sensitive Ca net transport in cardiac muscle.

6. The results are interpreted in terms of a modified exchange diffusion mechanism (Ussing, 1947) which is responsible for Ca extrusion from mammalian cardiac muscle.
The contrast sensitivity of the colour mechanisms of the human eye
Authors: Green Daniel G.
Published: December 2014

1. To isolate the colour receptive systems of the eye, a sinusoidal grating of one colour was superimposed on a bright background of another colour and the threshold contrast for resolving the grating was determined.

2. A procedure is described which allows one to estimate the extent by which the bright background reduces the contrast of the test grating of another colour. Using this procedure, the measured threshold contrasts of the test grating were replotted in terms of the effective contrast sensitivity for the composite target.

3. The effectivity of a red background in reducing the contrast of a green grating was found to be determined not by its apparent brightness but rather by the extent to which it excited the green mechanism.

4. The effective contrast sensitivities for a green grating on a green background, for a green grating on a red background, and for a red grating on a green background were found to be not significantly different.

5. Visual acuity for a blue grating on a yellow background was reduced from normal by about a factor of six. This loss in visual acuity was due to both a reduction in contrast sensitivity and a reduction in resolution.
Responses to single photons in visual cells of Limulus
Authors: Borsellino A. , Fuortes M. G. F.
Published: December 2014

1. A system proposed in a previous article as a model of responses of visual cells has been analysed with the purpose of predicting the features of responses to single absorbed photons.

2. As a result of this analysis, the stochastic variability of responses has been expressed as a function of the amplification of the system.

3. The theoretical predictions have been compared to the results obtained by recording electrical responses of visual cells of Limulus to flashes delivering only few photons.

4. Experimental responses to single photons have been tentatively identified and it was shown that the stochastic variability of these responses is similar to that predicted for a model with a multiplication factor of at least twenty‐five.

5. These results lead to the conclusion that the processes responsible for visual responses incorporate some form of amplification. This conclusion may prove useful for identifying the physical mechanisms underlying the transducer action of visual cells.
The distribution of monosynaptic excitation from the pyramidal tract and from primary spindle afferents to motoneurones of the baboon's hand and forearm
Authors: Clough J. F. M. , Kernell D. , Phillips C. G.
Published: December 2014

1. Intracellular records were obtained from motoneurones innervating muscles of the baboon's forearm and hand. Monosynaptic excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) were elicited by stimulation of motor cortex (CM EPSPs) and peripheral nerves (Ia EPSPs).

2. CM EPSPs were larger on average in motoneurones innervating intrinsic hand muscles and extensor digitorum communis (EDC) than in neurones of other forearm muscles.

3. Among motoneurones of the median nerve, the CM EPSP tended to be larger for cells with more rapidly conducting axons than for those with more slowly conducting axons. Among motoneurones of EDC the opposite tendency was found.

4. The afferent fibres responsible for the Ia EPSP nearly always had a lower stimulus threshold than that of motor axons in the same nerve. Some observations were made concerning the distribution of heteronymous Ia EPSPs.

5. Among motoneurones of a given nerve, those with large Ia EPSPs tended to receive larger CM EPSPs than did cells in which the Ia EPSP was small.

6. The results are discussed in relation to problems concerning the pyramidal control of hand and finger movement.
Outward membrane currents activated in the plateau range of potentials in cardiac Purkinje fibres
Authors: Noble D. , Tsien R. W.
Published: December 2014

1. The membrane currents in Purkinje fibres under voltage clamp conditions have been investigated in the range of potentials at which the action potential plateau occurs. The results show that in this range slow outward current changes occur which are quite distinct from the potassium current activated in the pace‐maker range of potentials.

2. The time course of current change in response to step voltage changes is non‐exponential. At each potential the current changes may be analysed in terms of the sum of two exponential changes and this property has been used to dissect the currents into two components, ix1 and ix2, both of which have been found to obey kinetics of the Hodgkin—Huxley type.

3. The first component, ix1, is activated with a time constant of about 0·5 sec at the plateau. At more positive and more negative potentials the time constants are shorter. The steady‐state degree of activation varies from 0 at about ‐50 mV to about 1 at +20 mV. The instantaneous current—voltage relation is an inward‐going rectifier but shows no detectable negative slope. In normal Tyrode solution ([K]0 = 4 m
M) the reversal potential is about ‐85 mV.

4. The second component, ix2, is activated extremely slowly and the time constant at the plateau is about 4 sec. The steady‐state activation curve varies from 0 at about ‐40 mV to 1 at about +20 mV. The instantaneous current—voltage relation is nearly linear. The reversal potential occurs between ‐50 and ‐20 mV in different preparations.

5. It is suggested that these currents are carried largely by K ions, but that some other ions (e.g. Na) also contribute so that the reversal potentials are positive to EK.

6. The relation of these results to previous work on delayed rectification in cardiac muscle is discussed.
Strontium and quantal release of transmitter at the neuromuscular junction
Authors: Dodge F. A. , Miledi R. , Rahamimoff R.
Published: December 2014

1. Previous work has shown that in calcium‐free solutions nerve impulses invade the motor nerve terminals at the neuromuscular junction, but fail to release transmitter. In these conditions, strontium ions applied iontophoretically to a minute part of a junction, or to the whole muscle by bath application, restore to the nerve impulse its ability to release transmitter.

2. As with calcium, the transmitter released in the presence of strontium is in the form of packages (quanta) whose release can be predicted from Poisson's Theorem.

3. The mean number of quanta released by a nerve impulse increases with the concentration of strontium. Strontium is much less effective than calcium in equimolar concentrations.

4. Transmitter quanta released in the presence of strontium evoke larger unit potentials than quanta released in the presence of calcium. The larger size of the Sr‐unit potentials is caused by a prolongation of transmitter action, presumably due to a post‐synaptic effect of strontium.

5. Neuromuscular transmission was blocked in some fibres when the concentration of strontium was raised beyond 10 m
M. This junctional block was presumably due to a failure in the propagation of nerve impulses.

6. The post‐stimulation increase in the frequency of miniature end‐plate potentials, which is normally seen in calcium solutions, is also observed when calcium is substituted by strontium. The post‐stimulation effect increases with the concentration of strontium.

7. It is concluded that strontium can substitute for calcium in the process of quantal release of transmitter. The physico‐chemical mechanism of this substitution remains unknown.
Projection to cerebral cortex of Group I muscle afferents from the cat's hind limb
Authors: Landgren S. , Silfvenius H.
Published: December 2014

1. Muscle afferent projections from the contralateral hind limb to the postsigmoid gyrus of the cerebral cortex were investigated in cats anaesthetized with chloralose. The evoked potentials were recorded from the cortical surface or from deeper layers by penetrating micro‐electrodes. Graded electrical stimulation of the nerves was used.

2. Group Ia as well as Ib muscle afferents from the contralateral quadriceps, posterior biceps‐semitendinosus, gastrocnemius‐soleus and deep peroneal muscles projected to two different loci in the postsigmoid gyrus. One of these was located on the dorsal surface of the hemisphere 4‐5 mm lateral to the mid line and 1‐3 mm posterior to the cruciate sulcus, thus rostro‐medial to the postcruciate dimple. The other was located on the medial surface of the hemisphere adjacent to the cruciate sulcus. There was no overlap between the two loci.

3. There was no significant difference in thresholds or latencies of the Group I responses in the two loci. The latency was short and similar to that of the potential evoked by the cutaneous afferents in the somatosensory primary projection areas.

4. The Group Ib path was largely independent of the Ia path, because a maximal Group I volley evoked a response, when the Ia path was made refractory by simultaneous stimulation with a maximal Ia volley at 20 per second.

5. The cortical potentials evoked by the Group I muscle afferents from the contralateral hind limb did not change after transection of the dorsal columns at C1‐C3 levels but disappeared after a superficial section in the dorsolateral fascicle at C1 level. The responses were not affected by cerebellectomy. It was concluded that the path travelled with the dorsal spinocerebellar tract or utilized brain stem collaterals of this tract.

6. Group II muscle afferents evoked a response near the border of the Group I loci, but not in the positions where the Group I responses were maximal in amplitude.

7. The receptor origin of the stimulated Group I afferents, the location of the medullary relay in the Group I path and the destination of the efferent outflow from the Group I loci were discussed.
Relationship between cortisone and muscle work in determining muscle size
Authors: Goldberg A. L. , Goodman H. M.
Published: December 2014

1. Large doses of cortisone caused marked atrophy of the plantaris muscle and other pale muscles of hind limbs of hypophysectomized rats, but hormone treatment had little effect on the size of the red soleus muscle.

2. Denervation increased the sensitivity of the soleus and plantaris to the catabolic effects of cortisone.

3. Increased work induced by tenotomy of the synergistic gastrocnemius made the plantaris muscle less sensitive to cortisone‐induced atrophy.

4. Since the catabolic effects of cortisone are more pronounced in the less active muscles, it is suggested that in mobilizing body protein for gluconeogenesis the hormone spares those muscles physiologically most active.

5. The rapidity with which muscles lose weight in response to cortisone indicates that the hormone must decrease protein half‐lives as well as decrease protein synthesis.
The effect of CO2 on ventilation and breath‐holding during exercise and while breathing through an added resistance
Authors: Clark T. J. H. , Godfrey S.
Published: December 2014

1. Ventilation was measured while subjects were made to rebreathe from a bag containing CO2 and O2 in order to expose them to a steadily rising CO2 tension (PCO2). The object of the experiments was to determine the effect of a variety of stimuli upon the increase in ventilation and fall in breath‐holding time which occurs in response to the rising PCO2.

2. Steady‐state exercise at 200 kg.m/min resulted in a small fall in the slope of the ventilation—CO2 response curve (SV) and a small, though not statistically significant, fall in the PCO2 at which ventilation would be zero by extrapolation (BV). There was a marked fall in the slope of the breath‐holding—CO2 response curve (SBH) and an increase in the PCO2 at which breath‐holding time became zero by extrapolation (BBH).

3. These results have been interpreted with the aid of a model of the control of breath‐holding and it is suggested that there is no change in CO2 sensitivity on exercise, either during rebreathing or breath‐holding.

4. An increase in the resistance to breathing caused a marked reduction in SV and BV, but no change in the breath‐holding—CO2 response curve. These findings suggest that the flattening of the ventilation—CO2 response curve is mechanical in origin and acute airway obstruction produces no change in CO2 sensitivity.

5. On the basis of these results, we suggest that more information about CO2 sensitivity can be obtained by a combination of ventilation and breath‐holding—CO2 response curves.
Visual area of the lateral suprasylvian gyrus (Clare—Bishop area) of the cat
Authors: Hubel David H. , Wiesel Torsten N.
Published: December 2014

On anatomical and physiological grounds a zone of cat cortex deep in the medial bank of the suprasylvian sulcus (the Clare—Bishop area) is known to receive strong visual projections both from the lateral geniculate body and area 17. We have mapped receptive fields of single cells in this area in eight cats.

Active responses to visual stimuli were found over most of the medial bank of the suprasylvian sulcus extending to the depths and over to the lowest part of the lateral bank. The area is clearly topographically arranged. The first responsive cells, recorded over the lateral convexity and 2‐3 mm down the medial bank, had receptive fields in the far periphery of the contralateral visual fields. The receptive fields tended to be large, but showed considerable variation in size and scatter in their positions. As the electrode advanced down the bank, fields of successively recorded cells gradually tended to move inwards, so that in the depths of the sulcus the inner borders of many of the fields reached the vertical mid line. Here the fields were smaller, though they still varied very much in size.

Receptive fields were larger than in 17, 18, or 19, but otherwise were not obviously different from the complex and lower‐order hypercomplex fields in those areas. No simple fields, or concentric fields of the retino‐geniculate type, were seen. Cells with common receptive‐field orientation were grouped together, but whether or not the grouping occurs in columns was not established.

Most cells were driven independently by the two eyes. Fields in the two eyes seemed to be identical in organization. Cells dominated by the contralateral eye were much more common than ipsilaterally dominated ones, but when cells with parafoveal and peripheral fields were considered separately, the asymmetry was seen to apply mainly to cells with peripheral fields.
Comparison of the effects of water deprivation and sodium chloride imbibition on the hormone content of the neurohypophysis of the rat
Authors: Jones C. W. , Pickering B. T.
Published: December 2014

1. Vasopressin and oxytocin have been measured in the neurohypophysis of rats which had either been given a 2% (w/v) NaCl solution to drink or been deprived of drinking water for up to 5 days.

2. There was a progressive decrease in the vasopressin content of the glands in both groups; the rates of depletion were not significantly different.

3. Oxytocin also decreased progressively in both groups but the glands from the ‘saline‐treated’ rats contained less hormone than those from the ‘water‐deprived’ animals.

4. The differences in gland content of oxytocin could not be correlated with differences between the plasma osmolalities or sodium concentrations of the two groups.
Tetrodotoxin‐resistant electric activity in presynaptic terminals
Authors: Katz B. , Miledi R.
Published: December 2014

1. The electric properties of the giant synapse in the stellate ganglion of the squid have been further investigated.

2. During tetrodotoxin (TTX) paralysis, a local response can be elicited from the terminal parts of the presynaptic axons after intracellular injection of tetraethyl ammonium ions (TEA).

3. The response is characterized by an action potential of variable size and duration, whose fall is often preceded by a prolonged plateau. The response, especially the duration of the plateau, is subject to ‘fatigue’ during repetitive stimulation.

4. The TTX‐resistant form of activity is localized in the region of the synaptic contacts, and shows a marked electrotonic decrement even within less than 1 mm from the synapse. It is found only on the afferent, not on the efferent, side of the synapse.

5. During the plateau of the response, the membrane resistance is greatly reduced below its resting value.

6. The response depends on presence of external calcium and increases in size and duration with the calcium concentration. Strontium and barium substitute effectively for calcium. Manganese and, to a lesser extent, magnesium, counteract calcium and reduce the response. The response also declines, and ultimately disappears, if sodium is withdrawn for long periods.

7. The relation of the local TTX‐resistant response to the influx of calcium ions and to the release of the synaptic transmitter is discussed.
Mechanism of stimulation of type J pulmonary receptors
Authors: Paintal A. S.
Published: December 2014

1. The responses of type J pulmonary receptors (identified according to existing criteria) were studied in anaesthetized cats by recording impulses in individual vagal afferent fibres whose conduction velocity ranged from 0·8 to 7 m/sec.

2. Measurements of actual latencies between insufflation of halothane or ether into the lungs and the excitation of the endings, and the latencies before and after circulatory arrest have established that the endings are located in the interstitial tissues close to the pulmonary capillaries. Mainly for this reason, the term juxta‐pulmonary capillary receptors (i.e. type J receptors) has been applied to these endings in preference to the term K deflation receptors used hitherto.

3. The endings were stimulated by pulmonary congestion produced by occlusion of the aorta or left a—v junction for short periods. They were markedly stimulated during pulmonary congestion following injection of alloxan (150 mg/kg) or the addition of chlorine to the inspired air. This excitation was associated with a marked rise in pulmonary artery pressure and the occurrence of pulmonary oedema. However, the actual onset of excitation occurred some time after the rise in pressure and it was in fact more closely related to fall in pulmonary compliance. The frequency of discharge averaged over about 10–20 sec (in order to take the periods of relative inactivity into account) was 7·5 impulses/sec in 10 fibres (range 0·6–19 impulses/sec;
S.D. 6·3). This is intense stimulation of the endings and the congestion so produced is therefore regarded as a severe stimulus for the endings.

4. The pattern of excitation was variable. In some fibres the activity consisted of periodic bursts of impulses which seemed to be set off during the deflation phase of artificial respiration, sometimes during the inflation phase. This periodic activity was not due to contraction of smooth muscle as the endings are not stimulated following injection of histamine (into the right ventricle) which is known to stimulate smooth muscles in the alveolar ducts and respiratory bronchioles.

5. It is postulated that the actual stimulus for the endings is a rise in interstitial pressure or volume produced by a rise in pulmonary capillary pressure. Evidence has been gathered to show that the latter rises during muscular exercise; this rise must stimulate the endings. It was therefore postulated that stimulation of the endings should cause reflex inhibition of limb muscles (for terminating exercise).
The partition of uterine blood flow in the pregnant rabbit
Authors: Duncan Sheila L. B.
Published: December 2014

1. In pregnant rabbits near term, cardiac output and its distribution were measured by injection of isotope‐labelled microspheres into the left ventricle. Hypoxaemia (mean Pa,O2 35 mm Hg) caused a reduction in placental and renal flows, while myometrial flow was unchanged and coronary and cerebral blood flows increased.

2. In the lateral (ovarian) end of the uterine horn foetal and placental weight and absolute maternal placental blood flow were greater than in intermediate or medial positions. Placental flow (per 100 g placental tissue) was most in the most lateral placenta and decreased in the intermediate positions, especially when there were many placentas in the same horn.

3. Abortions and runts (more than 2
S.D. below the mean weight for their age) occurred most often in the medial end of the uterine horn, while oversize foetuses (more than 2
S.D. above the mean weight) usually occupied the most lateral position.

4. Ovarian blood flow (460 ml./100 g. min) was relatively large (e.g. compared with renal flow, 275 ml./100 g.min).
Afferent connexions to Group I activated cells in the main cuneate nucleus of the cat
Authors: Rosén Ingmar
Published: December 2014

1. Extracellular recordings were made from a total of 240 group I activated cells in the main cuneate nucleus. Cuneothalamic relay neurones (128) were identified by antidromic stimulation of the medial lemniscus in the ventrobasal thalamic complex.

2. A majority of the relay neurones were activated by afferents in only one of six dissected forelimb nerves innervating muscle groups at various joints. Even among afferents from adjacent synergistic muscles, convergence to individual neurones was infrequent.

3. Some of the relay neurones received excitation from group II muscle afferents in the same nerve that provided group I excitation. Excitation from group II muscle afferents in other nerves was uncommon. Some neurones were weakly excited by cutaneous volleys.

4. Inhibition of group I relay cells was produced from cutaneous afferents and group II muscle afferents. Weak inhibition was sometimes observed from group I afferents. The relay cells were also inhibited by stimulation of the cerebral cortex with a focus around the lateral end of the cruciate sulcus. A good correspondence was found between the inhibition and the depolarization of group I afferent terminals in the cuneate nucleus.

5. A majority of the group I activated cells not antidromically activated from the ventrobasal complex (‘non‐relay cells’) were excited by cortical stimulation. Excitation from cutaneous afferents and group II muscle afferents was frequently found among these cells.

6. The group I activated cells were found almost exclusively in the ventral part of the nucleus.

7. The pattern of convergence found in eleven group I activated cells in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord from C 2 to C 4 is described.
Excitation of Group I activated thalamocortical relay neurones in the cat
Authors: Rosén Ingmar
Published: December 2014

1. Extracellular recordings have been made from 134 group I activated neurones in the ventrobasal thalamic complex. One hundred of the neurones were identified as thalamocortical relay neurones by antidromic activation from the projection areas for group I afferents.

2. The discharge evoked by group I volleys showed characteristic fluctuations in latency and number of spikes. The mechanisms underlying these phenomena are discussed.

3. Half of the relay neurones were activated from afferents in only one of six dissected forelimb nerves innervating muscle groups at the various forelimb joints. Two‐thirds of the relay neurones were activated from at least two adjacent synergistic muscles.

4. The pattern of group I convergence in the thalamic neurones is compared with that at the cuneate and cortical levels of the group I pathway to the cerebral cortex. It is suggested that integration of information from synergistic muscles occurs at the thalamic level and that integration of information from muscle groups of more unrelated function occurs at the cortical level.

5. A few of the thalamocortical cells (15%) were activated by group II muscle afferents, often in the same nerve as that which provided group I excitation. Weakly linked excitation from cutaneous afferents was observed in 39% of the neurones.

6. Stimulation of the group I projection area in the first sensorimotor cortex at moderately high stimulus frequencies produced a trans‐synaptic excitation in most of the group I activated cells.
The role of energy metabolism in calcium‐evoked secretion from the adrenal medulla
Authors: Rubin R. P.
Published: December 2014

1. Experiments were carried out on cat adrenal glands perfused with Locke solution to study the effects of inhibition of metabolism on calcium‐evoked catecholamine release.

2. In the presence of sodium cyanide (CN, 0·2 m
M), a low concentration of glucose (1 m
M) prevented the gradual decline in the secretory response to sequential exposures to calcium. Furthermore, when the secretory response was almost completely blocked by perfusing with a glucose‐deprived solution containing CN, restoration of secretion was correlated with the glucose concentration in the perfusion medium.

3. In the presence of CN, 2‐deoxyglucose blocked both the protective effect and the restorative effect of glucose. The deoxyglucose inhibition of the glucose‐dependent restoration of secretion was antagonized by a higher concentration of glucose.

4. Restoration of calcium‐evoked secretion was also observed after the washout of CN. The extent of this restoration was not at all related to the glucose concentration and was not affected by various inhibitors of carbohydrate metabolism, including deoxyglucose.

5. Analysis of adrenal glands which had been perfused first with a glucose‐free solution containing CN and subsequently with the normal medium indicated that no discernible synthesis of catecholamines had taken place during the experimental procedures.

6. The data provide further evidence that the action of calcium to trigger medullary secretion requires the presence of metabolic energy and support the hypothesis that an interaction between calcium and high‐energy nucleotides is a step in the sequence of events leading to the extrusion of catecholamines from the chromaffin cell.
Temperature dependence of a sodium—potassium permeability ratio of a molluscan neurone
Authors: Gorman A. L. F. , Marmor M. F.
Published: December 2014

1. The temperature dependence of the membrane potential of a molluscan giant neurone was examined under conditions which block the electrogenic activity of the Na—K exchange pump.

2. When the Na pump was blocked by ouabain or the removal of external K, the membrane potential depolarized as temperature was increased.

3. This depolarization was prevented by the replacement of external Na with impermeant cations, but was greater when Na was replaced with Li.

4. All observed effects of ouabain were attributable to inhibition of the Na pump. The depolarization in response to ouabain at warmer temperatures was completely reversible, and the rate of both onset and reversibility of the ouabain effect was dependent upon temperature.

5. Using a modified form of the constant field equation, the internal K concentration and the Na—K permeability ratio, PNa/PK, were calculated from the experimental data.

6. PNa/PK was found to increase from 0·028 at 4° C to 0·068 at 18° C. It is suggested that this increase is due primarily to a change in PNa.
Spinal sympathetic reflexes initiated by coronary receptors
Authors: Brown A. M. , Malliani A.
Published: December 2014

1. The main left coronary artery of vagotomized spinal cats was perfused at different flows and pressures. The changes in pressure were limited to the coronary bed.

2. Increased coronary flow which increased coronary arterial pressure provoked a reflex increase in sympathetic discharge in the white ramus of the third thoracic spinal nerve and the inferior cardiac nerve. Reflex reductions in activity were not observed.

3. Occlusion of the coronary sinus and myocardial ischaemia, due to cessation of pump inflow, evoked similar reflex increases of sympathetic activity. The effect of myocardial ischaemia was apparent before systemic arterial blood pressure fell or left ventricular end‐diastolic pressure rose.

4. Increased coronary arterial pressure, myocardial ischaemia and coronary sinus occlusion could activate the same preganglionic neurone.

5. The afferent limb of the excitatory coronary‐sympathetic reflex was in the cardiac sympathetic nerves, mainly on the left. Afferent nerve fibres running in these nerves and in the third left thoracic sympathetic ramus communicans were excited by increased coronary arterial pressure, myocardial ischaemia, and occlusion of the coronary sinus. Inhibition was not observed. Many of the receptors were further localized by direct probing over the coronary vessels and adjacent myocardium.

6. Some receptors were excited by increased coronary arterial pressure alone, others by coronary sinus occlusion, and still others by myocardial ischaemia. In addition, some receptors were excited by all three stimuli.