bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Capernaum
Authors: Taylor Joan E
Published: November 2023

THE site of ancient Capernaum is located on the north side of the Sea of Galilee. The western part of the site is owned by the Franciscans. It is here that there is the famous synagogue, the dating of which has been so fiercely debated, and the remains of a Byzantine octagonal church on the alleged site of the house of St Peter. The eastern part of ancient Capernaum is owned by the Greek Orthodox Church. Excavations here have as yet uncovered less sensational structures. In this chapter, the focus will be the Franciscan side of the town (Plate 10), particularly the so-called ‘House of Peter’, and the claims made by the excavators that the octagonal church was built upon a Jewish-Christian house-church. It will also be necessary to consider the limestone synagogue, and what it might tell us about Capernaum in the early Byzantine period.
A History of the Family of Pasion
Authors: Trevett Jeremy
Published: November 2023

The purpose of this first chapter is to provide a narrative framework for the discussions of particular themes which form the remainder of the book. Although we know a lot more about the family of Pasion than we do about most other fourth-century families, much remains either unknown or open to doubt. Our information about Pasion and Apollodoros derives primarily from law-court speeches, which provide a series of snapshots rather than a continuous and comprehensive account. Moreover, such speeches were written with the sole purpose of persuading a jury, and therefore many of the statements made in them are at best tendentious, at worst untrue. The following account is consequently both fragmentary and speculative. In order to retain some degree of narrative flow, the detailed argumentation of controversial points (of which there are many) has been relegated to a series of end-notes.
The Speeches of Apollodoros III: Education and Intellectual Background
Authors: Trevett Jeremy
Published: November 2023

In this chapter I shall be examining what the speeches can tell us about Apollodoros as an orator, and in particular about the sort of education and training which he is likely to have received. Scholars who have attempted to determine whether or not he had received rhetorical training have reached widely differing conclusions. Thus F. Blass considered that the speeches show their author to have possessed a certain technical expertise in structure and argumentation, which could not have been acquired except through such an education. He went on to argue from this that Apollodoros could not have written the speeches, since in that case the speaker of Dem. 36 would not have missed the opportunity to rebuke him for misusing his expensive education. L. Gernet argued against this that he could have picked up enough knowledge of oratorical technique to have written the speeches simply by regular attendance at the assembly. L. Pearson chooses to attribute the weaknesses of his speeches to a lack not of education but of experience. This divergence of opinion suggests that the question needs a thorough re-examination.
The Political Career of Apollodoros
Authors: Trevett Jeremy
Published: November 2023

Although there is no evidence that Pasion was ever involved in politics, we know that he was a friend of several members of the political élite. Even if these friendships were of an exclusively social nature, they could provide his son with a ready-made entrée into the political arena, and might be expected to determine his early loyalties. The study of the political career of Apollodoros must therefore start with an examination of the men with whom his father associated.
Pasion, Apollodoros, and Athenian Society
Authors: Trevett Jeremy
Published: November 2023

Nothing is known of Pasion’s life before he came to Athens. He was probably not a Greek, and the theophoric name which he gave to his first son Apollodoros suggests that he may have been of Semitic extraction; it has indeed been argued that he was originally a Phoenician. We are similarly ill-informed about how and when he came to work as the slave of the bankers Archestratos and Antisthenes, or of the status which he enjoyed as a skilled slave. He was clearly a valued worker, as the speaker of Dem. 36 emphasizes. There is some evidence that Athenian slaves could do quite well for themselves, and that particularly in the commercial world of the Piraeus the usual sharp divide between slave and free became blurred. In addition, slaves who worked independently of their masters (chōris oikountes) were allowed to keep some of the money which they earned. There is, however, no evidence that Pasion was ever in that position: the fact that he worked at the bank meant that he was always closely supervised. Nor should we exaggerate the privileges afforded even to skilled slaves: an opponent of Pasion later showed no compunction in demanding that Kittos, who acted as chief cashier of his bank, be surrendered for interrogation under torture (Isoc. 17. 13).
Megale Hellas
Authors: Taplin Oliver
Published: November 2023

The story of the diffusion of interest in drama in the Greek West has to work in places as diverse as Syracuse; Poseidonia (Paestum) in the north-west; and Rubi (Ruvo di Puglia) in the north-east. But the places of most interest are the coastal cities of Lucania and Apulia along the ‘instep’ of South Italy, and the centre is Taras (Taranto). Taras was famous for its festivals and cultural activities, especially theatre; and it was the main centre of production of Apulian vasepainting.
Comic and Tragic Angels
Authors: Taplin Oliver
Published: November 2023

‘The Choregrii’ (9.1) came onto the market in 1988 and is now in the collection of Lawrence and Barbara Fleischman in New York. The first description and photographs were published by Trendall, ‘FT’, in late summer 1991, and are more fully presented in RVAp supp. ii. He attributes this fine Apulian bell-krater to the same hand as the Milan Cake-Eaters2 ( 12.5) and dubs him ‘The Choregos Painter’, characterized as ‘after the Sisyphus group, near the Painter of the Birth of Dionysos, and contemporary with the earliest work of the Tarporley Painter, probably around 380 sc’.3 This is, then, among the earlier comic vases, not much later than the New York Goose Play.
Metatheatrical Players
Authors: Taplin Oliver
Published: November 2023

Greek comedy in the age of Aristophanes was pervasively metatheatrical-it was for ever playing with its own playness.1 The traditional term has been ‘breaking the dramatic illusion’; but that has drawbacks in that it implies that an illusion like that set up by tragedy is also characteristic of comedy, and that at any one time it is either intact or broken. This does not allow for the fluid and variegated self referentiality of Old comedy, which seldom if ever loses sight of its own theatricality, yet seldom if ever completely drops the fantasy it has designed and accumulated. Thus, the actors never go so far (in what we have) as to remove their masks on-stage or to declare their real-life names; nor do they go so far as to bring members of the ‘civilian’ audience on to the stage, although they may point at them, address them, and even throw things at them.
Market Buildings and Equipment
Authors: Frayn Joan M
Published: November 2023

Although the macellumwas the most widespread type of market building, we have seen in the case of Rome that it was not the only structure used for the retailing or wholesale disposal of goods. It is likely that in other towns as well as Rome, colonnades were used for this purpose, affording in North Italy shelter from a heavy shower, and in the South shade from the hot sun. The shops in these colonnades, however, were separate tabernaeand were probably interspersed with open-fronted workshops, as they are in many Mediterranean towns today.
Fairs and Festivals
Authors: Frayn Joan M
Published: November 2023

FOR the purpose of this chapter we shall distinguish the periodic fairs, which took place usually away from the major cities, from the daily, weekly, or fortnightly markets which arc the subject of most of this book. As far as the Romans were concerned, many of these less frequent occasions of meeting and buying or selling were denoted by the same word, nundinoe,as was used for the eight-day markets.
The Carmina Convivalia
Authors: Zorzetti Nevio
Published: November 2023

There is some evidence pointing to the existence in Archaic Rome of a form of poetry sung at banquets similar to Greek sympotic poetry. What it basically consists of is very little, only two references by Cicero and one in Valerius Maximus. But the descriptions are quite clear. During the banquets held by the aristocratic sodalitates the guests each took it in turns to sing, accompanied by the tibia, and in line with musical principles combined melody with verbal rhythm to produce a cultivated form of lyric expression. This correct interpretation of the evidence about the carmina convivalia is not new: it can be traced back to the philologists who criticized Niebuhr’s ballad theory.2 But its role in the discussion about early Roman culture and the prehistory of Latin poetry has been limited to that of being useful as an argument against Niebuhr’s theory, and it was formulated exclusively in this context.
The Ionian Revolt
Authors: Cawkwell George
Published: November 2023

I AM Darius the Great King, King of Kings, King of countries containing all kinds of men, King in this great earth far and wide . . .’ Thus Darius’ boast of power in the inscription at the tombs of Naqš-i-Rustam. Certainly by 500BG Persian power was well advanced in the West. Early in his reign Darius had incorporated Samos in his empire, and by the date of the Scythian Expedition Chios and Lesbos were on a par with the Greek cities of the Asiatic mainland. As the abiding consequence of that expedition, Persian power was established in Thrace, and the islands of Lemnos and Imbros had been occupied (Hdt. 4. 97, 138, 5. 26). Reconnaisance for further expansion had been made on at least one occasion, as the story of the fifteen grandees guided on a grand tour of Greece suggests (Hdt. 3. 134. 6).
The Conquest of Greece
Authors: Cawkwell George
Published: November 2023

There is no real evidence for why the Persians invaded Greece in 480. The pretty debate furnished by Herodotus at the start of book 7 of his History is almost certainly the product of his imagination; it is highly unlikely that he had any evidence about the parts played by Mardonius and Artabanus in the innermost councils of the King. But there is no need to ask why empires expand. Extension of power is the natural consequence of power. No less than Rome, Persia aspired to imperium sine fine and from the moment that the expedition was mounted against Naxos in 499 it was plain that Greece would face invasion.
The War in the East Aegean
Authors: Cawkwell George
Published: November 2023

The truth was less dramatic. The power of Persia was confined to Asia, and a handful of Greek cities on the Asiatic seaboard of the Aegean were in revolt. Herodotus (9. 104) concluded his account of the battle of Mycale with the statement that ‘thus for the second time Ionia revolted from the Persians’, and Hellespontine cities did the same (Thuc. 1. 89. 2, 95. 1). Doubtless walls were rebuilt just as they had been in 499 (cf. Hdt. 1. 141), and the help of mainland Greeks was to be expected. Xerxes would not easily restore his authority over the Greeks of Asia even though the rest of his realm was, despite his defeat, untroubled, but the task can hardly have seemed impossible.
Peace with Athens, 449–412 BG
Authors: Cawkwell George
Published: November 2023

For nearly four decades following on the death of Cimon and the withdrawal of Athenian forces from Cyprus and Egypt (Thuc. 1. 112. 4) there was no fighting between Royal armies and navies and Athens. The only time, as far as we know, when there was thought to be danger of a Royal intervention in Greek affairs was in 440 BG during the revolt of Samos. The Samians appealed to the Phoenician navy for help; Pericles left the siege of Samos in haste on report that Phoenician ships were on their way to attack the Athenians; but they did not appear and nothing happened (Thuc. 1. 116. 3).
The End of the Achaemenids
Authors: Cawkwell George
Published: November 2023

Panhellenists delighted to sneer at Persia and Persians, especially at their military performance. Isocrates above all argued that whether Persia was strong or weak the Greeks should unite in attacking it but that in fact Persia would be easily overcome (cf. 4. 139–57). This was not, he conceded (4. 138, 5. 139), the opinion of all Greeks, but it was orthodox Panhellenism, as we can see in the Anabasis of Xenophon. It is, however, in the postscript to The Education of Cyrus that it is most plainly displayed. Xenophon’s experience of Persian warfare was limited to the battle of 401, the long march back, and minor operations along the Aegean seaboard. He made the most of it.
Introduction:
Authors: Gaisser Julia Haig
Published: November 2023

Yeats’ desperate, passionate Catullus is a child of early twentieth century romanticism, conceived in reaction to the excesses of nineteenth-century philology. The picture prevailed—at least in the English-speaking world—until 1950 or so, when a new image began to emerge. The Catullus of our time is much closer to Yeats’ bloodless scholars than to his amorous poet; for we tend to imagine not a desperate man in the thrall of passionate emotion, but a learned Alexandrian, a student of recherche Hellenistic poetry, a young man tossing on his sleepless bed not out of love’s despair but because he is enamoured of the allusive poetics of Callimachus.
Praelectio: Pierio Valeriano at the University of Rome
Authors: Gaisser Julia Haig
Published: November 2023

In November of 1521 Pierio Valeriano began a series of lectures on Catullus at the University of Rome, at a moment when he was at the height of his success and Roman poetry and humanism were enjoying a golden age under the patronage of Pope Leo X.
Commentarius: Marc-Antoine de Muret, Achilles Statius, and Joseph Scaliger
Authors: Gaisser Julia Haig
Published: November 2023

As we saw in Chapter 2, the first generation of Catullan commentators laboured mightily just to make sense of Catullus’ poems—-often with little success. None of the three was a famous or distinguished scholar. Partenio and Palladio were schoolmasters; Alessandro Guarino, though of a famous humanist family, was himself primarily a courtier. Each, to the extent that he is known at all, is known almost exclusively for his work on Catullus. There is nothing to link them with one another, and, except for Partenio, almost nothing to link their work to its time and place. With the second generation it is quite otherwise. Marc-Antoine de Muret, Achilles Statius, and Joseph Scaliger were all renowned and prolific scholars, and the work of each is firmly bound to its intellectual and cultural milieu.
Legislation against Heretics, Pagans and Jews
Authors: Liebeschuetz J H W G
Published: November 2023

Perhaps the most conspicuous evidence of the Christian beliefs of members of the ‘Arcadian Establishment’ is the fact that it maintained and extended legislation penalizing religious dissent, pagan, Jewish, and above all sectarian Christian. A tidal wave of such legislation was let loose by Theodosius I at the very start of his reign, when he proclaimed his support of what became catholic orthodoxy. Theodosius was evidently motivated by sincere belief and a sense of religious responsibility.2 At any rate, he proclaimed his policy of support for Nicaean orthodoxy at the very beginning of his reign, and proceeded to implement it by means of a mass of legislation as soon as he had entered Constantinople.
The Three Bishops and Eudoxia
Authors: Liebeschuetz J H W G
Published: November 2023

Any analysis of the forces that brought down John Chrysostom must start with the group whom all sources show to have been the active organizers at Constantinople of the machinations to bring him down, the three bishops, Severianus, Antiochus, and Acacius, and the empress Eudoxia. The role of the bishops was that of a group of lobbyists determined, partly no doubt from personal motives, to keep the grievance of a much wider range of ecclesiastics before the eyes of the emperor and his ministers. Eudoxia performed the vital role of a link between the dissatisfied clerics and the palace.
Capacity and Intent
Authors: Treggiari Susan
Published: November 2023

What determined whether marriage was legally possible between two particular individuals? What demonstrated that a marriage existed between two people? The answer to the first question depends on the existence of certain qualifications and the absence of certain disqualifications.’ The answer to the second depends on voluntary (at least legally voluntary) decisions by the individuals concerned. In this chapter we shall discuss the legal qualifications and the legal definition of the relationship of intent subsisting between a given couple. The question of the giving of legally valid consent at the time of an engagement and of the initiation of marriage will be treated in Chapters 4 and 5.
Choosing a Coniunx
Authors: Treggiari Susan
Published: November 2023

The Dromios came to England at the end of the sixteenth century, the precise date being probably 1592. There is no certainty on where they came from-Ephesus and Syracuse have both been suggested-but historians of the family admit that they seem to have been persons somewhat below the middle station of life, if not of actually servile condition. In England, however, they prospered, and already in the reign of James I were importing wines in a large way.
Conclusions
Authors: Treggiari Susan
Published: November 2023

Birth and death are inescapable biological facts. Sexual intercourse and procreation are biological experiences which may or may not fall to the lot of each human being who is born. Marriage is a human institution which has historically been linked with sexuality and the production and rearing of children.
Punishment In Homer
Authors: Saunders Trevor J
Published: November 2023

In his Laws and elsewhere Plato advanced a radical new penology, sharply different from any penology practised or advocated down to his day. The ideas and practices which he sought to modify or displace were those of the Athenian legal system of the fifth and fourth centuries. They have their first attestation in Homer; and so too have certain elements in Plato’s attempted reform of them.To Homer, then, we must betake ourselves; and difficulties arise immediately. The Iliad and the Odyssry are generally thought to have been composed shortly before 700 BC. The stories they tell are set in a society whose historical existence is uncertain. For the poems witness only to themselves; little independent check on their testimony is avail¬ able. If they do describe some historical society, it is not one contem¬ poraneous with their date of composition. Homer inherited a vast mass of poetic material that had accumulated over a long period, and by selec¬ ion and adaptation constructed the two full-scale epic poems. Hence the picture he gives us may well not be of a single historical period or even of a single society, but of some composite.
Crime-Specific Punishments
Authors: Saunders Trevor J
Published: November 2023

In Greek penal thought and practice there is a class of punishments known variously as ‘talionic’, ‘mirroring’, ‘crime-specific’ and ‘analogous’. They exhibit bewildering variety; and the four terms themselves are often employed confusingly, more or less as synonyms. Our first task is to sharpen usage by imposing certain distinctions.Atalionic punishment is therefore one in which the notion of ‘aptness’ or ‘appropriateness’ is expressed by pointed zdenttty of offence and penalty; a mirroring punishment is one in which that notion is expressed by pointed assocz”altve detail reminiscent or indirectly descriptive of the offence. Whereas a talionic penalty can take only one form, a mirroring penalty, by suggestively distorted reflection, may take any number; consequently mirroring penalties lend themselves to ingenious elabora¬tion.
Plato’s Medical Penology
Authors: Saunders Trevor J
Published: November 2023

It is a good working principle that when the information Plato gives us about a political or social or legal institution in the Laws is sparse, it is a sign that he is prepared to accept the main features of its contemporary counterpart; but that when the argument and detail are abundant, he wishes to make alterations on a large scale. On this criterion, it is clear that penology is of the highest importance to Plato, and that the changes he wishes to make in contemporary assumptions and practice are radical and extensive. For he devotes to his discussion of his theory of punishment over seven Stephanus pages of most careful argumentation; and he embeds it firmly in the context of his laws governing some of the mDst: serious crimes in the calendar.1This passage, the longest of all, runs from 857a2 to 864c9. It is rather ploddingly written; presumably the Athenian Stranger wishes to make quite sure that the none-too-bright Cleinias and Megillus fully under¬ stand and accept the new penology at which they arrive in the final paragraphs. I have already argued in print my interpretation of the sequence as a whole, and of many of its more important details.
The Penology Of Plato’s Myths
Authors: Saunders Trevor J
Published: November 2023

Theeschatological stories in Greek literature down to Plato have in common the central notion that offences for which the penalty has not been paid in this life will be punished after death by surrogate agencies. The purpose of the stories is twofold: to provide an incentive to good conduct, and to reassure injured parties that in the end they will obtain at least the satisfaction of their enemies’ suffering. The punishments described are therefore purely retributive, and often described in lurid terms. Certain mystery-religions, however, developed the idea that post¬ mortem punishment could constitute a stage in a system of moral reform.Plato wrote several eschatological myths in this broad tradition: they were calculated to convince Socrates’ interlocutors that injustice will be punished in the end. We need to review them briefly before considering the myth of the Laws itself and the mythical material incorporated into the legal ‘preambles’, whose penological doctrines are meant to exist in the minds of his citizens side by side with the ‘official’ penology which I have tried to reconstruct. I take the myths entirely at face value, seeking only to extract the penological ideas which they implicitly or explicitly present: I have no concern to rationalize or allegorize them.
Homicide
Authors: Saunders Trevor J
Published: November 2023

Plato obviously intends his Magnesians to live orderly, quiet and uneventful lives. What then are we to make of the fact that he devotes more space to homicide (phonos) than to any other part of his penal code? It can hardly be because he expects murders to be frequent. As we shall see, the reason is rather that attacks on persons necessarily involve important questions of policy within a carefully contrived social and political structure. The Magnesian law of homicide is accordingly not only very long but very elaborate. However, its exposition is, in the main, systematic and clear.At 857a Plato has concluded the law relating to treason, temple¬ robbery, and subversion. The pages from then until 864c are occupied by the exposition of his new penology. The transition to homicide is now elfocted by way of part of a rider to the law of treason etc.
Military Offences
Authors: Saunders Trevor J
Published: November 2023

Up to a point, Plato bases himself firmly on Attic law; but beyond that point his special social and psychological concerns become evident, and his reforming hand is busy, not always to clear effect.Certain suits for naval misdemeanours were known in Athens, but naturally they have no counterparts in Magnesia. Apart from them, three offences were distinguished:All were graphai; tried before special military courts; the penalty was atimia, entailing loss of certain citizen rights, but with no fine or con¬ fiscation of property.
Summary And Assessment
Authors: Saunders Trevor J
Published: November 2023

In the Laws, Plato is a political ‘demiurge’ (craftsman).Just as a carpenter works with the grain wherever possible, but imposes his own shape on the wood, so Plato adopts contemporary institutions without change if possible, but freely and skilfully adapts them to his own purposes. In legislation, to use his own metaphor, his aim is to buz’ld, after a judicious choice from among the materials available. Plato looks for institutions which are acceptable to, and preferably approved by, ordinary men, but which offer opportunities for manipulation and reworking into something which embodies, to the maximum extent practicalities allow, Platonic purposes. Sometimes popular acceptability and Platonic principles conflict; the result is then some compromise. In more favour¬ able circumstances, Plato sees that some popularly acceptable institu¬tion, whether desirable to him, or undesirable but inevitable, offers possibilities of improvement. The craftsman-legislator with a reforming bent is then really in business; for he can do precisely that-re-form his material into something better, by utilizing its existing popular accept¬ ability.
Scales and Modes
Authors: West M L
Published: November 2023

Before we come to melody itself we must investigate the rails on which it ran: the scales that provided a framework of discipline by limiting the infinity of possible notes and intervals to an ordered set, and the varieties of their structures and associations that make it appropriate and conventional to speak of modes.
Historical Synthesis: 1.Sunrise and Forenoon
Authors: West M L
Published: November 2023

In the preceding chapters we have studied the various elements that go to make up ancient Greek music as a performing art, as an object of theoretical inquiry, and as a cultural phenomenon. It remains to attempt a synthesis in which we bring the chronological aspect to the fore and outline the historical development of Greek music from century to century.
From Pagan to Christian Social and Civic Transformations in the Fourth Century
Authors: Mitchell Stephen
Published: November 2023

Soon after AD 240 a young man, aged about 30, returned from the city of Caesareia in Palestine to his home, Neocaesareia in Pontus, where in his absence he had been consecrated bishop. Theodore, a member of a wealthy and well-educated pagan family, had originally travelled to Palestine as an escort for his sister, whose husband, a legal expert, had been sent to advise the governor of the province. Theodore’s original purpose was to study law himself in the famous school at Berytus, but already since early adolescence he had inclined to Christianity. At Berytus he had persisted in his studies, in particular the task of mastering the challenging Latin of legal texts and imperial pronouncements, and he intended, no doubt, to emulate his brother-in-law’s successful career in imperial service. The subtleties and difficulties of Roman law won his admiration even while they threatened to subvert his traditional skills in Greek rhetoric.
Livia
Authors: Herbert-Brown Geraldine
Published: November 2023

Before the Fasti Livia had hardly figured in Augustan poetry. Her name is not invoked at all in the extant works of Ovid’s predecessors, Virgil, Horace, Propertius, or Tibullus, although it is true that Horace had once made a move in that direction. In Ode 3. 14. 1-10 he invokes the ‘mulier’ and ‘soror’ of Caesar as public sacrificial celebrants to the gods after the victorious return of Augustus from Spain (24 BC).
Physical Geography
Authors: Batty Roger
Published: November 2023

The geography of this region has played a profound role in shaping the lives of its inhabitants. However, the immense variety of physical, climatic, and vegetational patterns and the sheer size of the area make it far from easy to describe. Even the most assiduous geographers have acknowledged that adequately covering the Balkan peninsula alone is an arduous task.1 Nevertheless, any historical account should clearly begin by some discussion of its climate, hydrology, and the distribution of soils. The physical background, here as elsewhere, proved a vital determinant in both settlement patterns and the agricultural strategies adopted throughout the region.
Conclusions to Part I
Authors: Batty Roger
Published: November 2023

The purpose of the three chapters presented thus far has been to provide a fresh review of the most important historical trends in the Pontic-Danubian area. Essentially, it is designed to show the interlocking factors which have consistently served to draw the whole region together. Persistent immigration from the steppes, the dispersal of indigenous and invading population groups, widespread pastoral traditions and patterns of rural violence, and limited urbanization; all these have operated more or less continuously throughout the history of this region. They are vital historical themes. Yet, although one might expect them to be prominent in our accounts of the region in antiquity, they are not at all the sort of topics one encounters in much modern scholarship on the area.
Strabo and the Pontic Lands
Authors: Batty Roger
Published: November 2023

In reading the previous chapter, a sceptic might wonder whether the various pieces of evidence gathered there were not simply forced into supporting the framework adopted in Part I. Such a reader might object that I produce only one, essentially wilful, interpretation of some rather fragmentary evidence. The validity of this approach, however, is confirmed by a coherent, well-argued account written in antiquity, by an author whose opinion ought to have been given considerable weight, but whose judgements appear to have been largely over-looked by many modern scholars.
Raiders, Rebels, and Thieves
Authors: Batty Roger
Published: November 2023

Administrators, policemen, and soldiers remain today, as in the past, the first response of government towards brigands and brigandage. Yet such remedies are often ill considered, as the history of the twentieth century has underlined. Military force can redound upon the power that wields it; it may even exacerbate problems in recalcitrant regions. The passage above, taken from an imperial edict of May 1468, about the difficulties which beset the Chinese Empire even at its very centre, might equally have applied to the Roman provinces in the Pontic-Danubian zone.
Mount Niphates
Authors: Birley Anthony
Published: November 2023

Nobody goes to the ancient historians for accurate knowledge about the territory traversed by Roman armies in Armenia or Mesopotamia. Whether these writers possessed such knowledge or not, the principles of their art forbade them to over-load the narrative with details of time and place: they were composing history, not despatches or ‘commentarii’. Geography was not the parent or even the sister of Clio, but merely a handmaid, employed for exterior decoration, rather than to afford strength and sustenance.
The New Provinces
Authors: Birley Anthony
Published: November 2023

IN an oration delivered before the people of Rome Pompeius boasted that he found the province Asia on the edge of their dominions and left it in the middle. As the titulus of his triumph proclaimed, proud enough but more modest than many of the panegyrists, he had subjugated all the lands from the Maeotis to the Red Sea. The conquests of Magnus brought in a vast expanse of territory, handsome revenues—and many vassal states, Bosporus, Colchis, Armenia, even Iberia and Albania, the lturaeans, the Jews, and the Nabataeans. In the days of Sulla Rome had only two provinces beyond the Aegaean. Now the sea-coasts were Roman all the way from Amisus in Pontus down to Gaza at the gate of Egypt. To Bithynia, the bequest of which had provoked the last war with Mithridates, Pompeius added a large tract of Pontus, to form a double province. Cilicia by the adjunction of Tracheia and Pedias he prolonged to Mount Amanus, and he annexed Syria. Furthermore, the island of Crete, conquered by Metellus, was joined under one governor with Cyrenaica (which the Romans after long hesitation had decided to take over in 74 B.C.). Only Cyprus and Egypt remained, ruled by precarious relics of the Ptolemaic Dynasty, the last heirs of Alexander’s generals.
The Rank and Repute of Lycia
Authors: Birley Anthony
Published: November 2023

After enjoying freedom for over two centuries under the suzerainty of Rome, the Lycian confederacy forfeited that privilege. Suetonius assigns the reason, namely murderous quarrels: ‘ob exitiabiles inter se discordias’. Of what type and manner, one might well be moved to enquire: rivalry between neighbo r cities, the strife of factions, or an eruption of popular discontent. From long habit undisturbed, the aristocracies were competent to control the lower classes and to impose social harmony. Otherwise the Lycians were on good report for stability and for concord. Cassius Dio supplies the date (the year 43), and something else: local conflicts had issued in the killing of Roman citizens. That pretext excites suspicion. It had been asserted previously when Augustus revoked the liberty of Cyzicus, only for five years, so it happened. The proud and prosperous city incurred blame and penalty once again, in A.D. 25. The main charge alleged negligence in the worship of Divus Augustus, with acts of violence against Roman citizens thrown in for support. Such is the brief statement of Tacitus. Elucidation comes from Dio: the Cyzicenes were dilatory in constructing the temple. A small item perhaps, but of value since it illustrates the comportment of Tiberius Caesar, and his official attitudes.
The Dynasty of Media Atropatene
Authors: Birley Anthony
Published: November 2023

Parthia and Armenia engross the historians as well as the poets. Atropatene gets left out. Yet Augustus gave a king to the Medes. The Res Gestae proclaim it.1 All other records being silent, date and circumstances remain obscure. An occasion that flattered the pride of Rome and the rulers of Rome ought to have evoked public celebration. A Roman nominee on the throne of Media Atropatene imported a new factor into eastern politics, of primordial strategic importance. That territory provided a true land bridge, offering easy passage from Armenia eastwards and dominating the plateau of lran; and the dynasty that had reigned for three centuries in Atropatene was by no means contemptible.
Marriage,Sacrifice, and Reciprocity in Homer
Authors: Seaford Richard
Published: November 2023

In the first chapter we noted the weakness of the state in the society described by Homer, and the importance, to be expected in such a society, of reciprocity and ritual in creating social relations. Ritual and a code of reciprocity very often go together, in marriage, xenia, supplication, and so on. And a crisis of reciprocity may also be a crisis of ritual, as when Achilles says that no amount of gifts will persuade him to allow Hektor death ritual, with the simultaneous resolution of these crises creating narrative closure. We will in this chapter explore the closely interrelated crises of ritual and of reciprocity, together with the closure created by their resolution, in the pattern of wedding and wedding feast in the Odyssey. First we will establish the existence of the wedding pattern in the reunion of Odysseus and Penelope (2 §a), and maintain that the ending of this pattern was also the ending of an earlier version of the poem (2 §6). One element of the pattern is the feast. Despite its generally positive, architectural role in Homer, the sacrificial feast as it appears in other sources exhibits various internal tensions, including the control of potentially uncontrolled violence among the participants (2 §c). The suitors both fail to offer proper sacrifice and in their feast perpetrate the kind of disordered violence generally precluded by due process. And whereas elsewhere the sacrificial meal may be a means of incorporating the newly arrived outsider into the group, on Ithaka the feasting suitors omit or pervert the hospitality owed to outsiders. At this point we rejoin the theme of the wedding, for the suitors’ feast is a kind of wedding feast and so susceptible to special forms of subversion (2 §d). The exceptional circumstances on lthaka have produced a subversion of wedding ritual, an abnormally extended period of liminality for the potential bride, with the result that the normal reciprocity of the wedding is blocked: as well as feasting riotously, the suitors exhaust Odysseus’ wealth. In response to this subversion of both ritual and reciprocity, in marriage and in feast, Odysseus violently subverts the marriage contest (designed, like the sacrificial meal, to preclude violence) and rejects any amount of compensation from one of the pleading suitors. Returning finally to the Iliad (2 §e), we can detect there a similar pattern: one crisis of ritual (supplication) and of reciprocity (Achilles and Agamemnon) ends with a violent act of vengeance that creates another such crisis (Achilles and Priam), which is finally resolved by the restoration, producing narrative closure, of ritual normality (supplication, death ritual) and of reciprocity. But the earlier version of the Odyssey ended with the restoration of ritual (the wedding) in the domestic sphere only, without the death ritual for the suitors and the reconciliation with their relatives that it was later felt necessary to add.
The Transformation of Reciprocity
Authors: Seaford Richard
Published: November 2023

From the role of ritual in the development of the polis we turn now to reciprocity, and in particular to the tendency of state-formation to displace, in several spheres, the practice of reciprocity from the central position we described it as occupying in Homeric society. We must admit that the process by which the largely stateless society reflected (albeit indirectly) in Homeric epic (Chapter 1) was transformed into the Greek city-states of the historical period remains largely unknown. It may well have occurred very differently in different regions. Our concern is with a single aspect of the process, and ignores such related and crucial factors as the development of chattel slavery. And we will, as in our historical study of death ritual, tend to concentrate on Athens.
Reciprocity and Ritual in Tragedy
Authors: Seaford Richard
Published: November 2023

In Homer we found a dual crisis of reciprocity and ritual. The uncontrolled reciprocity of vengeance and the blocking of the reciprocity of giving produce a negation of the ritual process (death ritual, supplication, feasting). The interdependent codes of reciprocity and of ritual are disrupted, but in the end restored. We then described certain respects in which, roughly speaking, the development of the polis tended to modify the absolute claims of reciprocity (hostile or amicable) by the organization, reinforced by cult, of citizens around a centre (or series of interconnected centres). We found associated with this historical process a pattern that is partially present in certain late passages of Homer and fully present in tragedy: the self-destruction (benefiting the polis) of the royal household, Dionysiac frenzy, the confusion of gender roles, the scapegoat pattern, and the subversion of ritual. Also partially determined by this historical process is the implication in our tragic pattern of a negative representation of reciprocity (amicable and hostile), which is distinct from the Homeric.
Horace and the Reputation of Plautus in the Late First Century BC
Authors: Jocelyn H D
Published: November 2023

Everyone knows that the m<mature Hornce took a poor view both of Plautus and of those contemporary teachers of literature who preferred the old comedies and their like to the ones written by his friend Fundanius. It was the view of a man who could claim some knowledge of the theatre scripts in question. The epistle to Augustus (2. T) laughs at the alleged incoherence of current professorial views of what constituted the best poetic writing in Latin, and in particular at the futility of the conventional criterion of age (lines 50–62) The same epistle later describes early Roman attempts to adapt the Greek genres of tragedy and comedy, patronizing the trngedians and denouncing the comedians (lines 156–76). At both points the comic scripts of Plautus are given a high prominence.
The Art of (re-)Reading
Authors: Sharrock Alison
Published: November 2023

Ovid’s Ars Amatoria is a pivotal work within the poet’s æuvre. Roman writers and readers might see in the corpus of a poet a developmental process like the cursus honorum of civic life. Virgil, a textbook case, begins with the light Eclogues (written gracili ... hibisco, ‘with a delicate mallowreed’: 10. 71) and advances through didactic epos (the Georgics) to graduate in the Aeneid, the height of honour, the consulship of poetry.
Friendship and its Problems in Greek and Roman Thought
Authors: Powell Jonathan
Published: November 2023

It is easy to get the impression that the ancient Greeks and Romans in general were more worried about friendship than we are. I am not sure how one would prove or disprove the truth of this idea, but it is not hard to see where it comes from. The responsibility for it lies mostly with two authors: admittedly great and influential ones, but for all that only individuals whose representative status cannot automatically be taken for granted without further investigation. They are Aristotle and Cicero. Readers of the Nicomachean Ethics are usually surprised at the amount of space devoted to discussion of ϕ ι λ íαin a work on moral philosophy—a field in which, in modern times, discussion of friendship has hardly figured to any great extent. Readers of Cicero, in the same way, may be surprised that he should have seen fit to devote a philosophical dialogue to the topic of amicitia.
Apollonius in Wonderland
Authors: Swain Simon
Published: November 2023

One of the most important figures in the history of later Greek literature is the sophist and biographer Flavius Philostratus. He is known principally for two works. The Lives of the Sophists is his account of the rhetorical stars of the high Empire, whose theory and practice Donald Russell has done so much to illuminate. The eight-book In Honour of Apollonius of Tyana, which was allegedly written for the cultured empress Julia Domna, is a biography of a different sort, but is nevertheless from the same sophistic school that has been central to Russell’s interests. The following observations on some of its later readers will, I trust, entertain and instruct.
Introduction
Authors: Chadwick John
Published: November 2023

This book is the product of a lifetime of Greek studies, but its immediate origin lies in work undertaken over the last ten years or so. During this period I have been a member of a Committee established in 1980 by the British Academy, to oversee their project for a new Supplement to the Greek Lexicon of Liddell and Scott. When drafts of this Supplement were circulated to the Committee for their comments, I read through these with some care and made a large number of suggestions for improvements.
Hellenistic and Roman Athens
Authors: Rhodes P J , Lewis David M
Published: November 2023

We lack the literary evidence to give us the kind of picture for hellenistic Athens that we can obtain for the classical period, but behind the generally uninspiring and uninformative published texts of the hellenistic period we can sometimes pick up the influence on legislation of institutional groups or of individuals.
Acarnania
Authors: Rhodes P J , Lewis David M
Published: November 2023

Reports of an unpublished fragment of a treaty between Acarnania and Pyrrhus, said to mention the Thousand as an assembly.
Thessaly
Authors: Rhodes P J , Lewis David M
Published: November 2023

Inscriptions of Gonnus are cited from Gonnoi , ii (1973). In view of the volume of material, I summarise it in compact form.
North Shore Of The Black Sea
Authors: Rhodes P J , Lewis David M
Published: November 2023

SEG xxvii 429 reports the conclusions of an article in Russian by L. A. Paltseva: in the Tauric Chersonese the secretary of the council may have been elected from the members for a term of one month, but in fact the state was ruled by a small group of aristocrats; members of the council were known as aisymnatai until the end of the first century BC, as damiourgoi thereafter.
Aegean Islands
Authors: Rhodes P J , Lewis David M
Published: November 2023

This is a frequent form of benefaction in Arcesine, rewarded sometimes by the polis and sometimes as in 24 by a special meeting of those attending the Itonia.)
Ionia
Authors: Rhodes P J , Lewis David M
Published: November 2023

The freedom of the city is mentioned, but not its form of government. The proposers of the decree are ‘(the) ten’, and they head the subscription list as ‘the ten who wrote the decree’: probably they were elected by an earlier meeting of the assembly to draft the decree, like syngrapheis in fifthcentury Athens.
Lydia
Authors: Rhodes P J , Lewis David M
Published: November 2023

similarly, but involving only one body, in v the gerousia praises Menogenes but defers substantial honours, and in vi the proper time has come and the gerousia votes substantial honours. Buckler and Robinson in publishing the dossier suggested that ‘the proper time’ was not a particular occasion in the year but any time after Menogenes had retired from the office of eklogistes , in connection with which he was being honoured.
Bithynia
Authors: Rhodes P J , Lewis David M
Published: November 2023

in Calchedon three texts concerning the sale of a priesthood contain entrenchment clauses (1–12). Two texts awarding a proxeny require the stratagoi to ‘give information to the council in accordance with the law’ (1, 2): presumably as a precaution against excessive generosity a law had been enacted laying down a multi-stage procedure for the award of proxenies–but this did not apply to citizenship, which i is able to grant without further formality. 4 lays down a general rule that the award of proxeny is to be accompanied by citizenship and other privileges.
Cilicia
Authors: Rhodes P J , Lewis David M
Published: November 2023

The sender of the letter in document i is the Ptolemaic commander in Cilicia; Arsinoe was founded by his father with land taken from Nagidus, and he wishes to make further arrangements for Arsinoe.
Introduction
Authors: Parker Robert
Published: November 2023

‘The general conclusion of the book which the reader has before him is that religion is something eminently social,’ writes Durkheim in the introduction to The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life. To a Greek, the great sociologist’s revolutionary thesis might have seemed a little tame. A society which commonly expressed the idea of ‘belonging to the same social group as’ in terms of ‘sharing lustral water with’ or something similar evidently in one sense took the ‘eminently social’ character of religion very much for granted.
‘Dionysiac’ and ‘Heraclean’ 1n the Prologue of the Frogs
Authors: Lada-Richards Ismene
Published: November 2023

If fifth-century Athenian theatre can be defined as an ‘“other scene” where the city puts itself and its values into question’ (Zeitlin 1990b: 144), the figure who, at the Lenaea of 405 BC, steps on to the stage at the beginning of the Frogs constitutes for his Athenian spectators the quintessence of ‘otherness’.
Aeschylus: A ‘Dionysiac’ Poet?
Authors: Lada-Richards Ismene
Published: November 2023

I have suggested in the previous chapter that in the agon of the Frogs Dionysus’ judgement and perspective have been gradually aligned with the perspective of the City. I would now like to argue that in the distorting mirror of the comedy’s contest it is not Euripides’ techne but rather Aeschylus’ artistic personality which displays the most conspicuous affinities with the psychology familiar to the judge.