bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
6. The institutional Revolution
Authors: Knight Alan
Published: April 2017

‘The institutional Revolution: The Sonoran dynasty’ concentrates on the evolution of the Revolution—the Revolution in power—during the 1920s under the leadership of Obregón and then his fellow-Sonoran Calles. After a decade of armed revolution, political stability was painfully achieved, but there were still serious military revolts, a bitter war between Church and State, and then the Great Depression of the early 1930s, which had a powerful impact on the course of the then institutionalized Revolution. The Sonoran dynasty faced serious challenges, as well as potential opportunities, in six areas of Mexican politics: the military; the peasantry; organized labour; the middle class; the Church; and the United States.
1. History
Authors: Iversen Les
Published: April 2017

‘History’ outlines the knowledge and use of drugs through the ages. Early written records of medicinal drugs are known to have existed in a range of ancient cultures, including the Greek, Egyptian, Indian, and Chinese civilizations. In the medieval world, both Arabic and European countries studied drugs. Scientific investigation came about with the Renaissance, but medicine did not become truly scientific until the 19th century, when antiseptics, vaccines, and anaesthetics were discovered and produced. Drugs have also been used recreationally and ceremonially for millennia, whether naturally occurring (cannabis or opium), or artificially synthesized (LSD or ecstasy). Both medicinal and recreational drugs have become major, worldwide industries.
3. Drugs as medicines
Authors: Iversen Les
Published: April 2017

‘Drugs as medicines’ highlights the principles behind the successful use of medicines to cure or ameliorate the symptoms of many illnesses. These range from infectious diseases, such as bacterial and viral infections; innate conditions, such as mental illness or autoimmune disorders; or those caused by lifestyle, such as coronary heart disease. Despite successes, problems still remain. Many bacteria and viruses are rapidly evolving resistance to drug strategies. Also, those in the developing world, who are most at risk from infection, often benefit least from drugs due to prohibitive costs and reduced investment in treatment. One of the most important medical advances in the past one hundred years has been the contraceptive pill.
5. Making new medicines
Authors: Iversen Les
Published: April 2017

‘Making new medicines’ outlines the process of developing and marketing new drugs. Advanced techniques provide scientists with many potential receptor targets. Compounds which may affect the target are tested in vitro. If they appear to work further tests are carried out, increasing in complexity from cells to whole organisms. Animal trials help forecast toxicity and determine dosages. Finally, three-phase clinical trials occur in humans. Pharmaceutical companies then submit their data to the government for approval, before the drug can be sold. The lengthy and expensive process often results in high drug prices. A relatively new class of medicines—monoclonal antibodies—is having a major impact in treating hitherto untreatable conditions.
5. Irregular migration
Authors: Koser Khalid
Published: April 2017

‘Irregular migration’ explores migration outside of established legal means. There are many ways for a migrant to be classed as irregular, but their motivations for leaving are the same as other migrants. Irregular migration is often seen as a threat to host nation sovereignty and, as a result, migrants are often subjected to stereotyping and xenophobia. Migrants—particularly women and children—face great hazards in simply entering the country. A multi-billion dollar industry has developed around the desire of people to move despite legal restrictions, in the form of human trafficking and migrant smuggling. These phenomena occur in all regions, and incur massive costs—and dangers—to irregular migrants.
2. Constantinople the ruling city
Authors: Sarris Peter
Published: April 2017

Constantinople had become the sole imperial capital in the east by the reign of Theodosius I (378–95). ‘Constantinople, “the ruling city”’ describes the transformation of the small provincial town into the supreme stage for the projection of imperial power. The richly endowed city was a mix of architectural and artistic styles and overcame significant locational disadvantages: lying on a seismic fault line, lacking a local fresh water supply, and being open to attack on the European side. The medieval city of Constantinople was essentially as it was left by the 6th-century Emperor Justinian. It remained commercially vibrant and culturally cosmopolitan with a significant Jewish population and colonies of Muslim Arab and Italian merchants.
7. End of empire
Authors: Sarris Peter
Published: April 2017

Constantinople never really recovered from the Latin sack in 1204. Cooperation between popes, emperors, and patriarchs would become nigh on impossible, and differences of practice increasingly hardened into disagreements over theology. Orthodoxy (informed by hostility to Rome) and Byzantine identity were becoming one. The Latin occupation led Byzantium’s educated elite to reconsider the Greek aspect to their identity and to greater intellectual engagement with classical literature and philosophy. Byzantine art also flourished. The fall of Constantinople in 1453 to the Ottoman Turks was soon followed by the Ottoman conquest of most of the remaining outposts of the broader Byzantine world. Constantinople continued to be an imperial city, however, until the abolition of the Ottoman Empire in 1923.
Introduction: Separate rules for a separate society
Authors: Fidell Eugene R.
Published: April 2017

The military represents a specialized society within society as a whole. It has a specific purpose: the achievement of military goals that are in contrast to the goals of the larger society, which are, at least in democratic countries, aimed at maximizing individual autonomy. The Introduction outlines what military justice is and explains that the nature and scope of military justice in any particular country will tell a good deal about that country’s political values. It considers several questions: How does the military justice system differ from the civilian criminal justice system? What is a court-martial? What rights does a military accused have?
4. The substantive reach of court-martial jurisdiction
Authors: Fidell Eugene R.
Published: April 2017

If a court-martial has jurisdiction over an accused, to what offenses does that jurisdiction extend? Military justice codes take a variety of approaches to defining what conduct will be prosecuted in courts-martial. Typically, they set forth and give the required elements of a number of offenses. Some offenses—disobedience and disrespect, desertion, dereliction of duty, AWOL, missing movement, mutiny, oppressing a subordinate, or hazarding a vessel—have no counterpart in civilian criminal law. ‘The substantive reach of court-martial jurisdiction’ outlines two key issues: whether human rights violations should be prosecuted in courts-martial, and whether common law or ordinary crimes should ever be tried by court-martial rather than in the civilian courts.
4. Models of depression
Authors: Tacchi Mary Jane , Scott Jan
Published: April 2017

Epidemiological studies of depression give important insights into populations at higher risk of depression, but not everyone in certain high-risk circumstances will develop a clinical depression. ‘Models of depression’ highlights some of the most well-known biological, psychological, and social models ranging from the monoamine hypothesis to Beck’s cognitive model, and then discusses attempts to integrate these into a multi-dimensional psycho-bio-social theory. It highlights the interaction between stress and vulnerability factors, and the importance of considering the origins of the vulnerabilities. In reality, there is no one cause and no single pathway to depression and multiple factors increase vulnerability to depression.
5. The evolution of treatments
Authors: Tacchi Mary Jane , Scott Jan
Published: April 2017

For many centuries, the only intervention for melancholia involved admission into an asylum, initially to keep individuals away from society and then, from the 18th century, to provide therapeutic care. ‘The evolution of treatments’ discusses the crude treatments that were first introduced for inpatients such as sedation (barbiturates and insulin coma therapy) and physical treatments (electroconvulsive therapy and psychosurgery). Next, it discusses the development of the medications that are used today for inpatients and outpatients, such as antidepressants and the mood stabilizer lithium. Finally, it looks at the evolution of psychotherapies from early Freudian models through to mindfulness and the potential barriers to providing psychological interventions in the real world.
7. Depression in modern society
Authors: Tacchi Mary Jane , Scott Jan
Published: April 2017

No age, gender, or social group is immune to depression and it is a very common human experience. ‘Depression in modern society’ considers the global impact of depression and how major international bodies, for example, the World Health Organization and World Bank, have tried to estimate the real world impact of depression and the economic costs to society. There is often great stigma associated with depression that may undermine a person’s willingness to access treatment. The lessons to be learned from campaigns that have tried to combat prejudice are considered along with the notion of genius and madness and whether there is evidence for an association between creativity and mood disorders.
8. Localized weather
Authors: Dunlop Storm
Published: April 2017

Although certain weather events, such as violent tornadoes, affect relatively small areas on the ground, there are a number of effects that are localized in their influence. ‘Localized weather’ first considers fog, which may be associated with widespread anticyclonic conditions leading to a significant drop in temperature at night, and relatively quiet, or windless, conditions. The two common forms of fog are radiation fog and advection fog. Haze and smog are also discussed along with local winds divided into two groups: sea, land, and lake breezes; and valley and mountain winds. Katabatic winds, föhn conditions, lake effect snow, ice storms, and glaze (or ‘black ice’) are also considered.
Navigating through spacetime
Authors: Blundell Katherine
Published: April 2017

Mathematics is the perfect language needed for describing how the theory of relativity applies to the physical Universe and all of spacetime, and that description includes the strange behaviour that occurs near black holes. ‘Navigating through spacetime’ explains some of the complicated mathematical language using spacetime diagrams. It describes world-lines—the path left behind as an object journeys through spacetime—and light cones. Black holes profoundly affect the orientations of the light cones. As a particle approaches a black hole, its future light cone tilts more and more towards the black hole. When the particle crosses the event horizon, all of its possible future trajectories end inside the black hole.
How do you weigh a black hole?
Authors: Blundell Katherine
Published: April 2017

Infra-red observations have been used by teams in California and Germany to measure the mass of the black hole at the centre of the Galaxy at just over 4 million times the mass of our Sun. ‘How do you weigh a black hole?’ shows that similar dynamic techniques can be used to measure the masses of the millions of black holes that pervade our Galaxy as stars and black holes are frequently found as pairs in a binary system. The smallest black hole that we can measure is a few times the mass of our Sun, but the heaviest stellar-mass black holes can exceed a hundred times the mass of our Sun.
5. Learning and remembering, reading and number
Authors: Goswami Usha
Published: April 2017

‘Learning and remembering, reading and number’ considers children’s developing knowledge of their own cognition (meta-cognition) as they start education. How is memory developed? Children develop various kinds of memory, and all are important for learning in school. Psychologists divide memory into three main categories: semantic memory (generic, factual knowledge about the world), episodic memory (the ability to retrieve autobiographical events), and implicit or procedural memory (habits and skills). How do children deal with learning to read and write? How early do children think in terms of numbers? Babies have an innate sense about number and psychologists have long been fascinated with this.
6. The learning brain
Authors: Goswami Usha
Published: April 2017

‘The learning brain’ looks at the influence of personal experience on how we apply logical reasoning and how we learn to detach logic from our own experience. Schooling helps children to become ‘reflective learners’. Self-reflective learning behaviour, or meta-cognitive behaviour, refers to the ability to reflect on personal information-processing skills, to monitor personal cognitive performance, and the ability to be aware of demands from different kinds of cognitive tasks. Children also learn ‘executive function’ skills, which are processes that enable a child to gain strategic control over their own mental processes. These sorts of skills have important developmental links to success in school.
1. Defining peace
Authors: Richmond Oliver P.
Published: April 2017

‘Defining peace’ explains why there is no single definition of peace and looks at theories about peace. A narrow version of peace would be basic but relatively insecure. A broader version produces a more complex state of peace which would be more sustainable. Using a multiple approach would result in an even more complex but more stable state. Each version tries to answer the same question: can peace be made by subjugating enemies, assimilating them by converting them into something resembling the dominant group, or by accepting and reconciling with their differences? There are several theoretical approaches to peace focusing on the constitution of the state, the role of international organizations, the philosophy of peace, and social peace movements.
3. Peace in modernity
Authors: Richmond Oliver P.
Published: April 2017

‘Peace in modernity’ looks at peace in the 20th century and describes how it has shaped the views we have of peace today. The 20th-century international system was based on states, laws, constitutions, and civil society. These bodies represented a progressive version of peace. The modern view of peace tends to be secular and focuses on security, human rights, politics, and democracy. Modern peace comprises different stages: security first (a negative peace) followed by positive peace (reducing arms and changes to trade). This form of liberal peace has become the foundation of the modern international system of states and order.
7. Shifting standards?
Authors: Nagel Jennifer
Published: April 2017

Some words have context-sensitivity. Some words (like ‘I’ and ‘now’) are sensitive to the speaker's identity and location in time and space. Others (like ‘big’ and ‘tall’) are sensitive to a comparison class. ‘Shifting standards?’ discusses the emergence of contextualism, which grew out of the ‘Relevant Alternatives’ theory of knowledge. Contextualism is a theory about knowledge-attributing language. The idea is that ‘know’ expresses something different as situations change. The view that knowledge is absolute, in the sense that the words we use for it are not context-sensitive, is known as ‘invariantism’. Invariantism faces a challenge in explaining the shifting intuitions that make knowledge sometimes seem easy and sometimes seem hard.
4. Fields of medieval philosophy
Authors: Marenbon John
Published: April 2017

‘Fields of medieval philosophy’ considers how logic, metaphysics, epistemology, philosophy of mind, philosophy of language, ethics, political philosophy, and the philosophy of religion were treated in medieval philosophy’s four traditions. Logic was considered valuable in itself, and was studied with great technical sophistication and used as a tool throughout philosophy, where it set the form of discussion. Arabic and Latin logic developed into parallel traditions although both were based on Aristotle’s logical texts. Aristotle’s key texts—Metaphysics, On Interpretation, On the Soul, and Nicomachean Ethics—were central to all four traditions. They encouraged thinking that tied together philosophy of mind and philosophy of language; were fundamental for investigating perception, memory, and reasoning; and were central to moral philosophy.
5. Institutions and literary forms
Authors: Marenbon John
Published: April 2017

‘Institutions and literary forms’ explains how the history of Latin Christian philosophy is strikingly different from the other three traditions, because so much of the best work took place in, and was shaped by, institutions dedicated to teaching and learning. In Islamic lands, the focus of teaching and learning was on the relationship between teacher and pupil. In all four traditions, medieval philosophizing centred around commentary, but there was also a tendency for thinkers to try to bring together in a single work (summa or treatise) their understanding of the whole of philosophy or theology. Dialogues and other literary forms, such as versification and novels, were also used.
4. Drama
Authors: Allen William
Published: April 2017

‘Drama’ considers two of the most popular genres of ancient literature — tragedy and comedy — and tries to account for their success as forms of mass entertainment. It shows how each of the surviving major playwrights, Greek and Roman, engages with the values of his audience, and encourages them to relate the world on stage to their own experience. Theatre was an important part of community life in the ancient world. The surviving Greek tragedies of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides and the comedies of Cratinus, Eupolis, and Aristophanes are reviewed along with the Roman comedies of Plautus and Terence and tragedies of Seneca.
5. Historiography
Authors: Allen William
Published: April 2017

‘Historiography’ looks at how the Greeks and Romans conceived and wrote about their past. The historian's work tells us as much about their own period as it does about any other. The influence of other genres on the writing of history, and the extent to which ancient writers engaged in what we would recognize as historical research, rather than simply recasting earlier writers' versions of the past is considered. How individual historians defended their claim to truth and how the process of historical discovery could aim to explain many different things is shown. Despite their shortcomings by modern standards of historical accuracy or impartiality, the great achievement of ancient historians is illustrated.
Movements, parties, policies
Authors: Dobson Andrew
Published: April 2017

‘Movements, parties, policies’ explains the ‘machinery’ of environmental politics—the movement that nurtures and expresses the politics, the parties that are the electoral vehicles for getting the politics into the system, and the array of policy instruments that are available for putting society on a more sustainable footing. The organizations that make up the environmental movement can be categorized into different groups: public interest lobbies, professional protest organizations, participatory pressure groups, participatory protest organizations, and intentional communities. Green political parties are considered along with environmental policy-making. What are the challenges and what are the policy tools that politicians have at their disposal to meet them?
5. Liberal luminaries
Authors: Freeden Michael
Published: April 2017

‘The liberal canon’ explores the views of some major thinkers and philosophers who shaped and refined liberal thinking since the early 19th century, when liberalism emerged as a distinct ideology. It begins with four British thinkers—John Stuart Mill, Thomas Hill Green, Leonard Trelawny Hobhouse, and John Atkinson Hobson—before assessing the impact on liberalism of other individuals such as Mary Wollstonecraft; France’s Benjamin Constant; the Germans Wilhelm von Humboldt, Max Weber, and Friedrich Naumann; the Italians Benedetto Croce and Carlo Rosselli; the American philosopher and educationalist John Dewey; and, finally, economist, philosopher, and political thinker Friedrich August von Hayek.
8. Post-industrial transitions: towards WS 3.0
Authors: Garland David
Published: April 2017

To remain vital and effective, welfare states must adapt to changing social, political, and cultural circumstances. For several decades the world’s advanced nations have been transitioning from industrial to post-industrial production. Welfare states have been faced with new kinds of social risk, new forms of economic insecurity, and new difficulties dealing with the older problems for which they were designed. Adjusting to these upheavals is a challenge for welfare state governance everywhere and, although national responses vary, the evidence suggests that a new generation of policies is being developed: ‘Welfare State 3.0’. ‘Post-industrial transitions: towards WS 3.0’ discusses the socio-economic transformations and adaptive reforms that are currently unfolding.
1. Four little words
Authors: Riggs Christina
Published: April 2017

‘Four little words’ analyses the meanings of ‘Ancient’, ‘Egyptian’, ‘art’, and ‘architecture’ in order to understand how Egyptian art and architecture are studied and discussed, why and how they have influenced the modern world, and whether iconic examples of Egyptian artworks and buildings are in any way representative of cultural norms and lived experience in the ancient past. When is ‘ancient’ Egypt? Where and what was ‘Egypt’ in antiquity and how did its people describe themselves and their land? Art and architecture are considered to comprise those objects made in such a way that their form and materials contribute to their representational power, social or symbolic significance, and aesthetic qualities.
3. Making Egyptian art and architecture
Authors: Riggs Christina
Published: April 2017

‘Making Egyptian art and architecture’ looks at the evidence for how artists, craftspeople, and architects, such as Irtysen from around 2000 bc, learned their trades and carried out their work, providing insights into the meanings and relationships that art and architecture helped create in ancient Egyptian society. The natural world was exploited for materials to create a wide array of objects and buildings: the mould-made, fired faience for Horudja’s shabti; the carved sandstone and architectural design for the temple of Dendur; the highly polished granodiorite of the Sekhmet statues; the carved, joined, and painted wood of Djed-djehuty-iwef-ankh’s nested coffins; and the linen required to embalm bodies.
6. Minerals as resources
Authors: Vaughan David
Published: April 2017

The mineral resources taken from the Earth are now essential for human survival and the growth in consumption in recent years has been dramatic. ‘Minerals as resources’ looks at the different kinds of resources: ores from which metals are extracted, industrial minerals such as fluorite, and chemical minerals such as halite. The properties of minerals are important in how they are used. For example, the carbon mineral, diamond, is the hardest substance known and is used in industry for making cutting tools, whereas the clay mineral, kaolinite, is inert and is used in many manufacturing processes. Zeolites are used to extract impurities from water. But how are these mineral deposits formed?
Introduction
Authors: Nobes Christopher
Published: April 2017

Research shows that the need to keep account was the key driver in the invention of writing and numbers. The ‘Introduction’ explains the importance of accounting to civilization and identifies the different types of accounting — bookkeeping, financial accounting, auditing, and management accounting. The focus is on the central areas of accounting and not insolvency, tax, consultancy, and finance. The structure of accountancy bodies and firms is explained as well as the rules and standards that govern them. The reporting entity can range from a sole trader to a larger business with joint owners or partners who are liable for the debts of the business and the tax on the profits.
Regulation and audit
Authors: Nobes Christopher
Published: April 2017

‘Regulation and audit’ examines some aspects of the regulation of financial reporting by looking at two national examples of regulatory frameworks: the UK and the USA. It addresses such questions as: why was the UK the first country to require published audited financial statements from companies? What sort of regulation does the state impose on accounting? Why does the USA have the world's oldest and toughest regulator of financial reporting? What is the purpose of audit? Does it really work? How is an audit conducted? The background to auditing is provided and the duties and responsibilities of auditors are explained.
Internal decision-making: costs and volumes
Authors: Nobes Christopher
Published: April 2017

‘Internal decision-making: costs and volumes’ looks at decision-making by managers. Management accounting is the provision of financial information to managers to assist them with internal decisions and to help them control organizations. Typical financial documents produced under this category are costing reports, break-even reports, and budgets. Types of cost and how cost information is used for break-even analysis is examined. What sort of decisions can management accounting help with? Why are some costs relevant and others irrelevant? How does a company decide at what volume to operate? What are indirect costs, and how are they taken into account in decisions?
3. Philosophical hermeneutics
Authors: Zimmermann Jens
Published: April 2017

Philosophical hermeneutics refers to the detailed examination of human understanding that began with the German philosopher Hans-Georg Gadamer (1900–2002). In his book, Truth and Method, Gadamer drew together many of the previously discussed insights from Schleiermacher, Dilthey, Husserl, and Heidegger to provide an extensive description of what understanding is. ‘Philosophical hermeneutics’ outlines Gadamer’s key views: he believed that our perception of the world is not primarily theoretical but practical; he regarded understanding as the basic movement of human existence that encompasses the whole of life experience; language is central to shaping our understanding of the world; mediation is the heart of the hermeneutic experience; and application is its soul.
1. Who are the Jews?
Authors: Solomon Norman
Published: April 2017

There are many types of Jews, but is there any way to describe them collectively? How many of them are there? Where do they live? ‘Who are the Jews?’ considers Jewish identity by looking at how Jews have been portrayed and how they view themselves. For a long time, the surrounding cultures, Christian and Muslim, persisted in defining the Jews as ‘a people apart’, and setting up laws to ensure this separateness. Jews reacted by internalizing their social condition and themselves. They considered themselves as chosen people, exiled from their native land. What is the contemporary Jewish identity? New and distinctive forms of Judaism are emerging.
2. How did Judaism and Christianity split up?
Authors: Solomon Norman
Published: April 2017

What we recognize today as Judaism differs in many ways from the biblical religion, but the ‘roots’ of the Jewish religion, the earliest parts of the Bible, are three or four thousand years old. ‘How did Judaism and Christianity split up?’ tells the traditional Christian and Jewish stories as to why the two separated, considers where they came from, and examines how they subsequently defined themselves. It would be unfair to judge early Christianity and Judaism by their attitudes to one another. The heritage of mistrust and mutual animosity still burdens us. However, in light of events of the last century, Christian–Jewish dialogue has opened up to revision and reconciliation of traditional attitudes.
7. Out of the ghetto, into the whirlwind
Authors: Solomon Norman
Published: April 2017

What are the different ‘sects’ (or denominations as they prefer to be called) of Judaism? ‘Out of the ghetto, into the whirlwind’ asks why divisions exist and how they came about. It examines Reform and Orthodox Judaism in particular but also considers Conservative and Reconstructionist Judaism. Conservative Judaism is particularly strong in the USA, where it may be the largest single Jewish denomination. Reconstructionists call for a reappraisal of Judaism, including such fundamental concepts as God, Israel, and Torah and institutions such as the Synagogue, in light of contemporary thinking.
2. Atomic worlds
Authors: Wilson Catherine
Published: April 2017

In Epicureanism, the ‘atom’ is the fundamental element of reality. There is a finite number of different atom shapes, but an infinite number of each shape, which move and congregate in a void of infinite extent. ‘Atomic worlds’ considers how Epicureans came to believe in this ontology and then discusses its doubters, including Parmenides, Aristotle, and Cicero, who believed the Epicurean thesis of the multiplicity of worlds and their ongoing creation and destruction were absurd. The early modern rediscovery of atomism contributed significantly to the Scientific Revolution of the 17th century, but despite contemporary physical science retaining some elements of the Epicurean image of nature, it is now known that atoms are not the smallest, fundamental particles.
6. Religion and superstition
Authors: Wilson Catherine
Published: April 2017

Epicureanism was the only sect of ancient Western philosophy to deny that the gods were active in the world and influenced the course of human events. Its recovery and reworking in the context of Christian monotheism in Europe was accordingly complex. Along with its absorption and development of its critique of religion, there was pointed resistance to the Epicurean challenge. ‘Religion and superstition’ asks whether Epicurus was really an atheist who denied the existence of the gods, or only a critic of the conventional religious practices and popular beliefs of his time. It also goes on to consider whether religion is obsolete.
4. The scientist
Authors: Cronk Nicholas
Published: April 2017

Following the publication of the Lettres philosophiques in 1734, Voltaire was no longer welcome in Paris or Versailles. He moved to the château de Cirey with his lover, Émilie Du Châtelet. There, Voltaire set out to become a scientist and began to deepen his understanding of Newtonian physics. His most important scientific work to emerge in this period was Éléments de la philosophie de Newton (1738). The work played a key role in spreading knowledge of Newton in Europe, and also in re-establishing and re-orienting Voltaire’s reputation. It led to his election as a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1743, three years before his elevation to the Académie française.
6. The Genevan
Authors: Cronk Nicholas
Published: April 2017

In the mid-1750s, Voltaire’s reputation was high: Montesquieu’s death in 1755 left Voltaire as the undisputed leader of the philosophes and Adam Smith spoke of him as a dominant literary figure of the age. And yet, Voltaire had rarely felt more unsettled. ‘The Genevan’ describes how Voltaire settled in French-speaking Geneva, an important centre of publishing, with his niece and companion, Marie-Louise Denis. In 1756, Cramer published a complete edition of Voltaire’s writings, marking a milestone in Voltaire’s literary career. Voltaire’s successive responses—a traditional philosophical poem and the novel Candide (1759)—to the catastrophe of the 1755 Lisbon earthquake show strikingly how his thinking about literary genre was evolving.
8. The celebrity
Authors: Cronk Nicholas
Published: April 2017

Voltaire’s historical enquiry into the nature of religion, as part of a broader concern with the progress of knowledge, puts him at the heart of the Enlightenment endeavour. But it is not sufficient to examine Voltaire’s ideas in isolation if we wish to understand their true importance. ‘The celebrity’ looks at how Voltaire reached a broader public through the medium of publishing. Of all 18th-century thinkers , Voltaire was the most media savvy. His celebrity status meant that his books, and his message, reached ever wider audiences. Voltaire’s importance can be measured not only by the originality or importance of his ideas, but by the number of people he influenced.
Fungal mutualisms
Authors: Money Nicholas P.
Published: April 2017

‘Fungal mutualisms’ considers symbiotic relationships in which the fungus and its partner benefit from their biological interaction. Examples of mutualisms with insects include fungi that trap scale insects, fungi cultivated by ambrosia beetles, and leaf-cutter ants and termites that grow mushroom gardens. These highly developed relationships involve substantial structural, biochemical, and behavioural adaptations in the fungi and insects. Fungi in mycorrhizal associations with plants operate as accessory root systems for plants, whereas fungi called endophytes house themselves inside plant tissues without any connection to an external mycelium. Lichens—composite organisms produced by a fungus and a single-celled alga or cyanobacterium—are the best-known mutualisms involving fungi.
Investigating matter
Authors: Atkins Peter
Published: April 2017

Physical chemistry lies at the heart of one of chemistry's principal applications and achievements: the identification of the substances present in a sample and the determination of their abundances and structures. ‘Investigating matter’ considers how the laser and computer have elaborated and refined classical techniques. Various forms of investigative technique are explained including absorption spectroscopy and nuclear magnetic resonance. Mass spectrometry is widely used in organic chemistry to help identify compounds and photoelectron spectroscopy is used both to explore the energies with which electrons are bound inside molecules and to identify species on surfaces. The study of surfaces has been transformed by scanning tunnelling microscopy, which relies on quantum mechanics.
4. Politics
Authors: Robertson Ritchie
Published: April 2017

Goethe’s conception of politics was permanently shaped by the mode of princely government under the Empire. ‘Politics’ explains that Goethe liked what was particular and individual, and disliked abstraction in politics as elsewhere. He happily accepted the traditional hierarchical organization of German society into Stände or ranks, but Goethe’s conservatism was not typical of his time. Goethe joined the Duke of Weimar’s court in 1775 and soon was appointed to the Privy Council that governed the duchy. His experiences from this time and the traumatic effects of the French Revolution and its aftermath can be seen in his literature, although his treatment of political issues is complex and ambivalent, and sometimes contradictory.
6. Religion
Authors: Robertson Ritchie
Published: April 2017

Goethe was brought up in Frankfurt, a Protestant city where the Lutheran Church held sway, but was also introduced to key Enlightenment texts through his father’s extensive library. ‘Religion’ explains that an early Pietist phase strengthened the value that Goethe placed on tolerance in religious matters. Goethe’s standpoint was what the 18th century called ‘natural religion’. Goethe’s allegiance to the Enlightenment is seen in his work, including the poem ‘Prometheus’ (1774) and the neoclassical drama Iphigenie in Tauris (1786–7). Goethe seems to anticipate Nietzsche in viewing human life as ‘beyond good and evil’. What mattered to Goethe was individuality, which brings him close to the greatest contemporary philosopher, Immanuel Kant.
Consumers
Authors: Dixit Avinash
Published: April 2017

‘Consumers’ considers several concepts involved with, or influenced by, consumer activity and consumer choice — substitution, complements, demand curves, income effect, statistical estimation, cost-of-living indexes, the babysitter effect, time, budgets, opportunity cost, and risk and loss aversion. What thought processes are involved in budgeting decisions? Are consumers rational? The new view of ‘behavioural economics’ suggests not and is supported by Daniel Kahneman's work that proposes two different systems of decision-making in the brain — fast and slow. The effects of consumer behaviour can be significant; for example, loss-aversion and other features of decisions under risk can seriously affect the properties of financial markets.
5. The blacklist and the Cold War
Authors: Decherney Peter
Published: April 2017

Hollywood’s foray into politics during World War II had major repercussions in the postwar period. It led to standoffs with conservative factions in Congress, it fractured the Hollywood community, and prompted the studios to take extreme actions to win back American moviegoers. ‘The blacklist and the Cold War’ considers the House Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC), which rode a wave of anti-communism and renewed the offensive against Hollywood. The Hollywood Ten, a group of unfriendly witnesses who stood up for their First Amendment rights and refused to incriminate others, were blacklisted and lost the opportunity to work in Hollywood. The Cold War films from 1942–1953 about the “red menace” of communism are also discussed.
Choose to Lose: Health Plan Choices from a Menu with Dominated Option*
Authors: Bhargava Saurabh , Loewenstein George , Sydnor Justin
Published: April 2017

We examine the health plan choices that 23,894 employees at a U.S. firm made from a large menu of options that differed only in financial cost-sharing and premium. These decisions provide a clear test of the predictions of the standard economic model of insurance choice in the absence of choice frictions because plans were priced so that nearly every plan with a lower deductible was financially dominated by an otherwise identical plan with a high deductible. We document that the majority of employees chose dominated plans, which resulted in excess spending equivalent to 24% of chosen plan premiums. Low-income employees were significantly more likely to choose dominated plans, and most employees did not switch into more financially efficient plans in the subsequent year. We show that the choice of dominated plans cannot be rationalized by standard risk preference or any expectations about health risk. Testing alternative explanations with a series of hypothetical-choice experiments, we find that the popularity of dominated plans was not primarily driven by the size and complexity of the plan menu, nor informed preferences for avoiding high deductibles, but by employees’ lack of understanding of health insurance. Our findings challenge the standard practice of inferring risk preferences from insurance choices and raise doubts about the welfare benefits of health reforms that expand consumer choice.
Elevated Production of Nociceptive CC Chemokines and sE-Selectin in Patients With Low Back Pain and the Effects of Spinal Manipulation
Authors: Teodorczyk-Injeyan Julita A. , McGregor Marion , Triano John J. , Injeyan Stephen H.
Published: April 2017

Background:

The involvement of inflammatory components in the pathophysiology of low back pain (LBP) is poorly understood. It has been suggested that spinal manipulative therapy (SMT) may exert anti-inflammatory effects.

Purpose:

The purpose of this study was to determine the involvement of inflammation-associated chemokines (CC series) in the pathogenesis of nonspecific LBP and to evaluate the effect of SMT on that process.

Methods:

Patients presenting with nonradicular, nonspecific LBP (minimum pain score 3 on 10-point visual analog scale) were recruited according to stringent inclusion criteria. They were evaluated for appropriateness to treat using a high velocity low amplitude manipulative thrust in the lumbar-lumbosacral region. Blood samples were obtained at baseline and following the administration of a series of 6 high velocity low amplitude manipulative thrusts on alternate days over the period of 2 weeks. The in vitro levels of CC chemokine ligands (CCL2, CCL3, and CCL4) production and plasma levels of an inflammatory biomarker, soluble E-selectin (sE-selectin), were determined at baseline and at the termination of treatments 2 weeks later.

Results:

Compared with asymptomatic controls baseline production of all chemokines was significantly elevated in acute (P=0.004 to <0.0001), and that of CCL2 and CCL4 in chronic LBP patients (P<0.0001). Furthermore, CCL4 production was significantly higher (P<0.0001) in the acute versus chronic LBP group. sE-selectin levels were significantly higher (P=0.003) in chronic but not in acute LBP patients. Following SMT, patient-reported outcomes showed significant (P<0.0001) improvements in visual analog scale and Oswestry Disability Index scores. This was accompanied by a significant decline in CCL3 production (P<0.0001) in both groups of patients. Change scores for CCL4 production differed significantly (P<0.0001) only for the acute LBP cohort, and no effect on the production of CCL2 or plasma sE-selectin levels was noted in either group.

Conclusions:

The production of chemotactic cytokines is significantly and protractedly elevated in LBP patients. Changes in chemokine production levels, which might be related to SMT, differ in the acute and chronic LBP patient cohorts.
Vertical Lifting: A New Optimal Thread Lifting Technique for Asians
Authors: Kang Seung Hoon , Byun Eun Jung , Kim Hei Sung
Published: April 2017

BACKGROUND

With the evolution of facial rejuvenation methods, thread lifts have gained popularity among patients who seek cosmetic improvement. Absorbable wedge-shaped polydioxanone (PDO) sutures are currently available, and they are extremely popular in the aesthetic clinics in Korea. In case of midface and mandibular jowl lift, threads are most often inserted in an oblique manner with vectors of rejuvenation directed toward the temple. However, specific characteristics of skeletal anatomy should be considered when deciding which technique to use in Asians. Herein, the authors introduce a vertical lifting technique most suitable for Asians, in which short (6 cm in length), wedge-shaped PDO sutures are inserted vertically downward in the anterior malar and submalar areas.

OBJECTIVE

To describe a novel technique adopted to counteract the descent and laxity of the Asian face. The authors also aimed to assess the overall safety and efficacy of wedge-shaped PDO thread lift in facial rejuvenation.

METHODS

A retrospective chart review was performed on cases of facial laxity treated with vertical thread lifting. A total of 39 Korean patients were included. All participants underwent a single treatment session. The results were assessed objectively using serial photography and subjectively based on the patients' satisfaction scores. Complications were also recorded.

RESULTS

Most patients (89.7%) considered the results satisfactory. Consensus ratings by 2 independent dermatologists showed that the objective outcomes at the 6-month follow-up were largely categorized as very much improved (10.3%), much improved (43.6%), and improved (33.3%). The incidence of complications was low, and the complications were minor.

CONCLUSION

Thread lifting with short, wedge-shaped PDO sutures is safe and effective for facial rejuvenation. The authors' vertical lifting technique has several advantages over the current approaches. First, the vectors directly oppose the vertical sagging of the face, which makes the technique highly efficient. The technique also carries a lower risk of accentuating the cheekbones, a feature which most Asians do not prefer.
DIRECTIONAL CHANGES IN TISSUE REFLECTIVITY MAY INFLUENCE FLOW DETECTION ON OPTICAL COHERENCE TOMOGRAPHY ANGIOGRAPHY
Authors: Dolz-Marco Rosa , Freund K. Bailey
Published: April 2017

Purpose:

To determine if directional or anatomical changes in tissue reflectivity of Henle fiber layer (HFL) may influence flow detection on optical coherence tomography angiography (OCT-A).

Methods:

Cross-sectional analysis of consecutive cases undergoing OCT-A. Directional changes in visualization of HFL were either produced manually by moving the beam entrance within the pupil or observed occurring naturally because of tilting of the OCT line-scan within a myopic staphyloma. Areas of enhanced HFL visualization were identified on cross-sectional and en face structural OCT scans. Visualization of OCT-A flow within the superficial and the deep capillary plexuses were compared in areas with and without enhanced HFL reflectivity.

Results:

Fifteen eyes from 9 patients were included, with a mean age of 49.6 ± 17.9 years. On OCT-A, retinal areas with enhanced HFL reflectivity produced manually or by scan tilting within myopic staphylomas showed no changes in the superficial capillary plexus flow. However, deep capillary plexus flow was altered by variable projection of the superficial flow onto the deeper retinal layers.

Conclusion:

Directional changes in HFL reflectivity can alter the detection of deep capillary plexus flow imaged with OCT-A by influencing the projection of superficial flow onto the deeper retinal layers. We recommend that clinicians minimize scan tilting during scan acquisition and be aware of this phenomenon in eyes with posterior staphyloma.
Measles Cases in Children Requiring Hospital Access in an Academic Pediatric Hospital in Italy, 2008–2013
Authors: Ciofi degli Atti Marta , Filia Antonietta , Bella Antonino , Sisto Annamaria , Barbieri Maria Antonietta , Reale Antonino , Raponi Massimiliano
Published: April 2017

Background:

The Lazio region is one of the Italian regions where sustained measles transmission continues to occur. We investigated measles cases reported by the emergency department (ED) of the largest pediatric hospital in Italy, located in Lazio.

Methods:

We reviewed clinical records of all measles cases from 0 to 18 years of age evaluated in the ED in 2008–2013. We compared demographic and clinical characteristics of patients admitted to the inpatient setting with those of patients discharged home to assess possible determinants of hospital admission.

Results:

Of 248 patients with measles evaluated in the ED, 113 (45.6%) were admitted as inpatients. The number of measles cases peaked in 2011 (N = 122; 49.2%), when epidemics were reported in Lazio. Median age was 2.7 years (range: 21 days to 17.9 years), and 31 patients (13%) had an underlying chronic illness. The strongest independent predictor of hospitalization was having an underlying chronic illness [adjusted odd ratio (OR): 9.87; 95% confidence interval: 3.13–31.13]. Other factors independently and significantly associated with higher risk of hospitalization were taking medications at the time of ED visit, being younger than 1 year of age and having altered liver enzyme values. Eighty-five percent of children >15 months of age who were hospitalized were not vaccinated. One hundred six hospitalized children (94%) had at least 1 measles complication; 1 child required intensive care for respiratory insufficiency.

Conclusions:

Hospitalizations of children with measles continue to occur in European areas where elimination has not been achieved. Children with chronic diseases represent a vulnerable population that is at higher risk of hospitalization.