bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Infectious Disease in Schools
Authors: Keyserling Harry
Published: September 2009

School environments provide ideal conditions for transmission of infectious diseases. This chapter discusses the prevention and control of infectious diseases in schools. Because infectious diseases are transmitted primarily by direct contact with hands, a stringent hand-washing program can be effective in reducing transmission. The most effective prevention strategies must also encompass regular environmental cleaning, comprehensive animal policies, immunizations, isolation of infected people, and mass prophylaxis in some cases.
Occupational Health and Safety for Faculty and Staff
Authors: Alexander Darryl
Published: September 2009

A comprehensive occupational health and safety approach to identifying, preventing, and eliminating hazardous exposures will go a long way to protecting and promoting the health of teachers and other school personnel. This chapter describes a range of occupational health concerns, some that potentially affect all staff members and some that are specific to certain job categories. It offers recommendations for a model occupational health program in a school setting.
2 Rationality and Rational Psychotherapy: The Heart of REBT
Authors: Still Arthur
Published: September 2009

In 1958 Albert Ellis published “Rational Psychotherapy,” a brief paper marking the beginning of cognitive therapies. As the therapy developed and he gained followers, he changed the name to “rational-emotive therapy,” and then to “rational-emotive behavior therapy” (REBT). This chapter looks at the logical and historical background to Ellis's use of rational, and why this use is so relevant in understanding the distinctive importance of REBT. It starts by exploring the different uses of the word that give rise to its different meanings. It then brings out two fundamental and apparently contrasting usages, referred to here as disciplinary and emancipatory rationality. Finally, it draws on the tension between these usages to display the full complexity of Ellis's use of the word rational, and to put some of the philosophical criticisms of Ellis and REBT into perspective.
3 Social and Cultural Aspects of Rational and Irrational Beliefs: A Brief Reconceptualization
Authors: David Daniel , DiGiuseppe Raymond
Published: September 2009

This chapter reconceptualizes the way we typically think about the role that culture and environment play in shaping rational and irrational beliefs. It presents three main arguments. First, a description of the differences between two groups or categories such as rational and irrational beliefs, does not explain the differences. Stating that culture explains or determines these differences contributes little to knowledge (i.e., cognitive profit), the question still remains why do these differences exist? Second, specific mechanisms that mediate the ability to learn, for example, are inherent to human nature (e.g., evolution-based), and go a long way to account for cultural differences. Third, culture is not an independent causal agent, divorced from individuals. Thus, it is important not to ignore the role of evolution in creating, maintaining, transmitting, and changing culture.
5 The Behavioral Consequences of Irrational Beliefs
Authors: Szentagotai Aurora , Jones Jason
Published: September 2009

This chapter examines the relation between rational/irrational thinking and behavior. It reviews studies assessing the irrational beliefs-dysfunctional/maladaptive behavior relationship, and focused mainly on research that evaluates the four types of beliefs separately, rather than global irrationality. Despite an obvious degree of specificity in the behavioral consequences of individual irrational beliefs, there is also an overlap in their effects (e.g., the aggressive expression of anger is related to high levels of low frustration tolerance, self-downing, and demandingness). This is not surprising considering the hypothesized mutual interdependence among diverse irrational beliefs.
8 Rational and Irrational Beliefs and Psychopathology
Authors: Browne Christopher M. , Dowd E. Thomas , Freeman Arthur
Published: September 2009

This chapter reviews research on the association between irrational beliefs (IBs) and general psychiatric symptoms including depression, anxiety, assertiveness problems, and Type A coronary-prone behavior. Increased levels of IBs are associated with emotional disturbances. Now that this relationship appears to be established, several directions for future REBT research are proposed.
12 Irrational and Rational Beliefs and Physical Health
Authors: Schnur Julie B. , Montgomery Guy H. , David Daniel
Published: September 2009

This chapter proposes a theoretical model that could potentially increase our understanding of the effects of irrational beliefs on health outcomes. It has been written that REBT “is perhaps the only therapeutic system that directly tackles our confrontation with reality.” Also as humans cannot help but be all too aware, physical suffering is an inextricable part of reality. REBT arms us in our struggle with this aspect of reality by providing us with two weapons: a willingness to accept reality, combined with an unwillingness to accept our irrational interpretations of that reality.
13 Coping and Catastrophic Thinking: The Experience and Treatment of Chronic Pain
Authors: Ehde Dawn M. , Jensen Mark P.
Published: September 2009

This chapter provides an overview of the theory, research, and practice of cognitive therapy for pain. It begins with a summary of cognitive-behavioral theory of pain, followed by a description of pain-specific beliefs thought to influence adaptation to chronic pain. Given the saliency of catastrophizing cognitions to the experience of pain, the “pain catastrophizing” literature will be emphasized, followed by a discussion of assessment of beliefs and cognitions. A description of cognitive therapy for pain is then provided, followed by ideas for future directions for advancing the theory, research, and practice of cognitive therapy for pain.
14 Irrational Beliefs Stemming from Judgment Errors: Cognitive Limitations, Biases, and Experiential Learning
Authors: Ruscio John
Published: September 2009

This chapter discusses the ways that judgment errors can lead to suboptimal decisions, and describes ways to prevent this from happening. Among these are scrutinizing similarity-based arguments, conceptualizing problems in multiple ways, formulating and testing multiple working hypotheses, and recognizing that personal experience is anecdotal evidence.
15 The Five Great Myths of Popular Psychology: Implications for Psychotherapy
Authors: Lilienfeld Scott O. , Lynn Steven Jay , Beyerstein Barry L.
Published: September 2009

This chapter argues that misconceptions concerning the human mind are legion even among highly intelligent and well-educated members of the general public, and that these misconceptions can interfere with effective treatment planning and execution. These misconceptions can impede effective coping with everyday life problems outside of the therapy room and contribute to a search for futile solutions to psychological distress. It is further argued that the best remedy for combating these misconceptions in clinical settings is straightforward: education. Psychotherapists must often do more than administer efficacious treatments. In many instances, they must also function as good teachers of psychology, disabusing their clients of misconceptions concerning the human mind and imparting correct information in its stead.
16 A Summary and a New Research Agenda for Rational-Emotive and Cognitive-Behavior Therapy
Authors: David Daniel , Lynn Steven Jay
Published: September 2009

This final chapter provides an integrative summary of what is known and what is not known regarding irrational and rational beliefs. It proffers suggestions and recommendations for future research, clinical work, and theory construction.
Physical Activity Surveillance
Authors: Kohl III Harold W. , Kimsey Jr. C. Dexter
Published: September 2009

This chapter reviews key components of physical activity surveillance, describes the main physical activity surveillance tools in the United States, illustrates (through case examples) issues in physical activity surveillance, and discusses future needs in physical activity surveillance. It argues that physical activity surveillance will continue to grow in prominence and importance in the foreseeable future. Policy development and research progress will depend on consistent, understandable assessments of prevalence, and trends in physical activity and inactivity behavior.
Physical Activity, Fitness, and Delayed Mortality
Authors: Lamonte Michael J. , Blair Steven N.
Published: September 2009

A large amount of evidence from observational studies indicates that low levels of physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) are associated with increased mortality risk. This chapter draws from selected epidemiological studies to illustrate broadly this line of research and to discuss specific issues that must be considered when interpreting and generalizing existing study findings. It summarizes available data on physical activity, CRF, and mortality risk in several population subgroups according to their demographic and health status.
Physical Activity, Fitness, and the Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease
Authors: Bassuk Shari S. , Manson JoAnn E.
Published: September 2009

This chapter reviews recent observational and clinical trial findings regarding the role of physical activity and fitness in preventing clinical and asymptomatic vascular disease. Dose-response issues and public health implications are highlighted.
Physical Activity and Weight Control
Authors: Jakicic John M. , Otto Amy D. , Polzien Kristen , Davis Kelliann
Published: September 2009

This chapter reviews studies on the role of physical activity in weight control. Excess body weight is linked to increased risk of numerous chronic diseases, including heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and several forms of cancer. Physical activity is an important lifestyle behavior that can result in favorable changes to body weight, body composition, and related health risks. However, to achieve favorable changes in body weight, an adequate dose of physical activity is required.
Risk of Acute Cardiac Events With Physical Activity
Authors: Lee I-Min , Sattelmair Jacob
Published: September 2009

This chapter discusses adverse effects associated with physical activity, focusing on acute cardiac events, including acute myocardial infarction (MI), sudden cardiac death (SCD), and sudden death. It begins by reviewing studies in adults, examining the risk of acute cardiac events related to vigorous physical activity and discussing relevant methodological factors pertinent to the interpretation of data from these studies. It then looks at studies of SCD among young athletes.
How Can We Increase Physical Activity Levels?
Authors: Bauman Adrian , Phongsavan Philayrath
Published: September 2009

The development of interventions to measure the efficacy and effectiveness of programs to increase physical activity provides information that will ensure that limited resources are appropriately channeled to where they are most needed. Identifying effective approaches to increasing physical activity remains a public health challenge. This chapter discusses the methodological and epidemiological issues in developing and evaluating physical activity programs.
Integrating Connectionist Learning and Dynamical Systems Processing: Case Studies in Speech and Lexical Development
Authors: McMurray Bob , Horst Jessica S. , Toscano Joseph C. , Samuelson Larissa K.
Published: September 2009

This chapter examines the interplay of dynamical systems and connectionism at the level of both theory and computation. It begins with a discussion of developmental mechanism focusing on two particular processes—one typically associated with connectionist approaches and one typically associated with dynamical systems. It then illustrates potential hybrid approaches with case studies from the field of language acquisition. The first—a model of speech category learning—illustrates how a dynamical systems perspective may inform a classic connectionist mechanism (i.e., statistical learning). The second—a model of early word learning—combines connectionist and dynamical systems principles. Both suggest that we can no longer treat these two paradigms as independent.
Soft-Assembled Mechanisms for the Unified Theory
Authors: Kloos Heidi , Van Orden Guy C.
Published: September 2009

This chapter argues that connectionist and dynamic systems models complement each other and collectively move toward a unified theory of development if they subscribe to the second view of mechanism—one that treats behavior as soft assembled in the immediate context. The chapter is organized as follows. It first addresses why models aimed at reducing behavior to cognitive components cannot make clear headway. The argument is that a reduction of behavior requires human performance to be relatively context free. However, it is shown with the example of balance task performance that human performance is highly context dependent, even in the sterile laboratory context of balance experiments. The chapter then elaborates on what such context dependence could mean. The chapter reviews more pointed evidence for soft assembly and discusses why models that take soft assembly seriously—connectionist or dynamic systems—anticipate the unified theory.
A Developmental Systems Theory Perspective on Psychological Change
Authors: Johnston Timothy D. , Lickliter Robert
Published: September 2009

This chapter draws attention to some aspects of development that are considered underrepresented in both dynamic systems theory (DST) and connectionism. The approach taken is that of developmental systems theory, which shares with DST a focus on the whole organism in its environment, and with connectionism a focus on the biological support for psychological change. It adds to those perspectives, a concern with more levels of biological analysis (including genetics), the incorporation of comparative, animal-based research, and attention to evolutionary considerations in the analysis of psychological change.
The Structure of Law in Public Health Systems and Practice
Authors: Goodman Richard A. , Kocher Paula L. , O’Brien Daniel J. , Alexander Frank S.
Published: September 2009

This chapter examines the structure of law underlying U.S. public health practice by focusing on the statutory basis of the federal and state/local infrastructure of the U.S. public health system, including the creation of federal agencies having public health or related responsibilities and powers under the U.S. Constitution and, similarly, state and local agencies with public health roles, responsibilities, and powers. It describes the structure of law and the statutory basis of public health systems and practice in two main sections. The first of these sections examines the statutory basis of public health practice at the federal level. The second section explores this for state-level public health systems and practice. These sections also implicate certain key foundational legal concepts, including federalism and preemption, that are highly relevant to understanding the interplay between legislative enactments and public health practice at all levels.
Regulating Public Health: Principles and Application of Administrative Law
Authors: Jacobson Peter D. , Hoffman Richard E. , Lopez Wilfredo
Published: September 2009

This chapter examines the key aspects and requirements of public health regulation. It focuses on how state and local public health practitioners can translate legal authority into effective public health practice and management. The chapter aims to set forth the mechanics of the administrative process; and to provide a practical context for using the administrative process to the practitioner's advantage. Understanding and effectively using the administrative process will both facilitate public health practice and invite public support for public health policies.
Public Health and the Judiciary
Authors: Stier Daniel D. , Nicks Diane M.
Published: September 2009

This chapter explores the relations between public health and the judiciary, defined broadly as the U.S. court system, essential functions of the court system, essential people within the court system (e.g., judges and juries), and procedural rules and customs under which the courts resolve disputes and operate. It introduces the structure and function of federal and state courts, and describes how federalism requires state and federal courts to share power. It then discusses several public health law-related cases decided by courts. While showing that courts generally grant broad deference to officials endeavoring to protect the public's health, the cases also illustrate judicial insistence on the existence of underlying legal authority; the attention paid by courts to the facts on which public health actions are based; the judicial balancing of protection of public health and individual rights; the impact of federalism on judicial decisions; and the potential for judicial interpretation to change over time. Finally, the chapter addresses the emerging issue of the courts' roles in and preparedness needs for public health emergencies.
Ethics and the Practice of Public Health
Authors: Bernheim Ruth Gaare , Nieburg Phillip , Bonnie Richard J.
Published: September 2009

This chapter illustrates how ethical analysis can be a helpful tool, along with legal analysis, to support and enrich public health decision making. It provides n overview of the complementary roles of public health ethics and law; an approach to public health ethics, including a framework to guide ethical reflection, deliberation, and justification in practice; examples of common ethical themes and tensions between individual and collective interests; an understanding of the role of professional ethics, as expressed in the new public health code of ethics; and an outline of ways to integrate ethics into practice within public health organizations.
International Considerations
Authors: Fidler David P. , Cetron Martin S.
Published: September 2009

This chapter seeks to remedy the neglect of international considerations in the analysis of U.S. public health law. The first section focuses on the legal structure and sources of public health law viewed from an international perspective. It then reviews U.S. participation in international health diplomacy. The next two sections address the law relevant to public health problems that U.S. public health officials and practitioners may face: public health threats that originate outside the United States but come into the United States through people, animals, or goods and flow out of the United States toward other countries. The chapter also addresses public health controversies that result from the U.S. pursuit of liberalization in international trade and foreign investment through international law. It concludes with thoughts on the future importance of international considerations in U.S. public health law.
Legal Counsel to Public Health Practitioners
Authors: Lopez Wilfredo , Frieden Thomas R.
Published: September 2009

This chapter provides a practical framework for understanding and guiding the relationship between public health practitioners and legal counsel. It first suggests issues to be reviewed when a public health practitioner and his or her legal counsel initially meet or when the legal counsel writes the practitioner an introductory memo. It then describes in detail the different roles and responsibilities of the legal counsel in relation to the practitioner-client. For simplicity, the chapter focuses primarily on the relationship between the head of a state or local health agency and its chief legal officer who supervises an internal counsel's office. Legal citations focus on New York City and New York State to accommodate the authors' areas of expertise and to emphasize that the heart of public health law and practice is at the local and state levels.
Identifiable Health Information and the Public's Health: Practice, Research, and Policy
Authors: Hodge, Jr. James G. , Hoffman Richard E. , Tress Deborah W. , Neslund Verla S.
Published: September 2009

This chapter examines some of the difficult issues at the intersection of public health, data uses, and individual interests. It describes some of the fundamental uses and disclosures of identifiable health data for public health practice and public health research, and presents legal structures and challenges that underlie public health data uses and disclosures. It briefly explores relevant constitutional sources of public health powers and privacy. Core statutory and regulatory legal protections for data uses related to public health research (i.e., federal, state, and local human subjects research protections) and public health privacy (i.e., privacy laws at the federal, state, and local levels) are examined. This includes a core analysis of the public health implications of the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA) Privacy Rule. The chapter concludes by addressing one of the key questions critical to each of these legal approaches: What are the distinctions between public health practice and research activities? It sets forth enhanced methodology on the basis of a 2004 report of the Council of State and Territorial Epidemiologists (CSTE) for distinguishing these activities.
Considerations for Special Populations
Authors: Stone T. Howard , Horton Heather H. , Pestronk Robert M. , Ransom Montrece M.
Published: September 2009

This chapter focuses on laws that pertain to special populations and their public health needs. It is divided into sections, each focused on a special population. “Special populations” refer to persons with mental disabilities; persons involved with the criminal justice system; homeless persons; children, including children who may be disproportionately affected by disparities in public health-related intervention; and undocumented immigrants. The chapter is divided into sections, each beginning with a case study of a member of a special population and his or her public health needs. Analysis of the pertinent legal issues follows each case study. Each section closes with practice pointers that incorporate the pertinent legal issues in the context of the case study.
Environmental Health and Protection
Authors: Locke Paul A. , Falk Henry , Kochtitzky Christopher S. , Bump Christine P.
Published: September 2009

This chapter provides a context for the practice of environmental health law. Public health law practitioners in the field of environmental health are faced with a complex legal landscape. Environmental health law spans portions of both the field of environmental protection and public health law. Public health laws traditionally have provided noncoercive authorities to state, local, and federal agencies and are useful in building an evidence base for change and fostering partnerships for cooperative ventures. In contrast, environmental protection laws are media-based and provide strong coercive authorities to federal and state agencies pursuing environmental health improvement. Attorneys pursuing environmental health improvement efforts have at their disposal a broad and extensive set of legal tools that, when deployed appropriately, are adaptable to address most of today's environmental health problems.
Sexual Orientation and Violent Victimization: Hate Crimes and Intimate Partner Violence among Gay and Bisexual Males in the United States
Authors: Herek Gregory M. , Sims Charles
Published: September 2009

This chapter provides a review of the data regarding the prevalence and correlates of violent victimization among gay and bisexual men in the United States. It specifically focuses on the well-recognized problem of anti-gay violence (hate crimes) and the much less studied and discussed problem of intimate partner violence in male same-sex couples. It shows that gay and bisexual men are at increased risk for violent victimization due to their sexual orientation and of intimate partner violence, compared to heterosexual men. The strengths and limitations of the available data are considered and future directions for research are suggested. The chapter also describes governmental and community-based efforts that have been taken to reduce anti-gay violence (hate crimes) and intimate partner violence in male same-sex couples.
Prevalence of Primary Mental Health Morbidity and Suicide Symptoms among Gay and Bisexual Men
Authors: Cochran Susan D. , Mays Vickie M.
Published: September 2009

This chapter examines the data regarding the prevalence of psychiatric disorders and suicide risk among gay and bisexual men in the United States. It begins by examining the methodological underpinnings of research on gay and bisexual men's health and mental health. It then provides an in-depth review of the evidence for health disparities affecting gay and bisexual men for a range of psychiatric disorders including depression and other affective disorders, anxiety disorders, and suicide symptoms. The chapter discusses the role of social context as one explanation for the increased prevalence of mental health disorders among gay and bisexual men, including the effects of homophobia and discrimination. It ends with recommendations for future research.
Sexually Transmitted Infections among Gay and Bisexual Men
Authors: Valdiserri Ronald O.
Published: September 2009

This chapter provides a overview of prevalent sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) among gay and bisexual men. Descriptive epidemiology is presented for bacterial (gonorrhea, syphilis, chlamydia), viral (human papillomavirus, herpes simplex virus, and human herpes virus 8), and enteric STDs. It discusses various factors responsible for disparate rates of STDs among MSM and identifies promising approaches for resolving disparities, including enhanced surveillance, improved and expanded testing and treatment services, and enhanced community-based responses to STDs among gay and bisexual men.
Health Disparities for Homosexual Youth: The Children Left Behind
Authors: Remafedi Gary
Published: September 2009

This chapter provides a systematic review of the experiences of gay and bisexual adolescents and youth in the United States that affect physical and mental health. It begins by addressing methodological issues in research. The bulk of the chapter provides a thorough overview of the causes, epidemiology, and disparities associated with common problems experienced by young gay and bisexual men including school problems, running away, homelessness, prostitution, substance abuse, suicide risk, eating disorders, and other risk behaviors and threats affecting health. The chapter then reviews what is known about promising responses to resolving the health disparities experienced by gay and bisexual adolescent boys and young men. It concludes by providing a vision for future that has direct implications for research, programs, and policy.
The Unique Experiences of Older Gay and Bisexual Men: Associations with Health and Well-Being
Authors: Grossman Arnold H.
Published: September 2009

This chapter reviews the experiences of older gay and bisexual men that affect physical and mental health. It discusses the unique experiences of older adults who lived during a time when homosexuality was much less visible and accepted. It discusses the effects of being a double minority (being old and gay or bisexual) and the consequences of hiding or disclosing sexual orientation. The current state of the field is reviewed and data from research on the physical and mental health of older gay and bisexual men in the United States are discussed. The chapter ends with a review of health care barriers experienced by older gay and bisexual men, and provides recommendations for future efforts to improve the health and well-being of this population.
Access to Optimal Care among Gay and Bisexual Men: Identifying Barriers and Promoting Culturally Competent Care
Authors: Ramchand Rajeev , Fox Claude Earl
Published: September 2009

This chapter discusses a variety of issues that impact access to optimal health care for gay and bisexual men in the United States. Special consideration is given to health insurance coverage and health insurance discrimination among gay and bisexual men. A discussion of domestic partner benefits highlights the role of legally-sanctioned partnerships and access to health insurance. The chapter concludes with specific recommendations for improving the health care environment and communication practices of providers who care for gay and bisexual men, including special populations of gay youth and elderly gay men.
Two Revolutions
Authors: Kunitz Stephen J.
Published: September 2009

The two revolutions of this chapter's title are the Industrial Revolution that began in England in the late 18th century, and the Epistemological Revolution that is conventionally attributed to the enunciation of the germ theory of disease by Louis Pasteur in France and by Robert Koch in Germany in the last third of the 19th century. This chapter discusses the many ways in which these two revolutions have intertwined and shaped thinking about the health of populations.
Inequality
Authors: Kunitz Stephen J.
Published: September 2009

This chapter examines two related issues: (1) the association between inequality and measures of health is shown to be not the same everywhere but is dependent upon the historical and sociocultural context; and (2) the association of the degree of income inequality in a society and life expectancy in that same society is also shown to be context specific. It is argued that the health and mortality of populations are shaped by so many factors that, as in the case of income per capita, so in the case of income inequality, no universally true generalizations are available. To understand the association, or its absence, between inequality and mortality, it is crucial to understand the epidemiological, sociocultural, political, and economic context of the population being observed.
Community
Authors: Kunitz Stephen J.
Published: September 2009

Many ideas of social capital have found their way into epidemiology, public health, and health care policy, where they have mingled with and provided a new vocabulary for ideas that have long existed. This chapter examines the way the vocabulary has been used at both the primary and secondary group levels in an effort to explain patterns of morbidity and mortality. The results are mixed, for in some instances there are beneficial effects, and in others, no or harmful, effects.
Introduction
Authors: Kunitz Stephen J.
Published: September 2009

This introductory chapter begins with a discussion of the three issues addressed in this book: (i) the way inherited ideas about industrial growth, economic expansion, social change, and causes of disease have shaped explanations of the health of populations; (ii) the ways in which these inherited ideas have become assimilated to political ideologies that influence how epidemiologic and demographic data are understood, causal inferences made, anomalies ignored, and abstractions drawn; and (iii) the importance of understanding the social context of the populations whose health we study and hope to improve. It then considers two revolutions that have shaped the ways in which the health of populations is usually understood. An overview of the two parts of the book is presented.
Beloved Community and Beyond
Authors: Wills Sr Richard Wayne
Published: September 2009

This chapter addresses the degree to which King’s optimism was seriously tempered by subsequent signs of a growing political gradualism, the rise of counterproductive race rhetoric, the troubling response to his stand against the Vietnam War, and the plague of continued economic disparities. It discusses the extent to which this social backlash challenged King to rethink the meaning of image of God and its community implications in more eschatological terms. Given the unanticipated complexities of social transformation and the level of resistance encountered, particularly during the latter years of the movement, King was forced to reconsider his theological anthropology and give thought to additional social measure that would have to be instituted during the interim wait for beloved community’s realization.
Nomads and Nationalists in the Eritrean Sahel
Authors: Ghebrekidan Assefaw Tekeste
Published: September 2009

This chapter presents an account of the plight of the people living in the Sahel, one of Eritrea's most inaccessible regions. It describes the devastation wrought by thirty years of war. It recounts experiences serving as a medical cadre among the pastoralist communities, particularly describes the impromptu cooperation between a liberation front and a marginalized population totally unaware of politics.
The Whole Is Greater:How Polio Was Eradicated from the Western Hemisphere
Authors: de Quadros Ciro A.
Published: September 2009

This chapter describes an account of experiences in immunization programs around the world. It talks about an involvement campaign to eradicate smallpox. It also describes the challenges faced by the author of this chapter as chief advisor for immunizations at the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) and head of the team in charge of technical cooperation for the polio eradication campaign. The chapter talks about the eradication of polio in the Americas which was the result of vision, leadership, and appropriate coordination of resources from the various international agencies that supported the program, including civil society. Furthermore, it was based on a clear and technically sound strategy that was implemented by a superb group of technical staff at PAHO.
Small Steps in a Long Journey in Nepal
Authors: Uprety Aruna
Published: September 2009

This chapter describes the strategies and tactics that were employed during an eighteen-year struggle for the right to safe abortion in Nepal. The chapter recalls the passage of the women's rights bill by the vast majority of parliament in 2002. It also identifies the many challenges that remain despite the opening of clinics throughout Nepal that provide safe, legal abortions to women from rural areas.
A Collective Response to the Health Sector Reform in Guatemala
Authors: Cerón Alejandro , Fort Meredith
Published: September 2009

This chapter describes individual experiences during the initial years of the health-sector reform in Guatemala and their collective participation in a coalition of grassroots organizations called the Instancia Nacional de Salud. Instancia Nacional de Salud is a coalition of community-based organizations that responded to the Guatemalan government's top-down health care reform by creating an alternative program that integrated Mayan medicine into a comprehensive primary health-care structure.
Social Marketing and Franchising for Reproductive Health in India
Authors: Gopalakrishnan Gopi , Ukil Paromita
Published: September 2009

This chapter presents a personal account of how Janani, a non-profit Indian society, ingeniously used “free-market” mechanisms to improve access to family planning and abortion in Bihar, India. Janani has made condoms and contraceptives widely available and has become one of the largest public/private networks delivering family planning and reproductive health care in India. In nine years of programming, Janani had averted 5.52 million unwanted births. In 2005 alone, the program protected 1.68 million couples in reproductive union, averting 962,000 births.
Betinho: Celebration of a Life in Brazil
Authors: Galvão Jane
Published: September 2009

This chapter presents a tribute to Herbert de Souza, known to most simply as “Betinho”—well known in Brazil for his efforts to address the prevention and treatment of HIV and AIDS. Betinho founded the Brazilian Interdisciplinary AIDS Association (ABIA) in 1986, a nongovernmental, nonprofit organization intended to take action against the spread of the epidemic by creating awareness of the disease and mobilizing Brazilian society as well as by advocating for the rights of people living with AIDS.
The Backdrop
Authors: Barr Nicholas , Diamond Peter
Published: September 2009

Over the long haul, declining mortality and fertility and earlier retirements have raised pension costs to unsustainable levels in many countries. Women have increased their labor market activities and acquired additional rights and voting powers. The need to reform pension systems is presented in light of these trends.
Core Purposes of Pension Systems
Authors: Barr Nicholas , Diamond Peter
Published: September 2009

The primary objective of pensions is economic security in old age, achieved through consumption smoothing, insurance, poverty relief, and redistribution. The primary objective of pension design is to optimize old-age security, including the cost of providing it. The objectives are best approached through a mix of voluntary and mandatory arrangements. The chapter also discusses some analytical errors.
The Basic Economics of Pensions
Authors: Barr Nicholas , Diamond Peter
Published: September 2009

The setting for the analysis of pensions includes the central role of output, and the facts that imperfect consumer information and decision making are widespread, pension systems face large risks, including economic, demographic, and political risks, and potentially administrative costs can be very high.
Finance and Funding
Authors: Barr Nicholas , Diamond Peter
Published: September 2009

Finance and funding are controversial topics. This chapter discusses the pros and cons of relying on dedicated revenue; how to measure the financial position of pensions, including the difference between implicit and explicit debt; the relationships among funding, national saving, and economic growth; and the proper methodology for comparing the returns from PAYG and funded systems. The chapter also discusses some analytical errors.
Gender and Family
Authors: Barr Nicholas , Diamond Peter
Published: September 2009

Wages, hours of work, and labor force participation differ across men and women, as do pensions. The issue of pension differences for men and women is framed in this chapter. The chapter also discusses the different effects on men and women of annual taxes on earnings. Pension issues related to gender, including survivor pensions, are discussed towards the end of the chapter. The final section offers some conclusions.
Implementing Pensions
Authors: Barr Nicholas , Diamond Peter
Published: September 2009

This chapter first sets out the tasks that a government must be able to carry out if a pension reform is to succeed, tasks that clearly vary with the type of pension system. It then describes the capacities that private pension providers need to have to implement voluntary or mandatory individual accounts effectively—that is, to ensure that the supply side is working well. Next the chapter considers the demand side of the market for individual accounts, notably the extent to which workers are well informed about the decisions they need to make, about the characteristics of different pension arrangements, and about the quality of different pension providers.
Conclusion to Part I
Authors: Barr Nicholas , Diamond Peter
Published: September 2009

This chapter draws together the main analytical conclusions of Part I of the book and it starts with discussion of principles of analysis and of policy design, and some important analytical errors. The chapter then considers the resulting lessons for policy.
International Diversity and Change
Authors: Barr Nicholas , Diamond Peter
Published: September 2009

This chapter first discusses some of the reasons why pension systems today rightly look different from systems fifty years ago. It then considers developments in pension systems and their design and economic and political responses to long-term trends. Policy errors are discussed as well. The chapter goes on to offer brief descriptions of a number of pension systems, including those of Argentina, Australia, Bolivia, Chile, China, Hungary, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Poland, Singapore, South Africa, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the United States, to illustrate the wide variety of possible choices.
China: Potential Directions for Reform
Authors: Barr Nicholas , Diamond Peter
Published: September 2009

This chapter sets out a series of recommendations to strengthen the pension system of China in ways compatible with China's capacity to implement reforms effectively. It first discusses overall structure and administration. It then considers options for the basic pension, individual accounts, and voluntary pensions, respectively. The chapter also discusses issues connected with the age of retirement, and finally it considers ways of extending coverage to more of the population.
Field Epidemiology Defined
Authors: Goodman Richard A. , Buehler James W.
Published: September 2009

This chapter discusses the practice of field epidemiology. Topics covered include determinants for field investigations, unique challenges to epidemiologists in field investigations, and standards for epidemiologic field investigations.
A Brief Review of the Basic Principles of Epidemiology
Authors: Dicker Richard C.
Published: September 2009

This chapter discusses the basic principles of epidemiology. Topics covered include uses of epidemiology, core epidemiologic competencies, the epidemiologic approach, and concepts of disease occurrence.
Operational Aspects of Epidemiologic Field Investigations
Authors: Goodman Richard A. , Hadler James L. , Vugia Duc J.
Published: September 2009

This chapter describes certain critical operational and management principles that apply before, during, and after the field work. These principles encompass the basic steps of: determining whether additional persons from outside the jurisdiction should be invited in; initiating an invitation; evaluating and responding to an invitation; preparing for the investigation through collaboration and consultation; developing and issuing basic administrative instructions prior to departure to the field; and initiating, implementing, and addressing the aftermath of the field investigation. The chapter concludes with a brief discussion of selected emerging developments in the operational approach to field investigations.
Surveys and Sampling
Authors: Herold Joan M.
Published: September 2009

This chapter discusses the steps in carrying out a survey. These include writing a protocol, selecting a survey mode, developing a questionnaire, designing and selecting the sample, training interviewers (or prepare for mail-out), collecting data (fieldwork), entering and editing data, and reporting the results. Sources of error and shortcuts to avoid are also discussed.
Using a Computer for Field Investigations
Authors: Dean Andrew G. , Beck-Sagué Consuelo M.
Published: September 2009

This chapter discusses the use of computers for field investigations. Computers require an investment of technical skill and setup time that must be balanced against the anticipated increase in quantity and quality of output. Computers are most useful for: tasks that are clearly defined and that will be done many times in the same way; rapid computation or counting involving large numbers of similar records; tasks matching the capabilities of existing software; numerically intensive calculations; accurate retention of details; and investigators who have used the same system before.
Analyzing and Interpreting Data
Authors: Dicker Richard C.
Published: September 2009

The purpose of many field investigations is to identify causes, risk factors, sources, vehicles, routes of transmission, or other factors that put some members of the population at greater risk than others of having an adverse health event. In some field investigations, identifying a “culprit” is sufficient; if the culprit can be eliminated, the problem is solved. In other field settings, the goal is to quantify the relationship between exposure (or any population characteristic) and a health outcome. Quantifying this relationship may lead not only to appropriate interventions but also to advances in knowledge about disease causation. Both types of field investigation require appropriate analytical methods. This chapter describes the strategy for planning an analysis, methods for conducting the analysis, and guidelines for interpreting the results.
Communicating Epidemiologic Findings
Authors: Gregg Michael B.
Published: September 2009

Effective communication is one of the skills of a field epidemiologist. This chapter deals with some of the elements of both written and oral communication skills. It discusses the writing of an epidemiologic paper and presentation of a scientific paper.
Immunization Practices for the Field Epidemiologist
Authors: Hull Harry F.
Published: September 2009

This chapter discusses immunization practices for field epidemiologists. Topics covered include vaccination, immunization programs, routine surveillance, outbreak investigation and control, and the future of immunization programs.
Investigations in Health-Care Settings
Authors: Jarvis William R.
Published: September 2009

The term health-care setting refers to hospitals, rehabilitative centers, transitional care, ambulatory care, outpatient, private physicians' offices, free-standing clinics, dialysis centers, long-term acute care, long-term care facilities, and homes where health care is being delivered. Investigations of outbreaks in these settings require special attention and differ from community outbreaks in several ways. This chapter prepares field epidemiologists for field investigations in health-care settings. It highlights the differences between conducting a community investigation and one confined to a health-care facility or setting where health care is being delivered. The emphasis is on how to find the information needed and how to use data and resources that are generally readily available only in health-care settings.
Field Investigations of Environmental Epidemics
Authors: Etzel Ruth A.
Published: September 2009

Environmental epidemics are disease clusters linked to three main categories of agents: (a) pollutants and chemicals such as lead, mercury, and ozone, (b) useful commercial products that enter our environment and may have health implications, such as pesticides and herbicides, and (c) natural toxins that are part of our everyday life, such as toxins produced by molds and dust mites. This chapter describes some of the key considerations when conducting field investigations of environmental disease clusters. An evaluation of a reported disease cluster includes four distinct stages: (i) collection of preliminary information; (ii) verification using preexisting records; (iii) full case ascertainment; and (iv) epidemiologic study.
Field Investigations of Occupational Disease and Injury
Authors: Halperin William , Trout Douglas
Published: September 2009

This chapter discusses field investigations of occupational disease and injury. The area of occupational disease and injury is a highly challenging and difficult world that requires not only great operational and technical skills, but, in may ways for the field epidemiologist, a very different mindset. Preparations for the investigations, kinds of studies in the workplace, and sources of information are discussed.