bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Training in Statistical Reasoning Inhibits the Formation of Erroneous Group Stereotypes
Authors: Schaller Mark , Asp Charles H. , Roseil Michelle Ceynar , Heim Stephen J.
Published: March 2007

Erroneous group stereotypes can result from people's failure to engage in sufficiently sophisticated reasoning strategies. Three experiments tested the hypothesis that training in statistical reasoning inhibits the formation of these stereotypes. In Study 1, 60 students were assigned randomly to a control condition or one of two training conditions in which they received training in the logic of analysis of covariance. Approximately 1 week later, they were presented with a group impression formation task. Control participants formed erroneous stereotypes, but those who received statistical training formed more accurate group impressions. Study 2 (N = 82) replicated these results, addressed concerns with experimental demand, and provided preliminary evidence concerning possible moderating effects of motivation. Study 3 (N = 44) tested a different alternative explanation and provided further clues about the inferential processes through which statistical training influences group impressions.
Behavior, Consequences, and the Seff: Is all Well that Ends Well?
Authors: Prislin Radmila , Pool Gregory J.
Published: March 2007

This study contrasts the consistency, the self-concept, and the new look formulations of cognitive dissonance. Individuals varying in self-concept positivity engaged in either consistent or inconsistent behavior that produced either positive or negative consequences. Individuals with extremely positive self-concepts experienced more dissonance when their inconsistent behavior resulted in positive rather than negative consequences. Individuals with mildly positive self-concepts experienced equally intense dissonance following positive consequences of both inconsistent and consistent behavior Dissonance-reducing activities appeared to be aimed at verification of the initial beliefs about the self;
Remembering and Regretting: The Zeigarnik Effect and the Cognitive Availability of Regrettable Actions and Inactions
Authors: Savitsky Kenneth , Medvec Victoria Husted , Gilovich Thomas
Published: March 2007

Regrets appear to follow a systematic temporal pattern: Regrettable commissions loom larger in the short term, whereas regrettable omissions are more prominent in the long run. This research examines whether this pattern can be attributed in part to the Zeigarnik effect, or peoples' tendency to remember incompleted tasks better than completed tasks. Does Zeigarnik-like rumination over regrettable failures to act make them easier to recall, and thus more available as sources of regret? A survey found that people think about their biggest regrets of inaction more frequently than their biggest regrets of action. In two additional studies, participants listed their three biggest regrets of action and three biggest regrets of inaction, and then attempted to recall them several weeks later. As anticipated, participants remembered more of their regrettable omissions than their regrettable commissions, an effect that was maintained when the severity of the regrets was controlled statistically.
Social Comparison in the Workplace: A Study of 60 Dual-Career Couples
Authors: Steil Janice M. , Hay Jennifer L.
Published: March 2007

This study assessed the extent to which job factors (income, prestige, and gender integration), family factors (earnings relative to spouse, parental status), work goals, and personality attributes predicted men's and women's social comparisons and perceptions of faring at work. Respondents were 60 men and 60 women in high-achieving, somewhat male-dominated positions. Men reported more same-sex and fewer cross-sex comparisons than women did. Overall, however, almost half of the respondents said they compared predominantly with others of both sexes. There was no relationship between sex of comparison other and comparison direction. The best predictors of sex of comparison were respondent sex and income. The best predictor of comparison direction was parental status. Autonomy, dominance, and achievement striving was the best predictor of perceptions of work faring.
Measuring the Consequences of Injustice
Authors: Scher Steven J.
Published: March 2007

The factor structure of measures of consequences of distributive injustice was explored. Study I reports confirmatory factor analyses of two samples of data in which university student subjects read vignettes about a student who worked at a particular job and was paid a low wage. Judgments of fairness and of happiness were clear and measurable consequences of underpay injustice. A Justice Emotions factor (anger and guilt) was also present, although this factor was not psychometrically sound. A method factor was also required to obtain an adequate fit to the data. In Study 2, the Justice and Happiness factors were replicated. Anger and Guilt formed separate factors. In an overpay situation, this structure did not fit the data. Exploratory factor analysis suggested the presence of two second-order factors (Happiness/Anger and Fairness/Guilt). Implications for both theoretical and methodological issues in the study of distributive justice are discussed.
The Persuasive Effects of Verbal and Nonverbal Information in a Context of Value Relevance
Authors: Marsh Kerry L. , Hart-O'Rourke Dawn M. , Julka Deana L.
Published: March 2007

These studies investigated how the verbal and nonverbal content of a message affected value-based attitudes. Participants viewed a speaker who advocated a policy change at their own university (high-personal-relevance condition) or another university (low-personal-relevance condition) on an issue relevant to participants' values. Verbal content of the message (strong or weak arguments) and nonverbal behavior of the speaker (negative or natural) were varied. A negative delivery led to impressions of the speaker as less likable, assured, and expert, but it had no effect on attitudes. Increasing personal relevance led to more negative attitudes, but argument strength affected the attitudes and thoughts of both low- and high-personal-relevance participants. Results suggested that for a value-relevant topic, lowering personal relevance did not reduce extensive processing of verbal content.
Avoidance Personal Goals and Subjective Well-Being
Authors: Elliot Andrew J. , Sheldon Kennon M. , Church Marcy A.
Published: March 2007

The present research comprises two studies designed to investigate both antecedents and consequences of pursuing avoidance (relative to approach) personal goals over the course of a semester-long period. Results revealed that neuroticism was positively related to the adoption of avoidance personal strivings (Study 1), and participants with low perceptions of their life skills were more likely to adopt avoidance personal projects (Study 2). Avoidance regulation proved deleterious to both retrospective and longitudinal subjective well-being (SWB), as participants with a greater proportion of avoidance goals reported lower SWB over the course of the semester and evidenced a decrease in SWB from the beginning to the end of the semester. Ancillary analyses attested to the robustness of these results across a variety of alternative predictor variables. Path analyses validated perceived progress as a mediator of the direct relationships observed.
Group Entitativity and Social Attribution: On Translating Situational Constraints into Stereotypes
Authors: Yzerbyt Vincent Y. , Rogier Anouk , Fiske Susan T.
Published: March 2007

The research investigates the impact of group entitativity on social attribution. Perceivers confronted with a group high in entitativity more readily call on underlying essence to explain people's behavior. We adapted Ross, Amabile, and Steinmetz's over attribution paradigm to a group setting. Participants were randomly selected to join a group of questioners, answerers, or observers in a quiz game. Unknown to the contestants, their group was presented to the observers as an entity or as an aggregate. As predicted, group entitativity promoted the use of dispositional attributions for the behavior of group members. These findings suggest that the explanation of group members' behavior is more likely to remain situation insensitive whenever perceivers share the naive theory that underlying features characterize the group. The discussion focuses on the impact of social attribution in the emergence of stereotypes and examines the role of subjective essentialism in social categorization and rationalization.
Terror Management in Childhood: Does Death Conceptualization Moderate the Effects of Mortality Salience on Acceptance of Similar and Different Others?
Authors: Florian Victor , Mikulincer Mario
Published: March 2007

This study inquires whether terror management mechanisms depend on the development of the concept of death. Children aged 7 and 11 years (N = 104) were exposed to death salient or non-salient conditions and asked to rate their acceptance of in-group and out-group children. Death salience was manipulated by asking children to answer the Death Concept Scale before or after rating target stimuli. Children also answered a self-esteem scale, and their mothers completed a dogmatism scale. Death salience led to more acceptance of an in-group child and more rejection of an out-group child only among 11-year-old children. Among 7-year-old children, this manipulation led to a rejection of both in-group and out-group children. At both ages, these effects were mainly found among low self-esteem children and among children whose mothers scored high on the dogmatism scale. Results were discussed in the framework of terror management theory.
Undoing Regret on Dutch Television: Apologizing for Interpersonal Regrets Involving Actions or Inactions
Authors: Zeelenberg Marcel , van der Pligt Joop , Manstead Antony S. R.
Published: March 2007

In a series of studies, the authors examined apology as a means of undoing interpersonal regrets. In the first study, 63 cases from a Dutch television show called I. Am Sorry were coded on two dimensions. This show provides people with the opportunity to undo regrets arising in social relationships. The results show that people are more likely to undo interpersonal regrets by apologizing when these regrets stem from action than when they stem from a failure to act. Results also show that the time between the occurrence of the regretted interpersonal event and the apology is longer for failures to act than for actions. Both findings are replicated in a series of large-scale surveys using a representative sample of the Dutch adult population. The findings are discussed in relation to Gilovich and Medvec's hypothesis concerning the temporal pattern of the experience of regret.
Coping with Negative Stereotypes about Intellectual Performance: The Role of Psychological Disengagement
Authors: Major Brenda , Spencer Steven , Schmader Toni , Wolfe Connie , Crocker Jennifer
Published: March 2007

Two experiments tested the hypothesis that members of negatively stereotyped groups psychologically disengage their self-esteem from feedback received in stereotype-relevant domains. In both experiments, African American and European American college students received performance feedback on a bogus intelligence test and completed measures of self-esteem. In Experiment 1, European American students had higher self-esteem after success than after failure, whereas African American students had similar levels of self-esteem regardless of feedback. Whether the test had been described as racially biased or culturally fair had no effect. Experiment 2 examined the extent to which lesser responsivity among African Americans is the result of chronic disengagement from intelligence tests or situational disengagement initiated by priming racial stereotypes. Results indicate that both chronic disengagement and racial priming engender less responsivity to negative performance feedback among African American, but not European American, students. Performance expectancies, self-evaluations, and beliefs about test bias are discussed as possible mediators of this relationship.
Deception to Get a Date
Authors: Rowatt Wade C. , Cunninghan Michael R. , Druen Perri B.
Published: March 2007

Two studies examined whether some people use more deceptive self-presentation to initiate a dating relationship. Participants reviewed information depicting prospective dates and constructed profiles to be used by the prospects to select a date. In this context, high self-monitoring men and women engaged in more deceptive self-presentation to the person that they desired to date than low self-monitors. Study 2replicated this finding with a variety of personal dimensions and revealed that high self-monitors hold more favorable attitudes toward using deception in dating initiation and admit altering their self-presentation in an attempt to initiate a date. No sex differences in the amount of deceptive self presentation were found. These outcomes suggest that high self-monitors behave in a chameleon-like fashion during dating initiation, strategically and deceptively changing their self-presentation in an attempt to appear more desirable to the person they want to date. Motivations for using deception are discussed.
In-Group Bias and Fair-Mindedness as Strategies of Self-Presentation in Intergroup Perception
Authors: Singh Ramadhar , Choo Wan Mei , Poh Li Li
Published: March 2007

The authors reviewed the anomalies in tests of the in-group bias hypothesis and tested the hypothesis that intergroup perception is a compromise between the need to preserve a positive social identity and maintain a self-image of fair-mindedness. Given two response measures, participants may show discrimination along one but not the other. Evaluation of multiple groups may invoke recategorization: Contrast between out-group and in-group will serve the social identity need; assimilation of at least one out-group with the in-group will satisfy the fair-mindedness need. Participants age 11 and above showed in-group bias in competence but no discrimination in attraction; the 7-year-olds discriminated along both measures. The hypothesized recategorization effects emerged in a within-participants study. Nonnegative ratings of the out-group also illustrated fairness in the participants. These results portray in-group bias and fair-mindedness as strategies of self presentation in intergroup perception.
Personality and Cognitive Processing of Affective Information
Authors: Rusting Cheryl L. , Larsen Randy J.
Published: March 2007

Several studies have demonstrated that the personality traits of extraversion and neuroticism are positively correlated with susceptibilities to positive and negative affect, respectively. These findings are often explained in terms of Jeffrey Gray's theory of personality, which predicts that extraverts and neurotics are differentially susceptible to stimuli that generate positive and negative emotional states. The current research provides a further test of Gray's theory using a series of cognitive tasks with positive and negative stimuli. In Study 1, participants completed a word-fragment completion task, a reaction-time task and a recall task. Results showed that extraversion was generally related to performance when stimuli were positive but not when stimuli were negative or neutral. Study 2 replicated these findings and demonstrated that the relationships between personality and performance were not mediated by current mood state. Discussion focuses on integrating a cognitive analysis of personality with existing biological theories.
Reactions to Majority Voting Procedures and Amelioration of Voting Minority Member Responses
Authors: Price Kenneth H. , Hunton James E. , Hail Thomas W. , Coalter Terry M. , Clinton B. Douglas
Published: March 2007

Two laboratory experiments investigated reactions to a majority rule social decision scheme. In Experiment 1, members of the voting majority perceived the decision process to be fairer; were more satisfied with the decision outcome, and performed at higher levels than did members of the voting minority. Implementation of a nonrepresentative decision (i.e., in which a decision maker failed to follow the recommendations of the majority) resulted in more extreme reactions by majority, as compared with minority, members. In Experiment 2, an attempt at minority conciliation was made based on either a unilateral decision by a decision maker or the voice of participants. Both the conciliatory offer and the manner in which the offer was enacted had independent and positive effects on minority perceptions and performance.
Causal Uncertainty: Factor Structure and Relation to the Big Five Personality Factors
Authors: Edwards John A. , Weary Gifford , Reich Darcy A.
Published: March 2007

Two studies provide construct validity evidence for the Causal Uncertainty Scale. In the first study, the factor structure of the CUS was validated. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses indicated that the CUS is composed of two highly correlated factors, uncertainty about the causes of one's own outcomes and uncertainty about the causes of others' outcomes. Relationships between these two factors and a variety of other variables were assessed. In the second study, the relationship between the CUS, its two factors, and the Big Five personality factors was examined. The CUS was found to be related only to Neuroticism. Participants' causal uncertainty scores were significantly better predictors of their confidence in causal hypotheses than were their Neuroticism scores. It is suggested that causal uncertainty may operate in a domain-specific fashion.
Attributions as Predictors of Coping and Distress
Authors: Amirkhan James H.
Published: March 2007

Attempts to predict coping, distress, and stress-related pathology with person-related variables have had only limited success. With greater attention to their controllability, focus, and place in the causal sequence, it was believed that attributions might yet prove strong predictors. Two field studies, one large (N = 679) and cross-sectional, the other small (N = 60) and longitudinal, tested this premise. Confirming hypotheses, the perceived controllability of an attribution proved essential to prediction, and attributions for coping failures proved superior to attributions for stressful events as predictors. Results also revealed a causal sequence in which attributions affected distress both directly and by influencing the choice of coping strategy. Implications for future applications of attribution theory to stress research are discussed.
Acute Effects of Alcohol on Measures of Walking Performance
Authors: Gregson R.A.M. , Smith D.A.R. , Strelow E.R. , Brabyn J.A.
Published: March 2007

An on-line system for continuously monitoring 10 different quantitative measures of walking move ments to a high fidelity was employed in a study comparing the effects of tolerance for alcohol and dosage level in mg/kg body weight over an 80 min ute period following drinking. The data were sub jected to multivariate analyses of covariance. Com plex changes in walking were detected—some tran sient—during the period of observation. Different measures were optimally sensitive in monitoring a straight walking task and a blindfolded complex walk. The consequent problems of validation and generalization are noted.
The Reliability and Validity of Objective Indices of Moral Development
Authors: Davison Mark L. , Robbins Stephen
Published: March 2007

The present paper addresses three issues sur rounding Rest's Defining Issues Test, an objective test of moral development based on Kohlberg's six- stage theory of moral development. Those issues are (1) the stability of test scores over time; (2) correla tion of scores with Kohlberg's interview measure of moral development; and (3) the insensitivity of its scoring procedure, which ignores responses to all items keyed to lower stages. In two age heterogene ous samples, total score test-retest reliabilities were generally in the high .70's or low .80's, regardless of which of several scoring schemes was used. In another age heterogeneous sample, the correlation with scores on Kohlberg's test was .70; but in two age homogeneous samples, the correlations were about .35 and .20. These validity coefficients sug gest that (1) the common variance shared by Rest's and Kohlberg's tests in age heterogeneous samples can be attributed to the fact that scores on both tests increase with age and (2) the two tests cannot be considered equivalent measures of the same con struct differing only in format. Results also in dicated that an empirically weighted scoring scheme is more sensitive to longitudinal change than is Rest's P score. This sensitivity to longi tudinal trends is an important property for tests such as Rest's which claim to be developmental and are frequently used to assess educational change. The empirically weighted sum had a significantly higher test-retest reliability (p < .05) than did a simple sum of item responses, and it had a signifi cantly higher correlation with Kohlberg's measure than did a theoretically weighted sum.
Computer Programs for Performing Hierarchical Cluster Analysis
Authors: Aldenderfer Mark S. , Blashfield Roger K.
Published: March 2007

This paper analyzes the versatility of 10 dif ferent popular programs which contain hierarchical methods of cluster analysis. The intent of the paper is to provide users with information which can be of assistance when choosing a cluster analysis pro gram. The four dimensions which are emphasized when discussing these programs are (1) agglomera tion vs. division, (2) linkage form, (3) similarity measure, and (4) hierarchical solution vs. single- rank.
The Internal and External Optimality of Decisions Based on Tests
Authors: Mellenbergh Gideon J. , van der Linden Wim J.
Published: March 2007

In applied measurement, test scores are usually transformed to decisions. Analogous to classical test theory, the reliability of decisions has been de fined as the consistency of decisions on a test and a retest or on two parallel tests. Coefficient kappa (Cohen, 1960) is used for assessing the consistency of decisions. This coefficient has been developed for assessing agreement between nominal scales. It is argued that the coefficient is not suited for as sessing consistency of decisions. Moreover, it is ar gued that the concept consistency of decisions is not appropriate for assessing the quality of a decision procedure. It is proposed that the concept con sistency of decisions be replaced by the concept optimality of the decision procedure. Two types of optimality are distinguished. The internal optimal ity is the risk of the decision procedure with respect to the true score the test is measuring. The external optimality is the risk of the decision procedure with respect to an external criterion. For assessing the optimality of a decision procedure, coefficient delta (van der Linden & Mellenbergh, 1978), which can be considered a standardization of the Bayes risk or expected loss, can be used. Two loss functions are dealt with: the threshold and the linear loss func tions. Assuming psychometric theory, coefficient delta for internal optimality can be computed from empirical data for both the threshold and the linear loss functions. The computation of coefficient delta for external optimality needs no assumption of psy chometric theory. For six tests coefficient delta as an index for internal optimality is computed for both loss functions; the results are compared with coefficient kappa for assessing the consistency of decisions with the same tests.
Is a Behavioral Measure the Best Estimate of Behavioral Parameters? Perhaps Not
Authors: Howard George S. , Maxwell Scott E. , Wiener Richard L. , Boynton Kathy S. , Rooney William M.
Published: March 2007

In many areas of psychological research various measurement procedures are employed in order to obtain estimates of some set of parameter values. A common practice is to validate one measurement device by demonstrating its relationship to some criterion. However, in many cases the measurement of that criterion is less than a perfect estimate of true parameters. Self-report measures are often val idated by comparing them with behavioral mea sures of the dimension of interest. This procedure is only justifiable insofar as the behavioral measure represents an accurate estimate of population parameters. Three studies, dealing with the assess ment of assertiveness, students' in-class verbal and nonverbal behaviors, and a number of teacher-stu dent in-class interactions, tested the adequacy of behavioral versus self-report measures as accurate estimates of behavioral parameters. In Studies 2 and 3 self-reports were found to be as good as be havioral measures as estimates of behavioral pa rameters, while Study 1 found self-reports to be sig nificantly superior.
The Dimensionality of Bipolar Scales in Self-Description
Authors: Klockars Alan J. , King Daniel W. , King Lynda A.
Published: March 2007

Sets of bipolar scales were constructed for self- description for 13 different traits. Within each trait four scales, which differed in the relationship be tween the trait dimension and the desirability of the endpoints, were developed. Two scales had either both desirable or both undesirable endpoints. The other two scales had one desirable and one unde sirable endpoint but differed from one another in the direction of the trait dimension. Self-descrip tions were obtained from 606 students on the 13 sets of scales and bipolar marker scales to measure the dimensions of evaluation, potency, activity, and familiarity. In addition, each student answered a true-false social desirability scale. The data were factor analyzed and rotated to simple structure. The factors closely reflected the trait dimensions. There were no factors that could be interpreted as either a social desirability or evaluation factor. The correlations of the bipolar scales that had differ ences in desirability of the endpoints averaged .12 with the social desirability scale and .13 with the evaluation marker scale. The correlations between the scales within each trait set reflected primarily the trait relationships but seemed to be moderated by the effects of evaluation or desirability. Scores were obtained on the sum of the four scales within each trait dimension. These scores were reasonably internally consistent and uncorrelated with social desirability. The potential for this method of per sonality assessment is discussed.
Ability Metric Transformations Involved in Vertical Equating Under Item Response Theory
Authors: Baker Frank B.
Published: March 2007

The metric transformations of the ability scales in volved in three equating techniques—external anchor test, internal anchor test, and a pooled groups proce dure—were investigated. Simulated item response data for two unique tests and a common test were obtained for two groups that differed with respect to mean abil ity and variability. The obtained metrics for various combinations of groups and tests were transformed to a common metric and then to the underlying ability metric. The results showed that there was reasonable agreement between the transformed obtained metrics and the underlying ability metric. They also showed that the largest errors in the ability score statistics oc curred under the external anchor test procedure and the smallest under the pooled procedures. Although the pooled procedure performed well, it was affected by unequal variances in the two groups of examinees.
PAC M : A Two-Stage Procedure for Analyzing Structural Models
Authors: Lehmann Donald R. , Gupta Sunil
Published: March 2007

An alternative procedure for estimating structural equations models is described. The two-stage proce dure, Path Analysis of Covariance Matrix (PACM), sep arately estimates the measurement and structural models using standard least-squares procedures. PACM was empirically compared to simultaneous maximum likelihood estimation of measurement and structural models using LISREL. PACM produced results similar to LISREL in many cases; it also seems to have advan tages when dealing with large-scale problems, model misspecifications, collinearity among indicators, and missing data.
Determining the Significance of Estimated Signed and Unsigned Areas Between Two Item Response Functions
Authors: Raju Nambury S.
Published: March 2007

Asymptotic sampling distributions (means and vari ances) of estimated signed and unsigned areas between two item response functions (IRFS) are presented for the Rasch model, the two-parameter model, and the three-parameter model with fixed lower asymptotes. In item bias or differential item functioning research, it may be of interest to determine whether the estimated signed and unsigned areas between IRFS calibrated with two different groups are significantly different from 0. The usefulness of these sampling distributions in this context is discussed and illustrated. More em pirical research with the proposed significance tests is necessary.
Longitudinal Factor Score Estimation Using the Kalman Filter
Authors: Oud Johan H. , van den Bercken John H. , Essers Raymond J.
Published: March 2007

The advantages of the Kalman filter as a factor score estimator in the presence of longitudinal data are described. Because the Kalman filter presup poses the availability of a dynamic state space model, the state space model is reviewed first, and it is shown to be translatable into the LISREL model. Several extensions of the LISREL model specification are discussed in order to enhance the applicability of the Kalman filter for behavioral research data. The Kalman filter and its main properties are summarized. Relationships are shown between the Kalman filter and two well- known cross-sectional factor score estimators: the regression estimator, and the Bartlett estimator. The indeterminacy problem of factor scores is also discussed in the context of Kalman filtering, and the differences are described between Kalman filtering on the basis of a zero-means and a structured-means LISREL model. By using a structured-means LISREL model, the Kalman filter is capable of estimating absolute latent develop mental curves. An educational research example is presented.
Influence of the Criterion Variable on the Identification of Differentially Functioning Test Items Using the Mantel-Haenszel Statistic
Authors: Clauser Brian E. , Mazor Kathleen , Hambleton Ronald K.
Published: March 2007

This study investigated the effectiveness of the Mantel-Haenszel (MH) statistic in detecting dif ferentially functioning (DIF) test items when the internal criterion was varied. Using a dataset from a statewide administration of a life skills examina tion, a sample of 1,000 Anglo-American and 1,000 Native American examinee item response sets were analyzed. The MH procedure was first applied to all the items involved. The items were then cate gorized as belonging to one or more of four subtests based on the skills or knowledge needed to select the correct response. Each subtest was then analyzed as a separate test, using the MH pro cedure. Three control subtests were also established using random assignment of test items and were analyzed using the MH procedure. The results revealed that the choice of criterion, total test score versus subtest score, had a substantial influence on the classification of items as to whether or not they were differentially functioning in the American and Native American groups. Evidence for the convergence of judgmental and statistical procedures was found in the unusually high proportion of DIF items within one of the classifications and in the results of the reanalysis of this group of items.
An Alternative Approach for IRT Observed-Score Equating of Number-Correct Scores
Authors: Zeng Lingjia , Kolen Michael J.
Published: March 2007

An alternative approach for item response theory observed-score equating is described. The number- correct score distributions needed in equating are found by numerical integration over the theoretical or empiri cal distributions of examinees' traits. The item response theory true-score equating method and the observed- score equating method described by Lord, in which the number-correct score distributions are summed over a sample of trait estimates, are compared in a real test example. In a computer simulation, the observed-score equating methods based on numerical integration and summation were compared using data generated from standard normal and skewed populations. The method based on numerical integration was found to be less biased, especially at the two ends of the score distribu tion. This method can be implemented without the need to estimate trait level for individual examinees, and it is less computationally intensive than the method based on summation.
Measuring Interrater Agreement for Ratings of a Single Target
Authors: Lindell Michael K. , Brandt Christina J.
Published: March 2007

Researchers assessing interrater agreement for ratings of a single target have increasingly used the rWG(j) index, but have found it can display irregular behavior. Mathematical analyses show this problem arises from the use of random response, operationalized by the variance of a uniform distribution (sEU), for the baseline of comparison. These analyses suggest that researchers should continue to use rWG(j) as a summary measure of interrater agreement, but should use maximum dissensus as a reference distribution for computing rWG(j). Although values of s2 can be descriptively misleading, they provide an important inferential baseline. Thus, sEU should be used in computing x2 tests of the departure of the observed response variance from random responding. Researchers should also examine interrater agreement as a theoretical variable in its own right, investigating the causes and consequences of rater dissensus.
A Comparative Study of Measures of Partial Knowledge in Multiple-Choice Tests
Authors: Ben-Simon Anat , Budescu David V. , Nevo Baruch
Published: March 2007

A common belief among many test experts is that measurements obtained from multiple-choice (MC) tests can be improved by using evidence about partial knowledge. A large number of methods designed to extract such information from direct reports provided by examinees have been developed over the last 50 years. Most methods require modifications in test instructions, response modes, and scoring rules. These testing methods are reviewed and the results of a large-scale empirical study of the most promising among them are reported. Seven testing methods were applied to MC tests from four different content areas using a between-persons design. To identify the most efficient methods and the optimal conditions for their application, the results were analyzed with respect to six different criteria. The results showed a surprisingly large tendency on the part of the examinees to take advantage of the special features of the alternative methods and indicated that, on average, high ability examinees were better judges of their level of knowledge and, consequently, could benefit more from these methods. Systematic interactions were found between the testing method and the test content, indicating that no method was uniformly superior.
Context and Charisma: A "Meso" Level Examination of the Relationship of Organic Structure, Collectivism, and Crisis to Charismatic Leadership
Authors: Pillai Rajnandini , Meindl James R.
Published: March 2007

This research presents a "meso" level approach that models char ismatic leadership in organizations as a function of contextual factors (such as work unit structure, work group collectivism, and crisis), an issue that has rarely been explored in charismatic leadership research. Data were collected from 596 managers and subordinates embedded in 101 work units in a large, complex organization and were analyzed at the individual, group, and cross-levels of analysis. Results indicate that organic structure and collectivistic cultural orientation were positively associated with the emergence of charismatic leadership, whereas perceptions of crisis were negatively related to charismatic leadership. Further, subordinates' ratings of leader charisma were related to leader ratings of work unit performance. The implications of these results for research and practice are discussed.
Energy Scarcity and Urban Development Patterns
Authors: Small Kenneth A.
Published: March 2007

This paper assesses the extent to which energy scarcity might alter the process of intrametropolitan decentralization. It finds many adjustment mechanisms are likely to be used in preference to changes in land use patterns. Even in the absence of such adjustments, typical city-suburban cost differentials caused by higher fuel prices are relatively small due to existing differences in work-trip characteristics, non-work automobile travel, and residential heating/cooling requirements. Considerable location shifts within both cities and suburbs might be produced, but apparently energy scarcity will have little effect on central cities as a whole.
Labor Market Performance and Regional Types: A Conceptual Framework with Empirical Analysis of Austria
Authors: Kubin Ingrid , Steiner Michael
Published: March 2007

The aim of this article is to shed light on regional differences in labor market performance. Using a cyclical-evolutionary approach, different types of regions with different economic potentials are distinguished. Arguments from segmented labor market theory are used to derive implications for the labor market performance of these regional types. A general pattern for regional labor market performance is developed by analyzing data on the rates, incidence, and duration of unemployment and vacancies for Austria.
Lessons from the Debate on Location Analysis in Rural Economic Development
Authors: Rushton Gerard
Published: March 2007

Several lessons have been learned from the debate on appropriate methods for locating urban functions in developing rural areas. While location-allocation models are superior for well-defined service location selection problems where suitable data and modeling skills are available, the urban functions in rural development methodology is superior where objectives are poorly specified, data sparse, and modeling skills poor. A wide variety of issues occur in rural development planning, but current theory and methods in regional science are poorly developed to deal with them. The area needs considerably more research.
The Problem of Unemployment in the United States: A Survey of 60 Years of National and State Policy Initiatives
Authors: West Carol Taylor
Published: March 2007

In the context of four types of unemployment, 23 federally initiated programs spanning six decades are critically surveyed in terms of their effectiveness at reducing unemployment. In addition, this article examines the ongoing policy debates raised by the myriad of programs and the linkage of recent research on the nature of unemployment to policy issues. Since the responsibility for formulating employment policies has significantly shifted from national to state and local government over the last decade, the evolution of state policy in this area is also surveyed and contrasted with its historical national counterpart.
Spatial Economic Development, Education, and the New Poverty
Authors: Rasmussen David W.
Published: March 2007

At the time the Great Society programs were initiated, the people most likely to be impoverished were blacks, women, and the aged. Today the face of poverty in the United States has changed; the economic prospects of black males are somewhat improved, while children living in female-headed households and young people account for an increasing portion of the poor. Human-capital investment in these youth is crucial to increase opportunity and to reduce the poverty rate. This paper investigates the extent to which spatial economic development policies can help reduce this new poverty.
Manufacturers' Location Decisions: Do Surveys Provide Helpful Insights?
Authors: Barkley David L. , McNamara Kevin T.
Published: March 2007

Survey responses from 110 branch plant start-ups in South Carolina and Georgia were examined to determine ratings and characteristics of counties selected for the plant location. Findings indicate that survey responses and community characteristics were correlated only for easily observed criteria (e.g., distance to airport or interstate highway) and location factors of critical importance to the firm (e.g., availability of skilled labor for high-tech firms). Also, the correlation between factor ratings and county-level proxy measures was stronger for larger establishments than for smaller ones, indicating a more limited search process by smaller manufacturers. Research findings suggest that locational factors should be reported by highly disaggregated categories. A return to a "case studies" approach may be useful to gain insights into location decisions.
Recovering and Expanding the Normative: Marx and the New Sociology of Scientific Knowledge
Authors: Lynch William T. , Fuhrman Ellsworth R.
Published: March 2007

It was customary in traditional approaches to the sociology of knowledge to bracket either questions about the possibility of the social determination of natural scientific ideas or questions about the ability of the sociology of knowledge to evaluate other types of knowledge claims. The current strong program in the sociology of knowledge, a typical representative of the new approach to the sociology of science, wants to study the production of natural scientific knowledge scientifically and simultaneously bracket normative considerations. We criticize this neglect of the normative dimension in the strong program on the basis of the role that Marx envisioned for his sociology of knowledge. For example, the sociology of knowledge should be understood as a critique of power that does not merely accept the status quo as a datum. In addition, we attempt to extend Marx's discussion of the social bases of such a critique.
Rigid Politics and Technological Flexibility: The Anatomy of a Failed Hospital Innovation
Authors: Sætnan Ann Rudinow
Published: March 2007

Conventionally, technologies are seen as rigid, immutable; social systems as malleable. Constructivist theories of technology, such as actor network theory, have corrected that view. Technologies are flexible, reinterpretable. Often that flexibility is alleged to explain their success in transforming social systems. This article presents the story of PREOP—a flexible technology that met with an immutable social system and failed to become what was expected of it. The article contrasts two interpretations of the story, an actor network version and a labor process version. Drawing on elements of the labor process version, the author suggests that preexisting networks be brought more into focus in actor network analyses, that the role of conflict in networks be acknowledged, and that flexibility be examined in more detail.
Science Defended, Science Defined: The Louisiana Creationism Case
Authors: Shermer Michael Brant
Published: March 2007

On August 18, 1986, seventy-two Nobel laureates, seventeen state academies of science, and seven other scientific organizations submitted an amicus curiae brief to the Supreme Court of the United States in which they defined and agreed upon the nature and scope of science. The brief was submitted in response to the Louisiana Balanced TreatmentAct for creation science and evolution science that had been struck down in the Federal Court of Louisiana in 1985 and was being appealed to the Supreme Court. The Louisiana trial in general and the amicus curiae brief in particular have historical significance for the history of science, being unique in the collective mobilization of scientists both in defense of and in defining science. This article describes the origin and significance of the brief.
A Night with Saturn
Authors: Bastide Françoise , Myers Greg
Published: March 2007

[Translator's Abstract]: The flight of Voyager 1 past Saturn in 1981 provides an occasion for a semiotic comparison of reports in French newspapers (Le Monde and Libération), a popular science article (in La Recherche), and specialized scientific articles in Nature. The texts differ in the distance supposed between reader and writer, in the treatment of human and nonhuman actors, in characterization of the event and assumptions about readers' interest in it, and in their narrative structure. The analysis shows that popular izations and specialized scientific articles are not related in a simple dichotomy or scale and cannot be explained by a notion of the "general public"; rather, the various types of texts must be considered in terms of more complex relations between what are called in semiotic terms the enunciator and the enunciatee.
Rights of Animals, Perceptions of Science, and Political Activism: Profile of American Animal Rights Activists
Authors: Jamison Wesley V. , Lunch William M.
Published: March 2007

This article reports original research examining characteristics of the active followers of the American animal rights movement. Typical respondents were Caucasian, highly educated urban professional women approximately thirty years old with a median income of $33,000 (1989). Most activists think of themselves as Democrats or as Independents, and have moderate to liberal political views. They were often suspicious of science and made no distinctions between basic and applied science, or public versus private animal-based research. The research suggests that animal rights activism is in part a symbolic manifestation of egalitarian social and political views concerning scientific and technological change.
Venerating the Black Box: Magic in Media Discourse on Technology
Authors: Stahl William A.
Published: March 2007

Arthur C. Clarke once wrote that "any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguish able from magic. " The language of magic is evident in much of popular discourse about computers. A content analysis of Time magazine reporting on computers and related technologies over a ten-year period revealed that 36 percent of all these stories used explicitly magical or religious language. Together with a qualitative analysis of implic itly magical themes, the patterns in Time's reporting reveal how magic language was used as one strategy to stabilize and close the technological frame of personal computers in the mid-1980s .
Setting Boundaries between Science and Law: Lessons from Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc.
Authors: Solomon Shana M. , Hackett Edward J.
Published: March 2007

In Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., the U.S. Supreme Court made its first major pronouncement on the evaluation of scientific evidence, calling on judges to act as gatekeepers for scientific knowledge and validity, despite lack of scientific training among judges. Daubert offers the science studies community a case study for examining how judges (and scientists acting as experts) engage in boundary-work and construct scientific validity. In constructing scientific validity under Daubert, judges must evaluate the scientific method behind a particular scientific claim, and will look to the parties' experts and the relevant scientific community for assistance. To combat the oft-cited problem of the battle of the experts, judges may be tempted to obtain assistance from court-appointed neutral experts, an inquisitorial (rather than adversarial) system in the civil law tradition of many European countries. The judicial evaluation of scientific evidence, the resulting construction of scientific validity, and the push for a greater use of court-appointed experts reveal judges' desire to segregate "objective" scientific facts from aspects of the legal process that are infused with adversaries' values. Yet the scientific and judicial construction of validity mixes empirical results and research methods with the personal, political, and institutional values of judges and scientists.