bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Friction Ridge Skin: Comparison and Identification
Authors: Langenburg Glenn
Published: September 2009

The comparison of fingerprints has been an important forensic identification technique for over a century. The highly discriminating features of fingerprints allow a trained specialist to provide opinions regarding the source of evidentiary fingerprints left at the scene of a crime. The specialist reaches this opinion after completing the examination process known asanalysis–comparison–evaluation–verification, or ACE‐V. Traditionally, the opinion provided is a categorical opinion (i.e., a match or an exclusion). This opinion may be reached following a historical, and sometimes legal, mandate of counting corresponding features (points of comparison) until a threshold is reached, or it may be reached using a more modern, holistic approach. Recent legal challenges have brought a new level of scrutiny to the forensic identification sciences. These challenges have questioned the scientific basis that supports the fingerprint specialist's opinions and conclusions. In the last few decades, researchers have explored the use of probabilities to assess the corresponding features. Probabilities may be useful to support the fingerprint specialist's opinion and may help reduce the number of legal challenges.
Friction Ridge Skin: Fingerprint Detection and Recovery Techniques
Authors: Aumeer‐Donovan Shaheen , Lennard Chris , Roux Claude
Published: September 2009

Fingermarks are one of the most valuable types of physical evidence and there is a plethora of techniques that can be used to detect and enhance fingermarks. This entry presents an overview of the most common methods employed, and the sequences that can be applied for maximum exploitation of fingermark evidence.
Friction Ridge Skin: Interaction between Fingerprint Detection andDNA/Biological Material
Authors: Raymond Jennifer J. , Roux Claude , Walsh Simon J.
Published: September 2009

The DNA analysis of fingerprints and skin traces has become a routine component of forensic investigations. Research has found that most fingerprint enhancement techniques will not prevent subsequent DNA profiling of treated fingerprints or biological stains; however, the quantity of DNA recovered may be reduced. The exceptions include shortwave ultraviolet (UV) light, diaminobenzidine, and physical developer, which are likely to prevent DNA analysis of fingerprints. Sequencing of more than one fingerprint technique on an item is also likely to reduce the chance of successful DNA recovery. Guidelines are provided to assist the sequencing of fingerprint and DNA evidence.
Photography: Marks, Impressions, and Documents
Authors: Porter Glenn
Published: September 2009

Photographic and optical enhancement of physical evidence is an important criminalistics function. It provides nondestructive methods of improving the visualization of evidence to allow further forensic examination. The key concepts and techniques involving optical, photographic, and digital imaging techniques are examined in this section. Critical foundation aspects found in quality forensic photography such as maintaining the dimensional integrity of evidence and the representation of scale are described to ensure forensic photography principles. Attributes required for optical enhancement including the relationship between the spectral distribution of the light source, the spectral properties of the specimen, and spectral sensitivity of the recording media are unpacked and provide a theoretical basis. Optic enhancement techniques such as absorption, reflection, transmission, and photoluminescence modes are discussed with samples illustrating those optical effects. Digital imaging enhancement techniques to increase the contrast and the modification of color using Adobe Photoshop™ are explained.
Drug‐Impaired Driving
Authors: Raes Elke , Verstraete Alain G.
Published: September 2009

Driving is a very complex task, requiring the cooperation of several different cognitive and psychomotor functions at once. Experimental studies have shown that drugs can have a detrimental influence on capacities that are essential for driving. Cannabis, for example, can acutely reduce some cognitive and psychomotor skills, and these effects are mostly dose dependent. Some deleterious effects of cannabis appear to be additive or even synergistic with those of alcohol, and the combination of both substances results in a prolongation as well as enhancement of their effects. Epidemiological studies have shown that drugs are prevalent in 1–12% of the general driving population, in 6–50% of drivers who are injured or killed in traffic crashes, and in 55–99% of drivers who are suspected of driving under the influence of drugs. The most prevalent drug in most of these studies is cannabis. Drivers who are under the influence of drugs have a higher risk of being involved in or being responsible for a crash. Responsibility analyses show that driving under the influence of cannabis increases the risk of being responsible for an accident, and that this risk increases with increasing cannabis concentration in the blood, indicating a causal relationship between cannabis and crashes. Two major types of driving‐under‐the‐influence of drugs (DUID) legislation exist: “impairment” legislation and “per se” legislation. In impairment legislation, the prosecution must demonstrate that the driver was impaired, not fit to drive, or “under the influence”. A “per se” law prohibits driving if drugs are present in blood, serum, plasma, or oral fluid above a certain threshold concentration. Since the prosecution does not have to prove that the driver was impaired, this kind of legislation facilitates enforcement. In recent years, the interest in the use of oral fluid as biological matrix for roadside drug screening has increased significantly, as this matrix displays some particularly interesting properties. However the currently available on‐site oral fluid drug testing devices are not reliable enough to be recommended for roadside screening for drivers. Recent methods developed for confirmation analysis, either on blood or on oral fluid, use liquid chromatography (tandem) mass spectrometry (LC‐MS(MS)).
Drug‐Facilitated Sexual Assault
Authors: Lebeau Marc A.
Published: September 2009

Investigations into reports of drug‐facilitated crimes (DFCs) have increased substantially in recent times. These crimes are investigated when an individual reports having been robbed or assaulted while incapacitated due to the effects of a drug, usually a strong central nervous system (CNS) depressant. The CNS depressant prevents the individual from consenting to the action of the perpetrator or fighting off their attacker. The drug, in essence, acts as a weapon for the offender. This article provides information on the manner in which DFCs occur, the drugs that are used to commit these crimes, and means of improving the detection of the drugs through toxicological analyses.
Postmortem Toxicology: Interpretation
Authors: Drummer Olaf H. , Gerostamoulos Dimitri
Published: September 2009

The interpretation of toxicology data is very much dependent on the context of the case. There is usually no simple way to interpret toxicology data in forensic situations, since there are many factors that influence the concentration and net effect of the substance. As with clinical situations, the route of administration will have a great effect on the concentration and will have effect due to the (often) different pharmacokinetic profiles of a substance, depending on whether it is given orally, by injection, or by some other route. The time since last dose is often not known with any certainty, nor whether single or multiple doses were taken. Hence, back‐calculations or dose estimation is fraught with error and can be misleading. In forensic cases, the use of multiple substances is common; this leads to issues of assessing the effect of combination of substances. Neuroadaptation as in clinical situations can lead to rapidly developing tolerance to drugs and drug combinations that preclude straightforward interpretation of likely drug effects. Therefore, it is essential that any toxicology data is interpreted in the context of the case with full knowledge of the underlying factors that determine drug concentration and drug effect in a person.
Opioids
Authors: Gerostamoulos Dimitri
Published: September 2009

The opioid family of analgesics covers a wide range of chemical entities, all of which act to reduce the sensation of pain. These include the members derived from morphine, e.g., codeine, oxycodone, hydrocodone, and hydromorphone, and the synthetic derivatives, such as methadone, fentanyl, and etorphine. Buprenorphine is a partial agonist on the opioid receptor and is now widely used to treat opioid dependence. Some opioids are used to treat moderate‐to‐severe pain, while others are used as antitussives (e.g., pholcodine and codeine) or used to supplement anesthesia (e.g., fentanyl derivatives). Heroin is diacetylated morphine and is widely used throughout the world and users have a high mortality rate due to its respiratory‐depressant effects. Opioids are widely abused with other drugs, such as alcohol, cocaine, amphetamines, and benzodiazepines. Receptor antagonists such as naltrexone and naloxone rapidly reverse the toxic effects of excessive opioids.
Pharmacogenomics
Authors: Wong Steven H. Y.
Published: September 2009

Pharmacogenomics involves the application of genetic variation between individuals to determine whether alterations in the ability to metabolize drugs, transport drugs to active sites, or drug efficacy can explain cases of poor response or unexpected toxicity. In understanding the application of pharmacogenomics, the basic principles are introduced in this article together with the related science pharmacogenetics. Applications relevant to forensic toxicology include situations involving the use of antipsychotics, opioids, and antidepressants. Moreover, some clinical applications are provided to illustrate the wider application of pharmacogenomics. The findings from the use of pharmacogenomics in forensic toxicology can add to the understanding of adverse drug reactions, poor response to drugs, help to optimize therapy in the emerging practice of personalized medicine, and possibly add to the understanding of genetic contribution to drug therapy/behavior in the form of personalized justice.
Airbags
Authors: Adams Holly A.
Published: September 2009

This article explains the basic architecture associated with passenger vehicle air bag systems. The reader learns the importance of directional sensitivity in crash sensing, in addition to pulse transmission and sensor placement in relation to air bag deployment decisions. Both hardware (internal and external sensors) and basic decision tree structures are included, as well as data storage and retrieval processes. The data that is stored is the information commonly referred to as “black box data.” This saved data can give reconstructionists, biomedical engineers and air bag experts insight into the acceleration pulse the air bag system responded to and the timing of the deployment. There is a brief discussion of the future of this technology. Finally, a list of references gives the reader the opportunity to expand their knowledge beyond the scope of this article.
Materials Science
Authors: Micheals Anastasia D. , Anderson Robert N.
Published: September 2009

The discipline of materials engineering and science spans the scope of the physical and chemical makeup of materials, the strength and other mechanical properties that are critical to appropriate decisions in product design, the relationships between and among materials, and finally, the analysis of actual or potential failures.

In the forensic aspect, the primary question in materials engineering and science is why a materials failure occurred. To make this determination, the materials engineer and scientist may ask the fundamental questions: When did the material fail in relation to a sequence of events? Did it fail and cause an event, or did it fail as a result of the event? Was design or manufacturing a factor? Was the choice of material a factor? Was inadequate maintenance a factor?

This discussion of materials engineering and science will explain the most important terms and concepts used when describing and investigating materials failures. It will discuss some common failure modes for the four classes of materials: metals, ceramics/glasses, polymers, and composites.

Failure analysis procedures, including methods of testing and microscopic examination, will be discussed. A list of useful materials science and engineering references is provided for further background.
Education and Accreditation in Forensic Science
Authors: Siegel Jay A.
Published: September 2009

Forensic science seducation programs have expanded very rapidly over the past 25 years. Much of this growth can be traced to the explosive increase in public awareness of science and forensic science owing to media events such as the CSI television shows. More and more students now want to get into forensic science as a career and are seeking out education programs to train them. This has resulted in very uneven quality among forensic science education programs. Some colleges slap together a program just to attract students and really don't educate them properly. In response to this wave of more than 140 forensic science programs, the American Academy of Forensic Sciences and the National Institute of Justice teamed up to develop consensus standards for undergraduate and graduate education programs (TWGED) and then developed an accreditation process for measuring forensic science education programs against these standards by creating a Forensic Science Education Program Accreditation Commission (FEPAC).
Accreditation: Laboratory
Authors: Melson Kenneth E. , Keaton Ralph , Neuner John K.
Published: September 2009

Laboratory accreditation enhances quality assurance programs in forensic science laboratories, promoting good forensic science practices, reliable techniques, and trustworthy expert opinion. Accreditation is now widely accepted in the United States as well as internationally. In some states, accreditation is a precondition to the judicial admissibility of expert opinion. This article reviews the history of accreditation in the United States and the accreditation programs offered by the American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors/Laboratory Accreditation Board (ASCLD/LAB), including both the Legacy and the International programs. The framework for the accreditation programs is described, along with the processes and criteria necessary for achieving accreditation. Recognized as a safeguard for the public, accreditation plays an important role in the criminal justice system.
GSM
Analysis and
PDAs
Authors: Duvinage Nicolas
Published: September 2009

After a general introduction on cellular phone networks, this article describes the mobile phone handset architecture (both hardware and software). It goes into further details on how to retrieve data, not only on handset itself (active and deleted data), but also on SIM card and various other lesser known locations. This article follows on with mobile phone hacking, spoofing, and various other frauds, ending up with geographical positioning.
Facial Comparison
Authors: Ruifrok Arnout C. C.
Published: September 2009

In general, people are thought to be reasonably good at recognizing faces. However, many steps in the comparison process are still mediocre, poorly or not supported by scientific data. Facial comparison is a wide‐ranging forensic technique: it involves disciplines such as image analysis, 3D technology, anthropology, photogrammetry, statistics, and cognitive psychology (human as a measuring instrument). The issues “quantification of image quality”, “human as a measuring instrument”, and “individualizing value of features” will be discussed in the context of man and machine's functioning as a measuring instrument. Research on humans as a measuring instrument in facial comparison is limited; most of the research concerns “recognition” or “rapid” comparison. Performance of current automated biometric systems is still too low to be of use for forensic purposes, although biometric systems may be useful for automated investigation of standardized image databases. The evidential value of surveillance material is severely limited by the quality of most surveillance material.
Biometric Devices
Authors: Zoun Rikkert
Published: September 2009

Biometric devices are used increasingly more often as an automated means of determining or verifying the identity of persons for access control of information systems and physical facilities. These devices may leave user traces. For such traces to be used in forensic investigations, their reliability must be investigated. One aspect of this that is of concern is that many biometric devices can be deceived by using fake biometric samples.

This article discusses the following:

a selection of common biometric device technologies;

potential security weaknesses of systems using biometric devices; and

practical examples of creating artificial biometric samples, potentially allowing unauthorized access to biometric systems.
Human Remains and Identity
Authors: Cattaneo Cristina , Salsarola Dominic
Published: September 2009

Before even studying human remains, it may be necessary to search for them. This implies using the discipline of forensic archaeology in order to detect anomalies which may indicate a burial site and subsequently dig that particular site and recover possible remains. Methods commonly applied for searching are aerial photography, field walking, cadaver dogs, and geophysical techniques. Once the remains have been found, recovery must occur according to archaeological techniques—not with shovels and picks but with trowels and brushes. This is crucial in order to subsequently register and preserve every single bone so that all possible diagnoses may be correctly performed (identification, possible cause of death, and time since death) along with proper interpretation of trauma. In case of charred bodies, bone fragments are often fragile and sometimes need specific treatment. In case of discovery of human remains in urban contexts, for example during the excavation of buildings, an on‐site assessment of the minimum number of individuals may already help to indicate whether the remains are of forensic interest or if they belong to an older burial contexts.
Species Determination of Osseous Remains
Authors: Cattaneo Cristina , Porta Davide
Published: September 2009

Species determination of skeletal remains can be easily assessed by the macroscopic observation of the morphology of bone and teeth fragments. However, the human origin of a small fragment of degraded or burnt bone may be particularly difficult to assess. In these cases, microscopy may be very helpful. The shape and size of the principal building blocks of bone, i.e., the osteons, visible in microscopy, can orient a diagnosis toward a human or nonhuman response. Regression formulae exist, which can aid in solving this problem by using diameters of osteons and of Haversian canals. Sometimes the simple design or pattern of the osteons may be indicative. Similar observations can be made for the microscopic structure of some dental tissues such as dentine. Protein analysis (by ELISA and other immunochemical methods) and DNA testing may also be useful. One should always consider, however, the possibility of contamination and degradation in such extreme cases, particularly in the case of DNA.
Visual Recognition Systems in Identification
Authors: Cattaneo Cristina , Angelis Danilo De
Published: September 2009

The diffusion of video‐surveillance systems and increase of crimes more and more often requires the identification of represented subjects by anthropological techniques. Traditional methods for identifying human faces consist of the evaluation of morphological traits, anthropometric traits (indices, angles, etc.), and superimposition of two images (faces). The first two do not seem to be sufficient for juridical purposes. Recent technology allows us, however, to advance in a very difficult field by suggesting methods of superimposing 2D and 3D images, which may facilitate the comparison of facial traits. When the face (or ears—another highly distinctive anatomical structure) cannot be studied, details useful for verifying the exclusion of a suspect or a mere compatibility can be gait analysis and height determination of the represented subject, once again aided by new technology.
Geographical Identification by Viral Genotyping
Authors: Ikegaya Hiroshi , Saukko Pekka J. , Katsumata Yoshinao , Takatori Takehiko
Published: September 2009

Illegal immigration and human trafficking in its various forms including sale of both children and adults into forced labor, prostitution or the buying or selling of human organs are growing problems worldwide. These frequently result in fatalities in which the identity of the victim is often unknown and the individual can never be identified by the use of traditional forensic methods due to lack of antemortem data. A relatively recent survey among European Union (EU) countries, to which only eight countries responded, showed that of the total of 3035 unidentified human remains during the 5‐year period between 1994 and 1998; altogether 807 cadavers remained unidentified, suggesting that this is a growing problem that may have been underestimated by the authorities. Therefore, the forensic community has been looking for new indicators that might help in the identifying process.
Crime Victims' Decision to Report Crime
Authors: Greenberg Martin S.
Published: September 2009

Most crimes investigated by the police result from victim notification. For this reason, crime victims are considered the gatekeepers of the criminal justice system. Federally sponsored surveys of the general population consistently show that victims report fewer than half of the victimizations to the police. The data reveal that victim reporting appears to be more a function of the characteristics of the situation (e.g., type of crime, perceived seriousness) than characteristics of the victim. This article reviews the research on victim decision making and presents a broad theoretical model that attempts to integrate the findings. The model describes three stages of victim decision making: (i) defining the event as a crime, (ii) determining its seriousness, and (iii) deciding what to do. The model incorporates recent research concerning the role of affect and social influence on victim decision making.
Capacity for Independent Living
Authors: Braun Michelle
Published: September 2009

Issues regarding capacity for independent living are projected to increase as the older adult population doubles in the next few decades. When capacity is in question, clinical assessment is a helpful tool in determining the least restrictive alternatives to guardianship and balancing concerns regarding autonomy and safety. This article provides a synthesis of medicolegal information to help the lawyer or clinician think through core issues in capacity assessment, with a focus on maximizing quality of life for the client throughout the assessment process and after.
Recollective Accuracy of Traumatic Memories
Authors: Geraerts Elke , Mcnally Richard J.
Published: September 2009

How trauma victims remember—or forget—their most traumatic experiences has been a controversial issue in psychiatry and psychology for many years now. Whereas experts maintain that traumatic events are remembered all too well, traumatic amnesia theorists disagree. Although these theorists acknowledge that trauma is often seemingly engraved in memory, they nevertheless maintain that a significant minority of survivors are incapable of remembering their trauma. This article highlights several of the issues regarding traumatic memories and describes recent research on the recollective accuracy of recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse.
Natural Causes of Sudden Death: Noncardiac
Authors: Fineschi Vittorio , Turillazzi Emanuela
Published: September 2009

Sudden death is a devastating complication of many underlying disorders. Although cardiovascular disease accounts for most of these episodes of sudden natural death, many other causes contribute. Every organ system may be responsible for sudden death. Respiratory causes are considered focusing on the major causes such as pneumonia and pulmonary embolism. Rare but potentially fatal events, such as amniotic fluid embolism and fat embolism, are stressed too. Sudden deaths from hematological disorders include both hemoglobinopathies and leukemia. Sometimes no satisfactory cause of death could be found from the necropsy; the review of the medical history became of paramount importance. We refer to sudden and unexplained deaths in young patients with Type 1 DM. There is growing evidence of the so‐called dead‐in‐bed syndrome with diabetes. Other rare metabolic disorders, such as alcoholic ketoacidosis, hypoglycemia, thyroiditis are discussed. Sudden deaths also occurred in patients with a history of anaphylaxis in whom no satisfactory cause of death was found after extensive necropsy and toxicological examination. In these cases, no specific macroscopic or microscopic findings are detected at autopsy; so in the presence of a clinical history suggestive for anaphylaxis‐related death, postmortem measurement of serum tryptase levels can be a useful diagnostic aid. The role of massive adrenal hemorrhage (Waterhouse‐Friderichsen syndrome) in causing sudden death is also discussed.
Psychopathology: Terms and Trends
Authors: Yang Suzanne , Sauvagnat FRANÇois
Published: September 2009

Determination of the dividing line between mental health and mental illness is a complex task, resulting in a system of classification of disorders. Isolated symptoms must be assembled into clinically relevant syndromes for the purposes of research and treatment as well as legal adjudication. This article briefly outlines current debates regarding norms and classification and methods of diagnostic assessment. Possible future modifications in the theory and practice of assessment in psychopathology are summarized in view of implications for legal proceedings.
Neuropsychological Assessment
Authors: Walker James S.
Published: September 2009

Neuropsychological assessment is the use by neuropsychologists of standardized psychological measurement techniques in the assessment of individuals with brain dysfunction and serious mental illness. Neuropsychologists are increasingly being called upon to consult in legal cases involving alleged brain dysfunction and serious psychiatric problems. The choice of a neuropsychological expert is an important one that requires consideration of credentialing, qualification, and experience issues. Neuropsychological evidence is admissible in most jurisdictions in the United States, and neuropsychological evidence utilizing tried and true testing methods often meets
Daubert
standards for admissibility. Forensic neuropsychologists often are called upon to provide testimony in a wide variety of legal cases, including cases in both the criminal and civil arenas. Accepted neuropsychological tests include the Wechsler intelligence tests, screening measures for cognitive dysfunction, measures of attention/concentration, the Halstead‐Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery, the Wechsler Memory Scale, the Boston Diagnostic Aphasia Examination, and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. Issues of potential bias during the examination, particularly the possibility of patient malingering or faking of memory impairment or reasoning problems, must be taken into account in the forensic neuropsychological assessment, and carefully ruled out. The neuropsychologist has a wide range of tools at his or her disposal to identify potential distortion by patients, including one's knowledge of and experience with the disorder in question, and psychometric tools for identifying the malingering patient.
Interrogative Suggestibility
Authors: Frumkin I. Bruce , Lamendola Gretchen M.
Published: September 2009

Confessions are a key piece of evidence to be used against a suspect in courtroom proceedings. Defense attorneys often attempt to suppress the confession at the pretrial stage by raising issues of an involuntaryMiranda waiveror an involuntary confession. At trial, the credibility of a defendant's statements to the police becomes an important issue. The interrogation of a highly suggestible suspect heightens the risk of false or less than accurate confession. Mental health testimony is often useful to the trier of fact at both the pretrial and trial stages. A comprehensive psychological assessment in this context includes the use of the Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scales to supplement clinical interview information, third party data, and other psychological tests. An individual's interrogative suggestibility is influenced by age, intelligence, memory, sleep deprivation, anxiety, and previous criminal convictions.
Capacity to Waive Miranda Rights
Authors: Frumkin I. Bruce , Lamendola Gretchen M.
Published: September 2009

Mental health professionals have shown increasing involvement in providing expert testimony regarding a defendant's capacity to waive legal rights before and during an interrogation. In the 1966 Supreme Court case of Miranda v. Arizona, the Court ruled that any statement arising from a custodial interrogation of a suspect would be presumed to be involuntary and not admissible unless the suspect is informed of his rights to remain silent, to avoid self‐incrimination, to obtain legal counsel before and during police questioning, and to obtain free legal counsel if indigent. This waiver of rights must be made knowingly, intelligently, and voluntarily. A comprehensive psychological evaluation of a defendant's capacity to have waived the rights at the time of the time of police questioning provides the trier of fact useful information in determining the admissibility of a confession. The standard protocol for most evaluations functionally integrates a defendant's capacities with the legally relevant criteria espoused byMirandaand subsequent case law. The evaluation is comprised of a comprehensive clinical interview, psychological testing, including the use of specialized assessment procedures, and a review of third‐party data.
Battered Woman's Reality
Authors: Easteal Patricia
Published: September 2009

This article looks at why expert testimony is necessary in Australian trials of women who have killed a violent partner. It also overviews some concerns about syndromizing women's experiences and suggests how battered woman's reality could be argued instead. Situational expertise can explain how the abused woman's act could be self‐defense since it often does not take place immediately in response to violence, why the battered woman did not leave, and her possible absence of remorse.
Wood
Authors: Cowell Anthony M.
Published: September 2009

Wood and wood products are used universally. The forensic analysis of wood is important in both criminal and civil cases. The distribution and variation of timber sources are described. Ecological factors are reviewed. Timber can be identified by its origin, DNA, appearance, growth rings, and microscopic structure. Wood products such as paper, cardboard, and fiberboard retain some of the natural traits of the timber source. Such traits include fiber length and width that are critical to the engineering performance of the final product. Forensic analysis of fiber length is an invaluable tool for identifying and comparing wood‐based samples. A method for analyzing fiber length is described. This consists of the maceration of timber samples followed by the analysis of fiber length distribution. Methods using DNA profiling are also described.
Elderly in Court
Authors: Mueller‐Johnson Katrin
Published: September 2009

Older witnesses (age 60 and older) recall fewer details than young adults in free recall and when questioned. They have to be asked more questions to obtain comparable information, and have been found to be more suggestible to misinformation than younger adults. Taken together this means that interviewers should be particularly careful not to introduce misinformation. The cognitive interview can improve recall both for cognitively well‐functioning and cognitively impaired older adults.

In person identification decisions, older adults perform similar to young adults when the perpetrator is present, but have higher rates of falsely identifying someone from the lineup when the perpetrator is absent.

When witness statements are of the same quality, older witnesses, particularly older male witnesses, are rated more favorably than younger witnesses. Generally, however, older witnesses' statements are less detailed and accurate than those of younger witnesses. In such conditions older witnesses' statements are perceived to be less credible than those of younger witnesses. Aging does not affect everyone equally: some older adults do not show deficits until very old age, while others display an earlier onset. When assessing older witnesses' performance, it is, therefore, important to consider each person as an individual.
Juvenile Justice: Transfer to Adult
Authors: Fagan Jeffrey
Published: September 2009

In the past, judges have not been able to consistently identify the most serious offenders, and there has been a tendency toward harsher sentencing that often reflected racial discrimination. If new models are not offered to judges, the same problems will recur. What is needed is a better method to distinguish between cases in which the community must be protected from predatory youth and those in which delinquent youth must be protected from the negative effects of incarceration.
Neuropsychological Assessment: Child
Authors: Tramontana Michael G.
Published: September 2009

This article provides an overview of child neuropsychological assessment. It outlines the defining features of this type of assessment and how it contrasts with other types of psychological or neurodiagnostic methods for children. Various applications are discussed with different clinical populations of children. Current approaches to child neuropsychological assessment are described and compared, and examples of specific test methods are highlighted. Lastly, important conceptual and practical issues are examined, including the complexities involved in the neuropsychological assessment of children versus adults, as well as the special challenges that arise in the evaluation of particular categories of children.
Falsifiability Theory
Authors: Moenssens Andre
Published: September 2009

A theory propounded by Popper, a philosopher of science, suggests that the difference between true science and pseudoscience is that the former is testable, whereas the latter is not. In testing scientific hypotheses, researchers seek to prove it wrong (“falsify”). If efforts to falsify do not result in providing evidence of an inherent failing of the postulate, the premise is tentatively adopted as a workable hypothesis that may be applied to the future, like inquiries. This article discusses the degree of acceptance Popper's theory has among scientists as well as the manner in which it gained prominence among forensic scientists and some courts.
DNA: Degraded Samples
Authors: Gilder Jason R.
Published: September 2009

Degradation and inhibition are phenomena that are frequently associated with evidence samples in forensic casework. Short Tandem Repeat (STR) DNA typing is able to obtain results from small amounts of starting material. However, environmental effects such as UV sunlight, moisture, and bacteria can break down the DNA in a sample. Impurities in a sample can lead to the inhibition of the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) amplification of DNA. When a DNA sample is degraded or inhibited, the signal associated with some of the typing loci (typically beginning with the loci corresponding to larger fragments of DNA) is reduced and can result in an only partial genotyping of samples. New technologies have been recently introduced to deal with the issue of degradation by examining smaller DNA fragment sizes.
Transfer:
DNA
Authors: Jamieson Allan
Published: September 2009

With the advent of techniques that detect DNA on surfaces that have no visible stain, it has become important to know how the DNA from which the profile has been produced came to be on a surface. It is usually impossible to know under what circumstances or even at what time such DNA was deposited. There is no reliable method of differentiating the likelihood of primary or secondary transfer.
DNA: an Overview
Authors: Graham Eleanor A.M.
Published: September 2009

Forensic DNA profiling has gone through several transformations since its initial conception, to become the flexible and powerful technique that is used world wide. By exonerating the innocent, implicating the guilty, identifying the deceased, and resolving paternity disputes, DNA profiling has forced its way to the forefront of public consciousness to become an almost ubiquitous part of criminal and civil investigations where the identity of key players is of importance. This article charts the history of DNA profiling, from the “Eureka” moment of Prof Sir Alec Jefferies to contemporary technologies before introducing the key laboratory techniques required to process biological samples from DNA extraction to profile production and interpretation.
Low Copy NumberDNA
Authors: Krane Dan E.
Published: September 2009

Polymerase chain reaction‐based DNA tests have greatly improved the capabilities of forensic laboratories, allowing highly specific DNA profiles to be derived from tiny quantities of cellular material. The great successes of these tests have inevitably led to efforts to characterize very minute amounts of material. As the quantity of DNA template associated with a DNA profile test decreases, the likelihood that the results of the test will be compromised by stochastic effects (allelic drop‐in and drop‐out, exaggerated peak height imbalance, and stutter) increases. Even when minute quantities (i.e., that arising from fewer than 20 cells) do give rise to an interpretable test result, questions about the significance of result often remain due to the ease with which such tiny amounts of material can be transferred and DNA's known ability to persist on articles for long periods of time.
Matrix:
DNA
Authors: Walsh Simon J.
Published: September 2009

Contemporary forensic DNA identification systems use fluorescent detection technology to obtain data following capillary electrophoresis. It is necessary to deconvolute the fluorescent signal emitted for optimum data interpretation. This is done by the application of a mathematical matrix that removes the effect of spectral overlap between the dyes.
Autoradiograph
Authors: Walsh Simon J.
Published: September 2009

Autoradiography was the principle mechanism for visualizing genotypes obtained through early restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP)‐based DNA fingerprinting methods.
Ceiling Principle:
DNA
Authors: Walsh Simon J.
Published: September 2009

The “ceiling principle” was a controversial approach to DNA evidence interpretation recommended in the Report of the National Research Council (NRC) Committee on DNA Technology in Forensic Science in 1992. The intent of the recommendation was to ensure that the evidential strength of a DNA match was not overstated; however, it was heavily criticized for its lack of scientific or statistical foundation.
Differential Extraction
Authors: Walsh Simon J.
Published: September 2009

Differential lysis is used to selectively extract DNA from spermatozoa and epithelial cells. This technique was implemented to isolate male DNA in cases of sexual assault.
Qia
Amp
Authors: Walsh Simon J.
Published: September 2009

The
QIAamp
®
DNA Micro Kit
DNA extraction method is widely used in forensic science organizations as a high stringency DNA extraction and purification method.
Parental Alienation
Authors: Kenan Joseph , Bernet William
Published: September 2009

This article summarizes parental alienation, a child's rejection of an appropriate parent in the context of a high‐conflict divorce. Mental health professionals are often asked to evaluate children of separated or divorced parents for the presence of parental alienation. This article explains the psychodynamics and etiology of parental alienation. Custody recommendations and treatment strategies are discussed to aid custody evaluators, judges, and lawyers, and guide families to address this very difficult problem that can destroy families and hurt children.
Treatment, Right to: Mental Health
Authors: Vitacco Michael J. , Erickson Steven K.
Published: September 2009

The right to treatment and its antithesis, the right to refuse treatment, are cornerstones of therapeutic jurisprudence. This article explores legal and clinical foundations for both adolescents and adults from the perspective of therapeutic jurisprudence (TJ). Such treatment rights decisions should be considered from a TJ perspective because they maximize constitutional protections and provide the most individualized treatment for people with mental disabilities.
Bomb‐Pulse Dating
Authors: Buchholz Bruce A.
Published: September 2009

Atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons during the 1950s and early 1960s doubled the concentration of carbon‐14 atmosphere and created a pulse that labeled everything alive in the past 50 years as carbon moved up the food chain. The variation in carbon‐14 concentration in time is well documented and can be used to chronologically date all biological materials since the mid‐1950s.
Memory: Reconstructive
Authors: Peterson Tiamoyo , Loftus Elizabeth F.
Published: September 2009

Remembering is a reconstructive process; each time we seek to recall an event, we are piecing it together anew. Since we are reconstructing the event with each fresh recall, we often fill in details and embellish our memory reports without realizing that we have done so. Remembering is the final step in a three‐stage process, which begins with the acquisition of a memory. The acquisition phase is followed by retention, and ultimately retrieval. This process provides opportunities for error at every step. Errors can occur when events are not fully encoded, when the retention period is sufficiently long enough to allow for decay of the original memory, or when the memory is retrieved. Despite the popularity of the analogies, memory does not function as a computer or video camera faithfully cataloging and storing all of the events in our lives. Although remembering might subjectively feel like simple recall, we rarely recall events exactly as they occurred and are often unaware of the inaccuracies in our memory reports.
Expert Opinion: Appeal
v
. Trial
Authors: Moenssens Andre
Published: September 2009

Forensic scientists familiar with the American legal system know well that opinion testimony is offered mainly during trials, though they are aware that such evidence is also frequently offered as an incident to pretrial hearings. They also know that no testimony is taken before appellate courts, but are less familiar with the concept that such practices are by no means universal. In the United Kingdom, for instance, witnesses may be summoned to provide testimony before appeals tribunals. This article explains the place of opinion evidence during various stages of the judicial process.
Judicial Notice of Scientific Principles and Facts
Authors: Moenssens Andre
Published: September 2009

In adversary system jurisdictions, courts may recognize judicially the inherent credibility of certain facts and information by taking “judicial notice” of them. When a court takes judicial notice, the litigants are relieved of the burden of presenting proof of these facts. Courts are permitted to take judicial notice of different categories of information: legislative acts, constitutions, state statutes, case law, and official body regulations. In addition to the above, courts are also permitted to judicially note certain adjudicative facts, including scientific principles, facts capable of certain verification, and some matters of common knowledge. This article explains how the judicial notice principle works in American courts as well as the limitations placed upon its use.
Best Evidence Rule
Authors: Moenssens Andre
Published: September 2009

This article explains how the origin of certain documentary evidence must be first demonstrated before it can be admitted as evidence in a court of law.
Learned Treatises as Evidence
Authors: Moenssens Andre
Published: September 2009

This article explains the circumstances under which learned treatises, specialized papers and periodicals, and other professional publications may be introduced in evidence in adversary system jurisdictions for the purpose of cross‐examining a testifying expert, or as substantive evidence of the publications' content. The litigant who seeks to present such testimony in court must first lay a foundation for their introduction by establishing their acceptance as standard publications in the field to which they pertain. The rule and its requirements have no applicability in civil law jurisdictions.
Diatoms
Authors: Thakar Mukesh Kumar , Singh Rajvinder
Published: September 2009

Forensic botany is one of the subbranches of forensic biology, which plays a crucial role in the investigation of cases related to drowning. The frequency of drowning cases remains very high, particularly in the areas where there are large number of water bodies like ponds, lakes, rivers, and canals. They provide scope for the homicidal, suicidal, and accidental drowning. A very significant evidentiary clue, which can confirm that the death is due to drowning, is the population of diatoms. Among the other important findings in drowning cases, the presence of diatoms in the vital body organs of a drowned deceased is not only a sign of drowning but also plays an important role in deciding whether the death is due to antemortem or postmortem immersion. Diatoms are not always present in all the drowning cases but if they are present (particularly in organs like bone marrow of the sternum and femur) in abundance they can confirm antemortem immersion as a cause of drowning. Earlier, the utility of diatom test to diagnose the drowning cases was debated and challenged, but various studies have shown it to be one of the better evidences in drowning cases. The use of diatomology in forensic science contributes significantly not only in determining the mode of death but also in determining the site of drowning.
Threat Assessment: School
Authors: Cornell Dewey G.
Published: September 2009

Threat assessment is a form of violence prevention that can be applied to school settings. This review covers:

Why threat assessment is preferable to profiling approaches.

Research findings that counter misperceptions regarding risk of school violence.

The Virginia model for student threat assessment.