bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Sprechen Sie Cambozola? On the Lessons from the Early Years of ‘Evocation’
Authors: Kyrylenko Anastasiia
Published: June 2023

Since ‘evocation’ first appeared in Regulation 2081/92, the CJEU has been called upon to construe this concept several times. In ‘Cambozola’, the Court found that Cambozola is evocative of ‘Gorgonzola’, a protected designation of origin (PDO) for an Italian cheese, due to the phonetic and visual similarity between the two. Answering to further referrals, the Court confirmed that ‘evocation’ may also take place in cases of conceptual proximity, as well as through use of figurative signs. Finally, in ‘Champanillo’ the Court established that a geographical indication may also be evoked by services, in addition to goods. Yet, as this chapter discusses, national approaches to evocation often diverge from the CJEU’s interpretations and may exemplify how the doctrine should develop.
Of Treats and Treaties: The Forgotten Chapter of European Geographical Indications Law
Authors: Dijkman Léon E
Published: June 2023

Histories of geographical indications (GI) law tend to jump from an early ‘national’ phase to an ‘international’ phase characterized by multilateral treaties and culminating in post-TRIPS agreements. These accounts often overlook a critical phase in the European history of geographical indications: the practice of countries, from the 1960s onwards, of entering into bilateral treaties on the protection of geographical indications. This chapter shows that these treaties offered a unique protection mechanism that was the basis for decades of national jurisprudence on the protection of geographical indications throughout Europe. The chapter proceeds to examine the influence of these treaties on the EU regime of geographical indications. It critically assesses the decoupling of standards for the exploitation of the reputation of a geographical indication and its evocation, and argues that a uniform standard along the lines of national practice under the bilateral treaties is preferable. Lastly, the chapter ponders another hitherto overlooked aspect of the EU’s harmonized regime of geographical indications: the leeway afforded to GI holders in composing the product specification and the effect of national legislation cited therein.
Rewriting European Patent Law by the Back Door: On Patents, Politics, and Peppers
Authors: Hughes Rose
Published: June 2023

European patent law is subject to political pressures which operate from both outside and within the European Patent Organisation. Two recent examples which clearly illustrate this principle are the legal disputes over the patentability of essential biological processes (G3/19), and the legality of the mandatory holding of oral proceedings by video conference (G1/21). Both of these disputes culminated in decisions from the Enlarged Board of Appeal that were based as much on political expediency as they were on legal reasoning. In this chapter we take a deeper dive into these decisions and their consequences for the EPO and its users.
A New Industrial Property Law in Mexico
Authors: Rodríguez Arguijo Verónica
Published: June 2023

The Mexican legal framework on industrial property has been strengthened substantially over the past two decades through the introduction of new features and the codification of existing domestic practices. Substantial changes have taken place in the context of Trade Agreements between Mexico and other countries, harmonizing Mexican IP legislation and reflecting international practices. The chapter presents the most significant changes introduced by the new Federal Law on the Protection of Industrial Property, which regulates, inter alia, patents, utility models, industrial designs, trade marks, appellations of origin, geographical indications, trade secrets, and enforcement matters, highlighting the repercussions and challenges of this new Law.
How the World Sees Intelligent Machines
Authors: Cave Stephen , Dihal Kanta
Published: June 2023

This first chapter explains the fundamental role narratives play in the understanding, development, and implementation of artificial intelligence (AI) across the world. It then cites four motivations for this volume: understanding the diverse contexts in which AI is developed; introducing more diverse perspectives into global debates on AI governance; opening new comparative perspectives for the study of AI discourse; and facilitating the reimagining of mainstream Western narratives of AI. Although scholarship on AI narratives is nascent across many parts of the globe, this volume introduces the many distinct visions of AI that exist independently of, in dialogue with, or in explicit rejection of the hegemonic narratives of the anglophone West. The chapter concludes by introducing the structure of the volume, its themes, and its contributors.
Artificial Intelligence in the Art of Latin America
Authors: Cruz Raúl
Published: June 2023

This chapter introduces and exhibits a series of artworks fusing science fiction tropes of AI with the art of Mesoamerican cultures, in particular the Maya and Aztecs. Although new technologies can cause global homogenization, they will not erase the traditions, myths, and customs of Latin America. The cultural legacy of the peoples of this continent will merge with technological advances, giving rise to distinctive visions of intelligent machines, real and fictitious. This might include robots with Aztec aesthetics, cybernetic catrinas, Quetzalcóatl ships, and many other fusions of technology and tradition as yet unimagined. The works introduced in this chapter are distinctively Latin American visions of intelligent machines that merge the fantastic, the literary, the mythic, and the mechanical.
From Tafa to Robu
Authors: Mukherjee Upamanyu Pablo
Published: June 2023

Most conventional histories of artificial intelligence (AI) take the famous 1956 Dartmouth conference as the ‘Big Bang’ moment. During this and the subsequent decade—the height of the Cold War—path-breaking research confirmed the relationship between reason, logic, intelligence, and cognition in the grand European philosophical tradition of Descartes, Hobbes, and Leibniz. At the same time, much of Asia and Africa sought to emerge from the centuries-long shadow of colonial and imperial rule with formal declarations of independence. The Indian writer, filmmaker, musician, and designer Satyajit Ray experimented with such independence, using science fiction (SF) to interrogate the key premises of European ‘Enlightenment’. In his robot stories, Ray complicated the presumed link between reason and intelligence by introducing emotions as a key but variable component. This chapter examines Ray’s SF to ask whether a different account of AI can be sketched from the post-colonial moment of the mid-twentieth century.
Algorithmic Colonization of Africa
Authors: Birhane Abeba
Published: June 2023

This chapter examines how Western tech monopolies, with their desire to dominate, control, and influence social, political, and cultural discourse share common characteristics with traditional colonialism. Traditional colonialism has been driven by political and government forces; algorithmic colonialism, on the other hand, is driven by corporate profits. While the former used brute force domination, colonialism in the age of AI takes the form of ‘state-of-the-art algorithms’ and ‘AI solutions’ to social problems. Not only is Western-developed AI unfit for African problems, but also the West’s algorithmic invasion simultaneously impoverishes development of local products while leaving the continent dependent on Western software and infrastructure. By drawing examples from various parts of the continent, this chapter illustrates how the AI invasion of Africa echoes colonial era exploitation. This chapter then concludes by outlining a vision of AI rooted in local community needs and interests,
Attitudes of Pre-Qin Thinkers towards Machinery and their Influence on Technological Development in China
Authors: Baichun Zhang , Miao Tian
Published: June 2023

Machinery, weapons, and other technologies developed rapidly during the Spring and Autumn Periods (771–476 bce) and the Qin (221–206 bce) and Han (202 bce–220 ce) dynasties. Scholars of Mohism, Daoism, Confucianism, and other schools differed in their receptions of these new inventions. The Taoist sage Zhuangzi disapproved of machinery entirely. Mozi, the founder of Mohism, was a pacifist, and consequently was keen on designing defensive facilities but opposed to developing offensive weapons. He criticized the famous technician Gongshu Ban for making siege ladders and other machines for offensive use. According to legend, Gongshu Ban had also been censured for making automata, such as wooden bird-like kites. This reflected public suspicions at the time about automation and ‘supernatural’ devices. These negative attitudes towards new technologies, however, did not have profound impacts: the development of science and technology in pre-modern China had systemic support by the Warring States Period. Pragmatic motivations therefore trumped philosophical concerns.
Introduction
Authors: Saksena Priyasha
Published: June 2023

The book is a history of the ways in which the doctrine of sovereignty was defined during the course of debates over the legal status of the princely states of colonial South Asia. This introductory chapter sets out the main themes of the book—the idea of the princely states being notable legal actors; the polysemic nature of sovereignty; the role played by sovereignty in efforts to demarcate the domestic, imperial, and international spheres; and the importance of understanding broader political projects for exploring the approaches of varied colonial actors to defining sovereignty. The chapter then provides an overview of the world of the princely states, contrasting them with British India and setting out the main princely actors involved in the debates over legal status. It concludes with a sketch of the book’s narrative, laying out brief outlines of each of the chapters.
Political Negotiations
Authors: Saksena Priyasha
Published: June 2023

This chapter focuses on princely strategies during negotiations over the establishment of a federation of British India and the princely states during the 1930s. Both British and princely officials relied on divisible sovereignty to redraw the boundaries among the domestic, the imperial, and the international spheres. Some British officials considered the division of sovereign powers in a federation to be a means to extend British authority over South Asia while others regarded it as a disastrous policy that would result in the loss of imperial territory. The princes were also divided about federal proposals. Although they considered the divisibility of sovereignty in federal arrangements to be a useful mechanism to allow the states to maintain their autonomy while cultivating relationships with the Crown and with British India, they disagreed on the implications of federation for state sovereignty. The federationists argued that the federal structure would legalize the existing mechanism of paramountcy by minimizing British and nationalist interference in state affairs to issues that were specifically set out in negotiated constitutional documents. The anti-federationists feared being constitutionally united with anticolonial nationalists in British India and instead favoured a looser model of confederation with British India together with the provision of imperial guarantees for the protection of state affairs from nationalist interference. This chapter examines three key moments in the federal debates—the birth of federation, the fracas over federation and confederation, and the final federal offer—to trace the princes’ varied political projects that were supported by articulations of divisible sovereignty.
Epilogue
Authors: Saksena Priyasha
Published: June 2023

The epilogue examines the contemporary implications of the long history of debates over the legal status of the princely states, both for the postcolonial Indian state and for the history of international law. The international law language of sovereignty was one of the principal means for the negotiation of political power in colonial South Asia. The doctrine of sovereignty was defined and redefined by multiple actors, including princes, bureaucrats, colonial officials, anticolonial nationalists, and international lawyers, and formed the basis of a variety of political projects and purposes. This reliance on the vocabulary of sovereignty continues in the context of the organization of the postcolonial Indian state and of the international sphere more broadly. The history of the princely states highlights the complexities of demarcating boundaries among the domestic, imperial, and international spheres, the struggle over which persists even today.
Historicizing Polycentric Governing
Authors: Schneider Nina
Published: June 2023

This chapter adopts a historical perspective on polycentric governing, taking into consideration a hitherto under-addressed question: to what extent are the characteristics of polycentric governing a new phenomenon? Most scholars regard polycentric governing to be a novel form of governance, often associated with the 1980s or even later. Can we however identify past forms of governing with comparable features to those ascribed to the umbrella term of polycentric governing today? While it is true that few historians have used the term polycentric governing, this chapter demonstrates that the substantive features of polycentric governing are nothing new, but have a long though little-acknowledged past. Drawing on three examples—the global history of the world church, the history of governance in early modern Spain and Portugal, and power relations in early modern Spain and its overseas territories—this chapter shows that polycentric forms of governing can be traced back many centuries. Polycentric governing’s long history offers new research avenues; besides providing ample empirical material for diachronic comparisons, it also raises a whole series of new questions: has polycentric governing in the past necessarily led to fragmentation or dismemberment? What have been the advantages and disadvantages of historical examples of polycentric governing, given that we can look at those instances with the benefit of hindsight? Overall, this chapter pursues a twofold aim: it details instances of polycentric governing in the past and identifies a series of new research enquiries that follow from it.
An Actor-Network Perspective on Polycentric Governing
Authors: Esguerra Alejandro
Published: June 2023

This chapter addresses polycentric governing with concepts from actor-network theory (ANT). ANT explains how and with what effects contemporary governing is increasingly performed through seemingly neutral socio-material practices of expertise, such as indicators, standards, or assessments. ANT originated in the 1980s, when sociologists started ethnographic examinations of the mundane laboratory practices of natural scientists. Already this early work proposed certain radical claims: for example, that objects have agency, that science is politics by other means, and that micro-practices have macro effects. These propositions have subsequently inspired scholars across the social sciences and humanities. Reflecting ANT’s focus on case studies, this chapter provides three inroads into polycentric governing. First, it elaborates on the novel techniques of governing-by-expertise, such as certification schemes or experiments in polycentric governing which draw heavily on black-boxed expert knowledge. Second, inquiring into forms of power, the chapter examines how science-policy networks generate and fix knowledge about global environmental problems. In so doing, they engage in ‘ontological politics’ that describe the power to normalize specific constructions of reality and inevitably exclude other actors and other governing logics. Third, a vignette regarding the United Nations Security Council elucidates the politics of legitimation when Colin Powell tried to convince the world of the existence of weapons of mass destruction in Iraq. This case exemplifies how legitimation is closely coupled with practices of evidence making.
Polycentric Governing: A Marxist Interpretation
Authors: Overbeek Henk
Published: June 2023

A structural, Marxist, Gramscian approach brings a historical materialist understanding to polycentric governing. It highlights the class character of social relations, of the state, and of governing more generally, all within the context of capital accumulation on a world scale. The chapter argues that polycentric governing is historically specific, closely (albeit not exclusively) associated with the countries of advanced capitalism. Moreover, polycentric governing affects some issue areas more than others. Polycentric governing is primarily defined by its social purpose to promote maximum freedom of movement for capital. Polycentric governing has not always had its current prominence, nor will it remain so forever. From a historical-materialist perspective, power is the most fundamental of the three issues highlighted in this volume: the art of governing is the art of reproducing class power. If done skilfully, most people see the resulting social order as legitimate, which following Gramsci entails hegemony. Techniques refers to how polycentric governing is done concretely; and how the ruling class arranges its hegemony. The organization of hegemony enables specific class coalitions to pursue their interests as if they constitute the ‘general interest’. The chapter identifies three exemplary ‘techniques’ class influence over state policy; the role of the (largely corporatized) media (both old and new); and the disciplinary power that control over finance (in particular through debt) allows the ruling class to reproduce its class power. The chapter illustrates how these insights apply in the context of both the national state and the transnational level of the global political economy.
Polycentric Governing from an Intersectional and Transnational Feminist Perspective
Authors: Marchand Marianne H.
Published: June 2023

This chapter analyses polycentric governing from an intersectional and transnational feminist approach. Using the issue of violence against women, in particular the femicides on Mexico’s northern border, the chapter traces how women’s and feminist organizations have navigated polycentric governing constellations to pressure local and federal Mexican authorities to efficiently and seriously address the femicides and disappearances of women. Yet, the chapter also finds that while these organizations have been able to use polycentric governing to place the issue of violence against women on the international agenda, they have also encountered multiple resistances, something referred to as resilient patriarchy. In addition, an intersectional and transnational feminist lens reveals that in particular local women’s voices from the Global South have been marginalized and silenced in the process of agenda-setting and of moving the issue of femicides along polycentric governing structures.The chapter concludes that while polycentric governing has provided some openings for gender issues to be taken seriously in the international arena, they continue to be embedded in (patriarchal) colonial continuities and relations of power.
The Ascertainment of the Legal Frameworks Governing Sea-Dumped Chemical Weapons
Authors: Dawson Grant
Published: June 2023

The environmental norms streamlined into the Chemical Weapons Convention function as a general and binding legal framework for the environmentally sound destruction of chemical weapons. These provisions may also be regarded as rules of reference akin to the environmental protection provisions found within the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. As can be seen in the travaux préparatoires of the Chemical Weapons Convention, the obligation to give the ‘highest priority’ to the protection of the environment during the destruction of chemical weapons and the prohibition of specific destruction methodologies, such as dumping in any body of water, were adopted in direct response to the unsatisfactory manner in which chemical weapons had been dealt with in the twentieth century ce. States took a progressive step forward and set not only minimum normative standards, but also a high benchmark for protection of the environment in connection with chemical disarmament. Nevertheless, the clear language in the Chemical Weapons Convention for the exemption of pre-1985 sea-dumped chemical weapons effectively removes such munitions from the provisions mandating declaration, storage, and destruction of chemical weapons, including old and abandoned chemical weapons.
A Ribbon-Maker’s Cottage on Bridge Street
Authors: Hindle Steve
Published: June 2023

A study of John Knight, one of eight silk-weavers or ribbon-makers in the parish; reconstructs the early history of silk-ribbon manufacture in north-east Warwickshire and analyses the social relations of production between metropolitan silk merchants, Warwickshire undertakers, and immiserated rural ribbon-weavers; identifies the local silk-master who was the likely source of Knight’s silk, and discusses in detail the taxonomy of raw material and finished goods in the silk-master’s inventory; notes Knight’s longevity and uses his will and inventory to discuss the sexual division of labour in a ribbon-making household and to emphasize the genealogical continuities in silk-weaving in a community which was to be transformed by ribbon manufacture over the following century and a half.
A House with a Lean-to in the Heath End
Authors: Hindle Steve
Published: June 2023

A study of the agricultural labourer Abraham Checkly, one of 53 ‘ag labs’ in the village; emphasizes the spatial concentration of labourers in the Heath End at the western margins of the common field system; reconstructs the social and economic characteristics of the agricultural labour force and identifies where they were likely to be working over the course of the harvest year; emphasizes the seasonality of agricultural work (especially for women) and the significance of bi-employment; locates Checkly at the heart of the workforce of men, women, and children working on the Arbury estate, and discusses in detail exactly how he was compensated for particular tasks at specific point in the year; explains the transformation in employment practices on the Arbury estate, especially the expansion of piece-rates and introduction of a primitive truck system of payment by ticket; stresses the difficulty of reconstructing the material culture of labouring people, especially since so many labourers (Checkly included) did not leave inventories; concludes with a discussion of the age structure of the agricultural workforce and speculates that most labourers probably worked themselves to death, living in fear of the parish badge and in terror of the workhouse test.
The Household Staff at Arbury Hall (1678‒1710)
Authors: Hindle Steve
Published: June 2023

A study of the twenty-eight men, women, and children who constituted the household staff at Arbury Hall, the seat of the Newdigate family since 1586; reconstructs the experience of dispensing and receiving hospitality in this gentry household, and emphasizes the sheer size of the staff required to service an establishment of this size; discusses how the staff were recruited and dismissed and emphasizes the significant turnover amongst employees who were subject to an extraordinary degree of supervision and discipline, not all of it consistently administered; analyses the relationship between master and servant and argues that the household was a theatre not only of hospitality among patricians but of conflict between patricians and plebs; traces the fortunes of those who left employment at Arbury and emphasizes the soft power that they enjoyed in influencing the reputation of their former employer.
The Drama of Complaint
Authors: Shortslef Emily
Published: June 2023

Built around some of the most electrifying scenes in Shakespearean tragedy, The Drama of Complaint examines Shakespeare’s theatrical experiments with the poetic forms of complaint that were so prolific in early modern literature, showing how these conventional forms became crucibles for unconventional philosophical thought. Treating the literary field of complaint as a repertoire of stylized stock scenarios animated by conceptions of the good, this book argues that these microdramas of discontent and desire repeat across the period’s literature as vehicles of ethical thought, and that Shakespeare’s arrangements of these familiar scenes model and provoke new ways of thinking about ethical subjectivity and the good life. Drawing on early modern moral treatises and essays, Reformed theology, sermons, conduct manuals, and compendia of Aristotelian and Stoic moral philosophy alongside the period’s literature, the book identifies and theorizes five particular poetic forms of complaint and develops new readings of Shakespearean tragedies to which each of these forms is integral. By constructing a taxonomy that privileges the recurrence of particular objects of desire (justice, mercy, an end to suffering) over the characterological traits of particular complainers, it brings into relief the habitual ways of conceptualizing the good that shape and are articulated in these poetic forms. In showing how early modern scenes of complaint are critical points of entry to literary inquiries into ethical questions, The Drama of Complaint illuminates the literary practices of early modern England while gesturing to the rich potential that has led thinkers from Boethius to Montaigne to Freud to imagine human (un)happiness by constructing or interpreting scenes of complaint.
Signs of Life
Authors: Shortslef Emily
Published: June 2023

This chapter situates King Lear’s command to “Speak what we feel” in the context of early modern ethical discourse—namely, Calvinist and Neostoic counsel on responding to suffering—and tragic-existential meditations on human finitude. In these discourses, the figure of the complainer emblematizes human wretchedness and exemplifies unvirtuous conduct in the face of suffering. This figure is grounded in theological conceptions of creatureliness that define ungrudging acceptance of that suffering as the measure of ethical subjectivity. In Lear, a play that transposes the drama of creatureliness to an immanent world while taking up the same ethical questions about suffering, scenes of existential complaint reverse the valences of complaining. The play directs the audience’s attention to earthly sites of sovereign authority and suggests the ethical necessity of complaining in response to what the play calls “the weight of this sad time.”
Ethical Demands
Authors: Shortslef Emily
Published: June 2023

This chapter argues that ethical responsibility is focalized in judicial complaint, a poetic form whose vision of justice is premised on a divinely authored moral law that grounds and mediates human relations. It explores the conventional co-articulation of judicial complaint and conscience, then examines Shakespeare’s theorizing of conscience in Richard III. While the play’s ghost scene is often read as a depiction of the internal drama of conscience, this chapter contends that Shakespeare represents the ghosts as real presences that cause Richard’s experience of conscience, rather than as symbols of his inner torment. In formally linking their complaints to a chorus of judicial complaints that demand to be answered throughout the play, Shakespeare refigures conscience as an experience that responds to the complaints of a human other.
Meeting of the Minds
Authors: Harris Amy
Published: June 2023

A transcription of a letter by Thomas Sharp Sr. to his elder brother, John Sharp. In the fall of 1721, Thomas was considering proposing to Judith Wheler—knowing her father and his mother approved of the match. He sought John’s advice on the matter.
Common Letters
Authors: Harris Amy
Published: June 2023

Between 1754 and 1763, the Sharp siblings exchanged a group of what they termed common letters. Principally designed to keep the two sibling groups (one centered in Northumberland and Durham, the other in London) connected, the letters were an on-going conversation in which all siblings participated. They expanded the genre of shared correspondence to become a vehicle for perpetuating their unique family culture. The letters are full of witticisms, inside jokes, humorous sketches, and puns. This interlude contains a transcription of two letters as examples of the letters’ content and style.
Reading Against the Grain
Authors: Howley Joseph A.
Published: June 2023

This chapter collects evidence for the forging of valuable books in Ancient Rome, and argues for the distinctiveness of forged books as a separate category from forged art objects or forged texts. It begins by examining the culture of antiquarianism and book collecting among educated elites in the second century ce, as described by Aulus Gellius. The chapter then turns to other accounts from the Roman imperial period of the notorious forgers’ techniques of artificial aging and weathering. It suggests that these techniques were developed in the households and libraries of Roman elites by enslaved and formerly enslaved book workers, and argues for understanding Roman book forgery as an acute locus of class conflict between Rome’s enslaving class and its enslaved class. The chapter concludes by returning to oblique accounts in Gellius of possibly forged books, suggesting that although he and his peers willfully lacked the technical book knowledge needed to detect forgers, he was alive to the possibility of book forgery and its literary implications.
Fictional Forgeries and the Twilight of the Self
Authors: Gurd Sean Alexander
Published: June 2023

Two parallel treatments of tablets guide my thinking in this chapter. (1) Begun in the late 1960s and continuing until his death in 1999, Armand Schwerner’s The Tablets purports to be a set of “Sumero-Akkadian Tablets,” translated and commented on by a “Scholar-Translator” who may in fact be making up the tablets he claims to translate. (2) In 1984 Pascal Quignard published Les Tablettes de buis d’Apronenia Avitia, a novella which pretends to be a translation of the personal daybooks of Apronenia Avitia, a patrician Roman woman in the later 400s ce, at a moment when Rome was losing her global dominance and Christianity was eradicating her traditional religions. From these two projects, the chapter takes a reflection on the role of authenticity in cultural politics and how one conceives of selfhood.
Interference
Authors: Nolte David D.
Published: June 2023

Seeing a black hole at the heart of a distant galaxy is like standing in Paris and reading a newspaper in New York. How is this possible? And why can quantum computers compute impossible things in hours that would take classical computers the time since the Big Bang? The answer to these questions is interference. Optical interferometry is mankind’s most sensitive form of measurement. In just the past several years, interferometry has been used to make the first image of a black hole, to demonstrate the first programmable quantum computer, and to detect the first gravitational waves. This recent list of “firsts” points to the fertile and active field of optical interferometry for which Interference provides a convenient and up-to-date guide for a wide audience interested in the science of light. This book tells the stories about the personal adventures experienced by the scientists and engineers who uncovered the vast wealth of optical interference phenomena. Beginning with Young’s double-slit experiment and the collaboration of Arago and Fresnel to prove the wave nature of light, to the detection of gravitational waves using kilometer-long laser beams, the history of interferometry has astonishing human drama that parallels the scientific drama of the discoveries.
Thomas Young Polymath
Authors: Nolte David D.
Published: June 2023

“Thomas Young Polymath: The Law of Interference” tells the story of the invasion of Egypt in 1798 by Napoleon Bonaparte as the unlikely link among a set of epic discoveries that launched the modern science of light. The story of interferometry passes from the Egyptian campaign and the discovery of the Rosetta Stone to Thomas Young, building on the wave theory of Huygens, as he challenged Newton’s particles of light. Young was a polymath, known for his facility with languages that helped him decipher Egyptian hieroglyphics aided by the Rosetta Stone. He was also a city doctor who advised the admiralty on the construction of ships, and he became England’s premier physicist at the beginning of the nineteenth century. But his theory of the wave nature of light was controversial, attracting sharp criticism that would pass on the task of refuting Newton to a new generation of French optical physicists.
After the Gold Rush
Authors: Nolte David D.
Published: June 2023

“After the Gold Rush: The Trials of Albert Michelson” tells the story of Michelson’s youth growing up in the gold fields of California before he was granted an extraordinary appointment to Annapolis by President Grant. Michelson invented his interferometer while visiting Hermann von Helmholtz in Berlin, Germany, as he sought to detect the motion of the Earth through the luminiferous ether, but no motion was detected. After returning to the States and a faculty position at Case University, he met Edward Morley, and the two continued the search for the Earth’s motion, concluding definitively its absence. The Michelson interferometer launched a menagerie of interferometers, including the Fabry–Perot, that ushered in the golden age of interferometry.
Stellar Interference
Authors: Nolte David D.
Published: June 2023

“Stellar Interference: Measuring the Stars” brings the story of interferometry to the stars as Michelson proposed stellar interferometry, first demonstrated on the Galilean moons of Jupiter, followed by an application developed by Karl Schwarzschild for binary stars, and completed by Michelson with observations encouraged by George Hale on the star Betelgeuse. However, the Michelson stellar interferometry had stability limitations that were overcome by Hanbury Brown and Richard Twiss who developed intensity interferometry based on the effect of photon bunching. The ultimate resolution of telescopes was achieved after the development of adaptive optics that used interferometry to compensate for atmospheric turbulence.
Two Faces of Microscopy
Authors: Nolte David D.
Published: June 2023

“Two Faces of Microscopy: Diffraction and Interference” describes the development of principles of microscopy, starting with Joseph Fraunhofer and the principle of diffraction gratings perfected by Henry Rowland for high-resolution spectroscopy. The company of Carl Zeiss advanced microscope technology after enlisting the help of Ernst Abbe who formed a new theory of image formation based on light interference. These ideas were extended by Fritz Zernike in the development of phase-contrast microscopy. The ultimate resolution of microscopes, defined by Abbe and known as the Abbe resolution limit, turned out not to be a fundamental limit, but was surpassed by super-resolution microscopy using concepts of interference microscopy and structured illumination.
Wordsworth's Poetry of Repetition
Authors: Houghton-Walker Sarah
Published: June 2023

This study suggests that it is through recapitulation—by saying things over again—that Wordsworth achieves ‘sincere’ verse. It explores aspects of poetic repetition including rhyme, metre, and form; ideas of ‘revisiting’ (which might be imaginative, physical, or textual), and the notion of Romantic ‘sincerity’ itself. It also re-examines forms of writing which might be understood as inherently recapitulative. It draws on philosophies of repetition, historical resources interested in repetition in the Romantic Period more generally, and eighteenth-century enquiries into syntax and grammar, in order to establish a context for recapitulation in Wordsworth’s poetry. The book suggests that in conceptual and literal instances, the most interesting aspect of Wordsworthian repetition is the way in which it persistently accommodates, negotiates, and exploits difference. It is interested in the way in which ideas of specificity and generality inhabit a similar space: Wordsworth’s recapitulation, it argues, engenders a flexible form of representation which implies that the one can stand in for the many, generating a complex interplay of specific and general which does not always overtly draw attention to itself but which nonetheless underpins some of the most significant moments of Wordsworth’s writing. Introductory chapters attend to key themes in general, and the argument proceeds via close readings of works in which the idea of recapitulation is either explored, performed, or both, demonstrating the poet’s preoccupation with repetitions which accommodate and declare variation, and thus achieve the sincerity which preoccupies him throughout his career.
Contexts for Repetition in the Romantic Period
Authors: Houghton-Walker Sarah
Published: June 2023

Without implying any direct or quantifiable relationship, this chapter suggests some of the contextual factors which may have influenced the sensitivities of romantic-period poets to the concept of repetition and its effects in verse. Such factors include long-eighteenth-century theories about the nature of art and the operation of the mind (both of which involve evolving understandings of memory), and the Higher Criticism associated with Bishop Lowth (particularly the parallelism Lowth identified within Hebrew verse, to which Wordsworth explicitly responded). Related but distinct questions of originality and authenticity are also introduced. These factors are placed alongside contemporary discourses of order, disorder, irregularity, and variation. Finally, the impact of industrial and political revolutions on the idea of what it might mean to repeat something is considered, drawing attention in particular to the possibilities for more perfect reproduction which became available in the Romantic Period.
Crafted Repetition
Authors: Houghton-Walker Sarah
Published: June 2023

This chapter begins by reflecting on Wordsworth’s response to contemporary parodies of his own tendency towards repetition. Acknowledging that repetitive tendency as a dominant aspect of Wordsworth’s style, it goes on to survey and analyse instances of various kinds of repetition. These include ‘straightforward’ verbal repetitions, as well as the rhetorical devices Wordsworth enlists, including ploce, polyptoton, epanalepsis, epizeuxis, anadiplosis, diacope, antimetabole, and repotia. It also considers the ‘spots of time’ specifically as moments of repetition. The chapter ranges across a wide range of Wordsworth’s works, and suggests the effects of numerous examples of verbal repetition, but in particular it focuses on the way in which ideas of recapitulation allow Wordsworth to suggest the sort of connected unity which constitutes ideal society and experience, according to his understanding.
The Fiscal Policies of the British Labour Party in Times of Crisis
Authors: Bremer Björn
Published: June 2023

Chapter 6 studies the fiscal policies of the British Labour Party in response to the Great Recession. The chapter first situates the fiscal policies of the Labour Party in a historic context and uses quantitative content analysis to explore the programmatic response of the centre-left to the economic crisis. This analysis confirms that Labour accepted austerity as the dominant macroeconomic policy, and the chapter then uses elite interviews to draw out the causal mechanisms that pushed the party towards fiscal orthodoxy. It argues that politicians were not ideologues that had accepted the dominance of the market. Instead, the leaders of the Labour Party acted strategically, as they were convinced that the path to power leads through the centre. They sought to establish the party’s perceived fiscal credibility and economic competence to appeal to centrist, middle-class voters who they believed to be fiscal conservatives. Internally, these positions were also legitimized by a set of economic ideas that had been part and parcel of the Third Way. Labour thus supported fiscal consolidation for both strategic and ideational reasons.
The Fiscal Policies of the German SPD in Times of Crisis
Authors: Bremer Björn
Published: June 2023

Chapter 7 studies the fiscal policies of the German Social Democratic Party (SPD) party in response to the Great Recession. The chapter first situates the fiscal policies of the SPD in a historic context and uses quantitative content analysis to explore the programmatic response of the centre-left to the economic crisis. This analysis confirms that the SPD accepted austerity as the dominant macroeconomic policy, and the chapter then uses elite interviews to draw out the causal mechanisms that pushed the party towards fiscal orthodoxy. It argues that Germany’s social democrats were not ideologues that had accepted the dominance of the market. Rather, the SPD lacked a clear economic paradigm that could have guided the response to the Great Recession. Weakened by internal conflict, it made programmatic decisions with reference to electoral calculations and remained trapped by its pre-crisis support for economic supply-side policies. Influenced by the dominant interpretation of the eurozone crisis, the party sought to increase its perceived economic credibility and supported fiscal consolidation for both strategic and ideational reasons.
Islam and Capitalism in the Making of Modern Bahrain
Authors: Brown Rajeswary Ampalavanar
Published: June 2023

In recent decades, the culture, society, politics, and economics, indeed the national identities, of Bahrain have been transformed, driving its global ambitions while retaining, to a degree, the rule of law and cosmopolitanism. Bahrain has sought to liberate the economy and business through the evolution of a legislative framework, although one often manipulated by the monarchy. At the same time, the Islamic charities in Bahrain, have provided a degree of autonomy and legal clarity for the Shi’ite majority in what is a Sunni-dominated state. Their powerful presence has moderated commercial capitalism and aggressive nationalism. Moreover, Bahrain has achieved a remarkable transformation towards market-led capitalism, seen most notably in its emergence as a major centre of Islamic finance and in the creation of substantial industrial diversification. As a result, Bahrain has become integral to the success of the Gulf Cooperation Council, attracting the vast oil wealth of its Gulf neighbours. It has frequently been argued that oil resources have been a curse for those who possess them. That has not been the case with Bahrain, but it has brought fractures to the society and to its politics. Notable here is the large presence of foreign labour, particularly in the private sector, which has impeded the development of essential skills and the improvement of labour productivity for indigenous labour. The education and skills gap between foreign and local labour is arguably more divisive for modern Bahrain than the religious divisions between the Sunni state and its Shi’a majority.
Introduction
Authors: Brown Rajeswary Ampalavanar
Published: June 2023

From the seventeenth century, pearling had been the economic mainstay of Bahrain. By the 1930s, however, pearling had faded, and was replaced as the mainstay of the Bahrain economy by the extraction of crude oil. But oil production in turn faded, as Bahrain’s reserves declined by the 1970s, and the country underwent a third economic transformation. In recent decades, Bahrain has created an innovative financial sector to serve Bahrain’s oil-rich neighbours, a hub of Islamic finance. In this it has been assisted by the inflow of oil wealth from the Gulf producers, revenues that have driven the urbanization, industrialization, and the financial expansion of Bahrain. From the final decades of the twentieth century, oil capital has transformed Bahrain’s economy. It is important to explore the social, religious, and political contexts in which that transformation took place. Thus, the creation of a powerful capacity in Islamic finance clearly has a crucial religious context, in the need to secure compliance with Shari’ah law. Or again, a vastly growing financial sector as well as rapid urbanization and industrial expansion clearly had substantial demographic implications, for territorially small Bahrain had always been highly dependent on immigrant labour and immigrant skills. And finally, economic transformation inevitably brought social and political tensions. It is the exploration of those contexts and impacts that drive this book. First, however, it is essential to provide detail on Bahrain’s economic, social, and political history, for that history has had a long reach and profoundly shapes modern Bahrain.
A Place for the State
Authors: Brown Rajeswary Ampalavanar
Published: June 2023

In its pre-colonial and colonial history, legal concepts and practices in Bahrain shaped the transformation of the economy and the state. The grip of the state was tempered by law. And in recent decades, there has been an urgent need to liberate the economy and business through the evolution of a legislative framework. The power of the Bahrain state grew with the power of oil, principally after 1971. High oil prices, particularly after 2004–09, have coincided with a further change in the role of the state, economic diversification, and the reform of labour markets, reducing dependence on foreign labour and emphasizing local labour and its acquisition of essential skills. It is often said that Bahrain’s authoritarian state survives through oil wealth and the co-option of business elites. But Bahrain is unique in the Middle East, in that the state is responsive to secular institutions and political pressures through the law. There is juridical space for the state.
Transnational Trading Networks
Authors: Brown Rajeswary Ampalavanar
Published: June 2023

One major component in the Bahrain economy has been the presence of a group of prominent business families from the seventeenth century. The families have not challenged the present state-owned corporations. The state, employing sovereign wealth funds and its commercial agencies, formed cartels with the compliant merchant class. This is evident in the petrochemical corporations (producing and refining oil), real estate developers, telecommunications corporations, and the banks. However, despite a deep commitment to joint management by the state and family interests, Bahrain employed professionally intermediated finance both at home and abroad. Foreign investment brought with it liberal economic behaviour and thus Bahrain possessed dynamic concentrations of industrial clusters in aluminium, cement, oil refining, food production, water, electric power, telecommunications, and transport, particularly air transport. Family firms accounted for an impressive 52 per cent in real estate and construction, from the 1990s, with the state commissioning huge building programmes and often sub-contracting to family firms.
Economic Diversification
Authors: Brown Rajeswary Ampalavanar
Published: June 2023

The depletion of Bahrain’s oil reserves from the 1950s drove an economic diversification into a number of industrial sectors, notably in the production of aluminium, with the establishment of Aluminium Bahrain in 1968, a joint venture between the Bahrain state and four international companies, and the production of cement. Industrial diversification was financed in large part by the vast revenues attracted to Bahrain from the oil-rich states of the Gulf, as Bahrain emerged as a major financial centre, a further important aspect of its diversification. Economic diversification also involved the creation of economic zones, notably the Bahrain Logistics Zone, the Bahrain Investment Wharf, and the Khalifah bin Salman Port.