bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Dutch Welfare State: Recent Trends and Challenges in Historical Perspective
Authors: van Oorschot Wim
Published: March 2017

This article critically describes and discusses a fundamental shift in the contents and character of the Dutch welfare state from a model of collective solidarity towards one of personal responsibility. It starts with a brief historical sketch of the main lines along which the Dutch welfare state has developed, and ends with a view of its future challenges. Comparative statistics are used to sketch the most recent developments in Dutch welfare expenditures, the actual welfare system is characterised, and recent changes are presented and evaluated in more detail. It shows that in The Netherlands, from the 1980s onwards, welfare retrenchment and restructuring are not merely rhetorical concepts. On the contrary, the picture that emerges is that of an incremental, but systematic and steady process of continuous reform.
New Zealand's Financial Assistance for Poor Children: Are Work Incentives the Answer?
Authors: St John Susan
Published: March 2017

European countries have been concerned with reforming the labour market and promoting ‘employability’ and are now being asked to set out plans to eliminate child poverty and social exclusion. The experience of New Zealand might well provide an interesting case study. Labour market flexibility was promoted in the early 1990s, assisted by welfare benefit cuts. Family assistance was allowed to fall in real terms, while becoming more tightly targeted and more selective. New Zealand's child poverty rate rose to unprecedented levels in the mid 1990s from which it abated only slowly as the economy improved. Under the Labour government from 1999, child poverty was at last acknowledged with promises to eliminate it, but spending on families was not increased significantly until 2005. Even then, work incentives were prioritised as the best way to address child poverty. Rather than treating all low income children the same, a significant part of child-related assistance depends on the work status of the parents, and none of the assistance is universal. Thus while the new spending will eventually significantly reduce the incidence of child poverty in working families, those children whose parents fail the qualifying criteria can be expected to slip further below the relative poverty line and experience increasing rather than decreasing social exclusion. Work-related child payments may prove difficult to administer and have low take-up rates, but in a conservative political climate they appear to be the preferred way to augment family incomes.
No Rights without Remedies: Necessary Conditions for Abolishing Child Poverty
Authors: Veit-Wilson John
Published: March 2017

If EU governments' National Action Plans for Social Inclusion aim to abolish child poverty, they must clarify which of the many types of poverty is targeted and how families are to achieve the right to incomes adequate for human dignity and social participation asserted by the international conventions. The paper argues that necessary conditions for child poverty abolition and social inclusion must include the juridification and justiciability of children's right to household incomes based on empirical standards of adequacy for dignity and participation.
New Social Risks and Social Exclusion as a Challenge to Czech Social Policy
Authors: Sirovátka Tomáš
Published: March 2017

Current demographic and social changes in (post)modern societies present new challenges to social policy in the form of a new and deepening social and economic imbalance – they are sometimes referred to as ‘new social risks’ – and among the direct consequences of these new risks is the phenomenon of social exclusion. In response to these challenges, European agendas for employment and for social inclusion, are being implemented. These guidelines are set out in programme documents such as National Action Plans for Employment (since 2005 National Reform Programmes) and National Action Plans for Social Inclusion. Given that the Method of Open Coordination is a rather ‘soft instrument’, specific implementation of these agendas in European countries is dependent on many aspects of the national context.

In this article, we aim to describe the specifics of the Czech Republic's approach to the problems of social exclusion. We will first explore the emphasis laid on the new risks in Czech social policy measures and attempt to draw comparisons with other EU countries. Next, we will also pay attention to the Czech approach to the agenda for social inclusion, which is among the key agendas in this area.
Compensation for Occupational Diseases and the Importance of Preventition: A Law and Economics Perspective
Authors: Faure Michael G.
Published: March 2017

This paper deals with possible compensation mechanisms for damage caused by occupational diseases. Specific attention is paid to the potential influence of these compensation mechanisms on prevention of work related incidents. The economic analysis of law is used to pay attention to liability and liability insurance whereby both the preventive effects of liability and liability insurance are discussed as well as their capacity to compensate. Attention is equally paid to social security, compensation funds and first party as well as direct insurance schemes. Some empirical evidence concerning the effectiveness of various compensation mechanisms as far as the prevention of occupational diseases is concerned is also discussed.
The Management of Chronic Diseases in the Netherlands and in Germany
Authors: Sichert Markus , Walser Christina
Published: March 2017

Chronic diseases pose significant challenges to health insurance systems. On the one hand, the supply of medical care to patients suffering from chronic diseases is very costly; on the other hand, more and more people are becoming chronically ill, and many of them suffer from diabetes. Against this background, steering mechanisms that address chronic disease management are needed, not only to cope with cost containment, but also to improve quality and to overcome obstructive interfaces of supply structures.

This article analyses how these challenges are being dealt with and how the respective chronic diseases – the focus will be on diabetes – are managed in the Netherlands and in Germany. The approaches taken in each of these countries present examples of how structures for political and legal steering have been established within health care systems that are subject to frequent reform. Each approach is assessed by analysing the priority given to either regulatory or competitive elements, and particular reference will be made to (subordinated) implementation structures, contracts or models.
Social Security Policy and Pension Reforms in the Western Balkans
Authors: Bartlett Will , Xhumari Merita
Published: March 2017

Despite recent economic growth, the countries of the Western Balkans share a catalogue of social problems ranging from high unemployment, low participation rates, falling birth rates, ageing populations, severe poverty, and migration of many young and skilled people. This article tracks the similarities and differences in the responses of the countries of the Western Balkans to these difficulties, with a focus on pension systems reform. It shows how social protection systems have been weakened by efforts to cut public expenditure and reduce budget deficits and how, following the advice of international organisations and policy advisers, several countries have introduced partially privatised three-pillar pension systems in an environment of underdeveloped capital markets. It discusses the features of the new reformed pension systems, and reviews the systems in those countries which have not yet adopted such reforms. It highlights the problems and risks facing the partially privatised pension schemes. The article also considers the context for the different approaches adopted in the region. It concludes that at the present state of their economic transition and development, the late reforming countries would be better advised to focus on improving the efficiency of their existing arrangements, and on the regional coordination of their social security and pension systems, rather than engaging in radical privatisation in pursuit of uncertain benefits.
Disabled Children or Disabled Society? The Growing Number of Children Receiving Social Security Benefits on the Grounds of Disability in the Netherlands
Authors: Einerhand Marcel
Published: March 2017

The number of children and youngsters receiving social security benefits as a result of disability is increasing in the Netherlands. The number receiving Child Benefits for Disabled Children aged 3 to 17 years has increased sharply. Upon reaching the age of 18 youngsters may apply for disability benefits. The inflow into this disability scheme now is three times as high as it was ten years ago. In 2006 roughly 1 in 20 youngsters aged 18 entered the scheme. This trend can be observed not only in social security arrangements, but also in other policy fields, such as education, health care and youth care. This seems to be caused in particular by growing incidence of psychological and behavioural problems. Reduced non take-up is a further reason for this trend. But more importantly: it seems as if certain psychological disorders and problematic forms of behaviour, which were not recognised as a disability before, are now labelled as problematic. Society is becoming more demanding, and families and schools' ability to cope cannot match these growing demands.
Contemporary Integration Policies in Europe: Civic Integration Programmes and the Legal, Social and Cultural Position of Non-Citizens
Authors: Odé Arend
Published: March 2017

National governments in Europe are increasingly resorting to civic integration policies in the search for solutions to modern integration problems. These policies are intended to improve the knowledge of national language and society among the immigrant population. Increasingly, however, and due to their mandatory nature, these policies have a direct impact on the legal, social and cultural position of immigrants. Passing a language test appears to be an essential prerequisite in order to enter a country, acquire a more secure residence status, and become eligible for naturalisation. The social dimension of integration seems to be more carefully dealt with, since the civic integration measures generally aim at increasing participation in society. The results so far, however, do not suggest highly optimistic conclusions. The cultural dimension is not left untouched either, since integration courses increasingly insist on social and cultural incorporation. As will be discussed in more detail for the Netherlands, the establishment of civic integration policies has abruptly ended the period of multiculturalism, and has had serious consequences for the position of immigrants in Dutch society.
Social Human Rights of Migrants under the European Social Charter
Authors: Mikkola Matti
Published: March 2017

This article elaborates first (1) on the nature and the principled background of social human rights, analysing the provisions of the two key European treaties of human rights, as well as their material scope and scope of subjects. What follows is (2) an evaluation of the rights from the subjective viewpoint of one target group, namely migrants, considering to what extent they are covered by rights that are intended as universal, (3) what are the nature of special provisions that target migrants, and (4) what is the status and what are the human rights of third country migrants.
Minimum Income Schemes in Central and Eastern Europe: A Comparative Analysis of Selected Institutional Features
Authors: Jansová Eva
Published: March 2017

This paper focuses on the question ‘to what extent do minimum income schemes guarantee adequate protection to people in need in the new EU countries of Central and Eastern Europe (CEE). These countries are special cases as they had to build their social security systems while undergoing intensive change from a command to a market economy. Moreover, on being confronted by the emergence of poverty, the existing safety nets had to be strengthened and focused more on the poor. The policy evaluation presented in this article provides an overview of institutional patterns of the minimum income schemes framed by the model of welfare production put forward by Hill and Bramley (1986). The focus is on aspects such as ‘coverage’, ‘adequacy’, and ‘target effectiveness’ influencing the final ‘power in terms of poverty alleviation of the benefits. The results show that minimum income schemes differ with regard to the studied dimensions and two groups of countries can be distinguished. The Czech Republic, Slovenia, and Slovakia have relatively effective schemes influenced by wide legal coverage, somewhat generous benefits and higher target effectiveness. In the Baltic States and Poland, the combination of rather extensive legal coverage (with the exception of Poland, where restrictions are applied) with lower benefit levels and weak target effectiveness leads to lower capacity of the schemes with regard to poverty alleviation.
The Economic and Social Impact of Coordination
Authors: Reimann Axel
Published: March 2017

In this article the economic and social impacts of the coordination of pensions and pension policy in the EU are analysed. Three different aspects are discussed: the coordination of the individual social security rights of migrant workers; the coordination of national social protection systems; and the coordination of economic and employment policies as far as they affect social security. With respect to the coordination of the individual social security rights of migrant workers, it is argued that this is a prerequisite for the free movement of workers in the EU. The article discusses the impacts of this coordination, such as impacts on pension payments arising from EC Regulation 883/2004 (formerly EC Regulation 1408/71), and the provision of international counselling events. It is noted that the Regulation covers not only old age pensions but also pensions in cases of reduced earning capacity and benefits for rehabilitation. The second area of coordination is implemented through the Open Method of Coordination (OMC). It is argued that, on the one hand, the OMC provides support to national governments to deal with the challenges of social security systems. On the other hand, the OMC also directly influences national social security policies, even though they are actually the responsibility of national authorities. Implications for national pension policy can also be found in the third area of coordination. Both Broad Economic Policy Guidelines and Employment Guidelines are used, which set targets which are relevant for pension policy, such as placing limits on public expenditure and the prolongation of working life. Finally it is argued that in the growing field of second- and third- pillar pension systems there is a need for further coordination.
From a Beautiful Swan to an Ugly Duckling: The Renewal of Danish Activation Policy since 2003
Authors: Jørgensen Henning
Published: March 2017

The adoption of activation policies has resulted in a common European interpretative framework, and major reforms of welfare and labour market systems have materialised. The search for good examples is widespread. Denmark is still regarded as a role model for innovative activation policy, as described in the European Employment Strategy, and is treated as the exemplar for ‘flexicurity’ systems. Changes in Danish activation policy during recent years have, however, transformed both the content and the governance structure in a path-breaking way into a more ‘work first’-based system. A typology of policy changes is used analytically to characterise the developments in, and strategies behind, the Danish transformation of its labour market policies. The transformations recorded bear witness to a stronger convergence with Europe with respect to policy objectives, instruments, and outcomes.
Public-Private Partnerships for the Unemployed
Authors: Sol Els
Published: March 2017

Under new dimensions of individualisation, decentralisation and particularly marketisation, new forms of public-private partnerships between the actors involved in the employment services for the unemployed have emerged. This is because for-profit providers have now entered the arena of welfare to work. The assumption behind these public-private arrangements is that the marketisation of public service delivery will lead to more flexible, responsive and innovative outcomes. Focusing on the implementation of back-to-work services for the unemployed for the UK, the Netherlands and Australia as forerunners of this development, this article sketches several theoretical backgrounds and conditions for effective and efficient back-to-work services and gives an insight to the struggles countries face in controlling recalcitrant practice, their policy lessons and the outcomes of these struggles so far.
Labour Market Participation of the Disabled: Policies and Practices in Europe
Authors: Borghouts-Van De Pas Irmgard
Published: March 2017

This article presents the main findings of a multi-country comparative study of the labour market participation of a specific group: the disabled. European policies and practices to help these persons to find and hold down satisfying jobs are mapped out. An overview of the available instruments and facilities to support the integration of these ‘outsiders’ is then provided. The article discusses the expenditure on and performance of national systems regarding the participation of disabled persons. It concludes that financial resources are not sufficient to convince employers to offer them a job. In all selected countries employers appear to be hesitant to hire disabled persons. The article ends with an assessment of the lessons that can be learned from national good practices.
Outsourcing Employment Programmes: Contract Design and Differential Prices
Authors: Finn Dan
Published: March 2017

In many countries employment services and labour market programmes, whether delivered by public agencies or contracted providers, are found to be less effective in meeting the needs of more disadvantaged job seekers compared to other unemployed people. This article reviews evidence on how countries that outsource employment programmes design outcome-based payments, contracts and differential prices to ensure more equitable outcomes. It considers the extent to which such mechanisms have mitigated the risks of ‘parking’ and ‘creaming’ which are commonly associated with contracted out employment services.
Benchmarking as NPM Instrument in Activating Social Security Policies
Authors: Castonguay Julie , Sol Els
Published: March 2017

Social benchmarks have become a popular instrument amongst public policymakers. The first part of the article reviews the application of benchmarks as an evaluation tool and their significance in the evaluation of activating social security policies under New Public Management. It offers a typology in terms of aims and types of benchmarks and several examples of applications of different types of benchmarks using examples from Dutch activating social security policies. The second part of the article analyses bench-learning by showing how to get the most out of benchmarks.
Vouchers, NPM and the Provision of Public Employment Services
Authors: Sol Els
Published: March 2017

In activating social security policies, the unemployed are no longer expected to undergo interventions or treatment but are expected to contribute actively to their return to the labour market. The main efficiency rationale behind this shift is the idea, based on New Public Management (NPM), that increased levels of involvement improve placement results over time. With this shift, the instruments for the delivery of services have also undergone a conspicuous change. The voucher is one of the most distinct instruments that came with New Public Management. NPM is not regarded by some as flexible enough to incorporate voucher-like arrangements in employment service delivery when introduced from the bottom-up and against the will of policy makers. This article argues that this is a misconception. It explores the relationship between NPM and vouchers, and discusses the successful bottom-up introduction and incorporation of a voucher-like arrangement (Individual Re-Employment Contract) under New Public Management in the Netherlands, in spite of strong opposition from the top.
A Means to a Changing End. European Resources: The EU and the Reconciliation of Paid Work and Private Life
Authors: Jacquot Sophie , Ledoux Clémence , Palier Bruno
Published: March 2017

European resources related to reconciliation policies have been incrementally developed and transformed. Three main phases of this process can be distinguished in the progressive institutionalisation and evolution of this field of action at the EU level. At first, the reconciliation issue appeared on the European agenda as a spillover interpretation of ‘equal treatment’. It then acquired greater autonomy, becoming an equal opportunity policy, leading to the development of various (legal, financial, cognitive and political) instruments around the objectives of improving work/family balance and the division of labour between women and men. Finally, this field has been converted into an economic employment policy field aimed at modernising welfare systems and guaranteeing budgetary sustainability through increases in fertility rates and, most importantly, female employment rates. However, this has come at the expense of the initial gender equality goals. The conclusion underlines the diverse and evolving meanings of the ‘reconciliation’ issue and its orientation. This diversity in meanings and orientations allows greater room for manoeuvre at the domestic level and even more diverse patterns of national usages of Europe, as is shown in the rest of this special issue.
Familialism in Flux: Role of Europe and Reconciliation in Hungary
Authors: Duman Anil , Horvath Anna
Published: March 2017

The article analyses the Europeanisation of policies concerning the reconciliation of work and family life in Hungary from the 1990s to 2006 from a domestic actor-centred perspective. More specifically, it looks at how members of the Hungarian Parliament – from government and opposition parties – framed European requirements and/or standards and how they used references to European processes in their arguments. The article distinguishes three periods of Europeanisation. In the first period, references made to the European Union were sporadic. The second period, before 2004, was the period of legal harmonisation. Finally, in the third period, after the 2004 accession, the reconciliation of work and family life became an explicit goal of the government, usually with references made to European processes and European principles. Furthermore, the availability of European funding was an important trigger of reconciliation-related reforms. This analysis underlines the significance of using Europe for legitimating domestic policy changes going against the traditional family policy framework.
How to Reform Pension Systems? Comparing Outcomes in Austria and Ireland
Authors: Raab Roman , Gannon Brenda
Published: March 2017

This paper investigates the pension policies and outcomes of two countries, Austria and Ireland, representing two different welfare models. How do these different systems perform in terms of income adequacy, labour supply incentives for older workers, and actuarial fairness? Although there is no ‘optimal’ design for a pension system, there seems to be a convergence in systems between countries. Countries with established welfare models that have evolved over time need to rethink the basic paradigms of their pension policies for the future. This paper contains specific policy recommendations about pension reform. We highlight the importance of behavioural incentives with respect to raising average retirement ages, and the need for government engagement in providing an adequate retirement income.
Residence as a Condition for Social Security in the United Kingdom: A Critique of the UK Right to Reside Test for Accessing Benefits and How it is Applied in the Courts
Authors: O'Neill Ruairi
Published: March 2017

This article deals with the issues relating to the UK's Worker Registration Scheme for migrant workers from EU8 Member States and the ways in which the scheme prevents EU8 nationals from accessing social benefits that would otherwise be available to EU migrant workers. Additionally, it considers the right to reside test, introduced by the Accession Treaty derogations to free movement, which applies to all persons seeking social benefits in the UK, including whether or not the test ought to be applied when applying Regulation 883/2004 on social security co-ordination. The article concludes that the legislation enacted since 2004, and the judgments of British courts interpreting the legislation, constitute an incorrect application of European law, and a violation of the rights of EU migrant workers.
Income Redistribution in Iceland: Development and European Comparisons
Authors: Kristjánsson Arnaldur Sölvi
Published: March 2017

This article explores income redistribution in Iceland stemming from taxes and transfers, both in terms of its development (1995–2009) and in comparison with European countries (2007). This is done by applying various decomposition analyses, mostly based on the reduction in the Gini coefficient due to taxes and transfers. Our results show that redistribution declined substantially in Iceland between 1995 and 2007; two thirds of the reduction was due to the tax system. The reduction in tax redistribution is explained by a decrease in the personal tax allowance and changed income composition. In a comparison of western European countries in 2007, redistribution stemming from taxes and transfers was lowest in Iceland. This may be explained by low progressivity in the tax system and very low transfer payments, which may to a large extent be explained by high employment rates. In an international comparison, Scandinavian and Continental European countries have the highest levels of redistribution. For the Continental countries, this is to a large extent due to low employment rates, while in the Scandinavian countries it is due to high distributional policies.
The ‘New’ Self-Employed: An Issue for Social Policy?
Authors: Westerveld Mies
Published: March 2017

In this article, an attempt is made to advance the thinking about the ‘new’ self-employed (NSE). This is done by describing four cases which can be considered representative for the purposes of demonstrating the ambiguous attitude of social policy makers towards NSE. In the end four conclusions are drawn. The target group is too varied for statements about desirable legislation or social policy architecture, but a substantial proportion does deserve the qualification ‘precarious' and, consequently, the attention of social policy. The solution lies in categorical arrangements which address the need for protection in specific sectors. The time is ripe for this. Research has shown that the proposition that many NSE are concerned about their vulnerability as workers is untrue. They see that they are no longer protected by collective arrangements, and they know from experience that the market can resolve only a limited proportion of their problems. Their concerns can provide the foundation for a collective commitment to mandatory solidarity as long as the target group is closely related. And finally, the complexity surrounding NSE is especially challenging for the labour unions, but they could also approach the entry of NSE as an opportunity to regroup around the interests of all workers, no matter what their labour law status.
Child Maintenance in the Netherlands
Authors: Curry-Sumner Ian , Montanus Pauline
Published: March 2017

The determination of child maintenance in the Netherlands is a complicated procedure involving the calculation of the needs of the child and the financial capacity of the maintenance debtor The system used tends towards individualism rather than standardisation. As such, it involves complicated formulae. The system itself has come under a great deal of criticism, leading to proposals for reform both from the judiciary as well as from politicians. The article outlines the method currently in use in the Netherlands for determining child maintenance.
Putting the Child-Centred Investment Strategy to the Test: Evidence for the EU27
Authors: Van Lancker Wim
Published: March 2017

Under the social investment paradigm, a child-centred investment strategy has been developed. The mainstay of such a strategy is the provision of childcare services, which are expected to increase maternal employment rates, further children's human capital and mitigate social inequalities in early life. In this article, I critically assess the child-centred investment strategy and question whether childcare services in European countries are, in their current state, up to the task of producing the anticipated benefits. The argument I develop is fairly simple: in order to be effective, childcare services should be provided for all social groups, and in particular for children from disadvantaged backgrounds. Drawing on recent EU-SILC data, I show that in all but one country this condition is not met: childcare services are often taken up at low or moderate levels, and children from low-income families use them to a much lesser extent than those from high-income families. In order to overcome these childcare deficits, countries should pursue a consistent investment strategy which entails increasing both the supply of childcare and employment opportunities for all social groups. This will require huge budgetary efforts for most member states.
Overview of Recent Cases before the Court of Justice of the European Union and the European Court of Human Rights (July – December 2012)
Authors: van der Mei Anne Pieter
Published: March 2017

In the period July–December 2012 both the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) and the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) delivered a number of important rulings that are worth reporting. The present overview discusses four CJEU judgments, two dealing with the rules determining the applicable legislation (Partena ASBL v Les Tartes de Chaumont-Gistoux SA and Format) and two involving benefits aimed at promoting access to employment (Caves Krier and Prete). In addition, the overview covers the notable ECtHR decision judgment in Ramaer and van Willigen v. the Netherlands, which seems to mark the end of a long legal battle that Dutch pensionado's have fought against the introduction of compulsory health insurance in 2006.
Access Denied: Towards a New Approach to Social Protection for Formally Excluded Migrants
Authors: Vonk Gijsbert , Van Walsum Sarah
Published: March 2017

This article discusses some recent trends in the area of immigration and social security. Access to social security is rendered more difficult, particularly for irregular immigrants, while the scope of application of the social security system is more closely linked to the national border (retrenchment to the national borders). It is argued that these trends can be attributed to restrictive immigration policies and the implicit rejection of transnational citizenship. These factors also appear to affect the strength of the transnational informal social security networks of which migrant groups are members. The article calls for an alternative strategy for the social protection of irregular migrants based upon respect for human rights, extra-territorial responsibility of migrants and more socially inspired return policies.
Human Security and the Human Rights of Undocumented Migrants: Systemic Vulnerabilities and Obligations of Protection
Authors: Estrada-Tanck Dorothy
Published: March 2017

Human security emerged as a post-Cold War discourse out of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in the 1990s, and provides the focus of the 2003 Commission on Human Security Report and the 2012 UN Secretary General's Second Report on Human Security. The concept of human security attempts to confront threats that had been overlooked by conventional state-centred conceptions of national security, addressing risks faced by individuals and communities, such as poverty, HIV/AIDS, and violence against women. It places human rights as one of its core pillars and advocates a person-centred approach to dangers that create interlinked vulnerabilities for persons worldwide.

The focus of human rights on the individual often provides a fragmented picture of phenomena that are, in fact, interconnected. In response to this, the paper asks whether the introduction of the concept of human security has the potential to enrich International Human Rights Law by enabling it to adapt to the challenges faced by undocumented migrants. It examines legal irregularity as a source of risk through the lens of human security. In reviewing illustrative judicial cases from the European and Inter-American human rights' systems, it analyses whether a human security-sensitive approach, with its view of widespread threats, offers a more integrated approach towards the rights of undocumented migrants, as well as examining the consequences that unfold when it is overlooked.
Sharing International Responsibility for Poor Migrants?
Authors: Hesselman Marlies
Published: March 2017

This article analyses possible legal bases for the establishment of extra-territorial socio-economic human rights obligations on the part of wealthier European ‘Destination Countries' vis-à-vis poor migrants. In particular, it considers whether obligations of international cooperation and assistance under the International Covenant on Economic Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) might provide a basis for addressing socio-economic deprivation in Countries of Origin and lead to the provision of social assistance. The article also analyses the socio-economic case-law under Article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) in respect of expulsion of migrants (e.g. MSS v Belgium and Greece, Sufi and Elmi v the UK, and SHH v the UK).

The analysis of these documents supports the claim that wealthy states can attract responsibilities for providing protection against living in poverty for persons in other countries. At the same time, although language and semantics relating to extra-territorial socio-economic protection are converging under the ICESCR and ECHR, there are a number of pertinent questions that remain in the sphere of concrete burden sharing. These relate primarily to the allocation to wealthy European states of concrete burdens of responsibility for the elimination/prevention of poverty in other countries and raise the question of how far the responsibility stretches.
Do Tax-Benefit Packages Treat Families in the Same Manner When Unemployment Strikes?
Authors: Freundt Anders , Straubinger Simon Grundt , Kvist Jon
Published: March 2017

Social protection against unemployment is on the European agenda because of the economic crisis. Since European family patterns have changed over the last three decades, the social protection for unemployment may be very different during this economic crisis from what it was previously. In particular the combination of more diverse families and high unemployment raises the general question of how today's systems of social protection cater for different types of families and income groups. Based on a micro-simulation analysis, this article examines how, and to what extent, packages of social security provide support for various types of unemployed families at different income levels. The comparison is between four countries representing different welfare state models and dominant family types. Using the OECD Tax-Benefit model, the article surveys the disposable income and provides a breakdown of benefits for different family types facing unemployment. It takes into account housing costs and childcare costs, and the benefits related to them. The analysis shows that unemployed families experience different levels of support depending not only on the country they live in, but also on their income level and family type. Often differences between families at different income levels within countries are larger than differences between families at the same income level between countries. The analysis illustrates how important it is to look beyond unemployment insurance and include family related benefits to understand the support provided to families faced with unemployment.
How Gender-Neutral are the Nordic Countries Really? Father-Friendliness in Leave Schemes for Families with Children
Authors: Bonnesen Lærke , Nielsen Sara Ravnkilde
Published: March 2017

Significant changes regarding work and family patterns in post-industrial societies have rocked the foundations of the gendered division of labour in family life. Nevertheless, the focus of attention has thus far mainly been on women's roles and entitlements, and has not implied a parallel focus on men's roles as fathers and caregivers. This article redirects attention to the role of men as fathers by exploring the economic incentives for fathers to take up parental leave in the Nordic countries (Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden). It also highlights the great variety of circumstances relating to education and jobs among fathers. It constructs a more ‘realistic’ representation of the material conditions facing families with children through an in-depth policy analysis that takes into account not only public leave schemes but also the private layer of welfare entitlements for broad categories of workers, representing different socio-economic groups and employment sectors. The results indicate that there are different economic incentives for fathers to take up parental leave across countries - with Sweden being the most ‘father-friendly’ – as well as class-based and sector-based inequalities within countries. In-depth policy analysis of public and private layers of welfare entitlements reveal dissimilarities in access to participation in family life between fathers in the Nordic countries.
Decomposing Child Poverty Reduction
Authors: Bradshaw Jonathan , Huby Meg
Published: March 2017

European countries vary in the extent to which they succeed in reducing poverty using social transfers. However, we do not have good ways of understanding how these different outcomes are achieved. It is therefore very difficult to learn lessons from abroad. This paper uses micro data from the EU Statistics on Income and Living Condition (SILC), and attempts to decompose reductions in child poverty rates and gaps into the contribution made by children, old age, social exclusion, housing and work-related benefits. The analysis is undertaken for all families with children under 16, lone parent families, couple families, and then for families with varying levels of work intensity.

Transfers make a substantial contribution to reducing child poverty rates and closing poverty gaps. The contribution varies between countries in the European Union. There is no single model, no most successful exemplar. Some countries do better for their children in lone parent households and others do better for their children in couple households.

The analysis has enabled some opening up of the how question, though what is going on is still something of a mystery in some countries. It is probable that analysis at the national level with greater knowledge of national benefits systems is necessary to further open the ‘black box’.
Responses from the Frontline: How Organisations and Street-Level Bureaucrats Deal with Economic Sanctions
Authors: Caswell Dorte , Høybye-Mortensen Matilde
Published: March 2017

Economic sanctions have gained more political legitimacy and are being more widely used as a tool to improve the willingness of unemployed welfare recipients to participate in activities within the framework of active labour market policy (ALMP). The focus of this article is the use of economic sanctions on cash benefit recipients in Denmark, Quantitative analyses show a substantial increase in the use of economic sanctions in Denmark, including sanctions on those who are categorised as having problems in addition to unemployment. In this article we will direct our attention to responses from both the organisational and individual level regarding the implementation of sanctions. Empirical material consists of interviews with managers and frontline social workers in municipalities with a high number of sanctions. We argue that organisations matter in shaping street-level behaviour, resulting in substantial differences in the use of sanctions from one municipality to another.
Austerity-Driven Labour Market Reforms in Southern Europe: Eroding the Security of Labour Market Insiders
Authors: Moreira Amilcar , Domínguez Ángel Alonso , Antunes Cátia , Karamessini Maria , Raitano Michele , Glatzer Miguel
Published: March 2017

The sovereign debt crisis in the Eurozone and increased pressures for ‘structural reform’ have led to a period of intensive change in labour market policy in Southern Europe. Examining the cases of Greece, Portugal, Spain and Italy, this article focuses on the security of labour market insiders, a key group in labour markets that is highly segmented. The security of labour market insiders is conceptualised as consisting of security in employment (protection against dismissals) and security in unemployment (protection against drops in income provided by unemployment insurance and assistance). Using changes in national laws, the article charts and compares labour market change along these two dimensions across these four Southern European countries. Because labour market reform has not been restricted to Southern Europe, the article also compares these developments to broader changes in the countries of the Eurozone, using OECD and MISSOC data. Having demonstrated the degree to which the security of labour market insiders has diminished, the article concludes with an agenda for research on the policy dynamics of Southern European labour market reform in the wake of the financial crisis.
Decentralisation at a Time of Harsh Austerity: Multilevel Governance and the Welfare State in Spain and Italy Facing the Crisis
Authors: Del Pino Eloísa , Pavolini Emmanuele
Published: March 2017

Decentralisation was one of the most relevant trends in the institutional development of the Spanish and Italian welfare states up to the onset of the economic crisis. The present article tries to answer two questions. How have central government – subnational government relationships and models of welfare governance evolved? What has happened to territorial inequalities in access to welfare state provision before and after the onset of the crisis and the introduction of austerity policies?.

Before the crisis, territorial differences in the operation of the welfare state across regions were more pronounced and intense in Italy than in Spain. With the onset of the crisis and austerity, the differences between territorial clusters in Spain have remained relatively stable or have decreased, whereas in Italy they have often increased. In both cases, regional governments have, in recent years, been more dependent on central government. In fact, to receive support or extra funding, regional governments have accepted the conditions imposed by central government. Sub-national governments have been forced to accept significant cuts and greater control or supervision of their budgets. As the largest part of the regional budget is spent on social policies, regional welfare systems have inevitably been affected both in scope and in the way in which decisions are made.
A Meta-Methodological Study of Dutch and Belgian PHDs in Social Security Law: Devising a Typology of Research Objectives as a Supporting Tool
Authors: Kestemont Lina
Published: March 2017

This article presents a typology of research objectives for legal scholarship in response to the strong call for research on legal methodology. Based on an in-depth literature study, the possible research objectives of legal scholarship are classified, labelled and discussed. In conjunction with the theoretical clarification of the typology, the article also provides concrete examples of research objectives discerned in Dutch and Belgian PhDs in social security law.

The development of the typology presented in this article forms part of a broader PhD project aiming to apply a ‘bottom-up’ approach to research on legal methodology. In order to do this, the project identifies which research objectives and research methods have been used in a representative sample of legal research in the field of social security law. Looking into existing research on social security law makes it possible to grasp the ways in which research is being conducted in this particular branch of law. The sample analysed includes all PhDs on social security law defended at all Dutch or Belgian Law Faculties between 1945 and 2012. The typology discussed in this article then serves as a supporting tool for the analysis of the selected PhDs on social security law.
Overview of Recent Cases before the European Court of Human Rights (January – December 2014)
Authors: van der Mei Anne Pieter
Published: March 2017

In 2014 the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR or Court) did not deliver landmark rulings establishing new principles relevant for, or overturning previous jurisprudence on, social security. Rather, the cases that were decided by the ECtHR confirmed key principles developed in older case law and clarified their practical meaning and implications by applying these in new or comparable cases. Notably, most of the cases decided by the Court in 2014 concerned pension reforms and the concrete implications of these for individuals.1
Evaluating What Works for Whom in Active Labour Market Policies
Authors: Bredgaard Thomas
Published: March 2017

In order to make informed and legitimate decisions in labour market policies, European and national policy makers need better knowledge of what type of interventions works for whom. The European Commission and many Member States have high hopes that ‘experimental evaluation’ techniques (such as randomised controlled experiments, systematic meta-analysis and econometric outcome evaluations) will deliver solid and clear evidence to inform the development of more rational decision-making processes. This article reviews the evaluation literature on Active Labour Market Policy (ALMP) and examines what works for whom, under what circumstances. It assesses the strengths and weaknesses of the current drive towards ‘experimental evaluation’ and proposes an integrated framework for ALMP evaluation that combines ‘experimental evaluation’ with ‘programme theory evaluations' and quantitative with qualitative data collection.
Poverty Reduction Effects of Taxation and Benefit Policies in Finland, 1993–2013
Authors: Moisio Pasi , Lehtelä Kirsi-Marja , Mukkila Susanna
Published: March 2017

In this article we estimate counterfactual poverty rates in order to evaluate the impact of changes in taxation and benefits on the increase of the poverty risk rate in Finland between 1993 and 2010. Household disposable incomes are simulated by using the households from the 2010 data, but varying the annual taxation and benefits for the years 1993–2013. Benefit cuts after the 1990s depression had a rather modest impact on poverty risk rates but changes in taxation had a considerably larger impact. The poverty risk rate would be 2.5 percentage points lower if tax legislation was the same in 2010 as it was in 1993. Furthermore, the level of benefits has decreased compared to the average income level. If the level of benefits in 2010 had remained at the same level as in 1993 compared to average earnings, the poverty risk rate would be four percentage points lower in 2010. Our results show that the so-called policy drift with regard to social transfers can have a major impact on relative adequacy and on the poverty reduction effect of social transfers in the long-run.