bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Dr. Thomas Fastolf and the History of Law Reporting
Authors: Baker J. H.
Published: January 2009

It is sometimes supposed by English lawyers that one of the principal differences between their law and other European legal systems is that the common law is founded on decided cases, whereas systems influenced by Roman law depend on texts and doctrinal literature. Some Civilians might accept the distinction. But the canonist knows that it is hardly accurate. In the first place, his decretals can be regarded both as case-law and as texts. Moreover, once the pope began to commit his adjudicative authority to a court composed of doctors of law, canon law became increasingly the jurisprudence of a learned tribunal. The supreme papal court was the “Audience,” where cases were heard before the auditors of the papal palace (domini auditores sacri palacii apostolici). The pope had appointed auditors of causes since early times, and their procedure had become regularised during the thirteenth century. By the fourteenth century, when these judges were lawyers of distinction from all over Europe, the Court of Audience had become a collegiate body; and under Pope John XXII (1316–34) it was given a written constitution and a settled home. John settled his curia at Avignon, and built a hall of audience alongside his palace there. In 1331 he promulgated the bull Ratio iuris, which was intended to govern for all time what it described as “the highest court established under divine inspiration, where the quality of justice abounds in excellence and brilliance.”
Trusts and Titles
Authors: Bailey S. J.
Published: January 2009

The outstanding characteristic of all equitable interests in property is that they do not affect a purchaser who, without notice of their existence, acquires a legal estate in that property in good faith and for value. This rule is of respectable antiquity, and still holds good. As is well known, however, a doctrine ofconstructivenotice was developed by Courts of Equity, whereby purchasers are deemed to have notice of the existence of an equitable interest if they unjustifiably omit to make some enquiry or to inspect some deed which would have revealed it. The consequence of this doctrine was that a purchaser of land, which was subject to equitable interests, was seldom able to say that he purchased without notice of them.
The Department of Criminal Science
Authors: Turner J. W. Cecil
Published: January 2009

In the last issue of this Journal we announced the formation by the Faculty Board of Law of a committee to consider the promotion of research and teaching in criminal science. That the enterprise thus initiated was felt to satisfy a need was proved by the general welcome which was accorded to the committee both here and overseas, and the success which the committee's projects achieved was recognized by the University when it placed the study of this subject in Cambridge on a permanent footing by the establishment in December last of the Department of Criminal Science, by which the original Committee has now been replaced.
Ladies for Life or Who Sits Where?
Authors: Turek Andrew
Published: January 2009

The recent death of Baroness Wootton of Abinger, one of the first group of life peeresses who took their seats in the House of Lords after the Life Peerages Act 1958, prompts reflection on the process whereby one of the great male bastions has “gone mixed”, and has, indeed, done so more effectively than the House of Commons. It is a remarkable story, and becomes all the more so when closer consideration of the history and law reveals disturbing questions about how it was done and the consequences of the method adopted.
Oblique Intention
Authors: Williams Glanville
Published: January 2009

Why is it that intention, or intent, one of the basic concepts of the criminal law, remains so unclear? Judges decline to define it, and they appear to adjust it from one case to another.

Part of the trouble is the disagreement on the subject of intention amoung jurists generally. The Philosophers who have lately arrived on the scene, hoping to help the lawyers to slove their legal problems, in fact give only limited assistance. Their philosophical interest stems from the fact that intention is an important ethical concept, but they do not relate their discussions to any particular ethical concept, but they do not relate their discussions to any particular ethical theory, and they do not sufficiently consider the specific requirements of the criminal law. Indeed, they mix up the ordinary meaning of the word “intention” with its desirable legal meaning. To be sure, the meaning of intention as a technical term of the law ought to be close to the literary and popular one, but there are sound reasons for saying that the two should not always be indentical.
Promise, Expectation and Agreement
Authors: Stoljar Samuel
Published: January 2009

What is it to make a promise? What its conceptual ingredients? How do promises compare with other statements? How exactly do they relate to agreements or basic contract theory? These, broadly, are the major, if not quite the only, questions we shall here try to elucidate.
Some Sources of Modern English Criminal Legislation
Authors: Radzinowicz L. , Winfield P. H.
Published: January 2009

One of the salient points made in Dr. Radzinowicz's article is that the government publications collectively and inaccurately known as ‘Blue books’ have been almost totally ignored in our histories of Criminal Law. But his point is equally valid with respect to the history of many other branches of the law. One reason for this neglect is the inadequate bibliography of these historical sources. No doubt there has been some improvement in this respect during the last generation, but my own experience in using them has been that, except for the series styled ‘British and Foreign State Papers’ and the Calendars of some ancient state documents, their indexing is very imperfect. Yet the wealth of historical material in them is inexhaustible. What Maitland said of the unprinted sources of legal history might be applied to the publications that have been printed by government authority.
Making some Sense of Self-Induced Intoxication
Authors: Ward Alan R.
Published: January 2009

In Majewski the House of Lords handed down a decision which was intended to determine, authoritatively, the position of the defendant who pleads not guilty to a criminal offence on the basis that he was so intoxicated that he did not know what he was doing. Their Lordships unanimously accepted the existence of a rule of law to the effect that in crimes of “basic intent,” such as the assaults with which Majewski was charged, intoxication, where it was self-induced, could provide no defence; only where the crime involved required a “specific intent” could self-induced intoxication ground a plea of not guilty based on a lack of the necessary mens rea.
The Nature of Ususfructus
Authors: Kagan Kopel
Published: January 2009

No satisfactory definition of Dominium in Roman Law has yet been achieved. Amongst English writers Austin many years ago found great difficulty in this question while in modern times Professor Buckland has written ‘it is thus difficult to define Dominium precisely.’ Again, Poste, dealing with Gaius' discussion of dominium, says that his opening statements are ‘deplorably confused.’ These examples are enough to indicate the condition, of uncertainty which prevails. In my submission this uncertainty exists mainly because the conception of ususfructus has never yet been explained adequately. Of Possessio it has been said ‘the definition of Possessio to give the results outlined is a matter of great difficulty. No perfectly correct solution may be possible,’ and this statement is generally accepted as a correct assessment of the present position in juristic literature. But here, too, in my opinion, the reason is again connected with usufruct, for the possessio of the usufructuary has not yet been adequately determined. Gaius (2.93) tells us ‘usufructuarius vero usucapere non potest; primuum quod non possidet, sed habet ius utendi et fruendi.’ Ulpian holds that he had possessio in fact (‘Naturaliter videtur possidere is qui usum fructum habet’ D.41.2.12). On this subject Roby says ‘the fructuary was not strictly a possessor and therefore if he was deprived from enjoying he had not a claim to the original interdict de vi but in virtue of his quasi-possessio a special interdict was granted him.’ Austin saw difficulty in the whole problem of possessio. He wrote ‘by Savigny in his treatise on possessio it is remarked that the possessio of a right of usufruct … resembles the possessio of a thing, by the proprietor, or by an adverse possessor exercising rights of property over the thing. And that a disturbance of the one possession resembles the disturbance of the other. Now this must happen for the reason I have already stated:—namely, that the right of usufruct or user, like that of property, is indefinite in point of user. For what is possession (meaning legal possession not mere physical handling of the subject) but the exercise of a right ?’
Since the Statute of Westminster
Authors: Phillips G. G.
Published: January 2009

The passing of the Statute of Westminster, 1931, marked the end of a chapter in inter-Imperial constitutional relations. It was considered by most that, while old conventions must develop and new ones come into being, the legal problems of the Commonwealth had, as far as the Dominions and the mother-country are concerned, been finally solved. The hope has been expressed that ‘the time will soon have passed when the problem of inter-Imperial relations can profitably be discussed as a matter of municipal law’. It is over five years since the passing of the Statute of Westminster and it may not be unprofitable to review briefly inter-Imperial legal constitutional history since the passing of the Statute and to consider how far in the light of it we are justified in regarding as solved the strictly legal problems of inter-Imperial relations.
Furtum Proprium and Furtum Improprium
Authors: Daube David
Published: January 2009

According to P. Huvelin the lex Atinia read as follows: Quod subruptum erit, nisi in potestatem eius, cui sub-ruptum est, revertatur, eius rei aeterna auctoritas esto. This reconstruction is no doubt fairly accurate. What, then, is the relation of the lex Atinia to the XII Tables? For, as it appears from the sources, it was already the XII Tables that excluded a res furtiva from usucaption.
P. M. Hamlin's Legal Education in Colonial New York
Authors: Hollond H. A.
Published: January 2009

The commendation of Mr. Hamlin's book Legal Education in Colonial New York in the foreword by Emeritus Professor Beale should ensure for it a warm welcome by the Cambridge Law Faculty, apart from the interest which its subject merits on the part of a body of teachers.
Consensus Mistake and Impossibility in Contract
Authors: Wade H. W. R.
Published: January 2009

The boundary between the fields of mistake and impossibility in contract seems never yet to have been critically surveyed. But such a survey is badly needed, for it is plain that at the moment the law of mistake is in no less a state of confusion than is the law of impossibility or ‘frustration’. The outstanding case of recent years, Bell v. Lever Bros., Ltd. (1931), met with such universal and (if it may humbly be said) unmerited hostility from publicists in all quarters that this alone calls for an inquiry into the difficulties of the subject. There, has been a disturbing tendency among text-writers, led by Pollock, to profess an inability to understand the ratio deddendi of the case, to try to limit it for the future to its exact facts, and to refuse to recognize in it any legal principle.
The Effects of Peace Treaties Upon Private Rights
Authors: Mcnair Arnold D.
Published: January 2009

The aim of this article is to consider and state the effects upon private rights of treaties of peace, or, more precisely, of some of the normal contents of treaties of peace. We are not concerned with the automatic consequences of the coming into force of a treaty of peace, namely, the cessation of the operation of the many rules of law which affect the nationals and residents of a country upon its passing from a state of war into a state of peace.

We shall deal with the following topics:—

A.—Summary of public international law.

B.—Territorial changes.

C.—Change in nationality—plebiscite—options.

D.—Change in domicil?

E.—The scope of the power of a State to affect the private rights of its nationals.

F.—Effect upon nationals of third States.

G.—How far a peace treaty concluded by the British Crown involves legislation.

H.—The relation of the British Crown to its subjects in regard to a peace treaty.
Assault at Common Law
Authors: Turner J. W. Cecil
Published: January 2009

The student who seeks to discover the essential elements of the crime of Assault at Common Law as distinct from Battery does not receive much help from the standard text-books. Most of them in substance follow the description of assault given by Hawkins: ‘An assault is an attempt or offer, with force and violence, to do a corporal hurt to another.’
The Science of Comparative Law
Authors: Schmitthoff M.
Published: January 2009

In the course of the recent revival of the study of Comparative Law, repeated attempts have been made to define the nature and province of this branch of the law. Some writers maintain that Comparative Law represents a method of study rather than a department of legal science. They point to the fact that the technique of comparing different legal systems can be employed in almost every branch of the law and that Comparative Law, unlike the branches of positive law, does not fulfil a definite function in the life of society. In particular, writers on jurisprudence and history such as J. Bryce, Holland and Professor Jenks are inclined to subscribe to this view. Among the jurists who have made a special study of Comparative Law, Professor Gutteridge and Professor Kaden are strongly in favour of this view. Professor Gutteridge says: ‘The comparative method lends itself to the study of any branch of legal learning.’ According to Professor Kaden, it is the province of Comparative Law to disclose the points of agreement and difference in the solution which is provided by several legal systems for the same legal problem. The learned writer denies, however, that it is the function of Comparative Law to found a system of legal abstractions on the results of factual comparison. On the other hand, a number of students of Comparative Law consider their subject as a special branch of the science of law. Professor Saleilles, Professor Lambert and Professor Rabel support this view.
Proceeding by and Against the Crown
Authors: Inskip Thomas
Published: January 2009

The subject which I have chosen to speak upon to-night is, I am afraid, one of some technicality. But it is one of very great importance. Many of you are aware that it has been the object of much discussion in Parliament and the Press during the last few years. Officers of the Crown and heads of departments have been the target of criticism for their apparent and presumed reluctance to alter the forms of the proceedings by and against the Crown, and I am informed that a bill for altering the form of these proceedings is imminent.
Thomas v. Sawkins: A Constitutional Innovation
Authors: Goodhart A. L.
Published: January 2009

Although the judgments in Thomas v. Sawkins occupy less than three and a half pages in the Law Reports, it is a case of peculiar interest and importance. For the first time in English legal history it has been established that police officers are entitled to enter and remain on private premises if they have reasonable grounds for believing that if they are not present an offence or breach of the peace will be committed there. No, case was cited by counsel or in the judgments in which it had been specifically held that the police had this power, and no text-book contains a statement that it exists or has ever existed. Apparently the Home Office was ignorant that this right, obviously so useful to the police, could be exercised by them, for when the Fascist meeting was held at Olympia in London on June 7, 1934, the police, although they had reasonable grounds for believing that breaches of peace would occur, did not enter the hall, because, in spite of their request, the organizer of the meeting refused to admit them. When, a week later, the situation was discussed in Parliament, the Secretary of State for the Home Department, Sir John Gilmour, said:

‘I want the House to understand that the law provides that unless the promoters of a meeting ask the police to be present in the actual meeting, they cannot go in unless they have reason to believe that an actual breach of the peace is being committed in the meeting.’
International Law and Resort to Armed Force
Authors: Brierly J. L.
Published: January 2009

THE relation of war to the international system was stated by W. E. Hall in a well-known passage of his treatise in these words: ‘International law has no alternative but to accept war, independently of the justice of its origin, as a relation which the parties to it may set up if they choose, and to busy itself only in regulating the effects of the relation.’ This view, which came to be more or less generally accepted by international lawyers in the course of the nineteenth century, marked the definite abandonment of the claim of the classical jurists to distinguish between bellum iustum, and bellum iniustum, and it was in a sense an admission that international law had so far failed in the primary task of all legal systems, that of establishing and maintaining a distinction between the legal and the illegal use of force. But it had the great merit of candour, and it brought the theory of the law into accord with what had always been and still remained the facts of international practice.
Duress and the Criminal Law: Another About Turn by the House of Lords
Authors: Milgate H. P.
Published: January 2009

In the field of criminal law we should be used to the House of Lords changing its mind. In the course of the past three years the House has fundamentally altered its view on the meaning of intention, on the relationship between statutory and common law conspiracy and on the law of impossible attempts. Now we have another about turn. In R. v. Howe and Bannister the House of Lords has unanimously decided that duress can never be a defence to murder. Yet elsewhere in the criminal law (with the exception of some forms of treason) duress operates as a complete defence, leading to acquittal if raised successfully. In making murder an exception to this general rule the House, using its power under the Practice Statement of 1966, has departed from its previous decision in D.P.P. for Northern Ireland v. Lynch which allowed the defence of duress to be raised by principals in the second degree to murder. The Lynch decision, which had stood as part of the common law for some twelve years, is now consigned to the legal scrapheap.
Taxation and Marriage
Authors: Kerridge Roger
Published: January 2009

Almost everyone seems to agree that the system under which married people are now taxed in the United Kingdom is in need of fundamental restructuring. But there is less than total agreement on the form which such restructuring should take.
The Origin of the Law Journal
Authors: Hollond H. A.
Published: January 2009

It may be of interest if, after the lapse of fifty years, I record my memories, now dim, of the birth of the Cambridge Law Journal in 1921. Credit for the initiation of the venture belongs to the Committee of the Cambridge University Law Society, an undergraduate club founded in January 1901. In the academic year 1920–21 I was treasurer of the society and the junior officers were A. T. Harries of Emmanuel, R. Branston of Christ's, R. M. Hughes of Downing, and T. Simpson Pedler of Queens'. This group came to see me and propounded the proposal that the society should publish an annual magazine. T. S. Pedler was the most active spokesman, and I have always regarded him as the ultimate founder of the Journal. The original idea of the group was to publish a magazine containing an account of the doings of the society and of other matters relating to the law school in general. My contribution to the venture was to persuade the officers that if the society was to have a magazine it should be a scholarly production edited by a law don and embodying some of the features of the Harvard Law Review.
The Origin of the Journal
Authors: Goodhart A. L.
Published: January 2009

HenryHollond, who was the Director of Legal Studies at Trinity College, Cambridge, when I came there in the autumn of 1912 after graduating from Yale University, went to the Harvard Law School as a visitor during the academic year 1913 to 1914. When he returned to England in time to join the British Army he said that there were two things at Harvard which had particularly impressed him.
Law at the End of its Tether
Authors: Dias R. W. M.
Published: January 2009

Thepast fifty years have seen turbulences in every state, even the most secure hitherto. In a country like Britain, which has remained comparatively stable, it has been easy to preserve the philosophy of analytical positivism in which the science of law is abstracted from social, moral and other value-considerations. Such aloofness is tenable only so long as value-conflicts do not assume large enough proportions to disturb the settled state of affairs, so that one can play at being a jurist as a purely intellectual pastime without overmuch concern as to the direction of social development, since one is comfortably assured of a fairly uniform flow of public opinion. But when tensions begin to convulse the very surface of national life, jurists, let alone judges, are compelled to make conscious decisions as to which way to steer if shipwreck is to be avoided; and the decision to remain positivist then becomes a choice of one of several attitudes, the merits of which invite comparison and question. In keeping with the general surge of unrest, the past fifty years have seen in Britain somewhat of a swing away from positivism and a growing preocupation with values.
Mechanistic scaling of ecosystem function and dynamics in space and time: Ecosystem Demography model version 2
Authors: Medvigy D. , Wofsy S. C. , Munger J. W. , Hollinger D. Y. , Moorcroft P. R.
Published: January 2009

Insights into how terrestrial ecosystems affect the Earth's response to changes in climate and rising atmospheric CO2 levels rely heavily on the predictions of terrestrial biosphere models (TBMs). These models contain detailed mechanistic representations of biological processes affecting terrestrial ecosystems; however, their ability to simultaneously predict field‐based measurements of terrestrial vegetation dynamics and carbon fluxes has remained largely untested. In this study, we address this issue by developing a constrained implementation of a new structured TBM, the Ecosystem Demography model version 2 (ED2), which explicitly tracks the dynamics of fine‐scale ecosystem structure and function. Carbon and water flux measurements from an eddy‐flux tower are used in conjunction with forest inventory measurements of tree growth and mortality at Harvard Forest (42.5°N, 72.1°W) to estimate a number of important but weakly constrained model parameters. Evaluation against a decade of tower flux and forest dynamics measurements shows that the constrained ED2 model yields greatly improved predictions of annual net ecosystem productivity, carbon partitioning, and growth and mortality dynamics of both hardwood and conifer trees. The generality of the model formulation is then evaluated by comparing the model's predictions against measurements from two other eddy‐flux towers and forest inventories of the northeastern United States and Quebec. Despite the markedly different composition throughout this region, the optimized model realistically predicts observed patterns of carbon fluxes and tree growth. These results demonstrate how TBMs parameterized with field‐based measurements can provide quantitative insight into the underlying biological processes governing ecosystem composition, structure, and function at larger scales.
Calreticulin, a multi-process calcium-buffering chaperone of the endoplasmic reticulum
Authors: Michalak Marek , Groenendyk Jody , Szabo Eva , Gold Leslie I. , Opas Michal
Published: January 2009

Calreticulin is an ER (endoplasmic reticulum) luminal Ca2+-buffering chaperone. The protein is involved in regulation of intracellular Ca2+ homoeostasis and ER Ca2+ capacity. The protein impacts on store-operated Ca2+ influx and influences Ca2+-dependent transcriptional pathways during embryonic development. Calreticulin is also involved in the folding of newly synthesized proteins and glycoproteins and, together with calnexin (an integral ER membrane chaperone similar to calreticulin) and ERp57 [ER protein of 57 kDa; a PDI (protein disulfide-isomerase)-like ER-resident protein], constitutes the ‘calreticulin/calnexin cycle’ that is responsible for folding and quality control of newly synthesized glycoproteins. In recent years, calreticulin has been implicated to play a role in many biological systems, including functions inside and outside the ER, indicating that the protein is a multi-process molecule. Regulation of Ca2+ homoeostasis and ER Ca2+ buffering by calreticulin might be the key to explain its multi-process property.
Crystals
Authors: Abrahams Sidney C. , Barrett Charles S. , Harker David
Published: January 2009

THE CONCERN of modern crystallography is with the atomic theory of matter in all states of aggregation and with the optical principles of the diffraction of short-wavelength radiation by such matter. This broad definition is a far cry from the morphological emphasis of early classical crystallography; it is, however, just a logical extension of concepts initiated by Max von Laue's demonstration in 1912 of x-ray diffraction by crystals. Not only can the physical properties of a crystal be interesting; they can also be esthetically pleasing (figure 1).
Nuclei of low to medium mass
Authors: Harris Gale I. , Goldhammer Paul
Published: January 2009

r ECENT PROGRESS IN the physics of nuclear structure is marked by a rapid increase in the amount of new data on excited states of low-to-medium-mass nuclei—those nuclei with masses roughly in the range 16⩽A⩽56. Concurrent with this worldwide experimental activity a significant increase in theoretical effort is perceptible. The attraction to this area of nuclear-structure physics can possibly be related to the impressive array of physical phenomena that these nuclei exhibit. Very recent phenomenological developments include, for example, the frequent observation of unusual mixtures such as that of magnetic-quadrupole and electric-dipole multipolarities in radiative transitions between excited states and the discovery of very pure single-particle isobaric analog states at high excitation energies. In addition, electric-octupole transitions in direct competition with electric-dipole and magnetic-quadrupole transitions are becoming a persistent feature of these nuclei.
Physics and life prolongation
Authors: Feinberg Gerald
Published: January 2009

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY in the 20th century have made real many dreams of men in earlier ages. Among these are transmutation of elements and manned space flight. Another dream of many men in different places and times, that of elimination of aging and death, remains unfulfilled by us. Scientists who work on this problem do not know how to solve it or even whether it can be solved at all. I cannot answer these questions here, and I believe that physics is somewhat peripheral to their solution. Instead what I shall do is to present a somewhat novel way of looking at the matter, based on an optimistic estimate of future scientific progress. In addition, I shall discuss how some results of low-temperature biology (cryobiology) open the possibility to those living of taking advantage of this progress before the problems of aging and death are solved. This possibility depends on development of reliable methods of freezing, storing at low temperatures and reviving humans.
A superfluid potentiometer
Authors: Lubkin Gloria B.
Published: January 2009

Physicists who work on superfluidity have often “lost their cool” arguing over the meaning or even the existence of certain new effects. Controversy arose because measurements were frequently rough and inconclusive. Now a simple but powerful new technique for studying processes that affect superfluid film flow has been developed, which uses level sensing to probe the chemical potential along flowing liquid He II film. The work, reported in the 7 November issue of Phys. Rev. Letters, was done by William E. Keller and Edward F. Hammel of Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, who acted on a suggestion made by Brian D. Josephson of the University of Illinois.
Indexing physics papers
Authors: Blizard E. P. , Brickwedde F. G. , Crawford J. H. , Goudsmit S. A. , Herschman A. , Pasternack S. , Smith A. B. , Way K.
Published: January 2009

The accessibility of physics information depends and will continue to depend upon the indexing of papers appearing in physics journals. In the more distant future systems for storing and retrieving information without journal publication might evolve, but at present journal publication is so well established and seems so valuable that it is only sensible to accept the journal article as the fundamental entity which the seeker of information must locate.
An action plan for indexing
Authors: Atherton Pauline A.
Published: January 2009

To supplement the considerations in the two preceding letters, I should like to point out that the AIP Documentation Research Project benefits greatly from the advice of its advisory committee, composed mostly of working physicists who have some interest in documentation problems. Its members are Paul Camp, chairman, R. T. Beyer, F. G. Brickwedde, M. M. Kessler, Gilbert King, J. B. H. Kuper, Jerry B. Marion, K. G. McKay and S. Pas ternack. A nuclear physicist has been a regular consultant for several years and a consulting chemical physicist was added to the staff last year.
Quarkways to particle symmetry
Authors: Brown Laurie M.
Published: January 2009

WHEN THE EDITORS OF PHYSICS TODAY asked me—or, better, challenged me—to write an article explaining unitary particle symmetries to physicists who are not fundamental-particle specialists, I hesitated. But on considering the physicist whose children may ask, “Daddy, what are fundamental particles made of?”, I decided to write the article after all. That question—so innocent, so clear, so full of healthy curiosity—deserves to be answered, as far as possible, on the same level.
Internal conversion
Authors: Hollander J. M. , Rasmussen J. O. , Hamilton J. H.
Published: January 2009

INTERNAL CONVERSION—a process whereby an excited nucleus interacts directly with an orbital electron, imparting its excitation energy to the electron—has been intensively studied in the past few years. Experimental measurements have included K and L conversion coefficients, L and M subshell conversion-intensity ratios, and K-, L- and M-shell particle parameters (factors relating angular distributions of conversion electrons to those of corresponding gamma rays).
Stonehenge physics
Authors: Hawkins Gerald S.
Published: January 2009

STONEHENGE CONSISTS OF about 2500 tons of stone blocks, which ancient Britons managed to move, some a distance of more than 200 miles, and set in circles and archways on the chalk downs. The stone structures were placed within a circular chalk bank and ditch about 350 ft in diameter. Just within the bank was a ring of 56 equispaced holes, which archaeologists discovered in this century and named in honor of the antiquarian John Aubrey. According to radiocarbon dating of cremated bones the holes were dug about 1850 B.C. Similar dating of a deer-antler pick indicates that the stonework was put up about 150 years later. Needless to say, no written messages were carved on the stones by the builders, and they left no other clues to their purpose. In my first published discussion of Stonehenge, I showed that the stones and archways point to the sun and moon as these bodies rise and set during the year and that the symmetry of the structure permits it to be used as a computing device for predicting the year in which eclipses of the sun and moon will take place at a particular season, such as midsummer. The 56 chalk-filled Aubrey holes can be used to predict the year of an eclipse, and the 30 Sarsen archways permit one to count off the actual day of an eclipse. The hour of an eclipse can be determined by watching sunset and moonrise in the appropriate archways; thus, Stonehenge can be used as a sort of vernier. The astronomical alignments are beyond doubt, but the computer aspects are speculative. I have described both more fully in my book.
Atomic interactions in retrospect
Authors: McGowan J. William , Smith Felix T.
Published: January 2009

THE LEADING ROLE OF atomic-interaction physics in the development of modern physics was enshrined during the first four decades of this century. Since then, though, the energy range available for study has spread by a factor of a million in both directions, from cryophysics to BeV accelerators. Since the middle fifties the pressure of new activity in atomic collisions has increased as if the shock front originally generated by atomic physics were reflected inward from yet uncharted boundaries. There are many gauges of this increase of activity. One of the most sensitive is the conferences on the physics of electronic and atomic collisions. The next one of the series will be in Leningrad in 1967. The last was in Quebec City last August and was attended by nearly 500 practitioners from all over the world.
Instrumentation for high-energy research
Authors: Tautfest George W.
Published: January 2009

I N THE HIGH-ENERGY physics laboratory the most remarkable development that has occurred in the last five years has been the introduction of the digital computer as an active part of the experimental apparatus. This development has been due chiefly to the increased number and complexity of detection elements in a typical high-energy experiment and the dramatic decrease in cost of computing equipment. The point here is not the increased use of a computer per se to do numerical calculations in analysis of raw experimental data but its use “on line” as an intrinsic element in a closed control loop to modify the experiment while it is in progress.
Frequency control developments
Authors: Ballato Arthur D. , McKnight Robert V.
Published: January 2009

CRYSTAL VIBRATORS and atomic frequency standards are continuing to attract the interest of engineers and physicists. In particular, the energy-trapping concept has assisted in the application of theory to practical quartz resonators. Thus filter crystals have been extended to 125 MHz. Similarly, multiple-mode resonators of piezoelectric ceramic and quartz can now be made on a single crystal wafer, making possible a filter in a monolithic integrated form. Crystal oscillators, too, have been made, in which the crystal serves both as a control element and as an active device.
National Conference of Regional Counselors in Physics
Authors: King Allen L.
Published: January 2009

The First National Conference of the Regional Counselors in Physics was held at Washington University in St. Louis, Missouri, on March 8–9, 1963, under the auspices of the American Association of Physics Teachers and the American Institute of Physics through the generous support of the General Electric Foundation. Forty-four of the forty-eight physicists then serving as Regional Counselors and eighteen guests attended the meeting. They reviewed the Regional Counselor Program, exchanged information, heard reports about other national programs, and planned further action.
Linear accelerators for high energies
Authors: Blewett John P.
Published: January 2009

The linear accelerator was invented very early in the history of particle accelerators, but it has been one of the latest accelerators to be exploited. This is principally because of the very large quantities of radio-frequency power required to attain respectable energies in a reasonable distance. Radar developments during World War II resulted in production of the necessary megawatt oscillators or amplifiers, and linear accelerators, both for electrons and positive ions, are now operating in several centers. The electron linear accelerator has been extended to billion-volt energies, and in the Stanford two-mile version it will soon set new energy records between 20 and 40 BeV. The proton linear accelerator has had a less spectacular history. The highest energy yet achieved in a proton linac is about 70 MeV (at the University of Minnesota). Smaller proton linacs are in use as injectors for proton synchrotrons, but no machine has been built or is under construction for the range above 100 MeV. This is because synchrocyclotrons for this energy range are much cheaper and have been preferred for this reason, in spite of the fact that the beam from a synchrocyclotron cannot be nearly as intense or as well collimated as the beam from a linear accelerator.
Statistical properties of spectra
Authors: Porter C. E.
Published: January 2009

The purpose of this paper is to present a rapid survey of the statistical properties of spectra, using both atomic spectral data and nuclear spectral data. In many cases, only one kind of relevant data exists; for example, very little is known about atomic-particle transition-probability data, so in such areas we must confine our attention to nuclear data. When both atomic and nuclear data are available, we have tried to select those data which are usually not treated according to the general approach of this paper. Throughout our discussion, then, we will be mainly emphasizing analogies and the manner of handling different sorts of data according to the spirit of this paper.
Meson factories?
Authors: Zucker Alexander , Snell Arthur H.
Published: January 2009

In February 1959, a conference on sector-focusing cyclotrons was held at Sea Island, Ga., under the joint sponsorship of the National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council and the American Physical Society. Eighty-six specialists attended from six countries and thirty-nine institutions in Europe and America. Theory, orbit computation, and tentative designs were discussed, and the participants parted with a general feeling of both the feasibility and the desirability of accelerators of this kind.
The planet Jupiter
Authors: Wildt R. , Smith H. J. , Salpeter E. E. , Cameron A. G. W.
Published: January 2009

Approximately forty astronomers and physicists met on October 16 and 17, 1962, at the Institute for Space Studies in New York City, to discuss the properties of the planet Jupiter. The Institute is part of the Goddard Space Flight Center, National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The meeting was organized by R. Wildt and H. J. Smith of the Yale University Astronomy Department, and members of the Institute, directed by Robert Jastrow, acted as hosts.
The redefinition of the second and the velocity of light
Authors: Hudson George E. , Atkinson William
Published: January 2009

A very popular session at the International Precision Electromagnetic Measurements Conference was the Thursday night meeting organized to discuss the proposed atomic definition of the second and methods for measuring the velocity of light. This discussion was moderated and stimulated by Professor Ramsey, who entertained the participants on numerous occasions throughout the two-hour meeting with remarks such as his invitation to proponents of the pendulum clock to speak up, and with his method of smoothing over a somewhat semantic debate concerning either the proper qualifications to be furnished with a definition of the second or the question as to whether such qualifications are or are not part of the definition. The dialogue and response to Ramsey's balm went more or less as follows:

(Ramsey, addressing the debators) “I believe I agree with both of you. Let us suppose that in 1966, or before, that some transition in some material, let us say x or—”

(Unknown participant) “Hydrogen.”

(Ramsey) “Cesium.”

(Participants) Laughter.

(Ramsey) “Well, yes, cesium might well be recommended by the subcommittee. Then, following the recommended definition, there might appear a qualifying remark such as: ‘It is interesting to note that the frequencies of hydrogen and thallium transitions vary up and down together with respect to cesium by parts in 1012’.”
How to build your own teaching apparatus
Authors:   An AIP Staff Report
Published: January 2009

Do-it-yourself apparatus for better physics teaching is now within the reach of many small departments. Developed at a dozen leading colleges and universities, the apparatus ranges in scope from a simple kinetic-theory demonstration to a student-model mass spectrometer. All of the items can be built with the facilities of an average departmental shop. This opportunity for local construction of apparatus is offered through the Apparatus Drawings Project, sponsored jointly by the American Association of Physics Teachers and the American Institute of Physics. The recent publication by Plenum Press of a 162-sheet portfolio and a 289-page bound volume of shop drawings and construction notes on thirty pieces of apparatus brings to completion the project which was undertaken in 1959 with support from the National Science Foundation.
Some observations on the theory of electrons and atomic nuclei in solids
Authors: Houston W. V.
Published: January 2009

About thirty-five years ago Pauli and Sommerfeld gave the theory of solids a new lease on life by applying Fermi statistics to the electrons in metals. In the last fifteen years this theory has developed into a full-grown structure with countless ramifications.
Cosmic rays or machines?
Authors: Korff Serge A.
Published: January 2009

The subject of cosmic radiation has always exhibited schizoid tendencies. In recent years these may indeed have become somewhat more pronounced than before. Some physicists have voiced the thought that cosmic-ray studies are becoming obsolete, in view of new machines, and yet other new groups are entering the field and proposing new work. Let us take a brief look at the situation
Photon interactions in the BeV-energy range
Authors: Feld Bernard T.
Published: January 2009

The idea of holding a conference early in 1963 on high-energy photon interactions was a natural one for at least two reasons: first, the Cambridge Electron Accelerator, producing electron and photon beams of energies up to about 6 BeV, came into operation in 1962, so that the time was ripe for detailed consideration of what could be accomplished with such facilities; second, it had been apparent for some time that the traditional “Rochester Conferences” on high-energy physics could not fully satisfy the needs of all the workers in the field for exchange of information and ideas on all of its aspects. Thus, the IUPAP Commission on High-Energy Physics had decided that it would be appropriate to hold the Rochester-type conferences only every second year, and to sponsor regional conferences on specialized topics in the “off-years”.
High-energy physics: The 1964 conference at Dubna
Authors: Samios N. P.
Published: January 2009

The twelfth International Conference on High-Energy Physics was held at Dubna in the USSR from August 5 through August 12, 1964. This chosen site is approximately seventy miles north of Moscow on the banks of the Volga River. The city of Dubna (with a population of ten to twenty thousand, depending upon whom you talk to) is the home of the 10-BeV Synchrophasitron, a 700-MeV synchrocyclotron, and a low-energy, 3-meter, heavy-ion cyclotron. During the weekend of the conference, there was a conducted tour of the laboratory in which the above machines as well as experimental apparatus were viewed. For the less technically inclined, trips to Moscow were available via bus or train (approximately three hours each way). Among the many sites to be seen were the Kremlin, the GUM Department Store, the Pushkin Art Gallery, Moscow University, and the famous Moscow subway system. However, the most enjoyable pastime was to roam the streets of Moscow, camera in hand, seeing the people and thereby gaining a feeling for the daily life in the city. Over-all, one is impressed by the enormous number of apartment buildings under construction, the efficiency and ornateness of the subways, and the drive and energy of the people. The weather during the conference was cool. Furthermore, its proximity to the Volga, which allowed for a morning or afternoon swim, indeed recommends this area for a conference during the month of August. Most of the participants (numbering in the hundreds, with the Chinese being conspicuously absent) were housed in the Hotel Dubna, which also contained the dining facilities. One must say that our hosts, under the chairmanship of Professor D. I. Blokhintsev, extended themselves in providing for our comfort, our hunger pangs (it took less than one hour per meal), and our entertainment, which involved a memorable boat trip to Kalinin as well as a variety concert of Moscow artists.
Future scientific spacecraft
Authors: Branigan Thomas L. , LeGalley Donald P.
Published: January 2009

Satellites and space probes have proven to be extremely useful tools for the scientific exploration of space. Spacecraft carrying scientific instrumentation have returned large volumes of information on the earth's environment during the first six years of the Space Age, initiated October 4, 1957, with the successful launch of Sputnik 1. Although currently overshadowed by the Apollo manned lunar landing program, both in budget and publicity, a broad variety of future scientific spacecraft is planned by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and an increasing number of foreign governments are organizing space-research programs. This article will review the various scientific satellites and space probes to be launched in the next few years and will discuss their scientific objectives.
Elementary particles?
Authors: Chew Geoffrey F.
Published: January 2009

In this brief survey I am going to borrow some ideas from a lengthy review prepared in collaboration with Murray Gell-Mann and Arthur Rosenfeld for publication elsewhere.* In the title of our article we have used the term “particle” but have carefully avoided the adjective “elementary”. Had the title of my paper here today been of my choosing, I should similarly have avoided such a modifier, because if there is a discernible trend in current high-energy physics it is the decline of the elementary particle concept. A major purpose of my report to you is to describe this decline of an ancient idea and the beginnings of a new idea that may fill the void.
Two open letters
Authors: Weisskopf Victor F. , Weinberg Alvin M.
Published: January 2009

Your article in Physics Today on “Scientific Choice” touches some of the most important questions which we will face in the immediate future. You presented the situation in the clearest possible way and you pointed out the terrible difficulties which are inherent in any form of scientific planning. I agree with most of what you are saying and I like the way in which you said it. There is one important point, however, in which I cannot follow you. I accept your three “external criteria” for scientific choice: technological merit, scientific merit, and social merit. I would even go along with your sharper definition of scientific merit, when you propose that “…other things being equal, that field has the most scientific merit, which contributes most heavily to and illuminates most brightly its neighboring scientific disciplines”. But I cannot follow your arguments when you apply your criteria to the field of high-energy physics.