bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
An Automated Workcell for Specimen Tube Disposal
Authors: Herrmann Mark G. , Behr Kenneth C. , Last Eric D. , Mejia Jose , Kildee Heidi J. , Semrow Terry L.
Published: December 2008

ARUP receives on average more than 23,000 specimens/day for laboratory testing. The residual samples are stored in trays with a capacity of 450 tubes at −20 °C for up to a year. Previously, the disposal of these samples required a minimum of 1 full-time equivalent (FTE) for the manual disposal of up to 39,000 samples/day. We report the development of an automated workcell for the disposal of these samples. The workcell has reduced the FTE requirement by sixfold to 0.18 and has minimized potential biohazardous exposures.
Activity loss is associated with cognitive decline in age‐related macular degeneration
Authors: Rovner Barry W. , Casten Robin J. , Leiby Benjamin E. , Tasman William S.
Published: December 2008

Background/Methods

The objective of this study was to determine whether relinquishing cognitive, physical, and social activities is associated with an increased risk of cognitive decline in patients with age‐related macular degeneration (AMD). We conducted a 3‐year longitudinal study of 206 nondemented patients with AMD.

Results

Twenty‐three subjects (14.4%) declined cognitively. Age, sex, education, decline in visual acuity, and number of dropped activities were associated with cognitive decline; each additional dropped activity increased the risk by 58%. Subjects who relinquished three activities were 3.87 times (95% confidence interval, 1.95–7.76) more likely to become demented than subjects who relinquished no activities; those who relinquished five activities were 9.54 times (95% confidence interval, 3.05–30.43) more likely. A multivariate model demonstrated that number of dropped activities was a powerful predictor of cognitive decline after controlling for relevant risk factors, particularly for subjects younger than 80 years of age.

Conclusions

Relinquishing valued activities is associated with an increased risk of cognitive decline in older patients with vision loss caused by AMD. These data suggest the importance of promoting optimal cognitive and physical health in patients with AMD and perhaps other chronic diseases.
Words, Images, Artifacts and Sound: Documents for the History of Technology
Authors: Jenkins Reese V.
Published: January 2009

‘In the beginning was the Word…and the Word was God’. These words—taken out of their theological context—epitomize a common attitude among historians during most of Western history. By definition, there was no history before the advent of writing. Truly, for history, ‘in the beginning was the Word’ and, for nearly six millenia for the historian, ‘the Word was God’. As a consequence, words have dominated both the content and the form of historical works, including documentary editions. The close historical identity between reality and the mind and between ideas and words has reinforced the focus on words. There remain today philosophers who argue that thinking can only occur with words. It is not surprising, then, that a verbal conception of documents continues to dominate historical documentary editing. A few years ago, a famous American historian and documentary editor sought to convince me that documents were by definition, verbal.
The Influence of Leyden on Botany in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries
Authors: Stearn William T.
Published: January 2009

Synopsis

The University of Leyden was founded in 1575 as the reward of the city's endurance of the Spanish siege in 1574. Its influence on botany in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries is part of its far-reaching influence during this period on medicine, to which botany was then ancillary. In this it was the successor of Montpellier and Padua. The first university founded after the Reformation to practise and maintain religious tolerance towards its students, Leyden became the great international university of Europe, drawing students from Scandinavia, Germany, Switzerland and France, from all parts of the British Isles and the British American colonies (roughly 4,000 English-speaking students between 1600 and 1750) and even from Barbados, Jamaica and Constantinople. It offered facilities for higher education then denied, for example, to dissenters in England or else not available, as in Scandinavia. Owing to this religious tolerance in an age of intolerance and also to the personal eminence of a succession of professors, its influence spread widely. Directly and indirectly, Leyden made its greatest contribution to botany and medicine through the work and personality of Herman Boerhaave (1668–1738) and led to the founding or restoration of botanic gardens at Edinburgh, Göttingen, Uppsala and Vienna. Beginning with Clusius, its influence upon botany may be traced through Hermann and Boerhaave to Haller, Linnaeus, Lettsom and others. No other university has a more sustained and continuous record of service to botany and medicine during these two centuries than Leyden. This paper also touches upon the history of other universities.
The Foundations of Newton's Philosophy of Nature
Authors: Westfall Richard S.
Published: January 2009

Taking Isaac Newton at his own word, historians have long agreed that the decade of the 1660s, when Newton was a young man in his twenties, was the critical period in his scientific career. In the years 1665 and 1666, he has told us, he hit on the ideas of cosmic gravitation, the composition of white light, and the fluxional calculus. The elaboration of these basic ideas constituted his scientific achievement. Nevertheless, the decade of the 1660s has remained a virtual blank in our knowledge of Newton. It need not remain so always. His papers contain a wealth of manuscripts from his undergraduate years and the period immediately following. The first volume of his mathematical papers, which will soon be published, will demonstrate how extensive the information on his early mathematical development is. The development of his non-mathematical studies, especially of what I shall call his scientific studies to distinguish them from the mathematical, can be followed as well—in his reading notes, in his notebooks, above all in the passage in his philosophical notebook labelled Quaestiones quaedam Philosophicae. In this passage we see emerging into consciousness for the first time the questions on which Newton's philosophy of nature was built.
Mercator's Kinckhuysen - Translation in the Bodleian Library at Oxford
Authors: Scriba Christoph J.
Published: January 2009

In 1661 Gerard Kinckhuysen published at Haerlem an introduction to algebra written in Dutch. Because of the clarity and compactness of its presentation it was considered suitable for dissemination to a wider class of readers than those able to read Low Dutch. Nicolaus Mercator, a wellknown mathematician of German origin, who had come to England as a young man in the later 1650s, was asked by Lord Brouncker to prepare a Latin translation of it. To this Isaac Newton, at the request of Isaac Barrow and John Collins, added explanatory notes and comments, and the manuscript was sent to Collins in London on 11 July 1670. Newton's draft, though still unpublished, is preserved, but Mercator's original translation was believed to have been lost. Only recently I rediscovered it in the Bodleian in a bound volume deriving from the estate of the Oxford mathematician John Wallis, which contains several books and pamphlets once in his possession.

This article is divided into four sections:

I. A survey of Kinckhuysen's Algebra ofte Stel-konst.

II. A summary of Newton's notes and additions to it.

III. An account of the unsuccessful efforts of Collins and Newton to publish the Mercator translation, enlarged with Newton's comments—this is abstracted from Collins' correspondence with Newton, Wallis and Gregory.

IV. A description of the volume now in the Bodleian Library, press-marked ‘Savile G. 20’, which has Mercator's translation interleaved with the printed Dutch original and bound with other books once owned by Wallis.
Harvey'sDe Generatione: Its Origins and Relevance to the Theory of Circulation
Authors: Webster C.
Published: January 2009

De generationewas the last of the three works published by William Harvey during his lifetime. Although this work on generation was most ambitious, being the product of prolonged and detailed researches, it has received relatively little attention from modern writers. It is generally felt that this work, like William Gilbert'sDe mundo, departs significantly from the more pronounced empirical approach to science which characterized Harvey's first publication,De motu cordis. De generationeshows that Harvey regarded reference to teleological and vitalistic principles as necessary for the solution of crucial problems in biology. In this respect he differed from his contemporaries, the iatrochemical and iatromechanical physiologists, whose non-teleological approach seems, at least superficially, to be in sympathy with the modern biological tradition. The structure and content ofDe generationeare so evidently determined by Aristotle's biological writings, that the work is used to illustrate Harvey's failure to emancipate himself from the philosophical encumbrances of antiquity.
Uranus Observed
Authors: Austin R. H.
Published: January 2009

One of the difficulties with which scientific endeavour is fraught is that of maintaining detachment. The scientist's interest in his work will lead him to formulate hypotheses and the hypotheses will lead him to expectations about future observations. Is disinterested investigation then possible? Surely the very formulation of a hypothesis engenders a paternal affection and a desire to preserve it. Knowing this, however, the scientist is able to guard against his expectations influencing his observations, defending thus both his objectivity and his honour. But in cases where discriminations are exceptionally difficult to make, then here perhaps, in spite of fore-knowledge of the danger, and in spite of all precautions, an expectation may influence a judgement.
Sir John Herschel and the Development of Spectroscopy in Britain
Authors: Sutton M. A.
Published: January 2009

One of the most dramatic advances in the physical sciences during the nineteenth century was the emergence of spectroscopy. It rapidly became an invaluable experimental technique for chemists and astronomers, while for physicists it opened a window upon the world of sub-atomic phenomena. Sir John Herschel played an important part, the value of which has sometimes been underestimated, in the early development of spectroscopy. This paper examines his contribution to the subject during the period 1819–61 in the light of his publications and of certain manuscript material preserved in the Royal Society's Library. Herschel corresponded with most of the scientists who did important work in spectroscopy during his lifetime, and he expressed definite opinions on most of the practical and theoretical problems that arose in it; however, the present study cannot pretend to offer a complete discussion of all aspects of the early history of spectroscopy.
London Institutions and Lyell'S Career: 1820–41
Authors: Morrell J. B.
Published: January 2009

In offering a contribution to a session concerned with ‘the background to Lyell's work’, I want to begin by launching a caveat against the notion of ‘background’. If, in the case of Lyell, ‘background’ features remained in obscurity then they can be dismissed; if, however, ‘background’ features were important then they become foreground. This point is not merely linguistic pedantry, because if we look at the scientific institutions of London in the period 1820–41, it is too easy to assume, with naïve optimism, that if they existed they must have been functionally effective for scientists. This was not necessarily so. We have to discover, as a matter of contingent reality, the ways in which particular institutions actually affected the careers of individual scientists. In this paper, therefore, I shall offer some general observations on London scientific institutions; and then I shall analyse Lyell's varying allegiances to them in terms of his ambitions concerning the shape and direction of his career.
Charles Lyell and G. B. Brocchi: A Study in Comparative Historiography
Authors: McCartney Paul J.
Published: January 2009

In the second volume of the Principles of geology Lyell had occasion to speak of G. B. Brocchi, ‘whose untimely death in Egypt’, he said, ‘is deplored by all who have the progress of geology at heart’. Whatever he understood to be the debt of other geologists to that Italian fossil conchologist, Lyell himself owed him much for providing scientific data and interpretations integrated in his own geological synthesis, but especially for furnishing the escutcheon of the third chapter in the review of the history of geology which Lyell appended as a late but enthusiastic embellishment to the Principles of geology. The ‘Discorso sui progressi dello studio della conchiologia fossile in Italia’, an eighty-page essay on the history of his subject, was contained in the first volume of Brocchi's Conchiologia fossile subappennina and afforded Lyell succinct notices on Italian geologists from the sixteenth century to his own time, as well as cues for the introduction of other non-Italian sources.
Richard Owen, William Whewell, and the Vestiges
Authors: Brooke John Hedley
Published: January 2009

In The life of Richard Owen by his grandson there is an inference to the effect that Owen had objected to his name being used to authorize various statements that Whewell was drafting in opposition to the Vestiges. The inference is drawn from letters that Whewell wrote to Owen on 13 and 15 February 1845. Corroboration of this would corne from a letter of Owen to Whewell, dated 14 February 1845, if extant. Among the Whewell papers at Trinity College, Cambridge, there are several letters from Owen to Whewell, none of which bears that date. There is one, however, dated 14 February 1844 which, on doser inspection, turns out to be the missing link in their correspondance. The evidence for the misdating is not merely that the letter falls naturally into a later sequence. The conclusion is inescapable because Owen refers to an ‘opinion which I have always entertained, and still do strongly, on the subject of a refutation of “Vestiges”’. Since the first edition of Chambers's book did not appear until October 1844, the letter must belong to the following year. My object in this paper is to examine the implications of this letter for a reconstruction of Owen's attitude to that book which Adam Sedgwick could so detest for, among many things, its ‘gross (and I dare to say, filthy) views of physiology’.
Methodology and Apologetics: Thomas Sprat'sHistory of the Royal Society
Authors: Wood P. B.
Published: January 2009

Central to Thomas Sprat'sHistory of the Royal Societywas the description and justification of the method adopted and advocated by the Fellows of the Society, for it was thought that it was their method which distinguished them from ancients, dogmatists, sceptics, and contemporary natural philosophers such as Descartes. The Fellows saw themselves as furthering primarily a novel method, rather than a system, of philosophy, and theHistorygave expression to this corporate self-perception. However, theHistory'sdescription of their method was not necessarily accurate. Rather, as will be argued below, by a combination of subtle misrepresentation and selective exposition, Sprat portrayed a method which would further the aims of social and ecclesiastical stability and material prosperity, essential for the Royal Society since its continued existence depended upon the creation of a social basis for the institutionalized pursuit of natural philosophy. Some link had to be forged between the activities of the Society and the intellectual and social aspirations of the Restoration. To understand the intent and meaning of Sprat'sHistoryand the method there portrayed, we must therefore look to the institutional needs which it fulfilled.
Kekulé, Butlerov, and the Historiography of the Theory of Chemical Structure
Authors: Rocke A. J.
Published: January 2009

In 1858, August Kekulé and Archibald Scott Couper independently published similar ideas regarding the tetravalence and self-linking ability of carbon atoms; three years later, the Russian chemist Aleksandr Mikhailovich Butlerov read a paper at the GermanNaturforscherversammlungin Speyer, which restated, clarified, and enlarged upon the ideas of Kekulé and Couper. In 1958, the centenary of the structure theory was celebrated in Chicago, London, Heidelberg, and Ghent; the celebrations in Moscow, Frunze, and Kazan took place three years later. For over a century chemists and chemical historians have disputed the origins of structure theory. Sometimes this activity has been confined to occasional sniping, but at other times determined battles have been fought. The polemic has never been characterized by cool and dispassionate discourse. Western historians have in general been unwilling or unable to master the extensive Russian literature on the question; the arguments of Soviet historians have often been clothed in Marxist rhetoric or otherwise influenced by political considerations.
Context, Image and Function: a Preliminary Enquiry into the Architecture of Scientific Societies
Authors: Forgan Sophie
Published: January 2009

From the late eighteenth century onwards, urban life underwent increasingly rapid change as towns outgrew their limits, industries polluted their skies and rivers, and a host of new types of building appeared to cater for new needs and activities. Not only did towns look different, but, as Thomas Markus has said, ‘they also ‘felt’ different in the organization of the spaces they contained.’ Buildings which housed scientific activities—the learned societies, literary and philosophical societies, professional institutes, mechanics institutes, and by the end of the century the new civic universities—were one manifestation of this different ‘feeling’. These were quite new types of building, and we should therefore expect them to give us valuable information about the development of science, about ‘images’ of science and the meaning of those images, as well as the actual practice of science.
Return to the Wilberforce–Huxley Debate
Authors: Jensen J. Vernon
Published: January 2009

One hundred and twenty-eight years ago in the historic city of Oxford a relatively brief impromptu verbal exchange at a scientific convention occurred. It is still vividly remembered in and out of academia. This so-called ‘debate’ between the Bishop of Oxford, Samuel Wilberforce, and the young scientist, Thomas Henry Huxley, a simple and concrete episode, has continued to symbolize dramatically the complex and abstract phenomenon of the conflict between science and religion in the late nineteenth century. while that symbol may be somewhat inaccurate, or its relevance may have shifted from a century ago, it still is a powerful image, one which continues to be an important part of the religious, scientific and rhetorical history of the late Victorian era. Moore recently wrote: ‘No battle of the nineteenth century, save Waterloo, is better known.’ It is, as Altholz put it, ‘one of those historical events the substance and significance of which are clear, but whose specifics are decidedly fuzzy around the edges.’ It is the purpose of this paper to present a full and balanced view of the specific ingredients, permitting a better insight into the event's symbolism and significance.
William Hopkins and the shaping of Dynamical Geology: 1830–1860
Authors: Smith Crosbie
Published: January 2009

‘Hitherto want of accuracy and definiteness have often been brought as a charge against geology, and sometimes only with too much justice’, wrote Archibald Geikie in a review of Sir Roderick Murchison'sSiluria(1867). ‘We seem now to be entering, however, upon a new era, when there will be infused into geological methods and speculation, some of the precision of the exact sciences’. Geikie's judgement echoed an appeal made some thirty years earlier by William Hopkins (1793–1866) that the science of geology needed to be ‘elevated’ from a level of ‘indeterminate generalities’ to a rank among the stricter physical sciences. This paper aims to analyse, in the context of broader trends favouring measurement and mathematics in British scientific practice, Hopkins' role in the promotion of dynamical geology as a major new complement to stratigraphical geology such that, for example, in the first edition of Geikie'sTextbook of Geology(1882) the dynamical and stratigraphical components each filled 376 pages.
The ‘Sonderweg’ of German Eugenics: Nationalism and Scientific Internationalism
Authors: Weindling Paul
Published: January 2009

The history of eugenics has become a classic arena for examining how the interplay of culture, social interests and social structures affects the advancement of science. At the same time eugenics demonstrates how in the first half of the twentieth century, the expectation arose that science could offer the solution of social problems; for biology intruded into many areas of social policy during the 1920s and 30s. Historians of science have been struck by the coincidence between the rise of genetics and eugenics after 1900. Genetics underpinned techniques of family reconstruction, which were deployed for the screening of population groups. Areas of social policy such as the prediction of potential criminals and other types of social deviancy relied on eugenic rationales. This poses intriguing problems concerning the extent to which genetic research was motivated by eugenic ideals, particularly in the field of human genetics. At the same time, it is important to recognize that eugenics was a heterogenous agglomeration of sciences: in addition to genetics, a prominent place was taken by anthropology, clinical medicine, statistics, and psychology. These diverse constituents were welded together by cultural and social movements peculiar to respective national contexts.
The development of the vector meson theory in Britain and Japan (1937–38)
Authors: Brown Laurie M. , Rechenberg Helmut
Published: January 2009

In order to formulate a fundamental quantum field theory of nuclear forces that explains their strength, range, and exchange character, while at the same time accounting for the weak β-decay interaction, Hideki Yukawa introduced a new kind of quantum field. In contrast to the real field of quantum electrodynamics (QED), which he took as his model, Yukawa'sU-field was complex, and in contrast to the neutral massless photon of QED, theU-field's ‘heavy’ (i.e. massive) quanta were charged, carrying the electronic charge (positive and negative). The theory was proposed in November 1934 and published a few months later; however, its advantages were ignored, and for more than two years it went unnoticed, probably because there was no direct experimental evidence for the existence ofU-quanta.
Science and popular education in the 1830s: the role of theBridgewater Treatises
Authors: Topham Jonathan
Published: January 2009

As is widely known, theBridgewater Treatises on the Power, Wisdom and Goodness of God as Manifested in the Creation(1833–36) were commissioned in accordance with a munificent bequest of the eighth Earl of Bridgewater, the Rev. Francis Henry Egerton (1756–1829), and written by seven leading men of science, together with one prominent theological commentator. Less widely appreciated is the extent to which theBridgewater Treatisesrank among the scientific best-sellers of the early nineteenth century. Their varied blend of natural theology and popular science attracted extraordinary contemporary interest and ‘celebrity’, resulting in unprecedented sales and widespread reviewing. Much read by the landed, mercantile and professional classes, the success of the series ‘encouraged other competitors into the field’, most notably Charles Babbage's unsolicitedNinth Bridgewater Treatise(1837). As late as 1882 the political economist William Stanley Jevons was intending to write an unofficialBridgewater Treatise, and even an author of the prominence of Lord Brougham could not escape having hisDiscourse of Natural Theology(1835) described by Edward Lytton Bulwer as ‘thetenthBridgewater Treatise’.
The making of a British theoretical physicist – E. C. Stoner's early career
Authors: Cantor Geoffrey
Published: January 2009

In 1924 Edmund Clifton Stoner (1899–1966), a 24-year-old research student at the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge, sought a university post in physics. Having previously studied at Cambridge as an undergraduate, Stoner was nearing the end of three years' postgraduate research under Professor Sir Ernest Rutherford's supervision. 1924 was not, however, an auspicious time to seek employment since vacancies in university physics departments were scarce. Rutherford showed a kindly interest in Stoner's career and summoned him to his residence – Newnham Cottage – one Friday afternoon in March. Acknowledging Stoner's diabetes as a major concern, he ‘pointed out that I [Stoner] really wanted a job where I could take things fairly easily… He, of course, is prepared to “back me up” & was really very charming, though not very useful in any definite way.’ Subsequent visits to the Appointments Board proved ‘quite fruitless’. Stoner declined to apply for a post at Armstrong College, Newcastle, and only in mid-July did he hear of two more attractive positions. The first, at Durham University, was advertised in the press. Rutherford, who was ‘Affable – pleased with my work(!)’, advised him to apply. Interviewed together with several other candidates, Stoner was unsuccessful but not greatly disappointed. The other post, at the University of Leeds, was brought to his attention by Rutherford.
Knowledge is power: Hugo de Vries on science, heredity and social progress
Authors: Theunissen Bert
Published: January 2009

Hugo de Vries (1848–1935) would without doubt turn in his grave if he could be told about the various perspectives from which historians have studied his ideas and works. His would not be an exceptional case, of course, for many before and after him have fallen victim to the irony of history. Still, I am inclined to grant de Vries that he would have some reason for his distress, for the irony has hit him particularly hard. In 1922, de Vries was invited to attend the Mendel centennial celebrations at Brünn (Brno). He declined the invitation, suspecting, among other things, that the tenor of the commemoration would be pro-Mendel and anti-Darwin, and he heartily refused to share in either sentiment. Now contrast this with de Vries' imputed role in the historiography of genetics and evolutionary theory as ‘rediscoverer’ of Mendelism and as co-executor of the ‘eclipse of Darwinism’, and the irony will be clear.
Galton's 100: an exploration of Francis Galton's imagery studies
Authors: Burbridge David
Published: January 2009

Francis Galton has long been recognized as a pioneer of experimental psychology. The work on which this reputation is based occupied him for several years – broadly, from 1877 to 1884 – at the peak of his scientific productivity. This period of Galton's career has, however, attracted relatively little attention from historians, and few have made full use of the materials available for its study.
Medical lecturing in Georgian London
Authors: Porter Roy
Published: January 2009

Viewed in the light of the discussions ofscientificlecturing in eighteenth-century London contained in this issue, the case of medicine may be said to be both more of the same but also something different.
John Fryer and the Shanghai Polytechnic: making space for science in nineteenth-century China
Authors: Wright David
Published: January 2009

The introduction of modern Western science into late imperial China naturally involved the creation of new linguistic spaces through the translation of science textbooks and the formation of a modern scientific lexicon, but it also required translation in another, physical, sense through the creation of institutions whereby the new system of practices and ideas could be transmitted. The Shanghai Polytechnic, opened in 1876 under the direction of John Fryer, was promoted as an academy for the ‘extension of learning’; this paper explores the role John Fryer and his Polytechnic played in making space for science in late nineteenth-century China.
‘An Influential Set of Chaps’: The X-Club and Royal Society Politics 1864–85
Authors: Barton Ruth
Published: January 2009

‘Our’ included not only Hooker and Huxley but their fellow-members of the X-Club. ‘Our time’ had been the 1870s and early 1880s. For a five-year period from November 1873 to November 1878 Hooker had been President of the Society, Huxley one of the Secretaries, and fellow X-Club member, William Spottiswoode, the Treasurer. Hooker was followed in the Presidency by Spottiswoode, and on Spottiswoode's death in 1883 Huxley was elected President. During this period other X-Club members—Edward Frankland, John Tyndall, George Busk, Sir John Lubbock, and Thomas Hirst—were ordinary members of the Council of the Society. As the Table below (p. 60) shows, there were at least three members of the X-Club on the Council of the Royal Society from November 1870 until November 1882. On eight occasions in this period there were four or more X-Club members on the Council. ‘Our time’ came to an end in 1885 when ill-health forced Huxley's retirement after only two years in the Presidency, and G. G. Stokes at last became President.
Physical-Force Chartism: The Cotton District and the Chartist Crisis of 1839
Authors: Sykes Robert
Published: January 2009

There is a real need to integrate local and national approaches to the study of Chartism. The inadequacies of the pioneering studies of the national movement certainly revealed the need to return to the local roots of the movement. However, the pattern of local studies largely established by the important volume of Chartist Studies edited by Asa Briggs has had some unfortunate consequences. The attempt to provide a comprehensive account of Chartism in a given locality, and cover the entire period from 1838 to 1848, has often precluded extended examination of key issues. Such matters as the relationship between Chartism and other forms of popular protest, Chartist ideology and tactics, the relationship between the Chartists and the middle class, and the whole cultural and organisational dimension of Chartism have only recently begun to receive detailed analysis. There has been a marked tendency for one of the most remarkable aspects of Chartism, the extent to which diverse localities were united in a national movement, to be obscured. Indeed it is evident that many historians returned to the local roots of Chartism without adequate assessments of Chartist ideology, tactics, national organisation and national leadership. Some important recent work has done much to enhance our understanding of such matters. A more meaningful assessment of how events in the localities interacted with the national movement is now possible.
Monitoring major mastitis pathogens at the population level based on examination of bulk tank milk samples
Authors: Rysanek Dusan , Zouharova Monika , Babak Vladimir
Published: January 2009

The objective was to determine the proportions and bacterial counts of major mastitis pathogens in samples of bulk tank milk (BTM), as well as to clarify the relationship between these bacteria counts and bulk tank somatic cell count (BTSCC). The purpose was to judge the importance of the counts of mammary pathogens for BTSCC at the population level. Samples of BTM were collected from 268 randomly selected anonymous dairy herds (with approximately 29 000 dairy cows).Staphylococcus aureus, other coagulase-positive staphylococci,Streptococcus agalactiaeandStreptococcus dysgalactiaewere grouped as contagious pathogens, andStreptococcus uberis,Escherichia coli,Pseudomonas aeruginosa,Enterococcus faecalisandEnterococcus faeciumas environmental pathogens. Based on assessment of the dominant pathogen in each herd, environmental pathogens were found to dominate. Counts of specific mammary pathogens in BTM samples did not exceed a geometric mean of 1000 cfu/ml. Significant differences were documented in BTSCC between BTM samples containingStr. agalactiae,Staph. aureus, andStr. dysgalactiaeand BTM samples that were pathogen-free. Geometric means of BTSCC associated with these pathogens were noticeably higher than the overall BTSCC (Str. agalactiae243 628;Staph. aureus205 610;Str. dysgalactiae203 978; overall 173 000 cells/ml). It follows that the somatic cell count (SCC) associated with these pathogens contributed substantially to the overall BTSCC. Environmental pathogens predominated in samples of BTM with SCC <300×103/ml and contagious mastitis pathogens predominated in BTM samples with SCC >300×103/ml. No correlation was detected between bacterial counts of specific pathogens and BTSCC. This study revealed that the assessment of bacterial counts of mammary pathogens in samples of BTM in relation to BTSCC is applicable for the monitoring of changes in the occurrence of major mastitis pathogens in dairy herds at a national level.
Holy land, holy language: A study of an Ultraorthodox Jewish ideology
Authors: Glinert Lewis , Shilhav Yosseph
Published: January 2009

This study explores the correlation between notions of language and territory in the ideology of a present-day Ultraorthodox Jewish group, the Hasidim of Satmar, in the context of Jewish Ultraorthodoxy (Haredism) in general. This involves the present-day role of Yiddish vis-à-vis Hebrew, particularly in Israel. We first address the relative sanctity of a space that accommodates a closed Haredi lifestyle and of a language in which it is expressed, then contrast this with the absolute sanctity of the land of Israel and the language of Scripture both in their intensional (positive) and in their extensional (negative) dimensions, and finally examine the quasi-absolute sanctity with which the Yiddish language and Jewish habitat of Eastern Europe have been invested. Our conclusion is that three such cases of a parallel between linguistic and territorial ideology point to an intrinsic link. Indeed, the correlation of language and territory on the plane of quasi-absolute sanctity betokens an ongoing, active ideological tie, rather than a set of worn, petrified values evoking mere lip-service. These notions of quasi-sanctity find many echoes in reality: in the use of Yiddish and in the creation of a surrogate Eastern European lifestyle in the Haredi “ghettos.” (Cultural geography, sociolinguistics, Judaism, Hasidism, religion, Israel, sociology of language, Yiddish, sacred land, Hebrew, territory)
The Impact of church affiliation on language use in Kwara'ae (Solomon Islands)
Authors: Watson-Gegeo Karen Ann , Gegeo David Welchman
Published: January 2009

Christian churches are central to modern social and political organization in the Pacific islands, yet little research has been conducted on their role in intrasocietal diversity in language attitudes and use. We examine church affiliation and its impact on language use, identity, and change among Kwara'ae speakers in the Solomon Islands, where intense competition for converts and the association of particular churches with modernization and development is having a significant impact on language choice and change. We show that members of different sects signal their separate identities not only through linguistic code but also through discourse patterns and nonverbal aspects of communication. The characteristics we identify are illustrated in transcripts from four speakers, and the social outcomes of these characteristics is discussed. (Ethnography of speaking, discourse analysis, nonverbal communication, language change, language attitudes, Melanesia, Solomon Islands)
Individual style in an American pubic opinion survey: Personal performance and the ideology of referentiality
Authors: Johnstone Barbara
Published: January 2009

The anonymous telephone public opinion survey is supposed to be invariant. Interviewers' individual linguistic styles are supposed to be suppressed. However, transcripts of interviews show that no two interviewers perform the task alike. Interviewers make changes in the scripted introduction and add unscripted answer-acknowledgments and commentary throughout the interviews, the effect of which is to point up their identities as individuals rather than merely fillers of the interviewer role. Much of the deviation can be explained by the heightened requirement for politeness in the “cold call,” for Americans one of the most egregious of interactional impositions. But no two interviewers fulfill this requirement in quite the same way. This may be because Americans value individuality in discourse, so that in order to be polite it is necessary to perform a differentiated, individual self. Such an understanding of personhood, and its linguistic ramifications, conflicts with the positivistic understanding of language on which survey research is based. In light of the amount of individual variation where one might not expect to find it, I suggest that linguists focus attention on the individual voice. (Individual variation, individual voice, interviewing, public opinion polls, survey research, politeness)
The Experimental Researches of Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford
Authors: Martin Thomas
Published: January 2009

That remarkable soldier, statesman and man of science, Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford, has many claims on the interest of the historian of science. He is remembered for certain experiments and conclusions of fundamental importance regarding the nature of heat; he founded the Royal Institution; he was the author of a series of Essays on various aspects of pure and applied science which were celebrated in their day; and he was a pioneer in that field of activity which he described himself as “the application of science to the common purposes of life”. His methods of conservation of heat and economy of fuel, his designs of stoves, fireplaces and cooking utensils were widely used during his lifetime. He was consulted on the laying out of kitchens in hospitals and institutions and his advice was sought by his friends on household problems such as the curing of smoky chimneys and the efficient warming of rooms. He taught his contemporaries to recognise the fire built on an open hearth, the only means of domestic heating and cooking with which they were acquainted, for the ineffective and wasteful contrivance it really was. He held the most enlightened views, which were far in advance of his time, on the waste of fuel and the evils of atmospheric pollution in cities.
Atmospheric complexity or scale by scale simplicity?
Authors: Lovejoy S. , Schertzer D. , Allaire V. , Bourgeois T. , King S. , Pinel J. , Stolle J.
Published: December 2008

Is the numerical integration of nonlinear partial differential equations the only way to tackle atmospheric complexity? Or do cascade dynamics repeating scale after scale lead to simplicity? Using 1000 orbits of TRMM satellite radiances from 11 bands in the short wave (visible, infra red) long wave (passive microwave) and radar regions and 8.8 to 20,000 km in scale, we find that the radiance gradients follow the predictions of cascade theories to within about ±0.5%, ±1.25%, ±5.9% for the short waves, long waves and reflectivities respectively and with outer scales varying between ≈5,000 to ≈32,000 km. Since the radiances and dynamics are strongly coupled, we conclude that weather can be accurately modeled as a cascade process.
Effective Henry's law constants of glyoxal, glyoxylic acid, and glycolic acid
Authors: Ip H. S. Simon , Huang X. H. Hilda , Yu Jian Zhen
Published: January 2009

The Henry's law constants of glyoxal, glycolic acid and glyoxylic acid in pure water were determined over the range of 278 and 308 K for the first time by a bubble column technique. These compounds were chosen because of their perceived involvement in the formation of secondary organic aerosol through in‐cloud processing pathways. The experimentally determined Henry's law constants are: glyoxal, KH = 4.19 × 105 × exp[(62.2 × 103/R) × (1/T − 1/298)]; glycolic acid, KH = 2.83 × 104 × exp[(33.5 × 103/R) × (1/T − 1/298)]; and glyoxylic acid, KH = 1.09 × 104 × exp[(40.0 × 103/R) × (1/T − 1/298)]. The Henry's law constants of glyoxal in the presence of sodium chloride and sodium sulfate were also determined at 298 K. While the glyoxal KH is enhanced by less than three times in the presence of chloride in the range of 0.05–4.0 M ionic strength, the presence of sulfate at 0.03 M ionic strength increases the glyoxal KH by 50 times.
Solar Irradiance Reference Spectra (SIRS) for the 2008 Whole Heliosphere Interval (WHI)
Authors: Woods Thomas N. , Chamberlin Phillip C. , Harder Jerald W. , Hock Rachel A. , Snow Martin , Eparvier Francis G. , Fontenla Juan , McClintock William E. , Richard Erik C.
Published: December 2008

The IHY2007 Whole Heliosphere Interval (WHI) for solar Carrington Rotation 2068 (20 March to 16 April 2008) has been very successful in obtaining a wide variety of solar, heliospheric, and planetary observations during times of solar cycle minimum conditions. One of these efforts is the generation of solar irradiance reference spectra (SIRS) from 0.1 nm to 2400 nm using a combination of satellite and sounding rocket observations. These reference spectra include daily satellite observations from TIMED Solar Extreme ultraviolet Experiment (SEE) and Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment (SORCE) instruments. The extreme ultraviolet range is also improved with higher spectral resolution observations using the prototype SDO Extreme ultraviolet Variability Experiment (EVE) aboard a sounding rocket launched on 14 April 2008. The SIRS result is an important accomplishment in that it is the first data set to have simultaneous measurements over the full spectral coverage up to 2400 nm during solar cycle minimum conditions.
Seasonal variations of the nocturnal mesospheric Na and Fe layers at 30°N
Authors: Yi Fan , Yu Changming , Zhang Shaodong , Yue Xianchang , He Yujin , Huang Chunming , Zhang Yunpeng , Huang Kaiming
Published: January 2009

The complete seasonal variation patterns of the nocturnal mesospheric Na and Fe layers over Wuhan, China (30°N), have been established on the basis of several years of Na and Fe lidar measurements. Both the Na and Fe layer column abundances show strong annual variations as well as moderate semiannual variations with maxima in winter and double minima from late spring to midautumn (note that only one night of Fe data is presently available between mid‐May and mid‐July). The seasonal variation in the Fe abundance is evidently stronger than that of Na. The Na layer abundance has an annual mean of ∼2.5 × 109 cm−2, while this value for Fe is ∼7.5 × 109 cm−2. The Na and Fe centroid heights are dominated by semiannual oscillations with similar phases. The mean centroid heights are ∼91.4 km for Na and ∼88.7 km for Fe. The Na RMS width exhibits a strong semiannual oscillation with the layer slightly broader in winter, whereas the Fe width varies principally annually with a maximum in winter. The mean RMS widths of the Na and Fe layers are 4.5 and 4.1 km, respectively. The seasonal characteristics of the Na and Fe layers observed at 30°N have been compared with those currently available at other latitudes. The seasonal ratios of their abundances are smaller compared with 40°N and the South Pole. Their centroid heights and RMS widths also show less seasonal variations than the counterparts at all other latitudes. The annual mean Na and Fe abundances are about 60–77% of the counterparts at 40°N, 18°N, and the South Pole. This suggests that both the nocturnal Na and Fe layers have a low‐abundance region around 30°N. On the basis of the results observed at the three latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere, the annual mean Fe layer width decreases with increasing latitude.
Emergent Name-Writing Abilities of Preschool-Age Children With Language Impairment
Authors: Cabell Sonia Q. , Justice Laura M. , Zucker Tricia A. , McGinty Anita S.
Published: January 2009

Purpose

The 2 studies reported in this manuscript collectively address 3 aims: (a) to characterize the name-writing abilities of preschool-age children with language impairment (LI), (b) to identify those emergent literacy skills that are concurrently associated with name-writing abilities, and (c) to compare the name-writing abilities of children with LI to those of their typical language (TL) peers.

Method

Fifty-nine preschool-age children with LI were administered a battery of emergent literacy and language assessments, including a task in which the children were asked to write their first names. A subset of these children (
n
= 23) was then compared to a TL-matched sample to characterize performance differences.

Results

Results showed that the name-writing abilities of preschoolers with LI were associated with skills in alphabet knowledge and print concepts. Hierarchical multiple regression analysis indicated that only alphabet knowledge uniquely contributed to the variance in concurrent name-writing abilities. In the matched comparison, the TL group demonstrated significantly more advanced name-writing representations than the LI group.

Conclusions

Children with LI lag significantly behind their TL peers in name-writing abilities. Speech-language pathologists are encouraged to address the print-related skills of children with LI within their clinical interventions.
An age of change
Authors: Koch H. William
Published: December 2008

PHYSICS IS UNDERGOING important social changes, as is the rest of society. In the last decade, the most obvious change for physics has been the change in the attitude of society in the US towards it. From being regarded as a science desperately needed for national survival and prestige it has become one that is being placed in a more conventional social context, with new priorities.
Studying physics at Moscow State University
Authors: Artsimovitch Lev
Published: December 2008

IN HIS FIVE AND A HALF YEARS at Moscow State University, a physics student takes three or four years of general courses followed by one or two years of specialized training in some field of research. During the first stage he receives a broad and rigorous education in general physics and mathematics, reaching modern physics by his third year. If he is successful in the examinations that test his progress regularly, he can continue into the second stage: specialization. He chooses his field of physics and is assigned to work in a nearby laboratory, perhaps one in the university itself. After about a year he is ready to write a dissertation, rather like a small PhD thesis, on his research work. When the student successfully defends this dissertation before his examining committee he finally becomes a graduate of the university and is eagerly sought by prospective employers.
SLAC Inelastic Data Challenges Theorists
Authors: Lubkin Gloria B.
Published: December 2008

Since the preliminary reports on deep inelastic electron–proton scattering were made by SLAC experimenters in mid-1968, waves of theoretical speculation have been spreading over the high-energy physics community. Now some of the results have finally been published by the MIT–SLAC collaboration, but it is too soon to say they have been adequately explained by any theory.
An Interview with Peter Kapitsa
Authors: Lubkin Gloria B.
Published: December 2008

Peter Kapitsa had come to Columbia University to receive an honorary degree. It was his first visit to the US, and at 75, even after a heotic month of travel, his eyes were sparkling and his conversation lively. “Are you a physicist?” he asked. I said, “Yes.” “Good,” he said, “The journalists sometimes ask stupid questions.” He told me he does not work in low-temperature physics any more; his latest paper, 135 pages long, was to be published in the December JETP. It is on controlled thermonuclear fusion.
Doppler Shift Is Used to Study Superfluid Currents
Authors: Levi Barbara G.
Published: December 2008

At the December APS meeting in Los Angeles, a group from UCLA reported on a new method of studying persistent currents in superfluid helium in which they observe the Doppler shift of a sound wave in the medium. This method has also been used by a Texas A & M group.