Neka razmatranja o gospodarstvu Zapadnog Ilirika od IV do VI stoljeća / Some Considerations on the Economy of Western Illyricum from the Fourth to Sixth Centuries
Authors: Gračanin Hrvoje , Kartalija Nebojša 
Published: November 2021

The paper examines a number of aspects of the late antique economy in the provinces of the Diocese of Pannonia from the fourth to sixth centuries. Particular attention is paid to two southern Pannonian provinces and Dalmatia. The aim is to  outline general economic trends, especially in regard to how the political, ethnic  and demographic changes affected economic conditions during this period. Written sources are in the main focus for the analysis, while, at the same time, their randomness and tendency are borne in mind. The observations derived from written  sources are attempted to be meaningfully linked to available archaeological record.  The analysis is also focused on the question of economic potential of various economic actors, regional communities, local landowners, the Church and state authorities, i.e. the share of central government in managing, maintaining and revival  of provincial economy. Attention is also paid to the economic situation in the provinces under the non-Roman rule. During the fourth century Western Illyricum was an area of lively economic activity that was largely oriented to meet state needs. Written sources testify to certain  products that had a supraregional character, but one may conclude that the Norican  textiles were the only product that was of greater importance in broad-range and  long-distance trade. In written sources Pannonia is singled out as a province rich  both in agricultural products and in merchandise, but these were primarily consumed locally. Next to cities and towns, the biggest consumer was the army. The raw  materials were also of supraregional importance, especially the iron from Dalmatia  and Noricum as well as the stone material. The Norican marble was still quarried  in the fourth century and transported to Pannonia and Italy as well. Moreover, the  Dalmatian stone was one of the more sought-after items from the fourth to sixth  centuries, both as a raw material and as a finished product. One of the most important products which was based on a locally accessible raw material was coinage.  Western provinces were at a time supplied to a large degree with coins of the Siscia mint. Of course, it should be borne in mind that regionally mined monetary metals  weren’t only used to fulfill the capacities of local mints. Locally available wood and  stone materials were also important as a building material and especially used in the  extensive works to strengthen the Danube frontier by restoration and construction  of forts in the second half of the fourth century. To a certain extent this is also true  for later times, the fifth and sixth centuries, considering the erection of hillforts in  the interior of Dalmatia and in Noricum, as well as in strategic positions along the  eastern Adriatic coast and on the islands. It could be argued that one of the greatest resources of the late Roman Western Illyricum, and particularly Pannonia which is singled out for it in written sources, were its people. This refers to lesser extent to slaves who are likely to have been acquired in frequent conflicts along the frontier as well as in military campaigns across the border during the fourth century. The area of Illyricum was well-known in the later Roman Empire as a recruiting ground, which continued even after a significant part of Western Illyricum was already dominated by barbarian groups. The large size of population, if judged by what is claimed in written sources, was likely to have been a good  basis for general internal consumption, which is why the western Illyrian provinces  were also major importers of goods, even the goods that were produced locally, such  as wine and olive oil in Dalmatia. In addition, demand for luxury products and better  quality goods has also to be taken into account. That is why high-quality olive oil from  the Zadar area could be exported to Italy despite the local deficit of this product in  Dalmatia. The quality of raw material as well as the skillful manufacturing and workmanship of the art product itself were the reason why the sarcophagi of the SalonaBrač workshops were still in demand in the sixth-century Italy. The production capabilities and the volume of import were also influenced by general military and demographic circumstances. The exposure of the Danube areas, the collapse of the Danube frontier and frequent wars and campaigns had an extremely adverse effect on the demographic condition throughout this period both  due to violent deaths and capture as well as displacement of people, to which losses  caused by the epidemics such as the bubonic plague in the mid-sixth century have to  be added. Even if the image of Pannonia devoid of people as portraited by the sixthcentury written sources is exaggerated, there is no doubt that the number of inhabitants decreased significantly in comparison to the fourth century. This great demographic decline contributed, much more than the other factors, to the far-reaching  deterioration of the urban structures and disappearance of cities and towns, which,  along with the permanent withdrawal of the Roman army, inflicted an irreparable  blow to the economy as production capabilities and demand were greatly reduced.  To be sure, at least until the mid-fifth century Pannonia still imported the goods,  but to what degree the political instability had an affect is shown by the example of Valeria where the import of African pottery was discontinued in the early fifth century as the province came under the control of the Hun groups. On the other hand,  the limited possibilities of import could encourage the local production. Regardless  of the fact that the new rulers such as the Ostrogoths were very keen in preserving  the late Roman traditions, little could be done for the more lasting recovery of at  least some Pannonian regions. The vitality was preserved in Dalmatia, especially in its coastal area, for a long period, and, to a certain extent, in Noricum for much of the fifth century. At certain  periods Dalmatia even experienced more positive demographic impacts due to the  population influx from the more endangered regions. The relative economic strength of Dalmatia was supported with the efforts of the state authorities (the Ostrogothic ones perhaps even more than the Eastern Roman ones) as well as the needs of the Church. It is worth pointing out that the war between Ostrogoths and Eastern Romans surely gave a boost to the Dalmatian economy since Salona became a permanent  military base, and the stay of the imperial army spurred an increasing demand for raw  materials and products due to logistics needs. The province’s relative prosperity is also  indicated by a demand for luxury goods and the import of products from the eastern  and southern Mediterranean. Favorable circumstances lasted until the last decade of  the sixth century, which saw new overwhelming challenges to the late antique economy in Dalmatia that ultimately crushed the previous growth.