bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Media Performance
Authors: McQuail Denis
Published: September 2017

The term
media performance
has a broad reference to the assessment of mass media according to a range of evaluative criteria and primarily employing “objective” methods. In practice most attention has been given to the
product
of mass media, its
content
as sent and received (→ Media Production and Content). The criteria applied are mainly derived either from professional goals and standards or from considerations of the → public interest as specified in certain evaluative concepts (→ Standards of News). The methods are mainly those of the social sciences, aiming to be systematic, reliable, and leading to some degree of generalization (→ Research Methods). We are thus speaking of a particular field of media research with several different aims and purposes (→ Communication as a Field and Discipline). Apart from general description, these purposes include the wish to improve the media in some way, to support a line of criticism of media, to explain variations in quality of performance, and to identify causal factors.
Media Planning
Authors: Smit Edith , Moorman Marjolein , Neijens Peter
Published: September 2017

Media are a crucial part of any advertising campaign. Selecting the most effective media gets the advertising message across to the intended target group. Media are also the most expensive part of advertising campaigns. In a typical media campaign, the media costs account for 80–85 percent of the advertising budget (Kelley & Juggenheimer 2003). In deciding how to allocate the advertising media budget, we have to ask several questions: How many people of the target group do we want to reach? How many times do we want to reach them? Within what time frame do we want to make contact? Which contexts are most suitable to get our message across? These questions refer to four key topics in media planning: reach, frequency, timing, and context (→ Advertisement Campaign Management; Advertising Strategies).
Media Policy
Authors: Napoli Philip M.
Published: September 2017

Media policy involves policymaking – and the associated policy research – directed at a wide range of substantive issues and technological contexts, and employing a diverse array of theoretical and methodological perspectives. It is important to note, however, that in the communications field there are a large number of somewhat indistinct policy arenas that overlap with the media policy field, each employing distinctive terminologies and each reflecting somewhat different (and in some cases, broader) areas of emphasis. These affiliated policy arenas range from telecommunications policy (→ Telecommunications: Law and Policy) to communications policy to information policy to cultural policy.
Media Relations
Authors: Larsson Larsåke
Published: September 2017

News media are the dominant way in which organizations of society disseminate information and persuasion to the general public (→ News). Networking, relationship building, and producing works to be published in the media are daily work for most → public relations (PR) practitioners. The relation between the PR industry and the news media is therefore of interest for research in both PR and → journalism (→ Corporate Reputation; Trust of Publics).
Media System Dependency Theory
Authors: Ball‐Rokeach Sandra J.
Published: September 2017

As early as 1974, Ball‐Rokeach presented the first in a series of papers that would unfold the concepts and assumptions of media system dependency (MSD) theory (Ball‐Rokeach 1974). The paper was titled “The information perspective.” Its basic premise was that media effects flow from the information resources of the media system that are implicated in the everyday life requirements of people (micro), groups or organizations (meso), and other social systems (macro) to act meaningfully in ambiguous or threatening social environments. Thus, this paper launches the argument that the media system is best viewed as an information system whose powers vis‐à‐vis effects rest on the scarcity or exclusivity of their information resources – the creation/gathering, processing, and dissemination of information. Media information spans classical news and entertainment genres.
Media Use and Child Development
Authors: Valkenburg Patti M.
Published: September 2017

Traditionally, research into the effects of television has assumed that children are passive recipients on whom television has a powerful influence. Since the mid‐1970s, however, media effects research has increasingly recognized the child viewer as an active and motivated explorer, rather than a passive receiver (→ Media Effects; Media Effects, History of). Recent research suggests that children are critical evaluators of what they see in the media. Even very young children have been shown to actively screen media offerings for attractiveness and understandability and make an effort to interpret television images in their own terms (→ Audience; Audience Segmentation; Media Use by Children; Media Use across the Life‐Span).
Media Use, International Comparison of
Authors: Rössler Patrick
Published: September 2017

Mass media content is created for audience consumption. Without at least a small audience, the communication process remains unilateral and incomplete. Despite its relevance for media production, regulation, and → 
Marketing
, data on media use is systematically collected only in a few (mostly western) countries of the world. Hence the international comparison of media use patterns remains fragmentary. Evidence provided by global research agencies is often difficult to interpret because a standardized definition of
media use
is lacking. In some cases, data on the distribution of media offerings (e.g., circulation figures) replaces genuine data on media use because the latter is not recorded. With usage patterns changing over time, this overview focuses on the description of valid sources rather than presenting research results that might soon be outdated. Nevertheless, the picture drawn for purposes of exemplification refers to the data available as of 2006 (→ Exposure to Communication Content).
Media Use, International Comparison of
Authors: Rössler Patrick
Published: September 2017

Mass media content is created for audience consumption. Without at least a small audience, the communication process remains unilateral and incomplete. Despite its relevance for media production, regulation, and → marketing, data on media use is systematically collected only in a few (mostly western) countries of the world. Hence the international comparison of media use patterns remains fragmentary. Evidence provided by global research agencies is often difficult to interpret because a standardized definition of
media use
is lacking. In some cases, data on the distribution of media offerings (e.g., circulation figures) replaces genuine data on media use because the latter is not recorded. With usage patterns changing over time, this overview focuses on the description of valid sources rather than presenting research results that might soon be outdated. Nevertheless, the picture drawn for purposes of exemplification refers to the data available as of 2010 (→ Exposure to Communication Content).
Media Use across the Life‐Span
Authors: Van Der Goot Margot , Beentjes Johannes W. J.
Published: September 2017

A common finding in media research is that age groups differ in the amount and functions of their media use. Communication scholars have pointed out two possible explanations for such differences. First, there are life course or maturational explanations: media use is supposed to change across the life‐span in response to an individual's development. Second, there are generational explanations: people who are born in a certain period are supposed to adopt particular patterns of media use. These effects need to be disentangled. For example, research shows that older people spend more time watching television than younger age groups. It may be that older people watch more television than when they were younger because their situation and needs have changed. Alternatively, older people may watch more television than younger people because television is more important to their generation than it is to younger generations.
Media Use by Social Variable
Authors: Scherer Helmut
Published: September 2017

It is a phenomenon that can be observed in all industrialized societies that media use is connected with demographic factors. As a rule, people from different social backgrounds also use the media differently. On the other hand, people from similar social backgrounds also show similarities in their use of the media. Thus, there is a significant difference between the way women and men, older and younger people, and people with higher or lower levels of education use the media. Similarly, people from different ethnic groups differ in their use of the media.
Mediated Terrorism
Authors: Mazzoleni Gianpietro
Published: September 2017

Following the September 11, 2001, massive attacks on the United States, the issue of political terrorism has assumed a priority stance in the political agenda of several countries. Once fairly disregarded by scholarly research and analysis, the phenomenon has gained wide attention since the events of that day and those that took place in Iraq, as well as in Madrid, London, Mumbai, and Moscow. All of these tragic events had in common huge coverage by the media, which amplified the psychological impact on public opinion in the respective nations and worldwide. Extensive and emotion‐stirring media coverage is a common feature of modern terrorist events. It has been observed in relation to other breeds of terrorism, such as the IRA in Ireland and the UK, ETA in Spain, the Red Brigades in Italy, the Rote Armee Fraktion in Germany, the Kurdish extremists in Turkey, domestic US terrorism (the Oklahoma bombing), and others.
Mediating Factors
Authors: Eilders Christiane
Published: September 2017

Mediating factors are the psychological and social conditions in the communication process that moderate the effects of persuasive mass communication. The concept was first introduced by Joseph T. Klapper in his influential bookThe effects of mass communication(1960). Sifting through empirical studies available in the late 1950s, Klapper identified five mediating factors that explain why media messages tend to reinforce rather than change existing attitudes. The consideration of moderating variables in media effects research marks a shift from the hypodermic needle or → stimulus–response model to the stimulus–organism–response model (→ Media Effects).
Mediatization of Organizations Theory
Authors: Verhoeven Piet
Published: September 2017

Almost everything the general public knows of corporations and other organizations is mediated by the mass media. This is especially the case regarding strategic decisions, policymaking, and managerial behaviors. Consequently, the mass media seem to be used by organizations as key publics for → Public Relations in building trust, especially since people tend to trust the media more than they do corporations or political parties (→ Corporate Reputation; Trust of Publics).
Eurobarometer 61
(European Commission 2004) shows that 71 percent of the European public trusts the radio (up from 63 percent in 2001), 61 percent trust television (up from 56 percent in 2001), and 56 percent trust newspapers (up from 40 percent in 2001).
Mediatization of Politics
Authors: Mazzoleni Gianpietro
Published: September 2017

Mediatization of politics is a complex process that is closely linked to the presence of a → media logic in society and in the political sphere. It is distinguished from the idea of “mediation,” a natural, preordained mission of mass media to convey meaning from communicators to their target audiences. To define politics as “mediated” is a simple truism, in that communication and mass media are necessary prerequisites to the functioning of political systems (Mazzoleni & Schulz 1999). Some scholars, such as Deutsch (1963), even hold that politics
is
communication. Certainly, politics and the way it is performed and communicated have been widely affected by the rise of mass media between the nineteenth and the twentieth centuries. Such media‐driven influence in the political environment is the core of the concept of mediatization. The media have become indispensable actors within the political domain. They have gained a central position in most political routines, such as election campaigns, government communication, public diplomacy and image building, and national and international celebrations.
Meeting Technologies
Authors: Scott Craig R.
Published: September 2017

In an effort to enhance the functioning of the much maligned meeting, a variety of technological solutions have been introduced. These
meeting technologies
represent part of a rapidly growing industry focused on improving the millions of meetings held daily across the globe (→ Technology and Communication). Indeed, the increased use of collaborative teams (→ Group Communication), the growing number of virtual workers (→ Telework), the rising “costs” of travel, pushes toward globalization (→ Globalization of Organizations), and the declining expense associated with these tools have all created an environment ripe for the use of meeting technologies in workplaces, educational settings, and other contexts.
Memory
Authors: Neath Ian
Published: September 2017

When most people think of memory, they tend to think of a place in which information is put and stored until it is needed, much like a library. Unfortunately, this metaphor is quite misleading in that it implies a static, veridical process. Nothing really happens to library books while sitting on the shelf; they may grow musty, they might be mis‐shelved, but once one has the book, the contents are identical to the last time the book was consulted. In contrast, human memory is a dynamic, fundamentally reconstructive set of processes that enable previously encoded information to affect current and future performance.
Memory
Authors: Neath Ian
Published: September 2017

When most people think of memory, they tend to think of a place in which information is put and stored until it is needed, much like a library. Unfortunately, this metaphor is quite misleading in that it implies a static, veridical process. Nothing really happens to library books while sitting on the shelf; they may grow musty, they might be misshelved, but once one has the book, the contents are identical to the last time the book was consulted. In contrast, human memory is a dynamic, fundamentally reconstructive set of processes that enable previously encoded information to affect current and future performance.
Memory, Message
Authors: Shapiro Michael A.
Published: September 2017

Memory is critical to communication (→ Memory). The near‐instantaneous understanding of a familiar word in a conversation, recognizing an advertising image, mentally disagreeing with a politician's speech, feeling sympathy for a → soap opera character, understanding why today's events in an ongoing news story are important, and countless other responses to communication are all connected in some way with what we have stored in our nervous system. In many ways our personhood and our interactions with the world are defined by the memories we store and use.
Memory, Person
Authors: Claypool Heather M. , DeCoster Jamie
Published: September 2017

Researchers who study person memory examine how perceivers store and recall information about a social target in order to understand how that information is structured in the perceiver's mind (→ Memory). Understanding the structure and organization of social information is important because it influences the way we perceive and process subsequently encountered targets, making it a crucial part of person perception (→ Media and Perceptions of Reality; Information Processing).
Memory and Rhetoric
Authors: Browne Stephen Howard
Published: September 2017

For several decades now the role of public memory in shaping the present has occupied the attention of scholars across the humanities. From Holocaust studies to architecture, literature and → visual culture, colonialism, and queer theory, students of the subject are seeking to explain how and to what ends we avail ourselves of the past. Among the most recent and instructive contributions to this enterprise are those issuing from the study of rhetoric, which attends in particular to the discursive and strategic dimensions of public memory (→ Rhetorical Studies).
Mergers
Authors: Brown Duncan H.
Published: September 2017

In the late 1970s and early 1980s two books were published that tracked the growing concentration of ownership in the media industries (→ Concentration in Media Systems). The first, published in 1979 by Benjamin M. Compaine, was titled
Who owns the media?
The first edition of Benjamin H. Bagdikian's book
The media monopoly
was published in 1983. Over the following years subsequent editions of these books continued to show how mergers between media corporations were creating a situation where a smaller and smaller number of media corporations controlled an increasing proportion of the media products audiences consumed. At the beginning of the new millennium, both series of books found it necessary to issue heavily revised editions to take account of the growing speed of change in the media industries (Compaine & Gomery 2000; Bagdikian 2004; → Media Conglomerates; Media Corporations, Forms of; Media Economics).
Message Design Logics
Authors: Morgan Melanie
Published: September 2017

The major premise of message design logics is that individuals have different ways of reasoning (“design logics”) about communication. These individual differences affect how messages are structured to achieve goals (→ Message Production; Goals, Cognitive Aspects of; Goals, Social Aspects of). As such, message design logic provides a “rational goal analysis” of a speaker's understanding of means–end relations in communication, which results in a range of variations evidenced in messages across a spectrum of complex situations (O'Keefe 1988). Typically, rational goal analyses, such as Brown and Levinson's (1978) work on politeness or O'Keefe and Shepherd's (1987) work on arguments, see message variation in terms of “strategies.” The theory of message design logic extends rational goal analyses by arguing that strategy choice in the pursuit of goals can reflect underlying differences in fundamental premises individuals hold about communication (→ Interpersonal Communication).
Message Discrimination
Authors: Miller Peter V.
Published: September 2017

Message discrimination is a self‐report measure of media exposure (→ Audience Research; Exposure to Communication Content; Information Processing; Cognition). In survey interviews, respondents are asked to recall → Information about a particular topic that they have encountered in various media in the recent past. For example, respondents might be asked, “What have you seen or heard on television about family planning in the last month?” Open questions like this are repeated for other media (e.g., → Newspapers, → Radio, → magazines, → books). Responses are recorded verbatim and coded into “messages.” The message discrimination measure is the sum of messages reported by a respondent for the topic of interest across all of the media.
Message Editing
Authors: Meyer Janet R.
Published: September 2017

Message editing is the process whereby speakers review and sometimes revise a message plan prior to speaking. At lower levels of linguistic output, a not‐yet‐spoken clause might be checked for consistency with phonemic, syntactic, and/or lexical rules. At more abstract planning levels, the acceptability of a message plan could be assessed by comparing it against a set of editing criteria, and/or by anticipating outcomes of the message (→ Goals, Social Aspects of; Message Production).
Message Effects, Structure of
Authors: Witte Kim
Published: September 2017

Message effects fall into at least three categories: behavioral (actions caused by a message), cognitive (thoughts caused by a message), and emotional (feelings caused by a message). By message, we mean any kind of symbol perceived by an individual to have some sort of meaning, be it through the printed, spoken, or felt word via intrapersonal, interpersonal, mass media, or other means. A message can affect behavioral, cognitive, or emotional outcomes separately or simultaneously. The large body of research on fear appeals, for example, shows that a message produces thoughts about a threat, feelings of emotional arousal, and behavioral actions (Witte & Allen 2000).
Message Production
Authors: Hample Dale
Published: September 2017

The object of research on message production is to answer the question, “Why do people say what they do?” The academic sources on this topic come from across the academy, notably → cognitive science, discourse studies (→ Discourse Analysis), and artificial intelligence, and from several specializations in communication, especially → Persuasion, → Interpersonal Communication, and argumentation (→ Cognition; Compliance Gaining). Unconnected research was done by many investigators for decades, but the project solidified with the publication of Greene's (1997b)Message production. From that point on, message production became an explicit topic for research and graduate seminars.
Metadiscourse
Authors: Craig Robert T.
Published: September 2017

Metadiscourse is talk about talk. The common term → discourse refers to the pragmatic use of language (including nonverbal signs such as → paralanguage and → gestures in discourse) in extended texts or episodes of communication.Meta‐discourse refers to the pragmatic use of language to comment reflexively on discourse itself. The prefix “meta” (from a Greek word meaning with, across, or after) here denotes a shift to a higher‐order frame of reference. Metadiscourse shifts the focus of attention from ongoing communication, putting some stretch of discourse in a context or frame designed to influence the meaning and practical conduct of communication.
Metaphor
Authors: Kaplan Stuart Jay
Published: September 2017

Metaphor is widely regarded as a basic linguistic form in nearly all types of → Discourse (→ Linguistics). In contrast to early thinking about metaphor, which emphasized its role as a stylistic embellishment used for rhetorical effect, modern theories consider metaphor to be an essential feature of thinking itself. George Lakoff and Mark Johnson (1980) identified a variety of metaphor types that interconnect to structure how people conceptualize their experiences with their physical and social environments. This cognitive perspective on metaphor has stimulated scholarship on metaphor phenomena in a great many disciplines, including communication, organizational theory, political science, art, philosophy, computer science, and law. The role of metaphor in → Persuasion is of particular interest to communication scholars. Research findings suggest, for example, that → advertising containing metaphors receives greater → attention from readers and evokes more positive affect toward the ad (McQuarrie & Mick 1999; → Advertising as Persuasion).
Metonymy
Authors: Abraham Linus
Published: September 2017

On an evening newscast a news story about the US president includes a file photo of the White House in the frame over the news anchor's left shoulder. The picture of the White House is meant to cue the audience to the fact that the story is about matters associated with the president's office. The White House, a prop associated with the president, is used to signify the complex institution of the presidency. This mode of signification, in which a part or single characteristic of something is used to signify a more complex entity, or greater whole, is referred to as metonymy.
Mexico: Media System
Authors: Priess Frank
Published: September 2017

Mexico gained its independence from Spain in 1810, and in 1822 it became a republic. Of the history prior to the 1910 revolution, the war between Mexico and the United States in the mid‐nineteenth century needs to be mentioned, in which the former lost almost half of its territory – this became a permanent source of friction in the relations between the two countries. Nowadays Mexico is a federal republic with 31 states and a federal district constituted under specific provisions. It has a presidential system in which the significance of the legislative branch is increasing. It has a population of 107 million people – to which around 20 million people living either legally or illegally in the United States should be added – with a per capita income of US$6,230 per year, and almost 90 percent of Mexicans are Catholics. Nevertheless, the influence of evangelical groups is increasing. The presence of indigenous groups is another important factor. Mexico is the only Latin American member country of the OECD and it is shaping up as a booming developing nation. However, its development has always been hampered by overwhelming social and economic inequality.
Microethnography
Authors: LeBaron Curtis
Published: September 2017

Microethnography, sometimes called video ethnography, addresses “big” social and organizational issues through careful analysis of “small” moments of human activity. Working at a particular site or institution, such as an archeological dig or an investment bank, researchers create video recordings of activities as they naturally occur, i.e., activities that would have happened whether or not a camera was present. These recordings are then analyzed repeatedly and rigorously, with attention to the participants' talk (who says what, when, and how), their embodied behaviors (the relative location, orientation, and movement of people), and their use of things (objects, artifacts, tools, etc.). Video analyses are combined with other kinds of information, such as ethnographic data gathered through observations and interviews, altogether providing a variety of macro‐ and micro‐views of social activity.
Migrant Community Media
Authors: Karim Karim
Published: September 2017

The term migrant community media, also known as ethnic or diasporic media, refers to the print, broadcast, and Internet‐based operations of ethnic minorities. They have emerged in recent decades as a significant category of global media (→ Globalization Theories). Previously, such media operated by minority groups in various countries were treated as being of minor academic interest. For a long time, migrant community media were usually underfunded and marginal to the mediascapes of most countries. However, ethnic media operated by community groups have increasingly become channels for transnational media flows (→ International Communication). Their relative prominence has come about due to a combination of factors, including the growing wealth of minority communities, the rising acknowledgment of ethnic media among host societies, and the increasing technological possibilities for “narrowcasting.”
Modernization
Authors: Waisbord Silvio
Published: September 2017

As in other social sciences, modernization was the dominant paradigm in communication studies that sought to understand and define the role of communication in development in the late 1950s and 1960s. Modernization was originally proposed as synonymous with development. Development was understood as a transition toward a social order that mirrored the politics and economy of the west, namely, liberal democracy and capitalist and industrialized economies. Modernization's time of intellectual and policy ascendancy was the postwar years during the period of decolonization. Western scholars and powerful policymakers viewed modernization as an unavoidable and desirable transition for non‐western societies (→ Communication as a Field and Discipline; Communication and Media Studies, History to 1968; Development Communication).
Muckraking
Authors: Fellow Anthony R.
Published: September 2017

US President Theodore Roosevelt in 1906 admonished writers who exposed the wrongdoings by business, industry, and government. Borrowing a phrase from John Bunyon's
Pilgrim's Progress
, he called them “muckrakers,” who only rake the muck of life and never see the stars. Irish dramatist George Bernard Shaw later put another spin on the term, making it synonymous with → investigative reporting, saying journalists see the stars and want to cleanse the muck so others can see as well (→ Journalism, History of).
Music Videos
Authors: Straw Will
Published: September 2017

“Music video” commonly designates a short audiovisual text in which a recorded song is accompanied by moving images. The term “music video” refers, as well, to the broader phenomenon of video clips and the television programs or networks that show them (→ Television Networks). Research on music video has typically used the video clip as an example with which to investigate larger issues concerning the status of image and music within media forms of the late twentieth and early twenty‐first centuries. It should be noted that large numbers of so‐called music videos are, in fact, shot on film rather than tape‐based or digital video (→ Digital Imagery).
NAFTA
and International Communication
Authors: Lozano José‐Carlos
Published: September 2017

Media flows between countries have always been controversial. Fears of cultural consequences if imbalances occur and concerns about the symbolic value of cultural and media products have historically been at the heart of academic and political debates as well as public policies from governments (→ New World Information and Communication Order [NWICO]; UNESCO). These dimensions of culture and media have generated great numbers of exceptions and qualifications in regional free trade agreements.
Navigation
Authors: Wirth Werner
Published: September 2017

The concept of navigation refers to the interpretation of user actions in hypermedia as a movement through virtual space. Navigation can thus be seen as → selective exposure to hypermedia on a micro‐level. Hypermedia commonly includes graphics and fragments of audio, video, and plain text (nodes), which are all knotted via hyperlinks. Navigation research is dedicated to the study of personal, situational, and media influences on how users move through hypermedia, select links, search for → Information, and learn from hypertext contents (→ Learning and Communication).
Navigation
Authors: Wirth Werner
Published: September 2017

The concept of navigation refers to the interpretation of user actions in hypermedia as a movement through virtual space. Navigation can thus be seen as → selective exposure to hypermedia on a micro‐level. Hypermedia commonly includes graphics and fragments of audio, video, and plain text (nodes), which are all knotted via hyperlinks.
Negative Campaigning
Authors: Brettschneider Frank
Published: September 2017

Negative campaigning is a widespread technique, using the method of comparison and attack. It does not focus on one's own strengths, but rather on the alleged weaknesses of one's political opponent. The attacks can be directed at the platform of the political opponent or at his or her personality. Whenever the attacks aim at personal integrity, address aspects of someone's private life, and “go below the belt,” it is also called “playing dirty” or “mudslinging.”
Negativity
Authors: Kleinnijenhuis Jan
Published: September 2017

Negativity is the tendency of humans to pay → selective attention to events and behaviors that could have a negative impact on themselves or their group. Selective attention to negative events by primary observers, such as journalists, may result in overly negative reports to those who were not witnesses, which may result in anger or fear (→ Fear Induction through Media Content).
Negotiation and Bargaining
Authors: Roloff Michael E.
Published: September 2017

“Negotiation” is derived from a Latin term that means “to conduct business,” and a great deal of research is focused on economic transactions such as sales and collective bargaining. Over time, the use of negotiation has expanded to other contexts such as marriage (→ Marital Communication; Marital Typologies) and hostage negotiations (Rogan et al. 1997), and in addition to its traditional role as a tool for creating exchange agreements (→ Social Exchange), it is now recognized to be an important component of conflict management (→ Conflict Resolution). Because of its widespread use, negotiation research is conducted throughout the social sciences including anthropology, communication, economics, management, political science, psychology, and sociology.
Netherlands: Media System
Authors: Bardoel Jo
Published: September 2017

Despite its open borders and its central location between big European countries, the Netherlands (with a population of 16.3 million) has its own tradition with respect to both press and broadcasting, a tradition that is closely related to the country's overall socio‐political structure during most of the twentieth century. In the early years of the twenty‐first century we notice, however, that this “Dutch model” is eroding rapidly and beginning to follow a more “European” or even “global” media model, in which concentration (→ Concentration in Media Systems) and internationalization have become paramount.
Network Organizations through Communication Technology
Authors: Sproull Lee , Conley Caryn A.
Published: September 2017

Network forms of organizations are characterized by reciprocal, lateral communication ties. They are often contrasted with hierarchies, which are vertically organized, and markets, which exhibit an atomistic structure of buyers and sellers. Powell (1990) and Nohria (1992) provide classic statements of the comparisons. Networked organizations are often viewed as more flexible and “intelligent” than hierarchies and markets. From the 1990s to the present, computer‐mediated communication technology has been increasingly employed to extend the scale and scope of networked organizations in order to “connect multiple organizations and people into new entities that can create products or services” (Contractor et al. 2006, 682).
Network Organizations through Communication Technology
Authors: Sproull Lee , Conley Caryn A.
Published: September 2017

Network forms of organizations are characterized by reciprocal, lateral communication ties. They are often contrasted with hierarchies, which are vertically organized, and markets, which exhibit an atomistic structure of buyers and sellers. Powell (1990) and Nohria (1992) provide classic statements of the comparisons. Networked organizations are often viewed as more flexible and “intelligent” than hierarchies and markets. From the 1990s on, computer‐mediated communication technology has been increasingly employed to extend the scale and scope of networked organizations in order to “connect multiple organizations and people into new entities that can create products or services” (Contractor et al. 2006, 682).
New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO)
Authors: Padovani Claudia
Published: September 2017

The New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO) was a political proposal concerning media and communication issues emerging from international debates in the late 1970s. The term originated in discussions within the Non‐Aligned Movement (NAM), following the proposal for a “new international economic order,” and became the expression of the aspirations of many countries in the global south to democratize the international communication system and rebalance information flows worldwide. UNESCO played a major role in fostering the debate until the early 1980s, especially through the work of an independent commission chaired by Irish diplomat Sean MacBride (→ UNESCO). The commission's report,
Many voices, one world
(MacBride Commission 1980/2004), outlined the main international problems in communication and summarized NWICO's basic philosophical thrust. It was adopted at the twenty‐first general conference of UNESCO in Belgrade (1980) and still remains a milestone in the history of global debates around communication issues.
News
Authors: Nossek Hillel
Published: September 2017

News is a genre of mass media content resulting from journalists' information gathering and editors' decisions and following professional practices and norms (→ Ethics in Journalism; News Routines; Standards of News). News is the product of teamwork in media outlets. According to functional‐structural social theory, news content is information that seeks to meet social needs by observing the natural and human universe in order to help people survive in their physical and social world (→ Functional Analysis). News is the product of mass media, which began with the printing press and later developed into → radio, → television, and the → Internet (→ Media History; Newspaper; Newspaper, History of). The main critical question regarding news is whether there is a consensus on how news is defined and who creates and controls news production and news content. Is it the media proprietors, the government, interested sources, political and/or economic social and cultural elites, the hegemonic majority, public relations agencies, spokespersons of the business community, advertisers, journalists and/or editors, or the → audience and the → public (→ Advertising; News Sources; Ownership in the Media; Public Relations)?
News Agencies
Authors: Paterson Chris
Published: September 2017

News agencies are transnational media organizations that write and distribute stories and their components, such as images and interviews, to the news media (→ News). Audiences see their words and images upon almost every exposure to news, usually without knowing it. The original news agencies formed between 1835 and 1850 to fill the growing newspaper industry demand for stories. The agencies later distributed photographs and eventually merged with newsreel companies or their successors, coming to dominate the distribution of television news images as well (→ News Agencies, History of).
News Agencies, History of
Authors: Boyd‐Barrett Oliver
Published: September 2017

News agencies are among the oldest electronic media, having survived as a genus at least since 1835, the year that the French agency Havas was established. Havas was the first of the world's agencies to engage in significant international activity. It was followed by Associated Press (AP) in the United States in 1846, Wolff in Germany in 1849, Tuwora in Austria in 1850, and Reuters in the United Kingdom in 1851. Very soon there was a national news agency in almost every European country. Outside Europe the pace of development was slower, but no less comprehensive. Generalist and specialist news agencies operating at international/global, regional, national, and subnational levels have constituted a networked system of news gathering and news distribution for well over one hundred years (→ News Agencies; International News Reporting).
News Audience
Authors: Maurer Marcus
Published: September 2017

The news audience is the sub‐group of the general media → audience that is exposed to → newspapers, news magazines, → television news, → radio news, or online news (→ Internet News). Analyses of news audiences usually deal with their size and their structure. This can be done on the micro‐level (audiences of particular newspapers, news broadcasts, etc.) or on the macro‐level (audiences of news in general). On the micro‐level, looking at the distribution of particular newspapers or the ratings of particular news broadcasts is especially important for commercial reasons. Just as in the case of any other magazine or television program, potential advertisers like to know where to place their ads in order to attract their intended audience (→ Audience Research). On the macro‐level, dealing with news audiences in general is especially important for democratic reasons. Because in democracies citizens are expected to keep informed about political life, it is important to know whether they really do so and which kinds of media they use for that purpose. In this case, for example, the size and structure of news audiences in different parts of the world or trends in news consumption can be analyzed.
News Processing and Retention
Authors: Price Vincent , Feldman Lauren
Published: September 2017

Of the numerous functions the news media perform in contemporary society, perhaps none is so basic as their role in distributing information. In many democratic theories, broad and equitable distribution of timely → news is viewed as necessary for sound → public opinion and popular decision‐making (→ Political Discourse). Students of journalism, mass communication, and politics have consequently invested considerable effort in studying the ways people process news stories and how much information – and what types of information – they retain as a result.
News Story
Authors: Weischenberg Siegfried , Birkner Thomas
Published: September 2017

A news story is the standard format that journalists employ for producing the texts they publish in the media. In contrast to feature narratives or subjective reviews and editorials, the news story aims to give a direct, succinct, and fact‐based account (→ Objectivity in Reporting), but instead the news story does political work and gives orientation in a complex world (Schudson 1982). This difference causes problems not only for storytellers but also for news researchers.
News Values
Authors: Kepplinger Hans Mathias
Published: September 2017

The composition of news in the mass media is shaped by a broad variety of causes – by the number and type of topical events, by the type of the media and the interests of their audiences, by professional routines and individual preferences of journalists, and by technical constraints and economic conditions (Shoemaker & Reese 1996; → Media Production and Content). Among these causes are the news values of → news factors. They are the basis of the theory of news values. This theory explains the selection of news for publication, and the prominence of news stories in newspapers and news programs, by professional criteria of news factors in news stories (aspects of events) and the news values of the news factors (selection criteria). In the theory of news values, nonprofessional influences like individual preferences of journalists, political leaning of news organizations, and pressures from their owners, advertisers, or other social forces are neglected. Therefore, it deals only with a small part of the whole process of newsmaking. The term “news factors” denotes characteristics of news reports, with respect to the events covered. The term “news values” denotes the relative impact of news factors on the processing of news stories by journalists. The term “newsworthiness” denotes the chances of news stories getting published and the prominence of their presentation.
News Workers
Authors: Ettema James S.
Published: September 2017

News workers are those engaged in the production of the written, visual, or audio texts designated as news and information appearing in print media and on broadcast and cable television, radio, and the Internet. These workers assign, report, research, write, and edit reports as well as produce and assemble visual images and the graphic forms for news and information. News workers also include senior editors, news directors, and others who manage these functions (→ news; News Routines; News Story).
Newscast
Authors: Hoskins Andrew
Published: September 2017

The newscast has anchored broadcast media schedules since their invention and has delivered mundane and momentous news and information daily from near and far, entwining itself with society, culture, and the politics of the day. Synonymous with the great conflicts and crises of mediated history – particularly US‐centered history – the televisual nightly newscast has embedded itself into the narrative of nations (and even, at times, their conscience), connecting an apparently simultaneous, unified, and collective audience (→ Television: Social History).
Newspaper, Antecedents of
Authors: Raymond Joad
Published: September 2017

The first newspapers appeared in western Europe in the seventeenth century, in forms that laid the basis for, and anticipated the form and content of, the contemporary newspaper (→ Newspaper, History of). While they developed out of sixteenth‐century print and manuscript news media, their advent constituted an early modern media revolution that was central to state formation, reading, and politics in this period. The quantity of news provision increased, resulting in a qualitative transformation, and news media became embedded in politics and culture (Zaret 2000; → news; Political News).
Newspaper, History of
Authors: Conboy Martin
Published: September 2017

Historians tend to agree that theActa Diurnain ancient Rome, a daily gazette of official news, was one of the most important precursors of the → Newspaper as a public disseminator of topical information in the western world. (Newspapers, in their modern sense, would not emerge in countries such as China, Japan, and Korea until centuries later, but forerunners such as newssheets – containing official edicts and decrees – had limited circulation). Handwritten copies publicized news from police courts, accidents, deaths, the reporting of municipal councils, courts of law, and even the Senate. These reports were posted outside a variety of public buildings for the perusal of interested citizens. It would be over a thousand years, however, before technology, politics, and education would allow the regular commercial distribution of printed news in the form that we recognize today as the newspaper.
Newsreel
Authors: McKernan Luke
Published: September 2017

A newsreel was a single film reel of topical → news items, shown in cinemas across the world for much of the twentieth century. The term “newsreel” is too often loosely applied to mean any kind of cinema film depicting a news story, so that the topical films of the 1890s made by the Lumière brothers are sometimes misleadingly called newsreels (→ Cinema; Cinematography, History of). But the newsreel was a specific form that arose with the habit of regular cinema‐going in the late 1900s, when a short reel of news stories came to be accepted as a suitable component of the emerging mixed cinema program.
Nielsen Ratings
Authors: Webster James G.
Published: September 2017

Nielsen is a name synonymous with television audience measurement throughout much of the world. Today, it is associated with a family of services that provide estimates of the size and composition of media audiences, loosely referred to as Nielsen ratings. Those numbers are essential to the operation of commercial media, since they constitute a currency used to sell audiences to advertisers.
Nielsen Ratings
Authors: Webster James G. , Ksiazek Thomas B.
Published: September 2017

Nielsen is a name synonymous with television audience measurement throughout much of the world. Today, it is associated with a family of services that provide estimates of the size and composition of media audiences, loosely referred to as Nielsen ratings. Those numbers are essential to the operation of commercial media, since they constitute a currency used to sell audiences to advertisers.
Noelle‐Neumann, Elisabeth
Authors: Meyen Michael
Published: September 2017

Elisabeth Noelle‐Neumann was a German scholar who died in 2010. Her name stands for a paradigm shift in the field of media effects research. In 1972 she presented her → spiral of silence theory in Tokyo in a lecture entitled “Return to the concept of powerful mass media.” This paper can be seen as a break with the “minimal effects” hypothesis (→ Media Effects). Noelle‐Neumann argued that research confined itself to short‐term media influences, used poor measures, and failed to see crucial factors such as the consonance of the media, their cumulative effects, and their influence on the climate of opinion (→ Media Effects Duration). She argued that these effects could only be measured by using a combination of media content analyses and representative public opinion polls – preferably by conducting several waves of → surveys. Above all in the US, her spiral of silence theory gave rise to a great number of empirical investigations, which made her one of the best‐known figures in communication research worldwide.