bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Thomas Rogers and the English Sabbath: The Case for a Reappraisal
Authors: Parker Kenneth L.
Published: April 2006

From the publication of Peter Heylyn's History of the Sabbath in 1636 to the most recent studies of this doctrine, sabbatarianism has been treated as an important and controversial issue in the post-Reformation period. These studies portray sabbatarianism as a puritan innovation, which that party introduced in an effort to reform the church from below, having failed to covert the English church to presbyterianism. This doctrinal innovation has been described by Professor Collinson as “something more than a certain ethical and social attitude to the use of Sunday: it implies the doctrinal assertion that the fourth commandment is not an obsolete ceremonial law of the Jews but a perpetual, moral law, binding on Christians; in other words, that the Christian observance of Sunday has its basis not in ecclesiastical tradition but in the decalogue.”
The Visitation of Sarah Wight: Holy Carnival and the Revolution of the Saints in Civil War London
Authors: Dailey Barbara Ritter
Published: April 2006

Historians of English Puritanism concede that by the 1650s the revolution of the saints had run its course. The political activism of the Presbyterians, Independents, and radical sects during the war gave way in the Interregnum period to more private concerns of personal and collective piety. The pattern of changing popular mood in an unstable political environment is clear enough, but the social meanings of religion as devotional practice are more obscure. Lost in the historical analysis is the realization that piety is an expressive form of communication in the politics of social life. In times of militant controversy the public role of piety is more obviously ideological, and devotional literature achieves publicity in the sense of promoting sectarian reformation. From this perspective, I shall focus on Henry Jessey'sThe Exceeding Riches of Grace Advanced(London, 1647) and will place it in the context of the art of dying (ars moriendi) tradition and of factional pluralism in civil war London. The story of Sarah Wight's illness and conversion experience attempted to unify religious and political divisions in a crucial revolutionary year. Within a traditional framework of devotional literature, Jessey communicated a political message. Sarah Wight herself was not a passive recipient of ministerial advice, but an influential teacher of radical theology. In fact, it was the customary form of theartes morienditradition that allowed her conversion to become an occasion for lay preaching.
Broken Churches, Broken Nation: Regional Religion and North-South Alienation in Antebellum America
Authors: Goen C. C.
Published: April 2006

I have long been intrigued with the role of the American churches in dividing the nation and reinforcing the sectional conflict that led to the Civil War. Elsewhere I have argued that evangelical Protestantism was a major bond of unity for the United States during the first part of the nineteenth century; that the chief institutional forms of this faith were the large popular denominations—Methodist, Baptist, Presbyterian, each with nationwide constituencies; that these denominations, increasingly agitated by disputes over slavery, sundered into northern and southern factions long before political rupture, thus opening the first major cleavage between slaveholding and free states; and that the denominational schisms portended and to some extent provoked the crisis of the Union in 1861. What I wish to pursue further in this article is how the regional religion which these schisms both exposed and augmented not only broke a primary bond of national unity but also furnished a persuasive example of sectional independence, encouraged the myth of peaceable secession, reinforced North-South alienation, and heightened the moral outrage which each section felt against the other. The “inner civil war” of the divided churches thus exacerbated the ordeal of the Union and confirmed the nation's course to unrepressed conflict.
Luther's ‘Scholastic Phase’ Revisited: Grace, Works, and Merit in the Earliest Extant Sermons
Authors: Kaufman Peter Iver
Published: April 2006

By 1516 Luther charged that the Schoolmen had grotesquely inflated the significance of natural virtues. Thereafter, he increasingly was provoked by the suggestion that human effort—touched only lightly, if at all, by grace—could accomplish more healing than harm. But it is commonly supposed that opinions Luther then condemned were opinions he had condoned in his earliest works, in which he is said to have assumed God's willingness to accept the best efforts of sinful persons as virtuous preparation for grace. Certainly Luther's ambitious remarks about partial merit (mentum de congruo), which found their way into his marginal notes on Lombard'sSentences(1509–1510) and into hisDictata super Psalterium(1513–1515), contrast with his later repudiation of the “sufficiencies” of natural powers for moral achievement and of moral achievement for divine acceptance and reward. Luther himself conceded his schoolboy admiration for Ockham, who probably inspired the semipelagianism of much of the late medieval soteriology that Luther came to detest. Understandably, Luther's early apparent endorsements of semipelagian features of scholastic soteriology have attracted considerable scholarly attention. His passage from nominalism to Protestantism, choreographed variously with leaps and stumbles or as an orderly march, has been a topic for debate ever since new fragments of Luther's early theology surfaced and were pieced together in the nineteenth century. Yet two early sermons have generated comparatively little discussion. Copied together from a manuscript in Erfurt and published twice before 1900, they are clearly witnesses from Luther's early career and their contribution to the determination and evaluation of his early semipelagianism ought not to be undervalued.
No Second-hand Religion: Thomas Erskine's Critique of Religious Authorities
Authors: Gowler Steve
Published: April 2006

After practicing law in Edinburgh for six years, Thomas Erskine (1788–1870) inherited the estate of Linlathen upon the death of his brother, James. Thereby freed to devote his time to theological reflection and writing, he wrote five books between 1820 and 1837 which stated opinions sharply at odds with the prevailing religious positions of early nineteenth-century British thinkers. In his first book,Remarks on the Internal Evidence for the Truth of Revealed Religion, he maintained that the surest sign of Christianity's truth is not to be found in the traditional evidential sources–miracles, fulfilled prophecies, the veracity of the apostles, and so on–but in the intimate relation, or “fittingness,” which inheres between the mode of being recommended in the Bible and the moral, physical, and mental constitution of human beings. This emphasis on the internal and subjective aspects of religious experience characterizes all of Erskine's works and places him, along with Samuel Taylor Coleridge, at the forefront of a new way of theologizing in Britain which was to come to fruition in the so-called “Broad Church.” Erskine represents an indigenous British “turn to the subject” antedating the widespread appropriation of continental thought by English and Scottish theologians.
Early Morman Millenarianism: Another Look
Authors: Underwood Grant
Published: April 2006

It is by no means insignificant that many of the specially funded Tanner Lectures delivered recently at the annual meetings of the Mormon History Association have dealt, to some degree or another, with early Mormon millenarianism. This occurrence is less surprising when it is relized that the lectures come in the wake of a decade that produced what one historian has called “a veritable blizzard of scholarly and popular writings in the often stormy field of millennialism.”
The Emergence of Social Gospel Radicalism: The Methodist Case
Authors: King William McGuire
Published: April 2006

What happened to the social gospel impulse after World War I? Recent historians have demonstrated that many reformers did not bid farewell to reform in the 1920s.1 In the case of Protestant social liberalism, however, the precise relationship between postwar social action and the prewar social gospel movement requires further clarification. Was the former merely a continuation of the latter? Such a question is currently difficult to answer since few major studies of the social gospel bridge both historical periods. Indeed, the death or retirement by 1918 of so many early leaders of the social gospel movement, particularly Washington Gladden, Josiah Strong, and Walter Rauschenbusch, leaves the impression that an era had come to a close.
Anna Maria van Schurman and Antoinette Bourignon: Contrasting Examples of Seventeenth-Century Pietism
Authors: Irwin Joyce
Published: April 2006

In the study of women and religion, it has long been common to suggest that women were particularly attracted to nontraditional theology, often of a spiritualistic nature. In earlier days, women's heretical inclinations were explained by their weaker minds and their irrational nature which made them susceptible to the influence of demagogues and false preachers. In more recent feminist interpretations, mysticism and sectarianism are seen as providing opportunites to women for religious expression and forms of leadership not open to them in established churches.
Tertullian on Heresy, History, and the Reappropriation of Revelation
Authors: Kaufman Peter Iver
Published: April 2006

Tertullian understood the apostle Paul to have suggested there would always be heretics (1 Cor. 11:19), and he presumed God had supplied scripture for their use. Without sacred literature heretics would have nothing of consequence to misread. Without contests over critical passages, there could be no winners, no losers—no heretics.1 The difficulty, Tertullian acknowledged, was that heretics were the poorest of losers; they never conceded defeat. He advised against trying to take (or take back) scripture passage by passage. The only way to get the best of heretics and get on with the work of interpreting texts correctly was to deny heretics' right to appeal to scripture.2 It had been supplied for them, but only to enable wayward expositors to identify themselves as heretics. This was Tertullian's version of “enough rope.” Heretics' expositions showed others how far the expositors deviated from the precious tradition originating with the apostles, and to assist those others apologists introduced a rule of faith condensing the apostles' instruction and tradition. Tertullian's several presentations of the rule of faith raise important questions; discrepancies prompt suspicion that no precise formulation or rule inspired consensus, that rules were rather makeshift. At the time, however, Tertullian obviously was more interested in another discrepancy, the one between his rule(s) expressing Christianity's incontrovertible truths and the opinions and exegesis of benighted heretics, for God provided heretics, apologists, and controversy to keep traditional or “regular” Christianity advancing on its proper course.3 Tertullian's confidence in the advance of Christianity is the subject of this paper. How did he come by it and just how did he relate the persistence of heresy to the progress of Christianity?
Women's Attraction to Puritanism
Authors: Porterfield Amanda
Published: April 2006

In 1566 when the Puritan ministers John Gough and John Philpot were suspended from their pulpits and banished from London for their refusal to wear the white outer robe, or surplice, marking their special holiness as priests of the church, a crowd of more than two hundred women gathered at London Bridge to cheer them on as they left the city. As Gough and Philpot crossed the bridge, the women pressed bags of food and bottles of drink on them, all the while “animating them most earnestly to stand fast in the same their doctrine.” That same year, when John Bartlett was also ordered to step down from his pulpit in London for refusing to wear the surplice, sixty women assembled at the home of his bishop to protest the suspension. Such demonstrations of women's support for Puritan ministers were not isolated events. As the historian of Elizabethan Puritanism Patrick Collinson asserted, “it was the women of London who occupied the front line in defence of their preachers, and with a sense of emotional engagement hardly exceeded by the suffragettes of three and a half centuries later.”
The Spiritual Pilgrimage of Sarah Osborn (1714–1796)
Authors: Hambrick-Stowe Charles E.
Published: April 2006

Sarah Osborn does not appear in the definitive biographical dictionary, Notable American Women. She is not in the pages of Sydney Ahlstrom's A Religious History of the American People, nor of any more recent standard American religious history text. She failed to catch the attention of the editors and authors of the recent Encyclopedia of the American Religious Experience or Dictionary of Christianity in America. The great New Divinity pastor-theologian Samuel Hopkins in some measure owed his career to Sarah Osborn, but studies of him mention her only in passing or not at all. Scholars have learned of her through the work of Mary Beth Norton and in the documentary history, Women and Religion in America, but the Sarah Osborn most often mentioned in connection with early New England is the one accused as a witch at Salem who died in Boston prison 10 May 1692.
America's Bibles: Canon, Commentary, and Community
Authors: Stein Stephen J.
Published: April 2006

In America the category ‘bible’ enjoys a privileged cultural position. That fact was brought home to me anecdotally several years ago when I received a telephone call forwarded through a departmental secretary. The woman on the other end of the line expressed frustration because she did not know what to do with a worn-out Bible. She asked if there was a proper way to handle the situation: should she bury it, or burn it? She was genuinely perplexed. Of one thing alone was she certain: she could not throw the Bible into a garbage can. As it turned out, I was of little help. I knew no liturgy for disposing of old Bibles, nor any special protocol for handling them. But I also do not remember ever throwing one away. I am accustomed to seeing old Bibles in attics or on shelves of used-book stores. The telephone call underscored in a practical way the special aura that surrounds the ‘bible’ in America.
Many Readers but Few Followers: The Fate of Nicholas of Lyra's “Apocalypse Commentary” in the Hands of His Late-Medieval Admirers
Authors: Krey Philip
Published: April 2006

“Use Auriol's Compendium as a mould, pour in Lyre, flavor with Augustine, and sprinkle with Grosseteste.” This was John Wyclif's (1330–1384) recipe for biblical commentary. It may be the nature of biblical commentary that commentators do not follow recipes closely, but the history of how the admirers of Nicholas of Lyra's Apocalypse Commentary (1329) received and reworked it indicates that Nicholas's work served frequently as the “mould” into which other interpretations were “poured,” while his own Augustinian seasonings were largely ignored. Although later commentators often adopted Nicholas's method, they more frequently poured in the ingredients of his younger Franciscan colleague, Peter Auriol (whose Apocalypse Commentary of 1319 Nicholas sharply critiqued), serving up a dish that Nicholas would not have enjoyed eating.
The Mainline Churches and Head Start in Mississippi: Religious Activism in the Sixties
Authors: Findlay James F.
Published: April 2006

One of the most innovative provisions of the Economic Opportunity Act, passed by Congress in August 1964 as the heart of Lyndon Johnson's War on Poverty, was funding for a preschool program for the youngest of America's poor, known as Head Start. Many children were qualified for Head Start in Mississippi, the poorest state in the nation. This was especially so in the northwest quadrant of that state. The area, known locally as “the Delta,” was dominated by the floodplain of the lower Mississippi River, a largely rural, cotton-based economy, and tens of thousands of desperately poor, largely black, farm workers.
Free Will, Dissent, and Henry Hart
Authors: Pearse M. T.
Published: April 2006

On 29 April 1538 a letter was sent from Archbishop Cranmer to Thomas Cromwell complaining about the indictment of five men of Smarden and Pluckley in Kent. They had been holding “unlawful assemblies” and, so Cranmer argued, were indicted “of none occasion or ground else, but for by cause they are accounted fauters [supporters] of the new doctrine, as they call it.” He pleaded that their indictments might be overturned, for “if the king's subjects within this realm which favour God's word, shall be unjustly vexed at sessions, it will be no marvel though much sedition be daily engendered within this realm.” In view of the imminent conservative turn that religious policy was about to take in England, a development that would bring down Cromwell in its wake, Cranmer's concern at the ability of Catholic-minded local officials to harass Protestants is not to be wondered at.
Schaff and Nevin, Colleagues at Mercersburg: The Church Question
Authors: Payne John B.
Published: April 2006

For both Schaff and Nevin, while they were colleagues at Mercersburg, the issue of issues in mid-nineteenth century America as well as in Continental Europe and in England, was “the church question.” This subject has already been provided a seminal treatment by James H. Nichols to which all later students of Mercersburg Theology are deeply indebted. The purpose of this article is to attempt to shed new light on this question by focusing upon what was for both of them a critical ecclesiological issue, one upon which they in part agreed and in part disagreed—namely, the question of historical development. It is this issue which I believe especially provoked Nevin's theological crisis. This essay will also seek to describe Schaff's role in this crisis.
Confronting Secularization: Origins of the London Society for the Study of Religion
Authors: Barmann Lawrence
Published: April 2006

The secularization process in western society, first clearly discernible in the Italian Renaissance, reached a certain plateau at the beginning of the twentieth century. Whatever else might be meant by “the secularization process,” it meant at least, and means in these pages, the gradual deposition of religion from almost every structure and dimension of society except, perhaps, the most private and personal. To thoughtful individuals possessed of mature religious convictions secularization sometimes seemed to portend the end of religion generally: not by law or sword, but simply by social absorption. To meet this challenge, not by denouncing the secularization process nor modernity in general, but simply by sharing their own thoughts on religion and what its role might or should be in the newly secularized western world, a group of prominent London-based men formed in 1904 the London Society for the Study of Religion. The pages which follow are a study of this Society's origins.
Biblical Exegesis and the Jewish-Christian Controversy in the Early Twelfth Century
Authors: Timmer David E.
Published: April 2006

In the prologue to his commentary on Leviticus composed in the mid- twelfth century, the reformist abbot Ralph of Flaix noted with anxiety the effect on his monks of Jewish argumentation against Christian exegesis of the Old Testament:
The Puzzle of American Methodism
Authors: Hatch Nathan O.
Published: April 2006

Picture, if you will, the rich landscape of American religious history that has taken shape over the last half century. At least three features of this terrain stand out, the first being a richly-textured panorama before us, a recognizable field of study that has come into existence in a relatively short span of time. This field has been shaped by a varietyof forces, among them the vast expansion of religion departments since 1960, the recovery of the role of religion in the broader disciplines of history, literature, sociology and political science, and the stubborn persistence of religion in modern American life which scholars struggle to explain.
An Emerging Protestant Establishment: Religious Affiliation and Public Power on the Urban Frontier in Miami, 1896–1904
Authors: Tweed Thomas A.
Published: April 2006

A photograph taken in 1896, the year of Miami's incorporation, circulated widely in periodicals of the time, and it came to symbolize the founding of the city in the local and national imagination (figure 1). “That picture has gone all over this country,” one of the men who posed for it recalled, “showing the start of Miami.” In the image seventeen men stand by the mouth of the Miami River, where workers were clearing the ground for the construction of the first tourist hotel, a building owned by a wealthy northern Protestant. For the historian, the carefully posed photograph is illuminating. Most important for the purposes of this essay, it offers hints about power relations in that urban frontier. Note the four white men dressed in their Sunday best who stand behind the workers and observe the scene. They were there that day because John Sewell, the white Baptist who supervised the crew, had hurried down the dirt street to invite "the boys" to get into the historic picture. For Sewell, “the boys” meant white mainline Protestants, each of whom had arrived relatively recently to seek his fortune.
‘This Work is God's Cause’: Religion in the Southern Woman Suffrage Movement, 1880–1920
Authors: Kirkley Evelyn A.
Published: April 2006

As I began researching religion and woman suffrage in the South I asked a prominent historian of southern religion if he knew of any sources. I had assumed that religion and woman suffrage had an intimate relationship in the South, since historians have amply documented the close connection between southern religion and culture. After scraching his head for a moment, however, he commented dryly, “There really aren't any sources. That will be a short paper.” He went on to explain that religious arguments were seldom used in the struggle for woman suffrage, that natural rights ideology and the social benefits of moral women voting were more common defenses than ones based on Scripture. Even antisuffragists relied on the threat of black women voting and the superfluity of women voting when they were represented by their husbands at the ballot box more often than explicitly religious arguments.
The Prince Hall Masons and the African American Church: The Labors of Grand Master and Bishop James Walker Hood, 1831–1918
Authors: Hackett David G.
Published: April 2006

During the late nineteenth century, James Walker Hood was bishop of the North Carolina Conference of the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church and grand master of the North Carolina Grand Lodge of Prince Hall Masons. In his forty-four years as bishop, half of that time as senior bishop of the denomination, Reverend Hood was instrumental in planting and nurturing his denomination's churches throughout the Carolinas and Virginia. Founder of North Carolina's denominational newspaper and college, author of five books including two histories of the AMEZ Church, appointed assistant superintendent of public instruction and magistrate in his adopted state, Hood's career represented the broad mainstream of black denominational leaders who came to the South from the North during and after the Civil War. Concurrently, Grand Master Hood superintended the southern jurisdiction of the Prince Hall Masonic Grand Lodge of New York and acted as a moving force behind the creation of the region's black Masonic lodges—often founding these secret male societies in the same places as his fledgling churches. At his death in 1918, the Masonic Quarterly Review hailed Hood as “one of the strong pillars of our foundation.” If Bishop Hood's life was indeed, according to his recent biographer, “a prism through which to understand black denominational leadership in the South during the period 1860–1920,” then what does his leadership of both the Prince Hall Lodge and the AMEZ Church tell us about the nexus of fraternal lodges and African American Christianity at the turn of the twentieth century?
Marking Religious and Ethnic Boundaries: Cases from the Ancient Golan Heights
Authors: Gregg Robert C.
Published: April 2006

In the aftermath of the 1967 “Six Days' War,” 254 ancient inscribed stones were found in forty-four towns and villages of the Golan Heights—241 in Greek, 12 in Hebrew or Aramaic, and 1 in Latin. These stones, along with numerous architectural fragments, served as the basis of the 1996 book by myself and Dan Urman,Jews, Pagans, and Christians in the Golan Heights—a study of settlement patterns of people of the three religions in this region in the early centuries of the common era.1 The area of the Golan heights, roughly the size of Rhode Island, was in antiquity a place of agriculture and, for the most part, small communities. Though historians of religions in the late Roman period have long been aware of the “quartering” of cities, and of the locations of particular religious groups in this or that section of urban areas, we have had little information concerning the ways in which Hellenes, Jews, and Christians took up residence in relation to each other in those rural settings featuring numerous towns and hamlets— most presumably too small to have “zones” for ethnic and religious groups. The surviving artifacts of a number of the Golan sites gave the opportunity for a case study. Part 1 of this article centers on evidence for the locations and possible interactions of members of these religious groups in the Golan from the third to the seventh centuries and entails a summary of findings in the earlier work, while part 2 takes up several lingering questions about religious identity and ways of “marking” itwithinGolan countryside communities. Both sections can be placed under a rubric of “boundary drawing and religion.”
Icons, Miracles, and the Ecclesial Identity of Laity in Late Imperial Russian Orthodoxy
Authors: Shevzov Vera
Published: April 2006

During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, clergy and professional theologians in the Orthodox Church in Russia found themselves engrossed in debates over the theological nature and “proper” institutional fashioning of the sacred community called “church.” Insofar as this intensive reflection on communal life heatedly addressed issues of religious authority and the role of laypeople in that life, this period in Russian Orthodoxy in many ways lends itself to comparison with two critical points on the time line of the history of Christianity in the West: the Reformation and Vatican II. True, the “evolution” or brewing “revolution” (depending on one's interpretation of those debates) in Russian Orthodoxy never had the chance to become a comparable definitive “event,” largely on account of the political aftermath of the 1917 revolutions.1 Nevertheless, the acute tensions in thinking about “church” that surfaced during that period suggest that had it not been for the sociopolitical events of 1917—events that propelled the Orthodox community into another level of concern—the landscape of Orthodox Christianity in Russia might well have undergone “modernizing” shifts comparable to those in the West.
The Song of Songs in the History of Sexuality
Authors: Moore Stephen D.
Published: April 2006

The arduous task of queering the Song of Songs, a book that is ostensibly an unequivocal celebration of male-female sexual love, was accomplished over many centuries by the Fathers and Doctors of the Church (as well as by Jewish Sages of blessed memory, though they were hampered by a modesty and restraint to which their Christian cousins were seldom subject). Night after night in their cells, by flickering candlelight, they queeried the Song of Solomon, strenuously inquiring after its spiritual meaning and confidently setting it forth. And as they did so their austere cells were transformed into lavish theaters. What follows is a series of preliminary portraits of some of the more remarkable performers.
Marriage in Medieval Culture: Consent Theory and The Case of Joseph and Mary
Authors: Resnick Irven M.
Published: April 2006

From the second half of the eleventh century, medieval Latin theologians and canonists wrestled with a number of questions related to sexual relations and marriage. Marriage is, characteristically, one of the avenues by which a society—especially a religious or holy community— attempts to define its boundaries. In this effort church authorities had, for centuries, proscribed both marriage and sexual relations between Jews and Christians. They had sought control over marital relations among Christian spouses by proscribing sexual contact before receiving communion, during Lent, or during a woman's pregnancy or menstrual cycle. They had also attempted to eliminate marriage among clergy, with occasional success, as part of an effort to define and control marital unions more effectively.
The Apostle
Authors: Ostwalt Conrad
Published: April 2006

Robert Duvall's film The Apostle initially raised the eyebrows of those concerned with how popular film might portray religious topics. However, suspicions that this film would be another exposé attempting to cash in on the public's fascination with the well-known trials and tribulations of evangelists were soon laid to rest. Rather, Duvall has produced a sensitive and honest portrayal of an American cultural and religious phenomenon—the southern Holiness tradition. The Apostlenot only entertains but also provides insight into the cultural and religious richness of the South as well as the complexities of human frailty and grace.
“My chains fell off, my heart was free”: Early Methodist Conversion Narrative in England
Authors: Hindmarsh D. Bruce
Published: April 2006

From twelve at night till two it was my turn to stand sentinel at a dangerous post … As soon as I was alone, I kneeled down, and determined not to rise, but to continue crying and wrestling with God, till He had mercy on me. How long I was in that agony I cannot tell; but as I looked up to heaven I saw the clouds open exceeding bright, and I saw Jesus hanging on the cross. At the same moment these words were applied to my heart, “thy sins are forgiven thee.” My chains fell off; my heart was free. All guilt was gone, and my soul was filled with unutterable peace. I loved God and all mankind, and the fear of death and hell was vanished away. I was filled with wonder and astonishment.
“We cannot spare you”: Phillips Brooks's Break with the Evangelical Party, 1859–1873
Authors: Harp Gillis J.
Published: April 2006

Despite renewed scholarly interest in Evangelical Episcopalianism recently, important questions persist about the party's demise in the last third of the nineteenth century. Though church historians have advanced some plausible explanations for its disappearance, these interpretations need now to be tested by more narrowly focused studies of individuals, both committed party men and their less partisan allies. Concomitant questions also linger about the relationship between Evangelicals and the emergent Broad Church movement within the American church and within the Anglican communion generally. Exactly how did Low Church Evangelicals become Low Church liberals by the turn of the century? More importantly, this subject has a broader significance for the history of American Christianity at large. Pursuing the foregoing questions can shed considerable light on the parallel transformation of a moderately Reformed American evangelicalism into turn-of-the-century liberal Protestantism.
A Political Factor in the Rise of Protestantism in Korea: Protestantism and the 1919 March First Movement.
Authors: Lee Timothy S.
Published: April 2006

Everywhere the first impulse to social action is given as a rule by real interests, i.e., by political and economic interests. Ideal interests lend wings to these real interests, give them a spiritual meaning, and serve to justify them. Man does not live by bread alone. He wants to have a good conscience as he pursues his life-interests. And in pursuing them he develops his capacities to the highest extent only if he believes that in so doing he serves a higher rather than a purely egotistic purpose.Interests without such “spiritual wings” are lame; but on the other hand, ideas can win out in history only if and insofar as they are associated with real interest
Encounters in Medieval Revivalism: Monks, Friars, and Popular Enthusiasts
Authors: Dickson Gary
Published: April 2006

Any consideration of the half-millennium of Western European popular enthusiasm from ca. 1000 to ca. 1500—beginning, say, in 994 at the Council of Anse in Burgundy with the intervention of Abbot Odilo of Cluny in the Peace of God movement, and terminating (again with an arbitrary date) on May 23, 1498, in Florence, with the hanging and burning of Fra Girolamo Savonarola, O.P.—must involve the role of the regular clergy, the professed religious of Latin Christendom. Medieval collective religious enthusiasm, especially when it was not inaugurated by ecclesiastical authority, was often divisive, attracting converts and distracting or repelling others. Monks and friars could not remain indifferent to such movements. For one thing, if their stance was deemed inappropriate, their relationship with the laity (perhaps fellow townsfolk), or the papacy, or their rich and powerful benefactors might be compromised. Nor was their role necessarily that of spectators. Members of the regular clergy sometimes participated in medieval revivals. Possibly still more important is the fact that during most of our period the regulars had the lion's share of chronicling popular enthusiasm. It is in their historical writings that medieval popular religious revivals were mythologized and memorialized. Our view of such movements, therefore, has been shaped by their perceptions and prejudices. Their narratives also provide us with a rich source from which to gauge their interpretations of medieval revivalism. For they make no attempt to conceal their attitudes toward lay enthusiasts—their suspicion, animosity, fear, approbation, sympathy, empathy.
Utraquists, Lutherans, and the Bohemian Confession of 1575
Authors: David ZdenĚk V.
Published: April 2006

The purpose of this article is to address the controversial issue of the status of the Utraquist Church in the Kingdom of Bohemia in consequence of the drafting of the Bohemian Confession in 1575. The chronological scope is limited to the period up to 1609, when the issuance of the Letter of Majesty in 1609 formalized the gentlemen's agreement of 1575 and altered the ecclesiastical structure accordingly. According to Czech historiography, the parliamentary action of 1575– which granted toleration, albeit tacit and conditional, to the Lutherans and the Bohemian Brethren—represented a moment of truth for traditional Utraquism, which dated to the original Bohemian Reformation. On the one hand, the Utraquists' choice was to reaffirm its late medieval reformist tradition that preserved the traditional liturgy (including the seven sacraments), a belief in the sacramental episcopate and priesthood in a historic apostolic succession, and the belief in the efficaciousness of good works in the drama of salvation. On the other hand, their choice was to embrace the Lutheran Reformation, which rejected all the doctrines just enumerated.
The Iconography of the American City: or, A Gothic Tale of Modern Times
Authors: Williams Peter W.
Published: April 2006

Some dozen years ago, I began in collaboration with David Holmes, Dewey Wallace, Charles Wallace, and others to conduct tours of houses of worship during the annual meetings of the American Academy of Religion and the American Society of Church History. The challenge of these tours for me gradually metamorphosed from providing basic information on dates, architectural styles, and parish history highlights—all useful enough in themselves—to reading these buildings in the broader context of the urban built environment. Churches, synagogues, and other religious buildings do not appear in the vacuum that a slide presentation or text illustration might suggest. Rather, they are in a continual mute dialogue with their surroundings, which in the urban context tend to be other buildings of commercial or civic purpose. The context is also four-dimensional. Not only do religious buildings themselves undergo expansion, remodeling, and changes in denominational identity, but their neighbors frequently change even more rapidly.
Compatibility of polymer blends. I. Copolymers with organic solvents
Authors: Sabzi Fatemeh , Boushehri Ali
Published: April 2006

In this work, we present a theoretical discussion regarding the Flory–Huggins χ interaction parameter for 11 random copolymer‐solvent systems along with their corresponding polymer pairs. Copolymers studied are poly(acrylonitrile‐co‐butadiene) in acetonitrile, poly(styrene‐co‐acrylonitrile) in 1,2‐dichloroethane, poly(acrylonitrile‐co‐butadiene) in hexane, and poly(acrylonitrile‐co‐butadiene) in pentane. For ternary systems, the results are expressed in terms of χ1,23, which is reduced to the classical Flory–Huggins χ12 interaction parameter in case of binary mixtures. The data on χ1,23 may be used for an approximate estimation of the χ′23 interaction parameter for the limiting case of zero solvent concentration. For this purpose, at the end of each subsection of tables, the limiting value of $\chi^{\infty}_{1,23}$ is given. The limiting values of $\varphi^{\infty}_{2}$, $\varphi^{\infty}_{3}$, and χ′23 also appear at the end of each table. It should be noted that these values are obtained by the graphical extrapolation of data to zero concentration of solvent. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 101: 492–498, 2006
Synthesis and characterization of polystyrene initiated using polymeric peroxide
Authors: Lin Yijian , Guo Xingpeng , Zhong Wei , Yang Yuliang , Du Qiangguo
Published: April 2006

Polymer peroxides were synthesized by copolymerizing tert‐butyl‐3‐isopropenylcumylperoxide (D‐120) with styrene (St). Exothermic peak at 192.7°C in DSC thermogram indicated that peroxy bonds in D‐120 remained intact during the copolymerizing process. The polymeric peroxide was used to initiate polymerization of St. GPC results showed that polystyrene (PS) initiated by the polymeric peroxides was composed of both linear and branched molecules. In addition, the rheology test showed that PS samples initiated by polymeric peroxide contained branched structure and had lower shear viscosities. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 101: 197–202, 2006
Mechanism of paper wet strength development by polycarboxylic acids with different molecular weight and glutaraldehyde/poly(vinyl alcohol)
Authors: Guozhong Xu Gordon , Qixiang Yang Charles , Den Yuling
Published: April 2006

In our previous research, we found that crosslinking paper using poly(carboxylic acid)s with different molecular weight or using the combination of glutaraldehyde and poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) significantly improved the wet strength of the paper. In this research, we studied the mechanism of paper wet strength development using crosslinking systems with different molecular weight by measuring scanning electron microscopic (SEM) images, wet strength, folding endurance, wet thickness, water retention, and Z‐direction tensile strength of the treated paper. The paper crosslinked by a high‐molecular weight (MW) poly(carboxylic acid) shows more swelling by water than that crosslinked by a low‐MW polycarboxylic acid in the SEM micrographs even though both treated paper samples have similar wet strength. Thus, the data suggest that high‐MW poly(carboxylic acid)s promote the formation of interfiber crosslinking. Crosslinking paper by glutaraldehyde, a crosslinking agent of small molecular size, improves wet strength and reduces flexibility and swellability of paper because of the formation of intrafiber crosslinking. Combining glutaraldehyde with PVA as a coreactant increases wet strength and also retains flexibility and swellability of the treated paper because of the formation of interfiber crosslinking. The hypothesis that PVA reacts with glutaraldehyde to form a polymeric pentanedialated‐PVA crosslinking system and promotes the formation of interfiber crosslinking on the paper is supported by the data of wet strength, folding endurance, wet thickness, water retention, and Z‐direction tensile strength of the treated paper. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 101: 277–284, 2006
Manifestation of electrolyte ion size effect on electrochemical behavior of poly(ferrocenylsilane) films
Authors: Wang Xue‐Jie , Wang Li , Wang Jian‐Jun , Chen Tao
Published: April 2006

The influences of supporting electrolyte ion size on the cyclic voltammetric (CV) behavior of high‐molecular‐weight poly(ferrocenylsilane) films in organic solvents were investigated. Three supporting electrolytes with various ion sizes were tested. Electrolyte anions, as counter ions, take part in charge neutrality in the films, so that the size of anion affects the CV behavior of the films remarkably. The large anions are difficult to penetrate into the films, the resistances of the large ions migrating in films are more, the rates of the electroactive species diffusing in the films are slow, and the CV behavior of the polymer films exhibit irreversible features. The electrolyte cations do not take part in charge neutrality in the films, so that the size of cation does not actually affect the CV behavior of the films. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 101: 515–523, 2006
Preparation and performances of poly(phthalazinone ether sulfone ketone) hollow fiber membranes with excellent thermotolerance
Authors: Zhu Li‐Ping , Zhu Bao‐Ku , Xu You‐Yi
Published: April 2006

The cloud points of PPESK/NMP/H2O ternary system at different temperatures were measured by titrimetric method. The binodal lines in the ternary phase diagram of the poly(phthalazinone ether sulfone ketone (PPESK) dope system was determined, on the basis of the cloud point experimental data being linearly fitted with the semiempirical linear cloud point correlation. Furthermore, phase separation behavior during the phase inversion of PPESK membrane‐forming system was discussed in terms of the phase diagram. Then, dry–wet spinning technique was employed in manufacturing PPESK hollow fiber membranes by immersion precipitation method. The cross‐section morphologies of hollow fibers were observed by scanning electronic microscopy. Also, the effects of dope solution composition and spinning parameters, including the coagulant composition and the spinning temperature on the separation performances of fibers, were evaluated by permeability measurements. The thermotolerance of the PPESK hollow fiber membranes prepared in the work was examined for the permeation operation at different temperatures and pressure differences. The experimental results showed that pure water flux increases several fold along with the temperature increases from 20 to 80°C at different operation pressures, while the solute rejection only decreases slightly. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 101: 878–884, 2006
Experiments and simulation of pH‐responsive N‐isopropylacrylamide–acrylic acid copolymer hydrogels
Authors: Tao Yong , Zhao Jiong‐Xin , Wu Cheng‐Xun
Published: April 2006

In this study, N‐isopropylacrylamide–acrylic acid (NIPAAm–AAc) copolymer hydrogels were synthesized by radical polymerization. The equilibrium and dynamic water uptake of these copolymer hydrogels were investigated as a function of acrylic acid content of copolymer, pH, and temperature. The pH‐dependent swelling ratio of the hydrogels was distinguishable between two pH‐modulating methods. In addition, a modified thermodynamic simulation that is able to predict pH‐dependent swelling of polyanionic gels was developed. In the simulation, the influence of ionic strength on dissociation of carboxyl groups was taken into consideration. Also a new relation between Debye length and volume change of gels was derived from the approximation used in derivation of ionic osmotic pressure. The predictions from this modified equation were reasonably good compared with experiments. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 101: 323–330, 2006
Enzymatic degradation of poly(D,L‐lactide) and its blends with poly(vinyl acetate)
Authors: Mahalik J. P. , Madras Giridhar
Published: April 2006

The enzymatic degradation of poly(D,L‐lactide) (PLA) was investigated using two different lipases, Novozym 435 and Lipolase. The optimum temperature was 50°C for the enzymatic degradation of PLA. The effect of various solvents on the degradation of PLA was investigated at 50°C using Novozym 435, and toluene was found to be the best solvent among the solvents investigated. The enzymatic degradation of the blends of PLA and PVAc was investigated at 50°C in toluene. The enzymatic degradation of the blends of PLA and PVAc showed that there is an interaction between the polymers during degradation, which results in the reduction of degradation rate of both polymers in the blend. A continuous distribution model was used to determine the rate coefficients for polymer degradation. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 101: 657–680 2006
A kinetic investigation of polyurethane polymerization for reactive extrusion purposes
Authors: Verhoeven V. W. A. , Padsalgikar A. D. , Ganzeveld K. J. , Janssen L. P. B. M.
Published: April 2006

The effects of the reaction conditions on the kinetics of two different polyurethane systems were investigated. To do so, three different kinetic methods were compared: adiabatic temperature rise (ATR), measurement kneader, and high‐temperature measurements. For the first polyurethane system, consisting of 4,4‐diphenylmethane diisocyanate (4,4‐MDI), butane diol, and a polyester polyol, the reaction conditions did not seem to matter; a kinetically controlled reaction was implicated for all reaction conditions. The reaction was second order in isocyanate concentration and 0.5th order in catalyst concentration and had an activation energy of 52 kJ/mol. The second polyurethane system consisted of a mixture of 2,4‐diphenylmethane diisocyanate and 4,4‐MDI, methyl propane diol, and a polyester polyol. For this system, each of the three measurement methods showed different behavior. Only at a low catalyst concentration did the ATR experiments show catalyst dependence; at higher catalyst levels and for the other two measurement methods, no catalyst dependence was present. Furthermore, the ATR experiments proceeded much faster. Presumably, for this system, the rapid diffusion interfacial of the species present was hindered by the presence of bulky oligomer molecules. The result was a diffusion limitation reaction at low conversions and an inhomogeneous distribution of species at higher conversions. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 101: 370–382, 2006
Synthesis of polyethylene using ultrasonic energy with a metallocene catalyst
Authors: Bahattab Mohammed A.
Published: April 2006

Ethylene polymer was synthesized by the treatment of a metallocene catalyst Zr(CP)2Cl2 solution with ultrasonic energy. Ultrasonic energy irradiation was used to change the polymer structure of the formed polymer. Different ultrasonic energy irradiation times were applied to the metallocene catalyst solution. The ultrasonic energy had an effect on the average molecular weight, molecular weight distribution, and polymer productivity. A lower average molecular weight and a narrower molecular weight distribution were produced with a longer ultrasonic irradiation time. The polymer productivity was almost constant when the metallocene catalyst was treated with ultrasonic energy. Finer polyethylene particles were produced with longer ultrasonic irradiation times. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 101: 756–759, 2006