bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Interpretation: Observer Effects
Authors: Thompson William C.
Published: September 2009

The tendency of human observers to interpret data in a manner consistent with their expectations and desires is well established. Scientists in many fields use blind or double‐blind procedures to minimize this tendency. Forensic scientists have recently given greater attention to this issue as a result of high profile errors in forensic testing and empirical research confirming that observer effects influence forensic interpretations. To minimize such problems, forensic laboratories can separate case management from evidence interpretation or adopt sequential unmasking procedures that allow key interpretations to occur while the analyst is blind to extraneous facts.
Fire and Explosion Investigations: Overview
Authors: Lentini John J.
Published: September 2009

Fire investigations and explosion investigations are two distinct areas of forensic science that encompass numerous sub‐disciplines. Because of the extensive nature of the events that precipitate investigations, there are significant public health and safety issues that must be taken into account.

Forensic investigations of fires involve the determination of origin (where the fire started), cause (the factors that brought together the fuel and ignition source), and responsibility. Issues such as rapid fire spread, failure of occupants to escape, and failure of detection and suppression systems often need to be addressed. After the scene investigation, laboratory analyses involving chemistry and engineering are frequently required.

Forensic investigations of explosions require the determination of the nature of the explosion (mechanical or chemical), the nature of the fuel (gas, dust, or chemical explosive), and the responsibility for the explosion. Explosions resulting from terrorist bombings are in a class by themselves, and are usually investigated by specialists employed by national governments.

Fire investigation procedures are highly standardized and discussed in the forensic science and trade literature, but largely because of security concerns, much less has been written about post‐blast investigations.

In the investigation of both fires and explosions, the application of scientific principles is required from the outset.
Fire: Dynamics and Pattern Production
Authors: Lentini John J.
Published: September 2009

This article describes the interaction of fire with its surroundings. Confined fires behave in ways that are foreign to most people's understanding of fire. The form, geometry, and most importantly, the location of a fuel package determine how it will burn, and what kind of evidence it will leave behind. An understanding of fluid dynamics and heat transfer is necessary to correctly interpret postfire artifacts. Likewise, an understanding of the concepts of flammability is necessary if one is to form credible hypotheses about origin and cause.
Death Penalty and Age
Authors: Salekin Karen L. , Allen Rebecca S.
Published: September 2009

In a landmark decision, the United States Supreme Court banned the execution of offenders who were under the age of 18 years at the time of their offence. In their 6‐3 opinion, the Court stated that there had been a growing national consensus against the death penalty for youthful offenders, and noted their belief that these offenders were less culpable for their actions due to deficits in decision‐making ability, impulse control, and maturity. Of interest, is that the Court has not yet addressed the constitutionality of the death penalty for aged prisoners. For many years it has been recognized that the process of aging is associated with changes in cognitive abilities that may negatively impact flexibility of thought, perspective taking, decision‐making, and memory. It can be readily seen that these deficits, like those associated with youth, may put the aged prisoner in a position in which the imposition of capital punishment violates the Eighth Amendment of the United States Constitution.
Dissociative Disorders
Authors: Spiegel David
Published: September 2009

Dissociation describes limitations in the integration of aspects of identity, memory, consciousness, and perception. Dissociative disorders most often occur in response to trauma, and are seen worldwide. Dissociative amnesia for events that occurred when the person was conscious, usually of a traumatic or stressful nature, does occur, and may legitimately affect eyewitness testimony and the tolling of the statue of limitations. Dissociation has been utilized as a mitigating factor for the defense in criminal cases, with varying success. Understanding dissociative disorders can enhance legal management of some who have undergone complex traumatic experiences.
Hypnosis and Memory
Authors: Lynn Steven Jay , Barnes Sean , Matthews Abigail
Published: September 2009

Judicial opinions about the legal admissibility of hypnosis are mixed, although the majority of states have ruled that hypnotically elicited recall isper seinadmissible. Skpeticism about hypnosis has arisen from the facts that hypnosis: (a) increases the sheer volume of recall, with a tradeoff of inaccurate memories that often more than negates any increase in accurate memories; (b) increases recall confidence independent of recall accuracy. Although research generally supportsper seadmissibility rulings, it is not firmly established that hypnosis increases resistance to cross‐examination, and misleading questions can compromise recall to an equal or greater extent than hypnosis.
Head Injury: Neuropsychological Assessment
Authors: Bresler Scott A. , Martell Daniel A.
Published: September 2009

This article presents a concise overview of issues arising in forensic neuropsychological assessments of traumatic brain injury. After a review of the definitions and epidemiology of head injuries, methods for rating their severity and outcome prognosis are discussed. Referral issues arising in both civil and criminal litigation are then presented, followed by an overview of the forensic neuropsychological examination process. Special attention is devoted to issues arising in the assessment of malingering, and to the forensic interpretation of neuropsychological test data. The article concludes by looking ahead to future developments in this field of expertise.
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Authors: Smyth Larry D.
Published: September 2009

A brief history of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is presented as are the criteria necessary to diagnose PTSD. Epidemiological research concerning the prevalence of psychological trauma is reviewed as is research concerning risk factors that moderate the likelihood of the development of PTSD following trauma exposure. Treatments for PTSD are discussed as are spontaneous remission and posttraumatic growth. Malingering and factitious disorder are defined. The literature with respect to assessing PTSD in forensic settings is reviewed and 10 red flags are presented that suggest the presence of malingering and/or a factitious disorder.
Stalking
Authors: Meloy J. Reid
Published: September 2009

Stalking is an old behavior, but a new crime. It is composed of three elements: a pattern of unwanted following or harassment; a credible threat; and the induction of fear in the victim. Females are targeted in 80% of the cases, and 8–32% of adult women will be stalked at some point in their lives. About half of stalking cases involve prior sexual intimates, and one third of stalkers will be physically violent toward the object of their pursuit during the period of stalking, which averages two years. Stalking is a serious criminal and public health problem.
Syndromes: Psychological
Authors: Edwards Carl N.
Published: September 2009

After a decade of debate and publicity, the legal status of the most advanced behavioral science contributions to the criminal justice process remain wedded to fundamental concepts that would be easily recognized by the twelfth century jurist Henry de Bracton were he with us today. In order for syndrome evidence to be admissible, the physical, emotional, or mental condition addressed by the evidence must be presented in a manner that meets the scientific requirements for legal evidence. Expert testimony concerning a trait of an accused may only be used as evidence that the accused possesses such a trait. It must be left to the jury to determine whether and how such a trait may influence its view of the facts of the case. Although the termsyndromemay appear to give behavioral evidence an aura of scientific respectability, such labels themselves do nothing to enhance the stature of the substantive underlying observations. In fact, if anything, good science and credible observation are more readily accepted without them.
Treatment, Mandated: Mental Health
Authors: Vitacco Michael J. , Erickson Steven K.
Published: September 2009

Mandating treatment continues to be frequently used in mental health situations as a way of providing outpatient treatment for persons with severe mental illnesses who have a history of treatment nonadherence leading to repeated hospitalizations. Guided by the principle ofparens patria, mandated treatment has been extended to a variety of cases where the government perceives it in their best interest to take some responsibility for an individual's mental health care to decrease the risks associated with treatment nonadherence.
Treatment, Right to Refuse: Mental Health
Authors: Vitacco Michael J. , Erickson Steven K.
Published: September 2009

Beginning with the legally recognized privacy rights enumerated by American federal courts during the 1960s, mental health law has witnessed a similar growth of rights for persons with mental illness to have control over and even refuse mental health treatment. These rights are derived from a modern legal doctrine that holds individual autonomy as a fundamental right, and thus, medical or psychiatric treatment as inherently intrusive against the individual.
Risk Assessment: Patient and Detainee
Authors: Nikolova Natalia L. , Strub Diane S. , Douglas Kevin S.
Published: September 2009

Risk assessment is required in a variety of legal and clinical settings. Nevertheless, there is still substantial disagreement about its scientific validity and how best to implement it into practice, which has led to extensive empirical research into its tenability. Violence risk factors can be grouped into four categories: (i) dispositional, reflecting personal traits and tendencies to act in a particular way; (ii) historical, indexing events in the past that may predispose a person to become violent; (iii) contextual, referring to elements in the current environment that are conducive to violence; and (iv) clinical, including features of mental illness, level of functioning, and substance abuse. Over the years the primary goal of risk assessment has shifted from simple determination of who would become violent in the future, to risk management, which allows for reduction of violence. There are two primary approaches to risk assessment: unstructured, based solely on clinical experience and professional opinion, and structured, which requires professionals to follow specific rules of identification and definition of risk factors. Structured risk assessment in turn includes two approaches: (i) actuarial, which relies on an algorithm to combine risk factors, which enter the final decision regarding future violence; and (ii) structured professional judgments (SPJs), which allow the decision maker to consider how nomothetically supported risk factors are relevant to a given individual, and what management strategies would mitigate risk. Commentary and research addressing the strengths and weaknesses of these approaches is provided.
Handwriting and Signatures, Comparison of
Authors: Found Bryan
Published: September 2009

The examination of handwritten images for the purpose of determining whether the author of a known sample of writing was responsible for a sample in question is one of the oldest of the forensic science disciplines. Forensic handwriting examiners (FHEs) subjectively compare a wide range of writing characteristics between known and questioned populations of writings and interpret these in order to form opinions regarding whether there is support for the proposition that the known writer wrote the questioned entries. FHEs also examine handwriting and signatures that are the processes of disguise or simulation behaviors. A review of contemporary positions regarding the basis of handwriting “identification” science is presented along with descriptions of typical handwriting and signing behaviors commonly encountered in forensic casework.
Firearms: Identification of Handling of Firearms/Trace Metal Detection
Authors: Almog Joseph
Published: September 2009

Latent fingerprints and invisible impressions of firearms, left on the holders' palms, are both distinct cases of Locard's exchange principle: “Every contact leaves traces”. Both are typical examples of circumstantial evidence that can prove a previous contact between an individual person and an object. The physiological and environmental factors, which are involved in latent fingerprint retrieval, have been studied extensively for nearly 100 years. Forensic scientists, however, have paid much less attention to the detection of firearms impressions on the hands, and only recently has it attracted considerable attention. Most handguns leave invisible impressions containing di‐ and trivalent iron on the hand. These impressions can be visualized by spraying with the chemical reagent 3‐(2‐pyridyl)‐5,6‐diphenyl‐1,2,4‐triazine (PDT). Even brand new weapons leave such marks. From recent experience it is evident that clear, well‐defined impressions, which are developed on the hands by the PDT reagent, can unequivocally prove recent contact with specific firearms, and even faint, nonspecific marks can at least allude to such contact.
Serial Number Restoration: Firearm
Authors: Maiden Nicholas R.
Published: September 2009

Serial numbers are placed on firearms during the manufacturing process and generally consist of a combination of letters and numbers or numbers alone. They are unique to an individual firearm, although there are instances where firearms from different manufacturers can have the same serial number. They provide a means by which law enforcement agencies can trace the origin and registered owner (if applicable) of a firearm. For this reason, they are often obliterated by criminals using methods such as filing, grinding, center‐punching, over‐stamping, drilling, or welding. There are a number of techniques that forensic firearms examiners use to restore obliterated markings and they fall into two broad categories, namely, nondestructive and destructive. The choice of restoration technique is determined by the type of metal involved, the process by which the serial number was marked on the firearms barrel or receiver, i.e., etching, casting, engraving, or stamping, and the method used to obliterate the serial number. Nondestructive restoration techniques include visual examination, often with the aid of a low‐powered microscope, to establish whether sufficient detail exists to identify individual digits from the remaining portion of the serial number. Chalk or filtered light source examination can assist in enhancing these remaining digits. Destructive techniques include the use of magnetic particle and acid etching techniques. Chemical acid etching is the most common and successful technique currently in widespread use and can be used with or without heat. The techniques presented here can also be applied to the restoration of serial numbers in other situations such as on car chassis or engine blocks.
Tire Impressions
Authors: Du Preez Charl , Roux Claude
Published: September 2009

The society we live in today relies heavily on automobiles for transport. This leads to many wheels on the road and inevitably where a crime is committed an automobile would have some sort of involvement with the crime itself, or the criminal himself. In 2002, the world passenger car fleet hit 531 million cars, with a quarter of these cars being in the United States 1. Of these, 72% of vehicles have four tires with the same tread and design and 14% have two pairs of tires with the same tread and design. Regarding the size, 97% of all cars have four tires with the same tread size, 1.6% has two pairs and 1.4% has three the same and one of different tread size 2. In the majority of cases in which an automobile is involved, the suspect used the automobile to drive to and from the crime scene. Tires are likely to leave some sort of pattern or trace evidence at the scene of crime. Tires are manufactured using natural and synthetic rubber. The rubber is then subject to an entire process in order to manufacture a tire 3. These tires are manufactured with a particular tread pattern to ensure maximum grip and purchase between the tire and the surface of the road. Many different tread patterns exist. Elemental pattern features include waves, lines, diamonds, zigzags, curves, blocks, etc. In addition to these manufacture characteristics, acquired characteristics such as wear and tear, cuts, small holes, etc., can be often present 4. Tire marks can thus be highly informative but unfortunately they are commonly overlooked. As a result, they are often destroyed before any potential exploitation could take place 5. This article presents the examination and value of tire marks in a forensic examination.
Crime Scene Documentation
Authors: Scott Allan Mathieson
Published: September 2009

To ensure the integrity of all evidence recovered from a crime scene and demonstrate the credibility of the testimony of a crime scene investigator (CSI), it is imperative that extensive records are made. In many jurisdictions, the majority of forensic evidence is handed over to other units and agencies by a CSI. This requires the completion of several interrelated documents for all items recovered. These documents provide a detailed chain of custody record for the evidence. Major investigations also generate additional documents that demonstrate the transparency of the investigation and provide extensive notes that can clearly show that an independent and unbiased investigation was undertaken.
Evidence Collection and Preservation: Casting
Authors: Scott Allan Mathieson
Published: September 2009

When casting and recovering impressions made by footwear, tires, and instruments, it is paramount that basic and simple precautions for preservation of the evidence be taken. Any deviation from these simple rules can render the evidence useless. Photography of the impression, followed by the careful casting and recovery are necessary if the evidence is going to serve any purpose.
Sweat: Toxicology
Authors: De La Torre Rafael , Pichini Simona
Published: September 2009

Drugs are distribute into sweat by passive diffusion and transdermal migration. The proof of principle of drug testing in sweat has been developed in the last 25 years. Numerous devices and approaches have been developed for the collection of sweat. The potential application of sweat analysis for on‐site drug testing at the roadside is limited by the nonavailability of adequate analytical devices. Their major limitation is the lack of sensitivity to some drug classes. Adequate analytical methodology has been developed for drug analysis both in sweat patches and skin swabs. Immunoassays directed at the detection of parent drugs combined with highly sensitive chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry analytical methods is the most common analytical approach. In particular, the sweat patch drug testing approach has been proven to be an alternative to urine testing in Substance Abuse Treatment and probation programs. Some of the advantages include a wider detection window, easier sample collection, and reduced opportunities for sample tampering. There are still some pending studies on environmental skin contamination, drug absorption/loss through patch membrane, and drug reabsorption from patches that limit the routine application of drug testing in sweat to some extent.
Postmortem Toxicology: Laboratory Analysis
Authors: Cheng Wing‐Chi
Published: September 2009

Postmortem toxicology is a unique application of forensic toxicology to investigate whether or not drugs or poisons contribute to the cause and manner of death. Virtually, all body parts of the deceased can be used for toxicological analysis, but the quality and availability of specimens is often affected by postmortem degradation or autolysis. An overview on the significance of different body fluids, tissues, and specimens are given. While the most common specimens of choice are blood, urine, and vitreous humor, depending on the case and availability of specimens for collection, liver, gastric content, etc. are also useful. Additional information relevant to the case, such as evidence collected at the scene, medical history, and autopsy findings, can assist in determining the appropriate toxicological analysis and to assist in the interpretation of results. Using a single analytical method for the analysis of all potential drugs and poisons with distinct chemical and physical properties is practically impossible. A typical toxicological examination usually consists of a general toxicological screening scheme and supplemented with case‐specific tests. A combination of chromatographic techniques (gas chromatography (GC) and high‐performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)) with various detection systems (nitrogen‐phosphorus, electron capture, and mass spectrometry (MS) for GC; diode‐array detector (DAD) for HPLC) are useful to provide diverse screening and analytical capabilities. Liquid‐liquid extraction and solid‐phase extraction are common extraction techniques used prior to chromatographic analysis. The application of liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LC‐MS) has been demonstrated to be a useful complimentary technique for the analysis of those substances that are not amenable to gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC‐MS) and high‐performance liquid chromatography diode‐array detector (HPLC‐DAD). Recent developments in the application of hybrid linear ion‐trap liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC‐MS/MS) and LC‐time‐of‐flight‐MS have successfully demonstrated their potential use in general unknown screening. When drugs and poisons are detected, confirmation tests and, if necessary, quantitative analyses will have to be performed. To ensure the accuracy and reliability of the toxicological results, analytical methods must be properly validated.
Guardianships of Adults
Authors: Quinn Mary J.
Published: September 2009

Adult guardianships or their facsimiles have been with us since ancient Greek times. Over the past 25 years, policy makers, researchers, administrators, gerontologists, and educators have struggled to reform guardianship to reflect current knowledge of cognition, functional behavior, and court processes as well as to promote proper due process and judicial decision making based on objective evidence. This article describes the history of guardianship, the institution of guardianship, alternatives to guardianship, the criteria for guardianship, court process, and court monitoring of guardianships.
Autoerotic Deaths
Authors: Knoll James L. , Baden Michael M.
Published: September 2009

Autoerotic fatalities are accidental deaths that occur while the victim is engaged in solitary sexual activity. The most common form of autoerotic death, autoerotic asphyxiation (AEA), is typically the result of the failure of victim's neck ligature to release in time to reverse his cerebral hypoxia. Practitioners of AEA are motivated by their sexual arousal to the state of oxygen deprivation (asphyxiophilia), although other paraphilias such as sexual masochism or transvestism may also be present. Autoerotic deaths are sometimes misidentified as suicides or homicides. A comprehensive postmortem behavioral analysis may be required to reveal that the autoerotic death was accidental. Investigators should be familiar with the common pathological and investigative findings in cases of autoerotic death. Special attention should be paid to key features associated with autoerotic death scenes.
Seizures: Behavioral
Authors: Walker James S. , Abou‐Khalil Bassel
Published: September 2009

The question of whether an individual has experienced a seizure or has recurrent seizures (epilepsy) is often encountered in the forensic setting. Such questions are often raised in cases of alleged personal injury, usually in cases of apparent brain injury. The impact of seizures in a patient's life is also often at issue in cases involving disability law and employment discrimination. Occasionally, death or injuries related to epilepsy are at issue in the court, or the impact of a mother's use of antiepileptic drugs resulting in apparent birth defects. In the criminal arena, criminal acts are sometimes attributed to seizure activity or to brain dysfunction associated with epilepsy. Classification of seizures and epileptic syndromes are one goal of the assessment of the seizure disorder patient. Diagnostic methods include neurological examination, preferably by a neurologist skilled in the field of epileptology. The evaluation will also likely include EEG testing and brain imaging studies. Careful consideration of differential diagnosis issues is critical, as many medical and psychiatric syndromes closely resemble the presentation of seizure disorder. One key differential is ruling out psychogenic seizures or pseudoseizures. When seizures figure into a potential criminal defense (automatism) for aggressive behavior, careful forensic neurological assessment is warranted to determine the medicolegal validity of such a defense.
Disaster Victim Identification
Authors: Black Sue , Hackman Lucina
Published: September 2009

A mass fatality event may involve a small number of deceased or it may run to a toll of hundreds of thousands. Correct identification of the deceased is vital to fulfill both judicial and humanitarian requirements. To avoid errors, the process must adopt the highest standards of forensic and scientific rigor. Unfortunately, there is little uniformity of process between countries. The integrating role of Interpol is vital although not yet fully utilized. We summarize the requirements and procedures adopted for reliable disaster victim identification (DVI) and focus on the template devised in the United Kingdom.
Whole Genome Amplification
Authors: Ballantyne Jack , Hanson Erin K.
Published: September 2009

DNA typing has revolutionized forensic biology and has resulted in a dramatic increase in the ability to obtain probative information from crimes involving biological material. Standard typing protocols permit the detection of as little as 100 pg of DNA and therefore may not be able to accommodate low copy number (LCN) samples (defined here as containing <100 pg of template DNA) frequently encountered in forensic casework. In an attempt to increase the recovery of profiles from such LCN samples, whole genome amplification (WGA) strategies have been developed. WGA methods attempt to increase the effective number of starting genomic templates prior to any downstream analysis. Theoretically, by preamplifying the limited amount of genetic material in the sample, sufficient quantities of template can be produced to overcome stochastic effects resulting from LCN templates. We provide an overview of existing WGA methods and describe their applications in forensic DNA analysis. Although WGA methods have yet to demonstrate their utility for routine forensic analysis, selective genomic enrichment and the production of sufficient sample for multiple repeat analyses are possible novel applications.
Radiocarbon Dating
Authors: Buchholz Bruce A.
Published: September 2009

Radiocarbon dating can be used to determine the age of objects that contain components that were once alive. In the case of human remains, a radiocarbon date can distinguish between a crime scene and an archeological site. Documents, museum artifacts, and art objects can be dated to determine whether their age is correct for the historical context. A radiocarbon date does not confirm authenticity, but it can help identify a forgery.
Therapeutic Jurisprudence
Authors: West Sara G. , Hatters‐Friedman Susan
Published: September 2009

Therapeutic jurisprudence is an idea that calls for the investigation of the law as a therapeutic agent. This term was first introduced by David Wexler, following the major paradigm shifts in mental health care that had occurred in the 1960s and 1970s. Though recently introduced, this concept is reflected in a number of processes utilized in the management of the mentally ill, including specialized courts. Other authors have theorized that even more proceedings would benefit from the application of this concept.
Alcohol: Interaction with Other Drugs
Authors: Brick John
Published: September 2009

Prescription medications as well as over‐the‐counter medications are widely used. Many of these medications have psychoactive effects when used alone, but in combination with ethyl alcohol, a common toxicological factor in forensic evaluations, may result in pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic interactions. This article reviews the use of and pharmacological interactions between alcohol and analgesics, antibiotics, anticoagulants, anticonvulsants, antidepressants, antidiabetics, antihistamines, antipsychotics, cardiovascular medications, other alcohols, statins, opiates, sedatives, and stimulants. The importance of individual characteristics, experimental design, and drug interactions is discussed in the context of forensic evaluations.
Firesetting
Authors: Yang Suzanne , Geller Jeffrey L.
Published: September 2009

Following an overview of the cultural symbolism of fire, this article examines the psychological significance of firesetting behavior. Firesetting in childhood and adolescence is discussed in the context of learning about social rules. Mental disorders ranging from pyromania to other disorders that may be associated with firesetting are addressed in terms of the use of fire as an expression of psychopathology. After summarizing current knowledge regarding diagnoses associated with criminal acts involving fire, the article explores the issue of whether firesetting should be considered a form of interpersonal violence.
Chemical, Biological, Radiological, and Nuclear Investigations
Authors: Morrish Bronwyn C. , Roffey Paul E. , Gillman Victoria C. , Norman Keith W. , Koperski George J. , Abbondante Serena F. , Wenger Eric
Published: September 2009

The crime scene around the preparation or release of hazardous chemical, biological, radiological, or nuclear (CBRN) material provides unique challenges for investigators. Following a terrorist, criminal, or inadvertent release of CBRN agents, emergency service (first responder) agencies may have to deal with mass casualties and public panic, where significant numbers of people in the area will seek medical attention believing they have been exposed. The risks that these agents pose to first responders and crime scene investigators are significant factors in managing the response. The CBRN crime scene may be difficult to identify and map, particularly following a covert release of agents. The crime scene may be both hazardous and fragile, with the potential for critical material to be lost due to time delays or lost to the elements, including rain, wind, and heat. Efforts to decontaminate the scene may also destroy critical forensic evidence. Evidence gathered from the scene will be considered contaminated without purpose‐built containment laboratories, and cannot be examined for traditional forensic evidence (fingerprints, fiber, and handwriting) until it has been decontaminated. The integrity of this evidence may be compromised by the agents themselves or by the methods used for decontamination. This article discusses these aspects of the CBRN forensic investigation, as well as the new science on the analysis of the agents for attribution purposes.
Bomb Scene Management
Authors: Royds David
Published: September 2009

The examination of a bombing scene presents specific challenges not only in magnitude and complexity but also because the evidence can be damaged, dispersed, or destroyed. Explosive residues may be present but usually in dirty samples and at very low concentration. A methodical examination is essential to establish the facts and to identify the perpetrator.

This article is an overview of the following:

explosions and bombs;

movements and incursions at the incident scene;

role of the forensic forward commander;

contamination minimization strategies;

searching for evidence and explosive residues;

mobile and improvised laboratories;

report writing.
Reversibly Deformable and Mechanically Tunable Fluidic Antennas
Authors: So Ju‐Hee , Thelen Jacob , Qusba Amit , Hayes Gerard J. , Lazzi Gianluca , Dickey Michael D.
Published: September 2009

This paper describes the fabrication and characterization of fluidic dipole antennas that are reconfigurable, reversibly deformable, and mechanically tunable. The antennas consist of a fluid metal alloy injected into microfluidic channels comprising a silicone elastomer. By employing soft lithographic, rapid prototyping methods, the fluidic antennas are easier to fabricate than conventional copper antennas. The fluidic dipole radiates with ≈90% efficiency over a broad frequency range (1910–1990 MHz), which is equivalent to the expected efficiency for a similar dipole with solid metallic elements such as copper. The metal, eutectic gallium indium (EGaIn), is a low‐viscosity liquid at room temperature and possesses a thin oxide skin that provides mechanical stability to the fluid within the elastomeric channels. Because the conductive element of the antenna is a fluid, the mechanical properties and shape of the antenna are defined by the elastomeric channels, which are composed of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS). The antennas can withstand mechanical deformation (stretching, bending, rolling, and twisting) and return to their original state after removal of an applied stress. The ability of the fluid metal to flow during deformation of the PDMS ensures electrical continuity. The shape and thus, the function of the antenna, is reconfigurable. The resonant frequency can be tuned mechanically by elongating the antenna via stretching without any hysteresis during strain relaxation, and the measured resonant frequency as a function of strain shows excellent agreement (±0.1–0.3% error) with that predicted by theoretical finite element modeling. The antennas are therefore sensors of strain. The fluid metal also facilitates self‐healing in response to sharp cuts through the antenna.
Gold Nanoparticles Stabilized by Acetylene‐Functionalized Multidentate Thioether Ligands: Building Blocks for Nanoparticle Superstructures
Authors: Peterle Torsten , Ringler Philippe , Mayor Marcel
Published: September 2009

Aiming at the formation of inorganic/organic hybrid gold nanoparticle superstructures, the design and synthesis of acetylene‐monofunctionalized multidentate thioether ligands and their ability to stabilize gold nanoparticles are presented. Rather monodisperse gold particles with diameters of about 1 nm are obtained, which are coated by a small number of ligands, each comprising a silyl‐protected acetylene. The acetylene is attached at the end of a rigid ethynylene‐phenylene unit of variable length, leading to functionalized gold nanoparticles carrying acetylenes at different distances from the nanoparticle surface. These particles are interlinked by diacetylene formation and are investigated by transmission electron microscopy and UV/vis spectroscopy, revealing the formation of nanoparticle aggregates and small superstructures such as dimers or trimers while the nanoparticles themselves retain their integrity. The interparticle distance in small nanoparticle superstructures reflects the ethynylene‐phenylene spacer length corroborating the wet chemical interlinking as the origin of these organic/inorganic hybrid structures.
Leaf nest use and construction in the golden‐brown mouse lemur (Microcebus ravelobensis) in the Ankarafantsika National Park
Authors: Thorén Sandra , Quietzsch Franziska , Radespiel Ute
Published: September 2009

The use of leaf nests has been documented in several mouse lemur species over the last few decades, including the golden‐brown mouse lemur. Nest construction, however, has only rarely been observed and detailed descriptions of this process are lacking so far. We aim to determine the relative importance of leaf nests as shelters for the golden‐brown mouse lemur, and to test predictions concerning the role of thermoregulation, safety (i.e., protection of infants), and of interspecific competition with the sympatric gray mouse lemurs in regulating nest use. Finally, we intend to clarify whether and how Microcebus ravelobensis constructs the nests, and we provide physical descriptions of seven leaf nests. Nocturnal focal observations were carried out from May 2007 to January 2008 on 18 females, and sleeping sites were regularly monitored during a six‐month period. Data were collected from two study sites, one with exclusive presence of M. ravelobensis, and one with co‐existence of the two mouse lemur species. Sixty‐five out of 379 identified daily sleeping sites were leaf nests. These represented a total of 35 different leaf nests, used by 15 out of 18 females. The relative leaf nest use differed between sites during five out of six months, but without a consistent pattern. Interspecific competition can therefore not explain leaf nest use. Leaf nest use differed seasonally and may be partly explained by thermoregulatory advantages in the site with lower minimum temperatures. Nest use was furthermore higher than expected in both sites during the rearing season that indicates the role of nests in infant protection. For the first time, we could confirm that golden‐brown mouse lemurs build leaf nests themselves. Nest building lasted between 46 and 68 min, which shows that this task is time consuming and therefore probably costly. Am. J. Primatol. 72:48–55, 2010. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Silane reduction of onium salts
Authors: Crivello James V.
Published: September 2009

Novel redox initiators for cationic polymerizations were developed consisting of an onium salt together with a SiH functional silane or siloxane. The reduction of the onium salt by the silane is catalyzed by noble metal complexes or certain transition metal compounds and takes place spontaneously at room temperature. The redox reaction of the onium salt with the silane results in the liberation of a strong Brønsted acid that can be subsequently used to initiate cationic polymerizations. Typical onium salts that have been employed in these redox initiator systems are diaryliodonium salts, triarylsulfonium salts and S,S‐dialkyl‐S‐phenacylsulfonium salts. Studies of the effects of variations in the structures of the onium salt, the silane and the type of noble metal catalyst were carried out. In principle, the redox initiator systems are applicable to all types of cationically polymerizable monomers and oligomers, including the ring‐opening polymerizations of such heterocyclic monomers as epoxides and oxetanes and, in addition, the polymerization of vinyl monomers such as vinyl ethers, N‐vinylcarbazole and styrenic monomers. The use of these novel initiator systems for carrying out commercially attractive crosslinking polymerizations for coatings, composites and encapsulations is discussed. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Can management practices in rice fields contribute to amphibian conservation in southern Brazilian wetlands?
Authors: Machado Iberê Farina , Maltchik Leonardo
Published: September 2009

Rice field expansion is one of the activities associated with the disappearance of 90% of the wetlands in southern Brazil. Worldwide, rice agriculture has been recognized as having considerable potential value for many aquatic species. Nevertheless, management practices in such systems must be ameliorated and better investigated.

This study evaluated the potential role of rice fields as refugia for amphibians, and whether different hydrologic management practices after rice cultivation could contribute to wetland amphibian conservation in southern Brazil.

Six collections were made in six rice fields with different management practices after cultivation (three dry and three flooded) and three natural wetlands. The amphibians were sampled through six random 15‐min visual transects per collection in each rice field and the natural wetlands.

In total, 2139 anuran individuals were observed in rice fields (798) and Reserva Lake (1341), comprising 12 anuran species distributed among five anuran families. Anuran richness and abundance varied over the rice cultivating cycle, and they were higher in the growing phases than in the fallow phases. The mean anuran richness and abundance was higher in Reserva Lake than in flooded and dry rice fields.

The different management practices adopted after the harvesting period (presence or lack of surface water) did not influence the anuran richness and abundance. It did, however, influence species composition.

The difference in species composition between the management practices adopted is an interesting result in terms of biodiversity conservation. Rice producers could maintain part of their agricultural land flooded during the fallow phase as a strategy to preserve a higher diversity of anurans. These results should be taken into consideration in wetland conservation plans in southern Brazil; however, the percentage of each agricultural land that should be kept flooded should be decided by Brazilian agricultural and conservation policies. Such a strategy would reconcile agricultural/economic needs with the conservation of biodiversity in southern Brazil, where more than 90% of wetland systems have already been lost. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Individual differences in the interpretation of text: Implications for information science
Authors: Morris Jane
Published: September 2009

Many tasks in library and information science (e.g., indexing, abstracting, classification, and text analysis techniques such as discourse and content analysis) require text meaning interpretation, and, therefore, any individual differences in interpretation are relevant and should be considered, especially for applications in which these tasks are done automatically. This article investigates individual differences in the interpretation of one aspect of text meaning that is commonly used in such automatic applications: lexical cohesion and lexical semantic relations. Experiments with 26 participants indicate an approximately 40% difference in interpretation. In total, 79, 83, and 89 lexical chains (groups of semantically related words) were analyzed in 3 texts, respectively. A major implication of this result is the possibility of modeling individual differences for individual users. Further research is suggested for different types of texts and readers than those used here, as well as similar research for different aspects of text meaning.
Plant‐microbe symbioses: new insights into common roots
Authors: Lima Pedro T. , Faria Vitor G. , Patraquim Pedro , Ramos Alessandro C. , Feijó José A. , Sucena Élio
Published: September 2009

Arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM), a type of plant‐fungal endosymbiosis, and nodulation, a bacterial‐plant endosymbiosis, are the most ubiquitous symbioses on earth. Recent findings have established part of a shared genetic basis underlying these interactions. Here, we approach root endosymbioses through the lens of the homology and modularity concepts aiming at further clarifying the proximate and ultimate causes for the establishment of these biological systems. We review the genetics that underlie interspecific signaling and its concomitant shift in genetic programs for either partner. Also, through the comparative analysis of genetic modules shared by AM and nodulation symbioses, we identify fundamental nodes in these networks, suggesting the elemental steps that may have permitted symbiotic adaptation. Here, we show that this approach, allied to recent technical advances in the study of genetic systems architecture, can provide clear testable hypotheses for the advancement of our understanding on the evolution and development of symbiotic systems.
How depolymerization can promote polymerization: the case of actin and profilin
Authors: Yarmola Elena G. , Bubb Michael R.
Published: September 2009

Rapid polymerization and depolymerization of actin filaments in response to extracellular stimuli is required for normal cell motility and development. Profilin is one of the most important actin‐binding proteins; it regulates actin polymerization and interacts with many cytoskeletal proteins that link actin to extracellular membrane. The molecular mechanism of profilin has been extensively considered and debated in the literature for over two decades. Here we discuss several accepted hypotheses regarding the mechanism of profilin function as well as new recently emerged possibilities. Thermal noise is routine in molecular world and unsurprisingly, nature has found a way to utilize it. An increasing amount of theoretical and experimental research suggests that fluctuation‐based processes play important roles in many cell events. Here we show how a fluctuation‐based process of exchange diffusion is involved in the regulation of actin polymerization.
Belief versus acceptance: Why do people not believe in evolution?
Authors: Williams James D.
Published: September 2009

Despite being an established and accepted scientific theory for 150 years, repeated public polls show that evolution is not believed by large numbers of people. This essay examines why people do not accept evolution and argues that its poor representation in some science textbooks allows misconceptions, established and reinforced in early childhood, to take hold. There is also a lack of up‐to‐date examples of evidence for evolution in school textbooks. Poor understanding by science graduates and teachers of the nature of science and incorrect definitions by them of key terminology, serve only to undermine efforts to improve public understanding of evolution. This paper has several recommendations, including the introduction of evolution to primary age children and a call to bring evolution back as the central tenet of biology.
Transgastric hybrid cholecystectomy
Authors: Dallemagne B , Perretta S , Allemann P , Asakuma M , Marescaux J
Published: September 2009

Background

Clinical application of natural orifice transluminal endoscopic surgery is under investigation. Preliminary results of transvaginal cholecystectomy in women and associated technical issues have been described. The technique and initial results of hybrid transgastric cholecystectomy are now reported.

Methods

Five patients aged 18–60 years with uncomplicated cholelithiasis underwent transgastric cholecystectomy in a prospective intention-to-treat study that included the option of transparietal assistance (hybrid technique) if needed. The gastrotomy was created under laparoscopic guidance through a 5-mm umbilical trocar, which also served to expose the gallbladder, clip the cystic pedicle and close the gastrotomy. Cholecystectomy was carried out using flexible instruments through the endoscope, alone or in combination with laparoscopic instruments.

Results

The procedure was successful in all patients with a median operating time of 150 (range 120–180) min. Transparietal assistance was necessary in all patients. There were no intraoperative or postoperative complications.

Conclusion

Until technical issues have been resolved, a hybrid procedure with liberal use of transparietal assistance is the safest and most efficient approach for transgastric cholecystectomy. Further studies are essential to evaluate the role of this new approach.