bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Antipsychotic drugs reverse the AMPA receptor‐stimulated release of 5‐HT in the medial prefrontal cortex
Authors: Amargós‐Bosch Mercè , Adell Albert , Artigas Francesc
Published: March 2007

The prefrontal cortex (PFC) is involved in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. PFC neuronal activity is modulated by monoaminergic receptors for which antipsychotic drugs display moderate‐high affinity, such as 5‐HT2Aand α1‐adrenoceptors. Conversely, PFC pyramidal neurons project to and modulate the activity of raphe serotonergic neurons and serotonin (5‐HT) release. Under the working hypothesis that atypical antipsychotic drugs may partly exert their action in PFC, we assessed their action on thein vivo5‐HT release evoked by increasing glutamatergic transmission in rat medial PFC (mPFC). This was achieved by applying S‐AMPA in mPFC (reverse dialysis) or by disinhibiting thalamic excitatory afferents to mPFC with bicuculline. The application of haloperidol, chlorpromazine, clozapine and olanzapine in mPFC by reverse dialysis (but not reboxetine or diazepam) reversed the S‐AMPA‐evoked local 5‐HT release. Likewise, the local (in mPFC) or systemic administration of these antipsychotic drugs reversed the increased prefrontal 5‐HT release produced by thalamic disinhibition. These effects were shared by the 5‐HT2Areceptor antagonist M100907 and the α1‐adrenoceptor antagonist prazosin. However, raclopride (DA D2 antagonist) had very modest effects. These results suggest that, besides their action in limbic striatum, antipsychotic drugs may attenuate glutamatergic transmission in PFC, possibly by interacting with 5‐HT2Aand/or α1‐adrenoceptors.
Radio language ‐ spoken or written?*
Authors: Vagle Wenche
Published: April 2007

This paper deals with a small‐scale empirical study which addresses the questions of what characterizes radio language, and how and why it varies. One way of finding the answers to these questions is to look at them in relation to the traditional modes of discourse, i.e. speaking and writing. The hypothesis is that variation in radio language can be described as variation along a continuum from spoken to written language. The data for this study comprises two hours of broadcasting from morning magazine programmes. The data is divided into text types, with the macrosyntagma (sentence) as the unit of analysis. Based on American theories of spoken vs. written discourse, a number of linguistic variables (e.g. pragmatic particles, interjections, and grammatical irregularities/‘mistakes’) have been established. The methodology consists of ranking the text types on the basis of the relative frequency of these linguistic variables. The results show that there is a connection between language use and social context (realised as text type) in radio language. However, the results are inconclusive about the hypothesis that there is unambiguous variation along a continuum from spoken to written language. Radio language is a mixture of spoken and written language, but it appears that the relationship between the amount of discourse planning and the type of social interaction is not the same in radio situations as it is in spoken and written situations.
Evaluation by females and males of speeches worded in the masculine, feminine, or genderinclusive reference form
Authors: Ng Sik Hung
Published: April 2007

A random sample of female and male students (n= 408) representing three age groups (11, 14, and 17 years) evaluated speeches that were worded using either the masculine (boy, he, his), feminine (girl, she, her), or gender‐inclusive (boy/girl, she/he, her/his) forms of person reference. Significant interaction effects were found between forms of reference on the one hand, and subjects’gender and age on the other hand. The main features of the results were that (1) at age 11, both females and males upgraded the masculine over the feminine reference form; (2) at age 14 and 17, female subjects upgraded, whereas male subjects continued to downgrade, the feminine relative to the masculine form; and (3) the gender‐inclusive form was evaluated most positively, or at least as positively as the gender‐specific forms. These features were interpreted as reflecting subjects’gender identification triggered by the particular reference form.
Acquisition of kinship reference: A study on word‐formation processes of adult language learners
Authors: Broeder Peter , Extra Guus
Published: April 2007

Although there is a substantial cross‐linguistic body of evidence on expressive devices for kinship reference in a variety of languages, empirical studies dealing with the use of such devices in processes of (second) language acquisition are rather scarce. This multiple‐case study takes the latter perspective, focussing on Turkish and Moroccan learners of Dutch. The data were derived from a longitudinal and cross‐linguistic project carried out with adult immigrants in Western Europe, under the auspices of the European Science Foundation. After introducing the study, a typological comparison is presented of expressive devices for kinship reference in the three languages under consideration, characterized by a great distance between each of the two source languages and the target language. After a brief description of the informants and data‐base, the study focuses on learner varieties for referring to the dimensions of blood relationship, kinship degree, generation, and gender. The study will offer evidence for both general and source‐language‐specific principles of language acquisition. Language learners start with the use of an initial and standard‐like core wordstock for referring to “close” kinsmen. “Distant” kinsmen are initially referred to by non‐standard devices, which are partly derived from source‐language conventions. Left‐branching principles in Turkish vs. right‐branching principles in Moroccan Arabic, in particular, show a clear influence on these learners' innovative devices for kinship reference in Dutch.
Grammar coding in theOxford advanced learner's dictionary of current English
Authors: Wekker Herman
Published: April 2007

This paper deals with the revised system of grammar coding for verbs in the fourth edition of theOxford advanced learner's dictionary of current English, comparing it with its two greatest rivals (the Longman and COBUILD EFL dictionaries). It is shown that OALD4 scores more favourably than the others on six criteria: a) the grammar codes must be unambiguous and easy to use, b) every verb entry must include at least one code, which should be self‐explanatory, c) all the grammatical information should be easy to interpret without reference to a table of codes, d) each verb pattern must be illustrated by examples arranged in the same order as the codes, e) transformational possibilities (passivization, dative alternation, etc.) should be indicated in each verb entry, and f) the codes should be explicit and complete, not collapsed to save space, and the use of brackets is to be avoided. Suggestions are made for improving the OALD verb coding system even further.
Some comments on discourse domain as used in studies of interlanguage variability
Authors: Makoni Sinfree Bullock
Published: April 2007

Variability has continuously attracted interest among some second language acquisition (SLA) researchers. Attempts have been made to explain interlanguage (IL) variability by appealing to a number of different constructs, including attention to form, planning time, linguistic context etc. A more recent attempt seeks to explain variability through the construct of discourse domain. This paper seeks to demonstrate that, although the attempt to explain variability by situating it within a discourse context is most welcome, it is not likely to be very successful since the concept is not theoretically rigorously defined. Because this definition is loose, it is difficult to distinguish the concept from more widely used concepts in language studies such as topic, genre etc. Therefore, Occam's Razor should be applied and the concept abandoned. Furthermore, evidence in support of the role of discourse domain in language variability is open to question because of a mismatch between the way the concept is defined and the methodology used in the research.
Rural dialect speakers in an urban speech community: the role of dialect contact in defining a sociolinguistic concept
Authors: Kerswill Paul
Published: April 2007

This article discusses the applicability of the notion of speech community in urban centres where considerable dialect mixing takes place. The model examined is that of Labov, whose views on the speech community have remained remarkably constant. The reason for the choice of this model is its testability. Four speech community criteria, derived from Labov's work, are examined; these are (1) the nativeness of speech community members; (2) the presence of uniform patterns of linguistic variation; (3) the shared evaluation of linguistic features; and (4) the close relatedness of the varieties on all linguistic levels. The test bed is Bergen, in western Norway, a city with a strongly localised language variety and a linguistically clearly identifiable (and stereotyped) rural migrant minority. A range of approaches to the linguistic data are taken, including a dialect perception test. The data for both the ‘native’and the rural migrant groups show that each forms a separate speech community according to some or all of the criteria. Moreover, it is also shown that the rural migrants’language variation is only interpretable against the background of the group's relationship with the host community. This leads to the presentation of a two‐tiered speech community model. The higher tier subsumes all the groups found in a particular population centre; this tier is not necessarily ‘Labovian’according to any of the criteria listed, but the language variation found within it will be interrelated in some way. The lower tier consists of a number of ‘Labovian’communities, which will include the ‘natives’of an area along with various distinguishable subgroups.
Planning in‐service training courses: institutional constraints and non‐native EFL teachers' perceptions
Authors: Watts Richard J.
Published: April 2007

The organisation of in‐service training courses for foreign‐language teachers is an important provision made by public education authorities and those responsible for foreign‐language teaching in the private sector (e.g. firms, businesses, international organisations, etc.) to ensure that non‐mother‐tongue teachers renew their contact both with speakers of the foreign‐language and with new methods, teaching materials and theoretical insights into foreign‐language acquisition. This paper argues that they are too often based on ad hoc notions of what the FL teacher requires in the way of extra training and are oriented towards the interests of the course organisers and/or the authorities rather than to those of the teachers themselves. In order to discover what teachers perceive their own requirements to be and to what degree their wishes, worries, demands, etc. can be accounted for adequately, it is necessary to have close, firsthand knowledge of the institutional framework within which the teachers work. This requires an ethnographic approach to teacher‐teacher discourse. These points are illustrated by looking at EFL teaching in Switzerland and by closely analysing the argument structure of two sections of teacher‐teacher discourse in a non‐native setting. The paper ends with a number of proposals on how, in this particular situation, teachers’perceptions become relevant to the organisation of in‐service training courses.
The development of narrative skills and the evaluative use of modal verbs in the narratives of young non‐native speakers of English
Authors: Mason Ruth Margaret
Published: April 2007

This study investigates second‐language narrative development by focusing on the evaluative use of modal verbs. The data consist of 45 retellings of six model stories by eight Panjabi‐speaking subjects aged 5:7 to 7:9. These were analysed using a modified version of Labov's high‐point analysis, taking a somewhat broader view of evaluation than that of Labov (1972). Evidence is given for the development of evaluative syntax with age and/or increasing language experience and proficiency and also for inherent individual variability. Competent narrators produce more instances of modal verbs and a higher mean ratio of modals per clause than the less competent: they also use the devices more effectively to represent punctual events as on‐going processes to be experienced by the hearer as though they were occurring at the moment of telling.
Directions in bilingual education: Finnish comprehensive schools in perspective
Authors: Helle Tuija
Published: April 2007

Bilingual education is starting to be regarded as a viable option in promoting language skills in the mainstream comprehensive‐school system in Finland. The current interest in education via a second language has created Canadian‐type immersion programs and numerous experimental projects in several languages. After a brief discussion about the immersion concept in the European context, the article focuses on illustrating this current trend in Finnish comprehensive schools, seeking to answer the question “What are these programs like?” The article concludes with a discussion about the inevitable problems and challenges related to the programs.
“This is not an empty compliment!” Polish compliments and the expression of solidarity1
Authors: Jaworski Adam
Published: April 2007

The most commonly recognized function of American English compliments and compliment responses is the expression and maintenance of solidarity between interlocutors. An analysis of Polish compliments and compliment responses collected in natural settings leads to the adoption of a distinction between procedural and relational solidarity. It is argued that many Polish compliments which are used in a manipulative or instrumental way are only procedurally solidary but not relationally solidary. Poles do not insist on establishing solidarity with each other by relying on formulaic speech patterns to the same degree that Americans do. Instead, they prefer other ways of maintaining (relational) solidarity, e.g. exchange of goods, services and information. Such exchanges may be, in part, triggered by the use of compliments.
Student beliefs (or metacognitive knowledge) about SLA reconsidered
Authors: Kalaja Paula
Published: April 2007

In applied linguistics, interest in student beliefs (or metacognitive knowledge) about second language acquisition (SLA) is fairly recent, growing out of the emphasis on learner autonomy and on learner strategies in SLA. The purpose of this paper is to review those few studies that have been published so far, to give an outline of definitions of beliefs and research methodology, and finally to provide alternatives to these, based on recent developments in the social sciences. With a reconsideration of beliefs come reconsiderations of research data and methods.
Miscommunication and discourse practices in occupational cultures
Authors: Norlyk Birgitte
Published: April 2007

This article focuses on the contrasting discourse practices and occupational cultures of engineers and marketing representatives, and argues that strong occupational cultures not only have different value systems, but also different discourse practices. To illustrate this point, the article offers authentic examples of how and why miscommunication occurs within a knowledge‐intensive organization. Referring to the specialized discourse practices of engineers and technicians, the article argues that the discourse practices evolving around specialized functions may lead to repeated instances of miscommunication within the organization. To reduce miscommunication, the article argues the need for an interdisciplinary approach based on a combination of linguistic and cultural analyses.
‘Symptom’ and ‘diagnosis’ as prototypes: applying the theory of prototypes and the notion of fuzziness to the study of a doctor‐patient interaction
Authors: Wynn Rolf
Published: April 2007

The paper examines the concepts of ‘symptom’ and ‘diagnosis’ from an interdisciplinary perspective, drawing on elements from cognitive linguistics, clinical decision‐making research and conversation analysis. The main focus is on how prototype theory and the notion of fuzziness can enhance the understanding of these concepts. It is argued that the various manifestations of disease, conceptualised as ‘symptom’ and ‘diagnosis’, can be understood as prototypical concepts. Excerpts from an authentic consultation are examined in detail in order to illustrate how cognitive linguistics can be applied in the analysis of doctor‐patient interaction.
Autonomy and interdependence: language in the world
Authors: Heller Monica
Published: April 2007

This discussion of Rampton's and Coupland's papers argues that applied linguistics should take as its central focus the concept oflanguage in the world.Extending Hymes' notion of asocially‐constituted linguistics, I argue that it is necessary to examine directly the question of the relative autonomy or interdependence of linguistic, cognitive and social processes, and to define research questions which address the mutually embedded nature of these processes in an interdisciplinary fashion.
Analysing spontaneous speech in dysphasic adults
Authors: Singh Sameer , Bookless Tom
Published: April 2007

In this paper we undertake a case study of two patients with moderate dysphasia. The patients are evaluated using a set of lexical richness measures which have been tested previously on a larger sample. The aim of this study is to demonstrate the usefulness of evaluating dysphasic patients on conversational speech and to detail the role of extensive linguistic analysis in the prognosis and therapy of patients. The technique used in this paper quantifies word frequency related measures and involves a detailed linguistic treatment of the data obtained through transcription. The evaluation brings out both qualitative and quantitative differences between the two patients considered and discusses the different nature of disorders in the two patients whilst comparing them to a set of normal controls. The paper discusses the usefulness of the proposed techniques for language therapists and highlights the advantage of evaluating impaired conversational speech for patient rehabilitation.
(Re)experiencing hegemony: the linguistic imperialism of Robert Phillipson
Authors: Berns Margie , Barrett Jeanelle , Chan Chak , Chikuma Yoshiki , Friedrich Patricia , Hadjidimos Olga‐Maria , Harney Jill , Hislope Kristi , Johnson David , Kimball Suzanne , Low Yvonne , McHenry Tracey , Palaiologos Vivienne , Petray Marnie , Shapiro Rebecca , Shook Ana Ramirez
Published: April 2007

Reading Robert Phillipson's Linguistic Imperialism in a graduate seminar in World Englishes at Purdue University prompted intense discussion and debate not only of the issues of language dominance and spread that the author raised, but also of the rhetorical style and strategies that he chose to present a story of linguistic oppression. This article documents the reactions of seminar participants to how Phillipson presented his argument and their conclusion that the rhetorical choices he made seriously affected their ability to find his story convincing. In particular, participants – representing English language speakers in Brazil, Greece, Hong Kong, Japan, Singapore, and the USA – identified problems with the author's claims and credibility, style and tone, and terminology and coverage. They also discovered that this book, which they expected to be a narrative of hegemony, was instead an illustration of the use of narrative as a hegemonic tool.
The acquisition of English pronunciation: learners' views
Authors: Cenoz Jasone , Lecumberri Ma Luisa Garcia
Published: April 2007

This paper aims at describing English learners' views on the acquisition of the phonetic component of English by focusing on their awareness of the difficulty and importance of English pronunciation as well as their beliefs about influential factors in the acquisition of pronunciation and their attitudes towards English accents. It also aims at examining the differences in phonetic awareness, beliefs and attitudes between learners of English with different first languages (Basque and Spanish). All the participants (n=86) were asked to complete several questionnaires, including a background questionnaire and a specific questionnaire on awareness, beliefs and attitudes. The results indicate that pronunciation is a difficult and important skill for all learners. It was also found that learners consider contact with native speakers and ear training as the most influential factors in the acquisition of pronunciation and that the difficulty of some English accents is related to learners attitudes towards these accents. The results also indicate that all learners tend to share the same awareness of difficulty, importance of, beliefs about and attitudes towards different accents independently of their first language.
Problematic communication in the workplace: beliefs of superiors and subordinates
Authors: Gardner M. John , Jones Elizabeth
Published: April 2007

This study investigated the beliefs of superiors and subordinates in different organisations about what constituted “best” and “worst” communicative behaviours. 358 full‐time workers in public and private sector companies were recruited from public service interpersonal skills training courses and undergraduate business and psychology courses. Subordinates and superiors completed a questionnaire describing four communication scenarios with their counterparts. For each scenario, participants described what would be the best or worst communicative behaviours for that situation, as well as their communicative goals. These behaviours and goals were thematically coded using a system based on Communication Accommodation Theory. The behaviours and goals described by superiors and subordinates were then compared for best and worst communication. The results showed that superiors and subordinates hold similar beliefs about best‐case communication but more distinct beliefs about worst‐case communication. Best‐case communication was about sharing management of the conversation and achieving clarity. Worst‐case communication involved face threats, aggression and crossing intergroup boundaries; however, superiors talked more about positive face threats whereas subordinates talked about negative face threats.
An examination of written expression in bilingual students' ‘non‐academic’ language: assessment of sense of story structure and interlinguistic transfer
Authors: Francis Norbert
Published: April 2007

Four classes of bilingual children from grades three and five, speakers of Spanish and Náhuatl (in central Mexico), participated in a study of literacy development focused on interlinguistic transfer and the application of narrative schemata as seen in writing samples produced in both languages. The paper reports on: 1) a methodological approach that appears to be relatively effective in eliciting connected discourse in an indigenous language which normally does not form part of classroom literacy instruction; 2) borrowing and code‐switching features in students’written production, in contrast with the application of discourse and text organization strategies available to bilinguals in either language. The assessment of indigenous bilingual students’language and literacy development is discussed, with particular consideration given to the circumstances of the classroom teacher who may not be proficient in the community's language, a situation that is typical of the majority in indigenous community schools.
THE CRUCIFIXION IN THE KORAN The Moslem Point of View
Authors: Din Muhammad
Published: April 2007

This article gives the very interesting standpoint maintained by a modern Moslem in regard to the crucifixion of Christ. In many respects it is quite a contrast to the orthodox position. The same adverse critical method with which he approaches the New Testament account of Christ's death might work havoc to the Koran if applied with half the vigor. Popular Islam may admit the death of‘Isa, but not the crucifixion as in Baidawi II. p. 21. “It is said, God caused him to die seven hours, and then raised him to heaven.” But Muhammad Din sees that the crux of the matter is the death and resurrection of Christ, and has recourse to the “swoon theory”. To our Christian readers some of the reasons given for not believing in the death of Christ are pathetic, some ingenuous, and others recall the attacks of a half century ago.
A MOHAMMEDAN VIEW OF ISLAM AND CHRISTIANITY.
Authors: Bukhsh S. Khuda
Published: April 2007

The following article by an Indian Moslem is extremely interesting as indicating the point of view of a Mohammedan who accepts the historical investigations of European scholars, and even admits that the Koran contains stories which are “anything but correctly recounted.”‐EDITOR.
HOW ISLAM ENTERED CHINA
Authors: Mason Isaac
Published: April 2007

This paper, read before the North China Branch of The Royal Asiatic Society, Jan. 17th, 1929, appears here in abbreviated form.
PADRI WARIS‐UD‐DIN, M. B. E.
Authors: Stanton H. U. Weitbrecht
Published: April 2007

This sketch of the life of Padri Waris‐ud‐Din is summarised from an Urdu pamphlet by his friend and fellow‐convert Padri R. M. Wa'iz. The writer was originally named Rahmat Ali after the Shi'ah leader and grandson of Mohammed. At his baptism the name of Ali was changed to that of Christ and he became Rahmat Masih (Mercy of Christ). As preacher and later as clergyman connected with the Church Missionary Society, Padri R. M. Wa'iz has been a voluminous writer, especially of Christian hymns, and his Rahat‐i‐Dil (Heart's Ease) is a very widely used hymn‐book among Panjabi village Christians. Every Urdu verse writer takes on a nom de plume, and Rahmat Masih chose that of Wa'iz (preacher). By this name he was ordained, and is known.

The Shi'ah sect of Islam, to which the Khoja clan belongs, forms a small minority of the Indian Moslems. They revere Ali the son‐in‐law of Mohammed as his only true successor, and the commemoration of his son's martyrdom at Karbala is the most distinctive observance of their religion.

It was at Narowal that Robert Bruce of the Church Missionary Society first labored, before he went to found their Persia Mission in 1869. The life of his successor, Rowland Bateman, has been depicted by an Indian civilian, Robert Maconachie (published by C. M. S. in 1917). Until recently Narowal was remote, and approached by the worst roads in the countryside; it is now a railway junction with lines in three directions.
CURRENT TOPICS
Authors: Donaldson. Dwight M.
Published: April 2007

Shahrastān?'s Exposition (Tafs?r) of the Qur'ān

Orphans in Palestine
BOOK REVIEWS
Authors: Guillaume Alfred , Calverley Eleanor T. , Gardner George H. , Bishop Eric F. F. , Choudhury G. W. , Wysner Glora M. , Gibb H. A. R. , Pickens Claude L. , Carleton Alford , Kingsbury John A.
Published: April 2007

Book Reviews in This Article:

Islam and Christian Theology. A study of the Interpretation of Theological Ideas in the two Religions. By J. Windrow Sweetman.

The Modern Arabic Short Story. Its Emergence, Development and Form. By Abdel‐Aziz Abdel‐Maguid.

Social Forces in the Middle East. Edited by S. N. Fisher.

Twentieth Century Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge. An Extension of the New Schaff‐Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge.

South‐East Asia between two Worlds. By Tibor Mende.

The Prince and I. By Marvine Howe.

Unity and Variety in Muslim Civilization. Edited by G. E. von Grünebaum.

Moslems in China. Edited by the China Islamic Association.

Jesus of Palestine. By Eric F. F. Bishop.

Memleketin Sahipleri. By Mahmut Makal.
BOOK REVIEWS
Authors: Pitt Malcolm S. , Bishop E. F. F. , Choudhury G. W. , Hendon Rufus S. , Archer John Clark , Elder E. E. , Wheeless Carl M. , Parsons Robert T. , Cragg Kenneth
Published: April 2007

Book Reviews in This Article:

Humor in Early Islam. By Franz Rosenthal.

Persian oil, A Study in Power Politics. By L. P. Elwell‐Sutton.

Changing Society in India & Pakistan. A study in Social Change and Social Stratification. By A. K. Nazmul Karim.

A History of South‐East Asia. By D. G. E. Hall.

Heritage of Islam. By K. Jamil Ahmed.

Mission on the Nile. By James Dempsey.

The Middle East: Its Religion and Culture. By E. J. Jurji.

Social Implications of Industrialization and Urbanization in Africa South of the Sahara.

Mid‐East: World Center. Edited by Ruth Nanda Anshen.
Risk, Return, and Performance Measurement: A Case of Unrealistic Expectations?
Authors: Goebel Joseph M.
Published: March 2007

Abstract

Client criteria imposed upon active asset management companies to hold only high‐quality (HQ) investments in achieving specific Treasury‐adjusted spreads and above‐average rates of return effectively mandate a passive management policy and can be met only with very low probability. HQ investments do not consistently outperform either medium (MQ) or low quality (LQ) investments over time regardless of whether returns are measured monthly, quarterly, or yearly. Further, both time series and cross‐sectional results show that HQ sectors are generally associated withex postreturns that are lower than those for either MQ or LQ sectors. Finally, HQ sectors do not outperform MQ and LQ sectors in consistently surpassing Treasury spreads or crediting rates. These results suggest that periodic evaluation of asset performance in light of such stringent criteria misunderstands the dynamic nature of the market as well as fundamental risk/return relationships.
THE PHARMACOLOGY AND TOXICOLOGY OF CAFFEINE
Authors: LACHANCE MICHAEL P.
Published: April 2007

The widespread use of caffeine is most commonly linked to the stimulatory action it has on the central nervous system. Generally, adverse effects include gastrorrhea, insomnia, and diuresis. Tolerance and withdrawal symptoms have been observed and excessive consumption can lead to an anxiety neurosis condition (caffeinism). The actions of caffeine may involve its effects on neurotransmitter turnover and metabolism; its promotion of the cellular messenger, cAMP; its sensitization of the calcium releasing mechanisms of cellular reticulum; or its antagonism of the autacoid, adenosine. Caffeine lethality is rare in man but caffeine poisoning with its gastrointestinal, CNS, and cardiovascular stimulation could especially be hazardous to children. Most of the mutagenicity work has been performed in organisms whose cellular DNA synthesis and repair mechanism vary significantly from those found in man. The work in human cell lines suggests that caffeine‐induced chromosomal breakage, with its lack of chromatid exchange would promote cell lethality, not muta‐genticity. Nothing but circumstantial evidence implicates caffeine as a human carcinogen or teratogen. Involvement of caffeine as a cocarcinogen or a coteratogen (which includes effects on gamete production or fetal development) appears far more likely, but neither has even begun to be truly evaluated. Basic metabolism of caffeine involves the processes of N‐demethylation, hydration, and oxidation; and most likely requires the cytochrome P1‐450 system. Though various metabolites of caffeine are pharmacologically active, the extent of involvement of individual metabolites in the pharmacological or toxicological responses of caffeine in man is still unknown.
COMPARISON OF TWO ANALYTICAL METHODS FOR THE DETERMINATION OF DIMETHYLNITROSAMINE IN BEER AND ALE, AND SOME RECENT RESULTS
Authors: SEN NRISINHA P. , SEAMAN STEPHEN , TESSIER LYNE
Published: April 2007

The results obtained by a rapid Celite column extraction method for the determination of dimethylnitrosamine (DMN) in beer and ale were compared with those obtained by a more elaborate vacuum distillation method. The end determination in both cases was done by gas‐liquid chromatography using a thermal energy analyzer (TEA) detector. The two sets of results for 28 samples of beers from various countries were highly comparable. Recent survey results for both Canadian and imported beer and ales suggest a significant decrease in the levels of DMN in these beverages from that observed 2–3 years earlier. This decrease is probably due to the improvements in the malt drying techniques instituted in Canada as well as in other countries.
SECONDARY METABOLISM AS DIFFERENTIATION
Authors: BENNETT J. W.
Published: April 2007

Secondary metabolism is the biosynthesis, transformation, and degradation of a wide array of natural products. These low molecular weight organic compounds are generally produced at a restricted phase of the life cycle, often in association with differentiated morphological structures. No unified theory to explain the function of secondary metabolism in the producing organism has been accepted, however one hypothesis that has received widespread attention views secondary metabolites as initiatiors or coordinators of spore formation. A review of the literature indicates that there is ample experimental evidence to nullify this hypothesis. Although secondary metabolite production is often correlated with morphological differentiation, it is not the cause of it. Cellular and chemical differentiation can both be comprehended as different aspects of biological diversification, mediated by Darwinian evolutionary forces.
WHAT DOES DIFFERENTIATION MEAN?
Authors: WRIGHT BARBARA E.
Published: April 2007

The nature of definitions is discussed, and a working definition of “biochemical differentiation” proposed. Using this definition, the sequential and parallel events controlling “biochemical differentiation” in four systems is described, and the similarities to secondary metabolism noted.
ENTEROTOXIN BIOSYNTHESIS BY PROGENY OF REPAIRED HEAT‐INJURED CELLS OF STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS
Authors: SMITH J. L. , BENCIVENGO M. M. , BUCHANAN R. L.
Published: April 2007

By using a method which permitted the selection of repaired cells from a population of heat‐injured and noninjured cells of Staphylococcus aureus 196E, we were able to determine that the progeny of repaired cells retained the ability to produce enterotoxin A (SEA). There were large variations in the amount of SEA produced by the progeny of individual colony forming units (CFU) before and after heating. The average amount of SEA produced by the progeny of noninjured and repaired staphylococci were similar and not significantly different.
ABILITY OF VARIOUS CARBON SOURCES TO INDUCE AND SUPPORT AFLATOXIN SYNTHESIS BY ASPERGILLUS PARASITICUS
Authors: BUCHANAN ROBERT L. , STAHL HEIDI G.
Published: April 2007

The ability of a wide variety of carbon sources to induce and support aflatoxin synthesis by Aspergillus parasiticus was examined using mycelia pregrown in a peptone‐mineral salts medium that does not support aflatoxin synthesis. Sugars and derivatives of sugars supported widely varying amounts of aflatoxin production. Amino acids and tricarboxylic acid cycle intermediates except aspartate and malate, respectively, did not appear to support de novo aflatoxin synthesis. Embden‐Meyerhoff pathway intermediates prior to, but not after, 3‐phosphoglycerate supported aflatoxin synthesis.
A REVIEW OF METHODS FOR DETECTION OF STAPHYLOCOCCAL ENTEROTOXINS AND EVALUATION OF AN ENZYME‐LINKED IMMUNOSORBENT ASSAY APPLIED TO FOODS
Authors: SMITH JAMES L. , BENCIVENGO MARIANNE M.
Published: April 2007

Immunological techniques for the detection of staphylococcal enterotox‐ins, including gel diffusion, electroimmunodiffusion, passive hemag‐glutination, radioimmunoassay, and enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) are reviewed in regard to their applicability to the routine analysis of foods. An ELISA employing minimal clean‐up of food samples was evaluated and was capable of detecting 5 ng of staphylococcal enterotoxin A/g or ml which had been added to food.
WHOLESOMENESS OF IRRADIATED FOODS: A REVIEW
Authors: BRYNJOLFSSON ARI
Published: April 2007

The major findings in the wholesomeness studies on irradiated foods are reviewed. It is concluded that this process is ready for industrial applications and could be effectively regulated for the benefit of the consumer.
REPRODUCTIVE POTENTIAL OF MALE RATS FED DIETARY ETHYLENE DIBROMIDE
Authors: SHIVANANDAPPA T. , KRISHNAKUMARI M.K. , MAJUMDER S.K.
Published: April 2007

Ethylene dibromide (EDB), a grain fumigant, has been assessed for its toxic effects when fed to growing albino rats at 50, 100, 250 and 500 ppm in the diet for 90 days. Weekly body weight gain showed no effect on growth. Organ weights were normal and no histopathological lesions were observed in the liver, kidney, lungs, brain, spleen, adrenal gland, and the testis. Activities of the serum enzymes, viz., GOT, GPT, LDH and alkaline phosphatase were not affected. EDB fed male rats when mated with normal female rats showed no impairment in their reproductive performance.
TOXICOLOGICAL EVALUATION OF GUM KARAYA IN RHESUS MONKEYS
Authors: BHAT RAMESH V. , SESKERAN B. , REDDY C.V.K. , RADHAIAH G.
Published: April 2007

Gum karaya was fed to rhesus monkeys at the 5% level for 18 weeks. Growth pattern, hematological status and histopathological patterns were studied. No toxic effect attributable to gum karaya was observed.
ESTIMATION OF DAILY INTAKE OF CHLOROFORM BY JAPANESE HOUSEWIVES
Authors: TOYODA MASATAKE , KOBAYASHI K. , MITSURA AKIO , SAITO YUKIO , UNO KEIICHI , SAKABE YOSHIO
Published: April 2007

Duplicate portions of daily meals consumed by 21 housewives were collected for 3 consecutive days at Nagoya‐city and Asuke‐cho in Japan. The 24 h duplicate meals were analyzed for chloroform. Thirty grams of samples, 170 mL of water, 1 mL of phosphoric acid, and 0.5 g of ascorbic acid were mixed in a distillation flask which was heated under nitrogen gas flow. The purged chloroform was trapped in n‐pentane cooled at 0° C. The pentane solution was analyzed to by electron capture gas chromatography. Confirmation of chloroform was carried out by GC‐MS.

The concentration of chloroform in each of the 24‐h duplicate meals were in the range of 1.7 to 45.8 ppb and the average concentration was 13.7± 9.6 ppb.

Daily dietary intake of chloroform by housewives were in the range of 7.5 to 51.9 μg and the mean intake was 26.4 ± 11.8 μg.
CHLORINATED HYDROCARBON TISSUE RESIDUES FROM BOVINE FEED SUPPLEMENTS: APPLE POMACE AND FISH MEAL
Authors: FOX DANNY G. , ECKERLIN RICHARD H. , EBEL JOSEPH G. , MAYLIN GEORGE A. , GUTENMANN WALTER H. , LISK DONALD J.
Published: April 2007

Beef cattle were fed corn silage with or without apple pomace andlor fish meal. Trace levels of dicofol, an acaricide used on apples, were found in tissues of animals fed apple pomace. Detectable levels of p, p'‐DDE were also found in tissues of these cattle since dicofol, as formulated, contains about 2.5% p, p'‐DDT. The addition of fish meal containing traces of p,p'‐DDE to the ration did not consistently increase p, p'‐DDE concentrations since this supplement only comprised 3% of the diet. The corn silage and fish meal each contained trace concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) but PCBs were not detectable in tissues of any of the cattle.
EFFECTS OF PLANT EXTRACTS ON ARYL HYDROCARBON HYDROXYLASE ACTIVITY AND 3H‐BENZO(a)PYRENE BINDING TO DNA
Authors: ALWAN ALI H. , MAHMOUD MUHANNED J. , NAJI ADIBA
Published: April 2007

Eight plant species belonging to different families were extracted and fractionated by organic solvents and their total extracts were tested against aryl hyrocarbon hydroxylase (AHH) activity and 3H‐benzo(a)pyrene binding to DNA in vitro. The n‐butanol extract was more effective than the extracts of chloroform and petroleum‐ether, respectively. None of the aqueous extracts showed any inhibitory effects on both AHH activity and 3H‐benzo(a)pyrene binding to DNA. The extracts obtained from Cypressus sempevirens L., Anchusa strigosa L., Myrtus communis L., and Crataegus monogyna L. were more effective than the extracts from Achillea santolina L. and Thuja occidentalis L. However, extracts obtained from Adiantum capillus‐veneris L. and Salsola rosamarinus L. exhibited no effects. The results suggest that the inhibitory effects of these plant extracts on AHH activity and 3H‐benzo(a)pyrene binding to DNA might have similar effect in vivo and there might be used in the prevention of cancer.
SURVIVAL OF LISTERIA MONOCYTOGENES IN YOGURT WITH VARYING LEVELS OF FAT AND SOLIDS
Authors: GRIFFITH MARY , DEIBEL KURT E.
Published: April 2007

Yogurts with varying levels of fat and solids were fermented with Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus in the laboratory to a titratable acidity (TA) of .09%. Each yogurt was seeded with one of three strains of Listeria monocytogenes at two levels and survival was monitored at 1–7, 14, 21 and 28 days during storage at 4°C. All strains survived longer in the skim milk/high solids yogurts which had a higher pH than the whole milk/low solids yogurt.

To determine the effects of pH, solids and fat, simulated yogurts, prepared by acidifying milk preparations to pH 4.2, 4.1 and 4.0, were inoculated with L. monocytogenes. Survival was affected by differences in pH and solids content and strain L. monocytogenes while fat content had no apparent effect.
ELEMENTAL ANALYSIS OF GRASSES AND LEGUMES GROWING ON SOIL COVERING COAL FLY ASH LANDFILL SITES
Authors: WEINSTEIN LEONARD H. , OSMELOSKI JOSEPH F. , RUTZKE MICHAEL , BEERS ALFRED O. , McCAHAN JOHN B. , BACHE CARL A. , LISK DONALD J.
Published: April 2007

Forage grasses and legumes growing in the soil covering four coal fly ash landfill sites in Central New York were sampled and analyzed for 20 elements. Selenium, boron and molybdenum were most consistently higher in concentration in these crops than the corresponding control plants sampled from adjacent upwind locations. Legumes absorbed greater amounts of these elements than grasses probably owing to their deep‐rooted penetration of the fly ash layer below. Factors affecting the extent of absorption of these elements by the crops and the agricultural significance as related to grazing farm animals are discussed.
DEVELOPMENT OF NEW ENRICHMENT BROTHS AND PLATING AGARS FOR ISOLATION OF HEMOLYTIC SPECIES OF LISTERIA
Authors: SCHIEMANN D. A. , SHOPE S. R. , BROWN MARNE J.
Published: April 2007

A new basal broth medium was formulated for optimal growth of Listeria monocytogenes, which occurred at 37°C when the initial pH was 6.8. This formulation was used as the basal medium for development of a highly selective plating agar which proved suitable for direct culture of vaginal and rectal swabs for L. monocytogenes. A modification with slightly lower selectivity was necessary for recovery of hemolytic strains of Listeria ivanovii and Listeria seeligeri. The same basal medium was used as a pre‐enrichment broth and for the development of a selective enrichment broth which were incorporated into a two‐step enrichment procedure for the isolation of L. monocytogenes from foods. These new media were compared with several others that have been proposed by comparing recoveries of Listeria from laboratory seeded foods (100% positive), raw milk (50 samples, all negative) and comminuted meat products (75% positive).
METABIOTIC GROWTH OF AND TOXIN FORMATION BY CLOSTRIDIUM BOTULINUM
Authors: HUHTANEN C. N.
Published: April 2007

Strains of Clostridium botulinum types A, B and F were grown aerobically in metabiotic association with several aerobic and facultative microorganisms. In unbuffered media Enterococcus faecalis and Pediococcus cerevisiae produced enough acid to prevent toxin formation by C. botulinum but in buffered media toxin was formed. Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Yersinia enterocolitica, strains of Serratia, Pseudomonas, Alcaligenes and 35 unidentified strains from mechanically deboned chicken homogenate produced conditions favorable for toxin production under aerobic conditions. The metabiotes did not inhibit spore formation nor did toxin production correlate with the appearance of spores.
THE EFFECT OF AEROBIC MESOPHILIC MICROFLORAL LEVELS ON THE ISOLATION OF INOCULATED LISTERIA MONOCYTOGENES STRAIN LM82 FROM SELECTED FOODS
Authors: TRAN TONY T. , STEPHENSON PATRICIA , HITCHINS ANTHONY D.
Published: April 2007

The effect of aerobic mesophilic microfloral concentration on the isolation of Listeria monocytogenes LM82 was studied in 31 (18 cheeses and 7 noncheese) retail foods having standard plate counts of 101 to 108 colony forming units (CFU)/g. Foods were spiked with L. monocytogenes and enriched at 30°C for 24 h in a selective enrichment broth used in a U.S. Food and Drug Administration method. Inoculum levels for isolation on modified McBride agar ranged from 0.1 to > 5 × 103 with a geometric mean value of 5 inoculated CFU/g or 1.4 CFU/g. Pure Enterococcus (Streptococcus) faecalis (0 to 6 × 106 inoculated CFU/mL) in the absence of food matrix had no effect on the enrichment of L. monocytogenes. Ease of isolation of LM82 was independent of the food microflora concentration both generally and in the specific food type of 9 Brie cheeses. Competition, when it occurs, therefore, may be due to specific bacterial competitors rather than bacterial numbers.
PHOSPHOLIPASE C PRODUCTION AND CLOSTRIDIUM PERFRINGENS GROWTH IN SOY MEAL/GROUND BEEF MIXTURES
Authors: WRIGLEY DOROTHY M.
Published: April 2007

Clostridium perfringens ATCC 13124 grew well in ground beef:soybean meal mixtures. Phospholipase C activity in the medium did not parallel the bacterial load. The concentrations of phospholipase C in 24 h cultures were lower than the control if the beef to soy ratio was 1:1 or 1:3; phospholipase C concentration was higher than the control when the beef to soy ratio was 9:1. The low phospholipase C levels may be due to the presence of carbohydrates in the soy meal because soy extracts with low carbohydrate content did not affect the phospholipase C concentrations as greatly as those with higher carbohydrate composition.
ISOLATION, PURIFICATION AND PARTIAL CHARACTERIZATION OF A NEW EXTRACELLULAR CYTOTOXIN FROM A VIRULENT CLINICAL STRAIN OF LISTERIA MONOCYTOGENES SEROTYPE 4b, AND AN AVIRULENT, NONHEMOLYTIC VARIANT ATCC 15313 SEROTYPE 1/2a1
Authors: VAN DER KELEN DIRK , LINDSAY JAMES A.
Published: April 2007

A number of pathologies oflisteric infections in man remain unexplained. The objective of this study was to investigate whether strains of Listeria monocytogenes synthesize additional toxin(s), which may be implicated in these unexplained pathologies. Results showed that both virulent (4b) and avirulent (ATCC 15313) strains of L. monocytogenes synthesize a previously unrecognized extracellular cytotoxin of Mr 34,000. Cytotoxin synthesis is possibly dependent on the type of salt and the concentration of calcium ions. The cytotoxin is highly thermostable (D121C > 10 min) but is susceptible to digestion by trypsin/chymotrypsin. The cytotoxin is thermostable as the absence of viable L. monocytogenes cells in a food does not preclude the possibility of a toxigenic food product. The role of the cytotoxin in a listeric infection is at present unknown.
A REVIEW OF METHODS FOR DETECTION OF THE PSYCHROTROPHIC FOODBORNE PATHOGENS LISTERIA MONOCYTOGENES AND AEROMONAS HYDROPHILA1
Authors: PALUMBO SAMUEL A.
Published: April 2007

The detection of the psychrotrophic foodborne pathogens Listeria monocy‐togenes and Aeromonas hydrophila in food depends on the use of various selective media designed specifically for their isolation. These selective media, which contain combinations of dyes, antibiotics, and other inhibitory substances, restrict the background microflora while permitting the desired organism (either L. monocytogenes or A. hydrophila) to form characteristic colonies. Since the selective media are not completely specific, confirmation tests specific to L. monocytogenes or A. hydrophila are used to verify the identity of the respective isolates. It has been observed that the inhibitory substances used will not permit injured (stressed) cells to form colonies and special techniques are needed to recover injured cells. The present techniques, while not ideal, do allow for a reasonably quantitative estimate of any L. monocytogenes or A. hydrophila present in a food.