bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Politics of Aging: Globalization and the Restructuring of Youth and Childhood
Authors: Ruddick Sue
Published: November 2003

This paper explores the ways that constitutive elements of globalization—including a celebration of risk, reduction in state funding for social reproduction in developed nations and pressures to modernize in underdeveloped ones—are being “smuggled in” in the guise of new discourses around youth and childhood. Far from being a byproduct of capitalism in its various phases, youth and childhood can be located at its literal and figurative core.

In a crude characterization of the global map as it has emerged in over the past twenty years, one would find a world drawn roughly into three parts—and in each of these parts, youth and childhood is being restructured in a distinct way. These divisions look suspiciously like the earlier global models of developed, developing and underdeveloped nations, but the nature of the exclusions that sustain them spell particularly bad news for the world's young people. Modern ideals of youth and childhood that became hegemonic in the West over the past century are being exported to non‐Western contexts in which resources to adequately reproduce these forms are sadly lacking. At the same time, in Western settings over the past two decades, such resources have been eroded for children and young people, and celebrated aspects of “youthfulness” have been displaced to adults to justify lifelong learning and the increasing assumption of risk by older workers.

The paper urges a move away from the study of behaviors of “children and adults” as static categories and towards an exploration of shifting norms and forms of “childhood and aging” as dynamic processes that both help to constitute and are constituted by a new political economy.
What Is an Asset Price Bubble? An Operational Definition
Authors: Siegel Jeremy J.
Published: November 2003

This paper reviews and analyses the current definitions of bubbles in asset prices. It makes the case that one cannot identify a bubble immediately, but one has to wait a sufficient amount of time to determine whether the previous prices can be justified by subsequent cash flows. The paper proposes an operational definition of a bubble as any time the realised asset return over given future period is more than two standard deviations from its expected return. Using this framework, the paper shows how the great crash of 1929 and 1987—both periods generally characterised as bubbles—prove not to be bubbles but the low point in stock prices in 1932 is a ‘negative bubble.’ The paper then extends this analysis to the internet stocks and concludes that it is virtually certain that it is a bubble.
The first recorded protozygopteran insects from the Upper Permian of France
Authors: Nel André , Gand Georges , Garric Jacques , Lapeyrie Jean
Published: November 2003

ABSTRACT. The earliest known Odonatoptera: Protozygoptera from the Upper Permian of Lodève (France) are described. Epilestes gallica sp. nov. belongs to the Permolestidae and Lodevia longialata gen. et sp. nov. to the Permepallagidae. Both of these families were previously known from the Kazanian of Russia, suggesting a similar age for the formation of Lodève.
A nektaspid arthropod from the Early Cambrian Sirius Passet fauna, with a description of retrodeformation based on functional morphology
Authors: Budd Graham E.
Published: November 2003

ABSTRACT. The Sirius Passet fauna from the Lower Cambrian of North Greenland yields a diverse suite of poorly sclerotized arthropods. A new nektaspid from the fauna described here differs from typical naraoiids in having six thoracic segments and in being isopygous. Soft parts are poorly known, but posterior limbs are preserved in some specimens. Although specimens are invariably highly flattened, details of the axial articulation suggest that the animal could enrol. The widths of the articulating half rings can be used to reconstruct both the degree of rotation at each articulation during enrolment and the height at which each point along the half ring is above the fulcrum, and this in turn may be used to make a full three‐dimensional reconstruction of the exoskeleton. This method of retrodeformation is in principle applicable to the reconstruction of other taxa, especially trilobites, found in shales.
Using critical path method to analyse the radiation of rudist bivalves
Authors: Stone J. R. , Telford M.
Published: November 2003

It has been suggested that certain families of rudist bivalves (superfamily Hippuritoidea) were ‘preadapted’ to inhabit different environments and radiated to fill them. This scenario was based on a hypothesis of a geometric constraint of shell growth, a differential increase in the number of rudist genera possessing uncoiled shells relative to those possessing spirogyrate (i.e. coiled) shells, and a speculative phylogeny. In this paper, these ideas are reformulated and tested by comparing a postulated sequence of structural changes, expressed according to critical path method of management theory, and phylogeny, inferred from cladistic analysis. The hypothesis of constraint is unfalsified, and the cladogram is consistent with a proliferation of rudists possessing uncoiled shells. The proliferation may be attributed to the origin of an invaginated ligament, which should be considered as a direct adaptation.
Shark and ray teeth from the Hauterivian (Lower Cretaceous) of north‐east England
Authors: Underwood Charlie J. , Mitchell Simon F. , Veltcamp Kees J.
Published: November 2003

Sampling of hiatal horizons within the Hauterivian part of the Speeton Clay Formation of north‐east England has produced teeth of several species of sharks and rays, four of which are previously unnamed. One species of shark, Cretorectolobus doylei sp. nov., and two species of rays, Spathobatis rugosus sp. nov. and Dasyatis speetonensis sp. nov., are named, whilst the presence of an indeterminate triakid shark is also noted. Synechodus dubrisiensis (Mackie) is shown to be a senior synonym of S. michaeli Thies. Although the dasyatid ray and triakid shark are by far the oldest representatives of their respective families, the overall composition of the fauna is considered to resemble more closely assemblages known from the Jurassic than those from upper parts of the Cretaceous.
Evidence and cause of small size in Bathonian (Middle Jurassic) marine bivalves of north‐western Europe
Authors: Johnson Andrew L. A.
Published: November 2003

Data from the monographic literature indicate a general size reduction amongst Bathonian marine bivalves in southern England: mean size is reduced in all subclasses and major mode‐of‐life categories relative to the immediately preceding Bajocian stage (27 per cent. reduction) and the later Oxfordian stage (41 per cent. reduction). Smaller size cannot be explained in terms of sedimentary facies, nor as a ‘pure’ evolutionary phenomenon (involving no environmental change); it therefore probably reflects some quality of the ambient water. A comparable reduction in average size (19 per cent. relative to Bajocian, 46 per cent. relative to Oxfordian) is evident amongst oyster and scallop lineages studied throughout Europe and a sedimentary‐facies (and pure evolutionary) control can be ruled out at least for an area extending from southern England to the east side of the Paris Basin. A lowering of salinity to the mid‐twenties per mil is the likeliest cause of size reduction in this area. Isolation of the region from the oceans, combined with high fresh water runoff, was probably the determining factor in such widespread lowering of salinity. High runoff may have been caused by increased rainfall. Tests are proposed for the ubiquity of the pattern identified, and the suggested proximate and ultimate causes. It is noted that recognition of widespread reduced salinity has implications for the salinity tolerances of certain ‘stenohaline‐marine’ taxa and the salinity ranges ascribed to certain nearshore faunal associations. In addition, recognition that environmentally determined size reduction may occur over a broad area has implications for the general issue of interpreting phyletic size change.
A revision of Holm's late Mid and Late Cambrian hyoliths of Sweden
Authors: Berg‐Madsen Vivianne , Malinsky John M.
Published: November 2003

Type specimens of Hyolithus tenuistriatus Linnarsson show this species to be the second definitive representative of the North American genus Nevadotheca in Scandinavia; H. subcostatus Wallerius is questionably assigned to that genus. Restudy of the types of the hyolithids Hyolithus pennatulus Holm confirms the earlier assignment of that species to Carinolithes Syssoiev and H. araneus Holm is assigned to Lovenedolithes gen. nov. Morphology of the orthothecids Hyolithus (Orthotheca) cor Holm, H. (O.) excavatus Holm and H. (O.) lineatulus Holm supports placement of the first in Contitheca Syssoiev and the others in Decoritheca Syssoiev. Hyolithus (Orthotheca) stylus Holm, type species of Circotheca Syssoiev, is of special significance as the basis for both a family and an order. The morphology of the species suggests that ordinal status is not warranted. Hyolithus obscurus Holm, on which Linevitus Syssoiev is founded, is known only from poorly preserved internal moulds and is unrecognizable.
a new elasmosaurid plesiosaur from the Lower Jurassic of southern France
Authors: Bardet Nathalie , Godefroit Pascal , Sciau Jacques
Published: November 2003

Plesiosaurus tournemirensis Sciau, Crochet and Mattei, based on a nearly complete skeleton with skull from the Upper Toarcian (Lower Jurassic) of Tournemire (Aveyron Department, southern France), is here redescribed and reinterpreted. Comparisons with other plesiosaurs indicate that it belongs to a new genus, Occitanosaurus. O. tournemirensis is characterized mainly by its spatulate premaxillae with short facial process, very high postorbital broadly contacting posterior ramus of the maxilla, trapezoidal jugal excluded from orbital margin, orbit diagonally oriented, temporal fenestra with a sigmoidal anterior margin, 43 cervical vertebrae, powerful interclavicle‐clavicle complex and coracoids with a pointed protuberance on lateral border and expanded posterolateral cornua. Cranial and cervical vertebra features show that this new genus is undoubtedly a representative of the Elasmosauridae. A preliminary cladistic analysis of long‐necked plesiosaurs reveals that, within Elasmosauridae, Occitanosaurus is a close relative of Microcleidus and Muraenosaurus.
The Arthropod Alalcomenaeus cambricus Simonetta, from the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale of British Columbia
Authors: Briggs Derek E. G. , Collins Desmond
Published: November 2003

More than 300 specimens of the previously rare arthropod Alalcomenaeus cambricus Simonetta have been collected from a new Burgess Shale locality in the Glossopleura Zone on Mount Stephen, British Columbia. This new material provides much more complete information on its morphology. The cephalon was covered by a shield. A pair of pedunculate eyes and three median eyes were followed by a large anterior appendage, the ‘great appendage’, bearing three long flagella. The two posterior head appendages, like those of the trunk, were biramous. They consisted of a segmented, inner branch, and a flap‐like outer branch, fringed with long filaments. The trunk consisted of 11 somites, each protected by a tergite and bearing a pair of biramous limbs. The telson was paddle‐like and fringed posteriorly with wide flat spines. Alalcomenaeus was probably a predator, moving mainly by swimming. It is now known to be one of the more abundant, widely distributed and longest ranging of Burgess Shale arthropod genera. Its affinities lie with the Arachnomorpha.
An Early Pliocene Hipparionine Horse from the Canadian Arctic
Authors: Hulbert, Jr Richard C. , Harington C. Richard
Published: November 2003

A partial skull of a juvenile hipparionine equid from Ellesmere Island, Canada, is the northernmost fossil record of a horse (78° 33′ N). Biostratigraphical analysis of the associated fossil biota suggests an age of 3.5 to 4 Ma (early Pliocene). Preserved facial characteristics of the equid include a very reduced preorbital fossa located posterior to the infraorbital foramen. The deciduous premolars have low crown heights, complex fossette plications, multiple pli caballins, and oval, isolated protocones. The teeth are quite large, corresponding to an adult with a tooth row length of c. 150 mm. This combination of facial and dental characteristics and large size is not observed in any contemporaneous North American hipparionine, but is instead found in some Asiatic hipparionines, most notably Plesiohipparion. If the resemblance is not a result of convergence, then this represents the first record of an Old World hipparionine dispersing to North America. Alternatively, the specimen may represent a hitherto unknown, high‐latitude hipparionine clade.
A chitinozoan morphological lineage and its importance in Lower Silurian stratigraphy
Authors: Mullins Gary Lee
Published: November 2003

Margachitina margaritana is a distinctive, chain‐forming chitinozoan taxon of the uppermost Telychian Stage (Llandovery Series) to lower Homerian Stage (Wenlock Series). M. margaritana is shown to be the end member of a morphological lineage that developed from Calpichitina densa via the intermediate Margachitina banwyensis sp. nov. A local M. banwyensis Biozone, which correlates with the upper lapworthi graptolite Biozone, is proposed for the Banwy River section. The morphological lineage described provides a tool for the enhanced subdivision of the uppermost Llandovery Series, which may prove global in extent. This research suggests also that the base of the Wenlock Series may correlate with a level below the centrifugus graptolite Biozone and it also brings into question the systematic status of Calpichitina and Margachitina, although both genera are retained herein.
Endothiodont dicynodonts from the Late Permian Kundaram Formation, India
Authors: Ray Sanghamitra
Published: November 2003

The Kundaram Formation, a Lower Gondwana unit of the Pranhita‐Godavari valley, contains the only known Permian dicynodonts in India. This dicynodont assemblage is dominated by Endothiodon. Two species (Endothiodon mahalanobisi sp. nov and Endothiodon uniseries Owen 1879) are described here. This is the first detailed study of Endothiodon from outside Africa. The study shows that Endothiodon jaw articulation permitted propalinal action when the opposing serrations in the upper and the lower jaw teeth occluded with the horn covered areas and helped in shearing and mastication. The presence of oblique wear facets on the upper and lower jaw teeth and a masseter‐like muscle suggest a slightly lateral movement of the lower jaw which enhanced slicing of plant matter. A robust stapes with posterolateral notch constitutes the middle ear region though Endothiodon depended mainly on ground vibrations for hearing. Other features included a reduced olfactory sense and large eyes for vigilance and ease of detecting predators. Based on its vertebrate fauna, this fossiliferous Gondwana horizon of the Pranhita‐Godavari valley is broadly correlated with the Tropidostoma and/or Cistecephalus Assemblage Zones of the Beaufort Group, Karoo Supergroup, South Africa. It indicates a probable Tatarian age for the Kundaram Formation.
Significance of CD 105 expression for tumour angiogenesis and prognosis in endometrial carcinomas
Authors: SALVESEN HELGA B. , GULLUOGLU MINE G. , STEFANSSON INGUNN , AKSLEN LARS A.
Published: November 2003

Angiogenesis is a key process in tumour growth and metastasis, and Factor‐VIII microvascular density has been found to influence prognosis among endometrial carcinoma patients. The CD105/endoglin antibody has been reported to preferentially bind to activated endothelial cells in tissues participating in angiogenesis, and we therefore wanted to compare the prognostic significance of CD105/endoglin to that of Factor‐VIII. In a population‐based endometrial carcinoma study with long (median 11.5 years) and complete patient follow‐up, mean intratumour microvascular density (MVD) assessed using CD105/endoglin was investigated and compared with previous data for MVD assessed using Factor‐VIII. MVD by CD105/endoglin was significantly correlated with MVD by Factor‐VIII (p=0.001). However, tumours within the two groups defined by the upper and lower quartiles for CD105/endoglin‐MVD were both significantly more often metastatic (FIGO‐stage III/IV; p=0.03), with high tumour cell proliferation by Ki67 (p=0.007) and with reduced survival (p=0.036) as compared with the intermediate groups. In Cox regression analysis, CD105/endoglin‐MVD showed independent prognostic influence when analysed together with patient age, FIGO stage, histologic subtype, histologic grade and Factor‐VIII‐MVD, while the latter lost its prognostic impact when CD105/endoglin was included. In the subgroup with high MVD, there was a tendency towards improved response to radiation therapy. In conclusion, CD105/endoglin‐MVD is significantly associated with FIGO stage, tumour proliferation and prognosis in endometrial carcinoma, indicating that this is a better angiogenic marker in these tumours.
The morphogenesis of herpes simplex virus type 1 in infected parental mouse L fibroblasts and mutant gro29 cells
Authors: JENSEN HELLE LONE , NORRILD BODIL
Published: November 2003

Mutants of cell lines and viruses are important biological tools. The pathway of herpesvirus particle maturation and egress are contentious issues. The mutant gro29 line of mouse L cells is defective for egress of herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV‐1) virions, and a candidate for studies of virus‐cell interactions. The properties of uninfected and HSV‐1‐infected L fibroblasts and gro29 cells investigated by protein assay, immunoblot, titration assay, immunofluorescence light microscopy and immunogold cryosection electron microscopy are reported. The ultrastructure of both HSV‐1‐infected L and gro29 cells confirmed primary envelopment of virions at the nuclear membranes followed by maturing multiple de‐envelopments and re‐envelopments in the endoplasmic reticulum and in the Golgi complex. The gro29 cells presented changed cytoskeleton, abolished egress of virions, and were defective in the trafficking of glycoproteins, giving rise to accumulation of viral particles and glycoproteins in the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi complex. The results suggest that gro29 cells harbour a causal underlying defect of the cytoskeleton in addition to the HSV‐1‐induced cytoskeletal changes.
Synchronization of Cellular Clocks in the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus
Authors: Yamaguchi Shun , Isejima Hiromi , Matsuo Takuya , Okura Ryusuke , Yagita Kazuhiro , Kobayashi Masaki , Okamura Hitoshi
Published: November 2003

Individual cellular clocks in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), the circadian center, are integrated into a stable and robust pacemaker with a period length of about 24 hours. We used real-time analysis of gene expression to show synchronized rhythms of clock gene transcription across hundreds of neurons within the mammalian SCN in organotypic slice culture. Differentially phased neuronal clocks are topographically arranged across the SCN. A protein synthesis inhibitor set all cell clocks to the same initial phase and, after withdrawal, intrinsic interactions among cell clocks reestablished the stable program of gene expression across the assemblage. Na
+
-dependent action potentials contributed to establishing cellular synchrony and maintaining spontaneous oscillation across the SCN.
An Atomic-Level View of Melting Using Femtosecond Electron Diffraction
Authors: Siwick Bradley J. , Dwyer Jason R. , Jordan Robert E. , Miller R. J. Dwayne
Published: November 2003

We used 600-femtosecond electron pulses to study the structural evolution of aluminum as it underwent an ultrafast laser–induced solid-liquid phase transition. Real-time observations showed the loss of long-range order that was present in the crystalline phase and the emergence of the liquid structure where only short-range atomic correlations were present; this transition occurred in 3.5picoseconds for thin-film aluminum with an excitation fluence of 70 millijoules per square centimeter. The sensitivity and time resolution were sufficient to capture the time-dependent pair correlation function as the system evolved from the solid to the liquid state. These observations provide an atomic-level description of the melting process, in which the dynamics are best understood as a thermal phase transition under strongly driven conditions.
Mortality and cancer morbidity in a cohort of Canadian petroleum workers
Authors: Lewis R J , Schnatter A R , Drummond I , Murray N , Thompson F S , Katz A M , Jorgensen G , Nicolich M J , Dahlman D , Thériault G
Published: November 2003

Aims:To assess mortality and cancer morbidity in Canadian petroleum workers and explore exposure-response relations for specific petroleum agents.

Methods:A total of 25 292 employees hired between 1964 and 1994 were linked to the Canadian tumour registry and national mortality database. Exposure-response trends were assessed for hydrocarbon solvents/fuels, hydrocarbon lubricants, petroleum coke/spent catalyst, and hydrogen sulphide (H2S).

Results:External comparison analyses (mortality and incidence) showed deficits for all causes and all malignant neoplasms combined and were consistent with expectation for most malignant and non-malignant sites analysed. Gall bladder cancer mortality was increased among males based on four deaths, but cases had no common job assignments and the increase was focused in workers employed <10 years. Mesothelioma incidence was increased. Most exposure-specific analyses were compromised by small numbers. Statistically significant increases were observed for H2S exposure and a subgroup of accidental deaths as well as for petroleum coke/spent catalyst exposure and lung cancer. While both findings have a degree of biologic plausibility, the H2S association, which exhibited a clearer exposure-response pattern, could be subject to unmeasured confounders. Additionally, interpretation was complicated by the high correlation between hydrocarbon and H2S exposures. With regard to lung cancer, the analysis could not adequately control for smoking, was based on small numbers, and exhibited a tenuous exposure-response pattern.

Conclusion:The findings for mesothelioma suggest the need for continued attention to asbestos in the petroleum industry. The relation between accidental deaths and H2S exposure deserves closer scrutiny in similarly exposed populations. Further analyses of lung cancer are underway and will be reported separately.
From insecure to secure employment: changes in work, health, health related behaviours, and sickness absence
Authors: Virtanen M , Kivimäki M , Elovainio M , Vahtera J , Ferrie J E
Published: November 2003

Aims:To determine whether change in employment status (from fixed term to permanent employment) is followed by changes in work, health, health related behaviours, and sickness absence.

Methods:Prospective cohort study with four year follow up. Data from 4851 (710 male, 4141 female) hospital employees having a fixed term or permanent job contract on entry to the study were collected at baseline and follow up.

Results:At baseline, compared to permanent employees, fixed term employees reported lower levels of workload, job security, and job satisfaction. They also reported greater work ability. All fixed term employees had a lower rate of medically certified sickness absence at baseline. Baseline rate ratios for those who remained fixed term were 0.64 (95% CI 0.55 to 0.75), and were 0.50 (95% CI 0.34 to 0.75) for those who later became permanent. Continuous fixed term employment was not associated with changes in the outcome measures. Change from fixed term to permanent employment was followed by an increase in job security, enduring job satisfaction, and increased medically certified sickness absence (compared to permanent workers rate ratio 0.96 (95% CI 0.80 to 1.16)). Other indicators of work, health, and health related behaviours remained unchanged.

Conclusion:Receiving a permanent job contract after fixed term employment is associated with favourable changes in job security and job satisfaction. The corresponding increase in sickness absence might be due to a reduction in presenteeism and the wearing off of health related selection.
Increased occupational physical activity does not improve physical fitness: Table 1
Authors: Ruzic L , Heimer S , Misigoj-Durakovic M , Matkovic B R
Published: November 2003

Aim:To determine the possible influence of high physical load in the workplace on the physical fitness of employees.

Methods:The subjects (494 men) were tested by means of Baecke’s questionnaire for evaluation of the Work Index, measuring occupational physical load. The EUROFIT battery of tests was used for testing the functional and motor abilities of the subjects.

Results:Subjects with a higher Work Index (n = 274) performed worse than the subjects with a lower Work Index (n = 220), indicating that high physical load in the workplace does not necessarily mean improvement in functional and motor abilities. The “heavy” workers were only found to have a stronger handgrip. This could be attributed to the fact that physical activity performed at the workplace did not have adequate intensity, volume, and duration to effect positive changes in other motor and functional capacities.
Under-ascertainment of multiple myeloma among participants in UK atmospheric atomic and nuclear weapons tests
Authors: Roff S R
Published: November 2003

An inter-comparison of cases of multiple myeloma among UK participants in the UK’s atmospheric atomic and nuclear weapons tests ascertained by direct follow up methods detected at least a third more cases than a strategy relying solely on data linkage between the Office of National Statistics and the Service Records Offices. These finding have implications for the conduct and robustness of follow up studies of long term health effects among participants in nuclear weapons tests.
LAYER POLARIZATIONS AND DIELECTRIC SUSCEPTIBILITIES OF ANTIFERROELECTRIC THIN FILMS
Authors: WESSELINOWA J. M. , TRIMPER S.
Published: November 2003

The polarization and susceptibility of thin antiferroelectric films are presented using a Green's function technique within an Ising model in a transverse field. Both quantities vary with the numbers of layers. Whereas at low temperatures the suceptibilty of the surface layer increases stronger than that of the second layer, the polarization of the surface is smaller compared to the polarization of the second layer. Such behavior has no counterpart in ferroelectric thin films. The effect is attributed to inhomogeneous thermal fluctuations.
“Absolute Organizational Deficiency”: The1. Nahplanof December 1939 (Logistics, Limitations, and Lessons)
Authors: Rutherford Phillip T.
Published: November 2003

Inhis collection of essays,The Path to Genocide(1992), Christopher Browning contends that when Hitler ordered his subordinates to pursue the wholesale destruction of European Jews in the mid-summer of 1941, what they were being asked to accomplish was at the time totally unprecedented. At this stage every step was uncharted, every policy an experiment, every action a trial run … Murder was in the air; many avenues were being explored, but little was settled other than at least Himmler and Heydrich now knew what they were looking for — a way to kill all the Jews of Europe.
Resolving classical experience and the quantum world
Authors: Jones Stephen
Published: November 2003

In this paper I suggest how we might conceptualize some kind of artificial consciousness as an ultimate development of Artificial Life. This entity will be embodied in some sort of constructed (biological or non-biological) body. The contention is that consciousness within self-organized
entities is not only possible but inevitable. The basic sensory and interactive processes by which an organism operates within an environment are such as to be the basic processes that are necessary for consciousness. I then look at likely criteria for consciousness, and point to an architecture
of the cognitive which maps onto the physiological layer, the brain. While evolutionary algorithms and neural nets will be at the heart of the production of artificial intelligences there is a particular architectural organization that may be necessary in the production of conscious artefacts.
This involves the operations of multiple layers of feedback loops in the anatomy of the brain, in the social construction of the contents of consciousness and in particular in the self-regulation necessary for the continued operation of metabolically organized systems. Finally I make some
comments on the ethics of such a procedure.
Protein Metabolism in Health and Diabetes
Authors: Liu Zhenqi , Barrett Eugene J.
Published: November 2003

As for carbohydrate and fat, insulin exerts a major role in regulating the metabolism of proteins and amino acids. This is manifestly apparent from the protein wasting that accompanies uncontrolled diabetes mellitus. However, extensive studies have demonstrated that protein homeostasis is maintained by complex interactions between hormones (including insulin, insulin‐like growth factor 1, growth hormone, glucocorticoids, and gonadal steroids) and amino acids (which themselves play a regulatory role). Our understanding of the regulation of protein metabolism has evolved considerably over the past 30–40 years, influenced considerably by evolving understanding of the regulation of gene expression, messenger RNA translation, and of the activity of lysosomal and proteasomal protein degradation pathways. With the use of tracer turnover techniques and tissue biopsy methods our understanding has progressed from experimental manipulations in isolated cells through to clinical investigations. Based upon this an emerging picture of the regulation of body protein metabolism and the impact of diabetes on protein metabolism is now apparent.
Monitoring Diabetes with Urine Tests
Authors: Shera A. Samad
Published: November 2003

One of the most indisputable symptoms of diabetes, the sweet flavor of urine, was identified in the seventeenth century, but it was not until some time later that the “honey sweetness” of diabetic urine was identified as sugar and finally as glucose. Glucose in urine has been used as a monitoring device in diabetes for a long time. It can be used to monitor glycemic control for those who have normal renal threshold and who cannot afford the cost of home blood glucose monitoring. Although urine tests are relatively easy to use, interpretation of results in patients with type 1 diabetes can be difficult and patients need to be taught that it provides only limited information. Self‐monitoring of glycosuria in patients with type 2 diabetes is more effective. Although urine tests do have limitations, they can be helpful by reducing the frequency of blood glucose tests required by the patient.
Epidemiology of Macrovascular Disease and Hypertension in Diabetes Mellitus
Authors: Tuomilehto Jaakko , Rastenyte Daiva , Qiao Qing , Jakovljevic Dimitrije
Published: November 2003

Macrovascular diseases—atherosclerosis, coronary heart disease, cerebrovascular disease or stroke, and peripheral vascular disease—are major causes of morbidity, mortality, and severe disability among diabetic persons. Hypertension is a major contributor to macrovascular disease in diabetic patients. Although late macrovascular complications are common in both type 1 diabetes mellitus and type 2 diabetes mellitus, a somewhat different etiology has been suggested for these two types of diabetes. A number of studies have attempted to answer the basic questions of the epidemiology of hypertension and macrovascular disease in diabetes: (1) What is the occurrence of these disorders in diabetic patients? (2) Are they more common in diabetic patients compared with the general population? (3) Are the risk factors for these disorders the same in diabetic patients as in the general population? (4) Is asymptomatic hyperglycemia an independent risk factor for macrovascular disease? Our ability to diagnose different late complications of diabetes vary. For instance, we may be able to detect retinopathy and increased urinary albumin excretion earlier than clinical macrovascular disease (for which usually 75% stenosis is needed for clinical effects). In addition, the occurrence of macrovascular disease shows a very large geographical variation in the general population. This may also be reflected in between‐population variation in the prevalence of hypertension and macrovascular complications of diabetes. Therefore, the risk of macrovascular disease in diabetic patients must always be interpreted in relation to the risk in the background population. The risk can be expressed in different ways: (1) absolute risk, i.e. as the excess number of cases or excess in the frequency of these complications between diabetic and nondiabetic subjects; (2) relative risk (rate ratio), i.e. ratio of the frequency between diabetic and nondiabetic subjects; (3) population attributable risk, i.e. the proportion of cases of these complications that can be attributed to diabetes, and thereby could possibly be prevented by measures targeted to primary and secondary prevention of diabetes.
Telephone Traffic
Authors: Freeman Roger L.
Published: November 2003

Traffic
denotes the aggregate flow of messages through a telecommunication system.
Traffic engineering
applies mathematical tools for dimensioning telephone facilities so that they can accommodate the message flow in a way that provides satisfactory service to the users while making economical use of the facilities providing the service. In many cases, required trunk and switch capacity can be solved by simple computer programs written in GWBASIC. The coding for these programs is provided.

This chapter provides a basis for sizing groups of shared telecommunications facilities and equipment.
Signaling
Authors: Freeman Roger L.
Published: November 2003

Signaling is defined by CCITT Recommendation
Q.9
as “the exchange of information (other than speech) specifically concerned with the establishment, release and other control of calls, and network management, in automatic telecommunications operation.”

In the broadest sense there are two signaling realms:

Subscriber signaling

Trunk signaling (interswitch or interoffice signaling)

Signaling is also traditionally classified into four basic functions:

Supervision

Address

Call progress (information)

Network management

This chapter treats the signaling interface, a basic telecommunication network issue. Signaling has evolved over the years since 1889, when automatic switching was first introduced. It is difficult to separate signaling and switching disciplines with a clean line of demarcation. Thus some signaling information will be found in Chapter 3, “Switching,” and some switching information will appear in this chapter.

There are about 25 recognized interregister signaling systems worldwide and some fewer number of subscriber signaling techniques. CCITT Signaling System No. 7 has become the international/national standard interregister signaling system. The traditional systems, designed more for the analog network, are being phased out. Thus more emphasis is placed on SSN7. However, some of the more traditional analog signaling systems are covered in necessary detail.
Outside Plant—Metallic Pair Systems
Authors: Freeman Roger L.
Published: November 2003

Outside plant
is defined as “the part of the telephone system that is located physically outside of telephone company buildings. It includes wire‐pair cables, the wire‐pairs themselves, supporting structures, and certain equipment items such as load coils.”

This chapter provides design and interface information on wire‐pair systems including the subscriber loop and subset, wire‐pair trunks (junctions), outside plant construction, and layout.

Wire‐pair systems are just now coming into their own with DSL (digital subscriber line) techniques. For years, wire pair has been undersold even though it was the backbone of the subscriber plant, taking up about 15–20% of the total investment of the local telephone company. There were two driving forces that brought about this new view. First it was the telephone company attempting to compete with entrenched CATV operators to provide a similar service using existing wire‐pair plant. The second force was the need for downstream high‐speed (>1 Mbps) internet service.
Electromagnetic Wave Propagation
Authors: Freeman Roger L.
Published: November 2003

This chapter provides design data and background material dealing with electromagnetic wave propagation, more commonly calledradio propagation. The material in this chapter will find application principally as support for the specific radio technologies covered in other chapters. The intent here is to keep this chapter generic and general. In many instances there is a fine line between direct applications to a particular technology and discipline and the generalized case.

The termwirelesshas been popularized in the trade press. Its meaning is synonymous withradio. We deprecate the use of the term “wireless.”

It should be appreciated that different frequency bands have different propagation characteristics. For example, atmospheric absorption is generally not an issue below 10 GHz. That does not mean that there is no absorption below 10 GHz; it means that in most cases it is inconsequential. There are no hard and fast rules. The skip phenomenon of HF propagation takes place below 30 MHz. However, during high sunspot years, skip conditions have occurred on frequencies as high as 100 MHz. Another example is meteor burst propagation. Here we can expect greater returns from meteor trails at the lower frequencies (e.g., <20 MHz), but the tendency is to use higher frequencies (e.g., between 40 and 50 MHz) where man‐made noise is less intense.
Radio Noise
Authors: Freeman Roger L.
Published: November 2003

This chapter deals with ambient noise. It has several components which are frequency critical. These components include atmospheric noise deriving from lightning discharges, man‐made noise, noise that derives from celestial sources, hot earth noise, and emissions from atmospheric gases and hydrometers. Noise is similar to any other electromagnetic (radio) signal. It can be measured in the power domain (dBm, dBW or picowatts), in the voltage or current domain across a known impedance, and in noise temperature (kelvins). Because much of the noise dealt with here is impulsive in character, noise values are often given in a power spectral density format (e.g., dBm/Hz or dBW/Hz).
Tropospheric Scatter and Diffraction
Authors: Freeman Roger L.
Published: November 2003

Tropospheric scatter and diffraction involve propagation phenomenon that allows beyond‐line‐of‐sight (BLOS) for comparatively broadband communication. Prior to the advent of satellite communications, troposcatter communication was common with the world's armed forces, particularly with the US Department of Defense both in fixed plant and for tactical mobile communications. There was also some application in the civilian arena, generally for connectivity with the “outback” or among islands. However, once satellite communications became widespread, tropo/diffraction communication became less attractive with the possible exception of oil rig communications.

Diffraction and troposcatter are simply outgrowths of line‐of‐sight (LOS) microwave where the links are no longer LOS. To achieve beyond‐line‐of‐sight, a tropo/diffraction installation has to be “bigger” in nearly every aspect. LOS Microwave and Tropo/Diffraction are Compared.

The major purpose of the chapter is to provide a substantial database for the design of troposcatter links. Secondarily, information is provided for diffraction link design. Two methods are included to calculate aperture‐to‐medium coupling loss. Many believe that the CCIR method is overly conservative. The information on transmission loss calculations are from NBS. Analog and digital troposcatter are presented. Guidance on quantifying dispersion as provided.
Satellite Communications
Authors: Freeman Roger L.
Published: November 2003

Satellite communications have proliferated worldwide. The trend since about 1965 has been to use the geostationary orbit, where a satellite placed over the equator at the proper distance appeared to an earth station to be stationary. A great advantage for geostationary earth orbit (GEO) satellites is that “stationarity” eliminates the need for tracking in many circumstances. Delay is a principal disadvantage. This is due to the distance involved for a signal to reach a GEO satellite, about 125 ms.

A new communication satellite series is evolving using low earth orbit (LEO) satellites. Here the distance to a satellite is greatly reduced (about 500–1500 km above the earth's surface), and hence there is much less delay, 1.6 to 5 ms. Expect LEO satellites to be contenders in two arenas: cellular telephony and data transport. Tracking requirements may be listed as a disadvantage, unless some form of omnidirectional antenna is used. Generally there are much higher elevation angles when compared to their GEO counterparts. This must be listed as an advantage. A brief discussion of LEO satellite systems is provided at the end of the chapter.

A large portion of the communication satellites over the Western Hemisphere supports entertainment, particularly TV, supplying service to CATV head‐ends, motels/hotels, and the like. The original intent of GEO satellites was to relay over medium and long distances, multichannel telephony. This is now in decline. Fiber optic cable systems with their far‐reduced propagation delay and nearly infinite bandwidth have caused this decline. One may state that communication satellites have limited bandwidth whereas fiber‐optic cables have nearly unlimited bandwidth.

Systems using very small aperture terminals (VSATs) have great promise, and many such systems are in operation. VSATs are commonly used for data connectivities, usually from outstations to a centralized hub.

There are three important issues of concern to a satellite system designer: coexistence of satellite communications with terrestrial radio communications (in particular, line‐of‐sight microwave); shortage of desirable frequency assignments for use with geostationary satellites, forcing migration to higher frequencies such as the 30/20‐GHz band with the associated propagation limitations; and the actual orbital crowding where physical separation between GEO satellites is down to 2 degrees.

The objective of this chapter is to answer the needs of the satellite link and system designer considering the aforementioned concerns. There is notable lack of standardization, and some sort of standards are set inside a particular system and rarely cross system boundaries. INTELSAT (International Telecommunication Satellite [consortium]) is the largest system operation in the world. This group has set its own standards. If a user wishes an earth station to interoperate with an INTELSAT satellite, that earth station must meet certain standard requirements established by INTELSAT. One of the goals of this chapter is to provide a brief outline of INTELSAT requirements.
Land Mobile Communications: Cellular Radio, Paging, and Personal Communication Services
Authors: Freeman Roger L.
Published: November 2003

Land mobile communications dates back to the 1920s; and it has served well, although comparatively inconspicuously, ever since. In that period, the majority of land mobile systems were used for public safety and vehicle dispatching. Only since the mid‐1980s have land mobile systems started to really take their place in the business community. Cellular radio began the explosive march. The kickoff event was a description of an analog FM system called AMPS (advanced mobile phone system) in a 1979 issue of Bell System Technical Journal. Since then, it seems, the number of cellular radio subscribers doubles every year. Paging has seen equivalent acceptance as universal worldwide.

PCS (personal communication services) is currently experiencing eruptive emergence. From our perspective, it seems no more than an outgrowth of the cellular radio concept with shorter ranges and lower power. Both face the problem of building penetration. Some cordless telephone systems are truly evolving into the PCS category, such as the DECT (digital European cordless telephone). Another application of PCS with great promise is the wireless local loop (WLL). In this case, instead of connecting the local serving exchange to the subscriber by wire pair, a radio technique is employed. Such systems can be implemented very rapidly at about half the cost of an equivalent wired system. Where competition is permitted in the local serving area, it would be advisable to avoid the additional wired approach and use radio instead. [Note:The current popular press uses the wordwireless. The term was widely used in Great Britain. In North America its connotation is slightly different. All of the applications discussed in this chapter would be called wireless. However, we will use the traditional, more meaningful term:radio.]

Cellular radio is chronically short of bandwidth and has turned to using many different means to conserve bandwidth (i.e., achieve more users per unit of bandwidth). PCS, although assigned four times as much bandwidth, will eventually suffer the same demise.

A drawback of present cellular radio is the lack of a universal standard. Europe is further along in this regard with its GSM, which is digital, uses a TDMA access technique, and is fairly bandwidth conservative. It is even making inroads in North America. Currently, North America has two different TDMA systems, two CDMA systems, and two analog systems (i.e., AMPS and N‐AMPS).

Multipath reception has the potential to corrupt performance in both PCS and digital cellular radio. Its corruptive effects increase as bit rate increases. These harmful effects can be mitigated by using direct sequence spread spectrum transmission along with digital signal processing.
Antennas, Towers, and Passive Repeaters
Authors: Freeman Roger L.
Published: November 2003

The antenna is a critical element in a radio system, and the antenna subsystem is a major design driver for the system engineer. The principal objective of this chapter is to provide the system engineer with the necessary design information to size and properly specify an antenna subsystem. Emphasis has been placed on line‐of‐sight (LOS) microwave, satellite communications, and mobile radio applications. A section on the application of passive repeaters is also included.

The section on antenna towers has a detailed discussion of wind load and twist and sway requirements.

The Radio Regulations and national regulatory authorities continue to tighten down sidelobe radiation specifications. Of course this is being done to improve the EMC environment as radio systems proliferate more and more. A particularly ticklish area is with frequency band sharing, typically LOS microwave, satellite communications, and local multipoint distribution service (LMDS).