bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Running shared mental models as a distributed cognitive process
Authors: Banks Adrian P. , Millward Lynne J.
Published: February 2003

Shared mental models theory normally takes the individual as its unit of analysis. This paper proposes a theoretical framework for studying shared mental models in which the model is considered to be distributed amongst the team. From this framework a cognitive process is predicted which describes how shared mental models are run. A team reasoning task requiring planning was used to illustrate this framework and test predictions derived from it. Two aspects of sharing mental models were studied; the degree of overlap between team members mental models and the organization of the division of the model between team members. Experimental results showed that the cognitive processes used were distributed amongst the team and support was found for most, but not all, aspects of the proposed process of running a shared mental model. The organization of sharing was found to influence this process. NOTE: Since the publication of this paper a systematic error has been discovered which led to an incorrect reporting of some of the degrees of freedom and standard deviations in this paper (affecting table two and six related ANOVAs). These errors do not entail a change to the interpretation of the inferential tests or the conclusions of the paper, but a portion of the data is inaccurate. For more information please contact Adrian Banks (a.banks@surrey.ac.uk)
The effect of explicit negatives and of different contrast classes on conditional syllogisms
Authors: Schaeken Walter , Schroyens Walter
Published: February 2003

One experiment tested the effects of systematically negating the constituents of four fundamental inferences based on conditionals: Modus Ponens (i.e. inferences of the form: if p then q; p therefore q), Modus Tollens (if p then q; not‐q therefore not‐p); Affirmation of the Consequent if p then q; q therefore p), and Denial of the Antecedent (if p then q; not‐p therefore not‐q). The latter two inferences are valid only for bi‐conditionals (if, and only if, p then q). The participants drew their own conclusions from premises about letters and numbers on cards. We observed a significant effect of explicit negatives on Modus Tollens and Denial of the Antecedent problems: The inferences were drawn more often for conditionals that yield a negative conclusion (e.g. if p then not q; q therefore not p) than for conditionals that yield an affirmative conclusion (e.g. if not p then q; not‐q therefore p). Additionally, we observed a similar, but smaller effect on Affirmation of the Consequent problems. Furthermore, we observed a significant effect of the categorical premise (affirmative or negative), especially on Affirmation of the Consequent problems. Finally, we observed an effect of the magnitude of the contrast class. If the contrast is larger (a set of three, five or nine values), then the making of a double negation or the production of an affirmative conclusion is more difficult for Denial of the Antecedent inferences. We discussed the results in relation to a negative categorical premise bias, an affirmative premise bias, a negative conclusion bias and a double negation effect.
Some shortcomings of long‐term working memory
Authors: Gobet Fernand
Published: February 2003

Within the framework of their long‐term working memory theory, Ericsson and Kintsch (1995) propose that experts rapidly store information in long‐term memory through two mechanisms: elaboration of long‐term memory patterns and schemas and use of retrieval structures. They use chess players memory as one of their most compelling sources of empirical evidence. In this paper, I show that evidence from chess memory, far from supporting their theory, limits its generality. Evidence from other domains reviewed by Ericsson and Kintsch, such as medical expertise, is not as strong as claimed, and sometimes contradicts the theory outright. I argue that Ericsson and Kintsch s concept of retrieval structure conflates three different types of memory structures that possess quite different properties. One of these types of structures ‐ generic, general‐purpose retrieval structures ‐ has a narrower use than proposed by Ericsson and Kintsch: it applies only in domains where there is a conscious, deliberate intent by individuals to improve their memory. Other mechanisms, including specific retrieval structures, exist that permit a rapid encoding into long‐term memory under other circumstances.
Human rationality and the psychology of reasoning: Where do we go from here?
Authors: Chater Nick , Oaksford Mike
Published: February 2003

British psychologists have been at the forefront of research into human reasoning for 40 years. This article describes some past research milestones within this tradition before outlining the major theoretical positions developed in the UK. Most British reasoning researchers have contributed to one or more of these positions. We identify a common theme that is emerging in all these approaches, that is, the problem of explaining how prior general knowledge affects reasoning. In our concluding comments we outline the challenges for future research posed by this problem.
Individual differences in cognition: British contributions over a century
Authors: Deary Ian J.
Published: February 2003

Research on individual differences in mental abilities is discussed from three viewpoints: the psychometric structure of ability differences, the predictive validity of mental test scores, and some putative causes of psychometric intelligence differences in terms of psychometric and cognitive components and biological indices. A hierarchical descriptive structure for mental ability differences, as it emerged in the 1980s and 1990s, prominently displays British discoveries and suggestions, especially those of Spearman, Burt and P. E. Vernon from the first half of the 20th century. Galton and Spearman's largely unproductive search for the origins of ability differences has seen new activity since the 1970s, and there are several replicable associations that are yet to be explained. Over the 20th century the emphasis has been on measuring mental ability differences; at its beginning there was an emphasis (largely British) on understanding psychometric intelligence. The new century is likely to see a continuation of this re‐emphasis on explaining human ability differences.
Social cognition: Categorical person perception
Authors: Macrae C. Neil , Bodenhausen Galen V.
Published: February 2003

In attempting to make sense of others, perceivers regularly construct and use categorical representations (e.g. stereotypes) to streamline the person perception process. A debate that has dominated recent theorizing about the nature and function of these representations concerns the conditions under which they are activated in everyday life. The present article reviews this work and considers the automaticity of category activation in person perception.
Cognitive development: No stages please ‐ we're British
Authors: Goswami Usha
Published: February 2003

British cognitive developmental psychology is characterized by its interest in philosophical questions, its preference for linking basic research to applied issues in education and cognitive disorders, and its willingness to learn both methodologically and theoretically from work in animal psychology and in physiology more generally. It has also been influenced profoundly by Jean Piaget's cognitive stage theory although in general British work has focused on demonstrating early strengths, rather than early deficits, in infant and child cognition. Following an overview of British work that encompasses past and present interests, issues and challenges for the future are highlighted. While the perspectives of the founding members of the British Psychological Society (BPS), as outlined by Edgell (1947), are still apparent in British research in cognitive developmental psychology today, it is argued that future cognitive work must become even more interdisciplinary and that the symbiotic relationship between research in adult cognition and in cognitive development needs greater recognition.
Beatrice Edgell: An appreciation
Authors: Valentine Elizabeth R.
Published: February 2003

Beatrice Edgell's contribution to the development of psychology is assessed. Edgell was Head of the Department of Philosophy and Psychology at Bedford College, London, from 1898 to 1933. She did much to develop the status of psychology within the College and the University, and established one of the first psychological laboratories in Britain. She was the first British woman to gain a doctorate in psychology, the first woman Professor of Psychology in Britain and the first woman President of the British Psychological Society (as also of the Aristotelian Society, the Mind Association, and the Psychology Section of the British Association for the Advancement of Science). She made substantial contributions to research, both theoretical and empirical, including work on the Wheatstone‐Hipp chronoscope and on memory, and trained a number of women who subsequently played a prominent role in the development of both academic and applied psychology in Britain.
British memory research: A journey through the 20th century
Authors: Parkin Alan J. , Hunkin Nicola M.
Published: February 2003

A century of research in memory has generated a wealth of knowledge encompassing theoretical developments within a number of distinct domains of memory. The aim of this article is to explore the progress made in memory research during the 20th century, to indicate critical influences on the direction of research, and to illustrate the important contribution made by British researchers. This article is confined to human memory research, and reviews research findings from the various psychological disciplines studied over the past 100 years.
A selective review of selective attention research from the past century
Authors: Driver Jon
Published: February 2003

Research on attention is concerned with selective processing of incoming sensory information. To some extent, our awareness of the world depends on what we choose to attend, not merely on the stimulation entering our senses. British psychologists have made substantial contributions to this topic in the past century. Celebrated examples include Donald Broadbent's filter theory of attention, which set the agenda for most subsequent work; and Anne Treisman's revisions of this account, and her later feature‐integration theory. More recent contributions include Alan Allport's prescient emphasis on the relevance of neuroscience data, and John Duncan's integration of such data with psychological theory. An idiosyncratic but roughly chronological review of developments is presented, some practical and clinical implications are briefly sketched, and future directions suggested. One of the biggest changes in the field has been the increasing interplay between psychology and neuroscience, which promises much for the future. A related change has been the realization that selection attention is best thought of as a broad topic, encompassing a range of selective issues, rather than as a single explanatory process.
Surveying the seen: 100 years of British vision
Authors: Wade Nicholas J. , Bruce Vicki
Published: February 2003

Perceptual phenomena and their interpretations have fashioned the course of psychology. This article surveys how theories of visual perception and methodologies have developed during the lifetime of the British Psychological Society. The experimental study of vision was instigated by British natural philosophers in the early nineteenth century but this impetus was not maintained thereafter. Not until the 1930s and 1940s did research on perception resume in earnest within British universities. The adoption of concepts (such as schema) potentially grounded in neural organization, particularly by Bartlett and Craik, accelerated experimental, theoretical and applied vision research. From mid‐century the influence of information processing models of perception became increasingly dominant, and they were often integrated with the rapidly expanding understanding of neurophysiological underpinnings. The epitome of these developments was Marr's model of vision which, in our view, marked the start of the modern era of vision research. Computers have transformed the nature of stimulus control and response measurement in perceptual experiments. More naturalistic stimuli can be presented and manipulated, and complex behavioural responses, such as patterns of eye movements, fractionated. Non‐invasive recording of brain activity to visual stimulation has similarly been transformed with a variety of methods for imaging brain activity. Neuroimaging has been applied to localizing perceptual and cognitive functions and in studying patients with known deficits in visual recognition. However, the eagerness with which the computer has been adopted by perceptual psychologists is likely to be tempered by a growing awareness of the differences between viewing scenes and simulations of them.
The psychology of action
Authors: Haggard Patrick
Published: February 2003

Actions are part of the way that the mind controls the body. Two fundamental psychological questions about actions Where ‘are do they come from?’ and ‘How does the mind produce them?’ These may be called the ‘internal generation problem’ and the ‘information expansion problem’ respectively. The importance of these questions was appreciated at the birth of the British Psychological Society (BPS) a century ago, though the experimental methods to study them were lacking. This article falls into two halves. The first half discusses some of the major epochs in the psychology of action over the last 100 years; the second half outlines some currently prominent research questions, and considers their historical antecedents. Finally, I offer some speculations regarding where future contributions to the psychology of action will be most fruitful.
The language machine: Psycholinguistics in review
Authors: Altmann Gerry T. M.
Published: February 2003

Psycholinguistics is the empirical and theoretical study of the mental faculty that underpins our consummate linguistic agility. This review takes a broad look at how the field has developed, from the turn of the 20th century through to the turn of the 21st. Since the linguistic revolution of the mid‐1960s, the field has broadened to encompass a wide range of topics and disciplines. A selection of these is reviewed here, starting with a brief overview of the origins of psycholinguistics. More detailed sections describe the language abilities of newborn infants; infants’ later abilities as they acquire their first words and develop their first grammatical skills; the representation and access of words (both spoken and written) in the mental lexicon; the representations and processes implicated in sentence processing and discourse comprehension; and finally, the manner in which, as we speak, we produce words and sentences. Psycholinguistics is as much about the study of the human mind itself as it is about the study of that mind's ability to communicate and comprehend.
Is the mind a cauliflower or an onion? British insights into cognitive organization from the study of abnormal function
Authors: McCarthy Rosaleen A.
Published: February 2003

Clinical and normal psychology have had a long tradition of close interaction in British psychology. The roots of this interplay may predate the development of the British Psychological Society, but the Society has encouraged and supported this line of research since its inception. One fundamental British insight has been to consider the evidence from pathology as a potential constraint on theories of normal function. In turn, theories of normal function have been used to understand and illuminate cognitive pathology. This review discusses some of the areas in which clinical contributions to cognitive theory have been most substantial. As with other contributions to this volume, attempts are also made to read the runes and anticipate future developments.
Essay Review: Making shell‐shock
Authors: Leese Peter
Published: February 2003

Shell‐shock. A history of changing attitudes to war neurosis. By Anthony Babbington.

From shellshock to combat stress. A comparative history of military psychology. By Hans Binneveld.

Shell shock. The psychological impact of war. By Wendy Holden.

The harmony of illusions. Inventing post‐traumatic stress disorder. By Allan Young.
The domain specificity and generality of mental contamination: Accuracy and projection in judgments of mental content
Authors: Sá Walter C. , Stanovich Keith E.
Published: February 2003

In this study we examined individual differences across two tasks requiring people to judge the mental contents of the minds of other people ‐ an opinion prediction task and a knowledge prediction task. The tendency to overproject one's own mental contents in both of these tasks has been interpreted as an instance of mental contamination by Wilson and Brekke (1994). Results demonstrate no domain generality in the process of projecting one's own internal states onto predictions about the internal states of others. Furthermore, projection was efficacious in the opinion prediction task but not in the knowledge prediction task. The differing consequences of mental contamination across these tasks was moderated by the presence of other diagnostic cues that were negatively correlated with the diagnosticity of one's own mental contents in the knowledge prediction task but not in the opinion prediction task. Mental contamination was largely unrelated to cognitive ability or to styles of epistemic regulation. However, predictive accuracy (and its primary determinant ‐ use of other diagnostic cues) was correlated across the two tasks, and was also related to cognitive ability and styles of epistemic regulation. The results are interpreted within the context of two‐process models of cognitive functioning (e.g. Evans & Over, 1996; Sloman, 1996).
Priming the access to names of famous faces
Authors: Schweinberger Stefan R. , Burton A. Mike , Kelly Stephen W.
Published: February 2003

There is a continuing controversy in models of face identification concerning the level of access to names relative to semantic information. In order to determine whether names are accessed sequentially after or in parallel to semantic information, we studied participants' speeded decisions about famous faces that were primed by partial semantic or partial name information. Decisions that required the access to the celebrity's name (one or more forename syllables, Expt 1) were significantly primed by partial name primes (initials or name fragments). However, at variance with sequential stage models, no reliable priming was observed by partial semantic primes (information about nationality, occupation, or whether a person was dead or alive). Moreover, there was a clear and consistent priming effect by partial semantic primes if the task was a nationality (British or American) decision that required the access to semantic information (Expt 2), demonstrating the effectiveness of these primes. The effects of partial name primes on nationality decisions were less consistent, with a significant effect for name fragments but not initials. However, effects of name primes were generally greater for syllable decisions than nationality decisions, and effects of semantic primes were generally greater for nationality decisions than syllable decisions. Taken together, these results favour a model of parallel rather than sequential access and suggest some degree of independence in the access to personal semantics and names.
Effects of spatial and nonspatial cognitive activity on postural stability
Authors: Maylor Elizabeth A. , Allison Sue , Wing Alan M.
Published: February 2003

Is postural stability controlled automatically, or is it affected by concurrent cognitive activity? Are the effects influenced by the nature of the cognitive activity required, and do they increase in old age? To address these questions, 70 participants aged 20‐79 years were asked to stand as still as possible on a force platform (postural control task) while performing (a) no cognitive task, (b) a spatial memory task, and (c) a nonspatial memory task. The memory tasks were also performed while seated as a comparison condition. Both spatial and nonspatial memory recall declined with increasing age but were unaffected by position (standing vs. seated). Postural stability declined with age; moreover, there was support for an earlier finding that age decline was greatest when performing the spatial memory task. Each recording period was split into two phases which, for the spatial and nonspatial memory tasks, corresponded to encoding and maintaining the stimuli. In comparison with no task, participants were more stable when encoding stimuli (particularly in the spatial task), but they were less stable when maintaining stimuli (particularly in the nonspatial task). The results suggest that postural stability can be affected by cognitive activity in complex ways, depending on the age of participants, the type of cognitive task (spatial vs. nonspatial), and the cognitive processing required (encoding vs. maintenance).
Bisensory augmentation: A speechreading advantage when speech is clearly audible and intact
Authors: Arnold Paul , Hill Fiona
Published: February 2003

Reisberg, McLean, and Goldfield (1987) have shown that vision plays a part in the perception of speech even when the auditory signal is clearly audible and intact. Using an alternative method the present study replicated their finding. Clearly audible spoken messages were presented in audio‐only and audio‐visual conditions, and the adult participants' resulting comprehension was measured. Stories were presented in French (Expt 1), in a Glaswegian accent (Expt 2), and by presenting spoken information that was semantically and syntactically complex (Experiment 3). Three separate groups of 16 adult female participants aged 19‐21 participated in the three experiments. In all three experiments, comprehension improved significantly when the speaker's face was visible.
The nature of attentional differences between groups of children differentiated by teacher ratings of attention and hyperactivity
Authors: Wilding John , Munir Fehmidah , Cornish Kim
Published: February 2003

Two groups of children, one with good attention and low hyperactivity and the other with poor attention and high hyperactivity, were formed on the basis of teachers' ratings. The groups were tested on a large number of tests of attentional performance, covering selective attention, divided attention, sustained attention and executive function. Analysis of group differences, with verbal and non‐verbal intelligence controlled statistically, indicated that the groups demonstrated significant differences on a variety of measures. Principal components analysis of the tests of attention isolated two components, one of which significantly distinguished the two groups. It is suggested that this component reflected aspects of executive control of attention. The measures which discriminated the groups most clearly were efficiency of visual search involving two targets in alternation, the number of correct responses on a specially devised version of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task and a task measuring the ability to inhibit a dominant response. It is suggested that all these tasks required a combination of selective attention and executive control. It was also noted that the poor attention group produced bigger individual differences on all measures, indicating that this group may include a variety of weaknesses which require more precise analysis to distinguish them.
People's insight into their own behaviour and speech content while lying
Authors: Vrij Aldert , Edward Katherine , Bull Ray
Published: February 2003

The present experiment examined participants' insight into their own behaviour and speech content while lying. It was hypothesized that participants would believe that while lying they show more behaviour stereotypical of lying than they in fact do (Hypothesis 1), whereas they would believe that their own speech content while lying contains fewer stereotypical features than in fact is true (Hypothesis 2). A stereotypical response was defined as a response people generally believe liars usually show. A total of 86 nursing students were interviewed twice about a film they had just seen. During one interview they were asked to tell the truth whereas they had to lie in the other interview. All interviews were videotaped, transcribed and then scored by independent coders. The coders' analyses reveal participants' actual behaviour and speech content. Participants themselves were asked to indicate in a questionnaire how they believed they behaved and what they believed they said in both interviews. To test the hypotheses, comparisons were made between participants' actual responses and their beliefs about their own responses. The results support both hypotheses and implications of these outcomes for the detection of deception are discussed.
Female and male perceptions of female physical attractiveness in front‐view and profile
Authors: Tovée Martin J. , Cornelissen Piers L.
Published: February 2003

Two important cues to female physical attractiveness are body mass index (BMI) and shape. In front view, it seems that BMI may be more important than shape; however, is it true in profile where shape cues may be stronger? There is also the question of whether men and women have the same perception of female physical attractiveness. Some studies have suggested that they do not, but this runs contrary to mate selection theory. This predicts that women will have the same perception of female attractiveness as men do. This allows them to judge their own relative value, with respect to their peer group, and match this value with the value of a prospective mate. To clarify these issues we asked 40 male and 40 female undergraduates to rate a set of pictures of real women (50 in front‐view and 50 in profile) for attractiveness. BMI was the primary predictor of attractiveness in both front and profile, and the putative visual cues to BMI showed a higher degree of view‐invariance than shape cues such as the waist‐hip ratio (WHR). Consistent with mate selection theory, there were no significant differences in the rating of attractiveness by male and female raters.
Essay Review: More than meets the ear
Authors: Bodor Péter
Published: February 2003

Constructing panic: The discourse of agoraphobia. By Lisa Capps & Elinor Ochs. Cambridge, MA and London, England: Harvard University Press, 1999. Pp. xi 1 244 (Foreword by Jerome Bruner). Cased, £ 20.95. ISBN 0 674 16548 9.
Life‐cycle and dispositional routes into problem debt
Authors: Webley Paul , Nyhus Ellen K.
Published: February 2003

This paper presents analyses of the correlates of debt in a three‐wave panel study of saving and other financial behaviour. The data used came from a representative sample of Dutch households. The results confirm the findings of previous studies on non‐representative samples and demonstrate that although economic variables alone predict debt quite well, psychological factors (especially present orientation, self‐control and attitudes towards debt) improve our ability to predict indebtedness. The results also suggest that for most individuals being in debt is a short‐term problem: chronic debtors are a small group and are distinguished by having more limited economic and social resources, being more present‐oriented and finding it more difficult to control their expenditure than temporary debtors. Dynamic analyses suggest, however, that many of the differences in psychological variables between debtors and non‐debtors may be a consequence of being in debt rather than a cause of it.
Psychological perspective on human developmental stability and fluctuating asymmetry: Sources, applications and implications
Authors: Kowner Rotem
Published: February 2003

In recent years researchers from diverse disciplines in the life sciences have turned their attention to the issue of developmental stability in the organism. Their key measure, fluctuating asymmetry (FA), is defined as the random, stress‐induced deviations from perfect symmetry that develop during the development of bilaterally symmetrical traits. This is regarded as a promising measure of the stress experienced by individuals during their development, as well as the interaction between genetic and environmental forces which affect that development. FA also sheds light on several domains within psychological research, such as the interplay between nature and nurture during human development, etiology of mental health, mating and choice of partners, and even perception of facial beauty. This study reviews the manifestation and sources of FA in humans, and seeks to provide some insight regarding their relevance and possible application to various domains in psychology.
The role of time pressure on the emotional Stroop task
Authors: Sharma Dinkar , McKenna Frank P.
Published: February 2003

Although a wide range of methodologies have been employed in examining the emotional Stroop effect, little systematic investigation of these experimental manipulations has taken place. Two experiments were designed to investigate the role of time pressure in the emotional Stroop effect. It is shown that time pressure has an important role to play in determining not only the magnitude of the effect but also in whether it is possible to observe any effect at all.
Inhibitory effects during object name retrieval: The effect of interval between prime and target on picture naming responses
Authors: Vitkovitch Melanie , Rutter Claire , Read Alison
Published: February 2003

Three picture naming experiments are reported which examine the relationship between the apparent inhibition of a response on one trial, and naming latency on the subsequent trial. The design of each experiment involves the presentation of prime and target pairs, either presented in succession (Lag 1 condition), or separated by two intervening unrelated trials (Lag 3 condition). A control condition is also included. In Experiment 1, a speeded picture naming task is used, and naming errors are analysed. Target pictures are misnamed at above chance rates with the name of the semantically related prime picture in the Lag 3 condition. In contrast, these prime‐related errors do not occur in the Lag 1 condition, suggesting a brief inhibitory effect. If primes are briefly inhibited, then target naming latencies immediately following a related prime should be quicker than target latencies in the Lag 3 condition. Experiment 2 confirms this pattern of results, using exactly the same stimuli and design, but standard naming instructions. Experiment 3 examines whether the inferred inhibition is the result of a self‐inhibitory mechanism, using a repetition priming paradigm. If Lag 1 prime representations are self‐inhibited, then facilitatory effects from prime/target repetition should be stronger in the Lag 3 condition, than in the Lag 1 condition. The data from Expt 3 were not consistent with this prediction. Taken together, the results of the three experiments suggest that a brief inhibitory effect occurs after retrieval of an object name, and that the inhibition may be accomplished by mechanisms other than self‐inhibition.
Anger on and off the road
Authors: Parkinson Brian
Published: February 2003

Participants reported on two recent experiences of anger, of which one had occurred while they were driving and the other in a non‐driving situation. Anger while driving was described as less mixed with other emotions, involving purer appraisals of other‐blame, more likely to be caused by communication difficulties, and slower to be noticed by the person who was its target. Levels of negative affect preceding anger were rated as significantly lower in driving than non‐driving situations, and mood and unrelated pressure were considered to be less influential causes of the subsequent emotional reaction. Frequency estimates supported the popular notion that anger is relatively more likely while driving than during other activities. Individual difference measures relating to ambivalence over emotional expression, self‐consciousness, and empathy showed no reliable correlations with frequency of anger while driving, but previously developed self‐report indices of driving anger and aggression made a significant contribution to its prediction even after controlling for anger frequency in other situations. These results support everyday intuitions that certain features of the road situation differentially predispose drivers to become angry and that the resulting anger tends to take a different form from anger experienced off the road.
Discrimination of spatial relations and features in faces: Effects of inversion and viewing duration
Authors: Barton Jason J. S. , Keenan Julian P. , Bass Trevor
Published: February 2003

We studied discrimination of changes in eye position, mouth position, and eye colour at viewing durations ranging from 1 second to unlimited time. With upright faces, perception was rapid and did not improve above 2 seconds viewing time. Face inversion impaired discrimination of mouth position significantly, eye position slightly, but not eye colour. The ‘inversion effect’ for mouth position decreased with increasing stimulus duration, and disappeared when the subject knew that the only change in a trial was in mouth position. A subsequent experiment showed that the inversion impairment in the mouth region was not specific to spatial position but affected mouth colour to a lesser degree. When the mouth region was made more salient by increasing the frequency of mouth change trials, the inversion effect for mouth position decreased, and correlated with an increase in inversion effect for eye position but not eye colour. We conclude that the dominant effect of face inversion upon perception is decreased discrimination in less salient facial regions, that this impairment lessens with increasing viewing time, and that it affects both features and their spatial relations, though the effect on the latter is greater. These results are consistent with greater dependence on a serial component search strategy in inverted faces.
Dysexecutive symptoms among a non‐clinical sample: A study with the use of the Dysexecutive Questionnaire
Authors: Chan Raymond C. K.
Published: February 2003

Clinical studies indicate that damage to the frontal lobes may lead to a set of symptoms collectively known as ‘Dysexecutive syndrome’, which is characterized by changes in emotion, personality, motivation, behaviour and cognitive aspects. Factor analytical study using questionnaires measuring dysexecutive problems in everyday life also suggests a fractionation of the dysexecutive syndrome among patients with neurological disorders. As yet, very little research has been conducted to explore the base‐rate of executive problems in everyday life among the non‐clinical population. This pilot study aimed to explore dysexecutive behaviour similar to that of dysexecutive syndrome reported by a non‐clinical sample. A total of 93 presumably normal participants were recruited. The Dysexecutive Questionnaire and a set of clinical tests of executive function were administered to all the participants. A 5‐factor solution very similar to that of a previous study was derived: inhibition (factor 1), intentionality (factor 2), knowing‐doing dissociation (factor 3), in‐resistance (factor 4), and social regulation (factor 5). Correlation was established among the derived factors and tests of executive function. This study provides empirical evidence that a non‐clinical sample may encounter similar dysexecutive behaviours in daily life. The issue of the fractionation of the executive system among the non‐clinical sample will also be discussed.
‘They all look alike to me’: Prejudice and cross‐race face recognition
Authors: Ferguson Diane P. , Rhodes Gillian , Lee Kieran , Sriram N.
Published: February 2003

We investigated whether prejudice level influences the size of the other‐race effect (poorer recognition of other‐race compared with own‐race faces). Previous studies, using self‐report measures of prejudice, failed to find a relationship between prejudice and the other‐race effect. We used an implicit prejudice measure, developed by Fazio, Jackson, Dunton, and Williams (1995), to determine whether implicit prejudice influences the size of the other‐race effect. A self‐report measure of prejudice, Walker's (1994) Attitudes to Asians Scale, was also included to replicate previous results. A group of 30 high prejudice and 30 low prejudice Caucasian participants, as determined by the self‐report measure, were run through a procedure which assesses implicit prejudice and recognition performance at the same time. Neither implicit nor self‐reported prejudice level influenced the size of the other‐race effect. Unexpectedly, implicit and self‐report prejudice influenced (in opposite ways) recognition of own‐race faces. The implications of these results for understanding the other‐race effect are discussed.
Investigating the role of context in learning to read: A direct test of Goodman's model
Authors: Archer Nicola , Bryant Peter
Published: February 2003

The much discussed ‘whole language’ or ‘real books’ approach to children's reading is based on a theory which makes two quite separate predictions: (1) that children will read difficult words more successfully in context than in isolation, and (2) that contextual experience of words will lead to greater improvements in word reading than isolated experience of words. We report a study which tests both predictions and supports the first but not the second.
The effects of irrelevant speech and articulatory suppression on the serial recall of silently presented lipread digits
Authors: Divin W. , Coyle K. , James D. T. T.
Published: February 2003

The immediate serial recall of lipread material is disrupted by irrelevant speech (Campbell & Dodd, 1984; Jones, 1994) and by articulatory suppression (Campbell & Dodd, 1984). However, the interaction between these has not been directly examined. In Exp 1, participants recalled silently presented lipread digits in conditions of quiet, irrelevant speech, articulatory suppression and suppression/speech combined. Irrelevant speech disrupted recall, but not when articulation was suppressed. Experiment 2 demonstrated that participants were able to accurately lipread targets in all of the above experimental conditions. A third experiment contrasted predictions derived from the phonological loop model (PL; Baddeley, 1986) and the changing state hypothesis (CSH; Jones, 1993). The CSH predicts that tones and speech that vary in frequency to the same degree will disrupt recall equally (Jones & Macken, 1993), whereas the PL model implies that speech will always be more disruptive. The results support the CSH, and extend the findings of Jones and Macken (1993) to account for lipread stimuli. As with graphic presentation, the CSH provides a better account of the processes underpinning the irrelevant speech effect; however, it is argued that the recoding hypothesis from the PL model should be retained.
Earwitness testimony: Effects of exposure and attention on the Face Overshadowing Effect
Authors: Cook Susan , Wilding John
Published: February 2003

Two experiments tested memory for a once‐heard voice. Experiment 1 showed that hearing an unknown voice utter the same sentence three times improved recognition of the voice a week later compared with hearing only a single utterance of the sentence, but instructions to attend to the voice did not. The impairment caused by seeing the speaker's face during the original utterance (the Face Overshadowing Effect — FOE) occurred only with the single utterance and was unaffected by instructions. It was concluded that length of utterance without increase in speech variety aids voice recognition, and that the FOE is not due to voluntary attention to face rather than voice, but may be due to involuntary attention to the initial exposure of the face. Experiment 2 investigated whether exposure to the face before the onset of speech reduced the FOE. Such an effect was observed and it was concluded that the FOE is due to involuntary preference for processing face information in order to aid later recognition of the individual, while speech is processed primarily for meaning. Absence of an FOE on memory for the words uttered was consistent with this interpretation.
On the psychology of drinking: Being thirsty and perceptually ready
Authors: Aarts Henk , Dijksterhuis Ap , de Vries Peter
Published: February 2003

The present research is concerned with cognitive effects of habitually regulated primary motives. Specifically, two experiments tested the idea that feelings of thirst enhance the cognitive accessibility of, or readiness to perceive, action‐relevant stimuli. In a task allegedly designed to assess mouth‐detection skills, some participants were made to feel thirsty, whereas others were not. Results showed that participants who were made thirsty responded faster to drinking‐related items in a lexical decision task, and performed better on an incidental recall task of drinking‐related items, relative to no‐thirst control participants. These results suggest that basic needs and motives, such as thirst, causes a heightened perceptual readiness to environmental cues that are instrumental in satisfying these needs.
Illusions in reading maps by touch: Reducing distance errors
Authors: Millar Susanna , Al‐Attar Zainab
Published: February 2003

The study reports systematic distance errors in reading raised‐line maps by touch, and how they can be reduced. We show that T‐shaped road junctions produce the typical error due to overestimating the length of the bisecting road compared to the bisected road. The error was not reduced when the target location was marked initially by a symbol. However, it was eliminated by instructions to use both hands concurrently to scan the route relative to an external square frame surrounding the map layout and to the body midline. Road junctions, which resemble ‘Müller‐Lyer’ configurations, produced a significant overestimation of the length of a road that ended in diverging side roads relative to underestimating a road section with converging side roads. Spatial anchor cues from landmarks along the route, either alone or in conjunction with the spatial frame instructions, eliminated the illusion equally. We discuss theoretical implications, and the use of map frames and landmarks as spatial guides to improve map use by touch.
Locus of control and health behaviour revisited: A multivariate analysis of young adults from 18 countries
Authors: Steptoe Andrew , Wardle Jane
Published: February 2003

The inconsistent and small associations between health locus of control and health behaviour found in previous studies may be due to the use of small samples, and an over‐reliance on correlations as measures of association. We assessed relationships between internal powerful others and chance health locus of control, health values, and ten health‐related behaviours (physical exercise, smoking, alcohol consumption, breakfast, tooth‐brushing, seat belt use, and consumption of fruit, fat, fibre and salt) in 4358 female and 2757 male university students from 18 European countries. Multivariate logistic modelling, assessing the odds of engaging in healthy behaviour with graded changes in locus of control, identified substantial associations. For five behaviours, the odds of healthy behaviour were more than 40% greater among individuals in the highest vs. lowest quartile of internal locus of control after adjustment for sex, age, health value and other locus of control scales. High chance locus scores were associated with more than 20% reductions in the likelihood of healthy options for six behaviours, while powerful others scores showed more variable associations with healthy actions. Inclusion of health value within the analyses did not change the nature of the relationships observed between variables. Associations between health locus of control and health behaviour are of a similar magnitude to other psychosocial factors when appropriate statistical tests are employed.
Bullying and victimization of primary school children in England and Germany: Prevalence and school factors
Authors: Wolke Dieter , Woods Sarah , Stanford Katherine , Schulz Henrike
Published: February 2003

Differences in definitions and methodologies for assessing bullying in primary school children between countries have precluded direct comparisons of prevalence rates and school factors related to bullying. A total of 2377 children in England (6‐year‐olds/Year 2: 1072; 8‐year‐olds/Year 4: 1305) and 1538 in Germany (8‐year‐olds/Year 2) were questioned individually using an identical standard interview. In both countries the types of bullying to victimize others were similar: boys were most often perpetrators, most bullies were also victims (bully/victims), most bullying occurred in playgrounds and the classroom, and SES and ethnicity only showed weak associations with bullying behaviour. Major differences were found in victimization rates with 24% of English pupils becoming victims every week compared with only 8% in Germany. In contrast, fewer boys in England engaged every week in bullying (2.5–4.5%) than German boys (7.5%), while no differences were found between girls. In England, children in smaller classes were more often victimized. Further study of the group of bully/victims, schooling differences in England vs. Germany and implications for prevention of bullying are discussed.
Featural vs. configurational information in faces: A conceptual and empirical analysis
Authors: Rakover Sam S.
Published: February 2003

The perception and memory of faces have been accounted for by the processing of two kinds of facial information: featural and configurational. The starting point of this article is the definition and accepted usage of these two concepts of facial information. I discuss these definitions and their various ramifications from three aspects: methodological, theoretical and empirical. In the section on methodology, I review several of the basic manipulations for changing facial information. In the theoretical section, I consider four fundamental hypotheses associated with these two kinds of facial information: the featural, configurational, holistic and norm hypotheses (the norm‐based hypothesis and the ‘hierarchy of schemas’ hypothesis). In the section on empirical evidence, I survey relevant studies on the topic and consider these hypotheses through a description of various empirical phenomena that carry clear implications for the subject of the study. In conclusion, I propose two alternative directions for future research: first, a ‘task‐information’ approach, which involves specifying what information is used for different tasks; and secondly, taking a different approach to the definition of the visual features for face processing, for example by using principal components analysis (PCA).
Implicit and explicit processes in a hypothesis testing task
Authors: Evans Jonathan St. B. T. , Venn Simon , Feeney Aidan
Published: February 2003

We present the results of two experiments investigating the factors that determine responding on the pseudo‐diagnosticity task. In Expt 1 we manipulated people's beliefs about the degree to which an initial piece of evidence supported a focal hypothesis and found decreased pseudo‐diagnostic (PD) responding when the evidence offered low support for the focal hypothesis. In Expt 2 we manipulated the instructions given to participants. We found that instructions to select evidence to help decide between the focal and the complementary hypotheses produced fewer PD responses than both instructions to decide whether the focal hypothesis was the case and instructions to decide whether its complement was the case. The results are interpreted within the framework of recent dual process theories of reasoning.