bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Distribution of Revenue-Sharing Funds and Local Public Expenditure Needs
Authors: Auten Gerald E.
Published: November 2015

This paper examines the intrastate distribution of revenue-sharing funds using a cross-section sample of New York communities. The concept of needs is discussed, and a measure of local public expenditure needs is derived from aggregate consumption function theory. This measure of local public expenditure needs is used along with a measure of local fiscal capacity in examining the distribution of revenue-sharing funds. Revenue-sharing funds are found to be positively correlated with estimated expenditure needs but negatively correlated with the “gaps” between expenditure needs and local fiscal resources. It is suggested that the reason for these results is that the revenue-sharing allocation formula does not include an adequate measure of local fiscal capacity.
Preferences, Tax Structure and Tax Reform: Theory and Evidence
Authors: Maital Shlomo
Published: November 2015

When the structure of tax revenues–the proportion of revenues earned by income, consumption and wealth taxes–is treated as a pure public good, a useful framework emerges for analyzing interrelationships among taxpayers' preferences, tax structure and tax reform. The “optimal” tax structure is defined and used to outline several conjectures about the current shift from direct to indirect taxation, evident particularly in Europe. Attention is then focused on the U.S. tax system. The structure of the tax system is shown to have changed very little in the past two decades. In contrast, interview surveys carried out over the past thirty years indicated a long-standing shift in taxpayers' preferences toward indirect taxes. Implications are drawn regarding tax reform.
Public Goods and the Property Tax: A Theoretical Analysis
Authors: Morrison Clarence C.
Published: November 2015

In this paper a property tax model is constructed in which the proceeds of the property tax are used to provide a public good. Generally speaking, it is argued that public provision of public goods will not be Pareto optimal in that public provision will result in the oversupply of public goods.
A Comment on Distributional Externalities and In-Kind Transfers
Authors: Browning Edgar K.
Published: November 2015

Two recent contributions to this journal (Rodgers, 1973; Yandle, 1974) have analyzed transfer programs in the presence of distributional externalities. Both authors rely on complicated two-sector geometrical constructions. It is the purpose of this note to show how a simpler geometry can be used to generate the major conclusions of these papers, and with greater rigor and clarity than was possible in the original presentations. In addition, several further implications emerge from the present treatment. The geometrical construction to be employed here was first used by Samuelson (1955) in his diagrammatic analysis of public goods. It was later reinvented by Dolbear (1967) and Shibata (1971). Despite these repeated resurrections of the geometry in the literature, the versatility of this approach has apparently not yet been sufficiently appreciated.
Unions, Government Services, and Public Employees
Authors: Spizman Lawrence M.
Published: November 2015

This article analyzes the impact of public employee unionism and the interdependency among different levels of government on the demand for state and local government employees. The evidence suggests that highly organized public employees exert enough political pressure to alter the terms and conditions of employment. The interdependency among different levels of government indicates that employment decisions at one level of government are related to employment decisions of other governments serving the same population. Thus, although services provided to a given population come from different political jurisdictions, these jurisdictions complement each other in providing the service. The results suggest that both market and nonmarket forces affect state and local governments' employment portfolio. Consequently, consideration should be given to both collective bargaining and the political process in analyzing the demand for public employees.
Soliciting Accurate Evaluations of Public Goods
Authors: Barnett A. H.
Published: November 2015

Among the many problems faced by policy makers in attempts to use public funds efficiently, none is more troublesome than that of inducing users of public goods to reveal their demand prices. The difficulty in attempts to solicit demand prices falls under the general rubric of the free-rider problem, and is manifest in the propensity of users to behave strategically when asked to reveal evaluations. Several preference revelation devices have been proposed to surmount this problem, but all of these schemes are seriously flawed. This article presents a device which overcomes some of the flaws contained in previous work. The preference revealing mechanism proposed here is a bidding mechanism which takes advantage of the commonly found trait of risk-aversion to discourage strategic revelations.
Development and Use of Online Mental Health Services in Greece
Authors: Lambousis E , Politis A , Markidis M , Christodoulou G N
Published: November 2015

E-mental health refers to the use of telecommunication and information technology in mental health services. In Greece, ordinary telephone communications have been used to provide mental health services, such as a psychiatric crisis intervention line (METB). E-psychiatry is a relatively new approach to delivering psychiatric services through the Internet. We have developed an e-psychiatry Website, Glaucopis-net. The main objective is to provide information on a broad range of psychiatric conditions, such as dementia, depression and anxiety. Email mental health services will be offered as an alternative way of accessing help. Confidentiality issues concerning patient records and personal data will be treated in accordance with Greek legislation. Glaucopis-net will integrate new telecommunication and information services with classical mental health services.
The Benefits of a Qualitative Approach to Telemedicine Research
Authors: MacFarlane Anne , Harrison Robert , Wallace Paul
Published: November 2015

We used qualitative research to evaluate the experience of the participants in teleconsultations between primary and secondary care. Semistructured interviews were conducted with 15 hospital specialists, 24 general practitioners and 30 patients. Focus groups were also held with hospital specialists (two groups), general practitioners (six groups) and administrative staff (five groups). Sixty teleconsultations in six different specialties were video-recorded. Early findings show that the participants (hospital specialists, general practitioners and patients) had different perceptions of the same teleconsultations. Furthermore, the participants' perceptions of consultations differed from those of the researchers.
The Accuracy of Length and Angle Measurement in Videoconferencing Teleradiology
Authors: Tachakra Sapal , Doherty Sonia
Published: November 2015

Telemedicine was used to make measurements on a series of radiographs. The first group consisted of 25 radiographs of the cervical spine; four lengths were measured on each. The second group consisted of 100 wrist radiographs showing Colles' fractures; the degree of backward angulation of the distal fragment was measured on each. Measurements were made via a videoconferencing link. The consultant used the shared white boarding facility to indicate where on the film the measurements were to be made. The videoconferencing link was used to check that the measurements were being made correctly and a nurse measured lengths and angles. In addition, the consultant used the link to read the scales on the measuring instruments for himself. Four different methods of measuring length were tested and three methods of measuring angle. A transparent plastic ruler was best for measuring length—the emergency nurse practitioner and the consultant made almost all measurements to an accuracy of 1 mm. A protractor with pen marker was best for measuring angles; all were made to within 2°. Simple methods can be used to measure lengths and angles in videoconferencing teleradiology.
Explaining the Adoption of Telemedicine Services: An Analysis of a Paediatric Telemedicine Service
Authors: Cook David J , Doolittle Gary C , Ferguson Dana , Hanks Nancy , Hood Joel , Howard Michelle , Troha Jim , Mehling Dean , Zurbuchen Nancy
Published: November 2015

Since 1998, over 1300 telemedicine consultations have been provided to 12 schools in Kansas City. Despite the success of the programme, effective utilization of services has not occurred at all sites. We used a focus group and survey methods to investigate barriers to and catalysts for service adoption. The results showed that the school nurses strongly supported the programme. They valued its ability to provide health-care for the children and they welcomed their enhanced role. However, technical complexities and difficulties in obtaining parental consent were found to impede adoption. The nurses also expressed frustration with school personnel who had a poor understanding of their role in general as well as that of the telemedicine service. A new state reimbursement policy may promote greater understanding and provide a financial incentive for schools to adopt the telemedicine service.
Improving Treatment Adherence and Longitudinal Outcomes in Patients with a Serious Mental Illness by Using Telemedicine
Authors: D'Souza Russell
Published: November 2015

A psycho-educational programme was developed using the ‘health belief model’ and the individual's cognitive model of the disorder and treatment. The participants were 51 rural inpatients admitted to a tertiary psychiatric centre. Twenty-four inpatients (13 men, 11 women) were discharged using discharge planning by videoconference involving the general practitioner, case manager and a family member. Patients then received six sessions of the psycho-educational programme. A control group of 27 inpatients (16 men, 11 women) were discharged with conventional discharge summaries to general practitioners and case managers and did not receive the psycho-educational programme. More patients in the control group than in the telemedicine group were readmitted to hospital over a 12-month period. Significantly more patients in the control group reported medication side-effects than those in the telemedicine group. Patients in the telemedicine group reported greater treatment adherence and compliance than those in the control group. When compared with the control group, the telemedicine group reported significantly more satisfaction with their treatment and discharge planning.
Tipping Behaviour in Hospitality Embodying a Comparative Prolegomenon of English and Italian Customers
Authors: Callan Roger J. , Tyson Kirstie
Published: November 2015

The paper introduces tipping in a historical perspective, explaining and contrasting tipping habits in England and elsewhere. The case for tipping or service charges is presented. A review of the literature explores those factors that have been found to influence tipping behaviour. The methodology for a comparative introductory study of English and Italian hotel restaurant customers is explained, together with the results. Due to the limited sample sizes, care should be taken when interpreting the results, as differences identified between the English and Italian samples could be abated due to the regional differences within each country. With this qualification, the paper concludes that Italians rated influencing factors more highly than did the English and found attractiveness of server, speed of service and prompt bill delivery to be particularly important. By contrast, English customers generally rated qualities of the product to be more important than the characteristics of the server as influences on tip size.
Elite Hotels: A Cultural Cachet
Authors: Gillespie Cailein , Morrison Alison
Published: November 2015

To date there has been a general paucity of literature supporting investigation of hoteliers who have recognised the value of creating an aura of elitism within and surrounding their hotels. Specifically, analysis of the relationship of product design and style elements to systems of market communication is generally lacking. This paper aims to commence academic debate, and to further understanding through conceptual and empirical analysis. Of particular interest is the manner in which elite hotels position themselves at the apex of the international hotel industry through the effective application of design and style, which is translated through semiotic carriers. This has the potential to result in a ‘cultural cachet’, prestigiously and distinctively positioning them within the market-place.
Intrastate Travel Experiences of International Students and Their Perceptions of Western Australia as a Tourist Destination
Authors: Shanka Tekle , Ali-Knight Jane , Pope Jeff
Published: November 2015

This paper presents initial findings from a study examining the impact on Western Australian (WA) tourism of the growing number of international students in the state. Focusing on one university with the largest number of international students (3,946 onshore students in 2000) the study examines the intrastate travel behaviour and student perception of WA as a tourist destination. Both undergraduate and postgraduate international students were sent a self-administered questionnaire and this paper presents the findings of travel experiences of these students while doing their studies in the state. The results indicate the importance of the international student market for regional tourism and confirm its contribution to the domestic tourism market.
The Impact of Terrorism on Tourism and Hospitality Business: An Online Debate by Experts in the Field
Authors: Atkins Belinda , Chew Joseph K.S. , Gschwlnd Daniel , Parker Alan
Published: November 2015

Each year the Tourism and Hospitality Research Practice papers section puts together a panel of distinguished industry practitioners to discuss a topical issue. Following the tragic events in New York and Bali, it seemed appropriate to invite industry colleagues from around the world, representing a range of industry sectors, to reflect and comment on how these events have affected their business. Their responses are recorded verbatim.
A New Agenda for Researching Hospitality HRM: Comment on Lashley and Watson
Authors: Haynes Peter
Published: November 2015

This comment extends the discussion of the need for a new agenda for specialist hospitality HRM research contained in the paper by Lashley and Watson in the first issue of this journal. The need to focus on the links between ‘bundles’ of HRM practices designed to secure high employee commitment, and organisational performance is stressed. Nor can hospitality researchers overlook the advantages of adopting the resource-based view of the firm. Given that general HRM researchers are taking an increasing interest in the service sector, the need for specialist hospitality researchers to keep abreast of developments in the general field of theory will be thrown into sharper relief.
New Lighting for Old Buildings
Authors: Penwarden E. H. , Anderson S.
Published: November 2015

Some reasons for the improvement of artificial lighting in old buildings are discussed, and in addition to the desire to secure direct improvement of vision and to reveal the interior architecture and decoration, the provision of a more cheerful and comfortable appearance, the improvement of colour rendering and the desire for illumination comparable with that found in more modern buildings are covered.

Present lighting technique is reviewed and the characteristics of contemporary electric light sources and their bearing on the subject of the paper are discussed. Factors involved in light control are dealt with and the effect of different methods of lighting on the revealing of form, texture and colour are illustrated.

The variety of buildings considered is limited to those employed for historic, civic, official and domestic purposes, and some consideration is given to the architectural styles encountered. A broad classification into (a) buildings of historic style and tradition requiring improved lighting, and (b) buildings whose use dictates the adoption of a modern standard of illumination, is made, and the implications of each requirement outlined.

The co-ordination of the requirements of the architect and of the illuminating engineer is considered, and various practical methods of dealing with the problems involved are suggested. Actual and theoretical examples of the application of new light sources, together with the design of the lighting fixtures and the disposition of the control gear, are given and illustrated.
Lighting of the New House of Commons
Authors: Brown C. Dykes
Published: November 2015

Lighting, in common with the other services, has been designed as an integral part of the rebuilt House of Commons. The installation in the Debating Chamber is particularly interesting since the artistic requirements have been given first consideration, new techniques being evolved where necessary to meet these requirements. Cold cathode, high voltage lamps are used in the laylight providing the main illumination, and the lighting can be raised smoothly from zero to full intensity.
Recent Developments in Gas Street Lighting
Authors: Sugg P. Crawford
Published: November 2015

The economics of gas street lighting, particularly those for “Group B.” have been greatly improved since the war by changes in the design and construction of the lanterns.

Considerable experience has now been gained of the performance in service of the new units. Their performance is consistent with the requirements of the new Draft Code of Practice for Street Lighting.

This paper describes the changes in design of lanterns and control gear which have been made, and reports the results of full-scale tests carried out on certain installations. Attention has been directed to improving both the performance and the daytime appearance of the lanterns.

Illustrations of post-war installations are given.
Recent Developments in Photometry and Colorimetry
Authors: Winch G. T.
Published: November 2015

New tungsten filament secondary standard lamps are described and also tubular fluorescent secondary standards which, when used in an international photometric and colorimetric interchange, showed good agreement on measurements. Possible improved future changes in the C.I.E. data and the effect these may have on photometric and colorimetric values are indicated New developments in physical photometry and colorimetry are described, including preliminary experience with photon counting techniques as a means of increasing sensitivity. Improved photometric integrator paint is described, as this is now necessary in order to meet the new accuracy requirements. Brief reference is made to colour-rendering properties of light sources in connection with attempts to relate this subjective effect with objective measurements. The future possibility of applying ultrasonic modulation to colour measurement is indicated.
Visibility on the Road
Authors: Harris A. J.
Published: November 2015

Existing methods of measuring the visibility of an object or of assessing the visibility in an installation are discussed. The ideas underlying the concept of visibility are then analysed with the intention of making clear the nature of some of the difficulties which have given rise to controversy.

One must distinguish between the visibility of an object and the visibility in an installation. The latter IS best regarded as an assessment of all actual or potential visibilities in the installation. There has been controversy as to the correct scale for the visibility of an object and about the meaning, if any, of the numerical values given by such scales. It is concluded that all scales which put objects in the same order of visibility are equally valid, but some are more convenient than others because they are more simply related to the visual phenomena vital to the task of the observer: in this case safe driving.

The attempt to represent the visibility in an installation by a single number is an attempt to put in order of merit the totalities of actual and potential visibilities in different installations. It is concluded that no useful meaning can be attributed to a comparison of these totalities in terms of visibilities alone. Any such comparison breaks down in certain cases and these are likely to be just the cases in which guidance is most needed. Installations may be compared, however, in terms of safety. The visual safety of an installation, as distinct from the visibility in an installation. can therefore be represented by a single number. The practical difficulties in the way of obtaining the visual safety are discussed. Progress seems to depend on gaining an understanding in clear numerical terms of the part played by visibility in the causation of accidents. Present knowledge is extremely meagre.
Industrial Lighting Design and its Financial Evaluation
Authors: Cundall G. P. , Humphreys J. S.
Published: November 2015

Two of the many decisions which have to be made when a new factory is to be built are the method of lighting to be adopted and the level of illumination. Illumination can be provided during daylight hours either by glazing or by artificial lighting. The effects of these methods on the internal environment differ so that lighting cannot be treated as an isolated element in the design either of the building or of the production plant-it is closely related to both. Its relationship with other factors and the complexity of taking account of all of them is described.

When decisions are made their financial implications should be known and investment in lighting should be judged by the returns from it. At present this is made difficult because, although the relationship between visual acuity and illumination has received a good deal of study, the relationship between illumination and profitability is likely to vary with social conditions and is only vaguely known. It is suggested that much more investigation is needed in this field and that the results should be presented in strictly comparable financial terms.

When considering alternative designs it is insufficient to calculate only the capital and running costs of each because of the differing times at which each alternative may bring costs or benefits and because of the application of Investment Grants and Taxation. The Present Value method of comparing alternative designs is described and illustrated by example. A hypothetical example of the use of the Discounted Cash Flow technique is used to illustrate the comparison of benefits between expenditure on alternative levels of illumination and investment in other productive plant.
Using Marketing Principles to Maximize Funding Effectiveness
Authors: Metzler Jennifer L. , Frakes Monica G. , Aubrey Jillian
Published: November 2015

Community health programs are faced with increasing pressure to maximize effective use of scarce resources while improving access to care. In response to this challenge, one New Mexico program expanded outreach efforts and designated funds for marketing to get the word out about prenatal care. With a local marketing and advertising agency, they used the precepts of marketing as organizing principles to develop a communications plan. The result is a model for resource allocation driven by the input of a highly defined target group. It allows the planning team to focus on achievable goals, without being fragmented by the myriad of needs impossible to meet within the reality of limited funding.

“For every type of institution, there is always a potential set of relevant objectives, and the institution's task is to make a choice among them (Kotler & Andreasen, 1987).”
Initial Functional Independence Measure Score and Interval Post Stroke Help Assess Outcome, Length of Hospitalization, and Quality of Care
Authors: Ancheta Julius , Husband Marcie , Law Diane , Reding Mike
Published: November 2015

Objective:

This study tests the hypothesis that the rehabilitation hospital admission functional Independence Measure (FIM) score and interval post stroke can be used to define clinically relevant functional recovery goals, estimate length of stay, and compare quality of care.

Background:

The effects of time from stroke to rehabilitation unit admission on admission and discharge FIM scores, length of rehabilitation stay, and change in FIM score/day have not yet been reported.

Methods:

Analysis was based on prospectively collected data from patients admitted to an inpatient stroke rehabilitation unit with FIM scores ≤ 90 and an initial, unilateral, hemispheric, thrombotic, or embolic stroke who were fully independent without the use of an assistive device before their stroke. Patients with severe (admission FIM < 54) and moderate (admission FIM 54–90) stroke deficits were divided into cohorts based on interval from stroke to rehabilitation hospital admission: 0–2, 2–4, and 4–6 weeks.

Results:

Over a 17-month interval, 87 patients met selection criteria. Significant improvements were seen in total FIM scores for all. For those with moderate stroke, all three time cohorts reached a FIM score of 102 ± 2 SEM after 35 ± 2 days on the rehabilitation unit. Patients admitted within 2 weeks of a severe stroke reached a plateau FIM score of 72 ± 6 after 43 ± 3 days on the rehabilitation unit compared with the 2–4 week group (FIM = 57 ± 5 after 53 ± 4 days) and the 4–6 week group (FIM = 54 ± 10 after 40 ± 6 days). Complications increased with severity of stroke and delay in rehabilitation hospital transfer.

Conclusions:

Admission FIM score and interval from stroke to rehabilitation hospital admission can be used to set FIM outcome goals, predict length of rehabilitation hospitalization needed to meet those goals, and compare quality of care across institutions with different referral patterns. Our results provide a benchmark against which to compare less intense or shorter duration inpatient treatment options.
Single Injections of a DNA Plasmid That Contains the Human Bcl-2 Gene Prevent Loss and Atrophy of Distinct Neuronal Populations after Spinal Cord Injury in Adult Rats
Authors: Shibata Masato , Murray Marion , Tessler Alan , Ljubetic Cecilia , Connors Theresa , Saavedra Raul A.
Published: November 2015

Spinal cord injury in adult mammals causes atrophy or loss of axotomized neurons. We have previously found that the product of the antiapoptotic gene Bcl-2, delivered by intraspinal injection of a DNA plasmid, reduces atrophy and loss of axotomized Clarke's nucleus neurons in adult rats. Here we studied whether the same treatment protects axotomized red nucleus (RN) neurons. Two months after the right dorsolateral funiculus was ablated in adult Sprague-Dawley rats by C3/C4 subtotal hemisection there was ∼48% loss of RN neurons in the magnocellular portion of the RN contralateral to the lesion and atrophy of many surviving neurons. When a DNA plasmid encoding the human Bcl-2 gene and the bacterial reporter gene LacZ, complexed with cationic lipids, was injected just rostral to the subtotal hemisection site, 87% of RN neurons survived, and there was partial, but robust, protection from atrophy. These and our previous results indicated that intraspinal administration of the Bcl-2 gene can prevent retrograde cell loss and reduce atrophy of axotomized RN and Clarke's nucleus neurons in adult rats and provide an effective means to rescue neurons whose survival depends on different growth factors.
P300 (Latency) Event-Related Potential: An Accurate Predictor of Memory Impairment
Authors: Braverman Eric R. , Blum Kenneth
Published: November 2015

To determine if P300 latency changes precede and correlate with memory and mental status, patients (N=1506 aged 20–100 years) who received medical and psychiatric diagnoses (from 1997 to 2002), were assessed for P300 (N=1496), WMS-III (N=694), and MMSE (N=456). Patient and control groups included, a) normal WMS-III on all 4 subscales (N=36), b) normal WMS-III and MMSE (N=189) with subjective memory/mental status complaints, and c) medical patients with normal WMS-III and no memory complaints (N=205), and d) P300 control group without medical, psychiatric or memory problems for ROC.

Patients with impaired/borderline memory had a prolonged P300 latency (P<0.02) compared to age matched non-impaired controls; in patients with normal WMS-III/MMSE, with subjective mild memory/mental status impairment, P300 latency was prolonged compared to controls (P=0.0004). The P300 latency increased by 0.72ms per year (P=7.9×10−65) and voltage decreased by 0.03dV per year (P=6.7×10−10), and both parameters were linearly correlated with the age of the subjects.

Male subjects had an average voltage of 6.1dV and female 6.8dV(P=0.00009). Statistically, prolonged latency began at age range 41–50 (P=0.0002); reduced P300 voltage began at age range 51–60 (P=0.003). WMS-III memory decline for all measures began in females at age range 61–70 (P value at least=0.02) and for males at age range 61–80 (P=0.02). Prolonged P300 latency (P≤0.0001) and memory impairment (at least <0.02) were greater for females than males. MMSE memory decline, male and female, began at age range 81–90 (P value of at least 0.00007).

In our logistic regression model P300 latency was more predictive of WMS-III impairment than MMSE >24. In patients whose WMS-III score is impaired ≤69, or borderline ≤79 (P at least =0.004), a P300 latency more prolonged than the norm (≥300 + 30 + Age) identifies these patients, whereas a MMSE >24 failed. With the ROC curve, we confirmed that P300 latency could accurately identify borderline/impaired memory.
Potential Role of Processed Complementary Foods in the Improvement of Early Childhood Nutrition in Latin America
Authors: Brown Kenneth H. , Lutter Chessa K.
Published: November 2015

Processed complementary foods have the potential to play an important role in the diets of infants and toddlers in Latin America. Both feeding frequency and nutrient density need to be considered when formulating recommendations on appropriate feeding practices and composition of processed foods. Unfortunately, empirical data are not yet available on the relationships among feeding practices, feeding frequency, energy density, energy intake, and intake from breastmilk that would permit appropriate public health recommendations to be made. Analyses of nutrient requirements and the nutrient contents of typical toddler foods show that it is virtually impossible to satisfy iron requirements without fortification unless there is a substantial intake of animal products. Zinc and calcium have also been identified as problem nutrients. The optimal characteristics of processed complementary foods include adequate energy density, appropriate micronutrient:energy ratios, suitably low renal solute load, appropriate viscosity for age, desirable sensory properties, resistance to microbial contamination, simple preparation techniques, and low cost.
Use of Red Palm Oil for the Promotion of Maternal Vitamin A Status
Authors: Lietz G. , Henry C. J. K. , Mulokozi G. , Mugyabuso J. , Ballart A. , Ndossi G. , Lorri W. , Tomkins A.
Published: November 2015

Ninety rural Tanzanian women were recruited during the last three months of pregnancy and divided into three study groups: a control group given dietary advice to promote intake of dark-green leafy vegetables, a group given dietary advice plus sunflower oil, and a group given dietary advice plus red palm oil. Supplementing pregnant women with red palm oil, which is rich in provitamin A, increased their plasma and breastmilk concentrations of α- and β-carotene significantly, whereas women given sunflower oil had significantly higher amounts of α-tocopherol in their plasma and breastmilk than the control group. Moreover, the consumption of either red palm oil or sunflower oil retarded the decline in the concentration of retinol in breastmilk as seen in the control group during the progression of lactation. This indicates that the consumption of an oil rich in α- and β-carotene or α-tocopherol promotes retinol levels in breastmilk.
Testing Iron and Zinc Bioavailability in Genetically Enriched Beans (Phaseolus Vulgaris L.) and Rice (Oryza Sativa L.) in a Rat Model
Authors: Welch Ross M. , House William A. , Beebe Steven , Senadhira Dharmawansa , Gregorio Glenn B. , Cheng Z.
Published: November 2015

A rat model was used to determine the bioavailability of iron and zinc in bean seeds and rice grain from enriched genotypes of these globally important staple foods. Seed and grain from the genotypes tested (intrinsically radiolabelled with either 59Fe or 65Zn) were cooked, homogenized in water, and lyophilized to dryness. The dried, radiolabelled powder was fed to young male rats in single meals. Bioavailability was calculated from the amount of radiolabelled iron and zinc retained in the rats over a 10-day period as determined each day by whole-body gamma spectrometry assay. The data collected demonstrate that increasing the amount of iron or zinc in enriched rice grain and bean seed significantly increases the amount of iron or zinc bioavailable to rats.

Although a rat model is not ideal for determining iron and zinc bioavailability to humans, because rats are much more efficient at absorbing iron and zinc from plant foods than humans, rats can be used to give relative estimates of bioavailable iron and zinc in plant foods. These estimates can be used to rank promising genotypes of staple foods for use in later feeding trials with humans, greatly reducing the numbers of genotypes that would have to be tested in humans without use of the rat model. Ultimately, because of the complexities of determining the bioavailability to humans of iron and zinc in plant foods, human feeding trials performed under free-living conditions should be conducted with the most promising genotypes before these genotypes are released for distribution to breeding programmes worldwide
Household-level Economic and Nutritional Impacts of Market-oriented Dairy Production in the Ethiopian Highlands
Authors: Ahmed Mohamed M. , Jabbar Mohammed , Ehui Simeon
Published: November 2015

Previous farm-level studies have shown that adopting improved feeding and management strategies improves livestock productivity and, in particular, increases the milk production and income of resource-poor smallholder mixed-crop and livestock farmers. This paper analyses the impact of the introduction of crossbred cow and improved feeding and management technologies in the Ethiopian highlands in terms of direct changes in household income, patterns of food and non-food expenditure, and caloric intake.

Using a recursive econometric model that takes into account the seasonal variability of consumption patterns, the analysis indicates a positive relationship between household income and adoption of the improved dairy technologies. The incremental increase in household income translates directly into higher expenditure on food and non-food items. Caloric intake is also positively related to adoption of crossbred cows and improved feed technologies. This indicates the significant role that improved smallholder livestock technologies can play in improving food security and nutrition as well as alleviating poverty.
The Relationship between Vitamin A Deficiency and Hiv Infection: Review of Scientific Studies
Authors: Coutsoudis Anna
Published: November 2015

Review of the literature shows that in adults there are variations in the association of hyporetinemia with disease progression as well as variations in the response to supplementation. Populations that are likely to be deficient in vitamin A show the biggest responses. Additional vitamin A supplementation may not be necessary, and may even be harmful, in adults who already have a good dietary intake of vitamin A and who take many other vitamin supplements. Vitamin A supplementation does not appear to have any impact on mother-to-child transmission of HIV; nevertheless, vitamin A supplementation of pregnant women in the third trimester may be useful to reduce the incidence of low-birthweight and premature infants. the impact of vitamin A on mother-to-child transmission of HIV in preterm infants is awaiting further investigation. Vitamin A supplementation of HIV-infected children appears to be beneficial to reduce the incidence and severity of diarrhea in particular. Randomized, placebo-controlled trials in pregnant women and adults have shown that the association between vitamin A and HIV is probably an association of reverse causality.
Activating the Community for Nutritional Improvement
Authors: Devadas Rajammal P.
Published: November 2015

This presentation provides information on community-oriented action research conducted under the leadership of Dr. Rajammal P. Devadas, the recipient of the IUNS International Nutrition Award for 2001. Educating, activating, and energizing the community with empowerment have been the focus of the action-oriented research. in the four decades of work presented, massive efforts have been made in the areas of infant and preschool child nutrition; nutritious noon meal programs for children; integration of nutrition, health, and sanitation concepts in the primary school curriculum; use of local foods to eradicate malnutrition; introduction of novel and underexploited foods; food-based approaches to overcome micronutrient malnutrition; equipping women for food and nutrition security; and nutrition education. These efforts have been activated through development of relevant food and educational materials, their introduction to the community, impact evaluation, follow-up, and implementation of the concepts in relevant national programs with massive training efforts. Many of the efforts outlined have formed the basis for regional and nationwide nutrition intervention strategies. the experiences gained and training efforts developed have gone beyond the country-level exposure to training and equipping nutrition workers in other countries.
Weaning Foods: A Review of the Indian Experience
Authors: Sajilata G. , Singhal Rekha S. , Kulkarni Pushpa R.
Published: November 2015

Although breastmilk is adequate to meet the energy and nutrient requirements of an infant up to four to six months of age, thereafter it is insufficient to sustain normal growth and needs to be supplemented with other foods, such as weaning foods. However, the capacity of a weaning diet to meet the protein and energy requirements of infants depends on its nutritional quality as well as its dietary bulk. This review highlights varieties of weaning foods, blend formulations, nutrient requirements, process characteristics, physicochemical parameters, quality evaluation, and other important aspects of developing a weaning food that satisfies all the requirements of the infant during the vulnerable transitional stage. Traditional weaning foods of India are briefly summarized.
Three Criteria for Establishing the Usefulness of Biotechnology for Reducing Micronutrient Malnutrition
Authors: Bouis Howarth E.
Published: November 2015

The fundamental reason that plant breeding using either conventional breeding or biotechnology is so cost-effective is that the benefits of a one-time investment at a central research location can be multiplied over time across nations all over the world. Supplementation and fortification incur the same recurrent costs year after year in country after country. However, each intervention has its own comparative advantages, such that a combination of several interventions is required to substantially reduce micronutrient malnutrition. Improving the density of trace minerals in plants also reduces input requirements and raises crop yields. A simulation model for India and Bangladesh demonstrated that $42 million invested in conventional breeding in developing and planting iron- and zinc-dense varieties of rice and wheat on only 10% of the acreage used for these crops would return $4.9 billion in improved nutrition (including a total of 44 million prevented cases of anemia over 10 years) and higher agricultural productivity.
Opportunities for Nutritionally Enhanced Maize and Wheat Varieties to Combat Protein and Micronutrient Malnutrition
Authors: Hoisington David
Published: November 2015

Naturally occurring variation detected in the germplasm of maize and wheat, two of the top three cereal crops in the world, provides options for incorporating higher levels of iron, zinc, and β-carotene into these grains. in addition, quality protein maize (QPM) has been developed from naturally occurring variation; its seed contains enhanced levels of lysine and tryptophan, two essential amino acids lacking in cereals. the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center, along with its many partners, has identified several maize and wheat varieties with 25% to 30% higher grain iron and zinc concentrations. Wild relatives of wheat have been found to contain some of the highest iron and zinc concentrations in the grains. Although these accessions are often low yielding and have poor grain quality, backcrossing to bread wheat could result in highly nutritious cultivars. Options are now available for conventional and biotechnology-assisted improvement of the nutritional content of maize and wheat germplasm.
Time Trends in the Intrafamily Distribution of Dietary Energy in Rural India
Authors: Vijayaraghavan K. , Prakasam B. Surya , Laxmaiah A.
Published: November 2015

The intrafamily distribution of dietary energy in 5,458 households from seven states in India was assessed from 24-hour dietary recall data collected by the National Nutrition Monitoring Bureau during 1996–97. the energy consumption, expressed as percentage of recommended dietary intake (%RDI), of preschool children, schoolchildren, and adolescents was compared with that of adult men and women in the same households. Time trends in the intrafamily distribution of dietary energy were assessed by comparing the data with those collected in 1975–80 using the same procedures in the same villages. About one-third of the preschool children had an inadequate intake of energy, even when their adult counterparts had an adequate intake, whereas only about 7% of the preschoolers and their parents were consuming inadequate amounts of energy. the extent of energy inadequacy was much less in adolescents and school-age children than in preschool children. This was true even when the adults in the same households had an adequate energy intake. in 1996–97, there was a significant increase in the proportion of households with preschool children consuming inadequate energy, although both adult men and women were consuming energy-adequate diets as compared with the dietary data collected in the same villages in 1975–80. the results indicate the need to provide effective nutrition education for parents regarding the nutritional needs of their children.
An Integrated Child Nutrition Intervention Improved Growth of Younger, More Malnourished Children in Northern Viet Nam
Authors: Schroeder Dirk G. , Pachón Helena , Dearden Kirk A. , Ha Tran Thu , Lang Tran Thi , Marsh David R.
Published: November 2015

Integrated nutrition programs are widely used to prevent and/or reverse childhood malnutrition, but rarely rigorously evaluated. The impact of such a program on the physical growth of young rural Vietnamese children was measured. We randomized six communes to receive an integrated nutrition program implemented by Save the Children. We matched six communes to serve as controls. Our sample consisted of 238 children ( n = 119 per group) who were 5 to 30 months old on entry. Between December 1999 and December 2000, we measured weight and height monthly for six months and again at month 12. Principle outcomes were weight-for-age Z score (WAZ), height-for-age Z score (HAZ), and weight-for-height Z score (WHZ), and the changes among these measures. As expected, anthropometric indicators relative to international references worsened as the children aged. Overall, children in the intervention communes who were exposed to the integrated nutrition program did not show statistically significant better growth than comparison children. Intervention children who were younger (15 months or less) and more malnourished (less than −2 Z) at baseline, however, deteriorated significantly less than their comparable counterparts. Between baseline and month four, for example, intervention children who were malnourished and less than 15 months old at entry lost on average 0.05 WAZ while similar comparison children lost 0.25 WAZ ( p = .02). Lack of overall impact on growth may be due to a lower than expected prevalence of malnutrition at baseline and/or deworming of comparison children. Targeting nutrition interventions at very young children will have the maximum impact on growth.
What Influences Health Behavior? Learning from Caregivers of Young Children in Viet Nam
Authors: Dearden Kirk A. , Quan Le Nga , Do Mai , Marsh David R. , Schroeder Dirk G. , Pachón Helena , Lang Tran Thi
Published: November 2015

Globally, the caregiving behaviors that contribute to good nutritional status are well understood; but it is not clear why some caregivers perform these behaviors while others do not. This formative qualitative research was designed to improve understanding about what distinguishes caregivers who practice optimal behaviors from those who do not. This study is a one-time, cross-sectional baseline assessment of factors that affect nutrition-related behavior change. It took place in a rural northern province in Viet Nam. One hundred caregivers of children 6 to 17.9 months of age from five communes were interviewed. None of the five communes were included in the larger prospective study designed to test the impact of the community empowerment and nutrition program (CENP). Four behaviors were examined: feeding the child “positive deviant” foods, feeding the child during diarrheal episodes, washing the child's hands, and taking the child to the health center when ill. Results indicate that for all four behaviors, favorable social norms distinguished those who practiced each behavior from those who did not. Positive, reinforcing beliefs and attitudes were important determinants of every behavior except handwashing. Likewise, self-efficacy differentiated doers from non-doers for all behaviors except feeding during diarrheal episodes. Findings from this research suggest that fathers and in-laws of non-doers are more likely to fail to advise mothers about infant feeding and health than they are to provide negative advice. By discovering what distinguishes those who practice optimal behaviors from those who do not, researchers, program planners, and others are better equipped to develop targeted interventions that lead to positive behavior change.
Recent Experience with Fortification of Foods and Beverages with Iron for the Control of Iron-Deficiency Anemia in Brazilian Children
Authors: Beinner Mark Anthony , Lamounier Joel Alves
Published: November 2015

Iron-deficiency-anemia affects 30% of the world population. Women of reproductive age and children are the most affected. Iron supplementation in the form of tablets and syrups has not been successful in developing countries, and iron deficiency is still the most important deficiency related to malnutrition. Iron-deficiency anemia affects physical and cognitive development at an early age in children, often resulting in irreversible outcomes. Studies from the last two decades have shown that the prevalence of iron-deficiency anemia can be reduced given adequate investments and political will directed at iron fortification of foods and liquids. A successful low-cost iron-fortification program incorporates implementation and strategic use of communication for program inception where education is in the forefront. A review of the available reports from experience in Brazil with iron fortification of foods and liquids is presented.