bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
REDUCING SPILL RISK FROM A CORPORATE PERSPECTIVE
Authors: Stahl Cheryl
Published: January 2013

Spill risk information is plentiful: frequency of failure studies, fate and transport modeling, equipment inspection reports, knowledge about the surrounding environment, spill response planning, and much more. The amount of data from a single risk assessment can be staggering. However, the relevant information is often available only to silo groups. How can upper level management identify, assess, and apply the important information to prioritize risk reductions and re-allocate budgets?

As evidenced by recent events, the cost of a spill to a corporation can far exceed the cost of cleanup and remediation. The holistic business cost of spills also includes business interruption, staff effort spent on external and internal communications, causal analysis, assessment of similar facilities, concomitant property damage or business interruption, and the elusive public opinion / resultant regulatory changes. Most of these business risks can be estimated and the major contributors identified using standard tools and a few well-planned databases.

Once the frequency and business cost of spills are quantified and collected in one system (a risk database), management analysis can begin. The risk database should provide a short list of the greatest spill risks: which equipment is involved, the primary causes of the failures, the affected environment, the stakeholders, and a breakdown of the costs.

Workshops can identify a list of potential risk reduction measures. Analyzing each measure at an engineering level would require more staff than are available in a practical sense. To facilitate the process, the corporate-level costs and spill risk benefits can be estimated at a screening level for each practical measure. A screening cost-benefit analysis provides an initial cut at which measures are worthy of further consideration. Detailed engineering, selections, and budgeting follow.

Well executed, this is an effort with large payback. Cost-effective measures to reduce spill risk also improve corporate financials, reduce risk to the environment, and improve public relations. The vital tools are robust risk management systems and processes to collect and display essential information.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF A RISK ASSESSMENT MODEL TO COMPARE OIL SPILL RISK FOR SINGLE & DOUBLE HULLED FPSOS
Authors: Cavaye Nicholas , Waibl Gina
Published: January 2013

In recent years, following a number of high profile oil spills internationally, there has been an increased focus on improving the safety of oil tankers to prevent the environmental damage caused by oil spills. Regulations developed focus on replacing single hulled trading tankers with a double hulled configuration. However, many of the risks associated with trading tankers do not apply to Floating Production, Storage and Offloading vessels (FPSOs).

The risk assessment undertaken for this report compares single with double hull FPSOs, with respect to events causing serious environmental impact. The study considers external and on-board causes of events which may cause serious oil spills including fire, explosion, accidental discharge, grounding, collision and hull failure.

The risk assessment comprises a limited quantitative analysis using data from the literature and observations from experience, which are consistently applied to each of the hazardous events identified as relevant. The report also looks at the wider environmental factors associated with single versus double hull FPSOs in order to inform policy makers.

The findings indicate that risk profiles of oil tankers are markedly different from FPSOs, and that there is a strong argument that overall environmental risks from a single hull FPSOs are lower than those for a double hulled F?SO. A single sided hull has potentially better structural performance; no risk of inter-hull formation of volatile explosive mixtures; delivers environmental benefits; and has simpler operational requirements than a double sided FPSO. The main advantage for using a double sided hull is the higher collision impact energy it can withstand without releasing oil into the environment.
PERSPECTIVES ON ICS TRAINING FROM THE TRAINER'S POINT OF VIEW: STREAMLINING THE PROCESS
Authors: DeCola Peter N.
Published: January 2013

The promulgation of Homeland Security Presidential Directive (HSPD-5) has resulted in a significant training mandate for the Department of Homeland Security and the Coast Guard. An outstanding effort has been put forth to roll out the current training regime. Since training is an iterative process of Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation and Evaluation (ADDIE), equal emphasis must be placed on all phases of the process, including analysis. In the haste to roll out training to meet an immediate need, little, if any analysis was conducted. The author suggests that the time may be right to conduct the analysis needed to streamline the current program and provide better training for Coast Guard personnel conducting contingency response operations.
THE IMPACT OF NATIONAL INCIDENT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM TRAINING REQUIREMENTS ON THE PRIVATE SECTOR
Authors: McGrath Gabrielle
Published: January 2013

In the National Incident Management System (NIMS) Document dated March 1, 2004, all federal, state, local, tribal, private sector and non-governmental personnel with a direct role in emergency management and response were required to be NIMS and Incident Command System (ICS) trained. National standards for qualification and certification of emergency response personnel were established under NIMS to ensure that personnel possess the minimum knowledge, skills, and experience necessary to execute incident management and emergency response activities safely and effectively. Most recently documented in the National Response Framework, all mid-level managers of federal, state, and local governmental personnel are encouraged to complete ICS-300 and ICS-400 training in fiscal year 2007. Although these standards will greatly improve the ability for governmental personnel to respond in emergencies, private sector personnel are not regulated to participate in the same qualification and certification process. At this time, NIMS has no legal authority to place these requirements on industry personnel, such as members of oil spill management teams. The resulting imbalance of qualification and certification requirements between these two groups could severely hinder oil spill response efforts in the near future by causing miscommunication in the Unified Command during critical points in the response, including when setting response objectives and sharing resources. However, the solution cannot be to pass further governmental regulations on an already highly-regulated community. The NIMS Integration Center should consider utilizing the existing partnerships in individual regions, particularly through the Area Committee and the Area Maritime Security Committee, to solve this issue before it becomes a significant problem in the middle of a large-scale response effort.
DISPERSANT MISSION PLANNER, DMP2
Authors: Dale Dean H. , Allen Alan A.
Published: January 2013

The most recent release of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Dispersant Mission Planner, DMP2, is a valuable tool for the estimation of system performance involving the application of chemical dispersants on oil spills. The assessment of system performance is critical for both planning and realtime operational use. The DMP2 can be used for the assessment of fixed-wing aircraft, helicopters and vessels as platforms for the application of dispersants, allowing the user to compare and optimize the performance of each system. The Mission Planner can also be used to calculate the Effective Daily Application Capacity (EDAC) for a specified application system operating from a pre-designated staging location. The DMP2 provides a user-friendly tool for the determination of any dispersant application system'S EDAC as currently required by U.S. Coast Guard regulations for a given Captain of the Port (COTP) Zone. The authors (and developers of the DMP2) describe the underlying logic of the model and illustrate its use with a number of examples.
SUMMARY OF STUDIES OF COREXIT DISPERSANT DROPLET IMPACT BEHAVIOR INTO OIL SLICKS AND DISPERSANT DROPLET EVAPORATION1,2
Authors: Ebert Timothy A. , Downer Roger , Clark James , Huber Charles A.
Published: January 2013

This paper presents the results of two related studies concerning the aerial application of dispersants. The first study characterized the interactions of various sized Corexit 9500 and 9527 dispersant droplets with oil films of from 0.1 mm to 3.0 mm thickness. A film thickness of 0.1 mm was selected as the end point since this is the thinnest oil film recommended for the application of dispersants. The results of the high speed video droplet impact analysis showed that droplet diameters of 1,000 microns will not pass through an oil slick of 0.1 mm and mix with the underlying water column and that slick thickness of 0.2 mm or more will prevent even 2,000 micron diameter droplets from passing through the slick. These droplet sizes are considerably larger than the current ASTM Standard recommended droplet size of 300–500 microns for dispersant application. Additionally, it was shown that droplets that do pass through an oil slick will in whole or in part rise back up to the oil water interface.

The second study characterized and compared the evaporation rates of Corexit 9500 and 9527 droplets with water over a 20 minute period under varying conditions of humidity and temperature. Under high evaporative conditions of high temperature (90° F) and low humidity (40%), droplets ranging from 0.25 to 1 uL showed 2–10% evaporative loss for Corexit 9500, 28–35% evaporative loss for Corexit 9527, and complete evaporative loss for water. When tested at low evaporative conditions of low temperature (40° F) and high humidity (95%), no evaporative loss was recorded for droplets of either 9500 or 9527, and water lost 18%.
DISPERSANT EFFECTIVENESS TESTING ON CHEMICAL FLOATERS AND ITS ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
Authors: Koh Claudia , Tan Freddie
Published: January 2013

With the growing interest and focus on Hazardous Noxious Substance (HNS) spill worldwide, Oil Spill Response & East Asia Response Ltd (OSRL/EARL) has embarked on an HNS spill response study. One important part of the study is to consider the appropriate type of response strategies for HNS spills. As this study focuses mainly on petrochemical floaters, two strategies are short listed, namely, containment and recovery, and dispersants application. This paper will discuss in depth the latter. Dispersants application during oil spills is common, but it has not been tested (nor practiced) to date on a Hazardous Noxious Substance (HNS) spill.

Dispersants, which are composed of solvents and surfactants, work by lowering the interfacial tension between oil and water. Theoretically, dispersants work on hydrocarbons that are poorly soluble in water. Dispersants application may also be the preferred strategy because it minimizes contact between responders and the spilled chemicals, thus minimizing the associated human exposure risks.

With this objective in mind, OSRL/EARL has collaborated with a test laboratory to conduct lab-scale experiments on effectiveness of dispersants on floating chemical slicks. This paper will be discussing the development of the experimental procedures and findings from these experiments.

Apart from the effectiveness of dispersants on chemical slicks, one major concern resulting from dispersing chemicals into the water column would be the environmental and ecological effects of doing so. There will also be a brief discussion on the usage of common pollution indicators (such as aquatic toxicity, waterfowl toxicity, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and lethal concentration (LC50)) if dispersants are applied.
EFFECT OF VARIABLES ON PERFORMANCE OF SURFACE WASHING AGENTS UNDER A NEWLY DEVELOPED TESTING PROTOCOL
Authors: Luedeker Christopher C. , Koran Karen M. , Venosa Albert D.
Published: January 2013

Surface washing agents (SWAs) can be used following an oil spill event to enhance the removal of stranded oil from shorelines and other surfaces. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has developed a testing protocol to evaluate the effectiveness of SWAs in the laboratory. Using this protocol, the effects of substrate type, substrate hydration, and SWA-to-oil ratio (SOR) on the ability of SWAs to remove crude oil were evaluated. Experiments were conducted using Prudhoe Bay Crude (PBC) oil applied to three substrates under wet and dry conditions. Oil recovery efficiencies were similar for substrates made up of sand and the smaller of two gravels, while a decrease in efficiency was observed for the larger, more heterogeneous gravel. For the controls without SWA, after we compared dry and wet substrates, we decided dry substrates would be preferable for purposes of the protocol because variability was much lower and differences between treated and control samples were greater. To determine the effect of SOR, four SWAs were evaluated at three SORs and two dilutions for their efficiency in removing PBC from dry sand. Oil recovery efficiency as a function of SOR was lower at the low SOR ratios (1:1 <2:1 <10:1). Application of equivalent volumes of 50% and 100% SWA solutions to PBC revealed that efficiency increased with applied mass of SWA. However, when equal masses of SWA were applied at 10:1 SOR, similar efficiencies were achieved regardless of dilution. This suggests that, except at the highest application rate, total applied mass is a more critical variable than dilution for these SWAs. IFO180 Fuel Oil was also evaluated under these conditions. Preliminary data suggest lower SWA efficiencies were observed with this heavier weight oil.
ENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSE MANAGEMENT APPLICATION
Authors: Jacobi Michele , Kinner Nancy E. , Braswell Bobby H. , Schwehr Kurt D. , Newman Kimberly S. , Merten Amy A.
Published: January 2013

The Coastal Response Research Center (CRRC), a partnership between the University of New Hampshire (UNH) and NOAA'S Office of Response and Restoration (ORR), is leading an effort to develop a data platform capable of intefacing both static and real-time data sets accessible simultaneously to a command post and assets in the field with an open source internet mapping server. The Environmental Response Management Application (ERMA™) is designed to give responders and decision makers ready access to geographically specific data useful during spill planning/drills, incident response, damage assessment and site restoration. In addition to oil spill and chemical release response, this website can be relevant to other environmental incidents and natural disasters, responses and regional planning efforts. The platform is easy to operate, without the assistance of Information Technology or Geographic Information Systems (GIS) specialists. It allows users to access individual data layer values, overlay relevant data sets, and zoom into segments of interest. The platform prototype is being developed specifically for Portsmouth Harbor and the Great Bay Estuary, NH. The prototype demonstrates the capabilities of an integrated data management platform and serves as the pilot for web-based GIS platforms in other regions.
UTILIZING SURFACE DRIFTER DATA TO IMPROVE OIL SPILL RESPONSE EFFORTS
Authors: McGrath Gabrielle G. , Comerma Eric
Published: January 2013

During an oil spill or search and rescue response, time is of the essence. Trajectory models, such as OILMAP and SARMAP developed by Applied Science Associates, Incorporated, are used in these situations to provide rapid predictions of the movement of oil or drifting objects (vessels, persons, containers), respectively. However, these models can only be as accurate as the environmental data they use for each simulation. One vital piece of this environmental data is the current field. Utilizing a typical hydrodynamic data set, such as the MERA-11 Reanalysis data developed by Mercator Ocean, a French operational oceanographic organization, does not provide the precision needed for an emergency response. Hydrodynamic data capture the mean flow but cannot capture transient features due to its heavy reliance on satellite altimetry data. These transient features are critical in predicting the movement of oil particles or missing vessels, particularly in a near-shore environment. In the event of an incident, several standardized World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE) Surface Velocity Program (SVP) drifting buoys drogued to 15 meters or less could be deployed to capture the movement of water at the surface in the vicinity of the response site. At a cost of less than $2000 per drifting buoy, the benefit of acquiring this real-time hydrodynamic data far outweighs the cost of inaccurate response efforts, such as deploying protective booming at sensitive areas that will not be impacted or conducting aerial reconnaissance search patterns in locations where the lost vessel or person would not have a chance of being located. These buoys can be purchased and pre-staged in large port regions by federal, state, or local agencies or the private sector for rapid deployment. Employing trajectory models is a well-known practice in both the oil and search and rescue response communities. However, by implementing a method for capturing accurate, real-time current data, the precision of these model simulations can be improved significantly.
INTEGRATING STATE-OF-THE-ART SHORELINE INTERACTION KNOWLEDGE INTO SPILL MODELING
Authors: Etkin Dagmar Schmidt , Michel Jacqueline , McCay Deborah French , Boufadel Michel , Li Hailong
Published: January 2013

An understanding of the complex interaction between oil and shoreline sediments in nearshore areas after an oil spill is essential for more accurate oil spill risk analysis modeling. In particular, an estimation of the degree to which shoreline sediments hold and retain oil during the 10–30 days after a spill is required for modeling the fate and trajectory of oil as it impacts a shoreline and either strands on or penetrates into the sediment or refloats to be deposited elsewhere. A comprehensive literature review of empirical studies, laboratory research, and oil-shoreline modeling was conducted. For a spill risk model to be applied in a stochastic manner, a relatively simple and practical method to estimate the oil holding capacity of shoreline sediments based on shoreline type and oil properties was derived from empirical shoreline cleanup assessment team (SCAT) data and a theoretical hydraulics model. The suggested methodology can be applied by spill modelers needing a way to estimate the amount of oil held by a shoreline upon impact to allow a trajectory model to more accurately project the total spread of oil.
AN INTEGRATED PROJECT TO ANALYZE AND DETERMINE THE CONSEQUENCES OF A CHEMICAL SPILL ON THE WEST COAST OF FRANCE: AN OPERATIONAL POINT OF VIEW THROUGH THE ECEIncident
Authors: Gouriou Vincent , loch Stephane Le F , Aprin Laurent , Tena-Chollet Florian , Lazure Pascal , Pous Stíphane , James Alice , Daniel Pierre
Published: January 2013

Within a few decades, the European coasts and seas endured major environmental incidents of chemical pollution. For example, the “Ievoli Sun” incident, October 31, 2000, which was transporting 4,000 tonnes of styrene or the “Ece” incident, February 01, 2006 in the Channel, with a cargo of 10,000 tonnes of phosphoric acid.

When a disaster occurs, authorities aspire to a faster and more effective management of pollution to limit the consequences. To this end, French authorities which take response measures for health or economic protection during a marine pollution incident need efficient software tools to assess the risks related to marine pollution. This allows them to quickly set up a relevant safety area, the aim being to protect the populations and the environment, to mobilize the appropriate response tools and to anticipate the situation in the short or medium term.

It is in this particular and significant context of crisis management of marine pollution that the CLARA (“Calculation related to accidental releases in seawater”) project was developed. This project, funded by the French Research Ministry, has been carried out, since November 2003, by the Ecole des Mines d'Alès, Cedre, Ifremer, Mítío-France and Ineris, in order to jointly simulate
EMERGENCY PIPELINE SOURCE CONTROL & REPAIR
Authors: Bethune Fred , Duncklee Frank
Published: January 2013

Oil Spill response and clean up generally involves deployment of personnel and equipment to contain and recover product. Seldom do response teams get involved in stopping the release of product from the source of the leak. This is due to the specialized nature of the task and the risk that is involved. However the possibility of a leak with discharge pressures of several hundred pounds is a reality on most pipelines around the world. This is due to the elevation changes as it traverses hills and valleys. There are valves to protect the line and minimize spill volume, however there is still the possibility of high static pressure after the line is shut in. This paper gives a brief review of the Trans Alaska Pipeline and changes that were made in the response plan to be able to better deal with controlling the source of a spill caused by a sabotage incident in 2001. It will give a brief description of equipment that is now used to minimize the safety risk and stop a leak quickly.
RESPONSE STRATEGIES TO A REMOTE INLAND OIL SPILL AND FUEL TRANSFER AFTER A HURRICANE
Authors: Ewing J. T. , Grimes Wm. D. , Baccigalopi Michael , McElroy Amy
Published: January 2013

Hurricanes present unique and difficult challenges for coastal oil spill responders. Hurricane Rita made landfall on the Texas/Louisiana border in September 2005 and was the first Category 3 hurricane to strike the upper Texas coast in over 20 years. The storm surge mobilized a 54-foot diameter by 30-foot tall steel storage tank reportedly containing 100,000 gallons of marine diesel fuel and deposited the tank over 1.5 miles from its original location. It'S new location was in an estuarine marsh on Texas Point National Wildlife Refuge, part of the USFWS'S Texas Chenier Plain Refuge Complex. The construction of a temporary, flexible polyethylene pipeline over 2 miles in length was deployed to decant the remaining diesel/water mixture. A tracked marsh excavator was used to dismantle the steel tank structure, and airboats transported the entire structure, piece-by-piece to a staging area off the refuge for recycling. Finally, state and federal regulatory agencies coordinated emergency mitigation and restoration of the response impacts under the Corps of Engineers (COE) Nationwide Permit (NWP) 20 before demobilization.
OILED WILDLIFE RESPONSE - THE ROLE OF AN OIL INDUSTRY SPILL RESPONSE CO-OPERATIVE
Authors: R.D. Holland , R.A. James , S. Coates , M. Clements , H. Nijkamp
Published: January 2013

During an oil spill, public attention is focussed on animal welfare and care, primarily channelled through powerful media imagery and comment. Traditionally, animal welfare organisations are tasked to provide the manpower and resources to manage the rehabilitation and response effort, with Government and industry providing financial and administrative support on an ad hoc basis as the incident dictates. A novel response model has now been developed between the oil industry'S international response group, Oil Spill Response and East Asia Response Ltd (OSRL/EARL), and the wildlife response community. OSRL/EARL working in co-operation with the independent Sea Alarm Foundation (SAF) have collectively addressed oiled wildlife response issues and married their individual strengths, capabilities and resources to bring a new approach to oiled wildlife response. Preparedness and response activities to oiled wildlife will be enhanced and improved globally via the establishment of a database of Country Wildlife Response Profiles, a pool of specialist experts for wildlife response, equipment stockpiles at an aviation secure base and development of wildlife response plans in co-operation with recognised international groups. This poster details how these activities will benefit oiled wildlife response globally.
California Marine Oil Spill Fisheries Closure: Key Processes of the Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA) During a Fisheries Closure Event
Authors: Klasing Susan A. , Brodberg Robert K. , Faurot-Daniels Ellen R.
Published: January 2013

Following the 2007 M/V Cosco Busan oil spill in San Francisco Bay, California, legislation was enacted to provide for the closure of fisheries by the California Department of Fish and Game (DFG) after oil spills in marine waters. This legislation (DFG Code Section 5654) facilitated a partnership between the state's primary oil spill responder, the Department of Fish and Game, Office of Spill Prevention and Response (DFG/OSPR), and the state's Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA), the agency responsible for determining whether fish caught in California waters can be safely consumed. A fisheries closure protocol established as a result of the statute stipulates the role of staff at both agencies, from the initial spill responders to data evaluation and reopening of a closed fishery.

OEHHA staff is required to assess the need for fisheries closure following a spill event. When a fisheries closure is deemed necessary for more than 48 hours, OEHHA will select species and chemicals for analysis, determine sampling strategies, conduct a risk assessment on the safety of fish and shellfish consumption, and work with DFG/OSPR to modify closure boundaries, if indicated. Relevant case study information from California spills, including the T/V Dubai Star is shown.
Activism
Authors: Saunders Clare
Published: January 2013

Activism is, in many ways, the most important activity undertaken by social and political movements. In short, activism is the action that movements undertake in order to challenge some existing element of the social or political system and so help fulfill movements' aims. Thus, activism includes a wide range of different actions, from participating in a forum to sabotaging property. Not only does activism vary according to the type of action chosen, but also depending upon the target or targets, which could be local citizens, corporations, local or national governments, international financial institutions, the capitalist system, and so on.
Advocacy Networks
Authors: Bozzini Emanuela
Published: January 2013

Advocacy networks consist of individuals and organizations “who are bound together by shared values, a common discourse and dense exchange of information and services” to defend the causes of others and/or advance a cause in the public interest (Keck & Sikkink 1998a). They organize around campaigns on issues related to a common good, or the defense of rights, and they are thus characterized by a centrality of principled beliefs, normative ideas, and values.
Age and Social Movements
Authors: Fillieule Olivier
Published: January 2013

The notion of life cycle was first used in the social sciences in the 1930s and remained prominent until the end of the sixties in political behavior studies, despite its lack of empirical consistency. The basic idea is that stage specific needs result in the adoption of particular political attitudes. Based largely on Freudian psychodynamic theory, the life cycle approach has mainly been interested in explaining adolescent rebellion (and, more rarely, the conservatism of the elderly) and attempted to attribute social protest in the sixties to young people's life‐cycle characteristics and needs, and to deep‐seated emotional conflicts between youth and adults (Erikson 1968; Feuer 1969). In a more structuro‐functionalist perspective, life‐cycle theory has given birth to a cohort‐generational perspective, in which youth unrest is viewed as a product of a rapidly changing social order and unique growing‐up experiences that exacerbate age‐group relations, and may generate organized protest behaviors. However, contemporary research has found no clear diminution with age in the number of left‐oriented attitudes nor any rush to conservatism more generally, as life cycle theories would suggest. Here, the main result is that social unrest is not causally linked to chronological age and that people do not seem to become more conservative with age (Glenn 1980; Binstock & Quadagno 2001).
Agents Provocateurs
Authors: Marx Gary T.
Published: January 2013

When authorities or elites are challenged by a social movement, they may ignore it or respond with a variety of tools from cooptation to redirection to repression with many points in between. One extreme form of the latter is provocation. The idea of the agent provocateur entered popular consciousness in the nineteenth century as Europe experienced dislocation and conflicts associated with industrialization and urbanization. The concept initially referred to an activist secretly working with authorities who might provide information, sow suspicion and internal dissension, and/or provoke violent actions that would turn public opinion against a social movement and offer legal and moral grounds for its repression. The term has entered popular culture as the name of a lingerie brand and British electronica band.
Alienation and Social Movements
Authors: Langman Lauren , Kalekin‐Fishman Devorah
Published: January 2013

Domination, inequality, injustice, and tyranny have existed since the dawn of recorded history. But with capitalism, based on wage labor, alienation became an inherent aspect of society. And while on the one hand, workers were rendered powerless, at the same time, forces were set in motion to overcome alienation in that modern capitalism might foster revolutionary worker's movements. History has given little support to Marx's theory of revolutionary movements. Working‐class revolutions generally failed, even the Paris Commune was short lived. The “successful” socialist revolutions were peasant revolutions such as in Russia or China, or anticolonial, peasant movements framed in Marxist rhetoric such those in as Cuba, Angola, or Vietnam. Nor did that theory specify the actual process by which grievances or strains foster recruitment into movements, leaders emerged, how issues become framed, what led to the “success” of movements, and the means by which mobilizations foster change.
Anarchism
Authors: Romanos Eduardo
Published: January 2013

Anarchism refers to a tradition of social and political thought that in the 1860s emerged as an organized political force. Since then, anarchism has inspired protests, organizations, and movements, mainly in Europe, Russia, and the Americas, but also in other parts of the world. While it may be difficult to talk of “one” anarchist movement, a distinct anarchist current within the history of the labor movement can be identified as well as anarchist tendencies and groups within other social movements. The term “anarchy” comes from the Greekan‐arkhos, meaning “without a leader or ruler.” It was first used in a positive sense, being identified as the ideal form of government, in Pierre‐Joseph Proudhon's (1809–1865)What Is Property?(1840). Proudhon, Mikhail Bakunin (1814–1876), and Pyotr Kropotkin (1842–1921) pioneered a broad tradition which has developed in a variety of forms. These range from varying interpretations of how to organize society in economic terms to the more basic distinction between social anarchism and currents farther removed from collective action (e.g., philosophical, individualist, and spiritual anarchism), as well as more specific variations around forms of organization, of action, and the use of violence. In spite of this rich variety, anarchism can be identified by its strong commitment to individual freedom and sovereignty; the opposition to any form of oppression, domination, and authority; the promotion of voluntary, decentralized, and non‐hierarchical associations; and the use of forms of direct action that prefigure a freer society with more solidarity and respect for individual self‐government.
Artistic Currents and Milieus and Social Movements
Authors: Mathieu Lilian , Balasinski Justyne
Published: January 2013

Artistic currents and social protest have long been intertwined. One of the most paradigmatic examples of similarities and proximities between those fields is surrealism. It appeared in the early 1920s as a movement, as it gathered on a collective basis various artists (poets, painters, filmmakers, carvers, photographers, etc.) who shared the same aesthetic principles. Those principles were expressed in manifestos that had been written by a charismatic leader, André Breton, whose authoritative methods led to repeated internal challenges, exclusions, and secessions. Like protesters who seek change to the social or political structure, the surrealists sought for a regeneration of the aesthetic norms of their time. Posing as an artistic vanguard, they violently challenged the dominant artistic forms of academism using provocation, scandal, and disruption. But the surrealists did not restrict their criticism to the world of aesthetics; they also set out to challenge the political order by joining the communist movement and by participating in various mobilizations, for example, against colonial wars. Other artistic movements – such as Cobra or Situationism – have adopted the same form of a collective vanguard that intends to challenge both the aesthetic values and the political order.
Barricades
Authors: Offerl Michel
Published: January 2013

The accumulation of objects as an act or tactic of political protest makes its debut in history during the “Day of the Barricades” (Journée des barricades) of May 12, 1588. Cordons were set up to protect Paris from social unrest and people barricaded themselves in, notably with hogsheads (barriques). The same phenomenon plays itself out again on another “Day of Barricades”—August, 27 1648—the first “Fronde” (insurrection) against the young Louis XIV (Descimon 1990). Subsequently, the practice of erecting barricades is not reported in France until the end of the French Revolution, during the days of Prairial year III (May 1795), when the French revolutionaries, who had exclusively used offensive tactics since 1789, deployed barricades as a defensive action.
Biographical Availability
Authors: Beyerlein Kraig , Bergstrand Kelly
Published: January 2013

In the context of social activism, biographical availability refers to the “absence of personal constraints that may increase the costs and risks of movement participation, such as full‐time employment, marriage, and family responsibilities” (McAdam 1986: 70). Individuals who have spouses, children, or less time‐flexible occupations are expected to be less willing and likely to participate in collective action because familial and occupational commitments can reduce the amount of time and energy available for activism and increase the risks associated with it. Theoretically, biographical availability should be more significant in cases of costly or risky social activism, with costs referring to the time, money, and energy requirements of participation and risk referring to the anticipated dangers of participation, such as physical harm or social, financial, and legal repercussions (McAdam 1986). For example, while signing petitions does not involve significant time away from work or children, participating in protest events does, and because this activity could result in arrest, there is potentially an additional risk for those who are employed or who are primary caregivers of children.
Biographical Consequences of Activism
Authors: Giugni Marco
Published: January 2013

Social and political movements have a wide range of effects. The biographical consequences of social movements are one of them. They can be defined as effects on the life‐course of individuals who have participated in movement activities, effects that are at least in part due to involvement in those activities (see McAdam 1989; Goldstone & McAdam 2001; Giugni 2004 for reviews). Other types of effects include political and cultural outcomes. Political consequences are those effects of movement activities that alter in some way the movements' political environment. Policy outcomes, a special category of political outcomes consisting of changes in legislation or other policy measures induced by social movements, are among the most often studied. Cultural outcomes are those effects of movement activities that alter in some way the movements' cultural environment. They are perhaps the most difficult to study empirically as they are not easily identified, they depend on a wide range of other actors and events, and often they make themselves felt only in the long run. In addition, one can also imagine the existence of that which some have called spillover effects, that is, effects of movements on each other.
Bloc Recruitment
Authors: Diani Mario
Published: January 2013

Bloc recruitment refers to “the way in which social movement organizers often recruit members and participants among groups of individuals already organized for some other purpose” (Oberschall 1993: 24; see also Oberschall 1973). This is basically a reformulation of the classic argument about the role of networks in facilitating mobilization (Diani & McAdam 2003). The additional advantage offered by bloc recruitment is that the recruitment effort is considerably lower, inasmuch as it builds upon the trust relations, mutual obligations, and consolidated routines that exist between the members of an already established and operative group.
Brokerage
Authors: Diani Mario
Published: January 2013

In its most basic terms, brokerage refers to the mechanism whereby an actor acts as an intermediary between two other actors that are not directly linked, thus creating a new line of communication and exchange. This premise has been shared widely across the social sciences, yet with different twists and emphases. On the one hand, some views of brokerage stress in particular the profits incurring to those occupying intermediate positions from their specific structural location. Filling “structural holes” (Burt 1992) enables some actors to secure privileged access to scarce resources (e.g., information or advice), as well as to affect other actors' behavior through network‐based mechanisms of dependence. One well‐known instance of this dynamic is given by the so‐called role of the
tertium gaudens
(Caplow 1968, in turn inspired by Simmel), who secures gains precisely by virtue of his/her capacity to play one of the other partners in the relation against the other. Another view of brokerage underlines first and foremost brokers' ability to bridge different social milieus and different cultures (e.g., Marsden 1983; Gould & Fernandez 1989). Although the presence of personal interest aside other motives can never be ruled out, here the main emphasis is on the collective, rather than the individual, consequences of brokerage: for example, brokers are perceived as crucial to the emergence of new collective actors. This is the notion of brokerage that most social movement analysts primarily refer to, without necessarily pitching them explicitly one against the other (McAdam, Tarrow, & Tilly 2001; Diani 2003).
Bureaucratization and Social Movements
Authors: Staggenborg Suzanne
Published: January 2013

Bureaucratization in social movements generally refers to the formalization of social movement organizations in terms of record keeping, decision‐making procedures, and division of labor. Although movement organizations never become as complex in their structures as bureaucracies such as corporations or government agencies, movements often develop organizations that meet minimal standards of bureaucratic organization. In
The Strategy of Social Protest
(1990: 91), William Gamson defines a bureaucratic challenging group as having at least three elements: some type of written document that describes its purpose and operating procedures; a list of members; and three or more levels of internal divisions such as officers, committees, and rank and file members. Although centralization of power is often seen as a feature of bureaucracy, Gamson distinguishes the two as characteristics of challenging groups, noting that bureaucratic organizations may lack a single center of power.
Bystander Publics
Authors: Couldry Nick
Published: January 2013

Bystander publics lack the longstanding political motivation of the engaged publics of political parties or social movements, and so are important for different reasons, depending on one's direction of analysis. For those interested in expanded political agency, bystander publics are the standing reserve of political action, available for recruitment to parties and movements. For those concerned with apathy, bystander publics signal entropy in political systems: the temporarily mobilized lose interest and revert to the “bystander frame” which simply wants an end to conflict. These two contrasting scenarios make this difficult‐to‐define group of rich interest (Gamson 2004).
Case Studies and Social Movements
Authors: Snow David A.
Published: January 2013

A case study is one research strategy for studying social movements and movement‐related processes. Other research strategies include ethnography, participant or organizational surveys, experimentation, life histories, and protest event research via newspaper and other media sources. This entry distinguishes the case study from these and other research strategies by sketching its defining characteristics, and then discussing the ways in which case studies can vary, with illustrations drawn from case studies of social movements.
Civil Society
Authors: Diani Mario
Published: January 2013

Until the late 1980s, the term “civil society” was largely absent from the political and social lexicon (Edwards 2004). The restart of interest in this idea has been spurred by a number of quite heterogeneous, if parallel, developments. In the crumbling socialist regimes of Eastern Europe in the 1980s, “civil society” was hailed, in a classic Lockean sense, as the locus of citizens' autonomy and resistance to an authoritarian, invasive state (Seligman 1995). In Western neoliberal democracies, civil society has been seen as one possible alternative to the financial crisis of the welfare state, and as the embodiment of the virtues associated with cooperation and generalized trust and solidarity (Deakin 2001). The European Commission has repeatedly stressed the possible contribution of civil society to reducing its (real or perceived) “democratic deficit.” Its 2001 EU White Paper on Governance paid a lot of attention to the role of citizens and associations, although it remains an open issue whether significant increases in rates of active participation from the citizenry would actually be sustainable for the policy process.
Cognitive Liberation
Authors: McAdam Doug
Published: January 2013

The concept of cognitive liberation was introduced by McAdam (1982) as one of the three central causal factors in his formulation of “political process theory.” The term refers to the process by which members of some aggrieved group fashion the specific combination of shared understandings that are thought to undergird emergent collective action. In particular, McAdam (1982:51) argues that “before collective [action] …can get under way, people must collectively define their situations as
unjust
and
subject to change through group action
” (emphasis added). Thus it is the combination of perceived injustice and collective efficacy that is held to be the subjective linchpin of movement activity. Indeed, McAdam suggests that, notwithstanding the importance of the two more structural components of the model (e.g., political opportunities and established organizations), it is these shared understandings that are the key to movement emergence. As he writes: “while important, expanding political opportunities and indigenous organizations do not, in any simple sense, produce a social movement …Together they only offer insurgents a certain objective ‘structural potential’ for collective political action. Mediating between opportunity and action are people and the subjective meanings they attach to their situations” (1982: 48). So while the political process model has been roundly criticized for its “structural bias” (see, for example, Goodwin & Jasper 1999), in its original formulation, McAdam assigned central causal importance to processes of social construction and collective attribution. On the other hand, in using the term “
cognitive
liberation” to describe these processes, McAdam was clearly ignoring the emotional dimensions of collective action.
Collective Action (Collective Behavior)
Authors: Oliver Pamela
Published: January 2013

Collective action is a fundamental to social movements. People in social movements do things that promote or resist social change, and the things they do are collective action. Social movements are made up of multiple collective actions. When we focus on collective action, we focus on how each individual march or rally or riot happened, and on the general principles about how they happened.
Collective Efficacy
Authors: Klandermans Bert
Published: January 2013

Although it would be hard to deny that people who take part in protest activities are aggrieved, grievances do not provide a sufficient reason to participate in collective action. Resource mobilization theorists argue that grievances abound, whereas collective action does not. Therefore, they reason, the key question that needs to be addressed is not whether people are aggrieved, but why some aggrieved people become mobilized, while others do not. Resource mobilization and political process theorists have suggested respectively that the availability of resources and the presence of opportunities play a key role. Groups that have more resources and more opportunities are more likely to succeed in mobilizing collective action. Furthermore, Klandermans (1997) has shown that people are more likely to participate in movement activities when they believe that this will help to redress their grievances at affordable costs. Simon and colleagues (1998) have labeled this the instrumental pathway to movement participation. For the instrumental pathway the key component is collective efficacy—an individual's expectation that collective action participation can make a difference and bring about the desired changes. The more effective an individual believes collective action participation to be, the more likely s/he is to participate.
Collective Identity
Authors: van Stekelenburg Jacquelien
Published: January 2013

From the 1980s onward movement scholars have increasingly emphasized the significance of collective identity as a factor stimulating protest participation. Sociologists were among the first to emphasize the importance of collective identity in protest participation. They argued that the generation of a collective identity is crucial for a movement to emerge (Taylor & Whittier 1992). Similarly, social psychological studies report consistently that the more people identify with a group the more they are inclined to protest on behalf of that group (e.g., Reicher 1996; Simon
et al
. 1998). Apparently, identification with a group is an important reason why people participate in protest on behalf of that group. In order to understand why, we must elaborate the identity concept.
Commitment
Authors: Erickson Nepstad Sharon
Published: January 2013

Once individuals have been recruited into a social movement, their ongoing engagement is dependent on a number of factors, including the strength of their commitment. Movement commitment is shaped by individual‐level factors as well as movement practices.
Comparative Research
Authors: della Porta Donatella
Published: January 2013

While all research is to a certain extent comparative, the concept of comparative research usually refers to studies that compare more than one unit of analysis or, in less inclusive definitions, more than one country. Even though comparative sociology starts to spread, it is especially in political science—with its focus on political institutions—that comparative research became at the same time a broadly used method and also gave the name to a established discipline.