bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Second Code
Authors: Macnaughton-Smith P.
Published: March 2007

Most researchers regard a crime or a delinquent act as being some specific thing done by some specific person, called the offender. But exactly what it is that he does that distinguishes him from the non-offender is difficult to observe or define precisely. So this paper starts from the simpler position that certain people are reported to the police, charged, tried, sen tenced, and punished and others are not; and the law under which we actually live is simply those sets of circumstances of which accusation, trial, etc., are likely consequences. This is the law that society makes by its actions and not just by its paper enactments. We call this empirical law the "second code"; knowledge of it is more basic to criminology than are legal categories or sociological or psychological theories of behavior defined by some researcher or some law-maker as deviant or anti-social or criminal.

The process of accusation, trial, etc., is seen as beginning with a complaint (either to or by the police). This interaction between an observer and the police is triggered off by another interaction between one or more offenders, victims and observers, and this larger interaction is our main focus of study. (Some of the roles in this interaction may be combined in one person, and not all the roles are defined until after the event.) The require ments of such a study are discussed; in particular, it should be approached from as simple a viewpoint as possible, aiming first at a natural history of these interactions rather than a theoretical model. Any such theoretical model is at present likely to be inappropriate since the facts which it should explain are not themselves yet known in any detail.
An Analysis of Some Relationships between Personality Adjustment, Placement, and Post-Release Adjustment of Delinquent Boys
Authors: Cowden James E. , Monson Larry
Published: March 2007

This study assessed the personality adjustment of delinquent boys, rated while they were still in an institution and after release. The results suggest that significant factors of selection were operating to determine whether boys would be returned to their own homes or placed in boarding or group homes. Boys who were more disturbed while still in the institution tended to be placed in group homes; boys who showed an intermediate level of adjustment in the institution were returned to their own homes; and those with the fewest problems in personality adjust ment while institutionalized were placed in boarding homes. Group homes were found to exert a clearly positive, rehabilita tive influence on post-release adjustment, while boarding homes showed a relatively neutral influence. Being returned home, on the other hand, appeared to exert a relatively negative influence on post-release adjustment. The degree to which the placement setting was isolated from the boys' home environment and the degree of supervision and control within the placement setting were potentially important factors in the differential post-release adjustment of boys.
Armed and Disarmed Police: Police Firearms Policy and Levels of Violence
Authors: Hawkins Gordon , Ward Paul
Published: March 2007

This article describes an attempt to determine whether arming the police does or does not tend to increase the level of violence in a community. The study was carried out in Australia where states which are relatively homogeneous in respect of population composition, cul ture, and general regulations regarding the ownership and carrying of firearms, pursue quite different policies in regard to police armament. It was found that rates of killing and wounding by and of the police appear to be highest in those states which follow the American policy in relation to arming the police and lowest in those states which main tain the English tradition of a disarmed police force. Moreover, al though there is a direct correlation between the rate of killing police and the general homicide rate, the risk of being killed for policemen, which is always higher than for ordinary citizens, is relatively much higher in states which have adopted the American police firearms policy.
Delinquency Prediction: A Critique and a Suggestion
Authors: Venezia Peter S.
Published: March 2007

The case is strong for systematically studying children in need of help — those who display danger signals at an early age. These are the children who are likely to experience increasing difficul ties, with a concommitant handicapping of their potential. The need at this point is for a practical, acceptable, and efficient means of screening large numbers of young children. Past attempts to provide such a method have not met the stringent requirements. One approach, though, appears promising — that of focusing upon a child in the school environment. It is there that data about the total child are readily obtainable. The reported pilot work indi cates this information can be systematically collected and applied to the assessment and prediction of behavior difficulties. However, this possibility has not been explored adequately; the definitive research has not been done.
The Value of Inmate Manpower
Authors: Singer Neil M.
Published: March 2007

No definitive evidence is available on the potential and re alized productive capacity of prison inmates. This paper uses Census data about labor force characteristics and produc tivity, and the educational and occupational backgrounds of inmates, to estimate total potential productivity. After adjust ing for race and sex, potential productivity in jails and pri sons is estimated at over $2.5-billion annually. The annual productivity of inmates in educational, training, industrial, and maintenance activities is then estimated at $1-billion or less. Even allowing for some slippage in the assumptions underlying the estimates, lost or wasted potential inmate pro ductivity exceeds $1-billion each year.
Differential Selection of Juveniles for Detention
Authors: Pawlak Edward J.
Published: March 2007

This study examines detention practices of sixty-six county juvenile courts in one state during a three year period. Two kinds of analyses are reported. First, courts with and courts without a detention home are compared. Second, in courts with a detention home the effect of the juvenile's prior court contacts, offenses, sex, and race on detention are examined.

Courts without a detention home detain juveniles with less frequency than courts with a detention home even though juveniles in both types of courts have the same characteristics. Variation among the courts in detention practices as a consequence of the availability of a detention home suggests that there may be needless detention of children. The number of prior court contacts of a juvenile increases the probability of detention. Overall, offenders who commit juvenile code violations are more frequently detained than juveniles who commit other offenses. White females are detained more frequently than any other group. While some findings point to discriminatory handling of non white juveniles, other findings suggest that nonwhites are not always treated more harshly than whites. The study of the careers of juveniles as they are processed through the court enables us to evaluate social control agencies and to make them responsive to the people they serve.
Contemporary Theories of Deviance and Female Delinquency: an Empirical Test
Authors: Simons Ronald L. , Miller Martin G. , Aigner Stephen M.
Published: March 2007

A statewide sample of Iowa teenagers was used to test two hypotheses: (1) The strength of the relationship between the independent variables of traditional theories of criminal deviance and self-reported delinquency would be approximately the same for both males and females, and (2) the differences between the sexes in terms of self-reported delinquency could be accounted for by females' less adverse location in relation to these various independent variables. An attempt was made to operationalize key variables from anomie, labeling, control, and differential association theories. The two hypotheses were largely supported.
The Effects of Social Services on Probationer Recidivism: a Field Experiment
Authors: Lichtman Cary M. , Smock Sue M.
Published: March 2007

In the search for recidivism-reducing strategies, intensive probation programs featuring enhanced social services and lower officer caseloads have become a high priority in many correctional jurisdictions. The field experiment reported here employed random assignment of newly sentenced property offenders to intensive or regular probation. A variety of variables, including demographic and past criminal behavior indices, were used to relate service referrals and use of services by clients to multiple measures of recidivism. Analysis of variance, multiple regression, and survival analysis were employed to analyze these data. The results reveal that intensive probation is not measurably superior to conventional procedures. When probationers receive only sparse services or referrals from the probation department, they will secure such services on their own. For felonious property offenders, regular probation is less expensive than intensive probation and no less effective with regard to recidivism.
Modeling Crime Trends: a Criminal Opportunity Perspective
Authors: Cohen Lawrence E.
Published: March 2007

A macrodynamic social indicator framework is used to demonstrate how accurate crime rate forecasts can be produced. Trends in reported robbery, burglary, larceny, and auto theft rates for the United States are modeled, using annual data for the years 1947-72. The poverty ratio and unemployment rate, two variables considered important predictors of crime in the traditional criminological literature, fail to account for the index crime trends in this analysis. A "criminal opportunity perspective" is used to formulate several substantively meaningful "social produc tion functions" for the above crime rate trends, showing how relatively moderate social changes can generate rather dramatic increments in the crime rate. For example, I consider how the participation of women in the labor force, the incidence of persons living alone, and the presence of lightweight durable goods provide offenders with opportunities favorable for carrying out the above illegal acts.

Stochastic equations estimating these production functions indicate that the null hypothesis of no autocorrelation of disturbances is consistently accepted. Ex post forecasts of 1973-75 reported crime rates used to gauge the accuracy of the models usually err within a few percentage points.

The data presented here indicate the efficacy of including criminal opportunity factors in crime rate forecasting designed to supply policy makers with technical information relevant to organizational goal criteria.
Gender Differences in Informal Processing: A Look at Charge Bargaining and Sentence Reduction in Washington, D.C.
Authors: FIGUEIRA-McDONOUGH JOSEFINA
Published: March 2007

Because the most important court decisions are not regulated by due process, any study concerned with discrimination should examine those informal processes. This study focuses on the processes of charge bargaining and sentence reduction. We identify criteria associated with these decisions and examine the differences in outcomes by gender of the defendant. It is found that dimensions of defense are the most important in determining a plea outcome favorable to the defendant, and that males fare better than females in this process. This suggests that policies stressing equalization of defense resources might be crucial in the regulation of plea bargaining.
Effects of Residential Treatment on Adjudicated Delinquents: A Meta-Analysis
Authors: GARRETT CAROL J.
Published: March 2007

Recent trends toward a more punitive approach to juvenile crime have been heavily influenced by a body of review literature that reports that the traditional treatment approach is ineffective. The opinion that “nothing works” is largely based on reviews of the treatment literature. These reviews generally fail to document the amount of change associated with treatment. A meta-analysis of the primary research literature produced since 1960 was undertaken to assess the amount of change associated with various treatments of adjudicated delinquents. There were 111 studies identified that used a comparison group or pre-post design. Results indicated that treatment of adjudicated delinquents resulted in a positive change of .37 standard deviations. No consistent evidence on the relative efficacy of behavioral versus psychodynamic approaches was found. Recidivism was modestly reduced; institutional adjustment, psychological adjustment, and academic performance were all improved following treatment. The results of the meta-analysis suggest that treatment of adjudicated delinquents in an institutional or community residential setting does “work.”
Law and Social Control in Juvenile Justice Dispositions
Authors: STAPLES WILLIAM G.
Published: March 2007

Taking its cue from Black's The Behavior of Law, this article tests a number of hypotheses concerning the relationship between legal and nonlegal social control in the juvenile justice system. Data collected on a cohort of youth, randomly sampled from eight California counties, is analyzed using a multivariate modeling technique. The results indicate that the quantity of law afforded to offenders at three juvenile justice processing points is dependent, in part, on the amount of nonlegal social control they are already subject to.
The Prediction of Racial/Ethnic Sentencing Disparities: An Expectation States Approach
Authors: UNNEVER JAMES D. , HEMBROFF LARRY A.
Published: March 2007

For the most part, prior research on discrimination in sentencing has not been theoretically informed by a context-based theory of decision making. In this article we introduce one of the theories of status characteristics and expectation states, Hembroff's (1982) version, to predict when racial/ethnic sentencing disparities are most likely to occur. The theory predicts that when the case-related attributes (i.e., a performance characteristic set) are consistent—all point to incarceration or all point to probation—sentencing disparities are not likely to occur based on defendants' race/ethnicity (i.e., diffuse status characteristics). The theory also predicts that as case-related attributes become increasingly inconsistent—some point to incarceration while others point to probation—there is an increasing likelihood that racial/ethnic sentencing disparities will occur. We evaluate the utility of this theoretical model by analyzing data on the sentences of 313 male drug offenders in Miami, Florida. The results support Hembroff's version of status characteristics theory.
Perceived Blocked Opportunity as an Explanation of Delinquency among Lower-Class Black Males: A Research Note
Authors: SIMONS RONALD L. , GRAY PHYLLIS A.
Published: March 2007

Based upon the work of Cloward and Ohlin (1960), it was posited that the relationship between perceived occupational opportunity and delinquency would be rather strong for lower-class blacks, somewhat less for lower-class whites, and small to insignificant for higher-status whites and blacks. A national sample of 2,500 males was used to test these predictions. The hypotheses were supported with the exception of the prediction concerning lower-class whites. Analysis showed a moderate relationship between perceived occupational opportunities and delinquency for lower-class blacks but not for any of the other groups, including lower-class whites.
The Social Construction of Crime and Crime Control
Authors: RAFTER NICOLE HAHN
Published: March 2007

A number of disciplines have been deeply affected in recent years by constructionism, an approach that analyzes the processes by which social information is produced, disseminated, “verified,” and “disconfirmed.” Criminal justice too has developed a constructionist tradition, albeit mainly through attracting scholars from other fields into its terrain. This article traces the accumulation of the constructionist tradition within criminal justice by examining work in four areas: social histories of criminal justice practice and theory; critical criminology; research on the victimization of females; and feminist theory about the contribution of criminal justice to understandings of gender. If the constructionist approach continues to develop within criminal justice, it may lay the basis for a sociology of knowledge in the field.
Excluded: The Current Status of African-American Scholars in the Field of Criminology and Criminal Justice
Authors: YOUNG VERNETTA , SULTON ANNE THOMAS
Published: March 2007

This article attempts to generate thoughtful dialogue about the perspectives of African-American criminologists, the extent to which they have been excluded from the field of criminology and criminal justice, and methods by which they can be included in efforts to reduce crime and delinquency. Its primary objective is to encourage scholars and policymakers to include the perspectives advanced by African-American criminologists.
Testing the Relationship between Unemployment and Crime: A Methodological Comment and Empirical Analysis Using Time Series Data from England and Wales
Authors: HALE CHRIS , SABBAGH DIMA
Published: March 2007

The work of Cantor and Land (1985) on the unemployment crime rate relationship is subjected to a methodological critique. The ideas of integration and cointegration are introduced to show that the models employed by Cantor and Land are misspecified. The arguments are illustrated using annual data from England and Wales.
Type of Place, Urbanism, and Delinquency: Further Testing the Determinist Theory
Authors: INGRAM A. LEIGH
Published: March 2007

This research examines the relationship between type of place and juvenile delinquency in an effort to extend knowledge about the “determinist” theory. This theory predicts a positive relationship between type of place and delinquency, and that relationship will be mediated by “urbanism,” the negative consequences of exposure to urban environments. The theory is tested using two measures of type of place, six measures of urbanism, and three delinquency indexes. The results provide little support for the determinist theory. Delinquency does not predict urbanness, and urbanness does not predict urbanism. Urbanism does, however, prove to be a significant predictor of delinquency.
Buying Stolen Property: An Opportunity Perspective
Authors: CROMWELL PAUL , McELRATH KAREN
Published: March 2007

This study is based on findings from a self-report survey regarding participation in the crime of knowingly buying stolen property by ordinary, otherwise honest individuals. Of the sample, 17% reported having bought stolen goods in the past; 12% reported being motivated to buy stolen merchandise; another 15% were unsure whether they would buy stolen property if offered. The data support an opportunity perspective of the crime of knowingly buying stolen goods. Having previously purchased stolen property was significantly related to whether the respondent had an opportunity to buy (had been offered) and whether one was motivated (would buy if offered) to buy stolen goods.
The Conditional Effects of Stress on Delinquency and Drug Use: A Strain Theory Assessment of Sex Differences
Authors: HOFFMANN JOHN P. , SU S. SUSAN
Published: March 2007

Agnew's reconceptualization of individual-level strain theory has suggested several ways in which stress among adolescents affects delinquent behavior. However, the general stress literature from which much of Agnew's theory is drawn indicates that sex conditions the effects of stress on various outcomes among adolescents. The present article elaborates Agnew's general strain model by assessing the sex-specific effects of stressful life events on delinquency and drug use, using two waves of data from 11- to 17-year-old adolescents who participated in the High Risk Youth Study (N = 803). The results of a structural equation model indicate that there are few important sex differences; stressful life events have a similar, short-term impact on delinquency and drug use among females and males. Furthermore, the authors find that changes in life events are associated with greater delinquency and drug use.
Gender and Crime: A General Strain Theory Perspective
Authors: BROIDY LISA , AGNEW ROBERT
Published: March 2007

This study applies Agnew's general strain theory (GST) to two fundamental questions about gender and crime: (1) How can we explain the higher rate of crime among males? (2) How can we explain why females engage in crime? With respect to the first question, the authors suggest that gender differences in types of strain and the reaction to strain help one understand the gender gap in criminal behavior. With respect to the second question, it is argued that several types of strain may lead to female crime under the proper circumstances. In this area, GST has much in common with numerous accounts that explain female crime in terms of oppression.
Expediting Court Dispositions: Quick Results, Uncertain Outcomes
Authors: TAXMAN FAYE S. , ELIS LORI
Published: March 2007

Surging criminal court dockets have fostered an interest in differentiated case management and specialized dockets to expedite the processing of criminal cases. An experiment was conducted on a modified differentiated case management process to determine the impact of the review and screening on case outcomes (e.g., type of case disposition and type of sentence) and system outcomes (e.g., amount of bed space consumed during pretrial and sentenced periods). Overall, this research confirms that an early screening process has many benefits by reducing the average length of time for court disposition, length of time for pretrial incarceration, and the average sentence length for cases. A possible drawback of the process is the potential for net widening. Results from the experiment are also useful in providing new insights into the eligibility and impact of such processes.
Fighting for Our Lives
Authors: Ladson-Billings Gloria
Published: March 2007

The quest for quality education is a part of the ongoing struggle faced by African Americans. Few, if any, teacher education programs design programs that expressly meet the needs of African American students. Although some teacher preparation programs are designed for “urban” education, the significance of African American culture rarely is a feature of such programs. This article addresses the uniqueness of the African American cultural experience and details a variety of pedagogical and programmatic strategies that have been employed to assist teachers in better meeting the needs of African American students.
Research and Development : A Comparison Between British and American Industry
Authors: Freeman C.
Published: March 2007

Throughout this article the word ‘research’ is, for convenience, used as short-hand for ‘research and development’—except in one or two instances where the context makes clear that development costs are being discussed separately. The comparison is restricted to manufacturing industry, and excludes capital expenditure.
The Fragile Flower of Local Democracy: a Case Study of Decentralization/Participation in Montevideo
Authors: GOLDFRANK BENJAMIN
Published: March 2007

This article analyzes the decentralization/participation (DP) program implemented by the Frente Amplio (FA) in the municipal government of Montevideo. Based on original surveys, interviews, and direct observation, the article argues that the DP program contributed to improvements in city services by providing the government with better information about citizens' needs and preferences, but failed to boost civic engagement among city residents because the channels of participation offered did not convince average citizens that their input in public forums would have a significant impact on governmental decisions.
Testing Chinese Learners of English for Language Learning Difficulties By the Linguistic Coding Deficit/Difference Hypothesis
Authors: Chen Tsai-Yu
Published: March 2007

Ganschow and Sparks (1991), reckoning on the correctness of their Linguistic Coding Deficit/Difference Hypothesis (LCDH) to attribute the main source of foreign language learning difficulties to language- based problems, rather than to affective variables, attempted to extend its validity by devising a Foreign Language Screening Instrument for Colleges (FLSI-C) in the USA. The author of this study here proposes to test whether the hypothesis holds for language learning difficulties among Chinese-speaking college students learning English as a foreign language (FL) in Taiwan, and presents evidence for the following two propositions: (1) that a modified Chinese language version of the FLSI-C is a valid and reliable instrument, and (2) that the high-risk and no-risk students identified by the modified instrument differ on the Chinese Language Aptitude Test (CLAT) and, according to self-reports, on the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) developed by Horwitz et al. These propositions are accordingly vindicated and lead the author to affirm the validity of the LCDH for interpreting difficulties encountered by Chinese college learners of English.
Curriculum Development Research Using Amplified Objectives
Authors: Wongsothorn Achara
Published: March 2007

Amplified objectives, which incorporate socio-cultural dimensions of language communication, are appropriate for designing an ELT curriculum for the contemporary society where English is a major language of the "wider circle". Such dimensions as skills, language functions, channel of communication, genre, theme and topic, situation or setting, role and status of language users, style and register, etc., are all accounted for in planning a language program to cope with real language use for personal, social, academic and professional purposes. In this paper the author proposes that amplified objectives are the path to learning languages for communicative purposes, which include the setting of goals, methods, strategies, techniques, standards, assessment, and evaluation. The rationale of the proposal is based on "pragmatism" and "constructivism" upon which "amplified objectives" rest.
The Psychological Reality of Grapheme-Phoneme Correspondences in English
Authors: Lam Agnes
Published: March 2007

This paper' aims to find out the psychological reality of grapheme-phoneme correspondences in English. It is hypothesized that first, such correspondences vary from phoneme to phoneme and for some, there may be a basic form and some allographic forms. Secondly, the more basic grapheme can be elicited by using nonsense sound sequences and the allographic forms, by using sound sequences that are very like real English words. The experiment was performed on thirty-five undergraduates at the University of Pittsburgh, Penn sylvania, USA. The results are largely in support of the hypotheses and have implications for the analysis of spelling errors, the teaching of reading, general phonological research and the construction of a model for processing.
The Effects of Feedback on Students' Composition Revisions
Authors: Chaudron Craig
Published: March 2007

In teaching writing to second language learners, the use of peer evaluations as stimuli for revision, instead of the more traditional normative teacher evaluation, constitutes an attempt to provide the learner with feedback at his/her stage of development. Whether or not one of these evaluation methods is superior in promoting revi sion has not been determined objectively.

This study compares differences in English as a second language learners' improvement in revision of their compositions depending on the method of evaluation, whether teacher comments, or peer evaluations. The measure of improvement used is the ESL Composi tion Profile (Jacobs, et al. 1981). Several factors are considered, including the level of learner (intermediate or advanced) and the degree of interest expressed by the learners in receiving evaluation of one type or the other. The method of providing peer reformulation is also compared briefly with teacher and peer evaluation. It was found that neither teacher nor peer feedback was superior in promoting improve ment on revision, although the results are limited because they are based on a small group of students. 1
C-Tests in English: Pushed beyond the Original Concept?
Authors: McBeath N.
Published: March 2007

This article is written in response to Cleary's contribution in RELC Journal 19/2 December 1988. It surveys the literature on C-Testing and points out that all the present literature has been influenced by Klein-Bradley's original research in Duisberg. This research is then scrutinized, and the conclusion is reached that while C-Testing may be a legitimate device of L1 testing, it lacks a theoretical basis for application with FL learners. It is demonstrated that Cleary has deviated from procedures thought by Klein- Bradley to be crucial to the validity of C-Testing, and caution is urged in the adoption of this method.
A Controlled Study of Temporal Variables in NS-NNS Lectures
Authors: Griffiths Roger , Beretta Alan
Published: March 2007

There is sufficient evidence from both L1 and L2 research to in dicate that temporal variables (including speech rate and pause pheno mena) can be manipulated to facilitate listening comprehension. There is, however, no reliable evidence to indicate that rate modification is a widely occurring phenomena in NS-NNS interaction. This controlled study was designed to investigate whether 6 university professors would modify the temporal organization of their speech when deli vering identical lectures to NS, low-proficiency and high-proficiency NNS groups. Samples of the recorded lectures were spectrographi cally analysed and a large number of temporal variables were investi gated. Contrary to expectations derived from a reading of the L2/ESL literature no significant modifications to speech rate were found in deliveries to either the low- or high proficiency groups. Observed changes in articulation rate narrowly missed being significant, but differences were between the two NNS groups, not between the NS and NNS groups. Highly significant differences were, however, observed in the data on filled pauses. L1 pausological literature is drawn upon in suggesting explanations of these findings. Implica tions for L2 teaching are discussed.
Classroom Interaction and Teacher Questions Revisited
Authors: Wu Kam-yin
Published: March 2007

As questioning is an important method of teaching, it has received much research attention for many years. However, the studies that have been conducted have so far not exhausted this area of investigation.

The present study aims to investigate the relationships among these four variables in the ESL classroom in Hong Kong: (1) question types, (2) questioning strategies, (3) student attitudes, and (4) patterns of interaction.

The questions of four ESL teachers in Hong Kong were analyzed. The findings indicate that the overwhelming number of responses generated by these questions are restricted rather than elaborate, irrespective of the types of question that elicited them. In addition, referential and open questions are less effective than display and closed questions in eliciting responses from students.

This study suggests that in Hong Kong, ESL students prefer to be modest rather than to show off by giving lengthy responses to teacher questions. In this situation, the use of appropriate questioning strategies, e.g. probing, deserves special attention if teachers want their students to produce longer and syntactically more complex answers.
An Examination of the Interactive Model of Esl Reading From the Perspective of Approaches To Studying
Authors: Kember David , Gow Lyn
Published: March 2007

This study uses techniques derived from the fields of cognitive psychology and student learning to investigate the approaches to studying of a sample of Hong Kong students and to relate these approaches to the interactive model of second-language reading. The English language ability of the subjects, who were studying in a second language, was compared to measures from the Approaches to Studying Inventory (ASI) and data from student interviews. English language ability was found to be correlated with deep and surface approach scores of the ASI, which determine whether a student sets out to find the global meaning of a piece of reading or tries to memorise items. There was evidence of the subjects adopting a narrow focus in their learning approaches, which is interpreted as evidence for over-reliance on bottom-up processing. The results are seen as offering some support to the short-cut hypothesis of second-language processing.
Is There a Role for Learner Treatment in Comprehending Relative Clauses?
Authors: Sadighi Firooz , Jafarpur Abdoljavad
Published: March 2007

The purpose of this research was to study the role of learner treatment in comprehending restrictive relative clauses by EFL learners under formal instruction. The instructional materials of 104 students were examined to obtain the frequency of the types of restrictive relative clauses in the subjects' input. The frequency list was then correlated with the difficulty order obtained from the subjects' performance on a test of comprehending relative clauses. The results did not reveal any significant relationship. The difficulty order, however, showed close correspondence with the Accessibility Hierarchy (Keenan and Comrie 1977). In addition, the results indicated that the relative ease/difficulty of comprehending relative clauses relates to such universal determinants as interruption/non interruption, word-order arranged/rearranged, and parallel/non parallel function.
The Lexical Profile of Second Language Writing: Does It Change Over Time?
Authors: Laufer Batia
Published: March 2007

The paper examines changes in the productive lexicon of advanced second language learners' writing over a period of one academic year. Sets of compositions of the same learners were analyzed in terms of lexical profile and lexical variation at three points of time. The analysis was performed by LFP (lexical frequency profile) measure, which classifies the vocabulary of an essay into frequency levels using a public domain computer programme developed for this purpose. Results indicate that there was some progress in lexical richness, but not in lexical variation. There was no correlation between the progress on the two variables. The results are discussed in terms of productive vocabulary development in a second language. Some teaching implications are suggested which relate to explicit vocabulary teaching as opposed to incidental vocabulary learning.
The Relationship Between Vernacular Language Study and Academic English Proficiency in Fiji
Authors: Rao Chandra , Harrington Michael
Published: March 2007

This study examines the relationship between academic achievement in the vernacular languages and English in Fiji. For many South Pacific countries with a colonial history, Fiji included, the accommodation of vernacular literacy was, and remains a complex issue. One important aspect of this issue is the role of teaching the vernacular languages, Fijian or Hindi, alongside instruction in English. In particular, there is the long-held view by many sectors of the Fijian community that vernacular language study has a detrimental effect on academic performance in English. This study compares performance by Fijian students who study a vernacular language in addition to the required English subject, and those students who only study English. Data on language and academic achievement were obtained from the Ministry of Education administered Fiji Junior Certificate Examination (FJCE) for 10 schools for the year 1994. Correlational analysis and analysis of variance were used to assess the relationships between language study, ethnicity, and academic achievement. The findings of this study do not support the belief that the simultaneous study of a vernacular language negatively affects academic performance in English.
Analysis of Sermons Delivered By Korean, Filipino and American Pastors: the View of Genre Analysis
Authors: Cheong Eun-Ye
Published: March 2007

This study analyzed and described the discourse structure of a sermon as a genre. It is also aimed to compare and contrast the cross-cultural variations of the discourse structure of a sermon delivered by Korean, Filipino and American pastors. More specifically, the objectives of this study are (1) to show the basic generic structure of sermons delivered by Korean, Filipino and American pastors; (2) to compare the general discourse structure of sermons of the three groups of pastors; (3) to discover the regular occurrences of rhetorical functions and markers to achieve moves in each stage; (4) to compare the use of rhetorical functions and markers of three groups of pastors having different cultural background; (5) to discover the most common markers realizing the rhetoncal functions.
L'Etat face aux enjeux “autorité-pouvoir” chez les baptistes: l'exemple français, 19ème-20ème siècle
Authors: FATH Sébastien
Published: March 2007

Among its religious counterparts the central state often tends to favour institutional churches. How does it relate to a congregational type of religious group (with a high degree of local autonomy)? The example of the French Baptists sheds light on this question. French Baptist congregationalism is characterized by a weak institutional authority over the local churches, compensated, however, by an informal hierarchy among members. Status is drawn from three sources: a pastoral lineage, training abroad, and familiarity with the group's history. Baptists in France met with general political distrust during the first two-thirds of the 19th century. Later on this position was modified. At the beginning of the 20th century, the decentralized Baptist model was favoured by the republican state, then in opposition to the main institutional church (the Roman Catholic Church). In the later 20th century, the situation changed once more. Religious pluralism grew, creating concern about the possible dangers of an informal “power” that might be difficult to control.
La fabrication d'une sociologie des ordres religieux dans le Dizionario degli istituti di perfezione
Authors: ROCCA Giancarlo
Published: March 2007

Begun a little after 1950, the DIP has had three editorial teams and three editorial programmes. We know practically nothing about what place the sociology of religious orders was intended to have in the first project, since no records survive. The second project had a list of entries dealing with socio-historical themes, but none of them related to the sociology of religious orders. The third editorial team decided from the outset to devote a section entirely to the subject. In the course of the publication process (1969-1971), the work was enriched by the contributions of sociologists from religious, secular and lay backgrounds.
Appropriation des pratiques religieuses: le cas des rituels catholiques dans une ville belge
Authors: CHARLIER Jean-Émile , MOENS Frédéric , NAHON Sébastien
Published: March 2007

The modern process of secularization is analysed in Charleroi, a medium-size city (200,000 inhabitants) in Belgium. Despite its modern character, a number of popular Christian rites are still practised there. They are performed by priests representing the institutional Church, but in response to those who do not habitually attend the city's churches. The ritual performed by the “professionals” continues even as the institution wanes. These practised rites of a contemporary urban religion bear witness to the appropriation of institutional symbols and rituals. Lack of cognitive understanding of Catholicism allows the reconstruction of Catholic components into a popular belief. The aim of this article is to analyse the process of appropriation. The observational research is based on anthropological fieldwork and in-depth interviews not only with church-goers but also with the priests of the city as a whole.
Religious Affiliation and Conflict in the Indian Municipalities of Chiapas
Authors: GARMA Carlos
Published: March 2007

The author considers the current situation of religious groups among the Indian populations of the southern Mexican state of Chiapas. Among the religions present in the Indian communities, one notes, as well as Catholicism and evangelical Protestantism, the persistence of traditional Amerindian religions. Information from the 1990 Mexican official census allows one to establish the distribution of these religions in specific Indian localities. Finally, religious conflict in the midst of the municipalities is evaluated in the context of human rights, both those of Indian communities as a people, and those of religious dissidents as individual believers.
The Clergy in the United States
Authors: Gustafson James M.
Published: March 2007

Cet essai a comme thèse que les activités du clergé américain ont augmenté tant en nombre qu'en diversité, et qu'à la base de ce développement se trouvent trois causes principales. La première de ces causes est la liberté dont jouit la religion aux Etats-Unis; cette liberté, dans différentes dimensions, rends le clergé extra ordinairement sensible aux besoins et aux désirs des laïcs et aux changements culturels. La deuxième est le déclin du sentiment de son autorité indépendante qu'éprouve le clergé; en l'absence d'une acceptation générale des bases traditionnelles de son au torité, le clergé cherche à confirmer sa légitimité à l'aide de moyens nouveaux adaptés aux circonstances. La troisième est l'effort du clergé d'adapter la religion aux changements qui se produisent dans le domaine social et culturel. L'effet direct est celui d'une profession sujette à des renouvellements; ils existent des doutes sérieux en ce qui concerne la viabilité de ces change ments quand on les considère à la lumière des traditions histo riques.
Sociologie religieuse et recherche socio-ecclésiastique au cours de la période 1962-1964
Authors: Schreuder O.
Published: March 2007

This trend report is based on an analysis of articles and reviews contain ed in 13 representative sociological journals (approximately 800 titles). General conclusions: the U.S.A. has the undisputed leadership in research, followed by France and the Netherlands. There tends to be a differentia tion and specialisation in studies; generally speaking as much attention is paid to the interior structure of the religious institutions as to the latter's relationships with other social institutions and groups. In the U.S.A. more attention is paid to external relations and they carry out work which relatively is closer to 'real' sociology of religion; in Europe, more emphasis is laid on examining the internal structures and hence more 'social-ecclesiastical' research is carried out.

An extensive review of the available literature shows the following items which are worthy of attention: the very interesting discussion of the basic theories behind the sociology of religion and of the socially dif ferentiating effects of membership of a Church in the U.S.A.; the change of emphasis from the question of recruitment to the priesthood to that of the position and role of the clergy at the present time; the two current lines in the sociology of ecclesiastical communities; and some very good studies concerning mixed marriages and the relationship between Church bodies and social stratification in the U.S.A.; the religions of minority groups, jews and negroes; and questions of interecclesiastical tensions and prejudice.

Sections where work still needs to be done include: the sociology of the ecclesiastical sytem of education and instruction, the liturgy, and the hierarchy. Moreover interconfessional relations, the relationship of denominations to social institutions — instruction and education, political structures, mass-communication — should receive more attention.

The review ends with a division of the historico-sociological studies according to theme, and the formulation of some general proposals.
Adolescent interaction in an anglican church
Authors: Martin Bernice
Published: March 2007

L'étude, qui est à la fois autobiographique et à base d'observation par participation, porte sur les processus d'interaction dans un groupe in formel, mais stable, d'adolescents au sein de l'église anglicaine au Lan cashire dans les années 1950.

Le facteur-clé pour la compréhension des mécanismes et fonctions du groupe consiste dans son mode de recrutement dans un milieu social populaire, toutefois caractérisé par une tendance à l'ascension sociale via le système d'éducation. La participation de ses membres dans les activités d'une confession jouissant, d'un prestige social élevé conduit ceux-ci à un type de socialisation largement marqué par un système de normes et de comportements propres aux classes moyennes. Toutefois, les membres de ce groupe étaient l'objet d'exigences et d'identifications sociales aussi essentielles que contradictoires de la part de l'église, de la famille, du système scolaire et de leurs groupes d'amis. Si bien qu'il en résultait des comportements ambivalents à l'égard de pratique reli gieuse et de croyance, des aspirations intellectuelles, des classes moyennes et des rôles féminins et masculins. L'article tend à montrer l'impact de tels facteurs sur le taux élevé d'absentéisme religieux des sujets arrivés à l'âge adulte et une fois le groupe initial disparu. Enfin, dans une dernière partie, un essai théorique conduit à élaborer une grille à base d'éléments structurels permettant l'étude comparative de tels petits groupes. Elle repose sur une triple classification a) par type de localités, b) par type d'institutions et c) par type de groupes.
L'organisation sociale de I'Eglise évangélique du Wurtemberg
Authors: Bormann G.
Published: March 2007

The present article is based on a survey which analyzes the central organizational fields of the W urtemberg Landeskirche applying specific sociological categories and methods for group studies. This survey will lead to an analysis of the role of the Evangelical minister: the image the Evangelical minister has of his work, and its reality. The present article intends to reply to the question of the adequacy of ecclesiastical organi zations in relation to their aims and their environment.

The result could be summarized as follow: the Church, in all the elements here investigated (parish system, ministerial functions, personal interactions, communications and direction), in its organizational prin ciple corresponds indeed to the basic pastoral model, but it has lost the decisive Lutheran characteristic of the dialectic coordination of office and community. The existing organization is incapable of realizing the fundamental aims of preaching and of forming the community. The degree of the Church's adaptation to its environment is insignificant. The 'organizational lag' is evident.

One possible explanation for this phenomenon could be the 'rigidity' proper to all social organizations. Yet a normative group cannot admit openly that the desired aims do not affect the organization. The explana tion for the lag lies not so much in the 'rigidity' and immobility of the ecclesiastical organization itself than, paradoxically, in the 'dynamic' theory of the Church. The hardening of the different levels of a given social group can perfectly coexist with a collective conscience nourished by dynamic and even revolutionary ideas. The ideas which ought to determine the direction of the collective groups, in spite of their 'splendid enthusiasm', are unable to change the structure, symbols, positions, behaviours and the organizations, embedded as they are in the whole system which is ideal, and at the same time stagnant. They have lost their transforming power. The theory, reduced to its function of legitimizing the existing organization, is merely the reflection of the imperfect organization.