bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Feminist Challenges to the Social Structure and Sex Roles
Authors: Kearney Helen R.
Published: July 2006

A social-psychological and historical context for understanding contemporary sex roles, fertility, parenting, and the family is provided by reviewing origins and objectives of the Women's Movement. Feminist efforts to change social structures affecting women's choice of roles and fertility require continued attention. Increased voluntary childlessness seriously challenges the concept of motherhood as central to adult feminine identity and legitimization of choice in whether or not to become a parent provides a new context for studying women, sex roles, fertility, and their complex relationships to the social structure. Continued challenges to premises, methodologies, and conclusions of such research are urged.
Timing of the Decision To Remain Voluntarily Childless: Evidence for Continuous Socialization
Authors: Houseknecht Sharon K.
Published: July 2006

This study contrasts different types of voluntary childlessness. Women who decided to remain childless relatively early in life, before marriage ( early articulators) were compared with women who did not decide until after they had married and developed a preferred life style that did not include children ( postponers). The comparison centered on a previously formulated model that explained the decision to remain childless in terms of family background factors, autonomy and achievement orientation in adulthood, and reference group support. The major difference disclosed by this research was with respect to family background factors. In addition to the early versus later decision to remain childless, socialization patterns in the family of orientation differentiate the two types of voluntarily childless women.
Roles and Role Conflict of Women in Infertile Couples
Authors: Allison Janet R.
Published: July 2006

This study explored the experience of role conflict for women in infertile couples. The infertile group consisted of 29 women who, with their husbands, were beginning an infertility program; comparison group subjects were 29 married women with no history of inability to conceive. Each subject completed self-report instruments measuring role conceptions and expectations, the experience of role conflict, and occupational commitment. Each husband also reported his role expectations for his ideal woman. Also, a semi-structured interview was conducted with each infertile subject. Compared to the control group, the infertile group's role conceptions were more traditional; they reported less role conflict of various kinds, and they showed greater occupational commitment. They did not differ significantly on degree of wife-husband role discrepancy, or on mother's occupational commitment. These findings lead to an understanding of infertility as part of an interactional system for dealing with potentially intolerable sources of role conflict.
Come-ons and Put-offs: Unmarried Students' Strategies for Having and Avoiding Sexual Intercourse
Authors: McCormick Naomi B.
Published: July 2006

One-hundred and twenty male and 109 female unmarried college students participated in a questionnaire study of actual and expected male-female differences in the use of 10 strategies for having and avoiding sexual intercourse. As predicted, both men and women viewed strategies for having sex as used predominantly by males and strategies for avoiding sex as used predominantly by females. However, sex-role attitudes were unrelated to students' expectations of sexual encounters. Both traditional and profeminist students expected that strategies for having sex would be used predominantly by males and strategies for avoiding sex would be used predominantly by females. It appeared that students still stereotyped having sex as a male goal and avoiding sex as a female goal. Men and women were unexpectedly similar in their personal strategies for influencing a sexual encounter. Both men and women reported using more indirect strategies to have sex and more direct strategies to avoid having sex. These findings suggest that when men and women share the same goals (such as having or avoiding sex), expected differences between male and female influencing agents disappear
Sex Differences Among Personality Correlates of Mathematical Ability in High School Seniors
Authors: Starr Barbara Schaap
Published: July 2006

To help explain female inferiority in mathematical performance, sex differences in personality correlates of mathematical ability were examined. Three instruments, Rotter's I-E Scale, Miller Adult Locus of Evaluation Scale, and Byrd's Attitude Concerning Life and Self were administered to measure four personality factors: locus of control, locus of evaluation, identity confusion associated with resolution of the adolescent identity crisis, and self-esteem. Each personality score was correlated separately by sex with Scholastic Aptitude Test mathematical and verbal scores. The sample included 68 females and 63 males, randomly selected from college-bound seniors in a predominantly white, middle-class, suburban high school, chosen to limit the effects of social, economic, racial and educational differences. Two variables were partialed out for control purposes: number of mathematics courses completed and IQ (Otis-Lennon Mental Ability Test). For females only, internal locus of control and self-esteem were significant correlates of mathematical ability, and were seen as facilitators of female mathematical functioning in the face of environmental impediments to female mathematical performance.
The Relationship Between Attitudinal and Behavioral Measures of Sex Preference
Authors: Calway-Fagen Norma , Wallston Barbara Strudler , Gabel Harris
Published: July 2006

This study examined the relationship between an attitudal and a behavioral measure of sex preference for offspring. In addition to looking at the relationship between these measures, their relationship to other variables was also investigated. Pregnant women and their spouses (N = 56) responded to a questionnaire measure of sex preference, a behavioral measure of sex preference, Bem's Sex Role Inventory, and the Attitudes Towards Women Scale. The behavioral and questionnaire measures of sex preference were significantly related, indicating that in the area of preferred sex of firstborn children, attitudinal measures appear to be highly related to behavioral measures. Contrary to prediction, androgynous and nonandrogynous persons did not differ significantly on preferred sex of child. However, persons with a more positive attitude toward women's movement ideology showed significantly less male preference than persons with less positive attitudes toward women's movement ideology.
In Search of Token Women in Academia
Authors: Young Carlotta Joyner , MacKenzie Doris Layton , Sherif Carolyn Wood
Published: July 2006

Women faculty in predominantly male departments at a large university were interviewed and responded to paper-and-pencil instruments in a test of Laws' analysis of the necessity for the “token women” adaptation to their marginality for success in academia. By multiple criteria, three clusters were identified: (a) token women, who accepted academia as a meritocracy, were aware of little sex discrimination and belonged to no feminist group; (b) non-token women, who disagreed with academia as a meritocracy and were aware of sex discrimination; and (c) women with mixed or moderate orientations. (Membership in feminist groups was found in the latter two clusters.) Women in the three clusters did not differ significantly by academic rank or marital status and only marginally by age and longevity in academia. As predicted, however, they did differ by tenure status. Contrary to Laws' analysis, token women were not more likely to have had a sponsor, which was significantly related only to rank. Women in the three clusters were equally accurate in recognizing male-female status discrepancies. Their differing definitions of sex discrimination were revealed in differential bias when choosing among alternatives of indeterminate correctness. Token women minimized such discrepancies, in line with beliefs attributing them to women, rather than the system. Others maximized such discrepancies.
Psychology of Women Courses Changing Sexist and Sex-Typed Attitudes
Authors: Vedovato Sandra , Vaughter Reesa M.
Published: July 2006

Changes in the sexist attitudes of college students participating in psychology of women courses were examined. Male students maintained mildly antiliberationist attitudes toward women and traditional, masculine-typed self-descriptions over the course semester. Female students expressed significantly more liberal attitudes toward women and shifted from feminine-typed to androgynous self-descriptions over the course semester. In a developmental psychology class with the same feminist, female professor, male students' attitudes toward women remained mildly antiliberationist whereas female students' attitudes toward women became significantly more liberal over the course semester.
The Lure of Motherhood
Authors: Gerson Mary-Joan
Published: July 2006

A multivariate exploration of motivations for parenthood in 184 unmarried, childless, female college undergraduates indicated that positive memories of early childhood maternal love, traditional feminine sex-role identification and antifeminist sympathy were the primary unique psychological variables accounting for expressed desire for children. Significantly correlated with parenthood motivation, but not contributing uniquely, were memories of father's loving care, perceptions of maternal success at, and enjoyment of, childrearing, and happiness of childhood. Women from large families (three or more siblings) expressed more desire for children than women from smaller families. Religious affiliation and birth order were not related to motivation.
Sex Bias in Educational-Vocational Counseling
Authors: Harway Michele
Published: July 2006

Literature pertinent to sex discrimination in educational and vocational counseling is reviewed. Among the many factors that contribute to inequitable counseling are the sex role socialization that clients bring to the counseling interaction, the sex role attitudes and biases of counselors, deficiencies in counselor training, and shortcomings of tests and other source materials used in counseling practice. Recommendations are made toward more comprehensive counseling services for women and men.
Reproductive Symptoms: Interrelations and Determinants
Authors: Carrie Cherylynn M.
Published: July 2006

This study investigated the interrelation of women's symptomatic reports during menstruation and pregnancy, the association of these reports with the general tendency to report somatic and psychological symptoms, and the role of social stress in intensifying symptom complaints. The sample consisted of 196 women who were either pregnant or who had had at least one pregnancy in the past. The pattern of results varied with current reproductive status. Past menstrual symptom reports had a significant relation to current pregnancy symptoms, but the converse was not found. Women who reported a high level of general health complaints also reported more intense reproductive symptoms. Social stress, however, did not significantly affect reproductive symptom reports. The use of multivariate techniques was found to improve the explanation of the ways in which social and somatic factors interact to determine women's psychological responses to reproductive experiences.
Sex Role Stereotyping and the Evaluation of the Performance of Women: Changing Trends
Authors: Isaacs Maria Beth
Published: July 2006

Conditions under which people are prejudiced against women are examined. In two experiments, college students evaluated two professional articles in feminine fields and two in masculine. The author's sex and title were manipulated such that each article was authored in four ways—by a male (Mr.), a female (Miss), a high status male (Dr.) and a high status female (Dr.). It was concluded that prejudice against women may not be as pervasive as demonstrated in previous research but that women in certain “masculine” fields may receive biased evaluations of their work by men if they are thought to be of low professional status.
Relationships Between Psychological Androgyny, Social Conformity, and Perceived Locus of Control
Authors: Brehony Kathleen A. , Geller E. Scott
Published: July 2006

The decisions and attitudes of sex-stereotyped and androgynous individuals (as defined by the Bem Sex Role Inventory) were compared in a social conformity paradigm and on two measures of locus of control. Stereotypic females conformed significantly more often than androgynous females and stereotypic males (N = 30 per group). In response to a post-experimental questionnaire, stereotypic females indicated that they had been the most influenced, whereas androgynous females reported the least amount of influence from others. Data from the Personal Opinion Survey developed by Coan, Hanson, and Dobyns (1972) showed that androgynous females were reliably more internal in locus of control than stereotypic females on six of the seven factors. Implications of these data are discussed with regard to traditional effects of sex in the social conformity and locus of control literature.
Psychological Masculinity and Femininity: Relationship to Striving and Self-Concept in the Achievement and Interpersonal Domains
Authors: Orlofsky Jacob L. , Stake Jayne E.
Published: July 2006

The relative influences of gender and individual differences in psychological masculinity and femininity on the achievement and interpersonal strivings, abilities, and self-concepts of 176 male and female college students were investigated. The results indicate that psychological masculinity and femininity are better predictors of strivings and self-concepts in the achievement and interpersonal domains than gender. Only with respect to subjects' expected and ideal financial responsibilities, an area which is governed by strong societal sex role norms, does the influence of gender surpass that of psychological masculinity and femininity. The results are discussed in terms of the personality strengths and social competencies that derive from masculine and feminine personality traits.
Differing Perceptions in Dating Couples: Sex Roles vs. Alternative Explanations
Authors: Hill Charles T. , Peplau Letitia Anne , Rubin Zick
Published: July 2006

A longitudinal study of 231 dating couples investigated differences between partners' perceptions of their relationship. Sources of differing perceptions and the impact of perceptual differences on relationship continuation were explored. Although considerable perceptual disagreement was found, most of it did not appear to be linked to gender. Few systematic differences were found between men's and women's reports, and these could be interpreted in terms of self-partner attributional biases rather than sex differences. The extent of couple disagreement was not correlated with measures of sex role attitudes or background dissimilarity. But disagreement on subjective judgments of intimacy was greater among couples in which there was low self-disclosure. Disagreement on subjective intimacy judgments was also predictive of relationship termination two years later. Results underscore the importance of distinguishing between “directional” and “nondirectional” measures of couple disagreement. Findings also indicate that discrepancies in couple member's reports cannot be dismissed solely as measurement error, since they have substantive implications as well.
Sex-Role Identity, Sex-Role Behavior, and Satisfaction in Heterosexual, Lesbian, and Gay Male Couples
Authors: Cardell Mona , Finn Stephen , Marecek Jeanne
Published: July 2006

Partners in 10 heterosexual, 10 lesbian, and 5 gay male couples completed the BSRI and a questionnaire about their demographic backgrounds, sex-role differentiation in their relationships, and satisfaction with the relationship. Members of heterosexual couples were more sex-typed on the BSRI and more sex-role differentiated in their behavior than members of lesbian couples. Members of gay male couples appeared the most sex-typed in their identities, but the least sex-typed in their behavior. BSRI scores predicted sex-role differentiation in heterosexual couples, but not in lesbian couples. Satisfaction was related to the amount and type of sex-role behavior, but unrelated to gender, background characteristics, BSRI score, or couple type.
Current Methodological Issues in Paper-and-Pencil Measuring Instruments
Authors: Brannon Robert
Published: July 2006

Methodological issues in paper-and-pencil measuring instruments applicable to the assessment of attitudes toward women, men and a variety of gender-related issues are explored. Commonly used questionnaire formats are critiqued and the limitations of heterogeneous scales explored. Finally, recommendations for the construction of scales that predict behavior are presented.
Widening Choices in Motherhood of The Future
Authors: Chico Nan Paulsen , Hartley Shirley Foster
Published: July 2006

The new biomedical techniques of reproduction either currently available or being researched, such as sex predetermination of offspring, sperm banking, test tube conception with embryo transplant, development of artificial wombs and human cloning, allow greatly expanded choices in methods of procreation. A survey of attitudes among 2,138 adults, most of whom are in the early to middle stages of reproductive decision making, shows varying levels of acceptance towards the use of such techniques and towards priority values they would assign to ongoing research to perfect specific technologies. Male-female variation in response patterns are analyzed along with racial and religious differences. Possible and probable impacts that widespread use of these new alternatives might have on the future of women in particular and on various aspects of society in general are discussed.
Child Care in Cross-Cultural Perspectives: Implications for the Future Organization of Child Care in the United States
Authors: Greenfield Patricia Marks
Published: July 2006

In every society care of children is primarily a female responsibility, yet there is still tremendous cross-cultural variation in the organization of child care. Three characteristics of child care in small-scale traditional agrarian societies are discussed: role integration, use of auxiliary caregivers, and the effects of certain ecological patterns on childrearing. Data concerning each of these points is presented, along with implications for the future organization of child care in our own society. These implications are based on, first, the assumption of adaptive-ness in forms of child care organization that have evolved over periods of time in these relatively stable societies, and, secondly, on the notion that concepts of child care that work in other societies can, in many cases, be adapted to current conditions in the United States.
Advocacy Versus Scholarship Revisited: Issues in the Psychology of Women
Authors: Unger Rhoda Kesler
Published: July 2006

The apparently contradictory relationship between advocacy and scholarship is examined in this article, which attempts to determine how much of the dilemma is due to the nature of the psychology of women itself and how much is a result of interaction with the social institutions of academia and the structure of psychology as a scientific discipline. Factors which impede the legitimization of new paradigms are discussed from a sociology of knowledge perspective. The additional dilemmas of women as scientists, women as a content area, and feminism as a theoretical conception are also considered. It is suggested that professional legitimacy is a property largely conferred by those outside the field and that collective rather than personal activities will determine the extent to which the psychology of women will affect the field as a whole.
Teaching Women's Studies: Values in Conflict
Authors: Carmen Elaine (Hilberman) , Driver Frances
Published: July 2006

The authors teach a women's studies course for residents in psychiatry. The curriculum reflects the authors' belief that an adequate understanding of patients requires an integration of theories of intrapsychic dynamics with sociological explanations of behavior. Curriculum design and content are outlined, with an elaboration of the group process, learning and teaching problems, and course evaluation. A central feature of this article is a psychodynamic formulation of the powerful resistances of male residents to learning about women. The course is presented as an effective design for teaching in a variety of content areas that challenge the normative belief and value systems of most trainees.
Gender, Rewards and Research in Education
Authors: Persell Caroline Hodges
Published: July 2006

Under the “merit” ideology of academic research, the criteria for academic rewards are quality and quantity of research publications. Do men and women receive equal rewards for equal performance in educational and social research? This question is addressed with a sample of 901 authors of research on education, 14% of whom were women. Gross differences emerge between men and women regarding levels of income. Lesser differences appear in research resources and rank, and no variations occur in departmental prestige. A sample of 390 of their research papers were anonymously rated by a national panel of 39 judges, revealing no difference in the quality of work done by men and women. Women, however, are less productive than men, and consequently less frequently cited. But the criteria of quality and quantity of publications are not related to rewards in the same way for women and men. Quantity counts more heavily for women than for men, although important for both. Hence, performance criteria are selectively applied by gender in ways that affect women detrimentally.
Sex Role Expectations in Children's Vocational Aspirations and Perceptions of Occupations
Authors: Franken Mary Weiking
Published: July 2006

To study sex role expectations, 120 boys and girls from three age groups—preschool, second grade, and fifth grade—in two socioeconomic levels were asked to name their vocational aspirations and to choose whether a man, woman, or both could do the work in 30 occupations depicted in a slide-tape series. Results indicated that sex typing was present in the way their aspirations conformed to traditional sex roles, with a significant relationship (p < .001) between sex typing of aspirations and sex of the respondents. Significant differences in responses to the occupational slides were found on the variables of sex (p < .01), grade level (p < .001), and socioeconomic level (p < .05), with greater sex typing indicated by boys than girls, by preschool children than by older children, and by lower to lower-middle class children than by middle to upper-middle class children. The study revealed a disparity between many children's perceptions of occupations as ones in which both sexes could work and their own personalized, sex-typed aspirations.
Licensed Practical Nurses' Sex Role Stereotypes
Authors: Wallston Barbara Strudler , DeVellis Brenda McEvoy , Wallston Kenneth
Published: July 2006

Thirty-two licensed practical nurses rated the concepts “an adult male patient” and “an adult female patient” on a set of semantic differential scales prior to listening to and rating one of four simulated patients. The simulated patients were two males and two females, with the characteristics of the females matched exactly to the males. Within each sex, the simulated patients differed according to emotional style (“calm” vs. “excited”); the diagnosis ascribed to the patients also was manipulated. The results suggest that not only were there significant traditional sex-role differences in the perceptions and evaluations of typical adult male and adult female patients, but these stereotypical attitudes were reflected in ratings of specific patients. Although the female simulated patients were exact matches of the males, the latter were consistently evaluated more positively and were more likely to be seen as possessing traditional male traits. These sex-role stereotypes were not attenuated by individual patient characteristics (emotionality or diagnosis) nor by the subjects' own attitudes toward women.
Abortion Outcome as a Function of Sex-Role Identification
Authors: Alter Robin C.
Published: July 2006

The present study investigated the relationship between sex-role identification and abortion outcome in 120 women receiving first trimester abortions. The sex-role concept dimension was measured both by self-attributions of sex-role traits (as measured by the Bem Sex-Role Inventory) and by life-style (career vs. homemaker) trait attributions. Psychological and physiological aspects of abortion outcome were included; slightly more than 7% of scores were in the symptomatic range, similar to percentages found in previous studies. Both Androgyny (r = −.42, p < .001) and Masculinity (r = −.23, p < .05) were found to be related to positive abortion outcome. Androgyny was more strongly related, which suggests that a balance of masculine and feminine traits, at least for women in the post-abortion situation, is preferable to high Masculinity scores alone. Congruence between one's self-image and one's image of a career woman was also found to be related to abortion outcome (r = .31, p < .01). In attempting to differentiate between the upper and lower 10% of the distribution of abortion outcome, only two variables, Androgyny and self-career congruence, survived parameter criterion, and accounted for 32% of the variance.
Consciousness Raising: From Revolution to Re-Evaluation
Authors: Rosenthal Naomi Braun
Published: July 2006

Consciousness raising was developed in the radical feminist wing of the women's liberation movement. It was originally envisioned as a means of creating revolution. The reform wing of the movement took up consciousness raising after 1970 partially in response to grassroots pressure and partially to attract members. As consciousness raising spread, the political content began to disappear. Ultimately, consciousness raising moved into the orbit of the group therapy movement. The transformation of consciousness raising from its revolutionary origins to convergence with group therapies is tied to the history of radical feminism and to a change in its practitioners. The history of consciousness raising reflects not only the power of the therapeutic view, but more significantly, brings into question the value of the process both for the movement and for individuals, as long as political content is left out.
A Review of Psychology of Women Textbooks: Focus on the Afro-American Woman
Authors: Brown Anita , Goodwin Beverly J. , Hall Barbara A. , Jackson-Lowman Huberta
Published: July 2006

A review was conducted of 28 psychology of women textbooks selected from university libraries and utilizing a psychological approach. The question of whether authors of psychology of women books in their treatment of Afro-American women had replicated the errors of authors of introductory psychology books in their treatment of women was raised. Of the 28 books reviewed, 18 offered either token or no references to Afro-American women. It is concluded that race and class biases underlie the exclusion, limited inclusion, and biased treatment of Afro-American women in these works.
Is Gender-Biased Language Sexist? A Perceptual Approach
Authors: Murdock Nancy L. , Forsyth Donelson R.
Published: July 2006

Two studies were conducted to define reactions to gender-biased language empirically. In the first study, respondents evaluated the sexism in a series of sentences that contained no bias, used such words as man or he in the generic sense, or referred to women in an unfair, stereotypical manner. In the second study, reactions were examined in a more naturalistic context by asking respondents to evaluate an essay written using all plural pronouns, generic pronouns, or generic pronouns plus evaluative stereotypic phrasings. The results were consistent with the recommendations of the American Psychological Association's “Guidelines for Nonsexist Language” (1975, 1977): (1) generic phrasings were perceived to be somewhat biased and sexist, (2) designation and evaluation stereotyping was perceived to be extremely biased and sexist, and (3) neutral alternatives were judged to be appropriately nonsexist. These findings suggest that authors should conform to the standards prescribed in the “Guidelines” if they hope to avoid unfair treatment of the sexes.
Achievement Motivation of Women: Effects of Achievement and Affiliation Arousal
Authors: Gama Elizabeth Maria Pinheiro
Published: July 2006

Alternative propositions to female achievement motivation theory were investigated in this study. The subjects were 139 Brazilian women selected from a pool of 619 female college students previously classified by levels of achievement (Ach) and affiliative (Aff) needs. The subjects were assigned to three experimental conditions—neutral, affiliation arousal, and achievement arousal—and wrote stories that were analyzed by a projective measure (MPAM). A significant Achievement Level × Treatment Interaction revealed that achievement arousal increased the Ach scores of High Ach subjects but did not affect the scores of Low Ach subjects. Level of affiliative tendencies did not affect these results. Contrary to some of the speculations, achievement arousal did not inhibit the scores of High Ach-High Aff women. Overall, affiliation arousal did not produce the expected effects. However, within the affiliation-arousal condition, High Aff subjects obtained significantly higher scores than Low Aff subjects.
The Hidden Rape Victim: Personality, Attitudinal, and Situational Characteristics
Authors: Koss Mary P.
Published: July 2006

A hidden rape victim is one who has never reported her experience to a rape crisis center or to police. It has been estimated that only 10–50% of the rapes that actually occur are ever reported to authorities. Since most previous rape studies have selected samples from official sources, hidden victims have been overlooked. The goals of the present study were to describe the victimization experienced by hidden victims and to determine whether any psychological variables were related to victimization status. The psychological variables examined included personality, attitudinal, and situational characteristics relevant to the three major models of rape victimization: social control, victim precipitation, and situational blame. Subjects were 82 not sexually victimized, 37 low sexually victimized, 50 moderately victimized, and 62 highly sexually victimized women. Subjects completed questionnaires and participated in a one-to-one standardized interview. Data were analyzed via multivariate analysis of variance. Personality variables and attitudes did not differentiate the groups of women, while numerous situational variables did. The theoretical implications of these findings are discussed.
Somatic Attractiveness: As in Other Things, Moderation is Best
Authors: Freeman Harvey R.
Published: July 2006

Much evidence exists that facially attractive persons are perceived to possess more positive personality traits than are facially unattractive persons. This stereotype is known to be more potent when applied to women than to men. Two experiments were conducted to investigate whether a similar physical attractiveness stereotype exists when “attractive” is defined in terms of physique and “positive” is defined in terms of sex role characteristics and future life happiness. Both the sex role and the life happiness items revealed a tendency for those of intermediate attractiveness to be rated highest. In terms of somatic beauty, the results indicate that while a physical attractiveness stereotype exists, its content is not compatible with the thesis that “what is beautiful is good.”
The Psychological Significance of “Home” to Older Widows
Authors: O'Bryant Shirley L. , Nocera Doris
Published: July 2006

Elderly widows are increasingly choosing to remain alone in their homes following the deaths of their husbands. For a number of reasons they are a more vulnerable group than married older women, and thus were expected to have less positive attitudes toward being homeowners. In the present study widows ( N = 70) who live alone were compared to married women ( N = 74) who who lived with only their husbands. Both groups lived in single-family dwellings. Subjects responded to an empirically derived Likert-type scale which measures four factors relating to “attachment to home.” Results indicated that widows had significantly higher scores on the Traditional Family Orientation factor and on the Competence in a Familiar Environment factor. One explanation of these findings is that the home may take on new meanings for widows as they reflect on earlier family experiences or as they discover that they can competently manage an independent lifestyle for themselves.
Is it All in the Numbers?: A Case Study of Tokenism
Authors: Yoder Janice D. , Sinnett Laura M.
Published: July 2006

The purpose of the present study is to explore whether the negative consequences of tokenism are the result of imbalanced proportions alone, or whether society-wide sex role stereotypes which affect male and female tokens differently are also a factor. Men working at concession stands at an amusement attraction were assigned by the experimenters to one of two work groups in which the numbers of women and men were either skewed or balanced. Unlike a token woman at the attraction, these token male workers did not experience the negative consequences of tokenism (visibility, contrast, and assimilation). In fact, token men identified with supervisors and advanced more quickly than their non-token counterparts of both sexes. The results are interpreted as indicating that underrepresentation alone cannot explain the negative effects of tokenism for women.
Pool Halls, Chips, and War Games: Women in the Culture of Computing
Authors: Kiesler Sara , Sproull Lee , Eccles Jacquelynne S.
Published: July 2006

Computers are becoming ubiquitous in our society and they offer superb opportunities for people in jobs and everyday life. But there is a noticeable sex difference in use of computers among children. This article asks why computers are more attractive to boys than to girls and offers a cultural framework for explaining the apparent sex differences. Although the data are fragmentary, the world of computing seems to be more consistent with male adolescent culture than with feminine values and goals. Furthermore, both arcade and educational software is designed with boys in mind. These observations lead us to speculate that computing is neither inherently difficult nor uninteresting to girls, but rather that computer games and other software might have to be designed differently for girls. Programs to help teachers instill computer efficacy in all children also need to be developed.
The Cultural Context: A Factor in Assertiveness Training with Mainland Puerto Rican Women
Authors: Comas-Diaz Lillian , Duncan Joan W.
Published: July 2006

This study examined the inclusion of a cultural component in an assertiveness training program. Participants ( n = 40) were low income Puerto Rican women. There were four training groups divided up according to educational level. In addition, there was a no-training group consisting of Puerto Rican women who did not receive assertiveness training. Ten sessions of an hour and a half each were conducted over a period of 10 weeks. The training program was evaluated using a translation of the Adult Self-Expression Scale (Cay, Hollandsworth, & Galassi, 1975) as a pre/post program measure of assertiveness; evaluation forms completed by recipients at the close of each session were also used for evaluation purposes. Assertiveness scores of the training group were significantly higher than those of the no-training group. In addition, this effect was true regardless of level of education. Session-by-session evaluation forms suggested that cultural context may be an important mediator of assertive behavior. Limitations of the study are discussed, and it is recommended that future research examine the role of cultural factors in assertiveness training.
Professional Networks of Junior Faculty in Psychology
Authors: Rose Suzanna M.
Published: July 2006

Composition and functioning of academics' professional networks were assessed in a study of 47 women and 43 men holding tenure-track assistant professor positions in psychology at sixty universities. Women's networks had significantly more women colleagues, more higher-status women colleagues, and fewer associates from their previous institutions than men's. Women also consistently rated their networks as less effective at helping them build a professional reputation. However, women were similar to men in terms of the number of “important colleagues” and higher status associates in their networks and ratings of colleagues' effectiveness at providing professional socialization, friendship, career information, and access to current research. The results suggest that by the third year at the assistant professor level, women in psychology have established a small same-sex support network, but that their larger network functioning may be beginning to diverge from men's in one important area: building a professional reputation. Implications for women's career strategies are discussed.
A Psychobiological Review of Depression During Pregnancy
Authors: Kaplan Barbara J.
Published: July 2006

This paper argues that depression may be viewed as one of several normal affective developments of pregnancy rooted in some of the physiological events of gestation and that identification of depression during pregnancy may be difficult (but nonetheless important) because the symptoms of pregnancy and depression are confounded. Studies are reviewed that suggest variations in the incidence and course of depression during pregnancy, some biological bases for such depression when it occurs, some systems through which it might operate, and the possible need for biological and psychological interventions.
A Theory of Productive Activity: The Relationships Among Self-Concept, Gender, Sex Role Stereotypes, and Work-Emergent Traits
Authors: Yount Kristen R.
Published: July 2006

A theoretical framework is presented that focuses on the division of labor by gender to account for both sex role stereotypes and the correspondence between these stereotypes and the self-concepts of women and men. According to this framework, the self-images of adults are largely constituted by attributes generated by their productive activity. These attributes, referred to as work-emergent traits, are consequences of working within particular social and physical conditions of production because they help individuals to perform work tasks and to regulate their emotional responses to the stressors attendant upon their work roles. Because of sexual segregation in the work force, certain traits have been generalized to all women and to all men, appearing as sex role stereotypes. Although the sexual division of labor is the root cause of stereotypical beliefs regarding the attributes of women and men, the beliefs themselves also sustain the division of labor. Suggestive pilot data, which provide initial substantiation for this theoretical perspective, are briefly discussed.
Freud on Sexual Trauma: An Historical Review of Seduction and Betrayal
Authors: Westerlund Elaine
Published: July 2006

An historical review of the development and rejection of Freud's seduction theory is presented. Questions are raised regarding the relationship of self-analysis to Freud's repudiation.
Psychological Consequences of Multiple Social Roles
Authors: Pietromonaco Paula R. , Manis Jean , Frohardt-Lane Katherine
Published: July 2006

This research relies on data from a survey conducted in 1981 to explore the potential negative and positive consequences of having multiple roles. The responses of 500 employed women to questions about self-esteem, satisfaction with careers, partners, and children, and perceptions of life stress and pleasure were examined. The number of roles held by respondents ranged from 1 to 5 (worker, partner, parent, volunteer, and student). The results indicated that higher self-esteem and greater job satisfaction were associated with holding more roles. However, neither marital nor parental satisfaction was consistently related to the number of roles held. Although the majority of working women reported their lives to be stressful, this finding was independent of the number of roles held, and women with more roles did not consistently report a greater number of stressful life domains. These findings suggest that, for employed women, having multiple roles may enhance psychological well-being.
Evaluating the Feminist Challenge to Research in Personality and Social Psychology: 1963–1983
Authors: Lykes M. Brinton , Stewart Abigail J.
Published: July 2006

Multiple indices for evaluating the feminist challenge in psychology are identified, and provide a context for discussing selected aspects of research in personality and social psychology that reflect the impact of feminism on psychology. Women's involvement in the research process, the types of research methods used, and substantive concerns were examined in selected issues of the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology between 1963 and 1983. Despite a significant increase in the proportion of articles with female authors, there were no clear changes in any of the methodological variables we assessed. Comparisons of these studies and those published in the Psychology of Women Quarterly suggest that the impact of the feminist challenge is far more noticeable in this more explicitly feminist journal. Evidence pertaining to the relative impact of publishing in explicitly feminist versus “mainstream” journals, derived from analyses of citation frequency of several feminist studies, was examined. Overall, results suggest that feminist values may have affected research topics more than research methods within personality and social psychology. Several implications of this gatekeeping function of methodology are discussed.
Misperceptions of Friendly Behavior as Sexual Interest: A Survey of Naturally Occurring Incidents
Authors: Abbey Antonia
Published: July 2006

The studies described in this article examine retrospective reports of naturally occurring misperceptions of friendliness as sexual interest. Previous research has demonstrated that men perceive other people and situations more sexually than women do. The purpose of this research was to examine how this gender difference in perceptions of sexuality is exhibited in actual interactions between women and men. Two surveys of undergraduates were conducted. The results indicated that a large percentage of both women and men had experienced such misperceptions, although more women had than men. Most of these incidents were quickly resolved without problems; however, others involved some degree of forced sexual activity and left the individual feeling angry, humiliated, and depressed. Gender differences in the characteristics of these incidents and reactions to them are described. The implications of these findings for future research on gender differences in perceptions of sexual intent are discussed.
Two Generations of Mothers and Daughters: Role Position and Interdependence
Authors: Walker Alexis J. , Thompson Linda , Morgan Carolyn Stout
Published: July 2006

Using both partners as informants and three interdependence measures (contact, aid, and attachment) as criterion variables, we address the assumption that women's orientation to and dependence on other generations differ because of unique roles. In 135 pairs of student women and their mothers and 119 pairs of middle-aged women and their mothers, we ask how a woman's role position interacts with her partner's role position in regard to interdependence. Both dyadic and individual role combinations are examined. In younger pairs, we examine the combination of daughter's marital status and both mother's launching and work statuses; in older pairs, we examine the combination of mother's marital status and both daughter's launching and marital statuses. Regression analyses demonstrate that, except for younger pairs where married daughters and their mothers are less interdependent than single daughters and their mothers, interdependence is remarkably unrelated to role positions, singly or in combination. Results suggest normative pressures toward new conjugal bonds and stability in women's family roles.
Feminist Humor: Who Appreciates it and Why?
Authors: Stillion Judith M. , White Hedy
Published: July 2006

Despite popular-media claims that feminists lack a sense of humor, there has been little actual research investigating feminist humor and people's reactions to it. Three experiments investigated reactions to humorous feminist slogans that subjects classified into thematic categories. Subjects in Experiment 1 were females and males, over 30 years old, who considered themselves feminists or strongly sympathetic toward feminism. Experiment 2 used female and male undergraduates, under 30 years old, with varying levels of sympathy towards feminism. Subjects in Experiment 3 were students enrolled in the 6th, 8th, and 10th grades of a summer enrichment program for academically gifted students. The females in Experiment 1 gave the highest humor ratings, while the females in the second experiment gave the lowest ratings. In Experiment 3, sex differences in humor ratings were not reliable, but ratings of the extent to which subjects agreed with the slogans were higher for females than for males. The results of the three experiments suggest that both gender and feminist sympathy influence reactions to feminist humor.
The File Drawer Effect and Publication Rates in Menstrual Cycle Research
Authors: Sommer Barbara
Published: July 2006

The file drawer problem refers to a publication bias for positive results, leading to studies which support the null hypothesis being relegated to the file drawer. The assumption is that researchers are unable to publish studies with nonsignificant findings. A survey of investigators studying the menstrual cycle showed this assumption to be unwarranted. Much of the research did not lend itself to a hypothesis-testing model. A more important contribution to the likelihood of publication was research productivity, and researchers whose first study was published were more likely to have continued their work.
Access Decisions by Personnel Directors: Subtle Forms of Sex Bias in Hiring
Authors: Plake Barbara S. , Murphy-Berman Virginia , Derscheid Linda E. , Gerber Ruth Wenzl , Miller Sherral K. , Speth Carol A. , Tomes Ruth E.
Published: July 2006

Midwestern personnel and management association members rated bogus job applications which had identical background qualifications but varied by sex of applicant, sex-role related attributes of applicant, and degree of fit of applicant credentials to job demands. The applicants were rated on their qualifications and likelihood of being considered for the position, expected performance, and expected success in the job. A significant triple interaction was found for the variable that measured the likelihood of the applicant being considered for the position (i.e., access to the position). Higher access ratings were given to the sex—stereotypical applicant when the applicant's credentials matched job demands. When the applicant's credentials did not fit the job demands, raters tended to favor non-stereotypical applicants. Practical and research implications are discussed.