bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Exemples de relations praticiens-patients, Perche-Gouvernement de Québec : dettes pour frais médicaux, 1690-1740-1770
Authors: Tésio Stéphanie
Published: December 2016

Le présent article propose une étude comparative des dettes passives pour frais médicaux parmi les populations du Perche et du gouvernement de Québec, dans un rapport métropole-colonie, dans les années 1690–1700, 1740–1750 et 1770–1780. Cette étude économique et sociale vise à mettre en exergue les origines sociales et géographiques des défunts qui recourent aux soins, les sommes dues, les professionnels de la santé les plus appelés, le degré de médicalisation des deux sociétés observées.
Institutional Responses to Communicable Diseases at Victoria College, University of Toronto, 1900–1940
Authors: Gidney Catherine
Published: December 2016

Between 1900 and 1940 students and staff risked their lives to attend, and teach at, Victoria College. Not only did Victoria experience three major epidemics—diphtheria in 1911, influenza from 1918 to 1920, and smallpox in 1927—but almost yearly one or two students contracted diseases such as scarlet fever, measles, and mumps. Yet at a time when there was no health insurance and few hospital facilities, how did the university cope with the problem? This paper examines the care provided to Victoria’s residential students. In the process the paper illustrates not only the upheaval endured by individual students but also the enormous financial and emotional toll paid by the institution,especially by members of its female staff.
A Contagious Journey Within a Culture of Complacency: The Smallpox Scare of 1962 in New York and Toronto.
Authors: Jarvis Eric
Published: December 2016

In 1962 smallpox was perceived to be an ancient disease that was no longer a threat to public health in North America. This state of complacency was shattered, however, by the journey of a 14-year-old boy who entered the United States on a flight from Brazil and who then continued on into his native Canada. This trip led to an investigation and re-examination of immigration health procedures as well as a discovery of the general population’s low level of smallpox immunity. The smallpox incursion was fought by the use of a thorough but troubling system of ring vaccination that left a good deal to pure luck. Many of the issues that grew out of this 1962 experience were subsequently resuscitated during the 21st century’s fears concerning the use of biological weapons by potential terrorist groups.
La grippe, une menace éternelle
Authors: Barry Stéphane , Hessel Luc , Gualde Norbert
Published: December 2016

La grippe est une maladie humaine et animale (essentiellement les volailles). Les virus responsables de la grippe connaissant de permanentes modifications antigéniques et possédant des réservoirs animaux, il sera difficile d’éviter de futures pandémies et l’éradication de la maladie est impossible. Il est maintenant clair que, par exemple, les virus aviaires peuvent passer des oiseaux à l’homme. Allons nous vers une nouvelle pandémie de grippe ? 0n ne peut écarter cette éventualité et par conséquent prendre quelques précautions en produisant de nouvelles molécules spécifiquement anti-grippales et de nouveaux vaccins
From Autonomy to Partial Alignment: National Malaria Programs in the Time of Global Eradication, Brazil, 1941–1961
Authors: Hochman Gilberto
Published: December 2016

This article analyses the Brazilian experience in the battle against malaria from 1941, when the Serviço Nacional de Malaria (National Malaria Service) was created and a large-scale national program for malaria control begun, until the end of the Kubitscheck administration (1956-61) when Brazil joined the Global Malaria Eradication Program (MEP), led by the World Health Organization (WHO). We will discuss the relationship between the national program, aimed at controlling—and, in short order, eliminating—malaria using Brazilian strategies and methods and the international health organization's exclusively eradication-based program. Of particular importance is the role played by malariologist Mario Pinotti, who developed a special method for malaria control in the Amazon region, based on chloroquinated cooking salt, and who wielded tremendous political influence upon Brazil's public health path during the 1940s and 1950s. The article also highlights the implications of changes in Brazilian-US relations during the Kubitscheck term for Brazil's adoption of a malaria eradication program according to the WHO model.
International Health, the Early Cold War and Latin America
Authors: Cueto Marcos
Published: December 2016

This article offers a panoramic vision of the development of international health in Latin America during the late 1940s and the 1950s, when a series of bilateral and multilateral institutions, such as the World Health Organization and UNICEF, were founded and reshaped. The language, policies, and activities of these new institutional actors were heavily influenced by the context of the early Cold War between the era's superpowers: the United States and the Soviet Union. Vertical campaigns against yaws and malaria—implemented under the leadership of Fred L. Soper, director of the Pan American Sanitary Bureau—symbolized international health's technical orientation, as well as its contribution to the modernization of the countries of the region. The Cold War period has received little attention by historians of medicine, though it bears certain similarities to historiographical discussions of the relationship between tropical medicine and imperialism in the early 20th century.
L’assistance clinique et sanitaire de l’accouchement: Trajectoire nationale et influences internationales, Santiago du Chili, 1900–1950
Authors: Campos Maria Soledad Zarate
Published: December 2016

This article outlines various aspects of the history of medical assistance for childbirth and its professionalization in Santiago, Chile, identifying the influences and interactions of Chilean medicine and national health and social policies with European clinical obstetrics and social medicine. It also explores the discussion and selective adoption and adaptation of these ideas by the Latin American scientific community and Chile's increasing interest in the US-developed field of public health specialization in the first half of the 20th century.
Communication, Control, and Co-operation: (Latin) American Interchanges in the History of International Health
Authors: Birn Anne-Emanuelle , Hochman Gilberto
Published: December 2016

This article discusses the development of historical studies of international health since the 1980s, showing that the field has gained considerable density and complexity. The authors touch on various current research trends in the history of international health, including reconsideration of so-called centre-periphery and imperial-colonial relations. They emphasize the important, if often forgotten, role of Latin America in the history of international health and bring attention to the relevance of Canada to the international health field, especially in the last 30 years. The article concludes by introducing the articles that make up this special issue of CBMH, pointing out their most significant findings and cross-cutting themes.
Don Bates: The Medical Historian as Educator, Activist, and Historian of Science
Authors: Weisz George
Published: December 2016

The author outlines the academic and extra-academic career of Don Bates as a physician-historian, political activist, and creator of the interdisciplinary Department of Social Studies of Medicine at McGill University.
Diverse Biologies and Experiential Continuities: Did the Ancient Chinese Know That Qinghao Had Anti-Malarial Properties?
Authors: Hsu Elisabeth
Published: December 2016

This article treats Chinese medical theories and concepts as cultural constructs that arose as much from practice-oriented concerns as from sociopolitical negotiations within the medical field. It further explores the interface of the biological and cultural. It is often futile to investigate how Chinese medical descriptions relate to biological processes, because the local biologies that the Chinese physicians recognized in the past and continue to describe in the present, are contested by mainstream medicine, but recent bioscientific research on the anti-malarial properties of the Chinese medical drug qinghao opens up new avenues for the historian. To be sure, no attempt is made to equate ancient nosologies to modern ones, nor to justify the cultural through the biological. In order to avoid pitfalls of simple equations, this article takes the experiential not merely as a subjective but as an inter-subjective reality that mediates the biological and cultural. The findings are striking: once one reads the Chinese medical texts as reporting on the experiential, one of their many possible readings is that they provide concrete descriptions of morbid conditions that also the contemporary mainstream physician recognizes.
The Policy History of Canadian Medicare
Authors: Marchildon Gregory P
Published: December 2016

Despite its importance in Canada, the history of Medicare has rarely been examined by historians of medicine. Of the many possible reasons, three stand out. First is the political nature of the policy and the historical profession’shift from political history in recent decades. Second is the challenge posed in researching a complex public policy involving numerous administrative and financial instruments. Finally, there is the decentralized nature of the Canadian federation in which the history of Medicare belongs as much, if not more, to the provinces than a single, national-level government.
Part 1: National History of Medicine: The Foundations of National Public Hospital Insurance
Authors: Ostry Aleck
Published: December 2016

This paper provides the background to provincial and federal government acceptance of a public hospital insurance plan. I describe the development of two-tiered hospitals to the 1920s and the failure of private hospital financing as the Depression unfolded. I then discuss developments in Saskatchewan climaxing in the first provincial public hospital insurance plan and the continuing fiscal stresses facing hospitals in provinces without public plans. Finally, I outline the main reasons why all the provinces signed onto a national public hospital insurance plan.
Political Cartoonists Respond to Medicare
Authors: Pope Felicity
Published: December 2016

Debates about health care policy are a rich topic for editorial cartoonists. The 17 cartoons described here, from the period 1944 to 1986, cover the implementation of universal hospital and medical care insurance as well as the subsequent passage of the Canada Health Act. These cartoons by Canada’s major cartoonists trace the issues arising from debates over Medicare with characteristic wit and vigour, as they draw on an existing repertoire of visual imagery relating to doctors, patients and health care.
After Medicare: Regionalization and Canadian Health Care Reform
Authors: Boychuk Terry
Published: December 2016

In the immediate postwar era the primary object of health reform among the advanced industrial democracies was to expand, if not universalize, access to a broad spectrum of health services through sustained, high levels of government-mandated spending. The fiscal crises of the 1970s and 1980s ushered in a new generation of policies devoted to balancing the imperatives of guaranteeing access to basic health and social services and to improving the accountability, efficiency, and effectiveness of health care industries. In Canada, the regionalization of health care administration emerged as the most prominent strategy for grappling with the contradictions and paradoxes of contemporary health reform. This essay traces the historical evolution of federalprovincial deliberations that elevated regionalization to the forefront of health policy-making in the new era of fiscal restraint, and further, assesses recent efforts to institutionalize regional health authorities.
A Physician on the Front Line of Medicare
Authors: Bury John D
Published: December 2016

An English physician describes the hostile attitude and behaviour of medical authorities, medical and nursing staff in 1964 because he was a recruit to the Saskatoon Community Clinic that supported Medicare.
“Mrs. Tilley had a very hasty wedding!”: The Class-Based Response to Marriages in the Grenfell Mission of Newfoundland and Labrador
Authors: Coombs-Thorne Heidi
Published: December 2016

The International Grenfell Association (IGA) attracted hundreds of single young women for nursing in northern Newfoundland and Labrador between 1939 and 1981. Under contract with the Mission, the Grenfell nurse was expected to behave in a non-sexual manner and uphold a strict moral code of behaviour. However, the Grenfell experience provided nurses with a unique opportunity for socializing with young men who ranged the social spectrum, from fishermen and labourers to medical professionals. This paper highlights the relationships and marriages of the nurses that developed during or immediately after their tenure with the IGA and evaluates the Grenfell Mission’s class-based responses to those relationships. The administration responded either positively or negatively to nurses’ marriages, depending on the socioeconomic background of the husband in question. Marriages to physicians or dentists were almost always celebrated while marriages to local men were usually questioned or treated with ambivalence. From the perspective of the IGA, the social status of the nurse could be raised or lowered depending on the socioeconomic background of her marriage partner.
To Improve the Training of Nurses in France: The Manuals Published as Teaching-Aids, 1775–1895
Authors: Hickey Daniel
Published: December 2016

From 1775 to the beginning of the 20th century, many doctors and clergymen published manuals in France to instruct religious women and nurses about their tasks and duties in caring for the sick. This article examines 10 such documents produced during three different periods, each reflecting the priorities of their time. Initially, from 1775-1815, the manuals were to serve in courses proposed to train nurses, courses that were refused by successive French governments. In the second period, 1816-69, they continued to be published as self-help manuals. By the third period, 1870-95, as nursing courses finally began to be set up, the new manuals reflected the new scientific and medical break-throughs.
Les stéréotypes sexuels de l’enfermement asilaire au Québec, au tournant du 20e siècle
Authors: Thifault Marie-Claude
Published: December 2016

Cet article sur la population féminine et masculine internée à l’Hôpital Saint-Jean-de-Dieu met au jour, à partir d’un échantillon de 8357 patients, les principaux stéréotypes sexuels de l’enfermement au tournant du 20e siècle. Les données quantitatives puisées à même le Registre des idiots de la Providence et les Formules C, tirées des dossiers médicaux, révèlent que les comportements des aliénés, hommes ou femmes, jugés insanes par les membres de leur famille, à l’instar des diagnostics des aliénistes, présentent peu de dissemblances. Toutefois, des distinctions de genre ont bel et bien été identifiées. Les plus probantes reposent sur le fait qu’en général les requérants ont tendance à nier la faiblesse d’esprit des hommes, alors qu’elle est plutôt reconnue comme étant naturelle chez les femmes.
Hospitals for the Excluded or Convalescent Homes?: Workhouses, Medicalization and the Poor Lawin Long Eighteenth-Century London and Pre-Confederation Toronto
Authors: Siena Kevine
Published: December 2016

Workhouses proliferated throughout England and the British Empire in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Their role in increasingly institutionalized welfare systems has been well studied. Less attention has come to focus on their considerable medical services. Large infirmaries within English workhouses can be found by the early eighteenth century, providing crucial medical care to the very poor. However, levels of workhouse medicalization varied greatly throughout the Atlantic world. This article compares the medical services of workhouses in London with the one established in Pre-Confederation Toronto to assess how and why their medical histories diverge so greatly.
Portrayals of Suffering: Perceptions of Trauma in the Writings of First World War Nurses and Volunteers
Authors: Hallett Christine E
Published: December 2016

The trauma-writings of World War I nurses have been identified as an important and influential corpus of early 20th-century works. Not only did the rediscovery of these writings in the later 20th century serve to recognize the importance of women’s writings as part of the historical record, and identify certain female writers as some of the most important thinkers of the modernist movement; they also demonstrated the importance of the nursing perspective as one element of wartime experience. This paper considers a number of influential works written by both nurses and members of the Voluntary Aid Detachments (VAD) who assisted with nursing work during the war. The paper identifies how nurses and VADs presented their experiences of war trauma. It also considers how some writers strove to attach meaning to (or in some, cases expressed their sense of the meaninglessness of) the suffering caused by the war. The paper considers further how some nurses themselves experienced trauma as a result of their exposure to wartime work, and how some writers developed what are referred to as “philosophies of suffering,” in which they struggled to understand suffering as an element of human experience.
Guest Editor’s Note
Authors: Hudson Geoffrey L
Published: December 2016

This article briefly reviews the historiography related to war and medicine in the early modern and modern periods and discusses the articles in the journal.
The Use of Medical Evidence in British Trials of Suspected Japanese War Criminals
Authors: Roland Charles G
Published: December 2016

War crimes trial records are a little-used but fertile source of medical-historical information. They are, however, especially useful when investigating conditions affecting incarcerated Allied servicemen in the Far East because almost all cases are supported by a substantialvolume of testimony and depositions by medical personnel. Many natio
Le Conseil Général d'Administration des Hospices Civils de Paris : Naissance d'une institution de santé publique
Authors: Ermakoff Antoine
Published: December 2016

En 1801 le premier consul Napoléon Bonaparte institue le Conseil Général des Hospices Civils de Paris, qui exerça ses fonctions jusqu’en 1848. Pour la première fois, le pouvoir central français se dote d’une institution unique pour la gestion de la totalité des hôpitaux civils parisiens. À travers les débats et déclarations entourant sa création, et ses premières réalisations règlementaires, nous tenterons de montrer dans cet article que la vocation de cette dernière répondait à une double exigence : satisfaire aux valeurs de la bonne administration et de la morale, et appuyer certaines évolutions médicales. C’était déjà la naissance d’une institution publique de santé qui deviendra cinquante ans plus tard l’Assistance Publique.
Introducing Darwinism to Toronto’s Post-1887 Reconstituted Medical School
Authors: Court John P.M
Published: December 2016

Charles Darwin's scientific paradigm was largely welcomed in Canadian academic biology and medicine, while reaction among other faculty and laypeople ranged from interest to outrage. In 1874, Ramsay Wright, a Darwin-ian-era biologist from Edinburgh, was appointed to the University of Toronto's Chair of Natural History. Over his 38-year career Wright integrated the evolutionary perspective into medical and biology teaching without accentuating its controversial source. He also applied the emerging German experimental research model and laboratory technology. This study identifies five categories of scientific and personal influences upon Wright through archival research on biographical sources and his writings.
Menopause and Historical Constructions of Cancer Risk
Authors: Jasen Patricia
Published: December 2016

This paper explores the association between menopause and cancer over the past 250 years in relation to the disease model of menopause. Relying primarily upon medical literature produced in Great Britain, the United States, and Canada, it shows how this association evolved from traditional humoral theory; how it was sustained during the 19th century as part of a larger vision of female vulnerability at midlife countered, partially and temporarily, by a more optimistic outlook at the beginning of the 20th century; and how, over the past 80 years, the debate over cancer risk at menopause was intertwined with the vacillating fortunes of the disease model and its normalization of hormone replacement therapy.
What Is a “Health” Professional? The Changing Relationship of Occupational Therapists and Social Workers to Therapy and Healthcare in Quebec, 1940–1985
Authors: Prud'Homme Julien
Published: December 2016

Studies regarding the medicalization process generally focus on the way various physical and psychological conditions have been identified as "health" problems, within specific historical contexts. Less well known is how the therapeutic roles of certain "health" professionals were also a result of the confluence of particular historical events. By comparing the professional trajectories of Quebec's occupational therapists and hospital social workers from 1940 to 1985, this article demonstrates how professionals originally outside of the world of health care created new therapeutic roles for themselves within the constantly expanding institutional health care system.
Towards a Discernable History of Sports Medicine
Authors: O'Connor Eileen , Vertinsky Patricia
Published: December 2016

Elite sport and the structures that support it such as sports medicine are increasingly at the forefront of public consciousness, especially when the Olympic Games come to town, or soccer players, their bodies fine-tuned by an ever growing array of medical personnel, are applauded globally for their highly skilled performances at the World Cup. It would be a mistake, however, to confine the historical study of sport medicine to the world of high level athletics, for the close connection between exercise, sport and medicine for all age groups and in different regions of the world goes back millennia. This issue seeks to help weld the growing challenges of the present to keener insights from the emerging multifaceted history of sports medicine in North America, Europe and the United Kingdom.
“Sports” Medicine in Germany and Its Struggle for Professional Status
Authors: Pfister Gertrud
Published: December 2016

In Germany gymnastics and sport had formed alliances with medical "sciences" as early as the 18th century. At the end of the 19th century, the rise of sport provoked heated debates among physicians about the benefits and the dangers of sporting activities. After World War I, sport became a fashion and a mass movement that increasingly attracted the interest of the medical profession. Doctors organized congresses and founded a professional organization and journal. Using theoretical approaches to professionalization, the efforts of "sport physicians" to gain professional status (and the resources and power connected with it) will be analyzed and interpreted.
Feminization of Canadian Medicine: Voices from the Second Wave
Authors: Duffin Jacalyn
Published: December 2016

In 2009 a Globe and Mail pundit claimed that the current doctor shortage stems from increasing numbers of women in medicine. This opinion is widely held, despite articulate opposition from medical deans who characterized it as a new variant of the old “sexist blame game” (CMAJ 2008). In this ambivalent climate, we interviewed 10 women who entered the Canadian profession between 1945 and 1960, when strict limitson female students were established in most schools. Using semi-structured, in-person and telephone interviews, we found that they workedas much as their male colleagues. Several also raised three to five children; and negotiation of the domestic sphere usually fell to them. Most worked past age 65, and two are still working well into their eighties. Our findings will be set in the context of the existing literature on women in medicine. We will also examine the results of surveys on physicians’ working hours, in which all specialties show a decline, including those that have not been feminized. We conclude thatthe women who entered the profession between 1945 and 1960 did not contribute to the current doctor shortage.
“A means of restoring the health and preserving the lives of His Majesty’s subjects”: Ireland’s 18th-Century National Hospital System
Authors: Mullaney Susan
Published: December 2016

In 1765, the Irish parliament enacted legislation that established a nationwide hospital network funded by a mixture of taxation and philanthropic donations. The county infirmaries had a similar ethos to the British and Irish voluntary hospitals; only those with an admission ticket were admitted. The legislation also regulated the qualifications of the County Infirmary Surgeons who were authorised to run the infirmaries. This was the first statutory nationwide network of care in Ireland. No other country in contemporary Europe passed similar legislation. The Irish parliamentarians and Charles Lucas in particular appear to have been the impetus for this innovative legislation.
Gaspard Laurent Bayle (1774–1816) et son legs scientifique: au delà de l'anatomie pathologique.
Authors: Duffin J.M
Published: December 2016

Dans l'Ecole de Paris, Gaspard-Laurent Bayle faisait figure d'un être d’exception en raison de ses dons pour la dissection, de sa brillante réussite dans tout ce qu'il entreprit et de sa passion pour les entretiens philosophiques et politiques. Il était né au Vernet, en Haute Provence, où il eut pour précepteur un jésuite, Rossignol. Il se destinait à la prêtrise, mais, pris de scrupules de conscience, il quitta le séminaire au bout de deux ans. Il se tourna alors vers le droit et la politique et entra au Comité contre-révolutionnaire de son département en 1793. Il passa ensuite trois années à Montpellier à étudier la médecine, puis incorporé dans l’armée, servit comme médecin militaire à Nice. En 1798, il partit à Paris où il étudia la médecine avec J.-N. Corvisart (1755-1821) et obtint un poste officiel à l'hôpital de la Charité après le départ de ce dernier en 1805. La même année il épousa Mlle Moutard-Martin, la sœur d’un de ses collègues, dont il eut des enfants. Parmi ses travaux scientifiques les plus marquants nous citerons sa thèse: Considérations sur la nosologie, la médecine pratique en 1802, les Recherches sur la phthisie pulmonaire en 1810 et le Traité des maladies cancéreuses, ouvrage en deux tomes aussi volumineux qu'ignoré, publié après sa mort par son neveu dans les années 1833-39. Bayle murut de tuberculose à 42 ans, le 11 mai 1816.
A propos de quelques historiens de la médecine canadienne.
Authors: Leblond Sylvio
Published: December 2016

En 1939, je m'adonnais paisiblement à l'enseignement clinique à l'hôpital du Saint-Sacrement de Québec et, entre-temps, j’essayais de gagner ma vie. Cette année-là, le docteur Arthur Vallée, professeur de microbiologie à Laval qui nous avait aussi enseigné l'histoire de la médecine, mourut et la chaire d'histoire de la médecine me fut offerte. La fonction n'était pas tellement onéreuse. Elle ne comportait que dix leçons magistrales d'une heure chacune données aux élèves de cinquième année, car à cette époque, le doctorat en médecine n'était attribué qu'après cinq années d'études.
Looking Back on the Future of Genetic Counselling in Canada
Authors: Leeming William
Published: December 2016

This article focuses on how occupational roles and working relationships have changed over time for individuals involved in genetic counselling in Canada. It begins with a review of the stages of consensus that were reached about a role for geneticists and genetic counselling in clinical settings and, second, the formation of medical genetics as a service specialism. Interviews conducted by the author and survey data collected by the Canadian Association of Genetic Counsellors/L’Association Canadienne des Conseillers en Génétique are then used to examine role divarication in genetic counselling and the boundary realignment in inter-professional relations among physician and non-physician genetic counsellors. This leads, in a final step, to a summary of what the research shows about the changing face of genetic counselling in Canada and directions for future investigation.
“Help Us, Serve England”: First World War Military Nursing and National Identities
Authors: Toman Cynthia
Published: December 2016

Historians generally argue that the First World War was a defining experience from which Canadians emerged with a strong sense of national identity distinct from their British roots. There is little historical research on women’s wartime experiences and even less on military nurses. This article explores the working relationships of Nursing Sister Emeline Robinson with British nurses, VAD volunteers, orderlies, and medical officers during her one and a half years with the Queen Alexandra Imperial Military Nursing Service Reserve through her diary, which spans her enlistment, resignation, and re-enlistment with the Canadian Army Medical Corps.
Race, Medicine, and Colonial Rule in the Mandated Territory of New Guinea
Authors: Cameron-Smith Alexander
Published: December 2016

Public health in the Mandated Territory of New Guinea shared characteristics with regimes in other colonial territories. The protection of European health and ensuring a supply of efficient indigenous labour were the principle aims of the public health regime. Measures to control infectious disease focused on racial segregation of urban spaces, surveillance, and control of indigenous mobility. Yet, if the mandate did not systemically encourage projects in preventive health and social medicine, wider public engagement with the international discourse of indigenous welfare and uplift surrounding it at times shaped colonial administration indirectly. One Director of Public Health in New Guinea, Raphael Cilento, invoked the terms of the mandate during acrimonious debates over nutrition in the 1920s that led to significant changes to rations included in the Native Labour Ordinance.
Eugenics and Migration: A Case Study of Salvation Army Literature about Canada and Britain, c.1890–1921
Authors: Baker Graham J
Published: December 2016

The eugenics movement attracted a wide range of supporters. This article explores this theme with relation to literature about the charitable work of the Salvation Army in Britain and Canada c.1890–1921, with a focus upon the emigration scheme outlined in William Booth’s book In Darkest England and the Way Out. These writings indicate the widespread dispersal of eugenic ideology, and demonstrate the flexibility with which these theories were interpreted in this period. It will be shown that the Salvation Army adopted elements of both hereditarian and environmentalist views regarding racial health. These arguments were unified by the claim that the work of the organization made a worthy contribution to public health, both in the present and in the future. This case study sheds new light upon the history of a prominent evangelical Christian organization and upon the development of the international eugenics movement.
Beyond the Asylum: Professionalization and the mental hygiene movement in Canada, 1914–1928
Authors: MacLennan David
Published: December 2016

The mental hygiene movement in Canada emerged in the second decade of this century during a period that has been called the “heyday” of public health. Understandably, the movement shared some of the features of the public health movement. One of these features was a tension between the priorities of physicians interested in establishing medicine as a successful profession, and the aims and methods of public health as a movement of social reform.
Anatomy, Physiology, and Surgery: Physiology Teaching in Early Nineteenth-Century London
Authors: Mazumdar Pauline M.H
Published: December 2016

As long ago as 1897, the Viennese historian Max Neuberger wrote that eighteenth-century French surgeons had reported on cranial injuries as if they were physiological experiments, and that this kind of “surgical experiment” had opened the way to topical diagnosis. Temkin, in a famous paper of 1951, proposed that this anatomical point of view was a product of the daily experience of any working surgeon. According to this model, the anatomical view came to dominate nineteenth-century French medicine through the dominance of surgeons in hospital teaching.
A Rural Practice in Nineteenth-Century Ontario: The Continuing Medical Education of James Miles Langstaff
Authors: Duffin Jacalyn
Published: December 2016

James Langstaff was one of the early graduates of John Rolph's Toronto School of Medicine and, for a time, one of its professors. From 1849 until his death, he practiced general medicine in a rural community near Toronto. The handwritten daybooks and accounts of almost 30 years of this practice contain information about many thousand patient visits, the diagnoses, the recommended treatment, the fee and whether or not it was paid. Lengthy annotations give details of medical conditions and techniques and often include brief but disarmingly frank personal comments. These records have been computerized to give a comprehensive statistical analysis of this practice, its theories, techniques, pharmacopeia, finances, and its substrate, that is the balance of diseases affecting a mid-nineteenth-century farming community in Ontario. In this preliminary report, the changes implemented over 30 years and their origins are explored and comparison is made between this and other contemporary practices in Canada, the United States and Europe. More than a compendium of anecdotes, this record is a valuable social document and a rich source of early Canadian medical history that reflects conceptual priorities and their manner of change.
The Howell Theory of Blood Coagulation: A Record of the Pernicious Effects of a False Theory
Authors: Jaques Louis B
Published: December 2016

Theories of blood coagulation originated with Hippocrates and Aristotle. There have been as many theories as investigators, and many have represented regression rather than advance of the subject. The accepted views in 1988 are based on the Morawitz-Fuld-Spiro formulation of 1905. However, this formulation was not accepted in North American medical teaching between 1911 and 1941. This was due to acceptance of the views of W. H. Howell. Howell proposed a hypothetical inhibitor, antiprothrombin, which he identified as a phospholipid and gave the name heparin. These views were identified as the Howell theory of blood coagulation and taught in all North American medical schools. The influence of this ubiquitous theory on editors and referees was so great that the new discoveries—measurement of prothrombin, preparation and nature of prothrombin, antihemophilic globulin, vitamin K, etc.—met great difficulties in publication and some were even blocked. The same influence caused equal and more prolonged difficulties for the development of heparin and in obtaining recognition of its unique chemical nature and biological actions.
“The Infant Soldier”: The Great War and the Medical Campaign for Child Welfare
Authors: Abeele Cynthia R
Published: December 2016

Interest in infant mortality originally stirred within Canadian social reform circles at the turn of the century. The emergent child welfare movement gathered strength with the impact of the Great War. The casualties of war strengthened anxieties about race suicide and national degeneration. As a result, Canadian reformers were called to rally around "the infant soldier" in the name of the future health and glory of the nation.

The solution proposed by these reformers took the form of parent education, based on scientific principles, in a conscious attempt to modernize Canadian childhood by means of closely-supervised and regulated childrearing methods. Canadian parents—especially mothers since the childrearing task fell largely to them—were believed to be handicapped in their parenting duties by an ignorance which could be remedied only through expert tutoring. The new experts, and leaders of the campaign, were predominantly members of the medical profession.

The purpose of this study is to examine the child welfare campaign in Ontario from the turn of the century through the Great War, with special emphasis on the war's impact. Physicians were the foremost proponents of "modern" parenting. The influence of medical leadership in this area was a measure of their ability to make Canadian parents recognize their own inadequacy in raising their children without the help of modern scientific instruction. In order to attain the aims of their movement and to justify their increasing influence and social status, the medical experts needed parents who wanted to be informed. They participated in the creation of a need and then strove to become the predominant source of its attenuation.
The Ontario Vaccine Farm, 1885–1916
Authors: Spaulding William B.
Published: December 2016

The first production in Ontario of a biological preparation to prevent an infectious disease began in Palmerston in 1885 with the establishment of the Ontario Vaccine Farm. The Ontario Board of Health, formed a few years before, wished to have an assured supply of smallpox vaccine to meet the needs of the province. The Board did not want to be dependent on production sources in the USA and Montreal, particularly in times of epidemics when the Board received many requests from Ontario doctors to supply vaccine. In 1884 an outbreak of smallpox occurred in the Township of Hungerford, north of Belleville, and in the following year there was fear that the devastating epidemic in Montreal would spread to Ontario. The Vaccine Farm was the one-man effort of an enterprising, energetic general practitioner in Palmerston, Dr. Alexander Stewart. He scarified calves, harvested the fluid from the vesicles, prepared the points, and distributed them to doctors and municipalities on request. This cottage industry, which was subsidized by the provincial government, sold vaccine to Ontario doctors for 31 years until it was closed in 1916. The Ontario Vaccine Farm fulfilled an important need in its day, but uncertainties about the potency and preservation of some batches led the government to put its support behind the fledgling Connaught Laboratories of Toronto, an organization better able to supply sterile vaccine of uniform, enduring potency.
The Technology of Medicine
Authors: Connor J.T.H.
Published: December 2016

The history of medical technology is a subject that is more broad than deep (see J. T. H. Connor, The Artifacts and Technology of the Health Sciences: A Bibliographic Guide to Historical Sources [London, Ontario, 1987). Works such as Stanley Reiser's Medicine and the Reign of Technology (Cambridge, 1978) and Audrey Davis' Medicine and its Technology: An Introduction to the History of Medical Instrumentation (Westport, 1981) stand out as seminal studies which provide a framework for the historical interpretation of medical technology. More typical of the field is the annotated catalogue, a publication which consists of numerous listings of medical instruments usually accompanied by a brief technical description and perhaps an illustration of the object in question. Catalogues may be encyclopedic in nature and cover a range of instruments and devices, or conversely may focus on a specific instrument or specialty. Generally speaking, the six books of this review essay may be classified in the genre of the catalogue, although they vary considerably in their plan.
The Magic Mountain—A Time Capsule of Tuberculosis Treatment in the Early Twentieth Century
Authors: Humphreys Peter
Published: December 2016

The Magic Mountain (Der Zauberberg), a novel originally published in 1924, was instrumental in gaining its author, Thomas Mann, the Nobel Prize for literature in 1929. Ostensibly a parody of life in a pre-World War I tuberculosis sanitarium, the novel gives an accurate portrayal of European society in the early twentieth century, and reveals the conflict of philosophies and political ideals which led inexorably to war. At the same time, Mann's book precisely documents the methods of diagnosis and treatment of tuberculosis available prior to the anti-tuberculous-drug era. Using The Magic Mountain as a vehicle, this paper reviews the impact of tuberculosis on Western society at the turn of the century, discusses the diagnostic techniques then in use, and considers the evolution of such treatment modalities as the sanitarium, artificial pneumothorax, and immunotherapy.
Rural Medical Practice in the Smelter West, 1898–1923: A case-study comparison
Authors: Andrews Margaret W.
Published: December 2016

In the 1920s, concern arose in North American medical circles that both the quantity and quality of doctors in rural practice were declining. Doctors' withdrawal from the countryside was accompanied by a flow of statistical studies verifying the trend. To explore the underlying historical dynamics, this paper supplements their averages with a detailed portrayal and comparison of medical care in two neighboring smelter towns in the quarter-century that encompassed the beginnings but preceded widespread awareness of the rural medical crisis. It finds that between 1898 and 1923, Trail, British Columbia, developed better medical services than Northport, Washington, and suggests that this primarily reflects differences in national ideology. Canadian regulatory practices rendered Trail immune to the oversupply of doctors characteristic of US laissez-faire policies, and Trail doctors had established a superior practice based on cooperation even before the ultimately greater economic success of their town became evident.
In View of the Body of Job Broom: A Glimpse of the Medical Knowledge and Practice of John Rolph
Authors: Duffin Jacalyn
Published: December 2016

In July 1855, a Toronto coroner's inquest into the death of Job Broom resulted in the conviction of a medical student from "Rolph's School" for the crime of manslaughter. John Rolph, ex-rebel and Reformer statesman, was generally thought to be responsible for his student's transgressions and although the student had already garnered public disapproval for his criticism of the management of the Toronto General Hospital, the conviction seems really to have been a negative judgment of Rolph's politics and medicine. The sincerity of and motives for Rolph's political actions as well as his institutional involvement in medical education have been well studied. Beginning with the case of Job Broom and two other inquests, this essay explores his lesser known medical career, ideas, and practice. Previously unexamined primary source material, including Rolph's manuscript lecture notes, is considered. While this extended vision of his work better situates Rolph in the medico-intellectual milieu of the nineteenth century, it also demonstrates that, as for politics so in medicine, Rolph's motives remain obscure, complex, and even sinister.
Professional Aspirations and the Limits of Occupational Autonomy: The Case of Pharmacy in Nineteenth-Century Ontario
Authors: Clark R.J
Published: December 2016

This study of the professionalization of pharmacy in nineteenth-century Ontario investigates the ambivalent nature of pharmacists' work which linked it both to the professions and to mercantile activity. Despite the profession's ambiguous position, and the contest for authority with the orthodox medical profession, pharmacists in nineteenth-century Ontario, as elsewhere, were largely successful in securing their professional bona fides. Based primarily on an analysis of nineteenth-century medical and pharmaceutical journals, this article is an initial attempt to understand the conflicts which helped define pharmacists' place in the Ontario occupational hierarchy in general, and the health services sector, in particular.
“Keep Your Seats and Face Facts”: Western Canadian Women's Discussion of Birth Control in the 1920s
Authors: Mclaren Angus
Published: December 2016

Written evidence of “ordinary” Canadians discussing in the first decades of this century the motives for and the means of limiting family size is rare. The letters on this subject that were printed in The Western Producer in 1927 are therefore of special interest. In placing them in context one is reminded that the struggle to control fertility—far from being a product of the post-World-War-II age—has a long history.
À propos De l'expérience en médecine de Zimmermann
Authors: Emch-Dériaz Antoinette
Published: December 2016

Afin de mieu saisir l'évolution de la médecine pratique au cours de la deuxième moitié du 18e siècle, cet article étudie le Traité de l'expérience en médecine par Zimmermann, publié en 1764. Zimmermann propose de bâtir à partir des expériences médicales du passé et du présent, d'observations précises des symptômes, et de la méthode inductive de Bacon guidée par le «génie» (nous dirions aujourd'hui intuition) une nouvelle méthode de diagnostic.
Revolution and Rebellion: Students in Soviet Institutes of Higher Education, 1921-1928
Authors: Konecny Peter
Published: December 2016

This article examines the reactions of students to political and social changes in Soviet institutes of higher education during the period of the New Economic Policy (N.E.P.) in Soviet Russia. While the subject has been examined by Soviet historians, previous work has lacked a discussion of dissent, deviant behaviour and socio-cultural conflicts among students beyond the traditional explanation of “counter-revolutionary” versus “revolutionary” students. The contrast of official state policies against continuities and changes in student behaviour reveals fundamental contradictions in the attempts of the Communist Party and the Commissariat of Enlightenment to produce a new generation of politically loyal, socially active and well-trained students. Discussion of student reactions to the state’s attempts to impose greater authority over academic institutions and student lifestyles suggests that generational and cultural gaps were not successfully bridged by the introduction of new ideologies and policies on campus. As the larger political and economic issues always dominated discussion of student issues during this period, the gap between policy and practice indicates that many students had not yet embraced the essential demands of the new Bolshevik educational strategy.

Student attitudes toward academic work, their living situation and each other, as well as aspects of state authority in higher schools, are discussed in this context. Student behaviour was often determined by their material situation or peer pressure in a communal living situation. The Communist Party often linked deviant behaviour among students with counter-revolutionary activities. The result of this was a series of purges, the largest occurring in 1924, which changed both the social composition and the attitudes of the student body. By the end of N.E.P., many pro-Bolshevik students had become cynical, ambivalent or even hostile to the regime’s political goals in higher education.