bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
AN INLAND OIL SPILL RESPONSE MANUAL TO MINIMIZE ADVERSE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
Authors: Owens E. H. , Taylor E. , Marty R. , Little D. I.
Published: January 2013

Inland oil spills generally have received less attention than their coastal and marine counterparts. On the average, more than 2,000 spills occur on the inland waters of the continental United States each year. Recognizing the potential effects of these spills, the American Petroleum Institute has funded several studies in recent years to address issues associated with inland spills. One product of this activity is the preparation of a set of guidelines to be published as a manual for inland oil spill response. The manual focuses on the identification of techniques that would have minimal intrinsic ecological impacts (that is, to living resources) and would also minimize the total ecological and/or environmental impacts of the oil. The guidelines are intended to help decision makers assess whether the available response options can mitigate the effects of a spill and/or accelerate recovery from the oiling. The analysis and the recommendations are presented in a set of matrices that combine four oil types, more than 20 response techniques, and 10 inland freshwater habitats.
ENHANCING CANADA'S SPILL RESPONSE CAPABILITY: OIL SPILL EQUIPMENT REQUIREMENTS FOR A 10,000 TON RESPONSE CAPABILITY
Authors: Halley Wayne , Latour John
Published: January 2013

Oil spills in the past several years have focused considerable attention and public concern on marine environmental issues. The Public Review Panel on Tanker Safety and Marine Spills Response Capability and a Government of Canada internal review, coupled with independent studies, highlighted the fact that Canada's existing spill response capability requires improvement. Among its conclusions, the panel report recommended that a figure of 10,000 tonnes (metric tons, t) be used for planning the establishment of a response capability in each Coast Guard region.

The study identified in detail the equipment needed to respond to a 10,000 t oil spill by examining four areas: the operating environment, containment and recovery equipment, the temporary storage of recovered oil and water, and the support equipment needed to provide an efficient operation.
ASSESSING THE RECOVERY OF COASTAL WETLANDS FROM OIL SPILLS
Authors: Mendelssohn Irving A. , Hester Mark W. , Hill John M.
Published: January 2013

The impact of oil spills on coastal environments and the ability of these systems to exhibit long-term recovery has received increased attention in recent years. Although oil spills can have significant short-term impacts on coastal marshes, the long-term effects and eventual recovery are not well documented. Estuarine marshes have sometimes been reported to exhibit slow recovery after oil spills, whereas in other instances they appear to have great resiliency, with complete recovery after one or two years. To document and understand this phenomenon better, we have investigated the long-term recovery of a south Louisiana estuarine marsh exposed to an accidental spill of crude oil. Although a pipeline rupture releasing Louisiana crude oil caused the near complete mortality of a brackish marsh dominated by Spartina patens and S. alterniflora, this marsh completely recovered four years after the spill with no differences in plant species cover between oiled and reference marshes. Remotely sensed imagery of the study site confirmed the relatively rapid recovery demonstrated by the ground truth data. Louisiana's coastal marshes are naturally experiencing rapid rates of deterioration. Land loss rates, determined from aerial imagery, at the spill site and adjacent reference areas before and after the spill demonstrated that the long-term loss rates were not affected by the spill event.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS IN A HIGH DESERT, CRUDE OIL PIPELINE SPILL1
Authors: Lowe Mark A. , Mancini Eugene R. , Chamberlain Dilworth W. , Albright Gregory R.
Published: January 2013

A road grader punctured a high-pressure crude oil pipeline in the California high desert resulting in the release of approximately 4,200 barrels of Alaska North Slope (ANS) crude oil. Oil sprayed over a steeply sloped hillside and flowed into an adjacent, densely vegetated ephemeral stream channel which carried secondary treatment sewage discharge.

Three underflow dams were constructed in the channel within 2.8 km of the site. To ensure containment at the first dam, the sewage discharge was diverted from the channel, eventually to an upland impulse sprinkler irrigation system. Channel water and phase-separated ANS crude oil, impounded behind the first dam, percolated through alluvial sands/gravels to a depth of about five meters. The oil percolated through the soils on the receding surface of the water, affecting soils to an equivalent depth and saturating a horizontally narrow band of stream-bank soils as much as two to four meters into the bank.

Stream channel undergrowth and a small number of mature trees were cleared to provide access for cleanup and/or to remove oiled plants. A large number of trees experienced partial leaf-drop within 25 days of the spill while two heavily oiled trees died. New vegetative growth was evident within five weeks of the spill. Site restoration included planting cuttings of five riparian tree species and hydroseeding exposed banks.

Total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH) concentrations ranged from not detectable to 203,000 parts per million (ppm) and averaged approximately 25,000 ppm in affected soils as sampled in place and in stockpiles. Approximately 30,000 tons of hydrocarbon-contaminated soil was excavated from the length of the stream channel (3,600 tons) as well as the area behind the first dam and spill site (26,400 tons). All soils were staged on site for waste profiling and final disposition. After treatment, the contaminated soil was beneficially reused as daily cover at a southern California landfill at a turnkey cost of approximately $57 a ton.
COLONIAL PIPELINE ENOREE RIVER OIL SPILL: A CASE HISTORY1
Authors: Smith Arthur B.
Published: January 2013

In December 1991, a pipeline ruptured near Fountain Inn, South Carolina, resulting in the release of approximately 13,000 barrels of No. 2 fuel oil to the inland surface water system. Over 18 miles of Durbin Creek and the Enoree River were seriously impacted by the spill, one of the largest inland oil discharges in the United States in 1991. As a result of the spill, primary water supply intakes for the towns of Clinton (population 8,500) and Whitmire (population 2,000) remained closed until the appropriate level of water quality for consumption could be restored. These towns are located about 30 miles and 50 miles respectively, from the site of the pipeline rupture. The Environmental Protection Agency Region IV on-scene coordinator and the U. S. Coast Guard Strike Team responded to the scene and directed the pipeline company's cleanup efforts over a five-day period, which resulted in recovery of more than 95 percent of the spilled product.

This paper presents a case history of the spill response, highlighting significant events, findings, and decisions which were instrumental in achieving a rapid and effective cleanup, and giving particular emphasis to the role of the regional response team (RRT), which was activated during this release. The response and lessons learned from this spill were evaluated, and the resulting recommendations are offered for consideration in handling future events of this magnitude.
OIL, RATS, AND SALVAGE: THE GROUNDING OF THE HYUNDAI #12
Authors: Smith Joseph B. H. , Asaro Richard J. , Henderson Harlan
Published: January 2013

When a bulk grain carrier ran aground in early winter in Alaska's remote Shumagin Islands, a number of public and private organizations worked together to free the vessel and protect the Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge. The potential for resource damage arose from the real threat of a major oil spill and the possible presence of rats, which could escape and infest nearby islands. Severe weather and logistical difficulties hampered the response effort, but the ship was freed in ten days, and most of the cargo was later salvaged. What little oil leaked from the ship dissipated within 1,000 yards of the discharge point. Nothing got ashore. No rats were sighted.
RESPONSE TO THE GROUNDING OF THE F/V El JYU MARU NO. 211
Authors: Bennett Vance , Noviello Don
Published: January 2013

On December 2, 1991, the Japanese fishing vessel Ei Jyu Maru No. 21 ran hard aground near a remote, sparsely populated island in the northern region of the Republic of Palau, a Trust Territory of the United States. The grounding caused fractures in the hull, through which bilge oil, diesel fuel, and lubricating oils leaked out. The spilled oil, and the fuel remaining in the vessel, threatened environmentally sensitive reefs and bird nesting sites on nearby islands.

Coast Guard Marine Safety Office Guam and the Coast Guard Pacific Strike Team sent personnel to Palau to mitigate the effects of this spill. The response team, after six weeks of effort under less than ideal conditions, removed the fuel remaining on the vessel and prevented any further pollution.

The remote location of Palau, about 7,000 miles from the west coast of the United States, and the undeveloped character of this region of Palau made this response a complex, costly, and time-consuming endeavor. These factors contributed to the problems that hindered this response—for example, long distances between the spill site and support areas, lack of infrastructure at the spill site, unreliable communications systems, and misunderstandings over the role of the Coast Guard.
POST-OPA 90 NATIONAL STRIKE FORCE1
Authors: Crickard Lt. Alvin M. , Jensen Donald S.
Published: January 2013

The Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA 90) has resulted in an overall restructuring and enhancement of the national strike force. The OPA 90 legislation amended the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972 (FWPCA), which first gave the Coast Guard a role in marine environmental protection. The FWPCA led to the establishment of the national response system (NRS) and the establishment of “special forces” which would be available for pollution response. These special forces included the Coast Guard manned strike teams (collectively, the national strike force, or NSF) and the public information assist team (PIAT). OPA 90 legislation affected the NSF by requiring the Coast Guard to establish a national response unit (NRU) located at Elizabeth City, North Carolina. The NRU, now renamed the National Strike Force Coordination Center (NSFCC), would provide overall management of the strike teams and PIAT and in addition, perform several new functions in consulting, exercise management, coordination of spill response, and logistics and maintenance of worldwide resource inventories.

This paper examines all OPA 90 initiatives affecting the national strike force. It concludes that the overall impact on the national response system is quite positive and should result in significant improvement in response to both major and catastrophic oil spills.
IMPACTS ON INTERTIDAL EPIBIOTA: EXXON VALDEZ SPILL AND SUBSEQUENT CLEANUP
Authors: Houghton Jonathan P. , Fukuyama Allan K. , Lees Dennis C. , Driskell William B. , Shigenaka Gary , Mearns Alan J.
Published: January 2013

Following the Exxon Valdez spill, several approaches were used to remove crude oil from the beaches of Prince William Sound. Pre- and post-treatment monitoring in 1989 documented the severe short-term impacts to intertidal epibenthos of hot water wash treatments widely used to remove stranded oil. Quantitative field surveys were conducted in 1990 and 1991 to evaluate recovery of littoral habitats from the effects of oiling and hot water washing. Stratified random sampling was used to assess epibiota at sites representing several habitats and degrees of disturbance. Effects of hot water treatments applied in 1989 remained visible in intertidal assemblages through 1991. Some hot water-treated rocky beaches that had been stripped of biota at middle and upper intertidal elevations showed little colonization by 1990. In 1990, statistically significant differences were noted between variables measured on unoiled beaches and those same variables on hot water-treated beaches. On other oiled rocky beaches that received less severe or no treatment, the majority of the community dominants, including rockweed, mussels, barnacles, limpets, drills, and littorines, survived the oiling. While these populations were still depressed below abundance levels on unoiled beaches in May 1991, by July recovery of most species had raised abundances to levels seen on unoiled beaches. In the summer of 1991, few statistically significant differences remained between the biota of unoiled rocky shores and those of hot water-washed shores, but full recovery is still several years away in many areas.
SALT MARSH RECOVERY FROM A CRUDE OIL SPILL: VEGETATION, OIL WEATHERING, AND RESPONSE
Authors: Hoff Rebecca Z. , Shigenaka Gary , Henry Charles B.
Published: January 2013

Responding to oil spills in marshes is always problematic, since inappropriate response activities can easily add to the overall damage to the marsh. When a spill of Prudhoe Bay crude oil covered a fringing Salicornia virginica marsh in Fidalgo Bay, Washington (northern Puget Sound) in February 1991, response personnel used several low-impact techniques to remove oil from the marsh, and minimized access by cleanup workers. Following the response, we established a monitoring program to track marsh recovery, and to document the effectiveness of the response techniques used and their impacts on the marsh.

Through monthly sampling over a 16-month period, we monitored vegetative growth and tracked the chemical degradation of remaining oil. Sampling was conducted along transects located in four areas affected in different ways by the spill, including an oiled, trampled section; an oiled, vacuumed section; and an oiled, washed, and vacuumed section. In addition, a control transect was established in an unoiled adjacent marsh.

The study included both biological and chemical components. Biological measurements included percent cover of live vegetation (sampled monthly) and below-ground plant biomass (sampled at the beginning of each growing season in April 1991 and April 1992). Sediment samples included surface sediment (monthly) and core samples collected at the beginning and end of the growing seasons. Sediment samples were analyzed using gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy, and indicator compounds were tracked to determine rates of oil degradation.

Results from 16 months of post-spill monitoring show that foot trampling was most detrimental to marsh plants, while washing with vacuuming removed the most oil and minimized adverse impacts to vegetation. Dense clay substrate helped prevent oil from penetrating the sediment, thus minimizing acute toxic effects from oil exposure to marsh plant rootstock. By the second growing season post-spill, Salicornia and other marsh plants were growing in all areas except one heavily oiled patch. The monitoring program will be continued to determine if any delayed impacts occur in the marsh.
OIL SPILL CONTINGENCY PLANNING IN THE IVORY COAST
Authors: Bender Klavs , Jensen Svend Kåre , Østergård John , Nogbou Capt. Poul
Published: January 2013

The administrative center in charge of handling oil spill pollution situations on the Ivory Coast, West Africa, is named Centre Ivoirien Antipollution (CIAPOL). Its organizational structure has been reshuffled recently. CIAPOL now has three divisions: a laboratory division, a division for cleaning up oil and chemical pollution at sea, and an administrative division.

The risk for oil pollution is known: within the past ten years five spills have been reported. All of these have been connected to operations relating to the refinery in Abidjan. More than 2,000 ships call at the port of Abidjan every year. Minor oil slicks are found almost permanently in the harbor and the lagoons around the harbor. Lumps of tar are rather common on the beaches all along the country's coast.

This paper focuses on the background investigation in sensitive areas and risk analysis that led to a revision of the oil spill contingency plan, Plan Pollumar, and the recent purchase of oil spill cleanup equipment. The creation of a regional oil pollution response center at CIAPOL for all of the countries in West Africa, is proposed.
CHRONIC OILING AND LONG-TERM EFFECTS OF THE 1986 GALETA SPILL ON FRINGING MANGROVES
Authors: Garrity Stephen D. , Levings Sally C. , Burns Kathryn A.
Published: January 2013

In April 1986, more than 50,000 barrels of crude oil spilled into Bahía las Minas on the central Caribbean coast of Panama, oiling reef flats, seagrasses, coral reefs and mangroves. In August 1986, we began a five-year study on the red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle L.) fringe and the plants and animals that live attached to submerged prop roots. This habitat forms an important part of nearshore, tropical nursery grounds. In three habitats (wave-washed open shores, channels and lagoons, and interior drainage streams), oil initially coated virtually the entire surface of submerged prop roots and sank more than 20 cm into sediments. Secondary re-oiling was heaviest in sheltered drainage streams where oil continuously leached from sediments, but also occurred on the open coast and in channels. Bivalves in channels and streams were heavily contaminated through at least May 1991. Results show this spill was a chronic source of oil contamination rather than a single point-source event.

The epibiota of submerged mangrove roots had not recovered completely in any habitat after five years. Independent of this reduction, the structure of the mangrove fringe significantly changed after oiling, including decreases in the amount of shore fringed with mangroves and in the density and size of submerged prop roots. Overall, the surface area on submerged mangrove roots decreased by 33 percent on the open coast, 38 percent in channels and 74 percent in streams. The combination of chronic re-oiling, damage to epibiotic assemblages, and reductions in the biogenic substrate (submerged prop roots) has decreased the productivity of this tropical nursery area and suggests recovery will be a complex and prolonged process.
HERRING PARASITE AND TISSUE ALTERATIONS FOLLOWING THE EXXON VALDEZ OIL SPILL
Authors: Moles Adam D. , Rice Stanley D. , Okihiro Mark S.
Published: January 2013

We examined the intensity and prevalence of larval nematodes (Anisakis simplex,) and alterations in selected tissues of spawning Pacific herring (Clupea harengus pallasi) exposed to crude oil, in the laboratory under controlled conditions and in Prince William Sound 14 days after the Exxon Valdez oil spill. In the laboratory, intensity and prevalence of nematodes in the body cavities of herring exposed to the water-soluble fraction of oil declined when exposed to doses above 1.2 mg/L total aromatics. In Prince William Sound, nematodes were rare in spawning herring from oiled sites and abundant among herring from areas outside the spill. Oil exposure apparently induced the nematodes to migrate from the body cavity to the body wall with the lower intensity reflecting a change in parasite location. A coccidian Eimeria clupearum was found in greater numbers in oil exposed herring.

To verify exposure effects and to link parasite and tissue alteration with oil exposure, histological examination was used. Liver coagulative necrosis indicated hepatotoxic exposure. Necrosis was followed by macrophage aggregation in the resolution phase. The laboratory exposures allowed confirmation of oil exposure in Prince William Sound and permitted analysis of effects on two internal parasites.
MEASURING EFFICACY OF BIOREMEDIATION OF OIL SPILLS: MONITORING, OBSERVATIONS, AND LESSONS FROM THE APEX OIL SPILL EXPERIENCE
Authors: Mearns Alan J. , Roques Patrick , Henry Charles B.
Published: January 2013

Bioremediation treatment and monitoring were observed at an oiled marsh in upper Galveston Bay, Texas, August 5 to 8, 1990, during response to the oil spill created by the collision of three Apex barges and the tanker Shinoussa. Samples of oil from treated and untreated sites were collected and independently analyzed for evidence of biodegradation. Required monitoring protocols for water and sediment quality and acquisition of samples for chemical analysis were expertly adhered to. Visual observations indicated that the treated oil experienced color changes. However, after several days there were no significant visual differences in oil appearance in treated and untreated plots. Chemical analyses from samples collected by observers (independent of the required monitoring program) indicated that there were also no apparent chemical differences in petroleum hydrocarbon patterns between treated and untreated plots. Water from one or both of two treated sites was toxic to mysid shrimp; it is possible that micronutrients (trace elements) in the nutrient mix may have contributed to that toxicity. Increased monitoring is needed to demonstrate the efficacy and effects of bioremediation.
EFFECTS OF SHORELINE TREATMENT METHODS ON INTERTIDAL BIOTA IN PRINCE WILLIAM SOUND
Authors: Lees Dennis C. , Houghton Jonathan P. , Driskell William B.
Published: January 2013

Several studies conducted in Prince William Sound during 1989 were directed at assessing short term biological effects of treatment methods considered or employed for treating oil contaminated beaches. The four treatment alternatives evaluated in this paper are: low pressure warm water wash (LP-WW); high pressure hot water wash (HP-HW); the dispersant Corexit 7664; and the beach cleaner Corexit 9580 M2. Effects on the biota were assessed primarily on the basis of changes in the abundance of dominant taxa and the magnitude of selected community attributes (such as percent cover by algae or animals, and number of taxa).

Significant reductions in one or more community or population attributes, and increases in the percent of dead mussels were observed in response to all types of treatment but the strongest and most consistent effects were observed following high pressure hot water treatment, which was also accompanied by heavy mortality in rockweed.

Generally, the programs were not designed to discriminate among the potential causes of damage. However, available data suggest that neither chemical nor LP-WW treatments caused significant thermal impacts in the intertidal biota. In contrast, temperature appeared to cause significant mortality in the dominant plants and grazing and filter-feeding animals in HP-HW treatment sites. Observations of displacement and mortality for clams and mussels suggest that physical effects may be substantial in some cases.

Of the types of treatment examined, dispersant and beach cleaner treatments appeared to be accompanied with the smallest number of significant changes in abundance; however, this conclusion is weak because the LP-WW wash accompanying chemical applications during the tests was sometimes less rigorous than when performed by itself. LP-WW treatment was accompanied by an intermediate level of changes whereas HP-HW treatment was accompanied with the highest percentage of changes, nearly all of which were decreases. Based upon long term surveys in the area, HP-HW treatment caused severe and persistent effects that remained conspicuous as late as July 1992. The long term consequences of dispersant and beach cleaner applications have not been evaluated.
DISTRIBUTION OF OIL FROM THE GULF WAR SPILL WITHIN INTERTIDAL HABITATS—ONE YEAR LATER
Authors: Hayes Miles O. , Michel Jacqueline , Montello Todd M. , Al-Mansi Ahmed M. , Jensen John R. , Narumalani Sunil , Aurand Don V. , Al-Momen Abdul Halim , Thayer Gordon W.
Published: January 2013

Results of a land-based intertidal survey of the impacts of the Gulf War oil spill on the Saudi Arabian coast, carried out from 1 March to 4 April 1992 in conjunction with Leg II of the NOAA ship Mt. Mitchell's ROPME Sea cruise, show that there is a striking correlation between the nearshore geomorphology and the persistence of intertidal oil. Significant quantities of oil (measured in millions of gallons) remained in the sediments of the sheltered tidal flat/marsh areas, and significant erosion of oiled sediments has occurred along many of the outer exposed areas.

A massive asphalt pavement, tens of meters wide and over 20 kilometers long, which is believed to have formed as a result of the Nowruz spill of 1983, occurs along the outer coast of the Abu Ali headland. Along certain other exposed outer sand beaches, conditions are conducive to the formation and preservation of a similar asphalt pavement as a result of the Gulf War spill.

The most severely impacted areas studied were several halophyte marsh/algal mat complexes and mudflats at the heads of sheltered bays, where all the halophytes were dead and there was no sign of living epibiota in the mid to upper intertidal areas. Before the spill, burrowing infauna, such as crabs and polychaetes, occurred in large numbers in these sheltered areas. The previously occupied burrows were heavily oiled, with some containing liquid black oil to depths of over 40 cm. The deep penetration of oil into the burrows and probable slow weathering rates of the oil could result in many years of pollution of these sheltered habitats.

The development of “bubble sand,” a sponge-like sand deposit with porosities probably as high as ± 50 percent, is a common phenomenon in the sheltered coarse-grained beaches and intertidal sand flats of the bays, covering hundreds of acres of intertidal area. The high porosity results from entrapment of air between the water table, which is lowered during low tide, and water flooding the sediment surface during rising tides. Depths of penetration of the oil into bubble sand exceeding 40 cm were found at several localities. This deep oil will also remain in the sediment for many years, because of the slow erosion rates that occur in these sheltered environments.

In most places, the oiling extended all the way to the low-tide line (the tidal range is 0.5 to 1.5 m), but, one year later, the oil in the lower intertidal areas was generally restricted to the tops of intertidal sand bars. Many of the unoiled topographic lows between the bars and other unoiled portions of the lower flats were rich in epifaunal and infaunal populations of invertebrates and plants. Shorebirds were observed feeding in these unoiled areas.
FIELD STUDIES TO DETERMINE THE ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF CLEANUP METHODS ON OILED SHORELINES
Authors: Owens E. H. , Gould J. R. , Lindstedt-Siva J.
Published: January 2013

This study identifies research needed to assess the ecological effects and efficiency of various spill cleanup methods for oiled salt marshes. This is part of a larger program with the goal of developing ecologically based cleanup methods for a variety of shoreline habitats using controlled shoreline oiling plus various cleanup methods, preceded and followed by ecological monitoring. The information provided by these experiments will strengthen the scientific base available to support decision makers during spills and provide a sound approach to spill response planners.

The first phase of the program has involved the design of a proposed experiment and selection of a site. A literature review has been completed as well as an evaluation of state and federal permitting procedures for experimental shoreline oiling. Development of the field study, which has yet to be implemented, included the following components.Identified a Spartina marsh as the priority habitat for the first phase of the programSelected a proposed experimental site in LouisianaProposed the treatment methods to be evaluated, such as flushing and vegetation cropping

Previous controlled oil spill experiments have provided valuable data on the effects and efficiency of different cleanup techniques in a variety of habitats. More can be learned by such experimental oilings, where pre-spill data, dosage, and pre- and post-spill monitoring are controlled, than it is possible to learn from studying spills of opportunity.
BIOREMEDIATION EFFECTIVENESS FOLLOWING THE EXXON VALDEZ SPILL
Authors: Bragg James R. , Prince Roger C. , Harner E. James , Atlas Ronald M.
Published: January 2013

Statistical analyses of changes in the composition of oil residues remaining on beaches following the Exxon Valdez oil spill in Prince William Sound have demonstrated that bioremediation was effective in accelerating oil removal. Extensive data were obtained in a joint bioremediation monitoring program conducted during the summer of 1990 by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the State of Alaska, and Exxon. Composition changes in the oil relative to hopane, a trace oil component very resistant to biodegradation, provided the basis for accurately determining rates and extent of biodegradation. Results show that on fertilized beaches the rate of oil biodegradation was from three to more than five times faster than on adjacent, unfertilized control beaches. Further, most hydrocarbon components of the oil were biodegraded simultaneously, although at different rates. On one beach studied, about 60 percent of the total hydrocarbons detectable by gas chromatograph and 45 percent of the total PAH were biodegraded in three months.

Bioremediation effectiveness was determined to depend primarily on the amount of nitrogen fertilizer delivered to the sediment per unit of oil present, time, and the extent of oil degradation prior to fertilizer application. The results suggest ways to improve future bioremediation application strategies and monitoring.
BIODEGRADATION OF OIL UNDER A RANGE OF SHORELINE ENERGY LEVELS
Authors: Little David I. , Pritchard Robin W. , Smith Jan
Published: January 2013

Recent attention to bioremediation of stranded oil on shorelines has identified some of the conditions under which nutrient addition to oil may prove successful. However, relatively little is known of the interactions between substrate texture and natural biodegradation rates to determine the residual hydrocarbon content and composition.

The effects of varying shoreline energy levels on the balance of physical versus biological oil removal rates from a range of sediment substrates was investigated in a series of oil spill field experiments in southwest Britain. Two oil types (medium fuel oil mousse and lightly weathered Nigerian crude oil) were used on five shore types (coarse sand to salt marsh).

Hydrocarbons were determined in the sediment at intervals up to a year. Selected extracts were analysed by gas chromatography (aliphatics). In a further phase, the contribution to the removal process made by treatment of the stranded oil with chemical dispersant was assessed.

Results indicated that on shores where the most rapid physical removal occurred, biodegradation was minimal during the short time scale involved. On shores where oil persisted more than 20 days, biodegradation was more noticeable when oil concentration in the sediment was less than about 1 percent. These data show that physical processes (waves, tides, evaporation) remain the dominant removal mechanism across a range of shore types.

The use of chemical dispersant on stranded oil appeared to accelerate physical removal of oil, but may have slowed down biodegradation rates. It would seem, however, that the stage at which biodegradation becomes quantitatively important may be reached more quickly if shoreline countermeasures (including dispersant use) are successful in accelerating physical removal.
MONITORING FOR BIOREMEDIATION EFFICACY: THE MARROW MARSH EXPERIENCE
Authors: Nadeau Royal , Singhvi Rajeshmal , Ryabik John , Lin Yi-Hua , Syslo John
Published: January 2013

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Environmental Response Team analyzed samples taken from Marrow Marsh, Galveston Bay, Texas, to assess the efficacy of a bioremediation effort in the marsh following the Apex barges spill on July 28, 1990. Samples from the marsh had been collected over a 96-hour period following the first application of the bioremediation agent and then 25 days after the second application, which occurred 8 days after the first. Results of sample analyses to evaluate changes in the chemical characteristics of spilled oil failed to show evidence of oil degradation during the 96 hours after the initial treatment, but did show evidence of degradation 25 days after the second treatment—although differences between samples from treated and untreated sites were not evident. Because control areas had not been maintained after the second application, contamination by the bioremediation agent of previously untreated (control) areas may have occurred, perhaps negating the possibility of detecting differences between treated and control areas. Better preparedness to implement bioremediation and conduct monitoring might have increased the effectiveness of the monitoring effort.
APPLICATION OF BIOSURFACTANT IN OIL SPILL MANAGEMENT
Authors: Juwarkar Asha , Babu P. Sudhakar , Mishra Kirti , Deshpande Megha
Published: January 2013

Surfactants are surface active agents which reduce surface tension and interfacial tension between two immiscible phases and help in emulsification. Toxicity, nonbiodegradability, and limited structural types of chemical surfactants have initiated the need for effective substitutes. Biosurfactants, which are synthesized by specific microbial cultures, have surface active properties comparable to chemical surfactants. They are compounds that can help in oil spill cleanup operations without presenting the problems posed by chemical surfactants.

Two bacterial cultures were isolated from oil-contaminated soil and were used for biosurfactant production. The biosurfactants produced by the Bacillus licheniformis, BS1, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, BS2, in mineral media containing glucose as the carbon source belong to the class of lipoprotein and glycolipid, respectively. They were found to reduce the surface and interfacial tension of water and water-hexadecane systems from 72 dynes/cm and 40 dynes/cm to 28 to 30 dynes/cm and 1 to 3 dynes/cm, respectively. These results were comparable with chemical surfactants with respect to surface tension reduction (Slic Gone 34 dynes/cm and Castrol 30 dynes/cm). The low interfacial tension allows the formation of stable emulsion.

The two cultures were grown on different substrates, namely, glucose, mannitol, glycerol, hexadecane, oily sludge, and crude oil. Emulsion formation of hexadecane in water was tested with the cell-free broth containing biosurfactant from the respective substrate broths. Emulsions of 56 percent stability to 100 percent stability were obtained from these biosurfactant-containing broths. Both biosurfactants were able to emulsify crude oil.

A surfactant's ability to form a stable emulsion is the first step in oil spill cleanup. The emulsified oil can then be acted upon very easily by the microorganisms under study. Therefore, the biosurfactants produced by the microorganisms under study offer a good potential for use in oil spill cleanup.
A NEW LABORATORY METHOD FOR EVALUATING OIL SPILL DISPERSANTS
Authors: Becker Kenneth W. , Walsh Marjorie A. , Fiocco Robert J. , Curran Matthew T.
Published: January 2013

A new dispersant effectiveness test, named EXDET, was developed to address certain concerns associated with currently available laboratory dispersant effectiveness test procedures. This new procedure uses standard laboratory equipment (such as a Burrell Wrist-Action Shaker) and small volumes of water, oil, and chemical dispersant. Other features include the capabilities to mass balance the dispersed and non-dispersed oil, and to generate replicate data for statistical analysis. Details of the new procedure are presented and data at various test conditions illustrate features of the laboratory test method. Variables, such as dispersant/oil ratio, dispersant addition method, water salinity and oil/water ratio can readily be investigated for various crude oils and dispersants with the new method.
THE DETECTION OF OIL UNDER ICE BY PULSED ULTRAVIOLET FLUORESCENCE
Authors: Moir Michael E. , Yetman Deana C.
Published: January 2013

While detection of oil spills on water is relatively straightforward, spills under ice present a unique challenge. In this work, freshwater ice and synthetic sea ice was grown in a cold room. Crude oil was introduced under the ice and irradiated with 1 µs pulses of 360 nm ultraviolet radiation from a 10 MW Xenon flash lamp suspended above the ice. The returning fluorescence signal greater than 450 nm was measured with a simple, rugged photodiode detector. Calculations suggest that oil can be detected under freshwater ice and sea ice up to 100 cm and 80 cm thick respectively. Discontinuities in the ice limit the detectability of oil and even a modest snow covering defeats detection.
RESULTS FROM OIL SPILL RESPONSE RESEARCH—AN UPDATE
Authors: Tennyson Edward J.
Published: January 2013

Recent large oil spills from tankers have reaffirmed the need for continuing technology assessment and research to improve oil spill response capabilities. This paper discusses Minerals Management Service concerns, as reinforced by the acceleration of its research program in 1990. It briefly assesses current state-of-the-art technology for major aspects of spill response, including remote sensing, open-ocean containment and recovery, in-situ burning, use of chemical treating agents, beachline cleanup, and oil behavior. Specific research projects have begun to yield information that will improve detection and at-sea equipment performance; current projects, include the development of an airborne laser-fluorosensor to determine whether apparent slicks contain oil. Additional projects involve the development of improved strategies for responding to oil in broken-ice conditions, for gaining an improved understanding of the fate and behavior of spilled oil as it affects response strategies, and for defining the capabilities of available dispersants and development of improved formulations. Recently progress has been made on the development of safe and environmentally acceptable strategies to burn spilled oil in situ. The Ohmsett facility has been reopened and will be used to test prospective improvements in chemical treating agents and to develop standard procedures for testing and evaluating response equipment. Results of research published since the last Oil Spill Conference are discussed.
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF DISPERSANTS: VARIATION WITH ENERGY
Authors: Fingas M. F. , Kyle D. A. , Holmes J. B. , Tennyson E. J.
Published: January 2013

A study of the relationship of dispersant effectiveness and mixing energy was performed. Energy was varied by changing the rotational speed of a specially designed apparatus. The effects of dispersant type and oil type were also measured. The stability of the resulting emulsions was gauged by measuring the amount of oil that remained in the water column over time.

The findings are that each oil-dispersant combination shows a unique threshold or onset of dispersion. The effectiveness goes up linearly with energy, expressed as flask rotational speed. Natural dispersion was also measured and shows behavior similar to that of chemical dispersion, except that the thresholds occur at a higher energy and effectiveness rises more slowly with increasing energy. Effectiveness (defined as the percentage of oil in the water column) rises rapidly to 80 to 90 percent with increasing energy for light oils treated with chemical dispersants. Heavier oils will disperse, but to lesser effectiveness values.
A REVIEW OF EXPERIMENTAL SHORELINE OIL SPILLS
Authors: Baker J. M. , Little D. I. , Owens E. H.
Published: January 2013

Oil spill research and development has involved a large number of experiments to evaluate the effectiveness and the effects of marine shoreline protection and cleanup techniques. Considerable knowledge has accumulated from laboratory and wave tank studies, and there have also been a number of field experiments, in which oil was intentionally spilled on shorelines under controlled conditions. This review summarizes those field experiments, which are grouped in five major habitat types: rocky intertidal, cobble/pebble/gravel, sand/mud, saltmarshes, and mangroves/seagrasses. Tables included in the paper itemize the oil type and volume, location and substrate character, number and size of plots, response techniques tested, and referenced publications. This information is then used to combine understanding of the effectiveness of cleanup with understanding of the ecological effects of cleanup methods, compared with those of untreated oil. It is very difficult to achieve this type of information and understanding from toxicity testing or from spills of opportunity.
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF OIL CONTAINMENT BOOMS1
Authors: Badesha Surjit S. , Hunt John , Wenck Eric
Published: January 2013

In recent years, major oil spills, such as the Exxon Valdez incident, and many smaller spills have given rise to a worldwide marine environmental concern. One of the most successful devices for containing and facilitating the recovery of spilled oil, and one which does not endanger or alter the environment in any way, is the oil containment boom. Described in this paper is a finite element (FE) based method for structural analysis of oil booms.

In general, a number of FE models for a typical oil boom section are set up using the COSMOS FEA code. These models differ from one another in oil boom geometry, deployment configurations, and oil boom components. The FEA (fimite element analysis) models are made from the plate elements (skirt and tube), truss elements (tension members and ballast chain), and beam elements (end connector). Loads due to tow/current velocity, wind velocity, wave action, and ballasting, as determined from aero/hydrodynamics analysis, are applied as distributed pressures on the plate and beam elements.

This method will predict boom tensile load strength, detailed stress distribution, and distortion characteristics for a particular boom with specific deployment configuration and environmental condition. The derived information can be used to highlight critical design features, thereby optimizing the oil boom design. Alternatively, this information can be used for the selection of an oil boom suited for a particular application and, more importantly, can provide the user with a control evaluation tool to determine whether a given oil boom design can withstand the stresses of its intended application.
MODELING OIL SPILLS IN RIVER-LAKE SYSTEMS
Authors: Yapa Poojitha D. , Shen Hung Tao , Angammana Keerthisri
Published: January 2013

A general model shell, ROSS3, simulates oil spills in complex river systems and has features that have not been available previously in oil spill models. The new approach has several advantages: It uses a time-varying boundary-fitted coordinate system that allows accurate accounting for a complex river/lake boundary as well as river boundary changes as water levels fluctuate; it can confine two-dimensional hydrodynamic computations to a limited region of the river; and, in addition to the traditional data entry and visualization interfaces, it can interactively lay out the channel networks for setting up the model and define extra cross sections to increase accuracy.

ROSS3 is a two-layer two-dimensional oil spill model that can simulate the mechanisms of advection, horizontal diffusion, mechanical spreading, shoreline deposition, evaporation, dissolution, vertical mixing, resurfacing, and sinking. Both free surf ace and ice cover conditions can be simulated. In this study, ROSS3 is applied to the environmentally sensitive area of the St. Clair River, where the river branches into multiple channels before entering Lake St. Clair, and to the lake.
STORAGE OF OIL ABOVE GROUND OR UNDERGROUND: REGULATIONS, COSTS, AND RISKS
Authors: Lively-Diebold Bobbie , Driscoll William , Ameer Paul , Watson Steve
Published: January 2013

Some owners of underground storage tank systems (USTs) appear to be replacing their systems with aboveground storage tank systems (ASTs) without full knowledge of the U.S. Government environmental regulations that apply to facilities with ASTs, and their associated costs. This paper discusses the major federal regulatory requirements for USTs and ASTs, and presents the compliance costs for new tank systems that range in capacity from 1,000 to 10,000 gallons. The costs of two model UST systems and two model AST systems are considered for new oil storage capacity, expansion of existing capacity, and replacement of an existing UST or AST. For new capacity, ASTs are less expensive than USTs, although ASTs do have significant regulatory compliance costs that range from an estimated $8,000 to $14,000 in present value terms, depending on the size and type of system. For expanded or replacement capacity, ASTs are in all but one case less expensive than USTs; the exception is the expansion of capacity at an existing UST facility. In this case, the cost of a protected steel tank UST system is comparable to the cost of an AST system. Considering the present value of all costs over a 30 year useful life, the cost for an AST with a concrete dike is less than the cost of an AST with an earthen dike, for the tank sizes considered. This is because concrete dikes are cost competitive for small tanks, and the costs to clean up a release are higher for earthen dikes, due to the cost of disposal and replacement of oil contaminated soil.

The cost analyses presented here are not comprehensive, and are intended primarily for illustrative purposes. Only the major costs of tank purchase, installation, and regulatory compliance were considered. The costs for ASTs do not include the opportunity costs for the use of the land on which the AST is located. This omission indicates lower relative costs for ASTs than actually are the case. The analysis does consider the major costs for a range of tank types and sizes that are widely used and provides a framework for facility owners to compare the costs of USTs and ASTs for a given facility. Costs should be only one element in the decision as to whether to install an AST or UST at a facility. Other facility-specific considerations include local zoning and fire protection codes, the availability of land, and whether there is a high water table at the site.
OIL SPILL LEGISLATION IN THE COASTAL UNITED STATES SINCE THE OIL POLLUTION ACT OF 1990
Authors: Stolls Amy M.
Published: January 2013

Because the federal Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA 90) allows state preemption, vessel and facility owners that operate in the United States know that simply complying with federal laws and regulations is not enough. Though some states have enacted legislation similar to OPA 90 and have taken a wait-and-see approach to the promulgation of regulations, many others did not wait for federal agencies to resolve certain issues. This paper reviews new state oil spill laws and regulations in the coastal United States and compares their approaches to contingency planning, prevention, responder immunity, financial responsibility, liability, and other key issues.
PREVENTIVE SALVAGE: THE GAP IN OPA POLLUTION DEFENSES
Authors: Witte John Arnold
Published: January 2013

Despite the strong emphasis on oil spill cleanup in the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, the United States still faces a major gap in its defenses against oil pollution: the lack of adequate professional ship salvage capability. Availability of preventive salvage capability would contribute to the most effective way of preventing a marine environmental catastrophe: keeping the oil, or chemicals, in the ship. This is especially important in view of the increasing age of the world tanker fleet.