bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Becoming a Subject
Authors: Cavell Marcia
Published: September 2006

This book revolves around the theme that psychological space demands physical space; that the inner world is embedded in, and fabricated from, interactions between world and mind. The following themes in moral philosophy are considered: the nature of the ‘subject’, agency, free will, and self-knowledge. The first three chapters of the book focus on memory, anxiety, and time. The next three chapters are explicitly about the subject, and about first-person, propositional thought. The final chapters articulate the idea that one cannot hive off the subjective aspects of a person from those that are objective.
The Anxious Animal
Authors: Cavell Marcia
Published: September 2006

This chapter begins with a discussion of the philosophical and psychoanalytic accounts of anxiety. The changes in Freud’s thinking about anxiety are summarized, followed by a fuller discussion of signal anxiety. In his early work, Freud understood anxiety in terms of his energic model of the mind: anxiety is what happens to libido when it is repressed: first repression, then anxiety as the transformation of libido under repression. He announces a fundamental change in his paper, Inhibitions, Symptoms, and Anxiety: that repression does not cause anxiety; rather, anxiety causes repression. Actual anxiety is an automatic, inborn response to an external danger, like a battle or a train accident in my earlier examples; signal anxiety is a response that anticipates danger on the basis of past experience; it is learned.
Keeping Time: Remembering, Repeating, and Working Through
Authors: Cavell Marcia
Published: September 2006

This chapter discusses Freud’s thoughts about memory and the inter-related concepts of remembering, repeating, and working through. Freud believes that the present mind contains the past, though often in unrecognizable form. Remembering — unlike its avoidance, repetition — allows for working through: clarifying, and integrating into the fabric of the mind, something previously warded off. The concepts of repression, remembering, repetition, working through, transference, and mourning together draw a conceptual map that Freud continually refined.
Triangulation: The Social Character of Thought
Authors: Cavell Marcia
Published: September 2006

This chapter begins with a discussion of the intersubjectivist position: the view that a creature develops the capacity for thinking in a specifically human way only in community. It introduces the concepts of normativity and the necessity of a real, shared world in which a triangulating relationship can take place, to give an idea of the space in which thought arises. It then considers triangulation in psychological studies of infant-child engagements.
II Experience and causation
Authors: Gaskin Richard
Published: September 2006

McDowell’s appeal to causation is problematic. In order to make sense of causal relations linking world and experience (or judgement), he has to identify a species of causation that is in the space of reasons — causation that not only brings about, but also rationalizes its effects. But he does not elucidate this notion. In effect, he simply asserts that there is such a species and that there is a place for second nature (nature structured by relations of normativity) in a world otherwise permeated by first nature (nature structured by nomological relations). Mere assertion is not a substitute for an account of what space-of-reasons causation (second nature) is and how it is possible. We need to know how space-of-reasons causation (second nature) relates to and emerged from realm-of-law causation (first nature).
IV The mental lives of infants and animals
Authors: Gaskin Richard
Published: September 2006

McDowell’s individualism and intellectualism about the ‘order of justification’ commits him to taking an unattractive line on infant and animal consciousness: he has to deny that infants and non-human animals have contentful experience. He allows that they have perceptual sensitivity to their environments, arguing that this sensitivity — though in the same genus as our experience — is of a different species. However, he does nothing to justify the ‘same genus’ thesis, and a number of his concomitant claims makes that thesis problematic for him. It is argued that infants and animals can benefit from our conceptual capacities in order to enjoy contentful experiences. We should ascribe to infants and animals fully conscious experience of things of certain sorts, transcendentally constituted by our powers of designation and classification.
Clement of Alexandria and the Beginnings of Christian Apophaticism
Authors: Hägg Henny Fiskå
Published: September 2006

Apophatic theology claims that God is unknowable, and this book investigates the earliest stages of Christian apophaticism. It focuses on the writings of Clement of Alexandria (around AD 200): his view of language and esotericism, various aspects of his concept of God, his Logos-theology as well as his epistemology in relation to God. Clement holds that God is unknowable. God’s unknowability, however, concerns only his essence, not his energies, or powers. The traditional view today is that the distinction between essence and energies is first developed by the Cappadocian Fathers in the late 4th century. It is the author’s claim, however, that an apophatic view of God as well as the distinction between essence and energies can already be found in Clement. In order to understand better Clement’s theological priorities and emphases, his social, religious, and philosophical milieu in ancient Alexandria is also taken into consideration. In addition, Clement’s thinking is seen against the background of Middle Platonism and its concept of God.
1 Introduction
Authors: Hägg Henny Fiskå
Published: September 2006

This chapter provides an overview of the book. It begins by describing apophatic theology (approaching the divine through negation) in relation to kataphatic theology (based on affirmation) or mystical theology (based on an inner relationship to God). Works that have influenced the approach of this book are surveyed and the remaining chapters outlined.
2 Clement: Christian Writer in Second‐Century Alexandria
Authors: Hägg Henny Fiskå
Published: September 2006

The first part of this chapter deals with the social, cultural, and religious aspects of the city of Alexandria around 200 AD. The second part discusses the origins of the Christian Church in Alexandria, including the catechetical school. The third part traces what is known of Clement’s life, works, and audience.
5 Clement's Concept of God (I): The Apophatic Essence of the Father
Authors: Hägg Henny Fiskå
Published: September 2006

It is central to Clement’s concept of God that God cannot be expressed by man since he is above both human speech and human thought, is ineffable, and transcendent. Clement applies different solutions to this dilemma: one is his use of alpha privatives, another his use of paradox and indirect language.
6 Clement's Concept of God (II): The Son as Logos
Authors: Hägg Henny Fiskå
Published: September 2006

Clement’s Logos-theology concerns the function, status, and role of the Son in relation to the Father. On the one hand, it emphasizes the Son’s peculiar or paradoxical position as being distinct from the One as the knowable One-Many; and united with the One, on the other. Questions related to his pre-existence, generation, and divinity are also discussed.
8 Apophaticism and the Distinction between Essence and Power
Authors: Hägg Henny Fiskå
Published: September 2006

Clement’s model for a distinction between God’s essence and his powers or energies is presented. Clement’s emphasis is on unknowability versus knowability — God as essence is unknowable, God as the Son, or as his power, is knowable. It is argued that the distinction is structurally equivalent with, and anticipates, the dogma of the distinction between God’s essence and energies that became so important in later Orthodox theology.
9 Concluding Remarks
Authors: Hägg Henny Fiskå
Published: September 2006

Clement’s solution to the problem of the relationship between the knowable and the unknowable aspects of God is seen in a wider perspective. How and why, for centuries, Clement was seen as doctrinally suspect is discussed. It is also claimed that his importance in the development of theology lies in his coupling of apophaticism with a distinction between essence and energies, anticipating the later dogma of the Orthodox Church.
Stability with Growth
Authors: Stiglitz Joseph , Ocampo José Antonio , Spiegel Shari , Ffrench-Davis Ricardo , Nayyar Deepak
Published: September 2006

This book discusses the current debates on macroeconomics, capital market liberalization, and development, and develops a new framework within which one can assess alternative policies. The authors share the belief that the Washington consensus has advocated for narrow goals for development (with a focus on price stability), prescribed too few policy instruments (emphasizing monetary and fiscal policies), and places unwarranted faith in the role of markets. The new framework focuses on real stability and long-term sustainable and equitable growth, offers a variety of non-standard ways to stabilize the economy and promote growth, and accepts that market imperfections necessitate government interventions. Economists have traditionally divided their field into macroeconomics and microeconomics, with macroeconomics further divided into stabilization policy and growth. Since most policy discussions and much of the assignment of institutional responsibilities have followed these divisions, policy-makers have pursued stabilization goals with little concern for growth consequences, while trying to increase growth through structural reforms focused on improving economic efficiency. Moreover, structural policies, such as capital market liberalization, have had major consequences for economic stability. This book challenges these divisions by arguing that stabilization policy has important consequences for long-term growth and has often been implemented with adverse consequences. The first part of the book introduces the key questions and looks at the objectives of economic policy from different perspectives. The second part examines the central issues of macroeconomics, presenting an analysis of economic models and policy perspectives on stabilization from conservative, Keynesian, and heterodox perspectives. The third part presents a similar analysis for capital market liberalization (CML).
Introducing the Key Questions
Authors: Stiglitz Joseph E. , Ocampo José Antonio , Spiegel Shari , Ffrench-Davis Ricardo , Nayyar Deepak
Published: September 2006

This chapter introduces the book and lays out the key questions of macroeconomic policy. Economists differ greatly in their views and policy prescriptions. All economic policies, though, have trade-offs. Policy choices come with risks, and the risks involve different beneficiaries and victims. Political processes play a key role in macroeconomic policy just as they do in most arenas of economic decision-making. If there were no alternative policies, or if one approach were best for everyone, then we could leave the design of economic policy to domestic and international technocrats and bureaucrats. But there are always alternatives and trade-offs so choices are political in nature and cannot be left to technocrats.
Three Perspectives on Policy
Authors: Stiglitz Joseph E. , Ocampo José Antonio , Spiegel Shari , Ffrench-Davis Ricardo , Nayyar Deepak
Published: September 2006

Despite progress in economic science, important disagreements remain about the conduct of macroeconomic policy. This chapter identifies three broad policy positions (‘conservative’ or ‘neoclassical’, ‘standard Keynesian’, and ‘heterodox’) and looks at the theory and evidence behind each. The approaches differ not only on what they focus, but also in their assumptions concerning the structure and behavior of the economy and the behavior of government. The conservative approach focuses on inflation and deficits, which it attempts to address through tight monetary and restrictive fiscal policy. The standard Keynesian approach is more concerned with unemployment and stagnation, which it attempts to address through expansionary monetary and fiscal policy. The heterodox approach looks for non-standard ways (including the use of microeconomic interventions) to stabilize the economy, stimulate growth and employment, and contain inflation.
Is Macroeconomics Different in Developing Countries?
Authors: Stiglitz Joseph E. , Ocampo José Antonio , Spiegel Shari , Ffrench-Davis Ricardo , Nayyar Deepak
Published: September 2006

Though macroeconomics was developed for developed countries, developing countries often use this corpus of knowledge — with its competing schools of thought — without any significant modification. It is by no means clear that applying these theories to developing countries is either justified or appropriate. This chapter examines the differences in macroeconomic policy between developing and developed countries. The basic macroeconomic aggregates: output, employment, and inflation are, of course, the same for both developed and developing economies. So too are the basic identities and equilibrium conditions: savings must still equal investment, output must equal income, and aggregate demand is the sum of consumption, investment, government expenditures, and net exports. However, systematic differences between the economies of developed and developing countries and between developing countries themselves, such as the relative effectiveness of macroeconomic tools, give rise to large variation in economic outcomes and policy choices.
Policy Instruments from Three Perspectives: Fiscal and Monetary Policy
Authors: Stiglitz Joseph E. , Ocampo José Antonio , Spiegel Shari , Ffrench-Davis Ricardo , Nayyar Deepak
Published: September 2006

This chapter focuses on the use of fiscal and monetary policies (including an analysis of the macroeconomic dimensions of prudential regulations) for a closed economy by contrasting Keynesian, heterodox, and conservative perspectives on the effectiveness of various instruments and their ancillary effects. While conservatives believe that fiscal policy is ineffective due to offsetting actions, standard Keynesians believe that government expenditures have a multiplier effect, and heterodox economists believe there may also be a financial accelerator if firms are cash or credit constrained. Similarly, while conservative economists believe that deficit spending maybe be counterproductive and can lead to crowding out and a loss of investor confidence, heterodox and Keynesians believe that there may be crowding in and that a strong economy builds investor confidence. The disagreements extend to views of monetary policy as well where conservatives believe that monetary policy is largely ineffective, Keynesians believe that monetary policy is an important tool in macroeconomic management, and heterodox economists emphasize that credit, and not the money supply, matters for the level of economic activity. Finally, heterodox economists have also designed ways to use prudential regulations as a tool for macroeconomic policy.
Exchange Rate Management and Micro Tools for Macro-Management
Authors: Stiglitz Joseph E. , Ocampo José Antonio , Spiegel Shari , Ffrench-Davis Ricardo , Nayyar Deepak
Published: September 2006

This chapter looks at exchange rate management and other policy options for an open economy. It begins with an introductory discussion of overall macroeconomic management for open economies, including the issues of internal and external balance and inflation targeting. It then examines how countries can attempt to manage the exchange rate. Topics covered in this section include the benefits of maintaining an undervalued exchange rate in some developing countries, government interventions to smooth out exchange rate fluctuations, and the trade-off between stability and flexibility when choosing an exchange rate regime. The chapter concludes with an analysis of other policy options in open economies, including heterodox microeconomic interventions, public sector liability management, and debt restructuring.
Policy Frameworks
Authors: Stiglitz Joseph E. , Ocampo José Antonio , Spiegel Shari , Ffrench-Davis Ricardo , Nayyar Deepak
Published: September 2006

This chapter discusses three issues — accounting frameworks, risk and uncertainty, and the political economy — that have been largely overlooked by the mainstream ‘conservative’ and ‘Keynesian’ perspectives. The first section examines accounting frameworks; this is the lens used to ascertain whether an economy is likely to overheat or slip into recession. We find that widely used accounting frameworks, such as accounting for GDP, often provide misleading information and bear some responsibility for poor economic advice and performance. The chapter next considers how the issues of risk, uncertainty, and information imperfections are at the center of macroeconomic analysis. Risk is always prevalent in an economy, and policies often have unintended consequences. As a result, economists and policy-makers must subject policy decisions to a risk assessment, and should also be responsive to new information. The final section of this chapter looks at the political economy and institutional frameworks within which policy decisions are made.
A Formal Approach: Capital Market Failures
Authors: Stiglitz Joseph E. , Ocampo José Antonio , Spiegel Shari , Ffrench-Davis Ricardo , Nayyar Deepak
Published: September 2006

Underlying the failure of CML was an overly simple model that assumed efficient and complete markets. There are, however, problems with externalities and weak or absent insurance markets, especially in developing countries, that these models did not consider. This chapter focuses on major categories of ‘market failures’. It examines the direct externalities associated with capital flows, and looks at how capital market liberalization can exacerbate the problems posed by coordination failures and broader macroeconomic failures. It also looks at the effect of imperfect information on investor behavior and the market failures associated with capital markets. It concludes with a discussion of the major objectives of government intervention.
Interventions in Capital Markets
Authors: Stiglitz Joseph E. , Ocampo José Antonio , Spiegel Shari , Ffrench-Davis Ricardo , Nayyar Deepak
Published: September 2006

Although there is now a general recognition that capital market liberalization failed to help developing countries achieve economic growth and stability, there are still a number of unresolved controversies, including the fundamental issue of what types of capital market interventions governments should undertake, and more centrally, whether there exist any interventions for which the benefits exceed the costs. Given the importance that capital account interventions can play in macroeconomic policy-making, this chapter analyzes alternative modes of regulations, including case studies of Chile, Colombia, and Malaysia. Though economists have a strong proclivity for price-based interventions (taxes and subsidies) over quantity-based interventions (administrative restrictions and controls), theoretical work in economics has shown that sometimes quantity-based restrictions can reduce risk more effectively than price interventions. In addition to direct forms of interventions, such as taxes and restrictions on inflows and outflows, interventions in capital markets can also take on a variety of indirect forms such as limiting banks’ short-term foreign borrowing or applying adverse tax or bankruptcy treatment to foreign-denominated borrowing. Though the regulations vary in their methods, they generally serve to segment (or separate) the domestic and foreign exchange markets. The chapter concludes with a number of arguments for and against the various modes of capital market intervention.
Stabilization, Liberalization, and Growth
Authors: Stiglitz Joseph E. , Ocampo José Antonio , Spiegel Shari , Ffrench-Davis Ricardo , Nayyar Deepak
Published: September 2006

This chapter concludes the book by reviewing some of the key links between stabilization, liberalization, and growth. The first section reviews why instability is bad for the growth of the economy. The second reviews the argument that an excessive focus on price stability, as opposed to stability of output or employment, can be bad for growth. The third argues that excess reliance on monetary policy as a tool for stabilization may be bad for long-run economic growth, and examines the long-run consequences of failing to maintain the economy at as close to full employment as possible. The fourth and final section brings together the various strands of argument put forward in this book by first looking at the issues of liberalization and macroeconomic policy through the lens of risk management, and then discussing the links between stabilization and liberalization, and between growth and poverty.
Freedom and Reason in Kant, Schelling, and Kierkegaard
Authors: Kosch Michelle
Published: September 2006

This book traces a complex of issues surrounding moral agency from Kant through Schelling to Kierkegaard. There are two complementary projects. The first is to clarify the contours of German idealism as a philosophical movement by examining the motivations not only of its beginning, but also of its end. In tracing the motivations for the transition to mid-19th century post-idealism to Schelling’s middle and late periods and, ultimately, back to a problem originally presented in Kant, it shows the causes of the demise of that movement to be the same as the causes of its rise. In the process, it presents the most detailed discussion to date of the moral psychology and moral epistemology of Schelling’s work after 1809. The second project — which is simply the first viewed from a different angle — is to trace the sources of Kierkegaard’s theory of agency and his criticism of philosophical ethics to this same complex of issues in Kant and post-Kantian idealism. In the process, it is argued that Schelling’s influence on Kierkegaard was greater than has been thought, and builds a new understanding of Kierkegaard’s project in his pseudonymous works on the basis of this revised picture of their historical background.
Kant's Account of Freedom
Authors: Kosch Michelle
Published: September 2006

This chapter outlines Kant’s theory of freedom, his approach to the problem of freedom and determinism, and his account of the unity of reason.
‘Despair’ in the Pseudonymous Works, and Kierkegaard's Double Incompatibilism
Authors: Kosch Michelle
Published: September 2006

This chapter examines Kierkegaard’s critical accounts of aesthetic and ethical stages of existence, arguing that on Kierkegaard’s view, both life-views incorporate distorted accounts of human agency. The criticism of the ethical stage is tied to the criticism of Kant’s approach to freedom for evil examined in chapters 2 and 4.
The Brute Within
Authors: Lorenz Hendrik
Published: September 2006

Plato’s Republic introduces and employs an elaborate psychological theory whose core commitment it is that human motivation comes in three forms: rational, spirited, and appetitive. The Brute Within offers a detailed philosophical analysis of appetitive motivation and of Plato’s conception of appetite as a part of the soul. In doing so, it explores both the psychological theory of the Republic and its afterlife in Plato’s later dialogues as well as in Aristotle’s psychology and ethics. It shows that Plato’s Timaeus, a relatively late dialogue, preserves the substance of the Republic’s conception of appetite as a distinct part of the soul. At the same time, the Timaeus offers a number of important clarifications and amplifications of the theory of the tripartite soul, whose full significance emerges once the Timaeus is read in the context of a number of other later dialogues, most importantly the Theaetetus and the Philebus. In turning to Aristotle’s psychological theory and moral psychology, the book calls attention to the remarkable continuity between Aristotle’s and Plato’s thought in this area. It shows how Aristotle made Plato’s psychological theory his own both by modifying it where appropriate and by giving it a more determinate and precise formulation.
The Simple Picture
Authors: Lorenz Hendrik
Published: September 2006

It is widely held that in Republic 8, Plato acknowledges the occurrence within appetite of conflicts, in which it desires something or other and at the same time is averse to the thing in question. It is also believed by many that in the same book, Plato implicitly ascribes to appetite the capacity for means-end reasoning. In showing that both of these views are mistaken, the interpretation of Republic-style soul-partition set out in Chapter 2 is defended.
Belief and Reason
Authors: Lorenz Hendrik
Published: September 2006

That appetite can form beliefs is presupposed in the Republic and denied in the Timaeus. This chapter explains this development in Plato’s psychological theory in terms of new thoughts about what is involved in forming beliefs, rather than in terms of substantial changes in Plato’s conception of appetite. It is argued that the new thoughts in question are on display at Theaetetus 184-6.
Below Belief and Reason
Authors: Lorenz Hendrik
Published: September 2006

Plato’s Timaeus denies appetite the capacity for belief and yet presupposes that appetite can give rise to action, and that it can receive commands and information from the rational part of the soul. The chapter explains these features of Plato’s theory in terms of a high-powered conception of belief, and of a rich conception of non-rational cognition centered on the senses. In doing so, it introduces two closely related and relevant passages from another late Platonic dialogue, the Philebus.
Phantasia, Desire, and Locomotion
Authors: Lorenz Hendrik
Published: September 2006

This chapter sets out and defends an interpretation that explains why Aristotle thinks that some suitable phantasia is required for the formation of desires that impel animals to engage in locomotion. The key idea is that forming such desires requires apprehending prospective situations.
Repleteness, Sensitivity, and Richness
Authors: Kulvicki John V.
Published: September 2006

Transparency, when combined with repleteness, sensitivity, and richness, yields a set of necessary and sufficient conditions for a representational system to be pictorial. Like the other three conditions, transparency makes no mention of picture perception. This structural account intuitively captures pictorial representation without appealing to perception, which is the main goal of Part I. The following chapters unpack some ramifications of the view. Understanding transparency requires drawing a distinction between pictures’ bare-bones contents and their fleshed-out contents (Haugeland, 1991). This distinction becomes very important in Part II as well.
Transparency
Authors: Kulvicki John V.
Published: September 2006

Intuitively, pictures resemble what they depict. This chapter explains the role of resemblance in depiction, given the structural account presented in Chapters 2 and 3. Mimesis is defined as a systematic, semantically relevant sharing of properties between a picture and what it depicts. It is argued that all transparent representational systems are mimetic, but not all mimetic systems are transparent. This leads to a distinction between pictures and images: images are mimetic but not necessarily transparent. Examples include fMRI images, radar weather images, and so on. It is also argued that not all representations that share properties with what they represent are mimetic.
Fleshing Out and Seeing‐in
Authors: Kulvicki John V.
Published: September 2006

With some sense of the relation between bare-bones content and fleshed-out content on the table, this chapter answers four important questions. First, why do we flesh out the contents of pictures in the way that we do? Second, what is the source of explicit non-commitment in fleshed-out content? Third, how and why do we flesh out pictures’ bare-bones contents consistently as we change the position from which we view pictures? And finally, anamorphic pictures challenge the answers offered to the first three questions, so how should the current account handle them? This completes the account of pictorial content and picture perception.
Verity
Authors: Kulvicki John V.
Published: September 2006

This chapter and the next focus on pictorial realism, with an aim towards responding to some objections to the structural account of depiction. One important aspect of realism is verity: pictures are veritable to the extent that they represent objects true to our conceptions of them. This is an unpopular way to think of pictorial realism, but it turns out that verity does a better job of accounting for realism in general than many have thought it could. This undercuts some of the motivation for other accounts of realism, discussed in the next chapter.
Information, Imitation, and Inculcation
Authors: Kulvicki John V.
Published: September 2006

Verity, discussed in Chapter 11, is not the whole story about pictorial realism. Other accounts of realism appeal to the relative informativeness of representations, the way in which perceiving them mimics our perception of their contents, and the extent to which they are of a standard kind. There is something right about each of these approaches, and this chapter sorts that out in light of the new account of depiction presented earlier.
2 Legitimacy reconsidered: theoretical solutions
Authors: Parkinson John
Published: September 2006

This chapter discusses the concept of legitimacy, distinguishing between procedural and substantive legitimacy. Theoretical solutions to the scale and motivations problems are surveyed, drawing out three key ideas to explore further: representation, publicity, and rationality. It shows how some of the solutions to the motivations problem undermine solutions to the scale problem, and suggests that thinking in terms of a ‘deliberative system’ might help resolve the tensions before sketching the principles of what a legitimate deliberative democracy might look like.
3 Health politics and deliberative techniques
Authors: Parkinson John
Published: September 2006

This chapter explores the context of the cases, setting out the history of patient involvement initiatives and deliberative experiments in the UK. It highlights the antipathy to interest groups and the ‘research orientation’ of those experiments, and the effects that orientation has had on limiting the scope and agenda of deliberation. It argues that whether deliberation occurs at the local level or at the centre matters a great deal, but that deliberative experiments tend to be at least as much about resource battles between the centre and the periphery as responding to citizens’ needs.
7 The institutions of a legitimate deliberative democracy
Authors: Parkinson John
Published: September 2006

This chapter summarizes the criteria for a legitimate deliberative democracy and assesses the different deliberative democratic models against those criteria. It points out that no single process can meet them all, thus criticizing the ‘minipublic’ approach. It suggests that a deliberative system approach is necessary, using different processes at different points of the decision making process. The outlines of such a scheme are described, linking activists in civil society and parliamentary processes with a variety of agenda-setting and decision-making tools.
Global and National Macroeconometric Modelling
Authors: Garratt Anthony , Lee Kevin , Pesaran M. Hashem , Shin Yongcheol
Published: September 2006

This book provides a comprehensive description of the state-of-the-art in macroeconometric modelling and describes the ‘long-run structural modelling approach’ applied to the modelling of national economies in a global context. The first part of the book discusses the ways in which economic theory and econometric analysis can be brought together to construct a macroeconometric model, in which the long-run relationships are consistent with economic theory and where the short-run dynamics have an interpretation. The discussion considers theoretical as well as practical considerations involved in the model building process, and gives an overview of the econometric methods covering cointegrating VAR analysis and probability forecasting. The second part of the book is devoted to the practical detail of estimating a long-run structural macroeconometric model and is illustrated through various global and national examples, including a step-by-step description of the development of a model of the UK economy. The third part discusses the interpretation and use of long-run structural macroeconometric models, describing the use of the UK model along with illustrations of the modelling approach in investigating regional interdependencies in a global macroeconometric model and other specified issues in a global or national macroeconometric context. Throughout, the book emphasizes the use of macroeconometric modelling in the real world and provides sufficient detail, including discussion of data collection and computer programmes employed, for the techniques that are introduced to be replicated or applied in new contexts.
Macroeconometric modelling: Alternative approaches
Authors: Garratt Anthony , Lee Kevin , Pesaran M. Hashem , Shin Yongcheol
Published: September 2006

This chapter describes some alternative approaches to macroeconometric modelling, focusing on the long-run characteristics of macroeconomic models and the consensus that has developed surrounding desirable long-run properties. It also considers the effectiveness of the different approaches in their attempts to test and incorporate the long-run properties into models in practice.
Econometric methods: A review
Authors: Garratt Anthony , Lee Kevin , Pesaran M. Hashem , Shin Yongcheol
Published: September 2006

This chapter briefly reviews the econometric methods needed for the empirical analysis of cointegrating VAR models and the associated impulse response functions, including new materials (on the conditions under which error-correction models are mean-reverting, for example) that are particularly useful in practical macroeconometric modelling.
Probability forecasting: Concepts and analysis
Authors: Garratt Anthony , Lee Kevin , Pesaran M. Hashem , Shin Yongcheol
Published: September 2006

This chapter provides an introduction to the interpretation and estimation of probability forecasts, which is considered to be a particularly useful method for presenting forecasts and decision-making. It shows how probability forecasts can accommodate stochastic uncertainty, parameter uncertainty, and model uncertainty. Practical guidance on their computation is provided.
A long-run structural model of the UK
Authors: Garratt Anthony , Lee Kevin , Pesaran M. Hashem , Shin Yongcheol
Published: September 2006

This chapter describes the empirical work underlying the construction of the UK model, discusses the results obtained from testing its long-run properties, and compares the model with benchmark univariate models of the variables. The description of the modelling work not only provides one of the first examples of the use of the long-run structural cointegrating VAR techniques in an applied context, but it also includes a discussion of bootstrap experiments designed to investigate the small-sample properties of the tests employed.
Impulse response and trend/cycle properties of the UK model
Authors: Garratt Anthony , Lee Kevin , Pesaran M. Hashem , Shin Yongcheol
Published: September 2006

This chapter discusses the dynamic properties of the estimated UK model. It presents generalized and orthogonalized impulse response analyses of the effects of shocks to the UK economy, and considers in detail the dynamic effect of identified monetary policy shocks. It also presents a decomposition of the variables in the UK model into trends and cycles.
Natural Capital, Resource Dependency, and Poverty in Developing Countries: The Problem of ‘Dualism within Dualism’
Authors: Ramón López , Toman Michael A.
Published: September 2006

There are currently two types of ‘dualism’ in patterns of resource use within developing countries that are relevant to the problem of resource degradation and poverty. The first ‘dualism’ concerns aggregate resource use and dependency within the global economy. The second ‘dualism’ concerns aggregate resource use and dependency within a developing economy. This ‘dualism within dualism’ pattern is symptomatic of a process of resource-based development, accompanied by substantial resource conversion, which often leads to benefits that are inequitably distributed. To reverse this ‘vicious cycle’, specific policies must be aimed at overcoming the structural features of ‘dualism within dualism’ in resource use patterns. Second, policies must also be introduced that improve the overall success of resource-based development that is accompanied by frontier land expansion. Specific policies include reform of land, tax, credit, and other economic policies that generally reinforce the dominance of wealthier households in natural resource and land markets, and promote the speculative investment in these resources as tax shelters.
Water Institutional Reforms in Developing Countries: Insights, Evidences, and Case Studies
Authors: Ramón López , Toman Michael A.
Published: September 2006

While institutional reforms are critical for developing countries to enhance and sustain the economic and environmental contributions of their water sector, undertaking them is not an easy task in view of binding technical and political economy constraints. Despite these constraints, reforms of varying degree do occur in the water sector of many developing countries. This chapter attempts to explore the nature and extent of these reforms and constraints as well as the policy lessons that these reform experiences offer by (a) utilizing an institutional transaction cost framework, and (b) relying on stylized facts on water institutional reform observed across countries, empirical evidences on how institutional design and implementation principles are used to circumvent technical and political economy constraints, and case studies on the reform process in country-specific context. The chapter concludes by identifying key implications for both theory and policy that could contribute to international policy dialogue on the interface between institutional reform and water resources management.
The American Society of Anesthesiologists Postoperative Visual Loss Registry
Authors: Lee Lorri A. , Roth Steven , Posner Karen L. , Cheney Frederick W. , Caplan Robert A. , Newman Nancy J. , Domino Karen B.
Published: September 2006

Background

Postoperative visual loss after prone spine surgery is increasingly reported in association with ischemic optic neuropathy, but its etiology is unknown.

Methods

To describe the clinical characteristics of these patients, the authors analyzed a retrospectively collected series of 93 spine surgery cases voluntarily submitted to the American Society of Anesthesiologists Postoperative Visual Loss Registry on standardized data forms.

Results

Ischemic optic neuropathy was associated with 83 of 93 spine surgery cases. The mean age of the patients was 50 +/- 14 yr, and most patients were relatively healthy. Mayfield pins supported the head in 16 of 83 cases. The mean anesthetic duration was 9.8 +/- 3.1 h, and the median estimated blood loss was 2.0 l (range, 0.1-25 l). Bilateral disease was present in 55 patients, with complete visual loss in the affected eye(s) in 47. Ischemic optic neuropathy cases had significantly higher anesthetic duration, blood loss, percentage of patients in Mayfield pins, and percentage of patients with bilateral disease compared with the remaining 10 cases of visual loss diagnosed with central retinal artery occlusion (P < 0.05), suggesting they are of different etiology.

Conclusions

Ischemic optic neuropathy was the most common cause of visual loss after spine surgery in the Registry, and most patients were relatively healthy. Blood loss of 1,000 ml or greater or anesthetic duration of 6 h or longer was present in 96% of these cases. For patients undergoing lengthy spine surgery in the prone position, the risk of visual loss should be considered in the preoperative discussion with patients.
Decrease of Functional Residual Capacity and Ventilation Homogeneity after Neuromuscular Blockade in Anesthetized Young Infants and Preschool Children
Authors: von Ungern-Sternberg Britta S. , Hammer Jürg , Schibler Andreas , Frei Franz J. , Erb Thomas O.
Published: September 2006

Background

Based on age-dependent differences in pulmonary mechanics, the effect of neuromuscular blockade may differ in infants compared with older children. The aim of this study was to determine the impact of neuromuscular blockade and its reversal by positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) on functional residual capacity (FRC) and ventilation distribution in young infants and preschool children.

Methods

The authors studied 14 infants (aged 0-6 months) and 25 preschool children (aged 2-6 yr). FRC and lung clearance index were calculated. Measurements were taken (1) after intubation, (2) during neuromuscular blockade, and (3) during neuromuscular blockade plus application of PEEP (3 cm H2O).

Results

Functional residual capacity (mean +/- SD) decreased from 21.3 +/- 4.7 ml/kg to 12.2 +/- 4.8 ml/kg (P < 0.001) during neuromuscular blockade in infants and from 25.6 +/- 5.9 ml/kg to 23.0 +/- 5.3 ml/kg (P < 0.001) in preschool children. With the application of PEEP, FRC increased to 22.3 +/- 5.9 ml/kg (P = 0.4829, compared with baseline) in infants and 28.2 +/- 5.8 ml/kg (P < 0.001) in children. The lung clearance index increased after neuromuscular blockade, whereas baseline values were regained after the application of PEEP. The changes induced by neuromuscular blockade were significantly greater in infants compared with preschool children (P < 0.001).

Conclusions

Although the use of neuromuscular blockade decreased FRC and ventilation distribution substantially in both groups, the changes were more pronounced in young infants. With PEEP, FRC increased and ventilation homogeneity was restored. These results provide a rationale to use PEEP in anesthetized, paralyzed infants and children.
Alfentanil Dosage When Inserting the Classic Laryngeal Mask Airway
Authors: Yu Andrea L. Y. , Critchley Lester A. H. , Lee Anna , Gin Tony
Published: September 2006

Background

The purpose of this study was to determine an optimum dose of alfentanil, coadministered with 2.5 mg/kg propofol, when inserting a classic laryngeal mask airway.

Methods

Seventy-five adult ethnic Chinese patients with an American Society of Anesthesiologists physiologic status classification I or II and requiring anesthesia for minor surgery with a laryngeal mask were recruited. They were randomly assigned to five dosage groups: placebo or 5, 10, 15, or 20 microg/kg. The study drug plus propofol were administered, and 90 s later, insertion conditions were assessed using a six-category score. The duration of apnea was recorded. A probit analysis was performed and used to estimate the ED50 and ED95 with 95% confidence intervals for each assessment.

Results

Twenty-five male and 50 female patients, aged 18-59 yr, were studied. The five groups were similar. Laryngeal mask insertion was successful in all but one alfentanil patient. Duration of apnea increased with increasing dosage of alfentanil to over 5 min (P < 0.001). Dose-responses could not be predicted for categories of resistance to mouth opening and to insertion. For the other four categories, swallowing, gagging, movement, and laryngospasm, ED50 and ED95 with confidence intervals for alfentanil could be determined.

Conclusion

The optimum dose for alfentanil, when coadministered with 2.5 mg/kg propofol, was 10 microg/kg.
Different Inhibitory Effects of Sevoflurane on Hyperreactive Airway Smooth Muscle Contractility in Ovalbumin-sensitized and Chronic Cigarette-smoking Guinea Pig Models
Authors: Iwasaki Soshi , Yamakage Michiaki , Satoh Jun-Ichi , Namiki Akiyoshi
Published: September 2006

Background

The authors hypothesized that sevoflurane had different inhibitory effects on hyperreactive airway smooth muscle contractility in different types of hyperreactive airway models.

Methods

The effects of sevoflurane on hyperreactive airways in ovalbumin-sensitized and chronic cigarette-smoking guinea pig models were investigated by measuring (1) total lung resistance, (2) smooth muscle tension and intracellular concentration of free Ca, (3) voltage-dependent Ca channel activity, and (4) cyclic adenosine monophosphate levels.

Results

Ovalbumin and muscarinic airway hyperreactivity was seen in ovalbumin-sensitized animals. Enlarged alveolar ducts/alveoli and lesser muscarinic hyperreactivity were observed in chronic cigarette-smoke animals. Although sevoflurane inhibited the acetylcholine-induced increase in total lung resistance in the control and ovalbumin-sensitized models, the anesthetic had a smaller effect in the chronic cigarette-smoking model. Similarly, in the chronic cigarette-smoking model, sevoflurane had a smaller inhibitory effect on carbachol-induced muscle contraction and increase in intracellular concentration of free Ca. Sevoflurane also had a smaller inhibitory effect on voltage-dependent Ca channel activity in the chronic cigarette-smoking group than in the other two groups. The sevoflurane-induced increase in cyclic adenosine monophosphate that was seen in the control and ovalbumin-sensitized groups was significantly suppressed in the chronic cigarette-smoking group.

Conclusions

Although sevoflurane potently inhibited airway contractility in control and ovalbumin-sensitized models, the anesthetic had a smaller effect in a chronic cigarette-smoking model. The different inhibitory effects of sevoflurane on airway contractility depend, at least in part, on different effects on voltage-dependent Ca channel activity and cyclic adenosine monophosphate level.
Nerve Puncture and Apparent Intraneural Injection during Ultrasound-guided Axillary Block Does Not Invariably Result in Neurologic Injury
Authors: Bigeleisen Paul E.
Published: September 2006

Background

Nerve puncture by the block needle and intraneural injection of local anesthetic are thought to be major risk factors leading to neurologic injury after peripheral nerve blocks. In this study, the author sought to determine the needle-nerve relation and location of the injectate during ultrasound-guided axillary plexus block.

Methods

Using ultrasound-guided axillary plexus block (10-MHz linear transducer, SonoSite, Bothel, WA; 22-gauge B-bevel needle, Becton Dickinson, Franklin Parks, NJ), the incidence of apparent nerve puncture and intraneural injection of local anesthetic was prospectively studied in 26 patients. To determine the onset, success rate, and any residual neurologic deficit, qualitative sensory and quantitative motor testing were performed before and 5 and 20 min after block placement. At a follow-up 6 months after the blocks, the patients were examined for any neurologic deficit.

Results

Twenty-two of 26 patients had nerve puncture of at least one nerve, and 21 of 26 patients had intraneural injection of at least one nerve. In the entire cohort, 72 of a total of 104 nerves had intraneural injection. Sensory and motor testing before and 6 months after the nerve injections were unchanged.

Conclusions

Under the conditions of this study, puncturing of the peripheral nerves and apparent intraneural injection during axillary plexus block did not lead to a neurologic injury.