bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Dipole Approximation to Predict the Resonances of Dimers Composed of Dielectric Resonators for Directional Emission
Authors: Campione Salvatore , Warne Larry K. , Basilio Lorena I.
Published: September 2017

In this paper we develop a fully retarded, dipole approximation model to estimate the effective polarizabilities of a dimer made of dielectric resonators. They are computed from the polarizabilities of the two resonators composing the dimer. We analyze the situation of full cubes as well as split cubes, which have been shown to exhibit overlapping electric and magnetic resonances. We compare the effective dimer polarizabilities to ones retrieved via full‐wave simulations as well as ones computed via a quasi‐static, dipole approximation. We observe good agreement between the fully retarded solution and the full‐wave results, whereas the quasi‐static approximation is less accurate for the problem at hand. The developed model can be used to predict the electric and magnetic resonances of a dimer under parallel or orthogonal (to the dimer axis) excitation. This is particularly helpful when interested in locating frequencies at which the dimer will emit directional radiation.
Assessment of GPS Multifrequency Signal Characteristics During Periods of Ionospheric Scintillations from an Anomaly Crest Location
Authors: Goswami S. , Paul K. S. , Paul A.
Published: September 2017

Multifrequency GPS transmissions have provided the opportunity for testing the applicability of the principle of frequency diversity for scintillation mitigation. Published results addressing this issue with quantified estimates are not available in literature, at least from the anomaly crest location of the Indian longitude sector. Multifrequency scattering within the same L band is often the attributed cause behind simultaneous decorrelated signal fluctuations. The present paper aims to provide proportion of time during scintillation patches that decorrelations are found across GPS L1, L2, and L5 frequencies associated with high S4, corresponding high values of scattering coefficients, and large receiver position deviations thereby seriously compromising the performance of satellite‐based navigation system. Results from the anomaly crest station at Calcutta indicate maximum 40% of scintillation time during February–April 2014 and 33% during August–October 2014 that the signals are decorrelated. It is important to note that it is only during these time intervals that the principle of frequency diversity could be applied for scintillation mitigation.
Analysis of Waveguide Devices Involving Lateral and Transverse Perfect Magnetic Wall Boundary Conditions by the Mode‐Matching Method
Authors: Polo‐López Lucas , Ruiz‐Cruz Jorge A. , Montejo‐Garai José R. , Rebollar Jesús M.
Published: September 2017

This contribution presents the analysis of waveguide problems involving general boundary conditions of perfect magnetic wall. This type of boundary condition is used in electromagnetic solvers very commonly when the device under analysis has physical symmetry, in order to speed up the computation time. This paper is focused on extending its use in problems having this type of boundary condition in the lateral and transverse walls of the waveguides involved in the problem. The presented formulation, based on the mode‐matching method, will be applied to classical waveguide devices, but also to address radiating problems with a novel formulation. Different applications will be targeted, and the simulation results will be compared with those obtained by other numerical techniques (based on different solvers), validating the presented approach as another suitable tool for computer‐aided design.
Attitude–Behavior Consistency
Authors: Rhodes Nancy
Published: September 2017

The central question addressed by the concept of attitude–behavior consistency is whether people act in accord with their → attitudes. In other words, does knowing a person's attitude allow one to predict that person's behavior? Our naïve theories lead us to believe that this is true: we assume that attitudes guide behavior. Although it may initially seem self‐evident, the story is more complex than our intuition would suggest, and this area has been the focus of an enormous volume of research going back nearly a century. Researchers are interested in this relationship because they have a desire to use attitudes to predict how people will behave. Such predictability may be important, for example, if a car manufacturer wants to predict the strength of the market for cars using alternative fuels for the coming year.
Advertiser Pressure
Authors: Hagen Lutz M.
Published: September 2017

Advertiser pressure is a specific form of market pressure on commercial media that originates from customers in the advertising market (→ Advertising; Markets of the Media). Because revenues from the advertising market create a considerable part of the overall revenues of commercial media, additional competitive advantage might be achieved by (favorably) mentioning customer firms or their products in the editorial content. The term “advertiser pressure” was first introduced into the literature by Hays and Reisner (1991). The issue of how media structure and content are influenced by advertisers has been around for as long as market‐driven journalism and has constituted a topic of much critical work (e.g., Seldes 1935). With the augmented pressure following the crisis in print media, the interest of researchers has increased. Most empirical studies investigating the subject have been carried out in the past 10 years (→ Commercialization: Impact on Media Content; Media Economics).
Conflict of Laws
Authors: Packard Ashley
Published: September 2017

The term “Conflict of Laws” refers to the procedures courts use to determine the appropriate law and place to settle a claim in cases involving litigants from different nations or sovereign states within federations. This area of law encompasses three separate but related concepts:
personal jurisdiction
,
choice of law
, and
enforcement of foreign judgments
. In Europe conflict of law is more commonly called
private international law
. Its corresponding branches are
adjudicative jurisdiction
,
prescriptive jurisdiction
, and
enforcement jurisdiction
.
Organization–Public Relationships
Authors: Heath Robert L.
Published: September 2017

Over the years, academics and practitioners have worked to define public relations by what it accomplishes, the role it plays in society. One attempt at positioning the practice, and research about the practice, features the impact public relations can have on the quality of the relationship between each organization and its key publics, a theme that is at least 55 years old (Cutlip & Center 1952). Monitoring this view, Scott Cutlip, Allen Center, and Glen Broom (2000) observed that the trend in the United States was for public relations to be less focused on one‐way, self‐interested persuasion and more on mutuality, reciprocation, and the idea of “between.” Based on this trend, these authors posed one of the most widely disseminated definitions: “Public relations is the management function that establishes and maintains mutually beneficial relationships between an organization and the publics on whom its success or failure depends” (2000, 6). Thus, organization–public relationships consist of qualitatively valuable and relevant factors that lead key publics to support or oppose the organization because they see the organization as being as interested in their interests as it is in its own. The organization sees its interests with its publics as a valuable aspect of its own interests. Perception of mutual benefit can lead to support rather than opposition, which could foster willingness to buy products, use services, or take issue positions on public policy actions to support rather than sanction the organization. In short, the quality of the relationship is an independent variable that predicts support or opposition. The quality of the relationship is the dependent or mediating variable that results from what the organization does to meet or exceed the expectations of its key publics, whose good will and support are important to its business plan.
Stimulus–Response Model
Authors: Esser Frank
Published: September 2017

The stimulus–response model is associated with the assumption that the mass media has powerful effects. Also referred to as the “hypodermic needle theory,” “transmission belt theory,” or “magic bullet theory,” it can be considered one of the first general conceptions describing mass media effects (→ Media Effects, History of). Lowery and DeFleur ([Lowery, S. A., 1995]) summarized the basic assumptions behind the stimulus–response or hypodermic needle theory as follows: (1) people in a mass society lead socially isolated lives, exerting very limited social control over each other because they have diverse origins and do not share a unifying set of norms, values, and beliefs; (2) similar to higher animals, human beings are endowed at birth with a uniform set of instincts that guide their ways of responding to the world around them; (3) because people's actions are not influenced by social ties and are guided by uniform instincts, individuals attend to events (such as media messages) in similar ways; and (4) people's inherited human nature and their isolated social condition lead them to receive and interpret media messages in a uniform way.
Bastille
Authors: Martone Nicole
Published: September 2017

The Bastille was a prison located in eastern Paris that held political prisoners during the
ancién régime
in France. Widely regarded as a fearful symbol of aristocratic corruption and oppression, the Bastille emerged as a focal point of popular discontent when, on July 14, 1789, commoners stormed the old fortress, thus igniting a major insurrection that launched the French Revolution.
Batthyány, Ervin (1877–1945)
Authors: Bozóki András
Published: September 2017

Count Ervin Batthyány was well known in the higher circles of Hungarian society. Following his school years in Budapest, he studied at London and Cambridge universities. He was influenced in this direction by reading such authors as Edward Carpenter, William Morris, Leo Tolstoy, and Peter Kropotkin. He was most sensitive to Kropotkin's communist anarchism, besides Morris's “ideal free communism.”
Bauer, Otto (1881–1938)
Authors: Goodrich Robert
Published: September 2017

Otto Bauer emerged as the most eminent of the Austro‐Marxist theoreticians and as leader of the Social Democratic Workers' Party of Austria (SDAPÖ) during the First Republic (1918–34). Born into a wealthy Jewish Viennese textile manufacturing family, Bauer joined the SDAPÖ in 1900 and graduated from the University of Vienna in 1906 in law. Active in the student socialist movement, he met K. Renner, M. Adler, R. Hilferding, and others, who formed the nucleus of Austro‐Marxism. By 1907 Bauer was already a rising star, and became the head of the SDAPÖ following V. Adler's death in 1918. The Austro‐Fascist coup of 1933 and the subsequent socialist uprising in 1934 led to his exile, from where he organized the socialist opposition. He died from a heart attack in Paris and was buried in Pere Lachaise cemetery.
Beauvoir, Simone de (1908–1986)
Authors: Shippen Nichole
Published: September 2017

Simone de Beauvoir, French existentialist, novelist, autobiographer, journalist, and self‐described “woman of letters,” is considered one of the founding thinkers of Western feminism. Predominantly known for what many now consider a canonical text in feminist theory,The Second Sex(1949), Beauvoir dramatically influenced what came to be known as Second Wave feminism by disrupting traditional understandings of sex, gender, and identity.
Begin, Menachem (1913–1992) and the Irgun
Authors: Davidson Lawrence
Published: September 2017

Menachem Begin was born in the Polish city of Brest‐Litovsk in 1913. He was the youngest of three children and, like his lifelong rival David Ben‐Gurion, he was born into a family with strong Zionist leanings. He was educated in a Mizrachi Hebrew school, a Polish gymnasium (high school) and later, in 1935, he obtained a law degree from the University of Warsaw. While still young, Begin became a follower of Vladimir Jabotinsky's Revisionist Zionist movement which sought the immediate founding of a Jewish state in Palestine by violent means if necessary. Begin joined the Revisionist youth movement organization Betar at 16, worked for it full time after graduation, and became its leader in Poland by 1939. During this time he encouraged thousands of young Polish Jews to move to Palestine.
Belgium, Strike of the Century, 1960–1961
Authors: Verschueren Nicolas
Published: September 2017

The winter of 1960–1 witnessed the most important protest movement of the twentieth century in Belgium. Called the Strike of the Century, this event left long‐lasting marks on the political history of Belgium. It ended a decade of deep social unrest linked to the Royal Question, the secondary school war, and the industrial collapse of the southern regions of Belgium.
Belgium, 20th‐Century Political Conflict
Authors: Maddern Stacy Warner
Published: September 2017

Belgium had acquired independence in 1830 and throughout the nineteenth century it remained a neutral state. From its inception the National Congress of Belgium chose a constitutional monarch as its form of government and designated Leopold I as its first king. Throughout the nineteenth and into the twentieth centuries the upper‐class Francophile population controlled the political arena, treating the Dutch‐speaking or Flemish as second‐class citizens. In 1914, under the reign of King Albert I, Belgium was invaded by Germany en route to France.
Ben Bella, Ahmad (b. 1918)
Authors: Waskey Andrew J.
Published: September 2017

Mohamed Ahmad Ben Bella is an Algerian politician considered to be the father of modern Algeria. He is an Arab nationalist who fought in the struggle against colonialism. Ben Bella was born December 25, 1918 in Maghnia, Algeria, into a family of Sufi Muslims. He attended school at Tlemclen where the anti‐Moslem prejudice of his European teacher deeply affected him.
B
engal, Popular Uprisings and Movements in the Colonial Era
Authors: Mamoon Muntassir , Khan Zarina Rahman
Published: September 2017

The state of Bangladesh came into existence only in 1971. Before August 15, 1947, present‐day India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh were known as one country, India. Bengal was in the eastern part of India. East Bengal was the part of Bengal including a sizable part of Bangla‐speaking north Bengal (i.e., excluding areas like Darjeeling, where the inhabitants more often speak Nepalese dialects), along with east and south Bengal. The territory of the old East Bengal is more or less the same area that is known as Bangladesh today. Bengal was a
Suba
(a province administered by a
Subadar
, with a
Diwan
, collecting revenues) in the Mughal Empire. But after the death of Aurangzeb,
de facto
power passed to the
Subadars
, now styling themselves
Nawabs
(Emperor).
Bentham, Jeremy (1748–1832)
Authors: Leibensperger Summer D.
Published: September 2017

Jeremy Bentham was an English philosopher and legal, social, and moral reformer. Influenced by Helvetius, Voltaire, David Hume, and John Locke, he was best known for his advocacy of utilitarianism (and was considered by many to be its founder). Bentham was influential to many, including James and John Stuart Mill, and his ideas provided the foundation for nineteenth‐century English legislative reform.
Berkeley Free Speech Movement
Authors: Frisone Nicole
Published: September 2017

The 1964 Free Speech Movement (FSM) at the University of California, Berkeley served as a catalyst and inspiration for countless student demonstrations around the world for over a decade. The issues debated during the Free Speech Movement extended beyond free speech to include the relationship between students and the university, the meaning of individuality and education, and the role of the university in American society.
Bethune, Henry Norman (1890–1939)
Authors: Keefer Chris
Published: September 2017

Norman Bethune was a Canadian surgeon, social activist, and internationalist. He innovated a revolution in military medicine on the frontlines of the anti‐fascist struggle of republican Spain and the anti‐imperialist struggle of China between 1936 and 1939. After his death Bethune became a Chinese cultural icon and example of communism's selfless “New Man.”
Biennio Rosso (1919–1920)
Authors: Di Paola Pietro
Published: September 2017

The “Biennio Rosso” (Two Red Years) identifies the period between 1919 and 1920 when Italy seemed to be on the verge of a revolution. Social and industrial protests of unprecedented intensity and scale broke out all over the country. The failure of this insurrectionary movement and the subsequent reaction of industrial and landowner elites with the use of fascist violence, and the support of a middle class frightened by the specter of “bolshevism,” have long been regarded as crucial factors in determining the failure of the liberal state and Mussolini's rise to power (Detti 1978).
Biko, Stephen Bantu (1946–1977)
Authors: Kepadisa Moemedi
Published: September 2017

Stephen Bantu Biko must loom large in the pantheon of national liberation heroes globally. Steve, as he was known to his friends and comrades, was a founder of and a foremost thinker in the Black Consciousness (BC) movement that emerged in South Africa during the struggle against apartheid in the 1960s and 1970s. Biko died in police custody in 1977.
B
in
L
aden,
O
sama (b. 1957) and
A
l‐
Q
aeda
Authors: Davidson Lawrence
Published: September 2017

Osama bin Laden was born in 1957 into the wealthy bin Laden clan of Saudi Arabia. His father, Awad bin Laden, started as a poor laborer but ended up owner of the largest construction company in the country. The bin Laden family has been close to the royal Saudi family for decades.
Bishop, Maurice (1944–1983)
Authors: Ness Immanuel
Published: September 2017

Born in Aruba on May 29, 1944 to the son of a Grenadian nationalist and populist leader, Maurice Bishop was a revolutionary leader and prime minister of the island nation of Grenada, located in the southern Lesser Antilles, in the Southeastern Caribbean Sea. Growing up in Grenada in abject poverty, he was drawn to political life through the British disregard for the island's Afro‐Caribbean working class and peasant population. Like a growing number of Caribbean nationalists, Bishop was drawn to Marxist‐Leninism as a means to create independence and class and racial equality. To achieve this goal Bishop helped form the New Jewel movement in 1973 and was critical to the organization's growth through advancing a Marxist democratic political program of nationalization of the island's sparse economic resources and the formation of an equalitarian society.
Blanqui, Louis Auguste (1805–1881)
Authors: Carter R. O'Brian
Published: September 2017

As a French socialist and protest leader, Louis Auguste Blanqui was an influential and indefatigable nineteenth‐century insurrectionist and populist radical, for which he spent large portions of his life imprisoned. He participated in the French Revolutions of 1830 and 1848, as in several other rebellions, including those of 1839 and 1870.
B
ogotazo and
L
a
V
iolencia
Authors: Andrés Otálvaro H.
Published: September 2017

Forty‐five years of conservative hegemony ended in 1930 when Enrique Olaya Herrera won the presidential elections in Colombia and the Liberal Party assumed control over the state apparatus after decades of political exclusion. The electoral victory was the origin of a new and especially violent period for Colombian society, culminating in the tragic events of April 11, 1949: the
Bogotazo
insurrection.
B
öhm,
H
ans (also
H
ans
B
ehem) (1458?‐1476)
Authors: Wahlert Matthew H.
Published: September 2017

Hans Böhm was a popular fifteenth‐century German preacher who gained fame as the “Drummer of Niklashausen” following a vision directing him to advocate greater social equality. Although his exact date of birth is unknown, Böhm was born in the village of Helmstadt in the south‐central region of Germany known as Franconia. In 1476, Böhm, a shepherd and street entertainer, claimed to have had a vision of the Virgin Mary in the village of Niklashausen. The vision prompted a series of sermons that challenged the elites of Germanic society.
Bolívar, Simón (1783–1830)
Authors: Ullrich Jan
Published: September 2017

Simón Bolívar was a central character in the Hispanic American movements for independence against Spanish colonial domination. “The Liberator,” as he was called after his victories over royalist forces in today's Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, Peru, and Bolivia, became the first president of the Great Colombian Republic (Gran Colombia) in 1821. While his thinking and struggle for independence, liberty, and unity profoundly influenced the political development of contemporary Latin America, the historical interpretation of his life and ideas is a subject of historical disputes and ideological conflicts even today.
Bolivia, Struggle for Independence, 1809–1825
Authors: John S. Sándor
Published: September 2017

The Seven Years' War (1756–63), sometimes described as the first global war, left the belligerent powers with an enormous burden of debt. Like the British and French, Spain's rulers reacted by decreeing a series of controversial new measures to raise revenue and revamp administrative structures. Designed to strengthen the Spanish empire, the Bourbon Reforms (named after the ruling family) wound up weakening it.
Bolotnikov's Rebellion, 1606–1607
Authors: Bosin Yury V.
Published: September 2017

Russia suffered considerable economic and political upheaval in the early seventeenth century as raids by Crimean Tatars and the protracted Livonian War (1558–82) with the Polish‐Lithuanian Confederation destabilized Russian society. The agricultural crop failure of 1601–2 caused a great famine: in Moscow alone, 127,000 people starved to death. Against this backdrop of struggle and crisis, Bolotnikov's Rebellion was the first of four peasant wars that shook Russia in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
Bolsheviks
Authors: Zukas Alex
Published: September 2017

Bolsheviks were Marxist revolutionaries active in early twentieth‐century Russia who devoted their lives to creating a tightly knit political organization with the intention of leading a mass insurrection of discontented workers and peasants against the oppressive social, economic, and political conditions of the autocratic tsarist regime. Their efforts earned them an important place in modern history because, distrustful of the coalition socialist‐liberal provisional government that had replaced the tsarist regime in the wake of the first Russian Revolution of February 1917, led by Lenin (1870–1924) and Trotsky (1879–1940) they harnessed a wave of popular radicalism among the peasantry and proletariat and organized a second revolution in October 1917. The first revolution in world history carried out by a self‐consciously Marxist party, it eventually transformed the huge Russian empire into the Soviet Union, the first militantly communist and anti‐capitalist nation in the world and one of only two superpowers to emerge from World War II. Today “Bolsheviks” generally refers to those men and women who were members of the Leninist party in the pre‐revolutionary era of exile and underground struggle and the revolutionary upheavals of 1917 through 1921.
B
onaparte,
N
apoleon (1769–1821)
Authors: Richardson Annette
Published: September 2017

The towering figure of his era, Napoleon Bonaparte (born Napoleone di Buonaparte) was a French army general who rose to prominence in the 1790s during the French Revolutionary Wars and became emperor of France in 1804. His success on the battlefield enabled him to dominate Europe for much of the early nineteenth century. Napoleon established constitutional monarchies and social reforms in the European states that he conquered, spreading the anti‐aristocratic transformation wrought by the French Revolution, while establishing a strong centralized government – some would say dictatorial and anti‐democratic – within France. Forced to abdicate in 1814, Napoleon returned briefly to power in 1815 but was then exiled from France for the rest of his life.
Bonnot Gang
Authors: Buelinckx Erik
Published: September 2017

The Bonnot Gang was a loosely knit group of illegalists that kept France in tension for 16 months from December 21, 1911, with their first robbery, until April 21, 1913, when the last of the gang members were guillotined. The roots of the gang can be situated in France and Belgium, coming together in an anarchist commune in Fontromain near Paris. The gang took its name from Jules Joseph Bonnot, a mechanic who was born in 1876 and who lost several jobs due to his anarchist convictions and syndicalist actions. He joined the community of anarchist illegalists, vegetarians, and teetotallers in Romainville. Living communally, mostly in their late twenties or early thirties, they embodied, to different degrees, an evolution from Stirnerite egoism and individualist anarchism to illegalism.
Bonus Army Unemployed Movement, 1932
Authors: Maddern Stacy Warner
Published: September 2017

In 1924 the US Congress voted to give the veterans of World War I a bonus consisting of $1.25 per day for overseas service and $1 a day for all remaining service. However, it stipulated that no payments would be made until 1945. In 1932, as the Great Depression worsened, some 15,000 unemployed veterans would make their way to Washington to demand payment of their bonuses. Members of this Bonus Expeditionary Force, later dubbed the Bonus Army, feeling ignored by the administration of President Herbert Hoover, embeded themselves in makeshift camps at Anacostia Flats across the river from the Capitol.
B
ordiga,
A
madeo (1889–1970) and the
I
talian Communist Party
Authors: Ciferri Elvio
Published: September 2017

Amadeo Bordiga was one of the founders and first secretary of the Italian Communist Party. Born in Resina, Bordiga joined the Socialist Party in 1910 and soon, as a student at the engineering faculty, became a leader of the socialist left in Naples, advocating the rejection of electoral alliances with radicals and democrats, to him a source of corruption and misleading of socialists, who should rather act as a working‐class and militant force, and reject reformism. The new militant tendencies in social conflicts in 1912–14 were met by Bordiga with reaffirmation of Marxist principles, and he stood strongly against Italy's participation in World War I.
B
ose,
S
ubhas
C
handra (1897–1945)
Authors: Chattopadhyay Kunal
Published: September 2017

Subhas Chandra Bose, an Indian nationalist and advocate of armed struggle, was born on January 23, 1897. He was influenced in a nationalist direction from his schooldays. When he passed his Indian Civil Service (ICS) examinations from England in 1921, the nationalist struggle was proceeding in a radical direction. Subhas resigned from the ICS, choosing not to work as a voice of the colonial rulers. Returning to India in mid‐1921, Subhas met Mahatma Gandhi. He was deeply respectful of Gandhi, but somewhat critical of Gandhi's strategy and promises of attaining
swaraj
(self‐rule) in one year. The man who attracted him was Chittaranjan Das, a leading nationalist with contacts with revolutionary nationalists.
Boston Tea Party
Authors: King Nathan
Published: September 2017

The Boston Tea Party was, on the surface, an act of protest against a monopoly that the East India Company held on tea importation. More significant in the broader scheme of US history, however, the Boston Tea Party popularized one of the most important rallying cries of the American Revolution: “No taxation without representation.”
Botswana, Protest and Nationalism
Authors: Morapedi Wazha Gilbert
Published: September 2017

Botswana (formerly the Bechuanaland Protectorate) was one of three British dependencies in southern Africa, and is roughly the size of France. A landlocked country long surrounded by white‐minority ruled states in southern Africa, a region marked by war and conflict, Botswana was notable for its peaceful road to independence and sustained parliamentary democracy. The people of the country are often called Batswana, but the term also includes ethnic groups that do not speak the Setswana language: the Bakalanga, Bakgalagadi, Bayei, Baherero, Basubiya, Batswapong, Babirwa, and Basarwa (derogatively called Bushmen). The Setswana‐speaking groups are the Bangwato, Bangwaketse, Bakwena, Barolong, Bakgatla, Balete, Batawana, and Batlokwa.
Bourses Du Travail
Authors: Leberstein Stephen
Published: September 2017

The Bourses du Travail (labor exchanges or workers councils) that spread throughout France during the 1890s were self‐governing working‐class institutions that contributed to the radical syndicalist ideology characteristic of the French labor movement in the period before World War I. While the national and local governments that established and funded them hoped the Bourses would help diminish social strife, the Left seized on them as centers for worker self‐activity and as generators of class consciousness.
B
rand,
A
dolf (1874–1945)
Authors: Heiman Larry W.
Published: September 2017

Adolf Brand was a German publisher and anarchist whose strong belief in individual freedom was intrinsic to his advocacy of male homosexual emancipation. He argued “the right of self‐determination over body and soul is the most important basis of all freedom” (Brand 1991: 155). After a brief career as a schoolteacher, Brand started a publishing company in Berlin and in 1896 began publication of
Der Eigene
(
The Self‐Owner
or
The Special One
). Initially conceived as an individualist anarchist journal, it soon focused entirely on male homosexual culture, making it the first journal of its kind in history. It ceased publication in 1931.
Brandreth, Jeremiah (1790–1817) and the Pentrich Rising
Authors: Leibensperger Summer D.
Published: September 2017

Jeremiah Brandreth, known as the “Nottingham Captain,” was one of the leaders of the unsuccessful Pentrich Rising against the British government. Brandreth was born in Wilford, Nottingham, and became a stocking maker by trade. He later moved to Sutton‐in‐Ashfield where he lived with his wife and two children. It is likely that he took part in Luddite activities in 1811.
Brazil, Guerilla Movements, 20th Century
Authors: Pinheiro Diogo L. , Pontes Paula Rodrigues
Published: September 2017

Unlike many neighboring countries, Brazil did not experience any sort of large‐scale guerilla movement during the twentieth century. Despite the severe inequality and, for most of the century, disenfranchisement of the lower strata of society from the political process, all armed revolts in Brazil were relatively short lived, very limited in scope, and mostly unsuccessful. This is partly explained by significant class, regional, and racial differences that prevented the formation of any kind of broad compromise necessary to form a large‐scale military movement. Unlike other Latin American nations, such as Bolivia, Brazil did not have large Amerindian‐descended populations that lived in similar conditions and provided the basis for so many social movements and guerillas in the region. Regional disparities in income meant that urban blue‐collar workers had distinct interests from rural laborers, who in turn were scattered throughout the hinterlands, and under the control of local bosses and their armed henchmen. Furthermore, throughout a significant portion of the twentieth century, governments that mixed populist policies aimed at specific sectors of society and brutal repression of dissenters ruled Brazil. Early social security measures and labor protection laws only applied to certain specific and more mobilized sectors, creating an inherent interest in the maintenance of the status quo for those groups.
Brazil, Labor Struggles
Authors: Fontes Paulo , Silva Fernando T.
Published: September 2017

In 1858 the printers of Rio de Janeiro went on strike for a wage increase. While they considered themselves qualified craftsmen, they articulated a certain class identity and language leading to identification with the oppression suffered by all workers. This movement is considered to be the first workers' strike in Brazil, but such a view is valid only if one ignores the experience of enslaved peoples in working‐class formation. Even before the printers' stoppage, the slaves of a large foundry and shipyard in Rio de Janeiro had stopped their activities in protest against punishment inflicted on their companions. Starting from the second half of the nineteenth century, breakouts, rebellions, legal actions in the courts to purchase liberty, formation of
quilombos
(communities of fugitive slaves), abolition movements, strikes, and associations of various kinds were just some of the combat and survival strategies around which free workers, freed slave workers, and enslaved workers shared their traditions, experiences, and common goals. In the aftermath of the Great Migration at the end of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, white laborers, former slaves, and descendants of Africans participated in working‐class uprisings with strong political reverberations, such as the 1904 Rio de Janeiro Vaccine Revolt against the compulsory vaccination campaign aimed at curbing the smallpox epidemic in the city.
B
razil, Workers, and The Left: Partido dos Trabalhadores and Central Única dos Trabalhadores
Authors: Pinheiro Diogo L.
Published: September 2017

The Brazilian Partido dos Trabalhadores (Workers Party), or PT, and the Central Única dos Trabalhadores (Unique Workers Center), or CUT, are the two most significant organizations to have emerged from the new Brazilian left that appeared during the late 1970s. The PT was founded in São Paulo in 1980 by a group of union leaders, progressive sectors of the Catholic Church, and left‐wing intellectuals. It has become Latin America's largest workers party. It has controlled the Brazilian presidency since 2002 when Luis Inácio Lula da Silva, one of the founders of the party and its first leader, was elected. The PT has close ties to the CUT, Latin America's largest association of unions, which was founded in 1983. Together, they have helped shape the history of left‐wing policies and labor relations in Brazil.
B
rissot,
J
acques
P
ierre (1754–1793)
Authors: Loft Leonore
Published: September 2017

Jacques Pierre Brissot was one of the most misunderstood men of his generation and ours. Best known for his prominent political role during the French Revolution, his earlier career as a publicist, journalist, and disciple of the French
Philosophes
provides the key to his lifelong commitment to reformist, egalitarian, and democratic ideals.
Bristol Riots, 1831
Authors: Poole Steve
Published: September 2017

The Bristol Riots of October 29–31, 1831 were the single most serious provincial urban disturbance in modern English history and the most catastrophic since the Gordon Riots of 1780. Several public buildings were set on fire, between 100 and 250 people were killed or wounded, mostly by military action, and the cost of damage to property was estimated between £50,000 and £150,000. Eighty‐one rioters were later convicted and four hanged. The cause was the House of Lords' rejection of the Reform Bill, for which there was strong cross‐class support in the city. Unlike Nottingham and Derby, however, where rioting occurred immediately, disturbances at Bristol did not break out until three weeks later, when crowds mobilized to demonstrate against the arrival of Tory Recorder Sir Charles Wetherell, a notorious opponent of reform, to open the assize.
B
ritain, Anti‐war Movement, 1775–1783
Authors: Dickinson H. T.
Published: September 2017

Throughout the crisis leading to the War of American Independence, successive British administrations secured comfortable majorities in parliament for their efforts to subordinate the American colonies to the sovereign authority of the Westminster parliament. There was always, however, some opposition in parliament to these policies and even greater opposition outside parliament. These critics were alarmed by the outbreak of war in 1775 and most urged reconciliation before it was too late. In parliament, William Pitt, the Earl of Chatham, and Edmund Burke were simply the most famous who aired this opinion. Their views were increasingly shared by such men as Charles James Fox and David Hartley.
Britain, Peasant Uprisings, 16th Century
Authors: Jewell Jason
Published: September 2017

During the sixteenth century England's Tudor dynasty and Scotland's Stuart dynasty suffered a number of rebellions against their authority. Members of the aristocracy instigated and led the majority of these rebellions, but some of them featured enough initiative, leadership, and participation from the lower classes to be termed peasant uprisings. The most important of these were the Cornish Rebellion of 1497, the Pilgrimage of Grace of 1536–7, and two uprisings of 1549 – the Western Rebellion and Kett's Rebellion.
Britain, Post‐World War II Political Protest
Authors: Harpham Bruce T.
Published: September 2017

British society has frequently been convulsed by protests, riots, and other uprisings since the conclusion of World War II. Starting in the 1960s, protests became a fixture of British life, though these varied in significance and efficacy. In general, protests can be broken into two main categories: those centered around group identity protest and those that involve single issue protests.
Britain, Renaissanceera Conflict
Authors: Martone Nicole
Published: September 2017

Following the Hundred Years' War between England and France in 1453, civil war engulfed England as two factions of the royal family – the House of York and the House of Lancaster – competed for the throne from 1455 to 1485. The war, caused by succession irregularities following the deposition of Richard II (r. 1377–99), has become known as the Wars of the Roses because, according to legend, the York's symbol was a white rose while the Lancaster's symbol was a red rose. The Duke of York and his supporters challenged the Lancastrian monarch, Henry VI (r. 1422–61). In 1461 the Duke's son, Edward IV (r. 1461–83), managed to maintain his hold on the throne and increase the finances and power of the monarchy with the assistance of capable ministers. Edward IV's brother, Richard III (r. 1483–5), usurped the throne from Edward IV's son, Edward V, but was defeated by the exiled Henry Tudor in 1485.
B
ritain, Trade Union Movement
Authors: Crowley Mark J.
Published: September 2017

It was the lack of workers' rights first emerging in the eighteenth century that highlighted the need for a representative body to campaign for workers' welfare in Britain. The Combination Laws passed by Prime Minister William Pitt in 1780 and 1799 made it illegal for workers to lobby their employers for improved pay and conditions. This effectively made trade unions illegal. Opposition to the acts was led by trade unionist Francis Place, with Joseph Hume and Sir Francis Burdett leading the parliamentary charge. The acts were repealed in 1824, but a series of strikes erupted, leading the government to pass the 1825 Combination Acts, which effectively restored the powers of the previous act and reasserted their power over the workers, confining trade union roles purely to meeting to discuss wages. If they met under other provisos, they would be subject to arrest and prosecution, defined as criminal conspiracy in restriction of trade.
Britain, Women's Suffrage Campaign
Authors: Smith Harold L.
Published: September 2017

The British organized women's suffrage campaign began in the mid‐1860s when a reform bill was under consideration that would expand the electorate. John Stuart Mill, a member of Parliament (MP) and a prominent women's suffrage advocate, agreed to introduce a women's suffrage amendment to the bill if the women's groups would generate a petition supporting that reform. Suffrage societies were formed in London and Manchester and provided Mill with a petition requesting women's suffrage with 1,499 signatures. Mill proposed his amendment when the 1867 Reform Bill was under consideration by the House of Commons, but it was easily defeated. Some MPs thought the idea of women voting was ludicrous.
British Miners' Strike, 1984–1985
Authors: Morgan Steffan
Published: September 2017

The miners' strike of 1984–5 was a defining moment in the history of the British labor movement. The strike was not only an industrial dispute concerned with the future closure of a significant number of collieries within the British coalfield or the dramatic job losses that would occur as a result. It was also symbolic of the wider conflict between the trade union movement, embodied by National Union of Mineworkers (NUM) president Arthur Scargill, and the Conservative government, embodied by the entrepreneurialism promoted by Margaret Thatcher.
B
rown,
H.
R
ap (
b.
1943)
Authors: Nuruddin Yusuf
Published: September 2017

H. Rap Brown, born Hubert Gerold Brown (October 4, 1943) and now known as Jamil Abdullah Al‐Amin, is an African American political activist who first gained national prominence in the 1960s and 1970s as a leader in the civil rights and Black Power movements.
B
ukharin,
N
ikolai
I
vanovich (1888–1938)
Authors: Bokina John
Published: September 2017

Nikolai Bukharin was a Soviet Communist Party leader and theoretician who was executed following a Stalinist purge trial, and so much is made of his engaging personality and tragic fate that his prominent position within the Communist Party is often obscured. Approximately ten years younger than the other Bolshevik leaders at the time of the November Revolution, there were frequent remarks about how he was the Party favorite, with his zest for life, intellectual curiosity, sense of humor, and general amiability. And then there is that tragic, but fascinating, denouement. Arrested on false charges; imprisoned and interrogated; attempting to retain his integrity during the sham trial; his execution not enough to prevent reprisals against his family. But between his appearance as the Party favorite and his demise, there were Bukharin's two decades of power and prominence: founder of the Communist youth organization (Komsomol), member of the Politburo, editor of the Party newspaper
Pravda
, official theorist of Soviet Communism, and head of the Communist International.
B
ulavin's
R
ebellion, 1707–1708
Authors: Bosin Yury V.
Published: September 2017

Like numerous Russian peasant rebellions, Bulavin's uprising emerged in the Cossack areas along the Don River. While the Russian government sought to limit the power and independence of the Cossacks, at the same time it sought to control the border region to prevent serfs from escaping beyond the Don. In the early 1700s, the Russian government was under political pressure from Russian landowners to capture more than 60,000 serfs who fled their masters to the Don River. In response to calls for action by landowners, Peter the Great signed a decree on July 6, 1707 calling for a census in Cossack settlements as a pretext to track down all runaway serfs and return them to their lords. Peter the Great appointed Duke Dolgorukiy to lead the military expedition that initially captured about 3,000 fugitive serfs. But Cossacks saw Dolgo‐rukiy's mission as a threat to their own rights and freedom. In response to the Russian military infiltration, Cossack chief or
ataman
Kondratiy Bulavin formed a rebel army to repel the Russian forces. On the night of October 8, 1707, Kondratiy Bulavin staged an attack and killed Dolgorukiy and his entire forces.
B
uonarroti,
P
hilippe (1761–1837)
Authors: Blackman Robert H.
Published: September 2017

Philippe Buonarroti has been called the first professional revolutionist. A Florentine noble, Buonarroti abandoned home, family, and country to support the French Revolution in its Jacobin and Robespierreist guise. A leader with Babeuf of the Conspiracy of Equals, Buonarroti survived prison and exile to found secret societies dedicated to restoring the Jacobin republic in France and fostering revolution throughout Europe. His history of the conspiracy led to renewed interest in Babeuf and his ideas of communal property and radical egalitarianism. Buonarroti's combination of secret political organization and public pronouncements influenced generations of European radicals, including Louis Blanc, August Blanqui, Giuseppi Mazzini, Karl Marx, and Mikhail Bakunin.
Burkina Faso, Revolution, 1983
Authors: Abdul‐Jelil Animasawun Gbemisola
Published: September 2017

Much of sub‐Saharan Africa has failed to develop economically and, due to the continued legacy of colonialism, remains mired in political and economic chaos, unable to provide for the basic necessities of life. The causal role of colonialism and imperialism is too obvious to ignore for a proper critical analysis. Burkina Faso, the country hitherto known as Upper Volta, is no exception. Following independence from France on August 5, 1960, Upper Volta remained in economic destitution and political turmoil until 1983, when Thomas Sankara sparked a revolutionary transformation that brought many achievements, although they remain unfulfilled.
Burma, Democracy Movement
Authors: Mutraw A. May‐Oo
Published: September 2017

The origins of Burma's struggle for democracy are subject to debate. Historians disagree as to the factors that brought about the movement for change. To some extent it is accurate to conclude that each of the periodic movements was the result of backward leadership. Others argue that the country's economic and intellectual development could not keep up with the social and political demands of the time.
Abad de Santillán, Diego (1897–1983)
Authors: Lee Andrew H.
Published: September 2017

Diego Abad de Santillán (a pseudonym of Baudillo Sinesio García Fernández, sometimes also spelled Hernández) was an anarchist intellectual influential both in the Spanish and Argentine movements.
Anarchism, Armenia
Authors: Mitchell Ryan Robert
Published: September 2017

Armenia has long been contested and subjugated by two regional and competing powers, Russia and the Ottoman empire. The revolutionary nationalist movement was formed in Armenia in the absence of any liberal parliamentary movement that sought to represent Armenian interests. In fact, after decades of alternate subjugation to Russian or Ottoman power, the majority of Armenians trusted neither the bourgeoisie nor the Armenian Church, who they saw as colluding with their oppressors. It is in this environment that radical nationalist movements were formed in Armenia.
Anarchism, Czechoslovakia
Authors: Mitchell Ryan Robert
Published: September 2017

Czech anarchism is characterized by the development of two distinct strands, independently formed in the 1880s.
Anarchism, Georgia
Authors: Mitchell Ryan Robert
Published: September 2017

The national liberation movement in Georgia began like that of many other countries, with an initially liberal and literary “national awakening” that was most often headed by poets and essayists. Ironically, as Georgia became more assimilated into the Russian empire in the mid‐1800s, its liberation movement grew more radical due to the fact that its Russian‐educated intelligentsia was exposed to “dangerous ideas” within the Russian university system. By the last two decades of the nineteenth century, the Georgian revolutionary movement was fully radicalized with the Russian populist brand of socialism as its prime ideological current.