bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Relationship between geomorphology of the ocean seafloor with the tectonic structure of the Earth's crust and anomalous geophysical fields: Makran Trench, Arabian Sea
Authors: Lemenkova Polina
Published: November 2020

This study examined the relationships between topographic structure and submarine geomorphology, sediment thickness, geophysical anomaly fields, geological settings and tectonic lineament stretching of the Arabian Sea region, Carlsberg Ridge morphology, Makran Trench depths by GMT. The study included spatial analysis of the high-resolution datasets (GEBCO, EGM96, GlobSed) and geomorphological modeling of the 300km-width cross-section profiles of the Makran Trench. The analysis shown correlation between complex geologic and tectonic structure, asymmetric geomorphology and geophysical anomaly fields. The Makran Trench is formed in the subduction zone of the Arabian and Eurasian plates at the basement of the continental margin of Pakistan. Submarine geomorphic structure of the Arabian Sea is complicated by the Carlsberg Ridge, Owen Fracture Zone, Aden-Owen- Carlsberg Triple junction, numerous faults and rifts. The geophysical fields of the marine free- air gravity correlate with distribution of these geomorphic structures. Bathymetric analysis of the trench revealed the most frequent depth (448 samples) at -3,250 to -3,500 m, following by intervals: -3,000 to -3,250 m (225 samples), -2,750 to -3,000 m (201 samples). Gently declining continental slope of the coastal elevations correlate with gradually decreasing depths, as equally distributed bins: 124 samples (-2,500 to -2,750 m), 96 (-2,250 to -2,500 m), 86 (-2,000 to -2,250 m). Makran Trench has asymmetric geomorphology with a high slope steepness on the continental slope of Pakistan and low steepness with flat valley on the oceanward side.
Identification of the miRNA-mRNA regulatory pathways and a miR-21-5p based nomogram model in clear cell renal cell carcinoma
Authors: Zhao Yiqiao , Tao Zijia , Chen Xiaonan
Published: November 2020

Background

The purpose of this study was to determine the key microRNAs (miRNAs) and their regulatory networks in clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC).

Methods

Five mRNA and three microRNA microarray datasets were downloaded from the Gene Expression Omnibus database and used to screen the differentially expressed miRNAs (DEMs) and differentially expressed genes (DEGs). Gene ontology enrichment analysis and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway analysis were performed with Metascape. A miRNA-mRNA network was mapped with the Cytoscape tool. The results were validated with data from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and qRT-PCR. A nomogram model based on independent prognostic key DEMs, stage and grade was constructed for further investigation.

Results

A total of 26 key DEMs and 307 DEGs were identified. Dysregulation of four key DEMs (miR-21-5p, miR-142-3p, miR-155-5p and miR-342-5p) was identified to correlate with overall survival. The results were validated with TCGA data and qRT-PCR. The nomogram model showed high accuracy in predicting the prognosis of patients with ccRCC.

Conclusion

We identified 26 DEMs that may play vital roles in the regulatory networks of ccRCC. Four miRNAs (miR-21-5p, miR-142-3p, miR-155-5p and miR-342-5p) were considered as potential biomarkers in the prognosis of ccRCC, among which only miR-21-5p was found to be an independent prognostic factor. A nomogram model was then created on the basis of independent factors for better prediction of prognosis for patients with ccRCC. Our results suggest a need for further experimental validation studies.
Innovation Through Virtualization: Crisis Mental Health Care during Covid-19
Authors: Hensel Jennifer M. , Bolton James M. , Svenne Danielle Carignan , Ulrich Lori
Published: November 2020

The covid-19 pandemic created major challenges for mental health crisis care. Our crisis centre in Winnipeg, Manitoba rapidly virtualized the full spectrum of services offered with remarkable uptake, resulting in avoided hospitalizations and reduced transmission risk for covid-19. We must determine how to best adopt these approaches into post-pandemic crisis care.
ROLE OF AMALAKYADI RASAYANA IN LOWERING DOWN THE MORBIDITY RATE IN CHILDREN: A REVIEW
Authors: Kushwaha Ajay , Ojha Nisha Kumari
Published: November 2020

Children are more susceptible to various infections because of underdeveloped immune system as compared to adults. Strengthening the immune system is a natural way to help the body fight against the disease-causing pathogens and immunomodulators can play a major role in this context. Various Ayurveda classics and studies published in journals related to Ayurveda drugs for improving immunity are reviewed and analysed. In Ayurveda, the objective of immune enhancement is achieved through the use of the Amalakyadi Rasayana (an Immunomodulators), as it increases longevity of life, memory, intellect, luxture, complexion, voice, strength of the body functions, strength of all senses and provides the resistance to disease, improves glow and power. Analysis of classical references and various experimental studies show that Amalakyadi Rasayana posse immuno-modulatory, Antioxidant, Anti-inflammatory, Antimicrobial, Anthelmintic activity. Present paper is a review to update knowledge on pharmacological properties, therapeutic actions and possible mode of action of the selected formulation, Amalakyadi rasayana from Yogaratnakara (Rasayanadhikara/17) to enhance the immunity in children. Rasayana is an important part of Ayurvedic therapeutics used to improve the quality of life by strengthening the tissue quality and by reducing the age-related tissue degeneration. This study reveals that Amalakyadi Rasayana have potential to improve or strengthen the immune system in children and thereby can lower down the morbidity rate in children.
APPLICATION OF UPAMANA PRAMANA (ANALOGY) TO INTERPRET CONCEPT OF PRAKRITI AND DHATU SARATA: A REVIEW
Authors: Phule Sharayu P , Ghate Umesh S , Patil Ganesh B
Published: November 2020

Brihtatrayiies i.e. classical texts of Ayurveda are subdivided in sthanas (sections). In each section bunch of Adhyaya (chapters) are dedicated to particular concept. The content of all treaties is in Sanskrit language only and in verse format. Hence to simplify the same various pramanas (epistemology) has been used effectively. Upamana pramana (analogy) is one of the types of pramana which is widely utilised in explanation of Sharir concepts. Upamana pramana enlightens the features of un-manifested things with a familiar or manifested thing based on similarities. These analogies are found to be helpful in understanding the basic concepts of Kriya Sharir like prakriti and Dhatusarata. Application of Upamana pramana (analogy) to interpret the same can be highly appreciated. Concept of ‘Anukatva’ is the best example of utilization of analogy. This article reviews utility of Upamana pramana in understanding the concepts of prakriti and dhatusarata.
PHYTOCHEMICAL AND PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES OF JUSTICIA PROCUMBENS L.: A REVIEW
Authors: C K Amritha , C Suma , V M Ananya , P V Thushara , V S Deepak
Published: November 2020

Justicia procumbens L. is usually known as water willow which belongs to family Acanthaceae growing widely in southern regions of China, Japan, Vietnam, India and Australia. It is one of the important herbal being used in Ayurvedic system of medicine. The plant contains various active compounds like arylnaphthalide and diarylbutane lignans, glycosides, flavonoids. Few pharmacological properties including anti-inflammatory, anti-arthritic, anti-arrhythmic, anti-asthmatic, anti-proliferative, anti-allergic, antibacterial, cytotoxic and anti-HIV activities activity have been reported for this plant. Conventionally, it is used for the treatment of fever, inflammation, cold, cough, asthma, cancer, snake bites etc. The current review is created with an intended to focus on the numerous ethnobotanical and traditional uses as well as the phytochemical and pharmacological report on Justicia procumbens.
Positive Reinforcement Practices and Self-Resiliency of Grade Six Students
Authors: Lapaz Merry Rose R. , Bello Amelie T.
Published: November 2020

Aims: To determine the teachers’ positive reinforcement practices and its impact on the self-efficacy of Grade Six students in the selected elementary schools in Kiblawan Disctrict, Division of Davao del Sur.

Study Design: Descriptive-correlational research design.

Place and Duration of Study: Kiblawan South District, Division of Davao del Sur, School Year 2019-2020.

Methodology: The respondents of the study were the 188 Grade Six students at the 14 elementary schools of Kiblawan South District, Kiblawan, Davao del Sur. Moreover, random sampling technique was used wherein the 188 students were randomly selected out of 355 students through drawing of lots. Data were collected using self-made survey questionnaires which were validated by the experts. Data gathered were treated using the Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient and were carried out at a 95% confidence interval and a 0.05 level of significance.

Results: Results of the study showed a high extent of positive reinforcement practices of teachers. A high level of self-efficacy of Grade six students was also noted. Statistical analysis further revealed a high and positive significant relationship between teachers’ positive reinforcement practices and students self-resiliency. Thus, teachers’ reinforcing initiatives were instrumental in increasing the ability of the students to adjust and cope up with the stressors more efficiently and effectively.
Solar Trees: Shift from Grey to Green Sky for Future Fuel Pumps under Clean/Green Energy: India
Authors: Mishra Siba Prasad , Giri Nimay Chandra , Behera Debashree Debadatta , Nayak Smruti Ranjan
Published: November 2020

Clean/green energy embraces renewable resources like bio, geo, hydro, oceanic, solar, and aeolian power. They are utilized in energy generation, heating and cooling processes, transport, domestic and urban niches. India has aimed to rise in its per capita energy use to rise by 40%, and emission cut/GDP pledge by 33-35% till 2030 compared to 2005 level by building extra carbon sink 2.5-3.0 billion MT CO2e by targeting renewable source to 175GW (100GW of Solar) by 2022. The killer SARSCoV-2 virus has the target and the clean/green energy growth. The reduction of CO2 has been depleted due to industrial, urban and transportation shut downs and the 2019 grey sky has converted old blue environment, Solar power plants considered to be best remedy for apocalyptic. The Solar tree or Solar Parks concept is novel and the most easy, economic and commercial method that can have utilities in all development sector. The work envisages the design by MATLAB (Simulink simulated). The fabrication of solar trees of 180 watt capacity in workshop including has been tested under different solar insulations. The result inferred that the solar tree can be a part to solar park, installed at fallow/hilly terrains in less area, low cost by 18.51%, with higher power generation by sustaining the environment serve as real trees. The solar trees near National Highways shall sell/hire batteries on commercial basis like fuel pumps and gas cylinders for supply to e-vehicles.
Retracted: miR‐30d‐5p suppresses proliferation and autophagy by targeting ATG5 in renal cell carcinoma
Authors: Liang Liang , Yang Zheng , Deng Qian , Jiang Yazhuo , Cheng Yongyi , Sun Yi , Li Lei
Published: November 2020

Previous reports have shown that miR‐30d‐5p functions as a tumor suppressor in prostate cancer and gallbladder carcinoma, but its role in renal cell carcinoma (RCC) remains elusive. This study was designed to explore the functional role of miR‐30d‐5p in proliferation and autophagy of RCC. Our results show that miR‐30d‐5p is significantly down‐regulated in RCC tissues compared with normal tissues. miR‐30d‐5p overexpression suppressed cell proliferation, cell‐cycle G1/S transition and autophagy, but promoted apoptosis in RCC cell lines (786‐O and ACHN). Intriguingly, autophagy‐related gene 5 (ATG5) was directly targeted by miR‐30d‐5p, as shown using luciferase reporter assay and biotin‐avidin pull‐down assay. Moreover, overexpression of ATG5 attenuated the inhibitory effect of miR‐30d‐5p on proliferation and autophagy in 786‐O cells. These results suggest that miR‐30d‐5p suppresses proliferation and autophagy in RCC cells by targeting ATG5, and this pathway may be a suitable basis for the design of novel cancer therapeutics.
Neutron Vibrational Spectroscopy
Authors: Parker Stewart F.
Published: November 2020

Neutron vibrational spectroscopy (inelastic neutron scattering(INS)) is a form of vibrational spectroscopy that is complementary to infrared and Raman spectroscopies. It has a very wide spectral range of zero to several thousand cm−1, there are no selection rules so all modes are allowed and comparison withab initiocalculations is straightforward. The disadvantages are that it is relatively insensitive and restricted to the solid state. It is particularly sensitive to modes involving hydrogen and in hydrogenous materials, these dominate the spectra. In this article, the history, theory, and practice of the technique are briefly reviewed. The extensive range of applications of this form of spectroscopy is illustrated with examples in the areas of hydrogen storage, catalysis, soft condensed matter, ice, carbons, and magnetism.
Sports Forecasting
Authors: Williams Leighton Vaughan , Reade J. James
Published: November 2020

Sport is inextricably bound up with forecasting. Forecasts are statements about future states of nature yet to be revealed. Fan forecasts of outcomes matter, as they influence attendance, but in addition fans gain utility from correctly judging outcomes in advance. The bookmaking industry exists because of disagreements between forecasters. In this article we consider forecasting theory and the various applications in the literature. We categorize forecast methods into those based on statistical methods, bookmaker odds, and the wisdom of experts and crowds. The literature tends to find that bookmaker odds outperform crowds and experts but not necessarily statistical methods.
Pilot Studies in Clinical Research
Authors: Whitehead Amy L. , Julious Steven A.
Published: November 2020

Pilot studies are small‐scale studies conducted to gather information and provide a foundation for the design of a definitive trial. They do not seek to estimate treatment efficacy or effectiveness themselves but may be used to assess whether a definitive trial is feasible and how it can be carried out.

The objectives of a study can be met only if a sufficient number of participants are recruited. A formal power calculation is not usually necessary for a pilot study where the focus is on estimation – for example, of feasibility parameters or the population variance – and the precision of these estimates. However, the sample size should still be justified as appropriate to meet the aims of the trial.

The appropriate analysis of a pilot study would usually be a descriptive summary of the parameters of interest, addressing the original trial objectives. The analysis should not contain hypothesis testing for which the trial is not powered. The interpretation of the results should be in line with the feasibility of the planned main trial. The decision‐making process and changes made to the trial design based on the pilot study should be documented, and results presented in accordance with the CONSORT extension for pilot trials. Every effort should be made to publish the trial for transparency and to allow learning to be shared within the research community.
World Class Manufacturing
Authors: Leoni Riccardo
Published: November 2020

World Class Manufacturing(WCM) indicates a set of organizational and work and management techniques and practices (with specific acronyms) that took shape from the Toyota Production System. WCM denotes a globally competitive company that has acquired not so much financial or marketing but technical‐manufacturing capabilities. The underlying production system, as a result of refinements and improvements, has in turn been designated various terms, recently arriving atWorld Class Management. This article briefly illustrates the origin of the organizational configuration, and the work and management practices that WCM contemplates, the complementarity that characterizes them, and the issues (cognitive, relational, and professional status) that the paradigm shift entails in the daily life of organizations, whether industrial or services, private or public, profit or nonprofit.
Big Data Visualization
Authors: Wilkinson Leland
Published: November 2020

Big data is a term widely used to describe large datasets. Out of context, it is more of a marketing term than a precise descriptor of scope and scalability. Nevertheless, datasets with a huge number of rows (billions) and columns (millions) can present special problems in developing coherent visualizations. This article reviews these problems and offers strategies for ameliorating them.
Monetizing Industry 4.0 and IoT Data for Marketing and Sales – Data Collected from Processes in Smart Factories
Authors: Coleman Shirley Y. , Ahlemeyer‐Stubbe Andrea
Published: November 2020

In smart factories, sensors measure and communicate all aspects of production and service. Clever companies are well aware of the importance of such data arising from
Industry 4.0
. They are able to develop new business models, initiate disruptive innovations, and open up new sources of revenue. At the same time, society is becoming more and more familiar with data from IoT, the
Internet of Things
. The less technical areas of
marketing and sales
can also benefit from this mass of data, and it is this vital part of the business chain upon which this article focuses. This article discusses concrete examples from the area of smart factories. It describes the data which is generated and shows value creation opportunities for marketing and sales both in large companies and small or medium enterprises (SMEs).
Tense and Temporal Adverbs
Authors: Altshuler Daniel
Published: November 2020

The goal of this chapter is to explore the meaning ofnow. The upshot of this exploration is a glimpse of how the meanings of tense and temporal adverbs interact. The chapter begins with a brief overview of temporal anaphora and distinguishes various analyses of temporal adverbs based on the observation that they can bediscourse transparent. Subsequently, the chapter considers the view thatnowis a temporal pronoun that is discourse transparent. This analysis faces several problems, and the chapter proceeds to look at two analyses that attempt to fix them, ultimately adopting the view thatnowseeks salient result states. In light of this view, the chapter briefly considers (i) whethernowis perspectival in nature and (ii) what we can learn from looking at hownowis translated into other languages. The chapter ends by discussing outstanding questions concerning the interaction between temporal adverbs and aspect.
Linguistic Relativity
Authors: Bohnemeyer Jürgen
Published: November 2020

The term “Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis” (LRH) has come to be used as a cover term for a family of related hypotheses about the possible causal impact of learning and speaking particular languages on nonlinguistic cognition. This chapter aims to distinguish among some of these hypotheses, trace their origins, and discuss the presently available evidence for and against them. It also examines the implications of the hypotheses and the sources of the interest in them. And it chronicles the waxing and waning of this interest since the writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897–1941), which launched an at times heated debate about these ideas among scholars from across a range of academic disciplines. A classification of different types of language‐on‐thought effects is proposed. Special emphasis is placed on the role of the language‐specificity and culture‐specificity of linguistic meaning in the debate.
(Complex) Demonstratives
Authors: Georgi Geoff
Published: November 2020

Complex demonstratives have been taken by many philosophers and linguists to be canonical examples of directly referential expressions, but complex demonstratives may also be used non‐referentially, like attributive uses of definite descriptions. In addition, complex demonstratives may be used, like pronouns and definite descriptions, both as bound variables and in donkey anaphora. This range of uses makes developing a unified semantic theory for complex demonstratives a challenging task.
Donkey Anaphora
Authors: Brasoveanu Adrian , Dotlačil Jakub
Published: November 2020

This chapter reviews a set of empirical problems faced by formal semantics frameworks that rely on classical static logic in the analysis of pronoun interpretation. The phenomena discussed challenge the idea that the natural language notions of quantifier scope, binding, coreference, covariation, and their compositional interaction match the corresponding notions and their compositional interaction in classical logic. Traditionally, the solutions to these empirical problems are taken to fall into two classes: dynamic accounts and E‐type approaches. The chapter discusses these two classes of solutions, and concludes by noting that the most recent approaches to donkey anaphora and related phenomena cannot be neatly classified as belonging to only one side of this divide.
Exclamatives
Authors: Castroviejo Elena
Published: November 2020

This chapter is concerned with the semantics of exclamative constructions, a clause type which is increasingly receiving attention, but whose characterization is still hard to pin down. Its goal is to present an outlook into the main questions exclamatives raise, both for semantic theory and for an adequate empirical description. The chapter covers the key ingredients of exclamatives, which are illustrated with crosslinguistic data, as well as the analyses that have been proposed in the literature forwh‐exclamatives, nominal exclamatives, and embedded exclamatives. Finally, an inventory of exclamatory constructions that do not strictly speaking share the properties of the rest of exclamatives is taken into consideration.
Noun Incorporation
Authors: Chung Sandra , Ladusaw William A.
Published: November 2020

Noun incorporationrefers to morphosyntactic constructions in which a noun forms a close unit with the verb. The noun is smaller in size than an independent argument, and forms a closer unit with the verb than if the verb were combined with an argument in the usual way. This chapter investigates the interplay between the syntax and the semantics–pragmatics of noun incorporation. The chapter first surveys the morphosyntactic patterns characteristic of noun incorporation, and discusses some generative accounts of them. It then turns to the distinctive semantics of noun incorporation and theoretical accounts that have extended “semantic incorporation” to a range of other constructions.
Wide Scope Indefinites
Authors: Ebert Cornelia
Published: November 2020

As opposed to other quantifiers, indefinites are known to be able to take exceptionally wide scope out of syntactic islands. This chapter deals with the phenomenon of exceptional wide scope, the most common approaches, and their benefits and shortcomings. Starting from the classical referentiality‐based solution of Fodor and Sag, approaches handling indefinites as introducing a choice function, and more recent proposals building on domain restriction, presupposition resolution, or the notion of topicality, are discussed.
The Parameters of Indirect Speech
Authors: Eckardt Regine
Published: November 2020

Indirect speech is used when one speaker reports what another speaker said. In order to interpret indirect speech we therefore have to disentangle two utterance contexts: the actual utterance and the reported utterance. The chapter investigates words and constructions that refer to utterance contexts and demonstrates how their meaning helps us to keep track of different utterance levels. I discuss traditional indexicals (pronouns, tense) as well as emotives, discourse particles, exclamatives, the subjunctive mood, and other context‐dependent items, and elucidate the logical structure behind different types of indirect speech. Based on the case of German, the chapter develops a comprehensive semantic analysis for tense, reportative subjunctive mood, and indexical elements in free and embedded indirect speech.
Aspectual Composition
Authors: Egg Markus
Published: November 2020

The topic of this chapter is aspectual composition, the joint determination of the aspectual class of a verbal projection by the verb together with its arguments. The exampledrink a glass of milkillustrates the phenomenon; because of its object, it is telic (introduces inherent boundaries), as opposed to the atelicdrink milk. This joint determination of aspectual class is based on a very close relation between a verb and one of its arguments, which is called “incrementality.” In this chapter, we will introduce different kinds of incrementality, present their semantics in detail, and discuss recent developments in the theory of incrementality.
Literal vs Enriched Meaning
Authors: Elbourne Paul
Published: November 2020

In some utterances, without the sentences involved being examples of ellipsis, some material does not seem to be explicitly expressed in overt words or morphemes, but nevertheless seems to be part of the literal content of the utterance in question rather than an implicature. An example isIt's raining, an utterance of which would normally claim that it was raining in some particular place that is not explicitly mentioned. Material of this kind is calledimplicit content. This chapter introduces the topic of implicit content, recounts the history of the field, surveys a range of example types, and then discusses the answers that have been given to three theoretical questions: how much implicit content is there? at what level of representation does implicit content originate? and in what manner does it combine with the content provided by the overt constituents in the syntax?
(Non)Restrictive Nominal Modification
Authors: Fabricius‐Hansen Cathrine
Published: November 2020

The chapter is concerned with the distinction between restrictive and nonrestrictive modification of nouns, focusing on relative clause (RC) modification but with a view also to adjectival/participial (AP) modification. After a brief introduction to the traditional notion of (non)restrictiveness, it presents a preliminary semantic characterization of (non)restrictiveness in relation to RCs and some observational characteristics of restrictive and nonrestrictive RCs, respectively. The central part of the chapter discusses the formal (syntactic–)semantic explication of restrictive vs nonrestrictive RC modification, in particular the question of whether or how nonrestrictive modification can be accounted for in compositional terms. Three different formal semantic approaches to this issue are presented: standard syntax with bidimensional semantics, nonstandard syntax with unidimensional semantics, and dynamic accounts. The presentation also looks into the epistemic status and discourse‐relational contribution of nonrestrictive RCs, as compared to independent sentences. As for (non)restrictive AP modification, it is shown that a semantically restrictive AP modifier may be nonrestrictive (nonrestricting) in context. More generally, it is argued that the term “appositive,” which is sometimes used as a synonym for “nonrestrictive,” might be reserved for modifiers that by prosody or punctuation are explicitly marked as being nonrestrictive (nonrestricting).
The Name and Nature of Neg‐Raising
Authors: Gajewski Jon
Published: November 2020

This chapter surveys approaches to the phenomenon of neg‐raising. Under some circumstances, a negation in a higher clause can be understood as if it were in the embedded in clause. The chapter addresses the lexical conditioning of this shift in interpretation and contrasts the two major approaches: syntactic neg‐raising and semantic neg‐raising. Further work on crosslinguistic variation is recommended.
The Perfect
Authors: Grønn Atle , von Stechow Arnim
Published: November 2020

The analytic perfect is found in Germanic and Romance languages, as well as in a couple of Slavic languages. Based on data from parallel corpora, we address the role of the perfect between tense and aspect, and show how its meaning is composed from aspectual properties of the participle and the tense marking on the auxiliary. Since the perfect is concerned with temporal relations, we focus on the interaction of the construction with temporal adverbials.
Semantics vs Pragmatics
Authors: Gutzmann Daniel
Published: November 2020

Semantics and pragmatics overlap in their scope as they both deal with the meaning of linguistic expressions. Since semantics can be viewed as an abstraction from pragmatics, the question of what divides them thus becomes as well a question of what the scope of semantics should be. Traditionally, three features haven been suggested to define semantic content and delimit it from pragmatics: semantic content is truth conditional, conventional, and constant. However, there are only two cases in which the three criteria line up. Literal meaning is characterized by all of them, while conversational implicatures exhibit none. This contribution examines all other six possible combinations of the three features. This will lead to a typology of kinds of meaning that can be aligned with the different conceptions of semantics and pragmatics. It will be argued that a semantics based on conventions is conceptually the most reasonable choice for a defining feature and the line it draws between semantics and pragmatics that converges with the practice in theoretical and empirical linguistic research.
Information Structure
Authors: Gyuris Beáta
Published: November 2020

This contribution reviews how the information structure of utterances is encoded in various natural languages. We look at different strategies for marking the focus–background, topic–comment, and given–new dimensions in different languages, as well as the consequences of selected marking strategies for truth‐conditional interpretation. Special attention is paid to Hungarian, where formal means of encoding some of the information structural dimensions listed above also have an impact on the truth conditions.
Actuality Entailments
Authors: Hacquard Valentine
Published: November 2020

The term “actuality entailment” was coined by Rajesh Bhatt to describe theimplicativeinference that arises whenability modalscombine withperfective aspect. This chapter investigates the nature of this inference and the contributions of aspect and modality, by surveying the environments in which it is found. Prior to Bhatt's work, the literatures on aspect and modality were largely independent of each other. While some investigated whether certain aspects involve a modal component, very little work examined theinteractionof distinct aspectual and modal operators. As actuality entailments question core assumptions about aspect and modality, their investigation has led to a fruitful reassessment and better understanding of both.
Vagueness and Natural Language Semantics
Authors: Burnett Heather , Sutton Peter R.
Published: November 2020

This chapter is devoted to the phenomenon of vagueness and the challenges that vague linguistic expressions raise for the kinds of semantic theories that are commonly used in descriptive and theoretical linguistics. The chapter aims first to show how we can study vagueness as an empirical phenomenon that can be observed in linguistic data; second, to outline why the observed properties of vague language are not easily accounted for in our classical semantic theories; and, finally, to describe a particular set of the responses to these challenges that are currently available in the formal semantics literature.
Copular Sentences
Authors: Heycock Caroline
Published: November 2020

This chapter discusses copular clauses: clauses in which the contentful predicate is not a verb, but some other category such as AP, NP/DP, or PP. The principal focus is on binominal copular clauses (clauses where both the subject and the predicate are NPs/DPs). The chapter goes through the four types of copular clauses in the typology due to Higgins (1973; 1979) – predicational, specificational, equational, and identificational – and for each type presents some of the main findings from the literature, as well as unresolved questions. The issues discussed include the appropriate denotations of the principal syntactic components of copular clauses, and what what kinds of motivation there are for a more articulated syntactic structure than is obvious on the surface.
Epistemic Modality
Authors: Yanovich Igor
Published: November 2020

This chapter starts by introducing the notion of epistemic modality and then briefly discusses the diachronic relations between epistemic and other modal words. It proceeds to review the major families of theoretical approaches to epistemic modality and what is known about the syntactic position and semantic scope possibilities for epistemics, focusing on data from English. Finally, it addresses the issue of embedding epistemic markers under attitude verbs.
Conceptual Spaces and Semantic Similarities of Colors
Authors: Jäger Gerhard
Published: November 2020

This chapter presents a statistical evaluation of the typological data about color naming systems across the languages of the world that have been obtained by the World Color Survey. In a first step, we discuss a singular value decomposition of the categorization data that led to a small set of easily interpretable features dominant in color categorization. These features were used for a dimensionality reduction of the categorization data. Using the categorization data thus preprocessed, we proceed to show that the available typological data support the hypothesis by the cognitive scientist Peter Gärdenfors that the extensions of color category are convex sets in the CIELab space in the languages of the world.
Rhetorical Relations
Authors: Jasinskaja Katja , Karagjosova Elena
Published: November 2020

This chapter gives an introduction to the subject area of rhetorical relations by reconsidering the fundamental question of how many and which rhetorical relations exist and by what kinds of criteria they are defined. It then presents a case study on the distinction between subordinating and coordinating rhetorical relations, discusses the linguistic motivation for this, and attempts a novel definition of the notion of discourse‐structural subordination.
Correlatives
Authors: Lin Jo‐Wang
Published: November 2020

Correlative constructions exhibit many interesting syntactic properties and give rise to various semantic interpretations. This chapter reviews the existing analyses of correlatives in the literature, comparing their merits and disadvantages. Crosslinguistically, single correlatives may be base‐generated at the surface position or originate within the correlate DP and are moved to the left‐adjoined position later in the derivation. Multiple correlatives seem to be always base‐generated at the left‐adjoined position. Semantically, single correlatives receive a definite interpretation by means of a maximalization operation or the iota type shift. The semantic composition of multiple correlatives is more difficult and complicated but the strategy is to employ a mechanism as close to the one used for single correlatives as possible.
The Status and Significance of “Impossible Words”
Authors: Collins John
Published: November 2020

The received view is that speakers' intuitive judgments of the unacceptability of certain readings of strings count as evidence for or against theories that predict syntactic and semantic properties of such strings. A similar position has been upheld with regard to words: the intuitive judgment that certain putative words (associations of syntactic forms with semantic properties) are unacceptable or “impossible” provides evidence for theories of lexical semantics (especially argument structure). The chapter offers a critical survey of “impossible word” discussions running from generative semantics through the beginnings of lexical semantics to contemporary arguments relating to whether lexical items are best theorized as atomic or complex.
Imperatives
Authors: Kaufmann Magdalena
Published: November 2020

Imperative clauses challenge semantic theories that, traditionally, build heavily on truth conditions and truth preservation across inferences. This chapter introduces the notion of imperatives as objects of linguistic investigation and discusses their fate in early attempts to extend the nascent standard theories of linguistic meaning from declarative clauses to non‐declaratives in general and to imperatives in particular. It then examines the relation between imperatives and the speech acts these are used to perform. A couple of developments in formal semantic theorizing that have crucially changed the game for semantic analyses of non‐declarative sentences are discussed, and a brief overview is provided of the main types of approaches that are being pursued in current theorizing. A short introduction is then given to three of the topics that are currently providing novel insights into the semantics of imperative clauses, namely embedded imperatives, related form types (so called “surrogate imperatives”), and the interaction between imperative marking and other grammatical categories.
Gradable Adjectives and Degree Expressions
Authors: Morzycki Marcin
Published: November 2020

This chapter provides an overview of the semantics of gradable adjectives and the grammatical mechanisms by which the meaning of these adjectives is modulated. This entails a discussion of how gradability and vagueness are related, and of how best to model that relation semantically. Perhaps the most informative window into this domain is the class of degree constructions – which includes comparatives, equatives, superlatives, and their less‐well‐understood grammatical cousins. These provide a view of how adjectives fit into larger structures, but it's possible to look in the other direction as well, by using a variety of degree morphemes (such asveryandfully) to explore subtle distinctions in the lexical semantics of adjectives themselves. Finally, over the last decade or so, major strides have been made toward answering a central question: how do languages differ in how they express gradation and comparison?
Intervention Effects
Authors: Mayr Clemens
Published: November 2020

This chapter provides an overview of both weak island phenomena and Beck effects. In both cases, reasons suggesting that accounts of such effects should at the least involve a semantic or pragmatic component are found. The chapter then gives a survey of currently existing proposals along that general vein. It does so by comparing them with each other and identifying some open issues.
Free Choice Disjunction
Authors: Meyer Marie‐Christine
Published: November 2020

The chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the research on Free Choice disjunction. It focuses on the challenges that this phenomenon has posed for natural language semantics and pragmatics, but includes a review of aspects relevant to syntactic theory and deontic logic, as well as historical background.
Modal–Temporal Interactions
Authors: Fălăuş Anamaria , Laca Brenda
Published: November 2020

This chapter concentrates on the interaction between modal verbs and tense–aspect operators. It explores the question of the link between types of modality and temporal configurations by adopting a precise framework for the analysis of temporal configurations in modal environments and by tracing the development of the hypothesis of a structural difference between epistemic and non‐epistemic modals.
Expressives
Authors: McCready Elin
Published: November 2020

This chapter considers the semantics and pragmatics of expressive content. It begins by exemplifying the class of expressives, in the process introducing the tests that have been proposed for expressivity, focusing on the expressive adjectives
fucking
and
damn
, and on pejorative terms. The chapter then turns to specific analyses of these and other expressive items, also discussing facts related to how the particular content of some expressives can be derived from context. The chapter concludes with a discussion and overview of various approaches to semantic composition with expressives.
Strong and Weak Nominals
Authors: McNally Louise
Published: November 2020

Milsark introduced the termsweakandstrongto distinguish (respectively) the nominals that could appear in Englishthere‐existential sentences (e.g.,some trees, cf.There are some trees in the garden) from those that putatively could not (e.g.,most trees, cf. ??There are most trees in the garden). Since then, the strong/weak distinction has played a role in the analysis of a wide variety of phenomena in many languages. This chapter reviews the different characterizations of the distinction that have appeared in the literature, as well as the most important phenomena in which it has been argued to intervene: existential constructions, the individual‐level/stage‐level predicate distinction, certain aspects of information structure, case marking, and so‐called semantic incorporation. We also review the application of the distinction to subclassify definite descriptions.
Definiteness
Authors: Meier Cécile
Published: November 2020

In this chapter, we summarize the observations about the difference between definite expressions and indefinite ones. Furthermore, we discuss which properties distinguish definite descriptions (expressions with the articlethe) from the other types of definite expressions like proper names, possessives, demonstratives, and pronouns. The basic insight is that definite descriptions may be used at least in some cases where the other definite expressions are also used, and some of the uses of definite descriptions, in fact, share characteristics with indefinites. It even seems difficult to argue that there is one use of definite descriptions that no other definite expression may have and that does not share properties with indefinites. The conclusion is that definiteness is a vague notion. But definite descriptions have a prototypical use. Definite expressions constitute a family resemblance. The object language mainly considered is English.
Evidentials
Authors: Murray Sarah E.
Published: November 2020

Evidentials indicate source of information. This chapter reviews the key concepts and distinctions from the semantic literature on evidentials, including essential data and theoretical approaches. Several semantic diagnostics establish various empirical properties of evidential systems, including what propositions are conveyed by sentences with evidentials, what status they have, how evidentials embed, and how they behave in questions. While there are important empirical differences across languages, there are also many similarities. This chapter also reviews three types of theoretical approaches to evidentials – as modals, as speech act operators, and as not‐at‐issue restrictions – and how these approaches apply crosslinguistically.
E‐Type Pronouns
Authors: Nouwen Rick
Published: November 2020

This chapter concerns a type of pronominal anaphora commonly referred to with terms likedescriptive pronounsore‐type pronouns. For a whole range of reasons, such cases of anaphora have played an important role in semantic theory. Most prominent among these is the fact that e‐type pronouns force us to explicate what concepts like quantification, binding, and reference involve.
Free Relatives
Authors: S̆imík Radek
Published: November 2020

This chapter gives a detailed survey of the semantics of free relatives. After providing a brief characterization and typology of free relatives, the chapter reviews the arguments that have played a role in the debate about the semantic nature of free relatives. The arguments clearly support the traditional view that free relatives correspond to definite descriptions. At the same time, however, there is a class ofeverfree relatives, called here universal‐likeeverfree relatives, which match the behavior of universal quantifiers. The chapter then turns to a discussion of so‐calledeverfree relatives and particularly the modal inferences they convey – such as indifference or ignorance. A brief crosslinguistic survey is included, suggesting thateverfree relatives are primarily non‐modal, which in turn lends support to the approaches that attribute the potential modal inferences to a source external to theeverfree relative itself. The final part of the chapter is devoted to how the semantics of free relatives can be derived compositionally.
Compositionality
Authors: Johnson Michael
Published: November 2020

The principle of compositionality is central to contemporary work in semantics and philosophy of language. This chapter covers what the principle has been taken to mean, what evidence has been brought to bear on it, and how challenges to the principle have driven advances in semantic theory.
Systematic Polysemy
Authors: Dölling Johannes
Published: November 2020

Systematic (or regular) polysemy is characterized as the phenomenon in which a noun has several distinct but related meanings whereby the same relation holds between the meanings for a series of nouns. The latter is explained by the fact that systematically polysemous nouns are determined by the existence of a multitude of conceptual patterns applying to a certain extent crosslinguistically. It is customary to distinguish between metonymic (or metonymically motivated) polysemy, on the one hand, and inherent (or logical) polysemy, on the other. Metonymic polysemy is described as cases where one of the related senses is primary and the others are metonymically derived from it. By contrast, inherent polysemy involves senses where there are no substantial reasons for assuming that one or another of them is prior. Rather, they are so intimately interconnected with each other that they must be viewed as being part of a complex meaning.
Biscuit Conditionals
Authors: Rawlins Kyle
Published: November 2020

This chapter provides a survey of the data and analyses of “biscuit conditionals,” such as Austin's famous example “There are biscuits on the sideboard if you want them.” The empirical side is centered on three key observations: that biscuit conditionals entail their consequent; that they seem to have a lot in common with “normal” hypothetical conditionals; and that, despite the similarities, there are subtle details in English and other languages that indicate that biscuit conditional adjuncts attach scopally higher than regular hypothetical conditional adjuncts. Analyses divide into those that take the third observation as their starting point and derive consequent entailment (when appropriate) from scope, and those that reject the third point and derive consequent entailment pragmatically.
Modal Subordination
Authors: Roberts Craige
Published: November 2020

Modal subordination is a puzzle about anaphora in discourse. InA wolf might come in. It would eat you first!,itseems to take as antecedenta wolfin the preceding clause, not referring to a specific wolf, despite the fact that the indefinite NP is in a scope‐island and could normally serve as antecedent in subsequent discourse only if it had a specific interpretation, as inA wolf might come in. It is hungry. Crucial to the puzzling interpretation is the presence of the modalwould. We explore a range of related examples involving other modal elements to generalize and elucidate the puzzle, and give an overview of the relevant literature. We argue that a satisfactory account of modal subordination must involve an anaphoric understanding of domain restriction, an appreciation of the selectional restrictions on the lexical elements introducing modality, and a variety of pragmatic phenomena and principles.
Idioms
Authors: Sailer Manfred
Published: November 2020

This chapter presents research on idioms with respect to the challenge they represent for compositional semantics. After introducing a classification and some empirical observations, three types of theoretical approaches to idioms are discussed.