bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Photoelastic Analysis of Anisotropic Fiber Reinforced Composites
Authors: Pih H. , Knight C.E.
Published: March 2007

A theoretical and experimental investigation was made of the integrated photoelastic effect in a transparent fiber glass reinforced epoxy resin. Vacuum impregnation techniques were developed to render the material transparent. The integrated effect of the isochro matics and isoclinics in the material when subjected to both uniaxial and biaxial stresses was observed and compared to the predicted data. Isochromatic data proved to be representable by a proposed orthotropic stress-optic law. Isoclinics were predictable, but at a given point in a stressed model the isoclinic angle depends on both the fiber orienta tion with respect to the principal stress directions and the ratio of principal stress magnitudes. Thus, the isoclinics do not directly give the principal stress directions. At this point, the anisotropic photo elasticity solution has not been determined.
Geometric Design of Composite Cylindrical Characterization Specimens
Authors: Pagano N.J. , Whitney J.M.
Published: March 2007

The stress field within a highly anisotropic cylinder, even under simple loading conditions, is far from uniform. Thus, like other verbage which has its origins in the stress analysis of isotropic bodies, the terminology "thin-walled cylinder" must be redefined for aniso tropic materials, and is a strong function of elastic moduli. This places a severe burden on the experimentalist who must employ such specimens to characterize composite materials under biaxial states of stress. In this work, a procedure is outlined to determine the proper geometry of anisotropic and laminated cylinders such that elastic stress gradients can be reduced to a predetermined limit. The ap proach consists of combining a modified plane strain elasticity solu tion with shell theory. Parametric studies on materials possessing high and low degrees of anisotropy indicate general guidelines for proper tube geometry for precise characterization under simulated laboratory loading and clamping conditions.
Stress-Rupture of S-Glass Epoxy Multifilament Strands
Authors: Chiao T.T. , Moore R.L.
Published: March 2007

The stress-rupture behavior of filamentary composites is of great concern in many long-term applications. We have begun a program to collect reliable stress-rupture data on very simple composites such as various fiber strands impregnated with an epoxy matrix. We de veloped a tensile test method for fibers, designed a stress-rupture test apparatus and verified its performance, and installed 400 test apparatuses in a controlled-environment building. This paper dis cusses the data collected to date on single-end S-glass/epoxy strands at three load levels: 83.8, 74.5, and 65.2% (based on the average breaking load). Using at least 100 specimens at each load level, we found that the time-to-break values consistently varied by a factor of 1000. The data clearly indicate a shorter life at higher loads. We are collecting data at three lower load levels: 50, 40, 33%. We are attempting to characterize the distribution function of the stress- rupture life but are not yet able to draw any conclusions.
Stress Analysis of Thick Laminated Composite and Sandwich Plates*
Authors: Whitney James M.
Published: March 2007

Because of the relatively soft interlaminar shear modulus in high per formance composites, laminated plate theory based on the Kirchhoff hypothesis becomes inaccurate for determining gross plate response and internal stresses of thick composites and sandwich type laminates. In this paper a procedure is developed for accurately calculating the mechanical behavior of a thick laminated composite or sandwich plate of arbitrary stacking sequence. The procedure is an extension of an existing laminated plate theory which includes the effect of transverse shear deformation, and is easily computerized for design application with a minimum of running time. Accuracy of the approach is ascertained by comparing solutions from the modified plate theory to exact elasticity theory.
The Charpy Impact Energy of Boron-Aluminum
Authors: Prewo Karl M.
Published: March 2007

The notched Charpy impact energy of boron-aluminum composites has been determined as a function of specimen orientation, fiber type, matrix composition and fabrication conditions. Both boron fiber and silicon carbide coated boron fiber have been used with 1100, 6061, 2024, 5052 and 5056 aluminum alloys. It has been demonstrated that impact energy values in excess of 30 joules (22 ft-lbs) can be achieved and that high levels of energy are maintained without loss in composite axial or transverse strength.
Apparent Flexural Modulus and Strength of Multimodulus Materials
Authors: Jones Robert M.
Published: March 2007

The ASTM flexure test is commonly used to measure the flexural modulus and flexural strength of materials other than the plastics for which it was originally developed. The officially designated equations for reporting the test results are applicable only to materials that are linear elastic to failure. However, the test is often used for carbon-carbon and other composite materials which have different (and sometimes nonlinear) stress-strain curves under tension loading than under compression loading. Such materials are called multimodulus materials. The influence of the multimodulus characteristic on the behavior of a test beam is evaluated for two representative carbon-carbon composite materials. The ASTM flexure test is found to be inapplicable to this class of materials because of the multimodulus characteristic and the nonlinear stress-strain behavior.
Elastic Properties of Randomly Oriented Short Fiber-Glass Composites
Authors: Manera M.
Published: March 2007

Simplified equations are presented for the elastic properties of randomly oriented short fiber-glass composites. The suggested equations for the Young's modulus, the shear modulus and the Poisson ratio are given in terms of the fiber-glass content and the Young's moduli of the constit uents. The equations are applicable for fiber-glass volume fractions in the range 0.1 to 0.4. The theoretical results are compared with experimental values, and the achieved good correlation, shows the utility of the pro posed approximations.
Stresses in Adhesively Bonded Joints: A Closed-Form Solution
Authors: Delale F. , Erdogan F. , Aydinoglu M.N.
Published: March 2007

In this paper the general plane strain problem of adhesively bonded struc tures which consist of two different orthotropic adherends is considered. Assuming that the thicknesses of the adherends are constant and are small in relation to the lateral dimensions of the bonded region, the adherends are treated as plates. Also, assuming that the thickness of the adhesive is small compared to that of the adherends, the thickness variation of the stresses in the adhesive layer is neglected. However, the transverse shear effects in the adherends and the in-plane normal strain in the adhesive are taken into ac count. The problem is reduced to a system of differential equations for the adhesive stresses which is solved in closed form. A single lap joint and a stif fened plate under various loading conditions are considered as examples. To verify the basic trend of the solutions obtained from the plate theory and to give some idea about the validity of the plate assumption itself, a sample pro blem is solved by using the finite element method and by treating the adherends and the adhesive as elastic continua. It is found that the plate theory used in the analysis not only predicts the correct trend for the adhesive stresses but also gives rather surprisingly accurate results. The solution is ob tained by assuming linear stress-strain relations for the adhesive. In the Ap pendix the problem is formulated by using a nonlinear material for the adhesive and by following two different approaches.
Influence of Fiber Orientation and Ply Thickness on Hygroscopic Boundary-Layer Stresses in Angle-Ply Composite Laminates
Authors: Wang S.S. , Choi I.
Published: March 2007

The influence of fiber orientation and ply thickness on hygroscopic boundary-layer stresses in angle-ply composite laminates is studied. Based on the recently developed hygroelasticity theory for anisotropic composites, complete solutions are obtained for the hygroscopic stresses in [θ/-θ/-θ/θ] graphite-epoxy laminates with various fiber orientations and ply thicknesses. Both variables are shown to have significant effects on the develop ment of in-plane and interlaminar hygroscopic stresses. Important parameters characterizing the boundary-layer behavior such as hygroscopic edge stress singularities and stress intensity factors are presented. Hygroscopic boundary-layer widths are determined also for various cases by considering strain energy density distributions along the ply interface.
Experimental Confirmation of the Theory of Elastic Moduli of Fabric Composites
Authors: Ishikawa Takashi , Matsushima Masamichi , Hayashi Youichi , Chou Tsu-Wei
Published: March 2007

Some experiments for measuring the elastic moduli of fabric composites are con ducted in order to evaluate the theoretical predictions developed by the authors in their previous work. Experimental results coincide very well with the theory for 8 harness satin carbon/epoxy systems. There exists some discrepancy between theories for con strained and unconstrained local warping in the case of plain weave composites. Ex perimental results are bounded by these two theories. The dependency of elastic moduli on laminate ply number is discovered in plain weave composites. The ratio of ply thickness to thread width is also a very important parameter, which strongly affects the elastic moduli of plain weave composites. The in-plane shear modulus of fabric composites is mainly influenced by fiber volume fraction, which varies linearly with ng. Off-axis properties of fabric composites are measured and compared with theories. The experimental results essentially confirm the validity of the author's theoretical predictions.
Epoxy Resins: Effect of Amines on Curing Characteristics and Properties
Authors: Varma Indra K. , Satya Bhama P.V.
Published: March 2007

The effect of orientation of amino group (i.e. m-DDS and p-DDS) and concentration of diamine (10 phr-50 phr) on the curing of diglycidyl ether of bisphenol-A (DGEBA) was investigated. Heat of polymerization (ΔH) increased with increasing phr of diamines up to optimum phr (37.19). Further increase in amine concentration of m-DDS to 50 phr re duced ΔH while in p-DDS, a steady increase was noted. m-DDS was more reactive than p-DDS as a curator of DGEBA. Thermal stability of cured resins depended on the concen tration of diamine. A Two-step decomposition was observed at low phr (<20) of diamine.

Mechanical properties of glass fabric reinforced epoxy laminates cured by p-DDS were slightly better than those cured by m-DDS. A significant improvement in strength was observed by addition of 3 phr of amine terminated acrylonitrile butadiene copolymer (ATBN). Rubber toughened laminates showed a poor retention of strength on thermal age ing and boiling water treatment.
Thermal Sonic Analysis of Polymer Matrices and Composites
Authors: Woo Eamor M. , Seferis James C.
Published: March 2007

A commercially available sonic Pulse Propagation Meter (PPM-5R) was utilized in this study to monitor kinetic changes of matrix polymers that may be encountered in process ing operations of fiber-reinforced composites. Both thermoplastic polyetheretherketone (PEEK) and thermosetting epoxy resins and their carbon fiber composites were examined. During cure, the epoxy samples displayed obvious velocity changes at the initial softening and final cure transitions. For the neat PEEK samples, the sonic velocity decreased slowly as the temperature increased and the velocity dropped rapidly at a transition temperature of 160°C. Samples of carbon fiber-reinforced epoxy and PEEK composites were also in vestigated to examine the effect of fibers on the sonic velocity responses. The results show that the reinforcing fibers whose orientation coincides with the probe orientation have the most dampening effect on the detection of transitions using the sonic technique. Overall, the sonic technique for process monitoring is discussed in this paper.
Vibration and Damping Analysis of Fibre Reinforced Composite Material Cylindrical Shell
Authors: Alam N. , Asnani N.T.
Published: March 2007

The vibration and damping analysis of a multilayered cylindrical shell consisting of an arbitrary number of orthotropic material layers developed by authors [1,2] has been ap plied to study the damping for axisymmetric vibrations of fibre reinforce composite material laminated shells. The analysis considers bending, extension and shear deforma tions in each of the layers and also includes rotary, longitudinal translatory and transverse inertias. The variations of the resonance frequency and the associated system loss factor for the axisymmetric vibrations of a six layered angle-ply carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) cylindrical shell with fibre orientation has been studied at various values of the shell length parameter. The system loss factors for axisymmetric vibrations of cross-ply laminated shells of GFRP, BFRP and CFRP materials are also reported.
A New End Tab Design for Off-Axis Tension Test of Composite Materials
Authors: Sun C.T. , Berreth S.P.
Published: March 2007

A new end tab fabricated using a fiberglass knit in a silicon rubber matrix was used for off-axis tension tests on unidirectional composites. It was shown experimentally that this new tab allowed shear deformation of the specimen to occur in the hydraulic grips and, thus, produce a uniform state of strain in the specimen. Consequently, the shear modulus could be determined accurately using this new tab. Furthermore, due to the absence of stress concentrations, this procedure could also be used to determine shear strength.
Strain Energy Release Rates of an Interfacial Crack Between Two Orthotropic Solids
Authors: Sun C.T. , Manoharan M.G.
Published: March 2007

Mode I and Mode II strain energy release rates for a crack lying along the interface of two dissimilar orthotropic elastic solids are investigated analytically and also by the finite element method. It is shown that due to the violent oscillatory crack tip stress behavior, the strain energy release rates for Mode I and Mode II do not converge to definite values. Both GI and GII can be expressed in terms of ½G (G is the total strain energy release rate) plus oscillatory terms. However, the total strain energy release rate is well-defined.
Effect of Nonuniformities in Temperature on Resin Flow during the Lamination of Polymer Composites
Authors: Paithankar D.Y. , Sangani A.S. , Martin G.C.
Published: March 2007

A method is described for analyzing the effect of nonuniformities in temper ature on the flow of resin during the lamination of B-staged prepreg layers. The nonunifor mities in temperature affect the distribution of the resin viscosity and flow in a complex manner due to the presence of a cross linking reaction which renders the viscosity of the resin dependent on its thermal history. The viscosity distribution and the flow field are determined by evaluating the trajectories or, equivalently, the thermal histories of the fluid elements for a few representative temperature distributions. It is shown that, depending upon the nature of nonuniformity, the magnitude of the resin flow can differ significantly from that evaluated by assuming a uniform temperature distribution in the lamination assembly.
Dynamic Stress Concentrations in Fiber-Reinforced Composites with Interface Layers
Authors: Bogan Samuel D. , Hinders Mark K.
Published: March 2007

Interface layers in composite materials exist as a natural consequence of material processing or are intentionally introduced into the composite to improve the chemical and physical properties of the composite. These interface layers surrounding the typically fiber reinforcements of the composite can be small, as in the interface between tungsten wire reinforcement and steel, or quite large, as in vapor deposited boron fibers in epoxy. The fiber size has a direct influence on the macroscopic structural properties of the composite as does the existence of the interface layer surrounding the reinforcement. The static structural properties due to the reinforcements can be characterized through ex perimental testing. This should be adequate for non-primary structural composites but composites are now commonly used as primary structural components in both static and dynamic environments. Static and dynamic properties are therefore essential to the proper design of the composite structure. The pertinent quantity of interest in dynamic analysis is the dynamic stress concentration, a ratio of the dynamical stress on the reinforcement to the stress without the reinforcement. The dynamical stress concentrations are the ap propriate area for studying fiber-reinforced composites and the interfacial layers must be included in order to properly model the dynamical interaction with the substructure of the composite. As an added benefit of the analysis, ultrasonic inspection benchmarks for non destructive testing of the reinforced composites are produced from the dynamical stress concentration analysis.
Piagetian Tasks for Curriculum Construction in Java Using Sequence Analysis
Authors: Deer Christine E. , Kelly Max
Published: March 2007

It is asserted that two aspects of Piagetian theory which most need confirmation in the cross-cultural setting are that: (1) the order of appearance of success in the achievement of the tasks Piaget uses as developmental signposts is the same across cultures and (2) the way in which the "signpost" begins to appear is also similar across cultures. Subjects were 144 primary school children in East Java, who provided results on a number of cognitive tasks of Piagetian origin, together with other measures. These results were subjected to sequence analysis derived from the ordering theory approach described by Krus, Bart and Airasian (1975). The sequences which emerged were not the same as those described by the Genevans as universal, and this is important for educational planning, at least in Java.
Visual Preferences in Urban Street Scenes
Authors: Nasar Jack L.
Published: March 2007

This research examined visual environmental preferences of a sample of 46 subjects (Ss): 29 in Japan and 17 in the United States. The Ss (who were all students) were asked to evaluate videotapes and slides of urban street scenes in each country. An examination of preference scores revealed that both Japanese and U.S. Ss preferred foreign scenes to native ones. Physical properties of each scene were judged by four professionals in the United States. An examination of correlations between preferences for scenes and physical properties of those scenes revealed that for both Japanese and U.S. Ss, preference was associated independently with ratings of upkeep, prominence of nature, and absence of vehicles. Stepwise regressions revealed preference to be a function of two factors: order (order, naturalness, and upkeep) and diversity (high contrast, diversity, and few vehicles).
Cross-Cultural Similarities and Differences in Perceptions of Fairness
Authors: Berman John J. , Murphy-Berman Virginia , Singh Purnima
Published: March 2007

Indian and American respondents were presented vignettes that portrayed two target individuals, one meritorious and one financially needy. The respondents' task was to allocate a resource between the targets in the fairest way. In half of the vignettes the resource was positive (bonus money); in the other half it was negative (reduction in salary). Every combination of sex-of-target was used. Results showed significant positive and negative effects in both cultures, such that respondents gave preference to the needy target significantly more in the negative than in the positive situation. Indians, in general, gave preference to the needy over the meritorious more than did the Americans.
Social Loafing on an Optimizing Task
Authors: Gabrenya William K. , Wang Yue-Eng , Latane Bibb
Published: March 2007

Research conducted in the United States and in several non-Western societies has found that people exert greater effort when they work individually than when they do so in a group that obscures identifiability of members' individual outputs, a phenomenon termed "social loafing." It was argued that the apparent transcultural generality of social loafing may be limited to tasks that participants perceive as undiagnostic with respect to the competencies that they assume are valued by important referent others in the research setting. It was predicted that on diagnostic tasks members of group-oriented cultures such as the Chinese would be less likely than members of individualistic cultures to exhibit social loafing. Schoolchildren in the sixth and ninth grade in the United States and China (Taiwan) performed an auditory tracking task that required counting tone patterns alone and in pairs. Consistent with our hypotheses, Americans evidenced social loafing on this task, whereas Chinese exhibited the opposite pattern ("social striving"), performing better in pairs than alone. Alternate sources of this cultural difference in social loafing within the global "group-orientedness" variable are proposed.
Diachronic Universals in Interpersonal Structures
Authors: Adamopoulos John , Bontempo Robert N.
Published: March 2007

Factor analyses of frequencies of social interaction in literary material from different historical periods were used to explore the possibility that affiliation, dominance, and intimacy are universal dimensions of interpersonal relations. The findings suggest that the first two dimensions have not undergone any major changes over the past 3,000 years. However, it is likely that the intimacy formality continuum has developed substantially through this period of time. Results are discussed in the context of a theoretical framework that views the fundamental features of social behavior as emerging over time in a systematic fashion.
Explaining Cross-Cultural Differences
Authors: Poortinga Ype H. , Van De Vijver Fons J. R.
Published: March 2007

Contrary to the tradition in cross-cultural psychology in which bias is identified with the stimulus by culture interaction in an analysis of variance design, it is argued (and illustrated) here that any main effect or interaction term in such a design can reflect bias. It is suggested that difficulties in the interpretation of observed cross-cultural differences in data can be avoided only if the researcher succeeds in introducing external variables in terms of which the variance in the factor culture can be reduced to zero. This implies, somewhat paradoxically, that in a satisfactory cross-cultural study there is no variance left to be explained in terms of culture.
Cooperation, Competition, and the Effects of Time Pressure in Canada and India
Authors: Alcock James E.
Published: March 2007

The effects of time limitations on bargaining behavior were investigated in India and Canada. The findings indicated that Canadian males reacted to time limits imposed by one of the bargainers in a manner consistent with the way North American males typically react to threat-that is, by becoming very competitive and resisting yielding. When the time limits were imposed by the experimenter, however, this same group reacted cooperatively. Canadian females and Indians of both sexes were all relatively cooperative, regardless of the source of time limitation. Indian females, however, were more passive than the other groups.
Nationalist Attitudes in Quebec and Belgium
Authors: Loh Wallace D.
Published: March 2007

A questionnaire survey of nationalist attitudes of a nonrepresentative sample of 374 high school youth in Quebec and Belgium was conducted. Scales of political and cultural nationalism, constructed by factor analysis and interitem correlations, had satisfactory alpha reliability and concurrent validity. The effects of different kinds of status on nationalist attitudes were examined. Political nationalism was found related to ethnicity (ascribed status) and social class (achieved status), but not to the interaction of ethnicity and social class (status inconsistency). The relationship between bilingualism and nationalism was also explored. Bilingual fluency was associated with cultural, but not with political, nationalism.
Strategy Choices of Foreign Policy Decision Makers
Authors: Gallhofer I.N. , Saris W.E.
Published: March 2007

The assessment of the selection of strategy is studied using documents of a specific case of Dutch foreign policy from the beginning of World War I. First, a content analysis procedure was developed in order to search for the relevant concepts in the documents and to represent the argumentations in decision trees. Thereafter, the applicability of several decision critena to the data is discussed. In order to describe the data, an alternative decision rule had to be developed, one which can be considered an adaptation of Simon's satisficing principle.
Libertarianism and International Violence
Authors: Rummel R. J.
Published: March 2007

Based on theory and previous results, three hypotheses are posed: (1) Libertarian states have no violence between themselves. (2) The more libertarian two states, the less their mutual violence. (3) The more libertarian a state, the less its foreign violence. These hypotheses are statistically tested against scaled data on all reported international conflict for 1976 to 1980; and where appropriate, against a list of wars from 1816 to 1974, and of threats and use of force from 1945 to 1965. The three hypotheses are found highly significant. Tests were also made for contiguity as an intervening variable and were negative. Finally, two definitions of “libertarian” are tested, one involving civil liberties plus political rights, the other adding in economic freedom. Both are highly positive, but economic freedom is also found to make a significant added reduction in the level of violence for a state overall or between particular states.
A Test of M1(im) Bargaining Sets in Sidepayment Games
Authors: Michener H. Andrew , Yuen Kenneth
Published: March 2007

This article reports an experimental test of the M1(im) Cooperative and M1(im) Shapley bargaining set solutions in 3-person superadditive, sidepayment games with nonempty core. The results indicate that, on an overall basis, M1(im) Cooperative has greater predictive accuracy than does M1(im) Shapley. The data also indicate that M1(im) Cooperative is comparatively more accurate in games in which the equality vector located inside the core and in games in which the strength of the 13 coalition is high. These findings are consistent with the view that variations in game properties may affect the salience of different standards of fairness that underlie the M1(im) bargaining set.
Cooperators, Competitors, and Response to GRIT
Authors: Lindskold Svenn , Walters Pamela S. , Koutsourais Helen
Published: March 2007

Eighty-seven subjects were classified as cooperators and competitors. They then participated in a 30-trial Prisoner's Dilemma situation with a simulated other who, after 10 trials of 50% cooperation, followed one of three strategies during the next 10 trials: GRIT, tit-for-tat, or 100% cooperation. As predicted, competitors as well as cooperators responded cooperatively only to the GRIT strategy. During the final 10 trials, which were 100% cooperative in all three conditions, the cooperators were somewhat more cooperative than the competitors. In postexperimental ratings, competitors estimated people in general to be more competitive and untruthful than did cooperators. They also rated themselves as more competitive than did cooperators.
I Won the Auction But Don't Want the Prize
Authors: Bazerman Max H. , Samuelson William F.
Published: March 2007

The “winner's curse” occurs in competitive situations when a successful buyer finds that he or she has paid too much for a commodity of uncertain value. This study provides an experimental demonstration of the winner's curse, and identifies factors that affect the existence and magnitude of this bidding abnormality. In an auction setting, two factors are shown to affect the incidence and magnitude of the winner's curse: (1) the degree of uncertainty concerning the value of the item up for bid and (2) the number of competing bidders. Increasing either factor will increase the range of value estimates and bids, making it more likely that the winning bidder will overestimate the true value of the commodity and thus overbid.
Militarized Interstate Disputes, 1816-1976
Authors: Gochman Charles S. , Maoz Zeev
Published: March 2007

This article offers an empirical description and discussion of interstate conflict behavior. The basis is a recently completed data set consisting of all recorded instances of threats, displays, and uses of military force among states since 1816. We detail historical trends in the data and describe major dimensions of dispute behavior, including patterns of participation, duration, severity and escalation, regional distribution, and national dispute proneness. The following conclusions are suggested: First, patterns of dispute behavior have been more persistent over time than we often assume. Second, when these patterns have changed, the changes have been evolutionary in nature and have paralleled changes in the size and composition of the interstate system. Third, despite the diversity of the political units that constitute the interstate system, patterns of dispute behavior are generalizable across geographic boundaries.
Class, State, and Revolution in Central America
Authors: Midlarsky Manus I. , Roberts Kenneth
Published: March 2007

Models of revolutionary behavior in Central America are developed that rely initially on the distribution of landholdings. The scarcity of arable land—as in El Salvador, with its high population density—is suggested to result in high inequality, acute class polarization, and class-based redistributive revolutionary movements. A lesser degree of land scarcity, as in Nicaragua, should lead to a diminished extent of inequality, less acute class polarization, and multiclass, nonredistributive revolutionary coalitions. The behaviors of revolutionary movements in both El Salvador and Nicaragua conform to expectations. In turn, three types of state-class relations are developed. These are instrumentalist states in which the state is used as an instrument of control by the dominant class (El Salvador); personalist states in which a caudillo-type leader rules in large measure, independent of the dominant class (Nicaragua); and autonomous institutional states (Mexico), which have developed infrastructures of party and/ or government.
Terrorist Success in Hostage-Taking Incidents
Authors: Sandler Todd , Scott John L.
Published: March 2007

This article identifies factors that help explain terrorist success in hostage-taking events. Two measures of success are examined: logistical success and negotiation success. In the empirical estimations, we regress the log of the odds ratio against various sets of explanatory variables. For both sets of models, the statistical results are robust to changes in the explanatory variables. Our results are compared with propositions derived from the economic theory of bargaining; these propositions are partly supported by our findings. The article also sketches the choice-theoretic model faced by a terrorist during the planning and negotiating stages of a hostage mission.
Alliances and Collective Goods
Authors: Thies Wallace J.
Published: March 2007

How are burdens shared within an alliance? How many and what kinds of armed forces are alliance members likely to purchase in support of their collective interest in deterrence and defense? These questions are the province of the economic theory of alliances, which has been widely accepted as offering an explanation for two tendencies often found within alliances: disproportionality in burden sharing and suboptimality in the amount of military spending. Proponents of the theory have marshalled an impressive body of evidence in support of propositions derived from it, but efforts to test the predictive power of the theory have relied exclusively on data derived from alliances after World War II. An examination of burden-sharing arrangements within seven pre-1945 alliances produces outcomes that cannot be adequately explained by the theory as it now stands. Consideration of the pre-1945 cases thus suggests additional refinements to the theory, the most important of which have to do with the degree of substitutability of the armed forces of alliance members and the difference between deterrent and defensive alliances.
A Theory of the Behavioral Power of Nations
Authors: Ward Michael D. , House Lewis L.
Published: March 2007

Nations are said to be behaviorally powerful to the extent they can influence the behavior of other nations. An analytical model of this process is developed based upon the existence of a statistical equilibrium in international political exchange, and its advantages and disadvantages are discussed. This formulation is empirically examined using interaction data taken from the COPDAB data bank. After presenting the static results for 132 nation-states, the behavioral power of the 10 most powerful nation-states is empirically examined and discussed over time (1948-1978) in the separate dimensions of conflict and cooperation, as well as the combined dimension of total interaction. The ability to influence multilateral politics through conflict behavior is found to be quite distinct from the ability to use cooperation as a means of influence.
International Peace Project in the Middle East
Authors: Orme-Johnson David W. , Alexander Charles N. , Davies John L. , Chandler Howard M. , Larimore Wallace E.
Published: March 2007

This prospective social experiment tests a new theory and technology for alleviating violent conflict through reducing societal stress in an underlying field of “collective consciousness.” It was predicted that group practice of the Maharishi Technology of the Unified Field (the Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi program) during August and September, 1983, in Jerusalem, would reduce stress in the collective consciousness and behavior of Israel and Lebanon. Box-Jenkins Arima impact assessment, cross-correlation, and transfer function analyses were used to study the effects of changes in the size of the group on several variables and composite indices reflecting (a) the quality of life in Jerusalem (automobile accidents, fires, and crime), (b) the quality of life in Israel (crime, stock market, and national mood, derived from news content analysis), and (c) the war in Lebanon (war deaths of all factions and war intensity, derived from news content analysis). Increases in the size of the group had a statistically significant effect in the predicted direction on the individual variables and on all composite quality-of-life indices. The effects of holidays, temperature, weekends, and other forms of seasonality were explicitly controlled and could not account for these results. Cross-correlations and transfer functions indicated that the group had a leading relationship to change on the quality-of-life indicators, supporting a causal interpretation.
Arms as Influence
Authors: Sislin John
Published: March 2007

One justification for U.S. arms transfers is that the United States can manipulate its arms exports to make the recipients of American aid comply with American wishes. This article explores the conditions under which such arms influence attempts succeed. Sixteen potential determinants are discussed, drawn from the attributes of the influence attempt, the recipient, the interaction of the recipient and supplier, the supplier, and the systemic environment. A data set of 191 American arms influence attempts from 1950 to 1992 is presented. Using logit analysis, the variables are tested against the outcome—success or failure—of the influence attempt. Successful influence attempts are more likely when the United States used promises or rewards, focused on altering the recipient's foreign policy, made the attempt on civilian regimes, supplied more of the recipient's arms, and made attempts in the first half of the cold war era, when the United States was generally more powerful.
Signaling Foreign Policy Interests
Authors: Fearon James D.
Published: March 2007

The author distinguishes between two types of costly signals that state leaders might employ in trying to credibly communicate their foreign policy interests to other states, whether in the realm of grand strategy or crisis diplomacy. Leaders might either (a) tie hands by creating audience costs that they will suffer ex post if they do not follow through on their threat or commitment (i.e., costs arising from the actions of domestic political audiences) or (b) sink costs by taking actions such as mobilizing troops that are financially costly ex ante. Analysis of a game model depicting the essentials of each case yields two principal results. First, in the games' equilibria, leaders never bluff with either type of signal; they do not incur or create costs and then fail to respond if challenged. Second, leaders do better on average by tying hands, despite the fact that the ability to do so creates a greater ex ante risk of war than does the use of sunk-cost signals. These results and the logic behind them may help explain some empirical features of international signaling, such as many crises' appearance as competitions in creating domestic political audience costs. They also generate empirical puzzles, such as why the seemingly plausible logic of inference that undermines bluffing in the model does not operate in all empirical cases.
Sport as a Common Property Resource
Authors: Bird Edward J. , Wagner Gert G.
Published: March 2007

The use of drugs in high-performance sports (doping) is a common pool resource (CPR) dilemma: regardless of the number of other athletes who dope, the athlete with strong tastes for victory will find doping optimal; yet if all athletes dope, they all bear negative health consequences, although each one's odds of victory are not greatly changed. The current regulatory approach relies entirely on centralized bureaucratic methods and is ineffective. The authors use insights developed in the common property resource literature and the theory of social norms to analyze the failure of these methods. The programs they propose—the drug diary and a collegial enforcement system—are superior to the current system in that they encourage the development of athletic norms against unfair drug use. In the end, such norms are the only hope for controlling doping, which is becoming increasingly difficult to observe. Empirical evidence shows that such norms against unobservable sports violations can be very powerful. Norms of conduct in golf, for example, successfully enforce that sport's many rules regulating unobservable aspects of play.
Cold War Imperatives and Quarrelsome Clients
Authors: Sanjian Gregory S.
Published: March 2007

This study extends a formal systems model on the political and strategic consequences of great power arms transfers. Using the United States and the Soviet Union as the exporters (or patrons) and Pakistan and India as the importers (clients), tests of the model's components reveal the following: the superpowers were indifferent to the effects of their arms supplies on the relationships between the importers, changes over time in the importers' arms acquisitions from third countries depended on the relationships between the importers and on the record of superpower supplies, subsequent superpower transfers were influenced not by the consequences of past transfers but by the political relationships between the exporters and importers and by the arms trade behavior of the importers, and each importer would be penalized by its arms transfer patron with decreased future supplies for excessive third-country arms shipments and for receiving arms from the opposing superpower.
Still Pretty Prudent
Authors: Jentleson Bruce W. , Britton Rebecca L.
Published: March 2007

Extending and further testing the theory advanced by Bruce Jentleson with post-cold war data, variations in U.S. public support for the use of military force are shown to be best explained by the principal policy objective for which military force is being used, with a third category of “humanitarian intervention” added to the previous two of “foreign policy restraint” and “internal political change.” The principal policy objective theory is shown through a series of tests, including regression and logistic analyses, to offer the most powerful and parsimonious explanation, both directly superseding and indirectly subsuming such other alternative variables as interests, elite cues, risk, and multilateralism. These findings support the broader theoretical view of a rational public purposive and not purely reactive in its opinion formulation and have important implications for the basic dispositions of the types of military interventions the American public will and will not support in the post-cold war era.
Domestic Politics, Absolute Deprivation, and the Use of Armed Force in Interstate Territorial Disputes, 1950-1990
Authors: Heldt Berger
Published: March 2007

Evidence suggests that a territorial dispute is almost a necessary condition for interstate war. By applying the diversionary theory of a relationship between domestic dissatisfaction and states' external aggression, the author examines the circumstances that push challenger states to use armed force in such disputes. This theory is refined by incorporating variables measuring risk and costs. The author contends that regime leaders are risk and cost averse, not risk and cost willing, as widely alleged. This applies in particular to democratically elected leaders. A new measure of dissatisfaction that draws on deprivation theory is provided. Using probit regression, an analysis covering 1950 to 1990 confirms most of the predictions but with two conspicuous exceptions: democracies are not more prone to use diversion than nondemocracies, and democracies show a disregard for the economic costs of armed diversion.
Multivariate Methods for the Comparison of Factor Structures in Cross-Cultural Research
Authors: Caprara Gian Vittorio , Barbaranelli Claudio , Bermúdez José , Maslach Christina , Ruch Willibald
Published: March 2007

The goal of the present study was to demonstrate the value of a multiple data analytic approach for testing the cross-cultural generalizability of a personality measure. Data were collected in four different countries (Italy, Germany, Spain, and the United States) on the Big Five Questionnaire (BFQ), which is a measure of the Five Factor Model of personality traits. Different analytical strategies were conducted. Item-level analyses were carried out to study item bias and to select (by means of simultaneous component analysis) the BFQ items that showed better functioning in all countries simultaneously. Scale-level analyses were conducted on item aggregates and were focused on the examination of structural or construct equivalence (i.e., comparability of latent structures). Three analytic approaches were compared (exploratory factor analysis, simultaneous component analysis, and confirmatory factor analysis), and converged in corroborating the basic five factor structure across the four country samples. However, these methods also yielded some noteworthy differences in the conclusions that could be drawn from the analyses. Both the methodological and conceptual implications of this multiple analytic approach are discussed.
Physical Attractiveness Stereotyping in Cross-Cultural Perspective
Authors: Shaffer David R. , Crepaz Nicole , Sun Chien-Ru
Published: March 2007

Dion, Pak, and Dion claim that physical attractiveness stereotyping (PAS) is weaker among people from collectivist societies, whereas Chen, Shaffer, and Wu and Wheeler and Kim argue that PAS is a strong phenomenon, the content of which varies across cultures. In a fully crossed, cross-cultural design, American and Taiwanese undergraduates made characterological inferences about attractive and unattractive American and Taiwanese stimulus persons. Consistent with the Chen et al. and Wheeler and Kim model, Taiwanese undergraduates actually showed as strong (or stronger) PAS of ethnic peers than did American undergraduates. Study 2 revealed that Taiwanese undergraduates who have most heartily embraced that society’s push toward modernization closely resemble Americans, limiting their PAS of ethnic peers to individualistic (but not communal) attributes. Discussions centered on whether the Westernized pattern of judgments displayed by highly modernized Taiwanese undergraduates implied that these individuals are losing their respect for collectivist values.
Intergenerational Transmission of Collectivism and Achievement Values in Two Acculturation Contexts
Authors: Phalet Karen , Schönpflug Ute
Published: March 2007

This study examines the impact of parental goals and acculturation contexts on value transmission in immigrant families. Combining cross-national and cross-ethnic comparisons, 400 Turkish parent-child dyads in Germany and 190 Turkish and Moroccan dyads in the Netherlands were asked to report their commitment to family-based collectivism and individualism, their academic aspirations, as well as conformity, autonomy, and achievement goal stresses in their family. First, value transmission was selective. Across cultures, parental collectivism values were transmitted, but not individualism. Only in Germany, parental aspirations were also transmitted. Second, value transmission was mediated by parental goals. Across cultures, more collectivistic parents stressed conformity more, thereby enhancing effective transmission. Third, transmission was significant after controlling for gender and educational status of parents and youngsters. Finally, our transmission model was replicated across acculturation contexts and acculturating groups. But transmission was more intense in Germany than in the Netherlands, and in Turkish than in Moroccan families.
Parent-Offspring Value Transmission in a Societal Context
Authors: Boehnke Klaus
Published: March 2007

This article attempts to put intrafamilial value transmission into a societal context. It points out that psychological value transmission discourse and sociological/political science discourse about value change are utterly disconnected up to now. Using data from a small value transmission study of 98 university student- parent triads from East Germany as illustration material, the article tries to show why a unified research approach is necessary. All conservation values were more important for the parents’ generation than the off- spring, whereas the reverse was found for hedonism, stimulation, and self-direction values. Intergenerational value stability was found for self-transcendence versus self-enhancement values. Value change and value transmission are interrelated but not strictly parallel processes. Gender effects seem to be stronger than transmission effects. Finally, this article suggests a somewhat utopian research design that may permit a complete disentanglement of societal value change effects from intrafamilial value transmission effects.
A Comparative Analysis of Fantasy Need Achievement among High and Low Achieving Male Hawaiian-Americans
Authors: Sloggett Barbara B. , Gallimore Ronald , Kubany Edward S.
Published: March 2007

Fantasy need achievement scores were obtained from male high school students representing three ethnic groups: Filipino-Americans, Japanese-Americans, and indigenous Hawaiians who were further categorized into high-achieving and low-achieving groups. The only significant differences were between the Japanese and the two Hawaiian groups who had the lowest n Ach scores. More importantly, the two Hawaiian groups differentiated in terms of experience, ability, achievement, and social class did not differ significantly in terms of n Ach. These findings were interpreted as challenging the usefulness of the notion that Hawaiian children do well or poorly in school because they possess or lack n Ach.