bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
LIMITS OF “AUTHORITARIAN UPGRADING” IN SYRIA: PRIVATE WELFARE, ISLAMIC CHARITIES, AND THE RISE OF THE ZAYD MOVEMENT
Authors: Pierret Thomas , Selvik Kjetil
Published: October 2009

The growth of private welfare in Syria since the 1990s and a parallel détente between the Baʿth regime and the Islamic trend have allowed an Islamic movement called Jamaʿat Zayd to gain an impressive hold on Damascus's charitable sector. Through a detailed, fieldwork-based analysis of this process, this article argues that the movement's success as a private welfare provider is the product rather than the cause of its large religious following. We also propose an empirically nuanced contribution to the debate on the current transformations of Arab authoritarian systems, questioning the regime's ability to effectively co-opt the Zayd movement. Whereas the development of private welfare is politically risk free when authoritarian leaders control the financial and symbolic resources needed to maintain it, it can also strengthen independent-minded groups when, as in Zayd's case, its funding stems from a large popular base that limits the possibilities of instrumentalization by the regime.
A READING OF THE TURKISH NOVEL: THREE WAYS OF CONSTITUTING THE “TURKISH MODERN”
Authors: Ertuğrul Kürşad
Published: October 2009

This study give voices to three possibilities of becoming modern in the Turkish experience through a reading of the novels of Ahmet Hamdi Tanpınar, Oğuz Atay, and Orhan Pamuk. The analysis of the novels invites rethinking, with an eye to gender relations, the terms “modernity” and “modern existence” as well as Paul Gilroy's inversion of the relationship between center and margin. In this framework, I explore the Turkish experience through the themes of “constituting one's self across the East--West duality” and “temporality.” Tanpınar's novel represents a conservative, anti-individualistic response to modernity concerned with reproducing the “authentic whole” in the face of Westernization. Pamuk's novels take the opposite stance; here becoming modern coincides with full replication of Western individuality. The works of Atay, in contrast, display a “truly modern” possibility—a critical, creative, and open-ended process of self-creation that leads subjects toward individual and social autonomy, although it remains unrealized.
PROPHETS AND PRIESTS OF THE NATION: NAGUIB MAHFOUZ'S KARNAK CAFÉ AND THE 1967 CRISIS IN EGYPT
Authors: Geer Benjamin
Published: October 2009

Similarities between religion and nationalism are well known but not well understood. They can be explained by drawing on Pierre Bourdieu's sociological theory in order to consider symbolic interests and the strategies employed to advance them. In both religion and nationalism, the “strategy of the prophets” relies on charisma while the “strategy of the priests” relies on cultural capital. In 20th-century Egypt, nationalism permitted intellectuals whose cultural capital was mainly secular, such as Naguib Mahfouz, to become “priests of the nation” in order to compete with the ʿulamaʾ for prestige and influence. However, it severely limited their autonomy, particularly after Nasser took power and became a successful nationalist prophet. Mahfouz's novel Al-Karnak, which explores the fate of the Nasser regime's political prisoners and the effects of Egypt's 1967 military defeat, reflects this limitation. Under a nationalist regime, the film adaptation of the novel contributed to Mahfouz's heteronomy.
Peri-operative use of dexmedetomidine in airway reconstruction surgery for obstructive sleep apnoea
Authors: Chawla S , Robinson S , Norton A , Esterman A , Taneerananon T
Published: October 2009

Objective:

To evaluate the peri-operative usefulness of dexmedetomidine in obstructive sleep apnoea surgery.

Methods:

In a clinical audit, patients were divided into a study group (dexmedetomidine used;n = 125; 82.9 per cent males, 17.1 per cent females; mean age 48.1 years) and a control group (dexmedetomidine not used;n = 143; 85.5 per cent males, 14.5 per cent females; mean age 47.4 years). The selected outcome measures were mean arterial pressure, use of anti-hypertensives and use of opioids.

Results:

Mean arterial pressure was stable (i.e. below 100 mmHg) in 93.3 per cent of the study group and 72.0 per cent of the control group (relative risk 1.30, 95 per cent confidence interval 1.14–1.47). The use of glyceryl trinitrate and hydralazine was significantly less in the study group, compared with controls (p = 0.005 and <0.001, respectively). Study group patients underwent more procedures than control patients (p < 0.001) and were more likely to require morphine. No difference was noted in the median dose of opioids.

Conclusion:

Dexmedetomidine improves haemodynamic stability in patients undergoing surgery for obstructive sleep apnoea. It is reliable and reduces the need for polypharmacy. Its opioid-sparing action has been established in the literature; however, this was not demonstrated in our study.
‘Honeycomb’ tegmen: multiple tegmen defects associated with superior semicircular canal dehiscence
Authors: Suryanarayanan R , Lesser T H
Published: October 2009

Objective:

To report the coexistence of multiple tegmen defects, forming a ‘honeycomb’ pattern, together with dehiscence of the superior semicircular canal.

Case reports:

We describe three cases in which the above findings were noted, and we review the relevant literature.

Conclusion:

Superior semicircular canal dehiscence is defined as the absence of portions of bone over the canal along the floor of the middle fossa. Most published articles describe the defect as an isolated finding which is either unilateral or bilateral. Studies on temporal bones show either a defect over the superior semicircular canal or isolated defects over the tegmen. We describe three cases in which we found multiple tegmen defects, giving a characteristic honeycomb appearance, coexisting with dehiscence over the superior semicircular canal. This finding, which supports the theory of a developmental defect as the origin of the condition, has not previously been reported. A literature review is presented, with discussion of the aetiology and management of superior semicircular canal dehiscence.
Laryngeal sensory testing in the assessment of patients with laryngopharyngeal reflux
Authors: Dale O T , Alhamarneh O , Young K , Mohan S
Published: October 2009

Laryngopharyngeal reflux is commonly encountered in the ENT out-patient setting. It leads to impaired sensory capacity of the laryngeal mucosa. The sensory integrity of the laryngopharynx can be evaluated through endoscopic administration of pulsed air, which stimulates the laryngeal adductor reflex. The pressure of air needed to elicit this reflex indicates the degree of sensory impairment. Such laryngeal sensory testing gives a quantifiable means of assessment in patients with laryngopharyngeal reflux, and can be used to measure the response to treatment. Laryngeal sensory testing is safe and well tolerated by patients.
Against taking linguistic diversity at “face value”
Authors: Pesetsky David
Published: October 2009

Evans & Levinson (E&L) advocate taking linguistic diversity at “face value.” Their argument consists of a list of diverse phenomena and the assertion that no non-vacuous theory could possibly uncover a meaningful unity underlying them. I argue, with evidence from Tlingit and Warlpiri, that E&L's list itself should not be taken at face value – and that the actual research record already demonstrates unity amidst diversity.
The discovery of language invariance and variation, and its relevance for the cognitive sciences
Authors: Rizzi Luigi
Published: October 2009

Modern linguistics has highlighted the fundamental invariance of human language: A rich invariant structure has emerged from comparative studies nourished by sophisticated formal models; languages also differ along important dimensions, but variation is constrained in severe and systematic ways. I illustrate this research direction in the domains of island constraints, word order restrictions, and the expression of referential dependencies. Both language invariance and language variability within systematic limits are highly relevant for the cognitive sciences.
Widening the field: The process of language acquisition
Authors: Bavin Edith L.
Published: October 2009

Evans & Levinson (E&L) argue against Universal Grammar on the basis of language diversity. A related and fundamental issue is whether the language input provides sufficient information for a child to acquire it. I briefly discuss the more integrated approaches to language acquisition which focus on the mechanisms, and research showing that input cues provide valuable information for the language learner.
Essentialism gives way to motivation
Authors: Goldberg Adele E.
Published: October 2009

The recognition that contentful universals are rare and often “banal” does not undermine the fact that most non-universal but recurring patterns of language are amenable to explanation. These patterns are sensical or motivated solutions to interacting and often conflicting factors. As implied by the Evans & Levinson's (E&L's) article, linguistics would be well served to move beyond the essentialist bias that seeks universal, innate, unchanging categories with rigid boundaries.
The reality of a universal language faculty
Authors: Pinker Steven , Jackendoff Ray
Published: October 2009

While endorsing Evans & Levinson's (E&L's) call for rigorous documentation of variation, we defend the idea of Universal Grammar as a toolkit of language acquisition mechanisms. The authors exaggerate diversity by ignoring the space of conceivable but nonexistent languages, trivializing major design universals, conflating quantitative with qualitative variation, and assuming that the utility of a linguistic feature suffices to explain how children acquire it.
For universals (but not finite-state learning) visit the zoo
Authors: Pullum Geoffrey K. , Scholz Barbara C.
Published: October 2009

Evans & Levinson's (E&L's) major point is that human languages are intriguingly diverse rather than (like animal communication systems) uniform within the species. This does not establish a “myth” about language universals, or advance the ill-framed pseudo-debate over universal grammar. The target article does, however, repeat a troublesome myth about Fitch and Hauser's (2004) work on pattern learning in cotton-top tamarins.
The myth of language universals: Language diversity and its importance for cognitive science
Authors: Evans Nicholas , Levinson Stephen C.
Published: October 2009

Talk of linguistic universals has given cognitive scientists the impression that languages are all built to a common pattern. In fact, there are vanishingly few universals of language in the direct sense that all languages exhibit them. Instead, diversity can be found at almost every level of linguistic organization. This fundamentally changes the object of enquiry from a cognitive science perspective. This target article summarizes decades of cross-linguistic work by typologists and descriptive linguists, showing just how few and unprofound the universal characteristics of language are, once we honestly confront the diversity offered to us by the world's 6,000 to 8,000 languages. After surveying the various uses of “universal,” we illustrate the ways languages vary radically in sound, meaning, and syntactic organization, and then we examine in more detail the core grammatical machinery of recursion, constituency, and grammatical relations. Although there are significant recurrent patterns in organization, these are better explained as stable engineering solutions satisfying multiple design constraints, reflecting both cultural-historical factors and the constraints of human cognition.

Linguistic diversity then becomes the crucial datum for cognitive science: we are the only species with a communication system that is fundamentally variable at all levels. Recognizing the true extent of structural diversity in human language opens up exciting new research directions for cognitive scientists, offering thousands of different natural experiments given by different languages, with new opportunities for dialogue with biological paradigms concerned with change and diversity, and confronting us with the extraordinary plasticity of the highest human skills.
The United Nations system under stress: financial pressures and their consequences
Authors: Taylor Paul
Published: October 2009

This essay is about the response by the United Nations system to financial pressures in the 1980s and early 1990s. These pressures resulted from two developments: the decision of the main contributing states to adopt a policy of zero growth in real terms in the budgets of the organizations; and the additional withholdings by the United States which resulted from the Kassebaum Amendment to the Senate Foreign Relations Act of August 1985. This required a 20 per cent underpayment by the United States of its assessed financial contributions until a range of reforms in budgetary procedures, judged acceptable by the US Administration, had been introduced. The impact of the resulting financial squeeze is considered with particular reference to three Specialized Agencies: the World Health Organization (WHO), the International Labour Organization (ILO), and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).
Bridging the theory/meta-theory gap in international relations
Authors: Wendt Alexander
Published: October 2009

The field of international relations (IR) theory is something of a misnomer; since it is constituted by two distinct, though not unrelated, scholarly enterprises. Its core consists of first order theorizing about the structure and dynamics of the international system, and as such it attempts to contribute directly to our understanding of world politics in the form of substantive theories like realism, liberalism, and so on. The proliferation of such theories in recent years, however, has been a cause for some disciplinary concern (or celebration as the case may be), not least because the substantive disagreements between them are as often over what kinds of questions
and answers are important or legitimate as they are over the 'facts of the matter'. This has helped open the door since the mid-1980s to a wave of second order or meta-theorizing in the field. The objective of this type of theorizing is also to increase our understanding of world politics, but it does so indirectly by focusing on the ontological and epistemological issues of what constitute important or legitimate questions and answers for IR scholarship, rather than on the structure and dynamics of the international system per se.
A permanent UN force: British thinking after Suez
Authors: Johnson Edward
Published: October 2009

Introduction

Prior to the Suez crisis of 1956, the United Nations found itself restricted in its military response to threats to international peace and security. The authors of the UN Charter had originally called for member states to make armed forces available to the UN Security Council under a set of special agreements to be concluded in the post-war period. These would furnish the UN with the military means to take collective action against aggression which was to be the essential precondition of the success of the UN. The body responsible for the conclusion of these special agreements under Article 43 of the UN charter was the Military Staff Committee (MSC), which comprised the Chiefs of Staff of the five permanent members of the Security Council. However, the divisions of the developing Cold War permeated the MSC from 1946 and it became clear that there were major differences amongst the permanent members on the military role that the UN should play in the post-war international system. As a result, the Article 43 special agreements were stillborn and the UN was left without a formal system to provide it with its own armed forces.
The challenge of Spenglerian pessimism to Ranke and political realism
Authors: Farrenkopf John
Published: October 2009

The crisis in Communism and the apparent end of the Cold War have provoked a resurgence of liberal optimism and Western triumphalism. Recent visions of a peaceful world have been conjured up, only to be overtaken by war in the Persian Gulf and the threat of global recession. Awareness of the dark side of international relations in the twentieth century persists despite the irrepressible hopes of many of its students. At this juncture in history, therefore, when eternal hope once again collides with recurrent despair, it is timely to consider the international relations thought of Oswald Spengler, the author of The Decline of the West and ‘pessimist extraordinary’.
J. A. Hobson and Idealism In International relations
Authors: Long David
Published: October 2009

J. A. Hobson died on April Fools’ Day in the first year of the Second World War. This, and a whimsical anecdote from A. J. P. Taylor, might appear to be enough to justify the portrayal of Hobson as an idealist. This paper critically assesses the work of J. A. Hobson and its relation to idealism as a category of international relations thought. An examination of Hobson’s writings on international relations shows that there are three distinct strands of thought, three modes of idealism. These modes of idealist thought differ on fundamental propositions about international relations as well as in their prescriptions for a reformed world order. In short, consideration of Hobson’s work destabilizes the monolithic category of idealism in international relations. Put another way, idealism blurs important distinctions in Hobson’s work.
The European Community and the state: assumptions, theories and propositions
Authors: Taylor Paul
Published: October 2009

Students of the European Community in the early 1990s cannot but be struck by an apparent paradox. On the one hand, pressures towards an increasing centralization of arrangements under the heading of political and monetary union seem to have increased, and are frequently linked in public discussion with the concept of federalism. On the other hand, a number of members, most obviously Spain, Portugal and Greece, even the new Germany, are obviously using the Community to develop a sense of their own identity as separate states, and, although the British have been most prominent in opposing federalism, no member government has shown any inclination in speciic terms to abandon its sovereignty. This paradox is hard to understand and is perhaps too easily dismissed with the retort that the Community issui generis, or that the supporters of further integration have simply not understood its constitutional implications, as the Bruges Group has argued.
Regime norms as ‘implicit’ third parties: explaining the Anglo-Argentine relationship
Authors: Ward Veronica
Published: October 2009

[L]ittle research has addressed whether, and in what ways, regimes ‘matter’. Do regimes have Independent influence on state behaviour and, if so, how?

One of the more surprising features of the emerging literature on regimes is the relative absence of sustained discussions of the significance of regimes . . . as determinants of collective outcomes at the international level . . . The ultimate justification for devoting substantial time and energy to the study of regimes must be the proposition that we can account for a good deal of the variance in collective outcomes . . . in terms of the impact of Institutional arrangements. [H]owever, this proposition is relegated to the realm of assumptions rather than brought to the forefront as a focus for analytical and empirical investigations.
Environmental security: a task for the UN system
Authors: Imber Mark F.
Published: October 2009

Two issues have dramatized the revived potential for a decisive UN contribution to diplomacy in the 1990s. One is the rise of the environmental agenda as an issue at once, both genuinely global, and politically divisive. Conflict is generated because global warming, acid deposition, ozone depletion and marine pollution create real but also differential costs to the states of the world. The second issue, apparent since 1989, is the renewed opportunities for peacekeeping, and the credibility of economic sanctions created by the end of the Cold War and the onset of the Gulf Crisis. Some environmental threats, such as the potential consequences of rising sea-levels, also impinge on traditional military-territorial concepts of security. The fusion of these issues has given rise to the idea of environmental security which generates both an opportunity and a test for the UN's revival as a focus of multi-lateral diplomacy.
China's Entry into International Society: Beyond the Standard of ‘Civilization’
Authors: Zhang Yongjin
Published: October 2009

One of the major themes explored by the late Hedley Bull and others in their studies of the expansion of the European society of states across the globe is the entry of extra-European states into that society. It has given rise to two challenging and inescapable questions: when was each extra-European state drawn and accepted into the expanding European international society, and how? The answers to these questions are central to understanding when and how the contemporary global society which embraces states belonging to every culture and civilization emerged. Research in this area also raises questions about the future of the now universal international society. Can a global society of states devoid of cultural homogeneity survive? If so, how? Will the acceptance of common rules and institutions foster the perception of common interests by states of different cultural systems? Or conversely, will the perception of common interests move member states to work out new rules, institutions, and values to cement the structure of a universal international society? The inquiry into the historical process in which an extra-European state was drawn into the expanding international society cannot provide answers to these questions. Historical illumination is only capable of suggesting the direction in which those answers can be productively sought.
Human rights: a reply to Geoffrey Best
Authors: Evans Tony
Published: October 2009

Geoffrey Best's article ‘Whatever Happened to Human Rights9 in the January 1990 issue of theReviewtouches upon many important questions which are well known to human rights scholars. These include such political, legal and philosophical difficulties as defining the concept of self-determination, the prospects for implementing certain economic and social rights and the role of international law in improving human right standards. By examining the work of René Cassin in his role as a member of the Commission for Human Rights during the early years of the United Nations, Best points to these difficulties while attempting to achieve two further objectives. The first is to provide an appreciation of Cassin's personal qualities, and the second, to demonstrate that had Cassin's views been more closely adhered to human rights would in some way be healthier today. Although Best's article is the edited text of a lecture, and is consequently not the tightly argued piece we might expect from a more considered paper prepared especially for publication, several of his claims are either questionable or mistaken.
The impact of military research and development priorities on the evolution of the civil economy in capitalist states
Authors: Buzan Barry , Sen Gautam
Published: October 2009

The objective of this paper is to identify the process by which military research and development (R&D) priorities affect the evolution of major sectors of the civil economy in capitalist states. Military priorities channel a significant proportion of the resources that capitalist societies devote to R&D: for the United States in the period 1982–4, military R&D amounted to 28.9 per cent of gross domestic expenditure on R&D. The nature of military priorities favours some areas of technological development over others, and when these favoured areas are opened up for military purposes, it is often possible to build a major civil industry on the resultant technology. Examples of this process include nuclear power, civil aviation, space satellites and computers. Some, though by no means all, of the commanding heights of civil economies are thus powerfully shaped by the opportunities created by specifically military R&D.
Thucydidean Realism
Authors: Doyle Michael W.
Published: October 2009

What does it mean to think like a Realist? The question is important in the study of international politics. According to a recent survey of the field, more than 90 per cent of the hypotheses tested by behaviourists in international politics were Realist in conception. A wider survey of the field taken in 1972 (which included those more historically inclined) identified the American Realist Hans Morgenthau as the leading scholar of international relations and hisPolitics Among Nationsas the leading book. The overwhelming majority of other prominent postwar general theorists have worked inside the Realist tradition.
The years of transition: Anglo-American relatons 1961–1967
Authors: Dobson Alan
Published: October 2009

The term ‘Special Relationship’ can give the false impression that Britain and the US have related to each other in an unchanging way since the forging of close bonds during World War II. If, like the present author, one chooses to use this terminology it is important to identify how the relationship has changed over the years.

This article focuses on the period 1961–67, which was an important period of transition. In 1961, Suez notwithstanding, it was possible for British leaders to continue to think in terms of drawing on unique links with the US, some of which had been forged in World War II and still existed, others which had been developed in their common struggle against communism. By 1967 some of these links had been broken and others greatly weakened for a variety of reasons. Britain's relative world power had continued to decline, thus reducing her usefulness to the US; Britain began to look seriously to the EEC for its future and away from the US, which, for its part, was becoming increasingly preoccupied with Vietnam and the Far East in general; the economic structure Britain and the US had designed to manage the free world's. economy and in the direction of which they had cooperated extensively began to breakdown; and finally after the Kennedy–Macmillan friendship there was no really close relationship between British and American leaders until the mid-1970s. Before looking at this period of transition, however, it is necessary to review an earlier era when the Special Relationship was unquestioned.
Systems of States
Authors: Watson Adam
Published: October 2009

One aspect of international relations which interested Martin Wight particularly was the functioning of what are called systems of states. That has also been an area of my especial interest since the late 50s. It was the focus of the discussions of the British Committee on the Theory of International Politics. The committee was organized in the late fifties to bring, together people from different disciplines, practitioners as well as scholars. Herbert Butterfield and Martin were the founders and guiding spirits of the early years of the committee, and I was one of the original members. It was a collective enterprise: members submitted papers which left as questions those points on which the author did not feel certain of the answers. Martin told me that the most stimulating and interesting work he did during the 60s was writing papers for the committee and taking part in its discussions.
‘A most auspicious begining’: the 1946 United Nations General Assembly and the question of the treatment of Indians in South Africa
Authors: Lloyd Lorna
Published: October 2009

On 22 June 1946 the Government of India asked that the treatment of Indians in South Africa be placed on the agenda of the Second Part of the First UN General Assembly. This was the first dispute to be taken to the General Assembly and it resulted in the UN's first attack on South Africa. From the perspective of the 1990s the only striking thing about the 1946 UN resolution is its mild tone and the limitation of its criticism to South Africa's, policies relating to just one group. However, from the perspective of 1946 it is remarkable that the UN should even have discussed South Africa's treatment of her Indian citizens, let alone have decided by a two-thirds majority that she had failed to treat them in conformity with. her international obligations and the relevant provisions of the UN Charter.
Whatever happended to the ‘Second’ Cold War? Soviet—American relations: 1980–1988
Authors: Cox Michael
Published: October 2009

During his eight years in office Ronald Reagan attempted not only to dominate the US political scene but to establish a clear neo-conservative agenda for the American nation. When he came to power he had two main objectives. The first was to roll back the hand of government, for as he put it, ‘the ills of a nation stem from a single source: the belief that government… has the answer to our ills’. The second was to rebuild America's position in the world after the so-called ‘decade of neglect.’ Naturally, Reagan delighted the new right with his attacks on liberalism at home and the Soviet Union abroad. However, one suspects he frightened an equal number by raising issues (like abortion) which many had long thought settled, while implying that the only solution to complex international questions was American firepower. And even though many American intellectuals may have despised the new President for his apparent simple-mindedness, his optimism about the American future and his heroic view of the American past did much to endear him to a large cross-section of the American people. Reagan believed in the American dream and attempted to convince his fellow citizens that they ought to believe in it too.
The rise and rise of American exceptionalism - Sanford J. Ungar (ed.), Estrangement: America and the World, New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985, xii + 347 pp. - John D. Steinbruner (ed.), Restructuring American Foreign Policy, Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1989, xii + 260 pp. - Inis L. Claude, American Approaches to World Affairs, Lanham, Md., New York and London: University Press of America, 1986, xi + 67 pp. - Charles W. KegleyJr. and Eugene R. Wittkopf, American Foreign Policy: Pattern and Process, London: Macmillan, 1987, xiii + 681 pp. - William T.R. Fox, A Continent Apart: The United States and Canada in World Politics, Toronto, Buffalo and London: University of Toronto Press, 1985, xv + 188 pp. - Alan M. Rugman and Andrew D. M. Anderson, Administered Protection in America, London, New York and Sidney: Croom Helm, 1987, xi + 148 pp.
Authors: Garson Robert
Published: October 2009

If there is a single event since the end of the Second World War that has seriously punctured America's sense of confident invulnerability it is, surely, not the withdrawal from Vietnam—that could always be explained away as a masterful reassessment of the nature of the communist threat—but the taking of American hostages by Islamic fundamentalists in Teheran in 1979. That event, more than any other, showed that America's faith in modernization, foreign aid, and a gradual injection of political liberalism as a means of drawing nations into the western orbit rested on brittle foundations. Until the Shah's overthrow Iran had seemed the perfect ally; despite the anti-libertarian blemishes of the Shah's regime, Iran had a prosperous middle class, a formidable standing in the region, a sound economy based on expensive oil, and was emerging from what was thought to be the constricting effect of Islam.
The womb of war: Clausewitz and international politics
Authors: Smith Hugh
Published: October 2009

The student of international relations seeks from Clausewitz not a theory of politics but an analysis of war. For some 150 years those who have sought to understand war have turned to Clausewitz—to find inspiration or to condemn him, to borrow or to steal from him, to quote or to misquote him. He has been called upon to support particular wars and strategies, to take sides in the Cold War and to throw light on nuclear deterrence. He has been both venerated and vilified, and frequently misunderstood. Few have ignored him altogether.
1789 and the liberal theory of international society
Authors: Mayall James
Published: October 2009

Contemporaries who witnessed the fall of the Bastille did not doubt that an event of shocking significance had occurred. On 19 July 1789 the Ambassador of Saxony reported that so important and extraordinary a revolution ‘cannot fail to bring about a considerable change in the political system of France’. The Portuguese Ambassador wrote that if he had not witnessed it himself ‘he would not dare to describe it, for fear the truth should be considered a fable… A king of France in an army coach, surrounded by the bayonets and muskets of a large crowd, finally forced to display on his head the cockade of liberty.’ If it was not immediately clear that this attack on the legitimacy of the ancien régime would also involve an attack on the diplomatic practices and conventions of the European states-system, it quickly became so.
1919 and the persistence of nationalist aspirations
Authors: Seton-Watson Christopher
Published: October 2009

‘The characteristic feature of the crisis of the twenty years between 1919 and 1939 was the abrupt descent from the visionary hopes of the first decade to the grim despair of the second, from a Utopia which took little account of reality to a reality from which every element of Utopia was rigorously excluded… The Utopia of 1919 was hollow and without substance,’ So wrote E. H. Carr in the conclusion to his Twenty Years Crisis, which he sent to the press in the middle of July 1939. Fifty years later one cannot but agree with him that the peace settlement of 1919 ‘failed’: Hitler, Mussolini and Stalin wiped it off the map of Europe. But though the Second World War created a very different ‘realistic’ world, some of the ‘Utopian’ ideals of 1919, so brusquely dismissed by Carr, re-surfaced irrepressibly after 1945, and some of their practical applications returned to the agenda of international politics.
Legitimation for turning-point decisions in foreign policy: Israelvis-à-visGermany 1952 and Egypt 1977
Authors: Auerbach Yehudit
Published: October 2009

Determinist views are prevalent in human thinking. King Solomon's reflection that ‘What has been is what will be done and what has been done is what will be done and there is nothing new under the sun’ seems as valid today as it was three thousand years, ago. The international arena, overrun by scenes of bloody, wars, acute crises and protracted conflicts is a constant reminder of the truthfulness of this pessimistic view.
The great illusion revisited: the international theory of Norman Angell
Authors: Navari Cornelia
Published: October 2009

Norman Angell is a theorist of whom everyone has heard and few take seriously. In the years before the First World War, he had published The Great Illusion, the famous argument which outlined the disutility of war and which appeared to imply that governments would henceforth be restrained in the use of force. It was widely acclaimed and promoted with fervour by proponents of the peace movement. A few months before the outbreak of the First War, Angell had published another major tract predicting that future wars would be less ferocious than past wars. When these predictions proved less than accurate, the luckless theorist became a target for the realist criticism of ‘idealism’; indeed, he became a constant reference point in their defence of the realist position. The label was sufficient to assure that, while frequently referred to, his own ideas should receive scarcely any critical attention.
Rejoinder
Authors: Pressnell L.S. , Hopkins Sheila V.
Published: October 2009

So far from eliminating the deficiencies of his original paper, Dobson compounds them. His defamatory thesis is that Churchill sought to cheat his Cabinet. Dispassionate checking showed his documentation to be flawed, his thesis unproven. His Reply offers special pleading and further blunders. He fails to recognize that, if the basis he explicitly constructs for his suppositions collapses, it cannot support those suppositions.
Ententes and alliances
Authors: Berridge G. R.
Published: October 2009

In 1976 Robert A. Kann, the well known authority on Habsburg history, wrote a Research Note in World Politics called ‘Alliances versus Ententes’.1 This rescued a distinction which had not been entirely overlooked in the post-war literature of international Relations2 but was certainly in danger of extinction at the hands of a broad, all-purpose concept of ‘alliance’.3 An alliance, Kann claimed, is distinguished by its ‘airtight commitments’; by contrast an entente entails ‘no definite commitments’ and is altogether a looser and more flexible kind of association between states. The entente he alternatively described as a ‘consultation pact’ or ‘flexible agreement’. Kann, however, was not concerned only with conceptual explication. Indeed, his main purpose seems to have been (he was a little vague on this) to advance the argument that although ‘many examples of workable alliances and meaningless ententes can easily be adduced’, the entente is in principle a more efficient device for serving ‘the interests of peace’ than the alliance. This is an argument which can be challenged both on internal as well as historical grounds.
Societies, states and geopolitics: challenges from historical sociology
Authors: Jarvis Anthony
Published: October 2009

Many scholars in International Relations will register surprise and perhaps amusement at the recent 'discovery' of the state by sociologists. They could accurately claim, it has never been similarly neglected in their own discipline. International Relations is about states and the system of states. Classical realism relies on explicit understandings about what states are and their place in the international system.
Deconstructing the balance of power: two traditions of thought
Authors: Little Richard
Published: October 2009

In 1919 when the first tentative steps were taken to establish the study of international relations as an independent discipline, liberals in the United States and Europe believed that the First World War had been caused by European statesmen who had been pursuing policies designed to promote a balance of power. It was gloomily predicted, moreover, that the continuing influence of balance of power thinking would precipitate another world war. One of the major objectives of the nascent discipline was to identify alternative ways of organizing international relations so that the pernicious influence of the balance of power could be permanently eliminated.
General deterrence and the balance of power
Authors: Freedman Lawrence
Published: October 2009

The advent of nuclear weapons is clearly the single most important development which post-war balance of power thinking has had to accommodate. Although there have been earlier attempts to explore this relationship,1 an examination of the current debate on deterrence should throw some light on the issue of the continuing relevance of the balance of power concept.
The balance of power—controversial but indispensable?
Authors: Wright Moorhead
Published: October 2009

The controversies surrounding the balance of power are both ancient and enduring, as the articles in this issue make clear. This brief concluding note highlights some of the convergences and differences in their approaches to these controversies. The choice of themes for this analysis is personal and selective, but it does reflect the central issues of balance of power theory and practice.
Ideology and international relations
Authors: Howard Michael
Published: October 2009

A distinctive feature of the evolution of the modern international system has been the emergence of ideologies so universalist in their assumptions that they have ignored, or worse, denied the cultural and political diversities of mankind—diversities which constitute the ineluctable framework of international politics and which make the conduct of foreign affairs such a complex and difficult craft. One major obstacle, however, to understanding the problems which this development poses for the theory and practice of international relations is the fact that the correct usage of the term ‘ideology’ is very much broader than that which is generally accepted today.
The financing of the United Nations
Authors: Taylor Paul , Groom A. J. R. , Jensen Erik , Morphet Sally , Chan Stephen
Published: October 2009

The reform of the United Nations, and particularly of its budgetary procedures and Secretariat staffing, is a matter of considerable current interest among students and practitioners of international organization. These issues form part of what has for some years now been referred to as the financial crisis at the United Nations. This was the subject of a one-day conference at the United Nations held late last year. What follows is a summary of the discussion at that conference, reproduced here in order to reach a wider audience.
China and International Relations
Authors: Yahuda Michael B.
Published: October 2009

These last ten years have witnessed a remarkable development of Chinese academic writing on International Relations. The late Premier Zhou Enlai had recommended the expansion of such studies in 1964 on his return from a tour of Africa after having found the relevant Chinese expertise weak and ill-informed. But the Cultural Revolution of 1966–1976 not only prevented that development, but along with most other intellectuals those few scholars engaged in the subject were humiliated and persecuted. Since 1977, in common with the other social sciences, International Relations has begun to flourish. Although it is a fairly new independent subject of study more than five hundred scholars are engaged in a variety of research institutes and several universities offer courses in it. As in the other social sciences, research in International Relations is carried out under the general guidelines of serving China's long term policies of modernization and the open door.
New insights on international crises
Authors: Richardson J. L.
Published: October 2009

It is not surprising that international crises have become a subject of intensive study in the nuclear age. The example of Sarajevo stands as an awesome warning of the repercussions which can flow from an apparently minor incident. The Cuban missile crisis seemed for a time to suggest guidelines by which crises could be successfully 'managed', but the dangers of generalizing from an optimistic reading of that unique case have come to be widely appreciated.
Armed forces—for peace or war?
Authors: Lord Carver Field Marshal
Published: October 2009

It is a great honour to be invited to give this annual lecture in memory of Martin Wight, especially for one who never knew him, and is not a member of the academic community concerned with International Relations, of which he was so distinguished a figure. I have to admit that, when I was invited to give this lecture, I had heard of and knew nothing about him. That is, perhaps, not surprising, as very little of his work was published in his lifetime, and I did not move in the academic circles in which it was well known.
The Edwards' Report and the International Relations profession
Authors: Nicholson Michael
Published: October 2009

The Economic and Social Research Council recently published a Report commissioned from a committee chaired by Professor Edwards, a psychiatrist, so that the Council, and the social science community in general, might know what was good and bad in British social sciences, and where the promising future research opportunities lie over the next decade. Boldly called ‘Horizons and Opportunities in the Social Sciences’, the Report condensed the wisdom of social scientists, both British and foreign, and concludes with a broadly but not uncritically favourable picture of the British scene.
Strategic doctrine and political practice
Authors: McInnes Colin
Published: October 2009

Publishers' lists and new acquisition shelves reveal a profligacy of writing on strategy. Moreover, this vast quantity covers a rich variety of approaches to the subject, such as case studies, policy oriented studies, narrative histories, behavioural analyses, thinking on the 'big' questions of war, peace and security, and thinking about thinkers. This article reviews books covering three very different approaches to strategy, two traditional and one highly original. Of the three only the last explicitly considers method, yet the three reveal very different methodological concerns which have perhaps received too little attention in the study of strategy.
The English school of international relations: evidence and evaluation
Authors: Grader Sheila
Published: October 2009

In January 1981, an article by Professor Roy E. Jones, entitled The English school of international relations: a case for closure', appeared in this Review.1 Immediately after its publications the late Professor Northedge asked a seminar of research students at the London School of Economics for their views on the article. To his. obvious chagrin, no one, including myself, responded. On several occasions during the next years Professor Northedge drew attention to the challenge laid down by Professor Jones. Did this persistent questioning indicate a concern that Professor Jones should be answered—and, in which case, why did he not take this task upon himself? If he had, and if, as has been suggested, Professor Northedge believed that there was an ‘English school’, but that he was not part of it, then he would have had to show both that the gap between himself and the rest of the ‘school’ was greater than the differences between other members, and, at the same time, that all the scholars under review, himself included, belonged to a common discipline. This analysis would go beyond description; it would require not only a clear demarcation of the several different ways in which his colleagues had understood international politics, but also an attempt to distinguish between ‘school’ and ‘discipline’ and their relationship to the field of International Relations. Such an exercise would be philosophical in nature, and Professor Northedge's well-known empiricism would not, I submit, have been helpful. To demonstrate, as this paper attempts to do, that the scholars in question can be characterized by their differing philosophical approaches would refute Professor Jones' major thesis that there is an English school of international relations. It also seriously undermines his substantive criticisms, for obviously the non-existence of the ‘English school’ makes the question of its wrong-headedness irrelevant.
Nuclear weapons and credibility: deterrence theory beyond rationaiity
Authors: Rhodes Edward
Published: October 2009

The principal challenge for US nuclear deterrence policy in an era of mutual assured destruction capabilities has been to use the threat of nuclear retribution to deter Soviet actions that, however aggressive, do not directly threaten American national survival. The United States seeks to use nuclear threats to deter not only all-out nuclear attack on the United States, but major nuclear or conventional aggression against NATO and also limited, presumably counterforce, blows against America. Nuclear weapons are to serve as an umbrella protecting not only America's cities and society, but US allies and US military forces as well.