bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Accumulation and fragmentation of plastic debris in global environments
Authors: Barnes David K. A. , Galgani Francois , Thompson Richard C. , Barlaz Morton
Published: June 2009

One of the most ubiquitous and long-lasting recent changes to the surface of our planet is the accumulation and fragmentation of plastics. Within just a few decades since mass production of plastic products commenced in the 1950s, plastic debris has accumulated in terrestrial environments, in the open ocean, on shorelines of even the most remote islands and in the deep sea. Annual clean-up operations, costing millions of pounds sterling, are now organized in many countries and on every continent. Here we document global plastics production and the accumulation of plastic waste. While plastics typically constitute approximately 10 per cent of discarded waste, they represent a much greater proportion of the debris accumulating on shorelines.

Mega- and macro-plastics have accumulated in the highest densities in the Northern Hemisphere, adjacent to urban centres, in enclosed seas and at water convergences (fronts). We report lower densities on remote island shores, on the continental shelf seabed and the lowest densities (but still a documented presence) in the deep sea and Southern Ocean. The longevity of plastic is estimated to be hundreds to thousands of years, but is likely to be far longer in deep sea and non-surface polar environments. Plastic debris poses considerable threat by choking and starving wildlife, distributing non-native and potentially harmful organisms, absorbing toxic chemicals and degrading to micro-plastics that may subsequently be ingested. Well-established annual surveys on coasts and at sea have shown that trends in mega- and macro-plastic accumulation rates are no longer uniformly increasing: rather stable, increasing and decreasing trends have all been reported. The average size of plastic particles in the environment seems to be decreasing, and the abundance and global distribution of micro-plastic fragments have increased over the last few decades. However, the environmental consequences of such microscopic debris are still poorly understood.
Monitoring the abundance of plastic debris in the marine environment
Authors: Ryan Peter G. , Moore Charles J. , van Franeker Jan A. , Moloney Coleen L.
Published: June 2009

Plastic debris has significant environmental and economic impacts in marine systems. Monitoring is crucial to assess the efficacy of measures implemented to reduce the abundance of plastic debris, but it is complicated by large spatial and temporal heterogeneity in the amounts of plastic debris and by our limited understanding of the pathways followed by plastic debris and its long-term fate. To date, most monitoring has focused on beach surveys of stranded plastics and other litter. Infrequent surveys of the standing stock of litter on beaches provide crude estimates of debris types and abundance, but are biased by differential removal of litter items by beachcombing, cleanups and beach dynamics. Monitoring the accumulation of stranded debris provides an index of debris trends in adjacent waters, but is costly to undertake. At-sea sampling requires large sample sizes for statistical power to detect changes in abundance, given the high spatial and temporal heterogeneity. Another approach is to monitor the impacts of plastics. Seabirds and other marine organisms that accumulate plastics in their stomachs offer a cost-effective way to monitor the abundance and composition of small plastic litter. Changes in entanglement rates are harder to interpret, as they are sensitive to changes in population sizes of affected species. Monitoring waste disposal on ships and plastic debris levels in rivers and storm-water runoff is useful because it identifies the main sources of plastic debris entering the sea and can direct mitigation efforts. Different monitoring approaches are required to answer different questions, but attempts should be made to standardize approaches internationally.
Human body burdens of chemicals used in plastic manufacture
Authors: Koch Holger M. , Calafat Antonia M.
Published: June 2009

In the last decades, the availability of sophisticated analytical chemistry techniques has facilitated measuring trace levels of multiple environmental chemicals in human biological matrices (i.e. biomonitoring) with a high degree of accuracy and precision. As biomonitoring data have become readily available, interest in their interpretation has increased. We present an overview on the use of biomonitoring in exposure and risk assessment using phthalates and bisphenol A as examples of chemicals used in the manufacture of plastic goods. We present and review the most relevant research on biomarkers of exposure for phthalates and bisphenol A, including novel and most comprehensive biomonitoring data from Germany and the United States. We discuss several factors relevant for interpreting and understanding biomonitoring data, including selection of both biomarkers of exposure and human matrices, and toxicokinetic information.
A critical analysis of the biological impacts of plasticizers on wildlife
Authors: Oehlmann Jörg , Schulte-Oehlmann Ulrike , Kloas Werner , Jagnytsch Oana , Lutz Ilka , Kusk Kresten O. , Wollenberger Leah , Santos Eduarda M. , Paull Gregory C. , Van Look Katrien J. W. , Tyler Charles R.
Published: June 2009

This review provides a critical analysis of the biological effects of the most widely used plasticizers, including dibutyl phthalate, diethylhexyl phthalate, dimethyl phthalate, butyl benzyl phthalate and bisphenol A (BPA), on wildlife, with a focus on annelids (both aquatic and terrestrial), molluscs, crustaceans, insects, fish and amphibians. Moreover, the paper provides novel data on the biological effects of some of these plasticizers in invertebrates, fish and amphibians. Phthalates and BPA have been shown to affect reproduction in all studied animal groups, to impair development in crustaceans and amphibians and to induce genetic aberrations. Molluscs, crustaceans and amphibians appear to be especially sensitive to these compounds, and biological effects are observed at environmentally relevant exposures in the low ng l−1to µg l−1range. In contrast, most effects in fish (except for disturbance in spermatogenesis) occur at higher concentrations. Most plasticizers appear to act by interfering with the functioning of various hormone systems, but some phthalates have wider pathways of disruption. Effect concentrations of plasticizers in laboratory experiments coincide with measured environmental concentrations, and thus there is a very real potential for effects of these chemicals on some wildlife populations. The most striking gaps in our current knowledge on the impacts of plasticizers on wildlife are the lack of data for long-term exposures to environmentally relevant concentrations and their ecotoxicity when part of complex mixtures. Furthermore, the hazard of plasticizers has been investigated in annelids, molluscs and arthropods only, and given the sensitivity of some invertebrates, effects assessments are warranted in other invertebrate phyla.
Transport and release of chemicals from plastics to the environment and to wildlife
Authors: Teuten Emma L. , Saquing Jovita M. , Knappe Detlef R. U. , Barlaz Morton A. , Jonsson Susanne , Björn Annika , Rowland Steven J. , Thompson Richard C. , Galloway Tamara S. , Yamashita Rei , Ochi Daisuke , Watanuki Yutaka , Moore Charles , Viet Pham Hung , Tana Touch Seang , Prudente Maricar , Boonyatumanond Ruchaya , Zakaria Mohamad P. , Akkhavong Kongsap , Ogata Yuko , Hirai Hisashi , Iwasa Satoru , Mizukawa Kaoruko , Hagino Yuki , Imamura Ayako , Saha Mahua , Takada Hideshige
Published: June 2009

Plastics debris in the marine environment, including resin pellets, fragments and microscopic plastic fragments, contain organic contaminants, including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, petroleum hydrocarbons, organochlorine pesticides (2,2′-bis(
p-
chlorophenyl)-1,1,1-trichloroethane, hexachlorinated hexanes), polybrominated diphenylethers, alkylphenols and bisphenol A, at concentrations from sub ng g
–1
to µg g
–1
. Some of these compounds are added during plastics manufacture, while others adsorb from the surrounding seawater. Concentrations of hydrophobic contaminants adsorbed on plastics showed distinct spatial variations reflecting global pollution patterns. Model calculations and experimental observations consistently show that polyethylene accumulates more organic contaminants than other plastics such as polypropylene and polyvinyl chloride. Both a mathematical model using equilibrium partitioning and experimental data have demonstrated the transfer of contaminants from plastic to organisms. A feeding experiment indicated that PCBs could transfer from contaminated plastics to streaked shearwater chicks. Plasticizers, other plastics additives and constitutional monomers also present potential threats in terrestrial environments because they can leach from waste disposal sites into groundwater and/or surface waters. Leaching and degradation of plasticizers and polymers are complex phenomena dependent on environmental conditions in the landfill and the chemical properties of each additive. Bisphenol A concentrations in leachates from municipal waste disposal sites in tropical Asia ranged from sub µg l
–1
to mg l
–1
and were correlated with the level of economic development.
Applications and societal benefits of plastics
Authors: Andrady Anthony L. , Neal Mike A.
Published: June 2009

This article explains the history, from 1600 BC to 2008, of materials that are today termed ‘plastics’. It includes production volumes and current consumption patterns of five main commodity plastics: polypropylene, polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, polystyrene and polyethylene terephthalate. The use of additives to modify the properties of these plastics and any associated safety, in use, issues for the resulting polymeric materials are described. A comparison is made with the thermal and barrier properties of other materials to demonstrate the versatility of plastics. Societal benefits for health, safety, energy saving and material conservation are described, and the particular advantages of plastics in society are outlined. Concerns relating to littering and trends in recycling of plastics are also described. Finally, we give predictions for some of the potential applications of plastic over the next 20 years.
Plastics recycling: challenges and opportunities
Authors: Hopewell Jefferson , Dvorak Robert , Kosior Edward
Published: June 2009

Plastics are inexpensive, lightweight and durable materials, which can readily be moulded into a variety of products that find use in a wide range of applications. As a consequence, the production of plastics has increased markedly over the last 60 years. However, current levels of their usage and disposal generate several environmental problems. Around 4 per cent of world oil and gas production, a non-renewable resource, is used as feedstock for plastics and a further 3–4% is expended to provide energy for their manufacture. A major portion of plastic produced each year is used to make disposable items of packaging or other short-lived products that are discarded within a year of manufacture. These two observations alone indicate that our current use of plastics is not sustainable. In addition, because of the durability of the polymers involved, substantial quantities of discarded end-of-life plastics are accumulating as debris in landfills and in natural habitats worldwide.

Recycling is one of the most important actions currently available to reduce these impacts and represents one of the most dynamic areas in the plastics industry today. Recycling provides opportunities to reduce oil usage, carbon dioxide emissions and the quantities of waste requiring disposal. Here, we briefly set recycling into context against other waste-reduction strategies, namely reduction in material use through downgauging or product reuse, the use of alternative biodegradable materials and energy recovery as fuel.

While plastics have been recycled since the 1970s, the quantities that are recycled vary geographically, according to plastic type and application. Recycling of packaging materials has seen rapid expansion over the last decades in a number of countries. Advances in technologies and systems for the collection, sorting and reprocessing of recyclable plastics are creating new opportunities for recycling, and with the combined actions of the public, industry and governments it may be possible to divert the majority of plastic waste from landfills to recycling over the next decades.
Our plastic age
Authors: Thompson Richard C. , Swan Shanna H. , Moore Charles J. , vom Saal Frederick S.
Published: June 2009

Within the last few decades, plastics have revolutionized our daily lives. Globally we use in excess of 260 million tonnes of plastic per annum, accounting for approximately 8 per cent of world oil production. In this Theme Issue of
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
, we describe current and future trends in usage, together with the many benefits that plastics bring to society. At the same time, we examine the environmental consequences resulting from the accumulation of waste plastic, the effects of plastic debris on wildlife and concerns for human health that arise from the production, usage and disposal of plastics. Finally, we consider some possible solutions to these problems together with the research and policy priorities necessary for their implementation.
Minimally Invasive Therapies for Female Stress Urinary Incontinence: the Current Status of Bioinjectables/New Devices (Adjustable Continence Therapy, Urethral Submucosal Collagen Denaturation by Radiofrequency)
Authors: Crivellaro Simone , Smith John J.
Published: June 2009

The aim of this review is to provide an update on the current status of evolving minimally invasive therapies for stress urinary incontinence. Bioinjectables have been available for some time and their current status is reviewed. The adjustable continence device has been used as a salvage procedure for females for a number of years in clinical trials, yet many are unfamiliar with it. Lastly, radiofrequency via a transurethral route has also been utilized in small numbers and will be updated. These later two emerging technologies need further exposure to better define their role in our clinical practice.
Use of Antimuscarinics in the Elderly
Authors: Patel Bhavin , Bavendam Tamara , Badlani Gopal
Published: June 2009

Overactive bladder (OAB) is a common, costly, and treatable condition in older persons. There is a wide array of available antimuscarinics for the treatment of these conditions; however, their side effect profile and the limited number of studies that evaluate their effect in the elderly curb their use. This review article focuses on OAB and its treatment, with special attention to the use of antimuscarinics in the elderly.
Bilateral Fetal Hydrothorax Requiring Intrauterine Fetal Thoracoamniotic Shunts: Anesthetic Considerations and Management
Authors: Hache John J. , Emery Stephen P. , Vallejo Manuel C.
Published: June 2009

After prenatal diagnosis of bilateral fetal hydrothorax, ascites, and polyhydramnios, bilateral thoracoamniotic shunts were placed at 29 weeks gestation using an ultrasound-guided, minimally invasive technique. Anesthetic care was managed using intravenous sedation and local anesthesia infiltration. The anesthetic considerations for such procedures are discussed.
Characterization of Solid Renal Masses using 64-Slice Multidetector CT Scanner
Authors: El-Esawy Saleh S. , Abou El-Ghar Mohamed E. , Gaballa Ghada M. , Zahra Saly A.
Published: June 2009

The purpose of our study was to assess the role of a 64-slice multidetector CT (MDCT) scanner in the characterization of different solid renal masses, using a simplified approach to correct the postenhancement attenuation values. The study included 96 consecutive adults (58 men, 38 women) with renal masses; 93 with unilateral and three with bilateral masses. All of our patients underwent multiphasic CT study including pre- and postcontrast corticomedullary (CM) and nephrographic phases. We analyzed the images and corrected the postcontrast attenuation values at the CM phase. The postbiopsy or -surgical data were used as reference standard. There were 53 masses at the right kidney, 40 at the left kidney, and three bilateral. The final diagnosis of the 96 solid parenchymal masses were 28 clear-type renal cell carcinoma (RCC), 22 papillary-type RCC, 21 chromophobe-type RCC, six XP 11.2 chromosomal translocation–type RCC, 15 angiomyolipoma (AML), and seven oncocytoma. All the AML had fat, with attenuation values less than -40 HU at the nonenhanced scan. There is no difference in the precontrast attenuation values for the different types other than AML. At the postcontrast CM phase after the correction of the attenuation values, the clear cell type could be separated easily, with attenuation values >20 with specificity, sensitivity, and overall accuracy of 92, 84, and 93%, respectively. The 64-slice MDCT scanner with application of enhancement values correction allows diagnosis of clear cell carcinoma. Also, AML could be identified easily with fat inside at the precontrast scan.
The rate of cell growth is governed by cell cycle stage
Authors: Goranov Alexi I. , Cook Michael , Ricicova Marketa , Ben-Ari Giora , Gonzalez Christian , Hansen Carl , Tyers Mike , Amon Angelika
Published: June 2009

Cell growth is an essential requirement for cell cycle progression. While it is often held that growth is independent of cell cycle position, this relationship has not been closely scrutinized. Here we show that in budding yeast, the ability of cells to grow changes during the cell cycle. We find that cell growth is faster in cells arrested in anaphase and G1 than in other cell cycle stages. We demonstrate that the establishment of a polarized actin cytoskeleton—either as a consequence of normal cell division or through activation of the mating pheromone response—potently attenuates protein synthesis and growth. We furthermore show by population and single-cell analysis that growth varies during an unperturbed cell cycle, slowing at the time of polarized growth. Our study uncovers a fundamental relationship whereby cell cycle position regulates growth.
Current-generation high-throughput sequencing: deepening insights into mammalian transcriptomes
Authors: Blencowe Benjamin J. , Ahmad Sidrah , Lee Leo J.
Published: June 2009

Recent papers have described the first application of high-throughput sequencing (HTS) technologies to the characterization of transcriptomes. These studies emphasize the tremendous power of this new technology, in terms of both profiling coverage and quantitative accuracy. Initial discoveries include the detection of substantial new transcript complexity, the elucidation of binding maps and regulatory properties of RNA-binding proteins, and new insights into the links between different steps in pre-mRNA processing. We review these findings, focusing on results from profiling mammalian transcriptomes. The strengths and limitations of HTS relative to microarray profiling are discussed. We also consider how future advances in HTS technology are likely to transform our understanding of integrated cellular networks operating at the RNA level.
Structure of human lanthionine synthetase C-like protein 1 and its interaction with Eps8 and glutathione
Authors: Zhang Wenchi , Wang Liang , Liu Yijin , Xu Jiwei , Zhu Guangyu , Cang Huaixing , Li Xuemei , Bartlam Mark , Hensley Kenneth , Li Guangpu , Rao Zihe , Zhang Xuejun C.
Published: June 2009

Eukaryotic lanthionine synthetase C-like protein 1 (LanCL1) is homologous to prokaryotic lanthionine cyclases, yet its biochemical functions remain elusive. We report the crystal structures of human LanCL1, both free of and complexed with glutathione, revealing glutathione binding to a zinc ion at the putative active site formed by conserved GxxG motifs. We also demonstrate by in vitro affinity analysis that LanCL1 binds specifically to the SH3 domain of a signaling protein, Eps8. Importantly, expression of LanCL1 mutants defective in Eps8 interaction inhibits nerve growth factor (NGF)-induced neurite outgrowth, providing evidence for the biological significance of this novel interaction in cellular signaling and differentiation.
Role of DNA damage-induced replication checkpoint in promoting lesion bypass by translesion synthesis in yeast
Authors: Pagès Vincent , Santa Maria Sergio R. , Prakash Louise , Prakash Satya
Published: June 2009

Unrepaired DNA lesions in the template strand block the replication fork. In yeast, Mec1 protein kinase-mediated replication checkpoint prevents the breakdown of replication forks and maintains viability in DNA-damaged cells going through the S phase. By ensuring that the replisome does not dissociate from the fork stalled at the lesion site, the replication checkpoint presumably coordinates the action of lesion bypass processes with the replisome. However, it has remained unclear as to which of the lesion bypass processes—translesion synthesis (TLS) and/or template switching—depend on the activation of the replication checkpoint. Here we determine if the Mec1 kinase and the subunits of the checkpoint clamp and the clamp loader are required for TLS. We show that proficient TLS can occur in the absence of these checkpoint proteins in nucleotide excision repair (NER)-proficient cells; however, in the absence of NER, checkpoint protein-mediated Rev1 phosphorylation contributes to increasing the proficiency of DNA polymerase ζ-dependent TLS.
Metabolic intermediates selectively stimulate transcription factor interaction and modulate phosphate and purine pathways
Authors: Pinson Benoît , Vaur Sabine , Sagot Isabelle , Coulpier Fanny , Lemoine Sophie , Daignan-Fornier Bertrand
Published: June 2009

Cells use strategic metabolites to sense the metabolome and accordingly modulate gene expression. Here, we show that the purine and phosphate pathways are positively regulated by the metabolic intermediate AICAR (5′-phosphoribosyl-5-amino-4-imidazole carboxamide). The transcription factor Pho2p is required for up-regulation of all AICAR-responsive genes. Accordingly, the binding of Pho2p to purine and phosphate pathway gene promoters is enhanced upon AICAR accumulation. In vitro, AICAR binds both Pho2p and Pho4p transcription factors and stimulates the interaction between Pho2p and either Bas1p or Pho4p in vivo. In contrast, SAICAR (succinyl-AICAR) only affects Pho2p–Bas1p interaction and specifically up-regulates purine regulon genes. Together, our data show that Bas1p and Pho4p compete for Pho2p binding, hence leading to the concerted regulation of cellular nucleotide synthesis and phosphate consumption.
Phylogeny and phylogenetic classification of the antbirds, ovenbirds, woodcreepers, and allies (Aves: Passeriformes: infraorder Furnariides)
Authors: Moyle Robert G. , Chesser R. Terry , Brumfield Robb T. , Tello Jose G. , Marchese Daniel J. , Cracraft Joel
Published: June 2009

The infraorder Furnariides is a diverse group of suboscine passerine birds comprising a substantial component of the Neotropical avifauna. The included species encompass a broad array of morphologies and behaviours, making them appealing for evolutionary studies, but the size of the group (ca. 600 species) has limited well‐sampled higher‐level phylogenetic studies. Using DNA sequence data from the nuclear RAG‐1 and RAG‐2 exons, we undertook a phylogenetic analysis of the Furnariides sampling 124 (more than 88%) of the genera. Basal relationships among family‐level taxa differed depending on phylogenetic method, but all topologies had little nodal support, mirroring the results from earlier studies in which discerning relationships at the base of the radiation was also difficult. In contrast, branch support for family‐rank taxa and for many relationships within those clades was generally high. Our results support the Melanopareidae and Grallariidae as distinct from the Rhinocryptidae and Formicariidae, respectively. Within the Furnariides our data contradict some recent phylogenetic hypotheses and suggest that further study is needed to resolve these discrepancies. Of the few genera represented by multiple species, several were not monophyletic, indicating that additional systematic work remains within furnariine families and must include dense taxon sampling. We use this study as a basis for proposing a new phylogenetic classification for the group and in the process erect new family‐group names for clades having high branch support across methods.
Genome scan for the degree of white spotting in dairy cattle
Authors: Liu L. , Harris B. , Keehan M. , Zhang Y.
Published: June 2009

White spotting is one of the most distinguishing visual characters in dairy cattle. There is considerable variation within and between breeds of cattle. The objective of this study was to map quantitative trait loci (QTL) affecting the degree of white spotting in dairy cattle based on an F2 experimental design using Holstein‐Friesian and Jersey crossbred cows. The genome scan was implemented using half‐sib and line‐of‐descent approaches with high density markers. Significant QTL were found on chromosomes 6, 18 and 22. The mapped region on BTA6 confirmed the widely conserved KIT locus affecting mammalian pigmentation. Haplotype information linked the highly significant QTL on BTA22 to the Microphthalmia‐associated transcription factor (MITF) gene, which has been reported to be associated with pigmentation traits in some other mammals.
Parental discipline behaviours and beliefs about their child: associations with child internalizing and mediation relationships
Authors: Laskey B. J. , Cartwright‐Hatton S.
Published: June 2009

Introduction  Internalizing disorders of childhood are a common and disabling problem, with sufferers at increased risk of subsequent psychiatric morbidity. Several studies have found associations between parenting styles and children's internalizing, although few have considered the role of parental discipline. Parental discipline style may exert an effect on children's internalizing symptoms. Anxiety and depression are reliably found to run in families and parental anxiety has been shown to effect parenting behaviour. This study set out to examine the links between parental anxiety, parental discipline style and child internalizing symptoms.

Method  Eighty‐eight parents of children aged 4–10 years were recruited through primary schools. All parents completed questionnaires including measures relating to: adult anxiety (State‐Trait Anxiety Inventory – Trait version, Penn State Worry Questionnaire), parental depression (Beck Depression Inventory – Fastscreen), parental discipline (The Parenting Scale), parenting‐related attributions (Parenting Attitudes, Beliefs and Cognitions Scale) and child psychological morbidity (Child Behaviour Checklist 4–18 version).

Results  Significant correlations were found between both parental anxiety and child internalizing symptoms with ineffective discipline and negative beliefs about parenting. Particularly strong correlations were found between parental anxiety and child internalizing symptoms with harsh discipline. Parents of anxious/withdrawn children were more likely to hold negative beliefs about their child. The link between parental anxiety and child internalizing symptoms was mediated by harsh discipline. The link between parental anxiety and harsh discipline was mediated by parental beliefs about the child.

Conclusion  Discipline style may be an important factor in the relationship between parent anxiety and child internalizing symptoms.
Airway covering during bed‐sharing
Authors: Ball H.
Published: June 2009

Background  Parent–infant bed‐sharing is a common practice in Western post‐industrial nations with up to 50% of infants sleeping with their parents at some point during early infancy. However, researchers have claimed that infants may be at risk of suffocation or sudden infant death syndrome related to airway covering or compression in the bed‐sharing environment. To further understand the role of airway covering and compression in creating risks for bed‐sharing infants, we report here on a sleep‐lab trial of two infant sleep conditions.

Methods  In a sleep‐lab environment 20 infants aged 2–3 months old slept in their parents' bed, and in a cot by the bed, on adjacent nights. Infants' oxygen saturation and heart rate were monitored physiologically while infant and parental behaviours were recorded via ceiling‐mounted infra‐red cameras. Infants served as their own controls. Continuous 8‐h recordings were obtained for covering of infant external airways, levels of infant oxygen saturation, infant heart rate, evidence of parental compression/overlying of infant, circumstances leading up to potential infant airway obstruction, and parental awareness of and responses to infant airway covering.

Results  The majority of infants (14/20) spent some part of the bed night with their airways (both mouth and nose) covered, compared with 2/20 on the cot night; however, no consistent effect on either oxygen saturation levels or heart rate was revealed, even during prolonged bouts of airway covering. All cases of airway covering were initiated by parents; 70% were terminated by parents, the remainder by infants. Seven bouts of potential compression were observed with parental limbs resting across infant bodies for lengthy periods, however, in only two cases was the full weight of a parental limb resting on an infant, both events lasting less than 15 s, both being terminated by infant movement.

Conclusion  Although numerous authors have suggested that bed‐sharing infants face risks because of airway covering by bed‐clothes or parental bodies, the present trial does not lend support to this hypothesis.
Recognition and referral of girls with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: case vignette study
Authors: Groenewald C. , Emond A. , Sayal K.
Published: June 2009

Background  Compared with boys, girls with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) are under‐recognized. Parents commonly discuss concerns with teachers, who play an important role in the recognition and referral of children with ADHD. We investigated whether the predominating subtype of symptomatology influences teacher recognition of affected girls.

Methods  A total of 212 teachers from 40 randomly selected primary schools in England participated in a postal questionnaire study. The questionnaire consisted of a case vignette (based on DSM‐IV criteria) describing a girl with either combined or predominantly inattentive subtype ADHD. Each school received an equal number of each type of vignette for distribution. Further questions elicited teachers' conceptualization of the girl's difficulties and need for specialist referral, their views on treatment modalities and demographic data.

Results  Most (98%) teachers recognized the presence of a problem but mainly conceptualized the girl's behaviour as reflecting attentional (89%) or emotional (62%) difficulties. Teachers were less likely to correctly identify a girl with inattentive than combined subtype ADHD (14% vs. 43%) or recommend clinical referral (50% vs. 59%) for her. Few (15%) teachers thought that medication might be helpful for a girl meeting diagnostic criteria for ADHD.

Conclusions  Teachers are able to recognize ADHD‐related behaviours and impairments but conceptualize these as reflecting attentional or emotional difficulties rather than as relating to a disorder (ADHD). Teachers' conceptualization of ADHD and views about medication are important factors that could affect accurate recognition and referral. Improving teachers' knowledge about ADHD, especially the inattentive subtype, could assist in tackling gender‐related barriers to care.
Time course of serum inhibitory activity for facilitated allergen–IgE binding during bee venom immunotherapy in children
Authors: Varga E‐M , Francis J. N. , Zach M. S. , Klunker S. , Aberer W. , Durham S. R.
Published: June 2009

Background
Immunotherapy for bee venom allergy is effective and provides long‐term protection. Venom‐specific IgG4 levels are increased but with no correlation with clinical improvement. Following grass pollen immunotherapy, elevation of antigen‐specific IgG4 is accompanied by increases in IgG‐dependent serum inhibitory activity for IgE‐facilitated binding of allergen–IgE complexes to B cells. As this ‘functional’ assay of inhibitory antibodies may be more predictive of clinical efficacy, we investigated the time course of serum inhibitory activity for IgE‐facilitated antigen binding during venom immunotherapy (VIT) in children and following 2 years of VIT withdrawal.

Methods
Ten bee venom‐allergic children (mean age: 9.3 years; m/f, 7/3) with moderate to severe allergic reactions to bee stings received VIT. A separate group of seven children (mean age: 14 years; m/f, 5/2) were investigated 2 years after VIT withdrawal. Ten age‐ and gender‐matched children served as non‐allergic controls. Allergen‐specific serum IgG4 and IgE levels were measured by ELISA at baseline, after 2 years of VIT and 2 years after VIT withdrawal. Serum inhibitory activity was assessed using the facilitated‐allergen binding (FAB) assay.

Results
Sera obtained during VIT significantly inhibited allergen–IgE binding to B‐cells (pre‐treatment=104±23%; 2 years=46±15%; P<0.001) when compared with sera obtained after treatment withdrawal and sera from normal controls. In parallel to FAB inhibition during VIT, significantly higher IgG4 levels were noted after immunotherapy (pre‐treatment=8.6±2.3 AU; 2 years=26.7±3.5 AU; P<0.001) compared with those observed after withdrawal and in the controls. In contrast, progressively lower IgE concentrations were observed compared with pre‐treatment (44±7 AU) in sera obtained after 2 years of VIT (25±5 AU; P<0.01) and 2 years following the withdrawal of VIT (10±3 AU; P<0.05).

Conclusions
In contrast to grass pollen immunotherapy, the persistent decline in venom‐specific IgE levels, rather than serum inhibitory activity for FAB, may be more relevant for long‐term clinical efficacy of VIT.
Tracking predator density dependence and subterranean predation by carabid larvae on slugs using monoclonal antibodies
Authors: THOMAS R. S. , HARWOOD J. D. , GLEN D. M. , SYMONDSON W. O. C.
Published: June 2009

1. Subterranean carabid larvae are more numerous than surface‐active adults, yet very little is known about their ecological significance, dietary preferences or ability to regulate populations of prey species, particularly pests. Part of the reason for this is that predator–prey interactions beneath the soil are almost impossible to observe.

2. Extensive field studies have shown that adult Pterostichus melanarius (Illiger) can affect the temporal and spatial dynamics of their slug prey. However, if larvae too are feeding on slugs, this could radically affect overall predator–prey dynamics.

3. We tested the hypotheses that P. melanarius larvae would kill and consume two slug species, Deroceras reticulatum Müller and Arion intermedius Normand, under laboratory and semi‐field conditions, and that there would be no significant difference in rates of predation on these slug species.

4. A new monoclonal antibody was developed that was capable of detecting the presence of slug proteins in the guts of P. melanarius larvae.

5. Pterostichus melanarius larvae killed both A. intermedius and D. reticulatum in the laboratory, feeding to a greater extent, and growing more rapidly, on the latter. The larvae were equally effective at reducing numbers of both slug species in a crop of wheat grown in semi‐field mini plots, but predation was affected by density‐dependent intra‐specific competition amongst the beetle larvae.

6. Future modelling of the dynamic interactions between carabids and slugs will need to take into account predation by larvae.
Collembola respond to aphid herbivory but not to honeydew addition
Authors: SINKA M. , JONES T. H. , HARTLEY S. E.
Published: June 2009

Abstract.1. Euedaphic collembola alter their soil distribution in response to above‐ground aphid herbivory ofPoa annuaL. Graminae, a host grass.

2. Two mechanisms potentially underpin this effect. Carbon‐rich aphid honeydew falling onto the soil surface may affect mycophagous collembola; alternatively aphid‐induced changes in root biomass may be necessary to produce changes in collembola abundance.

3. When compared to a plant‐only control, aphid herbivory increased the number of collembola in the top 5 cm of soil, reduced both foliar and root biomass, and increased shoot/root ratio. Honeydew addition had no effect on collembola numbers or any recorded host‐plant parameter.

4. Honeydew deposition is not responsible for the increased numbers of collembola found in the upper soil after aphid herbivory; aphid‐induced reductions in root biomass may be the most important factor explaining knock‐on effects of aphid herbivory on soil fauna.
Fenofibrate attenuates endothelial monocyte adhesion in chronic heart failure: an in vitro study
Authors: Huang W. P. , Yin W. H. , Chen J. W. , Jen H. L. , Young M. S. , Lin S. J.
Published: June 2009

Background  Inflammation is implicated in chronic heart failure (CHF). In this study, the potential inhibitory effect of peroxisome proliferator‐activated receptor‐α (PPARα) activator fenofibrate on monocyte adhesion in CHF patients was investigated in vitro.

Materials and methods  Isolated peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were collected from 36 patients (aged 65 ± 8 years) with symptomatic CHF and from 12 healthy control subjects. The cultured human aortic endothelial cells (HAECs) were stimulated with or without 2 ng mL−1 tumour necrosis factor‐alpha (TNF‐α) and the inhibitory effects of fenofibrate at 25, 50, 100 and 200 μM on endothelial mononuclear cell adhesion were tested. Furthermore, the HAECs were stimulated with 70% sera obtained from CHF patients and control individuals, respectively, with or without pretreatments with fenofibrate. The endothelial expression of vascular cell adhesion molecule‐1 (VCAM‐1) and intercellular adhesion molecule‐1 (ICAM‐1) was then confirmed by mRNA expression and Western blot.

Results  We found that the increased adhesion of PBMCs to TNF‐α‐stimulated HAECs in CHF patients was reduced when the HAECs were pretreated with fenofibrate (31% inhibition, P = 0·0121). However, pretreatment of the isolated PBMCs collected from CHF patients with fenofibrate failed to suppress their adherence to TNF‐α‐stimulated HAECs. Furthermore, stimulation of cultured HAECs with CHF patient sera significantly increased VCAM‐1 and ICAM‐1 expression, which could also be inhibited by fenofibrate.

Conclusions  The fenofibrate directly inhibits monocyte binding by TNF‐α‐activated HAECs, probably through preventing up‐regulation of cell adhesion molecules by endothelial cells in response to inflammatory stimuli. This PPARα activator may have the potential to ameliorate vascular inflammation in patients with CHF.
Sniffing out patterns of sexual dimorphism in floral scent
Authors: Ashman Tia‐Lynn
Published: June 2009

1. A major transition in flowering plants has been the evolution of separate sexes (dioecy) from combined sexes (hermaphroditism). This transition is often, but not always, accompanied by the evolution of sexual dimorphism in attractive traits, and floral scent is no exception.

2. In this review I aim to improve our understanding of variation in sexual dimorphism in floral scent characteristics by first explicating the relevant hypotheses, and then deriving explicit predictions for the pattern of floral scent from each.

3. Next, I synthesize and qualitatively review published data on floral volatile emission rate and composition in 33 gender dimorphic species to identify emerging patterns, and evaluate these in light of predictions derived from the hypotheses.

4. Although conclusions must be viewed as preliminary, a handful of strong patterns were revealed: (1) in the majority of the species studied males emit more volatiles per flower than females, (2) in over half of the species studied the sexes differed in at least one aspect of scent composition, (3) sexual dimorphism in scent composition was less common in species with rewardless females and/or brood site pollination than those that offered nectar and/or pollen, (4) a one‐to‐one correspondence between sex differences in overall scent composition and male organ‐specific scent production is largely not found.

5. This review has highlighted gaps in our understanding of the genesis of patterns of sexual dimorphism in floral scent, and makes clear that to move the field forward we need to shift our focus from pattern to process, and this will be best achieved by simultaneously testing alternative hypotheses at the same level of analysis.
Simple quantification of blood and plasma antimicrobial capacity using spectrophotometry
Authors: Liebl Andrea L. , Martin II Lynn B.
Published: June 2009

Ecologists are becoming increasingly interested in characterizing immunological variation among and within species. However, many of the techniques available to immunologists are not viable for use in non‐model species, which limits the resolution and progress of ecoimmunological research. Recently, an assay was developed to quantify the capacity of blood or plasma to kill microorganisms in vitro. Such assays are ideal for ecologists because they provide holistic, integrated measures of immune function with minimal sample size and equipment.

 Although informative, the assay suffers from several shortcomings in its current form. Specifically, intra‐assay variation is often prohibitive, quantification of results is time consuming, sample volumes required are somewhat high (especially for small‐bodied species), and materials (e.g. Petri dishes for microbe culturing) are costly and generate excessive waste.

 Here, we describe a modified version of the assay for use against Gram‐negative, Gram‐positive, and fungal microbes using spectrophotometry. This assay decreases sample processing time, reduces blood/plasma volume (to 1·5 μL), and eliminates the need to score results manually. This technique was 3× more reliable than the alternative method when using house sparrow Passer domesticus plasma and Escherichia coli.

 We expect this assay will enable quantification of immune defence in a variety of contexts previously difficult to study (e.g. endangered species) because of the small volumes needed and the simplicity of the protocol. We also provide a list of pathogens that affect passerine populations as potential candidates in future studies. Anti‐microbial activity in other animal species should also be easy to characterize using our approach and the quantification of antimicrobial capacity of tissue and other body fluids should also be possible with only minor modifications of the assay.
Induced nitric oxide synthesis in the gut of Manduca sexta protects against oral infection by the bacterial pathogen Photorhabdus luminescens
Authors: Eleftherianos I. , Felföldi G. , Ffrench‐Constant R. H. , Reynolds S. E.
Published: June 2009

Injecting the insect pathogenic bacterium Photorhabdus luminescens into the blood system of the model lepidopteran insect Manduca sexta induces nitric oxide synthase (NOS) expression in the fat body and blood cells (haemocytes), whereas following oral ingestion of bacteria NOS expression is limited to the gut. We used RNA interference to knock‐down expression of NOS throughout the insect. Preventing NOS induction in this way adversely affected the survival of orally infected insects and caused a significant increase in the number of bacteria crossing into the haemolymph. By contrast, knock‐down of NOS had no effect on the mortality rate of insects infected with P. luminescens by injection. Pharmacological inhibition of NOS decreased both nitric oxide (NO) levels in the gut wall and survival of orally infected insects, whereas elevation of gut wall NO using an NO donor increased survival of NOS silenced caterpillars. Together, our results imply that induced synthesis of NO is important in mediating insect immune defence against the pathogen by inhibiting transfer of bacteria across the gut wall.
Testicular adrenal rest tumours in boys, adolescents and adult men with congenital adrenal hyperplasia may be associated with the CYP21A2 mutation
Authors: Mouritsen Annette , Jørgensen Niels , Main Katharina M. , Schwartz Marianne , Juul Anders
Published: June 2009

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is an autosomal recessive disorder with impaired function of the adrenal cortex caused by mutations in the CYP21A2 gene. Deficiency of steroid 21‐hydroxylase accounts for 80–95% of CAH cases. Testicular adrenal rest tumours (TART) may be prevalent in up to 95% of CAH adults and may already appear during childhood. Whether genotype sub‐types can account for the development of TART has not been investigated previously. We therefore investigated this by coupling clinical information of CAH patients with information of their genetic mutation. In 49 male patients (age 2.6–40.3 years) with 21‐hydroxylase deficiency, testicular ultrasound examinations were performed and CYP21A2 genotypes determined. These were grouped according to the residual 21‐hydroxylase activity: group Null (complete enzyme impairment), group A (almost complete enzyme impairment), group B (severe enzyme impairment) and group C (partial impairment). TART were observed in 27 of 49 patients (55%). For the 23 patients younger than 18 years, TART were present in 11 (48%), the youngest patient being 7.5 years old. The presence of TART was dependent on the CYP21A2 genotype: 27 of 37 patients (73%) with the most severe mutations (groups Null and A) had TART, whereas none of 12 patients with the milder mutations (groups B and C) had TART. We conclude that TART were most frequently detected in patients with severe CYP21A2 mutations, and may occur already in early childhood in such patients.
Insulin and IR‐β in pig spermatozoa: a role of the hormone in the acquisition of fertilizing ability
Authors: Carpino A. , Rago V. , Guido C. , Casaburi I. , Aquila S.
Published: June 2009

Recent studies have revealed that insulin, the main regulator of the glucose homeostasis in somatic cells, is expressed in human spermatozoa which are also able to secrete it. This study investigated the expression of insulin and insulin receptor β in pig spermatozoa, at immunohistochemical protein and mRNA level. The immunofluorescence assay revealed that insulin and its receptor were co‐localized in the sperm midpiece, while insulin was also detected in the acrosomal region. Western blot evidenced a 36 kDa band for insulin and a 95 kDa band for insulin receptor, such as reported in somatic cells. In addition, both insulin and insulin receptor transcripts were detected in pig spermatozoa. Interestingly, a possible biological role of the hormone was evidenced during pig sperm capacitation and acrosome reaction. In fact, the results showed that insulin (0.01 and 0.1 nm) can induce both the activities. A possible autocrine short loop of insulin in pig spermatozoa was suggested by the evaluation of the hormone secretion in both uncapacitated and capacitated spermatozoa. Furthermore, spontaneous sperm capacitation and acrosome reaction were stimulated by glucose and inhibited by the blockage of insuline release (nifedipine). In conclusion, this work has firstly demonstrated the expression of insulin and of its receptor, as well as the insulin secretion by pig spermatozoa, thereby suggesting an unexpected significance of the hormone in the acquisition of the male gamete fertilizing ability.