bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Broca’s Area and Lexical-Semantic Processing
Authors: Cappa Stefano F. , Perani Daniela
Published: May 2009

This chapter focuses on the relationship between Broca's area and lexical-semantic processing. The first section reviews the aphasiological evidence for lexical and/or semantic impairment in the syndrome of Broca's aphasia. The second section considers the relationship between damage to Broca's area and neighboring structures and specific aspects of linguistic impairment in the syndrome, including disorders of lexical/semantic processing. Finally, the chapter reviews the contribution of functional imaging to the issue of the role of Broca's area in lexical/semantic processing.
The Agrammatical Language Disturbance: Studies on a Psychological Basis for the Teaching on Aphasia (1913)
Authors: Pick Arnold
Published: May 2009

This chapter presents a paper published by Arnold Pick in 1913. Pick was the first to put the study of language disturbances in the context of modern psycholinguistic research. Agrammatism is now recognized as a central feature of Broca's aphasia. Pick's recognition of the centrality of the grammatical aspect in the deficit in Broca's aphasia paved the way to later linguistic analyses of aphasic syndromes, and thus made linguistic investigations of brain-language relations possible.
The Organization of Language and the Brain (1970)
Authors: Geschwind Norman
Published: May 2009

This chapter presents a paper published by Norman Geschwind in 1970. Geschwind helped revive the interest in brain-language relations in the 1940s-1950s. His work on the cerebral representation of language resulted in an enriched Connectionist model, which he explored in the context of other disorders such as apraxia and agnosia.
Observed Brain Dynamics
Authors: Mitra Partha , Bokil Hemant
Published: May 2009

The biomedical sciences have recently undergone revolutionary change, due to the ability to digitize and store large data sets. In neuroscience, the data sources include measurements of neural activity measured using electrode arrays, EEG and MEG, brain imaging data from PET, fMRI, and optical imaging methods. Analysis, visualization, and management of these time series data sets is a growing field of research that has become increasingly important both for experimentalists and theorists interested in brain function. The first part of the book contains a set of chapters which provide non-technical conceptual background to the subject. Salient features include the adoption of an active perspective of the nervous system, an emphasis on function, and a brief survey of different theoretical accounts in neuroscience. The second part is the longest in the book, and contains a refresher course in mathematics and statistics leading up to time series analysis techniques. The third part contains applications of data analysis techniques to the range of data sources indicated above, and the fourth part contains special topics.
Theoretical Accounts of the Nervous System
Authors: Mitra Partha P. , Bokil Hemant
Published: May 2009

This chapter focuses on theoretical accounts of the nervous system. It argues that one way to deal with the diversity presented by the large number of theoretical accounts of the nervous system and of animal behavior would be to understand the principle dimensions along which the theories differ—a set of axes, as it were, for the “space” of theories. It presents three “axes” that seem to capture some of the major distinctions between classes of theories: level of organization, direction of causal explanations, and instrumental approach.
Optical Imaging
Authors: Mitra Partha P. , Bokil Hemant
Published: May 2009

This chapter discusses analysis of data acquired using optical imaging techniques, which have the potential to combine good spatial and temporal resolution. Topics covered include noise sources, differential and ratio maps, and multivariate methods.
Local Regression and Likelihood
Authors: Mitra Partha P. , Bokil Hemant
Published: May 2009

Local regression and likelihood methods are nonparametric approaches for fitting regression functions and probability distributions to data. This chapter discusses the basic ideas behind these methods at a level that is of relevance to the analysis of neural data.
Stress Effects on the Developing Brain
Authors: Gunnar Megan R.
Published: May 2009

This chapter provides an overview of the brain's stress response system (the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis or HPA) and how early stressors can influence this system as the child develops. It reviews research suggesting that adverse effects on the stress response system produced by neglectful parenting can be reversed by subsequent more responsive care.
Maternal Programming of Defensive Responses Through Sustained Effects on Gene Expression
Authors: Meaney Michael J.
Published: May 2009

This chapter provides an overview of the long-term effects of early stress on the subsequent development of both physical and mental disorder. It then discusses the role of maternal care during pre- and postnatal periods as an early source of these effects, using research conducted in the laboratory with the rat. The chapter then reviews potential mediators of the effects of maternal behavior on gene expression. The chapter concludes with the questions that remain regarding the effects of early stress on pathology.
The Effects of Early Deprivation on Brain-Behavioral Development
Authors: Nelson III Charles A. , Zeanah Charles H. , Fox Nathan A.
Published: May 2009

This chapter describes the Bucharest Early Intervention Project (BEIP) is a randomized controlled trial comparing the effects of foster care as an alternative to institutional care for young children abandoned at birth and placed in institutions in Bucharest, Romania. This study comprehensively assessed 136 children between the ages of 6 and 31 months who were institutionalized in all six of the institutions for young children in Bucharest, Romania, and followed them systematically through to 54 months of age. Institutionalization was associated with profoundly negative effects on child and brain development. Virtually all domains of development were compromised by institutional rearing: physical, brain, cognitive, linguistic, and social-emotional development. Nearly half of institutionalized children appeared to suffer from one or more forms of psychopathology. The good news is that foster care appeared to be effective in diminishing some forms of psychopathology and normalizing other domains of development; the bad news is that it was not affecting all domains of development, nor did full recovery occur in most domains assessed to date.
Neurohormones, Neurodevelopment, and the Prodrome of Psychosis in Adolescence
Authors: Walker Elaine F. , McMillan Amanda , Mittal Vijay
Published: May 2009

It has been suggested that the neural systems governing the response to stress, especially the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, may function to augment the expression of the core vulnerability to psychosis. This chapter reviews research findings that bear on adolescent vulnerability for psychosis and neurodevelopment of the HPA-hippocampal system, with an emphasis on implications for preventive intervention. The chapter presents preliminary data from recent research that suggests how psychopharmacologic interventions might alter HPA function, and thereby modify the transition to psychosis in at-risk adolescents.
CHAPTER 4 A Psychological Advantage for the Status Quo
Authors: Eidelman Scott , Crandall Christian S.
Published: May 2009

This chapter discusses a host of psychological phenomena and their supporting mechanisms that favor status quo maintenance. These phenomena are placed into two loose clusters: those that describe cognitive processes and those that describe evaluative processes. The chapter argues these processes work in tandem, providing existing states with a psychological advantage; relative to alternatives, the status quo requires less effort, intention, control, and/or awareness for support and/or endorsement. As such, status quo maintenance is more ubiquitous and subtle than often believed.
CHAPTER 5 Belief in a Just World, Perceived Fairness, and Justification of the Status Quo
Authors: Hafer Carolyn L. , Choma Becky L.
Published: May 2009

This chapter focuses primarily on the system justifying properties of a belief in a just world (BJW); that is, a belief that people get what they deserve. The chapter presents a review of research on the relation between individual differences in the strength of BJW and attributions and attitudes that justify the status quo by increasing one’s sense that outcomes are fair or deserved. One implication of the system justifying properties of a strong BJW is examined; namely, that a strong BJW is related to less perceived discrimination. The chapter presents original research suggesting that a strong BJW might lead to less perceived discrimination directed at one personally when the presence of that discrimination is relatively ambiguous. System justifying beliefs are more generally examined by discussing moderators and mediators of the relation between these various beliefs (including a BJW) and justification of the status quo.
CHAPTER 10 No Atheists in Foxholes: Motivated Reasoning and Religious Belief
Authors: Willer Robb
Published: May 2009

Recent research has focused on the motivational bases of political ideology. It is plausible that similar factors may drive the formation of religious ideology. Although explanations of the existence of religious beliefs in terms of their satisfaction of psychological needs date back centuries, limited empirical research links motivated reasoning to religious belief. This chapter reviews existing research on the role of motivation in the formation of religious belief systems, specifically research on the relationship between fear of death and afterlife belief. The results of two original, experimental studies are presented, investigating the hypothesis that fear of death leads to greater religious belief. The results of these studies suggest that a more parsimonious motivated reasoning account may explain the relationship between fear of death and afterlife belief better than one based on terror management theory. Taken together, findings support the notion that some religious beliefs can be usefully explained in motivational terms.
CHAPTER 14 Procedural Justice and System-Justifying Motivations
Authors: Feygina Irina , Tyler Tom R.
Published: May 2009

Findings from system justification theory suggest that procedural justice information processing may be subject to motivational influences, and therefore may not always be accurate. In particular, experiencing procedural injustice may pose a threat to beliefs about the legitimacy and benevolence of the groups and systems a person inhabits and motivate a more positive reinterpretation of the experience in line with one's beliefs. This hypothesis was tested among 997 respondents to a survey concerning personal interactions with legal authorities. Results indicate that more conservative respondents, who exhibit a stronger motivation to justify the system compared with more liberal respondents, reported greater overall satisfaction with the authority figure, while adjusting for outcome favorability, and greater overall decision acceptance. In addition, more conservative respondents were less sensitive to decreases in procedural justice and showed a slower decrease in evaluations of the authority in response to experiencing greater injustice, compared to more liberal respondents. Implications for legitimacy of authorities and systems are discussed.
CHAPTER 17 Group Status and Feelings of Personal Entitlement: The Roles of Social Comparison and System-Justifying Beliefs
Authors: O'Brien Laurie T. , Major Brenda
Published: May 2009

This chapter examines the relationship between group status and feelings of personal entitlement. Considered are two mechanisms that affect feelings of personal entitlement: social comparison processes and system justification. Biases to compare one’s outcomes with the outcomes of similar others and with one’s own past outcomes lead to different reference standards for people from high-status versus low-status groups. The use of different reference standards creates group differences in feelings of personal entitlement. System justifying beliefs justify hierarchical and unequal relationships among groups in society. System justifying beliefs lead to the inference that groups that possess more social goods (high-status groups) must have greater inputs (e.g., intelligence, skill) than groups with fewer social goods (low-status groups). The inference that high-status groups have more inputs than low-status groups may lead to the belief that they deserve greater outcomes and thus increase feelings of personal entitlement among members of high-status groups and decrease entitlement among members of low-status groups. The chapters describe a recent program of research on the role of system justifying beliefs in creating group differences in personal entitlement, and discuss potential strategies for eliminating group differences in personal entitlement as well as directions for future research.
CHAPTER 19 Acknowledging and Redressing Historical Injustices
Authors: Starzyk Katherine B. , Blatz Craig W. , Ross Mike
Published: May 2009

This chapter presents research and theory focusing on how individuals and governments respond to historical injustices. The chapter proposes that people and groups remember negative historical events more benignly, if they remember them at all, to maintain positive views of important groups and social systems. The focus is placed on studies demonstrating that people’s evaluations of reparations for past harms depend on situational variables, such as whether the harm happened in their own or another country. The chapter also connect people’s responses to reparations to the dual motivations to protect important groups and social systems, and examine the responses of members of a victimized minority and nonvictimized majority to a government apology for a historical injustice. Finally, the content of government offers of reparation is analyzed, to assess how these offers might enhance the social identities of both the victimized minority and nonvictimized majority, as well as affirm the current system of government and laws.
Remembering Negative Childhood Experiences
Authors: Chae Yoojin , Ogle Christin M. , Goodman Gail S.
Published: May 2009

This chapter begins with a brief overview of attachment theory. It then reviews empirical findings from various laboratories on significant relations of attachment with children's memory and suggestibility for emotional, attachment-evoking information, focusing on (1) associations between children's attachment and their memory/suggestibility for attachment-related information, and (2) associations between parents' attachment and children's memory/suggestibility for such information. The chapter considers potential mechanisms underlying the relations. It also discusses the information-processing stages (e.g., encoding, retrieval) during which the attachment effects may be operative.
Stress and Autobiographical Memory Functioning
Authors: Greenhoot Andrea Follmer , Johnson Rebecca J. , Legerski John-Paul , McCloskey Laura A.
Published: May 2009

This chapter investigates the possibility that chronic or traumatic stress may influence autobiographical memory development or memory functioning. It begins by reviewing the empirical literature regarding memory disturbances in children and adults with trauma histories. It then discusses one of the possible explanations for trauma-related memory patterns, focusing in particular on the hypothesis that they are linked to emotion-regulation processes. It presents research on these issues, carried out as part of a longitudinal study of family violence. Finally, the chapter revisits existing explanatory frameworks and attempts to recast them from a developmental standpoint.
Mother-Child Reminiscing in the Context of Secure Attachment Relationships
Authors: Laible Deborah , Panfile Tia
Published: May 2009

This chapter argues that discussions about children's past negative emotions have important consequences for children's ability to understand and cope with negative emotion. Parent-child reminiscing about children's past stressful (and negative emotional) experiences has implications for how children understand and remember stressful events after the fact, as well as how they cope with future stressful experiences. The chapter is organized as follows. It begins with a brief discussion of children's emotional understanding and its likely importance for children's ability to cope with negative emotion both during and after stressful experiences. It highlights the importance of parent-child discourse, particularly parent-child reminiscing, for fostering children's understanding of negative emotion, and reviews recent research on this topic. The chapter then considers a discussion of attachment theory in an attempt to understand individual differences in the quality of parent-child communication surrounding emotional and stressful experiences. The chapter then highlights the research that suggests that having a secure attachment facilitates open communication between caregivers and children, especially regarding difficult or negative experiences. Finally, it discusses the importance of open, high-quality mother-child reminiscing for promoting children's understanding of stressful experiences as well as their psychological well-being.
Relationships, Stress, and Memory
Authors: Thompson Ross A.
Published: May 2009

This chapter focuses on the connections between relationships, stress, and memory. Attachment theory offers a provocative framework for understanding these connections. The chapter discusses the influence of attachment relationships on children's memory for stressful events. It examines how parent-child conversation influences memory, especially for stressful events. Emotion regulation also connects relationships, memory, and stress, and a growing research literature in this field is considered. The chapter concludes with some ideas for the future directions of this field and its practical applications.
Complications Abound, and Why That's a Good Thing
Authors: Bauer Patricia J.
Published: May 2009

This chapter begins with some comments about memory itself, before moving on to discussions of the complications created by events and by stress. It attempts to convince readers of the hopelessness of a simple answer to a challenging question, and ends with some prescriptions for future foci of study.
6 Loyalty to a Non-Muslim State
Authors: March Andrew F.
Published: May 2009

This chapter examines Islamic arguments for three basic principles of civic loyalty: that non-Muslim states may enjoy permanent recognition; that a Muslim citizen may forswear any violent activities against their non-Muslim state; and that it is permissible to contribute to the self-defense efforts of a non-Muslim state. Central is the idea of contract, particularly the aman, a contract of mutual security between Muslims and non-Muslims, often used to assert a general social contract in non-Muslim states, and thus obligation to them. Arguments for actively defending a non-Muslim state tend to be that no explicit prohibition exists or that doing so may be beneficial to Muslims. However, it is also clear that political liberalism’s notion of public neutrality on controversial truth claims is attractive to Islamic scholars. On the question of permanent recognition, it is argued that Muslim citizens must adopt a form of the Modernist jihad doctrine.
7 Recognition of Non-Muslims and Moral Pluralism
Authors: March Andrew F.
Published: May 2009

This chapter examines the idea of recognizing non-Muslims as civic equals and the permanence of moral pluralism, theorizing recognition as accepting the permanence and inevitability of religious disagreement and the premise that justice (as opposed to contingent accommodation or self-interest) is the standard for regulating social cooperation. It shows that many Islamic scholars turn to the Meccan verses of the Qur’an to theorize the minority condition, and even classical jurists insisted on the centrality of justice as an entitlement of non-Muslims, although this claim alone does not establish an overlapping consensus. This chapter returns to the discourses on da’wa (proselytization), showing that, while it remains a rich and ambiguous concept, it is emerging as a template for theorizing a richer relationship of moral obligation with non-Muslims. Finally, accounts of the Qur’anic prohibition on muwalah (loyalty, friendship) with non-Muslims argue that it is compatible with political citizenship.
8 Solidarity with Non-Muslims
Authors: March Andrew F.
Published: May 2009

Solidarity is defined as the willingness to form common social, economic, and civic goals with non-Muslims and to participate in a political system not based on Islamic justice or Islamic public justification. The chapter shows that even illiberal Islamic thinkers justify substantive contributions to non-Muslim welfare and that there are traditions of thinking of welfare and well-being in both Islam-specific metaphysical terms and in universal secular terms. Political participation is treated as a “wedge issue” between the concepts of citizenship and justice. The Biblical-Qur’anic story of Joseph (Yusuf), the Islamic legal concept of “public interest” (maslaha) and the religious neutrality of liberal states all feature as justifications of political participation in non-Muslim states.
Introduction
Authors: Weiss Richard S.
Published: May 2009

This chapter begins by asking: How have contemporary traditional siddha medical practitioners in south India continued to win patronage for their practices? The answer lies not only in the physical efficacy of specific siddha medical practices, but just as importantly in the imaginative resources practitioners employ to appeal to the hopes and aspirations of Tamils. The chapter pays particular attention to siddha medicine as a traditional medical system. That is, it focuses on the aspects of siddha discourse that link medical knowledge and practice to an ancient community, and it puts forth a theoretical framework in which to examine the impact of this medical discourse on local Tamil identity and community.
Reviving the Utopian Character of Siddha Medicine
Authors: Weiss Richard S.
Published: May 2009

This chapter looks at the utopian character that siddha practitioners ascribe to siddha medicine. The features attributed to siddha medicine—egalitarianism, rationality, science, accordance with nature, and global applicability—qualify siddha to be the medicine of our global future. The details of this formulation took shape within the context of Tamil revivalism, and siddha practitioners have given rational and global qualities to even the more religious features of siddha medical discourse, such as its connection to Shaivism. These formulations of an effective, original, and natural medicine glorify Tamil civilization and give rise to a variety of desires and motivations among their authors and intended audiences, and they contribute to assertions of the contemporary relevance of Tamil civilization and tradition.
Secrecy, Hereditary Education, and the Immortality of Siddha Medicine
Authors: Weiss Richard S.
Published: May 2009

Siddha medical knowledge has been transmitted for centuries within the paramparai, the hereditary lineage. The knowledge of the lineage was carefully guarded, as knowledge held in secret was an advantage in a competitive medical environment. Siddha vaidyas today continue to draw on the luminous authority of secrecy to promote their medicine, claiming to possess cures for cancer and AIDS and even promising bodily immortality. This chapter explores secrecy in siddha medicine, paying particular attention to the most extraordinary of siddha medical formulations, muppu, an alchemical preparation that is said to cure all ailments. Premodern Tamil medical texts provide much of the source material here.
Artful Dodgers
Authors: Gubar Marah
Published: May 2009

This book proposes a fundamental reconception of the 19th-century attitude toward the child. The Romantic ideology of innocence spread more slowly than we think, it contends, and the people whom we assume were most committed to it—children’s authors and members of the infamous “cult of the child”—were actually deeply ambivalent. Writers such as Lewis Carroll, Frances Hodgson Burnett, and J. M. Barrie often resisted the growing cultural pressure to erect a strict barrier between child and adult, innocence and experience. Instead of urging young people to mold themselves to match a static ideal of artless simplicity, they frequently conceived of children as precociously literate, highly socialized beings who—though indisputably shaped by the strictures of civilized life—could nevertheless cope with such influences in creative ways. By entertaining the idea that contact with the adult world does not necessarily victimize children, these authors reacted against Dickensian plots which imply that youngsters who work and play alongside adults (including the so-called Artful Dodger) are not in fact inventive or ingenious enough to avoid a sad fate. To find the truly artful child characters from this era, the book maintains, we must turn to children’s literature, a genre that celebrates the canny resourcefulness of young protagonists without claiming that they enjoy unlimited power and autonomy.
6 The Problem of the Political in Steve Reich's Come Out
Authors: Gopinath Sumanth
Published: May 2009

This chapter gives a detailed account of the historical circumstances of the creation of Steve Reich's well‐known tape piece Come Out (1966), which takes as its sole source material a declaration by a black youth (Daniel Hamm, a member of the Harlem Six) wrongly accused of murder. The civil rights struggle features as the primary backdrop to this discussion, but the chapter also draws on broader contexts relevant to the 1960s, including contemporary discourses on paranoia and on the violence wrought upon and against language. Attention is given to the problematic aspects of Reich's creation, which arise in no small part from the avant‐garde compositional processes to which Hamm's voice is subjected, but the chapter closes by suggesting that the piece nonetheless contains a powerful contemporary relevance.
10 After the October Revolution
Authors: Gendron Bernard
Published: May 2009

This chapter analyses the resurgence of the jazz avant‐garde in New York in the mid‐1960s, focusing in particular upon musicians' negotiation of competing aesthetic, social, and economic imperatives. Through a detailed investigation of shifting patterns of reception in the jazz press, attention is drawn to a complex of factors that lifted the jazz avant‐garde from near obscurity in the early years of the decade, to a canonised status by 1965. Prominent amongst these factors was the politically radical discourse promoted by figures associated with the Black Arts Movement such as Amiri Baraka and Larry Neal, which conceived black avant‐garde musicians as shaping the spiritual foundation for revolutionary change. The articulation of a radical social purpose thus assisted the process of canonisation, although this canonisation brought no parallel economic success.
Fair Governance
Authors: Buckley Francis H.
Published: May 2009

This book examines justifications for interfering with personal preferences. The paternalist would second-guess a person's choices with the goal of making him better off; the perfectionist would do so to enforce morals by eliminating immoral choices. The two categories overlap to a large extent, but remain different. The paternalist is not a perfectionist when he would impugn morally neutral choices which would nevertheless leave a person worse off. This book calls this “soft paternalism” and contrasts this to a “hard paternalism” that overlaps with perfectionism and enforces a moral vision. Whether soft or hard, paternalism would embrace state interference based on judgment errors, weakness of the will, information costs and endogenous preferences. In general this book keeps a sceptical view that such arguments make a strong case for state intervention with people's choices. There are different ways of influencing choices, and liberal perfectionists would use moderate means (carrots more than sticks) to do so. Rules that nudge people towards particular choices are less troubling when they permit people to opt out, but such rules might still be illiberal if they direct people to choices that they would never want to make if they thought about it. The perfectionist is not a paternalist when he enforces a moral code without seeking to make a person better off, but instead to protect people influenced by his bad behavior. The book calls this “social perfectionism” as contrasted with the “private perfectionism” that is concerned with the morals of the person making the choice. Rules that promote nationalism are a prominent example of social perfectionism.
Paternalism and Perfectionism
Authors: Buckley F. H.
Published: May 2009

This chapter distinguishes between two justifications for interfering with personal preferences. The paternalist would second-guess a person's choices with the goal of making him better off; the perfectionist would do so to enforce morals by eliminating immoral choices. The two categories overlap to a large degree, but stay different. The paternalist is not a perfectionist when he would impugn morally neutral choices which would nevertheless leave a person worse off. Smoking might be an example of this. This book uses the term “soft paternalism” to contrast with the “hard paternalism” that overlaps with perfectionism and enforces a moral vision. The perfectionist is not a paternalist when he enforces a moral code without seeking to make a person better off, but instead to protect people influenced by his bad behavior. The book uses the term “social perfectionism” as contrasted with the “private perfectionism” that is concerned with the morals of the person making the choice.
Endogenous Preferences
Authors: Buckley F. H.
Published: May 2009

Preferences are endogenous to the legal regime when they are shaped by it, as they would be when populist legislation makes people more envious. Legal rules might also shape our preferences when they are taken to provide a persuasive moral guide, as where civil rights legislation weakens prejudices. However, legislative attempts to shape preferences can be abusive, as the experience with Canadian human rights codes shows. Default rules, which presume that we will make a particular choice unless we opt out, importantly affect how we choose, and this has been thought to make a case for “libertarian paternalism”. However, default rules are not libertarian unless they mimic the kinds of choices people would prefer if they thought about it; and in that case they're not paternalistic.
Antitrust and IP: 20th century
Authors: Carrier Michael A.
Published: May 2009

This chapter explores the underpinnings of the mutual distrust between intellectual property (IP) and antitrust and the various stages of their relationship. It begins by discussing the conflict between IP and antitrust. It then traces the three stages of the intersection in the 20th century, in which courts first refused to impose liability for patent-based activity, then limited patentees' power, then moved toward a predominant IP. The chapter concludes by examining important agency guidelines and courts' analyses of refusals to license.
Biotechnology Dilemma 2: Material Transfer Agreements
Authors: Carrier Michael A.
Published: May 2009

This chapter focuses on material transfer agreements (MTAs). Scientists frequently need and request materials owned by others. The most common request involves biological materials such as genes, cell lines, tissues, and organisms used to create new products. Each of these materials is an input in the research and development (R&D) process, allowing scientists to create new products that eventually could be used by the public. In many cases, the recipient must sign an MTA, which can be defined as a contract between the owner of a material and a party that wishes to use the material for research purposes. MTAs present at least five threats to innovation in the biotechnology industry: (1) withheld materials, (2) abandoned research lines, (3) delays in receiving material, (4) publication restrictions, and (5) other harms. The chapter offers a proposal to address these concerns.
Unsettling Drug Patent Settlements: A Framework for Presumptive Illegality
Authors: Carrier Michael A.
Published: May 2009

This chapter explains why agreements by which brand-name pharmaceutical companies pay generic firms to settle patent infringement litigation and agree to delay entering the market should be presumptively illegal. It begins by introducing the Hatch-Waxman Act, exploring its purpose, text, and mixed success. It then discusses three representative cases illustrating courts' increased leniency toward reverse payment agreements. In justifying a framework for presumptive illegality, the chapter explains the importance of the relevant regulatory framework. It demonstrates the ineffectiveness of the Act's competition mechanisms. It focuses on reverse payments, describing their uniquely concerning aspects and potentially severe anticompetitive harm. Finally, it shows how the settling parties can rebut the presumption of illegality.
Gertrude Stein, William James, and Habit in the Shadow of War
Authors: Olson Liesl
Published: May 2009

This chapter explores how Gertrude Stein draws upon her mentor William James’s ideas about habit, and how habit becomes central to Stein’s late World War II writings. James—like his counterpart Henri Bergson—celebrates habit as a mode of choice, and the strongest indication of a fully formed character. Similarly Stein locates habit—rather than innovation—as the most animating force in the English literary tradition. Stein inherits James’s positivism and understands habit as the pleasure of repetition. The value she finds in habit stands out against a dominating ethos against it, best articulated by Walter Pater, one of literary modernism’s key precursors. Stein’s emphasis on habit throughout her ouevre—both stylistic and ideological—becomes central to Mrs. Reynolds and Wars I Have Seen, texts largely based on Stein’s own experience during the German occupation of France. Habits both mask the disruption that war creates, dissolving the consequences of the world into the space of the home, and paradoxically work as a way in which war itself can be best represented. Stein’s World War II writings foreground habit’s crucial utility, but ultimately (and in contrast to Beckett) they also call attention to habit’s political inadequacy.
Conclusion
Authors: Olson Liesl
Published: May 2009

This concluding chapter explores how the temporality of the everyday functions with and against narrative form. It turns to Marcel Proust’s In Search of Lost Time as a case in point and also explores how this relationship plays out in modernist texts discussed in previous chapters. One of the difficulties—as the sheer length of In Search of Lost Time attempts to resolve—is the disjunction between the length of a novel, with its significant and inter-related events, and a fully lived life. The chapter examines the relationship in Proust’s work between art and life—or making one’s life into a work of art—also with reference to Aristotle and Nietzsche. Ultimately the chapter argues that In Search of Lost Time amplifies and distends its narrative in order to fit the temporality of the everyday, and yet the novel also recognizes the fundamental incompatibility of the everyday with narrative form.
Neural Tube Defects: New Insights on Risk Factors
Authors: Pedernera Enrique , Vidales Rodrigo Núñez , Méndez Carmen
Published: May 2009

Neural-tube defects (NTDs) include a group of congenital malformations that mainly affect the structure of the central nervous system (CNS). This chapter describes the main entities that comprise NTDs, provides population-based statistics, presents advances in the elucidation of their etiology, and discusses associated risk factors.
The Nigro-Striatal DA Neurons and Mechanisms of Their Degeneration in Parkinson’s Disease
Authors: Fuxe Kjell , Marcellino Daniel , Antonelli Tiziana , Mudó Giuseppa , Manger Paul , Genedani Susanna , Ferraro Luca , Belluardo Natale , Tanganelli Sergio , Agnati Luigi F.
Published: May 2009

This chapter focuses on the link between correct mitochondrial function and the function of the plasma membrane ion channels and receptors, especially KATPM channels, P2x7 channels, and Cav 1.3 Ca2+ channels that control the firing of the nigral dopamine (DA) cells and consequently their survival. The roles of the nicotinic, adenosine A2A, and neurotensin receptors in these neurodegenerative processes are discussed. How an understanding of these molecular mechanisms may lead to the development of novel neuroprotective strategies or to differential treatment for the various types of PD due to their partially overlapping pathogenetic mechanisms is also addressed.
Degeneration and Regeneration of Myelin in the Central Nervous System of the Aging Monkey
Authors: Peters Alan
Published: May 2009

Studies have been conducted on the rhesus monkey to determine what happens to the central nervous system (CNS) during normal aging. This chapter focuses one age-related change—the profound alterations in myelinated nerve fibers of the CNS. It shows that although there is a strong correlation between nerve fiber loss and age in the white matter tracts, only nerve fiber loss from the anterior commissure and the fornix showed correlations with cognitive decline; fiber loss from the splenium of the corpus callosum did not. The frequency of degenerative alterations in myelin sheaths correlates strongly with age, and as well with cognitive decline. Because myelin provides insulation around nerve fibers and makes saltatory conduction possible, it seems likely that any degenerative alterations in myelin sheaths will affect impulse conduction, as would an interposition of a number of short internodal lengths that occur in remyelination.
Undead Ghosts and Living Prey
Authors: Grodal Torben
Published: May 2009

This chapter discusses the mental mechanisms that evoke fascination with film types such as fantasy and horror. It first discusses general reasons for the salience of fantastic and counterintuitive phenomena, and why the evolution of reason also supports as a side-effect superstitious over-causalization. It then discusses why some themes—agency, predation, death, morality, and social exchange—are central in “supernatural” films. Humans have evolved innate fears of dangerous, and even invisible creatures that feed on humans, and horror films abound with fears of powerful devouring monster-agents like Dracula. Death has been a central problem for mankind, partly because corpses are strongly contagious, and horror films activate innate fears of pollution. Further, in folk psychology, the body is controlled by a strong spirit, and when the body dies, the spirit/ghost poses problems and must also be killed (cf. Dracula). Moral surveillance in large groups is difficult, and counterintuitive agents are often invented to deter immoral behavior, like Sauron or Satan, who prey on those who misbehave. Finally, films with a supernatural content often project models from social life, such as exchanging favors and goods, as a model of how you may deal with nature or supernatural phenomena (by sacrifices, gifts, and so on).
Art Film, the Transient Body, and the Permanent Soul
Authors: Grodal Torben
Published: May 2009

The chapter analyzes the concepts and modes of representation that characterize films as art and discuss some of the reasons for the limited appeal of “high art” to a mass audience. The main argument is that a key difference between art films and mainstream films rests on the difference between portraying “permanent” as opposed to “transient” meanings. Our basic experiences of the world are transient in the sense that they stem from concrete, present tense interactions with the world, involving a constant PECMA flow. However, not all our experiences are of this kind. Our ability to recall the past and to construct schemas creates fields of more “permanent” meanings, and our ability to produce abstract concepts likewise gives rise to experiences that are beyond the transient level of concrete interaction. High art typically avoids the middle level of concrete (narrative) interaction in order either to evoke abstract and/or subjective permanent meanings, or to activate a “lower” level of perceptual meaning, “style.” Permanent meanings are often felt to exist only in our minds, not in the objective exterior world. Works of high art will therefore appear to us both as “subjective” and as expressing certain permanent, “eternal,” or spiritual meanings.
Subjective Aesthetics in Film
Authors: Grodal Torben
Published: May 2009

This chapter analyzes those features of film that provide the feeling that a given part of a film is not a transparent representation of exterior reality but a representation either of inner life or of exterior reality colored and filtered by subjective elements. It argues that central in evoking subjective feelings is to hinder physical actions or thought actions in films; blocking action provides the film images with static, saturated feelings (equalia) central to film aesthetics. The chapter analyzes six important ways of evoking subjective, saturated emotions in films: (1) minimizing or freezing actions and blocking thought “actions” (i.e., propositions); (2) impeding perceptual access; (3) making the access to the space deviant or distorted; (4) making the portrayed actions deviant or distorted; (5) portraying situations with a problematic reality status; and (6) portraying deviant emotions and emotional reactions. The chapter also discusses the differences in the use of subjective elements in art films and in mainstream films.
Rhetoric as Self-Cultivation: A Question of Language
Authors: Kenneth W. Holloway
Published: May 2009

This chapter provides a nuanced study of the relationship between “The Five Aspects of Conduct” and Mencius. In “The Five Aspects of Conduct,” This chapter is an important part of self-cultivation, but this is not true of the Mencius. Mencius’s ethical system is primarily concerned with developing the moral framework of the people. This framework is human nature (ren xing), an innate source of goodness that enables us to act as moral agents. Human nature is entirely absent from “The Five Aspects of Conduct,” which instead employs rhetoric as a means of interlinking people. However, an analysis of the religious function of rhetoric and human nature will uncover a degree of similarity from the perspective of the social application of both concepts: they bridge ruptures that otherwise separate individual processes of self-cultivation.
Conclusion
Authors: Liow Joseph Chinyong
Published: May 2009

The conclusion provides reflections on the idea of pietization and politics after the transition from the Mahathir administration to the Abdullah administration in the government, as well as from the reformist leadership of Fadzil Noor in PAS to the fundamentalist leadership of Abdul Hadi Awang. It discusses the intensification of contested authenticities between UMNO and PAS that these changes heralded. In addition to a careful critical deconstruction of the Islamic discourse and praxis of the main political protagonists, the conclusion draws further attention to the cultural context, meanings, and practices of contemporary Islam in Malaysia, and particularly how these factors interplay with mainstream elite politics encapsulated in the UMNO-PAS “Islamization race.” By listening to the voices of those outside the elite who have responded to the effects of UMNO’s and PAS’s mutually reinforcing Islamist politics, the conclusion further assesses the contributions of society (in contradistinction to the state and the political apparatus, as represented by these dominant political parties) either as an alternative vehicle for or as a buffer against Islamization.
The Art of Scandal
Authors: Latham Sean
Published: May 2009

This book advances a relatively simple claim with far-reaching consequences for modernist studies: writers and readers throughout the early 20th century revived the long-despised codes of the roman à clef as a key part of that larger assault on Victorian realism we now call modernism. In the process, this resurgent genre took on a life of its own, reconfiguring the relationship between literature, celebrity, and the law. This book explores the complex process in which the roman à clef emerged to challenge fiction’s apparent autonomy from the social and political world. These diffuse yet potent experiments conducted by readers, writers, and critics provoked not only a generative aesthetic crisis, but a gradually unfolding legal quandary that led Britain’s highest courts to worry that fiction itself might be illegal. Writers like James Joyce, Jean Rhys, Oscar Wilde, and D. H. Lawrence deliberately employed elements of the roman à clef, only to find that it possessed an uncanny and even dangerous agency of its own. Close reading and archival excavation mix in chapters on the anonymous case study, Oscar Wilde’s trial, libel law, celebrity salons, and Parisian bohemia. This book thus both salvages the roman à clef and traces its weird itinerary through the early 20th century. In the process, it elaborates an expansive concept of modernism that interweaves coterie culture with the mass media, psychology with celebrity, and literature with the law.
Introduction
Authors: Latham Sean
Published: May 2009

As gateway to the book’s arguments, this chapter broadly explores the shadowy history of the roman à clef and its intersection with the collection of narrative innovations we now call modernism. Because the roman à clef depends upon an unstable mixture of fact and fiction, it presents a unique set of critical, aesthetic, ethical, and epistemological challenges. This has often led readers and scholars to dismiss it as mere ephemera, but this chapter argues that modernist writers drew on its unstable structures in order to launch their own thoroughgoing critique of literary realism. Understanding modernism thus requires us to take the roman à clef seriously and this chapter develops a pragmatic, social theory of genre criticism to locate it squarely within a larger history of narrative. Doing so, however, reveals that the roman à clef has an uncanny agency of its own and thus cannot be easily constrained either by the authors who invoke it or the critics who attempt to understand its complex workings.