bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Creating a Favorable World Opinion of American Foreign Policy
Authors: Sohn Louis B.
Published: March 2007

The United States has for a long time treated its foreign relations as a series of crises and has concentrated too much on counteracting Soviet moves. The United States must instead try to develop a positive, independent policy, the aim of which should be to create a world order in which all nations would be able to live in peace, freedom, and justice. Such a policy cannot be improvised; it must be as thoroughly prepared as that which resulted in the creation of the United Nations. A large research effort, comparable perhaps to the Manhattan Project in the field of nuclear energy, would be necessary. To the extent that the United States should be able to formulate a foreign policy which would be favorable to the survival of the American people and to the survival of the human race, it would not have to worry about creating a favor able world opinion. An effective plan for world peace would create such a wave of enthusiasm around the world that even the Soviet Union would not find it advisable to be opposed.
Impact of Landrum-Griffin on the Small Employer
Authors: Shils Edward B.
Published: March 2007

The Landrum-Griffin Act emerged from an emo tional climate of concern over the union practices revealed by the McClellan Committee. Although aimed primarily at the Teamsters Union, the act visits hardships upon small business men and small local unions, particularly through amendments to the Taft-Hartley Act contained in Title Seven. There is more to the Landrum-Griffin Act than the publicized "Bill of Rights" for union members. It can be argued that the act is a series of compromises lacking agreement on basic principles. This view is supported by the specific exemptions provided for the garment and the construction industries. These ex emptions granted to certain small businesses and not available to other small industries may well undermine the constitution ality of the Landrum-Griffin Act. In effect, the act, in its at tempt to curtail the disreputable practices of a few union lead ers, discourages the efforts at statesmanship of the union leaders who are more concerned with long-range benefits for the workers than with short-term victories. Large, nationally organized companies are not particularly affected by the new act, but smaller employers who are already unionized are placed at a disadvantage by the improved position of their nonunionized competitors who wish to resist unionization. The fact that time is required for the Landrum-Griffin Act to be interpreted and understood will be to the further detriment of the small employer.
Communism and the West in Asian Countries
Authors: Toynbee Arnold J.
Published: March 2007

The most important movement in the world to day, from the standpoint of history, is the movement in Asia, Africa, and Latin America of the majority of the human race to improve its living conditions, material and spiritual. The East-West ideological conflict and the power struggle are im portant, but only negatively. The economic revolution sought by the depressed majority of mankind has, in the past, been made unaided, but only with great suffering and effort. Foreign aid from richer, developed countries can bring about the revolu tion faster and with less suffering. Whichever of the two power blocs is eventually invited to give the most help will incident ally be the winner in the power competition between the two blocs. The underdeveloped peoples do not care whether Russia or the West wins. The question to them is: Which of the two competing ways of life—liberal democratic or Communistic— can be more useful to the majority of the human race? Democ racies, even established ones, seem generally to feel a lack of the right kind of citizen; the dire famine of effective citizens in the underdeveloped world makes the problem of democratic leadership especially acute there. An authoritarian regime requires fewer effective citizens to operate efficiently. Yet, liberal democracy has been the first choice of emerging coun tries, and interim regimes similar to the recent Pakistan ex periment in so-called basic democracy may suggest a possible course for teaching self-government to politically and econom ically backward people.—Ed.
The United Nations Since 1945: An Appraisal
Authors: Hotz Alfred J.
Published: March 2007

While the United Nations offers new channels for international co-operative policies and for collaborative action, emphasis upon national sovereignty and the defense of national interest has tended to make of it an instrument of national policy to defend and extend the vital national interests of the member states. There exist an essential dualism in the Char ter and a pragmatic dualism in American policy regarding the United Nations. With the international shift from an allied- axis split to an East-West split, it has become apparent that the effectiveness of the United Nations in settling disputes is directly related to the remoteness of the dispute from the bi polar conflict. The United Nations clearly lacks the power to be effective within the Soviet sphere. The United States has, in the past, used the United Nations as an instrument of its national policy, but, with the admission to the United Na tions of Afro-Asian states who oppose the colonialist allies of the United States, the United States can no longer count on majorities favorable to its national policies. It can be said that the United Nations and its members live today with one foot in the world of power and the other foot in the hopes for a future world order. In the present global struggle, the great est contribution of the United Nations may well be its function as an educational forum before the world.—Ed.
Offenses Against Property
Authors: Allen Francis A.
Published: March 2007

Early laws of crimes against property clearly identified the forms of property necessary to the survival and prosperity of the community. Commercial and industrial de velopments in the modern era have made new and difficult de mands upon the law as forms of property and means to offend have gained in number and complexity. The modern Ameri can law of theft derives directly from the common law and from supplementary English legislation. Larceny, the basic theft offense, is distinguished by trespassory taking and in cludes larceny by servant and by trick. Personal goods and chattels are larcenable. False pretenses, embezzlement, and receiving stolen property also fall under the laws of theft. There are trends and proposals toward consolidated theft stat utes defining a single offense composed of the elements of sev eral theft offenses. Certain offenses against property also con tain elements of peril to life and limb. These offenses include robbery and extortion, arson and related offenses, and burglary. The states with their police power are equipped to legislate directly on offenses against property. The federal govern ment chiefly acts under its powers in connection with foreign and interstate commerce, revenue, war, and the postal system. Although Anglo-American law has developed in response to new demands, revision has not generally kept pace with un derlying economic changes. Deficiencies exist, and fundamen tal legislative reconstruction is required.—Ed.
Artificial Intelligence: A Frontier of Automation
Authors: Samuel Arthur L.
Published: March 2007

Artificial intelligence is neither a myth nor a threat to man. It relates to a serious attempt to develop ma chine methods for dealing with some of the perplexing prob lems that should, in all justice, be delegated to machines but which now seem to require the exercise of human intelligence. Two fundamentally different approaches to the problem are being explored, the one aimed at a complete understanding of the intellectual processes involved and the other aimed at du plicating the assumed specific behavior of the brain. The first approach concerns itself with such matters as search, pattern recognition, learning, planning, and induction; the second ap proach involves a study of the behavior of random nets. It is fair to conclude that artificial intelligence promises to reduce rather than to augment technological unemployment.
The Revival of Democratic Theory in the United States
Authors: Riemer Neal
Published: March 2007

The modern democratic theorist is adversely criti cized on all sides. Consequently, the performance of the five main tasks of democratic theory is not easily undertaken. These tasks include, first, integration of the values, facts, and policies of a democratic society; second, clarification of the values that civilized men ought to live by; third, illumination of the way a democratic society actually conducts its business; fourth, prudent guidance in grappling with the real problems of political life; fifth, stimulation of significant normative, em pirical, and prudential research. A major hindrance in the performance of these tasks is the dread of the sin of Procrustes, the sin of stretching or mutilating political reality in order to make the world conform to a radical theory. Reaction against this dread has led some conservative thinkers to a shotgun attack on political theory which often fails to distinguish be tween radical-totalitarian and liberal-democratic theory. Care ful analysis of this attack suggests that there is room for a sane, sagacious, activistic liberal-democratic theory between a dan gerous radical theory and an unrealistic conservative philosophy.
Liberals, Conservatives, and Catholics
Authors: Wilson Francis G.
Published: March 2007

Among Catholics, there is little controversy over theological and doctrinal matters. However, the teaching au thority of the church, the magisterium, extends to the applica tion of Christian, natural-law ideas to social questions. The social encyclicals are general and their application to specific situations is within the authority of the bishops. It is here, especially, that Catholics become divided between liberals and conservatives. Ever since the establishment of the organized American church, Catholics have accepted the American sys tem of separation of religion and politics, but there has been controversy on particular matters. Catholics have favored the liberty of parochial schools and, ultimately, auxiliary benefits to the Catholic school child. Although the freedom of the artist is generally recognized, the Catholic defense of morality has ap proved more censorship of the mass media than liberals ordi narily approve. Catholics are divided in the defense and criti cism of the free market, though it would seem to be clear that most Catholic opinion does not consider the American economy in violation of the social encyclicals. Liberal Catholics are critical of the competitive system, and conservatives believe that papal teaching is in accordance with the free-market system.
Cultural Pluralism in the United States and in the Projected European Union
Authors: Padover Saul K.
Published: March 2007

As political, perhaps cultural, and certainly economic forms of unity emerge in Western Europe, it becomes increasingly important for Europeans—and for Americans also—to examine sympathetically the American experience in cultural pluralism for areas of relevance to the European situation. Without some of the elements that have gone into the making of a successful United States, the Europeans may well succeed in creating material prosperity through their Common Market but fail in other areas, primarily in human relations and guaranteed freedoms. The leading strains of cultural pluralism in the United States which would be relevant to the European situation are embodied in the federal system, church-state separation, the absorption of immigration, democ racy, and constitutionalism. Europe does not have a good record for democratic government, and the democratic proc esses will bear careful watching. The question of the relative positions of church and state is unresolved in many countries in Europe and will pose grave problems. Difficulties can be anticipated in Europe in the area of constitutionalism, because people need a guiding ideal to draw them together. European union to date has been based on reaction to the horrors of war and the fear of Soviet military domination. Without a central principle to hold them together, Europe may lapse from union as the war recedes into the past and the fear of Soviet domination is relaxed.—Ed.
Allocation of Responsibilities and Resources among the Three Levels of Government
Authors: Charlesworth James C.
Published: March 2007

There have been many studies of the allocation of responsibilities and services among the various levels of government in the United States, but some of them have not been objective; they have advocated transfers from one level to another because of a desire to be rid of a costly activity. The question of how best to allocate services cannot be sepa rated from the availability of tax resources. But the inci dence of the principal taxes in America has shifted radically throughout our history. Services should be allocated on the basis of optimum administrative and policy-making considera tions, and architects of these optimum arrangements should demand that the appropriate adjustments be made in the tax structure. A detailed examination of administrative and policy-making realities indicates that a number of changes are in order: (1) the states should extend their control over bank ing, public and private housing, roads, narcotics, civil rights, natural parks, labor relations, public assistance, elections ad ministration, factory inspection, agriculture, uses of leisure, and intrastate utilities. (2) Fragmentized services like pub lic health and education should be taken out of small districts and administered by units large enough to permit profession alization and specialization. (3) Services which are essen tially national in scope, like military training and the regula tion of insurance, should be transferred from the states to the federal government. Finally, we should promote an exten sion program of functional consolidation of local governments.
Remedies against Administrative Abuse in Central Europe, the Soviet Union, and Communist East Europe (Ombudsmen and Others
Authors: Bader Helmut , Brompton Henry
Published: March 2007

The establishment of German administrative courts does not exclude the institution of an Ombudsman, but the German tradition of executive predominance works against it. The law of the German Federal Republic provides for a Verfassungbeschwerde, which places rights under the protection of a Constitutional Court. Creation of the armed forces led to the establishment of a Defense Commissioner of the Bundestag—an office modeled after the Swedish Military Ombudsman—which is now generally accepted. There appears to be little interest in a Civilian Ombudsman. Austria has a long tradition of effective control by the Federal Administrative Court. Introduction of an Ombudsman is not, at present, under consideration there. In the Soviet Union, control over public administration is exercised by a branch of the Executive—the Prokuratura. However, unlike Scandinavian Ombudsmen, Procurators are subordinated to party guidance and discipline. Moreover, Soviet law provides scant access to courts for citizens seeking redress of administrative abuses. East European regimes have abolished review by administrative courts and adopted the Soviet Procuracy. In Yugoslavia, public prosecutors retain their role of guardians of legality, but supervision of administration has, largely, been transferred to the courts. Other East European countries, to date, have not followed the Yugoslav example. A debate on this issue is now in progress.
Analysis of Socio-Economic Development Through a System of Indicators
Authors: McGranahan Donald V.
Published: March 2007

A project at the United Nations Research Institute for Social Development on "Contents and Measurement of Socio-Economic Development" has involved extensive examination of economic and social indicators (using 1960 data) and selection of a group of priority indicators on an empirical basis (but within the framework of generally accepted components of development). These indicators have been interrelated by a method of analysis called "correspondence analysis." This type of analysis provides the basis for plotting development profiles of individual countries, against a norm that changes with level of development; also for typological analysis, showing how development differs for different kinds of country. The correspondence system, plus scale transformations, further provides a means of constructing a general or synthetic indicator of development, which, among other things, serves to predict missing scores better than does the per capita G.N.P., including scores on economic as well as social variables.
Students—A Marginal Elite in Politics
Authors: Pinner Frank A.
Published: March 2007

Student activism has rarely been examined in political perspective. Most of the existing literature treats it as a form of deviancy which must be explained as a special tendency of students to respond, in an unorthodox manner, to social, psychological, and cultural disturbances. Such formulations generally fail to account adequately for levels of activism, let alone the political positions—left or right, nationalistic or internationalist—which students espouse.

This paper represents an attempt to lay the foundations for a political theory of student activism. It points out the affinities between students and other "marginal elites," the military and clerical professions, which tend to play indepen dent political roles at times of crisis.

Most political alliances involving student movements are ephemeral because students lack effective means of coercion, such as armaments and religious sanctions. And being the weaker partners in any alliance, students tend to be deprived of most of the fruits of victory, or become an easy target of repression following defeat. They then move into ideo logical opposition to their former coalition partners. The paper illustrates these shifts in coalition patterns and ideo logical positions by tracing the historical changes in German student movements from the period of the Napoleonic wars to the present.
The Rise of Congress in Foreign Policy-Making
Authors: Manley John F.
Published: March 2007

It is widely agreed that, since World War II, primary responsibility for leadership in American foreign policy has rested with the President. The role of Congress has been of secondary importance and on many critical issues Congress has had very little influence. This essay examines the "decline of Congress" in the context of the Vietnam War. The major argument is that Congress, by fulfilling its constitutional responsibilities in the foreign policy field, and by resisting the temptation to approve automatically presidential initiatives in foreign policy, may help prevent the United States from re peating the errors of Vietnam. At the very least, congres sional vigilance in this field will help clarify policy choices and subject executive proposals to the public scrutiny that they deserve.
Effectiveness of International Propaganda
Authors: Martin L. John
Published: March 2007

Propaganda is persuasive communication, as are advertising, education, and political campaigning. Propa ganda differs from the latter in source, purpose, and target. Most of the international activity that goes by the name of propaganda, however, is not persuasive communication but is what the author refers to as facilitative communication. The latter is effective if and when it opens up channels of communi cation with a potential audience. Persuasive communication, which comprises a minute part of the activity of modern propa ganda agencies, is effective only to the extent that it achieves an articulable objective. To accomplish this, the propagandist must not only have control of the propaganda vehicle but must be able to predict the outcome of his activities. Unfortunately, although a great deal of research has been done on the effects of communication and a fair amount of theory has been de veloped, the propagandist is still shooting in the dark.
The Poor: Their Medical Needs and the Health Services Available to Them
Authors: Herman Mary W.
Published: March 2007

In spite of higher disease and mortality rates, the poor and minority group sectors of the American population make fewer visits to physicians and are less likely to receive personal health counseling or preventive services than those at higher income levels. Hospital admissions are as high for the poor, however, and tend to be for longer lengths of stay. Pri vate physicians are the most common source of medical care at all income levels, but the poor and persons from minority groups make greater use of hospital clinics and emergency ser vices. Low-income patients are unlikely to receive comprehen sive care from private physicians, and few public clinics are designed to provide such care. Public clinics are also usually inconvenient to reach and unpleasant to utilize. The poor are also less aware of the concepts and practices of scientific medicine, and differences in many beliefs and values make com munication between patient and practitioner difficult. In order to bring the poor into the mainstream of American medicine, adequate public support for their health services, combined with inducements to provide comprehensive care, are required. A flexible system which permits continuing contact between patients and practitioners is also important for improving both the use of health services and the health practices of the poor.
United States' Support for Iran's Independence and Integrity, 1945-1959
Authors: Lenczowski George
Published: March 2007

Iran served as a catalyst which changed the American perception of the nature of Soviet policies in the postwar period and provided the first stimulus for a radical reorientation of U.S. foreign policy and strategy. American policy toward Iran was formulated in stages corresponding to the crisis involving Iran, its close neighbors, and the Soviet Union. The process began with the Azerbaijan crisis of 1945-46; it followed the Greek-Turkish crisis of 1947, and the Iranian oil crisis of 1951-53. United States policy was expressed in (a) unilateral—direct or indirect—support for Iran's independence, as exemplified by specific and general policy statements and actions of the Truman era; (b) multilateral defense arrangements of the Eisenhower period (Baghdad Pact, 1955) ; and (c) bilateral security agreements with the Northern Tier states, including Iran, in 1959. As a result, the American policy of containment of international communism, with specific reference to Iran, could be regarded as having achieved its objective.
International Organizations and the Multinational Corporation: An Overview and Observations
Authors: Walters Robert S.
Published: March 2007

Multinational corporations can be viewed either as independent actors operating in the interstices of state-to-state relations or as an instrument of foreign policy of states within which the parent companies are located. In either case these enterprises pose a threat to the sovereignty of states, and international organizations have been employed to deal with these challenges. The advanced industrial states of the West have found international organizations useful in attempts to harmonize national policies to avoid potential trade and investment disequilibria, to deal with problems of overlapping jurisdiction, and to encourage the development of multinational corporations. Labor unions in the West have found functionally specific nongovernmental organizations valuable in enhancing their bargaining position vis-à-vis enterprises organized multinationally. In general, these activities reflect a view of the multinational corporation as an independent actor very sensitive to global opportunities. Less developed countries are typically very wary of multinational corporations and tend to view them as instruments through which they could be subjugated to the West. These states have shown an interest in using universal and regional organizations to coordinate and buttress their position in negotiations with the multinational firms. Most international organizations are only beginning to deal explicitly with the multinational corporation phenomenon, but while these activities should increase, it is doubtful that we will soon see the emergence of a new global international organization to focus states' attempts to oversee the behavior of these enterprises as they affect international relations.
The Multinational Firm and the Future
Authors: Perlmutter Howard V.
Published: March 2007

For the next two decades we see multinational corporate activity as a leading system in what we call the "global industrial system." But a transformation process of the multinational corporate phenomenon is underway and should accelerate in the 1990s. Causes for this transformation include: (1) the appearance of coalitions between firms in rich, poor, and ideologically different countries in global industrial system constellations (GISCs); (2) the induction of geocentrization processes in nations and unions which will react on the multinational corporation's desire for viability and legitimacy; (3) impacts on neighboring institutions such as global cities and the global educational system. An ideology to legitimize certain kinds of multinational corporate activity should evolve during this transformation process. Harder to estimate are the structural consequences of social turbulence and anti-industrial counterforces to multinational corporate activity emerging today. Antimaterialism, affluence and alienation, and nationalism may produce some surprises.
Elected Local Leadership in Municipal Government
Authors: Hulcher Wendell E.
Published: March 2007

Though it is assumed by some that local governments are having a constantly decreasing role, the evidence is not conclusive. The manner in which local elective officials exercise leadership will be determining. Changing demands on the traditional functions of local government and changing complexities of the technological age result in unprecedented responsibility for local elective officials. The leadership role, including planning which encompasses all activity of local government, demands new, additional personal characteristics to cope with new technology and lifestyles.
Interest Group Lobbying: Canada and the United States
Authors: Presthus Robert
Published: March 2007

Political theory usually assumes that interest groups play an essential role in democratic polities, provid ing an instrument through which the individual may partici pate to some extent in the making of public policy. Such groups synthesize, express and provide technical and ideological support for collective social demands which provide critical inputs into the political subsystem. Despite these contributions, interest groups are often regarded as both normatively and operationally marginal. Using cross- national survey data on interest group lobbying, the present study shows that group activities are common in two political systems. Regardless of variations in political culture and political structure and despite variations in group legitimacy and the intensity of lobbying, groups play a critical linkage role, bringing into concert the private and public sectors of North American society.
An American View of Economic Relations with the USSR
Authors: Levine Herbert S.
Published: March 2007

The current rise in US-USSR trade has its ante cedents, which are discussed briefly in the first section of this paper. Attention is then focused on the basic economic reasons which might be adduced for the manifest increased Soviet interest in expanded economic relations with the United States. Special emphasis is given to the Soviet desire to import advanced Western technology. The salient issues in the current discussions of expanded US-USSR economic rela tions are indicated and examined. These issues include: the administration of Soviet trade, problems related to state trading, credits, most favored nation (MFN) status and potential advantages of expanded economic relations. It is concluded that, while the economic advantages for the United States as a nation are debatable, expanded economic relations may increase our political bargaining strength vis-à-vis the Soviets. Also, the commitment to detente should be pre served, as it is in the interest of us all that this be done.
General Revenue Sharing and Environmental Quality
Authors: Angrick William P.
Published: March 2007

General revenue sharing funds have been spent by the recipient governmental units for a variety of services. One of the important areas of these expenditures has been environmental protection. Municipal governments have con sistently spent greater proportions of their revenue sharing funds for environmental protection than other local and state levels of government. This is because the jurisdictional location for most environmental management activities is in the cities. Revenue sharing should not be looked upon at this time as the means for decentralizing environmental policy decisions. Premature decentralization could result in the delivery of inadequate environmental protection.
Administration Hara-Kiri: Implementation of the Urban Growth and New Community Development Act
Authors: Smookler Helene V.
Published: March 2007

New communities have been offered as an alternative to suburban sprawl. Through economies of scale and a "clean-slate" development approach, a more attractive and innovative environment can be produced. The federal government became involved through the 1968 Housing Act. In order to insure the attainment of social goals, loan guarantees and grants were made available to developers. In 1970 the act was strengthened by making public developers eligible and increasing the number of grants. Now, seven years after the passage of the original act, the program appears to be a failure. Despite promises of 10 federally guaranteed new communities a year, only 14 have received commitments thus far. All of these communities are behind in their development schedules, and most are near financial collapse. While the federally guaranteed new com munities were hard hit by the economic recession, most of the blame for the current crisis can be placed on the Republican administration's implementation of the program. Categorical grants were suspended, other funds were impounded by the Office of Management and Budget, and there was little intra- or inter-agency cooperation or coordination. Due to lack of political support, the prospects for the program appear dim.
Proliferation and the Future: Destruction or Transformation?
Authors: Thayer Frederick C.
Published: March 2007

We must recognize that proliferation includes both nuclear power plants and nuclear weapons, the latter being only a follow-on to the former. The first step toward coping with proliferation is to accept that nuclear weapons are essentially political weapons of terror, not mili tary weapons, even if we have convinced ourselves otherwise. For the near term, proliferation can enhance international stability if it occurs in balanced, rather than unbalanced, fashion. Over the long term, the issues are different. The critical global problem is finite limits to natural resources. Nuclear weapons are becoming both the cheapest and the only way of waging war. This faces us with a stark choice between alternative futures: (1) A world of iron or totalitarian governments, in which each state blackmails others so as to acquire scarce resources. The continuing shortages lead to rigid internal management and unending nuclear war. (2) A world in which shortages are recognized and we develop global agreements for resource distribution. The concept of sharing replaces property (both individual and state), social hierarchies (including the state) are transformed into other social systems we cannot yet describe in detail, and the social institution of war has no meaning. If we choose the first, there is no future. If we choose the second, we must soon begin a program of balanced deproliferation, in which we abandon both nuclear energy and nuclear weapons.
West German Experience with Industrial Democracy
Authors: Fürstenberg Friedrich
Published: March 2007

The prevailing forms of industrial democracy in West Germany and the proposals for its further develop ment cannot be encompassed in a single integrated system. There are few basic issues of industrial democracy which do not contain a complex interlocking of regulative norms, contractual relationships, and cooperative activities. A genuine German development is codetermination or Mit bestimmung. In order to evaluate its proper significance it is necessary to differentiate between shop floor and board levels, between the institutions of works councils, labor directors on management boards, and worker representa tives on supervisory boards. The greatest achievement in industrial relations, largely due to the works councils, is perhaps the establishment of a reasonably well func tioning grievance and negotiation machinery within the individual plant and the larger corporation. Codetermina tion in supervisory boards has not undermined profit orientation as a criterion of performance, but employee representatives have been able to obtain proper considera tion of the social aspects of work. There are limits in a system based mainly on statutory measures. More personal involvement and more self-government at workplace level might be on the agenda for the near future.
Cultural Movements and Ethnic Change
Authors: Horowitz Donald L.
Published: March 2007

There is a new emphasis on change emerging in writings on ethnicity. Some of the most important changes involve group boundaries and conflict relationships. Ethnic groups often assimilate with other groups or differentiate themselves from groups of which they were formerly a part. As changes of this kind occur, cultural movements com monly emerge to foster or retard them. These movements range from literary; religious, and historical revivals to full- scale "crisis cults." The form they take is related to the boundary change underway. If group members fear the drift ing apart of subgroups, emphasis is often placed on myths of common origin. If, however, an ethnic group is being ab sorbed by another group, a common reaction is to stress the distinctiveness of group history and culture. Movements of the latter kind often result in political separatism and secessionist violence. Still other cultural revivals have had their origins in anti-colonial sentiment. Since the cultural content and the functionaries needed to propel such move ments are to be found at the ethnic-group level, these move ments also end by asserting ethnic distinctiveness. Anti- colonial revival movements, as well as cultural movements that aim to rectify ethnic boundaries, thus contribute to con flict between ethnic groups.
Perspectives on Medical Ethics and Social Change
Authors: Barber Bernard
Published: March 2007

Medical ethics are now in a period of great change. Some of the patterns, causes, agents, modes, resistance to, and costs of these changes are briefly described as a guide to the several detailed essays in this volume.
Ethics, Justice, and Medical Care Systems
Authors: Mechanic David
Published: March 2007

As medical costs mount and as government as sumes increasing responsibility for financing, explicit forms of medical care rationing are likely to be introduced. This paper considers the benefits and costs of different approaches to rationing and their implications for a just medical care system. Rationing may be imposed through financial barriers for the patient in the form of coinsurance and deductibles or in limitations on the funds, facilities, and services made available to the population. It is argued that imposing barriers to access on the theory that consumers are in a good position to make necessary differentiations places the burden of ra tioning on the patient who is least able to make the decision rationally, and places the poor, who have the least medical knowledge and background, in particular jeopardy. Other al ternatives include either the introduction of fixed budgets that require professionals to establish priorities or adminis trative decisions that prescribe the facilities and types of serv ices made available to varying population groups. Rationing techniques have different behavioral and ethical implications, and existing research indicates that the consequences of some rationing approaches are inconsistent with theoretical as sumptions.
European Industrial Policies: Balancing Interdependence and Interest
Authors: Ellis Doreen
Published: March 2007

Following a short description of European industrial policy definition and strategies, policy choices are analyzed in terms of international inputs into the policy process and the substantive consistency of policy choices. It is argued that policy formulation is related to the type of interdependence of the unit and to the external policy objective. Vulnerability interdependence leads to fewer policies with integrative effects, as is the case with oil and energy policies. Beyond the external context for policy, the substantive relationships among objectives and strategies in industrial policy, emphasizing their consistency and contradictions, are discussed. These two modes of analysis provide depth in studying policymaking in international organizations while illustrating the strengths and weaknesses of European industrial policy.
The Holocaust and the Historians
Authors: Conway John S.
Published: March 2007

The impact of the Holocaust has been interpreted by historians largely according to the present needs of their audiences. Jewish historians, both in Israel and outside, see these events as the culminating tragedy of their people before the rebirth in statehood. German historians are more con cerned with the attempt to overcome their knowledge of guilt and therefore concentrate, not so much on Jewish sufferings, as on Nazi rule. Christian historians and theo logians have sought to eradicate the long tradition of Christian prejudice against Jews, which some of them see as cul minating in the Holocaust. Historians of nazism are divided into rival schools and have yet to reach any firm conclusions on such topics as the genesis of the Final Solution. Was the persecution of the Jews something unique or just the prelude to other genocidal measures against unwanted groups of society? The impact of ideology in governmental policies and the weakness of the traditional barriers to the corruptions of absolute power are subjects which need to be reexamined in the light of the Holocaust experience.
Models of Pluralism: The New American Dilemma
Authors: Gordon Milton M.
Published: March 2007

Controversies over recent events in the area of racial and ethnic relations in the United States, including heightened group consciousness, government-mandated af firmative action in employment and education, court-ordered busing to achieve racial integration in public schools, and demands for bilingual education in public school systems, indicate that our society faces a new "American dilemma"— in this case a choice between two types of racial and ethnic pluralism. The nature of this choice is clarified by the use of six analytical dimensions, and the importance of the choice for the future of racial and ethnic relations in America is emphasized.
Ethnic/Racial Relations in the United States in Comparative Perspective
Authors: Lambert Richard D.
Published: March 2007

Ethnic/racial relations in the United States are compared with those in other countries on six dimensions: saliency, polarity, hierarchy versus qualitative differentiation, territoriality, relationship to government, and conflict proc esses. Ours were found to be unusual compared with other countries in the growing salience of ethnic/racial relations, their bipolarity, their emphasis on hierarchy over cultural contrast, the casting of government in the role of protagonist for the underclass, and the ethnic specificity and direction of violence. Some evidence of international convergence is noted.
Intergovernmental relations and the effectiveness of local governance
Authors: Gilsing Rob
Published: March 2007

In the Netherlands, national government sets the frameworks for youth policy, while local government should play a crucial role in realizing national goals. Local government is supposed to be better equipped for realizing effective policies. Yet national government tries to influence local policies. Furthermore, local government's role in general has changed significantly because of the shift towards governance. The questions raised are whether local government is capable of pursuing effective governance in youth policies and how national policies affect the governance role of local government. These questions are answered by an extensive examination of youth policy in 72 municipalities and by assessing national policy on its possible impact. The results suggest that national policy strongly affects local youth policy, both by setting the agenda as well as by frustrating local governance. Diffuse defined responsibilities and strong mutual dependencies create a complex, interwoven policy arena that impedes effective policies.
Strategic political steering
Authors: Tiili Minna
Published: March 2007

This article explores strategic political steering after New Public Management reforms, focusing on the new role assigned to government ministers. The NPM model of strategic steering and the problems embedded in it are addressed. The primary empirical data concern the practices of strategic political steering in Finland. The Finnish experience is contrasted with existing evidence from the UK and Australia and from Nordic local politics. The empirical conclusion is that management reforms aiming at introducing the strategic role of politicians have not been a success. Theoretically, this is not a surprise as politics does not follow the logic of rational managerial models. Politicians are not eager to define goals and to set priorities, nor are they motivated to consider issues that are not realized in the immediate future. In addition, they tend to focus on specific issues and to intervene in details. Consequently, it may not be relevant to ask whether ministers are able to adopt the strategic role but to consider the possibility that they do not, and will not, have incentives to do so, making it quite frustrating to develop rational managerial models as tools for politicians.
The Pre-War Fear of Japanese Espionage: Its Impact and Legacy
Authors: Everest-Phillips Max
Published: March 2007

How serious was the threat of pre-war Japanese espionage and clandestine operations to western interests? The question, constantly asked before 1941, was rarely addressed afterwards. Across the USA, European colonies in Asia, Australia and European capitals, the widely held belief that a sustained and well-orchestrated campaign of Japanese intelligence-gathering during the interwar years reflected Japanese covert intentions had a significant impact on official as well as popular perceptions. Given limited understanding of the wider Japanese context, a few counter-espionage successes, such as the Rutland case and code-breaking achievements against Japanese ciphers, appeared to validate the fear that Japanese espionage was a widespread threat. After 1945, investigations suggested that pre-war spy hysteria had had surprisingly little grounding in fact. This was potentially a major political embarrassment. The impact of a disproportionate fear of espionage on the international isolation of Japan might imply at least a degree of Allied culpability in the origins of the war, and in the USA highlighted the injustice of the decision to intern Japanese- American citizens. The 1988 US government apology for this failed to reveal the British evidence contributing to the security rationale behind President Roosevelt's decision: the real if poorly substantiated fear, based on the com-plex mix of limited known facts and widespread fantasy, over Japanese espionage that contributed to the outbreak of the second world war in the Pacific
Can Norms Account for Strategic Action? Information Management in Fishing as a Game of Legitimate Strategy
Authors: Gezelius Stig
Published: March 2007

Success in fishing depends upon knowledge of the whereabouts of fish, but fishermen are known to be secretive about this information, even when information exchange is mutually beneficial. Game-theoretical models offer explanations for this phenomenon, but also predict that making the most beneficial choices in terms of information-sharing is difficult. The ar ticle aims to demonstrate how a dialogue between traditional sociology and tools of rational choice theory can be established. It outlines practices of information management in Norwegian pelagic fisheries, arguing that a shared set of behavioural norms delimits the set of probable strategies, making a co-operative strategy emerge to the actors as the most beneficial choice. Social norms are integral par ts of the actors' strategic reasoning and facilitate rational adaptation.The ar ticle combines traditional concepts of norms and trust with game-theoretical reasoning in a model called `game of legitimate strategy'.
Appearance-Based Rejection Sensitivity: Implications for Mental and Physical Health, Affect, and Motivation
Authors: Park Lora E.
Published: March 2007

Appearance-Based Rejection Sensitivity (Appearance-RS) is a personality-processing system characterized by anxious concerns and expectations about being rejected based on one's physical attractiveness. People differ in their sensitivity to rejection based on appearance, with consequences for mental and physical health, self-esteem, affect, and feelings of belonging. Study 1 describes the development and validation of the Appearance-RS scale, its relation to personality variables and to health-related outcomes. Study 2 provides experimental evidence that high Appearance-RS people feel more alone and rejected when asked to think about negative aspects of their appearance. Finally, Study 3 tests ways to reduce the negative effects of receiving an appearance threat among high Appearance-RS participants. Specifically, high Appearance-RS participants who engaged in self-affirmation (thought of their personal strengths) or received a secure attachment prime (thought of a close, caring relationship) were buffered from the negative effects of an appearance threat on subsequent state self-esteem and mood.
Distinguishing Between Learning and Motivation in Behavioral Tests of the Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory of Personality
Authors: Smillie Luke D. , Dalgleish Len I. , Jackson Chris J.
Published: March 2007

According to Gray's (1973) Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST), a Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) and a Behavioral Activation System (BAS) mediate effects of goal conflict and reward on behavior. BIS functioning has been linked with individual differences in trait anxiety and BAS functioning with individual differences in trait impulsivity. In this article, it is argued that behavioral outputs of the BIS and BAS can be distinguished in terms of learning and motivation processes and that these can be operationalized using the Signal Detection Theory measures of response-sensitivity and response-bias. In Experiment 1, two measures of BIS-reactivity predicted increased response-sensitivity under goal conflict, whereas one measure of BAS-reactivity predicted increased response-sensitivity under reward. In Experiment 2, two measures of BIS-reactivity predicted response-bias under goal conflict, whereas a measure of BAS-reactivity predicted motivation response-bias under reward. In both experiments, impulsivity measures did not predict criteria for BAS-reactivity as traditionally predicted by RST.