bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Effect of conservation tillage on crop yields, soil erosion, and soil properties under furrow irrigation in western Colorado
Authors: Ashraf M. , Pearson C.H. , Westfall D.G. , Sharp R.
Published: October 2009

Conservation tillage (CS) is used widely in rainfed and sprinkler-irrigated production systems but adoption of CS on furrow-irrigated cropland has been limited. Some crops and crop rotations are more conducive to conservation tillage under furrow irrigation than others. The objective of this research was to evaluate CS in a furrowirrigated crop rotation of corn, soybean, winter barley, and dry bean at Fruita, Colorado in 1991 and 1992. Infiltration rates were 24 and 50% higher and advance times were 37 and 25% longer in the CS treatment during 1991 and 1992, respectively, compared with conventional tillage (CV). Furrows in the CV treatment were 8 and 25% wider than those in the CS treatment after the first and sixth irrigations, respectively. This indicates more soil movement with CV than with CS. In 1992, soil water content in the CS treatment was 17, 17, and 27% higher than with CV throughout the growing season for corn, soybean, and dry bean, respectively. Grain yields of winter barley, soybean, dry bean, and corn were not affected significantly by tillage treatment. Profitability of CS and CV was quite similar when all four crops in the rotation were considered together. This research was conducted under conditions expected to be similar to those that could be used by growers and indicates that corn, soybean, winter barley, and dry bean can be grown successfully in rotation using conservation tillage under furrowirrigated conditions. Successful adoption of conservation tillage under furrow irrigation will require growers to adopt encompassing new production management practices and possibly purchase new equipment such as planters and cultivators that will operate in high residue conditions, and growers must overcome any psychological barriers they may have to maintaining high amounts of surface crop residue when furrow irrigating.
Development of more effective conservation farming systems through participatory on-farm research
Authors: Wuest S.B. , McCool D.K. , Miller B.C. , Veseth R.J.
Published: October 2009

Research aimed at advancing conservation farming practices is typically performed using traditional scientific approaches, which have been highly successful in increasing agricultural output and efficiency. With the current emphasis on environmental and economic sustainability of agriculture, there is a need for a more integrated approach to applied agricultural research. Participatory research helps to bring scientific methods and the integrated production needs of farmers together to develop practical, effective, and carefully tested farming methods. The strength of participatory research is in the synergism of scientists and farmers working together to design, implement, and evaluate research. The development of new technologies for farming systems large or small, conventional or organic, can be greatly enhanced through more extensive use of participatory research.
Crop-yield and economic comparisons of organic, low-input, and conventional farming systems in California's Sacramento Valley
Authors: Clark Sean , Klonsky Karen , Livingston Peter , Temple Steve
Published: October 2009

We compared the crop yields and economic performance of organic, lowinput, and conventional farming systems over an eight-year period based on research from the Sustainable Agriculture Farming Systems (SAFS) Project in California's Sacramento Valley. The SAFS Project consisted of four farming-system treatments that differed in material input use and crop rotation sequence. The treatments included four-year rotations under conventional (conv-4), low-input, and organic management, and a conventionally-managed, two-year rotation (conv-2). The four-year rotations included processing tomato, safflower, corn, and bean and a winter grain and/or legume doublecropped with bean. The conv-2 treatment was a tomato and wheat rotation. In the lowinput and organic systems, inorganic fertilizer and synthetic pesticide inputs were reduced or eliminated largely through crop rotation, legume cover crops, composted manure applications, and mechanical cultivation.

All crops, except safflower, demonstrated significant yield differences across farming systems in at least some years of the experiment. Yields of tomato and corn, the most nitrogen (N)-demanding crops in the rotations, responded most years to the farming-system years treatments, while bean and the winter grain/legume displayed treatment differences less often and instead tended to vary more with yearly growing conditions. Nitrogen availability and/or weed competition appeared to account for lower crop yields in the organic and low-input systems in some years. The economics of all farming systems depended mainly on the costs and profits associated with tomato production. The most profitable system was the conv-2 system due to the greater frequency of tomato in that system. Among the four-year rotations, the organic system was the most profitable. However, this system's dependence on price premiums leads to some concern over its long-term economic viability. Among the low-input cropping systems, corn demonstrated clear agronomic and economic advantages over conventional production methods. Based upon these findings, we suggest that future research on organic and low-input farming systems focus on developing cost-effective fertility and weed management options based upon improved understanding of N dynamics and weed ecology.
Breeding corn for adaptation to two diverse intercropping companions
Authors: O'Leary N. , Smith M.E.
Published: October 2009

Intercropping is an agricultural system widely practiced in the tropics and becoming more widespread in temperate regions. The vast majority of varieties currently grown in intercrop have been developed in and for monoculture, although some breeding programs specifically focused on intercrop systems have been initiated. It is not clear if selection in monoculture is adequate to identify varieties adapted to intercrop, nor is it clear if varieties selected for intercrop performance with one companion will be adapted to another crop combination. The aims of this study were to determine the extent to which selection of corn in monoculture would identify types adapted to growth in corn—bean or corn—clover intercrop, and to determine how selection in one of the intercrops (corn—bean or corn—clover) would compare with selection in the other. The corn used consisted of two groups that had been selected in monoculture, and two that had been selected in corn—bean intercrop. All groups were evaluated in monoculture, corn-bean intercrop, and corn—clover intercrop. Analysis of variance showed that the ranking of the four selection groups was not significantly different when the two intercrops were compared, but was significantly different (P < 0.05 for comparison of clover intercrop and monoculture, and P = 0.07 for comparison of bean intercrop and monoculture) when either of the two intercrops was compared with monoculture. Correlation analysis of corn traits and corn yield in the three cropping systems revealed more similarities between the intercrops than between either intercrop and monoculture. Plant height and leaf area index were more strongly negatively correlated with days to flower in both intercrops than in monoculture. Correlation analysis also revealed some differences between the intercrops, particularly with bean and clover yields. Clover yields were not adversely affected by early growth and maturity of corn, but bean yields were. We conclude that selection of corn in monoculture is not ideal when lines adapted to cornclover intercrop or corn—bean intercrop are desired. Furthermore, selection in either intercrop will identify corn types adapted to the other, as early vigor and maturity allow best corn performance in both crop combinations. Thus, individualized breeding programs may not be required to adapt a crop to growth in association with relatively different companions.
Impact of irrigated agricultural practices on environmental quality and human health in the West Bank
Authors: Abu-Amrieh M. , Sabbah W. , Isaac J.
Published: October 2009

This paper examines the effects of irrigation practices and related activities on the environment and human health in the West Bank. Irrigated agriculture in the West Bank covers an area of 9,473 ha and utilizes 93 million cubic meters of irrigation water annually. The current annual use of fertilizers in the irrigated areas is 18,980 tons of chemical fertilizers and 198,900 to 265,200 tons of organic fertilizers. The total annual use of pesticides (excluding methyl bromide) in irrigated agriculture is 153 tons, of which 27 tons are internationally banned products. Methyl bromide is a dominant soil fumigant in the West Bank with a total estimated annual use of 400 tons, 44% of which is used on vegetables planted in plastic houses and high plastic tunnels. The soil solarization method to control soil-borne diseases is used by only 0.5% of the surveyed farmers. This study indicates that some farmers have suffered health problems due to exposure to pesticides, from the lack of protective clothing. Of the surveyed farmers, 19% suffer from poisoning symptoms and 1% are affected by methyl bromide fumigants. The total quantity of plastic sheets was estimated at 4,750 tons, at least 50% of which becomes waste. Eighty-eight percent of the surveyed farmers collect and burn the plastic wastes on the field, which could harm both the environment and human health through toxic fumes. Some water-related diseases occurred in the study area. Seventy-nine people were affected by leishmaniasis and 14 others by dysentery. Despite the heavy use of fertilizers, water quality analysis did not show high concentrations of nitrate.
Trying and buying locally grown produce at the workplace: Results of a marketing intervention
Authors: Ross Nancy J. , Anderson Molly D. , Goldberg Jeanne P. , Houser Robert , Rogers Beatrice Lorge
Published: October 2009

Although consumers have a high opinion of locally grown produce, they do not consider origin as important as other factors in produce selection. Inconvenience is a major barrier to purchasing local produce. In a rural community in Maine, the Farm Fresh Project tested an intervention designed to exploit consumers' high regard for locally grown produce and also overcome the inconvenience of buying it. Each week for six weeks in the summer of 1997, employees at three worksites were offered tastings of locally grown produce, information about the produce, and an opportunity to order it at their workplaces. Changes in purchases of locally grown produce were compared with changes among employees at three matched control worksites. More than a quarter of workers at intervention worksites ordered produce through the project. Significant numbers of employees at intervention worksites who had not bought locally grown produce earlier in the summer bought it at outlets in the community during the four weeks following the intervention. Visits to the community farmers' market, purchases at roadside stands, pick-your-own purchases, and purchases of locally grown produce, both overall and at locations other than at the farmers' market, increased significantly in the intervention group. Among workers at control sites, only roadside stand purchases increased significantly. It appears that the opportunity to taste and purchase locally grown produce at a convenient venue, the workplace, motivated consumers to overcome barriers to purchasing locally grown produce at less convenient venues outside of the workplace. Temporary farm stands at workplaces may offer a promising new direct market for farmers.
Castile—La Mancha: A once traditional and integrated cereal—sheep farming system under change
Authors: Caballero Rafael
Published: October 2009

Farming systems are often complex elaborations of the human societies to which they belong, with many traditional and social implications. Untangling the main social and structural constraints may improve productivity without an increase in environmental costs. Integration of cereal and sheep farming throughout the Mediterranean basin has been traditional. Mutually beneficial relationships between the sheep industry and cereal farming, and the vital role of forage legumes in meeting the modest needs of sheep for nitrogen, are stressed. This agropastoral system, however, is endangered in central Spain mainly because the pastoralist (sheep owner) is land-less, while the cultivator (land owner) has little interest in enforcing the law; fees for grazing rights are very low. Farmers, particularly young farmers, reject the current sheep operation because of the harsh working conditions. Restructuring of the grazing system would require a new policy scenario that would link European Union farm subsidies to structural reforms and would stress cooperative behavior.
Do health benefits explain the price premiums for organic foods?
Authors: Kuchler Fred , Ralston Katherine , Tomerlin J. Robert
Published: October 2009

This paper examines whether the dollar value of health benefits that consumers derive from organic food could account for the price premiums they pay. Price and sales data from realized transactions are inadequate to reveal consumer preferences for health benefits. Our exploratory alternative method estimates the value of health benefits to a hypothetical consumer who assesses risks as risk assessors do and values a unit reduction in all fatal risks equally, regardless of the source of any risk. Under these assumptions, our estimates of the value of health benefits derived from substituting an organic diet for a conventionally produced diet approach zero. For a common organic product, apple juice, we estimated the cost of reducing risks by buying the organic characteristic. The cost of averting each adverse health outcome is 27 to 461 times as large as the value of benefits. If the characteristics of our hypothetical consumer match those of the typical consumer, two inferences follow from our estimates of benefits and costs. First, the typical consumer is unlikely to purchase organic food for health reasons. Second, consumers who choose organic food could differ from typical consumers in several dimensions: perceptions of the level of risk from dietary intake of pesticides, perceptions of the nature of adverse health outcomes from pesticides, or in the importance attached to other attributes of organic food. Our analysis is exploratory partially because there are several behavioral assumptions implicit in the values we calculate. Also, we focus on risks that can be quantitatively estimated, measuring the probability of an adverse health outcome with readily accessible data. Currently, only cancer risks can be measured in terms of probabilities from readily accessible data.
Farmland preservation and sustainable agriculture: Grassroots and policy connections
Authors: Korfmacher K.S.
Published: October 2009

Over the long run, a sustainable food production system requires both a sufficient base of agricultural land and agricultural practices that do not degrade the land. However, current policies and programs for protecting agricultural land are not systematically integrated with those promoting sustainable agriculture. There are various ways that policymakers, agricultural support organizations, and researchers could better integrate farmland preservation and sustainable agriculture efforts. This paper suggests several approaches for developing such connections including: coordinating local, state, and federal policies, conducting related research, and developing integrated outreach and education programs.
An assessment of reduced herbicide and fertilizer inputs on cereal grain yield and weed growth
Authors: Stevenson F.C. , Johnston A.M. , Brandt S.A. , Townley-Smith L.
Published: October 2009

Although crop production and weed growth could change if herbicides and fertilizer inputs were reduced, the short-term impact in an annual cropping system in the Northern Great Plains is not well understood. Data were collected from 14 sites in Saskatchewan, Canada, to investigate the influence of weed control method (cultural vs. herbicides) and N and P fertilizers on crop yield of fall rye, spring wheat, and barley, and the presence and number of weed species. Cultural weed control included 25% greater crop seeding rate, preseeding tillage closer to the time of seeding, and fertilizer N banding in closer proximity to the seed. Four weed species (wild oat, lambsquarters, wild buckwheat, and field penny cress) occurred more frequently in plots with cultural weed control compared with herbicide weed control for all cereal crops. However, straw and grain yields of all crops were unaffected by weed control method at all sites. The addition of fertilizer had a major impact on crop growth and some weed species. Green foxtail occurred more often in unfertilized compared with fertilized plots for all cereal crops. Straw and grain yields of all cereal crops were higher in fertilized compared with unfertilized plots. Crop yield response to fertilizer inputs was not consistent among sites for the three cereal crops. Producers making drastic reductions in fertilizer inputs may experience reductions in crop yields because of limited nutrient levels. However, the results indicate that herbicide inputs could be reduced or eliminated periodically with no short-term yield loss in cereal cropping systems.
Factors influencing resident attitudes regarding the land application of biosolids
Authors: Lindsay Bruce E. , Zhou Haojiang , Halstead John M.
Published: October 2009

Residential household owners were surveyed in two different New Hampshire communities that varied in terms of population size, degree of rurality, and per capita income, each with no activities in land application of biosolids. Logit models were developed and logistic regression analyses were carried out for each community. The empirical results suggest that the perception by residents of the potential economic benefits and negative impacts from land application of biosolids can be very influential in achieving public acceptance. From a policymaker's viewpoint, this suggests the need for sound educational programs that explicitly describe the economic benefits, negative impacts, and potential risks that typically occur with land application of biosolids. Supportive studies are needed to complement the educational programs. These measures will allow residents to weigh the relative benefits and costs to determine their positions on this approach to management of biosolids and to discount emotional judgements and misinformation. The media needs to ensure that newspaper, magazine, and television reports are accurate and taken from reliable sources. Survey results suggest that the less volume of information presented by the media, the more supportive residents are of land application. Therefore, with such sensitivity by respondents to quantity of information, it is imperative that media outlets place high priority on the quality and accuracy of materials presented. Socioeconomic characteristics of the respondents did not influence attitudes toward acceptance or rejection of biosolids application, thus eliminating the difficulty that social stratification could cause in achieving acceptance.
The Wallace family vision and today's agricultural challenges
Authors: Culver John C.
Published: October 2009

On the centennial of Henry Agard Wallace's birth in 1988, it was recognized and memorialized in the U.S. Congress that the three generations of the Wallace family constituted the first family in the history of American agriculture.
Biodynamic preparations: Short-term effects on crops, soils, and weed populations
Authors: Carpenter-Boggs Lynne , Reganold John P. , Kennedy Ann C.
Published: October 2009

Biodynamic agriculture is an organic farming system that utilizes fermented herbal and mineral preparations as compost additives and field sprays. This study was conducted to determine whether biodynamic preparations affect lentil and wheat growth and yield, soil fertility, or weed populations in the short run. Each of four nutrient treatments, biodynamically prepared compost, non-biodynamic compost, mineral NPK fertilizer, and no fertilizer, were tested with and without biodynamic field sprays. Crop yield, crop quality, and soil fertility were similar in plots treated with mineral NPK fertilizers, biodynamic compost, or non-biodynamic compost. Use of compost raised soil pH from 6.0 without compost to 6.5 with compost. Compost application reduced the broadleaf weed population by 29% and reduced the grass weed population by 78%. Biodynamic sprays altered soil and grain N chemistry, but the effects are of unknown biological significance. Use of the biodynamic field sprays correlated with higher yield of lentil per unit plant biomass, lower grain C and crude protein contents, greater content in soft white spring wheat, and greater content in soil. In general, soils and crops treated with biodynamic preparations showed few differences from those not treated. Application of composts with or without the preparations produced similar crop yields with lower weed pressure, compared with equal nutrients supplied by mineral fertilizer, but any additional short-term benefits from biodynamic preparations remain questionable.
Use of fabric and compost mulches for vegetable production in a low tillage, permanent bed system: Effects on crop yield and labor
Authors: Feldman R.S. , Holmes C.E. , Blomgren T.A.
Published: October 2009

We tested the usefulness of mulching with polypropylene landscape fabric and compost as alternatives to bare soil for growing red cabbage and watermelon. Polypropylene landscape fabric has features similar to the polyethylene film that is popular for commercial vegetable production, but its durability permits multi-year use, which would reduce excessive waste produced from the typical single-season use of polyethylene film. On the other hand, compost used as mulch enhances soil development while providing weed suppression and water retention, among other benefits. Yields of red cabbage and watermelon were measured for 3 years in plots receiving either 10 cm compost, landscape fabric, or no mulch. Labor associated with crop production and weed suppression was measured as time spent on each task. Cabbage yields over 3 years followed the treatment order of compost > no mulch > fabric, while for melon yields it was compost > fabric > no mulch. Total labor required over 3 years for both crops, according to treatments, was fabric > compost > no mulch. However, labor for the fabric-treated plots dropped sharply after the first year, because fabric was left in place after initial placement. Labor for unmulched cabbage plots increased over time due to weeding and transplanting; labor for unmulched and compost-mulched melon plots increased for the same reasons. Compost provided the highest crop yields with a moderate labor investment. Surface-applied compost substantially increased underlying soil nutrient levels. The study indicates that polypropylene landscape fabric may be a potential alternative to the more traditional polyethylene film for permanent beds in vegetable production.
A Geographic Information System for identification of potential alternative crops utilizing soil and climatic variables in the Bighorn Basin, Wyoming
Authors: Young J.A. , Vance G.F. , Munn L.C. , Christensen B.M. , Schaad M.S.
Published: October 2009

The Bighorn Basin is an important agricultural region in Wyoming. To promote expansion of economic prospects within the Bighorn Basin, we explored the feasibility of introducing alternative crops into the area. Currently, the major crops in this region are sugar beet, barley, alfalfas, and dry beans. Diversification of agricultural cropping systems within the Bighorn Basin is an important step in enhancing the state's economy. This research provides preliminary results for evaluating diversification by determining crops that may potentially be cultivated in the Bighorn Basin region. Four of the 28 alternative crops investigated in this project include amaranth, buckwheat, canola, and faba bean. A Geographic Information System (GIS) was used to combine spatial data identifying areas with unique combinations of characteristics (e.g., soils, frost-free period, temperature, etc.) for introduction of new crops. The GIS was used to compile data layers for different soil and climatic variables. A soils data layer was developed for the study area using a predictive model based on the region's surficial geology, bedrock geology, and elevation. Monthly minimum, mean, and maximum summer temperatures, precipitation, growing degree-days and frost-free season were obtainedfrom weatherstations located in the Bighorn Basin, where 30-year averages have been collected by the National Climate Data Center. Using geostatistics, information obtainedfrom weather stations was utilized to develop continuous data layers for 31 climatic conditions related to the study area. A compilation of growth parameters for 28 alternative crops included various soil and climatic conditions that were used to identify areas with potential to support these new crops. Maps of alternative crop production areas suggested that 8 crops (amaranth, chickpea, onion, quinoa, saffiower, sesame, sorghum, and sunflower) could potentially be cultivated in eastern Bighorn Basin where temperatures are warmer, another 12 crops (broccoli, buckwheat, canola, carrot, cauliflower, crambe, Kentucky bluegrass turf seed, leek, lentil, lettuce, mint, and radish) could be produced in western Bighorn Basin where temperatures are cooler, and 8 additional crops (asparagus, beet, cabbage, cowpea, faba bean, field pea, medic seed, and tall fescue turf seed) may possibly be cultivated throughout the Bighorn Basin study area in suitable soils. The alternative crop production area maps derived from this projectwillbe useful to potential growers, land-use planners, and county and state agencies in the Bighorn Basin seeking information on different agricultural practices and new production systems.
Information dissemination in alternative agriculture research: An analysis of researchers in the North Central region
Authors: Larson K.L. , Duram L.A.
Published: October 2009

Agricultural research and education significantly influence the direction of U.S. agriculture by improving the practices available to farmers and by decreasing uncertainties associated with adopting new farming practices. Because sustainable agriculture is management-intensive, access to information is particularly important in adopting and implementing sustainable farming practices. Given that relatively little funding is allocated to sustainable agriculture research by the federal government, successful dissemination of these research results is critical. This paper presents an analysis of the dissemination efforts of 42 researchers funded through the USDA's North Central Region Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education (SARE) program. Results show that these SARE researchers purposefully consider the effectiveness of various dissemination methods in reaching targeted audiences and attempt to involve farmers in their dissemination efforts. Overall, researchers note that information dissemination is limited by farmer interest. Additional barriers exist, most notably insufficient resources and institutional biases. In the future, the ways in which information is compiled and made available must be improved, and responsibility for farmer outreach should be better coordinated.
Corn gluten meal—a natural preemergence herbicide: Effect on vegetable seedling survival and weed cover
Authors: McDade Melissa C. , Christians Nick E.
Published: October 2009

Weeds are considered the most important pest group for farmers interested in lowering external inputs and avoiding synthetic chemical use. Corn gluten meal (CGM) is a natural preemergence weed control used in turfgrass, which reduces germination of many broadleaf and grass weeds. The objective of this study was to investigate weed cover and vegetable seedling survival in field plots when CGM is incorporated before planting. Three studies were conducted, with three replications for each study. Five rates of powdered CGM (0,100, 200, 300, and 400 g m–2) were weighed and incorporated into the top 5–8 cm of soil in recently disked 1.5-m by 2.7-m plots. Seeds of eight vegetables were each planted in rows 1.4 m long and 0.3 m apart. Seedling survival and percentage of weed cover were recorded for each plot. Corn gluten meal at rates of 100, 200, 300, and 400 g m–2reduced mean weed cover by 50, 74, 84, and 82%, respectively, compared with the control. Seedling survival at 100 g CGM per m2was reduced by 67% for ‘Comanche’ onion, 35% for ‘Ruby Queen’ beet, 41% for ‘Red Baron’ radish, 71% for ‘Provider’ bean, 73% for ‘Scarlet Nantes’ carrot, 59% for ‘Maestro’ pea, and 68% for ‘Black Seeded Simpson’ lettuce, compared with the control. Seedling survival for ‘Daybreak’ sweet corn was not reduced by rates of 100 or 200 g CGM per m2, but was reduced by 26% at a rate of 300 g CGM per m2compared with the control. Because of the reduction in seedling survival at even the lowest rate of CGM (100 g m–2), direct seeding of these vegetables into soil into which CGM has been incorporated is not advisable. Using transplants may be an alternative that takes advantage of the herbicidal effects of CGM and the nitrogen it provides.
An economic comparison of traditional and conventional agricultural systems at a county level
Authors: Bender M.H.
Published: October 2009

In Holmes and Wayne Counties, Ohio, respectively, one-half and one-fourth of the farms belong to the Amish, an agrarian culture whose traditional agriculture has been remarkably successful. In an analysis of the 88 Ohio counties by means of the federal agricultural census, the economic performance of the two counties was examined in graphs of agricultural characteristics and financial indicators, some expressed on a per-ha basis across total farmland, as a measure of the efficiency of land utilization. Their performance was assessed relative to the following three groups of Ohio counties with high per-ha net farm income: those with large mean farm size, a prevalence of nursery and greenhouse production, or mixed crop and livestock agriculture. Belonging to the latter group, Holmes County ranked tenth and thirteenth highest among Ohio counties in per-ha gross and net farm income, respectively, and Wayne County, fifth and sixth. Despite the small mean farm size of 50 and 62 ha for Holmes and Wayne Counties, respectively, they matched counties of large mean farm size in terms of perha net farm income, and among 22 counties with small mean farm size of about 60 ha or less, they were exceeded only by 3 counties based on intensive nursery and greenhouse production. The large incomes were due to high marketed value of animal products. Supplemental feed consumption was 2.0 and 1.3 times the harvested crop production in Holmes and Wayne Counties, respectively, thus indicating large net imports of purchased feed. The large net incomes for the two counties were also a result of low labor costs, partly due to the fact that the Amish do not charge for helping each other on farms. When a conventional charge was applied to Amish labor, Wayne County remained among the highest of Ohio counties in per-ha net farm income, but Holmes County dropped to near the 50th percentile. Nonetheless, for the same decline, Holmes County remained among the highest of the 22 counties of small mean farm size because its initial performance was well above most of these counties. Since this was a study of land use efficiency, some discussion is devoted to farm size and productivity, relative levels of animal production, and cropland requirements to power horses and biofueled mechanical traction, the former an integral component of Amish agriculture. In the latter topic, corn-based ethanol and horse feed would require roughly the same area of cropland for traction to farm the nation's cropland, but on a net energy basis, the former area would be more than twice the latter. Since animal production is a major component of Amish agriculture, the results of the study provide indirect evidence that the small-scale, traditional farming of the Amish contributes substantially to the agricultural economies of Holmes and Wayne Counties.
Assessment of the potential to improve N fixation by cowpea(Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) in Ghanaian soils
Authors: Fening J.O. , Dogbe W. , Danso S.K.A.
Published: October 2009

The potential to improve N fixation by cowpea in Ghanaian soils was examined through: (1) assessment of the natural nodulation of 45 cowpea cultivars in 20 soils sampled from 5 ecological zones; (2) determination of the numbers of cowpea bradyrhizobial isolates in the soils; and (3) determination of the response of cowpea to N fertilization. The ability of 45 cowpea cultivars to nodulate naturally in the various soils showed wide cultural adaptability. Counts of indigenous bradyrhizobia showed that most soils in Ghana contained large populations capable of nodulating cowpea. These ranged from 0.6 × 10 bradyrhizobia cells g soil−1to 3.1 × 104cells g soil−1, with 60% of the soils containing more than 103cells g soil−1. Response of cowpea to N fertilization differed according to soil type. In general all cowpea cultivars showed significant response to increasing N fertilizer applications, indicating that N fixation was not providing the plants with sufficient N for maximum growth and yield. This study suggests that inoculation of cowpea with effective indigenous strains of bradyrhizobial species has considerable potential to improve this situation.
An assessment of SARE-funcled farmer research on sustainable agriculture in the north central U.S.
Authors: Kroma Margaret M. , Flora Cornelia Butler
Published: October 2009

Emergent research shows how some farmer groups in the United States are gaining visibility as a critical knowledge community, making important contributions to the ecological health and overall sustainability of the natural resource base. This study focuses on funded farmer research projects in the north central region, to analyze the process and outcome of local inquiry embodied in the discursive contents of reports to a funding agency, the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education program. The analyses suggest that farmers' locality-specific agricultural practices may constitute a reflective and learning community, generating local knowledge keenly attuned to an underlying value system that supports actions towards sustainability.
Farmer support for publicly funded sustainable agriculture research: The case of hoop structures for swine
Authors: Sharp Julie T. , Hinrichs C. Clare
Published: October 2009

Environmental and social concerns about the use of capital-intensive agricultural technologies have fueled questions about the process, impact, and future direction of the system that is largely responsible for developing these technologies; that is, publicly funded agricultural research at U.S. land-grant universities. Although social scientists have analyzed the public agricultural research system and farmers' attitudes towards various capital-intensive agricultural technologies, there has been less research on farmers' attitudes toward publicly funded research that focuses specifically on lowerinput agricultural technologies that contribute to sustainability goals. This research examines farmers' attitudes toward publicly funded research on one such low-input technology, deep-bedded hoop structures for swine production. With lower capital costs and purported environmental and management advantages, hoop structures have been promoted to and adopted by growing numbers of Midwest swine producers. The study hypotheses draw on published theories of the treadmill of technology, and of innovation adoption and diffusion. Using a 1997 mail survey of Iowa swine producers (n = 298), we examined factors associated with producers' attitudes toward publicly funded research on hoop structures and found that 40% were supportive of the research, 40% were opposed, and 20% were undecided. Of the variables examined, the producer's assessment of hoop structures' contribution to sustainability, number of external knowledge sources about hoop structures, and formal education were each significantly related to support for publicly funded hoop-structure research. Two farm structure variables, marketings and percentage of income from farming, were not significantly related in this study. Future research on farmers' attitudes toward public sector agricultural research should take account of farmers' views of potential impacts of the specific technologies being researched and developed, and the nature of farmers' ties to the land-grant university system. This study clarifies the importance of farmers' perceptions and concerns about specific agricultural technologies in directing public agricultural research planning and policy toward broader sustainability goals.
Challenges in designing ecological agriculture education: A Nordic perspective on change
Authors: Francis Charles A. , Lieblein Geir , Helenius Juha , Salomonsson Lennart , Olsen Hanne , Porter John
Published: October 2009

Educators in ecological agriculture are developing learning environments that differ in three fundamental ways from conventional teaching in agricultural universities and colleges. First, increased emphasis on food and production systems will expand and complement the current focus on specific disciplines and technologies. Second, introduction of research methods and learning objectives from social sciences will broaden the potentials for students to understand the complexities of food systems and the people who make them work. Third, action research and education will move learning activities into the agroecosystems environment and the human landscape, where students will learn from a broad array of people and experiences. This design of a new learning environment will enhance the education of students to serve agricultural and food systems well into a future that is changing at an accelerating rate.
Assessing the sustainability of a terraced agroecosystem for production of nopal vegetable (Opuntia ficus-indica) in metropolitan Mexico City
Authors: Losada H. , Vieyra J. , Soriano R. , Bennett R. , Cortés J. , Zavaleta P.
Published: October 2009

A case study of the nopal-vegetable agroecosystem in metropolitan Mexico City was conducted to evaluate the crop's economic productivity and sustainability using economic, social, and environmental indicators. Economic indicators were based on a gross margin analysis, commercialization strategies, and provision of employment. Social indicators were education level, family size, origin of laborers, plot size providing a measure of equity, and social self-organization. Environmental indicators were soil nutrient content and fertilizer application, technological management, and crop and natural biodiversity. Information on relevant social, technological, and economic elements was obtained through structured interviews with 100 producers of the city's nopalproducing zone of Milpa Alta in the hills southeast of Mexico City. Analysis of soil samples from cropped fields at three different depths was conducted, along with a study of nopal-associated weed species used by the community. Net income per ha was equivalent to 4 minimum wages. Estimated scores of 89, 74, and 64 (on a scale of 0 to 100) were obtained for social, economic, and environmental sustainability indicators, respectfully, for this unique cropping system. Discussion focuses on trade-offs between indicators, the cost of achieving sustainability in the metropolitan zone of Mexico City, and appropriate policy responses.
Contribution of the bison industry to North Dakota's economy
Authors: Sell Randall S. , Bangsund Dean A. , Leistritz F. Larry
Published: October 2009

The bison industry is relatively new to North Dakota where in 1998 an estimated 23,000 bison were raised in 47 of its 53 counties. The purpose of this study was to estimate the economic contribution of the bison industry to the state's economy in 1998. The bison industry, as defined here, is the production and processing of bison and the related revenues and expenditures generated from those activities that occurred within the state. With the construction and operation of a bison processing plant in North Dakota, this industry has undergone rapid expansion within the past 10 years. A survey of North Dakota bison producers and processors was conducted to provide estimates of direct impacts of the bison industry within the state. Secondary economic impacts were determined using the North Dakota Input-Output Model. The direct impact of production and processing of bison was estimated at $23 million. This generated an additional $47 million in secondary impacts within the state. The North Dakota bison industry supported a total of 757 secondary full-time equivalent (FTE) jobs. Total economic activity generated within the state was estimated at $70 million, including $27 million in personal income and nearly $18 million in retail sales. In addition, the bison industry generated $4 million in tax revenues, including property, personal income, sales and use, and corporate income taxes. The direct impact of bison production in 1998 ranked fourth in North Dakota's livestock industry: below cattle and calves, dairy products, and swine, but above turkeys and sheep. If the bison industry maintains its present growth rate, it will be larger than the North Dakota swine industry within 3 years, and sooner if the swine industry continues to decline as it has since 1995. The average direct impact generated for each bison in the state was $1,000. Total economic activity generated per bison was $3,100 (includes direct and secondary impacts from production and processing). For every 30 bison an additional secondary FTE job was supported.
An alternative agricultural plan for the food-deficient, environmentally fragile hills of Nepal
Authors: Pant K.P. , Pandey V.K.
Published: October 2009

Demand-driven agricultural production is unsustainable in Nepal since it is destroying the land base through soil erosion. The forests are also degrading from excessive fodder lopping (excising branches with leaf material) to feed farm animals. This study suggests an alternative for agricultural production, which minimizes environmental problems without impairing the present economic interests of the farmers. The study was conducted in the low-income, food-deficient, environmentally fragile hill district of Dhading in Nepal. A lexicographic goal-programming model was employed to generate an alternative plan that minimizes the environmental impacts relating to soil erosion, cattle grazing, forest fodder lopping, and use of inorganic fertilizers, and pesticides. Food-grain production, milk production, and returns to fixed farm resources are maintained at least at existing levels in the alternative plan. For delineating relationships between farm production and environmental problems, production of these commodities is hypothetically targeted at successively higher levels. The results indicate that the levels of environmental problems, except those from use of inorganic nitrogen fertilizers, are considerably reduced in the alternative farm production system. The alternative crop plan proposes the total exclusion of corn and oilseed crops and a marked decrease in the area under main season paddy rice. Instead, the areas under early paddy, upland paddy, wheat, pulses, and fodder crops would increase. The livestock plan suggests a decrease in the number of bullocks required, due to modification of the crop plan and sharing of bullocks among neighboring farmers. Replacement of cows by buffaloes for milk production is also proposed. Increasing food-grain production is more damaging to the fragile hill ecosystem than an equivalent increase in milk production.
Cultivating the increasingly popular medicinal plant, goldenseal: Review and update
Authors: Sinclair Adrianne , Catling Paul M.
Published: October 2009

Interest in the cultivation of goldenseal is increasing and this may have benefits for agriculture, human health, and conservation. To enable a better understanding of growing conditions, cultivation methods reported in the literature were reviewed, 21 natural goldenseal populations in the northern portion of its natural range in North America were described and analyzed in terms of population size and health, and 15 successful growers were interviewed on requirements for optimal cultivation. Growing conditions in the wild were compared to those reported in the cultivation literature. Summary of data from natural populations suggests goldenseal grows best in mixed hardwood forests, under 60–65% shade, in moist sandy loam soils high in organic matter, with pH 5.7 to 6.3. Similarly, review of the literature suggests that goldenseal grows best in moist, well-drained loams high in organic matter, with pH 5.5 to 6.5. Reported shade requirements vary but 47–80% shade is considered optimal. Growing conditions reported by growers were also consistent with the cultivation literature and similar to conditions of wild populations. Although optimal growing conditions are similar to those for many crops, goldenseal is relatively robust and can grow well in a variety of conditions including wet, predominantly sandy or clay soils with pH as low as 4.8 and as high as 7.8. Cultivation can utilize a ginseng crop infrastructure and goldenseal has been recommended as a rotation crop for ginseng. Commercial production of goldenseal is potentially advantageous because (1) it is an environmentally friendly crop; (2) it has been grown successfully far outside its natural range, is easy to grow, and is considered potentially profitable; and (3) it is relatively inexpensive, having low energy, land area, and fertilization requirements. Development of a sustainable crop may contribute to the protection of native wild germplasm, which can provide valuable material for crop improvement.
Tillage and farming system affect AM fungus populations, mycorrhizal formation, and nutrient uptake by winter wheat in a high-P soil
Authors: Galvez Larisa , Douds David D. , Wagoner Peggy
Published: October 2009

We conducted a field study at the Rodale Institute Experimental Farm, Kutztown, Pennsylvania, in a high-P soil to examine the interaction of farming system and tillage on the potential functioning of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi. Plots under conventional and low-input systems were either chisel-disked or no-tilled. Winter wheat was planted following the harvest of soybean, and shoots and roots were collected at tillering, jointing, heading, and ripening. Spores of AM fungi were isolated from soil collected at the beginning and end of the growing season. Spore populations and colonization of winter wheat roots by AM fungi were higher under low-input than conventional agriculture. Mycorrhizal fungus colonization occurred at low levels in the tillering stage and increased with plant development. Colonization during the jointing stage was higher in the low-input, no-tilled than in low-input, chisel-disked plots. Spore populations of theGlomus occultum-type group were more numerous in no-tilled than in tilled soil. The nutrient-use efficiency (g of plant biomass per g of plant N or P) of winter wheat depended on plant developmental stage, with a tendency for higher efficiency of the low-input plants at early growth stages, and of conventionally managed plants at more mature stages. Overall, plants grown in chisel-disked plots had higher N and P utilization efficiencies than plants grown in no-tilled plots. Final yield of grain was significantly greater in conventional than low-input plots, especially for no-till, despite the larger population of AM fungi.