bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Valedictory Lecture: My Philosophical Development (and Impressions of Philosophers Whom i Met Along the Way)
Authors: Cohen G. A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter talks about how the author had come to study philosophy, his impressions on the philosophers he'd encountered in his studies, and other anecdotes from his academic career. It covers Cohen's childhood in the 1940s up until his academic career, which was still progressing by the 1960s—the point at which this chapter concludes. Along the way the chapter shares some reflections on how “So many of the things that we do and that matter so much to us we do both for good and for bad reasons.” Excluded here is the story of his encounter with Isaiah Berlin, as it has already been detailed in chapter 1.
Notes on Regarding People as Equals
Authors: Cohen G. A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter reflects on what it means to regard people as equals. More specifically, the question that the chapter addresses is “What is it for me (or X) to regard another as my (or his or her) equal?” and not, at least immediately, “What is it for X to regard Y and Z as equals (as equal, that is, to each other)?” The chapter's response is “not, at least immediately,” because the answer to either of those two questions must surely have implications for the answer to the other. Hence, this chapter begins an exploration of the relations between the questions. One conjecture is that “I treat them as equals because…” and “I treat you as an equal because…” might have different appropriate continuations: the pressure to find something in common across persons might be greater with respect to the third-person question.
What Does a Black Hole Look Like?
Authors: Bailyn Charles D.
Published: November 2017

Emitting no radiation or any other kind of information, black holes mark the edge of the universe—both physically and in our scientific understanding. Yet astronomers have found clear evidence for the existence of black holes, employing the same tools and techniques used to explore other celestial objects. This book goes behind the theory and physics of black holes to describe how astronomers are observing these enigmatic objects and developing a remarkably detailed picture of what they look like and how they interact with their surroundings. Accessible to undergraduates and others with some knowledge of introductory college-level physics, this book presents the techniques used to identify and measure the mass and spin of celestial black holes. These key measurements demonstrate the existence of two kinds of black holes, those with masses a few times that of a typical star, and those with masses comparable to whole galaxies—supermassive black holes. The book provides a detailed account of the nature, formation, and growth of both kinds of black holes. The book also describes the possibility of observing theoretically predicted phenomena such as gravitational waves, wormholes, and Hawking radiation. A cutting-edge introduction to a subject that was once on the border between physics and science fiction, this book shows how black holes are becoming routine objects of empirical scientific study.
Outflows and Jets
Authors: Bailyn Charles D.
Published: November 2017

This chapter looks at the presence of outflows or jets, a somewhat unexpected feature of accretion flows. There is strong observational evidence that some fraction of the infalling material reverses course near the accreting object and is shot out perpendicularly to the accretion disk. In some cases, narrow collimated beams of emission are observed emerging from the central-most regions of galaxies and continuing across the whole of the galaxy, depositing their energy hundreds of kiloparsecs away from their origin. These phenomena are sometimes described as jets “emerging” from a black hole. This parlance is misleading—the jets do not, and indeed could not, emerge from inside the event horizon. Rather, some mechanism redirects the energy generated by the accretion process into a fraction of the infalling material and provides enough bulk kinetic energy for the material to escape the accretion process before the material enters the event horizon.
Supermassive Black Holes
Authors: Bailyn Charles D.
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on supermassive black holes, which are sometimes abbreviated “SMBHs.” Stellar-mass black holes are clearly common consequences of stellar evolution, but they are not the only kinds of black holes identified by astronomers. Much more massive black holes are located in the center of many, and perhaps all, galaxies. These black holes are referred to as supermassive black holes. They are responsible for a range of phenomena originating from objects described as active galactic nuclei (AGN), which were first observed in the form of quasi-stellar objects (QSOs) or quasars. AGN are among the most luminous objects in the Universe and can be observed at great distances. The distances can be so great that the light travel time from the AGN to Earth is a large fraction of the age of the Universe. They are therefore often used to probe the evolution of the Universe.
The New Arab Man
Authors: Inhorn Marcia C.
Published: November 2017

Middle Eastern Muslim men have been widely vilified as terrorists, religious zealots, and brutal oppressors of women. This book challenges these stereotypes with the stories of ordinary Middle Eastern men as they struggle to overcome infertility and childlessness through assisted reproduction. Drawing on two decades of ethnographic research across the Middle East with hundreds of men from a variety of social and religious backgrounds, the book shows how the new Arab man is self-consciously rethinking the patriarchal masculinity of his forefathers and unseating received wisdoms. This is especially true in childless Middle Eastern marriages where, contrary to popular belief, infertility is more common among men than women. The book captures the marital, moral, and material commitments of couples undergoing assisted reproduction, revealing how new technologies are transforming their lives and religious sensibilities. And it looks at the changing manhood of husbands who undertake transnational “egg quests”—set against the backdrop of war and economic uncertainty—out of devotion to the infertile wives they love. Trenchant and emotionally gripping, the book traces the emergence of new masculinities in the Middle East in the era of biotechnology.
Hegemonic Masculinity
Authors: Inhorn Marcia C.
Published: November 2017

This chapter argues that any ethnographic study of masculinity must begin with R.W. Connell's theory of hegemonic masculinity. It has been incredibly influential in masculinity research since the 1980s, and has greatly influenced some early work of Egyptian masculinity and sexuality. As the only social constructionist analytic developed specifically for studying masculinity, hegemonic masculinity has been widely used since its 1985 introduction. Drawing explicitly from feminist theory and Marxist sociology, Connell sought to reconcile the lived reality of inequality among men with the fact of men's group dominance over women. This new theory sought to examine hierarchical inequality among men, relate analysis of masculinity to feminist insights on the social construction of gender, and resist the dichotomy of structure versus the individual plaguing contemporary studies of gender and class.
Masturbation and Semen Collection
Authors: Inhorn Marcia C.
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores the tragic story of Shaykh Ali—a story of a devout Muslim man struggling with his infertile body, his attitudes toward sperm donation, and his unrequited sexuality. Shaykh Ali suffers from a preventable form of male infertility—namely, uncorrected, undescended testicles—which have stopped him from being able to produce sperm. Not all Middle Eastern men are as religiously pious as Shaykh Ali, nor have they suffered the same physical and emotional pain. Nonetheless, Shaykh Ali's story speaks in a powerful way to many of the themes in this study; including the role of Islam in shaping the uses of assisted reproductive technologies, Muslim men's general unwillingness to consider sperm donation as a solution to male infertility, and emerging areas of dissonance and dissent to the prevailing religious discourse.
Islam and Assisted Reproduction
Authors: Inhorn Marcia C.
Published: November 2017

This chapter demonstrates how major divergences have occurred in the fatwas being issued by Sunni and Shia religious authorities regarding the permissibility of third-party reproductive assistance. In recent years, new fatwas emerging from the Shia world have condoned third-party gamete donation, whereas gamete donation continues to be banned across the Sunni Muslim countries. These divergent Sunni and Shia Islamic approaches toward gamete donation have affected the moral decision making of infertile Muslim couples in ways that are only beginning to be realized. The degree of consensus across the Sunni Muslim countries is quite striking, as are the ways in which these fatwas have guided the clinical practices of the Middle Eastern IVF community.
Sperm Donation and Adoption
Authors: Inhorn Marcia C.
Published: November 2017

This chapter analyzes how the vast majority of Muslims, both Sunni and Shia, reject both sperm donation and adoption as solutions to male infertility and childlessness. In the Arab countries, sperm donation is practiced only in Lebanon, but there, too, it meets with ardent resistance on the part of most men. The chapter narrates the story of Hasan, a police officer in southern Lebanon, who believes that he cannot regard a child conceived through donor sperm as his legitimate son. Hasan's reaction is not surprising in that assisted reproductive technologies evoke strong feelings about kinship. Of all of the anthropological work that has been written about the assisted reproductive technologies, the most substantial and most foundational is that which explores the effects of these technologies on kinship and family life.
Emergent Masculinities in the Middle East
Authors: Inhorn Marcia C.
Published: November 2017

This concluding chapter discusses the need to rethink masculinity not only in America but in the Middle East as well. This rethinking is especially crucial, because so many Americans are, in fact, Islamophobic, carrying with them pernicious stereotypes about Middle Eastern men as particularly dangerous, loathsome, and fanatical. The main goal of the book is to provide a more realistic and humanizing portrayal of Middle Eastern men's lives, through a form of person-centered, empirically based ethnography that elucidates men's reproductive life stories, as told in their own words. Through such stories, people can come to appreciate Middle Eastern men not only as men but as good men, who are facing the twenty-first century in thoughtful, respectful, and locally moral ways.
Fichte’s Political Economy of the General Will
Authors: Nakhimovsky Isaac
Published: November 2017

This chapter describes how Fichte's book was perceived as an important challenge by admirers of Adam Smith because its normative evaluation of market society was grounded in a theory of property rights whose foundational principle was the natural liberty of the individual. Fichte denied that the inequalities produced by the expanding division of labor could be justified by appealing to this principle. However, he was also highly critical of those who prioritized equality over autonomy by discerning inherent moral limits on the nature and scope of individual activity. To claim that property relations had to keep pace with the changing nature of this activity in an industrializing society, Fichte extended his mission to eliminate “the last vestiges of hypostasis still clinging to the Kantian system” into an effort to excise any semblance of natural rights from property theory. From this perspective, Fichte's Closed Commercial State emerges as an important contribution to the nineteenth-century critique of the discipline of political economy.
G. A. Cohen: A Memoir
Authors: Wolff Jonathan
Published: November 2017

This chapter presents a memoir of G. A. Cohen, who died on August 5, 2009. Cohen was born on April 14, 1941, into a Jewish Marxist family, and his life and character were woven into his philosophical work in an unusual way. His upbringing, his family, his Jewishness (as distinct from Judaism), and his need to position his own beliefs in relation to Karl Marx and to Soviet Communism all played central roles in his life and work. Armed with the techniques of analytical philosophy, Cohen began his earliest project, resulting in Karl Marx's Theory of History: A Defence, in which he sets out a clear account of the core of Marx's theory of history. This chapter considers Cohen's other writings which articulate his views on subjects ranging from capitalism and socialism to freedom and the nature and consequences of the thesis of self-ownership.
Hilbert on Theology and Its Discontents
Authors: McLarty Colin
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the myth surrounding Paul Gordan's response to David Hilbert's finiteness theorems. A proof introduced by Hilbert in 1888 became the paradigm of modern axiomatic mathematics. In the myth, Gordan denounced Hilbert's proof, and his anathema rebounded against himself when he said, “This is not Mathematics, it is Theology!” After providing the background to the various interpretations that Gordan's comment has generated, the chapter considers the so-called “Gordan's problem”—to find finite complete systems of invariants for forms. It then discusses Hilbert's theorem and Gordan's reaction to Hilbert's fuller version of the invariant theorem, as well as Gordan's mythic quotation. It also explores the role played by Gordan's one and only doctoral student, Emmy Noether, in the Gordan–Hilbert controversy and concludes by emphasizing Gordan's story as an example of the deliberate use of narrative in mathematics.
Tales of Contingency, Contingencies of Telling
Authors: Meister Jan Christoph
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines whether mathematics can help us model aesthetic contingency, and hence create narrative subjectivity. It begins by considering narrative subjectivity as a hard-wired feature of narrative representation and how this feature reflects the post-Enlightenment view of human existence that replaced the old belief in Providence with a new explanatory model, that of existential contingency. The discussion proceeds by exploring the aesthetic and philosophical consequences of this explanatory model for narrative, first by looking at Leo Perutz's stories that illustrate the problem of contingency from various angles, and then by discussing the so-called story generator algorithm (SGA) that aims to fabricate contingency. The chapter also explains how perspective and focalization, two ways in which theorists have tried to understand narrative subjectivity, can be formalized in the context of the SGA. Finally, it offers suggestions for how mathematical tools may help in the computational modeling of narrative subjectivity.
Algebraic Thought in Ancient and Medieval China
Authors: Katz Victor J. , Parshall Karen Hunger
Published: November 2017

This chapter takes a look at the scope of mathematics in Ancient and Medieval China. Although the Chinese engaged in numerical calculation as early as the middle of the second millennium BCE, the earliest detailed written evidence of the solution of mathematical problems in China is the Suan shu shu (or Book of Numbers and Computation), a book discovered in a tomb dated to approximately 200 BCE. The Suan shu shu was part of the Chinese intellectual culture shaped in part by China's tempestuous political history. Within this history, Chinese mathematicians—who seemingly worked in isolation and in widely disparate parts of the country—gradually developed new methods for treating various problems that their works needed to contain. Here, the chapter discusses various mathematical explorations set out by Chinese scholars, such as the Chinese remainder problem.
Finding the Roots of Algebraic Equations
Authors: Katz Victor J. , Parshall Karen Hunger
Published: November 2017

This chapter highlights some of the struggles to solve fifth-degree polynomials as well as the development of the idea of a group and its application to answering the question of solvability of polynomial equations. It begins by surveying some of the methods by which mathematicians attempted to solve—and sometimes did solve—various algebraic equations of degree higher than four. The chapter then turns to the theory of permutations as well as group theory. It turned out that the key to proving the impossibility of the fifth-degree polynomials and, more generally, the key to determining which polynomial equations were, in fact, solvable algebraically, was a totally new construct, the group.
Understanding Polynomial Equations in n Unknowns
Authors: Katz Victor J. , Parshall Karen Hunger
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the search for simultaneous solutions which eventually led to the creation of whole new algebraic constructs over the course of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The constructs in question were the determinants, matrices, and invariants, among others. These, like groups, came to define new algebraic areas of inquiry in and of themselves. They were borne through a protracted search over the latter half of the millennium for more general techniques for solving systems of equations simultaneously—an issue which has been coming up frequently in mathematical problems since ancient times. The chapter looks at the evolution of these constructs and how mathematicians had come ever closer to their ideal solution.
Every Man His Own Lobbyist
Authors: Waterhouse Benjamin C.
Published: November 2017

This chapter situates the transformation of the politics of business during the 1980s at the intersection of two interrelated trends: the realignment of global capitalism, particularly the rise of finance and the decline of industrial manufacturing in the United States, and the political and cultural changes that spawned a new power structure and the proliferation of professional lobbying firms. The collective influence of employers' associations began to wane during the Reagan administration, even as their ideological perspective became increasingly integral to political discourse. Neoliberal doctrine about the supremacy of the market and the debilitating effects of government “intervention” in the economy came to dominate policy deliberations not only among conservatives and Republicans but, increasingly, among liberals and Democrats.
The Pursuit of Laziness
Authors: Saint-Amand Pierre
Published: November 2017

We think of the Enlightenment as an era dominated by ideas of progress, production, and industry—not an era that favored the lax and indolent individual. But was the Enlightenment only about the unceasing improvement of self and society? This book examines moral, political, and economic treatises of the period, and reveals that crucial eighteenth-century texts did find value in idleness and nonproductivity. Fleshing out Enlightenment thinking in the works of Denis Diderot, Joseph Joubert, Pierre de Marivaux, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Jean-Siméon Chardin, this book explores idleness in all its guises, and illustrates that laziness existed, not as a vice of the wretched, but as an exemplar of modernity and a resistance to beliefs about virtue and utility. Whether in the dawdlings of Marivaux's journalist who delayed and procrastinated or in the subjects of Chardin's paintings who delighted in suspended, playful time, Pierre Saint-Amand shows how eighteenth-century works provided a strong argument for laziness. Rousseau abandoned his previous defense of labor to pursue reverie and botanical walks, Diderot emphasized a parasitic strategy of resisting work in order to liberate time, and Joubert's little-known posthumous Notebooks radically opposed the central philosophy of the Enlightenment in a quest to infinitely postpone work. Unsettling the stubborn view of the eighteenth century as an age of frenetic industriousness and labor, this book plumbs the texts and images of the time and uncovers deliberate yearnings for slowness and recreation.
Introduction
Authors: Saint-Amand Pierre
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter illustrates individual instances maintaining their distance from the eighteenth century's prevailing trends. In contrast, at the threshold of industrialization, there is a series of characters set against the grain of utility and functionality, repeatedly contesting the universality of labor and activity. The chapter reconstitutes an other discourse of laziness, a contradictory and oppositional vision that defies what Michel Foucault might call the techno-disciplinary model of mercantile society. Through a number of portraits of homo otiosus, mined from the underside of the laborious eighteenth century, various figures of idleness as a positive value will come to light: the journalist of Marivaux's youthful writings and his philosopher bum, Rousseau as a writer belatedly proclaiming laziness in his final years, and Diderot's famous parasite, Rameau's Nephew.
Chardin’s Slowness
Authors: Saint-Amand Pierre
Published: November 2017

This chapter analyzes the dialogue in Jean-Siméon Chardin's work between labor and leisure, between effort and laziness. Chardin is known as a painter of domestic interiors, a remarkable portraitist of individuals depicted while absorbed in everyday tasks. These paintings led to the nineteenth-century perception of Chardin as a witness to his bourgeois contemporaries. It is important to note, however, that Chardin is equally capable of treating his subjects with a light touch. The chapter then turns to his Bulles de savon (Soap Bubbles). Introducing into his painting a physics of subtlety, Chardin captures matter in its change of phase: the evolution of the liquid state into the gaseous, the miracle of air, liquid, and vapor; the precarious envelope of vacuous and full.
The Legitimacy of Establishment
Authors: Rosanvallon Pierre
Published: November 2017

This chapter argues that, in order to fully understand the significance of electoral legitimation, one has to study the way in which the individualistic legal requirement is embedded in a holistic vision—a vision that treats unanimity as an intrinsic moral, social, and political value. Democratic regimes had eventually adopted the principle of majority rule as a practical procedural necessity, since numerical unanimity was virtually impossible to achieve. Yet at the same time they remained under the sway of this older idea of substantive unanimity. Ultimately, this latent contradiction would eventually undermine the idea that legitimacy can spring from elections alone. In order to gauge the extent of the problem, the chapter embarks on a brief exploration of the old sense of unanimity.
The Alliance of Seriousness and Levity in As You Like It
Authors: Barber C. L.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines Shakespeare's As You Like It. The play is very similar in the way it moves to A Midsummer Night's Dream and Love's Labour's Lost, despite the fact that its plot is taken over almost entirely from Lodge's Rosalynde. It argues that the reality we feel about the experience of love in the play, reality which is not in the pleasant little prose romance, comes from presenting what was sentimental extremity as impulsive extravagance and so leaving judgment free to mock what the heart embraces. The Forest of Arden, like the Wood outside Athens, is a region defined by an attitude of liberty from ordinary limitations, a festive place where the folly of romance can have its day.
Hume’s Two Definitions of Cause
Authors: Goertz Gary , Mahoney James
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines David Hume's two definitions of cause in the context of quantitative and qualitative research. The two definitions can be found in Hume's quotation from Enquiries Concerning Human Understanding, and Concerning the Principles of Morals: “We may define a cause to be an object followed by another, and where all the objects, similar to the first, are followed by objects similar to the second [definition 1]. Or, in other words, where, if the first object had not been, the second never would have existed [definition 2].” Hume's phrase “in other words” makes it appear as if definition 1 and definition 2 are equivalent, when in fact they represent quite different approaches. The chapter considers how Hume's definition 2, which it calls the “counterfactual definition,” and definition 1, the “constant conjunction definition,” are related to understandings of causation in the qualitative and quantitative research traditions.
Concepts: Definitions, Indicators, and Error
Authors: Goertz Gary , Mahoney James
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers two fundamental differences between the quantitative and qualitative research traditions with respect to conceptualization and measurement: these differences are related to the relative emphasis placed on definitions versus indicators in the two cultures. The first difference concerns the relative importance assigned to issues of concept definition versus issues of concept measurement. Qualitative researchers are centrally concerned with definitional issues and the meaning of their concepts, whereas their quantitative counterparts are more interested in the quantitative measurement of latent variables. The second difference concerns error and the coding of cases. The chapter examines how characteristics versus indicators are defined in the qualitative and quantitative research paradigms. It also discusses the relationship between “error,” which is central to all statistics, and “fuzziness,” which is important in qualitative research.
Conceptual Opposites and Typologies
Authors: Goertz Gary , Mahoney James
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers how opposing pairs of categories and typologies are used in the qualitative and quantitative research traditions. It begins with a discussion of the concepts of democracy and authoritarianism to illustrate the symmetric versus asymmetric approaches to conceptual opposites. In particular, it explains the Principle of Conceptual Opposites in qualitative research, which states that the meaning and measurement of a concept and its opposite are not symmetric. It then examines overlapping versus exclusive typologies, focusing on the Principle of Conceptual Overlap. It also describes the importance of semantics when dealing with cases that do not fit available categories if the goal is to have useful nominal categories.
Generalizations
Authors: Goertz Gary , Mahoney James
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers the typical modes of generalization used in the qualitative and quantitative research traditions. Generalization can be descriptive or causal. A descriptive generalization often involves one variable that “describes” some state of affairs within a population of cases. By contrast, a causal generalizations always involves at least two variables, A and B. Causal generalizations ideally specify the form and strength of the relationship between A and B within a population of cases. The two research cultures have trouble seeing and analyzing each other's typical kind of generalization. The chapter first examines generalizations in qualitative research before discussing the use of 2 x 2 tables to present set-theoretic generalizations. It then explains a well-known problem in statistical analysis involving the so-called “perfect predictors” and concludes with an assessment of the statistical significance of control variables.
Scope
Authors: Goertz Gary , Mahoney James
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on scope conditions in qualitative and quantitative research. It begins with a simple example, Hooke's law from physics, to illustrate the concept of “scope.” It then considers some of the most popular “within-model” responses to causal heterogeneity problems, showing that the option of changing the causal model to address causal heterogeneity issues is more attractive to quantitative researchers than to qualitative researchers. It also examines how the existence of causal complexity and concerns about fit with data can lead scholars to use scope conditions. Finally, it discusses the relationship between empirical testing and the proposed scope of theories and suggests that issues of scope raise Fundamental Tradeoffs in social science research, including tradeoffs concerning the tension between generality and parsimony, and between generality and issues of model fit.
Creating Party Cadres
Authors: Kligman Gail , Verdery Katherine
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on the Party and Securitate cadres who implemented collectivization, describing aspects of their recruitment, their work, and their life as activists. Party cadres had the task of bringing the imported engineering project to life; they were the ones entrusted with the power to construct a new social order and also to construct the very forms of power that would sustain it. The chapter then argues that because the Party achieved power without an adequate number of prepared and ideologically committed cadres, certain compromises followed. First, their work would rely more on force than on persuasion, and therefore peasants would end by joining collectives only pro forma rather than from conviction. Second, the exigencies of cadres' work led them to develop networks, which protected them while making the bureaucratic apparatus more personalistic.
Fomenting Class War
Authors: Kligman Gail , Verdery Katherine
Published: November 2017

This chapter describes the “class war” that aimed to decapitate the village elite, turn other villagers against them, and raise up the village poor. Class war was crucial to creating the “socialist body politic” and setting the stage for the campaign to create the “new socialist person.” Through the exposure, persecution, and elimination of “enemy elements” such as chiaburs, the body politic was to be purified and purged of “foreign” beings. Class war was meant to provoke social conflict as well as create unprecedented opportunities for the formerly poor. However, with this policy, the Soviet blueprint ran into serious difficulties. In Romania as in the Soviet Union, cadres hoping to use class struggle to break apart village social organization and promote class equality would paradoxically have to create classes and class stratification from the forms of status inequality proper to the villagers.
Striving to Standardize Alzheimer Disease
Authors: Lock Margaret
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers repeated attempts at diagnostic refinement and standardization of Alzheimer disease (AD). It explores the difficulties of reconciling repeated mismatches between a clinical and a neuropathological diagnosis of AD, as are the discrepancies in diagnoses between specialized memory clinics and general and family practice settings. A diagnosis of AD involves the demonstration at autopsy of neuritic amyloid plaques, neurofibrillary tangles, and also cell loss or shrinkage of brain tissue. For two decades the preeminent model to account for plaque buildup has been the “amyloid cascade hypothesis” that, it is argued, initiates the eventual formation of tangles and other neuropathological changes. The model is currently being questioned by an increasing number of key researchers and continues to be a driving force, even as the entire Alzheimer enterprise moves to include prevention as a major goal.
Paths to Alzheimer Prevention
Authors: Lock Margaret
Published: November 2017

This chapter looks at the adoption in the 1980s of the clinical diagnosis known as “mild cognitive impairment” (MCI). Formal recognition of MCI, the value of which continues to be debated in some circles, is the result of an exerted effort to systematically identify incipient Alzheimer disease (AD) in the clinic and is closely associated with the founding of specialist memory clinics. The chapter presents ethnographic findings of interviews with individuals who have been diagnosed with MCI. The move toward the prevention of AD represents a shift in which it is assumed that embodied risk can be made manifest in the form of biomarkers. This shift is to be accomplished by researching, standardizing, and gradually routinizing the use of several biomarkers believed to put individuals at increased risk for AD.
Afterword
Authors: Lock Margaret
Published: November 2017

This concluding chapter presents emerging knowledge in both epigenetics and epidemiology, suggesting that forms of prevention that take a public health approach, including lifestyle changes, reduced exposure to toxins, reductions in poverty, increased community support, and other variables, is likely to reduce the prevalence of dementia worldwide to a much greater extent than would an approach confined to expensive molecular micro-medical management of segments of those populations deemed to be at risk that happen to be located in wealthier countries. Furthermore, a molecular approach to Alzheimer disease prevention requires healthy individuals, some as young as 18 years of age, to become research subjects on whom repeated tests will be carried out.
Cohabitation
Authors: Grossman Joanna L. , Friedman Lawrence M.
Published: November 2017

This chapter looks at the rise of cohabitation, both as a prelude to marriage or as an outright substitute. This trend is one outcome of the sexual revolution, the new sexual freedom, referred to in the previous chapter. Here, courts and legislatures have had to grapple with a new social fact. Hence, this chapter considers how cohabitation has come to lose its criminal stigma; along with the growing ability of couples who live together to make claims against each other, or to demand some sort of family-like status. The trend, in short, has gone from legal and social disapproval to piecemeal civil protection. Legally speaking, cohabitation has become an accepted part of life, revealing new implications on marriage and on parentage.
Virgins, Lions, and Honest Pluck
Authors: Goldhill Simon
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines particular novels of the Roman Empire and their engagement with antiquity—which often takes the form of a polemical appropriation. It asks how Jews fit into this normative world, how sexual identity is an issue, whether a negotiation can be found between the barbarism of early Britain in Roman eyes and myths of origin, and how complex a picture of conversion, of the spread of Christianity, of the attractions of the pagan world can be developed. The chapter first considers Edward Bulwer Lytton's novel The Last Days of Pompeii, which set in place many of the narrative and ideological structures that were to become the commonplaces of the fiction of the Roman Empire. It then discusses how the representation of Christians and Christianity in the novels of empire changes over the seventy years after Lytton's aggressive Olinthus died, unmartyred, at Pompeii, a post-Gibbonian narrative victim.
The National Origins of Policy Ideas
Authors: Campbell John L. , Pedersen Ove K.
Published: November 2017

In politics, ideas matter. They provide the foundation for economic policymaking, which in turn shapes what is possible in domestic and international politics. Yet until now, little attention has been paid to how these ideas are produced and disseminated, and how this process varies between countries. This book provides the first comparative analysis of how “knowledge regimes”—communities of policy research organizations like think tanks, political party foundations, ad hoc commissions, and state research offices, and the institutions that govern them—generate ideas and communicate them to policymakers. The book examines how knowledge regimes are organized, operate, and have changed over the last thirty years in the United States, France, Germany, and Denmark. It shows how there are persistent national differences in how policy ideas are produced. Some countries do so in contentious, politically partisan ways, while others are cooperative and consensus oriented. The book finds that while knowledge regimes have adopted some common practices since the 1970s, tendencies toward convergence have been limited and outcomes have been heavily shaped by national contexts. Drawing on extensive interviews with top officials at leading policy research organizations, this book demonstrates why knowledge regimes are as important to capitalism as the state and the firm, and sheds new light on debates about the effects of globalization, the rise of neoliberalism, and the orientation of comparative political economy in political science and sociology.
An Agenda for Future Research
Authors: Campbell John L. , Pedersen Ove K.
Published: November 2017

This postscript offers some suggestions for a research agenda for the future, including questions and propositions for scholars to consider regarding globalization and neoliberal diffusion, comparative political economy, and convergence theory. It asks whether the same conclusions can be obtained if different countries and different policy areas were examined. This curiosity about other countries might translate into efforts to change knowledge regimes, such as by doing more cross-national policy analysis. The chapter also asks whether knowledge regimes are a source of legitimation or a source of inspiration. Ultimately, more effort is required to determine whether the overall structure and practices of a knowledge regime influences the type of ideas it tends to produce.
Introduction
Authors: Irwin Douglas A.
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter discusses the background of the Smoot–Hawley tariff, which President Herbert Hoover signed into law on June 17, 1930. The Smoot–Hawley tariff ranks among the most infamous pieces of congressional legislation of the twentieth century. Although imports were not surging into the country or causing any great problem for the economy, Congress raised tariffs on imported goods with the intention of protecting farmers and manufacturers from what little foreign competition they faced. In doing so, they did not follow any economic logic or consider the interests of consumers and exporters who would be harmed by the tariffs. Instead, they engaged in the most blatant form of pork-barrel politics, catering to the demands of special interests that wanted to limit imports. Not surprisingly, several foreign countries retaliated by imposing duties on U.S. exports. These trade restrictions spread just as the world economy was beginning to sink into a depression. The contribution of the Smoot–Hawley tariff to the collapse of trade and the Great Depression of the 1930s has been debated ever since.
Economic Consequences
Authors: Irwin Douglas A.
Published: November 2017

This chapter addresses the economic effects of the Smoot–Hawley tariff. The popular perception is that the tariff raised import duties to record levels and helped cause the Great Depression. In fact, the legislated tariff increase was much smaller than commonly imagined, although it still managed to erase 15 percent of America's imports of dutiable goods upon impact. It was the deflation of prices that accompanied the Great Depression that pushed the tariff to near record levels, restricting trade even more. Furthermore, most economic historians do not believe that the Smoot–Hawley tariff played a large role in the macroeconomic contraction experienced during the Depression. Instead, a series of monetary and financial shocks pushed the economy into a downward spiral, with the tariff playing a secondary role.
Brains, Pedigrees, and Promises: Lessons from the Politics of Autism Genetics
Authors: Silverman Chloe
Published: November 2017

This chapter tells the story of two parent groups, the Cure Autism Now Foundation (CAN) and the National Alliance for Autism Research (NAAR), and their efforts to promote genetic research on autism. Genetics provides an effective vocabulary for expressing responsibilities and experiences of membership that develop out of love, friendship, and loyalty. These connections have been established in a number of ways. Parent groups and researchers reframed autism as a neurological and genetic condition during the 1960s as an alternative to psychogenic theories of autism. In the present, advocates for autism and Asperger syndrome accept a genetic and neurological definition of the syndrome, but protest the use of behavioral and sometimes medical interventions. The chapter examines how CAN and NAAR were able to mobilize the partiality associated with their status as parents as an asset as they constructed new institutions for producing facts about autism genetics.
An Evolving Political Style
Authors: Wuthnow Robert
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines how competition between Methodists and Catholics reinforced a moderately conservative civic ethos across Kansas during the 1880s and 1890s. Whatever their disagreements might be, Methodists and Catholics alike had a stake in promoting what they regarded as good citizenship. Congregations brought people together, creating what later scholars would call social capital, helping them to make friends, conduct business, and care for the needy. The chapter first provides an overview of how the Republican Party dominated local and state politics in Kansas before discussing Populism and religious politics in the state. It then considers the position of Populists and church members regarding inequality, the emergence of a Republican faction known as “antiboss” Republicans, and the rise of a grassroots movement for law and order. It also explores the debate over the issue of education in Kansas.
Cartoons
Authors: Brubaker Ben , Bump Daniel , Friedberg Solomon
Published: November 2017

This chapter introduces a method of marking up a short Gelfand-Tsetlin pattern based on inequalities between its entries, that encodes the effect of the involution t 7 → t′ and the boxing and circling of its accordion. This will have another benefit: it will lead to the decomposition of the pattern into pieces called episodes that will ultimately lead to the reduction to the totally resonant case. The proof is easily checked using standard properties of Gauss sums. To define the cartoon, the chapter takes a slightly more formal approach to the short Gelfand-Tsetlin patterns. The vertices of the cartoon will be the elements of the substrate Θ‎, and the edges must be defined.
The Reduction to Statement D
Authors: Brubaker Ben , Bump Daniel , Friedberg Solomon
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on the language of resotopes and assumes that γ‎Lsubscript Greek small letter epsilon and γ‎Rsubscript Greek small letter epsilon are multiples of n for every totally resonant episode. It also recalls that s and d are the weights of the accordions under consideration. It begins with the proposition that Statement D is equivalent to Statement C, and that Statement D is true if n ≠ s. It then describes the case of a totally resonant short Gelfand-Tsetlin pattern before presenting the proof that Statement D implies Statement B. It shows that the reduction to Statement D is straightforward for Class I, but each of the remaining classes involves some nuances.
Statement B and the Yang-Baxter Equation
Authors: Brubaker Ben , Bump Daniel , Friedberg Solomon
Published: November 2017

This chapter reinterprets Statements A and B in a different context, and yet again directly proves that the reinterpreted Statement B implies the reinterpreted Statement A in Theorem 19.10. The p-parts of Weyl group multiple Dirichlet series, with their deformed Weyl denominators, may be expressed as partition functions of exactly solved models in statistical mechanics. The transition to ice-type models represents a subtle shift in emphasis from the crystal basis representation, and suggests the introduction of a new tool, the Yang-Baxter equation. This tool was developed to prove the commutativity of the row transfer matrix for the six-vertex and similar models. This is significant because Statement B can be formulated in terms of the commutativity of two row transfer matrices. This chapter presents an alternate proof of Statement B using the Yang-Baxter equation.
Banding Together
Authors: Lena Jennifer C.
Published: November 2017

Why do some music styles gain mass popularity while others thrive in small niches? This book explores this question and reveals the attributes that together explain the growth of twentieth-century American popular music. Drawing on a vast array of examples from sixty musical styles—ranging from rap and bluegrass to death metal and South Texas polka, and including several created outside the United States—the book uncovers the shared grammar that allows us to understand the cultural language and evolution of popular music. The book discovers four dominant forms—avant-garde, scene-based, industry-based, and traditionalist—and two dominant trajectories that describe how American pop music genres develop. Outside the United States there exists a fifth form: the government-purposed genre, which the book examines in the music of China, Serbia, Nigeria, and Chile. Offering a rare analysis of how music communities operate, the book looks at the shared obstacles and opportunities creative people face and reveals the ways in which people collaborate around ideas, artworks, individuals, and organizations that support their work.
Music Trajectories
Authors: Lena Jennifer C.
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores the trajectories of musical styles across genre forms by engaging in what are called “parallel comparisons,” in order to show how several musical styles follow (or do not) the same patterns. It describes two primary trajectories taken by musical styles across the four genre types. The first trajectory is shared by the three styles explored in Chapter 2 (bluegrass, bebop, and rap). The second trajectory, abbreviated IST, describes the transit of nine musics that started as industry-based genres, then inspired a scene-based genre form, and acquired a traditionalist following. The chapter first identifies these two trajectories and illustrates them with examples from several musical styles. It then explores the three mechanisms of inertia that produced incomplete musical trajectories across genre forms.
William Morris
Authors: Bevir Mark
Published: November 2017

This chapter highlights the place of romanticism and Protestantism in William Morris's socialism. His romanticism led him to seek self-realization through an art based on naturalness and harmony. His Protestantism led him to do so in the everyday worlds of work and home. Morris inherited from John Ruskin a sociology that linked self-realization in daily life to the quality of art in a society. Even when Morris turned to Marxism, he still defined his socialist vision in terms of good art produced and enjoyed within daily life. His overriding concern to promote a new spirit of art then led him to a purist rejection of political action.
Permeation and Independent Labor
Authors: Bevir Mark
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses George Bernard Shaw's and Sidney Webb's respective political strategies and their roles in inspiring Fabian policy. The Fabians did not share a commitment to permeating other parties in order to promote incremental measures of socialism. For a start, Shaw would have liked an independent socialist party, but for much of the 1880s and 1890s he did not think that such a party was possible. Moreover, insofar as the leading Fabians came to agree on “permeation,” they defined it differently. Shaw thought of permeation in terms of luring Radicals away from the Liberal Party in order to form an independent party to represent workers against capitalists. In contrast, Webb defined permeation in terms of giving expert advice to the political elite. The response of the Fabian Society to the formation of the Independent Labor Party reflected the interplay of these different strategies.