bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Liver Disorders
Authors: Levy Barry S.
Published: November 2017

This chapter describes occupational and environmental liver disorders. It describes the types of liver function and types of liver damage, and how these functions and this damage can be assessed. Workers in healthcare and solid waste management are at increased risk hepatitis B virus and hepatitis C virus infections. Occupational exposure to swine is associated with hepatitis E virus infection. More than 100 industrial chemicals can be acutely hepatotoxic in experimental animals or humans. Metabolic reactions may affect the hepatotoxicity of chemicals. Occupational exposure to organic solvents can cause toxic hepatitis. Occupational exposure to vinyl chloride monomer has been causally associated with toxicant-associated fatty liver disease as well as a form of non-cirrhotic portal hypertension. Several agents can cause cancer of the liver or bile ducts. Vinyl chloride monomer is causally associated with angiosacoma of the liver. Arsenic causes liver cancer. Dietary exposure to aflatoxins can cause hepatoceulluar carcinoma.
Climate Change
Authors: Levy Barry S. , Patz Jonathan A.
Published: November 2017

Environmental consequences of climate change include increases in temperature as well as frequency, severity, and/or duration of heat waves; heavy precipitation events; intensity and/or duration of drought; intense tropical cyclone activity, and sea level. Adverse health consequences of climate change include heat-related disorders, respiratory disorders, allergic disorders, vector-borne diseases, waterborne and foodborne disease, and injuries related to extreme weather events. Adverse health consequences also include indirect effects of climate change on health related to decreased agriculture yields and food shortages, distress migration, and collective violence. In addition, all of the consequences of climate change can adversely affect the mental health of individuals, communities, and entire nations. The primary ways of addressing climate change are mitigation (policies and actions to stabilize or reduce the emission of greenhouse gases) and adaptation (policies and actions to reduce the impact of climate change). Building popular and political will to address climate change is essential.
Conducting Worksite Investigations
Authors: Bernard Bruce P.
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on conducting worksite investigations, including walkthrough surveys, and provides occupational health and safety personnel, employees, and employers the opportunity to identify and assess current workplace conditions and employee health concerns and make recommendations on how to reduce or eliminate any identified workplace hazards. The methods described cover ways to implement corrective actions necessary for preventing future adverse incidents and to identify shortcomings in safety and health management programs. Various specific examples are provided. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health Hazard Evaluation Program, which has experience with all types of workplace hazards, is described. Preparing for and conducting workplace investigations is described in detail.
The Contribution of Sociology to Catholic Social Thought and the Common Good
Authors: Porpora Douglas V.
Published: November 2017

Although “the common good” is not a term of art in sociology, sociologists are concerned to contribute to greater human flourishing. Thus, concerted sociological attention to social problems, or common “bads,” suggests an implicit sociological understanding of the common good. Beyond the admonition for all people to think critically, sociology enables us in a special way to understand how we sin not just individually but also socially and collectively through our social relations. It is toward a better understanding of such oppressive and unjust social relations and how to overcome them that sociology contributes to the common good. Such insights can provide assistance to Catholic social thought in its own understanding of the common good.
China and the Geopolitics of Rare Earths
Authors: Kalantzakos Sophia
Published: November 2017

In 2010, because of a geopolitical incident between China and Japan, seventeen elements of the periodic table known as rare earths became notorious overnight. An “unofficial” and temporary embargo of rare-earth shipments to Japan alerted the world to China’s near monopoly position on the production and export of these indispensable elements for high-tech, defense, and renewable energy sources. A few months before the geopolitical confrontation, China had chosen to substantially cut export quotas of rare earths. Both events sent shockwaves across the markets, and rare-earth prices skyrocketed, prompting reactions from industrial nations and industry itself. The rare-earth crisis is not a simple trade dispute, however. It also raises questions about China’s use of economic statecraft and the impacts of growing resource competition. A detailed and nuanced examination of the rare-earth crisis provides a significant and distinctive case study of resource competition and its spill-over geopolitical effects. It sheds light on the formulation, deployment, longevity, effectiveness, and, perhaps, shortsightedness of policy responses by other industrial nations, while also providing an example of how China might choose to employ instruments of economic statecraft in its rise to superpower status.
Salt and Oil
Authors: Kalantzakos Sophia
Published: November 2017

Salt and oil have historically been two important strategic resources, but they have not shared the same trajectory. The discovery of the geographic abundance of salt and technological innovations that have made its most fundamental uses obsolete have ended its strategic importance. Oil, however, continues to power the modern economic miracle, even as the climate crisis worsens. The cases of salt and oil provide analogies to the case of rare earths in their importance in innovation and in the global economy. They also illustrate China’s historically centralized approach to securing and controlling resources that they have deemed as strategic.
Growing Inequality and Public Awareness of Inequality in the States
Authors: Franko William W. , Witko Christopher
Published: November 2017

Here the authors present the variation that exists in income inequality across the states, and variation in public awareness or concern about income inequality as measured by public opinion polls. Though politicians may decide to tackle income inequality even in the absence of public concern about inequality, the authors argue that government responses are more likely when and where there is a growing awareness of, and concern about, inequality, which is confirmed in the analyses in this book. To examine this question in subsequent chapters, a novel measure of public awareness of rising state inequality is developed. Using these estimates, this chapter shows that the growth in the public concern about inequality responds in part to objective increases in inequality, but also that state political conditions, particularly mass partisanship, shape perceptions of inequality.
Awareness of Inequality and Government Liberalism
Authors: Franko William W. , Witko Christopher
Published: November 2017

Though it appears based on recent research that Republicans and many Democrats in Washington, DC, are largely unresponsive to the poor and middle class, some governments in the states are taking action to reduce income inequality. Comparative research, and research in the United States, shows that left-leaning politicians are most concerned about inequality and most likely to try to reduce it. In this chapter the authors argue that in states where there is a greater awareness of inequality the public will therefore have a greater desire to elect politicians that will advance the economic interests of the lower and middle classes, and that strategic politicians will take advantage of the lack of federal action to try to reduce inequality. The analysis shows that as public awareness of inequality grows, government officials indeed move to the left and are, in turn, associated with lower income inequality between 1987 and 2010.
Inner Virtue
Authors: Bommarito Nicolas
Published: November 2017

What does it mean to be a morally good person? It can be tempting to think that it is simply a matter of performing certain actions and avoiding others. And yet there is much more to moral character than our outward actions. We expect a good person to not only behave in certain ways but also to experience the world in certain ways within.
Inner Virtue and Vice
Authors: Bommarito Nicolas
Published: November 2017

After establishing an excessive focus on overt action in much of moral theory, I present two key examples: Weather Watchers and locked-in syndrome. These are cases of beings unable to perform overt actions but who are morally assessable in a variety of ways. I then present my account of how such states are virtuous or vicious: by manifesting morally relevant care or concerns. Finally, I explain in more detail the notions of care and manifestation and respond to some worries about the account.
The Relevance of Inner Virtue
Authors: Bommarito Nicolas
Published: November 2017

In this final chapter, I argue that inner virtue and vice are relevant to both moral theory and practice. For moral theory, inner virtues and vices show that one cannot easily derive an account of moral character from an account of morally right action—though related, virtue is a distinct domain of moral evaluation. For moral practice, an awareness of inner virtues and vices should lead us to be more reluctant to make judgments of the moral character of others since there are many virtues and vices that remain out of our view.
Out of Focus
Authors: Foltz Jonathan
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores the contacts and conflict between novelistic point of view and the practice of cinematic spectatorship. It focuses on H. D.’s singular contributions to the film journal Close Up (1927–1933). This film criticism was an important context for developing the forms of prose experimentation that would occupy her during the early 1930s. In detaching vision from a presumed subject, H. D. found that film asks its viewers not only to see but to translate encrypted “abstract . . . remote . . . symbolical” meanings from the “raw-picked” images that pass across the screen. This literary appropriation of spectatorship would come to structure her contemporaneous work, The Usual Star. This novel exemplifies the formal ambition of H. D.’s prose innovations, suggesting an alternate history of the modernist novel in which the totemic value of point of view had been dislodged.
Out of Reach
Authors: Foltz Jonathan
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers the relays between the cinema as a figure of public address and modernism’s distrust of the authoritative character of narrative omniscience. It focuses on the late modernist work of Henry Green, whose subtle fictions of the 1930s weigh the durability of the novel as a form against his recognition that the detached omniscient narrator had grown inoperable and (after film) obsolete. Film emerges as a chief context for Green’s desire to absolve his writing of the pretended autonomy of art, urging him toward modes of fiction that aspire to a public-minded divestment of authority. This style of authorial divestment would be tested most extravagantly in Party Going (1939). In its redoubled, weakened use of irony, Party Going insists that authorial omniscience is never self-evidently more than a fantasy about the lives of others, as unstable as the projected dreams of spectators in a theater.
Blessed Among Women?
Authors: Myers Alicia
Published: November 2017

Mothers appear throughout the New Testament. Called “blessed among women” by Elizabeth in the Gospel of Luke, Mary, the mother of Jesus, is the most obvious example. But Mary is joined by Elizabeth, a chorus of unnamed mothers seeking healing or promotions for their children, as well as male mothers, including Paul (Gal 4:19–20) and Jesus. Although interpreters of the New Testament have explored these maternal characters and metaphors, many have only recently begun to take seriously their theological aspects. This book builds on previous studies by arguing maternal language is not only theological but also indebted to ancient gender constructions and their reshaping by early Christians. Especially significant are the physiological, anatomical, and social constructions of female bodies that permeate the ancient world where early Christianity was birthed. This book examines ancient generative theories, physiological understandings of breastmilk and breastfeeding, and presentations of prominent mothers in literature and art to analyze the use of these themes in the New Testament and several, additional early Christian writings. In a context that aligned perfection with “masculinity,” motherhood was the ideal goal for women—a justification for deficient, female existence. Proclaiming a new age ushered in by God’s Christ, however, ancient Christians debated the place of women, mothers, and motherhood as a part of their reframing of gender expectations. Rather than a homogenous approval of literal motherhood, ancient Christian writings depict a spectrum of ideals for women disciples even as they retain the assumption of masculine superiority.
The Interpretive Stases
Authors: Camper Martin
Published: November 2017

Chapter 1 introduces the interpretive stases as a neglected rhetorical method that could be productively employed by scholars to analyze debates over the meaning of texts in virtually any sphere. The chapter begins with a debate over one of the leaked 2009 “climategate” emails, which seriously damaged the credibility of climatologists, to illustrate the far-reaching consequences of interpretive arguments. A brief sketch is provided of the interpretive stases’ history, from their origins in ancient Greco-Roman legal theory to when they were dropped from rhetorical manuals in the seventeenth century. The chapter explores the relationship between rhetoric and hermeneutics—philosophical, literary, legal, and religious—and argues that no school of hermeneutics offers a general method for analyzing the argumentative push and pull involved in the interpretation of any text. The final part of the chapter outlines the six interpretive stases and discusses how they frame textual interpretation in terms of argument and persuasion.
Ambiguity
Authors: Camper Martin
Published: November 2017

Chapter 2 examines disputes over ambiguity, in which interpreters argue over a single linguistic form that evokes distinct alternative meanings. The chapter classifies three types of ambiguity according to contemporary linguistic theory, details common lines of argument for supporting interpretations of ambiguities, and explains the differences between interpreting an ambiguity as unintentional versus intentional. The chapter offers an extended rhetorical analysis of the controversy surrounding Phillis Wheatley’s 1768 poem “On Being Brought from Africa to America,” which has been criticized as an expression of racial self-hatred. Literary critics in defense of Wheatley have argued the poem contains intentional ambiguities that covertly express Wheatley’s anti-racist and slavery views. This case illustrates that arguers can claim a text contains a coded message by uncovering additional meanings through its ambiguities. The various examples in the chapter highlight the important role ambiguity plays in shifting our interpretations of texts and their authors.
Exchange Politics and the Future of Health Reform
Authors: Jones David K.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the four key insights from the case study states, looking at the degree to which these lessons apply elsewhere. I ask what the Obama administration should have done differently in its intergovernmental negotiations with states and whether the decision to accept or reject control of an exchange matters. In other words, what are the policy implications of this decision? A Supreme Court case in 2015 would have dramatically raised the stakes of this decision, though the Court’s ruling in favor of the Obama administration ensures that any person with a qualifying income can receive financial assistance to purchase coverage on an exchange—regardless of their state’s decision. I conclude by examining the future of health insurances in particular, and health reform and U.S. federalism more broadly.
The Role of Organizational Processes in Dissemination and Implementation Research
Authors: Aarons Gregory A. , Moullin Joanna C. , Ehrhart Mark G.
Published: November 2017

Both organizational characteristics and specific organizational strategies are important for the effective dissemination and implementation of evidence-based practices (EBPs) in health and allied health care settings, as well as mental health, alcohol/drug treatment, and social service settings. One of the primary goals of this chapter is to support implementers and leaders within organizations in attending to and shaping the context in which implementation takes place in order to increase the likelihood of implementation success and long-term sustainment. The chapter summarizes some of the most critical organizational factors and strategies likely to impact successful evidence-based practice implementation. There are myriad approaches to supporting organizational development and change—this chapter focuses on issues supported by relevant scientific literatures, particularly those germane to EBP implementation in health care and related settings.
Systems Science Methods in Dissemination and Implementation Research
Authors: Luke Douglas A. , Morshed Alexandra B. , McKay Virginia R. , Combs Todd B.
Published: November 2017

As we have seen, numerous analysis and modeling tools that take into account the natural complexity of systems and dissemination and implementation processes are available, and the use of them is increasing over time. This chapter summarizes the characteristics, potential insights, and limitations of each modeling approach. It is important to note that modeling from a systems perspective, like all modeling approaches, requires assumptions about variables to include (or exclude), and hypothesized relationships dictate the quality of the model and the utility of the results. As such, using theory and empirical data to inform model design is paramount. Systems thinking and methods remain underutilized in dissemination and implementation despite demonstrations of the utility of incorporating systems thinking and methods into dissemination and implementation studies.
Enhancing Dissemination Though Marketing and Distribution Systems A Vision for Public Health
Authors: Steensma Joseph T. , Kreuter Matthew W. , Casey Christopher M. , Bernhardt Jay M.
Published: November 2017

The authors realize that the vision of taking a more market-oriented approach to dissemination likely raises more questions than it answers. Who would build and operate such a system? Who would pay for it? Would researchers who have developed and evaluated public health interventions cooperate in sharing their programs and products? What tangible incentives can be created at each step of the process to encourage dissemination and adoption? What would constitute success for such an effort and how would we measure it? All are important questions and worthy of thoughtful answers that match their complexity. Doing so is beyond the scope of this chapter, but ongoing in our work. The authors hope the ideas presented here will stimulate others’ thinking about systems and infrastructure to enhance dissemination, and welcome critiques, refinement, and additions to our proposed model.
Furthering Dissemination and Implementation Research
Authors: Green Lawrence W. , Nasser Mona
Published: November 2017

This chapter raises questions about the reliability of much “evidence-based practice” disseminated from the original studies and systematic reviews of those studies, insofar as they were often conducted and reviewed with inadequate attention to external validity. Important issues are raised for dissemination and implementation researchers. Indeed, the pressure on investigators to provide for increasingly rigorous controls on threats to internal validity, and to exclude studies that fall below standards for internal validity, has made many such sources of evidence more suspect in their external validity and less credible to the practitioners or policymakers who would adopt them. Greater attention is needed to ways to incorporate considerations of external validity into studies and in systematic reviews of studies to produce more generalizable evidence, and greater attention to practice-based evidence that can complement the more formal evidence-based practices in the process of implementing and evaluating the dissemination and implementation process
A World of Weak States
Authors: Chowdhury Arjun
Published: November 2017

This chapter concludes the book by discussing foreign policy, especially intervention, nation-building and foreign aid, in a world of weak states, asking if the state will persist as the central organizational unit of world politics, and speculating about the possibilities for alternatives to the state. While states will persist, they will not compel the sacrifices required to provide the services the population demands. It is thus urgent to understand alternatives to the state as necessary both as complements to the state, providing services where the state cannot, and as challenges to the state that are necessary for marginalized groups to make demands.
The Transformational Role of Culture and Education
Authors: Luis Roniger
Published: November 2017

This chapter provides a comprehensive analysis of the experiences and impact of returnees, expats, sojourners, and migrants on the public life, culture, and institutions of their respective societies. It argues that their role has been crucial in shaping major political, social, and cultural transformations. Particularly, the chapter analyzes the varied institutional imprint of many of these individuals, and how they impacted culture and public discourse. The core issues addressed are the role of cultural expressions and academic contributions to the reconstruction and democratization of culture; the contribution of exiled and returning intellectuals and academics to postdictatorial cultural and academic spheres; and the returnees’ contributions in reshaping institutions, particularly higher education. Underpinning these issues is the politics of memory and oblivion, addressed throughout this study, and the impact of human displacement on the reconstitution of ideas, values, and representation and, in turn, their social, political, and institutional consequences.
Uncertainty in Post-Reformation Catholicism
Authors: Tutino Stefania
Published: November 2017

This book provides a historical account of the development and implications of early modern probabilism. First elaborated in the sixteenth century, probabilism represented a significant and controversial novelty in Catholic moral theology. Against a deep-seated tradition defending the strict application of moral rules, probabilist theologians maintained that in situations of uncertainty, the agent can legitimately follow any course of action supported by a probable opinion, no matter how disputable. By the second half of the seventeenth century, and thanks in part to Pascal’s influential antiprobabilist stances, probabilism had become inextricably linked to the Society of Jesus and to a lax and excessively forgiving moral system. To this day, most historians either ignore probabilism, or they associate it with moral duplicity and intellectual and cultural decadence. By contrast, this book argues that probabilism was instrumental for addressing the challenges created by a geographically and intellectually expanding world. Early modern probabilist theologians saw that these challenges provoked an exponential growth of uncertainties, doubts, and dilemmas of conscience, and they realized that traditional theology was not equipped to deal with them. Therefore, they used probabilism to integrate changes and novelties within the post-Reformation Catholic theological and intellectual system. Seen in this light, probabilism represented the result of their attempts to appreciate, come to terms with, and manage uncertainty. Uncertainty continues to play a central role even today. Thus, learning how early modern probabilists engaged with uncertainty might be useful for us as we try to cope with our own moral and epistemological doubts.
Jesuits Versus Jesuits
Authors: Tutino Stefania
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores the virtually unknown but distinctively interesting case of the Italian Jesuit Alberto de Albertis and his massive manuscript treatise on probabilism. Alberto’s treatise was censored, criticized, and corrected over the course of almost three decades by various Roman institutions, including the internal Jesuit system of censorship, the Congregation of the Inquisition, and the Office of the Master of the Sacred Palace. Despite all these efforts, however, the treatise was never published. This chapter explains the reasons why this happened, showing that Alberto’s treatise catalyzed a series of profound polemical, theological, and institutional conflicts centered on the doctrine of probabilism.
Ascent
Authors: Zamir Tzachi
Published: November 2017

Paradise Lost has never received a substantial, book-length reading by a philosopher. This should surprise no one. Milton associated philosophy with deceit in his theological writings, and made philosophizing one of the activities of fallen angels in hell. This book argues that Milton’s disdain for philosophers’ vocation should not prevent them from turning an inquisitive eye to Milton’s greatest poem. Because it examines puzzles that intrigue philosophers, instead of neatly breaking from philosophy, it maintains a penetrating rapport with it. Paradise Lost sets forth bold claims regarding the meaning of genuine knowledge, regarding what counts as acting meaningfully, or as taking in the world fully, or as withdrawing from inner deadness. Other topics touched upon by Milton involve some of the most central issues within the philosophy of religion: the relationship between reason and belief, the uniqueness of religious poetry, the meaning of gratitude, and the special role of the imagination in faith. This tension—disparaging philosophy on the one hand, but taking up much of what philosophers hope to understand on the other—turns Milton’s poem into an exceptionally potent work for a philosopher of literature. Ascent is a philosophical reading of the poem that attempts to keep audible Milton’s antiphilosophy stance. The picture of interdisciplinarity that will emerge is, accordingly, neither one of a happy percolation among fields (“philosophy,” “literature”), nor one of rigid boundaries. Overlap and partial agreement clash against contestation and rivalry. It is these conflicting currents that this book aims to capture, not to reconcile.
First Climb
Authors: Zamir Tzachi
Published: November 2017

The chapter explores the distinction between pseudo and real knowledge. Several episodes in which knowledge is being conveyed in Paradise Lost are discussed (Adam’s exchange with Raphael, Eve’s temptation by Satan, and Adam’s instruction by Michael). Milton’s challenge is not only to distinguish benign from malign forms of knowledge-seeking, but to convincingly communicate what prefallen knowledge involves, and to achieve this as a fallen mind writing for other fallen minds. The notion of hosting is introduced: in (some) real knowledge, one hosts a higher element. One’s knowledge-seeking ought not to devolve into mere curiosity, but should be driven by a hope to bond further with God. A distinction between Adam and Eve’s folly is proposed. Finally, the poem’s view of postlapsarian wisdom is presented.
Fifth Crossroad
Authors: Zamir Tzachi
Published: November 2017

The conceptual puzzles plaguing original sin are discussed. Claims regarding sin as avoidance of gratitude (defended in earlier chapters) enable us to overcome these puzzles by endorsing an alternative understanding of original sin and of God’s punishments. The difference between pre-fallen knowledge of good and pre-fallen knowledge of evil is offered. Original sin is argued to consist of a failure to face a conflict between two kinds of love: love as attachment and love as obedience. It is suggested that God must make human beings confront this conflict. As an entity of love, God must give to human beings an entity that they will love more than they love him. Punishment is not retribution. It is, rather, the experience one lives through when God gives created entities what they have wanted. This perspective also brings out the sense in which philosophy is a repetition of original sin.
Of Robots and Artificial Beings
Authors: Telotte J.P.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines animation’s fascination with the robot, a figure that has obvious reflexive links to animation’s typical anthropomorphic characters—the various mice, cats, dogs, and ducks that were the usual stars of early cartoons. The robot is also a figure that had an especially popular resonance throughout the pre-war period, as is evidenced by its appearance in a variety of popular culture venues, including vaudeville acts, World’s Fairs, and feature films. What makes this figure particularly significant in its ability to embody the culture’s conflicted attitudes toward science and technology—attitudes that were also being worked out within literary SF. The animated films, the chapter suggests, typically juxtapose the culture’s faith in a technological utopia, within which robots play a key role, with contemporary concerns about the relationship between technology and labor, thereby qualifying the modernist embrace of the technology.
Inventions, Modern Marvels, and Mad Scientists
Authors: Telotte J.P.
Published: November 2017

This chapter addresses animation’s fascination with strange inventions, modern marvels, and their inventors. It organizes these depictions by linking them to two pre-war developments: Hugo Gernsback’s efforts at promoting the serious and practical side of science and technology, and Rube Goldberg’s satiric and cautionary vision of a modern technological society, usually offered in newspaper cartoon form. The chapter gives special attention to the various World’s Fairs and other exhibitions that were popular in the period and that were the frequent subjects of cartoons, especially by the Fleischers’ studio. In these and other films, we find both marvelous creations, catering to SF’s usual sense of wonder, and overly complicated, even dangerous inventions that comically victimize their users. This dual pattern is repeated in depictions of the scientists and inventors behind these devices, as they range from benevolent figures to the stereotypical “mad scientist.”
Postscript
Authors: Telotte J.P.
Published: November 2017

The postscript surveys a number of changes that can be found in the key SF memes and their treatment as animation moved into postwar film and television. It frames these alterations in terms of a question that is often asked about cartoons: whether they are simply harmless amusements or “instrumental” works that can motivate their audiences after the fashion that, many argue, the best SF literature does. The chapter chronicles a variety of postwar scientific and technological developments that would quickly appear in and become staples of both live-action and animated films, including rockets, robots, computers, and the space race. The popularity of these elements demonstrates the postwar persistence of the SF memes explored in the previous chapters and suggests how animation was working, much like SF literature, not only to familiarize audiences with the impact of science and technology, but also to make that impact less threatening and more acceptable to popular culture.
Cajal's Neuronal Forest
Authors: DeFelipe Javier
Published: November 2017

Cajal’s Neuronal Forest: Science and Art continues the tradition set forth in the 2009 publication Cajal’s Butterflies of the Soul: Science and Art. This new compilation contains a vastly large collection of beautiful figures produced throughout the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth century. These images continue to represent and illustrate characteristic examples of the early days of research in neuroscience. Most scientific figures presented by the neuroanatomists of the time were their own drawings; microphotography was not yet a well-developed technique. Therefore, a successful neuroanatomist required a combination of artistic talent and an ability to interpret microscopic images effectively. The problem was that these illustrations were not necessarily free of technical errors and they may have been subject to the scientists’ own interpretations. Indeed, in some cases, these drawings were considered to be basically artistic interpretations rather than accurate copies of the histological preparations. Furthermore, there are many examples showing that even using the same microscopes and the same techniques, scientists “see” differently through the microscope. As a result, this period of scientific “art” and skepticism represents a fascinating page in the history of neuroscience as it provided the basis of our current understanding of the anatomy of the nervous system.
Retina and Optic Centers of Cephalopods
Authors: DeFelipe Javier
Published: November 2017

This section contains a gallery of original Cajal drawings pertaining to the retina and optic centers in cephalopods.
Supplementary Figures
Authors: DeFelipe Javier
Published: November 2017

This section contains a gallery of supplementary figures based on original drawings of Cajal.
Yoginīs and Ḍākinīs: Enabling Male Immortality, Part 2
Authors: Young Serinity
Published: November 2017

The ancient Indian flying divinities called ḍākinīs do not have wings, but even so their iconography reveals their power of flight. Perhaps most interestingly, this power is revealed in the roofless, circular temples of yoginīs, Hindu deities who can confer the power of flight on their male adepts, along with other supernatural powers. The ḍākinīs of Buddhism are recognized by their flying forms in paintings and their rainbow-colored garments. Both yoginīs and ḍākinīs are goddesses who cross boundaries: they move between this earthly world and the heavenly or spiritual realm, thus implicitly promising adepts that they, too, can transcend earthly reality, gain supernatural powers, and thus achieve liberation from human, bodily limitations.
Flying Mystics, or the Exceptional Woman, Part I
Authors: Young Serinity
Published: November 2017

This chapter enters the realm of medieval Christian mystical women, who were purported to have levitated, moved through the air, or flown, and then explores their reception by a suspicious, male-dominated Church. To understand the intensely devotional beliefs of these women, and the social status of religious women, requires exploring the different perceptions of female and male mystics and their different mystical experiences. A major problem with female Christian mystics was that women were generally considered to be more susceptible to demonic possession than men, and peoples possessed by the demonic (such as witches) were believed to fly; therefore women’s experiences of flight were called into question.
Overview
Authors: Haspelmath Martin
Published: November 2017

This book examines the connections between the formal and functional (semantic and syntactic) properties of indefinite pronouns. It considers the main theoretical debates surrounding the semantic and syntactic properties of indefinite pronouns as well as the diachronic sources of the markers of indefinite pronouns. It describes the new generalizations that emerge from the typological and diachronic research and provides explanations. It also outlines the goals and methods of the typological approach, focusing on the important preconditions for typology such as the availability of data from a variety of languages. Other topics covered by the book include the space of formal and functional variation found in indefinite pronouns, implicational universals, theoretical approaches to the functions of indefinite pronouns such as the tradition of structuralist semantics, the grammaticalization of indefinite pronouns, further sources of indefinite pronouns that cannot be easily subsumed under grammaticalization, and the cross-linguistic patterning of negative indefinite pronouns.
Formal and Functional Types of Indefinite Pronoun
Authors: Haspelmath Martin
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines formal and functional types of indefinite pronoun. It first presents some examples of different indefinite pronoun series in a variety of languages, focusing on a formal element shared by all members of an indefinite pronoun series, such as some and any in English. This element is called indefiniteness marker, an affix or a particle which stands next to the pronoun stem. The chapter proceeds by discussing two main types of derivational bases from which indefinite pronouns are derived in the world's languages: interrogative pronouns and generic ontological category nouns like person, thing or place. It also looks at the main functional types of indefinite pronoun, namely: negative indefinite pronouns and negative polarity (or scale reversal). Finally, it analyses some alternatives to indefinite pronouns, including generic nouns, existential sentences, non-specific free relative clauses, and universal quantifiers.
An Implicational Map for Indefinite Pronoun Functions
Authors: Haspelmath Martin
Published: November 2017

This chapter describes a two-dimensional implicational map for representing nine functions of indefinite pronouns. It first considers indefiniteness markers as grammatical categories, the use/function-based approach, and a geometric representation of implicational universals. It then discusses the implicational map for the uses/functions of indefiniteness markers and shows how it works with three languages: English, Russian, and Nanay (Manchu-Tungusic). The distribution of indefinite pronoun series over the functions on the map in each language is illustrated. These three examples demonstrate how the semantic map captures cross-linguistic generalizations about indefinite pronoun systems and makes universal predictions. The chapter proceeds by explaining the distributional schemas of forty languages that include French, Swedish, Italian, Romanian, Bulgarian, modern Greek, Lithuanian, Irish, Korean, and Persian. Finally, it looks at further restrictions on combinations of functions and earlier formulations of typological implications.
The Grammaticalization of Indefinite Pronouns
Authors: Haspelmath Martin
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the grammaticalization of indefinite pronouns, focusing on the ways in which such pronouns arise and change over time in different languages and the regularities in these changes. It first considers diachronic typology before describing four main source constructions for indefiniteness markers: the ‘dunno’ type, the ‘want/pleases’ type, the ‘it may be’ type, and the ‘no matter’ type. It then examines the six parameters of grammaticalization, three of which are paradigmatic (integrity, paradigmaticity, paradigmatic variability) and three are syntagmatic (scope, bondedness, syntagmatic variability). It also looks at desemanticization, with particular emphasis on three competing theories of semantic grammaticalization, before concluding with an overview of the indefinites that express the free-choice functions and their use as true universal quantifiers.
Conclusions
Authors: Haspelmath Martin
Published: November 2017

This book has explored indefinite pronouns in the world's languages in order to identify cross-linguistic generalizations. The study of indefinite pronouns has important implications for semantics, pragmatics, syntax, and morphology. This chapter summarizes the book's main findings and considers possible further typological connections. One significant finding is that most languages have indefinite pronouns of some kind, and that their shapes are fairly uniform across languages. In particular, such pronouns are generally of one of two types: either derived from interrogative pronouns by means of an indefiniteness marker or based on generic nouns such as ‘person’ or ‘thing’. The book has also shown that functional explanations are prominent in negative indefinite pronouns, and that the regularities of diachronic change are explained by the theory of grammaticalization. The main synchronic typological generalizations took the form of universal implications among different functions of indefinite pronouns, expressed by the implicational map.
Les Fleurs du Mâle
Authors: Maxwell Catherine
Published: November 2017

Focusing on the founding figures of British aestheticism, Algernon Charles Swinburne and Walter Pater, this chapter discusses how they embraced the identity of the aesthetic olfactif, the cultivation of scent sensitivity, and the notion of the perfumed atmosphere produced by individual writers and literary or cultural schools, with this reflected in their influential critical prose. While Swinburne’s notorious Poems and Ballads (1866) apparently revels in heady perfumes, his own taste for light airy florals and dislike of musk clearly emerges in his subsequent poetry and prose, although his associations with his favoured scents are anything but conventional. Pater, another lover of delicate floral fragrance, refines Swinburne’s perception of the ‘scent’ of literature into a subtler critical language. His influential notion of the literary work’s ‘scented essence’ was adopted by admirers like Wilde and Symons, while his own writing was noted for its unmistakable ‘perfume’.
The Provision of Global Liquidity
Authors: Ocampo José Antonio
Published: November 2017

This chapter starts by analysing three major problems of the current international monetary system: the asymmetric-adjustment problem, dependence on the monetary policy of the main reserve-issuing country, and the large demand for self-insurance by developing countries. It then explores two basic alternatives to reform the system: one route would involve a fully-fledged multi-currency reserve system; the alternative route would be to design an architecture based on the IMF’s Special Drawing Rights (SDRs), the world’s only truly global reserve asset. These two alternative routes could be mixed in a number of ways, and in fact their complementary use may be the only possible way forward. Under such a mixed system, SDRs would become a major global reserve asset and the source of financing for IMF lending, but national/regional currencies would continue to be used as international means of payment and stores of value.
The Governance of the International Monetary System
Authors: Ocampo José Antonio
Published: November 2017

The governance of international financial institutions has been a subject of debate for decades. The major issues have been the control of existing institutions by the major developed countries, the associated exclusion of developing countries from decision-making, and the tendency of major decisions to be taken by ad hoc groupings of major developed countries outside the framework of treaty-based organizations. This chapter therefore proposes a reformed architecture of the international monetary system based on three pillars. The first is a representative apex organization, which can be understood as a transformation of the G20 into a representative international institution. The second is the continuous reform of ‘voice and participation’ of developing countries in the Bretton Woods institutions and global regulatory bodies. The third is the design of a dense, multi-layered architecture, with the contribution of regional and sub-regional institutions, mirroring the denser architecture that characterizes the system of multilateral development banks.
The Working World of International Organizations
Authors: Yi-chong Xu , Weller Patrick
Published: November 2017

International organizations (IOs) matter. Based on extensive interviews and exchanges with key players in IOs in the past decade, this book uncovers the regular working world of IOs, to challenge the orthodox view that member states alone decide what IOs do and how they operate. This book provides a realistic and provocative account of the way IOs really work, a picture that would be recognized by those who work there. The Working World of International Organizations specifically examines three groups of players in IOsÂ—state representatives, as proxy for states and often with schizophrenic demands, the head of IOs as diplomat, manager, and politician, and the staff of the permanent secretariat with their competing solutions. It explores their actions and interactions by asking who or what shapes their decisions; how and when decisions are made; how players interact within an IO; and how the interactions vary across six IOs. It argues that each and all of them must contribute if any progress is to be achieved in managing global problems. It shows why this is the case by examining how decisions are made in three key areas: agenda-setting, financing, and decentralization.
Remnant-internal relativization
Authors: Cardoso Adriana
Published: November 2017

Chapter 2 investigates a specific configuration (dubbed “remnant-internal relativization”) in which the head noun and some modifier/complement related to it appear discontinuously (as in the so-called split or discontinuous noun phrases). It is argued that the analysis of remnant-internal relativization is of particular interest from the theoretical and diachronic point of view. Theoretically it can illuminate the long-standing debate between the right adjunction and the head raising analyses of RRCs, providing evidence in favor of the latter. From a diachronic perspective, it is argued that the loss of remnant-internal relativization with the modifier/complement in the left periphery of the Portuguese relative clauses might be due to a restriction on movement that emerges inside the DP, which blocks the extraction of the modifier/complement to a left peripheral position.
Extraposition of restrictive relative clauses
Authors: Cardoso Adriana
Published: November 2017

Chapter 3 deals with the extraposition of restrictive relative clauses. It demonstrates that different languages and different stages of the same language may differ with respect to the three main properties of extraposition: definiteness effect; extraposition from pre-verbal positions; and extraposition from prepositional phrases. The main descriptive findings are: (1) that earlier stages of Portuguese contrast sharply with Contemporary European Portuguese with respect to the extraposition of restrictive relative clauses; and (2) the extraposition of restrictive relatives in earlier stages of Portuguese is, to a large extent, Germanic-like, unlike Contemporary European Portuguese. From a theoretical point of view, it is argued that the same structural analysis cannot alone derive the contrasting properties of restrictive relative clause extraposition. To account for the variation found in the diachronic and cross-linguistic dimensions, it is claimed that the extraposition of restrictive relatives might involve two different structures: specifying coordination plus ellipsis and VP-internal stranding.