bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
THE PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF LITIGATING AN OIL SPILL (PLAINTIFF'S VIEWPOINT)
Authors: Dubiel Edwin J.
Published: January 2013

It is necessary for all involved with oil spills to have a knowledge of statutes, both federal and state, that allow remedies for oil spills. The state statutes will vary depending on the location of the spill and the court involved. In addition, to secure recovery, a claim for conversion; trespass, nuisance, negligence and possibly punitive actions must be considered.

Statutory and other causes of action frame the necessary work that must be prepared to either pursue or defend the case effectively. Actions concerning injunctions bring other remedies into consideration, such as replacement of real or personal property or necessity of court-mandated actions to either assist the cleanup activity or prevent further damage.

The remedies under the statutory or other causes of action require preparation of claims of damages. Damages usually fall into the categories of real or personal property. Real property damage takes into consideration diminished value, temporary non-use, profit and loss, and loss of taxes in addition to penalties and repayment for cleanup costs. Personal property claims involve determination of the value of fish, plant life, marine and wildlife and such items as sand, driftwood or other items touched by the oil.

In that oil is the element that connects the spill with damage that may ensue, it is essential that the oil be traced with complete identification, from the initial spill to its final resting place.
PENALTIES ON OIL SPILLS WITH UNQUANTIFIED DAMAGE—THE HIDDEN TAX AND ECONOMIC DETERRENT CONCEPT
Authors: Cahill E. J. , Smith Linda R. , Haley George P.
Published: January 2013

Public awareness of the increasing stress on the environment caused by population and economic growth and rising standards of living has led to many desirable regulations limiting pollution. However, some such regulations would provide little, if any, environmental benefit, would be costly to consumers and are technically unsound.

Laws which impose penalties on oil spillers based on unquantified damages fall in this counterproductive class. Such laws are ill-conceived and unwarranted.

Alaska, for example, has adopted regulations with explicit high penalties on oil spills without any requirement that damage be demonstrated or quantified. Other states have similar laws under consideration.

Even where such laws purport to base penalties on estimated loss of organisms, the basis for demonstrating and quantifying such loss is arbitrary and judgmental. As demonstrated many times, the marine environment can restore itself in relatively little time. Existing laws already provide for compensation of actual damages which may result. The authors are of the opinion that laws such as Alaska's would do little but raise consumer prices and discourage needed petroleum supplies. Further, such laws are contrary to our legal philosophy that the fact and the extent of injury must be proven before damages can be claimed.
THE LABORATORY DETERMINATION OF DISPERSANT EFFECTIVENESS: METHOD DEVELOPMENT AND RESULTS
Authors: Mackay Donald , Szeto Foon
Published: January 2013

A research project is described in which a previously devised effectiveness test for chemical oil spill dispersants was further developed and standardized. The principle of the test is that known volumes of dispersant and crude oil are contacted on the surface of seawater in a laboratory-scale vessel in which there is a circulating air current that imparts a swirling wave action to the water. This flow geometry is believed to simulate ocean surface conditions better than tests that involve shaking, stirring, or pumping as turbulence-generating mechanisms.

From the results of a series of tests at various dispersant-to-oil ratios, the ratios that affect the dispersion of 50 and 75 percent of the original amount of oil added to the water surface are calculated and used as an indication of dispersant effectiveness. The corresponding percent of the oil that remains dispersed after settling is also deduced. The results of a series of tests using two crude oils, Murban (light) and La Rosa (heavy), and 17 dispersants are presented. These results show a wide range in the dispersant-to-oil ratio necessary to achieve 50- to 75-percent dispersion. Five products failed to achieve 50-percent dispersion of both crude oils at a dispersant-to-oil ratio of 0.2, which is regarded as the practical upper limit of dispersant dosage. There was a group of highly effective dispersants requiring a dispersant-to-oil ratio of only 0.005 to 0.007 to accomplish 50-percent dispersion. The test method can discriminate between two dispersant products with effectivenesses which differ by approximately 10 percent. The implications of these experimental results are discussed.
OILSPILL COUNTERMEASURE TRAINING UNIT, ST. JOHN'S NEWFOUNDLAND—A JOINT VENTURE TRAINING PROGRAM
Authors: Strong Jack J. , Grenville David M.
Published: January 2013

The establishment of OCTU in St. John's, Newfoundland, was a response to the need of marine oil spill countermeasures training in a cold ocean environment. Increased tanker traffic, intensive exploratory drilling, the discovery of oil on the Grand Banks, and the importance of the Canadian East Coast fishery all emphasized the need for more trained people to operate containment and recovery equipment and to direct countermeasures operations.

The training program developed by OCTU and the courses given over the past 2 years are described. It is noted that the joint venture nature of this operation offers a mechanism for communication among the participants and thus a means for advancing the state of the art.
DOME PETROLEUM'S OIL SPILL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM FOR THE ARCTIC
Authors: Pistruzak W. M.
Published: January 2013

Canadian Marine Drilling (Canmar), a wholly owned subsidiary of Dome Petroleum Ltd., is conducting exploratory drilling in the Beaufort Sea with the objective of on-stream production by the mid-1980s.

If a major oil well blow-out should occur, and the probability of such an occurrence is very small, (Bercha, 1977), oil would be released to the surface of the sea until a relief well could be drilled or the well sealed itself. The relief well could be drilled during the same drill season, or, in the worst case, it might not be completed until the following year. Therefore, Dome could be faced with the problem of cleaning up an oil spill during open-water, freeze-up, and winter or spring break-up conditions. To this end, Dome has developed a contingency plan, based on, and updated according to, its ongoing research and development programs to deal with an oil spill during each of the above-mentioned periods of time. To date, Dome has invested approximately $10 million in its research and development programs.

This paper deals with Dome's research and development in oil spill countermeasures for its present ongoing exploration activities and its future production and transportation systems.
OIL MIGRATION AND MODIFICATION PROCESSES IN SOLID SEA ICE
Authors: Nelson William G.
Published: January 2013

The migration of Prudhoe Bay crude oil and diesel fuel through first year sea ice and the effect of entrained oil on sea ice growth rates were examined. Physical and chemical changes within the oils were examined during and after the entrainment process. Several crude oil and diesel fuel injections beneath solid sea ice were conducted off Prudhoe Bay during the winter of 1979/1980. Oil layers of 2.5, 15, and 30 centimeters (cm) were formed under 15, 30, and approximately 60 cm of sea ice. The sea ice growth under the injected oils was monitored. At the end of the ice growing season the individual oil injection sites were excavated from the ice. Each site was studied to determine the extent of vertical oil migration. The field results are compared to laboratory salt water ice growth experiments with entrained oil layers. The laboratory test results include oil migration as a function of ice temperature and the effect of various oil layer thicknesses upon the ice growth rates. Direct heat flux measurements are included from which the thermal conductivity of oil layers is obtained as a function of the oil layer thickness. These data illustrate the relationships among oil layer thickness, temperature gradient across the oil layer, oil viscosity, and convective motion occurring within the oil layer.
THE CONTAINMENT OF OIL SPILLED UNDER ROUGH ICE
Authors: Cox Jack C. , Schultz Lawrence A.
Published: January 2013

This paper outlines the results of a laboratory study of the behavior of oil spilled beneath ice having various roughness characteristics in the presence of a current. It was found convenient to categorize ice conditions and ice features by addressing the problem in terms of oil interaction with smooth ice, ice having small roughness features, and ice having large roughness features. The small or large designation is determined by whether the height of the roughness elements is less than, or greater than, the equilibrium slick thickness of the oil beneath smooth ice. Further, large roughness elements can act individually, or they can act in combination, forming a cavity. In general terms, oil spilled beneath ice cover will remain stationary until the current velocity relative to the ice reaches 15 to 25 cm/sec. This holds true even for oil trapped upstream of large roughness elements. At the higher velocities, cavities have a somewhat greater oil containment capability than individual large roughness elements. The paper includes a procedure for quantitatively determining the transport or containment of oil spilled beneath ice in deep water.
UNITED KINGDOM—A REVIEW OF THE NEED TO MINIMISE OIL SPILLAGE IN MARINE CASUALTY SITUATIONS
Authors: Stacey Michael L.
Published: January 2013

This paper briefly describes the recently formed Marine Pollution Control Unit for dealing with marine pollution around the United Kingdom and considers the need to minimise oil spillage in marine casualty situations by emergency lightening, and the need for safe working conditions provided by coastal havens and ports of refuge. Concern is expressed at the reluctance of coastal and port authorities to offer assistance to damaged ships.
COLD WEATHER RESPONSE F/V RYUYO MARU NO. 2 ST. PAUL, PRIBILOFF ISLANDS, ALASKA*
Authors: Reiter G. A.
Published: January 2013

Response to an oil spill incident requires special decisionmaking no matter where it may occur. However, the individuals or agencies involved in responding to an incident in cold weather regions must prepare themselves for problems that would not normally be present in warmer and more populated areas. The purpose of this paper is to present in detail the problems of access and logistics, environmental issues, and socioeconomics involved in dealing with an oil spill in an isolated cold weather region. Using the grounding of, and subsequent oil spill from, the fishing vessel Ryuyo Mam No. 2 at St. Paul Island, Alaska, as the example scenario, this paper attempts to show the problems encountered and how they generally related to most cases in this type of climate. Included within this scenario are problems dealing with access to both the general location of the island and the grounded vessel itself, dealing with endangered species of wildlife, economics of cleanup, and the ultimate decisionmaking process regarding the use of FWPCA 311(d) authority. It is the intent of this paper to outline this response, highlighting the decisionmaking process in determining the use of 311(d) authority for mitigating the effects of the spill.
THE FATE AND EFFECTS OF DISPERSANT-TREATED COMPARED WITH UNTREATED CRUDE OIL, WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO SHELTERED INTERTIDAL SEDIMENTS
Authors: Rowland S. J. , Tibbetts P. J. C. , Little D. , Baker J. M. , Abbiss T. P.
Published: January 2013

Dispersant use is a factor that may partly determine the fate and effects of spilled oil. A series of quantitative field experiments has been initiated to simulate conditions following nearshore treatment of a floating oil slick or following the cleaning of a spill stranded on the shore. The basic experimental design is a series of treatments (Forties or Nigerian crude oil, BP 1100WD dispersant, or oil plus dispersant) applied to sets of experimental plots in a range of intertidal and subtidal communities. Biological recording includes frequency and density measurements of plants and animals, and hydrocarbon analysis is by capillary gas liquid chromatography and computerised gas chrornatography–mass spectrometry.

Additionally, the effects of dispersant on the movement and fate of oil in different types of sediment is being investigated using a laboratory sediment column and controllable temperature seawater system. The columns have been successfully used in the modeling of low-energy sedimentary environments. Particular attention has been paid to the nature of water table fluctuations within the sediment, to grain size and sorting, to permeability, and also to the number of simulated “tides” that the columns experience after treatment. Hydrocarbon analysis is primarily by ultraviolet spectrophotometry, which has the advantage that the large number of samples generated by each experimental run can be quickly analysed. Gas liquid chromatography is used for checking selected samples.

Preliminary results from the field and laboratory experiments indicate that some dispersant treatments increase penetration of oil, and that it may be retained below the sediment surface. Interacting factors include time of treatment in relation to tidal cycle and behaviour of the water table in the sediment.
FATE OF THE ZOE COLOCOTRONI OIL SPILL AND ITS EFFECTS ON INFAUNAL COMMUNITIES ASSOCIATED WITH MANGROVES
Authors: Gilfillan Edward S. , Page David S. , Gerber Ray P. , Hansen Sherry , Cooley Judy , Hotham Janet
Published: January 2013

During 1978 and 1979, sediment samples were collected in the mangrove areas on the west side of Bahia Sucia, Puerto Rico, to examine the effects of oil discharged from the tanker Zoe Colocotroni (March 18, 1973) on the infaunal community. Samples for benthic community analysis and hydrocarbon analysis were taken in representative types of mangrove habitats and compared with habitats in a reference area some distance from the spill site. Infaunal organisms larger than 0.5 mm were included in this study.

Correlation of biological and chemical data indicates that for the high salinity habitats there were more infaunal organisms larger than 0.5 millimeters in the oiled area than in the unoiled area. Analyses of the red mangrove fringe areas showed that the distribution of infaunal organisms was not related to the distribution of oil in an obvious way. Large numbers of organisms were found in some heavily oiled areas. Even the most diverse communities seen in the impact area were not as diverse as the community seen in the unoiled reference area. We conclude that only in the red mangrove environment is there remaining damage to infaunal communities from the Zoe Colocotroni oil spill.
COST ANALYSIS OF MARSH RESTORATION THROUGH SEDIMENT STRIPPING AND SPARTINA PROPAGATION
Authors: Krebs Charles T. , Tanner Christopher E.
Published: January 2013

A cost comparison is presented between conventional methods and a new alternative surface sediment stripping and Spartina propagation technique for the cleanup of oil in marshlands. The sediment-stripping and propagation technique is competitive with the cost of conventional cleanup for spills in small marshland areas, and may be significantly less expensive for the cleanup of large marsh areas severely impacted by an oil spill. Factors affecting the cost of the stripping and propagation technique are discussed, and an optimal stripping and propagation strategy is presented.
DISTRIBUTION OF AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS IN PORT VALDEZ, ALASKA
Authors: Lysyj Ihor , Perkins George , Farlow John S. , Morris Raymond W.
Published: January 2013

The distribution of aromatic hydrocarbons in Port Valdez, Alaska, was studied. Such compounds are present in the effluent from the ballast treatment plant located at the terminal of the Trans Alaska Pipeline. The plant processes 10 to 20 million gallons per day (mgd) of ballast water from arriving tankers. The principal organic components found in the treated effluent are benzene, toluene, and xylenes/ethylbenzene. Such volatile aromatic hydrocarbons comprise up to 50 percent of the total organic load in the effluent, and are discharged at a rate of 60 to 80 gallons per day. State regulations limit aromatic hydrocarbon content in waters outside the mixing zone to 10 micrograms per liter concentration.

Distribution of the aromatic hydrocarbons in the receiving waters was studied by collecting and analyzing samples at the boundary of the mixing zone and throughout the fjord. Vertical and horizontal transects were designed for sample collection, and a sensitive analytical procedure capable of detecting 0.1 ?g/l of selected aromatic hydrocarbons was developed and used in this study.

It was found that the treated effluent does not mix uniformly with the receiving waters of Port Valdez during the summer period of density stratification, at which time the volume of the mixing zone is grossly underutilized and no significant amount of hydrocarbons diffuses into the upper reaches of the water column.

Discharged hydrocarbons are contained within a narrow trap zone of maximum concentration which spreads out horizontally 2 to 3 kilometers (km) from the mixing zone in a thin, pancake-like shape. The vertical position of the effluent plume is dependent on prevailing water density conditions: during the early summer it is located at a depth of approximately 50 meters (m), while in late summer it is found at a depth of 65 m, and is contained within 10 m off the bottom in the area of the mixing zone. The concentrations of total volatile aromatic hydrocarbons found on the boundary of the mixing zone were as high as 120 µg/l.

The results of this study are in general conformity with predictions by Hood (1976), who postulated that little vertical mixing occurs in Port Valdez between April and December, when the water density is stratified, and with observations by Colonell (1979), who reported the existence of a “trap zone” at 50- to 60-m depths for pollutants discharged from the treatment plant.
AN EVALUATION OF OIL SPILL DISPERSANT TESTING REQUIREMENTS
Authors: Rewick R. T. , Sabo K. A. , Gates J. , Smith J. H. , McCarthy L. T.
Published: January 2013

We have evaluated a number of laboratory tests of dispersant effectiveness using commercial oil spill products and No. 2 and No. 6 fuel oils. The tests-the EPA, Mackay/Steelman, Russian, French, Warren Spring, and an interfacial tension method developed at SRI-are reviewed in terms of type, scale, method of applying mixing energy, and the time required to conduct a product evaluation. The experimental results, compared in terms of the precision of the test data and the effectiveness ranking order of the six nonionic dispersants, demonstrate that the relative effectiveness found for the dispersants varies appreciably as a function of the testing method. Reasons for the variations are discussed and recommendations are presented on how to achieve dispersant testing data that are more representative of real-world conditions. Of the six testing methods evaluated, the EPA, Mackay/Steelman, and the interfacial tension methods are the most amenable to improvement.
PROTECTION STRATEGIES FOR VULNERABLE COASTAL FEATURES
Authors: Bell Victor A.
Published: January 2013

In recognizing the potential for a moderate to large oil spill, it became apparent to the Department of Environmental Management that there was limited information as to which coastal areas were the most vulnerable to oil spills and about how one could protect these sites. To this end, the Department prepared the State of Rhode Island Oil Spill Contingency Guide, Protection Strategies for Vulnerable Coastal Features. This guide identifies 97 vulnerable coastal features and provides site-specific information for 53 of them.

The paper is divided into three major sections that (1) explain the need for the guide, its objectives, and how it is to be used; (2) describe the organizational responsibilities, address containment and cleanup procedures and technology, outline the threat of an oil spill in Rhode Island, and describe the different shoreline types and their susceptibility to oil spills; and (3) presents examples of the site-specific information sheets and maps of the vulnerable coastal features in Rhode Island.
THE USE OF DECISION SUPPORT AIDS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF AN ACTION-ORIENTED CONTINGENCY PLAN
Authors: Harrald John R. , Conway Steve M.
Published: January 2013

The National Contingency Plan requires each predesignated on-scene coordinator (OSC) to develop adequate contingency plans for oil and hazardous substance spill response for his own area. Historically these plans have been information-oriented rather than action-oriented. They contain volumes of data on available resources, potential pollution sites, response organization, and perhaps historical spill data. There remains a critical need to develop decision support aids for the OSCs use during the emergency phases of the response operation.

The authors have implemented a planning methodology in the Captain of the Port New Haven Zone (Long Island Sound) that provides an action-oriented response plan. Two primary decision support aids, a decision flow chart and a mini-computer display, were developed based on the concept of scenario planning. Scenario planning requires the development of typical response scenarios based on analysis of historical spill and cargo movement data and on subjective assessments of high-risk situations.

In the Captain of the Port Zone, six distinct types of major incidents were judged to be a sufficient basis for scenario planning; any other incident could be classed as a variation of one of the six basic events.

Each incident served as the basis for a time-line flow chart that identifies the major categories of actions possible, the decisions required, and when these decisions must be made. A minicomputer using color graphics is used to project resource location and availability, spill location, spill movement, and decision information. The OSC may evaluate visually which future actions are opened or precluded at each branch at every major decision point.

This paper discusses successful use of decision flow charts in the 1979 Region II OSC drill and the evolution of minicomputer applications.
THE EVOLUTION OF STRANDED OIL WITHIN SANDY BEACHES
Authors: Long B. F. N. , Vandermeulen J. H. , Ahern T. P.
Published: January 2013

The fate of buried stranded Amoco Cadiz oil within sandy beaches has been investigated during a 3-year follow-up study after the tanker breakup. Observations at eight sandy North Brittany beaches have shown that oil, in discrete layers 1 to 2 centimeters thick, persists in several beaches. Followup studies have shown that such buried oil layers can migrate downwards within the beach sediment, eventually to stabilize deep within the beach at or near the water table.

Detailed data are presented on three beaches, including a dune-beach system and a transport-beach system, including observations on oil distribution and movement, residual contamination of sediments and underlying water table, and rates of oil movement.

The vertical migration of buried oil layers within these beaches appears to be a function of water table movement during the tidal cycles, and of the porosity (grain size) of the beach sediments. Rate of downward migration calculated for two beaches (Centre Héliomarin north beach, Pen Ar Mez beach) range from 0.25 to 1.0 millimeter per tidal cycle, with a residual fluctuation of 0.1 millimeter per tidal cycle. In beaches containing an impermeable basement of loam, silt, or bedrock (transport-beaches), the downward movement of the oil layer is interrupted at the basement interface, with subsequent movement along the basement and emergence of the oil in the lower intertidal and subtidal sediments at the foot of the beach.

These observations enable the prediction of the route and fate of stranded buried oil in sandy beach systems, and indicate the location of potential oil traps.
THE EFFECTS OF OIL SPILLS ON MANGROVE FORESTS: A COMPARISON OF FIVE OIL SPILL SITES IN THE GULF OF MEXICO AND THE CARIBBEAN SEA
Authors: Getter Charles D. , Scott Geoffrey I. , Michel Jacqueline
Published: January 2013

Recent field studies at five oil spill sites where mangroves were affected provide a broad base of information on the response of mangrove communities to oiling. Three study sites in Florida (two in the Florida Keys, one in Tampa Bay) and two in eastern Puerto Rico were visted in 1978, 1979, and 1980. At each site, impacts on mangroves were assessed by the compartmental method, which uses statistical comparisons of ecological parameters between impacted and comparison stations and produces an array of biological and geomorphic data sets that allows spill sites to be compared.

Despite many differences in the size of the spills and the spill sites, the responses of the oiled-mangrove communities were similar in terms of tree mortality; leaf defoliation, deformation, and stunting; seedling deformation and mortality; lenticel expansion; adventitious growth of pneumatophores; and changes in the density and distribution of plants and animals. Each spill site differed mainly in the magnitude of the stress response. Observations of the spills showed that differences in the physical environment, such as the degree of exposure to waves and currents and geomorphic features like the terrain, greatly influence the distribution and persistence of oil within different mangrove forest types. From these studies, mangrove forest types can be ranked by their predicted sensitivity to oil. This differentiation in ranking increases the value of the Environmental Sensitivity Index, especially where it is desirable to assign priorities in a campaign to protect oil-sensitive habitats from oil spills along mangrove-dominated coastlines.
IDENTIFICATION OF PETROLEUM RESIDUE SOURCES AFTER A FIRE AND OIL SPILL
Authors: Overton Edward B. , McFall Jo Ann , Mascarella S. Wayne , Steele Charles F. , Antoine Shelley A. , Politzer Ieva R. , Laseter John L.
Published: January 2013

The evaluation of the environmental impacts resulting from an oil spill and fire at the West Hackberry Strategic Petroleum Reserve Complex was particularly challenging. The fire and spill resulted in two distinctive types of chemical releases into the environment. The spill released a large quantity of Arabian light crude oil into an area that had been exposed to Louisiana sweet crude oil during 40 years of production. The fire produced significant quantities of pyrogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons that were dispersed over a large area by wind. New methods were developed to identify samples, and consequently the areas, that were affected by these releases. Samples of sediment affected by the oil spill were distinguished from nonaffected samples by comparing the ratios of the alkyl phenanthrenes to the alkyl dibenzothiophenes (C1, C2, and C3) in a gas chromatography–mass spectrometry analysis of the extractable hydrocarbons. These ratios effectively identified affected sediment even when the samples had been exposed to the environment for more than a year. Contamination from the pyrogenic products of the fire was identified by the elevated quantities of fluoranthene and pyrene in affected samples. Foliage, soil, and sediment samples were collected quarterly for the year following the incident and were analyzed by the combined gas chromatography-mass spectrometry method. Impact from the fire was detected in foliage and soil samples collected several miles downwind from the incident.
PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF OIL POLLUTION IN NEW ZEALAND
Authors: Tortell Philip
Published: January 2013

New Zealand is fortunate in being removed from the main oil transportation routes, and its own domestic oil requirements are comparatively small. In spite of this auspicious situation, however, the country cannot afford to be complacent. New Zealand has a coastline of about 8,000 kilometers (km), numerous offshore islands, and an exclusive economic zone covering approximately 1.4 million square nautical miles (nmi2). It is also endowed with ample rivers and lakes, most of which are in excellent condition. Recognition of the threat that oil poses for these resources has led to measures to prevent and combat oil pollution: materials and equipment have been purchased, a contingency plan has been developed, and a coastal resources atlas is being produced. However, these actions, which are financed by a levy on shipping, are limited in scope. The Ministry of Transport, which administers oil pollution control, is not responsible for spills on land, in inland waters, or in harbours. These spills are the responsibility of local authorities, who are often inexperienced and usually ill equipped to deal with such emergencies. Free of any sectional responsibility, the Commission for the Environment can apply itself to those problem situations that arise because of the restrictive scope of agencies' operations and responsibilities.
BREAKING OF FRESH AND WEATHERED EMULSIONS BY CHEMICALS
Authors: Bocard Christian , Gatellier Claude
Published: January 2013

Oil discharged at sea can form water-in-oil emulsions that make pollution control more difficult. This paper deals with laboratory tests to evaluate the relative efficiency of different emulsion breakers under different conditions. The influence of mixing energy on phase separation rate is shown for a synthetic 75-percent-water emulsion formed with partially evaporated Arabian Light.

A weathering experiment was conducted inside a floating system at the oil terminal of Antifer. The emulsion stabilization that makes emulsion breakers inefficient under ordinary conditions is measured by laboratory tests. On the basis of a laboratory study, it is shown that this phenomenon could be attributed to a low rate of photo-oxidation.

Techniques of using emulsion breakers in the field are discussed.

Finally, it is shown that when oil is left in the environment, an emulsion-breaking action is favorable to the degradation of oil.
ON THE FLOW AROUND SPILL CLEANUP DEVICES
Authors: Griffiths Richard A.
Published: January 2013

This paper discusses the implications of testing oil booms and skimmers in a tank of finite size. Scaling considerations, test conditions, and bottom effects are treated. General descriptions of the gross flow patterns around booms and skimmers are presented, and the significance of these patterns to containment and recovery is discussed. Tank tests are compared with full-scale field conditions, and flow patterns and problems in the field are discussed.

It is shown that tests done at small scales may be scaled up readily in most cases, because the gross flow patterns about objects are the same over a wide range of scales. The primary features of the gross flow patterns are cavities, or circulation zones, in front of and behind the object and vortex sheets along lengths of boom parallel to the flow. The flow in the cavities will be strongly affected when the ratio of boom draft to water depth exceeds ⅙.

Boom or skimmer performance may be worse in very shallow water than in deep water because of the increased speeds around the device. This may lead to increased vortex drainage, earlier oil entrainment at the headwave, and increased drag. Booms with little draft may slightly outperform larger booms in these cases. In addition, if the backup booms in a multiple-boom installation are spaced too closely, containment may be impaired rather than enhanced.
OPEN OCEAN SKIMMER PERFORMANCE TESTS*
Authors: Lichte H. W. , Borst M. , Smith G. F.
Published: January 2013

An oil skimmer was tested in a controlled crude oil dumping off the New Jersey Coast in early 1980. The program was sponsored by the U.S. Navy (USN), Director of Ocean Engineering, Supervisor of Salvage through the Oil and Hazardous Materials Simulated Environmental Test Tank (OHMSETT) Interagency Technical Committee comprised of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), U.S. Coast Guard (USCG), U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), USN, and Environment Canada. The tests were designed to evaluate the Spilled Oil Containment Kit (SOCK) developed by Shell Development Company. The skimmer had been designed as a physical attachment to an oil industry work boat in a vessel of opportunity deployment mode. The USNS Powhatan T-ATF fleet tug as chosen as a similar vessel and one that had an oil spill recovery operations mode.

The test program is described including the oil/water distribution and collection system, deployment and retrieval of the SOCK, the onboard fluid measurement, data analysis, logistics, weather and environment measurements, and the Powhatan/SOCK interface. The light crude oil and ocean water collected were stored aboard the vessel, decanted, and the emulsified oil later sold as waste oil. Eight experimental crude oil dumps are described and analyzed. The sea conditions varied from calm to 1.8-meter significant heights. During the 6 days at sea, 50 cubic meters of oil were dumped and the skimmer collected 32 cubic meters of oil.

The program is analyzed for suggestions to future open ocean testing plans incorporating oil skimmers with and without vessels of opportunity. This program was fortunate in having available a skimmer that had extensive testing as a model, seaworthiness testing on commercial work boats, and oil-collecting experience in a spill of opportunity.
DESIGN ASPECTS OF THE FIRST “SLICKTRAIL” DREDGER, THE COSMOS
Authors: van Drimmelen Nico J.
Published: January 2013

Having launched the concept of a combined trailing-suction hopper dredger and large-scale oil-recovery vessel in 1978, IHC Holland received an initial order for a vessel of this type in 1979. The oil-recovery installation of this ship reflects the experience gained by the Netherlands State Waterways Board (Rijtewaters taat) in the operation of its oil-recovery vessel Smal Agt. The first “Slicktrail” was ordered by a consortium of three Dutch contracting companies.

The vessel was completed at the end of 1980 and is now engaged in maintenance in the Rotterdam Europoort area; but in the event of a major oil spillage, it is available for recovery operations in a much larger area.

This paper discusses the design aspects of the Cosmos and the oil-recovery and the other special installations on board.

Recovery capacity naturally depends on factors such as weather, oil type, and operational conditions, but under favourable circumstances, it can be in excess of 5,000 cubic metres every 24 hours.
AN ANALYSIS OF TANKER CASUALTIES FOR THE 10 YEAR PERIOD, 1969–1978*
Authors: Goldberg N. N. , Keith Virgil F. , Willis Richard M. , Meade Norman F. , Anderson Robert C.
Published: January 2013

The effects of oil tanker size, flag, and exposure to risk (number of port calls) on tanker accident rates and on the occurrence of related pollution-causing incidents (PCIs) were examined for the decade 1969 to 1978. This study marks the first time that 10 years of tanker casualty data have been available for analysis. The results show a downward trend in both total number of accidents and in PCIs, but a rise in annual spill volumes and in average spill volume per incident. The latter appears attributable at least partially to steadily increasing tanker size over the period. During the decade, the number of world fleet tankers of 100,000 dwt or more grew from 10 to 30 percent; their percentage of total world deadweight capacity, from 25 to 71 percent; and their contribution to total outflow, from 10 to 80 percent. Accurate risk-exposure predictors have not yet been developed, and calculations based on indices of port calls, tons delivered, and ton-miles, can differ widely when taken individually. In this analysis, oil-spill frequency was expressed first as the ratio of the number of accidents or PCIs to the total number of long tons of oil delivered. The analysis by flag of tanker casualties points up the inadequacy of a simple bivariate analysis. A multivariate analysis is currently in progress and will be reported later. Casualty and PCI data used in the study were derived from Lloyd's Weekly Casualty Reports. Intergovernmental maritime Consultative Organization casualty data, U.S. Coast Guard files, and various industry sources.
EFFECTS OF DIMETHYLNAPHTHALENE AND FLUCTUATING TEMPERATURES ON ESTUARINE SHRIMP
Authors: Dillon Tom M.
Published: January 2013

The biological effects of a naturally occurring perturbation were compared with those of a perturbation that may be induced by human activities in the coastal zone. The estuarine shrimp Palaemonetes pugio was exposed for 32 days to fluctuating (18 to 22°C) temperatures (FT), to food contaminated with 2,6-dimethylnaphthalene (DMN) at a concentration to wet weight food of 0.24 microgram per gram, or to both. Relative survival rates were evaluated in a matrix of environmental challenge tests. Resistance to hypoxia plus reduced salinity was significantly reduced by exposure to FT and DMN-contaminated food. The influence of FT was much stronger and obscured the effects of DMN-contaminated food when shrimp were exposed to both perturbations at the same time.

The persistent, residual effects of FT and DMN-contaminated food in reducing resistance of Palaemonetes pugio to hypoxia was evaluated after a 16-day recovery period with stable temperatures and uncontaminated food. The harmful effects of FT appeared to be reduced by the period of stable temperatures. On the other hand, shrimp that had ingested DMN-contaminated food before the clean food showed increased resistance to hypoxia.

A number of sublethal measurements related to aerobic metabolism were made in order to find an index that would be useful in discriminating the effects of FT from DMN-contaminated food and to determine the affected mechanism(s) that lead to altered survival in hypoxia. No measurement examined could satisfactorily explain the observed effects of FT on resistance to hypoxia, independent of diet regime. However, shrimp exposed to both FT and DMN-contaminated food had increased respiratory rates and oxygen to nitrogen rates decreased metabolic independence from external oxygen, and low hemolymph copper concentrations. Measurements that may be useful in detecting stress resulting from DMN-contaminated food, independent of temperature regime, include nitrogen excretion rates, hemolymph copper, and the relation, between oxygen consumption and external oxygen.

After the shrimp had ingested contaminated food for 32 days, the concentration of DMN in their tissues was significantly greater than that in the food. Shrimp kept in FT had higher concentrations of DMN than shrimp held at stable temperatures. Feeding uncontaminated food to contaminated shirimp for 16 days resulted in a significant reduction of DMN in the tissues.
PROBABILITY OF AN OIL SPILL ON THE ST. MARYS RIVER1
Authors: Schulze Robert H.
Published: January 2013

The Detroit District of the Corps of Engineers sponsored a study to determine the probability of an oil spill along the St. Marys River. Specifically, the study was to compute the probability of an oil spill resulting from a tanker accident during normal season operations, and to predict the probability of an accident and a spill during each of five winter extended season alternatives. The study shows that the probability of an accident and a spill can be predicted by a mathematical model using historical accident and spill data together with estimated transits for the extended seasons. Computations show that the probability of a tanker accident in the St. Marys River in a normal season is about 0.4 and the probability of a spill is only 0.03. The probability of an accident for full season extension is less than 0.2 and the probability of a spill is 0.01. Since there is only a one in a hundred chance of a tanker spill during the time added for full season operations, it was concluded that the risk of an oil spill resulting from winter operations in the St. Marys River is slight.
APPLYING OHMSETT DATA TO SPILL CONTINGENCY PLANS1
Authors: Lichte H. W. , Borst M.
Published: January 2013

This report describes a simple approach for using skimmer test data from the Oil and Hazardous Materials Simulated Environmental Test Tank (OHMSETT) to estimate and project performance in oil spill contingency planning. Example calculations tables are used to illustrate how a planner may choose to use test tank data. The data presented in this report are based on the several million gallons of test oil distributed to skimmers during OHMSETT tests since July 1974. A planner may have skimmers in his inventory that have been tested at OHMSETT but not rigorously tested and documented in actual spills. The planner thus is forced to use the skimmer manufacturer's rated data, thus incorporating in contingency plans an overly optimistic projected oil spill cleanup capacity. The use of OHMSETT test data can provide a lower bound estimate of the expected performance. Using the two projections together may produce a worst and a best case for the planner. These data can be used to quantify the need for backup skimmers and especially the management, transfer, and on-scene storage of the collected fluids.

Dependent and independent variable measurements are discussed. Control of the independent variables is presented so that the planner may estimate the real spill performance. Throughput efficiency test data can be used to predict the number of passes a skimmer should make over a floating patch of spilled oil. Recovery efficiency test data are used to predict the quantity of oil and water that would be collected and the resulting storage needs on scene. Oil recovery rate test data are used to predict the actual quantities of oil to be collected over a period of time. Independent variables in the test tank such as oil slick thickness can become dependent variables at the spill scene, as a function of weather, oil characteristics, or the response deployment time of the planner.

A sample scenario is presented involving a real skimmer. (There is no intent to compare one skimmer to another.) It is left to the planner to use this rationale to investigate his own inventory of specific skimmers and to use the existing published test data to his best advantage.
ON SOME ACTIVITIES IN PREVENTING SEA POLLUTION PERFORMED IN THE MERCHANT MARINE OF THE U.S.S.R.
Authors: Nunuparov Sergei M. , Khalimonov Oleg N.
Published: January 2013

To implement the comprehensive program of preventing sea pollution from shipping, about 400 floating environmental craft for 60 ports and 17 shore reception facilities have been built in the U.S.S.R., which has prevented the spilling of more than 350,000 tons of oil annually into the sea.

The program foresees a maximum unification of technologies and equipment. In the field of combating oil spills and cleaning port areas, tests of the oil recovery ship Svetlomor have been performed. The ship is a reconstructed tanker of 10,000 deadweight tons, which has a maximum effectiveness of oil recovery of 72.4 percent. The weir-type intake system has been positively demonstrated. On the basis of model experiments and tests of the Soviet standard port oil and debris skimmer in the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's ?HMSETT facility, a number of units have been improved, which will substantially increase the effectiveness of oil skimming in rough seas. The experience of combating a spill of about 17,000 tons of oil from the tanker Globe Asimi in the port of Klaipeda has suggested ways to improve personnel training and to increase the availability of technical means. As a result of investigations and experiments performed in the U.S.S.R., the principal interactions between continuous oil slicks and waves have been worked out. The results showed there is a considerable damping of short wavelength waves, especially in shallow waters.

Model tests have proven the theoretical possibility of oil collection at a speed of 3-to-4 knots with the use of a weir-type intake. Within the framework of prevention of marine pollution by oil, the U.S.S.R. has built and put into operation 22 shore-based traffic guidance systems (TGS). Centralized systems now are being created for zones of heavy traffic. In compliance with MARPOL 73/78, the existing fleet is being refitted on the base of unified plans. In particular, methods of updating ships’ drainage and sludge collection systems have been developed, resulting in a 2-to-3 times decrease of the required volume of the collecting tank. A simple, automatic division of the ballast pumped ashore from tankers into high and low oil-content water has enabled an increase in the capacity of the existing facilities without increasing their area. The use of a complex system of water and heat consumption, and treatment of discharges from ship repair yards has prevented the discharge into the sea of noxious substances, and improved the economy of water and fuel. The extensive dredging work performed in the ports of the U.S.S.R. has been put under scientific and legal control due to the danger of pollution of the coastal zones. Standards have been developed for the protection of the marine environment.
REVIEW OF UNITED KINGDOM CONTINGENCY PLANNING AND RESOURCE CAPABILITY
Authors: Stacey R. Adm. Michael L.
Published: January 2013

This paper reviews United Kingdom counter-pollution thinking over the past two years and with reference to the recently published Royal Commission Report on Environmental Pollution in respect of long and short-term environmental effects of oil pollution. It includes an update on present national plans, as well as the recent enhancement of the United Kingdom Marine Pollution Control Unit, and balance of resources between the use of dispersants and mechanical recovery. It assesses the complementary nature of tugboats and aircraft dispersant sprayers in the U.K. mix of government-maintained resources and describes the deployment of mechanical recovery devices. U. K. air spraying capabilities include a number of different types of aircraft, considerations of their alert availability and choices of main and secondary airfields, the provision of dispersants and logistic backup organisations, and maintenance programs for the aircraft and flying fitness assurance programs for pilots. Possible future developments, including airborne remote sensing, also are described.
SPECIALIZED TRAINING PROGRAMS—OIL SPILL SIMULATION EXERCISES AND A TANK TRUCK ROLLOVER TRAINING COURSE
Authors: Strong Clyde B.
Published: January 2013

This paper assesses the general needs for training oil spill response teams and training in the safe handling of tank truck rollovers. Texas A&M University's new oil spill simulation exercise and tank truck rollover training course provide examples of such training programs. Background information, curriculum design and development, course objectives and goals, and training techniques and equipment are reviewed. The steps in preparing an oil spill simulation exercise, examples of a general spill scenario and information cards, and the basic simulation format and ground rules are described. For the Tank Truck Rollover Training Course, special modifications were made to an MC-306 tank truck, and the hands-on training exercise emphasizes safety considerations and offloading procedures for handling rollover. Discussions of specialized equipment and training techniques for handling rollovers are enhanced by photographs. Adjustments to and adaptations of each program are discussed and future growth and expansion projected.