bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Secularism, East and West
Authors: Galanter Marc
Published: June 2009

Professor Smith has produced a comprehensive survey1 of the relations between state and religion in India which will be of great value to students of modern Indian government and politics as well as of religion. Moreover, this useful, stimulating and very readable study raises questions of compelling, interest for all who are concerned with problems of “church and state”. India, the seat of a civilization renowned for elaboration of religious thought and pervasiveness of religious observance has, even by Professor Smith's rigorous standards, successfully established a secular state. In this volume, Professor Smith has undertaken to explain how this has come about, to analyze the Indian achievement and the problems that accompany it and, finally, to indicate how India may advance to the full realization of that “true secularism” which he so enthusiastically endorses.
Secularism in India: a Rejoinder
Authors: Smith Donald E.
Published: June 2009

I am greatly indebted to Professor Marc Galanter and Professor John T. Flint for their detailed and thoughtful reviews of India as a Secular State. One of the important objects of the book was to stimulate precisely this kind of serious discussion of problems, problems of both scholarly analysis and public policy. The two reviews are useful in sharpening certain of the issues, and I am grateful for this opportunity to comment on them.
Nationalist Movements: An Attempt at a Comparative Typology
Authors: Symmons-Symonolewicz Konstantin
Published: June 2009

Although all the forms of nationalism have undoubtedly certain characteristics in common, they could be logically divided into two distinct categories: 1) nationalism of majorities which hold political power in their respective realms, and 2) nationalism of the subject peoples which strive for political and cultural emancipation. This last category includes genuine minorities as well as political minorities, i.e., groups which may constitute majorities in their respective territories, but may find themselves in a position of minorities with respect to the states to which they belong. The dynamics of development of nationalism as an individual as well as social phenomenon is different in each case.
Historians Define the Baroque: Notes on a Problem of Art and Social History
Authors: Menashe Louis
Published: June 2009

Can the historian bring his presumably hard-headed and objective analytical devices to bear upon so impalpable a subject as man's art? At both ends of esthetic experience there is an elusive subjectivity: the artist (his “style” and “expressive content“) and the beholder (his “taste” and “feeling”) seem to take part in the experience on the basis of no rigidly determinable criteria. Yet here, as in the other gossamer realms of religion, philosophy, personal psychology or “national character”, the historian has never let mere impalpability daunt him. He may be aware of a caveat or two, but up into the rarefied heights he soars determined to transmit the historian's-eye view of the whole of human experience.
The Swiss City Canton: A POlitical Invention
Authors: Deutsch Karl W. , Weilenmann Hermann
Published: June 2009

All major Swiss cities are located north of the Alps. Their development can be understood best as part of the development of the North European cities—those of Germany, Flanders and France—and as part of the communal movement as it developed in those areas. Yet the cities that eventually became Swiss are those that accepted more of the characteristic institutions of Italian city-states than did the rest, and it is this acceptance of certain Italian practices—particularly the creation of a rural territory and thus eventually of a territorial city-state—that made those cities into city Cantons, able to take part in the formation of Switzerland.
Institutional Lag and Neofunctions (The case of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem)
Authors: Ben-Ami Aharon
Published: June 2009

“We seek a man, not money. Wellnigh every Christian region sendeth us money, but no land sendeth to us a prince. Therefore, we ask a prince that needeth money, not money that needeth a prince.” These words of the Patriarch of Jerusalem to King Henry II of England in April, 1185, reflect one of the chronic predicaments of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem throughout its entire history. By a “prince”, of course, the Patriarch meant an army, namely, manpower. Two years later, the collapse and surrender of most fortresses after the battle of Hittin was clearly a result of a grave manpower deficiency. Fortified cities did not usually fall overnight just because a large army was annihilated in the field, unless there was no one left to defend them. A city like Jerusalem, for example, could certainly have shown effective resistance if more than two knights had been left there for its defense.
Tale of Two Cities: the Origins of Modern Cairo
Authors: Abu-Lughod Janet
Published: June 2009

The major metropolis in almost every newly industrializing nation is not a single unified city but, in fact, two quite different cities, physically juxtaposed but architecturally and socially distinct. Many observers have noted this in non-western countries throughout the world. These dual cities have usually been a legacy from the colonial past and, while increasing national autonomy and “nativization” are tending slowly to blend the two patterns, many generations may be required before the bifurcations drawn in the nineteenth century have been erased.
Some Notes on a Case Study of European Urban “Transplants” in Cairo
Authors: Breese Gerald
Published: June 2009

Janet Abu-Lughod has indeed performed a service to students of urbanization in her genuinely illuminating and exceptionally readable article on the evolution of Cairo's European “transplant” up to the 20th century. The article must be evaluated in terms of the case study it was intended to be, but it may be in order to add some remarks on the types of phenomena illustrated by this specific case.
Ethnic Accommodation in a Historical Case
Authors: Holden Matthew
Published: June 2009

I. The Political Meaning of Ethnic Conflict

If politics “in its broadest sense” is conceived as the “distribution of advantages and disadvantages among people” (Froman, p. 3), then the ultimate penalty is subordination (total exclusion from advantages) and the ultimate reward is dominance (total monopoly of advantages). The effort to change the balance of advantages and disadvantages between groups is the nexus of political conflict. In such conflict, ethnicity is a particularly important variable, precisely because it is one criterion found throughout the world by which groups are regularly assigned superior and inferior places.
Corruption and Self Intrest in Kampala and Nairobi: A Comment on Local Politics in East Africa
Authors: Greenstone J. David
Published: June 2009

At the end of his suggestive political analysis of Nairobi, Herbert Werlin asserts that a major goal for Kenya politics “is to build up the basis for cooperation” (p. 197). Cooperation existed in Kenya under British colonialism; it exists in Britain today. Lack of cooperation at present makes it more difficult for Kenya and Nairobi to solve acute social and economic problems. For Werlin, cooperation requires an educated, public-spirited citizenry, a politically conscious, reform minded business class, and a corps of dedicated professional administrators (p. 197). Cooperation requires a modern social order which in American cities has functioned to encourage “good government”. But this very modern concept of cooperation tells us more about where Kenya and Nairobi ought to go than how they should get there.
Religious Belief and Social Change: Aspects of the Development of Hinduism in British Guiana
Authors: Jayawardena Chandra
Published: June 2009

This paper is concerned with developments in Hinduism in British Guiana. The Hindus of this country are the descendants of immigrants from India who were recruited during the period 1838–1917 to serve as labourers in the sugar plantations. I discuss the effects on religion of changes initiated by immigration.
The Comparative Method of Anthropology
Authors: Bock Kenneth E.
Published: June 2009

The basic operation in the comparative method is an arrangement of social or cultural conditions observed among existing peoples into a series that is then taken to represent a process of evolution. This procedure has been used to depict the whole sweep of human history, a limited period of development, or the growth of a particular social or cultural element or group of elements. The method has been applied most commonly, perhaps, in a search for origins of specific cultural items.
Comment on “Anglicanism, Catholicism and the Negro Slave”
Authors: Goveia Elsa V.
Published: June 2009

In writing his article, Mr. Klein clearly intended his particular evidence about the influence of different religions to be taken as a proof of general conclusions which would explain the different characteristics of Negro slavery in different parts of the Americas. Quite early, he suggests that his aim is to assess previous comparative studies of American slavery empirically “by subjecting to detailed analysis the slave systems of two colonial powers in the New World … through detailing the operation of one crucial aspect of the slave system, the relationship between infidel Negro and Christian Church, in two highly representative colonies, those of Cuba and Virginia” (p. 295).
A Symposium: Disease, Health Programs, and Economic Development (Introduction)
Authors: Perlman Mark
Published: June 2009

The confluence of rivers normally makes for interesting landscapes. With the right topography there are no marshes and, after the initial discovery, the area soon becomes the scene of considerable economic activity. So it is with the confluence of intellectual disciplines. With the right guidelines, the scene becomes one of fertile intellectual interchange.
Cholera in Nineteenth-Century Europe: A Tool for Social and Economic Analysis
Authors: Rosenberg Charles E.
Published: June 2009

Economists have, in the past generation, become deeply concerned with the problem of economic growth. Of late years, as traditional economic models have demonstrated inadequacies, economists have become increasingly interested in the social and cultural inputs necessary for growth in economic productivity. Human, value-related factors, particularly education, role definition, and the place of science and technology, have taken a place beside the more traditional categories of the economist and economic historian. But these human factors, important though all admit them to be, are, especially in historical contexts, not usually amenable to quantitative methods of datagathering. It is difficult, on the one hand, to evaluate and sample such elusive factors, and on the other hand to define their precise role in social change.
Plague Effects in Medieval Europe
Authors: Thrupp Sylvia L.
Published: June 2009

Professor Russell was the first historian to try to apply statistical methods to analysis of the effects of epidemic plague on the composition, not just on the total size, of medieval population. He argues now that general plagues differed from the type of the disease that became epidemic after the crop failures of 1315–1317, in sharply lowering the sex ratio and in greatly increasing the burden of child-rearing.
Charismatic Legitimation and Political Integration
Authors: Ake Claude
Published: June 2009

The search for a conceptual framework for interpreting the political evolution of the new states has led to a renewal of interest in charisma. Some writers, such as Shils, have used the concept of charisma to explain the problem of political integration; others, such as Wallerstein and Apter, have used it to indicate how political integration may be furthered. The use of charisma as a conceptual tool for illuminating the problem of political integration is taking on the character of a theory, which we call the theory of charismatic legitimation. This paper attempts an evaluation of this theory. Charismatic legitimation is the process of creating loyalty for the new state through the personal influence of the charismatic leader. This crude definition could bear further clarification. But we shall seek clarification by examining the theory of charismatic legitimation rather than by framing more abstract definitions.
The Rastafarian Brethren of Jamaica
Authors: Kitzinger Sheila
Published: June 2009

The Rastafarians have been a social problem for Jamaica ever since 1933, when one of their earliest leaders, Howell, sold 5000 postcards of the Emperor Haille Selassie at a shilling each making them out to be passports to Ethiopia. They gained greater publicity in 1941 when the police raided Howell's community at Pinnacle and arrested seventy of his followers on charges of growing ganja (marijuana) and of violence. In the 1950's many more were arrested, and - Rastas assert - flogged and forcibly shaved by the police; some were imprisoned on charges of rioting, and there were two separate cases charging that children were sacrificed by fire in Trenchtown, a slum area of the capital.
From Buddhism to Islam: An Interpretation of the Javanese Literature of the Transition
Authors: Johns A. H.
Published: June 2009

The Kraton religion of 15th century Java is complex, sophisticated and syncretic, and is generally characterised by the nameShiva Buddha, an expression implying a syncretic blending of Shivaism and Buddhism. Within less than two centuries, however, this religion had been displaced from its dominant position, many of its holy books were destroyed, and Java was under the exclusive rule of Muslim kings. A study of this period of transition from one dominant religious tradition to another involves the consideration of many important questions, perhaps the most significant of which is: how much was involved in the change of religion?
Social Tensions at Early Stages of Industrialization
Authors: Fischer Wolfram
Published: June 2009

In the process of industrialization Western Europe went through a period of serious social tensions. For a while this phenomenon became of the utmost concern to all men engaged in socio-political thinking and action. In some countries one spoke - and sometimes still does - of “the social problem” or “the social question” in the singular to indicate its over-all importance.
The Mexican Revolution and the Cartoon
Authors: Alba Victor
Published: June 2009

The cartoon had a considerable influence on the political life of Mexico in the period immediately prior to the Revolution. This influence continues in contemporary Mexico, but with a completely different character. This brief essay proposes to examine the causes of this change of attitude in the Mexican cartoon, for its measure reflects the transformation of the country. To do this, let us begin with a summary analysis of the nature of the cartoon in independent Mexico.
Sociology between Yesterday and Tomorrow
Authors: Wertheim W. F.
Published: June 2009

My original idea was to discuss, in the group of sociologists from different Asian countries, the applicability of Western sociological concepts in an Asian environment. After thinking it over, I decided to tackle the problem the other way around and to ask myself to what extent a sociological study of Asian societies could contribute to general sociological theory, and perhaps even to a deeper understanding of Western society. As a matter of fact, such an approach will automatically amount to a better understanding of some of the defects, lags, and gaps in general sociological theory, as current in some of the literature.
Indische Culture, and its Relationship to Urban Life
Authors: Milone Pauline Dublin
Published: June 2009

The Brazilian historian, Gilberto Freyre, has stated that only the Portuguese had the innate adaptive capacity which enabled them to stay in the tropics and, through intermarriage with indigenous people and imported slaves, create a new culture suitable to the challenges of an underdeveloped tropical environment. He emphasized that it was particularly Northern Europeans who were incapable of adjustment. They returned home after their tours of duty, and those few remaining invariably degenerated. Yet many Dutch and other Europeans stayed on in Batavia (present-day Djakarta), and through intermarriage with Indonesians helped create a new Indonesian-European culture. Admittedly this resulted initially through imitation of the Portuguese style of life, but it is nevertheless evident that the new Indische culture became in many ways as adaptive to local conditions as the mestizo culture of Brazil, and as much a channel for the introduction of new cultural elements.
Ritual, Entertainment, and Modernization: A Javanese Case
Authors: Peacock James L.
Published: June 2009

This paper deals with some relationships between Javanese modernization, a Javanese ritual called slametan, and a Javanese folk-show called ludruk. I shall illustrate how slametan and ludruk play complementary roles with respect to Javanese modernization.
Comment on the Articles by June Nash and James Peacock
Authors: Jay Robert R.
Published: June 2009

The two authors of these papers face in common one very complex and perplexing problem: the place that representations of dramatic art take in the personal lives of their spectators. Enormous effort has been put into this question, particularly in works on the popular forms of dramatic art in the United States. Both authors take the same point of view on the question, that there is a fairly direct correspondence between the content of the dramas they analyze and the content of the personal experiences and social world of the spectators. Nash argues that the differing contents of the passion plays produced in the three towns she examines faithfully reflect the differing local configurations of religious organization and Indian/Ladino relations. Peacock argues that the ways the ludruk dramas characterize the inner, kampung life versus the outer, more modern and worldly city life bias the spectators directly in their personal attitudes and decisions toward rejecting features of kampung life in favor of modes of modern city life.
Patrons, Patronage, and Political Parties
Authors: Weingrod Alex
Published: June 2009

What is meant by “patronage”? The term appears with increased frequency in anthropological analysis. Indeed, it has become a major concept in the study of peasant societies, somewhat analogous to the concept of the “big man” in certain kinds of chiefdoms, or “fission and fusion” in lineage-type societies. There is, however, considerable ambiguity in the meaning given to the term. Consider, as examples, the following three excerpts from recent anthropological studies:

Patronage is founded on the reciprocal relations between patrons and clients. By patron I mean a person who uses his influence to assist and protect some other person, who then becomes his “client”, and in return provides certain services for his patron… Patronage is thus the complex of relations between those who use their influence, social position or some other attribute to assist and protect others, and those whom they so help and protect.
Ideology and Conflict in Lower Class Communities
Authors: Jayawardena Chandra
Published: June 2009

This essay deals with factors that contribute to the emergence of egalitarian ideologies, tracing the social processes they entail and analysing their consequences for social life.
Town and Countryside: Social and Economic Tensions in Fourteenth-Century Flanders
Authors: Nicholas David M.
Published: June 2009

In the thirteenth century the county of Flanders was the leading commercial and industrial region of Western Europe. It had easy access by water and overland routes to the German Rhineland and to the fairs of Champagne. As the Italians from the later thirteenth century began to use a direct maritime link with the North, Bruges, on the North Sea, became the major clearing house for goods coming from Italy and the Hanse towns of northern Germany. Flanders originally had a large wool production; this led to its early preeminence in textile manufacturing. Although the growing urbanization of thecounty soon severely curtailed facilities for grazing, Flanders easily obtained English wool, which was simultaneously of a higher calibre and a cheaper price than the native product. At a time when the towns of northern Italy were still very largely finishers of cloth brought from outside, the towns of Flanders, and particularly the five great towns of Bruges, Ghent, Ypres, Lille, and Douai, had prosperous industries in textiles of varying types, but specialized in luxury cloths designed for export.
The Ritual Drama of theSanniDemons: Collective Representations of Disease in Ceylon
Authors: Obeyesekere Gananath
Published: June 2009

In this paper I shall analyse the rituals forSanni Yaka(‘the demon ofSanni’).Sanni Yakais also known asKōla Sanniyaand is a pantheistic deity who incorporates eighteen other demons known asDahaaṭa Sanni(eighteenSanni) or simply asSanni Yakku(Sannidemons;Yakkuis plural ofYakā). The rituals performed for theSanni Yakkuappear in a large-scale ceremony known as theSanni Yäkuma, ‘the demon ceremony of theSanni’. In my analysis I shall emphasize the dramatic aspects of the rituals, where the demons appear on stage in masked representations. In these rituals a great deal of comic dialogue and obscenities prevail. Their significance has been missed by Wirz who describes one of these rituals, thedolaha pelapāliya(spectacle for the twelve gods) in the following terms: ‘This scene is called simply ‘pelapāliya’, which may best be translated as ‘dance suite’, or ‘musical show.’ … In reality, it is only interposed for diversion and has no deeper meaning’ (1954: 59). A highly sophisticated anthropologist presumably refers to similar comic humour when he says that ‘after more hocus-pocus,Riri Yakais eventually told that by the orders of the Buddha (Budu anin) and the power of the gods (deviyangē balē) he must accept thedola(offering) and remove his curse from the patient' (Ames, 1964: 42). Almost identical words are spoken toKōla Sanniyain theSanni Yäkumaritual, but we shall interpret and unravel the symbolic meaning of these humorous ritual dramas and consider their evolution and social functions.
Communism and the French Intellectuals, 1919–23
Authors: Jefferson Carter
Published: June 2009

Whatever its author's intention, nearly every study of the history of Soviet Russia or of the international Communist movement contributes to the continuing controversy over Lenin's responsibility for all the policies that usually are lumped together under the label of Stalinism. Irving Howe and Lewis Coser wrote in 1957 that ‘from the party of Lenin to the party of Stalin there is a fundamental disjuncture marked by a violent counter-revolution’. In a more recent exchange of views on this subject, George Lichtheim, although he did not say that Lenin would have behaved as Stalin did, said it is his considered opinion that ‘Stalin's policy, broadly speaking, was within the context established by Lenin in 1923’. Lichtheim was referring in particular to Stalin's industrialization plans, but in the same article he makes it clear that his opinion holds for Stalin's policy in its entirety.
Power, Civil Society and Culture in the Ottoman Empire
Authors: Mardin Şerif
Published: June 2009

Few countries have been as frequently described in terms of national character as Turkey. Even the earliest observers of the Ottoman Empire appear anxious to set their findings into some generalized formula of the Turkish ethos. The term used to refer to these attempts at national stereo-typing in the lingua franca of the Levant was Alia Turca behavior, an expression which has survived into modern Turkish.
Congregations and Associations: the Political Structure of the Chinese Community in Phnom-Penh, Cambodia
Authors: Willmott W. E.
Published: June 2009

The study of overseas Chinese has continued for some time as a series of somewhat unrelated monographs with little comparative analysis. One of the few important attempts at sociological generalization about Chinese communities in Southeast Asia was made by Maurice Freedman in an article entitled ‘Immigrants and Associations’, which appeared in this journal in 1960. In this article, Freedman suggested that ‘the associations which in a small-scale and relatively underdeveloped settlement express social, economic and political links in an undifferentiated form, tend, as the scale and complexity of the society increase, to separate into a network of associations which are comparatively specialized in their functions and the kinds of solidarity they express’ (Freedman, 1960: 47 f.). He proposed a continuum of types of overseas Chinese urban communities. At one end stands Kuching, Sarawak, ‘as the model of a simple and relatively small-scale overseas settlement’, while ‘Later Singapore is … the model of the most developed form of immigrant Chinese settlement in Southeast Asia’ (ibid.: 45). Singapore exhibits a great number of associations, based on criteria of recruitment that allow memberships to overlap to a great extent; the urban Chinese community in Sarawak includes fewer associations and consequently less overlap among memberships. Other studies in Southeast Asia suggest that this continuum might be a useful way of looking at the development of Chinese communities.
The Analysis of Corruption in Developing Nations
Authors: Scott James C.
Published: June 2009

By way of introducing so charged a subject as corruption we do well to remind ourselves that if the traditional rulers of the colonized areas left much to be desired in terms of present standards of public office-holding, the colonizers themselves could scarcely be regarded as models of probity. Colonial office until the twentieth century was regarded more often than not as an investment in an exclusive franchise that was expected to yield a good return to the political entrepreneur who acquired it. In Spain this conception was reflected in the practice of selling certain colonial posts at public auction. Dutch practice in Batavia, although not identical, signified a similar notion of office. Here the colonial administrator owed his superiors a regular charge that could be described as a ‘license to hold office’ in return for which he could anticipate, in addition to his small salary and a share of the district crop yield, more or less open payments from the Dutch business interests he had assisted in the course of his duties.
The Principle of Acceleration: A Non-dialectical Theory of Progress
Authors: Dovring Folke
Published: June 2009

A tendency for progress (and change, generally) to accelerate is clearly perceptible in the present epoch and has been commented upon many times. Quantitative additions to population, national income, and wealth, and other measurable indicators come larger by every decade. The number of scientifically trained persons alive in this year is much larger than the sum of all those that lived in previous generations. Revisions of even basic scientific theory occur more often than before, and the lead time between a basic invention and the blueprint for mass production grows shorter and shorter.
Comment
Authors: Kuhn Thomas S.
Published: June 2009

Possessing little knowledge or competence in either demography or economics, I am in no position to comment on the central portion of Professor Dovring's paper. Fortunately, I feel no call to do so, for I very much doubt that it can be faulted. No refinement of data or analysis is likely to set aside his basic conclusions. If the time intervals analyzed are made long enough to eliminate local fluctuations, accelerated rather than linear growth, whether of population or productive capacity, has characterized man's life on earth since at least the conquest of fire. Only historical myopia can account for the view that an increasing tempo of change dates only from the Industrial Revolution, that our current condition is, with respect to the existence of acceleration, essentially new.
Counter-Comment
Authors: Dovring Folke
Published: June 2009

The gist of Professor Kuhn's remarks seems to be a low appreciation of the role of the intellect in nonscientific technology and a high emphasis on the positive role of chance discovery.
Some Observations on the Dynamics of Traditions
Authors: Eisenstadt S. N.
Published: June 2009

This paper is based on certain concepts about the nature of social and cultural order and traditions. We view social and cultural traditions, first, as the major ways of looking at the basic problems of social and cultural order, and of posing the major questions about them; second, as giving various possible answers to these problems; and, third, as the organization of institutional structures for implementing different types of solutions or answers to these problems.
Avatars of Indian Research
Authors: Fox Richard G.
Published: June 2009

Like differing versions of Vishnu, the same difficult problems continuallyreappear in the scholarly literature on India. The nature of caste, itsresiliency or dissolution in the face of modernization; the quality oftraditional Indian civilization, its adaptation or collapse in response toeconomic development and industrialization, are two questions whichcontinue to haunt the specialist on South Asia. What hangs in the balance is not only our understanding of social change or non-change in industrializing societies, but the validity of anthropology and the other social sciences as adequate methods of description and analysis in the contemporary world. If the ‘ethnographic present’ always remains only the past, then is not the value of anthropology and social science immeasurably diminished?
European Political Emigrations: A Lost Subject
Authors: Williams Robert C.
Published: June 2009

Historians generally dislike lost causes. They seek to explain what happened, rather than what might have been, and have consequently neglected the story of political emigrations. Granted, the study of dmigres is full of methodological pitfalls for the unwary: biased accounts of past issues, outright forgeries of documentary evidence, personal recriminations that serve to distort political reality, and a pervasive mood of bitterness, acrimony, nostalgia, and endless hope. Yet it is an important story, not only because of its intrinsic merit as a political phenomenon worth studying, but also because of the effect that exiles have had both in their place of refuge and in their homeland when they have been able to return. He who would ignore the émigrés might do well to recall that the experience of exile helped fashion the political careers of Marx, Lenin, and Trotsky, as well as of Charles II and Louis XVIII.
The Malayan Bureaucracy and its Occupational Communities: a Comment on James de Vere Allen's ‘Malayan Civil Service 1874–1941’
Authors: Ness Gayl D.
Published: June 2009

Few sociologists would quarrel with Dr. Allen's use of the term bureaucracy in his analysis of the Malayan colonial government. Nor could one argue that he has failed to come to grips with certain central sociological issues in the analysis of bureaucracies. On the contrary, Dr. Allen has given us an excellent case study that illuminates some of the dynamics of the bureaucratic processes.
Market Place and Marketing System: Toward a Theory of Peasant Economic Integration
Authors: Forman Shepard , Riegelhaupt Joyce F.
Published: June 2009

Students of peasant society recognize the importance of the market economy for understanding decision-making processes within the house- hold and the nature of articulation between the peasant sector and the national society. We intend to describe market behavior in Northeast Brazil and to relate such behavior to changes in the agricultural economy in general. The ultimate goal is to understand how peasants are integrated into the national economy as commodity producers and consumers of manufactured goods. By concentrating on the internal marketing system for food staples in Northeast Brazil we hope to refine earlier views of peasants and to suggest a definition of peasantry based on economic integration rather than on partial participation in the national culture.
Popular Diplomacy and Policy Effectiveness: A Note on the Mechanisms and Consequences (Comment on Birn)
Authors: Singer J. David
Published: June 2009

While the Washington Conference of 1921–2 was not the first occasion on which public opinion had exercised an impact upon great power diplomacy, it seems to have provided one of the more dramatic illustrations of a process already well under way. In his Discourses, Machiavelli (p. 248) had already noted the dangers of building policy on the opinion of the people:

And if you propose to them anything that, upon its face, seems profitable and courageous though there be really a loss concealed under it which may involve the ruin of the republic, the multitude will ever be most easily persuaded to it. But, if the measure proposed seems doubtful and likely to cause loss, then it will be difficult to persuade the people to it, even though the benefit and welfare of the republic were concealed under it.
The Transmission of Life: Certain Generalizations about the Demography of Europe's Nations in 1939–41
Authors: Lukacs John
Published: June 2009

The Second World War became a world war only in December 1941. By that time not only the extent but also the character of its warfare had changed, with the German invasion of the Soviet Union. Thus 1941 was even more of a turning-point in the history of the Second World War than 1917 had been in the history of the First. Most historians of the Second World War would agree with this assessment. Thus it is perhaps not surprising that relatively little interest has been devoted to the history of the everyday lives of European peoples during the years 1939–41, during what could be called in retrospect (perhaps hopefully so) the Last European War.
Tradition
Authors: Shils Edward
Published: June 2009

All existing things have a past. Nothing which happens escapes completely from the grip of the past; some events scarcely escape at all from its grip. Much of what exists is a persistence or reproduction of what existed earlier. Entities, events or systems, physiological, psychological, social and cultural, have careers in which at each point the state of the system stands in some determinate relationship to the state of the system at earlier points.
The Sociology of the Opposition to Science and Technology: With Special Reference to the Work of Jacques Ellul
Authors: Sklair Leslie
Published: June 2009

The history, philosophy, sociology and even the science of science are by now thriving activities. This is in no way surprising; indeed if one examines the development of each of these approaches to the study of sciences, the surprising thing is that it emerged so comparatively recently. The history of science as an academic discipline tends to begin with a reference to Comte's grand scheme of the mid-nineteenth century, passing through Sarton's great pioneering work of the first half of the present century, largely embodied in the volumes of Isis (1913- ), founded, edited and in no small part written by Sarton himself. At present, so far as one can see, many historians of science are rethinking the great and fairly continuously progressive features of Sarton's account, and the emphasis is turning more and more to the discontinuities.
Men, Women, and Trade
Authors: Mintz Sidney W.
Published: June 2009

This paper considers one aspect of the relationship between social organization and certain sorts of economic activity, using a particular setting, the internal market system in peasant societies (Mintz, 1959), as a frame of reference. The argument proceeds from the well-known fact that, in many of these market systems, much or even most of the distributive activity is carried on by women, and these women often engage in commerce more or less independently of the economic undertakings of their husbands. In such cases, husband and wife participate in distinguishably different risk structures, an arrangement having particular relevance to the nature of family life and culturally determined sex-role differentiation. Furthermore, since husbands and wives in such cases may carry on not only independent but also different economic pursuits, it would not be surprising if some of the attitudes related to the kind of economic activity also differed along sexual lines. Productive and distributive undertakings require different skills; probably they evoke different temperamental responses as well. One might claim that the tests of success for the middleman are different in character from the tests of success for the agricultural producer; those successful in one pursuit are not necessarily those most likely to succeed in the other. Of course this contention does not preclude some optimum combination of skills; many producers alsoengage successfully in intermediary and distributive activities, and some of the so-called underdeveloped world's most skilled traders began as agricultural producers (Bauer, 1957: 71; Bauer and Yamey, 1957: 104–5).
Venezuelan Agrarian Problems in Comparative Perspective
Authors: Powell John Duncan
Published: June 2009

The rate of modernization in Venezuela over the past forty years has been rapid, even startling, if attention is focussed on the more conspicuous institutions and processes. During this period an agrarian, patrimonially ruled, backward society has been transformed into a highly commercialized urban society governed by a political party system based on widespread popular participation in the electoral process. However—and this is a phenomenon of which social scientists in the United States have become increasingly aware—modernization does not affect people in an evenhanded, uniform manner. While the great transformation in economy and society which we call modernization improves the quality of life for many people, some groups or individuals are bypassed in the process, and some even come to suffer as a consequence of it. Therefore, the level of modernity and personal well-being achieved in the most advanced sectors of a society will often be irrelevant as an indicator of welfare in those pockets of deprivation left behind or created in the general march of progress.
Post Peasants: The Character of Contemporary Sardinian Society
Authors: Weingrod Alex , Morin Emma
Published: June 2009

Considerable attention has recently been given to depicting the present-day conditions of rural life in developing and industrializing states. Anthropologists have begun to doubt whether the familiar term ‘peasant society’ adequately represents those rural groups that are increasingly linked with an urban-based industrial economy and society. A number of alternate terms and constructs have lately been suggested. For example, in a recent article Erasmus (1967) explores what he calls the ‘upper limits of peasantry’ in portions of Bolivia, Venezuela and Mexico. By ‘upper limits of peasantry’ Erasmus refers to those segments of the rural population that are within a market economy and national polity and yet are only partially integrated within an emergent industrial society. To cite another recent example, Lopreato's study of a Calabrian village (1967) details how emigration and the subsequent remittances altered the social and economic structure of a long-impoverished South Italian community. Interestingly, Lopreato entitles his study Peasants No More; like Erasmus he too wishes to indicate the changed character of rural life in industrializing states.
Old-Regime Governors: Bureaucratic and Patrimonial Attributes
Authors: Armstrong John A.
Published: June 2009

Recent concern with the process of modernization has heightened interest in the origins of bureaucracy in societies which have succeeded in modernizing. Relatively little attention, however, has been directed to territorial governing elites as an element of bureaucratic development. In what sense did governors in premodern societies resemble modern bureaucratic officials? Did the resemblances increase as the societies approached the modern period; or (as Marion J. Levy suggests) did the bureaucratic elements tend to degrade in the particularistic environment?
Comment
Authors: Pooley Beverley J.
Published: June 2009

The scarcity of skilled professional manpower in developing nations has given rise, of necessity, to a formidable array of para-professional personnel. Khare's description of the touts of Lucknow and the ‘sea-lawyers’ of Gopalpur serves as a useful starting point for discussion in this vastly important but little-treated subject. From a lawyer's point of view, most of the crucial questions are not answered here. How much actual legal business, in terms of letter-writing, negotiations and simple giving of advice, is in fact carried out in the village by the para-legal individuals described? To what extent are their opinions, and ways of operating, similar? Do they, by virtue of pervasive and agreed practice, in fact ‘make’ law? Are they possibly, being closer to the people, more acceptable to the people, more efficient than ordinary lawyers, and cheaper?
Kinship in Professional Relations: A Study of North Indian District Lawyers
Authors: Morrison Charles
Published: June 2009

The development of the modern Indian legal system provides, as Marc Galanter notes, a remarkable instance of the total displacement of a major intellectual and institutional complex in a highly developed civilization with one largely of foreign origin or at least inspiration and the replacement of the savants and practitioners of the older system by a new elite. The bulk of this modern elite, the second largest body of legal practitioners in the world, comprises the district lawyers orvakils. This paper describes some aspects of social organization among thevakilsof Ambala City, a small district headquarters town in the North Indian state of Haryana.
Ecological Variables in the Origin and Evolution of African States: the Buganda Example
Authors: Kottak Conrad P.
Published: June 2009

Anthropologists have been interested in African societies and cultures for several decades. Few will dispute the contributions which British social anthropologists and others have made to the understanding of African institutions, especially in the domains of kinship and marriage, political organization, and most recently in urban studies. Many of these studies, however, have been avowedly synchronic; they are intended as descriptions of societies at a single time level. Even in those cases where the anthropo- logist has been privileged to conduct research within the same society over an extended period of time, the problems of social and cultural change which he documents generally involve modifications of ‘traditional’ institutions and behavior in the context of colonialism, postcolonialism, and world capitalism. While such studies are extremely important, the processes they describe do not exhaust the limits of the study of change in African society.
Race, Class and Power: Some Comments on Revolutionary Change
Authors: Kuper Leo
Published: June 2009

Such is the power of early conditioning, that it is only after many years of reflection that I have come to question the university of the class struggle. Economic exploitation, and an intimate relationship between economic and political power, may be almost universal. But there are some societies in which the relationship to the means of production does not define the political struggle, and in which class conflict is not the source of revolutionary change.
Kibbutz and Colony: Collective Economies and the Outside World
Authors: Barkin David , Bennett John W.
Published: June 2009

In an increasingly integrated world social system, the communitarian society must guard its autonomy while it simultaneously adjusts to external institutions in order to survive. In this paper we are concerned with the ways in which two of the most successful or at least enduring examples of collective agriculture and communal living, the kibbutz communities of Israel and the colonies of Hutterian Brethren in North America, are adapting to the pressures of the external society in order to retain their cultural integrity.1 Although the ideologies of these groups are linked in the distant past, from the standpoint of cultural background one could hardly find two more disparate cases: the sixteenth-century Anabaptist Hutterites with their Christian brotherhood, and the kibbutzniks, with their secular socialism and Zionist zeal. These are real differences, but these communities also have two important things in common: a dedication to the principles of communal property and communal living, and making a living by operating large, diversified agricultural enterprises. These similarities create a common need on the part of both Hutterites and kibbutzniks to maintain a certain distance from the surrounding society and its prevailing individualistic organization; to calculate the advantages and disadvantages of an agrarian economy in an industrial age; and to experience virtually identical problems of management and social organization created by large-scale agrarian diversification.
Concepts of Order in Southeast Asia and Micronesia
Authors: Alkire William H.
Published: June 2009

In this article a system of ordering space found among the people of the central and western Caroline Islands of Micronesia will be described, the fundamental concepts of which bear a striking resemblance to particular regulative principles found among various Southeast Asian peoples. If a genetic connection is accepted for these parallels the form taken by Southeast Asian cultures after contact with ‘Hindu/Buddhist’ peoples can be interpreted as a natural outgrowth of concepts already basic to these cultures before such contact. The ethnographic information presented here, therefore, is directed to the comparative analysis of the culture history of Southeast Asia and Oceania and should be viewed in conjunction with the recent work of linguists and archaeologists on this topic (e.g. Benedict, 1966, 1967; Grace, Solheim and Chang, 1964).
Three North Mexican Folk Saint Movements
Authors: Macklin Barbara June , Crumrine N. Ross
Published: June 2009

In each of the three cases presented, the changing role of the folk saint as well as the development of the movement indicate that a four-stage transformation is in operation:

(1) The ‘call’ by means of a supernatural experience or ‘vocational struggle’ occurs in the future folk saint's life and initiates his career.

(2) Offering a practical religion with solutions to physical and personal problems, the saint attracts individuals who are seeking such solace and remedy. Common purpose, journey and encampment near the curer foster group identity.

(3)Myths about the miracle worker grow in the group and circulate abroad, intensifying group solidarity and attracting new adherents. Administrators and would-be exploiters enter. A transcendent ideology is introduced with social, political, and religious ramifications. These may be at once restorative and innovative. The success of the folk saint spawns other saints who also attract followers.

(4) External, traditional power structures are threatened, and retaliate by applying political pressure, so that the last stage sees the decline and eclipse of the movement, and the loss of its innovative elements. The saint, no longer a potential secular power, devotes himself to curing, thus reemphasizing the culturally defined, traditional role of curandero or hitolio.
Jewish Assimilation: The Case of Chinese Jews
Authors: Rhee Song Nai
Published: June 2009

Throughout the past two millennia or more the Jews of Diaspora have persistently maintained their religious and cultural identity in spite of many vicissitudes. Also, as manifested in Jewish history, where favorable conditions exist, politically and economically, Jewish communities have rarely experienced what may be described as a complete assimilation into their surrounding sociocultural milieu. An exceptional case, however, has been noted in China, where a once prosperous and burgeoning community of Jews did indeed experience that fate.