bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
German to English
Authors: Olea Ricardo A
Published: November 2023

This volume provides a comprehensive collection of definitions of geostatistical terms. There are more than 600 entries at varying levels of complexity to assist readers with different backgrounds. Cross-references make the book easily accessible to students, engineers, and others concerned with the meaning of terms found in geostatistical research and practice. Lists of equivalent terms in Chinese, French, German, Greek, Portuguese, Russian, and Spanish are included.
Computer Alignment of Sequences
Authors: Waterman Michaels. , Joyce Jana , Eggert Mark
Published: November 2023

Sequencing of DNA has precipitated a revolution in biology. Rapid sequencing techniques were introduced a little more than a decade ago, and the rate of sequencing continues to accelerate. As of spring 1991 the international databanks (EMBL, Gen Bank, and DDBJ) contained approximately 50 x 106 base pairs (bp) of DNA sequences with an average sequence length of about 1,000 bp.
Aligning DNA Sequences: Homology and Phylogenetic Weighting
Authors: Mindell David P
Published: November 2023

Ever since the term homology was defined as “the same organ in different animals under every variety of form and function” by Owen (1848), it has frequently been both used and debated. Homology is a concept representing an hypothesis of correspondence between features, and is used at different levels of biological organization (e.g., phenotypic, genotypic).
Vygotsky in Classroom Practice: Moving from Individual Transmission to Social Transaction
Authors: Moll Luis C , Whitmore Kathryn F
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we present a case study of a third-grade bilingual classroom.1 The students in the class are primarily working-class Mexican children, and the school is located within their neighborhood in a southwestern city of the United States. We have selected this classroom for discussion not only because it presents a striking contrast to the rote-like, intellectually limiting instruction that characterizes working-class schooling (e.g., Anyon, 1980; Goodlad, 1984; Oakes, 1986) but because its activities do not fit well or easily into current discussions of “guided practice” or “assisted performance” derived from Vygotskian theory, especially from dyadic interpretations of his concept of the zone of proximal development. Hence this chapter demonstrates how practice can exceed, as well as inform and elaborate, our the oretical notions.
Vygotskian Perspective on Children’s Collaborative Problem-Solving Activities
Authors: Forman Ellice A , Mcphail Jean
Published: November 2023

The everyday lives of adults are full of complex and ill-defined problems that require high-level reasoning and organizational skills. These problems are often solved in collaboration with other people. For example, a husband, wife, and babysitter may need to coordinate their weekly occupational and domestic work schedules in order to supervise one or more young children. When psychologists study problem-solving activity, however, they typically observe people while they work on well-defined problems by themselves in a laboratory environment. Only a few psychologists, educators, and anthropologists have paid much attention to the thinking activities of adults while they are engaged in naturalistic group problem-solving tasks (Gladwin, 1970; Hutchins, 1991; Lave & Wenger, 1991; Schoenfeld, 1989; Scribner, 1984). Their research shows that collaborative problem-solving activities provide a context in which supports for, constraints on, and challenges to an individual’s thinking occur. In many of these situations, achieving the solution to a problem becomes secondary to negotiating a shared problem definition and a common means of communication (Schoenfeld, 1989).
Activity Settings of Early Literacy: Home and School Factors in Children’s Ernergent Literacy
Authors: Gallimore Ronald , Goldenberg Claude
Published: November 2023

Vygotsky argued that a cognitive function appears “twice, or in two planes. first it appears on the social plane, and then on the psychological plane. First it appears between people as an inter-psychological category, and then within the child as an intrapsychological category” (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 163).
A Sociocultural Approach to Agency
Authors: Wertsch James V , Tulviste Peeter , Hagstrom Fran
Published: November 2023

In his review of the history of ‘psychological science and ideologies,’ Joravsky (1989) argued that a great deal of contemporary research in psychology rests on implicit assumptions that were once the topic of overt reflection and controversy. He pointed out that we now gloss over many issues, such as volition and the role of aesthetics in human thought, that were once at the center of inquiries into human nature. It is not because these issues have been adequately defined, let alone resolved, but because historical trends such as disciplinary fragmentation function to keep them out of view. The result is that psychology rarely addresses such matters. Instead, ‘Sophisticated people have learned to evade questions that seemed urgent a century ago,’ and ‘articulate prisoners’ of the current Zeitgeist ‘shrug indifferently’ when asked about troubling assumptions that underlie their research (Joravsky, 1989, pp. 3 and 4).
The Ambassadors and America’s Soviet Policy
Authors: Mayers David
Published: November 2023

George Kennan, Charles Bohlen, W. Averell Harriman, William Bullitt, Joseph E. Davies, Llewlleyn Thompson, Jack Matlock: these are important names in the history of American foreign policy. Together with a number of lesser-known officials, these diplomats played a vital role in shaping U.S. strategy and popular attitudes toward the Soviet Union throughout its 75-year history. In The Ambassadors and America’s Soviet Policy, David Mayers presents the most comprehensive critical examination yet of U.S. diplomats in the Soviet Union. Mayers’ vivid portrayal evokes the social and intellectual atmosphere of the American embassy in the midst of crucial episodes: the Bolshevik Revolution, the Great Purges, the Grand Alliance in World War II, the early Cold War, the Cuban Missile Crisis, the rise and decline of detente, and the heady days of perestroika and glasnost. He also offers rare portraits of the professional lives of the diplomats themselves: their adjustment to Soviet life, the quality of their analytical reporting, their contact with other diplomats in Moscow, and their influence on Washington. Assessing the strengths and weaknesses of American diplomacy in its most challenging area, this compelling book fills an important gap in the history of U.S. foreign policy and U.S.-Soviet relations. Readers interested in U.S. foreign policy, the cold war, and the policies and history of the former Soviet Union will find The Ambassadors and America’s Soviet Policy an intriguing and informative work.
Purges and the Failure of Collective Security
Authors: Mayers David
Published: November 2023

The term totalitarianism is held in disfavor by many social scientists, who view it as just a Cold War epithet signifying Western disapprobation of the Soviet Union. Its usefulness as a category in the study of political regime types (to be contrasted, say, with democracy, oligarchy, or tyranny) has been confounded further by conflicting definitions. Hannah Arendt, Carl Friedrich, Zbigniew Brzezinski, J. L. Talmon, William Kornhauser, and Leonard Schapiro are among the scholars who have tried but with only partial success to impart analytical rigor to the word since it first gained currency in the 1920s. Still, it has a peculiar staying power in the vulgate lexicon; historians and political scientists still use it in their references to Mao’s China, Hitler’s Germany, and Stalin’s USSR. However imprecise this usage, it indicates a certain wisdom. The quality that distinguished these states and set them apart from others was their ability to succeed in dominating people by asserting their utter superfluity.1 Assuming that the term is meaningful, one can next agree that between Bullitt’s residence in Moscow and the time Americans and Russians found themselves on the same side in another war, the USSR had undergone a change of drastic dimension (in political science parlance, a transformation of regime). Stalin’s dic-tatorship, entrenched by 1933, had flared into full-blown totalitarianism by the time Ambassador Laurence Steinhardt left his post in November 1941. The purge trials of the 1930s, the anonymous denunciations and mass arrests, and the deification of Stalin in the civic religion were symbol and substance of the totalitarian polity. The problem for U.S. policy and diplomats centered on the management of affairs with this totalitarian state while coping with the ambitions of another similarly constructed regime, Nazi Germany.
Hybrids and Hybrid Zones: Historical Perspective
Authors: Harrison Richard G
Published: November 2023

In most groups of animals, diversification over time is portrayed as a series of dichotomous branching events, suggesting that reticulate evolution (hybridization) occurs rarely. This view has been espoused by most evolutionary biologists. According to Mayr (1963), “the evolutionary importance of hybridization seems small in the better known groups of animals.”
Reinforcement: Origin, Dynamics, and Fate of an Evolutionary Hypothesis
Authors: Howard Daniel J
Published: November 2023

Species concepts and definitions have provided fertile ground for disagreements among biologists for more than 100 years (Darwin, 1859; Jordan, 1905; Du Rietz, 1930; Dobzhansky, 1937; Mayr, 1942, 1963, Burma, 1954; Mecham, 1961; Paterson, 1978, 1980, 1981, 1982; Donoghue, 1985; Coyne et al., 1988; Cracraft, 1989; Templeton, 1989). Yet most biologists would agree that in sexually reproducing organisms barriers to gene exchange exist between distinct species, and these barriers can be bro ken down into two classes: prezygotic and postzygotic. Included among prezygotic barriers are seasonal and habitat differences, long-distance signaling and courtship differences, and differences in genitalic structures. Included among postzygotic barriers are embryo inviability, hybrid inviability, hybrid sterility, and hybrid breakdown (for a more complete description of reproductive barriers see Mayr, 1963, and Dobzhan sky, 1970). Prezygotic barriers prevent individuals from wasting their gametes in the for mation of unfit hybrid individuals; hence such barriers are susceptible to enhancement by natural selection (Dobzhansky, 1940; Mayr, 1963). On the other hand, it is difficult to envision how natural selection could operate to strengthen postzygotic barriers such as hybrid inviability or sterility (Darwin, 1859; Mayr, 1963), except under fairly restrictive circumstances (Coyne, 1974). The potential involvement of natural selection in the formation of prezygotic barriers to gene exchange is what sets this group of barriers apart from postzygotic barriers. The process by which prezygotic barriers to gene exchange are improved by natural selection is known as reinforcement.
Genomic and Environmental Determinants of a Narrow Hybrid Zone: Cause or Coincidence?
Authors: Shaw David D , Marchant Adam D , Contreras Nelida , Arnold Michael L , Groeters, Fran , Kohlmann Bert C
Published: November 2023

The application of molecular and biochemical analytical techniques to evolutionary problems has revealed that, in most cases, speciation or cladogenesis is associated with cumulative changes to many components of both the nuclear and cytoplasmic genomes. These components include allelic frequencies at single gene loci, multigene families and polygenic systems, the structure, abundance, and distribution of various classes of nontranscribed DNA, and major genomic reorganization by chromosomal rearrangement. The changes are also frequently correlated with varying levels of both premating and postmating reproductive isolation, although any causal relations have yet to be definitively established.

The recognition of numerous examples of taxa that form hybrid zones in nature has provided evolutionary biologists with a unique opportunity to examine in situ the mechanics and dynamics of phyletic divergence and, in particular, to define the genetic determinants of species formation. Thus the principal models of speciation, as put for ward by Mayr (1963), Dobzhansky (1970), Carson (1971); and others could now be quantified and appraised for their evolutionary relevance.
Chromosomal Hybrid Zones in Eutherian Mammals
Authors: Searle Jeremy b.
Published: November 2023

It has long been realized that many closely related species of eutherian mammals differ in karyotype, sometimes to an extreme degree (e.g., Bush et al., 1977; White, 1978a; Bengtsson, 1980). Furthermore, these species may themselves be subdivided into two or more “karyotypic races,” each of which typically occupies a geographically continuous area and is characterized by particular fixed chromosomal variants. This review examines the “hybrid zones” that occur where such races overlap and hybridize. Several well-studied eutherian chromosomal hybrid zones are described, but to aid interpretation various properties of chromosomal variants must first be considered.
Insights into Processes of Visual Perception from Studies in the Olfactory System
Authors: Freeman Walter J
Published: November 2023

The certainty of ideas is not the foundation of the certainty of perception but is, rather, based on it-in that it is perceptual experience which gives us the passage from one moment to the next and thus realizes the unity of time. In this sense all consciousness is perceptual, even the consciousness of ourselves.
Alterations of the Functional Organization of Primary Somatosensory Cortex Following Intracortical Microstimulation or Behavioral Training
Authors: Merzenich Gregg H Recanzone Michael M
Published: November 2023

A number of different electrophysiological strategies have been employed to elucidate the governing principles of neocortical function. One useful approach has been to record from cortical neurons in awake or anesthetized animals, parametrically defining the specific stimuli that best activate the sampled neurons. These studies have led to an understanding of the functionally effective projections to the cortex at that time in the life of an adult animal.
Localization of Primal Long-Term Memory in the Primate Temporal Cortex
Authors: Miyashita Yasushi , Sakai Kuniyoshi , Higuchi Sei-Ichi , Masui Naohiko
Published: November 2023

Memory has stages. The distinction between short- and long-term memory has been supported not only by their capacity, optimal code, and time parameters but also by the double dissociation of neuropsychological deficits (Milner, Corkin, & Teuber, 1968; Warrington, 1982). Long-term memory itself has been claimed to have at least two components: one is the recently acquired, labile memory that can be readily disrupted by head injury, as retrograde amnesia demonstrates clinically (Russell, 1971). The other is the remote, fully consolidated memory (Squire, Slater, & Chace, 1975). Drug applications selectively depress or facilitate the labile component (McGaugh & Herz, 1972).
What the Chick Can Tell Us About the Process and Structure of Memory
Authors: Rose Steven P R
Published: November 2023

Being the final chapter in this book has some advantages; the pos1t10n enables one to try to extract some common themes and to set one’s own interests in the context of, or even in contention with, ideas and issues that have been raised earlier. I will try to identify some of these issues and to show how experiments from my own lab, using the young chick as a model for the study of memory mechanisms, may perhaps cast light on them. The overarching problem seems to be whether it is possible to build a general theory that can unify-or at least put into a common context-the disparate approaches and findings concerning the cellular processes of memory formation. As earlier chapters have perhaps inadvertently revealed, we are still far from that point. We do not even yet know how many different theories of memory might be required by the multiplicity of phenomena embraced within that term. Let me try to tease apart some of the paradoxes and dichotomies that, depending on one’s viewpoint, either enrich or impede our progress.
Issues of Causality
Authors: Lazarus Richard S
Published: November 2023

There follows a difficult set of issues concerning causality in the emotion process. Three main issues stand out: The first has to do with causality itself and I deal with it very briefly; the second, on which there is vigorous debate, has to do with whether and how cognition plays a causal role in emotion, and I deal with it at greater length in conjunction with appraisal My position is that appraisal is a necessary and sufficient condition but that the knowledge on which appraisal rests is necessary but not sufficient; this needs further clarification and defending. The third concerns how to reconcile biological universals with learned sociocultural, develop mental sources of variability in the emotion process.
Implications for Research, Assessment, Treatment, and Prevention
Authors: Lazarus Richard S
Published: November 2023

In this final chapter it is my intention to spell out the implications of the way I have been thinking about emotions for three practical enterprises: research, assessment, and clinical intervention for the purposes of psychotherapy and prevention. There are a great many themes in the preceding chapters, and some are more significant than others for each of the three enterprises
Liberal Community and Civic Virtue: An Analysis
Authors: Sinopoli Richard C
Published: November 2023

Among James Madison’s more frequently quoted remarks was offered on the floor of the Virginia ratification convention: “Is there no virtue among us? If there be not, we are in a wretched situation. No theoretical checks-no form of government can render us secure. To suppose that any form of government will secure liberty or happiness without any virtue in the people is a chimerical idea.”1
The Psychology of Citizenship: The Scottish Connection
Authors: Sinopoli Richard C
Published: November 2023

Antiquity always begets the opinion of right; and whatever disadvantageous sentiments we may entertain of mankind, they are always found to be prodigal both of blood and treasure in the maintenance of public justice. Davm Hume, “Of the First Principles of Government” Perhaps no phrase of David Hume’s better displays his remarkable capacity to mix wit with a dose of cynicism to yield a rather profound insight.1 However much we may think ill of our fellows we at least have to credit them with a prodigal willingness to spill each other’s blood (for, of course, a good cause). Contained in this gibe is the observation that stable government rests on its ability to engage both the interests and the affections of its subjects. How it comes about that government does this is Hume’s question. How it can be made to come about, given strict limits on appeals to antiquity, is a question addressed by the authors of The Federalist and their Anti-Federalist rivals.
The Soil Biotron: An Underground Research Laboratory
Authors: Teeri James A
Published: November 2023

The concept of a special-purpose research facility that provides many investigators with a unique observational ability is well established. In earlier centuries deep ocean sailing ships provided natural scientists with the means to collect and inventory the plants, animals, and geology of the earth. Today submersible vessels continue to make this process of discovery possible in environments that were previously inaccessible. The discovery of the undersea thermal vents and their associated unanticipated biota is a recent example of the new information gained from such facilities. Satellites for observations of deep space, particle accelerators in the physical sciences, special-purpose aircraft, and large-scale controlled environment growth chambers are additional examples.
The Genesis of the Antiparasitic Drug lvermectin
Authors: Campbell William C
Published: November 2023

It was not a neat event; it is not a “gee whiz” story. No cerebral light bulb flashed the form and function of ivermectin on anybody’s mental screen. Nor was the discovery of this new drug the result of an industrial research team’s deciding to take existing scientific knowledge at point A and develop it to point B, where it would yield a product to be sold. Nor, yet again, was it a matter of chance, in which some industrial Princes of Serendipe sailed to an antiparasitic landing while bound for other therapeutic territory. No, it was a complicated and unglamorous mixture of all of these. That is not as trite as it may seem, for all of those kinds of discovery do happen in the context of modern industrial research. I have been asked to tell the story, despite my warnings about its intrinsically untidy nature, and am emboldened by assurances that an examination of any such real-life situation would be, if not pleasing, at least edifying. My excuse for accepting the invitation to tell the story myself is that I was, in Dean Acheson’s sense of the phrase, “present at the creation.” I speak as a parasitologist; and the parasitology effort, after all, provided as good a vantage point as any from which to observe the emergence of what was to become a major antiparasitic drug.
The Topography of Invention
Authors: Perkins David N
Published: November 2023

In the mid-fifteenth century, books, and especially the Bible, were not widely avail able for lack of an efficient technology of printing. It was then that the metalworker Johann Gutenberg began his systematic search for an approach to mass printing of the Bible. In Gutenberg’s day, a handcraft of printing already existed: Wooden plates were carved and used to print a number of copies of a page. However, the plates were laborious to prepare and printing a page took some time, because it involved placing the paper against the inked wooden plate and rubbing it until a good impression resulted.
Technology on the Move: The Role of Patents
Authors: Quigg Donald J
Published: November 2023

It is well occasionally to examine the trends in inventive activity that are likely to change the way we live-and perhaps how long we live. The rate of patenting is generally accepted as an indicator of national and inter national technological trends. A look at patenting activity in the U.S. patent system tells us a lot. It’s clear that microelectronics, telecommunications, computers, robotics, and biotechnology continue to be among the fastest growing areas. Deep within the research labs of companies, both big and small, and in private labs and workshops throughout the land, is the real creative resource-the inventor. We still depend heavily on the lone inventor and on the patent attorney who helps to bring inventions to the marketplace. Many large companies sprang from an inventor’s single creative thought.
The Social World of Adolescents: Family, Peers, Schools, and the Community
Authors: Perry Cheryl L , Kelder Steven H , Komro Kelli A
Published: November 2023

This chapter examines broad changes in the social world of American adolescents that occurred in the 1980s, the implications of these changes for the social health of youth, and promising educational and intervention strategies that appear to promote healthy socialization and may ameliorate some of the health-compromising trends. In the first section, we review Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological systems model of development and then highlight its usefulness for understanding health promotion among family, peers, schools, and mass media. The primary concern of this review is the quality of the changes that occurred in the 1980s, particularly as they impacted healthy adolescent socialization. The second section offers potential approaches, solutions, and strategies that also emerged in the past decade and provides, by design, optimism for the 1990s.
‘‘Sex Is a Gamble, Kissing Is a Game’’: Adolescent Sexuality and Health Promotion
Authors: Brooks-Gunn Jeanne , Paikoff Roberta L
Published: November 2023

Adolescence is characterized by a series of developmental tasks that need to be mastered. In the realm of sexual development, such tasks include learning to manage feelings of sexual arousal, developing new forms of intimacy and autonomy, experiencing interpersonal relationships with the opposite sex, and developing skills to control the consequences of sexual behavior. The conceptual framework in which we study sexuality, or what we term sexual well-being, employs the constructs of vulnerability and resilience from developmental psychopathology. Vulnerability implies that a particular child or group of children who are at risk in a probabilistic sense for manifesting a certain behavior or set of behaviors are also susceptible to decrements in well-being. Risk factors are those biological, psychosocial, and environmental conditions, broadly defined, known to be associated with negative outcomes or decrements in well-being. The opposite of vulnerability and risk factors are resilience and protective factors. Protective factors and their links to resiliency have not been studied as extensively as risk factors and their links to vulnerability, yet they are critical to the promotion of well-being (Furstenberg, Brooks-Gunn, & Morgan, 1987; Garmezy & Rutter, 1988; Werner & Smith, 1982).
Mineral soulbilty
Authors: Sposito Garrison
Published: November 2023

Thus the "driving force" for inner-sphere complexes is the heat evolved through strong bond formation between a central group and ligand. For outer-sphere complexes, the heat of bond formation is not so large, and the "driving force" involves favorable stereochemical aspects of coordination about the central group.
Power Trans1nission Pollution
Authors: Young Louise B
Published: November 2023

Everyone agrees that electric transmission lines are appallingly ugly, but suggesting that they may also be sources of audible and electrical pollution is as surprising as saying that the homely freckle-faced boy next door is guilty of rape and sodomy. Most electric transmission lines look innocent enough. No Bickering fires play along the wires. No smoke pours off them. The air in their vicinity appears unaffected by their presence, and when we pass under them there is no sound or sensation of the millions of kilowatts that are passing directly over our heads.
A Bend in the line
Authors: Young Louise B
Published: November 2023

Aunt Kiz had spent a long afternoon in town. She had gone to the bank and visited the butcher shop. She had left her gardening shoes to be half-soled and had gone to three stores before finding a good serviceable cotton dress for summer. Finally, on her way out of town, she had stopped at the Cryder farm where she had arranged to buy a pair of Muscovy ducks. They were ensconced now on the back seat of her car, Hopping wildly in a perforated cardboard box.
Trees or Tow-ers
Authors: Young Louise B
Published: November 2023

The state forest known as Tar Hollow covers 16,000 acres. This land was purchased by the state of Ohio around 1930 and developed during the depression years, largely by WP A labor. Many miles of bridle trails and footpaths were opened up. Log shelters were built with stone fireplaces for cookouts. Several small streams were dammed to make little lakes for boating and fishing. These facilities are scattered thinly and very unobtrusively over the many acres of forest, and it is possible to spend hours in the park enjoying its beauty without encountering other people. There are protected sunny banks where trillium makes a dense carpet in the springtime and paw-paw trees drop their soft, redolent fruit in the fall.
Abuse of Discretion
Authors: Young Louise B
Published: November 2023

The environmental impact of the generation and transmission of electricity has become an increasingly important factor in determining the quality of life throughout the United States. Power plants and transmission lines add destructive chemicals to the air, waste heat to air and water, and radioactive elements to air, water, and iand. Because of the discretionary powers vested in the electric companies by the law of eminent domain, all the decisions which affect the extent and distribution of these pollutants are made by the utilities.
A Question of Power
Authors: Young Louise B
Published: November 2023

During the spring and summer of 1971, several newspaper. articles about the 765-kv lines appeared in local Ohio papers, and a television news program devoted a quarter of an hour to the subject. This publicity attracted the notice of the attorney general· of Ohio, who initiated some inquiries into the environmental effects of the extra-high-voltage transmission lines.
The Letter and the Reading Public
Authors: Zboray Ronald J
Published: November 2023

Credit for turning the United States into a “nation of readers” usually goes to the wide array of antebellum institutions discussed in the previous two chapters. The family, the church, the Sunday school, the common school, the academy, young men’s associations, maternal associations, mechanics’ institutes, private and public libraries, and the lyceum all either offered rudimentary literacy instruction or, in some way, promoted reading. Yet that so many institutions can be listed suggests the fragmented nature of literary socialization in antebellum America. Only after the Civil War with the enactment of compulsory attendance laws, would the common school come to dominate the other institutions of literacy instruction and reinforcement. Until that time, individuals had to find their own way through the complex matrix of institutions teaching or encouraging literacy.
Time, Space, and Chaos
Authors: Zboray Ronald J
Published: November 2023

The enormous geographical expanse of the United States, the relatively dispersed pattern of population and its diversity, and the continuing force of economic development have made the concepts of time and space a mainstay of the culture. Historians have not been unaware of the importance of these two dimensions, as these familiar formulations make plain: “the frontier thesis,” “the hero lost in time and space,” “people of plenty,” “virgin land,” “machine in the garden,” and, more recently, “the culture of time and space.”2 Political rhetoric has often added a note of futurity, from “city upon the hill” to “Manifest Destiny” to “the New Frontier.” While some of these views of historians and politicians acknowledge the impact of rapid economic development upon the concepts, none adequately accounts for the role played by print culture, as traced in these pages, in changing spatial and temporal perceptions and the location of American identity within these dimensions. There was, as will be discussed, a dynamic quality to the varying dispositions of time, space, identity, and the printed word in each of the four major historical periods before the Civil War: the colonial era, the period of the American Revolution and early republic, the early nineteenth century, and the antebellum years.
Connectionism without Tears
Authors: Seidenberg Mark S
Published: November 2023

What accounts for the cool reaction to the emergence of connectionism in the 1980s on the part of people who study language for a living? Most of the critical assessments of connectionism that followed the initial explosion of interest in the approach came from people such as Bever, Fodor, Pinker, and Prince, whose works are firmly situated within the mainstream of linguistics and psycholinguistics. It will be an interesting project for a future student of the history of ideas or the sociology of science to investigate why, as Prince and Smolensky recently observed, connectionism was seen as ‘at best orthogonal and at worst antithetical to the goals of linguistic theory.’ This issue is of particular interest to me as someone who was trained in the standard linguistic-psycholinguistic school of thought but has utilized connectionist modelling techniques in studies of language processing. My own work has been grounded in the belief that connectionism and linguistics have more in common than some of the more polemical critiques of the approach would suggest. In this paper I will discuss some of the issues that have tended to separate the two approaches and describe some potentially interesting points of contact.
Progress and Prospects in Evolutionary Biology
Authors: Powell Jeffrey R
Published: November 2023

This book focuses on drosophila as an especially useful model organism for exploring questions of evolutionary biology in the full range of evolutionary studies: population genetics, ecology, ecological genetics, speciation, phylogenetics, genome evolution, molecular evolution, and development. The author presents an integrated view of evolutionary biology as elucidated in this single organism. Special effort is made to point out holes in our knowledge and areas particularly ripe for new investigation.
Neuromnemonics: Forms and Contents
Authors: Weinberger Norman M
Published: November 2023

“Forms of memory” encompasses a broad and heterogeneous set of problems and approaches. The preceding chapters provide an indication of the extensive dimensions of current research. Carew and his co-authors are concerned with different forms of memory within the domain of the neurophysiology of habituation, sensitization, and dis-habituation in a marine gastropod mollusk. Holland also deals with forms of memory from the viewpoint of conditioning, but he does so within the framework of behavioral analyses alone; the conditioning paradigms used with rats are considerably more complex than those employed by Carew. Johnson focuses on three mnemonic processes in normal and amnesic humans, using tasks quite different from those involved in conditioning as well as stimulus material unique to human animals, that is, language-based stimuli.
Forms of Memory: Issues and Directions
Authors: Shimamura Arthur P
Published: November 2023

What constitutes evidence for different forms of memory? In behavioral neuroscience, memory forms are often distinguished by the kind of test paradigm that is used-from nonassociative learning paradigms such as habituation and sensitization to verbal learning paradigms such as word recall and recognition. A critical issue in understanding the neurobiological basis of memory is to identify and characterize the neural architecture that supports such behavioral expressions of memory. In this chapter I evaluate evidence that has been used to argue for different forms of memory, particularly in the domain of neuropsychological research.
The Dissection by Alzheimer’ s Disease of Cortical and Limbic Neural Systems Relevant to Memory
Authors: Hoesen Gary W Van
Published: November 2023

Since the mid-1970s, Alzheimer’ s disease (AD) has been recognized as the most common form of dementia (Katzman, 1976). The clinical manifestations of AD are characterized by an unremitting decline in higher mental function, dominated typically by a memory impairment. However, the tempo of the changes vary and early onset AD is associated with a rapid decline (Corsellis, 1976; Tomlinson & Corsellis, 1984). Historically, this contributed to the confusion surrounding the term presenile dementia. Both this and senile dementia are now considered behaviorally and pathologically as AD, which recognizes that dementia can occur abnormally early, but that neither dementia nor extensive brain pathology is a necessary concomitant of senility. This is not to say that behavioral changes and structural changes to the brain do not occur in aging; of course they do, but an aberrant pace in terms of cognitive decline and an aberrant quantity of structural changes are abnormal, and together they form much of the essence of AD (Katzman, 1986).
Notes on Neural Computing and Associative Memory
Authors: Kohonen Teuvo
Published: November 2023

There is no doubt that the brain consists of discrete operational units (cells or cell groups) that are selectively activated to perform specific functions. Another salient feature is the vast number of feedback loops of local as well as global scale, which gives rise to various kinds of collective effects. A further indisputable fact is that the interconnections (the structures and/or strengths) are adaptive, a property without which learning would be impossible. Any remaining discrepancies then concern the conceptualization and characterization of these properties.
Crops
Authors: Rauschkolb Roy S , Hornsby Arthur G
Published: November 2023

The intent of this chapter is to examine principles that govern crop responses to nitrogen fertilization. An understanding of them should increase the efficiency of nitrogen fertilizer use by improving the prediction of nitrogen fertilizer requirements. The result should be a reduction in the nitrogen pollution potential.
Irrigation Systems
Authors: Rauschkolb Roy S , Hornsby Arthur G
Published: November 2023

In any type of agricultural production the fate of nitrogen is inescapably linked with that of water. In irrigated agriculture the fate of water is controlled in turn by the method of irrigation employed. Inherent differences in the way water is applied for each method of irrigation influence solute movement and replenishment of soil-water supply. Uniformity of water distribution, direction of water movement, efficiency of water application, and irrigation efficiency determine the frequency of water application and the amount of water to be applied in any given irrigation. Because of these differing characteristics, the method of irrigation has a major impact on nitrogen availability to the plant through its influence on direction of movement, amount of drainage below the root zone, redistribution within the root zone, and denitrification losses. Furthermore, the amount, frequency, and quality of water moving through the soil influence its chemical and physical characteristics, which may then be reflected in plant growth and the crop’ s use of water and nitrogen.
Equipment
Authors: Rauschkolb Roy S , Hornsby Arthur G
Published: November 2023

The type of machinery used for fertilizer application is seldom considered as a management variable. However, the selection of a piece of equipment for fertilizer application plays a definite role in the determination of the fertilizer source that can be used. Since the source of fertilizer nitrogen plays such an important role in the placement and timing of nitrogen fertilizers, and because of the different physical states (solid, liquid, and gas) that occur for the major nitrogen fertilizers materials, the selection of the proper piece of equipment or the selection of the proper source for a given piece of equipment makes the type of equipment available for fertilizer application a factor the grower must consider in the management of nitrogen. There are a large number of different fertilizer applicators designed to do one of two things—either apply the fertilizer to the surface of the soil or inject the fertilizer below the surface. There are a wide variety of metering and spreading devices used for both techniques in order to apply the material in as uniform a manner as possible.
Source of Nitrogen
Authors: Rauschkolb Roy S , Hornsby Arthur G
Published: November 2023

Because of the physical and chemical characteristics of nitrogen fertilizer materials and the different ways in which each of these materials interacts with the system variables, the source of nitrogen becomes an important factor in nitrogen management. As discussed in Chapter 5, these characteristics influence nitrogen movement in soils, the susceptibility to loss, and the transformation of nitrogen in the soil–plant–water system. Soil physical characteristics influence the rate of nitrogen movement through the soil profile and determine the magnitude of losses as a function of denitrification and leaching. Soil chemical characteristics such as cation exchange capacity (CEC) and pH affect the amount of ammonia volatilization losses that may occur. The amount of organic matter present and the degree of decomposition will influence the amount of nitrogen tie-up (immobilization) or release (mineralization). Each of the factors indicated plays a role in determining the most suitable source of nitrogen to use for any of these conditions.
Timing of Nitrogen Application
Authors: Rauschkolb Roy S , Hornsby Arthur G
Published: November 2023

The timing of nitrogen fertilizer applications is one of the key management techniques available to a grower for improving the efficiency of nitrogen use. Proper timing of applications to enhance the efficiency of nitrogen utilization requires an understanding of how plant characteristics determine the need for nitrogen during the season. Environmental factors regulate the availability of nitrogen by their influence on transformation rates, plant uptake, and conditions conducive to nitrogen losses. There is also considerable interaction between timing and placement. Appropriate timing is defined as having nitrogen positionally available in the quantity needed in time to meet the demand of the plant for the nutrient. In order to ascertain the appropriate timing of fertilizer nitrogen applications it is necessary to understand the effect of the system variables on the characteristics outlined above. The closer one can adjust the application of nitrogen to insure its availability to the plant when required, the greater the efficiency by virtue of enhanced opportunity for plant absorption before it is exposed to the myriad of loss mechanisms that decrease its availability to the plant.
Summary
Authors: Rauschkolb Roy S , Hornsby Arthur G
Published: November 2023

It should be amply apparent from the preceding discussions that agricultural production systems are exceedingly complex with numerous factors that must be considered in relation to nitrogen management in irrigated agriculture. There are several points that should be emphasized for the reader to put what has been presented into perspective. First, it should be abundantly clear that various forms of nitrogen in fertilizer do not all react in the same way in soil or water. Considerable emphasis has been placed on the differences that exist as they affect the reactions in soils, availability to plants, and the types of losses the fertilizers undergo. It is convenient to think only in terms of nitrogen when referring to all nitrogen fertilizer materials, but in order to utilize nitrogen fertilizers efficiently one must fully understand the differences between nitrogen sources and how their use is affected by system and management variables.
The First Court, 1790-1801
Authors: Schwartz Bernard
Published: November 2023

ChiefJustice Warren E. Burger once said “that he himself should be in a wig and gown, and had been cheated out of it by Thomas Jefferson.” The question of the Justices’ attire was a controversial issue when the United States Supreme Court first met. As was to be expected, Hamilton was for the English wig and gown. Jefferson was against both, but he said that if the gown was to be worn, “For Heaven’s sake, discard the monstrous wig which makes the English judges look like rats peeping through benches of oakum!”
Disorders of Visual-Spatial Perception and Cognition
Authors: Farah Martha J , Epstein Russell A
Published: November 2023

Humans are visual creatures, and our brain organization reflects this. Vision is the main function of the occipital cortex and occupies much of the parietal and temporal cortex as well. Even in the most anterior parts of the brain, as physically distant as possible from primary visual cortex, are areas dedicated to eye movement programming and visual working memory. One consequence of this organization is that lesions to many different parts of the brain can affect vision. The nature of the visual disturbance depends on the particular contribution that the damaged area would normally have made to vision.
Anosognosia
Authors: Adair John C , Barrett Anna M
Published: November 2023

Anosognosia refers to a condition in which brain-injured patients deny or fail to acknowledge their deficits. The term was originally used to describe lack of awareness or recognition of hemiparesis (Babinski, 1914). Subsequent reports applied the term more broadly to unawareness of any neurological or neuropsychological deficit (Fisher, 1989) including hemianesthesia, visual loss (hemianopia or cortical blindness), prosopagnosia, amnesia, dementia, aphasia, cortical deafness, involuntary movements, apraxia, and thought disorder due to schizophrenia.
Apraxia
Authors: Heilman Kenneth M , Rothi Leslie J Gonzalez
Published: November 2023

The motor system, which includes the corticospinal system together with motor neurons, is capable of directing muscles to make an almost infinite variety of movements. To perform skilled movements, the brain must acquire the knowledge through experience to program the motor system, so that these movements can be made correctly. Additionally, the brain must, through experience, learn to link motor plans to their meaning, thus providing purpose to each unique movement. The failure to correctly perform skilled, purposeful movement is called apraxia, a term originally coined by Steinthal (1871), but derived from Greek and literally meaning without action.
Agnosia
Authors: Bauer Russell M
Published: November 2023

Agnosia a rare neuropsychological symptom defined in the classical literature as a failure of recognition that cannot be attributed to elementary sensory defects, mental deterioration, attentional disturbances, aphasic misnaming, or to unfamiliarity with external stimuli (Frederiks, 1969). Agnosia is characteristically modality-specific; the patient who fails to recognize material presented through a particular sensory channel (e.g., vision) can do so successfully in another channel (e.g., touch, hearing). In this chapter, we will review agnosias in the visual, auditory, and tactile modalities.
Neuropsychology of Dementia
Authors: Knopman David , Selnes Ola
Published: November 2023

Dementia is a syndrome defined by a nonacute decline in cognition that interferes with functioning in everyday living (American Psychiatric Association, 1994). Dementia, in contrast to disorders defined by deficits in only one cognitive or behavioral domain, is diagnosed when there are deficits in multiple domains. Memory dysfunction, abnormalities in speech/language, abnormalities in visuospatial function, deficits in abstract reasoning/executive function, and mood/ personality changes are the principal manifestations of the dementia syndrome. The most common dementia, Alzheimer disease (AD), almost invariably includes striking early deficits in new learning and recent memory. Alzheimer disease has an insidious onset and virtually always exhibits a declining course. Other common dementing disorders may have prominent dysfunction in other cognitive domains, but typically also lead to functional deterioration. In common usage, the term “dementia” is often used for nonprogressive conditions, but most dementing illnesses in the elderly are of neurodegenerative or cerebrovascular types, and, in fact, worsen over time.
Statement of the Problem: Why is Neuropsychological Rehabi Iitation Needed?
Authors: Prigatano George P
Published: November 2023

If patients who suffered various brain insults were able to recover adequately with time and/or the help of traditional rehabilitation therapies, neuropsychological rehabilitation would be unnecessary. The sad fact is that in many cases not only is the recovery incomplete but patients and their families still struggle with how to manage residual disturbances of higher cerebral functioning. It is for this primary reason that neuropsychological rehabilitation emerged and continues to be an important part of patient care. Principle 3 of this text asserts: Neuropsychological re habilitation must focus on both the remediation of higher cerebral disturbances and their management in interpersonal situations.