bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Postmodern Criminology
Authors: Madfis Eric
Published: March 2014

Postmodernism refers to a broad assortment of themes relevant to a wide variety of disciplines, including art, architecture, literature, and sociology. Postmodern criminology adopts its concern with language, symbols, and knowledge from the larger postmodern movement. Criminological applications of postmodernism constitute a diverse array of concepts and theories. As such, this entry serves to expose some broad commonalities, differences, and problems among contemporary work on postmodern criminology via a brief survey of the literature—with particular focus upon constitutive, chaos, and semiotic theories of crime.
Braithwaite, John
Authors: MDowell Lana A.
Published: March 2014

This entry focuses on the academic endeavors of John Bradford Braithwaite over the past 35 years within the field of criminology, including such topics as white‐collar crime, corporate crime, victimization, child welfare, juvenile delinquency, restorative justice, responsive regulation, and reintegrative shaming.
Young, Jock
Authors: Vollman Brenda K.
Published: March 2014

William (“Jock”) Young is a renowned British critical criminologist who has made a considerable and indelible contribution to the field of the sociology of crime. Along with others, he ushered in historically radical and left realist criminological concepts. He introduced such concepts as “moral panic,” “administrative criminology,” and “social deviance” to popular discussions of crime.
Constitutive Criminology
Authors: Henry Stuart
Published: March 2014

Influenced primarily by social constructionism, structuration theory, and postmodernism, constitutive criminology is a subfield of critical criminology that takes a holistic approach to crime and its control, while redefining crime as expressions of power that harm others. Constitutive criminology explains crime as the outcome of the interplay of micro and macro relations of power. The approach argues that crime is a coproduction of human agents' discursive constructions and the kinds of cultures and structures they create based on these constructed realities. The theory has been applied to explain different crimes and gained popularity among critical scholars in the late 1990s, though interest declined since 2005 as the theory became subject to criticism, not least from other critical criminologists.
Relative Deprivation
Authors: Smith Heather J.
Published: March 2014

Relative deprivation (
RD
) is the judgment that one is worse off compared to some standard, accompanied by anger and resentment. If the
RD
measure includes a clear comparison, angry resentment, and is matched to the outcome level of analysis,
RD
can explain how objective inequities are translated into subjective experiences. Empirical research indicates that people who feel deprived in comparison to their peers are more likely to engage in deviant behavior and report worse mental health.
Bonger, Willem
Authors: Moxon David
Published: March 2014

Willem Bonger was a Dutch scholar best known for his application of Marxism to criminology in his work
Criminality and economic conditions
, first published in 1905. Not only was this the first attempt to create a Marxist criminology, but Bonger also was the central figure in the establishment of criminology in the Netherlands. His sophisticated view of the socioeconomic causes of crime in capitalism retains its relevance to this day, in particular his notions of “egoism” and “demoralization.”
School Victimization
Authors: Mackey David A.
Published: March 2014

Victimization in school can take on numerous forms, which include property crime, violent crime, and bullying, whether it occurs in a face‐to‐face environment or in an online environment. School victimization can negatively impact both the learning environment and a child's educational opportunities. Research indicates that between July 1, 2008, and June 30, 2009 there were 38 school‐associated violent deaths. In 2008 alone, 1.2 million criminal victimizations occurred in school settings. Several theoretical models offer viewpoints to explain, describe, and prevent school victimization.
Moral Development Theory
Authors: Bush Michael D.
Published: March 2014

Moral development theory focuses on the shift in morality within individuals as they mature emotionally, socially, and cognitively over the course of their lifetime. Discussions about moral development typically include the contributions of Jean Piaget and Lawrence Kohlberg and their theories of stage development. Despite receiving much criticism about his six‐stage theory of moral development, Kohlberg's work continues to serve as a foundational element within moral development research and classroom practices.
Inequality and Crime
Authors: Bing Robert L. , Coston Charisse
Published: March 2014

This essay explores the complicated relationship between crime and inequality. It examines a variety issues in the literature on the topic, ranging from economic inequality and residential isolation to structural inequalities in American society. Special attention is devoted to the impact of the war on drugs and mass incarceration and the resulting barriers, which serve only to further increase the levels of inequality in American society. Policy recommendations grounded in evidenced approach methods are also included in the essay.
Harm Reduction
Authors: Hathaway Andrew D.
Published: March 2014

Harm reduction is a public health perspective on drug problems that views drug use as a fact rather than a moral issue. Its aim is to reduce the risks and adverse consequences of substance abuse, while the use of drugs continues in the immediate or short term, and while remaining neutral on the long‐term goal of treatment which may include strict abstinence from drugs. The harm reduction emphasis on practical solutions is demonstrated in a wide array of public health initiatives that address the individual and social harms resulting from both legal and illegal intoxicant abuse. Despite its logical appeal, the harm reduction movement remains a relatively marginal drug policy perspective due to continuing commitment in North America and elsewhere to a prohibition framework which criminalizes substance users with the goal of eliminating the use of certain drugs.
Mass Media and Crime
Authors: Taylor Rae
Published: March 2014

Mass media refers to media directed at a large audience. In addition to being the key source of information and entertainment in our society, the media are credited with being the most influential force in terms of our individual perceptions, beliefs, and behaviors, and the most powerful in shaping socio‐structural elements of society, including responses to crime. Scholars have determined that the relationship between the mass media, crime, and criminal justice is reciprocal whereby crime and justice affect media content, and vice versa. The social construction of crime in the media, framing practices used by the media in covering crime, criteria for newsworthiness, crime content in the media versus official data, effects of media on fear of crime victimization, and the notion of a “
CSI
Effect” are explored.
Social Control Theories
Authors: Schreck Christopher J.
Published: March 2014

This entry describes the development and features of social control theories of criminal offending. The theory assumes that the desire to commit crime is natural and conformity to law in the face of temptation is what must be explained. Social control theories emphasize the pressures that society creates to facilitate conformity to the law. Travis Hirschi's version of social control theory was the dominant example between the 1960s and 1990s, receiving extensive research attention and generally supportive findings, while Robert Sampson and John Laub's work, which expresses the theory in the language of the life course, has carried it into the twenty‐first century.
Sampson, Robert
Authors: Phillips Cynthia L.
Published: March 2014

Robert Sampson is Henry FordIIProfessor of Social Sciences at Harvard University and director of the social sciences program at the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study. He has published numerous articles and several books, most of which have a foundation in some aspect of community and disorder. His work has focused on urban violence, social inequalities, neighborhood influences on crime, and persistence and desistance in life‐course offending. His primary theoretical contributions have been a theory of the influence of neighborhood collective efficacy or the ability of residents to engage in collective action, based on mutual trust, on crime rates and an age‐graded life‐course theory of persistence and desistance in crime. He also has encouraged use of systematic social observation in addition to official statistics in analyzing the level of neighborhood disorder in theoretical work on community and crime.
Neoconservative Criminology
Authors: Shantz Jeff
Published: March 2014

New Right, or neoconservative, criminology emerged primarily in the early 1980s and is associated with social and economic transformations of neoliberal capitalist globalization. New Right criminology provides an economic rationalist program for dealing with social issues. Stressing the dominance of the market and economic efficiency and profit for capital, it asserts law and order politics as a response to growing social hardships. Emphasis is placed on the need to deploy mechanisms of control to clamp down on perceived social disorder or “anarchy.” State focus is directed toward surveillance and punishment of the poor and politically active (so‐called “dangerous classes”). New Right policies are associated with prison expansion (including private, for‐profit, prisons) and harsher laws (including mandatory minimum sentences). Key theories include “broken windows.”
Theoretical Integration
Authors: Blevins Kristie R.
Published: March 2014

Criminology offers many perspectives concerning the causes of crime and delinquency. Traditionally, criminologists have attempted to reduce the number of theories by testing them against one another. This process, however, has not been very effective. In light of the low level of explained variance in criminal behavior, and of the large number of plausible theories, some experts suggest that the best way to advance criminological knowledge is to integrate existing theories. The purpose of this article is to provide readers with an introduction to theoretical integration and examples of integrated theories.
Predicting Criminal Behavior
Authors: Blevins Kristie R.
Published: March 2014

Criminologists and criminal justice practitioners have been attempting to accurately predict criminal behavior for centuries. Today, there are empirically‐based actuarial risk assessments that can be used to classify offenders according to risk and needs. This entry provides readers with an overview of the history of risk assessment, the types of assessment instruments available, and the advantages and disadvantages of various assessment tools.
Left Realism
Authors: Shantz Jeff
Published: March 2014

Left realism emerges as a dual response to the law and order agenda of New Right criminology and the supposed utopianism of anarchist and Marxist criminology. Left realism attempts to shift debates away from middle‐class fears of the working class and to take seriously working‐class experiences of crime, including working‐class fears of victimization, which Left realists record through the use of surveys. They note that the working classes suffer most from street crimes and argue that most working class people who commit crimes are not rebels or involved in acts of resistance as some critical theorists suggest. For Left realists, the working class should be directly involved in crime control processes and in developing relevant alternatives. Left realists emphasize practical reforms rather than advocating large‐scale social transformations or the abolition of statist institutions. These include community centers, community policing, and improvements in social resources in working‐class neighborhoods.
Urban Underclass
Authors: Roles Rocio , Moak Stacy C.
Published: March 2014

Urban poverty is a social phenomenon in the United States that is associated with many forms of social ills. As rapid social change swept across the country in the 1970s, minorities became particularly vulnerable to the economic and demographic forces that transformed the inner city. Technological advances, the suburbanization of blue‐collar employment, and the shift from goods‐producing to service‐producing industries significantly reduced the job opportunities for unskilled minorities. These changes led to high levels of unemployment. Coupled with residential segregation and discriminatory social practices, these phenomena raise barriers in the path of black social mobility, which works to create an urban underclass.
Twin and Adoption Studies
Authors: Boisvert Danielle
Published: March 2014

Biosocial criminology is a promising new approach to the study of antisocial and criminal behaviors. This perspective incorporates the individual's both inner and outer environment as ways to explain behavior. One way to assess whether the inner environment of individuals (namely genetics) is influencing their behavior is to study individuals of varying degrees of genetic relatedness. This can be accomplished by using either adoption or twin studies (or both). To date, hundreds of adoption and twin studies have been conducted using various populations, methodologies, and statistical techniques. The pattern of results emerging from these studies clearly demonstrates that both genetic and environmental factors influence a variety of antisocial and criminal behaviors. This line of evidence sets a strong foundation for continued biosocial research into the causes of criminal behavior.
Attachment Theory
Authors: Bolen Rebecca M.
Published: March 2014

Attachment theory, developed by John Bowly, is one of the more important theories for explaining human behavior. Its origins are in the nascent relationship between mother and infant, the effect of which can traverse the life span. Because of one of its primary tenets—that there is continuity and coherence to attachment patterns over time—one of the important properties of attachment theory is its capacity to predict future relationships. For the majority of attachments that are secure, children have expectations that, like their mother, others will be available to them and respond appropriately. Insecurely attached children, however, often have expectations that others will be unavailable and even hostile to them. Through at least three pathways, these expectations may lead a child over time to engage in more aggressive and delinquent behavior and to associate with others who are more aggressive.
Critical Criminology
Authors: Kauzlarich David
Published: March 2014

Critical criminology involves the politically progressive or radical study of crime, victimization, and criminal justice. Most critical criminologists are interested in how racial, ethnic, gender, class, and sexual orientation inequalities affect crime, victimization, and criminal justice. The major schools of critical criminology include Marxism, left realism, feminism, postmodernism, cultural criminology, and peacemaking criminology. Their critiques are centered, respectively, on capitalism, stratification and inequality, patriarchy, modernity, positivist criminology, and adversarial justice. Each of these perspectives is reviewed in this entry.
Mental Health and Crime
Authors: Dretsch Elizabeth Corzine
Published: March 2014

The relationship between mental health and crime is examined in a variety of ways. This article addresses the differences between how mental health is defined in legal and mental health contexts, as well as the legal standards for determining culpability for individuals who suffer from mental illness. This article also discusses the relationship between mental health and crime as well as mental health and victimization.
Krohn, Marvin D.
Authors: Baldwin Julie Marie
Published: March 2014

Born in Glen Ridge,NJ, March 5, 1947. Education: College of WoosterBA1969, Psychology; University of MarylandMA1972, Sociology; Florida State UniversityPhD1974, Criminology. Assistant Professor of Sociology, Western Illinois University, 1974–1975; Assistant Professor of Sociology, University of Iowa, 1975–1979; Associate Professor of Sociology, University of Iowa, 1979–1985; Associate Professor of Sociology, State University of New York at Albany, 1985–1988; Professor of Sociology, State University of New York at Albany, 1988–2005; Chair, Department of Sociology, State University of New York at Albany, 1992–1995; Professor and Associate Dean, School of Criminal Justice, State University of New York at Albany, 2005–2008; Professor and Director of the Division of Criminology, Law and Society, University of Florida, 2008–2011; Professor, Department of Sociology and Criminology & Law, University of Florida, 2011–present.
Burglary
Authors: Dwyer Terrence P.
Published: March 2014

Burglary is a serious criminal law offense indexed in the Federal Bureau of Investigation's annual crime reports. The offense of burglary has developed from its roots as a common law trespassory entry of property to commit a felony to its modern statutory enactment as a major property crime. Modern burglary statutes reflect the influence of the American Law Institute's definition in the Model Penal Code and attempts to standardize the definition of a burglary offense. As a criminal offense burglary is unique in that it is intent to commit another crime upon trespass but the burglary remains a completed criminal offense even if the intended crime is not completed. The severity of a burglary offense varies among states, based on the type of building entered, whether committed at night, and whether there are aggravating factors, such as a weapon.
Gangs: Theories of Involvement and Behavior
Authors: Pyrooz David C. , Ferrer Alejandro A.
Published: March 2014

Joining a gang is not as simple as “heads, you are a gang member;tails, you are not.” The selection process into a gang is not random, nor is delinquent gang behavior. Only 8% of people in the United States join a gang in their lifetime, meaning that for every one person who joins a gang there are 11 others who do not. Five criminological theories that explain gang membership are presented to understand factors leading individuals into gangs. Then, competing theoretical perspectives of deviant conduct are offered to explain variation in criminal behavior before, during, and after joining a gang.
Cultural Transmission and Crime
Authors: Black Pamela
Published: March 2014

This entry discusses theories that focus on the origins of crime as a function of value conflict between dominant and subordinate cultures. These theories address the role of lower‐class socialization in the development of delinquent behavior, the effect of an inequitable opportunity structure, and violent subcultures.
Drugs and Crime
Authors: Zilney Lisa Anne
Published: March 2014

The relationship between drugs and crime is a highly complex one, with no clear‐cut conclusion despite hundreds of scientific studies examining this connection. The theoretical approaches explaining the drug–crime link are the psychopharmacological approach, the economic‐compulsive approach, and the systemic approach. The relationships between drugs, both legal and illegal, and various types of crime are highly complicated, and drug use is one factor among many that may lead to criminal activity. The extent and precise nature of the drug–crime connection remains open to further investigation.
Raine, Adrian
Authors: Newsome Jamie
Published: March 2014

Adrian Raine is an experimental psychologist well known for his research on the biological bases of serious criminal behavior. His influential work has uncovered how differences in brain structure and function contribute to psychopathy and antisocial behavior. Raine publishedThe psychopathology of crimein 1993, in which he contends that serious criminal behavior is a clinical disorder. This book sparked tremendous debate about biological risk factors for criminal behavior, and has been instrumental in renewing interest in biosocial criminology. Raine continues to investigate biological risk factors, and is exploring whether developing interventions that target these risk factors may be an effective strategy for reducing crime.
Violent Victimization
Authors: Jennings Wesley G. , Reingle Jennifer M.
Published: March 2014

Violent victimization is a broad construct, bridging topics to include domestic violence, cybercrime, sexual assault, and even parenting. Each of these behaviors has been demonstrated to have its own unique etiology; however, there are several common risk factors and theoretical explanations that may explain why victimization occurs and who is at greatest risk. In addition, a field of prevention science dedicated to the development of interventions and prevention programs that attempt to reduce violent victimization has emerged in recent years. This article discusses the overarching, nonspecific etiology of violent victimization, as well as the theoretical perspectives that have been employed to explain victimization.
Experimental Criminology
Authors: Jennings Wesley G. , Reingle Jennifer M.
Published: March 2014

This article describes experimental and quasi‐experimental designs in criminological and substance abuse research. The relevance of each characteristic of experimental designs – specifically, randomization, intervention, and control conditions – is examined using Hill's criteria for evaluating causality. Two case studies, the Philadelphia Foot Patrol Experiment and Project Northland Chicago, are presented as examples of experimental designs implemented to reduce crime and substance use. The strength of the experimental design in each case study is evaluated and areas for improvement are discussed.
Chambliss, William J.
Authors: Burke Alison S.
Published: March 2014

William J. Chambliss has spent more than five decades researching criminology and sociology of the law. He has received numerous awards and accolades for his outstanding contributions to theory and research. Chambliss has published more than 20 books about conflict criminology and social problems. His scholarly work include subjects such as organized crime, gang members, corrupt politicians, and the urban poor; he has advanced the study of inequality, abuse of power, and racism.
Sykes, Gresham
Authors: Schaible Lonnie M.
Published: March 2014

Gresham M. Sykes was among the most significant figures in criminology in the twentieth century. This entry discusses the major contributions of Sykes:Society of Captives(Sykes, 1958), neutralization theory (Sykes & Matza, 1957), and the introduction of critical criminology (Sykes, 1974).
Gottfredson, Michael
Authors: Thorman Lyndi
Published: March 2014

Michael Gottfredson is an American criminologist and university administrator best known for his work on self‐control theory of crime and delinquency. He has had much work published, but his most well‐known work, written with Travis Hirschi, was
A General Theory of Crime
in 1990. Gottfredson and Hirschi argue that the degree of self‐control a person possesses dictates how susceptible he or she is to refrain from or to commit a crime. Currently, Gottfredson is President of the University of Oregon.
Pornography and Crime
Authors: Moran Nathan R. , Atkins Ben D.
Published: March 2014

The relationship between pornography and crime has long been an issue of heated debate amongst researchers, theologians, feminists, and politicians. Often at the center of this debate is the question of what role, if any, does pornography play in male assaults on women, specifically sexual assaults on women. This entry examines the various definitions of pornography, some historical context, as well as current research related to the relationship between pornography and crime.
Restorative Justice
Authors: Gilbert Michael J.
Published: March 2014

Restorative justice is a nontraditional form of justice rooted in conflict resolution within indigenous cultures and the faith traditions of most religions. It is victim‐centered and employs a humanistic dialogue between victims, offenders, and others stakeholders to address harms and needs of those impacted by an offender's actions. This entry briefly discusses the basic values and operational principles of restorative justice. All applications of restorative justice promote reparation of harms and healing for victims, earned redemption for offenders, peace and safety for residents, and social justice within the community. They may be used to heal harms at the individual level (micro), to improve quality of life at the community level, and to promote peace and healing among racial and ethnic groups in conflict nations at the societal level (macro).
Youth Advocacy
Authors: Woolworth Stephen
Published: March 2014

Youth advocacy is a form of social practice focused on the positive development of young people through the use of political and social processes that seek to influence public policy, resource allocation, support services, and media perspectives around systems of care. As an emergent field, youth advocacy has grown out of a number of efforts connected to delinquency prevention, foster care reform, and adolescent mental health that advance an assets‐based or prevention‐oriented approach to youth development. Informed by the evolution of developmental systems theories, youth advocacy activities are initiated within and by neighborhood youth organizations and community coalitions, professionally managed advocacy groups, and social networks organized along the lines of youth empowerment, rights, and voice.
Moral Entrepreneur
Authors: Marwah Sanjay
Published: March 2014

Moral entrepreneur is a concept developed as part of the social interactionist and social reaction perspectives in sociology and criminology. The concept addresses the significant lack of attention to the political and social nature of criminalization of deviance and the undue attention given to viewing deviance either as an act or event or as a result of offender and environmental characteristics. More consistent with qualitative methodologies, the concept has been applied to significant periods and pieces of crime legislation in American history. The concept itself is critical to the more widely used and tested concept of moral panic. The lack of empirical testing and theoretical attention has relegated moral entrepreneur to diminished roles in criminology and sociology.
Differential Association Theory
Authors: Link Tanja C.
Published: March 2014

Differential association theory, pioneered by Edwin Sutherland in a revision of his classic bookPrinciples of criminologyin 1939, has been one of the leading theories in criminology. Differential association theory explains deviance and crime as behavior learned in interactions with relevant others.
Employment and Crime
Authors: Magers Megan
Published: March 2014

The relationship between employment and crime in the United States is complex and dynamic. This article describes several theoretical explanations of the impact of unemployment on crime, which have been provided by economists and criminologists. Additionally, the state of the existing research testing the relationship between unemployment rates and crime rates is discussed. This article also reveals the rates of unemployment found among currently incarcerated jail and prison inmates. Finally, efforts being made throughout the criminal justice system to reduce the criminogenic risk associated with employment instability as this relates to recidivism and reentry are highlighted.
Anomie Theory
Authors: Marwah Sanjay
Published: March 2014

Anomie theories examine societal forces integrating and regulating members of society and the problems in the operation of norms, cultural goals, and institutionalized means. Macro factors are emphasized including large‐scale and widespread cultural, social, and economic forces. Direct empirical testing and measurement of anomie and related concepts with the exception of the newest anomie theory is limited and complicated. Revisions of earlier anomie perspectives offer some promise to overcome empirical problems.
Strain Theories
Authors: Marwah Sanjay
Published: March 2014

Strain theories examine pressures pushing toward crime and deviance and coping responses by individuals and groups. Earliest strain theories emphasized the macrosocietal and cultural contexts critical to the frequency and distribution of strained deviance and to the creation of delinquent subcultures. Newer strain theories have moved to micro‐individual levels, incorporating nonstrain factors in their explanations while increasing their scope and generality. Empirical research has been the most responsible for changing strain theory development and testing and for and moving it in new directions. The future development of the theory is likely to follow this direction.
Currie, Elliott
Authors: Lee Gavin M.
Published: March 2014

Elliott Currie is an American sociologist who obtained his
PhD
at
UC
Berkeley. He is currently a professor of criminology, law, and society at
UC
Irvine. As well as being a proponent of the theory referred to as “left realism,” he expanded on the concept of the “market economy,” and its relation to crime, within his theoretical framework. In 1985 he wrote his seminal work,
Confronting crime: An American challenge
. In 1997 he published
Crime and punishment in America: Why the solutions to America's most stubborn social crisis have not worked—and what will
. This book was a finalist for the Pulitzer Prize Non‐Fiction award. Currie is seen as one of the most influential criminologists in the field.
Campus Crime
Authors: Khey David N.
Published: March 2014

Crime as it relates to institutions of higher education (e.g., colleges and universities) can be broken down into a few thematic areas: student victimization, student safety, illicit drug use and underage drinking by college students, and to a lesser extent, crime by students. Since the late 1980s and early 1990s, scores of research have been done to examine the true nature of crime and victimization on campus. While research continues to show that campuses are safe places, isolated cases of extreme violence have tended to shape policies dealing with campus crime. Issues of crime by and victimization of college students tend to be ignored or underresearched and underreported because they exist off campus. This entry describes the current knowledge of these topics and elaborates on current trends on campus crime by reflecting on recent research.
Control Balance Theory
Authors: Higgins George E.
Published: March 2014

The development and testing of general theories of crime and deviance are necessary to better understand these behaviors. Tittle's control balance theory aims to explain how imbalances of control lead to deviance. The theory highlights the importance of contingencies for understanding the connection between control imbalances and deviance.
Prisons
Authors: Dodson Kimberly D.
Published: March 2014

There are 6.98 million offenders under adult correctional supervision in the United States. Although this figure represents the third year of decline in the adult correctional population, the United States continues to lead industrialized nations in incarceration rates. Since the inception of prisons, there has been substantial debate about their function in society. Early correctional efforts primarily focused on retributive practices that were designed to achieve deterrence. However, penal reformers advocated for humane prisons and treatment of prisoners. Today, considerable debate remains about the function of prisons.
Deterrence
Authors: Morin Robert
Published: March 2014

Deterrence is the prevention of crime and the view that punishment for the commission of a criminal offense will prevent the offender and potential offender from committing criminal offenses in the future. Deterrence is premised upon the principle of hedonism, that human nature is governed by a desire to maximize pleasure and minimize pain. Individuals weigh the value of violating the law by calculating the possible positive consequences, the present and future pleasures, versus the possible negative consequences, the present and future pain, when considering whether to commit a criminal act. Deterrence consists of rational choice theory, routine activity theory, situational choice theory, and deterrence theory.
Theorizing Justice
Authors: Wood William R.
Published: March 2014

Across academic disciplines and differing epistemologies there are multiple and diverse ways of theorizing what justice is and how it is achieved. Two of the more common approaches distinguish between “distributive” and “retributive” forms of justice, as they are related, respectively, to the burden and benefits of economic activity and to the use of punishment. This chapter will explore several of these theories, looking first at different distributive approaches and, second, at four predominant theories of punishment: retribution, incapacitation, deterrence, and rehabilitation. The primary goals of the chapter are thus to detail the assumptions of justice within these different theories and to explicate some of the historical contexts of their use and application in the United States.
Community Policing
Authors: Scott Jason D.
Published: March 2014

Community policing is a philosophy that broadens the role of the police role beyond a traditional strict law enforcement approach. Community policing emerged in the late 1970s and encourages the police to develop relationships with citizens and key stakeholders within neighborhoods. Efforts to accomplish the goals of community policing include a decentralized organizational structure, the development of neighborhood substations, foot patrol, and community meetings. Community policing also embraces a problem‐oriented approach to neighborhood crime and disorder.
Social Ecology and Crime
Authors: Walsh John P.
Published: March 2014

The area of social ecology and crime encompasses a wide swath of research within criminology that focuses on the association between place of crime, delinquency, and victimization. The approach applies both positivist and classical conceptions of offending and their relationship within urban settings. Historically, theoretical conceptions of social disorganization have driven the growth of social ecological perspectives. In more recent years neoclassical theories have applied social ecological research perspectives in relation to targeted crime prevention policies and programs. Currently, collective efficacy advocates draw from all these perspectives in their analyses of neighborhood‐level differentiation and its relation to criminal and noncriminal behavior.
Informal Sanctioning
Authors: Khey David N.
Published: March 2014

Informal sanctions are quite simply actions taken by any person, private group, or members of the community in response to someone's behavior that may serve to correct or punish this behavior, or encourage it. In other words, this sort of social encouragement or admonishment must come from any entity other than law enforcement, the courts, or any other arm of the government designed to regulate behavior—these are sources of official, formal sanctions. Often informal sanctioning has been described as more powerful in maintaining positive behaviors and correcting unwanted behaviors relative to formal, official sanctioning, depending on the context. Together, these two forms of behavior regulation work hand in hand to manage unwanted conduct in society. This entry describes informal sanctioning, its roots, its application in criminological theory, and how it has been leveraged to reduce recidivism by the restorative justice movement.
Cycles of Violence
Authors: Hume Wendelin M. , Hume Sherina M.
Published: March 2014

The phrase “cycles of violence” refers to a widely accepted theoretical explanation and description of how interpersonal violence in a relationship does not just suddenly appear or disappear, but rather has a common identifiable repeating pattern or cycle. The typical cycle of violence can be thought of as having four identifiable stages, namely, honeymoon, tension, violence, and crisis, which proceed from one to the next in a cycle that often repeats itself, perhaps escalating in intensity until it is disrupted (if at all). The cycle of violence often transforms the victim into an aggressor themselves, thus adding a possible intergenerational dimension to what then becomes a never‐ending cycle of violence.
Age and Crime
Authors: White Norman A.
Published: March 2014

The entry examines the role of age in relation to crime as a predictor of offending trajectories, justice processing, and theoretical development in criminology. Age represents a defining and enduring factor in understanding crime and delinquency. The age when one begins delinquent offending is examined and its role as predictor of life trajectories of crime discussed. The distribution of crime in society is also examined as reflected in an age crime curve that has been consistent in its appearance across time, space, and culture. The entry includes discussion of the role of age as a defining factor for eligibility for juvenile justice jurisdiction. Finally, an overview is given of the role that age plays in theoretical models of crime and delinquency.
Eck, John E.
Authors: Madensen Tamara D.
Published: March 2014

John E. Eck is an American crime scientist, best known for translating theory and research into frameworks that have been widely adopted by police forces throughout the world. During his 17‐year employment with the Police Executive Research Forum, Eck researched police investigation decision making and helped demonstrate the practical application of problem‐oriented policing. His extension of routine activity theory to include place management advanced crime prevention and led to the development of the crime triangle, which is used by researchers and analysts to understand and address recurring crime problems. Eck and Ronald V. Clarke more recently authored a set of manuals that tie theory to everyday crime analysis practices. These manuals have been translated into 16 languages and are used by researchers and practitioners throughout the world.
Infanticide
Authors: Bruns Diana L.
Published: March 2014

An historically unappealing and appalling topic riddled with taboo, infanticide, also coined as a cousin to eugenics, is a type of child homicide or the killing of a child in his/her first year of life by a parent, as compared to filicide, the murder of an older child by one of his/her parents. Maternal infanticides are infrequent events; however, when they do occur, a number of cases fall within the framework of a postpartum mental illness. The term infanticide is commonly used interchangeably with homicides of children under the age of five. Infanticide and filicide by both males and females are explored.
Psychological Theories of Crime
Authors: Pacheco Daniel , Barnes J. C.
Published: March 2014

Scholars in the fields of psychology and criminology study human behavior. Specifically, criminologists attempt to explain delinquency in childhood and law‐breaking behavior in adulthood. Certain domains of psychology seek explanations for pathology and externalizing problems that lead to diagnoses of conduct disorder and oppositional defiant disorder in childhood and antisocial personality disorder in adulthood. In fact, the onset of externalizing problems in childhood is implicated in offending behavior in adulthood. The common relationship between psychological and criminological explanations for problem behavior is that the objective is to explain delinquency and criminal conduct, that is, behavior that is incongruent with social standards. While both psychology and criminology strive to identify and elucidate the causal factors that lead to delinquency and offending behavior, the theoretical and empirical approaches are substantively distinguishable. This entry discusses the role of self‐control, self‐regulation, and the dual systems model in the etiology of antisocial behavior.
Terrorism
Authors: Blough Scott
Published: March 2014

Terrorism has happened throughout history. The term “terrorism” has become a descriptor often used for violence directed at political entities or at citizens of nation‐states. The evolution of terrorism—both the term and the type of act—has inoculated societal perceptions over centuries. The study of terrorism encompasses history; political, organizational, social, and psychological behavior; and governmental attempts to define the term. The paradigm shifts within terrorism illustrate its dynamic nature, its tactics, and how it has been perceived.
Beccaria, Cesare
Authors: Todaro Joseph , Miller J. Mitchell
Published: March 2014

Cesare Beccaria was an Italian criminologist and economist best known for his 1764 publicationOn crimes and punishments, the first systematic statement of principles governing criminal punishment, in which he argued that the effectiveness of criminal justice depended more on the certainty of punishment than on its severity. The book greatly influenced criminal law reform in Western Europe. In later years, Beccaria lectured at Milan's Palatine School and served as a public official, dealing with such issues as monetary reform, labor relations, and public education.
Psychopathy and Crime
Authors: Simon Marilyn
Published: March 2014

This entry discusses the most common behavioral adult characteristics and the diagnosis of the psychopathic personality. The complex and variable etiology of psychopathy is discussed, including the role of genetics, genetic predisposition, and the role of biological, physiological, and environmental factors. Also discussed are the behaviors common to conduct disorder, a diagnosis preceding that of psychopathy in children. Throughout the entry, the interaction between psychopathy and the criminal justice system is addressed.
Cohen, Albert
Authors: Mitchell Miller J.
Published: March 2014

Albert K. Cohen is an American criminologist best known for his seminal work in the area of criminal subcultures. His major works includeDelinquent Boys: The Culture of the Gang(1955) andDeviance and Control(1966). The 1955 book proposed a general theory of delinquent subcultures through integration of social learning and social structural perspectives. Based on the sociological work of the Chicago School and Merton's strain theory, Cohen's work has influenced general understanding of a wide range of phenomena, including gang formation, the group nature of delinquency, and school adjustment and performance problems of disadvantaged males.
Victimology
Authors: Papazoglou Konstantinos , Andersen Judith P.
Published: March 2014

Victimology primarily focuses on the victims' experiences, offenders' motivations, the relationships between victims and offenders, and related criminal justice procedures. Victims of crimes often suffer multiple effects, including psychological and physical harm, and financial losses. The severity of the impact of trauma on victims' lives depends on many individual factors such as personality traits, race, gender, and sexual orientation. A number of theoretical approaches to the study of victimization have been developed and these represent certain political and scientific orientations. Since the early 1960s, the pioneering work of many scholars and social justice advocates across North America and Europe has increased the study of and support for victims. In turn, federal and local governments across the Western world have enacted legislation for the protection of victims and the reporting of hate crimes. Currently, numerous policy programs are being implemented to support victims' recovery.
Dating Violence
Authors: Papazoglou Konstantinos , Andersen Judith P.
Published: March 2014

Dating violence is characterized by any form of violence or threat from one partner to the other within a romantic relationship. This type of violence can be identified in any dating relationship regardless of race, gender, sexual orientation, or religion. Females are more often the targets of dating violence than males, especially in regard to severe physical and sexual violence. Dating violence includes physical, psychological, and sexual abuse. Young females may be more vulnerable to sexual violence for a number of reasons. They may avoid talking to family members in the belief that their family will not listen to their issues, or may prefer to talk to their peers, who often show sympathy but have little life experience. The situation of victims from minority cultural groups may be even worse because violence in a dating relationship may be combined with racism, sexism, and discrimination. Family members, friends, teachers, school counselors, police officers, and religious leaders can play a key role in preventing this type of violence before it occurs or in helping survivors of dating violence. Feminist scholars have played a significant role in making the academic community and the public aware of violence in romantic relationships as a result of the hierarchical form of male power and control over the lives of women. In the United States, many policy programs and projects have been successfully developed and implemented in order to prevent dating violence and support its survivors.
Southern Subculture of Violence Theory
Authors: Mitchell Miller J.
Published: March 2014

The concept of a Southern regional violent subculture has been suggested in the social science literature for nearly seventy‐five years. Theoretical explanations have emphasized both structural and social psychological factors including poverty, rural nature, topography, religious outlook, law, gun ownership, ethnic composition, weather, history, and cultural norms. While neither structural variables nor cultural value system alone fully account for the region's hostilities, adherence to the concept of honor has emerged as the leading theoretical approach in the twenty‐first century. This “culture of honor” thesis has received support through survey research focusing on attitudinal measures and ethnographic observation of real and hypothesized hostilities. In general, the honor paradigm has moved attention away from ecological and environmental influences to beliefs and value system, particularly the collective outlook of the Scots–Irish residing in the Southern Appalachians.
Is There a Cultural Life Script for Public Events?
Authors: Janssen Steve M. J.
Published: March 2014

The reminiscence bump is the higher prevalence of autobiographical memories from adolescence and early adulthood. The reminiscence bump has also been found in the memory for public events, which could, as recently has been suggested, be explained by cultural life scripts. Life scripts are culturally shared knowledge about the order and timing of life events in an idealized life course. They are examined by categorizing which events are expected to occur in a prototypical person's life and when these events are supposed to occur. The present study found, however, no support for cultural life scripts as an explanation for the reminiscence bump in the memory for public events. Most public events were expected to occur before the reminiscence bump period. Although there was some agreement about which public events are likely to happen in a prototypical person's life, there was little agreement about when these events are supposed to occur. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.