bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Phylogeography of Pulsatilla vernalis (L.) Mill. (Ranunculaceae): chloroplast DNA reveals two evolutionary lineages across central Europe and Scandinavia
Authors: Ronikier Michał , Costa Andrea , Aguilar Javier Fuertes , Feliner Gonzalo Nieto , Küpfer Philippe , Mirek Zbigniew
Published: April 2008

Aim  The aim of this study was to test hypotheses regarding some of the main phylogeographical patterns proposed for European plants, in particular the locations of glacial refugia, the post‐glacial colonization routes, and genetic affinities between southern (alpine) and northern (boreal) populations.

Location  The mountains of Europe (Alps, Balkans, Carpathians, Central Massif, Pyrenees, Scandinavian chain, Sudetes), and central European/southern Scandinavian lowlands.

Methods  As our model system we used Pulsatilla vernalis, a widely distributed European herbaceous plant occurring both in the high‐mountain environments of the Alps and other European ranges and in lowlands north of these ranges up to Scandinavia. Based on a distribution‐wide sampling of 61 populations, we estimated chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) variation along six regions using polymerase chain reaction–restriction fragment‐length polymorphisms (PCR–RFLPs) (trnH–trnK, trnK–trnK, trnC–trnD, psbC–trnS, psaA–trnS, trnL–trnF) and further sequencing of trnL–trnF and trnH–psbA. In addition, 11 samples of other European species of Pulsatilla were sequenced to survey the genus‐scale cpDNA variation.

Results  Eleven PCR–RFLP polymorphisms were detected in P. vernalis, revealing seven haplotypes. They formed two distinct genetic groups. Three haplotypes representing both groups dominated and were widely distributed across Europe, whereas the others were restricted to localized regions (central Alps, Tatras/Sudetes mountains) or single populations. Sequencing analysis confirmed the reliability of PCR–RFLPs and homology of haplotypes across their distribution. The chloroplast DNA variation across the section Pulsatilla was low, but P. vernalis did not share haplotypes with other species.

Main conclusions  The genetic distinctiveness of P. vernalis populations from the south‐western Alps with respect to other Alpine populations, as well as the affinities between the former populations and those from the eastern Pyrenees, is demonstrated, thus providing support for the conclusions of previous studies. Glacial refugia in the Dolomites are also suggested. Isolation is inferred for the high‐mountain populations from the Tatras and Sudetes; this is in contrast to the case for the Balkans, which harboured the common haplotype. Specific microsatellite variation indicates the occurrence of periglacial lowland refugia north of the Alps, acting as a source for the post‐glacial colonization of Scandinavia. The presence of different fixed haplotypes in eastern and western Scandinavia, however, suggests independent post‐glacial colonization of these two areas, with possible founder effects.
A survey on mental health care for adults with intellectual disabilities in Asia
Authors: Kwok H. W. M. , Chui E. M. C.
Published: April 2008

Background  Mental Health Services for adults with Intellectual Disabilities (ID) in Asia is less described than those in the western world. With the improvements in the economy and medical care in Asia, there is an increase in awareness of mental health services for people with ID in this part of the world. A study was carried out to look into these aspects in Asian countries.

Method  A cross sectional survey using structured questionnaire was sent to 14 Asian countries/territories in 2005/2006 and returns were analysed in light of their demographics and health statistics.

Results  The type and range of mental health services vary widely for people with ID in all the nine countries/territories that returned their questionnaires. Two of the respondent countries reported a lack of psychiatric services for their adult ID population.

Conclusions  In general, mental health services for people with ID in Asia do not keep pace with economic developments. More government commitment and international collaborations are necessary to improve the mental well‐being of this population in Asia.
Masticatory ability and functional tooth units in Japanese adults
Authors: UENO M. , YANAGISAWA T. , SHINADA K. , OHARA S. , KAWAGUCHI Y.
Published: April 2008

Summary  The purposes of this study were (i) to examine the relationship between the number of natural teeth and the number of functional tooth units in Japanese adults, (ii) to evaluate how functional tooth units relate to subjective masticatory ability and (iii) to determine the minimum number of natural teeth and functional tooth units needed to maintain adequate self‐assessed chewing function. A self‐administered questionnaire was given and dental examination was conducted for 2164 residents aged 40 to 75 years. Counts were made on the number of functional tooth units of natural teeth (n‐functional tooth units), the sum of natural teeth and artificial teeth on implant‐supported and fixed prostheses (nif‐functional tooth units) and the sum of natural teeth and artificial teeth on implant‐supported, fixed and removable prostheses (total‐functional tooth units). The average number of natural teeth, n‐functional tooth units and nif‐functional tooth units decreased with age, but these were often replaced by functional tooth units from artificial teeth on removable prostheses. Total‐functional tooth units in 50–59 year old people were slightly lower compared with those in other age groups. Subjects who reported that they could chew every food item on an average had 23·4 total natural teeth, 12·6 posterior natural teeth, 7·6 n‐functional tooth units, 8·6 nif‐functional tooth units and 10·4 total‐functional tooth units, and subjects without chewing difficulties had fewer functional tooth units from removable prostheses. Maintaining 20 and more natural teeth and at least eight nif‐functional tooth units is important in reducing the likelihood of self‐assessed chewing difficulties.
Supernumerary incisors in Mustelids
Authors: BATEMAN JAMES A.
Published: April 2008

A review of past and present investigations of dentition of Mustelids indicates a relationship between the known occurrence of seven or eight deciduous incisors in foetal and early post‐foetal albino ferrets. There is a frequent persistence of seven in the adult. This supports the theory that gene recombination, rather than mutation, is responsible for this feature.

The appearance of a supernumerary incisor as a distinct tooth has occurred in albino ferrets, ferret /polecat hybrids and what have been identified as polecats. Occasionally there is evidence of dichotomy in one of the six normally found permanent incisors.

Certain evidence suggests that supernumerary incisors in the upper jaws of skulls from specimens identified as polecats, might possibly indicate that these were in fact hybrids rather than pure‐bred polecats.
Moulting cycles
Authors: JOHNSON ELIZABETH
Published: April 2008

Moulting in mammals is a cyclic phenomenon which often occurs in a wave–like pattern. The moult cycle depends upon an inherent rhythm of activity in the hair follicles, which may be modified by systemic factors. In laboratory rodents a number of hormones affect the timing of the moult, as well as affecting the amount of hair produced and the loss of club hairs.

In Microtus agrestis a seasonal moult results in a sparse coat with coarse hairs in summer and a dense coat with fine hairs in winter. The moult appears to be adjusted to the environment by way of the endocrine system, with adrenal and thyroid hormones, as well as sex hormones, involved in the regulation. The importance of such adaptive coat changes are discussed.
The rodent preputial gland
Authors: BROWN J. CLEVEDON , WILLIAMS J. D.
Published: April 2008

Researches published in the last 2 years have advanced direct evidence for regarding the rodent preputial gland as a scent organ, confirming a speculation made at least as long ago as 1725. The gland is the source of olfactory stimuli which mediate behavioural responses in social and sexual interactions between conspecifics. Although the gland has received little direct attention from investigators, a considerable amount of information on it is available. Most of this was gained ancilliary to other, and very diverse, research objectives so that the literature is very scattered. These references are collated to present a comprehensive review of knowledge of the biology of the rodent preputial gland. Theoretical concepts of population structure and regulation, involving density‐dependent factors, require a sensory mechanism to activate the physiological effects attributed to social interactions. The preputial gland, as a source of olfactory cues, has all the biological characteristics required of such a sensory modulator.
Distribution and speciation of some carnivores ‐ 2
Authors: BRINK F.‐H. VAN DEN
Published: April 2008

The distribution of the jackals and of the caracal in Africa is discussed and the distribution of the serval is also taken into consideration. Starting from his earlier thesis, that the initial separation of species of Canis and Lynx should have occurred in the beginning of the Tertiary, the author argues that the present distribution of the African species can be explained by this thesis.

La répartition des Chacals et du Caracal en Afrique est discutée et la répartition du Serval est également prise en considération. Reprenant sa thèse d' après laquelle la séparation primordiale des espèces des genres Canis (s.r.) et Lynx (s.l.) doit être churchée au commencement de ľâge tertiaire, ľ auteur montre que la répartition en Afrique s'explique de fa çon déductive.
A review of factors affecting deer dispersion and their relevance to management
Authors: STAINES BRIAN W.
Published: April 2008

Factors affecting the dispersion of deer are reviewed, and their relevance to the management of British species. Most of the information is taken from studies of European Red and Roe deer, and also from North American species. Home range/territory size is discussed; individual home range sizes vary within species, and are largely associated with habitat structure and/or climate. It is suggested that traditional behaviour and social factors may be important in limiting home range size and deer distribution. The role of food, shelter and freedom from disturbance are reviewed in relation to deer dispersion and movements. It is suggested that deer will occupy areas with a good combination of all the major factors rather than the best of any one. Suggestions for research on British species, with a view to management, are put forward.
Feeding habits of deer
Authors: JACKSON J. E.
Published: April 2008

The importance and application of an understanding of the feeding habits of deer in their management is stressed. Methods of diet determination are briefly outlined. Factors affecting the feeding habits are complex and include social ones, weather and available shelter, interactions with other species of animals, feeding patterns and the quality, quantity and availability of the food.
On the phyletic relationships of the Tree shrews
Authors: CAMPBELL C. B. G.
Published: April 2008

The Tree shrews (family Tupaiidae) were earlier grouped with the Elephant shrews (family Macroscelididae) in the suborder Menotyphla of the Insectivora. Following a proposal of Carlsson (1922), many workers, and notably Le Gros Clark, have presented evidence that the Tree shrews should be regarded as primitive or basal Primates. Simpson (1945) accepts them as such in his classification of the Mammalia. This view, because of the wide interdisciplinary interest in Primate evolution, has been widely accepted and has been of considerable influence. It has not, however, been without its opponents. This review critically analyses the evidence for and against accepting the Tree shrews as Primates.
The prey of the Barn owl (Tyto alba alba) in East Norfolk
Authors: BUCKLEY JOHN , GOLDSMITH JOHN G.
Published: April 2008

Some 5000 Barn owl pellets, collected from sites in East Norfolk during the past decade, have been examined. The most important prey species, by weight, were the Field vole (Microtus agrestis) 52%, the Brown rat (Rattus norvegicus) 17%, and the Common shrew (Sorex araneus) 12%. The prey varies over different habitats; Wood mice (Apodemus sylvaticus) and Bank vole (Clethrionomys glareolus) forming a higher proportion in localities with hedges, scrub and woodland than in open grasslands. These results are comparable with those of other recent work. However, when compared with studies conducted over 30 years ago, it would appear that the Field vole now constitutes a higher proportion, and the Brown rat a lower proportion, of the prey taken.
On the relationship between sub‐fossil and recent British Water voles
Authors: MONTGOMERY W. I.
Published: April 2008

Sub‐fossil remains of Arvicola from cave deposits dating from the Upper Palaeolithic through to the Romano‐British have been analysed and compared with recent material. The results suggest that only one species of Arvicola has been present in Central England during the past 12,000 years and that, during this time span, there have been trends towards an increase in size and towards a decrease in pro‐odonty.
Freeze‐marking rodents with a pressurized refrigerant
Authors: LAZARUS A. B. , ROWE F. P.
Published: April 2008

The effectiveness of a pressurized refrigerant, dichlorodifluoromethane (CCl2F2) for the freeze‐marking of rodents was investigated. Application for 4 sec or longer was equally effective in marking both shaven and unshaven laboratory mice (Mus musculus). Two species of wild iats, Rattus norvegicus and R. rattus, were also successfully marked by applying the refrigerant to unshaven animals for periods of 5–10 sec. Attempts at marking coypus (Myocastor coypus) were less successful. General anaesthesia was found to be unnecessary in the case of unshaven rats and mice since the refrigerant itself produced a local anaesthetic effect. The use of the refrigerant in conjunction with stencils to obtain more specific markings is discussed.
Some recent observations on Orkney Sheep
Authors: HALL STEPHEN J. G.
Published: April 2008

This Paper describes the semi‐feral sheep of North Ronaldsay. These sheep are of the Orkney breed, and feed almost entirely on seaweed.

Hitherto unpublished material on the numbers of these sheep and on certain biochemical polymorphisms is presented.
World whale stocks
Authors: GAMBELL RAY
Published: April 2008

The history of whaling is very largely one of repeated over‐exploitation of the various whale stocks which became available through discovery or technological advance. Modern whaling has similarly caused considerable reductions in the numbers of some species in the major whaling grounds.

Stock assessment methods are based on catch and effort statistics, biological information including age and reproductive status, marking and sightings records.

Catch effort data have to be used with caution, because of changes in species preference, shifts in the whaling grounds and national fleet variations. With allowance made for these factors, cumulative catches adjusted for recruitment can be used to estimate the initial stock number. Changes in stock density after known catches also lead to abundance estimates. Logarithmic regression of age composition data are used to find the total mortality rates. The natural mortality can be estimated from early season catches in a fishery or pre‐fishery year classes caught more recently; fishing mortality is found by subtraction, which again leads to abundance estimates. Mathematical approaches incorporating recruitment estimates from actual age composition data and theoretical population models have been employed. Additional estimates come from mark release‐recapture experiments and direct sightings counts from whaling vessels and research ships. The latter are the only means of estimating the protected species.

The yields which the various stocks can sustain are calculated from direct observations and theoretical considerations of the changes in recruitment, largely due to increased pregnancy rates and the lower ages at sexual maturity which occur in exploited stocks.

The results of all the available analyses have been compared and combined to produce the population estimates and yields tabulated. The object of whale management is to bring all stocks to the levels providing the maximum or optimum sustainable yields. These are defined in terms of numbers at the moment, but may be expressed as biomass in the future.
Barn owl predation on the Harvest mouse
Authors: BUCKLEY JOHN
Published: April 2008

The occurrence of the Harvest mouse as a prey species in Britain is limited by its distribution and, where it is found, it forms only a small percentage of the Barn owls' total prey. Data collected at a study site in East Norfolk during the years 1969–1973, suggest that in parts of Norfolk this mouse forms more of the owls' prey than in other parts of the country. There was a marked seasonal fluctuation in the numbers of Harvest mice taken by the owls and there was also some variation in the total numbers consumed each year. A small number of pelves were aged and sexed to give information on which individuals in the population are most vulnerable to Barn owl predation.
A study of Common seals in the Wash
Authors: VAUGHAN R. WILLIAM
Published: April 2008

The large population of Common seals in the Wash has been studied over a number of years. Aerial surveys, although useful for counting seals present at any one time, do not give a total count of the population. Various other methods including tagging, track counting and analysis of hunting returns have been used to make a population estimate. The seal population has not been significantly affected by hunting, and water storage schemes proposed for the Wash are unlikely to cause much disturbance.
Day and night activity of Grey seal bulls
Authors: ANDERSON SHEILA S.
Published: April 2008

While some activity patterns in seals have been related to tidal rhythms, little work was done on diurnal rhythms until the recent development of image intensifying devices which facilitate night viewing. Individual bulls were studied over several 24‐hour periods and the frequency of behavioural items was recorded during 10‐min periods each hour. No significant differences were recorded between day and night activity levels, except in the frequency of ‘Looks’, nor was there any relationship between activity and tide state. The thesis that optimization of time spent ashore (and therefore ‘at risk’ both ecologically and energetically) is achieved by maintaining a constant level of activity through the 24‐hour period is discussed. It is concluded that night time activity of Grey seal bulls can be inferred from observations made in daylight hours.
A review of studies on captive Harvest mice (Micromys minutus (Pallas))
Authors: TROUT R. C.
Published: April 2008

Published studies relating to captive Harvest mouse biology are frequently descriptive. The biology of reproduction is the most studied aspect and many details of courtship, gestation, nest building, breeding rate and development of the young are now understood. Other aspects of the biology, including social behaviour, sensory abilities and food eaten are discussed. Data from various sources concerning the daily activity rhythm and the metabolism of Harvest mice are compared.
Studies on the distributions of Apodemus sylvaticus (L.) and A. flavicollis (Melchior) in Britain
Authors: MONTGOMERY W. I.
Published: April 2008

The known distributions of A. sylvaticus and A. flavicollis were examined with respect to four woodland classifications and two soil types. The distribution of A. flavicollis in Britain is associated with drier areas and with the distribution of mature, deciduous woodland. A. sylvaticus is found in both wet and dry areas and is distributed independently of deciduous woodland.
Reproductive seasonality of the nyala Tragelaphus angasi; The interaction of light, vegetation phenology, feeding style and reproductive physiology
Authors: ANDERSON J. L.
Published: April 2008

In Ndumu Game Reserve, South Africa, it was found that nyala males exhibited no seasonal sexual cycle. Although conceptions occurred throughout the year, there was a bimodal pattern of conceptions with the peaks in autumn and spring.

After referring to other African bovids which also have bimodal patterns of reproductive activity, it was concluded that the cues for the two peaks are as yet unknown but must be provided by light or photoperiod. The factors which ultimately decide the amplitude of the peaks are vegetation phenology and feeding style of the animal. In nyala, peaks are masked by the occurrence of post‐partum oestrous cycles and a gestation period of approximately 7 months.
History, distribution, status and habitat requirements of the Harvest mouse (Micromys minutus) in Britain
Authors: HARRIS STEPHEN
Published: April 2008

This paper reviews the past known history of the Harvest mouse and presents the results of a survey of the distribution and status of the animal in Britain. Data are included which demonstrate the wide variety of habitats colonized by the Harvest mouse and the diversity of monocotyledonous plants that can be utilized for nest building. The survey has shown that there is no evidence of a decline in the distribution or abundance of this animal in Britain during the last century, and that the sparsity of earlier records was probably due to the lack of competent recorders.
Energy flow through small mammal populations
Authors: FERNS P. N.
Published: April 2008

In order to compile an annual or seasonal energy budget for a small mammal population, it is necessary to derive estimates of standing crop, consumption, egestion, digestion, excretion, assimilation, respiration, growth and reproduction. This review gives an account of the methods available for compiling such budgets, and uses results obtained from a study of Microtus agrestis in south west Britain as a worked example. This population was live–trapped on twenty occasions during the course of 2 years. Total energy flow was 309 kJ/m2 in the first year and 173 kJ/m2 in the second. The average coefficient of digestibility of the natural diet was 54–3%, the average net production efficiency was 1 –0% and the average gross ecological efficiency was 1 –2%. Peak energy flow occurred in spring and late summer each year, and coincided with peaks in the abundance and growth rate of the grasses which formed the main source of food. Previously published estimates show that the annual flow of energy is higher amongst small mammal populations inhabiting open habitats, such as grasslands, than it is in successionally more mature habitats, such as woodlands.
The use of arboreal runways by the woodland rodents, Apodemus sylvaticus (L.), A. flavicollis (Melchior) and Clethrionomys glareolus (Schreber)
Authors: MONTGOMERY W. I.
Published: April 2008

The use of arboreal runways by the rodents, Apodemus sylvaticus, A. flavicollis and Clethrionomys glareolus, was investigated in the deciduous woodland of Woodchester Park, Gloucestershire, England. Longworth live traps were tied to horizontal and inclining branches of trees and shrubs up to 3 m. Arboreality was extensive in all three species, although less in C. glareolus than in either Apodemus species. There was no indication that A. flavicollis consistently used arboreal runways more than A. sylvaticus but the data suggest that the peak of arboreal activity of these congeners occurred in different seasons. In A. sylvaticus, males were more arboreal than females and adults were more arboreal than juveniles. In, 4. flavicollis, juveniles were trapped significantly more often on arboreal runways than adults. The reasons for, and the consequences of, arboreality in small rodents are discussed.
Town Mouse, Country Mouse: adaptation and adaptability in Mus domesticus (M. musculus domesticus)
Authors: BERRY R. J.
Published: April 2008

The generally accepted idea that the house mouse is a single, world‐wide species which owes its success largely to commensalism with man is wrong. There are at least five European and two Asian species lumped together under the nameMus musculus, plus another fourteen Asian species in the same genus. The house mouse of western Europe is the one that has been introduced to the Americas and Australasia, as well as being domesticated in the laboratory and ‘fancy’ strains; it is properly described asMus domesticus.A complication of this particular species is the existence of chromosomal races involving the fusion of pairs of chromosomes, apparently at random. These races seem to be reproductively isolated from normal (2n = 40) mice. They have been described in southern Europe and northern Britain.

Genetical studies of wild‐living mice have shown the operation of powerful natural selection, contrary to earlier assumptions that most of the polymorphic variation in the species (especially that revealed by electrophoresis) was neutral. The effects of such selection are reduced (but not eliminated) by the deme structure of established mouse populations; this social structure is much less rigid than some laboratory experiments have suggested, because of opportunism by individual mice in replacing dead or debilitated animals, and filling new niches as these become available.

Virtually every mouse population is unique, since a population tends to be founded by a small group of animals drawn from a genetically variable ancestral population. This differentiation has allowed laboratory workers to develop inbred strains with characteristic properties; it has also resulted in over 130 sub‐species being described from wild caught animals. A substantial proportion of these latter have probably arisen by instant sub‐speciation through the founder effect. This is well illustrated by the mice of the Faroe islands, which are often quoted as standard examples of extremely rapid evolution.

The adaptive properties of the house mouse that have made it such an effective pest and such a good laboratory animal have enabled it to colonize habitats as different as Antarctic tundra and tropical atolls. The species is an ideal one for the general biological task of dissecting the traits that contribute to this adaptability; the material is largely available for this task in the diversity of local forms established in different habitats and characterized genetical varieties maintained in the laboratory. More is known aboutM. domesticusthan any other mammal, except possibly man; the time is ripe for fusing laboratory work on reproduction, mortality, and behaviour with the information increasingly coming from field studies of wild‐living animals.
The food of suburban foxes (Vulpes vulpes), with special reference to London
Authors: HARRIS STEPHEN
Published: April 2008

The food of foxes in suburban London was examined using stomach contents and den litter analysis. A great diversity of food was taken. Adult foxes killed nearer to the city centre were found to eat significantly fewer earthworms, domestic pets and wild mammals, but more scavenged food items, than foxes killed closer to the suburban fringe. Cubs killed closer to the city centre ate significantly fewer earthworms and insects, and more pet birds, pet mammals and scavenged food items than cubs killed nearer the periphery of the suburban area. Although seasonal trends in food selection were apparent, they were not as pronounced as those observed in studies of rural foxes. At no time of the year did a single food item predominate in the diet of adult foxes. Passeriformes were the most important single food item in the diet of young cubs, but there was no correlation between the number of Passeriformes eaten and their abundance, nor between annual changes in the abundance of small birds and mean fox birth litter size and productivity. Most foxes examined were in good body condition; there was no seasonal variation in body weight, although fat content did vary seasonally. A complementary survey in Bristol on losses of domestic pets to foxes revealed that 07% of pet cats and 80% of other pets kept outdoors were killed in a year. Damage to garden Crops was negligible.
The function of social hunting in larger terrestrial carnivores
Authors: LAMPRECHT JÜRG
Published: April 2008

Field data on several social terrestrial carnivores, relevant to the function of social hunting, are reviewed in relation to the hypotheses that this function is (1) the ability to catch and kill stronger and faster prey, (2) the ability to cope effectively with interference competition from other carnivores at the kill, (3) unrelated to hunting and competing for food. Hypotheses (2) and (3) are found to comply with the data more often than the widely‐accepted hypothesis (1). This conclusion affects the question of when and how big game hunting favours sociality in a carnivorous species.

Die biologische Bedeutung sozialen Jagens beigrösseren Landraubtieren

Nicht jeder Vorteil, den ein Merkmal seinem Träger bringt, ist gleichzeitig die biologische Bedeutung oder Funktion (im engeren Sinn) dieses Merkmals. Aus der Erörterung des Unterschiedes zwischen Vorteil und Funktion im Hinblick auf die Funktion des sozialen Jagens ergab sich die Hauptfrage dieser Arbeit: Welche Anforderungen der Umwelt bewirken, dass Jagdgruppen so gross sind, wie man sie antrifft, und nicht kleiner?

Am in der Literatur vorhandenen Datenmaterial von 9 Raubtierarten (Löwe, Gepard, Fleckenhyäne, Hyänenhund, Wolf, Dhole, Gold‐ und Schabrakenschakal und Koyote) wurden die folgenden drei Hypothesen kritisch geprüft: (1) Jagdhypothese: Grössere Gruppen dienen dem Finden, Fangen oder Überwältigen stärkerer oder schnellerer Beute. (2) Konkurrenzhypothese: Grössere Gruppen dienen der wirkungsvolleren Verteidigung oder dem rascheren Auswerten der toten Beute angesichts der inner‐ oder zwischenartlichen Konkurrenz. (3) Nebeneffekthypothese: Die Selektionsfaktoren, die grössere Gruppen begünstigen (z.B. Konkurrenz urn Geschlechtspartner, Raubfeindvermeidung, Bewachen der Jungen) haben nicht direkt mit Jagd oder Nahrungsaufnahme zu tun.

Entgegen einer verbreiteten Ansicht erwies sich die Jagdhypothese nur selten und nur für kleine Gruppen von 2–3 Individuen als die wahrscheinlichste (Gnukalbjagd der Hyänen; Goldschakal; s. Tabelle 4). Das gegenwärtige Datenmaterial spricht öfter für Konkurrenz‐bewältigung als die Funktion des sozialen Jagens (Löwen; Hyänen z.B. bei Zebrajagd; Hyänenhund; Schabrakenschakal; Koyote), während bei Löwenmännchen‐, Gepardmännchen‐gruppen und Wolfsrudeln am ehesten die Nebeneffekthypothese zutrifft. Die Funktion des sozialen Jagens kann je nach dem sozialen Kontext (Löwe), dem Beutetyp (Hyäne) oder den ökologischen Bedingungen eine andere sein und ist nicht unbedingt ein Charakteristikum der betreffenden Art.

Eine solche Analyse der Selektionsfaktoren, die die Sozialstruktur der Raubtiere formen, kann ausserdem Hinweise auf die Evolution sozialer Verbande bei friihen carnivoren Hominiden geben.
Photoperiod and reproduction in captive female Northern fur seals*
Authors: SPOTTE STEPHEN , ADAMS GARY
Published: April 2008

The reproductive cycles of captive female Northern fur seals (Callorhinus ursinus) were unaffected over two consecutive years by a photoperiod that differed substantially from that of the natural range. Breeding was observed in July and August, or at the same time as in the wild. Growth was comparable in captive and wild fetuses, indicating a similar timing of delayed implantation of the blastocysts.
National mammal guides: a review of references to Recent faunas
Authors: HICKMAN GRAHAM C.
Published: April 2008

Over four hundred reference guides to the mammalian faunas of almost one hundred and fifty countries, dependencies, and well known, geographically isolated areas are listed, including approximately 60% of the total number of countries found in a current atlas.

Although guides to national mammalian faunas have served as useful synopses for large countries and a useful sub‐division for large physiographic/ecological areas, most countries either lack a comprehensive reference to the identity, distribution, behaviour, and local literature on mammals, or the existing work has long required revision. Included in this report is a reference list of some important supra‐national areas, preceeding a cross‐referenced national listing (by current names, with a chronological listing of references within the country).

National mammal guides are not only an invaluable reference source for the professional, but are also an important stimulus to the layman and government at all levels to take an interest in and appreciate the faunal heritage of mammals found within a country.
Is the British squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris leucourus Kerr) British?
Authors: LOWE V. P. W. , GARDINER A. S.
Published: April 2008

The form of squirrel described as the British race is reputedly amongst the most easily distinguished of all the races of Sciurus vulgaris, having ear tufts and tail which bleach to a milky whiteness during the summer months. Today most squirrels in the British Isles appear to be variable in colour. The aim of this project was to discover if S. v. leucourus possessed a distinctive skull shape.

Differences in skull shape due to age were insignificant in comparison with those due to sex; therefore all age classes were pooled and analysed according to sex by multivariate methods. Apart from S. v. argenteus and 5. v. mantchuricus, of which there was insufficient material, only S. v. lis demonstrated a clear‐cut discontinuity from the other subspecies in both sexes. Skulls of the Persian squirrel (Sciurus anomalus), the most closely related species, were distinguishable from vulgaris only in the females. The subspecies S. v. lis, on the basis of skull shape, therefore appeared to have better claims to specific rank.

S. v. fuscoater was the most heterogeneous in skull shape of all the subspecies analysed. S. v. leucourus was second and overlapped the distribution of ten of the other seventeen subspecies.

Of the British Museum's collection of S. v. leucourus (1879–1935) 38% had skull shapes unique to the subspecies. By contrast none of the skulls collected by the Forestry Commission (1972‐74) differed in shape from other subspecies, though 8/14 were of the light‐tailed variety. Moreover, only one of the twelve squirrels with bleached tails in the B.M. collected before 1913 was distinguishable from S. v. fuscoater on skull shape, and then only marginally. The seven skulls in the B.M. which differed most markedly from other races had skins which were indistinguishable from the red form of squirrel on the continent. Therefore S. v. leucourus may describe a sport rather than a subspecies.
Squirrel energetics
Authors: KNEE CLARE
Published: April 2008

Direct calorimetry, respirometry and gravimetric techniques have been used independently to study the energy requirements of Grey and Fox squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis and S. niger, respectively). Studies using direct calorimetry and respirometry have produced similar values for the resting metabolic rate (RMR). In contrast to studies on other small mammal species, the average daily metabolic rate (ADMR), as measured by respirometry, has been found to be higher than RMR. RMR is closely correlated with temperature, and young squirrels require more energy per gram of body weight than adults; the effect of other variables on the metabolic energy requirements have not been studied. The experimental conditions of several gravimetric studies have differed and there is a consequent variation in the results; these data do not compare with ADMR values. The seasonal cycle in the daily duration of activity, the availability of food and the stress brought about by human disturbance and confinement in small cages, all affect the daily energy requirement of captive wild squirrels. Accurate analyses are hindered by the wide variation in results for individual squirrels and the difficulty in quantifying production and urinary losses. For these reasons, the compiled energy budgets of laboratory‐held squirrels are unlikely to represent the energy budgets of free‐living individuals or populations. Directions for future research are suggested.
Home range characteristics and correlates in tree squirrels
Authors: DON B. A. C.
Published: April 2008

Home range patterns of squirrels in the genera Sciurus and Tamiasciurus are reviewed. Emphasis is placed on the need to use analytical techniques which are appropriate to the questions of interest, and certain weaknesses in published studies are outlined. Variation in home range size between different species, populations of the same species and individuals of the same population is discussed in relation to ecological theory and the biology of tree squirrels. Larger species do not necessarily have larger home ranges. There is an inverse relationship between home range size and population density, but its interpretation is not clear in the absence of experimental studies. Differential utilization of space within the home range is considered to be a common pattern, although it is rarely explicitly described in tree squirrel studies. In general, species of the genus Tamiasciurus defend exclusive territories, whilst those of the genus Sciurus do not. Explanations for these patterns are discussed in terms of ‘economic defendability’ and resource heterogeneity. Problems for future study are suggested.
Status of the Black muntjac, Muntiacus crinifrons, in eastern China
Authors: HO‐GEE LU , HE‐LIN SHENG
Published: April 2008

A detailed survey was conducted to show the relative abundance and current known distribution of the Black muntjac population. New information on the distribution, abundance and status of Black muntjac shows it has a small population within a restricted geographical area and habitat range, which covers an area of approximately 76, 500 km2. The relative abundance of the Black muntjac at different locations was divided into three categories, depending on the percentage composition in hunting returns; these correlated with the amount of habitat destruction and hunting pressure. With the additional consideration of reproductive performance, the Black muntjac is doing well in some suitable areas. Data from historical records, and the new discovery of an isolated population in 1980 and 1981 indicated that habitat destruction and hunting greatly reduced the range and numbers of Black muntjac in the last hundred years. The paper also suggests that the current status of the Black muntjac should be given in the Red Data Book as a rare species.
The changing status of the Brown hare (Lepus capensis L.) in Britain
Authors: TAPPER STEPHEN , PARSONS NICOLA
Published: April 2008

Game bag records are used to examine temporal and geographical changes in numbers of Brown hares. Records are taken from a survey made by the Oxford Bureau of Animal Population in 1938, which covered over 400 estates, and from the Game Conservancy's National Game Census, which has been monitoring shooting records of between 400 and 500 estates since 1961. Eastern regions of Britain had higher bags of hares than western regions in the three periods; 1891–1910, 1917–1936, 1961–1978. Hare game bags were generally high in counties with large proportions of tilled land. There was no consistent temporal trend in bags from different areas before 1938, but all areas show a considerable reduction in bags since 1961. This reduction is statistically significant. Time‐series analysis of one extended set of data did not show evidence of cyclic fluctuations.
The spread of the Bank vole Clethrionomys glareolus in Ireland
Authors: SMAL C. M. , FAIRLEY J. S.
Published: April 2008

The discovery of the Bank vole Clethrionomys glareolus in Ireland and the published information on its spread are reviewed, and the results of a complete resurvey of its distribution, in 1982, presented. The rate of spread is extremely variable and somewhat unpredictable. Over suitable habitat—agricultural land with hedges and other cover (and sometimes mountain valleys)—spread may average 2–4.5 kmyr‐1 but can sometimes be very much slower. This might be influenced by the type and extent of hedges and of permanent pasture. High ground and moorland usually prevent spread but there have been dramatic exceptions. In 1982 Bank voles occupied probably the whole of Co. Limerick; most of Co. Kerry, with the exception of substantial parts of the mountainous peninsulas in the southwest and contiguous interior; a large part of Co. Cork, though not the south‐east and again excepting portions of the mountainous south‐west, together with a substantial strip of east Co. Tipperary, and the south‐east quarter of Co. Clare.
The feeding ecology of the European Water shrew
Authors: CHURCHFIELD SARA
Published: April 2008

This review examines our knowledge of the feeding ecology of the European Water shrew, Neomys fodiens. It describes and discusses the different methods which have been used to study the diets of Water shrews, from the first casual observations to the discovery of food caches and food remains in the wild, and the analysis of stomach contents and faecal pellets of trapped animals. These studies have revealed that Water shrews feed on a variety of invertebrate and vertebrate prey from tiny freshwater dip‐teran larvae to sizable fish and frogs. Although aquatic prey are seen to be the major dietary component in most studies, terrestrial prey are also important and may be eaten in an equal proportion. Laboratory studies have increased our knowledge of the foraging behaviour of Water shrews but there is still much to be learnt, especially about underwater prey location.
Population ecology and prevalence of tuberculosis in Badgers in an area of Staffordshire
Authors: CHEESEMAN C. L. , LITTLE T. W. A. , MALLINSON P. J. , PAGE R. J. C. , WILESMITH J. W. , PRITCHARD D. G.
Published: April 2008

Forty‐five badgers representing five social groups were removed from an area in Staffordshire where tuberculosis had occurred in cattle. Prior to removal, the tuberculosis status of the badger population was investigated by screening faeces samples, collected at fortnightly intervals, and badger social‐group territories were determined by bait‐marking. Samples for cultural and biological examination were taken from the live badgers before euthanasia and detailed post‐mortem examination. The adult badger population density was 6‐2/km2 and Mycobacterium bovis was isolated from samples taken post mortem from eight (17‐8%) badgers. The results are reviewed in relation to previous findings.
Opportunities for reintroducing British mammals
Authors: Yalden D. W.
Published: April 2008

There is good evidence that die three rarer British predatory mammals, the Polecat, Pine Marten and Wild Cat, owe their present restricted distribution to intense human persecution. Since this persecution has now diminished considerably, it would be feasible to attempt to reintroduce them to parts of Britain where they were exterminated last century. More important, however, would be attempts to reintroduce mammals which became totally extinct in historic times, including Aurochs, Boar, Brown Bear, Beaver and Wolf. The last of these survived the longest, and is a prime candidate for consideration. There are good ecological reasons for attempting to reintroduce it to Rhum, where the large herd of Red Deer has to be culled by one sixth each year in an attempt to reduce overgrazing and starvation. Evidence of studies in North America suggests that Wolf predation would be a far more efficient way of controlling the Red Deer; and it would be more in keeping with the management objectives of a National Nature Reserve. Similarly an attempt should be made to use genetically ‘reconstituted’ Tarpan and Aurochs to diversify the grazing, rather than domestic ponies and cattle.
Reintroducing Red Squirrels into Regent's Park
Authors: BERTRAM B. C. R. , MOLTU D.‐P.
Published: April 2008

In late 1984 10 young Red Squirrels (Sciurus vulgaris) trapped in Scotland were released into Regent's Park and monitored by radio‐telemetry. We wanted to investigate the reasons why the introduced Grey Squirrel has replaced the Red over much of Britain; disease, aggression and ecological competition have all been suggested as the cause. The relevant guidelines governing policy on reintroductions were followed. A few months after release, the animals appear well established. They benefit from a specially‐designed hopper which allows them to feed from it but prevents Grey Squirrels doing so.
Agricultural land use effects on the winter diet of Brown Hares (Lepus europaeus Pallas) in southern Sweden
Authors: FRYLESTAM B.
Published: April 2008

The winter diet of the Brown Hare in relation to agricultural land use was studied in three different areas (pasture land; mixed farmland; monoculture land) in southern Sweden. Stomachs from Hares were collected during the hunting season (October‐December). By microanalysis of epidermal structures, the plants eaten were determined as to species, genera or families. Altogether 37 plant species/genera were recognized, 20 of which were graminids and the other herbs. Grasses were most frequent at this time of the year and were highly utilized in pasture land and mixed farmland. Among cultivated plants, wheat was most frequent in mixed farmland (20‐5oo) and in monoculture land (48‐5%). Although widely represented in mixed farmland, rape was less utilized (12‐2%), while it was highly utilized in the monoculture land (37‐8%). Hares might possibly avoid rape food in the late autumn due to its content of glucosinulates. But in the absence of alternative food, rape will be more often utilized in monocultures. In all areas wild plants were preferred to cultivated crops, indicating the importance of a rich wild flora available to Hares. The results obtained suggest a way of improving the Hare's habitat.
The ecology of helminths in populations of small mammals
Authors: KEYMER A. E. , DOBSON A. P.
Published: April 2008

A review of field data indicates the ubiquitous occurrence of parasites in small mammal communities, with the heligmosome nematodes in many cases dominant members of the helminth fauna. The population dynamics of the heligmosomes are discussed in relation to the interpretation of patterns of infection observed in the field. Laboratory data are then used to indicate ways in which the parasites might reflect or influence the population biology of their hosts. The aim of the paper is to suggest the potential significance of parasitism for the ecology of small mammal populations.
Host diet as a determinant of parasite growth, reproduction and survival
Authors: CROMPTON D. W. T.
Published: April 2008

Changes have been observed in the biology of protozoan and helminth parasites of small mammals during a variety of experimental nutritional manipulations ranging from deficiency in a specific nutrient to the general withholding of food from the host. Commonly observed effects include retardations in parasite growth rate, gametogenesis, fecundity, and asexual multiplication. The duration of patency and of the association of a parasite with its host have also been observed to be curtailed. The nutritional responses of parasites during host hibernation require investigation and much research will be needed to explain how perturbations in host dietary composition and intake may lead to the observed effects. Care should be exercised over applying the results from experimental studies to naturally occurring infections, but the experiments are justified because they indicate potential effects, if not their biological significance, and because causation can be determined.