bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Early Hominid Dental Development and Climate Change
Authors: Rozzi Fernando Ramirez , Walker Christopher , Bromage Timothy G
Published: November 2023

The scenario typically advanced suggests that the spread of more open environments during the Pliocene engendered more fibrous and abrasive vegetative foods (e.g., Bromage & Schrenk, 1995). Mammals adapted to this new condition by developing either more hypsodont teeth or teeth with more complex occlusal faces (Turner & Wood, 1993a). Therefore, environmental change may exercise selective pressure on dental development and tooth structure, the morphologies of which can be used as indicators of habitat specificity. Fortunately, patterns of dental development are naturally “fossilized” in enamel, and any change in the process of enamel formation is observable as a modification in one or more microanatomical characteristics. Analyses of enamel microstructure enable us to reconstruct changes in dental development through time. It is possible, if not expected, therefore, that, as for other Pliocene mammal groups, dental development change observed over the course of early hominid evolution may be related to environmental change.
What Do Men Want? Men’s Criteria for Choosing Partners
Authors: Townsend John Marshall
Published: November 2023

And it came to pass in an evening-tide that David arose from off his bed and walked upon the roof of the king’s house: and from the roof he saw a woman washing herself; and the woman was very beautiful to look upon. And David sent and enquired after the woman.
Romance, Male Dominance, and the Quest for Investment
Authors: Townsend John Marshall
Published: November 2023

Sigmund freud was confident of his ability to unravel the deepest secrets of the unconscious mind and to explain the fundamental processes of psychological development and gender identity. Yet in his often-quoted statement, he admitted he was at a loss when it came to understanding what women want. Freud is not alone: a great many men are perplexed by women’s behavior. They often find it contradictory, frustrating, and incomprehensible. One of the reasons for men’s confusion is their failure to recognize the distinction between emotional and material investment. Most women want men who are loving and tender with them but they also want men who are winners. This desire for both types of investment often causes them to behave in ways that men find baffling. For example, women tend to want more cuddling and tender shows of affection than men do, and women’s complaints about men in this respect are perennial. But at times many women also want their male partners to act passionately, lustfully, and masterfully. A woman can alternate between wanting to cuddle and nurture the man, wanting the man to cuddle and nurture her, and wanting him to act as though he were ravishing her. And all of these alternations can occur in one encounter. The same alternations can occur in verbal transactions. Sometimes a woman wants a man to be sensitive, considerate, and compliant. Other times she may want him to take a stand and argue with her.
Introduction
Authors: Kowsky Francis R
Published: November 2023

Calvert Vaux (1824-1895) fervently advocated the power of art to refine and elevate the human spirit. An accomplished architect and landscape architect, he believed that wellplanned, picturesque buildings and naturalistically laid-out parks and grounds enhanced the lives of all who used them. After a six-year period in Newburgh, New York, where he settled in 1850 following his training as an architect in his native England, Vaux established himself in New York City. He would practice there for the next 40 years. During this long career, he designed houses for men of wealth as well as for artists and writers and middle-class clients. He also laid out parks and cemeteries, drew plans for some of the largest public edifices America had yet seen, erected model tenements and other buildings intended to improve the conditions of the urban poor, called for intelligently planned apartment houses at an early date, and, not least of all, built many charming structures in the nation’s new public parks. His name, however, has been overshadowed by the reputations of his more well-known associates, Andrew Jackson Downing (1815-1852), the man who brought him to America, and Frederick Law Olmsted (1822-1903), the man whom Vaux introduced to the profession of landscape architecture.
Statistics in Public Health Qualitative Approaches to Public Health Problems
Authors: Stroup Donna F , Teutsch Steven M
Published: November 2023

Statistics and other quantitative methods (e.g. economics, decision theory) are integral to the scientific basis of priority-setting and program evaluation in public health. This book is a concise overview of the statistical approaches to core public health functions: outbreak investigations, policy development, economic and program evaluation, managed care, and program operations
Basic Concepts of Statistics
Authors: Barker Nancy D
Published: November 2023

A genuine understanding of basic statistical concepts is critical for applying appropriate quantitative methods to public health practice. From the epidemiologist trying to determine the source of illness in an outbreak investigation to the physician interpreting the results from a statistical analysis in a medical journal, this core knowledge is imperative. Basic understanding of statistical concepts is becoming more essential with increasing technology and software development. Although a novice can perform the most sophisticated statistical techniques with a simple keystroke, quantitative methods may be inappropriately used by those who are not familiar with important details of the statistical techniques and nuances of any software used (e.g., neglecting to account for the survey design in the analysis of data from complex sample surveys).
Scleroderma and the Kidneys
Authors: Mayes Maureen D
Published: November 2023

Kidney involvement occurs in about 20 percent of scleroderma patients. While the good news is that 80 percent of patients will never get this complication, the bad news is that it is difficult to predict which 20 percent will be affected. Kidney problems occur most frequently in the first five years after the diagnosis and tend to happen in those individuals with diffuse skin involvement, that is, with skin thickness that extends to the upper arms or the trunk. Although this is generally true, scleroderma kidney disease can affect others as well. As I said before, through-out this book it will become clear that there are many exceptions to the rule when it comes to scleroderma patients.
Scleroderma and the Gastrointestinal Tract
Authors: Mayes Maureen D
Published: November 2023

This information applies to people with systemic scleroderma, either limited or diffuse, and those with scleroderma sine sclerosis. It does not apply, or only rarely applies, to people with localized scleroderma (the morphea or linear type). Background: How the GI Tract Works Almost everyone with systemic scleroderma (about 85 per-cent of cases) has some degree of GI (gastrointestinal) tract involvement, from mild to severe. The GI tract includes the esophagus, the stomach, the small bowel or intestine, the large bowel or colon, and the rectum (see Figure 1 on page 77). It is made up of a special kind of muscle called smooth muscle, which is different from the striated (skeletal) muscles in the arms and legs. The main pathological process that happens in the GI tract in scleroderma is that the normal smooth muscle tissue is replaced by fibrotic scar tissue, a result of the fibroblasts excessive production of collagen.
Evolution, Nativism and Learning in the Development of Language and Speech
Authors: Kuhl Patricia K , Meltzoff Andrew N
Published: November 2023

Infants acquire language like clockwork. Whether a baby is born in Stockholm, Tokyo, Zimbabwe or Seattle, at 3 months of age, a typically developing infant will coo. At about 7 months the baby will babble. By their first birthday, infants will have produced their first words, and by 18 months, 2-word combinations. Children of all cultures know enough about language to carry on an intricate conversation by 3 years of age.
Who Is At Risk of Developing Osteoporosis?
Authors: Lane Nancy E
Published: November 2023

Many studies show that low bone mass leads to osteoporosis. But what is bone mass, and how is it measured? A single bone mass measurement at any commonly assessed site (forearm, heel, finger, hip, or lumbar spine) predicts the overall risk of fractures in women. Bone mass measurements also predict the risk of specific types of osteoporotic fractures, including those of the wrist, upper arm, hip, and most other sites. The site of a bone mass measurement can be important. For example, bone mass measured at the hip is a better predictor of hip fracture than bone mass measured at other sites. The relationship of bone mass to fractures is quite strong. For example, if a woman’s hip bone mass is 20 percent below normal for her age, she is about seven times more likely to have a hip fracture than a woman whose hip bone mass is 20 percent above normal for her age. The lower the bone mineral density, the higher the risk of having a fracture. In chapter 3, we will see that the definition of low bone mass or fracture threshold is arbitrary, though it may be useful when deciding which therapy to use.
Opera
Authors: Weiss Piero
Published: November 2023

Richly textured, extravagantly colorful, and filled with larger-than-life characters, the history of opera is as mesmerizing and commanding as opera itself. And no art form benefits more from being seen from the inside out--through eye-witness accounts of singers, composers, librettists, critics, historians, patrons, satirists, impresarios, designers, performers, and others--than opera. Now, in Opera: A History in Documents, Piero Weiss presents a sweeping, vivid, and carefully researched tour of operatic history. The chronologically organized primary sources include 115 passages--private letters, portions of libretti, literary criticism, satire, and poetry--from opera’s late Renaissance infancy through modern times. This first-hand testimony allows readers to experience the history of opera as eyewitnesses, offering an immediacy and validity unmatched by standard histories. Opera lovers will be transported to a Medici wedding in sixteenth century Florence, to the Haymarket Theatre for a performance of Handel’s Rinaldo, to Mozart at work on Die Entfuhrung aus dem Serail, and to Bertolt Brecht’s writing desk, among many other landmarks in opera’s history. Weiss expertly guides readers, providing highly accessible introductions to each section that both contextualize the excerpts and position them within the broader historical narrative. In addition, Weiss offers original translations of more than half of the material in the book, many of them appearing in English for the first time. Stage settings, costumes, portraits, contemporary playbills, and other illustrations enliven the text and help to recreate the feel of the era under discussion. Perfect for opera aficionados, Opera: A History in Documents offers a uniquely exciting entrée into the origins and development of one of our most enduring art forms.
Opera Moves To Venice And Goes Public
Authors: Weiss Piero
Published: November 2023

In its earliest years opera emerged as an enhancement of festivities designed to glorify the rule of dynasties in city-states or the power of cardinals in Rome. Its arrival in Venice led to a radical transformation in its very essence and a new beginning in its history. Coming from Rome in 1637, what the first opera troupe found upon arriving in Venice was not a dynasty to glorify (unless it was Venice herself) but thriving commerce and, especially during carnival, a teeming international, pleasure-seeking public. Opera took root immediately, on an entirely new basis: in one form or another, the public paid to be admitted to the theater, and the introduction of this new commercial factor speedily had its effect on what the public was offered. Opera very soon learned to adapt itself to the new consumers: scenic effects remained a high priority, but now solo singing grew tremendously in importance. More and more, composers strove to exploit the solo voice in constructing their scores, and star opera singers began to dominate the operatic stage (as they do to this day). It was Venetian opera, in turn, that dominated wherever opera found a new venue, whether in Italy or abroad. And except where supported by kings or other rulers, its economic underpinnings reflected the lessons learned in Venice. The details of operatic production in seventeenth-century Venice are nowhere so clearly described as in the following extracts from a book by the theatrical chronicler Cristoforo lvanovich published in 1681. Entitled Minerva al tavolino (Minerva at her desk), it is a catalogue of all the operas produced at Venice’s numerous theaters from 1637 to the date of publication, with an appendix (from which we quote) describing the theaters themselves and how they functioned.
Mozart At Work On Die Entführung Aus Dem Serail
Authors: Weiss Piero
Published: November 2023

In May 1781 Mozart broke with his employer, Count Hieronymus Colloredo, Prince-Archbishop of Salzburg, and took up residence in Vienna as a free lance. His first major commission there was the Singspiel Die Entfuhrung aus dem Serail (The Abduction from the Seraglio), on which he worked that year and the next. The libretto was adapted by Gottlieb Stephanie “the Younger” from an existing libretto by C. F. Bretzner, set to music earlier that year by Johann Andre. Mozart kept his father in Salzburg informed of his progress; and the letters he wrote to him on this occasion are among the most exhaustive and revealing documents we have of his creativity as an opera composer. The first mention of the new opera occurs in a letter of 1 August 1781: The day before yesterday Stephanie the Younger gave me a libretto to compose. I must confess that, bad as he may be towards other people, of which I know nothing, he is an excellent friend to me.-The libretto is quite good. The subject is Turkish and is called: Belmonte und Konstanze, or Die Verfuhrung aus dem Serail.-The overture, the chorus in the first act, and the final chorus I will write with Turkish music. Mad:selle Cavalieri, Mad:selle Teyber, M:r Fischer, M:r Adamberger, M:r Dauer, and M:r Walter are to sing in it.-1 am so happy to be setting the libretto, that Cavalieri’s first aria, and Adamberger’s, and the trio that concludes the first act are already finished. Time is short, that is true; for it is to be produced in mid-September-however-the conditions under which it is to be performed, and generally-all the other plans-cheer my spirits so, that I hasten to my writing table with the greatest anticipation, and remain sitting there with the greatest joy.
Kierkegaard’s Don Giovanni
Authors: Weiss Piero
Published: November 2023

S0ren Kierkegaard (1813-55), the Danish philosopher whose thought influenced Scandinavian writers in the nineteenth century and the whole existentialist movement in the twentieth, was deeply affected by Mozart’s Don Giovanni already in his student days. The figure of the opera’s hero came to occupy an important place in his first major work, Either/Or (Enten/Eller, Copenhagen, 1843), where it serves to illustrate vividly, and famously, a mode of existence that finds fulfillment in the gratification of the senses. This, obviously, is not the whole story Kierkegaard has to tell, and in the 11Or” part of his equation he presents a brief for the life lived ethically. But it is not for their philosophical import that the following excerpts are included here.
E. T. A. Hoffmann On “music Drama That Springs From The Heart”
Authors: Weiss Piero
Published: November 2023

Ernst Theodor Amadeus Hoffmann (1776-1822) was a many-sided genius: musician, painter, writer, man of law. His influence on the romantic movement was immense. His works of fiction inspired operas and ballets (Offenbach’s Tales of Hoffmann, Tchaikovsky’s Nutcracker are examples) as well as instrumental music (Schumann’s “Kreisleriana,” etc.). He was a pioneering music critic as welI, and in the following selection, first pubIished separately in 1 814, later incorporated in Kreisleriana, Part II (1815), he addressed himself to a subject close to his heart, opera. Himself an opera composer (he was composing his most successful one, Undine, at the time this essay was written), Hoffmann here expounds some of his basic beliefs, taking his cue from a remark attributed to the Italian composer Antonio Sacchini (1730-86). The remark obviously referred to the older style of opera seria, and Hoffmann is well aware of this; he does not dispute the older aesthetic but rather deplores the confused state of opera in his own time and what he views as a widespread tendency to seek easy “effects.” His own idols are Cluck and Mozart (in whose honor he changed his third name, Wilhelm, to Amadeus), and they figure prominently in this essay.
Brecht On “Epic Opera”
Authors: Weiss Piero
Published: November 2023

Kurt Weill’s and Bertolt Brecht’s opera Aufstieg und Fall der Stadt Mahagonny (Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny) had its first performance on 9 March 1930 in Leipzig. As Brecht’s footnote 3 below testifies, the event provoked riotous behavior in the audience, and protests on moral and political grounds accompanied the opera as it appeared in other cities-in stark contrast to the reception given to the same authors’ Die Dreigroschenoper (The Threepenny Opera), which, since its premiere three years earlier, was quickly becoming the biggest theatrical success of Weimar Germany. Social criticism already marked the earlier work. In Mahagonny it became the main message and, for Brecht, the only reason for any opera to exist. With the publication of his Remarks on the work in 1930, Brecht made the need for theatrical reform (or “innovation”) contingent on the reform of society as a whole. By now he was (and would remain for the rest of his life) a committed Marxist, and his comments on contemporary efforts to break with operatic convention are abrasive precisely because these efforts did not presuppose a simultaneous restructuring of society (see his references to Strauss’s Elektra, Krenek’s Jonny spielt auf, Stravinsky’s Oedipus Rex by innuendo, and finally on Cebrauchsmusik).
Stravinsky, Auden, And The Rake’s Progress
Authors: Weiss Piero
Published: November 2023

After viewing Hogarth’s eight paintings of “The Rake’s Progress” (1733) at the Chicago Art Institute in May 1947, Stravinsky decided they would form the subject of an English-language opera he had been meaning to compose. He was living in Hollywood at the time, and he asked his neighbor Aldous Huxley to recommend a librettist. Huxley recommended W. H. Auden; the result was one of the most successful operas of the later twentieth century. The first contacts between the composer and the librettist (who would soon be joined by Chester Kallman as collaborator) are recorded below. Note, in the first letter, Stravinsky’s original intention of avoiding recitative and using spoken dialogue instead; he later changed his mind and employed “secco” recitative, complete with harpsichord.
The Solar System
Authors: Ladders Katharina , Fegley Bruce
Published: November 2023

Solar system elemental abundances (often referred to as “cosmic” abundances in the older literature) represent the best abundance estimates for our solar system. Abundance data are obtained from solar spectroscopy (solar abundances) and from abundance determinations in primitive meteorites (CI-chondrites). Except for volatile elements (e.g., H, C, N, 0, noble gases), which are lost from meteorites and elements that are destroyed in the sun (e.g., Li, Be, B), the agreement between solar and meteoritic abundances is generally fair.
Mars and Satellites
Authors: Ladders Katharina , Fegley Bruce
Published: November 2023

Mars has an elliptical orbit (e˜0.093), which leads to ˜45% more insolation at perihelion than aphelion. As a consequence, the seasons are more accentuated than on Earth. Seasonal temperatures range from 148 K in polar winter to 290 K in southern summer. The seasonal temperature changes cause CO2 condensation into and sublimation from the polar caps, producing an annual pressure change of 37% (2.4 mbar) relative to the global mean pressure of 6.36 mbar. Annual pressure variations due to CO2 condensation and sublimation were monitored by the Viking landers.
Angels in the Machinery
Authors: Edwards Rebecca
Published: November 2023

Angels in the Machinery offers a sweeping analysis of the centrality of gender to politics in the United States from the days of the Whigs to the early twentieth century. Author Rebecca Edwards shows that women in the U.S. participated actively and influentially as Republicans, Democrats, and leaders of third-party movements like Prohibitionism and Populism decades before they won the right to vote, and in the process, transformed forever the ideology of American party politics. Using cartoons, speeches, party platforms, news accounts, and campaign memorabilia, she offers a compelling explanation of why family values, womens political activities, and even candidates sex lives remain hot-button issues in politics to this day.
Introducation
Authors: Edwards Rebecca
Published: November 2023

As witnesses to an industrial revolution, nineteenth-century Americans were fascinated by the power and complexity of machines. In political debate they used machines as a metaphor for both the electoral system and for parties. A convention of freedmen, for example, urged southern blacks to organize “as a political unit, looking towards equal rights, with decided political machinery.” “Party machinery,” declared a Republican leader in 1868, “is the only possible method by which a free republic can accomplish the purpose of its existence.” Other references were negative: one New York Democrat protested convention rules that made a delegate “a mere cog in the wheel of a machine,” and Harper’s scoffed at the “usual machinery” of electoral campaigns.
Redemption
Authors: Edwards Rebecca
Published: November 2023

The depression of 1893 was one of the worst economic crises ever to hit the United States. While it did not devastate financial markets as severely as the Great Depression would in 1929, the effect on industry was catastrophic. A quarter of the nation’s railroads went bankrupt. Production slumped in almost every manufacturing sector and ensuing layoffs were massive. Outside agriculture, which had its own problems, unemployment reached an estimated 2 million. Thousands of displaced workers sought charity in the cities, wandered the countryside, or starved from want. Some who kept their jobs fared only a little better, as wages in the textile and mining industries dropped more than 25 percent from levels that were already depressed. In real terms, American wages lost a fifth of their value in two years.
The Peculiar Institution of Southern Violence
Authors: Grimsted David
Published: November 2023

A young lawyer from Cincinnati, William Hauser, wrote his cousin, Julia Conrad, as soon as he arrived in Helena, Arkansas, in 1841. He had high hopes that he could establish his legal career quickly in the South, and he didn’t want Conrad to worry about him just because she’d probably read that a mob had recently drowned fifty to seventy-five “gamblers” in the area. He lectured that it was “such exaggerated accounts” that gave the South “a more abominable complexion” than it deserved: “In this instance I have been assured from the best authority there were not more than thirty men shot or otherwise killed.” Hauser didn’t mail the letter immediately, hoping to provide more precise details about where he was settling. Eight days later he added a postscript from Mills Point, Kentucky, having concluded, “I would have to sacrifice everything and endanger life to live” in Arkansas. He was on his way home to Ohio.
The Mobs of the Second Party System
Authors: Grimsted David
Published: November 2023

Niles’ Register reported with horror the October 1834 election riots in Philadelphia. Rowdies sometimes formed “such a mass of living matter” that the feeble or aged gave up their vote, and even the strongest could stay only if willing to sacrifice their clothes. Elections were becoming the province “of a villainous mob-sets of wretched creatures, hired at so much for the day’s work, to do the bidding of their employers!-to block up the passage or ‘knock down and drag out.”‘ A letter from a Philadelphia woman, Julia Grew, corroborated Niles’s account. “Such immovable mobs collected around the polls,” she wrote, “that the common method for a gentleman to present his vote was by a conveyance across the heads of the multitude. During this delightful transportation, some gentlemen of the opposite party would snip a seam in his coat, and tear it as far as possible. Some had their clothes literally tom off, and many persons were much injured.” Some chose other means of access; one man, Niles reported, fixed a knife against his abdomen to clear a path toward the polls.
Prologue
Authors: Lahav Noam
Published: November 2023

“Why is the sky dark at night?” The question is not as trivial as it may seem, because if the universe is infinite and eternal, according to Newton’s model, then starlight should reach our planet from all directions, and the sky should also be illuminated at night. This problem is sometimes called “Olbers’ Paradox,” even though it is not a paradox, nor was it Willhelm Olbers (1758-1840) who addressed it first, in 1823. This problem had first been contemplated by Thomas Digges in 1576 and was known to later astronomers, including Johannes Kepler, Edmund Halley, and Sir William Herschel. It was Edgar Allan Poe, however, the founder of popular scientific journalism, who suggested a partial solution to this problem as early as 1848. According to his proposal, the universe has a finite age, though it was generally assumed it is inherently static. Thus, the light from remote stars did not have enough time to reach the earth and is beyond our horizon now. Forty years later this suggestion was supported by Lord Kelvin (1824-1907) but was not accepted, and it was later forgotten.
General Chemical, Biochemical, and Molecular-Biological Characterization
Authors: Lahav Noam
Published: November 2023

When we attempt to define life, or living, we immediately come up against a fundamental and apparently irreducible paradox: living organisms are composed of inanimate molecules Must we then say that “life” is the interaction of all the inanimate components of this whole? In other words, that nothing is alive in a cell except the whole of it? The chemical status of the cell is far from static, even when it seems to change only slightly with time. Chemical processes, that is, the synthesis and breakdown of molecules, take place in the cell continuously. These processes create fluxes of matter and energy between the cell and its environment that are characteristic of living organisms. The scientific disciplines that study these processes are thermodynamics, biochemistry, and molecular biology.
Clues and Speculations Based on Cosmology and Geology
Authors: Lahav Noam
Published: November 2023

The idea of life in planetary systems similar to ours is rather old. If the origin of life on planet Earth is assumed to have been based on organic compounds formed in the atmosphere (the classical Miller-Urey experiment), then life could have formed on other planets as well (Kasting et al., 1997).
Introduction
Authors: Cavicchi Daniel
Published: November 2023

Early in the morning of April 30, 1976, after playing a two-and-a-half hour concert in Memphis, Tennessee, Bruce Springsteen took a cab to Elvis Presley ‘s Graceland Mansion and jumped the gate in an attempt to meet his boyhood idol. At the time Springsteen was a star; his album Born to Run (1975) was a hit, and he had been on the covers of both Time and Newsweek. But the guard who emerged from the bushes to remove the intruder didn ‘t know him. “He thought I was just another crazy fan, “ Springsteen said. “Which I was “ (Marsh 1979, 193).
Ignorning the music Business
Authors: Cavicchi Daniel
Published: November 2023

While many fans represent their connection with Bruce Springsteen in terms of his music “touching them, “ a very personal and immediate interaction, they nevertheless admit that their listening is part of a lengthy and elaborate act of commodified exchange. Fans know that when Springsteen writes a song, he cannot simply perform it for his audience; the song must travel a complex circuit involving band members, record company executives, managers, producers, recording technicians, mixing engineers, promotion people, designers, printers, record store owners, clerks, the press, radio DJs, concert promoters, roadies, and merchandisers before it ever reaches anyone ‘s ears (see Darnton 1989). As 20-yearold college student Russ Curley told me, “Ideally, you would have music, and the people who were going to listen to it naturally gravitate toward it. But things are complicated when you have a capitalist society and system where music is big business “ (interview, November 2, 1993).
Papyrus Rolls
Authors: Kilgour Frederick G
Published: November 2023

DJ SOMETIME AROUND 3 zoo B. c., King Narmer, also known as Menes, united the kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt and became the first king of the First Dynasty. It was also at this time that the earliest known Egyptian writing was done; the pictographs on the oft-reproduced slate Palette of Narmer provide one example. Narmer’s dynasty and the dynasty that followed, which began about2900 B.C. and lasted for another two hundred years, comprised the Early Dynastic Period. Thirty more dynasties followed, with the last, the Ptolemaic, ending in30 B.C. Egyptian chronology has suffered, and still suffers, from wandering dates generated by various chronological schemes adopted at various times. Flinders Petrie’s design of sequence dating, long useful for the study of Egyptian prehistory, was predicated on the assumption that absolute dating was impossible, which was certainly the case in T901, when Petrie put forth his proposal. In recent decades, however, carbon-14 dating has produced prehistoric dates within usefully narrow limits; although they have replaced Petrie’s chronology, there are naturally some older monographs still being reprinted that contain his sequence dates. Further confusion arises as dynastic dates have been, and are still being, changed as knowledge of ancient Egypt expands.
Computer-Driven Book Production
Authors: Kilgour Frederick G
Published: November 2023

THE HALF CENTURY following the Second World War was a revolutionary era, for it encompassed the sixth and seventh punctuations of equilibria in the history of the book: the development and introduction of photocomposition, which made offset printing so economical that it replaced cast type; and the introduction of electronic books, to be discussed in the next chapter. Gutenberg’s seminal concept—that the act of physical writing by humans could be mechanized, and that the mechanism could be used to make multiple copies of a book at a low cost—remains basic to modern printing technology, although the technologies Gutenberg had available more than five centuries ago were different in every regard from those of the late twentieth century. As has already been said, when new technologies furnish new solutions to problems, they rarely do so by mimicking earlier technology.
Solute Transport Above The Sediment-Water Interface
Authors: Boudreau Bernard P
Published: November 2023

Transfer of solutes through a benthic boundary layer (BBL) exerts an influence on a number of geochemically important processes, including the dissolution of CaCO3 (Schink and Guinasso, 1977), ferromanganese nodule formation (Boudreau and Scott, 1978; Boudreau, 1988), oxygen consumption and the growth of microbial mats (Jumars and Nowell, 1984; Jfl,lrgensen and Revsbech, 1985; Gundersen and ]ri.lrgensen, 1990), nutrient transfer to coral reefs (Bilger and Atkinson, 1992, 1995; Baird and Atkinson, 1997), and the release of contaminants (Thibodeaux et al., 1980). This chapter describes the transport of solutes through the water side of the BBL and the models that account for their distributions and fluxes. In this chapter, two types of solutes are distinguished: those that are not measurably reactive, called passive, and to those that exhibit appreciable reaction in a BBL, termed reactive. The lack of reactivity of passive solutes is restricted to their behavior in the water column, whereas their production or consumption is assumed to occur at the sediment-water interface and/or in the underlying sediments.
Unintentional Injuries: Drownings, Falls, and Burns
Authors: Barss Peter , Smith Gordon S , Baker Susan P , Mohan Dinesh
Published: November 2023

Drownings, falls, and burns are the major causes of fatal or severe unintentional injury, after traffic injuries. In isolated or mountainous areas with few roads, and even in certain cities, their health impact exceeds that of traffic injuries. Falls and burns are leading causes of mild and moderate injuries in the home and elsewhere. This chapter examines the importance of each of these injuries, special circumstances pertaining to developing countries and indigenous communities leading to these injuries, and the classification, data sources, examples, and determinants for each type of injury. Each of these three types of injuries includes several subcategories that may have quite different determinants and risk groups. Careful classification and specific analyses of circumstances relating to the subcategories most common in a particular area are essential to determine the most appropriate interventions.
Conclusion
Authors: Barss Peter , Smith Gordon S , Baker Susan P , Mohan Dinesh
Published: November 2023

Attitudes towards injuries are changing. This should lead to a new era when scientific studies help guide decision makers toward effective leadership in the prevention of morbidity and mortality from injuries. We hope the material in this book has provided an introduction for the reader interested in preventing injuries, especially in neglected areas of developing countries or in indigenous, remote, and other underserved communities in industrialized countries. It should be obvious by now that relatively little injury surveillance and research has been done in such locations, especially for non-traffic injuries. This situation is changing as researchers and senior officials become aware of recent developments in injury control, acquire expertise in injury surveillance, improve local data sources, and begin to apply various interventions in their own countries.
Aspects of Meter
Authors: Schachter Carl
Published: November 2023

Meter is a problem. Theorists investigating rhythm have reached no consensus about such fundamental issues as the nature of the metrical accent, the possibility of meter over large spans of time, and the status of discrepancies between the meter as notated and some of the obvious rhythmic emphases in a piece. When different theorists attempt a metrical analysis of the same piece or passage, the divergent results can be striking indeed. The classic instance is that most overanalyzed piece of music, the theme for the variations that open Mozart’s Piano Sonata in A Major, K.331. Hugo Riemann maintains that Mozart failed to notate the true downbeats, and he “improves” the notation by putting bar lines in the middle of Mozart’s measures.
The Triad as Place and Action
Authors: Schachter Carl
Published: November 2023

Any triad that is composed out has both a kinetic and a static aspect; when we hear it, we experience changes occurring within a relatively stable field. The changes comprise the successions of pitches and pitch combinations that we hear as melodic lines, counterpoint, and harmony, all deployed within intervals belonging to the composed-out chord.
The Adventures of an F#
Authors: Schachter Carl
Published: November 2023

In a well-known letter to his father, Mozart discussed how he went about writing an opera, in this case The Abduction from the Sera3/io. Osmin’s uncontrollable rage, for instance, was to be expressed by a sudden and unexpected change in key and time. Just after the apparent end of his F-major aria, following a bit of dialogue with Pedrillo, Osmin launches into the aria’s A-minor pendant, composed in a new meter and tempo and with new orchestration al/a Turca.
Descriptive Techniques
Authors: Selvin Steve
Published: November 2023

Descriptive statistics are at the heart of organizing and summarizing numerical values. Data are not particularly interesting until they are reduced to a few summary values indicating general properties of the entire sample. Five general properties of a sample of numerical observations are:
Social Revolution and the Persistence of Rape
Authors: Smith Patricia
Published: November 2023

By and large, an effective change in law requires a substantial revision of cultural attitude, not the other way around. Still, some legal reform, as long as it is incremental, can encourage cultural evolution. Certainly there has been enormous social upheaval with regard to sexual relations between men and women during the second half of the twentieth century-so much so, in fact, that it is often called a sexual revolution. One might think that recent cultural change, then, is sufficient to support some needed legal reform. But the changes, while undeniable, are difficult to assess. In some ways they are cataclysmic; in others, barely discernible. Rape, for one thing, is as prevalent, menacing, and limiting to women as it has ever been. Assuming that rape, like slavery, is an evil that we would like to see evolve out of existence, I would like to consider what has changed, what hasn’t changed with regard to sexual attitudes, as well as what might be changed especially in law and legal enforcementto encourage the decline of rape in our culture.
Immune Response and Methods for Detection of Infectious Diseases
Authors: Peace-Brewer Amy L , Kane Kimberly L , Folds James D
Published: November 2023

An individual’s ability to survive in a world of pathogens depends on an intact immune system. The immune system is a network of cells and proteins that are capable of identifying, as well as removing, a foreign invader. As the system is challenged by various pathogens, such as microorganisms, viruses etc., different sections of the immune system are activated to facilitate the removal of the pathogen. Each section of the immune system is adept at eliminating or clearing different types of organisms. Therefore understanding how the various sections of the immune system respond to different organisms can be useful for identifying stages of infection. This chapter is divided into three major sections: an overview of the branches of the immune system; examples of different immune responses; and laboratory testing methodologies illustrating how one can distinguish between infection and exposure to a particular pathogen.
Concepts of Transmission and Dynamics
Authors: Halloran M Elizabeth
Published: November 2023

Transmission from one host to another is fundamental to the survival strategy of most infectious agents. Each microbe has its own life cycle, modes of transmission, population dynamics, evolutionary pressures, and molecular and immunologic interaction with its host. The transmission cycle may involve a particular insect or other vector, and consequently its ecology. Studies and interventions need to take the particular transmission, dynamics, and biology of each infectious agent into account. Some underlying principles of transmission and dynamics, however, are common to many infectious diseases. These principles are captured in a wide variety of mathematical and statistical models. Since the human host population is the ecological niche for the infectious agent, some of the principles come from general theories of populations, evolution, and ecology (see Burnet and White 1972, McNeill 1976). Other principles have their origins in infectious disease. epidemiology.
Disease Surveillance
Authors: Chorea Terence L
Published: November 2023

In 1348, the Republic of Venice erected its first quarantine station at which all travelers from plague stricken ships were detained to monitor for signs of disease (Moro 1988). The term “surveillance” was introduced into English at the time of the Napoleonic wars, and in public health terms was restricted until 1949 to such monitoring of contacts of persons with serious communicable diseases (Langmuir 1971). As numerous disease surveillance systems have evolved in many cultures, various definitions have been offered for surveillance in its application to human morbidity and mortality data.
Clinical Trials
Authors: Guess Harry A , Calandra Gary B
Published: November 2023

This chapter outlines aspects of clinical trial methodology that are particularly relevant to evaluating the safety and efficacy of new antibiotics and vaccines. The focus is on the sequence of clinical trials needed either to support initial licensing approval of a new investigation antibiotic or vaccine or to provide the safety and efficacy data needed for regulatory approval of a new indication for an existing antibiotic or vaccine. We do not discuss special considerations applicable to trials of HIV vaccines or of therapies for HIV infections. For further information on the design, conduct, and analysis of clinical trials in general, the reader should consult one of the many excellent textbooks (Friedman et al. 1998, Hulley and Cummings 1988) on clinical trial methodology. Also of interest are recent articles providing criteria for judging the validity of clinical trials (Guyatt et al. 1993), guidelines for what information should be provided in papers reporting results of clinical trials (Begg et al. 1996), guidelines for the design and analysis of trials to demonstrate therapeutic equivalence of two treatments (Jones et al. 1996), and regulatory standards for clinical trials (Food and Drug Administration 1998a).
Community Intervention Studies
Authors: Thomas James C
Published: November 2023

Most of the chapters in this book describe methods for observational research on infectious diseases, research in which the investigators do not manipulate any of the variables. This chapter and the chapter on clinical trials focus primarily on methodologic issues in studies where a factor affecting an infection is altered in the hope of decreasing the risk or duration of the infection. The two most common rubrics for intervention research in epidemiology are clinical trials and community trials. Typically, a clinical trial is a study of a clinical intervention among individuals, while community trials are characterized by an emphasis on whole communities as the unit of analysis. However, the distinction between clinical and community trials can be blurred, as when the evaluation of a clinical intervention, such as a new vaccine, entails implementation in a community. or comparison between different communities. While recognizing the absence of a clear distinction, this chapter focuses predominantly on study methods in those situations where evaluation of an intervention entails the prevalence or incidence of disease in a community.
Research in Out-of-Home Child Care
Authors: Cordell Ralph L , Pickering Larry k. , Lawson M Louise
Published: November 2023

The increase in both the number and proportion of children in out-of-home child care over the last 30 years (Hofferth et al. 1991, Thacker et al. 1992, Casper 1997) has had both economic and public health consequences. The economic impact results from indirect costs, including parental absence from work because of child care-associated illness (Haskins 1989, Hofferth et al. 1991), and from direct medical costs associated with the illness (Avendano et al. 1993, Hardy 1994, Carabin et al. 19996). The public health impact results from the child care contribution to the emergence of a number of infectious diseases (Holmes 1996) and from the widespread use of antimicrobial agents and resultant increase in antimicrobial resistance among a number of pathogens (Reves 1990).
Infections Among the Elderly
Authors: Hanson Laura C
Published: November 2023

The proportion of the U.S. population that is aged 65 and older is growing faster than any younger age group. Elderly citizens made up 12% of the U.S. population in the 1980s, but will be 22 % of the population by the year 2030. Improvements in nutrition, sanitation, and the management of some common chronic diseases have combined to permit more people to live into their seventies, eighties, and nineties. Among the elderly, the numbers of the oldest old, people aged 85 and older, are growing at the fastest rate. This demographic trend will change the epidemiology of many diseases, including infections. As the population ages, the public health impact of infections that are more frequent or more severe among the elderly will increase. More research focused on the specific manifestations of infectious diseases in elderly patients will be needed. In addition, the design and interpretation of epidemiologic research will be affected by the inclusion of more elderly subjects.
Research Collaborations in Developing Countries
Authors: Wawer Maria J
Published: November 2023

There are compelling reasons to conduct infectious disease epidemiologic research in developing countries. Many conditions (such as malaria or leprosy) affect populations primarily or almost exclusively in such settings. The epidemiology of some infections differs substantially between developing and developed countries (for example, in sub-Saharan Africa, a far higher proportion of HIV transmission occurs through heterosexual contact than is the case in North America or Europe), and control measures need to be tested in the appropriate context. Conversely, lessons learned in developing regions can have substantial relevance to developed countries; for example, in the design and evaluation of outreach strategies to underserved segments of the population, or by spearheading the testing of interventions such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) vaccines or short course chemotherapy to prevent maternal-child HIV transmission. Growing cadres of highly trained clinicians, epidemiologists, and other public health specialists residing in developing countries are actively pursuing research agendas and seeking collaborations.
Quantitative Genetic Variation in Populations of Darwin ‘s Finches
Authors: Grant Peter R , Grant B Rosemary
Published: November 2023

Some populations of organisms are much more variable than others in genetic characteristics and quantitative phenotypic traits. Theories explaining genetic variation focus on a balance between mutation on the one hand and stabilizing selection and drift on the other. Additional factors are needed to explain why some populations are more variable than others. These factors include introgression of genes and nonstabilizing forms of selection (directional and diversifying). A long-term field study of Darwin ‘s Finches on the Galapagos island of Daphne Major shows that differential introgressive hybridization is partly responsible for the higher levels of additive genetic variance in the medium ground finch (Geospiza fortis), an ecological generalist species comprising specialist phenotypes, than in the cactus finch (G. scandens), a specialist species. The two species hybridize, rarely, and in addition, the medium ground finch hybridizes with the small ground finch (G. fuliginosa). There is little or no fitness loss in the hybrids and backcrosses. Additive genetic variances of the medium ground finch and cactus finch are approximately at equilibrium. Equilibrium implies that the medium ground finch is subjected to stronger forces of selection than the cactus finch, balancing the stronger genetic input.