bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Blame the Printing Press
Authors: Okrent Arika , O’Neill Sean
Published: August 2021

This chapter focuses on the role of the printing press in the standardization of the English language. A few centuries after the Norman conquest, by the end of the 1300s, English was again a written language. However, there was no agreement on the correct way to write or spell to use as a guide. Some standards started to emerge after the Court of Chancery switched to English in about 1430. This loose, emerging standard came to be known as Chancery English. Then, in 1476, a merchant named William Caxton brought an amazing new invention back to England from the continent: the printing press. This happened to take place during the middle of a major shift in English pronunciation. From the 14th century to the 17th century, the vowel system of English underwent a massive reorganization called the Great Vowel Shift. By the time the Great Vowel Shift had spread through most of the country in spoken language, the writing system, aided by the printing press, had solidified into a standard that was taught, propagated, and reinforced constantly.
Blame the Snobs
Authors: Okrent Arika , O’Neill Sean
Published: August 2021

This chapter highlights the role of the “snobs” in complicating the English language. The whole idea that there was a “correctness” to aim for in English developed slowly, but really took off in the 18th century. It was the age of etiquette and the codification of social rules. Pretty soon there were books on good language too. The first major dictionary of English, Samuel Johnson's dictionary of 1755, was published during this time, and it became a source of authority for spelling. But the advice books and newspaper columns on language usage that followed in the 19th century were more extreme in their pronouncements. In this environment of very public, and intentionally humiliating, language monitoring, a cloud of insecurity developed and perpetuated itself. It is important to note that the Standard English—the “correct,” authorized version—is unsystematic and illogical enough on its own. Some of that is the result of the natural accumulation of historical forces, but some of it comes from intentional meddling.
Surviving Collapse
Authors: Ergas Christina
Published: August 2021

As environmental crises loom, this book makes an argument for radical changes in the ways in which people live in order to stave off a dystopian future. A possible way forward is radical sustainable development, which emphasizes environmental and social justice concerns that are at once transformative, or egalitarian toward total liberation, and regenerative, or restorative to heal the health of people and the planet. Radical sustainability is distinguished from weak sustainability—a critique of the neoliberal, sustainable development project that, in practice, prioritizes economic growth over people and the planet—using theories from ecofeminist, environmental justice, and postcolonial scholars. The prevailing notion of sustainable development has remained ineffective at reducing environmental degradation and social inequalities. To gauge possible solutions to these problems, the book examines two alternative, community-scale, socioecological models of development with small environmental footprints and more egalitarian social practices. Methods employed are qualitative, cross-national, and comparative. The cases are an urban ecovillage in the Pacific Northwest, United States and a Cuban urban farm in Havana. These cases are important reminders that elegant, low-cost solutions already exist for environmental harm mitigation as well as social equity and adaptation. Findings highlight that each case uses community-oriented, low-tech practices and integrates ancestral, Indigenous, and local ecological knowledges. They prioritize social and ecological efficiency and subsume economic rationality towards those ends. While neither is a panacea, both provide examples for how communities can move toward stronger forms of sustainable development and empower readers to imagine, and possibly build, more resilient futures.
In the Shadow of Sustainable Development
Authors: Ergas Christina
Published: August 2021

The prevailing notion of sustainable development has remained ineffective at reducing environmental degradation and social inequalities. The chapter argues that sustainable development, as it has been conceived, is actually a shell game for creating neocolonial dependency in the developing world rather than more sustainable, self-sufficient nations. This chapter explains the history of colonization and urbanization, contextualizing the problem of weak, neoliberal, sustainable development using social science environmental theories, such as climate denialism, ecofeminism, environmental justice, metabolic rift, and treadmill of production. It then provides an alternative, a radical sustainability that is at once socially and ecologically egalitarian, or transformative, and restores the health of people and the planet, or regenerative. These cases are presented as alternatives to sustainable development and as examples of radical sustainability and self-sufficient, autonomous development.
V(P)-fronting in Asante Twi and Limbum
Authors: Hein Johannes
Published: August 2021

When a verb or verb phrase is fronted from a clause lacking any other verbs either a copy of the displaced verb occurs or a dummy verb ‘do’ is inserted. Most languages employ the same strategy for both verb and verb phrase fronting. Here, I present two African languages, Asante Twi and Limbum, where displacement of a single verb results in a verb copy while a full verb phrase triggers do-support when fronted. Both V and VP-fronting show the same syntactic properties within each language. A reverse pattern of verb doubling with VP-fronting but do-support with V-fronting is unattested. I propose an analysis of both strategies in terms of different orders of application between post-syntactic head movement and copy deletion. In interaction with the type of V-movement, remnant VP or head-to-spec movement, this derives all three attested patterns to the exclusion of the unattested one.
Introduction
Authors: Ghodsee Kristen , Orenstein Mitchell A.
Published: August 2021

The introduction of this book frames the transition from state socialism to market capitalism that began in Eastern Europe and Central Asia in 1989 as a story of “winners” and “losers.” Ghodsee and Orenstein grapple with the different viewpoints held by scholars and policymakers, some of whom view transition as a qualified success, and some who view it as a socioeconomic catastrophe. Ghodsee and Orenstein introduce the interdisciplinary approach that the book will take, touching upon research methodology in economics, demography, public opinion, and ethnography. The introduction also provides an account of changes in academic and institutional discourse over time, explaining the initial perspectives of transition and showing where theories were proven correct, and where they failed, over the course of the thirty-year transition. It proposes a new perspective to understand transition, one of extreme social and economic inequality, that captures the experiences of both the “winners” and the “losers” of transition.
Where Have All the People Gone?
Authors: Ghodsee Kristen , Orenstein Mitchell A.
Published: August 2021

Chapter 5 introduces, evaluates, and highlights demographic data as a lens for understanding how societies were impacted by transition. It consider mortality, fertility, and out-migration, all of which show deep negative effects. In considering the social devastation of transition, this chapter points to postsocialist countries in Eastern Europe and Central Asia that continue to experience population decline as well as higher mortality rates and lower life expectancies. Evaluation of these data shows that significant out-migration and declining life expectancy do not necessarily correlate with negative economic indicators, pointing to larger social costs associated with transition that are not captured by consideration of transition as a purely economic phenomenon.
Got Milk?
Authors: Rettew David
Published: August 2021

Breastfeeding has made a huge comeback as its medical benefits became widely known—so much so that non-breastfeeding mothers often feel scorned and judged. Proponents of breastfeeding also contend that it makes children smarter and better behaved, and here is where the data get a little more complicated. This chapter will review the evidence that breastfeeding actually causes improved behavior and intelligence and examine the claims of some that these advantages are overstated. It will also explore an important “it depends” hypothesis that the developmental benefits of breastfeeding may be strongest for mothers who are less likely to do it in the first place—an interesting and important public health challenge.
Blue, Pink, or Yellow?
Authors: Rettew David
Published: August 2021

Gender is a core components of a child’s identity. But in deciding whether or not to paint the new nursery pink or blue, are parents responding to a child’s gender or helping to shape it? Science reveals that gender-based behavior is influenced by a combination of genetic and environmental factors that include a parent’s subtle or not so subtle signals of what is means to be male or female. New research is also beginning to surface that suggests that early parental support for transgender children may prevent some of the emotional turmoil that might otherwise occur. How children develop their sense of gender identity and how parents can support and facilitate this process without excessive influence is the focus of this chapter.
Novel Inventions
Authors: Gochberg Reed
Published: August 2021

Chapter 4 examines the distinctive history of the U.S. Patent Office gallery, which combined national repository, bureaucratic office, and public museum. Its collections included the models submitted by inventors with their patent applications, which offered tangible examples of new legal standards for novelty and utility. Tourists marveled at the model machines on display, connecting them to ideals of national progress and ingenuity, and the gallery’s collections sparked wider discussions of the relationship between nation, invention, and spectacle. Ralph Waldo Emerson drew on an imagined collection of machines to contemplate the relationship between technological novelty and literary originality, while Walt Whitman’s description of the gallery as a temporary Civil War hospital examined the social and human implications of such a strange spectacle. These accounts highlight broader debates about the place of new ideas in a national museum and how such contributions would be defined.
China’s Specialization in Innovative Manufacturing
Authors: Nahm Jonas
Published: August 2021

Chapter 5 turns to the case of China. It shows that wind and solar firms—often in outright defiance of central government goals—relied on local-level support for large-scale manufacturing in the process of industrial upgrading. Contrary to the ambitions of policymakers seeking to build autonomous domestic industries, these capabilities were brought to bear on product development in collaboration with global partners. The chapter uses firm-level data to explain the establishment of capabilities in innovative manufacturing—research and development skills focused on the commercialization and rapid scale-up to mass production. The second half of the chapter examines the role of collaborative advantage in allowing firms to choose their specialization in innovative manufacturing. It shows how collaborative advantage enabled renewable energy firms to build on local government institutions for mass production that diverged sharply from central government goals.
Wind and Solar Invention in the United States
Authors: Nahm Jonas
Published: August 2021

Chapter six makes the case that a growing divide between an advanced R&D infrastructure and a declining manufacturing sector encouraged US wind and solar firms to pursue invention largely divorced from production. Most firms lacked the production capabilities to commercialize and manufacture their innovation in-house and decided to rely on complementary capabilities of global partners. In the United States, the large public investments in renewable energy research have yielded the smallest industrial footprint of the three cases examined in this book, with considerable political consequences for the kinds of coalitions that emerged behind state support of wind and solar.
Future-Making
Authors: MacKenzie Michael K.
Published: August 2021

This chapter provides the conceptual groundwork for a deliberative theory of future-regarding collective action. The first section introduces terms that have to do with thinking and acting temporally, such as “future-regarding” and “future publics.” The second section focuses on the concept of “future-making.” It is argued that we must act collectively in order to make the futures that we think we might want for our ourselves and future others. We must use political power to marshal and redirect the future-making forces that are otherwise likely to make our futures for us: societal drift, general inadvertence, invention (e.g., technological developments), market forces, and the actions of the rich and the powerful. The last section of the chapter provides working definitions of the terms “politics,” “democracy,” and “deliberation.” It is possible to create deliberative conditions that incentivize pragmatic political actors to channel strategic intent into talk and persuasion.
Acting Through Time
Authors: MacKenzie Michael K.
Published: August 2021

This chapter explores the challenges associated with coordinating the actions of non-contemporaries over long periods of time. We cannot use authoritarian or undemocratic political tools, such as force or coercion, to coordinate the actions of non-contemporaries, because current and future publics are free and equal entities with respect to each other. The decisions that we make today will structure the choices that future publics make, but we cannot enforce our wills on future political actors after we are dead. As such, the present is both politically dominant and impotent when it comes to our relations with future publics: we can do what we want to future others without explanation or justification, but we cannot force them to act according to our wills. The best we can do is try to encourage future others to act with us through communication and persuasion.
Conclusion
Authors: MacKenzie Michael K.
Published: August 2021

This chapter deals with a number of topics that are alluded to but left unresolved in the rest of the book. These include the relationship between capitalism and democracy, the challenges and promises of digital democracy, the role of ideas and concepts in shaping our temporal perspectives and understandings, and the challenges of—and prospects for—the sorts of institutional reforms that may be necessary if we are going to make our shared futures together in collectively intentional ways. It is not clear that we will create democratic systems that are more future-regarding than the ones we have. This book argues that it is possible to do so, and we will need to do so to get the futures that we think we might want for our future selves and future others. Whether we are going to do so is another question entirely.
The World Changes
Authors: Tackett Timothy
Published: August 2021

The chapter follows the progressive politicization of Colson and his neighbors during the so-called pre-Revolutionary period (1787–89), taking note of the extent to which he and they were taken totally by surprise by the events of that period. It examines, notably, Colson’s reaction to the Assembly of Notables of 1787; to the long struggle between Louis XVI and the Parlement of Paris; to the convocation of the Estates General for May 1789; and to the electoral assemblies and the statements of grievances (cahiers de doléances) drawn up in those assemblies. It also emphasizes Colson’s descriptions of the “hurricane” of July 1788 that destroyed a large proportion of the crops in northern France, and of the terrible winter of 1788–89 and its effects on the population of Paris.
Everyday Peace
Authors: Mac Ginty Roger
Published: August 2021

This book focuses on how individuals and communities navigate through, and out of, conflict. Through theory and concept-building and empirical examples, it investigates the pro-peace tactical agency deployed by individuals and communities in conflict-affected contexts. It examines how compassion, humanity, civility, and solidarity can take root in unlikely circumstances—even in the midst of war—and the possibility of everyday peace scaling up and out to disrupt violent conflict. The book develops a number of key concepts, including Everyday Peace Power and conflict disruption, to help us understand how everyday ‘small peace’ actions can accumulate into movements and processes that may have wider significance. In addition to a detailed conceptualization of everyday peace, the book is interested in how local-level peace might connect with other levels (national, international, and transnational) and uses the notion of circuitry to explain how different levels of society might influence one another. In an unusual departure for peace and conflict studies, the book draws on World War I and II memoirs and personal diaries to investigate the possibility of everyday peace in extreme circumstances (such as the battlefield) but also to illustrate that many of the possibilities and challenges associated with everyday peace are, in fact, timeless.
Sociality, Reciprocity, and Solidarity
Authors: Mac Ginty Roger
Published: August 2021

This chapter unpacks three key conceptual components of everyday peace: sociality, reciprocity, and solidarity. The chapter has two parts. In the first, the concepts are unpacked in the abstract. In the second, they are illustrated, mainly by drawing on a set of interviews from Lebanon. Sociality, reciprocity, and solidarity are regarded as occupying a continuum, with sociality requiring a minimum commitment and solidarity requiring explicit action such as standing with members of an out-group when they are under threat. The chapter helps illustrate how everyday peace is a way of reasoning as well as a set of activities. It also helps illustrate how individuals and communities may not always be consistent in their everyday peace actions and stances. The interview material from Lebanon helps shows the tactical agency that individuals and communities use when living side by side with out-group members and how this might change over time.
Conflict Disruption
Authors: Mac Ginty Roger
Published: August 2021

This chapter examines how violent conflict can be disrupted and how the space that is created by the disruption might allow pro-peace and pro-social developments to take place. There are two parts to the chapter. The first examines remarkable friendships or intergroup friendships that cross the main fissure of society. It reflects on how charismatic personalities are often the key in helping localised violence reduction. The second part develops the notion of conflict disruption and how individuals and actions can disrupt the dominant logic of conflict in a society and contradict hegemonic narratives that regard violent conflict as normal. The discussion of conflict disruption is informed by economic theory.
Three Goals for a Future of Less Work
Authors: Estlund Cynthia
Published: August 2021

Chapter 4 shifts from assessing the challenge of automation to reflecting on what we should be aiming for in a foreseeable future of less work. It argues that we should be looking to ensure a wide distribution of three goods: adequate income, more free time, and decent work (though less of it). It is the last of these—the value of work—that is most contested, but that most animates this book. Work has profound psychic, social, and political benefits even apart from the goods and services it produces and the income it yields. In particular, shared work can draw people together across social divisions that divide them in their non-work lives. We should aim to maintain decent work at the center of most people’s lives and livelihoods even in a future with less of it.
The Politics of Hope and Fear in a Future of Less Work
Authors: Estlund Cynthia
Published: August 2021

The Conclusion turns to the daunting political challenges that already face big redistributive programs like those advanced here, and that will be refracted through the prism of automation. Popular anxiety about job losses might even exacerbate the divisive ethnonationalist politics that have taken hold in much of the United States (and beyond). The chapter argues for the importance of cultivating a stronger narrative of cross-racial solidarity and shared interests, and for the distinctive capacity of labor unions, grounded as they are in the fertile medium of shared work, to credibly propagate that narrative. And it argues that the strategy proposed here—centered around securing decent work (but less of it) for all—offers a broadly appealing program around which to organize diverse workers. The chapter, and the book, concludes with reflections on the future of capitalism, and the varieties of capitalism, in a future of less work.
Hydrodynamics
Authors: Batterman Robert W.
Published: August 2021

This chapter begins the argument that the best way to understand the relations of relative autonomy between theories at different scales is through a mesoscale hydrodynamic description of many-body systems. It focuses on the evolution of conserved quantities of those systems in near, but out of equilibrium states. A relatively simple example is presented of a system of spins where the magnetization is the conserved quantity of interest. The chapter introduces the concepts of order parameters, of local quantities, and explains why we should be focused on the gradients of densities that inhabit the mesoscale between the scale of the continuum and that of the atomic. It introduces the importance of correlation functions and linear response.
The Right Variables and Natural Kinds
Authors: Batterman Robert W.
Published: August 2021

This chapter argues that mesoscale parameters (order parameters and material parameters) are the natural variables by which we can characterize and understand lawful behaviors of many-body systems. It engages in a debate about whether the determination of natural kinds flows from metaphysical considerations about fundamentality and carving nature at its joins or from goal oriented aims of ones scientific methodology. The chapter argues for a scientific determination of the natural variables (at least in the case of many-body systems) based on the previous discussions of the hydrodynamic, correlation function approach. The Fluctuation-Dissipation theorem provides a justification for taking the mesoscale variables and parameters to be natural kinds.
Promoting Justice Across Borders
Authors: Rafanelli Lucia M.
Published: August 2021

This book develops a theory of the ethics of “reform intervention,” a category that includes any attempt to promote justice in a society other than one’s own. It identifies several dimensions along which reform interventions can vary (the degree of control interveners exercise over recipients, the urgency of interveners’ objectives, the costs an intervention poses to recipients, and how interveners interact with recipients’ existing political institutions) and examines how these variations affect the moral permissibility of reform intervention. The book argues that, once one acknowledges the variety of forms reform intervention can take, it becomes clear that not all of them are vulnerable to the objections usually leveled against intervention. In particular, not all reform interventions treat recipients with intolerance, disrespect recipients’ legitimate institutions, or undermine recipients’ collective self-determination. Combining philosophical analysis and discussion of several real-world cases, the book investigates which kinds of reform intervention are or are not vulnerable to these objections. In so doing, it also develops new understandings of the roles toleration, legitimacy, and collective self-determination should play in global politics. After developing principles to specify when different kinds of reform interventions are morally permissible, the book investigates how these principles could be applied in the real world. Ultimately, it argues that some reform interventions are, all things considered, morally permissible and that sometimes reform intervention is morally required. It argues we should reconceive the ordinary boundaries of political activity and begin to see the pursuit of justice via political contestation as humanity’s collective project.
Beyond Interdisciplinarity
Authors: Klein Julie Thompson
Published: August 2021

Beyond Interdisciplinarity examines the broadening meaning, heterogeneity, and boundary work of interdisciplinarity. It includes both crossdisciplinary work (encompassing multi-, inter-, and trans-disciplinary forms) as well as cross-sector work (spanning disciplines, fields, professions, government and industry, and communities in the North and South). Part I defines boundary work, discourses of interdisciplinarity, and the nature of interdisciplinary fields and interdisciplines. Part II examines dynamics of working across boundaries, including communicating, collaborating, and learning in research projects and programs, with a closing chapter on failing and succeeding along with gateways to literature and other resources. The conceptual framework is based on an ecology of spatializing practices in transaction spaces, including trading zones and communities of practice. Boundary objects, boundary agents, and boundary organizations play a vital role in brokering differences for platforming change in contexts ranging from small projects to new fields to international initiatives. Translation, interlanguage, and a communication boundary space are vital to achieving intersubjectivity and collective identity, fostering not only pragmatics of negotiation and integration but also reflexivity, transactivity, and co-production of knowledge with stakeholders beyond the academy. Rhetorics of holism and synthesis compete with instrumentalities of problem solving and innovation as well as transgressive critique. Yet typical warrants today include complexity, contextualization, collaboration, and socially robust knowledge. The book also emphasizes the roles of contextualization and historical change while accounting for the shifting relationship of disciplinarity and interdisciplinarity, the ascendancy of transdisciplinarity, and intersections with other constructs, including Mode 2 knowledge production, convergence, team science, and postdisciplinarity.
What’s in a Name?
Authors: Mitchell Graham
Published: August 2021

The modern scientific name of giraffes is Giraffa camelopardalis, given to the species by Mathurin Brisson and Carl Linnaeus in the eighteenth century. At that time a single species was thought to exist, but it soon became apparent that depending on where they lived in Africa giraffes had different skin markings and different “horns.” Thus the idea arose that there were more than one species, or if just one species then there were several different subspecies. Investigation of these two possibilities has depended partly on analysis of external characteristics, but mostly on the study of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA to establish if geographical distribution is associated with distinct genetic differences. These studies have indicated that there may be six separate species or four or three. However, as each of the variants can interbreed, genetic differences thus far have not resulted in reproductive isolation and the overall conclusion must be that there is one species with regional variants/subspecies that can be genetically distinct.
Edema, Fainting, and Strokes
Authors: Mitchell Graham
Published: August 2021

High blood pressure in humans is often associated with heart failure, edema, strokes, and episodes of fainting. Giraffes never show these. Edema, the abnormal collection of fluid in the lower legs, is prevented in giraffes by a combination of thick basement membranes of capillary blood vessels, which probably reduce their permeability to proteins, a very high tissue pressure that resists flow of fluid out of capillaries, and efficient mechanisms for returning blood to the heart. Fainting occurs when blood flow (and thus oxygen and glucose supply) to the brain is reduced. When a giraffe lifts its head after drinking water there is a sudden reduction of blood flow to the head, and fainting should result. Fainting is avoided because the blood flow that remains is diverted completely to the brain by a unique arrangement of blood vessels and nerves, and by structures that maintain the perfusion pressure of the blood flowing through the brain. Strokes can be caused by rupture of small blood vessels in the brain when they are exposed to high blood pressure of the kind reached in the head of a giraffe when it drinks surface water. Rupture of brain blood vessels is prevented in giraffes by mechanisms that reduce pressure. The posture adopted while drinking, baroreceptor-mediated reduction in cardiac output, the effects of the carotid rete, diversion of blood away from the brain, an increase in cerebrospinal fluid pressure, and passive and active constriction of blood vessels, all contribute.
Water Balance in Giraffes
Authors: Mitchell Graham
Published: August 2021

Wild giraffes live in arid environments. Having access to water and minimizing water requirements are critical. The main sources of water are the water in browse and water generated by metabolism. Giraffes rely less on surface water: intermittent use of surface water is a legendary characteristic of giraffes. The volume of water needed depends on body mass. For a giraffe weighing 750 kg, ~25 L of water is needed daily. The water content of browse is ~60%, and as a giraffe of that mass will eat ~35 kg of fresh browse daily, it simultaneously will acquire ~20 L of water. Metabolism of the fat, carbohydrates, and proteins in 35 kg of fresh browse will produce ~10 L of water. These two sources of water exceed daily requirements and reduce the need to drink surface water. Water is lost through feces, evaporation from the skin and respiratory tract, and in urine. Fecal water loss and water lost in exhaled air amount to ~4 L daily (~2 L each). It is not known if giraffes sweat, but their skin contains active sweat glands. The volume of water lost as sweat will vary according to what thermoregulatory mechanisms are activated to minimize sweating, but may be 5 L daily. Obligatory excretion of water-soluble wastes in urine can account for most water lost daily, and that amount is related to kidney anatomy and function. In a 750-kg giraffe, obligatory urine volume is ~10 L daily.
Muscles, Nerves, and Skin
Authors: Mitchell Graham
Published: August 2021

The muscles of giraffes are similar to those of other artiodactyls but differ in order to accommodate the stresses associated with an extraordinary shape. Extensor muscles of the neck are relatively small but flexor muscles of the neck that have to contract against the elasticity of the ligament nuchae are well-developed. The muscle bodies of neck muscles are located at the base of the neck and exert their effects via long tendons, which minimizes neck mass. Giraffes rarely lie down, or sleep, or run. Consequently limb muscles give support more than movement and are more tendinous that muscular. The power to run is generated by hip flexors and extensors, aided by contractions of the gastrocnemius muscles. The forelimb is the main support for body mass and acts as the fulcrum for movement. Chest and forelimb muscles keep the shoulder and elbow joints rigid, but allow drinking and the complications that arise from it. Brain mass forms 0.5% of adult body mass. Eyes are large and the retina has a unique distribution of photoreceptors that provides both clear images of close objects and allows focusing on ground level objects. Peripheral nerves contain more sensory than motor fibers. The skin of giraffes forms ~10% of body mass, and has more collagen than elastic fibers. Skin panniculus muscles are absent, an absence compensated by sebaceous gland secretion of volatile compounds that repel insects. The development of the colors of skin markings begins in the last trimester of pregnancy.
Reproduction and the Fetus
Authors: Mitchell Graham
Published: August 2021

The reproductive organs of male and female giraffes are similar to those of all other artiodactyls. Giraffes have 14 pairs of autosomes and a pair of sex chromosomes. A constant testis temperature depends on countercurrent heat exchange between a large pampiniform venous plexus and the testicular artery. The onset of puberty in males and females occurs at ~3 years of age and is marked by enlargement of testes and the onset of oestrous cycles. Oestrus cycles are ~15 days long. Courtship, conception, and pregnancy are delayed until ~5 years of age. The giraffe placenta is polycotyledonous and epitheliochorial. Pregnancy is sustained by progesterone secreted by a single corpus luteum, the placenta and fetal ovaries and testes. Gestation lasts ~450 days and is ended by hormones secreted by the hypothalamic-pituitary axis of a mature fetus. Birth takes ~30 minutes. Daily milk yield ranges between 2.5 L and 10 L. Protein, fat, and lactose are higher than in cow’s milk. Weaning occurs at ~6 months of age. The average calving interval is ~20 months but varies according to the degree of lactational stress itself partly determined by whether a calf survives. Female giraffes have ~8 calves of which ~3 will reach adulthood. Survival of giraffes as a species depends on fewer adults dying each year than the number of calves reaching adulthood.
Develop Your Lay-Level Research Communication Strategy
Authors: Meredith Dennis
Published: August 2021

This chapter covers the practical steps to creating a communication strategy to enhance your research and your career. Developing a strategy for communicating to lay audiences is important for successfully reaching those audiences. That strategy involves first protecting scientific publication against premature public release of scientific data and conclusions. A strategy also involves giving a comprehensive, coherent view of one’s research, sharing one’s research process, and fitting into the institution’s mission. Finding popular “hooks” for communication, or vivid metaphors familiar to people in their everyday lives, will engage your audience and greatly help communicate your work. A successful strategy also entails coordinating with funding agencies and becoming an expert resource for the media.
The Essential News Release
Authors: Meredith Dennis
Published: August 2021

The news release is the basic unit of your research communications. There are many types of news releases, each with its own use, and they may target different audiences. These include the hard news release, the feature release, the backgrounder, the personal profile, the Q&A, the news tip, the media alert, the grant/gift announcement, and the award announcement. News releases have many uses beyond attracting media coverage. These include as ammunition for the funding agency, internal communication, an investment for future use, background material, a statement of record, a Web alert for fellow researchers, a record of stewardship of public funds, education for the public, and family news.
Craft Releases That Tell Your Research Story
Authors: Meredith Dennis
Published: August 2021

Many editorial elements are necessary for an effective news release. They include a clear, compelling headline, a “nut graf” that tells the significance of the news, a news peg that is the reason for the release, and an inverted pyramid structure. The news release should feature concise explanations, caveats about the findings, and credit to participants and funding sources. Quotes should reflect how people really talk, and hype and subjective statements should be avoided. Technical terms should be explained, and comparative measurements to well-known quantities should be included. Also valuable are vivid metaphors, analogies, and descriptions. The release should include a clear conflict-of-interest statement. Quality images, animations, and videos can make the difference between a news release being used or not.
Produce Effective Research Photography
Authors: Meredith Dennis
Published: August 2021

In working with a photographer, researchers should understand who will control the resulting images. Hiring a photographer means understanding the characteristics of a competent photographer. Such a photographer asks the right questions to understand the purpose of the images, brings the right equipment, and seeks to create accurate images. In hiring a photographer, the researcher should understand how to protect their photo rights, how to prepare for the shoot, how to “art-direct” the shoot, how to manage the review process for images, and how to judge whether an image is appropriate for the Web. Also important is understanding the ethics of altering images, how to create engaging portraits, and making the most of a studio shoot. Researchers should consider embedding a photographer in their field research, to obtain both professional and lay-level images. Online image galleries and 360-degree panoramas are useful ways to display images.
Write Popular Articles, Op-Eds, and Essays
Authors: Meredith Dennis
Published: August 2021

For researchers used to technical communication, writing lay-level articles requires a commitment to learning a different way of writing. This new approach includes becoming a storyteller, not an “authority,” and understanding the editorial process. This process includes how to market articles, how to pitch editors, and how to cope with editing. Op-eds can be highly useful as outlets for researchers, but they have specific length, content, and marketing requirements that must be observed. Feature articles also have particular requirements in terms of understanding the needs of readers, and being organized to grab and hold them. Lay-level articles can best engage readers by using the writing techniques of fiction. Effective lay-level writing also means “murdering your children”—being willing to ruthlessly edit out content that loses the reader. Authors can also make their articles more engaging by providing artwork, animations, video, and audio.
Become a Public Educator
Authors: Meredith Dennis
Published: August 2021

Even though your prime duty is to your research, becoming a public educator can serve both one’s research and the information needs of the public. It also serves your field as a whole. Public education can mean teaching a science appreciation course, giving public lectures, registering with the institution’s speakers bureau, and advising the media on science and technology. Working with local schools, mentoring young people, and helping science centers create exhibits are also productive activities and bring professional benefits. These activities teach valuable communication skills, meet the Broader Impacts Criterion of federal grants, highlight one’s own department and institution, and bring you visibility.
Meet Journalists’ Needs
Authors: Meredith Dennis
Published: August 2021

This chapter describes the steps researchers can take to lay the groundwork for positive, long-term relationships with journalists. To work productively with journalists, researchers should be willing and able to talk to them, give them a full story, clear bureaucratic roadblocks, take communication training, and become a credible source. It is important to make communication a two-way street. Thus, researchers should also give feedback on stories through emails, letters to the editor, or online comments. Journalists also like to have relevant story ideas pitched to them, to be involved in research projects, and to be given workshops on subjects they cover.
Make the Interview Work for You
Authors: Meredith Dennis
Published: August 2021

In conducting the interview, researchers should decide who will participate; while journalists generally do not like having a public information officer (PIO) sit in, institutional policy might require it. A PIO can, in fact, contribute to an interview’s success, for example, by bringing up points otherwise missed. The researcher should also understand how or whether to go off the record. Strategies for being interviewed include understanding the journalist’s level of understanding and the nature of their medium. Interviews should avoid technical terms and equations; they should also repeat key points, avoid hype, explain controversies fairly, and make conflicts of interest clear. The researcher can manage questions to avoid pitfalls and improve the outcome of the interview. The researcher should be prepared to supply additional information. A scientist’s style can also be important in an interview—for example, relating personal stories and being enthusiastic and even humorous. Follow-up can include an email to the journalists emphasizing important points, or those neglected. Radio and TV interviews involve special preparation, given they are audio and visual media; news conferences also require a special strategy.
Protect Yourself from Communication Traps
Authors: Meredith Dennis
Published: August 2021

For all the benefits of communicating research, there are also pitfalls. A researcher might be misquoted or accused of hogging the credit or hiding corporate ties. They might also find themselves swamped in the tidal wave of a hyperstory that feeds on itself ad infinitum. Or, the researcher might have to decide whether to tiptoe through a delicate story. All these exigencies require preparation and planning, which can be especially productive when done with a public information officer. Researchers should monitor their reputation on social media and take steps to avoid being misquoted or misinterpreted. They should also make sure they know when they are on the record when talking to journalists, to give proper credit to collaborators, and to publicly go against institutional policy. They should disclose corporate ties. In the case of a controversy or crisis, scientists should work with their public information officer to create effective communications.
Introduction
Authors: Dufallo Basil
Published: August 2021

The Introduction first defines the book’s understanding of “becoming lost” and identifies some Latin words that assist in isolating the motif in Republican verse (error/errare, vagus/vagari, etc.). It then turns to the fragmentary Latin poets before Plautus in whose work the theme occurs, namely, Livius Andronicus and Naevius, to show that one can trace the poetic figuration of becoming lost in the geographical regions of Roman power back to the earliest surviving Latin verse and the earliest moments of Roman overseas expansion. Next, in place of the usual chapter-by-chapter summary, the introduction outlines a series of precedents in Greek myth and literature, as well as in actual lived experience, for the poetic narratives that the individual chapters treat in more detail. Finally, the chapter lays out the modern theoretical assumptions with which the whole book is in dialogue. For the terms “disorientation,” “queerness,” and indeed the phrase “getting lost,” the whole book is indebted above all to Sarah Ahmed’s Queer Phenomenology: Orientations, Objects, Others. For Ahmed, queerness is an effect of disorientation understood in terms of empire, as empire bears upon the construction of sexuality and other aspects of identity. Ahmed’s work, in turn, draws upon a strain of postcolonial theory that has become important (and contested) within historical, archaeological, and literary Roman-empire studies since the turn of the twenty-first century. The Introduction thus concludes by articulating pertinent connections between Ahmed, postcolonial theory, and the scholarship on Rome.
The Politics of Commodification
Authors: Hermann Christoph
Published: August 2021

Even though commodification is a quasi-natural tendency of capitalist economies, the extent of commodification can vary over time, depending, among other things, on government intervention. In the last three decades, neoliberal reforms have fueled (re-)commodification. This chapter looks at six major policies: privatization, liberalization, deregulation, marketization, New Public Management, and austerity. Privatization promotes commodification by abolishing non-commodified alternatives to the sale of goods and services. Liberalization fuels commodification by exposing producers to competition and by forcing them to make profits. Deregulation eliminates restrictions that in one way or another limit commodification. Marketization creates markets in economic and social spheres where no markets have existed before, while New Public Management promotes metric output measurements that closely resemble what, in the private economy, are market values. Austerity and related cuts in welfare expenditure drive re-commodification by making citizens more dependent on markets and on private alternatives to the welfare state.
Making things up
Authors: Marmodoro Anna
Published: August 2021

In Anaxagoras’s ontology, the Opposites are primitively numerically and qualitatively the same, and exist extremely mixed with each other, according to his ‘Everything in Everything Principle’. Their extreme mixture is facilitated by their being gunky, that is, divided into (proper) parts that have (proper parts) ad infinitum. The chapter examines how objects ‘emerge’ out of gunk, in this system, and how they are qualitatively differentiated in their extreme mixture. Anaxagoras’s ontology is built on a mathematical principle—the unlimited division of the Opposites—whereby Anaxagoras implicitly endorses what we might call the normativity of mathematics on the physical world, which we will encounter again in Plato’s theory of Forms. The chapter examines in more detail the constitution of objects as bundles of properties, which Plato will also adopt, and the reification of structure as seeds, a stance from which Plato will depart.
Plato’s Forms as powers
Authors: Marmodoro Anna
Published: August 2021

This chapter introduces Plato’s fundamental entities, the Forms. It focuses on his view that the Forms are causal powers, and his innovative stance that the Forms are transcendent entities; it argues that Plato’s Forms are transcendent powers. This raises the (difficult) question of what kind of causal efficacy transcendent entities can have on things in the physical world. By showing that Plato’s Forms are causal powers having constitutional causal efficacy, as difference-makers, like Anaxagoras’s Opposites, the chapter begins to build the case for what I call Plato’s Anaxagoreanism. If the Forms operate like Anaxagoras’s Opposites, by constitutional causal efficacy, except that they are transcendent, how can features of objects in the physical world be constitutionally derived from features of transcendent entities, the Forms? The chapter argues that Plato thinks of the causal efficacy of the Forms on the model of the normativity of mathematics and geometry over the sensible world.
Conclusion
Authors: Marmodoro Anna
Published: August 2021

The conclusion brings together the interpretative results argued for in the preceding chapters, and highlights the main original claims of the book, concerning Plato’s metaphysics of objects and properties, and of causation, and its (hitherto underinvestigated) dependence on Anaxagoras’s metaphysics. It focuses on Plato’s metaphysics of participation by overlap; his conception of constitutional causation; his account of relationality as qualification, rather than as relatedness; and his account of necessity and the normativity of transcendent Forms.