bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Meaning of Style in Archaeology: A General Model
Authors: Sackett James A.
Published: April 2006

To frame a model of style valid for archaeology in the general case it is necessary to begin by stripping away all the specialized connotations the word has assumed until there only remain the fundamental tenets without which the essence of the matter would itself dissolve and escape. It is never easy to feel that one has reached the bottom of things. Nevertheless, the pursuit of this exercise over a considerable period of time has gradually led me to three conclusions which I regard as the basic tenets upon which a general model can be constructed. The first is that all theories of style ultimately rest upon two primitive givens: that, whatever else it may entail, style (a) concerns a highly specific and characteristic manner of doing something, and (b) that this manner is always peculiar to a specific time and place. The second conclusion is that, when projected into the realm of archaeology, style in this general sense is the perfect complement of function regarded in an equally general sense.
Paleodemography of the Valdivia III Phase at Real Alto, Ecuador
Authors: Klepinger Linda L.
Published: April 2006

The Early Formative site of Real Alto on the southern coast of Ecuador yielded a minimum of 72 human burials attributable to the Valdivia III phase. The construction of an abridged life table represents the first demographic analysis of a prehistoric South American population. Expectation of life at birth was 21 years and at age 15 was 18 years. Comparison with model life tables suggests a crude birthrate of 0.048, a generation length of about 26 years, and completed family size of 6.4 children. The fact that the sample represents a natural population argues against the suggestion that the skeletons largely represent victims of ritual sacrifice.
Calumet Ceremonialism as a Nativistic Response
Authors: Turnbaugh William A.
Published: April 2006

While Hall's (1977) recent paper addressed the origins of calumet symbolism, it did little to explain (or even to acknowledge) the rapid expansion in the usage of the Hako-type calumet and its accompanying ceremony after the opening of the historic period. It is suggested here that this calumet emerged in the role of a stability-enhancing mechanism within precisely those societies that were experiencing rapid sociocultural change and fragmentation. Both the calumet and the tobacco pipe, singly and in combination, constituted cultural elements that had had long identification with the sacred sphere. Not only were calumets and pipes and native tobacco preserved in the new situation, but their conservative ritual significance was greatly emphasized and formalized until they increasingly came to symbolize and embody the old way of life. Archaeological and historical data are used to support this argument.
Deer Skins and Hunting Territories Reconsidered
Authors: Turner E. Randolph , Santley Robert S.
Published: April 2006

Gramly (1977) has recently argued that competition over deer hids was the primary variable stimulating conflict and warfare among the Huron during Late Woodland times. This variable, as well as two others dismissed by him, is reviewed here.
Sujang: A Stirrup Spout Vessel from Nigeria
Authors: Pearlstone Zena
Published: April 2006

Several years ago it was generally thought that the stirrup spout form was unique to the New World and that diffusion could account for all of its occurrences. When 2 African stirrup spouts from the Congo were documented, the question of independent invention was raised, even though the Congo vessels were similar to American types. Recently, various stirrup spout vessels have been found in Nigeria. A Mwona stirrup spout, like those of their neighbors, appears to have little in common with American stirrup spout vessels and the vessels reported from the Congo. The differences in form and function of the documented Nigerian vessels make independent invention of the stirrup spout form a more plausible hypothesis than has been previously believed.
Thermally Altered Siliceous Stone from Prehistoric Contexts: Intentional versus Unintentional Alteration
Authors: Gregg Michael L. , Grybush Richard J.
Published: April 2006

Recent studies have demonstrated that the flaking characteristics of certain siliceous stone materials are enhanced by carefully controlled annealing and that intentional annealing was indeed practiced by prehistoric Native Americans. A note of caution is extended here to investigators who might extend evidence for thermally altered siliceous stone from a site to interpretations that intentional annealing was practiced at the site. The use of fire in quarrying has a long history throughout the world, and much heat-treated material from sites may have been thermally altered unintentionally, the result of quarrying practices.
The Analysis and Distribution of Volcanic Ash-Tempered Pottery in the Lowland Maya Area
Authors: Simmons Michael P. , Brem Gerald F.
Published: April 2006

Petrographic analysis of potsherds from Dzibilchaltun and other Maya sites conclusively establishes the presence of volcanic ash temper in ceramics from northern Yucatan. The distribution of ash-tempered ceramics in time and space suggests import of ash in bulk from sources in highland Guatemala or El Salvador in exchange for salt. The homogeneous nature of the ash in northwestern Yucatan supports the idea that certain trading organizations enjoyed exclusive access to that region, while competing for markets in other lowland areas.
Expanding Archaeology
Authors: Reid J. Jefferson , Rathje William L. , Schiffer Michael B.
Published: April 2006

It is proposed that archaeologists can apply their method and theory to the study of material culture in modern industrial societies for the purpose of deriving explanatory statements of modern human behavior.
Reply to Newman
Authors: Snow Dean R.
Published: April 2006

Some misinterpretations in Newman's argument are pointed out.
Taking the Pulse of Method and Theory in American Archaeology
Authors: Schiffer Michael B.
Published: April 2006

Recent information obtained from a questionnaire sent to a sample of archaeologists interested in method and theory identifies topics of specialization, important research frontiers and issues, and documents a differentiation of method and theory under the guidance of specialists. Implications of the analysis are drawn for curriculum design and the organization of information flow in archaeology.
Archaeology beyond Anthropology
Authors: Gumerman George J. , Phillips David A.
Published: April 2006

Archaeology‘s relationship to anthropology in the United States has been one of a natural and beneficial alliance. Archaeologists are currently showing more of an interest in formal models drawn from outside anthropology, but the classification of American archaeology as a subdiscipline in anthropology generally remains unquestioned. We argue that at the present time archaeological research is being hindered by its institutionalized relationship to anthropology and its uncritical use of models from other disciplines. Archaeologists will make the greatest theoretical progress if they view their discipline as an autonomous technique with no a priori ties to sociocultural anthropology. Archaeology as a technique makes possible a truly interdisciplinary research base, but requires in turn a reorganization of research and training procedure as well as an academic restructuring.
Pathways Revisited: A Quantitative Model of Discard
Authors: Hildebrand John A.
Published: April 2006

A quantitative model of discard is presented. It is directed toward resolving the difficulty in relating frequency of archaeologically observed material objects to occurrences of past behavior. Schiffer’s (1976) Pathway Model is revised and expanded as the basis of this analysis. Mathematical expressions are developed relating frequency of cultural deposition to past behavior. The pathways of deposition considered are use-related discard, accidental loss, and deterioration during storage. Application of these relations to specific archaeological problems will require estimates of certain variables that should be based on ethnographic and experimental data.
Social Distance among Central Missouri Hopewell Settlements: A First Approximation
Authors: Kay Marvin
Published: April 2006

Discriminant function analysis is used as a systematic measure of interrelatedness among sites within the Lamine River and Big Bend Localities. Chipped stone projectile points from Mellor, Imhoff, Givens and Fischer-Gabbert were chosen for this analysis. Their selection was based on a suggested operational criterion: that social distance between peoples is reflected in the degree of similarity between artifacts commonly found on contemporaneous Hopewell settlements. Two statistically significant roots are defined, rejecting the null hypothesis that no significant variation occurs among these settlements' projectile points. The Euclidean distances of projectile points in discriminant space are remarkably similar to the site's geographic distribution. This analysis suggests social interaction was greatest within localities and minimal between.
The Proper Place of Multivariate Techniques in Archaeology
Authors: Matson R. G.
Published: April 2006

The case made by Thomas (1978) for avoiding the use of multivariate techniques is critically reviewed. The purpose of these techniques and the nature of archaeological data are argued to be quite different from what he proposed.
Multistage Fieldwork and Analytical Techniques
Authors: Redman Charles L.
Published: April 2006

In an effort to operationalize recent advances in archaeological theory and technique, this paper presents a systematic organizational strategy for field investigations and artifact analysis. Four general principles are suggested that lead to productive archaeological research designs: the explicit combination of inductive and deductive reasoning, the utilization of programmatic and analytical feedback, the employment of probability sampling in a multistage framework, and the formulation of analytical techniques appropriate to assumptions underlying the research and to the hypotheses being tested. These principles and associated statistical methods are discussed as they have been applied to the investigation and analysis of the material from the eighth millennium early farming village of Çayönü in southeastern Turkey.
Culture Sequence at the Old Fort, Saline County, Missouri
Authors: Wood W. Raymond
Published: April 2006

The Old Fort (23SA104), an earthwork enclosure and mound complex on a high ridge near the Missouri River in central Missouri, has long been considered a Middle Woodland or Hopewell construction. Excavations in 1970 cross-trenched prehistoric ditches and embankments on the north end of the enclosure. A well-developed soil profile containing predominantly Middle Woodland pottery was exposed, into which aboriginal ditches had been cut. Oneota pottery lay on the floors of these ditches, embedded in a thin laminated horizon of alluvium. Oneota and Middle Woodland pottery are mixed in ditch fills. Field data, although limited, thus support the identification of the enclosure as Oneota, aboriginally constructed on a Middle Woodland habitation site.
Confirmation and Explanation in Archaeology
Authors: Salmon Merrilee H.
Published: April 2006

In recent discussions by archaeologists who are committed to the scientific nature of archaeology, philosophic commitment to an excessively narrow view of “the scientific method” is common. These narrow conceptions can be broadened, clarified, and made more adequate without diminishing a commitment to scientific archaeology.

The hypothetico-deductive method of confirmation is an oversimplified account of scientific reasoning. There are severe limitations for its application, particularly in archaeology. The deductive-nomological model of scientific explanation likewise has serious drawbacks for explaining the sorts of phenomena which interest archaeologists. Understanding of the problems with this model is hampered by trying to force systems models of explanation into the deductive-nomological mold. Worse still, the separate issues of confirmation and explanation are not kept distinct.
Cautionary Note on Soil Phosphate Data Interpretation for Archaeology
Authors: White E. M.
Published: April 2006

Data reporting the relative amounts of PO4 in different forms will have limited value for archaeology if data for the undisturbed soil are not available.
Computer Use at an Archaeological Field Location
Authors: Gaines Sylvia W.
Published: April 2006

The investigation reported here tested the use of a computer to assist in an ongoing archaeological excavation and survey. To provide rapid computer results, a remote terminal at the site was connected by telephone service to a time-sharing computer some 300 miles distant. Techniques developed and evaluated ranged from initial program preparation and testing through evaluation of field procedures in an environment involving an interactive computer. The ability to generate requested information rapidly enough to aid in tactical decisions affecting field procedures on a daily basis was demonstrated.
The Classic Maya Collapse: A Correction
Authors: Adams Richard E. W.
Published: April 2006

Sabloff attributes agreement by Adams to his interpretation of evidence from the Pasion River. Adams still dissents on evidential grounds from Sabloff"s views, and offers an alternative.
Dynastic Genealogies from Tikal, Guatemala: Implications for Descent and Political Organization
Authors: Haviland William A.
Published: April 2006

Building upon the work of several other people, Clemency Coggins has recently presented a tentative reconstruction of Tikal dynastic history, complete with a proposed genealogy of the rulers themselves. These are important data for any attempt to reconstruct the social and political organization of Tikal, and this paper explores their implications. The data are consistent with models of ancient Maya sociopolitical organization in which patrilineal descent, stratification, and strong central political authority were important. At Tikal, this seems to have been the case from the first century A.D. until Terminal Classic times. A currently popular view that, in Early Classic times, positions of prestige, power, and authority were open to anyone who had the necessary talent, wealth, and support is probably untenable, at least for Tikal.
Sources of Some Obsidian Flakes from a Paleoindian Site in Guatemala
Authors: Stross F. H. , Michel H. V. , Asaro F. , Gruhn R.
Published: April 2006

Neutron activation analysis was used to determine the chemical composition of sources of obsidian artifacts from the Paleoindian site of Los Tapiales in Guatemala with an occupation date of around 10,700 radiocarbon years ago. Three different sources were detected, all between 50 and 75 km from Los Tapiales. The predominant source represented in our ten samples was in the Rio Pixcayá area, and another was in the Tajumulco area. A third source, identified by comparison with other work, appears to be in the area of San Bartolomé Milpas Altas.
Meadowcroft Rockshelter, 1977: An Overview
Authors: Adovasio J. M. , Gunn J. D. , Donahue J. , Stuckenrath R.
Published: April 2006

Meadowcroft Rockshelter is a deeply stratified multicomponent site in Washington County, southwestern Pennsylvania. The 11 well-defined stratigraphic units identified at the site span at least 16,000 years and perhaps 19,000 years of intermittent occupation by groups representing all of the major cultural stages/periods now recognized in northeastern North America. Throughout the extant sequence, the site served as a locus for hunting, collecting, and food-processing activities, which involved the seasonal exploitation of the immediately adjacent Cross Creek Valley and contiguous uplands. Presently, Meadowcroft Rockshelter represents one of the earliest well-dated evidences of man in the New World as well as the longest occupational sequence in the Western Hemisphere.
The Social History of Evolution in Britain
Authors: Gordon Mark A.
Published: April 2006

It has come to be common for scientists to study the history of scientific thought. But too often even today, we assume our present theories are "Truth." Scientific histories usually describe intellectual events as either having enhanced or impeded discoveries consistent with modern theory. However, by applying the same standards to Western thought that we apply to non-Western cosmologies, we find that the development of Western worldview closely reflected its own changing social structure. The idea that nature was fixed permanently by God during the creation gave way to the idea of a constantly changing, evolving world-and, at the same time, the fixed class system of European society gave way to an industrialized society characterized by class mobility. This paper will analyze British scientific theories and biohistoric models from the Reformation to Darwin's Origin of Species.
Some Uses of R-Mode Analysis in Archaeology
Authors: Dumond D. E.
Published: April 2006

One kind of R-mode analysis, the examination of the co-occurrence of particular artifact classes across a number of collections, facilitates the identification of recurrent artifact clusters. Its use with proportional data, however, requires the safeguard of equalizing collection sizes, which in turn may necessitate the use of some statistic other than the product-moment coefficient of correlation. Two examples of R-mode analysis are given, both using an average-linkage clustering procedure. The first uses proportional data from unmixed collections of a southwestern Alaskan phase of the Arctic Small Tool tradition, permitting a definition of artifact groups that may represent specialized activities, and highlighting 1 cluster that may have specifically temporal significance; some results of factor analysis are compared. The second example employs presence-absence information from surface-collected ceramics from Tlaxcala, Mexico, and makes possible a refinement of the ceramic sequence.
Techniques for Skeletonizing Vertebrates
Authors: Hill Frederick C.
Published: April 2006

Clean, odor free vertebrate skeletons can easily be prepared in from two days to a week by using bacterial or enzyme maceration in conjunction with other techniques.
The Sun, Moon and Venus at Uxmal
Authors: Lamb Weldon
Published: April 2006

Counts of mosaic facade elements, doors, steps, and colonnettes of the East, West, and North Buildings of the Nunnery Quadrangle at the Maya site of Uxmal suggest that these features, taken together, preserve knowledge of eight facts about the sun, moon, and Venus: the moon's synodic period is 29.53 + days; the lunar sidereal period lasts nearly 27.33 days; the Venus synodic mean is almost 584 days; the observed Venus synodic can vary between 581 and 587 days; any five consecutive Venus synodics equal or come to within one day of eight vague years of 365 days each; one sun-moon correlation has five short years and three long ones together equal to eight vague years or eight true solar years or 99 lunations; the Venus sidereal period is nearly 224 days long; and, finally, 13 Venus sidereals virtually equal five Venus synodics. Cheek glyphs, flanking birdserpents, and plumed-snake headbands all suggest that most of the masks on the East Building, West Building, and Governor's Palace represent not Chac but Kukulcan-Venus. It is therefore suggested that at least some Pure Florescent facades contain astronomical, calendrical, and ritual information, not just attractively arranged mosaic stones, and that other features, such as doors, steps, and colonnettes, should also be considered as potentially informative.
Economic Aspects of Commercial Archaeology in Costa Rica
Authors: Heath Dwight B.
Published: April 2006

Illicit excavation of archaeological materials for sale to collectors and museums is widespread and damaging. Details on the scale of this activity in Costa Rica are discussed, as well as various ways in which it affects the economy and life-style of the contemporary population.
Iron Utilization by Thule Eskimos of Central Canada
Authors: McCartney A. P. , Mack D. J.
Published: April 2006

Iron fragments located during 1969 by the Northwest Hudson Bay Thule Project at the Thuleage site of Silumiut have been subjected to spectrographic, microscopic, microprobe, and neutron activation analyses to determine their origin. Both meteoritic and terrestrial iron are represented and are presumed to have been traded from north-western Greenland. Meteoritic iron is widely spread around Melville Bay, and Norse iron was available from the same area by at least the twelfth century A.D. Norse iron from the Silumiut site is the most southerly known and the earliest radiocarbon dated in the central area. This iron and that from Naujan, Repulse Bay, indicate that native and European metal was an integral, albeit low frequency, part of the central Eskimo tool kit at least 400 yr before Hudson"s discovery of his bay.
Ceramic Vessels, Site Permanence, and Group Size: A Mississippian Example
Authors: Shapiro Gary
Published: April 2006

Data derived from analyses of vessel size and shape have been largely overlooked by researchers who seek to understand Mississippian site variability. Vessel form data are analyzed to demonstrate that relative site permanence and the relative size of group that lived at or visited sites are reflected in the size and shape of ceramic vessels. Vessel forms from four archaeological sites are compared, each of which played a different role within a single, late Mississippian society of the Georgia Piedmont.
Part I: Ex Balcanis Lux? Recent Developments in Neolithic and Chalcolithic Research in Southeast Europe
Authors: Evans Robert K. , Rasson Judith A.
Published: April 2006

Southeast Europe is the location of the earliest horticulture and metallurgy in Europe, and is therefore important to understanding processes of cultural development in prehistoric Europe as a whole. This review of the rich literature is an introduction to topics of current interest, including the debates and differences of opinion among scholars.
The Provenience of Galena from Archaic/Woodland Sites in Northeastern North America: Lead Isotope Evidence
Authors: Farquhar Ronald M. , Fletcher Ian R.
Published: April 2006

Seven burial/habitation sites of the Late Archaic-Early Woodland periods in the Great Lakes area have yielded galenas whose lead isotope ratios define the provenience of the minerals. Galenas at five of the sites probably originated at a single vein near Rossie, New York. A single sample from one site may be from a vein close to the Ottawa River near Ottawa, Ontario. Galena at one site has come from the southern part of the Upper Mississippi Valley mineral district in the central United States. Carbon-14 dates and cultural characteristics suggest that the galenas were obtained over an extended period, perhaps as long as 600 years. Although the data set is small, it appears that galenas found at aboriginal sites in the northeastern Great Lakes region were primarily obtained from two veins within a few hundred kilometers of the site locations.
The European Mesolithic
Authors: Douglas Price T.
Published: April 2006

This brief review is intended to acquaint the reader with recent research and thought on the European Mesolithic. The period is characterized by hunter-gatherer adaptations between the close of the Pleistocene and the introduction of food production. A number of developments support an argument for a rapid intensification of human subsistence and settlement practices and organization, prior to the utilization of domesticated plants and animals.
Spiral Fractures and Bone Pseudotools at Paleontological Sites
Authors: Myers Thomas P. , Voorhies Michael R. , Corner R. George
Published: April 2006

Spiral ("green bone") breakage has been suggested as an indicator of human activity by some workers. Our examination of broken ungulate long bones from six paleontological localities in western Nebraska, however, shows that such fractures commonly occurred in the Miocene and Pliocene, long before the advent of man in North America. Pseudotools also occur frequently in these sites. We postulate that spiral breakage, including the production of pseudotools, may be due to trampling by animals.

Our study demonstrates that neither spiral breakage nor gross morphology, alone or in combination, is diagnostic of human activity. Problematical examples must be accepted or rejected wholly upon the basis of patterned wear on the supposed tools.
Trace Element Analysis of Obsidian Artifacts from Three Shell Midden Sites in the Littoral Zone, Chiapas, Mexico
Authors: Nelson Fred W. , Voorhies Barbara
Published: April 2006

Forty-two obsidian artifacts from the Chantuto Zone, Chiapas, Mexico, have been analyzed by neutron activation analysis, and fifteen artifacts were reanalyzed using X-ray fluorescence spectrometry. These artifacts date to the Chantuto phase (3000-2000 B.C.), late in the Archaic period, and to a later period or periods. These analyses have made it possible to compare the two methods of analysis and also have made it possible to assign an obsidian source to each artifact. It has been shown that the majority of the obsidian originated from Tajumulco, with smaller amounts coming from El Chayal during the Chantuto phase and from El Chayal, San Martin Jilotepeque, and Pachuca during the late period.
Is It Really That Old? A Comment about the Meadowcroft Rockshelter “Overview”
Authors: Mead Jim I.
Published: April 2006

There is an apparent discrepancy in the reported data from Meadowcroft Rockshelter. Radiocarbon dates from Stratum IIa appear to indicate a Wisconsinan full-glacial occupation by man in the shelter. The recovered fauna and flora are discordant with other local Wisconsinan-age fossils.
Toad Spawn Symbolism Suggested for Sechin
Authors: Wickler Wolfgang , Seibt Uta
Published: April 2006

Stone engravings from Sechin, hitherto interpreted as human eyes, are reinterpreted as anuran eggs. The reasons for this interpretation and the possible symbolic meaning of such eggs are given.
Mississippian Period Population Density in a Segment of the Central Mississippi River Valley
Authors: Milner George R.
Published: April 2006

Recent archaeological investigations of Mississippian period (A.D. 1000–1400) sites permit the development of population estimates for an area immediately south of Cahokia, the largest prehistoric site in North America. Population estimates are derived from the number of structures at 11 sites, with the amount of prehistorically habitable land being incorporated as part of the estimating procedure. Population density increased somewhat during the earliest two of four Mississippian phases, reaching its peak during the Stirling phase. Thereafter, population decreased, reaching its lowest point during the Sand Prairie phase.
Prehistoric Long-Distance Transport of Construction Beams, Chaco Canyon, New Mexico
Authors: Betancourt Julio L. , Dean Jeffrey S. , Hull Herbert M.
Published: April 2006

Identification of spruce (Picea) and fir (Abies) construction timbers at Chetro Ketl in Chaco Canyon, New Mexico, implies that between A.D. 1030 and 1120 the Anasazi transported thousands of logs more than 75 km. These timbers came from high elevations, probably in mountains to the south (Mt. Taylor) and west (Chuska Mountains) where Chacoan interaction was well established. Survey in these mountains might disclose material evidence of these prehistoric logging activities.
Effects of Ecological and Paleoecological Patterns on Subsistence and Paleoenvironmental Reconstructions
Authors: King Frances B. , Graham Russell W.
Published: April 2006

Spatial and temporal variations in human populations are, to a large extent, determined by the environmentally controlled distribution of biotic and abiotic resources. While archaeologists generally recognize this relationship, many fail to fully appreciate the complexity of either the changing environment, the ecological literature, or applications of ecological data to archaeological problems. It is important to apply modern ecological principles to archaeological problems, but the novelty of the principle should not preclude the nature of the problem to be solved. For example, the concepts of ecotone and edge effect are still applicable to archaeological problems concerning biotic boundaries such as those between forest and grassland even though it may be more appropriate to use an individualistic approach in research designs concerned with diffuse environmental and biotic gradients.
Seeds in Archaeological Sites: Sources and Some Interpretive Problems
Authors: Minnis Paul E.
Published: April 2006

Macroplant remains recovered during excavation and by flotation are an ambiguous record of prehistoric human/plant interactions. This paper attempts to clarify the relationship by considering natural and cultural processes affecting the archaeological survival of seeds recovered from sites. Also outlined are some characteristics of these botanical artifacts useful in distinguishing their source. In addition, brief comments are directed toward the problem of biases in the paleoethnobotanical record.
Testing Flotation Recovery Rates
Authors: Wagner Gail E.
Published: April 2006

The poppy seed recovery test is a simple and inexpensive means of determining the effectiveness and consistency of any particular botanical flotation system. By adding a known number of charred poppy seeds (Papaver somniferum) to a sample before it is processed, archaeologists can check for loss, damage, and inter-sample contamination. Different systems, equipment, methods, and personnel tested since 1976 yield recovery rate percentages ranging from 6% to 98%. Such percentages provide a basis of comparison among widely differing flotation systems and enable the archaeologist to decide which flotation system to use under particular logistical constraints.
Prehistoric Flood Management on the Peruvian Coast: Reinterpreting the “Sunken Fields” of Chilca
Authors: Knapp Gregory
Published: April 2006

Prehistoric agricultural landforms at Chilca, Peru have been traditionally identified as sunken fields, excavated basins designed to provide planting surfaces close to the natural water table. Analysis of the morphology, physical context, and recent use of the features indicates that this view is incorrect, and that the bulk of the features are flood control embankments. Parallels with similar systems elsewhere in the Americas are described, and the implications for reconstructing prehistoric agricultural processes are explored.
Nomenclature in Faunal Studies: A Response to Olsen and Olsen
Authors: Lyman R. Lee
Published: April 2006

Olsen and Olsen's concern for terminology may be excessive; research proceeds without hindrance under many labels.
Explaining Socially Determined Ceramic Distributions in the Prehistoric Plateau Southwest
Authors: Upham Steadman , Lightfoot Kent G. , Feinman Gary M.
Published: April 2006

We examine the process of political development in relation to selected social and economic variables in the plateau region of the American Southwest. We argue that political development was closely associated with strategies of agricultural intensification, surplus production, changes in the organization and management of labor, and expanding regional exchange. We draw supporting data from several settlement systems and attempt to demonstrate that both exotic and labor-intensive commodities were restricted to political and economic centers. We then examine the distribution of one category of these materials, ceramics, through application of the "production step" measure. Our analysis suggests that access to highly decorated ceramic items was restricted to individuals residing at the largest centers. Traditional interpretations of the political organization of plateau region prehistoric groups stress their egalitarian qualities. We suggest that such interpretations be re-examined in the light of data and arguments presented here.
The Use of Chipped Lithic Material in the Contemporary Maya Highlands
Authors: Hayden Brian , Nelson Margaret
Published: April 2006

Ethnoarchaeological work in the Mayan Highlands has revealed that some individuals continue to make and use chipped stone implements for the manufacture of manos and metates. As a result site formation processes, effects of resource distribution, and stone tool characteristics can still be studied. Chipped tools of industrial glass are also made and used in the area, and provide useful models for some of the prehistoric uses of flaked stone tools, as well as information relating to their storage, curation, discard, and learning contexts.
The Shape of Time: Some Political Implications of a Four-Part Figure
Authors: Coggins Clemency
Published: April 2006

Four-part figures equal cyclic completion in ancient Mesoamerica, but they do not necessarily correspond to the cardinal directions; they refer, rather, to four-place cycles within the apparent annual path of the sun. The earliest excavated Maya example of such a quadripartite diagram in architectural form is Structure E-VII Sub at Uaxactun, which was part of a solar observatory. Later this E Group at Uaxactun was used for katun celebration. It is suggested that in Early Classic times Mexicans introduced to central Peten a type of celebration of solar cycles observed at Teotihuacan. This new ritual was rapidly Mayanized and institutionalized as the celebration of katuns or 20-year periods. The iconography of katun celebration emphasizes quadripartition and the rainy, stormy sky symbolism of the agricultural year as expressed in Tlaloc ritual at Teotihuacan. Katun celebration probably also served to undermine the original dynastic significance of the ancient Maya Long Count and thus enhanced the public ritual role of the new Mexican elite.
Recent Developments in Old World Archaeology
Authors: Sterud Eugene L. , Straus Lawrence Guy , Abramovitz Katherine
Published: April 2006

In the second annual review of Old World archaeology, the authors have restructured their attention to three topics: (1) some issues of a theoretical and philosophical nature, involving differing stances on contemporary theoretical trends and the nature of the differences between the social scientist and humanist approaches to archaeology; (2) the wealth of recent work that has altered the conceptual framework of Paleolithic and Mesolithic archaeology in Africa and western Europe; and (3) recent developments in late Mediterranean antiquity, predominantly humanist in focus, involving detailed empirical studies, trends in fieldwork design, and analytical studies of organic and inorganic materials.
Cucurbits from Phillips Spring: New Evidence and Interpretations
Authors: Kay Marvin , King Francis B. , Robinson Christine K.
Published: April 2006

Excavations conducted since Chomko's initial discovery in 1974 of Cucurbita pepo seeds have clarified their stratigraphic and radiometric context as well as delineated an earlier archaeological unit, the Squash and Gourd Zone, where a second cucurbit, Lagenaria siceraria, was found. The two units are Late Archaic with dates (weighted averages of radiocarbon assays) of 4257 ± 39 and 3928 ± 41 radiocarbon years B.P., respectively, and are beneath stratigraphically superior Late Archaic and Woodland units also containing cucurbits. A comparison of the early Cucurbita pepo with others from later contexts demonstrates an increasing size with time and morphology similar between the early seeds and the historic cultivar "Mandan." Nutritional value of the cucurbits, both cultigens, may have been comparable to that of other wild plant foods consumed. In any event, the cucurbits are artifacts of regional exchange mechanisms operating some 4000 years ago; the most plausible mechanism being down-the-line exchange.
The Third Dimension in Site Structure: An Experiment in Trampling and Vertical Dispersal
Authors: Gifford-Gonzalez Diane P. , Damrosch David B. , Damrosch Debra R. , Pryor John , Thunen Robert L.
Published: April 2006

Two measured and weighed assemblages of lithic debitage were subjected to human treadage, one set on a compact sandy silt (“loam”) substrate, the other on unconsolidated sand. The assemblages were excavated, plotted in three dimensions, and documented for damage. Downward migration of pieces at the loam site was minimal: fracture of small pieces was the dominant damage pattern. Most sand site pieces migrated to 3-8 cm depth; vertical distribution of pieces approximated a normal curve, and edge-damage to larger pieces was the dominant damage pattern. Vertical distribution of artifacts at the sand site approximated a pattern observed in two other trampling experiments and a number of archaeological occurrences. Factors influencing these distributions are discussed.
The Archaeology and Ethnohistory of Utatlan: A Conjunctive Approach
Authors: Carmack Robert M. , Weeks John M.
Published: April 2006

Recent studies of sixteenth century Quiche-Maya society have resulted in a sociocultural reconstruction based on the integration of archaeological and ethnohistorical data sets. Certain aspects of the internal social system of two contemporaneous settlement centers are examined in the context of this model and correspondences are noted. Contradictions between data sets suggest the applicability of an explicitly dialectical perspective.
Cultural Materialism: A Theoretical Review
Authors: Price Barbara J.
Published: April 2006

A review of the principles of cultural materialism (a synthesis of Marx's causal primacy of the infrastructure and Darwinian mechanisms of natural selection), this paper addresses certain substantive and metatheoretical problems of contemporary anthropology. A position paper, it is written from the standpoint that cultural materialism offers the most powerful and productive set of premises extant in the discipline for the explanation of cultural similarity and difference, stability and change, and for the nonidiosyncratic formulation—and potential falsification—of the broadest possible comparative and diachronic propositions. The implications of this position for disciplinary and subfield relationships in the social sciences are explored.
Some Opinions about Recovering Mind
Authors: Leone Mark P.
Published: April 2006

Archaeologists have tried to reconstruct patterns of thought, meaning, and ideas, using theories of structuralism, cognition, and ideology. Case studies involving each of the theories are described, and the strengths and weakness of their application to archaeological data are presented. Structuralism is found to yield substantial examples with well-worked treatments of archaeological data. These examples tend to ignore economic context, however. Materialism, especially neo-Marxism, contains thorough definitions of ideology that may be useful to archaeology because they preserve economic context. However, such definitions are new to the field and presently offer few well-worked examples of how to handle archaeological data.
Hafting and Retooling: Effects on the Archaeological Record
Authors: Keeley Lawrence H.
Published: April 2006

Hafting has long been recognized by archaeologists as a process affecting stone tools. However, the effects of this process on the archaeological record have been virtually ignored. Hafting affects the final typological form of tools because hafted tools are usually more extensively and intensively worked than their unhafted counterparts. Ethnoarchaeological and some recent archaeological evidence indicates that functionally equivalent but typologically diverse hafted and unhafted tools may be in use at the same site. Because hafted tools are disposed of as a consequence of the “retooling” of hafts, the context of their disposal may not be equivalent to the context of their use. But, unhafted tools appear to be disposed of more often at or near the focus of use. Indifference to the hafted/unhafted distinction then may seriously distort inferences based upon intrasite spatial analysis. It is also argued that hafting is a strategy that will be differentially employed by any social group at different sites according to circumstances, thereby contributing to interassemblage variability. Finally, some methods of analysis are suggested that will allow the typological and distributional effects of hafting and retooling to be taken into account by lithic analysts.
Dietary Change and Human Population at Indian Creek, Antigua
Authors: Jones Alick R.
Published: April 2006

The midden at Indian Creek, Antigua, is very probably a nearly complete record of the animal food consumed by the inhabitants over about 1,100 years of occupation. During that time the resource exploitation pattern changed in a number of major and minor ways. The most obvious change, when crab gave way to bivalve mollusks as an important dietary element, has been examined in some detail and the possible causes for the change discussed. Although the data presented here could be used for a variety of theoretical models it seems likely that no single model is sufficient to explain all the changes. The faunal remains obtained from the excavation have been used to calculate the amount of protein represented and this in turn used to calculate the approximate mean human population over the period of occupation. The figure obtained is between 21-53 depending upon the criteria adopted. The possible sources of error in the calculations are identified and discussed.
Oneota Ridged Field Agriculture in Southwestern Wisconsin
Authors: Gallagher James P. , Boszhardt Robert F. , Sasso Robert F. , Stevenson Katherine
Published: April 2006

A series of buried ridged agricultural fields has been discovered at the Sand Lake Site (47 Lc44) in La Crosse County, Wisconsin. Associated artifacts, features, and assayed carbon samples demonstrate that the fields were constructed by Oneota people in the fifteenth century A.D. Evidence suggests that water control was a major function of the ridges.
Social and Temporal Implications of Variation among American Bottom Mississippian Cemeteries
Authors: Milner George R.
Published: April 2006

Mississippian period cemeteries in the American Bottom, Illinois, were divided into three categories representing two distinct social strata. Burial areas for an elite stratum occurred in large, regionally important town-and-mound centers. Locational, organizational, and artifactual criteria distinguish these burial areas from those of a non-elite social stratum. Members of the non-elite social stratum were buried either in cemeteries located within regional centers or in peripherally located cemeteries associated with outlying communities. Mortuary practices in the American Bottom changed somewhat during the several hundred year duration of the Mississippian period. These changes were particularly apparent at peripheral cemeteries. The size and distribution of these cemeteries were related to levels of regional social segmentation and settlement autonomy, which changed throughout the Mississippian period.
Irrationality and Popular Archaeology
Authors: Feder Kenneth L.
Published: April 2006

An important aspect of archaeology is communicating the significance of data and research results to a fascinated, although often uninformed public. However, on the basis of book sales, newspaper coverage, television programming, and film presentations, it would seem that the public is inordinately fascinated by the more extreme, speculative, and often pseudoscientific claims made by those purporting to use archaeological data. Through questionnaires distributed to undergraduate students and to professional, teaching archaeologists, I made an attempt to comprehend the nature of the public's appetite for pseudoscientific archaeological claims. The role of education in refuting or perpetuating pseudoscience in archaeology was then assessed.
Identification of Cultigen Amaranth and Chenopod from Rockshelter Sites in Northwest Arkansas
Authors: Fritz Gayle J.
Published: April 2006

The cultigenAmaranthus hypochondriacushas been recognized in four samples of desiccated plant remains from Holman Shelter in Madison County, Arkansas. That site, excavated in 1932, yielded the domesticatedChenopodium berlandierissp.nuttalliaedescribed by Hugh Wilson (1981). Cultigen chenopod has been found in one other Madison County rockshelter. Samples containing the two species are described in detail and placed in general cultural context by combining information from excavation notes with regional archaeological data. Mesoamerican origins would exclude both cultigens from the Eastern Agricultural Complex. Current evidence favors a late prehistoric introduction into the eastern United States, but determination of spatial and temporal ranges will depend upon future recovery and analysis.
Earthworm Activity: A Source of Potential Disturbance of Archaeological Sediments
Authors: Stein Julie K.
Published: April 2006

Conspicuous disturbances in archaeological sites are readily detected during excavation. However, one animal whose destructive effects are not often recognized is the earthworm. Work at the Carlston Annis mound in Kentucky, an Archaic shell midden, has resulted in the identification of areas of extensive earthworm disturbance. Archaeological sites most readily affected are those with the appropriate vegetation cover, moisture and temperature conditions, and available chemical elements. The type of disturbance a site will undergo depends on the species of earthworms present. Subsurface-casting species mix matrix only below the surface while surface-casting species bring the fine-grained matrix to the surface, thus concentrating larger objects below ground. If earthworm casts are identified in a profile, one should proceed cautiously with interpretations concerning soil matrix.
The Chicama-Moche Intervalley Canal: Social Explanations and Physical Paradigms
Authors: Ortloff Charles R. , Moseley Michael E. , Feldman Robert A.
Published: April 2006

Antithetical premises of a static versus dynamic Andean landscape produce contradictory interpretations of the Chicama-Moche Intervalley Canal. On a static landscape, inoperable canal gradients must be explained by social parameters such as poor surveying or construction techniques. The paradigm of Plate Tectonics and evidence of ongoing crustal convergence support an alternative premise of continuous, gradual landscape alteration and ground slope change. This premise provides a physical explanation for why abandoned canals often exhibit uphill gradients and ancient monuments are frequently not level. However, this premise also requires that complex methods in the engineering analysis of slope-altered structures be made explicit. Assessment of landscape alteration utilizes basic principles of physical geology, but their application to a particular study area must take local conditions into consideration. Similarly, analysis of the hydraulic properties of an irrigation canal utilizes basic principles of fluid dynamics, but local conditions must be considered in deciding which formulas to use and how to apply them. Improper application of geological principles and hydraulic equations has led our critics to incorrect results.
North American Archaeology and Archaeologists, 1879-1934
Authors: Meltzer David J.
Published: April 2006

In February of 1879, Dr. J. M. Toner, Professor Otis Mason, and Col. Garrick Mallery placed an advertisement in the Washington, D.C. newspapers that read, in part

Many persons interested in American archaeology have expressed a desire for an organization in this city to promote study and diffuse knowledge upon the subject. All willing to join an Archaeological Association are requested to attend a meeting at the Smithsonian Institution . . . for a conference upon the subject and the formation of such a society [Lamb 1906:564-565].