bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Role of Sonography in Clinically Occult Femoral Hernias
Authors: Brandel David W. , Girish Gandikota , Brandon Catherine J. , Dong Qian , Yablon Corrie , Jamadar David A.
Published: December 2015

Objectives

The purpose of this article is to evaluate the diagnostic accuracy of sonography in clinically occult femoral hernias and to describe our sonographic technique.

Methods

The clinical and imaging data for 93 outpatients referred by general surgeons, all of whom underwent sonographic evaluation and surgery, were reviewed retrospectively. Of these, 55 patients who underwent surgical exploration for groin hernias within 3 months of sonography and met all inclusion criteria were included in the study. The sonographic technique involves using the pubic tubercle as an osseous landmark to identify and appropriately visualize the femoral canal. The Valsalva maneuver is then used to differentiate the movement of normal fat (a potential pitfall) from true herniation in the femoral canal. Surgical findings were used as the reference standard by which sonographic results were judged. Two‐by‐two contingency tables were used to calculate the sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, and negative predictive value.

Results

In these 55 patients, surgery revealed 15 femoral hernias. Eight femoral hernias occurred in women, and 7 occurred in men. For diagnosing femoral hernias, sonography demonstrated sensitivity of 80%, specificity of 88%, a positive predictive value of 71%, and a negative predictive value of 92%. True‐positive cases of femoral hernias have a sonographic appearance of a hypoechoic sac with speckled internal echoes. When examining during the Valsalva maneuver, a femoral hernia passes deep to the inguinal ligament, expands the femoral canal, displacing the normal canal fat, and effaces the femoral vein.

Conclusions

Sonography can exclude femoral hernias with high confidence in light of its exceptional negative predictive value. With attention to technique and imaging criteria, the diagnostic accuracy of sonography can be enhanced.
Effect of Anticoagulation Medication on the Thyroid Fine‐Needle Aspiration Pathologic Diagnostic Sufficiency Rate
Authors: Denham S. LeeAnn Wilson , Ismail Aimen , Bolus David N. , Lockhart Mark E.
Published: December 2015

Objectives

This study examined whether ultrasound‐guided thyroid fine‐needle aspiration (FNA) biopsy performed on patients taking anticoagulation medication results in a greater number of nondiagnostic pathologic samples due to a higher propensity to bleed, and thus fill the needle with blood rather than cellular material, compared to patients not taking anticoagulation medication.

Methods

In this retrospective review, data were collected on 1100 patients who underwent ultrasound‐guided thyroid FNA over a 4‐year period. Of these patients, 438 were included. Each thyroid FNA was performed by a board‐certified radiologist using a 6‐pass capillary fill technique. Data including patient age, sex, nodule size, nodule consistency, and whether the patient was or was not taking anticoagulation medication (and, if they were, which medication) were recorded from the electronic medical record, and the nodule characteristics were confirmed on imaging by a senior radiology resident (postgraduate year 5).

Results

Of the 438 patients included, 12 (2.7%) had an FNA aspirate that was deemed insufficient for diagnostic evaluation. Nondiagnostic pathologic yields were seen in 7 of the 309 patients (2.3%) who were not taking anticoagulation medication and 5 of 129 patients (3.9%) who were taking aspirin, warfarin, or clopidogrel, resulting in no statistically significant difference in the rates of nondiagnostic pathologic yields between the two groups (P = .35).

Conclusions

Based on these data, cessation of anticoagulation medication before thyroid FNA is not necessary to obtain sufficient cellular material for diagnosis, thus eliminating the need for procedural delays, patient inconvenience, and risks associated with anticoagulation medication cessation.
A flow law for ilmenite in dislocation creep: Implications for lunar cumulate mantle overturn
Authors: Dygert Nick , Hirth Greg , Liang Yan
Published: December 2015

We present results from new deformation experiments and a dislocation creep flow law for synthetic ilmenite. The flow law predicts an effective viscosity more than 3 orders of magnitude lower than dry olivine at mantle stresses and temperatures. Using the flow law, we predict that lunar ilmenite‐bearing cumulates (IBC) will be weakened by the presence of low‐viscosity ilmenite. Dense, low‐viscosity IBC are expected to flow into the lunar interior by a process known as cumulate mantle overturn. Low‐viscosity IBC that sink to the core‐mantle boundary may be dynamically stable with respect to upwelling. A hot, stable layer of IBC surrounding the lunar core would suppress the development of a core dynamo. A layer of partially molten IBC can also explain the inferred zone of seismic attenuation around the lunar core, as well as a low‐viscosity layer suggested by tidal dissipation.
Outer radiation belt dropout dynamics following the arrival of two interplanetary coronal mass ejections
Authors: Alves L. R. , Da Silva L. A. , Souza V. M. , Sibeck D. G. , Jauer P. R. , Vieira L. E. A. , Walsh B. M. , Silveira M. V. D. , Marchezi J. P. , Rockenbach M. , Lago A. Dal , Mendes O. , Tsurutani B. T. , Koga D. , Kanekal S. G. , Baker D. N. , Wygant J. R. , Kletzing C. A.
Published: December 2015

Magnetopause shadowing and wave‐particle interactions are recognized as the two primary mechanisms for losses of electrons from the outer radiation belt. We investigate these mechanisms, using satellite observations both in interplanetary space and within the magnetosphere and particle drift modeling. Two interplanetary shocks/sheaths impinged upon the magnetopause causing a relativistic electron flux dropout. The magnetic cloud (MC) and interplanetary structure sunward of the MC had primarily northward magnetic field, perhaps leading to a concomitant lack of substorm activity and a 10 daylong quiescent period. The arrival of two shocks caused an unusual electron flux dropout. Test‐particle simulations have shown ∼ 2 to 5 MeV energy, equatorially mirroring electrons with initial values of L≥5.5 can be lost to the magnetosheath via magnetopause shadowing alone. For electron losses at lower L‐shells, coherent chorus wave‐driven pitch angle scattering and ULF wave‐driven radial transport have been shown to be viable mechanisms.
Energy‐dependent dynamics of keV to MeV electrons in the inner zone, outer zone, and slot regions
Authors: Reeves Geoffrey D. , Friedel Reiner H. W. , Larsen Brian A. , Skoug Ruth M. , Funsten Herbert O. , Claudepierre Seth G. , Fennell Joseph F. , Turner Drew L. , Denton Mick H. , Spence Harlan E. , Blake J. Bernard , Baker Daniel N.
Published: December 2015

We present observations of the radiation belts from the Helium Oxygen Proton Electron and Magnetic Electron Ion Spectrometer particle detectors on the Van Allen Probes satellites that illustrate the energy dependence and L shell dependence of radiation belt enhancements and decays. We survey events in 2013 and analyze an event on 1 March in more detail. The observations show the following: (a) at all L shells, lower energy electrons are enhanced more often than higher energies; (b) events that fill the slot region are more common at lower energies; (c) enhancements of electrons in the inner zone are more common at lower energies; and (d) even when events do not fully fill the slot region, enhancements at lower energies tend to extend to lower L shells than higher energies. During enhancement events the outer zone extends to lower L shells at lower energies while being confined to higher L shells at higher energies. The inner zone shows the opposite with an outer boundary at higher L shells for lower energies. Both boundaries are nearly straight in log(energy) versus L shell space. At energies below a few 100 keV, radiation belt electron penetration through the slot region into the inner zone is commonplace, but the number and frequency of “slot filling” events decreases with increasing energy. The inner zone is enhanced only at energies that penetrate through the slot. Energy‐ and L shell‐dependent losses (that are consistent with whistler hiss interactions) return the belts to more quiescent conditions.
A modeling study of global ionospheric and thermospheric responses to extreme solar flare
Authors: Le Huijun , Liu Libo , Ren Zhipeng , Chen Yiding , Zhang Hui , Wan Weixing
Published: December 2015

In this study, we employed a thermosphere and ionosphere coupling model to investigate ionospheric and thermospheric responses to an extreme solar flare of X40. The simulated results show that the peak enhancement of total electron content reaches about 35 TECU (total electron content unit, 1 TECU = 1016 el m−2), and there are as long as more than 4 h ionospheric disturbances induced by the extreme solar flare. At the same time, the extreme solar flare causes significant disturbances in the thermosphere. The peak enhancement of neutral density at 400 km reaches more than 100%, and the peak enhancement in neutral temperature at 400 km is about 250 K. Several numerical experiments for different class solar flares were further carried out to study the ionosphere and thermosphere variations with solar flare level. The results show that the increasing amplitude of electron density at low altitude decreases with increasing flare level; however, the increasing amplitude of electron density at topside ionosphere increases with increasing flare level. The thermosphere density has the same variation trends with flare level. These results suggest that the extreme solar flare would cause the strong disturbances at high height.
Properties of Hermean plasma belt: Numerical simulations and comparison with MESSENGER data
Authors: Herčík David , Trávníček Pavel M. , Štverák Štěpán , Hellinger Petr
Published: December 2015

Using a global hybrid model and test particle simulations we present a detailed analysis of the Hermean plasma belt structure. We investigate characteristic properties of quasi‐trapped particle population characteristics and its behavior under different orientations of the interplanetary magnetic field. The plasma belt region is constantly supplied with solar wind protons via magnetospheric flanks and tail current sheet region. Protons inside the plasma belt region are quasi‐trapped in the magnetic field of Mercury and perform westward drift along the planet. This region is well separated by a magnetic shell and has higher average temperatures and lower bulk proton current densities than the surrounding area. On the dayside the population exhibits loss cone distribution function matching the theoretical loss cone angle. The simulation results are in good agreement with in situ observations of MESSENGER's (MErcury Surface Space ENvironment GEochemistry, and Ranging) MAG and FIPS instruments.
Seasonal variations in North Atlantic atmospheric river activity and associations with anomalous precipitation over the Iberian Atlantic Margin
Authors: Eiras‐Barca Jorge , Brands Swen , Miguez‐Macho Gonzalo
Published: December 2015

In the present study, a novel atmospheric river (AR) detection scheme based on column‐integrated water vapor and column‐integrated water vapor flux is presented and applied for the Iberian Atlantic Margin (IAM) and a wider area covering the North Atlantic Ocean for the period 1979–2013. The seasonal cycle in AR frequency over the North Atlantic exhibits a relatively small amplitude, being more pronounced toward the east and south of the oceanic basin, as it is increasingly related to the seasonal cycle in storm activity and the meridional displacement of the subtropical high. In the eastern North Atlantic, downwind of the North American continent, it shows a more complex behavior. The interannual variability of AR frequency is weak across the entire North Atlantic, and it does not present consistent long‐term spatiotemporal patterns. For the southern IAM, AR occurrence is slightly enhanced by the negative phase of the North Atlantic Oscillation during the previous days. Up to 80% of the anomalous precipitation events (above the 95th percentile) in the IAM are associated with ARs; these values exceed 90% in winter and decrease to 75% in spring when convection not related to ARs becomes a significant precipitation mechanism. Moisture advection within ARs is thus a very important contributor to anomalous precipitation. Likewise, the strength of the associated storm systems and the characteristics of the ARs themselves are also very relevant factors. The percentage of total ARs linked to anomalous precipitation is relatively low, only reaching 20% where topographic features are favorable.
Atmospheric conditions in the central Arctic Ocean through the melt seasons of 2012 and 2013: Impact on surface conditions and solar energy deposition into the ice‐ocean system
Authors: Wang Caixin , Granskog Mats A. , Hudson Stephen R. , Gerland Sebastian , Pavlov Alexey K. , Perovich Donald K. , Nicolaus Marcel
Published: December 2015

Spectral Radiation Buoys and ice mass balance buoys were deployed on first‐year ice near the North Pole in April 2012 and 2013, collecting in‐band (350–800 nm) solar radiation and ice and snow mass balance data over the complete summer melt seasons. With complementary European ERA‐Interim reanalysis, National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) Climate forecast system version 2 (CFSv2) analysis and satellite passive microwave data, we examine the evolution of atmospheric and surface melt conditions in the two differing melt seasons. Prevailing atmospheric conditions contributed to a longer and more continuous melt season in summer 2012 than in 2013, which was corroborated by in situ observations. ERA‐Interim reanalysis data showed that longwave radiation likely played a key role in delaying the snowmelt onset in 2013. The earlier melt onset in 2012 reduced the albedo, providing a positive ice‐albedo feedback at a time when solar insolation was high. Due to earlier melt onset and later freeze‐up in 2012, more solar heat was deposited into the ice‐ocean system than in 2013. Summer 2013 was characterized by later melt onset, intermittent freezing events and an earlier fall freeze‐up, resulting in considerably fewer effective days of surface melt and a higher average albedo. Calculations for idealized seasonal albedo evolution show that moving the melt onset just 1 week earlier in mid‐June increases the total absorbed solar radiation by nearly 14% for the summer season. Therefore, the earlier melt onset may have been one of the most important factors driving the more dramatic melt season in 2012 than 2013, though atmospheric circulation patterns, e.g., cyclone in early August 2012, likely contributed as well.
Year‐round records of sea salt, gaseous, and particulate inorganic bromine in the atmospheric boundary layer at coastal (Dumont d'Urville) and central (Concordia) East Antarctic sites
Authors: Legrand Michel , Yang Xin , Preunkert Susanne , Theys Nicolas
Published: December 2015

Multiple year‐round records of bulk and size‐segregated compositions of aerosol were obtained at the coastal Dumont d'Urville (DDU) and inland Concordia sites located in East Antarctica. They document the sea‐salt aerosol load and composition including, for the first time in Antarctica, the bromide depletion of sea‐salt aerosol relative to sodium with respect to seawater. In parallel, measurements of bromide trapped in mist chambers and denuder tubes were done to investigate the concentrations of gaseous inorganic bromine species. These data are compared to simulations done with an off‐line chemistry transport model, coupled with a full tropospheric bromine chemistry scheme and a process‐based sea‐salt production module that includes both sea‐ice‐sourced and open‐ocean‐sourced aerosol emissions. Observed and simulated sea‐salt concentrations sometime differ by up to a factor of 2 to 3, particularly at DDU possibly due to local wind pattern. In spite of these discrepancies, both at coastal and inland Antarctica, the dominance of sea‐ice‐related processes with respect to open ocean emissions for the sea‐salt aerosol load in winter is confirmed. For summer, observations and simulations point out sea salt as the main source of gaseous inorganic bromine species. Investigations of bromide in snow pit samples do not support the importance of snowpack bromine emissions over the Antarctic Plateau. To evaluate the overall importance of the bromine chemistry over East Antarctica, BrO simulations were also discussed with respect data derived from GOME‐2 satellite observations over Antarctica.
The variability of the rainfall rate as a function of area
Authors: Jameson A. R. , Larsen M. L.
Published: December 2015

Distributions of drop sizes can be expressed as DSD = Nt × PSD, where Nt is the total number of drops in a sample and PSD is the frequency distribution of drop diameters (D). Their discovery permitted remote sensing techniques for rainfall estimation using radars and satellites measuring over large domains of several kilometers. Because these techniques depend heavily on higher moments of the PSD, there has been a bias toward attributing the variability of the intrinsic rainfall rates R over areas (σR) to the variability of the PSDs. While this variability does increase up to a point with increasing domain dimension L, the variability of the rainfall rate R also depends upon the variability in the total number of drops Nt. We show that while the importance of PSDs looms large for small domains used in past studies, it is the variability of Nt that dominates the variability of R as L increases to 1 km and beyond. The PSDs contribute to the variability of R through the relative dispersion of χ = D3Vt, where Vt is the terminal fall speed of drops of diameter D. However, the variability of χ is inherently limited because drop sizes and fall speeds are physically limited. In contrast, it is shown that the variance of Nt continuously increases as the domain expands for physical reasons explained below. Over domains larger than around 1 km, it is shown that Nt dominates the variance of the rainfall rate with increasing L regardless of the PSD.
Magnesium sulfate as a key mineral for the detection of organic molecules on Mars using pyrolysis
Authors: François P. , Szopa C. , Buch A. , Coll P. , McAdam A. C. , Mahaffy P. R. , Freissinet C. , Glavin D. P. , Navarro‐Gonzalez R. , Cabane M.
Published: December 2015

Pyrolysis of soil or rock samples is the preferred preparation technique used on Mars to search for organic molecules up today. During pyrolysis, oxichlorines present in the soil of Mars release oxidant species that alter the organic molecules potentially contained in the samples collected by the space probes. This process can explain the difficulty experienced by in situ exploration probes to detect organic materials in Mars soil samples until recently. Within a few months, the Curiosity rover should reach and analyze for the first time soils rich in sulfates which could induce a different behavior of the organics during the pyrolysis compared with the types of soils analyzed up today. For this reason, we systematically studied the pyrolysis of organic molecules trapped in magnesium sulfate, in the presence or absence of calcium perchlorate. Our results show that organics trapped in magnesium sulfate can undergo some oxidation and sulfuration during the pyrolysis. But these sulfates are also shown to protect organics trapped inside the crystal lattice and/or present in fluid inclusions from the oxidation induced by the decomposition of calcium perchlorate and probably other oxychlorine phases currently detected on Mars. Trapped organics may also be protected from degradation processes induced by other minerals present in the sample, at least until these organics are released from the pyrolyzed sulfate mineral (~700°C in our experiment). Hence, we suggest magnesium sulfate as one of the minerals to target in priority for the search of organic molecules by the Curiosity and ExoMars 2018 rovers.
Spatial and temporal Antarctic Ice Sheet mass trends, glacio‐isostatic adjustment, and surface processes from a joint inversion of satellite altimeter, gravity, and GPS data
Authors: Martín‐Español Alba , Zammit‐Mangion Andrew , Clarke Peter J. , Flament Thomas , Helm Veit , King Matt A. , Luthcke Scott B. , Petrie Elizabeth , Rémy Frederique , Schön Nana , Wouters Bert , Bamber Jonathan L.
Published: December 2015

We present spatiotemporal mass balance trends for the Antarctic Ice Sheet from a statistical inversion of satellite altimetry, gravimetry, and elastic‐corrected GPS data for the period 2003–2013. Our method simultaneously determines annual trends in ice dynamics, surface mass balance anomalies, and a time‐invariant solution for glacio‐isostatic adjustment while remaining largely independent of forward models. We establish that over the period 2003–2013, Antarctica has been losing mass at a rate of −84 ± 22 Gt yr−1, with a sustained negative mean trend of dynamic imbalance of −111 ± 13 Gt yr−1. West Antarctica is the largest contributor with −112 ± 10 Gt yr−1, mainly triggered by high thinning rates of glaciers draining into the Amundsen Sea Embayment. The Antarctic Peninsula has experienced a dramatic increase in mass loss in the last decade, with a mean rate of −28 ± 7 Gt yr−1 and significantly higher values for the most recent years following the destabilization of the Southern Antarctic Peninsula around 2010. The total mass loss is partly compensated by a significant mass gain of 56 ± 18 Gt yr−1 in East Antarctica due to a positive trend of surface mass balance anomalies.
Ring Index: A new strategy to evaluate the integrity of TEX86 paleothermometry
Authors: Zhang Yi Ge , Pagani Mark , Wang Zhengrong
Published: December 2015

The TEX86 (tetraether index of 86 carbon atoms) sea surface temperature proxy has been increasingly applied in the reconstruction of Mesozoic and Cenozoic ocean temperatures. However, the archaeal lipids that compose TEX86 indices, glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraethers (GDGTs), can derive from water column production, terrestrial sources, and/or within sediments. TEX86‐sea surface temperature estimates can also be influenced by non‐temperature factors, such as growth phase and nutrient levels. Here we show that the weighted average of cyclopentane moieties, known as the Ring Index (RI), can be used to determine if TEX86 temperature estimates are influenced by non‐thermal factors and/or deviate from modern analogues. We demonstrate that RI and TEX86 indices from the published global core top data set and mesocosm cultures are significantly correlated, as predicted through the influence of temperature on lipid biochemistry. We further show that when RI and TEX86 indices in modern or ancient records deviate from the modern global TEX86‐RI relationship, GDGT distributions are not solely controlled by environmental temperature and/or TEX86‐based temperature reconstructions are questionable.
Diurnal variation of ducts observed over a tropical station, Gadanki, using high‐resolution GPS radiosonde observations
Authors: Manjula G. , Roja Raman M. , Venkat Ratnam M. , Chandrasekhar A. V. , Vijaya Bhaskara Rao S.
Published: December 2015

A comprehensive study on diurnal variation of ducting using high vertical and temporal resolution radiosonde measurements over the Indian tropical region, Gadanki (13.5°N, 79.2°E), was presented. The diurnal variation of ducts was examined statistically based on both the refractivity and modified refractivity using 3‐hourly radiosonde soundings obtained during October 2010 to March 2014 as a part of tropical tropopause dynamics (TTD) campaigns conducted under Climate and Weather of Sun Earth System (CAWSES) India Phase II program. Strong diurnal variation in the altitude of occurrence of the duct has been found and is at maximum altitude (~2.5 km) during 11–17 LT. Interestingly, it is found that the occurrence of duct altitude closely follows the boundary layer altitude. Diurnal variation of duct altitude is maximum during postmonsoon followed by winter, monsoon, and minimum in premonsoon. However, duct strength is maximum during winter followed by premonsoon, postmonsoon, and minimum in monsoon. Duct thickness is found to be varying between 0.4 km and 1 km diurnally with the highest thickness during the winter season. Strong diurnal and seasonal variation in the percentage occurrence of the ducts was found with the highest percentage of ducts observed during winter (77%) followed by postmonsoon (51%), premonsoon (44%), and monsoon (10%). All the characteristics of ducts during all the seasons are maximum at 14 LT due to the high solar irradiance over Gadanki from 11 to 17 LT. The minimum frequency being trapped has been investigated and found that wave trapping occurs for the radars with frequencies 56–438 MHz over this station.
Soil Instrumental Methods
Authors: Gillespie Adam , Gregorich Ed , Helgason Bobbi , Peak Derek
Published: December 2015

Soils serve as an interface between aquatic, atmospheric, and terrestrial ecosystems. In this capacity, the soil provides important functions such as supporting plant and animal life, regulating the flows of energy, nutrients, and water, and providing a sink and source for greenhouse gases.

Soil is composed of interacting mineral, organic, water, and air components, all of which are transformed and cycled by a rich and diverse microbial population. Knowledge of the chemical, physical, and biological properties of soil can only be fully obtained using a suite of analytical methods.

This article describes the basic concepts and approaches to laboratory analysis of soil materials to address a wide range of disciplines, standard methodologies, and research techniques, with an emphasis on modern instrumental methods. This article covers modern instrumental methods for the analysis of soil chemical properties, soil organic matter (SOM), and soil biology and includes detailed information on spectroscopic and spectrometric methods.
Capillary Electrophoresis of Nucleic Acids
Authors: Phung Sui Ching , Gstöttenmayr Daniel , Breadmore Michael C. , Nai Yi H.
Published: December 2015

Capillary electrophoresis (CE) is a powerful and relatively new technique for nucleic acid mapping and can be used along with conventional slab gel electrophoresis (SGE) and high‐performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). There are several types of separation mechanisms by which species can be separated in electrophoresis: capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE), micellar electrokinetic chromatography (MEKC), capillary gel electrophoresis (CGE), and capillary sieving electrophoresis (CSE), all of which are capable of being used for qualification and quantification of nucleic acids. Laser‐induced fluorescence (LIF) detection enables highly sensitive detection of nucleic acids. CGE – which uses an agarose or acrylamide gel – and CSE – which uses an entangled polymer solution – are used rather than HPLC and SGE for sequencing of large nucleic acids for several reasons: high‐resolution power, high‐speed sequencing, ease of automation, and small sample volume. Combining the advantages of CSE and LIF detection with a four‐ or two‐color labeling method enables sequencing of more than 1000 bases within 1 h. When implemented in capillary array electrophoresis (CAE), high‐throughput and high‐speed sequencing systems contributed to an expansion of the sequence analysis of DNA fragments and was used as the major technique for sequencing in order to achieve the goal of the Human Genome Project (HGP).
Mass Spectrometry of Nucleic Acids
Authors: Chowdhury Goutam , Guengerich F. Peter
Published: December 2015

Nucleic acids are prone to fragmentation in the ionization process of mass spectrometry (MS). The cause can be found in the polar nature of this analyte class. Following the introduction of the so‐called soft‐ionization techniques of electrospray ionization (ESI) and matrix‐assisted laser desorption ionization (MALDI) at the end of the 1980s, mass spectrometric analysis of nucleic acids has gained broader applicability. In combination with further developments of the associated instrumentation and optimized preparation and purification methods, a dramatic enhancement of the mass range, detection sensitivity, and resolution became possible in routine analysis of oligonucleotides, up to a length of 50 nucleotides. At present, the necessary quantity of sample is in the subfemtomole range.

MS is an accurate, rapid, and sensitive tool ideally suited for sequencing shorter nucleic acids. MS sequencing holds great promise in clinical diagnostics, forensics, paternity analysis, livestock breeding, plant cultivation, and cell line typing. In addition, MS has been used for various other important applications including analysis of noncovalent complexes, mixture analysis, different sequencing strategies, misincorporation analysis of translesion DNA synthesis products, detection and mapping of DNA lesions, detection and characterization of DNA‐protein crosslinks (DPCs), and clinical diagnostics. The use of MS for the detection of DNA adducts in oligonucleotides is extremely useful because it has not only eliminated the need for hydrolysis but also allowed to map the position of the adduct and determine the sequence of the oligonucleotide. This article describes the fundamentals of mass spectrometric analyses of nucleic acids and some of its common applications. The primary focus is on LC‐ESI‐tandem MS and MALDI/MS.
Full Range Crudes, Analytical Methodology of
Authors: Ali Mohammad A.
Published: December 2015

The analytical methods applied to crude oils have been standardized by American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) and include both physical and chemical characterizations. The properties include density, American Petroleum Institute (API) gravity, pour point, molecular weight, salt content, water and sediment contents, wax and asphaltenes contents, metal contents, ash contents, carbon residue, distillation, boiling range distribution, elemental composition, and compound types (saturates, aromatics and resins). The analytical techniques used include hydrometer for density/API gravity, true boiling point (TBP) and vacuum distillations for obtaining distillates and residue fractions, simulated distillation (SIMDIST) for boiling range distribution, gas chromatography‐flame ionization detector (GC‐FID) for volatile hydrocarbons, gas chromatography‐thermal conductivity detector (GC‐TCD) for nonhydrocarbon gases, GC‐sulfur chemiluminescent detector (SCD) for sulfur compounds, infrared spectroscopy (IR) for functional groups, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) for loss on heating, gel permeation chromatography (GPC) and vapor pressure osmometry (VPO) for molecular weight, inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry (ICP‐AES) and atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) for metal content, ICP‐MS and GC‐ICP‐MS for trace metal concentration, X‐ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF) for metal analysis, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) for carbon and hydrogen types, high‐performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), liquid chromatography‐mass spectrometry (LCMS), and supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC) for compound types determination, and elemental analyzer (EA) for CHNSO analysis and potentiometric titration for acidic and basic compounds.
Noble Metals, Analytical Chemistry of
Authors: Balcerzak Maria
Published: December 2015

Attractive physical, chemical, and biological properties of the noble (precious) metals – ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, osmium, iridium and platinum (so‐called platinum group metals (PGMs)) and gold – result in their wide applications. The main demands for the metals are from autocatalysts; chemical, electrical, and electronic industries; and jewelry and investment. Medical applications of some noble metal compounds, in particular those exhibiting anticancer activity, are of great importance.

A large variety and complexity of the examined (geological, environmental, industrial, and biological) materials, great chemical similarities and low stability of the noble metal species in solutions, and wide concentration ranges (from sub‐ppb to >99.99%) to be determined make the accurate determination of the metals a difficult analytical problem. Identification and quantification, both of elemental and molecular forms of the metals, in the examined samples require methods capable of separation of the analytes from the interfering matrix components and their detection. The choice of a suitable sample preparation procedure and its successful coupling with the detection technique of required selectivity and sensitivity are fundamental factors limiting the quality of the results. Analytical methods applicable in the analysis of the noble metal samples are presented in this chapter.
Application of Infrared Multiphoton Microscopy in Biological Studies
Authors: Aoi Keita , Kikuta Junichi , Ishii Masaru
Published: December 2015

Various kinds of cell types exist in the body and communicate with each other. Although there have been many previous studies of cellular dynamics in several organs, most involved conventional methods such as histological analysis and flow cytometry. These methods cannot observe dynamic cell movement in living tissues. Recently, rapid development of multiphoton microscopy has enabled us to visualize cellular dynamics deep inside living tissues and organs without thin sectioning. Focal excitation of fluorophores by simultaneous attack of multiple (normally ‘two’) photons generates images with high spatial resolution, and use of near‐infrared lasers for multiphoton excitation allows for the penetration of thicker specimens. Moreover, the minimized photobleaching and toxicity associated with multiphoton techniques allow for the imaging of living specimens for extended observation periods. Here, we focus on recent findings using intravital multiphoton imaging of dynamic biological systems, and in particular, bone homeostasis. This approach could be beneficial for understanding the mechanisms underlying dynamic biological systems, and thus useful for evaluating the efficacy and effect of novel drugs currently in development.
Energy Optimization for Solar‐Powered Aircraft
Authors: Agarwal Ramesh K.
Published: December 2015

In recent years, there has been great deal of interest in exploration of alternative fuels, other than Jet fuel for aircraft propulsion in order to reduce the Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. For commercial transport as well as military aircraft, there has been a great deal of emphasis on “Biofuels” that behave like “drop‐in fuel” but generate less CO
2
and NOx emissions and therefore are more environmentally friendly. However, for small unmanned air vehicle (UAV) or low‐speed personal transportation aircraft, there have been many attempts toward building an all‐electric or solar airplane whose wings could possibly be covered with photovoltaic panels to harness sun's energy for propulsion. Most notably the success of “Solar Impulse” has attracted the attention of general public as well as small aircraft enthusiasts. This chapter provides a brief history of solar‐powered aircraft with primary focus on the airfoil/wing design for optimal utilization of solar energy for powering a solar airplane. The analysis of incidence of solar radiation over an airfoil/wing of an airplane is presented along with a complete model for computing the total solar radiation incident on the airfoil during a cruise flight using the solar tracking equations and geodesy for path creation. The model is based on discretization of both the airfoil and the path. It is demonstrated that a genetic algorithm with migration can be easily employed to optimize the PV panels covered airfoil/wing shape for optimal utilization of solar energy. The energy storage in batteries/fuel cells during the day for usage in the night time flight is not discussed.
A Rolls‐Royce Perspective on Concepts and Technologies for Future Green Propulsion Systems
Authors: Whurr John , Hart Jonathan
Published: December 2015

Competitive, economic, and environmental pressures will place an ever‐increasing demand on improving the fuel burn efficiency of future civil aircraft propulsion systems. This chapter presents a perspective on opportunities being investigated by the civil aviation industry to reduce environmental impact, and describes novel engine and propulsor concepts and technologies that present the opportunity to significantly reduce aircraft fuel burn and meet future market expectations and environmental requirements, drawing in particular on examples from the ongoing work and strategy being pursued by Rolls‐Royce. The novel features of the Rolls‐Royce Trent XWB engine that contributes to its world‐leading fuel efficiency are described, before introducing the next generation of Rolls‐Royce propulsion system architectures, the Advance and UltraFan™, and the technologies and demonstration programmes that underpin them. Long‐term targets require more radical propulsion system solutions, and the chapter discusses some of the most interesting novel concepts being studied by the industry, including heat‐exchange cycles, interturbine combustion, pressure‐gain combustion, cryo‐fuel cycles, and distributed and hybrid/turboelectric propulsion.
Hydrogen‐Powered Aircraft
Authors: Schutte Jeff S. , Payan Alexia P. , Briceno Simon I. , Mavris Dimitri N.
Published: December 2015

Hydrogen is the most abundant species on Earth. It may be obtained from a variety of sources and may be compressed to cryogenic temperatures for ease of handling and distribution. The only products resulting from the combustion of liquid hydrogen are nitrogen oxides and water vapor whose effects on climate may be mitigated by optimizing cruising altitudes and mixture conditions in the combustion chamber. As such, hydrogen is a promising aviation fuel that addresses both the environmental and air quality problems associated with conventional jet fuels and the depletion of fossil resources. Nevertheless, several technical challenges remain. Although liquid hydrogen has a greater specific energy density compared to conventional jet fuels, it also has a four times smaller volumetric energy density. This poses a unique challenge for the efficient design of hydrogen‐powered aircraft and associated fuel systems. Finally, the wide use of liquid hydrogen as an aviation fuel requires further development of materials and tanks for its efficient distribution and storage at cryogenic temperatures, the development of heat exchange systems for engine cooling, and the efficient control of thermal stresses on structural components.
Sensor Fusion
Authors: Fasano Giancarmine , Accardo Domenico , Moccia Antonio
Published: December 2015

The general concept of sensor fusion refers to the combination of data gathered from different sensing sources and/or at separate times in order to obtain improved information. While its application domain is very wide and goes well beyond the world of Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS), sensor fusion is a key enabling technology for UAS, often bridging the gap between reliable autonomy and available sensing technologies. This chapter first describes main data fusion applications and architectures in UAS. Then, as most data fusion techniques combine problem uncertainties on the basis of Bayes rule, an overview of Bayesian algorithms for state estimation is presented. Finally, after a discussion about practical implementation issues such as space and time data registration, two example applications are highlighted that are relevant to multisensor‐based sense and avoid and integrated navigation systems.
Multi‐UAVCooperation
Authors: Maza Iván , Capitán Jesús , Merino Luis , Ollero Aníbal
Published: December 2015

This chapter discusses architectures for multi‐UAV cooperation. It focuses mainly on systems in which the UAVs have a certain degree of autonomy and that present intentional cooperation (thus swarming techniques and low‐level formations are not covered). The chapter discusses the main elements of such architectures, with special emphasis on cooperative perception and decision making. For each of these topics, the main approaches considered in the literature are discussed. An application of a cooperative team of UAVs tracking firemen in a disaster management scenario that was developed by the authors is shown.
Neutralization Theory
Authors: Copes Heith , Deitzer Jessica
Published: December 2015

Gresham Sykes and David Matza argue that, when offenders contemplate committing criminal acts, they use linguistic devices to neutralize the guilt of committing crime. The most common neutralization techniques that offenders use include denial of responsibility, denial of harm, denial of victim, appeal to higher loyalties, and condemnation of the condemners. Despite mixed empirical support, the neutralization theory has gained widespread acceptance within criminology. The theory has been incorporated into many mainstream criminological approaches (e.g., differential association, social control, and reintegrative shaming). Recent theoretical advancements have focused on elaborating upon how neutralization use varies according to the types of offenders who use them and the type of offense committed.
Police Pursuit
Authors: Alpert Geoffrey P. , Lyneham Mathew , Baxter Kathryn
Published: December 2015

Pursuit driving is among the most difficult and dangerous law enforcement activities, and one that can result in serious consequences. The balance between the risks and benefits of pursuit has convinced many progressive police administrators to adopt policies that restrict pursuits to violent crimes. Research has demonstrated the need for a strong policy that removes many decisions from officers to avoid split‐second decisions during the heat of a chase.
Bribery
Authors: Sanyal Rajib N.
Published: December 2015

Bribery in international business is the practice of individuals or organizations offering monetary or nonmonetary benefits to officials of foreign governments to suspend the application of national or international laws, rules, or norms with the aim of gaining a commercial advantage. Bribe giving (and taking) is widespread in international business and is generally recognized as an undesirable practice. National governments, multilateral organizations, and nongovernmental organizations as well as businesses themselves are engaged in efforts to combat this phenomenon. A major area of study in international bribery has been to understand the determinants of bribery in particular countries. It appears that economic, cultural, and political factors all play a role in determining the extent and level of bribery.
Ethnicity and Crime
Authors: Jennings Wesley G.
Published: December 2015

Ethnicity is a well‐known and longstanding correlate of crime. Research generally uses this term as synonymous with race, although the two terms often refer to different constructs. In this vein, ethnicity as it applies to criminology and criminal justice research conducted in the United States generally is focused on Hispanics, whereas research outside of the United States considers ethnicity in a broader context representing any number of demographic/ethnic groups. Recognizing this reality, this entry provides a brief review of Hispanics (and immigrant Hispanics from countries outside of the United States) as an example of the role of ethnicity in criminology and criminal justice research.
Sentencing
Authors: Carmichael Jason T. , Sigouin Jennifer
Published: December 2015

A tremendous amount of scholarly literature has assessed the possibility that criminal sanctions administered in the United States are not simply a function of legal factors such as the severity of the offense or prior criminal involvement. Much of this scholarship has attempted to ascertain the extent to which extralegal factors such as ethnicity, class background, or gender influence the sentencing of criminal offenders. Beyond these individual characteristics, scholars have also tried to determine if and how broader contextual factors surrounding the courts themselves may influence the sanctioning of criminal offenders. While substantial inconsistencies in the findings remain and methodological deficiencies plague some of the studies in this area, there is sufficient evidence to suggest that the US criminal justice system considers legally irrelevant factors when determining the severity of criminal sanctions.
Institutional Anomie Theory
Authors: Schoepfer Andrea
Published: December 2015

Institutional anomie theory (IAT) suggests that crime in the United States is driven by immense pressures to succeed and profit monetarily. The collective cultural pursuit of the American Dream – the commitment to the goal of material success, to be pursued by everyone, through individual competition – is the impetus for crime. The theory suggests that American cultural values encourage success by “any means necessary,” and without strong countervailing forces of social institutions such as family, polity, and education, anomic conditions are likely to arise. Empirical research on
IAT
has been sparse due to difficulties in operationalizing the concepts, yet the research that does exist has consistently found partial support for the theory.
Crime and Punishment in
S
erbia
Authors: Markovic Vesna
Published: December 2015

The Republic of Serbia has experienced many changes in the past several decades. Due to its location between Western Europe and the Middle East, the Balkan route is a primary trade route for illegal narcotics and other contraband. This entry highlights some of the crime issues facing Serbia, as well as aspects of the criminal justice system such as the role of the police, courts, and penitentiaries.
Rule of Law
Authors: Keeling Deborah G. , Losavio Michael M. , Hughes Thomas W.
Published: December 2015

The concepts known as the
rule of law
have evolved from varied legal traditions. And, while the rule of law is often considered eWestern,” in at least a general sense, the idea of the rule of law flows from origins of democracy in Athens. Most generally, the rule of law is a group of values or ideals relating to the law and its operation. The goals of the rule of law are to promote justice and to reduce the chance of the arbitrary use of official power. The rule of law is central to and guides the implementation and maintenance of a democratic government. The rule of law promotes respect and application of the law and generally produces respect for equality among individuals, respect for basic human and civil rights, community partnerships, public accountability, and government transparency.
Crime and Punishment in
F
inland
Authors: Fields Chuck
Published: December 2015

The concept of justice and punishment in Finland is deeply rooted in the Nordic philosophy of general prevention, and changes in Finnish society during the last few decades are reflected in the incidences of recorded crime which, in most categories, has declined. A common feature of the Finnish criminal justice system today is the use of comparatively mild sanctions as compared to other European countries, with a heavy emphasis on fines and non‐incarceration. These developments are evident in other Scandinavian countries as well, indicating that perhaps there are similar factors (e.g., political, social, cultural) affecting the region.
Crime Prevention
Authors: Hunter Ronald D.
Published: December 2015

This article traces the history of crime prevention from traditional rationales for punishment through the social ecological developments of the Chicago School. The development of opportunity theories of crime prevention, ranging from defensible space to crime pattern theory, is presented. The article concludes with three approaches to crime prevention that are viewed as becoming increasingly important.