bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Resuming Advance November 1949–June 1950
Authors: Mastny Vojtech
Published: October 2023

Moscow regarded 1949 as a watershed year during which the West turned more aggressive than before. This was true—not so much because of the creation of NATO, which for the time being lacked important operational consequences, as because of the American intention to destabilize Eastern Europe. As in 1947 by launching the Marshall Plan, the United States again had begun to move to a higher level confrontation before the Soviet Union did. Previously Stalin had used the communists in an attempt to destabilize Western Europe but had failed; would the West be more successful in his own backyard? Or, would he again—as in 1947—overreact to the challenge by anticipating its results before they could materialize, thus driving the spiral of conflict farther upward? In either case, the dynamics of East-West relations presaged more conflict.

The Office of Policy Coordination, created in Washington in 1948 to supervise a counteroffensive against “Soviet-directed world communism,” proved notably successful in mobilizing resistance against it in Western Europe, particularly Italy. Made part of the Central Intelligence Agency and entrusted with covert operations, it subsequently became the main tool to achieve, as the National Security Council put it November 1948, “gradual retraction of undue Russian power and influence from the present perimeter areas” and the restoration of the Soviet satellites as independent states.
Fits and Starts March 1952–November 1952
Authors: Mastny Vojtech
Published: October 2023

Much like in the pre war Great Purge, in the one that was now climaxing concern about Germany permeated the Soviet mind. Although Stalin in April 1952 chose to reply to questions asked by U.S. journalists that war was not any closer than it had been two or three years earlier, he did not say that the threat had passed. He insisted that peace could be preserved if only the West carried out its purported obligations and abstained from interfering in other countries’ internal affairs. By this he meant restoration of four-power control in Germany and acquiescence in Soviet control of Eastern Europe. Unlike its destiny, however, that of Germany was not in Stalin’s hands—something he still refused to acknowledge with a stubbornness making a mockery of his supposed realism.

On March 10, the Soviet government sent its Western counterparts the later celebrated proposal that went farther than any previous or later one in envisaging the unification of a nonaligned Germany. Their failure to act on the proposal gave rise to the protracted and tiresome German debate about whether an opportunity to end the country’s division, if not the Cold War itself, may not have been missed at that time. In striking contrast to these speculations, retrospective Soviet assessments never attributed such inflated significance to this long tantalizing, but now finally explicable, episode.
The Dead End November 1952–March 1953
Authors: Mastny Vojtech
Published: October 2023

The last three months of Stalin’s life were the darkest of his dark ages. Not only did dark deeds proliferate, but also all their motives may forever remain shrouded in darkness. Yet they are indispensable for the explanation of Soviet policy, or the lack of it, at this critical juncture of the Cold War. Did Stalin’s terror make his empire, as American officials believed, “well nigh invulnerable” or, on the contrary, all the more vulnerable because of the paralysis it spread? What did Stalin himself think and what were the implications of his adversaries’ perceptions of the empire’s unnatural condition for Western policy—or the lack of that?

In one of its less perceptive appraisals of the situation, the U.S. Board of National Estimates on November 21, 1952, estimated that on the Soviet side “internal stresses and strains appear less serious now than ever before.” This was the day after Eastern Europe’s most gigantic political trial of the deposed Czechoslovak party secretary Slansky and his accused confederates opened in Prague, bringing the stress and strain to an almost unbearable level. It was a time when no one, not the least those in the highest places, could be certain when, whence, and why the next blow might come. The conspicuous reluctance of the controlled Soviet media to comment about the court proceedings despite their extensive factual coverage added to the uncertainty about what, if anything, the future might hold.
Coping with the Stalin Legacy March–July 1953
Authors: Mastny Vojtech
Published: October 2023

In having to manage a predecessor’s difficult legacy, in 1953 Stalin’s heirs faced a predicament similar to the one Brezhnev’s successors would face thirty years later. They all sought to adapt an obsolescent system to new domestic requirements amid rising international tension without losing control, and perhaps power, in the process. On both occasions they were handicapped by being both the products and the victims of the system they had inherited. Nor was their task made easier by the presence in Washington of a hostile Republican administration seemingly bent on exploiting their distress to its advantage. Whereas the second time the system collapsed, in 1953 it had survived. In ensuring this outcome—and the resulting nearly four decades of continued East-West rivalry—the five months after Stalin’s death were crucial.

The post-Stalin leadership was less fractious than its enemies hoped. Rather than please them by falling out with each other, the autocrat’s successors divided up his mantle among themselves so that no one would be able to wear it whole. As agreed when he lay dying, on March 15 the Supreme Soviet rubberstamped Beriia’s nomination of Malenkov for premiership after he had the day before relinquished the party secretaryship to Khrushchev.
Encouraging Citizenship
Authors: Dagger Richard
Published: October 2023

In Part I of this book, I tried to show how a concern for individual rights is compatible with a commitment to the importance of community, duty, and virtue. Rousseau’s contractarian republicanism reinforces this point. But Rousseau’s outline of an association in which each man unites with all yet obeys only himself and remains as free as before also points up the difficulty of ensuring the civic virtue necessary to republican liberalism. That is, he leaves us with the question of whether republican liberalism is practically possible.
Inventing Periodical Publication, 1620–40
Authors: Sommerville C John
Published: October 2023

News may be one of humanity’s oldest pleasures, but daily news is a comparatively recent invention. The time it took for publishers to master the technique of regular, periodical news, and the false starts in the development of that idea, show how curious a notion it is-natural though it may seem after three centuries. And the shock registered by some of those publishers’ better-educated contemporaries reinforces the sense that a whole culture must change before regular, printed news could seem a part of the natural order.
Organizing a News Industry, 1640–60
Authors: Sommerville C John
Published: October 2023

So far, we have only seen periodical news as a commercial sideline among a handful of printers. That was to change when the monarchy lost control of England in 1641 and was too distracted to control the publication of domestic news. In the early 1640s, entrepreneurs competed to develop news production in a variety of ways. Elements with which we are familiar-partisanship, statistics, verbal caricature, editorials, humor, advertisements, and even pornography-soon became part of the formula for news success. Professionalization developed to the point that journalists could write effectively for opposing sides. And the success of the enterprise is evident in the size of their audience, which could not shake off its addiction for news even when left with only one, official newsbook.
Turning Religion Upside Down
Authors: Sommerville C John
Published: October 2023

If periodical news found a natural affinity for politics, it discovered the opposite with religion. Religion is about the abiding realities-about the eternal, if you like-while periodicity encourages a concentration on the transitory and the mundane. Religion tries to deepen the mystery of our existence, while news of religion transforms it into fact. The distorting effect of news on religion had nothing to do with an antireligious bias among early journalists. Indeed, it can even be detected in the earliest efforts to create religious periodicals. Religion had once provided the frame within which the events of life found their place. After the news revolution, religion became simply a part of the world of news. Daily news replaced religion as the master text of a modernizing society, even for illiterate persons. Theology, meanwhile, became literal-minded, in imitation of the discourse of scientific and historical fact, turning its back on a symbolic language that was its natural idiom.
The Club Image and Vicarious Community
Authors: Sommerville C John
Published: October 2023

The defining moment in the life of the English reading public came at around the tum of the eighteenth century, shortly after the press found itself free. That was when local affairs became part of the world of news, when the image of the club became symbolic of the informed public, and when caricature began to replace civil discourse. Together, these changes would tend to reduce periodical publication from a medium to a mechanism. That is, they reduced the effort needed to participate in public opinion, by marketing news and discussion as a product. No longer did readers need to search out a wider world when they could find it on their own doorstep. No longer did they need to engage with a diverse coffeehouse crowd when they could find a more like-minded group in the “club” to which they subscribed. And there was no longer any challenge to engage with alien views after seeing them portrayed in freakish shape. Readers could begin to live in a more subjective world, encouraged by a news industry whose expertise was in the knowledge of its customers rather than some outer reality.
Issues Facing the Church
Authors: Camp Roderic Ai
Published: October 2023

Religion performs numerous functions for individuals, institutions, and societies. Normally, one conceptualizes religion performing spiritual functions, and indeed that is the primary responsibility and expectation of Catholicism and most other religions. Religion, as a depository of values, also interacts with society, creating a composite culture that mixes religious and secular principles. Over time, secular values, having their origins in religion, may be indistinguishable from the religious. Latin American scholars repeatedly point to the impact of Catholicism on the region’s culture, as distinct from its narrow traditional spiritual influences.
Religion, Politics, and the Laity
Authors: Camp Roderic Ai
Published: October 2023

The role of the Catholic Church and clergy is strongly affected by the importance of religion in society and how religion affects the behavior and attitudes of individual Mexicans. 1 Empirical evidence exists to support a linkage between religiosity, however measured, and sociopolitical attitudes. A larger premise of this study is that priests have the potential for affecting citizen values, if not their receptiveness to specific public policies.Clergy have numerous opportunities to communicate social and political messages through such channels as Masses, pastoral letters, lay education classes, poster displays, and Church publications.Since Catholic religious groups account for the largest number of social organizations in the country, the relationship between religion and the laity takes on added significance.
Structure and Decision Making
Authors: Camp Roderic Ai
Published: October 2023

The Catholic Church can be likened to an international corporation consisting of local and regional franchises. These franchises play by the organization’s general rules, but independent CEOs, bishops, make most decisions and implement policy choices. The Catholic Church’s structure is complicated by the fact that it incorporates international and national actors at many levels, it draws on diverse forms of funding, it recruits rank-and-file clergy from different nationalities, and its clergy are divided into two categories.
Structure and Decision Making
Authors: Camp Roderic Ai
Published: October 2023

This book has argued that the diocese is the basic unit of the Catholic Church’s hierarchical structure and that parishes are the building blocks of the dioceses.
Rationalization and its Discontents
Authors: Campos Paul F
Published: October 2023

Six thousand years ago, the peoples of the Nile valley began to bury their dead in ways that indicated they believed the departed would go on to an afterlife. At first, such rituals were limited to including a few household implements inside the modest burial sites within which the corpses were placed. Then followed the practice of mummification to preserve the body itself, and the gradual elaboration of the place of burial. Eventually these practices culminated in the building of enormous tombs for persons of high social rank, a practice that itself reached its apogee with the construction of the great Pyramids at Giza in the twenty sixth century B.C. The only surviving wonders of the ancient world, they still rise out of the boundless sands of the Sahara as durable monuments to the theological obsessions of the Pharaohs, obsessions that eventually caused a huge portion of the wealth of a great civilization to be poured into the building of tombs.
The Way of Renunciation
Authors: Campos Paul F
Published: October 2023

In the cold calculus of the utilitarian the American law school is a classic barrier to entry, designed to maintain a professional cartel. From a democratic viewpoint it is a seminary for the production of a mystifying priestcraft, whose obscurantist incantations help legitimate the power of the social and cultural elite. In academic terms it is a mostly fraudulent operation that teaches neither theory nor practice, but instead functions as the equivalent of a foreign service academy that would show its charges Goldfinger several hundred times before sending them forth to conduct trade talks with Austria. Should it then perhaps be abolished altogether? After all, no other legal system in the world requires three years of postgraduate schooling before a person can undertake the most routine matter of client representation or courtroom advocacy. Indeed, some hint of the latent dissatisfaction with this system is found in such curiosities as the maverick presidential candidate Morry Taylor making a pledge to close down American law schools for ten years one of the major proposals of his quixotic campaign.
Better Going Down than Going Up
Authors: Lowe Elizabeth , Borges Dain
Published: October 2023

All oracles speak with a forked tongue, but they can be understood. Natividade finally understood the cabocla, even though she heard nothing more from her. It was enough to know that things of the future would be good, and her sons great and glorious, for her to feel happy and to pull a 50,000 réis note from her purse. It was five times the customary price, and it was worth as much or more than the rich gifts of Croesus to Pythia. She carefully placed the portraits and the locks of hair back in her bag, and the pair left, while the cabocla retreated to the back rooms of her dwelling, to wait for the next clients.There were already some customers at the door, with their numbers, and the women retreated hastily down the stairs, their faces veiled.
The Alms of Happiness
Authors: Lowe Elizabeth , Borges Dain
Published: October 2023

“May God multiply your blessings, my devout lady!” exclaimed the alms collector as he saw the banknote fall on top of two 5 tostao pieces and some old vintim coins.
The Epigraph
Authors: Lowe Elizabeth , Borges Dain
Published: October 2023

Well, that is precisely the epigraph of the book, if l wanted to write one for it and none other occurred to me. It is not only a way of completing the characters in the narrative with the ideas they evoked, but it also serves as a pair of spectacles with which the reader can penetrate what is less clear or totally obscure. On the other hand, there is an advantage in having my characters collaborate in the story, helping the author, through an act of solidarity, a kind of exchange of services, between the chess player and his pieces.
The jewel
Authors: Lowe Elizabeth , Borges Dain
Published: October 2023

Her 41st birthday did not give her a chill. She was already used to being in her 40s. She did experience a great shock.
The Rest Is True
Authors: Lowe Elizabeth , Borges Dain
Published: October 2023

Yes, there was a person, younger than they by one or two years, who made them lock horns whether by force of habit or of temperament, if not because of both. Before her, there may have been others, even older than they were, but the notes used for this book do not refer to them. lf they fought over these other ones, there was no memory of it, but it is possible, since they had identical tastes. lf it were otherwise, they would have too, like the medieval knights who defended their ladies.
Memories
Authors: Lowe Elizabeth , Borges Dain
Published: October 2023

That other larger and more remote din would not have a place here, if it were not for the need to explain the sudden gesture with which Aires stopped on the sidewalk. He stopped, came back to himself, and continued to walk with his eyes on the ground and his soul in Caracas. It was in Caracas, where he had served as attache to the diplomatic mission.
Between Acts
Authors: Lowe Elizabeth , Borges Dain
Published: October 2023

Those lunches were repeated, the months passed, holidays came, holidays went, and Aires had penetrated the twins well. He wrote them into the Memoirs, where one reads about the consultation with old Placido and what he said about the pair and also the visit to the cabocla of the Castelo hill and the fight before they were born, old and obscure stories he remembered, linked, and deciphered.
The Old Sign
Authors: Lowe Elizabeth , Borges Dain
Published: October 2023

Everyone returned from the island with the ball in their head, many dreamt of it, some slept badly or not at all. Aires was one of those who woke up late. It was eleven o’clock. At midday he had lunch. Then he wrote in his Memoirs the impressions of the evening, he noted various bare shoulders, made political observations, and ended with the words which conclude the previous chapter. He smoked, read, until he resolved to go to the Rua do Ouvidor.
“Woman Is the Undoing of Man”
Authors: Lowe Elizabeth , Borges Dain
Published: October 2023

When he said good-bye, Aires had a thought which I transcribe here in case some reader might have had the same idea. The thought was the work of astonishment, and that astonishment arose from seeing how a man who had such difficulty ceding to his wife’s insistence (Begone, Satan, etc.; see chapter XLVII) simply threw caution to the winds.
The Blow
Authors: Lowe Elizabeth , Borges Dain
Published: October 2023

The next day brought the young girl Flora the big news. Saturday the decree would be signed; the governorship was in the north. Dona Claudia did not notice her pallor or feel her cold hands, continuing to talk about the assignment and the future until Flora, wanting to sit down, almost fell. Her mother reached out to help her.
The Whole Night
Authors: Lowe Elizabeth , Borges Dain
Published: October 2023

Lcaving his house, Paulo went to the home of a friend, and the two began to seek others of the same age and same intimacy. They went to the newspaper offices, to the barracks at the Campo, and spent some time in front of Deodoro’s house. They enjoyed seeing the soldiers, on foot or on horseback, they asked their permission to pass, spoke to them, and offered them cigarettes. It was the soldiers’ only concession. None of them offered to tell what had happened and not all knew anything.
A Secret Awakens
Authors: Lowe Elizabeth , Borges Dain
Published: October 2023

Well, what secret is there that is not discovered? Wit, good will, curiosity, call it what you will, there is a force that drags out here everything that people try to hide. Secrets themselves get tired of remaining silent-silent or sleeping. Let us keep that other verb, which serves the image better. They get tired, and they help in their own fashion what we attribute to the indiscretion of others.
Neither Weaves nor Unravels
Authors: Lowe Elizabeth , Borges Dain
Published: October 2023

While they inquired about her in Petr6polis, Flora’s moral situation was the same, the same conflict of affinities, the same balance between preferences. Once the conflict ceased, the equilibrium collapsed, the solution would come rapidly, and as much as it might hurt one of the lovers, the other would triumph unless that dagger of Aires’s story intervened.
At the Foot of the Grave
Authors: Lowe Elizabeth , Borges Dain
Published: October 2023

Neither one of them counted the time they spent in that place. Suffice it to say that it was filled with silence, contemplation, and longing. I don’t confirm it, so as not to trouble you now, but it is possible they also cried. They had handkerchiefs in their hands; they wiped their eyes. Later, with fallen arms, their hands holding their hats, they appeared to look at the flowers covering the grave, but in reality they were gazing at the being within it.
The First Month
Authors: Lowe Elizabeth , Borges Dain
Published: October 2023

0n the eve of the day of the first month after Flora’s death, Pedro had an idea, which he did not share with his brother. He would have lost nothing by doing so, because Paulo had the same idea and also kept it to himself From it is born the present chapter.
Two Inaugurations
Authors: Lowe Elizabeth , Borges Dain
Published: October 2023

Thursday, when the twins took their seats in the Chamber, Natividade and Perpetua went to see the ceremony. Pedro or Paulo arranged seats of honor for them. The mother wanted Aires to go, too. When he arrived, he already found the two ladies seated, Natividade looking through her eyeglass at the president of the Chamber and the deputies. One of these was reading the official register, and nobody was paying attention to him.
Which Announces the Following
Authors: Lowe Elizabeth , Borges Dain
Published: October 2023

A11 stories, if one cuts them into slices, end with a last chapter and a next-to the-last chapter, but no author admits that.
Penultimate
Authors: Lowe Elizabeth , Borges Dain
Published: October 2023

This one is yet another obituary. Young Flora died a few back, and here old Natividade goes to her death. I call her old, because I read her certificate of baptism.
Yankeys Now
Authors: Ferrie Joseph P
Published: October 2023

The first great wave of European migration to the United States before the Civil War transformed both the migrants themselves and the country they entered. The extent of this transformation has been difficult to gauge without information on migrants before and after their departure from Europe. Yankeys Now: Immigrants in the Antebellum US 1840-1860 provides the first detailed look at how these immigrants were changed by their relocation and how the American economy responded to their arrival. The book employs unique data on more than 2,400 British, Irish, and German migrants who appeared on both passenger ship rosters and US census records to document the geographic, occupational, and financial movements of Europeans who traveled to this nation in the 1840s. Contrary to other studies of antebellum immigrants, Joseph P. Ferrie's work finds substantial mobility in all three of these contexts. The ability to follow immigrants from their arrival through several censuses makes it possible to compare the experiences of immigrants who remained in one location to those of immigrants who sought opportunity in new places throughout the 1850s. The latter group's achievements, as carefully traced in this volume, account for most of the contrast with previously published work on this topic. Using information on more than 4,000 native-born Americans followed through the 1850 and 1860 US censuses, Ferrie finds little evidence that immigrants' arrival negatively affected this country's labor force, excluding craft workers in the urban northeast. Taken as a whole, his findings demonstrate the American economy's ability to absorb additions to its workforce while also illustrating the range of opportunities available to nineteenth-century migrants drawn to the United States.
The Context of Antebellum Immigration
Authors: Ferrie Joseph P
Published: October 2023

The two decades before the Civil War witnessed the first great wave of European immigration to the United States. As Figure 3-1 shows, from 1820 (the first year for which reliable data are available) through the mid-1840s, the annual volume of immigration remained well below 100,000, which translates into an immigration rate that remained between four and five per thousand. The volume of immigration rose dramatically in 1847, in the wake of the failure of the potato crop in Ireland in 1846 and on the European continent in the following two years and Continental political turmoil in 1848. In 1850 alone, nearly 370,000 immigrants arrived in the United States, pushing the immigration rate above 15 per thousand for the first and only time in the nation’s history. Three countries (Great Britain, Ireland, and Germany) accounted for 93 percent of all arriving immigrants in 1849. The rate of immigration seen in the mid-1850s has yet to be surpassed in U.S. history.
The Intellectual World of Late Tokugawa
Authors: Gordon Andrew
Published: October 2023

Faced with widespread symptoms of distress and decline, from chronic daimyō and samurai debt to devastating famine and increased instances of violent protests, both rulers and ruled produced vigorous critiques of their changing world. The gist of such statements often looked backward as well as forward: Reform was needed to return the world of the present to the better times of the past. Ironically, as is often the case, conservative reforms actually set in motion a chain of events that made a return to that past impossible. To understand the cultural and intellectual ferment of late Tokugawa times, one must begin by examining the ideal world that reformers wished to restore.
Empire and Domestic Order
Authors: Gordon Andrew
Published: October 2023

The Meiji revolution transformed the domestic space of Japan. Railroads linked the countryside in newly intimate fashion to ports and urban centers such as Tokyo, Yokohama, Osaka, and Kobe. The Meiji revolution also transformed the relationship between Japan and the world. By the end of the nineteenth century, Japan had shifted from a relatively marginal position to a dominant place in Asia. It was seeking control over Korea and had won colonial control over Taiwan.
Democracy and Empire between the World Wars
Authors: Gordon Andrew
Published: October 2023

The Taishō emperor, Yoshihito, took the throne in 1912 upon the death of his father, the Meiji emperor, at the age of thirty-three. He had suffered a childhood bout with meningitis. Although he recovered well enough to make numerous official tours around the country as Crown Prince, his health began to fail in 1918. By 1919 he was unable to perform his official duties. This was a time when European monarchs were falling from power one after another: the Russian czar in 1917 and the kings and emperors of Germany, Austria, and Turkey as well. This was also a time of political turbulence in Japan.
Occupied Japan: New Departures and Durable Structures
Authors: Gordon Andrew
Published: October 2023

On August 15, 1945, the emperor of Japan announced the nation’s surrender to the Allied powers with his first radio broadcast ever. Some of his stunned listeners would later recall that August noon as an instant of “rebirth.” For these people, the surrender was a moment when past experience and values were rendered illegitimate. They decided to chart a totally new course, whether personal, on behalf of a national community, or both.
Political Struggles and Settlements of the High-Growth Era
Authors: Gordon Andrew
Published: October 2023

The histories of politics and economy in postwar Japan offer a study in contrasts. Across three decades, the economy grew so quickly and consistently that even the United States began to study “the Japanese model” for lessons of success. The political world, in contrast, witnessed numerous sharp struggles. People argued over how to distribute the fruits of economic gain. They fought over the divisive question of Japan’s international alignment. From the 1960s into the 1970s, the intensity of political confrontation seen in the previous decade diminished somewhat.
Dialysis and National Priorities
Authors: Rothman David J
Published: October 2023

The history of kidney dialysis starkly exemplifies the increasing strains between the two fundamental tenets of the American credo in health care: unfettered middle-class access to technology in a system that relies essentially on the marketplace to provide health care coverage. Medicare made manifest one fissure: the private sector was not capable of meeting the overall needs of the elderly. The dialysis experience exposed a second. Like the iron lung, the dialysis machine was able to compensate for the failure of a vital organ, enabling patients with end-stage renal disease to survive. But the technology was so expensive and scarce as to stand beyond the reach of the middle classes and their philanthropic organizations. To ameliorate this desperate situation, in effect to satisfy what was perceived to be middle-class needs, the federal government intervened. In 1972, Congress agreed to underwrite all the costs of treating end-stage kidney disease and to this day kidney failure is the only ailment with its own guaranteed funding stream.

The glaring inconsistency in policy-why single out end-stage kidney disease for preferential treatment?-was even more difficult to justify than the passage of Medicare. The elderly, at least, were a more broadly based group than those suffering from kidney disease. Proponents tried a variety of strategies, including one that defended the special program as a step toward national health insurance. But again the expectation proved fanciful, and the dialysis precedent, like Medicare, turned into a negative reference point for health policy. For the first time, a number of critics began to tally up the costs, economic and social, of the ardent American romance with medical machines. Their calculations suggested that government could not satisfy demands in health care. Americans were going to have to change their attitudes and practices in fundamental ways.
Latin America on the Rise
Authors: Roberts Paul Craig , Araujo Karen Lafollette
Published: October 2023

Any lingering doubt after the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) about Mexico’s importance to the United States was dispelled by the unprecedented $50 billion U.S. bailout of Mexico in January 1995. The bailout, intended to rescue Mexico from an economic crisis set off by the decision to devalue the Mexican peso in December 1994, was organized by the Clinton Administration with support from Republican leaders in Congress. There were arguments for and against bailing out Mexico, but the fact that the money was spent on Mexico and not on the simultaneous bankruptcies of Orange County, California, and Washington, D.C., is testimony to the stake that the United States has in Mexico.

Mexico is a large country with a population approaching 100 million that is embarked on a process of marketization and democratization. As a result of NAFTA and GATT, the United States has expanded trade and investment ties with Mexico. Moreover, Mexico is a gateway on our border to Central and South America with a combined population of 460 million, a potential market larger than the United States and Canada or the European Community. As modernization takes root in Latin America, economic opportunities abound.
Development Planners in Their Heyday
Authors: Roberts Paul Craig , Araujo Karen Lafollette
Published: October 2023

Five-year plans are the invention of, and were once the exclusive possession of, the Soviet Union. Now Americans and Western Europeans assemble without thought to consider how they may help finance the five-year plans of India or Pakistan. The country which does not have goals, and a program for reaching these goals, is commonly assumed to be going nowhere.

Future historians are sure to wonder about the countries composing the Western Alliance in the second half of the twentieth century-the most economically successful countries in history-that had so little confidence in capitalism that they recommended socialism to poor countries already burdened with too much government. Historians will certainly notice the irony of the economically developed West recommending institutions that were the antithesis of the ones undergirding their own economic success. Radicals among them will interpret development planning as a form of neocolonial exploitation through which rich countries maintained hegemony over poor ones.

In the postwar period, “development economics,” a discipline that found inspiration in Soviet central planning, stepped onto the international . scene promising to make things better for the poor of the Third World. Planners armed with “shadow prices” and “input-output analysis” were believed capable of outperforming markets with real prices. Development economists were confident of the powers of their conceits.
Latin America’s Statist Tradition
Authors: Roberts Paul Craig , Araujo Karen Lafollette
Published: October 2023

In making the transition to capitalism, Latin Americans are escaping from their history as well as from development planning. Things went wrong in the very beginning when public offices were privatized and the private economy was brought under the government’s sway through heavy regulation.

Imagine the United States without a stock market in which to buy and sell companies but with an organized market in which mayoralties, the state treasurer’s job, government procurement positions, and the like could be bought and sold and you have a picture of colonial Latin America. A person could buy and sell government jobs, and heirs could inherit them. On the other hand, a person who wanted to sell sugarcane had to do it in the Caribbean. If he wanted to produce cacao, Venezuela was the permissible site. Planters in Chile could cultivate wheat but were denied the right to produce tobacco.

Such a system developed perverse property rights. Markets were created for public offices, but were stifled for commodities and manufactures. A system that encouraged people to compete to buy the equivalent of the New York mayor’s office, but did not allow free enterprise, could not develop the capital markets and other institutions of a free society.
Overview
Authors: Kaul Inge , Grunberg Isabelle , Haq Mahbub Ul
Published: October 2023

Most good ideas take years, sometimes centuries to be recognized. The future of the Tobin tax may be larger than its modest beginnings. It was in 1972 in his Jane way Lectures at Princeton that James Tobin, the 1981 Nobel prize winner for economics, submitted a proposal for a levy on international currency transactions. His argument then:It is clearly desirable to preserve some possibilities of autonomy in national or continental monetary policies and to defend them against the growing internationalization of money markets. Our economies and governments are not sufficiently unified in other respects-goods, labour and capital markets, taxes and fiscal policies-to live with a single area-wide monetary policy.
Native Peoples And Native Histories
Authors: Iverson Peter
Published: October 2023

Perhaps thirty thousand years ago, the first settlers arrived in the land that would come to be known as North America. These pioneers did not travel by ship, nor did they claim territory for any monarch, but they did discover America. Migrating on foot across a land bridge that spanned the narrow Bering Strait during the Ice Age, they gradually made their way throughout the continent and down into South America, all the way to the tip of presentday Argentina. They sought not empires to swell national treasuries but new hunting grounds to feed growing populations. Of course, it took generations for these first explorers to become well established in specific locations. By A.D. 1000, or even before then, some groups occupied the territory they still claim today. Others continued to migrate, to create new homes and new customs for themselves. Even after the first Europeans made it to American shores, obviously uncertain of where they were or what the land might hold, many of the people they labeled “Indians” remained in motion. Both for relative newcomers and for more established Indian settlers in any region, the process of building communities and traditions was essentially the same. Around winter fires or on the hunt, while working in the fields or participating in religious rites, the younger members of each group learned from the older members. Their elders taught them about the creatures who shared the earth and sky with them and about the origins of their people. Through this instruction, they understood from an early age that their people belonged to the land they occupied. Creation stories often contained accounts of migration, but these stories also reassured people that the place where they lived was meant to be their home.
Entering The Global Economy
Authors: L.Bryant Keith
Published: October 2023

James W. Marshall walked along the American River inspecting John A. Sutter’s millrace on a cold January morning in 1848. As he tried to determine the water pressure needed to turn the wheel of Sutter’s sawmill, Marshall’s eyes detected the glint of metal in the stream, yellow metal, and he collected samples. The nuggets he found that morning produced the California gold rush. Some fiftythree years later, Captain Anthony F. Lucas pushed more drill stem into a saltdome at Spindletop, Texas, near Port Arthur. A rumbling noise, a sharp vibration, and the Lucas gusher blew in on 10 January 1901, oil shooting two hundred feet in the air for nine days. Within four years, twelve hundred nearby wells produced over thirty million barrels of petroleum. Between the discovery of gold in California and the coming of “black gold” in Texas, the economy of the trans-Mississippi West was transformed from subsistence agriculture and herding into a modernized and urbanized capitalistic economy integrated into a worldwide structure.
The Literary West
Authors: Lyon Thomas J
Published: October 2023

Mapping the western literary range might seem to be a simple job: draw a line down the Mississippi River, and everything west of that is “western.” But start talking with critics of western literature, and soon the good feeling of geographical neatness dwindles. Questions arise. Are the elegant detective novels of Ross Macdonald and Raymond Chandler, set mostly in Santa Barbara and Los Angeles, properly western? (Some critics rule out cities-perhaps on the idea that they are not open, western space.) When Henry Miller of Brooklyn and Paris, the author of Tropic of Cancer, moved to Big Sur in 1944, did he become a western writer? (Do we go by an author’s geographical residence, or is the determinant something more complicated?) Some students of the West, Walter Prescott Webb and Wallace Stegner among them, have refined the map by describing areas oflow rainfall as diagnostically western. Aridity means space: the space between trees and shrubs, struggling to survive in marginal conditions, and also the space between human settlements, ground that is difficult to exploit or settle, thus remaining mostly wild and open. Relatively few people, living in small settlements within an extensive wilderness, comes close to defining the classic western situation.
Selling The Popular Myth
Authors: Butler Anne M
Published: October 2023

Wall Drugstore, once a shabby soda fountain shop tucked deep into the South Dakota Badlands, exudes the rugged ambience of a popular culture chat embraces the American West. An out-of-theway pharmacy on the verge of collapse in 1936, the store rocketed into economic vitality when its shopkeepers, Dorothy and Ted Hustead, tied their advertising to the environmental factor that threatened to destroy them-western aridity. During the viciously dry summer of 1936, a promotional gimmick-offering travelers a free drink of ice water-struck Dorothy Hustead. In a burst of old-time frontier ingenuity, the Husteads used their surrounding regional drabness to capture the attention and money of passersby. A few quaintly lettered road signs, patterned after the famous Burma Shave advertisements, helped the moribund drugstore change into a merchandising bonanza. Hundreds of people, drawn by the refreshing thought of cold water, stopped for a thirst-quenching drink and stayed to purchase western wares from an ever-growing selection.
Angiogenesis in Atherosclerosis and Restenosis
Authors: post Mark , ware J Anthony
Published: October 2023

Small arteries and arterioles that penetrate the adventitia and the media provide the blood supply of the wall of medium and large-size arteries. The intima and the lumenal part of the media are usually avascular; the thickness of this avascular layer is surprisingly constant (approximately 0.5 mm) even when the arterial wall thickens with age and seems to be determined by the diffusion coefficient of oxygen (Wolinsky and Glagov, 1967). Thus, the thickened arterial wall seen during adulthood is supported by new blood vessels that grow into the media.
Slavery
Authors: Davis David Brion
Published: October 2023

Of all American institutions, Negro slavery has probably been the one most frequently compared with historical antecedents and foreign counterparts, and with the least benefit to systematic knowledge. Quite understandably, modern scholars have been so impressed by the long submission and degradation of southern Negroes, as well as by the extraordinary prevalence of racial prejudice in the United States, that they have often pictured American slavery as a system of unique and unmitigated severity that stands in marked contrast to other forms of servitude. Yet Thomas Jefferson could confidently assert that in Augustan Rome the condition of slaves was “much more deplorable than that of the blacks on the continent of America,” and list bar­barities and cruelties which were commonplace in Rome but presumably unknown in Virginia.
Civil War
Authors: Potter David M
Published: October 2023

It has been the curious fate of the United States to exert immense influence in the modem world, without itself quite understanding the nature of this influence. Major trends of the modem world-both constructive trends and socially injurious ones-have repeatedly become apparent in the United States before they became evident elsewhere. But though the United States has often been a step ahead in the process of social change, it has frequently been a step behind in its awareness of the meaning of new developments. The shape of things to come often became visible in America earlier than it did elsewhere, but American preconceptions about the frontier, the classless society, and the agrarian basis of democracy prevented Americans from perceiving this shape as realistically as it was perceived by social thinkers in other countries.
Imperialism
Authors: Winks Robin W
Published: October 2023

The depositary of power is always unpopular.” Benjamin Disraeli knew this, and so did Theodore Roosevelt. Both contributed to their nation’s power. Disraeli made Queen Victoria the Empress of India, while Roosevelt took Panama and built a canal there, by his own testimony. Both were imperialists. But imperialism has proved to be an infinitely elastic term, one to be employed against all men who used power for expansion, consolidation, and conquest. Caesar, Alexander the Great, Genghis Khan, Suleiman the First at the walls of Malta, the Abraham Lincoln who crushed the drive for Southern independence (but not the Lincoln who freed the slaves), Dingaan and Shakar of the Zulu nation, even-according to English historian Christopher Hill-Oliver Cromwell, all were imperialists. As a result of such elasticity, the word is one which now carries almost exclusively a pejorative meaning, and since it has come to cover all those sins for which Western man is thought to be responsible, it is a particularly convenient form of verbal shorthand to demonstrate the gulf that separates the two worlds, the world of those who took and have and the world of those who lack and want.
Building as a Unified Social Process
Authors: Davis Howard
Published: October 2023

At its root, a building culture may be characterized by fundamental human relationships and social habits, and not all building cultures require large and formal institutions. In this chapter, we will deal with two generic building cultures: the traditional village, which has been the subject of much study in vernacular architecture, and the informal settlements that characterize cities in many Third World countries. Although formal institutions do not play a major role in these building cultures, both of them work as complex and integrated human systems.
Building Cultures of the Contemporary City
Authors: Davis Howard
Published: October 2023

The previous chapter described how the building culture of 1890s New York included speculative tenement builders that employed immigrant labor and architectural firms that designed major public and private buildings. It included a wide diversity of firms and a construction workforce of thousands.
Builders, Architects, and Their Institutions
Authors: Davis Howard
Published: October 2023

The institutions and people of the building culture are ultimately responsible for the form of the built world. They act in predictable ways with respect to design, construction, the financing of buildings, the provision of materials, and the regulation of land and building. By doing these things, they are not only applying the knowledge contained in the building culture to current projects; they are also reproducing and perpetuating the culture itself.
Regulation
Authors: Davis Howard
Published: October 2023

With the growing number and fragmentation of institutions, and the resultant dispersion of knowledge and control, implicit knowledge and explicit knowledge have changed differently.
Che Cransfoumlng Powen of the Nuns
Authors: Magray Mary Peckham
Published: October 2023

Mary Peckham Magray argues that the Irish Catholic cultural revolution in the nineteenth century was effected not only by male elites, as previous scholarship has claimed, but also by the most overlooked and underestimated women in Ireland: the nuns. Once thought to be merely passive servants of the male clerical hierarchy, women’s religious orders were in fact at the very centre of the creation of a devout Catholic culture in Ireland. Often well-educated, articulate, and evangelical, nuns were much more social and ambitious than traditional stereotypical views have held. They used their wealth and their authority to effect changes in both the religious practices and daily activity of the larger Irish Catholic population, and by doing so, Magray argues, deserve a far larger place in the Irish historical record than they have previously been accorded. Magray’s innovative work challenges some of the most widely-held assumptions of social history in nineteenth-century Ireland. It will be of interest to scholars and students of Irish history, religious history, women’s studies, and sociology.