bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Conclusion
Authors: Bernini Marco
Published: December 2021

The conclusion argues that Beckett’s exploration of the mind can be considered as a phenomenogeology insofar as it generates experiential access to different strata of the mind as a non-descriptive, non-linear, enactive sense of the dynamic interactions of laws and signals within and across cognitive boundaries. This downward exploration into the ontogenetic and dynamically co-existing strata of the mind is achieved by using narrative devices as scalpels and ropes for an introspective practice that Beckett himself defined in geological terms as an “ontospelelogy” (qt. in Knowlson and Pilling 1979, xiii). Having demonstrated in the previous chapters that cognitive science can help us better account for Beckett’s artifactual expeditions, the open question that closes the book is how, and how much of, Beckett’s cognitive method and exploratory findings can benefit cognitive science.
Figures
Authors: James Elaine T.
Published: December 2021

Chapter 4 considers a central tool of poets—the making of “figures.” It brings forward the ways in which imagery can privilege the visual and yet maintain complex, multisensory dimensions that draw the reader into a bodily encounter. It discusses metaphors and similes as types of comparison that can be both conventional and unstable, in that they invite the reader to draw conclusions about analogous qualities that cannot be fully disclosed. Metaphorical language for the deity is discussed. While some biblical poems explain their use of metaphors and symbols, many do not. When figures are symbolic, they remain open, relying on the reader to complete their significance. This analysis underscores the way in which poems are embedded in ancient contexts and simultaneously remain open to new contexts. Personification and anthropomorphism are presented as ecologically rich modes for negotiating the human being’s relationship to the more-than-human world. This chapter ends with a reading of Psalm 65.
Contexts
Authors: James Elaine T.
Published: December 2021

Chapter 5 uses the model of the three “worlds of the text” to discuss the ways that poems are always spanning the ancient world and the worlds of their readers. It advocates for the necessity of both historical sensitivity and attention to the needs of the present moment. It discusses allusion as one way in which biblical poems can relate to one another. It argues that prophetic poetry in particular is both uniquely oriented to historical moments and at times paradoxically resistant to specific rhetorical purposes. It also considers how the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BCE was a traumatic catalyst for new creative work. The chapter ends with a reading of Psalm 137 as a poem of rage and trauma, in conversation with W. E. B. Du Bois and Reginald Dwayne Betts. Ultimately, this chapter argues that the work of reading poems is not easy, but is myriad, demanding, and morally complex. It requires patient consideration of the poem in its diverging contexts and the extension of empathy to readers and writers, past and present.
Causation in Terms of causae causantes
Authors: Belnap Nuel , MÜller Thomas , Placek Tomasz
Published: December 2021

The chapter analyses singular causation within an indeterministic context. It assumes that effects are transitions and causes are basic indeterministic transitions, called causae causantes. It considers a variety of transitions as effects, depending on what their outcomes are (outcome chains, scattered outcomes, or disjunctive outcomes). By this analysis, a causa causans for a given transition occurs at a risky junction, where alternative basic transitions could prohibit the occurrence of the given transition. The causa causans keeps the occurrence of this transition possible. As an argument for the adequacy of this analysis, the chapter offers a few theorems showing that causae causantes satisfy inus-like conditions as proposed by Mackie.
Construct in Assessments of Spoken Language
Authors: Macqueen Susy
Published: December 2021

Language assessment constructs conjoin two complex, dynamic phenomena: collective patterns of language use and individual language ability. Assessment constructs emerge from “spheres of activity” across multiple, overlapping dimensions, denoted in this chapter as theoretical, operationalized, stated, and perceived constructs. While theoretical constructs are assumptions about what causes differences in scores, the operationalized construct is what actually emerges in the interaction between the assessee and the assessment infrastructure. Stated constructs are descriptions of what the assessment claims to assess, and perceived constructs are the ways these statements are interpreted. Interrogating the congruence of these dimensions has the potential to provide a holistic view of the development, experience, use, and impact of assessment constructs across diverse stakeholder worlds.
Path as a Structure for Buddhist Ethics
Authors: Garfield Jay L.
Published: December 2021

This chapter examines the use of the path metaphor in Buddhist ethics, connecting it to the emphasis on moral phenomenology and to the particularism of Buddhist ethics. It discusses how the concept of a path is used in Buddhist literature, in both the internal and external sense, as well as how these paths may be both followed and cultivated by practitioners. Various uses of this metaphor are addressed throughout the chapter, as well as the objectives and methods associated with each. Discussion includes the eightfold path, the path of purification, the graduated path, the bodhisattva path, and the tantric path.
Philodemus’ Terminology and Opponents
Authors: McOsker Michael
Published: December 2021

This chapter provides a summary of the technical terminology of Hellenistic literary criticism used in the On Poems and then summarizes the views of Philodemus’ opponents in the On Poems. Attention is focused on those thinkers whose views are not widely known. These thinkers held a variety of views: the Kritikoi (Megaclides, Andromenides, Heracleodorus, Pausimachus, and Crates of Mallos) identified verbal composition or the euphony that results from it as the quality that determines whether a poem is good or bad and so disregarded content entirely or at least to a great extent. Other thinkers, such as Heraclides and the Stoics, emphasized content in the evaluation of poetry. Some thinkers do not survive in enough detail (“Critic A” and the anonymous Doxai in Zeno) to evaluate or, like Aristotle, do not easily fall into debates over formalism and educational content.
Form and Content
Authors: McOsker Michael
Published: December 2021

This chapter discusses the relationship between form and content in Philodemus’ theory. In brief, content, which he calls ὑποτεταγμένη διάνοια or “underlying thought,” is logically prior, because it determines the form, at least in part. That is, when composing a poem, one must conceive of a content before beginning to compose, and the content determines, for example, the diction. But Philodemus pushes this idea further and treats content and form as more intimately related: examination of his epigrams suggests that he includes for example metrical effects and foreign words as relevant to the interconnection of form and content. More generally, he sets goals for form and content: both should be moderate, not too base, stupid, or simple, nor too elaborate, intellectual, or sophisticated.
Finding the Now in Big Science
Authors: Reed S. Alexander
Published: December 2021

This chapter articulates how Laurie Anderson’s work obscures its own origins and processes. After providing an overview of her biography and output (most notably, the Big Science LP), it declares an intent to find a “now” in the music. In this case, “now” refers simultaneously to the now of the album’s circa-1980 making (chronos), the now of our hearing it moment by moment (kairos), and the cultural now of the twenty-first century. As an introduction to the book, the chapter also describes the structure, methodology, and audience for the total volume.
Too Big to Fail
Authors: Reed S. Alexander
Published: December 2021

This chapter explores the importance of magnitude as a theme in Laurie Anderson’s work, particularly Big Science. It begins by tracing histories of the titular phrase and then investigates the semiotics of bigness. Particularly with reference to individual identity, big systems, big edifices, and big collections of data all suggest superhuman states of consciousness. Accordingly, big knowledge systems such as linguistics, artificial intelligence, and the occult are all discussed. The chapter then reconciles their superhuman scale (and the attendant kinds of awareness it implies) with the paradoxical fact that such tokens of bigness are themselves human-made. Throughout, it draws connections between these notions and the album.
Describing Side One
Authors: Reed S. Alexander
Published: December 2021

This chapter offers the first in-depth musical analysis of Big Science’s first half. Using the paradigms of chronos and kairos explained earlier, it uncovers historical origins, intertextualities, structural characteristics, and the remarkable signs of the songs. Tracks discussed are “From the Air,” “Big Science,” “Sweaters,” “Walking and Falling,” and “Born, Never Asked.”
Overload
Authors: Kitcher Philip
Published: December 2021

The history of educational policy shows a process of lurching from one attractive ideal to another. In undertaking systematic educational reform, it’s important to identify the major goals for the developing individual. This chapter identifies three such goals: the capacity to maintain oneself, the ability to function as a responsible citizen, and the opportunity for finding and pursuing a fulfilling life. After offering preliminary characterizations of these goals, it discusses the difficulties that arise in attaining them.
Reading Retribution in the David Story Politically
Authors: Gilmour Rachelle
Published: December 2021

Many formulations for the composition of 2 Sam 10–20 suggest that 2 Sam 10–12, or part thereof, are a later addition to an earlier text. It is argued that such an addition is likely to be from the monarchic period and, perhaps counter-intuitively in light of the subject material, supports an ideology of the Davidic dynasty. In 2 Sam 13–20, David is unaccountably weak and slow to quash the coup of his son Absalom. With the inclusion of 2 Sam 12:1–15, David is subject to God’s sovereignty, but divine favour is assured; and threats from the people in his kingdom, from Benjaminites and from within his own family have no possibility of success except as the instrument of divine retribution. A reading of the text is also considered in a post-monarchic period, where forgiveness and restoration after retribution had potential to bring comfort during and after exile.
Bloodguilt, Curse, and 2 Sam 21
Authors: Gilmour Rachelle
Published: December 2021

The dynamics of retribution and divine characterisation in 2 Samuel 11–20 are compared and contrasted with the formulation of divine violence in 2 Samuel 21. The famine that breaks out in the land and the expiation of the land through the deaths of Saul’s sons are attributed to natural consequences of breaking an oath and incurring bloodguilt on the land. The famine is not a divine punishment, but a consequence for unatoned bloodguilt. The oath is sworn in God’s name, the land is a ‘possession of the LORD’ and the slaughter takes place ‘before the LORD.’ Yet overall there is little divine characterisation, and the famine takes place because of a lack of divine intervention, rather than a result of divine punishment.
Reading the Rejection of Saul Politically
Authors: Gilmour Rachelle
Published: December 2021

The rejection of Saul contributes to a pro-Davidic ideology via justification from divine violence and the evidence for divine attachments to Davidic kings. The rejection of Saul also propounds a rejection of an ideology of northern kingship that includes popular participation and support for the monarchy. There are connections between Saul and Jeroboam in 1 Kgs 11–14 and Ahab in 1 Kgs 20:42; and the Assyrian crisis is a likely context for the development of the ideology in these texts. By contrast, in a southern ideology of kingship, the king does not listen to the people except to listen to their cases; the king, not prophet, establishes mishpat, or judgement; and the king protects the people but does not spare enemies.
Pop Masculinities
Authors: Hansen Kai Arne
Published: December 2021

Pop Masculinities investigates the performance and policing of masculinity in pop music as a starting point for grasping the broad complexity of gender and its politics in the early twenty-first century. Drawing together perspectives from critical musicology, gender studies, and adjacent scholarly fields, the book presents extended case studies of five well-known artists: Zayn, Lil Nas X, Justin Bieber, The Weeknd, and Take That. By directing particular attention to the ambiguities and contradictions that arise from these artists’ representations of masculinity, author Kai Arne Hansen argues that pop performances tend to operate in ways that simultaneously reinforce and challenge gender norms and social inequalities. Providing a rich exploration of these murky waters, the author merges the interpretation of recorded song and music video with discourse analysis and media ethnography in order to engage with the full range of pop artists’ public identities as they emerge at the intersections between processes of performance, promotion, and reception. In so doing, he advances our understanding of the aesthetic and discursive underpinnings of gender politics in twenty-first century pop culture and encourages readers to contemplate the sociopolitical implications of their own musical engagements as audiences, critics, musicians, and scholars.
Methods for Characterizing and Examining Marine Fishery Ecosystems
Authors: Link Jason S. , Marshak Anthony R.
Published: December 2021

There are many variables associated with assessing marine fishery ecosystems. These include exploring facets of the living marine resources (LMRs), habitats, oceans, economics, and social considerations associated with marine social-ecological systems. Yet which ones can help track progress toward ecosystem-based fisheries management (EBFM) and, by extension, the efficacy of LMR management? This chapter provides a list of over 90 indicators we will use throughout the regional chapters, with documentation of data sources, time periods, and geographies covered, and the typical caveats associated with these data. This chapter also notes the methodology of how we synthesized all this information across all the regional chapters, noting the appropriate statistical and ranking methods we employed and the benchmarking criteria we considered to ascertain progress toward EBFM.
An Examination of Progress Toward Ecosystem-Based Management of Living Marine Resources in the U.S.
Authors: Link Jason S. , Marshak Anthony R.
Published: December 2021

This chapter presents a cumulative examination of socioeconomic, governance, ecological, and environmental indicators among the eight major United States (U.S.) marine fishery ecosystems, 26 U.S. subregions, and 14 U.S. participatory regional fisheries management organization (RFMO) jurisdictions. Based on these indicators and as one might expect, some regions are making greater progress toward ecosystem-based fisheries management (EBFM) than others, but in all U.S. marine ecosystems there has been notable progress toward EBFM, albeit on different facets for different regions. Common areas of notable progress toward EBFM are observed around the nation in areas of implementing ecosystem-level planning and advancing understanding of ecosystem processes. Overall, it appears that more inherently productive marine ecosystems tend to have greater biomass, fisheries landings, proportional LMR-based employments, and fisheries revenue. More work remains in areas of ecosystem and community resilience, as well as broader consideration of more systematic measures for a fisheries ecosystem (especially ecosystem-level reference points). Several areas of common challenges and anticipated concerns are identified, with an eye toward focusing efforts on addressing these issues.
Elementary Particle Physics
Authors: Iliopoulos John , Tomaras Theodore N.
Published: December 2021

Determining the nature of matter’s smallest constituents, and the interactions among them, is the subject of a branch of fundamental physics called “The Physics of Elementary Particles” – the subject of this book. During the last decades this field has gone through a phase transition. It culminated in the formulation of a new theoretical scheme, known as “The Standard Model”, which brought profound changes in our ways of thinking and understanding nature’s fundamental forces. Its agreement with experiment is impressive, to the extent that we should no longer talk about “The Standard Model” but instead “The Standard Theory”. This new vision is based on geometry; the interactions are required to satisfy a certain geometrical principle. In the physicists’ jargon this principle is called “gauge invariance”; in mathematics it is a concept of differential geometry. It is the purpose of this book to present and explain this modern viewpoint to a readership of well motivated undergraduate students. We propose to guide the reader to the more advanced concepts of gauge symmetry, quantum field theory and the phenomenon of spontaneous symmetry breaking through concrete physical examples. The presentation of the techniques required for particle physics is self-contained, and the mathematics is kept at the absolutely necessary level. The reader is invited to join the glorious parade of the theoretical advances and experimental discoveries of the last decades which established our current view. Our ambition is to make this fascinating subject accessible to undergraduate students and, hopefully, to motivate them to study it further.
Introduction
Authors: Iliopoulos J. , Tomaras T.N.
Published: December 2021

The purpose and the plan of the book is presented in this introduction. We summarise the contents of each of the following chapters and explain the philosophy which prevails in this book. This philosophy consists in presenting the modern ideas of quantum field theory in a simple yet mathematically consistent way. A close connection with the experimental results is sought throughout.
Elements of Group Theory
Authors: Iliopoulos J. , Tomaras T.N.
Published: December 2021

The mathematical language which encodes the symmetry properties in physics is group theory. In this chapter we recall the main results. We introduce the concepts of finite and infinite groups, that of group representations and the Clebsch–Gordan decomposition. We study, in particular, Lie groups and Lie algebras and give the Cartan classification. Some simple examples include the groups U(1), SU(2) – and its connection to O(3) – and SU(3). We use the method of Young tableaux in order to find the properties of products of irreducible representations. Among the non-compact groups we focus on the Lorentz group, its relation with O(4) and SL(2,C), and its representations. We construct the space of physical states using the infinite-dimensional unitary representations of the Poincaré group.
Scattering in Quantum Field Theory
Authors: Iliopoulos J. , Tomaras T.N.
Published: December 2021

We show that the use of the perturbation expansion around the free field Hamiltonian imposes severe constraints for the scattering formalism to be applicable. We present the physical assumptions which are necessary in order to define the asymptotic states and the scattering matrix in quantum field theory. A very important physical requirement is the property of short range for all interactions, which implies the absence of zero mass particles. We derive the reduction formula and obtain the Feynman rules for the scattering amplitude. We give examples of low order computations for the electron Compton scattering, the electron–positron annihilation into a muon pair and the decay of charged pions.
Infrared Effects
Authors: Iliopoulos J. , Tomaras T.N.
Published: December 2021

It is shown that the presence of zero mass particles makes the elements of the S-matrix divergent. We explain the physical origin of such divergences. We argue that they are due to the long range of the interactions which violate the assumptions we made when we derived the asymptotic conditions for scattering. We study these divergences in the particular case of QED at tree, as well as one-loop level and present the Bloch–Nordsieck solution. We show that the cancellation of infrared divergences among virtual exchanged and real emitted soft photons is true to all orders in the perturbation expansion and we obtain the Sudakov double logarithm formula for Coulomb scattering.
The Weak Interactions
Authors: Iliopoulos J. , Tomaras T.N.
Published: December 2021

We present the phenomenology of the weak interactions in a historical perspective, from Fermi’s four-fermion theory to the V−A current×current interaction. The experiments of C.S. Wu, which established parity violation, and M. Goldhaber, which measured the neutrino helicity, are described. We study in turn the leptonic, semi-leptonic and non-leptonic weak interactions. We introduce the concept of the conserved vector current and the partially conserved axial current and show that the latter is the result of spontaneously broken chiral symmetry with the pion the corresponding pseudo-Goldstone boson. We study Gell–Mann’s current algebra and derive the Adler–Weisberger relation. Strangeness changing weak interactions and the Cabibbo theory are described. We present a phenomenological analysis of CP-violation in the neutral kaon system and we end with the intermediate vector boson hypothesis.
The Standard Model and Experiment
Authors: Iliopoulos J. , Tomaras T.N.
Published: December 2021

We review some basic experiments which established the validity of the Standard Model. They include the discovery of charm as well as the other two heavy quark flavours, that of the intermediate vector bosons W± and Z and of the BEH scalar. We show the successes of the model in the domain of hadron spectroscopy, but also its shortcomings. The rich subject of CP-violation in the hadronic and the leptonic sectors is reviewed, as well as the questions of flavour violating transitions. We end with an overall comparison between theory and experiment and point out the few cases in which some tension persists.
On the construct state in Arabic
Authors: Sadler Louisa
Published: December 2021

The construct state nominal is a basic, high frequency syntactic construction in Arabic, in which two nominal expressions form a tightly-linked head-dependent construction realising a range of semantic relations. Despite its central importance in the grammar of Arabic, this construction has received very little attention to date in the LFG literature on Arabic, while Falk (2001) and Falk (2007) discuss the corresponding Hebrew construction. Outside of LFG, the majority of accounts posit some sort of movement of the head N to a higher functional position. Within an LFG perspective, a key issue concerns the grammatical function of the dependent nominal, which Sadler argues can be uniformly assigned the POSS function.
Four Swedish verbs and a functional distinction
Authors: Zaenen Annie , Engdahl Elisabeth
Published: December 2021

Dalrymple and Lødrup (2000) propose that (tensed) clausal complements have the OBJ function in some languages, the COMP function in others and both functions in still another set. They treat Swedish as a mixed language. In this chapter, Zaenen and Engdahl look more closely at Swedish data discussed in the chapter and supplement them as more electronic data have become available and some of the criteria used have been refined (as is also documented in more recent work by Lødrup (2002), Lødrup (2004), and Lødrup (2012) for Norwegian). Their investigation also illustrates that two related issues need further study: the status of agent phrases in the various forms of passive in Swedish and the status of DP complements in some of the alternations with sentential complements.
‘Wh’-question intonation in Standard Colloquial Bengali
Authors: Mycock Louise , Xu Chenzi , Lahiri Aditi
Published: December 2021

Mycock, Xu, and Lahiri provide LFG analyses of multiple multi-clause constituent ‘wh’- question intonation patterns in Standard Colloquial Bengali (the Bengali dialect spoken in Kolkata), capturing the intonational tune–text mapping which crucially interacts with syntax, pragmatics, and semantics. Based on a new set of data, they identify the intonational contours used with ‘wh’-questions that include multiple question words and/or that comprise multiple clauses. These data reveal that a Focus accent can be ‘shared’ across a sequence of question words and that a subordinate clause forms a separate intonational unit (an Intonational Phrase) when it contains question words that take scope over a higher clause but not when they only take scope over the clause in which they appear.
Asymmetric anaphoric dependencies determine available readings for VP-ellipsis
Authors: Kehler Andrew
Published: December 2021

Dalrymple et al. (1991) was a landmark contribution to the theory of ellipsis. In addition to providing an elegant semantic account of the interaction between ellipsis and quantification, it demonstrates how strict and sloppy readings can be generated without having to posit an ambiguity between bound and free pronouns in antecedent clauses. A weakness of the theory, however, is its lack of representational sensitivity to choice of referential form: the fact that pronouns and names are represented the same way causes the account to overgenerate sloppy readings in some cases. In this chapter, Kehler discusses a set of examples that provide adequacy criteria for theories of ellipsis with respect to their treatment of anaphoric dependencies. These cases reveal that a more generalized notion of dependency needs to be represented beyond the more limited notion captured by syntactic binding relations, including dependencies that cross clause boundaries and that involve eventualities. A provisional account is offered that captures these cases.
The Accent Complex
Authors: Rice Alison
Published: December 2021

No matter how long they have lived in France and irrespective of their ability to express themselves in French, writers from outside France find that their French interlocutors consistently subject them to questions focusing on where they come from. Chapter 4 explores this obsession with origins that is often couched in expressions of admiration for an accent. Those who were born in France apparently presume that commenting on the way a woman speaks constitutes an innocent observation, an anodyne remark that will allow them access to a backstory on how she came to speak that way. Whether they are well-intentioned or not, such queries are nonetheless often prying and inappropriate, and they make many foreign-born women writers feel self-conscious when they utter even the shortest phrase in French. Paradoxically, this discomfort in oral exchanges often enhances these authors’ written productivity, prompting them to produce literary creations that place an accent on other, often ignored experiences in their adopted land, on the plights of immigrants and migrants of different ages and birthplaces who have endured xenophobic attitudes in France.
The Gymnasium at Alexandria
Authors: Paganini Mario C. D.
Published: December 2021

This chapter is solely devoted to the discussion of the gymnasium of Alexandria. Through the analysis of both literary and documentary sources, it appears clear that the gymnasium of Alexandria occupied a position of importance within the city and was often chosen as place for momentous—sometimes rather gruesome—events. In addition to the main gymnasium, the chapter shows how other gymnasia were also present and active in the city, as well as other places called palaestrae which were devoted to physical training. Questions concerning the foundation and status of the main Alexandrian gymnasium are discussed, as well as its involvement in questions of citizenship: it is argued that the institution was more likely set up by the first Ptolemies (rather than by Alexander the Great) and it may at first been run privately but subsequently controlled by civic magistrates; in any case, the ephebate was not connected to the definition of citizenship status. The final section of this chapter devotes its attention to the role and presence of Judaeans in the Alexandrian gymnasium and to the rejection of the possible existence of a Judaean gymnasium in the city.
The Officials
Authors: Paganini Mario C. D.
Published: December 2021

This chapter focuses on the gymnasial officials (in particular the gymnasiarchs, kosmetai, ephebarchs, lampadarchs, and agonothetai), drawing also parallels from the situation in other Hellenistic Kingdoms. The tenure, functions, involvement, and character of the various offices of the gymnasium and the position that their holders had in local society are investigated, thus providing a picture of the complex organization of the communities of the gymnasium. It is shown how gymnasiarchs were the people chiefly in charge of the gymnasium and how prestigious their office was. A subsection on village gymnasiarchs in the Augustan period provides evidence of the last traces of survival of a Ptolemaic habit into the early years of Roman domination.
The Gymnasium and Greek Identity
Authors: Paganini Mario C. D.
Published: December 2021

This chapter focuses on questions of identity more clearly and provides an analysis of its different implications, to show how the communities of the gymnasia of Hellenistic Egypt, while following traditions of Greek character, were thoroughly embedded in the socio-cultural world of the country in which they lived. It is argued that the members of the gymnasium displayed complex identities, which could encompass features deriving from various traditions; this goes beyond a simplistic interpretation and understanding of ethnicity. Beyond strict ethnic designations, Ptolemaic society also functioned in a less exclusive fashion, according to cultural definitions: the Ptolemaic category of Hellenes ‘Greeks’ was applied to people who displayed a certain degree of knowledge of Greek language and culture, not only to those who were of strict Greek ethnicity. As the prime institution of Greek cultural traditions, the gymnasium operated as the quintessential ‘association of the Hellenes’: the place where those who were willing to go Greek could express themselves as a well-defined group of people, while upholding specific aspects of Greek life. However, it is shown how the gymnasium’s members stretched over different layers of (normally) the middle and upper strata of local society and shared many features, which were foreign to Greek traditions and thought, including specific onomastic choices, religious practices, or marriage patterns. ‘Those of the gymnasium’ were fully embedded in and deeply intertwined with the local population—to the point that they essentially formed a part of it: they were the ‘Greeks’ of Egypt.
Iteration for Metaphysical Necessity
Authors: Dorr Cian , Hawthorne John , Yli-Vakkuri Juhani
Published: December 2021

This is the second of two chapters exploring the option of resolving various Tolerance Puzzles by denying Iteration, the claim that whatever is possibly possible is possible. This chapter argues for Iteration for metaphysical possibility, based on the premise that metaphysical possibility is the broadest form of possibility. Some reject this on the grounds that, for example, it is logically possible (although metaphysically impossible) that Hesperus is distinct from Phosphorus. We show that those who accept this premise should reject the form of existential generalization required to derive the conclusion that there is a form of possibility that attaches to the proposition that Hesperus is distinct from Phosphorus. We show how under certain attractive assumptions about the grain of higher-order reality one can show that there is a broadest form of possibility, and indeed define it in purely logical terms.
Tolerance and Chance
Authors: Dorr Cian , Hawthorne John , Yli-Vakkuri Juhani
Published: December 2021

This chapter explores Tolerance Puzzles in which the operative modality is that of objective chance. We show that a principle of ‘Chance Fixity’, according to which facts about the chances at a given time are not themselves matters of chance at that time, is deeply embedded in ordinary and scientific reasoning about chance and rules out Iteration-denial for the relevant chance operators. We also develop a new ‘Robustness Puzzle’ in which the analogue of Hypertolerance completely untenable. This puzzle turns on strengthenings of Tolerance claims to claims about high (conditional) chance, as opposed to mere positive chance.
Resolving the Puzzles: Plasticity and Plenitude
Authors: Dorr Cian , Hawthorne John , Yli-Vakkuri Juhani
Published: December 2021

This chapter develops a strategy for resolving Tolerance Puzzles based on two central ideas. The first idea is a principle of ‘plenitude’, according to which any given material objects coincides with innumerably many others differing from it in a wide variety of modal respects. The second idea is that because of this plenitude of candidate referents, the singular terms (like ‘this table’) and common nouns (like ‘table’) that feature in Tolerance Puzzles are subject to a high degree of semantic plasticity: small changes in the world, e.g. in the selection of parts to be made into tables, suffice to make a difference to what we refer to with these words. Such plasticity undermines the Security Argument for Non-contingency developed in chapter 2, by suggesting that even though Tolerance could easily have been false, Tolerance speeches robustly express truths.
Refinements and Choice Points
Authors: Dorr Cian , Hawthorne John , Yli-Vakkuri Juhani
Published: December 2021

This chapter further develops the framework introduced in the previous chapter. We suggest that the best approach to many Tolerance Puzzles involves some contextual flexibility, allowing not only for contexts in which Non-contingency is false but also for contexts in which Hypertolerance is true. We discuss how plasticity and plenitude can also be used to solve the Coincidence Puzzles introduced in chapter 4, and conclude by considering a range of open questions and case studies.
Indiscernible Tolerance Arguments
Authors: Dorr Cian , Hawthorne John , Yli-Vakkuri Juhani
Published: December 2021

This is the first of two chapters devoted to a special subclass of Tolerance Puzzles based on ‘indiscernible modality’, on which qualitative truths are automatically necesssary. The interest in these puzzles lies in the fact that there is a distinctive argument for Non-contingency based on the premise that properties like being a table are qualitative. This chapter explores the options for resolving the puzzles compatible with accepting that premise, and hence Non-contingency for indiscernible modality.
Cases and methods
Authors: Grossman Emiliano , Guinaudeau Isabelle
Published: December 2021

This chapter presents the five cases. They are all wealthy Western European democracies. They feature quite a few similarities, concerning the evolution of turnout, electoral volatility, or the growing success of far-right parties. Yet, they also allow for some variation regarding their electoral systems, ranging from very majoritarian to very proportional and a resulting variety of party systems. Each country’s institutional setup and contemporary politics is briefly presented in turn. For each of the five countries, the chapter briefly discusses data availability and sources. For the five countries, we present the legislative agenda and the party agenda from the early 1980s to the late 2000s at least. Finally, we explain the choice of fixed-effects negative binomial regression, given the specific structure of the data and the goals of the study.
Huawei’s Leapfrogging to Overtake Ericsson
Authors: Lee Keun
Published: December 2021

Chapter 8 explores how Huawei was able to emerge as the leader in the telecommunications system sector, overtaking the incumbent Swedish giant Ericsson. It answers this question by focusing on whether a latecomer firm trying to catch up uses technologies similar to or different from those of the forerunners. The study investigated patents by Huawei and Ericsson and found that Huawei relied on Ericsson as a knowledge source in its early days but subsequently reduced this reliance and increased its self-citation ratio to become more independent. The results of mutual citations, common citations, and self-citations provided strong evidence that Huawei caught up with or overtook Ericsson by taking a different technological trajectory. Huawei developed its technologies by relying on more recent and scientific knowledge; in terms of citations to scientific articles and citation lags, Huawei extensively explored basic research and up-to-date technologies to accomplish its technological catch-up. This study suggests that leapfrogging by exploring a new technological path is a possible and viable catch-up strategy for a latecomer. Moreover, Huawei’s case re-confirms the hypothesis that catch-up in technological capabilities tends to precede that in market share. Huawei overtook Ericsson in terms of quantity and quality of patents before annual sales. In summary, the results suggest that Huawei’s catch-up with Ericsson in the telecommunications equipment market is owing not only to its cost advantage, the large domestic market, or the Chinese government’s support but also more importantly to its technological leapfrogging based on its technological strength and independence.
The Aesthetic Value of the World
Authors: Cochrane Tom
Published: December 2021

In this book, Tom Cochrane defends Aestheticism—the claim that everything is aesthetically valuable and that a life lived in pursuit of aesthetic value can be a particularly good one. Furthermore, in distilling aesthetic qualities, artists have a special role to play in teaching us to recognize values; a critical component of virtue. Cochrane grounds his account upon an analysis of aesthetic value as ‘objectified final value’, which is underwritten by an original psychological claim that all aesthetic values are distal versions of practical values. This is followed by systematic accounts of beauty, sublimity, comedy, drama, and tragedy, as well as Appendix entries on the cute, the cool, the kitsch, the uncanny, the horrific, the erotic, and the furious.
Relational Rules and Communist Single-Party Regimes
Authors: Gill Graeme
Published: December 2021

Relational rules structure the relationship between the oligarchs and the elite, and the oligarchs and the institutions of the regime. The chapter analyses how the 11 relational rules functioned in the Soviet Union and China over the life of the respective regimes. It explains how the oligarchs sought to insulate themselves from below and, in looking at the role of political institutions, tackles the idea that institutions serve little more than a symbolic function in authoritarian regimes. A major focus is also the power of the individual leader, its nature and bases and how this related to those institutions.
Rules and Power Disposition in the Oligarchy
Authors: Gill Graeme
Published: December 2021

This chapter tackles the assumption that the main currency of rule in an authoritarian oligarchy is the power of the leader. It analyses power disposition inside the oligarchy through an analysis of the various strategies (and in the case of rank-and-file oligarchs, the tactics) used by the dictator to control the rank-and-file oligarchs, and of the latter to survive in the oligarchy. The chapter shows that all of the strategies and tactics actually rely upon the rules for their efficacy, so that the situation is not that power politics prevails and rules are absent, but that whatever sort of relationship exists between leader and oligarchs, it is underpinned by the rules. They are fundamental to the survival of the oligarchy and the regime.
Conclusion: Rules and Autocracy
Authors: Gill Graeme
Published: December 2021

This chapter summarizes the main conclusions, showing how the established picture of the situation within dictatorial leaderships is misleading and explaining how and why rules are a more satisfactory explainer of this than a focus on power. The chapter then returns to the question of the relationship between rules and regime longevity, using the cases of the two regimes studied in the book that ended unexpectedly, the Soviet Union and Argentina, to suggest that there is a relationship between observance of those rules with their constraining and enabling functions, and regime survival.
Papal Overlordship and European Princes, 1000-1270
Authors: Wiedemann Benedict
Published: December 2021

Relationships between popes and kings have often been seen, first, as feudo-vassalic, and secondly as part of a general attempt by medieval popes to elevate themselves to world rulership. This book challenges both assumptions. On one hand, the book examines how relationships between popes and kings changed and were formalized, and what such relationships entailed; rather than assuming that a king who was called a ‘vassal’ of the pope had certain duties common to all ‘vassals’, the book asks what the duties and rights of a vassal-king were. On the other hand, this book also focuses on the practicalities of these relationships and concludes that kings and their subjects—not popes—got the most out of them. Kings and subjects could petition the papal curia and they were likely to get their petitions approved. Thus they instrumentalized papal authority and papal overlordship for their own purposes. The narrative of medieval state-building—that national monarchs had to destroy papal and imperial power within their realms to achieve sovereignty—might therefore be turned on its head: kings could actually make use of papal authority to increase their power.
Appropriateness
Authors: King Jeffrey C.
Published: December 2021

Some underspecified expressions are felicitous and some aren’t. To explain this, I formulate the notion of a context being appropriate for a sentence (LF). I show that if a sentence is felicitous in a context, that context is appropriate for the sentence.
Dare to Think?
Authors: Levy Neil
Published: December 2021

The previous two chapters argued that beliefs are pervasively outsourced to other people and to the environment, and that belief revision often occurs in response to changes in the cues that scaffold our beliefs. In light of these facts, we need to ensure the scaffolding of better beliefs. We need, that is, to manage the epistemic environment. Many people are uncomfortable with this suggestion, and urge that instead we should improve beliefs by promoting better reasons. This chapter examines the prospects for better individual reason, focusing on virtue epistemology. It argues that individual cognition is extremely unreliable, however virtuously it is conducted. Focusing on Quassim Cassam’s recent book on intellectual vices, it works through case studies, from climate denial and from historical scholarship, to show just how limited individual cognition is. It argues that even genuine experts are at severe risk of error when they stray outside their own sphere of expertise, and that spheres of expertise are much narrower than we tend to think.
Nudging Well
Authors: Levy Neil
Published: December 2021

Cleaning up the epistemic environment, in the way advocated in the last chapter, is or entails nudging beliefs, and nudging is very controversial. A central reason why nudging is controversial is that nudges are believed to bypass rational cognition. This chapter describes this concern, and argues it’s misplaced. Typically (at least) nudges provide higher-order evidence in favor of the options nudged. Nudges recommend options, and agents respond to nudges as recommendations. Our responses to nudges are (usually, at least) rational responses to evidence. Once we see how nudges work through the provision of higher-order evidence, we are in a position to recognize that the cues to expertise and to reliability we examined in previous chapters work in precisely the same way: they provide genuine evidence and we respond to them in virtue of that fact.
Parallel transport and geodesics
Authors: Steane Andrew M.
Published: December 2021

The mathematics of parallel transport and of affine and metric geodesics is presented. The geodesic equation is obtained in several different ways, bringing out its role both as a geometric statement and as an equation of motion. The Euler-Lagrange method to find metric geodesics, and hence Christoffel symbols, is explained. The role of conserved quantities is discussed. Killing’s equation and Killing vectors are introduced. Fermi-Walker transport (the non-rotating freely falling cabin) is defined and discussed. Gravitational redshift is calculated, first in general and then in specific cases.
Physics in curved spacetime
Authors: Steane Andrew M.
Published: December 2021

Electromagnetic field theory, and the physics of continuous media (fluids, solids) in curved spacetime are discussed. Generalized Maxwell’s equations are written down and their justifaction is briefly presented. Then we turn to thermodynamics and continuous media. The concept of energy and momentum conservation is carefully expounded, and then the equations for fluid flow (continuity equation and Euler equation) are developed from the divergence of the energy tensor. The Bernoulli equation and the equation for hydrostatic equilibrium are obtained. The chapter then goes on to a general discussion of how general relativity operates and how gravitational phenomena are calculated and observed. The relation between gravity and other aspects of physics such as particle physics is discussed, along with the notion of general covariance.
The Einstein field equation
Authors: Steane Andrew M.
Published: December 2021

Various aspects of the Einstein field equation are presented. First the field equation is obtained by arguing that it is the simplest equation that respects the fundamental geometric insight into gravity. Then we consider whether the equation is stable, and introduce the weak energy and dominant energy conditions. The connection between inertial motion and the distant universe (Mach’s principle) is discussed. The equation of motion of matter is obtained from the field equation, and a comparison made with electromagnetic field theory. The energy and momentum of gravitational fields in stationary conditions is discussed, and the Komar energy obtained.
Rotating bodies; the Kerr metric
Authors: Steane Andrew M.
Published: December 2021

Spacetime around a general rigidly rotating body is discussed, and the Kerr solution explored in detail. First we obtain generic properties of stationary, axisymmetric metrics. The stationary limit surface and ergoregion is defined. Then the Kerr metric is presented (without derivation) and discussed. Horizons and limit surfaces are obtained, and the overall structure of the Kerr black hole deduced. The mass and angular momentum is extracted. Equations for particle orbits are obtained, and their properties discussed.
The very early universe
Authors: Steane Andrew M.
Published: December 2021

The universe at very early times, before the GUT era, is discussed. The entropy problem is described. The horizon and flatness problems are subsumed into the general problem of finding plausible models of the physics of the Planck era or the era immediately after it. An outline of inflationary cosmology is given, including quantitative treatment of a scalar inflaton field, treated in both a classical and quantum approach, in order to find the average dynamics and the spectrum of perturbations, respectively.