bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Local Conditions and the Prevalence of Homelessness in Canada
Authors: Kneebone Ronald , Wilkins Margarita
Published: August 2024

In 2018, the federal government coordinated point-in-time counts in 61 Canadian communities. These counts, all conducted over the course of a few nights during the months of March and April, revealed that 25,216 people were experiencing homelessness. Of those, 20,803 slept in emergency shelters while 4,481 slept on the streets, in cars, or in some other unsuitable place.
Reviewing the data for 49 of those 61 communities, this paper examines the impact of community-level conditions on the prevalence of homelessness. The structural determinants of both sheltered and unsheltered homelessness are examined. The analysis shows that more expensive low-quality rental units have a strong positive relationship with the numbers of people staying in homeless shelters. A higher percentage of people in a community living in poverty is also related to increased numbers of people having to make use of homeless shelters. Increases in social assistance income, which undoubtedly improved the well-being of recipients, had no significant relationship with the number of people experiencing homelessness. This latter result is consistent with individuals and families with low income having a small income elasticity of housing demand. For these individuals and families, marginal additions to income are first used to relieve constraints on their budgets for food, utilities, and other necessities rather than being used to finance improvements in housing conditions. The fraction of the population that self-identifies as Indigenous is positively related to both sheltered and unsheltered homelessness, a result consistent with claims of discrimination in housing markets. Finally, a milder climate is associated with higher numbers of people experiencing unsheltered homelessness.

These results suggest the most effective policy response to addressing homelessness is to lower the cost of shelter, an outcome best achieved by increasing the supplyof shelter that can be afforded by individuals and families with limited income. Tothis end, public policies directed toward reducing the cost of construction, policiesthat include reviewing density restrictions and land-use regulations and offering tax incentives, can be effective. Preventing the disappearance of single-room occupancy hotels, boarding houses, trailer parks and other forms of housing affordable to people with limited income are other policy responses likely to be associated with decreasesin homelessness. Increasing the stock of government-owned housing is another policy option, one best suited for providing housing for people whose homelessness is caused or exacerbated by disability, mental illness, substance abuse or other health issues requiring other support services. Marginal increases in income support, while important for increasing the well-being of individuals and families with limited income, are unlikely to be associated with decreases in homelessness unless they are sufficiently large to significantly reduce rates of poverty in the community.
Social Policy Trends: The Holidays and Social Policy Issues
Authors: Kneebone Ronald
Published: August 2024

Most social trends show little in the way of monthly variation. Rates of poverty and measures of inequality show little in the way of variation from one month to another. However, some issues of concern to social policy advocates, researchers, and governments take a noticeable turn during the holiday season. Favourable breaks in these trends remind us that the choices we make, when coordinated and acted upon simultaneously, can have noticeable effects on the lives of individuals and families in need.
The Sensitivity of Food Bank Visits to Social Assistance, Housing and Labour Market Conditions in Toronto
Authors: Kneebone Ronald , Wilkins Margarita
Published: August 2024

We make use of monthly data describing the number of visits to food banks operated by the Daily Bread Food Bank in Toronto. We identify the extent to which food bank visits may be associated with changes to public policies, to changes in the cost of shelter and to changes in labour market conditions. Our measures of these changes are those that are relevant to individuals and families with limited incomes and limited abilities to borrow or save. We find that the number of visits to food banks is sensitive to measures of all three of these types of changes; food bank visits increase with increases in rent, with falls in the minimum wage and with reductions in the disability benefits available to people requiring social assistance.
Differentiating the Canadian North for Coherent Infrastructure Development
Authors: Koch Katharina
Published: August 2024

Canada’s northern and Arctic environment poses significant challenges for infrastructure development. The region is characterized by unique ecosystems, extreme climatic conditions and a sparse population, which are factors that have inhibited infrastructure development in the past. Nevertheless, various practitioners, academics and northerners have emphasized the need for reliable and safe connections between north and south and within the North. The lack of infrastructure is a major impediment to the well-being of northerners who lack access to essential services, such as clean drinking water (Patrick 2011) or safe and reliable roadways. Infrastructure Canada (2018) noted that the current southern-based “one-size fits all” northern infrastructure approach is inefficient because northern conditions and challenges often do not respond to policies that are conceived in the south. Currently, infrastructure projects are often conducted on a one-off basis without establishing broader connections in the northern region. Thus, this paper draws on the Canadian Northern Corridor (CNC) concept (Fellows et al. 2020) as a solution to deliver much- needed infrastructure to northern communities.
At the same time, this paper cautions that it is critical to recognize the diversity of the Canadian North and it is vital to consider northern Indigenous practices that can inform infrastructure development for a CNC. This paper offers a discussion of Canada’s northern diversity by exploring the relevance of Hamelin’s nordicity index (1979) as a policy tool to better understand and respond to the distinct challenges and opportunities across the Canadian North and Arctic. Although the CNC concept reflects a pan-Canadian approach, it strongly advocates for the recognition, participation and inclusion of all northern stake- and rights-holders to inform future infrastructure development and to avoid past mistakes. The CNC could thus offer a coherent northern infrastructure framework that addresses the shortcomings of made-in-Ottawa policies for the Canadian North and Arctic.
The Traps Have Sprung? Sino-American Challenges for Hegemonic Leadership
Authors: Gaudreault Charlie , Duchesne Érick
Published: August 2024

In an ambivalent twist of foreign policy, the Trump administration reordered Washington’s stance towards Beijing. In the wake of its tense relationship with China, the United States has abandoned much of its international leadership. There were high hopes of renewed American commitment to the international order when Joe Biden was elected in November 2020. The prospect for a greater international guidance from the Biden administration has yet to lead to a cohesive policy. In contrast, under the strong hand of Xi Jinping, China has taken a more decisive role in international affairs. It remains to be seen, however, if the rest of the world is ready to follow in China’s footsteps. This state of affairs leaves us in the uncomfortable situation where we must assess two daunting traps facing the future of the international system. On one hand, reminiscent of Thucydides’ trap, we face the possibility of an escalation of tension that could inexorably lead to a direct confrontation between the two superpowers. On the other hand, an even less appealing scenario would take the form of a rudderless world bringing back painful memories of the 1930s. In this paper, we assess these two eventual consequences of the Sino-American confrontation, as well as possibilities of escaping those traps.
Alberta: Considerations in Establishing a New Captive Jurisdiction
Authors: Kleffner Anne , Johnson Erik
Published: August 2024

The Captive Insurance Companies Act, formerly Bill 76, was introduced by the government of Alberta in October 2021 and passed in December 2021. The act enables entities to establish their own insurance company, called a captive insurer. A captive insurance company is created and owned by a non-insurance parent for providing insurance coverage for the parent company’s exposures and/or those of associated parties.
This paper discusses the regulatory policy elements that serve as the key foundations for the captive insurance market in major captive insurance jurisdictions, best practices for captive insurance regulation, and key elements of a best-of-breed regulatory regime that is needed in Alberta to be a competitive captive jurisdiction. We examine regulation and policy elements in leading captive insurance jurisdictions and identify policies that have been implemented to stimulate growth of captive insurance markets.
To foster an environment for a robust captive insurance market, regulation must ensure fast and predictable licensing and setup (or redomiciliation), be cost neutral, and have simple, reasonable requirements for capital, solvency, and reporting. It is equally important that Alberta’s captive regulator have the mindset of a captive regulator, meaning that it appreciates the distinction between regulating traditional insurers versus captives, has
a willingness to work with the captive industry, and is responsive to regulatory changes taking place in the competitive captive marketplace.
Indigenous Land Rights in Australia: Lessons for a Canadian Northern Corridor
Authors: Mascher Sharon
Published: August 2024

The Canadian Northern Corridor (CNC) research project is currently exploring the concept of creating a pan-Canadian infrastructure corridor consisting of a multi-modal (road, rail, pipeline, electrical transmission and communication) transportation right-of-way traversing Canada’s north and near north. With a goal of connecting Canada from north to south and coast to coast to coast, the CNC, and particularly any infrastructure built within it, would necessarily directly and indirectly affect a significant number of Indigenous communities and a diverse range of constitutionally protected rights and interests. As Canada commits to implementing the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP), the CNC must be conceptualized in a manner that ensures respect for the rights and interests of Indigenous communities along the corridor if it is to be a forward-looking, nation-building project.
Implications of a Northern Corridor on Soft Infrastructure in the North and Near North
Authors: Christensen Julia
Published: August 2024

Disparities in health care, education and employment, housing and social welfare have long been documented in Northern Canada. These disparities have been linked to colonialism, ineffective social policy, uneven development and the high costs of service delivery and infrastructure in northern regions. This literature review aims to present a comprehensive understanding of existing research on the current state of soft infrastructure and its deficits in Canada’s North and near-North regions. This scoping review contributes to a larger project led by the University of Calgary’s School of Public Policy and their Northern Corridor Research Program, a project which aims to evaluate the establishment of permissible corridors in Canada. These corridors provide defined multi-modal rights-of-way with accompanying regulatory and governance structures. Specifically, the term “soft infrastructure,” for the purposes of this review, refers to health care, housing, education, employment, jobs training and emergency services. The implications of these deficits in terms of economic and social opportunities in northern regions are discussed in relation to current research. Additionally, the ways in which these deficits relate to current hard infrastructure assets and deficits are assessed based on the reviewed literature. Finally, the costs, benefits and opportunities associated with the proposed Canadian corridor with regards to soft infrastructure deficits and needs are addressed.
Climate Risk Assessment and Adaptation Considerations for Municipal Governance
Authors: Tyler Mary-Ellen
Published: August 2024

Within the last 10 years, four of the 10 most extreme and extremely expensive weather- related disasters in Canada have occurred in Alberta, and climate modelling for Western Canada projects increasing changes and weather extremes. Changing and extreme conditions will continue to affect many aspects of municipal operations over the next 10 to 30 years. The major risks and impacts of changing climate conditions directly affecting municipalities involve infrastructure performance, increasing water stress, land use change and asset management.
Long-term seasonal temperature and precipitation changes punctuated by extreme weather conditions are a costly combination affecting local governments and communities. Alberta has a diverse range of climate risks, and risk assessment, adaptation and disaster response needs to reflect this diversity. Surveys done in 2019 and 2021 identified common barriers affecting municipal effectiveness in managing and adapting to climate risk which include: available staff time; access to climate risk and adaptation expertise; access to financial resources; and access to locally relevant and credible climate informationand data. Municipalities in Alberta with populations less than 10,000 are more likely to experience these barriers than larger and urban municipalities better positioned to have access to the specialized resources necessary.
All Alberta local authorities are required to have an emergency management plan to respond to extreme weather events of relatively short duration. However, longer term, extreme shifts in seasonal temperatures and precipitation are projected over the next 20to 30 years that will continue to impact municipal land use planning, water availability and infrastructure costs. Climate risk and adaptation need to be integrated into municipal plans, infrastructure maintenance, capital budgets and asset management to strengthen local resilience. Municipalities in Alberta have a provincial statutory framework that can address climate risk assessment and adaptation. Eight opportunities are identified that can be used within Alberta’s municipal government model to increase municipal effectiveness including: greater use of Intermunicipal Collaboration Frameworks (ICFs) and development of a Climate Adaptation Research and Decision Support (CARDS) network to provide multi- disciplinary decision support to local government decision-makers in different geographic areas of Alberta.
Interactions Between Oil and Environmental Policy in Ecuador
Authors: Buitrón Cañadas Viviana , Borja Danilo , Cáceres Freddy , Hayes John
Published: August 2024

Global public policy in 2023 is dominated by two interrelated challenges: the climate crisis and the clean energy transition. Ecuador, rich in both oil and biodiversity, represents a case study of the convergence of two apparently divergent economic development agendas: oil production and biodiversity conservation. Both are central to national policy objectives. Like other Latin American nations, Ecuador’s fiscal solvency is determined by natural resource prices. Policy-making and legislation relating to oil, Ecuador’s number one export, have historically been state priorities for maximizing economic benefits. However, Ecuador also hosts important biodiversity, which has led the country to sign environment-related conventions towards conservation and fighting climate change. Ecuador’s environmental efforts in recent decades have become a cornerstone of its diplomatic presence internationally.
This study examines the interaction of oil and environmental policy in Ecuador. We analyze primary legislation and interview data, beginning with the most recent decrees on oil extraction and environment enacted in the first months of President Guillermo Lasso’s tenure. We describe the interactions, in the form of contradictions, affinities and partnerships, of oil and conservation efforts and the implications of the simultaneous prioritization for conservation and climate change goals. We draw upon these interactions in Yasuní National Park, where the financial scheme of conservation is determined by a tense dependency on oil rents and corporate participation. We argue that oil-based economic priorities overrule conservation goals. Consequently, oil extraction in territories of biocultural significance remain legitimated by the national government, due to the reliance on oil for funding land conservation and national parks. We conclude by considering Ecuador’s global position in conservation and climate-related efforts, and advance multi-scalar, inter-sectoral policy ideas for overcoming policy contradictions.
How Many Housed People in Calgary are at Risk of Homelessness?
Authors: Kneebone Ronald , Wilkins Margarita
Published: August 2024

Significant numbers of people and families in Calgary face financial challenges that put them at risk of homelessness. The authors first define different levels of risk, in order to focus on people at high risk of slipping into homelessness. The authors assume, based on the findings of previous studies, that people faced with financial hardship make all possible budgetary changes to lower their cost of living and thereby retain housing. These changes include using food banks, relying on charities, eating less nutritious diets, living in more crowded conditions, moving to housing with lower rent and giving up any hope of maintaining what the designers of Canada’s poverty line define as a “modest and basic standard of living.” The highest risk category comprises those who have exhausted nearly all efforts to maintain their housing and are extremely vulnerable to even minor shocks to income or living costs.
Estimating the number of people and households in Calgary at high risk of homelessnessrelies on key assumptions about housing costs, family structure, food budget, and expenditure reduction. The authors show how their estimates of the number of housed people at high riskof homelessness varies by these assumptions. These calculations provide insight into the effects of rent increases and food inflation on the ability of people with very low income to maintain housing. In doing so, they also provide evidence of how relatively small adjustments to income, rent, and food prices can pull people from the brink of homelessness.
The estimates indicate that between 102,635 and 124,375 people in Calgary, including both adults and children, were at high risk of homelessness in 2016. The authors indicate they feel comfortable in supporting a number near the midpoint of this range, approximately 115,000 people, as the number of people at high risk of homelessness in Calgary in 2016. This at-risk population lived in approximately 40,000 households.
An estimate for 2023 would need to account for higher rents and food prices but also higher incomes relative to what were observed in 2016. While the authors suggests that the at-risk population is likely higher now than it was in 2016, they note that even were this not true, the 2016 estimate of approximately 115,000 people living in 40,000 households ought to be more than enough to spur policymakers into acting.
The encouragement to be found in these calculations is that relatively modest policy interventions have large impacts on the size of the population at risk of homelessness. Consistent with research elsewhere, extreme policy interventions are not required to pull large numbers of people from the brink of homelessness. The most important characteristic of these policy interventions is not their size, but simply the fact they are acted upon.
Securities Regulation in Canada at a Crossroads
Authors: Lortie Pierre
Published: August 2024

On May 26, 2010, Canada’s Minister of Finance tabled in the House of Commons a draft Securities Act. The purpose of the Act is to establish Federal government jurisdiction over securities legislation and create a Federal Securities Regulatory Authority. With this initiative, the Federal government proposes to centralize the regulatory apparatus to ensure uniformity of policies and regulations across Canada and meet international standards of quality and comprehensiveness. But this initiative also raises significant constitutional and economic policy issues. In a comprehensive paper examining  the main arguments supporting a centralized securities apparatus,  Pierre Lortie, Senior Business Advisor at Fraser Milner Casgrain LLP, argues that sound public policy should move ahead only if there is a strong body of empirical evidence demonstrating that the performance of the current regime is significantly inferior to that of other countries — particularly the United States — and that a centralization of the regulatory apparatus is necessary to correct the situation. The paper demonstrates that Canada’s decentralized securities regulatory regime has in fact shown  flexibility, a great capacity to adapt to changing circumstances and an unrelenting ability to respond to particular industry or regional needs.  It has also provided strong assurances against the hasty adoption of disruptive and costly regulations because it is less susceptible to the imposition of politically expedient or faddish requirements or the influence of a dominant industry or interest groups. In contrast, a centralized system runs the risk of turning into a disruptive, costly and regrettable initiative that will not give Canadians what they expect, while erasing many of the benefits achieved so far.
Canada’s 2010 Tax Competitiveness Ranking: Moving to the Average but Biased Against Services
Authors: Chen Duanjie , Mintz Jack M.
Published: August 2024

For the first time since 1975 (the year Canada’s marginal effective tax rates were first measured), Canada has become the most tax-competitive country among G-7 states with respect to taxation of capital investment. Even more remarkably, Canada accomplished this feat within a mere six years, having previously been the least taxcompetitive G-7 member. Even in comparison to strongly growing emerging economies, Canada’s 2010 marginal effective tax rate on capital is still above average. The planned reductions in federal and provincial corporate taxes by 2013 will reduce Canada’s effective tax rate on new investments to 18.4 percent, below the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) 2010 average and close to the average of the 50 non-OECD countries studied. This remarkable change in Canada’s tax competitiveness must be maintained in the coming years, as countries are continually reducing their business taxation despite the recent fiscal pressures arising from the 2008-9 downturn in the world economy. Many countries have forged ahead with significant reforms designed to increase tax competitiveness and improve tax neutrality including Greece, Israel, Japan, New Zealand, Taiwan and the United Kingdom. The continuing bias in Canada’s corporate income tax structure favouring manufacturing and processing business warrants close scrutiny. Measured by the difference between the marginal effective tax rate on capital between manufacturing and the broad range of service sectors, Canada has the greatest gap in tax burdens between manufacturing and services among OECD countries. Surprisingly, preferential tax treatment (such as fast write-off and investment tax credits) favouring only manufacturing and processing activities has become the norm in Canada, although it does not exist in most developed economies.
The Impact of Sales Tax Reform on Ontario Consumers: A First Look at the Evidence
Authors: Smart Michael
Published: August 2024

Ontario’s new Harmonized Sales Tax applies to a broader base of consumer purchases than before, but it also removes some of the “hidden” taxes on business inputs.  This paper offers a first look at how the change has affected consumer prices and the welfare of Ontario families.  While consumer prices initially rose 0.9% due to the reform, the price impact has since fallen, reflecting the way that input tax credits are being passed on to consumers, or the new taxes are otherwise being absorbed by sellers. With the compensating income tax changes also enacted by the Ontario government, the net impact of the reform for most families by the end of 2010 was a gain or very small loss in after-tax real incomes.  Since input tax credits are likely passed on as lower prices or higher wages only gradually over time, the effect of the policy on aftertax real incomes will likely continue to improve over time.
Rhetoric and Realities: What Independence of the Bar Requires of Lawyer Regulation
Authors: Woolley Alice
Published: August 2024

The Canadian legal profession is largely self-regulating. Provincial law societies governed by lawyers elected by their peers set the standards for admission to the profession and for ethical conduct, and investigate, prosecute and adjudicate allegations of professional misconduct by lawyers. Advocates for this regulatory structure rely on the concept of “independence of the bar”, the idea that lawyers must be free from any external interference with their representation of clients. Critics of the regulatory structure, meanwhile, argue that independence has a broader meaning than the advocates suppose and that, in any event, the self-regulatory structure of the Canadian profession is not necessary to ensure independence. This paper presents the varying interpretations of independence of the bar and suggests that while the advocates for self-regulation have a more justifiable understanding of independence than do critics, the concept of independence of the bar is not itself central to assessing the validity of any particular regulatory scheme. Rather, the things that independence should protect – the ability of lawyers to be zealous advocates for clients within the bounds of legality – should be used to assess the adequacies of any regulatory scheme. Does regulation ensure that lawyers fulfill their duty of zealous advocacy? Does regulation ensure that lawyers remain within the bounds of legality? Does regulation ensure access to justice? With these criteria in mind, and using recent changes to the regulation of lawyers in England and Wales as a comparator, the paper then analyzes the adequacy of regulation of Canadian lawyers with respect to competence, the general structure of professional regulation and access to justice. Based on this analysis, the author proposes changes to improve lawyer regulation in Canada. These changes do not abandon self-regulation. However, they include separating the adjudicative function of the law societies into a distinct dispute resolution entity with expanded regulatory powers in relation to hearing complaints brought directly by the public, addressing a broader range of matters in relation to competence and client service, and providing remedies beyond sanctioning lawyers. The changes would also include the creation of a legal regulatory review office in each province, governed by lawyers and non-lawyers alike, to exercise some constrained oversight and review of law society activities. Finally, the changes propose a variety of ways to enhance access to justice such as focusing law society activities on improving the functioning of the market for legal services through providing greater information to clients.
Environmental Benefits of Using Wind Generation to Power Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles
Authors: Hajian Mahdi , Manickavasagam Monishaa , Rosehart William , Zareipour Hamidreza
Published: August 2024

As alternatives to conventional vehicles, Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs) running off electricity stored in batteries could decrease oil consumption and reduce carbon emissions. By using electricity derived from clean energy sources, even greater environmental benefits are obtainable. This study examines the potential benefits arising from the widespread adoption of PHEVs in light of Alberta’s growing interest in wind power. It also investigates PHEVs’ capacity to mitigate natural fluctuations in wind power generation.
Income Support for Persons With Disabilities
Authors: Kneebone Ronald D. , Grynishak Oksana
Published: August 2024

Alberta, British Columbia and Ontario all maintain separate income-support programs for the disabled. This paper examines the criteria applicants must meet for each program and traces variations in monthly payment levels in relation to political exigencies and inflationary pressures affecting the cost of living. As it is impossible to settle on a definitive way to measure poverty, the authors present several proposals and compare all of them with the income recipients realize from each of the three programs. While acknowledging that the precise level of income support for the disabled is ultimately a value judgment, they suggest that the existing income-support program provided by the federal government for impoverished seniors is a suitable baseline. The authors crunch the numbers to reveal the amounts Alberta, BC and Ontario would have to spend to bring their existing income-support programs for the disabled up to the level of similar programs for seniors. Finally, they recommend that governments index income support for the disabled to inflation. Governments already take inflation into account for taxpayers and seniors and the authors believe the disabled should not be treated differently.
The Constitutionality of Federal Climate Change Legislation
Authors: Lucas Alastair R. , Yearsley Jenette
Published: August 2024

Over the last decade, the Canadian government has not managed to produce a comprehensive climate change statute and has failed to adequately consider the constitutional implications of doing so. The Clean Air Bill, an unsuccessful 2006 amendment to the Canadian Environmental Protection Act (CEPA), focused on carbon credit trading and a technology fund credit mechanism to permit certain emissions-heavy industries to mitigate their production of greenhouse gases. However, this bill would likely have infringed on provincial jurisdiction over electricity generation facilities, trumping any attempt to address greenhouse gas emissions beneath the rubric of criminal law. The present federal government’s proposed coal-fired electricity generation regulations are similarly flawed. This paper thoroughly analyzes both pieces of legislation from a constitutional standpoint, using a rich body of case law to offer policymakers invaluable guidance in properly framing legally sound emission reduction statutes.
Housing Subsidies and Homelessness: A Simple Idea
Authors: O’Flaherty Brendan
Published: August 2024

Reducing homelessness is an indisputable social good, and housing subsidies offer one way to do so. However, subsidies come in many different varieties and are intricately bound up with economic and social policies. This paper, written by one of North America’s leading urban economists, cuts through the tangle and argues that the simplest approach is the best. The ideal way to deter people from harmful acts is to reward them for abstaining. Thus, to combat homelessness, governments should offer housing allowances to people for every night they are not homeless. This optimal homelessness-reducing home allowance (OHRHA) is open to adjustment to suit individual circumstances and the effects of homelessness on different demographics. It is meant to reduce homelessness by aligning individual and societal incentives, forcing people to bear the consequences or realize the benefits that their actions impose on others. The author explores methods for financing OHRHA, examines means for tailoring it to meet the diverse needs of the homeless and discusses the policy’s effect on urban housing markets, all while comparing and contrasting the proposal to existing homelessness-reduction measures in Alberta, Canada and the US.
The Role of Crown Corporations in the Canadian Economy: An Analytical Framework
Authors: Iacobucci Edward M. , Trebilcock Michael J.
Published: August 2024

Government interference in markets arouses heated emotions on both sides of the political spectrum. But the fact remains that governments of all stripes routinely play a direct role in the economy. Motivations run the gamut from the economic (correcting perceived market failures) to the ethical (addressing social injustice) to the nakedly political (ideology or the status quo demands it). This paper offers a highly readable theoretical and practical framework for understanding federal and provincial governments’ market interventions in sectors including power generation, alcohol and mail delivery. Public ownership can advance a range of normative objectives, so the choices, reasons and outcomes for the government, the Canadian economy, Crown corporation employees and the general public can vary as widely as the enterprises involved. But in asking why and how and assessing ways and means, the authors bring together a substantial body of knowledge and expertise, providing an essential guide to a phenomenon that, like it or not, will remain a major part of Canada’s economic landscape for a long time to come.
A Proposal to Create a Pan-Canadian Energy Information Organization (CEIO)
Authors: Moore Michal C.
Published: August 2024

Canada is a safe and stable resource-rich nation in an increasingly energy-hungry world. While this state of affairs imbues our riches with strategic importance, it also creates an acute need for accurate data collection guided by nationally accepted methods, tools and approaches, to cut through the tangle of overlapping jurisdictions that confuse present attempts to understand the Canadian energy sector as a whole. Prepared at the request of the Alberta Department of Energy, this paper proposes the creation of the Canadian Energy Information Organization (CEIO), an independent, objective energy information agency similar, but not identical, to the Energy Information Administration in the United States and the International Energy Agency serving OECD member countries. Funded through modest provincial contributions and working with Statistics Canada, the CEIO would support federal and provincial energy regulatory mechanisms; offer timely energy forecasts, analysis and statistical interpretations; lower research costs for the provinces; promote clear and uniform reporting standards; and aggregate facts and figures in an easily accessible database functioning as an official information portal, educating the public and ensuring that Canada makes the most of its energy bounty. A nationally recognized authority on the Canadian energy sector is long overdue, and in sketching one (right down to the level of corporate governance, budgeting and staffing), this paper fills in a major gap in Canada’s energy landscape.
Assisted Reproduction Policy in Federal States: What Canada Should Learn From Australia
Authors: Snow Dave , Knopff Rainer
Published: August 2024

Rapid advances in assisted reproductive technologies (ARTs) confront policymakers worldwide with dilemmas that touch on the fundamentals of human existence — life, death, and sexuality. Canada, following the lead of non-federal Britain, spent 15 years developing the comprehensive, national Assisted Human Reproduction Act (2004), only to have the Supreme Court strike much of it down in 2010 for invading provincial jurisdiction. As Canadians return to square one on many ART issues, they should seek inspiration from Australia, where the lead role of the states in this policy area has not prevented significant coordination on matters of broad consensus. Like their federal cousins down under, Canadians who wish to harmonize ART policy in a constitutionally acceptable manner must now rely more heavily on legislative modeling among provinces, intergovernmental agreements, and non-statutory (even nongovernmental) guidelines.
Negotiated Settlements: Long-term Profits and Costs
Authors: Fellows G. Kent
Published: August 2024

Over the last 20 years, utility regulators have relaxed their oversight of cost-ofservice regulation and this holds true for Alberta, where such regulation determines the fees associated with oil and gas pipeline usage. The traditional method has been for regulators to issue binding decisions on a firm’s cost of service after taking evidence at a formal hearing. Many regulators now prefer to encourage parties to settle a cost-of-service agreement through a negotiated settlement, which the regulator then approves. This process not only saves the cost of a hearing, it also permits firms and consumers to trade costs and benefits, settling on a final price more favourable to both. The author details how this arrangement can negatively impact future consumers by allowing the firm to defer the true burden of its depreciation expenses in return for inflated capital costs. Such a settlement lowers prices for the present but saddles future consumers with higher prices.
Preventing Domestic Violence in Alberta: A Cost Savings Perspective
Authors: Wells Lana , Boodt Casey
Published: August 2024

Recent studies show that Alberta has the fifth highest rate of police reported intimate partner violence and the second highest rate of self reported spousal violence in Canada, and despite a 2.3 percent decline over the last decade, the province’s rate of self-reported domestic violence has stubbornly remained among the highest in Canada; rates of violence against women alone are 2.3 percentage points higher than the national average. In fact, every hour of every day, a woman in Alberta will undergo some form of interpersonal violence from an ex-partner or ex-spouse. Besides the devastating toll that domestic violence has on victims and their families, the ongoing cost to Albertans is significant. In the past five years alone it is estimated that over $600 million will have been spent on the provision of a few basic health and non health supports and that the majority of this cost ($521 million) is coming out of the pockets of Albertans in the form of tax dollars directed at the provision of services. Fortunately, investment in quality prevention and intervention initiatives can be very cost effective, returning as much as $20 for every dollar invested. Recent research on preventative programming in the context of domestic violence shows promising results in reducing incidents of self-reported domestic violence. The economic analysis of this preventative programming suggests that the benefits of providing the various types of programming outweighed the costs by as much as 6:1. The potential cost savings for the Alberta context are significant; the implementation of these preventative programs has been estimated to be approximately $9.6 million while generating net cost-benefits of over $54 million. Domestic violence is a persistent blight, and continues to have a significant impact on individuals and families in Alberta, but potent tools exist to fight it. This brief paper offers a cogent summary of its costs, and the benefits that could be reaped by investing in quality prevention and intervention programs, making it essential reading for policymakers and anyone else prepared to use them.
The International Experience with Privatization: Its Rapid Rise, Partial Fall and Uncertain Future
Authors: Nellis John
Published: August 2024

From a triumphant high in the late 20th century, esteem for privatization has significantly declined, post-2000. Politicians and businesspeople alike now take a more balanced view of its effectiveness, recognizing that privatization must happen in a supportive institutional and policy framework if it is to live up to its potential. They have also come to share a better understanding of the sociopolitical consequences – especially with regard to public opinion – that privatization inevitably brings with it. This paper provides a comprehensive examination of this 21st century global shift in perception, with an emphasis on developing and emerging markets. Through a rich trove of case studies, it accounts for why privatization has slowed, analyzing current and past trends from a variety of sectors worldwide. It also offers a thorough analysis of privatization’s effects on economies, societies and the political process, while giving ample space to critics’ views. Although powerbrokers now tend to view privatization warily, there is good reason to believe that, due to the impact of the ongoing global economic crisis on government budgets, its day will come again. This paper, with its impressively detailed and wide-ranging grasp of the phenomenon, is essential reading for academics, policymakers and economists –the individuals who must grapple with privatization’s implications when that day arrives.
2012 Annual Global Tax Competitiveness Ranking – A Canadian Good News Story
Authors: Chen Duanjie , Mintz Jack M.
Published: August 2024

Since 2000, Canada has been remarkably successful in building a more competitive corporate tax system, principally by lowering tax rates and broadening the tax base. Canada’s marginal effective tax rate (METR) is now the lowest, and hence the most tax-competitive among the G-7, the 20th most tax-competitive in the 34-member OECD, and 57th among the 90 countries surveyed in this paper. The result has been greater investment and improved economic growth despite recessionary pressures. In particular, provincial sales tax harmonization with the GST has heightened Ontario’s competitiveness and promises to do the same for PEI, the latest convert to the cause. However, progress has not been uniform. Some provincial governments have lost focus by raising rates or introducing tax preferences that narrow the base, inevitably harming business efficiency. British Columbia’s decision to replace the new Harmonized Sales Tax with the old retail sales tax will cost it dearly, especially when it comes to public spending. On the other hand, corporate tax rate reductions of more than 30 percent (since 2000) have, contrary to the critics’ cries, failed to make an appreciable dent in tax revenues thanks to multinationals’ habit of shifting profits to Canada to take advantage of lower rates. This paper, in providing a candid snapshot of Canadian taxation measured against 89 other nations, serves as an invaluable foundation for understanding how far this country has come, and what its next steps should be.
The GST and Financial Services: Pausing for Perspective
Authors: Firth Michael , McKenzie Kenneth J.
Published: August 2024

The treatment of financial services has long been viewed as one of the more technical, and difficult, areas in value added taxation. Financial intermediaries add value by reducing transaction costs for clients. While in principle this value added should be taxed under a comprehensive VAT, this has proven to be difficult to do in practice because of measurement issues.  The predominant approach adopted in most countries — albeit with several variations on the theme — has thus been to exempt most financial services from VAT. This was the approach adopted in Canada at the initiation of the GST just over twenty years ago. While this approach is far from perfect, and introduces several distortions into the economy, it has by and large been concluded that it is the most practical approach to dealing with financial services under a VAT. Two decades of legal wrangling and Ottawa’s habit of retroactively legislating changes to the GST as it relates to financial services have served to muddy the waters in Canada.  Recent changes have significantly altered the scope for exemption and resulted in an uneven playing field across financial services. This paper argues that the best solution for Canada is to stick with the exemption approach, but to go back to basics with an eye for reducing existing distortions and restoring a semblance of neutrality. Specifically, the paper calls for a reset of the “arranging for” exemption for financial services; the creation of a new GST-recovery system for financial services; a new structure for taxing imported supplies; and a limit to retroactive legislative amendments and minimum requirements for future amendments. The authors also argue that consideration should be given to zero-rating “business to business” financial transactions so as to remove the GST embedded in transactions between financial institutions and businesses.
Export Pipelines and Provincial Rights: How Best to Get to the West Coast and Asian Markets
Authors: Morton F.L. Ted
Published: August 2024

The passing of former premier Peter Lougheed provided an occasion to remember not just his fierce defense of Alberta against the predatory policies of then prime minister Pierre Trudeau, but the substance of that defense: strong provincial rights based on the constitutional principle of equality of the provinces.
Trends, Peaks, and Troughs: National and Regional Employment Cycles in Canada
Authors: Kneebone Ronald D. , Gres Margarita
Published: August 2024

When the 2008 global recession hit Canada and national unemployment rates began to rise, the federal government soon found itself under pressure to do something to help. That something ended up being the Economic Action Plan, a multi-billion-dollar spending initiative spread across the country. But, in at least one part of the country, no help was really needed at all. In New Brunswick, the recession had barely any impact on the state of the job market. Federal spending there would have been at best, unnecessary or, at worst, harmful, crowding out private investment while having an inflationary effect on the regional economy. Unfortunately, any informed assessment of how much stimulus is required in each province requires many months of data. Governments, impatient to show they are taking action, hastily create plans that may cause them to spend needlessly — or even harmfully — in some provinces while possibly coming up short in provinces facing the deepest economic crisis. In this report we show this problem is not unique to the most recent recession. Our analysis uses monthly data on labour market conditions to show that the timing and depth of employment recessions varies widely across provinces and that this has been so in every recession since 1976. These results suggest that, to be effective, spending “action plans” and tax cuts must be targeted to benefit only certain regions of the country at certain times. The time it takes to formulate such targeted responses, and the obvious political challenges they involve, beggars the question of whether a national strategy can ever be designed that takes into account the varying economic conditions of a country with such a wide variety of industries and economic variables. Examinations of the role played by governments in alleviating the recent recessions in Canada, the United States and elsewhere have emphasized the importance of relying instead on “automatic stabilizers” — pre-established mechanisms such as employment insurance, social assistance, and prescribed tax adjustments — to alleviate the impact of recessions. Before the next recession comes, the federal government — and provincial governments as well — would be wiser to prepare by investing resources in legislating well-designed automatic stabilizers so these processes are in place to naturally kick in precisely where and when they are needed. With the right formula of automatic stabilizers responding quickly and precisely to economic contractions, the main job left for politicians would be persuading the public that resorting to action plans and national strategies is something we are better off avoiding.