bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Yadav Vineeta
Published: April 2021

Many people believe that if religious parties come to power, they will inevitably proceed to curb the civil liberties of their citizens in order to realize their religious vision, particularly in Muslim-majority countries. Academic research on religious parties, on the other hand, claims that the need to compete in elections always incentivizes religious parties to moderate their behaviors and policies, including those on civil liberties. Neither of these assertions has been systematically tested across all Muslim countries. This book is the first to adjudicate this debate based on systematic data covering all Muslim-majority countries for a period of almost forty years. It highlights the role that religious lobbies play on this issue and identifies the specific conditions under which religious parties do moderate their religious positions and don’t curb civil liberties, and the conditions under which they do so.
Rivers of the Sultan
Authors: Husain Faisal H.
Published: April 2021

Rivers of the Sultan offers a history of the Ottoman Empire’s management of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in the early modern period. During the early sixteenth century, a radical political realignment in West Asia placed the reins of the Tigris and Euphrates in the hands of Istanbul. The political unification of the longest rivers in West Asia allowed the Ottoman state to rebalance the natural resource disparity along its eastern frontier. It regularly organized the shipment of grain, metal, and timber from upstream areas of surplus in Anatolia and the Jazira to downstream areas of need in Iraq. This imperial system of waterborne communication, the book argues, created heavily militarized fortresses that anchored the Ottoman presence in Iraq, enabling Istanbul to hold in check foreign and domestic challenges to its authority and to exploit the organic wealth of the Tigris-Euphrates alluvium. From the end of the seventeenth century, the convergence of natural and human disasters transformed the Ottoman Empire’s relationship with its twin rivers. A trend toward provincial autonomy ensued that would localize the Ottoman management of the Tigris and Euphrates and shift its command post from Istanbul to the provinces. By placing a river system at the center of analysis, this book reveals intimate bonds between valley and mountain, water and power in the early modern world.
“Mike Fright”
Authors: Friedman Ryan Jay
Published: April 2021

This chapter examines the racialization of sound and language during the transitional period in Hollywood. It argues that the studios’ interest in African American representation in the talkies participated in the ongoing construction in US popular culture of the “Black voice” and of ethnically marked ways of speaking as signifiers of substance and vitality. Tracing the genealogy of this “thrown” voice back through white radio comedians’ vocal mimicry, dialect fiction written by white authors, and blackface minstrelsy, the chapter demonstrates that the talkies were a technological medium of racial ventriloquism. Examining the popular RKO feature Check and Double Check (1930)—a complex product both of radio minstrelsy and the early sound era “vogue” for African American musical performance—the chapter centers on a highly revealing gesture of counter-ventriloquism by the members of the Duke Ellington Orchestra, who refuse to adopt the thrown “Black voice” scripted for them, appropriating white singers’ voices instead.
Epilogue: The Ventriloquism of Media
Authors: Cooren François , Higham Lise , Brummans Boris H. J. M.
Published: April 2021

Historically, media studies and interaction studies have been estranged from each other. As John Durham Peters noted, this unfortunate situation can be traced back to the quarrel between the Sophists and Socrates, which can be summarized as the perennial opposition between the doctrine of dissemination, today represented by media studies, and the doctrine of dialogue, represented by interaction studies. This chapter calls this opposition into question by proposing to study media from a ventriloquial perspective. Communication is not only a question of co-construction and co-orientation, aspects on which interaction studies often focus, but also of delegation and tele-action, aspects that highlight the mediated dimension of any communicative act. The chapter illustrates the value of this perspective by providing an in-depth analysis of a videorecorded conflict mediation session. More specifically, it shows how a mediator acts as a medium in third-party dispute resolution by giving each party an opportunity to recognize their interests and positions in the other’s expressed interests and positions. The mediator thus acts as a ventriloquist who aims to help parties say things that reflect the compatibility of their respective interests, which seem incompatible at the onset of the mediation.
The Regime of Reason
Authors: Pippin Robert
Published: April 2021

In this, the first fiction of the trilogy, we are introduced to the central characters and the problem they face. A boy, David, has, during the sea voyage that brought them to the town of Novilla, lost contact with his mother and has been in effect adopted by Simón, a prudent, reasonable man, who exhibits no strong passions. Simón promises to find David’s mother in the new land. The central question is raised: what might be the point of presenting such an unusual setting and such a strange task, especially since there is no reason to believe David’s biological mother can be found? Why does Simón arbitrarily choose a young woman, Inés, who has no connection with David, to be “his mother”? Why does she accept? Why is David such a difficult, willful child? The most important question discussed: what does the childhood of Jesus have to do with the story of David?
Conclusion
Authors: Ceva Emanuela , Ferretti Maria Paola
Published: April 2021

The chapter summarizes the three main innovations presented in this book. First, contrary to institutionalist theories, this book shows how to understand the main threats political corruption poses to the well-functioning of public institutions, one must look inside of those institutions, at the officeholders’ interrelated conduct. Second, contrary to consequentialist theories, by making political corruption itself—not just its consequences—an object of public ethics, the book brings out the constitutive dimension of the wrongness of political corruption as a kind of interactive injustice for which all officeholders are responsible in their interrelatedness. Third, contrary to legalistic and regulatory approaches to anticorruption, this book argues for the importance of internalizing answerability institutional practices as the components of a public ethics of office accountability capable of giving officeholders practical guidance for their institutional action.
Grammaticalization and constructionalization in Japanese lexical compound verbs
Authors: Kageyama Taro
Published: April 2021

This chapter focuses on Type 2 (lexical aspectual) compound verbs, which appear to occupy a unique position in the systems of V-V complexes in Asian languages because they make up lexical combinations with desemanticized verbs in V2. Based on diachronic data, it is suggested that this marked class of compound verbs arose in Late Middle or Early Modern Japanese via two paths: (i) reanalysis and lexicalization of aspectual auxiliary constructions in Old and Early Middle Japanese and (ii) constructionalization of a special compounding schema where V2 specifies the manner and other adverbial meanings of V1. The latter path is characterized by the desemanticization of V2s in Type 1 thematic compounds or by spontaneous coinage of new V2s with adverbial meanings. The multifaceted development of Type 2 compounds, which does not readily fit in with the standard view of item-by-item grammaticalization, presents a motivation for viewing grammaticalization as creation of a novel morphological construction.
Complex systems
Authors: Wilson Jessica M.
Published: April 2021

Wilson considers whether complex systems are either Weakly or Strongly emergent. She first traces the demise of nonlinearity as criterial of Strong emergence, and offers a new criterion in terms of apparent violations of a conservation law. By these lights, the Strong emergence of complex systems remains a live but currently unmotivated possibility. Wilson then argues that while appeals to algorithmic incompressibility, dynamic self-organization, and universality do not establish the Weak emergence of complex systems, cases can be made that these or related features satisfy the conditions in the schema. Most promisingly, complex systems exhibiting universality have eliminated degrees of freedom (DOF), and so are Weakly emergent by lights of a DOF-based account; and other complex systems (gliders in the Game of Life; flocks of birds) may also be seen as Weakly emergent by these lights.
Consciousness
Authors: Wilson Jessica M.
Published: April 2021

Wilson considers whether consciousness is either Weakly or Strongly emergent. Some have seen consciousness as the best case for a Strongly emergent phenomenon, reflecting that subjective or qualitative aspects of consciousness depart so greatly from physical features that some anti-physicalist view (perhaps Strong emergence) must be true. Wilson considers two such ‘explanatory gap’ strategies, associated with the knowledge argument (Jackson 1982, 1986) and the conceivability argument (Chalmers 1996, 2009). She argues that each strategy fails, for reasons not much previously explored; hence while the Strong emergence of consciousness remains an open empirical possibility, there is currently no motivation for taking this to actually be so. Wilson then argues that attention to the determinable nature of qualitative conscious states provides good reason to take such states to be Weakly emergent by lights of a determinable-based account, and defends the application of such an account to mental states against various objections.
‘Charting’ a Personal and Institutional Life
Authors: Roos Anna Marie
Published: April 2021

In 1750, Folkes became president of the Society of Antiquaries, in addition to that of the Royal Society and contributed to efforts to unite both organisations. Although he failed, illness forcing him to resign both offices, chapter nine analyses the ensuing disciplinary boundaries between the two organisations in the early Georgian era. While natural philosophy and antiquarianism were disciplines that we normally assume were fast becoming disconnected in this period, our work will reconsider these assumptions. The Royal Society and the Society of Antiquaries were nearly reunited for good reason. Both societies incorporated techniques and affinities from antiquarianism—natural history and landscape—and the ‘new science’—engineering principles, measurement, and empiricism. We will conclude with Folkes’s final years, the circumstances of his memorial at Westminster Abbey, and an assessment of his life and letters, particularly with regard to his relationship with Voltaire.
Feature reanalysis and the Latin origin of Romance Negative Concord
Authors: Gianollo Chiara
Published: April 2021

This chapter investigates the sequence of changes leading from the Latin system of negation to the various Romance outcomes. While Classical Latin is a Double Negation language, the earliest Romance varieties show a Negative Concord grammar. In the proposed analysis, this seemingly paradoxical development is explained by situating the prerequisites for Negative Concord already at the Late Latin stage. In Late Latin, a featural and structural reanalysis of the negative marker entails the activation of a projection in the clause where sentential negation has to be identified. This, in turn, triggers the grammaticalization of new negatively marked indefinites licensed in the scope of negation. These indefinites establish a syntactic relation first with the Focus Phrase (as negation strengtheners) and subsequently with the Negation Phrase, yielding a Negative Concord system. This study highlights the importance of generative research on the nature and format of syntactic features for our understanding of diachrony.
Assessing phonological correlates of syntactic change
Authors: Danckaert Lieven
Published: April 2021

This chapter analyzes the puzzling word order behavior of be-auxiliaries in the history of Latin. Corpus data show that in Late Latin, periphrastic verb forms consisting of a past participle and a form of esse ‘be’ strongly prefer the head-final order ‘PaPa - be’, which – as is well known – does not survive in Romance. This generalization does not however hold in all syntactic environments: most notably, negated be-periphrases with a monosyllabic form of esse actually prefer the order ‘be - PaPa’. An account is developed which evaluates the status of Late Latin be-auxiliaries at the syntax-prosody interface. The core proposal is that Late Latin has two distinct lexical items esse, viz. ‘strong be’ and ‘weak be’. The lexical entry of the latter variant (which is the one most commonly used in verbal periphrases) specifies that weak be is phonologically deficient, in the sense that it can fail to project a prosodic word, in which case it has to occur in an extrametrical position at the right edge of a phonological phrase. The effect of negation on word order is explained in prosodic terms too: being proclitic, the Late Latin negator non forms a complex head together with weak be, and this whole complex is automatically mapped onto an independent prosodic word. At a general level, the chapter argues that at least in some cases, it is necessary to take into account prosodic considerations to correctly understand word order change.
Introduction to Quantum Field Theory with Applications to Quantum Gravity
Authors: Buchbinder Iosif L. , Shapiro Ilya
Published: April 2021

This book focuses on quantum field theory and its application to gravitational physics, in both semiclassical and full quantum frameworks, with special attention paid to renormalization, gauge theories and, especially, effective action formalism. Part I provides both conceptual and technical introductions to quantum field theory, starting from elements of group theory, through classical fields, up to effective action formalism in general gauge theories. Compared to other books on this topic, this book describes the general formalism of renormalization in more detail and pays more attention to gauge theories. Part II discusses basic aspects of quantum field theory in curved spacetime and perturbative quantum gravity. More than half of this part is written with a full exposition of details, including well-explained examples with simple calculations. All chapters include exercises, which range from very simple ones to those requiring small original investigations. The material in the second part was selected on the basis of the “must-know” principle: while detailed expositions are provided for relatively simple techniques and calculations, it is expected that the interested reader will be able to learn more advanced issues independently after learning the basic material and working through the exercises provided. In some cases, when more complicated subjects were discussed, the book only provides references for the original publications, where the reader can find the full details of the calculations used.
The Demise of the Anglo-Nigerian Special Relationship
Authors: Wyss Marco
Published: April 2021

Although the defence agreement with Britain had been passed by the Nigerian parliament in late 1960, the Nigerian opposition intensified its campaign against it by portraying it as a neocolonial scheme that ran contrary to Nigeria’s official position of non-alignment. In this opposition it was supported by and galvanized radical movements, trade union members, students, and the youth more generally, who staged demonstrations and even riots in Lagos and other Nigerian cities. The Ghanaian leader joined in the campaign, which gained in strength against the background of the escalating Cold War in Africa and French atomic tests in the Sahara. The British thus questioned whether the defence agreement’s decreasing strategic benefits were worth the political backlash that undermined Britain’s and the West’s position in Nigeria and forced Lagos to demonstrate its non-alignment by cosying up to the Soviet Union. As a result, the defence agreement was eventually abrogated in early 1962.
Age of Promises
Authors: Thackeray David , Toye Richard
Published: April 2021

Age of Promises explores the issue of electoral promises in twentieth century Britain—how they were made, how they were understood, and how they evolved across time. It does so through a study of general election manifestos and election addresses. The premise of the book is that a history of the act of making promises—which is central to the political process, but which has not been sufficiently analysed—illuminates the development of political communication and democratic representation. The twentieth century saw a broad shift away from politics viewed as a discursive process whereby, at elections, it was enough to set out broad principles, with detailed policymaking to follow once in office, following reflection and discussion. Over the first part of the century, parties increasingly felt required to compile lists of specific policies to offer to voters and detailed, costed pledges. We live in an age of growing uncertainty over the authority and status of political promises. In the wake of the 2016 EU referendum––during which an (alleged) promise was famously written on the side of a bus––controversy erupted over parliamentary sovereignty. Should ‘the will of the people’ as manifested in the referendum result be supreme, or did MPs owe a primary responsibility to their constituents and/or to the party manifestos on which they had been elected? Age of Promises demonstrates that these debates build on a long history of differing understandings about what status manifestos and addresses should have in shaping the actions of government.
Ostrich Actualism
Authors: Warmke Craig
Published: April 2021

This chapter explores the debate over merely possible objects, clarifies the distinction between actualism and possibility, and reconciles actualism with the reality of possibilities and nonexistents. Focusing on late work by Derek Parfit, Warmke proposes and defends an “ostrich actualism” that permits even actualists to quantify over mere possibilities.
Dispositional Evaluations and Defeat
Authors: Lasonen-Aarnio Maria
Published: April 2021

Subjects who retain their beliefs in the face of higher-order evidence that those very beliefs are outputs of flawed cognitive processes are at least very often criticizable. Many think that this is because such higher-order evidence defeats various epistemic statuses such as justification and knowledge, but it is notoriously difficult to give an account of such defeat. This paper outlines an alternative explanation, stemming from some of my earlier work, for why subjects are criticizable for retaining beliefs in the face of paradigm kinds of putatively defeating higher-order evidence: they manifest dispositions that are bad relative to a range of candidate epistemic successes such as true belief and knowledge. In particular, being disposed to only give up belief in response to higher-order evidence when that evidence is not misleading would require subjects to have dispositions that discriminate between cases in which their original cognitive processes is fine, and cases in which they merely seemed to be fine. But, I argue, such dispositions are not normally humanly feasible. I show that retaining belief in putative cases of defeat by higher-order evidence is problematic irrespective of whether veritism or some form of gnosticism is true. In the end I contrast my account of dispositional evaluations with similar-sounding ideas that have been put forth in the literature, such as consequentialist views that focus on instrumental means to success.
Workflow Demonstration part 2
Authors: Petchey Owen L. , Beckerman Andrew P. , Cooper Natalie , Childs Dylan Z.
Published: April 2021

In this chapter, we gain our first real insights about the data. We use visualizations and summarize the data to show how it is distributed and, among other things, that female bats eat larger prey on average than males. We also look at the data from a different perspective and show that the composition of prey species taken differs among female and male bats. This chapter covers a lot of new R, for example splitting our data into groups for summary statistics, and many new concepts. These will be explored in more detail in the following chapters.
Dealing with data 2
Authors: Petchey Owen L. , Beckerman Andrew P. , Cooper Natalie , Childs Dylan Z.
Published: April 2021

In this chapter we go through some miscellaneous R topics, all of which you experienced briefly in the bat diet workflow demonstration. These include pipes, a mechanism for moving data from one operation to another; strings, how words and text are represented in computers using ‘stringr’; dates and times, until recently a proper pain anywhere on a computer, but now much simpler and straightforward to deal with, using the lubridate package; and pivoting, changing data from long to wide format, and wide to long, using the ‘pivot_longer’ and ‘pivot_wider’ functions in the tidyr package.
Sectoral Dynamics
Authors: Haraguchi Nobuya , Amann Jürgen
Published: April 2021

The general pattern of structural change in relation to GDP per capita (using panel data) shows a decline of agriculture and a huge increase in services. Initially the shares of industry and manufacturing in GDP and employment increase, followed by a decline. But there are interesting differences between countries, both in terms of levels and in terms of the timing of the turning point. This chapter revisits the debates on structural change in the tradition of Chenery and his associates. It examines the findings of Chenery in the light of more recent data. By and large it finds that the conclusions of Chenery stand the test of time. Subsequently, the chapter goes on to examine patterns of structural change within manufacturing, and finds important differences between sectors. Some sectors conform to the general U-curve, but other—high-tech—sectors buck the trend. Their shares of employment continue to expand even at higher levels of per capita income.
Finance and Structural Change
Authors: Griffith-Jones Stephany , Ocampo José Antonio
Published: April 2021

This chapter emphasizes two crucial links between finance and structural change. The first is a direct contribution with finance supporting innovative sectors through long-term funding. The chapter highlights the role of development banks, multilateral, but especially national ones, which should place structural transformation at the centre of their activities. The second link emphasized involves avoiding the risks associated with boom–bust cycles in external as well as domestic private financing. The proper use of capital account regulations as one of the instruments of macroeconomic policies in open economies is essential, particularly in emerging and developing countries. At the domestic level, avoiding unsustainable credit booms, and managing the maturity and currency mismatches in portfolios, are also emphasized.
Structural Change, Economic Development, and the Labour Market
Authors: Nomaler Önder , Verspagen Bart , Zon Adriaan van
Published: April 2021

This chapter addresses the relationship between structural change and the income distribution. It raises the question of whether structural change increases or decreases income inequality. The chapter presents a multi-sectoral model in the so-called canonical modelling tradition. In this model the distributional outcomes depend on the mix of the labour supply in different technology classes and skill biases in technological change. Whether structural change has an effect depends on the specific country. When it does have an effect, it mainly benefits high-skilled labour. The skill premium for high-skilled labour thus contributes to increased income inequality. Both the relative supply of skills and skill-based technological change tend to increase income inequality, though not in all countries.
The Political Economy of Structural Change
Authors: Chang Ha-Joon , Hope Christopher
Published: April 2021

This chapter criticizes the view that structural change is a purely technocratic process. Many writings simply outline a list of best practices. However, a political economy analysis is required. The chapter provides examples from the history of Germany under Bismarck, the Republic of Korea, and Peron’s Argentina. What is lacking in the study of structural change is a thorough analysis of political economy in explaining how structural change occurs. Who holds political power within a state, why are (or are not) certain policies adopted, and whose interests are (or are not) being served by a given economic policy? These questions are of the utmost importance in understanding structural change. Countries with a strong landlord class or a strong financial capitalist class have generally found it difficult to implement good industrial policies, as those classes tend to want policies that may be detrimental to manufacturing. One also needs to look at the ideas held by those controlling the state.
Transatlantic Topographies
Authors: Haacke Paul
Published: April 2021

This first chapter explores the geographical and historical sweep of the modernist vertical imagination in both Europe and the Americas. It begins with comparisons between Franz Kafka’s imagined Amerika and Max Weber’s writings on the “spirit of capitalism” after traveling to the United States, as well as W.E.B. Du Bois’ conceptions of racial stratification and uplift after studying in Germany. From here, it considers the rise of American empire and capitalist culture in terms of industrial scale, vertical elevation, and the “technological sublime.” Key examples include Eugene Jolas’ Verticalist movement in relation to James Joyce’s Finnegans Wake; Fritz Lang’s Metropolis in relation to the rise of New York City; major writings by Vicente Huidobro, Jorge Luis Borges, Hart Crane, George Oppen, and Claude McKay; and conceptions of racial stratification, uplift, and solidarity in Richard Wright’s Native Son, Ralph Ellison’s Invisible Man, and Aimé Césaire’s Notebook of a Return to the Native Land.
Coda
Authors: Haacke Paul
Published: April 2021

The Coda considers how the book’s historical critique of modernist verticality can help us develop more nuanced ways of rethinking more current discourses of the horizontal imagination, including decades-old arguments about the “depthlessness,” “shallowness,” and “groundlessness” of contemporary culture as well as the rhetoric of horizontal flows, digital utopias, and the global commons. In particular, it calls for further recognition of the growing ecological crisis and the persistence of social stratification and uneven development despite calls for “flat” conceptions of the social. It concludes by arguing that a more multi-layered and multi-dimensional understanding of the past and the future may be necessary for confronting the challenges of the present.
Financial Stability and Bank Supervision in the Twenty-First Century
Authors: Abbaszadeh Babak
Published: April 2021

This chapter addresses the challenges and opportunities for financial stability and bank supervision in the twenty-first century. It is argued that one of the major challenges to the vision of achieving a world where the financial systems are stable, reliable, and accessible was the 2008 global financial crisis. The G20 took up an agenda to improve regulation and supervision regimes globally through initiatives such as higher capital requirements and new liquidity regulations. However, challenges have emerged due to advances in technology, financial innovations, climate change, legislative or regulatory barriers and money laundering, organized crime, corruption, and the financing of terrorism. In particular, supervisors in developing economies face the challenge of how to ensure financial stability while at the same time promoting the development of the financial system to sustainable economic growth for poverty reduction and greater equality.
Mobile Money
Authors: Suri Tavneet
Published: April 2021

The chapter focuses on mobile money—one of the most celebrated innovations in the developing economies, that adds service over the mobile phone. The chapter highlights the economics behind the product, what may have driven to the wide adoption of mobile money in developing countries and the impacts it has had on the users of the financial product. The focus is mainly on the Kenya-based M-PESA given its success, but also discusses more recent innovations that build on mobile money systems to deliver additional financial services and value. It is noted that although these innovations exist, they have not given rise to a thriving Fintech sector. The chapter therefore also discusses the constraints to the growth of mobile money and what this implies for the future of mobile money in developing economies, and where the most exciting opportunities for research may be.
Evolution of the Financial Sector in Kenya
Authors: Chironga Cappitus , Mugo Matu , Tallam Daniel
Published: April 2021

Kenya’s financial system has evolved over the last 50 years, having experienced many setbacks, innovations, successes, and radical transformation in terms of services and products, policies, regulatory frameworks, and linkages. The evolution reflects ever-changing consumer needs, alignment with global standards, and growing complexity. The financial system has become highly interconnected, grown exponentially, expanded across the East African region, and become highly integrated to the real economy. Banking industry however remains the largest in terms of share of assets to nominal GDP, but declining. Adoption of digital financial services continues to create opportunities through new products, innovations, and delivery channels, thus enhancing in-country and cross-border integration. Continued policy and regulatory reforms anchored in Kenya’s Vision 2030 and EAC Customs Union Protocol will further upscale the system to global standards. However, regulators and policy makers are aware of possible risks to the system stability and stand ready to take mitigation measures.
Development of the Government Securities Market in Kenya
Authors: Thotho Leonard , Wanjiku Caroline , Amanja Daniel
Published: April 2021

This chapter evaluates developments in the domestic government securities market in Kenya during the period 1966 to 2016, a 50-year period since the Central Bank of Kenya was established. The chapter traces the evolution of Kenya’s government securities market starting with the legal and regulatory framework, evolution of the issuance policy, developments in both the primary and secondary market for government securities over time and some of the milestones achieved during the period under review. Among the key milestones include development of a reliable domestic financing programme for the government, development of benchmark bonds and a government securities yield curve, development of market infrastructure, and diversification of products in the market such as infrastructure bonds. Kenya plans to further deepen her government securities and capital markets, through launch of new products, modernization of trading system and establishment of over-the-counter market for government securities.
The Faith of the Son
Authors: McCall Thomas H.
Published: April 2021

Chapter 2 addresses the question: Just how are we to interpret and understand Paul’s language of “pistis christou?” Does it refer to faith in Christ, or is Paul talking about the faith of Jesus Christ? And what difference does it make—what is at stake theologically in the current debate? This chapter brings theological analysis to bear upon the current exegetical debate. After surveying the major interpretive options and analyzing the debated theological implications and broader doctrinal concerns associated with them, it makes a modest proposal that draws upon some oft-ignored and commonly misunderstood resources from the tradition of Protestant scholastic theology.
The Logos and His Logic
Authors: McCall Thomas H.
Published: April 2021

Chapter 6 engages with Jc Beall’s recent and fascinating Christological proposal. His bold and novel proposal is that we accept the traditional, creedal doctrine of the incarnation as a genuine and genuinely true contradiction. After introducing his views of logic and the relation of logic to theological claims in general and Christology in particular, the chapter raises some distinctly theological concerns; in addition to several issues that are grounded in the history of doctrine, it raises some worries that come directly from theological interpretation of the New Testament’s witness to Jesus Christ.
The Inter-American Development Bank and the Washington Consensus
Authors: Babb Sarah
Published: April 2021

This chapter traces how the United States (US) Treasury engineered the major shift in the Inter-American Development Bank’s (IADB) policy and formal structure through negotiations over donor contributions to its financial resources. The US behaved as an ‘activist shareholder’—using its control over resources to bargain with management for organizational change. Yet in contrast to ‘shareholder value’ in private firms, international donors can use foreign aid to pursue a range of incommensurable goals. The IADB’s initiation into the Washington Consensus resulted from a historic and durable shift in US policy-makers’ conception of shareholder value, from one in which the banks were worthy of support because of their ability to promote US security and diplomatic goals, to one that valued the Banks’ ability to change national economic policies. US shareholder activism not only brought the development banks into alignment with Washington’s agenda, but also into alignment with one another.
Necessity and Proportionality and Armed Attacks by Non-State Actors
Authors: O'Meara Chris
Published: April 2021

Chapter 4 builds on the analysis of the previous chapters by considering how necessity and proportionality are adapted to apply to defensive action against NSAs. With a particular focus on international terrorism, including the ongoing Global Coalition intervention in Syria against Daesh and other terrorist groups, the potential and limitations of necessity and proportionality are brought to the fore. In particular, this chapter examines the position of the ‘host state’ (being the state in whose territory military action is taken), which includes a review of the controversial ‘unwilling or unable’ doctrine. The duration and geographical scope of the right of self-defence are also considered in this context. A worrying trend is identified regarding how states appear to take a more permissive attitude towards anti-terrorist operations. This state practice has serious implications for the meaningful application of proportionality, whilst highlighting the potential for specific necessity to act as a restraint on state action.
Corporate ethics
Authors: Lütge Christoph , Uhl Matthias
Published: April 2021

This chapter aims to bring order to the multitude of different concepts that are discussed within corporate ethics. In the first part, compliance as a minimum ethical requirement is presented. Compliance risks are illustrated by examples from the fields of corruption, antitrust violations, and data privacy. Afterwards, the key tasks of compliance management are explained. In the second part, different perspectives on corporate responsibility are discussed: Friedman’s view, the honorable merchant, and the management of moral risks. In the third and largest part, different approaches to corporate social responsibility and their respective criticisms are presented. The chapter closes with some thoughts on corporate social irresponsibility and on the experimental approach to CSR.
Random walks and emergent properties
Authors: Sethna James P.
Published: April 2021

Random walks and diffusion provide our most basic example of how new laws emerge in statistical mechanics. Random walks have fractal properties, with fluctuations on all scales. The microscopic nature of the random steps is unimportant to the emergent fractal behavior. The diffusion equation is the law which emerges when many random walks are combined; it describes the evolution of any locally conserved density at macroscopic distances and times. The chapter introduces powerful Fourier and Green’s function methods for solving for the resulting behavior. Exercises explore this emergence, with applications to perfume, polymers, stock markets, the Sun, bacteria, and flocking of animals.
Phase-space dynamics and ergodicity
Authors: Sethna James P.
Published: April 2021

This chapter provides the mathematical justification for the theory of equilibrium statistical mechanics. A Hamiltonian system which is ergodic is shown to have time-average behavior equal to the average behavior in the energy shell. Liouville’s theorem is used to justify the use of phase-space volume in taking this average. Exercises explore the breakdown of ergodicity in planetary motion and in dissipative systems, the application of Liouville’s theorem by Crooks and Jarzynski to non-equilibrium statistical mechanics, and generalizations of statistical mechanics to chaotic systems and to two-dimensional turbulence and Jupiter’s great red spot.
Abrupt phase transitions
Authors: Sethna James P.
Published: April 2021

This chapter studies abrupt phase transitions, familiar from boiling water, raindrops, snowflake formation, and frost. At these transitions, the properties change abruptly -- the ice cube and the water in which it floats are at the same temperature and pressure, but have quite different densities and rigidities. The chapter studies the coexistence between two phases by matching their free energies, and discover the Maxwell equal-area construction. It examines the barriers to raindrop formation and discovers nucleation and critical droplet theory. It examines how the transition proceeds after nucleation, and discovers coarsening (familiar from the segregation of oil and water in well-shaken salad dressing), dendrites (snowflakes and frost patterns), and martensitic structures (important in steel). Exercises explore nucleation of dislocations, of cracks, and of droplets in the Ising model; complex free energies and nucleation rates; dendrites in surface growth and snowflakes; and martensites, minimizing sequences, and origami.
Applications
Authors: Rosenkranz Sven
Published: April 2021

To earn their keep, theories of justification must be shown to have fruitful applications and to provide the means to address well-known puzzles and paradoxes. It is argued that the present account of justification does very well on this score. Not only does it prove amenable to the idea that standards for knowledge and justification may shift, it allows for an explanation of why they shift in tandem. It lends itself to a justificationist conception of the rules that may guide the formation of beliefs, to the extent that these beliefs aspire to be knowledgeable. The present account moreover affords principled solutions to the preface paradox, the lottery paradox, the related but distinct lottery puzzle, and a more recent sceptical challenge targeting doxastic justification.
The Revenge of Defaulters
Authors: Zendejas Juan Flores , Pénet Pierre , Suter Christian
Published: April 2021

This chapter examines important changes in the way debtors and creditors settled sovereign debt disputes in the turmoil of the post–Second World War context. Post-war debt settlements represented an enormous task not only because of the sheer amount of debt in default but also because old methods of settlement no longer applied. Faced with the declining significance of bondholder committees, creditors increasingly sought the mediation of their governments. After 1945, the enforcement of sovereign debt claims was effectively transferred from creditor committees to creditor states. Drawing on archival data collected on several high-profile cases of debt restructuring, this chapter revisits the meaning of sovereign debt disputes in the age of interstate negotiations. First, we show that debt acquired a broader public and diplomatic meaning as states became the contractual enforcers of private debt claims. Second, we show that private creditors benefited from the active role of their states, but problems arose, notably in relation to equality of treatment between creditors. Third, we emphasize several cases of creditors attempting to elevate debt disputes to international legal forums. Although such attempts failed, they are nonetheless significant because they foreshadow many aspects and problems in the current debate on legal tools of debt dispute settlement. Section 4 assesses the efficiency of pre-1914, interwar, and post-war methods of debt settlements against several metrics of performance. Section 5 concludes.
Professorship and family life
Authors: Kox A. J. , Schatz H. F.
Published: April 2021

Chapter 2 describes Lorentz’s appointment as university professor, his move from Arnhem to Leiden, the methodology and views on physics in his inaugural lecture on molecular theories in physics, and his use of mathematics for the development of his theoretical work on optics and molecular theory, among other topics. Lorentz’s induction and involvement in the Royal Academy of Sciences is discussed in this chapter. Other sections are devoted to Lorentz’s experimental work in physics together with Pieter Zeeman, and to his work with various friends and colleagues, like Kamerlingh Onnes and Van de Sande Bakhuyzen. Lorentz’s first foreign contacts are explored, in particular those with Woldemar Voigt, Ludwig Boltzmann, Felix Klein, and Walther Nernst. Lorentz’s teaching and his first public activities are discussed here, as well as his marriage and his family life.
The Roots of the Economics of Mutuality
Authors: Jakub Jay
Published: April 2021

This chapter describes the history of how Economics of Mutuality emerged as a concept in Mars. It traces its roots back to the 1940s when Forrest Mars, son of Frank, the founder of Mars, set out the mutuality of benefits in a letter on ‘the Objective of the Company’. Those objectives were framed in terms of a mutuality of services and benefits among consumers, distributors, competitors, suppliers, government, employees, and shareholders. What was striking about this was the emphasis that the company placed on the interests of parties other than the shareholders—the ‘stakeholders’ rather than the shareholders. That was the basis of the study on mutuality that Mars Catalyst, the think tank of Mars Inc., initiated in the first two decades of the twenty-first century.
Building Social Capital
Authors: Fafchamps Marcel
Published: April 2021

Chapter 11 notes that social capital can be detrimental as well as beneficial to firm performance if it encourages allegiances outside the firm, for example, in the form of corruption and nepotism. Avoiding this requires creating a sense of common purpose and values that embrace partners rather than either exploiting them or pandering to particular interest groups. Three indicators of social capital appear to be particularly important: (a) inclusion and cohesion; (b) trust, solidarity, and reciprocity, and (c) collective action and cooperation. They account for a high proportion of social capital in vulnerable farming communities around the world and they are associated with the productivity of these communities. There is also evidence of a relationship between these measures of social capital, exchange of information and learning, and adoption of new agricultural practices.
Mutuality and the Potential of Microequity
Authors: Meki Muhammad , Roll Kate , Quinn Simon
Published: April 2021

Chapter 16 describes an experiment that is in progress in Kenya to encourage entrepreneurial activity through financing investment by micro-equity rather than micro-debt. The experiment involves individuals distributing Wrigley chewing gum products alongside other goods in Kenya, in particular in areas of the country which were previously impenetrable by existing distribution mechanisms. To assist with their activities, funding arrangements were put in place to allow the distributors to purchase bicycles. The study investigates what happens when the distributors were offered alternative forms of finance ranging from traditional debt instruments to more equity forms of risk (revenue) sharing.
Interface
Authors: Khoo Jon , Turner Miriam , Ellis Justine Esta
Published: April 2021

Interface, a billion-dollar corporation and one of the world’s largest manufacturers of carpet tiles, is an example of a circular-economy company. It uses discarded fishing nets to make carpets. Through a social enterprise, Net-Works, it collects and sells discarded fishing nets from local communities in the Philippines and Cameroon, generating income for the local communities, reducing the environmental impact of the discarded nets and providing an input for the manufacturer of new carpets. Network empowered local communities and Interface created a commercial activity out of the circular economy. Interface is hoping to be able to expand Net-Works into a global operation.
Kate Spade New York
Authors: Bird Taryn , Hadzic Aida , Roll Kate , Stroehle Judith
Published: April 2021

The case of Kate Spade is a good illustration of a company that has sought to create human capital in the form of women’s economic empowerment in an employee-owned social enterprise in Rwanda. The purpose of the company is to produce high-quality, high-end products for the global fashion industry by investment in training and skills that empowers women to promote positive change in their communities. The lowest artisan salary in the business is higher than the median salary in the private sector in Rwanda and the company generated a positive net income in 2017.
Protected Characteristics
Authors: Karim Razia
Published: April 2021

This chapter discusses the protected characteristics under the Equality Act 2010. One of the objectives of the Equality Act 2010 is to bring together in one place all of those characteristics on which it is unlawful to discriminate and to establish a single approach to discrimination, with some exceptions. These ‘protected characteristics’ are set out in Part 2, Chapter 1 of the Act. The protected characteristics covered by the Act are: age; disability; gender reassignment; marriage and civil partnership; race; religion or belief; sex; sexual orientation; and pregnancy and maternity. The chapter looks at the provisions for each of these protected characteristics in turn.
The Rise and Application of Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare
Authors: Khoo Yi Ivan , Hao Sen Andrew Fang
Published: April 2021

The overall purpose of this chapter will be to broadly explore both the existing and possible implementations of artificial intelligence (AI) in healthcare. The scope of this chapter will be explored from the unique perspectives of various stakeholders in the healthcare industry, namely the healthcare providers, patients, pharmaceutical companies, healthcare financial institutions, and policymakers. The chapter will seek to identify the potential benefits and pitfalls that faced by these stakeholders in implementing the use of AI, from the molecular level to a macroeconomics level; as well as seeking to understand the legal, professional, and ethical boundaries of the medical domain that are challenged as AI increasingly becomes irreversibly intertwined with the practice of medicine.