bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Membrane Potential Oscillations in Reticulospinal and Spinobulbar Neurons During Locomotor Activity
Authors: Einum James F. , Buchanan James T.
Published: March 2005

Feedback from the spinal locomotor networks provides rhythmic modulation of the membrane potential of reticulospinal (RS) neurons during locomotor activity. To further understand the origins of this rhythmic activity, the timings of the oscillations in spinobulbar (SB) neurons of the spinal cord and in RS neurons of the posterior and middle rhombencephalic reticular nuclei were measured using intracellular microelectrode recordings in the isolated brain stem-spinal cord preparation of the lamprey. A diffusion barrier constructed just caudal to the obex allowed induction of locomotor activity in the spinal cord by bath application of an excitatory amino acid to the spinal bath. All of the ipsilaterally projecting SB neurons recorded had oscillatory membrane potentials with peak depolarizations in phase with the ipsilateral ventral root bursts, whereas the contralaterally projecting SB neurons were about evenly divided between those in phase with the ipsilateral ventral root bursts and those in phase with the contralateral bursts. In the brain stem under these conditions, 75% of RS neurons had peak depolarizations in phase with the ipsilateral ventral root bursts while the remainder had peak depolarizations during the contralateral bursts. Addition of a high-Ca2+, Mg2+ solution to the brain stem bath to reduce polysynaptic activity had little or no effect on oscillation timing in RS neurons, suggesting that direct inputs from SB neurons make a major contribution to RS neuron oscillations under these conditions. Under normal conditions when the brain is participating in the generation of locomotor activity, these spinal inputs will be integrated with other inputs to RS neurons.
Optically Recorded Response of the Superficial Dorsal Horn: Dissociation From Neuronal Activity, Sensitivity to Formalin-Evoked Skin Nociceptor Activation
Authors: Lee Jaekwang , Tommerdahl M. , Favorov O. V. , Whitsel B. L.
Published: March 2005

In rat spinal cord, slice repetitive electrical stimulation of the dorsal root at an intensity that activates C-fibers evokes a slow-to-develop and prolonged (30–50 s) change in light transmittance (OISDR) in the superficial part of the ipsilateral dorsal horn (DHs). Inhibition of astrocyte metabolism [by bath-applied 400 μM fluoroacetate and 200 μM glutamine (FAc + Gln)] or interference with glial and neuronal K+ transport [by 100 μM 4-aminopyridine (4-AP)] leads to dissociation of the OISDR and the postsynaptic DHs response to a single-pulse, constant-current dorsal root stimulus (P-PSPDR). The OISDR decreases under FAc+Gln, whereas the P-PSPDR remains unaltered; under 4-AP, the P-PSPDR increases, but the OISDR decreases. In contrast, both the OISDR and P-PSPDR increase when K+o is elevated to 8 mM. These observations from slices from normal subjects are interpreted to indicate that the OISDR mainly reflects cell volume and light scattering changes associated with DHs astrocyte uptake of K+ and glutamate (GLU). In slices from subjects that received an intracutaneous injection of formalin 3–5 days earlier, both the OISDR and the response of the DHs ipsilateral to the injection site to 100-ms local application (via puffer pipette) of 15 mM K+ or 100 μM GLU were profoundly reduced, and the normally exquisite sensitivity of the DHs to elevated K+o is decreased. Considered collectively, the observations raise the possibility that impaired regulation of DHs K+o and GLUo may contribute to initiation and maintenance of the CNS pain circuit and sensorimotor abnormalities that develop following intracutaneous formalin injection.
Periodic Modulation of Motor-Unit Activity in Extrinsic Hand Muscles During Multidigit Grasping
Authors: Johnston Jamie A. , Winges Sara A. , Santello Marco
Published: March 2005

We recently examined the extent to which motor units of digit flexor muscles receive common input during multidigit grasping. This task elicited moderate to strong motor-unit synchrony (common input strength, CIS) across muscles (flexor digitorum profundus, FDP, and flexor pollicis longus, FPL) and across FDP muscle compartments, although the strength of this common input was not uniform across digit pairs. To further characterize the neural mechanisms underlying the control of multidigit grasping, we analyzed the relationship between firing of single motor units from these hand muscles in the frequency domain by computing coherence. We report three primary findings. First, in contrast to what has been reported in intrinsic hand muscles, motor units belonging to different muscles and muscle compartments of extrinsic digit flexors exhibited significant coherence in the 0- to 5- and 5- to 10-Hz frequency ranges and much weaker coherence in the higher 10–20 Hz range (maximum 0.0025 and 0.0008, respectively, pooled across all FDP compartment pairs). Second, the strength and incidence of coherence differed considerably across digit pairs. Third, contrary to what has been reported in the literature, across-muscle coherence can be stronger and more prevalent than within-muscle coherence, as FPL–FDP2 (thumb-index digit pair) exhibited the strongest and most prevalent coherence in our data (0.010 and 43% at 3 Hz, respectively). The heterogeneous organization of common input to these muscles and muscle compartments is discussed in relation to the functional role of individual digit pairs in the coordination of multiple digit forces in grasping.
Coherence at 16-32 Hz Can Be Caused by Short-Term Synchrony of Motor Units
Authors: Moritz Chet T. , Christou Evangelos A. , Meyer François G. , Enoka Roger M.
Published: March 2005

Time- and frequency-domain measures of discharge times for pairs of motor units are used to infer the proportion of common synaptic input received by motor neurons. The physiological mechanisms that can produce the experimentally observed peaks in the cross-correlation histogram and the coherence spectrum are uncertain. The present study used a computational model to impose synchronization on the discharge times of motor units. Randomly selected discharge times of a unit that was being synchronized to a reference unit were aligned with some of the discharge times of the reference unit, provided the original discharge time was within 30 ms of the discharge by the reference unit. All time-domain measures (indexes CIS, E, and k′) were sensitive to changes in the level of imposed motor-unit synchronization ( P < 0.01). In addition, synchronization caused a peak between 16 and 32 Hz in the coherence spectrum. The shape of the cross-correlogram determined the frequency at which the peak occurred in the coherence spectrum. Further, the magnitude of the coherence peak was highly correlated with the time-domain measures of motor-unit synchronization ( r2 > 0.80), with the highest correlation occurring for index E ( r2 = 0.98). Thus the peak in the 16- to 32-Hz band of the coherence spectrum can be caused by the time that individual discharges are advanced or delayed to produce synchrony. Although the in vivo processes that adjust the timing of motor-unit discharges are not fully understood, these results suggest that they may not depend entirely on an oscillatory drive by the CNS.
Rat Nucleus Accumbens Neurons Predominantly Respond to the Outcome-Related Properties of Conditioned Stimuli Rather Than Their Behavioral-Switching Properties
Authors: Wilson David I. G. , Bowman E. M.
Published: March 2005

It has been proposed that nucleus accumbens neurons respond to outcome (reward and punishment) and outcome-predictive information. Alternatively, it has been suggested that these neurons respond to salient stimuli, regardless of their outcome-predictive properties, to facilitate a switch in ongoing behavior. We recorded the activity of 82 single-nucleus accumbens neurons in thirsty rats responding within a modified go/no-go task. The task design allowed us to analyze whether neurons responded to conditioned stimuli that predicted rewarding (saccharin) or aversive (quinine) outcomes, and whether the neural responses correlated with behavioral switching. Approximately one third (28/82) of nucleus accumbens neurons exhibited 35 responses to conditioned stimuli. Over 2/3 of these responses encoded the nature of the upcoming rewarding (19/35) or aversive (5/35) outcome. No response was selective solely for the switching of the rat's behavior, although the activity of approximately one third of responses (11/35) predicted the upcoming outcome and was correlated with the presence or absence of a subsequent behavioral switch. Our data suggest a primary functional role for the nucleus accumbens in encoding outcome-predicting information and a more limited role in behavioral switching.
Homocysteine levels in A/J and C57BL/6J mice: genetic, diet, gender, and parental effects
Authors: Ernest Sheila , Hosack Angela , O’Brien William E. , Rosenblatt David S. , Nadeau Joseph H.
Published: March 2005

Increased levels of homocysteine in the blood have been associated with various birth defects and adult diseases. However, the extent to which genetic factors control homocysteine levels in healthy individuals is unclear. Laboratory mice are valuable models for dissecting the genetic and environmental controls of total homocysteine (tHcy) levels. We assessed the inheritance of tHcy levels in two inbred strains, A/J and C57BL/6J (B6), under controlled physiological conditions and assessed the relative importance of genetic, diet, gender, and parental effects. Diet affected mean tHcy levels, whereas gender affected both the mean and variance of tHcy levels. Moreover, gender of the parents influenced mean tHcy levels in reciprocal F1 hybrids, suggesting maternal effects. Finally, gene-diet interactions affected heritability of mean tHcy levels. These studies showed that each of these factors contributes to tHcy levels and provided important clues to understanding homocysteine homeostasis in humans.
Differential gene expression in pulmonary artery endothelial cells exposed to sickle cell plasma
Authors: Klings Elizabeth S. , Safaya Surinder , Adewoye Adeboye H. , Odhiambo Adam , Frampton Garrett , Lenburg Marc , Gerry Norman , Sebastiani Paola , Steinberg Martin H. , Farber Harrison W.
Published: March 2005

Clinical variability in sickle cell disease (SCD) suggests a role for extra-erythrocytic factors in the pathogenesis of vasoocclusion. We hypothesized that endothelial cell (EC) dysfunction, one possible modifier of disease variability, results from induction of phenotypic changes by circulating factors. Accordingly, we analyzed gene expression in cultured human pulmonary artery ECs (HPAEC) exposed to plasma from 1) sickle acute chest syndrome (ACS) patients, 2) SCD patients at steady state, 3) normal volunteers, and 4) serum-free media, using whole genome microarrays (U133A-B GeneChip, Affymetrix). Data were analyzed by Bayesian analysis of differential gene expression (BADGE). Differential expression was defined by the probability of >1.5 fold change in signal intensity greater than 0.999 and a predicted score of 70–100, measured by cross-validation. Compared with normal plasma, plasma from SCD patients (steady state) resulted in differential expression of 50 genes in HPAEC. Of these genes, molecules involved in cholesterol biosynthesis and lipid transport, the cellular stress response, and extracellular matrix proteins were most prominent. Another 58 genes were differentially expressed in HPAEC exposed to plasma from ACS patients. The pattern of altered gene expression suggests that plasma from SCD patients induces an EC phenotype which is anti-apoptotic and favors cholesterol biosynthesis. An altered EC phenotype elicited by SCD plasma may contribute to the pathogenesis of sickle vasoocclusion.
Phylogeny of Na+/Ca2+exchanger (NCX) genes from genomic data identifies new gene duplications and a new family member in fish species
Authors: Marshall Christian R. , Fox Joanne A. , Butland Stefanie L. , Ouellette B. F. Francis , Brinkman Fiona S. L. , Tibbits Glen F.
Published: March 2005

The Na+/Ca2+exchanger (NCX) is a member of the cation/Ca2+antiporter (CaCA) family and plays a key role in maintaining cellular Ca2+homeostasis in a variety of cell types. NCX is present in a diverse group of organisms and exhibits high overall identity across species. To date, three separate genes, i.e., NCX1, NCX2, and NCX3, have been identified in mammals. However, phylogenetic analysis of the exchanger has been hindered by the lack of nonmammalian NCX sequences. In this study, we expand and diversify the list of NCX sequences by identifying NCX homologs from whole-genome sequences accessible through the Ensembl Genome Browser. We identified and annotated 13 new NCX sequences, including 4 from zebrafish, 4 from Japanese pufferfish, 2 from chicken, and 1 each from honeybee, mosquito, and chimpanzee. Examination of NCX gene structure, together with construction of phylogenetic trees, provided novel insights into the molecular evolution of NCX and allowed us to more accurately annotate NCX gene names. For the first time, we report the existence of NCX2 and NCX3 in organisms other than mammals, yielding the hypothesis that two serial NCX gene duplications occurred around the time vertebrates and invertebrates diverged. In addition, we have found a putative new NCX protein, named NCX4, that is related to NCX1 but has been observed only in fish species genomes. These findings present a stronger foundation for our understanding of the molecular evolution of the NCX gene family and provide a framework for further NCX phylogenetic and molecular studies.
Elements of Nordic Practice 2001/2003: Norway
Authors: Fife Rolf Einar
Published: March 2005

An update on Norwegian state practice for the period leading up to 2004 is provided in the following article. The purpose is to register certain salient features, as opposed to providing a systematic or comprehensive report. A particular emphasis is put on making more accessible legal materials which are mainly available in the Norwegian language. The report supplements descriptions of Norwegian state practice provided in recent years in this series.
The Historical Function of International Criminal Trials: Re-thinking International Criminal Law
Authors: Joyce Daniel
Published: March 2005

The establishment of the International Criminal Court provides an opportunity to re-think international criminal law and procedure, and to develop a more coherent theory of international criminal justice. This article argues that increasingly the demands placed upon international criminal trials go beyond the process of securing convictions. There is an increasing expectation that such trials will contribute to broader processes of social recovery and reconciliation. Claims are also made for their having a pedagogical and documentary role. To this end, the author proposes the recognition of an historical function of international criminal trials. This is suggested as best forming part of the variety of policy rationales which underpin the processes of international criminal law. It is conceded that overemphasising the role of history could be dangerous and infringe upon the rights of the accused, but it is argued that underemphasising the role of theory and history is unsatisfactory. The article concludes that recognition of an historical function for international criminal trials involves tensions, but will provide a framework and rationale for a more narrative-based and victimfocused system of international criminal law which might provide an important discursive beginning for victims and affected communities, whilst balancing due process concerns.
Numerical Guidance Methods for Decision Support in Aviation Meteorological Forecasting
Authors: Jacobs A. J. M. , Maat N.
Published: March 2005

Numerical guidance methods for decision making support of aviation meteorological forecasters are presented. The methods have been developed to enhance the usefulness of numerical weather prediction (NWP) model data and local and upstream observations in the production of terminal aerodrome forecasts (TAFs) and trend-type forecasts (TRENDs) for airports. In this paper two newly developed methods are described and it is shown how they are used to derive numerical guidance products for aviation. The first is a combination of statistical and physical postprocessing of NWP model data and in situ observations. This method is used to derive forecasts for all aviation-related meteorological parameters at the airport. The second is a high-resolution wind transformation method, a technique used to derive local wind at airports from grid-box-averaged NWP model winds.

For operational use of the numerical guidance products encoding software is provided for automatic production of an alphanumeric TAF and TREND code. A graphical user interface with an integrated code editor enables the forecaster to modify the suggested automatic codes. For aviation, the most important parameters in the numerical guidance are visibility and cloud-base height. Both have been subjected to a statistical verification analysis, together with their automatically produced codes. The results in terms of skill score are compared to the skill of the forecasters’ TAF and TREND code. The statistical measures suggest that the guidance has the best skill at lead times of +4 h and more. For the short term, mainly trend-type forecasts, the persistence forecast based on recent observations is difficult to beat. Verification has also shown that the wind transformation method, which has been applied to generate 10-m winds at Amsterdam Airport Schiphol, reduces the mean error in the (grid box averaged) NWP model wind significantly.

Among the potential benefits of these numerical guidance methods is increasing forecast accuracy. As a result, the related numerical guidance products and encoding software have been integrated in the operational environment for the production of TAFs and TRENDs.
Dual-Doppler Observations of Severe Tropical Storm Maggie 1999
Authors: Tai Sai-Choi , Ginn Edwin Wing-Lui , Lam Chiu-Ying
Published: March 2005

Severe Tropical Storm Maggie crossed Hong Kong, China, in June 1999. The dual-Doppler winds of Maggie captured by the Hong Kong Observatory's (HKO) S-band Doppler weather radar array were studied. The tracks of Maggie's vorticity centers at 1–3-km levels were analyzed and compared with that at the surface as determined from the wind observations of automatic weather stations. The results indicated that the storm had a vertical tilt toward the west to northwest during the transit over Hong Kong. The tracks also deviated significantly from the deep-layer environmental steering flow. The southward movement and vertical tilt could be partly attributed to the easterly vertical shear in the ambient flow. But the terrain of Hong Kong could have also played a significant role in the lowest 1 km of the atmosphere. The tendency of the storm track to avoid mountains was well illustrated and may serve as a useful forecasting guidance indicator for tropical areas with significant terrain. Experimental runs of a nonhydrostatic model at 5-km resolution were able to simulate the broad west-southwestward movement of Maggie and the vertical tilt of the circulation near the center of the tropical cyclone as revealed by the dual-Doppler observations.
A Process-Oriented Methodology Toward Understanding the Organization of an Extensive Mesoscale Snowband: A Diagnostic Case Study of 4–5 December 1999
Authors: Moore James T. , Graves Charles E. , Ng Sam , Smith Jamie L.
Published: March 2005

A case study of a long, narrow band of heavy snowfall is presented that illustrates those processes that force and focus the precipitation in a unique linear fashion. System-relative flow on isentropic surfaces shows how the trough of warm air aloft (trowal) formed to the north-northwest of a weak synoptic-scale surface cyclone. To the north of the trowal, midtropospheric frontogenesis formed as the warm, moist, high-θe air in the trowal canyon became confluent with cold, dry air to the northwest of a closed midlevel circulation. Within the trowal airstream, isentropic uplsope is shown to contribute to vertical motion, while transverse to this flow, mesoscale lift is enhanced on the warm side of a frontogenetical zone in the presence of weak symmetric stability and conditional symmetric instability. Further, it is shown that a sloping zone of small positive to negative equivalent potential vorticity forms to the southeast of the midtropospheric system-relative closed circulation as low-θe air associated with the dry conveyor belt, seen in water vapor imagery, overruns warm, moist high-θe air associated with the warm conveyor belt. In this way cold season instability forms due to differential moisture advection on the warm side of the frontogenesis axis. Finally, a conceptual model is shown that encapsulates the key processes that contributed to the extensive, narrow band of heavy snow in the presence of a weak synoptic-scale surface cyclone.
Observations of a Severe, Left-Moving Supercell on 4 May 2003
Authors: Lindsey Daniel T. , Bunkers Matthew J.
Published: March 2005

A case study of a left-moving supercell with a rapid motion is presented to (i) elucidate differences in anvil orientations between left- and right-moving supercells and (ii) highlight the interaction of the left mover with a tornadic right mover. It is shown how anvil orientations, as viewed from satellite, may be used to assist in the identification of thunderstorms with differing motions and how this applies to splitting supercells. Additionally, the movement of the left mover into the forward flank of the right mover may have temporarily affected its tornadic circulation, as tornadoes occurred both before and after the merger, despite the structure of the right mover being interrupted during the merging process. Given the dearth of literature on thunderstorm mergers in general, and how mergers affect tornadic supercells in particular, this is an area that demands further research.
Operational Consensus Forecasts
Authors: Woodcock Frank , Engel Chermelle
Published: March 2005

The objective consensus forecasting (OCF) system is an automated operational forecasting system that adapts to underlying numerical model upgrades within 30 days and generally outperforms direct model output (DMO) and model output statistics (MOS) forecasts. It employs routinely available DMO and MOS guidance combined after bias correction using a mean absolute error (MAE)-weighted average algorithm.

OCF generates twice-daily forecasts of screen-level temperature maxima and minima, ground-level temperature minima, evaporation, sunshine hours, and rainfall and its probability for day 0 to day 6 for up to 600 Australian sites.

Extensive real-time trials of temperature forecasts yielded MAEs at days 0–2 about 40% lower than those from its component MOS and DMO forecasts. MAEs were also lower at day 1 than matching official forecasts of maxima and minima by 8% and 10% and outperformed official forecasts at over 71% and 75% of sites, respectively. MAEs of weighted average consensus outperformed simple average forecasts by about 5%.
Improved Detection of Severe Storms Using Experimental Fine-Resolution WSR-88D Measurements
Authors: Brown Rodger A. , Flickinger Bradley A. , Forren Eddie , Schultz David M. , Sirmans Dale , Spencer Phillip L. , Wood Vincent T. , Ziegler Conrad L.
Published: March 2005

Doppler velocity and reflectivity measurements from Weather Surveillance Radar-1988 Doppler (WSR-88D) radars provide important input to forecasters as they prepare to issue short-term severe storm and tornado warnings. Current-resolution data collected by the radars have an azimuthal spacing of 1.0° and range spacing of 1.0 km for reflectivity and 0.25 km for Doppler velocity and spectrum width. To test the feasibility of improving data resolution, National Severe Storms Laboratory’s test bed WSR-88D (KOUN) collected data in severe thunderstorms using 0.5°-azimuthal spacing and 0.25-km-range spacing, resulting in eight times the resolution for reflectivity and twice the resolution for Doppler velocity and spectrum width. Displays of current-resolution WSR-88D Doppler velocity and reflectivity signatures in severe storms were compared with displays showing finer-resolution signatures. At all ranges, fine-resolution data provided better depiction of severe storm characteristics. Eighty-five percent of mean rotational velocities derived from fine-resolution mesocyclone signatures were stronger than velocities derived from current-resolution signatures. Likewise, about 85% of Doppler velocity differences across tornado and tornadic vortex signatures were stronger than values derived from current-resolution data. In addition, low-altitude boundaries were more readily detected using fine-resolution reflectivity data. At ranges greater than 100 km, fine-resolution reflectivity displays revealed severe storm signatures, such as bounded weak echo regions and hook echoes, which were not readily apparent on current-resolution displays. Thus, the primary advantage of fine-resolution measurements over current-resolution measurements is the ability to detect stronger reflectivity and Doppler velocity signatures at greater ranges from a WSR-88D.
An Empirical Blowing Snow Forecast Technique for the Canadian Arctic and the Prairie Provinces
Authors: Baggaley David G. , Hanesiak John M.
Published: March 2005

Blowing snow has a major impact on transportation and public safety. The goal of this study is to provide an operational technique for forecasting high-impact blowing snow on the Canadian arctic and the Prairie provinces using historical meteorological data. The focus is to provide some guidance as to the probability of reduced visibilities (e.g., less than 1 km) in blowing snow given a forecast wind speed and direction. The wind character associated with blowing snow was examined using a large database consisting of up to 40 yr of hourly observations at 15 locations in the Prairie provinces and at 17 locations in the arctic. Instances of blowing snow were divided into cases with and without concurrent falling snow. The latter group was subdivided by the time since the last snowfall in an attempt to account for aging processes of the snowpack. An empirical scheme was developed that could discriminate conditions that produce significantly reduced visibility in blowing snow using wind speed, air temperature, and time since last snowfall as predictors. This process was evaluated using actual hourly observations to compute the probability of detection, false alarm ratio, credibility, and critical success index. A critical success index as high as 66% was achieved. This technique can be used to give an objective first guess of the likelihood of high-impact blowing snow using common forecast parameters.
Evaluation of Real-Time High-Resolution MM5 Predictions over the Great Lakes Region
Authors: Zhong Shiyuan , In Hee-Jin , Bian Xindi , Charney Joseph , Heilman Warren , Potter Brian
Published: March 2005

Real-time high-resolution mesoscale predictions using the fifth-generation Pennsylvania State University–NCAR Mesoscale Model (MM5) over the Great Lakes region are evaluated for the 2002/03 winter and 2003 summer seasons using surface and upper-air observations, with a focus on near-surface and boundary layer properties that are important for applications such as air quality and fire weather predictions.

The summer season predictions produce a cold bias in maximum daily temperature and a warm bias in minimum temperature that together lead to a good prediction of daily mean temperature but a smaller-than-observed diurnal temperature cycle. In winter, the predicted near-surface temperatures are lower both day and night, yielding good agreement with the observed amplitude of the diurnal temperature cycle but relatively large cold bias in daily mean temperature. The predicted temperatures in the boundary layer are also systematically lower than the observed temperatures in the two seasons. The cold bias is consistent with the wetter-than-observed lower atmosphere in the model prediction, which in turn can be attributed to an inadequate specification of soil moisture. In both seasons, the model produced substantially more precipitation in all categories, especially in the heavy precipitation category, and the overprediction is primarily associated with more widespread area coverage in the model prediction. The chances of producing a false precipitation forecast are substantially higher than missing an observed precipitation event. Small systematic errors are found in the predictions of low-level winds, but above the boundary layer, the predicted winds are predominantly from the west, while the observed winds are from the west-northwest. The model is able to capture the general development and evolution of the lake–land breezes in areas surrounding Lake Michigan during summer, although errors exist in the strengths of the breezes and the timing of their transition.

Predicted early morning inversions are slightly stronger than observed in winter and weaker than observed in summer. The weak summer morning inversion results in a rapid inversion breakup followed by an earlier growth of a mixed layer after sunrise. Despite the head start, the predicted mixed-layer heights in late afternoon are lower than those observed, suggesting that either the predicted surface sensible heat flux may be too low or the boundary layer flux divergence may be too high.

Decreasing horizontal grid spacing from 12 to 4 km results in little improvement in the predictions of near-surface and boundary layer properties except for precipitation, for which the model bias is significantly reduced by the increase in horizontal resolution. The cold and wet biases and errors in inversion strengths and mixed-layer development call for extra caution when using products from mesoscale forecasts in applications such as air pollution and fire weather prediction.
Tornadoes from Squall Lines and Bow Echoes. Part I: Climatological Distribution
Authors: Trapp Robert J. , Tessendorf Sarah A. , Godfrey Elaine Savageau , Brooks Harold E.
Published: March 2005

The primary objective of this study was to estimate the percentage of U.S. tornadoes that are spawned annually by squall lines and bow echoes, or quasi-linear convective systems (QLCSs). This was achieved by examining radar reflectivity images for every tornado event recorded during 1998–2000 in the contiguous United States. Based on these images, the type of storm associated with each tornado was classified as cell, QLCS, or other.

Of the 3828 tornadoes in the database, 79% were produced by cells, 18% were produced by QLCSs, and the remaining 3% were produced by other storm types, primarily rainbands of landfallen tropical cyclones. Geographically, these percentages as well as those based on tornado days exhibited wide variations. For example, 50% of the tornado days in Indiana were associated with QLCSs.

In an examination of other tornado attributes, statistically more weak (F1) and fewer strong (F2–F3) tornadoes were associated with QLCSs than with cells. QLCS tornadoes were more probable during the winter months than were cells. And finally, QLCS tornadoes displayed a comparatively higher and statistically significant tendency to occur during the late night/early morning hours. Further analysis revealed a disproportional decrease in F0–F1 events during this time of day, which led the authors to propose that many (perhaps as many as 12% of the total) weak QLCSs tornadoes were not reported.
War is Too Important to Be Left to Ideological Amateurs
Authors: Gilpin Robert
Published: March 2005

The 2003 American attack against Iraq was engineered by two powerful groups within the Bush Administration, the ultra-nationalists and the neo-conservatives. The ultranationalists’ motive was to gain control of the oil reserves in the Middle East and elsewhere in the region in order to gain and sustain American global primacy. While the neo-conservatives shared this objective, they also wanted a radical restructuring of geopolitical relations in the area in order to promote the long-term security of Israel. Supporting the Administration were powerful domestic constituencies, especially evangelical Christians. Opposition to the war was expressed by leaders of three professional services responsible for American security: the American army and marines, the Foreign Service, and Middle East experts in the CIA. Opponents of the war believed that there was no threat posed to the US by Iraq; they also believed that the civilian leadership of the Pentagon was not competent and that planning for securing and pacifying postwar Iraq was inadequate. The opponents of the Iraq War have proved correct.
Pluralism, Solidarism and the Emergence of World Society in English School Theory
Authors: Williams John
Published: March 2005

This article argues that the debate between pluralism and solidarism in English School theory has been cast in such a way as to hand the progressive cause to solidarism, taking for granted that moves towards the emergence of world society further a solidarist normative agenda. This article suggests this is because of assumptions about the nature and location of such changes within English School theory. However, an alternative understanding of change, as emerging from tensions arising within the pluralist understanding of international society, has been overlooked. This enables a challenge to be raised to the assumption that world society must be solidarist, producing an initial defence of a potentially ethically desirable pluralist form of world society.
A New Middle East? Globalization, Peace and the ‘Double Movement’
Authors: Ben-Porat Guy
Published: March 2005

The ‘rise and fall’ of the New Middle East (NME) cannot be separated from wider global developments and must therefore be studied in relation to them, in both their ideational and material aspects. The ideological background of the NME has drawn upon the ideology of globalization and shares its underlying tenets of rationality, professionalism and virtues of market economy. In the early 1990s a discourse of globalization was set in motion, highlighting economic and technological development that supposedly rendered territory and territorial disputes marginal or irrelevant. The NME, supported by Israel's business, political and academic elites, advocated liberal economics and peace as a solution to the region's problems. But Israeli elites have failed to turn the idea of the NME into a hegemonic concept, as this attempted liberal hegemony invoked a Polanyian ‘double movement’ that undermined the peace process. The scenario of the NME and the trade-off between territorial integrity and promised regional prosperity not only met fierce ideological rejection, but, perhaps more importantly, failed to persuade the many more skeptics. Limited in its appeal and lacking sufficient legitimacy, the peace process was exposed to derailment by extremists, locking the region into cycles of violence.
Critical Thought and Political Agency in Time of War
Authors: Jabri Vivienne
Published: March 2005

Every time I have tried to do a piece of theoretical work it has been on the basis of elements of my own experience: always in connection with processes I saw unfolding around me. It was always because I thought I identified cracks, silent tremors, and dysfunctions in things I saw, institutions I was dealing with, or my relations with others, that I set out to do a piece of work, and each time was partly a fragment of autobiography.2
Forum: Ethics and Practices of Engagement: Intellectuals in World Politics
Authors: Edkins Jenny
Published: March 2005

In the current situation of the so-called ‘war on terror’ the question of political activism in the face of an oppressive hegemony becomes acutely important. The role of academics and intellectuals in this context is the particular focus of this forum. Questions of agency, subjectivity and activism more broadly are raised, but the specific location of the international relations scholar needs to be considered too. Are scholars inevitably already politically located, as everyone is, or is there a sense in which they have a particular responsibility to discharge? How might one begin to imagine a different, perhaps oppositional, form of engagement, and what can this lead to in practice? Contributions engage with questions of normative consciousness, the specificity of cosmopolitanism and its disregard of the postcolonial experience, and forms of activism and contestation that exist already, as well as considering in more theoretical terms what possibilities for a different and more thoroughly ethico-political mode of engagement there might be.
The Link Between Religion and Spirituality and Psychological Adjustment: The Mediating Role of Optimism and Social Support
Authors: Salsman John M. , Brown Tamara L. , Brechting Emily H. , Carlson Charles R.
Published: March 2005

Although optimism, social support, religiousness, and spirituality are important predictors of adjustment, rarely have studies examined these variables simultaneously. This study investigated whether optimism and social support mediated the relationship between religiousness and adjustment (distress and life satisfaction) and between spirituality and adjustment. Findings indicate that the relationship between intrinsic religiousness and life satisfaction and between prayer fulfillment and life satisfaction was mediated by optimism and social support. Furthermore, the relationship between religiousness and adjustment varied depending on how religiousness was operationalized and whether positive versus negative adjustment indicators were used. That is, intrinsic religiousness and prayer fulfillment were associated with greater life satisfaction, but extrinsic religiousness was not associated with life satisfaction. These findings were significant even after accounting for covariates (age, gender, ethnicity, social desirability). Results suggest religiousness and spirituality are related but distinct constructs and are associated with adjustment through factors such as social support and optimism.
Stigmatized Targets and Evaluation: Prejudice as a Determinant of Attribute Scrutiny and Polarization
Authors: Fleming Monique A. , Petty Richard E. , White Paul H.
Published: March 2005

The authors provide evidence for a new mechanism for the more polarized evaluations of stigmatized than nonstigmatized target individuals that often follow positive versus negative target descriptions. The current research suggests that polarization can occur because low-prejudiced perceivers think more about information describing stigmatized than nonstigmatized targets (i.e., have polarized thoughts). Mediational path analyses revealed that polarized thoughts fully accounted for the impact of prejudice on evaluative polarization. These findings are most consistent with the watchdog hypothesis that people scrutinize information describing stigmatized targets in order to guard against possibly unfair reactions by themselves or others.
Positive Affectivity and Lifestyle in Adulthood: Do You Do What You Feel?
Authors: Kunzmann Ute , Stange Antje , Jordan Jennifer
Published: March 2005

There is much evidence for the adaptive value of positive affect. Empirical work examining different facets of positive affect and their consequences for psychological adaptation remains sparse, however. This study (young, middle-aged, and older adults; N = 293) investigated the links between two dimensions of positive affect (positive involvement and pleasant affect) and two lifestyles (hedonic and growth related), each indicated by general value orientations, self-reported everyday activities, and activity aspirations. Structural equation models showed that pleasant affect and positive involvement constitute distinct dimensions evincing different age trends and relating differentially to hedonic and growth-related lifestyles. Specifically, pleasant affect, but not positive involvement, was related to a hedonic lifestyle, whereas positive involvement, and not pleasant affect, was associated with a growth-related lifestyle. These findings underline the importance of considering two dimensions of positive affect—pleasant feelings and positive involvement—separately when studying the link between affect and lifestyle.
Applying the Interpersonal Circumplex to Children’s Behavior: Parent-Child Interactions and Risk Behaviors
Authors: Markey Patrick M. , Markey Charlotte N. , Tinsley Barbara
Published: March 2005

This article examined the applicability of the interpersonal circumplex (IC) to the observable social behaviors of children during parent-child interactions. In Study 1, the observational ratings of behaviors of 117 children (mean age = 9.88 years) were examined. Randomization tests of hypothesized order relations found that these behaviors tended to occur in the circular pattern predicted by the IC. To illustrate the applicability of the IC to children’s behavior, Study 2 (n = 94) used the circular structure of children’s behavior to longitudinally examine children’s participation in two risk behaviors, smoking cigarettes and consuming alcohol. Results indicated that children who behaved in an arrogant-calculating manner were at risk for smoking cigarettes and children who behaved in an assured-dominate manner were at risk for drinking alcohol 1 year later. Implications of these results are discussed in terms of their relevance for helping researchers better understand and categorize children’s interpersonal behaviors.
Identity and Emergency Intervention: How Social Group Membership and Inclusiveness of Group Boundaries Shape Helping Behavior
Authors: Levine Mark , Prosser Amy , Evans David , Reicher Stephen
Published: March 2005

Two experiments exploring the effects of social category membership on real-life helping behavior are reported. In Study 1, intergroup rivalries between soccer fans are used to examine the role of identity in emergency helping. An injured stranger wearing an in-group team shirt is more likely to be helped than when wearing a rival team shirt or an unbranded sports shirt. In Study 2, a more inclusive social categorization is made salient for potential helpers. Helping is extended to those who were previously identified as out-group members but not to those who do not display signs of group membership. Taken together, the studies show the importance of both shared identity between bystander and victim and the inclusiveness of salient identity for increasing the likelihood of emergency intervention.
Religiousness and the Trajectory of Self-Rated Health Across Adulthood
Authors: McCullough Michael E. , Laurenceau Jean-Philippe
Published: March 2005

This study evaluates the association of religiousness with the growth parameters characterizing changes in self-rated health during adulthood (ages 20-94 years). Even after controlling for health behaviors, social support/social activity, and four of the Big Five, women who were highly religious in 1940 had higher mean self-rated health throughout their lifespan, slower rates of linear decline, and less pronounced cascades than did less religious women. For men, the associations of religiousness with the growth parameters underlying self-rated health were negligible. Results indicate that the association of religiousness with women’s self-rated health may persist after controlling for mundane mediators and that the association of religiousness and self-rated health is not an artifact of the association between religiousness and the Big Five.
Comparisons and Perceived Deprivation in Ethnic Minority Settings
Authors: Zagefka Hanna , Brown Rupert
Published: March 2005

Two studies investigated comparison choices among ethnic minorities and majorities. The perceived status of the self vis-àvis different comparison targets also was assessed. Antecedents and consequences of comparisons and relative deprivation were examined. Predictions were derived from social comparison, stigma, social identity, and relative deprivation research. Two surveys were conducted, one in London with mainly Asian participants (N = 235) and one in Germany with Turkish and Aussiedler participants (N = 166) and German majority members (N = 351). Participants preferred intragroup and temporal comparisons (with other ingroup members and with the self in the past) to various types of cross-group comparisons (with outgroup members). Perceived similarity and contact with a target positively predicted interest in comparing with this target, and perceived higher status of the target was a negative predictor. Some evidence was found that feelings of deprivation depend on comparison choices. Deprivation negatively predicted self-esteem and life satisfaction. Deprivation and group identification were negatively correlated.
Stereotypes and the Confirmability of Trait Concepts
Authors: Biernat Monica , Ma Jennifer E.
Published: March 2005

Two studies tested the hypothesis that rules of trait inference may differ depending on trait stereotypicality and the social group membership of the target being judged. Specifically, traits that are stereotypic of a group were expected to instantiate lower evidentiary standards (require fewer behaviors to confirm), but only in members of that group. Study 1 focused on race and found that across 180 traits, trait stereotypicality was associated with fewer behaviors required to confirm and more to disconfirm in outgroup targets (in Black actors for White judges and in White actors for Black judges). Study 2 focused on gender and again found that stereotypic traits were tied to low evidentiary standards only when judging outgroup targets. The findings are discussed with reference to the literatures on trait inference, stereotyping, and shifting judgment standards.
Inequality as Ingroup Privilege or Outgroup Disadvantage: The Impact of Group Focus on Collective Guilt and Interracial Attitudes
Authors: Powell Adam A. , Branscombe Nyla R. , Schmitt Michael T.
Published: March 2005

Among members of privileged groups, social inequality is often thought of in terms of the disadvantages associated with outgroup membership. Yet inequality also can be validly framed in terms of ingroup privilege. These different framings have important psychological and social implications. In Experiment 1 (N = 110), White American participants assessed 24 statements about racial inequality framed as either White privileges or Black disadvantages. In Experiment 2 (N = 122), White participants generated examples of White privileges or Black disadvantages. In both experiments, a White privilege framing resulted in greater collective guilt and lower racism compared to a Black disadvantage framing. Collective guilt mediated the manipulation’s effect on racism. In addition, in Experiment 2, a White privilege framing decreased White racial identification compared to a Black disadvantage framing. These findings suggest that representing inequality in terms of outgroup disadvantage allows privileged group members to avoid the negative psychological implications of inequality and supports prejudicial attitudes.
“A Picture’s Worth a Thousand Words”: Language Use in the Autophotographic Essay
Authors: Burke Philip A. , Dollinger Stephen J.
Published: March 2005

The authors applied Pennebaker’s Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC) program to autophotographic essays addressing the question, “Who are you?” to test hypotheses about individuality and social connectedness. Specifically, the authors tested whether insight-oriented words would correlate with individuality ratings, defining essays that portray unique persons who creatively explore the self. Second, the authors tested whether connectedness, operationalized by photos of people-touching and self with others, would correlate with social process words. In 164 student photo essays, greater linguistic cognitive complexity characterized individuality, even when controlling for needs for cognition and uniqueness, and verbal intelligence. Connectedness predicted social words. These findings show that autophotography essays do capture complex self-reflective thought and suggest LIWC may be a valuable tool for understanding the expression of individuality and relatedness.