bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
C
alvin,
J
ohn (1509–1564)
Authors: Culpepper Scott
Published: January 2012

John Calvin was a 16th century Protestant theologian who led the reformation movement in Geneva, Switzerland and became the most articulate early proponent of Reformed Protestant theology. Calvin was born at Noyon in Picardy, France on July 10, 1509. Calvin's father was an attorney who was adept at both civil and canon law. Calvin was granted a benefice at an early age due to his father's influence. He would later repudiate this inheritance as his convictions became increasingly sympathetic to Protestantism. He matriculated at the University of Paris in 1523. Calvin then studied law at Orleans from 1528 to 1532.
Camp Meetings
Authors: Hopkins Jerry B.
Published: January 2012

The camp meeting as an event is usually identified with the evangelical open‐air gatherings in the early years of the 19th century in the United States. These meetings, however, are much older than that period and find some association with the gathering of God's people in more ancient times. Throughout the Old Testament there were open‐air assemblies where God's people met for worship. Of course, in the New Testament both John the Baptist and Jesus Christ gathered with people in the open air. Jesus particularly was fond of such meetings, giving many of his famous messages, and calling people to follow him in these gatherings. Large numbers congregated at critical points in the development of the New Testament church in such meetings. One of the events in this early period was the assembly at Pentecost recorded in the book of Acts along with Peter's message for the occasion (Acts 2).
Canadian Christianity
Authors: Steinacher C. Mark
Published: January 2012

Christianity's development in Canada is unusual, being neither merely an extension of European parents nor a smaller sibling of American churches. Distinctive elements include emphasis on ecumenism and multiculturalism. Some argue Canada became more thoroughly “Christian” by 1900 than the United States, rendering subsequent secularization more radical. This article is organized chronologically, using political events that impacted faith communities as dividers.
Canon Law
Authors: Montgomery John Warwick
Published: January 2012

Canon law is ecclesiastical or church law (Greek
kanôn
, rule). The development of canon law in the high Middle Ages (12th–14th centuries) had tremendous impact on the subsequent history of the Western secular legal tradition. It impacted in particular the spheres of family law (separation and divorce), succession (wills and estates), contract law (the sale of goods), and the criminal law (theft). Indeed, in studies of comparative law today, canon law is classed, alongside Roman law, the Anglo‐American common law, the European civil law, Jewish law, Muslim law, and Marxist law as one of the most influential legal systems of all time.
Canon of the Mass
Authors: Johnson R. Kevin
Published: January 2012

The Canon of the Mass (also called the Eucharistic prayer or prayer of thanksgiving in western traditions and the
anaphora
in eastern traditions) is the central prayer of consecration in the service of Holy Communion. It is a fixed text used for the consecration of the bread and wine at Holy Communion.
Canon of the Scripture
Authors: Pannell Randall J.
Published: January 2012

The word “canon,” from the Greek meaning “a rule” or “standard,” is utilized simply for the “list of books contained in scripture, the list of books recognized as worthy to be included in the sacred writings of a worshiping community” (Bruce 1988: 17). Since a “canon” means a correct or accepted list of biblical books, it is important to realize that the recognized list varies among the worshiping communities, especially among the Catholic and Protestant traditions.
Canonicity
Authors: Cowan Steven B.
Published: January 2012

Canonicity is the property or quality attributed to those books believed by Christians to be divinely inspired by which they are recognized to have a legitimate place in the canon of Scripture. Christians of all ages and denominations have believed that God has revealed himself and his will to human beings, at least in part, through the instrumentality of writing. The Scriptures thus produced were collected and preserved as providing the standard for Christian belief and conduct. The question that God's people have had to face in this connection is how to recognize those writings that should be accepted as canonical. The church has adopted certain criteria it believes enable it to answer this question.
Cantata
Authors: Johnson R. Kevin
Published: January 2012

A vocal/choral musical genre originating in Italy during the Baroque era, the nomenclature of the cantata is indicative of a song to be sung, in contrast to a
sonata
, or a song to be played on instruments. Cantatas are multi‐movement works generally comprised of a series of sung recitatives, arias, ariosos, duets, and choruses accompanied by instruments. They can employ either sacred or secular texts and were originally composed in celebration of a particular person or event.
Cardinal Virtues
Authors: Horner David A.
Published: January 2012

This is the traditional designation, beginning with St. Ambrose (c.339–397), for the four central moral virtues of wisdom, justice, courage, and temperance. According to Thomas Aquinas (c.1225–1274), they are called “cardinal” from the Latin
cardo
, meaning “hinge,” because, like hinges upon a door, these virtues permit entrance to human life. Other moral virtues (Aquinas identifies some 90) may be seen as subsidiary or more specific expressions of these principal virtues.
C
arey,
W
illiam (1761–1834)
Authors: Williams Will
Published: January 2012

English Baptist pastor, orientalist, and proclaimed “Father of Modern Missions,” William Carey was born on August 17, 1761, in Paulerspury, Northamptonshire, England. He was apprenticed to a shoemaker in nearby Piddington and, influenced by a fellow apprentice, began to attend a Dissenter prayer‐meeting. In 1783, his readings of the Bible persuaded him of Baptist principles, and Carey was baptized in North‐ampton by John Ryland Jr.
Carmelites
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

The brothers and sisters of Our Lady of Carmel are popularly known as the Carmelites. It is a contemplative religious order which combines prayers with an active life of service. The Rule of the Carmelite order requires its members to pledge allegiance to Jesus Christ. They also show devotion to Our Lady whose Carmelite scapular they wear. Their apostolate calls for a life of prayer and service. Their model is Elijah, the prophet who lived on Mount Carmel. His rallying cry “With zeal I have been zealous for the Lord of Hosts” is the motto of the Carmelites.
Carpenter Gothic
Authors: Whytock Jack C.
Published: January 2012

Carpenter Gothic, sometimes also Carpenter's Gothic, is the term used for both ecclesiastical and domestic architecture of the 19th century wherein, through the medium of wood, elements of the Gothic Revival style were employed. Gothic Revival building occurred throughout Britain, the British Empire, and the United States. In England stone and brick were the chief materials employed, but in North America, given the abundance of timber and the cost factor, many churches and houses were built or decorated with wood in the Gothic Revival style. Some have referred to this variant of the Gothic Revival style as “Carpenter Gothic.” This is common language in the United States, but it equally applies to many buildings, both ecclesiastical and domestic, in Canada as well as in New Zealand and Australia. In essence, carpenters used wood rather than stone.
Catacombs
Authors: Thompson Glen L.
Published: January 2012

Catacombs (the origin of the word is uncertain) were underground burial chambers used by early Christians. While they are found in various areas (e.g. Naples, Sicily, Malta, and Tunisia) the approximately 60 catacombs at Rome are the most famous, with miles of tunnels and tens of thousands of burials. A special type of tufa rock (
pozzolana
), excavated by the Romans as a building material and to make mortar, allowed for the creation of long multilayered corridors and chambers that were resistant to collapse. Since the government required burial outside the city walls, the areas outside the main gates soon were filled with family burial plots of the rich. Space became even more precious by the 2nd century when Romans gradually moved from cremation to inhumation. Wealthy Christians then began to allow tunnels beneath their plots to provide burial sites for their fellow Christians. The majority of the burials date to the 3rd and 4th centuries. Contrary to popular legend, the catacombs were not constructed as places of refuge during persecution, nor were they used for regular worship, although eventually they were used for memorial services for the dead.
Cathars
Authors: Huey Whitney
Published: January 2012

The Cathars, also known as the Albigensians, thrived in France and northern Italy during the 12th and 13th centuries. They were considered heretical by the church because of their dualism, the belief in two gods — a God of goodness and a God of evil, a belief thought by many scholars to have its roots in Manichaeism and the beliefs of the Bogomils. The Cathars rejected free will, the sacraments, church hierarchy, and the existence of purgatory and hell. They believed that matter was evil and had to be rejected. The Cathars divided themselves into two groups: the
perfecti
, the perfect ones, and the
credentes
, the believers. The
perfecti
were often simply referred to as the “pure ones” because they were able to reject the material world and all that bound their souls to earth. There was a strict process for becoming a
perfectus
. During a period called the
abstinentia
,
candidates were assigned to a current perfectus
for training. When they were considered ready, they became full
perfecti
in a ceremony called the
consolamentum
, which was a second baptism
.
Since they were the teachers and leaders of the communities,
perfecti
lived a strict ascetic lifestyle — they rejected meat and eggs, wore plain clothing, abstained from sexual relations, and studied religious works. Some practiced
endura
, which was to stop eating. Many scholars have argued whether or not this was intentional suicide. The
credentes
were to support the
perfecti
and to try to live less sinful lives. Catharism was particularly popular in the politically unstable region of southern France. In his efforts to eliminate heresy, Innocent III declared the Albigensian Crusade in the early 13th century, which caused great turmoil in southern France but failed to eradicate the heresy. The Inquisition was then established in the region to root out the Cathars. Over time the Cathars also became associated with witchcraft and numerous bizarre occult practices leading to their further oppression.
Cathedrals and Churches
Authors: Leinweber David
Published: January 2012

Christian church buildings have provided a wonderful and enriching dimension to all lands touched by the gospel. In Western civilization, church and cathedral buildings constitute one of the most significant contributions to the fine arts. They also reflect many larger historical aspects of the various eras in which they were constructed.
C
atherine of
S
iena (1347–1380)
Authors: Weppler Amanda , Murray K. Sarah‐Jane
Published: January 2012

Caterina di Iacopo di Benincasa was born in 1347 in Siena. At age 6, Catherine experienced a vision of Christ dressed in papal robes. This first vision influenced her decision at a young age to be dedicated to Christ as a virgin and Dominican. After the experience she began ascetic practices.
Celibacy
Authors: Köstenberger Andreas J.
Published: January 2012

Celibacy is conventionally defined as a person's voluntary pledge to refrain from marriage for religious reasons. The Roman Catholic Church requires celibacy of all its priests. The most important Roman Catholic documents regarding celibacy are
Presbyterorum ordinis
,
Optatam totius
,
Sacerdotalis caelibatus
,
Ultimis temporibus
, and
Novo incipiente nostro
. The Orthodox Church permits both celibate and married priests although marriage is not permitted after ordination as a sub deacon. However, only celibate priests are named bishops. The Eastern Church recognized celibacy and continence at the Quinisext Council (Trullo) in the year 691.
Celtic Cross
Authors: Whytock Jack C.
Published: January 2012

Also known as a ring cross or wheel cross, the Celtic cross consists of a Latin cross with a circle ring around the cross arms, and is primarily found in Celtic lands or in areas where Celtic peoples traveled. This particular type of cross may date back to the 4th century and appears to have reached its zenith from the 7th through the 12th centuries.
Central
A
frican Christianity
Authors: Sanders E. Randall
Published: January 2012

The countries that make up the region of Central Africa — Angola, Burundi, Central African Republic, Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and Rwanda — are an amalgamation of large and small nation‐states in the tropical equatorial zone of Africa. The region has one of the highest percentages of Christian affiliation in the entire world. Central Africa is also the most Catholic region in Africa as at least half of the population of each country, except for the Central African Republic, are members of the Roman Catholic Church.
CentralAmerica
Authors: Wilson Everett A.
Published: January 2012

From the Conquest of the 16th century to the armed conflicts of the 20th, religion has been a major determinant in Central America's historical travail. The process began with the Spaniards' effort to impose on the native populations the fervent Catholicism of the Reconquest, the 15th century Spanish expulsion of the Muslim Moors from the Iberian Peninsula, that was carried with the same passion to the conquest of Spain's New World possessions. For the next five centuries religion reflected the ethnic‐cultural composition of each of the social groupings.
Chant
Authors: Johnson R. Kevin
Published: January 2012

Monophonic liturgical plainsong in unmeasured meter (
cantus planus
), chant is also referred to as
plainchant
and is common in both eastern and western traditions. It is widely believed that the practice of chanting in the Christian tradition developed from the Jewish practice of incantation employed in synagogue worship for the recitation of scriptures from the Torah.
C
hapman,
J
.
W
ilbur (1859–1918)
Authors: Thoennes Erik
Published: January 2012

Born in Yale, Illinois, J. Wilbur Chapman would no doubt be more well known if he had not been overshadowed at the beginning of his ministry by his mentor D. L. Moody, and at the end by his apprentice Billy Sunday. With degrees from Lake Forest University and Lane Seminary, he was better educated than any other evangelist of his time. His writings include over 30 books, including a 555 page biography of Moody. Some of his most notable works include
Light on the Way
,
The Secret of a Happy Life
,
The Surrendered Life
,
Revivals and Missions
,
The Minister's Handicap
, and
Received Ye The Holy Ghost?
He wrote several hymns, the most well known being “Jesus What a Friend of Sinners,” and also compiled hymnals.
Charismatic Movement
Authors: Cartledge Mark J.
Published: January 2012

The Charismatic Movement usually refers to the adoption of Pentecostal spirituality within the mainstream Christian denominations in the 1960s, marking its influence within different strands of Christianity, as well as the emergence of House Churches or New Churches around the same period. This spirituality is usually associated with a post‐conversion crisis experience (baptism in the Spirit), often but not always marked by “speaking in tongues” or glossolalia, and the use of spiritual gifts, e.g. prophecy and healing, as well as modern musical accompaniment to songs and hymns and the use of drama and dance within worship. It marks and is associated with an empowerment and greater involvement of the laity in the life of the church.
C
harles
V
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

Charles V, as he became known when he was crowned emperor of the Holy Roman Empire in June, 1519, was born February 24, 1500, in Ghent (modern Belgium). He was the last emperor to be crowned by the pope. He also served as king of Spain, where he was called Carlos I. His paternal grandfather was Emperor Maximilian I, whom he succeeded as emperor, and one of his aunts was Catherine of Aragon, King Henry VIII's first wife. His son Philip was married to Mary Tudor, daughter of Henry VIII.
Chartres Cathedral
Authors: Murray K. Sarah‐Jane
Published: January 2012

The Cathedral of Chartres, dedicated to the Virgin Mary (Notre Dame) and situated approximately 80 kilometers from Paris, is one of the finest examples of Gothic architecture in France and a popular place of pilgrimage due to the presence of the
Sancta Camisa
, a tunic said to have belonged to the Virgin Mary and given to the church in 876. (Modern research has revealed that the cloth is consistent with the type of fabric woven in Syria in the first century
ad
.) When the first cathedral burned down, the relic was feared lost. However, legends recount how three days later a priest miraculously emerged from the ruins with the relic intact. The (admittedly convenient) rediscovery of the
Sancta Camisa
increased the popularity of Chartres as a pilgrimage site and ensured financial support for the rebuilding of this important site of worship from all corners of Europe.
Chastity
Authors: Beals Michael
Published: January 2012

In principle and in practice, chastity in the Christian tradition invokes two dimensions of sexual abstinence: continence and celibacy. Both of these dimensions engage the internal discipline of self‐restraint to motivate the contextualized avoidance of sexual intercourse.
C
hemnitz,
M
artin (1522–1584)
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

Martin Chemnitz was born in 1522 in Brietzen, or Treuenbrietzen, in Germany, and died in 1584.From the age of 14 to 16, he lived in Wittenberg,where he heard Martin Luther preach. He returned to Wittenberg in 1545 and remained there until 1547, where he had some contact with Philip Melanchthon and some exposure to Luther. Between 1550 and 1553, he studied theology independently, while residing in Königsberg, East Prussia. In 1568 he received his doctorate in theology from the University of Rostock.
Children in
C
hristianity
Authors: Schirrmacher Thomas
Published: January 2012

The Christian religion has always displayed a deep interest in infants and children, and family, nurturing children, and their education are all traditional sites of Christian activity.
Chilean Christianity
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

Catholicism began in Chile with the arrival of the first priests in 1541 and the creation of the diocese of Santiago as a suffragan of Lima in 1561. The first seminary was built in 1584. Catholicism was recognized as the state religion when Chile became independent in 1810 and it remained so until 1925 when church and state separated.
Christian and Missionary Alliance
Authors: King Paul L.
Published: January 2012

The Christian and Missionary Alliance (C&MA) was founded in New York City in 1887 as two interdenominational parachurch organizations, the Christian Alliance and the Evangelical Missionary Alliance, by Albert Benjamin Simpson (1843–1919), a former Canadian Presbyterian minister. His purpose was to bring together people from all denominations, with a common bond of emphasizing holiness, faith, healing, and missionary vision — what he and others called “the higher Christian life.” Merged together as The Christian and Missionary Alliance in 1897, it eventually evolved into a denomination many decades later.
Christmas
Authors: Schmidt Alvin J.
Published: January 2012

Christians commemorate and celebrate the birth of Jesus Christ that occurred in Bethlehem about 5 or 6
bc
. According to the Gospel of Luke, he was born of the Virgin Mary, who became pregnant not by having sexual relations with her betrothed husband Joseph but by the Holy Spirit. Jesus' birth and its miraculous manner were predicted in the Old Testament. The Prophet Isaiahwrote, “Behold, the virgin shall conceive and bear a son, and shall call his name Immanuel”(Isa. 7:14). In the New Testament, Matthew, a disciple of Jesus, corroborated Isaiah's prophecy by quoting its exact words (Matt. 1:22–23). The purpose of Jesus' birth is also stated in the Bible. The Gospel of John, for instance, states, “For God so loved the world that he gave his only begotten Son, that whosoever believes in him should not perish but have eternal life” (John 3:16).
Christological Controversies
Authors: Gomes Alan W.
Published: January 2012

During the first six or seven centuries, the church was forced to oppose a variety of false teachings about Christ that had set themselves against a biblical, orthodox position. As a result of these errors, the church clarified and refined its teaching about Christ, drawing out more fully the biblical implications of his person. The battle over the correct Jesus was waged on two related fronts that overlapped chronologically. One set of controversies dealt primarily with the relationship of Jesus to God the Father. The key issues here focused on how Jesus' deity was to be conceived in relation to that of the Father in light of the demands of biblical monotheism. The disputes in this class are typically referred to as the trinitarian controversies. A second, associated set of issues focused on the incarnate Christ, particularly on the relationship between his divinity and his humanity.
Chronos: Christianity and Time
Authors: Vondey Wolfgang
Published: January 2012

The Christian discussion about time is generally carried out under the category of history and from the perspective of the gospel of Jesus Christ, which divides all of history into the periods “before Christ” (bc) and “after Christ” (ad). Time is seen as the fluctuation of history, in contrast to the eternity of God, and as the framework that makes possible the revelation of God in creation. Birth, life, and death are the constituents of the time of the individual, while the whole of creation moves toward the consummation of time at the end of history, when time is subsumed into eternity.
Separation of Church and State
Authors: Leinweber David
Published: January 2012

In the United States, the phrase “separation of Church and state” draws literally from a famous 1802 letter by Thomas Jefferson to the Danbury Baptists advocating a “wall of separation between church and state.” Contrary to some popular conceptions, the phrase is not found in the United States Constitution. More generally the phrase “Separation of church and state” represents one of the most important and long‐lasting themes in Christian history.
Church Architecture
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

In the years immediately following the crucifixion and the ascension, Christians met in private homes for worship and fellowship. The term church originally meant the congregation or the people of God and only later came to be applied to the building where the congregation met. Churches were distinct from pagan temples that housed gods without reference to their devotees. They were also different from the Jewish temple or synagogue since it had no outer court and inner court or the holy of holies into which only the high priest could enter. The formal model was the Upper Room in which the disciples gathered to celebrate the Last Supper. Thus all later churches were in one sense Upper Rooms where as in Acts 13–14 believers constantly devoted themselves to prayer. Paul refers to the faithful meeting in house‐churches, the hyphen indicating that wherever the believers met was
eo ipso
a church. In Rome, house‐churches were known as title churches (
tituli
) which had the name of the owner inscribed on a slab.
Churches of Christ
Authors: Brenneman Todd M.
Published: January 2012

Churches of Christ is one of three religious groups that are descended from the union of the movements of Barton W. Stone and Alexander Campbell. The group was committed to the unification of Christians by the breaking down of denominational barriers, as well as a primitivism that claimed to restore New Testament Christianity in the 19th century. Claiming the Bible alone as their guide for faith and practice, the group was able to draw members from other denominations interested in the removal of denominational names and an individualism that promoted the ability of the person to read and understand Scripture unaided.
Cinema, Christian
Authors: Carrigan Henry L.
Published: January 2012

Until the 1960s, the phrase “Christian cinema” would have been an oxymoron. Most Christian groups frowned upon the movies, either because, in the eyes of these groups, the movies subverted Christian doctrine or because they encouraged youth to engage in behavior of which the church did not approve. The Roman Catholic Church expanded its Index of Prohibited Books to include films, thus banning, as part of official church practice and governance, many movies and forbidding moviegoing. Protestants, especially Baptists and Methodists, lumped moviegoing into the same moral categories as gambling, dancing, smoking, and card playing. Although Protestants did not have an Index that was binding on their behavior, they did associate movies with disreputable social behavior and unseemly witness to the gospel and so forbade (and many still forbid) their congregants to darken the doors of movie theaters. Sheer entertainment was the devil's playground, and Satan could corrupt innocent youth in those dark palaces of sin.
Clement of
A
lexandria (
c
.160–215)
Authors: Harmon Steven R.
Published: January 2012

As Titus Flavius Clemens wrote little about his life, his biography is dependent on sources written centuries after his death and conjectures on the basis of hints in his own writings. In his sole autobiographical comment he mentioned briefly the Christian teachers with whom he had studied: an Ionian Greek, a Syrian, an Egyptian, an Assyrian, a Palestinian Jew (probably a Jewish Christian), and finally, “the true Sicilian bee” in Egypt whom Clement considered his most influential teacher. While Clement did not name these teachers, the “Sicilian bee” was in all likelihood Pantaenus, regarded as the founder of the Christian catechetical school in Alexandria.
Cloud of Unknowing, The
Authors: S.J Harvey D. Egan,
Published: January 2012

Scholars have been able to identify the anonymous author of the highly celebrated
Cloud
of
Unknowing
(c.1345–c.1386) only as a 14th century Carthusian recluse from a monastery in the East Midlands, England. Yet this unknown monk's mystical depth, theological acumen, psychological shrewdness, soundness of spiritual direction, and literary prowess are such that he is considered to be the mystical genius of 14th century England.
C
olumbus,
C
hristopher (1451–1506)
Authors: Coulter Michael
Published: January 2012

Christopher Columbus, whose voyages to the New World greatly changed the world's history, was born in Genoa, Italy, in 1451, the son of a middle‐class merchant. As a young man, he apprenticed as a business agent for a trading company, and his travels took him as far as Ireland. Europe had long been interested in asea passage to the Far East because the longoverland trip was not very economical. Contrary to popular belief, Columbus did not discover that the world was spherical. Columbus, however, is credited with discovering the trade winds and believed that a journey to the Orient by sea was possible. Late in his life he believed that God had opened his mind to a journey to the New World.
C
omenius,
J
an
A
mos (1592–1670)
Authors: Atwood Craig D.
Published: January 2012

Jan Comenius, best known as an educational theorist, was also a theologian, bishop, and social reformer. Born Jan Amos Komensky in Moravia, he was raised in the Unitas Fratrum, a small but influential Hussite church. He was orphaned at a young age, but his intellectual gifts were noticed by the church, and he was sent to Herborn Academy in the Netherlands. There he studied with the luminaries Althusius, Piscator, and Alstead. He also attended the University of Heidelberg and there established a lasting friendship with Johan Valentin Andreas, who probably wrote the famous Rosicrucian Manifestos. During those formative years, Comenius was persuaded that reform of ecclesiastical, pedagogical, scientific, and political organizations could usher in the millennial age. He later called this vision of universal reform “pansophy,” or universal wisdom.
Conditional Immortality
Authors: Gomes Alan W.
Published: January 2012

Conditional immortality is the teaching that the soul is not naturally immortal but dies together with the body. However, God may choose to bestow immortality as a special gift, i.e. at the resurrection. Conditionalist David A. Dean explains the position as follows: “By conditional immortality, I mean the teaching that immortality is not a present characteristic of any human being but a gift which God will bestow only on those who meet his conditions” (1989: 3). “Conditional immortality stresses that conditions must be met before the sinner can receive everlasting personal existence” (Dean 1977: 114–115).
Congregationalism
Authors: Culpepper Scott
Published: January 2012

The term congregationalism denotes a form of Christian polity that has been historically characterized by a strong assertion of the individual congregation's autonomy and democratic decision making within each congregation. Congregationalism is typically categorized as contrasting with both episcopal and presbyterian forms of church government. Congregationalist types of church government have appeared not only among the spiritual descendants of 16th century English Separatists but also among the various Anabaptist movements that emerged in the 16th century. While early Congregationalists shared a common Reformed theological perspective with moderate English Puritans, they eschewed the synodical system of church governance beyond the local congregation endorsed by some Reformed denominations such as the Presbyterians.
Contextual Theology
Authors: Cheetham David
Published: January 2012

Although contextual theology as a recognizable field of study is largely a contemporary movement, it might be suggested that most theology can be described as contextual. Thus, whenever theologies are constructed in order to address people in their social, historical, political, and experiential settings, or when theologies aspire to a certain
relevance
, context becomes significant. Moreover, key Christian theological concepts such as “creation,” “incarnation,” and “sacrament” already reveal the properly
embedded
nature of theological discourse.
Contextualization/Syncretism
Authors: Bigalke Ron J.
Published: January 2012

Postmodern philosophy applies the deconstruction of literature to the “reading of reality” by emphasizing the reader‐response theory of meaning, which means when reading something one can never know the intent of the author with certainty. Since meaning is uncertain, as a matter of interpretation, the reader then determines it. In regards to biblical interpretation, the theory is that the meaning of a given verse is dependent upon the presuppositions and pre‐understandings of the one who is reading the text; there can be as many acceptable interpretations as there are readers. Presuppositions and pre‐understandings influence perspective and impact interpretation. Since meaning of a text is dependent upon the reader, reality can be “read” differently, according to the presuppositions and preunderstandings of the individuals who are experiencing reality. The result of deconstructionist thinking is that culture determines biblical meaning, and is therefore the source of authority. Social location, or the reader's cultural context, is the primary criterion for biblical interpretation. Scripture is understood within one's social setting, which means that location is more important for biblical interpretation than the social location of the biblical author and text. Such an understanding of the biblical text is sometimes termed “contextualization of Scripture.” Especially in western societies and locations where western civilization has exerted influence, the church approaches cultural pluralism with diligence. Pluralism in western culture affirms the equal value of one belief to every other belief; therefore, all beliefs are regarded as equal in value. Scripture is propositional truth revealed by God, that is, propositional statements of infallible truth. Therefore, belief in propositional truth revealed by God is of greater value than any other belief. Biblical contextualization applies — as opposed to accommodates — Scripture to a cultural context. Whenever a contextualization meaning and method gives precedence to cultural contexts, it denies the importance of the authority of Scripture and the Bible becomes a mere allusion to one's own private, individual meaning (cf. 2 Pet. 1:20–21).
Contraception and Family Planning
Authors: Schirrmacher Thomas
Published: January 2012

Although the ideal of clerical celibacy and the everyday reality of the laity diverged, Christian theologians have condemned contraception and family planning since the days of the early church, even though the process of procreation was not understood and few contraceptive procedures were available. It was believed at the time that the unborn child existed as a complete human being inside the man's semen, which he planted in the woman's womb, masturbation and coitus interruptus were considered mortal sins. Protestant churches adopted this attitude, but later reconsidered their teachings on the purpose of marriage.
Copts in Christian History
Authors: Jothen Peder
Published: January 2012

Coptic Christianity is centered in Egypt and belongs to the Oriental Orthodox family of Christianity. Theological doctrines are pre‐Chalcedonian (451), and include a Monophysite Christology and adherence to the Nicene Creed.
C
owper,
W
illiam (1731–1800)
Authors: Veith Gene Edward
Published: January 2012

William Cowper (pronounced “Cooper”) was born in Berkhamsted, England, on November 26, 1736. His father was John Cowper, chaplain to King George II. William became a notable poet, known for his genial poems on ordinary life, his powerful hymns, and his tragic mental breakdowns fueled by doubts about his salvation.
Creationism
Authors: Moreland J. P.
Published: January 2012

Creationism is usually synonymous with “scientific creationism” (a.k.a. “creation science”) and has a broad and a narrow usage. Broadly, it applies to progressive and young earth creationism. Accordingly, creationism entails theistic science and excludes methodological naturalism. Theistic science captures the notion that Christians should utilize everything they know in developing and testing hypotheses, in explaining things in science, and in evaluating scientific hypotheses, and among the things they should consult are propositions of theology. Theistic science includes the idea that 1) God, conceived of as a personal agent with power and intelligence, has through primary and secondary causation created and designed the world for a purpose and has directly “intervened” during its development at various times; and 2) the commitment expressed in 1) can appropriately enter into very fabric of scientific practice.
Creeds and Confessions of Faith
Authors: Church Alan
Published: January 2012

Creeds, also known as confessions of faith, are formal and authoritative statements of what the universal church or a particular denomination considers essential and necessary to teach the faithful what they should or do believe. This presupposes that the theological doctrine underlying a creed can be established definitively through scriptural and apostolic authority; that the creed is issued by an authority considered legitimate by the faithful who receive it; and that the creed's legitimacy is authenticated further by the conventional wisdom of the community of believers who continue to accept its authority in subsequent ages.
Critics and Enemies of the Faith
Authors: Bruce James E.
Published: January 2012

Christianity was born in persecution. With the exception of John the Evangelist, all the apostles most likely met with martyrdom. The death of James the brother of John is mentioned in Acts 12, and, according to early Christian sources, the apostle Paul was executed in Rome. And the persecution of Christians was by no means an ancient phenomenon only; it has been suggested that the martyrdom of Christians in the 20th century exceeded the sum of the previous 19.
Croatian Christianity
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

Christianity was introduced into Croatia near the end of Paul's ministry and found its first adherents among the Dalmatian Jews. Within the next century, Christian missionaries reached the country from both Byzantium in the east and Rome in the west. Croatia fell within the Roman zone of influence and Serbia within the Byzantine zone. This division has continued through to this day.
C
rosby,
F
rances
J
ane (1820–1915)
Authors: Wolfe Elisabeth
Published: January 2012

Fanny J. Crosby was born in Putnam County, New York, on March 24, 1820. An eye infection and a doctor's incompetence left her blind at six weeks of age, a fact for which she gave thanks throughout her life. In fact, her first poem, written when she was 8 years old, briefly treats her resolve to enjoy life in spite of her blindness. She studied at the New York Institution for the Blind from 1835 to 1843, during which time a Scottish phrenologist pronounced her a poet. After her graduation, she taught ancient history and English grammar and rhetoric at the same New York Institution until her marriage to blind music teacher and church organist, Alexander Van Alstyne, in 1858. Her first published poem, a eulogy on William Henry Harrison, appeared in the
New York Herald
in 1841. After placing other poems in other newspapers, Crosby published three volumes of poetry:
The Blind Girl and Other Poems
in 1844,
Monterey and Other Poems
in 1851, and
A Wreath of Columbia's Flowers
in 1858. She began writing popular lyrics and cantatas in 1851 in collaboration with George F. Root; she also appeared before Congress and went on the lecture circuit, often as an advocate for the blind. In 1864, at the urging of William Bradbury, she turned her attention to hymnody and went on to write as many as 9,000 hymns, published under scores of pseudonyms as well as her own name, in collaboration with such composers as Ira Sankey, William J. Kirkpatrick, and William Howard Doane. Her last volume of poetry,
Bells at Evening and Other Poems
, appeared in 1897, and she also published two memoirs in her later years,
Fanny Crosby's Life‐Story
in 1903 and
Memories of Eighty Years
in 1906. Van Alstyne died in 1902, and Crosby died in Bridgeport, Connecticut, on February 12, 1915 and was buried there. Her tombstone bears the inscriptions “Aunt Fanny” and “She hath done all that she could,” and a nearby memorial includes the first lines of “Blessed Assurance.”
Cuban Christianity
Authors: García Alberto L.
Published: January 2012

The island of Cuba is the largest of the Greater Antilles. It lies in a strategic location in the northern Caribbean and serves as a key to the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Atlantic Ocean. The island is in close proximity to the United States and a number of Caribbean islands. This location has been a key factor in the confluence of cultures and the development of religion in Cuba.
C
ullmann,
O
scar (1902–1999)
Authors: Smith Jay E.
Published: January 2012

Oscar Cullmann, a German‐speaking French Lutheran and biblical scholar, was born on February 25, 1902 in Strasbourg, France. Although never ordained, he held several academic posts, including professorships at Strasbourg (1931–1938) and Basle (1938–1972). He died on January 16, 1999. Cullmann was a prolific author, and his published works include:
Baptism in the New Testament
(1950),
Christ and Time
(1950),
Peter: Disciple, Apostle, Martyr
(1953),
Early Christian Worship
(1953),
The Early Church
(1956),
The Christology of the New Testament
(1959), and
Salvation in History
(1967).
C
yprian of
C
arthage (
c
.205–258)
Authors: Blosser Jamie
Published: January 2012

Thascius Caecilius Cyprianus was born to a wealthy pagan family in North Africa, and received a prestigious education as a rhetorician. As a famed orator he converted to Christianity in the mid 240s under the influence of a priest. Cyprian was hastily elected bishop of Carthage by popular accord around 248, but his short episcopal career was overshadowed by the devastating persecutions of 249–251 under the Emperor Decius, which caused Cyprian to flee into exile. From this position he began his most lasting literary legacy: shepherding his flock by correspondence, fashioning a policy to reconcile those who had lapsed during the persecutions, and attempting to quell a schism formed in reaction to this policy. When Cyprian was able to return to Carthage in 251, local African synods confirmed his policies. Cyprian's last days were marked by a bitter dispute with Pope Stephen over the question of rebaptism. A renewed persecution under the Emperor Valerius led to Cyprian's banishment in 257 and death by beheading on September 14, 258, as the first African martyr‐bishop.
C
yril of
A
lexandria (
c
.378–444)
Authors: Blosser Jamie
Published: January 2012

Cyril was born in Alexandria, Egypt, around 378, the nephew of Theophilus, bishop of that city. Following a thorough classical and theological education Cyril succeeded his uncle as bishop in 412.
Dance
Authors: Buchanan Deborah J.
Published: January 2012

Dance may be broadly understood as spontaneous or intentional bodily movement of an individual or group often used to express emotions, to transmit cultural practices or rituals, and in a religious sense to worship or otherwise acknowledge the divine. Within the Christian tradition, attitudes toward dance have varied across history and throughout the different strains, denominations, and cultures that have embraced the Christian faith.
DanteAlighieri (1265–1321)
Authors: Quantz Amanda D.
Published: January 2012

A native son of the powerful Florentine city‐state, Dante Alighieri (1265–1321) has long been celebrated as a politician, linguist, poet, and visionary. In canto 15 of Paradiso of the Divine Comedy Dante traces his heritage to the crusading knight Cacciaguida (c.1091–1147). He also asserts that he was educated by the notary Brunetto Latini (Inferno, 15) and by the friars (Convivio, 2.12.7). In medieval Florence these were probably either the Franciscans at Santa Croce or the Dominicans at Santa Maria Novella. In the context of the Florentine Renaissance, Dante's writings were strongly influenced by authors who had recently been rediscovered, including Horace, Ovid, and Virgil. The only lifelike portrait of Dante is a fresco in the Bargello in Florence, which was painted by his friend, the renowned artist Giotto di Bondone (1267–1337).
Day,
D
orothy (1897–1980)
Authors: Fannin Coleman
Published: January 2012

Dorothy Day was an American journalist and social activist who converted to Catholicism at the age of 30. She founded the Catholic Worker with Peter Maurin in 1933, and the newspaper and its office in New York's Bowery district soon blossomed into a spiritual movement and a nationwide network of “houses of hospitality.”
M
achaut,
G
uillaume
De
(
C
.1300–1377)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

Outstanding French composer of the 14th century. Although he was a priest, church music comprises only a small portion of his output.
M
ontfort,
S
aint
L
ouis
D
e (1673–1716)
Authors: Marie Gentle Mother Judith
Published: January 2012

Much of the wealth of patristic teaching on the significance of the Blessed Virgin Mary's fiat in the work of Redemption – “Let it be done to me according to your word” (Luke 1:38) – was either entirely disregarded or completely dismantled by the Protestant Reformers. While still recognizing Mary as the mother of God and perpetually virgin, the Reformers viewed her largely as a mere passive receptacle whom God sovereignly invaded and used for the incarnation. This was due mainly to their strict insistence on
solus Christus
, to the point of excluding the necessity of human cooperation with grace. Reducing Mary to a mere puppet on God's stage, the Reformers taught that one should not pray to the Blessed Virgin as the channel of her Son's grace.
D
e
N
obili,
R
obert (1577–1656)
Authors: Ashford Bruce Riley
Published: January 2012

An Italian Jesuit missionary to Southern India, Nobili is known for his creative methods of evangelism among the upper castes in Madurai. He arrived in India in 1605 and soon made his way to Madurai, which is the center of Tamil culture. At the time of Nobili's arrival, Madurai already had a mission, under the oversight of Father Fernandez, a Portuguese Jesuit. Nobili discovered that Fernandez's mission was hindered by two cultural barriers: the great divide between East and West, and the cultural chasm separating the high castes from the low castes.
V
incent
D
e
P
aul (1581–1660)
Authors: Oderberg David S.
Published: January 2012

Priest, missionary, spiritual adviser, founder of religious congregations, and tireless worker for the poor and disadvantaged, Vincent de Paul is one of the greatest saints of the Catholic Church.
D
e
S
ales,
F
rancis (1567–1622)
Authors: Egan, S.J. Harvey D.
Published: January 2012

Francis de Sales – mystic, saint, “devout humanist,” Doctor of the Church – was born in Savoy. Destined for a secular career, he was educated at Annecy, Paris, and Padua. However, Francis' parents blessed his change of heart and he was ordained priest in 1593. He then undertook the task of reclaiming for Catholicism the Chablis, an area on Lake Geneva's southern shore that had been forcibly converted to Calvinism. Dating from this period are a series of his short, popular writings known as the Controversies and his lesser known work,
The Standard of the Cross
. Becoming bishop of Geneva in 1602, he remained there – despite better offers – until he died.
Victoria,TomasLuisDe (1548–1611)
Authors: Kurian George Thomas
Published: January 2012

The greatest Spanish composer of the Renais‐sance, considered an equal of Palestrina. His reputation rests exclusively on church music. He went to Rome in 1565 and probably studied with Palestrina. Following his ordination in 1575 he became chaplain at San Girolamo della Carita from 1578 to 1585. After more than 20 years in Rome he returned to Spain and served until 1603 as chaplain to the widow of Emperor Maximilian II. After her death, he served for the rest of his life as choirmaster and organist at the Convent of Las Descalzas Reales in Madrid.
Desert Fathers
Authors: Harmon Steven R.
Published: January 2012

“Desert Fathers” refers both to the practitioners of Christian asceticism during the formative period of monasticism in the 3rd to 5th centuries
ad
in Egypt, Syria, Asia Minor, and Palestine, and to the distinctive body of literature that collected and preserved the sayings of renowned ascetics.