bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
An assessment of global and regional emissions of trace metals to the atmosphere from anthropogenic sources worldwide
Authors: Pacyna J M , Pacyna E G
Published: April 2011

An accurate and complete emission inventory for atmospheric trace metals on a global scale is needed for both modeler community and policy makers to assess the current level of environmental contamination by these pollutants, major emission sources and source regions, and the contribution of the atmospheric pathway to the contamination of terrestrial and aquatic environments. Major progress has been made in assessing emissions of trace metals in various countries and even regions, e.g., Europe, since the first global emission estimate for these pollutants was made by Nriagu and Pacyna (1988). These improved national and regional emission inventories have been used in this work to assess the global trace metal emissions from anthropogenic sources in the mid-1990s. The results of this work conclude that stationary fossil fuel combustion continues to be the major source of Cr, Hg, Mn, Sb, Se, Sn, and Tl with respect to the coal combustion and the major source of Ni and V with respect to oil combustion. Combustion of leaded, low-leaded, and unleaded gasoline continues to be the major source of atmospheric Pb emissions. The third major source of trace metals is non-ferrous metal production, which is the largest source of atmospheric As, Cd, Cu, In, and Zn. The largest anthropogenic emissions of atmospheric trace metals were estimated in Asia. This can be explained by growing demands for energy in the region and increasing industrial production. As a result, the Asian emissions are not only larger than the emissions on other continents, but also show an increasing trend. Another factor contributing to high emissions in Asia is the efficiency of emission control, which is lower than in Europe and North America. Concerning the two latter continents, emissions of trace metals show a decreasing tendency over the last two decades. Key words: anthropogenic sources, atmospheric emissions, trace metals, global emission inventory
Laser ablation ICP-MS analysis of incremental biological structures: archives of trace-element accumulation
Authors: Outridge P. M. , Veinott G. , Evans R. D.
Published: April 2011

Incremental growth layers occur in the hard structures of many types of organisms (tree xylem, mollusc shells, vertebrate teeth, otoliths, scales, etc.). Microprobes have previously shown that these layers contain archival information about an organism's chemical environment. However, trace elements, including metals, are generally undetectable with these instruments. A relatively new technique, laser ablation – inductively coupled plasma – mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) promises multielement analytical capability with extremely low detection limits (conservatively, <1 ppm), combined with very fine spatial resolution (down to 30–100 μm beam diameter). Fish otoliths and vertebrate tooth cement and dentin offer the greatest potential for retrieving element archival information, because they are not subject to resorption, and reflect the organism's exposure to or accumulation of trace elements from the ambient environment. Other structures are less promising, because they exhibit element mobility between growth layers (tree rings), or are subject to metabolic turnover and resorption (scales, bones, shells). While the LA-ICP-MS technique is novel in the biological sciences, the few studies available indicate that reproducible, year-by-year data on metal accumulation or exposure will probably be retrievable from many types of incremental structures. The main problem currently is the lack of solid standard reference materials which match the physicochemical properties of hard biological tissues.Key words: laser ablation, mass spectrometry, trace metals, environmental pollution, calcified tissues.
Quantitative biodiversity measures applied to forest management
Authors: Silbaugh John M. , Betters David R.
Published: April 2011

Forest managers faced with incorporating the maintenance of biodiversity into their analyses, plans, and decisions need reliable, quantitative measures of biodiversity. This paper reviews and critiques quantitative approaches that have been developed to measure the three basic attributes of diversity: species richness, heterogeneity, and evenness. These approaches are discussed in terms of application to fine- and large-scale land areas. The advantages and disadvantages of each measure are described relative to forest management. Habitat modeling, which combines aspects of both fine- and landscape-scale analysis, may hold the greatest potential for monitoring forest-level diversity in ways that are meaningful, measurable, and manageable.Key words: biodiversity, quantitative indices, forest management.
Effects of land application of waste water from Mexico City on soil fertility and heavy metal accumulation: a bibliographical review
Authors: Gutiérrez-Ruiz M. E. , Sommer I. , Siebe Ch.
Published: April 2011

Waste water from Mexico City metropolitan area has been used to irrigate the Mezquital Valley since 1912. This zone is nowadays the largest area under this situation. Mexico City's drainage is a water mixture emanating from different sources: household, industries, commerce, rain, and runoff. Waste waters used in the valley have greatly increased crop yields. Owing to the increase in the country's industrial development, since the seventies several studies have been carried out in this area, especially related to metal content in water, soils, and crops. The aim of this paper is to present a bibliographical review of the effects of Mexico City's waste water land application on soil fertility and heavy metal accumulation. Pb, Cd, Cu, and Zn levels in soils and crops at present do not represent risks, but there is a clear tendency for these metals to accumulate in the upper layers of soils. Salt content in waste water is intensifying soil salinization in impeded drainage areas. The local conditions of soil, such as high levels of organic matter and high pH values, seem to be preventing the solubility of heavy metals, and hence their transportation or absorption by crops.Key words: heavy metals, waste water irrigation, Mexico City, nutrients, environment, pollutants.
The potential cutaneous effects of stratospheric ozone depletion
Authors: Epstein John H.
Published: April 2011

Recent evidence indicates that there has been a reduction in the stratospheric ozone over the northern hemisphere, as well as the Antarctic and Arctic latitudes. This has resulted in an increased penetration of ultraviolet B (UVB) at least as measured at Toronto, Canada, since 1989. If no precautions are observed by the human population, this could eventually result in an increase in the skin cancer incidence. This would be especially true for the most common cancers, that is, the nonmelanoma skin cancers (NMSCs), basal cell carcinomas and squamous cell carcinomas. In addition it has been predicted that the third most common skin cancer, the malignant melanoma, would also increase in incidence. However, the relationship between UVB radiation and melanoma formation is much less clear than it is for NMSCs. Clinically people with a loss or lack of melanin protection such as those with occulocutaneous albinism and vitiligo, or much more commonly, people with light skin, eyes, and hair would be at greatest risk. Also increased UVB penetration could exacerbate certain infections such as herpes simplex. People with UVB-sensitive diseases including solar urticaria, polymorphous light eruptions, lupus erythematosus, dermatomyositis, pemphigus, pemphigoid, Darier's disease, familial benign chronic pemphigus, and certain recessive degenerative genodermatoses would also be potentially more vulnerable.Key words: ozone, ultraviolet B (UVB), skin cancer, photosensitive skin diseases.
Conservation of forest soil microbial diversity: the impact of fire and research needs
Authors: Staddon W. J. , Duchesne L. C. , Trevors J. T.
Published: April 2011

While increasing attention has been given to issues surrounding biodiversity in recent years, little is known about the diversity of forest soil microorganisms. This is a serious gap in knowledge given the significant roles played by microorganisms in ecosystem functioning. This paper addresses issues surrounding conservation of microbial diversity in forest soils with an emphasis on the impact of fire. Recently developed techniques such as phospholipid fatty acid profiling, DNA reassociation, and carbon substrate utilization will also be reviewed for their applicability to biodiversity research. Future research needs are also discussed.Key words: biodiversity, conservation, forest soils, fire, microbial diversity.
Heavy metal contamination from open-pit coal mining in Europe's Black Triangle and possible remediation
Authors: Tichý R. , Mejstřík V.
Published: April 2011

An area heavily impacted by open-pit coal mining was used to demonstrate risks associated with the presence of toxic metals. The area is located in northern Bohemia, Czech Republic, and is currently categorized as among the most deteriorated landscapes on earth. Open-pit mining and the subsequent landscape restoration may present certain risks of contamination with metals, both in the short and long term. A rather uncertain parameter in this is the behaviour of metals deposited in the mining spoil over the long term. A second important factor is that of reduction in the intensity of agricultural production in the region, which leads to remobilization of metals from the soils. The role of wetlands and their management in the landscape is indispensable in controlling metal mobility and distribution. In setting up priorities for remediation, pollution from point sources should be sharply distinguished from the diffused sources. This review includes a description of the intensive remediation techniques suitable for point sources, as well as the extensive techniques applicable to diffused pollution.Key words: heavy metals, open-pit mining, spoil banks, wetlands, risks.
Review and synthesis of experimental data on organic matter decomposition with respect to the effect of temperature, moisture, and acidity
Authors: Walse Charlotta , Berg Björn , Sverdrup Harald
Published: April 2011

A review and synthesis of experimental decomposition data was performed with the objective of finding parameter values for a decomposition model. Experimental data were retrieved from the literature and included data on mass loss rates, nitrogen mineralization rates, carbon dioxide evolution rates, and growth rates of bacteria and fungi. Environmental variables included in the synthesis were air temperature, soil moisture, and soil acidity (concentration of H+ and Al3+ in soil solution). The variables were assumed to act as separate, multiplicative rate regulating factors on soil microbial processes. The model outline includes four organic matter pools: (i) easily decomposable compounds, (ii) holocellulose, (iii) lignin, and (iv) resistant compounds. It was assumed that the decomposition of the easily decomposable substances can be modeled as the growth rate of bacteria, while the decomposition of lignin and resistant compounds can be modeled as the growth rate of fungi. The decomposition of the substances included in the holocellulose pool was assumed to follow an intermediate function. Results show that enough data are available for the parameterization of a model of the suggested type. The effect of temperature on decomposition rate seems to increase with decreasing nutrient concentration of the substrate. Decomposition rates increase with relative soil moisture saturation. Bacterial growth rates are generally more sensitive to low pH than fungal growth rates. Decomposition of mixed organic material is inhibited in an intermediate fashion. The combined impact of H+ and Al3+ on the growth rates of bacteria and fungi can be modeled with an ion-exchange expression, preferably the Vanselow expression. It was concluded that some additional experiments would be needed for further model development purposes. Such experiments should be set up as mass loss experiments and last for a minimum of 2 weeks.Key words: decomposition, model, acidification, aluminum, pH.
The value, use, and environmental impacts of pulp-mill sludge additions to forest and agricultural lands in Europe
Authors: Cabral F , Vasconcelos E , Goss M J , Cordovil C MDS
Published: April 2011

The current state of knowledge on the recycling of pulp sludge in the forest and agricultural lands as an alternative to disposal is reviewed. Effects of land application of pulp sludge on chemical and physical properties of soils, on leaching of chemical constituents to groundwater, and on yields of crops are discussed. Regions in Europe where land application of pulp sludge are potentially most beneficial are identified. Information on pulp production, pulping and bleaching methods, and treatments of the effluents, as well as its environmental implications, are also briefly reviewed.Key words: Europe, Mediterranean region, pulp sludge, land application, forest and agricultural sites, environmental impacts.
Mechanisms of phytoremediation: biochemical and ecological interactions between plants and bacteria
Authors: Siciliano S D , Germida J J
Published: April 2011

The use of plants to reduce contaminant levels in soil is a cost-effective method of reducing the risk to human and ecosystem health posed by contaminated soil sites. This review concentrates on plant-bacteria interactions that increase the degradation of hazardous organic compounds in soil. Plants and bacteria can form specific associations in which the plant provides the bacteria with a specific carbon source that induces the bacteria to reduce the phytotoxicity of the contaminated soil. Alternatively, plants and bacteria can form nonspecific associations in which normal plant processes stimulate the microbial community, which in the course of normal metabolic activity degrades contaminants in soil. Plants can provide carbon substrates and nutrients, as well as increase contaminant solubility. These biochemical mechanisms increase the degradative activity of bacteria associated with plant roots. In return, bacteria can augment the degradative capacity of plants or reduce the phytotoxicity of the contaminated soil. However, the specificity of the plant-bacteria interaction is dependent upon soil conditions, which can alter contaminant bioavailability, root exudate composition, and nutrient levels. In addition, the metabolic requirements for contaminant degradation may also dictate the form of the plant-bacteria interaction i.e., specific or nonspecific. No systematic framework that can predict plant-bacteria interactions in a contaminated soil has emerged, but it appears that the development of plant-bacteria associations that degrade contaminants in soil may be related to the presence of allelopathic chemicals in the rhizosphere. Therefore, investigations into plants that are resistant to or produce allelopathic chemicals is suggested as one possible method of identifying plant-bacteria associations that can degrade contaminants in soil.Key words: phytoremediation, mechanisms, rhizosphere, bacterial inoculants.
Ecology, statistics, and the art of misdiagnosis: The need for a paradigm shift
Authors: Germano J D
Published: April 2011

This paper approaches ecological data analysis from a different vantage point and has implications for ecological risk assessment. Despite all the advances in theoretical ecology over the past four decades and the huge amounts of data that have been collected in various marine monitoring programs, we still do not know enough about how marine ecosystems function to be able to make valid predictions of impacts before they occur, accurately assess ecosystem ``health,'' or perform valid risk assessments. Comparisons are made among the fields of psychology, social science, and ecology in terms of the applications of decision theory or approach to problem diagnosis. In all of these disciplines, researchers are dealing with phenomena whose mechanisms are poorly understood. One of the biggest impediments to the interpretation of ecological data and the advancement of our understanding about ecosystem function is the desire of marine scientists and policy regulators to cling to the ritual of null hypothesis significance testing (NHST) with mechanical dichotomous decisions around a sacred 0.05 criterion. The paper is divided into three main sections: first, a brief overview of common misunderstandings about NHST; second, why diagnosis of ecosystem health is and will be such a difficult task; and finally, some suggestions about alternative approaches for ecologists to improve our "diagnostic accuracy'' by taking heed of lessons learned in the fields of clinical psychology and medical epidemiology.

Key words: statistical significance, Bayesian statistics, risk assessment
A PCR-based method for the identification of the roots of 10 co-occurring grassland species in mesocosm experiments
Authors: McNickle Gordon G. , Cahill J. F. , Deyholos M. K.
Published: April 2011

An understanding of factors influencing the distribution of plant roots is intimately linked to our understanding of basic ecosystem functions such as nutrient flux and productivity. However, it is not usually possible to measure root distributions because it is difficult to identify the roots of different species when they are grown in mixture. This is because the roots of most species are not visually distinguishable. We designed a simple, PCR-based method for the identification of roots in mesocosm experiments, which we have applied to 10 co-occurring grassland species. Species-specific primers based on ITS sequences from GenBank were evaluated in PCR assays using either homogeneous or heterogeneous DNA templates, as well as DNA extracted from mixed-root samples from multiple combinations of species. The species-specific primers reported here produced accurate identifications, free from both false negatives and false positives, in 100% of our assays. We also evaluated the sensitivity of our system and demonstrated detection of species when they comprised as little as 0.05 ng of target DNA mixed in a total of 2.5 ng of multi-species template DNA. Our PCR-based method for root identification in mesocosms is more cost effective, and simpler to apply than previously described methods.
The effects of male and female Arceuthobium americanum (lodgepole pine dwarf mistletoe) infection on the relative positioning of vascular bundles, starch distribution, and starch content in Pinus contorta var. latifolia (lodgepole pine) needles
Authors: Chhikara Aditya , Ross Friedman Cynthia M.
Published: April 2011

The lodgepole pine dwarf mistletoe, Arceuthobium americanum Nutt. ex Engelm., is a dioecious angiosperm that parasitizes conifers in western Canadian forests, causing significant yearly timber loss. A striking consequence of dwarf mistletoe infection is a marked reduction in the size of the needles located distal to the infection. The purpose of this work was to use microscopy, cytochemistry, and biochemical analysis to determine whether this reduction was associated with changes in needle anatomy and (or) starch content. Furthermore, we wanted to investigate whether these potential changes were affected by the gender of the infecting dwarf mistletoe plant. We developed a ratio (R) that evaluated the position of the two vascular bundles relative to the size of the needle, and found that bundles from male-infected trees were positioned significantly closer together than in needles from female-infected or uninfected trees (p < 0.05). Using the periodic acid – Schiff’s (PAS) reaction for cytochemical identification of starch in situ, we determined that needles from uninfected trees had abundant starch grains compared with needles from infected trees; colourimetric analysis for total starch content corroborated our PAS data. This is the first report of this phenomenon in lodgepole pine, and further supports the use of needle characteristics to assess tree health.
STUDIES ON THE NATURE OF RUST RESISTANCE IN WHEAT
Authors: Newton R. , Lehmann J. V. , Clarke A. E.
Published: April 2011

A program of investigations is outlined and the results of the first three years' work reported. Eight wheat varieties, differing widely in resistance to stem rust, showed no corresponding differences in the physico-chemical properties of their expressed tissue-fluids. The infection of susceptible varieties was in some cases reduced by administering extracts of resistant varieties in petri-dish cultures or by direct injection into inoculated leaves. The injection of the juice of infected leaves into healthy leaves failed to demonstrate the presence of any toxin excreted by the fungus. The injection of salicylic acid, catechol or vanillin in suitable concentrations frequently caused a reduction in infection. These phenolic compounds in very low concentrations stimulated the growth of Helminthosporium sativum, but at higher concentrations inhibited it. The same phenols inhibited the germination of rust spores. On filtered wheat-juice rust spores also failed to germinate, though on unfiltered juice they germinated normally.
THE EFFECT OF THE ULTRA-VIOLET COMPONENT OF SUNLIGHT ON CERTAIN MARINE ORGANISMS.
Authors: Klugh A. Brooker
Published: April 2011

In order to determine the effect of the ultra-violet and other components of sunlight upon certain marine organisms an apparatus was constructed with three different light filters. Seven marine organisms, varying widely in their habits with reference to light, were then exposed in the apparatus to various degrees of sunlight. Through one filter they received 91 per cent of the total sunlight, comprising both the visible range and the ultra-violet; through another, 82 per cent of the total, including the visible spectrum but no ultra-violet; through the third, 14 per cent of the total radiation, at the short-wave end of the spectrum. A fairly close relation was observed between the depth at which the organisms live and their susceptibility to short-wave radiation. In several cases ultra-violet light was found to be lethal in its effect. (F. E. L.)
THE ALTERNATING CURRENT ELECTROLYSIS OF WATER
Authors: Shipley J. W.
Published: April 2011

An examination of commercial hot water heaters and steam generators of the electric water resistor type operating on alternating current shows that hydrogen and oxygen are generated within the electrode chamber. Current density is found to be the primary factor in the A.C. electrolysis of water at low voltages. At high voltages, arcing on the electrodes also results in the decomposition of the water. A critical current density exists for metallic electrodes below which electrolytic gases are not produced but above which all the current is utilized in decomposing the water into hydrogen and oxygen in accordance with Faraday's Law for continuous current. This critical current density varies with the nature of the electrode material, the temperature of the electrolyte and the frequency of the alternations: the higher the frequency the higher the critical current density. The storage capacity of the electrode for hydrogen and oxygen known as the "electrolytic capacity" is constant for copper but varies with the quarter-wave area for platinum and silver. At constant quarter-wave area the electrolytic capacity decreases to a minimum with increasing frequency. A difference in the phase for current and voltage is observed, the current leading the voltage. Wave distortion occurs in the case of platinum and copper electrodes. High voltage arcing by an alternating current produces a thermal decomposition of the water quite independent of A.C. electrolysis. The rate of decomposition by arcing is primarily dependent upon the rate of consumption of electrical energy. Hydrostatic pressure in the electrode chamber inhibits arcing. The application of the results to the design and operation of electric steam generators and domestic heaters is discussed, and the explosion hazard connected with the generation of electrolytic gas is also commented upon, a means being suggested for reducing the danger.
A STUDY OF SOME FACTORS INFLUENCING THE ACTIVITY OF ALUMINUM AND FERRIC CHLORIDES IN THE FRIEDEL AND CRAFTS REACTION
Authors: Boswell M. C. , McLaughlin R. R.
Published: April 2011

In the preparation of aluminum chloride by the action of hydrogen chloride on the metal, hydrogen chloride is adsorbed and can be recovered to the extent of about 9 cc. per gram. After sublimation in nitrogen and re-sublimation in hydrogen chloride, however, the amount of adsorption is smaller and irregular. The adsorbed gas is not removed by a stream of nitrogen at room temperature. The activities in the Friedel and Crafts reaction of various preparations of aluminum chloride and of ferric chloride and of mixtures of these were determined; the order of decreasing activity was found to be as follows: a mixture of aluminum chloride and ferric chloride, aluminum chloride made by the action of hydrogen chloride on aluminum, aluminum chloride made by the action of chlorine on aluminum, a mixture of aluminum chloride and partially reduced ferric chloride, ferric chloride, and partially reduced ferric chloride. The most striking result of the measurements is that although ferric chloride alone has an activity of only about one-third that of aluminum chloride, an approximately equimolecular mixture of the two has an activity somewhat greater than that of pure aluminum chloride.
THE GEOLOGY OF CEYLON
Authors: Adams Frank Dawson
Published: April 2011

not available
THE DETERMINATION OF CHOLESTEROL IN BLOOD
Authors: Allardyce John
Published: April 2011

The value of both filter paper and cotton batting as supporting media for blood while drying, prior to extraction of the blood cholesterol with chloroform, was examined; both were found to give unsatisfactory results. With each of these two absorbents the extraction was incomplete. A method is suggested for the determination of cholesterol in blood which involves the use of plaster of Paris as supporting medium, and extraction of the ground blood and plaster of Paris mixture with chloroform. The results obtained with this method are higher and more consistent than those obtained with either filter paper or cotton batting.
BLOOD NORMALS FOR CATTLE; SOME PATHOLOGICAL VALUES
Authors: Allardyce John , Fleming R. H. , Fowler F. L. , Clark R. H.
Published: April 2011

Samples of cattle blood have been analysed and the concentrations of 10 constituents determined, i.e., cholesterol, sugar, non-protein nitrogen, urea nitrogen, amino-acid nitrogen, creatine, creatinine, calcium, inorganic phosphorus and chlorides. The normal range of each of these constituents was established. The diet fed to the cattle influences the cholesterol content markedly. Blood samples of cattle suffering from red water and some other pathological cases have been examined, and in each case the results show the variation of the contents of the various constituents.
FEED FLAVOR OR STABLE ODOR IN MILK CAUSED BY AN ATYPICAL STRAIN OF AEROBACTER OXYTOCUM
Authors: Sadler Wilfrid , Irwin M. Lenora
Published: April 2011

A cultural study was made of an organism of the Escherichia-Aërobacter group in connection with the production of an alleged feed flavor or stable odor in milk. A tentative classification of the organism as an atypical strain of Aërobacter oxytocum, (Migula) Bergey et al., is based on the sum of its characteristics. The suggestion is made that the organism may be defined as a new species within the genus Aërobacter, but until other characteristically identical strains have been isolated, this is merely tentative.
THE PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF PENUMBRAL SHADOWS AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE IN ROENTGENOGRAPHY
Authors: Andrus Paul M.
Published: April 2011

A new observation regarding the visual characters of penumbral shadows is recorded. It is pointed out that penumbral shadows appear to be laid down as a series of bands arranged serially as to density. This occurrence results in far-reaching effects in radiography as well as in other sciences concerned with the observation of images.
DETERMINATION OF CARBON AND HYDROGEN
Authors: Stansfield Edgar , Sutherland John W.
Published: April 2011

This paper describes modifications of the ordinary combustion apparatus for the determination of carbon and hydrogen in organic matter. These modifications were developed for analysis of coal, but are suited to more general use. It is claimed that they save time, and reduce the liability to error so that less practice and skill are required to obtain consistently good results. The combustion tube can be readily emptied, cleaned and repacked; with reasonable care it has a long life.
CYTOLOGICAL STUDIES IN THE GENUS AGROPYRON
Authors: Peto F. H.
Published: April 2011

Eighteen species of the genus Agropyron from Western Canada, Russia, Siberia, and Denmark formed a polyploid series with a basic number of seven chromosomes. Di-, tri-, tetra- and octaploid forms were found among Western Canadian species; di-, tetra-, penta-, hexa- and decaploid forms among the Russian and Siberian species; di-, tetra- and hexaploid forms among the Danish species.The forms collected in Western Canada showed an extremely wide range of morphological variability both within and between the various species. This is probably due to natural hybridization such as has been reported between certain native species in Russia and Denmark. The cytology of these European species and their supposed hybrids has been studied here and has shown that natural crossing has probably taken place between diploid and hexaploid species in some cases and between tetraploid and hexaploid species in others. Some evidence of a similar situation among Western Canadian species has been found. Chromosome doubling, triploidy and aneuploidy occurred in certain of the latter. The relation of these phenomena to hybridization is discussed.
NOTE ON THE EFFECT OF INTENSIVE DRYING ON THE VELOCITY OF GASEOUS REACTIONS
Authors: Coffin C. C. , Maass O.
Published: April 2011

Ammonia and carbon dioxide were subjected to intensive drying, with subsequent inhibition of reaction when the gases mixed. Liquefaction of the non-reactive mixture resulted in immediate reaction taking place and the hypothesis is put forward that the "liquid condition" may be looked upon as a catalytic influence.
THE NATURE OF THE RESINS IN JACK PINE (PINUS BANKSIANA)
Authors: Hibbert Harold , Phillips John Bernard
Published: April 2011

Green and seasoned jack pine were found to have an average crude resin content of 4.58% and an ether-soluble of 3.52%. The value of "total acids" present in the resin was the same in each case, but the proportion of "fatty" acids was greater in green wood, while the unsaponifiable matter was considerably less. The seasoned wood contained a lower percentage of fats than the green wood and a correspondingly higher percentage of resin acids. The amount of unsaponifiable, polymerized terpenic substances was also higher. There was a marked decrease in the amounts of phytosterol and "resene" in the seasoned wood.The isolated resin acids obtained by distillation, or esterification, contained a high percentage of abietic acid formed by transformation of the original acids. The percentage of natural (pimaric) acids was, however, quite high in the resin acids isolated by petroleum ether and recrystallized only twice.A higher percentage of crystalline acids was found in the resin acids from green wood than from seasoned, due presumably to change into amorphous products during storage.The fatty constituents were chiefly members of the unsaturated series, present both as free acids, glycerides, or other esters. The seasoned wood contained much less linolic acid in the glycerides than green wood. Oleic acid was present in about the same proportion in both cases; linolenic was present in only very small amount. The free fatty acids had practically the same percentage composition in both green and seasoned wood.The amount of the total unsaturated fatty acids was higher in the glycerides and free acids from green wood than from seasoned wood. The latter was found to contain a high percentage (30.2%) of oxidized acidic material in the fatty glycerides, indicating that extensive polymerization, or decomposition of some kind, had taken place in the fats present in the green wood during the time of seasoning.The quantities of essential oil obtained from the resins of each kind of wood were very small, amounting to 1.5 to 4.3% of the total crude resins. The products showed no difference in properties, or variation in amount, with time of storage of the wood. Owing to the small amount available for investigation, only α-pinene could be identified, although other terpenes may possibly be present.The percentages of phytosterol and resene were extremely small, and were appreciably less in the seasoned than in the green wood. The amount of polymerized terpenic material found in the unsaponifiable matter was much higher in the case of the seasoned wood. This was probably due to extensive polymerization of the essential oil having taken place during the storage of the wood.
CALCIUM RELATIONSHIPS OF FORAGE CROPS
Authors: Pugsley L. I. , McKibbin R. R.
Published: April 2011

The calcium content of timothy and red clover hays was found to increase directly as the total calcium content of the clay loam soils in which they were grown, and to decrease as the "lime requirement" of these soils increases. There is no proportionate increase of protein nor of phosphorus as the calcium content of the hays increases.The timothy hays from the area investigated are extremely low in calcium content but are otherwise normal. The ratios [Formula: see text] and [Formula: see text] for these timothy hays are, respectively, abnormally low and abnormally high. These values appear to be normal in the red clover hays.
CALYCANTHINE II. THE DEGRADATION OF CALYCANTHINE TO N-METHYLTRYPTAMINE
Authors: Manske Richard H. F.
Published: April 2011

Degradation of calycanthine, by a method which has heretofore not been applied to alkaloids, namely, benzoylation with subsequent treatment with alkali, has yielded a well-defined crystalline substance, shown by analysis and synthesis to be benzoyl-N-methyltryptamine. The alternative, benzoyl-1-methyltryptamine, has also been synthesized for purpose of comparison. The bearing of the degradation product on the constitution of calycanthine is discussed. The partial structure developed for the alkaloid differs considerably from any that has been previously suggested for a natural product.
THE PHOTO-ELECTRIC CELL AND ELECTRIC CLOCK AS A MEANS OF RECORDING THE DAILY HOURS OF BRIGHT SUNSHINE
Authors: Thomson Wallace A.
Published: April 2011

A method is presented whereby an accurate record of the daily hours of bright sunshine is made by an electric clock, controlled, through a relay, by the intensity of the light incident upon the cathode of a suitably exposed photo-electric cell.
STUDIES OF POLYMERS AND POLYMERIZATION: II. THE PYROLYSIS OF POLYINDENES AND THE POLYMERIZATION OF DIINDENE
Authors: Whitby George Stafford , Katz Morris
Published: April 2011

On heating samples of polyindene to temperatures below those necessary to effect pyrolytic distillation, they suffer cracking, as evidenced by a fall in molecular weight. Such cracking takes place the more readily, the higher the molecular weight of the sample taken. On subjecting polyindene to slow pyrolytic distillation at 2 mm. up to bath temperatures of 400 °C., there is obtained a distillate containing indene, diindene and triindene. The residue consists of low polymers. Under these conditions cracking is more profound, i.e., the amount of distillate is larger, in the case of a polyindene of high molecular weight than in the case of one of relatively low molecular weight. On pyrolytic distillation at ordinary pressure, diindene yielded 74% of indene. Diindene can be polymerized by sulphuric acid, by antimony pentachloride and by heat. A mixture of mono- and di-indene yields triindene, when heated. It is concluded that the results accord better with the authors' formula for the polyindenes rather than with Staudinger's ring formula. In the author's view the polyindenes are open-chain compounds which owe their formation to a series of addition reactions involving the wandering of hydrogen, and, conversely, that their pyrolysis is a cracking reaction also involving wandering of hydrogen.
THE EFFECT OF BLEACHING ON STRENGTH AND COLOR OF SASKATCHEWAN HARD RED SPRING WHEAT FLOUR
Authors: Larmour R. K. , Machon F. D.
Published: April 2011

A rapid method for gas bleaching small samples has been described. A series of eight flours of varying protein content was prepared and divided into six subseries. One of these was used as a check; three were bleached with 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5 oz. Betachlor per barrel respectively and the remaining two were treated with 0.36 and 0.72 oz. Novadel per barrel respectively. The forty-eight samples thus obtained were baked one day after treatment and again after storing for one month.Novadel gives a good bleach but has little if any maturing effect. Betachlor is somewhat poorer than Novadel in bleaching effect but it matures the flour. The maturing effect on weak flours is slight but with high protein flours it increases with increasing dosages. This reaction seems to be dependent to some extent on the quantity of protein present.Unbleached flour baked with addition of potassium bromate gives practically the same result as chlorine-bleached flour baked by the simple formula. Aging causes further improvement in quality of chlorine-bleached flours but not so much as in unbleached or Novadel-bleached flours. The color of the bleached samples improved with aging at almost the same rate as the unbleached samples. The blending quality of flours does not appear to improve as a result of bleaching. Both bleached and unbleached samples in this experiment when baked by the bromate formula in a blend with soft flour, gave practically the same results with respect to loaf volume, texture, and appearance, and only a slight inferiority of the unbleached in color score.
A PARTICULAR CASE OF HIGH FREQUENCY ELECTRON OSCILLATIONS
Authors: Moore W. H.
Published: April 2011

In experimenting with oscillators operating at wave-lengths of 100 cm. and less an unusual case of oscillations was observed. With high positive grid potential and zero plate potential in a three-electrode valve, oscillations were produced at certain critical values of filament current. The frequency of oscillation was highest at the lowest filament current. An explanation of the effect is suggested.
ON THE HYDROGENATION OF BITUMEN FROM THE BITUMINOUS SANDS OF ALBERTA II
Authors: Boomer E. H. , Saddington A. W.
Published: April 2011

A second series of experiments on the batch hydrogenation of McMurray bitumen has been carried out. A cylindrical autoclave, of 1.8 litres capacity and designed for close temperature control and efficient agitation, is described.Hydrogenation of the larger part of the bitumen proceeded with ease and commenced at comparatively low temperatures. The rate of hydrogenation was dependent on temperature, presence of a catalyst and extent of hydrogenation. The reaction commenced slowly at 200 °C. and increased with rising temperature. The presence of molybdic anhydride approximately doubled the rate of reaction. The extent and rate of hydrogenation decreased on repeated runs with the same lot of bitumen due to the adverse effect of an increasing proportion of simple hydrocarbons.An increase in the relative amount of hydrogen to bitumen increased the absolute rate of reaction and degree of hydrogenation possible in one treatment. As a result of the shorter time required, coke formation was largely suppressed.Experiments on distillation residues from hydrogenated bitumen reveal the presence in bitumen of some 15% of asphaltic material which is very resistant to hydrogenation or cracking at temperatures as high as 500 °C. This material has not yet been hydrogenated without considerable coke formation but the problem does not appear to be insoluble.It appears that 75% of Alberta bitumen may be converted easily to gasoline and oil.
Some New Physico-chemical Apparatus
Authors: Coffin C. C.
Published: April 2011

not available
THE POLYMERIZATION OF ACETALDEHYDE
Authors: Hatcher W. H. , Brodie B.
Published: April 2011

The polymerization of acetaldehyde to paraldehyde at 15 °C. using phosphoric acid is a reaction which at low concentrations of catalyst is of the third order At higher concentrations of catalyst the velocity tends to increase with time due to factors which may include changed ionic conditions. The velocity of the reaction is directly proportional to the quantity of added catalyst.The method of studying this reaction was the observation of the change of volume dilatometrically with time, under conditions which would not favor the production of metaldehyde.
STUDIES ON LIGNIN AND RELATED COMPOUNDS.: VIII. A KINETIC STUDY OF THE ACTION OF SULPHUROUS ACID ON LIGNIN AND RELATED COMPOUNDS
Authors: Sankey Charles A. , Hibbert Harold
Published: April 2011

Electrical conductivity measurements have been made over the temperature range 18–145 °C. of reaction mixtures of sulphurous acid and a large number of type compounds, and data obtained on the stability of the resulting sulphonic acids and the mobility of the equilibria involved. The compounds investigated include saturated and unsaturated aldehydes; saturated, unsaturated and cyclic ketones; phenols; substances in which an ethylene linkage is the only reactive group; furane derivatives; and substances containing pyrone rings.The results are discussed from the standpoints of structure and reaction mechanism. The sulphonic acids of nuclear aldehydes, saturated ketones and cylic ketones are typically unstable. With compounds containing an ethylene linkage conjugated with a carbonyl group, addition normally takes place in the 1:4 positions and is followed by hydrogen migration. Where an ethylene linkage is the only reactive group present, addition proceeds only very slowly and at high temperatures. The difficulty of effecting a reaction between sulphurous acid and phenols in their tautomeric alicyclic forms is indicated by the non-reactivity of resorcinol, and the formation of only a small percentage of an extremely unstable derivative by phloroglucinol. Furfuryl alcohol and glucal are shown to form oxonium derivatives which serve as intermediates for the entry of the sulphonic acid group into the ring system.Conductivity-temperature curves for lignosulphonic acids from various sources indicate that the products are sulphonic acids of the —C = C—type. Other evidence points to an oxonium addition product with a ring oxygen as being a probable intermediate in the formation of the final and more stable lignosulphonic acid. The relation of such a mechanism to the experimental conditions employed in the commercial process of the manufacture of sulphite pulp is indicated.The formation of lignosulphonic acids through tautomerization of a phenolic nucleus is highly improbable. Also for such formation a carbonyl group does not necessarily have to be present. Strong additional evidence is presented for the presence of a heterocyclic ring containing oxygen and for an ethylene linkage in the lignin molecule. The latter is indicated to be in the same ring system as the oxygen atom.
RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF RELATIVE HUMIDITY OR SMALL TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCES
Authors: Rose D. C.
Published: April 2011

The instrument described in this paper was designed for the measurement of relative humidity in the slip stream of flying aircraft. As the temperatures to be measured are low, usually between 0°and − 10 °C., the temperature difference between wet and dry bulb thermometers is sufficiently small that, if mercury thermometers are used, in order to obtain the accuracy required, they would have to be of such fine bore that they could not be read from any distance. As a result wet and dry bulb resistance thermometers have been built connected to a special bridge circuit by means of which the temperature difference can be measured to 0.1 °C. or better. The actual dry bulb temperature can be read by a change in the circuit or by a mercury or alcohol thermometer of fairly large bore which can be read at some distance. In the bridge circuit the two thermometers form two arms of a bridge so that temperature variations in the leads are automatically compensated. A slide wire forms a part of the bridge circuit and the constants are so arranged that a very simple relation gives the difference in temperature of the wet and dry bulbs.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ENDOSPERM DEVELOPMENT AND MORPHOLOGIC CHARACTERS IN THE F2 GENERATION OF A T. DICOCCUM × T. VULGARE CROSS
Authors: Harrington J. B.
Published: April 2011

The relationship between the degree of plumpness of F2 seeds and the type of the resulting F2 plants was studied in the cross Vernal (T. dicoccum) × Marquis (T. vulgare). A random sample of F2 seeds was divided into three classes based upon kernel plumpness, viz. plump (Class A), slightly shrunken (Class B), and shrunken (Class C). In these there were by number 55.5, 41.0 and 3.5% of seeds respectively. Emergence of F2 plants in the field was 64, 58 and 36% for Classes A, B and C. The F2 plants were studied for 13 morphological characters. Comparing the populations for all characters combined, Class A was more dicoccum-like than Class B, and Class B much more dicoccum-like than Class C. The proportion of vulgare-like character was 16, 20 and 32% for Classes A, B and C, respectively. Considering the character of the individual plants, the ratios of dicoccum-like to vulgare-like were 12.1:1, 5.3:1, and 2.2:1 for classes A, B and C, respectively. Furthermore, the vulgare-like plants of classes A and B were less vulgare-like than those of Class C. There were present, however, in Classes A and B some plants that were fully as vulgare-like as any in Class C. These results indicate that, in an interspecific wheat cross, the breeder should give special attention to the shrunken F2 seeds if he has very limited nursery space and a large amount of seed; whereas if he has plenty of space for a large population, special care of shrunken F2 seeds does not seem warranted.
THE PREPARATION AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ETHYL AND METHYL ACETYLENE
Authors: Morehouse F. R. , Maass O.
Published: April 2011

The method for preparing an alkyl acetylene by the action of an alkyl halide on sodium dissolved in liquid ammonia was modified in certain details. Ethyl and methyl acetylene were prepared and purified and their melting and boiling points determined. Vapor pressures, densities and surface tensions were measured over a considerable temperature range. These properties together with constants calculated from the data are compared with similar data for paraffins and olefines.
STUDIES ON REACTIONS RELATING TO CARBOHYDRATES AND POLYSACCHARIDES.: XXXVIII. PREPARATION, SEPARATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF THE ISOMERIC BROMOETHYLIDENE GLYCEROLS
Authors: Hibbert Harold , Hallonquist Earl
Published: April 2011

Additional evidence is given regarding the influence of polar radicals, or atoms, on the ease and nature of acetal condensations involving glycerol.Bromoethylidene glycerol has been prepared as a mixture of the isomeric five- and six-membered ring forms, by the condensation of bromoacetaldehyde with glycerol. This mixture was separated into the two isomeric forms by taking advantage of differences in the physical properties of their benzoates.The equilibrium ratio of six- to five-membered acetal at room temperature as obtained in the above preparation was found to be 1:15. Under the influence of 1% dry HCl at 25 °C. the ratio changed to 1:8.By conversion of the acetals into the methyl ethers, and comparison of these with the corresponding products of known constitution obtained by condensation of bromoacetaldehyde with glycerol α- and β-methyl ethers respectively, the identity of each of the acetals was established.A detailed description is given for the preparation of dibromoparacetaldehyde both in the crystalline form (50% yield) and as a crude syrup (75% yield).