bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Dogwhistles and Figleaves
Authors: Saul Jennifer Mather
Published: December 2023

It is widely accepted that political discourse in recent years has become more openly racist and more filled with wildly implausible conspiracy theories. Dogwhistles and Figleaves explores certain ways in which such changes—both of which defied previously settled norms of political speech—have been brought about. Jennifer Saul shows that two linguistic devices, dogwhistles and figleaves, have played a crucial role. Some dogwhistles (such as “88,” used by Nazis online to mean “Heil Hitler”) serve to disguise messages that would otherwise be rejected as unacceptable, allowing them to be transmitted surreptitiously. Other dogwhistles (like the 1988 “Willie Horton” ad) work by influencing people in ways that they are not aware of, and which they would likely reject were they aware. Figleaves (such as “just asking questions”) take messages that could easily be recognized as unacceptable, and provide just enough cover that people become more willing to accept them. Importantly, these work against the background of a divided public. They are particularly effective in influencing people who are conflicted yet malleable—those who don’t want to be racist, for example, but are willing to be convinced that something which seems racist really isn’t. Saul shows how these dogwhistles and figleaves have both exploited and widened existing divisions in society, and normalized racist and conspiracist speech.
Law of Unjust Enrichment in India
Authors: Gupta Arpita
Published: December 2023

This chapter tackles the evolution of the law of unjust enrichment in India and elaborates on its salient doctrinal features. It discusses the statutory provisions on unjust enrichment in the Indian Contract Act, considers the relevant case law, and maps the departure of the Indian law from the nineteenth-century English common law. It also contemplates the relevancy of the unjust enrichment doctrine for such themes in Indian law as protracted litigation and breach of public trust. Finally, the chapter considers the current salient features of unjust enrichment law in India in the light of the relevant domestic and international contexts, and identifies some of the major issues of concern in the current state of the law that need further deliberation.
Restitution, Corrective Justice, and Mistakes
Authors: Penner James
Published: December 2023

The interrelations between the concepts of ‘corrective justice’ and restitution, in particular cases concerning mistakes, are subtle and various. This chapter explores some of the landscape, rather than provide a definitive theory, of those interrelations. Specifically, Ernest Weinrib’s corrective justice strategy of explaining restitution of unjust enrichments only makes sense on the substantive duty-affirming basis, i.e. that the right to restitution of a mistaken payment is a matter of right. This chapter will show that this works only by treating all mistaken payments as conditional, and relating other cases to the common law ‘fundamental mistake’ cases. To the extent, then, that there remains a residue of cases in which restitutionary liability may arise, then corrective justice does not explain every case of restitution.
Civil Justice
Authors: Hendley Kathryn , Solomon Peter H.
Published: December 2023

Chapter 9 explores how Russian courts handle civil disputes involving individuals. Such cases consistently dominate the dockets of Russian courts. They encompass a wide variety of disputes, ranging from family arguments to disagreements between workers and managers to the non-payment of various debts, including credit cards, rent, and utilities. In most of these debt collection cases, debtors offer no defence, thereby allowing the judge to resolve them without hearings on the merits. The prerequisites for filing civil claims are laid out clearly in the procedural code and judges tend to err on the side of accepting cases rather than discarding them for minor procedural errors. Judges are required to resolve cases within two months of filing and they rarely violate this deadline. Litigants have shown little interest in mediating their civil claims. Few cases are settled after being initiated. Almost all claims brought result in a judicial decision.
The Digital Double Bind
Authors: Zayani Mohamed , Khalil Joe F.
Published: December 2023

The Middle East’s digital turn has renewed hopes of socioeconomic development and political change across the region. It has also engendered stark contradictions and accentuated existing tensions. The resulting disjunctures are ensnaring the region in a digital double bind: the same conditions that drive the immersion of the state, market, and public in the digital also inhibit change and perpetuate stasis. Grounded in local research and anchored in rich case studies, The Digital Double Bind critically engages with the question of technology and change beyond binary formulations and familiar trajectories of the network society. It offers a pathbreaking analysis of how the Global South negotiates its relation to the digital.
In Pursuit of the Knowledge Economy
Authors: Zayani Mohamed , Khalil Joe F.
Published: December 2023

The extent to which the digital turn is reshaping the Middle East’s economic environment is evident in many countries’ aspirations to become knowledge economies. These orientations reflect broader changes brought about by the twin forces of globalization and informatization. These transitions are part of a long and arduous path toward modernization that brought hopes and promises to the region but also incurred apprehension and misgivings. With the digital turn, the state remains beholden to the unfulfilled promises of economic globalization, which it cannot control and toward which it continues to be ambivalent. At the same time, the state is responding to the ever more pressing demands and expectations of an aspiring young population with varying levels of digital access.
Virtual Lives and Digital Spaces
Authors: Zayani Mohamed , Khalil Joe F.
Published: December 2023

The digital turn has reconfigured sociocultural dynamics in the Middle East. Particularly germane to the examination here is how individuals and collectives are introducing dynamics of empowerment at the grassroots level. This chapter focuses on three articulations of these cultural engagements to explore how digitality is pushing boundaries and reformulating practices defined by dominant cultural norms, political culture, and economic systems. In particular, it examines how women renegotiate gender roles while navigating cultural expectations of conformity, how believers reinterpret religion beyond state and state-sanctioned religious discourses, and how publics rearticulate citizenry.
“God” Pop and the “Personality Trend”
Authors: Payne Leah
Published: December 2023

Chapter 6 analyzes how the evangelical norms of Contemporary Christian Music (CCM) youth culture went mainstream through pop music. Conservative white evangelical media makers came to see the young women of CCM as ideal partners to protest Clinton-era “safe sex” policies in partnership with purity-culture purveyors like True Love Waits. Their efforts resulted in thousands of young people, including some of the biggest pop stars of the new millennium, making public virginity pledges. When the Columbine mass shooting horrified and fascinated the nation, CCM stars created music that framed the event as a form of persecution, and the death of Christian students as a form of Christian martyrdom. Meanwhile, star worship leaders began to gain popularity as a new “personality trend” made evangelical worship liturgy resemble rock concerts. Even as sales reached their zenith, however, there were signs that the world of evangelical entertainment was under threat.
Analytics
Authors: Dommett Katharine , Kefford Glenn , Kruschinski Simon
Published: December 2023

Data analytics is often lauded as offering unprecedented insights for electoral strategizing, and yet there is remarkably little clarity about what exactly is meant by this term. In this chapter the authors classify alternative forms of data analytics, distinguishing between segmentation, targeting, and testing processes. Classifying activity under each of these headings, they distinguish between simple and more complex iterations, to show a spectrum of analytics practices. In the second half of the chapter, the authors draw on empirical evidence from the five case study countries to reveal the type of data analytics that parties deploy. In contrast to many prevailing narratives, they find little evidence of micro-targeting or highly complex testing, but show that parties in most of the five countries rely on segmentation, broad targeting, and simple or moderately sophisticated testing practices. This chapter is followed by a reflection from two practitioners who offer their own account of the analytics practices that facilitate data-driven campaigns.
Aging Angry
Authors: Barusch Amanda Smith
Published: December 2023

Aging Angry: Making Peace with Rage examines the many ways that anger and rage can be transformative. Fear of anger can ultimately result in destructive rage or bring about social isolation, injustice, and misunderstanding. On the other hand, confronting anger seriously may neutralize its destructive potential and harness its energy and wisdom for personal and social change. Aging Angry presents the anger stories of hundreds of older adults and draws upon a wealth of academic sources to provide a deeper understanding of the sources, dynamics, and possibilities of anger. It features a variety of topics, such as anger and race in the United States, gendered anger norms, mass murder by older adults, anger management programs, and closes with a close look at aged activists who use their anger to change the world.
Angry Bodies
Authors: Barusch Amanda Smith
Published: December 2023

This chapter focuses on our physical reactions to anger, which shed light on the intimate convergence of mind and body. It links the personal experience of anger to a complex set of instinctive reactions within the brain and notes that, unlike fear, anger usually leads people toward danger as our bodies prepare to do battle. Contrary to popular belief, considerable research suggests that anger suppression may be a greater health hazard than anger expression. The chapter discusses the harm associated with internalized anger among both younger and older adults, which includes a greater risk for illness and death. It also notes that expressed anger can result in damage to a person’s social life.
Conclusion
Authors: Barusch Amanda Smith
Published: December 2023

The book’s conclusion opens with the author’s experience of anger in the classroom. Few of us expect to be angry in late life. Indeed, Erikson’s widely taught theory of human development presents age as a time of quiet reflection and preparation for death. But this book offers a different perspective; one informed by the thinking of economic theorist E. F. Schumacher, who insists that anger is the eye of the heart helping people to clarify their core values. The chapter notes that anger is not simply an emotion but a highly evolved biological process and a deeply personal experience. Just as late life can be a time of growth and maturation it can also be a time to reclaim anger for the benefit of all.
Introduction
Authors: Stark Evan
Published: December 2023

This chapter introduces the notion of coercive control of children. It cites how coercive control over children often goes hand in hand with coercive control of women. Cases of coercion vary from abused mothers harming their children to survive, or protect their children from worse, to weaponizing children. Global services for children are based on the assumption that children's fatal and serious nonaccidental harms are rooted in some combination of maternal deficits, behavioral problems, immaturity, poverty, and environmental stressors. The chapter considers a criminal cause of nonaccidental child fatality and child maltreatment while promoting a justice response rather than child welfare.
In the Beginning
Authors: Stark Evan
Published: December 2023

This chapter explores cases of domestic violence. It acknowledges the common scenario of hurting, intimidating, and constraining the autonomy of children as a primary means to control mothers. In August 2013, UK media featured the narrative of Labour Member of the Scottish Parliament Bill Walker’s conviction for breach of peace and twenty-three assaults by his former wives and step-daughter. During the hearing, Sheriff Katherine Mackie’s sentencing statement indicated the core of how abstracting individual assaultive episodes from their historical context can lead to the mistaken conclusion that the abuse of women and children need not be taken seriously. The chapter notes the rise of the battered women’s movement that garnered recognition for abused women as legitimate claimants of public sympathy, services, and support.
Metaphysics of Nature in The World as Will and Representation
Authors: Segala Marco
Published: December 2023

In the Second Book of The World as Will and Representation, Schopenhauer argued in support of his metaphysics of nature, demonstrating that the will is the thing in itself and the essence of the world, the Ideas objectify the will into natural forces and biological species, and nature reflects the inner conflict of the will with itself. The present chapter analyzes these arguments, assesses their consistency and cogency, and discusses the metaphysical content they provide. It also describes the importance of philosophy of nature as a conceptual space for the dialogue between science and metaphysics. Finally, it considers the difficulties of his metaphysics of nature in relation to some scientific concepts of the time, such as teleology and temporality.
A New Season
Authors: Segala Marco
Published: December 2023

The version of The World as Will and Representation we read today includes a second volume of Supplements, which was added to the second edition of the work in 1844. This chapter provides a narrative that focuses on the period between the first edition of The World as Will and Representation and 1844—twenty-five years of study and investigation. It describes and assesses how the philosophical and scientific context interacted with Schopenhauer’s biography and his decisions regarding the development of his work. It defends the view that the Supplements altered the original system rather than merely expanding it. Moreover, it explains that Schopenhauer’s choices after 1819 were related to his assessment of the changing relationship between philosophy and the sciences, which at that time were beginning what historians call a “process of professionalisation.”
Essences, Emergence, and Ground
Authors: Segala Marco
Published: December 2023

This chapter provides an analysis of the concepts that contributed to Schopenhauer’s metaphysics of nature—Ideas, teleology, and will—in the light of contemporary metaphysics and its investigations about essences, emergence, and grounding. These notions either recur or play an implicit role in Schopenhauer’s work, even if he never provided an adequate definition—and contemporary metaphysical inquiry is helpful precisely because its conceptualization applies to Schopenhauer’s metaphysical notions. This is a promising approach: by focusing on concepts and their definitions, it enlightens modifications and continuities in the two volumes of The World as Will and Representation. Moreover, it emphasizes that the intertwining of science and metaphysics of nature was crucial in Schopenhauer’s philosophy.
The Reciprocal Relationship Between Disease and Society
Authors: Miller Monica K. , Vleet Bryce Van , Shapiro Hugh
Published: December 2023

Disease and society have historically had an uneasy relationship. Society’s developments (e.g., global travel, crowded cities, concerts and events with large attendance) shape whether a virus can take hold and spread. And, a virus can bring society to a halt, as it did in the early days of the COVID-19 (coronavirus disease 2019) pandemic. This reciprocal relationship between disease and society prompted the call to action that underlies this book. This chapter begins by outlining how COVID-19 compares to other historical pandemics and epidemics. In doing so, it provides a historical case study of how a past epidemic (severe acute respiratory syndrome [SARS] of 2003) shaped one society (China) in one profound way (rise of the Internet). This historical example suggests ways that COVID-19 might also affect society. This introductory chapter outlines both the importance of studying the pandemic from a social science perspective and the challenges that await social scientists who have and will study how society and the pandemic influence each other.
U.S. Public Health Policy Responses to COVID-19
Authors: Bornstein Susan G. , Miller Monica K.
Published: December 2023

This chapter presents an overview of the various regulations (e.g., policies, government mandates, public health responses) that were adopted in the United States to protect public health during the COVID-19 pandemic. The roles of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the World Health Organization, and the White House Task Force are discussed. Regulations addressed include mask mandates, stay-home orders, limits on gathering size, travel restrictions, school closings, and business shutdowns, as well as policies that emerged as vaccines became available. The federal response and a few state-level responses are offered as examples of each type of regulation. The changing nature of such regulations is highlighted, as is the contrasts between states (e.g., some states did not issue stay-home orders, while others did). This review provides a foundation for understanding the regulations discussed in the theory-based chapters further in this book.
Legal Actions and Impacts of the COVID-19 Pandemic
Authors: Everett Pamela M.
Published: December 2023

The pandemic impacted almost every facet of American life, causing waves of human and economic damage as it spread. Soon after COVID-19 was confirmed here, state and local government officials issued stay-home orders and closed or restricted business operations to contain the virus. Legal actions soon followed, with a variety of lawsuits and actions, with plaintiffs disputing, for example, the constitutionality of government restrictions, including lockdowns, mask mandates, bans on in-person worship, the limits of contract force majeure clauses, and the rights of inmates in our jails and prisons to be protected from the virus. This chapter provides a sample of the thousands of pandemic-related legal actions, the changes they may bring to the legal landscape for years to come, and topics for further observation and research.
Could Gender-Related Norms Predict Compliance With COVID-19 Prevention Behaviors?
Authors: Uysal Mete Sefa , Üzümçeker Emir , Vestergren Sara
Published: December 2023

Current reports, in almost all countries, highlight that men of all ages are more likely than women to contract and die from COVID-19. This gender pattern was also apparent in the previous pandemics of sever acute respiratory disease (SARS) and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS). Moreover, men engage in fewer preventive health behaviors, which in turn increases their risk of disease and death. These observations suggest that the factors that increase men’s adoption of preventive measures against the COVID-19 pandemic should be investigated. One of the most important factors influencing people’s willingness to comply with COVID-19 guidelines is shared norms. In this respect, the chapter suggests that masculine norms and patriarchal values affect risk-avoidant health behaviors among men. In doing so, it utilizes the focus theory of normative conduct, social identity approach, and social role theory to explain how masculine norms and values influence health behaviors. Lessons learned and future research needed are discussed.
Inequality and the COVID-19 Experience
Authors: Willis-Esqueda Cynthia , Estrada-Reynolds Victoria
Published: December 2023

Structural and systemic inequality disadvantages people of color and low socioeconomic status—even during a pandemic. For instance, minorities have higher unemployment, are less likely to be able to work from home, and are more likely to have high-risk occupations (e.g., grocery store worker). Minority students are less likely to have technology or space to continue to do well in at-home schooling and might experience food insecurities without access to school lunch programs. Minorities often have a distrust of authority because of both historical and contemporary experiences. Disparities in nearly all aspects of social life have left Native Americans, Latinos, and Blacks more vulnerable to the effects of a pandemic. This chapter addresses the structural and systemic disadvantages that minorities face during the pandemic, citing statistics, qualitative information, and related research where available. These macrolevel factors become disadvantages that can dramatically affect one’s experiences during the pandemic. Lessons learned and future research ideas are offered.
Past Victimization and Responses to the COVID-19 Pandemic
Authors: Bilewicz and Michał , Babińska Maria
Published: December 2023

Experiences of historical victimization affect dominant responses to threat. Nations and ethnic groups that suffered from forms of collective violence such as genocides, cleansing, wars, violent conflicts, and occupations generate a specific mindset that guides their behavior, emotions, and cognitions. Ultimately, mistrust and conspiracy theories that are common among victimized groups could be considered a paradoxical form of adaptation to adverse life conditions. In the situation of a global pandemic, such as the COVID-19 epidemic, this mindset becomes clearly maladaptive. It leads to lower trust in authorities and institutions, disobedience regarding health restrictions, irrational behavior, stockpiling supplies, and belief in conspiracy theories and pseudoscience. This chapter presents evidence from studies conducted in historically victimized countries and minority groups that showed how the focus on the ingroup’s past victimization leads to maladaptive responses to COVID-19. These findings are discussed using the framework of victimization as an adaptive process. Future research is suggested to include societal-level factors in the analyses of peoples’ responses to pandemic threat.
Looking Back on the COVID-19 Pandemic
Authors: Blank Hartmut
Published: December 2023

The COVID-19 pandemic is dynamically unfolding, and outcomes are still uncertain (despite many prediction models). Yet, in hindsight, people might find such outcomes foreseeable and/or inevitable (e.g., death rates, economic damage)—an effect called hindsight bias. Moreover, with outcome bias, how people or institutions dealt with the crisis is evaluated by outcomes that materialized only later. These two related phenomena can lead people to judge political leaders and health authorities’ current performance based on the ultimate outcome of the pandemic, rather than basing it on the knowledge available at the time. Importantly, however, these biases are not uniformly shown by everyone but manifest themselves in different ways depending on one’s political leanings and personal involvement in the COVID-19 crisis. Intriguingly, they are even instrumentalized within the political discourse along party lines (e.g., government critics being accused of showing hindsight), making it necessary to reflect on ways of distinguishing objective performance from biased perception and political spin. The two biases can affect the ultimate outcomes of the pandemic (who is blamed, whether changes are made to prevent future disasters, etc.). Finally, some lessons learned (e.g., for policymakers and healthcare providers) and future direction are offered.
The Woman Who Married the Bear
Authors: Mann Barbara Alice , Kailo Kaarina
Published: December 2023

The Woman Who Married the Bear surveys Indigenous traditions across the global North, including North America and Eurasia, with matriarchal traditions of Women marrying the Bear in both, sporting caves as wombs, water as earth’s amniotic fluid, and birth-renewal as the point of thanksgiving. In North America, traditions stretch back to the Bölling−Allerød warming, 15,000 BP and come forward into historical times. In Eurasia, starting with the earliest “Venus” figurines of bear-headed women, 35,000 BP, traditions connect fire, water, earth, forest, and “Bear-Women” spirits to matriarchy. In both instances, women and bears originally collaborate through time-keeping star configurations and winter cave-dwelling, as symbolized by the spring awakening from hibernation followed by the birth of “cubs.” The woman–bear interface bifurcates coming out of the Little Ice Age, with the authors exploring both the before and the after storylines, noting that their mutation from woman-honoring to woman-blaming apparently began with the Firestone comet swarm of 12,900 BP followed by the eight-hundred-year nuclear winter of the Younger Dryas. Before this event, women were the timekeepers and honored creators of life; after it, their story of Bear marriage turned to one of male rescue, hunting, and danger—especially from “Grizzly Wives.” The authors reinstate the progenitive equity to The Woman Who Married the Bear.
Original Instructions
Authors: Kailo Kaarina
Published: December 2023

As gained through the medium of the Bear in ancient Finno-Ugric, Celtic Irish, Russian, and Korean traditions, the Bear woman, Bera, transmits the “Original Instructions” to her people. Surviving oral stories show the close, cognitive links among the bear’s den, the sauna, the womb, the moon, and menstruation. A biocosmic sense of time in the rebirth- and fertility-oriented spring festivals are elements of both mother and bear worship. Still extant bear rituals in Europe contain traces of the old ecospirituality of the Bear’s spouse. Excavating through the debris imposed by Western scholarship exposes the distinction between overlapping myths of women marrying bears and male hunting rituals in the principles of life and death, the gift economy, and sacrificial slaying. Ancient egalitarianism and interdependency exist in the rituals of women that sacralized Bronze Age male hunting to make it sustainable.
First Beings
Authors: Kailo Kaarina
Published: December 2023

The old traditions were devalued as patriarchal patterns overlay the “Original Instructions” of the Bear. The hierarchical patriarchal categories in gender, species, and ethnicities disturbed the prior shamanic balance of ancient Europe and Asia. Mastery over nature, animals, women, and Indigenous populations replaced the worldview of yore. The value system of the Woman Who Married the Bear, with its gifting, egalitarian principles, gave way to those of life and death in economies of sacrifice, destabilizing Bear’s meaning to serve patriarchal colonization. Although an attitude of respect in the sacralization of hunting served to make the new system sustainable, predatory colonial approaches to the “Other” concomitantly destroyed ecosystems by weakening women’s balancing rituals. Furthermore, the gender of deities, forebears, and great mothers was changed, so that matriarchal history became buried under Christian writings. The environmental distress of the natural world now exposes the need to revive the ancient values of balance.
Introduction
Authors: Beaudoin Richard
Published: December 2023

The introduction begins by examining the role of a non-notated breath in Chopin recordings by Slenczynska and Ax. Classical music is identified as the genre where the acceptability of non-notated sounds is least resolved. A definition of unwritten music is then set forth. The six forthcoming chapters are summarized: (1) The Aesthetics and Ethics of Unwritten Music; (2) Sounds of Breath; (3) Sounds of Touch; (4) Sounds of Effort; (5) Surface Noise; and (6) Inclusive Track Analysis. Five preparatory notes explain the chronological boundaries of the studied repertoire, the audio formats used to create the book’s analytical spectrograms, the distinction between live and studio recordings, the use of the term “classical,” and the need for the field of music theory to recognize the totality of audible events on audio recordings.
Surface Noise
Authors: Beaudoin Richard
Published: December 2023

Chapter 5 analyzes the cyclic surface noise patterns heard on early recording formats including wax cylinders and gramophone discs. The sound of recording and playback machines is theorized alongside the composition being recording, treating the resultant totality as one music. An analogy is made between surface noise and a Renaissance illustration of a sighting grid by Fludd. Six modes of interaction are defined between perceived meter and the pulse patterns of surface noise: (1) performance-centricity; (2) narrative asynchrony; (3) ekphrastic (non)coincidence; (4) expressive synchrony; (5) metaphoric development; and (6) surface noise-centricity. The modes are illustrated in recordings by Simpson singing Bonds, Caruso singing Donizetti, Granados and Arensky recording their own music, Krushelnytska singing Lysenko, and a re-recording of the historic Brahms cylinder. The deterioration of the cylinder is related to a letter in which Rilke voiced his concerns about a tarnished daguerreotype of his father.
Introduction
Authors: Whiting Jennifer
Published: December 2023

Essays grounded in Aristotle’s conception of an organism’s soul as standing to its body as form (morphê) to matter (hulê). The early ones present Aristotle as embracing “individual” forms, each unique to the body it animates, as part of his solution to the problem of distinguishing generation and destruction simpliciter from accidental changes (including locomotion). The later ones focus on the movements of animals, especially rational ones. They describe asymmetries between “normative” cases (where form is fully actualized) and “defective” cases (where material factors interfere, as in Aristotle’s account of akrasia). In rational animals, phronêsis is the proper form of the desiring part of soul, and prohairesis unifies desire and thought in ways that yield the Socratic conception of virtue featured in Living Together. Aristotle’s conception of prohairesis is also connected, together form as principle of individuation, to Locke’s account of personal identity, featured in First, Second, and Other Selves.
The Lockeanism of Aristotle
Authors: Whiting Jennifer
Published: December 2023

The chapter argues against common view that Aristotle lacked the “modern” and ultimately Cartesian conception of “self” found in Locke’s account of personal identity. Locke’s conception of consciousness is not, as usually assumed, Cartesian, but a version of the explicitly anti-Cartesian conception found in the work of Ralph Cudworth, who employs the conception of sunaisthêsis (Locke’s ‘consciousness’) found in the stoicized Aristotelianism of Plotinus. But Locke was Professor of Greek at Oxford and would of course have read the original sources. So it is not implausible to trace his views back to Aristotle’s conception of rational agency via Epictetus’ conception of prohairesis and Stoic accounts of oikeiôsis (from which Locke’s notion of “appropriation” is almost certainly derived: see Seneca’s letter 121). This makes it plausible to see in Aristotle’s identification of a person with her practical intellect the seeds of Locke’s irreducibly first-personal (but not therefore Cartesian) conception of consciousness.
Threatening Force in Cyberspace
Authors: Hollis Duncan B. , van Benthem Tsvetelina
Published: December 2023

Threats have long been endemic in inter-State relations with diverse goals, communicative values, and means of signaling. Yet, international law explicitly focuses on just one type of threat—threats of force. Under the jus ad bellum, States must refrain from threats of force in their international relations. As we explain, existing doctrine establishes that States can violate it by threatening force implicitly as well as explicitly, with the legal threshold measured via an objective methodology. This chapter aims to specify and extend the international legal prohibition on threats of force to cyberspace. The idiosyncrasies of information and communications technologies provide fertile ground for cyber-specific threatening behavior. The ubiquity of unauthorized access means that a compromise for one purpose—for example, espionage—could, under the right circumstances, simultaneously (and implicitly) threaten a future use of force. Our chapter aims to offer an initial analytical frame for identifying when this may (or may not) be a credible possibility. In particular, we highlight the potential of “Big Data” to change the nature of cyber threats of force as well as its capacity to improve States’ ability to identify them. We argue that advancements in digital technologies are likely to put the viability and sufficiency of existing legal standards and methodologies to the test.
Big Data
Authors: Schmitt Michael N.
Published: December 2023

This chapter builds on the scenario and analysis set forth in Chapter 1. In this part of the scenario, an armed conflict between Newtropia and Outlandia breaks out. Accordingly, I will discuss the complex legal questions the scenario presents under international humanitarian law (IHL). I will begin by examining whether an armed conflict exists and, if so, whether that conflict is international or non-international in character. The discussion then moves on to a subject unique to cyber operations, the meaning of the IHL term “attack” as applied to cyber operations. Should a cyber operation qualify as an attack, it may only be directed at military objectives, the third subject considered. Finally, my analysis concludes with a capita selecta examination of other issues the scenario raises. I would note that while the scenario involves international armed conflict, much of the analysis applies mutatis mutandis to non-international armed conflict. As will become apparent, the role of data in modern conflict has significant IHL implications. However, the fact of Big Data does not, at least not directly. It enables operations that might not otherwise be possible, but their nature and consequences drive legal analysis, not the fact that Big Data enabled them.
Garbage In, Garbage Out
Authors: Visger Mark A.
Published: December 2023

This chapter examines the practice of data poisoning as a means of countering Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning. This practice, which entails feeding manipulated or invalid data to an artificial intelligence system in order to induce malfunction or achieve a desired effect, raises many novel issues under the Law of Armed Conflict. This chapter reviews the various forms of data poisoning and the methods by which they may be employed in armed conflict to counter enemy targeting systems powered by Artificial Intelligence. The chapter then reviews the legal framework that might apply to such data poisoning attacks, identifying three primary issues that should be addressed before data poisoning is deployed on a battlefield in armed conflict: (1) the lack of a legal framework for pre-conflict data poisoning, (2) the applicability of targeting rules to data poisoning, and (3) the applicability of perfidy rules to data poisoning.
How to Make Money
Authors: Rodríguez-Alegría Enrique
Published: December 2023

This chapter presents a description of the media of exchange used in Spain and Mexico in the centuries before the conquest, and the different coins in circulation in New Spain in the sixteenth century. It also presents an initial description of the decedents in the probate inventories, based on the total worth calculated at the time of their death. Most colonizers in the sample were not wealthy, or even poor. Still, the net worth of colonizers varied widely. Much of their net worth was really debt recorded in pieces of paper, and very little of their net worth was held in money. Most of the debt was owed to other colonizers rather than to Indigenous people. Aside from an economic description of the colonizers, the chapter provides a discussion of the value of keeping people, rather than concepts (such as “money”) as the source of action in studies of materiality.
How to Build Sociotechnical Systems
Authors: Rodríguez-Alegría Enrique
Published: December 2023

Colonizers created sociotechnical systems that combined tools, livestock, and slaves. They often sold tools and slaves, or tools and livestock together as a unit. The slaves included roughly equal numbers of Black slaves (from Africa and from the Caribbean) and Indigenous slaves, and of men and women. The livestock included cattle, horses, and especially sheep, and they caused plenty of environmental damage and conflict in colonial Mexico. Even though there is little evidence that the Spanish adopted Indigenous tools, they certainly adopted Indigenous sociotechnical systems; that is, they took control of labor (often slaves), the slaves’ tools, and the products. Thus, technological change in colonial Mexico was not just a benign improvement on the so-called “Stone Age” technologies of Indigenous people, but it was a matter of exploitation of Indigenous and Black people. Spanish adoption of Indigenous technologies was more than just a matter of using tools, and it was part of the struggle for power in Mexico.
Pinnacles of Versatility
Authors: Özbey Sonya N.
Published: December 2023

One of the obvious effects of the Zhuangzi’s multiplication of vantage points from which to view the world is that it strips human perspectives of their unquestioned weight. Although the anti-anthropocentric streak of the text is undeniable, chapter 4 demonstrates that the Zhuangzi, at times, still concedes the distinctive and exceptional status of the human condition but without introducing an obvious hierarchy between people and other beings. The Zhuangzi brings this about by framing human beings’ exceptional status around their ability to adapt to different value systems, situations, and lifestyles. This sometimes translates into the ability to act and live like nonhuman beings, which thwarts the ability to rank different beings on a hierarchical scale.
Conclusion
Authors: Özbey Sonya N.
Published: December 2023

The conclusion to Part III discusses the affective side of discourses about the human-animal binary and the presence and absence of certain anxieties regarding the communication of affects between humans and animals. It argues that the contrasting attitudes toward animal affects in Spinoza and the Zhuangzi are closely tied to different visions of human flourishing and different views of human solidarity as an ideal. Neither Spinoza’s investment in human bonding nor the Zhuangzi’s disinterest in bringing humans together as a sociopolitical community is trivial. The former’s investment sometimes enables him to police species-borders, while the latter carries its undermining of all familiar distinctions to uncomfortable extremes, including divesting from human welfare as a collective goal altogether.
From Nature’s Order to Civil Order
Authors: Özbey Sonya N.
Published: December 2023

Chapter 7 demonstrates that Spinoza’s view of reality as systematic and intelligible intimately informs his views on issues of identity, self-sameness, and the lawful character of the transformations that a being can go through. The chapter explores the ways in which Spinoza’s theory of individuation and his views on the maintenance of identity through time provide the ontological ground for his conception of the body politic, with human similarity and togetherness as its premise and its end. The chapter also examines Spinoza’s “state of nature” theories and how animality tropes are mobilized to describe bad polities marked by antagonism, strife, and fear.
Impersonalization
Authors: Zerubavel Eviatar
Published: December 2023

This chapter examines the main constitutive ingredients of the process of impersonalization. Through typifying, standardizing, institutionalizing, anonymizing, and establishing both substitutability and impartiality, such process involves foregrounding individuals’ social identity by attending to their generic features while backgrounding their personal identity by disregarding their singularity, thus transforming them into presumably typical representatives of particular social categories. By standardizing the structure of professional mobility thereby routinizing it, for instance, it thus emblematizes the triumph of the generic over the specific. Using the classic example of bureaucracy, the chapter features our distinctly sociological vision of social “positions” that exist independently of their merely temporary specific occupants. By downplaying the latter’s singularity, such positions thus come to be viewed as symbolically immortal.
Work
Authors: Arnett Jeffrey Jensen
Published: December 2023

In this chapter the focus is on how emerging adults go about searching for satisfying work. It is emphasized that the ideal for emerging adults is finding a job that clicks with their developing identity. However, relatively few pursue this ideal in a systematic way, and many take a job of any kind in order to pay their bills. Next is a look at variations in being ready to make a long-term decision about work. Unemployment prevalence among young people is discussed, including the basis for it. This is followed by a section describing influences on job choice, especially the complex influences parents can have, and a section describing the dreams that some emerging adults have for an alluring and sometimes elusive work ideal. The chapter ends with a section on the revolutionary rise of remote work and a reflection on work and identity that integrates the previous materials.
Wrong Turns and Dead Ends
Authors: Arnett Jeffrey Jensen
Published: December 2023

Some kinds of problems appear to be more prevalent in emerging adulthood than in any subsequent adult life stage. This chapter first examines rates and sources of externalizing problems (including automobile accidents, crime, and substance abuse) and internalizing problems (including depression, anxiety, and eating disorders). Then the theory of emerging adulthood is applied to understanding why some of these problems are especially prevalent in this life stage, using the five features of emerging adulthood as a framework. Finally, trends in the past two decades are examined in rates of some externalizing problems, and possible reasons for those trends. Most trends are positive, especially in automobile accidents and crime, but certain kinds of substance use have increased.
Introduction
Authors: Josephson Paul R.
Published: December 2023

This book examines the challenges and successes in building large-scale technologies, so-called hero projects, in Russia over the last one hundred years, from the time of the Russian Revolution to the present. It places hero projects within a framework of political history, institutional history, and history of technology. Hero projects remain a major tool of economic growth and military power in Russia. Many Soviet-era and Soviet-inspired projects have been reborn in the twenty-first century through massive infusions of state funding and are run through state-owned and managed technologies. All of them reflect the desire to enhance state power, placate citizens in a time of economic or military challenges, demonstrate to the world the nation’s technological verve, and draw Russia’s great natural and mineral wealth into the Kremlin’s hands.
Rails and Resources*
Authors: Josephson Paul R.
Published: December 2023

Russian railroads were massive tools to meet state priorities of economic development by laying infrastructure over regions perceived to be empty of people but rich in resources, accelerating the settlement of distant regions, and enhancing military security. The Tsar’s Trans-Siberian Railway, Stalin’s uncompleted and murderous Polar “Magistral,” and Brezhnev’s Baikal-Amur Railway (BAM) shared the goals of building military might and accelerating resource exploitation. Even if long ago the Russian state abandoned the practice of building the rail system on the backs of gulag prisoners, it still embraces this technology at the expense of public and environmental health, now to develop Arctic oil and gas, but not for the citizen.
Bridges of Empire
Authors: Josephson Paul R.
Published: December 2023

Putin’s Crimean Bridge is intended to permit thousands of automobiles and dozens of trains to connect Russia with its annexed prize, Crimea. Bridges serve commerce. They enable troop movements. They are symbols of cultural achievement. They span space, time, and empire: the spectacular Brooklyn Bridge, the Golden Gate Bridge, the Millau Viaduct in Southern France, the Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge connecting Kobe and Awayi Island; arch, trust, suspension, or cable-stayed; and now Putin’s Crimean Bridge. This chapter places Putin’s bridge against the backdrop of military bridge-building traditions, and yet constant lag and technological failure. The Crimean Bridge reflected the symbolic end to a long journey that the president commenced in 2000: the restoration of the Russian empire with military control of Crimea, a strategic outpost for Russia for dominion over the Black Sea.
Epilogue
Authors: Josephson Paul R.
Published: December 2023

From the Tsars to the commissars, from the Bolsheviks to the oligarchs, and from Lenin to Putin, the Russia development model has been centered on hero projects to bring the vast landscapes of tundra, taiga, steppe, and desert within the orbit and control of the Moscow. The Kremlin used hero projects essentially to build an economically powerful and militarily secure empire. In Russia, Soviet ministries reincarnated as state corporations in the pursuit of megaprojects. In the absence of sufficient public scrutiny, and with NGOs handicapped, hero projects move forward without pause. The extensive costs of hero projects, and their environmental and social consequences, have rarely been questioned by leaders or citizens alike, but have been essential to the political narrative of the need for an all-powerful, imperial state to withstand internal enemies and external dangers.
The Reformation of the Heart
Authors: Apetrei Sarah
Published: December 2023

This book offers a fresh assessment of the relationship between radical theology and gender radicalism in the English Revolution. In doing so, it addresses together two themes which have long fascinated historians of the period: the intellectual formation of religious radicalism; and the prominence of women as prophets and preachers in the radical sects. The Reformation of the heart centres on the remarkable ideas and reforming visions of a levelling and highly mystical network in the period of civil conflict, the regicide and its aftermath; a network which linked military chaplains with inspired women and congregations across England. Drawing on both known printed works, and unexamined manuscript evidence, this study suggests that the revolutionary radicals were both more theologically daring, and more unified in their support for women’s participation, than we have thought. On one side, the army chaplains and radical preachers developed a highly original theology of gender, conceiving of a female principle in the Godhead. They were also explicit advocates of women’s preaching, to an extent previously unacknowledged. Concomitantly, this book argues that women’s involvement in preaching and publishing during the crisis fostered innovative thinking on the incarnation; universal salvation; free grace; eschatology; and the nature of the church. The book also offers a contribution to feminist epistemology, showing how the involvement of women in reform and the formation of ideas, as a group with distinctive experiences, priorities, and cultural identities, can be transformative.