bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Relative Clauses
Authors: de Vries Mark
Published: June 2013

Relative clauses are subordinate clausal modifiers. Semantically, they contain a variable that is somehow related to the anchoring phrase (usually a so-called head noun). Across and within different languages, we find a host of different construction types falling under the general label of relative clause. These can be restrictive or nonrestrictive, be nominalized and/or nonfinite, contain a resumptive pronoun, relative pronoun or other kind of linking element, and so on. Relative clauses seem to be essential for the linguistic expression of complex concepts, and it comes as no surprise that practically every language uses relativization in one way or another. If only for this reason, relative clauses have received ample attention in the descriptive as well as generative linguistic literature, especially since the 1960s. The text and references below provide an overview of the various phenomena involved and the related theoretical debate, thereby establishing a selective guide to the relevant literature, including relatively early scholarship. This bibliography focuses on formal and cross-linguistic work. There is also a rich literature on acquisition and cognitive processing of relative clauses, which is not covered here.
Maxims of Conversation
Authors: Spector Benjamin
Published: June 2013

One of the central goals of contemporary linguistic pragmatics is to account for how competent language users are able to derive from the linguistic form of an utterance, and the context in which it occurs, the communicative intention of its author. Grice proposes a model of how this interpretative process takes place (Grice 1989, cited under Paul Grice). One of his central ideas is that, when interpreting an utterance of a sentence, one assumes that the speaker has complied with a number of principles ensuring that conversation is a cooperative activity. Such principles Grice calls “maxims of conversation.” Grice mentions four such maxims. According to the maxim of quality, one should not say something unless one believes it is true, based on good evidence. According to the maxim of quantity, a cooperative speaker should provide as much information as needed given the conversation’s goal, and no more information than what is needed. According to the maxim of relation (or relevance), a cooperative speaker should not convey any information that is not relevant in the context of the utterance. Finally, the maxim of manner instructs speakers to express themselves in an orderly way. In order to decode the communicative intention of a speaker (“what is meant”), one draws inferences about the speaker’s state of mind, based on the fact that she used a certain linguistic form that has a certain “literal” meaning (“what is said”), and on the assumption that she observed the maxims of conversation. The notion of “maxims of conversation” is thus the cornerstone of Grice’s approach to linguistic pragmatics. Because the Gricean approach (in a broad sense) remains, to a large extent, the foundation of contemporary work in pragmatics, conversational maxims, or related theoretical notions, have kept a central role in pragmatics ever since, even though the precise nature and content of such “maxims” are under debate. This article lists a number of books, edited collections, and journal articles that, in one way or another, contribute to our understanding of conversational maxims, where the notion of “conversational maxim” is broadly construed so as to include any principle of language use that is hypothesized to play a role in inferential pragmatic interpretation. The relevant literature overlaps with at least three distinct fields: philosophy, linguistics, and psycholinguistics. Some recent works applying decision theory and game theory to pragmatics are also included.
Early Childhood
Authors: MacNaughton Glenda
Published: June 2013

Early childhood is the period of childhood between birth and eight years of age. While the provision of targeted educational and care programs to meet the specific and particular needs of children in their early childhood years has a long history in many countries, there is considerable contemporary debate about what the nature of those programs should be and how they are best funded and evaluated. In this bibliography there is a brief overview of the history of early childhood education and care internationally, pointing to the differences in philosophies and practices that have grown over time in different parts of the world. However, the prime focus is on contemporary influences and debates in policies and their intents, and curriculum philosophies and practices in the provision of education and care for children in their early childhood years. With increasing investment in such education and care, there is increasing debate in several disciplines about how best to conceptualize and build practices that address children’s developing capacities at this age, to ensure that their rights are acknowledged and enacted, and to take account of issues of equity and fairness that shape the lives of young children. These concerns are linked with an increasing interest in the relationships between parents and early childhood institutions and spaces, how early childhood institutions and informal settings connect with the formal years of schooling, and how specific policies that address the needs and capacities of children in their early childhood years are produced that are relevant in diverse contexts, especially in non-Western contexts.
Disability
Authors: Shah Sonali
Published: June 2013

Traditionally, disability was considered to be a personal trouble, as opposed to the social issue and public policy concern that it is today. Children with physical and cognitive impairments were shunned away from mainstream society into asylums or workhouses. They were typically discussed and analyzed through a medical lens, pathologized and conceived as a social problem to be regulated, cured, or killed. The emergence of ideologies constructing disabled children and adults as dependent victims unable to contribute to the development of society encouraged the development of charities for disabled people and exploitation of textual and nontextual narratives of the “vulnerable disabled child” to evoke sympathy and induce the public’s financial generosity. The ideological mantra that impairment was the cause of individual and family disadvantage was embedded in the cultural consciousness of society and thus influenced how disabled people (across the lifecourse) “made themselves known” and were made known to others (i.e., as inferior, developmentally delayed, financial and emotional burdens to their family and society). It led to the expansion of the rehabilitation industry and new social policies that focused on altering or incarcerating the impaired body. However this was challenged by the upsurge of the British Disabled People’s Movement in the 1960s and 1970s. Based on the ideas of the Union of Physically Impaired against Segregation, the movement campaigned for social equality and human rights legislation in all spheres of social life and generated a new understanding of disability. With the historic shift in thinking about both childhood and disability as a public issue rather than a personal matter, there has been increasing interest in the social world of both disabled people and all children and young people. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (particularly Article 12) and the Children Act 1989 initiated subsequent developments with regard to children having a right to be involved in decisions about their lives. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities means that disabled children today are the first generation to grow up in an era of full international civil rights. This bibliography lists works that include the voices and experiences of disabled children and young people in research about their everyday lives, including health and medical treatment, education, and identity. These works demonstrate the richness and diversity of disabled children’s individual lives, thus challenging the traditional conception that disabled children are a homogenous group.
Masculinities/Boyhood
Authors: Janssen Diederik
Published: June 2013

The intersecting of masculinity studies and childhood studies since the 1990s has been expansive. Questions of gender have increasingly invoked questions of development, and demarcating boyhood has become a problem central to gender studies, indexical to more encompassing riddles of temporal masculinities and masculine temporalities. Motivation for theory and research on boyhood masculinities shifted considerably during the 20th century, from psychoanalysis and the popular reformatory “boyology” scene (first half of the 20th century) to the social and medical psychology of sex roles and gender dysphoria (1960s and 1970s) and gender identity disorder (1980s) to the current (1990s–2010s) culture wars over Schooling, Medicalization, sexual abuse and harassment, and heteronormativity. In the early 21st century, attention to boyhood masculinities derives its largest impetus from a heterogeneous spectrum of increasingly mainstreamed controversies, prominently including gender gaps and gender-specific drops in enrollment, literacy, performance, and retention, and purportedly related feminization or demasculinization of education (see Schooling: “Boy Problem,” “Boy Turn,” and Feminization). All of these controversies show a heavy Anglo-American slanting, with most publications emerging from the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, and Canada. Sections in this article provide an orientation to general academic venues (Encyclopedias, Journals, Synoptic Works) for introductory reading. Development of Gender Identity/Difference, Cross-Cultural and Non-Western Studies, Boys’ Geographies, and Ethnographies illustrate the broad angle of boyhood studies, while Historical Studies covers major Anglo-American (United States, Britain and Ireland, Canada, Australia) and emergent (Africa, Asia) contexts for scholarship. Other sections follow thematic interests more or less familiar to childhood studies researchers (Schooling, Sexualities, Representations and Mediations, Medicalization, Toys, Material Culture, and Technology). A separate section Boys’ Literature offers general, American historical, and British historical resources.
Siblings
Authors: Maynard Ashley
Published: June 2013

Most children in the world grow up with one or more siblings. Interactions with siblings serve important functions in development because they allow children to practice roles and to observe other children who are related and who are more skilled. The sibling relationship is important in development through the lifespan, but the nature of sibling relationships varies across cultures. Even in childhood, siblings are effective at socializing each other in cultural activities involving cognitive and social skills. Through the lifespan, siblings bonds continue to different degrees across cultures.
Discipline and Punishment
Authors: Holden George W.
Published: June 2013

The discipline and punishment of children by parents is among the most commonly investigated topics in developmental psychology. Discipline has long occupied a central role in views about socialization, specifically the processes by which children are taught the skills, values, and motivations to become competent adults. The types of disciplinary techniques used by parents reflect a core ingredient of those parents’ approach to childrearing. Furthermore, the particular types of disciplinary techniques used have long been related to children’s outcomes. This is true both in theoretical writings and in subsequent empirical evidence. Discipline and punishment is not a simple topic to study for several reasons: there is confusion over terminology and conceptual issues; the subject matter reflects a dyadic event, embedded in larger contexts of ongoing relationships, family, and neighborhoods, as well as culture; and disciplinary practices that are determined by multiple sources and change over time are at the intersection of cognition, emotion, and behavior. Discipline occurs when there is a breakdown in child management and the child has made, in the parent’s view, a transgression. Disciplinary techniques are those methods used by parents to correct misbehavior, discourage inappropriate behavior, and gain compliance from their children. These techniques consist of a variety of actions and reactions and include such common techniques as reasoning, psychological control, coercion by threats or corporal punishment, time-outs, withdrawal of privileges, or ignoring. Some investigators focus on a group of disciplinary techniques labeled “ineffective discipline” but also called “maladaptive,” “dysfunctional,” or “inept” parenting. Such actions inadvertently reinforce misbehavior or model inappropriate behavior. Although most of the research on discipline has focused on parental punishments, attention is now being devoted to the topics of child compliance, autonomy, self-regulation, and ways of engaging children in cooperative interactions rather than control-based ones, under the label of “positive discipline.”
Children and Young People in Africa
Authors: Cheney Kristen
Published: June 2013

Research on children and youth in Africa has played a formative role in the advancement of theories in child development, international development, and youth studies. Before the establishment of childhood studies as a distinct area of research in its own right, many Africa-focused texts—if they mentioned children at all—placed them in a corollary role to that of adults; child well-being was taken as a barometer of parenting or the state of a country’s development progress. With the advent of more child-centered research, much of the more recent literature developed on children, youth, and childhood in Africa centers on children as objects of—and sometimes respondents to or participants in—national/international development. Perhaps because Africa’s development indicators are comparatively low, scholarly work on children tends to take a development- or rights-centered approach. Popular topics focus on the hardships young Africans face: how poverty drives children into laboring, soldiering, or otherwise hazardous activity or how children suffer disproportionately from economic and political insecurity. The influence of HIV/AIDS is also ubiquitous. Because of its profound effect on every aspect of life, HIV/AIDS cross-cuts many sections in this bibliography. The literature on young people in Africa also considers the vast potential of this demographic majority of the population (nearly half of the continent’s population is under fifteen years old). Most research now focuses on child/youth agency in the face of social, economic, and political challenges, seeing young people as a resource for development—sometimes by drawing on and reframing African cultural traditions.
China, Japan, and Korea
Authors: Fong Vanessa L.
Published: June 2013

Sociologists, anthropologists, and historians have focused on diversity, inequality, and historical transformations in childhood and education in East Asian societies, while psychologists have focused on how the cultures, policies, and practices of East Asian societies have resulted in educational outcomes and patterns of child development that differ from those of societies outside East Asia, especially the United States. Prior to the 1980s, scholarship about childhood and education in East Asian societies was sparse, as social science scholarship infrastructures in East Asian societies were weak owing to political and economic limitations that resulted from the chaos left by the wars and revolutions that ravaged East Asian societies during the first half of the 20th century. In addition, the social sciences were dominated by Anglophone scholars whose interest in East Asian societies focused mostly on non–child-related aspects of those societies’ cultures, social structures, histories, politics, and literatures, while Anglophone psychologists and education researchers concentrated primarily on childhood and education in their own societies, paying little attention to these issues in East Asia. Scholarly interest in childhood and education in East Asia flourished after the 1980s, though,as a result of the increasing cultural, political, and economic power of East Asian societies; their tendency to do as well as, or even better than, Anglophone societies in international academic competitions; the rising numbers of emigrants from East Asia who brought interest and expertise in their home societies to the Anglophone societies to which they migrated; and globalizing forces that made East Asian societies more interesting to Anglophone social scientists, including psychologists and education researchers who had previously paid little attention to international comparisons. The amount of scholarly attention each country has attracted has been proportionate to its population, emigration patterns, and cultural, political, and economic influence on the rest of the world; thus, mainland China has attracted the bulk of scholarly attention paid to East Asian societies, with Japan coming in second, the Republic of Korea (South Korea) coming in third, and the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (North Korea) not represented at all because it has been inaccessible to social scientists outside its borders.
Homeschooling
Authors: Wyatt Gary
Published: June 2013

In a National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) study, Planty, et al. 2009 (cited under General Overviews) reports that in 2007, approximately 1.5 million American children were being homeschooled. While this number is likely an underestimate, it represents 2.9 percent of all school-aged children in the United States, a 74 percent increase in the number of children that NCES found were being homeschooled just eight years earlier. Given the number of children involved, the impact of homeschooling on them is of considerable importance to scholars, and, consequently, numerous research studies have explored this phenomenon. While some of this research is of high scholarly quality, some of it, including some of the most publicized homeschool-related research, suffers from methodological problems, including nonrandom samples, response bias, and unwarranted generalization. In light of these concerns, a goal of this article is to guide readers to the research that is most credible. Finally, while this article will focus on issues related to child development including the socialization and academic achievement of homeschooled children, it will also include information about the history and growth of homeschooling, its philosophical underpinnings, the demographic characteristics of homeschoolers, the motives for homeschooling, and the responses of critics to this alternative.
Eugenics
Authors: Sheehy Kieron
Published: June 2013

Charles Darwin (b. 1809–d. 1882) published On the Origin of Species (1859) and The Descent of Man (1871). These texts instigated public awareness and discussion of evolutionary theory. They inspired the development of social Darwinism, which attempts to apply evolutionary ideas to the social world as route for social progress. Darwin’s cousin, Francis Galton (b. 1822–d. 1911), proposed that the “human stock” could be improved by controlled breeding. Galton founded the science of human eugenics. He defined human eugenics as “the study of the agencies under social control that seek to improve or impair the racial qualities of future generations either physically or mentally” (Memories of My Life. 2d ed. London: Methuen, 1908, p. 321). Part of Galton’s argument, described in Hereditary Genius (Galton 1998, cited under History) was that social hierarchies and class were indicative of “fitness” and therefore reflected inborn differences in ability and worth. He assumed that men of status in society held this position due to their natural superiority and therefore that the structure of society reflected inborn natural differences. Consequently social welfare was perceived as inherently flawed, as allowing less “fit” members of society to procreate was detrimental to developing a healthy society and against the laws of nature. A central issue for eugenicists was that of preventing or remediating racial deterioration. Breeding better people, through eugenic marriages and removing the weaker elements of society improves society and does “providentially, quickly and kindly” what nature did “blindly, slowly and ruthlessly” (Galton cited in Kevles 1985, p. 12; cited under General Overviews). Galton established an anthropometric laboratory to collect measurements of human abilities and characteristics. He developed the use of the statistical concept of normal distribution from which he could predict, for example, how many people one could expect to find at different levels of mental ability. The categorization and measurement of abilities became a central part of eugenic thought. Eugenics has had a far-reaching effect on how differences between children have been constructed and acted on. Eugenics assumed a hierarchy of races, classified people according to ethnic groups, and fostered discrimination based on that assumption. Similar discrimination was practiced according to measures of intellectual ability. The influence of eugenic thinking was global and hence the bibliography necessarily draws on research encompassing each continent and many individual countries. As a research topic, eugenics is explored in many overlapping areas of research but particularly in the areas of disability, education, child care, and the application of new technologies. The issue of the eugenic conceptualization of race pervades all of these areas.
Lev Vygotsky and His Cultural-historical Approach to Development
Authors: John-Steiner Vera
Published: June 2013

The impact of the Russian psychologist L. S. Vygotsky on the study of children’s development happened only very slowly because cultural and political events interfered with an exchange of ideas between Russian and Western theorists. After his untimely death, his worldwide impact was aided by the publication of his writings in English and other languages. He is increasingly cited as a key figure of the 20th century in developmental psychology and related disciplines. Vygotsky was born in 1896 and spent his childhood in Gomel as a much loved son of a large nonreligious Russian Jewish family. As a young man he experienced World War I and various occupations occasioned by the world war and the Russian civil war. He possibly witnessed pogroms and, at the end of his life, political repression. These traumatic events affected Vygotsky deeply. During his university studies, he became increasingly interested in psychology. Subsequently, he taught in a public school in Gomel and began to think systematically about a new approach to the field of psychology. In 1924, he and his wife moved to Moscow. During the following decade Vygotsky worked closely with a group of young psychologists who shared his interests. His theoretical focus included human cognitive processes and the construction of social artifacts, such as language. In his voluminous writings, Vygotsky explored the active nature of young learners, their play and creativity, the importance of the distinction between lower (biologically rooted) functions and higher (meaning-oriented) activities, the relationships between learning and development and between thought and language. Vygotsky distinguished himself in constructing a system of cultural-historical concepts (CHAT) that are still being developed. The CHAT approach is but one of many interpretations of Vygotsky’s legacy, which has taken somewhat different forms in Western and non-Western scholarly communities. Some of his work was schematic due to his recurrent illness of tuberculosis. His best-known books are Thought and Language, the edited volume Mind in Society, and his Collected Works (six volumes). He died on 11 June 1934 in Moscow. The contemporary impact of his work is due, in part, to his focus on the development of processes rather than the measurement of maturational-driven outcomes. This dynamic approach to learning has been of particular importance to educators, who have used his ideas to create programs that support children’s active construction of knowledge and in which language plays a central role in educational growth.
Schooling in the United States
Authors: Hammack Floyd M.
Published: June 2013

The rise of schooling, from a peripheral activity of religious groups and some elites to a virtually universal and global experience of nearly all children, has been the object of study for over a century. Socialization, usually accomplished within the family, is how young people were traditionally brought into the skills and knowledge required by adult status. A few were chosen for more specialized and formalized education, among them priests, but “going to school” was a very uncommon human experience until the 19th century in the United States, when the “common school movement” established schools in rural areas and cities. By the second half of the 19th century, mass elementary schooling was in place and the expansion of “comprehensive” secondary education had begun. After World War II, a similar pattern of growth in higher education began to take shape. Increasingly called “postsecondary schooling,” the kinds of organizations offering this level of education were diverse, with a large expansion of public institutions, two- and four-year degree programs, and a robust private sector. As this expansion has taken place, the content of schooling, as well as the forms it has assumed, has grown. The questions scholars have asked about this phenomenon include “why has it taken place?” and “what are its consequences?” This article will focus on the literature documenting the expansion of schooling in the United States, the explanations that have been developed for this expansion, and assessments of its consequences. “Functional” (including human capital) explanations have stressed the technical demands of the labor market as the economy has moved from one based on extraction of resources (like farming) to manufacturing, and on to service activities. This view asserts that formal schooling needed to be expanded to transfer the cognitive skills required to attain independent adult status in the new economy. Alternatively, “conflict” theories see education as a tool used by competing groups to exclude nonmembers from eligibility for positions that provide high rewards. Dominant groups shape educational expectations and content in ways that privilege their own members, thus sustaining their dominance. Finally, “neo-institutional” explanations emphasize how education has become the chief legitimate mechanism for selection of people to adult statuses in society. These perspectives include a vast literature into which this essay will provide entrée. After assaying the theoretical literature, this report will examine the consequences of educational expansion for some specific educational topics, including early childhood education, the “college for all” movement, women in higher education, and the rise of community colleges and for-profit colleges.
Irish Cinema
Authors: Rockett Kevin
Published: June 2013

Irish cinema occupied a marginal status in world cinema until the double Oscar success in 1990 of the Irish feature My Left Foot, the directorial debut of Jim Sheridan. Three years later, The Crying Game, written and directed by Ireland’s preeminent director Neil Jordan, confirmed the emergence of an internationally recognized and commercially viable Irish cinema when it, too, took an Academy Award following its nomination in six categories. Although prior to this, there had been, throughout the first century of cinema, intermittent production of Irish-made fiction films and, during 1975 to 1987, an indigenous independent, almost artisanal, but culturally and critically incisive cinema, the majority of Irish-themed films were produced outside the country, mainly by the American and British film industries, with the former often focusing on the experiences of the diasporic Irish, and the latter moreover drawn to the Irish-British relationship and the legacy of colonialism. Given the dominance of these two powerful English-language cinemas, which together have supplied over 90 percent of the films seen on Irish cinema screens since the 1910s, their representations of Ireland and the Irish have had an enormous impact, both locally and globally, on how Ireland is imagined. As a result, much Irish film scholarship concerns the often complex intersection between indigenous Irish cinema and the representations of the Irish in the cinemas of the Irish diaspora, most especially America and Britain, but also Australia.
Russian Cinema
Authors: Beumers Birgit
Published: June 2013

While Soviet and Russian cinema was rather understudied until the collapse of the USSR, since the early 1990s there has been a rise in publications and scholarship on the topic, reflecting an increase in the popularity of film and cultural studies in general. However, different periods of Soviet cinema have been covered quite unevenly in scholarship. Largely, this has to do with the accessibility of films: whereas films of the Soviet avant-garde have been widely available—many of the early Soviet films were shown in film clubs and film societies around the world at the time of their making—from the 1930s onward the Soviet Union cut its ties with the West, and films of the Stalinist era remained isolated in their own culture. With the Cold War and the subsequent Thaw, that situation changed, and once again a number of Soviet films became available through festivals and limited distribution. However, it was not until glasnost and perestroika that an interest in Soviet cinema sparked and led to television screenings and releases of new or unshelved films. Strangely, English-language scholarship has continued to focus on the “big” names, those directors whose films were released and distributed abroad, while the works of filmmakers both of auteur cinema (e.g., Kira Muratova) and popular cinema (e.g., Leonid Gaidai and Eldar Riazanov) often remain understudied. Nevertheless, scholars in the Slavic field have engaged more and more with film and visual art, making a huge contribution to the field of Russian film studies. It is often a tightrope walk to classify texts written by leading film scholars with limited access to original sources because of the language barrier, and texts by Slavic scholars with expertise in the culture but a philological background. Yet this “dilemma” also means that the spectrum of scholarship is wide-ranging and engages with a number of different approaches and perspectives on Russian cinema—from historical to political and ideological, from visual and aesthetic to narrative, from theoretical to thematic. This bibliography includes English-language publications only and follows Library of Congress transliteration (without diacritics) outside the citations.
Television Comedy
Authors: Gray Jonathan , Marx Nick , Barnes-Nelson Madison
Published: June 2013

Few genres have commanded as much popular attention, discussion, and ratings success throughout television’s history as has comedy. Few performers, too, have been as well loved as those who make us laugh on a regular basis, and the affective relationships created between viewers and comedians can prove remarkably strong. If television studies as a whole aims to connect texts, production cultures, and audiences with the politics, meanings, and social roles of television, comedy presents itself as an especially relevant and important site for such examination to take place. Yet comedy is an especially hard genre to grasp analytically: comedy can work in the service of the status quo, or it can transgress cultural norms and give voice to scathing critique. It can often vacillate between such poles, even within the same episode. Its mode of address is markedly different from that of many non-comic programs. Hence, while inviting considerable attention from scholars, comedy has also at times required a different analytical toolkit. Comedy often takes the form of the situation comedy (or “sitcom”), with a set, limited cast, with the humor stemming from a given situation (oddball workplace, a quirky group of friends, blended families, man with talking horse, etc.). But variety, satirical “fake news”–style programs, animation, and sketch shows have all proven popular at various points in the medium’s history too. Befitting their popularity globally, a great deal of work has focused on American comedies, with less on British comedies, and substantially less on other national productions. Comedy’s representations of norms and difference—and hence of gender, race, ethnicity, sexuality, national identity, and class—feature especially prominently in the literature, as do attempts to make sense of a show’s politics and broader commentary on society. And while the most common method used to make sense of comedy is textual analysis, production and audience analyses have also been used profitably.
International Financial Law
Authors: Arner Douglas , Ashraf Uzma
Published: June 2013

With growing financial globalization, international financial law has increased in significance and profile, especially in the wake of the global financial crisis of 2008 and the ongoing European financial crisis. Globalization of financial markets and the increase in frequency and severity of financial crises have led to evolving change in the realm of international financial law also. International financial law, historically primarily soft law in the form of standards transposed into domestic law, rules, and regulations, is most especially facing challenges in the wake of recent crises with calls and efforts to both reform its content and enhance its structure. This development, however, constitutes an ongoing debate and one that is particularly challenging because of issues relating to sovereignty, enforcement of decisions, fairness, and effectiveness. The debate overlaps with, and has significant potential implications for, both public international law and municipal law. Given its frequently nontraditional nature, international financial law can be compared and contrasted with monetary law and trade law, which are comparatively more traditional in their degree of legalization.
Investment Protection Treaties
Authors: Gonzalez Napolitano Silvina
Published: June 2013

States have the practice of protecting foreign investments through investment treaties, designated variously as bilateral investment treaty (BIT); foreign investment protection and promotion agreement; multilateral agreement of investment (MAI), in English; Traité bilatéral d’investissement, in French; and Tratado Bilateral de Inversión, Acuerdo para Promoción y Protección Recíproca de Inversiones, in Spanish. Currently, BITs are an important source of investment protection. A BIT is an agreement executed between two states whose purpose is to promote and protect investments in the territory of one contracting state (the “host state”) made by investors from the other contracting state while furthering the development of both states. Although not all BITs have the same content, most of them contain—inter alia—provisions concerning the definition of investments and investors under the protection of the treaty and the standards of treatment and mechanisms for the settlement of disputes between states or between foreign investors and states. The first BIT was signed between Germany and Pakistan in 1959. At present, there are more than 2,700 BITs in force, concluded not only between developed and developing states, as was their original intent, but also between developing states or between developed states. Some states have a Model BIT, which is used as a basis in investment treaty negotiations. For example, in the last decade the following examples can be mentioned: India 2003 Model BIT, Canada 2004 Model BIT, France 2006 Model BIT, Colombia 2007 Model BIT, Norway 2007 Draft Model BIT, Germany 2008 Model BIT, and United States 2012 Model BIT. Apart from BITs, there are some regional treaties, treaties of commerce, or free trade agreements, that contain a chapter referred to as the protection of foreign investment. For the time being, there is no general multilateral agreement for the protection (and promotion) of foreign investment, despite the attempts to adopt a MAI within the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.
International Economic Law
Authors: Qureshi Asif , Gao Xuan , Lee Jeong Ah
Published: June 2013

In general, international economic law (IEL) is concerned with the governance of international economic relations between states as they affect individuals in a state, including in particular their relations inter se across national boundaries. As such, the principal preoccupations of IEL involve international trade, international investment, international monetary and financial law, and international development law. A traditional drive for this normative framework has been the facilitation of the optimal allocation and use of national and international resources for the development of all the people of the world. Defining IEL is a complex process involving a bundle of questions that need to be understood at the outset before any firm definition is articulated. The process involves first and foremost the “is” question: What is IEL? This question involves a consideration of the legal sources of IEL, the subject matter that is the object of IEL disciplines, and the subjects that are subject to IEL. Second, the process involves the “ought” question: How should IEL be redefined? This can be in terms of its sources, its subjects, and subject matter, even in terms of its very objectives. Third, the process involves refocusing from a global perspective to a closer, microlevel scrutiny of the subject. At this level, the questions focus on defining the sets of regimes that make up the international economic system and configuring them in relation to each other and the international economic system as a whole, including the system of IEL in the wider international order. Fourth, another subtext of the process of defining IEL involves inquiring into how international economic governance should be allocated among the state, region, and multilateral levels. Finally, the process of defining IEL is a dynamic process and involves a constant appraisal of whether international economic relations are developing in such a manner that corresponding adjustments to the definition of IEL are called for. The process of defining IEL in this manner elevates the question from a mere academic discourse to one of the most profound inquiries in international economic relations, one that is highly relevant to informing our responses to contemporary international economic problems and that is ubiquitous in all manner of national, regional, and multilateral economic governance. The approach to IEL herein is from the perspective of public international law, with a focus on the traditional preoccupations with world trade, money and finance, investment and taxation, and international development law.
Anxiety Disorders
Authors: Reid Jeannette M. , McKay Dean
Published: June 2013

Recent epidemiological research has shown that anxiety disorders, collectively, are the most common set of psychiatric disorders. Lifetime prevalence estimates suggest that nearly 30 percent of the population will experience an anxiety disorder at some point in their life (Kessler, et al. 2005, cited under Phobias). Bolstering the concern, anxiety disorders (as a group) tend to be associated with a host of cognitive impairments (e.g., perseveration, visual memory deficits), diminished quality of life (e.g., in areas of work and social functioning), and both psychiatric and medical comorbidities. Anxiety disorders may be roughly classed into two groups: (1) those characterized primarily by acute fear (e.g., phobias) and (2) those associated with lower level, but chronic, anxiety and apprehension (with the clearest example being generalized anxiety disorder). Cognitive and behavioral explanations of anxiety predominate, with related treatments showing most consistent research support among psychosocial interventions. (While standard pharmacological practices are mentioned wherever relevant, a more in-depth discussion of pharmacological interventions for anxiety disorders is outside the scope of this chapter.) In general, the etiology of anxiety disorders is likely best understood through the lens of the diathesis-stress model—such that individuals have a genetic predisposition/vulnerability and situational factors mediate symptomatology. (Certainly, a sudden expression of symptoms following brain damage would be an exception. However, as these presentations—albeit fascinating—are in the minority, a related discussion will be beyond the scope of this bibliography.) Within this article, the following anxiety disorders will be discussed in detail: phobias, panic with and without agoraphobia, social anxiety disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder. Factors of current interest in the field will be attended to specifically—for instance, comorbidity in obsessive-compulsive disorder and differential risk in posttraumatic stress disorder. Throughout the discussion, pertinent works will be delineated and summarized.
Social Cognition
Authors: Moskowitz Gordon B.
Published: June 2013

Social cognition is concerned with the study of the thought processes, both implicit and explicit, through which humans attain understanding of self, others, and their environment. Its basic assumption is that the experience of the world is constructed by the perceiver, and that the mental representations one uses for assimilating and making sense of information develop over a lifetime of experience to provide a framework for organizing incoming information, creating expectations and predictions regarding future events, and (re) processing information stored in memory. Such cognition serves (1) as the foundation for social interaction, or in the service of producing appropriate action, and (2) to allow the individual to maintain a coherent understanding/narrative of the world despite an unending stream of stimuli, new experiences, and evidence that might contradict already existing beliefs. Social cognition’s research focus spans from higher-order cognition such as reasoning, ruminating, and deliberation among options to low-order processes such as perception, attention, categorization, memory (encoding, retrieval, reconsolidation), and spreading activation among concepts in networks of associated mental representations. Typical questions focus on how affect and motivation interact with the cognitive system in shaping the type of processing engaged in and the output of that processing, thus determining what we think and feel (and ultimately how we act). In this regard there is an emphasis on the data present in the external world (e.g., whether someone is displaying anger) as an influence on behavior, and on the inherent ability of the features embedded in stimuli to capture attention and trigger specific meaning (such as what combination of facial muscles aligned in a specific way convey anger to people from all cultures). However, perhaps more importantly there is an emphasis on the subjective nature of construing such data (whether we are prepared to perceive the person as displaying anger) and on how the bias to perception and judgment that is introduced from our affect, motives, emotions, moods, values, mind-sets, and prior learning impacts what we believe we see and how the current situation is interpreted. Thus, while what one thinks about a person and what goals one adopts when interacting with that person are influenced by how one categorizes that person (which is based on attention and memory retrieval), it is also true that attention, memory, and categorization are determined by goals, context, attitudes, values, etc. Recent research has introduced concerns with dissociating the implicit from the explicit components of social cognition, as well as understanding the neural basis for cognition relating to the social world, and how this may differ from non-social cognition.
Implications of Foraging Behavior
Authors: Ydenberg Ronald C.
Published: June 2013

The scientific study of ecology began in the 20th century with ideas about population dynamics and trophic interactions in food webs. The study of animal behavior developed around mid-century. Borrowing ideas from the rapidly expanding field of economics, the notion that one could think of foragers as clever strategists with flexible behavior came along in the 1960s. In subsequent decades “optimal foraging” grew rapidly. Analogous lines of thinking for other behaviors such as mate selection, parental care, life histories, and social interactions merged to form behavioral ecology in the 1970s and 1980s. Foraging theorists originally aimed to apply their thinking to population and community ecology. Facing criticism from ecologists, many instead developed strong links with ethology, experimental psychology, and neurobiology. But in the last two decades a series of discoveries have helped move the study of foraging toward fulfilling its ambitions of explaining “higher order” ecological phenomena such as predator-prey relationships and community structure. These discoveries are the subject of this bibliography. The most basic insight came from another notion borrowed from economics: that of a trade-off. Given a trade-off, a behavior can do one of two things well, or both moderately well, but cannot maximize both things at once. For example, an animal can forage quickly, but it cannot watch for predators, mates, or competitors at the same time. The trade-off between foraging and predation risk became fundamental. As the 21st century arrived, ecologists began to realize that anti-predator behavior has effects on populations and communities at least as big and as important as those attributable to the prey killed by predators. These discoveries are currently spurring ecologists to develop new theoretical and empirical techniques to investigate the role of foraging behavior in population ecology and community structure.
Boreal Biome
Authors: Frelich Lee E.
Published: June 2013

The boreal biome, with vast forests across northern North America, Europe, and Asia, has been of interest since the science of ecology got its start in the late 1800s. Many also refer to the boreal forest as “taiga,” and the two terms are considered interchangeable here. Scientists, conservationists, and forest managers have long realized that the difficulty of traveling in the remote territory of the boreal forest offers the chance to characterize the natural ecological function and design effective conservation strategies prior to large-scale exploitation by humans. There are key insights to be gained into ecological theories related to community structure, trophic structure, disturbance ecology, and landscape ecology. Large-scale intact boreal ecosystems allow studies of trophic interactions including top-level predators, landscape dynamics created by natural disturbance, and comparison of natural and human disturbance. Boreal forests reign supreme as places to study large-scale high-severity fires. Essentially, boreal forests have the room to make it possible to carry out studies that cannot be done in the temperate zones, where so much of the landscape has been converted to human usages. These forests also have a large impact on global ecology through interactions with the climate system, carbon storage, and timber resources. The global importance of the boreal forest in the context of global warming has propelled a rapidly growing investment in research during the last few decades.