bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
MOTHER‐INFANT INTERACTION AND INFANT DEVELOPMENT AMONG THE WOLOF OF SENEGAL1
Authors: Lusk Diane , Lewis Michael
Published: August 2014

Caretaker‐infant interaction within the first year of life was studied in a group of ten Wolof infants. Using observational techniques as well as standard testing procedures, several results emerge: The pattern of caretaker‐infant interaction was more strongly related to age of infant than any other variable investigated. The often‐found result that African infants show precocious development within the first year was confirmed for the Wolof. No relationship between the interaction measures and tests of cognitive and motor skills was found.
EFFICIENCY OF ESTIMATION WHEN THERE IS ONLY ONE COMMON FACTOR*
Authors: Lord Frederic M. , Wingersky Marilyn S.
Published: August 2014

Explicit formulas are derived for the asymptotic sampling variances and covariances of the maximum likelihood estimators for factor‐analysis parameters in the special case where there is just one common factor. The effect of the number of variables on these variances and covariances is indicated. A formula is given showing to what extent the usual covariance between two of a set of variables can be estimated more efficiently when there is known to be just one common factor.
ESTIMATING PARENTS' CONTRIBUTION TO COLLEGE COSTS: THE ACCURACY OF THREE MEASURES OF SUCCEEDING YEAR FAMILY NET INCOME
Authors: Horch Dwight H. , Sharon Amiel T.
Published: August 2014

The accuracy of each of three measures of future income was investigated for a sample of families who filed Parents' Confidential Statements with the College Scholarship Service in two consecutive years. The three income measures investigated were: (1) parents' reports of current (1968) income, (2) parents' estimates of 1969 income, and (3) predictions of future year (1969) income made by application of least squares regression parameters to parents' estimate of income. Two types of accuracy were considered. The first was the accuracy of prediction assessed by the correlation between the predictors (current or estimated income) and the criterion (actual 1969 income). This analysis indicated that the best single predictor of actual income was estimated income, with a validity coefficient of .86, and was followed closely by current income, with a validity coefficient of .83. The accuracy of each income measure was also investigated by assessing the median discrepancies between parents' contribution associated with each income measure and the contribution associated with actual 1969 income. Current and estimated income result with about equal frequency in substantial (>$100) undercalculations of parents' contribution; but use of current rather than estimated income would result in substantial (>$100) overcalculations for approximately 31,000 additional CSS families. In addition, needs analysis procedures that rely on either current or estimated income place low income families at a disadvantage by overstating their future year income. This study suggests least squares regression as one possible approach to remove this inequity.
ON A STATISTIC ARISING IN TESTING CORRELATION1
Authors: Kristof Walter
Published: August 2014

This paper is devoted to the study of a certain statistic, u, defined on samples from a bivariate population with variances σ11, σ22 and correlation ρ. Let the parameter corresponding to u be ν. Under binormality assumptions the following is demonstrated. (i) If σ11 = σ22, then the distribution of u can be obtained rapidly from the F distribution. Statistical inferences about ρ = ν may be based on F. (ii) In the general case, allowing for σ11 ≠ σ22, a certain quantity involving u, r (sample correlation between the variables) and ν follows a t distribution. Statistical inferences about ν may be based on t. (iii) In the general case a quantity t' may be constructed which involves only the statistic u and only the parameter ν. If treated like a t distributed magnitude, t' admits conservative statistical inferences. (iv) The F distributed quantity mentioned in (i) is equivalent to a certain t distributed quantity as follows from an appropriate transformation of the variable. (v) Three test statistics are given which can be utilized in making statistical inferences about ρ = ν in the case σ11 = σ22. A comparison of expected lengths of confidence intervals for ρ obtained from the three test statistics is made. (vi) The use of the formulas derived is illustrated by means of an application to coefficient alpha.
FACTOR COVARIANCE ANALYSIS IN SUBGROUPS*
Authors: Pennell Roger
Published: August 2014

The problem considered is that of an investigator sampling two or more correlation matrices and desiring to fit a model of the form . Here the factor pattern matrix, P, is assumed to be identical across samples and we need to estimate φi and Ui. A flexible, least squares solution is worked out and illustrated with an example.
A FACTOR ROTATION SCHEME GIVING ORTHOGONAL BOUNDS
Authors: Hall Charles E.
Published: August 2014

A factor rotation scheme is presented which has a property that is interesting for examining factor‐structure hypotheses. Given several clusters of tests the orthogonal bounds scheme produces factors which contain these clusters in some optimal sense.
CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS AS A MODERATING INFLUENCE ON EXPECTED ACHIEVEMENT WITHIN A CURRICULUM CHOICE1
Authors: Rock Donald A. , Evans Franklin R.
Published: August 2014

Methodologies were proposed for combining background and aptitude and/or achievement information in an approach to the classification problem using the concept of under‐ and overachievement. The methodologies were applied to independent samples from four high school curricula. The results suggest that when past achievement and/or aptitudes were held constant (1) groups characterized by overachievement in all four curricula had similar backgrounds as defined by their level and pattern of responses to five biographical variables, (2) groups characterized by underachievement in the four curricula appeared to have similar response patterns but had more variation with respect to level and (3) underachieving groups regardless of curricular choice reported that they spent more time on extracurricular technological projects than did overachieving groups. To a somewhat lesser extent underachievers tended to have fathers who discouraged their going on to college and they (the underachievers) also tended to spend more time on extracurricular reading.
GRADING STANDARDS: THE RELATION OF CHANGES IN AVERAGE STUDENT ABILITY TO THE AVERAGE GRADES AWARDED
Authors: Baird Leonard L. , Fiester William J.
Published: August 2014

The relation of average grades awarded to the average ability of the students was studied in a large sample of colleges. The mean and standard deviation of freshman classes on an ability test, along with the mean and standard deviation of the freshman year grades obtained by classes over a five year period was available for several hundred colleges. Difference scores on the mean and standard deviations were also calculated. Correlational analyses and analyses of colleges that changed most produced the following results: 1) within any given year colleges whose incoming students were bright tended to award higher grades, but there was considerable room for variance from this trend, 2) the average ability levels of colleges change very little, even over five year periods, 3) when the average ability of students increases (or decreases) about the same level of grades are awarded. This is interpreted as suggesting that faculties as a whole have preferred distribution of grades which they use whether their current classes of students are brighter or duller than previous classes.
COMPREHENSION BY 3RD, 6TH, AND 9TH GRADERS OF WORDS HAVING MULTIPLE GRAMMATICAL FUNCTIONS
Authors: Carroll John B.
Published: August 2014

The aim was to study the development of children's lexicogrammatical knowledge of words, in particular, their knowledge of the less frequent grammatical usages of words that may occur in more than one part of speech. To develop lists of such words, the grammatical functions of 1220 common words drawn from two word‐counts were examined; about 50 percent were found to be grammatically ambiguous. Data were collected from about 1500 children in grades 3, 6, and 9 to determine in what parts of speech 240 grammatically ambiguous words would be used when the children were asked to write sentences illustrating their uses; about 55 percent of these words were found to be used “infrequently” (according to a certain criterion) in one or more of their possible parts of speech. An intensive study was made of the comprehension, by 2000 3rd, 6th, and 9th grade children, of 65 words with infrequently used grammatical functions. For about 90 percent of these words, it was found that the children had significantly more difficulty in comprehending the infrequent grammatical functions than in comprehending the more usual grammatical functions. In many cases, grammatical function per se was a significant factor; in other cases, differential meanings of the words may also have been a factor. Developmental trends were noted, and it was concluded that acquisition of lexicogrammatical information about grammatically ambiguous words is a slow process that is far from complete even at the 9th grade level. Development of this knowledge is moderately well correlated with general vocabulary knowledge. Because lack of lexicogrammatical information is an important (and generally unrecognized) factor in comprehension difficulties, it is recommended that the English language arts curriculum pay greater attention to the explicit teaching of the less frequent grammatical functions of grammatically ambiguous words. The psycholinguistic implications of the results are discussed.
AN EXTENSION OF THE RELIABILITY CONCEPT TO VECTOR VARIABLES1
Authors: Kristof Walter
Published: August 2014

The coefficient of precision type of reliability originally defined for scalar variables is generalized to vector variables and named vector reliability. The new coefficient ranges from zero to one. Additional basic properties of vector reliability are derived. Vector information is defined as a simple function of vector reliability. A number of properties of vector information are demonstrated in order to justify its use as a measure of information contained in a vector variable. Two applications are appended by way of illustration.
THE SALIENCE OF ORIENTATION IN YOUNG CHILDREN'S PERCEPTION OF FORM1
Authors: McGurk Harry
Published: August 2014

Forty‐two nursery school children were exposed to two procedures designed to assess their discrimination of orientation. Under one procedure subjects had no difficulty in discriminating between stimuli which differed only in orientation. Under a second procedure, where color and size of stimuli were also varied, orientation proved to be a discriminative cue of relatively low salience. These findings obtained for perception both of realistic and of abstract forms.
BIRTH ORDER: A PHENOMENON IN SEARCH OF AN EXPLANATION1
Authors: McGurk Harry , Lewis Michael
Published: August 2014

Fifty‐two 44‐month‐old children were observed in a nursery school over a period of two weeks. Peer and adult oriented behaviours were recorded, and data were analysed in terms of subjects' sex and birth order. Sex effects were as expected, but birth‐order effects highlighted the second‐born child as representing a distinct category. In particular, second‐born children manifested greater dependency behaviour than either first‐ or later‐borns. Results are discussed in terms of the relationship between maternal responsiveness to attention seeking behaviour in infancy and later dependency behaviour.
SELF, OTHER, AND FEAR: THE REACTION OF INFANTS TO PEOPLE1
Authors: Lewis Michael , Brooks‐Gunn Jeanne
Published: August 2014

The investigation of infants' responses to strange has not been very well examined. Particularly, almost no work has been done on infants' responses to social events: different categories of people. Infants between 8 and 18 months of age were introduced to five different social events: strange adult male and female, strange 4‐year‐old female, mother, and self. The infants' responses indicated that approach affects stimulus differentiation (in terms of fear), while age effects level of response intensity. Strangeness of the social event was not sufficient to explain the results, and ethological and cognitive theories were discussed. It was suggested that the cognitive construct of self be introduced to explain the results. It appears reasonable to assume that by 8 months the self as differentiated from other is well established. Moreover, we propose that some specific categories of self, such as size, sex, or efficacy, may be established as well.
NATAL INFLUENCES AND TWIN DIFFERENCES1
Authors: Van den Daele Leland D.
Published: August 2014

A classification of natal influences is proposed with a model of their operation. Natal influences affect maternal capacity, maternal load, and maternal efficiency. Since maternal load is increased in twin pregnancy, results of twin studies must be generalized with caution. The method of co‐twin control is exemplified by examination of a small sample. The results of the intrapair analysis imply that current formulations of hereditary and environmental contributions to phenotypic variation are inadequate to account for observed intrapair differences. Two alternative, though nonexclusive, interpretations of intrapair variation are suggested. The first interpretation stresses the role of complex maternal‐fetal‐environmental interactions, and the second, a “genetic indetermination” which derives, in part, from the information characteristics of the genome.
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF AN ESSAY SECTION IN THE AMERICAN HISTORY AND SOCIAL STUDIES TEST1
Authors: Modu Christopher C.
Published: August 2014

The contribution of a 20‐minute essay question, given as part of the one‐hour achievement test in American History and Social Studies, to the pool of information available on a candidate from an all‐objective examination of the College Board Admissions Testing Program, is presented in this report. The study limits itself to a consideration of the psychometric issues only. It does not deal with other important issues related to the educational impact of the essay or to the implications of the cost of introducing and maintaining a reliable essay section in the American History and Social Studies test. The results of the study led to the conclusion that the additional information gained by the introduction of an essay section is minimal. Moreover, the correlation of the essay with various subtests of the American History and Social Studies objective test suggests that the obtained essay scores may have reflected more of the factual content of the answers than the other skills.
DEVELOPMENTAL TRENDS IN CHILDREN'S INCIDENTAL LEARNING: SOME CRITICAL STIMULUS DIFFERENCES
Authors: Hale Gordon A. , Piper Richard A.
Published: August 2014

Hale, G. A., & Piper, R. A. Developmental trends in children's incidental learning: Some critical stimulus differences. Princeton, N. J.: ETS Research Bulletin 72‐24, May 1972, 23 pp.

Incidental learning in 8‐ and 12‐year‐old children was assessed with a variety of stimulus materials. Experiment 1 compared two types of material–(a) geometric figures, whose central and incidental components were shape and color, respectively and (b) stimuli whose components were separate pictures, as in the typical developmental study of this topic. Incidental learning was found to increase significantly across ages when measured with the colored shapes but not with the pictorial materials. To identify the factors responsible for this difference, Experiment 2 employed these same two types of stimulus along with three others, including shape outlines on colored backgrounds. Again, the task with colored shapes proved to be unique, in that the incidental learning scores for this measure tended to increase across ages and were significantly higher overall than those for the other tasks. Also, correlational analyses based on data from both experiments indicated a positive relation between central and incidental learning with the colored shapes but not with the pictorial materials. These results were interpreted to suggest that stimulus materials whose components are integrated into a single unit, such as color and shape, are functionally different from stimuli with spatially or conceptually independent components.
GENERALIZED LEAST SQUARES ESTIMATORS IN THE ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE STRUCTURES
Authors: Browne Michael W.
Published: August 2014

Let S represent the usual unbiased estimator of a covariance matrix, Σ0, whose elements are functions of a parameter vector . A generalized least squares (G.L.S) estimate, of may be obtained by minimizing where V is some positive definite matrix. Asymptotic properties of the G.L.S. estimators are investigated assuming only that satisfies certain regularity conditions and that the limiting distribution of S is multivariate normal with specified parameters. The estimator of which is obtained by maximizing the Wishart likelihood function (M.W.L. estimator) is shown to be a member of the class of G.L.S. estimators with minimum asymptotic variances. When is linear in a G.L.S. estimator which converges stochastically to the M.W.L. estimator involves far less computation. Methods for calculating estimates of , estimates of the dispersion matrix of , and test statistics, are given for certain linear models.
MISSING AT RANDOM ‐ WHAT DOES IT MEAN?
Authors: Rubin Donald B.
Published: August 2014

Most articles on missing values assume the missing data are “missing at random” and ignore the process that “caused” the missing values. The condition under which this procedure is justified is explored here: the concept of missing at random is precisely defined, several examples are discussed, and two simple conditions are given which are sufficient to assure that the missing data are missing at random.
DIALECTIC OPERATIONS: THE FINAL PERIOD OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT1
Authors: Riegel Klaus F.
Published: August 2014

Arguments for an extension of Piaget's theory of cognitive development have been derived from philosophical and historical consideration of modern natural sciences. Implicit contradictions, which characterize these sciences as well as common thought, can be systematically apprehended only through a dialectic reinterpretation. The dialectic basis of Piaget's theory is expressed in his assimilation‐accommodation paradigm. But development is interpreted as a continuing alienation from this basis culminating in the noncontradictory thinking of formal operations. Although Piaget's interpretations capture a rich variety of performances during childhood they fail to represent adequately the thought and emotions of mature and creative persons. For an interpretation of adulthood and aging, a return to the dialectic basis is necessary. Such a reorganization can proceed from any of the four major levels of development. It introduces intra‐ and interindividual variations into Piaget's theory. Individuals may operate simultaneously or in short succession at different cognitive levels. The ceaseless striving toward formal operations becomes inappropriate and ineffective for the level of dialectic maturity.
A LATENCY ANALYSIS OF STRATEGIES UNDERLYING CHILDREN'S RECALL OF SENTENCES1
Authors: Freedle Roy , Hall William S.
Published: August 2014

It has been found that an information‐processing analysis of latencies collected in an immediate sentence recall task using children with median age 4 yr 4 mo favors a serial processing mechanism which consists of three major parts: the detection of a clausal boundary, the assessment of whether or not the observed noun‐verb‐noun structure satisfies a unique semantic constraint (in terms of the meaningfulness of interchanging its two clausal nouns), and the assessment of whether the observed surface sequence satisfies a canonical order of subject‐verb‐object.
THE ROLE OF COGNITIVE STYLE IN ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE AND IN TEACHER‐STUDENT RELATIONS12
Authors: Witkin Herman A.
Published: August 2014

The cognitive characteristics involved in a relatively field‐dependent or field‐independent cognitive style and the personal characteristics associated with these contrasting styles have been shown to play a role in students' selection of electives and majors, in vocational preferences they experience early in their academic careers, and in the vocational choices they make later on. They have been related as well to performance in different subject‐matter areas in school and in vocation chosen afterwards; they have also been implicated in shifts in major during the college years. Finally, they have been found to influence teachers' ways of teaching and students' ways of learning; in addition, teachers and students matched in cognitive style show positive mutual evaluation, whereas teachers and students who are mismatched tend to evaluate each other negatively.
THE ENCODING OF PICTORIAL INFORMATION IN CHILDREN AND ADULTS
Authors: Ward William C. , Naus Mary J.
Published: August 2014

Age and instructional differences in the representation of pictorial information were investigated in a recognition memory task. Nursery school and college‐age subjects observed pictures under name labeling, color labeling, imaging, and no label instructions. Subjects were then tested for retention of object identity and color information.

In general, no label instructions led to poorer performance than any other condition; the three remaining groups, given an instruction requiring a discriminative response to each picture as it was shown, performed equally well. Significant age differences were found in memory for both object identity and color information; however, nursery school and college‐age subjects showed similar relative performance when tested for these two kinds of information, and most subjects at each age level showed superior retention of object identity over color information. These results suggest some limitation on the generality of claims that young children are more oriented to color information than are adults and, more importantly, that children represent their experience ikonically while adults tend to use a symbolic mode of representation.
A NOTE ON MINORITY GROUP TEST BIAS STUDIES
Authors: Reilly Richard R.
Published: August 2014

Comparisons of majority and minority group regression lines for purposes of assessing test bias may, under certain conditions, be viewed as comparisons of conditional bivariate distributions. Where these conditions hold, findings should reveal parallel regression lines except for a special case. Given the conditions described, one implication is that even when the test is a parallel form of the criterion, lines with equal slopes but unequal intercepts should be found.
STANDARD ERRORS FOR ROTATED FACTOR LOADINGS*
Authors: Archer Claud O. , Jennrich Robert I.
Published: August 2014

Beginning with the results of Girshick on the asymptotic distribution of principal component loadings and those of Lawley on the distribution of unrotated maximum likelihood factor loadings, the asymptotic distributions of the corresponding analytically rotated loadings is obtained. The principal difficulty is the fact that the transformation matrix which produces the rotation is usually itself a function of the data. The approach is to use implicit differentiation to find the partial derivatives of an arbitrary orthogonal rotation algorithm. Specific details are given for the orthomax algorithms and an example involving maximum likelihood estimation and varimax rotation is presented.
TOWARDS THE IDENTIFICATION OF COGNITIVE OPERATIONS IN STANDARD AND NONSTANDARD ENGLISH USAGE1,2
Authors: Hall William S. , Freedle Roy O.
Published: August 2014

Two experiments are reported which involve language imitation, comprehension, and free production at diglossic levels of English usage.

Sentences in an imitation task were of two forms: standard English and so‐called nonstandard English. There were 360 subjects equally represented by race (black and white), socioeconomic level (low SES and middle SES), three age groups (5, 8, and 10) and sex. The results indicated that black children do better than white in responding to sentences given in nonstandard English while whites do better than blacks in responding to standard English sentences. This corroborates earlier research in the area. In addition significant SES and age effects were found for both races; sex contributed little to the significant effects. Rates of improvement over two age periods indicated that blacks are equal to whites in their rate of improvement in responding to standard English. In addition, correlational results indicated that the two dialect systems function behaviorally as separate cognitive systems.

A second experiment focused primarily upon language production in a communication task. In this task the black and white children's free productions were similar inasmuch as neither was influenced by the social class or race of their listeners; on the listener side, the number of items correctly comprehended also did not vary across the race or SES variables. Thus this communication task represents one situation in which the races appear to perform equally well.

Interrelationships across sentence imitation, comprehension, and production at diglossic levels of English are also examined.
EFFECTS OF VERBAL AND SPATIAL QUESTIONS ON INITIAL GAZE SHIFTS1
Authors: Ehrlichman Howard , Weiner Susan L. , Baker A. Harvey
Published: August 2014

The direction of subjects' first gaze shift following questions designed to elicit verbal‐linguistic or visuo‐spatial processing was examined in three experiments under video camera and face‐to‐face interview conditions. In all three experiments, verbal questions elicited significantly more downward gaze shifts than spatial questions. However, previous findings that verbal questions elicited more rightward gaze shifts than spatial questions were not replicated. These results appear to be incompatible with theories linking direction of gaze shifts with the functional asymmetry of the cerebral hemispheres. It was also observed that trials on which no gaze shifts were elicited occurred more often for spatial than for verbal questions.
ATTACHMENT BEHAVIOR IN THIRTEEN‐MONTH‐OLD, OPPOSITE SEX TWINS
Authors: Brooks Jeanne , Lewis Michael
Published: August 2014

Seventeen sets of opposite sex twins, 13 to 14 months old, were observed in a playroom situation with their mothers. Attachment behaviors, toy preference, style of play, and activity level were recorded. Analysis of four attachment behaviors indicated that girls looked at, vocalized to, and maintained proximity with their mothers significantly more often than did their brothers. Girls also touched their mothers more often, although this difference was not significant. The style of play and activity level measures revealed no sex differences. In terms of specific toy preferences, girls tended to play with the cat and dog more, while boys tended to play more with the pull toy. No other differences in toy preference were found.

The effects of social class, activity level, and separation from the mother on infant attachment behavior are discussed. The importance of the mother as a socializing and sex‐typing agent is stressed.
VARIANCE AND INVARIANCE IN THE MOTHER‐INFANT INTERACTION: A CROSS‐CULTURAL STUDY1
Authors: Lewis Michael , Ban Peggy
Published: August 2014

The present paper is concerned with the issue of the variance and invariance in the mother‐infant interaction. In order to study this, a sample of Yugoslavian and American mother‐infant dyads was observed in detail. Moreover, using the data available on Dutch, Zambian and Senegalese mothers and infants, five different cultures were compared. In general there was considerable agreement in terms of the caregiving the infants received. This fact was first discussed in terms of its relationship to the invariances that exist across human cultures. Also considered was the issue that the study of behavior, not studied in context, can often result in serious misinterpretation. In order to avoid this it is necessary, at least, to be totally familiar with the culture under question.
STANDARD ERRORS FOR OBLIQUELY ROTATED FACTOR LOADINGS
Authors: Jennrich Robert I.
Published: August 2014

In a manner similar to that used in the orthogonal case, formulas for the asymptotic standard errors of analytically rotated oblique factor loading estimates are obtained. This is done by finding expressions for the partial derivatives of an oblique rotation algorithm and using previously derived results for unrotated loadings. These include the results of Lawley for maximum likelihood factor analysis and those of Girshick for principal components analysis. Details are given in cases including direct oblimin and direct Crawford‐Ferguson rotation. Numerical results for an example involving maximum likelihood estimation with direct quartimin rotation are presented. They include simultaneous tests for significant loading estimates.
CONVERSION OF HIGH SCHOOL GRADE AVERAGES REPORTED IN DIFFERENT SYSTEMS1
Authors: Breland Hunter M.
Published: August 2014

Using data from a national random sample of 16,685 high school seniors collected in 1972, 10 different grade average reporting systems were analyzed by means of a nonlinear least squares procedure. A grade conversion table was created by relating reported grade averages in all of the systems to common percentile ranks in class. It was suggested that the 10 systems are probably reducible to only 4 fundamentally different systems.
COMPARING REGRESSIONS WHEN MEASUREMENT ERROR VARIANCES ARE KNOWN
Authors: Stroud T. W. F.
Published: August 2014

In a multiple (or multivariate) regression model where the predictors are subject to errors of measurement with a known variance‐covariance structure, two‐sample hypotheses are formulated for (i) equality of regressions on true scores and (ii) equality of residual variances (or covariance matrices) after regression on true scores. The hypotheses are tested using a large‐sample procedure based on maximum likelihood estimators. Formulas for the test statistic are presented; these may be avoided in practice by using a general purpose computer program. The procedure has been applied to a comparison of learning in high schools using achievement test data.
MULTIVARIATE MODELS OF COGNITION AND PERSONALITY: THE NEED FOR BOTH PROCESS AND STRUCTURE IN PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY AND MEASUREMENT1
Authors: Messick Samuel
Published: August 2014

This paper calls for the development of sequential models of cognition and personality as a way of adding process to the primarily structural concerns of current multivariate models. At the same time, it points to the results of factor analysis, particularly as summarized in a hierarchical extension of Guilford's structure‐of‐intellect system, as a source of component variables for such sequential formulations. The need to take into account personality, developmental, and environmental variables in these sequential models is also emphasized.
FITTING A MODEL OF SCHOOL LEARNING TO APTITUDE AND ACHIEVEMENT DATA OVER GRADE LEVELS1
Authors: Carroll John B.
Published: August 2014

A model of school learning proposed by the writer in 1962, concerned with relations among aptitude, achievement, and time to learn, is extended to the analysis of regressions of achievement on aptitude over multiple grade levels. This mathematical model provides good fits to empirical data from a series of vertically‐equated scales of aptitude and achievement obtained by G. R. Burket for Grades 1 through 12, and appears to be able to indicate which of a given pair of tests is more like an aptitude test. An aptitude component connected with learning rate is found for a Memory test as a predictor of Arithmetic achievement, and for a Vocabulary test as a predictor of Reading achievement.
A CRITIQUE OF THE STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF THE OEO EXPERIMENT IN PERFORMANCE CONTRACTING
Authors: O'Connor Edward F. , Klein Stephen P.
Published: August 2014

The experimental students in the OEO experiment were generally lower scoring and less affluent than control students. OEO's statistical analysis used a variety of statistical procedures to adjust for the initial differences in the experimental groups. A reanalysis of the data using a chi‐square technique demonstrated that the adjusted posttest differences between the experimental groups were biased against the performance contractors because the differences were not independent of the pretest means. These biases are discussed in terms of differential growth rates, specification error, and errors of measurement. The random assignment of schools to the experimental and control conditions would have avoided many of these problems.
JUDGMENTS OF CHRONOLOGICAL AGE: ADULT AGE AND SEX DIFFERENCES1
Authors: Kogan Nathan
Published: August 2014

Samples of college‐age and elderly males and females made chronological age estimates from head‐and‐shoulder photographs of stimulus persons of both sexes and of widely varying ages. These estimates were found to vary as a function of the age and sex of the judge and the stimulus person. For both male and female photo sets, older Ss and male Ss manifested less variance than younger Ss and female Ss in judging age. These differences were partially attributable to a strong tendency for older Ss and male Ss to offer higher age estimates for the younger stimulus persons. No consistent age and sex differences were observed for chronological age estimates of the older stimulus persons. However, an inflection area was obtained (for photos approximately 25 to 35 years of age) beyond which the higher age estimates of older and male Ss ceased to hold. Gaps in the distribution of age judgments provided by older and younger Ss offered clues to the possible cognitive mechanisms at work. Relevance of the research to principles of social judgment is discussed.
LEARNING STYLE PREFERENCES AMONG COLLEGE STUDENTS
Authors: Hartnett Rodney T.
Published: August 2014

By examining data gathered from college students on three different occasions (at the time they entered college, at the end of their freshman year, and at the end of their sophomore year), this paper describes trends in student learning style preferences and identifies various characteristics of students associated with these preferences.
VARIANCE REDUCTION ANALYSIS
Authors: Hall Charles E.
Published: August 2014

Variance reduction analysis is a simple method for determining the effect of inequality of cell size on analysis of variance calculations.
REMOVING THE EFFECTS OF RANDOM GUESSING FROM LATENT TRAIT ABILITY ESTIMATES
Authors: Waller Michael I.
Published: August 2014

In latent trait models the standard procedure for handling the problem caused by guessing on multiple choice tests is to estimate a parameter which is intended to measure the “guessingness” inherent in an item. Birnbaum's three parameter model, which handles guessing in this manner, ignores individual differences in guessing tendency. This paper presents a model or procedure which uses the information contained in the interaction between a person and an item to remove the effects of random guessing from estimates of ability, difficulty, and discrimination. Simulated and real data are presented which support the model in terms of fit and information.
ESTIMATING GUESSING TENDENCY
Authors: Waller Michael I.
Published: August 2014

A latent trait model for estimating guessing or risk taking tendency is presented, and a procedure for maximum likelihood estimation of individual guessing tendencies is outlined. An example is presented which supports the validity of this estimate; and which supports the contention that guessing tendency and ability are unrelated.
THE CONTRIBUTION OF MEASURES OF APTITUDE (SAT) AND ACHIEVEMENT (CEEB ACHIEVEMENT AVERAGE), RESPECTIVELY, IN FORECASTING COLLEGE GRADES IN SEVERAL LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGES
Authors: Wilson Kenneth M.
Published: August 2014

The validity of the CEEB Scholastic Aptitude Test‐Verbal and SAT‐Mathematical scores, separately and in combination with the high school record (rank in class or high school average grade) for predicting college grade averages, has been widely studied and reported, but the value of CEEB Achievement Tests for such prediction has not been subjected to comparable scrutiny. Consequently it is not widely recognized that a composite (sum or average) of scores, based on whatever combination of Achievement Tests a candidate takes, can be useful for assessing the general academic‐performance potential of candidates.

This paper presents evidence bearing on the predictive validity of the CEEB Achievement Average—defined as the arithmetic mean of all Achievement Test scores included on a candidate's CEEB Admissions Testing Program score‐report and now routinely reported to colleges—for women students in several liberal arts colleges.

The findings reviewed are consistent with those reported earlier by Schrader that the CEEB Achievement Tests contributed modestly to improvement of predictive effectiveness over that provided by the SATs and the school record. In the studies reviewed, there was a tendency for the SAT scores (particularly the SAT‐M score) to operate, in effect, as suppressor variables when included in a battery with the CEEB Achievement Average. It would appear not only that the CEEB Achievement Average tends to be a more valid predictor of college grades than the SAT in the settings studied, but also that this composite contains all the SAT‐type information that is useful for such prediction—i.e., that the SAT scores become redundant after taking into account information provided by the CEEB Achievement Average, with its substantial SAT‐type components.

Questions are raised regarding the extent to which candidate freedom of choice in test selection is a factor which contributes to the predictive effectiveness of the CEEB Achievement Average.
PSYCHOLOGICAL DIFFERENTIATION AS A FACTOR IN CONFLICT RESOLUTION1
Authors: Oltman Philip K. , Goodenough Donald R. , Witkin Herman A. , Freedman Norbert , Friedman Florence
Published: August 2014

Previous studies have shown that persons matched in level of differentiation are likely to develop greater interpersonal attraction in the course of an interaction than mismatched persons. These studies were all conducted in situations where the interacting persons were working toward a common goal. To test the hypothesis that situational variables may moderate match‐mismatch effects, the present study investigated these effects when the interacting persons were in conflict. On the basis of their performance in tests of field‐dependence‐independence, Ss were selected as relatively high (Hi‐Diff Ss) or relatively low (Lo‐Diff Ss) in level of differentiation. Three kinds of dyads were composed–Hi‐Diff/Hi‐Diff, Lo‐Diff/Lo‐Diff, and Hi‐Diff/Lo‐Diff–and the task set for the dyad members was to reconcile conflict on an issue about which they were known to disagree. It was predicted that because of the more accommodating quality of Lo‐Diff persons, dyads consisting of one or two such Ss would more often reconcile their disagreements and show greater interpersonal attraction than dyads consisting of two Hi‐Diff Ss. Both predictions were confirmed, supporting the hypothesis that the outcome of match or mismatch is mediated by situational variables.
THE UTILITY OF A STANDARD COMPOSITE FOR FORECASTING ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE IN SEVERAL LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGES
Authors: Wilson Kenneth M.
Published: August 2014

This study explores the predictive validity, versus generalized grade‐average criteria within each of several liberal arts colleges, of a standard composite of four admissions scores, weights for which were determined by an application of the method of multiple discriminant analysis (MDA) to data for several college/level of achievement groups. The following working hypothesis guided the analysis:

If only one linear discriminant function of a common set of predictors is required to exhaust their predictive power for separating criterion groups defined in terms of college attended and within‐college level‐of‐achievement, as determined by a student's score‐level on a continuous criterion variable, then the coefficients of this discriminant function represent a set of weights for transforming scores on the several original predictors into a standard composite (discriminant score) which will have predictive validity versus the continuous criterion variable comparable to that of the uniquely‐weighted composites specified through application of the method of multiple regression analysis (MRA) to the predictor‐criterion data for each college.

Findings of the study tended to sustain the working hypothesis. One linear discriminant function of the four admissions scores (SAT‐V, SAT‐M, Rank, and CEEB Achievement Average) exhausted more than 90 percent of their predictive power for separating 16 criterion groups (upper 27% FAG and lower 27% FAG at each of eight colleges). The corresponding discriminant score yielded validity coefficients versus freshman‐ and senior‐level grade average criteria comparable to those yielded by regression‐weighted predicted FAG composites.

It is suggested that multiple discriminant analysis, applied along lines similar to those involved in this exploratory study, provides a rigorous and practical basis for adding an important, and largely unexplored, between groups dimension to studies in the prediction of performance, a research domain which traditionally has been explored almost exclusively through the method of multiple regression analysis. Further study is needed of the utility of MDA for personnel‐decision problems in which differences among the individuals within various discrete groups are judged to be important.
MAXIMUM LIKELIHOOD ESTIMATION BY MEANS OP NONLINEAR LEAST SQUARES
Authors: Jennrich R. I. , Moore R. H.
Published: August 2014

Methods are given for using readily available nonlinear regression programs to produce maximum likelihood estimates in a rather natural way. Used as suggested the common Gauss‐Newton algorithm for nonlinear least squares becomes the Fisher scoring algorithm for maximum likelihood estimation. In some cases it is also the Newton‐Raphson algorithm. The standard errors produced are the information theory standard errors up to a possible common multiple. This means that much of the auxiliary output produced by a nonlinear least squares analysis is directly applicable to a maximum likelihood analysis. Illustrative applications to Poisson, quantal response, multinomial, and log‐linear models are given.
A SURVEY OF EQUATING METHODS BASED ON ITEM CHARACTERISTIC CURVE THEORY
Authors: Lord Frederic M.
Published: August 2014

A variety of equating methods based on ice theory are surveyed and compared with nonlinear conventional methods. In many cases, the ice model replaces a nonlinear equating problem by a linear one. This helps the stability of the equating near the extremes of the data. Strictly speaking, ice methods are the only methods appropriate when the tests to be equated are given (with an anchor test) to groups differing in ability. It seems likely that ice methods can reduce drift in equating chains involving many links. Research into the practical value of preequating is recommended.
INFERENCE AND MISSING DATA
Authors: Rubin Donald B.
Published: August 2014

Two results are presented concerning inference when data may be missing. First, ignoring the process that causes missing data when making sampling distribution inferences about the parameter of the data, θ, is generally appropriate if and only if the missing data are “missing at random” and the observed data are “observed at random,” and then such inferences are generally conditional on the observed pattern of missing data. Second, ignoring the process that causes missing data when making Bayesian inferences about θ is generally appropriate if and only if the missing data are missing at random and the parameter of the missing data is “independent” of θ. Examples and discussion indicating the implications of these results are included.
COMPARISON OF A BAYESIAN AND A LEAST SQUARES METHOD OF EDUCATIONAL PREDICTION1
Authors: Boldt Robert F.
Published: August 2014

The prediction systems under discussion apply where the following conditions obtain: Predictor data are given on the same scale, criterion scores may be given on different scales, and it is necessary to pool data even though criterion scale differences exist. Such a system may be needed for minority group or graduate student prediction where the group sizes are small. Least squares and Bayes methods are used in a cross‐validation study conducted for comparison purposes. Data for the study were taken from the files of the Validity Study Service of the College Entrance Examination Board. A very limited amount of data were supplied by a few American graduate schools. The Bayes method was better, but it was found that both methods yield negative regression weights; when the absolute values of the weights were used, the methods were both improved and yielded results which were very similar in terms of evaluative statistics computed in the cross sample.
DEVELOPMENT OF MEASURES FOR THE STUDY OF CREATIVITY1
Authors: Frederiksen Norman , Ward William C.
Published: August 2014

Research on creative thinking has been handicapped by lack of adequate criteria. The purpose of this study was to develop a set of tests that could be used as dependent measures in evaluating training or in other research on “creativity.” Four tests were developed, called Formulating Hypotheses, Evaluating Proposals, Solving Methodological Problems, and Measuring Constructs. They are job‐sample tests that present realistic tasks such as a behavioral scientist might have to deal with. A scoring method was developed that requires the scorer to assign responses to categories of responses rather than to make subjective evaluations. The categories are assigned scale values based on independent evaluations by an expert panel. Scores can be assigned by computer. Six scores were studied: (1) average quality of the responses the examinee thinks are best, (2) average quality of all responses, (3) average quality of the best response by category scoring, (4) number of responses, (5) number of unusual responses, and (6) number of responses that are both unusual and of high quality. The tests were administered to about 4,000 applicants for admission to graduate school, using an item‐sampling procedure. The tests were found to be appropriate in difficulty for advanced students. Reliabilities of most scores were high enough to be useful. Factoring of score intercorrelations reveals a general number‐of‐responses factor and two quality factors that are defined by quality scores from different combinations of tests. The number scores are quite independent of conventional aptitude and achievement tests, and quality scores have a substantial amount of true variance not predicted by aptitude and achievement tests. The face validity of the tests seems to appeal to students and teachers, but evidence of construct validity is needed.