bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
In defence of the child innovator
Authors: Cournane Ailís
Published: August 2017

This chapter confronts the two principal arguments levelled against the child-as-innovator approach to language change: (1) child innovations cannot underlie historical innovations because child innovations resolve before adulthood, when they could diffuse (e.g. Traugott and Dasher 2005; Diessel 2011), and (2) parallels must hold between child innovations and historical innovations, but parallels do not hold in the domain of morphosyntax (e.g. Diessel 2012). I argue that both parallel and oppositional alignments are predicted by the two possible innovation-types children make when solving the Mapping Problem (Clark 1977, 1993, i.a.); in short, different L1A processes underlie different types of change. I further argue that input-divergent analyses at most need to persist into the teenage years, when they can be diffused via the sociolinguistic change powerhouse of teenage peer groups (e.g. Labov 2012), and may also be reinforced and prolonged in childhood via peer-to-peer acquisition and bilingualism contexts.
Where do relative specifiers come from?
Authors: Gisborne Nikolas , Truswell Robert
Published: August 2017

Headed relative clauses with filled Spec,CP positions are cross-linguistically rare, but have emerged repeatedly in Indo-European languages. We explore this unusual typological fact by examining the emergence and spread of English headed wh-relatives. The major claims developed in this chapter are: (1) aspects of the diachrony of headed wh-relatives must be reduced to competing specifications of the behaviour of a given lexical item, rather than to competition among multiple forms associated with a given function; (2) headed wh-relatives spread gradually from form to form, rather than spreading gradually up the Accessibility Hierarchy as assumed in much earlier work. We suggest that the unusual typology of headed relatives with filled specifiers can then be understood in terms of inheritance of a stable set of lexical items from Proto-Indo-European, and biases affecting acquisition of the syntactic properties of these items.
Diagnosing embedded V2 in Old English and Old French
Authors: Salvesen Christine Meklenborg , Walkden George
Published: August 2017

Old English (OE) and Old French (OF) both display verb-second (V2) word order in main declarative clauses. Different models may account for V2: (a) the finite verb must move to a head in the CP field; (b) it must remain in the IP field; or (c) it moves to the left periphery only when the preceding XP is not a subject. While the IP-model should allow free embedded V2, the two others would either exclude completely or strongly limit the possibilty of having embedded V2. We select embedded that-clauses and analyse the word order with respect to the matrix verb: embedded V2 is possible in both OE and OF, although the availability of this structure is restricted. OE has very few occurrences of embedded V2, whereas OF seems to permit this construction more freely. We link this difference to the site of first Merge of complementizers in the two languages.
The pragmatics of demonstratives in Germanic
Authors: Light Caitlin
Published: August 2017

This chapter will seek to demonstrate that demonstrative pronouns in Germanic are inherently pragmatically contrastive, in that they conventionally signal a marked and unexpected referent given the existing discourse structure. Data on object topicalization show that in information-structurally driven operations, demonstrative pronouns pattern more like contrastive elements than like non-contrastive ones. In this way they can be analysed as subinformative in the sense of Gast (2010), with an information-structural function not unlike contrastive topics. This conclusion leads us to a better understanding of the behaviour of demonstrative pronouns in discourse. Thus, a careful consideration of information-structural phenomena leads to insight into both crucial details of the grammar, and how these issues relate to language in use.
Persistence as a diagnostic of grammatical status: The case of Middle English negation
Authors: Ecay Aaron , Tamminga Meredith
Published: August 2017

This chapter proposes the use of persistence effects (repetitiveness in variant choice) to diagnose grammatical relationships between surface forms in cases of language change. We illustrate using Middle English corpus data on the change from ne to not as the English sentence negator. During the transition period, ne and not could co-occur as well as appear independently. Prior accounts differ on whether sentences containing both negators are a distinct third option (Wallage 2008) or represent the independent appearance of ne and not (Frisch 1997). We spell out the predictions that these analyses make for persistence across sentence types, and argue that the persistence data provide a new line of evidence for Wallage’s three-atom analysis.
Introduction
Authors: Duran Angelica , Issa Islam
Published: August 2017

This chapter describes the rationale for and scope of this volume. As this volume demonstrates, Milton’s works have been read across the centuries and around the globe in large part through translation. It outlines the literary, linguistic, theoretical, and cultural underpinnings of this project and links the volume’s scope, organizational structure, selection of languages, among other matters, such as the impact of religious contexts and linguistic characteristics on translations of Milton’s works. This chapter’s overview of the twenty-eight chapters of the six parts, as well as the epilogue, gives a sense of the unique characteristics of the various translations as well as some shared characteristics and trends among them.
‘Levelling the Sublime’
Authors: Shapiro Aaron
Published: August 2017

The eighteenth century saw the curious tradition of translating Milton’s Paradise Lost into normative English prose and verse. The status of these translations as literary curiosities belies their serious ambition: to secure a universal readership of this English classic, an ambition also articulated in contemporary works of criticism and commentaries. Rather than treating this cluster of works as adaptations, this chapter conceives of them as intralingual translations, thus positioning them in the terms with which their authors describe them and within the earlier tradition of translation-as-commentary. Milton’s English translators aim at making his epic accessible to women, ‘foreigners’, ‘young people’, and ‘those of a capacity and knowledge below the first class of learning’, even if that accessibility requires some rewriting. Borrowing methods from the teaching of Latin, these authors established a practice that persists to this day in student-friendly translations of English poetry.
Domesticating and Foreignizing the Sublime
Authors: Whitaker Curtis
Published: August 2017

Translation of Milton into German flourished during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. During the first 100 years, as translators sought appropriate German forms for Milton’s aesthetic, versions of Paradise Lost appeared in prose, pentameter, and hexameter. A primary goal was to represent the sublime, with translations of Milton exerting a profound influence on original German works such as Klopstock’s Messias and Kant’s Critique of Judgement. In the nineteenth century, translators in general settled on the pentameter as the form of choice for Milton, but new questions arose as Schleiermacher’s theories of translation gained prominence in the 1810s. The second half of this chapter focuses on how translations of Milton from Schleiermacher’s period can illuminate our understanding of domesticating and foreignizing methods of translation, a key issue in translation theory.
Nanoscale transistors
Authors: Tiwari Sandip
Published: August 2017

This chapter brings together the physical underpinnings of field-effect transistors operating in their nanoscale limits. It tackles the change in dominant behavior from scattering-limited long-channel transport to mesoscopic and few scattering events limits in quantized channels. It looks at electrostatics and a transistor’s controllability as dimensions are shrunk—the interplay of geometry and control—and then brings out the operational characteristics in “off”-state, e.g., the detailed nature of insulator’s implications or threshold voltage’s statistical variations grounded in short-range and long-range effects, and “on”-state, where quantization, quantized channels, ballistic transport and limited scattering are important. It also explores the physical behavior for zero bandgap and monoatomic layer materials by focusing on real-space and reciprocal-space funneling as one of the important dimensional change consequences through a discussion of parasitic resistances.
Phase transitions and their devices
Authors: Tiwari Sandip
Published: August 2017

Phase transitions as a collective response of an ensemble, with appearance of unique stable properties spontaneously, is critical to a variety of devices: electronic, magnetic, optical, and their coupled forms. This chapter starts with a discussion of broken symmetry and its manifestation in the property changes in thermodynamic phase transition and the Landau mean-field articulation. It then follows it with an exploration of different phenomena and their use in devices. The first is ferroelectricity—spontaneous electric polarization—and its use in ferroelectric memories. Electron correlation effects are explored, and then conductivity transition from electron-electron and electron-phonon coupling and its use in novel memory and device forms. This is followed by development of an understanding of spin correlations and interactions and magnetism—spontaneous magnetic polarization. The use and manipulation of the magnetic phase transition in disk drives, magnetic and spin-torque memory as well as their stability is explored. Finally, as a fourth example, amorphous-crystalline structural transition in optical, electronic, and optoelectronic form are analyzed. This latter’s application include disk drives and resistive memories in the form of phase-change as well as those with electochemical transport.
Overview of Microcavities
Authors: Kavokin Alexey V. , Baumberg Jeremy J. , Malpuech Guillaume , Laussy Fabrice P.
Published: August 2017

In this chapter we provide an overview of microcavities. We present the variety of semiconductor, metallic and dielectric structures used to make microcavities of different dimensions and briefly present a few characteristic optical effects observed in microcavities. Many important effects mentioned in this chapter are discussed in greater extent in the following chapters.
Classical Description of Light
Authors: Kavokin Alexey V. , Baumberg Jeremy J. , Malpuech Guillaume , Laussy Fabrice P.
Published: August 2017

In this chapter we introduce the basic characteristics of light modes in free space and in different kinds of optically confined structures including Bragg mirrors, planar microcavities, pillars and spheres. We describe the powerful transfer matrix method that allows for solution of Maxwell’s equations in multilayer structures. We discuss the polarisation of light and mention different ways it is modified including the Faraday and Kerr effects, optical birefringence, dichroism, and optical activity.
Quantum description of light–matter coupling
Authors: Kavokin Alexey V. , Baumberg Jeremy J. , Malpuech Guillaume , Laussy Fabrice P.
Published: August 2017

In this chapter we study with the tools developed in Chapter 3 the basic models that are the foundations of light–matter interaction. We start with Rabi dynamics, then consider the optical Bloch equations that add phenomenologically the lifetime of the populations. As decay and pumping are often important, we cover the Lindblad form, a correct, simple and powerful way to describe various dissipation mechanisms. Then we go to a full quantum picture, quantizing also the optical field. We first investigate the simpler coupling of bosons and then culminate with the Jaynes–Cummings model and its solution to the quantum interaction of a two-level system with a cavity mode. Finally, we investigate a broader family of models where the material excitation operators differ from the ideal limits of a Bose and a Fermi field.
Weak-coupling microcavities
Authors: Kavokin Alexey V. , Baumberg Jeremy J. , Malpuech Guillaume , Laussy Fabrice P.
Published: August 2017

In this chapter we address the optical properties of microcavities in the weak-coupling regime and review the emission of light from microcavities in the linear regime. We present a derivation of the Purcell effect and stimulated emission of radiation by microcavities, and consider how this develops towards lasing. Finally, we briefly consider nonlinear properties of weakly coupled semiconductor microcavities. The functionality of vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) is also described.
Spin and polarisation
Authors: Kavokin Alexey V. , Baumberg Jeremy J. , Malpuech Guillaume , Laussy Fabrice P.
Published: August 2017

In this chapter we consider a complex set of optical phenomena linked to the spin dynamics of exciton-polaritons in semiconductor microcavities. We review a few important experiments that reveal the main mechanisms of the exciton-polariton spin dynamics and present the theoretical model of polariton spin relaxation based on the density matrix formalism. We also discuss the polarisation properties of the condensate and the superfluid phase transitions for polarised exciton-polaritons. We briefly address the polarization multistability and switching in polariton lasers. Finally, the optical spin-Hall and spin-Meissner effects are described.
Quantum Polaritonic
Authors: Kavokin Alexey V. , Baumberg Jeremy J. , Malpuech Guillaume , Laussy Fabrice P.
Published: August 2017

Microcavity polaritons have demonstrated their unique propensity to host macroscopic quantum phenomena. While they appear to be highly promising for applications in a classical realm, they are still far from competing even with decade old electronics. Another playground where polaritons could emerge as strong contenders is the microscopic quantum regime with single-particle effects and nonlinearities at the one-polariton level. Several theoretical proposals exist to explore polariton blockade mechanisms, realize sophisticated quantum phase transitions, implement quantum simulations and/or quantum information processing, thereby opening a new page of the polariton physics when such ideas will be implemented in the laboratory.
Polariton Devices
Authors: Kavokin Alexey V. , Baumberg Jeremy J. , Malpuech Guillaume , Laussy Fabrice P.
Published: August 2017

Polariton devices offer multiple advantages compared to conventional semiconductor devices. The bosonic nature of exciton polaritons offers opportunity of realisation of polariton lasers: coherent light sources based on bosonic condensates of polaritons. The final state stimulation of any transition feeding a polariton condensate has been used in many proposals such as for terahertz lasers based on polariton lasers. Furthermore, large coherence lengths of exciton-polaritons in microcavities open the way to realisation of polariton transport devices including transistors and logic gates. Being bosonic spin carriers, exciton-polaritons may be used in spintronic devices and polarisation switches. This chapter offers an overview on the existing proposals for polariton devices.
Policy Networks
Authors: Rhodes R. A. W.
Published: August 2017

This chapter reviews literature on policy networks examining descriptive, theoretical, and prescriptive accounts. It identifies three descriptive uses—policy networks as: interest intermediation, interorganizational analysis, and governance. It identifies two theories about policy networks: power-dependence and rational choice. It reviews three approaches to reforming and managing networks: instrumental, interactive, and institutional. It then discusses the central debates and challenges about comparing networks, explaining change, and managing the institutional void. Finally, the chapter identifies four main problems: the mix of governing structures; the problem of many hands; the holy grail of coordination; and steering not rowing. Policy network analysis has become one more locus for the endless debates about how we know what we know in the social sciences.
Charlemagne
Authors: Sunderland Luke
Published: August 2017

This chapter reconstructs the debate over the meaning of the figure of Charlemagne in chronicles which rewrite the chansons de geste. Charlemagne’s wars in Spain become glorious Christian triumphs over evil in the Pseudo-Turpin, a pan-European literary hit. They are presented as the beginnings of a great crusading history for France in the popular Grandes Chroniques de France, and in Girart d’Amiens’s Istoire le roy Charlemaine. For less straightforwardly pro-Charlemagne texts, like the Burgundian Croniques et conquestes and the Liégeois Myreur des histors, the Spanish wars set a different precedent: Charles’s trust in the traitor Ganelon led to disaster. The chronicles, depending on their political aims, omit, defuse, or exploit resistance narratives. Finally, the chapter argues that the poetic biography of Charlemagne, which veers between sins and holy heroism, and especially his death—Charles is being taken to hell, before his rescue by angels—encapsulates his ambivalent narrative legacy.
Feud
Authors: Sunderland Luke
Published: August 2017

This chapter contends that vendettas in the Loheren cycle and Raoul de Cambrai work as alternative forms of justice and social order, and thus as a refusal of sovereignty. The barons reject royal justice and resist royal bans on feud, preferring to pursue their own grievances, via violence that preserves their position vis-à-vis the monarchy and the peasantry they exploit, just as it shapes competition with their own kind for resources both abstract and material (land, women, status, royal favour, honour). Networks of friendship, allegiance, and kinship are maintained for and by feuding. Feuding is thus more than war; indeed it includes in its dynamic periods of peace, and gives form and meaning to a world. The correct moral and social order is defended by feud. The feuding aristocracy thus usurps sovereignty by portraying itself as protector of the common good.
Crusade
Authors: Sunderland Luke
Published: August 2017

This chapter argues that the expansion of Christendom functioned as an outlet for antagonisms between sovereigns and barons. Crusade in medieval epics allows barons to escape oppression and to become sovereigns: the Crusade Cycle makes Godefroi de Bouillon a Christian hero equal to Charlemagne, whereas the hero of Huon de Bordeaux, exiled by Charlemagne, becomes heir to a marvellous eastern empire. Roland in the Franco-Italian L’Entrée d’Espagne, also cast out, brings Western civilization to Persia. Another Franco-Italian work, Huon d’Auvergne, tells the hero’s journey to hell at the request of Charles Martel, whose fantasy of complete earthly jurisdiction turns nightmarish. The dream of a world Christian community shapes a utopian, integrative approach to other genres in these texts, which bring travel writing to describe the East that the heroes conquer. The chansons de geste dialogue with other generic material to find new solutions to the old king–baron antagonism.
Conclusion
Authors: Sunderland Luke
Published: August 2017

The Conclusion charts the survival of the rebel baron tradition into the early modern period, before looking at thinkers from the three spheres of influence that shape this book—Machiavelli, Bodin, and Hobbes—who develop powerful doctrines of sovereignty that seek to put an end to the cultures of rebellion and feuding that this book describes. I contend that our thinking about power, legitimacy, and authority has been shaped by such thinkers, who are canonical for modern political theory and ideas of sovereignty, leading us to side automatically with kings and sovereigns, and to mistakenly associate revolts and vendetta with anarchy.
Introduction
Authors: Sunderland Luke
Published: August 2017

The introduction argues that rebel baron narratives, including chansons de geste and their prose and chronicle offshoots, were a key vehicle for ideas of aristocratic resistance and independence. It contends that we need to read the corpus more broadly to realize this aspect of its importance. Rather than being an early element of a national French literary tradition, the rebel baron narratives constituted a widespread and long-lived tradition, which remained vital through the Middle Ages across many areas hostile to Capetian power, or which resisted imperial forces, including England, Italy, Occitania, and the Low Countries. The introduction also suggests that an approach deriving from Frederic Jameson can help understand the significance of the genre’s response to political antagonisms.
Welfare Reform in Greece
Authors: Petmesidou Maria
Published: August 2017

Greece developed a pension-heavy, clientelist, hybrid Mediterranean welfare state with many gaps in coverage. The global financial crisis of 2008 triggered a severe sovereign debt crisis, compelling the country to accept three bailout packages with stringent conditions as to spending cuts, privatization, and openness to international competition. Severe austerity has caused a protracted recession: the economy lost more than a quarter of its GDP between 2008 and 2015. The Mediterranean refugee crisis impacted severely on the country. New parties of the extreme left (SYRIZA) and extreme right (Golden Dawn) have gained support. SYRIZA was elected on an anti-austerity platform but failed to deliver and a fourth rescue package is under negotiation. The more likely future direction consists in an ever-tighter austerity programme with the immizeration of large sections of the population. A move towards neo-Keynesian intervention and social investment seems unlikely, given the level of debt and the bailout conditions.
Francesco Filelfo, Oligarchic Virtue, and Medicean Vice
Authors: Field Arthur
Published: August 2017

This chapter looks at how Francesco Filelfo, a non-Florentine, taught classics at the University of Florence during 1429–34, turning his classroom into a forum for oligarchic ideology. In the classroom and elsewhere, Filelfo viciously attacked the Medici and all intellectuals close to him (namely Carlo Marsuppini, Ambrogio Traversari, Niccolò Niccoli, and Poggio). The chapter analyzes Filelfo’s own works as well as those of his students, his closeness to Bruni, and his enmity with the Medici party and the Medicean humanists. Adhering to the traditionalists and their ideology, Filelfo argued that the Medici rule was based on violence and money. Filelfo’s classroom became so controversial than pro-Medici students began actively disrupting it. The chapter includes an overview of Filelfo’s major polemics after he was chased from Florence at the end of 1434.
From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic
Authors: Ringe Don
Published: August 2017

This book describes the earliest reconstructable stages of the prehistory of English, focusing specifically on linguistic structure. It outlines the grammar of Proto-Indo-European, considers the changes by which one dialect of that prehistoric language developed into Proto-Germanic, and provides a detailed account of the grammar of Proto-Germanic. In the course of his exposition Don Ringe draws on a long tradition of work on many languages, including Hittite, Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Slavic, Gothic, and Old Norse. This second edition has been significantly revised to provide a more in-depth account of Proto-Indo-European, with further exploration of disputed points; it has also been updated to include new developments in the field, particularly in the reconstruction of the Proto-Indo-European verb and nominal inflection. The author also reconsiders some of his original approaches to specific linguistic changes and their relative chronology based on his recent research.
Proto-Indo-European
Authors: Ringe Don
Published: August 2017

This chapter is a grammatical sketch of Proto-Indo-European. It describes the phonology of the language, including the system of surface contrasts; peculiarities of subsystems and individual segments; syllabification of sonorants; ablaut; rules affecting obstruents (including laryngeals); the accent system; and Auslautgesetze. The inflectional morphology is described, including the system of inflectional categories and their formal expression; the complex inflection of the verb (organized around aspect stems and inflected also for mood, voice, the person and number of the subject, and—marginally—tense); and the inflection of the various classes of nominals, with emphasis on the accent and ablaut paradigms of nouns. Short sections on derivational morphology, syntax, and the lexicon are included.
A Legitimacy Crisis of Representative Democracy?
Authors: Thomassen Jacques , van Ham Carolien
Published: August 2017

This chapter presents the research questions and outline of the book, providing a brief review of the state of the art of legitimacy research in established democracies, and discusses the recurring theme of crisis throughout this literature since the 1960s. It includes a discussion of the conceptualization and measurement of legitimacy, seeking to relate legitimacy to political support, and reflecting on how to evaluate empirical indicators: what symptoms indicate crisis? This chapter further explains the structure of the three main parts of the book. Part I evaluates in a systematic fashion the empirical evidence for legitimacy decline in established democracies; Part II reappraises the validity of theories of legitimacy decline; and Part II investigates what (new) explanations can account for differences in legitimacy between established democracies. The chapter concludes with a short description of the chapters included in the volume.
The Myth of Legitimacy Decline
Authors: van Ham Carolien , Thomassen Jacques
Published: August 2017

This chapter comprises an empirical evaluation of trends in political support within established democracies, to evaluate whether there is indeed a trend toward declining political support in established democracies. Using a variety of comparative data sets, i.e. the World Values Surveys, European Values Surveys, the European Election Studies, and the Eurobarometer surveys, this chapter reevaluates the empirical evidence for declining legitimacy, comparing trends in political support in sixteen established democracies from the mid-1970s to 2015. No consistent evidence is found for declining political support after the mid-1970s. Rather than a clear-cut long-term decline in political support that is apparent across established democracies, there is large variation between countries both in levels and trends of support. These findings call for a critical reappraisal of existing theories of legitimacy decline: how valid are such theories if the predicted outcome, i.e. secular decline of political support, does not occur?
Media Malaise and the Decline of Legitimacy
Authors: Van Aelst Peter
Published: August 2017

This chapter analyzes media malaise theories and their consequences for legitimacy. These theories argue that the increasing availability of information through new and old media and increasingly negative tone of media are to blame for declining legitimacy. The chapter examines these claims by providing a systematic review of empirical research on media and political support. It first investigates whether news coverage has become more negative over time, and then examines the micro process that might explain the link between media coverage and political support. Empirical evidence suggests that where coverage has become more negative, this occurred before the 1990s and has levelled off since, and is concentrated primarily in election news. Negative political news does have a modest impact on political support once controlled for level of education, but that effect can be positive and negative, depending on the medium, the receiver, and the indicator of political support.
Economic Outcomes, Quality of Governance, and Satisfaction with Democracy
Authors: Magalhães Pedro C.
Published: August 2017

This chapter investigates the impact of economic outcomes and quality of government on political support, arguing that the effect of economic performance is contingent on the quality of government. This hypothesis is derived from procedural fairness theories in organizational psychology according to which procedural fairness moderates the effects of outcome favorability on support for authorities. The chapter develops and tests the hypotheses that citizens’ political support is most affected by economic outcomes in those countries where the quality of government is lowest. In contrast, in contexts of high quality of government, political support is expected to be less sensitive to short-term economic fluctuations. Using ESS data and aggregate indicators of economic performance, the chapter finds that in countries where the quality of government is high, the impact of economic indicators is marginal, but where the quality of government is low, political support is quite sensitive to economic outcomes.
Studying Political Legitimacy
Authors: Andeweg Rudy B. , Aarts Kees
Published: August 2017

This final chapter concludes with a reflection on the findings presented in the book, the implications of these findings for politics and political science, and suggestions for a new research agenda on legitimacy. The chapter concludes that the analyses in this volume do not provide evidence of legitimacy crisis. This leaves us with a puzzle, as the belief in such a legitimacy crisis is persistent, and it has proven to be quite resistant to evidence provided by political scientists on the basis of data such as analyzed in this book. This discrepancy between current data and public discourse must also prompt us to reflect on political science research: what have we done so far in selecting our concepts, data, research strategies, and empirical domain, and what can and should be improved? The chapter concludes with suggestions for new research on legitimacy.
Enactivist Interventions
Authors: Gallagher Shaun
Published: August 2017

Enactivist Interventions explores central issues in the contemporary debates about embodied cognition, addressing interdisciplinary questions about intentionality, representation, affordances, the role of affect, and the problems of perception and cognitive penetration, action and free will, higher-order cognition, and intersubjectivity. It argues for a rethinking of the concept of mind, drawing on pragmatism, phenomenology, and cognitive science. It interprets enactivism as a philosophy of nature that has significant methodological and theoretical implications for the scientific investigation of the mind. Enactivist Interventions argues that, like the basic phenomena of perception and action, sophisticated cognitive phenomena like reflection, imagining, and mathematical reasoning are best explained in terms of an affordance-based skilled coping. It thus argues for a continuity that runs between basic action, affectivity, and a rationality that in every case remains embodied. It also discusses recent predictive models of brain function and outlines an alternative, enactivist interpretation that emphasizes the close coupling of brain, body, and environment rather than a strong boundary that isolates the brain in its internal processes. The extensive relational dynamics that integrates the brain with the extra-neural body opens into an environment that is physical, social, and cultural and that recycles back into the enactive process. Cognitive processes are in the world, situated in affordance spaces defined across evolutionary, developmental, and individual histories, and are constrained by affective processes and normative dimensions of social and cultural practices.
Introduction
Authors: Beckert Jens , Dewey Matías
Published: August 2017

Taking an economic sociology perspective, this introduction offers a systematic overview of the social organization of arenas of exchange prohibited by state law. We first distinguish different types of illegal markets, examine their internal functioning, and address state and political reactions to them, paying particular attention to the selective enforcement of the law and the role of informal rules. Second, we introduce the distinction between illegality and legitimacy, which is crucial for an understanding of the prevalence and form of illegal markets, and address two sources of social acceptance of illegality: externalities and expectations of the future. Third, considering the completely transformed role of the state, we allude to the architecture of illegal markets, indicate actors’ specific coordination problems, and illustrate how actors cope with them using cases contained in this volume. Finally, we elucidate the role of tax havens and the role of illegality in capitalist dynamics.
Illegal Markets
Authors: Mayntz Renate
Published: August 2017

The study of illegal markets needs to distinguish illegality from legality, and to relate both to legitimacy. There is no conceptual ambiguity about the distinction between legal and illegal if legality is formally defined. In practice, (formal) legality and (social) legitimacy can diverge: illegal markets are empirically related to organized crime, mafia, and even terrorist organizations, and they interact both with legal markets and the forces of state order. Where legal and illegal action systems are not separated by clear social boundaries, they are connected by what has come to be called “interfaces”: actors moving between a legal and an illegal world, and grey zones of actions that are neither clearly legal or illegal, nor clearly legitimate or illegitimate. Interfaces facilitate interaction between legal and illegal action systems, but they are also sources of tension and can lead to institutional change.
Governance in Online Stolen Data Markets
Authors: Odaba¸ Meltem , Holt Thomas J. , Breiger Ronald L.
Published: August 2017

We analyze the governance structure of online stolen data markets. As cybercriminal underground economies, stolen data markets are beyond the reach of state intervention, and yet they need form and regulation in order to function. While the illicit nature of the business brings risks to its participants, the online characteristics of these markets enable the participants to communicate easily, which is a crucial means of generating trust. We first identify stolen data markets in terms of their economic organization as two-sided markets, economic platforms with two distinct user groups that provide each other with network synergies. This characterization enables us to understand the role of the forum administrator as that of an intermediary, market creator, and market regulator. Then we clarify the role of communication networks and social structure in creating trust among buyers and sellers.
Private Domestic Staff
Authors: Spadinger Wolfgang
Published: August 2017

This chapter investigates the question whether the original notion of ‘private servants’ as faithful employees of diplomatic agents, following them wherever they go, corresponds to contemporary realities. It adopts the view that a variety of employment patterns have, instead, emerged, including private domestic staff (PDS) contracts and local work contracts. In the absence of more precise rules, receiving States filled the relevant gaps and limited employment to certain criteria. Important questions arise regarding social security coverage, given the fact that Article 33(2)(b) of the VCDR leaves room for interpretation. This constitutes a challenge for receiving States which have to ensure that the needs of PDS are met. This chapter explores the legal considerations applying to PDS and reflects on the case law but also on mechanisms employed by countries with large diplomatic communities to resolve work-related conflicts between PDS and their employers out of court.
Contemplation in Coleridge’s Poetry
Authors: Mays J. C. C.
Published: August 2017

Chapter 1 follows the ascent from the technical understanding of a poem and its processes toward a sense of ‘spiritual contemplation’. Slow-reading a short Coleridge poem, ‘First Advent of Love’, representing lifelong concerns, Mays describes the meditation involved in both reading and writing the poem. He contrasts such meditation with the different, analytical process involved in Coleridge’s prose writing. He reveals how in ‘First Advent’ feelings adjust through a web of sounds, images, and allusions (to neo-Platonic ideas about love mediated through Renaissance and contemporary German authors). Inquiry into what is most important in the poem involves the matter of how the poem works: a matter of ‘Understanding’. Mays then looks to higher, numinous qualities in the poem that go beyond the understanding, and are properly imaginative in terms of Coleridge’s diagram of the ‘Order of the Mental Powers’, mediating between ‘Understanding’ and ‘Reason’ in terms of enérgeia.
Coleridge, John Dewey, and the Art of Contemplation
Authors: Wheeler Kathleen
Published: August 2017

Chapter 4 reads Dewey’s Art as Experience as steeped in Coleridge, a constant reference throughout this foundational pragmatist aesthetics. Indeed Dewey said he found ‘spiritual emancipation’ in Coleridge’s Aids to Reflection, calling it ‘my first Bible’ (qtd in John Beer Aids to Reflection cxxv). Coleridge’s account of perception as active and creative, not passively receptive, gave Dewey profound insight into human experience, helping him articulate his philosophy of ‘art as experience’ whereby art originates in imaginative ordinary life. For Coleridge, ‘act’ and ‘activity’ ground both mind and matter in the same natural powers of production/creation: ‘a repetition in the finite mind of the eternal act of creation in the infinite I am’. Dewey’s analogy between the error of separating art from ordinary life, and divorcing imaginativeness from ordinary perception, shows how memories of prior acts of imaginative perception usurp the place of actual acts, as dead metaphors do in language.
Coleridge’s Two-Level Theory of Metaphysical Knowledge and the Order of the Mental Powers in the Logic
Authors: Struwig Dillon
Published: August 2017

Coleridge is presented as a two-level theorist of the innate powers of mind in Chapter 11, which argues that Coleridge distinguishes (1) a transcendental, Kantian sense of the a priori principles of human discursive cognition (comparable to Plato’s mid-level diánoia), from (2) the noëtic, Platonic a priori principles of intellectual intuition (or nóēsis, a higher-level intuitive cognition of ontological, theological, and ethical truths). Drawing on Logic and Opus Maximum, the author demonstrates that Coleridge characterizes Kantian a priori principles as ‘subjectively real’, finite-mind-dependent rules of sense-experience and cognition, and Platonic a priori principles as ‘objectively real’ principles of knowing and being that are dependent upon ‘the transcendent and unindividual’ reason (i.e. God, ‘the absolute Self, Spirit, or Mind’). This ‘two-level’ theory is framed in terms of Coleridge’s Kantian ‘threefold division’ of the human cognitive capacities into sense, understanding, and reason, and their respective a priori operations and contents.
Coleridge and Contemplation
Authors: Engell James
Published: August 2017

Chapter 14 concludes the section on metaphysics with a comprehensive and illuminating treatment of Coleridge’s philosophy as a series of processes, beings, and relations that are contemplative and yet, most fundamentally, active. Giving central place to the ‘originating Act of self-affirmation’, which has profound implications for Coleridge’s religious views and also for his philosophic thought, this essay considers Coleridge’s metaphysics and his philosophy of religion as one. Coleridge holds that the ‘Act’ links philosophy and religion so that they are inseparable. Moreover, his insistence on a series of related acts, on agency, as central to religious and philosophical thought has implications for his emphasis on the Will and the Trinity, as well as for his principle of the Lógos and what he calls the ‘Dynamic Philosophy’ and its ‘polar logic’. Coleridge may be seen as a modified Platonist, yet also something of a pragmatist, and a Trinitarian Christian.
Imperatives and commands in Quechua
Authors: Adelaar Willem F. H.
Published: August 2017

The Quechuan languages of the Central Andes have a dedicated Imperative Mood paradigm featuring personal reference marking for all subject endings except first person. Non-canonical third person subject forms are part of this paradigm. Although there is a formal overlap between Future Tense and Imperative in marking of the first person inclusive subject, the former can be used in questions or be accompanied by validation markers, whereas the latter cannot. In imperative constructions negation is indicated in the same way as in other moods, except that it requires the presence of the prohibitive adverb ama, instead of plain negative mana. Conversely, ama can also be used in non-Imperative environments to express a mild or indirect command. It can be argued that Quechuan languages have two competing ways of indicating prohibition: Imperative structures with regular negation marking and obligatory presence of ama, and non-Imperative structures where ama introduces a prohibitive connotation.
Imperatives in Ashaninka Satipo (Kampa Arawak) of Peru
Authors: Mihas Elena
Published: August 2017

This chapter’s goal is to survey Ashaninka Satipo (Arawak) commanding communicative moves. It argues that imperatives form a paradigm consisting of the first person cohortative construction with the discourse particle tsame ‘come on’, second person canonical imperative construction characterized by a special intonation, and the third person jussive construction formed either with the intentional =ta on the lexical verb or on the copula kant ‘be this way’. In positive commands, the verbs are inflected for irrealis. The canonical imperative has a negative counterpart, whereas the cohortative and jussive verb forms lack them. While commanding, conversationalists tend to select specific linguistic resources which reflect their group membership status. Social equals have recourse to the same linguistic means as conversationalists in superior roles, but they also use the ‘want’ and ‘wish’ constructions and counter-assertive pronouns. The basic second person imperative forms are employed irrespective of the social status.
Imperatives and commands in Japanese
Authors: Jarkey Nerida
Published: August 2017

This chapter examines the forms and usage of imperatives and command strategies in contemporary standard Japanese. Although commands are highly face-threatening acts in any language, speakers of Japanese encounter particular challenges in using them in socially acceptable ways. Commands are generally only given to those considered ‘below’ the speaker in the social hierarchy, and are normally considered appropriate only when used toward ‘in-group’ members. Further restrictions relate to the identity the speaker wishes to convey. Numerous command strategies have emerged to avoid using the most direct imperative forms, and some of these strategies have gradually come to be reinterpreted as imperative forms themselves, suggesting a loss of their original euphemistic qualities. Furthermore, when issuing commands, speakers often go to considerable lengths to soften the face threat, for example by giving reasons for the command, adding markers of hesitancy, or softening illocutionary particles, and using appropriate honorific language forms.
The Acceptance of Party Unity in Parliamentary Democracies
Authors: Willumsen David M.
Published: August 2017

The central argument of this book is that voting unity in European legislatures is not primarily the result of the ‘disciplining’ power of the leadership of parliamentary parties, but rather the result of a combination of ideological homogeneity through self-selection into political parties and the calculations of individual legislators about their own long-term benefits. Despite the central role of policy preferences in the subsequent behaviour of legislators, preferences at the level of the individual legislator have been almost entirely neglected in the study of parliaments and legislative behaviour. The book measures these using an until now under-utilized resource: parliamentary surveys. Building on these, the book develops measures of policy incentives of legislators to dissent from their parliamentary parties, and show that preference similarity amongst legislators explains a very substantial proportion of party unity, yet alone cannot explain all of it. Analysing the attitudes of legislators to the demands of party unity, and what drives these attitudes, the book argues that what explains the observed unity (beyond what preference similarity would explain) is the conscious acceptance by MPs that the long-term benefits of belonging to a united party (such as increased influence on legislation, lower transaction costs, and better chances of gaining office) outweigh the short-terms benefits of always voting for their ideal policy outcome. The book buttresses this argument through the analysis of both open-ended survey questions as well as survey questions on the costs and benefits of belonging to a political party in a legislature.
Practical Necessity and Moral Heroism
Authors: Fruh Kyle
Published: August 2017

Discussions of closely associated notions of practical necessity, volitional necessity, and moral incapacity have profited from a focus on cases of agential crisis to further our understanding of how features of an agent’s character might bind her. This paper turns to agents in crises in order to connect this way of being bound to the phenomenon of moral heroism. The connection is fruitful in both directions. Importing practical necessity into examinations of moral heroism can explain the special sense of bindingness moral heroes frequently express while preserving the status of heroic acts as supererogatory. It also helps explain how heroes persevere and act as so few others do. On the other hand, the context of moral heroism allows a fuller development of some features of the concept of practical necessity, shedding more illuminating light on the roots of practical necessity in character through recent findings in the psychology of moral exemplars.
Free Will Pessimism
Authors: Russell Paul
Published: August 2017

The core aim of this paper is to articulate the essential features of an alternative compatibilist position, one that is responsive to sources of resistance to the compatibilist program based on considerations of fate and luck. The approach taken relies on distinguishing carefully between issues of skepticism and pessimism as they arise in this context. A compatibilism that is properly responsive to concerns about fate and luck is committed to what is described as free will pessimism, which is to be distinguished from free will skepticism. The conclusion reached is that critical compatibilism and free will pessimism should not be understood as providing a solution to the free will problem but rather as a basis for rejecting the assumptions and aspirations that lie behind it. This approach reveals not a (skeptical) problem waiting to be solved but a (troubling) human predicament that needs to be recognized and acknowledged.
Trajectories of Hellenism at Tadmor-Palmyra and Dura-Europos
Authors: Kaizer Ted
Published: August 2017

This chapter studies the diverse and often contradictory trajectories of Hellenism at the great caravan city of Tadmor-Palmyra in the heart of the Syrian steppe and at the small town of Dura-Europos on the Middle Euphrates. Building on the limited evidence for the two local cultures in the pre-Roman period, the chapter explores the way in which the relation between the two sites developed. Focus is not only on the various kinds of Greek culture at stake, but also on the diverse ways in which these different forms of Greek culture interacted with the different indigenous cultural elements.