bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
“It Was Like Slavery in Another Era”
Authors: Giggie John M.
Published: May 2024

The introduction offers a portrait of Black history in Tuscaloosa, including a record of anti-Black violence, lynchings, and attempted lynchings. The city’s place as a site of civil rights protest is also examined. It documents the city’s long struggle with racial violence and development as a stronghold of Southern segregation, embodied by Robert Shelton, the Imperial Wizard of the United Klans of America, by far the largest and most powerful branch of the Ku Klux Klan, who called Tuscaloosa home. It also surveys the literature of civil rights and Black organizing, both in Tuscaloosa and across the South. This context helps to situate and underscore the events of Bloody Tuesday.
“The White Folks Are Going to Kill Him”
Authors: Giggie John M.
Published: May 2024

This chapter charts the development of Reverend T. Y. Rogers into one of Reverend Martin Luther King’s disciples. It recounts Rogers’s childhood in Coatopa, Alabama, his education at Alabama State College, his decision to become a Baptist minister, and his relationship with Reverend King. It follows his career as an assistant minister to Reverend King at Dexter Avenue Baptist Church, his studies at Crozer Seminary, his first church leadership placement in Roxborough, Pennsylvania, and work with the 400 Ministers and finally his arrival at First African Baptist Church in Tuscaloosa. It also outlines the growth of First African Baptist Church and the two local civil rights organizations: the Ministerial Alliance, and Tuscaloosa Citizens for Action Committee.
A Short History of Security at Sea
Authors: Bueger Christian , Edmunds Timothy
Published: May 2024

What is the history of maritime security and how did it evolve? In Chapter 2, the authors reconstruct the history of security at sea by exploring four struggles that set the context for the maritime security agenda. A first struggle revolves around competing grand ocean visions, a second over military dominance, a third over the limits of capitalist expansion, and a fourth over legalization and representation. Many of these struggles achieved a moment of settlement in the 1990s, from which maritime security thinking then evolved as new challenges came to the fore. The authors argue that this evolution has been characterized by five waves of thinking, which together have consolidated the maritime security agenda as a distinct body of thought, policy domain, and area of operations.
Blue Crime: Pirates, Smugglers, and Ecocriminals
Authors: Bueger Christian , Edmunds Timothy
Published: May 2024

Blue crime is one of the three dimensions of maritime security. Chapter 5 starts by explaining the concept of blue crime, outlining the kinds of activities it comprises, and considering the interlinkages between different types of crime. The authors then move on to examine specific blue crimes in more detail. Contemporary maritime piracy is discussed with a focus on the three hot spots of Southeast Asia, the Western Indian Ocean and the gulf of Guinea. Patterns of illicit trade are investigated highlighting the smuggling of narcotics and people. The discussion of environmental crimes focuses on the problem of illicit fishing. The chapter provides further analysis on each crime and discusses how they manifest in key regions.
Exploitation, Marginalization, and Disposability
Authors: Müller Mirjam
Published: May 2024

This chapter’s critique of sweatshop labour claims that sweatshop labour relations are relations of exploitation involving advantage-taking of the structural vulnerability of workers. The chapter begins by explaining the structural nature of sweatshop labour relations, then develops an understanding of how sweatshop workers are structurally vulnerable in virtue of their position as gendered, racialized, and migrant workers. The key concern with sweatshop labour exploitation is that the structurally embedded vulnerability of the workers is turned into a condition for profit in a way that reveals normative concerns with domination and oppression. This exploitation constitutes a particularly severe form of wage-labour exploitation and is non-accidentally linked to two further normative concerns, the marginalization of sweatshop workers and their treatment as disposable. These normative concerns become visible through theorizing the systematic relation between class, gender, race, and migrant status in sweatshop labour relations.
Responsibility for Sweatshop Labour
Authors: Müller Mirjam
Published: May 2024

Drawing on Iris Marion Young’s work on responsibility for structural injustice, this chapter argues that (most of) those who are involved in the reproduction of sweatshop labour through their actions are politically responsibility. While individuals are not blameworthy for their implication in structural injustice, they are morally accountable should they fail to take up their political responsibility. This asks individuals to work towards changing the intersecting structures of oppression that make workers vulnerable. The chapter present three considerations of political responsibility: the social position of the agent and the nature of their connection to sweatshop labour exploitation, the link between concrete actions and radical structural change, and the importance of an anti-imperialist stance. The chapter closes by discussing the successful cooperation between a sweatshop workers’ union in Honduras and the US anti-sweatshop movement in 2007.
Intelligent Democracy
Authors: Benson Jonathan
Published: May 2024

Democracy is valuable not only because it treats people equally but because it is intelligent. Democracies can make effective use of knowledge, engage in experimentation, and utilize societal diversity, while also motivating political leaders towards the common good. It is against the emergence of a new democratic scepticism, however, that this book defends the intelligence of democracy. Whether it be due to ignorant voters, irrational public debate, or disconnected politicians, a growing number now argue that democracies are destined to make bad decisions. While these democratic sceptics see epistemic concerns as reasons for giving up on democracy, this book argues they are reasons to embrace it. Intelligent Democracy develops the first systemic account of democracy’s epistemic value. Unlike approaches which focus on single institutions, this view conceptualizes democracy as a network of actors which work together to produce epistemic benefits at the system level. While any one democratic body will be limited, this book analyses the divisions of labour within a broader deliberative system, and how best to combine inclusive elections, deliberative assemblies, random sortition, and the open public sphere. This systemic approach is shown to better explain democracy’s epistemic value, while more adeptly responding to the challenges posed by the new democratic scepticism. It can demonstrate democracy’s intelligence over regimes of epistocracy and political meritocracy which empower only the knowledgeable, but also overlooked proposals for granting greater powers to markets or polycentric governance. The result is a unique epistemic justification of democracy and a robust reply to democracy’s critics.
Polycentricity For and Against Democracy
Authors: Benson Jonathan
Published: May 2024

Chapter 5 replies to polycentric critiques of democracy. Often drawing on the work of Elinor and Vincent Ostrom, a number of authors have argued for breaking democracy’s monopoly on governance in favour of a polycentric system where goods are provided by a range of public, private, and third-sector institutions. While often motivated by a desire to ‘make politics more like the market’, this chapter argues that these views end up replicating the epistemic problems of markets in the political arena. While rejecting the polycentric approach supported by the critics, the chapter also argues that once democracy is understood as a system, it can possess all the defining features of polycentrism as well as its advantages of experimentation and self-regulation. The chapter ends by considering how democratic systems can be arranged to make best use of their polycentric benefits and advocates for greater political decentralization.
Unorthodox Legislating in Trump’s Senate
Authors: Reynolds Molly E.
Published: May 2024

Over the last quarter century, scholars have often described Congress’s approach to legislating as “unorthodox.” President Trump’s approach to working with Congress was often characterized similarly. This chapter explores what happened when those two forces—an unpredictable president and long-standing trends in the legislative process—came together during his four years in office. Examining both the development and management of significant legislation in the Senate, as well as the chamber’s use of expedited procedures, the chapter argues that much of what was on display during Trump’s term represented the continued progression of existing dynamics, but that the president’s actions drove that evolution in certain new ways.
McConnell’s President
Authors: Zelizer Julian E.
Published: May 2024

Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell and the Republican Senate were a bulwark to the Trump presidency. McConnell was one of the Republican leaders who enabled and protected Donald Trump during his rise to power. While the previous generation of Republicans and Democratic leaders had balanced the goals of partisanship, governance, and the preserving democratic institutions, McConnell and his generation of Republicans went all in with the first objective. Every process and every norm could be weaponized. Any candidate who helped solidify power, including Trump, was worth protecting. This chapter explores the seminal role of McConnell between 2017 and 2021 in shaping Republican politics during this critical era.
The Crisis of Senate Legitimacy
Authors: Drutman Lee
Published: May 2024

The US Senate faces a severe legitimacy crisis. The Senate overrepresents low-population, predominantly White states while underrepresenting high-population, more diverse states. In current hyperpartisan US politics, this gives Republicans an advantage, particularly with the continued abuse of the filibuster. This imbalance fuels calls for its abolishment. The Senate does not serve as a “sober second thought” nor as a guarantor of federalism, as its defenders argue. Democracies around the world have curtailed the power of upper chambers, which are widely viewed as vestiges of earlier, less democratic times. While a reduction of the powers of the US Senate seems unlikely, it should not be considered out of the question.
Human Nature and the Social Basis for Communities
Authors: Zhao Jingyi Jenny
Published: May 2024

This chapter deals with a complex set of questions relating to human nature in Aristotle and Xunzi. It investigates in turn Aristotle’s and Xunzi’s taxonomies in which humans, animals, and other living things are defined, paying particular attention to how human and animal characteristics are set apart in the two philosophers’ discussions of different types of ‘courage’, which suggest that a sense of shame is unique to humans. It then explores Aristotle’s and Xunzi’s points of commonality and difference by focusing the discussion on their definitions of humans as social beings. This is done through a comparison of the ideas of logos in Aristotle and bian 辨/辯 (differentiation, argumentation) in Xunzi, both of which involve discriminating between sets of opposite values so as to enable members of society to communicate and collectively strive for what is good.
Shame and the Path to Moral Goodness
Authors: Zhao Jingyi Jenny
Published: May 2024

This chapter addresses the issue of the relationship between shame and morality, illustrating the crucial role that Aristotle and Xunzi attribute to ‘shame’ in an individual’s moral education and showing how ancient discourses can provoke fresh ways of thinking about the relevance of shame in a person’s upbringing. It outlines the different ways in which Aristotle and Xunzi use shame-related ideas to ‘rank’ the position of the various goods in life and place an unmistakable emphasis on the moral disposition of the individual over concerns about external judgment. Both philosophers illustrate in their own distinct ways how the morally mature person not only conducts himself in the right way, but also desires to behave in such a way on the basis of his moral disposition.
Soft Law
Authors: Meier Michael W.
Published: May 2024

International law is increasingly using quasi-legal documents, such as political declarations, guidelines, manuals, and codes of conduct instead of legally binding instruments. These “soft law” instruments, which possess no legal force and do not contain a coercive mechanism, are nevertheless implemented and gain acceptance by international law actors. This chapter looks at the role of soft law and explains how it has the power to impact international humanitarian law. It addresses how soft law is defined and viewed by those who work in international law. It explores why States and other actors use soft law studying three examples, namely, the Montreux Document and Code of Conduct to address private military contractors; the Tallinn Manual, which addresses cyber issues; and the Political Declaration on the use of explosive weapons in populated area to address civilian harm. Finally, this chapter discusses a way to measure the effectiveness of soft law instruments.
Expert Manuals
Authors: Schmitt Michael N.
Published: May 2024

This chapter examines the place of expert manuals in the making and shaping of international law, with particular emphasis on international humanitarian law. It draws on the author’s experience as a participant in four manual projects—the Non-International Armed Conflict Manual, the Air and Missile Warfare Manual, and both Tallinn Manuals. The chapter begins with a discussion of the de jure status of expert manuals under international law. As will be explained, the work of scholars and other international law experts exerts particular influence on the interpretation of international law rules. It then examines how manuals can influence international law in practice, drawing in particular on how the Tallinn Manuals (especially 2.0) have affected discourse among States regarding the application of international law to cyber operations. The chapter concludes with reflections on why Tallinn Manual 2.0 has proven more influential than other manuals.
Non-State Armed Groups, Law-Making, and the Shaping of International Law in Armed Conflict
Authors: Heffes Ezequiel
Published: May 2024

This chapter examines certain non-State armed groups’ (NSAGs’) law-making activities to understand how these entities are shaping the international law applicable in non-international armed conflict. It explores the various forms these activities can take, proposing a differentiation between “domestic” law-making activities, which include NSAGs’ codes of conduct and laws, and “quasi-international” ones, comprising special agreements under Common Article 3 to the 1949 Geneva Conventions, UN Action Plans, and Geneva Call’s Deeds of Commitment. Based on their, the chapter submits that NSAGs shape the legal landscape in two ways: (1) by agreeing to bring into force international obligations that may not otherwise be applicable, thereby modifying the regulatory framework of specific conflicts; and (2) by influencing the (growing) view that international human rights law is applicable to NSAGs’ actions. This chapter also shows that some international institutions, and even States, have supported the adoption of various documents containing international law provisions.
The Entrenchment of Two-Party Competition
Authors: Foley Edward B.
Published: May 2024

The 1830s saw the development of partisan conflict between the Democrats and the Whigs. Some of this conflict resulted in violence or the serious threat of it, as in Pennsylvania’s “Buckshot War” of 1838. At the same time, the “Broad Seal War” over New Jersey’s congressional elections caused the House of Representatives to be unable to organize itself or elect a Speaker, until ex-president John Quincy Adams took matters into his own hands by declaring himself the “chair” of the House and forced a resolution of the logjam. In 1856, Wisconsin showed how a state’s supreme court could thwart an attempt by an incumbent governor to steal himself another term that he did not win, producing a major victory for the rule of law and electoral fairness.
Florida 2000
Authors: Foley Edward B.
Published: May 2024

Al Gore’s decision to accept the US Supreme Court’s ruling against him in Bush v. Gore prevented the possibility that Congress would become engulfed by the disputed 2000 presidential election, as it had been by the 1876 race and as it would again by Trump’s assault on the 2020 outcome. The Supreme Court’s decision in Bush v. Gore has two components: (1) finding an equal protection violation in Florida’s disparate treatment of identical ballots, a 7-2 verdict that in hindsight seems sensible given the state’s mistreatment of votes; and (2) the refusal to permit the state to rectify the problem, a 5-4 fiat that remains indefensible given the Court’s role in reviewing state court cases. While the equal protection principle may prove salutary in future cases, Bush v. Gore is a reminder that resolving a dispute pursuant to the law does not guarantee an outcome consistent with the electorate’s preferences.
Applications of the Discrete Symmetries
Authors: Branco Gustavo Castelo , Lavoura Luís , Silva João Paulo
Published: May 2024

We present in this chapter some elementary applications of the discrete symmetries P, C, and T. These examples are extracted from the realms of nuclear physics and of low-energy particle physics. For more details, the reader is advised to consult the books that we have used in preparing this brief account (Sakurai 1964; Perkins 1987; Lee 1990; Burcham and Jobes 1995). In a first reading, this chapter may be skipped without inconvenience.a state with an odd number of photons (and no other particles) cannot scatter into a state with an even number of photons, or vice versa.
Moduli of the CKM Matrix Elements
Authors: Branco Gustavo Castelo , Lavoura Luís , Silva João Paulo
Published: May 2024

Experimentally, the rephasing-invariant functions of the CKM matrix to which one has most direct access are the moduli of its matrix elements. The relevant processes are semileptonic production and decay rates which are, under very broad assumptions about possible physics beyond the SM, gather from the analysis of the mass difference and of CP violation in neutralmeson systems-as we shall be doing in Chapter 18-is much more sensitive to the possible presence of new heavy particles in the theory. The matrix element only involves the first-generation quarks, and is for this reason the one which can be determined with best precision. Three different methods have been used in its determination.
Parametrizations of the CKM Matrix
Authors: Branco Gustavo Castelo , Lavoura Luís , Silva João Paulo
Published: May 2024

The CKM matrix is usually parametrized in some specific way. The purpose of the parametrizations is to incorporate the constraints of 3 x 3 unitarity. Some parametrizations also incorporate experimental information, in particular the pattern of moduli in eqn (13.47); this is the case of the Wolfenstein parametrization and of related parametrizations, which in practice are the ones most often used.
Spontaneous CP Violation
Authors: Branco Gustavo Castelo , Lavoura Luís , Silva João Paulo
Published: May 2024

Spontaneous CP violation (SCPV), also termed spontaneous CP breaking, occurs when CP is a symmetry of the original Lagrangian but, after spontaneous symmetry breaking, no CP symmetry remains. This means the following: There is a transformation that may be physically interpreted as CP under which the Lagrangian is invariant. There is no transformation that may be physically interpreted as CP under which both the Lagrangian and the vacuum are invariant.
Models with Vector-Like Quarks
Authors: Branco Gustavo Castelo , Lavoura Luís , Silva João Paulo
Published: May 2024

There are many extensions of the standard model in which fermions with nonstandard SU(2)©U(l) quantum numbers-’exotic fermions’-naturally occur.The 27 contains, apart from the fifteen usual chiral fields in the first line of eqn (24.1)-the doublet of quarks, the up antiquark, the down antiquark, the doublet of leptons, and the positron-, a vector-like isosinglet quark of charge In this chapter we concentrate our attention on vector-like isosinglet quarks. Our interest in extensions of the SM with those exotic fermions is justified for the following reasons: They provide a framework for having a naturally small violation of the 3 x 3 unitarity of the CKM matrix. This leads to non-vanishing, but naturally suppressed, flavour-changing neutral currents (FCNC). The presence of FCNC opens up many interesting possibilities for rare Kand B decays, as well as for CP asymmetries in neutral-B decays.
Massive Neutrinos and CP Violation in the Leptonic Sector
Authors: Branco Gustavo Castelo , Lavoura Luís , Silva João Paulo
Published: May 2024

Neutrinos are fascinating particles which have played an important role in the understanding of the structure of both the charged- and neutral-weak-current interactions. They may also play an important role in astrophysics and cosmology. A complete treatment of all aspects of neutrino physics is beyond the scope of this book; there are excellent books and review articles on the subject (Bilenky and Petcov 1987; Kayser et al.1989; Mohapatra and Pal 1991; Boehm and Vogel 1992; Kim and Pevsner 1993). Our emphasis here will be on those aspects of neutrino physics having to do with CP violation. First we shall describe some of the motivations for considering massive neutrinos.
Extracting CKM Phases with Bs0 Decays
Authors: Branco Gustavo Castelo , Lavoura Luís , Silva João Paulo
Published: May 2024

In this chapter we shall discuss some methods available to extract CKM phases with the help of B decays. In the near future, B -B pairs will only be produced at DESY, Fermilab, and LHC. In all these cases, the B -B pairs are created in uncorrelated initial states. Moreover, they are produced together with a large number of other states originating in bb quark pairs, such as B B- x+,these facilities, but that such studies must face a daunting background. As happens with B studies at the T (4S), full reconstruction of the events is extremely inefficient, and one usually looks for the semileptonic decay of one b-hadron (the tagging decay), only tracing the time dependence of the other bhadron. procedure still requires the reconstruction of the exclusive channel of interest. There is, however, a very big difference with respect to experiments performed at the T (4S). There, the anti-correlated nature of the initial state guarantees that the semileptonic decay in one side of the detector does tag the flavour of the meson on the opposite side at the same instant.
Discrete Ambiguities
Authors: Branco Gustavo Castelo , Lavoura Luís , Silva João Paulo
Published: May 2024

In this chapter we follow closely the analysis of Grossman et al. (1997a), Grossman and Quinn (1997), and Wolfenstein (1997b) on the removal of the discrete ambiguities associated with the extraction of the CKM angles from the cor¬responding CP-asymmetry measurements. There has been renewed interest on this subject and further developments are likely. We neglect the phases and c1 throughout. Clean measurements of CKM phases must be unhindered by hadronic uncertainties. This is the case of CP asymmetries in B decays into CP eigenstates in which the amplitude is dominated by a single weak phase. These cases involve the ratio of an amplitude and its complex conjugate and, hence, twice the relevant CKM phase.
Making, Finding, Applying, and Justifying
Authors: Lundmark Thomas
Published: May 2024

This chapter defines three categories of law-making: politicians making statutory law, judges pronouncing rules that concretize statutes, and judges declaring rules without accrediting a statute (termed ‘pure’ common law in these pages). Rulings resulting from this last process are referred to here as judicial ‘glosses’ on the statutes. The making of statutory law by politicians entails legal reasoning in a broad sense, requiring consideration of the purposes of the proposed legislation, the appropriateness of the means chosen to serve those purposes, the authority to enact the chosen means, and the consideration of conflicts with other laws. When judges pronounce rules that concretize statutes, and when they declare rules without citing a statute (pure common law), they enjoy less access than politicians to relevant information. Judges possess less democratic legitimacy, meaning that they must consider the separation of powers. The process of finding both statute law and case law entails the recognition of rules and insights drawn from the factual scenarios (i.e. the stories) enshrined in the rules that might conceivably be applied, which involves legal reasoning. Judges often employ ‘hunches’ to arrive at the ‘correct’ result. Judges call upon their training, experience, and ingenuity to tell a story that convinces others that the result is rooted in law, not in whim. Friedrich Carl von Savigny (1779–1861) referred to these stories as ‘elements’ but described them differently from how they are employed in this book, although the categories into which justificatory arguments are organized here substantially correspond to Savigny’s elements.
Celtic and English language contact and scholarly attitudes
Authors: Ahlqvist Anders
Published: May 2024

There are obvious geographical reasons for entertaining the possibility that the Celtic languages have influenced the English language over the centuries since it became established in England and in the areas where Celtic languages have survived to the present day. Yet such influence is often claimed to be quite minimal. Nevertheless, it is also obvious that English differs in a number of ways from the other Germanic languages and that there must be reasons behind such differences. This chapter looks at the history of scholarship into the question and tries to isolate factors that may have contributed to certain scholars adopting their particular views. It is argued that some of these factors are more ideological than purely scholarly, reflecting stances that depend more on national origin and similar criteria than ones based on an objective examination of the facts, and further, that such factors are still behind some present-day judgments.
The origin of Afrikaans
Authors: Hamans Camiel
Published: May 2024

This chapter addresses the discussion about the origin of Afrikaans and the political context of this discussion. It focuses on the way settlers introduced Dutch at the Cape and how their descendants later forged the national language Afrikaans from the meanwhile changed language. It also discusses the long-denied influence of the so-called Coloured People on Afrikaans. Two views opposed each other. The first claims that Afrikaans is a European language and invokes, through careful philological research, similar phenomena in Dutch, Dutch dialects, or other Germanic languages and is therefore called the Philological School. The other emphasizes influences from native languages spoken at the Cape and from languages of imported slaves and could therefore be called the Creole School. The Philological School reached its peak during Apartheid. The Creole School only managed to gain the upper hand in the aftermath of Apartheid and initially especially outside South Africa. Finally, three examples are presented that illustrate how the discussion was conducted.
The Apprehension of ‘What Is’
Authors: Antognazza Maria Rosa
Published: May 2024

Chapter 1 begins this historical survey by exploring a deep epistemological consensus underlying ancient Greek philosophy. After a considering three leading pre-Socratics (Xenophanes, Parmenides, and Empedocles: 1.1.1), it focuses particular attention on Plato (1.1.2). Rejecting the view that Meno and Theaetetus propose a justified true belief (JTB) analysis of knowledge, it argues that, for Plato and the polymorph philosophical tradition broadly describable as Platonism, knowledge is, most fundamentally, an apprehension of ‘what is’ distinct in kind from belief (1.1.3). Although Plato and Aristotle are commonly regarded as founders of two opposing philosophical schools, notably as regards their approach to sense-perception, they are perfectly aligned in thinking that knowledge latches on to ‘what is’ or to reality, whatever their further views on the nature of this reality or the manner in which we grasp it (1.2.1-2). After a brief consideration of the similar view of knowledge and belief underlying Epicureanism, it is suggested that Stoic epistemology is the clearest early example of conceiving ‘thinking with assent’ as a broader, general category of which other cognitive modes—grasping, knowing, and believing—are either cases or epistemic components (1.2.3).
Religious Belief II
Authors: Antognazza Maria Rosa
Published: May 2024

This chapter evaluates William Alston’s view that putative perceptions of God can provide justification for certain beliefs about God (15.1). Notwithstanding agreement with some key features of Alston’s brilliantly original proposal—such as the rejection of epistemic double standards and of epistemic imperialism—it is objected that a Christian doxastic practice built on the direct perception of God faces difficulties arising from both its own internal overrider system (starting with the statement in John 1:18 that ‘no one has ever seen God’) and from independent philosophical reasons (notably the Kantian insistence on an ontological and therefore epistemological gap between human beings and any putative noumenal entity not bounded by space and time: 15.2). The chapter ends (15.3) with the proposal of an alternative framework for religious epistemology in which the model of cognition defended in this book is applied. A distinctive feature of religion is that of being primarily about matters in which the kind of direct cognitive contact required by knowledge is not available, at least as regards our natural cognitive abilities. When the object of cognition is some putative supernatural, noumenal entity, the appropriate cognitive model is belief rather than knowledge. Although some things may be known also in the domain of religion, the specific epistemic status of what, in religion, is held by faith is belief, not knowledge. Nevertheless, to be rationally held, religious belief (as any other belief) also needs reasons, including reasons of an epistemic kind.
Ethology and anxiety
Authors: McNaughton Neil , Gray Jeffrey A.
Published: May 2024

‘Ethology and anxiety’ describes ethoexperimental and ethopharmacological analysis of anxiety and fear in semi-natural but experimentally controlled settings. A suite of characteristic responses to an actual present predator can be characterized as fear responses (and are reduced by panicolytic drugs but not by anxiolytics). Conversely, a distinct suite of responses to an uncertain predator can be characterized as anxiety responses (and are reduced by anxiolytics). The behaviours reflect two functional dimensions: defensive distance and defensive direction. The key adaptive functions of these suites, which define defensive direction, appear to be to permit withdrawal from danger, or to permit cautious approach to danger (to obtain a good), respectively. Terminological problems, confirmation in human studies, and reasons for excluding rumination and worry from the analysis are discussed.
Anxiety and personality
Authors: McNaughton Neil , Gray Jeffrey A.
Published: May 2024

‘Anxiety and personality’ links the anxiolytic-derived state neuropsychology of the previous chapters to personality traits. Traits are seen as sensitivities of structures, goal control systems, and more global modulators of the systems. It lays the ground work for seeing psychiatric disorders as resulting from one or more extreme sensitivities. While the main focus is anxiety, it also discusses the implications of the neuropsychology for Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST) with additional comment on the Big 5. It reviews issues arising from word meanings, evolution, the need for biomarkers, hierarchical organization, continuity versus discontinuity of disorders and provides recommendation for the application of neuropsychology to personality work, throughout. It distinguishes neuroticism from trait anxiety, provides a new dopaminergic neurology for reinforcement sensitivity, strongly distinguishes reinforcement from reinforcers, discusses the first anxiety disorder biomarker, identifies problems with existing RST scales, and discusses future neural solutions.
Coda
Authors: McNaughton Neil , Gray Jeffrey A.
Published: May 2024

This coda provides a global conceptual summary of the data explosion of the last 20 years, our conceptual expansion to meet this, the idea that personality can provide a source of conceptual unity, and the role of cognitive bias and its interaction with disorder-specific systems and sensitivities. The data explosion has necessitated the addition of 33 supporting published reviews to the original 10 Appendices. Our conceptual expansion has involved the inclusion of additive arousal/attention circuits to our previous subtractive decision ones; and separation of ‘reward’ into its gain and attraction components (similarly for ‘punishment’). The theoretical treatment of personality is not only expanded but intertwined with our treatment of psychiatric disorder; and the interlinking of cognitive and neural approaches is emphasized. Our final conclusion is that, as with previous editions, this is a work in progress.
Corporate Groups in Rescue
Authors: Janger Edward J.
Published: May 2024

This chapter provides an overview of corporate groups in insolvency. It explains the ways and reasons that corporate groups may structure the relationships among their various entities from different industries and types of companies. From the perspective of a debtor or creditor, the key feature of the group structure is that each group member is treated as a discrete juridic person, with its own assets and liabilities. Additionally, group structure implicates aspects of contract law, property law, and corporate law, while the interactions among non-bankruptcyinsolvency areas of law also affect the treatment of groups in bankruptcy. The chapter discusses the allocation of group value in rescue and the administration of global restructuring in line with cross-border issues.
Aspects of Labour Law
Authors: Piñeiro Laura Carballo
Published: May 2024

This chapter discusses the aspects of labour law. It cites that workers’ rights are mainly addressed from a creditors’ rights perspective in insolvency law. Employment contracts and relationships are subject to the powers granted to the insolvency practitioner (IP) or the debtor in possession (DIP) to terminate or modify them with a view to achieving the insolvency objectives. The chapter elaborates on worker entitlements and priority of payment, which includes the key concepts of pension claims and worker claims. It then provides an overview of comparative law approaches to worker entitlements’ protection that depend on the combination of wage protection mechanisms.
Conclusion
Authors: Katsirea Irini
Published: May 2024

Convergence has been traditionally committed to neoliberal ideals, aligned with the press’s archetypal conception as a free-market medium, hostile to state intervention and subordinate to market forces. In recent times, concern about the online circulation of content that could harm individuals and society at large, has triggered a regulatory turn. National governments have been increasingly striving to develop policies to render online platforms more accountable to the public interest. The shift from platform self-regulation to nation-state and supranational regulation has created a new paradigm also for the field of online news media, posing a risk that the totality of the electronic news media might be seen as vectors of the same harms that beset the internet at large. Convergence is not an inevitable process engendered by technological forces, but is conditioned by socioeconomic and political imperatives. The search for a regulatory model for the online press is influenced as much by analogies from the past as by the newly prevalent culture of control. The debate between press freedom and regulation is polarized and entrenched. The desideratum is the development of collision norms that are conducive to the creation of a democratic online environment.
Italy's Christian Democracy
Authors: Forlenza Rosario , Thomassen Bjørn
Published: May 2024

This book is the first comprehensive study of Italian Christian Democracy in English. By unraveling the encounter between Catholicism and democracy from pre-unification Italy in the eighteenth century to the present, the book puts into historical perspective the triumphant emergence of the Christian Democratic political party that ruled Italy from 1948 to 1994. With a focus on critical moments of modern Italian history—the Enlightenment and French Revolution, the Risorgimento, World War I, the Fascist period, World War II, the post-war Republic—the book shows the often dramatic ways in which Catholic thinkers, from laymen to popes, sought to direct democratic thought and practice in line with Catholic ethics. The historical narrative presented demonstrates how a Catholic approach to democracy emerged as a significant alternative to both Fascism and Socialism, liberalism and conservativism. The book contributes to existing scholarship by taking seriously the religious and spiritual impulse behind Christian democratic thought. While zooming in on the Italian case, the argument presented therefore also invites a broader theoretical debate on the relationship between religion and politics. The analysis offered is of particular relevance to the contemporary political scene, marked by the increasing use of religion in political and public discourse, as recently appropriated by new populist parties and movements—in Italy and beyond.
Democratizing from Below
Authors: Forlenza Rosario , Thomassen Bjørn
Published: May 2024

This chapter deals with the relationship between church, state, and society in the period from Unification to the early 1900s. The period was marked by a constant culture war between ecclesiastical and anti-ecclesiastical attitudes and positions, in Italy and Europe. At the same time, the period saw an opening from within the church allowing for new types of social and political engagements. In this context, the chapter zooms in on the consequences of Pope Leo XIII’s encyclical Rerum novarum (1891), which had an enormous impact on social, cultural, and political matters and which made the church a decisively more active player in the wider modernization processes that characterized the period. The chapter also evidences how Rerum novarum was not simply a top-down change of attitude coming from the Holy See, but in many ways reflected an orientation toward this-worldly matters that was already visible among Catholic milieus in Italy and beyond.
Consolidating Democracy
Authors: Forlenza Rosario , Thomassen Bjørn
Published: May 2024

This chapter focuses on the consolidation of Christian Democracy between the late 1940s and the late 1960s and on the series of socio-economic reforms that Christian Democrats implemented in the late 1940s and early 1950s. The chapter also examines how after the death of De Gasperi, Amintore Fanfani and Aldo Moro worked to create a party less dependent on the Vatican’s organizational support, moving toward a governmental alliance with the Socialists. Finally, the chapter also deals with the consequences of the Second Vatican Council (1962–5) on Italian politics in general and on Catholic political culture in specific.
Conclusion
Authors: Forlenza Rosario , Thomassen Bjørn
Published: May 2024

The conclusion summarizes the perspectives gained and restates the conceptual position developed throughout the book. The conclusion also ends by indicating the broader relevance of the Italian case for global currents and tendencies. In particular, the chapter returns to the challenge of “populist” politics. Seen in a global perspective, Christian Democracy has become much less influential and much less coherent in the last decades. At the same time, more and more movements and political parties in all of Europe and beyond—typically right-wing or far-right parties—explicitly refer to Christianity and to the defense of Christian Europe to articulate their political platforms, often in an anti-liberal key. The mainstream literature on populism interprets the use of religion in a purely instrumentalist key. It is argued that such an instrumentalist stance does not really suffice to grasp the resilience of religion in politics and why religious narratives and symbolisms resonate through multiple constituencies in Italy’s (and Europe’s) social fabric, fostering the appeal and success of the League and other right-wing movements and party politics.
Fair and Equitable Benefit-sharing in International Law
Authors: Morgera Elisa
Published: May 2024

Fair and equitable benefit-sharing is a diffuse legal phenomenon in international law that remains perplexing with regard to its general nature, extent, content, and implications. The continued proliferation of benefit-sharing clauses in international law can in effect be explained by its intuitive appeal as an optimistic frame. In principle, it serves to recognize, encourage, and reward in innovative ways sustainable human relations with the environment, by focusing on equity issues arising from the most intractable challenges of our time (biodiversity loss, climate change, poverty, global epidemics). Empirical evidence, however, indicates that in practice benefit-sharing rarely achieves its stated fairness and equity objectives, and actually ends up entrenching or worsening inequitable relationships, with little or no benefit for the environment. Instead of focusing on fair and equitable benefit-sharing in specific areas of international law separately, this book assesses the phenomenon both from a general international law perspective and through a comparative analysis across international environmental law, international human rights law, international health law, and the law of the sea. This analysis reveals an opportunity to advance the interpretation and practice of fairness and equity in benefit-sharing through a mutually supportive interpretation of international biodiversity law and international human rights law.
Inter-State Benefit-Sharing from Access to Genetic Resources
Authors: Morgera Elisa
Published: May 2024

This chapter focuses on the complex, evolving, and incompletely theorized global regime on access to genetic resources and fair and equitable benefit-sharing (ABS). It analyses the current state of development and implementation challenges of benefit-sharing under the Nagoya Protocol to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). It compares bilateral and multilateral benefit-sharing approaches under the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, the World Health Organization’s Pandemic Influenza Preparedness Framework, and the Agreement on marine biodiversity of areas beyond national jurisdiction. The chapter proposes an evolutive interpretation of benefit-sharing obligations in each regime based on the understanding that deeper inter-State cooperation is essential for maximizing global benefits. It reveals the shift required from predominantly transactional views to equity-based interpretations in international ABS regimes, which will support their effectiveness in preventing further biodiversity loss and its impacts on human rights.
Transnational Dimensions of Intra-State Benefit-Sharing
Authors: Morgera Elisa
Published: May 2024

This chapter analyses how international standards on fair and equitable benefit-sharing are part of due diligence standards for business responsibility to respect human rights. This is transnational benefit-sharing, as it often involves multinational companies that are protected by international investment law. These standards have been developed under the aegis of the United Nations, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), and the International Finance Corporation (IFC) of the World Bank. They relate to private sector-driven extractives and conservation in or near lands traditionally used by Indigenous peoples and local communities. The chapter reflects on the ongoing evolution of international law concerning private sector involvement in upholding international standards on human rights and the environment. It discusses the extent to which references to fair and equitable benefit-sharing in this context reveal the delicate balance between obligations placed on public authorities and the expectations placed on private business entities.
Chasing Success
Authors: Jenni Peter , Virdee Tejinder S. , Pontecorvo Ludovico , Liyanage Shantha
Published: May 2024

This chapter tells untold stories of how and why big experiments and large-scale collaborations get conceived, supported, and executed. The personal experiences and insights of leading scientists of the A Toroidal LHC Apparatus (ATLAS) and Compact Muon Solenoid (CMS), two general-purpose detectors, are narrated to provide the inside stories of these detectors. Both technological and scientific experimental challenges are discussed to demonstrate the complexity and how these detectors developed managing the world-wide collaboration of several thousand researchers over more than 30 years. ATLAS and CMS offer complementary and independent verification of the discovery of the Higgs boson. The chapter illustrates the need for innovations in many areas of instrumentation and how electronics, superconducting magnets, data analysis software, and engineering technologies are designed and developed, solving complex issues to enable the making of precise measurements. Not only technological but also human factors are shown to be essential for the success of the experiments.
A Machine with Endless Frontiers
Authors: Evans Lyn , Bordry Frédérick , Liyanage Shantha
Published: May 2024

Chapter 3 outlines the complexity of designing, commissioning, and deployment of one of the world’s most advanced engineering pieces of work. The LHC machine is one of a kind—a giant engineering structure seated below 50–175 metres (average 100 metres) underground with 27-km circumference. The LHC was designed with precision accuracy capable of operating in a high-energy environment necessary to test theoretical and experimental physics. The lead scientists who were responsible for the LHC describe their journey and how this complex machine was put together and the various technological and engineering challenges they met. The authors explain the importance of extensive R&D work, the relationship with industry and, last but not least, the extensive collaborative teamwork necessary for the successful commissioning of the machine. The incident which occurred in September 2008 is also discussed to show how to solve unexpected problems in engineering design and development. The authors also narrate the continuous and important iterations necessary for future accelerator designers and developers to be aware of pitfalls and opportunities.