bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Producing Islamic Fun: Hizbullah, Fadlallah, and the Entrepreneurs
Authors: Deeb Lara , Harb Mona
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses the three types of major players—political, religious, and economic—involved in producing and controlling leisure sites in south Beirut. All three types of players are conceiving leisure spaces, and to varying extents, feel responsible for ensuring that their customers abide by particular moral norms. On the political front, the Hizbullah plays a wide variety of roles in creating leisure for the Islamic milieu, ranging from directly producing sites to co-opting existing sites to, most commonly, facilitating and supporting private entrepreneurs who abide by what are perceived to be appropriate moral standards. On the religious front, the importance of following a marja' (religious scholar), and indeed even knowledge of the term and institution, has increased considerably since the 1980s. On the economic front, leisure in south Beirut is predominantly a private sector phenomenon. Almost all the cafés and restaurants are owned and managed by private and independent entrepreneurs, often in partnership ventures.
Comforting Territory, New Urban Experiences, and the Moral City
Authors: Deeb Lara , Harb Mona
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers the ways in which pious Shi'i Muslims navigate and inhabit moral leisure places in different parts of the city. It argues that new moral leisure geographies are changing pious people's spatial experiences both within Dahiya and between Dahiya and Beirut. It begins with those who feel more comfortable remaining within their neighborhoods, and how this preference confines and territorially limits their spatial and leisure experiences. It then examines the urban experiences of those who prefer to venture outside the familiar to inhabit other city spaces that share their moral norms. Next, it shows how moral leisure facilitates new urban experiences in Dahiya and Beirut by promoting street life as well as public interactions. It concludes with reflections about how the city is being reshaped by the spatial practices of youths living moral leisure.
Some Problems of Unlikely Intersections in Arithmetic and Geometry (AM-181)
Authors: Zannier Umberto , Masser David
Published: November 2017

This book considers the so-called unlikely intersections, a topic that embraces well-known issues, such as Lang's and Manin–Mumford's, concerning torsion points in subvarieties of tori or abelian varieties. More generally, the book considers algebraic subgroups that meet a given subvariety in a set of unlikely dimension. The book is an expansion of the Hermann Weyl Lectures delivered by the author at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton in May 2010.The book consists of four chapters and seven brief appendixes. The first chapter considers multiplicative algebraic groups, presenting proofs of several developments, ranging from the origins to recent results, and discussing many applications and relations with other contexts. The second chapter considers an analogue in arithmetic and several applications of this. The third chapter introduces a new method for approaching some of these questions, and presents a detailed application of this to a relative case of the Manin–Mumford issue. The fourth chapter focuses on the André–Oort conjecture (outlining work by Pila).
The Earth’s Climate System
Authors: Haigh Joanna D. , Cargill Peter
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on solar radiation and its interaction with the terrestrial atmosphere in the context of the Earth's radiation budget and radiative forcing of climate, as well as its direct impact on atmospheric composition and temperature. The composition, temperature, and motion of Earth's atmosphere are determined by internal chemical and physical processes as well as by complex interactions with other parts of the climate system—notably the oceans, cryosphere and biosphere. On a global and annual average the solar energy absorbed by the Earth is balanced by thermal infrared radiation emitted to space. However, solar radiation absorption has a strong latitudinal variation, while the outgoing infrared radiation has only a weak latitudinal dependence. Thus there is a net surplus of radiative energy at low latitudes and a deficit at high latitudes.
The Sun
Authors: Haigh Joanna D. , Cargill Peter
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses how there are four general factors that contribute to the Sun's potential role in variations in the Earth's climate. First, the fusion processes in the solar core determine the solar luminosity and hence the base level of radiation impinging on the Earth. Second, the presence of the solar magnetic field leads to radiation at ultraviolet (UV), extreme ultraviolet (EUV), and X-ray wavelengths which can affect certain layers of the atmosphere. Third, the variability of the magnetic field over a 22-year cycle leads to significant changes in the radiative output at some wavelengths. Finally, the interplanetary manifestation of the outer solar atmosphere (the solar wind) interacts with the terrestrial magnetic field, leading to effects commonly called space weather.
Solar Signals in Surface Climate
Authors: Haigh Joanna D. , Cargill Peter
Published: November 2017

This chapter looks at how the Sun varies in terms of its emissions of radiation and particles and how these changes might be associated with variations in weather and climate on Earth. Investigations of climate variability and climate change depend crucially on the existence, length, and quality of meteorological records. Ideally, records would consist of long time series of measurements made by well-calibrated instruments densely situated across the globe. For longer periods, and in remote regions, records have to be reconstructed from indirect indicators of climate known as proxy data. The chapter introduces one well-established technique for providing proxy climate data: dendrochronology, or the study of the successive annual growth rings of trees.
Invariance principles
Authors: Goebel Rafal , Sanfelice Ricardo G. , Teel Andrew R.
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses invariance principles, which characterize the sets to which precompact solutions to a dynamical system must converge. They rely on invariance properties of ω‎-limit sets of solutions, and additionally on Lyapunov-like functions, which do not increase along solutions, or output functions. Invariance principles which rely on Lyapunov-like functions are first presented, and their applications to the analysis of asymptotic stability are then described. The chapter next states an invariance principle involving not a Lyapunov-like function, but an output function having a certain property not along all solutions, but only along the solution whose behavior is being analyzed. Finally, the chapter presents invariance principles for switching systems with dwell-time switching signals modeled as hybrid systems.
Conical approximation and asymptotic stability
Authors: Goebel Rafal , Sanfelice Ricardo G. , Teel Andrew R.
Published: November 2017

This chapter presents a technique of approximating a hybrid system with a conical hybrid system: a system with conical flow and jump sets and with constant or linear flow and jump maps. The main result here deduces pre-asymptotic stability for the original system from pre-asymptotic stability for the conical approximation. This result generalizes, to a hybrid system, the result that asymptotic stability for the linearization of a differential equation implies asymptotic stability for the differential equation. In many cases, the analysis of the conical approximation is simpler than of the original hybrid system; this is illustrated in several examples later in the chapter.
God and David
Authors: Schäfer Peter
Published: November 2017

This chapter deals with an exegesis of Daniel 7:9, found only in the Babylonian Talmud, which boldly assigns the Messiah–King David a throne in heaven, next to that of God. This presents a clear evidence that certain rabbis felt attracted to the idea of a second divine figure, enjoying equal rights with God. The angry rejection of this idea by other rabbis demonstrates that such “heretical” ideas gained a foothold within the rabbinic fold of Babylonian Jewry. The Bavli's Daniel exegesis finds its counterpart in the David Apocalypse, which gives an elaborate description of the elevated David and his worship in heaven. This unique piece is structurally similar to the elevation of the Lamb (that is, Jesus Christ) in the New Testament Book of Revelation and can be interpreted as a response to the New Testament.
The Suffering Messiah Ephraim
Authors: Schäfer Peter
Published: November 2017

This concluding chapter focuses on the seemingly traditional task of the Messiah as the redeemer of Israel at the end of time. It looks at the idea of the suffering Messiah that evolved from the suffering servant in Isaiah, which was in turn adopted by the New Testament and expanded to include the notion of the Messiah's vicarious expiatory suffering—and was therefore completely ignored by the rabbis. This idea returns in a series of midrashim, in which a Messiah named Ephraim appears of whom God demands that he take upon himself the sins of the people of Israel; only after the Messiah accepts this strange request does God agree to create humankind. Hence, it is ultimately the Messiah's expiatory suffering that guarantees creation and redemption.
Actors and Positions on the Reform of the Treaty of Nice
Authors: König Thomas , Finke Daniel
Published: November 2017

This chapter describes the positions of a diverse set of actors relevant to the analysis of the multistage reform process, which began in autumn 2003 and resulted in the Treaty of Lisbon in autumn 2009. These include decision makers who actively shaped either the outcome or the decision-making process and the veto players who defined the set of feasible reforms. Using the issue-specific preferences of political leaders on sixty-five reform topics, the chapter identifies a two-dimensional space with one contested dimension on the expansion of the EU's jurisdiction and a second on the reform of institutional rules. Drawing on various data sets, it locates other domestic actors within this reform space. These positions are the starting point for the subsequent analysis of the decisions of political leaders to announce popular votes, to delegate bargaining power, and to perform their agenda-setting tasks in finding compromise solutions.
Why (Unpopular) Leaders Announce Popular Votes
Authors: König Thomas , Finke Daniel
Published: November 2017

This chapter focuses on political leaders' responses to the European Convention's proposal of revising the Treaty of Nice via the Treaty Establishing a Constitution for Europe in spring 2003. To understand the announcements of popular votes by political leaders, it investigates their choice of ratification paths from a strategic perspective, which considers the interactions among political leaders, political parties in the domestic parliaments, and voters. It argues that when choosing a ratification path, political leaders attempted to anticipate the reactions of parliaments and voters. The empirical analysis reveals that these leaders not only considered their expected gains from each ratification path—that is, their gains from the revision of the Treaty of Nice and the likelihood for successful ratification—but also recognized the strategic implications of a referendum announcement for both European and domestic politics.
Secrets and Self-Reinvention: The Making of Cold War Liberalism
Authors: Storrs Landon R. Y.
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores the disloyalty allegations against the Keyserlings. Over the long course of their loyalty investigations, the Keyserlings portrayed themselves as having been political centrists during the 1930s, when in fact they had been decidedly on the left. The Keyserlings are remembered as loyal Johnson Democrats who favored Cold War military spending, backed U.S. policy in Vietnam, and argued that poverty could be eliminated through economic growth rather than redistribution. Before coming under investigation, however, they were socialists. Faced with a relentless stream of disloyalty allegations that began in the 1940s and climaxed in 1952, they were forced to modify their political rhetoric and moderate their policy proposals. They also denied they ever had held leftist views. Conservatives may have lost the battle to exclude the Keyserlings from public influence, but by narrowing the range of permissible debate, they won the war.
Archives of Authority
Authors: Rubin Andrew N.
Published: November 2017

Combining literary, cultural, and political history, and based on extensive archival research, including previously unseen FBI and CIA documents, this book argues that cultural politics—specifically America's often covert patronage of the arts—played a highly important role in the transfer of imperial authority from Britain to the United States during a critical period after World War II. The book argues that this transfer reshaped the postwar literary space and shows how, during this time, new and efficient modes of cultural transmission, replication, and travel—such as radio and rapidly and globally circulated journals—completely transformed the position occupied by the postwar writer and the role of world literature. The book demonstrates that the nearly instantaneous translation of texts by George Orwell, Thomas Mann, W. H. Auden, Richard Wright, Mary McCarthy, and Albert Camus, among others, into interrelated journals that were sponsored by organizations such as the CIA's Congress for Cultural Freedom and circulated around the world effectively reshaped writers, critics, and intellectuals into easily recognizable, transnational figures. Their work formed a new canon of world literature that was celebrated in the United States and supposedly represented the best of contemporary thought, while less politically attractive authors were ignored or even demonized. This championing and demonizing of writers occurred in the name of anti-Communism—the new, transatlantic “civilizing mission” through which postwar cultural and literary authority emerged.
Transnational Literary Spaces at War
Authors: Rubin Andrew N.
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores the new rhythms of movement in which the relationship between national identity and humanistic practice was renegotiated. It first describes how the United States and Britain asserted their domination by reterritorializing the entire geography of postcolonial space. From here, the chapter looks at how technology has enabled magazines to not only reproduce but “synchronically” replicate their content. Moreover, the chapter examines the relationship between the writer and public during the postcolonial era, which underwent further transformations that would decisively expand and constrain cultural space. Finally, the chapter looks at how critics, novelists, and poets were recruited, mobilized, and exported in a historically decisive way that altered the situation of the transnational postwar writer and their public, as well as the effects thereof.
The Ethics of Voting
Authors: Brennan Jason
Published: November 2017

Nothing is more integral to democracy than voting. Most people believe that every citizen has the civic duty or moral obligation to vote, that any sincere vote is morally acceptable, and that buying, selling, or trading votes is inherently wrong. This book challenges our fundamental assumptions about voting, revealing why it is not a duty for most citizens—in fact, it argues, many people owe it to the rest of us not to vote. Bad choices at the polls can result in unjust laws, needless wars, and calamitous economic policies. The book shows why voters have duties to make informed decisions in the voting booth, to base their decisions on sound evidence for what will create the best possible policies, and to promote the common good rather than their own self-interest. They must vote well—or not vote at all. This book explains why voting is not necessarily the best way for citizens to exercise their civic duty, and why some citizens need to stay away from the polls to protect the democratic process from their uninformed, irrational, or immoral votes. In a democracy, every citizen has the right to vote. This book reveals why sometimes it's best if they don't. In a new afterword, “How to Vote Well,” the book provides a practical guidebook for making well-informed, well-reasoned choices at the polls.
Arguments for a Duty to Vote
Authors: Brennan Jason
Published: November 2017

This chapter outlines three arguments on behalf of a duty to vote: the Agency Argument, the Public Goods Argument, and the Civic Virtue Argument. The Agency Argument held that citizens should bear some causal responsibility in helping to produce and maintain a just social order with adequate levels of welfare. The Agency Argument asserts that voting is necessary to do this. The Public Goods Argument holds that nonvoters unfairly free-ride on the provision of good governance. Failing to vote is like failing to pay taxes—it places a differential burden on others who do the hard work of providing good government. Meanwhile, the Civic Virtue Argument holds that voting is an essential way to exercise civic virtue, and civic virtue is an important moral virtue.
How Well Do Voters Behave?
Authors: Brennan Jason
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines some relevant social-scientific literature that suggests that voters and citizens are often ignorant, irrational, and systematically in error in their political beliefs. Though voters tend to vote for what they believe serves the nation's interests, this does not imply that they are justified in these beliefs or that their beliefs are true. Voters intend to promote the national interest, but that does not imply that they in fact do so. Good intentions are not enough to make good policy. Voters might not know what they are doing. It may turn out that some or many of them are mistaken about what promotes the national interest. If so, then their altruistic intentions do not benefit anyone.
The Prisoner’s Dilemma
Authors: Brennan Jason
Published: November 2017

THE PRISONER’S dilemma game gets its name from a hypothetical story in which two suspects are given the opportunity to stay silent or rat on one another. In the abstract, the game works as follows. There are two players, each of whom has two moves, ...
Pericles of Athens
Authors: Azoulay Vincent , Cartledge Paul
Published: November 2017

Pericles has had the rare distinction of giving his name to an entire period of history, embodying what has often been taken as the golden age of the ancient Greek world. “Periclean” Athens witnessed tumultuous political and military events, and achievements of the highest order in philosophy, drama, poetry, oratory, and architecture. This is the first book in more than two decades to reassess the life and legacy of one of the greatest generals, orators, and statesmen of the classical world. It provides an unforgettable portrait of Pericles and his turbulent era, shedding light on his powerful family, his patronage of the arts, and his unrivaled influence on Athenian politics and culture. It takes a fresh look at both the classical and modern reception of Pericles, recognizing his achievements as well as his failings while deftly avoiding the adulatory or hypercritical positions staked out by some scholars today. From Thucydides and Plutarch to Voltaire and Hegel, ancient and modern authors have questioned the great statesman's relationship with democracy and Athenian society. Did Pericles hold supreme power over willing masses or was he just a gifted representative of popular aspirations? Was Periclean Athens a democracy in name only, as Thucydides suggests? This is the enigma that the book investigates. In doing so the book offers a balanced look at the complex life and afterlife of the legendary “first citizen of Athens” who presided over the birth of democracy.
An Ordinary Young Athenian Aristocrat?
Authors: Azoulay Vincent
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores the genealogical, economic, and cultural trump cards that were held by the young Pericles at the point when he stealthily embarked upon his political career. At the time of Pericles' birth, there was no “aristocracy” in Athens in the sense of a system in which hereditary power was held by a few great families. The chapter first provides a background on Pericles' ancestry before discussing the rumors surrounding the fortune of his maternal family, the Alcmaeonids. It then considers Pericles' education and his gradual entry into political life. In particular, it examines Pericles' decision to volunteer as a khorēgos, along with his involvement in the lawsuit against the general Cimon. The chapter concludes with an analysis of the political reforms adopted by Athenians at the instigation of Ephialtes.
Pericles and Athenian Imperialism
Authors: Azoulay Vincent
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines the role that Pericles played in the establishment of Athenian imperialism. It asks whether Pericles tried to check the imperial dynamic or whether he acted as its catalyst, and whether it is possible to speak already of Athenian imperialism at the time when Pericles was exercising a decisive influence on the destiny of the city. The discussion begins with an analysis of Pericles' role in the Delian League's development and its transformation into an empire. The chapter then considers Pericles' cruelty in crushing the revolts of the allied cities, as is shown by the expulsion of the Aeginetans during the Peloponnesian War in 431. It also explores Pericles' efforts to lend legitimacy to the power of Athens by means of monuments that gave material expression to the city's new imperial status, the most famous of which was the Parthenon.
The Individual and Democracy: The Place of the “Great Man”
Authors: Azoulay Vincent
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines Pericles' impact on Athenian democracy, and more specifically whether the stratēgos was an all-powerful figure or an evanescent one, and how his actions interacted with the will of the people. It begins with a discussion of what was perceived by his opponents as Pericles' link to the tyrants of Athens. It then explores Pericles' role in the great building projects that included monuments, along with the ways that comic poetry fulfilled a function of social control over the members of the Athenian elite. It suggests that the notion of a Periclean monarchy is just a myth. Far from ruling Athens as a monarch, Pericles, the “great man,” lived constantly under tension in a context in which the power of the dēmos was relentlessly increasing.
The Supervisory System of Confucian Constitutionalism
Authors: Qing Jiang
Published: November 2017

This chapter proposes another institution—the Academy—that is meant to further restrain the power of parliamentarians. In Western constitutionalism, power is limited by means of rights. In Confucian constitutionalism, power is limited primarily by means of morality. The chapter explicitly invokes the seventeenth-century Confucian scholar Huang Zongxi's proposal for an Academy composed of scholar-officials who could question the emperor and appraise and adjudicate the rights and wrongs of his policies. It is careful to note that the Academy supervises, but does not run the state. Subordinate bodies exercise their own authority according to the principle of balance of powers and independence. The Academy does not interfere in these operations and hence its maintenance of religion and morality is different from that of a Taliban-style theocracy.
Paper Stones
Authors: Beerbohm Eric
Published: November 2017

This chapter proposes an ethics of participation for unjust political environments. It develops the idea of democracy as shared liability to address the problem of marginality and redundancy in electoral settings. It argues that it is a mistake to conceive of a citizen as aiming to swing an election with his/her votes alone, because this relies on unnecessarily contentious theories of causation, action, and intention. The key is to expose the metaphysical commitments so that we can defend instances of participation in which citizens do make a difference by their individual votes and through the joint action they perform with those who share their political convictions. The chapter runs an argument from complicity, which is premised on the actual institutional role of the citizen: we have a defeasible moral reason to participate in elections where citizens can make a causal contribution against injustice.
Conclusion
Authors: Beerbohm Eric
Published: November 2017

This book concludes by considering the slogan that the democratic state acts in the name of citizens, arguing that there is a downside of this “naming.” It critiques this claim in relation to the negative space of injustice and the sanguine potential of democratic citizenship. It also examines the upside of living under a democratic state that credibly acts on citizens' behalf, along with the preliminary ingredients for an account of democratic patriotism. Finally, it discusses the idea of pride in the actions of one's country/representatives and compares it with two approaches to patriotism: the first treats the attitude as crudely associative and the second identifies patriotism as an attitude not directed at one's state or fellow citizens but as a pro-attitude toward a set of abstract principles.
The Population Biology of Tuberculosis
Authors: Dye Christopher
Published: November 2017

Despite decades of developments in immunization and drug therapy, tuberculosis remains one of the leading causes of human mortality, and no country has successfully eradicated the disease. Reenvisioning TB from the perspective of population biology, this book examines why the disease is so persistent and what must be done to fight it. Treating TB and its human hosts as dynamic, interacting populations, the book seeks new answers to key questions by drawing on demography, ecology, epidemiology, evolution, and population genetics. It uses simple mathematical models to investigate how cases and deaths could be reduced, and how interventions could lead to TB elimination. It reveals a striking gap between the actual and potential impact of current interventions, especially drug treatment, and suggests placing more emphasis on early case detection and the treatment of active or incipient TB. The book argues that the response to disappointingly slow rates of disease decline is not to abandon long-established principles of chemotherapy, but to implement them with greater vigor. Summarizing epidemiological insights from population biology, the book stresses the need to take a more inclusive view of the factors that affect disease, including characteristics of the pathogen, individuals and populations, health care systems, and physical and social environments. In broadening the horizons of TB research, the book demonstrates what must be done to prevent, control, and defeat this global threat in the twenty-first century.
Introduction
Authors: McLean Ian W.
Published: November 2017

This introductory chapter provides an inquiry into why Australia is rich—which adopts a historical approach because the roots of prosperity are embedded in the past. The levels of income observed in the currently rich economies are in every case the result of very long-run processes. Economies do not move rapidly from poverty and backwardness to advanced industrial status and concomitant prosperity despite the achievements of some being described as “economic miracles.” Even with the impressive growth rates recently recorded in a number of poor countries such as India and China, attaining incomes comparable to the rich countries takes many decades. The need for a historical perspective arises also because any persuasive explanation for Australia's current high-income status must highlight long-established features of its economy and society.
Depression, Drought, and Federation
Authors: McLean Ian W.
Published: November 2017

This chapter talks about negative shocks from internal imbalance, external factors, and drought wrought havoc with the economy for more than a decade. Against this background of a major threat to prosperity, important changes occurred in the institutional framework with the federation of the Australian colonies in 1901. Though some recovery in economic fortunes occurred before the outbreak of war, it was short-lived. Per capita real GDP fell by 22 percent by 1895 and did not regain its 1889 peak for a full two decades. The approach adopted here includes a comparative perspective on Australians' reduced levels of prosperity between 1890 and 1914. Australia recorded the highest per capita income in the world for some period prior to the 1890s. The chapter shows how this achievement has never been repeated.
A Succession of Negative Shocks
Authors: McLean Ian W.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines how the First World War seriously disrupted the economy, and was to be but the first of a succession of adverse external influences on national prosperity lasting a quarter of a century. The breakdown of the international economic order beginning in the 1920s and culminating in the world depression of the 1930s posed major challenges to Australia. These external shocks emanated from the drastically changed international economic environment Australia faced in the three decades after 1914. Prosperity was also dependent on continued foreign investment to augment domestic savings and hence growth. The principal policy response to this sequence of negative shocks was to promote industrialization behind rising levels of protection and accompanied by more centralized and regulated modes of wage determination.
When Is True Belief Knowledge?
Authors: Foley Richard
Published: November 2017

A woman glances at a broken clock and comes to believe it is a quarter past seven. Yet, despite the broken clock, it really does happen to be a quarter past seven. Her belief is true, but it isn't knowledge. This is a classic illustration of a central problem in epistemology: determining what knowledge requires in addition to true belief. This book finds a new solution to the problem in the observation that whenever someone has a true belief but not knowledge, there is some significant aspect of the situation about which she lacks true beliefs—something important that she doesn't quite “get.” This may seem a modest point but, as the book shows, it has the potential to reorient the theory of knowledge. Whether a true belief counts as knowledge depends on the importance of the information one does or doesn't have. This means that questions of knowledge cannot be separated from questions about human concerns and values. It also means that, contrary to what is often thought, there is no privileged way of coming to know. Knowledge is a mutt. Proper pedigree is not required. What matters is that one doesn't lack important nearby information. Challenging some of the central assumptions of contemporary epistemology, this is an original and important account of knowledge.
An Observation
Authors: Foley Richard
Published: November 2017

This chapter introduces a new way of thinking about knowledge and how it reorients the theory of knowledge. It first introduces the classic philosophical example of a broken clock to illustrate the potential connections between belief and knowledge. From here, the chapter begins with the assumption that having information is a matter of having true beliefs. It then lays out the definitions for knowledge and information and how they relate with the concepts of truth and belief by using another illustrative example: this time of a red ball found in a hallway. Finally, the chapter concludes that whether a true belief counts as knowledge hinges on the importance of the information one has and lacks.
Post-Gettier Accounts of Knowledge
Authors: Foley Richard
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers accounts of identifying what has to be added to true belief in order to get knowledge. One tradition says that what is needed is something like an argument in defense of the belief, a justification to use the term of art. But the chapter looks further, by examining those arguments made after Edmund Gettier's influential 1963 article, which illustrated that justification on its own is not enough. Thus the chapter considers what has to be added to justified true belief in order to get knowledge. Many proposals attempting to address this assume that what needs to be added to true belief in order to get knowledge is something related to true belief but distinct from it. In contrast, this chapter suggests that whenever an individual S has a true belief P but does not know P, then S lacks important information.
The Value of Knowledge
Authors: Foley Richard
Published: November 2017

This chapter turns to the value of knowledge. If the primary aim of inquiry is the acquisition of true beliefs, where does this leave knowledge? Is not it more valuable than mere true belief? The chapter considers why this is so, and asks that if knowledge is really more valuable than true belief, should it rather than true belief be the primary aim of inquiry. On some accounts of knowledge, it is surprisingly difficult to deal with such questions. This chapter introduces an approach to address these issues, and goes on to explain that it is more important to have true beliefs about some issues than others, and that the standards of importance are not solely intellectual.
Reverse Lottery Stories
Authors: Foley Richard
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines reverse lottery stories, which focus on the fortunate holder of the winning lottery ticket. It searches for the important gaps in the information of the subject S as she believes herself to have possessed the winning ticket despite having no sources of information confirming this fact. Nonetheless, she is correct, and is in possession of a true belief. The chapter further expands on this story to reveal even more gaps in information, and also reintroduces another subject of a story from one of the earlier chapters. Finally, the chapter brings up the concept of knowledge blocks to further complicate the reverse lottery stories.
Lucky Knowledge
Authors: Foley Richard
Published: November 2017

This chapter introduces the concept of luck in these lottery stories. To the degree there is an impression that luck is incompatible with knowledge, it arises because in everyday situations when one luckily acquires a true belief, one commonly does lack knowledge. It can be tempting to assume that the explanation for why a subject lacks knowledge in reverse lottery stories must have something to do with its being a matter of luck that S has a true belief about the winning ticket, but this is a temptation to be resisted. The chapter argues that what matters is whether her true belief is surrounded by adequate information, not whether she has been lucky.
Closure and Skepticism
Authors: Foley Richard
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers a different puzzle to the luck issue. It discusses another story and stresses that not only is knowledge not incompatible with luck, it actually requires it. It requires, in effect, the world to be kind. The inclination to think otherwise derives from a failure to distinguish global from local luck. When one has a true belief as a result of local luck, one usually does lack knowledge, but this is so because the luck is accompanied by local ignorance. The chapter then turns to address questions on closure and skepticism, which in turn are more in line with questions about justified belief rather than knowledge.
Believing That I Don’t Know
Authors: Foley Richard
Published: November 2017

This chapter explores cases in which we believe something (P) to be true but readily admit we do not know it. Beliefs outside our areas of expertise are commonly like this. In contrast to the knowledge stories of contemporary epistemology, such cases are autobiographical, fusing the roles of storyteller and subject as one. Even in such a scenario the chapter argues that there is nothing puzzling about such reports, though the chapter also looks into other accounts of knowledge which have a harder time explaining such reports. Reliability and justification theorists may be able to come up with ways of explaining why reports of the form “I believe but don't know P” are common, but the chapter argues that there is no need even to search if knowledge is understood in terms of true belief plus adequate information.
A Priori Knowledge
Authors: Foley Richard
Published: November 2017

This chapter shows how some kinds of knowledge are not readily understandable in terms of adequate information if for no other reason than they seem not to be linked with specific truths. Knowledge of people, places, and things and knowledge how are examples. A priori knowledge is sometimes thought to be a species of knowledge requiring separate treatment, but unlike knowledge how and knowledge of people, places, and things, when S knows something a priori, there is a readily identifiable truth she believes. The a priori is to be distinguished from the necessary. A proposition's being known a priori does not ensure that it is necessary, nor does a proposition's being necessary ensure that it can be known a priori.
Collective Knowledge
Authors: Foley Richard
Published: November 2017

This chapter analyzes the relationship between individual and collective knowledge, particularly in terms of the constitution of the groups that can collectively accept and, if all goes well, collectively know something. It focuses on questions surrounding relationship between collective acceptance by a group and the beliefs of the individuals making up the group, however that group is defined. Collective acceptance and individual beliefs, and hence collective knowledge and individual knowledge, are linked but not as straightforwardly as one might initially suppose. The simplest way for a claim to be collectively accepted by a group (community, society, etc.) is for enough individuals within the group to believe the claim, but collective acceptance is not always a matter of sheer numbers.
Partiality
Authors: Keller Simon
Published: November 2017

We are partial to people with whom we share special relationships—if someone is your child, parent, or friend, you wouldn't treat them as you would a stranger. But is partiality justified, and if so, why? This book presents a theory of the reasons supporting special treatment within special relationships and explores the vexing problem of how we might reconcile the moral value of these relationships with competing claims of impartial morality. The book explains that in order to understand why we give special treatment to our family and friends, we need to understand how people come to matter in their own rights. The book first presents two main accounts of partiality: the projects view, on which reasons of partiality arise from the place that people take within our lives and our commitments, and the relationships view, on which relationships themselves contain fundamental value or reason-giving force. The book then argues that neither view is satisfactory because neither captures the experience of acting well within special relationships. Instead, the book defends the individuals view, on which reasons of partiality arise from the value of the individuals with whom our relationships are shared. It defends this view by saying that we must accept that two people, whether friend or stranger, can have the same value, even as their value makes different demands upon people with whom they share different relationships. The book explores the implications of this claim within a wider understanding of morality and our relationships with groups, institutions, and countries.
The New Terrain of International Law
Authors: Alter Karen J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter explains the book's threefold goal. First, it reveals a paradigm change in creating and using international courts (ICs), leading to the creation of the new international judicial architecture. Second, the book conceptualizes how new-style ICs affect domestic and international politics across countries, courts, cases, and issues. An international court's political influence comes from its authority to say what the law means for the case at hand, its jurisdiction to name violations of international law, and its ability to specify remedies that follow from international legal violations. Finally, the book aims to create nonutopian and thus more realistic expectations for ICs. This research builds on theories developed in the study of domestic courts and uses the presence of similarly designed ICs, of cross-time design changes, and variations in the influence of the same ICs across countries.
International Courts Altering Politics
Authors: Alter Karen J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter discusses how governments use law to regulate the behavior of citizens. Powerful actors with the ability to influence government policy making can rule by law, using the legislative process and government support to promote their priorities. For individuals and groups who do not find government doors wide open, litigation can be a political means to overturn the decisions of governments. Individuals living in authoritarian countries and in countries with weak rule of law institutions generally invoke international law to circumvent blockages created by domestic institutions that are captured by governments. International law is an attractive political resource because governments do not control it. And while international courts are surely political actors, they are legal institutions comprised of judges from multiple countries with a formal mandate to apply the law.
International Administrative Review
Authors: Alter Karen J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter examines thirteen international courts (ICs) with administrative review jurisdiction and explains how delegation of administrative review authority is associated with systems where international and/or domestic administrative actors apply international regulatory rules. Whereas international dispute settlement involves a broad range of issues, administrative review tends to be concerned with economic aspects of international agreements. Eleven ICs have jurisdiction to review administrative acts of supranational administrators; eight have jurisdiction to review national implementation of international administrative rules. All ICs with designated administrative review roles have compulsory jurisdiction associated with this role and allow private actors to initiate litigation so that the subjects of administrative decision making can pursue a legal remedy. Twelve ICs also allow national judges to refer to the IC cases where community rules are at issue.
International Constitutional Review
Authors: Alter Karen J.
Published: November 2017

This chapter analyzes four additional case studies of international courts (ICs) reviewing state practices. In their constitutional review role, ICs hold international and state actors accountable to constitutional procedural and rule of law expectations, invalidating legislative acts that conflict with higher order legal requirements. Constitutional review is perhaps the most controversial IC role in that it involves ICs confronting highly legitimated actors and rejecting policies that may have been legally enacted. The discussion of constitutional review authority in action explores how local cultures of constitutional obedience condition whether IC constitutional rulings are seen as rendering unconstitutional acts null and void. However, like their domestic counterparts, ICs cannot really force governments to comply with their ruling.
Troubled Numbers
Authors: Buchwald Jed Z. , Feingold Mordechai
Published: November 2017

This chapter demonstrates how Isaac Newton’s emerging attitudes toward perception, and the very process of measurement itself, were different from those of his contemporaries. It discusses the Hooke–Hevelius controversy. In 1673, Hevelius published the first part of his Machinae coelestis, which provided verbal descriptions and elaborate plates of the naked-eye devices that he had constructed for determining stellar coordinates. The very next year Hooke took umbrage at the publication and attacked it in print in a series of Animadversions. Hooke was not only certain that naked-eye observations could not possibly match those performed with a telescope equipped with cross-hairs, and had urged Hevelius to adopt the new apparatus. Hevelius nevertheless published the Machinae, and Hooke was incensed. The chapter also details Huygens’ and Boyle’s attitudes toward perception and measurement.
Text and Testimony
Authors: Buchwald Jed Z. , Feingold Mordechai
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers the manner in which Isaac Newton handled textual evidence as he grafted his revised idiosyncratic and exceptionally focused chronology. Three sources particularly exercised Newton as he proceeded to drastically abbreviate ancient history: the Persika of Ctesias of Cnidus, the Aegyptiaca of Manetho, and the Marmor Parium—key sources for the history of, respectively, Assyria, Egypt, and Greece. Before the late 1690s, Newton rarely cited these sources; he certainly did not consider them problematic. Yet as his revised chronology took shape, he engaged critically with them, undermining as much as possible their credibility, and explaining to himself—as well as to others—his reasoning.
Interpreting Words
Authors: Buchwald Jed Z. , Feingold Mordechai
Published: November 2017

More than three decades separate Isaac Newton’s explorations of astronomical chronology and his youthful engagement with problems of perception and measurement. By the time of his first computations in the area, shortly before the publication of the Opticks, Isaac Newton’s understanding of measurement had been refined through years of experimental and computational experience, not the least of which occurred as he worked on the motions of bodies in fluids during the 1680s. The previous decade had given Newton considerable familiarity with words from the past, and he had slowly developed a highly skeptical attitude toward ancient remarks that did not have a continuous textual ancestry, or that reflected what he considered to be unreliable “poetic fancies.” Thus, aiming to produce a compelling argument grounded in computation for his new chronology, Newton faced a treacherous triple problem: he had first to argue that the words with which he worked were originally produced near the time of the Trojan War; then he had to transform these words into astronomical data; finally, he had to deploy a technique for working with what he rapidly learned was a set of extremely discrepant observations. He labored over these problems until his death. This chapter follows Newton as he transformed words and calculated.
Publication and Reaction
Authors: Buchwald Jed Z. , Feingold Mordechai
Published: November 2017

This chapter considers the events surrounding the publication of Isaac Newton’s The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms after his death in 1727. Newton’s indictment of Antonio Conti as the false friend, who had betrayed his trust by first allowing his copy of the “Short Chronology” to circulate freely and then by becoming party to its publication, has been generally accepted as accurate. In fact, Newton was not averse to publishing his chronology, nor was he concerned to keep the nature and content of his researches private. Long before Conti’s arrival in England, Newton routinely communicated to friends and acquaintances his evolving opinions regarding ancient history and theology, and no evidence exists to suggest that he imposed the condition of secrecy.