bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Growth Rates and Nitrogen and Carbohydrate Contents of Juvenile Clams, Saxidomus giganteus, Fed Three Species of Algae
Authors: Walne P. R.
Published: April 2011

Estimates were made of the increase in live and dry weights and in the content of ash, organic matter, carbohydrate (as glucose), and nitrogen when juveniles of the clam Saxidomus giganteus were fed for 21 days at various concentrations of Tetraselmis chui, Isochrysis galbana, and Phaeodactylum tricornutum. The condition index (organic weight as a percent of total dry weight) increased in all the experimental conditions with a mixture of I. galbana and T. chui, yielding a significantly higher index than either species on its own. The relative gain in glucose was greater than the increase in live weight or in nitrogen. The increase in live weight was such that the nigrogen content was approximately constant at 6–7 μgN/mg live weight irrespective of the feeding conditions. The N:glucose ratio decreased with increasing concentrations of I. galbana and P. tricornutum, and at the higher concentrations, where the maximum growth rate of clams occurred, the ratios were lower than in any of the clams fed on T. chui.
Degradation of the Lampricide 3-Trifluoromethyl-4-Nitrophenol by Bottom Sediments
Authors: Bothwell Max L. , Beeton A. M. , Lech John J.
Published: April 2011

At low oxygen tensions in sediment–water aquaria systems, concentrations of 3-trifiuoromethyl-4-nitrophenol (TFM) in the range 5–10 mg/liter were reduced to 3-trifluoromethyl-4-aminophenol (RTFM) in 5–20 days. This reduction resulted in loss of the characteristic yellow color of TFM as measured by the optical density at 395 nm. The reduced form was apparently stable, although inconclusive evidence suggested that some additional breakdown of RTFM may have occurred within 3 months under anoxic conditions. Under aerobic conditions, no significant degradation of TFM was observed for periods of up to 2.5 months. Sorption of TFM by sediments was observed to some extent and appeared to vary with the sediment source.
The Slender Eelblenny, Lumpenus fabricii, a Southern Record in Nova Scotia Waters
Authors: Rojo Alfonso
Published: April 2011

Two specimens of Lumpenus fabricii (Valenciennes) were found in the coastal waters of Nova Scotia. Their capture represents the most southerly record of the species as well as the first record for the province of Nova Scotia.
First Records of the Chinese Mitten Crab, Eriocheir sinensis, (Crustacea:Brachyura) from North America
Authors: Nepszy S. J. , Leach J. H.
Published: April 2011

Three specimens of the Chinese mitten crab, Eriocheir sinensis, were captured commercially by gillnets in Lake Erie in April and May, 1973, and one was taken from a water-intake pipe in the Detroit River in 1965. These are the first published records of this species for North America. The hazard of establishment of this catadromous crab in North America is discussed.
Keynote Address
Authors: Popper F. E.
Published: April 2011

The contribution made by Canada in providing the means for the Technical Conference was gratefully acknowledged, and the terms of reference were summarized as approved by Council of the FAO. Briefly, these are — to discuss the scientific and technical means of solving problems and reaching objectives in fisheries management and development. Significant problems that have become evident since the UN Conference in 1955 are: an urgent need for management of most of the traditionally fished stocks; decreasing rate of growth of the world fish catch in the face of increasing demand; economic interactions from greatly intensified fisheries and fishing enterprises; importance of development in relation to management. The need to take the long view in approaching these problems was emphasized, as well as the great value to be derived from recognition of existing deficiencies in organizations or methods. Universally acceptable rules for control of fisheries, and participation by all nations in supplying fisheries data essential for efficient management, are obvious requirements of high priority.
Contemporary Methods and Future Trends In Fishery Management And Development
Authors: Larkin Peter A. , Wilimovsky Norman J.
Published: April 2011

Fisheries management is best viewed as it departs from what might be called "nonmanagement" – when there are no interventions. Left unmanaged, fisheries develop to successive periods of stability that are ultimately characterized by relatively fixed techniques of harvest and a fixed total catch. The catch changes from a few preferred species to any acceptable species, and stabilizes on a few species most capable of withstanding the harvesting. Even in the simplest case of single jurisdiction fisheries for a single species efforts are largely tentative and feeble. Where management achieves the objective of regulating total catch, it is commonly accompanied by technological paralysis and economic inefficiency, unless entry into the fishery is limited. Multinational coastal fisheries add the element of reconciliation of differing social and economic goals, and over-riding considerations of national interest. The question of what constitutes a suitable management zone is troublesome and there is no simple rule of any biological significance. Pelagic fishes are particularly vulnerable to overexploitation from multinational fisheries. Anadromous species have the added element of investment in preservation of the obligatory freshwater environment. Fisheries management will increasingly be considered in the more general contexts of management of marine resources and the impacts of land use on the world’s oceans. Aquaculture gives promise of potential for fish production in strategic places. The logic of these operations seems indisputable in the long run, and they should increasingly contribute to world fish production.In broad perspective it seems likely that levels of exploitation of existing fisheries are approaching those that are maximally sustainable. There is urgency in the need to intervene successfully in the largely unmanaged fisheries of the world. The present set of devices to accomplish these ends is essentially a patchwork of agreements supported by only the most general principles of international agreement. For the future the paths are: to let the fisheries run an unmanaged course to eventual stabilization, posing risks of creating situations that may not readily be rehabilitated; to consider radical new kinds of international agreements; or to develop the present pattern of agreements more vigorously. The prospect seems to be for only limited success on the third path, with a difficult transition to more stabilized world fisheries partly a product of management and partly of nonmanagement. The development of new technologies and social attitudes could lead to different prospects for the use of the world’s living ocean resources.
Assessing Fishery Potentials of Lakes and Reservoirs
Authors: Henderson H. F. , Ryder R. A. , Kudhongania A. W.
Published: April 2011

Timeliness in estimating fishery potentials seems more important than precision, at least in the earlier periods of development of specific fisheries. Comparative studies of several sets of lakes, particularly of those supporting developing fisheries in Africa, suggest that potential yield may be related to several simple indices of production. The morphoedaphic index, derived from measures of total dissolved solids and the mean depth, has provided the simplest and most general approach to the problem of initial estimates of potential yield in lakes and reservoirs. Other methods of relating yield to nutrient concentration and primary production reinforce the concept of the dependence of potential yield on lake productivity. During the developing phase of a fishery more direct methods of estimating potential yield, through estimates of the production of the extant stocks, are also being used with some success. These have been adapted from fishery models developed for single stocks. In keeping with the need for rapid assessments during development, the simplest models have been emphasized. An equivalence between production and the product of biomass and mortality rate, along with the assumption that from 30 to 50% of the production of a stock is potentially harvestable, appears particularly useful. The problem of additivity of the potential yields of individual stocks seems relatively unimportant in first-order estimates, though the question of interactions is being examined, particularly in Lake Tanganyika. Programs of monitoring relative abundance of stocks over time have also been useful, both in indicating the approach of actual yield to potential yield and, after "calibration" against actual yields, as indices of stock and total biomasses.
Assessment of Unexploited Resources
Authors: Saetersdal G.
Published: April 2011

For a sound development of fisheries on the world’s remaining unused resources an evaluation of the potentials is needed, both to encourage interest and to provide guidance for timely management. The type of information required is not limited to stock potentials but should include main features of fish biology, behavior, catchability, size, quality, etc.The possible methods and sources of information are of two kinds: indirect and direct. Indirect methods make use of information on the oceanography and basic productivity of sea areas and of ecological relations. Examples are mapping of upwelling areas, charting of observations of basic productivity, and stomach content studies.Direct methods base themselves on quantitative observations of any stage of the resource itself, thus including egg, larval, and postlarval surveys, exploratory fishing, acoustic surveys, aerial scouting, and observations from vessels engaged in other primary tasks. The advantages and limitations of these various methods and the conditions for their successful use are discussed and compared.
Economics of Fishery Management
Authors: Gulland J. A. , Robinson M. A.
Published: April 2011

In an unmanaged fishery the costs of catching a unit weight of fish will tend to rise until they are equal to the value of the catch. There is likely to be an excessive amount of fishing which adds to the costs, but adds little or nothing to the total catch, and may even decrease it. In practice the amount of fishing will often exceed the equilibrium, due to delays in reacting to falling catch rates, year-to-year fluctuation in the fishery, etc. The labor and capital engaged in fishing is often relatively immobile, and once excess capacity has developed it is not easily reduced without special measures.A number of different measures are available to control both the amount of fishing and the sizes of the fish caught. These are outlined, and the advantages and disadvantages briefly discussed. Several of the methods of controlling the amount of fishing tend to add to unit costs, and therefore offer little long-term benefits. These benefits can only be assured by control of the total capacity engaged in a fishery, such as through allocation of shares to individual countries in an international fishery, or by license limitation in a national fishery.
License Limitation Regulations: The South African System
Authors: Gertenbach L. P. D.
Published: April 2011

The exploitation of pelagic shoal resources off South Africa’s west (Atlantic) coast began during the second world war, with large-scale expansion beginning in 1947–49. At the end of the forties, the Government lacked the scientific evidence to formulate effective conservation policies, and pending the outcome of the research programs it deemed it advisable to put a brake on the expansion of these fisheries.An obvious measure was a ceiling on the annual catches. But this would not necessarily have prevented further influx into the fishing or the processing phases of the industry. As part of an economy-wide practice to require licenses for various kinds of operations, these were required for all fishing boats and factories. The Government decided in 1949 to refuse the issue of licenses for additional fish-processing factories and to limit the number and capacity to those already in operation or under construction.In 1953 the fishermen, aware of the limitation on the outlets (factory intakes) for their catches, and the continued influx of outsiders into the flourishing fishing side, willingly agreed to the freezing of the number and hold capacity of vessels fishing for pilchards and maasbankers. After the enactment by parliament of the necessary enabling laws, regulations were issued to establish a Pilchard/Maasbanker Boat Limitation Committee consisting of government, factory, and fishermen representatives to apply the controls over the number of boats, their hold capacity and the allocation of this fleet to the various factories.Adjustments, including some increases in the capacity of the fleet, were made from time to time to cope with changing conditions in the resource.A serious weakening in the control system occurred when fishing and processing licenses were granted to operators of fishmeal factory ships.The results of the limitation of entry into the fishing phase and the processing phases include several significant trends, among which are a smaller number of boats, larger-size boats with more powerful engines and equipment, and increased factory-ownership of boats. The factories introduced stickwater plants and other processes to increase the yield of meal from the available tonnage of raw fish.Although the industry has experienced difficult periods, it nevertheless seems, broadly viewed, that through the policy of restricting entry at the early stages of the new industry, it acquired sufficient resilience to cope not only with the ups but also the downs. It appears doubtful that "overcrowded" fishing and processing sectors would have had sufficient resilience to face fluctuating catches and fishmeal prices.
Structural Problems and the Need for Structural Planning in Fisheries Development
Authors: Onarheim T.
Published: April 2011

Planning within a structural and geographical macro-perspective — defining desirable relations between regions, countries, and industrial sectors and units — should precede planning at the microlevel. Development aid by industrialized countries to the developing world should be conceived on the basis of an international division of labor and distribution of joint natural resources which appear optimal from a global standpoint. The global solution constitutes a point of departure for suboptimizing down the scale of geographical and sectoral levels.Managing common property fisheries to maximize net economic returns (i.e. by setting yield targets below the maximum sustained yield level) makes sense for the industrialized countries. As long as people in developing countries go hungry, however, and production of food resources below the maximum level cannot be made up by imports, a level of fishery resource exploitation below the maximum sustained yield does not seem to be justifiable on a global basis. Neither can maximum economic efficiency be accepted as the governing criterion for management, since this would undoubtedly work toward the creation of a virtual monopoly of exploitation by the countries with the most sophisticated technologies, in the absence of an international mechanism to guarantee that resulting economies would benefit others as well.Global redistribution of fish production and processing may be the most effective form of development aid, as the cost of "aid" given in this manner may be lower than that of financial and technical aid made available by industrialized countries. The "sacrifices" implied by this redistribution of natural wealth would not be great, as support for unprofitable or marginally profitable fisheries has often been no more than an impediment to general economic growth in the industrialized countries. Many developing countries, on the other hand, would enjoy considerable comparative cost advantages — because of their vicinity to rich, relatively unexploited fishing grounds — if only existing gaps in technology and know-how were being eliminated. Radical solutions along these lines do not appear feasible at the present time but attempts to move in the right direction through judicious application of aid measures, should not be neglected. In the absence of effective supranational decision-making bodies, it will be the responsibility of the international and bilateral agencies to ensure that resources made available to one country do not create "external diseconomies" for others. To achieve this goal, everybody will have to be educated on the benefits of planning fully integrated investments for large areas.Unless timely action is taken to harmonize development aid, investments, and fishing effort on a regional basis, the mistakes made and the sorry results produced in such areas as the North Atlantic will be repeated in areas of primary interest to developing countries and everybody will ultimately be a loser.
Development of Fisheries for Nonconventional Species
Authors: Suda A.
Published: April 2011

Estimated possible increases in world catch are 21.9–29.7 million tons of pelagic fish, 15.5–18.6 million tons of demersal fish, and 5.7–7.0 million tons of cephalopods, a total of 43.55 million tons. This is on the assumption that such a rate of exploitation would not adversely affect other fish resources. The potential may be a bit higher because certain resources for which assessments are lacking have not been included. There may also be local stocks which have not been included. The average actual catch of fish and cephalopods combined, in recent years, has been 50–55 million tons. Added to the possible increase, this gives 93–110 million tons as the estimated total potential yield.The major part of the potential increase is of small-sized species at low trophic levels. These will be utilized largely for reduction, with little for direct consumption as human food. The more abundant resources in this category are lampfishes, lightfishes, and flyingfishes. Fish of the highest quality as food are already being heavily exploited. Underexploited species potentially usable as food include rainbow runner, dolphinfish, small tunas, notothenids, boarfish, berycoid fishes, and squids, also miscellaneous local species including snappers, groupers, butterfish, and croakers. Nonconventional resources of both types are mostly in distant waters, and each presents technical difficulties in exploitation.Making a bold assumption that the possible increase in catch of food fish is five times that of the estimated possible catch of skipjack and boarfish combined, we get 6,500,000 tons of preferred species. If we also presume that 50% of the potential increase in the catch of horsemackerel, mackerel, herring, hake, and poutassou is consumed directly, the possible increase in the supply of food fish will be as follows: Directly edible species, 6,500,000 tons; Horsemackerel and mackerels, 1,600,000 tons; Hake and poutassou, 1,100,000 tons; Herring, 500,000 tons; Total, 10,000,000 tons. The ratio of directly edible fish to the total potential increase in catch is therefore about 20%.A possible distribution of the total additional catch is as follows (in millions of tons):[Formula: see text]
The Transition From Small-Scale to Large-Scale Industry
Authors: Campleman G.
Published: April 2011

The transition in fisheries from small-scale to large-scale industry has traditionally evolved in the technically advanced countries over a period covering several generations. The present sophisticated, capital-intensive, highly mechanized fishing industry of Western Europe is a good example of this process.However, the developing countries of today are not content to wait through the evolutionary period. They want to establish a modern fishing industry — all aspects from catching the fish to processing and consumption — in the shortest time. Some have done so, at least in part, despite difficulties such as lack of trained personnel at all levels, lack of or inadequate infrastructure and marketing and distribution systems, inadequate capital resources, and so on.The author examines the main problems and challenges of the situation and provides various proposals and guidelines for such rapid development. He points out that the characteristic artisanal fisheries of the developing countries cannot be so transformed into modernized fisheries. They need a separate, slowly developing program for their upgrading. However, they are likely to be stimulated by and benefit from the establishment of a modern capital-intensive industry with which they must coexist. In particular, the artisanal fishermen should benefit from expansion of markets, introduction of new processing facilities, improvements in infrastructure, establishment of higher standards in handling, storage, and processing of fish, perhaps even by injection of capital and being given a specific share of the new industry, such as supplying it with high-priced prime fish, etc.
Developing Markets for Unfamiliar Species
Authors: Anderson A. M.
Published: April 2011

The important "unfamiliar" species of fish and other marine animals which it would be desirable to utilize in greater quantities are not so much new resources, which we may be years away from harvesting in significant quantities, but rather those that are available but neglected: these include some species frequently used for the manufacture offish meal.In developing countries some progress has been made in utilizing such species more effectively, particularly through the wider use of unfamiliar fish in iced or frozen form, and through the enhancement of low grade species by improved preparation. Much more could be done. In many cases it is not so much the consumer who needs persuasion to be more adventurous in trying new fish and fish products, but industry which should display more initiative in introducing them.If the problem of introducing unfamiliar fish is to be tackled effectively, industries must become more market-oriented, and in the developing countries fisheries development authorities should strengthen their establishments by adding marketing and processing specialists to engage in more intensive product development and marketing programs. In these countries the most rewarding opportunities lie in improving and increasing the range of existing, acceptable products rather than through the introduction of new products.
Prospects of the Utilization of Krill and Other Nonconventional Resources of the World Ocean
Authors: Lyubimova T. G. , Naumov A. G. , Lagunov L. L.
Published: April 2011

When animals of lower trophic levels are consumed by pelagic fishes, only 1–3% of the energy they contain is transformed into the new kinds of living matter which constitute useful fishery production. Thus the animals in the lower trophic levels, being more "economically profitable" and in much greater abundance, offer strong possibilities for increasing commercial utilization of ocean resources. The most urgent task is to develop commercial fisheries among animals at the second trophic level, the zooplankton. The most promising of these are the crustaceans, especially the krill of the antarctic, Euphausia superba, which occupy areas of the ocean south of the antarctic convergence, in extremely high concentrations. The resource may be between 0.8 and 5 milliards of tons, yielding a total commercial catch as high as 25–50 million metric tons.Other crustaceans that may some day support commercial fisheries include other species of Euphausia, Munida, Pleuroncodes, and Calanus.The problems facing the development of fisheries for these animals are to devise efficient catching methods and methods of processing that preserve the nutrient value while providing acceptable products. Soviet work with krill has yielded promising results. A special midwater trawl has given catches of 10–20 tons/hr. The food value of krill is high. It can be made into protein paste for human consumption, or used as fodder. To make the paste the krill are pressed, the extracted juices treated with heat, and the coagulated paste is separated and frozen. Tests with animals fed this paste showed higher rates of growth than those fed with beef. Krill has been used in the production of "shrimp butter" and "melted cheese," the latter having been produced commercially since 1970. Other products show promise.Certain squids may become of great importance commercially, although some may be useful only as fodder because of their chemical composition. Some fish species at the third trophic level have dense stocks and offer promise. Among these are fish of the families Carangidae and Stomateidae. These may be used to produce edible fish powder. They can best be caught with fast pelagic trawls. Planktophagous bathypelagic species are often numerous at depths to 500–600 m, especially some myctophids and bathylagids. Associated with the antarctic krill are krill-eating fishes of the family Nototheniidae, of high food value and great abundance.To develop these resources specially designed vessels and improved hydroacoustic equipment are required, as well as automatically controlled fishing gear and submersibles to study fish behavior.
Stock Assessment of the Peruvian Anchovy (Engraulis ringens) and Management of the Fishery
Authors: Boerema L. K. , Gulland J. A.
Published: April 2011

The upwelling of cool nutrient-rich water makes the area off Peru one of the most productivein the world. The first major use of this resource was the production of guano. In 1957 the fishery for anchoveta (Engraulis ringens) for reduction to meal and oil began on a significant scale. Catches rocketed to 8 million tons by 1964 making Peru the country with the biggest catch of fish. Most of the production (averaging some 2 millions tons of meal) is exported, and fish meal is (with copper) one of the two biggest earners of foreign exchange in the Peruvian economy.Scientific studies of the resource, including collection of detailed statistical data of the fishery have been carried out from an early stage. Research has been facilitated by the setting up of the Instituto del Mar del Peru, with the assistance of UNDP and FAO. Studies of the population dynamics of anchoveta have shown that by 1965 the stock was being heavily exploited, and that under average conditions the sustainable yield was around 8–10 million tons, being higher when the bird population is low.Regulations to manage and conserve the stock include a closed season in the middle of the year when catches are low, and at the beginning of the year when small fish are abundant, and a limit to the total catch during a fishing season (September–August). However, regulations have not prevented development of great excess capacity in vessels and processing plants.During 1972 there was a severe crisis in the fishery, when there were unusual oceanographic conditions and an almost complete recruitment failure. Catches in the second half of the year had to be cut to nearly nothing. Hopefully the stock is now rebuilding, but these events emphasize the need to reduce the excess capacity, so as to improve the economic status of the industry and stability of the stock.
La développement des pêches régionales en Afrique occidentale
Authors: Aubray R. , Dia M. I. , Diop B.
Published: April 2011

The fishing grounds off the coast of West Africa are among the most productive in the world. Catches in the area in 1970 were in excess of 2 million tons, an increase of about 100% over 1960s catch. Of this only a third was caught by canoes and fleets bordering the region, the rest by an increasing number of large vessels from countries outside Africa.Fishing is still a subsistence activity in all coastal districts and locally based modern vessels are few. Although fish processing industries have been developed in several countries of the region they often remain at a low level of production because of insufficient supply of raw material.Fish consumption in the area — marine and fresh water fish — is estimated at about 1 million tons for a population of 150 million, including the landlocked countries of the Gulf of Guinea. Although imports supply 20% of the fish consumed in the area, there is a deficit of half a million tons. This deficit could well reach 1 million tons in the course of the next decade under the combined pressure of population growth and rising incomes.The uneven distribution of the producing areas and the general demand for fish suggests a potential for a large expansion of interregional trade. The need for the coastal states to develop their fisheries and fishery industries is obvious.The rapid increase of the catch by foreign fleets is causing a number of West African countries to extend their territorial waters beyond the 12-mile limit. This, in turn, is inducing foreign concerns to seek cooperation with the coastal countries. A greater participation of these countries in the exploitation of the resources of their continental shelf should result from the new strategy.In view of the low stage of development in the area an integrated policy for development is needed. This would cover small craft and large vessels, fish processing and marketing, resources assessment and monitoring, aquaculture and training, at all levels in fisheries. Such a strategy is outlined in the paper.
Cambios y Evolución de las Pesquerías en al Atlántico Centro-Oriental
Authors: Bas C.
Published: April 2011

This paper deals with the marine fisheries off the West African coast, between the Straits of Gibraltar and Mauritania, an area which is characterized by its relatively narrow continental shelf, the presence of the Canary Current, and intensive upwelling resulting in very high primary production and rich bottom fauna.The main fisheries (for sardines, sardinellas, hakes, sparids, cephalopods, and demersal crustaceans) are analyzed with regard to their evolution, species composition, fishing areas and seasons, the biological characteristics of the exploited stocks, and the effect of fishing on them.The criteria to be considered when planning the control and regulation of these fisheries are also analysed.
Planning Criteria for Large-Scale Fisheries Development with Special Reference to the Indian Ocean
Authors: Payne R. L.
Published: April 2011

Criteria for large-scale fishery development are determined by motives of the developer, which are primarily economic. Economically viable fishery developments invariably have positive social side effects, whereas socially oriented developments seldom have positive economic results.Primary criteria for development are: species of fish available; the location, size and behavior of the stocks; and ultimately, the unit annual average catch rate of the "best boat." Primary criteria also include hospitality of the riparian state, as measured by its policies and their implementation, the intensity of economic nationalism, and political stability; and the nature of the people, their industriousness, and the ability of the society to absorb capital. The last is a major consideration.Secondary criteria include such physical considerations as crew amenities, vessel support facilities, communications, and transport.Tertiary criteria include the overall size of the project, the dimensions of the market, the nature of competition, the possibility of overcapitalization, and, ultimately, luck and the behavior of humans and fishes.
Fishery Development and Management in Thailand
Authors: Tiews K.
Published: April 2011

After a period of stabilization lasting more than 20 years, the Thai sea fisheries developed rapidly during the past decade through the introduction of trawl fishing. Suitable nets and fishing techniques were demonstrated and introduced in the course of a German bilateral aid project. This new input, together with a high level of technical abilities among the fishermen, the availability of sufficient capital to finance a trawler fleet of more than 2,500 boats, and adequate support from the Thai Government, resulted in rapid development of trawling from small vessels. Landings were about 600,000 metric tons of groundfish from the coastal area in 1970. About half of this is for human consumption, the remainder mostly being used fresh for duck food or, after processing, as chicken food. The level of development achieved has unfortunately meant that the moderately rich bottom-fish resources of the Gulf of Thailand have become overexploited. In 1971 the catch per unit of effort had decreased to only a quarter of the original, making trawling operations only marginally economic. This points up the difficult problem of the control of fishing effort, which the Government of Thailand, no less than other nations, has not yet been able to resolve satisfactorily.
Fisheries Development and Management in Indonesia
Authors: Zachman N.
Published: April 2011

Before 1968, fishery development in Indonesia concentrated on the artisanal fisheries. No significant progress was made until the emphasis changed to the commercial fisheries, as part of the first 5-year development plan of 1969–74. The new approach was on economics and marketing instead of on production. A long-term plan over 25 years has been prepared, divided into 5-year operational plans.Indonesia has important fishery resources, especially pelagic stocks. Large extents of continental shelves also provide the possibility of increased trawl fishing, especially for shrimp. Conditions are also favorable for aquaculture. The position of the country between two oceans and two continents locates it favorably to exploit the tunas of both the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean, and to maintain a flow of fishery products to international markets. Manpower is abundant and relatively cheap.The program to develop artisanal fisheries concentrates on increasing the income per capita of fishermen through developing fish marketing and production. Commercial fisheries are concentrating on production of export products, especially shrimp, skipjack, and tuna, to earn foreign exchange. Effective and efficient administration is being formed to carry out fisheries development, involving the reorganization of the Central and Regional Fisheries agencies. Staff are being upgraded, training and education are being reviewed, and research is being intensified.New laws have resulted in the establishment of eight domestic companies with a total investment of $27 million (US). Exports of fishery products have significantly increased, especially shrimp. Marketing is improved through the establishment of a cold chain, which is expected to lead to improved quality of products and increased earnings for fishermen.The goals of the first 5-year plan include: establishment of large-scale fishing industries, to export products valued at $30–40 million (US) per year; establishment of marketing facilities for fresh fish distribution in the most populated areas; raising artisanal fisheries to a level where they can independently sustain growth; establishment of an effective research system; establishment of an effective education and training system; establishment of fisheries cooperatives; improvement of the administration of fisheries.
Management of Fisheries in the North Pacific
Authors: Kasahara H.
Published: April 2011

Resources in the northwestern Pacific and the Bering Sea are fished intensively and the potential increase in the yield of traditional species does not appear great. In contrast, waters from the Gulf of Alaska to off Baja California are lightly fished, except for a few species, and contain large potential resources, particularly of pelagic species. Countries bordering this ocean differ greatly from each other in the concepts and methods of domestic fishery management as well as in the degree of control by government. The overwhelmingly large part of the combined total catch comes from fisheries which are at present not subject to international regulation. The international regulatory regime consists of various conventions and short-term agreements designed to solve immediate issues. No comprehensive arrangements exist and principles of management differ from case to case. Among the major management problems are: fluctuations in the yields of coastal pelagic species; rapid expansion of pollack fishing in the northern areas; lack of inclusive agreement for fisheries in the East China and Yellow Seas; management of salmon fisheries; and development of new resources particularly in the eastern Pacific.
Salmon Management in the United States
Authors: Royce W. F.
Published: April 2011

The salmon fishery of the United States illustrates the major principles and problems of fishery management: regulation of the fishery, maintenance of the environment, and artificial augmentation of the stocks. It also includes controls both in fresh water and on the high seas. The industry has experienced the age-old conflicts between large- and small-scale fisheries, and administrators have had to wrestle with the problem of allocating the catch among various contenders. This problem has been confused with that of conservation. Prohibition of salmon traps, restrictions on size and mode of operation of purse seines, and prohibition of monofilament gillnets are examples of the kinds of compromises made between allocation and conservation.Dams, pollution, and other modifications of the freshwater environment have endangered salmon stocks. An early response was to raise salmon artificially and release them. For many years this technique was unsuccessful, and when it was evaluated most hatcheries were closed. In recent years the preservation of the genetic identity of the stock and improved diets and schedules of release have resulted in greater success of hatcheries. Spawning channels show promise of additional success. Another practice of value has been development of devices to pass fish over dams, both upstream and down.Control of fishing to provide adequate spawning has concentrated on manipulation of individual population units, an enormously complicated task since the number of these in United States streams is in the order of 10,000. Of these about 100 major ones are under separate control. Regulations depend on forecasts, since fishing takes place before the salmon reach spawning grounds. Forecasts have improved greatly in recent years, although much remains to be done.Among problems on which no great progress has been made are: extent and consequences of genetic change produced by selective fishing; causes of cycles, and alterations in these; effects of changing environment, especially subtle ones of temperature, dissolved oxygen, and pollution; control of recruitment, including release of hardy young. Difficult economic problems include: the tendency for regulations to favor inefficient operators; high costs of research and regulation, borne not by users but by public funds.Administrative achievements include: a high degree of environmental protection; remarkably parallel regulations in the three States principally involved, Alaska, Washington, and Oregon; successful joint regulation of international fisheries in cooperation with Canada and Japan.Problems which will continue to exist and increase in difficulty include protection of the environment of the salmon, rivalries between many diverse interest groups, and improvement in culture operations. The major step of restricting entry into the commercial salmon fishery is being contemplated in several locations.
Management of the Pacific Halibut Fishery
Authors: Skud B. E.
Published: April 2011

The International Pacific Halibut Commission (IPHC) has managed the Canadian and United States halibut fishery since 1923. During the early years of the Commission the abundance of the halibut stocks was declining and there were major changes in fishing techniques. After 1930 the Commission instituted more regulatory control, and catches gradually improved, reaching a maximum in the early 1960s. Some scientists attribute IPHC’s success to its organizational structure; others credit the simplicity of the fishery; still others contend that success was possible because the two nations have similar cultures. A more important factor has been the control of the fishery, i.e. the authority to introduce conservation measures that are supported by adequate enforcement.Since 1960 IPHC has lost control of certain elements in the fishery, and the abundance of halibut has declined markedly. The total catch by the North American longline fleet in 1962 was approximately 45,000 metric tons, while in 1972 it was 25,000 metric tons (round weight). Maximum catch per unit effort (CPUE) was reached before the expansion of domestic (Canada and United States) and foreign trawling. In the late 1950s IPHC had increased the removals to test the estimated maximum sustained yield (MSY) of the stock and expected a decline in CPUE when fishing intensity was increased; however, the rate of decrease was greater and lasted longer than anticipated. Changes in recruitment may have contributed to this decline. By 1965, the incidental catch of halibut by foreign and domestic trawl fisheries had increased substantially, and this accelerated the decrease in abundance. Reductions of the catch limits of the longline fleet failed to arrest the decline. In addition, longline fishermen had improved the effectiveness of their gear by increasing the spacing between hooks; as a result IPHC’s measure of CPUE since 1960 was overestimated. The effects of this gear change are far reaching and basic parameters of the halibut populations must be reassessed. Though the fishery has changed measurably, and IPHC has lost some control through the incidental catch by trawlers, a viable fishery has been maintained through the sacrifice of yield by the North American longline fleet. Productivity of this fishery is in jeopardy because losses to trawl fleets are not controlled, and continue to increase.
Management of International Whaling and North Pacific Fur Seals: Implications for Fisheries Management
Authors: Chapman D. G.
Published: April 2011

After many early vicissitudes, since 1911, the North Pacific fur seal stocks have been managed in the light of the best current information. During this time management problems have gradually changed from those of restoring depleted herds to those of finding the best exploitation strategy for herds at or near their maximum productivity (particularly in the case of the Pribilof and Robben herds). This has been achieved by agreement among the four nations who formerly captured fur seals either on land or at sea. The agreement includes a quota distribution of the kill.Many stocks of the larger baleen whales have been decimated in various parts of the world, some during the last century but others since 1930 — particularly those of the antarctic. Although biological information was adequate to recognize this overexploitation and even to follow it quantitatively, the International Whaling Commission was powerless to halt the decline because its terms required unanimity of decisions and precluded assigning national quotas. Also, quotas were set for a combined take rather than by species. In 1972 these weaknesses were resolved, but not before blue and humpback whales were commercially extinct in the antarctic and fin whale stocks were far below the level of maximum yield. A recent forward-looking step by the Commission has been that of setting a conservative annual quota for the previously unused minke whales of the antarctic, this to be revised in the light of its reaction to exploitation.Sperm whales have been only a secondary target for whalers during most of this century, while the polygamous habit and greater size of the male sperm whale have made their conservation easier than for the baleen species. However, the level of maximum sustained yield is now being approached and the strategy for attaining it is currently a lively topic of controversy and research.Different parts of this history of seal and whale management can be applied in fishery management, either as guides for action or as horrible examples of the results of inaction. The principal difference is that fish stocks typically have a much larger replacement rate, hence can support larger rates of exploitation than the mammals can. However, this in no way decreases the need for rational management.
Fishery Regulations in the ICNAF Area
Authors: Bogdanov A. S. , Konstantinov K. G.
Published: April 2011

Several countries have been fishing in the Northwest Atlantic Ocean for 300 years, and recently pressure on the stocks has increased greatly. The need for conservation resulted in the creation of the International Commission for the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries (ICNAF) in 1950. By 1972 16 countries were party to the Convention.When the Convention came into force, the catch in the Convention area was 1.7 million metric tons; by 1968 this had risen to 3.9 million metric tons, after which it has declined, largely because of lower cod, herring, and haddock catches.The main objective of ICNAF is to maintain the fish stocks at levels permitting maximum sustainable yields. The first regulation applied by the Commission was the fixing of minimum sizes of trawlnet meshes used to catch a number of important demersal species. At its 1972 meeting other measures were introduced, notably the fixing of maximum quotas for several subareas and for the more important species. ICNAF is therefore the international commission which has the most thorough and extensive regulation measures.At meetings in 1971 and 1972 the Commission concluded that exploitation of the major species in the ICNAF area was extremely high and that it was necessary to reduce fishing effort. These conclusions were arrived at on the basis of intensive research. Ten years of research on cod stocks is described as an example of this kind of work. It led to the conclusion that mesh size limitations were not sufficient to maintain the stocks of cod, and this was one of the strong reasons for adoption of the quotas, a step which is of great significance in international fisheries management.
Distant-Water Fisheries and Their Relation to Development and Management
Authors: Gulland J. A.
Published: April 2011

An important proportion of the present world catch of fish (some 12% by weight, and more by value) is taken by long-range vessels. In some areas, e.g. the Northwest Atlantic, the proportion taken by long-range vessels is higher, up to 50%. The operations of these fleets and their effects on the operations of local fishermen have been causes of international friction on a number of occasions.The ability of long-range fleets to concentrate quickly on a newly exploited resource can mean that severe damage may be done to the resource before the necessary management measures can be implemented, at least by the traditional machinery. Management techniques need to be improved to enable them to react in a more timely fashion to changing fishing patterns (this also applies to local fisheries, where the speed of development is also becoming rapid).With proper management, long-range fishing is at present the most effective way of harvesting many of the world’s fish stocks, and without it there would be a big drop in the total world catch. However, given equal access to modern technology and to better markets, local fisheries with lower capital and running costs are likely to be more efficient at harvesting the resource. In the long run, local fisheries may be expected to replace long-range fleets in most areas. In the short run, the existence of the long-range fleets, by reducing the abundance of the stocks, and hence the catch rates, may inhibit the development of local fisheries, and reduce the success of those already existing. This may be balanced by benefiting from the experience of the long-range fleets as regards the best fishing grounds, seasons, etc.