bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Waste Treatment, Hazardous Waste
Authors: Kocurek Dianna S. , Woodside Gayle
Published: July 2004

Kocurek, Dianna S. (Tischler/Kocurek); Woodside, Gayle (IBM Corp.). The treatment of a particular hazardous waste often involves the integration of a number of unit processes to develop a comprehensive treatment system. This article gives a brief overview of the most common unit processes used for the treatment of hazardous wastes and discusses, as appropriate, how these unit processes are typically combined. Unit processes in this article are divided into three general categories: physical–chemical, biological, and thermal processes. Soil and ground water treatment technologies are presented as a fourth section and include only those technologies that are unique to these media or that are innovative or emerging technologies used most frequently with these media.

Physical–chemical processes include air stripping, carbon adsorption, chemical oxidation, dissolved air flotation, distillation, evaporation, ion exchange, membrane filtration, neutralization, oil–water separation, oxidation and reduction, precipitation, sedimentation–clarification, solvent extraction, stabilization–solidification, steam stripping, supercritical fluid extraction, supercritical water oxidation, and wet air oxidation. Biological treatment focuses on the biodegradability of different compounds and the most widely used technology for organic wastewaters, activated sludge. Thermal processes include catalytic oxidation, fluidized beds, liquid injection, multiple hearth furnaces, rotary kilns, and thermal desorption. Soil and ground water treatment technologies include bioremediation (in situandex situ), electrokinetics, in situ air stripping, pump and treat, soil flushing, soil leaching, soil vapor extraction, soil washing, and vitrification. Vol. 25, pp. 284–324, 79 references to August 1996.
Nuclear Reactors, Waste Management
Authors: Murray Raymond L.
Published: July 2004

The sources, treatment, storage and transport, and disposal of nuclear wastes are presented. Regulations are provided by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The principal sources of waste from nuclear reactors are fission products and neutron activation products. Many treatment methods are available to reduce waste volume whether it involves management of spent fuel or low level waste. Most spent fuel is stored in water pools at reactor sites, awaiting completion of a repository. Dry storage is an alternative. Disposal by deep burial is planned for spent fuel, and by enhanced confinement near the surface for low level waste. Site characterization is being carried out. Isolation of waste from the public is essential. The future of nuclear power depends in part on successful waste disposal. Vol. 17, pp. 466–478, 38 refs. through November 1994.
Nuclear Reactors, Water Chemistry of Lightwater Reactors
Authors: Hicks Jack H.
Published: July 2004

Water chemistry is an important factor in the safe and reliable operation of both pressurized water reactors and boiling water reactors used to generate electric power in the United States. The chemistry parameters for normal power operation for the PWR primary water and secondary water and for the BWR reactor water and reactor feedwater/condensate are presented and discussed. Significant experiences with water chemistry and materials and operations are presented. Sources of radioisotopes that have an impact on some of the radiation concerns are listed. Water chemistry has a large impact on the economic considerations of the plants.
Water, Waterproofing and Water/Oil Repellency
Authors: Howells Richard D.
Published: July 2004

The general principles by which certain long‐chain nonpolar hydrocarbon/waxes, silicones, and fluorochemicals can provide water and oil repellency by lowering the surface energy of a substrate are described. Common applications are in the areas of textiles, leather, paper and paperboard, concrete and masonry, and wood. The focus is on materials that act as surface treatments rather than on constructions where impermeable materials are laminated or otherwise attached to a water‐ or oil‐receptive surface. Major suppliers of the surface treatments, chemical types, and test methods used for measuring performance are given.
Welding
Authors: Bowers Randy J. , Graff Karl F.
Published: July 2004

Welding and its allied processes represent a fabrication technology of extremely broad scope for metals and, increasingly, nonmetals. Common arc‐welding processes include shielded‐metal arc, gas–metal arc, flux‐cored arc, submerged arc, plasma arc, and gas–tungsten arc welding. Specific power supply and atmospheric shielding characteristics are associated with each of these processes. Laser and electron beam, oxyfuel–gas, resistance, electroslag, and friction are welding processes that do not use an electric arc. Brazing, soldering, plastics joining, and adhesive bonding are technologies allied to welding. The metallurgy of welding processes involves considerations of heat flow and solidification, as well as of the structure and properties of the metals being welded. Selection of welding‐process parameters is based on the particular weldability characteristics associated with major alloy groups, including steel, stainless steel, aluminum, magnesium, nickel, titanium, copper, and refractory metals. Design for welding includes joint and weld types, residual stress, and distortion. Industry specifications discuss testing requirements for welds, limits on welding discontinuities, and safety.
Wine
Authors: Singleton Vernon L. , Butzke Christian E.
Published: July 2004

Without qualifying terms, both legally and commonly, the word wine designates grape (particularlyVitis vinifera) juice fermented into an alcoholic beverage. There are many reasons to believe that grape‐growing and winemaking were among the causes and not just an effect of the development of nonnomadic agriculture and therefore of civilization in the Near East. By ancient Egyptian, Greek, and Roman times wine production was well known and it was associated with religion, the arts, and good living, an association maintained since then. Study of wines and their fermentation have been instrumental in the initial development of microbiology, biochemistry, stereochemistry, statistical sensory analysis, etc.

Wine production is large and economically important, involving more than 8 × 106hectares of vineyard producing annually about 60 × 106metric tons of grapes, and about 26 × 109liters of wine (about 5 L for every human). About 24% of the world's wine is produced by Italy, 21% by France, 10% by Spain, and 6% by the United States (90%+ of that in California). Consumption is high in the major producing countries (except the United States); however, there has been excess production of the less‐than‐premium wines, depressing the world market and the economies of the producing countries. Premium wines, however, remain in demand and are an important source of not only trade, but also cultural exchange.

There are many classes, subtypes, and styles of wine distinguished by the grapes used, the fermentation procedure, further processing, etc. Examples include white and red table wines, sparkling wines, fortified wines, oxidized types, eg, sherries, and flavored types, eg, vermouths. Gross composition covers the typical range of 7–21% alcohol, 0–20% fermentable sugar, 0–1 g/L anthocyanins, 0 to well over 3.92 g/L of CO2, and 0.1–1 g/L of tannins and other phenols, mainly flavonoids. Specific components are crucial to certain wines, eg, terpenoids for those from muscat varieties. To examine them, detailed chemical analysis by such techniques as gas–liquid and high performance liquid chromatographies are required, but sensory analysis remains very important as well.

Every aspect of wine production and marketing is governed by regulation, which may differ among countries, states, and even counties. The U.S. agency of greatest importance is the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (BATF) of the Treasury Department, which validates good commercial practices and healthfulness, specifies limits, restricts components and treatments, provides for authentication, and levies taxes.
Wood
Authors: Durbak Irene , Green David W. , Highley Terry L. , Howard James L. , McKeever David B. , Miller Regis B. , Pettersen Roger C. , Rowell Roger M. , Simpson William T. , Skog Kenneth E. , White Robert H. , Winandy Jerrold E. , Zerbe John I.
Published: July 2004

Wood touches lives in many ways, from the paper we use to chemicals, such as acetic acid and methanol. Wood is an amazing resource and is renewable as well. This article covers many characteristics of wood and its products. Wood is either hardwood or softwood (angiosperm or gymnosperm) and is made of firmly bonded cells. The anatomical structure affects all characteristics. Wood is made of lignin and carbohydrates, along with minor amounts of other organic chemicals and minerals. Wood is highly hygroscopic. The adsorption and desorption of moisture causes wood to swell and shrink, respectively. Wood has unique physical properties, such as strength and stiffness, that are related to its density. Wood is subject to deterioration, caused by temperature, time, moisture, and/or organisms. Wood can be fire retardant treated to reduce the surface burning characteristics and the heat release rate. Organisms such as fungi, bacteria, insects, and marine borers can attack wood. Various strategies control these attacks, including chemical treatment and preservatives, optimum conditions, and physical barriers. Wood is used to produce lumber, manufactured and composite products, pulp and paper, charcoal, chemical compounds, fuel, and much more. These products support many industries that together contribute greatly to the U.S. gross domestic product.
Xanthene Dyes
Authors: Wight Paul
Published: July 2004

The structure and properties of xanthene dyes are discussed. The dyes are classified according to their chemical structure as well as their application class, and the properties are related to the structural features. The uses of the important xanthene dyes are given, both historically and for recent developments. Uses of xanthenes in high technology applications are reported.

The synthesis of xanthenes is summarized, giving an outline of the manufacturing processes for commercially important dyes such as Rhodamine B, Rhodamine 6G, eosine, and uranine. The toxicology and economic aspects of the common dyes is reported.
Xylenes and Ethylbenzene
Authors: Cannella William J.
Published: July 2004

This article reviews the properties, commercial manufacturing aspects, and uses of the three xylene isomers, ie,o‐xylene,m‐xylene, andp‐xylene, and the ethylbenzene present in mixed xylene streams. Chemical reactions discussed are migration of the alkyl groups, including 1,2 intramolecular shifts and transalkylation; reactions of the alkyl groups, including oxidation, polycondensation, and ammoxidation; reactions of the aromatic ring; and complex formation. Aspects of commercial manufacture that are covered include initial production of mixed xylenes; separation processes used to produce high purityp‐xylene,o‐xylene, andm‐xylene; and xylene isomerization processes. Catalytic reforming and toluene disproportionation/transalkylation are the primary mixed xylene production routes discussed. The xylene isomer separation processes of crystallization, adsorption, and complex formation are described. The commercially important xylene isomerization processes are reviewed. Worldwide production data for the three xylene isomers and ethylbenzene are presented along with a list of the U.S. producers and their production capacities. Analytical techniques and important health and safety factors are also summarized.
Xylylene Polymers
Authors: Beach W. F.
Published: July 2004

Pinhole‐free coatings of outstanding conformality and thickness uniformity are produced by exposing a substrate to a controlled deposition of pure gaseous monomer through the unique chemistry ofp‐xylylene, which is thermally stable but very reactive toward polymerization with other like molecules, in a process known as vapor deposition polymerization (VDP). A high molecular weight coating of poly(p‐xylylene) (PPX) is produced. Recent VDP developments are stressed in the article.

The convenient generation of the extremely reactive monomer is accomplished by thermal cleavage of its stable dimer,cyclo‐di‐p‐xylylene (DPX), commercially in the Gorham process. The PPXs formed as coatings in the Gorham process are referred to generically as parylenes. Parylene N, Parylene C, and Parylene D are polymer coatings produced by the Gorham process using the dimers DPXN, DPXC, and DPXD, respectively. These dimers are the feedstocks for the coating process. The Parylene C monomer, chloro‐p‐xylylene, has become the de facto performance standard owing to its room temperature volatility. VDP processes using means other than pyrolytic cleavage of DPX to generate reactive monomer, none practiced commercially, include photopolymerization and plasma polymerization, as well as imidization to produce polyimide films.

Manufacture of commercial DPXN is through two routes: direct pyrolysis ofp‐xylene and the Hofmann elimination route. DPXC and DPXD are prepared from DPXN by chlorinating. Thermodynamic considerations of the parylene process by VDP are covered. The importance of the physical processes of condensation and diffusion in VDP are treated, as is the propagation reaction.

VDP produces films of uniform thickness having excellent conformality and purity. Electrical properties merit their use in electronic construction. Barrier, spectral, and optical properties are also useful. Crystallinity determines important properties of mechanical strength at elevated temperatures and solvent resistance, which constitute the principal advantages of PPX materials. Uses include circuit boards, hybrid circuits, semiconductors, capacitors, the bathythermograph, medical uses (as in pacemakers), artifact conservation, and in laser fusion targets. They are also used as barrier coatings, in corrosion control, and as dry lubricants. The dimers present little concern in handling and storage to an experienced operator. In ancillary operations such as cleaning or adhesion promotion, suitable precautions given in manufacturers' Material Safety Data Sheets should be observed.
Yeasts
Authors: Maloney Daniel
Published: July 2004

Yeasts are probably the oldest cultivated plants: their use dates to 3000BCor earlier. They are eukaryotic organisms, ie, they have a defined nucleus surrounded by a nuclear membrane and organized cytoplasmic organelles (mitochondria, peroxisomes, vacuoles, etc). The recognition of yeasts as a coherent group of microorganisms and of their role in fermentation generally preceded their taxonomic classification. They are fungi that exist as single cells during at least some part of their life cycle, they have no photosynthetic ability and are not motile. All the major groups of fungi,Basidiomycetes,Ascomycetes,Phycomycetes, and theFungi imperfecti, include species that have adopted a yeast phase. Yeasts usually reproduce vegetatively by budding or fission, but parasexual and sexual reproduction occur as well in most yeasts. There are extensive and authoritative texts on yeast taxonomy and identification. Among those listed, the genusSaccharomycesis of greatest practical and economic importance for the baking, beer, and wine industries, as well as for the production of biomass. This article emphasizes the biology and industrial use ofSaccharomyces cerevisiae. Due to its importance in the study of basic cell biology, reviews ofSaccharomycesgenetics and molecular biology appear regularly. Other yeasts participate in alcoholic fermentations and occur as food‐spoilage organisms or pathogens.
Zinc and Zinc Alloys
Authors: Goodwin Frank E.
Published: July 2004

Zinc is a relatively active metal and its compounds are stable. Since it is not found free in nature, it was discovered later than less‐reactive metals. The main application of zinc is to protect iron and other metals from corrosion. Occurrence and properties of zinc are discussed. Processing of the ore requires concentration of the ore followed by roasting, or reduction by electrolytic methods. Economic data, specifications and grades, health and safety factors are given. The uses of zinc coatings on iron and steel are as die‐casting alloys and foundry alloys. Rolled zinc and zinc dust and powder also find industrial use. Ores exploited for zinc invariably contain one or more other valuable metals, such as cadmium and mercury.
Zinc Compounds
Authors: Goodwin Frank E.
Published: July 2004

Zinc usually occurs as the sulfide, but significant quantities of the oxide, carbonate, silicate, and basic compounds of the latter two are mined. Properties of many of the compounds of zinc are given, with special attention given to zinc oxide, zinc chloride, and zinc sulfate. The oxide is important because it completely absorbs ultraviolet light below 366 nm and it is unique among white pigments. Details on the American (Direct) process and French (Indirect) Process for the production and processing of zinc are given as well as a discussion of secondary zinc oxide obtained from scrap. Zinc is needed for the proper functioning of plants and animals and this is discussed along with health and safety aspects, uses, and economics.
Fluorine Compounds, Inorganic, Zirconium
Authors: Meshri Dayal T.
Published: July 2004

Three binary zirconium fluorides, ZrF
2
, ZrF
3
, and ZrF
4
, are known to exist. The most commercially important zirconium fluoride compounds are zirconium tetrafluoride and fluorozirconic acid and its salts. ZrF
4
is used in the production of heavy‐metal fluoride glasses. These ultrapure glasses are utilized as optical fibers. Hexafluorozirconic acid is used in metal finishing and its alkali metal salts in the manufacture of abrasive grinding wheels. The properties, manufacture, and uses of the various zirconium fluorine‐containing compounds are discussed.
Ethylene polymerization with imine and phosphine nickel complexes containing isothiocyanate
Authors: Crossetti Geraldo L. , Dias Marcos L. , Queiroz Bruno T. , Silva Luciana P. , Ziglio Cláudio M. , Bomfim João A. S. , Filgueiras Carlos A. L.
Published: July 2004

Three isothiocyanate complexes of nickel(II) containing diimine [ArNC(Me)C(Me)NAr]Ni‐ (NCS)2 (1), iminophosphine [Ph2PC6H4CHNAr]Ni(NCS)2 (2), or diphosphine (dppe)Ni(NCS)2 (3), [Ar = 2, 6‐iPr‐C6H3; dppe = 1, 2‐bis(diphenylphosphine)ethane] were synthesized and examined for ethylene polymerization activated by methylaluminoxane (MAO). Their behavior was compared with those of the corresponding halide analogues [ArNC(Me)C(Me)NAr]NiBr2 (4), [Ph2PC6H4CHNAr]NiBr2 (5), and (dppe)NiCl2 (6). The diimines showed the highest polymerization activity. Replacement of the halide for the NCS pseudo halide affected the activity and decreased the molecular weight of the polymer formed. The highest molecular weights were obtained with the diimine complexes. Highly branched polyethylenes were obtained with the bulkier complexes 1 and 4. Replacement of the halide for NCS in the diimine complexes also caused an increase in the branching content, whereas the opposite occurs for the iminophosphine complexes. The different activities and behavior of the catalyst systems with halide versus NCS in the polymerization of ethylene and the characteristics of the final products suggest a modification in the active species caused by the non‐chelating ligand. Polymer molecular weight and branching content is dependent on the MAO/Ni molar ratio and on the working temperature. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Crystallographic report: [(1,3‐Bis(4‐pyridyl)propane)(diaqua)zinc(II)] diperchlorate dihydrate
Authors: Choi Seung Hoon , Ryu Ji Young , Lee Jun Yong , Myoung Young Chan , Kim Cheal , Kim Youngmee , Song Byung Ho
Published: July 2004

Four ligands of 1,3‐bis(4‐pyridyl)propane and two water molecules are coordinated to the zinc(II) atom so that the coordination geometry closely resembles a trans‐N4O2 octahedral environment. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Crystallographic report: Tricarbonyl(η5‐cyclopentadienyl)(dichloroindium) molybdenum
Authors: Grabowy T. , Wagner C. , Merzweiler K.
Published: July 2004

In the solid state, [{Cp(CO)3Mo}InCl2]∞ forms a one‐dimensional coordination polymer in which the indium atoms are coordinated by four chlorine atoms (InCl: 2.448(2)–3.004(2) Å) and a {Cp(CO)3Mo} group (InMo: 2.750(1) Å) in a distorted trigonal bipyramidal environment. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The role of cobalt, copper, nickel, and zinc in the DNA replication inhibitory activity of p‐aminophenyl triphenylporphyrin
Authors: Barragán Efraín , Gordillo Barbara , Vargas Genaro , Velazco Luis
Published: July 2004

Cationic porphyrins have been widely used as tumor localizers in cancer therapies. When cationic porphyrins are flat they intercalate with double‐stranded DNA, duplexes of RNA or RNA–DNA. The antitumor activity of some cationic porphyrins depends on their interaction with human telomeric quadruplexes. Here, we report that noncationic meso‐(4‐aminophenyl)triphenylporphyrin (H2TPPNH2) (3) and its cobalt, copper, nickel, and zinc metallo derivatives (4–7) have DNA replication inhibitory activity in B16 mouse melanoma line cells. By means of quantification of 3HdTT radio‐labeled DNA, we observed that the nonplanar porphyrin [CoTPPNH2] has the highest activity against carcinogenic DNA replication. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Physical, mechanical, and thermal properties of PVC/PMMA blends in relation to their morphologies
Authors: Chakrabarti Rupa , Das Molay , Chakraborty Debabrata
Published: July 2004

The effect of blending poly (methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) in various proportions with suitably stabilized and plasticized poly (vinyl chloride) (PVC) was studied with reference to their physical, mechanical, and thermal properties. The resulting morphologies of the various blends were also studied to find a suitable explanation of these properties. The physical and mechanical properties of such polyblends revealed a substantial increase in toughness accompanied with unusual increase in modulus and ultimate tensile strength after an initial drop at the initial stages of PMMA incorporation compared to pure reference compound PVC. The toughening effect, however, undergoes a reduction with increasing proportion of PMMA but it never goes below that of pure PVC (reference compound) within the ranges of PMMA incorporation under study. The various polyblends exhibit the two‐stage degradation typical of PVC and all of them possess higher thermal stability as manifested in their characteristic thermograms. The softening characteristics imparted by PMMA were also reflected in their respective TMA curves. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 93: 2721–2730, 2004
New insights into the degradation mechanism of poly(vinyl chloride), based on the action of novel costabilizers. I.
Authors: Santamaría E. , Edge M. , Allen N. S. , Harvey H. B. , Mellor M. , Orchison J.
Published: July 2004

Recent legislation introduced to limit the use of heavy metal stabilizers (cadmium based) in poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) has necessitated the use of organic costabilizers as adjuncts to alternative main stabilizer systems (barium/zinc or calcium/zinc). It has been suggested in the literature that costabilizers substitute allylic chlorine by a C‐alkylation reaction; costabilizers act as reverse catalysts for the initiation of degradation by complexing the π‐electron sites that would otherwise have an activating affect on labile chlorines; and costabilisers destroy carbonylallyl active sites by proton donation. To rationalize this debate, the focus of this paper is to elucidate the type of interactions that occur between a model compound for PVC and the novel costabiliser N‐phenyl‐3‐acetylpyrrolidin‐2,4‐dione (P24D). The model compound chosen was 4‐chloro‐2‐hexene (4C2H), which simulates the in‐chain allylic chlorine impurities present in PVC and are considered the most labile defects present in the polymer. Results suggested that stabilisation involves concerted reactions involving metal complexes rather than a series of stepwise reactions. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 93: 2731–2743, 2004
Engineering properties of Novolac resin‐PMMA{poly(methyl methacrylate)} IPN system
Authors: Goswami S. , Chakrabarty D.
Published: July 2004

Full and semi interpenetrating polymer networks (IPNs) based on phenol‐formaldehyde resin (Novolac) and poly(methyl methacrylate) have been made by in situ sequential technique of IPN formation. These systems of different compositions were characterized with respect to their mechanical properties, such as, ultimate tensile strength (UTS), percentage elongation at break, modulus, and toughness. Thermal properties were studied by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). Extent of phase mixing of the two polymers was envisaged from the micrographs obtained by polarizing light microscopy (PLM). The effects of variation of the blend ratios on the above‐mentioned properties were examined. There was a decreasing trend of modulus and UTS with consequent increases in elongation at break and toughness for both types of IPNs with increase in proportions of PMMA. Lowering of glass transition temperatures (with respect to pure crosslinked Novolac resin) of the IPNs with increasing proportions of PMMA was observed, indicating a plasticizing influence of PMMA on the rigid and brittle matrix of phenolic resin. The TGA thermograms exhibit lowering in thermal stability of the IPNs with respect to pure phenolic resin in the regions of higher temperatures. With increase in proportion of PMMA the onset of degradation of the IPNs is shifted towards lower temperature zone. The surface morphology as revealed by PLM indicates distribution of discrete domains of PMMA in the phenolic resin matrix. The two phase interfaces are quite sharp at higher concentrations of PMMA. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 93: 2764–2774, 2004
Hydraulic resistance of rigid polyurethane foams. II. Effect of variation of surfactant, water, and nucleating agent concentrations on foam structure and properties
Authors: Mondal Pravakar , Khakhar D. V.
Published: July 2004

Hydraulic resistance of rigid polyurethane foams to penetration by water at high pressures is studied in this work in the context of buoyancy applications. Micron sized silica particles are used as nucleating agents. The effect of the variation of the concentrations of the surfactant, water, and nucleating agent on cell structure, closed cell content, and compressive modulus, is examined. Foams have densities in the range of 145 to 165 kg/m3. At a particular water concentration, with increase in the concentration of the surfactant, the window area of the cells becomes smaller and the hydraulic resistance of the foam increases. A cell window is the lamella of the foam material that separates two adjacent cells. With increase in the concentration of water keeping surfactant concentration constant, the average window area remains almost the same but the cell window area distribution becomes wider and the hydraulic resistance of the foams decreases. Foams made with silica have smaller cell windows but lower hydraulic resistance than that of the foams made without silica. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 93: 2830–2837, 2004
Synthesis and characterization of konjac glucomannan/poly(vinyl alcohol) interpenetrating polymer networks
Authors: Li Bin , Xie Bijun
Published: July 2004

Novel interpenetrating polymer networks (IPNs) coded as KP were synthesized successfully from poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) and konjac glucomannan (KGM) in the presence of glutaraldehyde as a crosslink agent. The transparent IPN films that were 40 μm thick were prepared by means of conventional solvent‐casting technique and dried at room temperature for 2 days. The structure and miscibility of the KP films were studied by Fourier transformed infrared spectra, scanning electron microscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, wide‐angle X‐ray diffraction, and ultraviolet visible spectroscopy (UV–Vis). The results indicated that strong intermolecular interaction caused by crosslink bonding between PVA and KGM occurred in the IPN films, resulting in wonderful miscibility when the reaction time is 4 h. The tensile strength, elongation at break, and moisture uptake was much higher than that of the pure PVA film, KGM film, and uncrosslinked blend films. In other words, the structure of IPN endowed the films with excellent performance, so the new material has promising applications to food package film and agricultural film because of its biodegradability. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 93: 2775–2780, 2004
A new secondary accelerator for the sulfur vulcanization of natural rubber latex and its effect on the rheological properties
Authors: Kurien Mary , Claramma N. M. , Kuriakose A. P.
Published: July 2004

The vulcanization of natural rubber (NR) latex can be effectively carried out at low temperatures by using binary accelerator systems containing thiourea (TU) as a secondary accelerator. It was reported that sulfur‐containing nucleophiles such as thiourea enable the primary accelerator to become effective even at low temperatures, indicating a nucleophilic reaction mechanism in such vulcanization reactions. In the present study, a derivative of thiourea [viz. aminoiminomethyl thiourea (AMT)], which is more nucleophilic than thiourea, is used as a secondary accelerator in the sulfur vulcanization of NR latex. One of the aims of this study was to give conclusive evidence for a nucleophilic reaction mechanism. The synergistic effect of the above thiourea derivative with primary accelerators such as tetramethylthiuram disulfide (TMTD), zinc diethyldithiocarbamate (ZDC), and cyclohexylbenzthiazyl sulfenamide (CBS) was studied at two different temperatures (viz. 100 and 120°C). These binary systems were found to be very effective in reducing the optimum cure time of the different mixes compared to control formulations containing TU. The optimum amount of the secondary accelerator required was also determined. Mechanical properties such as tensile strength and tear strength of the vulcanizates were also evaluated. Chemical characterization of the vulcanizates was carried out by determining the total crosslink density. Values of the cure characteristics evaluated support a nucleophilic reaction mechanism in these vulcanization reactions under review. The effect of this secondary accelerator on the rheological behavior of compounded latex is also studied and was found not to affect adversely. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 93: 2781–2789, 2004
Maleic acid grafting on low density polyethylene
Authors: Singh S. K. , Tambe S. P. , Samui A. B. , Kumar Dhirendra
Published: July 2004

Grafting of maleic acid (MAc) on low density polyethylene (LDPE) was carried out using γ‐irradiation technique. Preactivation method was used for grafting and a maximum grafting of 2.4% was obtained. Grafted polymer(LDPE‐g‐MAc) was characterized by chemical method, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), Thermo‐Gravimetric Analysis (TGA), Melt Flow Index (MFI), Tensile Property Measurement, Particle Size Analysis, and Hot Stage Optical Microscopy. Presence of carbonyl peak of high intensity, high acid value, and low melt flow index value confirmed grafting of MAc on LDPE. A marginal change in thermal and mechanical properties of LDPE was observed after grafting. Change in crystallization behavior of LDPE has been noticed after grafting. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 93: 2802–2807, 2004
New tetrafunctional epoxy resin system with increased shelf life
Authors: Jagadeesh K. S. , Shashikiran K.
Published: July 2004

Chlorine‐ and methyl‐substituted aromatic diamines based on diaminodiphenylmethane were epoxidized and characterized. The effect of different substituents on epoxidation was studied. The cure studies of the two new tetrafunctional resins in comparison with unsubstituted resin N,N,N′,N′‐tetraglycidyl‐4,4′‐diaminodiphenylmethane (TGDDM) was carried out by DSC with 3,3′‐dichloro‐4,4′diaminodiphenylmethane (o‐DCDDM; 30% w/w) as a common curing agent. The mechanical properties such as flexural, Izod impact, heat distortion temperature (HDT), of such cured neat resins were also studied. The results of the cure studies indicate that the substitution of the α‐hydrogen of the resin by chlorine or methyl group decreases the reactivity of the resin leading to an increase in the shelf life. This study also indicates that the functionality of the resin plays a pivotal role in the reactivity and thus the shelf life of an epoxy resin system. The results of the mechanical properties of the neat resin casts obtained by subjecting to a common cure schedule when compared with the unsubstituted resin showed a decrease in impact strength, which is obvious because of the presence of a bulky pendant group but the impact strength was higher than that of the TGOS30 resin system. Results of flexural strength of the different substituted neat resin casts did not show much of a deviation from that of the unsubstituted resin system. The HDT results indicate no significant difference in the values of the unsubstituted resin vis‐a‐vis with substituted resin systems. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 93: 2790–2801, 2004
A simple sulfuric acid pretreatment method to improve the adsorption of Cr(VI) by chitosan
Authors: Lasko C. L. , Adams K. H. , DeBenedet E. M. , West P. A.
Published: July 2004

An optimum pH of 5.0 for the adsorption of Cr6+ by chitosan was determined by using a stirred‐batch reactor method at constant pH. When a column containing chitosan was used to bind Cr6+ in a situation where pH could not be held constant because of pH changes caused by the chitosan itself, significant binding occurred only at solution pH 1 and 2. When chitosan was pretreated with sulfuric acid in a range of 7–70 mol % sulfuric acid : moles glucosamine residue, maximum binding occurred at pH 6.0. Under these conditions, a column containing 0.500 g acid‐treated chitosan (35% mole ratio) reduced the concentration of Cr6+ in 713 bed volumes of 25 ppm Cr6+ solution to ≤5 ppm in the effluent. A similar column of pretreated chitosan reduced Cr6+ concentration in 1042 bed volumes of industrial chromium plating rinse water initially containing 18 ppm Cr6+ to ≤5 ppm. Capacity experiment results indicated 60 mg chromium bound per gram of treated chitosan at pH 6.0. Commercial resin IRA‐67 was also investigated as a Cr6+ binding agent. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 93: 2808–2814, 2004
Isothermal and nonisothermal crystallization kinetics of MC nylon and polyazomethine/MC nylon composites
Authors: Qu Xiongwei , Ding Huili , Lu Jianying , Wang Yuexin , Zhang Liucheng
Published: July 2004

Crystallization kinetics of MC nylon (PA6) and polyazomethine (PAM)/MC nylon (PAM/PA6) both have been isothermally and nonisothermally investigated by different scanning calorimetry (DSC). Two stages of crystallization are observed, including primary crystallization and secondary crystallization. The Avrami equation and Mo's modified method can describe the primary stage of isothermal and nonisothermal crystallization of PA6 and PAM/PA6 composite, respectively. In the isothermal crystallization process, the values of the Avrami exponent are obtained, which range from 1.70 to 3.28, indicating an average contribution of simultaneous occurrence of various types of nucleation and growth of crystallization. The equilibrium melting point of PA6 is enhanced with the addition of a small amount of rigid rod polymer chains (PAM). In the nonisothermal crystallization process, we obtain a convenient method to analyze the nonisothermal crystallization kinetics of PA6 and PAM/PA6 composites by using Mo's method combined with the Avrami and Ozawa equations. In the meanwhile, the activation energies are determined to be −306.62 and −414.81 KJ/mol for PA6 and PAM/PA6 (5 wt %) composite in nonisothermal crystallization process from the Kissinger method. Analyzing the crystallization half‐time of isothermal and nonisothermal conditions, the over rate of crystallization is increased significantly in samples with a small content of PAM, which seems to result from the increased nucleation density due to the presence of PAM rigid rod chain polymer. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 93: 2844–2855, 2004
Application of enzymes and chitosan biopolymer to the antifelting finishing process
Authors: Onar Nurhan , Sariişik Merih
Published: July 2004

We surveyed environmentally friendly chemicals and mild processes that could be used to avoid the high absorbable organic halogen compounds (AOX) load and damage to the environment from the waste of wool plants. In this research, we sought to achieve a new zero‐AOX processing alternative to conventional processes such as chlorine/Hercosett processing and thus use environmentally friendly enzymes and chitosan as a biopolymer. We studied enzymatic, oxidative, and additive processes and various combinations of them to improve the shrink‐proofing and antifelting properties of wool. We performed our experiments with enzymatic treatments using commercial protease preparations, such as Perizym AFW, Alcalase 2.5L, Savinase 16L, and papain. The oxidative agents were hydrogen peroxide and sodium hypochloride, and the additive agents were based on polyurethane, polysiloxane, and silicone, as well as chitosan, a hydrophilic and natural polymer. We attempted to determine the agent or combination that best improved the shrink‐proofing properties. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 93: 2903–2908, 2004
Solid polymer electrolytes based on nanocomposites of ethylene oxide–epichlorohydrin copolymers and cellulose whiskers
Authors: Schroers Michael , Kokil Akshay , Weder Christoph
Published: July 2004

With the aim of developing ion‐conducting solid polymer electrolytes that combine high ionic conductivity with good mechanical properties, we prepared and investigated nanocomposites of LiClO4‐doped ethylene oxide‐epichlorohydrin (EO‐EPI) copolymers and nanoscale cellulose whiskers derived from tunicates. We show that homogeneous nanocomposite films based on EO‐EPI copolymers, LiClO4, and tunicate whiskers can be produced by solution‐casting THF/water mixtures comprising these components and subsequent compression‐molding. The Young's moduli of the nanocomposites thus produced are increased by a factor of up to >50, when compared to the copolymers, whereas the electrical conductivities experience only comparably small reductions upon introduction of the whiskers. The nanocomposite with the best combination of conductivity (1.6 × 10−4 S/cm at room temperature and a relative humidity of 75%) and Young's modulus (7 MPa) was obtained with a copolymer having an EO‐EPI ratio of 84 : 16, a whisker content of 10% w/w, and a LiClO4 concentration of 5.8% w/w. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 93: 2883–2888, 2004
UV curable pressure‐sensitive adhesives for fabricating semiconductors. II. The effect of functionality of acrylate monomers on the adhesive properties
Authors: Horigome Katsuhiko , Ebe Kazuyoshi , Kuroda Shin‐ichi
Published: July 2004

In an attempt to control the adhesive properties of acrylic copolymer‐based pressure‐sensitive adhesives, a series of multifunctional acrylate monomers were added and UV cured. The adhesive compound with a difunctional monomer had increased peel strength after UV curing. On the other hand, the compound with a tri‐ or more functional (polyfunctional) monomer had markedly decreased strength after UV curing. Those adhesives containing any polyfunctional monomer also showed much higher storage modulus than an adhesive containing a difunctional monomer. The greater volume contraction of UV‐cured polyfunctional monomer suggested microvoids at the interface between the adhesive layer and the adherent, resulting in poor strength. Estimated values of the peel strength of UV‐cured adhesives according to the theoretical equations proved that the strength is approximately inversely proportional to the elastic moduli. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 93: 2889–2895, 2004
Mechanical properties and water vapor permeability of thin film from corn hull arabinoxylan
Authors: Zhang Pingyi , Whistler Roy L.
Published: July 2004

Isolated corn hull arabinoxylan was dissolved in water and provided a clear solution. Plasticizer (glycerol, propylene glycol, or sorbitol) was added to the arabinoxylan solution at 0–20 wt % (film dry weight), which was cast into stable films. Film thickness ranged from 22 to 32 μm. Mechanical properties, moisture content, and water vapor permeability (WVP) were studied for the arabinoxylan‐based films as a function of plasticizer concentration. Measured data for the corn hull arabinoxylan–based films were 13–18 wt % moisture content, 10–61 MPa tensile strength, 365–1320 MPa modulus, 6–12% elongation, and 0.23–0.43 × 10−10 g m−1 Pa−1 s−1 water vapor permeability. Plasticized arabinoxylan films produced in this study had lower WVPs than those of unplasticized films, which is likely attributable to the phenomenon known as antiplasticization. Scanning electron micrographs showed a homogeneous structure on film surfaces. Films containing sorbitol had the best moisture barrier properties. When grapes were coated with arabinoxylan and arabinoxylan/sorbitol films, weight loss rates of the fruit decreased by 18 and 41%, respectively, after 7 days. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 93: 2896–2902, 2004
AT4 receptor binding in the developing rabbit
Authors: Burns Gilbert A. , Ann‐Marie Thiessen , Jodie Hanesworth , Harding Joseph W.
Published: July 2004

The binding of the AT4‐specific analog, divalinal‐AngIV (Dival), was studied in rabbit fetuses of various gestational ages. Saturation isotherm and competition data from selected tissues indicate that fetal Dival binding sites are saturable and specific for AT4 ligands. Autoradiographs revealed that binding was present in all the specimens examined. The peripheral nerves, kidneys, and heart were particularly heavily labeled. Labeling of some tissues, such as forming bones, was not constant as gestational age increased. Other tissues, including multilocular fat, sinus hairs, and enamel organs of nascent teeth, exhibited substantial binding as these tissues developed. © 2004 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
JNK MAP kinase is involved in the humoral immune response of the greater wax moth larvae Galleria mellonella
Authors: Wojda Iwona , Kowalski Patryk , Jakubowicz Teresa
Published: July 2004

We investigated the participation of MAP kinases in the response of Galleria mellonella larvae to immune challenge. JNK MAP kinase was activated in fat body 10–15 min after LPS injection in vivo. The level of JNK activation was time‐ and LPS dosage‐dependent. JNK MAP kinase isolated from cell‐free extract of fat bodies dissected from immune stimulated larvae phosphorylated c‐Jun protein in vitro. The activity of Gm JNK kinase was abolished in the presence of the JNK specific inhibitor SP600125. Our data indicate a correlation between JNK phosphorylation and induction of antimicrobial activity in the insect hemolymph after immune stimulation. Hemolymph from larvae pre‐treated with JNK specific inhibitor SP600125 showed a reduced level of antibacterial activity after LPS injection. JNK inhibition by SP600125 abolished antibacterial activity of the in vitro culture of G. mellonella fat body. Finally, we also show a correlation between JNK‐dependent immune response of G. mellonella larvae and elevated temperature. Arch. Insect Biochem. Physiol. 56:143–154, 2004. © 2004 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Bombyx mori prothoracicostatic peptide inhibits ecdysteroidogenesis in vivo
Authors: Liu Xin , Tanaka Yoshiaki , Song Qisheng , Xu Bujin , Hua Yuejin
Published: July 2004

Bombyx prothoracicostatic peptide (Bom‐PTSP) is a brain neuropeptide that has recently been reported to have in vitro inhibitory activity to prothoracicotropic hormone (PTTH)‐stimulated ecdysteroid biosynthesis in the prothoracic gland of the silkworm, Bombyx mori. In the present report, Bom‐PTSP has been shown to significantly decrease hemolymph ecdysteroid titer in the fifth instar larvae when Bom‐PTSP was injected into the fifth instar day 8 silkworm larvae, resulting in significant delay in spinning behavior. This is the first evidence that Bom‐PTSP inhibits in vivo ecdysteroidogenesis in the silkworm. Arch. Insect Biochem. Physiol. 56:155–161, 2004. © 2004 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Active sites in the carboxyl‐terminal region of the laminin α chain in Drosophila neuronal cell spreading
Authors: Takagi Yasumitsu , Nomizu Motoyoshi , Ui‐Tei Kumiko , Tokushige Naoko , Hirohashi Setsuo
Published: July 2004

An established Drosophila neuronal cell line (BG2‐c6) proved to be useful to analyze laminin‐mediated cell spreading and signal transduction [Takagi et al. (2000) Biochem Biophys Res Commun 270:482–487]. Here, we report, in addition to the whole molecule, the truncated α chain of Drosophila laminin (containing the entire carboxyl‐terminal globular domain) and two dodecapeptides corresponding to the cell‐binding sites identified in the α1 chain of mouse laminin were also active to stimulate BG2‐c6 cell spreading. Our previous study [Takagi et al. (1996) J Biol Chem 271:18074–18081] revealed that these recombinant protein and synthetic peptides promoted neurite outgrowth in the primary cell culture system prepared from Drosophila embryo. Therefore, the similar effects by these proteins and peptides suggest the presence of a common mechanism of laminin and neuronal cell interaction working in both primary and established cells. One of the two active peptides contains the sequence SIKVGV. Its murine counterpart carries the sequence SIKVAV by which the interaction of laminin and cells is mediated. Furthermore, laminin‐dependent BG2‐c6 cell spreading was inhibited by heparin. This observation suggests that cell surface glycoproteins participate in the interaction of laminin and BG2‐c6 cells. Arch. Insect Biochem. Physiol. 56:162–169, 2004. © 2004 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Fatty acyl‐CoA elongation in Blatella germanica integumental microsomes
Authors: Juárez M. Patricia
Published: July 2004

Insect cuticular hydrocarbons are synthesized de novo in integumental tissue through the concerted action of fatty acid synthases (FASs), fatty acyl‐CoA elongases, a reductase, and a decarboxylase to produce hydrocarbons and CO2. Elongation of fatty acyl‐CoAs to very long chain fatty acids was studied in the integumental microsomes of the German cockroach, Blatella germanica. Incubation of [1‐14C]palmitoyl‐CoA, malonyl‐CoA, and NADPH resulted in the production of 18‐CoA with minor amounts of C20, C22, C24, C30, and C32 labeled acyl‐CoA moieties. Similar experiments with [1‐14C]stearoyl‐CoA rendered C20‐CoA as the major product, and lesser amounts of C22 and C24‐CoAs were also detected. After solubilization of the microsomal FAS, kinetic parameters were determined radiochemically or by measuring NADPH consumption. The reaction velocity was linear for up to 3 min incubation time, and with a protein concentration up to 0.025 μg/μl. The effect of the chain length on the reaction velocity was compared for palmitoyl‐CoA, stearoyl‐CoA, and eicosanoyl‐CoA. The optimal substrate concentration was 10 μM for C16‐CoA, between 8 and 12 μM for C18‐CoA, and close to 3 μM for C20‐CoA. In vivo hydrocarbon biosynthesis was inhibited from 55.5 to 72.5% in the presence of 1 mM trichloroacetic acid, a known inhibitor of elongation reactions. Arch. Insect Biochem. Physiol. 56:170–178, 2004. © 2004 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.