bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
European Social Democracy
Authors: Hopkin Jonathan
Published: March 2013

European social democracy is at once a political theory, a political movement, and a set of institutions. As a political theory, European social democracy has its origins in the development of the workers’ movement, inspired by Marxist and utopian socialist ideas, in the second half of the 19th century. This movement spawned political parties with the label “social democratic,” “socialist,” or “labor” in practically every European country, and these parties mobilized industrial and agricultural workers as well as intellectuals in opposition to capitalism and political authoritarianism. Social democracy as a distinct political force emerged out of the split in the workers’ movement between revolutionary socialists and those who sought to achieve socialism through a parliamentary route. This split was formalized in the wake of the Bolshevik revolution in Russia, with revolutionaries creating separate Communist parties while the rump of the workers’ movement adopted a gradualist or revisionist strategy of reforming capitalism through democratic institutions. Social democratic parties went on to establish themselves as mainstream political forces, participating in government or forming the main opposition, in almost every European country. Where social democrats were electorally successful, they were able to promote institutions such as the welfare state and corporatist bargaining in the workplace, and in some countries they brought parts of the private economy under government control. By the end of the 20th century, however, many European social democrats adopted increasingly promarket stances, arguing that globalization and technological change had rendered the classic social democratic model obsolete.
Israeli Politics
Authors: Rahat Gideon , Shilon Avi
Published: March 2013

Israel is a parliamentary democracy that was established in 1948. However, the foundations of its political system were laid before the state was established, in the framework of the Zionist movement and the Jewish community in Palestine, especially at the time of the British Mandate (1920–1948). Israel is a multi-cleavage society. The main rift is between Jews (about 75 percent of the population, as of 2019) and Arab/Palestinian citizens (about 20 percent). Prominent rifts also exist among the Jews: the religious–secular rift, the intra-Jewish communal rift (Ashkenazi-Mizrachi), the ideological rift (left-right), and the rift between new and veteran immigrants and the natives. Partly as a result of the highly proportional electoral system, these social rifts are translated into multiparty politics and coalition governments.
Proletariat (Working Class)
Authors: Kaya Yunus
Published: March 2013

The prevalence of wage labor has been a defining characteristic of modern societies. Following the Industrial Revolution, the people who sold their labor for survival in the newly emerging modern societies were usually labeled as the “working class” or the “proletariat.” Originally used by Romans to label citizens with very little or no property, the term “proletariat” was adopted by Karl Marx to categorize the working class in the newly industrialized European societies, and since then the two terms have been used interchangeably. The initial dominance of industrial work made the working class synonymous with manual work. However, as service-sector employment expanded and the number of people employed in white-collar occupations increased, the definition of “working class” also changed. Today, although there are serious debates and disagreements about the definition of “working class,” or even its very existence, many scholars define the term as comprising people who earn their living through wage labor, who do not own any assets or capital, and who do not possess workplace authority. Over the years, scholars have argued that working classes differ from the rest of the societies they belong to with their politics, culture, family structures, and the conditions they live in. However, it is also not possible to talk about a single and unified working class in any society, as working classes are divided through the lines of gender, race, and ethnicity. Today, working classes all over the world are struggling with the challenges of globalization and new technologies, although the specific challenges they face differ in developed and less developed countries.
Online Campaigning
Authors: Stromer-Galley Jennifer , Sheinheit Ian
Published: March 2013

The research about online campaigning focuses primarily on the question of how, and whether, using information and communication technologies (ICTs) will reshape the political landscape, especially in Western democracies like the United States. Some of the research examines the ways that political campaigns are using or failing to use the Internet and its potentially democratizing affordances to engage more people more deeply in the electoral process. Other research examines the ways that citizens use or fail to use the Internet to get more involved in political campaigns. The results so far suggest a complicated picture. On the one hand, political elites, such as candidates, are increasingly using the Internet to engage supporters and mobilize them for the benefit of the campaign. On the other hand, there is evidence of increased political polarization, with those interested in politics becoming more so, and those uninterested in politics becoming even less involved and knowledgeable about politics. The research that exists focuses on established Western democracies, especially English-speaking countries. In addition, little research exists about online campaigning in countries politically organized in other ways, like dictatorships, in part because opportunities to use the Internet for political expression by elites or by citizens are limited, either because of poor Internet diffusion or because of authoritarian systems that limit free expression and dialogue between the government and the governed.
Media Sociology
Authors: Waisbord Silvio
Published: March 2013

This article offers a review of key works in media sociology and identifies key themes in sociological research that have contributed to media studies. Given the interdisciplinary nature of media/communication analysis, establishing what falls within media sociology and drawing clear-cut distinctions between sociological and other approaches are not easy tasks. Here, media sociology is understood as research that situates communication and media research within the dynamics of social forces and links them to questions about order, conflict, identity, institutions, stratification, authority, community, and power. The origins of mass communication/media research are grounded in sociology. Not only was it sociologists who charted key themes in the field of communication/media studies, particularly in the United States in the 1920s, but foundational research was concerned with core sociological questions, such as the integrative role of the media in the transition from traditional to modern societies and the community-building dimensions of the media. Around the time of World War II, US media sociology experienced two transitions. Geographically, the center of studies moved from the University of Chicago to Columbia and Harvard Universities, and the research foci changed from news and media to public opinion and mass communication. Analytically, the focus shifted from the relation between media and modern society to questions about war propaganda and persuasion. Given the focus on the dynamics of public opinion, sociological questions about personal and media influence moved to the forefront, and interest in issues related to media and community faded. With financial support from the US government and private foundations, public opinion attracted considerable attention from media and communication researchers in the 1950s. However, as questions embedded in social psychology and behavioral research gained currency, sociological approaches, particularly those focused on structural issues, gradually lost centrality. This shift indicated the beginning of the rift between sociology and media/communication studies in the United States. Sociological theories and questions increasingly became less relevant for mass communication research. The historical trajectory of media sociology has been different in Europe, however. It has not had the focus on public opinion research and media effects that it has in the United States. Instead, it has been grounded in different theoretical paradigms and research questions. Traditionally, it has been more concerned with questions about class, power, institutions, and social differentiation.
E-democracy/E-participation
Authors: Moss Giles , Wojcik Stéphanie
Published: March 2013

The term “e-democracy” refers to the relationship between democracy and new media and information and communication technology (ICT). The nature of this relationship is a matter of considerable debate both empirically and normatively. Although many commentators view ICT as a democratizing force, others suggest that the democratic effects of ICT are minimal or perhaps even deleterious. Writers also disagree in normative terms about what type of democracy ICT should be used to support. Like democracy, e-democracy is a complex and contested concept, and a number of different models of e-democracy have been advocated. Reflecting these different views, e-democracy may encompass a wide range of democratic practices and is by no means limited to the formal institutions of representative government and politics. However, the term “e-democracy” is most often used to refer to activities in and around the sphere of conventional politics; this narrower definition is given primacy here. Defined as such, the field of e-democracy includes the conceptualization and empirical study of key practices such as voting, rulemaking and consultation, deliberation, political campaigning and party activities, petitioning, and information provision and open government.
Military Intelligence
Authors: Ferris John R.
Published: March 2013

The study of military intelligence lies at the intersection of “military” and “intelligence” history. The first is a rich and ancient field; the second is new, and smaller. The intersection between them is problematic. Much of the best military history takes intelligence for granted, while the strongest works about intelligence often do not address military topics. Discussions of military intelligence, moreover, touch on broader issues, like strategy, command, and communications. Works on military intelligence are not uniformly mature. Hence, narrow studies often are the best account available of important issues, even though they do not cover a whole topic. Articles and anthologies are more useful than in most areas of military history. Rather than discuss weak studies about intelligence in important fields of military history, this bibliography aims to describe the best literature on military intelligence. Thus, it has special sections on areas where work on military intelligence is strong, and smaller sections on periods or topics where the study is weak, no matter how intrinsically important the latter may be. Unfortunately, many important areas of military intelligence have received little attention, while a disproportionate number of good works focus on the Anglo-American experiences in the two world wars, which distorts understanding of the phenomenon as a whole. Sometimes, a good military history which pays respectable attention to intelligence is the best work available; or, alternatively, as with psychological warfare, a few old books offer a better picture than hundreds of more recent, but more narrow, articles. Throughout the field, far more than with other areas of military history, one must take unusual care in avoiding bad books, which are legion. This bibliography aims not merely to guide readers toward good books, but also away from bad ones; to note not just strengths, but also to suggest areas where more research is desirable, and possible. Often, these works should be seen as case studies, which illustrate the experiences not just of one service or country, but many of both. Most of these works represent first-generation scholarship. There are as yet few cases of second-generation historiography, replete with revisionism and debate. Such cases will be noted. This guide also focuses on works written in the English language.
Music Video
Authors: Straw William , Bonde Korsgaard Mathias
Published: March 2013

Music video emerged as the object of academic writing shortly after the introduction in the United States of MTV (Music Television) in 1981. From the beginning, music video was claimed as the focus of academic study by different disciplines or subfields, leading to evident tensions and territorial disputes in early scholarship. For television scholars in the 1980s, music television networks (such as MTV) were seen to confirm the sense that television, with its fragmentary forms and repetitive structures, was the quintessentially postmodern medium. Scholars of popular music, less drawn to claims about music video’s postmodern character, were more concerned with the fate of music within a cultural form that bound it to moving images. This emphasis on image, some argued, threatened the autonomy of music and facilitated its commodification and co-optation. As academic writing on music video developed in the 1980s and 1990s, it followed a range of directions corresponding to different disciplines and specializations. Scholars of media economics and institutions studied the ways in which music video production had come to be integrated within the functioning of the music industries. At the same time, and amid widespread public outcry over the sexual and violent content of music video, numerous studies examined the treatment of women or racial minorities within music videos. Some of this work was interpretive or qualitative in character, drawing on the increasingly popular methodologies and political impulses of cultural studies, which spread across the humanities during this period. Other academic studies of music video content were quantitative, involving content analyses of selected samples of music videos or statistical measurements of the responses of viewers to particular kinds of content in controlled situations. As the novelty of music videos declined in the late 1990s and their distribution came to favor the Internet more than specialty television networks, the popularity of music video as a distinct object of study likewise seemed diminished. This decline in the influence or novelty of music video networks was hastened as well by the move of networks such as MTV toward “long-form” programming (such as reality programs or documentary series), which reduced the time devoted to video clips. Within scholarship on music video, the most notable trend since 2000 has been to situate music videos within broader contexts involving the audiovisual treatment of music and the changing nature of music video in the digital era. A range of works have placed music videos within a broader history of encounters between music and audiovisual entertainment media such as cinema or television. Among the most important of these studies have been those that study the audiovisual media systems outside the Western world, most notably in different regions of Asia. The studies of music video in the digital age have explored the many formal and institutional changes that have occurred following the transition of music video from television to online distribution, from MTV to YouTube.
Peacekeeping in International Law
Authors: White Nigel D.
Published: March 2013

Peacekeeping is a development of the Cold War and a creation largely of the United Nations. The deployment of such forces was not envisaged by the UN Charter of 1945, but peacekeeping has proved vital in securing a minimum level of peace and security in trouble spots around the world. Although new in its day, the “traditional” type of peacekeeping force first deployed in Suez in 1956 reflected traditional, or classical, principles of international law in that it was based on the consent of the host state or states, and even though it appeared to constitute military intervention, its respect for sovereignty was reflected in the neutrality of such forces. The trinity of peacekeeping principles of consent, impartiality, and nonuse of aggressive force very much reflected those fundamental principles of international law—of sovereignty, nonintervention, and nonuse of force found in Article 2 of the UN Charter. However, Article 2 (paragraph 7) and Chapter VII (Article 42) of the UN Charter both recognize that the UN Security Council (UNSC) has exceptional powers to undertake enforcement action, which has led to, on occasions, peacekeeping forces being given more coercive mandates. The dialectic between consensual peacekeeping and its more belligerent variant was established as early as the second full peacekeeping force in the Congo in 1960–1964, and it is currently back on the agenda as the United Nations struggles to implement the “protection of civilians” agenda through coercive mandates given to UN forces. Coercive mandates mean that peacekeepers are increasingly crossing the line to become war fighters, or “combatants” in the language of international humanitarian law, causing confusion as to the legal status of peacekeepers, who are traditionally not seen as legitimate targets; indeed, attacks on them remain prohibited. Even consensual post–Cold War peacekeeping has moved away considerably from the traditional buffer forces of the Cold War, evolving in the early 1990s toward complex civilian-military operations designed to build the peace as well as to keep it, and including within its structure military, police, humanitarian, and other civilian elements. A vast amount of literature exists on peacekeeping, a significant part of which is listed in the Oxford Bibliographies in International Relations article “Peacekeeping” by Erik K. Rundquist. The focus here is on the legal aspects of peacekeeping, and the overlap with the bibliography by Rundquist is kept to a minimum.
Piracy
Authors: Cormier Monique , Simpson Gerry
Published: March 2013

International law, it might be argued, is a legal system directed toward the defeat or suppression of a category of violators known as “enemies of mankind,” or hosti humanis generis. Sometimes these are war criminals, sometimes they are terrorists or slave traders. The original enemy of mankind was the “pirate.” Piracy gave rise to a highly specialized form of international jurisdiction known as universal jurisdiction. Because pirates were a threat to the global order (particularly global sea trade), or because they committed particularly heinous acts, or because their acts were committed in a place beyond the territorial jurisdiction or sovereignty of any state (different reasons have been adduced at different times), they were subject to the jurisdiction of any state that happened to identify them, engage with them, and capture them. Thus, a pirate could be prosecuted in every state’s courts. The contemporary law of piracy, embodied in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, has defined piracy as an act of violence or depredation committed on the high seas by a private actor acting for private ends. This distinguishes piracy from naval warfare or recognized belligerency on the high seas, but it has complicated efforts to apply the law of piracy to terrorists (who, after all, act for political ends, and most commonly in the territory of sovereign states) and it has meant that acts of piracy committed in the territorial waters of states are not subject to the international law of piracy (and the expansive forms of jurisdiction that accompany it). Therefore, attempts to assimilate terrorism to piracy have fallen foul of the technical rules governing traditional piracy. Likewise, these same rules frustrated initial efforts to confront the growing problem of traditional piracy carried out in places other than the high seas. The “international terrorist” and the Somali pirate, then, pose different problems for international law. In the case of terrorists, states have adopted ad hoc and controversial methods comparable to those used against pirates on the high seas. In the case of Somalia, the UN Security Council has authorized an international naval response to pirate attacks that permits foreign naval vessels to use force against pirates within Somali territorial waters.
Multilateral Environmental Agreements
Authors: Fauchald Ole Kristian
Published: March 2013

Although multilateral agreements to protect environmental goods have existed for more than a century, the development of multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs) as we know them in the 21st century is a recent phenomenon stretching back approximately four to five decades. The selections in this bibliography focus on global MEAs. They provide references to literature on regional MEAs in fields where such treaties are particularly important. There is no generally accepted definition of MEAs. This bibliography builds on a rather broad definition, including treaties that at least partly aim to protect the environment. Some fields of international law have been extensively discussed in relation to MEAs. Literature on the relationships between MEAs and human rights, trade, and investment has been included in the following sections. The UN Environment Programme is the main UN organ responsible for the environment and has initiated negotiations of core MEAs. In addition, many specialized agencies and other organs of the United Nations have initiated MEAs and act as hosts to the institutional structures established through MEAs. The following sections are not categorized according to the institutional affiliation of MEAs. They also do not specifically focus on customary international environmental law (IEL). But there are close links between customary law and MEAs. For example, there have been significant efforts to codify customary IEL within some areas, particularly in state responsibility and the duty to cooperate to prevent environmental harm. The most significant elements of customary IEL fall within the scope of this bibliography. MEAs can be described, examined, and analyzed from a broad range of perspectives. The main perspective of this bibliography is international law. In addition, important contributions from other social sciences, in particular political science, have been referenced. Given the fragmented nature of IEL and the numerous MEAs, we can only include a few references for each topic. Consequently, the following citations will almost exclusively refer to monographs and edited books. Articles or publications written by treaty bodies, host institutions, nongovernmental organizations, or states are only referenced in exceptional cases. Moreover, as IEL is a young field of law, substantive and procedural rules are still evolving in many areas. Consequently, the following citations focus on recent and updated literature in most areas. For practical purposes, they have generally been limited to literature in English.
Visual Culture
Authors: Andres Sophia
Published: March 2013

Encompassing such diverse disciplines and fields as fine and applied arts, art, literature, science, photography, theater, and early cinema, Victorian visual culture is far ranging, complex, and multifaceted. The invention of illustrated press and photography disseminated information about the arts and sciences, England, and the colonies. Scholars such as Kate Flint (see Flint 2000, cited under General Overviews) explore the problematics of external and internal vision and their impact on representations and interpretations. A study of visual culture must take into consideration key Victorian figures who addressed the subject in several of their works as well as modern critics on Victorian artists, movements, and genres; representations of race and orientalism; modern visual technologies; visual perception; and psychology. General overviews of the subject include historical accounts of the Great Exhibition and the establishment of national galleries, while others deal with broad surveys of the visual arts and their impact on various aspects of Victorian culture. Theoretical perspectives on the subject vary from multidisciplinary approaches to poetry, science, art, architecture, politics, and history to discussions of the coalescence of the verbal and the visual in the novel and in poetry, as well as the significance of the relationship between text and illustrations. Covering the rise of literary painting, some works examine the market dynamics, periodical criticism, and poetic influences on Victorian art, while others examine the reciprocal forces that impacted literature and art or the interdisciplinary connections between images and words in illustration. Quite a few works are devoted to women artists, their works, their training, and the conditions they had to overcome to be accepted by mainstream culture. Yet other studies, devoted to landscape painting, explain the Victorian nature aesthetic or the problematic relationship between English landscape painting and socioeconomic changes during the Industrial Revolution. Visual culture and science is the topic of several recent studies ranging from the role of illustrations in the works of Charles Darwin to his relationship with artists and photographers as well as Darwin’s influence on literature, art, and culture. Attributing the origins of the cinema and the theater to the Victorian obsession with the visual, scholars also discuss the social concerns that these forms of visual culture represent.
Domesticity
Authors: Cohen Monica F.
Published: March 2013

Domesticity refers to the lived experience of private life, the material dimensions of the home, and an ideology that imaginatively organizes complicated and often contested ideas about privacy, work, gender identity, family, subject formation, socioeconomic class, civilizing morality, and cultural representation. For the Victorians it provided a language and a narrative for making an individual’s relationship to social life and to social structure intelligible and meaningful. Writers from a wide range of critical commitments and methodological approaches (feminist, Marxist, Foucauldian, New Historicist, psychoanalytic, structuralist—often in ingenious and provocative combinations) have illuminated the complex space where the human subject encounters ideology. Victorian domestic ideology itself pivots on two central components: the binary logic of separate spheres whereby the feminine domain of private life and feeling opposes the masculine domain of public life and work, and the figure of the middle-class domestic woman endowed both with a moral authority that derives from her naturally self-sacrificial spirit and with a socioeconomic authority that rests on the management of a household and the representation of familial virtues. To say that domesticity occupies a central place in Victorian culture is probably to understate its discursive ubiquity. Newspapers, novels, sermons, political debates, not to mention a flood of conduct books and domestic manuals, attest to the Victorians’ preoccupation with the material, spiritual, philosophical, and political dimensions of private life. That this apprehension derives from the products of a robust print culture nevertheless emphasizes the sense in which domesticity named an available and yet evolving discourse.
Allen Ginsberg
Authors: Theado Matt
Published: March 2013

Irwin Allen Ginsberg (b. 1926–d. 1997) was born in Newark, New Jersey, to a high school teacher father who published poetry and a Russian-born mother who retained her communist roots. Both her sympathy for the labor class and her gradual mental decay deeply affected Ginsberg in his youth. Intending to study law, Ginsberg enrolled at Columbia University in 1943, but he soon turned to literature, taking classes from Mark Van Doren and Lionel Trilling. During his Columbia years, Ginsberg met Lucien Carr, William Burroughs, Jack Kerouac, John Clellon Holmes, and Neal Cassady, artistic influences and principal constituents of what came to be known as the Beat Generation. In 1948 Ginsberg claimed to have heard William Blake’s voice, and from then on Ginsberg emphasized the visionary aspects of his poetry. He experimented with drugs, sexuality, and meditation throughout his life. In 1949 he was arrested in connection with a series of robberies, though he did not take part. In lieu of jail, he was sent to a psychiatric institute, where he met Carl Solomon, a key figure in Ginsberg’s poem “Howl.” Ginsberg’s public breakthrough came in San Francisco, in 1955, when he read the first part of “Howl” before an audience as part of an event that launched the San Francisco Poetry Renaissance. The City Lights publisher, Lawrence Ferlinghetti, published Howl and Other Poems (1956), for which he was arrested by San Francisco police on charges of selling obscene material; the following trial, which resulted in an acquittal, catapulted Ginsberg to international notoriety. Although Howl and Other Poems remains Ginsberg’s best-known book, many readers consider Kaddish and Other Poems, 1958–1960 (1961), dedicated to the memory of his mother, to be his best work. His Collected Poems, 1947–1997 (2006) displays the scope of his writing career and exhibits the traits for which he is known: lines often based on breath rather than on metric forms, subject matter that ranges from intensely personal to overtly political, forthright candor, and a sometimes shocking frankness.
John Smith
Authors: Boelhower William
Published: March 2013

Captain John Smith (b. 1580–d. 1631) won honors and experience as a volunteer soldier on the continent before joining the first group of Virginia colonists who founded James Fort in 1607. If this colony survived to become England’s first permanent settlement in the Americas, it was largely due to the initiative, cunning, and military discipline of Smith, who became president of the colony, its major author, and a legendary figure of early modern letters. Although his achievements as “cape merchant” (trader) at James Fort and diplomatic liaison between Powhatan and the colony are universally acknowledged, his self-fashioned and contested reputation is due in large part to his own writings and rewritings, beginning with the autobiographical letter A True Relation (1608), written in Jamestown, and followed by later works such as Map of Virginia (1612), New England’s Trials (1620), the ambitious magnum opus The Generall Historie of Virginia, New-England, and the Summer Isles (1624), and the comprehensive autobiographical True Travels published a year before his death in 1631. Smith filled many roles and played many parts in his enterprising lifetime: soldier of fortune, slave, world traveler, sailor, adventurer, president of the Jamestown colony, diplomat to the Algonquian tribes in Tidewater Virginia, historian, geographer/cartographer, ethnographer, linguist, promoter of colonization to New England, compiler, and autobiographer. Such a rich and complex life has led scholars and critics to portray him in contradictory ways: epic hero versus romantic failure, exemplary Elizabethan versus prototypical American, or soldier and man of action versus thinker and fabulator.
Clinical Psychology
Authors: Berg Joanna , Ammirati Rachel , Lilienfeld Scott O.
Published: March 2013

Clinical psychology is a broad discipline that focuses on the assessment, diagnosis, etiology (causes), treatment, and prevention of mental disorders. Many clinical psychologists work in practice settings and perform psychotherapy, assessment, or both; others conduct research and teach in academic settings, such as colleges, universities, and medical centers; still others perform a mix of clinical work, research, and teaching. Today, clinical psychology is a vibrant profession that has contributed substantially to our understanding of the measurement, diagnosis, causes, and treatment of a host of psychological conditions, including mood, anxiety, personality, psychotic, eating, and sleep disorders. More than two hundred clinical psychology graduate programs are recognized as formally accredited by the American Psychological Association (APA), and two major models of training continue to influence the field. The scientist-practitioner, or Boulder, model was launched following a 1949 conference at the University of Colorado at Boulder. This model, spearheaded by the psychologist David Shakow, is intended to train students broadly to become scientists, clinicians, or both, and encourages them to apply scientific thinking and knowledge to all aspects of their work. Most Boulder-model programs award the PhD degree. The scholar-professional, or Vail, model was launched following a 1973 conference in Vail, Colorado. This model substantially deemphasizes research training in the education of graduate students, and instead focuses on providing students with the knowledge and skills to operate as thoughtful and scholarly psychotherapists and assessors in clinical settings. Most Vail-model programs award the PsyD (doctor of psychology) degree. More recently, a third model, the clinical scientist model, was introduced by Indiana University clinical psychologist Richard McFall in the early 1990s. Although the meaning of this model continues to evolve, the clinical scientist model strongly emphasizes scientific training throughout all components of clinical psychology graduate-school programs. It insists that regardless of whether students become therapists, researchers, teachers, or consultants upon their graduation, they must be rigorous scientific thinkers. In 2008 proponents of the clinical scientist model initiated a new system for accrediting clinical psychology graduate programs; this new system, called the Psychological Clinical Science Accreditation System (PCSAS), will only accredit clinical psychology graduate programs that train rigorous clinical psychology researchers. The full impact of the PCSAS system on clinical psychology graduate training, and on the profession of clinical psychology at large, remains to be seen.
Intelligence
Authors: Esping Amber , Plucker Jonathan , Pei Mary
Published: March 2013

What is human intelligence? There is no indisputable answer to this fundamental question, and there will not be an attempt to define it here. How does one measure intelligence? There is little consensus here, either. Questions about defining and measuring human intelligence captivated ancient philosophers centuries ago, and they continue to intrigue researchers, clinicians, educators, and students today. This long history and diversity of viewpoints poses special challenges to scholars and students who are attempting to sift through the research and commentary on intelligence theory and testing. This article is designed to serve as a guide for students who are interested in learning about intelligence questions and controversies from the past, and for scholars who desire to take these questions and controversies in future directions. The aim is to offer a selective, balanced, and accessible guide to some of the best and most useful literature pertaining to human intelligence theory. Whenever possible, newer and cutting-edge publications have been included. However, classic and foundational works are also listed, as newer research necessarily builds on seminal ideas. This bibliography is not meant to be exhaustive; rather, it is a starting place for beginning an investigation of particular topics. The resources here are merely scaffolding for building a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of intelligence theory and testing. This updated version of the original entry includes some new references and a small section on Artificial Intelligence. Although the majority of this text focuses on human intelligence, the increasing overlap in attention to both human intelligence and artificial intelligence (e.g., J. M. Spector and S. Ma. 2019. Inquiry and critical thinking skills for the next generation: From artificial intelligence back to human intelligence. Smart Learning Environments 6.1: 1–11) may interest some readers.
Depression
Authors: Bylsma Lauren M. , Panaite Vanessa
Published: March 2013

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) is a highly debilitating, chronic, recurrent, and prevalent disorder. This article provides an overview and references covering several key aspects of the disorder. We include discussion of epidemiology, diagnosis and assessment, developmental course and risk factors, treatment, and important associated features (behavioral, interpersonal, biological, neurological, cognitive, emotional, and suicidal behavior) of the disorder. In order to focus the scope of this article, we have chosen to focus primarily on MDD, as it is the most prevalent and well studied of the mood disorders. While depression symptoms occur along a continuum with subclinical levels occurring in the general population, and there are important correlates associated with subclinical levels of depression, we will focus on the clinical levels of depression associated with MDD for the purposes of this article.
Psychology and Law
Authors: Heilbrun Kirk , Greene Edie
Published: March 2013

The field of psychology and law involves the application of scientific, clinical, and policy aspects of psychology to issues that arise in the legal system. Diverse perspectives are encompassed within psychology and law, including most of the major subdivisions in psychology (e.g., cognitive, developmental, industrial/organizational, and clinical). So, for example, cognitive psychologists may examine the reliability of eyewitness memory; developmental psychologists may assess the impact of maltreatment and abuse on social and cognitive development; industrial/organizational psychologists may investigate how workplace conditions contribute to the incidence of sexual harassment; and clinical forensic psychologists may provide assessment and treatment services to courts and attorneys, law enforcement agencies, or offenders in correctional settings or under court supervision. In each of these instances, psychologists use research and/or treatment protocols relevant to their specialization to address specific questions that emerge in the law. This article is organized around the intersection of those traditional subdivisions of psychology and the law. The field of psychology and law values contributions from professionals in a variety of different settings including university and research organizations, clinical practice, law enforcement agencies, correctional institutions, and other governmental and nonprofit agencies. It also values the contributions of professionals from across the globe, and associations devoted to psychology and law now exist in the United States, Canada, Europe, Australia, and New Zealand. Several specialized journals and book series are devoted exclusively to psycholegal matters. Undergraduate courses in psychology and law are increasingly common on college and university campuses. Various training programs prepare graduate and postgraduate students to address mental health issues in a variety of legal settings and to become the next generation of researchers, scholars, and practitioners. The American Board of Forensic Psychology and comparable organizations in other countries credential psychologists who specialize in clinical forensic issues, and an updated set of ethical guidelines has been developed specifically for their use. Psychologists have been involved in appellate court decisions by testifying in hearings and by making their research findings and policy analyses available to judges through amicus briefs submitted to the US Supreme Court and to lower courts.
Mutualisms and Symbioses
Authors: Bronstein Judith
Published: March 2013

Mutualisms, interactions between two species that benefit both of them, have long captured the public imagination. Humans are undeniably attracted by the idea of cooperation in nature. For thousands of years we have been seeking explanations for its occurrence in other organisms, often imposing our own motivations and mores in an effort to explain what we see. However, the importance of mutualisms lies much deeper than simply providing material for philosophical treatises and natural history documentaries. The influence of mutualisms transcends levels of biological organization from cells to populations, communities, and ecosystems. Mutualisms were key to the origin of eukaryotic cells and perhaps to the invasion of the land. Mutualisms occur in every aquatic and terrestrial habitat; indeed, ecologists now believe that almost every species on Earth is involved directly or indirectly in one or more of these interactions. Mutualisms are crucial to the reproduction and survival of many plants and animals and to nutrient cycles in ecosystems. Moreover, the ecosystem services mutualists provide (e.g., seed dispersal; pollination; carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus cycles resulting from plant-microbe interactions) are leading these interactions increasingly to be considered conservation priorities, while acute risks to their ecological and evolutionary persistence are being identified. It is important to clarify the relationship between mutualism and symbiosis, because these concepts overlap and are often confounded. The term mutualism refers to all mutually beneficial, interspecific interactions, regardless of their specificity, intimacy, or evolutionary history. The term was first used in a biological context by Pierre-Joseph van Beneden, a Belgian zoologist, in 1873 (“There is mutual aid in many species, with services being repaid with good behaviour or in kind, and mutualism can well take its place beside commensalism” [van Beneden, 1873, “Un mot sur la vie sociale des animaux inférieurs,” Bulletin de l’Academie Royale de Belgique, series 2, 36, p. 785]). Albert Bernhard Frank and Heinrich Anton de Bary independently coined the term symbiosis a few years later in an attempt to group physiologically intimate interactions independent of their parasitic, commensal, or mutualistic outcome. Thus, some mutualisms are symbiotic (e.g., interactions between algae and fungi that form lichens), whereas others are not (e.g., plant-pollinator interactions). Conversely, some symbioses are mutualistic (e.g., lichens), whereas others are not (e.g., parasitic fungi that inhabit plant roots). It is appropriate to refer to all mutually beneficial, interspecific interactions as mutualisms, whether or not their physiological intimacy justifies referring to them as symbioses as well.
The Community Concept
Authors: Vellend Mark
Published: March 2013

For almost as long as ecology has been a discipline, it has struggled to define what constitutes an ecological community. A sharp dichotomy emerged early on, contrasting the view that communities were tightly integrated entities consisting of interdependent species (the community-unit concept) vs. the view that species co-occur largely according to the individualistic response of each species to spatially variable environmental conditions (the individualistic concept). To a large degree, the latter view has dominated ecological thought since the mid-20th century, based to a considerable extent on empirical patterns of community composition along environmental gradients. However, it has been repeatedly pointed out that neither view (in its extreme form) can capture the reality of processes and patterns in real communities, in which species often show both some degree of interdependence and gradual change in composition based on environmental conditions. Despite the debate regarding the concept of an ecological community, the discipline of community ecology has thrived and remained a key pillar of the broader field of ecology, with intense debates over the importance of competition in driving community structure and the relative importance of processes occurring at different spatial and temporal scales, among others. Finally, while few contemporary theoretical ecologists treat communities as belonging to discrete types, the community-unit concept lives on in applied ecology, where the classification of communities (often described as “vegetation” or “ecosystem”) is commonplace in order to facilitate conservation management, prioritization, and policy.
Allelopathy
Authors: Sotomayor Diego A. , Lortie Christopher J.
Published: March 2013

Allelopathy—the production by an organism of substances inhibitory or harmful to other organisms—as a concept has been utilized for more than 2,000 years, although the term was coined in 1937 (see Historical Background). Initial empirical studies of allelopathic interactions began to appear around the 1960s, and since then the field has grown rapidly. The importance of these interactions has been shown for many ecosystems, both terrestrial and aquatic. Allelopathy is currently considered an important factor for the structure and dynamics of communities and is viewed as a competitive advantage that exotic plants have in their introduced ranges. Inhibitory chemicals against native plant species in introduced systems are thought to be one of the key traits associated with plant species invasiveness. The field has changed from methodological concerns on how to support the occurrence of allelopathy (i.e., providing empirical evidence of its effects) to how it can be used to explain community dynamics and the success of invasive species. The readings presented in this bibliography include the history of allelopathy (Historical Background), methodological aspects (Methodological Aspects, Allelopathy vs. Competition), Biochemistry and Physiology, Ecological Aspects, its relation with invasional success (Invasion), its occurrence in different ecosystems (Allelopathy in Different Ecosystems), and its applications (Applied Allelopathy in Agriculture and Forestry).
Applied Ecology
Authors: Skelly David K. , Freidenburg L. Kealoha
Published: March 2013

As its name suggests, applied ecology focuses on the application of ecological knowledge to address environmental challenges. Like all ecologists, applied ecologists study the distribution, abundance, and interactions among organisms as well as the ways in which organisms influence the movement of energy and materials through ecosystems. Applied ecologists have a particular interest in the ways in which organisms and ecosystems are influenced by humans. And increasingly, applied ecologists include humans as integral to the systems they study. While the term applied ecology implies the existence of basic ecology, the research aims of many contemporary ecologists embrace applied dimensions, suggesting that distinctions between applied and basic ecology can be less obvious than they once were.