bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The behaviour and specificity of Monoctonus paludum Marshall (Hym., Braconidae), a parasite of Nasonovia ribis-nigri (Mosley) on lettuce.
Authors: Griffiths D. C.
Published: July 2009

A survey of the parasites of aphids that occur on lettuce was made in two localities, in the Midlands and northern England, respectively, and a list of these parasites compiled.

A study was made of the Braconid parasite, Monoctonus paludum Marshall, in relation to its host, Nasonovia ribis-nigri (Mosley), on lettuce. Techniques for observing the parasite's behaviour towards various species of aphids are described and methods of conducting experiments on breeding success in species other than N. ribis-nigri are given.
Observations on Rate of Growth, Coloration, and the abnormal Six-instar Life-cycle in Locusta migratoria migratorioides, R. &. F.
Authors: Key K. H. L.
Published: July 2009

1. All material was reared under constant conditions of temperature, light intensity and relative humidity. Two relative humidities were used—very wet and very dry. In some cases various coloured backgrounds were used. All material was solitaria, and was kept isolated.

2. Average weights were calculated from weighings made at all periods within the stadia, and thus represent the weights at the mid-points of the stadia.

3. The figures could not be fitted to the theory of a progression factor of 2.

4. Females are on the average 50 per cent, heavier than males even in the third instar; the sexes can probably be distinguished in this way much earlier.

5. The first three stadia are of about the same length; the fourth is longer, the fifth much longer.

6. The percentage rate of growth between the mid-points of successive stadia is of the same order for all pairs, though somewhat lower for the first and last pairs.

7. Hoppers kept in a very dry atmosphere are much lighter than those kept wet —proportionally more so in the later than in the earlier instars; on the other hand each stadium is lengthened—proportionally more so in the earlier than in the later stadia; the percentage rate of growth is just half that of hoppers kept wet.

8. The findings of Faure in regard to the causes of differences in coloration were fully confirmed.

9. The occurrence of a sixth instar in the females is due to an inherited factor.

10. This “ extra ” instar may represent an extra morphological third instar or an extra morphological fourth instar.
On two Braconids (hym.) bred from Economic Hosts
Authors: Wilkinson D. S.
Published: July 2009

♀ ♂. Black; head (including palpi), all legs (including the coxae, but excluding the feet which are strongly darkened), tegulae, and certain portions of the basal joint of the scape, pale red testaceous; the lateral membranous portions of the 1st and 2nd tergites, and the basal ventrites, very pale red testaceous; the plate of the 1st tergite only weakly coloured, and of the 2nd not much more strongly so, both probably more rightly describable as pale red testaceous also; 3rd tergite (except laterally and right across apex) also weakly coloured; the flagellum, and certain portions of the scape, brown; wing-veins and stigma brown, and the setae of the wings coloured; apical third of stigma commonly appearing to be to some extent hyaline.
On the Role of Blood in Ovulation in Aëdes aegypti, Linn
Authors: Roy D. N.
Published: July 2009

The intimate association between a blood meal and ovulation in all female mosquitos, with the exception of a few (de Buck, Roubaud) has been clearly recognised; but the peculiar manner in which the presence of blood in the stomach can influence the formation of eggs is not understood. Two explanations may be suggested: it may either act as a physico-chemical stimulus to the ovarian follicles, or certain constituents in the blood may furnish some nutrient material for the development of the eggs.
Some Observations on the Seasonal Spread of Glossina pallidipes in Italian Somaliland with Notes on G. brevipalpis and G. austeni
Authors: Moggridge J. Y.
Published: July 2009

The presence of Glossina pallidipes in the great tsetse belts of Central Tanganyika has long been recognised, but owing to its relative scarcity in comparison with G. morsitans and G. swynnertoni it has not merited hitherto the attention and study which has been devoted to these latter species.
The Parasites of the Coffee Leaf-Miners (Leucopteraspp.) in Africa
Authors: Ferrière Ch.
Published: July 2009

The coffee leaf-miners of the genusLeucoptera, Hübner, are serious pests of coffee wherever it is cultivated and they have often caused great anxiety to planters in many parts of the world.Leucoptera coffeella, Guér., is known from the West Indies, Central and South America, Central Africa, Madagascar, Réunion and Ceylon. Another species,L. daricella, Meyr., seems to be responsible for still more damage in Africa.
Investigations on Trichogramma lutea, Gir., as a Parasite of the Cotton Bollworm, Heliothis obsoleta, Fabr.
Authors: Parsons F. S. , Ullyett G. C.
Published: July 2009

Some of the problems involved in the estimation of parasitism in populations of Heliothis eggs are discussed:—

(a) Effective parasitism of the “active fraction” of eggs as laid in situ is denned.

(b) The habits of the egg-laying moth in point of the duration of oviposition on individual crops and diversion of moth activity from one host to another are discussed in relation to releases of Trichogramma lutea. Data are given on the distribution of bollworm eggs in a crop and associated factors.

(c) Investigations on the dispersion of liberated parasites are described. Dispersion was found to be rapid and widespread; concerted activity by large numbers in given areas did not apply.

Investigations in rain-grown crops are described and results are quoted from a typical experiment in maize, wherein the percentages of parasitism recorded in a large number of equal sections of the crop are regressed on proportionate larval survival. Although the egg parasitism ranged from 21·2 per cent, to 82·3 per cent., differences in larval populations were inappreciable. An explanation for this is offered in an analysis of the effect of various mortality factors.

The parasite was relatively ineffective in cotton crops. The low degrees of parasitism found are assigned to the growth-habit of the plant, the scattered manner of egg deposition thereon and the impediment offered to the insect by the dense hair processes of the plant at many sites where eggs are commonly placed.

Investigations on irrigated (cool season) market-garden crops and citrus orchards are described. These form the principal breeding sources of summer bollworm. Oviposition is extensive and sustained for three to four months on these crops, thereby affording opportunity for continuous parasite activity and the cumulative participation of progeny bred in the field. In nature Trichogramma lutea does not, however, appear until the latter end of the egg-laying by Heliothis and the authors were unable to establish laboratory-bred representatives at an earlier period.

Another egg parasite, Phanurus ullyetti, is prevalent before Trichogramma appears and accomplishes much that was hoped for from the attempted earlier introduction of Trichogramma. In effect, the latter, as seen from diagrams furnished with the paper, becomes substituted for Phanurus toward the close of the winter season. It is probable that temperature is a determining factor in the biology of both parasites, although other causes for the observed relations are suggested.

Further investigations are needed on the subject of exploiting T. lutea in the cool season.
A new Species of Cicadulina, China (Homoptera, Jassidae) injurious to Maize in Tanganyika Territory
Authors: China W. E.
Published: July 2009

The genus Cicadulina was established in 1926 (Bull. Ent. Res. 17, p. 43) to hold a new species, C. zeae, China, injurious to maize in Kenya Colony. Later (Bull. Ent. Res., 19, 1928, p. 66) it was shown that Balclutha mbila, Naude, recorded as transmitting the virus of streak disease of maize in Natal, also belonged to this genus, and two new species C. arachidis and C. similis were described from the Gambia, where they were reported as injurious to ground-nut and suspected of transmitting the virus of the rosette disease of that plant. Since that time Dr. H. H. Storey of the Amani Research Station has been investigating the possibility of transmission of the streak virus of maize by C. zeae. In attempting to breed strains capable of transmission of the disease certain crosses were made which showed conclusively that he was dealing with two distinct species. These species he was able to separate on the colour pattern of the abdomen. Dr. Storey has now sent to me material of both these species and a study of the genitalia corroborates his finding. One, of course, proved to be C. zeae, the other is new and I therefore propose to dedicate it to the discoverer.
Curculionidae (Col.) attacking cultivated Plants
Authors: Marshall Guy A. K.
Published: July 2009

The types of the new species described below have been deposited in the British Museum.
Assessment of a Tsetse Population
Authors: Lloyd Ll.
Published: July 2009

An experiment is described in which G. tachinoides in an isolated secondary focus was marked with distinct colours during thirteen successive weeks and the fate of the groups studied by recaptures. The population was known to be declining from moderate density to great scarcity through the dry season and the wastage in the colour groups on the average proved to be 11½ per cent, per diem, rather more, probably, than the wastage in unmarked flies. Following Jackson's method of assessment the population is shown to fall from 6,000 at the end of October to 400 by mid-January. The ratio of the boy-hour rate to these numbers is worked out for each collection and it is found that when the boy-hour rate is above 50 it is not relative to population, but below 50 the rate falls as the population, allowing for the influence of weather on rate of catching.

It is shown that under the conditions of the experiment there is an almost complete change of fly population each 5 or 6 weeks, though an occasional fly may survive 11 weeks. The proportion of male flies in the catches fell with increasing age from an initial 57 per cent, to 23 per cent, in the 6th week and no male fly surviving this period was caught.
The Relationship between the Maximum Temperature and the Seasonal Longevity of Glossina submorsitans, Newst., and G. tachinoides, Westw., in Northern Nigeria
Authors: Nash T. A. M.
Published: July 2009

1. There is considerable seasonal variation in the longevity of G. submorsitans and G. tachinoides, and these variations are negatively correlated with the fluctuations in the maximum temperature curve, i.e., as the temperature rises longevity decreases, as the temperature falls so longevity increases.

2. The cycle is as follows:—The rains commence and temperature falls, longevity increases and remains high throughout the rains. The wet season ends, temperature rises and longevity descreases. The cold spell intervenes and longevity becomes maximal. The cold weather ends, the temperature soars up and longevity becomes minimal, remaining low until the new rains commence.

3. Maximum temperature is considered to be the dominant factor; favourable humidity cannot increase longevity unless the maximum temperature is favourable.

4. The oldest individuals occur in the rains, but the average longevity is highest in the cold season, when both temperature and humidity are favourable.

5. In both species females tend to live longer than males.

6. In the field G. tachinoides males appear to live rather longer than the males of G. submorsitans.

7. It is doubtful whether wild flies of either species live much more than 2½ to 3 months under the most favourable conditions; it is probable that in the hottest weather longevity is curtailed to a month or less, and that the production of puparia is seriously affected when the rains are late and the hot weather is prolonged.
The Jamaican Species ofHippelatesandOscinella(Diptera, Chloropidae)
Authors: Kumm Henry W.
Published: July 2009

1. Fifteen species ofChloropidaewere taken in a survey of Jamaica.

2.H. pallipes, Loew, was found in greater numbers and in more localities than any other species.

3.H. peruanus, Becker, was readily attracted to traps baited with decaying dead animal matter whereasH. pallipescame but rarely to such traps.

4.H. pallipeswas most prevalent at elevations ranging from 101 to 1,500 feet above sea-level.H. curraniwas frequent somewhat lower down, andH. pusioandH. illiciswere most common quite close to the sea.

5. A key with explanatory diagrams has been prepared for identifying the adult Chloropid flies of Jamaica.

6. Also the distribution records of all species captured during the island survey have been tabulated.

7. Two new species ofHippelatesflies have been described.

8. Three photomicrographs of the immature stages ofH. pallipeswhich were taken are briefly discussed.
Two new Egg-parasites of Batocera (Col., Lamiid.) in Malaya
Authors: Ferrière Ch.
Published: July 2009

The Imperial Institute of Entomology has received from Mr. N. C. E. Miller, from Malaya, some interesting Chalcids, which have been bred from the eggs of Batocera rubus, L. Parasites of Cerambycidae are generally little known everywhere and only very-few egg-parasites of beetles have yet been described. Mr. Miller's breedings are therefore of special interest and importance. We understand that he has made some biological observations, which he intends to publish; therefore, although very few specimens of these parasites have been received so far, we venture to describe them here with the material at hand. One species belongs to the Cleonymidae and to a very striking new genus, which can be confused with no other known genera; the other is the first species of Ooencyrtus known to attack eggs of Coleoptera.
The Part played by Microclimates in enabling Glossina submorsitans and G. tachinoides to withstand the high Temperatures of a West African Dry Season
Authors: Nash T. A. M.
Published: July 2009

1. It has been confirmed that the lower limit of the critical zone, for fly of medium age, is 102°F. for both species; this limit is probably even lower for very old G. tachinoides.

2. The adverse effect upon the fly community of a day when the maximum temperature enters the critical zone is continued among the older individuals for several days following, even though the maximum temperature on these days remains below the lower limit.

3. From the mean maximum temperatures recorded over 52 days in 9 microclimates, it would appear that sites on the ground are cooler than those above the surface; the difference is not very great, the mean for the four ground sites being only 4·4°F. lower than the mean for the five above-ground sites.

4. The evidence suggests that on very hot days only the ground within the true forest is safe for tsetse; in all other sites—above the ground in the true forest or on the ground in the intrusive and peripheral thickets—the temperature is liable to enter the critical zone, and may even reach the upper fatal limit.

5. The tsetse community is living very close to the critical zone in the late dry season. Even the coolest ground site yielded an absolute maximum that was only 3·5°F. below the lower limit.

6. Site no. 9 gives an indication of how severe the conditions might become in the true forest were the windbreaks of peripheral and intrusive thicket removed.

7. In ground sites a shower of rain produces about twice as great an initial drop in temperature, and temperature remains abnormally low for about twice as long, as it does for sites above the surface of the soil.

8. The duration of the period of dangerously high temperatures to which the fly community is subjected in the late dry season may be very varied; it depends upon the incidence of rain in April and May.
Spatial distribution of subtidal meiobenthos along estuarine gradients in two southern European estuaries (Portugal)
Authors: Alves Ana Sofia , Adão Helena , Patrício Joana , Neto João Magalhães , Costa Maria José , Marques João Carlos
Published: July 2009

The spatial variation in abundance and composition of subtidal meiobenthos communities was studied in two Portuguese estuaries under distinct degrees of anthropogenic pressure. Samples were collected from 20 sampling stations along both estuarine gradients from freshwater (<0.5) to euhaline areas (>30). Of these stations 11 were located in the Mondego estuary, a system exposed to high anthropogenic stress, and 9 in the Mira estuary, a naturally stressed system located inside the Natural Park ‘Costa Vicentina’ (south-western coast of Portugal).

Total meiobenthos density was higher in the Mira estuary and in both estuaries the community was dominated by nematodes. Among the twelve taxa identified in the Mira estuary, Harpacticoid copepods and Polychaeta were the second and the third most abundant groups respectively. In the Mondego estuary, Polychaeta was the second while Harpacticoid copepods was the third most abundant group in the thirteen total taxa recorded.

Estuarine gradients of salinity, particles size and water nutrients were clearly detected in both estuaries and there was significant spatial heterogeneity in abundance and composition of the subtidal meiobenthos communities along these environmental gradients. Accordingly, three distinct sections were identified in both estuaries: (i) freshwater sections, where total density, and density of nematodes and Harpacticoid copepods reached minimum values; (ii) oligohaline and mesohaline sections, where the total density was low and diversity was poor; and (iii) polyhaline and euhaline sections, where both total density and diversity reached the highest values.

The similar spatial distribution of meiobenthos assemblages in both estuaries suggests that natural stressors may be the major factors controlling the physicochemical conditions that determine meiobenthos community patterns. The mesoscale variability of subtidal meiobenthos density and composition within estuaries (in the order of kilometres) seems to be more important than the variability between estuaries (at the scale of hundreds of kilometres), a common feature in intertidal systems. From the management point of view, these results, based on higher taxa resolution, represent an obvious constraint to the applicability of ecological quality evaluation tools.
Climatic and oceanic influences on the abundance of gelatinous zooplankton in the North Sea
Authors: Lynam C.P. , Attrill M.J. , Skogen M.D.
Published: July 2009

Oceanographically based mechanisms are shown to explain the spatial variation in the climatic relationship between the abundance of medusae (Aurelia aurita and Cyanea spp. of the class Scyphozoa), in the North Sea between 1971 and 1986 during June–August, and the winter (December–March) North Atlantic Oscillation Index (NAOI). A scyphomedusa population to the west of Denmark shows a strong inverse relationship between medusa abundance and fluctuations in the NAOI; the NAOI correlates strongly (P < 0.001) with both annual sea surface temperature (SST) at 6.5°E 56.5°N (1950–2008) and with winter precipitation on the Danish coast at Nordby (1900–2008) suggesting a direct link between the influence of climate and medusae abundance. In contrast, scyphomedusa abundance and distribution in the northern North Sea appears to be influenced by oceanic and mixed water inflow, which may overwhelm or mask any direct climatic influence on jellyfish abundance. Similarly, advection can also explain much of the interannual variability (1959–2000) in the abundance of other gelatinous zooplankton taxa (Cnidaria, Ctenophora and Siphonophora) in the northern North Sea as identified by the capture of gelatinous tissue and nematocysts (stinging cells) in Continuous Plankton Recorder samples. Jellyfish (Scyphozoa) in the southern North Sea may benefit from low temperature anomalies and the long-term effects of global warming might suppress Aurelia aurita and Cyanea spp. populations there. However, the biological response to temperature is complex and future research is required in this area.
New uses for new phylogenies
Authors: Harvey Paul H. , Nee Sean
Published: July 2009

Comparison of the molecular structure of genetic material from living species reveals evolutionary relationships, and estimates of dates when pairs of species last shared a common ancestor. The resulting evolutionary trees, which are accumulating rapidly in the literature to complement those trees produced from fossil records, can be used to reveal hitherto unsuspected patterns in the evolutionary record. In particular, the trees can be analysed to show when rates of speciation and extinction were abnormally high or low. Together with estimates of ancestral character states and environments, these data throw new light on the reasons for speciation and extinction. This article describes how statistical methods are being developed and used to analyse molecular phylogenies.
Information flow in the nervous system
Authors: Burgen Arnold
Published: July 2009

Information is carried along nerve fibres by electrical pulses generated by ionic transfer; it is digitally coded. Information transfer between nerve cells depends on the release of a chemical transmitter which acts on specific receptors on the second neurone. This is a non-digital, analogue process which is highly non-linear. It involves the summation of inputs from highly divergent sources. In sensory systems such as vision, extensive compression, feature extraction and other high-level processing occur before presentation to the cerebral cortex, where a massive expansion in distribution of information occurs. Huge numbers of neurones are involved in the central presentation of even simple sensory information. This is because the neural events are relatively slow, so that a massive parallel information flow and processing occurs. Learning and memory involve changes in synaptic efficiency and the development of new stable connective patterns. Memory and recall must involve a comparison of contemporary events with stored information, but cannot involve a one-on-one comparison because it can deal with extensive transformation of sensory information.
The Ulysses out-of-ecliptic mission
Authors: Bonnet Roger-Maurice
Published: July 2009

The Ulysses mission (a joint venture between ESA and NASA) represents the first attempt in the history of mankind and of space research to explore the third dimension of the solar system—underneath and above the ecliptic plane. The European spacecraft was launched on 6 October 1990 by the American shuttle Discovery in the direction of Jupiter, whose gravitational attraction it uses to acquire the proper velocity and to change the plane of its orbit in order to fly above the poles of the Sun in 1994 and 1995. The objectives of the mission are studies of the solar wind, the heliospheric plasma and the solar magnetic field in that region of the Solar System where it extends radially, i.e. above the poles. The mission can fulfil several other objectives in the field of solar physics and other areas such as the propagation of cosmic rays, the penetration of the interstellar gas in the solar system, gamma-ray bursts and gravitational waves. The mission is now fully operating. Preliminary results obtained when the satellite was en route to Jupiter and during the fly-by of Jupiter are presented in the article. Their quality and novelty already indicate that this unique mission will achieve its objectives and be a new success for European space science.
Postsocialist transition: an overall survey
Authors: Kornai János
Published: July 2009

The lecture outlines a conceptual framework for the analysis of changes in those countries going through the transformation from a socialist economy to a market economy. It takes a positive predictive approach. It describes seven tendencies which are very likely to apply.

(1) Marketization replacing the command economy.

(2) The evolution of the private sector—a broad new middle class will develop.

(3) Reproduction of macrodisequilibria. The inherited imbalance, namely chronic and intensive shortage will be eliminated, but inflation, budget deficit, unemployment and foreign indebtedness will remain in various configurations.

(4) Development of a constitutional state.

(5) Development of democratic institutions.

(6) The redefinition of a national community—which tendency might be accompanied by severe tensions and conflicts.

(7) Unequal increase of welfare.

Finally the paper discusses the role of academics in the process of transformation.
Intercontinental migration as a world historical process
Authors: Emmer P. C.
Published: July 2009

Human migration has a long and complicated history. A survey of the various migration streams reveals that between 1492 and the present, Europeans have benefitted in much greater numbers from the ‘migration escape hatch’ than have Africans and Asians.
Migration and decolonization
Authors: Miège J. L.
Published: July 2009

A large part of the migration of Europeans overseas was to colonial possessions. With the dissolution of colonial ties, large-scale repatriation of individuals to the home countries has occurred with many dispersed indigenous people, who for political or economic motives, no longer found their circumstances favourable. These secondary migrations have had important economic and sociological effects.
European migration at the end of history
Authors: van de Kaa Dirk J.
Published: July 2009

European countries are introducing increasing barriers to immigration. With the gradual abolition of border controls within Western Europe, a uniform agreement is needed such as outlined in the Schengen accord which makes full allowance for genuine refugees. The pressure to accept immigrants from Eastern Europe will be very strong.
The economic effects of immigration
Authors: Simon Julian L.
Published: July 2009

The basic theory is presented through a parable, showing that immigrants do not lower the incomes of natives, on balance. The main empirical issues are also discussed: contrary to popular belief, immigrants into the U.S. and Canada, and almost surely into Europe as well, pay more in taxes than they receive in welfare transfers, thereby enriching natives. Also, an extensive body of recent research finds that immigration does not increase native unemployment.
Revival of the concept of the cold prehistory of life
Authors: Goldanskii Vitalii I.
Published: July 2009

The extra-terrestrial scenario of the origin of life suggested by Svante Arrhenius (1908) as the ‘panspermia’ hypothesis was revived by the discovery of a low-temperature quantum limit of a chemical reaction rate in 1973. Entropy factors play no role near absolute zero, and slow molecular tunnelling can lead to the exothermic formation of quite complex molecules. Interstellar grains or particles of cometary tails could serve as possible cold seeds of life, with acetic acid, urea and products of their polycondensation as quasi-equilibrium intermediates. Scenarios of the origin of life should consider the appearance of a typical feature of living species—chiral purity of their aminoacids and sugars. Very cold solid environment hinders tunnelling racemization under conditions typical for outer space. However, the decisive problem of the origin of chiral purity of the Earth's biosphere is the mechanism of the spontaneous breaking of mirror symmetry rather than the search for some ‘advantage factors’ which can promote gradual accumulation of enantiomeric excess. Extra-terrestrial (cold, solid phase) scenarios of the origin of life seem to be more promising from that point of view than terrestrial (warm) scenarios. In a scheme of five main stages of prebiological evolution some problems important for further investigation are briefly discussed.
Global stability of atmospheric oxygen
Authors: Duursma Egbert K. , Boisson Michel P. R. M.
Published: July 2009

The atmospheric oxygen reserve is so huge that, in the short term of hundreds or thousands of years, only minor changes can be expected due to fossil fuel burning and deforestation. Each oxygen molecule passes through a living organism, on average, only once in 9000 years. As a consequence, the fastest regulating system must take of the order of hundreds of years. Nevertheless, it is possible that the actual oxygen level is not necessarily at the optimum level for life, but is just an accidental one in the course of the earth's history. Tropical forests are not the ‘lungs’ of the earth in terms of hundreds of years, but only on a much longer time scale, likewise for all other vegetation which produce humus and the long-term fossil carbon. The driving force is related to the slight differences caused by external factors between photosynthesis and respiration, with subsequent organic matter deposition or consumption for short time regulation of hundreds of years; while, for periods of millions of years, the regulation depends on changes of weathering or burial of fossil sedimentary organic matter.
The organizational ecology of science advice in America
Authors: Ausubel Jesse H.
Published: July 2009

One way that the American government has changed in the past 50 years is through the establishment and expansion of organizations providing technical expertise for decisionmaking. This essay reviews the performance of current structures from the diverse vantage points of elites, bureaucracies, the general public and activist minorities, drawing on studies of the Carnegie Commission on Science, Technology and Government, and the cultural theory of Mary Douglas et al. The apparently mature institutional landscape may well be ripe for change.
The present state and future of science in Russia
Authors: Kapitza Sergei
Published: July 2009

Major changes are in progress in Russian science as the dominance of military objectives have been removed. The problems of rebuilding a national research and educational system in science are enormous.
Geography and the international global change programmes
Authors: Manshard Walther
Published: July 2009

In recent years large global programmes on the environment have been developed in which geography provides an essential component. This article outlines the main programmes in progress.
The ecological economics of the Baltic Sea
Authors: Żylicz Tomasz
Published: July 2009

The paper discusses policies aimed at reducing the eutrophication of the Baltic Sea. Discharges of two nutrients—phosphorus and nitrogen—can be mitigated by measures ranging from sewage treatment to creating or enhancing natural ‘nutrient sinks’ such as coastal wetlands. The latter have been identified as low-cost alternatives to removing nitrogen through traditional, end-of-pipe technologies. Implementation of such projects yields additional benefits through enhancing biological diversity by recovering valuable habitats typical of wetland ecosystems. The paper offers several recommendations regarding policy instruments likely to enhance the cost-effectiveness of the Baltic-wide environmental recovery programme now under way.
How organisms are put together
Authors: García-Bellido Antonio
Published: July 2009

A long history of analysis has taken apart organisms into molecular structures. However, the understanding of how biological forms are put together in development and evolution has eluded biologists until very recently. Comparative molecular data on genes in different phyla is uncovering an extraordinary conservation since Precambrian times of gene structures associated with functions. The implications of these findings and our increasing knowledge of how genes control development in a few model organisms, invites a consideration of possible approaches to tackle the problem of how organismic forms are constructed and evolve.
Universities and industry
Authors: Strömhölm Stig
Published: July 2009

Relations between universities and industry have become very important. Universities have a clear mandate for providing good basic education, but this is not always appreciated by industry, which is looking for technological training.
Europe's unemployment problem
Authors: Drèze Jacques
Published: July 2009

The main difference between unemployment in the US and Europe is due to the way productivity is incorporated into real wages and the extent to which output and employment are demand determined.
The emergence of complex structure in astronomy
Authors: Gustafsson Bengt
Published: July 2009

The discovery of complex structures in the universe is summarized and commented upon. The strong linkage between improved observing techniques, taxonomy and early studies of evolution is illustrated. Comments are also made on the growing modern interest in morphology and the origin of structures in astronomy.
Cosmology: evidence for a ‘big bang’
Authors: Rees Martin J.
Published: July 2009

During the last 25 years, evidence has accumulated that our universe has evolved, over a period of 10–15 billion years, from a hot dense fireball to its present state. Telescopes can detect objects so far away that the universe had only a tenth its present age when the light we now receive set out towards us. The cosmic background radiation, and the abundances of elements such as helium and lithium, permit quantitative inferences about what the universe was like when it had been expanding for only a few seconds. The laws of physics established in the laboratory apparently suffice for interpreting all astronomical phenomena back to that time. In the initial instants of cosmic expansion, however, the particle energies and densities were so extreme that terrestrial experiments offer no firm guidance. We will not understand why the universe contains the observed ‘mix’ of matter and radiation, nor why it is expanding in the observed fashion, without further progress in fundamental physics.
Latin in Poland and East-Central Europe: Continuity and Discontinuity
Authors: Axer Jerzy , Fedewicz Maria Bozenna
Published: July 2009

The paper deals with the role of Latin and the whole Latin tradition (Latinitas) in East and Central Europe. The main thesis is that, when viewed from various perspectives, this tradition proves to be an integrating as well as a disintegrating factor in the cultural community of the region. Concluding remarks concern the relevance of the Latin heritage for preservation of the cultural identity in East-Central Europe.
Power and insecurity in Europe
Authors: Freedman Lawrence
Published: July 2009

The end of the cold war exposed the tendency in the European state system for those ‘great powers’ which might have been expected to manage the system to become steadily more reluctant to accept the commitment this requires, in terms of responsibility for the security of other states. The West had not sought the collapse of European communism and was, in many ways, comfortable with the stable framework provided by the cold war.

The ‘contract of 1990’ is identified as the means of managing the transition, as Moscow was persuaded to tolerate German unification within NATO and retreat from its Empire in return for reassurances from the West that these changes would not be exploited. Many recent problems can be understood in terms of the need to renegotiate this contract.
The ability to speak: from intentions to spoken words
Authors: Levelt Willem J. M.
Published: July 2009

In recent decades, psychologists have become increasingly interested in our ability to speak. This paper sketches the present theoretical perspective on this most complex skill ofhomo sapiens. The generation of fluent speech is based on the interaction of various processing components. These mechanisms are highly specialized, dedicated to performing specific subroutines, such as retrieving appropriate words, generating morpho-syntactic structure, computing the phonological target shape of syllables, words, phrases and whole utterances, and creating and executing articulatory programmes. As in any complex skill, there is a self-monitoring mechanism that checks the output. These component processes are targets of increasingly sophisticated experimental research, of which this paper presents a few salient examples.
The European Enlightenment
Authors: Frängsmyr Tore
Published: July 2009

This article discusses the concept of ‘Enlightenment’. Many historians of ideas use it in such a vague way that it loses its meaning, for instance to characterize an oppositional attitude no matter when it occurred, or just as a chronological epoch (meaning the whole 18th century). Therefore, it is preferable to have a more distinct definition, based on the French Enlightenment as the main movement. The question of a Swedish Enlightenment is discussed within this framework.
A framework for a sociology of assessing and intervening in technology development
Authors: Smit Wim A.
Published: July 2009

New Technology may have unintended and even negative impacts. This article explores some new approaches in policy analysis of socio-technical networks aimed at improving foresight for technological advances.
Global urban development: the case of africa
Authors: Manshard Walther
Published: July 2009

An attempt is made to describe the global urban situation, stressing important aspects of cross-cultural links and environmental problems for the urban development of sub-Saharan Africa. As a consequence of Agenda 21, passed at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro (1992), there exists an urgent and growing need to analyse further and assess the research and planning of urban development in the South.
The dynamics of innovation: on the multiplicity of the new
Authors: Nowotny Helga
Published: July 2009

Innovation has become a leading slogan for world economies, politicians and science policy-makers alike. It is the driving force of Western consumer societies, which have come to expect the new to be replaced by the newest. However, in contrast to mere fads and fashions, the consequences of relentless innovation are real. They manifest themselves in changes in lifestyle, in the ways societies function and in profound changes in outlook and perception. This paper will ask how innovation became so central and which mechanisms sustain it in science and technology, art and individual life. One consequence to be further explored is the relative loss in importance of the individual creative act, with implications on how we view creativity, knowledge production and even the concept of the individual. Another question to be raised is that of the multiplicity of the new: despite the seeming diversity and multiplicity of option, is there also convergence or a process of synchronization at work?
Against the right of the stronger: ethical considerations concerning cultural property
Authors: Sitter-Liver Beat
Published: July 2009

The ethical justification, not the juridic legitimacy of trading in art and cultural property is explored. The reflection is limited to matters of principle, the major aim being to erect a normative basis providing criteria and arguments for the debate concerning our dealing with cultural property. The terms of cultural property or cultural witness are explained. Cultural goods are considered expressions of human dignity. Accordingly, their use as a mere means contradicts the ethical responsibility of rational beings, whereas preservation and exchange of cultural goods become an ethical obligation. The traditional distinction between persons and things appears not appropriate for deciding the particular status of cultural goods, cultural property being an indispensable precondition of dignified human existence. It ought to be handed down to future generations. Restitution of cultural property is a further, though not absolute obligation. Ownership rights and the freedom to conduct trade and business do not automatically outweigh it. The buyer's claim to good faith will not necessarily protect him against the demand of restitution. With all this, the normative frame of the 1970 UNESCO Convention for preventing illicit trading in cultural property can be reconstructed: The ultimate goal of respectfully dealing with cultural property is the individual in his or her dignity as a human being, and his or her responsibility to society. Since the collective is a precondition of individual existence, it must be allowed to maintain and strengthen its identity. Cultural property is essential to that end. The respect of human dignity is thus the source of the obligation to respect cultural property.
Agricultural pressure groups and the origins of the Common Agricultural Policy
Authors: Griffiths Richard T.
Published: July 2009

Against the background of over a hundred years, during which national farming lobbies became ever more resilient, this article examines the processes leading to the creation of the European Union's common agricultural policy. It demonstrates how, in the aftermath of the Second World War, the agricultural issue acquired an international dimension. It argues further, that this coincided with an increasing penetration of governments by the farming lobby. Finally, it describes the protectionist factors that determined theformof the Rome Treaty's articles on agriculture and the forces that ensured their implementation.
Predictive incapacity and rational decision
Authors: Rescher Nicholas
Published: July 2009

Even agents possessed of free will must—if rational—be substantially predictable. However, there will be some situations where the act-choices of rational agents will not be predictable—for example, in circumstances of underdetermination due to insufficient information. And moreover, unpredictability can also result in situations of analysis overdetermination that arise when equally cogent analyses yield disparate results, as in the example of Dr. Psychic Psycho. The Prisoner's Dilemma affords yet another instance of this. Clearly, when determination fails even after rationality has had its say, then rationality's predictive power is exhausted! Fortunately, however, that does not mean that our human resources of issue-resolution are at the end of their tether.
Changing atmospheric chemistry: causes and consequences for environment and climate
Authors: Crutzen Paul J.
Published: July 2009

Atmospheric ozone plays a critical role in controlling ultraviolet radiation levels at the surface of the Earth. The absorption of ultraviolet radiation from the sun and the warm infrared from the earth influence temperatures in the lower stratosphere. The concentration of ozone is affected by NO, NO2, Cl, and Clo in a complex manner.
Postmodernism and postmodernity: What do these terms mean and why are they successful?
Authors: Fokkema Douwe
Published: July 2009

The various meanings of the terms ‘postmodernism’ and ‘postmodernity’ are traced; in various European languages these mean different things. Postmodernist discussion in the various arts is not synchronous. Postmodernism can be seen as the cultural expression of the times we supposedly live in, but are the achievements of modernity gone for ever?
Postmodernism: the Enlightenment continued
Authors: Bertens Hans
Published: July 2009

Postmodernism is often virtually equated with French poststructuralism, and seen as anti-rationalist and anti-humanist, even downright nihilist. However, the idea of difference that is central to much poststructuralist thinking can also be used to construct a model of postmodernism/postmodernity that avoids the endless denials of poststructuralism while allowing the establishment of a grip on the distinctions of our own postmodern period from an earlier modernity.
The parliamentary system and direct democracy
Authors: Kielmansegg Peter Graf
Published: July 2009

This paper considers the operation of representative democracy, with an emphasis on Germany. It analyses the implications of direct democracy (i.e. the regular use of referenda in reaching decisions on matters of public policy) for the operation of parliamentary and non-parliamentary democratic systems. The existing role of direct democracy in a number of societies is also considered.
Culture, scholarship, and education a dilemma for the mass university
Authors: Strömholm Stig
Published: July 2009

There are many ideas of what that medieval institution, the university, should be in the age of the mass university. It should be an institution combining teaching and research and should aim to produce a mature, cultured individual. Attempts to make it into an institution simply for giving technical training aimed at the contemporary labour market are misguided.
The impact of electronic publishing on the academic community
Authors: Butterworth Ian
Published: July 2009

Electronic publishing has many advantages, including speed, low cost and searchability. It has made most progress in the physical sciences. Peer review remains an essential requirement. The dominance of English should be countered by the use of extended character sets. The preservation of electronic data is a great challenge due to the impermanence of magnetic and optical storage, but even more by the rapid change in both software and hardware.
Some reflections on the practice of commemoration
Authors: Kossmann Ernst
Published: July 2009

Half a century after its end, the Second World War is still an object of enormous public interest. This essay tries to indicate in which respects the present style of commemorating it differs from the ways that former generations shaped the memories they wished to preserve of the historical events that were then thought relevant.
The long 10th century, or the creation of the New Europe
Authors: Samsonowicz Henryk
Published: July 2009

The tenth century was when the spread of Christianity through Europe commenced the transformation of various state and tribal formations into the form that persisted and that we can recognize today. The political and economic development of Islam created a demand for people from which the new states also derived material resources. Trade and plunder led by the Vikings stimulated the formation of states and strengthened them, this was aided further by the existence of a stable network of roads.
The order of names
Authors: Harris Henry
Published: July 2009

It is often said that an interest in the history of one's subject is, in a scientist, a sign of failing powers. If so, then my powers must have begun to fail very early, for I cannot remember a time, once I had learned to read for pleasure, when I was not fascinated by the personalities of those who had made great discoveries and by the circumstances in which those discoveries were made. So you' II find among my publications a number of occasional pieces in which some eminent scientist or some important scientific event is subjected to scrutiny, regrettably the far from expert scrutiny that lies within the purchase of a very amateur historian. Some of these pieces were prompted by invitations from editors in urgent need of an obituary notice or, less often, of a more extended biographical memoir. It was an invitation of this kind that set me to work on the scientific life of Basil D., who, some 30 years ago, had made a discovery whose importance can hardly be exaggerated. I remember being all but stunned by the paper when it appeared, for it showed, wholly unexpectedly and contrary to all our assumptions, that cells derived from our own bodies could somehow (we didn't find out how until very much later) exchange genes. Of course, such a revolutionary idea was received at first with extreme scepticism, but it was quickly confirmed and Basil was catapulted to a stardom that few scientists ever achieve.