bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
REGIONALIZAÇÃO DE VAZÕES DA REGIÃO BAIANA DA BACIA HIDROGRÁFICA DO RIO PARDO, BRASIL
Authors: Carvalho Rocha Stênio , Paulúcio da Silva Danilo , Batista Lopes da Silva João , De Assis Coelho Deisy , Novais Brandão Dionísio
Published: October 2024

O rio Pardo está localizado nos estados de Minas Gerais e Bahia no Brasil, sendo importante manancial  para o desenvolvimento da região. O presente estudo utilizou a técnica de regionalização de vazões baseada em regressões múltiplas para estimativa de vazões máximas com diferentes períodos de retorno,  vazão média de longa duração e vazões mínimas com 90% (Q90) e 95% (Q95) de permanência para a região baiana da bacia hidrográfica do rio Pardo. Constatou-se que a região em estudo pertence a uma única região homogênea, tendo a área de drenagem e comprimento total da rede de drenagem como as variáveis de melhor correlação. Dentre os modelos de regressão testados para o rio principal, o tipo  potencial foi o que apresentou melhores resultados para as vazões máximas estudadas, média de longa duração e mínima com 90% de permanência (Q90). Para vazão mínima com 95% de permanência (Q95), o  modelo exponencial foi o que apresentou melhores resultados. Nos afluentes, a inexistência de estações fluviométricas limitou a aplicação do método da conservação de massas apenas a modelos de regressão do tipo linear, todavia, o método se mostrou eficiente na estimativa de vazões afluentes, permitindo a  continuidade nos valores de vazão.
Die Hinzurechnung von Miet- und Pachtzinsen nach § 8 Nr. 1 lit. e GewStG – Systematische Einordnung und verfassungsrechtliche Würdigung im Lichte des Art. 3 Abs. 1 GG
Authors: Bodden Leo-Emilio
Published: October 2024

Der Verf. untersucht die Verfassungsmäßigkeit der Hinzurechnung von Miet- und Pachtzinsen gem. § 8 Nr. 1 lit. e GewStG im Hinblick auf den allgemeinen Gleichheitssatz des Art. 3 Abs. 1 GG. Er arbeitet heraus, dass § 8 Nr. 1 lit. e GewStG weder das Prinzip der Finanzierungsneutralität noch das Objektsteuerprinzip verwirklicht. Im Rahmen der verfassungsrechtlichen Würdigung legt er dar, dass § 8 Nr. 1 lit. e GewStG Mieter und Eigentümer auf verfassungsrechtlich nicht gerechtfertigte Weise ungleich behandelt. In der Folge gelangt der Verf. zu dem Ergebnis, dass § 8 Nr. 1 lit. e GewStG den allgemeinen Gleichheitssatz verletzt.
Funktionsverlagerung bei Prinzipalstrukturen — Zugleich Besprechung des Urteils Niedersächsischen FG vom 3.8.2023 – 10 K 117/20
Authors: Ebeling Felix , Heidecke Björn , Sauer David
Published: October 2024

Reorganisationen internationaler Unternehmensgruppen bergen oftmals reichlich steuerliches Konfliktpotential, in Deutschland insbesondere auch aufgrund der komplexen Funktionsverlagerungsvorschriften. Neben der schieren Komplexität der deutschen Vorschriften sind es vor allem viele ungeklärte Rechtsfragen, die für Unsicherheit bei Steuerpflichtigen sorgen. Die neueste Rechtsprechung klärt einige davon, gleichwohl bleiben, wie der vorliegende Beitrag aufzeigt, immer noch erhebliche Unwägbarkeiten für Unternehmen bestehen, die sich insbesondere auch aus den inzwischen geänderten Rechtsgrundlagen ergeben.
Anti‐Slavery Poetry
Authors: McAuley Louis Kirk
Published: July 2017

Unlike much Romantic poetry, which at leastpretendsto transcend the socio‐economic and political upheavals of the late eighteenth century (see William Wordsworth's ‘Preface’ toLyrical Balladsor Percy Shelley's ‘A Defence of Poetry’), abolitionist verse has much in common with James Grainger's West Indian Georgic,The Sugar Cane(1764), a sprawling, thoroughly annotated work, in which the author (a Scottish physician, charged with providing health services to African slaves) cleverly fuses poetry and propaganda. Grainger not only explains how to cultivate and process sugar cane on the island of St Christopher, but also endeavours to ‘enrich’ English poetry through his careful attention paid to the Caribbean's ‘new and picturesque images’; the poet sings with incongruent pomp about rats, Misnian arsenic (rat poison), monkeys, and insects, and counsels planters on the selection and maintenance of African slaves (replete with ethnographic information on the docility of particular African tribes), in as much as he idealizes the British Empire, and acknowledges Britain's increasing economic reliance upon sugar‐cane production. Though it is entirely debatable whether Grainger supports abolition (the following line clearly hints at this – ‘Servants, not slaves; of choice, and not compell'd / The Blacks should cultivate the Cane‐land isles’), the fact that he clearly considers it within poetry's compass to ‘transform the savage face of things’ neatly anticipates the romance, or legislative potential, of anti‐slavery poetry. In other words, Grainger may not be pro‐abolition, but he certainly seems intent on reforming the institution of slavery as a preemptive measure to both avoid creating the conditions for a slave revolt and guarantee the British Empire's stability. In this respect,The Sugar Canerepresents an interesting precursor to Romantic anti‐slavery poetry: Grainger acknowledges poetry's power to both complicate and transform the institution of slavery, and – through his poetic reappraisal of St Christopher's human and natural resources ‐he very effectively raises readers' awareness of the Caribbean's global economic importance in 1764.
Beddoes, Thomas Lovell, Poetry
Authors: Baulch David M.
Published: July 2017

Only with his death does Thomas Lovell Beddoes (1803–49) begin his career as a poet in earnest. Dubbed the ‘prince of morticians’ by Ezra Pound in
Canto LXXX
, Beddoes has emerged as British Romanticism's pre‐eminent poet of the macabre (Ricks 1984). Although he conceived of himself primarily as a dramatist, his striking lyrics and luminous fragments have come to define him as a literary figure.
B
ell,
C
harles
Authors: Sha Richard C.
Published: July 2017

A talented draughtsman, a distinguished physiologist, and surgeon, Charles Bell (1774–1842) made important contributions to the history of art and to medicine. He is today best known for the form of facial paralysis that bears his name, Bell's palsy, and for having helped to discover that the nerves of sensation and of motion were distinct through the whole course of the body. In 1806, he published his
Anatomy of Expression
, a work based on meticulous dissection and observation of the facial muscles and nerves after the fat had been removed. It went through seven editions in the nineteenth century, was known by most British artists of the period, and may have been studied by Goethe (Cummings 1964: 191). The artist John Flaxman thought it had done more for the arts of the time than any other work (Bell 1870: 80). Rejecting notions that art should strive for ideal forms or types, Bell instead defined expression in human figures as the essence of art, based on both anatomical understanding of how the muscles of the face worked and the psychological and mental implications of that expression (Cummings 1964: 192). In the same way as anatomy was the very ‘grammar’ of painting (Bell 1806: vi) because it enabled one to see how things worked, art was useful to science because it trained one to observe minutely. Correct execution, moreover, would ward against ‘a tame and lifeless style’ (1806: 3) and mere mimicry of the antique. From the standpoint of nineteenth‐century science, this emphasis on the anatomical and nervous basis of emotion and their connections to the mind helped return the emotions to the control of the brain (Finger 1994: 266).
B
ello,
A
ndrés
Authors: Almeida Joselyn M.
Published: July 2017

Andrés Bello (1781–1865) Latin American scholar, poet, and diplomat lived among the Spanish American and Spanish émigrés who constituted London's vibrant Hispanic community in the Romantic period. His legacy broadens definitions of Romanticism's transatlantic reach. His long life is often divided into three main periods: his youth in Caracas (1781–1810), his London years (1810–29), and his life in Chile (1829–65). Though an admirer of Byron, whom he translated into Spanish and publicized in Latin America, Bello came closer to fulfilling Percy Shelley's vision of the poet as legislator. Bello's literary and scholarly activity, fomented considerably during his time in Great Britain, informed his commitment to education as the central pillar of a democratic society. For Bello, nation‐building went hand in hand with the creation of a literature and cultural history that reflected the creolization of the Americas, the teaching of language as a vital component of legal enfranchisement, and the promotion of literacy through public education. His elaboration of culture as the conscience of a nation is a thread that runs through his poetry and his writing on a wide range of subjects, including literary criticism, history, education, orthography, and civic and international jurisprudence. After his time in London he established and directed the University of Chile from 1842 to his death, and wrote the new republic's foundational
Código Civil
(Civil Code, 1855) a fitting testament to Bello's rendering of Romanticism writ large.
Bennett, Anna Maria (Agnes) Evans
Authors: Lewes Darby
Published: July 2017

Anna Maria Bennett (ca. 1750–1808) began her fiercely independent existence in Merthyr Tydfil, an ironworks town in south‐east Wales, sometime between 1750 and 1760. Little is known of her childhood and youth: early sources state that her father Davis Evans was a grocer and her first husband a tanner; after her international success as an author, however, the
European Magazine
of 1790 asserted that her father and husband were customs officers and her brother an attorney. Respectability sometimes brings its own rewards. At some point, however, she moved with her tanner/customs‐officer husband to London, then left him to support herself through a series of jobs: she was, among other things, a shopkeeper in a ready‐made naval clothing establishment, and a matron in a workhouse. She was employed in a chandler's shop when she met Sir Thomas Pye, a nobleman who unintentionally provided her with the means to financial freedom. She left London for his estate at Tooting in Surrey, and became his full‐time mistress/housekeeper. She also bore him two children, whom she named Thomas and Harriet.
Blake, William, and the Bible
Authors: Johnson Mary Lynn
Published: July 2017

William Blake draws the breath and backbone of his work from the Bible, shaken loose from all constrictive creeds. A ‘most fervent admirer of the Bible, and intimately acquainted with all its Beauties’ (Bentley 2004: 140), Blake kept his favourite resource ‘thumbed from use’ (681), ‘ever in his hand’, ‘often assiduously consulted in several languages’ (617), atop the ‘ricketty table holding his copper‐plates’, art supplies, reference books, and other workroom essentials (466), for purposes best conveyed in his own words. For Blake's Bible, though textually identical with the Authorized Version of 1611, is not sanctioned by any church or state, nor is it the ‘Peculiar Word of God, Exclusive of Conscience or the Word of God Universal’ (Erdman 1988: 615). ‘To me who believe the Bible & profess myself a Christian’, Blake writes, a bishop's defence of the slaughter of thousands ‘under pretense of a command from God is altogether Abominable & Blasphemous’; what must be defended from Christians and deists alike is ‘the Bible Unperverted’ (611). To that end, assuming the persona of a latter‐day prophet in his illuminated writings (ca. 1788–1826), Blake redirects a wide array of biblical motifs and turns of phrase towards reawakening a sense of innate divinity within humankind, and he repurposes biblical genres such as prayer, lament, exhortation, praise, prophecy, wisdom, epistle, and apocalypse so as to stimulate human beings here and now to recognize the infinite and holy in all things. Not only in writings, but in major serial illustrations of biblical texts from Creation to Apocalypse (ca. 1799–1809), particularly the Book of Job (1806–26), Blake bends the Bible's overall mythic structure towards an alternate interpretation of the human predicament and its resolution, moving not from sin to restitution but from loss of the divine vision to its recovery. For Blake, the Bible read ‘in a Spiritual sense’ (Bentley 2004: 703) is ‘the book of liberty’ (57), ‘more Entertaining & Instructive than any other book’ (Erdman 1988: 702), an ‘Eternal Vision or Imagination of All that Exists’ (554), ‘filld with Imaginations & Visions from End to End & not with Moral virtues’ (664); indeed, it is ‘the Great Code of Art’ (274).
Blake, William, Poetry
Authors: Connolly Tristanne
Published: July 2017

William Blake was an innovator in poetic form and content. In his illuminated books he invented a unique genre to embody his own idiosyncratic and obscure mythology. Up until the mid‐twentieth century he was not widely known as a poet, but those who did know him were formidable: his early editors included Rossetti and Yeats, and his readers during his lifetime included Coleridge. As an engraver for the radical publisher Joseph Johnson, he was connected to a circle of prominent intellectuals such as Wollstonecraft. As eccentric as his work certainly is, it is at the same time a dynamic part of the predominant culture.
B
lake,
W
illiam, Prose
Authors: Yoder R. Paul
Published: July 2017

William Blake (1757–1827) is known primarily as a poet, painter, and engraver. He did, however, leave a fairly substantial body of prose work. This work is less cohesive than his poetry, but is interesting in its own right and in the light it sheds on his poetry, painting, and the development of his ideas. Blake's prose style is difficult to characterize. Much of Blake's prose was never finalized for publication and has been pieced together from his notebook; consequently this work has a rough, tentative quality, and its coherence depends at least partially on the editor's interpretation of Blake's own intention. Those pieces that were published are more polished and run the gamut from hilarious satire to indignant tirade. The largest body of Blake's prose is his letters, and these offer great insight into Blake's strengths and insecurities as both an artist and a businessman. All of Blake's prose is marked by sometimes abrupt transitions from mundane business and pleasantries to wild visionary fantasies, from irritability and despair to confidence and enthusiasm.
Burns, Robert
Authors: Davis Leith
Published: July 2017

At the conclusion of the Preface to the first edition of
Poems, Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect
, Robert Burns requests a fair evaluation from his readers, particularly the ‘Learned and Polite’. If his volume is founding wanting, he suggests, his readers should treat him the way he would treat any other poet guilty of ‘Dulness and Nonsense’: ‘let him be condemned, without mercy, to contempt and oblivion’. With Burns Clubs existing from Prague to Rio de Janeiro and Burns celebrations occurring every 25 January, Burns is hardly the victim of oblivion. In fact, he enjoys a reputation unprecedented for any poet, living or dead. But it is only relatively recently that Burns has begun to be reconsidered in the context of Romantic‐era writing. This is in part due to the fact that he has been identified as a figure of popular rather than academic interest. But it is also due to the fact that his work is difficult to characterize. In many ways his interests in the poetics of locality, the ‘common man’ and the natural world coincide with the concerns of other writers of the late eighteenth century, and, indeed, his work was highly influential on other Romantic poets like Wordsworth and Coleridge. But much of his work also reflects Scottish Enlightenment influences, in particular a focus on sociability and social structures. Moreover, Burns's poetry and songs straddle a number of cultural divides, being at once indebted to English literature, the Scottish poetic tradition, and Scottish oral culture; indeed, his work deliberately intermingles these various elements in an attempt to call into question the dominance of English language and literature. He creates in his poetry and songs an ‘imagined community’ of Scotland while resisting the representation of a Scottish nation that is pure and uncomplicated.
B
yron,
L
ord, Poetry
Authors: Stauffer Andrew M.
Published: July 2017

Of all English poets writing during the Romantic period, George Gordon, Lord Byron (1788–1824) was the one whose life and art were most consistently joined in the public imagination. Lord Byron became a literary celebrity early in his career, and frequently wrote poetry based on his own experiences, including his travels, his sexual scandals, his personal relationships, and his involvement with the tumultuous political events of the era. In so doing, he forged a category that we have come to call ‘the Byronic’, its hero a wandering, noble outlaw, both erotically compelling and haunted by loss, defiant and rebellious, stoic yet ultimately a victim of his own passions. This persona emerged primarily from Byron's first major work,
Childe Harold's Pilgrimage
, with its misanthropic wandering hero, and from his so‐called Eastern Tales, verse narratives such as
The Corsair
and
The Giaour
that feature a recognizable outlaw‐hero. The immense popularity of these poems imprinted the Byronic mode upon several generations of writers across Europe and America, an influence that remains in many cultures to this day. Yet Byron produced a much wider range of poetry than this narrative suggests, including lyrics, satires, dramas, and his ironic epic,
Don Juan
(pronounced ‘Joo‐ahn’ in Byron's poem), which is generally considered his masterpiece. Furthermore, his poems often resist easy classification according to genre, given their mobility of tone and hybridity of structure. The contradictions and oscillations of Byron's life find expression in the complex forms of his poetical works.
Children's Poetry
Authors: Ruwe Donelle
Published: July 2017

The Romantic era was an extraordinary time for children's literature. Cultural understandings of ‘the child’ were redefined, children became a major publishing market, and rising literacy rates and the Sunday School movement created a voracious need for literature for young readers. The hymn, dramatic monologue, and verse fable were re‐envisioned for children, and new genres came into being, such as the children's novel‐in‐verse and papillonade. Robert Southey, Matthew Lewis, and William Wordsworth dabbled with children's poetry. William Godwin established a children's press. Charlotte Smith and Richard Lovell Edgeworth authored prose works introducing poetry to children, and other writers versified, for the benefit of children, everything from the history of Rome to an introduction to shooting etiquette and the game‐laws. Publishers Darton and Harvey, Benjamin Tabart, and John Harris (successor of the Newbery imprint) specialized in children's books and developed sophisticated marketing techniques by which books were available individually or as the set, and could be purchased with toys, maps, and ready‐made book cabinets.
Coleridge,SamuelTaylor, Poetry
Authors: Balfour Ian
Published: July 2017

Coleridge produced some dazzling poems and numerous compelling ones, part of a variegated though somewhat circumscribed body of work for someone who cared so deeply about poetry, lived rather long, and was capable of poetic heights equal to the best in the English language. There were numerous and sundry obstacles in the way: health problems leading to a drug addiction, an unhappy marriage, and a perhaps exaggerated but deeply felt sense of inadequacy with regard to his sometime friend and collaborator Wordsworth, it having been a mixed blessing to be so close to the poet widely considered the greatest of the age. There is a remarkable consensus now as to what constitute his nine or ten best poems, all written by the time he was 30. Times have changed since Shelley told Byron that ‘France: An Ode’ was the best modern example of that genre or since Byron considered Coleridge's ‘Love’ (along with ‘Christabel’) ‘one of the two great productions’ of the time. The reception of Coleridge as a poet has suffered considerably in our own day from a process of anthologizing, leaving in the minds of many readers just a skeletal sense of the poet's actual work. The most deleterious effect of this reduction has been a diminished sense of his acute interest in and facility with genre and genres. Coleridge had an absorbing, capacious knowledge of and deftness at a plethora of literary kinds, some of whose characteristics he rehearsed in their codified features, some he torqued to the point of experiment. A list of the genres to which he turned his hand includes:
Correspondence
Authors: Gross Jonathan
Published: July 2017

During the Romantic period, letters formed a medium for self‐expression that provides insight into the work of novelists and poets. The letters of Keats, Byron, and other writers provide rich insights into their artistic practice. But what of the letter form itself? To fully understand this important genre, it is helpful to look at three historical moments that helped define it: the late eighteenth century leading up to the French Revolution, aristocratic correspondence in the first decade of the nineteenth century, and letters of the Regency period, all of which show a marked contrast in style.
Fulhame, Elizabeth
Authors: Lewes Darby
Published: July 2017

Since her death, the chemist and pioneer of photographic imaging Elizabeth Fulhame has all but disappeared from history. Although such noted scientists as Joseph Priestley, Jean‐Francois Coindet, Count Rumford and James Woodhouse all knew and respected her as a scientist during her lifetime, and despite her international reputation (she was an honorary member of the Philadelphia Chemical Society), little is known about her. Her birth and death dates have been forgotten, as has her nationality (she is generally considered to be Scottish, although this might be because she was married to Dr Thomas Fulhame, who taught at the University of Edinburgh). Indeed, the only glimpse we have of her life and thoughts is her single surviving work,
An Essay on Combustion, with a View to a New Art of Dying and Painting, wherein the Phlogistic and Antiphlogistic Hypotheses are Proved Erroneous
(1794), which today is available only in facsimile or rare book collections.
G
aspey,
T
homas
Authors: Kelly Gary
Published: July 2017

The major literary prose work of Thomas Gaspey (1788–1871), journalist and newspaper editor and proprietor, was a series of novels combining news and issues of the day with fiction set in the past or present.
Gothic Ballads
Authors: Hoeveler Diane Long
Published: July 2017

Gothic ballads, with their dead babies, seduced nuns, abandoned mermaids, undead knights, and malicious monks, enjoyed a heyday in Germany and England from the late eighteenth through the early nineteenth centuries. Steeped in folk and oral traditions, these neo‐primitivist ballads were a transitional genre – derived from a partly oral tradition and a partly written one – and as such they mediated in their very existence a culture in rapid flux, partly singing and partly writing its way into modernity. The ballad is perhaps one of the most inconsistent genres in its implications, highly traditional and providential, while its later manifestations appear to advocate the need to renounce superstitions in favour of the emerging rationalistic code of conduct that bourgeois Europe was tentatively embracing. One of the earliest attempts to define the ballad as a genre can be found in Bishop Thomas Percy's ‘Appendix II: On the Ancient Metrical Romances’ attached to his
Reliques of Ancient English Poetry
(1765). Percy's need to construct a dark Northern origin for Britain, shrouded in mists of obscurity, suggests for Clifford Siskin ‘a mysteriously romantic time that gave way to an enlightened present; it also includes our ongoing fascination with what Gothicism – with its strange mix of chivalry haunted by trips to Catholic countries and hints of the forbidden East – was and, to a large extent, still is … a site for the symbolic violence of selective forgetting and remembering’ (1988: 11).
Hands, Elizabeth
Authors: Jackson‐Houlston CM.
Published: July 2017

Both the class status and the sex of Elizabeth Hands have made her of interest for recuperative editing and criticism since the 1980s. Little is known of her life. Born in Warwickshire in 1746 (neé Herbert), she worked as a servant, married a blacksmith in 1784, and issued her sole volume of poems by subscription at five shillings, in 1789, dying in 1815 (Dereli 2001). The subscription list of 1200 names includes four earls, a duke, Joseph Banks, Charles Fox, Edmund Burke, Anna Seward, and the Poet Laureate Thomas Warton. Male support came from the dedicatees, wealthy local landowner and minor writer Bertie Greatheed, Philip Bracebridge Homer (a master at Rugby School), and his father, the Reverend Henry Homer.
Historical Drama
Authors: Crisafulli Lilla Maria
Published: July 2017

The history play was a dramatic genre characterized, from the time of Shakespeare, by generic hybridism; and Romantic historical dramas could likewise be classified as comedies, tragedies, dramatic poems, or farces and burlesques, even when they bore the explicit subtitle ‘historical play’.
History
Authors: Simmons Clare A.
Published: July 2017

A consciousness of the past is a key factor in the Romantic ethos. As writers such as Blake, Wordsworth, and Scott emphasized the significance both of individual and of national memory, British historical writing was undergoing significant changes. The French Revolution prompted a reconsideration both of what constituted history and the uses to which history might be put. As James Chandler has observed, in Britain, the Peterloo Massacre of 1819 was also a crucial point in the reconsideration of the matter of history: as late as 1843, Thomas Carlyle placed ‘Manchester Insurrections’ and ‘French Revolutions’ at the head of the ‘thousandfold phenomena great and small’ that show the need to assess the meaning of the times (1896–9, vol. 10: 22). To articulate this heightened awareness of the past, historical writing assumed a number of new forms.
H
ogg,
J
ames, Poetry
Authors: Hughes Gillian
Published: July 2017

To his own generation James Hogg (1770–1835) was known not as the novelist of
The Private Memoirs and Confessions of a justified Sinner
(1824), but as the Ettrick Shepherd, a Scottish labouring‐class poet. He was an ‘original genius’ within a tradition theorized by Edward Young and others and exemplified by models such as James Beattie's Edwin in
The Minstrel
, James Macpherson's ancient bard Ossian, and in particular the self‐conscious persona of Robert Burns as Ayrshire ploughman‐poet. Burns's influence, according to Sir Walter Scott, was overwhelming on would‐be poets of humble background: ‘Poets began to chirp in every corner like grasshoppers in a sunshine day. The steep rocks poured down poetical goatherds, and the bowels of the earth vomited forth rhyming colliers …’ (Curry 1977: 96).
K
nowles,
J
ames
S
heridan
Authors: Saglia Diego
Published: July 2017

One of key figures in drama and theatre between the late Romantic era and the Victorian age, James Sheridan Knowles (1784–1862) came to prominence in the late 1810s, and his success was initially determined by a widespread resurgence of interest in serious, legitimate drama. Born in Cork in 1784, he started his career as a teacher and later lectured on oratory, eventually publishing a textbook entitled
The Elocutionist
in 1823. His early career in education, his strong interest in rhetoric and public speaking, as well as his passion for politics and the Irish cause bore crucially on his conversion to playwriting. When his family moved to London in 1793 he became acquainted with William Hazlitt, who introduced him to Samuel Taylor Coleridge and Charles Lamb. Knowles began experimenting with dramatic writing at an early age, acted in private theatres, and was a touring actor on the provincial circuits of England and Ireland. He opened a school in Belfast, where his play
Caius Gracchus
was performed in 1815 to a good reception. After the success of his Roman tragedy
Virginius
on the London stage in 1820, he founded a newspaper in Glasgow (
The Free Press
, 1823–4) that was popular among reformers, yet it lacked wider support and went bankrupt after just a few issues. From 1820 onwards, he began a regular and fruitful collaboration with William Charles Macready. As a result, one‐third of his plays was written at the actor's instigation, reworked and staged by him. After an initial phase dedicated to historical tragedy, which established him as one of the leading contemporary dramatists, Knowles later turned to a more mixed production of comic and melodramatic works.
K
otzebue,
A
ugust von
Authors: Bode Christoph
Published: July 2017

The German dramatist August von Kotzebue (1761–1819) was by far the most successful playwright on the London stage around 1800. Nobody could rival his popularity in the 1790s:
Pizarro
(1799), Sheridan's adaptation of Kot‐zebue's
Die Spanier in Peru oder Rollas Tod
(1795), was the most popular play of the decade and the second most popular play of the entire eighteenth century, second only to Addison's
Cato
. It was
The Stranger
(1798), adapted from Kotzebue's
Menschenhaß und Reue
(1788), that saved Drury Lane from serious financial trouble, and it was
Lovers’ Vows
(1798), Elizabeth Inchbald's adaptation of
Das Kind der Liebe
(1789/90) and Covent Garden's commercial counterblast to the runaway success of
The Stranger
, that set a new box office record in London – to be broken only by
Pizarro
. Drury Lane and Covent Garden were fighting each other with Kotzebue. If critics speak of a rage, or even mania, for German drama in the 1790s, it was August von Kotzebue who was at the centre of it all, the cause and object of the craze. His success as a dramatist was absolutely unprecedented.
L
amb,
M
ary
Authors: Vargo Lisa
Published: July 2017

The literary career of Mary Lamb (1764–1847) began in her forties when she co‐authored three volumes with her brother Charles for William and Mary Jane Godwin's Juvenile Library. The circumstances of her life – her murder of her mother, her mental illness, and her close association with her brother – have obscured the writer in her own right, as has her fictional alter ego in Charles's
Essays of Elia
. Charles's suggestion in ‘Machery End, in Hertfordshire’ that Bridget and Elia ‘house together, old bachelor and maid, in a sort of double singleness’ (Lucas 1903–5, vol. 2: 75; hereafter
Works)
is used by Jane Aaron (1991) to characterize their literary authority as marginalized and feminized subjects. Critics suggest she is a victim of her gender and class, which restricted and silenced her, though in a notable exception Adriana Craciun (2003) argues that violence pervades her writing and should be recognized as an aspect of her creativity. While these perspectives merit consideration, her writings may be understood as intended to offer a point of departure for intellectual and moral growth, in keeping with Godwin's idea that literature for children should foster intellectual curiosity and independence.
M
eeke,
M
ary
Authors: Sigler David
Published: July 2017

Mary Meeke (date of birth and death unknown) was probably the most prolific writer of the British Romantic period, outproducing even Walter Scott and Joanna Southcott. As one of the most popular writers for Minerva Press, which published her work anonymously or under the names ‘Mrs Meeke’ or ‘Gabrielli', Meeke wrote 34 novels between 1795 and 1816, several of which span four volumes and over a thousand pages. Delivering heavily plotted and moralizing narratives in which a virtuous protagonist, usually male and seemingly lower‐middle class, ultimately discovers his noble birth, Meeke developed a formula for fiction that would prove commercially successful. Novels that follow this template include Meeke's first and most famous,
Count St Blancard
(1795), and the later
There Is a Secret, Find It Out!
(1808). In Meeke's fiction, virtue is a habit intrinsic to, even naturally occurring within, the social elite, and one that will be rewarded monetarily. Meeke also translated novels into English from German and French. None of her works is currently in print.
M
oore,
T
homas
Authors: Wright Julia M.
Published: July 2017

Thomas Moore (1779–1852) was the best‐known Irish writer of his generation and his poetry was widely read throughout the nineteenth century. His literary admirers in the British Isles included such notable contemporaries as Byron, John Keats, Lady Morgan, and the Shelleys, and his poetry was translated into a number of European languages during his lifetime. His poetry has been influential in the United States, too, passages appearing in, for instance, James Fenimore Cooper's novels, Edgar Rice Burroughs's
Tarzan
(1914), and even an episode of
Star Trek: The Next Generation
, ‘The Wounded’ (1991). Yet, despite his success as a Romantic‐era poet, it is difficult to fit Moore into a recognizable English‐language ‘Romanticism'. He avoided most of the major genres for which his leading contemporaries, particularly William Wordsworth, were known, such as lyric, the sonnet, and epic. He avoided detailed ‘states of feeling’ (Welch 1980:44) and visions of transcendence, even in his religious verse. In the English‐language tradition, Moore is also a rare Catholic poet of note between the Reformation and Catholic Emancipation (1829), though he was soon followed in Ireland by James Clarence Mangan, D.F. MacCarthy, Aubrey Thomas De Vere, and others, and later in England by such converts as John Henry Newman and Gerard Manley Hopkins. However, Moore seems less idiosyncratic if we turn from Wordsworthian ‘high Romanticism’ to consider him alongside Romantic‐era writers of sensibility (Welch 1980) and dissenting radicals, such as Anna Letitia Barbauld and William Blake, with whom he shared an oppositional political stance as well as verse forms (including the ode and the song).
Novel in an Era of Recovery
Authors: Behrendt Stephen C.
Published: July 2017

It used to be the case that when people mentioned ‘the Romantic novel’ they had in mind a fairly limited set of novels. Jane Austen and Walter Scott headed most of these short lists, followed by Ann Radcliffe and perhaps Maria Edgeworth. Early literary historians and critics of the English novel painted a picture of a fallow period, a transition between the ‘rise’ of the novel in the eighteenth century among novelists like Samuel Richardson, Henry Fielding, Laurence Sterne, and Tobias Smollett, and the explosion by mid‐nineteenth century of the more modern novel represented by Victorians like Charles Dickens, William Makepeace Thackeray, and the Brontës. For much of the twentieth century the entire list remained an ossified canon of the ‘select few’. Most other novelists were consigned to distinctly ‘minor’ categories with largely pejorative labels like ‘popular’ novels (Tompkins 1932) or ‘Gothic’ novels (Summers 1932). Mid‐century formalist and neo‐formalist critical studies like Dorothy van Ghent's (1953) and socio‐political ones like Arnold Kettle's Marxist one (1951) were followed, during the century's final quarter, by studies defined by categories like the ‘Jacobin’ or ‘anti‐Jacobin’ novel (Kelly 1976) and, later still, ‘national’ tales (Trumpener 1997; Ferris 2002). Indeed, the century's end presents a dizzying array of categories and approaches to the English novel generally – and to the Romantic‐era novel in particular – that are variously organized along the lines of gender, politics (and other ideological paradigms like religion or philosophy), class, and nation. Still other constellations, or arrays, of novels have been constructed around particular themes, subjects, and cultural preoccupations. Finally, the Romantic period's place in literary history, straddling the end of the eighteenth century and the beginning of the nineteenth, has generated new discussion about the viability of classifying Romantic fiction as belonging to one or the other, or both (Wallace 2009, for example), which underscores the need for further exploration of this large and diverse body of fiction. This explosion of criticism and theory devoted to Romantic‐era literature reflects what has happened also in other areas of literary and literary‐historical studies: as the traditional literary canon was interrogated, sifted, and in many cases largely jettisoned, something had to rush in to fill the void.
One‐Act Plays
Authors: Tucker Kathryn
Published: July 2017

The one‐act play has existed throughout Western dramatic history, identifiable as early as the ancient Greek satyr play, an often darkly comic piece following, or interspersed with, three tragedies submitted by the same playwright at the Dionysian theatre festivals. The function of the one‐act play in Romantic drama is fairly consistent with the satyr play, but it would be misleading to suggest that all plays performed as interludes, curtain raisers, or closers were one act long. In fact, most plays accompanying tragedies were two acts, although there were many one‐act plays written and performed during this period. The one‐acts could be used to lighten the mood between a top‐billed tragedy and the second‐billed farce; to warm up an audience for a top‐billed comedy; or to alleviate tension and help the audience leave happily after a tragedy accompanied by a serious melodrama.
Opera,
E
nglish
Authors: Fuhrmann Christina
Published: July 2017

London's main playhouses, Covent Garden and Drury Lane, possessed a royal patent for ‘legitimate’ or spoken drama, yet music filled their stages. Virtually every production used some music and musically rich genres such as melodrama and opera abounded. Musical pieces, however, fell in an uneasy limbo, blamed for the decline of spoken drama on the one hand, seen as inadequate to the Continent on the other. Contemporaries’ ambivalence led early scholars either to neglect or to denigrate this material. In the past few decades, scholars such as George Biddlecombe, Roger Fiske, Jane Girdham, and Nicholas Temperley have begun to rectify the situation, but much source material awaits thorough exploration.
Pantomime and Harlequinade
Authors: Nuss Melynda
Published: July 2017

Leigh Hunt called the pantomime the period's ‘best medium of dramatic satire’ (1949: 144). Fast‐paced and full of bustle and variety, the pantomime made fun of politics, commerce, culture, technology, law, war, urban life, and even the drama itself. It was one of the most popular forms of theatre in the period, reputedly carrying the finances of the major houses while they lost money on Shakespeare. Its changes marked England's transition from a rural culture to a modern, urban consumer power.
Poetic Prose and Prose Poetry
Authors: Robinson Jeffrey C.
Published: July 2017

The British Romantic period has traditionally been known for its astonishing efflorescence of poetry, and more recently as an age rich in fiction, drama, and essayistic literature. But we can extend this already impressive range of genres to include, in its historical beginnings, another genre – prose poetry – and its less genre‐specific but actually more pervasive counterpart, poetic prose.
Reviews, Books
Authors: Jarvis Robin
Published: July 2017

Confined today to academic journals and special supplements in the weekend newspapers, in the Romantic period book reviews were a prominent feature on the literary landscape and an important medium of public discourse. Reviews were vital to publishers and booksellers in advertising new books and fuelling the reading habit, and constituted a valuable income stream for many professional writers. The extent to which the nature and function of reviews (in the twin senses of individual articles and the journals that carried them) became the subject of anxious self‐scrutiny in the period is a sign not only of the growing cultural centrality of this form of writing but also of the significant and controversial changes that the genre underwent. Josiah Conder, editor of the
Eclectic Review
for over 20 years, played devil's advocate in his
Reviewers Reviewed
of 1811, arguing that literature was now subordinate to the power of the reviews, and that the ‘reign of Terror’ instituted by the latter was intimidating, repressing, or perverting the aims of contemporary authors. Exaggerated as such claims may seem, there is no doubt that Romantic‐era writers were just as sensitive as their twenty‐first‐century counterparts to the opinions and judgements contained in reviews.
Robinson, Mary, Prose
Authors: Setzer Sharon M.
Published: July 2017

Mary Robinson (née Darby) emerged as a prominent poet and novelist in the early 1790s, a decade after she resigned her position as an actress at Drury Lane and won notoriety as mistress of the Prince of Wales (later George IV). Born in Bristol in the West Country, Robinson dazzled the 17‐year‐old Prince in 1779 while she was playing the role of Per dita in a command performance of Shakespeare'sWinter's Tale, altered by her mentor David Garrick. In 1780, after receiving numerous promises of the Prince's eternal devotion, Robinson retired from the stage at his request, left her shiftless husband, and became widely known as ‘Perdita’, a tainted version of the romantic heroine who marries Prince Florizel inThe Winter's Tale. Within less than a year, the Prince deserted Robinson, and she became a target of scurrilous attacks in the popular press. During her subsequent 15‐year liaison with Banastre Tarleton (1754–1833), Robinson became adept at using the press as an instrument of self‐promotion and forged a new identity as a fashionable woman of letters. In the late 1790s, however, Robinson's association with the radical circle of William Godwin and her searing critiques of social injustice provoked virulent attacks from the reactionary anti‐Jacob in press and strained her relationship with Tarleton. After they finally parted in 1797, Tarleton moved up in the world through his marriage to a young heiress while Robinson, plagued by failing health and the demands of menacing creditors, struggled to earn a living by her pen.
S
cott,
W
alter, Prose
Authors: Gottlieb Evan
Published: July 2017

Sir Walter Scott was one of the most prodigious prose writers of the Romantic era; he was also, by a wide margin, the most successful. Although Scott's career as a novelist officially began with the publication of
Waverley
in August 1814, he had in fact been writing prose for many years previously.
Waverley
itself was begun and then famously put aside as early as 1805. Moreover, Scott had been publishing prose in the form of introductions and notes to his antiquarian ballads and original poetic romances. He had also tried his hand at Gothic drama with
The House of Aspen
(1799), edited Dryden's works (1808), and written extensively for such publications as the
Edinburgh Review
, the
Edinburgh Annual Register
, and the
Quarterly Review
(which Scott co‐founded in 1809). But it was perhaps his work on Joseph Strutt's romance of fifteenth‐century England,
Queenhoo‐Hall
(1808) which most directly paved the way for Scott's later novelistic success. Engaged to edit Strutt's unfinished novel, Scott ended up contributing the final two chapters; thus, by his account, he was encouraged to return to his own unfinished manuscript of Highland adventure set (when he began writing it) 60 years in the past. Two other authors are generally credited with influencing Scott's turn from poetry to the novel: Byron, whose first two cantos of
Childe Harold's Pilgrimage
, which appeared in March 1812, served notice that Scott's poetry was soon to be eclipsed (in the popular imagination, if not in actual sales) by the more worldly fare of the younger poet and Maria Edgeworth, whose successful Irish tales and novels demonstrated the British appetite for narratives set in the Celtic periphery.
S
helley,
M
ary
Authors: Vargo Lisa
Published: July 2017

Study of Mary Shelley's fiction has happily moved from a focus on
Frankenstein
to what Nora Crook has termed ‘The Inclusive Mary Shelley’, which includes modern editions and critical attention directed to
Valperga, The Last Man, Perkin Warbeck, Lodore, Falkner, Matilda
, and her short fiction published in gift‐books (Crook 2000: xx). These works are productions by an accomplished writer and are fascinating in their pursuit of social and political issues, particularly, though not exclusively, in connection with women. However, until the publication of several excellent studies in recent years, they have not been properly appreciated or understood. Their neglect can be seen as a product of the posthumous reputation promoted by her heirs and a failure to recognize how in her fiction Shelley is appropriating conventions of popular romance for serious debate.
Silver Fork Novel
Authors: Chaplin Sue
Published: July 2017

The term ‘silver fork novel’ originated with a caustic article written by the influential Romantic‐era critic William Hazlitt on the subject of ‘the dandy school’
(The Examiner
, 18 November 1827). Hazlitt avers to a genre of fiction written by and about a Regency elite who ‘eat their fish with a silver fork’. The genre emerged in the 1820s (though Lady Caroline Lamb's 1816
Glenarvon –
a notorious exposé of the personal life of various well‐known society figures, including the Byron family – was certainly a precedent text) and, in spite of the disapprobation of significant cultural commentators such as Hazlitt, it became exceptionally popular between the 1820s and 1840s. Its success was due in large measure to the commercial acumen of the publisher responsible for the aggressive marketing of the genre during the period, Henry Colburn (who was also associated with the development and the commercial success of the Victorian ‘triple‐decker’ novel). He actively recruited writers able to fictionalize knowingly, scandalously, and often satirically the culture of the Regency upper classes. Colburn's modern publishing practices, and his astute understanding of the social trends underpinning the demand for this variety of fiction, transformed the silver fork novel into one of the first instances of a mass‐produced, best‐selling literary commodity. As Ellen Moers observes, ‘It was Colburn's genius to see that a literature about the exclusives, written by the exclusives (or those who knew them well), and for the exclusives would be royally supported by those who were not but desperately wanted to become exclusives: the
nouveau riche
of post‐war England’ (Moers, 1960: 52).
S
urr,
T
homas
S
kinner
Authors: Kelly Jim
Published: July 2017

The novels of Thomas Skinner Surr (1770–1849) have received comparatively little critical interest, yet they were both massively popular during the period and form an important context for studies of the reception of fiction in Britain. Perhaps the most famous author of novels of ‘fashionable life’, his work was a touchstone for debates about the moral and cultural worth of novels and, for better or for worse, was part of the commercial literary marketplace that Romantic writers strove to distinguish themselves from.
Swashbuckling Drama and Music
Authors: Broadwell Peter M.
Published: July 2017

A
swashbuckler
is a charismatic outlaw or otherwise larger‐than‐life figure whose unruly actions fall outside the conventional boundaries of civilized conduct. The term also refers to the modes of dramatic representation that depict such audacious exploits and flamboyant personages. Swashbuckler music, then, is the collection of musical genres, styles, and gestures that facilitate these portrayals, either as accompaniment to theatrical productions or in concert and private performance. Although the category itself is of relatively recent vintage, the narratives, modes of representation, and musical techniques that the term encompasses reached maturity at the end of the eighteenth century in Europe, during the early years of the Romantic movement.
Theatre Architecture
Authors: Pascoe Judith
Published: July 2017

During the Romantic period, London theatres grew progressively larger as a result of the increasing popularity of theatre attendance, the vogue for elaborate spectacle, and a series of calamitous fires which destroyed theatres, but also fuelled architectural innovation.