bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Mergers, Acquisitions, and Inter‐Firm Technology Agreements in the Global Learning Economy
Authors: Mytelka Lynn K.
Published: October 2003

Assesses the contribution of international interfirm technology agreements to enterprise learning and innovation by situating these agreements in the broader context of changes in the structure of industry on a global scale and of competition within it. The first section presents a taxonomy that distinguishes traditional forms of one‐way interfirm agreements from two‐way collaborative partnerships in research and development (R&D), production, and distribution, and illustrates the way in which the latter have contributed to joint knowledge production and sharing in industries as diverse as information technology, biopharmaceuticals, and automobiles. The second section explores in greater depth the role that R&D‐consortia play in strengthening the potential for innovation, particularly in small‐ and medium‐sized enterprises, and in industries undergoing a process of catch‐up; as firms encounter each other across multiple technology partnerships, opportunities for learning each other's strategies also increase and so, too, do the incentives for collusion. The third section draws a distinction between the static barriers to entry that result from mergers and acquisitions and traditional forms of oligopoly, and the dynamic entry barriers that are made possible through the emergence of knowledge‐based networked oligopolies on a global scale. These, the last section argues, have the potential to become powerful selection mechanisms that create differential access to learning across firms and geographical space.
The Learning Economy and International Inequality
Authors: Freeman Chris
Published: October 2003

This chapter argues that the phenomenon of international equality and the related problem of inequality within countries may best be understood in the light of a systematic theory of technical change and long cycles in economic growth. The first section briefly introduces the theme of widening gaps between rich and poor countries, and the next discusses the analogous problem of widening gaps in the distribution of income within countries. The third section links these problems of inequality to long‐term changes in technology and to the problems of ‘catch‐up’ by countries that have fallen behind. The fourth section relates this discussion to contemporary problems of catch‐up in information and communication technology (ICT). The final section presents conclusions and points to some important differences between the international and national dimensions of inequality.
Innovation Policy in the Knowledge‐based Economy—Can Theory Guide Policy Making?
Authors: Nyholm Jens , Normann Lars , Frelle‐Petersen Claus , Riis Mark , Torstensen Peter
Published: October 2003

This chapter discusses features of the evolving knowledge‐based economy as perceived from a European policy maker's perspective, and confronts these features with two different economic research traditions: mainstream economic theory (including neoclassical and new growth theories) and evolutionary economics (in particular, the ‘national innovation system’ approach). The discussion shows that mainstream economic theory is more concerned with issues of allocation and market clearing than with the complexity of innovation processes and business dynamics. As a consequence, the resulting ‘market failure’ approach to business and innovation policy has led to policies that seem to be misguided in the light of features that characterize the knowledge‐based economy. Evolutionary theory is more successful in capturing the characteristics of the innovation process, and of the factors leading to failures and successes in the current complex competitive environment, although the policy recommendations remain somewhat too abstract and general to provide policy makers with a clear sense of direction. The authors see the solution in the expansion into new areas of research and in new cooperative patterns of interaction between social scientists and policy makers; the Danish LOK (Management, Organization, and Competencies) initiative is presented as an example of such a new type of interaction.
A Philosophical Guide to Conditionals
Authors: Bennett Jonathan
Published: October 2003

Conditionals are of two basic kinds, often called ‘indicative’ and ‘subjunctive’. This book expounds and evaluates the main literature about each kind. It eventually defends the view of Adams and Edgington that indicatives are devices for expressing subjective probabilities, and the view of Stalnaker and Lewis that subjunctives are statements about close possible worlds. But it also discusses other views, e.g. that indicatives are really material conditionals, and Goodman's approach to subjunctives.
Introduction
Authors: Bennett Jonathan
Published: October 2003

Gives an inconclusive discussion of how to define ‘conditional’. Conditionals fall into two groups (here reluctantly labelled ‘indicative’ and ‘subjunctive’), though there is dispute over just where the line falls (relocation thesis). ‘Independent’ conditionals, in which the relation between antecedent and consequent does not depend on any unstated matter of particular fact, are identified and set aside as uninteresting.
The Equation
Authors: Bennett Jonathan
Published: October 2003

The Ramsey test for indicative conditionals suggests that they are to be understood in terms of subjective probability. This concept is explained, and elements of probability logic expounded. Indicative conditionals are mostly zero intolerant, meaning that such a conditional is useless to someone who is really sure that its antecedent is false. The Equation is introduced: i.e. the thesis that your probability for ‘If A, C’ (indicative) is your conditional probability for C given A.
The Subjectivity of Indicative Conditionals
Authors: Bennett Jonathan
Published: October 2003

Discussion of reasons for approaching indicative conditionals in terms of subjective rather than objective probability. The reasons include stand‐offs of the sort Gibbard has presented: cases where two right‐thinking people with partial information accept conflicting conditionals. Discussion and rejection of the view that subjectivity comes in because in asserting an indicative conditional one says that one has such and such a probability for the consequent given the antecedent. What remains, and seems to be right, is the view that in asserting such a conditional one is expressing a conditional probability without asserting anything.
Uses of Indicative Conditionals
Authors: Bennett Jonathan
Published: October 2003

Discussion of the uses of indicative conditionals. Reasons for holding that when the antecedent is true, the conditional has the same truth value as the consequent. Conditionals as ‘inference‐tickets’. Non‐interference conditionals: ‘Even if A, still C’. So‐called ‘biscuit conditionals’.
The Logic of Indicative Conditionals
Authors: Bennett Jonathan
Published: October 2003

Expounds, mainly on the basis of Adams's work, the logic of indicative conditionals—with some help from his adaptation of Venn diagrams. Failure for indicatives of or‐to‐if, contraposition, transitivity, and antecedent strengthening. Controversy over whether modus ponens holds for indicatives. Independent indicatives identified and snubbed.
Subjunctive Conditionals—First Steps
Authors: Bennett Jonathan
Published: October 2003

Extreme realism (Lewis), and abstract realism, about worlds. Introducing an approach to subjunctive conditionals through possible worlds; use of this to explain the failure of transitivity and antecedent strengthening. The notion of variably strict conditionals is explained, and the logical likeness of subjunctives to indicatives is explained. Discussion of subjunctive with disjunctive antecedents.
Unrolling from the Antecedent Time
Authors: Bennett Jonathan
Published: October 2003

Defends the view that for the evaluation of a subjunctive conditional, the closeness of an antecedent world depends upon how much it resembles the actual world up to the time of the antecedent. Conditional excluded middle for subjunctives is discussed, and rejected because closest antecedent worlds may be objectively indeterministic, in which case each of the opposing conditionals may be false.
Reflections on Legality
Authors: Bennett Jonathan
Published: October 2003

The primacy of causal laws in subjunctive conditionals is explained. Discussion of miracles at forks, and of counter‐legal conditionals: ones about what would have been the case if some actual causal law had been false. Subjunctives are ‘impossibility‐intolerant’; comparison of this with the zero intolerance of indicatives.
‘Even if . . . ’
Authors: Bennett Jonathan
Published: October 2003

Discussion of the semantics of ‘Even if . . .’ conditionals against the background of a more general account of the meaning of ‘even’. Merits and demerits of Lycan's account of this.
Backward Subjunctive Conditionals
Authors: Bennett Jonathan
Published: October 2003

Criticism of a popular argument for refusing to allow backward subjunctives conditionals, i.e. ones whose consequent pertains to a time earlier than that of the antecedent; and of accounts of such conditionals by Jackson and Davis. A tenable account of them is found to be nested within Lewis's analysis of forward subjunctives. Discussion of related issues concerning Lewis's notion of counterparts and of non‐historical conditionals (’If it were a ruby, it would be red’).
Unifying the Two Kinds of Conditional
Authors: Bennett Jonathan
Published: October 2003

Critical discussion of attempts by Davis, Stalnaker, Ellis, and Edgington to unify indicative and subjunctive conditionals within a single smooth theory. Edgington's work on this goes a long way, but one class of subjunctives refuses to submit to her treatment in which indicatives are supposed to call the tune.
From an Ontological Point of View
Authors: Heil John
Published: October 2003

Implicit in much contemporary philosophy is a Picture Theory of language according to which we can ‘read off’ features of the world from features of our ways of talking about the world. Predicates applying truthfully to objects, for instance, are taken to name properties of those objects possessed by every object to which the predicates apply. Such a principle might be thought to follow from a more general ‘truth‐making’ requirement (truths require truth‐makers) together with the idea that truth‐makers entail truths. I argue that truth‐making is not entailment and that the Picture Theory should be jettisoned and replaced by an attitude of ontological seriousness. Freed of constraints imposed by the Picture Theory, we are in a position to see our way through metaphysical difficulties associated with contemporary philosophy of mind. Following Locke (and C. B. Martin), I endorse a conception of properties as modes (or tropes): ways particular objects are. Modes are simultaneously qualities and powers: powerful qualities. Application of this thesis to familiar issues in the philosophy of mind yields surprising results.
Levels of Reality
Authors: Heil John
Published: October 2003

Chapter 2 Levels of RealityMany philosophers, especially self‐described ‘non‐reductive materialists’, embrace the idea that reality is hierarchical: the world comprises levels of being. Examples of such philosophers are given, details of the conception made explicit, and difficulties mentioned.
Predicates and Properties
Authors: Heil John
Published: October 2003

Realists take truth seriously, but what does realism require? Misguided commitment to a certain principle, (Φ), has led philosophers down the garden path. According to (Φ) predicates applying truly to objects do so by virtue of naming properties possessed by those objects and by every object to which they would apply. I provide reasons to reject (Φ) and thus to forego the hierarchical worldview (Φ) apparently implies.
Philosophical Analysis
Authors: Heil John
Published: October 2003

Only philosophers beguiled by the Picture Theory could imagine that we are in a position to discover deep truths about the world by analysing language. Absolutists hold that, for stretches of discourse concerning which we are ‘realists’, terms line up with mind‐independent objects and properties, or are analysable into terms that so line up; eliminativists, noting that such alignment is hard to come by, deny that the terms refer; relativists are suspicious of mind‐independence. I recommend a realism shorn of the Picture Theory.
Powers
Authors: Heil John
Published: October 2003

Intrinsic properties of concrete objects endow their possessors with powers or dispositionalities. Powers are not relations or ‘relational properties’, nor are they ‘higher‐level’ properties. A power exists whether or not it is ever manifested. A power's manifestation is, in most cases, reciprocal: a mutual manifestation of reciprocal partners.
Dispositional and Categorical Properties
Authors: Heil John
Published: October 2003

One popular view of dispositions turns them into ‘higher‐level’ properties with categorical ‘realizers’. The position is motivated in part by the belief that the same disposition can have different bases, and in part by a conviction that powers are contingent features of the world. I argue that the belief and conviction are misguided.
The Identity Theory
Authors: Heil John
Published: October 2003

Intrinsic properties of concrete objects are simultaneously dispositional and qualitative: properties are powerful qualities. This ‘surprising identity’ can be motivated by considering liabilities of the alternatives: properties as pure powers, as pure qualities, as both pure powers and pure qualities, and as contingently empowered qualities. Identity suggests itself when ‘higher‐level’ powers are relocated in ‘lower‐level’ realizers.
Objects
Authors: Heil John
Published: October 2003

The world is a world of objects. Objects are various ways; these ways are their properties. A substance–property conception of this sort differs from a conception according to which objects are bundles of properties. Might every object have proper parts that are themselves objects? Or are some objects simple? A tentative argument for simple objects is advanced.
Substantial Identity
Authors: Heil John
Published: October 2003

Is a statue identical with the lump of bronze that makes it up? This question is discussed in the light of claims that statues and lumps possess distinct ‘modal properties’ and so could not be identical. Progress is possible if we replace the initial question with the question: what is the truth maker for the statement that this is a statue?
Colour
Authors: Heil John
Published: October 2003

A broadly dispositionalist account of colour is sketched and defended in the context of a discussion of primary and secondary qualities. Secondary qualities are complex primary qualities picked out by reference to their effects on human observers. These effects, properly seen as mutual manifestations of dispositions present in light radiation (structured by perceived objects) and in observers, are colour experiences.
Intentionality
Authors: Heil John
Published: October 2003

Dispositions ground the of‐ness and about‐ness of thought. What a thought is about can depend on the world, but a thought's trajectory is internally fixed. ‘Swampman’ is exhibited as a counter‐example to radically externalist accounts of intentionality and Kripke's Wittgenstein's attack on dispositions as bases for rules is defused.
Conscious Experience
Authors: Heil John
Published: October 2003

Qualities of experiences are distinguished from qualities of objects experienced. Being in a state is distinguished from experiencing a state. The identity thesis (properties are powerful qualities) defended earlier is brought to bear on problems associated with conscious experiences; and an attempt is made to make sense of Jackson's Mary and the explanatory gap.
Zombies
Authors: Heil John
Published: October 2003

The possibility of zombies (creatures like us physically, but lacking conscious experiences) is seen to depend on a substantive thesis about powers and qualities: powers and qualities are contingently related. Earlier arguments provided grounds to challenge this thesis, however, hence to shed doubt on the possibility of zombies.
Just Before Hutcheson
Authors: Kivy Peter
Published: October 2003

In this chapter, I discuss some of the seventeenth‐century predecessors of Hutcheson's sense of beauty, principally, Shaftesbury, and the seventeenth‐century concept of taste.
The Sense of “Sense”
Authors: Kivy Peter
Published: October 2003

This chapter concerns what, following Locke, Hutcheson meant by the sense of beauty.
Rationalist Aesthetics in the Age of Hutcheson
Authors: Kivy Peter
Published: October 2003

Concerns the rationalists’ critique of the sense of beauty and the school of aesthetic sentiment.
Hutcheson and Hume
Authors: Kivy Peter
Published: October 2003

Studies the influence of Hutcheson's sense of beauty on Hume's theory of taste, and compares their views.
Common Sense and the Sense of Beauty
Authors: Kivy Peter
Published: October 2003

Deals with the influence of Hutcheson's theory of the sense of beauty on the aesthetic theory of the Scottish commonsense philosopher, Thomas Reid.
End of an Era
Authors: Kivy Peter
Published: October 2003

Deals with the last gasp of the eighteenth‐century theory of taste in the philosophy of Dugald Stewart.
Hutcheson's Idea of Beauty: Simple or Complex?
Authors: Kivy Peter
Published: October 2003

Concerns the disputed question of whether, in Lockean terms, Hutcheson's idea of beauty is simple or complex.
Seeing (And So Forth) Is Believing (Among Other Things): On the Significance of Reid in the History of Aesthetics
Authors: Kivy Peter
Published: October 2003

Examines Thomas Reid's aesthetic theory and its significance for the history of aesthetics and the history of philosophy.
Calvinism and Jonathan Edwards
Authors: Kuklick Bruce
Published: October 2003

In the eighteenth century, ministers dominated New England intellectual life, and their reflections on Calvinist theology reached a high point in the work of Jonathan Edwards. Edwards's earliest writings brought together John Locke and Isaac Newton in a defence of a religious metaphysics. Later, after a career as a practicing clergyman who led the ‘Great Awakening’, Edwards developed a Calvinist theology founded on the covenant of grace whose centre was the experience of an omnipotent God. His views were most significantly spelt out in Religious Affections (1746) and Freedom of the Will (1754).
Collegiate Philosophy, 1800–1868
Authors: Kuklick Bruce
Published: October 2003

For most of the nineteenth century, the study of theology dominated philosophy in American colleges. But collegiate philosophy did begin the process of professionalization, and had an enormous social impact in its elaboration of the moral sciences, a mixture of social science taught from an explicitly normative point of view, grounded in Christianity. The college philosophers, including Francis Bowen at Harvard, Noah Porter at Yale, and James McCosh at Princeton, also purveyed a version of Scottish Realism, which gave ground to German idealism as the century wore on.
The Consensus on Idealism, 1870–1900
Authors: Kuklick Bruce
Published: October 2003

In the new university system of the late nineteenth century, there was a consensus on idealism as the most effective response to the challenge of Charles Darwin. Nine older thinkers typified philosophy in the young American university: Borden Parker Bowne; J.E. Creighton, G.S. Fullerton, George Holmes Howison, George Ladd, G. S. Morris, Elisha Mulford, James Seth, and Jacob Gould Sherman. Two younger scholars, Josiah Royce and John Dewey, trained in the leading doctoral programme in the US at Johns Hopkins absorbed these conventional ideas.
Pragmatism at Harvard, 1878 –1913
Authors: Kuklick Bruce
Published: October 2003

Although Charles Peirce never secured an appointment at Harvard, in 1872 his friend William James did, and made the institution known for a peculiar variant of pragmatism. James gathered around him a talented group of colleagues, including the leading proponent of idealism, Josiah Royce, and together they made Harvard central to the study of metaphysics, epistemology, and logic. The institution would remain the leading place to study professional philosophy until late in the twentieth century.
Instrumentalism in Chicago and New York, 1903–1934
Authors: Kuklick Bruce
Published: October 2003

Another variant of pragmatism, instrumentalism, flourished under the auspices of John Dewey at the University of Chicago in the 1890s. Instrumentalism was less interested than pragmatism in saving religion and more committed to intervention in social life and politics. When Dewey moved to Columbia University in New York City in 1904, he soon commanded intellectual leadership for philosophy in that city and its many institutions of learning and culture. After his retirement in 1929, Columbia ‘Naturalists’ carried on his work and were leading secular liberals in the wider intellectual world.
Professional Realism, 1912–1956
Authors: Kuklick Bruce
Published: October 2003

Of equal importance as the development of pragmatism and instrumentalism, although more narrowly and professionally focused, was the development of realism, a view that argued for the independent existence of the material world in space and time. This movement began in the first decade of the twentieth century led by Harvard's neo‐realist, Ralph Perry. It continued with the more significant Critical Realists of the second decade of the century—George Santayana, Arthur Lovejoy, and Roy Wood Sellars. C.I. Lewis, the most important inter‐war philosopher and another Harvard professor, known for his conceptual pragmatism, also embraced realistic ideas. In the second half of the century, Wilfrid Sellars influentially defended this point of view.
Europe's Impact on the United States, 1928–1964
Authors: Kuklick Bruce
Published: October 2003

In the inter‐war period and after, three movements of European thought were influential in the US because of the Nazi‐triggered exodus of intellectuals. The most important was that of European positivists, led by Rudolph Carnap. The Marxists of the Frankfurt School had less of an impact in America, except for Herbert Marcuse, who remained in the country. Varieties of existentialism finally reached the US after World War II, although individual thinkers did not permanently migrate. The conflict between positivism and existentialism was to have serious consequences for professional philosophy.
Harvard and Oxford, 1946–1975
Authors: Kuklick Bruce
Published: October 2003

From the end of World War II until the 1970s, professional philosophy was dominated by a form of speculation called ‘analytic philosophy’. This school of thought brought together the philosophical analysis dominant in England and certain aspects of the pragmatism institutionalized at Harvard. Harvard and Oxford University became the dominant, interacting centres of English‐speaking philosophy, and a unique form of analytic philosophy, pragmatic analysis, evolved at Harvard, focusing on the work of Nelson Goodman and Willard Quine.
The Tribulations of Professional Philosophy, 1962–1999
Authors: Kuklick Bruce
Published: October 2003

At the end of the twentieth century, professional philosophy fragmented and lost its hold on the educated public in the US. Analytic philosophy split into many competing groups, while a group of ‘pluralists’ denounced analytic philosophy itself, and many thinkers outside the discipline of philosophy proclaimed themselves as philosophical theorists. In this climate, two thinkers were universally regarded as important, Thomas Kuhn and Richard Rorty.
Descartes's Theory of Mind
Authors: Clarke Desmond
Published: October 2003

Descartes argues that no explanation of any phenomenon may assume or merely re‐describe what needs to be explained. He cannot, therefore, propose substance dualism as a theory of mind. To explain mental activities such as sensation, memory, or imagination, one must hypothesize how they result from interaction between the environment, the senses, and the processing of the brain. Descartes initiated such a naturalized account. However, given the state of neurology in the seventeenth century, his efforts were doomed. The failure to construct a scientific theory that bridges the theoretical gap between mental events and matter (as understood by Descartes) results, by default, in a property dualism that marks the limits of his scientific efforts.
Sensation: Ideas as Brain Patterns
Authors: Clarke Desmond M.
Published: October 2003

The Cartesian explanation of sensation includes a speculative account of how external and internal phenomena transmit information to the brain by triggering flows of animal spirits from the pineal gland. The distinctive patterns in the flow of spirits are called ‘ideas’. There is no reason to think that ideas resemble the realities that cause them. All animals have sensations in this sense, and exhibit corresponding behaviour.
Imagination and Memory
Authors: Clarke Desmond M.
Published: October 2003

Descartes explains memory and imagination, as ideas, by patterns in the flow of animal spirits through the brain that are caused by traces of former sensations (memory) or by other bodily conditions that are more active when we sleep or daydream. Despite the contrast with intuition, imagination constructs reliable images of perceptual phenomena, by synthesizing incoming signals from different senses.
The Will as a Power of Self‐Determination
Authors: Clarke Desmond M.
Published: October 2003

Since all events are caused, an action is said to be free if it is caused by a determining factor that is internal to the agent. Thus, freedom is not the same as indifference; human agents are more free when their choices are determined more clearly by the relevant evidence. Cartesian compatibilism relies on innate mind–body connections, on the ability to establish new mind–body connections by conditioning, and on the limited power of human agents to control some of their thoughts.
Descartes's Use of the Concept of Substance
Authors: Clarke Desmond M.
Published: October 2003

Cartesian substances are ultimate subjects of predication, not things in themselves (substrata) apart from their properties. Our knowledge of substances is limited to knowledge of their qualities. Since the concept of a material substance cannot explain anything about the properties of material things, so likewise the concept of an immaterial substance cannot explain anything about the mind or God. Substances may be combined if their properties are compatible.
Property Dualism
Authors: Clarke Desmond M.
Published: October 2003

Mental and material qualities co‐exist in human beings. Descartes could not provide any account of how they co‐exit in the same subject and could not therefore support an identity theory. The property dualism with which he concludes is not a metaphysical theory but an indication of the limits of his explanatory project. The source of the problem is the Cartesian theory of matter and the undeveloped state neurology.
American Exceptionalism and International Organization: Lessons from the 1990s
Authors: Luck Edward C.
Published: October 2003

Considers how domestic political processes affect American behaviour in and towards multilateral organizations. The author first discusses the nature of American exceptionalism and looks at the ways in which what he describes as a deeply ingrained sense of American exceptionalism coupled with pragmatism affects the country's approach to multilateral institutions. An examination is then made of the ups and downs of US policies towards UN over the course of the 1990s, the contrasting politics of the 1994 decision to join the newly created World Trade Organization (WTO), and US financial withholdings in the 1990s and the steps taken towards partial payment of the resulting arrears in 1999–2000. Far more positive attitudes are noted towards the WTO than the UN, the latter being perceived as a riskier venue for the promotion of US interests. It is concluded that, while the US is generally reluctant to defer to multilateral processes, it cannot be accused of being hostile to all forms of multilateral organization: it is pragmatic and peacekeeping case‐specific in its choice of foreign policy tools.
State Power and the Institutional Bargain: America's Ambivalent Economic and Security Multilateralism
Authors: Ikenberry G. John
Published: October 2003

Argues that American ambivalence about multilateral institutions (organizations), and variations in its institutional relations with Europe, reflect a basic dilemma that lies at the heart of international institutional agreements: the attraction of institutional agreements for the leading states is that they potentially lock other states into stable and predictable policy orientations, thereby reducing the need to use coercion; but the price that the leading state must pay for this institutionalized cooperation is a reduction in its own policy autonomy and its unfettered ability to exercise power. The central question that American policy‐makers have confronted over the decades after 1945 in regard to US economic and security ties with Europe (and elsewhere around the world) is how much policy lock‐in of such states is worth how much reduction in American policy autonomy and restraints on its power. The result is a potential institutional bargain that lies at the heart of America's multilateral ties to Europe and the wider array of post‐war multilateral institutions championed by the US. In this bargain, the leading state wants to reduce compliance costs and weaker states want to reduce their costs of security protection; the leading state agrees to restrain its own potential for domination and abandonment in exchange for the long‐term institutionalized cooperation of subordinate states. The first section, State Power and Institutions, develops the logic of the institutional bargain that has informed America's post‐war order building experience and continues into the new century. The next section (American Institution Building) explores various aspects of this institutional strategy as it appears in America's relationship with Europe in the 1940s and again after the cold war, and the conclusion assesses the relevance of the institutional bargain in an era of American unipolarity.
The United States and the GATT/WTO System
Authors: Sen Gautam
Published: October 2003

An examination is made of the relationship between the US and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), and its successor, the World Trade Organization, addressing the crucial question of the likelihood that the US will exit, or through its behaviour undermine, the multilateral trade organization in favour of regional or bilateral alternatives. It is concluded that the probability of a US‐inspired weakening of the WTO is low, although the incentives for protectionism in the US are strong and growing as a result of globalization and the changing international division of labour. The US domestic political system gives voice to such protectionist interests in international trade policy through a set of administrative and legal remedies that are reinforced by principles such as reciprocity and ‘fair trade’. Countervailing factors to this situation include the growing power of US export interests, the effectiveness of the Executive in deflecting the protectionist tendencies in the US Congress, and the exceptional power and influence of the US over the multilateral regime, in which it is a rule maker rather than a rule taker, enjoying the power to bend the rules selectively to serve its interests. As such, the WTO tends to reflect and reinforce US economic interests, and the US is, therefore, likely to continue in overall terms its efforts to comply with and generally strengthen the multilateral organization, rather than to break away from it.
Looking Beyond the ‘K‐Word’: Embedded Multilateralism in American Foreign Environmental Policy
Authors: Hopgood Stephen
Published: October 2003

Presents an analysis of multilateralism in American foreign environmental policy, focusing on the issues of ozone depletion, climate change, and biodiversity, and arguing that the evolution of US perspectives on environmental multilateralism reflects a fundamental split in the US policy arena. On one side are activists who seek to promote multilateral regulation of environmental issues and to deepen the US role therein. On the other hand are the sceptics, hostile to state and international regulation of environmental issues and preferring market solutions. The author suggests that, although sceptics have scored repeated short‐term successes, the longer‐term momentum favours the activists, and the US is gradually becoming more deeply embedded in multilateral environmental regimes.
Making Africa Safe for Capitalism: US Policy and Multilateralism in Africa
Authors: Nel Philip
Published: October 2003

The purpose is to trace and assess the ways in which the US has used multilateral institutions/organizations (both those international institutions/organizations of which it is a member and those regional institutions/organizations of which it is not) and multilateralism itself to pursue its interests on the African continent. The emergence of a noticeable multilateral dimension to American policy towards Africa is situated against two backgrounds: the first (Sect. 1 of the chapter) deals with the general features of American policy towards Africa since the Second World War and the role that multilateralism in general has played in that; the second (Sect. 2) deals with the rise of multilateralism (and multilateral regional institutions/organizations) on the African continent as a process that has a dynamic of its own. This perspective on Africa as an agent, and not simply as an object, of US policy is important for maintaining a critical perspective on the successes but also the contradictions and failures of US policy towards Africa. The final two sections offer a detailed description and evaluation of the dimensions of multilateralism in post‐cold‐war US policy, and, in particular, the Clinton era, which, in many respects, encapsulates much of what is right and wrong with US policy towards the continent. The evaluation made and the general assumptions used to approach the theme of US policy towards Africa are informed by a broadly neo‐Gramscian appraisal of the hegemonic function of the US in the current global political and economic order, and of the place of multilateralism within that hegemonic function.
Trouble in Pax Atlantica? the United States, Europe, and the Future of Multilateralism
Authors: Haglund David G.
Published: October 2003

Takes up the relationship between the US and regional multilateral organizations in Europe, in particular, NATO (the North Atlantic Treaty Organization), and the European Union (specifically the common European security and defence policy, or ESDP). It is suggested that US relations with Europe are an indicator of the US commitment to multilateralism more generally, and argued that the US approach to NATO has been driven by a combination of international structural factors (the distribution of capabilities) and the key domestic factor of national character (the liberal identity of the US). These very same factors hold important consequences for NATO because the US is the decisive actor in NATO, which, as a political entity, reflects the multilateralism that has its foundations in US national character, but as a military instrument, reflects the dominant power of the US. The resulting tensions in NATO were finessed more easily during the cold war, in the face of a common enemy, but are more significant in the current unipolar system, which exaggerates both the incentives for the US to act unilaterally and the frustration of European states who are less able to constrain the US yet unwilling to act independently. The author expects NATO to become less rather than more important to the US in the years ahead, and thus to matter less as a multilateral organization. The different sections of the chapter are: Isolationism as Multilateralism's ‘Other’?; Sources of America's Eurocentric Multilateralism; Systemic Change and American Behaviour: The Case of NATO; Consequences for Multilateral Organizations: The EU and the ESDP; and The Bush Administration and the European Allies.
The Unspeakable Evil
Authors: Harries Richard
Published: October 2003

The holocaust is an unspeakable evil. How is it possible to speak of it at all? Yet ‘How is one not to speak of it?’ (Elie Wiesel). Traditional Christian anti‐Judaism is a very sorry story and this prepared the ground for Nazi anti‐Semitism. Hitler, nourished by Wagner, believed he was continuing the church's work, though on a pagan basis.
Jewish Attitudes Towards Christianity
Authors: Harries Richard
Published: October 2003

There is a tradition in Judaism of a positive attitude towards Christianity as well as a negative one, associated with Maimonides and more recently Leo Baeck, Martin Buber, Franz Rosenzweig, William Herberg, and Abraham Heschel. More recently, a group of Jewish scholars associated with Dabru Emet have sought to understand some traditional terms such as trinity and incarnation in terms of Jewish ideas.
The Jewish Jesus and the Christian Christ
Authors: Harries Richard
Published: October 2003

One of the encouraging features of recent scholarship has been the recovery of Jesus as a Jew, work particularly associated with Geza Vermes. Christians as well as Jews now see Jesus as fully Jewish in his Jewish context. But what is there in the life and teaching of Jesus that might make a valid foundation for claims made later in the New Testament about his divine status, claims developed in the doctrines of the church? Even if, from a Christian point of view, one believes that there is such a foundation, Jesus himself emphasized that ultimate salvation depends upon doing the will of the Father, an emphasis on action rather than belief entirely in accord with Judaism itself.
The Unfinished Agenda
Authors: Harries Richard
Published: October 2003

Anti‐Semitism is a very light sleeper and there is still work for the Council of Christians and Jews, founded in 1942, to perform. A particular issue for Christians at the moment is balancing concern for the safety of Israel with sympathy for Palestinian suffering. Apart from Israel, there is the key question of how far the New Testament itself incites anti‐Semitism through certain of its attitudes and statements. There is a major obligation on those who have responsibility for teaching and preaching the Christian message to avoid even implicit anti‐Judaism and to ensure that statements that can be interpreted in an anti‐Semitic way are properly understood in their context. The Roman Catholic Church has been a pioneer in giving instruction on how Christianity should be preached in relation to Judaism in such a way as to avoid the obvious pitfalls.
Integrating Voting Theory and Roll Call Analysis: A Framework
Authors: Clinton Joshua D. , Meirowitz Adam
Published: October 2003

Scholars of legislative studies typically use ideal point estimates from scaling procedures to test theories of legislative politics. We contend that theory and methods may be better integrated by directly incorporating maintained and to be tested hypotheses in the statistical model used to estimate legislator preferences. In this view of theory and estimation, formal modeling (1) provides auxiliary assumptions that serve as constraints in the estimation process, and (2) generates testable predictions. The estimation and hypothesis testing procedure uses roll call data to evaluate the validity of theoretically derived to be tested hypotheses in a world where maintained hypotheses are presumed true. We articulate the approach using the language of statistical inference (both frequentist and Bayesian). The approach is demonstrated in analyses of the well-studied Powell amendment to the federal aid-to-education bill in the 84th House and the Compromise of 1790 in the 1st House.
Tomoregulin-1 (TMEFF1) inhibits nodal signaling through direct binding to the nodal coreceptor Cripto
Authors: Harms Paul W. , Chang Chenbei
Published: October 2003

Transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) signals regulate multiple processes during development and in adult. We recently showed that tomoregulin-1 (TMEFF1), a transmembrane protein, selectively inhibits nodal but not activin in earlyXenopusembryos. Here we report that TMEFF1 binds to the nodal coreceptor Cripto, but does not associate with either nodal or the type I ALK (activin receptor-like kinase) 4 receptor in coimmunoprecipitation assays. The inhibition of the nodal signaling by TMEFF1 inXenopusectodermal explants is rescued with wild-type but not mutant forms of Cripto. Furthermore, we show that the Cripto-FRL1-Cryptic (CFC) domain in Cripto, which is essential for its binding to ALK4, is also important for its interaction with TMEFF1. Our results demonstrate for the first time that nodal signaling can be regulated by a novel mechanism of blocking the Cripto coreceptor.
Ceramides modulate programmed cell death in plants
Authors: Liang Hua , Yao Nan , Song Jong Tae , Luo Song , Lu Hua , Greenberg Jean T.
Published: October 2003

The balance between the bioactive sphingolipid ceramide and its phosphorylated derivative has been proposed to modulate the amount of programmed cell death (PCD) in eukaryotes. We characterized the first ceramide kinase (CERK) mutant in any organism. The Arabidopsis CERK mutant, called accelerated cell death 5, accumulates CERK substrates and shows enhanced disease symptoms during pathogen attack and apoptotic-like cell death dependent on defense signaling late in development. ACD5 protein shows high specificity for ceramides in vitro. Strikingly, C2 ceramide induces, whereas its phosphorylated derivative partially blocks, plant PCD, supporting a role for ceramide phosphorylation in modulating cell death in plants.
Transcriptional activation via sequential histone H2B ubiquitylation and deubiquitylation, mediated by SAGA-associated Ubp8
Authors: Henry Karl W. , Wyce Anastasia , Lo Wan-Sheng , Duggan Laura J. , Emre N.C. Tolga , Kao Cheng-Fu , Pillus Lorraine , Shilatifard Ali , Osley Mary Ann , Berger Shelley L.
Published: October 2003

Gene activation and repression regulated by acetylation and deacetylation represent a paradigm for the function of histone modifications. We provide evidence that, in contrast, histone H2B monoubiquitylation and its deubiquitylation are both involved in gene activation. Substitution of the H2B ubiquitylation site at Lys 123 (K123) lowered transcription of certain genes regulated by the acetylation complex SAGA. Gene-associated H2B ubiquitylation was transient, increasing early during activation, and then decreasing coincident with significant RNA accumulation. We show that Ubp8, a component of the SAGA acetylation complex, is required for SAGA-mediated deubiquitylation of histone H2B in vitro. Loss of Ubp8 in vivo increased both gene-associated and overall cellular levels of ubiquitylated H2B. Deletion of Ubp8 lowered transcription of SAGA-regulated genes, and the severity of this defect was exacerbated by codeletion of the Gcn5 acetyltransferase within SAGA. In addition, disruption of either ubiquitylation or Ubp8-mediated deubiquitylation of H2B resulted in altered levels of gene-associated H3 Lys 4 methylation and Lys 36 methylation, which have both been linked to transcription. These results suggest that the histone H2B ubiquitylation state is dynamic during transcription, and that the sequence of histone modifications helps to control transcription.
Investigations Into the Analysis and Modeling of the TNFα-Mediated NF-κB-Signaling Pathway
Authors: Cho Kwang-Hyun , Shin Sung-Young , Lee Hyeon-Woo , Wolkenhauer Olaf
Published: October 2003

In this study, we propose a system-theoretic approach to the analysis and quantitative modeling of the TNFα-mediated NF-κB-signaling pathway. Tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) is a potent proinflammatory cytokine that plays an important role in immunity and inflammation, in the control of cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. To date, there have been numerous approaches to model cellular dynamics. The most prominent uses ordinary differential equations (ODEs) to describe biochemical reactions. This approach can provide us with mathematically well-founded and tractable interpretations regarding pathways, especially those best described by enzyme reactions. This work first introduces a graphical method to intuitively represent the TNFα-mediated NF-κB-signaling pathway and then utilizes ODEs to quantitatively model the pathway. The simulation study shows qualitative validation of the proposed model compared with experimental results for this pathway. The proposed system-theoretic approach is expected to be further applicable to predict the signaling behavior of NF-κB in a quantitative manner for any variation of the ligand, TNFα.
In Silico Atomic Tracing by Substrate-Product Relationships in Escherichia coli Intermediary Metabolism
Authors: Arita Masanori
Published: October 2003

We present a software system that computationally reproduces biochemical radioisotope-tracer experiments. It consists of three main components: A mapping database of substrate-product atomic correspondents derived from known reaction formulas, a tracing engine that can compute all pathways between two given compounds by using the mapping database, and a graphical user interface. As the system can facilitate the display of all possible pathways between any two compounds and the tracing of every single carbon, nitrogen, or sulfur atom in the metabolism, it complements and bridges other metabolic databases and simulations on fixed models.
Parameter Estimation in Biochemical Pathways: A Comparison of Global Optimization Methods
Authors: Moles Carmen G. , Mendes Pedro , Banga Julio R.
Published: October 2003

Here we address the problem of parameter estimation (inverse problem)of nonlinear dynamic biochemical pathways. This problem is stated as a nonlinear programming (NLP)problem subject to nonlinear differential-algebraic constraints. These problems are known to be frequently ill-conditioned and multimodal. Thus, traditional (gradient-based)local optimization methods fail to arrive at satisfactory solutions. To surmount this limitation, the use of several state-of-the-art deterministic and stochastic global optimization methods is explored. A case study considering the estimation of 36 parameters of a nonlinear biochemical dynamic model is taken as a benchmark. Only a certain type of stochastic algorithm, evolution strategies (ES), is able to solve this problem successfully. Although these stochastic methods cannot guarantee global optimality with certainty, their robustness, plus the fact that in inverse problems they have a known lower bound for the cost function, make them the best available candidates.
Reflections under the lens: observations of a systemic therapist on the experience of participation and scrutiny in a research project
Authors: Jones Elsa
Published: October 2003

The London Depression Intervention Trial (LDIT) was set up in the early 1990s by Professor Julian Leff (Leff et al., 2000, and in this issue) to compare the relative efficacy and costs, in work with depressed adults, of systemic couple therapy, drug treatment and individual cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT). The research found that systemic therapy compared favourably with the other modalities in respect of fewer drop‐outs, improvement in measured depression at the end of therapy and on follow‐up after a second year without therapy, and was not – contrary to the usual assumptions – more expensive. I was one of the two therapists, together with Eia Asen (Jones and Asen, 2000, and Asen in this issue) practising systemic therapy with diagnosed depressed patients and their partners. In this paper I will discuss the experience of being the object of research scrutiny, and the reflections that have come to me during and subsequent to the research period. To put it more challengingly: What are the consequences for systemic psychotherapists of co‐operation with researchers? Can a circular epistemology survive being scrutinized through a lineal grid?