bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Management Dilemmas and Decisions
Authors: McDaniel William C. , Sistrunk Francis
Published: March 2007

This study assesses the impact of decision framing and the anticipated behavior of others on choosing to cooperate in social dilemma problems. Two hundred and eighty-eight students completed a questionnaire which presented two management scenarios representative of social dilemmas a manager might confront in a business environment. The two scenarios were based on parameters established by a generalized uniform N-person dilemma game. One scenario was described in a give-some context (contribute to the collective good); the other was presented in a take-some context (destruction of an existing collective good). After each scenario, information was presented concerning the response proportion of others, the certainty of the others' response, and whether others were expected to cooperate or defect. All four main effects were significant, as well as the interactions of response proportions by game context and response certainty by response direction. Reliable framing effects were evidenced. Individuals were more willing to contribute to a collective good than to experience some personal loss to avoid the destruction of an existing collective good. Findings raise questions concerning the extent of applicability of prospect theory to social dilemmas.
A Formal Framework for Mediator Mechanisms and Motivations
Authors: Kaufman Sanda , Duncan George T.
Published: March 2007

A mediator aids disputants in resolving their differences. A theoretical framework for mediator mechanisms extends the subjective expected utility perspective and permits formal examination of mediator attitudes toward the equity and efficiency of agreements. Two forms of impartiality in promoting gains to disputants are examined: active (jointly motivated to help both disputants) and responsive (more motivated to help one disputant at higher payoff levels for the other). It is shown that (1) observed mediator activity to help only one disputant at some point in a dispute is not necessarily a sign of bias, and (2) active mediators seek efficient outcomes.
Social Dilemma Behavior of Individuals from Highly Individualist and Collectivist Cultures
Authors: Parks Craig D. , Vu Anh D.
Published: March 2007

Existing studies of social dilemmas in other cultures report patterns of behavior that are very similar to that of American subjects. This has held even in cultures that are seemingly quite different from the United States in terms of their emphasis on the collective over the individual. We argue that, in fact, these cultures are not as different from the United States with regard to collectivity as they seem. In our study, we contrast the American—the most individualistic of all cultures—with the Vietnamese, an extremely collectivist culture. In the first study, American and South Vietnamese subjects played a number of trials of a public goods or resource dilemma game. The patterns of cooperation among the Americans were typical of most social dilemma studies. The Vietnamese, however, cooperated at an exceptionally high rate. In a second study, subjects were pitted against a variety of preprogrammed strategies that varied as to their toughness. The Americans responded in predictable ways, but the Vietnamese were again extremely cooperative, even when competing against an All-D (100% competition) strategy. The results suggest that cultural norms contribute somewhat to mixed-motive behavior.
The Cognitive Structure of Decision Making And The Course of Arab-Israeli Relations, 1970-1978
Authors: Astorino-Courtois Allison
Published: March 2007

This study begins with an empirical examination of the structural components of Arab and Israeli decision makers' beliefs about foreign affairs and their effect on regional relations. The results corroborate those of previous studies, which show a systematic positive relationship between the complexity of leaders' cognitions and the cooperativeness of their foreign policy behaviors. The findings also mark the patterns of decision making of each of the actors as either strategic or ad hoc in nature. Despite common assertions by both Arab and Israeli leaders of the planned and aggressive intentions of opponent states, the results show little evidence of strategically aggressive policy making on either side. Instead, the analyses highlight the tendencies of both Arab and Israeli decision makers to apply ad hoc decision making and to moderate behavior in decision environments characterized by (1) uncertainty and (2) where the opponent has already demonstrated its own cooperativeness.
Maintaining System Stability
Authors: Bobrow Davis B. , Boyer Mark A.
Published: March 2007

This article examines the ways and degrees to which nation-states participate in and financially support United Nations peacekeeping operations (UN PKOs). The authors contend that UN PKOs are impure public goods whose provision conforms to expectations from public goods theory that deals with the provision of impure public goods and club goods, and much less to the hegemonic stability variant of the public goods approach. Conceptual arguments are followed by an examination of general patterns of UN PKOs, personnel and financial contributions to them, and the U.S. role in them. The authors conclude that the post-cold war period has seen a notable increase in the volume of provision of peacekeeping and in the quantity and diversity of contributors and beneficiaries. They recognize the difficulties posed by recent U.S. nonpayments and suggest the possibility of adjustments that will reestablish the financial basis that continuing substantial provision will require.
The Proliferation of Preferential Trading Arrangements
Authors: Mansfield Edward D.
Published: March 2007

This article examines some international factors contributing to the recent spread of preferential trading arrangements (PTAs). PTAs help states to ensure against future disruptions of commerce with key trade partners. When stress is placed on the international trading system, the threat of such disruptions rises. Both hegemonic decline and global recessions raise the specter of commercial closure, and therefore each factor may stimulate the proliferation of PTAs. Furthermore, strategic interaction among both PTAs and countries is likely to guide the growth of preferential arrangements. As PTAs become increasingly pervasive, states that are not covered by one have strong incentives to enter such an arrangement. Doing so reduces the prospect that their access to important markets will be curtailed and that their competitiveness abroad will be undermined. The findings of this article conform with these arguments. In general, eroding hegemony, global recessions, and strategic interdependence have accelerated the pace of commercial regionalism since World War II.
Political and Economic Interactions with National Security Opinion
Authors: Arian Asher , Olzaeker Sigalit
Published: March 2007

Public opinion drives policy, and public opinion is driven by policy. These propositions are explored using economic developments, government budget policy, national security policy, and public opinion variables in two sets of conditions using routine or crisis conditions as a control variable. The relationships are examined during the Gulf War crisis in Israel (1990-1991). Different sets of significant statistical relations were found for routine and crisis conditions. The findings show that the relationships between public opinion and politics are not direct, but to a large extent, recursive. The intensity of the relationships varied according to the state of national security, with greater intensity in the crisis situation. The relationship was more direct under normal conditions. In the crisis situation, the influence of politics on public opinion was greater than the influence of public opinion on politics.
Military Spending and Economic Growth in South Africa
Authors: Dunne Paul , Vougas Dimitrios
Published: March 2007

A number of studies consider the relation between military spending and economic growth using Granger causality techniques. Some studies have used samples of groups of countries, finding no consistent results. Other studies have focused on individual countries, which permits greater knowledge of the structure of the economy and the budget. This study adds to the literature by providing an analysis of South African data, a particularly interesting case study given the considerable changes that have taken place in recent years. It is a developing country with a developed military sector and a relatively high military burden. In addition to analyzing South African data using standard “pre-cointegration” Granger causality techniques, this study employs modern vector autoregressive methodology that uses cointegration. This is an important improvement in the econometric analysis and indicates a significant negative impact of military spending on growth in South Africa that is not apparent when using the standard techniques.
Choosing Demands Strategically
Authors: Werner Suzanne
Published: March 2007

The idea that leaders choose their foreign policy strategically to accomplish their foreign policy goals is not new. The possibility that the goals themselves are chosen strategically is. Recent game theoretic models developed by Powell and Werner explore this possibility. Interestingly, both models show that when demands are chosen strategically, a perceived disparity between the underlying distribution of power and the status quo distribution of benefits creates a permissive condition for the onset of conflict. This prediction is tested by estimating the effects of changes in relative power on the onset of militarized interstate disputes. A hazard model to estimate the duration of peace for the set of all dyads existing between 1816 and 1992 shows that peace is more likely to end when the belligerents' relative power is changing. The results also show that powerful states, proximate states, states with prior disputes, nonjointly democratic states, and politically disparate states face greater risks of conflict and enjoy shorter periods of peace than do states with different characteristics.
Intergenerational Transmission of Values
Authors: Schönpflug Ute
Published: March 2007

Intergenerational transmission is one process leading to cultural continuity. Transmission is assumed to be selective: Not all culturally relevant contents are transmitted. Transmission may be enhanced by “transmission belts,” that is, conditions favorable for transmission in a particular socioeconomic and cultural context, such as personal characteristics of the transmitter and the receiver (resources of education and age), and family interaction variables (parenting styles and parents’ marital relationship). This study explores the effects of these transmission belts on the similarity of values between Turkish fathers and their sons. The sample included 200 Turkish father-son dyads of two regions within Germany and 100 living in Turkey. The values transmitted were nine value categories subsumed under the two dimensions of collectivism and individualism. Predominately collectivistic values were transmitted because presumably, they serve group maintenance. Intergenerational transmission was enhanced by most of the transmission belts included in the study with the exception of cultural context.
Linking Self and Social Structure
Authors: Freeman Mark A.
Published: March 2007

A large ( N = 603) and representative sample in Sri Lanka completed a questionnaire that assessed the salience of 11 social identities (nation, social class, age, religion, caste, occupation, race, gender, educational level, town or village of residence, and political party) within respondents’ self-concepts. Consistent with extant psychological theories of identity, four features of an identity were found to be systematically related to its salience within the self-concept: (a) how the status of an identity affects one’s overall self-esteem, (b) the degree to which one is a demographic minority on a category of identity, (c) whether an identity has been affected by processes of urban-industrial development, and (d) the type and extent of intergroup contact on a category of identity. The relevance of the identity framework to cross-cultural theory is discussed.
Cross-Cultural Construct Validity of the Five-Factor Model of Personality among Korean Employees
Authors: Yoon Kuh , Schmidt Frank , Ilies Remus
Published: March 2007

Based on a sample of 717 employees of Korean firms administered the Korean version of the NEO-PI-R, this study used confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) to examine the construct validity of the five-factor model (FFM) of personality in Korea. CFA results indicated that the FFM fit the Korean data as well as it fit the U.S. normative data reported in the NEO-PI-R manual. Furthermore, the pattern of intercorrelations among the FFM dimensions in the Korean sample was similar to that in the U.S. normative data sample, with the only noteworthy difference being the hypothesized stronger relation between Agreeableness and Conscientiousness in the Korean sample. In neither sample was the FFM assumption of orthogonality supported. Study results support the hypothesis that the basic structure of personality is similar across cultures and indicate that the FFM can describe this common structure if the assumption of trait orthogonality is abandoned.
The Ethnic Identity Questionnaire
Authors: Masuda Minoru , Hasegawa R. Shin , Matsumoto Gary
Published: March 2007

Three generational age groups of Japanese in Tachikawa, Japan, Honolulu, and Seattle were compared on their responses to the Ethnic Identity Questionnaire. At all locations, there was an attenuation of ethnic identification, here seen to be defined by the instrument as Meiji Era Japaneseness. The elderly were cross-culturally consensual in their attitudes. The Seattle and Honolulu second-and third-generation Japanese-Americans were more similar to each other than to their Tachikawa age counterparts. The lower Honolulu scores were attributed to their greater social, economic, and political power. In Tachikawa, there was a continuity of Japanese pride, but increasingly fragmented attitudes in family kinship and traditional behavior and attitudes.
Sex-Trait Stereotypes in France, Germany, and Norway
Authors: Williams John E. , Daws John T. , Best Deborah L. , Tilquin Charles , Wesley Frank , Bjerke Tore
Published: March 2007

Previous studies in the United States, England, and Ireland had demonstrated a high degree of cross-national generality in sex-trait stereotypes, i.e., the psychological traits which are differentially ascribed to men and women (e.g., men are aggressive, women are emotional, and the like). The present article reports on similar studies conducted with university student subjects in France, Germany, and Norway who were given translated versions of the Gough-Heilbrun Adjective Check List and were asked to report on those traits which were more frequently associated with men, with women, or with neither, in their respective countries.

The results indicated a high degree of similarity in the findings of the three new continental groups and the three previous English-speaking groups. Although there were some apparent minor differences among countries, the results were sufficiently similar to permit the hypothesis that there are common sex-trait stereotypes which exist in all Western countries and, perhaps, even in countries of greater cultural diversity.
Structural Tightness and Social Conformity
Authors: Boldt Edward D. , Roberts Lance W.
Published: March 2007

A discrepancy between our findings and those of J. W. Berry and associates concerning the relative independence/ compliance of subjects from tight and loose societies is noted. It is suggested that methodologically this discrepancy derives from a difference in the two Asch-type testing procedures employed. More importantly, however, the data suggest the need for a conceptual refinement of the tight/loose dimension such that the source of external influence (imposed collective role expectations versus the situated expectations of role-specific others) becomes the major distinguishing feature.
Jewish Immigrants to Israel
Authors: Horowitz Ruth Tamar
Published: March 2007

Using Rotter's original locus of control scale on immigrants to Israel from the Soviet Union and North America, the Soviet immigrants scored significantly higher (more external) than North American immigrants on items with political and societal connotations. Differences between immigrants were minimal on items which lack political and societal connotations. Personal ideology tends to be shared by individuals in highly industrialized societies, while control ideology tends to be conditioned by factors related to the societal climate and political regime. It was also shown that Rotter's scale is multidimensional and is influenced not only by personality factors and patterns of socialization but also by variables related to the social system.
The Questionable Value of Cross-Cultural Comparisons with the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire
Authors: Bijnen Emanuel J. , Poortinga Ype H.
Published: March 2007

It is argued that the impressively high factor congruence coefficients observed in cross-cultural studies with the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire cannot be taken as sufficient evidence for the "similarity" or "essential identity" of these factors in the cultures concerned. Arguments presented by Eysenck (1986) to challenge this viewpoint are refuted. The conclusion by Bijnen, Van der Net, and Poortinga (1986) that cross-cultural comparisons of factor scores on the EPQ are likely to be affected by cultural bias is upheld.
A Psycholinguistic Perspective on Bilinguals' Discrepant Questionnaire Responses
Authors: Tyson G. A. , Doctor Estelle A. , Mentis Mandia
Published: March 2007

The Finding That Bilinguals Sometimes Respond Differently To The Same Item In Different Language Versions Of Questionnaires Is Usually Interpreted In Terms Of Social Psychological Processes Such As Accommodation, Ethnic Affirmation, Or Social Desirability. However, The Discrepant Responses Of Bilinguals May Be A Function Of The Way In Which The Languages Have Been Acquired. In Terms Of The Dual-Coding Model, Compound Bilinguals Should Have The Same Images Related To Interlingual Equivalents, Whereas Coordinate Bilinguals Should Function More Like Unilinguals, Since Their Two Conceptual Systems, Acquired Through Each Language, Are Clearly Differentiated. Thus Differences In Responses To Questionnaires In Two Different Languages Should Occur In Bilinguals Who Are Of A More Compound Type. Results Of A Study Testing This Hypothesis Are Reported.
Admission for Preentry Science Upgrading Courses in Southern Africa
Authors: Altink Wieby M. M.
Published: March 2007

This article deals with the choice of selection instruments for preentry science upgrading courses in the Southern African countries Botswana, Swaziland, and Lesotho. The key question posed in this research is how selection can be implemented in the most effective and fairest manner. Using data obtained from selections in the years 1981 through 1985, the psychometric characteristics of several selection instruments (school grades and psychological tests) are examined with regard to (a) the degree of predictive validity, and (b) their relationship with previous learning conditions. The results confirm the notion that it is not possible to maximize the selection objectives of effectiveness and fairness simultaneously. An optimal selection procedure, incorporating the appropriate selection instruments, must be sought against the background of psychological, methodological sociopolitical, and educational, considerations.
Visual Processing of Televised Information by Japanese and American Children
Authors: Rolandelli David R. , Sugihara Kazuaki , Wright John C.
Published: March 2007

Visual processing of televised information was compared for 85 Japanese and 111 American boys and girls at the kindergarten and fourth-grade levels. It was predicted that in a television program without narration or dialogue, Japanese children's amount and concentration of visual attention and comprehension would be higher than that of American children, particularly at the fourth-grade level. The results confirmed the predictions for visual attention, suggesting that different television processing strategies were employed. Contrary to the predictions, American children scored higher than Japanese children on the comprehension test, perhaps because of the cultural differences in expectations about the testing procedure.
The Social Psychological Worlds of Swedes and Turks in and Around Retirement
Authors: Imamoglu E. Olcay , Küller Rikard , Imamoglu Vacit , Küller Marianne
Published: March 2007

Five hundred and two Swedish (60 to 71 years of age) and 448 Turkish (55 to 71 years of age) respondents of both genders were interviewed in depth concerning the characteristics of their social networks and evaluations of their current life situations in relation to self-images, life satisfaction, attitudes toward aging, and feelings of loneliness. Results indicated that (a) the Turks, especially men, had both larger social networks and interacted more frequently than the Swedes; (b) compared to Swedes, Turks had less positive attitudes toward getting older, higher feelings of personal loneliness, and lower life satisfaction; (c) within each culture, women had less positive attitudes toward aging and higher feelings of personal loneliness; Turkish women had lower and men had higher self-images than the Swedish men and women who did not differ from each other; (d) in both countries, a positive attitude toward aging was correlated with low personal loneliness and positive self-image; (e) gender differences were more pronounced for Turkey compared to Sweden.
A Bibliometric Analysis of the Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology
Authors: van de Vijver Fons , Lonner Walter J.
Published: March 2007

Bibliometric statistics concerning the Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology (JCCP) over the period 1977-1993 are reported. Compared to other journals on cross-cultural psychology, the impact factor of JCCP has been fairly high over this 17-year period. The average impact factor ofjournals publishing exclusively or mainly cross-cultural studies is stable. The overall numbers of journals that are quoted in JCCP is high, yet most references (apart from self-references) are to social psychological journals, particularly Journal of Personality and Social Psychology and Journal of Social Psychology. The pattern is similar for the journals in which JCCP is quoted.
Identifying Culture-Specifics in the Content and Structure of Values
Authors: Schwartz Shalom H. , Sagiv Lilach
Published: March 2007

Using data from 88 samples from 40 countries, the authors reevaluate the propositions of a recent values theory and provide criteria for identifying what is culture-specific in value meanings and structure. They confirm the widespread presence of 10 value types, arrayed on a motivational continuum, and organized on virtually universal, orthogonal dimensions: Openness to Change versus Conservation and Self-Transcendence versus Self-Enhancement. Forty-four values demonstrate high cross-cultural consistency of meaning. In the average sample, about 16% of single values diverge from their proto-typical value types, and one pair of motivationally close value types is intermixed. Test-retest and randomly split sample analyses reveal that some two thirds of deviations represent unreliable measurement and one third represent culture-specific characteristics. Ways to identify and interpret the latter are presented.
Polyfaceted Psychological Acculturation in Cook Islanders
Authors: Altrocchi John , Altrocchi Laurel
Published: March 2007

Data on acculturation were collected from five groups of Cook Islanders who have been differentially exposed to traditional and Western (New Zealand) influences: Residents of a small, outer island; residents of the much larger capital island; Cook Islanders who have migrated to New Zealand, and others who were born in New Zealand; and non-Cook Island New Zealanders. Comparison of the groups demonstrated differential general acculturation in association with differential exposure to Western ways, except that migrants to New Zealand reaffirmed some features of the traditional culture more than subjects living on the capital island. In addition to general acculturation, however, there were large individual differences in patterns of acculturation on different measures, demonstrating the importance of psychological acculturation and the polyfaceted nature of this acculturation.
Correlates of Social Status among Chinese Adolescents
Authors: Dong Qi , Weisfeld Glenn , Boardway Ronald H. , Shen Jiliang
Published: March 2007

In previous U.S. research, adolescents' social status was found to reflect physical traits but not intelligence. Therefore, a culture in which schoolwork is emphasized, China, was studied using a similar method. A total of 111 Beijing students were ranked by 300 classmates on various measures of social status and their correlates. In China, social status was correlated mainly with intelligence but also with physical attractiveness. Chinese boys' social rank also depended on expected future earning power, as in the United States, and on masculinity, but depended less on athletic ability. For Chinese and U.S. girls, rank was also associated with cheerfulness and femininity. The results suggest that culturally imposed values may interact with the possibly evolved appeal of certain traits, especially physical ones, to constitute the criteria for social success in a given culture. The results are discussed in light of evolutionary considerations.
Contributions of Psychological Anthropology
Authors: Piker Steven
Published: March 2007

Psychological anthropology and cross-cultural psychology are partners in pursuit of an empirically grounded understanding of human psychology in variable cultural contexts. This article summarizes some of the main contributions of psychological anthropology to this joint endeavor. It adopts a broadly intellectual and historical approach. For psychological anthropology, the early work of Freud was critical. Before World War II, anthropologists adapted it to their varied purposes, eventuating in the school of culture and personality (circa 1940-1965). Developments from, as well as in opposition to, this school are traced, as are new departures. Careers of major figures, as well as the lavishly interdisciplinary content of psychological anthropology throughout the 20th century, are highlighted.
Academic Interests and Perceived Competence in American, Japanese, and Korean Children
Authors: Henderson Bruce B. , Marx Melvin H. , Kim Yung Che
Published: March 2007

Children in Grades 2 through 5 from Korea, Japan, and the United States reported on their interests and perceived competence in a variety of academically and socially related domains and indicated their views on gender advantages in areas of interest. Comparisons by country, gender, and age were conducted. Children made many similar responses across countries. Predicted differences suggesting greater academic interests and perceived competence among children from Korea and Japan and social interests among children from Japan were only partially supported. In many cases, the responses of American and Korean children were most alike. American children generally had the highest perceived competence. Interest in words and numbers but not ideas declined with age across countries. Gender differences were common and often stronger than differences between countries or ages. Across countries, boys showed more interest and perceived competence for numbers and things, whereas girls showed more interest and perceived competence for words.
Glasnost and the Art of Conversation
Authors: Goodwin Robin , Nizharadze George , Luu Lan Anh Nguyen , Kosa Eva , Emelyanova Tatiana
Published: March 2007

Despite extensive research in the field of self-disclosure, little is known about the impact of a formerly repressive regime on disclosure or the manner in which culture, demographic variables, and individual worldviews combine to affect disclosure. Building on the previous literature on social penetration processes and uncertainty reduction, the authors generated nine hypotheses about the impact of these variables on intimate disclosure. Worldview and disclosure data were collected from 450 participants in three cultures (Russia, Georgia, and Hungary) and from three occupational groups (manual workers, business people, and students). Significant effects on disclosure were found for culture, interaction target, age of respondent, and their level of fatalism, with interaction effects for the topic discussed and the occupation and gender of the respondent. Results are discussed in terms of the development of personal relationships in the emerging economies of Central and Eastern Europe, as well as the context of a wider debate about the contribution of different levels of variables in understanding close personal relationships.
Self-Described Traits, Values, and Moods Associated with Individualism and Collectivism
Authors: Grimm Stephanie D. , Church A. Timothy , Katigbak Marcia S. , Reyes Jose Alberto S.
Published: March 2007

The authors tested individualism-collectivism (I-C) theory by comparing self-described traits, values, and moods of students in individualistic (U.S., n = 660) and collectivistic (Philippine, n = 656) cultures and in students within these cultures varying in individualism and collectivism. They also examined the cross-cultural generalizability of factor dimensions derived with Hui’s I-C measure. U.S. and Philippine students’ selfdescriptions of their personality traits, valued traits, general values, and moods generally differed in ways predicted by I-C theory. However, in comparing individualistic and collectivistic students within the two cultures, the U.S. results conformed more consistently to I-C theory than did the Philippine results. The cross-cultural comparability of the I-C factor dimensions was fair at best.
Empathic Listening: Reports on the Experience of being Heard
Authors: Myers Sharon
Published: March 2007

This qualitative study explores empathic listening from the vantage point of 5 female clients engaged in consecutive therapeutic relationships with two different therapists, a male and a female. Previous experiences of being “misunderstood” or “not heard” stood in stark contrast to experiences of being empathically understood in their relationships with the two therapists. Participants experienced being heard when therapists created a safe space for selfexploration, were actively and genuinely engaged in the therapeutic dialogue (paraphrasing, clarifying, questioning, and remembering details), and did not flinch when painful material was brought to the therapeutic process. Each participant’s experience of being heard was idiosyncratic and reflected something of what she had been missing in previous interpersonal encounters. Empathic listening emerges as a relational, interactional variable unique to each therapeutic encounter examined and not reducible to a technique or skill.
William James and the Pathologizing of Human Experience
Authors: Rubin Jeffrey
Published: March 2007

A sizable group of modern writers have been criticizing the prevalent practice of using pathology terms to describe human experiences. The practice of pathologizing was already prevalent more than 100 years ago when William James was a medical student at Harvard. Quotes from James’s letters, publications, and lectures inform us as to how his conceptualization of experiences commonly referred to as pathological developed as he matured. By the time James wrote The Varieties of Religious Experience, his dissatisfaction with pathology terminology reached its apex. Referring to it as “simple minded” and “superficial medical talk,” James employed three principles that provide an alternative to this kind of language and three principles that neutralize the negative effects that can occur whenever pathology terms are employed by others. These six principles are examined and then applied to James’s description of Leo Tolstoy’s profound struggle with melancholy.
The Scientific Humanism of G. Stanley Hall
Authors: Meyer Donald H.
Published: March 2007

This paper presents the humanistic psychology of the pioneer American psychologist Granville Stanley Hall (1844-1924), examining Hall's effort to develop a system of psychology that is at once rigorously scientific and, simultaneously, capable of verifying essential human values. Divided into three parts, the paper attempts: (1) to interpret Hall as a transitional figure trying to preserve a humanistic tradition in the study of the mind while emancipating the discipline from old metaphysical allegiances; (2) to bring together and examine the major tenents of Hall's "genetic" theory of psychology; and (3) to consider the main reasons for Hall's failure and his significance for our own time. Without attempting to pass judgment on whether "scientific humanism" is a contradiction in terms, it is argued that Hall failed mainly because his monistic system was too ambitious and romantic, but that he correctly sensed that those who were trying to drain scientific psychology of all moral and spiritual meaning were not only dehumanizing the discipline, but—in their abstractionism and in their failure to take adequate account of the vital wholeness of the life of the mind— were themselves behaving unscientifically.
The Leader Who Knows How Things Happen
Authors: Heider John
Published: March 2007

Lao Tzu's (ca) sixth-century B.C. Chinese text, Tao Te Ching, on how to rule a kingdom and lead a wise life has been adapted for use by group leaders and other humanistic educators. This article presents 12 of the original 81 chapters.
Clinical Theory and Scientism
Authors: Jacobs David , Williams Vernon
Published: March 2007

The standard Truax-Carkhuff method of assessing therapist empathy has long been criticized as lacking construct validity. However, the criticisms have been made from within the same positivist philosophy of science that is itself responsible for the conventional assessment method. In consequence, such criticisms fail even to identify the real problems involved in assessing therapist empathy, and are likewise unable to offer positive suggestions to improve a method that is demonstrably ineffective. It is argued that the background doctrines of operationism and empiricism are themselves the main obstacles to meaningful study. The manner in which research methods guided by these doctrines hopelessly distort the subject area is analyzed. Finally, therapist-empathy research is shown to be assimilable to a general science of meaning.
Wrestling with the Self on Mount Everest
Authors: Leste James T.
Published: March 2007

This article describes the 1963 American Mt. Everest Expedition, and the author's participation in it as a psychologist studying personality, compatibility, and stress. It summarizes findings concerning the whole group and then concentrates on the experiences of one of the climbers who reached the summit, concluding with speculations about the motivations and rewards of climbing.
Body Posture and the Religious Altered State of Consciousness
Authors: Goodman Felicitas D.
Published: March 2007

During the experimental induction of changed states of consciousness in student volunteers, the physical changes and experiential reports were somewhat comparable to those observed also in religious ritual, especially in Pentecostal services. There were a number of inconsistencies, however. I hypothesized that these might have arisen due to neglecting posture as a component. Subsequently, I conducted five series of experiments using postures from religious rituals from the ethnographic literature, as well as some neutral postures as controls. With the ritual postures, there was a striking agreement between the ethnographic data and the self-reports of experimental subjects. The method seems suited for investigating the religious altered state of consciousness without recourse to religious dogma.
Problems of Confirmation in Psychotherapy
Authors: Kron Tamar , Friedman Maurice
Published: March 2007

Confirmation, in Martin Buber's understanding of the term, is essential to persons' becoming themselves with other persons, and it is central to dialogical therapy. Confirmation means confirming the uniqueness ofthe other person by making the other present through "inclusion," or `imagining the real." Knowing that we are made present by the other in what we are and what we are called to become induces the inmost becoming of the self. Affirmation is only the beginning of the therapeutic dialogue; confirmation also includes confrontation-helping clients with and against themselves by taking part in their struggles to bring the aimless whirl into the direction of our dialogue with life. This article discusses both theoretically and with case illustrations five problems of confirmation in therapy: the first interview, the presenting problem versus the whole person, spontaneous dialogue within fixed structure, silence, and confirmation as acceptance and confrontation. It concludes with Maurice Friedman's understanding of therapy as a "dialogue of touchstones."
Emancipatory Therapeutic Practice in a Turbulent Transmodern Era:A Work of Retrieval
Authors: O'Hara Maureen
Published: March 2007

Within the community of psychotherapists, there has always existed philosophical and methodological tension between objectivists who follow a medical model, romantics who favor humanistic approaches, and social constructivists who take a more sociopolitical path. The current health care crisis is forcing practitioners to take sides, is threatening to unravel this always uneasy coherence among psychotherapists, and is forcing practitioners to revisit questions of epistemology, ethics, and practice. The author argues that as medical insurance funds dwindle and the assessment of "medical necessity" comes increasingly to be defined according to strict patterns of specific "symptoms," and as insurance-allowable treatment becomes restricted to short-term, emergency care or medication-based treatment, humanistic psychologists should restate their commitment to a psychology that approaches the struggles and promises of human life in human terms and should refocus their efforts on quality of life, spiritual, and emancipatory concerns.

What is a good life?

How should we understand the nature of reality?

What is happiness?

What is the nature and meaning of consciousness?

How do relationships, families, and communities thrive?

How should goods and privileges be distributed among people?

What should guide ethical human conduct?

What is our relationship to and responsibility for the natural world?

How can we face pain, loss, and death without losing hope or the will to transcend suffering?
Inspiration: Exploring the Experience and its Meaning
Authors: Hart Tobin
Published: March 2007

This article reports a qualitative research study of the experience of inspiration in ordinary persons. Results gleaned from analysis of 70 in-depth interviews suggest that this phenomenon is a significant and distinct epistemic event that many people experience. As such, this evidence may help to shift the center of gravity of knowing away from the exclusivity of a narrow form of rational empiricism. Although inspiration cannot be willed, it may be cultivated. Experiences described as the absence of inspiration seem to correspond to common mental health complaints.
The 'New' Powers of the Australian Industrial Relations Commission
Authors: Shaw J.W.
Published: March 2007

Jurisdiction conferred on the Australian Industrial Relations Commission by the Industrial Relations Act 1988 is more marked by continuity than by experimentation. This paper identifies some areas where greater structural changes might have been expected—the use of different constitutional powers, the regulation of contractors, and the removal of restrictions on the definition of 'industrial dispute'. It summarizes those beneficial reforms which the Act effects.
A New Dataset for Measuring Democracy, 1810-1998
Authors: Vanhanen Tatu
Published: March 2007

Democracy has been defined and measured in various ways. This article argues that combining two basic dimensions of democracy - competition and participation - can yield a theoretically satisfactory measurement of democracy that employs three measures: degree of electoral competition, degree of electoral participation and a combined index of democratization. These variables have been used in the author's previous comparative studies of democracy. The new dataset combines previous data and extends these to cover the period 1810-1998. That dataset includes 187 contemporary and former independent states from the year 1810 or from the year of independence. In the dataset, original electoral and other political data needed to calculate the values of Competition and Participation variables are given and documented separately for each country. The values of the three variables are calculated and given for each year over the period of comparison. Finally, the new dataset is compared with the Polity98 measures of democracy and the combined Freedom House ratings of political rights and civil liberties.
The New Practice of UN-Authorized Interventions: A Slippery Slope of Forcible Interference?
Authors: Semb Anne Julie
Published: March 2007

The topic of this article is the changing scope of the principle of non-intervention. Whereas the principle of non-intervention was previously honored as the most appropriate principle for the regulation of interstate relations, various concerns have recently been advanced as justifications for interventions. This suggests that the scope of the principle of non-intervention has gone through important modifications since the end of the Cold War. The scope for justified resort to force has expanded accordingly. The article has a double aim. First, I depict what seem to be emerging criteria for justified interventions. The UN Security Council practice of authorizing interventions suggests that states may lose their claim to protection under the principle of non-intervention if one or more of the following conditions have been met: (1) the state engages in systematic human rights violations; (2) it is incapable of protecting human rights violations due to breakdown of state authority; (3) the government in power is unlawfully constituted. When these conditions have been present, the Security Council has considered the situation a `threat to the peace' and thus has the legal powers to authorize enforcement measures under Chapter VII. The second aim of the article is to discuss the danger that, by softening the principle of non-intervention, the UN may get on a slippery slope of forcible interference. One reason for resisting a softening of the principle of non-intervention is that once interventions are allowed for some normatively defensible purposes, it will be difficult to establish barriers against a further softening of this principle, which may eventually have intolerable consequences. I argue, however, that the slope of UN-authorized interventions is not that slippery after all. Consequently, the dangers of entering them in the first place are not overwhelming.
From Interests to Identities: Towards a New Emphasis in Interactive Conflict Resolution
Authors: Rothman Jay , Olson Marie L.
Published: March 2007

This article explores the methods by which practitioners have traditionally approached international conflicts. Approaches focusing on the resources or the interests of the parties can be appropriate methods of resolution in conflicts where resources and interests are the only issues at stake. However, conflicts raging today often contain issues of identity. These identity-based, ethnopolitical conflicts are often resistant to traditional resource- and interest-based resolution methods. This article suggests a different approach, one that emphasizes needs, and in particular identities, of conflicting parties. We suggest that such a focus is essential in working towards resolution in many of the deeply rooted conflicts in today's world. We explore the ARIA model of conflict engagement as a mechanism for a systematic approach to interactive conflict resolution that specifically deals with the complex issues of identity. We also offer a preliminary evaluation of interactive conflict resolution as a general approach in varied international conflict situations. The question of interactive conflict resolution effectiveness is explored using Licklider's data for civil war termination and Bercovitch's data for international conflict mediation.
Trade Decreases Conflict More in Multi-actor Systems: A Comment on Dorussen
Authors: HEGRE HÅVARD
Published: March 2007

Dorussen (1999) concludes that trade between states reduces the incentives for conflict, but that the effect of trade diminishes with a larger number of countries. I demonstrate that the indicator Dorussen uses to gauge the impact of trade is dependent on the size of the system itself, and therefore may be an inappropriate means by which to evaluate the relationship between the impact of trade and system size. Two alternative indicators to analyze the impact of trade on conflict in Dorussen's model are suggested: the ratio of the minimum winning probabilities required for war to pay with trade and without, and the threshold for war costs under which war will pay for one of the states. Using the alternative indicators, I corroborate his conclusion that trade does reduce the incentives for conflict in this model. The alternative indicators, however, indicate that trade reduces an actor's incentives for conflict more the more states there are in the system.
Double-blind but More Transparent
Authors: GLEDITSCH NILS PETTER
Published: March 2007

Journal of Peace Research has now introduced `double-blind' or `masked' review procedures. In other words, the author's name and affiliation are removed from the manuscript. This article explains why we make this change now, why we did not make it before, and why the decision was not obvious. The main argument in favor of blinding is that the reviewer should judge the article on the basis of its merit rather than on the basis of the prior reputation or record of the author. However, the empirical evidence whether or not blinding makes any difference is mixed, and the practice varies greatly among quality journals. We make this change mainly because double-blind seems to be the accepted standard among journals that cater to the same readers and authors, and because we do not want there to be any doubt as to the journal's commitment to peer review. At the same time, we reiterate our commitment to transparency, by permitting referees to sign their reports if they want to, by letting the authors see all the referee reports, by copying the editorial correspondence to the reviewers, and by strengthening our data replication policies.
Defence, Education and Health Expenditures in Turkey, 1924-96
Authors: YILDIRIM JÜLİDE , SEZGIN SELAMI
Published: March 2007

It is often assumed that there is trade-off between defence spending and spending on education and health, even though the empirical literature suggests mixed evidence about its nature. This study investigates the possible trade-off between Turkish defence spending and spending on health and education during the Turkish republican era. In this context, the relationship between health, education and military expenditure has been analysed within a multi-equation framework employing the Seemingly Unrelated Regression (SUR) estimation method. The main findings of this article suggest that while military spending decisions are made independently of health and education expenditure, there are trade-offs between defence and welfare spending. While the trade-off is negative between defence and health, it is positive between defence and education. Moreover, it appears that there is a competition between education and health expenditure in the budgeting process.