bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Geography and State Power
Authors: Blevins Cameron
Published: April 2021

Chapter 1 situates the US Post within the larger landscape of the 19th-century American state. Analyzing the geography of the US Post challenges traditional assumptions about how states are organized and the ways in which they exercise power. First, rather than functioning as a centralized bureaucracy, the US Post operated through the agency model: a decentralized organization in which small tasks are delegated to a scattered workforce of part-time local agents. Second, rather than exercising coercive power, the US Post operated through structural power, or the ability to shape the conditions under which people make decisions. Rather than weaknesses, these features were key to how the US Post was able to rapidly expand over recently conquered territory and, in doing so, tie together the machinery of governance and settler colonization in the western United States.
Postal Maps, 1860–83
Authors: Blevins Cameron
Published: April 2021

During the 1860s and 1870s the US Post underwent a period of breakneck, unstable expansion in the western United States. Chapter 3 details the efforts of postal administrators to track all of these changes through a new mapmaking initiative under a cartographer named Walter Nicholson. The Topographer’s Office offers a window into the efforts of government officials in Washington, DC, to administer the nation’s western periphery. Nicholson’s postal maps were highly sought after across the federal government, offering valuable spatial information about the region that was often in short supply. Yet the struggles of Nicholson and his employees to keep pace with the never-ending flurry of changes to the region’s postal network is a testament to the ongoing barriers to centralized oversight imposed by the geography of the American West.
Rural Free Delivery, 1896–1913
Authors: Blevins Cameron
Published: April 2021

In the 1890s and early 1900s, the Post Office Department launched an unprecedented spatial reorganization of its postal network: Rural Free Delivery, when mail carriers started delivering mail to the doorsteps of individual homes. Chapter 7 details the rollout of Rural Free Delivery, which was put into motion through an alliance between department administrators and agrarian reformers. This initiative triggered a spatial and administrative shift in the US Post, as it altered the geography of the network while ushering in a more recognizably modern bureaucracy made up of professional civil servants. But mapping the spread of the service reveals that Rural Free Delivery did not initially extend to the rural West. There, the older agency model would continue to define mail service well into the twentieth century.
Distributive Justice
Authors: Schemmel Christian
Published: April 2021

This chapter develops the implications of liberal relational egalitarianism for the distribution of goods produced by social cooperation. It shows that there are not only strong instrumental reasons to set stringent limits to inequality of income, wealth, and opportunity, on grounds of both non-domination and social status, but, contrary to what both many critics and proponents of relational equality argue, strong non-instrumental, expressive reasons to do so, as well: since participants in social cooperation are equals, all inequalities in social goods need to be justified by justice-relevant reasons even where they do not lead to domination or social status inequality. Rightly understood, relational egalitarianism thus requires a concentric attack on material inequality in society as well as on its sources in power inequality, through a plurality of rationales.
The New Immigrants and Religious Parenting
Authors: Smith Christian , Adamczyk Amy
Published: April 2021

Immigrant parents often encounter unique challenges in transmitting religious culture and beliefs to their children. Drawing on information from a range of immigrant parents, this chapter seeks to describe the cultures of faith transmission operating among immigrant parents, as they seek to pass on their distinct traditions in ways that are also consonant with their children’s experiences growing up in America. Focusing on four distinct groups of parents—Muslims, Buddhists, Hindus, and Hispanic/Latino Catholics—this chapter addresses how these parents practice their religion in America today and how they perceive and engage with the American mainstream. The chapter illustrates immigrant parents’ unique challenges in transmitting faith to their children and their shared goals to preserve their values and traditions.
Shareholders and Takeover Bids: Revisiting the Poison Pill
Authors: Anand Anita Indira
Published: April 2021

This chapter assesses change-of-control transactions and the use of the defensive tactic known as the poison pill, a governance tool that often puts boards, rather than shareholders, in charge of a corporation’s response to a takeover. Much as in the MVS context, this separation of ownership of the corporation from its control may invite conflicts of interest, here between boards and shareholders. The chapter then asks how shareholder-driven corporate governance (SCG) can and should inform regulation of this defensive tactic. It also considers management entrenchment theory and the shareholder-primacy norm in the context of changes of control. Both the normative and the positive aspects of SCG make it necessary to revisit the current legal balance between the interests of directors and the interests of target shareholders in takeovers.
The Labor System in Crisis: The Limits of Mobilization
Authors: Goldman Wendy Z. , Filtzer Donald
Published: April 2021

By 1943, the labor system was in crisis. The state switched its focus from the cities to the countryside, mobilizing people to work far from home. Hundreds of thousands of Central Asian peasants were sent to eastern towns. Factories, mines, and timber operations became multinational sites combining workers from more than fifty national and ethnic groups. By 1945, 70 percent of Russian women were engaged in waged labor. As the Red Army began liberating the occupied territories, more workers were needed to rebuild devastated towns and industries. Local soviets, collective farms, and industry fought fiercely over labor. Leaders of the Central Asian republics demanded the return of their citizens. The Committee to Enumerate and Distribute the Labor Force failed to meet the demands of industry, and vast backlogs undermined all semblance of planning. Hundreds of thousands of newly mobilized workers fled back home; others sickened and died from illness and starvation. The labor system, initially a powerful weapon in the struggle for defense production, reached an impasse.
Setting the scene
Authors: Wilson Alexandra
Published: April 2021

This chapter introduces Puccini’s La bohème as a much-loved work that sits at the apex of the operatic canon. It explains that the following chapters will explore the opera’s not uncomplicated ascent to this position, investigating landmarks in its reception history as well as its musical, dramatic, and emotional appeal. The introduction sets out the book’s remit as a cultural history of the opera, examining its characterisation and treatment of particular dramatic themes, its representations of place and gender, its international reception, its connections with popular culture, and the varied ways in which it has been staged.
La bohème’s Paris
Authors: Wilson Alexandra
Published: April 2021

This chapter analyses the ways in which La bohème was influenced by popular romantic representations of Paris and the ways in which it, in turn, helped shape them. It discusses the late nineteenth-century Italian fascination with French culture and the way in which Puccini’s opera was nostalgically depicting an old Paris that had been swept away by Baron Haussmann’s regeneration of the city. The chapter considers Puccini’s conception of Bohemianism, demonstrating that it had Italian as well as French roots. It examines the composer and his librettists’ reading of certain archetypal Bohemian figures, such as the good-hearted demimondaine, and of symbolic Parisian locations, such as the pavement café. The chapter concludes with a consideration of Puccini’s representation of ‘picturesque poverty’ and discusses the ways in which directors have attempted to make the work more or less gritty through their stagings.
The Aesthetic Conflict
Authors: Shadle Douglas W.
Published: April 2021

An aesthetic conflict between advocates of abstract instrumental music (or “absolute music”) and advocates of instrumental music that tells stories (or “program music”) raged throughout Europe and the United States during the second half of the nineteenth century. American critics assessed Dvořák’s Sixth, Seventh, and Eighth Symphonies through the lens of this conflict as they premiered throughout the 1880s and 1890s. But listeners could not reach a consensus about where along the aesthetic spectrum his music fell. Which direction the composer’s new symphony might take therefore remained an open question until its 1893 world premiere in New York, when the results surprised everyone.
The Brewing Storm
Authors: Shadle Douglas W.
Published: April 2021

A small number of US-based composers began experimenting with the use of African American vernacular music as the basis for instrumental works around 1880, arguing that this music formed a truly American folk repertoire. Their works found public favor in the United States and, more importantly, in several European cities in the months leading up to Dvořák’s arrival as director of the National Conservatory. Dvořák’s own position in the debate about American national style was an open question until May 1893, when he revealed his belief in the authentic American identity of Black vernacular music, thus affirming the approach of earlier American composers.
Rousseau’s Silent Assemblies
Authors: Frank Jason
Published: April 2021

This chapter examines the centrality of popular assemblies to Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s theory of popular sovereignty by taking seriously the role they play in “maintaining sovereign authority,” which can only be done by sustaining or reenacting the source of that authority: the living body of the people themselves. Rousseau’s sovereign assemblies are often taken to be the clearest expression of his investment in what Jacques Derrida called a “metaphysics of presence.” Even as Rousseau’s sovereign assemblies provide the foundation of collective self-rule, however, the occasion through which the people’s will is expressed as law, they also serve an underappreciated ritual function, giving reenacted form and continuity to the very people whose will is expressed through them. The assembly form is the necessary—and necessarily hidden—supplement from which the people’s seemingly unmediated will is derived. The sovereign assembly is at once the source of the people’s collective autonomy, and the heteronomic support which provides its ongoing conditions of possibility.
Afterword
Authors: Frank Jason
Published: April 2021

Jacques Rancière’s democratic theory affirms not only an an-archic antifoundationalism, but also an everyday theory of political subjectivization and democratic appearance, through which “the power of the people” is “re-enacted ceaselessly by political subjects that challenge the police distribution of parts, places or competences, and that re-stage the anarchic foundation of the political.” This afterword focuses on Rancière’s conceptualization of the relationship between democracy as a politics without arche, and the singular acts of political subjectivization and democratic appearance that bring this contingency to light and enact it on the public stage. I turn first to Rancière’s work and then to an examination of a series of images created by the contemporary artist Glenn Ligon that critically engage with the Nation of Islam’s 1995 Million Man March. Ligon’s work provides an occasion for thinking in more historically and aesthetically detailed ways about the forms of everyday political speech and action that Rancière’s work brings into view as distinctive modes of democratic appearance.
Bandoneon!
Authors: Nakai You
Published: April 2021

Bandoneon! (a combine), performed in October 1966 as part of the 9 Evenings: Theatre and Engineering, has been regarded as Tudor’s first work as a composer. However, the conception of this piece was not only directly influenced by two other amplified bandoneon pieces he realized in the same year, Gordon Mumma’s Mesa and Lowell Cross’s Musica Instrumentalis, but had also started off as a realization of a “Mobius-Strip” composition by Mauricio Kagel. Moreover, most of the modular electronics in his setup were also used in other realizations around the same period. The true difference lies in how these common materials were used and to what ends. What the self-proclaimed effort to make a “giant white noise generator” from scratch brings to the fore is a synecdochical relationship between the modular instruments used and the larger instrumental complex they compose. The investigation of this coordination between the parts and the whole reveals a strange disappearance of an entire group of instruments considered central to the performance, a mystery that highlights the peculiar nature of Tudor’s “composition.”
(Likeness to) Voices
Authors: Nakai You
Published: April 2021

The voice became a central concern for Tudor from the late 1970s onward. However, he appears to have understood this instrument as having a paradoxical nature in which appearance matters more than its physical nature. This is reflected in the fact that he turned away from his previous engagement with homemade electronics and no-input feedback, focusing instead on readymade recordings, commercial effect processors and speech/percussion synthesizers, to fabricate a virtual simulation of the voice revolving around the notion of “likeness to voices.” Detailed examination of actual instruments used in these pseudo-vocal music reveals a puzzling contradiction between what Tudor did and what he said he did. This discrepancy is further enhanced by the possibility that Tudor derived the idea of “likeness to voices” from an obscure paperback romance about witches disguised as housewives written by Mary Savage. These unexpected findings demand reflection on the author’s effort to solve the puzzle of David Tudor using the materials he deliberately left behind for posterity to find.
Falling
Authors: Purves Alex C.
Published: April 2021

Falling is not only a highly repetitive action in the Iliad but also the primary means for indicating death on the battlefield. It is thus a quintessentially human gesture, which draws the body not only toward death but also into a specifically mortal sense of time. In light of the significance of falling for mortals, this chapter examines the problematic case of two gods who fall in the Iliad. It argues that when Hephaestus tumbles to earth from Olympus and when Ares is knocked flat on the battlefield, both gods also “fall into” human time. This action complicates their status as immortals and draws into question the different temporal registers at work in the poem.
Crustaceans as Fisheries Resources: General Overview
Authors: Gardner Caleb , Watson Reginald A. , Jayanti Anes Dwi , Suadi  , AlHusaini Mohsen , Kruse Gordon H.
Published: April 2021

Much of the biological and other research efforts on crustaceans have been driven by their importance to humans as a food source. Production comes from a diverse array of methods and scales of extraction, from small recreational or subsistence fisheries to industrial-scale operations. Most crustacean catch comes from shrimp fisheries, with over two million tons taken in 2014, mainly by trawl. The genera Acetes, Fenneropenaeus, and Pandalus account for around three quarters of this catch. Crab, krill, and lobster are the other main crustacean products (around 600,000 t crab, 380,000 t krill, and 300,000 t lobster in 2014). Trends in crustacean fisheries are broadly similar to those of other seafood, although crustaceans often target different market segments and receive higher prices than fish. Crustacean fisheries management faces many challenges with management of bycatch from trawl gears especially significant. Fortunately, crustaceans tend to be easily handled with low discard mortality, and this has enabled widespread use of regulations based on size, maturity, or sex (e.g., male-only fisheries). Total allowable catch (TAC) limits are widely used and highly effective for ensuring sustainable harvests when set responsibly using good information. TAC systems are often combined with catch share or individual transferable quota systems, which had a mixed history in crustaceans, sometimes reducing overall community benefit. This parallels the challenge facing fisheries globally of ensuring that harvests are not only sustainable but also deliver benefits to the wider community beyond the commercial fishers; management of some crustacean fisheries is at the forefront of these developments.
Squat Lobster Fisheries
Authors: Diez Mariano J.
Published: April 2021

Squat lobsters have a worldwide distribution. They are very important in benthic communities of many types of environments, from intertidal zones to the deep sea. Only three of the around 1,000 known species of squat lobsters are currently a target of commercial exploitation (Pleuroncodes planipes, P. monodon, Cervimunida johni), and one has potential interest: Munida gregaria. These four species belong to the family Munididae. The main interest in fishing these species is for human consumption, although they are also important as an ingredient of pelletized food for aquaculture, as a natural source of pigments for cultured salmon, or as a supply of chitin. Squat lobster fisheries are mainly developed in Latin America, although in recent years the commercial interest of some species has also expanded to Europe, where they often dominate fishing discards. From the beginning, the fisheries of this crustacean group have shown many temporal fluctuations. As a consequence, some countries applied certain types of ban, whereas in other countries the fishery is unrestricted. As a general trend, squat lobster species with commercial exploitation denote a marked seasonal reproductive cycle associated with upwelling cycles, low oxygen zones, or high productivity areas. Then, fisheries of squat lobsters are typically associated with areas where other fisheries also occur. As a consequence, high abundances of squat lobsters show that they are interacting with other fisheries in both negative and positive ways. In this context, this chapter provides information on the biology and ecology of squat lobsters as target species, their fishing methods, the development of fisheries in the world, and their products. Finally, a brief description of the important role of these species in the ecosystems is included.
Penaeid Shrimp Aquaculture
Authors: Boyd Claude E. , Jescovitch Lauren N.
Published: April 2021

Aquaculture supplies about 60% of the current market demand for shrimp. The entire increase for future demands must come from aquaculture since the capture from natural waters is not expected to increase. Shrimp aquaculture is conducted in many tropical and subtropical countries, but six countries—China, Indonesia, Vietnam, India, Ecuador, and Thailand—produce about 85% of cultured shrimp. Shrimp aquaculture relies on penaeid shrimp species, and two species, Litopenaeus vannamei and Penaeus monodon, account for most of the production. Shrimp aquaculture had an annual value of USD23.6 billion in 2014, making it a major item in international trade. Shrimp are produced almost exclusively in coastal ponds filled with estuarine or seawater. Small shrimp for stocking in ponds are produced in hatcheries mostly from farm-reared broodstock. Production intensity in ponds ranged from 200 to 500 kg/ha/crop in fertilized ponds to 5,000–10,000 kg/ha/crop in ponds with feeding and mechanical aeration. Up to three crops per year may be produced depending upon the location, species, and culture method. Shrimp culture can be seriously affected by viral diseases, and new diseases have been a constant threat to production success. The future of shrimp aquaculture is bright, but for it to reach its full potential, improved broodstock, high health, specific pathogen-free shrimp for stocking, better biosecurity for prevention of disease epidemics, better pond management practices, and more attention to avoiding negative environmental impacts will be necessary.
Aquaculture of Marine Lobsters
Authors: Jeffs Andrew , Daniels Carly , Heasman Kevin
Published: April 2021

Marine lobsters include some of the most highly prized and valuable seafood species in the world. Accessible wild populations of edible lobster species are under increasing pressure from harvesting, habitat loss, disease, pollution and climate change. To provide an alternative supply, there have been extensive efforts to develop aquaculture methods for many species of marine lobsters, but with slow progress. A range of unfavorable biological attributes of marine lobsters has constrained their development for aquaculture, including complex life cycles, low fecundity, extended larval periods, slow growth, and cannibalism. A lack of knowledge of aspects of the fundamental biology of many species has also made it challenging to advance aquaculture techniques. Currently, the only extensive commercial aquaculture of marine lobsters occurs in Vietnam, with annual production of well over 1,000 t of spiny lobsters. This involves the wild capture and mariculture of early juveniles of several species of spiny lobsters in simple floating sea cages and feeding them on freshly caught marine life, mostly small coastal fish and benthic invertebrates. The success of this apparently simple technology indicates the opportunity for increased aquaculture production as soon as the recent advances in larval culture of spiny (Palinuridae) and slipper (Scyllaridae) lobsters can provide a large and sustainable source of juveniles. While viable larval culture methods for the American and European clawed lobsters (Homaridae) have been available for some time, more recent advances with compartmentalized land- and sea-based culture systems show promise in overcoming the cannibalistic behavior of these species, an essential step toward developing commercially viable aquaculture. The likely emergence of large-scale commercial aquaculture of marine lobsters in the next decade has the potential to provide an alternative supply of lobsters into global seafood markets, with the prospect of relieving fishing pressure on wild populations of marine lobsters.
Old Age Pensions
Authors: Collins Richard B. , Oesterle Dale A. , Friedman Lawrence
Published: April 2021

This chapter assesses Article XXIV of the Colorado Constitution, which provides for old age pensions. A 1936 citizens’ initiative added the article to set up the Old Age Pension Fund in the state treasury and entitle the fund to specified revenues. A 1956 initiative amended the article to raise pension revenues, increase pensions, and add a health and medical care fund. It also allows surplus revenue to be used for other purposes. Section 3 sets qualifications for entitlement to a pension. Litigation and statutes have changed eligibility rules over time. Section 6 defines pension amounts, reduced by other retirement or pension income. In practice, because of availability of other pensions, the system has operated with surpluses paid into the general fund.
Nuclear Detonations
Authors: Collins Richard B. , Oesterle Dale A. , Friedman Lawrence
Published: April 2021

This chapter describes Article XXVI of the Colorado Constitution, which concerns nuclear detonations. A citizens’ initiative added the article in 1974 in response to detonations of nuclear devices in Colorado for the purpose of releasing natural gas. Citizens argued that the people of Colorado have the right to make the ultimate decision in a matter as important and controversial as nuclear detonations in the state. Sections 1 and 2 prohibit placement in the ground or detonation of any nuclear device unless approved by voters at a general election. Section 3 requires, before any nuclear detonation, a state agency or official must certify that sufficient financial resources exist to compensate for any damage caused by the detonation.
Introduction
Authors: Popkin Samuel L.
Published: April 2021

In 2016, a businessman so discredited that he could no longer get a casino license or borrow money from an American bank was elected president of the United States of America. How did this happen? It is easy to mock and ridicule Donald Trump as if he is the problem. In fact, he is a symptom of a much larger issue that has been bedeviling the GOP for nearly two decades: an intraparty crackup of massive proportions. “Crackup” here refers to a breakdown of the fragile alliances between coalitions within a party that prevents its leaders from developing goals they can deliver on when they control the White House and majorities in the House and Senate. This introductory chapter explains why party crackups are inevitable in a federal system with national money and local primaries. But this is the first time—for either party—that no group within the party could create a synthesis of old orthodoxies and new realities that altered the party’s direction enough to build a new consensus. The straw that broke the elephant’s back is the unintended—yet predictable—consequence of changes in campaign finance (popularly known as the McCain-Feingold bill) and the Supreme Court’s Citizens United ruling. These changes limited the party of legislative leaders to reach intraparty consensus and bargain with the other party. The combination has stripped the parties of most of their power to enforce any collective responsibility on their legislative colleagues, or upon a president from their own party.
The Republicans Pivot
Authors: Popkin Samuel L.
Published: April 2021

President Trump’s inaugural speech, a dark vision of “American carnage,” foreshadowed the administration to come. He considered presidential power a monetizable asset to convert into a family fortune, and the GOP—in unified control of Congress but deeply divided as a party—needed him and his voters so much that they exercised only minimal checks and balances. Chapter 6 charts the tempestuous relationship between the president and GOP leaders during a term marked by chaos in the White House and complicity in Congress. Despite a fervent desire to disrupt government, Trump’s West Wing staff was woefully unprepared for the task. In two years of unified control, the one major accomplishment was a massive tax cut for the top 1 percent of the country. His trade wars damaged exports, bankrupted farmers, and hurt American steel producers. His preferences for dictators rattled NATO and set back efforts to control North Korea and Iran. The GOP could not even repeal Obamacare, let alone replace it with something better. Republicans were blown out in the midterm election, losing control of the House, but they maintained their loyalty to Trump, forsaking the rule of law in favor of the rule of public opinion, and acquitting him of impeachment charges in the Senate without calling a single witness. However, the self-inflicted wounds from Trump’s administration were nothing compared to his abdication of leadership in the face of a true global crisis: COVID-19. Soon, the country with the world’s best science and medicine had the most cases and the most deaths in the world.
Anthems of Whose Generation?
Authors: Mills Richard
Published: April 2021

This chapter discusses millennial Beatles fan culture and Beatles tribute bands, slash fiction, YouTube, heritage culture, Beatles walks, LeakyCon, and Potterverse. These manifestations of Beatles fandom epitomize the desires of millennials who want to inhabit Beatles art and twist the music and lyrics into new cultural forms. Millennial fans want to be playful with canons and reimagine songs and films. Millennials’ digital “cultural construction” and remix bricolage texts represent a desire to reorganize anthems of the past to make them relevant to the present. Millennials are active fans who mash fan vids, set up Facebook groups, bring personalized signs to McCartney concerts, and collect ’60s memorabilia. Unlike boomer fans, they are not content to be passive: millennial tribute bands, slash fiction, YouTube videos, conventions, and heritage culture make Beatles culture fresh, new, and exciting. This chapter includes interviews with millennials and postmillennials for insight into these fans’ new direction.
Overview
Authors: Silva Elvira , Stefanou Spiro E. , Lansink Alfons Oude
Published: April 2021

This chapter characterizes production in a dynamic decision-making environment. The classic characterization of static firm decision making is contrasted with the dynamic decision environment where not all inputs are freely adjusted. The latter characterization is motivated by the conjecture that transaction costs are associated with adjusting the capital stock at a rapid rate per unit of time and these costs increase rapidly with the absolute rate of investment. In fact, these costs increase so rapidly that the firm may never attempt to achieve a jump in its capital stock at any given moment. Such transaction (or adjustment) costs have implications for the nature of the technology. This interplay is introduced in this chapter and serves as a foundation for the dynamic structure that follows throughout the book.
Dynamic Economic Decision Making
Authors: Silva Elvira , Stefanou Spiro E. , Lansink Alfons Oude
Published: April 2021

This chapter presents dynamic optimization for economic decision making in the context of both dynamic cost minimization and dynamic profit maximization given different primal representations of the dynamic technology. The Bellman equation of dynamic programming serves as the analytical foundation for the duality between the production technology and the economic value function. The dynamic duality relationships in the form of intertemporal versions of Hotelling’s and Shephard’s lemmas are presented. The chapter concludes with the data envelopment perspective of the dynamic decision-making framework. Allowing the data to reveal the nature of the production technology, both the input and output quantities can be used to reveal the inner bound of the technology. Alternatively, the technological information can be recovered by exploiting the dynamic cost minimization behavior using input prices and input and output quantities, to reveal the outer bound of the input requirement set.
Dynamic Structure of Production and Productivity Change
Authors: Silva Elvira , Stefanou Spiro E. , Lansink Alfons Oude
Published: April 2021

The concept of efficiency involves measuring the current practice against the maximum potential for a given technology. This chapter addresses the intertemporal measurement of economic growth and performance at the firm level, the dynamic generalizations of the economies of scale and scope, and capacity utilization in the context of the directional distance technology dynamic adjustment. These concepts serve as the foundation to characterizing the Luenberger total productivity indicator and its change at the firm level. The decomposition of the Luenberger total productivity change indicator is developed into the contribution of technical inefficiency change, scale inefficiency change, and technical change. Each of these components is impacted by different policy remedies.
Nonparametric Approaches
Authors: Silva Elvira , Stefanou Spiro E. , Lansink Alfons Oude
Published: April 2021

This chapter focuses on the nonparametric data envelopment analysis (DEA) framework of structural linear programming models underlying the estimation of efficiency. The nonparametric approach to measuring technical and cost inefficiency has been adopted in the examples in earlier chapters. Chapter 3 introduced the notions of inner- and outer-bound technologies. The inner-bound technology representation has dominated the nonparametric empirical applications in the literature on measuring efficiency and productivity. However, as this chapter shows, the outer-bound representation of the technology presents a viable alternative to measuring technical and cost efficiency as well. The chapter also develops an application to farm-level panel data.
Commentary
Authors: Pomerantz Anita
Published: April 2021

Over the years, I have reflected on the pervasiveness of requesting and offering reactions, opinions, and judgments. Explicit and implicit evaluative comments are central to the ways we make sense of and share our sense of activities, events, and people. A way to appreciate the centrality of evaluative comments is to consider the commonplace ways that we seek and offer reports about daily experiences, such as the video we watched, the weather, and how our day is going. These types of asking and telling seek and provide assessments. When we have experiences, we offer assessments as products of our participation and knowledge. When we report news to others, we build in descriptions and evaluations to convey whether the news is good, bad, sad, right, wrong, abnormal, and so on. When we respond to an announcement or news report, we display our understanding of it by offering an assessment of the news. Assessments are building blocks in constituting intersubjectivity....
Commentary
Authors: Pomerantz Anita
Published: April 2021

As discussed in the paper, an issue that makes responding to compliments complex is the dual status of compliments. On the one hand, a compliment is an assessment to which agreement or disagreement is relevant. On the other hand, a compliment may be likened to a ritual gift that should be appreciated and accepted. However an agreement carries risks. Participants orient to the action of praising oneself as improper, which may warrant the inference that the speaker is immodest or boastful. With that orientation, recipients of compliments offer responses that avoid appearing immodest....
Commentary
Authors: Pomerantz Anita
Published: April 2021

I ended my lead-in to the paper by asking readers to view the strategy I analyzed as a strategy for fishing for information rather than one used for various additional indirect actions. I said that the instances of using the strategy for actions other than seeking information were underdeveloped; I did not analyze how the various forms of “my side” tellings would be understood as seeking an invitation or seeking a remedy to an offense. In contrast, my analysis of offering a report with limited access to the recipient’s activity does explain how a recipient is prompted to provide further information. In the following two paragraphs, I make a distinction between the terminology “telling my side,” characterizing it as badly underspecified for understanding how a variety of indirect actions are accomplished, and the terminology “reporting limited access to recipient’s activity,” characterizing it as nicely specified for understanding how such a report indirectly seeks information from the recipient....
Extreme Case Formulations: A Way of Legitimizing Claims
Authors: Pomerantz Anita
Published: April 2021

Extreme Case Formulations specify a maximum case—for example, “all the time,” “everybody,” or “no one.” An important use of Extreme Case Formulations is to legitimize and/or strengthen a claimed attribute or offense. Participants use Extreme Case Formulations to strengthen their claims when selling, convincing, arguing, defending, justifying, accusing, and complaining. Another use of these formulations is to propose the validity of an assessment. In claiming that everyone has the same assessment of a referent, the speaker both depersonalizes the assessment and bolsters the validity of it. A third use of them is to claim that some conduct is normal and ordinary. This is done by proposing maximal frequency of the conduct. In saying “Everyone does it” or “People do it all the time,” speakers counter the status of the conduct as accountable by proposing that it is normal and ordinary.
Introduction: Torture, Empire, and the Exception
Authors: Heath Deana
Published: April 2021

Colonial Terror begins with an examination of a historic case before the High Court of England and Wales in 2011 regarding torture in colonial Kenya that exposed facets of the brutal violence that sustained Britain’s empire, and argues that the case and its aftermath offer a number of insights into the role of extraordinary violence in the operation of colonial states, and with it to the maintenance of imperial and colonial sovereignties, in addition to the discourses and practices of denial regarding British culpability for torture and other forms of colonial violence. After elucidating the book’s key arguments regarding the centrality of the torture of Indian bodies to the law-preserving violence of British colonial rule in India the introduction then considers both the virtual absence of colonial violence from British historical memory and recent scholarship on such violence in former British colonial contexts that seeks to redress such an absence. Proposing that scholars of colonial violence need to broaden their understanding of, and approaches to, violence, as well as the impact of violence on both bodies and minds, the introduction goes on to examine the scholarly literatures on, and lacunae in, colonial policing, colonial law, the colonial state, colonial sovereignties, and the use of torture and terror to construct and maintain such sovereignties, and suggests ways in which Colonial Terror will address such omissions.
Escalation
Authors: Ó Dochartaigh Niall
Published: April 2021

This chapter analyses how the civil rights campaign of the late 1960s gave way to escalating violence in the early 1970s as pragmatic local arrangements aimed at keeping the peace came under increasing pressure. It shows the extent of the shared interests and cooperation between the British state and Irish republicans and nationalists at this early stage and explains the bargaining failure that led to the breakdown of relationships and the closure of these early back-channels. Focusing on the role of mediators, it analyses the local networks of back-channel communication that would help to lay the foundations for subsequent high-level secret contacts.
Introduction
Authors: Crook Malcolm
Published: April 2021

Free and fair elections, on the basis of universal suffrage, are a relatively recent achievement, their development deeply controversial, and how ordinary people voted in the past, as opposed to who they elected, has become an important object of scholarly research of late. France represents an excellent case study for exploring the history of voting on account of the long, uneven, and contested process of experimentation that was undertaken there. The sovereignty of the people, enunciated in 1789, was expressed in the frequent election of numerous representatives, at local as well as national level, while an enduring tradition of direct democracy also encouraged the use of referendums. France became an influential electoral laboratory as a result and much was demanded of its citizens as they learned to vote in some challenging circumstances. Their ensuing apprenticeship seemed to have been completed in the twentieth century, with the belated advent of a female franchise and consistently high turnout in all elections, but declining participation over the last few decades has raised serious doubts. This fascinating subject is tackled here on a thematic basis, highlighting candidatures and campaigning, as well as who could vote, how they did so and to what extent, beginning in the Ancien Régime and ending in the present day.
A Matter of Persuasion
Authors: Crook Malcolm
Published: April 2021

How did French voters decide whom to elect to office, or which option to support in referendums? Just as declared candidatures were long resisted, so overt campaigning was condemned by custom. Yet electioneering had always been conducted, albeit in a discreet fashion, by word of mouth among family and friends, or at the electoral assemblies in which voting was conducted until 1848. The advent of a mass suffrage would ultimately change the rules of the game, but the promotion of particular individuals was long regarded unfavourably. As new practices developed, so the boundary between simply canvassing for votes and using corrupt means to secure them became more blurred. The French case suggests that there is no simple equation between democratization and a reduction in electoral fraud, for a bigger electorate offered more scope for bribery and intimidation. However, demands for electoral integrity, together with greater secrecy of the vote, gradually curbed malpractice towards the end of the nineteenth century, though new forms of fraud have emerged in the age of the Internet.
Getting Out the Vote
Authors: Crook Malcolm
Published: April 2021

Measuring electoral turnout in the past was not a priority, but in France after 1789 it became quite apparent that awarding the franchise to a majority of adult males did not automatically lead to its employment. Voter fatigue soon took its toll, and exhortation usually fell on deaf ears, though electoral procedure was extremely long-winded, and the decade of Revolution was marked throughout by civil unrest and international war. When universal manhood suffrage was established in 1848, turnout was initially high, yet it was not sustained and mobilizing the electorate remained a huge challenge. It proved essential to enable and educate citizens to exercise their right to vote. As elsewhere, the electoral apprenticeship in France was thus a lengthy and uneven process, in geographical as well as chronological terms. Somewhat ironically, it was the authoritarian Second Empire that marked a vital turning point in this regard, when frequent and regular polling began to attract a consistently increasing degree of participation. By the turn of the twentieth century high levels of turnout had become the norm, not just in national elections, but also at the local level, where the habit of voting was deeply embedded.
Conclusion
Authors: Crook Malcolm
Published: April 2021

Since the turn of the twenty-first century, electoral turnout has been in general decline, not least in France, where the process of electoral acculturation has been called into question by plummeting levels of participation in legislative and municipal elections. Presidential polls are still attracting huge numbers, but in 2017 over four million voters spoiled their papers in the second round. These disturbing trends require some explanation, and they have been ascribed to disillusionment with the democratic process and a growing belief that casting a ballot achieves rather little. However, while the habit of voting is being lost, this apparent crisis of citizenship must be set in perspective, because this study has demonstrated that high turnout was not automatically generated by a mass franchise in the past. Moreover, recent research has revealed that those who never vote, or fail to register to do so, have remained in a small minority. Instead, increasing numbers are voting intermittently, choosing to exercise their right not to vote, an expression of vitality perhaps, compared to the somewhat mechanical behaviour of their predecessors. The same might be said of blank voting or annotating the ballot paper, while alternative forms of political engagement have been encouraged by the Internet. Above all, the development of women’s apprenticeship in voting has benefited from gender parity in candidatures and the number of females in elected office has increased enormously. In short, learning to vote remains a work in progress.
The Migrant Case Law of the European Court of Human Rights
Authors: Dembour Marie-Bénédicte
Published: April 2021

Summarising a comprehensive review of six decades of case law published elsewhere, this chapter points out that the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) often privileges state sovereignty over migrants’ rights. This often leads to a deficit in protection whose origin can be traced to the so-called ‘Strasbourg reversal’ and the historical creation of jurisprudential lines which, in time, result in intellectually logical but ethically objectionable findings by the Court. Case law related to situations where migrants are left to live in perpetual limbo and immigration detention are provided as illustration. The chapter ends by highlighting jurisprudential avenues which the Court could adopt in order to remedy the identified shortcomings.
Two Humanitarianisms in Ambrose Bierce’s “An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge”
Authors: Witt John Fabian
Published: April 2021

Witt begins by observing that although the short story “An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge” is often anthologized and has long been a staple of high school curricula and the subject of music videos, television, and film, it is not typically thought of as a study in the dilemmas of humanitarian law. But, Witt argues, it is just that. The story depicts an execution for violation of the laws of war. Its author was a Union Army veteran. Moreover, the text embodies a central tension in the laws of war, one that emerged in Bierce’s time and persists today. On the one hand stands a sentimental humanitarianism that aims to minimize the human suffering of war. On the other, a righteous humanitarianism chafes at the constraints that sentimental humanitarianism places on the pursuit of justice. Witt demonstrates that Bierce’s “Owl Creek” straddles the two planks of the modern laws of war, conveying the power of both views.
Catch-22 and the Law of Large Organizations
Authors: Masur Jonathan S.
Published: April 2021

Like Levmore, Masur observes that the quintessential feature of the absurdist guidelines in Catch-22 is that they are all structured as rules, rather than standards. There is no discretion available to the officers charged with implementing the army’s battery of legal commands and regulations. But whereas Levmore sees this as unrealistic, Masur argues that strict legal rules are endemic to large organizations such as the army. Governing millions of people is an immense logistical and organizational challenge. Upper-level commanders must ensure that mid-level officers follow orders consistently; mid-level officers must ensure that they are treating their soldiers equitably and without favoritism. In fact, as Masur observes, the modern US Army operates under the guidance of hundreds of minute and often preposterous rules, just like the army in Heller’s novel. In this respect, Catch-22 succeeds in capturing important features of both war and other types of mass mobilization.
Remaking Families in Contemporary China
Authors: Qi Xiaoying
Published: April 2021

The book examines a number of emerging family-relations practices engaged in contemporary China. In doing so, it draws attention to new patterns of behavior and expectations related to transformation of the family since the advent of marketization. It also shows why exploration of family-related themes is important in understanding the nature of society, the forces that underpin social relationships more broadly, and the basis and nature of social change. It fills a gap in the literature by examining such heretofore unrecognized topics as the practices related to giving a child a surname. It also examines the previously unrecognized migratory movement of rural and small-town grandparents who join adult children who have relocated to urban areas for employment, providing childcare so that both of the child’s parents can earn an income—thus becoming part of the massive “floating” population that characterizes China’s workforce today. Three other aspects of family life that are underexplored in the literature are also examined—namely, spousal intimacy, divorce, and remarriage and cohabitation in later life. In all of these cases empirical material is refracted through new insights and theoretical developments. Research for this book is based on semistructured in-depth interviews with 178 men and women. The interviews were conducted between 2015 and 2017 in Beijing, Changshu, Dongguan, Guangzhou, Hefei, Shanghai, Shenzhen, and Hong Kong.