bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Sexual Discrimination in the Siamese Fighting Fish (Betta Splendens Regan)
Authors: Robertson C.M. , Sale Peter F.
Published: April 2008

I. We recorded the responses of male Betta splendens when presented with various stimuli behind a transparent partition. The stimuli comprised i) live male and female B. splendens; ii) lifelike (motionless) models of male and female B. splendens; and iii) six stylised model B. splendens. The stylised models consisted of three pairs, one member of which had long male-like fins and raised opercula, and the other with short female-like fins and lowered opercula. The first pair had "aggressive", the second, "submissive", and the third, "reproductive" colouration. 2. The use of two techniques for comparing responses to the different stimuli was compared. Principal component analysis of unscaled data produced more satisfactory results than did clustering by single linkage on the basis of taxonomic distances calculated on scaled data. 3. The response by a male to a stimulus consisted of two categories of behaviour: "agonistic" display and nest-oriented activities. 4. The responses towards live males and females differed only in the relative amounts of "agonistic" and nest-oriented behaviour performed to each. A greater amount of "agonistic" behaviour was performed towards males. 5. Three main influences were found affecting a male's response to a conspecific: i) a tendency to perform all components of "agonistic" display and to inhibit performance of nest-oriented behaviour; ii) and iii) tendencies to perform particular components of the "agonistic" display. Thus the "agonistic" display was found to be complex and governed by at least three separate motivations. 6. The first influence varied according to the (perceived) sex of the stimulus, being great when the stimulus was a male, and slight when it was a female. The other two influences were independent of the nature of the stimulus. 7. Responses to lifelike, motionless models were very similar to those to live fish. 8. All male models and the "aggressive" female model were treated similarly to the live male. The other models were treated similarly to the live female. 9. A mechanism for sexual discrimination was proposed, in which a male is characterised by long fins and/or raised opercula, or, an unpatterned body. A female is characterised by short fins and a patterned body. Discrimination can be accomplished solely by use of visual stimuli.
Individual Characteristics in the Calls of Reindeer Calves
Authors: Espmark Yngve
Published: April 2008

In a study of the individuality in the voice of reindeer calves, sound spectrograms of calls from IO equal-aged calves were analysed. The following variables were selected and measured as to the degree of inter-individual overlapping: A) Duration of the call. B) Fundamental frequency. C-E) Frequency of the first, the second and the third formant. F-G) Difference in frequency between the first and the second and between the second and the third formant. H) The shape of the fundamental. I-K) The shape of the first, the second and the third formant. The variables were considered distinct to a calf if they were overlapped to less than 25 percent by the range of the same variable in another calf. No particular variable characterized the calves throughout, but in relation to any other calf, each was characterized by one or more variables. It is suggested that the call is characterized by interaction of different features, by the "Gestalt" of the call. Although individuality has been shown in the structure of the calls, it has not yet been investigated to what extent the separate individual characteristics are actually recognized as distinctive by the mothers.
Aggressive Communication By Larus Glaucescens Iii. Description of the Displays Related To Territorial Protection
Authors: Stout John F.
Published: April 2008

This paper is a description of the aggressive activities of the Glaucous-winged Gull, Larus glaucescens. It provides a descriptive basis for the interpretation of experiments designed to elucidate the aggressive communication of this species (STOUT & BRASS, 1969; STOUT, WILCOX & CREITZ, 1969; and in progress). The descriptions of the aggressive behavior of L. glaucescens were based on the analysis of 12,000 feet of motion picture film, and on the physical analysis of a large number of sound spectrograms (sonograms) of each of the aggressive calls. The behavior observed was classified with respect to its association with attack, escape, or other aggressive interactions, and also with respect to its production by territorial defender or intruder. The Aggressive Upright, Moving Aggressive Upright, Intimidated Upright, Trumpeting, Mew, Grass-pulling, Jabbing, and Choking displays were described. The Forward display, as described for other larids, was not seen. The physical analysis of the aggressive calls of the Glaucous-winged Gull demonstrated great similarity between the Trumpeting and Yelp Calls. The Courtship, Parent-young, and Aggressive Mews were demonstrated to have consistent physical differences. It was suggested that they could each have a different function. The Choking and Alarm Calls are similar in that they have a more complex harmonic structure than the other calls. However, a differential function has already been demonstrated for these two calls (STOUT, WILCOX & CREITZ, 1969). It was hypothesized that each of these aggressive displays communicates distinct levels of threat. The combination of head level (posture), call, orientation, and movement were considered as possible factors resulting in the distinction between displays. It was suggested that the Upright Threat, Trumpeting, Mew, and Choking displays communicate increasing levels of threat in that order. This model was evaluated in relationship to experiments performed on aggressive communication by L. glaucescens.
Interaction of Predation and Intraspecific Aggression in Bluegill Sunfish Lepomis Macrochirus
Authors: Randolph Poulsen H. , Chiszar David
Published: April 2008

Several parameters of predatory and aggressive behaviors were measured in bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus) as a function of the social condition of the fish. Subjects were observed as 1) isolated individuals, 2) maintained pairs with complete dominance but no prior residency, and 3) temporary pairs equivalent to a resident-intruder relationship. Aggressive interactions weer also recorded during feeding sessions and during non-feeding control periods. An almost complete inhibition of feeding occurred for intruders in the temporary pairs with little or no deficit seen for submissive fish in the maintained pairs when compared to individual controls. No predatory differences were found among the dominant fish of the three groups. Aggressive behavior showed little reliable change between types of session, although all forms of aggression were much higher in the temporary pairs than in maintained pairs. In a second experiment, performed to determine the effects of the transfer procedure independent of social interaction, fish were transferred from their home tank to either an empty tank or one containing a resident conspecific. A significant decrement in predatory behavior occurred when compared to measurements taken in the home tank only when subjects were transferred to aquaria containing resident fish. The data indicated that the behavioral suppression seen in intruding subjects was due entirely to an inability to respond to both prey and aggression with the latter taking precedence. No evidence was obtained to indicate any form of motivational interdependence between the behaviors studied.
Functional Analysis of Spotted Sandpiper (Actitis Macularia) Song
Authors: Knudson Heidemann Merle , Oring Lewis W.
Published: April 2008

Spotted sandpipers, Actitis macularia, were presented with a series of experimental tape playbacks in a natural situation in order to ascertain functional components of their song. Visible responses of individuals were used as the criterion of a given tape's ability to elicit an aggressive or reproductive response. Tapes are listed in order of response eliciting strength: normal; 3 X interval, io-note; 4.00 kHz filtered; 3 X interval, 7-note; 3.15 kHz filtered tape; and backward. Lack of response to backward tape playbacks shows that figure integrity (proper temporal ordering of frequencies) is an essential feature for song recognition in spotted sandpipers. Songs with lengthened internote intervals or decreased numbers of notes elicited fewer responses than the normal tape; however, merely increasing internote intervals decreased responses very little. This indicates that number of notes and/or sequence length is important in stimulating aggressive motivation in spotted sandpipers. Response to both the 3.15 and 4.00 kHz filtered tapes indicates that lower frequencies are essential to elicit aggression. Responses indicative of low aggressive arousal were evoked by these tapes. There was somewhat higher response to the 4.00 kHz filtered tape to the 3.15 kHz filtered tape, probably due to emphasis on the higher frequencies in the former.
Flight-Associated Discharge Pattern in a Weakly Electric Fish, Gnathonemus Petersii (Mormyridae, Teleostei)
Authors: Kramer Bernd
Published: April 2008

A GnathonEmus petersii which is put into the tank of a Mormyrus rume, or of an electrically silenced G. petersii, displays a discharge rate which is only one fourth (8 Hz) the rate exhibited by an attacking, territory-defending animal. In both instances, the variability of intervals is great. In contrast to the bimodal histogram of an attacking animal, the histogram of an inferior, fleeing fish displays only one mode. This mode is identical to the burst activity-mode of the resting histogram, and different from the swimming histogram mode. So the histogram displayed by an attacked and persecuted animal is significantly different from the histograms exhibited by i) isolated resting, ii) isolated swimming, and iii) attacking fish. During an attack-elicited escape reaction, G. petersii increases its discharge rate up to 55 Hz in a step-like fashion, while regularising the length of successive intervals ("fleeing signal"). The step-like discharge rate increase is also shown by the receiver of an Approach who does not move. This suggests that the step-like discharge rate increase, associated with the escape reaction, is not an incidental response to changed motor activity. The "fleeing signal" presumably is i) an incidental response to a vegetative reaction, or ii) it may have the significance of a signal communicating a socially relevant message (e.g. threat).
*The Study of Social Organizations
Authors: Mcbride Glen
Published: April 2008

This paper presents a theoretical model of and a practical approach to the study of social systems. It was prepared after discussions at the XI and XII International Ethological Conferences, and each draft was presented to many ethologists for comment, and many responded. The paper looks at the social organization within animal species, and at the way animals build, maintain, and change it by their behaviour. The questions asked move always from the individual behaviours, through the social interactions, to the social reiationships and groups which are stable features of societies. The main societal subsystems discussed are: I. Social phases, or social structures which are maintained for periods of time; 2. Organic specialization by castes; 3. Social specialization in groups ; 4. The pattern of dispersal of individuals or groups; 5. The social organization of sexual and parent-offspring behaviour; 6. The organization of behaviour in relation to the environment; 7. The dynamic aspects of animal societies, particularly with changes in density. In each section, questions aim to draw out the pattern of behavioural organization, emphasising the structural features of the theoretical model presented.
Copulatory Behavior of Golden Hamsters (Mesocricet Us Auratus)
Authors: Bunnell Bradford N. , Boland Bobby D. , Dewsbury Donald A.
Published: April 2008

Several experiments were performed in order to provide quantitative and qualitative descriptions of the copulatory behavior of syrian golden hamsters (Mesocricetits auratus) observed under laboratory conditions. The results of these studies indicate that: I. The male copulatory pattern may be generally classified as a multiple intromission, multiple ejaculation pattern with no copulatory lock and an absence of thrusting during intromission. The exception to this is the appearance of "long" intromissions, involving multiple intravaginal thrusting, as the male approaches satiety. The function of the long intromission appears to be to increase penile stimulation in the male. Significance of the long intromission for the female is unknown. 2. Behavioral criteria which allow ejaculations to be distinguished from other complete intromissions were identified. The most valid criterion was an increase in rate of preinsertion thrusting prior to ejaculation. It was also possible to use behavioral measures to identify the post ejaculatory interval. 3. Data from standard latency and frequency measures were quite similar with those of BEACH & RABEDEAU (1959). There was, however, an increase in ejaculation latencies and interintromission intervals as the male approached the satiety criterion. 4. The duration of intromissions during which ejaculations occurred was reliably, but not strikingly, longer than that of non-ejaculatory "regular" intromissions. The durations of "long" intromissions, during which no ejaculations were ever found to occur, generally exceeded the duration of both ejaculations and regular intromissions, but some overlap existed. "Long" intromissions could, however, be identified by multiple intravaginal thrusting behavior. In the first copulatory of a test, the first intromission was of longer duration than later intromissions. 5. Male golden hamsters exhibit renewed copulatory behavior after reaching satiation if another, previously unmated female is introduced into the test situation (Coolidge Effect). Female contributions to the regulation of satiety effects appeared to be extensive but were not analyzed in the present study. 6. In contrast to many other rodents, male behavior of golden hamsters is exceptionally channelized toward copulatory behavior during the ejaculation latency period. Also, in contrast to many other rodents, the duration of lordosis in female golden hamsters is very long. Other species typical differences were also observed.
Sources of Individual Variations in the Naive Approach Preferences of Quail Chicks: Age, Stimulus Intensity, and Genotypes
Authors: Kovach Joseph K.
Published: April 2008

Variations in the early approach choices of naive quail chicks (C. coturnix japonica) were studied in relation to stimulus colours, stimulus intensities, age of subjects, and genotypes. Binary choices were tested at 7 hrs, 27 hrs, and 47 hrs of post-hatch age by a pair of coloured stimuli (blue and red) of identical photopic intensities (2.0 lux) and a pair of white stimuli of different intensities (20.0 lux vs 2.0 lux). Subjects were drawn from a genetically unmanipulated control population and from two genetic lines that were bidirectionally selected for choices between blue and red. Genetic controls showed very high preference of blue over red at 7 hrs of age, decreased blue preference at 27 hrs, and a slight preference of red over blue by 47 hrs. The two genetic lines showed significant modifications of colour choices by selection without showing corresponding changes in age effects. Both the control and the selected subjects showed preference of the higher intensity white stimulus, but this preference did not change with age. It was concluded that the gene effects in naive colour preferences are not related to age effects, nor to preferences between intensities of stimuli.
Critical Properties of the Assembly Call of the Common American Crow
Authors: Richards David B. , Thompson Nicholas S.
Published: April 2008

According to tradition, the communication system of the American crow, Corvus brachyrhynchos, consists of an assortment of distinct sounds each of which is used in a particular context and has a unique meaning. Despite this traditional view, we have made field observations which suggested that the sounds employed in various different functional contexts overlap considerably. These observations further suggested that each sound does not have a single unique meaning, but that its meaning varies depending upon how it and similar sounds are temporally organized into calling sequences. In order to investigate this idea, a series of experiments were performed in which the temporal properties of natural sounds recorded from crows in the field were changed. These experiments were concerned primarily with the vocalization known as the assembly call. The assembly call consists of series of sounds which are low, harsh, and variable in pitch and timing. Broadcast to crows in the field, recorded assembly calls provoke an aggregation of crows to the sound source about twenty-five percent of the time. The recordings broadcasted were of two sorts: sequences made up by modifying the temporal properties of a natural assembly call and sequences of sounds derived from calls given in other functional contexts which were then rearranged to approximate the temporal properties of an assembly call. These calls were tested on wild crows in the field. A presentation of a call was counted successful if at least one crow approached the sound source on a direct line. Different calls were compared with respect to the proportion of successful presentations. The results show that not all types of crow sounds can be manufactured into effective assembly calls. A high pitched call, even when arranged to approximate the temporal properties of the assembly call does not assemble crows at rates approaching the rate of assembly to natural assembly calls. On the other hand, the results also show that a sound need not be derived from an assembly call in order to be arranged into an effective assembly call. A call recorded in another functional context, but which has a harsh, grainy quality will assemble crows as well as or better than an assembly call if it is presented in the proper temporal arrangement. In fact, the highest rates of success were provoked by a sequence of such sounds having a high rate of emission and organized into short cycles of increasing rate. Such a call is two to four times more effective than a natural assembly call. These results are inconsistent with the traditional view that each particular caw in the repertoire of a crow has a discrete stable meaning. An alternate hypothesis is suggested in which the meaning of a sequence of crow sounds is thought to depend not only on the properties of the caws but upon the temporal properties of the sequence as well.
The Social System of the Grey Squirrel
Authors: Thompson D.C.
Published: April 2008

The social system of the grey squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) was investigated. The area used by males and females expands after weaning, then stabilizes and remains the same in location and extent for life. The home range of an established individual is broadly overlapped by the home ranges of several other animals. Each established individual is regularly in contact with only a limited number of recognized neighbours with which it has well-established dominance relationships. Individual recognition promotes lowered aggressive levels between neighbours which allows each squirrel to use its entire home range evenly. Aggressive behaviour is directed toward strange squirrels, either young or immigrants, which attempt to enter this system. Thus, the established individuals hinder the settlement of new animals. Young squirrels born in a given locality have a greater chance of establishing than do immigrants. The relevance of the findings to population regulation is discussed.
The Role of the Female During Copulation in Wild and Domestic Norway Rats (Rattus Norvegicus)
Authors: McClintock Martha K. , Adler Norman T.
Published: April 2008

The copulatory behavior of both wild and domestic strains of Rattus norvegicus was observed via continuous video monitoring as it spontaneously occurred in the large seminatural environment and under standard laboratory conditions. A factorial design demonstrated that the female Norway rat has the major role determining the amount and timing of copulation once mating begins. Copulation between wild pairs was characterized by fewer ejaculatory series than domestic pairs. The first ejaculatory series of wild pairs contained more intromissions at longer intervals. Domestic pairs had the same total number of intromissions in a copulatory session, but spread over multiple ejaculatory series with few intromissions at short intervals in the first series. The characteristic differences between the copulatory patterns of wild and domestic pairs was determined by the female's strain condition and was either statistically independent or opposite to the male's strain condition. Specifically, the population pattern of a wild female was characterized by fewer ejaculatory series and more intromissions at longer intervals before the first ejaculation than the pattern of a domestic female. These differences between wild and domestic populations were produced by differences in the rate of active solicitations for an intromission by individual females : the solicitation occurred virtually in a one-to-one correspondence with an intromission. There were no gross anatomical differences between the vaginal size and placement of the two strains. The female solicitation is a distinct and quantifiable behavior not found in the standard testing cage: its occurrence depends on a larger and more complex environment. In addition, copulation in the larger seminatural environment is characterized by fewer intromissions in each ejaculatory series of a session at longer copulatory intervals. The role of the female is discussed both in terms of the individual interactions which underlie it and in terms of its physiological functions for successful reproduction in the rat. Copulation with a wild male is characterized by longer intervals between the intromissions of the first ejaculatory series than with a domestic male. The wild condition of both the pair and the female showed the opposite effect. This difference is evaluated in terms of the different mating strategies for the two sexes on a population level and in terms of the individual interactions that allow a compromise for successful reproduction of the pair.
Navigation in Mazes By a Grey Seal, Halichoer Us Gr Yp Us (Fabricius)
Authors: Oliver Guy W.
Published: April 2008

The ability of a grey seal, Halichoerus grypus, to navigate a variety of obstacle courses was examined under light and dark conditions in a 6.1 m diameter tank. Four maze patterns were constructed by varying the positions of 18 vertical rods in the tank. One hundred trials were conducted, each consisting of a 2 minute light phase followed by a 2 minute dark phase. The order of presentation of the maze patterns was randomly determined. All trials were monitored for sound. A phosphorescent tag was attached to the seal to allow monitoring of its movements in the dark. The mazes differentially modified the seal's path of travel. Average rates of movement were determined under four conditions: light with no maze present - 108 cm/sec; light with a maze present - 65 cm/sec; dark with no maze present - 15 cm/sec; and, dark with a maze present - 14 crn/sec. The seal displaced 7 obstacles in the light and 17 in the dark. Trials in the dark with errors had a significantly higher mean distance traveled than those without errors: x = 21.6 m vs x = 16.2 m, p<.05. Clicks, clusters of clicks, and hisses were recorded, mostly in the dark. There was a negative correlation between sound production and improved navigational ability. It is suggested the seal relied upon visual orientation in the light, and on tactile cues provided by the vibrissae coupled with memory in the dark.
A Field Study of the Ontogeny of Social Behavior in the Lizard Anolis Aene Us
Authors: Stamps J.A.
Published: April 2008

The spacing behavior, displays and aggression of hatchling and juvenile lizards (Anolis aeneus) were compared to the behavior of the adults. Tn adults these behaviors are sexually dimorphic, but juveniles of both sexes show similar behavior. Hatchling lizards a few days old have nonoverlapping home ranges or participate in dominance hierarchies of up to six steps. Status in dominance hierarchies is almost entirely size dependent. The particular type of social system shown varies with microhabitat. Juvenile home ranges are smaller than those of adults and enlarge with age. Home ranges of juveniles are more variable in size than those of adults. Temporal elements of the species specific bob pattern are very stereotyped in both juveniles and adults. Intraindividual variation in display element duration is low and interindividual variation high in all age and size groups. However, mean duraton of elements is longer for larger lizards. Two other displays are significantly more variable in juveniles than in adults. Most of this variation is due to added interindividual variance in juvenile display elements. Juveniles and adults of both sexes are able to give all displays except courtship displays. The frequency with which certain displays are given is significantly different for juveniles, adult females and adult males. Juveniles are more apt to give certain aggressive displays than are adults of either sex. Longterm ontogenetic studies of individual females indicates that initially they give the aggressive displays characteristic of juveniles in general, but that the frequency of these displays decrease when they become sexually mature. When territorial resident lizards of any age are exposed to tethered intruders they react aggressively. Aggressive responses were ranked and aggression computed for certain size ratios of intruder and resident juveniles (I/R ratio). This aggression was compared to that predicted on the basis of food competition between different lizard size ratios. At both large and small lizard size ratios (I/R) juvenile Anolis aeneus are more aggressive than are either adult males or adult females at the same size ratios. This added aggressiveness to very large and very small intruders cannot be explained in terms of food competition between juvenile lizards of different sizes.
Significance of Stridulation in Larval Hydropsychidae (Trichoptera)
Authors: Jansson Antti , Vuoristo Tuulikki
Published: April 2008

I. An experimental study on the larvae of Hydropsyche angustipennis, H. siltalai, H. nevae, and H. pellucidula showed that when forced to leave their retreats the larvae would enter any retreat of suitable size, regardless of what species had built it and whether it was occupied or not. If the retreat entered was occupied, the larvae fought vigorously about the ownership of the retreat. 2. When defending their retreats against intruders of various congeneric species, larvae of H. angustipennis, H. siltalai, and H. nevae won more than 90% of the encounters, and all the species were about equally successive as defenders. As intruders, in contrast, H. angustipennis and H. siltalai were clearly superior to H. nevae. 3. Larvae of H. angustipennis and H. nevae were observed to stridulate in about 50% of the encounters, but larvae of H. siltalai stridulated in only about 20% of the fights. In more than 97% of the observed cases it was the defending larva which stridulated, and the stridulations were most frequent during fights between conspecific individuals, and when the intruder was larger than the defender. Intruders stridulated only occasionally, and only if they managed to force their way into the retreat, i.e., they defended the position attained. H. angustipennis was clearly the most active species to stridulate as intruder. 4. In general, the percentage of fights won by the defender decreased as the size of the intruder increased. However, if the defender stridulated, the decrease in the winning percentage was insignificant, but if the defender did not stridulate the decrease was considerable. Thus, stridulation clearly increased the defender's chances of winning a fight, especially against a larger intruder. 5. Morphologically the stridulatory apparatus of the four species differed little from each other. Correspondingly, the structure of the individual sound bursts was practically the same in all the species, but in the grouping of the bursts the species were rather different. Further, variation in numbers of sound bursts per set and numbers of sets per stridulatory period correlated to some extent with the species and size combination of the combatants. 6. The structural similarity of the sound bursts in the four species and the wide frequency band of the sound, together with the fact that stridulation could be provoked very easily by nonspecific artificial stimuli, suggest that the sounds are part of the defense behavior of the larvae and may be classed as protest sounds. Whether they affect other than congeneric intruders remains unknown. 7. Observations on the larvae during their responses to various disturbances indicated that they sensed vibrations carried by their nets and retreats, but not those carried by the water. From this, it is inferred that peculiar plume-like hairs present in large numbers on the anteroventral sides of the basal segments of the fore legs are the vibration receptors of the larvae.
A Causal Analysis of the Territorial and Courtship Behaviour of Chromis Cyanea (Pomacentridae, Pisces)
Authors: De Boer Bart A.
Published: April 2008

The territorial and courtship behaviour of C. cyanea was studied on a reef off the South-coast of Curaçao, Netherlands Antilles. Protocols of the behaviour were made by means of an underwater taperecorder. The protocols were subjected to sequence analysis. The result of this analysis showed that the different motor-patterns could be ranked into groups characterized by the motor-patterns within a group showing more correlations among them then with motor-patterns outside this group. Further analysis showed that the associations of motor-patterns could be ascribed to them having internal factors in common. In this way different behavioral systems could be distinguished. The occurrence of different colour patterns shown by C. cyanea was also analyzed. It appeared that the presence of each colour pattern was correlated with a specific group of motor-patterns. These groups appeared to be the same as distinguished in the analysis of the motor-patterns. The correlation between the colour patterns and motor-patterns could be shown to be based on internal factors. The nature of the linkage between the behavioral systems and the mechanism controlling the colour patterns is discussed and it appears that the colour patterns can be used to gain further insight into the causation of the different motor-patterns. In the discussion I tried to show that the results of the analysis of the courtship behaviour are open to other explanations than the traditional one in which it is assumed that the causation of courtship behaviour is dependent on the interactions of three systems, i.e., sex, aggression and flight. A more parsimonious explanation of the data shows that there is no need to assume a separate sexual system for the causation of the courtship actions. These actions can be explained by interactions between an aggressive and a nesting system. The proportion in which each of these systems partakes in the causation of each separate action is regulated by a different system.
Autoaggression and Tactile Communication in Pairs of Adult Stumptailed Macaques
Authors: Goosen C. , Ribbens L.G.
Published: April 2008

Autoaggression (fighting behaviour directed to one's own body) is a trait quite commonly observed in captive macaques and is presumably induced by separate housing of the animals which prevents fighting between different individuals. Laboratory experiments in pairs of female stumptailed macaques noted for showing autoaggression were aimed at studying how the amount of time spent in autoaggression is affected by tactile interaction with a partner. Six different animals were used as subject as well as partner. Behaviour recording occurred during a subject's stay in the observation cage. Three experimental situations each lasting 15 minutes were used: t) tactile partner situation in which the partner was also present in the observation cage; v) visual partner situation: subject and partner were separated by a plexiglass sheet; n) no partner: the subject was alone. These situations were established during two immediately following observation periods so as to enable study of 1) effects of difference in immediate situation and 2) effects of difference in previous experience. Results showed that, during the tactile partner situation, the time spent in autoaggression was less than in the visual and no partner situations; the latter two did not differ consistently. The relatively small amount of autoaggression shown in the tactile situation was primarily due to the occurrence of allogrooming between subject and partner. There was no marked occurrence of alloaggression, so that there is no basis for the assumption that a shift from auto- to alloaggression is the primary cause of the relatively low level of autoaggression in the tactile partner situations. An effect on, i. e. a reduction of, the amount of time spent in autoaggression from having had an allogrooming experience was observed only in the situation in which the partner remained visually present. The present results suggest that prevention of allogrooming in separately housed macaques might also be a causal factor for development of autoaggression in captivity. In agreement with suggestions by others concerning the function of allogrooming in socially living monkeys, it might be that prevention of allogrooming abolishes suppression of aggression. Aggression is then directed to the subject's own body because fighting with another is also prevented. The fact that autoaggression continues to occur after tactile contact with partners is again possible suggests that it could also serve as avoiding the elicitation and receipt of social aggression.
Response To Con- and Heterospecific Male Odours By the Voles Micro Tus a Grestis, M. Arvalis and Clethrionomys Glareolus With Respect To Competition for Space
Authors: De Jonge Gerrit
Published: April 2008

Adults of Microtus agrestis, M. arvalis and Clethrionomys glareolus were offered the opportunity to explore an experimental alley, a section of which contained male odours of either of the three species. Neither of the species explored one of the sections of the alley more than the other one if the choice was between a section with conspecific odour and a non-odorous section. Both M. agrestis and C. glareolus preferred the non-odorous section when the choice was between M. arvalis odour and a non-odorous section. If an encounter with another vole was arranged in the alley before the opportunity was given to explore the partly odorous alley, then some additional avoiding responses to odours were assessed. M. agrestis now avoided both alien male conspecific odours and its own home cage odours. M. arvalis now avoided both the odours of C. glareolus and M. agrestis. Other responses to odours were not affected by an encounter. An encounter per se did not lead a vole to avoid the place where it had taken place. The survival value and the possible role of the avoiding tendencies in intra- and interspecific competition for space are discussed. Probably, odour avoidance is only an additional way in the communication between voles.
Weight Changes in Relation To Social Hierarchy in Captive Flocks of Silvereyes, Zoster Ops La Teralis
Authors: Kikkawa Jiro
Published: April 2008

1. A flock of ten silvereyes kept under regular food deprivation of one hour per day exhibited a dominance hierarchy resulting from aggressive encounters. The weight gain of these birds in six weeks of winter was significantly less than that of the control flock of ten birds kept with uninterrupted food supply. 2. In the experimental flock the omega bird lost weight whereas the two most aggressive birds gained considerably less weight than the others. This was interpreted to mean that both agonistic behaviour and the resultant social organisation have biological significance in the survival of individuals. 3. It is proposed that winter flocking serves a conservation function in exploiting limited food sources and that agonistic behaviour is an integrating factor in the organisation of the flock.
Naive Ducklings Show Different Cardiac Response To Hawk Than To Goose Models
Authors: Mueller Helmut C. , Parker Patricia G.
Published: April 2008

Naive mallard ducklings were exposed to overflights of a silhouette of either a hawk or a goose on one day and the other configuration on the next day. An audio record of the heart rate was recorded utilizing a small transducer. Most of the ducklings (14 of 20) showed a greater variance in heart rate in response to the hawk than to the goose (p<0.01 ). These results indicate that the ducklings without prior, specific experience can differentiate between a goose and a hawk and show a greater emotional response to the latter. This constitutes evidence for the recognition of configurational stimulus without prior, pertinent experience. The use of cardiac responses as a measure of emotionality or fear is discussed, as are the merits of various measures of changes in heart rate. We conclude that variance in heart rate is an excellent measure of emotional response to a stimulus.
Factors Affecting Flock Size Mean and Variance in a Winter Population of House Sparrows (Passer Domesticus L.)
Authors: Barnard C.J.
Published: April 2008

1. In a field experiment with a winter population of house sparrows at a farm, flock size at a given feeding site appeared to be positively related to seed density. 2. The positive relationship between flock size and seed density resulted from individual birds spending longer in areas where seed density was high and from birds being recruited from elsewhere on the farm to experimental sites. 3. Mean flock size was positively related to and the variance of flock size negatively related to the time of day and both showed a tendency to be negatively correlated with the amount of human disturbance. Mean flock size was also positively related to ambient temperature and flock size variance negatively related to daylength. 4. The rate of fighting per bird increased with flock size and time of day but decreased with increasing ambient temperature. 5. The pattern of flock size distribution in house sparrows is compared to that in juncos and some differences between the two may be attributable to differences in the type of food supply and temperature range over winter.
The Relationship Between Sex and Aggression in Convict Cichlids (Cichlasoma Nigrofasciatum Günther)
Authors: Cole Harry W. , Figler Michael H. , Parente Frederick J. , Peeke Harman V.S.
Published: April 2008

C. nigrofasciatum have been widely used as a preparation in the investigation of aggressive (threat/attack) behavior because of their reputation as a highly aggressive species. They have also frequently been used in studies of learning processes, especially habituation. The reproductive and aggressive behaviors of the family Cichlidae have been described extensively, however, the sexual behavior of C. nigrofasciatum has been treated only cursorily. Several investigators have postulated a mutually inhibitory relationship between sex and aggression such that any decrease in the level of one of these motivational states results in an increase in the level of the other. In order to test this hypothesized relationship between sex and aggression, male and female C. nigrofasciatum were exposed to either male or female stimulus fish for 24 consecutive hours. In the present investigation, performance of sexual behavior was found to inhibit performance of aggressive behavior and vice versa. A principle components statistical analysis was performed in order to reduce the number of dependent variables to a smaller number of underlying clusters of variables referred to as factors. The principle components analysis indicated that the data were characterized by two orthogonal factors, the first of which reflected qualitative differences between the sex and aggression variables, suggesting that a mutually inhibitory relationship exists between sex and aggression. Discriminant analyses indicated that females initiate courtship and perform more aggressive behaviors than males, males elicit more aggression than females, opposite sex dyads perform more sexual behaviors than same sex dyads, and same sex dyads perform more aggressive behaviors than opposite sex dyads. Habituation of aggression was demonstrated in all dyads. Significant decrements in sexual behaviors were not observed.
Mate Selection By Asellus (Crustacea: Isopoda)
Authors: Thompson D.J. , Manning J.T.
Published: April 2008

We have investigated how male Asellus decide whether to enter into precopulatory mate guarding with a female. The presence of a male in precopula does not influence the timing of oviposition in female Asellus aquaticus. Male Asellus are able to distinguish which of two females of identical size is closer to her moult. Males enter precopula with females before the female's ovipository moult but not before moults that are not followed by oviposition. This suggests that the cue that male Asellus use in assessing females is not a substance directly related to the moult cycle, and is possibly a sex hormone. Male Asellus seem to balance the cues of large female size and closeness to oviposition; in this way they are probably able to maximize the number of eggs fertilized per unit time.
Vigilance Behaviour in Grazing African Antelopes
Authors: Underwood R.
Published: April 2008

African antelope may devote a large proportion of their foraging time to looking around. The factors affecting such vigilance behaviour are examined for grazing antelope, five species being studied in detail. The proportion of time spent looking decreased as species body weight increased. Within species, animals in closed habitats, those with dense vegetation, tended to spend more time in looking than did animals in the open. There was some evidence that vigilance, presumably for predators, was shared by group members, but in one species, impala, vigilance apparently increased with group size and with proximity to neighbours. Time spent looking varied with position within the group; this effect was strongest in closed habitats, where central animals tended to scan least and feed most. Vigilance increased as feeding success decreased, partly due to mutual interference between looking and feeding. The possible social, foraging and predator-detection values of vigilance are discussed. A simple model is introduced to help explain the effects of cover and to facilitate further discussion.
Altruism Among Female Macaca Radiata: Explanations and Analysis of Patterns of Grooming and Coalition Formation
Authors: Silk Joan B.
Published: April 2008

Analysis of the observed patterns of two forms of putative altruism (grooming and coalition formation) among adult female members of a group of captive bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata) indicates that both kinship and dominance rank influence the distribution and rate of these behaviors. Females groom their adult relatives more often and more reciprocally than they groom unrelated females of similar ranks. In addition, females are more likely to support their relatives than nonrelatives and are likely to incur greater risks when they do so. Grooming and coalition formation do not occur exclusively among kin. Females primarily groom higher ranking females and support unrelated females against females lower ranking than themselves. Although females do not preferentially support unrelated females that groom or support them most, they do refrain from harassing lower ranking females that are currently grooming them or a female higher ranking than themselves. Thus, by grooming a higher ranking female a female reduces the probability that she will be harassed by other females. The relationship of these results to predictions derived from several different sociobiological hypotheses is discussed.
Mating Behaviour and Its Relationship To Territoriality in Platycypha Caligata (Selys) (Odonata: Chlorocyphidae)
Authors: Robertson Hugh M.
Published: April 2008

The damselfly Platycypha caligata has males with abdomens coloured blue dorsally, and laterally expanded tibiae coloured white anteriorly and red posteriorly. The females are cryptically brown coloured. The males are strongly territorial and centre their territories around potential oviposition sites (driftwood or treeroots in the water). Territorial interactions involve a complex, hierarchical series of flights which include flash displays of the white and red surfaces of the tibiae. Most successful mating interactions followed a central sequence: (1) a male intercepts a female passing through his territory, (2) by displaying his blue abdomen behind him he attracts her to his oviposition site, (3) she lands and makes probing oviposition movements on it, apparently testing its suitability for oviposition (possibly on the basis of softness), while he courts her by displaying his white tibiae while hovering around her, (4) if she accepts the site she flies up slowly, perches, and they copulate, whereafter he returns her in tandem to the site to oviposit. Females apparently rejecting the site decamped rapidly. Sometimes males courting already ovipositing females were successful. All other interactions, especially those away from oviposition sites were unsuccessful (only 104 of 564 observed interactions led to copulation). This mating behaviour is compared with that of other Odonata, and especially Calopteryx maculata. It is speculated that the evolution of this female choice of oviposition site prior to mating and the elaborate male courtship resulted from male territorial defence of the only available suitable oviposition sites. The adaptation of Platycypha caligata to oviposition on driftwood and treeroots (the discreet, scarce, defendable sites invoked as the first step in this theory) may have been associated with their occupation of mountain streams which have no emergent vegetation.
Social Organization of Wintering Blue Jays
Authors: Racine Richard N. , Thompson Nicholas S.
Published: April 2008

Blue jays (Cyanocitta cristata) differ from most New World jays by not breeding communally. Thus, blue jays have been considered less social than other New World jays. This study re-examined blue jay sociality by determining the extent of social organization in the non-breeding season. Color-banded blue jays were observed for 3 years at the Wachusett Meadows Wildlife Sanctuary in central Massachusetts. Of 413 jays that were banded, 78 were present in the Sanctuary at least 4 weeks after their inititial banding and 7 others were observed at an adjacent Farm, about 600 m from the main study site. During winter, a jay group centered its activities around a backyard birdfeeder. This group remained distinct from a neighboring group. Many jays returned to the group in successive winters. Replacement of parents by their offspring also occurred. A stable dominance hierarchy was established in the group and this hierarchy showed some stability over successive winters. A blue jay vocalization, the bell call, showed both inter- and intragroup variation in some call parameters. This variation was sufficient to allow for the identification of groups as well as the individuals within groups. Thus, blue jays are highly social during the non-breeding season. Furthermore, this sociality does not appear to diminish in the breeding season.