bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Patents, Citations, and Innovations
Authors: Jaffe Adam B. , Trajtenberg Manuel
Published: December 2018

Innovation and technological change, long recognized as the main drivers of long-term economic growth, are elusive notions that are difficult to conceptualize and even harder to measure in a consistent, systematic way. This book demonstrates the usefulness of patents and citations data as a window on the process of technological change and as a powerful tool for research on the economics of innovation. Patent records contain a wealth of information, including the inventors' identity, location, and employer, as well as the technological field of the invention. Patents also contain citation references to previous patents, which allow one to trace links across inventions.

The book lays out the conceptual foundations for such research and provides a range of interesting applications, such as examining the geographic pattern of knowledge spillovers and evaluating the impact of university and government patenting. It also describes statistical tools designed to handle methodological problems raised by the patent and citation processes. The book is accompanied by a set of auxiliary materials, including complete data on 3 million patents with more than 16 million citations and a range of author-devised measures of the importance, generality, and originality of patented innovations. This is available for download at http://mitpress.mit.edu/jaffecdcontents.
The Political Future of Social Security in Aging Societies
Authors: Galasso Vincenzo
Published: December 2018

Doubts about the ability of industrialized countries to continue to provide a sufficient level of retirement benefits to a growing number of retirees has fueled much recent debate and inspired a variety of recommendations for reform. Few major reforms, however, have actually been implemented. In The Political Future of Social Security in Aging Societies, Vincenzo Galasso argues that the success of any reform proposals depends on political factors rather than economic theory. He offers a comparative analysis of the future political sustainability of social security in six countries with rapidly aging populations—France, Germany, Italy, Spain, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Using a quantitative approach, he finds that an aging population has political as well as economic effects: an older electorate will put pressure on politicians and policy-makers to maintain or even increase benefits. Galasso evaluates how each country's different political constraints shape its social security system, considering such country-specific factors as the proportion of retirees in the population, the redistributive feature of each system, and the existing retirement policy in each country. He concludes that an aging population will lead to more pension spending; yet postponing retirement mitigates the impact of this, and may be the only politically viable alternative for social security reform.
Public Finance and Public Choice
Authors: Buchanan James M. , Musgrave Richard A.
Published: December 2018

In this volume, based on a week-long symposium at the University of Munich's Center for Economic Studies, two leading scholars of governmental economics debate their divergent perspectives on the role of government and its fiscal functions. James M. Buchanan, who was influential in developing the research program in public choice, concentrates on the imperfections of the political process and stresses the need for rules to restrain governmental interference. Richard A. Musgrave, a founder of modern public finance, points to market failures and inequities that call for corrective public policies. They apply their differing economic and political philosophies to a variety of key issues. Each presentation is followed by a response and general discussion.
PVM
Authors: Geist Al , Beguelin Adam , Dongarra Jack , Jiang Weicheng , Manchek Robert , Sunderam Vaidyalingam S.
Published: December 2018

Written by the team that developed the software, this tutorial is the definitive resource for scientists, engineers, and other computer users who want to use PVM to increase the flexibility and power of their high-performance computing resources.

Written by the team that developed the software, this tutorial is the definitive resource for scientists, engineers, and other computer users who want to use PVM to increase the flexibility and power of their high-performance computing resources. PVM introduces distributed computing, discusses where and how to get the PVM software, provides an overview of PVM and a tutorial on setting up and running existing programs, and introduces basic programming techniques including putting PVM in existing code. There are program examples and details on how PVM works on UNIX and multiprocessor systems, along with advanced topics (portability, debugging, improving performance) and troubleshooting.

PVM (Parallel Virtual Machine) is a software package that enables the computer user to define a networked heterogeneous collection of serial, parallel, and vector computers to function as one large computer. It can be used as stand-alone software or as a foundation for other heterogeneous network software. PVM may be configured to contain various machine architectures, including sequential processors, vector processors, and multicomputers, and it can be ported to new computer architectures that may emerge.
Radioactive Waste Disposal at Sea
Authors: Ringius Lasse
Published: December 2018

Most studies of environmental regimes focus on the use of power, the pursuit of rational self-interest, and the influence of scientific knowledge. Lasse Ringius focuses instead on the influence of public ideas and policy entrepreneurs. He shows how transnational coalitions of policy entrepreneurs can build environmental regimes and how global environmental nongovernmental organizations can act as catalysts for regime change. This is the first book-length empirical study of the formation of the global ocean dumping regime in 1972 and its subsequent development, which culminated in the 1993 global ban on the dumping of low-level radioactive waste at sea. Ringius describes the structure within which global ocean dumping policy, particularly policy with regard to the disposal of radioactive waste, is embedded. He also examines the political construction of ocean dumping as a global environmental problem, the role of persuasion and communication in an international setting, and the formation of international public opinion. He does not argue that the influence of ideas alone explains how regimes develop, but claims that it is necessary to understand how actors, interests, and ideas together influence regimes and international environmental policy.
The Rational Imagination
Authors: Byrne Ruth M. J.
Published: December 2018

The human imagination remains one of the last uncharted terrains of the mind. This accessible and original monograph explores a central aspect of the imagination, the creation of counterfactual alternatives to reality, and claims that imaginative thoughts are guided by the same principles that underlie rational thoughts. Research has shown that rational thought is more imaginative than cognitive scientists had supposed; in The Rational Imagination, Ruth Byrne argues that imaginative thought is more rational than scientists have imagined.

People often create alternatives to reality and imagine how events might have turned out "if only" something had been different. Byrne explores the "fault lines" of reality, the aspects of reality that are more readily changed in imaginative thoughts. She finds that our tendencies to imagine alternatives to actions, controllable events, socially unacceptable actions, causal and enabling relations, and events that come last in a temporal sequence provide clues to the cognitive processes upon which the counterfactual imagination depends. The explanation of these processes, Byrne argues, rests on the idea that imaginative thought and rational thought have much in common.

Bradford Books imprint
Reasoning About Knowledge
Authors: Fagin Ronald , Halpern Joseph Y. , Moses Yoram , Vardi Moshe
Published: December 2018

Reasoning about knowledge—particularly the knowledge of agents who reason about the world and each other's knowledge—was once the exclusive province of philosophers and puzzle solvers. More recently, this type of reasoning has been shown to play a key role in a surprising number of contexts, from understanding conversations to the analysis of distributed computer algorithms. Reasoning About Knowledge is the first book to provide a general discussion of approaches to reasoning about knowledge and its applications to distributed systems, artificial intelligence, and game theory. It brings eight years of work by the authors into a cohesive framework for understanding and analyzing reasoning about knowledge that is intuitive, mathematically well founded, useful in practice, and widely applicable. The book is almost completely self-contained and should be accessible to readers in a variety of disciplines, including computer science, artificial intelligence, linguistics, philosophy, cognitive science, and game theory. Each chapter includes exercises and bibliographic notes.

Bradford Books imprint
The Role of Annuity Markets in Financing Retirement
Authors: Brown Jeffrey R. , Mitchell Olivia S. , Poterba James M. , Warshawsky Mark J.
Published: December 2018

Annuity insurance products help protect retirees against outliving their incomes.

Dramatic advances in life expectancy mean that today's retirees must plan on living into their eighties, their nineties, and even beyond. Longer life expectancies are the symbol of a prosperous society, but this progress also means that some retirees will need to plan conservatively and cut back substantially on their living standards or risk living so long that they exhaust their resources. This book examines the role that life annuities can play in helping people protect themselves against such outcomes.

A life annuity is an insurance product that pays out a periodic amount for as long as the annuitant is alive, in exchange for a premium. The book begins with a history of life annuity markets during the twentieth century in the United States and elsewhere. It then explores recent trends in annuity pricing and money's worth, as well as the economic value generated for purchasers of these products. The book explains the potential importance of inflation-protected annuities and stock-market-linked variable annuities in providing more complete retirement security. The concluding chapters examine life annuities in various institutional settings and the tax treatment of annuity products.
The Semiotic Engineering of Human-Computer Interaction
Authors: de Souza Clarisse Sieckenius
Published: December 2018

A theory of HCI that uses concepts from semiotics and computer science to focus on the communication between designers and users during interaction.

In The Semiotic Engineering of Human-Computer Interaction, Clarisse Sieckenius de Souza proposes an account of HCI that draws on concepts from semiotics and computer science to investigate the relationship between user and designer. Semiotics is the study of signs, and the essence of semiotic engineering is the communication between designers and users at interaction time; designers must somehow be present in the interface to tell users how to use the signs that make up a system or program. This approach, which builds on—but goes further than—the currently dominant user-centered approach, allows designers to communicate their overall vision and therefore helps users understand designs—rather than simply which icon to click.

According to de Souza's account, both designers and users are interlocutors in an overall communication process that takes place through an interface of words, graphics, and behavior. Designers must tell users what they mean by the artifact they have created, and users must understand and respond to what they are being told. By coupling semiotic theory and engineering, de Souza's approach to HCI design encompasses the principles, the materials, the processes, and the possibilities for producing meaningful interactive computer system discourse and achieves a broader perspective than cognitive, ethnographic, or ergonomic approaches.

De Souza begins with a theoretical overview and detailed exposition of the semiotic engineering account of HCI. She then shows how this approach can be applied specifically to HCI evaluation and design of online help systems, customization and end-user programming, and multiuser applications. Finally, she reflects on the potential and opportunities for research in semiotic engineering.
The Subtlety of Emotions
Authors: Ben-Ze'ev Aaron
Published: December 2018

An informal yet rigorous exploration of human emotions in all their complexity and subtlety.

Why do we cry at the movies? What is the best way to manage destructive feelings such as jealousy? Although emotions pervade our lives, their nature, causes, and effects have only recently been studied by social scientists and philosophers. Despite growing scientific interest in the subject, empirical findings have not yet caught up with our intuitive knowledge. In this book Aaron Ben-Ze'ev carries out what he calls "a careful search for general patterns in the primeval jungle of emotions." In an engaging, informal style he draws on a variety of theoretical approaches and popular sources to produce a coherent account of emotions in all their subtlety. All of the ideas are illustrated with examples drawn from everyday life.

The book is organized into two parts. The first presents an overall conceptual framework for understanding emotions. It looks at the typical characteristics and components of emotions, distinguishes emotions from other affective phenomena, classifies the emotions, and covers such related issues as emotional intelligence, regulating emotions, and emotions and morality. The second part discusses individual emotions, including envy, jealousy, pleasure-in-others'-misfortune, pity, compassion, anger, hate, disgust, love, sexual desire, happiness, sadness, pride, regret, and shame. The text is laced with insightful and often amusing quotations from sources ranging from Mae West to Montesquieu.

Bradford Books imprint
The Syntax of (In)dependence
Authors: Safir Kenneth J.
Published: December 2018

One of the most important discoveries of modern linguistic theory is that abstract structural properties of utterances place subtle restrictions on how we can use a given form or description. For the past thirty years, these restrictions have been explored for possible clues to the exact nature of the structural properties in question. In The Syntax of (In)dependence Ken Safir explores these structural properties and develops a theory of dependent identity interpretations that also leads to new empirical generalizations. These generalizations range across a wide class of empirical phenomena, including the distribution of crossover effects, bound variables in ellipsis, functional answers to questions, resumptive pronoun constructions, (anti-) reconstruction effects, and proxy readings. Safir approaches these interpretive issues from the perspective that the structural properties of all natural languages reflect an innate linguistic capacity, as embodied in Universal Grammar (UG). This monograph explores the way a particular syntactic restriction imposed by UG limits the range of dependent identity interpretations that a sentence can have and hence the range of possible entailments it can have on the basis of these anaphoric interpretations. Although certain of these interpretations may be favored by manipulating a discourse, the work focuses on interpretive restrictions that cannot be repaired by discourse accommodation. More specifically, Safir's main proposal is dependent identity interpretations are restricted by a c-command prohibition and not by a c-command licensing condition—that c-command does not license dependencies but plays a role in ruling them out. Although cross-linguisitic discussion in the main text is very limited, Safir adds an appendix on scrambling and reconstruction that focuses on scrambling in Hindi.
Time and Realism
Authors: Dolev Yuval
Published: December 2018

A new view of the metaphysics of time, arguing that the traditional tensed-tenseless debate within analytic philosophy should be seen as the first stage in a philosophical investigation of time, and that the next stage belongs to phenomenology.

How does time pass? Does time itself move, or is time's passage merely an illusion? Analytic philosophers belong, for the most part, to one of two camps on this question: the tensed camp, which defends the reality of time's passage, conceiving the present as “ontologically privileged” over the past and future; and the tenseless camp, which denies time's passage and holds that all events, whatever their temporal location, are ontologically equal. In Time and Realism, Yuval Dolev goes beyond the tensed-tenseless debate to argue that neither position is conclusive but that the debate over them should be seen as only the first stage in the philosophical investigation of time. The next stage, he claims, belongs to phenomenology, and, he argues further, the phenomenological analysis of time grows naturally out of the analytic enterprise. Dolev shows that the two rival theories share a metaphysical presupposition: that tense concerns the ontological status of things. He argues that this ontological assumption is natural but untenable, and that leaving it behind creates a new viewpoint from which to study central topics in the metaphysics of time. Dolev shows that such a study depends on the kind of meticulous attention to our firsthand experiences that drives phenomenological investigations. Thus, he argues, phenomenology is the venue for advancing the investigation of time. Time and Realism not only analyzes the tensed-tenseless debate, resolving some of its central difficulties along the way, it transcends it. It serves as a bridge between the analytic and the continental traditions in the philosophy of mind, both of which are shown to be vital to the philosophical examination of time.
The Art of Agent-Oriented Modeling
Authors: Sterling Leon S. , Taveter Kuldar
Published: December 2018

A new approach for conceptualizing and modeling multi-agent systems that consist of people, devices, and software agents.

Today, when computing is pervasive and deployed over a range of devices by a multiplicity of users, we need to develop computer software to interact with both the ever-increasing complexity of the technical world and the growing fluidity of social organizations. The Art of Agent-Oriented Modeling presents a new conceptual model for developing software systems that are open, intelligent, and adaptive. It describes an approach for modeling complex systems that consist of people, devices, and software agents in a changing environment (sometimes known as distributed sociotechnical systems). The authors take an agent-oriented view, as opposed to the more common object-oriented approach. Thinking in terms of agents (which they define as the human and man-made components of a system), they argue, can change the way people think of software and the tasks it can perform. The book offers an integrated and coherent set of concepts and models, presenting the models at three levels of abstraction corresponding to a motivation layer (where the purpose, goals, and requirements of the system are described), a design layer, and an implementation layer. It compares platforms by implementing the same models in four different languages; compares methodologies by using a common example; includes extensive case studies; and offers exercises suitable for either class use or independent study.
Scenario Visualization
Authors: Arp Robert
Published: December 2018

An account of how humans evolved a conscious, vision-related ability unique to their species in order to solve nonroutine problems.

In order to solve problems, humans are able to synthesize apparently unrelated concepts, take advantage of serendipitous opportunities, hypothesize, invent, and engage in other similarly abstract and creative activities, primarily through the use of their visual systems. In Scenario Visualization, Robert Arp offers an evolutionary account of the unique human ability to solve nonroutine vision-related problems. He argues that by the close of the Pleistocene epoch, humans evolved a conscious creative problem-solving capacity, which he terms scenario visualization, that enabled them to outlive other hominid species and populate the planet. Arp shows that the evidence for scenario visualization—by which images are selected, integrated, and then transformed and projected into visual scenarios—can be found in the kinds of complex tools our hominid ancestors invented in order to survive in the ever-changing environments of the Pleistocene world.

Arp also argues that this conscious capacity shares an analogous affinity with neurobiological processes of selectivity and integration in the visual system, and that similar processes can be found in the activities of organisms in general. The evolution of these processes, he writes, helps account for the modern-day conscious ability of humans to use visual information to solve nonroutine problems creatively in their environments. Arp's account of scenario visualization and its emergence in evolutionary history suggests an answer to two basic questions asked by philosophers and biologists concerning human nature: why we are unique; and how we got that way.

Robert Arp is Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the National Center for Biomedical Ontology. His areas of specialization include philosophy of biology and philosophy of mind. He is the author of numerous articles and the forthcoming An Integrated Approach to the Philosophy of Mind.

Bradford Books imprint
Between Reason and Experience
Authors: Feenberg Andrew
Published: December 2018

A leading philosopher of technology calls for the democratic coordination of technical rationality with everyday experience.

The technologies, markets, and administrations of today's knowledge society are in crisis. We face recurring disasters in every domain: climate change, energy shortages, economic meltdown. The system is broken, despite everything the technocrats claim to know about science, technology, and economics. These problems are exacerbated by the fact that today powerful technologies have unforeseen effects that disrupt everyday life; the new masters of technology are not restrained by the lessons of experience, and accelerate change to the point where society is in constant turmoil. In Between Reason and Experience, leading philosopher of technology Andrew Feenberg makes a case for the interdependence of reason—scientific knowledge, technical rationality—and experience. Feenberg examines different aspects of the tangled relationship between technology and society from the perspective of critical theory of technology, an approach he has pioneered over the past twenty years. Feenberg points to two examples of democratic interventions into technology: the Internet (in which user initiative has influenced design) and the environmental movement (in which science coordinates with protest and policy). He examines methodological applications of critical theory of technology to the case of the French Minitel computing network and to the relationship between national culture and technology in Japan. Finally, Feenberg considers the philosophies of technology of Heidegger, Habermas, Latour, and Marcuse. The gradual extension of democracy into the technical sphere, Feenberg argues, is one of the great political transformations of our time.
Confidence Games
Authors: Rostain Tanina , Regan Milton C.
Published: December 2018

The rise and fall of a tax shelter industry that enabled some of America's richest citizens to avoid paying their fair share of taxes.

For ten boom-powered years at the turn of the twenty-first century, some of America's most prominent law and accounting firms created and marketed products that enabled the very rich—including newly minted dot-com millionaires—to avoid paying their fair share of taxes by claiming benefits not recognized by law. These abusive domestic tax shelters bore such exotic names as BOSS, BLIPS, and COBRA and were developed by such prestigious firms as KPMG and Ernst & Young. They brought in hundreds of millions of dollars in fees from clients and bilked the U.S. Treasury of billions in revenues before the IRS and Justice Department stepped in with civil penalties and criminal prosecutions. In Confidence Games, Tanina Rostain and Milton Regan describe the rise and fall of the tax shelter industry during this period, offering a riveting account of the most serious episode of professional misconduct in the history of the American bar.

Rostain and Regan describe a beleaguered IRS preoccupied by attacks from antitax and antigovernment politicians; heightened competition for professional services; the relaxation of tax practitioner norms against aggressive advice; and the creation of complex financial instruments that made abusive shelters harder to detect. By 2004, the tax shelter boom was over, leaving failed firms, disgraced professionals, and prison sentences in its wake. Rostain and Regan's cautionary tale remains highly relevant today, as lawyers and accountants continue to face intense competitive pressure and regulators still struggle to keep pace with accelerating financial risk and innovation.
Institutional Dynamics
Authors: Young Oran R.
Published: December 2018

An analysis of patterns of change in international environmental regimes, with five case studies illustrating the patterns identified.

International environmental regimes—institutional arrangements that govern human-environmental interactions—are dynamic, changing continuously over time. Some regimes go from strength to strength, becoming more effective over the years, while others seem stymied from the beginning. Some regimes start strong, then decline; others are ineffective at first but become successful with the passage of time.

In Institutional Dynamics, Oran Young offers the first detailed analysis of these developmental trajectories. Understanding the emergent patterns in environmental governance and how they affect regime effectiveness, he argues, is an important part of solving environmental problems. Young proposes a framework for analyzing patterns of institutional change based on the alignment of internal, endogenous factors—which include flexibility, monitoring procedures, and funding mechanisms—with such external, exogenous factors as the attributes of environmental problems, the political and economic contexts, and technological innovations.

He offers five case studies of environmental regimes, governing environmental problems ranging from climate change to the protection of the Northern Fur Seal, each of which exemplifies one of the emergent patterns he has identified: progressive development, punctuated equilibrium, arrested development, diversion, and collapse.
Networks of the Brain
Authors: Sporns Olaf
Published: December 2018

An integrative overview of network approaches to neuroscience explores the origins of brain complexity and the link between brain structure and function.

Over the last decade, the study of complex networks has expanded across diverse scientific fields. Increasingly, science is concerned with the structure, behavior, and evolution of complex systems ranging from cells to ecosystems. In Networks of the Brain, Olaf Sporns describes how the integrative nature of brain function can be illuminated from a complex network perspective.

Highlighting the many emerging points of contact between neuroscience and network science, the book serves to introduce network theory to neuroscientists and neuroscience to those working on theoretical network models. Sporns emphasizes how networks connect levels of organization in the brain and how they link structure to function, offering an informal and nonmathematical treatment of the subject. Networks of the Brain provides a synthesis of the sciences of complex networks and the brain that will be an essential foundation for future research.
A Primer on Auction Design, Management, and Strategy
Authors: Salant David J.
Published: December 2018

A guide to modeling and analyzing auctions, with the applications of game theory and auction theory to real-world auction decision making.

Auctions are highly structured market transactions primarily used in thin markets (markets with few participants and infrequent transactions). In auctions, unlike most other markets, offers and counteroffers are typically made within a structure defined by a set of rigid and comprehensive rules. Because auctions are essentially complex negotiations that occur within a fully defined and rigid set of rules, they can be analyzed by game theoretic models more accurately and completely than can most other types of market transactions.

This book offers a guide for modeling, analyzing, and predicting the outcomes of auctions, focusing on the application of game theory and auction theory to real-world auction design and decision making. After a brief introduction to fundamental concepts from game theory, the book explains some of the more significant results from the auction theory literature, including the revenue (or payoff) equivalence theorem, the winner's curse, and optimal auction design. Chapters on auction practice follow, addressing collusion, competition, information disclosure, and other basic principles of auction management, with some discussion of auction experiments and simulations. Finally, the book covers auction experience, with most of the discussion centered on energy and telecommunications auctions, which have become the proving ground for many new auction designs. A clear and concise introduction to auctions, auction design, and auction strategy, this Primer will be an essential resource for students, researchers, and practitioners.
Life after New Media
Authors: Kember Sarah , Zylinska Joanna
Published: December 2018

An argument for a shift in understanding new media—from a fascination with devices to an examination of the complex processes of mediation.

In Life after New Media, Sarah Kember and Joanna Zylinska make a case for a significant shift in our understanding of new media. They argue that we should move beyond our fascination with objects—computers, smart phones, iPods, Kindles—to an examination of the interlocking technical, social, and biological processes of mediation. Doing so, they say, reveals that life itself can be understood as mediated—subject to the same processes of reproduction, transformation, flattening, and patenting undergone by other media forms.

By Kember and Zylinska's account, the dispersal of media and technology into our biological and social lives intensifies our entanglement with nonhuman entities. Mediation—all-encompassing and indivisible—becomes for them a key trope for understanding our being in the technological world. Drawing on the work of Bergson and Derrida while displaying a rigorous playfulness toward philosophy, Kember and Zylinska examine the multiple flows of mediation. Importantly, they also consider the ethical necessity of making a “cut” to any media processes in order to contain them. Considering topics that range from media-enacted cosmic events to the intelligent home, they propose a new way of “doing” media studies that is simultaneously critical and creative, and that performs an encounter between theory and practice.
Unemployment Fluctuations and Stabilization Policies
Authors: Galí Jordi
Published: December 2018

A new approach for introducing unemployment into the New Keynesian framework.

The past fifteen years have witnessed the rise of the New Keynesian model as a framework of reference for the analysis of fluctuations and stabilization policies. That framework, which combines the rigor and internal consistency of dynamic general equilibrium models with such typically Keynesian assumptions as monopolistic competition and nominal rigidities, makes possible a meaningful, welfare-based analysis of the effects of monetary policy rules. But the conspicuous absence of unemployment from the standard New Keynesian model has given rise to both criticism and attempts to rectify this anomaly. In this book, Jordi Galí, one of the major contributors to the New Keynesian literature, offers a new approach to introducing unemployment into that framework.

Galí's approach involves a reinterpretation of the labor market in the standard New Keynesian model with staggered wage setting (rather than a modification or extension of the model, as has been proposed by others). The resulting framework preserves the convenience of the representative household paradigm and allows one to determine the equilibrium levels of employment, the labor force, and hence the unemployment rate conditional on the monetary policy in place.

Galí develops the basic model, embedding it in a standard New Keynesian framework with staggered price and wage setting; revisits the relationship between economic fluctuations and efficiency through the lens of the new model, developing a measure of the output gap; and analyzes the relation between unemployment and the design of monetary policy.
The Psychophysical Ear
Authors: Hui Alexandra
Published: December 2018

An examination of how the scientific study of sound sensation became increasingly intertwined with musical aesthetics in nineteenth-century Germany and Austria.

In the middle of the nineteenth century, German and Austrian concertgoers began to hear new rhythms and harmonies as non-Western musical ensembles began to make their way to European cities and classical music introduced new compositional trends. At the same time, leading physicists, physiologists, and psychologists were preoccupied with understanding the sensory perception of sound from a psychophysical perspective, seeking a direct and measurable relationship between physical stimulation and physical sensation. These scientists incorporated specific sounds into their experiments—the musical sounds listened to by upper middle class, liberal Germans and Austrians. In The Psychophysical Ear, Alexandra Hui examines this formative historical moment, when the worlds of natural science and music coalesced around the psychophysics of sound sensation, and new musical aesthetics were interwoven with new conceptions of sound and hearing.

Hui, a historian and a classically trained musician, describes the network of scientists, musicians, music critics, musicologists, and composers involved in this redefinition of listening. She identifies a source of tension for the psychophysicists: the seeming irreconcilability between the idealist, universalizing goals of their science and the increasingly undeniable historical and cultural contingency of musical aesthetics. The convergence of the respective projects of the psychophysical study of sound sensation and the aesthetics of music was, however, fleeting. By the beginning of the twentieth century, with the professionalization of such fields as experimental psychology and ethnomusicology and the proliferation of new and different kinds of music, the aesthetic dimension of psychophysics began to disappear.
How Not to Network a Nation
Authors: Peters Benjamin
Published: December 2018

How, despite thirty years of effort, Soviet attempts to build a national computer network were undone by socialists who seemed to behave like capitalists.

Between 1959 and 1989, Soviet scientists and officials made numerous attempts to network their nation—to construct a nationwide computer network. None of these attempts succeeded, and the enterprise had been abandoned by the time the Soviet Union fell apart. Meanwhile, ARPANET, the American precursor to the Internet, went online in 1969. Why did the Soviet network, with top-level scientists and patriotic incentives, fail while the American network succeeded? In How Not to Network a Nation, Benjamin Peters reverses the usual cold war dualities and argues that the American ARPANET took shape thanks to well-managed state subsidies and collaborative research environments and the Soviet network projects stumbled because of unregulated competition among self-interested institutions, bureaucrats, and others. The capitalists behaved like socialists while the socialists behaved like capitalists.

After examining the midcentury rise of cybernetics, the science of self-governing systems, and the emergence in the Soviet Union of economic cybernetics, Peters complicates this uneasy role reversal while chronicling the various Soviet attempts to build a “unified information network.” Drawing on previously unknown archival and historical materials, he focuses on the final, and most ambitious of these projects, the All-State Automated System of Management (OGAS), and its principal promoter, Viktor M. Glushkov. Peters describes the rise and fall of OGAS—its theoretical and practical reach, its vision of a national economy managed by network, the bureaucratic obstacles it encountered, and the institutional stalemate that killed it. Finally, he considers the implications of the Soviet experience for today's networked world.
The Marketplace of Attention
Authors: Webster James G.
Published: December 2018

How do media find an audience when there is an endless supply of content but a limited supply of public attention?

Feature films, television shows, homemade videos, tweets, blogs, and breaking news: digital media offer an always-accessible, apparently inexhaustible supply of entertainment and information. Although choices seems endless, public attention is not. How do digital media find the audiences they need in an era of infinite choice? In The Marketplace of Attention, James Webster explains how audiences take shape in the digital age.

Webster describes the factors that create audiences, including the preferences and habits of media users, the role of social networks, the resources and strategies of media providers, and the growing impact of media measures—from ratings to user recommendations. He incorporates these factors into one comprehensive framework: the marketplace of attention. In doing so, he shows that the marketplace works in ways that belie our greatest hopes and fears about digital media.

Some observers claim that digital media empower a new participatory culture; others fear that digital media encourage users to retreat to isolated enclaves. Webster shows that public attention is at once diverse and concentrated—that users move across a variety of outlets, producing high levels of audience overlap. So although audiences are fragmented in ways that would astonish midcentury broadcasting executives, Webster argues that this doesn't signal polarization. He questions whether our preferences are immune from media influence, and he describes how our encounters with media might change our tastes. In the digital era's marketplace of attention, Webster claims, we typically encounter ideas that cut across our predispositions. In the process, we will remake the marketplace of ideas and reshape the twenty-first century public sphere.
Classroom Research
Authors: Spada Nina
Published: December 2018

Classroom research (CR) in applied linguistics has evolved from descriptions of pedagogic practices used for second/foreign language (L2) teacher training purposes, to experimental investigations of the effects of different types of instruction on L2 learning, to ethnographic studies of the social and cultural factors that contribute to L2 development in classroom settings. Influenced by a wide range of theoretical frameworks and methodological approaches, CR focuses on what happens in L2 classrooms—the type of pedagogic, linguistic, and social interactions that take place between teachers and learners and the nature and delivery of instructional materials. CR also includes an examination of the knowledge and experience that learners bring to the L2 classroom (e.g., linguistic, cognitive, social, affective) and the education, expertise, approach, and philosophy of teachers. These elements of L2 classrooms are documented, analyzed, and interpreted in CR in an effort to understand how they interact and contribute to more (or less) successful L2 learning and teaching.
First Language Vocabulary Acquisition
Authors: Clark Eve V.
Published: December 2018

Children produce their first words between the ages of one and one‐and‐a‐half. They add new words as they gain experience from interaction with adults who talk about new objects, draw attention to their properties, and link the new words to familiar ones the children already know.
Heritage Languages and Language Policy
Authors: Ennser‐Kananen Johanna , King Kendall A.
Published: December 2018

This entry provides an overview of heritage language (HL) theory and research as they connect with language policy. The first of four sections synthesizes and problematizes definitions of HLs in use in US and European contexts. Next, HL learner typologies are defined, including critical evaluation of current proficiency‐based HL learner identifications. Third, language policy efforts and issues in the United States are outlined, including the uneven funding of HL programs. In the fourth and final section, future directions for HLs are suggested, with particular attention to ways of promoting HLs and HL education in the USA within a changing sociopolitical climate.
Interviews in Qualitative Research
Authors: Roulston Kathryn
Published: December 2018

Qualitative interviews are a widely used method in applied linguistics research, with researchers incorporating interviews in a variety of research designs, including case studies, mixed methods, oral and life history studies, and ethnographies. This entry discusses commonly used forms of interviews, such as phenomenological, ethnographic, and oral and life history interviews, and provides examples to show how researchers use these forms to generate knowledge about language learning and teaching among other topics. Steps in the design of qualitative studies using interviews are reviewed. These include formulating research questions that can be examined using interviews, considering sampling and selection criteria, developing an interview guide, submitting proposals for ethical review, and recruitment of participants for studies. Examples of question formulations commonly used when conducting interviews are provided. Innovations in how researchers use interviews are discussed, including dialogic forms of interviews, the use of new technologies in interviewing, and mobile methods. Theorizations of interviews used in applied linguistics research are reviewed along with issues related to the transcription and analysis of interview data. The entry concludes by discussing assessment of quality, and the future of interview research.
Non‐Native‐Speaker English Teachers
Authors: Braine George
Published: December 2018

The non‐native speaker (NNS) movement seeks to empower English teachers who are not native speakers of English. What began 20 years ago as an effort by a few scholars in the United States has now spread worldwide. While most goals of the movement have been achieved, discrimination against NNS English teachers still prevails.
Study Abroad
Authors: Jackson Jane
Published: December 2018

The entry defines “study abroad” and notes a significant increase in the number of tertiary students gaining some form of international educational experience. It then identifies external elements (e.g., program variations, host receptivity) and individual factors (e.g., motivation, agency) that can lead to differences in the developmental trajectories of foreign language students who study abroad. Recent advances in study abroad research, such as case studies and holistic, longitudinal investigations, have drawn attention to the need for pedagogical interventions to optimize the language and intercultural learning of student sojourners. More research is needed to provide direction for ways to enhance study abroad learning.
Fused Aromatic Network Structures as a Platform for Efficient Electrocatalysis
Authors: Mahmood Javeed , Anjum Mohsin Ali Raza , Baek Jong‐Beom
Published: December 2018

Fused aromatic network (FAN) structures are a category of ordered porous polymers that permit the specific fusion of building blocks into extended porous network structures with designed skeletons and pores. One significant feature of FANs is that their structures can be tailorable with fused aromatic rings without rotatable single‐bond connectivity. As a result, the geometry and space orientation of the building blocks are easily incorporated to guide the topological expansion of the architectural periodicity. The variety of building units and fused linkages make FANs a promising materials platform for constitutional outline and functional design. The stably confined spaces of FAN architectures can be extended for the exchange of photons, ions, electrons, holes, and guest molecules, and exhibit customized chemical, electrochemical and optical properties. Herein, the main progress and advances in the field of 2D and 3D FANs and their utilization as a platform to develop efficient electrocatalysts for energy conversion and storage applications are summarized.
Photodetachable Adhesion
Authors: Gao Yang , Wu Kangling , Suo Zhigang
Published: December 2018

Peeling from strong adhesion is hard, and sometimes painful. Herein, an approach is described to achieve both strong adhesion and easy detachment. The latter is triggered, on‐demand, through an exposure to light of a certain frequency range. The principle of photodetachable adhesion is first demonstrated using two hydrogels as adherends. Each hydrogel has a covalent polymer network, but does not have functional groups for bonding, so that the two hydrogels by themselves adhere poorly. The two hydrogels, however, adhere strongly when an aqueous solution of polymer chains is spread on the surfaces of the hydrogels and is triggered to form a stitching polymer network in situ, in topological entanglement with the pre‐existing polymer networks of the two hydrogels. The two hydrogels detach easily when the stitching polymer network is so functionalized that it undergoes a gel–sol transition in response to a UV light. For example, two pieces of alginate–polyacrylamide hydrogels achieve adhesion energies about 1400 and 10 J m−2, respectively, before and after the UV radiation. Experiments are conducted to study the physics and chemistry of this strong and photodetachable adhesion, and to adhere and detach various materials, including hydrogels, elastomers, and inorganic solids.
Current‐Enhanced Broadband THz Emission from Spintronic Devices
Authors: Chen Mengji , Wu Yang , Liu Yang , Lee Kyusup , Qiu Xuepeng , He Pan , Yu Jiawei , Yang Hyunsoo
Published: December 2018

An ultra‐broadband terahertz (THz) emitter covering a wide range of frequencies from 0.1 to 10 THz is highly desired for spectroscopy applications. So far, spintronic THz emitters have been proven as one class of efficient THz sources with a broadband spectrum while the performance in the lower THz frequency range (0.1–0.5 THz) limits its applications. In this work, a novel concept of a current‐enhanced broad spectrum from spintronic THz emitters combined with semiconductor materials is demonstrated. A 2–3 order enhancement of the THz signals in a lower THz frequency range (0.1–0.5 THz) is observed, in addition to a comparable performance at higher frequencies from this hybrid emitter. With a bias current, there is a photoconduction contribution from semiconductor materials, which can be constructively interfered with the THz signals generated from the magnetic heterostructures driven by the inverse spin Hall effect (ISHE). These findings push forward the utilization of metallic heterostructure‐based THz emitters on the ultra‐broadband THz emission spectroscopy.