bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Turning the tide: Enabling sustainable development for Africa's mobile pastoralists
Authors: Davies Jonathan
Published: September 2008

Sustainable development for Africa's mobile pastoralists is slowly becoming a reality. Success depends to a large extent on understanding the dynamics of drylands environments, accepting the logic of customary mobile livestock keeping, and enabling effective governance. Appropriate investment in pastoralism requires a clear understanding of the values that are attached to it and innovative approaches to marketing of the goods and services that emanate from the system. To make development truly sustainable it is imperative that the environmental services of pastoralism are recognised, rewarded and promoted. Constraints to sustainable pastoral development include low and misdirected public and private investment, weak security of resource rights, low human capital, weak pastoral voice and poor governance. Successful and sustainable development is observed in pastoral regions where customary governance has been legitimized, resource rights secured and economic development of the pastoral sector, as opposed to transformation of livestock keeping, has prevailed.

This article presents state‐of‐the‐art knowledge on sustainable pastoralism, gathered through the GEF/UNDP/IUCN World Initiative for Sustainable Pastoralism (WISP), with data and case studies taken from three recently published WISP reports: “Global Economic Review of Pastoralism”, “Pastoralism as Conservation in the Horn of Africa”, and “Policy Impacts on Pastoral Environments”.
Whither La Plata? Assessing the state of transboundary water resource cooperation in the basin
Authors: Gilman Patrick , Pochat Víctor , Dinar Ariel
Published: September 2008

In many ways, current treaty arrangements for cooperation over shared water resources among Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay — the five riparian states in South America's La Plata basin — have been relatively successful. These arrangements, mostly bilateral and trilateral partial coalition agreements and institutions that operate under the aegis of the 1969 La Plata River Treaty, have led to significant economic gains from the treaty arrangements for all five riparian states. But these economic gains have also generated significant externalities — particularly, severe environmental degradation — suggesting that alternate cooperative arrangements may be more optimal. Current work suggests that grand coalitions following principles of Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) may provide the most efficient means of distributing the benefits and costs of water resource cooperation equitably across riparian states. Using a theoretical framework developed by

Just and Netanyahu (1998

), we find that the arrangement of partial coalitions that exists in the La Plata Basin is preferable to a grand coalition because of its higher degree of stability. Finally, given the ways in which these partial coalitions are beginning to incorporate IWRM techniques, gaining experience and international recognition, we consider whether it is likely that partial coalitions will lead to a grand coalition in the foreseeable future.
Clinical and Preclinical Rationale for CGRP‐Receptor Antagonists in the Treatment of Migraine
Authors: Tepper Stewart J. , Stillman Mark J.
Published: September 2008

Calcitonin gene‐related peptide (CGRP) is linked to migraine and other primary headache disorders. It is found in every location described in migraine genesis and processing, including meninges, trigeminal ganglion, trigeminocervical complex, brainstem nuclei, and cortex. It is released in animal models following stimulation of the CNS similar to that seen in migraine, and triptans inhibit this release. Injection of CGRP into migraineurs results in delayed headache similar to migraine. Elevation of CGRP occurs during migraine, resolving following migraine‐specific treatment. Finally, and most importantly, CGRP receptor antagonists terminate migraine with efficacy similar to triptans. Both intravenous olcegepant (BIBN 4096 BS) and oral telcagepant (MK‐0974) have been effective, safe, and well tolerated in phase I and II studies. Telcagepant is currently in phase III trials, and preliminary results are favorable.

The potential for a migraine‐specific medication without vasoconstrictive or vascular side effects is enormous. CGRP receptor blockade may also have applications in other pathologic and pain syndromes.
Cellular Automata‐Based Systematic Risk Analysis Approach for Emergency Response
Authors: Ji Xuewei , Weng Wenguo , Fan Weicheng
Published: August 2008

Emergency response is directly related to the allocation of emergency rescue resources. Efficient emergency response can reduce loss of life and property, limit damage from the primary impact, and minimize damage from derivative impacts. An appropriate risk analysis approach in the event of accidents is one rational way to assist emergency response. In this article, a cellular automata‐based systematic approach for conducting risk analysis in emergency response is presented. Three general rules, i.e., diffusive effect, transporting effect, and dissipative effect, are developed to implement cellular automata transition function. The approach takes multiple social factors such as population density and population sensitivity into consideration and it also considers risk of domino accidents that are increasing due to increasing congestion in industrial complexes of a city and increasing density of human population. In addition, two risk indices, i.e., individual risk and aggregated weighted risk, are proposed to assist decision making for emergency managers during emergency response. Individual risk can be useful to plan evacuation strategies, while aggregated weighted risk can help emergency managers to allocate rescue resources rationally according to the degree of danger in each vulnerable area and optimize emergency response programs.
Responding to Roommate Troubles: Reconsidering Informal Dyadic Control
Authors: Emerson Robert M.
Published: September 2008

Existing analyses of informal control within dyadic relations neglect the nonpenal responses that characterize many such control efforts, and they give minimal attention to the interactional and interpretive processes that characterize such responses. And while dispute transformation provides a well-developed model of the development of dyadic disputes, this model is limited in prespecifying “injury” as the starting point for these processes and in neglecting informal reactions other than “claiming.” Integrating theories of informal control and dispute transformation, this article provides a case study analyzing the nature and processes of informal reactions to troubles involving college roommates, identifying three general categories of such response: managerial reactions, which involve unilateral, nonconfrontational efforts to manage the consequences or implications of the trouble or to change indirectly the troubling behavior; complaint-making reactions, where the troubled party attempts to get the other to change the disturbing behavior; and distancing and punitive reactions, which are relationally despairing responses marked by open confrontation and hostility.
Framing the Choice Between Cash and the Courthouse: Experiences With the 9/11 Victim Compensation Fund
Authors: Hadfield Gillian K.
Published: September 2008

In this article I report the results of a quantitative and qualitative empirical study of how those who were injured or lost a family member in the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks evaluated the tradeoff between a cash payment—available through the Victim Compensation Fund—and the pursuit of litigation. Responses make it clear that potential plaintiffs saw much more at stake than monetary compensation and that the choice to forego litigation required the sacrifice of important nonmonetary, civic values: obtaining and publicizing information about what happened, prompting public findings of accountability for those responsible, and participating in the process of ensuring that there would be responsive change to what was learned about how the attacks and deaths happened. The results shed light on the framing component of the transformation of disputes, and in particular on how potential litigants see the decision to sue, or not, as a decision as much or more about how they understand their relationship to their community and their responsibilities as a citizen as how they evaluate monetary considerations.
Evaluation Cardioprotective Effects of Atorvastatin in Rats by Real Time Myocardial Contrast Echocardiography
Authors: Filusch Arthur , Buss Sebastian , Hardt Stefan , Katus Hugo A. , Kuecherer Helmut F. , Hansen Alexander
Published: September 2008

Background: The ability to assess myocardial perfusion in small animals is important, especially to investigate models of myocardial ischemia. Myocardial perfusion is usually assessed by postmortem techniques, eliminating the possibility of follow‐up in intervention studies. The purpose of the study was to examine the feasibility of real time myocardial contrast echocardiography (MCE) to evaluate cardioprotective effects of atorvastatin in a rat model of acute ischemia‐reperfusion injury. Methods: The rats (n=15) underwent 20 minutes of mechanical left descending coronary artery (LAD) occlusion followed by 180 minutes of reperfusion. The animals received either atorvastatin (10 mg/kg), atorvastatin and the nitric oxide synthase (NOS)‐inhibitor N‐Nitro‐L‐Argininemethylester (L‐NAME) (15 mg/kg), or vehicle. MCE was performed to assess the size of the perfusion defect and the myocardial signal intensities (Amax) at the baseline, during occlusion, and during reperfusion. For comparison, the infarct size, risk area, and regional myocardial blood flow (MBF) were determined by the standard techniques as well. Results: The dynamics of ischemia‐reperfusion injury could be visualized serially by MCE. The infarct size‐to‐risk area ratio progressively increased during reperfusion and was markedly reduced in the atorvastatin group. Triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) staining confirmed a 23% reduction in the infarct size by atorvastatin. The infarct size by MCE correlated well with the histological methods (r=0.86, P < 0.001). Amax was reduced in the anterior segments during LAD occlusion (0.08 ± 0.01 dB) compared to the baseline (2.9 ± 0.4 dB), approached higher levels post revascularization of LAD (3.22 ± 0.50 dB), but decreased during 180 minutes of reperfusion (2.32 ± 0.40 dB). After 180 minutes of reperfusion, Amax in the risk area was significantly higher in the atorvastain‐treated group compared to the vehicle‐treated group (2.32 ± 0.40 dB vs 1.3 ± 0.4 dB, P ≤ 0.05), indicating preserved MBF. The L‐NAME‐treated group showed no significant difference compared to the vehicle‐treated group (Amax 1.12 ± 0.60 dB vs 1.3 ± 0.4 dB). The regional blood flow ratio (ischemic‐to‐nonischemic wall) measured by the microspheres was significantly higher in the atorvastatin group compared to the control and the L‐NAME groups, respectively (0.92 ± 0.13 vs 0.45 ± 0.23 vs 0.51 ± 0.16, P ≤ 0.05). Conclusions: Atorvastatin has cardioprotective effects in acute reperfusion injury. Contrast echocardiography allows visual and quantitative evaluation of the dynamics of myocardial ischemia‐reperfusion injury and can be used to monitor cardioprotective effects during pharmacological interventions even in small animals.
A Novel Approach to Assess Aortic Stiffness Related to Changes in Aging Using a Two‐Dimensional Strain Imaging
Authors: Oishi Yoshifumi , Mizuguchi Yukio , Miyoshi Hirokazu , Iuchi Arata , Nagase Norio , Oki Takashi
Published: September 2008

Background: Recently, it has been demonstrated that aortic stiffness is associated with cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. The objective of the present study was to accurately evaluate the aortic stiffness relative to the changes in aging using two‐dimensional (2D) strain imaging in 39 comparatively normal patients (15–85 years). Methods: We obtained short‐axis images of the abdominal aorta (Ao) and determined the peak circumferential strain (Ao‐S) and strain rate (Ao‐SR) and the time from Q‐wave of electrocardiogram to peak Ao‐S using the 2D strain imaging. The stiffness parameters β1 and β2 of the abdominal aorta were measured using M‐mode ultrasonography and 2D strain imaging, respectively. Results: The stiffness parameters β1 and β2 correlated significantly with age (r=0.51, P < 0.001 and r=0.69, P < 0.0001, respectively), particularly the latter parameter β2. The peak circumferential Ao‐S and Ao‐SR correlated strongly with age (r=−0.79, P < 0.0001 and r=−0.87, P < 0.0001, respectively). The stiffness parameter β1 was significantly greater in the old‐aged group (>60 years) than in the young‐aged group (<30 years). The peak circumferential Ao‐S and Ao‐SR were significantly lower in the middle‐aged (30–60 years) and old‐aged groups than in the young‐aged group. Conclusion: The aortic circumferential strain and strain rate measured by 2D strain imaging allow simple and accurate determination of the aortic stiffness.
Preoperative and Postoperative Mitral Valve Prolapse and Regurgitation in Adult Patients with Secundum Atrial Septal Defects
Authors: Toyono Manatomo , Pettersson Gosta B. , Matsumura Yoshiki , Wada Nozomi , Fukuda Shota , Yamano Tetsuhiro , Takasaki Kunitsugu , Shiota Takahiro
Published: September 2008

Background: Little attention is given to development of mitral regurgitation (MR) in adults with atrial septal defect (ASD). The aim of the study was to determine the associated factors of MR in ASD adults before surgical repair and the fate of moderate to severe MR after surgery. Methods: We examined 71 consecutive patients with secundum ASD (47 ± 16 years) who underwent surgical repair. Clinical and echocardiographic variables including size of left and right heart systems and severity of MR and tricuspid regurgitation (TR) were investigated before and early after surgery. Results: Before ASD closure, 14 patients (20%) had moderate to severe MR and 25 patients (35%) showed mitral valve (MV) prolapse. The ASD patients with moderate to severe MR showed worse cardiovascular symptoms, increased occurrence of atrial fibrillation and MV prolapse, and greater left ventricular (LV) end‐diastolic volume, left atrial area, and TR severity than those with none to mild MR (all P < 0.05). Among preoperative variables, TR severity, left atrial area, LV end‐diastolic volume, and MV prolapse were associated with preoperative MR severity in all the patients (all P < 0.03). Isolated ASD closure (n=46) decreased MV prolapse (P=0.008). Preoperative moderate to severe MR decreased after ASD closure with and without MV surgery (n=9 and 5, respectively; both P < 0.05). Conclusions: Preoperative MR severity was associated with TR severity, dilated left heart chambers, and MV prolapse. MR decreased after ASD closure with and even without MV surgery.
Identification of Unusual Conditions after Atrial Septal Defect Repair by Systematic Transthoracic Echocardiographic Assessment
Authors: Fang Fang , Lam Yat‐Yin , Li Zhi‐An , Yang Ya , Chan Yat‐Sun , Yu Cheuk‐Man
Published: September 2008

Background: There is a lack of echocardiographic studies to address the detection of atrial masses and abnormal venous connections in patients with secundum atrial septal defect (ASD) repair. This study sought to demonstrate that with proper technique, these unusual conditions could be diagnosed confidently by transthoracic echocardiography. Method: We performed a retrospective review of all repaired ASD patients of all ages with follow‐up echocardiography done at Beijing Anzhen Hospital from year 1999 to 2005. Clinical and echocardiographic features of patients with aforementioned conditions were evaluated. Results: Systematic echocardiographic protocol identified 11 patients with unusual conditions, in whom four patients had atrial masses (three atrial thrombi, one inflammatory pseudotumor) and seven patients had abnormal venous connections (two inadvertent diversion of inferior vena cava to left atrium, five previously unrecognized partial anomalous pulmonary venous connections). Conclusion: Atrial masses and abnormal venous connections could be diagnosed through a systematic echocardiographic approach in evaluating patients with ASD repair.
Transthoracic Doppler Echocardiographic Coronary Flow Imaging in Identification of Left Anterior Descending Coronary Artery Stenosis in Patients with Left Bundle Branch Block
Authors: Soylu Ozer , Celik Seden , Karakus Gultekin , Yildirim Aydin , Ergelen Mehmet , Zencirci Ertugrul , Aksu Huseyin , Tezel Tuna
Published: September 2008

Background: Conventional noninvasive methods have well‐known limitations for the detection of coronary artery disease (CAD) in patients with left bundle branch block (LBBB). However, advancements in Doppler echocardiography permit transthoracic imaging of coronary flow velocities (CFV) and measurement of coronary flow reserve (CFR). Our aim was to evaluate the diagnostic value of transthoracic CFR measurements for detection of significant left anterior descending (LAD) stenosis in patients with LBBB and compare it to that of myocardial perfusion scintigraphy (MPS). Methods: Simultaneous transthoracic CFR measurements and MPS were analyzed in 44 consecutive patients with suspected CAD and permanent LBBB. Typical diastolic predominant phasic CFV Doppler spectra of distal LAD were obtained at rest and during a two‐step (0.56–0.84 mg/kg) dipyridamole infusion protocol. CFR was defined as the ratio of peak hyperemic velocities to the baseline values. A reversible perfusion defect at LAD territory was accepted as a positive scintigraphy finding for significant LAD stenosis. A coronary angiography was performed within 5 days of the CFR studies. Results: The hyperemic diastolic peak velocity (44 ± 9 cm/sec vs 62 ± 2 cm/sec; P=0.01) and diastolic CFR (1.38 ± 0.17 vs 1.93 ± 0.3; P=0.001) were significantly lower in patients with LAD stenosis compared to those without LAD stenosis. The diastolic CFR values of <1.6 yielded a sensitivity of 100% and a specificity of 94% in the identification of significant LAD stenosis. In comparison, MPS detected LAD stenosis with a sensitivity of 100% and a specificity of 29%. Conclusions: CFR measurement by transthoracic Doppler echocardiography is an accurate method that may improve noninvasive identification of LAD stenosis in patients with LBBB.
Learning Contested Lessons: Participation Equity and Electric Utility Regulation
Authors: Laird Frank N.
Published: September 2008

Electric utilities have typically enjoyed a close and cooperative relationship with the state regulatory bodies that oversee them. In 2001, the Colorado Public Utilities Commission mandated that the largest Colorado utility build a wind power plant as part of its conventional generating capacity, despite the utility's vigorous objections. Local environmental groups, intervening in a form of rule making called Integrated Resource Planning, succeeded in overturning regulatory capture. This paper explains this anomalous case and highlights the role of knowledge and learning in the outcome. The case shows the opportunities and limitations of using contested technical knowledge to push for institutional learning. The case also suggests the importance of repeated policy processes. Wind energy advocates perceived that they had acquired participation equity, ownership in the process akin to Kingdon's “softening up,” which led policy makers to take their arguments more seriously, opening up the possibility of institutional learning.
Pandemic Disease: A Past and Future Challenge to Governance in the United States
Authors: Cook Alethia H. , Cohen David B.
Published: September 2008

Throughout history, pandemics have posed significant challenges to governments. Examination of the ways that governments have responded to pandemics can contribute to the U.S. government's ability to react in the future. We utilize past cases of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) and multiple forms of influenza to identify specific challenges governments have faced. Based on that knowledge, we discuss the major issues that the United States will have to address in the event of a future pandemic.
Comparison of chlorpromazine versus morphine hydrochloride for treatment of neonatal abstinence syndrome
Authors: Mazurier E , Cambonie G , Barbotte E , Grare A , Pinzani V , Picaud JC
Published: September 2008

Aim: To compare the duration of treatment for neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS) using chlorpromazine versus morphine hydrochloride.

Methods: We compared two case series of term infants with NAS treated with either morphine hydrochloride (MH) or chlorpromazine (CP). Seventeen infants were treated with MH from 1998 to 1999, and 20 infants were managed with CP from 2000 to 2001. The duration of treatment was compared, and multivariate analysis was used to identify independent risk factors related to the duration of treatment.

Results: Characteristics of the mothers (duration of drug addiction, abuse of other substances) and infants (birth weight, proportion breastfed) were similar in the two groups. The mean duration of CP treatment was 6 days (range 3.5–9 days), significantly fewer days than with MH treatment, which was 16 days (range 10–21 days; p < 0.001). There were fewer hospitalization days (11 days; range 9–14 days) for CP treatment compared with MH‐treated infants (18 days; range 16–25 days). Treatment with CP was independently associated with shorter hospitalization time.

Conclusion: CP appears to shorten the duration of NAS compared with MH. Larger prospective randomized trials are needed to confirm our findings.
Real‐time PCR of the 16S‐rRNA gene in the diagnosis of neonatal bacteraemia
Authors: Ohlin Andreas , Bäckman Anders , Björkqvist Maria , Mölling Paula , Jurstrand Margaretha , Schollin Jens
Published: September 2008

Objective: To evaluate a real‐time PCR assay for the diagnosis of neonatal bacteraemia.

Patients and methods: Two hundred ninety‐five plasma samples from 288 newborns with suspected neonatal sepsis were collected prospectively for the purpose of polymerase chain reaction (PCR)‐based bacterial detection. A real‐time PCR targeting the bacterial gene for 16S‐rRNA gene combined with four specific probes designed to detect Gram‐negative bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus and coagulase‐negative staphylococci (CoNS) was developed. All samples positive in the universal PCR were further sequenced for bacterial identification.

Results: When applied to a material from 50 patients with positive blood culture and 245 patients with negative blood culture, the universal PCR showed a sensitivity of 42% (28–57), a specificity of 95% (92–97), a positive predictive value of 64% (45–80), and a negative predictive value of 89% (84–92) (95% confidence intervals in brackets).

Conclusion: A new real‐time PCR technique was for the first time applied to a well‐defined prospectively and consecutively enrolled material of newborns with suspected sepsis, combining the benefits of real‐time PCR with specific probes and sequencing. The method managed to detect bacteraemia with high specificity even though the sensitivity was low. Factors causing the low sensitivity are identified and further strategies to develop the method are described.
Drink driving and the patterns and context of drinking among New Zealand adolescents
Authors: Tin Sandar Tin , Ameratunga Shanthi , Robinson Elizabeth , Crengle Sue , Schaaf David , Watson Peter
Published: September 2008

Aim: To examine the association between drink driving and the patterns and locations of usual drinking among New Zealand adolescents.

Methods: This is a secondary analysis of data from a nationally representative youth health survey, the sampling frame for which was all New Zealand secondary schools with more than 50 students enrolled in years 9 to 13 (ages 12 to 18 years) in 2001. The analysis was restricted to the 3408 survey respondents aged 15 years or older who were current drinkers and drivers.

Results: In total, 17.3% of participants reported drink driving in the previous month. Drink driving was significantly associated with frequent (at least weekly) alcohol use, binge drinking and usually drinking away from home, that is in cars, outdoors, at bars or nightclubs, at parties, at school and at work. Students' perception that parents and schools care about them, parental monitoring, and high academic achievement was associated with a reduced risk of drink driving while having friends who drink alcohol increased this risk. These associations were similar among boys and girls.

Conclusion: The findings support calls to address how and where young people drink, and indicate the potential gains to be made with family‐ and school‐based interventions.
Normal brainstem responses in moderately preterm infants
Authors: Jiang Ze D , Wilkinson Andrew R
Published: September 2008

Aim: The aim of this study was to detect any differences in brainstem auditory evoked responses (BAERs) to different click rates between moderately preterm and term infants.

Methods: BAER was recorded with 21–91/s clicks at term age (37–42 weeks postconceptional age) in 39 moderately preterm infants (gestation 33–36 weeks). The results were compared with 37 healthy term infants.

Results: The latencies of waves I, III and V, and I–V interval in preterm infants were all similar to term infants at all click rates. The I–III interval decreased slightly and differed from term infants at 91/s (ANOVA, p < 0.05), while the III–V interval increased slightly. The III–V/I–III interval ratio increased slightly and differed from term infants at 91/s (p < 0.05). Wave amplitudes were similar in the two groups of infants, except an increase in wave V amplitude at 91/s in preterm infants (p < 0.05). No significant differences were found in BAER click rate‐dependent changes between the two groups.

Conclusion: No marked differences were found in BAER at any click rates at term age between moderately preterm and term infants, suggesting that moderately preterm birth does not have a marked effect on neonatal BAER. BAER normal data and criteria from term infants can generally be used for moderately preterm infants.
Incidence and risk factors of lower respiratory tract illnesses during infancy in a Mediterranean birth cohort
Authors: Puig Carme , Sunyer Jordi , Garcia‐Algar Oscar , Muñoz Laura , Pacifici Roberta , Pichini Simona , Vall Oriol
Published: September 2008

Aim: To investigate the incidence rate, viral respiratory agents and determinants of lower respiratory tract illnesses (LRTIs) in infants younger than 1 year.

Methods: A total of 487 infants were recruited at birth for the Asthma Multicenter Infant Cohort Study in Barcelona (Spain). Cases of LRTIs were ascertained through an active register including a home visit and viral test in nasal lavage specimens during the first year of life. Cotinine in cord blood, household aeroallergens, indoor NO2 and maternal and neonatal IgE were measured. Other maternal and infants' characteristics were obtained from structured questionnaires.

Results: The incidence rate of at least one LRTI was 38.7 infants per 100 persons‐years. The most frequently isolated viral agent was respiratory syncytial virus (44.7%). The risk of LRTIs was higher in infants with a maternal history of asthma and in those with siblings (OR = 2.4; 95% CI: 0.98–6.08 and OR = 1.8; 95% CI: 1.04–3.21, respectively). The risk of LRTIs was lower in infants who were breast fed for more than 12 weeks (OR = 0.26; 95% CI: 0.26–0.86) and in those from a low socioeconomic class (OR = 0.16; 95% CI: 0.06–0.42).

Conclusion: Viral LRTIs are frequent in infants younger than 1 year of age and there is an inter‐relationship between maternal asthma, siblings, breast feeding and socioeconomic status.
Breastfeeding duration related to practised contraception in the Netherlands
Authors: Van Wouwe Jacobus P , Lanting Caren I , Van Dommelen Paula , Treffers Pieter E , Van Buuren Stef
Published: September 2008

Aim: The aim of this study was to gain insight into contraception practised and related to breastfeeding duration.

Methods: Mothers with infants up to 6 months received a questionnaire on infant feeding (breast or formula feeding) and contraception (hormonal or non‐hormonal methods). Estimates of the time interval between resuming contraception and cessation of lactation was calculated by Chained Equations Multiple Imputation.

Results: Of all women (n = 2710), 30% choose condoms, 22% the combined oral contraceptive pill (OCP) and few other methods. Breastfeeding was started by 80%, and 18% continued up to 6 months. Of the breastfeeding mothers, 5% used hormonal contraception; 7% of women who used hormonal contraception practised breastfeeding. After adjustment for background variables, the use of OCP is strongly associated with formula feeding: after delivery to the third month postpartum, the crude OR being 17.5 (95% CI: 11.3–27.0), the adjusted OR 14.5 (9.3–22.5); between the third and sixth month postpartum, respectively, 13.1 (95% CI: 8.6–19.9) and 11.7 (7.6–17.9). Of all breastfeeding women, 20–27% resumed OCP at 25 weeks postpartum and 80% introduced formula feeding. The time lag between these events is 6 weeks. Hormonal contraception was resumed after formula introduction.

Conclusion: Mothers avoid hormonal contraception during lactation; they change to formula feeding 6 weeks before they resume the OCP. To effectively promote longer duration of breastfeeding, the BFHI needs to address contraception as practised.
Neurotrophic signalling pathway triggered by prosaposin in PC12 cells occurs through lipid rafts
Authors: Sorice Maurizio , Molinari Sabrina , Di Marzio Luisa , Mattei Vincenzo , Tasciotti Vincenzo , Ciarlo Laura , Hiraiwa Masao , Garofalo Tina , Misasi Roberta
Published: August 2008

Prosaposin is a neurotrophic factor that has been demonstrated to mediate trophic signalling events in different cell types; it distributes to surface membranes of neural cells and also exists as a secreted protein in different body fluids. Prosaposin was demonstrated to form tightly bound complexes with a variety of gangliosides, and a functional role has been suggested for ganglioside–prosaposin complexes. In this work, we provide evidence that exogenous prosaposin triggers a signal cascade after binding to its target molecules on lipid rafts of pheochromocytoma PC12 cell plasma membranes, as revealed by scanning confocal microscopy and linear sucrose gradient analysis. In these cells, prosaposin is able to induce extracellular signal‐regulated kinase phosphorylation, sphingosine kinase activation, and consequent cell death prevention, acting through lipid rafts. These findings point to the role of lipid rafts in the prosaposin‐triggered signalling pathway, thus supporting a role for this factor as a new component of the multimolecular signalling complex involved in the neurotrophic response.
Television Viewing and Aggression: Some Alternative Perspectives
Authors: Feshbach Seymour , Tangney June
Published: September 2008

The focus of this article is on the examination of variables that moderate the influence of exposure to TV violence. The research on the relationship between TV violence and aggressive behavior of the audience has largely focused on addressing the social policy issue of whether witnessing TV violence fosters aggressive behavior in viewers, particularly children. There has been a dearth of research addressing the conditions that enhance the aggression stimulating effects of media violence, those that mitigate these effects, and those that may even result in reduced aggression after one witnesses media violence. To illustrate the importance of potential moderating factors, we present longitudinal correlational data relating the degree of viewing TV violence to various social behaviors and cognitive attributes of White and African-American male and female elementary-school-age children. Although TV violence viewing was associated with lower cognitive attributes and negative social behaviors in White males and females and African-American females, a very different pattern of relationships was found for African-American males.
Resistance is Futile
Authors: Moffitt Rudi
Published: August 2008

The idea of resistance generally has normative associations, particularly in the current intellectual property (IP) environment. Justifications for actions are framed as supporting an aggrieved party in an unequal struggle against a clearly superior opposition. The adoption of the mantle of resistance is not limited to one side. Just as organizations such as Electronic Freedom Foundation claim they are part of the resistance to global corporate domination of culture, musicians, music owners and their associations portray themselves as mounting a resistance against a veritable tsunami of technology‐driven piracy that threatens to destroy the production of culture and the livelihood of artists. This article starts from this point in order to question the assumptions we have about resistance. Using a paradigmatic framework, it will recast resistance as points in a historic process that are normatively neutral yet ontologically and practically potent. Application of this framework to the history of Anglo‐American copyright reveals two types of resistance that bracket a major shift in the conceptualization and practice of the paradigm. In the end, this perspective demythologizes resistance. Resistance, in this perspective, is not emancipatory or heroic; it is another tool that can be useful in particular moments in the complex struggles over the defining of our social existence.
Development of the WHO Classification of Tumors of the Central Nervous System: A Historical Perspective
Authors: Scheithauer Bernd W.
Published: September 2008

The classification of brain tumors has undergone numerous changes over the past half century. The World Health Organization has played a key role in the effort. Four versions of its Classification of Tumours of the Central Nervous System have been published. The present work chronicles their progress, placing emphasis on the historical context of the earliest effort.
Kinetics of factor VIII:C inhibitors and treatment response in severe hemophilia A patients
Authors: LUNA‐ZÁIZAR H. , ESPARZA‐FLORES M. A. , LÓPEZ‐GUIDO B. , AGUILAR‐LÓPEZ L. B. , CORTÉS ÁLVAREZ C. R. , JALOMA‐CRUZ A. R.
Published: September 2008

Severe hemophilia A (HA) patients develop inhibitory alloantibodies to factor VIII:C and therefore require bypass agents that are scarce, expensive and may provoke secondary effects. Twenty‐three severe HA patients who were high‐responders to FVIII inhibitors were studied. FVIII:C activity in plasma was measured by one‐stage activated partial thromboplastin time method, and the quantification of FVIII:C inhibitors was carried out by the Nijmegen–Bethesda method. Inhibition kinetics was assessed through serial plasma dilutions. FVIII:C activity was <1% in all patients. Kinetics behavior of the inhibitors was classified as type I in 14 patients, type II in four and an intermediate pattern that we named type III in one case. We were unable to apply the regression model to the remaining four of 23 patients in the study because of their low inhibitory titer (<3 Nijmegen–Bethesda units per ml). Seventy‐eight percent of the patients with inhibitor type I did not respond to high doses of FVIII therapy, whereas 50% of patients with type II kinetics did (P = 0.5323). Generally, patients belonging to the same family had similar kinetics behavior as well as concordant treatment response. Although nonsignificant, our results suggest an association between kinetics behavior and treatment response that may be a valuable prognostic parameter for the management of these patients.
Isolation and characterization of 11 polymerase chain reaction primers for microsatellite loci for the Chilean marine isopod Excirolana hirsuticauda
Authors: HAYE P. A. , MARCHANT S.
Published: August 2008

The Chilean isopod Excirolana hirsuticauda is a marine benthic brooder with wide distributional range and low potential for long‐distance dispersal. Eleven microsatellite markers were developed for E. hirsuticauda using enriched libraries. Characterization of those loci in 35 individuals from Playa Blanca beach showed high allelic diversity with a mean of 10.9 alleles per locus. The average expected and observed heterozygosities were 0.65 and 0.41. These microsatellite loci are the first published for any Excirolana species and should be useful to study the genetic structure of E. hirsuticauda.
Isolation and characterization of microsatellite loci for the European tree frog (Hyla arborea)
Authors: BERSET‐BRäNDLI L. , JAQUIÉRY J. , BROQUET T. , PERRIN N.
Published: August 2008

We developed 11 new microsatellite markers for the European tree frog (Hyla arborea), and tested patterns of polymorphism in 54 adults (27 males and 27 females) from two ponds close to Lausanne (Western Switzerland). One marker was sex linked and two pairs displayed linkage disequilibrium. Comparisons of allele numbers with heterozygosity values support a stepwise‐mutation model at neutral equilibrium, with mutation rates spanning nearly two orders of magnitude. These markers will prove useful for population genetic studies and fine‐scale investigations requiring genetic assignment techniques.
Microsatellite DNA markers for the Chinese wood frog (Rana chensinensis) and tests for their cross‐utility in 15 ranid frog species
Authors: ZHAN AIBIN , FU JINZHONG
Published: August 2008

We developed 22 microsatellite markers for the Chinese wood frog (Rana chensinensis) to study the impact of landscape features on its population structure. Thirty‐four individuals from one breeding site were examined and 14 loci were polymorphic. The number of alleles, expected heterozygosity and observed heterozygosity varied from two to 14, from 0.0833 to 0.9118, and from 0.1376 to 0.8667, respectively. Cross‐species amplification was tested for 15 ranid frog species. The Plateau brown frog, Rana kukunoris (n = 23), was successfully amplified at 18 loci, and 15 were polymorphic with number of alleles varying from two to 18. Ten other species were also amplified at a limited number of loci.
Time Series Analysis Performed on Nephropathia Epidemica in Humans of Northern Sweden in Relation to Bank Vole Population Dynamic and the NAO Index
Authors: Thomas Palo R.
Published: September 2008

Time series analysis was performed on two data series of human nephropathia epidemica (NE) infections in northern Sweden between the years 1959–1975 and 1985–2006. The analysis confirms that the bank vole (Myodes glareolus), the main reservoir species, shows regular peaks in population density approximately every fourth year. The periodicity in NE cases of the more recent time period (1985–2006) is 2.8–3.3 years and the older period shows a periodicity ranging 3.4–4.2 years, but this is not significantly different from that expected by vole dynamics. A comparison of North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) index between the two periods reveals higher mean winter NAO index in the period 1985–2006 than in 1959–1975. No difference was found in frequency of the NAO index between the older period (2.8–3.4 years) compared with the recent period (2.4–2.8 years). Cross‐correlation revealed a delayed effect by NAO index on vole abundance but a multivariate model showed that NAO index did not explain the variation in NE cases. Vole index was the only factor that contributed significantly to the variation in numbers of NE cases and that no climate effect could be detected. The climate signal from NAO index does not appear to significantly affect the human NE cases and this suggests that the transmission of disease to man is not particularly sensitive to variations in weather factors. The results favour the hypothesis that higher NAO index will not increase the likelihood of virus transmission from voles to man in northern Sweden under present climatic conditions.
Role of the NSs Protein in the Zoonotic Capacity of Orthobunyaviruses
Authors: Hart T. J. , Kohl A. , Elliott R. M.
Published: September 2008

The family Bunyaviridae contains over 350 named isolates, classified into five genera: Orthobunyavirus, Hantavirus, Nairovirus, Phlebovirus and Tospovirus. The Orthobunyavirus genus contains some 170 isolates that are mainly transmitted by mosquitoes and are responsible for a range of disease syndromes in humans including self‐limiting febrile illness, encephalitis and haemorrhagic fever. The viruses have a tripartite, negative‐sense RNA genome. Analyses of viruses in four serogroups (Bunyamwera, California, Group C and Simbu) showed that the smallest (S) RNA segment encodes the nucleocapsid protein (N) and a non‐structural protein called (NSs). The NSs protein of Bunyamwera virus (BUNV) has been shown to play a role in shut‐off of host cell protein synthesis in mammalian cells, but no protein shut‐off is observed in BUNV‐infected mosquito cells (Aedes albopictus C6/36 cells). Protein shut‐off in infected mammalian cells is achieved by global inhibition of RNA polymerase II‐mediated transcription and enables the virus to overcome the host innate immune response. As innate defence mechanisms constitute a significant barrier to virus infection of different hosts, NSs would appear to play a key role in determining the zoonotic capacity of orthobunyaviruses.
Risk‐Based Cost Modelling of Oral Rabies Vaccine Interventions for Raccoon Rabies
Authors: Recuenco S. , Eidson M. , Cherry B. , Johnson G.
Published: September 2008

Distribution of oral rabies vaccine (ORV) is an effective but costly strategy to control raccoon rabies. Because of high costs, ORV for raccoon rabies in the U.S. has been limited primarily to epizootic areas, leaving extensive raccoon rabies regions without any ORV intervention. Several cost scenarios for ORV application in raccoon rabies enzootic and epizootic regions were modelled in New York State to obtain estimated costs of ORV baits per scenario and potential savings compared with a uniform ORV baiting strategy. These cost scenarios modelled at the census tract, level the application of ORV baits at different densities according to levels of risk defined by the observed number of raccoon rabies cases per km2and the expected number of cases per km2estimated with a Poisson regression model. Bait purchase costs were lower using the modelled cost scenarios than a uniform baiting strategy, for both the NYS enzootic region and the Long Island epizootic zone. The proportion of savings for the NYS enzootic region was 29.57%, and the proportion of savings for the Long Island epizootic zone was 38.9%. Use of these cost scenarios to determine bait distribution by rabies risk level should be considered to maximize efficacy and reduce costs of ORV interventions.
Spark-Ignition and Combustion Characteristics of High-Pressure Hydrogen and Natural-Gas Intermittent Jets
Authors: Mohammadi Ali , Shioji Masahiro , Matsui Yuki , Kajiwara Rintaro
Published: August 2008

Recently, an in-cylinder injection method has been considered for the improvement of thermal efficiency in natural-gas and hydrogen spark-ignition (SI) engines. However, the SI and combustion processes of gaseous jets are not well understood. The present study aims to provide fundamental data for the development of direct-injection SI gas engines. The ignition, combustion, and flame behavior of high-pressure and intermittent hydrogen and natural-gas jets in a constant volume combustion chamber were investigated. The effects of injection pressure, nozzle size, ambient pressure, and spark location were also investigated for various spark timings and equivalence ratios.
A Structural Mechanism for MscS Gating in Lipid Bilayers
Authors: Vásquez Valeria , Sotomayor Marcos , Cordero-Morales Julio , Schulten Klaus , Perozo Eduardo
Published: September 2008

The mechanosensitive channel of small conductance (MscS) is a key determinant in the prokaryotic response to osmotic challenges. We determined the structural rearrangements associated with MscS activation in membranes, using functorial measurements, electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy, and computational analyses. MscS was trapped in its open conformation after the transbilayer pressure profile was modified through the asymmetric incorporation of lysophospholipids. The transition from the closed to the open state is accompanied by the downward tilting of the transmembrane TM1-TM2 hairpin and by the expansion, tilt, and rotation of the TM3 helices. These movements expand the permeation pathway, leading to an increase in accessibility to water around TM3. Our open MscS model is compatible with single-channel conductance measurements and supports the notion that helix tilting is associated with efficient pore widening in mechanosensitive channels.
Pre-Columbian Urbanism, Anthropogenic Landscapes, and the Future of the Amazon
Authors: Heckenberger Michael J. , Russell J. Christian , Fausto Carlos , Toney Joshua R. , Schmidt Morgan J. , Pereira Edithe , Franchetto Bruna , Kuikuro Afukaka
Published: September 2008

The archaeology of pre-Columbian polities in the Amazon River basin forces a reconsideration of early urbanism and long-term change in tropical forest landscapes. We describe settlement and land-use patterns of complex societies on the eve of European contact (after 1492) in the Upper Xingu region of the Brazilian Amazon. These societies were organized in articulated clusters, representing small independent polities, within a regional peer polity. These patterns constitute a “galactic” form of prehistoric urbanism, sharing features with small-scale urban polities in other areas. Understanding long-term change in coupled human-environment systems relating to these societies has implications for conservation and sustainable development, notably to control ecological degradation and maintain regional biodiversity.
Weak Interplate Coupling by Seamounts and Repeating
M
~ 7 Earthquakes
Authors: Mochizuki Kimihiro , Yamada Tomoaki , Shinohara Masanao , Yamanaka Yoshiko , Kanazawa Toshihiko
Published: September 2008

Subducting seamounts are thought to increase the normal stress between subducting and overriding plates. However, recent seismic surveys and laboratory experiments suggest that interplate coupling is weak. A seismic survey in the Japan Trench shows that a large seamount is being subducted near a region of repeating earthquakes of magnitude
M
∼ 7. Both observed seismicity and the pattern of rupture propagation during the 1982
M
7.0 event imply that interplate coupling was weak over the seamount. A large rupture area with small slip occurred in front of the seamount. Its northern bound could be determined by a trace of multiple subducted seamounts. Whereas a subducted seamount itself may not define the rupture area, its width may be influenced by that of the seamount.
Solution Structure of the Integral Human Membrane Protein VDAC-1 in Detergent Micelles
Authors: Hiller Sebastian , Garces Robert G. , Malia Thomas J. , Orekhov Vladislav Y. , Colombini Marco , Wagner Gerhard
Published: September 2008

The voltage-dependent anion channel (VDAC) mediates trafficking of small molecules and ions across the eukaryotic outer mitochondrial membrane. VDAC also interacts with antiapoptotic proteins from the Bcl-2 family, and this interaction inhibits release of apoptogenic proteins from the mitochondrion. We present the nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) solution structure of recombinant human VDAC-1 reconstituted in detergent micelles. It forms a 19-stranded β barrel with the first and last strand parallel. The hydrophobic outside perimeter of the barrel is covered by detergent molecules in a beltlike fashion. In the presence of cholesterol, recombinant VDAC-1 can form voltage-gated channels in phospholipid bilayers similar to those of the native protein. NMR measurements revealed the binding sites of VDAC-1 for the Bcl-2 protein Bcl-x
L
, for reduced β–nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, and for cholesterol. Bcl-x
L
interacts with the VDAC barrel laterally at strands 17 and 18.