bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Persistent errors in the perception and production of word-initial English stop consonants by native speakers of Italian
Authors: MacKay Ian R. A. , Flege James E. , Piske Thorsten
Published: July 2002

This study examined the perception and production of word-initial tokens of English stops (/b d g/ and /p t k/) by native speakers of Italian. The native Italian subjects were assigned to one of four groups based on their age of arrival (AOA) to Canada from Italy and percentage of self-reported use of the native language, Italian. The results obtained here suggested that AOA was a more important predictor of the native Italian subjects’ perception and production of word-initial English stops than L1 use was. The results also provided evidence of native versus non-native differences in segmental perception and production that persisted after decades of frequent second-language use. As hypothesized, the native Italian subjects produced English /p t k/ more accurately than /b d g/. In a perception experiment examining naturally produced English stops, the native Italian subjects misidentified short-lag tokens of English /b d g/ as /p t k/ more often than they misidentified long-lag /p t k/ tokens as /b d g/. Late bilinguals erred more often in identifying the voicing feature in /b d g/ than did early Italian–English bilinguals or native speakers of English, apparently because Italian /p t k/ are realized with short-lag VOT values.
Modeling of high-intensity focused ultrasound-induced lesions in the presence of cavitation bubbles
Authors: Chavrier F. , Chapelon J. Y. , Gelet A. , Cathignol D.
Published: July 2002

The classical “Bio Heat Transfer Equation (BHTE)” model is adapted to take into account the effects of oscillating microbubbles that occur naturally in the tissue during high-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) treatment. First, the Gilmore–Akulichev model is used to quantify the acoustic pressure scattered by microbubbles submitted to HIFU. Because this scattered pressure is not monochromatic, the concept of harmonic attenuation is introduced and a global attenuation coefficient is estimated for bubble-filled tissues. The first results show that this global attenuation coefficient varies significantly with respect to several parameters such as the frequency and the density of microbubbles in the medium, but also with respect to the incident acoustic pressure which thus becomes a transcendental function. Under these conditions, a layer-by-layer modeling, in the direction of propagation, is proposed to calculate the ultrasonic beam. Finally, the BHTE is solved and the HIFU-induced lesions are estimated by the calculation of the thermal dose. Using this model, it can be observed first that, when the firing power increases, the lesion develops clearly in the direction of the transducer, with a shape agreeing with in vivo experimentation. Next, it is observed that the lesion can be significantly modified in size and position, if an interface (skin or inner wall) is simulated as a zone with multiple cavitation nuclei. With a firing power increase, it is also shown how a secondary lesion can appear at the interface and how, beyond a certain threshold, this lesion develops at the main lesion expense. Finally, a better in-depth homogeneity of lesions is observed when the acoustic frequency of HIFU is increased.
On the combined effects of early- and late-arriving sound on spatial impression in concert halls
Authors: Bradley J. S. , Reich R. D. , Norcross S. G.
Published: July 2002

This paper describes six new experiments involving subjective ratings of the listener envelopment, LEV, and the apparent source width, ASW, of simulated sound fields. Previous work has identified LEV and ASW as the principal components of spatial impression in concert halls and has shown that ASW is primarily influenced by the level of early lateral reflections and LEV by late-arriving lateral reflections. The new results in this paper show that LEV can result from nonlateral late-arriving sounds and demonstrate the conflicting effects of early- and late-arriving lateral sound on ASW and LEV when both are present, as would occur in real halls. While it is possible to create simulated sound fields with only either LEV or ASW, in typical concert halls, the balance between early- and late-arriving lateral sound will determine the relative importance of LEV and ASW. LEV and ASW are shown to be perceived when the critical components of the sound field are salient relative to other components. The results of the new subjective studies were used to estimate expected ASW and LEV in 16 halls. In these halls LEV is predicted to be the stronger component of spatial impression.
On Pulsatile Blood Flow
Authors: Turk Martin A. , Sylvester Nicholas D. , Ariman Teoman
Published: July 2002

In this paper pulsatile blood flow through rigid circular tubes due to a sinusoidally varying pressure gradient is analyzed using a microcontinuum model of blood. A new boundary condition, which is in accord with experimental observations on blood flow in small rigid tubes, has been proposed to describe red blood cell rotations at a solid boundary. General solutions to the governing equations are obtained through application of consecutive Hankel and Laplace transforms. The steady pulsatile solutions for velocity and cell rotation are also given. The plasma viscosity, rotational viscosity, and rotational gradient coefficients are determined as functions of hematocrit from the experimental in vitro steady blood flow data of Bugliarello and Sevilla. These coefficients are then used to predict their pulsatile velocity profile data. Excellent agreement is obtained when non-Newtonian effects are absent.
State Firearm Laws and Firearm-Related Mortality and Morbidity
Authors: Galea Sandro , Abdalla Salma M.
Published: September 2022

This Viewpoint highlights the challenges to passing federal legislation that limits gun ownership and accessibility and summarizes some of the state laws used to successfully lower rates of firearm-related death and injury.
Firearms, Suicide, and Approaches for Prevention
Authors: Betz Marian E. , Thomas Arielle C. , Simonetti Joseph A.
Published: September 2022

This Viewpoint discusses lethal means safety (LMS), an approach to reducing suicide risk by reducing access to firearms by at-risk individuals; highlights challenges in implementing LMS interventions in clinical settings; and provides examples of programs and resources for preventing firearm suicide at the individual, patient group, and population level.
A New Era for Firearm Violence Prevention Research
Authors: Morral Andrew R. , Smart Rosanna
Published: September 2022

This Viewpoint discusses the expansion of firearm injury research that involves diverse disciplinary perspectives that could potentially lead to lifesaving policy innovation.
Regulating Assault Weapons and Large-Capacity Magazines for Ammunition
Authors: Cook Philip J. , Donohue John J.
Published: September 2022

This Viewpoint discusses the history and current status of assault weapons bans in the US, provides evidence of the potential effectiveness of a US ban and information regarding the Australian ban, and explores potential next steps.
Lentiviral Vectors for Gene Therapy
Authors: Wang Xiao‐Yu , He Zhi‐Yao
Published: September 2022

Lentiviral vector (LV) originated from human immunodeficiency virus is the common gene transfer vector in gene therapy. With the development over the past two decades, the safety, specific targeting and transduction efficiency of LV have been improved continually. In terms of safety, the virus genome was split into several plasmids and their accessory gene elements were removed. Specific viral envelope protein and posttranscriptional regulatory elements were introduced in LV system for the tissues' specific targeting and transduction efficiency. Based on these improvements, LV has been used widely in gene therapy especially for treatments of haemoglobinopathies, B cell leukaemia, immunodeficiency diseases and neurodegenerative diseases.

Key Concepts

Lentiviral vector derived from the human immunodeficiency virus and its development needs the evaluation and selection of virus genome elements for safe and efficient gene transfer.

Lentiviral vector has shown its efficiency and safety in many clinical trials and approved gene therapy drugs.

For the transduction efficiency, specific target and safety, lentiviral vector is modified and improved continuously. Currently, scientists focus on the more effective promoter, specific envelope protein, and inducible and regulatable expression system.

The random insertional mutagenesis and high production cost remain the challenges in the lentiviral vector application.

Lentiviral vector performs well in haematological and immune system partial due to theex vivotransduction and transfusion back into blood flow which circumvent the shortage like relative lower titre and insertional mutagenesis.
Thymus Microenvironment: Maintenance, Ageing and Strategies for Thymus Regeneration Following Damage
Authors: Alsharif Abdulaziz , Chidgey Ann P
Published: September 2022

The thymus is the major site of T‐lymphocyte production. Nonlymphoid elements, referred to as the thymic stroma, create the thymic microenvironment required to govern differentiation, maturation and tolerance induction of haematopoietic precursors into immune‐competent, nonautoreactive T cells. Thymic epithelial cells (TECs) are integral to thymopoiesis but are affected by ageing. From the onset of puberty, a proportional imbalance of TEC subpopulations coincides with a dramatic numerical loss of developing T cells. By middle‐age numerical loss of TECs accompanies further loss of thymocytes. Ongoing functional impediment of bipotent thymic epithelial progenitor cells (TEPC) has been proposed as one possible underlying cause and is more apparent in males. As such, endogenous recovery following thymic damage, such as from chemotherapy, in middle‐aged males relies heavily on proliferation of residual immature and mature TECs than through homeostatic differentiation of bipotent TEPC evident in middle‐aged females. Various strategies have been proposed to enhance thymus recovery following cytoablative therapies; however, thus far, temporary suppression of sex hormone production appears to have the most wide‐ranging impact on enhancing mature TEC replenishment and thymopoiesis.

Key Concepts

Thymic epithelial cells are critical for T cell development.

Single‐cell transcriptomics and mapping identified more TEC subsets than first realised.

Mature thymic medullary epithelial cells are essential for the presentation of self‐antigens for central tolerance induction.

During age‐related thymus involution, an imbalance in TEC subsets accompanies the numerical loss of developing T cells from the onset of puberty.

Postnatal bipotent thymic epithelial progenitor cells (TEPC) undergo functional attenuation from puberty with sexual dimorphism apparent.

Increased reliance on activation and proliferation of enduring single‐lineage cortical and medullary TEC precursors for mature TEC maintenance during ageing.

Thymic damage induces homeostatic TEC replenishment via bipotent TEPC in middle‐aged females but is restricted to proliferation and differentiation of single lineage progenitors in middle‐aged males.

Temporary suppression of sex hormone production as a strategy for thymus regeneration releases the postpubertal TEPC functional block in males.

Therapeutic strategies with clinical potential include adoptive transfer ofin vitrogenerated progenitor T cells, exogenous administration of cytokines and growth factors, and temporary sex steroid inhibition.
Filamentous Bacteriophages: Biology and Applications
Authors: Rakonjac Jasna
Published: September 2022

Filamentous bacteriophages (family Inoviridae) contain a circular single‐stranded DNA genome packaged into long filaments. They do not lyse bacteria; instead, they are secreted into the environment without killing the host. Well‐studiedEscherichia coli‐infecting Ff phages (f1, fd or M13) replicate episomally; however, most filamentous phage in other organisms are ‘lysogenic’. Filamentous phage diversity and range were vastly underestimated until 2019, when bioinformatic analyses of prokaryotic genomes and shot‐gun metagenomes discovered 10,295 novel filamentous phage‐derived prophages in nearly all bacterial phyla and in some archaea. Some filamentous phages enhance the virulence of their host organisms, the most striking example being the CTXφ ofVibrio cholerae, which encodes cholera toxin.E. coliFf phages are the workhorse of phage display technology, whose most notable ‘products’ are therapeutic recombinant antibodies. Ff phages are also being used as a particulate vaccine carriers or diagnostic particles and in nanotechnology as templates for assembly of nanostructures.

Key Concepts

Filamentous bacteriophages are long filaments (6–7 nm × >500 nm) that contain a single‐stranded circular DNA genome.

Filamentous bacteriophages replicate via a rolling‐circle mechanism, one strand at a time.

Filamentous bacteriophages do not lyse the cells; they are released by secretion, using a dedicated filamentous phage assembly secretion system.

Filamentous phage secretion‐assembly requires the proton‐motive force and ATP.

Some filamentous phages replicate exclusively as episomes, while others also integrate their genomes into the host chromosome, forming a lysogen. Induction of the lysogen does not result in cell lysis.

Ff filamentous phages ofE. coli(f1, M13 and fd) have been used interchangeably as vectors and helper phages in DNA sequencing, as a protein display platform in phage display technology and as a template for assembly of nanostructures in nanotechnology.

Filamentous phages are widely distributed among bacteria and archaea and are present in virtually all major microbial ecological niches. Recent genome and metagenome analyses discovered 10,295 filamentous phages within bacterial and archaeal genomes.
Bureaucratization and Social Movements
Authors: Staggenborg Suzanne
Published: September 2022

Social movement scholars have used the concept of bureaucratization to refer to the formalization of structure in social movement organizations. Research suggests that formalized structures have become common in modern social movements, though movements also include multiple other forms of organization, including informal grassroots groups. Though bureaucratic movement organizations are often efficient, and may help to maintain movements, debates about their impacts on social movements focus on the extent to which bureaucracy discourages democratic participation, direct action tactics, and radical social change goals. Studies show that bureaucratic organizations often cooperate with other types of movement organizations and that there are advantages and disadvantages to bureaucracy as well as other organizational structures.
Collective Memory and Social Movements
Authors: Zamponi Lorenzo
Published: September 2022

Researchers on social movements have grown increasingly interested in memories through two main channels: the increasing focus on the symbolic dimension of collective action and the attempt to widen the temporal perspective within social movement studies, with research on continuity, abeyance, outcomes, events, and critical junctures. Though large protests often surprise observers, they are rooted in what came before them. The nexus between memory and movements has been explored mainly in three ways:memories of movements;movements about memory; andmemories in movements. Memory is at the same time an outcome of protest and a tool in constructing new mobilizations. Movement actors access the past in a complex way, and are placed in a symbolic environment that is structured and shaped by the past, presenting them with strategic dilemmas regarding what is to be done with it.
Comparative Research
Authors: della Porta Donatella
Published: September 2022

While all research is to a certain extent comparative, the concept of comparative research usually refers to studies that compare more than one unit of analysis or, in less inclusive definitions, more than one country. Even though comparative sociology starts to spread, it is especially in political science – with its focus on political institutions – that comparative research became at the same time a broadly used method and also gave the name to an established discipline.
Confessional Protest
Authors: Young Michael P.
Published: September 2022

The term “confessional protest” originates in Michael P. Young's work on the rise of national social movements in the US in the 1830s. Young argues that the first sustained and interregional social movements in US history were shaped by a particular form of protest that called on Americans to bear witness against the sins of slavery and intemperance. He terms this form of religious and political dissent confessional protest. Young's research demonstrates how the temperance and abolitionist movements emerged as evangelicals joined together in this form of protest, fusing intensive projects of personal redemption with extensive projects of national reform. This interlacing of intimate responsibility and far‐flung social problems fueled the first national wave of social movements in the United States. These confessional protests emerged as two religious movements driving the Second Great Awakening started to interact: the “new measure” religious revivals associated with Charles Grandison Finney and a network of national benevolent societies including the American Tract Society and the American Home Missionary Society. The combination of popular revival and organized benevolence proved radical. As public confessions, the dramatic centerpiece of revivals, became central to the specialized campaigns of benevolence, a wave of social movements broke across the nation.
Conversion and New Religious Movements
Authors: Richardson James T.
Published: September 2022

Conversion, as the concept is used in the social sciences, is usually applied to joining a religious group, although the concept has considerable overlap with issues concerning recruitment and participation in other types of social movements. Recent conversion research in the area of sociology of religion has focused mainly on the question of how and why thousands of young people joined New Religious Movements (NRMs), even if temporarily. (Contrary to popular belief, defection or disaffiliation rates have always been quite high for NRMs, and most NRMs are small as a result.)
Countercultures
Authors: Haenfler Ross
Published: September 2022

The term “counterculture” describes a variety of social subgroups possessing distinctive norms and values in opposition to the widely accepted beliefs and practices of the dominant culture. Countercultures espouse primarily a cultural, rather than explicitly political, challenge commonly enacted through alternative lifestyles rather than direct challenges to institutional authority structures such as governments or corporations. While the term is widely used in both scholarly and pop culture contexts, its usage is imprecise. In the context of social movement studies, countercultures may be considered as a type of social movement (e.g. forms of gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender movements), part of a social movement (e.g. cultural feminism), separate from but overlapping with social movements (e.g. hippies and the New Left), or more distinct from movements and conceptually closer to subcultures (e.g. punk). Contemporary definitions of social movements are broad enough to include the sorts of collective behavior typically labeled countercultural, sometimes called
countercultural movements
. Specifically, countercultures are extra‐institutional challenges to
cultural
(rather than
institutional
) authority structures, generally informally organized yet having some degree of continuity.
Critical Mass Theory
Authors: Oliver Pamela
Published: September 2022

“Critical mass theory” in social movements refers loosely to any formal theory about how interdependent decisions accumulate into collective action or more narrowly to work in the tradition of Marwell and Oliver. The term “critical mass” originates in nuclear physics, as the smallest amount of fissile material needed to sustain a nuclear chain reaction. As analogy or metaphor, the term has diffused into popular culture and social science and is widely used to refer to any context in which things change after a certain number of people get together or enter a setting. The term has been especially important in research and court cases about racial/ethnic or gender diversity in college admissions or employment. Social movement activists and scholars often use “critical mass” in a loose metaphorical way to refer to an initial group of protesters or actors that is big enough to accomplish social change.
Critical Mass Bulletin
was the name given to the 1970s newsletter for scholars of collective behavior and social movements. An article written in the early 1970s bemoaned the lack of critical mass of scholars studying collective behavior.
Demand and Supply of Protest
Authors: Klandermans Bert
Published: September 2022

The demand and supply of protest concerns the mobilizing context of movement participation. The “demand and supply” metaphor is borrowed from economics. Demand refers to the mobilization potential in a society for a protest event; supply refers to the opportunities staged by organizers to protest. Mobilization brings a demand for political protest that exists in a society together with a supply of opportunities to take part in such protest. The demand side of participation requires studies of such phenomena as socialization, grievance formation, causal attribution, and the formation of collective identity. The study of the supply side of participation concerns such matters as action repertoires, the effectiveness of social movements, the frames and ideologies movements stand for, and the constituents of identification they offer. Mobilization is the process that brings demand and supply together. Mobilization is the marketing mechanism of the social movement domain, and thus, the study of mobilization concerns such matters as the effectiveness of (persuasive) communication, the influence of social networks, and the perceived costs and benefits of participation.
Demobilization
Authors: Fillieule Olivier
Published: September 2022

We know little about the mechanisms governing the decline of social movements and the varied forms of individual or collective demobilization that prompt this decline or end it. Indeed, the lion's share of research has been dedicated to movements undergoing cycles of mass mobilization more than on movements in decline. Yet, the logical counterpart of the initial recruitment and mobilization processes is clearly collective demobilization and individual disengagement.
Direct Democracy
Authors: Doerr Nicole
Published: September 2022

Direct democracy describes a theory of democracy and a form of collective decision‐making in which sovereignty is directly exercised by the people. Democracy is direct if it is characterized by citizens making all decisions together with a maximum of equal participation. Direct democracy can be distinguished from representative democracy, which is indirect and centralized, and in which citizens elect representatives for executive offices and parliament.
Disengagement and Social Movements
Authors: Chewinski Max , Corrigall‐Brown Catherine
Published: September 2022

Social movement participation is widespread in most societies. To illustrate, the World Values Survey (2014) shows that 34% of Americans, 38% of Brazilians, 25% of Germans, and 32% of South Africans had attended at least one protest event in the previous year. While this is a large proportion of these countries' populations, what happens to these individuals after they have been initially mobilized? While some remain active and involved over time, not all activism is sustained. In this entry, we propose that there are multiple trajectories that participation can follow once an individual engages with a social movement: persistent participation, transfer, individual abeyance, or disengagement. This entry outlines these trajectories and explores the factors which lead to disengagement from movements over time.
Electronic Protest
Authors: Carty Victoria
Published: September 2022

Over the past decade there has been an explosion of user‐friendly, high‐speed, and low‐cost opportunities for electronic protest via new technologies. Email, websites, chat rooms, blogs, and bulletin boards enable efficient new forms of communication, organization, and mobilization, and low operating costs enable people to support causes they may not be willing or able to do offline. Electronic activism, sometimes referred to as cyberactivism or e‐activism, assists in the mobilization of social movement actors to either sustain efforts of ongoing groups or to create new groups and/or campaigns. In some cases the purpose is to promote activism exclusively online (e‐movements), in others it is to encourage locally based disruptive tactics on the ground, and in others to enhance social movement organizations (SMOs) with an online presence through consciousness raising and advocacy.
Extremism
Authors: Caiani Manuela
Published: September 2022

Extremism is a very common term nowadays, both in social science and outside the academic sphere. However, its usage is rather awkward: nobody has arrived at a satisfactorily comprehensive definition and no generally accepted definition of extremism exists. Despite this, extremism is a widely studied phenomenon due to its international relevance and scope.
Historical Research and Social Movements
Authors: Deflem Mathieu , Dove April Lee
Published: September 2022

The use of historical research methods in modern sociology has been largely conditioned by the relative popularity of the specialty area of (comparative‐)historical sociology, despite the relative autonomy of methodological orientation and substantive research themes. Any discussion of historical research, whether in the specialty area of social movements research or in sociology more generally, must therefore proceed from the place of history in sociology and embark on an always difficult quest, for intellectual and institutional reasons alike, to delineate the boundaries between the scholarly tradition of history, on the one hand, and sociology, on the other.
Interest Groups and Social Movements
Authors: Csíař Ondřej
Published: September 2022

This entry elaborates the conceptual similarities and differences between interest groups, social movements, and social movement organizations (SMOs). First, two views of their relationship are presented, followed by an abbreviated description of the main contributions to their conceptualization. Although, according to an important part of the available scholarship, contemporary SMOs and interest groups share many common features, the entry concludes by summarizing differences between the two concepts.
“Iron Law of Oligarchy”
Authors: Tolbert Pamela S.
Published: September 2022

Resource mobilization, a dominant theoretical approach to the study of social movements for many decades, points to social movement organizations (SMOs) as a focal point for efforts to understand the variations in both the impact and fate of social movements. SMOs, like other types of political organizations, are expected to represent members' common preferences for some specified social change, acting to bring about such change by influencing formal political decisions, or the values and behaviors of the members of a polity, or both. In this context, the classic analysis offered by Robert Michels of typical evolutionary processes in the governance of political organizations, and the impact of such processes on organizations' goals, is very relevant to scholars of social movements. Early studies of social movements often drew heavily on Michels's work, documenting and fleshing out the nature of the evolutionary processes he posited, and the transformational consequences for social movements. Concern with movement transformation has been less dominant in contemporary work, despite a lack of evidence that such processes are any less operative in current movement organizations. In this entry, the key processes involved in what Michels referred to as the “iron law of oligarchy” are sketched, followed by a brief discussion of some of the implications of this analysis for social movement researchers.
Mechanisms
Authors: Tarrow Sidney
Published: September 2022

An intellectual movement has been gaining ground in the social sciences around the adoption of mechanism‐based explanations, as complements to, or even substitutes for, variable‐based explanations. In sociology, Arthur Stinchcombe emphasized studying causal mechanisms as part of a larger repertoire of methods of sociological research. Peter Hedström and Richard Swedberg, working in the rationalist tradition, moved in the same direction. John Campbell has identified a number of common mechanisms in social movement and organizational research.
Micro–Meso Mobilization
Authors: Boekkooi Marije , Klandermans Bert
Published: September 2022

Social movement events do not spontaneously occur, they need to be organized and mobilized. This involves two steps of mobilization: mesomobilization followed by micromobilization. Mesomobilization refers to the efforts of the initiator(s) of a campaign, trying to mobilize other organizers to jointly set up and organize the event, while micromobilization refers to the joint effort of the organizers to mobilize participants for the event. The mobilization process thus involves two steps: the mobilization of other organizers by the initiators and the mobilization of participants by the organizers.
Multiculturalism and Social Movements
Authors: Rojas Fabio
Published: September 2022

Multiculturalism is a movement advocating the representation of multiple cultures in education, government, and other institutional settings. Multiculturalists are motivated by ethical and practical considerations. Ethically, multiculturalists believe that it is unjust that social institutions only recognize a single cultural group. States, for example, have an obligation to recognize all citizens and their traditions, not merely those that have traditionally controlled the state. Multiculturalists also believe that individuals and groups benefit when they are exposed to multiple cultures. Individuals may become more tolerant if they know about ethnic groups aside from their own. Groups that have been historically repressed may benefit from having their voices heard in schools or government, and thus decrease the stigma associated with being from a particular group. It is also argued that recognition of multiple cultures reduces conflict because nondominant groups are not forced to completely assimilate the dominant culture.
Nongovernmental Organizations
Authors: Smith Jackie
Published: September 2022

Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) are formal organizations that lie outside formal government structures. They include social movement organizations (SMOs) as well as other organizations that may be potential mobilization structures available to social movements. The term comes from the United Nations, where it is used to distinguish UN member governments from other actors. As it is commonly used in official circles, the term NGO thus can include both national and transnational groups and private, for‐profit actors as well as not‐for‐profit associations of all kinds. Scholars have used the general term to refer to the collection of formal organizations of civil society groups pursuing any collective aims. Thus, social movements and other political advocacy groups are a subset of this larger category, which includes many other nonprofit, voluntary groups.
Police Riots
Authors: Peterson Abby
Published: September 2022

Researchers remind us that most political acts of protest do not result in violence. However, when violence does break out authorities, protesters, and the general public alike are eager to place the blame on some party to the events. But it is often difficult to determine who was “responsible” for the violence when it does occur, or who lay behind its escalation. Responsibility is most readily assigned to protesters. However, activists are not the sole actors in riots, however instrumental to its outbreak they may be. Violence arises out of an interaction between protesters and responding authorities. Research since the 1960s suggests that police authorities often bear a major part of the responsibility.
Political Process Theory
Authors: McAdam Doug
Published: September 2022

McAdam used the term “political process model” to designate the theory of movement emergence sketched in his 1982 book,
Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930–1970
. In the book, he posed the theory as an alternative to two other perspectives. The first was what he referred to as the “classical strain model,” at the time best exemplified by the “collective behavior” perspective. But McAdam also critiqued and sought to distinguish his model from the newer resource mobilization framework. Over time the distinction between these two perspectives has been blurred by incorporating elements of both into a more general theoretical synthesis that emphasizes the simultaneous importance of “political opportunities,” “mobilizing,” and “framing processes.”
Public Order Management Systems
Authors: Rafail Patrick
Published: September 2022

Public order management systems (POMS) are relatively predictable organizational routines, policies, technologies, and orientations used by law enforcement when engaging with protests or managing protestors. Variations in the features and styles of policing protest have received extensive analyses in recent years, but comparatively little systematic attention has been paid to the organizational structures that institutionalized police practices are embedded within. Three major components of POMS are apparent in contemporary Western democracies: (i) spatial and temporal restrictions on protest, grounded in a widespread adoption of advanced permitting systems; (ii) training regimens and technologies designed to help the police more effectively contain and control demonstrations; (iii) an emphasis, at least rhetorically, on the police negotiating with key participants and organizing groups before and during events.
Social and Solidary Incentives
Authors: Passy Florence
Published: September 2022

In 1965 Mancur Olson stated that rational individuals will never act to achieve common or group interests. Since no one is excluded from the benefit brought about by the achievement of public goods, individuals free ride and leave the costs of their production to others. Onlyindividual inducements, in the form of other incentives, will induce a rational individual to act in the interests of the group. In Olson's utilitarian theory, personal and instrumental incentives become the main motivator of actors' participation in collective action.
Threat
Authors: Van Dyke Nella
Published: September 2022

A substantial body of literature explores how aspects of the social environment, including political opportunities, grievances, and threats, influence the timing of social movement activity. This entry reviews the literature exploring how threats sometimes generate collective action. Mobilizing threats include the loss of political power or status, a loss of economic resources, or threats to health and safety. Here, five dimensions of threat that help explain levels of mobilization are identified, including timing, scope, credibility, visibility, and lethality. The entry concludes with a discussion of the social conditions under which threat mobilizes, and a call for more research on the topic.
Violence and Social Movements
Authors: Demetriou Chares
Published: September 2022

Social movements intersect with violence in a variety of ways. In some instances, social movement members exert violence, in other instances violence is exerted on them. And then there are indirect connections with violence, as with the case of movements protesting police brutality or war. The intersection of social movements and violence is therefore a broad and diverse topic. This entry focuses on violence perpetrated by movement members. It starts with an overview of the disciplinary delineations regarding this sort of phenomena before reviewing two overarching themes in the literature: the turn to violence and the consequences of the turn to violence.
Penal Abolitionist Movement
Authors: van Swaaningen René
Published: September 2022

There have been abolitionist movements against slavery, torture, prostitution, capital punishment, and prison. This entry focuses on the latter alone. When the term “abolitionism” is used in relation to criminological issues, it generally dismisses penal definitions and punitive responses to criminalized problems, and proposes their replacement by dispute settlement, redress, and social justice. More generally, it refers to the abolition of state (supported) institutions that are no longer felt to be legitimate. The word “abolitionism” as currently understood in criminology is adopted from the North American anti‐prison movement of the early 1970s. Here Quakers, most notably, take up their historical mission from the anti‐slavery movement. They see prison as an institution that today fulfills the same social functions as slavery did until the late nineteenth century: disciplining the (mostly black) underclass. This American penal abolitionism is mainly grounded in religious inspiration, and less in considerations of the countereffectiveness of criminal justice, as is the case in Europe. The European abolitionist social movements of that era were prisoners' unions and more intellectual radical penal reform movements. This more academic abolitionism has its roots in symbolic interactionism and social constructionism, with a strongly Foucauldian focus on discipline in a carceral society.
Anti‐Nuclear Power Movements (In General)
Authors: Rüdig Wolfgang
Published: September 2022

Opposition movements against the civil use of nuclear power can be found as early as the late 1950s but it was only in the 1970s and 1980s that mass movements against ambitious nuclear construction programs were mobilizing in many Western democracies. Conflict intensity varied between countries; particularly fierce conflicts involving violence could be found in France and West Germany. By the early 1980s most countries had either abandoned plans for nuclear power or had successfully implemented their construction programs. While the Chernobyl accident of 1986 provided the background for a brief movement revival, the absence of new construction projects had removed the main stimulus behind the movement, and activity specifically targeted against nuclear power had effectively ceased in most countries by the early 1990s.
Cultural Revolution (China)
Authors: Wu Lili
Published: September 2022

The Cultural Revolution, the full name of which was “the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution,” was a political movement launched by Mao Zedong, the supreme leader of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Its goal was to rectify the CCP, which Mao considered to have become over‐bureaucratized since it took power in 1949. Mao also wanted to revive the revolutionary spirit of the war period in order to maintain his personal charisma and domination within the CCP. The movement, however, took on a momentum of its own as a large number of the Chinese masses participated in it and became entangled in factional fights.
Global Justice Movement (Europe)
Authors: della Porta Donatella
Published: September 2022

Composed of supranational networks of individuals and organizations, the global justice movement (GJM) developed at the turn of the millennium, mobilizing in transnational events and demanding social justice and participatory and/or deliberative democracy. Especially since the second half of the 1980s, international summits were often accompanied by protest counter‐summits that took place in the same locality as the official intergovernmental gathering. Transnational mobilizations of this type have also targeted European Union (EU) institutions. Among the first mobilizations were the European Marches against unemployment, insecurity, and exclusion addressing the Amsterdam summit in 1997; two years later, 30,000 people mobilized on the same issues at the EU summit in Cologne. These marches played an important role in the emergence of the European wave of protest that became visible in the July 2001 anti‐G8 demonstrations in Genoa. In fact, since Amsterdam and Cologne, counter‐summits have contested most of the main EU summits.
Grassroots Movements
Authors: Horton Lynn
Published: September 2022

Much research has recognized the increasing prevalence and importance of grassroots movements, particularly in contemporary struggles over globalization. A number of case studies explore the goals, tactics, and trajectories of specific grassroots mobilizations in such areas as environmental justice, indigenous land struggles, women's rights, and slum‐dweller movements. While more systematic, comparative examination of such movements is relatively limited, it is possible to identify a set of common elements that broadly characterize grassroots movements. These include status of members, scope of activities, forms of leadership and participation, and global linkages. Grassroots movements also often experience tensions between their role as incubators of innovative, even radical, ideologies and practices and the necessity to further transform themselves into more institutionalized social movement organizations.
Greenpeace
Authors: Markham William
Published: September 2022

Greenpeace is a large, highly visible social movement organization, which combines environmental goals with crusading for peace. It is a multi‐level organization, with international, national, and local units. Its international reach and broad support allow it both to influence transnational corporations, international treaties, and regulatory agencies and to operate within nations.
Guevara, Ernesto “Che”
Authors: Cotman John Walton
Published: September 2022

Central leader of the Cuban Revolution and iconic “heroic guerrilla,” Ernesto Guevara Lynch de la Serna (1928–1967) was born in Rosario, Argentina, to a well‐read, left‐of‐center, politically active middle‐class family. His lifelong study of Marx, Engels, and Lenin began in the mid‐1940s. Guevara explored a tumultuous, radicalizing Latin America before and after becoming a physician in 1953.
King, Martin Luther, Jr.
Authors: Jackson Thomas F.
Published: September 2022

Recent scholarship on Martin Luther King Jr. (1929–1968) looks beyond King's eloquence as a charismatic orator who inspired masses of people to nonviolently protest segregation in America. We now appreciate more fully King's religious background in sustaining his leadership. More importantly, we see multiple ways in which King was shaped and inspired by larger movements for racial and economic justice around the world. King did not initiate any of the local protest movements for which he became a spokesman and symbol. He was nevertheless a brilliant strategist of protest confrontations, a master at reaching national and international publics and elites through print and broadcast media, a mobilizer who inspired thousands of people to risk life and limb against forces of violence and repression, and, finally, a coordinator and mediator among a range of protest leaders whose power and talents have been overshadowed by King's fame. Recent scholarship has especially focused on King's final years, when his lifelong commitment to opposing the “evil triplets” of racism, militarism, and economic exploitation were most fully put into action. King's final crusades against the Vietnam War, against big‐city apartheid, and against poverty and low wages were less successful than the southern movement to dismantle legal segregation. But the full amplitude of King's radical challenge to America's political economy and foreign policy has now become more visible.
Labor Protests (European Union)
Authors: Parks Louisa
Published: September 2022

The phenomenon of transnational labor protest targeting the European Union remains relatively rare. The institutional role of organized labor at the EU level in the social dialogue initially hindered protest. A surge was seen in the early 2000s but has not been sustained. Trade unions have remained more active in protesting EU issues in national contexts, and in recent years have expanded protests to a wider field via social movement unionism. This is in line with broader trends in EU protests and the politicization of the EU, but is also underpinned by long‐standing obstacles to transnational worker solidarity.
Muslim Activism (Europe)
Authors: Lindekilde Lasse
Published: September 2022

For a long time, Muslims in Europe, predominantly work migrants of the 1960s–1970s and their descendants, were ignored as political agents, both by authorities and academics. The sociology of religion has approached European Muslims in terms of their religious identity, transformation of religious practices, and the institutionalization of Islam in different national contexts, but has largely ignored political manifestations. Until recently, social movement studies considered religion an issue of the past and rarely acknowledged it as a source of political activism.
Native American Movements (United States)
Authors: Apodaca Paul
Published: September 2022

Prehistoric Native Americans developed complex societies that include confederations, nations, and empires built upon social movements whose only record lies in myth and folklore. Social movements in the historic period are noted as regional or ethnic movements responding to social changes brought by European and American societies that became pan‐Indian movements as the US exercised uniform control over all Native Americans.
Populism/Populist Movements
Authors: Caiani Manuela
Published: September 2022

In recent years, the amount of empirical research on populism has increased dramatically with an abuse of this term in public discourse and sometimes a “stretching” of the concept in academic debates. Thousands of books, articles, columns, and editorials have been written about it, with scholars disagreeing on categorization, labels, and boundaries between its different manifestations. Although a commonly accepted definition is still lacking, a consensus is emerging on the presence of “varieties of populism” (and causes of it). One of the difficulties regarding the definition of populism is that it has been applied and adapted to various historical phenomena and actors such as movements, parties, regimes, and intellectuals – across time and space (from the American People's Party to postwar European movements, the
poujadist
conservative reactionary movement, the Dutch Farmers Party, the Danish Progress Party or Berlusconi and Blair). In addition, we must note that the theoretical/analytical differences between the various traditions carry relevant implications for what populism can explain, how it should be defined, and how it should be studied empirically.
Satyagraha
Authors: Chabot Sean
Published: September 2022

Satyagrahaliterally means tenacity in the pursuit of truth, with the purpose of activating our capacity for moral compassion and love of humanity in struggles for personal and social liberation. Mohandas Gandhi, India's famous leader, coined the concept as an alternative to passive submission and violent extremism in the face of oppression. It implies a nonviolent yet forceful approach to resolving conflict that addresses structural causes of suffering, benefits oppressed people, and creates favorable conditions for peace and social justice. This entry reviewssatyagraha's principles and methods, compares it to other forms of nonviolent action, illustrates its application during the Indian independence movement, and considers its historical and global relevance.