bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
LOW-TEMPERATURE PARTICLE DETECTORS
Authors: Booth Norman E. , Cabrera Blas , Fiorini Ettore
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The need for very good energy resolution in experiments in particle and astroparticle physics and the need to detect very small energy depositions are the major motivations for the development of low-temperature particle detectors. Because the energy quanta associated with superconductors and lattice vibrations (phonons) are more than one hundred times smaller, substantial improvements have been obtained in energy resolution and in sensitivity over conventional detectors. Furthermore, these detection schemes permit tailoring of target or absorber materials to match the physics requirements. In this article, the basic physics principles behind various methods of detecting excitations induced by particle interactions in bulk single-crystal materials at low temperatures are reviewed. We also present an overview of progress toward implementation of particle physics experiments, such as detection of low-energy neutrinos, search for dark-matter particles, search for neutrino-less double β decay, and β- and γ-ray spectroscopy and X-ray astronomy using low-temperature detectors.
B Mixing
Authors: Gay Colin
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The neutral B mesons, B0 and Bs0, can oscillate between their particle and antiparticle states owing to flavor-changing weak interactions. In recent years, techniques to detect these oscillations as a function of the meson's decay time have been developed. This article reviews the physics of flavor oscillations and summarizes theoretical predictions. The many observations that demonstrate the time dependence of [Formula: see text] oscillations are presented along with a combined measurement of its frequency, Δ md = 0.484 ± 0.015 ps−1. The attempts to measure the Bs0 oscillation frequency, both directly and indirectly, are then summarized, currently resulting in a limit of Δ ms > 14.6 ps−1 (95% CL). Finally, values for the CKM elements |Vtd| = (3.6 ± 0.4) × 10−3 and |Vts/Vtd| > 4.7 (95% CL) are extracted.
THE GENETICS OF OSTEOPOROSIS: Vitamin D Receptor Polymorphisms
Authors: Wood Richard J. , Fleet James C.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Osteoporosis is a metabolic bone disease characterized by low bone mass and deterioration of bone tissue that leads to bone fragility and an increase in fracture risk. It is a disease with a complex etiology that includes genetic and environmental contributors. Environmental factors that influence bone density include dietary factors—such as intakes of calcium, alcohol, and caffeine—and lifestyle factors—such as exercise and smoking. Ethnic differences in the propensity to nontraumatic bone fracture suggest that genetic factors are important. Recently, common allelic variations in the vitamin D receptor gene have been found to be associated with bone mineral density in racially diverse population groups, as well as in prepubertal girls, young adult and postmenopausal women, and men. However, many studies have not been able to find this association. Additional approaches, such as sib-pair analysis, will probably be necessary in the future to identify the important genetic determinants of osteoporosis.
REGULATION OF MILK PROTEIN GENE EXPRESSION
Authors: Rosen Jeffrey M. , Wyszomierski Shannon L. , Hadsell Darryl
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Studies using both transgenic mice and transfected mammary epithelial cells have established that composite response elements containing multiple binding sites for several transcription factors mediate the hormonal and developmental regulation of milk protein gene expression. Activation of signal transduction pathways by lactogenic hormones and cell-substratum interactions activate transcription factors and change chromatin structure and milk protein gene expression. The casein promoters have binding sites for signal transducers and activators of transcription 5, Yin Yang 1, CCAAT/enhancer binding protein, and the glucocorticoid receptor. The whey protein gene promoters have binding sites for nuclear factor I, as well as the glucocorticoid receptor and the signal transducers and activators of transcription 5. The functional importance of some of these factors in mammary gland development and milk protein gene expression has been elucidated by studying mice in which some of these factors have been deleted.
The Basic and Clinical Pharmacology of Nonpeptide Vasopressin Receptor Antagonists
Authors: Thibonnier M , Coles P , Thibonnier A , Shoham M
Published: July 2002

The neurohypophysial hormone arginine vasopressin (AVP) is a cyclic nonpeptide whose actions are mediated by the stimulation of specific G protein–coupled membrane receptors pharmacologically classified into V1-vascular (V1R), V2-renal (V2R) and V3-pituitary (V3R) AVP receptor subtypes. The random screening of chemical compounds and optimization of lead compounds recently resulted in the development of orally active nonpeptide AVP receptor antagonists. Potential therapeutic uses of AVP receptor antagonists include (a) the blockade of V1-vascular AVP receptors in arterial hypertension, congestive heart failure, and peripheral vascular disease; (b) the blockade of V2-renal AVP receptors in the syndrome of inappropriate vasopressin secretion, congestive heart failure, liver cirrhosis, nephrotic syndrome and any state of excessive retention of free water and subsequent dilutional hyponatremia; (c) the blockade of V3-pituitary AVP receptors in adrenocorticotropin-secreting tumors. The pharmacological and clinical profile of orally active nonpeptide vasopressin receptor antagonists is reviewed here.
RADICAL-RADICAL REACTIONS
Authors: Pilling M. J.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Radical-radical reactions generally proceed on potential energy surfaces that have no maximum. Collisional deactivation leads to a stable molecular product; alternatively, radical or molecular products can be formed via dissociation channels additional to those regenerating the reactants. Models of the transition states must take into account the loose internal motion of the fragments, and a variational approach is necessary. The competition between dissociation and collisional stabilization may be modeled using a master equation (ME). The types of behavior encountered in radical-radical reactions and their analysis using the ME are illustrated by reference to the reactions CH3+ H, CH3+ CH3, and CH3+ OH.
SIMULATION OFPHASETRANSITIONS INFLUIDS
Authors: de Pablo Juan J. , Yan Qiliang , Escobedo Fernando A.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  This review provides a discussion of recent techniques for simulation of phase equilibria of complex fluids. Monte Carlo methods are emphasized over molecular dynamics methods. We describe recent developments, such as the use of expanded-ensemble, tempering, or histogram reweighting techniques. Our discussion of such developments is aimed at a general audience and is intended to provide an overview of the main advantages and limitations of each particular technique. References are provided to allow interested readers to identify and trace back most recent applications of a particular simulation technique. We conclude with general guidelines regarding selection of suitable simulation methods for particular problems and systems of interest.
ELECTROSPRAY IONIZATION FOURIER TRANSFORM ION CYCLOTRON RESONANCE MASS SPECTROMETRY
Authors: Hendrickson Christopher L. , Emmett Mark R.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The basic principles and recent advances in electrospray ionization Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry are reviewed. A brief history of electrospray ionization is provided, along with a complete technical description of the technique, electrospray ionization variations, and advantages. Next, the fundamental principles of Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry are covered, including ion cyclotron motion, ion cyclotron resonance excitation, and image current detection. Instrumentation and methods used to couple these techniques are then described. Topics include ion source configuration, ion transport through a strong magnetic field gradient, and ion trapping methods. The article concludes with selected applications that highlight the strengths of electrospray ionization Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry.
The G Cell
Authors: Sawada Mitsutaka , Dickinson Chris J.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The study of gastrin continues to serve as an excellent model for gastrointestinal regulatory processes. This review highlights some recent advances in the field by outlining gastrin biosynthesis, summarizing current understanding of gastrin receptors, describing the regulation of gastrin release, and discussing the clinical implications of gastrin in the pathogenesis of peptic ulcer disease. Emphasis is on three emerging areas of gastrin research: the novel finding that one of gastrin's posttranslational processing intermediates has biological activity distinct from that of the mature peptide; elucidation of gastrin's signal transduction mechanisms that mediate the trophic effects of the peptide; and the role of gastrin in peptic ulcer disease pathogenesis secondary to Helicobacter pylori infection.
STRUCTURE, STRENGTH, FAILURE, AND REMODELING OF THE PULMONARY BLOOD-GAS BARRIER
Authors: West J. B. , Mathieu-Costello O.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The pulmonary blood-gas barrier needs to satisfy two conflicting requirements. It must be extremely thin for efficient gas exchange, but also immensely strong to withstand the extremely high stresses in the capillary wall when capillary pressure rises during exercise. The strength of the blood-gas barrier on the thin side is attributable to the type IV collagen in the basement membranes. However, when the wall stresses rise to very high levels, ultrastructural changes in the barrier occur, a condition known as stress failure. Physiological conditions that alter the properties of the barrier include intense exercise in elite human athletes. Some animals, such as Thoroughbred racehorses, consistently break their alveolar capillaries during galloping, causing hemorrhage. Pathophysiological conditions causing stress failure include neurogenic pulmonary edema, high-altitude pulmonary edema, left heart failure, and overinflation of the lung. Remodeling of the capillary wall occurs in response to increased wall stress, a good example being the thickening of the capillary basement membrane in diseases such as mitral stenosis. The blood-gas barrier is able to maintain its extreme thinness with sufficient strength only through continual regulation of its wall structure. Recent experimental work suggests that rapid changes in gene expression for extracellular matrix proteins and growth factors occur in response to increases in capillary wall stress. How the blood-gas barrier is regulated to be extremely thin but sufficiently strong is a central issue in lung biology.
Genetically Engineered Models with Alterations in Cardiac Membrane Calcium-Handling Proteins
Authors: Kiriazis Helen , Kranias Evangelia G.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Regulation of intracellular Ca2+ provides a means by which the strength and duration of cardiac muscle contraction is altered on a beat-to-beat basis. Ca2+ homeostasis is maintained by proteins of the outer cell membrane or sarcolemma and the sarcoplasmic reticulum, which is the major intracellular Ca2+ storage organelle. Recently, genetic engineering techniques designed to induce specific mutations, manipulate expression levels, or change a particular isoform of various membrane Ca2+-handling proteins have provided novel approaches in elucidating the physiological role of these gene products in the mammalian heart. This review summarizes findings in murine genetic models with alterations in the expression levels of the sarcolemmal Ca2+-ATPase and Na+/Ca2+ exchanger, which move Ca2+ across the cell membrane, and the sarcoplasmic reticulum proteins, which are involved in Ca2+ sequestration (Ca2+-ATPase and its regulator, phospholamban), Ca2+ storage (calsequestrin), and Ca2+ release (ryanodine receptor, FK506-binding protein and junctin) during excitation-contraction coupling. Advances in genetic technology, coupled with the development of miniaturized technology to assess cardiac function at multiple levels in the mouse, have added a wealth of new information to our understanding of the functional role of each of these membrane Ca2+-handling proteins in cardiac physiology and pathophysiology. Furthermore, these genetic models have provided valuable insights into the compensatory cross-talk mechanisms between the major membrane Ca2+-handling proteins in the mammalian heart.
Neural Adaptation in the Generation of Rhythmic Behavior
Authors: Pearson K. G.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Motor systems can adapt rapidly to changes in external conditions and to switching of internal goals. They can also adapt slowly in response to training, alterations in the mechanics of the system, and any changes in the system resulting from injury. This article reviews the mechanisms underlying short- and long-term adaptation in rhythmic motor systems. The neuronal networks underlying the generation of rhythmic motor patterns (central pattern generators; CPGs) are extremely flexible. Neuromodulators, central commands, and afferent signals all influence the pattern produced by a CPG by altering the cellular and synaptic properties of individual neurons and the coupling between different populations of neurons. This flexibility allows the generation of a variety of motor patterns appropriate for the mechanical requirements of different forms of a behavior. The matching of motor output to mechanical requirements depends on the capacity of pattern-generating networks to adapt to slow changes in body mechanics and persistent errors in performance. Afferent feedback from body and limb proprioceptors likely plays an important role in driving these long-term adaptive processes.
Ligand-Gated Ion Channel Interactions with Cytoskeletal and Signaling Proteins
Authors: Sheng Morgan , Pak Daniel T. S.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  In recent years, it has become apparent that ligand-gated ion channels (ionotropic receptors) in the neuronal plasma membrane interact via their cytoplasmic domains with a multitude of intracellular proteins. Different classes of ligand-gated channels associate with distinct sets of intracellular proteins, often through specialized scaffold proteins containing PDZ domains. These specific interactions link the receptor channel to the cortical cytoskeleton and to appropriate signal transduction pathways in the cell. Thus ionotropic receptors are components of extensive protein complexes that are likely involved in the subcellular targeting, cytoskeletal anchoring, and localized clustering of the receptors at specific sites on the neuronal surface. In addition to structural functions, receptor-associated proteins can play important roles as activity modulators or downstream effectors of ligand-gated channels.
Insights from Mouse Models into the Molecular Basis of Neurodegeneration
Authors: Heintz N. , Zoghbi H. Y.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Thanks largely to cloning the genes for several neurodegenerative diseases over the past decade and the existence of mouse mutants, the molecular basis of neurodegeneration is finally beginning to yield some of its secrets. We discuss what has been learned about the pathogenesis of “triplet repeat” diseases through mouse models for spinocerebellar ataxia types 1 and 3 and Huntington disease, including the roles of nuclear aggregates and protein cleavage. We also discuss the neurologic phenotypes that arise from mutations in neurotransmitter receptors (lurcher mice) and ion channels (weaver, leaner, and tottering mice), drawing parallels between ischemic cell death and the neurodegeneration that occurs in the lurcher mouse. Finally, we discuss common mechanisms of cell death and lessons learned from these mouse models that might have broader relevance to other neurologic disorders.
Short-Term Synaptic Plasticity
Authors: Zucker Robert S. , Regehr Wade G.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Synaptic transmission is a dynamic process. Postsynaptic responses wax and wane as presynaptic activity evolves. This prominent characteristic of chemical synaptic transmission is a crucial determinant of the response properties of synapses and, in turn, of the stimulus properties selected by neural networks and of the patterns of activity generated by those networks. This review focuses on synaptic changes that result from prior activity in the synapse under study, and is restricted to short-term effects that last for at most a few minutes. Forms of synaptic enhancement, such as facilitation, augmentation, and post-tetanic potentiation, are usually attributed to effects of a residual elevation in presynaptic [Ca2+]i, acting on one or more molecular targets that appear to be distinct from the secretory trigger responsible for fast exocytosis and phasic release of transmitter to single action potentials. We discuss the evidence for this hypothesis, and the origins of the different kinetic phases of synaptic enhancement, as well as the interpretation of statistical changes in transmitter release and roles played by other factors such as alterations in presynaptic Ca2+ influx or postsynaptic levels of [Ca2+]i. Synaptic depression dominates enhancement at many synapses. Depression is usually attributed to depletion of some pool of readily releasable vesicles, and various forms of the depletion model are discussed. Depression can also arise from feedback activation of presynaptic receptors and from postsynaptic processes such as receptor desensitization. In addition, glial-neuronal interactions can contribute to short-term synaptic plasticity. Finally, we summarize the recent literature on putative molecular players in synaptic plasticity and the effects of genetic manipulations and other modulatory influences.
RATIONALE AND PERSPECTIVES ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF FUNGICIDES
Authors: Knight S. C. , Anthony V. M. , Brady A. M. , Greenland A. J. , Heaney S. P. , Murray D. C. , Powell K. A. , Schulz M. A. , Spinks C. A. , Worthington P. A. , Youle and D.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Fungicides continue to be essential for the effective control of plant diseases. New classes of fungicides with novel modes of action are being developed in the 1990s. These include the strobilurins, phenylpyrroles, anilinopyrimidines, phenoxyquinolines, and compounds that trigger defense mechanisms in the plant. For the foreseeable future, new toxophores will be identified through a process of random screening, with natural products representing a rich source of fungicide leads. Progress is being made in the development of high-throughput screens comprised of target enzyme sites or cell-based assays; these techniques will improve the probability of discovery. Following the identification of suitable leads, biorational design is used to optimize specific properties. In vivo glasshouse screens and field trials are expected to remain the dominant methods for characterizing new compounds. Low toxicity to humans and wildlife, low environmental impact, low residues in food, and compatibility with integrated pest management (IPM) programs are increasingly important considerations in the selection of fungicides for development.
EFFECTS OF INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS ON POLITICAL STABILITY IN SOUTH ASIA
Authors: Mitra Subrata Kumar
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Despite high mass poverty, illiteracy, and religious and linguistic heterogeneity, the states of South Asia enjoy a moderately high level of orderly and democratic government. This contrast to other comparable parts of the world is explained to some extent by the cultural, institutional, and social legacies of British colonial rule and the orderly transfer of power in these successor states. However, 50 years after decolonization, one needs to look beyond colonial rule for explanations. The essay develops a general model based on a rational choice perspective to explain political stability through institutional arrangements. In its application of this model to South Asia, the chapter suggests that political stability is conditional (a) on the capacity of the postcolonial state to innovate new institutions and (b) on the ability of its new political elites to integrate modern and premodern political structures and values within the institutional set-up and to consult the masses periodically through a democratic political process. This model is illustrated with reference to state-society, state-economy, and interstate relations within South Asia.
Preference Formation
Authors: Druckman James N. , Lupia Arthur
Published: July 2002

This review concerns political preferences—what they are and where they come from. We begin by documenting the close relationship between processes of preference formation and change. Rather than suddenly appearing, most preferences emerge from interactions between individuals and their environment. This aspect of preference formation poses a concrete challenge: to uncover the mechanics of these interactions in important social contexts. We then describe political science research that meets this challenge. We find an expansive literature that clarifies how phenomena such as parties, campaigns, and the need to act strategically affect preferences. This work provides many widely applicable insights.
The Causes and Consequences of Arms Races
Authors: Glaser Charles L.
Published: July 2002

This chapter reviews the literature on causes of arms races, their consequences, and when a state should build up arms and engage in an arms race if necessary. The literature tends to equate external causes with threats; the chapter argues for a broader understanding that includes all causes of rational arming behavior. Internal causes of arms races are then understood to be factors within the state that lead it to adopt suboptimal policies. Although the causes and consequences of arms races are usually dealt with separately, in fact they are closely connected. When a state engages in an arms race because this is its best option, the state is acting rationally, the causes of the arms race are external, and the arms race has no consequences of its own. In contrast, when a state arms because domestic interests have distorted its policy, the arms race produces negative consequences. Research on the consequences of arms races has been hindered by the lack of a fully developed theory of when a state shouldrace; progress on defensive realism is helping to fill this gap.
LANDMARKS IN THESTUDY OFCONGRESS SINCE1945
Authors: Polsby Nelson W. , Schickler Eric
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  This paper traces the course of inquiry on the U.S. Congress from 1945 to the present day, noting antecedents in the work of Woodrow Wilson, and through Wilson, of Walter Bagehot. Since 1945, the study of Congress has gone through an anglophile responsible-party phase, championed especially by William Yandell Elliott at Harvard, followed by a sociologically oriented legislative-behavior phase, identified in one generation with Lewis Anthony Dexter, Stephen K. Bailey, David Truman, and especially Ralph K. Huitt at Wisconsin, and in the next generation with Richard Fenno, Charles O. Jones, Donald R. Matthews, and H. Douglas Price, among others. A third, contemporary intellectual orientation is identified most strongly with rational choice scholars, especially from the University of Rochester. The agenda of political science is formed not only by the literature but by events. Hence, the congressional reforms of the 1970s were influential in shaping the literature, as were such organizational innovations as the Congressional Fellowship Program and the Study of Congress, both projects of the American Political Science Association.
THEFIRSTDECADE OFPOST-COMMUNISTELECTIONS ANDVOTING: What Have We Studied, and How Have We Studied It?
Authors: Tucker Joshua A.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  This review assesses the state of the newly emerging field of the study of post-communist elections and voting by building and analyzing a database of 101 articles on the topic that have appeared in 16 leading academic journals (8 general political science journals and 8 post-communist area studies journals) between 1990 and 2000. The database is then used to make inferences concerning both what is being studied by scholars and how it is being studied. The review systematically assesses which countries have been analyzed, the types of elections examined, the prevalence of comparative analysis, the division between quantitative and qualitative research, and the types of data used in quantitative studies. It then turns to substantive questions, examining both how scholars have explained post-communist election results and voting decisions, and what they have used these elections to explain.
ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT: Challenges and Opportunities for Research, Programs, and Policies
Authors: Lerner Richard M. , Galambos Nancy L.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The basic process of adolescent development involves changing relations between the individual and the multiple levels of the context within which the young person is embedded. Variation in the substance and timing of these relations promotes diversity in adolescence and represents sources of risk or protective factors across this life period. The key risk factors of the contempory American adolescent period are discussed. Behavioral risks involve drug, alcohol, and substance use and abuse; unsafe sex, teenage pregnancy, and teenage parenting; school underachievement, failure, and dropout; and delinquency, crime, and violence. Poverty among youth exacerbates these risks. The features of youth programs effective in preventing the actualization of risk or in promoting positive adolescent development are discussed, as are the characteristics of public policies that may enhance the life chances of the diverse youth of America and the world.
INTERGROUP CONTACT THEORY
Authors: Pettigrew Thomas F.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Allport specified four conditions for optimal intergroup contact: equal group status within the situation, common goals, intergroup cooperation and authority support. Varied research supports the hypothesis, but four problems remain. 1. A selection bias limits cross-sectional studies, since prejudiced people avoid intergroup contact. Yet research finds that the positive effects of cross-group friendship are larger than those of the bias. 2. Writers overburden the hypothesis with facilitating, but not essential, conditions. 3. The hypothesis fails to address process. The chapter proposes four processes: learning about the outgroup, changed behavior, affective ties, and ingroup reappraisal. 4. The hypothesis does not specify how the effects generalize to other situations, the outgroup or uninvolved outgroups. Acting sequentially, three strategies enhance generalization—decategorization, salient categorization, and recategorization. Finally, both individual differences and societal norms shape intergroup contact effects. The chapter outlines a longitudinal intergroup contact theory. It distinguishes between essential and facilitating factors, and emphasizes different outcomes for different stages of contact.
Are There Kinds of Concepts?
Authors: Medin Douglas L. , Lynch Elizabeth B. , Solomon Karen O.
Published: July 2002

Past research on concepts has focused almost exclusively on noun-object concepts. This paper discusses recent research demonstrating that useful distinctions may be made among kinds of concepts, including both object and nonobject concepts. We discuss three types of criteria, based on structure, process, and content, that may be used to distinguish among kinds of concepts. The paper then reviews a number of possible candidates for kinds based on the discussed criteria.
Thinking
Authors: Markman Arthur B. , Gentner Dedre
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Reasoning processes allow the human cognitive system to go beyond the information readily available in the environment. This review focuses on the processes of human thinking, including deductive reasoning, induction, mental simulation, and analogy. We survey recent trends across several areas, including categorization, mental models, cognitive development, and decision making. Our chief organizing principle is the contrast between traditional approaches that focus on abstract logical reasoning and a number of current approaches that posit domain-specific, knowledge-intensive cognition. We suggest that some instances of domain-specific cognition result from domain-general processes operating on domain-specific representations. Another theme is the link between reasoning and learning. We suggest that learning typically occurs as a byproduct of reasoning, rather than as an end in itself.
Olfaction
Authors: Doty Richard L.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The main and accessory olfactory systems have received considerable attention on the part of scientists and clinicians during the last decade, largely because of (a) quantum advances in understanding their genetically expressed receptor mechanisms, (b) evidence that their receptor cells undergo neurogenesis and both programmed and induced cell death, and (c) important technical and practical developments in psychophysical measurement. The latter developments have led to the proliferation of standardized olfactory testing in laboratories and clinics, and to the discovery that smell loss is among the first signs of a number of neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease and idiopathic Parkinson's disease. Recent controversial claims that humans possess a functioning vomeronasal system responsive to “pheromones” has added further interest in intranasal chemoreception. This review focuses on recent progress made in understanding olfactory function, emphasizing transduction, measurement, and clinical findings.
Motivational Beliefs, Values, and Goals
Authors: Eccles Jacquelynne S. , Wigfield Allan
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  This chapter reviews the recent research on motivation, beliefs, values, and goals, focusing on developmental and educational psychology. The authors divide the chapter into four major sections: theories focused on expectancies for success (self-efficacy theory and control theory), theories focused on task value (theories focused on intrinsic motivation, self-determination, flow, interest, and goals), theories that integrate expectancies and values (attribution theory, the expectancy-value models of Eccles et al., Feather, and Heckhausen, and self-worth theory), and theories integrating motivation and cognition (social cognitive theories of self-regulation and motivation, the work by Winne & Marx, Borkowski et al., Pintrich et al., and theories of motivation and volition). The authors end the chapter with a discussion of how to integrate theories of self-regulation and expectancy-value models of motivation and suggest new directions for future research.
Cultural Influences on Personality
Authors: Triandis Harry C. , Suh Eunkook M.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Ecologies shape cultures; cultures influence the development of personalities. There are both universal and culture-specific aspects of variation in personality. Some culture-specific aspects correspond to cultural syndromes such as complexity, tightness, individualism, and collectivism. A large body of literature suggests that the Big Five personality factors emerge in various cultures. However, caution is required in arguing for such universality, because most studies have not included emic (culture-specific) traits and have not studied samples that are extremely different in culture from Western samples.
SURVIVAL ANALYSIS IN PUBLIC HEALTH RESEARCH
Authors: Lee Elisa T. , Go Oscar T.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  This paper reviews the common statistical techniques employed to analyze survival data in public health research. Due to the presence of censoring, the data are not amenable to the usual method of analysis. The improvement in statistical computing and wide accessibility of personal computers led to the rapid development and popularity of nonparametric over parametric procedures. The former required less stringent conditions. But, if the assumptions for parametric methods hold, the resulting estimates have smaller standard errors and are easier to interpret. Nonparametric techniques include the Kaplan-Meier method for estimating the survival function and the Cox proportional hazards model to identify risk factors and to obtain adjusted risk ratios. In cases where the assumption of proportional hazards is not tenable, the data can be stratified and a model fitted with different baseline functions in each stratum. Parametric modeling such as the accelerated failure time model also may be used. Hazard functions for the exponential, Weibull, gamma, Gompertz, lognormal, and log-logistic distributions are described. Examples from published literature are given to illustrate the various methods. The paper is intended for public health professionals who are interested in survival data analysis.
FOOD SAFETY REGULATION:Reforming the Delaney Clause
Authors: Merrill Richard A.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The safety of food has been an age-old concern. Early civilizations adopted laws that punished sellers of tainted food. In this country, before food safety became a responsibility of the federal government every state had enacted laws prohibiting the sale of food that contained poisonous substances. The modern scientific and legal instruments available to the US Food and Drug Administration and allied agencies have improved regulation and advances in food preparation, preservation, and storage have contributed to a safer food supply. Even so, some observers believe that contemporary threats to food safety have grown more serious, and they surely excite intense public concern. For nearly two decades Congress has been debating the adequacy of current laws governing food safety. In the closing months of the 104th Congress, both parties finally agreed on the first significant legislative change in over a generation. This chapter examines the origins of the issues that were the focus of this extended debate and analyzes the implications of their resolution.
SEARCHING FOR THE BIOLOGICAL PATHWAYS BETWEEN STRESS AND HEALTH
Authors: Kelly Shona , Hertzman Clyde , Daniels Mark
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Population-based, person-specific health surveys, with concomitant biological measures, should provide important information about the processes by which socioeconomic and psychosocial factors embed themselves in human health. Questionnaire responses allow for assessment of the perceived psychosocial environment, but biological measurements will measure the status of the psychoneuroimmunology/psychoneuroendocrinology (PNI/PNE) pathways and may allow us to identify people who have “adapted” to their stress because of experience, expectations, stoicism, etc. This review sets criteria to evaluate potential physiological markers of chronic stress. Because population health surveys involve a massive number of samples, special consideration must be given to the laboratory analysis method and transportation time of the markers chosen. We reviewed five areas: glycosylated proteins, the immune system, hemostasis, peripheral benzodiazepine receptors, and the waist-hip ratio.
TICK-TRANSMITTED INFECTIOUS DISEASES IN THE UNITED STATES
Authors: Walker DH
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  The epidemiologic concept of tick-transmitted diseases has increased in importance with the recognition of the emerging infectious diseases, Lyme borreliosis, human monocytotropic and granulocytotropic ehrlichioses, and three different babesioses. Effective public health control of these diseases would depend upon critical knowledge of the vector biology of the ticks that transmit them. Rocky Mountain spotted fever and the human ehrlichioses are life-threatening yet treatable diseases. A major problem remains establishment of the diagnosis when treatment decisions are being made. Clinical manifestations, other than erythema migrans for Lyme borreliosis, do not provide strong diagnostic clues. Ehrlichiae or babesiae are often not detected in peripheral blood smears. Frequently there are no antibodies to these diverse agents at the time of presentation, and isolation does not yield sensitive and timely results. Polymerase chain reaction, still a research tool, promises the greatest sensitivity, specificity, and timeliness. Prevention by vaccines is not yet a reality, although OspA-based vaccines offer hope for the prevention of Lyme disease.
Advances in Clinical Trials in the Twentieth Century
Authors: Fisher Lloyd D.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  This article considers the rise of the randomized clinical trial during the twentieth century. Before such development could begin, probability and statistics needed to merge. Sir RA Fisher introduced randomization in the 1920s and, beginning in the 1930s and 1940s, randomized clinical trials in humans were being performed by using the statistical-hypothesis-testing paradigm. Randomization gave unbiased comparisons and a way to perform hypothesis testing without model assumptions. To preserve the benefits of randomization, a type of analysis called intent-to-treat analysis is appropriate. Needed development has occurred and is occurring in refining ethical standards, monitoring trials of serious irreversible endpoints while preserving type-I error, and instituting independent data- and safety-monitoring boards. Recent methodology has also been concerned with the appropriateness of using surrogate endpoints. A current area of debate is the appropriateness of using Bayesian statistical methods in this context.
Socioeconomic Inequalities in Injury: Critical Issues in Design and Analysis
Authors: Cubbin Catherine , Smith Gordon S.
Published: July 2002

▪ Abstract  Injuries continue to place a tremendous burden on the public's health and rates vary widely among different groups in the population. Increasing attention has recently been given to the effects of socioeconomic status (SES) as a determinant of health among both individuals and communities. However, relatively few studies have focused on the influence of SES and injuries. Furthermore, those that have, and the other injury studies that have included measures of SES in their analysis, have varying degrees of conceptual and methodological rigor in their use of this measure. Recent advances in data linkage and analytic techniques have, however, provided new and improved methods to assess the relationship between SES and injuries. This review summarizes the relevant literature on SES and injuries, with particular attention to study design, and the measurement and interpretation of SES. We found that increasing SES has a strong inverse association with the risk of both homicide and fatal unintentional injuries, although the results for suicide were mixed. However, the relationship between SES and nonfatal injuries was less consistent than for fatal injuries. We offer potential explanatory mechanisms for the relationship between SES and injuries and make recommendations for future research in this area.
New Forms of Work Organization
Authors: Smith Vicki
Published: July 2002

A growing body of social science literature has examined the organizational innovations and staffing practices comprising new flexible forms of work. Researchers have investigated the depth and scope of these changes and questioned how they affect diverse groups of workers in the United States. Reviewing the research on this transformation reveals a model of combined and uneven flexibility, characterized by the opening of opportunities that are differentially distributed across different groups of American workers, emerging under conditions in which effort is intensified, control is decentered, and employment is destabilized. The essay concludes by suggesting additional areas of inquiry for sociologists concerned with new forms of work organization.
Feminist Theory and Sociology: Underutilized Contributions for Mainstream Theory
Authors: Chafetz Janet Saltzman
Published: July 2002

Feminist theories in sociology reflect the rich diversity of general theoretical orientations in our discipline; there is no one form of feminist theory. The development of these theories over the last 25 years has only recently begun to influence the mainstream theory canon, which has much to learn from their insights. This chapter demonstrates why feminist versions of the following theory types should be more fully integrated into mainstream sociological theory: neo-Marxist, macro-structural, exchange, rational choice, network, status expectations, symbolic interactionist, ethnomethodological, neo-Freudian, and social role. Feminist standpoint theory, an epistemological critique of mainstream sociology, is discussed at the beginning, and the chapter concludes with a brief account of the newly developing effort to theorize the intersection of race, class, and gender.
Fundamentalism et al: Conservative Protestants in America
Authors: Woodberry Robert D. , Smith Christian S.
Published: July 2002

Since the rise of the religious right, scholars have become increasingly interested in studying conservative Protestantism. Not only do conservative Protestants (CPs) make up at least a quarter of the US population; they differ from many Americans in gender-role attitudes, childrearing styles, political orientation, and other ways as well. In fact, religious factors often predict people's political views better than do either class or gender, even though the latter two have received far more attention in the scholarly literature ( Manza & Brooks 1997 , Kellstedt et al 1996b ). Unfortunately research in this area has been hampered by imprecise measurement and poor understanding of the various movements grouped together as CPs. This has muddied statistical results, stifled theoretical development, and blinded researchers to promising areas of analysis. Thus, in this chapter we first discuss the history and distinctive qualities of the various CP movements, then we use these insights to propose better survey measures, and finally we apply this knowledge to several substantive areas (i.e., gender-role attitudes, childrearing styles, tolerance, the “culture wars,” the religious right, and the reasons for the religious vitality of CP groups).
Commensuration as a Social Process
Authors: Espeland Wendy Nelson , Stevens Mitchell L.
Published: July 2002

Although it is evident in routine decision-making and a crucial vehicle of rationalization, commensuration as a general social process has been given little consideration by sociologists. This article defines commensuration as the comparison of different entities according to a common metric, notes commensuration's long history as an instrument of social thought, analyzes commensuration as a mode of power, and discusses the cognitive and political stakes inherent in calling something incommensurable. We provide a framework for future empirical study of commensuration and demonstrate how this analytic focus can inform established fields of sociological inquiry.
Wealth and Stratification Processes
Authors: Spilerman Seymour
Published: July 2002

This paper reviews current information on wealth trends, with particular attention to the role of household wealth in the stratification system. The first section considers the relevance of wealth for stratification processes and examines why an appreciation of household wealth has been slow to materialize in stratification research. Subsequent sections discuss aspects of the distribution of household wealth in the United States, the transmission of inequality across generations, and implications of a consideration of wealth for stratification theory and social policy. The concluding section conveys some observations about the need for developing models of consumption potential and living standards, akin to the socioeconomic attainment formulation, which incorporate measures of household wealth and the transmission of wealth.
Crime and Demography: Multiple Linkages, Reciprocal Relations
Authors: South Scott J. , Messner Steven F.
Published: July 2002

Individual demographic characteristics and aggregate population processes are central to many theoretical perspectives and empirical models of criminal behavior. Recent research underscores the importance of criminal and deviant behavior for understanding the demography of the life course and macrolevel population processes. We review research that explores the multiple linkages and reciprocal relations between criminal and demographic behavior at both microsocial and macrosocial levels. In reviewing research on how demography affects crime, we describe current debates over the impact of age, sex, and race on criminal behavior, and we distinguish between compositional and contextual effects of demographic structure on aggregate crime rates. Our review of how crime affects demography focuses on the intersection of criminal and demographic events in the life course, and the influence of criminal victimization and aggregate crime rates on residential mobility, migration, and population redistribution. Directions for future research on the many linkages between criminal and demographic behavior are discussed.
Collective Identity and Social Movements
Authors: Polletta Francesca , Jasper James M.
Published: July 2002

Sociologists have turned to collective identity to fill gaps in resource mobilization and political process accounts of the emergence, trajectories, and impacts of social movements. Collective identity has been treated as an alternative to structurally given interests in accounting for the claims on behalf of which people mobilize, an alternative to selective incentives in understanding why people participate, an alternative to instrumental rationality in explaining what tactical choices activists make, and an alternative to institutional reforms in assessing movements' impacts. Collective identity has been treated both too broadly and too narrowly, sometimes applied to too many dynamics, at other times made into a residual category within structuralist, state-centered, and rationalist accounts.
High-Resolution, Contrast-Enhanced Magnetic Resonance Angiography With Elliptical Centric k-Space Ordering of Supra-aortic Arteries Compared With Selective X-Ray Angiography
Authors: Wutke Ralf , Lang Werner , Fellner Claudia , Janka Rolf , Denzel Christan , Lell Michael , Bautz Werner , Fellner Franz A.
Published: July 2002

Background and Purpose

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The objective of this study was to evaluate the relative value of high-resolution, contrast-enhanced MR angiography (CE MRA) with elliptical centric k-space ordering compared with intra-arterial x-ray angiography for imaging carotid stenosis.

Methods

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Thirty patients with suspected stenosis of the carotid arteries were examined with CE MRA (1.5-T scanner) and x-ray angiography (aortic arch survey and selective imaging of both common carotid arteries). For the first time, not only the extracranial carotid bifurcation but all the vessel segments from the aortic arch to the circle of Willis were assessed by independent investigators.

Results

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For the internal carotid artery in the region of the extracranial carotid bifurcation, there was a very close correlation between CE MRA and x-ray angiography (sensitivity, 100%; specificity, 92%). The initially suspected overestimation of stenosis on CE MRA in 3 cases was ultimately revealed to be an underestimation on x-ray angiography. CE MRA showed slightly poorer imaging of the basal vessel segments at the level of the aortic arch (because of breathing artifacts) and the intracranial vessel segments (because of small vessel caliber and venous superimposition due to delayed sequence starts).

Conclusions

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The MRA technique described here provides reliable results in the diagnosis of carotid stenosis and is thus suitable for replacing the invasive conventional x-ray angiography method in most cases. Further technical developments with regard to spatial resolution are still required for improved visualization of small vessels (terminal carotid branches and intracranial vessels).