bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Straw that Broke the Constitution’s Back?
Authors: Roznai Yaniv
Published: July 2021

This chapter examines the doctrines of constitutional unamendability and how they can counteract revolutionary changes. It focuses mainly in developing the theory of quantity transforming into quality in the realm of constitutional amendments: under certain conditions, even small things can cause big changes. The chapter takes the Colombian presidential re-election amendment as an example, departing from the question of why a second consecutive term is a valid constitutional amendment, while a third consecutive term is an unconstitutional replacement, and thus, an unconstitutional constitutional amendment. It demonstrates how this 'new' re-election, seemingly a small change, subverted the democratic structure of the Colombian 1991 Constitution. The chapter then proposes that courts should consider the cumulative impact of a series of amendments affecting a certain constitutional rule or set of principles, since most of the times the dismemberment of a constitutional democracy occurs via a series of small changes, rather than by a single revolutionary change. By this approach, constitutional courts will not disproportionately curtail democratic decision-making, and might act as the guardians of constitutional democracies in face of populism and democratic decay.
The Transitional Justice Model in Colombia vis-à-vis the Inter-American Human Rights SystemAmidst the Conventionality Control and the National Margin of Appreciation
Authors: Acosta-López Juana I. , Murcia Cindy Vanessa Espitia
Published: July 2021

This chapter assesses the international consequences of the transitional justice model in Colombia. It demonstrates that the Colombian transitional justice model, and particularly the integrated system for truth, justice, reparation, and non-repetition, are likely to successfully withstand the 'conventionality control' by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights (ICtHR). The chapter then presents a model to be used by the Inter-American organs when analysing the Colombian transitional justice model. In seeking to accommodate the needs of the transitional process with the demands for justice, the model proposes a harmonizing technique between the notions of 'conventionality control', developed by the Inter-American Court since 2006, and the 'national margin of appreciation' doctrine, developed by the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR). This harmonizing approach would allow States to implement the most adequate mechanisms for the consolidation of a lasting peace scenario.
Not so Moderate
Authors: Arévalo Carlos , Huertas Julián
Published: July 2021

This chapter demonstrates how the Colombian Constitutional Court shaped the relationship between municipal and international law by decisively defining the role of international law in Colombia. It resorts to the classical distinction between monism and dualism as analytical tools to study the Colombian Constitutional Court's decisions. The Court's position regarding the interaction between international and domestic law does not fit the 'moderate monism' model it has claimed to have followed since 1998. On the contrary, the answer to the question about the status of general international law in the Colombian constitutional order is at some point between constitutional monism and dualism. To that extent, with the exceptions of jus cogens, international human rights law, international humanitarian law, and border delimitation, the Colombian Constitutional Court follows a “sovereigntist or statist” position, in which there is a general prevalence of domestic legislation over international law. However, the chapter does recognize that the Court has found a useful tool in international law to advance in significant social, political, and economic changes.
Just and Unjust Uses of Limited Force
Authors: Brunstetter Daniel R.
Published: July 2021

Limited force—no-fly zones, limited strikes, Special Forces raids, and drones strikes outside “hot” battlefields—has been at the nexus of the moral and strategic debates about just war since the fall of the Berlin Wall but has remained largely under-theorized. The main premise of the book is that limited force is different than war in scope, strategic purpose, and ethical permissions and restraints. By revisiting the major wars animating contemporary just war scholarship (Kosovo, Afghanistan, Iraq, the drone “wars,” and Libya) and drawing insights from the just war tradition, this book teases out an ethical account of force-short-of-war. It covers the deliberation about whether to use limited force (jus ad vim), restraints that govern its use (jus in vi), when to stop (jus ex vi), and the after-use context (jus post vim). While these moral categories parallel to some extent their just war counterparts of jus ad bellum, jus in bello, jus post bellum, and jus ex bello, the book illustrates how they can be reimagined and recalibrated in a limited force context, while also introducing new specific to the dilemmas associated with escalation and risk. As the argument unfolds, the reader will be presented with a view of limited force as a moral alternative to war, exposed to a series of dilemmas that raise challenges regarding when and how limited force is used, and provided with a more precise and morally enriched vocabulary to talk about limited force and the responsibilities its use entails.
Blurring the Lines
Authors: Brunstetter Daniel R.
Published: July 2021

Law enforcement is often seen as the de facto, and relatively pure, alternative to contemporary just war. If we are not at war, then the more restrictive law enforcement is the viable paradigm. This chapter interrogates two assumptions underlying this view. It begins by demystifying the unwritten assumption that the liberal law enforcement paradigm associated with Western democracies is the idealized foil to just war. Using France, whose postcolonial legacy complicates the turn to the Western liberal paradigm as an illuminating case, the chapter explores how domestic warlike violence creates a state of fractured order—the violence and potential for abuses of power that permeate society as the government seeks to balance security and individual rights. The chapter then turns to the transnational context to challenge the view that there exists a clear line between the state of war and the state of peace. Mali serves as a paradigmatic case to illustrate how the effectiveness of law enforcement is curtailed in spaces of contested order where heavily armed terrorist groups challenge the authority of the state, thus prompting a turn to Special Forces and drones to restore order. In both contexts, the chapter identifies a shift away from the restrained norms that typically govern the use of force in law enforcement to more warlike uses of force that blur the lines between peace and war. The chapter concludes with a reflection on how this shift might inform the ethics of limited force, which lies between law enforcement and just war.
Limited Force and the Triumph, Crisis, and Schism of Just War Thinking
Authors: Brunstetter Daniel R.
Published: July 2021

Just war, oft-lauded as the authoritative moral framework to address the decision to go war and the ethical permissions this might grant, has seen the meaning of its principles mired in controversy and debate in the post-9/11 era. From calls to reclaim the historic tradition to the need to re-negotiate the terms of the orthodox stance or embrace revisionist insights drawn from analytical philosophy, critical reflections on the major wars showcased competing claims about what just war thinking should be. Where does limited force fit into the story? In answering this question, the chapter exposes a major lacuna in just war thinking by highlighting the moral and strategic dilemmas of limited force—limited strikes, Special Forces, no-fly zones, and drones—in the build-up to the major conflicts that animated just war debates of the post-Cold War era. Viewing the wars in Kosovo, Afghanistan, Iraq, and the broader fight against Al Qaeda through the lens of limited force provides a new angle from which to analyse perennial debates about when to go to war and what victory looks like. Doing so exposes important limitations of existing just war moral frameworks related to concerns about escalation from limited force to war and punishment as a moral justification. Harvesting cues from the historical tradition, the chapter concludes by introducing five types of punishment that contain insights relevant to discerning the just and unjust uses of limited force.
Imagining jus post vim
Authors: Brunstetter Daniel R.
Published: July 2021

Standard accounts of just war follow a chronological path: deliberating whether to go to war (jus ad bellum), considering what can be done in war (jus in bello), and determining the responsibilities after war’s end (jus post bellum). This chapter challenges the chronological timeline by arguing that understanding jus post vim, or the justice after limited force, is paramount to discerning the just and unjust uses of limited force. Placing the emphasis on the post-force environment first shifts the focus onto the achievable ends, which then recalibrates the goals, and, by consequence, the means employed to achieve them. The chapter thus begins by distinguishing between jus post bellum and jus post vim, with one of the main differences being that the latter is necessarily a form of truncated victory. This circumscribed nature of victory has ethical implications insofar as many of the lofty goals sometimes associated with jus post bellum (rehabilitation, regime change, war crimes trials, etc.) are not feasible objectives of using limited force. Drawing on the classical just war doctrine’s emphasis on the pursuit of order and justice, the chapter identifies the re-establishment and containment principles as markers of moral truncated victory and the committed pursuit of long-term peace. These jus post vim principles reflect the heavy moral lifting that diplomatic measures play in the pursuit of peace once truncated victory is achieved. The chapter concludes by linking jus post vim to conciliation, inviting deeper engagement with non-Western peace practices and traditions.
Jus in vi
Authors: Brunstetter Daniel R.
Published: July 2021

Jus in vi is the set of moral principles governing how limited force is used. Taking the traditionalist jus in bello principles as a starting point, this chapter interrogates what necessity, proportionality, and distinction look like in a limited force context and makes the case for the novel psychological risk principle by evaluating how concepts such as “excessive,” “military advantage,” and “harms” and “goods” fit into our thinking about vim. The keystone of jus in vi is the predisposition toward maximal restraint maxim. The chapter thus begins by making the case for why jus in vi principles should be more restrictive than their jus in bello counterparts. It continues by exploring how a circumscribed view of necessity sets the groundwork for constraining proportionality calculations and shaping the way we think about distinction in more restricted ways. The notion of jus in vi proportionality is then explored, with concerns about escalation and psychological risk driving the analysis. Drawing insights from revisionist just war theory to consider jus in vi distinction, the chapter concludes by making the case for affording greater protections to both combatants and non-combatants compared to standard just war accounts. Unlike war, in which almost any soldier can be targeted, in a context of limited force only those who are an active threat can be justly targeted. Both innocent non-combatants and non-threatening combatants should be preserved from the more predictable harms of limited force, though this differs depending on whether the use of limited force is protective, preventive, or punitive.
The Electoral–Constituency Model of Party Personnel
Authors: Shugart Matthew S. , Bergman Matthew E. , Struthers Cory L. , Krauss Ellis S. , Pekkanen Robert J.
Published: July 2021

This chapter develops the electoral–constituency model of party personnel. Under this model, parties deploy their personnel according to their ability to draw votes within specific electoral districts or to specific competing candidates of the party. The chapter derives testable premises, grounded in a two-dimensional characterization of electoral systems: (1) the extent to which they shape a party’s seat maximization through dependence on the geographical location of votes; and (2) the extent of a party’s dependence on “personal votes” of individual candidates. Nationwide proportional representation (PR) versus systems with many electoral districts define the first dimension, while the second dimension is characterized by differences between systems with closed party lists and those employing a single nontransferable vote (SNTV). The chapter discusses how different single-tier and mixed-member systems generate different tradeoffs between parties’ use of the expertise and electoral–constituency models. In particular, the electoral–constituency model suggests that parties allocate members from safe districts differently from those elected in swing/marginal districts. The chapter presents data on the parties covered in the book according to variables such as the margin of electoral victory and population density of districts represented.
Post-Soviet Russian Scholarship on Self-Determination
Authors: Socher Johannes
Published: July 2021

Chapter 5 covers the post-Soviet Russian scholarship on self-determination and shows how it forms a separate epistemic community, with peculiar features and doctrinal positions having existed already prior to Russia’s annexation of Crimea, and the willingness to adjust these positions to official assessments of the Russian government, if necessary. Even before the annexation of Crimea, the discourse on self-determination in Russian scholarship showed some distinctive features, of which most can be explained by a lasting legacy of the former Soviet doctrine of international law, in particular the position that the right to self-determination may in principle also confer a right of secession. In sum, these features stayed however more or less inside the canon of the ‘invisible college of international lawyers’, as Oscar Schachter once famously called it. Only with ‘Crimea’, the company arguably parted again, and once Russia’s actions on the peninsula made it impossible for Russian scholarship to stay within the consensus view without criticizing the Russian government, former consensus was partly replaced by historical-irredentist claims, creative re-readings of self-determination, and attempts in revitalizing the concept of consolidation of historical titles. Moreover, the assessment of ‘Crimea’ in Russian international law scholarship clearly shows that the views expressed in the academic debate by and large correlated with the official positions purported by the Russian government (although criticism was not completely absent, and in particular scholars from the younger generation in Russia were not all ready to accept the official interpretation of the events).
Knowledge and Sensory Knowledge in Hume’s Treatise
Authors: Clay Graham
Published: July 2021

I argue that the Hume of the Treatise maintains an account of knowledge according to which (i) every instance of knowledge must be an immediately present perception (i.e., an impression or an idea); (ii) an object of this perception must be a token of a knowable relation; (iii) this token knowable relation must have parts of the instance of knowledge as relata (i.e., the same perception that has it as an object); and any perception that satisfies (i)–(iii) is an instance of knowledge. I then apply this account to the case of sense perception. I argue that Hume holds that relations of impressions can be intuited, are knowable, and are necessary. For Hume, these relations constitute sensory knowledge. While Hume is rightly labeled an empiricist for many reasons, a close inspection of his account of knowledge reveals yet another way in which he deserves the label.
The Goals of Moral Worth
Authors: Howard Nathan Robert
Published: July 2021

While it is tempting to suppose that an act has moral worth just when and because it is motivated by sufficient moral reasons, philosophers have, largely, come to doubt this analysis. Doubt is rooted in two claims. The first is that some facts can motivate a given act in multiple ways, not all of which are consistent with moral worth. The second is the orthodox view that normative reasons are facts. I defend the tempting analysis by proposing and defending a heterodox account of both normative and motivating reasons that is inspired by Donald Davidson’s primary reasons. We should adopt the heterodox view, the chapter argues, because it addresses an overlooked but fatal defect in the orthodox conception of reasons, of which challenges to the tempting analysis are a special case.
The Modal Status of Moral Principles
Authors: Rosen Gideon
Published: July 2021

Conventional wisdom holds that pure moral principles hold of metaphysical necessity, from which it follows that it is metaphysically impossible for the moral facts to vary independently of the descriptive facts. Moral contingentists deny this, holding that the moral laws are in some cases like the laws of nature: metaphysically contingent, but necessary in a weaker sense. The present chapter makes a preliminary case for moral contingentism and defends the view against recent objections due to Lange (2018) and Dreier (2019).
Introduction
Authors: Wampler Brian , McNulty Stephanie , Touchton Michael
Published: July 2021

This chapter introduces the reader to PB’s core principles and basic institutional design. The core principles include voice, vote, social justice, social inclusion, and oversight. All PB programs adhere to these principles, but each program gives different weights to each principle, which helps to account for the differences in program design around the world. The chapter provides a detailed explanation of PB, based on the Porto Alegre model, which emerged as the early example that other governments sought to replicate. The chapter also introduces three guiding questions that shape the rest of the book: How has PB transformed during the past thirty years as it spreads around the globe? What are the causal mechanisms through which PB programs may produce social and political change? To what extent have PB programs actually generated this social and political change? The authors emphasize these questions as critical for advancing theoretical and empirical debates surrounding PB as well as participatory democratic institutions in general.
Conclusion: The Frontiers of PB
Authors: Wampler Brian , McNulty Stephanie , Touchton Michael
Published: July 2021

This chapter summarizes the main findings about PB’s adoption, adaptation, and impact. It raises questions about PB’s future and the limited evidence that continues to hamper researchers and policymakers’ ability to make key policy recommendations. PB is now used in settings as diverse as large cities in wealthy industrialized democracies, rural, low-income villages in countries governed by semi-authoritarian regimes, municipalities of middle-income countries in the Global South, and a variety of contexts in authoritarian countries. This diversity of program types and institutional contexts showcases the allure of PB around the world. Yet, it also highlights the challenges facing policymakers as they consider creating their own programs. The chapter ends with a conceptual discussion to guide policymakers as they adopt or support PB in the future.
The organization of competition and non-competition in schools
Authors: Christensen Søren , Knudsen Hanne
Published: July 2021

This chapter explores current ambivalences towards using competition between students as a means to intensify learning. The analysis builds on a case study from a Danish school where games are used to motivate second graders to maximize their learning. The current learning paradigm views the intensity of competition as desirable for motivational purposes. At the same time, the downsides of competition are seemingly avoided because there is no scarcity of prizes and therefore no losers. It becomes an open question whether game-playing is in fact competition or not. Individual students must therefore decide themselves whether competing is the most effective way of sustaining their learning. The analysis concludes that current ambivalences towards competition do not primarily stem from a care for cooperation and community but from a care for the individual’s maximized learning. Theoretically, the chapter introduces the notion of side-glance to understand competition as a form of observation.
Cooperating while competing in multinational corporations
Authors: Lagerström Katarina , Leite Emilene , Pahlberg Cecilia , Schweizer Roger
Published: July 2021

In this chapter we investigate the organization of competition among subunits in multinational corporations (MNCs) with the intent to explore how headquarters encourages and organizes for competition and when and why competition is handled by subunits that cooperate. The organization of competition by headquarters among the subunits is characterized by special conditions due to the formal hierarchical organization and access to legitimate tools to instil competition. Competition arises around three sources: allocation of resources, system position and headquarters attention, and the allocation of subsidiary mandates. Empirical findings from six MNCs are used to illustrate the adoption of cooperative and non-cooperative behaviours among subunits as outcomes of headquarters implementation of different tools to organize for competition. The findings also show that headquarters is not only a fourth—but also a third—party as it adjudicates many of the competitive situations that it organizes among its units.
Introduction
Authors: Würtenberger Gert , van der Kooij Paul , Kiewiet Bart , Ekvad Martin
Published: July 2021

This chapter introduces plant breeding, which is intended to alter plants genetically in such a manner that they adapt more appropriately to the needs of human beings. It describes the objectives of plant breeding which are tightly interwoven with the general goals of agricultural plant production. It also recounts the first work on plant breeding and genetics that was conducted by an Augustinian monk named Gregor Johann Mendel in the mid-1890s. This chapter reviews how the unsuitability of patent protection and the lack of protection of plant breeding in many countries increased the demand for protection of plant varieties on an international basis. It mentions the preamble of the International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV) Convention, which states that the protection of new varieties of plants is important for the development of agriculture and safeguarding the interests of breeders.
Proceedings before the Office and Procedural Rules
Authors: Würtenberger Gert , van der Kooij Paul , Kiewiet Bart , Ekvad Martin
Published: July 2021

This chapter discusses the Basic Regulation and the Proceedings Regulation that contain a diversity of provisions on procedures, which relate to application procedures, objection procedures, or appeal procedures. It describes the Community plant variety rights system that opens the possibility for breeders to apply for Community plant variety rights. It also explains the specific procedure of framework of the Community system, which complies with fundamental principles on legitimate expectations and the right to a fair hearing. This chapter deals with the ancillary procedures relating to variety denominations, the objection procedure, and the procedure on access to documents. It highlights specific procedures to be followed concerning the application for a compulsory licence and requests for nullity and cancellation.
Defeat, Retreat, Disgrace
Authors: Weddle Kevin J.
Published: July 2021

This chapter discusses the military operations that took place in the immediate aftermath of the British capture of Fort Ticonderoga and its surrounding fortifications. The Battle of Hubbardton, during which the American rear guard, led by Ebenezer Francis and Seth Warner, stopped the British pursuit by Simon Fraser and Friedrich Riedesel and enabled the escape of St. Clair’s Ticonderoga garrison is discussed. In addition, the successful British water pursuit on the southern arm of Lake Champlain of the Americans who escaped Ticonderoga to Skenesborough on vessels, is examined as another failure of leadership. Finally, the British pursuit of American survivors and the action at Fort Anne is discussed.
Burgoyne Moves South
Authors: Weddle Kevin J.
Published: July 2021

This chapter discusses Burgoyne’s slow advance south from Skenesborough, to Fort Anne, and ultimately to Fort Miller. During this period, the British advance was very slow due to in part to Burgoyne’s overconfidence over the ease with which he captured Ticonderoga, but also for two other major reasons, both of which are examined here. First, the significant transportation shortage began to make itself felt, which forced Burgoyne to delay the advance of his army. Burgoyne delayed for long periods at Skenseborough, Fort Edward, and Fort Miller. Second, the Americans under Schuyler’s direction, obstructed the roads that Burgoyne had to use to reach Albany and harassed his columns as they moved south. At the same time, Washington sent significant reinforcements and guidance to Schuyler, although Schuyler’s reports were relentless in their pessimism.
Burgoyne’s Dilemma
Authors: Weddle Kevin J.
Published: July 2021

Throughout the Saratoga campaign, the senior leaders were faced with many difficult decisions, none more so than John Burgoyne. During the period of late-July through early August 1777, the logistical situation of Burgoyne’s army had become acute and he had to decide whether to continue his advance south toward Albany or fall back. He claimed that his orders gave him no discretion, but this was not true. He began to set the stage for his eventual defense in the case of disaster, blaming Howe for not coming up the Hudson even though the commander-in-chief had told him he was not coming. He was also faced with the imminent departure of his Indian allies and the declining health of the army.
Forcing Climate
Authors: Jenkins Philip
Published: July 2021

This chapter examines the various factors that drive climate, the “forcings.” These include volcanic eruptions, solar energy (as measured by sunspots), and oceanic changes, especially the El Niño–Southern Oscillation. In the Atlantic world, one primary factor is the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO). Volcanic eruptions in particular have often been implicated in changing climate worldwide, with far-reaching political and religious effects. These different factors are often closely intertwined, influencing each other intimately. This chapter also traces the modern emergence of climate science and the often controversial nature of historical debate over phenomena such as the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age.
After Darkness, Light
Authors: Jenkins Philip
Published: July 2021

About 1560, the Little Ice Age entered a new and brutally cold era, when social strains threatened the survival of social and political orders. The resulting unrest and disaffection took multiple forms, but they especially manifested in one notorious form of social paranoia—namely, the witch-hunts, which now reached their peak in Europe. At the same time, the 1560s witnessed a dramatic religious transformation within Christianity, affecting both its Catholic and Protestant dimensions. The fast-growing Calvinist movement represented a revolutionary current that threatened the near-overnight razing of ancient religious ways. On the other side, reformed and restructured Catholicism became quite as hard-edged and confrontational, equally as much a faith of crisis. The Christian world entered a new and much harsher period of polarization, as revolutionary religious change detonated savage wars.
Darkening Heavens and a New World
Authors: Jenkins Philip
Published: July 2021

As the Western economy grew and industrialized, society came to rely less directly on agriculture and the vagaries of the seasons. This is illustrated by tracing a series of major climatic disturbances from the late eighteenth century onward and showing how those natural factors lost much of their impact. In the early part of that era, beginning in the 1780s, volcanic eruptions contributed to an alarming era of climate disruption, and the Tambora blast in particular (1815) sparked new churches and denominations teaching apocalyptic and millenarian doctrines, with dreams of the end times. But as we proceed deeper into the nineteenth century, much of Western humanity, at least, felt ever more detached from the direct impact of climate.
A Warming World
Authors: Jenkins Philip
Published: July 2021

In modern times, climate change has become a central issue in political life. But beyond general prognostications of disaster, we can legitimately ask about the cultural implications, and specifically the religious aspects. As we know from abundant historical experience, apocalyptic changes in climate frequently have reshaped religious thought and life—through mass migrations of particular faiths and sects, through stimulating millenarian and prophetic movements, by stirring revivals and awakenings, and also by inciting groups to demonize and attack perceived enemies. Extreme times bring extreme religion. And if Western nations have, at least in theory, moved far beyond providential interpretations of natural disasters, other societies around the world have not. Whatever other transformations climate change may wreak in coming decades, the world’s spiritual landscape will also take on new forms. This chapter explores those contemporary trends.
Overview and Context
Authors: Delgado Melvin
Published: July 2021

Gun violence often elicits strong reactions across a wide social-economic-political spectrum and touches all of us either directly or indirectly. Gun violence, as it manifests itself in our urban centers, represents the death of an American dream for countless youth and young adults, primarily young people of color, across the nation’s cities and communities. Simply put, a life span must extend beyond age 18. Living long enough to graduate from high school is a nightmare disguised as a dream. Unfortunately, we mourn his death because we are unable to celebrate his life and the potential future contributions he and others like him will simply not make because their lives were cut short or because their health is compromised due to a bullet. His family, and countless other families, are left to pick up the pieces left behind by gun violence.
The Second Wave
Authors: Holt Frank L.
Published: July 2021

Renaissance antiquarians relied heavily upon coins to reconnect with the Classical world. Popes and princes became avid collectors, stocking their Kunstkammern (cabinets of curiosities) with thousands of numismatic treasures. Collecting led to cataloguing and research, but also to the production of forgeries and fantasy coins to feed the antiquities market and to fill the gaps of history. Books showcased imagined coin portraits of every notable figure beginning with Adam and Eve. This preoccupation with portraiture abetted the use of physiognomy by numismatists, who sought psychological insights from the images of Cleopatra, Alexander the Great, Nero, and others depicted on coins. The efforts of numismatists such as Joseph Eckhel to collect and classify all known ancient coin-types, numbering in the tens of thousands, eventually made it impossible for a single individual to comprehend all of numismatics.
Sustaining and Growing Social Innovations Using Integrated Development Models
Authors: Weaver Paul M. , Marks Michael B. , Skropke Carina , Marie Hogan Linda , Spinelli Gabriella
Published: July 2021

In this chapter on “Sustaining and Growing Social Innovations Using Integrated Development Models,” development models are considered to be integrated when activities that are primarily directed toward delivering positive social outcomes also generate income to cover their financial costs, thus providing scope for sustaining and scaling the activities and their social benefits. It identifies harbingers of integrated development models emerging through the efforts of some social innovators. Insights are drawn from the experiences of time bank success cases. The chapter explores their business models and, more generally, their contributions to the development of complementary local community economies that might offer structured, coherent, and coordinated approaches to asset-based community development. The chapter recommends that policy-makers legitimize experiments with complementary economies and currencies, digital currency platforms, and governance arrangements for these. It proposes a community laboratory approach to innovation, learning, and evidence gathering through experiments co-produced with local communities and stakeholders.
Focus on the Balkans
Authors: Hackett Michelle T. , Roy Michael J.
Published: July 2021

The “blended” social and economic value created by social enterprises can, the authors argue in “Focus on the Balkans: Social Enterprise in Albania,” demonstrate a “middle way” between the excesses of both communism and capitalism. Focusing on the western Balkans region of Europe, which has transitioned from a communist past, this chapter considers whether social enterprises in this context have the potential to demonstrate such a “middle way” by challenging norms concerning how the economy is conceived by posing an alternative business framework to market fundamentalism while also contributing to more traditional non–market-focused “social goals” such as breaking down prejudices concerning marginalized groups. This chapter analyzes the discourses of key actors involved in the work of an Albanian social enterprise to examine various competing conceptualizations and uses of social enterprise. In contrast to the role of social enterprise as a “middle way” actor, the authors find that there is also potential for the concept to be employed in post-communist countries as a neoliberal adjustment instrument, promoting a particular form of market-oriented transition. The chapter explores how the actors involved negotiate these complex and multidirectional forces and attempt to navigate the socioeconomic terrain in which the social enterprise is situated.
Redefining Silk Roads
Authors: Urbaeva Jildyz
Published: July 2021

In this chapter on “Redefining Silk Roads: Social Businesses and Crafts as Approaches for Improving Women’s Situations in Central Asia,” the authors show how social entrepreneurship is only starting to evolve in Central Asian countries. Women experience multiple barriers to starting and carrying out social businesses successfully: a lack of capital, underdeveloped policies, and limited access to markets within the region and beyond. Despite these significant challenges, there are factors suggesting strong potential for success in the long term, such as local expertise and skills, access to training, and the support of international development organizations. Projects that have been implemented previously suggest the need for intermediary organizations that can increase access to global markets, advocate on behalf of social businesses, and improve access to capital investments. Improving social entrepreneurship models in the region will have not only financial and social gains for women and their communities; importantly, these models can provide psychosocial benefits as well, such as increasing women’s autonomy within the household and their ability for collective efficacy.
Disruption
Authors: Potter David
Published: July 2021

Disruption is about radical change—why it happens and how. Drawing on case studies ranging from the fourth century AD through the twentieth century, we look at how long-established systems of government and thought are challenged, how new institutions are created, and new ideas become powerful. While paying attention to the underlying political, intellectual, economic, and environmental sources of social disruption, we will see that no matter what similarities there might be between forces that shake different societies, these underlying factors do not dictate specific outcomes. The human actors are ultimately the most important; their decisions drive the conclusions that we see over time. Through our case studies, we can explore successful and unsuccessful decision making, and the emergence of the ideas that conditioned human actions. We’ll explore the development of Islam and of Christian doctrine, of constitutional thought, of socialism, and social Darwinism. We’ll look at how these ideas, all of them emerging on the fringes of society, became central. We’ll also have our eyes set on whether the sorts of disruptive forces we’ve seen in the past are present at this time. We’ll look at the issues confronting the liberal democracies that have been the dominant political/economic forces on our planet in the last half century and see how they have come under stress in the last few decades. And we will look at the possibility that we’re facing a new period of disruption and at what we can learn from the past about how change can be constructive rather than destructive.
The Protestant Reformation
Authors: Potter David
Published: July 2021

The chapter opens with a discussion of the social and political order of 15th-century Europe and the Catholic doctrine that provided the ideological core of the system. The next topic will be the development of a new technology, printing, which is crucial to the reform movement initiated by Martin Luther, who made unique use of the printed word to spread his ideas. The next topic is the political use of the Reform movement first in Germany, then in England and the Netherlands. The impact of the Reformation is the development of the nation state and the growth of reasoning based on science.
The Unity of Freedom
Authors: O’Hara Kieron
Published: July 2021

The final chapter summarizes the ideas of Four Internets. The Internet needs to remain connected, while its governance should allow different ideologies to flourish simultaneously, without imposing their view on the rest. Governance should pursue common interests while respecting cultural diversity. The prominent role of the United States remains an issue, although it has historically been a good steward of the infrastructure, and probably better than any alternative, including the multilateral structures promoted by nations like China and Russia. Governance is currently multistakeholder and ad hoc, but informal, emergent arrangements are probably better and more flexible than something neater and designed. Innovation and network effects need to be fostered, but policymakers will, on occasion, have to intervene against (perceived) negative externalities. New Internets will emerge over time; a COVID-19 Internet is imagined and described, for example. New technologies, such as quantum computing, will create new stresses, requiring a constant focus on resilience.
Epilogue
Authors: Garrard Virginia
Published: July 2021

This is the summing up of this major themes of this book, which situates World Christianity in Latin America with a series of case studies. It has explored vernacular herumanutics and cultural “reclamation” of Christianity from its European vestigates, the spirit-filled aspects of Latin American religion that involve Spiritual Warfare on one side and indigenous or occult evocations on another; it examines these interactions even more closely in the observing how Haitians interpret trauma from a religious perspective, and it concludes with a discussion of neopentecostal megachurches and new technologies of self. This epilogue returns to some of the questions posed introduction about how new Christianities in Latin America interact with modernity for better and for worse. It also emphasizes how vernacular Latin American Christianity blends the novel with the numinous, the sacred with materiality, community values with consumerist greed, traditional cosmovision with global religious networks, neoliberal capitalism with magic, saints with criminals, so long as the faithful retain an unwavering belief in supremacy and divine power.
Hobbes's Political Philosophy
Authors: Martinich A.P.
Published: July 2021

Hobbes’s Political Philosophy: Interpretation and Interpretations extends a position first explained in The Two Gods of Leviathan (1992). Hobbes presented what he believed would be a science of politics, a set of timeless truths grounded in definitions. In chapters on the laws of nature, authorization and representation, sovereignty by acquisition, and others, the author explains this science of politics. In addition to the timeless science, Hobbes had two timebound projects: (1) to eliminate the apparent conflict between the new science of Copernicus and Galileo and traditional Christian doctrine, and (2) to show that Christianity, correctly understood, is not politically destabilizing. The strategy for accomplishing (1) was to distinguish science from religion and to understand Christianity as essentially belief in the literal meaning of the Bible. The strategy for accomplishing (2) was to appeal to biblical teachings such as “Servants, obey your masters,” and “All authority comes from God.” Criticisms of the author’s interpretations are the occasion for (a) fleshing out Hobbes’s historical context and (b) describing the nature of interpretation in dialogue with opposing interpretations by scholars such as Jeffrey Collins, Edwin Curley, John Deigh, and Quentin Skinner. Interpretation is updating one’s network of beliefs in order to re-establish an equilibrium upset by a text. Interpretations may be judged according to prima facie properties of good interpretations such as completeness, consistency, simplicity, generality, palpability, and defensibility.
Hobbes’s Political-Philosophical Project
Authors: Martinich A.P.
Published: July 2021

The appropriate theory to guide interpretations of Hobbes’s philosophy is both intentionalist and historical. Intentionalism is the search for what he intended to communicate. What he meant to communicate was conditioned by his historical circumstances. Conceiving of his political philosophy as a science on the model of geometry, Hobbes identified its two methods and its goal. The first method consists of beginning with definitional causes and deducing their effects; the second consists of beginning with effects and hypothesizing possible causes. The goal of philosophy is to improve the quality of human life. As for his subversion, he wanted to subvert the mistaken religio-political views that led to the English Civil War, the belief in limited sovereignty, the practice of superstitions, and the pretension that religion should be independent of the sovereign.
Leo Strauss’s Olympian Interpretation
Authors: Martinich A.P.
Published: July 2021

The author’s thesis is that Leo Strauss’s view is fundamentally mistaken about the foundational concepts of Hobbes’s political philosophy in De cive, namely, Hobbes’s concepts of right, self-preservation, and law. Concerning rights, Strauss’s claim that they are normative is mistaken. For Hobbes, rights exist where no law excludes them, that is, in the state of nature. They contribute to conflict; but no one violates another person’s right in that state. As for self-preservation, it is a desire and does not mean that humans have to use reason. Finally, as for law, Strauss is mistaken in thinking that Hobbes was an innovator in understanding it in terms of will. God’s laws in the Bible are laws because God wills them. And Hobbes’s laws depend primarily on reason and authority.
Demographics Are (Men’s) Destiny
Authors: Phillips Christian Dyogi
Published: July 2021

Chapter 4 takes long-standing debates over the “population–seats” relationship in a new direction by focusing on how the preponderance of white-majority districts and very small number of majority-minority districts limit the realistic array of electoral opportunities for Asian American women and men and Latina/os. The chapter also shows that the utility of majority-minority districts in advancing descriptive representation has been mischaracterized. Using the GRACE dataset, Chapter 4’s analysis shows that the relationship between a racial group’s population size in a district, and its likelihood of having a descriptive representative on the ballot or in office, is much more robust for men than women. To explain why, Chapter 4 uses interview data to demonstrate that within these rare districts that are widely perceived as nonwhite candidates’ primary opportunity for representation, the politics of recognition among political elites often disadvantage Asian American women and Latinas, relative to co-racial men.
Summary of Book and Argument
Authors: Devins Neal , Baum Lawrence
Published: July 2021

This chapter provides an overview of the book. After documenting the Supreme Court’s movement toward ideological divisions that closely follow party lines, it explains why traditional political science models offer incomplete answers. The book then introduces a perspective based on social psychology that emphasizes the importance of elite audiences to the justices. It argues that the strongest influences on justices from outside of the Court are the elite social networks of which they are a part. Justices’ concern with their reputations in those powerful networks can dramatically shape their perspectives and their choices as decision makers in America’s highest Court.
Elites, Ideology, and the Rise of the Modern Court
Authors: Devins Neal , Baum Lawrence
Published: July 2021

This chapter tracks the period up to 1985, a time when ideology was less relevant to judicial appointments and there was not a well-established conservative legal network. Limited polarization meant that there were liberal Republicans and conservative Democrats. It also meant that presidents paid less attention to ideology when nominating Justices and that Justices responded to elite groups that were not divided along ideological lines. During the New Deal, for example, Democrat and Republican elites backed economic regulation but were sharply split on civil rights and liberties. During the 1950s to 1980s, elite Democrats and Republicans leaned to the left; for this very reason, moderately conservative Justices became increasingly liberal during their tenure on the Court.
The Ruins
Authors: Sprigge Martha
Published: July 2021

This chapter analyzes music by composers who participated in a widespread artistic preoccupation with Germany’s ruined cityscapes during and shortly after World War II. These first musical responses to the war—written at a time of great emotional, physical, and political uncertainty—had a significant impact on musical mourning practices in the Soviet Occupation Zone of Germany, which became the German Democratic Republic in 1949. The chapter focuses on three examples by composers who wrote musical responses to the air war and went on to have successful careers in East Germany. These composers had very different experiences in the Third Reich: Rudolf Mauersberger was a member of the Nazi Party; Hanns Eisler and Paul Dessau were political and religious exiles. Yet they each used music to make sense of wartime trauma, by transforming the aftermath of the bombing—the rubble—into an aesthetic object—or ruin.