bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Epistemic Significance of Collaborative Research
Authors: Wray K. Brad
Published: January 2003

I examine the epistemic import of collaborative research in science. I develop and defend a functional explanation for its growing importance. Collaborative research is becoming more popular in the natural sciences, and to a lesser degree in the social sciences, because contemporary research in these fields frequently requires access to abundant resources, for which there is great competition. Scientists involved in collaborative research have been very successful in accessing these resources, which has in turn enabled them to realize the epistemic goals of science more effectively than other scientists, thus creating a research environment in which collaboration is now the norm.
Kant, Kuhn, and the Rationality of Science
Authors: Friedman Michael
Published: January 2003

This paper considers the evolution of the problem of scientific rationality from Kant through Carnap to Kuhn. I argue for a relativized and historicized version of the original Kantian conception of scientific a priori principles and examine the way in which these principles change and develop across revolutionary paradigm shifts. The distinctively philosophical enterprise of reflecting upon and contextualizing such principles is then seen to play a key role in making possible rational intersubjective communication between otherwise incommensurable paradigms.
Scientific Explanation and the Sense of Understanding
Authors: Trout J. D.
Published: January 2003

Scientists and laypeople alike use the sense of understanding that an explanation conveys as a cue to good or correct explanation. Although the occurrence of this sense or feeling of understanding is neither necessary nor sufficient for good explanation, it does drive judgments of the plausibility and, ultimately, the acceptability, of an explanation. This paper presents evidence that the sense of understanding is in part the routine consequence of two well-documented biases in cognitive psychology: overconfidence and hindsight. In light of the prevalence of counterfeit understanding in the history of science, I argue that many forms of cognitive achievement do not involve a sense of understanding, and that only the truth or accuracy of an explanation make the sense of understanding a valid cue to genuine understanding.
On the Genealogy of Norms: A Case for the Role of Emotion in Cultural Evolution
Authors: Nichols Shaun
Published: January 2003

One promising way to investigate the genealogy of norms is by considering not the origin of norms, but rather what makes certain norms more likely to prevail. Emotional responses, I maintain, constitute one important set of mechanisms that affects the cultural viability of norms. To corroborate this, I exploit historical evidence indicating that sixteenth-century etiquette norms prohibiting disgusting actions were much more likely to survive than other sixteenth-century etiquette norms. This case suggests more broadly that research on cultural evolution should pay greater attention to the role of emotion systems in cultural transmission.
Confirmation and Chaos
Authors: Harrell Maralee , Glymour Clark
Published: January 2003

Recently, Rueger and Sharp (1996) and Koperski (1998) have been concerned to show that certain procedural accounts of model confirmation are compromised by non-linear dynamics. We suggest that the issues raised are better approached by considering whether chaotic data analysis methods allow for reliable inference from data. We provide a framework and an example of this approach.
Emergence and Quantum Mechanics
Authors: Kronz Frederick M. , Tiehen Justin T.
Published: January 2003

In a recent article Humphreys has developed an intriguing proposal for making sense of emergence. The crucial notion for this purpose is what he calls “fusion” and his paradigm for it is quantum nonseparability. In what follows, we will develop this position in more detail, and then discuss its ramifications and limitations. Its ramifications are quite radical; its limitations are substantial. An alternative approach to emergence that involves quantum physics is then proposed.
The Quest for a King: Gender, Marriage, and Succession in Elizabethan England
Authors: McLaren Anne
Published: January 2003

Some translation and joining of realms may turn to much good, and the wealth and tranquillity of many. As if we had a King for your Queen, or you [Scotland] a King for ours, it had been a goodly translation: to have united both realms in dominion, regiment and law, as they be in nature, language, and manners…. If you and we had joined together: it had made no great matter, on which side the King had been, so he had been religious…. It is religion and likeness of manners, that join men together … Where there is one faith, one baptism, and one Christ: there is narrower fraternity then, if they came out of one womb. (John Aylmer,An Harborowe for Faithful and Trew Subjectes, 1559)

Me-thinketh it were to be wished of all wise men and her Majesty's good subjects, that the one of those two Queens of the isle of Britain were transformed into the shape of a man, to make so happy a marriage, as thereby there might be an unity of the whole isle. (Henry Killigrew to Robert Dudley, 31 December 1560)

In 1559, John Aylmer responded to John Knox'sFirst Blast of the Trumpet against the Monstrous Regiment of Womenin order to win support for Elizabeth I's accession to the English throne. According to Aylmer, Knox identified as the “greatest inconvenience” of female rule the fact that the realm would be transferred to “strangers” when the queen married, ceding to her husband, as her superior, the power that had been invested in her.
The Troubles of Thomas Pestell: Parish Squabbles and Ecclesiastical Politics in Caroline England
Authors: Haigh Christopher
Published: January 2003

The troubles of Thomas Pestell came to a head at Lambeth on 21 November 1633. He was the victim of an improbable alliance between a godly nobleman, a Laudian judge, three alehouse keepers, a few tithe resisters, some Ashby nonconformists, “mad Stacey,” and a determined troublemaker. This ambitious Leicestershire parson, already embittered by failure, was humiliated by the Court of High Commission. Led by Archbishop Laud, the court declared that Pestell “had to the scandal and reproach of his ministerial function many ways demeaned himself”: he was ordered to grovel before his critics and pay his enemies' expenses. It could have been very much worse. The offenses of contempt of ecclesiastical authority, admitting excommunicates to communion, and performing clandestine marriages, “although they were in themselves no way justifiable but worthy of severe punishment,” were set aside for the moment and never resurfaced. An allegation of vexatious litigation had already been dropped, a charge of seditious preaching was “not sufficiently proved,” and “for his quarrelling and fighting, and giving cause to have him bound to the peace before the temporal judges, this the court much misliked though they would not censure him for it.” Formally, Pestell was only punished for jeering at the earl of Huntingdon, mocking Sir John Lambe, and sending two of his parishioners on a wild-goose chase—but his once-promising career was in ruins.

Thomas Pestell was born in 1585, the son of a Leicester tailor. He went to Cambridge as a sizar, took his M.A. in 1609, and was presented to the Leicestershire rectory of Coleorton by Sir Thomas Beaumont in 1611.
The Politics of Sky Battles in Early Hanoverian Britain
Authors: Jankovic Vladimir
Published: January 2003

We need not wonder at Aerial Knights, At elemental combats, and strange fights, when earthly monarchs thus renew their jars, and even all Europe is involv'd in wars. (William Lux,Poems on Several Occasions)

On 6 March 1716, theHistorical Registerfeatured a description of an extravagant “display” of sky lights above London. The newspaper reported that during the evening, a number of Londoners noticed something that at first appeared like a huge and motionless body of light that in a curtain-like shape hung over the sky. They then saw it starting to move in a random fashion and dissolve into parts, spreading toward the west and changing into gigantic “pillars of flame.” From the west horizon and with an incredible velocity the lights continued to dart southeastward. After a series of undulatory motions and vibrations, they turned into a “continual fulguration, interspersed with green, red, blue, and yellow.” What were they? The celebrated astronomer Edmund Halley wrote that he was afraid that in delivering the “Etiology of a Matter so uncommon, never before seen by myself, nor fully described by any of the Ancient and Moderns, I fail to answer [philosophers'] Expectation or my own Desires.” But the less scholarly sources had less trouble. In Oxford, people saw swords and cavalries in the sky. In Upton upon Severn, Worcestershire, two heavenly armies waged a war that was so close that the air smelled of gunpowder.
Computational Models
Authors: Humphreys Paul
Published: January 2003

A different way of thinking about how the sciences are organized is suggested by the use of cross-disciplinary computational methods as the organizing unit of science, here called computational templates. The structure of computational models is articulated using the concepts of construction assumptions and correction sets. The existence of these features indicates that certain conventionalist views are incorrect, in particular it suggests that computational models come with an interpretation that cannot be removed as well as a prior justification. A form of selective realism is described which denies that one can simply read the ontological commitments from the theory itself.
Using False Models to Elaborate Constraints on Processes: Blending Inheritance in Organic and Cultural Evolution
Authors: Wimsatt William C.
Published: January 2003

Scientific models may be more useful for false assumptions they make than true ones when one is interested not in the fit of the model, but in the form of the residuals. Modeling Darwin's (false) “blending” theory of inheritance shows how it illuminates features of Mendelian theory. Insufficient understanding of it leads to incorrect moves in modeling population structure. But it may prove even more useful for organizing a theory of cultural evolution. Analysis of “blending” inheritance gives new tools for recognizing population structure for culture and for understanding differences between biological and cultural inheritance.
Engineering Philosophy of Science: American Pragmatism and Logical Empiricism in the 1930s
Authors: Richardson Alan W.
Published: January 2003

This essay examines logical empiricism and American pragmatism, arguing that American philosophy's embrace of logical empiricism in the 1930s was not a turning away from Dewey's pragmatism. It places both movements within scientific philosophy and finds two key points on which they agreed: their revolutionary ambitions and their social engineering sensibility. The essay suggests that the disagreement over emotivism in ethics should be placed within the context of a larger issue on which the movements disagreed: demarcationism and imperialism.
Epistemological Custard Pies from Functional Brain Imaging
Authors: Bogen Jim
Published: January 2003

This paper discusses features of an epistemically valuable form of evidence that raise troubles for received and new epistemological treatments of experimental evidence.
Interlevel Experiments and Multilevel Mechanisms in the Neuroscience of Memory
Authors: Craver Carl F.
Published: January 2003

The dominant neuroscientific theory of spatial memory is, like many theories in neuroscience, a multilevel description of a mechanism. The theory links the activities of molecules, cells, brain regions, and whole organisms into an integrated sketch of an explanation for the ability of organisms to navigate novel environments. Here I develop a taxonomy of interlevel experimental strategies for integrating the levels in such multilevel mechanisms. These experimental strategies include activation strategies, interference strategies, and additive strategies. These strategies are mutually reinforcing, providing a kind of interlevel and intratheoretic robustness that has not previously been recognized.
Altruism, Inclusive Fitness, and “The Logic of Decision”
Authors: Skyrms Brian
Published: January 2003

We show how Richard Jeffrey's The Logic of Decision provides the proper formalism for calculating expected fitness for correlated encounters in general. As an illustration, some puzzles about kin selection are resolved.
Instrumentalism, Parsimony, and the Akaike Framework
Authors: Sober Elliott
Published: January 2003

Akaike's framework for thinking about model selection in terms of the goal of predictive accuracy and his criterion for model selection have important philosophical implications. Scientists often test models whose truth values they already know, and they often decline to reject models that they know full well are false. Instrumentalism helps explain this pervasive feature of scientific practice, and Akaike's framework helps provide instrumentalism with the epistemology it needs. Akaike's criterion for model selection also throws light on the role of parsimony considerations in hypothesis evaluation. I explain the basic ideas behind Akaike's framework and criterion; several biological examples, including the use of maximum likelihood methods in phylogenetic inference, are considered.
Predictive Accuracy as an Achievable Goal of Science
Authors: Forster Malcolm R.
Published: January 2003

What has science actually achieved? A theory of achievement should (1) define what has been achieved, (2) describe the means or methods used in science, and (3) explain how such methods lead to such achievements. Predictive accuracy is one truth-related achievement of science, and there is an explanation of why common scientific practices (of trading off simplicity and fit) tend to increase predictive accuracy. Akaike's explanation for the success of AIC is limited to interpolative predictive accuracy. But therein lies the strength of the general framework, for it also provides a clear formulation of many open problems of research.
The Ethics of Using or Not Using Statistical Prediction Rules in Psychological Practice and Related Consulting Activities
Authors: Dawes Robyn M.
Published: January 2003

Professionals often believe that they must “exercise judgment” in making decisions critical to other people's lives. The relative superiority (established in roughly 150 studies) of statistical prediction rules (SPR's) to intuitive judgment for combining incomparable sources of information to predict important human outcomes leads us to question this personal input belief. Some professionals hence use SPR's to “educate” intuitive judgment, rather than replace it. In psychology in particular, such amalgamation is not justified. If a well-validated SPR that is superior to professional judgment exists in a relevant decision making context, professionals should use it, totally absenting themselves from the prediction.
Using Meta-Scientific Studies to Clarify or Resolve Questions in the Philosophy and History of Science
Authors: Faust David , Meehl Paul E.
Published: January 2003

More powerful methods for studying and integrating the historical track record of scientific episodes and scientific judgment, or what Faust and Meehl describe as a program of meta-science and meta-scientific studies, can supplement and extend more commonly used case study methods. We describe the basic premises of meta-science, overview methodological considerations, and provide examples of meta-scientific studies. Meta-science can help to clarify or resolve long-standing questions in the history and philosophy of science and provide practical help to the working scientist.
Money Pumps and Diachronic Books
Authors: Levi Isaac
Published: January 2003

The idea that rational agents should have acyclic preferences and should obey conditionalization has been defended on the grounds that otherwise an agent is threatened with becoming a “money pump.” This essay argues that such arguments fail to prove their claims.
The Lure of the Simplistic
Authors: Dupré John
Published: January 2003

This paper attacks the perennial philosophical and scientific quest for a simple and unified vision of the world. Without denying the attraction of this vision, I argue that such a goal often seriously distorts our understanding of complex phenomena. The argument is illustrated with reference to simplistic attempts to provide extremely general views of biology, and especially of human nature, through the theory of evolution. Although that theory is a fundamental ingredient of our scientific world view, it provides only one of a number of perspectives that are required for an understanding of biology in general, and human behaviour in paticular. The argument is connected to the replacement of views of science in terms of universal laws with views that emphasise ranges of models more locally suited to specific phenomena.
Historical Evidence and Human Adaptations
Authors: Kaplan Jonathan Michael
Published: January 2003

Phylogenetic information is often necessary to distinguish between evolutionary scenarios. Recently, some prominent proponents of evolutionary psychology have acknowledged this, and have claimed that such evidence has in fact been brought to bear on adaptive hypotheses involving complex human psychological traits. Were this possible, it would be a valuable source of evidence regarding hypothesized adaptive traits in humans. However, the structure of the Hominidae family makes this difficult or impossible. For many traits of interest, the closest extant relatives to the human species are too phenotypically different from humans for such methods to provide meaningful data. While phylogenetic information can be useful for testing adaptive hypotheses in humans, these generally involve traits that are (a) not widely shared in the species or (b) fairly widely shared in the Hominidae family, and hence likely of a lower order of complexity than the sorts of traits evolutionary psychology has so far been interested in.
Scientific Discovery from the Perspective of Hypothesis Acceptance
Authors: Martin Eric , Osherson Daniel
Published: January 2003

A model of inductive inquiry is defined within the context of first-order logic. The model conceives of inquiry as a game between Nature and a scientist. To begin the game, a nonlogical vocabulary is agreed upon by the two players, along with a partition of a class of countable structures for that vocabulary. Next, Nature secretly chooses one structure (“the real world”) from some cell of the partition. She then presents the scientist with a sequence of facts about the chosen structure. With each new datum the scientist announces a guess about the cell to which the chosen structure belongs. To succeed in his or her inquiry, the scientist's successive conjectures must be correct all but finitely often, that is, the conjectures must converge in the limit to the correct cell. Different kinds of scientists can be investigated within this framework. At opposite ends of the spectrum are dumb scientists that rely on the strategy of “induction by enumeration,” and smart scientists that rely on an operator of belief revision. We report some results about the scope and limits of these two inductive strategies.
What Is a Mechanism? A Counterfactual Account
Authors: Woodward Jim
Published: January 2003

This paper presents a counterfactual account of what a mechanism is. Mechanisms consist of parts, the behavior of which conforms to generalizations that are invariant under interventions, and which are modular in the sense that it is possible in principle to change the behavior of one part independently of the others. Each of these features can be captured by the truth of certain counterfactuals.
The Trials of Life: Natural Selection and Random Drift
Authors: Walsh Denis M. , Lewens Tim , Ariew André
Published: January 2003

We distinguish dynamical and statistical interpretations of evolutionary theory. We argue that only the statistical interpretation preserves the presumed relation between natural selection and drift. On these grounds we claim that the dynamical conception of evolutionary theory as a theory of forces is mistaken. Selection and drift are not forces. Nor do selection and drift explanations appeal to the (sub-population-level) causes of population level change. Instead they explain by appeal to the statistical structure of populations. We briefly discuss the implications of the statistical interpretation of selection for various debates within the philosophy of biology—the ‘explananda of selection’ debate and the ‘units of selection’ debate.
On Representing the Relationship between the Mathematical and the Empirical
Authors: Bueno Otávio , French Steven , Ladyman James
Published: January 2003

We examine, from the partial structures perspective, two forms of applicability of mathematics: at the “bottom” level, the applicability of theoretical structures to the “appearances”, and at the “top” level, the applicability of mathematical to physical theories. We argue that, to accommodate these two forms of applicability, the partial structures approach needs to be extended to include a notion of “partial homomorphism”. As a case study, we present London's analysis of the superfluid behavior of liquid helium in terms of Bose-Einstein statistics. This involved both the introduction of group theory at the top level, and some modeling at the “phenomenological” level, and thus provides a nice example of the relationships we are interested in. We conclude with a discussion of the “autonomy” of London's model.
Science and the Common Good: Thoughts on Philip Kitcher's Science, Truth, and Democracy
Authors: Longino Helen E.
Published: January 2003

In Science, Truth, and Democracy, Philip Kitcher develops the notion of well-ordered science: scientific inquiry whose research agenda and applications (but not methods) are subject to public control guided by democratic deliberation. Kitcher's primary departure from his earlier views involves rejecting the idea that there is any single standard of scientific significance. The context-dependence of scientific significance opens up many normative issues to philosophical investigation and to resolution through democratic processes. Although some readers will feel Kitcher has not moved far enough from earlier epistemological positions, the book does represent an important addition to literature on science, society, and values.
Information: Its Interpretation, Its Inheritance, and Its Sharing
Authors: Jablonka Eva
Published: January 2003

The semantic concept of information is one of the most important, and one of the most problematical concepts in biology. I suggest a broad definition of biological information: a source becomes an informational input when an interpreting receiver can react to the form of the source (and variations in this form) in a functional manner. The definition accommodates information stemming from environmental cues as well as from evolved signals, and calls for a comparison between information-transmission in different types of inheritance systems—the genetic, the epigenetic, the behavioral, and the cultural-symbolic. This comparative perspective highlights the different ways in which information is acquired and transmitted, and the role that such information plays in heredity and evolution. Focusing on the special properties of the transfer of information, which are very different from those associated with the transfer of materials or energy, also helps to uncover interesting evolutionary effects and suggests better explanations for some aspects of the evolution of communication.
Discussion Note: Distributed Cognition in Epistemic Cultures
Authors: Giere Ronald N.
Published: January 2003

InEpistemic Cultures(1999), Karin Knorr Cetina argues thatdifferentscientific fields exhibitdifferentepistemic cultures. She claims that in high energy physics (HEP) individual persons are displaced as epistemic subjects in favor of experiments themselves. In molecular biology (MB), by contrast, individual persons remain the primary epistemic subjects. Using Ed Hutchins’ (1995) account of navigation aboard a traditional US Navy ship as a prototype, I argue that both HEP and MB exhibit forms ofdistributedcognition. That is, in both fields cognition is distributed across individual persons and complex artifacts. The cognitive system producing the knowledge is heterogeneous. Nevertheless, in both fields we can reserve epistemic agency for the human components of these systems. We do not need to postulate new distributed cognitive agents, let alone ones exhibiting new forms of consciousness.
Critical Notice: Scientific Civilization and Its Discontents: Further Reflections on the Science Wars
Authors: Parsons Keith
Published: January 2003

This essay reviews two recent books commenting on, and contributing to, the “science wars.” In Who Rules in Science? James Robert Brown respectfully but firmly rejects the “nihilist” and the “naturalist” wings of social constructivism. He rejects attempts to debunk science in the name of a relativist or anarchist epistemology. He also criticizes the “strong programme” in the sociology of knowledge and its implied contrast between reasons and causes. In Prometheus Bedeviled Norman Levitt examines the cultural roots of current discontent with science. Levitt's analysis—and polemic—charges contemporary culture with a pervasive cheapening of intellectual standards.
Antibiotic consumption and resistance selection in Streptococcus pneumoniae
Authors: Baquero F. , Baquero-Artigao G. , Cantón R. , García-Rey C.
Published: January 2003

Selection of antibiotic-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae is an inescapable consequence of antibiotic use. The correlation between antibiotic consumption and selection of resistant organisms can be shown at every ecological level: patient, community, region or country. In the case of multiple resistance, the intensity of antibiotic selection is increased. However, different antibiotics may exert different selective powers. Because of this, co-selection of macrolide and β-lactam resistance is an asymmetrical phenomenon: macrolides select more efficiently strains resistant to both macrolides and β-lactams than aminopenicillins. The difference in rates of antibiotic resistance is also influenced by the local spread of susceptible or resistant clones; it is suggested that under mild antibiotic selection, the susceptible organisms that are more fit for host-to-host transmission could be favoured. Subsequent acquisition of resistance in these clones may rapidly increase the prevalence of resistance, and that may lead to an increase in the use of antibiotics. The reasons for antibiotic resistance are mainly the reasons explaining antibiotic consumption. A number of possible sociobiological determinants of antibiotic consumption can be identified: genetic factors in the human populations (for instance, involving different symptomatic types of infection), cultural factors and attitudes of patients towards antibiotics, sociological factors or public health factors, including incidence of other infectious diseases in the human population. Only ‘excess’ in the use of antibiotics should be controlled; for such a purpose, the concept, ‘appropriate demand for antibiotics’ (ADA) is proposed.
Importance of dose and duration of β-lactam therapy in nasopharyngeal colonization with resistant pneumococci
Authors: Canet J.-J. , Garau J.
Published: January 2003

Antibiotic use greatly influences the nasopharyngeal carriage of drug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae and is considered to be one of the most important risk factors for carriage of such organisms. Several studies have shown a reduction in the prevalence of resistant strains following reduced antibiotic consumption. This indicates that it may be possible to reduce resistance rates by changing prescribing patterns. Studies suggest that antibiotics present at low levels tend to select strains with low-level penicillin resistance, that intermediate antibiotic levels may pose the danger of selection of pneumococci with high-level penicillin resistance and that attainment of high levels of antibiotics may reduce the selective pressure for penicillin resistance. High-dose β-lactam (amoxicillin) therapy has been shown to reduce the selection of resistant pneumococci in the nasopharynx. Likewise, short-course antibiotic therapy has reduced colonization by resistant strains. Finally, the effect of the antibiotic appears to differ according to the β-lactam prescribed. Studies suggest that selection by cephalosporins occurs at higher frequencies than that by amoxicillin; this may be explained by the reduced activity of cephalosporins against penicillin-resistant S. pneumoniae.
New five-circle κ diffractometer for reference-beam diffraction studies
Authors: Pringle Daniel , Shen Qun
Published: January 2003

A compact five-circle κ-geometry diffractometer has been designed and implemented at CHESS for automated reference-beam X-ray diffraction (RBD) experiments. The details of the diffractometer design are presented, along with its geometry calculations, and its alignment and control algorithm. An outline of the overall RBD experimental procedure has been developed based on this κ diffractometer. Measured RBD interference profiles from a lysozyme crystal demonstrate that efficient triplet-phase data collection is possible using this new device in a modified crystallography oscillation setup.
Concentration dependence of the modulation parameter with the lock-in phase transition in the system K2MoxW1−xO4
Authors: Bzowski B. , Duda H. , Kusz J. , Warczewski J. , Behruzi M. , Hahn Th.
Published: January 2003

An improved method for synthesizing the compounds K2MoxW1−xO4has been applied. The phase diagram, both on heating and cooling, is presented. The observed nearly linear character of the concentration dependence of the modulation parameterpat 693 K (both after heating and cooling) indicates the existence of a continuous series of incommensurate structures in the concentration interval 0 ≤x≤ 1. Either atx= 0 exactly or close to this value a lock-in phase transition takes place, making the structure commensurately modulated.
X-ray diffraction from inhomogeneous thin films of nanometre thickness: modelling and experiment
Authors: Bocquet F. , Gergaud P. , Thomas O.
Published: January 2003

The diffraction of X-rays by a thin layer (of the order of a few nanometres) with a gradient in interplanar spacings is considered. It is shown that optical coherence over the film thickness leads to diffraction peak positions that no longer obey Bragg's law. Although a fitting of the diffracted intensity is indeed still possible, this has direct consequences on the applicability of more straightforward analysis methods, such as the sin2ψ method, which rely on diffraction peak positions. The intensity and peak position calculations are supported by a comparison with experimental data from a (001) Fe/GaAs thin (3 nm) epitaxic film.
Indexing of powder diffraction patterns by iterative use of singular value decomposition
Authors: Coelho A. A.
Published: January 2003

A fast method for indexing powder diffraction patterns has been developed for large and small lattices of all symmetries. The method is relatively insensitive to impurity peaks and missing highd-spacings: on simulated data, little effect in terms of successful indexing has been observed when one in threed-spacings are randomly removed. Comparison with three of the most popular indexing programs, namelyITO,DICVOL91andTREOR90, has shown that the present method as implemented in the programTOPASis more successful at indexing simulated data. Also significant is that the present method performs well on typically noisy data with large diffractometer zero errors. Critical to its success, the present method uses singular value decomposition in an iterative manner for solving linear equations relatinghklvalues tod-spacings.
Identification and characterization of a novel Mn–N nitride formed in Fe–Mn–N alloy
Authors: Gouné M. , Redjaïmia A. , Belmonte T. , Michel H.
Published: January 2003

An unexpected phase, formed throughout the ferritic matrix of an Fe–Mn (1.62 wt% Mn) alloy during a nitriding treatment at 843 K for 8 h, is analysed. This new phase, labelled θ′, is a metastable Mn nitride. It adopts the form of plates, with length 200 nm and width 20 nm. Its crystal structure is established by electron microdiffraction in conjunction with group-theory analysis. This nitride crystallizes in the tetragonal system and belongs to the space groupP 42/m 2/m 2/cwith the following lattice parameters: a_{\theta'} = 2.876 Å and c_{\theta'} = 5.752 Å. The θ′-phase crystal lattice is oriented with respect to the surrounding ferritic matrix according to the cube-on-cube orientation relationship, namely: (100)_{\theta'} || (200)_\alpha, (010)_{\theta'} || (020)_\alpha and (002)_{\theta'} || (002)_\alpha.
Model calculations for the spin-echo small-angle neutron-scattering correlation function
Authors: Uca Oktay , Bouwman Wim G. , Rekveldt M. Theo
Published: January 2003

Spin-echo small-angle neutron scattering (SESANS) is a new kind of SANS technique enabling measurements to be made directly in real space from a range of a few nanometres up to micrometres. In this paper it is shown by calculations on models that SESANS measures correlations directly. Furthermore, the effect of polydispersity and structure factor has been studied. An exact expression for the correlation function has been derived in the case of random systems, such as fractal systems.
Orientation relationship of Widmannstätten plates in an iron meteorite measured with high-energy synchrotron radiation
Authors: Bunge Hans Joachim , Weiss Wolfgang , Klein Helmut , Wcislak Leszek , Garbe Ulf , Schneider Jochen Richard
Published: January 2003

The orientation distribution of the Widmannstätten plates was measured in a sample of the Gibeon iron–nickel meteorite. The measurements were made with high-energy synchrotron radiation at beamline BW5 at HASYLAB/DESY in Hamburg using a high-resolution `moving-detector' technique. The measurements reveal a continuous range of orientations stretching out from both sides of the Nishiyama–Wassermann orientation to the Kurdjumov–Sachs orientations, as well as a minor `spread-pipe' between the Kurdjumov–Sachs ends of neighbouring non-coplanar orientation variants.
Reversible displacive phase transition in [Ni(en)3]2+(NO3−)2: a potential temperature calibrant for area-detector diffractometers
Authors: Farrugia L. J. , Macchi P. , Sironi A.
Published: January 2003

The coordination complex [Ni(en)3]2+(NO{}_{3}^{- })2(en = 1,2-diaminoethane) undergoes a sharp reversible displacive phase transition at ∼109 K, changing space group fromP6322 above the transition temperature toP6522 below. The phase change is accompanied by a tripling of thecaxis on cooling, resulting in an easy detection of the transition in images from area-detector diffractometers. The transition has been followed using a Nonius KappaCCD and a Bruker SMART APEX CCD. Data sets were collected over the temperature range 100–113 K and integrated using the low-temperature orientation matrix. Reflections withl≠ 3nshow a smooth and rapid decrease in intensity to zero on warming from 106.5 to 111 K. The results are reproducible to within ±2 K in two laboratories and suggest that this compound may be useful as a liquid-nitrogen cryo-calibrant for diffraction instruments equipped with area detectors.
Single-crystal structure validation with the programPLATON
Authors: Spek A. L.
Published: January 2003

The results of a single-crystal structure determination when in CIF format can now be validated routinely by automatic procedures. In this way, many errors in published papers can be avoided. The validation software generates a set of ALERTS detailing issues to be addressed by the experimenter, author, referee and publication journal. Validation was pioneered by the IUCr journalActa Crystallographica Section Cand is currently standard procedure for structures submitted for publication in all IUCr journals. The implementation of validation procedures by other journals is in progress. This paper describes the concepts of validation and the classes of checks that are carried out by the programPLATONas part of the IUCrcheckCIFfacility.PLATONvalidation can be run at any stage of the structure refinement, independent of the structure determination package used, and is recommended for use as a routine tool during or at least at the completion of every structure determination. Two examples are discussed where proper validation procedures could have avoided the publication of incorrect structures that had serious consequences for the chemistry involved.
Explicit Analytical Solutions of Linear and Nonlinear Interior Heat and Mass Transfer Equation Sets for Drying Process
Authors: Cai Ruixian , Zhang Na
Published: January 2003

Some algebraic explicit analytical solutions of the unsteady one-dimensional variable coefficient partial differential equation set describing drying process of an infinite plate are derived and given. Such explicit solutions have not yet been published before. Besides their irreplaceable theoretical value, analytical solutions can also serve as benchmark to check the results of recently rapidly developing numerical calculation and study various computational methods. In addition, some mathematical skills used in this paper are special and deserve further attention.
Observations of Early-Stage Frost Formation on a Cold Plate in Atmospheric Air Flow
Authors: Cheng Chin-Hsiang , Wu Keng-Hsien
Published: January 2003

The present study is conducted to investigate the frost formation on a cold plate in atmospheric air flow by means of experimental and theoretical methods. In order to provide observations for the early stage of the frost growth process, a microscopic image system is used to record the pattern and the thickness of the frost layer per five seconds after the onset of frost formation. In this study, a multiple-step ascending frost growth pattern caused by melting of frost crystals at the frost surface has been observed. Effects of velocity, temperature and relative humidity of air (V,Ta, and ϕ) are studied, and the surface temperature of the cold plate Tw is also varied. The considered ranges of these dominant variables are: 2⩽V⩽13 m/s, 20⩽Ta⩽35°C, 40 percent ⩽ϕ⩽80 percent, and −13⩽Tw⩽−2°C. The theoretical model presented by Cheng and Cheng [22] for predicting the frost growth rate during the frost layer growth period is verified. Results show that the predictions of frost growth rate by the model agree with the experiment data, especially for the frost layer growth period.
Backward Monte Carlo Simulations in Radiative Heat Transfer
Authors: Modest Michael F.
Published: January 2003

Standard Monte Carlo methods trace photon bundles in a forward direction, and may become extremely inefficient when radiation onto a small spot and/or onto a small direction cone is desired. Backward tracing of photon bundles is known to alleviate this problem if the source of radiation is large, but may also fail if the radiation source is collimated and/or very small. In this paper various implementations of the backward Monte Carlo method are discussed, allowing efficient Monte Carlo simulations for problems with arbitrary radiation sources, including small collimated beams, point sources, etc., in media of arbitrary optical thickness.
Calculation of Pressure and Density in Solar Power Plant Chimneys
Authors: von Backstro¨m Theodor W.
Published: January 2003

This technical brief develops calculation methods for the pressure drop in very tall chimneys, as in solar chimney power plants. The methods allow for density and flow area change with height, for wall friction and internal bracing drag. It presents equations for the vertical pressure and density distributions in terms of Mach number. One of these is a generalization of the adiabatic pressure lapse ratio equation to include flow at small Mach numbers. The other is analogous to the hydrostatic relationship between pressure, density, and height, but extends it to small Mach numbers. Its integration leads to an accurate value of the average density in the chimney.
Application of a Higher Order GGDH Heat Flux Model to Three-Dimensional Turbulent U-Bend Duct Heat Transfer
Authors: Suga K. , Nagaoka and M. , Horinouchi N.
Published: January 2003

A higher order version of the generalized gradient diffusion hypothesis (HOGGDH) for turbulent heat flux is applied to predict heat transfer in a square-sectioned U-bend duct. The flow field turbulence models coupled with are a cubic nonlinear eddy viscosity model and a full second moment closure. Both of them are low Reynolds number turbulence models. The benefits of using the HOGGDH heat flux model are presented through the comparison with the standard GGDH.
Paucity of Genes on the
Drosophila
X Chromosome Showing Male-Biased Expression
Authors: Parisi Michael , Nuttall Rachel , Naiman Daniel , Bouffard Gerard , Malley James , Andrews Justen , Eastman Scott , Oliver Brian
Published: January 2003

Sex chromosomes are primary determinants of sexual dimorphism in many organisms. These chromosomes are thought to arise via the divergence of an ancestral autosome pair and are almost certainly influenced by differing selection in males and females. Exploring how sex chromosomes differ from autosomes is highly amenable to genomic analysis. We examined global gene expression in
Drosophila melanogaster
and report a dramatic underrepresentation of X-chromosome genes showing high relative expression in males. Using comparative genomics, we find that these same X-chromosome genes are exceptionally poorly conserved in the mosquito
Anopheles gambiae.
These data indicate that the X chromosome is a disfavored location for genes selectively expressed in males.
Migration through the Extracellular Matrix by the Parasitic ProtozoanLeishmaniaIs Enhanced by Surface Metalloprotease gp63
Authors: McGwire Bradford S. , Chang Kwang-Poo , Engman David M.
Published: January 2003

Leishmaniaspecies engineered to express high levels of the surface metalloprotease gp63 have enhanced capacity of migration through extracellular matrix in vitro. This correlates with gp63 degradation of extracellular matrix components, such as collagen type IV and fibronectin, and suggests an important role for gp63 in the pathogenesis of leishmaniasis.
Plasmodium falciparum
Infection Elicits Both Variant-Specific and Cross-Reactive Antibodies against Variant Surface Antigens
Authors: Chattopadhyay Rana , Sharma Amit , Srivastava Vinod K. , Pati Sudhanshu S. , Sharma S. K. , Das Bhabani S. , Chitnis Chetan E.
Published: January 2003

Naturally acquired antibodies to
Plasmodium falciparum
erythrocyte membrane protein-1 (PfEMP-1), the variant surface antigens expressed on the surface of infected erythrocytes, are thought to play a role in protection against
P. falciparum
malaria. Here, we have studied the development of antibodies to PfEMP-1 in adult malaria patients living in Rourkela, India, an area with a low malaria transmission rate, and prevalence of antibodies to PfEMP-1 in residents of San Dulakudar, India, a village in which
P. falciparum
malaria is hyperendemic. Convalescent-phase sera from adult malaria patients from Rourkela agglutinate homologous
P. falciparum
isolates as well as some heterologous isolates, suggesting that they develop partially cross-reactive antibodies to PfEMP-1 following infection. Adult sera from San Dulakudar agglutinate diverse
P. falciparum
isolates, suggesting that they have antibodies with wide recognition of diverse PfEMP-1. Mixed-agglutination assays using pairs of
P. falciparum
isolates confirm the presence of both variant-specific and partially cross-reactive antibodies in convalescent-phase sera from Rourkela and adult sera from San Dulakudar. Analysis of PfEMP-1 sequences suggests a molecular basis for the observed cross-reactivity.
Nramp1 Is Not a Major Determinant in the Control ofBrucella melitensisInfection in Mice
Authors: Guilloteau Laurence A. , Dornand Jacques , Gross Antoine , Olivier Michel , Cortade Fabienne , Vern Yves Le , Kerboeuf Dominique
Published: January 2003

Brucella,the causative agent of brucellosis in animals and humans, can survive and proliferate within macrophages. Macrophages mediate mouse resistance to various pathogens through the expression of theNramp1gene. The role of this gene in the control ofBrucellainfection was investigated. When BALB/c mice (Nramp1s) and C.CB congenic mice (Nramp1r) were infected withBrucella melitensis,the number ofBrucellaorganisms per spleen was significantly larger in the C.CB mice than in the BALB/c mice during the first week postinfection (p.i.). ThisNramp1-linked susceptibility toBrucellawas temporary, since similar numbers ofBrucellawere recovered from the two strains of mice 2 weeks p.i. The effect ofNramp1expression occurred within splenocytes intracellularly infected byBrucella.However, there was no difference between in vitro replication rates ofBrucellain macrophages isolated from the two strains of mice infected in vivo or inNramp1RAW264 transfectants. In mice, infection withBrucellainduced an inflammatory response, resulting in splenomegaly and recruitment of phagocytes in the spleen, which was amplified in C.CB mice. Reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR), performed 5 days p.i., showed that inducible nitric oxide synthase, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-12 p40 (IL-12p40), gamma interferon (IFN-γ), and IL-10 mRNAs were similarly induced in spleens of the two strains. In contrast, the mRNA of KC, a C-X-C chemokine, was induced only in infected C.CB mice at this time. This pattern of mRNA expression was maintained at 14 days p.i., with IFN-γ and IL-12p40 mRNAs being more intensively induced in the infected C.CB mice, but TNF-α mRNA was no longer induced. The higher recruitment of neutrophils observed in the spleens of infected C.CB mice could explain the temporary susceptibility of C.CB mice toB. melitensisinfection. In contrast to infections withSalmonella, Leishmania,andMycobacterium,the expression of theNramp1gene appears to be of limited importance for the natural resistance of mice toBrucella.
Toll-Like Receptor 4-Positive Macrophages Protect Mice fromPasteurella pneumotropica-Induced Pneumonia
Authors: Hart Marcia L. , Mosier Derek A. , Chapes Stephen K.
Published: January 2003

This study investigates Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)-positive macrophages in early recognition and clearance of pulmonary bacteria. TLR4 is atrans-membrane receptor that is the primary recognition molecule for lipopolysaccharide of gram-negative bacteria. TheTLR4Lps-delmouse strains C57BL10/ScN (B10) and STOCKAbbtm1TLR4Lps-delSlc11a1s(B10 × C2D) are susceptible to pulmonary infections and develop pneumonia when naturally or experimentally infected by the opportunistic bacteriumPasteurella pneumotropica.Since these mice have theTLR4Lps-delgenotype, we hypothesized that reconstitution of mice with TLR4-positive macrophages would provide resistance to this bacterium. A cultured macrophage cell line (C2D macrophages) and bone marrow cells from C2D mice were adoptively transferred to B10 and B10 × C2D mice by intraperitoneal injection. C2D macrophages increased B10 and B10 × C2D mouse resistance toP. pneumotropica. In C2D-recipient mice there was earlier transcription of tumor necrosis factor alpha and chemokines JE and macrophage inflammatory protein 2 (MIP-2) in the lungs of B10 and B10 × C2D mice, and there was earlier transcription of KC and MIP-1α in B10 × C2D mice. In addition, the course of inflammation following experimentalPasteurellachallenge was altered in C2D recipients. C2D macrophages also protected B10 × C2D mice, which lack CD4+T cells. These data indicate that macrophages are critical for pulmonary immunity and can provide host resistance toP. pneumotropica.This study indicates that TLR4-positive macrophages are important for early recognition and clearance of pulmonary bacterial infections.