bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
BIODISPOSAL FARMING OF REFINERY OILY WASTES
Authors: Weldon Roy A.
Published: January 2013

Oily waste materials, whether they are derived from oil spill cleanup operations or generated during petroleum processing, present somewhat similar disposal problems which are of major concern. With oily waste disposal in sanitary landfills increasingly unacceptable and with the many problems and high costs associated with incineration, landspreading (landfarming) is becoming more and more important as a disposal method. Although simple in principle, it is somewhat complex in application with little experimental data available. The API has undertaken a study to define the requirements and limitations for an environmentally acceptable landspreading method. Suntech selected three sites in the United States for the study, one of which is discussed in this paper, namely, Toledo, Ohio.

Typical refinery oily wastes were spread on test plots in multiple, controlled applications and tilled into the top eight inches of soil, and the fate of these wastes and their components in the soil environment was monitored for a two year period. Bio-oxidation rates were determined for the oil fractions. Microflora population counts served to monitor the microbial response and determine overall soil viability. Leachate and groundwater quality and surface runoff contamination were studied to assess any tendency toward waste constituent migration. Heavy metals, phenolics, and cyanides were also examined. Biodegradation rates were found to be substantial, with controlled applications in excess of 1,000 barrels of oil per acre per year.
HYDROCARBONS IN SEDIMENTS FROM THE EDGE OF THE BERMUDA PLATFORM
Authors: Sleeter Thomas D. , Butler James N. , Barbash Jack E.
Published: January 2013

Surficial and subsurface (10–13 cm) sediment samples were taken at 7 stations (17 cores) on the northern margin of the Bermuda seamount, remote from ship traffic, beaches, and atmospheric fallout from aircraft. Their aliphatic (pentane-extractable) hydrocarbon content was found to be very low, comparable to samples from the North Atlantic abyssal plain, and two orders of magnitude lower than for typical coastal samples. About half of the aliphatic hydrocarbons are clearly biogenic, and the remainder are characteristic of petroleum residues. Petroleum hydrocarbon concentrations are lower in subsurface (for example, 0.11 µg/g dry weight) than surface samples (0.47 µg/g), and are lower outside the reef (0.25 µg/g) than inside (0.47 µg/g). These results are quantitatively consistent with a diffusion model. Extremely rapid bioturbation or totally quiescent deposition on a stable sedimentary facies can probably be eliminated as hypotheses for the deposition and transport mechanism within the sediment. Whether degradation is important cannot be answered without further studies.
RESPONSE OF A SUBTIDAL SEDIMENT COMMUNITY TO LOW LEVELS OF OIL HYDROCARBONS IN A NORWEGIAN FJORD
Authors: Bakke Torgeir , Johnsen Torbjørn M.
Published: January 2013

During a nine-month field experiment, an artificially enclosed portion of the community on a subtidal sandy bottom was exposed to low levels of oil hydrocarbons (peak values between 25 and 50 µg/l in the water) for periods of two weeks at six week intervals. An adjacent portion of the community acted as a control.

The oil input did not result in significant accumulation of aromatic hydrocarbons in the sediment, presumably due to biodegradation and loss to the enclosure walls. The fluctuation in numbers of sediment bacterial cells did not correlate with the oil stress. Generally, the sediment chlorophyll a content was significantly higher in the oiled sediment than in the control, which indicates decreased grazing by the sediment fauna and/or increased primary production under the oil stress. The nematode abundance decreased progressively in the oiled sediment compared to a seemingly steady state in the control, whereas the harpacticoid copepods showed no response to the oil stress. No significant short term fluctuations during the exposure periods were observed in any of the groups of organisms studied. The pollution level, although chemically significant, was not considered ecologically significant with respect to the benthos.
PREDICTION OF THE MOTION OF OIL SPILLS IN CANADIAN ARCTIC WATERS
Authors: Venkatesh S. , Sahota H. S. , Rizkalla A. S.
Published: January 2013

An oil spill movement prediction model operating as part of a real-time Environmental Prediction Support System for the Canadian Beaufort Sea has been developed. The present version of the model considers spills only in open waters, that is, the sea surface is considered to be ice free. The model has been partially verified with data obtained from oil simulation experiments conducted in the Bay of Fundy, off the east coast of Canada during the months of August and September, 1978. With the use of observed winds, the model-predicted locations of “Orion” buoys used to simulate the motion of oil on water, agreed fairly well with their observed locations. These verification tests also pointed out the need for high resolution surface wind forecasts — essential data for computing wind-driven water currents which move the oil.
OIL SPILL LIABILITY AND COMPENSATION
Authors: Carven Christopher J.
Published: January 2013

Before the Torrey Canyon incident in 1967, no adequate national or international legal regimes existed to compensate victims of oil pollution damage or to enable governments to recover costs incurred in cleaning up oil spills. But, as a result of this major pollution incident, many national and four major international regimes were developed to make certain that victims of oil spills were compensated for their losses. This article discusses two voluntary schemes, TOVALOP and CRISTAL, and two Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization conventions—the Civil Liability Convention and the Fund Convention. For comparative purposes, it also covers the key features of proposed U.S. legislation generally referred to as “Superfund.”
HYDROCARBON DISTRIBUTION AND WEATHERING CHARACTERISTICS AT A TROPICAL OIL SPILL SITE
Authors: Page David S. , Mayo Dana W. , Cooley Judith F. , Sorenson Edmund , Gilfillan Edward S. , Hanson Sherry A.
Published: January 2013

A study was performed on the state of an oil spill site on the southwest coast of Puerto Rico. The location of the study was Bahia Sucia, the site of the Zoe Colocotroni spill of 17 March, 1973. Particular attention was given to the weathering characteristics of the stranded oil remaining at the sites and to the presence of biogenic hydrocarbons in the sediments.

High resolution gas chromatography of the aliphatic and aromatic fractions of the sediment hydrocarbons was used to distinguish the types of hydrocarbons present and their distribution. It was observed that oil weathers much more rapidly in a tropical environment as compared with spills in temperate areas. Even in the most heavily impacted areas, the Zoe Colocotroni oil had weathered practically to the point of being tar.

It was also observed that a tropical site has a significant chronic input of hydrocarbons from both natural and anthropogenic sources. Gas chromatograms of extracts of leaf waxes from live mangroves compared with biogenic hydrocarbons observed in the sediments. Tar-balls also account for a significant fraction of the hydrocarbon burden in the sites studied.

The conclusion is that a tropical area has the potential for making a much more rapid recovery from an oil spill than a temperate one. Moreover, in assessing the effects of a tropical oil spill, care must be taken to distinguish the relative contribution to the total hydrocarbon burden in a spill area by oil, pelagic tar, and biogenic sources.
PROBLEMS IN ECOLOGICAL MONITORING IN PORT VALDEZ, ALASKA
Authors: Cowell E. B. , Monk D. C.
Published: January 2013

The technical and scientific problems of ecological monitoring at Port Valdez, Alaska are discussed. Particular attention is given to the lack of understanding of the processes of the Alaskan Rocky Shore ecosystem and the paucity of data on the natural stresses controlling temporal and spatial variation in populations. In addition, taxonomic difficulties, particularly in the littoral macro-algae, further compound survey problems.

The paper suggests some possible approaches that could be applied and is illustrated by data taken on baseline surveys made in 1977. Particular attention is given to unexpected age size distributions in the limpet Collisella pelta.
THE ASSESSMENT OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF OIL SPILLS — TOWARD A METHODOLOGY
Authors: Fricke Peter H.
Published: January 2013

This paper examines the state of the art of socio-economic damage assessment following oil spills as a first step in developing a comparative methodology of use both to social scientists and lawyers in damage claim litigation. The conclusions reached are, first, that socio-economic baseline studies must be developed in areas potentially at risk if post-spill studies are to have any meaning. Secondly, post-spill data must be handled in uniform modes. Finally, development of predictive models is considered and assessed.
U.S. COAST GUARD ATLANTIC STRIKE TEAM TRAINING PROGRAM*
Authors: Jensen Donald S.
Published: January 2013

Rapid personnel turnover is a problem facing the U.S. Coast Guard today. To keep productivity and mission performance high, training becomes a high priority mission area. The Atlantic Strike Team (AST) is charged with maintaining a high state of readiness to respond to actual spills and potential discharges of oil and hazardous substances. Over the past 2 years, the AST has developed a training program that serves to ensure that newly arriving team members develop needed skills rapidly through a qualification program and that seasoned members sharpen their acquired skills through periodic training exercises. The AST training program can serve as a model for other federal, state, and local agencies, as well as industry, who are faced with the training of emergency response teams.
RESULTS OF A SURPRISE TEST OF SUN TRANSPORT COMPANY'S OIL SPILL RESPONSE PLAN
Authors: Kazmierczak Leon J. , Bates John H. , Tatman N. G.
Published: January 2013

A test of Sun Transport's oil spill response plan was held to gauge the effectiveness of various aspects of the plan under real-life conditions. Only the few people who were responsible for the exercise had foreknowledge of the test, its timing, and location.

At the 1979 Oil Spill meeting in Los Angeles, a paper (Kazmierczak, 1979) was presented describing details of the plan and how it was expected to work. This test was conducted to identify weaknesses, oversights, or other problem areas that might impair performance in the event of a real spill situation.

Part of the planning criteria was to select a time and location that would coincide with a Sun tanker actually being in the area so that no one would question the likelihood of a spill or suspect a drill. The element of surprise was maintained and a worthwhile exercise conducted.

Our alerting procedure, travel arrangements, logistics, and other parts of the plan revealed some areas for further refinement. The greatest benefit was a realization on the part of all the participants that spills can happen and if any organization is unfortunate enough to experience one, there is no substitute for preparedness.

Details of the planning, the actual exercise, post-exercise critique, and adjustments to the plan are thoroughly discussed in that paper.
INTERNATIONAL OIL SPILL CONTROL TRAINING PROGRAM
Authors: Hann Roy W. , Young Harry N.
Published: January 2013

After viewing the oil spill from the supertanker Metula in 1974 and observing the state of preparedness to deal with oil spills in Chile and other countries, the need for a stronger program was evident.

With encouragement from the International Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO) and others, a training course was developed to complement the IMCO and United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP) programs which subsequently has been presented on a regional basis in the Caribbean, the Mediterranean, the West African area, and Brazil.

The support the UNEP Regional Seas Program and at the same time ensure that the faculty of the training program has a realistic knowledge of the problems in a given area, a series of reports has been commissioned on the status of oil pollution and oil pollution control in the various regions. The report on the Caribbean has been completed and reports on Southeast Asia and West Africa are in the final stages of preparation.

This paper will discuss the format and technical content of the training courses and the format and technical content of the supporting studies. The authors will also discuss trends in international response responsibility and methods evident from their studies and from their interaction with the students in the course.
ONSHORE IMPACTS AND CLEANUP DURING THE BURMAH AGATE OIL SPILL—NOVEMBER 1979
Authors: Thebeau Larry C. , Kana Timothy W.
Published: January 2013

Of the 250,000 barrels (bbl) of oil spilled or consumed by fire during the Burmah Agate spill off Galveston, Texas, in November 1979, 2,100 bbl eventually reached the shore. Fortunately, because of the predominance of offshore, northerly winds in November 1979, most of the oil not consumed by fire dispersed offshore or was contained and recovered at the wreck site. Daily aerial and ground surveys at reference stations were conducted to locate impacts and monitor the persistence of oil onshore. Beach impacts directly attributable to the Burmah Agate occurred as far as 470 kilometers (km) from the wreck near Mansfield Pass, Texas. The first major impact occurred on November 8 and 9 when approximately 500 bbl impacted a 10-km section of San Jose Island, 250 km southwest of the wreck. Due to relative inaccessibility, and rapid recovery of the beach, no cleanup was attempted. By November 16, 1979, less than 25 percent of the impact remained buried or on the beachface. The heaviest onshore impact of Burmah Agate oil occurred November 19 to 21 when up to 1,500 bbl beached along the western half of Galveston Island. Cleanup was initially by manual labor and front-end loaders; however, by November 23, the primary method of cleanup involved pooling the oil by hand labor and picking it up with vacuum trucks. This latter method considerably reduced the volume of sand removed from the beach. Cleanup and manicuring the beach were virtually complete by November 27. Other minor impacts of less than 50 bbl occurred sporadically during the spill from Bolivar Peninsula to Brown Cedar Cut. The only known marsh impact occurred on November 9, when approximately 5 bbl coated 400 meters of fringing marsh along Smith Point in Galveston Bay.
THE WRECK OF THE LEE WANG ZIN
Authors: Bayliss Randolph , Spoltman Raymond
Published: January 2013

Environmental effects and cleanup efforts involved in Alaska's largest (length of shoreline affected) marine oil spill are recounted. Some 2,381 to 7,143 barrels (bbl) of heavy bunker fuel and diesel oil were released during high winds into Alaskan and Canadian waters as a result of the 1979 Christmas Day capsize of the Taiwanese ore freighter, M/V Lee Wang Zin, off the southern edge of the Alaska Panhandle. Over 350 miles (mi) of shoreline were contaminated within a week of the accident, and oil slicks identified as products of the spill were sited a month later, 210 mi north of the vessel's grounding site off the southeast tip of Prince of Wales Island. During tow to deep-water burial, the vessel unexpectedly sank 8 mi from an internationally known sea bird sanctuary. Overall, many sensitive fish, mammal, bird, and shellfish resources were potentially impacted, furbearers and waterfowl, probably most seriously. Moreover, severe weather conditions and rugged terrain presented unique problems for cleanup operations, access, and logistics. By the end of April, 1980, some 585 bbl of oil had been removed at a cost of $2,089,000 ($3,570/bbl). Additional oil deposits were being found and disposed of through October, but the final resting places of some oil patches still remained to be located. Oil recovery and burning methods, including a successful propane-torching technique, are described and results tabulated. Cooperative emergency and scientific efforts involved federal, state, and local representatives, including the U.S. and Canadian Coast Guards, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Forest Service, the Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation, Alaska State Troopers, and the Ketchikan Department of Fish and Game. Monitoring of some areas will continue for several years, and it has been recommended that certain areas be dedicated for continuing scientific study.
A UNIQUE INLAND OIL SPILL—GLENROCK, WYOMING
Authors: Gehring George O.
Published: January 2013

The Platte Pipeline rupture in April 1980 at Glenrock, Wyoming, spilled approximately 8,500 barrels of crude oil into the North Platte River. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Region VIII and the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) Pacific Strike Team responded to the initial report that 150 bbl had been spilled. Not until 2 days later were they informed of the actual amount by Marathon Pipeline, the operator of the pipeline. The rupture occurred at approximately 0100 in the morning into a drainage ditch leading to the North Platte River, which runs with current velocities of approximately 1 to 12 knots (kt) in the 68 miles (mi) of river that was contaminated. The lack of proper containment in the local area and the extreme currents in which booms needed to be set created many problems. This report also touches on the environmentally sensitive areas, boom deployment problems, and the lack of adequately trained personnel during this spill.

This particular incident had several qualities that were unique to past incidents involving the same type of product. The specific gravity of this crude was approximately 0.9129 at 60°F; however, the prevailing range of extreme temperatures for this time of year (20 to 90°F) caused the oil to react differently from day to day. The river current further complicated matters and posed another unique feature of the incident-containing oil in a high river flow rate. This paper addresses how these unique challenges were met, including techniques employed for containing the product and a description of several devices and methods used to recover and transport the product removed.
AERIAL APPLICATION OF DISPERSANTS AT THE IXTOC I SPILL
Authors: Lindblom Gordon P. , Emery Bruce D. , Lara Miguel A. Garcia
Published: January 2013

Chemical dispersants were a valuable part of the response to the Ixtoc I blowout and spill. Use of these chemicals effectively prevented floating oil from entering near-shore environments, particularly those areas that represent the main migration routes for shrimp larvae. Selective aerial treatment of oil masses that threatened locations 20 to 25 miles (32 to 40 km) from shore was carried out along over 1,000 miles (1,600 km) of coastline. Oil treated ranged in thickness from about 50 to 75 μm to 0.15 to 0.2 mm. This oil appeared from the air as vast silver sheets, orange-brown emulsions, and darker brown accumulations, and represented oil concentration of about 800 to over 3,000 bbl/mi2 (49 to 184 m3/km2). All were successfully treated even after being on the water for 4 to 6 months. The aircraft used were Douglas DC-6B and DC-4 spray planes which had previously been tested in dispersant spraying during overland projects. These airplanes, capable of carrying over 3,000 gal (11,356 l) per flight, operated from 5 different bases during the work, and flew more than 1,000 hours on 493 missions, with an average coverage of about 2 mi2 (5.1 km2) per spray flight. Dispersant dosage varied from 2 to 4 gal/acre (18 to 37 l/ha) over approximately 1,000 mi2 (2,590 km2) of sea surface. This paper presents details of the spraying operations, the logistical concerns of the project, and aircraft operating and navigational procedures. It also addresses the economic implications of this operation for future contingency planning and spill response.
OIL SPILL CLEANUP WITH DISPERSANTS: A BOOMED OIL SPILL EXPERIMENT
Authors: Buckley Joseph , Green David , Humphrey Blair
Published: January 2013

Three experimental oil spills of 200, 400, and 200 litres (l) were conducted in October, 1978, in a semiprotected coastal area on Canada's west coast. The surface slicks were restrained with a Bennett inshore oil boom. The spilled oil was chemically dispersed using Corexit 9527, applied as a 10-percent solution in sea water and sprayed from a boat. The dispersed oil was monitored fluorometrically for some hours. Surface and dispersed oil were sampled for chemical analysis.

The highest recorded concentration of dispersed oil was 1 part per million (ppm). After a short time (30 minutes), concentrations around 0.05 ppm were normal, decreasing to background within 5 hours. The concentrations were low compared to those expected for complete dispersion which, as visual observation confirmed, was not achieved.

The dispersed oil did not mix deeper into the water column with the passage of time, in contrast to predicted behaviour and in spite of the lack of a significant vertical density gradient in the sea water. This was attributed to the buoyancy of the dispersed oil droplets and the limited vertical turbulence in the coastal locale of the experiment.

The integrated quantity of oil in the water column decreased more rapidly than either the mean oil concentration of the cloud or the maximum concentration indicating that some of the dispersed oil was rising back to the surface. The surfacing of dispersed oil was confirmed visually during the experiment. The mixing action of the spray boat and breaker boards apparently created large oil droplets that did not form a stable dispersion.

Horizontal diffusion of the dispersed oil was initially more rapid than expected, but the rate of spreading did not increase with time as predicted. The results imply that the scale of diffusion was larger than the scale of turbulence which again can be attributed to the locale of the experiment.
THE 1979 SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA DISPERSANT TREATED RESEARCH OIL SPILLS
Authors: McAuliffe Clayton D. , Steelman Brian L. , Leek William R. , Fitzgerald Daniel E. , Ray James P. , Barker Charles D.
Published: January 2013

Over a 2-day period in late September 1979, the American Petroleum Institute (API) discharged nine 10- or 20-barrel volumes of Alaskan Prudhoe Bay crude oil in a test area offshore of Long Beach, California. Two untreated slicks served as controls; three were sprayed with a self-mix dispersant from a DC–4 aircraft; three were sprayed with the same dispersant from a boat; and one was sprayed with a second dispersant from a boat. Movies and still photographs were taken from the air, and from under the aerially treated slicks. Over 900 water samples were collected from under the slicks. These samples were analyzed for total oil and for loss of low-molecular-weight hydrocarbons.

Aerial and underwater photography showed marked color changes for the better dispersed slicks. Chemical analysis showed 45 to 80 percent of the oil was dispersed by aerial treatment. Treating the “lens” of thicker oil by boat dispersed 60 percent of the oil, while treating the entire slick uniformly dispersed from 5 to 10 percent. The two tested dispersants varied in their effectiveness, confirming prior laboratory tests. Under the best-dispersed slicks, the highest oil concentrations were 20 to 40 parts per million at 1 meter, observed 10 to 15 minutes after treatment. Other high oil concentrations were from 10 to 15 ppm at 1, 3, and 6 m; and 1 to 3 ppm at 9 meters, 1 hour after treatment; thereafter concentrations decreased. Dispersed oil very rapidly lost volatile hydrocarbons (C1 to C10). Less than 1 percent of the oil dispersed naturally under the untreated slicks.
COASTAL ECOSYSTEM STUDIES AND THEIR APPLICATION TO OIL SPILL RESPONSE
Authors: Parsons John W.
Published: January 2013

Because of increased energy demands, the coastal areas of the United States have been subject to rather severe land-use and water-use conflicts. One of the results has been the alteration of coastal habitats that support valuable fish and wildlife resources. Because of threats of further alteration, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) has conducted several studies about coastal environments and environmental problems. Since 1975, nine coastal ecological studies have been completed; others are being negotiated. Study areas have included the coast of Maine, and central and northern California. Each of these studies provides an information base, a data analysis, and habitat maps. An ecological inventory of the Atlantic Coast has been completed and other inventories are contemplated for the Gulf of Mexico, the West coast of the United States, Alaska, and Hawaii. The ecological inventories mainly are maps showing types of land use and coastal fish and wildlife resources and their habitats. Other more site-specific or species-specific studies also have been published. These various reports about coastal ecology should be useful to national, regional, and field spill response teams for understanding environmental concerns more fully, planning regional oil spill responses, making on-site decisions, and planning post-spill environmental damage studies.
OCEANOGRAPHIC SURVEYS OF TIDAL INLETS FOR OIL SPILL RESPONSE
Authors: Paskewich James T. , Thompson Edmond P. , Kana Timothy W.
Published: January 2013

The need for rapid, detailed oceanographic surveys of tidal inlets for contingency planning became apparent during the Ixtoc I and Burmah Agate oil spills in 1979. Tidal inlets, which exist along virtually all coastal plain shorelines, provide the major conduits for open-ocean spills to enter environmentally sensitive coastal habitats. During Ixtoc I and Burmah Agate, a significant effort was made to combine scientific expertise with the practical expertise of the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) Strike Teams to design more efficient and appropriate boom configurations for Texas passes. Information on tidal inlets, needed by the Strike Teams, included distribution of surface currents, duration and time of flood currents, updated bathymetry, and location of low-velocity zones or natural oil traps. Based on the Texas experience, techniques were developed to survey major tidal inlets rapidly, prepare detailed boom and skimmer deployment, and coordinate implementation of each plan with private cleanup contractors. The surveys were designed to improve the performance and efficiency of containment equipment. Site-specific plans for inlet protection were prepared for Brazos-Santiago Pass, Mansfield Pass, Aransas Pass, and Pass Cavallo during Ixtoc I. During the Burmah Agate incident, designs for protecting San Luis Pass and Galveston Entrance, two of the largest inlets in Texas, were prepared within 10 days after the spill, using aerial reconnaissance and hydrography studies. The schemes took advantage of natural circulation patterns and identified most likely oil trajectories and impact zones within each pass. Contingency plans for Texas inlets were site-specific and attempted to balance the need to protect sensitive lagoon environments with the need to maintain commercial navigation within the practical limitations of equipment and manpower available.
THE IMPACT OF OIL ON MARSH COMMUNITIES IN THE ST. LAWRENCE RIVER
Authors: Alexander Maurice M. , Longabucco Patricia , Phillips David M.
Published: January 2013

A 2-year investigation of fish and waterfowl populations was conducted on St. Lawrence River marshes that had been polluted with No. 6 industrial fuel on June 23, 1976. The heavy oil, which penetrated as much as 5 meters into the dense cattail stands, was removed along with the oiled vegetation. This was a zone of intense animal activity and mortality was great during the first few weeks.

Marshes having different levels of oiling were selected for study along with a control area because prior baseline data were not available.

The results suggested but could not prove that there was some long-range effects of the oil on these marsh communities. An example is the possible loss of eggs and larval fish for some species. However, the effects of the oil generally were masked by the effects of natural factors, and therefore difficult to identify or quantify. Variables such as water leve, time of year, water temperatures, type of oil, physical arrangement of the marshes, and the cleanup process each had an important role in the overall impact. The study demonstrated that the dynamic nature of marsh populations and communities make it imperative that the ecology of sensitive areas be studied in advance os that meaningful assessments can be made on a long-term basis. It also pointed out the danger of misinterpreting changes observed as being due to oil when in reality many interrelated natural factors are having their effects on populations and communities at the same time.
EFFECTS OF OIL SPILL CLEANUP TECHNIQUES ON A SALT MARSH*
Authors: McCauley Cynthia A. , Harrel Richard C.
Published: January 2013

On January 28, 1979, an oil spill occurred in the lower Neches River near Port Neches, Texas. Southerly winds carried oil into Bessie Heights Marsh affecting some of the vegetation which is primarily Spartina patens. This study was designed to assess the effects of three methods of oil spill cleanup and to determine which method was least harmful to the marsh. All methods begin with absorption and low-water-pressure washing followed by either (1) burning, (2) cutting and removing, or (3) leaving the affected vegetation alone.

Grams per square meter of harvested vegetation, numbers of individuals, numbers of taxa, and diversity of macroinvertebrates were subjected to analysis of variance to test for differences within and between selected treatments. Chi square values utilizing numbers of individuals for all taxa occurring in at least 50 percent of the sample plots were also calculated.

Statistical analysis of data indicated that burning the impacted vegetation had the most harmful effect. Leaving the vegetation alone after the bulk of the oil had been removed appeared to be the best method of cleanup of an oiled Spartina patens marsh.
IMPACT OF THE ESSO BAYWAY OIL SPILL ON SALT MARSH MACRO FAUNA
Authors: Neff Jeffry M. , Sharp Mary Sue , McCulloch Wayne L.
Published: January 2013

On January 28, 1979, approximately 6,000 barrels of light Arabian crude oil was spilled into the lower Neches River near Port Neches, Texas. Much of the oil became stranded in the adjacent brackish-freshwater marsh, which is considered to be an important nursery area for postlarval penaeid shrimp. The purpose of this investigation was to assess the long-term impact of the spill on the macrofauna of the marsh. Petroleum hydrocarbon concentrations in marsh sediments were high (up to 7,000 mg/kg dry wt) at all but one unoiled reference station. Due to unusually high rainfall, salinity in the marsh was very low until September 1979, when it rose to 6 to 12 ‰ Macrocrustacean and fish populations were very similar at both oiled and reference stations in terms of species composition, number of species, and number of animals. Species diversity indices were similar at oiled and reference stations. Postlarval penaeid shrimp Penaeus setiferus did not enter the marsh until September when the salinity rose. They were equally abundant at oiled and reference stations. We conclude from this 9-month study that the spilled oil had little or no significant effect on the aquatic macrofauna, including penaeid shrimp, of the Neches River marshes. Environmental factors, salinity, and temperature, had a much greater effect on the marsh populations and obscured any effects that might be attributed to oil.
NATURALLY OCCURRING HYDROCARBONS IN THE GULF OF MEXICO AND THE CARIBBEAN
Authors: Geyer Richard A.
Published: January 2013

Results are presented of 8 years of research on naturally occurring hydrocarbons in the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean. They are found beneath the bottom, on the bottom, in the water column, and floating on the surface. The geographic emphasis has been in the Gulf and the Caribbean, but data on hydrocarbons floating at or near the surface have also been collected along a profile from Dakar, Africa, to Trinidad. Tar samples were also collected seasonally along the entire Texas coast, as well as off the eastern Mexican coast and the western Florida coast.

Various types of geologic, geophysical, and oceanographic data were obtained from research vessels and a submersible. They corroborate historical evidence of tar on beaches from naturally occurring seeps, including its use in pottery by the Karankawa Indians in pre-Columbian times and for caulking ships by early Spanish explorers. Charts published in 1902 through 1909 indicate heavy oil slicks off the Louisiana and Texas coasts, and in 1903, oil ponds off the Sabine River. The present research has also documented scores of active gas seeps on seismic subbottom profiler records and by visual and photographic observation from a submersible.

The major conclusion of this study is that a low-intensity, persistent introduction of hydrocarbons over thousands of years has not been deleterious to the marine environment. An ecosystem influenced in this manner can continue to be biologically active and should not be considered to have been irreparably harmed.
PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL WEATHERING OF PETROLEUM HYDROCARBONS FROM THE IXTOC I BLOWOUT—CHEMICAL MEASUREMENTS AND A WEATHERING MODEL
Authors: Mackay Donald , Paterson Sally , Boehm Paul D. , Fiest David L.
Published: January 2013

Detailed chemical measurements on the saturated and aromatic hydrocarbon composition of surface oil/mousse, surface microlayer, and water column samples were coupled to attempts to model the chemical weathering of oil from the Ixtoc I blowout. Such a modeling effort, rooted firmly in analytical measurements on samples from an actual major spill, has been attempted here for the first time. The glass capillary gas chromatographic and GC/MS/computer analytical results were used to formulate evaporation, dissolution, and biodegradation weathering indicator parameters consisting of component groupings. The partitioning of these groupings into dissolved and evaporated fractions was then mathematically modeled along with the time-dependent change in the surface oil's composition. Biodegradation was of minimal relative importance in weathering oil from this spill.

The model presented here is a product of fundamental physical-chemical principles, the parameters of which were refined through hindcast adjustments and a combination of field observations and laboratory analyses. It has powerful predictive capabilities with regard to the oil's changing composition and its partitioning into the water column as a spill approaches an area of impact.
EFFECTS OF THE IXTOC I OIL SPILL ON TEXAS SHOREBIRD POPULATIONS
Authors: Chapman Brian R.
Published: January 2013

Oil from the Ixtoc I blowout on June 3, 1979, washed ashore in an area where few baseline studies, particularly on bird populations, had ever been conducted, but there was enough time before impact for limited population data to be collected. By the time the oil reached the Texas coast in August, it had been broken up into small mousse pancakes, isolated slicks, or masses of tar balls. As these oil patches washed ashore, the birds were able to adjust their distribution to avoid oiled areas. When the foreshore of the lower Texas coast became covered with oil, shore birds were forced to occupy poor feeding habitats on the backshore and around rain pools; less than 20 percent of the population remained on the foreshore. Because of the shift in habitat use, few birds were severely oiled. The percentage of total birds with moderately oiled plumage never exceed 10 percent, but some species were more prone to oiling than others. The behavior of oiled and oil-free birds was compared by time budget methods. Oiled sanderlings and willets spent less time feeding and more time resting and engaging in comfort movements.

A series of tropical storms in mid-September cleaned the beaches and reversed the longshore currents. Shorebirds returned to foreshore areas, but not at preimpact densities. Birds continued to avoid areas near tar mats (aggregations of asphaltic oil and shell).
CLEAN HARBORS COOPERATIVE
Authors: Wirkowski Edward
Published: January 2013

Clean Harbors Cooperative is a nonprofit organization initiated by eight major oil companies whose purpose is to contain and clean up major oil spills effectively and efficiently throughout the Greater New York Harbor area.

Initial efforts included defining the area of interest; determining the maximum size spill that is likely to occur; deciding the time to clean up the free oil on the water; determining the type and quantity of equipment required to contain and clean up the spill, where major spills are likely to occur, where the equipment should be located, and the means to finance the purchase of the equipment and the operation of the cooperative; and deciding who will store, operate, test, and maintain the equipment, and who will direct and handle the actual cleanup activities.

These decisions were reached by discussions with company marine experts, by analyses of past major spills, by consultations with the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) regarding its experiences and recommendations, by visits with other major cooperatives throughout the country, and by studies that simulated oil spills at various locations throughout New York Harbor (by means of Shell Oil Company's spill computer program and the USCG vector analysis program).

Secondary efforts consisted of establishing a response organization team that will be available to direct and supervise the entire containment and cleanup effort, and developing a major contingency plan manual that includes cleanup plans and techniques, and data on sensitive areas, training, disposal, communications, wildlife, etc., in addition to call-out procedures and emergency phone numbers.

Parameters covering both technical and practical aspects were developed and used in preparing equipment specifications. Purchase decisions were based primarily on visual observations, recommendations of knowledgeable users, and impartial test results. Cost was a secondary consideration.

The capital equipment purchase program was divided into three 1-year periods and totalled 3.9 million dollars.

In conclusion, Clean Harbors Cooperative believes that by using the best technical and practical knowledge and experiences available, the time and money will have been spent wisely, and they will be prepared to contain and clean up major oil spills efficiently and effectively anywhere in the Greater New York Harbor area.
THE IMPORTANCE OF CONTINGENCY MEASURES IN DETERMINING OUTER CONTINENTAL SHELF OIL AND GAS DEVELOPMENT
Authors: Emerson Raymond R.
Published: January 2013

Oil spills are one of the major concerns associated with oil and gas development along the outer continental shelf. The U.S. Department of the Interior is presently planning lease sales at the rate of seven per year. Many of these leases are being proposed in areas where the risks associated with oil spills are difficult to assess. The major objective of the decisionmakers in this process is to select a leasing plan from the list of proposed blocks that will offer the maximum production potential within an acceptable level of environmental risk. This objective can be obtained with proper contingency planning which should include site-specific designs.

A proposed leasing plan could be limited in its production potential by the habitats more vunerable to a potential oil spill. These areas are identified using a model system developed by the U.S. Geological Survey. In this model, the local meteorology and physical oceanography are coupled to produce trajectories of hypothetical oil spills. These trajectories, along with oil resource estimates, are used to establish overall probabilities of an oil spill contacting specific coastal areas and habitats.

Using linear programming techniques, the blocks that can yield the maximum resource recovery within specified limits of environmental risk are identified. Site-specific contingency measures (such as stockpiles of cleanup equipment) concentrated at the more vulnerable habitats will allow the decisionmaker to accept a higher level of environmental risk and significantly increase the number of blocks that are suitable for leasing. A proposed lease sale area for the northeast Gulf of Alaska is used to demonstrate the importance of contingency planning in determining various levels of offshore oil and gas resource development.
OIL SPILL CLEANUP ASSESSMENT FOR THE COLUMBIA RIVER BASIN*
Authors: Miller J. Wesley , McCracken Edward , Solomon Robert L. , Hutchins Harry
Published: January 2013

A systematic and detailed evaluation of oil spill control and cleanup capabilities for the Columbia River Basin was conducted to meet the specific directives of Congress in Public Law 95–308. Planned increases in oil tanker traffic caused concern that transportation, production, and handling of oil in, on, and near the navigable and ocean waters of the Columbia River Basin system create substantial environmental risks. Therefore, a thorough, detailed assessment of the current plans and capabilities to best prevent, contain, clean up, or mitigate the damages resulting from possible oil spills and discharges was required to protect this marine, estuarine, and fresh water system. The overall objective of the project was to provide an example of state-of-the-art spill risk management planning for an important region, so that the similar work can be performed for other regions in the near future. The U.S. Coast Guard presented the conclusions and recommendations to the Congress, as required.
STATUTORY CRITERIA: COAST GUARD PENALTY ASSESSMENTS UNDER THE FEDERAL POLLUTION CONTROL ACT, SECTION 311(b)
Authors: Delaney Steven J.
Published: January 2013

This paper discusses those particular statutory criteria that determine whether a civil penalty will be assessed by the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) for an alleged discharge of oil or a hazardous substance. Under Section 311(b) of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (FWPCA), as amended, the USCG is responsible for assessing a monetary civil penalty when a prohibited quantity of oil/has been discharged into jurisdictional waters. Since 1970, there have been significant statutory, regulatory, and policy changes that have affected the exercise of this USCG responsibility. These changes are explained in such a way that the reader may determine the present state of this particular enforcement program, as viewed by the USCG and the courts.

The principal inquiries addressed in this paper are:Has there been a violation?Is a particular party liable to the assessment of a civil penalty?What factors affect the size of the penalty that may be assessed?
DEVELOPMENT OF A FLARING BURNER OIL DISPOSAL SYSTEM*
Authors: Beach Robert L. , Goldman Kenneth R.
Published: January 2013

A flaring burner for disposal of oil recovered from spill cleanup operations has been built and tested, and is being incorporated into a prototype Flaring Burner Disposal System for the U.S. Coast Guard. This system will meet Coast Guard requirements for air transportability, rapid deployment, and safe operation in remote arctic or offshore locations.

Tests demonstrated that the burner was capable of the following:Smokeless burning of light oil at a design rate of 180 gallons per minute (gpm), with water spray addition.Burning of 200-centistoke (cs) oils with acceptable smoke and low droplet fallout at rates up to 90 gpm.Burning of 1600-cs oil with smoke and droplet-fallout levels that may be acceptable under certain circumstances. This viscosity was in excess of the Coast Guard design objectives for viscosity level.Smokeless burning of low-viscosity water-in-oil emulsions.Nearly smokeless burning of light oils at reduced rates without water spray addition (a consideration for arctic usage).
COHERENT, PLUNGING WATER JETS FOR OIL SPILL CONTROL
Authors: Nash J. H. , Johnson M. G.
Published: January 2013

The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Oil and Hazardous Materials Simulated Environmental Test Tank (OHMSETT) has designed a wide variety of water jet applications for control of spilled oil. This latest study reveals the advantage of using a simple nozzle consisting of a standard pipe mounted to produce a coherent vertical jet of water downward. Examples are illustrated with test data for several cost effective, field erectable systems using standard available water pumps and hardware. One system uses a series of jets to converge a 4.5-meter wide, 1-millimeter thick slick to 0.6 meter wide by 8 millimeters thick, moving at 6 knots in waves.

The report reviews experience and test data obtained With a small barge, weir-type skimmer, mounted on a diverting inflatable boom system. This can be used to simulate the new USCG-ZRV fast current skimmer, the Bennett advancing belt skimmer, the U.S. Navy offshore spill tests, and dock simulations with the OHMSETT main bridge.

Advancing skimmers may use the water jet boom system for three reasons. First, it allows an encounter width wider than the skimmer. Next, it will cause a thin slick to become thicker, thereby possibly allowing the skimmer oil pickup techniques to be more efficient. A water jet system can be used to couple a boom-towed skimmer and prevent skirt losses at the skimmer entrance.

Future experiments are planned to field test the water jets in fixed and mobile applications on inland waterways.
OHMSETT RESEARCH OVERVIEW, 1979–1980*
Authors: Farlow John S. , Griffiths Richard A.
Published: January 2013

This paper presents an overview of the 1979–1980 work performed at the OHMSETT spill research facility of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The experiences of these 2 years are discussed in the light of the purpose and objectives of OHMSETT, as is the probable direction of research there during the coming years.

Foremost among the objectives has been the evaluation and advancement of the state of the art for spill response. The bulk of the effort at OHMSETT, therefore, has been toward testing and investigating ways to improve equipment. This paper briefly summarizes the results of 12 equipment performance evaluations, 2 new equipment development programs, and an experimental oil weathering program.

The equipment evaluated was the U.S. Coast Guard high speed “zero relative velocity” skimmer prototype; the Sapiens Sirene skimming system; the Hydrovac System sweeper arm; the Soviet harbor oil/debris skimmer; the Oil Mop remote skimmer prototype; the Versatile Bennett Arctic skimmer prototype; the Petro-Fiber, Oljesanering, AB Sorbent Distribution/Recovery System; the Global Oil Recovery (DiPerna) skimmer; the Clean Atlantic Associates Fast Response Open Sea Skimming System; the University of Lowell oil gelation system; the Peabody Meyers Corp. Vactor air conveyor; and a Coleman Environmental Pollution Control Equipment Co. vacuum truck.

The equipment developed was the Johnson sampler for stratified liquids and the Johnson high speed skimmer.

Several new areas of work are anticipated for the near future. These include evaluation of cleanup equipment in the presence of ice, increased emphasis on testing at spills-of-opportunity, a study of some of the problems associated with high viscosity water-in-oil emulsions, testing separators and pumps for spill response, increased emphasis on smaller skimmers, and further testing with hazardous materials.