bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Innovationsmanagement der Gesetzlichen Krankenversicherung
Authors: Panke Joan Elisabeth
Published: October 2009

Einleitung

Innovationen in der Medizin bringen manchmal, aber nicht immer, einen wirklichen Fortschritt für den Patienten. Die Notwendigkeit, eine fundierte Entscheidung darüber zu treffen, ob eine Neuerung für Patienten, aber auch für das Gesundheitssystem insgesamt Vorteile bringt, ist eine aktuelle Herausforderung für das deutsche Gesundheitssystem.
Robotik in der Pflege – Entwicklungstendenzen und Potenziale
Authors: Klein Barbara , Cook Glenda
Published: October 2009

Einleitung

Robotik in der Pflege umfasst eine Spannbreite an Entwicklungen und Potenzialen. Einsatzmöglichkeiten der Robotik können in der Prävention z.B. bei der Unterstützung eines selbstständigen Lebens, in der Rehabilitation bei der Wiedererlangung körperlicher Funktionen, bei der Unterstützung von Pflegekräften durch Hol- und Bringedienste sowie in der Förderung der Kommunikation und sozialen Interaktion bei pflegebedürftigen Menschen sein.
Elektronisches Berufsregister für Gesundheitsfachberufe
Authors: Hübner Ursula , Staemmler Martin
Published: October 2009

Einleitung

Das Thema elektronischer Heilberufsausweis (HBA) ist nicht neu. Bereits in den 90er Jahren gab es im Rahmen von EU Projekten erarbeitete Konzepte (Blobel, 2000) und Ende der 90er Jahre in Deutschland eine technische Spezifikation. Ein HBA fungiert als Nachweis der Zugehörigkeit zu einem Beruf und dient in elektronischer Form zur Authentifizierung, z.B. für den Zugriff auf Daten, und mit einer qualifizierten Unterschriftsfunktion zur Generierung von rechtssicheren digitalen Signaturen.
L'État-nation, Une forme de fermeture sociale
Authors: Wimmer Andreas
Published: October 2009

The study begins with a critical examination of two opposing, theories of nationalism. Next, the relationship between the State and nationalism in the form of the nation state is seen as a process of social formation during which a compromise is established between public and private elites, and the people: loyalty is exchanged for the right to participate in social rights. In the third part, the author considers the future of a number of Southern states in relation to the fundamentals of nation formation.
Anticipations of Nineteenth and Twentieth century social thought in the work of Adam Ferguson
Authors: Hill Lisa
Published: October 2009

This paper seeks to locate Adam Ferguson (17231816), a leading light of the Scottish Enlightenment, within a tradition. Ferguson's work seems to straddle two traditions: classical civic humanism, on the one hand, and liberalism on the other. The claims of those scholars who have perceived in Ferguson's work prescient anticipations of nineteenth and twentieth century social thought are of particular relevance here. It is the contention of this paper that although Ferguson's work must be understood as classically and theologically inspired, there are, nevertheless, clear anticipations of modern social science in it. The dimensions of Ferguson's work focussed on are: his historiography, his theories of spontaneous order, habit and conflict, and his anticipatory detection otanomieand alienation effects. Ferguson's unique contribution lays in his ability to give ancient insights a sociological twist thereby bridging the gap between modern and classical traditions.
Evolution Without Progress? Humanitarianism in a World of Hurt
Authors: Barnett Michael
Published: October 2009

Many theories of international relations contain a narrative of progress and explain that progress with reference to evolutionary imagery. This article examines critically: the relevance of Darwinian and Lamarckian models of international relations to the evolution of international ethics and institutions; and the possibility that the ethics and norms are likely to be more consistent with existing world orders than challengers to it. Specifically, this article draws from evolutionary social science and organizational theory to develop a framework to explore the initial diversity of the meaning and practices of humanitarianism; how the combination of environmental mechanisms and organizational culture led many humanitarian agencies to adapt to their environment in ways that incorporated politics; and the subsequent countermovement by some agencies who wanted to purify humanitarianism. I then apply this framework to explain the recent history of four international aid agencies. I conclude with several observations regarding how the model as applied to these cases allows us to examine critically the selection mechanisms that do and do not account for ethical change and how scholars of international norms, ethics, and progress should be attentive to how principled actors are creatures of the world they want to transform.
Sharing the Burden of Collective Security in the European Union
Authors: Dorussen Han , Kirchner Emil J. , Sperling James
Published: October 2009

This article compares European Union (EU) burden-sharing in security governance distinguishing between assurance, prevention, protection, and compellence policies. We employ joint-product models and examine the variation in the level of publicness, the asymmetry of the distribution of costs and benefits, and aggregation technologies in each policy domain. Joint-product models predict equal burden-sharing for protection and assurance because of their respective weakest-link and summation aggregation technologies with symmetric costs. Prevention is also characterized by the technology of summation, but asymmetry of costs implies uneven burden-sharing. Uneven burden-sharing is predicted for compellence because it has the largest asymmetry of costs and a best-shot aggregation technology. Evaluating burden-sharing relative to a country's ability to contribute, Kendalltau-tests examine the rank-correlation between security burden and the capacity of EU member states. These tests show that the smaller EU members disproportionately shoulder the costs of assurance and protection; wealthier EU members carry a somewhat disproportionate burden in the provision of prevention, and larger EU members in the provision of compellence. When analyzing contributions relative to expected benefits, asymmetric marginal costs can largely explain uneven burden-sharing. The main conclusion is that the aggregated burden of collective security governance in the EU is shared quite evenly.
Paying for Market Quality
Authors: Anand Amber , Tanggaard Carsten , Weaver Daniel G.
Published: October 2009

Many financial markets, including electronic limit order markets, assign designated liquidity providers (LPs). We study the experience of the Stockholm Stock Exchange, where listed firms contract directly with LPs. Our analysis offers insights regarding situations where designated liquidity provision may be beneficial. In addition, we consider the form of liquidity provision contracts, including affirmative obligations required of the LP and compensation for LP services. We find that low current trading activity, wide spreads, and higher information asymmetry increase the attractiveness of contracted liquidity provision. The evidence indicates that LPs trade against market movements and in times of wide spreads. On balance, firms contracting with LPs experience a decreased cost of capital and significant improvements in market quality and price discovery.
The excretion of Salmonella typhimurium in the faeces of calves fed milk substitute
Authors: Hinton M. , Ali E. A. , Allen Vivien , Linton A. H.
Published: October 2009

A total of 495 calves in 16 batches were examined (117 calves in 4 batches in 1979 and 378 in 12 batches in 1982). They were purchased in markets, transported by road to a farm in Somerset and reared ona milk substitute diet for a period of up to five weeks. Salmonella typhimurium phage type DT 193 was endemic in 1979 and phage type DT 204c in 1982. The mortality rates in the two years were 9·4% and 1·9% respectively. The causes of death were not investigated although the majority were probably due to salmonellosis.

The rate of isolation of S. typhimurium from the rectal faeces of calves in all groups was either zero or relatively low on arrival. It rose to a peak (which was higher in 1979) in the second or third weeks before declining to low levels by the end of the fourth week of residence on the farm.

Data from 162 calves, examined twice weekly for four weeks in 1982, indicated that the distributionof infected calves, based on the number of times that S. typhimurium was isolated from each, was not random. The calves could be assigned to two main categories; those from which the organism was never isolated and those from which it was isolated at least twice. This suggested that salmonella infected calves actively excreted the organism.

The association between salmonella excretion and medication of sick animals with antibacterial drugs was strongest during the second week. Over the four-week period nearly 40% of the calves found to be excreting S. typhimurium were not treated, indicating a high incidence of subclinical infection.

Salmonella excretion by the calves followed a regular pattern and infection was self-limiting within five weeks. The peak in the salmonella excretion rate and the mortality rate were higher in 1979 when phage type DT 193 was the endemic strain. However, in 1982 the calves received 100 p.p.m. furazolidone in their milk ration during the first week of their stay on the farm, and this may have contributed to the differences noted between the two years.
Campylobacter jejunias a bacterial cause of diarrhoea in Ile-Ife, Nigeria
Authors: Olusanya O. , Adebayo J. O. , Williams Bolanle
Published: October 2009

A total of 495 diarrhoea and non-diarrhoea patients whose ages ranged between 5 and 39 years were examined for the presence ofCampylobacter jejuni, SalmonellaandShigellaspecies. About 12% of the specimens from diarrhoea patients were positive forCampylobacter jejunicompared with 6% and 10% forSalmonellaandShigellaspecies. In contrast 2%, 0% and 1% of the samples from non-diarrhoea patients were positive forCampylobacter jejuni, SalmonellaandShigellaspecies respectively.

Most (62%) of theCampylobacter jejunifrom diarrhoea patients were isolated from children under the age of 10 years. This compared with 26 % and 37 % forSalmonellaandShigellaspecies in this age group. The frequency of isolation ofCampylobacter jejuniin diarrhoea patients was highest during the dry months of the year. This study demonstrates the importance ofCarnpylobacter jejunias a major bacterial cause of diarrhoea in this part of the world.
Epidemiological features of an outbreak of gastroenteritis/cholera in Katsina, Northern Nigeria
Authors: Umoh J. U. , Adesiyun A. A. , Adekeye J. O. , Nadarajah M.
Published: October 2009

In April 1982, Katsina, in Northern Nigeria, was affected by an outbreak of gastroenteritis associated withVibrio choleraeserotype ‘Ogawa’ and 662 patients were admitted to the Katsina General Hospital during a 16-week period. The outbreak affected all ages and both sexes and all parts of the town and its immediate surroundings except the Government Residential Area (GRA). The overall case fatality rate was 7·7%. Male specific case fatality and female specific case fatality rates were 9·7 and 6·2% respectively. ‘Adults’ and those in the 11–20 and 21–30 age groups accounted for most of the cases. The epidemic curve was of a propagated and protracted nature. About 51·7% of all the patients spent between 2 and 5 days in the hospital. A similar pattern was observed for all age groups regardless of sex.Cholera vibrio ‘Ogawa’, Shigellaspp.,Salmonellaspp.,Proteusspp. andEscherichia coliwere isolated from 16 patients. All well-water samples obtained from the compounds of the cases were contaminated with MPN/100 ml index ranging from 540 to greater than 2400. All samples were positive for faecal coliforms.Salmonellaspp.,Shigellaspp.,Proteusspp. and non-0, group 1 (non-0 1)V. choleraewere isolated. Water sellers probably facilitated the spread of the outbreak.
Bacterial meningitis in Nottingham
Authors: Ispahani P.
Published: October 2009

Records of 171 cases of bacterial meningitis admitted to Nottingham hospitals from January 1974 to June 1980 were reviewed. The distribution of organisms producing meningitis and the factors influencing mortality in different age groups were assessed. Neisseria meningitidis, Haemophilus infiuenzae and Streptococcus pneumoniae accounted for 69% of all proven cases. The overall mortality was 26% being lowest in patients with meningococcal meningitis (0%) and highest in those with pneumococcal meningitis (53%). The following factors were associated with a poor prognosis: age more than 40 years, or less than 2 months; state of consciousness on admission; high CSF protein concentration; and a positive blood culture. There was no evidence that antibiotic therapy prior to admission affected prognosis. Although many laboratory findings were altered by prior treatment with antibiotics, this did not prevent the establishment of a diagnosis in the individual patient.
Microbial investigation of the air in an apartment building
Authors: Simard Carole , Trudel Michel , Paquette Gilles , Payment Pierre
Published: October 2009

The microbial and viral flora in the ventilating ducts of an apartment building was evaluated. Several types of sampler (slit sampler, Andersen sampler, large volume air sampler) were used to evaluate the hourly, weekly and seasonal variation of this flora. The mean bacterial concentration was 17·2 c.f.u./m3with a maximum level at 07.30 h (41·3 c.f.u./m3) and a minimal concentration in the early afternoon (8 c.f.u./m3). The bacterial concentration observed correlated with the relative humidity in the air-ducts although there were no seasonal differences. The bacteria were mainly gram-positive cocci (73·5%) represented by a large number ofMicrococcaceae(47·1 %); gram-positive bacilli accounted for 14·2% of the isolates, gram-negative bacilli 120% and gram-negative cocci 0–3%. The majority of the bacteria-carrying particles were in the respirable range with 80·4 % of them being less than 5 γm. The methods used did not result in the isolation of viruses during the winter sampling period.
Recognition of historic influenza epidemics from parish burial records: a test of prediction from a new hypothesis of influenzal epidemiology
Authors: Hope-Simpson R. E.
Published: October 2009

On the current conception of the epidemiology of epidemic influenza, as caused by a mechanism of direct spread of the virus from the sick, epidemics must have travelled much more slowly in former times than at present. In contrast, a new hypothesis involving virus latency with seasonal reactivation predicts that in previous centuries influenza epidemics would have spread across the country at much the same speed as in the twentieth century. The study of burial registers in Gloucestershire parishes reported in this paper shows that lethal influenza epidemics at least as early as the sixteenth century can be recognized and dated as at present by the characteristic brief but large excess mortality that they cause. Examples are given showing that the character of the excess mortality caused by lethal influenza has not changed significantly over the centuries, a finding that supports the prediction of the new hypothesis but would not be expected on the current conception of influenzal epidemiology.

In each century, influenzal excess mortalities in Gloucestershire parishes coincided with the date of the relevant influenza epidemic as recorded from widely different parts of Britain, thus further supporting the prediction of the new hypothesis as against current conceptions.
Epidemiology of BHV 1 virus infections in dairy herds
Authors: van Nieuwstadt A. P. , Verhoeff J.
Published: October 2009

The epidemiology of bovine herpesvirus 1 (BHV 1) infections was studied in 20 dairy herds. Periodic serological surveillance of these herds during three consecutive years (1980–82) was combined with clinical studies. In 19 herds seropositive cows were found indicating previous exposure to BHV 1.

One herd had its first experience with BHV 1 during the study. No indication of virus circulation for at least three years was found in eight herds. In five herds an interval of 2 years without an indication of virus circulation was followed by infections in yearlings, first- and second-calf cows during the third year. One or two cycles of virus circulation in calves and/or yearlings during the 3 year survey were detected in six herds. Most BHV 1 infections passed unnoticed. Signs of respiratory disease inassociation with BHV 1 infection were observed in three herds: young animals were most seriously affected. Clinical manifestations of BHV 1 infections were less pronounced than a few years ago when infections in cows caused frank signs and diagnosis was frequently possible on the basis of a typical clinical picture. BHV 1 was the cause of abortions in the herd that experienced its first infections during thissurvey. A survey of the age-specific BHV 1 neutralizing antibody pattern may be helpful for tracing animals and herds at risk of an outbreak of infectious bovine rhinotracheitis.
Efficacy of alpha-chlorhydrin in sewer rat control
Authors: Andrews R. V. , Belknap R. W.
Published: October 2009

A single application of the male chemosterilant, α-chlorhydrin, to a problem sewer rat infestation resulted in reductions of rat numbers and distribution which was comparable to effects of warfarin baiting methods. Rat numbers were reduced by more than 85% by both methods. More rapid mortality and recruitment were evident for warfarin effects; the α-chlorhydrin treated population had a longer lag phase of growth so that reinfestation of sewer habitat to pre-treatment numbers, and distribution over a 40 square block area, required approximately 1·5–2 times longer after α-chlorhydrin treatment when compared with warfarin treatment. Comparisons of changes in rat densities in infested sewers following the two treatments indicate that recovery of warfarin treated populations is achieved by reproductive recruitment followed by dispersal while α-chlorhydrin treated populations recover by slower immigration and later reproductive recruitment. Alpha-chlorohydrin should be a useful addition to a limited arsenal of rat control agents because of its specificity for the Norway rat, its single dose effectiveness as a toxicant-chemosterilant, and its short environmental half-life.
Nocardial infection of the skin
Authors: Hay R. J.
Published: October 2009

This paper describes the relationship between different forms of nocardia infection involving the skin. The best recognized of these conditions are systemic nocardiosis and actinomycetoma due toNocardiaspp. in which the organisms are present in either filamentous or grain form respectively. Attention is drawn to evidence for the existence of a primary cutaneous form of nocardiosis which follows inoculation and in which the organisms grow in filamentous phase. It is not clear whether such cases can progress to mycetoma formation if left untreated, or whether other factors are involved. The clinical and laboratory features of these different clinical varieties of nocardia infection are discussed.
A comparison of two modifications of Rappaport's enrichment medium (R25 and RV) for the isolation of salmonellas from sewage polluted natural water
Authors: Harvey R. W. S. , Price T. H.
Published: October 2009

The development of Rappaport's enrichment medium and elevated temperature incubation as methods of salmonella isolation is traced. The recent recording of a merger of the two techniques by means of Rappaport–Vassiliadis medium is noted (RV medium).

In Cardiff, we have found an earlier modification of Rappaport's enrichment (R25) by Vassiliadis to be efficient in salmonella recovery from environment samples. The current study compares the two media using sewage polluted natural water as test material. Under the conditions of experiment, R25 was more successful in salmonella isolation than RV, although the latter medium inhibited competitive organisms better.

R25 is a convenient enrichment broth for routine use. In combination with pre-enrichment it allows the use of a loop for subculture rather than a pipette. This increases safe manipulation. It also produces a high proportion of positive isolations at the 24 h subculture time in contrast to other enrichment broths. For these reasons it forms an integral part of salmonella isolation methodology in our laboratory.
Resistance ofEscherichia coliin faeces and the use of antimicrobial agents in the treatment of hospital patients
Authors: Degener J. E. , Smit A. C. W. , Michel M. F. , Valkenburg H. A. , Muller L.
Published: October 2009

Resistance of faecalEscherichia colito ampicillin, tetracycline, sulphamethoxazole and gentamicin was studied in patients admitted to seven different departments in two hospitals. The resistance to ampicillin, tetracycline and sulphamethoxazole in the seven patient groups was 27–57%, 26–56% and 35–63%, respectively. Resistance to gentamicin was found in only one department. AnE. coliflora predominantly resistant to ampicillin, tetracycline or sulphamethoxazole (> 50% of theE. colistrains in a faecal sample resistant) was found in 10–38%, 4–30% and 21–35% of the samples. A cross-sectional study focusing on the influence of the use of antimicrobial agents on the occurrence of resistant strains revealed a positive correlation between the annual turnover of broad-spectrum penicillins in various departments and the occurrence of predominantly ampicillin-resistantE. colistrains in these departments.
Assessment of the remanent antibacterial effect of a 2% triclosan-detergent preparation on the skin
Authors: Bartzokas C. A. , Corkill J. E. , Makin T. , Pinder D. C.
Published: October 2009

A method of quantifying the remanent antibacterial effect of a 2% triclosan preparation in detergent following three consecutive applications on the forearm of 20 volunteers over 2 h, is described with reference to its efficacy against a gentamicin-and multiply-resistant scrotype ofKlebsiella aerogenes. The relevance of the residual activity of triclosan and other skin antiseptics in surgical and hygienic hand disinfection are discussed.
Persistent streptococcal throat infection in a preparatory school for boys
Authors: Briscoe J. H. D.
Published: October 2009

An outbreak of streptococcal throat infection which took place in a preparatory school for boys (some of whom were choristers) over three terms from November 1983 to June 1984 is described. Typing of the organism revealed that four successive outbreaks, each due to a different type, had occurred. Thirty-nine per cent of the boys were affected, the incidence of infection being higher among boarders than day boys. Infection seemed to spread via the forms, dormitories and choir. Recurrent attacks occurred in 32% of infected boys. The complication rate was 8%. Treatment with penicillin was always effective but did not prevent reinfection. Suggestions for the management of an outbreak of sore throat in a school are given.
Growth and enterotoxin production ofStaphylococcus aureusin shrimp
Authors: Beckers H. J. , van Leusden F. M. , Tips P. D.
Published: October 2009

Strains ofStaphylococcus aureusisolated from shrimp were examined for phage pattern and enterotoxin production; 63% of the strains isolated from North Sea shrimp were typable with the International and additional set of phages, as were 38% of the strains isolated from South-East Asian shrimp. Staphylococcal enterotoxin(s) (SE) were produced by 48% and 35% of strains isolated from North Sea and South-East Asian shrimp respectively. Growth and enterotoxin production byS. aureusin shrimp was examined in storage experiments at 22 °C.S. aureusincreased by 1–2 log units in 24 h when the organism was only a minor part of the total microflora of shrimp. WhenS. aureuswas an equivalent part of the total flora its numbers increased by 3–4 log units in 24 h. Enterotoxins A and B became detectable when the number ofS. aureusexceeded 107per g in aseptically peeled shrimp. Results indicate thatS. aureusis able to produce enterotoxin in shrimp, but its production depends upon a number of factors, including the relationship betweenS. aureusand competitive micro-organisms. It is concluded that the presence ofS. aureuson commercially produced shrimp represents a potential hazard to health.
Antibiotic-resistant pneumococci in hospitalized children
Authors: Robins-Browne R. M. , Kharsany Ayesha B. M. , Koornhof H. J.
Published: October 2009

A search for nasopharyngeal carriers ofStreptococcus pneumoniaewas conducted in 573 children hospitalized in Durban, South Africa. Study subjects were divided into two groups, comprising 305 new admissions and 268 patients who had been hospitalized for more than 24 h. Of the 573 children 178(31%) yielded pneumococci on nasopharyngeal culture; 99 (32%) and 79 (29%) children in the new admission and in-patient categories respectively. Twenty-one (12%) pneumococci were resistant to penicillin, including 11 strains that were resistant to more than one antibiotic. Resistant pneumoeoeei belonged exclusively to serotypes 6 and 19 (Danish nomenclature), which were also the commonest serotypes among penicillin-sensitive strains. Factors that correlated with carriage of penicillin-resistant Pneumococci were hospitalization for more than 24 h, young age and recent exposure to beta-lactam antibiotics.
Epidemiological and bacteriological investigation ofSerratia marcescensepidemic in a nursery and in a neonatal intensive care unit
Authors: Montanaro D. , Grasso G. M. , Annino I. , de Ruggiero N. , Scarcella A. , Schioppa F.
Published: October 2009

An epidemic caused bySerratia marcescensthat involved 26 infants admitted to the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU) and 82 infants admitted to the Nursery of the 2nd Medical School of Naples is reported. Two different biotypes ofS. marcescenswith two completely different epidemiological patterns were identified. The prevalent biotype (A8b trigonelline –) was isolated in the delivery room, in the operating room, in the Nursery and in the NICU from items, healthy infant excreters and affected infants; the second biotype (A3a) was isolated only in the NICU from staff, two healthy infant excreters and two affected infants. Colonization of the throat and the gastrointestinal tract was frequent. Infected and colonized infants were the most important reservoir for serratia in the Nursery and in the NICU particularly for the type strain A3a. A mucus aspiration apparatus contaminated in the delivery room and the contamination of several instruments and items probably had a major role in the initiation and maintenance of the spread of the A8b strain. Mass contamination of the nursery has been related to overcrowding and a lack of the control measures; the transfer of high-risk colonized infants caused spread in the NICU.

In the NICU the attack rate was 26%; 69% of infants became ill; the case fatality ratio was 19%. Epidemiological investigation of the infants at risk showed some factors predisposing to infection with serratia. The hygienic measures failed to control the spread of serratia and it was necessary to refuse new admissions to pregnant women in order to decontaminate and re-organize the wards.
Susceptibility of various animals to the vesiculovirus Piry
Authors: Wilks C. R. , House J. A.
Published: October 2009

To determine the pathogenic potential of the vesiculovirus Piry for domestic animals, two ponies, two steers, three sheep, three goats and three pigs were inoculated intradermally in the tongue or, in the case of the pigs, in the snout, heel and coronary band. Inoculated animals were housed in one room and allowed to mingle freely with an equal number of uninoculated contact animals of each species. Clinical signs of infection, consisting of elevated temperature and ulcers at the inoculation sites, were only observed in the ponies, but all inoculated animals developed specific antibody following inoculation. In addition, one of the contact sheep had neutralizing antibody to Piry at 7 and 29 days post inoculation suggesting a contact infection. Virus was not demonstrated in tissues, other than tongue, of any animal.

The failure of Piry virus to produce lesions in steers, sheep, goats and pigs and only limited ulcerations in ponies suggests that this virus is not similar pathogenically to New Jersey and Indiana strains of vesiculoviruses which produce classical vesicular stomatitis.

Lethal infections were produced by inoculation into suckling mice and hamsters, adult hamsters and embryonating chicken eggs. Further, lethal infections followed contact of adult female hamsters with their inoculated litters.
A one-year survey of campylobacter enteritis and other forms of bacterial diarrhoea in Hong Kong
Authors: Ho B. S. W. , Wong W. T.
Published: October 2009

The following enteropathogens were isolated from the faeces of 769 (10·2%) of 7,545 patients of whom 5,704 had diarrhoea or abdominal pain, attending a teaching hospital in Hong Kong during one year: salmonellae 458 (6·1%);Vibrio parahaemolyticus125 (1·7%); campylobacters 108 (1·4%); shigellae 83 (1·1%); others 19 (0·3 %). Further identification of the campylobacter isolates showed that 63 (58%) wereCampylobacter jejunibiotype 1, 44 (41%) wereC. coliand only one wasC. jejunibiotype 2. Seventy-five (69%) of the 108 campylobacters were isolated from children under two years of age, mostly during the second year of life. Faecal specimens from 1,841 children under the age of two years without gastrointestinal symptoms yielded almost the same percentages of salmonellae, campylobacters and shigellae as children with diarrhoea.

Salmonellae, shigellae and vibrios were isolated most often in the hot late summer months (August to October), but, contrary to the pattern in Europe and North America, bothC. jejuniandC. coliwere most prevalent in the coolest months of the year (January to March). The reasons for this ‘reversed’ trend are unknown.
Group G streptococci in healthy school-children and in patients with glomerulonephritis in Trinidad
Authors: Reid H. F. M. , Bassett D. C. J. , Poon-King T. , Zabriskie J. B. , Read S. E.
Published: October 2009

The group G streptococcus has generally not been considered a prominent pathogen. In a 1982 study of the colonization rate by β-haemoly tic streptococci in apparently healthy children, age 5–11 years, 25 of 69 isolates belonged to group G. This surprisingly high rate of group G colonization (14·3%) led to a retrospective study of school surveys in 1967 which showed that the colonization rate with this organism was 2·3% (range 1·3–3·5%). A review of bacitracin-sensitive streptococcal isolates from hospital admissions of patients with acute glomerulonephritis (AGN), rheumatic fever, and their siblings, between January 1967 and July 1980, was conducted. Of 1063 bacitracin-sensitive isolates, 63 were group G, and 52 of these were isolated from AGN patients and their siblings, i.e. 7 from skin lesions of AGN patients, 40 from the throats of siblings and only 5 from the skins of the siblings. The other 11 group G isolates were from rheumatic-fever patients and their siblings. Thus, the group G colonization rate fluctuates in the population. The isolation of only group G streptococci from skin lesions of patients with AGN suggests a possible association between group G streptococcal pyoderma and acute post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis.
Antibody response and persistence in volunteers following immunization with varying dosages of a trivalent surface antigen influenza virus vaccine
Authors: Jennings R. , Smith T. L. , Mellersh A. R. , Clark A. , Spencer R. C. , Potter C. W.
Published: October 2009

The serum antibody responses and 50% protective levels (PL50) of antibody were determined, using the SRH test, at one and twelve months post-vaccination in a group of student volunteers immunized with one of three dosages of a trivalent surface-antigen influenza virus vaccine, or with placebo.

It was found that, for the H3, H1 and B haemagglutinin components present in the vaccine, a dose of 6 μg HA elicited high serum antibody responses at one month post-immunization. High mean antibody levels and a high incidence of volunteers with PL50 values of antibody against each of the HA components of the vaccine remained in the volunteer group twelve months later. The results are discussed in relation to the vaccine dosage used and the nature of the population immunized.
Reservoir animals for nephropathia epidemica in Norway: indications of a major role for the bank vole (C. glareolus) in comparison with the woodmouse (A. sylvaticus)
Authors: Sommer Ann-Inger , Traavik T. , Mehl R. , Berdal B. P. , Dalrymple J. M.
Published: October 2009

Small rodents were collected live in two different locations within a nephropathia epidemica (NE) endemic area, and tested for both antiviral serum antibodies and viral antigens in lung sections. In one location, only Apodemus sylvaticus (woodmice) were found in the traps, in the other, both A. sylvaticus and Clethrionomys glareolus (bank voles) were collected.

Among the woodmice from the former location the prevalence of NE virus markers was significantly lower than for either woodmice or bank voles from the other location, and no NE antigen-positive animals was found. The woodmice co-existing with bank voles had a lower prevalence of NE antigen and antibodies than the bank voles, and fewer woodmice had both antibodies and antigen. The results emphasize the important role of bank voles as a major NE virus reservoir and probable source of human infections.
Immunofluorescent staining of trypsinized formalin-fixed brain smears for rabies antigen: results compared with those obtained by standard methods for 221 suspect animal cases in Nigeria
Authors: Umoh J. U. , Ezeokoli C.D. , Okoh A. E. J.
Published: October 2009

Formalin-fixed samples from 221 animal brains received for rabies diagnosis in Nigeria were digested in 0·1% trypsin in phosphate buffered saline, pH 7·4, and smears stained for rabies antigen by direct immunofluorescence (IF). The results were compared with those obtained using fresh material from the same animals for Negri body staining, mouse inoculation (MI) and occasionally immunofluorescent staining.

From 191 specimens examined for Negri bodies and by mouse inoculation 51 and 64 respectively proved positive. The IF smear technique under investigation failed to detect 5 of these but showed up as positive 30 which had been recorded as Negri-negative and 19 that had gone undetected by MI too. In a direct comparison with IF staining of fresh tissue from 23 known rabies positive animals the similar staining of trypsin-digested formalized smears failed to give a positive result in 2 out of 23 cases.

Some problems were encountered with smears not sticking to slides. When gelatinized slides were used fluorescence was sometimes poorer.

Where transport and refrigeration are difficult and section-cutting equipment is lacking the technique of IF staining of smears prepared from formalized brain tissue after treatment with trypsin can be a useful adjunct to other diagnostic methods. It also makes for safer working where special facilities are absent.
Mycobacterium marinuminfections in man
Authors: Collins C. H. , Grange J. M. , Noble W. C. , Yates M. D.
Published: October 2009

Mycobacterium marinum, formerly known as ‘Mycobacterium balnei’, is a free-living organism which causes disease in fish and occasionally in man. When such infections occur in man they are usually associated with some aquatic activity, e.g. swimming, fishing, boating and keeping tropical fish. For this reason, the organism has been called a ‘leisure-time pathogen’ by Feldman, Long & David (1974) and the disease a ‘hobby hazard’ by Heineman, Spitzer & Pianphongsant (1972).
Plasmid characterization of drug-resistantShigella dysenteriae1 from an epidemic in Central Africa
Authors: Frost J. A. , Willshaw G. A. , Barclay E. A. , Rowe B. , Lemmens P. , Vandepitte J.
Published: October 2009

A widespread epidemic of severe dysentery in Zaire and neighbouring Central African countries was caused by a multiply drug-resistant strain ofShigella dysenteriae1. Early isolations were resistant to ampicillin, chloramphenicol, streptomycin, sulphonamides and tetracyclines (R-type = ACSSuT). Later in the epidemic strains resistant to trimethoprim (Tm) became prevalent and a few strains resistant to kanamycin (K) or nalidixic acid were also isolated. All resistances except nalidixic acid were encoded by plasmids of incompatibility groups X (ACT) or I1(ACSSuTTm) and the epidemic strain also carried an SSu plasmid and a number of cryptic plasmids. The Inc X plasmid from this epidemic is the same as that inSh. dysenteriae1 strains isolated in Somalia in 1976 whereas the epidemic strains from the Shiga outbreaks in Central America, 1969 to 1971, and Sri Lanka, 1979, carried plasmids of group B. This epidemic demonstrates that when a multiresistant strain includes resistance to trimethoprim, nalidixic acid is a suitable alternative therapeutic agent.
Evidence of udder excretion ofCampylobacter jejunias the cause of milk-borne campylobacter outbreak
Authors: Hutchinson D. N. , Bolton F. J. , Hinchliffe P. M. , Dawkins H. C. , Horsley S. D. , Jessop E. G. , Robertshaw P. A. , Counter D. E.
Published: October 2009

We describe a community outbreak of campylobacter enteritis associated with the consumption of untreated milk, apparently contaminated by two cows with campylobacter mastitis. The outbreak occurred in two phases. Strains ofCampylobacter jejuniof the Penner serogroup complex 4, 13, 16, 50 and Preston biotype code 6100 were isolated from patients in both episodes and from the faeces of the cattle, milk filters, bulk milk and retail milk. Milk samples from two of 40 milking cows were found to containC. jejuni, and the wheys from these two cows had high titres of antibody toC. jejunidetected by ELISA techniques.
Morphology and antigenicity studies on reassortant influenza (H3N2) viruses for use in inactivated vaccines
Authors: Pemberton R. M. , Jennings R. , Smith T. L.
Published: October 2009

Three influenza A (H3N2) reassortant whole virus vaccine strains with differing antibody-inducing capacities in hamsters were investigated morphologically and antigenically. Although initial measurements of virion circumference, from electron micrographs of vaccine preparations, suggested a relationship of small virion size with low immunogenicity, subsequent immunization with, and morphological investigation of, vaccine virions separated on sucrose gradients, failed to obtain populations whose antibody-inducing capacity clearly correlated with constituent virion density, size, morphology or integrity.

However, antigenic investigation using single radial haemolysis (SRH) and monoclonal antibodies revealed significant differences in antigenic specificity between the strains. Furthermore, a series of H3N2 isolates, derived using standard reassortment procedures, also showed differences in antigenic specificity in their haemagglutination-inhibition (HI) reactions with monoclonal antibodies after five passages in allantois-on-shell cultures. Variation between these isolates and their A/Victoria parent virus could be detected using SRH and hamster sera raised against each isolate.

These results demonstrate variation between candidate influenza A virus vaccine strains, all possessing the same surface (H3N2) glycoproteins, expressed as a consequence of the reassortant system used for their production.
Rift Valley Fever in Kenya: the presence of antibody to the virus in camels (Camelus dromedarius)
Authors: Davies F. G. , Koros J. , Mbugua H.
Published: October 2009

Five hundred and seventy-one camel sera collected after an epizootic of Rift Valley Fever were examined for antibody to the virus. Clinical disease had not been observed in cattle and sheep in the ecosystems shared with the camels. Positive sera with high titres of serum neutralizing antibody were found in 22% of camels at one of the seven sampling sites.
Efficacy of low-concentration iodophors for germicidal hand washing
Authors: Stiles M. E. , Sheena A. Z.
Published: October 2009

The efficacy of iodophor germicides containing different concentrations of available iodine against transient (inoculated) bacteria and the natural hand microflora was compared with chlorhexidine gluconate (2 and 4%) liquid detergent (Hibitane), non-germicidal soap and a tap water rinse. The tap water rinse was ineffective compared with all other treatments. Only 4% chlorhexidine gluconate liquid detergent and iodophor containing 0·75% available iodine were significantly better than the non-germicidal soap for reduction of transient bacteria,Escherichia coliandPseudomonas fluorescens, that had been inoculated onto hands. These agents also caused a significant reduction in the number of ‘natural’ micro-organisms released from hands after a standard 15 s hand wash. The low-concentration iodophor products and the product containing 2% chlorhexidine gluconate failed to give results significantly better than the non-germicidal control soap. Baird-Parker medium and standard aerobic plate counts were highly correlated (r= 0·82), so that for studies of Gram-negative bacteria inoculated onto hands as a transient microflora, counts on Baird-Parker medium give a reasonable indication of the natural (residual) hand microflora.
The development of bacterial flora of premature neonates
Authors: Rotimi V. O. , Olowe S. A. , Ahmed I.
Published: October 2009

The sequential acquisition of bacterial flora by premature neonates was studied during a 10 month period. Mean gestational age of the babies was 29·01 weeks and the mean birth weight was 1·728 kg.Escherichia coliand group B streptococci (GBS) colonized the umbilicus of 7 and 6 babies respectively, out of 23 studied, on the first day of life.E. coliand staphylococci were the predominant flora on the 6th day and they colonized 12 and 13 respectively. The oral flora was predominantly Gram-positive cocci, mainlyStreptoccocus salivariuswhich was isolated from 17 out of 22 babies on the 6th day, viridians streptococci were isolated from 14 babies,Staphylococcus albusfrom 16 babies and group D streptococci from 11 babies.Candidaspp. also colonized the oral cavities of 17 out of 22 babies on the 6th day. At the end of the first week of life, the faecal flora was predominantly anaerobic represented byBifidobacteriurnspp.,Bacterioidesspp. andClostridiumspp. The commonest facultative faecal flora wereE. coli, which was isolated from all the babies, andStrept. faecalisisolated from 20 babies. Early gut colonization by GBS,Bacteroidesspp. andClostridiumspp. was noticed in more babies delivered vaginally than by caesarean section where colonization by these bacteria was relatively delayed. The use of prophylactic penicillin plus gentamicin in the special neonatal unit probably prevented systemic spread of any of the potential opportunistic pathogens during the study.
The microbiology of cooked prawns and shrimps on retail sale
Authors: Greenwood M. H. , Coetzee E. F. C. , Ford B. M. , Gill P. , Hooper W. L. , Matthews S. C. W. , Patrick S.
Published: October 2009

In an inter-laboratory survey, 148 samples of cooked prawns and shrimps were obtained at the point of sale to the consumer. Salmonellae andVibrio parahaemolyticuswere not detected.Yersinia enterocoliticawas isolated from three samples. Results for total viable count and presence ofEscherichia coliandStaphylococcus aureuscomplied well with available guidelines for imported cooked prawns, suggesting that the risk of food poisoning from retail samples of these foods in the South of England is minimal.
The HI test modified by ether treatment in the sero-epidemiological surveillance of influenza B
Authors: Pyhälä R. , Kleemola M. , Visakorpi R.
Published: October 2009

Ether-treated influenza B haemagglutination inhibition (HI) antigen was used in a study of serum collections from three different epidemic seasons.

For diagnostic purposes, ether treatment increased the efficacy of the HI test by about 50 % over the conventional HI technique, raising it to the same level of sensitivity as the complement fixation (CF) test. The treatment reduced the specificity of the HI test, but its reliability in the diagnosis of influenza B infections was only slightly diminished. With regard to evaluation of the immune status of a given population, an HI test using ether-treated antigen from the epidemic influenza B strain seems to give more relevant information about the antibody level associated with protection than a conventional HI test using untreated virus antigen.
An epidemiological study of Salmonella montevideo by biotyping
Authors: Reilly W. J. , Old D. C. , Munro D. S. , Sharp J.C.M.
Published: October 2009

Among 622 cultures of Salmonella montevideo, 27 biotypes belonging to two biogroups were recognized. One biogroup (10di) was predominant in all animals in Scotland but only in sheep in England and Wales. The other (biogroup 2d) was responsible for almost all human, cattle and poultry infection in England and Wales, but only 24% of human infection in Scotland.
Escherichia coli in retail processed food
Authors: Pinegar J. A. , Cooke E. M.
Published: October 2009

Pour thousand two hundred and forty six samples of retail processed food were examined for the presence of Escherichia coli. Overall 12% of samples contained this organism, cakes and confectionery being more frequently contaminated (28%) than meat and meat based products (9%). Contamination was more frequent in the summer months than in the colder weather and 27% of the contaminated foods contained > 103E. coli/g. E. coli from meat and meat based products were more commonly resistant to one or more antibiotics (14%) than were confectionery strains (1%). The significance of these findings in relation to the E. coli population of the human bowel is discussed.
The production of pyrogenic exotoxins by group A streptococci
Authors: Hallas Gillian
Published: October 2009

Lancefield group A streptococci isolated from recent outbreaks and sporadic cases of scarlet fever were restricted to the following M types 1, 3, 4, 6, 12, 18, 22 and 66. These strains were examined for the presence of streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxins (SPE) types A, B and C by isoelectric focusing in polyacrylamide gels and by immunoprecipitation in agar gels. SPE B was produced by 70% of the strains and SPEC by 40%. SPE A could not be detected in these strains. In contrast, SPE type A was found in 4 of 10 strains, held by the NCTC, that had been isolated before 1940 from patients with scarlet fever. Nine of 12 recent isolates from patients with sore throat uncomplicated by a rash produced SPE C and 4 of these also produced SPE B.