bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Vereinbarkeit von Beruf und Pflege: Wie wirkt sich Erwerbstätigkeit auf die Gesundheit pflegender Angehöriger aus?
Authors: Bidenko Katharina , Bohnet-Joschko Sabine
Published: July 2020

Ziel Die Studie untersucht, inwieweit die Gesundheitsauswirkungen der informellen Pflege durch den kontextuellen Faktor Erwerbstätigkeit beeinflusst werden.

Methodik Die Analyse basiert auf repräsentativen Bevölkerungsdaten aus den Jahren 2015 und 2016 (n=19 791). Als Untersuchungsgruppe „pflegende Angehörige“ definiert werden Personen, die mindestens eine Stunde pro Woche eine pflegebedürftige Person informell unterstützen, betreuen oder versorgen. Durch Anwendung von Propensity Score Matching wird eine strukturangepasste Vergleichsgruppe identifiziert. Anhand eines multivariaten Regressionsmodells werden Zusammenhänge in der Gruppe der pflegenden Angehörigen und der strukturangepassten Vergleichsgruppe analysiert. Für eine grafische Darstellung werden Untergruppen zum zeitlichen Einsatz im Hinblick auf Angehörigenpflege und Erwerbstätigkeit gebildet.

Ergebnisse Die psychische Gesundheit pflegender Angehöriger verschlechtert sich mit zunehmendem Aufwand für die Betreuung (B=-0,44; p=0,02). Die negativen gesundheitlichen Auswirkungen der Angehörigenbetreuung werden durch die Erwerbstätigkeit verringert (B=0,58; p<0,01), allerdings nur bis zum einem bestimmten zeitlichen Arbeitseinsatz. Bei einem höheren zeitlichen Aufwand für beide Tätigkeiten nimmt der moderierende Effekt ab (bis zu 32% der Standardabweichung).

Schlussfolgerungen Der signifikante moderierende Effekt der Erwerbstätigkeit ist in der Wirkung maßgeblich durch die Gesamtbelastung aus den beiden Tätigkeitsbereichen geprägt. Die Ergebnisse vermitteln einen Eindruck von der potentiell stärkenden und schützenden Wirkung von Erwerbstätigkeit auf die gesundheitlich negativen Auswirkungen der Angehörigenbetreuung.
Promising perovskite solar cells for optical wireless power transmission
Authors: Mandel Savannah
Published: July 2020

Widegap CH3NH3PbBr3 solar cells exhibit 20.2% efficiency under blue LEDs, showing potential for optical wireless power transmission.
Dementia Worry and Neuropsychological Performance in Healthy Older Adults
Authors: Caughie Cali , Bean Phoebe , Tiede Paul , Cobb Joshua , McFarland Craig , Hall Stuart
Published: July 2020

Objective

Dementia is one of the most feared diseases in American society. However, limited research exists regarding how worrying about dementia may influence peoples’ cognitive abilities. The current study examines how dementia worry affects performance on neuropsychological domains of executive function, memory, attention, and processing speed in a healthy older adult population.

Method

Participants (n = 40) were screened for depression using the Patient Health Questionnaire-8 (PHQ-8, scores > 10 were excluded) and for mild cognitive impairment using the Telephone Interview for Cognitive Status (TICS, scores < 32 were excluded). All participants were administered common neuropsychological tests of executive function, memory, attention, and processing speed. Participants were also asked to complete the Dementia Worry Scale (DWS), a measure assessing the level of dementia worry individuals experience in daily life.

Results

A multivariate effect of dementia worry on neuropsychological measures of executive function was supported. Specifically, higher levels of dementia worry were significantly related to poorer performance on combined measures of executive function (Wilk’s Lambda = 0.821, F (2, 36) = 3.934, p = .028).

Conclusions

Dementia worry significantly affects scores on specific neuropsychological measures. Inasmuch, dementia worry may have both functional implications for older adults, as well as assessment implications for practicing neuropsychologists. Further research is necessary to parse apart whether dementia worry represents a psychological variable affecting cognitive performance and/or serves as an early marker of cognitive decline.
A case report of primary cardiac fibroma: an effective approach for diagnosis and therapy of a pathologically benign tumour with an unfavourable prognosis
Authors: Kimura Akihisa , Kanzaki Hideaki , Izumi Chisato
Published: July 2020

Background

Primary cardiac fibroma is exceedingly rare. This condition involves a significant risk of life-threatening arrhythmias during follow-up and its prognosis is not as favourable as other benign tumours. We report a case of cardiac fibroma that was preoperatively diagnosed with echocardiography and magnetic resonance imaging. This fibroma was excised early as a preventative measure to avoid sudden death.

Case summary

A 46-year-old woman presented to our hospital with a 1-year history of chest tightness at rest. Echocardiography showed a large, isoechoic, well-circumscribed mass within the left ventricular myocardium with calcified tissue. Magnetic resonance imaging showed an intramural ventricular mass with iso signal intensity on T1-weighted imaging and low-signal intensity on T2-weighted imaging. There was no enhancement on first-pass perfusion imaging and homogeneous hyperenhancement on late gadolinium enhancement imaging. These features suggested a diagnosis of cardiac fibroma. Complete resection was performed to avoid sudden death and pathological analysis confirmed the tumour as cardiac fibroma. The patient was discharged 9 days after surgery and remains disease-free 5 months after surgery.

Discussion

Cardiac fibroma is a pathologically benign tumour with an unfavourable prognosis because of lethal arrhythmias, which can be controlled by its resection. Thus, it is important to preoperatively distinguish cardiac fibroma from other benign tumours, in order to prioritize surgical intervention for those with cardiac fibromas. Preoperative diagnosis with echocardiography and magnetic resonance imaging and early preventative surgery are the keys to improve prognosis of patients with cardiac fibromas.
Clinical informatics subspecialists: characterizing a novel evolving workforce
Authors: Desai Sheena , Mostaghimi Arash , Nambudiri Vinod E
Published: July 2020

Background

The growing complexity of data systems in health care has precipitated increasing demand for clinical informatics subspecialists. The first board certification exam for the clinical informatics subspecialty was offered in 2013. Characterizing trends in this novel workforce is important to inform its development.

Methods

We conducted an exploratory analysis of American Board of Medical Specialties data on individuals certified in clinical informatics from 2013 to 2019 to review trends and demographic characteristics of current subspecialists.

Results

2018 physicians were certified in clinical informatics from 2013 to 2019. The annual number of awarded certifications declined after 2016. The majority of primary certifications held by clinical informaticians were in broad-based medical specialties relative to primarily procedural specialties.

Conclusions

Disparities may exist within the clinical informatics physician workforce with respect to primary specialty certifications and geographic distribution. There remains a need for the creation of fellowship programs to sustain the growth of this workforce.
Brunner’s glands hamartoma with pylorus obstruction: a case report and review of literature
Authors: Bakir Mohammed A , AlYousef Mohammed Y , Alsohaibani Fahad I , Alsaad Khaled O
Published: July 2020

Proliferative lesions of the Brunner’s glands are uncommonly encountered lesions of the small intestine, originating from the deeply seated mucosal and submucosal Brunner’s glands, mainly in the duodenum. The vast majorities of these lesions are benign and include Brunner’s glands hyperplasia (adenomas/nodules) and hamartomas. The etiology and pathogenesis of these lesions are not fully understood, and the diagnosis can sometimes be challenging. We report a case of Brunner’s gland hamartoma in a 57-year-old man who presented with chronic dyspepsia, hematemesis and weight loss. Endoscopic and radiological investigations show a submucosal polypoid lesion at the first part of the duodenum. Routine endoscopic biopsies demonstrated normal duodenal mucosa. The lesion considered endoscopically unresectable and was surgically resected. Frozen section examination and intraoperative consultation showed unremarkable duodenal mucosa and histologically bland Brunner’s glands.
US-Turkey Relations since WWII: From Alliance to Transactionalism
Authors: Güvenç Serhat , Özel Soli
Published: July 2020

US-Turkey relations were built primarily on a security axis in the aftermath of WW II. After a relatively easygoing period in the 1950s, relations suffered from a deficit of trust by the mid-1960s. Radicalization of public opinion in the 1960s and 1970s and the near unconditional support Washington has given to Turkey’s frequent military interventions kept a residual anti-Americanism alive. In the post–Cold War period, the Gulf War and the emergence of newly independent countries with ample energy resources in the post-Soviet space placed Turkey back on the geopolitical map. In the age of “democratization” and the Islamist-Jihadi challenge, Turkey’s characteristics as a secular and electoral democratic Muslim country and a NATO member seeking EU membership made it more valuable for the United States. At the same time, the two sides never adequately dealt with the reality that their interests diverged considerably after the Cold War. Turkey’s refusal to allow the deployment of US troops prior to the invasion of Iraq led to a political downgrading of the Turkish military by the Pentagon. After a brief period of close relations under President Obama who called for a “model partnership” between the two allies, as a fallout from the Syrian civil war and the increasing authoritarianism of the Turkish government, relations turned increasingly “transactional” and personalized. Under President Trump the crises that plagued the relations deepened as Ankara and Moscow built closer relations and as bilateral relations increasingly relied on personalistic ties between the two leaders.
The Politics of Welfare in Turkey
Authors: Yörük Erdem
Published: July 2020

This chapter examines the political dynamics that have shaped the transformation of the Turkish welfare system since the 1960s. Over the years, income-based social assistance policies have supplanted employment-based social security policies, while the welfare state has significantly expanded. To explain why and how the Turkish welfare state has expanded during neoliberalism and why social policies have shifted from social security to social assistance, the chapter focuses on the rivalries between mainstream parties and the impact of grassroots politics, as well as the political mechanisms that mediate and transform structural pressures into policies. The chapter illustrates that political efforts to contain the political radicalization of the informal proletariat and to mobilize its electoral support have driven the expansion of social assistance policies during the post-1980 neoliberal period. State authorities now see the informal proletariat as a more significant political threat and source of support than the formal proletariat whose dynamism drove the expansion of the welfare state during the pre-1980 developmentalist period. The chapter provides a historical analysis of the interaction between parliamentary processes and social movements in order to account for the transformation of welfare provision in Turkey. It concludes by locating Turkey in a larger context, in which other emerging markets develop similar welfare states as a response to similar political exigencies.
Sexuality
Authors: Danaher John
Published: July 2020

This chapter studies the opportunities and challenges posed by the use of AI in how humans express and enact their sexualities. It first considers the idea of digisexuality, which according to some commentators is the identity label that should be applied to those whose primary sexual identity comes through the use of technology, particularly through the use of robotics and AI. The chapter questions whether it is necessary or socially desirable to see this as a new form of sexual identity. It then looks at the role that AI can play in facilitating human-to-human sexual contact, focusing in particular on the use of self-tracking and predictive analytics in optimizing sexual and intimate behavior. There are already a number of apps and services that promise to use AI to do this, but they pose a range of ethical risks that need to be addressed at both an individual and societal level. Finally, the chapter considers the idea that a sophisticated form of AI could be an object of love.
Social Failure Modes in Technology and the Ethics of AI
Authors: Millar Jason
Published: July 2020

This chapter argues that, just as technological artefacts can break as a result of mechanical, electrical, or other physical defects not fully accounted for in their design, they can also break as a result of social defects not fully accounted for in their design. These failures resulting from social defects can be called social failures. The chapter then proposes a definition of social failure as well as a taxonomy of social failure modes—the underlying causes that lead to social failures. An explicit and detailed understanding of social failure modes, if properly applied in engineering design practice, could result in a fuller evaluation of the social and ethical implications of technology, either during the upstream design and engineering phases of a product, or after its release. Ideally, studying social failure modes will improve people’s ability to anticipate and reduce the rate or severity of undesirable social failures prior to releasing technology into the wild.
Calculative Composition
Authors: Mattern Shannon
Published: July 2020

This chapter evaluates the ethical ends and means toward which AI-driven design has been, and perhaps could be, applied. While some designers have committed to applying AI toward more ethical ends, they have paid comparatively less attention toward the ethical means of its application. In order to ensure the ethical application of AI in design, practitioners and managers must make sure that they are both defining responsible design parameters and operationalizing those parameters responsibly. Moreover, designers must consider where they should assert their agency within an automated workflow. The chapter then surveys representative design fields—fashion, product, graphic, and architectural design—to examine what ethical opportunities and risks people might face when AI-driven design practice is programmed to serve the needs and desires of laborers, consumers, and clients.
Smart City Ethics
Authors: Goodman Ellen P.
Published: July 2020

This chapter explores the concept of “smart cities,” a term which describes the growing role of data analytics and sensors in urban life. Smart city initiatives rely on pervasive data gathering and integration, big data analytics, and artificial intelligence to manage mobility, energy, housing, public realm access, and myriad public and private services. These data flows can change how physical infrastructure like streets and parks are configured and services provisioned. They can tailor opportunities for housing or education based on individual digital identities and predictive algorithms. As more life in the city runs through digital apps and platforms, rights to access and control data increase in importance. Data flows from residents and public spaces to smart city corporations raise pressing policy questions about what power the public should cede to private developers to shape urban space, subject to how much oversight and with what expectation of return on public assets. The chapter then sorts these concerns into three major groups: privatization, platformization, and domination.
The Incompatible Incentives of Private-Sector AI
Authors: Slee Tom
Published: July 2020

This chapter evaluates the incompatible incentives of private-sector AI. Private-sector investment in AI is dominated by major internet platform companies such as Facebook, Amazon, Apple, Google, and Microsoft. These platform companies are also leaders in deploying deep learning algorithms. Although deep learning algorithms may be more intelligent than previous generations of machine learning, they are not more robust. There may be a faint technical path forward for problems of bias and unfairness, but algorithms are engines, and pervasive incompatible incentives will remain. As such, algorithms require guardrails. However, technology companies are ill-suited and ill-positioned to design or implement these value-based rules. Guardrails become constraints on people’s behavior, and yet, in cases of high elasticity, effective governance may still be elusive. Ultimately, the pairing of the algorithm and guardrails tempts companies to engage in regulatory arbitrage, providing a requirement for external action.
Introduction
Authors: Rothblum Esther D.
Published: July 2020

The Oxford Handbook of Sexual and Gender Minority Mental Health provides an overview of the current research on the mental health of sexual and gender minority (SGM) populations. It is aimed at researchers conducting studies on the mental health of SGM populations, clinicians and researchers interested in psychiatric disorders that affect SGM populations, clinicians using evidence-based practice in the treatment of SGM patients/clients, students in mental health programs (clinical psychology, psychiatry, clinical social work, and psychiatric nursing), and policymakers. This chapter defines some terms and provides an overview of current and past SGM research methods.
Drug Use among Sexual and Gender Minority Populations
Authors: Starks Tyrel J. , Cabral Cynthia M. , Talan Ali J.
Published: July 2020

Based on current epidemiological data, sexual and gender minorities present with significantly higher rates of drug use disorders compared with their heterosexual or cisgender counterparts. Using minority stress theory and syndemics theory, the current chapter discusses prevalence rates, psychosocial correlates, and health comorbidities observed in research among men who have sex with men, women who have sex with women, and transgender populations. The authors also highlight how HIV transmission risk has fueled much of the research on drug use disorders with sexual and gender minorities, resulting in a paucity of research on drug use in lesbian and bisexual women and transgender men, as well as other areas for further study.
Sexual and Gender Minority Mental Health among Children and Youth
Authors: Fish Jessica N. , Baams Laura , McGuire Jenifer K.
Published: July 2020

Sexual and gender minority (SGM) young people are coming of age at a time of dynamic social and political changes with regard to LGBTQ rights and visibility around the world. And yet, contemporary cohorts of SGM youth continue to evidence the same degree of compromised mental health demonstrated by SGM youth of past decades. The authors review the current research on SGM youth mental health, with careful attention to the developmental and contextual characteristics that complicate, support, and thwart mental health for SGM young people. Given a large and rapidly growing body of science in this area, the authors strategically review research that reflects the prevalence of these issues in countries around the world but also concentrate on how mental health concerns among SGM children and youth are shaped by experiences with schools, families, and communities. Promising mental health treatment strategies for this population are reviewed. The chapter ends with a focus on understudied areas in the SGM youth mental health literature, which may offer promising solutions to combat SGM population health disparities and promote mental health among SGM young people during adolescence and as they age across the life course.
The Role of Resilience in Sexual and Gender Minority Mental Health
Authors: Szymanski Dawn M. , Gonzalez Kirsten A.
Published: July 2020

Many lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) persons are able to persevere and flourish despite pervasive social stigma and minority stress based on their sexual orientation and gender identity. This chapter reviews the research on LGBTQ resilience that can occur at individual, interpersonal/family, community, and contextual/structural levels. The authors describe qualitative research that has examined pathways to resilience and positive LGBTQ identity. The authors also review quantitative research on LGBTQ resilience via mediator, moderator, and moderated mediation models. Variables are described that have been found to explain or buffer the links between external and internalized minority stressors and mental health outcomes. The authors review the small but growing body of research that has begun to examine the efficacy of therapeutic interventions aimed at promoting LGBTQ resilience. Limitations are discussed and directions for future research are suggested.
Epilogue: Challenges in Research Methods and Future Directions on Sexual and Gender Minority Mental Health Research
Authors: Frost David M.
Published: July 2020

This chapter is focused on the challenges that face researchers who are investigating the mental health of sexual and gender minority (SGM) individuals. The chapter provides an overview of predominant frameworks and theories guiding research on the mental health of SGM individuals in order to highlight the methodological challenges that stem from these guiding frameworks and theories. Although there are challenges specific to certain subgroups within the broader SGM population, this chapter focuses on common challenges that are widely applicable within the field. The author concludes with suggestions for future research that aims to improve the field’s ability to understand and address mental health disparities continuing to face diverse SGM populations.
Over Depression and Mood Disorders among Sexual and Gender Minority Populations
Authors: Chodzen Gia , Mays Vickie M. , Cochran Susan D.
Published: July 2020

Sexual and gender minority (SGM) adults have rates of depressive disorders that are higher than those of cisgender or heterosexual adults. These differences are likely due to the ways that SGMs are treated both on an individual and population basis. This chapter begins by discussing evolving conceptualizations of depressive disorders among SGMs with a focus on the dimensionality in symptomatology. Insights are provided into the ways that differences in risk for depressive disorders occur in SGMs by subpopulations with a focus on gender, developmental stages, and geographic context. The authors discuss social risks, examining the ways in which stigma, discrimination, and early life adversity can contribute to depressive disorders in SGMs. This provides a basis for researchers and clinicians to explore and include structural and societal change in addressing mental health disorders in SGMs. The authors also discuss the comorbidity of depressive disorders with several chronic health conditions with particular regard to the health inequities that some subpopulations of SGMs face. Adopting an intersectional approach is useful in studying depressive disorders among SGMs, and the authors suggest pairing this approach with the National Institute of Health’s Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) framework. Future directions are suggested to researchers and clinicians to reduce risks of depressive distress in SGM subpopulations.
Organizational Career Development Theory: Weaving Individuals, Organizations, and Social Structures
Authors: Davey Kate Mackenzie
Published: July 2020

Organizational career development theory highlights three different perspectives on career. First, and most commonly, organizations are seen as the context that constrains and enables individual careers. Second, careers may be valued as enhancing or limiting organizational performance and subject to talent management practices. Third, careers can be conceptualized as an ongoing process of interaction between individuals, organizations, and the broader social context. The move from a focus on organizational careers to self-driven, boundaryless careers in the 1990s overemphasized individual choice and individual responsibility. These ideas became the accepted rule, leading to a divided workforce, with real choice available only to some categories of workers. The psychological contract between individual and organization was largely undermined and the role of the organization and the importance of contextual and structural factors were relatively neglected. To move forward, this opposition between organization structure and individual agency is best avoided. The future of organizational career development theory requires an understanding of both the individual and social context, and their interaction over time. The universality of concepts of career can be questioned. Abandoning attempts to find a single, dominating career theory allows us to recognize the richness of diverse perspectives.
The Narrative Turn in Career Development Theories: An Integrative Perspective
Authors: Rossier Jérôme , Cardoso Paulo Miguel , Duarte Maria Eduarda
Published: July 2020

During the past 70 years, diverse vocational theories have focused on various important topics such as career choice processes or person–organization fit and adaptation to describe people’s career development. More recently, narrative approaches have been proposed by several authors inspired by dialogical self theory or the life story model of identity in career counselling interventions. This narrative turn encourages career interventions to focus more on the meaning experiences, the reflexive processes involved, and the contextual aspects of career paths, such as the life design interventions. Narrative identity facilitates understanding these dynamics once it is conceived as a meta-capacity, allowing people to self-direct and design their actions within these continuous interrelations. Narrative identity is built on a dialogical relationship, allowing individuals to situate themselves in social space and strengthen subjectivity, reflexivity, and intentionality. Considering the narrative processes for intervention research will permit examination in greater detail of the processes underlying change. This chapter thus discusses how narrative career development theories, such as the career construction theory or the life-long self-construction theory, can complement existing approaches and constitute an integrative and articulated framework if they take account of previously acquired knowledge.
Working Memory and Down Syndrome
Authors: Smith Elizabeth A. , Jarrold Christopher
Published: July 2020

A considerable body of research has explored working memory function in individuals with Down syndrome, given the fact that working memory is a strong predictor of numerous cognitive abilities over the course of development. Understanding working memory among individuals with Down syndrome is therefore key to providing a full picture of their overall cognitive profile. A pattern of poorer verbal working memory relative to less impaired visuospatial working memory has been well documented among individuals with Down syndrome, typically in the context of the Baddeley and Hitch (1974) working memory model. Here the review is extended to explore the nature of working memory capacity in terms of the maintenance of item versus order information in working memory. Deficits in both storage and control are explored, and explanations from different models of memory are considered. The relationship between long-term memory and working memory among persons with Down syndrome is subsequently outlined, and the role of working memory is considered in relation to learning among individuals Down syndrome.
Siblings’ Influence on the Development of Individuals with Down Syndrome
Authors: Cuskelly Monica
Published: July 2020

This chapter discusses the influences that siblings may have on developmental outcomes of children with Down syndrome including those related to cognition, language, self-regulation, social-emotional functioning, and identity formation. As there is very little research available that addresses sibling influences on individuals with Down syndrome, the literature related to sibling influence within sibships comprising typically developing children has been used to provide a starting point to the discussion. The influential roles of siblings may include teacher; model and social referent; friend and foe; contrast; and advocate, protector, and caregiver. The quality of the sibling relationship may also influence developmental outcomes. The few investigations that have been conducted suggest that siblings make an important contribution to developmental outcomes for individuals with Down syndrome. In conclusion, directions for future research are discussed.
Numerical Simulation of Flight and Impact of Wind-borne Debris
Authors: Nomura Takashi
Published: July 2020

Numerical methods to simulate flight and impact of windborne debris are described. The problems are treated as fluid–structure interaction problems based on the ALE finite element flow analysis in order to deal with arbitrary shape of flying objects as well as dynamical change of aerodynamic forces. For the flight simulation, the computational domain travels with the flying object because usually the fight distance is much longer than the size of the debris. For the numerical impact process, the magnitude of the impact force is determined by iteration so that the velocity of the sphere after impact converges to zero. Furthermore, in order to suppress unphysical step-by-step pressure oscillation, the time step at the impact is subdivided into a set of multiple short time steps with a smooth impact force function. Several numerical examples of a rigid sphere show satisfactory features of these methods.
Measuring the Engineering-Relevant Aspects of Non-Synoptic Wind Hazards
Authors: Schroeder John L.
Published: July 2020

This article reviews the techniques and approaches historically employed to measure non-synoptic wind storms. While most of these efforts have originated from the atmospheric science community, the focus of this article relates to meeting the requirements of the engineering community. While the recognition of the importance of these non-synoptic wind system events is increasing, their engineering-relevant characteristics are still largely unknown. While gaps in knowledge concerning the engineering-relevant aspects of non-synoptic wind systems are plentiful, focused application of high-resolution research instrumentation offers hope to remove many of these unknowns. Future engineering-oriented measurement campaigns will likely make use of both traditional anemometry and remote sensing technologies to document the characteristics of non-synoptic wind systems.
Educating the Nation’s Youth
Authors: Albarrán Elena Jackson
Published: July 2020

From the Porfirian period through the revolutionary decades, Mexican educational institutions implemented the waves of Liberal pedagogical trends that sought to universalize education in order to ensure a healthy, productive citizenry. Ideologies informing educational practice, resulting in sometimes-idealistic or utopian experiments designed to accelerate the intended outcomes. While Porfirian educators privileged written texts and institutional spaces as fundamental civilizing tools, educational experts in the revolutionary period drew from the realities of the proletariat to anchor their experiential-based curriculum, though within limits, and with a clear goal of assimilating the indigenous periphery into the cultural nationalist program.
Patient Autonomy, Capacity, and Consent
Authors: Berg Jessica , Cave Emma
Published: July 2020

This chapter discusses patient autonomy, capacity, and consent involving children. It first provides a general overview of children’s rights with respect to making medical decisions in both the United States and Europe. The chapter then discusses the best interests standard (which is usually applied in cases of minors) and how to consider capacity in the context of children. In the discussions of European approaches, the chapter covers relevant international and regional human rights law. The jurisdiction of England and Wales are used as examples. The chapter also provides a general overview of US state approaches and federal law. The chapter concludes by noting some new areas of medical decision-making which challenge the traditional models.
Land and Reparation Politics and Policy after Apartheid
Authors: Thipe Thuto
Published: July 2020

Two successive 2018 court judgments guaranteed people living in the parts of South Africa demarcated as communal areas the right to refuse to allow mining on their land. As debates around land restitution and redistribution gripped the country, these cases shone a light on land tenure security in people’s struggles to remain on their ancestral land in the face of continued dispossession after 1994. This article argues that in preserving core elements of the colonially created tribal administration system in the democratic landscape, the state has retained the structures and the imaginative framework that allow particular people to be treated as “natives” who can be moved and stripped of foundational rights, as tribal institutions were designed to do. The Maledu and Baleni cases are illustrative of struggles across the country in which people in communal areas are demanding full recognition and exercise of their rights as citizens.
Migration, Borders and Identity in the Latin American Context
Authors: Velasco Ortiz Laura
Published: July 2020

In concert with more localized analyses of border regions, the Border Studies field has contributed to our understanding of how mobility affects identity. The distinction between cultural and identification boundaries has proved relevant for analyzing the identity processes that arise in border interactions typically marked by ambiguity and contradiction. However, the current migratory context is defined by dehumanizing social and political inequalities. This poses a conceptual challenge to understanding the subjectivities produced by the current policies of border control that dehumanize the immigrant and mobile person. This chapter reflects on the conceptual and empirical relationship between migration, borders, and identity in a current climate characterized by global connections and nation-states’ increasing border control over human mobility. It also analyzes the symbolic dimension of state border control and its consequences for constituting identities.
Homicides in Latin America and the Caribbean
Authors: Concha-Eastman Alberto , Muñoz Edgar , Rennó-Santos Mateus
Published: July 2020

Despite improvements in the socioeconomic conditions of Latin American, the homicide rates in the region have not declined as expected. Data from World Health Organization and the United Nations Office on Drug and Crime show that this region has the highest homicide rate in the world. This analysis describes the regional homicide trends, explores how these trends compare to other countries and regions of the world, and identifies country-level predictors of homicide. Seven indicators were analyzed: population aged 15–29, Gini Index, Criminal Justice Index, unemployment, GDP, mean of schooling, and infant mortality. The lack of a clear rule of law is perhaps the greatest driver of homicides and of other types of violent crimes. Recognizing the potential for extraordinary profits and perceiving their low risk of being captured and punished, criminals have an increased motivation to engage in illegal activities.
Gut Hormones and Neuropeptides as Mediators of Microbiome–Brain Communication
Authors: Holzer Peter , Farzi Aitak
Published: July 2020

The gut microbiota interacts with the brain through multiple communication lines in which gut peptide hormones and neuropeptides play important messenger roles. These peptides are secondary chemical signals whose operation is controlled by the gut microbiota via a myriad of microbial metabolites, secondary bile acids, and structural components. We first outline a number of gut hormones (e.g., peptide YY, glucagon-like peptide, ghrelin, cholecystokinin) which communicate with the brain either via the circulation or via vagal afferent neurons. Several neuropeptides in the brain are likewise under the influence of gut microbes and mediate their impact on various aspects of brain function and behavior. These neuropeptides include neuropeptide Y, corticotropin-releasing factor, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, and several other peptides which act as neurotransmitters or trophic factors. Food intake, energy homeostasis, emotional-affective behavior, cognitive performance, stress resilience, and neurogenesis are among the processes which the gut microbiota regulates via the action of gut hormones and neuropeptides.
The Gut Microbiome in Neurodegenerative Disorders
Authors: Euers Lindsay A. , Quigley Eamonn M. M.
Published: July 2020

For some time, the concept of the gut-brain axis has served as a useful paradigm to explain the many interactions between the “big brain” (the central nervous system [CNS]) and the “little brain” (the enteric nervous system). Recently, the gut microbiome has been added to the equation and the proposition that gut microbes could influence brain structure and function and vice versa has emerged. Research in this field has been facilitated by dramatic progress in technologies that permit the delineation of the microbial constituents of the gut and their function in health and disease. Studies in a variety of animal models have amply supported the concept of a microbiota-gut-brain-axis and demonstrated that interventions that modulate the microbiome can influence animal behavior and CNS physiology. Understandably, studies of the impact of the microbiome on human brain structure and function are less numerous, but sufficient evidence does exist to indicate that this axis is operating in humans. In terms of neurodegenerative disorders, here again animal data dominate, but a sufficient body of evidence has accumulated to justify further explorations of the role of gut microbiota in Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease, as well as in the aging process per se—“inflammaging.” Many confounding factors complicate the interpretation of human studies of the microbiome, and large, longitudinal studies that attempt to account for such confounders are needed. A number of interventions can be entertained—most notably, diet, probiotics, and prebiotics. To date, studies of any such interventions in neurodegenerative disease in humans are scanty.
Gut Microbiome and Depression
Authors: Winter Gal , Hart Robert A. , Charlesworth Richard P. G. , Sharpley Christopher
Published: July 2020

Gut microbial diversity has been strongly associated with mood-related behaviors, including major depressive disorder (MDD), with an emerging potential to revolutionize both the diagnosis and treatment of depression. This article reviews the communication systems between the gut and the brain and the association between gut inflammatory conditions and depression. It further reviews the role of the gut microbiota in the treatment of depression, from pharmacological treatment to the use of probiotics and dietary treatments.
The Writing Bridge
Authors: Dostal Hannah M. , Graham Steve
Published: July 2020

Writing is perhaps the most powerful and overlooked tool for improving reading proficiency for all students, and reading can enhance students’ writing as well. Moreover, the mechanisms by which writing may improve reading and reading improves writing are of particular importance for deaf and hard-of-hearing learners. This chapter details the theoretical and practical implications of reading–writing reciprocity and discusses the ways in which the development of each is both mutually sustaining and enriching. The chapter begins by presenting the theoretical and empirical evidence supporting reading–writing connections in curricula and instruction. This includes considering the connections reading and writing share with language. Then, the chapter discusses the importance of reading–writing connections given the unique language histories of deaf and hard-of-hearing learners, and the contemporary contexts of deaf education.
Reading Abilities of Deaf College Students
Authors: Marschark Marc , Rosica Mark
Published: July 2020

Most research concerning the reading abilities of deaf and hard-of-hearing (DHH) learners has focused on children during the elementary school years and, less frequently, the middle school years. Recent research in several domains, however, has indicated that variables associated with better achievement among young DHH children (e.g., early access to language through deaf parents or cochlear implants) lose much or all of their predictive power by the time the learners reach college age. This chapter reviews research concerning reading comprehension of DHH college students in terms of standardized achievement scores, academic performance, and response to intervention. Relevant empirical research is limited in some areas and absent in others, but a variety of findings are available with regard to DHH college students’ learning from text, associations of reading with achievement in high school and college outcomes, and alternative methods of assessing reading abilities among older DHH learners.
Vocabulary Acquisition and Literacy in Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Learners
Authors: Antia Shirin D. , Rivera M. Christina
Published: July 2020

The Simple View of Reading (SVR) posits that reading comprehension is the product of two components: decoding and linguistic comprehension. A component of linguistic comprehension is vocabulary knowledge. This chapter discusses the contribution of children’s environments to vocabulary acquisition, including reasons why many deaf and hard-of-hearing (DHH) children experience moderate-to-severe vocabulary delays. We summarize the research on DHH students’ vocabulary acquisition. The section on vocabulary instruction includes methods of assessing DHH students’ vocabulary knowledge, selection of vocabulary to be taught, and the components of effective vocabulary instruction. The chapter ends with a description of the evidence-based vocabulary instruction conducted with DHH students.
Dualism
Authors: Gertler Brie
Published: July 2020

Dualism is a metaphysical view about the nature of consciousness, driven largely by epistemic concerns. Dualism’s chief rival, physicalism about consciousness, is also a metaphysical view driven largely by epistemic concerns. A primary goal of this chapter is to correct a widespread misunderstanding about how epistemic issues shape the debate between dualists and physicalists. According to a familiar picture, dualism is motivated by armchair reflection, and dualists accord special significance to our ways of conceptualizing consciousness and the physical. In contrast, physicalists favor empirical data over armchair reflection, and physicalism is a relatively straightforward extension of scientific theorizing. This familiar picture is inaccurate. Both dualist and physicalist arguments employ a combination of empirical data and armchair reflection; both rely on considerations of how we conceptualize certain phenomena; and both aim to establish views that are compatible with scientific results but go well beyond the deliverances of empirical science. The discussion highlights these neglected epistemic parallels between dualism and physicalism.
Eliminativism About Consciousness
Authors: Irvine Elizabeth , Sprevak Mark
Published: July 2020

This chapter examines a radical philosophical position about consciousness: eliminativism. Eliminativists claim that consciousness does not exist and/or that talk of consciousness should be eliminated from science. These are strong positions to take, and require serious defence. In the first section, the chapter introduces the difference between entity eliminativism and discourse eliminativism and outlines the typical strategies used to support each. The next section provides a brief overview of the kinds of consciousness we refer to throughout the chapter. The following section focuses on entity eliminativist arguments about consciousness: Dennett’s classic eliminativist argument; a rebooted version of Dennett’s argument; and recent arguments for ‘illusionism’. In the subsequent section, discourse eliminativist arguments about consciousness are examined: methodological arguments from scientific behaviourism; arguments based on the empirical accessibility of phenomenal consciousness; and a stronger version of discourse eliminativism aimed at both phenomenal and access consciousness. The final section offers a brief conclusion.
Higher-Order Theories of Consciousness
Authors: Weisberg Josh
Published: July 2020

Higher-order (HO) theories of consciousness hold that a mental state is conscious when it is appropriately represented by a ‘higher-order’ state, a state about another mental state. The higher-order perception (HOP) theory holds that HO representation is best modeled on perceptual processes, while the higher-order thought (HOT) theory holds that it is best modeled on thought. In addition, some HO theories hold that to be conscious, a state must be actively represented by an HO state, while others maintain that the mere disposition to be represented by an HO state is enough. The HO theory, if successful, offers a reductive explanation of mental state consciousness in terms of nonconscious HO representation. This chapter first spells out the general motivation for the HO view and the differences between HOP and HOT before considering key objections to the approach, as well as possible empirical support. Finally it looks at how the view addresses the explanatory gap and the hard problem of consciousness.
Consciousness and Knowledge
Authors: Brogaard Berit "Brit" , Chudnoff Elijah
Published: July 2020

This chapter focuses on the relationship between consciousness and knowledge, and in particular on the role perceptual consciousness might play in justifying beliefs about the external world. A version of phenomenal dogmatism is outlined according to which perceptual experiences immediately, prima facie justify certain select parts of their content, and do so in virtue of their having a distinctive phenomenology with respect to those contents. Along the way various issues are considered in connection with this core theme, including the possibility of immediate justification, the dispute between representational and relational views of perception, the epistemic significance of cognitive penetration, the question of whether perceptual experiences are composed of more basic sensations and seemings, and questions about the existence and epistemic significance of high-level content. A concluding section briefly considers how some of the topics pursued here might generalize beyond perception.