bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Menopause
Authors: Sievert Lynnette Leidy , Kiely Daniel
Published: October 2018

Menopause is the permanent cessation of menstruation due to the loss of ovarian function. It marks the transition from reproductive to post‐reproductive life in all women. Other mammals demonstrate menopause, but female humans are almost unique in having such a long post‐reproductive life. Anthropologists continue to debate why menopause and post‐reproductive life evolved. Average ages at menopause vary from 46 to 50 years in low‐ and middle‐income countries, and from 50 to 53 years in high‐income countries. Hot flashes are not the most common symptom at midlife, but they can be the most bothersome. The majority of women experience hot flashes at some point during the menopausal transition.
Models of growth for humans and nonhuman primates
Authors: Bernstein Robin M.
Published: October 2018

Growth models are mathematically generated descriptions of growth over time. They are fit to individuals and populations, and used for reference and prediction in research and clinical practice. Growth models can also provide data on specific events of interest, such as growth spurts, growth rate, and timing of components of growth. Some growth models have a predetermined form, and are best used to model very specific parts of the growth trajectory, such as the adolescent growth spurt. The modeling of nonhuman primate growth has revealed clear and in some cases significant adolescent growth spurts in weight, and some in craniofacial dimensions; evidence for spurts in the postnatal skeleton of nonhuman primates is mixed. Some models have been proposed that link growth throughout ontogeny to specific aspects of physiology, and provide a hypothetical framework for understanding how growth is modified—both within a lifetime and in evolutionary time.
Mummies
Authors: Fornaciari Gino
Published: October 2018

Mummies are human remains with preservation of soft tissues. Natural mummification by natural environment produces natural mummies, whereas mummification induced by human intervention results in artificial mummies. Mummies may give much information into mortuary practices and burial rites, but the presence of soft tissues may expand the paleopathological studies. Recent mummy studies have developed nondestructive methods for the examination of mummies, including digital X‐ray, computed tomography (CT) with three‐dimensional visualization, and endoscopic techniques. Nevertheless, classical autopsy, when possible, is the preferable procedure for securing tissue samples from specific organs, such as heart, lungs, and liver, essential for good paleopathological diagnoses.
New physical anthropology
Authors: Tuttle Russell H.
Published: October 2018

Following the modernization of evolutionary biology by population geneticists, paleontologists, organismal biologists, and systematists, in 1950, University of Chicago anthropologist Sherwood L. Washburn helped to institute a “new physical anthropology” based on the modern evolutionary synthesis. Today's scientists working in the Washburnian tradition eschew typology and unweighted traits and measurements in favor of experimentation and detailed observations and careful comparisons of animals in natural habitats as a basis for more robust theories concerning human functional morphology, behavior, and evolution.
Osteoarthritis/degenerative joint disease
Authors: Milella Marco
Published: October 2018

Osteoarthritis (OA) or degenerative joint disease (DJD) is the most common disorder affecting the joints, affecting 10 percent of men and 18 percent of women over 60 years of age worldwide. OA results from the progressive breakdown of the articular cartilage and from a suite of degenerative and reactive patterns involving various tissues. Such patterns result in modifications of the joint architecture and of the joint segments which are variably visible radiologically and on dry bone. Due to its link with biomechanical stress, OA is studied extensively in paleopathology and bioarchaeology in order to reconstruct general and specific levels of physical activity in past populations. However, the etiological relevance of other factors besides physical activity (e.g. age, sex, and genetics) suggests the need for caution in such biocultural reconstructions, stressing at the same time the value of clinical studies for a better understanding of OA in bioarcheology and paleopathology.
Alloparental behavior
Authors: de la Chica Alba García , Corley Margaret , Fernandez‐Duque Eduardo
Published: October 2018

Alloparental care is defined as care provided to offspring by individuals other than the parents. There are different types of care that other group members may provide to infants, but the main types studied have been carrying, nursing, and food sharing. Alloparental care takes one of the most extreme expressions among the cooperative breeding systems present in several species of mammals and birds. Several hypotheses have been proposed to explain why individuals that are not genetic parents to offspring sometimes care for them. On the one hand, alloparental care may arise through a mother's tolerance of others caring for her offspring; but allocare givers also must have some existing motivation or attraction to others' infants. Potential benefits to allocare providers include the acquisition of maternal skills, the possibility of gaining a reproductive position or gaining increased access to potential mates, and improving one's own inclusive fitness.
Pelvic variation
Authors: Shapiro Darshana
Published: October 2018

The body of literature on the primate pelvis spans nearly a century. While the human pelvis has been the most frequent subject of study, a substantial amount of work has also been done on the pelves of the apes, with fewer contributions examining monkeys and strepsirrhines. Earlier researchers described morphological variation within and among primate taxa, while more recent work is more quantitative in nature. Two frequently investigated sources of pelvic variation are sexual dimorphism and locomotor adaptation. Sex‐related pelvic variation is the result of the differing selective pressures on the pelves of male and female primates; females have to successfully give birth. Pelvic variation corresponding to locomotor behavior results from the biomechanical requirements of using the hindlimb in particular ways. Pelvic sexual dimorphism mainly affects the ischium and the pubis, while variation related to locomotion can be seen in both the ilium and the ischium.
Phylogeny
Authors: Strait David S.
Published: October 2018

Phylogeny describes the pattern by which species and higher‐order taxa (genera, families, etc.) have diversified. This pattern reflects the evolutionary relationships between those taxa. Those relationships may either describe direct ancestry and descent or refer to the recency with which two taxa share a common ancestor. Phylogenetic patterns should inform decisions about taxonomy (the classification of organisms into groups). There are various methods used to infer phylogenetic patterns and the most widely used such method is known as cladistics. Regardless of how phylogenies are inferred, an understanding of phylogeny is crucial if one wants to understand the processes by which evolutionary change (including adaptation) occurred.
Physiological stress
Authors: Clark Angela L.
Published: October 2018

Physiological stress can be defined as an external or internal stimulus resulting from unfavorable environmental, nutritional, and other pressures which affects the body's proper functioning and challenges its ability to maintain homeostasis. The inability to maintain homeostasis during growth and development results in impaired body functions, which may have ultimate consequences on health later in life. Episodes of physiological perturbation, such as a period of malnutrition or infectious disease, leave often permanent indicators of stress in the bones and teeth. The measurement and interpretation of multiple physiological stress markers is a means by which the biological anthropologist can study and reconstruct health and well‐being in past and present human societies.
Positional behavior
Authors: Saunders Emily L. R. , Roberts Alice M. , Thorpe Susannah K. S.
Published: October 2018

Positional behavior describes an animal's physical activities, and has two components: posture and locomotion. Positional behavior is a vital part of a primate's ecology, as it directly affects foraging, predator avoidance, and reproductive success, and has strong links with morphology. Primates, in particular the larger‐bodied species among them, display hugely diverse and versatile repertoires of positional behavior, which allows them to access terrestrial and arboreal niches and to exploit the complex mechanical environment of the forest canopy. An ecomorphological approach is essential to understanding positional behavior, because it provides a framework for understanding the relationships between behavior, morphology, and ecology.
Postcranial morphology, nontraditional analysis
Authors: Ruff Christopher B.
Published: October 2018

Consideration of the full range of physiological influences on skeletal morphology can lead to a much richer and more accurate reconstruction of past lifeways and adaptations. Behavioral variation can be assessed through measurement of mechanically relevant structural parameters, including long‐bone diaphyseal cross‐sectional geometry. Comparison of changes occurring on different bone envelopes (endosteal versus periosteal) can give insights into systemic (dietary) versus more localized (mechanical) influences. Appreciation of varying developmental constraints on different features, as well as environmental influences such as climate, can help to explain differences in skeletal proportions.
Primate phylogeny
Authors: Alfaro Jessica W. Lynch
Published: October 2018

Primate phylogenetics is the study of the evolutionary history and relationships among primate species. Early work on primate relationships focused on comparing morphological, physiological, developmental, and behavioral traits. Recent trends have focused on using molecular phylogenetics to determine species and higher‐level relationships among primates. Genomic studies have also come to the forefront as tools to understand primate evolutionary relationships and the effect of genotype on phenotype. Primate phylogenetics has implications for primate systematics and taxonomy, biogeography, comparative studies of morphology, ecology, and behavior, and conservation prioritization.
S
chwalbe,
G
ustav
Authors: Smith Fred H.
Published: October 2018

Gustav Albert Schwalbe (1844–1916) was a leading figure in the emergence of German anthropology at the turn of the twentieth century. His insistence on careful methodology and thorough comparative anatomical analysis played a critical role in the development of systematic, scientifically based analysis of human skeletal, and especially fossil, remains. Schwalbe was arguably the father of the unilineal approach in human paleontology, particularly in terms of the role of Neandertals in human ancestry. He had considerable influence on the study of human evolution in the German academic sphere, and aspects of his approach had even wider influence through his students—most notably Franz Weidenreich.
Sensory ecology: vision
Authors: Kirk E. Christopher
Published: October 2018

Primates as a group possess large, forward‐facing eyes that support relatively high visual acuity. The evolution of forward‐facing eyes increased the size of the binocular visual field, and is functionally tied to an improved ability to precisely assess distances using binocular cues. Comparative data suggest that forward‐facing eyes and a large binocular visual field probably first evolved in the context of visually guided manual acquisition of small prey items. Diurnal anthropoids exhibit the highest visual acuities recorded for mammals. This very high acuity is based on a distinctive suite of anatomical adaptations, including small corneas relative to eye size, filters that reduce chromatic aberration, and an all‐cone retinal fovea. The evolution of these primate visual adaptations may have had important consequences for other features of primate sensory ecology, including reductions in the functionality of the main and accessory olfactory systems.
Shapiro,HarryL.
Authors: Marks Jonathan
Published: October 2018

Harry L. Shapiro (1902–90) was a prominent American physical anthropologist at the American Museum of Natural History in New York.
Sivapithecus
Authors: Begun David R.
Published: October 2018

Sivapithecusis historically among the first fossil primates described and has figured prominently in the history of paleoanthropology. Originally calledPalaeopithecus,Sivapithecusand another Miocene ape from South Asia,Ramapithecus, were widely accepted as ancestral to great apes and humans, respectively. Today,Ramapithecusis understood to be a synonym ofSivapithecus, which in turn is nearly universally interpreted as an early member of the orangutan lineage.
Sociosexual behavior (nonhuman primates)
Authors: Paciulli Lisa M. , Emer Lauren K.
Published: October 2018

Sociosexual behavior includes sexual activity not directly related to reproduction. Sociosexuality occurs in primates (prosimians, monkeys, and apes) in many forms including urinary marking, facial expressions, vocalizations, grooming, playing, mounting, and anogenital sniffing, touching, inspecting, and rubbing. Sociosexual behavior takes place between individuals of various combinations of ages and sexes. In some species such as bonobos, sociosexual activity starts in infancy and can occur as many as 30 times a day, while in other species like chimpanzees, it starts later in life and is less frequent. Sociosexual behavior can take the form of sexual competition—competition between members of the same sex for a mate in the form of fighting or even blocking ovulation in less‐dominant individuals. Sociosexuality is interpreted as strengthening relationships, acts of dominance, reparation after fights, and reducing tension. Most data on nonhuman primate sociosexuality indicate that behaviors occurring outside of reproduction may increase future matings and/or reproductive success.
South African fossil record
Authors: Mann Alan
Published: October 2018

From their initial recognition in 1924, sites in South Africa have yielded a rich treasure of fossil bones documenting human evolution from its earliest developments to the emergence of modern humans. Many of the earliest sites are located in a relatively small area centered around the Sterkfontein Valley, about 50 km from Johannesburg in Gauteng Province. The abundance of hominin fossils, ofAustralopithecus,Paranthropus, andHomo, and their importance, has led to this area being designated as theCradle of Humankind, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. In addition to these sites, a number of other sites scattered from the western and southern coasts of the Cape Province to the high grasslands of the Free State Province to the hills of KwaZulu‐Natal have also produced important fossils representing the evolutionary developments of the genusHomo, including very early members ofHomo sapiens.
Southeast Asian fossil record
Authors: Lee Sang‐Hee , Khorasani Dänae G.
Published: October 2018

The hominin fossil record in Southeast Asia comes predominantly from Indonesia. The earliest fossil specimens come from Sangiran and Mojokerto, which may be as old as 1.8 million years. Sangiran fossils show a set of regional characteristics that continue in later specimens from Ngandong. Traits include a long and low cranial shape, receding forehead, sagittal keel, thick and projecting supraorbital torus, and well‐developed nuchal torus. These morphological similarities are also found with coeval specimens from Africa. Within the Indonesian fossil record, encephalization and gracilization are observed, which echo the global trend of human evolution. The chronic and persistent problem of unreliable dates for Asian fossils is slowly being addressed with modern developments in the field. Systematic studies of the fossil specimens from Thailand, the Philippines, and Taiwan are yet to be conducted. The Southeast Asian fossil record continues to show that the pattern of human evolution is intricate and multilayered.
Bioarchaeology of infectious diseases
Authors: Filipek Kori Lea , Roberts Charlotte Ann
Published: October 2018

Infectious diseases have been a major cause of morbidity and mortality in human populations for thousands of years, and subsequent responses to these pathogens can sometimes be identified in archaeological human remains. This entry reviews the key specific infections that are recorded in skeletons and some that are less commonly seen. Finding evidence of infectious disease (specific or nonspecific) in skeletal remains may be difficult owing to a variety of factors (e.g., taphonomy, low percentage of people developing bone changes, and the osteological paradox), but detection methods are improving and increasing our understanding of human adaptation in the face of disease. However, despite these advances, detailed recording and observation of skeletal lesion distribution of pathological changes remain key for differential diagnoses. It is also important to understand the underlying related immune response to infections and to integrate cultural contextual data so as to enable realistic interpretations of the infectious disease patterning seen in human remains recovered from archaeological contexts.
S
pencer,
F
rank
Authors: Smith Fred H.
Published: October 2018

Frank Spencer (1941–99) was the preeminent scholar of the history of physical (biological) anthropology during the last half of the twentieth century. His writings were detailed and insightful studies of individuals and ideas that played prominent roles in the development of the discipline. In addition to broader edited or compiled works, he wrote particularly influential works on Aleš Hrdlička, the Piltdown forgery, and historical perspectives on modern human origins and the Neandertals.
Spuhler,JamesN.
Authors: Long Jeffrey C.
Published: October 2018

James N. Spuhler was an anthropologist and human geneticist who helped introduce genetic studies into anthropology. His major research contributions included studies on Native Americans using Mendelian populations as his conceptual framework. Spuhler was an early advocate of quantitative methods and modeling. He maintained a long‐standing interest in the measurement of biological distance. Spuhler had a lasting impact on the field of biological anthropology through teaching and mentoring at the University of Michigan and the University of New Mexico. Among his scholarly distinctions, Spuhler was President of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists from 1975 to 1977.
Stewart, T. Dale
Authors: Ubelaker Douglas
Published: October 2018

Thomas Dale Stewart (1901–97) provided leadership in the formation of modern forensic anthropology and made many contributions to paleopathology, paleoanthropology, human skeletal biology, and related areas of physical anthropology. He was highly regarded internationally for his meticulous, problem‐oriented research and remarkable career productivity at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, DC.
T
eilhard de
C
hardin,
P
ierre
Authors: Godinot Marc
Published: October 2018

Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (1881–1955) was a French paleontologist and Jesuit who spent many years in China (1926–46). His scientific contributions were in mammalian paleontology and geology, and to a lesser extent in prehistory. Throughout most of his life, he labored to develop a synthesis between science and his Christian faith, for which he became famous after his death.
T
odd,
T
.
W
ingate
Authors: Kern Kevin , Latimer Bruce
Published: October 2018

Thomas Wingate Todd was a seminal figure in early twentieth‐century anatomy and biological anthropology. An author of four books and hundreds of articles on a broad range of anatomical and anthropological topics, he is best known for his contributions to human osteology and growth and development studies. He also influenced the field in several other important ways. Theoretically, his work challenged standard ideas on anthropometry, typology, and racial formalism. Academically, he mentored several important figures in the field, including Wilton Krogman, Melville Herskovitz, and W. Montague Cobb, the nation's first black physical anthropology Ph.D. Organizationally, he played a role in the formal professional organization of the field. A charter and executive board member of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists, he was serving as its president at the time of his death.
T
rauma
Authors: Judd Margaret A.
Published: October 2018

Trauma is frequently observed in skeletal analysis but its identification and interpretation presents many challenges, as we typically have no documentation or eyewitness account. Trauma can be accidental or intentional, lethal or nonfatal, and can affect soft tissue, bone, or both. Soft tissue injuries, fatal outcomes, and neurological effects after injury typically escape our detection. However, healed skeletal injuries reveal that, like ourselves, past people also experienced personal setbacks due to injuries that may have changed their lives forever or caused their deaths.
Trotter,Mildred
Authors: Pilloud Marin A.
Published: October 2018

Mildred Trotter (1899–1991) was a preeminent scholar in the fields of anatomy and anthropology, who made significant contributions to several fields of scientific inquiry. She was the first woman to achieve the title of full professor at Washington University School of Medicine (1946), the first female president of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists (1955–57), and the first woman to receive the Viking Fund Medal by the Wenner‐Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research (1956). She was also the director of the Central Identification Laboratory at Schofield Barracks following World War II (1948–49). Dr. Trotter retired from Washington University in 1967 after 47 years of service, but remained active in the field until her death in 1991 at the age of 92.
W
alker,
P
hillip
L.
Authors: Lambert Patricia M.
Published: October 2018

Phillip Lee Walker (1947–2009) was a biological anthropologist whose research focused on theoretical and methodological questions in bioarchaeology and dental anthropology. A member of the anthropology faculty at the University of California, Santa Barbara from 1974 until his death in 2009, he made significant contributions to the field in the areas of Chumash prehistory, age and sex estimation, the cause(s) of porotic hyperostosis and cribra orbitalia, and skeletal evidence for violence. He was a longstanding member of several research projects, including Health and Nutrition in the Western Hemisphere, A History of Health in Europe, and the Mosfell Archaeological Project, and served as the president of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists from 2003 to 2005.
W
ashburn,
S
herwood
L.
Authors: Zihlman Adrienne
Published: October 2018

Sherwood Washburn (1911–2000) was a central figure in the transformation of physical anthropology during the last half of the twentieth century. Virtually single‐handedly, he brought anthropology into “the modern synthesis,” invigorated primate anatomy, and revitalized the study of human evolution. Global in outlook, multidisciplinary in approach, and intuitive in analysis, he broke down barriers between paleontology, biology, and anatomy, and between social and physical anthropology.
Z
uckerman,
S
olly
Authors: Oxnard Charles
Published: October 2018

Solly Zuckerman (1904–93) began his career in South Africa and ended it in the United Kingdom, encompassing, in universities, research, teaching, and administration, scientific disciplines in medicine, anatomy, anthropology, biology, and behavior. His career also encompassed advising in both war and peace on defense, attack, science, scientific manpower, and scientific societies, together with many other scientific problems that come before governments. In spite of all his government work he maintained his academic positions for his entire life.
Eye color
Authors: Jablonski Nina G.
Published: October 2018

Most primates and humans have brown eyes. In humans, lighter eye colors are found mostly in Europe and can be traced to a single founder mutation that occurred about 10,000 years ago. Although eye color in humans is affected by many genes, it is controlled mostly by one single nucleotide polymorphism (of the
HERC2
locus) acting upon one gene (
OCA2
).
Assimilation model of modern human origins
Authors: Smith Fred H.
Published: October 2018

The assimilation model (AM) is a model of modern human evolution emphasizing an African origin for modern humans combined with a consistent pattern of low, but not insignificant, contributions from Eurasian archaic people to modern human populations as they migrated throughout the Old World. AM is compared with other models of later human evolution and is discussed in the framework of changes to scientific understanding of modern human origins. AM is often seen as a compromise between other models but in reality emerged as a unique biological approach rather than an attempt to “capture the middle ground.” Today AM is supported by morphological evidence as well as the emerging genetic picture of interbreeding, sometimes called hybridization, during the later phases of human evolution.
Paternal behavior
Authors: Gettler Lee T.
Published: October 2018

In studies of behavioral ecology and evolution, paternal behaviors are those expressed by fathers that benefit offspring well‐being, survival, and (ultimately) reproductive fitness. Paternal behavior is often characterized as being indirect, such as construction of shelter and resource defense—behaviors that might benefit offspring but do not require male–offspring interaction—or direct, such as carrying and grooming—behaviors that involve physical interaction and immediately benefit young. Mammalian males rarely invest in their young and particularly engage in few substantive direct interactions with their offspring. Among primates, including humans, indirect forms of paternal behavior are more common than direct forms. Recent phylogenetic analyses have shed light on potential socioecological pressures and benefits of male care that might select for intensive levels of paternal behavior.
Biparental behavior
Authors: Gettler Lee T.
Published: October 2018

The number of species expressing biparental behavior or biparental care is highly variable across major vertebrate taxonomic categories, being most commonly exhibited among birds, moderately common among fish and amphibians, and comparatively uncommon among mammals and reptiles. It is likely that biparental care is a derived component of reproductive strategies when found in vertebrates. Along with siamangs and New World monkeys, humans are one of the few primates that routinely engage in biparental care, although human paternal care is variable and diverse across cultures. Although the evolutionary importance or existence of hominin biparental care is debated, the phylogenetic history of the human lineage suggests that males would be unlikely to be inclined towards paternal care, hence contributing to biparental care, unless it had proved adaptive during our evolutionary past.
Nomenclature: usage
Authors: Cartmill Matt
Published: October 2018

The name of a species consists of two words, a genus term followed by a species term. The first is called the generic nomen (from Lat.
nomen
, “name”); the second is the specific nomen. The resulting two‐word name—the
Linnaean binomial
—is singular. Both the specific and generic terms are set off in italics (e.g.,
Homo sapiens
) or other contrasting type. The nomen of the genus is always capitalized; the species nomen is not. The nomina (Lat. plural
nomina
, “names”) of higher taxa are given in the plural form and capitalized. Their English equivalents may be singular or plural, and are not capitalized (e.g., “Rodentia” vs. “rodent, rodents”).
R
oberts,
D
erek
F.
Authors: Little Michael A.
Published: October 2018

Derek F. Roberts was a Cambridge‐ and Oxford‐trained biological anthropologist, who had early interests in human variation associated with biogeography, physique, and climate. His main contributions were in anthropological genetics, which is the study of small population genetics and demography within an evolutionary framework. His principal research was conducted during the second half of the twentieth century. He was also an important figure in promoting and participating in international research programs and professional associations.
S
tini,
W
illiam
Authors: Philip Rightmire G.
Published: October 2018

William Stini (B.B.A., University of Wisconsin–Madison, 1960; Ph.D., University of Wisconsin–Madison, 1969), an authority on human health and aging, had interests in the multifaceted role of nutrition in human evolution. Stini was Professor, University of Arizona (Tucson), serving as head of the Department of Anthropology (1980–89) and becoming involved with programs in community medicine, public health, and gerontology, as well as nutritional sciences. He was instrumental in planning a longitudinal study of bone mineral density, body mass, and health of populations in Sun City, Arizona. An important finding is that remodeling of the radial shaft results in a decrease in cortical bone that is more pronounced in women than in men. Stini interpreted these results in the light of calcium metabolism, noting that chronic conditions such as (postmenopausal) osteoporosis might represent “antagonistic pleiotropies.” A two‐term fellow of Linacre College, Oxford (1985), Stini also consulted with the National Cancer Institute and joined a subcommittee of the Arizona Governor's Advisory Council on Aging. Stini was physical anthropology editor for the
American Anthropologist
(1978–82), editor‐in‐chief of the
American Journal of Physical Anthropology
(1983–89), and president of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists (1989–91).
S
mith,
S
amuel
S
tanhope
Authors: Mann Alan
Published: October 2018

Samuel Stanhope Smith (1750–1819) is considered to be one of the first American biological anthropologists. In an 1810 book, Smith, an abolitionist, argued for the unity of humans as a single species, not only because of their single creation (monogenism), but because as a Lamarckian, he viewed human differences as being impermanent—the product of climate, the state of society, and their treatment as individuals. Hence he held slavery to be immoral, because slaves, being in bondage, could not realize their potential. Convinced of human malleability, he wrote that “it is impossible to draw the line precisely between the various races of men, or even to enumerate them with certainty; and that it is in itself a useless labor to attempt it.” Smith's notions of the unity of the human species, and especially his ideas about the non‐existence of human races, were exceedingly modern for his time.
H
arrison,
G
eoffrey
A
insworth
Authors: Little Michael A.
Published: October 2018

Geoffrey Harrison (1927–2017) was a biological anthropologist who was one of the leaders in the United Kingdom during the second half of the twentieth century. He was a member of a cohort of distinguished individuals who helped to move biological anthropology into the modern realm of human science and evolution. His more than 50 years of research spanned areas of genetic polymorphisms, adaptive and evolutionary models, climatic variation, child growth, high‐altitude stress, and the stress of modern life. This work was always conducted within contexts of evolution and biosocial adaptation.
A hybrid planning strategy for stereotactic body radiation therapy of early stage non‐small‐cell lung cancer
Authors: Liu Han , Sintay Benjamin , Pearman Keith , Shang Qingyang , Hayes Lane , Maurer Jacqueline , Vanderstraeten Caroline , Wiant David
Published: October 2018

Currently dynamic conformal arcs (DCA) and volumetric modulated arc therapy (VMAT) are two popular planning techniques to treat lung stereotactic body radiation therapy (SBRT) patients. Of the two, DCA has advantages in terms of multi‐leaf collimator (MLC) motion, positioning error, and delivery efficiency. However, VMAT is often the choice when critical organ sparing becomes important. We developed a hybrid strategy to incorporate DCA component into VMAT planning, results were compared with DCA and VMAT plans. Four planning techniques were retrospectively simulated for 10 lung SBRT patients: DCA, Hybrid‐DCA (2/3 of the doses from DCA beams), Hybrid‐VMAT (2/3 of the doses from VMAT beams) and VMAT. Plan complexity was accessed by modulation complexity score (MCS). Conformity index (CI) for the planning target volume (PTV), V20 and V5 for the lung, V30 for the chestwall, and maximum dose to all other critical organs were calculated. Plans were compared with regard to these metrics and measured agreement between the planned and delivered doses. DCA technique did not result in acceptable plan quality due to target location for five patients. Hybrid‐DCA produced one unacceptable plan, and Hybrid‐VMAT and VMAT produced no unacceptable plans. The CI improved with increasing VMAT usage, as did the dose sparing to critical structures. Compared to the VMAT technique, a total MU reduction of 14%, 25% and 37% were found for Hybrid‐VMAT, Hybrid‐DCA and DCA techniques for 54 Gy patient group, and 9%, 23% and 34% for 50 Gy patient group, suggesting improvement in delivery efficiency with increasing DCA usage. No significant variations of plan complexity were observed between Hybrid‐DCA and Hybrid‐VMAT (P = 0.46 from Mann–Whitney U‐test), but significant differences were found among DCA, Hybrid and VMAT (P < 0.05). Better agreements between the planned and delivered doses were found with more DCA contributions. By adding DCA components to VMAT planning, hybrid technique offers comparable dosimetry to full VMAT, while increasing delivery efficiency and minimizing MLC complexity.
Use of a commercial ion chamber detector array for the measurement of high spatial‐resolution photon beam profiles
Authors: Karimnia Vida , Belley Matthew D. , Rodgers Robert , Price Michael
Published: October 2018

Linear accelerator (linac) commissioning and quality assurance measurements are time‐consuming tasks that often require a water tank scanning system to acquire profile scans for full characterization of dosimetric beam properties. To increase efficiency, a method is demonstrated to acquire variable resolution, photon beam profile data using a commercially available ion chamber array (0.5 cm detector spacing). Field sizes of 2 × 2, 5 × 5, 10 × 10, and 15 × 15 cm2 were acquired at depths in solid water of dmax, 5 cm, and 10 cm; additionally, beam profiles for field sizes of 25 × 25 and 40 × 40 cm2 were acquired at 5 cm depth in solid water at x‐ray energies of 6 and 23 MV. 1D composite profiles were generated by combining discrete point measurements made at multiple couch positions. The 1D composite profile dataset was evaluated against a commissioning dataset acquired with a 3D water tank scan system utilizing (a) 0.125 cc ion chamber for 5 × 5, 10 × 10, 15 × 15, 25 × 25, and 40 × 40 field sizes and (b) a solid state detector for 2 × 2 cm2 field size. The two datasets were compared to the gamma criteria at 1%/1 mm and 2%/2 mm tolerance. Almost all pass rates exceeded 95% at 2%/2 mm except for the 6 MV 2 × 2 cm2 field size at dmax. Pass rates at 1%/1 mm ranged from 51% to 99%, with an average pass rate of 82%. A fourfold reduction in MU was achieved for scans larger than 15 × 15 cm2 using this method compared to the water tank scans. Further, dynamic wedge measurements acquired with the ion chamber array showed reasonable agreement with the treatment planning system. This method opens up new possibilities for rapid acquisition of variable resolution 2D–3D dosimetric data mitigating the need for acquiring all scan data with in‐water measurements.
Chewing gum while studying: Effects on alertness and test performance
Authors: Ginns Paul , Kim Theresa , Zervos Eleni
Published: October 2018

Recent research has demonstrated chewing gum can enhance various cognitive processes associated with learning, but most studies have used cognitive functioning tasks (e.g., selective attention and working memory) as outcomes. Across two experiments, we investigated effects of chewing gum on self‐reports of alertness and test performance following study of realistic educational materials. In Experiment 1 (n = 40), adult participants who chewed gum while studying a 20‐min physiology lesson outperformed a nonchewing condition on subsequent terminology and comprehension tests, but did not report higher levels of postlesson alertness as hypothesised. In Experiment 2 (n = 39), adult participants who chewed gum while studying a 9‐min lesson on a mental mathematics strategy outperformed a nonchewing condition on a subsequent problem‐solving test, whereas also reporting higher levels of postlesson alertness. The results provide initial support for chewing gum while studying realistic educational materials across a range of topics and study durations.
Student's metamemory knowledge about the impact of stereoscopic three‐dimensional presentations of science content
Authors: Dunlosky John , Dudley Daniel , Spitznagel Mary Beth , Clements Robert J.
Published: October 2018

We investigated students' knowledge and beliefs about the impact of using three‐dimensional (3D) multimedia presentations. Students listened to a lecture about the ventricular system, which was presented alone (Experiment 1 only) or with a 3D or a 2D video illustrating the system. Afterwards, students judged how well they would perform on a criterion test. In Experiment 1, students judged that the 3D presentation would be superior to listening to the lecture alone (d = 0.81). Mean judgments were higher for the 3D than 2D presentation (d = 0.24), but this difference was not significant, so we estimated the effect size again. In Experiment 2, judgments were significantly higher after the 3D than 2D presentations (d = 0.40). Test performance was not significantly greater after the 3D than 2D presentations. A survey study again revealed that students believe 3D presentations are superior, and most students reported preferring them to 2D presentations.
Inconsistent operations: A weapon of math disruption
Authors: Jarosz Andrew F. , Jaeger Allison J.
Published: October 2018

Word problems embed a math equation within a short narrative. Due to their structure, both numerical and linguistic factors can contribute to problem difficulty. The present studies explored the role of irrelevant information in word problems, to determine whether its negative impact is due to numerical (foregrounding hypothesis) or linguistic (inconsistent‐operations hypothesis) interference. Across three experiments, participants solved multiplication and division word problems containing irrelevant numerical information, which was either associated or disassociated with the protagonist. Results demonstrated increased solution errors on division problems when irrelevant numbers were disassociated with the protagonist. When memory for numerical information was emphasized, disassociation was specifically impacted low‐working memory individuals. The effect of disassociation on division performance persisted even when irrelevant numbers, but not words, were removed from problems. These results suggest that, even in the presence of numerically interfering information, it is the language of word problems that often drive their difficulty.
A fuzzy adaptive backstepping control based on mass observer for trajectory tracking of a quadrotor UAV
Authors: Zhou Laihong , Zhang Juqian , Dou Jingxin , Wen Bangchun
Published: October 2018

In this paper, a fuzzy adaptive backstepping control law that combines mass observer and fuzzy control strategy with backstepping control is developed for the trajectory tracking control of a quadrotor unmanned aerial vehicle. In the control law, the mass change disturbance to the flight control could be restrained by the mass observer to estimate the real‐time mass and correct the mass parameter of the quadrotor, and the time‐varying external disturbance to the flight control could be restrained by fuzzy compensation of the fuzzy control law. Lyapunov stability theorem is used to analyze the stability of the closed‐loop control system. Two cases of trajectory tracking numerical simulations are presented in MATLAB/SIMULINK simulation environment. In addition, the quadrotor hovering experiment was completed on the actual flight experimental system with the time‐varying disturbance from wind outdoors. The simulation and actual flight results illustrate that the proposed control strategy is effective and stable under the simulating environment and the actual environment.
Laser‐Induced Nanostructures on Titanium Surfaces as Developed in the Aeronautics and Space Industry Foster Osteoblast Activity and Function In Vitro
Authors: Jablonski Heidrun , Wedemeyer Christian , Rekasi Heike , Fietzek Heiko , Mertens Tobias , Kolb Max , Jäger Marcus , Kauther Max D.
Published: October 2018

The stability of orthopedic implants is governed by the interaction between the material's surface and bone cells. Nanosized structures seem to be promising in supporting the osseointegration of total joint replacements. In order to analyze whether nanostructured titanium surfaces, as generated by a short‐pulsed Nd:YVO4 laser irradiation process developed in the aeronautics and space industry as a “cold ablation” process, can be useful for orthopedic applications, their impact on bone cells is evaluated in vitro. Cell spreading and morphology on nanostructured titanium niobium nitride or titanium plasma‐sprayed surfaces are comparable to osteoblast behavior on corresponding untreated titanium or cells grown on cover glass. However, on the nanostructured surfaces cell numbers appear to be reduced. Nonetheless, cell viability is not affected by laser pretreatment. Interestingly, osteoblast proliferation on nanostructured titanium is inhibited to the benefit of an increased production of osteoblast‐specific proteins such as bone alkaline phosphatase, osteocalcin, or procollagen. Furthermore, an enhanced mineralization of cells grown on nanostructured surfaces is confirmed in terms of an elevated hydroxyapatite deposition. Laser irradiation leads to an additional nanostructure on microstructured titanium surfaces and might positively affect the biocompatibility and ingrowth of prostheses made from the corresponding biomaterials.
White OLEDs with an EQE of 21% at 5000 cd m−2 and Ultra High Color Stability Based on Exciplex Host
Authors: Zhao Juewen , Yuan Shaolin , Du Xiaoyang , Li Wan , Zheng Caijun , Tao Silu , Zhang Xiaohong
Published: October 2018

Exciplex has drawn attention because of its great potential for use as a host in organic light‐emitting diodes (OLEDs). Here a novel exciplex host formed with 3,3′‐di(9H‐carbazol‐9‐yl) biphenyl (m‐CBP) and 4,6‐bis (3,5‐di(pyridin‐4‐yl) phenyl)‐2‐phenylpyrimidine (B4PyPPM) is achieved. By utilizing m‐CBP:B4PyPPM exciplex host, blue, cyan, green, and red phosphorescent OLEDs exhibit maximum external quantum efficiencies (EQEs) of 26.2%, 26.1%, 24.7%, and 26.5%, respectively. Moreover, single‐emitting layer (EML) white organic light‐emitting devices (WOLEDs) are achieved by doping blue and red phosphorescent emitters, which exhibit high maximum EQEs of 23.9% and 26.9%. Even at a practical brightness of 5000 cd m−2, the two WOLEDs still keep high EQEs of 19.1% and 21.0%, respectively. Furthermore, multiple‐EML WOLEDs are also constructed with efficiencies of 18.9% and 21.0% at the practical brightness of 5000 cd m−2. The devices show extremely stable white emission with small Commission Internationale de L'Eclairage (CIE) coordinate varying range of (±0.001, ± 0.000) from 100 to 100 00 cd m−2. The outstanding features presented here can provide a good reference for future design of high‐performance WOLEDs.
A Review of Functional Binders in Lithium–Sulfur Batteries
Authors: Yuan Hong , Huang Jia‐Qi , Peng Hong‐Jie , Titirici Maria‐Magdalena , Xiang Rong , Chen Renjie , Liu Quanbing , Zhang Qiang
Published: October 2018

Lithium–sulfur (Li–S) batteries have received tremendous attention due to their superior theoretical energy density of 2600 Wh kg−1, as well as the abundance of sulfur resources and its environmental friendliness. Polymer binders as an indispensable component in cathodes play a critical role in maintaining the structural integrity and stability of electrodes. Additionally, multifunctional polymer binders have been involved in Li–S batteries to benefit electrochemical performance by mitigating the shuttle effect, facilitating the electron/ion transportation, and propelling the redox kinetics. In the context of the significant impact of binders on the performance of Li–S batteries, recent progress in research on polymer binders in sulfur cathodes is herein summarized. Focusing on the functions and effects of the polymer binders, the authors hope to shed light on the rational construction of robust and stable sulfur cathode for high‐energy‐density Li–S batteries. Perspectives regarding the future research opportunities in Li–S batteries are also discussed.
Unveiling Conversion Reaction on Intercalation‐Based Transition Metal Oxides for High Power, High Energy Aqueous Lithium Battery
Authors: Zhi Jian , Li Shengkai , Han Mei , Lou Yuxuan , Chen P.
Published: October 2018

Aqueous lithium batteries are reaching their energy and power limits partly due to limited capacity from intercalation chemistry. Alternatively, conversion reactions bring added capacity that can significantly increase the capacity ceiling of the cell. However, such reactions can only be realized in organic electrolytes, and similar redox chemistry in aqueous lithium batteries is not reported yet. In this work, it is discovered that a large work function difference (up to 1.78 eV) between crystalline LiMn2O4 (cLMO) and semicrystalline MnO2 (scMO) makes energy bands of MnO2 bend downward toward their interface, resulting in the accumulation of free electrons on scMO and inducing a reversible conversion reaction between scMO and Li+ in aqueous media. Based on this mechanism, a rechargeable hybrid aqueous battery employing hierarchical porous cLMO–scMO composite as a cathode delivers an extremely high cell‐level energy (171 Wh kg−1) and power density (5118 W kg−1) with excellent cycling stability (up to 3000 cycles) in a wide working temperature range (25 to 60 °C). More significantly, similar conversion reactions can also be achieved on LiCoO2, which provides a general design principle to obtain unprecedented energy and power density in commonly used transition metal oxides.
Opportunities and challenges for intranasal oxytocin treatment studies in nonhuman primates
Authors: Bauman Melissa D. , Murai Takeshi , Hogrefe Casey E. , Platt Michael L.
Published: October 2018

Nonhuman primates provide a human‐relevant experimental model system to explore the mechanisms by which oxytocin (OT) regulates social processing and inform its clinical applications. Here, we highlight contributions of the nonhuman primate model to our understanding of OT treatment and address unique challenges in administering OT to awake behaving primates. Prior preclinical research utilizing macaque monkeys has demonstrated that OT can modulate perception of other individuals and their expressions, attention to others, imitation, vigilance to social threats, and prosocial decisions. We further describe ongoing efforts to develop an OT delivery system for use in experimentally naïve juvenile macaque monkeys compatible with naturalistic social behavior outcomes. Finally, we discuss future directions to further develop the rhesus monkey as a preclinical test bed to evaluate the effects of OT exposure and advance efforts to translate basic science OT research into safe and effective OT therapies.