bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Celan, Sebald, Hoppe
Authors: Duttlinger Carolin
Published: August 2022

The book concludes with an outlook to post-war and contemporary literature, singling out three writers who engage with the nexus between attention and memory. For poet Paul Celan, writing after and about the Holocaust, attention is essential for an ongoing, living engagement with the past. As he argues in his famous ‘Meridian’ speech, the modern poem often centres around a particular moment in history and thereby embodies a particular, dialogical practice of attention. Celan’s ‘Meridian’ speech cites Benjamin’s ‘Kafka’ essay, and Kafka is also an interlocutor for W. G. Sebald, whose narratives explore the dynamics of (in)attention in dialogue with literary predecessors such as Kafka’s Hunter Gracchus. While Celan and Sebald privilege a contemplative form of remembrance, Felicitas Hoppe’s historical novel Johanna enacts a more provisional and intermittent engagement with the past, one which, echoing Benjamin’s model of materialist history, is predicated on utmost alertness, Geistesgegenwart, in the face of danger.
From Law and Literature to Legality and Affect
Authors: Olson Greta
Published: August 2022

From Law and Literature to Legality and Affect represents a sustained argument for the continued vitality of Law and Literature. It argues that the traditional methods of Law and Literature can be combined with work in critical media studies, affect theory, and cultural narratology to address topics such as ethnonationalism, anti-immigration sentiments, and systemic racism in nations like Germany and the United States. Taking stock of the pluralization and diversification of the field at 50 years from a comparative standpoint, the book understands Law and Literature as a political project. This has a precedence in inaugural Law and Literature texts like Jacob Grimm’s Von der Poesie im Recht (On the Poetry in Law) from 1815/16, which imagines an alternative legal order grounded in the unity of law, poetic language, and feeling. The political thrust of Law and Literature continues up into the present with the arts of BlackLivesMatter documenting and resisting police violence against Black people. Law and Literature offers keys for understanding how legal identities are constructed, for analyzing how legal texts are formally constructed, and for comprehending how cultural-legal issues are mediated using affective means. Using cultural, medial, affect theoretical and narrative analyses of law, a revitalized Law and Literature offers a set of methods and theories with which to address the most pressing current issues.
Transforming World Trade and Investment Law for Sustainable Development
Authors: Petersmann Ernst-Ulrich
Published: August 2022

Transforming World Trade and Investment Law for Sustainable Development explains why the 2030 UN Sustainable Development Agenda for ‘Transforming our World’—aimed at realizing ‘the human rights of all’ and seventeen agreed Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)—requires transforming the United Nations (UN) and World Trade Organization (WTO) legal systems, as well as international investment law and adjudication. UN and WTO law protect regulatory competition between diverse neo-liberal, state capitalist, European ordo-liberal, and third-world conceptions of multilevel trade and investment regulation. However, geopolitical rivalries and trade wars increasingly undermine transnational rule of law and effective regulation of market failures, governance failures, and constitutional failures. For example, the intergovernmental negotiations in the context of the 1992 UN Framework Convention on Climate Change have failed to prevent or considerably limit climate change. In order to prevent trade, investment, energy, and climate conflicts, sustainable development requires reforming trade, investment, and environmental rules and dispute settlement systems. The global health pandemics confirm the need for constitutional reforms of multilevel governance of global public goods. Investment law and adjudication must better reconcile governmental duties to protect human rights and decarbonize economies with the property rights of foreign investors. The constitutional, human rights, and environmental litigation in Europe enhances the legal accountability of democratic governments for protecting sustainable development, but European economic constitutionalism has been rejected by Anglo-Saxon neo-liberalism, China’s authoritarian state capitalism, and many third-world governments. The more that regional economic orders (like the China-led Belt and Road networks) reveal heterogeneity and power politics block UN and WTO reforms, the more the US-led neo-liberal world order risks disintegrating. UN and WTO law must promote private–public network governance, civil society participation, and stronger judicial accountability in order to stabilize and depoliticize multilevel governance of the SDGs.
European Economic Constitutionalism: Constitutional Approaches to Sustainable Development?
Authors: Petersmann Ernst-Ulrich
Published: August 2022

Chapter 5 describes Europe’s multilevel constitutionalism, which emerged in response to long-standing constitutional failures and ongoing struggles to protect human rights, democracy, and rule of law in the relations among the now forty-seven member states of the Council of Europe. Europe’s twenty-first-century constitutionalism aims at limiting market failures (like abuses of corporate power, social injustices), governance failures (like inadequate fiscal and debt policies, insufficient proportionality balancing), and constitutional failures (e.g. in protecting rule of law) by linking external policy reforms (e.g. for realizing climate change mitigation) to internal EU reforms (like decarbonizing the economy, strengthening health infrastructures, and human rights remedies). Constitutional approaches enable more effective protection of human rights, rule of law, and other sustainable development goals. For instance, the EU common market constitution is embedded into the European human rights constitution protecting multilevel guarantees of human rights, constitutional rights, proportionality of governmental restrictions, and judicial remedies not only inside all twenty-seven EU member states but also in the external relations of the EU. These multilevel judicial remedies were invoked by the European Court of Justice (CJEU) for confirming the legal obligations of the twenty-seven EU member states to replace investor–state arbitration in intra-EU relations among EU member states by the multilevel judicial remedies and institutional guarantees of EU law. EU constitutional law requires public law restraints on investment arbitration also in the external relations of the EU, as provided for in the EU free trade agreements with Canada, Mexico, Singapore, and Vietnam.
Universals (II)
Authors: Ott Walter
Published: August 2022

The chapter begins with the so-called ‘inference problem’: how does the universals theory propose to infer from the N-relation among universals to regularities involving them? The chapter divides the objection in two. First is the legitimacy problem: with what right does it posit such a connection? The chapter argues that the universals theorist has a satisfactory reply. Matters are different when we turn to the mechanism version of the objection: how, exactly, does the N-relation produce or bring about regularities? The chapter argues that the only solution lies in re-casting the nature of the N-relation. Rather than making it an extrinsic relation that varies across possible worlds, the universals theory should cast it as an internal relation, which obtains in virtue of the monadic properties of the relata. The chapter also argues that the best version of the universals view will posit a single N-relation knitting together all the universals instantiated in a given world. Law statements, then, will be reflections of the single maxi-N fact; any ceteris paribus clauses will indicate our ignorance of that fact.
The Arguments for Powers
Authors: Ott Walter
Published: August 2022

This chapter covers the core arguments for the powers ontology. The first style of argument appeals to science. Some argue, for example, that, at the fundamental level, science discovers nothing but dispositional properties. The chapter argues that such appeals are unconvincing, for it might be in the nature of science to posit only dispositional qualities for whatever particles it is currently treating as fundamental. Other arguments are metaphysical, and suggest that a regress threatens if we fail to posit irreducibly dispositional properties. The chapter uses the failure of some of these arguments to help select the best ontology for a powers theorist. The chapter concludes by arguing that the powers theorist is best served by rejecting pan-dispositionalism and embracing an ontology that includes both powers and categorical properties.
Facing up to the Moderns
Authors: Ott Walter
Published: August 2022

The chapter argues that the contemporary powers theory has yet to face up to the challenges issued by the moderns, when they first rejected Aristotelianism. Chief among their arguments is the ‘little souls’ argument: if bodies had powers, they would have to have minds that told them how to behave in every situation. The chapter argues that Williams’s problem of fit is the little souls argument all over again. The problem of fit asks how each power can be precisely calibrated to every other, such that it performs just as it must, given the nature of the powers it finds itself co-instantiated with. The chapter considers an alternative developed by Locke and Boyle, namely, that powers are multi-laterally reducible. To say that a key has the power to open a lock is just to say something about the shapes and sizes of those two objects. The chapter reluctantly concludes that Locke and Boyle are operating with a geometrical model that is untenable. Instead, the best version of the powers view will posit a single power, the ‘Blower,’ which animates the single object (‘Blobject’) that is the world.
The Alternatives
Authors: Ott Walter
Published: August 2022

This chapter canvasses three anti-realist competitors to the best system analysis. First is conservative projectivism, which takes laws to be regularities, but lawhood to consist in our attitude toward those regularities. It suffers the same problems as the best system analysis, and cannot resolve the central tension. Next is contemporary projectivism, which denies that laws are regularities and rejects the claim that laws supervene on the mosaic. The chapter argues that there is much worth preserving in this version of projectivism, particularly the idea that laws are to be used to generate models that then fit the world or do not. But the chapter goes on to argue for an anti-realism that preserves supervenience. The ‘rules’ theory says that laws are model-generating rules that supervene on the mosaic in the sense that the laws cannot be changed without changing the mosaic, or changing the cognitive needs and limitations of the kind of creature for whom they must serve as laws. The rules theory is advertised as superior to any of the anti-realisms so far covered.
Introduction
Authors: Lovett Frank
Published: August 2022

Republicanism is a coherent tradition organized around three principles: the non-domination principle, the empire of law principle, and the popular control principle. Both classical republicans from Machiavelli through Harrington to Madison subscribe to these principles, and also contemporary republicans such as Pettit, Skinner, and Viroli. The non-domination principle holds that we should aim to reduce domination in the design of law, policies, and institutions. The empire of law principle holds that public uses of coercive force must be controlled by law. And the popular control principle holds that top public officials must be subject to sufficient popular control. Republicanism is not necessarily incompatible with liberalism, but it is not compatible with versions of liberalism that subscribe to principles of neutrality or that substitute non-interference for non-domination. Freedom from domination, on the republican view, is institutionally-constituted, and because republican institutions depend on citizen support for their maintenance, republican freedom is an ongoing collective project. Freedom from domination is a public good: in a well-ordered republic, institutions would be so designed as to ensure that citizens will contribute to the maintenance of that freedom.
Learning to Experiment
Authors: Neyroud Peter
Published: August 2022

Evidence-based policing is both a controversial and relatively new approach to policing. Since Sherman’s original framing of the idea in 1998, much of the focus has been on the merits of experimental designs in evaluating police interventions. Too little emphasis has been placed on how the police learn to experiment and learn from experimentation. Using the author’s analysis of the body of completed randomised controlled trials (RCTs) in policing and a more detailed exploration of conduct and management of Operation Turning Point, the chapter will draw out the emerging framework of a new discipline for policing—learning by testing. There are many dimensions to this discipline that need to be understood and managed to enable experimentation (which is, after all, the testing of a change process) to succeed and learning to be derived and disseminated. Implementation or the successful conduct and management of the experiment is not enough, because, as the analysis demonstrates there needs to be a larger commitment to the ownership and integration of the lessons of the research into practice. As part of this, the importance of police officer education in the applied science of policing is emphasised.
What Is Penal Populism?
Authors: Garland David
Published: August 2022

This paper explores the empirical, conceptual, and normative issues raised by the notion of ‘penal populism’. It discusses the relations between the media, the public, and political representatives. It considers the balance between professional expertise and community sentiment in the formulation of penal policy—especially in respect of measures where moral rather than instrumental considerations appear to predominate. It raises theoretical and empirical questions about the nature of ‘public opinion’; methodological questions about how best to take its measure; and political questions about its proper status in the democratic process. It discusses the historical conditions that brought ‘penal populism’ to prominence as well as institutional and comparative questions about its varying capacity to shape policy. And it considers the professional responsibilities of penal experts in relation to policy formation and political debate.
Penal Legitimacy, Well-Being, and Trust
Authors: Liebling Alison
Published: August 2022

This chapter introduces selected strands of Tony Bottoms’ empirical and theoretical work which are most relevant to the chapter author’s research, undertaken with others, on prisons. It focuses in particular on the shared interest in the links between social order and legitimacy in prison and broader socio-political ideas. It reflects on the direction in which a sustained programme of prisons research, conducted with others, and with strong roots in the original theoretical and empirical domains outlined in Prisons and the Problem of Order in particular, is taking us and how Tony’s continuing work resonates with empirical explorations of contemporary prison life. It shows how Tony’s theoretical instincts in relation to the prison, in his work with Richard Sparks and Will Hay, have been empirically verified, and also developed, in particular to incorporate notions of individual well-being and trust. It outlines why his preoccupation with the virtues, and how they might be grown, matters. The ‘crisis of trust and social order’ in prisons and in modern communities is, as Tony recently put it, ‘morally serious’. This chapter illustrates the extent to which this is the case.
The Father of Poetry and the Father of Criticism
Authors: Hopkins David , Mason Tom
Published: August 2022

This chapter examines the criticism of Chaucer by John Dryden, famously described by Samuel Johnson as ‘the father of English criticism’. Dryden’s remarks on Chaucer in the Preface to his Fables Ancient and Modern are discussed in detail, with particular attention being paid to the paradoxical and apparently contradictory suggestions that they contain, and to the seemingly rambling and unmethodical style of Dryden’s exposition. Dryden’s understanding of Chaucer’s metre and versification are examined and compared with those of Chaucer’s editors, Urry and Thomas Morell. It is argued that contrary to the suggestions of some later commentators, Dryden’s remarks about the imperfections of Chaucer’s metrics are perfectly understandable in the light of the texts of Chaucer that were available to him, since no form of pronunciation could have made those texts scan consistently as iambic pentameter. Dryden’s larger suggestion that Chaucer is both antiquated and comparable to Virgil is explored. Dryden’s admiration for Chaucer’s good sense, comprehensive soul, descriptions of human nature, and perpetual paternal place in the course of English poetry is described in relation to Dryden’s master paradox: that the laws governing human nature are inescapably permanent, while every single aspect of their manifestations changes continually and inexorably.
Chaucer and The Temples of Fame
Authors: Hopkins David , Mason Tom
Published: August 2022

This chapter is principally focused on the versions of The House of Fame by Alexander Pope and Jane Brereton. These renderings are examined both for their own sakes and for the light they cast on the overall theme of the present book: the changing fame and fortunes of Chaucer’s poetry. It is argued that Pope’s and Brereton’s poems, and the interrelations between them, suggest that, in poetry, true filial inheritance is displayed not merely by reproduction of one’s predecessors, but in producing work that is as innovative, extraordinary, and original as theirs. Both Pope and Brereton, it is argued, found in Chaucer an example of what poetry might do that was directly applicable to their immediate needs as aspiring poets. The chapter ends with some illustrations (taken from the later poetry of Pope) of the ways in which small fragments of Chaucerian verse worked their way into the imaginations of later poets, and reappeared in unexpected circumstances.
The remedial component
Authors: Siatitsa Ilia
Published: August 2022

This chapter focuses on the remedial response to serious violations of human rights as the last component of the special regime—the remedial one. It analyses both the procedures to facilitate access to remedies and the remedies awarded to victims of such violations. On the one hand, it examines how the international community alone or in collaboration with the state concerned have been building ad hoc reparation programmes to address exclusively serious violations of human rights and not any human rights breach—often referred to as ‘mass claims procedures’. On the other hand, it follows the evolution of reparations before the regional human rights courts—primarily the European and the Inter-American Courts. It identifies specific procedures that take into account the gravity of violations before them, as well as specific remedies that are primarily awarded to victims of serious violations of human rights.
Clement’s Grammatical Archive
Authors: Ward H. Clifton
Published: August 2022

Chapter 3 having furnished a reading of Clement’s reading, Chapters 4 and 5 zoom in closer to magnify the particular practices Clement employs in his reading of the biblical texts in the fifth book of the Stromateis. Chapter 4 outlines a number of the commentarial assumptions that Clement brings to Scripture in his interpretation. There are inherent properties that Scripture possesses per se which aid the Christian reader in explicating its obscurities, that is, in the spirit of the grammatical tradition examined in Chapter 1, Clement articulates fundamental assumptions about the authorship of Scripture, the narrative—or hypothesis—of Scripture, and the goal (skopos) of Scripture.
Reading as “Creative Exegesis”
Authors: Ward H. Clifton
Published: August 2022

In a striking image at the outset of his magisterial Stromateis, Clement describes his teacher Pantaenus as “the true Sicilian bee, culling flowers from the meadow of the prophets and apostles and producing a pure substance of knowledge in the souls of his hearers.” In noting that the imagery of a bee culling honey from the flowers was a prominent image for grammatical work in the Second Sophistic, this chapter makes the case that Clement considers exegesis as a process of rhetorical invention (inventio). Classics scholars have argued that grammatical exegesis and the language of the commentary supplant and displace ancient rhetoric as the preeminent academic discourse in the Middle Ages. This chapter suggests, however, that such a transformation happened even earlier. It examines the metaphors for rhetorical memory in antiquity (e.g., a treasury, bees culling honey, and digestion), focusing on writers such as Plato, Seneca, and Philo of Alexandria. After surveying the role of rhetorical memory in ancient reading practices, it examines Clement’s employment of these metaphors throughout his corpus. It argues that, when taken collectively, these metaphors reveal the significant role of memory in the process of reading and study both in antiquity broadly and specifically in early Christian exegesis.
“Faith in the Only Perfect Man”
Authors: Ward H. Clifton
Published: August 2022

Chapter 9 turns to the second sense of Scripture’s twofold mystery. Building upon the unity of Father–Son, Clement found it was the goal of the Christian life to believe in the Son and thus “become unitary.” For Clement, this goal of God’s action in the divine economy is most clearly expressed in Ephesians 4, where Paul introduces Christ as the “perfect man,” the likeness to which all men are educated. Moreover, Clement routinely connects other scriptural texts that hint at this progressive pedagogy—especially 1 Corinthians 3—with Ephesians 4 to emphasize that the movement from faith through knowledge to love is not best viewed sequentially but as a single divine act of pedagogy.
Epilogue
Authors: Ward H. Clifton
Published: August 2022

The Epilogue quickly rehearses the major theses of the book. By exploring the practices of Clement’s exegesis, regardless of our estimation of the success of these techniques, we find that Clement nevertheless claims that the exegesis of Scripture built on the commentarial activity of the grammarian is the foundational practice of Christian theology. To conclude, the Epilogue suggests that this is true not merely for Clement. Scriptural exegesis is at the heart of the development of all early Christian theology. And although I am not the first scholar to make this claim, the weight of this study suggests that scholars would be best served by analyzing the creative exegesis of individual Christian readers before proposing any judgments on the substance of “early Christian theology” or even “patristic exegesis” as a whole. One might just find that Clement—frequently neglected as both a theologian and an exegete—proves a veritable prophet on the Christian exegetical tradition that follows him.
‘After Him a King Will Arise’
Authors: Stevens Kathryn
Published: August 2022

Chapter 4 revisits ‘resistance’ in Seleucid Babylonia through the cuneiform scholarly texts, in particular the Late Babylonian Chronicles, Astronomical Diaries, and ex eventu prophecies. The relatively ‘unnegative’ picture of the Seleucids that emerges from the Diaries and Chronicles can give the impression that the Babylonians (or at least the temple elites who produced these texts) were generally content with the Seleucid imperial regime. It is clear, however, that Babylonian scholars of the Hellenistic period were consistently engaging with Seleucid kingship in an evaluative way. Whether through reports of contemporary royal patronage (or the lack thereof), or ex eventu predictions about the fates of good and bad kings, Akkadian texts of the Hellenistic period articulate paradigms of royal action against which rulers might be judged, and while there is no blanket rejection of the Macedonian Dynasty, it seems that not all Seleucid rulers were judged favourably. While the lacunose and laconic nature of the material makes it difficult to ascertain the precise evaluative force of individual statements, clusters of negativity can be detected around Antiochus IV and Seleucus I, two rulers who, significantly, are associated with ‘Hellenizing’ activity in and beyond Babylonia. It is debatable whether these cases can be classed as ‘resistance literature’ or viewed as anti-Hellenic or anti-Hellenistic. Yet the identification and analysis of such clusters of concern or critique can facilitate a more differentiated history of elite responses to Hellenistic imperialism, within Babylonia and elsewhere.
Revolts, Resistance, and the Materiality of the Moral Order in Ptolemaic Egypt
Authors: Moyer Ian S.
Published: August 2022

As a counterpoint to socio-economic explanations of revolts in Ptolemaic Egypt as ‘natural’ responses to material and social privations, Chapter 6 re-examines material and documentary evidence that illuminates the indigenous cultural and moral frameworks through which historical actors justified and articulated resistance. In documentary reports, and damaged documents themselves, it is possible to catch a glimpse of meaningful symbolic actions, undertaken in public ways and places in order to contest the legality or legitimacy of the regime. Such actions are a more humble counterpart to recondite prophetic texts such as the Demotic Chronicle or the Oracle of the Potter. The withdrawal of farmers from unfair contracts and the issuance of their refusal from the precinct of a temple suggests not irrational flight, but the quasi-formal registration of protest in a place that was often used for the administration of justice. Evidence of the intentional defacement of inscribed versions of the Canopus decree, erected in the open areas of Egyptian temples, likewise suggests a public rejection of loyal priests’ praise for the Ptolemies as good pharaohs. Rebels who forced a guardian of contracts publicly to burn them intended not only to disrupt legal agreements, but also to reject the authority backing them. Though fleeting, these bits of evidence offer insights into the local ethical orientations of specific acts of resistance, acts that should be read as far as possible in their own terms.
An Impossible Resistance? Anatolian Populations, Ethnicity, and Greek Powers in Asia Minor during the Second Century bce
Authors: Capdetrey Laurent
Published: August 2022

Chapter 7 deals with the phenomena of acculturation in Asia Minor and Anatolia at the end of the Classical period and, above all, during the Hellenistic period. The aim is to study the forms of cultural and material expression of regional identities in a context marked by both the Greco-Macedonian conquest and powerful regional identities. The question of violence and conflict is an important part of this study. It appears that the affirmation of otherness through the staging of violence was above all a tool of the Greek-Macedonians much more than of other populations. And when regional identities were gradually expressed, in Lycia for example, it was at the price of abandoning a certain form of ethnicity.
Introduction
Authors: Gupta Suman
Published: August 2022

The differences between political and commercial catchphrases are described. A pragmatic approach to engaging with contemporary history is proposed, and some of the challenges of historicizing the present are noted. These are discussed to the degree needed at this initial stage to proceed towards the case studies in subsequent chapters, with further elaboration deferred to the final chapter. The design of the study as a whole is outlined. The sequence of chapters covering cases studies is explained, and some of the cross-connections are highlighted. The case studies, it is observed, may be read independently of each other but would be more profitably read in relation to each other and as developing a continuous argument.
Orwell and Empire
Authors: Kerr Douglas
Published: August 2022

George Orwell was born in India, and served in the Imperial Police in Burma as a young man. Orwell and Empire is a study of his writing about the East, and the East in his writing. It argues that empire was central to his cultural identity, and that his experience of colonial life was a crucial factor, in ways that have not been recognized, in shaping the writer he became. Orwell and Empire is about all his writings, fictional and non-fictional. It pays particular attention to work that derives directly from his Burmese years, including the well-known narratives ‘A Hanging’ and ‘Shooting an Elephant’ and his first novel, Burmese Days. It goes on to explore the theme of empire throughout his work, through to Nineteen Eighty-Four and beyond, charting the way his evolving views on, for example, class, race, gender, and authority were shaped by his experience in the East and the Anglo-Indian attitudes he had inherited. Orwell’s socialism and his hatred of authoritarianism, for example, grew out of his anti-imperialism, as The Road to Wigan Pier makes explicit. But this was not a straightforward repudiation, or a painless process. He understood that ‘it is very difficult to escape, culturally, from the class into which you have been born’. His whole career was a creative quarrel with himself and with his Anglo-Indian patrimony. In a way that anticipates our current debates about the imperial legacy, he struggled to come to terms with his own history.
Introduction
Authors: Kerr Douglas
Published: August 2022

This chapter starts with the half-buried presence of the Oriental throughout British culture, at a time when almost everyone knew somebody who had worked in the East on imperial, military, or commercial business. It introduces the Anglo-Indians, a now extinct officer class of those who worked or had returned from the East, describes their characteristics, styles, and prejudices. The chapter tells briefly the story of Orwell’s life in contact with the Orient, including his family background, his service in the Imperial Police in Burma, and his work in the Eastern Service of the BBC. It shows how Orwell inherited Anglo-Indian reflexes and behaviours, even as he struggled all through his life to get rid of them. His Anglo-Indian experience and patrimony lie behind all his writing, and determined his political evolution as well as his understanding of his place in his country and the world.
Animals
Authors: Kerr Douglas
Published: August 2022

There are animals in all of Orwell’s books. This chapter finds that his descriptions of animals, in fiction and memoir, were a way of working out his political views and his feelings towards actual or fictional situations. The dog that appears in ‘A Hanging’, the elephant in ‘Shooting an Elephant’, and the wildlife of the Burmese jungle in the novel Burmese Days, are all figures of empathy and alienation in imperial contexts. Inherited beliefs in racial superiority sometimes cast local people in the role of animals, unable to think or speak for themselves, and in Orwell’s work such perceptions (the black soldier in Morocco, the woman at the drainpipe in Wigan) are often jolted into feelings of both sympathy and guilt. The climax of such thinking is found in Animal Farm.
Environment
Authors: Kerr Douglas
Published: August 2022

This chapter concentrates on Orwell’s first novel, Burmese Days, and begins from his claim that in novels about the East, the scenery is the real subject-matter. The action takes place in an upcountry Burmese town, surrounded by jungle. The Bible said that man had been given dominion over nature, and control of nature and the environment is an important part of imperial authority. But Romanticism had also educated people like Orwell to have a profound, quasi-religious sympathy for everything natural, an idea that would become the basis for environmentalism. The protagonist Flory has a Romantic enjoyment of nature, as Orwell did, but also finds himself cast in hostile or destructive roles (as timber merchant, and big-game hunter). Themes of the recovery and spoliation of nature are followed through to later works, such as Coming Up for Air.
Empire
Authors: Kerr Douglas
Published: August 2022

For Orwell, the imperial model was always oriental, the centre of gravity of the Empire was British India, and its rationale was basically economic. His indictment of imperialism as a combination of racism and exploitation is dramatized in dialogue and action in Burmese Days (1934) and elaborated in his writings over the next fifteen years. The imperial theme persists in his three ‘English’ novels of the 1930s; in Keep the Aspidistra Flying, there is ‘a vision of London, of the western world’ which is simultaneously empire and global capitalism. Orientals were the poor of the world, and empire corrupted imperialists and their subjects alike. Other empires might be even worse. Hitler planned ‘a horrible brainless empire’, while in broadcasts for the BBC, in wartime, Orwell found himself, ironically, warning Indians against Japanese imperialism. He foresaw correctly, however, that empire would be succeeded by nationalism, which always imperils minorities. His struggles with the imperial legacy foreshadow our own.
Geography
Authors: Kerr Douglas
Published: August 2022

This chapter discusses how Orwell writes about the ‘false map of the world’ created by what Edward Said later called Orientalism, an imperial view of the Earth and its peoples, first encountered in classroom and church, and supported by theories of racial superiority that saw people in the East as poor and backward because of their nature. It explains how Orwell sought to overturn this prejudice, first in himself and then in others. In weekly wartime news commentaries for the BBC, he draws an imaginary world map with India (not Greenwich) at the centre, at a moment of crisis in world history. It is argued that he was already contemplating the geography of Nineteen Eighty-Four, with its three warring empires and their battlefield in a fourth, disputed space, corresponding roughly with what came to be called the Third World and including most former British colonial possessions.
Race
Authors: Kerr Douglas
Published: August 2022

European imperialism justified itself in terms of a ‘science’ of racial hierarchy with white people at the top. Orwell experienced racial injustice in the East and sought to emancipate himself from racial thinking: he concluded there was no such thing as race, which was ‘the invention of conquering nations’. Nonetheless, while some of his compatriots shrank from Asians as ‘beastly’, he writes with strange enthusiasm about the beauty of Burmese men. The dark suffering face became his recurring metonym for injustice. After Burma he says he was haunted by the ‘innumerable remembered faces’ of Burmese imprisoned, beaten, and condemned: in Nineteen Eighty-Four, the future is a boot stamping on a human face. In wartime, African Americans and Jews joined his list of victims of racial injustice, and he struggled to understand anti-Semitism: ‘the Jew is evidently a scapegoat, though for what he is a scapegoat we do not yet know’.
The Law
Authors: Kerr Douglas
Published: August 2022

This chapter considers the law in two related aspects: the written law and its institutions, and the unwritten law—what might be called the law of failure—that ensures that all attempts to escape in Orwell’s fiction come to nothing. Orwell was temperamentally a rebel, but in Burma he had been a lawman. The British Empire prided and justified itself on the rule of law: government was bound by the rule of law, and anti-British nationalists, like the lawyers Gandhi and Nehru, could use the law to their advantage. But the law that mandated equality was over-ridden by the code of the pukka sahib, which ensured that some people remained more equal than others. These themes are played out in Animal Farm, where a Utopian written law is corrupted and betrayed. In Nineteen Eighty-Four, the language Newspeak is designed to take the place of the law, making rebellion unspeakable. Would it work?
Literature
Authors: Kerr Douglas
Published: August 2022

The whole of this book has been about Orwell the writer. This chapter focuses on literature, beginning with a comparison between Orwell and Rudyard Kipling, both Anglo-Indian writers of empire, one a frank imperialist and the other equally adamant against empire. Orwell loved and hated Kipling all his life. Next there is an examination of other writers about oriental subjects who were important to Orwell, including Conrad and Somerset Maugham, and of his own assessment of his literary contemporaries in the essay ‘Inside the Whale’. The chapter ends with a comparison between Orwell and another writer, his friend Mulk Raj Anand, a novelist and journalist who has been called Indo-Anglian. Kipling and Anand supply the two poles of Orwell’s literary universe, the imperial East of the past which continued to beguile him, and the postcolonial East of the future, which he championed.
Setting the Scene
Authors: Kristjánsson Kristján
Published: August 2022

This introductory chapter maps the field and sets the scene for what follows. It begins by offering an analysis of the main ingredients of Aristotle’s theory of friendship (philia) with a special focus on the tripartite division between friendship for character/virtue, utility and pleasure, and the distinction between equal and unequal friendships. The idea of the intrinsic value of friendship is also explored. Aristotle’s background theory of virtue, flourishing and education for character is explained, as well as Aristotle’s methodological naturalism. A subsequent section then offers a brief historical overview of the friendship literature from Aristotle to the 20th century, with important stop-overs in Montaigne, the Christian medieval philosophers, Nietzsche and Emerson. Finally, a section is devoted to current psychological research on friendship and how it relates, or fails to relate, to the classical sources, in particular Aristotle.
Fragile Friendships
Authors: Kristjánsson Kristján
Published: August 2022

Aristotle claims that friendship of the highest kind—‘character friendship’—is stable and enduring. However, Aristotle is surprisingly cavalier about the formation and sustaining of character friendship, as if those are relatively unproblematic from psycho-moral and psycho-social perspectives. The main aim of this chapter is to repair the dearth of attention paid to these problematic areas. More specifically, it addresses five potential problems attached to character friendships between ‘equals’ (of substitutability, self-verification, mismatched developmental levels, divergent developmental paths, initiation and trust) and five problems between ‘unequals’ (of proportionality, the disciple’s and the guru’s conflicting motivations, paternalism and role inertia). Special attention is paid to potential eros–philia conflicts, by drawing both on popular sources, such as the film When Harry Met Sally, and on recent psychological findings. The chapter’s conclusion is that despite the attractiveness and plausibility of much of what Aristotle says, his account of character friendships cannot be endorsed without various caveats and qualifications.
Friendship with a Filter
Authors: Kristjánsson Kristján
Published: August 2022

An adequate moral theory must arguably be compatible with the attitudes and practical requirements of deep friendship. Bernard Williams suggested that the decision procedure required by both deontology and consequentialism inserts a fetishising filter between the natural moral motivation of any normal person to prioritise friends and the decision to act on it. But this interjects ‘one thought too many’ into the moral reaction mechanism. It is standardly assumed that virtue ethics is somehow immune to this objection. This chapter explores this assumption and finds it wanting. Virtue ethics filters friendship through phronesis and thus inserts an extra thought into the mechanism in question. To escape Williams’s curse, the only way is to argue that the extra thought required by virtue ethics is not ‘one thought too many’. The chapter closes with an attempt to show that, contra deontology, the friendship motivation in virtue ethics is derived from the moral virtue, not the intellectual filter, and, contra consequentialism, Aristotelian phronesis does not require the maximisation of value.
Concluding Remarks
Authors: Kristjánsson Kristján
Published: August 2022

This chapter offers an overview of the main findings and conclusions of the previous seven chapters and a summary of their theoretical and practical implications. It revisits the original four aims, adds some literary examples, offers further reflections on friendship as a ‘method’ of moral education, discusses friendships within the family, and finally suggests future research directions for philosophers, psychologists, and educationists interested in friendship. While chapter offers further support to the thesis that the best friendship is, as the title of the book indicates, friendship for virtue, it also rehearses the theme of how Aristotle underestimated the extent to which even potentially educationally rewarding friendships are fraught with risk and remain, for various reasons, liable to conflicts and disruptions.
Building Resilience from the Top Down? The Role of International Law and Institutions
Authors: Redgwell Catherine
Published: August 2022

This chapter assesses the resilience-building capacity of international law and institutions in the context of energy and related fields. It considers two aspects of building resilience from the top down. First, it argues that the extent to which binding international norms and principles can dynamically change and evolve, especially when confronted by disrupting events, is a measure of their resilience. The focus is principally on treaty law, given the important normative role treaties perform in the energy and related fields. Their flexibility and capacity to adapt over time in response to economic, technical, and environmental changes can be demonstrated in a variety of ways, ranging from treaty amendment to more nimble methods for incorporation of external norms and evolutive interpretation of treaty provisions. Secondly and relatedly is the role of international institutions in this process. Building sustainable institutional structures plays a key role in disaster risk reduction and response. Some areas of international law such as international disaster law, and some institutions such as the International Energy Agency, may be viewed as hard-wired to respond to catastrophic change and emergencies, with treaty bodies and institutions playing a catalytic role in responding to disruption. However, there is no ‘one stop shop’ with respect to disaster management and response in international law and no general multinational treaty on disaster law. Nonetheless, prevention and disaster response are already part of the fabric of substantive international law in some contexts such as oil pollution casualties and nuclear incidents.
Building Resilience into U.S. Energy Transport Infrastructure
Authors: Klass Alexandra B. , Foote Isaac
Published: August 2022

This chapter evaluates the meaning of energy system resilience in the context of U.S. energy transport infrastructure—the electric transmission lines, oil and natural gas pipelines, and related networks that support the generation, transportation, and use of energy in U.S. society. In doing so, we explore the use of engineering, ecological, and social-ecological resilience strategies described in Chapter 2, as well as the application of ‘anti-resilience’ thinking, to the U.S. energy transportation network. We also discuss how existing state and federal laws, as well as reforms to those laws governing permitting processes and eminent domain for energy transport infrastructure, can enhance overall energy system resilience by supporting a clean energy transition.
Law, Resilience, and Natural Disaster Management in Australia
Authors: Godden Lee
Published: August 2022

In the summer of 2019–2020 bushfires raged across many parts of Australia. The extent of the disaster was unprecedented, with areas never previously exposed to bushfires, burning with an intensity not experienced to date. The fires destroyed major energy infrastructure, with communities cut off from power supplies for long periods. The security of the national energy infrastructure and the maintenance of electricity supply remain of concern after the bushfires. Drawing on resilience concepts and systems theory, this chapter examines measures adopted in Australia to respond to the combined risk that climate change and natural disasters pose to the resilience of energy infrastructure. Moreover, electricity infrastructure itself poses a significant risk to humans and natural systems. Energy infrastructure, such as ageing or poorly maintained electricity transmission systems exacerbate fire risk. Government measures to enhance the resilience of energy infrastructure and energy systems, draw on legislation, policy, institutional arrangements (regulatory systems), and project-based initiatives that cross disaster and emergency management legislation, the national electricity market regulation, together with natural disaster and climate adaptation legislation. This chapter argues a more systemic legal approach is required to build resilient energy infrastructure systems to respond to escalating climate change risks, and the increase in natural disasters. The chapter examines the recommendations from a 2020 Royal Commission to reduce bushfire hazards to critical electricity infrastructure to assess their potential effectiveness in enhancing electricity system resilience.
Advancing Resilience to Price Volatility in Oil and Gas Markets
Authors: Olawuyi Damilola S.
Published: August 2022

The issue of disaster risk reduction and resilience (DRRR) in the oil and gas industry has been high on the agenda in oil- and gas-dependent countries of the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region for a while. For many years, the economic well-being and sustainable development of several MENA countries have been highly susceptible to cyclical swings, due to frequent social and economic disruptions associated with oil price volatility. The paralysing disruptions to MENA oil and gas markets in light of the COVID-19 pandemic have further exacerbated these concerns. The uncertain levels of finance for energy projects during the ‘boom or bust’ cycles result in disruptions to projects and efforts aimed at promoting energy security and decarbonization across the region. This raises the need for holistic DRRR frameworks to anticipate, mitigate, and absorb the impacts of oil price volatility on energy availability, affordability, and accessibility at local levels. This chapter examines legal and governance aspects of designing and implementing DRRR frameworks to better address the disruptive impacts of oil and gas volatility in MENA markets. Various legal and institutional challenges that arise with extant DRRR frameworks in the region are discussed to identify how an integrative legal framework on resilience planning can help close these gaps.