bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
language-negative terminology
Authors: Krawitz Roy , Watson Christine
Published: November 2023

Words are important carriers of information and significantly shape the future. Some commonly used terminology such as “PD”, “worried well” and “just behavioural” delegitimizes clients, is offensive and almost certainly leads to poorer outcome. We need to explore terminology that is more helpful. “Attention seeking might be better replaced with “in need of attention”, “manipulation” with “manoeuvre, “worried well” with “walking wounded” and “greedy” with “in need”. The term “splitting”, as described earlier, whilst conveying an important concept, has frequently been corrupted to bJame the client for all staff differences and depower clinicians to do anything about the situation. Therapists who hold non-pejorative conceptualizations of their dients have been shown to achieve better results as measured by a decrease in client self harm episodes and suicidal thoughts (Shearin and Linehan 1992).
Professionally indicated risk-taking
Authors: Krawitz Roy , Watson Christine
Published: November 2023

Staff anxiety in any mental health organization is directly proportional to how recently the hit the fan (ie a poor client outcome led to an inquiry or was reported in the media)(Workshop participant commenting on professional anxiety in treating people meeting diagnostic criteria for borderline personality disorder)I know what the right clinical decision is, but I am going to look after myself.(Workshop participant commenting about defensive practice at the expense of client outcome)I think sometimes when doctors and nurses try and protect themselves they’re not really making decisions in the best interest of the patient.(clinician quoted in: O’Brien and Flote 1997)
Limit-setting
Authors: Krawitz Roy , Watson Christine
Published: November 2023

Literature over the last decade has legitimized the importance and appropriateness of limit-setting to prevent dinician bum-out (Adler 1993; Linehan 1993a; Young 1996a; Young 1996b). Limit setting is appropriately used to increase clients’ adaptive behaviours and interpersonal skills and has been written about extensively, however there has been little written on the legitimacy of limit setting for the needs of the clinician. The culture of the health professions as “giving)) and “caring)) has discouraged the legitimate rights of dinicians to look after themselves. It is in the client’s interest that clinicians look after themselves and set limits accordingly, as a burnt-out dinician who resents their client will not be therapeutic. Naming limit-setting as necessary for the clinician is associated with a more benevolent attitude towards the client. Therapists holding a “non-pejorative conceptualization)) of people meeting diagnostic criteria for borderline personality disorder has been shown by Shearin and Linehan (1992) to be associated with better client outcomes measured by a decrease in client self-harm and suicide thoughts.
Supervision
Authors: Krawitz Roy , Watson Christine
Published: November 2023

Supervision provides an essential “safe space for clinicians to think and reflect on, rather than deny and flee from, problems and feelings” (Owen 1998). Working with suicidal people who frequently want assistance that can’t be provided and turn down offers of what can be provided, may lead to feelings of powerlessness, anger and despair. Supervision provides a space where these feelings can be recognized, normalized and worked with, to the benefit of client and clinician. “Supervision benefits the therapist by offering a relationship which aims to guide, mentor, inspire, emotionally support and develop insight and understanding in the therapist (NZAP 1997).
In summary
Authors: Krawitz Roy , Watson Christine
Published: November 2023

Limit-setting for the clinician’s needs is legitimate to enable the clinician not to burn-out and retain positivity for the client+ Successful outcomes are likely to be the biggest factor maintaining enthusiasm+ Holding a long-term perspective and being mindful of small gains provides a realistic framework on which to measure successValue and status given to the client, clinician and the work willhelp sustain enthusiasm+ What is good for the clinician is usually good for current and future clients+ Clients will not benefit from an apathetic. de-energized clinician
Ethical aspects of psychotherapy practice
Authors: Dyer Allen R , Bloch Sidney
Published: November 2023

Ethics is fraught with ambiguity both theoretically and in its application. Who should judge what is right and wrong? What principles, methods, and sources should be used? Ethics and morality may be used synonymously. Alternatively, a distinction is made, morality referring to the correctness of personal behaviour and ethics connoting more objective standards of behaviour, particularly as they might apply to professional practice. The ethics of psychotherapy fall into the latter category, although the practice itself— given that it entails self-reflectiveness—contributes to an understanding of moral action that transcends philosophy.
What is psychotherapy?
Authors: Frank Jerome D
Published: November 2023

In this introductory, now classic chapter, the late, much esteemed Jerome Frank (1910–2005) attempts to answer the complex question ‘what is psychotherapy?’ by approaching the subject in historical and cultural contexts. After describing psychotherapy’s practitioners, the kinds of treatment they offer, and the patients who receive it, he pays particular attention to the common therapeutic functions of the rationales and procedures of all psychotherapies. The chapter ends with general principles and guidelines for the trainee setting out to practise psychotherapy.
Individual long-term psychotherapy
Authors: Mizen Susan , Holmes Jeremy
Published: November 2023

Long-term therapy is usually correctly equated with psychoanalysis, which, unlike almost all other forms of therapy, values the importance of treatment over a matter of years. Supportive psychotherapy (see Chapter 10) also implies long-term treatment. In this chapter, we shall be concerned mainly with psychoanalysis (usually 3–5 sessions a week, lasting 2–5 years) and its derivative, psychoanalytic psychotherapy (commonly 1–2 sessions per week, lasting 18 months–3 years). Other forms of therapy, such as Cognitive Behaviour Therapy and Dialectical Behaviour Therapy, when applied to people suffering from complex problems may last longer than was originally envisaged.
Sex therapy
Authors: Bancroft John
Published: November 2023

Since the third edition significant changes have occurred in treating sexual dysfunction in men. This has mainly resulted from the introduction of drugs, such as sildenafil (Viagra), which have had a major impact on the treatment of erectile dysfunction, and other pharmacological agents aimed at improving low sexual desire (e.g. apomorphine) or treating premature ejaculation (e.g. serotonin re-uptake inhibitors) (Leiblum and Rosen 2000). Female sexual dysfunction has not benefited in the same way, but not for want of trying.
The Pervasive Influence of European Community Law in the United Kingdom
Authors: Grief Nicholas
Published: November 2023

MUCH has been written about the uniqueness of Community law and the significance of the fact that the European Community is a supranational system, its hallmark being the creation of rights and duties for individuals and the supremacy of Community law over national law in the event of a conflict. It is clear that Community law reaches parts of the domestic legal system which other kinds of international law3 cannot reach. Lord Denning once stated: ‘The treaty does not touch any of the matters which concern solely the mainland of England and the people in it. They are still governed by English law. They are not affected by the treaty. But when we come to matters with a European element, the treaty is like an incoming tide. It flows up the estuaries and up the rivers.
The Ethological Theory of Stress: About Work Stress and Wisdom
Authors: Schabracq Marc
Published: November 2023

People do not adapt to any situation: they specialize, select their environment from the pool of situations available to them, rearrange them-if possible-to their own taste and preferences, and adapt to them. So, human functioning is characterized by a specific ecology: an individual develops a relatively stable niche to live in. For example, most people live in only one house, together with only a few fixed family members; they have their daily, weekly, and yearly routines, interact with a very limited number of other people in customary ways, have their favorite ways of relaxing, and work in standardized ways and settings. The repetition inherent in such a life enables the actor to develop skills to handle a situation at a more or less ‘automatic’ level. In this way, attention can be focused on what is deemed important at that moment, such as the optimal performance of situated roles, the solution of specific task-related problems or further development of skills.
Brief notes on dermatological therapy
Authors: Path Rona M
Published: November 2023

Prinect Trap Editor Therapy for skin disease can be broadly divided into topical preparations, physical therapy such as ultraviolet light or laser treatment, and systemic therapy. In the past 5 years the use of potent systemic agents in chronic or severe psoriasis, acne, and eczema has become much commoner. Oral retinoids and a wide range of immunosuppressive agents are now used fairly routinely in hospital departments of dermatology, and the use of cytokine modulating therapy, such as anti-TNF alpha agents is becoming commoner for patients with severe psoriasis. While use of these drugs has revolutionized the control of severe dermatological problems for many patients, they all have toxicity profiles, and must be used with appropriate monitoring. Oral retinoid use in acne without absolute contraception has led to tragic foetal malformations.
A background to addiction and its treatment
Authors: Gossop Michael
Published: November 2023

What this book means by drug addiction is most often manifested) psychologically and behaviourally, in feelings of compulsion to use drugs and difficulty in resisting those urges. Addiction is a learned behavioural problem, a habit disorder. It differs fundamentally from the mere use of illegal drugs in that an addiction represents an altered relationship between the user and their drug(s). The precise psychological and neurophysiological foundations upon which this altered relationship is based have yet to be fully identified.
Psychological health, physical health, and mortality
Authors: Gossop Michael
Published: November 2023

Drug users who present for treatment often have physical and psychological health problems in addition to their drug problems. Many dependent drug users have generally poor health associated with their lifestyles, and many physical health problems are directly associated with drug use. Intravenous drug users can develop respiratory complications from granuloma formation after injecting insoluble adulterants (Glassroth et al. 1986), and the inhalation of high-temperature vapours such as those of heroin, crack, or free-base cocaine can also cause respiratory disease or damage (Hughes and Calverley 1988), especially when the drug contains contaminants (Tashkin et al. 1987). Regular cannabis smoking can lead to respiratory symptoms such as wheezing, shortness of breath, and tightness in the chest Such symptoms are similar to those induced by cigarette smoking but can occur (independently of cigarette smoking) even after a relatively short duration of cannabis use (Taylor et al. 2000).
The relationship between the drug user and treatment
Authors: Gossop Michael
Published: November 2023

The role played by treatment in helping addicts to give up drugs is complex, and the evidence about the effectiveness of specific treatments is often difficult to interpret. To understand the effectiveness of treatment it is necessary first to ask the right questions. The apparently straightforward question, ‘what is the most effective way to treat opiate addiction?’, is misleading and cannot be answered directly. The problems of drug misuse cannot be fitted within a single unitary category.
Dental radiology
Authors: Brocklebank Laetitia
Published: November 2023

Radiography and radiology are in all the dental clinical disciplines, to aid in diagnosis, treatment planning and management of patients. Dentists usually undertake their own radiography and therefore require to be competent at producing images, and interpreting the findings. They have a duty under the regulations currently in force to comply with legal requirements, and to be aware of those requirements, and any changes made to them. The specific requirements to be fulfilled at graduation are specified in The First Five Years(GDC 2002), and the QAA Benchmark document (QAA 2002). Relevant sections in The First Five Yearsare: Paragraph 96 Students should receive instruction and practical experience in the referral criteria, taking, processing and interpretation of intraand extraoral radiographs and the writing of radiology reports. They should be aware of alternative imaging techniques. It is highly desirable that instruction in this part of the programme is under the direction of a registered specialist in dental radiology.
Impression-making General and special circumstances
Authors: Burke Francis
Published: November 2023

An impression is a ‘negative likeness or copy in reverse of the surface of an object; an imprint of the teeth and adjacent structures for use in dentistry’ (Journal of Prosthetic Dentistry 1999). From this negative likeness a cast is made which can be used in the planning and/or provision of care. In 2003 the Dental Practice Board for England and Wales reported that 1.7 million units of crown and bridge work were placed as well as one million dentures and 470,000 courses of orthodontic treatment. For all of these procedures as well as for diagnostic reasons impressions were necessary (DPB 2003).The ability to carry out appropriate impression-making is likely to continue to play an essential role in the undergraduate curriculum. Provision of such care will also need to encompass an understanding of behaviour management (Chapter 1.10), infection control (Chapter 1.5), law and ethics (Chapter 1.2), dental materials (Chapter 1.16), removable prostheses (Chapter 2.7), and restorative dentistry (Chapter 2.5).
Points of departure
Authors: Dowrick Christopher
Published: November 2023

Bernie has a pre-Raphaelite appearance, with flowing dresses and long curly hair which she uses to hide her face. She likes to make a dramatic entrance to my consulting room, peeping around the door, apologising for coming to see me but‘ I just need to check out a couple of things with you, if it’s not too much trouble’. She has a lot of complicated family problems, both past and present. I think they include some abusive experiences as a child, though we have never talked about this directly.
Depression as a medical condition
Authors: Dowrick Christopher
Published: November 2023

Within those branches of the medical profession which are concerned with mental health - mainly psychiatry, general practice, and family medicine a broad consensus has been developing during the past two decades about the concept of depression as a medical condition. This consensus has been articulated through joint professional statements ( 1) and has formed the basis of public campaigns such as ‘Defeat Depression’ in the United Kingdom (2), ‘Keep Your Chin Up’ in Finland, and ‘Beyond Blue’ in Australia. It has also been energetically promoted by federal health agencies in the United States of America (3).
Encounters in primary care
Authors: Dowrick Christopher
Published: November 2023

In previous chapters I have shown how, in western medical practice, we are increasingly likely to make a diagnosis of depression. A great deal of time and energy has been invested in describing it as a disease, with sophisticated diagnostic categorisations, detailed information about its natural history, its aetiological factors (whether inherited or environmental, predisposing, or precipitating), its impact on the individual and on society, and the multiplicity of its available treatments, including medication, psychosocial interventions, and managed care pathways.
Design issues in clinical trials
Authors: Everitt Brian S , Wessely Simon
Published: November 2023

The first question to be addressed by anyone contemplating carrying out a clinical trial is whether it is appropriate to mount the trial at all? If previous trials have conclusively demonstrated the effectiveness (or lack of effectiveness) of a treatment, there is little point in investigating that treatment further. This may seem an obvious truism but it has not always been followed. Chalmers and Lau (1993), for example, looked at a series of randomized clinical trials of endoscopic treatment of bleeding peptic ulcer carried out from the 1980s to the 1990s. Combining the results from trials up to 1982 showed that the chances that endoscopic therapy was not reducing recurrent or continued bleeding, when compared to the standard therapy, were less than one in a thousand. Yet in the 25th published trial, carried out between 1989 and 1991, patients continued to be randomly assigned to a control group.
Modern multidisciplinary mental health working
Authors: Burns Tom
Published: November 2023

Despite doubts about the essential ingredients of community mental health work, multidisciplinary team working is not in question. The movement from institutionbased care to the community occurred alongside the development of community mental health teams and the therapeutic community movement. Severe mental illnesses generate a broad range of psychological, behavioural, and social problems. Helping such individuals often requires input in several, if not all, of these areas simultaneously.
Generic adult CMHTs
Authors: Burns Tom
Published: November 2023

As outlined in Chapters 1 and 2 the adult CMHT has been the basic model for the development of subsequent, more specialised teams. It was in these CMHTs that roleblurring and skillsharing first moved out of the rarefied atmosphere of therapeutic communities and captured the thinking of general services. Until recently they were responsible for all the assessment and most of the treatment of adult patients referred for secondary mental health care in the UK.
Highly specialized teams
Authors: Burns Tom
Published: November 2023

The teams outlined so far in this book serve ‘adults of working age ’. They are, essentially, different structures for meeting the range of patient needs, rather than for meeting the needs of different groups of patients. This chapter will briefly overview how some of the more specialized teams (teams which are targeted on specific patient groups) adapt to these models. Many of the team structures and practices are remarkably similar (as, of course, are many of the patient needs) so it would be repetitive and unhelpful to describe them in great detail. Attention will be drawn to major differences that are common in them.
Antioxidants in Nutrition, Health, and Disease
Authors: Gutteridge John M C , Halliwell Barry
Published: November 2023

In recent years, there has been an explosion of interest about the use of `antioxidant' nutritional supplements. Do they really defend the body against diseases? Should we all be taking vitamin E, vitamin C, or more of certain polyunsaturated fats? Written by two leading experts in the field of free radicals in biology and medicine, this book unravels the confusion caused by many nutrition-related claims, and clarifies the situation over whether maintaining high intakes of vitamins, minerals, and other food consituents really does help protect against life-threatening diseases.
Oxidative stress
Authors: Gutteridge John M C , Halliwell Barry
Published: November 2023

Oxygen radicals and hydrogen peroxide are constantly produced in the human body. Some of this production is a chemical accident, such as generation of hydroxyl radicals (OH”) by our constant exposure to low levels of radiation from the environment (see Chapter 1) and of superoxide (O2·™) by leakage of electrons from electron transport chains (see Chapter 2). Other production of these species is deliberate, including the generation of H2O2 by such enzymes as o-amino acid oxidase (see Chapter 2). Perhaps the best-known examples of deliberate production of radicals in the human body are the generation of2·™ by activated phagocytic cells (see the Appendix to this chapter) and the generation of nitric oxide by the cells lining blood vessel walls (see Chapter 1).
Free radicals and cardiovascular disease
Authors: Gutteridge John M C , Halliwell Barry
Published: November 2023

Coronary heart disease is a major cause of death in the USA and Europe. A heart attack (myocardial infarction) is usually the consequence of two events—the narrowing of coronary arteries by atherosclerosis (Figure 1) and the formation of a blood clot (thrombus) in a narrowed artery, which blocks it completely and renders a portion of the heart muscle ischaemic (lacking inO2). Atherosclerosis of arteries in the brain also predisposes to stroke. There have been many speculations that dietary intakes of polyunsaturated fatty acids, cholesterol, antioxidant nutrients, iron, copper, and selenium affect the development of atherosclerosis. The purpose of this chapter is to review what is, and is not, actually known about this complex area.
Diagnosis
Authors: Green Stephen A , Bloch Sidney
Published: November 2023

Conferring a diagnosis of mental illness on people initiates a process that has the potential to impose profound, adverse effects on their lives. Placed in a group that requires treatment, the person, once labelled a psychiatric patient, commonly encounters prejudice and may well feel stigmatized. Moreover, those deemed at risk of harm to themselves or others may have their fundamental civil rights abridged through legal commitment, often resulting in treatments which have disturbing and/or severe side-effects. These possible consequences justify Reich’s1 call for the most thorough ethical examination of what he terms the clinician’s ‘prerogative to diagnose’. In this section we will follow his advice and begin with the core question of what constitutes mental illness.
Bacterial taxonomy
Authors: Bagg Jeremy , MacFarlane T Wallace , Poxton Ian R , Smith Andrew J
Published: November 2023

Taxonomy is the term given to the systematic classification, naming, and identification of living organisms. Bacterial taxonomy is often thought of as a complex but ‘necessary evil’, that is uninteresting to learn and overwhelms many students. It is, however, at the very root of biological communication and is essential for describing an organism, whether newly discovered or well known. A working knowledge of taxonomy is also useful for diagnostic microbiology and for studies in epidemiology and pathogenicity. The intricacies of the rapidly moving field of modern taxonomic research and its methodologies are largely beyond the scope of this book. However, sufficient detail will be given to enable the reader to acquire adequate skills in the communication of bacterial names, and to illustrate the reasons why taxonomy is so important.
Host defences
Authors: Bagg Jeremy , MacFarlane T Wallace , Poxton Ian R , Smith Andrew J
Published: November 2023

The study of the natural defences of the host against foreign materials or infectious agents is known as ‘immunology’. It is a large subject of increasing complexity, but a good knowledge of the principles of immunology is crucial to the study of how micro-organisms cause disease (pathogenesis). The aim of this chapter is to give an overview of the immune system and to describe, as clearly as possible, the various immunological mechanisms which operate during any association between the pathogenic micro-organism and the defence systems of the host. While the main function of the immune system is to protect the host, the complex processes involved not infrequently result in varying degrees of damage to the host. Thus, the question is often posed: is the immune system friend or foe?
An introduction to clinical functional magnetic resonance imaging of the brain
Authors: Sunaert Stefan , Thomas Bejoy
Published: November 2023

The first papers on functional magnetic resonance imaging (FMRI) were published just fifteen years ago, and in the relative short time since, FMRI has assumed a major role in mapping human brain functions. A search of the term “FMRI” in the medline database reveals that more than 5000 peer reviewed original articles have been produced world-wide, a number which has increased exponentially, since last year alone more than one FMRI article a day was published. Almost nine out of ten publications cover either technical aspects of FMRI or the neurophysiological research concerned with the function of the human brain in normal subjects. The latter field is undergoing an explosive growth due to several distinctly advantageous characteristics of FMRI. These include total noninvasiveness, relatively high spatial and temporal resolution, and the ease of imaging the underlying anatomy. In addition, state-of-the-art whole brain FMRI can now be performed on almost all recently installed clinical MR scanners, and online analysis tools allow the visualization of neuronal activity at the level of the single subject (or patient) in real time. The non-invasive character means that subjects can be studied repeatedly, without harm, allowing for longitudinal studies. These benefits have thus led to a considerable growth of neurophysiological data of the human brain — normal and pathological.

The development of applications of FMRI for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes in patients with neurological, neurosurgical, or psychiatric diseases forms about ten per cent of the total number of publications since the beginning of the FMRI era, and this field is growing almost as fast as that of ‘neurophysiological FMRI’. This (at first view) limited share of clinical FMRI is actually a tremendous achievement, considering the fact that clinical FMRI is much more difficult to perform than non-clinical FMRI. The reasons for this are multiple and pertain to all aspects of functional imaging. First, at the design stage of a FMRI experiment, compared to the paradigms or stimuli employed in the neurophysiological study of volunteers, those that will be used to elucidate neuronal activity in patients will have to be adapted to their pathology. Second, at the stage of acquiring the functional scans, acquisition time will often be much more limited than in young healthy volunteers. Third, the post-processing of the FMRI data will often have to be altered or improved due to the presence of ‘unexpected’ signals from the brain abnormalities.
Dementia: mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease
Authors: Dickerson Bradford C , Sperling Reisa A
Published: November 2023

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia. In most individuals, the symptoms of the disease begin with mild memory difficulties after the sixth decade of life. Symptoms progress slowly, leading to significant impairment in memory, language, executive function, and other domains of cognition. Eventually, impaired cognitive abilities interfere with complex activities of daily life and ultimately result in the loss of independent function. The diagnosis is typically made in this context on the basis of clinical evidence of dementia with progressive impairment in multiple domains of cognition. Structural neuroimaging is often used in the clinical setting to evaluate for the presence of other pathologies (e.g. cerebrovascular or neoplastic disease). Functional neuroimaging, such as PET or SPECT, may be employed clinically to assist in the discrimination of different types of dementia (e.g. frontotemporal vs. Alzheimer’s dementia). Current treatments are primarily symptomatic, in that clinical trials demonstrate short-term stabilization of cognitive function but not a slowing of the rate of decline. Increasing emphasis is being placed on the development of disease-modifying therapies — drugs that impede the underlying pathophysiologic process of neurodegeneration in AD and, thereby, slow the rate of cognitive decline.
Cell-based immunotherapy
Authors: Steven Neil
Published: November 2023

T lymphocytes and other immune effectors offer potentially attractive agents with which to treat cancer. They can mediate selective killing of malignant cells that express a molecular repertoire differing from that within normal cells. Immunotherapy for malignancy is more difficult than vaccination against infections and remains largely an experimental modality.
Gene therapy for cancer— approaches and ethical considerations
Authors: Beirne Deborah , Seymour Leonard
Published: November 2023

The development of gene therapy as a potential therapeutic modality for both inherited and acquired disease has continued to gain momentum and sustained interest among the scientific and medical community. The number of gene therapy clinical trials conducted in the UK and elsewhere has risen year on year since its infancy in the early 1990s. In the UK, the Gene Therapy Advisory Committee (GTAC) has approved 96 trials in its I I-year history, 11 in 2004 compared with 3 in 1993 (GTAC 2005; Nevin 1998).
Haematological disease
Authors: Carton James , Daly Richard , Ramani Pramila
Published: November 2023

The blood is a vital transport medium which consists of a fluid called plasma in which the cellular elements of the blood are suspended. Plasma is made up of mostly water in which a number of substances are held in solution, including mineral ions (e.g. sodium, potassium), small organic molecules (e.g. amino acids, glucose), plasma proteins (e.g. albumin, immunoglobulins, clotting factors), and hormones. If a blood sample is allowed to stand, it separates into a clot and a clear yellow fluid called serum.
Pathology as a clinical discipline
Authors: Carton James , Daly Richard , Ramani Pramila
Published: November 2023

So far in this book we have talked about pathology as a scientific subject. Pathology also exists as a clinical speciality, being one of the core diagnostic services in the hospital. As a junior hospital doctor, you will be sending samples to the pathology laboratory many times every single day, so it is useful to have a basic understanding of what actually happens in that somewhat mythical place ‘the lab’.
The Computational Simulation of Language Acquisition: Aqui
Authors: Culicover Peter W , Nowak Andrzej
Published: November 2023

In this chapter and the next we describe our computational simulations of language acquisition. We discuss two basic approaches, the distributional and the grammatical. The distributional approach uses statistical information about the frequency of co-occurrence of individual forms in a string as the primary, and perhaps only, information that the learner extracts from its linguistic experience. The grammatical approach assumes that the learner formulates a grammar in terms of the hierarchical organization and linear ordering of categories exemplified by strings that it encounters in its linguistic experience. There are very strong claims in the literature that one of these two approaches is necessary or sufficient to account for knowledge of language and that the other is inadequate, wrong-headed, or irrelevant. It is of course possible to imagine accounts of language acquisition in which both approaches play a role. Ours is such an approach.
Cognitive Grammar
Authors: Taylor John R
Published: November 2023

Cognitive Grammar’ is a theory of language which has been developing since the late 1970’s. Underlying the theory is the assumption that language is inherently symbolic in nature and that a language provides its speakers with a set of resources for relating phonological structures with semantic structures. John R. Taylor introduces the theory of Cognitive Grammar, placing it in the context of current theoretical debates about the nature of linguistic knowledge, and relating it to more general trends in ‘cognitive’ linguistics. The central concepts of the theory are explained in clear, non-technical language, and are applied to in-depth discussions of a range of topics in semantics, syntax, morphology, and phonology. Suggestions for further applications of the theory are contained in the numerous study questions which accompany each of the main chapters.
Cognitive Grammar and Cognitive Linguistics
Authors: Taylor John R
Published: November 2023

Cognitive Grammar—the subject of this book—is the name which Ronald Langacker has given to a theory of language which he has been developing since the mid-1970s.1 Initially, Cognitive Grammar occupied a very marginal place in the theoretical linguistic landscape. Over the years, as the theory has developed and become more widely known, it has attracted increasing numbers of adherents and sympathizers. There is now a sizeable literature which has applied the theory of Cognitive Grammar to a wide range of linguistic issues, in a variety of languages.
The symbolic thesis: Some questions and answers
Authors: Taylor John R
Published: November 2023

In the preceding chapters I introduced the Cognitive Grammar claim that language is inherently symbolic. Following Saussure, I emphasized the mental nature of the linguistic sign. The sign does not associate a thing out there in the world with an actual pronunciation. Both poles of the linguistic sign—the concept and the acoustic image—are mental entities, stored inside a person’s mind.
Schema and instance in symbolic units
Authors: Taylor John R
Published: November 2023

We have seen how the schema-instance relation applies both to semantic and to phonological units. In this chapter I tum to symbolic units, i.e. associations between phonological and semantic structures. These, too, can stand in the schema-instance relation. A symbolic unit can be an instance of a more schematically characterized symbolic unit, and can itself be schematic for a range of more fully specified symbolic units.
Morphology
Authors: Taylor John R
Published: November 2023

Morphology is the study of the internal structure of words. I approach the topic with a couple of very straightforward cases. The first example concerns a word whose analysis into its component morphemes is beyond dispute; the second example concerns a word which is clearly not analysable into component morphemes. In spite of their seeming simplicity, the examples will allow us to apply and refine some of the theoretical notions introduced so far, concerning, in particular, the function of schemas in linguistic analysis. Further aspects of word structure are addressed in Chapters 15 and 16.
Analysability and productivity
Authors: Taylor John R
Published: November 2023

The discussion in the last chapter was based on some relatively straight forward examples. Words such as books, singer, and never can be exhaustively analysed into their component morphemes (even though, in the case of never, the analysis may not be particularly salient). Each of the component morphemes has an identifiable semantic and phonological content which it contributes to the meaning of the composite expression. The case of hear was equally clear-cut. The word, quite simply, is morphologically unanalysable. Very often, morphological analysis is less straightforward. In this chapter I consider some of the factors that render morphological analysis somewhat less clear-cut than in the case of books and somewhat more compelling than in the case of hear. I also address what may be regarded as the converse of analysability—the question of productivity.
Domains
Authors: Taylor John R
Published: November 2023

A domain—the term was introduced in Chapter 10—may be defined as any knowledge configuration which provides the context for the conceptualization of a semantic unit. In this chapter I explore further the role of domains and domain-based knowledge in the semantic structure of words and complex expressions.
Networks and complex categories
Authors: Taylor John R
Published: November 2023

Early in this book I illustrated the symbolic thesis on the Saussurean example of tree; this is a symbolic unit which associates a phonological representation [tri:] with a semantic representation [tree]. It is rarely the case, however, that a symbolic unit has, at its conceptual pole, a single semantic representation. A phonological form tends to be associated with a cluster of more or less distinct though related senses. Equally, the phonological pole cannot be regarded as a unitary entity. Words, for example, have a range of different pronunciations, according to speech style, accent, and the phonological and morphological environment. A symbolic unit, therefore, is more accurately regarded, not as an association of a concept with a sound pattern, but as an association of a network of semantic representations with a network of phonological representations.
Idioms, formulas, and fixed expressions
Authors: Taylor John R
Published: November 2023

The topic of this chapter is the vast inventory of multi-word expressions—idioms, fixed expressions, formulaic phrases, familiar turns of phrase, frequent collocations, catchphrases, cliches, proverbs, witty sayings, literary quotations, song refrains—that are familiar to all competent users of a language. There is no standard term to refer to this class of linguistic expressions; the triad ‘idioms, formulas, and fixed expressions’ is intended merely as a convenient descriptive label. The chapter examines some general properties of these expressions, and their status within Cognitive Grammar.
Fighting for Spain, 1931–43
Authors: Vincent Mary
Published: November 2023

The sudden appearance of a Republic in Spain suggested to many that the country had finally broken with its past. At a time when much of Europe was rejecting parliamentary government, Spain embraced constitutional democracy. Primo was gone, his fall discrediting the king as a collaborator and so offering little prospect of a return to the status quo ante. Using what remained of his royal prerogative, Alfonso charged General Berenguer and other senior military men with the uncomfortable and ultimately impossible task of re-establishing ‘normality’ as defined by the 1876 constitution.
Precedent and Legal Theory
Authors: Cross Rupert , Harris J W
Published: November 2023

The English doctrine of precedent raises problems in relation to any proposed definition of law. For the purposes of the present discussion, these problems can, in the main, be reduced to two questions; (i) Does the proposed definition include the rationes decidendi of cases as well as the contents of legislation? (ii) Does the proposed definition include the rules which confer authority on the ratio decidendi of a case, i.e. the rules by virtue of which a particular ratio has the force of law? If the answer to the first question is in the negative, the definition must be rejected in so far as it purports to be applicable to the English legal system. No lawyer would hesitate to say that the rule in Rylands v. Fletcher is just as much a rule of English law as the statutory requirement that a will must be signed by two witnesses. It is perhaps more doubtful whether the proposed definition of law would have to be rejected if the answer to the second question were in the negative. There is a difference between a rule which constitutes or is derived from a ratio decidendi and a rule conferring authority on that ratio decidendi, just as there is a difference between a rule based on the contents of a statute and a rule conferring authority on that statute. It could be maintained that the difference is sufficiently great to justify the exclusion of the second type of rule from the definition of law.
The Family Gender; and Social Security
Authors: Douglas Gillian
Published: November 2023

The social security system since the Beveridge Planhas shown ambivalence and uncertainty in its treatment of the family and of women and children. As Ogus, Barendt, and Wikeley comment, ‘family provision has developed on the periphery of the mainstream social security schemes’.This stems from underlying assumptions about the role of women and the place of the family within the social structure. The keys to these assumptions are the patriarchal ideology of the traditional family and the liberal creation of a private sphere-the family-within which women and children are confined.
Social Security and Industrial Injury
Authors: Jones Stephen
Published: November 2023

Disablement caused by accidents or disease arising out of and in the course of employed earner’s employment has, by virtue of the social security industrial injuries support it attracts, enjoyed an historical preference and a unique position in the sys tem of social security which has developed over the past one hundred years. There are currently four benefits which reflect that preference. The first and most important is disablement benefit.This provides compensation by means of a weekly pension related to the percentage degree of disablement suffered by the claimant. The next two, which take the form of additions to disablement benefit, are the increases in respect of constant attendanceand exceptionally severe disablementwhich are payable only to those claimants who are 100 per cent disabled and have significant care needs.
The Trust and the Constitution of a Unit Trust
Authors: Sin Kam Fan
Published: November 2023

The re-emergence of the fixed trust in 1931 in England marked an important, though subtle, development in the unit trust concept. It was the first time that a unit trust was formed at the initiative of an investment management company.
Fiduciary Obligations and Fiduciary Powers-Where Are We Going?
Authors: Harpum Charles
Published: November 2023

If we ask ‘ why do we characterize particular relationships as fiduciary whether as a general category or on an ad hocbasis?’, and are told by way of reply that ‘it is to impose on one of the parties to the relationship, and to enable the other to enforce, one or more of those obligations that are characteristic of a fiduciary’, we are very little the wiser. As Lord Browne Wilkinson has recently warned, ‘[t]he phrase “fiduciary duties” is a dangerous one, giving rise to a mistaken assumption that all fiduciaries owe the same duties in all circumstances. That is not the case.’1 The leading authority in the Commonwealth on fiduciaries, Paul Finn J, has expressed the sentiment with perhaps even greater bluntness: ‘[i]t is pointless to describe a person-or for that matter a power-as being fiduciary unless at the same time it is said for the purposes of which particular rules and principles that description is being used. These rules are everything. The description “fiduciary”, nothing. By way of illustration, the range of fiduciary obligations that fall within the umbrella of “trusteeship’ can be very variable. Four examples may be taken to demonstrate this.
The Advance of IT
Authors: Susskind Richard
Published: November 2023

If the law, lawyers, and justice are having something of a rough time, IT (by which I mean, broadly, computers and telecommunications) may be thought to be on a veritable roll. The commercial world, public service, and the lives of individual citizens are being transformed by technology. Even allowing for the hype-and exaggeration is rife-the information revolution does look set to exert as much if not more fundamental upheaval than its industrial counterpart of 200 years ago. For this reason, when I pause to reflect upon it, I consider myself immensely fortunate to be living in a time of such rapid technological progress: in but a few decades, we will see technical and social change of a magnitude barely paralleled in history.
Enabling Techniques
Authors: Susskind Richard
Published: November 2023

I must confess to having been hesitant about including this chapter in the book. It is about the various techniques of IT which I believe will enable lawyers and others to benefit from the applications discussed in Chapter Five. The techniques which I introduce now (summarized in Figure 4.1) will, in my view, be at the heart of the IT which will improve and change the practice of law and the administration of justice. The question of how these techniques will be used in practice is deferred until later (in Chapters Five and Six).
Introduction
Authors: Bishop Matthew , Kay John , Mayer Colin
Published: November 2023

The last decade has witnessed the introduction of an elaborate system of regulation in the UK. In part this has been an adjunct to the privatisation programme which is the subject of the companion volume, Privatization and Economic Performance, in this series. However, in some areas, most notably financial services, regulation has been introduced where little or none previously existed. Whole segments of British industry are now operating under the supervision of regulatory bodies whose powers and importance are not dissimilar from those of the government departments which they were designed to replace. This introduction evaluates the UK’s programme of regulatory reform in the utilities and financial services. It describes the motivation behind establishing regulatory organizations, the function that they perform, and the way in which they operate. It considers the reasons why regulation is needed in privatized companies, the scope of regulation in the UK and the form that it has taken. It then considers the performance of regulation in the UK. It discusses the advantages of the combination of privatization and independent regulation over state ownership and the problems that have been encountered.
Reforming the NHS
Authors: Maynard Alan
Published: November 2023

The problems that characterize the performance of health-care systems are very similar despite great differences in their structure and level of funding. In all health-care systems there is a failure to define the nature of the problems that precipitate the political decision to reform, in particular cost inflation, unproven and probably inefficient resource use and inequity, and a reluctance to target policy changes to facilitate the resolution of these problems. This was evident in the 1989 reforms of the British NHS: the government failed to define clearly what the problems were that initiated the reform process and the selection of remedies was poorly targeted and proved difficult to implement and maintain. What are the problems the British reforms sought to address and did the development of ‘competition’ in health-care markets improve the efficiency of resource allocation in the UK National Health Service?
Modified Regulation of Telecommunications and the Public-interest Standard
Authors: Baumol William J
Published: November 2023

The costs of regulation are well known and are an unavoidable part of the process. Its most obvious burdens are, of course, the record-keeping, reporting, and other social administrative tasks that it must impose upon the regulated firm. In addition, regulation brings with it the heavy costs of the delays to which it subjects the decision process, preventing the rapid responses to evolving market developments that efficiency and competitiveness require. Probably equally serious are the artificial prices imposed and the resulting distortion of the incentives for efficiency.
Privatization Policies and Public Enterprise: A Survey
Authors: Domberger Simon , Piggott John
Published: November 2023

In recent times, government policies involving the transfer of assets or activities from the public to the private sector have become prominent in the policy debate. ‘Privatization’, as this process has come to be called, is inevitably associated with the desire for ‘smaller’ government, and is thus a politically charged term. There is, however, a growing body of analytic and empirical research which explores privatization from a more or less dispassionate perspective, and which is already providing insights into the economic impacts of the process.