bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Symmetry and Order in Two Dimensions
Authors: Glaeser Robert M , Downing Kenneth , DeRosier David , Chiu Wah , Frank Joachim
Published: November 2023

The repetition of a particular structure, or unit cell, in a pattern generated by some form of translational symmetry, is a unique, defining characteristic of crystals. While crystals may also have additional types of symmetry, such as that corresponding to rotation about a certain axis, the periodic repetition of a given structural motif over an extended region of space is something that uniquely defines what is meant by a crystal.
Data Processing: Images of 2-D Crystals
Authors: Glaeser Robert M , Downing Kenneth , DeRosier David , Chiu Wah , Frank Joachim
Published: November 2023

A substantial amount of image processing is required to extract the information contained in high-resolution electron micrographs of biological macromolecules. Descriptions of commonly used software packages for processing electron microscope images have been published in the Journal of Structural Biology, volume 116, issue 1 (1996). In this chapter we focus on the methodology for extracting structural information from images of thin, two-dimensional crystals.
Electron Crystallography of Helical Structures
Authors: Glaeser Robert M , Downing Kenneth , DeRosier David , Chiu Wah , Frank Joachim
Published: November 2023

Helical structures are essential for life. They connect and integrate function between distantly separated structures within a cell. Actin and microtubules are examples of helical structures that are part of the cell’s cytoskeleton and that define cell shape. They also act as the railroad tracks along which molecular motors tow subcellular material between locations within the cell. Helical structures also occur in pathological states such as the paired helical filaments associated with Alzheimer’s disease or fibers of hemoglobin in sickle cell anemia. Helical structures can serve mechanical roles; for example, the bacterial flagellar filament converts torque into thrust to propel the bacterium. In addition to naturally occurring helical structures, some molecules can be induced to form helical structures after biochemical isolation, as in the case of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor.
Single Particles
Authors: Glaeser Robert M , Downing Kenneth , DeRosier David , Chiu Wah , Frank Joachim
Published: November 2023

The single-particle approach to solving macromolecular structure (see Frank, 1996, 2006) is based on the premise that the specimen is in the form of many isolated particles that are randomly oriented, collectively presenting a large range of views. It is further assumed, at least initially, that through application of biochemical methods of isolation and purfication, the specimen is homogeneous; that is, only macromolecules of one kind are present. Finally, if the specimen is prepared in such a way that anisotropic compression is avoided, then all the molecules on the electron microscopic grid can be assumed to have identical structure, and hence the geometrical relationships among the molecules in three-dimensional (3-D) space can be modeled as a set of rigid body movements. However, even if this assumption of structural identity is violated, due to some native structural variability, we can still use the single-particle approach for solving the structure at low resolution, and treat the structural variability as a high-resolution perturbation, a topic to be discussed later on.
Genetic Influences on Drinking Behavior in Humans
Authors: Heath Andrew C
Published: November 2023

There is an extensive literature on the inheritance of alcohol abuse or dependence (see Chapters 1 and 2). Findings from studies of twin pairs, adoptees, and half-siblings and their families are broadly consistent with an important genetic contribution to risk of alcoholism in males, and though findings for alcoholism in women are more ambiguous (e.g., McGue et al., 1992), the largest study of adult female twin pairs (Kendler et al., 1992) suggests an important genetic contribution to alcoholism risk in females also.
Alcohol Metabolism, Sensitivity, and Tolerance: Testing for Genetic Influences
Authors: Wilson James R , Laffan Elizabeth
Published: November 2023

Familial aggregation of alcohol abuse has been noted for a long time, and has led to the belief that the tendency to abuse alcohol is heritable. But the two major sources of familial resemblance-shared genes and shared environment-are difficult to disentangle in data from cohabiting family members. A number of behavioral genetic strategies have been developed to estimate the relative influence of genes and environment on individual differences in behavioral phenotypes, and many of these have been applied to studies of alcohol abuse and/or alcoholism. Some of these methods are outlined below, as an introduction to findings from research utilizing behavioral genetic methods.
Biochemical Phenotypic Markers in Genetic Alcoholism
Authors: Diamond Ivan , Gordon Adrienne
Published: November 2023

There is extensive evidence that genetic factors play a role in alcoholism (Begleiter and Porjesz, 1988; Kiianmaa et al., 1989; Cloninger, 1991) and in the development of alcoholic medical disorders (Devore et al., 1988). Moreover, Cloninger (1987) has shown by adoption studies that a “male-limited” type of alcoholism in the biologic father is a much greater predictor for alcohol abuse in the son that the environment in which the boy is raised. However, these observations do not suggest pathophysiologic mechanisms. Instead, clinical and experimental work with alcohol intoxication, tolerance, and dependence may provide clues to candidate phenotypes in alcoholism.
Computational Laws
Authors: Valiant Leslie G
Published: November 2023

Although computation has had a central role in mathematics from the beginning it was not studied systematically until the recent advent of digital computers, which made large scale computations possible. A new discipline has arisen which has come to be called computer science. From this a broad perspective has emerged that invites comparisons with the physical sciences. In particular it now appears that the world of computation can be compared with the physical world not only in the richness and variety of phenomena that can be observed, but also in the existence of underlying laws that govern what is and what is not feasible to do.
Cognitive Functions
Authors: Valiant Leslie G
Published: November 2023

In the previous two chapters we considered the possible contributions that the fields of neuroscience and computer science could make to an understanding of cortical computations. In this chapter we consider the third major viewpoint, that of cognitive psychology. The potential contribution of this field is to provide definitions or specifications of the behavior exhibited by the brain. Once accurate specifications are available, and provided suitable neural models have been abstracted from neuroscience, there remains only the problem of discovering the algorithms.
Knowledge Representations
Authors: Valiant Leslie G
Published: November 2023

If a neural system can cope in a complex external world, one must presume that its behavior can be described in terms of the various semantic items that are meaningful in that world. By the term item we mean just about any aspect of the world that may be useful in describing it. Individual objects, events, properties, relationships, concepts, and categories are all examples of items, as are certain predicates that are detected at lower levels in our perceptual systems.
Supervised Inductive Learning
Authors: Valiant Leslie G
Published: November 2023

As explained earlier, we find it useful to divide knowledge acquisition mechanisms into two categories. In the first the acquisition mechanism is such that little room is left to question the validity of the acquisition process. Examples of acquisition methods of this first kind are: inheriting an algorithm at birth, memorizing the text of a program or recipe given to one explicitly, memorizing the features of an individual or of an event, and arriving at knowledge by logical deduction from knowledge already available. Whatever problems of computational implementation these processes may pose, none of them raises philosophical difficulties concerning the rational defensibility of the outcome.
Systems Questions
Authors: Valiant Leslie G
Published: November 2023

In previous chapters we demonstrated how any one instance of any one of several different functionalities can be realized in an NTR. When we wish to realize all these functionalities together and to invoke them not just on one occasion but in arbitrary sequences, then significant additional problems arise. These systems problems fall broadly into two categories, depending on whether they relate essentially only to the internal working of the NTR or whether they concern directly the particulars of the interactions with the peripherals.
The Irritable Bowel Syndrome
Authors: Janowitz Henry D
Published: November 2023

You are a relatively young person, in your twenties, thirties, or forties, who enjoys good health. Without any warning you begin to experience periods of lower abdominal discomfort, which may increase in intensity. You have pain that feels like cramps. You need to move your bowels more often than usual and to move them quickly: “Precipitously” is your doctor’s word for this urgent need. Suddenly your stools are different: loose, watery, even explosive, without blood, but possibly containing mucus that looks like the uncooked white of an egg or the stuff you blow out of your nose with a simple cold.
Southern Writers and “The Impossible Load of the Past”
Authors: Cobb James C
Published: November 2023

With The War Of 1914-1918, Allen Tate observed, “the South re-entered the world-but gave a backward glance as it stepped over the border; that backward glance gave us the Southern renaiscence [sic], a literature conscious of the past in the present:’ In reality, although a new spirit of critical self-awareness had clearly emerged in the South during the first decade following the war, its initial focus had been largely contemporary. The actual “backward glance” that marked the full flowering of the literary phase of the Southern Renaissance came primarily in the 1930s when, in the absence of a critical historical tradition, southern writers began to ask how such an appealing and glorious past could have degenerated into such a dismal and defective present.
Introduction
Authors: Nuckolls Janis B
Published: November 2023

In her introduction to Language the Unknown, political theorist and linguist Julia Kristeva states the following: “The question ‘ what is language?’ could and should be re placed with another: ‘ How was it possible to conceive of language?’ (1989: 5).” This question assumes particular importance for the anthropologist investigating the language practices of speech communities unfamiliar with Western scientific culture. How can a scientific conception of language, which insists on its abstraction from the material world and from the body of the speaker, have any meaning for people who conceive language as a material force integrated with the natural and cosmic world? A scientific representation of language as an abstract, disembodied, and immaterial essence is ill equipped to understand, for example, magical practices that depend for their efficacy on the power of words.
Towards a New Reading of Gershwin
Authors: Hamm Charles
Published: November 2023

The United States has not produced a more famous composer than George Gershwin, who died half a century ago, on 11 July 1937. Many of his popular songs became standards or “evergreens” throughout the Western world from the 1920s through the 1950s, and some even survived the evolution of popular-music style from Tin Pan Alley to rock. Jazz musicians have always found his songs particularly suitable for improvisation, and much of the bebop repertory is built over the chord changes of several of them. His concert pieces, particularly Rhapsody in Blue, An American in Paris, the Concerto in F for piano and orchestra, and the Preludes for piano, are among the most widely performed “classical” works of the twentieth century, and his Porgy and Bess has become the most popular opera of the century. He is said to have written popular classical music and classic popular pieces. A large literature has grown up around his music and his life, much of it dealing with the latter point.
Creating the French Royal Academy of Medicine
Authors: Weisz George
Published: November 2023

The creation of the Academy of Medicine in 1820 did more than bring yet another Parisian medical institution into existence. It was a major and perhaps the final step in a process begun during the French Revolution leading to the formation of a national medical elite in France. Like other stages in this lengthy process, the establishment of the academy was part of a struggle for power to define and control the medical domain.
The Maxistop Study
Authors: Freeman John M , Mcdonnell Kevin
Published: November 2023

“Well the worst that can happen is they pee in their pants. People don’t literally die of embarrassment,” smirked the chief resident sliding into her chair, late as usual, for the meeting of the Institutional Review Board of St. Catherine Hospital.

“That’s not a great way to start this meeting off,” responded Dr. John Boston.

“If you’ll pardon the expression, the whole thing smells bad to me. Why are we messing with this anyway?” put in Dr. Barbara Rowe, physician and activist.
Joey, Jessica, Roger, Tom, and Marti
Authors: Freeman John M , Mcdonnell Kevin
Published: November 2023

Authors’ Note: Although we present this case with pediatric patients, the main issue it raises—the allocation of scarce medical resources or rationing—has no special connection with this population.

It is a beautiful Memorial Day weekend, which means trouble for you. As a fellow in intensive care medicine at University Hospital, you know it is going to be tough. There will be automobile accidents, boating accidents, plus all the usual problems. Since University provides the highest level of pediatric intensive care in the entire state, you know you will be busy.
The Castelli Baby
Authors: Freeman John M , Mcdonnell Kevin
Published: November 2023

Dick Bernstein was the hottest neonatal intensivist that University Hospital had produced in several years. He was completely devoted to the intensive care of very sick newborns. After completing residency there and a fellowship elsewhere, he had returned as a faculty member in neonatal medicine at University Hospital.

“It’s cruel and inhumane,” Rachel says. “You people must be sadists, torturing little children. Do you do it just for the challenge? Don’t you ever think of those poor kids and what it must be like? You treat them like objects, not like babies!”
Making Moral Decisions: A Process Approach
Authors: Freeman John M , Mcdonnell Kevin
Published: November 2023

For most medical decisions, there is a professional and social consensus on what should be done and a relatively simple process for determining it. Benefits and costs are usually clear, duties are apparent, and the patient readily consents to the physician’s proposal for treatment.

Tough decisions arise when costs are not clear, duties are not obvious, when the patient’s desires are different from those of the medical team, or when the standard solutions are no longer appropriate. In such circumstances, when people do not know what should be done and it is not clear who should decide, we have found it helpful to think about how good decisions can be made, to think about the process rather than the product.
American Theatre: A Chronicle of Comedy and Drama, 1914–1930
Authors: Bordman Gerald
Published: November 2023

This is the second volume in Bordman's monumental history of the non-musical American theatre. It analyses each Broadway show chronologically from 1914 to 1930 - the period when American drama was most prolific and productive.
Harlem
Authors: Gioia Ted
Published: November 2023

Harlem in the late l920s was a society precariously balanced between two extremes. The Harlem Renaissance—the name given to the broad-based flowering of black cultural and intellectual life during these years—crystallized the first of these possibilities, reflecting a forward-looking optimism and deeply felt community pride. It was tempting to reach for scriptural imagery in describing this vision of Harlem. Here was a promised land for a downtrodden race, delivered from slavery as in the Old Testament, now answerable to its own needs, and finally free to pursue its own vision of civil society.
The Acquisition of Branching
Authors: Bauer Brigitte L M
Published: November 2023

In my diachronic analysis of Latin syntactic and morphological units I have demonstrated that Latin LB structures, which were inherited from PIE, have been replaced with their RB equivalents which dominate in Modern French, and, second, that this change was not limited to this linguistic lineage. The shift from left to right branching is indeed characteristic of all Indo-European languages. The diachronic analysis in terms of branching has thus revealed that syntactic as well as morphological changes that at face value may appear random and unrelated are governed by the same underlying universal principle: the c9mprehensive reversal of the order in hierarchical units. In contrast to the claims of traditional teaching, the emerging of analytic forms in morphology and the tendency toward a stricter word order in syntax are but secondary effects. Although I have observed a change in branching, I have not been able to determine which structure has been the first to undergo this change. Data on the very first modification might have informed us on the cause of the observed shift. Moreover, diachronic evidence from Italic languages does not corroborate the chronology of the SOV - SVO reorganization proposed by Lehmann (1971) or Vennemann (1974), who based their claim essentially on evidence from Germanic languages. Although the beginning of the development is lost in the mist of time, combination of IndoEuropean data makes it possible to put forth a hypothesis about the nature of the structures that were the first to undergo the revealed change. The elements that in the analysis of Latin are shown to be the first to change branching arc the adjective, the adposition, and the relative clause.
Conclusion
Authors: Bauer Brigitte L M
Published: November 2023

Word order has often been the subject of diachronic studies of French and other India-European and non-Inda-European languages. In contrast to these previous studies I have attempted to demonstrate in this book the fundamental cohesion of the reorganization of all grammatical structures of Latin, referring at the same time to psycholinguistic considerations that can account for this comprehensive development. The structural reorganization has affected the syntactic as well as the morphological structures of Latin. In order to account for this comprehensive diachronic development I have related these findings to data from child language which show that the new branching pattern presents important advantages over its LB equivalent. Having accepted the approach of Bichakjian (1987), who has proposed a diachronic analysis of word order in terms of branching-although the idea of a typological study of the shift from OV to VO had been proposed much earlier by Lehmann (1971)-I have demonstrated the reversal of the order complement-head in the hierarchical structures of Latin, accounting for the structural regularity of both syntactic and morphological units and their evolution. Once the structural parallel between syntax and morphology has been established, one observes that far from being arbitrary organizations, the unmarked structures of Latin and PIE were organized according to the same principle: the complement systematically preceded .
Introduction: Schumann Today
Authors: Daverio John
Published: November 2023

To write, near the turn to the twenty-first century, a study of the life and works of Robert Schumann is perhaps both presumptuous and foolhardy; presumptuous, because so many studies of the composer already exist; and foolhardy, because biographies, if some of the latest critical punditry is to be believed, may soon become the museum pieces of writerly genres. Among nineteenth-century composers, probably only Beethoven and Wagner might boast of having served more often as the subject of biographical inquiries than Schumann, whose story has been told and retold, revised and corrected, again and again. Moreover, the biographical method itself is under fire; before long, general studies of an artist’s life and works may well be viewed with the same circumspection among scholarly writings as the historical romance is among literary genres. The guiding ideas of the nineteenth century, after all, can hardly be transplanted uncritically into the twentieth. For most of us, art is no longer the unmediated expression or reflection of the artist’s inner life. The unity of lived experience and artistic product-so dear to nineteenth-century thinking-was already consigned by Walter Benjamin some three-quarters of a century ago to the realm where it belongs: to myth; fictional heroes, not living subjects, exemplify a perfect synthesis of this sort.
Introduction
Authors: Isserman Maurice , Michael Kazin
Published: November 2023

As the 1950s drew to a close, the organizers of the official centennial observances for the Civil War were determined not to allow their project, scheduled to begin in the spring of 1961 and to run through the spring of 1965, to become bogged down in any outmoded animosities. Among other considerations, much was at stake in a successful centennial for the tourism, publishing, and souvenir industries; as Karl S. Betts of the federal Civil War Centennial Commission predicted expansively on the eve of the celebration, “It will be a shot in the arm for the whole American economy.” Naturally, the shot-in-the-arm would work better if other kinds of shots, those dispensed from musketry and artillery that caused the death and dismemberment of hundreds of thousands of Americans between 1861 and 1865, were not excessively dwelt upon. The Centennial Commission preferred to present the Civil War as, in essence, a kind of colorful and good-natured regional athletic rivalry between two groups of freedom-loving white Americans. Thus, the commission’s brochure “Facts About the Civil War” described the respective military forces of the Union and the Confederacy in 1861 as “the Starting Line-ups.”
The New Frontier of American Liberalism
Authors: Isserman Maurice , Michael Kazin
Published: November 2023

In American popular memory, the 1960s are regarded as years of ascendant liberalism. According to this view, liberals in Washington, D.C. and elsewhere had a more or less free hand in setting the political agenda for the decade. In domestic policy, they launched a “war on poverty” that raised unfulfillable expectations, squandered vast sums of money, and may even have been responsible for worsening the conditions prevailing in the nation’s central cities. In the courts, they sponsored a “rights revolution” that led to noisy demands for special treatment by minorities, welfare recipients, homosexuals, criminal defendants, and others outside the mainstream of American society.
1963
Authors: Isserman Maurice , Michael Kazin
Published: November 2023

As President John F. Kennedy celebrated Christmas of 1962 in Palm Beach, Florida, it looked like a very good year, even a triumphant one, could be in the offing. Unemployment was down, inflation was running at only 1 percent a year, and both business leaders and ordinary citizens were cheering the president’s plan for a permanent cut in income tax rates. According to the Gallup poll, 76 percent of the public approved the way the president was handling his job; even a majority of Republicans in the survey agreed.
On the Semantics and Morphosyntax of the Italian Subjunctive
Authors: Giorgi Alessandra , Pianesi Fabio
Published: November 2023

In this section we consider the distribution of the subjunctive and the indicative in Romance and Germanic languages. We will argue that the observed patterns can be explained on semantic grounds. Within the so-called possible world approaches to semantics, it is commonplace to assume that the contribution of a subordinate clause to the meaning of the sentence is computed by relativising its truth conditions to a set of worlds (mainly) determined by the matrix verb. We will see that the properties of such a set of worlds, constituting the context of evaluation of the clause, play a crucial role in the explanation of mood choice. The core of this idea is not new: it constitutes the basis of the traditional view according to which the indicative/subjunctive dichotomy is a manifestation of the realis/irrealis opposition. We will argue that an analysis in terms of realis/irrealis is not empirically adequate, and we will develop a semantic component providing a fine grained classification for the contexts of evaluation. On the other hand, we will argue that since the indicative/subjunctive distinction is a binary one, the typology identified by the semantic component must be collapsed into two main classes: the indicative one and the subjunctive class. Our proposal with respect to crosslinguistic variation is the following: languages might differ in the way they reduce the classes identified by the semantic component into the binary grammatical distinction. We will show that the various contexts can be ordered along a continuum, and that languages tend to behave alike at the extremities, selecting consistently the indicative or the subjunctive, whereas they differ with respect to the intermediate contexts, which in some languages emerge with the indicative and in other ones with the subjunctive.
Choosing an Instrument
Authors: Machover Wilma , Uszler Marienne
Published: November 2023

Finding an istrument for your child is something like helping him find a friend.

Instruments have personalities, just as your child does. You know your child. This chapter will tell you about the instruments and how to make a good match between your child and an instrument.

Making music in a certain way is a very personal choice. Tastes differ considerably. Some children love holding a violin or cello, feeling the vibrations as they move the bow across the strings, changing each sound as they form it. For other children, even those who are very musical, this is awkward or unattractive. Some children enjoy being alone at a keyboard, can cope with two-staff reading, and like the idea that they can play the melody and harmony at the same time. Others feel that playing the piano is mechanical or too complicated.

The point is that most of us enjoy making music chiefly (perhaps only) in a certain way—bowing, blowing, strumming, drumming, singing, or pushing down keys. Don’t think that if your child considers playing a piano, cello, or flute unappealing, she is unmusical or disinterested in making music. She may just need to find an instrument she’s attracted to and comfortable with.
Foundational Issues in the Learning of Proper Names, Count Nouns and Mass Nouns
Authors: Macnamara John , Reyes Gonzalo E
Published: November 2023

Although the foundations laid down in La Palme Reyes, Macnamara and Reyes (this volume) are crucial to the psychology of word learning, they are not in themselves psychology but logic. This paper bridges the gap. It begins with a general statement about the problem of explaining how anyone learns proper names, count nouns and mass nouns. It goes on to lay down a psychological postulate from which, in conjunction with the theses laid down in La Palme Reyes, Macnamara and Reyes (this volume), we draw two conclusions of paramount importance for the theory of learning in general. We next proceed, in the light of our logical and psychological foundations, to specify what the learner must express at the point of learning a proper name, a count noun or a mass noun. For simplicity we confine ourselves to basic-level count nouns and mass nouns. We do not carry out a comprehensive review of the experimental literature. That task we leave to Geoff Hall in the article that follows this one.
Some Issues Involving Internal and External Semantics
Authors: Pelletier Francis Jeffry
Published: November 2023

Emmon Bach’s paper (this volume) raises a number of interesting is sues, especially the questions “What is quantification, anyway?” and “What is the range of different ways in which quantification can be manifested?” Of course such questions bring up philosophical issues of how we can know whether such-and-such construction in this or that language really is or is not quantification.

For example, Bach cites Jelinek (1989) as arguing that Samish (or Straits Salish) does not use noun phrase quantification at all, but rather that it uses auxiliary elements interpreted as unselective quantifiers (Lewis 1975 and Heim 1982). Thus there are no phrases like the English ‘all bears’, but instead such apparent quantification over all bears is dealt with by quantifying over what bears always do. According to this view, the Samish sentence is more faithfully translated ‘Bears always eat fish’ than as ‘All bears eat fish’.
Horror Autotoxicus: The Immunology of Self-Destruction
Authors: Clark William R
Published: November 2023

Allergy and the other hypersensitivity reaction described in Chapter 4 were the first indication that the immune system, which clearly evolved to protect us from infectious disease, also has the potential to do harm. As we have seen, this was not a realization that descended lightly on immunologists. It was many years be fore most could accept that a system so beautifully designed to defend us could also hurt us. Ever the optimists, they assumed at first that the problem was of minor proportions. Serum sickness, being the result of human intervention, could easily be avoided or controlled, and it appeared that by judicious treatment the dam age from allergy and asthma could be kept within clinically acceptable bounds.
Organ Transplantation: Exploring the Boundary Between Technology and Ethics
Authors: Clark William R
Published: November 2023

Late in the summer of 1954, Richard Herrick was referred by his doctor to the Peter Bent Brigham Hospital in Boston, Massachusetts. Richard was twenty-four years old and had been suffering for some time from high blood pressure and puffiness around the face and eyes. His doctor suspected a kidney problem, and the Brigham is where people went if their kidneys were malfunctioning. The medical staff at the Brigham ran a battery of tests that initially might have indicated any number of problems. But they noticed that in addition to high blood pressure Richard had a bit more protein than normal in his urine, as well as traces of blood.
Minding the Immune System’s Business: The Dialogue Between the Brain and the Immune System
Authors: Clark William R
Published: November 2023

Let us return for a moment to something quoted at the very beginning of this book. Thucydides, remember, was writing down his observations about the plague that struck Athens in the fifth century B.C. He is usually recognized by immunologists as having been the first to notice (or at least to record) that people who somehow managed to survive the plague seemed to be protected from ever getting it again. Thucydides was the first to describe what we would now easily recognize as immunity to an infectious disease.
Introduction: Of Parameters and Polysynthesis
Authors: Baker Mark C
Published: November 2023

Languages differ. There is no doubt that the morphological and syntactic structures of Mohawk, Nahuatl, and Nunggubuyu look quite unlike those of English, French, and German. However, the true nature and extent of these differences is an important and controversial question. This is arguably one of the most important empirical questions that linguists can address, the answer having a variety of philosophical, sociological, and practical implications. A priori, there are two extreme positions one can take toward the superficial differences among languages. On the one hand, it could be that Mohawk, for example, actually differs from, say, English in many minor ways, and that it is the cumulative effect of all these little differences that makes Mohawk seem so alien to an English speaker. The other approach would be to say that Mohawk differs from English in one essential way, but this difference is so deeply embedded in the grammatical system that it affects all kinds of linguistic structures. Which view is the correct one-or perhaps what mixture or intermediate position between the two extremes-is a central concern of linguistic theory.
Complex Predicates
Authors: Baker Mark C
Published: November 2023

A striking fact about Mohawk polysynthetic observed in chapter l is that although it puts great emphasis on agreement and noun incorporation, certain other kinds of morphological structures arc relatively restricted. Mohawk does not have the diversity of “ complex predicate” constructions that some languages have, and, more importantly, some of those that it does have are restricted in their use. Moreover, similar restrictions appear to a greater or lesser degree in other polysynthetic languages as well. This observation goes against the conventional wisdom about polysynthetic languages, which is that they can express virtually any standard linguistic relationship by morphological means. In fact, the theoretical maximum of morphological complexity seems not to be reached. Rather, those languages that are rich in noun incorporation are poor(er) in other complex predicates, and those that are rich(er) in complex predicates are poor in noun incorporation.
Devices and Delights in Poetry
Authors: Stein Deborah , Spillman Robert
Published: November 2023

The essence of song, especially of the Romantic Lied, is an equality of music and text, a synthesis of a new art form out of two disparate media. Those who fail to understand the meaning of the poem fail, as well, to understand the meaning of the music that sets it. Indeed, performers who have not thoroughly studied the poetry cannot sing or play the Lied with the focus, the imagination, and the vitality that is essential for both the musicians and their audience. The necessity of studying the poetry in Lied performance preparation is not optional; rather, it is a major part of the basic work of both singer and accompanist. We thus begin with a word of encouragement to those who feel intimidated about studying poetry, who feel ill equipped, inexperienced, or even wholly ignorant. Earlier in this century, the study of poetry, and of literature in general, was considered a vital part of a standard secondary education. More recently, however, the spread of specialization and the advancement of technology have pre-empted the time once dedicated to the study of language and the other arts. Many college music students who are interested in the Art Song, therefore, have never had the opportunity to study language as an art, be it in poetry or in prose.
Rhythm and Meter
Authors: Stein Deborah , Spillman Robert
Published: November 2023

To study rhythm is to study all of music. Rhythm both organizes, and is itself organized by, all the elements which create and shape musical processes.Thus begins one of the first important twentieth-century books devoted solely to issues of rhythm and meter: The Rhythmic Structure of Music by Grosvenor W. Cooper and Leonard B. Meyer.1 This chapter can in no way be as thorough as that or the many other significant books on rhythm that have appeared in the past two decades; rather, we offer here some basic definitions of terms and concepts along with general guidelines for considering rhythm and meter in their manifold functions within Lieder. This chapter has two parts. In the first, we review the norms of rhythmic, metric, and phrase structure and organization, and in the second, we illustrate some deviations from those norms, namely, how Lieder vary these norms to create special musical effects that convey issues within the poetic text.
Form in the German Lied
Authors: Stein Deborah , Spillman Robert
Published: November 2023

The term “form” in music can be confusing; it can have several different meanings, particularly since music can be analyzed on several levels, from the smallest unit to the most vast compositional whole. Small-scale formal organization, which deals with the shape and interplay of phrases, was dis cussed in Chapter Eight; here we will examine other issues of formal organization that shape and mold music’s temporal flow. Form in Liederdiffers from that in many other genres in two significant ways. First, the miniature scale of the Lied often precludes the lengthy developmental sections found in larger forms, and second, the Lied cycle is similar only in part to the large, multimovement form found in instrumental sonatas, symphonies, or the vocal opera genre. While cycles such as Die schone MiiUerin, Winterreise, and Dichterliebe are large in overall scope, the interrelation between songs in these and other “cycles” varies greatly, with no common set of formal relationships. We begin our study of form by examining more general issues, such as use of repetition and contrast, and the reinterpretation of musical elements.
Different Settings of a Single Text: Comparison of Compositional Style
Authors: Stein Deborah , Spillman Robert
Published: November 2023

One way to understand the different styles of the great Lied composers is to compare different settings of the same poetry. What are the differences between two or more settings of the same text? Do the composers use the same form? Do they choose the same or similar tonal schemes? Do they stress the same words, or set the words in the same rhythms? Since each com poser has a unique style, differences in treatment of all aspects of music are inevitable. Nonetheless, the great masters of song-writing share common concerns about text setting, and there may well be some similarities among diverse settings. We will examine several such cases here, searching for similarities and differences, and speculating about the composers ‘ rationales for the decisions they made.
The Regulation and Marketing of Sexual Pleasure
Authors: Abramson Paul R , Pinkerton Steven D
Published: November 2023

In William Blake’s famous poem The Marriage of Heaven and Hell, he challenges the sanctimony of libidinous restraint-particularly as evidenced in Milton’s Paradise Lost. Blake warns: Those who restrain desire, do so because theirs is weak enough to be restrained; and the restrainer or reason usurps its place & governs the unwilling.
Problem-Solving in Public Health
Authors: Guyer Bernard
Published: November 2023

Solving problems in public health is fundamentally different from medical diagnosis and treatment. The difference can be illustrated with the following example. A clinician who treats a hypertensive patient might be quite discouraged with a fall in mean diastolic blood pressure of only 5% over a period of a year of treatment; the individual patient might still be symptomatic and at risk of complications. But an epidemiologist who monitors the blood pressure patterns of a population following the initiation of a community-based intervention program and observes a 5% drop in its mean diastolic blood pressure after 1 year of implementation might be ecstatic because a shift in the population indicator of this magnitude would move a large number of individuals into the normotensive range. The change would then be measured by comparing the distribution of blood pressures before and after the intervention.
General Population Studies
Authors: Eaton William W
Published: November 2023

Epidemiology is the study of diseases in populations, and services research in the context of epidemiology focuses on populations as well. A population is a group sharing a characteristic such as gender, occupation, workplace, race, nationality, age, and so forth. The general population is not limited to any particular class or characteristic but includes all persons without regard to special features. In the context of research studies, the “general population” usually refers to the individuals who normally reside in the locality of the study. Many epidemiologic studies involve large populations, such as a nation, a state, or even a county of several hundred thousand inhabitants. In such large studies, the general population includes individuals with a wide range of social and biologic characteristics, and this variation is helpful in generalizing the results. In the broadest sense, the “general population” refers to the human species.
An Icon for Our Time
Authors: Taruskin Richard
Published: November 2023

The walls, so they say, have ears; and during the coming pair of seasons, encompassing the bicentennial year of Mozart’s death, the walls of Lincoln Center are slated to absorb every one of the composer’s works, from the little Andante “pour le clavecin” in sister Nannerl’s notebook, composed just after his fifth birthday (if Papa Leopold, who inscribed the little harpsichord piece, is to be believed), to the Requiem, on which he was working when he died, just 30 years, 10 months and 1 week later. In that short span Mozart managed to compose such a quantity of music that it takes a book of a thousand pages just to list it adequately (the “Chronological-Thematic Catalogue” by Ludwig Kochel, now in its sixth revised edition). And that quantity is of such a quality that the best of it is still our standard of perfection in music, never to be surpassed (since perfection, as a standard, has long since gone out of style).
Bullfighters
Authors: Shubert Adrian
Published: November 2023

The corrida quickly became a star-driven spectacle with the bullfighter at its center. Fighting bulls offered the possibility of wealth and an unprecedented popularity. Successful bullfighters became celebrities, public figures of a new sort. The possibility of vast earnings and intense adulation lured thousands of young men, most of them from the lower classes, into the ring. But the profession was never a stable one; not only did individual figures rise and fall in public esteem, the relationship among the varying categories of bullfighter changed over time. Nor was their status as popular idols uncontested. At times, and especially after about 1890, they were criticized for no longer living up to the expectations the public had invested in them.
The Exultet in Southern Italy
Authors: Kelly Thomas Forrest
Published: November 2023

The Exultet rolls of southern Italy are parchment scrolls containing text and music for the blessing of the great Easter candle; they contain magnificent illustrations, often turned upside down with respect to the text so that they can be seen by observers. The Exultet in Southern Italy provides a broad perspective on this phenomenon that has long attracted the interest of those interested in medieval art, liturgy, and music. This book considers these documents in the cultural and liturgical context in which they were made, and provides a perspective on all aspects of this particularly southern Italian practice. While previous art-historical studies have concentrated on the illustrations in these rolls, Kelly's book also looks at the particular place of the Exultet in changing ceremonial practices, provides background on the texts and music used in southern Italy, and inquires into the manufacture and purpose of the Exultets--why they were made, who owned them, and how they were used.
The Liturgy
Authors: Kelly Thomas Forrest
Published: November 2023

The importance of the Exultet in the ceremonies of the Easter vigil can be judged from the value of the manuscripts prepared especially for this one moment in the year, much as the luxury of many gospel books is a measure, at least in part, of the importance of the Gospel in the ceremonies of the Mass. The vigil services of Holy Saturday consist of a series of lections and prayers.1 The rite of Baptism, with the accompanying blessing of baptismal water, is a feature of the vigil in most churches, though often not in monasteries, where there was often no font and no one to baptize. The vigil concludes with the first Mass of Easter. In this context, the Exultet has a solemn and picturesque place. The blessing of new fire, the lighting of a great candle that is blessed with a prayer of particular solemnity, and sometimes a procession with the announcement Lumen Christi are found in many but not all liturgies; the ceremony is not used in the papal liturgy at all, for example, until relatively late.
When Fathers and Children No Longer Visit
Authors: Greif Geoffrey L
Published: November 2023

Why do fathers lose contact with their children after a divorce? What do they say is the reason for their seeming abandonment of their sons and daughters? Whereas the first chapter set the groundwork for understanding the situations of noncustodial parents, and cites studies that report that fathers are absent in between 30 percent and 66 percent of separated families, in these next two chapters I pursue 11 fathers’ stories and examine them in light of the survey of 109 fathers who were out of contact. I have chosen to divide the fathers into two chapters. This chapter focuses on the less acrimonious instances of how fathers come to be noncustodial, situations in which the father seems to be the root cause of the loss of contact or in which the child is viewed as rejecting the father. In the next chapter, where the level of rancor is much higher, the mother is blamed for lack of contact or allegations of abuse have been leveled against the father.
Mental Illness and Psychiatric Services
Authors: Desjarlais Robert , Eisenberg Leon , Good Byron , Kleinman Arthur
Published: November 2023

The past several decades have seen a sizable investment-of capital, research, and programs-in problems of health and health care throughout the world. Nevertheless, although infectious diseases, family planning, and the health of infants have been the focus of active programs in the international health community, mental illnesses have not received attention proportionate to the suffering they produce. Several factors account for this. First, much of the burden of mental illness is relatively invisible to current forms of accounting. Because mental illnesses do not produce a large increase in the death rate, mortality rates (the most frequently cited public health statistic) fail to record the suffering they actually cause. For societies with high infant and maternal mortality rates, the apparent contrast between infectious diseases and mental illnesses is therefore deceiving.
Substance Abuse
Authors: Desjarlais Robert , Eisenberg Leon , Good Byron , Kleinman Arthur
Published: November 2023

Substance abuse is a pervasive problem that is taking an increasing toll on the world’s population. The 1993 World Development Report finds that alcohol-related diseases affect 5% to 10% of the world’s population each year, and accounted for approximately 2% of the global burden of disease in 1990.1 Although it is difficult to draw conclusions about the burden of other substances, such as heroin and cocaine, the social consequences of abuse are apparent in an increasing number of countries. Social factors (including the speed of social change, rapid urbanization, and growing disparity between social groups) relate to, if not directly cause, drug use.