bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
From Industrial Policy to a Regulatory State: Contrasting Institutional Change in Britain and France
Authors: Thatcher Mark
Published: October 2003

This chapter compares industrial policy and economic regulation in Britain and France in order to consider national capacities to alter institutions and policy norms. Analyses of the period between 1945 and 1980 have claimed that French policy-makers enjoyed much greater innovatory capacities than their British counterparts, using industrial policy as an example to support their views. Yet the reverse held true in the 1980s and 1990s: Britain was able to introduce more comprehensive reforms, and did so with less difficulty and earlier than did France. It moved decisively towards a ‘regulatory state’, whereas France followed the same direction of change but at a slower, more hesitant pace, without adopting a new rationale for state action. The chapter analyses how and why this was so from a historical institutionalist perspective, before drawing some more general conclusions about institutional change.
Monetary Policy and the Euro
Authors: Tsoukalis Loukas
Published: October 2003

This chapter first briefly traces the history of European monetary integration. It then examines: the politics and economics of the Maastricht Treaty and Economic and Monetary Union/European Monetary Union (EMU); the convergence criteria and the transition to the final stage; and the institutional structure provided for in the treaty. It concludes with the main outstanding issues, drawing on the experience of the first two years of life with the euro, and the prospects for the future.
The Changing European State
Authors: Müller Wolfgang C.
Published: October 2003

The modern state is a historic phenomenon that has been under constant transformation since its birth in the period of absolutism. In this chapter, a framework is presented for analysing changes of the state and changes are mapped out that have occurred in Western Europe since the 1980s. Since the completion of the state’s democratization, the most interesting question has traditionally been what it is doing. Answers to this question have led to a number of labels such as ‘welfare state’ or ‘night–watchman state’ (i.e. the liberal non–interventionist state). The chapter first suggests six dimensions (levels of state activities; state responsibilities; production modes; resources employed (laws, personnel, money); finance (generation of resources); steering of state activities) that together capture the essence of the state, and then provides an overview of changes in Western Europe since the 1980s along these six dimensions.
The Changing European State: Pressures from Within
Authors: Le Galés Patrick
Published: October 2003

This chapter deals with bottom up pressures on the state. It focuses on the challenges that cities and regions are posing to the nation state in Western Europe, rather than on the rise of ‘meso–government’ in Europe. It analyses three sets of pressures (the fragmentation of the public policy process; the competition for resources (finance) and the threat of impoverishment; and the legitimacy of the nation state – the deregulation of identity structuring), and the role that they play in the transformation of the state.
Conclusion
Authors: Menon Anand
Published: October 2003

The aim of this conclusion is to tease out the major themes that have reappeared throughout the book. In doing so it addresses six questions: what are the most striking features of the picture of contemporary West European politics (governance); to what extent has there been convergence between West European states; how can one go about accounting for continued divergences between political systems confronted by similar pressures; how has the European Union affected the political landscape in Western Europe; how serious are the problems of legitimacy confronting West European political systems; and how do different methodological approaches impact upon the understanding of West European politics? The answers to these questions are neither clear nor straightforward. The various chapters not only address different issues, often from different perspectives, but also on occasion come to different conclusions regarding the same phenomena. In doing so they demonstrate the richness, diversity and vibrancy of the subject.
What Is the Basis of Moral Obligation?
Authors: Prichard H. A.
Published: October 2003

To the question ‘What is the basis of moral obligation?’, argues that there is no general answer. It is improper to imply that all right acts are right for the same reason. Before defending this view, considers two possible grounds for moral obligation: 1) the goodness of the effects of an action, and 2) the goodness of the act itself. Whereas the former, which is broadly utilitarian, fails to comply with our real moral convictions, the latter does not capture well the role that motive plays in determining the rightness of an action. Moral principles are not deducible either from one single principle or from anything that is not a principle. Each is independent and possesses its own reason as the basis for a given moral obligation.
Does Moral Philosophy Rest on a Mistake?
Authors: Prichard H. A.
Published: October 2003

Maintaining that the existence of Moral Philosophy, as it is usually understood, rests on a mistake, Prichard undertakes to formulate our true attitude towards moral obligations. The right action does not depend upon either our own good or what is good. Obligations are underivative, immediate, and self‐evident, and therefore, we do not come to appreciate them through argument or a process of non‐moral thinking. The mistake on which Moral Philosophy rests, which links obligation to virtue or desire, parallels the mistake underpinning the Theory of Knowledge. Like moral obligation, knowledge is immediate; it need not be vindicated or improved by additional knowledge.
Duty and Interest
Authors: Prichard H. A.
Published: October 2003

To the many moral theorists who have sought to establish a necessary connection between duty and interest, Prichard replies that their project ought not to be undertaken as it commits us to the view that our only duty is to do what is to our advantage. In discussing the attempts of Plato, Butler, and Green to link duty and interest, Prichard, like Kant, maintains that the rightness of action does not depend either upon our own good or upon our belief that it depends upon our own good. Similarly, Prichard dismisses the view that our desire for our own good is our only motive.
Kant's Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals
Authors: Prichard H. A.
Published: October 2003

Discusses central aspects of Kant's work on the nature of morality and the basis of moral obligation. In examining the categorical imperative and the hypothetical imperative, emphasizes the real nature of the distinction between these principles: whereas the former is binding upon every one, the latter is binding only upon some individuals, namely those individuals who want the end for which a prescribed action is a means. Also considers the nature of the will, Kant's criterion of the rightness of a right action, and two criticisms of Kant's view of morality that arise from his attempt to offer a general answer to the question ‘Why ought an action be performed?’ Then turns to Kant's proof of freedom, which it is claimed just barely misses making the right point that action is only possible under the idea of freedom. Concludes by examining Kant's proof of immortality and the existence of God.
A Conflict of Duties
Authors: Prichard H. A.
Published: October 2003

In his general account of moral thought, Prichard holds that to regard a given action as right, we must imagine ourselves to be in a certain set of circumstances. In doing so, we conceive of ourselves as bound by those circumstances to perform that action. Since we have various general convictions about moral obligation, no single characteristic leads us to regard right acts as right. When two general convictions conflict, we are not in a position to know what our duty is. Being ignorant of some relevant circumstances, we cannot answer the question ‘What ought we to do?’ This follows from the fact that no common characteristic renders actions into duties.
Duty and Ignorance of Fact
Authors: Prichard H. A.
Published: October 2003

Prichard's concern here is whether a person's obligation depends either on features of his or her situation (and therefore on the effect of his or her action) or on features of his or her thoughts about that situation. Related to this contrast between the objective view and the subjective view is the issue of whether an obligation is an obligation to do some action. To the latter issue, Prichard responds that an obligation is not an obligation to do something, but an obligation to set ourselves to do something; as a consequence, it is necessary to modify the terms of Prichard's primary concern. This modification diminishes the force of the objective view and does nothing to eliminate the central difficulty in the subjective view, namely, that the obligation to do some action is said to depend not on the character that the action would have, but on our belief that it would have that character. The belief that some general character picks out obligations derives from the mistaken habit of regarding the terms ‘right’ and ‘wrong’ as equivalent to ‘ought’ and ‘ought not’. Having highlighted this mistake, Prichard holds that in instances where we have considered the circumstances fully, our thoughts about the situation decide whether we ought to perform a given activity.
The Meaning of ἀγαθόν In the Ethics of Aristotle
Authors: Prichard H. A.
Published: October 2003

Endeavours to specify what Aristotle means by αγαθον. In some contexts, this term seems to mean simply ‘that being desired’ or a person's ultimate or non‐ultimate end or aim. In other contexts, αγαθον takes on a normative quality. For his statements to have content, argues Prichard, Aristotle must hold that when we pursue something of a certain kind, such as an honour, we pursue it as a good. Prichard argues that by αγαθον Aristotle actually means (except in the Nicomachean Ethics) ‘conducive to happiness’, and holds that when a man acts deliberately, he does it from a desire to be happy. Prichard attributes this position to Plato as well, despite the fact that both thinkers make statements inconsistent with this view of our ultimate aim.
Manuscript on Morals
Authors: Prichard H. A.
Published: October 2003

To ascertain the truth about the main problems of moral philosophy, Prichard begins by dismissing as unreal the question ‘What is moral obligation?’ Being sui generis, ‘moral obligation’ cannot be defined in terms of other things. We are left with the question ‘What makes right acts right?’, to which Prichard replies there is no general answer. We are also left with the question ‘What, if anything, ought we to do in life?’ After contrasting the moral and the non‐moral senses of ought, Prichard replies to Sidgwick's utilitarian treatment of this question, which involves dividing the question into two: ‘What ought I to do?’ and ‘What ought I to aim at?’ Dismissing the latter formulation, Prichard defends an intuitionist account of how we come to know what we ought to do. He concludes by distinguishing between the right and the good.
The Object of a Desire
Authors: Prichard H. A.
Published: October 2003

Concerning the nature of desires that pertain to actions, considers the view that we cannot desire something unless we know or think, first, that it does not exist, and second, that it does not exist now. Finds a core of truth in this, but modifies the formula to claim that ‘we can only desire the existence of that of the existence of which in the past, present, or future, as the case may be, we are uncertain.’ Put more simply, a desire is not a desire for the existence of something, but rather a desire for something to be (or to have been, or to be going to be). It follows from this view that we cannot desire something to be the case when we think that, without a doubt, it will be the case.
Acting, Willing, Desiring
Authors: Prichard H. A.
Published: October 2003

To the question ‘What does it mean to act or to do something?’, replies that it is not easy to identify a common character in actions. Begins by examining the position of Cook Wilson, who maintains that ‘to do something’ means to originate, cause, or bring into existence, either directly or indirectly, some not yet existing state either in oneself or some other body. Although Prichard agrees that usually action involves causing something, he observes that causing a change is not itself an activity (even though causing a change may require an activity). In moving one's hand, one performs that indefinable mental activity of willing some change. The movement of the hand is the effect of the action, not the action itself, a fact overlooked by thinkers like Locke. Turning to the nature of the desire behind one's willing, Prichard rejects the view that this desire is actually a desire for the change willed. Despite forceful objections, Prichard maintains that this desire is the desire for the willing of that change.
‘Ought’
Authors: Prichard H. A.
Published: October 2003

Prichard's topic here is the nature of ‘ought’. If we were to take ‘I ought to will x’ to be equivalent to ‘my willing x ought to exist’, then it is true that ‘If I were to will a certain change x, my willing x would be something that ought to exist.’ For this to hold, either my willing x would itself be something good or my willing x would cause something good (and so be something that ought to exist). Prichard, however, rejects this view on the grounds that one cannot know, in willing x to exist, whether one's willing x is something that ought to exist. One can only know that if one were to will x, one would be willing something that one thought ought to exist.
Why Refugees Matter
Authors: Helton Arthur C.
Published: October 2003

While frequently neglected as an important aspect of globalization, refugees matter in a variety of ways to states, host communities, and individuals. The end of the cold war changed responses to forced migration emergencies in fundamental ways. The ideological value of refugees was reduced, and, at the same time, impediments to international intervention were lifted.

But there is no single answer, no single tool or even formula or combination of tools to deal with particular displacement situations. Sustainable policy requires the institutionalization of preventive approaches and effective forms of international cooperation.
Surmounting Indifference: Refugees and the New Statecraft
Authors: Helton Arthur C.
Published: October 2003

Several broad trends provide the context for current refugee policy responses. The debate over national sovereignty and humanitarian intervention, while not new, reached a crescendo over the past decade as refugees and population movements more generally necessarily diminished the exclusive prerogative of state sovereignty relating to border control in the modern world. Europe is a fertile setting for the development of regional capacities that can blend military and civilian responses to humanitarian crises, both within and outside Europe, including at the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). Yet, the difficulty of protecting and assisting internally displaced persons, continues to raise basic questions about the competence of the international system and the implementation mechanisms for human rights and humanitarian law. International migration provides the broad context for the evolution of refugee policy.
Varieties of Refugee Concerns: The Beginnings of a Policy Toolbox
Authors: Helton Arthur C.
Published: October 2003

The refugee policy toolbox includes such remedies as territorial asylum, local integration in countries of asylum, and resettlement abroad, as well as new variations on these themes. Efforts at internal protection before individuals have fled their home countries, have had mixed results. While the quality of asylum for refugees is hardly uniform given the wide discretion permitted to states, under international law, providing access to the territory of an asylum state will continue to be the primary form of protection. The experience in Germany is reflective of a recent trend by states, particularly in Europe, away from asylum as a refugee protection response.

Policy planning relating to forced migration is embryonic. The absence of resources, staff, and time devoted to developing strategies to mitigate crises is a glaring deficit in humanitarian action. At the international and national levels, new strategic planning capacities outside of the UN system are necessary.
International Bureaucracy and the Debasement of Mercy
Authors: Helton Arthur C.
Published: October 2003

Duplication of efforts is endemic in the humanitarian ‘new economy’ that has emerged over the past decade, and gaps are more prevalent than structure in international humanitarian action. Any future impetus for reform of the humanitarian components of the UN, moreover, must come from outside system, if at all. The problem of internal displacement could provide this impetus. Nevertheless, decisive reform is needed, and the bureaucratic trend is clear —consolidation of the varieties of entities and functions involved in the provision of humanitarian assistance and protection in order to become more effective. This trend should be promoted and institutionalized. Ultimately what is needed is a consolidated UN humanitarian agency with a fully integrated budget and programme, an Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) with budgetary, and programmatic authority.
Reaction and Inattention Within the US Government
Authors: Helton Arthur C.
Published: October 2003

As evidenced in US government responses to humanitarian emergencies over the past decade, humanitarian considerations are often not taken into account sufficiently in military and political planning processes. Kosovo was a prime example. The status quo is not an optimal basis for promoting US humanitarian interests. Bureaucratic turf wars and a long‐standing debate between the developed and developing countries on questions of intervention and national sovereignty have politicized and slowed effective humanitarian action, causing donor countries to turn away from formal multi‐lateral structures. To more effectively discharge US government functions in the humanitarian field and to more effectively coordinate policy, a new separate civilian agency —an Agency for Humanitarian Action (AHA)—is proposed.
Imagining Better Refugee Policy
Authors: Helton Arthur C.
Published: October 2003

Different policy futures could result from preferences such as containment, international cooperation, or taking a proactive approach. The continuing problem of forced displacement makes international cooperation and proactive policy important objectives. Yet, achieving cooperative arrangements in the midst of crisis can be difficult. Policy reform may thus depend on marshalling and promoting a variety of counter‐intuitive factors and motivations in advance of crisis—i.e., leadership. In order to foster more international cooperation on refugee arrangements, an international organizational mechanism is needed to map out the interests and incentives to promote more concerted and sustainable humanitarian policy.
Achieving Comprehensive and Proactive Refugee Policy
Authors: Helton Arthur C.
Published: October 2003

The primary international organization involved with refugees is the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), which was established in 1950 to protect and assist refugees and supervise the implementation of the UN refugee treaty regime. In terms of the broader international system, without significant institutional change, increased financial support and renewed commitment on the part of Member States, the UN will not be capable of executing the critical peacekeeping and peace‐building tasks assigned to it in the coming years.

To promote greater coherence in the making and implementing of forced migration policy, a new intellectual capacity is needed. The proposal made by the author is for the establishment of Strategic Humanitarian Action and Research (SHARE), a humanitarian action think tank. SHARE would be both a planning resource and an archive of lessons learned, which ultimately could become an intergovernmental mechanism. It would craft responses to fill the gaps that regularly emerge in post‐crisis situations, particularly in post‐crisis situations when emergency relief is ending, but before the development of a fully functioning state.
Reasons and Purposes
Authors: Schueler G. F.
Published: October 2003

This book involves rethinking the answer to Davidson's question, ”What is the relation between a reason and an action when the reason explains the action by giving the agent's reason for doing what he did?” It focuses on the thought that practical deliberation is central to explaining human action. One common version of the widely held view that explanations of actions in terms of the agent's reasons are causal explanations understands desires and beliefs as the main causal factors and says roughly that what might be called a purely causal or ’non‐purposive’ account of desire‐belief interactions underlies the surface and (apparently) purposive or teleological explanation in terms of the agent's reasons. It is argued in this book that any such view can make no sense in the end of a common, and indeed essential, element in reasons explanations, practical reasoning itself.

In the alternative account suggested here, explanations of actions in terms of the agent's reasons have an ineliminable normative element, not explicable in unadorned causal terms, which stems from the central role of practical deliberation in the genesis, and thus in the explanation, of actions. Intentional actions are always done for reasons, and the agent's reasons for doing what she did, even when there is no explicit deliberation, are whatever led her to think that this action is what she should do. So her reasons for doing what she did are intelligible only as features of her actual or possible practical deliberation, which must therefore always be at least implicitly referred to in explanations of her actions in terms of her reasons. At the same time, practical deliberation is inherently normative, both in the sense that the agent must employ evaluations in her deliberation and in the sense that her reasons are automatically open to normative criticism from herself and others. It is argued here that this requires that explanations of actions that refer essentially to the agent's deliberation have a normative element as well.
Non‐Teleological Explanations of Actions
Authors: Schueler G. F.
Published: October 2003

There are well‐known arguments in favour of the idea that explanations of actions are at bottom non‐teleological. Michael Smith's ‘direction‐of‐fit’ argument entails this, and both Davidson and Thomas Nagel give general arguments that only causal explanations actually explain. In this chapter, it is argued that all these arguments are unsuccessful.
Deliberative Democracy and Beyond
Authors: Dryzek John S.
Published: October 2003

Deliberative Democracy and Beyond takes a critical tour through recent democratic theory, beginning with the deliberative turn that occurred around 1990. The essence of this turn is that democratic legitimacy is to be found in authentic deliberation among those affected by a collective decision. While the deliberative turn was initially a challenge to established institutions and models of democracy, it was soon assimilated by these same institutions and models. Drawing a distinction between liberal constitutionalism and discursive democracy, the author criticizes the former and advocates the latter. He argues that a defensible theory of democracy should be critical of established power, pluralistic, reflexive in questioning established traditions, transnational in its capacity to extend across state boundaries, ecological, and dynamic in its openness to changing constraints upon, and opportunities for, democratization.
Transnational Democracy: Beyond the Cosmopolitan Model
Authors: Dryzek John S.
Published: October 2003

Globalization means that political control moves into the international system. Transnational democracy can follow suit, through democratization of the discourses that pervade and coordinate international politics. Transnational networks of non‐governmental organizations are important.
Autonomy and the Foundations of Contemporary Liberalism
Authors: Levinson Meira
Published: October 2003

Discusses contemporary liberalism's meaning, character, and justification. Section 1.1 argues that three constitutive commitments define contemporary liberalism and distinguish it from other theories. Section 1.2 demonstrates that, contrary to political liberalism's claims, these three commitments are best linked by the value of autonomy. Hence, contemporary liberalism is best understood as displaying weak perfectionism. Section 1.3 analyses autonomy more carefully, developing it as a substantive notion of higher‐order preference formation within a context of cultural coherence, plural constitutive personal values and beliefs, openness to other's evaluations of oneself, and a sufficiently developed moral, spiritual or aesthetic, intellectual, and emotional personality.
Modifying the Liberal Educational Ideal
Authors: Levinson Meira
Published: October 2003

Examines four objections stemming from the clash of theory (that liberalism requires the institution of compulsory, autonomy‐driven schools regardless of parental preferences) and intuition (that liberalism entails democratic control over schools and sensitivity to parents’ preferences). It argues that the ‘detached school’ should, with minor modifications, continue to provide the basis for the liberal educational ideal. Section 3.1 addresses concerns about state tyranny, arguing that the detached school both counters the threat of parental tyranny and ensures a substantive pluralism among schools and within society. Section 3.2 shows that detached schools can promote effective parental involvement. Section 3.3 addresses the hidden curriculum of schools, while Section 3.4 discusses the ability of the detached school to help children develop cultural coherence and a stable sense of identity as well as a capacity for choice.
Making Sense of It All: Transforming Political Theory into Educational Policy
Authors: Levinson Meira
Published: October 2003

Addresses the practical implementation of the liberal educational ideal. Section 5.1 identifies the ways in which choice, cultural coherence, and citizenship fit together within an autonomy‐driven education, and also discusses three other possible liberal or educational aims that should potentially help guide the implementation of the liberal ideal: economic competitiveness, democratic self‐reflection, and equality. Section 5.2 constructs a public policy of liberal education, arguing for strict state regulation of schools (both public/state and private) as well as for school choice in the form of controlled choice. Section 5.3 discusses the changes that would need to take place in the areas of legislation, pre‐service and in‐service teacher training, public dialogue, school accountability, and cultural attitudes about education in order to make the liberal educational ideal a reality, especially in the US and Britain.
Ancient Traditions of the Virgin Mary's Dormition and Assumption
Authors: Shoemaker Stephen J.
Published: October 2003

The ancient Dormition and Assumption traditions, a remarkably diverse collection of narratives recounting the end of the Virgin Mary's life, first emerge into historical view from an uncertain past during the fifth and sixth centuries. Initially appearing in Syria, Palestine, and Egypt, these legends spread rapidly throughout the Christian world, resulting in over 60 different narratives from before the tenth century preserved in nine ancient languages. This study presents a detailed analysis of the earliest traditions of Mary's death, including the evidence of the earliest Marian liturgical traditions and related archaeological evidence as well as the numerous narrative sources. Most of the early narratives belong to one of several distinctive literary families, whose members bear evidence of close textual relations. Many previous scholars have attempted to arrange the different narrative types in a developmental typology, according to which the story of Mary's death was transformed to reflect various developments in early Christian Mariology. Nevertheless, evidence to support these theories is wanting, and the present state of our knowledge suggests that the narrative diversity of the early Dormition traditions arose from several independent ‘origins’ rather than through ordered evolution from a single original type. Likewise, scholars have often asserted a connection between the origin of the Dormition traditions and resistance to the council of Chalcedon, but the traditions themselves make this an extremely unlikely proposal. While most of the traditions cannot be dated much before the fifth century, a few of the narratives were almost certainly in composed by the third century, if not even earlier. These narratives in particular bear evidence of contact with gnostic Christianity. Several of the most important narratives are translated in appendices, most appearing in English for the first time.
The Earliest Dormition Traditions: Their Nature and Shape
Authors: Shoemaker Stephen J.
Published: October 2003

The first four Christian centuries are remarkably silent regarding the end of the Virgin Mary's life. Only in the later fifth century do we encounter the earliest Dormition traditions. At this point, there are suddenly several diverse narrative traditions describing the end of Mary's life. They include representatives of three distinct narrative types, the Palm of the Tree of Life narratives, the Bethlehem narratives, and the Coptic narratives, as well as a handful of atypical narratives. The traditions of Ephesus and Constantinople are also briefly considered.
The Ancient Palestinian Cult of the Virgin and the Early Dormition Traditions
Authors: Shoemaker Stephen J.
Published: October 2003

The earliest centre of Marian cult in Palestine appears to have been an early Nativity shrine known as the Kathisma church, which by the early fifth century had become a focus of Marian piety. Not long thereafter, the traditional site of Mary's tomb just outside the Jerusalem city walls emerged as a second important centre of Mary's veneration. In the early sixth century, a third Marian shrine was added to the Holy City, the Nea church, completed during the emperor Justinian's reign. The earliest feast of Mary in Palestine was 15 August, initially a celebration of Mary's role in the Nativity that eventually developed into a commemoration of her Dormition and/or Assumption. By the seventh century, this festival had expanded to encompass several days in mid‐August, in a stational liturgy that linked together all three of Jerusalem's Marian shrines.
Rival Traditions of Mary's Death: The Independent Origins of the Ancient Dormition Traditions
Authors: Shoemaker Stephen J.
Published: October 2003

Many interpreters have argued that the earliest Dormition traditions did not include Mary's resurrection and Assumption, and that these features were only added to the narratives later on, as the early Christians increasingly came to believe in these events. Alternatively, many other scholars have proposed that Mary's resurrection and Assumption were original features of the Dormition traditions that fell away as later Christians departed from the primitive orthodoxy, resulting in later narratives that omit these features, concluding only with Mary's death and the disappearance of her lifeless body. The evidence for either of these developmental typologies is lacking, however, and it seems instead that the different narrative types emerged almost simultaneously and independently of one another. The liturgical traditions Palestine do not support, neither developmental schema. It seems likely that the different fates ascribed to Mary at the end of the various Dormition narratives may have their source in the diversity of opinion in late antiquity regarding the eschatological significance of Paradise.
As Time Goes By
Authors: Freeman Chris , Louçã Francisco
Published: October 2003

This book is about fundamental economic theory, but it maintains that economics is meaningless outside the framework of history.

It therefore analyses the evolution of some leading economies since the Industrial Revolution.

It opens with a critical discussion of some earlier attempts to expound a theory of history, notably, the so‐called ‘new economic history’ or ‘cliometrics’ and then the ideas of two outstanding social scientists—Kondratiev and Schumpeter.

They were both concerned with major qualitative as well as quantitative changes in evolving economic systems, with the explanation of such revolutionary transformations and with their periodization.

Our book too is concerned with exploring these problems, but it offers deep criticism both of Kondratiev's ‘long wave’ theory and of Schumpeter's attempt to reconcile this theory with the equilibrium models of Walras.

Like Keynes, we emphasize some of the limitations of purely econometric models and insist on the great importance of ‘semi‐autonomous’ institutions and subsystems of society, which influence the economy and are influenced by it in a process of mutual interaction and adjustment.

Although in recent times the technology subsystem has been extremely dynamic and influential in the evolution of the economy, it is essential to consider also the political, cultural, and science subsystems, all of which have a vital role in achieving that degree of congruence in the social system necessary for successful economic growth.

This approach is illustrated in those chapters of the book that are devoted to a historical account of five successive technological revolutions, i.e. water‐powered mechanization, steam‐powered mechanization, electrification, motorization, and computerization.

Statistical evidence of the great significance of these technological revolutions for structural change in the economy is found in the changing composition of the leading cohort of the hundred largest firms.

Evidence of the social conflicts and tensions engendered by each structural crisis of adjustment is found in the statistics of days lost in strikes, as well as in political conflicts over the regulatory regime and in international markets.
Restless Clio: A Story of the Economic Historians' Assessment of History in Economics
Authors: Freeman Chris , Louçã Francisco
Published: October 2003

Economic history has always been quite a peculiar department both in the domain of history and that of economics; dealing with change, institutions, collective rationality, and conflicting strategies of economic agents, privileging descriptive and non‐formal analytical tools, economic history remained for long outside the scope of formal neoclassical economics.

This chapter describes and discusses the story of the incorporation of economic history into the mainstream of economic theory through the cliometric revolution, a powerful intellectual movement emerging by the late fifties, which encapsulated this reconstruction of economic history from the point of view of marginalist price theory and the postulates of individual rationality; Meyer and Conrad were the major drivers of this radical vision, and challenged the ‘old historians’ school’, today best represented by the response of David Landes.

Yet the coherence of the cliometric movement was soon jeopardized by internal contradictions: Paul David issued the most powerful challenge to the seminal building block of the new approach, Fogel's ‘Time on the Cross’, a revision of the traditional approach to the economics of slavery in the pre‐Civil War USA.

Douglass North is another example of a dissident from cliometrics, and Alfred Chandler provided alternative arguments for a reasoned history approach to societal change.

The cliometric analysis of the British Industrial Revolution, using counterfactuals, namely by Crafts and Hawke, is discussed and contradicted in the chapter.
The British Industrial Revolution: The Age of Cotton, Iron, and Water Power
Authors: Freeman Chris , Louçã Francisco
Published: October 2003

The available statistics show that there was a sharp acceleration of the growth of British industrial output, investment, and trade in the last few decades of the eighteenth century, justifying the general use of the expression ‘Industrial Revolution’ and refuting the efforts of a few historians to deny its very occurrence.

In particular, the extraordinarily rapid growth of output and exports of the cotton industry was widely remarked upon both at the time and ever since, and was generally and plausibly attributed to a series of inventions and innovations, which increased productivity per hour of work by more than an order of magnitude and made possible rapidly descending costs and prices.

Only a little less rapid was the growth of the British iron industry, its rate of technical change, and its widening range of applications throughout the economy.

These exceptionally dynamic industries made an outstanding contribution to the growth of the economy as a whole based on water‐powered mechanization and a new transport infrastructure of canals, rivers, and roads.

Finally, British leadership in the Industrial Revolution must be attributed not only to these changes in technology and in the economy but also to the confluence and congruence of these changes with developments in the political and cultural subsystems particularly favourable to science, technology, and entrepreneurship.
The Third Kondratiev Wave: The Age of Steel, Heavy Engineering, and Electrification
Authors: Freeman Chris , Louçã Francisco
Published: October 2003

The electrical industry was more directly affected by new developments in science than the railways or textiles but although scientists such as Faraday contributed a great deal to the understanding of electro‐magnetism in the first half of the nineteenth century, it was not until fairly late in the century that the full‐scale commercial development of electrical generation and transmission systems took place.

When industrialists and inventors, such as Siemens and Edison, developed networks of power and launched the exploration and development of innumerable new applications of electricity, the scale of the investment required was so great that giant new firms rapidly grew in the countries that were leading the new technology, principally the US and Germany.

These new firms, together with the railways, were the source of numerous management innovations, leading to the typical bureaucracies and hierarchies of large firms with separate specialized departments for finance, personnel, marketing, and new technical development (later called R&D).

They were voracious consumers of metals, especially of copper and the cheap steel made available in vast quantities by such new processes as the Bessemer process.

Electrification and the very rapid growth of the steel and related heavy industries enabled Germany as well as the US to overtake Britain and to challenge her supremacy in world trade, colonial possessions, and imperialism, leading ultimately to a naval armaments race between Britain and Germany and to the First World War.
The Fourth Kondratiev Wave: The Great Depression and the Age of Oil, Automobiles, Motorization, and Mass Production
Authors: Freeman Chris , Louçã Francisco
Published: October 2003

The key inventions that led to the internal combustion engine, to the automobile, the truck, the tractor, and the tank, were made in Europe, but the innovations that led to the assembly line, to mass production and consumption, were made at the Ford plant in Detroit in the early years of the twentieth century.

These technical and organizational innovations gave such an impetus to productivity, profitability, output, and exports of the US automobile industry that the plant became a Mecca for visitors from all over the world and ‘Fordism’ became a dominant management philosophy as well as an economic and cultural ideology, believed to herald the dawn of a ‘new economy’.

The chapter devotes considerable attention to possible explanations for the collapse of this boom and the advent of the ‘Great Depression’ of the 1930s, concluding that, as with previous clusters of innovations, the assimilation of a major new technology into the social system gave rise to enormous political and social tensions and to structural crises of adjustment, both at national and international levels.

These tensions and conflicts led ultimately to a Second World War, a motorized war in which tanks and aircraft proved decisive weapons and oil was the essential fuel for the motorized armed forces.

The world economy after the war was no less dependent on abundant cheap oil, and became a system dominated by the mass production of cars and consumer durables, as well as motor highways, the mass media, mass tourism, mass education, mass culture, and the political and military supremacy of the US.
Introduction
Authors: Pollack Mark A.
Published: October 2003

The European Union is composed of its member states, yet these states have created and delegated increasing powers to a number of supranational organizations, including the executive Commission, the European Court of Justice and the European Parliament. Drawing from principal‐agent analyses of delegation, agency and agenda setting, seeks to analyse and explain the delegation of powers by governmental principals to supranational agents, as well as the subsequent role played by those agents in the process of European integration.
Delegation, Agency, and Agenda Setting in the European Union
Authors: Pollack Mark A.
Published: October 2003

Principal‐agent theories of delegation generate specific, testable hypotheses about delegation to supranational organizations in the European Union, including: the specific functions delegated to such agents; the conditions under which member‐state principals delegate greater or lesser discretion to their agents; and the conditions under which supranational organizations such as the Commission are able to pursue their distinct preferences, within the limits of their statutory discretion. Such principal‐agent analyses, drawn from rational choice theory and transaction‐costs approaches, represent a parsimonious and internally consistent approach to the study of delegation; however, a competing approach, derived from sociological institutionalism, generates strikingly different predictions. This book examines both the delegation stage (at which member‐state principals create supranational organizations, delegate powers to them and establish control mechanisms to limit their discretion) and the subsequent behaviour of supranational agents in the day‐to‐day conduct of their executive, judicial and legislative powers. Although causally related, these two stages raise very different methodological challenges, and thus the two parts of the book utilize distinct research designs and methods to answer the questions posed in each.
The European Parliament as an Outlier: Delegation of Legislative Power in the European Union
Authors: Pollack Mark A.
Published: October 2003

European Union governments have delegated an ever‐expanding set of supervisory, budgetary and legislative powers to the European Parliament over the past five decades of European integration. Such delegation to the Parliament appears to be motivated not by the functional demands emphasized in principal‐agent approaches, but primarily by an ideological concern on the part of member governments, and their constituents, to enhance the democratic legitimacy of the European Union. A close examination of the patterns and process of delegation to the EP, however, suggests that member governments calculate the likely consequences of delegation to the EP, and refrain from delegating powers in areas where they perceive that the EP would move political outcomes away from their collective preferences.
Conclusions: A Europe of Agents, a World of Agents
Authors: Pollack Mark A.
Published: October 2003

The member states of the European Union have delegated functions to the Commission and the Court of Justice, which correspond closely to the functions predicted by principal‐agent models; delegation to the European Parliament, however, fits poorly with such models, and appears to be driven primarily by concerns about democratic legitimacy. Turning from delegation to the subsequent activities of supranational agents, the evidence suggests that the EU's supranational agents generally act as unitary actors with a preference for further integration, and that the discretion of these actors to realize their preferences varies systematically with the institutional control mechanisms established by member governments. Looking beyond the European Union, the increasing delegation of executive and judicial powers to international organisations, secretariats and tribunals calls for further study using the tools of principal‐agent analysis. Such international delegation promises significant benefits to participating states, but also raises normative concerns about democratic accountability.
Order and Justice in International Relations: What Is at Stake?
Authors: Hurrell Andrew
Published: October 2003

This chapter takes issue with a traditional approach that has tried, unsuccessfully, to separate order from justice. It argues that a solidarist consciousness has been developed, arising from a wide range of social, political, economic, and technological forces. These developments make a retreat to pluralist state‐based conceptions of international order and justice impossible. Yet the chapter acknowledges, too, that attempts to move towards promoting some conception of global justice are still constrained because these attempts have to be made in the context of a global political order that remains heavily structured around inherited pluralist mechanisms that reflect various types of inequality.
Order and Justice in the International Trade System
Authors: Toye John
Published: October 2003

Toye focuses on issues relating to substantive justice as mediated through the international trade regime. He argues that the transition from the GATT to the WTO is leading to the continuation, possibly even the worsening, of inequality amongst countries. Toye concludes that formal justice is at odds with substantive justice since the inequalities of political and economic power between developed and developing countries have not been compensated for in the enactment of supposedly improved trade procedural rules.
Russian Perspectives on Order and Justice
Authors: MacFarlane S. Neil
Published: October 2003

MacFarlane argues that Russian perspectives on order and justice are deeply rooted and are basically inconsistent with liberal thinking. These perspectives strongly reflect the country's geographical and historical experiences. The leaders of the country have generally ignored solidarist ends and have remained wedded to the promotion of a state‐based order in which multipolarity prevails, multilateralism is to be avoided, and the Russian loss of status is recovered along with its material power. Russian leaders remain concerned with interstate justice in the context of a re‐established domestic and Russian‐led regional order.
An Uneasy Engagement: Chinese Ideas of Global Order and Justice in Historical Perspective
Authors: Mitter Rana
Published: October 2003

Mitter's study argues that until the late Qing, concepts of international order and justice were alien to China's imperial rulers. Subsequently, however, in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, China perceived itself to be the victim in an unjust world of aggressive, powerful, Western states. Contemporary Chinese perceptions of a just international order have been shaped by such past experiences and encompass a strong element of restitution. Its justice claims start with the Chinese state itself rather than with the needs of a broader global community.