bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
106 Evaluation of a Novel Wet/Dry Feeder in Finishing Pigs
Authors: Greiner Laura L , Humphrey Dalton C , Becker Spenser , Hagen Chloe S , Holtz Katie
Published: April 2022

Approximately 1,200 pigs (DNA 241×600, Columbus, NE) at approximately 20 kg were randomly allocated into sixty pens (20 pigs/pen) within 3 treatments to evaluate different feeder styles (conventional dry feeder (Dry), PigEasy (PE) wet/dry (PigEasy, Templeton, IA), or Crystal Springs(CS) wet/dry (Crystal Springs, Brandt, SD). Diets for the study were standard, commercial, mash diets that met the growth requirements for the pigs (NRC, 2012). Pigs were allowed 1 week of acclimation to the respective feeder style before the initiation of the study. Pigs were weighed at the beginning of the trial and at each phase change (approximately every 3 to 4 weeks) until market. Feed disappearance was recorded for each phase for the calculation of average daily gain (ADG), average daily feed intake (ADFI), and feed conversion (G:F). Carcass information was collected by treatment to assess carcass metrics. Data were analyzed by pen, with the fixed effect of feeder type, and using repeated measures (SAS, Cary, NC) for the evaluation of ADG, ADFI, GF. The use of either wet/dry feeder compared with a dry feeder resulted in improved ADFI and body weight and a reduced G:F over time (P < 0.02). At the time of market, pigs on wet/dry feeders were approximately 9 kg heavier compared with a standard dry feeder (121.05, 130.64 and 129.28 kg, respectively; P < 0.01). From d0 until time of first market, both wet/dry feeders had significant differences in ADG, ADFI, and GF compared with the dry feeder (Table 1). The use of a wet/dry feeder resulted in significantly higher backfat (1.54, 1.78 and 1.77 cm, respectively; P < 0.01) compared with the dry feeder. The use of a wet/dry feeder compared with a dry feeder resulted in improved average daily feed intake and daily gain, but reduced G:F and carcass merit compared with the dry feeder. There were no significant differences in performance between the 2 different wet/dry feeders.
108 Quantifying the Presence of Viral Material in Feed Delivered in Iowa
Authors: Kellner Trey A , Ellingson Josh , Thomas Paul , Serao Nick V
Published: April 2022

Experimental models have shown that viral genetic material can be found in feedstuffs for over 150 d and experimental viral contamination of feed can cause viral diseases in pigs. However, the actual risk of feed being a fomite for viruses that cause PRRS, PED, PDCoV, and TGE in everyday pork production has yet to be determined. Thus, our objective was to quantify the viral presence in 224 feed samples delivered throughout Iowa in 2 periods of the year. The first period was from November 29th, 2020 through February 20th, 2021, during the period of suspected seasonally elevated virus pressure. The second period was from June 6th through July 3rd, 2021, during the period of suspected decreased virus pressure. We hypothesized that fewer than 2 of the 224 feed samples would result in a positive PCR test. To test our hypothesis and accomplish our experimental objective, 1 feed sample was collected per feed mill (14) for each of 16 weeks (12 in the winter collection period and 4 in the summer collection period; [n = 224]). Each feed sample was collected at the mill during the loading of the feed truck before delivery. Post collection each feed sample was identified and then shipped to the Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory at Iowa State University. All collected feed samples were tested via PRRSV PCR and PEDV/PDCoV/TGEV multiplex PCR. The Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory at Iowa State University declared Ct values >37 a negative (-) result for PRRSV and >36 a negative (-) result for PEDV, PDCoV, and TGEV. Of the 224 collected feed samples, 0 tested positive for PRRSV. Of the 224 collected feed samples, 0 tested positive for PEDV, PDCoV, and TGEV. These results do not disprove that feed can be a fomite of domestic and foreign animal diseases. These results just provide a data point for pork producers to evaluate the actual risk of feed being a fomite of PRRSV, PEDV, PDCoV, and TGEV.
110 Dosage and not Time of Exposure to Deoxynivalenol Affects the Performance of Nursery Pigs Fed High Mycotoxin Diets up to 28 Days Post-Wean
Authors: Burden Yemi O , McCormick Katherine A , Mahoney Julie , Horn Nathan , Woodward Adrienne
Published: April 2022

The current experiment was conducted to determine if the dosage or timing of exposure to diets containing high deoxynivalenol (DON), a mycotoxin in a variety of feed ingredients, causes performance loss in nursery pigs. In total, 448 mixed-sex nursery pigs [initial BW = 6.18 ± 0.97 kg] weaned at 21 ± 1 d were allotted to 112 pens, with 4 pigs per pen, in a randomized complete block design. In a 3 x 2 + 1 factorial arrangement of treatments, diets with DON were fed continuously (CONT), at weeks 1 and 3 (WK13), and weeks 2 and 4 (WK24), targeting DON at 1.25 ppm fed (MED), or 2.5 ppm (HIGH), plus the positive control (CONTLOW) for 28 d. All pigs were fed a common, low DON diet from d 28 to 42 to complete the nursery phase. Pen weight and feed intake were measured on d 28 and 42 to calculate ADG and ADFI. Regardless of timing, d 28 BW decreased (P < 0.01) with feeding MED or HIGH diets compared with CONTLOW and markedly decreased (1.57 kg) in the HIGH. This was a response to the decreased ADG (P < 0.01) and ADFI (P < 0.01) from d 0 – 28 in MED or HIGH compared with CONTLOW and with HIGH compared with MED. Similarly, on d 42, performance metrics - BW (P < 0.01), ADG (P < 0.01), and ADFI (P < 0.01) were decreased in MED or HIGH compared with CONTLOW, with a 1.95 kg. decrease in BW in the HIGH compared with CONTLOW. A dose-response to DON was evident whereas, timing of exposure did not affect the performance metrics measured on d 28 or 42. Ultimately, exposure of nursery pigs to levels of DON over 1 ppm results in loss of performance, regardless of exposure timing.
132 Investigating Potential Additive Effects of Formic Acid and Glycerol Monolaurate in Nursery Pig Diets
Authors: Dahmer Payton L , Harrison Olivia , Jones Cassandra K
Published: April 2022

A total of 350 pigs (DNA 200 × 400; initially 5.7 ± 0.06 kg BW) were used in a 42-d study with 5 pigs per pen and 14 replicate pens per treatment. At weaning, pigs were assigned to pens based on BW, and pens were allotted in a completely randomized design to dietary treatments: 1) negative control (basal diet with no additives); 2) basal diet with 3,000 ppm zinc oxide (ZnO) included in phase 1 and 2,000 ppm ZnO in phase 2; 3) basal diet with 0.7% formic acid (Amasil NA, BASF, Florham, NJ); 4) basal diet with 0.18% glycerol monolaurate (GML) (Natural Biologics GML, Natural Biologics, Newfield, NY); and 5) basal diet with a 1.0% blend of formic acid, sodium diformate, and GML (FORMI 3G, ADDCON GmbH, Bitterfeld-Wolfen, Germany). Pigs were fed treatment diets from d 0 to d 28. A common diet was fed from d 28 to d 42. From d 0 to d 7, pigs fed a diet containing ZnO or the 1.0% blend of formic acid, sodium diformate, and glycerol monolaurate had significantly increased (P = 0.03) ADG compared with pigs fed the control, with no impact (P > 0.05) on feed intake. Overall, pigs fed GML had reduced ADG compared with their counterparts fed the negative control, ZnO, or FORMI diets. Fecal DM was evaluated from d 7 to d 28 and there was a significant treatment × day interaction (P = 0.04). Pigs fed GML had significantly less fecal DM % on d 7, but a greater fecal DM % on d 14 and 21 when compared with pigs fed all other treatments. Fecal DM standardized across treatments by d 28. In summary, there is potential for a blend of formic acid, sodium diformate, and GML to improve growth performance immediately post-weaning without negatively impacting fecal consistency.
136 Optimum Concentration of Spray Dried Plasma for Maximized Growth Performance, Improved Intestinal Health, and Reduced Inflammation in Weaned Pigs Housed in a Challenged Environment
Authors: Bailey Hannah M , Stein Hans H , Campbell Joy
Published: April 2022

This study aimed at testing the hypothesis that greater inclusion of spray dried plasma (SDP) in diets improves growth performance, intestinal morphology, and reduces inflammation in weaned pigs. Four-hundred weaned pigs (body weight: 6.05 ± 0.80 kg) were allotted to a randomized complete block design with 5 diets and 2 blocks (16 pens/diet; 5 pigs/pen). Pens were not cleaned between groups to create a sanitation challenge. Phase-1 diets containing 0, 2, 4, 6, or 8% SDP were formulated. One pig per pen was sacrificed on d 14 and samples of intestinal tissue and mucosa were collected. Data were analyzed using PROC MIXED of SAS and linear, quadratic, and cubic contrast statements were used. During phase-1, ADG, ADFI, G:F, and body weight of pigs on d 14 increased (linear, P < 0.05) with increasing levels of SDP in the diet (Table 1). Villus width in the jejunum of pigs on d 14 tended to increase (linear, P < 0.10) with increasing inclusion of SDP (Table 2), and villus height:crypt depth tended to increase (quadratic, P < 0.10) with the greatest value observed for pigs fed a diet with 8% SDP. Secretory immunoglobulin A in the jejunal mucosa was decreased when 4 or 8% SDP was included in the diet (cubic, P < 0.05). Interleukin- (IL-) 2 (quadratic, P < 0.10) and IL-18 (cubic, P < 0.10) in the jejunal mucosa tended to decrease at 8% inclusion of SDP and IL-8 (linear, P < 0.10) tended to increase as SDP inclusion increased in the diet. In conclusion, the optimal inclusion of SDP in diets for weanling pigs was 8% as indicated by improvements in growth performance, but the collective intestinal morphology and health data do not result in a clearly conclusive optimum concentration in SDP.
148 Use of an Alpha-Linolenic Acid Source to Reduce Omega-6:3 Ratio in Prrs-Virus Challenged Nursery Pigs
Authors: Bromm Jenna J , Tokach Mike D , Woodworth Jason C , Goodband Robert D , DeRouchey Joel M , Gebhardt Jordan T , Hastad Chad W , Post Zach
Published: April 2022

A total of 1,056 pigs [PIC TR4 × (Fast LW × PIC L02)], originating from an active PRRSV-positive sow farm, were used in a 46-d study to evaluate growth performance and mortality and removals of nursery pigs. Pigs were fed diets containing increasing levels of O3 Trial Feed (NBO3, Manhattan KS), a source of omega-3 fatty acids (alpha-linolenic acid). At placement in the nursery, pens of pigs were randomly assigned 1 of 4 dietary treatments in a completely randomized design with 22 pigs per pen and 12 replications per treatment. The dietary treatments included increasing percentages of O3 Trial Feed (0, 0.75, 1.5, and 3%). Omega-6:3 ratios for the 4 treatments within each phase were: Phase 1 (15.1:1, 8.4:1, 5.9:1, 3.7:1); Phase 2 (16.5:1, 9.2:1, 6.4:1, 4.0:1); Phase 3 (20.8:1, 10.4:1, 7.0:1, 4.2:1); and Phase 4 (25.3:1, 12.5:1, 8.3:1, 5.0:1), respectively. Pigs remained on treatments throughout the 4 dietary phases over the 46-d study. Overall, pigs fed increased O3 Trial Feed had increased (linear, P < 0.001) ADG, ADFI and G:F. The greatest impact on growth due to dietary treatment began when pigs tested positive for PRRSV during week 3 of the study. This was confirmed by testing oral fluids, collected on a weekly basis, for PRRSV using a PCR test. Pigs fed increasing O3 Trial Feed also had decreased (linear, P = 0.027) total removals and mortalities. In summary, adding O3 Trial Feed to reduce the Omega 6-3 ratio improved growth performance and reduced mortality in nursery pigs with an active PRRSV challenge.
150 Impact of Prefarrow Feeding Strategy on Farrowing Duration and Piglet Survival
Authors: Peppmeier Zack , McAleese Brianna , Van Genderen Chelsey , Swalla Luke A , Knauer Mark
Published: April 2022

The objective of the study was to evaluate the impact of prefarrow feeding strategies on sow farrowing duration and percentage of stillborn piglets. Sows (n = 215) were farrowed at a commercial sow farm in eastern North Carolina. Genetics of the sows were PIC. Farrowing rooms were curtain sided with natural ventilation. Sows were randomly allocated to 1 of 3 prefarrow feeding strategies. Upon entering a farrowing stall, sows were fed either 2.27kg in the morning (Control), 1.14kg in the morning and 1.14kg in the evening (TWICE) or 2.27kg in the morning top dressed with 50g of TransRite Sow Ultra (CaCl). Sows started dietary treatments and farrowed, on average, d 112.6 and d 115.6 of gestation, respectively. Data were analyzed in SAS using PROC GLM. Statistical models contained prefarrow feeding strategy and parity as fixed effects and total number born was included as a covariate. Average total number born, number born alive and stillborns were 15.42, 14.16 and 1.26 piglets, respectively. Farrowing duration differed (P < .01) between treatments. Both TWICE and CaCl had shorter (P < .05) farrowing duration than Control sows (4:51 and 5:26 vs. 6:49, respectively). First parity sows had shorter (P < 0.05) farrowing duration than multiparous sows (4:23 vs. 6:08). Sows fed CaCl had a lower (P < 0.05) percentage of stillborns when compared with Control sows (6.1 vs. 9.2%) while TWICE did not differ (P > 0.05) from CaCl or Control (7.3% stillborns). An increase of 1 piglet in total number born increased (P < 0.05) percent stillborns by .24%. Results suggest either TWICE or CaCl could be used to reduce farrowing duration, perhaps reducing the need for farrowing assistance and allowing for improved farm labor efficiency. Funding for this project was provided by the Swine Research and Education Experience through the U.S. Pork Center of Excellence.
151 Impact of Feed Allotment During the Wean-To-Estrus Interval on Sow Reproductive Performance
Authors: Reeb Macie E , Kellner Trey A
Published: April 2022

Pork producers have recently inquired whether the allotment of feed should be greater during the wean-to-estrus interval to optimize sow performance. The objective of this experiment was to validate the amount of feed allotted to sows during the wean-to-estrus interval to optimize feed costs and farrowing performance. A total of 257 PIC 1050 (PIC, Inc., Hendersonville, TN) weaned sows were blocked to 3 body condition categories (thin, ideal, or heavy, respectively) and then randomly allotted to 1 of 2 feed quantity treatments (2.7 or 5.4 kg, respectively) on d 0. The sows used in this experiment were housed under commercial conditions and had an average parity of 3.15. One day prior to weaning, each sow was calipered to determine body condition and feed boxes were validated to determine that the desired amount of feed was actually allocated during the experimental period. Sows were fed their allotted amount of feed (2.7 or 5.4 kg, respectively) from d 0 till the sows were serviced or if the sows had not been detected in estrus until d 8. Sows were tracked through their subsequent wean to detect any downstream differences. Data were analyzed using Proc MIXED (SAS 9.4; Cary, NC) with sow as the experimental unit, treatment as the main effect, and caliper score as the block criteria. These data indicate that allocating 5.4 kg of feed did not improve wean-to-first service interval (2.7 kg = 4.4 d vs. 5.4 kg = 4.4 d; P = 0.99), farrowing rate (2.7 kg = 91.5% vs. 5.4 kg = 90.6%; P = 0.81), or total born (2.7 kg = 15.9 vs. 5.4 kg = 15.4 pigs/litter; P = 0.31). In summary, feeding greater than 2.7 kg of feed from wean-to-estrus does not improve sow performance, but does increase feed costs.
163 Peak-Infection Application of Increased SID Lysine:ME Diets Does Not Improve Disease Challenge Growth Performance
Authors: Miller Kayla A , Mendoza Omarh , Shull Caleb M , Baumann Tyler , Gabler Nicholas K
Published: April 2022

Increasing dietary SID Lys:ME augments growth performance of Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome virus (PRRSV) challenged pigs when diets with greater SID Lys concentrations are in place at time of infection. Our objective was to evaluate the delayed implementation of increased SID Lys:ME diets post PRRSV challenge on pig performance. 491 grower pigs (45.8 ± 7.4 kg BW) were assigned to 1 of 3 dietary strategies (n = 16 pens/treatment, 10-11 pigs/pen). All pigs received a common diet from day post inoculation (dpi) -14 to dpi 21 (P1), that met SID Lys:ME recommendations. From dpi 21 to 77 (market body weight), dietary treatments were implemented in 2 phases (P2 and P3). The 2 dietary treatments were 2.23 g/Mcal (100%), 2.56 g/Mcal (115%), 2.90 g/Mcal (130%) in P2; and 1.92 g/Mcal (100%), 2.21 g/Mcal (115%), 2.49 g/Mcal (130%) in P3. On dpi 0, all pigs were inoculated with PRRSV. Pig BW, feed disappearance and feed efficiency were determined in each phase. Data were analyzed with pen as the experimental unit in a complete randomized design. During P1, ADG, ADFI, or G:F did not differ (P < 0.05). In P2 and P3, ADG, ADFI, or G:F did not differ between the 100%, 115% and 130% treatments (P > 0.10). Overall, ADG (0.90, 0.90 and 0.92 kg/d, P = 0.44) and ADFI (2.61, 2.57 and 2.57 kg/d, P = 0.48) did not differ between the 100%, 115% and 130% treatments, respectively. However, overall G:F was significantly higher for the 130% compared with the 100% and 115% treatments (0.36 versus 0.34 and 0.35, respectively; P = 0.021). Mortality was similar across treatments (P = 0.717). In conclusion, delayed feeding of diets with increased SID Lys:ME post infection was not beneficial to pig performance indicating this diet strategy needs to be in place near time of disease challenge.
171 Effect of Supplemental DL-Ethionine or DL-Methionine-Hydroxy Analogue on Performance, Gene Expression and Serum Antioxidant Activity in Heat Stressed Pigs
Authors: Mejía Sindy Pérez , Trejo Adriana Morales , Bernal Hugo , Arce Néstor , Pérez Mejía Lucero R , Vásquez Nydia , Caroline González-Vega J , Htoo John K K , Cervantes Miguel
Published: April 2022

Heat stress (HS) increases body temperature and production of reactive-oxygen-species in pigs. Because HS-pigs redirect blood flow to the periphery to maintain normal body temperature, less blood reaches internal organs that, combined with decreased feed intake, nutrients supply to the small intestine reduces causing intestinal damage. Methionine functions as intracellular antioxidant thus HS-pigs may increase its requirement. An experiment with 36 individually housed pigs (27.4±4.3 kg BW) was conducted to evaluate the effect of supplementing DL-Methionine or the calcium-salt of DL-Methionine-hydroxy-analogue (MHA-Ca) on performance, intestinal histology, serum antioxidant enzymes, and expression of genes coding for amino acid transporters B0 and b0,+. The basal wheat-soybean meal diet met 100% methionine and exceeded at least 20% the other essential AA requirements. Pigs were exposed to HS and randomly assigned to 3 treatments: basal-diet (Met100); and basal-diet plus 0.12% methionine as DL-Methionine (Met120) or MHA-Ca (MHA-Ca120). Feed and water were freely available during the 21-d trial. At completion, blood samples, and samples from duodenum, jejunum, and ileum were collected. Serum antioxidant activity, and villi-height, crypt-depth, their ratio (villi:crypt), and expression of B0 and b0,+ in intestinal segments were analyzed. Weight gain tended to increase (P < 0.10) and gain:feed increased (P < 0.05) in Met120 and MHA-Ca120 pigs compared with Met100 pigs. Crypt-depth in duodenum and jejunum decreased but villi:crypt in duodenum, jejunum, and ileum increased (P < 0.01) in Met120 and MHA-Ca120 pigs, compared with Met100 pigs. Jejunum and ileum villi-height increased in Met120 and MHA-Ca120 pigs compared with Met100 pigs (P < 0.01). Serum superoxide-dismutase increased in Met120 and MHA-Ca120 pigs compared with Met100 pigs; glutathione increased in Met120 pigs compared with Met100 or MHA-Ca120 pigs (P < 0.05). Expression of mRNA coding for b0,+ was higher in Met120 pigs than in MHA-Ca120 pigs (P < 0.05). These results indicate that supplying Met at 20% above the requirement, as DL-Methionine or DL-Methionine-hydroxy-analogue, ameliorates the negative effects of HS on pigs, as evidenced by increased weight-gain, gain:feed, and activity of serum superoxide-dismutase and glutathione.
181 Evaluation of the Fecal Microbiota in Commercial Sows with Variable Risk for Pelvic Organ Prolapse During Late Gestation
Authors: Kiefer Zoe E , Koester Lucas R , Studer Jamie M , Mainquist-Whigham Christine , Schmitz-Esser Stephan , Ross Jason W
Published: April 2022

Sow mortality has increased during the last decade with a large portion due to pelvic organ prolapse (POP) manifesting during late gestation and early lactation. Approximately 21% of sow mortality is attributed to POP, creating a significant economic and animal welfare concern. The study objective was to identify differences in sow fecal microbiota associated with POP risk and to determine if fecal and vaginal microbial communities are correlated. Using an established perineal scoring (PS) system, 2,864 sows were assigned PS1 (low), PS2 (moderate), or PS3 (high) based on phenotypic observations and presumed POP risk during gestation week 15. Of those sows scored, 1.0%, 2.7%, and 23.4% of PS1, PS2, and PS3 assigned sows, respectively, subsequently experienced POP. At the time of scoring, fecal swabs were collected from sows (n = 213) and DNA was extracted for 16S rRNA gene Illumina MiSeq sequencing, and analyzed using mothur, phyloseq and SAS. Additionally, co-occurrence networks were constructed between fecal and vaginal microbial communities using CoNet (V1.1.1), to identify correlations in taxa abundance. Differences in fecal community composition (PERMANOVA; P < 0.05), structure (alpha diversity measurements; P < 0.05), and 13 individual operational taxonomic units (OTU; Q < 0.05) were detected between PS1 and PS3 sows. The abundance of several taxa were correlated across sample collection sites, suggesting the fecal and vaginal microbial communities may influence one another. Collectively, fewer differences exist in fecal microbiota in sows differing risk for POP than previously observed in vaginal microbiota, suggesting the vaginal microbial communities may be a better indicator of POP risk. Understanding correlations between the fecal and vaginal microbial communities may provide strategies or targets for combatting POP. This project was supported by the National Pork Board and the Foundation for Food and Agriculture Research.
192 Engineering Strategies and Solutions to Improve Swine Resilience and Alleviate Physiological Stress in a Changing Climate
Authors: Ramirez Brett C
Published: April 2022

Heat stress negatively affects a variety of production parameters in the swine industry including growth, carcass composition, and reproduction. The combination of climate forecasts and improved genetic performance, indicate increasingly negative impacts of heat stress for the future. Therefore, future heat stress mitigation approaches will need engineered solutions that also consider expected economic risk and corresponding uncertainty. Physically modifying the environment is currently the best approach by utilizing the heat dissipation (albeit, poor) mechanisms of the pig, that is, via the 4 modes of heat transfer, conduction, convection, radiation, and evaporation. A temperature gradient for sensible or vapor pressure gradient for latent heat loss are needed to drive heat exchange. Strategies can then be grouped into (a) modifying the thermodynamic properties of the incoming air via the ventilation system; (b) building characteristics or features; (c) animal zone environment modification; and (d) changes in management. Examples of each strategy include (a) evaporative cooling pads, earth-air-heat exchanger; (b) insulation, spatial orientation; (c) fogging, cooling the drinking water, increasing air velocity; and (d) stocking density. Engineering of future controlled swine environments will need enhanced modeling of heat transfer between pigs and their environment, advanced design/analysis methods of environmental control, and creation of innovative technology that improves sensing, controlling, and modifying the environment. Much of the engineering process starts with and relies on established standards that describe key analytical methods for design, data to enable design computations, and criteria/goals for different environments. There is and will continue to be a need for consistent updates to these data to ensure modern intensive housing is able to provide the proper thermoneutral zone, ventilation rates, etc. for prolific pigs in a changing climate.
189 Swine Production and Greenhouse Gases
Authors: Tallaksen Joel
Published: April 2022

Like much of agriculture, the swine industry is being asked to improve the sustainability of their production systems. In an integrated project, swine researchers, agronomists, and renewable energy scientists collected data to analyze the greenhouse gas and fossil energy footprints from Minnesota commercial swine production facilities as well as cropping and swine production data from the University of Minnesota West Central Research and Outreach Center. These environmental impacts were assessed using life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology in a cradle to farm gate study that examined the impacts on a per unit of liveweight pork produced basis. In the average commercial system, the GHG emissions were 2.41 kg CO2 equiv. per kg hog LW, with 75% emitted during the grow-finish phase, 6% in farrowing, 9% in the nursery phase, 7% in gestation, and 2% in gilt development. GHG emissions for direct operation of swine facilities were 0.15 kg CO2 equiv. per kg and accounted for 6% of emissions in the average commercial scenario. The majority of GHG emissions were in the production of crops and the breakdown of manure during storage. This talk will explore the methods, data, and results from this study and other similar environmental impact studies for swine production. It will also discuss how producers can measure impacts at their farms and implement changes to improve their environmental impacts. An important consideration in the discussion is the ability of producers to directly reduce fossil energy and its carbon footprint, because fossil energy consumption impacts both the environmental and economic aspects of swine production.
202 Evaluating Finishing Performance of Cattle Fed High-Moisture Corn: Steam-Flaked Corn Blends with Modified Distillers Grains
Authors: Troyer Braden , Carlson Zac , McPhillips Levi J , Watson Andrea K , MacDonald Jim C , Erickson Galen E
Published: April 2022

Steam-flaked corn (SFC) and high-moisture corn (HMC) offer benefits to the cattle feeding industry including improvement of feed efficiency (G:F) and a guarantee of grain supply, respectively. Popularity of SFC in the Midwest is increasing. A study compared finishing cattle performance when fed HMC, SFC, or blends. The objective was to determine the optimum inclusion of HMC:SFC ratio with or without modified distillers grains (MDGS) included at 20% of the diet. This study utilized 120 yearling steers (352 kg; SD=7.1 kg) individually fed using the Calan gate system in a completely randomized design with cattle stratified by body weight (BW). Treatments included: 100% HMC, 50:50 blend HMC:SFC, or 100% SFC fed with and without 20% MDGS. Additionally, a 25:75 blend and a 75:25 blend of HMC:SFC was fed with MDGS only for a total of 8 treatments (DM basis). Cattle were on feed 140 d with 3-d initial BW and 1 d final BW and carcass weight and characteristics. Animal was the experimental unit with 15 replications per treatment. A tendency for an interaction (P = 0.11) was observed for ADG between distillers inclusion and ratio of HMC:SFC. Cattle fed diets with no distillers grains had improved ADG when fed a blend of HMC:SFC (P = 0.07), but gain was not impacted (P = 0.59) as SFC replaced HMC in diets with 20% MDGS. Feeding MDGS increased carcass weight, ADG, intake, and fat thickness compared with control diets (P ≤ 0.04). For diets containing 5 ratios of HMC:SFC with 20% MDGS, feeding greater inclusions of SFC had no impact on intake or ADG (P ≥ 0.31) but tended to linearly improve G:F (P = 0.09). Overall, including MDGS in HMC, SFC, or blended diets increased carcass weight, ADG, and intake and G:F was improved as SFC increased in diets with MDGS.
198 Effects of Corn Processing and Silage Inclusion Levels in Feedlot Diets on Steer Performance
Authors: Meier Nolan R , Wilke Karla , Erickson Galen E , Loza Pablo
Published: April 2022

Feedlot steers (n = 480, initial BW = 389 kg ± 17 kg) were used to test the interaction between corn processing and silage inclusion on the performance and carcass characteristics. Treatments were designed as a 2 × 4 factorial design experiment with factors as 2 corn processing methods (dry-rolled corn, DRC, and steam-flaked corn, SFC) and 4 inclusions of silage (0, 15, 30, 45% of diet DM). Diets also contained 10% MDGS and 5% supplement. Steers were blocked by BW, assigned randomly to pens, and data analyzed using MIXED procedure of SAS with block fixed and pen (n = 48) as the experimental unit. Steers were fed the same days for all treatments (125 d). No significant interactions were observed between corn processing and silage inclusion for performance or carcass characteristics (P > 0.12), therefore, main effects will be presented. As silage inclusion increased, intake (DMI), gain (ADG), and feed efficiency (G:F) changed quadratically (P < 0.03). Gains were greater for cattle fed 15 or 30% silage and lower diets with 0 or 45% silage. Feed efficiency was greatest for steers fed 0% silage (0.168) and decreased to 0.161 and 0.152 as silage inclusion increased to 15 and 30% inclusion. The quadratic response is due to decreased G:F for steers fed 45% silage (0.139). Carcass characteristics responded similar to ADG quadratic (P < 0.01) impacts on fat depth and marbling. Feeding SFC in comparison to DRC led to increased DMI, ADG, G:F, and fat depth (P < 0.04). Gains were greater for cattle fed SFC than cattle fed DRC, which led to increased G:F (SFC = 0.160, DRC = 0.151) across all silage inclusions. Increasing silage inclusion resulted in greater ADG, marbling, and fat depth with 15 and 30% compared with 0 and 45%. Feeding SFC improved performance compared with DRC.
203 Effect of Feed Intake and Calcium Salts of Palm Oil Inclusion on Growth Performance and Carcass Characteristics of Feedlot Finishing Steers
Authors: Pittaluga Alejandro , Ortiz Mairim , Relling Alejandro E
Published: April 2022

Fifty-nine Angus×SimAngus-crossbred steers [body weight (BW) 279 ± 16 kg] were used to evaluate the effect of different dry matter intake (DMI; FS) with or without the inclusion of palm oil calcium salts (4% dry matter basis; CSPO) on growth and carcass characteristics of feedlot steers. Steers were blocked by BW and randomly assigned to individual pens. Treatments (2×2 factorial) consisted of ad-libitum ground corn (GC)-based diet without (ANF) or with (AWF) the inclusion of CSPO, or 85% of the DMI of the ANF treatment without (RNF) or with the inclusion of CSPO (RWF). After weaning, steers were fed a corn silage-based diet for 30-d and subsequently placed in a GC-based diet. Both diet types were offered ad-libitum or at 85% of the ANF intake and with or without CSPO. After 59-d in the finishing diet, all steers had ad-libitum access to feed. All data were analyzed with a mixed model considering the fixed effect of treatments, time and their interaction, and random effect of block. There were FS×CSPO interactions (Table 1; P ≤ 0.01) for BW, DMI, average daily gain (ADG) during the first 106-d. After all steers were switch to ad-libitum, restrictedly fed steers had greater (P ≤ 0.01) ADG and ADG:DMI ratio (G:F) compared with ad-libitum fed steers. No treatment differences (P ≤ 0.21) were observed for final BW (FBW), and overall DMI, and G:F. No treatment or their interactions (P ≥ 0.34) were detected for any carcass characteristic (Table 2) except for longissimus muscle area (LMA, P = 0.07), where CSPO inclusion tended to increase the LMA of steers fed ad-libitum but did not differ from restricted steers. Therefore, differences in growth as a consequence of intake restrictions during the growing and early finishing stage could be mitigated once cattle are allowed ad-libitum access to feed.
221 Assessment and Prediction of Acidosis Risk in Beef Steers: Relationship to Intake and Feeding Behavior During the Finishing Phase
Authors: Dornbach Colten W , McCann Joshua C
Published: April 2022

The objectives were to (1) assess acidosis risk during the end of the finishing phase and (2) build a predictive model utilizing initial feed intake behavior to identify steers at risk for acidosis. For objective 1, dry matter intake (DMI) data from beef steers (n = 733) fed a corn-based diet were collected from the last 56 d of the finishing phase using a GrowSafe system. Acidosis risk was determined as the percentage of days DMI fluctuated more than 30% from the previous day. Steers (n = 80) were selected for divergent acidosis risk. High-risk steers with greater DMI fluctuation had decreased (P ≤ 0.02) ruminal pH and average daily gain (ADG; 1.72 kg) compared with low-risk steers (1.94 kg). These findings suggest steers with greater DMI fluctuation have an increased risk for acidosis. For objective 2, DMI and feed intake behavior data from beef steers (n = 623) fed a corn-based diet were collected over the finishing phase using a GrowSafe system. A stepwise regression model was constructed using the GLMSELECT procedure of SAS 9.4 to predict acidosis risk during the last 56 d of the finishing phase. Acidosis risk was best predicted (r2 = 42.6; RMSE = 0.159) by 21 feed intake behavior traits. Those accounting for the greatest variation included head-down duration, sum of meal duration, and bunk visit frequency. The model predicted 72% of steers at greatest risk for acidosis. Overall, greater DMI fluctuation was indicative of acidosis risk based on decreased ruminal pH and ADG. A stepwise regression model was able to predict acidosis risk based on initial DMI and feed intake behaviors. Early identification of steers at risk for acidosis may facilitate mitigation strategies during the finishing phase to improve cattle health and growth performance.
217 Assessment of Ultrasound Carcass Composition Equations to Predict Empty Body Gain
Authors: Lancaster Phillip A , Tedeschi Luis O , Baker Michael , Carstens Gordon
Published: April 2022

The objective of this study was to assess the accuracy of equations used to estimate ultrasound carcass composition for prediction of empty body gain (EBG). The dataset consisted of 8 trials with Angus and Brangus bulls or Brangus heifers (N = 897) fed moderate energy diets for 70 d. Initial and final ultrasound carcass measurements were obtained by trained technicians. Initial and final empty body fat percentage (EBF) was computed using 5 equations: 1) carcass trait equation from Guiroy et al. (2001; 10.2527/2001.7981983x), 2) carcass trait equation 1 from Tedeschi et al. (2004; 10.1016/S0308-521X(03)00070-2), 3) carcass trait equation 6 from Baker et al. (2006; 10.2527/jas.2006-006), 4) ultrasound trait equation 8 from Baker et al. (2006; 10.2527/jas.2006-006), and 5) pEBF = 27.1902 + 47.6268 × uBF – 0.5687 × uLMA – 0.1178 × uBF × pHCW + 0.0014 × uLMA × pHCW; R2 = 0.64, RMSE = 2.46% developed from the training dataset of Baker et al. (2006). Empty body gain was predicted using NASEM (2016) equations. Eq. 5 had slightly improved R2 (0.64 vs. 0.62) and RMSE (2.46 vs. 2.49%) compared with Eq. 4 in the training dataset. When comparing observed and predicted EBG, Eq. 4 had intercept and linear coefficients nearest to 0 and 1, respectively, the greatest CCC (0.799), and mean bias closest to 0 (0.025 kg/d) compared with the other equations. ADG, ultrasound traits, and sex were significant (P < 0.05) variables accounting for variation in differences between observed and predicted EBG, suggesting that these equations are somewhat lacking in their ability to capture the relationships between ultrasound carcass composition traits and retained energy. ADG was less important and gain in LMA was more important in explaining differences between observed and predicted EBG for Eq. 5 than the other equations. These results indicate that use of live animal ultrasound measurements can predict retained energy with reasonably accuracy.
219 Economic Cost Analysis of Grazing Strategies for Beef Production in Kansas
Authors: Tang Minfeng , Lancaster Phillip A , Pendell Dustin , Presley DeAnn , Fick Walt , Ahlers Adam , Ricketts Andrew
Published: April 2022

Limited research has examined economic cost analyses for rotational-stocking versus continuous-stocking at different stocking rates in a particular region, which makes it difficult to provide guidance to cattle producers in evaluating different grazing strategies. The objective is to evaluate and compare economic costs for rotational and continuous grazing at medium, low, and high stocking rates under stocker grazing in Kansas. This study uses field experiment data collected from a 726-acre rangeland in Hays, Kansas and economic data from the Land Use Survey Center at Kansas State University in 2019. The field experiment from Hays kept detailed records of costs and input such as labor/time, which provides a good basis for number extrapolations to model the other grazing scenarios. We determine fencing, water infrastructure, and time/labor costs for 6 grazing management scenarios, i.e., rotational grazing versus continuous grazing at a low, medium, and high stocking rate. Low, medium, and high stocking rates are 5, 3, 2 acres/animal, respectively. Labor is divided into 6 general categories pertinent to stocker grazing in Kansas. On a per-animal basis, total labor time increases with stocking rates and is greater under rotational grazing relative to continuous grazing. Rotational grazing requires greater total costs, including labor/time on per animal basis than continuous grazing at similar stocking rates. Compared with continuous grazing at the low, medium, and high stocking rates, rotational grazing would require an additional amount of $13.19, $16.67, and $6.04 per animal respectively, to cover the estimated infrastructure and labor costs. Across all scenarios, labor costs account for the largest expense, accounting for more than 60% of total costs. Annualized costs range from $3,205 to $9,277. Fence and water infrastructure costs account for 8.4% to 31% and 3.5% to 7.3% of total costs.
246 Awardee Talk: Evaluating the Impact of Essential Fatty Acids in Lactation Diets on Sow and Litter Performance
Authors: Holen Julia P , Woodworth Jason C , Tokach Mike D , Goodband Robert D , DeRouchey Joel M , Gebhardt Jordan T , DeDecker Ashley , Martinez Xochitl
Published: April 2022

Two experiments were conducted to evaluate the effects of supplemental fat sources providing low and high essential fatty acids (EFA) in lactation diets on sow reproductive performance, piglet growth and survivability, and colostrum and milk composition. In Exp. 1, mixed parity sows (n = 91) were allotted to 5 experimental treatments arranged in a 2×2 + 1 factorial. Treatments were corn-soybean meal-based diets that contained no added fat or diets with 3% added fat as either beef tallow or soybean oil starting on d 107 or 112 of gestation. Sows were provided low EFA [linoleic acid (LA) and α-linolenic acid (ALA)] in diets without supplemental fat or with beef tallow or high EFA with soybean oil. Results confirmed that providing fat sources with high EFA can increase colostrum and milk LA and ALA content, regardless of pre-farrow time of diet consumption. However, supplemental fat did not influence litter growth performance (P > 0.05). In Exp. 2, mixed parity sows (n = 3,451) were assigned to 4 corn-soybean meal-wheat-based lactation diets with 0.5 (Control) or 3% choice white grease (CWG), 3% soybean oil (SO), or a combination of 3% soybean oil and 2% choice white grease (Combination) at d 112 of gestation to provide diets with low or high EFA. Lactation ADFI increased (P < 0.05) for sows fed the Combination and CWG diets compared with sows fed the Control or SO diet. Sows fed Combination and SO diets had greater (P < 0.05) LA and ALA intake, LA and ALA in colostrum and milk, litter weaning weights, and litter ADG than sows fed 0.5 or 3% CWG. Sow EFA intake did not affect (P > 0.10) piglet survivability or subsequent sow reproductive performance. In conclusion, increased LA and ALA intake provided by SO during lactation increased overall litter growth and weaning weights but did not affect piglet survivability or subsequent performance.
252 Assessment of Modern Gilts and Sows Body Weight Throughout Gestation and How Different Daily Energy Intakes Meet the Energy Requirement for Maintenance at Each Parity
Authors: Vier Carine M , da Silva Gefferson Almedia , Thomas Lori , Lu Ning , Dritz Steve , Navales Ron , Cast Wayne R , Orlando Uislei A
Published: April 2022

Growth and efficiency of modern maternal lines have improved over the years. Our hypothesis is that modern sows are larger and heavier, and, consequently, have increased energy requirements for maintenance (MEm). Two datasets were used to estimate gilt and sow body weight (BW): 1)1,903 PIC Camborough gilts were weighed at breeding and at d112 of each gestation from parity 0-3; 2)1,150 PIC Camborough gilts and sows (ranging from parity 0-12) were weighed at d4 and d112 of one gestation (Thomas et al., 2018). Average BW between breeding and d 4 of gestation were 154, 185, 213, 232, 225, 231, 236, and 247kg for parities 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7+, respectively. Growth of females throughout each stage of gestation was estimated assuming that 30% of the BW gain occurred until d 60, and 70% from d 61-112. The MEm was calculated according to NRC (2012) model. Different feeding levels were simulated to estimate the percentage of MEm that they would achieve if fed throughout gestation: Level1) 5.17 or 3.85 Mcal of ME or NE/d; Level2) 5.90 or 4.40 Mcal of ME or NE/d; Level3) 6.46 or 4.82 Mcal of ME or NE/d. Feeding Level1 would result in gilts fed below maintenance from d 90-112 (Figure1), parity1 sows fed below maintenance from d 30-112, and parity2+ sows fed below maintenance throughout the entire gestation. Feeding Level2 would result in a few gilts, half parity1, and all parity2+ sows fed below maintenance from d 90-112. Feeding Level3 would result in all gilts and parity1 sows fed above maintenance throughout gestation, and a quarter of parity2+ sows fed below maintenance from d 90-112 of gestation. In summary, due to heavy body weights and high MEm requirement of modern sows, there is a need to re-evaluate the implications and trade-offs between feeding levels and reproductive performance.
257 Effect of Drinker Design on Growth and Water Disappearance of Nursery Pigs
Authors: Vande Pol Katherine D , Grohmann Nicholas , Weber Tom , Ritter Matthew J , Ellis Michael
Published: April 2022

Changes in genetic potential and management practices may have altered the water requirements of nursery and other classes of pigs. However, there are few recent estimates of the water intake of nursery pigs or effects of factors such as drinker design on intake levels. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of two Drinker Design treatments (Nipple vs. Cup) on the water disappearance of nursery pigs (weaning to 6 wk post-weaning; 6.4 ± 1.07 to 22.0 ± 3.39 kg live body weight). A RCBD was used with a total of 336 pigs, housed in 16 pens of 21 pigs in 2 rooms (8 pens/room). Pens had fully slatted concrete floors; floor space was 0.32 m2/pig; there was 1 feeder and 1 drinker per pen. Pigs were fed corn-soybean based diets (meal form) formulated to meet or exceed nutrient requirements (NRC, 2012). Pigs and feeders were weighed at the start and end of the study. Water disappearance was measured using water-flow meters fitted to the pipeline supplying the drinker in each pen. Data were analyzed using the PROC MIXED procedure of SAS; models accounted for the fixed effect of Drinker Design and random effect of block. Drinker Design did not affect (P > 0.05) growth performance (Table 1). However, average daily water disappearance was 19.1% greater (P ≤ 0.05) for Nipple vs. Cup drinkers. Consequently, water:feed disappearance ratio was 15.8% greater (P ≤ 0.05) for the Nipple than the Cup treatment. In conclusion, these results suggest that water disappearance from nipple drinkers was greater than for cup drinkers. The lack of an effect of Drinker Design on pig growth performance suggests that this treatment difference was most likely due to greater water wastage for nipple drinkers rather than any effect on water intake per se.
35 Development of the National Pork Board’s Pork Scholars Program
Authors: Wheeler Matilyn , Hostetler Chris
Published: April 2022

Labor supply is a critical issue for many industries and the industry comprising the pork value chain is no exception. Training and development of thought leaders and decision makers is critical for the long-term sustainability of the industry. Therefore, the National Pork Board (NPB) has targeted funding for professional student education and training in critical areas of study in both traditional and non-traditional disciplines (see table). The intended outcome of this program is highly trained professionals who possess skills and abilities that have direct application to the pork value chain. While results of specific, swine-related research projects are not the desired outcome, the NPB recognizes that research is a critical component of professional student training. The training must go beyond what is typical of a mentor-mentee relationship between a faculty member and graduate student and include leadership, communication, and interpersonal relationship skills in a team environment is an outcome of the program. Additionally, training must include significant opportunity for “in residence” with a cooperating company. Since its inception, the Pork Scholars Program has made 18 awards to 7 institutions for the training of 9 MS and 9 PhD students. Of the 18 awards, 12 are focused on applied swine nutrition and production, 2 in reproductive physiology and one each in animal welfare, veterinary science, genetics, and agriculture economics and mathematics. Through the Pork Scholars Program, the NPB provides continuous support for future industry leaders to consistently add value to the industry.
240 Evaluating the Effect of Hay, Fed Ad-Libitum or Controlled, or Soybean Hulls During Gestation on Body Weight and Dry Matter Intake of the Ewe and Body Weight on the Offspring Until Weaning
Authors: Flaherty Kara , Campbell Branden J , Relling Alejandro E
Published: April 2022

The objective of this experiment was to evaluate the effect of feeding different types and amount of fiber during gestation on ewe body weight (BW) and dry matter intake (DMI), and lamb BW at birth and weaning (60 d of age). Ninety Dorset × Hampshire ewes were blocked by BW and within each block randomly assigned to 1 of 3 treatments (10 ewes/pen; 3 pens/treatment): ad-libitum hay (CONT), limit-fed hay (LH), and soybean hulls (SH). The concentrate roughage ratio for the LH and SH diets was 1:3. From d 0 (28 d post mating) to d 63, LH and SH ewes were fed using slick bunk management. Ewes in the CONT diet were offered an equal amount of concentrate as LH ewes with ad-libitum access to hay. On d 63 ewes were offered the same diet to meet, but not exceed, maintenance requirements for late gestation. Feed offered and refused were collected daily for LH and SH ewes whereas hay refusal was collected weekly for CONT ewes. Ewe BW was collected on d 28, 34, 76, and 2-d after lambing. Lamb BW was collected at birth and weaning. Data, presented in Table 1, were analyzed as a mixed model considering the fixed effect of treatment and random effects of ewe (pen), pen, and block. Dry matter intake was similar the first 28 d (P = 0.13); however, SH ewes consumed more by d 62 (P = 0.02). As DMI increased, BW of SH ewes also increased during gestation (P ≤ 0.01) but was similar 2-d after lambing (P = 0.21). Lambs born of SH ewes were heavier at birth, but lighter at weaning (P ≤ 0.02). Despite each diet having the same forage concentrate ratio, forage source affected ewe BW during gestation and lamb BW at birth and weaning. Feeding hay ad-libitum or in a controlled manner did not change ewe or lamb BW.