bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The two Titan stellar occultations of 14 November 2003
Authors: Sicardy B. , Colas F. , Widemann T. , Bellucci A. , Beisker W. , Kretlow M. , Ferri F. , Lacour S. , Lecacheux J. , Lellouch E. , Pau S. , Renner S. , Roques F. , Fienga A. , Etienne C. , Martinez C. , Glass I. S. , Baba D. , Nagayama T. , Nagata T. , Itting‐Enke S. , Bath K.‐L. , Bode H.‐J. , Bode F. , Lüdemann H. , Lüdemann J. , Neubauer D. , Tegtmeier A. , Tegtmeier C. , Thomé B. , Hund F. , deWitt C. , Fraser B. , Jansen A. , Jones T. , Schoenau P. , Turk C. , Meintjies P. , Hernandez M. , Fiel D. , Frappa E. , Peyrot A. , Teng J. P. , Vignand M. , Hesler G. , Payet T. , Howell R. R. , Kidger M. , Ortiz J. L. , Naranjo O. , Rosenzweig P. , Rapaport M.
Published: November 2006

We report the observation of two stellar occultations by Titan on 14 November 2003, using stations in the Indian Ocean, southern Africa, Spain, and northern and southern Americas. These occultations probed altitudes between ∼550 and 250 km (∼1 to 250 μbar) in Titan's upper stratosphere. The light curves reveal a sharp inversion layer near 515 ± 6 km altitude (1.5 μbar pressure level), where the temperature increases by 15 K in only 6 km. This layer is close to an inversion layer observed fourteen months later by the Huygens HASI instrument during the entry of the probe in Titan's atmosphere on 14 January 2005 [Fulchignoni et al., 2005]. Central flashes observed during the first occultation provide constraints on the zonal wind regime at 250 km, with a strong northern jet (∼200 m s−1) around the latitude 55°N, wind velocities of ∼150 m s−1 near the equator, and progressively weaker winds as more southern latitudes are probed. The haze distribution around Titan's limb at 250 km altitude is close to that predicted by the Global Circulation Model of Rannou et al. (2004) in the southern hemisphere, but a clearing north of 40°N is necessary to explain our data. This contrasts with Rannou et al.'s (2004) model, which predicts a very thick polar hood over Titan's northern polar regions. Simultaneous observations of the flashes at various wavelengths provide a dependence of τ ∝ λ−q, with q = 1.8 ± 0.5 between 0.51 and 2.2 μm for the tangential optical depth of the hazes at 250 km altitude.
Mud tracer test during soft rock drilling
Authors: Panteleit B. , Kessels W. , Binot F.
Published: November 2006

Information on groundwater and aquifer conditions is essential for the analysis of groundwater systems. Fluid sampling and pumping tests in boreholes are used as the standard methods for collecting this information. However, the contamination of groundwater by invaded drilling mud is a serious problem when taking samples from boreholes. While drilling a research borehole in the saltwater‐freshwater transition zone on the German North Sea coast, uranine tracer was added to the drilling mud to identify possible contamination. Push‐pull‐type pumping tests were carried out in the open borehole at depths of 53 and 87 m using a new test design. The uranine concentration of the pumped water decreased exponentially with increasing recovery volume and dropped to 1% of initial concentration after the recovery of 10 invasion volumes. The total fluid loss in the test interval was calculated from the test results and supports the assumption that mud loss can be mainly attributed to the deepest (freshly drilled) part of the borehole. Breakthrough curves from two‐dimensional numerical calculations using FEFLOW were fitted to the test data by varying the dispersivity α and the effective groundwater velocity va. The best results were achieved when α = 0.02 m and va = 0.28 m/d (values which correspond well with the scale of the experiment and other determinations of groundwater velocity). Thus the mud tracer test procedure not only provides information on the fate of the drilling mud but also on aquifer properties.
Statistical properties of armored gravel bed surfaces
Authors: Aberle J. , Nikora V.
Published: November 2006

Roughness of successively developed armor layers in a large laboratory flume is analyzed considering gravel surfaces as two‐dimensional random fields of bed elevations. Statistically derived roughness parameters are evaluated from precise digital elevation models (DEMs) of bed surfaces and are discussed with respect to successive development of stable armor layers. The key results relate to evolution of the probability distribution of bed elevations and its moments and structure functions of various orders with respect to armoring discharge. Our results suggest that statistical analysis of bed elevations is a helpful tool for defining roughness parameters, quantifying armoring effects, and identifying particle orientation, flow direction, and surface‐forming processes.
Application of wavelet transform in the study of coastal trapped waves off the west coast of South America
Authors: Camayo Rosio , Campos Edmo J. D.
Published: November 2006

Wavelet transform and cross wavelet transform were applied for analyzing long time series of sea level and alongshore wind stress to identify intraseasonal variability off western South America and the relations with remote and local forcings. Hydrographic data were used to estimate properties of coastal trapped waves with a theoretical model. For El Niño years, we found the existence of intraseasonal oscillations with periods 20–90 days, between 2S and 27S. At the peak of 91–92 and 97–98 EL Niños, we found perturbations in the northern region, probably associated with remotely forced internal Kelvin waves, with periods 6–11 days and phase velocities 160–260 km/day. Between 12S and 15S, during two El Niño events, our calculations show perturbations which appear to be barotropic shelf waves propagating southward with velocities between 110 and 150 km/day and periods between 30 and 50 days.
Relationships of upper tropospheric water vapor, clouds and SST: MLS observations, ECMWF analyses and GCM simulations
Authors: Su Hui , Waliser Duane E. , Jiang Jonathan H. , Li Jui‐lin , Read William G. , Waters Joe W. , Tompkins Adrian M.
Published: November 2006

The relationships of upper tropospheric water vapor (UTWV), cloud ice and sea surface temperature (SST) are examined in the annual cycles of ECMWF analyses and simulations from 15 atmosphere‐ocean coupled models which were contributed to the IPCC AR4. The results are compared with the observed relationships based on UTWV and cloud ice measurements from MLS on Aura. It is shown that the ECMWF analyses produce positive correlations between UTWV, cloud ice and SST, similar to the MLS data. The rate of the increase of cloud ice and UTWV with SST is about 30% larger than that for MLS. For the IPCC simulations, the relationships between UTWV, cloud ice and SST are qualitatively captured. However, the magnitudes of the simulated cloud ice show a considerable disagreement between models, by nearly a factor of 10. The amplitudes of the approximate linear relations between UTWV, cloud ice and SST vary by a factor up to 4.
Discontinuities in the late 1960's in different atmospheric data products
Authors: Pohlmann Holger , Greatbatch Richard J.
Published: November 2006

An analysis of the onset and spatial extent of discontinuities in the late 1960's in different atmospheric data products is performed. Discontinuities are found in both the NCEP/NCAR and ERA‐40 reanalyses in various surface variables including sea level pressure (SLP) in both data sets over Africa, in the NCEP/NCAR reanalysis also over Asia and in the ERA‐40 reanalysis also over South America, and precipitation in the NCEP/NCAR reanalysis over North Africa. Discontinuities are also found in 2 m air temperature in both reanalyses. The discontinuities in SLP extend into the lower troposphere. The main cause of these discontinuities appears to be missing or limited synoptic data prior to the late 1960's.
Phase shift of the seasonal cycle in the Hadley Circulation in recent decades
Authors: Kobayashi Chiaki , Maeda Shuhei
Published: November 2006

A trend of phase shift in the seasonal cycle of the Hadley circulation is detected from the three reanalyses data. There is a strengthening trend of the North cell of Hadley circulation in March and April, and a strengthening trend of the South cell of Hadley circulation in September and October. The result indicates the properties of the boreal winter circulation tend to remain into boreal spring, and the boreal summer circulation into boreal autumn. Three major reanalyses show qualitatively the same tendency. The seasonal cycle in zonal averaged tropical precipitation and OLR, which are independent from the reanalyses, also shows a phase shift consistent with the Hadley circulation especially in September.
Zooplankton anomalies in the California Current system before and during the warm ocean conditions of 2005
Authors: Mackas D. L. , Peterson W. T. , Ohman M. D. , Lavaniegos B. E.
Published: November 2006

Zooplankton in the California Current had large anomalies in biomass and composition in 2005. The zone most strongly affected extended from northern California to southern British Columbia, where zooplankton biomass was low from spring through autumn, community composition showed reduced dominance by northern origin taxa, and life cycles of some species shifted to earlier in the year. Although similar anomalies have previously been observed over the entire California Current system during strong El Niño events, the 2005 zooplankton anomalies were more localized, initiated by a combination of very warm temperatures (since early 2003), plus weak and late upwelling, and low phytoplankton productivity in spring and early summer of 2005. However, the zooplankton anomalies persisted longer: through the remainder of 2005 and into 2006.
Probability distribution functions for the initial liftoff velocities of saltating sand grains in air
Authors: Cheng Hong , Zou Xue‐Yong , Zhang Chun‐Lai
Published: November 2006

Saltating sand grains are the primary component of airborne sand and account for 75% of all transport flux of sand grains. Although they have been widely studied, the microscopic and macroscopic aspects of blown sand physics have not been united, and this has slowed development of this field. The main reason for this is that the bridge (probability distribution functions for initial liftoff velocities of saltating sand grains) between the macroscopic and microscopic research has not been satisfactorily solved because it is difficult to measure the initial liftoff parameters of saltating sand grains and because the underlying theory is lacking. In this paper, we combined theoretical analyses with wind tunnel experiment data to describe the liftoff parameters of saltating sand grains (the horizontal, vertical, and resultant liftoff velocities and angles). On the basis of these data, the liftoff angles follow a LogNorm4 distribution function, whereas the horizontal, vertical, and resultant liftoff velocities follow a Gamma distribution function. We also demonstrated that it is feasible to colligate initial liftoff velocities of saltating sand grains obtained under different frictional wind velocities by different scholars in wind tunnel experiments and comprehensively analyze their distributions. Therefore the distribution functions of initial liftoff velocities of saltating sand grains presented in this paper do a good job of reflecting the underlying physics.
Indices for daily temperature and precipitation extremes in Europe analyzed for the period 1901–2000
Authors: Moberg Anders , Jones Philip D. , Lister David , Walther Alexander , Brunet Manola , Jacobeit Jucundus , Alexander Lisa V. , Della‐Marta Paul M. , Luterbacher Jürg , Yiou Pascal , Chen Deliang , Klein Tank Albert M. G. , Saladié Oscar , Sigró Javier , Aguilar Enric , Alexandersson Hans , Almarza Carlos , Auer Ingeborg , Barriendos Mariano , Begert Michael , Bergström Hans , Böhm Reinhard , Butler C. J. , Caesar John , Drebs Achim , Founda Dmitra , Gerstengarbe Friedrich‐Wilhelm , Micela Giusi , Maugeri Maurizio , Österle Hermann , Pandzic Kreso , Petrakis Michael , Srnec Lidija , Tolasz Radim , Tuomenvirta Heikki , Werner Peter C. , Linderholm Hans , Philipp Andreas , Wanner Heinz , Xoplaki Elena
Published: November 2006

We analyze century‐long daily temperature and precipitation records for stations in Europe west of 60°E. A set of climatic indices derived from the daily series, mainly focusing on extremes, is defined. Linear trends in these indices are assessed over the period 1901–2000. Average trends, for 75 stations mostly representing Europe west of 20°E, show a warming for all temperature indices. Winter has, on average, warmed more (∼1.0°C/100 yr) than summer (∼0.8°C), both for daily maximum (TX) and minimum (TN) temperatures. Overall, the warming of TX in winter was stronger in the warm tail than in the cold tail (1.6 and 1.5°C for 98th and 95th, but ∼1.0°C for 2nd, 5th and 10th percentiles). There are, however, large regional differences in temperature trend patterns. For summer, there is a tendency for stronger warming, both for TX and TN, in the warm than in the cold tail only in parts of central Europe. Winter precipitation totals, averaged over 121 European stations north of 40°N, have increased significantly by ∼12% per 100 years. Trends in 90th, 95th and 98th percentiles of daily winter precipitation have been similar. No overall long‐term trend occurred in summer precipitation totals, but there is an overall weak (statistically insignificant and regionally dependent) tendency for summer precipitation to have become slightly more intense but less common. Data inhomogeneities and relative sparseness of station density in many parts of Europe preclude more robust conclusions. It is of importance that new methods are developed for homogenizing daily data.
An alternative approach to sea surface aerodynamic roughness
Authors: Gao Zhiqiu , Wang Qing , Wang Shouping
Published: November 2006

The dependence of sea surface roughness on the wave parameters was investigated using measurements from the Humidity Exchange over the Sea Main Experiment (HEXMAX). This site was 18 m of water depth and was 9 km offshore in the North Sea. We examined the relationships among wave height (Hs), friction velocity (u*) and wave age (cp/u* or cp/U10N) using regression analysis and explored the relationship between dimensionless variables u*(gTp)−1 and U10N2(gHs)−1 by dimensional analyses, where g is the acceleration due to gravity (for which we use 9.81 m s−2); Tp is period of the waves at the peak of the wave spectrum, defined as Tp = 2πcp/g where cp is the phase velocity of the peak wave spectrum; and U10N is horizontal wind speed at 10‐m height under the neutral condition. When the derived results are combined with the neutral wind profile equation, we find that the relationship among friction velocity (u*), neutral 10‐m wind speed (U10N) and phase velocity (cp) is u* = a2/3U10N4/3/cp1/3 where a is an empirical constant, and a = 6.7 × 10−3 for this site. The relationship between aerodynamic roughness length (z0) and wave age and the relationship between the neutral drag coefficient (CDN) and wave age are derived accordingly. The present parameterization schemes were tested using an independent data set, and they work in moderate wind speed.
Quantifying wet scavenging processes in aircraft observations of nitric acid and cloud condensation nuclei
Authors: Garrett T. J. , Avey L. , Palmer P. I. , Stohl A. , Neuman J. A. , Brock C. A. , Ryerson T. B. , Holloway J. S.
Published: November 2006

Wet scavenging is an important sink term for many atmospheric constituents. However, production of precipitation in clouds is poorly understood, and pollutant removal through wet scavenging is difficult to separate from removal through dry scavenging, atmospheric mixing, or chemical transformations. Here we use airborne data from the International Consortium for Atmospheric Research on Transport and Transformation project to show that measured ratios of soluble and insoluble trace gases provide a useful indicator for quantifying wet scavenging. Specifically, nitric acid (HNO3), produced as a by‐product of combustion, is highly soluble and removed efficiently from clouds by rain. Regional carbon monoxide (CO), which is also an indicator of anthropogenic activity, is insoluble and has a lifetime against oxidation of about a month. We find that relative concentrations of HNO3 to regional CO observed in clear air are negatively correlated with precipitation production rates in nearby cloudy air (r2 = 0.85). Also, we show that relative concentrations of HNO3 and CO can be used to quantify cloud condensation nucleus (CCN) scavenging by precipitating clouds. This is because CCN and HNO3 molecules are both fully soluble in cloud water and hence can be treated as analogous species insofar as wet scavenging is concerned. While approximate, the practical advantage of this approach to scavenging studies is that it requires only measurement in clear air and no a priori knowledge of the cloud or aerosol properties involved.
A one‐dimensional model of bifurcations in gravel bed channels with erodible banks
Authors: Miori S. , Repetto R. , Tubino M.
Published: November 2006

In a recent paper, Bolla Pittaluga et al. proposed a physically based formulation for the nodal point conditions to be adopted at a channel bifurcation in the context of a one‐dimensional approach. They employed such conditions to study the equilibrium configurations of a simple bifurcation and their stability, assuming erodible bed and fixed banks. With the present work we extend the model proposed by Bolla Pittaluga et al. to the case of channels with erodible banks, i.e., channels which may adapt their width to the actual flow conditions. Such an extension is of a particular interest for river bifurcations in gravel bed braided streams, in which bed evolution and bank erosion processes occur over comparable timescales. Moreover, to study the morphological evolution of a bifurcation, we employ a different approach with respect to Bolla Pittaluga et al. and introduce a “local analysis” which does not account for the influence exerted on channel morphology by downstream conditions on longer timescales. For values of the controlling parameters typical of gravel bed braided streams, the model shows that the stable equilibrium solutions of a bifurcation are invariably characterized by a strongly unbalanced partition of water and sediment discharges in the two branches. Numerical simulations, based on a simplified model of the bifurcation evolution, allow us to investigate the role of the mechanism of generation of a bifurcation on its final equilibrium configurations. It is shown that bifurcations which form through the incision of a new, initially narrow, channel may lead to significantly different equilibrium configurations with respect to bifurcations which generate from a central deposition in a wide channel. In spite of its simplicity the model seems to retain the most relevant effects which govern the behavior of gravel bed channel bifurcations.
Sustaining Generic Medicines Markets in Europe
Authors: Simoens Steven , De Coster Sandra
Published: November 2006

The size of generic medicines retail markets varies widely among European countries, owing to differences in the policy environment surrounding generic medicines. This study aims to provide a comparative analysis of policy tools that European countries have used to develop their generic medicines market and to formulate recommendations for sustaining generic medicines markets. The European experience indicates that there is no single approach towards developing a generic medicines market. Penetration of generic medicines is more successful in countries that permit (relatively) free medicine pricing. Reference-pricing systems do not aid generic medicine use if the price of originator medicines falls to the reference price level. Physician budgets stimulate generic medicine use if accompanied by rewards/sanctions for budget surpluses/deficits, respectively. Generic substitution aids generic medicine use if it is financially attractive to pharmacists to substitute generic for originator medicines. Patient co-payment seems to affect demand for generic medicines. This study shows that coordinated government policies are critically needed in many European countries. To sustain the development of a generic medicines market, countries need to supplement supply-side policies, such as pricing reductions, by demand-side policies that create incentives for physicians, pharmacists and patients to use generic medicines.
The Changing Competitive Landscape in the Global Generics Market: Threat or Opportunity?
Authors: Karwal Vijay
Published: November 2006

The generics sector is going through a period of significant change. Following a period of record patent expiries starting at the end of the previous decade, the sector is forecast to face a slowdown in growth after 2006. Key factors driving change in the competitive landscape of the industry include the large number of new entrants from India, the impact of brand defence strategies such as authorised generics, the increasing importance of vertical integration, and continued consolidation creating industry giants unmatched in scale and scope. As a result, generics companies are facing increasing pressure on price, market share and profitability. Generics companies are using mergers and acquisitions to counter these pressures. Various strategies are identified including building scale, expanding into niche formulations, vertical integration and building brand businesses.
The Future of Generics in Brazil
Authors: Kermani Faiz
Published: November 2006

Healthcare is receiving greater attention in Latin America than ever before and a number of countries in the region are in the midst of major reforms. These healthcare changes are taking place in an environment that is very different to many of the industrialised countries of the world, however, and are complicated by the profound social inequalities to be found across the region. As the largest country in the region, Brazil faces immense challenges in making healthcare more affordable. As the country's population is growing and ageing rapidly, the government has explored a range of healthcare initiatives such as increasing the use of generic medicines. This approach has been particularly successful in Brazil's efforts to tackle the AIDS pandemic and suggests that generics will receive greater priority in the future.
Explaining Turkey's Emergence and Sustained Competitiveness as a Full-Package Supplier of Apparel
Authors: Neidik Binnur , Gereffi Gary
Published: November 2006

By using the main insights of the global value chains perspective and some of its critiques, we attempt to explain how Turkey has developed and sustained its export success as a full-package supplier of apparel during the 1990s and early 2000s. Towards this end, we first analyze the global dynamics that have facilitated Turkey's incorporation into global value chains and the development of full-package production. Second, we outline the key strategies which Turkish full-package suppliers have employed to meet international standards, typically associated with this export role. Third, we show that all of these developments have unfolded against a national context, unique features of which have further helped Turkey to sustain its competitiveness in this export role. Our analysis shows that, in the Turkish national context, more attention should be given to the role of business associations and the state.
Upgrading, Changing Competitive Pressures, and Diverse Practices in the East and Central European Apparel Industry
Authors: Pickles John , Smith Adrian , Bucěk Milan , Roukova Poli , Begg Robert
Published: November 2006

After a period in the 1990s of rapid integration into the production and trade networks of the European Union (EU) (and to a lesser extent of the United States), clothing manufacturers in East and Central Europe have had to adjust quickly to the changing costs of production with EU accession, the rise of Chinese exports, and the 1 January 2005 final phaseout of quantitative quotas into major markets. In this paper we focus on the changing competitive pressures on clothing producers in the region and on the diversity of adjustments currently being made in response to these changes. In particular, we detail the wide range of adjustment strategies being adopted by firms in Slovakia and Bulgaria, and show how interregional price competition, downgrading, and geographical shifts in patterns of sourcing and production are articulated with imperatives to regionalized production for major markets, stabilization of supply networks, industrial upgrading, and the expansion of localized sourcing and domestic-marketing strategies.
Seroprevalence of herpes simplex virus-1 and -2 in attendees of a sexually transmitted infection clinic in Singapore
Authors: Theng Colin T. S. , Sen Priya R. , Chio Tze-Wei M. , Tan Hiok H. , Wong Mee L. , Chan Roy K. W.
Published: November 2006

Background: We studied the seroprevalance of HSV (herpes simplex virus)-1 and HSV-2 in outpatient attendees of a sexually transmitted infection (STI) clinic in Singapore and examined their knowledge and attitudes towards HSV infection. Methods: Two hundred male and 200 female participants were recruited in the study. Questionnaires were administered and blood samples were taken and analysed using the HerpeSelect 1 and 2 enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) IgG assays (type-specific serological tests). Results: HSV-1 was positive in 223 (55.8%) individuals, negative in 175 (43.8%) and indeterminate in two (0.5%), whereas HSV-2 was positive in 114 (28.5%) individuals, negative in 284 (71.0%) and indeterminate in two (0.5%). The seroprevalance of HSV-2 was 26% and 31% in males and females, respectively. The correlation between a previous history of cold sores and HSV-1 infection was poor. On univariate analysis, there was a significant association with age, marital status and years of sex (P < 0.05) but after adjusting for confounders, none of the variables were significantly associated with HSV-2 seroprevalance. Most of the respondents (65.8%) were aware that herpes is an STI, whereas only half of them were aware of the possibility of asymptomatic transmission. Conclusion: Although HSV-2 is a common infection among STI clinic attendees in Singapore, there is an unsatisfactory level of knowledge among the attendees about HSV infection and public education programs should be introduced to address this.
A randomised controlled trial of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation for the treatment of hypertriglyceridemia in HIV-infected males on highly active antiretroviral therapy
Authors: Carter V. M. , Woolley I. , Jolley D. , Nyulasi I. , Mijch A. , Dart A.
Published: November 2006

Background: Hypertriglyceridaemia is a recognised metabolic abnormality in HIV-infected people, increasing in severity in people treated with highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). An alternative treatment for hypertriglyceridaemia in non-HIV-infected populations is omega-3 fatty acid supplementation. This study aimed to compare the effectiveness of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation and placebo in lowering fasting triglyceride levels in HIV-infected patients on HAART. Methods: A placebo-controlled, randomised, double-blind trial in participants on stable HAART with fasting triglycerides of >3.5 mm to 10.0 mm using 9 g of omega-3 fatty acids versus placebo (olive oil) after a 6-week lead in on dietary therapy. Results: Eleven patients were enrolled. The mean triglyceride level for the population decreased from 5.02 mm at baseline to 4.44 mm (–11.6%) after dietary intervention and 3.37 mm (–32.9%) after the 8-week treatment period. In the omega-3 fatty acid arm of the study, triglycerides fell from 5.34 mm to 5.02 mm (–6%) after dietary intervention and to 2.30 mm (–56.9%) after the treatment period. In the placebo arm of the study, triglycerides fell from 4.77 mm to 4.05 mm (–15.1%) after dietary intervention and to 4.08 mm (–14.5%) after the treatment period. Using the random effects model, a statistically significant effect on triglycerides of omega-3 fatty acid versus placebo was found (χ2 = 6.04, P = 0.0487). The estimated difference between groups for change in mean triglycerides over 8 weeks was –2.32 mm (95% CI –4.52, –0.12 mm). Conclusions: Omega-3 fatty acids are likely to be an effective treatment for hypertriglyceridaemia in HIV-infected males on HAART.
Sex preparation and diaphragm acceptability in sex work in Nairobi, Kenya
Authors: Sharma Anjali , Bukusi Elizabeth , Posner Samuel , Feldman Douglas , Ngugi Elizabeth , Cohen Craig R.
Published: November 2006

Background: Women in sex work stand to benefit if the contraceptive diaphragm alone or combined with a microbicide proves to be an effective barrier method against HIV and sexually transmissible infection (STI). Currently, contraceptive diaphragm users are advised to leave the diaphragm in situ without concomitant use of other intravaginal substances for at least 6 h after intercourse. Methods: We conducted in-depth interviews on sexual behaviour including post-coital intravaginal practices with 36 women in sex work and 26 of their clients and held two focus-group discussions, each with 10 women. Results: The women described adapting several potentially harmful substances, such as cloth and soapy water, for post-coital vaginal use to ensure personal hygiene, disease prevention and client pleasure. Some wanted to clean themselves and remove the diaphragm early, fearing exposure to HIV infection for themselves and their subsequent clients. Clients indicated their desire for ‘dry sex’, vaginal cleanliness and reduced risk of infection through vaginal cleaning. Conclusions: The diaphragm as a female-controlled barrier method for HIV/STI prevention may have limited acceptability among women in sex work if its effectiveness depends on a 6-h post-coital wait before removal, along with avoidance of concomitant use of intravaginal substances. In keeping with the beliefs of the the female sex workers and their needs and practices, alternative intravaginal substances and modes of insertion that will not disrupt vaginal flora, injure vaginal epithelium, damage the diaphragm or counteract potentially beneficial effects of microbicides are needed. The possibility of removing the diaphragm sooner than the recommended 6 h for contraception should be further studied.
Bacterial vaginosis in women of low socioeconomic status living in slum areas in Chennai, India
Authors: Uma Shanmugasundaram , Balakrishnan Pachamuthu , Murugavel Kailapuri G. , Srikrishnan Aylur K. , Kumarasamy Nagalingeswaran , Anand Santhanam , Cecelia Jebaraj Anitha , Celentano David , Mayer Kenneth H. , Thyagarajan Sadras P. , Solomon Suniti
Published: November 2006

Bacterial vaginosis (BV) is a common cause of vaginitis among women of childbearing age. This study was performed to investigate the prevalence of BV and its association with sexually transmitted infections among 487 women of low socioeconomic status. Blood, vaginal and endocervical swabs were tested for HIV, herpes simplex virus-2 (HSV-2), Treponema pallidum, BV, Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoea and Trichomonas vaginalis. Of the women screened for BV, 120 (25, 95% CI 20.8–28.4) were positive and 40 (8.2, 95% CI 5.8–10.6) were intermediate. Bacterial vaginosis was significantly associated with age >25 (P = 0.014) and sexual experience (P = 0.085). Bacterial vaginosis was also related to concurrent infections with T. vaginalis (relative risk (RR) = 6.6, 95% CI 2.8–15.5, P = 0.000) and HSV-2 (RR = 2, 95% CI 1.3–2.9; P = 0.0031). The role of other possible risk factors needs to be explored.
Chlamydia testing in general practice - a survey of Victorian general practitioners
Authors: Hocking Jane S. , Lim Megan S. C. , Vidanapathirana Janaki , Read Tim R. H. , Hellard Margaret
Published: November 2006

Background: To assess the current chlamydia testing practices of Victorian general practitioners (GPs). Methods: GPs were randomly selected from the Australasian Medical Publishing Company’s national database of medical practitioners and mailed a letter of invitation asking them to complete a postal survey. Up to three postal reminders were sent to non-responders. Results: Of 421 eligible GPs, 252 (60%) returned a completed survey; 22.9% (95% CI: 17.8%, 28.6%) reported testing at least some asymptomatic patients for chlamydia each week and 26.8% (95% CI: 21.4%, 32.7%) reported that they presumptively treated patients for chlamydia without testing them at least half the time. The majority knew the appropriate specimens for diagnosing chlamydia, but 6–8% thought blood and 6% indicated that the Pap smear could be used to reliably diagnose chlamydia infection. Conclusions: These findings have implications for the future chlamydia screening pilot program in Australia and indicate that a comprehensive education program will be necessary to inform GPs and equip them with the skills to appropriately test for chlamydia in their practice.
The use of transcriptional profiles to predict adult mosquito age under field conditions
Authors: Cook Peter E. , Hugo Leon E. , Iturbe-Ormaetxe Iñaki , Williams Craig R. , Chenoweth Stephen F. , Ritchie Scott A. , Ryan Peter A. , Kay Brian H. , Blows Mark W. , O'Neill Scott L.
Published: November 2006

Age is a critical determinant of an adult female mosquito's ability to transmit a range of human pathogens. Despite its central importance, relatively few methods exist with which to accurately determine chronological age of field-caught mosquitoes. This fact is a major constraint on our ability to fully understand the relative importance of vector longevity to disease transmission in different ecological contexts. It also limits our ability to evaluate novel disease control strategies that specifically target mosquito longevity. We report the development of a transcriptional profiling approach to determine age of adult female
Aedes aegypti
under field conditions. We demonstrate that this approach surpasses current cuticular hydrocarbon methods for both accuracy of predicted age as well as the upper limits at which age can be reliably predicted. The method is based on genes that display age-dependent expression in a range of dipteran insects and, as such, is likely to be broadly applicable to other disease vectors.
Evidence for different origin of sex chromosomes in snakes, birds, and mammals and step-wise differentiation of snake sex chromosomes
Authors: Matsubara Kazumi , Tarui Hiroshi , Toriba Michihisa , Yamada Kazuhiko , Nishida-Umehara Chizuko , Agata Kiyokazu , Matsuda Yoichi
Published: November 2006

All snake species exhibit genetic sex determination with the ZZ/ZW type of sex chromosomes. To investigate the origin and evolution of snake sex chromosomes, we constructed, by FISH, a cytogenetic map of the Japanese four-striped rat snake (
Elaphe quadrivirgata
) with 109 cDNA clones. Eleven of the 109 clones were localized to the Z chromosome. All human and chicken homologues of the snake Z-linked genes were located on autosomes, suggesting that the sex chromosomes of snakes, mammals, and birds were all derived from different autosomal pairs of the common ancestor. We mapped the 11 Z-linked genes of
E. quadrivirgata
to chromosomes of two other species, the Burmese python (
Python molurus bivittatus
) and the habu (
Trimeresurus flavoviridis
), to investigate the process of W chromosome differentiation. All and 3 of the 11 clones were localized to both the Z and W chromosomes in
P. molurus
and
E. quadrivirgata
, respectively, whereas no cDNA clones were mapped to the W chromosome in
T. flavoviridis
. Comparative mapping revealed that the sex chromosomes are only slightly differentiated in
P. molurus
, whereas they are fully differentiated in
T. flavoviridis
, and
E. quadrivirgata
is at a transitional stage of sex-chromosome differentiation. The differentiation of sex chromosomes was probably initiated from the distal region on the short arm of the protosex chromosome of the common ancestor, and then deletion and heterochromatization progressed on the sex-specific chromosome from the phylogenetically primitive boids to the more advanced viperids.
Engineering cottonseed for use in human nutrition by tissue-specific reduction of toxic gossypol
Authors: Sunilkumar Ganesan , Campbell LeAnne M. , Puckhaber Lorraine , Stipanovic Robert D. , Rathore Keerti S.
Published: November 2006

Global cottonseed production can potentially provide the protein requirements for half a billion people per year; however, it is woefully underutilized because of the presence of toxic gossypol within seed glands. Therefore, elimination of gossypol from cottonseed has been a long-standing goal of geneticists. Attempts were made to meet this objective by developing so-called “glandless cotton” in the 1950s by conventional breeding techniques; however, the glandless varieties were commercially unviable because of the increased susceptibility of the plant to insect pests due to the systemic absence of glands that contain gossypol and other protective terpenoids. Thus, the promise of cottonseed in contributing to the food requirements of the burgeoning world population remained unfulfilled. We have successfully used RNAi to disrupt gossypol biosynthesis in cottonseed tissue by interfering with the expression of the δ-cadinene synthase gene during seed development. We demonstrate that it is possible to significantly reduce cottonseed-gossypol levels in a stable and heritable manner. Results from enzyme activity and molecular analyses on developing transgenic embryos were consistent with the observed phenotype in the mature seeds. Most relevant, the levels of gossypol and related terpenoids in the foliage and floral parts were not diminished, and thus their potential function in plant defense against insects and diseases remained untouched. These results illustrate that a targeted genetic modification, applied to an underutilized agricultural byproduct, provides a mechanism to open up a new source of nutrition for hundreds of millions of people.
Fragile X mental retardation protein controls
trailer hitch
expression and cleavage furrow formation in
Drosophila
embryos
Authors: Monzo Kate , Papoulas Ophelia , Cantin Greg T. , Wang Yan , Yates John R. , Sisson John C.
Published: November 2006

During the cleavage stage of animal embryogenesis, cell numbers increase dramatically without growth, and a shift from maternal to zygotic genetic control occurs called the midblastula transition. Although these processes are fundamental to animal development, the molecular mechanisms controlling them are poorly understood. Here, we demonstrate that
Drosophila
fragile X mental retardation protein (dFMRP) is required for cleavage furrow formation and functions within dynamic cytoplasmic ribonucleoprotein (RNP) bodies during the midblastula transition. dFMRP is observed to colocalize with the cytoplasmic RNP body components Maternal expression at 31B (ME31B) and Trailer Hitch (TRAL) in a punctate pattern throughout the cytoplasm of cleavage-stage embryos. Complementary biochemistry demonstrates that dFMRP does not associate with polyribosomes, consistent with their reported exclusion from many cytoplasmic RNP bodies. By using a conditional mutation in
small bristles
(
sbr
), which encodes an mRNA nuclear export factor, to disrupt the normal cytoplasmic accumulation of zygotic transcripts at the midblastula transition, we observe the formation of giant dFMRP/TRAL-associated structures, suggesting that dFMRP and TRAL dynamically regulate RNA metabolism at the midblastula transition. Furthermore, we show that dFMRP associates with endogenous
tral
mRNA and is required for normal TRAL protein expression and localization, revealing it as a previously undescribed target of dFMRP control. We also show genetically that
tral
itself is required for cleavage furrow formation. Together, these data suggest that in cleavage-stage
Drosophila
embryos, dFMRP affects protein expression by controlling the availability and/or competency of specific transcripts to be translated.
Munc18-1 expression levels control synapse recovery by regulating readily releasable pool size
Authors: Toonen Ruud F. G. , Wierda Keimpe , Sons Michèle S. , de Wit Heidi , Cornelisse L. Niels , Brussaard Arjen , Plomp Jaap J. , Verhage Matthijs
Published: November 2006

Prompt recovery after intense activity is an essential feature of most mammalian synapses. Here we show that synapses with reduced expression of the presynaptic gene
munc18-1
suffer from increased depression during intense stimulation at glutamatergic, GABAergic, and neuromuscular synapses. Conversely,
munc18-1
overexpression makes these synapses recover faster. Concomitant changes in the readily releasable vesicle pool and its refill kinetics were found. The number of vesicles docked at the active zone and the total number of vesicles per terminal correlated with both
munc18-1
expression levels and the size of the releasable vesicle pool. These data show that varying expression of a single gene controls synaptic recovery by modulating the number of docked, release-ready vesicles and thereby replenishment of the secretion capacity.
Role of estrogen receptor β in uterine stroma and epithelium: Insights from estrogen receptor β
−/−
mice
Authors: Wada-Hiraike Osamu , Hiraike Haruko , Okinaga Hiroko , Imamov Otabek , Barros Rodrigo P. A. , Morani Andrea , Omoto Yoko , Warner Margaret , Gustafsson Jan-Åke
Published: November 2006

In this study, we compared the uterine tissue of estrogen receptor (ER)β
−/−
mice and their WT littermates for differences in morphology, proliferation [the percentage of labeled cells 2 h after BrdUrd injection and EGF receptor (EGFR) expression], and differentiation (expression of progesterone receptor, E-cadherin, and cytokeratins). In ovariectomized mice, progesterone receptor expression in the uterine epithelium was similar in WT and ERβ
−/−
mice, but E-cadherin and cytokeratin 18 expression was lower in ERβ
−/−
mice. The percentage of cells in S phase was 1.5% in WT mice and 8% in ERβ
−/−
mice. Sixteen hours after injection of 17β-estradiol (E
2
), the number of BrdUrd-labeled cells increased 20-fold in WT mice and 80-fold in ERβ
−/−
mice. Although ERα was abundant in intact mice, after ovariectomy, ERα could not be detected in the luminal epithelium of either WT or ERβ
−/−
mice. In both untreated and E
2
-treated mice, ERα and ERβ were colocalized in the nuclei of many stromal and glandular epithelial cells. However, upon E
2
+ progesterone treatment, ERα and ERβ were not coexpressed in any cells. In WT mice, EGFR was located on the membranes and in the cytoplasm of luminal epithelium, but not in the stroma. In ERβ
−/−
mice, there was a marked expression of EGFR in the nuclei of epithelial and stromal cells. Upon E
2
treatment, EGFR on cell membranes was down-regulated in WT but not in ERβ
−/−
mice. These findings reveal an important role for ERβ in response to E
2
and in the organization, growth, and differentiation of the uterine epithelium.
Src-like adaptor protein (SLAP) regulates B cell receptor levels in a c-Cbl-dependent manner
Authors: Dragone Leonard L. , Myers Margaret D. , White Carmen , Gadwal Shyam , Sosinowski Tomasz , Gu Hua , Weiss Arthur
Published: November 2006

Src-like adaptor protein (SLAP) and c-Cbl recently have been shown to cooperate in regulating T cell receptor (TCR) levels in developing T cells. SLAP also is expressed in developing B cells, and its deficiency leads to alterations in B cell receptor (BCR) levels and B cell development. Hence, we hypothesized that SLAP and c-Cbl may cooperate during B cell development to regulate BCR levels. In mice deficient in both SLAP and c-Cbl, we found that B cell development is altered, suggesting that they function through intersecting pathways. To study the mechanism by which SLAP and c-Cbl alter BCR levels, we coexpressed them in a mature mouse B cell line (Bal-17). First we determined that SLAP associates with proximal components of the BCR complex after stimulation and internalization. Coexpression of SLAP and c-Cbl in Bal-17 led to decreased surface and total BCR levels. This decrease in BCR levels depended on intact Src homology 2 (SH2) and C-terminal domains of SLAP. In addition, a mutation in the SH2 domain of SLAP blocked its colocalization with c-Cbl and the BCR complex, whereas deletion of the C terminus did not affect its localization. Last, coexpression of SLAP and c-Cbl altered BCR complex recycling. This alteration in BCR complex recycling depended on enzymatically active c-Cbl and Src family kinases, as well as the intact SH2 and C-terminal domains of SLAP. These data suggest that SLAP has a conserved function in B and T cells by adapting c-Cbl to the antigen-receptor complex and targeting it for degradation.
Local Government and the Governing of Climate Change in Germany and the UK
Authors: Bulkeley Harriet , Kern Kristine
Published: November 2006

This paper argues that, in order to address the challenges of climate change, attention needs to be focused not only at the international level but also on how climate protection policy is taking shape locally. It provides a comparative analysis of local climate change policy in Germany and the UK. By moving the focus from an analysis of the formal competencies of local government to the multiple modes of governing through which climate protection is taking place, the similarities between the two countries are brought into view. In both cases, actions are concentrated in the energy sphere and municipalities are increasingly deploying self-governing and enabling approaches to undertaken emissions reductions. The paper argues that the impacts of EU policies, financial crises and the political challenges of implementing climate change policies are changing the capacity for local intervention, with potentially significant consequences for medium- and long-term goals for climate protection.
Place, Class and Local Circuits of Reproduction: Exploring the Social Geography of Middle-class Childcare in London
Authors: McDowell Linda , Ward Kevin , Perrons Diane , Ray Kath , Fagan Colette
Published: November 2006

In a recent revival of the older tradition of community studies, sociologists and geographers have begun to address the changing nature of attachment to locality in contemporary cities in advanced industrial societies. Challenging older definitions of attachment to place, a new form of communal attachment has recently been identified, termed 'elective belonging'. This sense of place is particularly important among the middle classes and is, it is argued, closely associated with the growing significance of reproduction, especially access to schooling, as a key part of the reasons for choosing to live in a particular urban neighbourhood. Sociologists of education have also argued that school choice is important. A recent paper has suggested that pre-school childcare also figures in locational choices and in urban differentiation, leading to different traditions of caring/mothering in different neighbourhoods in London. This paper critically assesses these arguments about school and childcare choices and the associated development of place-based middle-class cultures. Based on an empirical study in three London neighbourhoods, it explores the extent to which occupational position and sector of employment-class-based factors-as well as place-based factors continue to play a key role in the types of opportunities and choices that middle-class households make about childcare.