bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
“Layer 9”—Core Policy Decisions That Gave Us the Internet We Have
Authors: Shackelford Scott J. , Bradner Scott O.
Published: May 2024

This chapter describes the series of nontechnical decisions that led to the prominence of the Internet, and it explores how it operates today. Nontechnical decisions are those that were not driven by purely technical criteria. Instead, they were at least partially driven by real-world economic or political criteria, by a desire to achieve future technical dominance, and by government dictate. The six nontechnical forks discussed in this chapter are (1) international standardization; (2) free code; (3) access to government-sponsored networks, Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET); (4) access to government-sponsored networks take 2, National Science Foundation Network (NSFNET); (5) NSFNET protocol support; and (6) Government Open Systems Interconnection Profile (GOSIP). While they did not directly change the technology of the Internet, these decisions shaped the economic environment that facilitated the Internet’s rapid growth and the policy environment in which it was allowed to flourish.
Regulating Online Speech
Authors: Shackelford Scott J. , Bradner Scott O.
Published: May 2024

This chapter offers a brief history of online speech regulation in the United States and how it shaped the road to Section 230 of the Communications Decency Act (CDA), which is the now (in)famous “twenty-six words that created the Internet,” according to Jeff Kosseff. Those 26 words released Internet service providers and web-hosting companies from legal responsibility for information their customers posted or shared online, provided protections to websites that decided to moderate their communities, and provided legal security that allowed U.S. tech firms to flourish. That protection allowed companies to feel comfortable creating a consumer-focused Internet filled with grassroots media outlets, bloggers, customer reviews, and user-generated content. However, Section 230 also allows social media sites to operate largely without regulation, which has fueled a wave of disinformation. This chapter analyzes widespread misinformation and disinformation online and how an array of countries around the world are dealing with the fallout.
Immaculate Sounds
Authors: Favila Cesar D.
Published: May 2024

The musical lives of nuns in early modern New Spain encompassed a complex network of sonified practices that exceeded music performance. This book argues for a sonically inclined understanding of cloistered nuns’ embodied and spiritual engagement with Catholic doctrines on the nature of the Virgin Mary and Christ. Immaculate sounds were idealized vocalizations by nuns as well as the expression of doctrinal rhetoric that relied on musical metaphors. Starting from a sonification of virginity and the Virgin Mary that was fundamental to promoting the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception, this book explores the pivotal role of immaculate sounds in mediating between New Spanish nuns’ lives and the expectations placed upon them to save the secular world with their vocalized prayers. The circumstances surrounding the performance of music within convents reveal a highly regulated realm of female sounds that echoed the rules of obedience, institutional hierarchy, colonial racialization, and enclosure. Besides the sonification of discipline, this book shows that immaculate sounds also enhanced the nuns’ engagement with religious practices such as the rite of communion and music performed for Eucharistic devotion. Music also had a central position in facilitating imitation processes that encouraged the brides of Christ to take on the role of widows, martyrs, and sorrowing mothers in the devotions to the Virgin of Sorrows and Christ’s Passion. The musical lives of New Spanish nuns reached beyond singing and playing instruments within the walls of the convents. They were also imbricated with their identities through immaculate sounds.
Introduction
Authors: Favila Cesar D.
Published: May 2024

This introduction to the concept of immaculate sounds lays out the issues involved with studying the music of New Spanish convents. It includes a listing of the known music manuscript sources that exist and discusses the preliminary studies that have attended to these sources in the form of performance editions and catalogs with respect to Latin American and New Spanish music studies, as well as New Spanish convent history more broadly. It argues that in addition to working with music manuscripts, one must draw from a wider network of sources, such as nuns’ devotional literature and biographies, to flesh out the history of nuns’ music making in New Spain. These latter sources evidence that music, sound, aurality, and orality within the convents were vital components of the liturgical and devotional lives of convents. It also presents a methodology, incorporating the concepts of women’s time and the acousmatic, for narrating a cultural history formed through fragments of archival material with various gaps.
Sonic Thresholds
Authors: Favila Cesar D.
Published: May 2024

Through the interrogation of canonical, theological, mystical, acoustical, and architectural circumstances, this chapter examines prescriptions around the performance of music within nuns’ convents in New Spain. Most details of the embodied musical world of the nuns were highly regulated following an ordered monastic tradition, including the when, where, and how convent choirs would sing. Among these prescriptions, the convents’ architectural spaces, the coros, not only determined the physical disposition for the performance of music and sometimes the veiling of its source but also were a manifestation of the rules of obedience, institutional hierarchy, and enclosure. Immaculate sounds could also bolster a mystic experience, thus prompting authorities to control another embodied sonic sphere of the nuns’ lives. Within this systematized realm of female sounds, the regulated lips of musician nuns circumvented the commonplace idea that women singing signaled unchastity.
Redeeming Sounds
Authors: Favila Cesar D.
Published: May 2024

This chapter explores the meaning that the imitation of Christ’s Passion would have taken for New Spanish nuns and the role that music played in achieving successful imitation. In contrast to the Eucharist’s visual veiling, the brides of Christ engaged in continuous Passion devotional practices that underscored Christ’s visible presence. While nuns were encouraged with imitating the bravery and suffering of their spiritual spouse at the Passion, they were also compelled through sonified artifacts, such as villancicos and sermons, to lament Christ’s suffering along with his mother in the devotion to the Virgin of Sorrows. This chapter argues that the musical practices related to Mary’s co-passion with Christ invited nuns to take a place alongside the Virgin in singing Christ’s death to the tune of joyous sorrow and assume the role of widows, martyrs, and sorrowing mothers.
International Migration, Immigrant Health, and Social Policies during the COVID-19 Pandemic
Authors: Diaz Sarah V. , Hagos Rama M. , Hamilton Tod G. , Alcántara Carmela
Published: May 2024

This chapter discusses immigrants and COVID-19 from a transnational immigrant perspective, for example, border closures. It focuses on the United States, with parallel case studies to a few other nations (Canada, Australia, etc.). How has COVID-19 impacted the movement of immigrants from low- and middle-income counties relative to immigrants from upper-middle- and high-income countries? In addition, the chapter explores the realities and consequences of potential changes in immigration status and access to government stimulus checks, and access to healthcare, including but not limited to COVID-19 testing, during the pandemic. Lastly, the authors discuss “guest workers” who are often infected but overlooked (e.g., in Singapore, Arabian Gulf states).
Explaining Binary Sex and Gender Patterns in the Direct and Indirect Health Effects of COVID-19
Authors: Bates Lisa M.
Published: May 2024

From the outset of the COVID-19 pandemic, binary sex differences in COVID outcomes have received heightened attention as male sex has been associated with an elevated risk of severe illness resulting in hospitalization and death. This chapter discusses COVID-19 through a gender lens, and seek to address questions such as: Is evident male excess in mortality a reflection of biological susceptibility or structural gender factors? Is it even real? This chapter also discusses the gendered impacts of pandemic mitigation efforts (e.g., lockdowns) on women’s engagement in the labor force, the household division of labor, intimate partner violence (IPV), and other gendered outcomes. This chapter highlights the importance of routine data collection that disaggregates by sex/gender while also accounting for gender diversity, and a theoretical approach that accommodates both the biological and social (and their complex interplay), includes an intersectional perspective, and accounts for gender as a social determinant of health for all genders, including cisgender men.
Social Capital, Social Cohesion, and COVID-19
Authors: Kawachi Ichiro , Ransome Yusuf
Published: May 2024

When it comes to population health outcomes, social cohesion and social capital are often characterized as being a double-edged sword. The COVID-19 pandemic provides an illustrative case study of this thesis. On the one hand, evidence has emerged that more cohesive societies have been more effective in enforcing health-protective norms, such as consistent mask-wearing and maintaining physical distancing. On the other hand, there is also evidence to suggest that some indicators of social capital—such as social participation and informal socializing between members of a community—are associated with higher rates of COVID infection. At the same time, social distancing policies adopted during the pandemic have been projected to give rise to an epidemic of social isolation, loneliness, and mental illness. This chapter summarizes the conflicting evidence on social capital and COVID outcomes, and discusses the potential for social capital to mitigate population health impacts.
Conceptualizing Wargaming
Authors: Hirst Aggie
Published: May 2024

This chapter charts a course through the conceptual quagmire surrounding what a wargame is and can do. It situates wargames in relation to simulations and exercises, showing that important practical, methodological, and epistemological differences are at work. From there, it examines the benefits and limitations of manual and digital gaming and the generational divides that obtain in these debates. Thereafter, it turns to the key applications of wargames as research, teaching, and training tools, and the open-ended versus deterministic styles of gaming conventionally associated with these spheres. The chapter interrogates the types of pedagogy at work in research, education, and training games, respectively, emphasizing that they sit on a continuum between “processual” and “product” learning objectives. It concludes that there is considerably less daylight between games used variously for research, education, and training than is often supposed, because all games teach their participants something.
A Genealogy of Play
Authors: Hirst Aggie
Published: May 2024

This chapter traces a genealogy of play in Western philosophy from the Presocratics to modern phenomenologists. The chapter opens by establishing two discursive modes of play, Apollonian and Dionysian, setting out the former’s focus on reason, order, being, and presence and the latter’s tendency toward unreason, disorder, becoming, and the disruption of presence. It then explores key ancient framings of play, beginning with the insights of Heraclitus and turning to the challenges posed by Plato and Aristotle. From there, the chapter explores play in the modern philosophical era, focusing on the German Idealist tradition. Having done so, the chapter turns to Nietzsche’s challenge to the Western philosophical tradition and the accompanying return of the Dionysian in and beyond play, and thereafter to the phenomenological ideas of Heidegger and Gadamer.
The Politics of Vulnerability: Today’s Threat to American Muslims’ Religious Freedom
Authors: Uddin Asma T.
Published: May 2024

Donald Trump’s 2016 presidential win is in many ways reflective of festering resentment and vulnerability among large sectors of the US population. In particular, Trump’s continual demonization of Muslims and challenges to Muslims’ rights took advantage of a feeling among many conservative Christian Americans that Christianity is “under siege” in the United States and that Muslims, as championed by the political Left, are key to that siege. This chapter explores what that Christian vulnerability looks like, how Muslims came to be seen as a key part of the political threat, and how this conflation helps drive anti-Muslim efforts by many on the political Right.
Islamophobia
Authors: Tazamal Mobashra
Published: May 2024

In Britain today, far-right voices have entered the mainstream via the preexisting packaged discourse of Islamophobia. Right-wing and far-right voices have pushed anti-Muslim rhetoric to dangerous extremes and have been allowed to do so without much opposition. What largely accelerated this process was the Brexit campaign, which utilized populist tactics exploiting anti-Muslim and xenophobic sentiments to drive white, working-class voters to the polls. Over the last few years, the ruling Conservative party has adopted Islamophobia, calculating that it is politically beneficial to ignore the severity of anti-Muslim racism, given that its voting base holds these views, as do many of its representatives and leaders. This signals to the wider public that Islamophobia is welcomed, as the governing party rubber-stamps discrimination and violence targeting British Muslims.
Confronting Islamophobia
Authors: Rasool Ebrahim
Published: May 2024

Islamophobia, hitherto seen as quintessentially Western, has now been visited upon substantial Muslim minorities in Asia. Both Eastern and Western iterations of this phenomenon are underpinned by the rise of right-wing populism. This chapter seeks to look both back and forward. It looks back to how colonialism rendered bigotry normal and at Shakespeare’s Tempest as a study in this, in the early 17th century, and as a comparison with the real experience of Muslims in South Africa who were from the mid 17th century being enslaved and exiled, and prohibited from practicing Islam. The chapter also looks forward to how that community inserted itself into a larger struggle against apartheid, with all its bigotries, racism, and Islamophobia included. The result is that South African Muslims have provided a toolkit for other Muslim minorities who are confronting Islamophobia. This toolkit contains both conceptual lessons that choose integration over isolation and assimilation and tactical lessons that form alliances and prioritize the injustices against other groups who are not necessarily Muslims.
Home Front Battles
Authors: Bolton Charles C.
Published: May 2024

Home Front Battles focuses on World War II mobilization and the battles it sparked in the Deep South. Economic mobilization reshaped agriculture and ushered in a new wave of industrialization. Rural migrants flocked to the new businesses, where they encountered an unfamiliar world of work. As war towns boomed, they faced a host of difficulties. Although the federal government tried to help solve these social problems, those efforts were only partly successful. One of the primary home front battles during World War II occurred along the color line. With the creation of the Fair Employment Practices Committee (1941) and the passage of the Selective Training and Service Act (1940), the federal government promoted the ideal of nondiscrimination as part of its mobilization efforts. In the Deep South, where race relations operated in an openly discriminatory manner, federal nondiscrimination directives and southern tradition clashed in war industries and in and around military camps. White politicians in the Deep South—ranging from the liberal Georgia governor Ellis Arnall to Theodore Bilbo, the reactionary US senator from Mississippi—disagreed about the long-term impact of wartime mobilization. At the same time, African Americans mobilized to change the southern system of race relations. The fight for Black rights culminated with the elections of 1946—when Black men and women in the Deep South tried to vote on a scale unprecedented in the twentieth century. White Southerners, however, closed ranks to beat back the effort with tactics ranging from intimidation to violence.
World War II and Agriculture in the Deep South
Authors: Bolton Charles C.
Published: May 2024

The coming of war plants and military camps to the South completed the agricultural revolution begun in the region during the 1930s. Migration from rural areas reshaped the area’s population, and labor shortages generated tensions. Landowners sought to keep farm workers on the land, especially Black tenants and wage hands who provided much of the essential labor for key parts of the regional farm economy. The scarcity of farm labor also raised agricultural wages, a development that wealthy landowners tried to squelch, even as they fought to keep the prices for their agricultural products as high as possible. The Deep South’s biggest cotton farmers had extensive power and focused on shaping wartime agricultural policy and production primarily in ways to maintain their economic advantages. They also undermined the work of other farmers in the region by attacking the Farm Security Administration, the federal agency most committed to helping hundreds of thousands of small producers in the Deep South, who had proved to be the region’s most willing to reshape their production to achieve military victory.
Ellis Arnall: Southern Liberal
Authors: Bolton Charles C.
Published: May 2024

Ellis Arnall was elected governor of Georgia in 1942 and served in that position until early 1947. During the war, Arnall gained a reputation as a southern liberal and became a national media darling, the embodiment of a postwar South potentially more in line with national norms on economic and racial matters. This chapter explores Arnall’s successful 1942 gubernatorial campaign against the arch-segregationist Eugene Talmadge; his progressive achievements as governor; and his fight to end discrimination against southern industry through unequal railroad freight rates. Arnall favored some limited reforms of the state’s racial arrangements, most notably an extension of the vote to Black citizens. He also supported efforts to improve segregated services for Black citizens. He refused, however, to consider an end to racial segregation. Arnall hoped that any real consideration of racial matters could be laid aside in favor of his economic project of promoting southern industry.
Political Crossroads, 1946: Black Voters and White Resistance
Authors: Bolton Charles C.
Published: May 2024

In 1946, Black activism—especially around voting rights—peaked in the Deep South. As Black citizens pressed for their political rights in the summer of 1946, the Deep South stood at a political crossroads. Bilbo’s 1946 Senate re-election campaign demonstrated one strand of White political thought in the aftermath of World War II: a desire to roll back wartime measures that threatened to liberalize the region’s race relations and enfranchise Black voters. The 1946 governor’s race in Georgia, with James Carmichael running as a surrogate for Ellis Arnall, represented a different component of postwar White political thought: an attempt to accommodate Black voting in some form while still maintaining racial segregation. In the end, however, neither of these political agendas would survive 1946 fully intact. And Blacks did not secure the right to vote in either state, as Whites used violence and intimidation to suppress the Black vote.
Introduction
Authors: Belle Kathryn Sophia
Published: May 2024

Introduction: bell hooks: “Female identity is shaped by gender, race, and class, and never solely by sex” offers context for the title of the book, Beauvoir and Belle: A Black Feminist Critique of the Second Sex, and insights from bell hooks’ essay from which my title is derived, “True Philosophers: Beauvoir and bell.” The introduction begins with the intention of centering the voices and scholarship of Black Women and other Women of Color, as well as our accompanying citational practices and engagements. From there, the introduction explores efforts to recover Simone de Beauvoir as a philosopher, offers background and context for The Second Sex (1940s France), as well as Black Feminist Thought in France, Martinique, and the United States during this period. There is also an overview of sixty years of Black women and other Women of Color engagements with The Second Sex, and an overview of the chapters.
Audre Lorde
Authors: Belle Kathryn Sophia
Published: May 2024

Chapter 4, “Audre Lorde: ‘Difference is that raw and powerful connection from which our personal power is forged,’ ” takes up Lorde’s iconic essay “The Master’s Tools Will Never Dismantle the Master’s House” (presented at a 1979 conference commemorating the thirtieth anniversary of the publication of The Second Sex). It is argued that Lorde’s philosophy of difference complicates monolithic assumptions about “woman’s” oppression by insisting on attentiveness to other kinds of difference that coexist with gender. It is also argued that Lorde’s 1979 remarks and Jessica Benjamin’s reflections on Lorde more than two decades later (2000) offer a case study for problematic white feminist engagements with Black feminist thought and thinkers. When Black feminists and other Women of Color feminists request serious attentiveness to race, sexuality, class, and age within feminist discourse, white feminists often accuse us of being angry and/or divisive, and/or playing “identity politics.” This chapter also takes up the coining of the phrase “identity politics” in “The Combahee River Collective: A Black Feminist Statement” by Barbara Smith, Beverly Smith, and Demita Frazier, and the ways in which it has been misappropriated and strategically deployed against Black women and other Women of Color. Finally, it is argued that Lorde is attentive to her own insights in the organization of the I AM YOUR SISTER CONFERENCE (1990), which brought together 1200 activists from twenty-three countries—especially in the face of strong critiques.
Fruitfulness
Authors: Haufe Chris
Published: May 2024

Some ideas seem to possess a disproportionate ability to lead to new insights, new discoveries, new ideas, and even entirely new ways of thinking. Such ideas are said to be fruitful. Looking across the history of science and mathematics, we see creative minds preoccupied with the search for ideas of this kind. More precious than truth, fruitful ideas provide those in pursuit of knowledge with a seemingly bottomless well of innovation from which to draw as they attempt to solve new problems and to refine solutions to old ones. Professional researchers have a nose for these ideas. They often can see in an instant that some way of approaching a problem will eventually result in a solution to it and to a whole host of other problems, all of which suddenly seem related. This book explains how these ideas are detected and developed into large-scale frameworks for research. It argues for a philosophical perspective on scientific knowledge that places the search for fruitfulness at the heart of the scientific enterprise.
Fruitful Classification
Authors: Haufe Chris
Published: May 2024

This chapter develops a theme that emerges out of Poincaré’s discussions on fruitfulness—viz., the use of analogy. Building on his ideas, this chapter makes some general observations about the role of analogy in the art of classification. With the basic features of analogy in place, it describes a well-defined sequence in research practice in which research communities move from perceptually driven acts of classification to the more fiat-fueled ventures that have been emphasized throughout this book. It turns out that the latter have unwieldy cognitive effects that account for the emergent novelties that interested Kuhn, and much more besides. Not only that, they provide a single unifying explanation for many of the phenomena associated with scientific decision-making, such as its uniformity and simultaneity. The chapter concludes with some preliminary remarks on the next chapter’s topic of what it means for the use of certain analogies and metaphors to be justified.
Aptness and the Causal Role of Epistemic Virtues
Authors: Haufe Chris
Published: May 2024

The general arc of this chapter’s argument proceeds from the platitude that tasks often get easier as we get more familiar with them, and it ends with the stunning revelation that the aesthetic properties of theories/frames facilitate the structuring—and, thus, the solving—of research problems. The keystone of that arc is the observation that the ability to understand a metaphor is affected by that metaphor’s aptness: an unfamiliar but apt metaphor is processed with the same speed as a familiar metaphor. One’s facility with the use of a research frame is made possible by features that contribute to that frame’s aptness, even when one lacks the experience required to become familiar with it. Researchers can make epistemically warranted choices about frames without prior experience, because epistemic virtues are constituents of the aptness of a frame.
Punishment Theory Here and Now
Authors: Kolber Adam J.
Published: May 2024

In this chapter, Kolber introduces the book and outlines its key arguments. The book explores the moral justification, if any, of our punishment practices, particularly incarceration. While the traditional approach to justification arguably seeks the truth of some future, fully developed moral theory, Kolber seeks to assess our punishment practices “here” (meaning, in the real world) and “now” (meaning, today or close to it). Given the uncertainty that swirls around most moral claims today, we can’t expect anything so rock solid as truth. Instead, we will have to consider how confident we are in a proposed justification, along with how confident we need to be to act in accordance with its recommendations. Kolber argues that, in the here and now, a “pure consequentialist” approach to punishment—one that denies the intrinsic value of imposing deserved punishment—is superior to its most common competitor, “standard retributivism,” which affirms the intrinsic value of deserved punishment. If pure consequentialism ultimately proves to be not only superior but also adequate, then at least some punishment, including incarceration, is justified, at least for the near future.
Shortcut Consequentialism
Authors: Kolber Adam J.
Published: May 2024

Standard retributivism is quite incomplete relative to pure consequentialism even beyond axiological considerations. It has no here-and-now method to apply deontological rules, and, even if it did, it doesn’t tell us how to translate those rules into the legal system. Pure consequentialism is not only more comprehensive but has other superior theoretical virtues: it is more simple, elegant, and fruitful as a moral theory. Consequentialists usually achieve the best consequences by following simple, context-specific rules or strategies. These decision “shortcuts” help them cope with empirical uncertainty. They also make consequentialism seem more intuitive because there are often good consequentialist reasons to rely on conventional morality when empirical considerations are too complicated or hard to measure. Absent evidence that consequentialism has significantly worse fit with our moral intuitions, we ought to prefer the consequentialist view because of its superior theoretical virtues.
Countering Counterintuition
Authors: Kolber Adam J.
Published: May 2024

Pure consequentialism is less counterintuitive than often assumed. While many think consequentialists are embarrassed by cases in which innocent people are punished, Kolber argues that consequentialists manage these cases no worse than standard retributivists and probably far better. If so, the claim that consequentialism is too counterintuitive becomes a weak response to Kolber’s arguments that consequentialism has superior theoretical virtues in the here and now. When consequences become grave enough, most standard retributivists are willing to violate deontological constraints. Under the banner of “threshold deontology,” they would avoid the death of, say, a thousand people by knowingly punishing an innocent person. So the real debate among most theorists is about how bad consequences need to be before we can knowingly punish the innocent. Unlike consequentialists, however, threshold deontologists offer no solid theoretical grounds for selecting thresholds. Moreover, threshold deontology may effectively turn some standard retributivists into consequentialists because the worldwide effect of neglecting consequences could itself be viewed as a constant, ongoing catastrophe.
Against Proportionality
Authors: Kolber Adam J.
Published: May 2024

Two of retributivism’s defining features are its commitment to proportional punishment and its commitment to never deliberately punish in excess of what is proportional. When combined, these views lead to quite counterintuitive results. If we use the traditional definition of punishment that refers to intentional inflictions, Kolber argues, it’s not clear how to measure the severity of sentences. If we broaden punishment to consider harsh treatment more generally, then retributivism has very counterintuitive implications: for example, that we should generally incarcerate rich inmates for less time or in better conditions than poor inmates. So even if we somehow fulfilled eternal hopes of operationalizing proportionality, it would lose its intuitive appeal. While proportionality is often considered a great strength of retributivism, it may turn out to be its most serious weakness.
Sexual Behavior in Young Children
Authors: Hoffman Jeanne Swickard
Published: May 2024

Sexual behaviors and related challenges that come up in childhood as part of normal development can confound parents and cause anxiety. This chapter reviews such issues and makes suggestions for addressing both normal and problematic situations. Safety and sexual health are also discussed, with suggestions for how parents can best protect their children. Suggestions are offered for when to seek professional guidance.
Fostering Racial/Ethnic Identity
Authors: Williams Monnica , Faber Sonya
Published: May 2024

This chapter describes how parents can support the formation of a healthy, positive racial/ethnic identity in children and adolescents, including both youth of color and White youth. Ethnic identity is defined and the stages of ethnic identity development are described for minoritized and White individuals. Guidance for how parents can support healthy ethnoracial identity development are also discussed.
Bullying and Peer Victimization
Authors: Fite Paula J. , Cooley John L.
Published: May 2024

Although peer victimization is relatively common in childhood and adolescence, these experiences can be quite harmful to an individual. Often, parents and caregivers are unaware that peer victimization is occurring, and when they do know, it is difficult to know how to help. The current chapter focuses on describing the types of victimization that youth may experience, identifying characteristics that increase risk for victimization, reviewing the harmful outcomes that frequently occur as a result of peer victimization, describing the common locations where these incidents take place, and helping you as a parent recognize common warning signs of victimization. The authors also outline ways in which parents can intervene and support children who are experiencing peer victimization. It is hoped that this chapter will help parents understand and prevent peer victimization, as well as provide a road map for how to limit its harmful effects.
Raising Children to Be Activists
Authors: Talusan Liza A.
Published: May 2024

Children are always watching and learning from the adults around them and often imitate what they hear adults talking about and doing. They also observe when adults are silent and when they choose not to get involved in issues. If parents want to raise young people to engage in activism and to be change makers, the children must see adults getting involved in this work as well. In this chapter, the authors explore how adults, parents, and caregivers can build knowledge, engage in reflection, and move to action as they work with young people to see themselves as activists and change makers. This chapter guides parents and caregivers in developing the habits and skills for talking about difficult social issues and supporting the work of young people in their homes, peer groups, and communities.
Connecting with the School Community
Authors: Jackman Charmain F.
Published: May 2024

Starting a new school, new grade, or new school year often means that children will be engaging with new teachers or even a new school. While schools are responsible for teaching, there is also an expectation that parents will be actively involved in their children’s education. For some parents and caregivers, getting involved with their children’s school community is pretty easy, but for others, it may be more of a challenge. For example, some parents/caregivers find it difficult to actively engage with the school due to cultural values, family or work demands, or stress reactions connected to their own childhood experiences in school. This chapter will address ways that parents can partner with their children’s teachers, school leaders, and other parents/caregivers to ensure their children’s adjustment and overall success at school.
High School Graduation and Beyond
Authors: Feigenberg Luba Falk
Published: May 2024

It is normal for parents and teens to feel stress and anxiety about the transition from high school and into college. Managing expectations, providing emotional support, and respecting teens’ independence are helpful ways to relieve the pressure. It is important for parents to keep an open line of communication and be willing to listen and support their teens during this developmental milestone. Parents also need to pay attention to their own needs throughout the process.
Romantic Relationships
Authors: Davila Joanne , Bibby Emily S.
Published: May 2024

Adolescence is a time when teens may begin dating and engaging in their first romantic experiences, which can be an exciting but also a quite stressful time. This chapter provides tips on how parents can talk with their teenager about romantic relationships and sex, how to help with relationship problems, and what to do if one’s adolescent does not want to talk.
When Professional Help Is Needed
Authors: Cherry Marcus F.
Published: May 2024

Children and adolescents will encounter many developmental and situational stressors in the process of growing up. In many cases, parents and caregivers are the first to notice changes in their child’s behaviors, feelings, and thoughts. The purpose of this chapter is to provide parents a guide to understanding when their child may have behavioral, social, or emotional challenges that may warrant seeking professional help.
Preparing Your Child for Psychotherapy
Authors: Sterling Cheryl M. , Labay Larissa E.
Published: May 2024

When a child is struggling with an emotional issue and it is getting in the way of their happiness, their parent/caregiver may consider bringing them to see a psychotherapist. This chapter describes how parents can prepare their child for this experience. Younger children will wonder about different things than older children or adolescents, and they will all have questions. The authors discuss questions that children may have, depending on their ages, and offer suggestions for how to manage their expectations and those of their parents.
Introduction
Authors: Gazit Ofer
Published: May 2024

The introduction describes the growing numbers of migrant jazz musicians in New York since the 1990s, and how these musicians have confronted restricting and essentializing ways of listening. The chapter then turns to a theoretical discussion about the framing of immigrant musics around ethnic communities, showing how this framing reduces the interactions between migrant musicians and simplifies their complex musical lives. This sets up the main theoretical framework of the book: the notion of “musical borders,” and the way modes of listening reinforce ethnic boundaries and national borders. It then turns to debates about jazz as a global genre and as a vernacular African American music, and to how such debates are crucial to understanding the migrations of jazz musicians over the last decades. The chapter concludes with an overview of the chapters to follow.
The Loop
Authors: Gazit Ofer
Published: May 2024

This chapter examines the relationship between the academization of jazz education and its contribution to the proliferation of migrants in the New York jazz scene. Building on recent literature on the growing centrality of jazz schools in jazz training, the chapter follows the globalization of jazz education since the 1990s through case studies in India, Israel, and the Bronx. It documents efforts by American jazz programs to recruit international students and traces the role of schools as conduits for migrant musicians into the United States through the facilitation of visas and award of scholarships. It concludes with a discussion of the blurring of boundaries between educational institutions and performance venues, and of how such processes create an economic imbalance between studying, teaching, and performing jazz. The chapter argues that these processes have an important effect on the socioeconomic and racial makeup of the musician population in the New York jazz scene.
Is Time Travel Possible?
Authors: Bardon Adrian
Published: May 2024

The static theory of time treats temporal location a lot like spatial location. In accordance with contemporary physics, spacetime is treated in this theory as an unchanging four-dimensional block. Each temporal slice of the continuum is just as real as any other, just as any part of space is just as real as any other. Some might suggest that this means that travel to other parts of time should be possible, at least in theory, just as travel to other parts of space is possible. Thus an investigation of the possibility of time travel is at the same time an investigation of the implications of the static theory of time.
The Beginning of Time
Authors: Bardon Adrian
Published: May 2024

Did time itself begin, and will it end? Has the universe always been around, and will it one day cease to exist? What is the relationship between the beginning of the universe and the beginning of time? If the universe had a beginning, does that mean there was a time when it didn’t exist? Or did time begin when the universe did? Two very different research methodologies have been applied to addressing such issues. Relationists (represented by Aristotle and Leibniz) and idealists (represented by Kant) have each tried to use reason alone to work out the possibility of a beginning or end to time. Realists (represented by modern physical cosmologists) rely on empirical methodology, albeit supplemented by a lot of conjecture, in arriving at some ideas on the subject.
Christ the Emperor
Authors: Smolin Nathan Israel
Published: May 2024

This project focuses on the intersection of Roman Imperial politics and Christian theology in the 4th century AD. It contends that during this period, Christian theology became the principal realm in which political structure and theory were debated. Chapters 1 and 2 argue that the Emperor Constantine possessed a consistent theological viewpoint centered on justifying his legitimacy in religious terms, as a charismatic “Man of God” appointed by a monarchical deity to supreme rule. This theology in later stages was developed in dialogue with that of Eusebius of Caesarea, also profiled in Chapter 2, which posited a chain of monarchical powers extending from heaven to earth. Chapters 3 and 4 provide a narrative of the reign of Constantine’s son Constantius II, whose interventions focused on the urgent need to repair the failing Constantinian Settlement and justify his rule against dynastic and episcopal rivals. The final two chapters focus on the development, by an alliance of bishops including Lucifer of Cagliari and Hilary of Poitiers, of a consensus “Nicene” political theology centered on the assertion of equality among divine and human persons and a theory of legitimacy whereby bishops, not Emperors, represented the divine in human society. As described in the Epilogue, this conflict ultimately gave way to a more collaborative settlement under Theodosius I, requiring the Emperor to construct his legitimacy not as a privileged agent within a fixed cosmic order, but as a holder of essentially temporary, “secular” power within the structures and rituals of the Christian Church.
Introduction
Authors: Smolin Nathan Israel
Published: May 2024

In the Introduction, the goal of the study as a whole is set out: to demonstrate the close, inextricable links between theology and politics in the 4th century Roman Empire. While politics has never been value-neutral at any time, this was true in a special way in this period, when political discourse and theory was normatively carried out in and with reference to theological texts and topics. Three ways are explicated by which divinity and politics are related to each other within 4th century texts: rhetorical, cosmic, and metaphysical. The study as a whole is situated within the general trends of Constantinian studies, in contrast to both portrayals of an unimpeachably “secular” Constantine and portrayals of an unproblematically “religious” Constantine. Finally, the continuing relevance of 4th century theology and politics to contemporary society is argued for with reference to the careers of Carl Schmitt, Erik Peterson, and Pope Benedict XVI.
Geopolitics All Around
Authors: Toal Gerard
Published: May 2024

This chapter elaborates on the concept and history of geopolitics across the world. It discusses a conceptual framework concerning the relationship between geopolitical practice and the climate crisis. Geopolitics addresses what people on the Earth have created, and what people and Earth make together. The chapter then presents four understandings of geopolitics by referencing the theories and works of several prominent figures, including Rudolf Kjellén, Friedrich Ratzel, and Henry Kissinger. It explains how the contemporary climate emergency has provoked new forms of critical geopolitical thinking while also prompting renewed interest among prominent intellectuals in the history and meaning of geopolitics.
Making Geopolitics Critical
Authors: Toal Gerard
Published: May 2024

This chapter tackles the earthly dimension of politics and international relations. It also discusses the correlation between human territoriality and the imperial making of the modern world. Halford Mackinder's ideas are reformulated as critical tools to analyze geopolitics as territorial politics to further the understanding of its relation to the climate crisis. Additionally, European overseas expansionism created a worldwide geopolitical field that grew in thickness and density of flows as time passed and forms of capitalist production intensified. The chapter explains how capitalism doubles as a description of modernity and a condition of space-time compression. It mentions that spatial revolutions are enabled by transformative changes in modes of production, transportation, communication, and destruction.
Missions and Emissions
Authors: Toal Gerard
Published: May 2024

This chapter covers the entanglement of the geopolitical cultures of world powers and geo-ecological materialities. It explains that world powers are characterized by visions of their exceptionality, greatness, and mission in world affairs. The United States adopted an anti-communist missionary role after World War II at the same time as it was the vanguard of a carbon-polluting modernity. The entwinement of missions and emissions raise profound questions about the sustainability of liberal notions of freedom and peace, which tacitly naturalize growth without end. The chapter discusses how Vladimir Putin’s missionary visions resulted in his invasion of Ukraine, and then examines the missionary attitude of Euro-Atlantic powers.
Norm Violations and Punishment Beyond the Nation-State
Authors: Wagner Wolfgang , Durmuşoğlu Linet R. , Holá Barbora , Kroeze Ronald , van Prooijen Jan-Willem , Werner Wouter G.
Published: May 2024

Punitive practices are highly revealing of a society’s social fabric, normative order, and power structure. However, the social sciences and humanities have hitherto studied punishment mostly in the context of the nation-state by examining how people, organizations, and legal institutions punish individual offenders within national boundaries. In contrast, this chapter examines punitive practices of international society, where punitive practices have assumed three main forms: sanctions, international courts and tribunals, and the punitive use of armed force. A punitive lens on international affairs contributes to the understanding of international society in three ways: It identifies which norms and values are at the core of the international order and its conception of justice, it helps identify structures of power and authority in international society, and an analysis of the penal philosophies that buttress the punitive enforcement of norms points to the potential for conflict and cooperation in international society.
A Social Psychological Approach to Punishment
Authors: Gollwitzer Mario , de Vel-Palumbo Melissa , Fischer Moritz , Twardawski Mathias
Published: May 2024

This chapter discusses whether and to what extent social psychological theories and research findings on punishment between individuals and/or groups can be transferred to punitive acts in international politics. The chapter first distinguishes different types of punishment (e.g., second- vs. third-party punishment) and reviews their relevance for punitive acts in the political context. It then discusses research findings on goals and motives that individuals pursue when punishing other people and the question of whether states (and other relevant actors in international politics) pursue similar goals/motives when sanctioning other states, nations, or political groups. The chapter also considers the relevance of cultural factors (i.e., culture of honor norms) and restorative justice procedures for the aftermath of conflicts in the political arena. It is concluded that social psychology offers an informative and fruitful perspective on punishment in international politics.
The Fruits of Wrongdoing in International Law
Authors: Neff Stephen C.
Published: May 2024

There are three basic perspectives on consequences of norm violations in international law: the compensatory, the utilitarian, and the punitive. The principal one is compensatory, in which the purpose is to make the injured party whole. This was an important feature of medieval just-war doctrine, and it is seen at its clearest in the original medieval practice of reprisals. It remains at the core of the modern law as the principle of reparation. The utilitarian approach is oriented toward inducing the norm-violating party to alter its conduct and thereby is essentially rehabilitative in nature. Its clearest manifestation is in the 19th-century reprisal practice, which is the direct ancestor of the contemporary law of countermeasures. Least prominent of the three approaches has been the punitive one. Post-medieval just-war doctrine provided for punitive wars, although actual examples are few. Modern international law takes a principled stand against punitivity, although there are some indications that that could change in the future.