bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Quicker Quotients and Pleasing Products: Multiply and Divide by Specific Numbers
Authors: Lipscombe Trevor Davis
Published: May 2021

This chapter provides methods to multiply or divide swiftly by numbers up to 1,001. It includes a discussion of divisibility by seven, as well as conversions between units, such as Celsius to Fahrenheit for temperature; miles per hour to kilometers per second for speed; and bushels, gallons, and firkins to liters. More practical conversions include yards to centimeters, and square inches to square centimeters, illustrated by calculating the area of US book jackets. It also introduces happy numbers and Mersenne primes, and presents a number of worked examples showing the power of rapid multiplications when calculating the atomic weights of various organic molecules.
Calculations with Constraints: Multiply and Divide by Numbers with Specific Properties
Authors: Lipscombe Trevor Davis
Published: May 2021

This chapter presents the techniques need to multiply or divide two numbers that have a particular property. It also introduces concepts such as twin primes and powerful numbers, and shows the classic proof that there are infinitely many primes. Applications include the size of sheets of paper, the radioactivity of bananas, the dimensions of a rugby union playing field, and the units of time and length proposed by Thomas Jefferson. The methods shown here apply mostly to numbers below, or slightly above 100. As they depend on properties of numbers, there is a need to employ pattern-spotting skills; some hints are provided.
Interlude IV
Authors: Lipscombe Trevor Davis
Published: May 2021

There are nine and sixty ways of constructing tribal lays, And every single one of them is right!

RUDYARD KIPLING, “In the Neolithic Age”

There are 10 types of people in the world: those who understand binary and those who don’t.

Popular mathematics T-shirt slogan...
Experiential Pluralism and Mental Kinds
Authors: Spener Maja
Published: May 2021

This paper offers a new argument in favour of experiential pluralism about visual experience—the view that the nature of successful visual experience is different from the nature of unsuccessful visual experience. The argument appeals to the role of experience in explaining possession of ordinary abilities. In addition, the paper makes a methodological point about philosophical debates concerning the nature of perceptual experience: whether a given view about the nature of experience amounts to an interesting and substantive thesis about our own minds depends on the significance of the psychological kind claim made by it. This means that an adequate defence of a given view of the nature of experience must include articulation of the latter’s significance qua psychological kind. The argument advanced provides the material to meet this demand. In turn, this constitutes further support for the argument itself.
Wading in the Shallows
Authors: Noordhof Paul
Published: May 2021

One understanding of naturalism about perception allows that results in the sciences bearing on the senses may have an impact upon philosophical theorizing on perception. Its opponents reject or, at least, are much more wary about this possibility. I consider two cases: the implications of prediction error theories for naïve realism and the latest empirical research on cross modal illusions, and taste, for the traditional division of the senses into five. Although in neither case are the implications straightforward, I argue that there is a tension in the first case, relating to naïve realism, given the structure of the debate against representationalism, what naïve realists say about hallucination, and assertion of the significant differences between perception and cognition. In the second, the conflict is avoided by recognizing distinctive features of how senses are integrated and realized, and a new personal level of explanation.
Magnetic Sans of Bulk Ferromagnets
Authors: Michels Andreas
Published: May 2021

In chapter 4 we use the results for the Fourier components to compute the unpolarized and spin-polarized SANS cross sections. These expressions serve to highlight certain features of magnetic SANS such as the role of the magnetodipolar and Dzyaloshinskii-Moriya interaction, and are then applied to analyze experimental SANS data on various bulk magnetic materials such as soft and hard magnetic nanocomposites. Furthermore, this chapter contains discussions on the magnetic Guinier law and on the asymptotic power-law exponents found in magnetic SANS experiments, as well as two sections summarizing magnetic SANS results on nanocrystalline rare-earth metals in the paramagnetic temperature regime and on dislocations.
Magnetic Sans of Nanoparticles and Complex Systems
Authors: Michels Andreas
Published: May 2021

This chapter provides an overview on the magnetic SANS of nanoparticles and complex systems, which include ferrofluids, magnetic steels, and spin glasses and amorphous magnets. The underlying assumptions of the conventional particle-matrix-based model of magnetic SANS, which assumes uniformly magnetized domains, characteristic e.g., for superparamagnets, are discussed and we provide a complete specification of the micromagnetic boundary-value problem. First attempts to provide analytical expressions for the vortex-state-related magnetic SANS of thin circular discs are considered.
All Masters
Authors: Firnhaber-Baker Justine
Published: May 2021

This chapter looks at the causes and methods behind the Jacquerie’s sudden emergence after 28 May. The massacre at Saint-Leu-d’Esserent was a watershed moment that enabled the rapid transformation of latent resentments into large-scale, violent rebellion. Due both to recent military developments and economic dislocation connected with the Black Death, rural commoners in northern France were experiencing a crisis of the ‘moral economy’ severe enough to make some of them undertake previously unimagined action. But immediate mobilization required previous preparation. As sociologists have demonstrated, rebellion is not a process that happens by chance even if it is made possible by opportunity. It appears that the Jacquerie’s leaders were able to take advantage of pre-existing efforts to ready the countryside’s defences, as well as social and professional networks among commoners in the Beauvaisis. By 31 May, the rebellion was sufficiently organized to capture a traitor and transfer him to a local captain elsewhere who carried out a public execution attended by hundreds of witnesses. The story of this ‘traitor’ is indicative of the kinds of relationships that facilitated the revolt’s almost instantaneous mobilization, as well as the individual and accidental trajectories that led people to join or to eschew the Jacquerie, and how their paths might change over time.
Traffic Networks: Wardrop Equilibrium and Braess’ Paradox
Authors: Zverovich Vadim
Published: May 2021

The well-known Braess’ paradox illustrates situations when adding a new link to a transport network might lead to an equilibrium state in which travel times of users will increase. Here, Braess’ paradox and the equilibrium state are analysed in the classical network configuration introduced by Braess in 1968. This network configuration is of fundamental significance because Valiant and Roughgarden showed in 2006 that ‘the “global” behaviour of an equilibrium flow in a large random network is similar to that in Braess’ original four-node example. Moreover, the probability of Braess’ paradox occurring in the classical network configuration will be studied, with particular emphasis on the Erlang distribution of parameters of the travel time function. This distribution is important in the context of traffic networks. However, other distributions will be analysed as well because Braess’ paradox can be observed in various applied contexts such as telecommunication networks and power transmission networks.
Graph Models for Optimization Problems in Road Networks
Authors: Zverovich Vadim
Published: May 2021

Here two applications of graph theory are considered. The first is devoted to pedestrian safety, and the focus is on pedestrian safety in urban areas with respect to pedestrian-vehicle crashes. In particular, an algorithm for automated construction of a graph model for pavement networks is discussed. Then, an algorithm for finding a user-optimal path in a given pavement network is presented. This algorithm is based on three criteria: path safety, distance, and path complexity. The second part of this chapter is devoted to optimizing the placement of charging stations for electric vehicles in road networks. The placement of charging stations in road networks is modelled as a multiple domination problem on reachability graphs. This model takes into account a threshold for the remaining battery charge and provides some minimal choice for a travel direction to recharge the battery. Experimental evaluation and simulations for the proposed facility location model are given for real road networks of the cities of Boston and Dublin.
Staying Ahead, Falling Behind
Authors: Johnston Jean-Michel
Published: May 2021

This chapter details the efforts of states to provide a ubiquitous telegraph service during the 1860s, and the tensions which emerged between the growing numbers of people and places competing for access to the network. Government intervention increased during this period, as secondary branches were built to cater to the needs of towns dispersed across territories and engaged in different economic sectors, and the implantation of foreign news agencies on German soil, Reuters in particular, was restricted. Increasing traffic on the lines led states to manage their networks as ‘organisms’, distinguishing between larger and smaller arteries of communication, placing certain users ahead of others in the exchange of telegrams. The promise that telegraphy would ‘annihilate space’ often remained unfulfilled as a result, however, and delays in communication caused divisions even within the privileged class of telegraph users. Within towns, moreover, the growing social diversity of these users made the positioning of telegraph offices increasingly contentious, as the members of the middle class engaged in finance, trade, and industry occupied different sites within the urban landscape and faced the prospect of delayed telegram deliveries. This section also considers the role of telegraphy in the changing geopolitical context of the 1860s, and how the technology’s impact upon events was represented in Kladderadatsch, as well as the role of the German entrepreneur Werner Siemens in the emerging field of global submarine telegraphy.
Dear Prudence
Authors: Fletcher Guy
Published: May 2021

Philosophers have long theorized about which things make people’s lives go well, and why, and the extent to which morality and self-interest can be reconciled. By contrast, we have spent little time on meta-prudential questions, questions about prudential discourse (thought and talk about what is, e.g., good and bad for us, what contributes to well-being, and what we have prudential reason, or prudentially ought, to do). This situation is surprising. Prudential discourse is, prima facie, a normative form of discourse and cries out for further investigation of what it is like and whether it has problematic commitments. It also marks a stark contrast from moral discourse, about which there has been extensive theorizing in metaethics. This book has three broad aims. First, to explore the nature of prudential discourse. Second, to argue that prudential discourse is normative and authoritative, like moral discourse. Third, to show that prudential discourse is worthy of further, explicit, attention both due to its intrinsic interest but also for the light it can shed on the meta-normative more broadly.
Prudence as a System of Categorical Imperatives
Authors: Fletcher Guy
Published: May 2021

This chapter examines whether there are prudential reasons. After clarifying the nature of prudential reasons (what it would take for there to be such reasons) it examines, and rejects, various positions that entail the denial of the existence of prudential reasons. These include forms of nihilism about prudential value, the view that all reasons are agent-neutral, and (its most pressing opponent) the view that all reasons are Humean, or fundamentally desire-based, in nature. The chapter aims to establish the following thesis: Prudential Value Matters (PVM) — Evaluative prudential facts generate directive prudential facts (including facts about prudential, normative, reasons for action and for attitudes).
Prudential Language and Context (I)
Authors: Fletcher Guy
Published: May 2021

This chapter examines evaluative prudential language (good for etc.) and directive prudential language (ought, must, needs etc.) and argues for forms of contextualism about each of these types of language. In the case of ‘good for’ talk, it shows how recent work by Steve Finlay (2014) on the context-sensitivity of ‘good’ supplies a plausible theory of ‘good for’. It then moves on ‘needs’ talk, showing how work on deontic modals from, and inspired by, Angelika Kratzer (1977) can be applied in a way that illuminates how ‘needs’, and the like, function in prudential contexts.
Memory Effects as a Source of Bias in Repeated Survey Measurement
Authors: Rettig Tobias , Blom Annelies G.
Published: May 2021

A key advantage of longitudinal data collections is the ability to measure change over time by repeatedly asking the same questions to the same respondents. Estimations based on such longitudinal data, as well as other designs that incorporate repetitions of the same questions, generally rely on the assumption that at each point of data collection, respondents answer the questions independently of their previous responses. This assumption implies that respondents either do not remember their previous responses, or that they at least do not use this information in forming their later responses. This is a strong assumption, given that data collections are becoming more and more frequent, giving respondents less time to forget earlier responses. If respondents do, however, remember both being asked the same question and their previous response, they may be influenced by this information. This form of bias is known as a memory effect. In this chapter, we conceptualize the potential role of respondents’ memory when answering survey questions and propose a model of the cognitive response process that takes potential memory effects into account. This is supplemented with the literature on the cognitive response process, the sparse existing research on memory effects, as well as adjacent literature on dependent interviewing and question order effects. We conclude the chapter by identifying gaps in this literature and highlighting areas that require additional research to further our understanding of memory effects in longitudinal survey research.
A Longitudinal Error Framework to Support the Design and Use of Integrated Datasets
Authors: Blackwell Louisa , Rogers Nicola Jane
Published: May 2021

This chapter aims to contribute to the evolving literature on the use of administrative data for statistical purposes. It describes two frameworks for understanding statistical error. The first applies to single administrative sources that may be longitudinal in nature. The second applies to multiple sources that have been longitudinally linked. These frameworks support statistical design and the evaluation of administrative data quality. They may also support the construction of population estimates based on administrative data and possibly survey data in countries that do not have population registers. The frameworks were applied in the transformation of the population and migration statistics system at the UK Office for National Statistics. The chapter draws a distinction between operational and statistical data quality, demonstrating the tensions that can exist between these distinct uses of the same information.
Assessing and Relaxing Assumptions in Quasi-Simplex Models
Authors: Cernat Alexandru , Lugtig Peter , Watson Nicole , Uhrig S.C. Noah
Published: May 2021

The quasi-simplex model (QSM) makes use of at least three repeated measures of the same variable to estimate reliability. The model has rather strict assumptions and ignoring them may bias estimates of reliability. While some previous studies have outlined how several of its assumptions can be relaxed, they have not been exhaustive and systematic. Thus, it is unclear what all the assumptions are and how to test and free them in practice. This chapter will addresses this situation by presenting the main assumptions of the quasi-simplex model and the ways in which users can relax these with relative ease when more than three waves are available. Additionally, by using data from the British Household Panel Survey we show how this is practically done and highlight the potential biases found when ignoring the violations of the assumptions. We conclude that relaxing the assumptions should be implemented routinely when more than three waves of data are available.
Modelling Error Dependence in Categorical Longitudinal Data
Authors: Pavlopoulos Dimitris , Pankowska Paulina , Bakker Bart , Oberski Daniel
Published: May 2021

Hidden Markov models (HMMs) offer an attractive way of accounting and correcting for measurement error in longitudinal data as they do not require the use of a ‘gold standard’ data source as a benchmark. However, while the standard HMM assumes the errors to be independent or random, some common situations in survey and register data cause measurement error to be systematic. HMMs can correct for systematic error as well if the local independence assumption is relaxed. In this chapter, we present several (mixed) HMMs that relax this assumption with the use of two independent indicators for the variable of interest. Finally, we illustrate the results of some of these HMMs with the use of an example of employment mobility. For this purpose, we use linked survey-register data from the Netherlands.
On Total Least Squares Estimation for Longitudinal Errors-in-Variables Models
Authors: Ahmad Rauf , Zwanzig Silvelyn
Published: May 2021

The objective of this study is to evaluate the total least squares (TLS) estimator for the linear mixed model when the design matrix is subject to measurement errors, with special focus on models for longitudinal or repeated-measures data. We consider measurement errors only in the design matrix concerning the fixed part of the model and estimate its corresponding parameter vector under the TLS set up. After treating two variants of the general case, the random coefficient model is discussed as a special case. We evaluate conditions, on the design matrices as well as on variance component parameters, under which a reasonable TLS estimator can be expected in such models. Analysis of a real data example is also provided.
Byzantine Religious Law in Medieval Italy
Authors: Morton James
Published: May 2021

This book is a historical study of these manuscripts, exploring how and why the Greek Christians of medieval southern Italy persisted in using them so long after the end of Byzantine rule. Southern Italy was conquered by the Norman Hauteville dynasty in the late eleventh century after over 500 years of continuous Byzantine rule. At a stroke, the region’s Greek Christian inhabitants were cut off from their Orthodox compatriots in Byzantium and became subject to the spiritual and legal jurisdiction of the Roman Catholic popes. Nonetheless, they continued to follow the religious laws of the Byzantine church; out of thirty-six surviving manuscripts of Byzantine canon law produced between the tenth and fourteenth centuries, the majority date to the centuries after the Norman conquest. Part I provides an overview of the source material and the history of Italo-Greek Christianity. Part II examines the development of Italo-Greek canon law manuscripts from the last century of Byzantine rule to the late twelfth century, arguing that the Normans’ opposition to papal authority created a laissez faire atmosphere in which Greek Christians could continue to follow Byzantine religious law unchallenged. Finally, Part III analyses the papacy’s successful efforts to assert its jurisdiction over southern Italy in the later Middle Ages. While this brought about the end of Byzantine canon law as an effective legal system in the region, the Italo-Greeks still drew on their legal heritage to explain and justify their distinctive religious rites to their Latin neighbours.
Introducing the Byzantine Nomocanon
Authors: Morton James
Published: May 2021

Chapter 1 introduces the reader to the nomocanon, a type of Byzantine manuscript that serves as the primary source material for the book. Nomocanons are largely unknown among Byzantinists and medievalists, so this chapter explains the basic facts of what they are, how they are designed, and why they are historically significant. Beginning with the emergence of the corpus of Byzantine canon law in Late Antiquity, it outlines the development of the texts from the first systematic collections in the sixth century to the great Byzantine canonists of the twelfth century (Aristenos, Zonaras, and Balsamon). The chapter then describes the typical content and structure of a nomocanon, discussing the example of the eleventh-/twelfth-century manuscript BN II C 4. It closes with a discussion of the material and aesthetic qualities of nomocanons, arguing for the importance of studying the manuscripts not just as sources for textual editions but also as artefacts of specific socio-historical contexts.
Monastic Nomocanons I
Authors: Morton James
Published: May 2021

Chapter 5 explores how, following the restoration of relative peace and stability after the Norman conquest, several newly founded and important Italo-Greek monasteries developed their own independent legal jurisdictions on their own property. The chapter argues that the Normans’ opposition to papal and episcopal interference created a laissez-faire atmosphere in which Italo-Greek monks could continue to follow Byzantine canon law. Many such monasteries enjoyed the patronage of the Norman nobility throughout the late eleventh and twelfth centuries. These monasteries were responsible for producing the majority of surviving nomocanons from medieval southern Italy. It divides them into two broad categories: the royal archimandritates (monastic federations) of Rossano and Messina; and lesser archimandritates and autodespotic (independent) monasteries such as SS Elias and Anastasios of Carbone and St Nicholas of Casole. It observes that the production of a monastic nomocanon was closely linked to a monastery’s acquisition of legal privileges from the kings of Sicily, indicating that they were produced to meet a practical legal need and not simply out of academic curiosity. Lastly, the chapter asks how Italo-Greek monks under Norman rule perceived their relationship to papal jurisdiction, using the examples of Bartholomew of Grottaferrata’s comments on papal legislation and Neilos Doxapatres’ work on the Order of the Patriarchal Thrones to show that they still felt themselves to be a part of the legal sphere of the Patriarchate of Constantinople.
The Secular Church and the Laity
Authors: Morton James
Published: May 2021

Chapter 7 examines the surviving evidence for nomocanon use among the secular (i.e. non-monastic) church and lay officials under Norman rule. While far fewer manuscripts survive from these circles than from monasteries, it is nonetheless clear that nomocanons continued to be used not only by Greek bishops but even by lay judges and notaries. The chapter begins with an examination of the Italo-Greek episcopate, highlighting the significance of the bishop’s judicial role in the Byzantine church and the lack of evidence for any kind of influence of Latin canon law on the nomocanons of Greek bishops of southern Italy in the twelfth century. It then discusses two fascinating twelfth-century nomocanons: the Epitome Marciana from southern Calabria and the ‘Nomocanon of Doxapatres’ from Rossano. The manuscripts provide decisive evidence that Greek lay judges in the Norman kingdom played a role in the administration of ecclesiastical justice, relying entirely on Byzantine legal sources. In some cases, as in Rossano, Greek aristocratic families would dominate both the archiepiscopal and civil judicial offices, with the result that the family would possess multiple manuscripts of Byzantine civil and canon law.
The Papacy Takes Charge
Authors: Morton James
Published: May 2021

Chapter 8 moves from the Norman kingdom of the twelfth century to the newly changed situation in the early thirteenth century, as the demise of the Hauteville dynasty and the minority of the young king Frederick II Hohenstaufen (r. 1198–1250) created an opportunity for Pope Innocent III (r. 1198–1216) and his successors to enforce their authority in southern Italy. Meanwhile, the Latin conquest of Constantinople in the Fourth Crusade (1204) created an imperative for the papacy to develop a coherent policy towards the integration of Greek Christians into the Roman church’s administrative and legal structures. The chapter discusses how the papacy formulated this policy at the Fourth Lateran Council (1215) and the resulting increase in papal interventions in the legal affairs of the southern Italian Greeks. It then looks at Pope Honorius III’s (r. 1216–1227) short-lived effort to organise Byzantine-rite monasteries into an Order of St Basil under Grottaferrata (a predecessor to Eugenius IV’s more successful fifteenth-century order). It examines the Grottaferrata Nomocanon (Marc. gr. 171), a manuscript produced at the monastery in c. 1220–1230 that was apparently intended to provide a legal guide for the new order yet was still entirely Byzantine in character. The chapter finishes by focusing on the conflict between the Holy Saviour monastery of Messina and the papacy in the 1220s–1230s as an important example of the papacy’s efforts to bring the royal monasteries of the Kingdom of Sicily under episcopal control.
The Sampling Programme and the Measurement and Description of Dispersion
Authors: Henderson Peter A.
Published: May 2021

The steps required during the planning of a sampling campaign are described. The time of sampling within the life-cycle, the size of the sampling unit, number of samples, and distribution of the samples is discussed. Statistical aspects of sample design are introduced, including the normal distribution, the negative binomial distribution and species dispersal, Taylor’s power law, and aggregation indices. Pattern analysis, SADIE spatial analysis, and crowding indices are described. Nearest-neighbour and closest-neighbour techniques to estimate population density are reviewed. Sequential sampling methodologies and software are described. Presence–absence sampling and binomial data analysis are described.
Absolute Population Estimates Using Capture–Recapture Experiments
Authors: Henderson Peter A.
Published: May 2021

The main methods used to estimate population size using capture–recapture for both closed and open populations are described, including the Peterson–Lincoln estimator, the Schabel census, Bailey’s triple catch, the Jolly–Seber stochastic method, and Cormack’s log-linear method. The robust design approach is described. R code listings for commonly used packages are presented. The assumptions common to capture–recapture methods are reviewed, and tests for assumptions such as equal catchability described. The use of programs to select model assumptions are described. The main methods for marking different animal groups are described, together with the use of natural marks and parasites and DNA. Marking methods include paint marks, dyes, tagging, protein marking, DNA, natural marks, tattooing, and mutilation. Methods for handling and release are described.
Absolute Population Estimates by Sampling a Unit of Soil or Litter Habitat: Extraction Techniques
Authors: Henderson Peter A.
Published: May 2021

Quantitative methods for taking sediment, soil, and litter samples, together with the different approaches and apparatus to extract the animals, are described. Mechanical methods discussed include wet and dry sieving, flotation, and elutriation. Behavioural or dynamic methods such as Berlese and Baermann funnels are described. Chemical and electrical methods to drive animals from cover are described, and the efficiency of the different extraction techniques is reviewed.
Observational and Experimental Methods to Estimate Natality, Mortality, Movement, and Dispersal
Authors: Henderson Peter A.
Published: May 2021

This chapter describes the methods of directly quantifying the various processes that produce population change, natality, fertility, mortality, and dispersal. Natality is the number of births, fertility is the number of viable eggs laid by a female, and fecundity is a measure of the total egg production. The measurement of fecundity in various animal groups is reviewed. Stock-recruitment relationships used in fisheries research and the Moron–Ricker curve are described. The analysis of mortality within a generation is discussed, and apparent, real, and indispensable mortality defined. The term ‘dispersal’ covers any movement away from the initial locality, to define neighbourhood dispersal for the process by which individuals migrate into and via adjacent areas, and jump dispersal for longer-distance dispersal where individuals are transported or purposively move quickly to a new area. The determination of the home range or territory of an individual or, for social animals, a colony, is described.
Techniques for the Study of Long-Term Dynamics: Analyzing Time Series
Authors: Henderson Peter A.
Published: May 2021

The definition of ‘long-term’ requires reference to the generation time and the scale over which environmental variation of interest operates. A long-term (large temporal scale) population study of an annually reproducing insect would be expected to include annual population estimates over at least ten years. An equivalent study of an amoeba, which can reproduce daily, might be completed in a few weeks. However, if the focus of a long-term study is the role of seasonal variation in determining population number, then it is likely that a study will need at least twenty-five years of data, irrespective of the size of the organism and the generation time. This chapter reviews a range of time series analytical techniques and presents R code listings for measuring synchrony and species associations, detecting break-points in time series and measuring community stability. Statistical methods to assess if a species has gone extinct are described. Techniques for detecting density dependence in time series are reviewed. Temporal β-diversity is defined as the shift in the identities and/or the abundances of named taxa in a specified assemblage over two or more time points. The measurement of temporal β-diversity is discussed. Numerous R code listings are presented.
Roots
Authors: Meron Theodor
Published: May 2021

This chapter provides a brief biography of the author and his road to Judgeship. Being a Judge allowed him to put into practice his commitment to accountability, rule of law and due process. The chapter then sketches out the contours of international criminal justice. International criminal courts, in many ways, resemble criminal courts in national jurisdictions around the world. They weigh evidence, follow due process, ensure the parties are heard and apply and abide by the law and respect human rights. At the same time, international criminal courts—and the cases they hear—are extraordinary. Because of their unique role and the nature of the crimes charged, international criminal courts are also often seen as something more than criminal courts. Their judgements are sometimes expected to be definitive histories of the conflict.
Moving from Nuremberg to The Hague
Authors: Meron Theodor
Published: May 2021

This chapter examines how, appalled by the glaring impunity for gross violations of international humanitarian law committed in the course of the Yugoslavia fragmentation wars in the early 1990s, the author was among those who called for the establishment of a war crimes tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. A war crimes tribunal, sought by the U.N. Security Council, would be the first since the Nuremberg and Far East trials following World War II. The chapter then looks at the inadequacy of international humanitarian and criminal law recognized as applicable to non-international armed conflicts, focusing on the case of rape. It considers the establishment of the modern international criminal tribunals at The Hague and Arusha. The chapter also studies the ICTY, the ICTR and the International Criminal Court (ICC).
Judicial Independence and Impartiality
Authors: Meron Theodor
Published: May 2021

This chapter focuses on national and international concepts of judicial independence and impartiality. As the Bologna and Milan Global Code of Judicial Ethics (2015) makes clear, judicial independence requires that Judges be independent of the legislative and executive branches of the government. Clearly, international Judges must be entirely independent of both governments and international organizations in the performance of their judicial duties. And they must be impartial and avoid any conduct which might give an appearance of partiality; they must not sit on any case where there is a reasonable suspicion or appearance of partiality, and must treat the parties equally, with no partiality or prejudice, with no fear or favor. In international criminal tribunals, this requires treating equally the prosecution and the accused. The chapter then discusses judicial selection, judicial assignments, Court Presidents and judicial bias.
Judicial Decision-Making and Deliberations
Authors: Meron Theodor
Published: May 2021

This chapter assesses judicial decision-making and deliberations. The success of international criminal courts depends in no small part on the transparency of proceedings and reasoning of the judgements. Transparency is essential to building public confidence in the fair administration of justice. It also serves as an important safeguard against judicial arbitrariness and helps to ensure not only the fairness of the proceedings but the independence and impartiality of the Bench. This commitment to transparency in court proceedings is not absolute, however. It is limited by other factors, such as the importance of protecting witnesses and victims and the requirement that certain information be kept confidential. The chapter looks at the process of decision-making in the ICTY, ICTR, and the Mechanism. It draws attention to four specific issues: the uniqueness of the tribunals and the impact of their special status on decision-making; the diversity of decision-makers at the tribunals; the diverse backgrounds of the tribunals’ Judges and staff; and the process of decision-making.
The Road Ahead
Authors: Meron Theodor
Published: May 2021

This chapter assesses whether international justice works. When the ICTY was established by the U.N. Security Council in 1993, followed by the establishment of the ICTR in 1994, to try individuals accused of war crimes, crimes against humanity and genocide (atrocity crimes), it marked in many ways a turning point in international law and relations. In the years that followed, the ICTY and the ICTR demonstrated in concrete terms that accountability for international crimes was possible, in full compliance with norms of fairness and due process, and it showed practically how this could be done. Taking stock of all the developments since the establishment of the ICTY, there is much to be heartened by. However, the fact remains that there is a huge gap between the actual accountability efforts undertaken and the far larger number of individuals who are believed to be responsible for atrocity crimes.
Facing Epistemic Authorities
Authors: Grundmann Thomas
Published: May 2021

Disrespect for the truth, the rise of conspiracy thinking, and a pervasive distrust in experts are widespread features of the post-truth condition in current politics and public opinion. Among the many good explanations of these phenomena there is one that is only rarely discussed: that something is wrong with our deeply entrenched intellectual standards of (i) using our own critical thinking without any restriction and (ii) respecting the judgment of every rational agent as epistemically relevant. This chapter argues that these two Enlightenment principles—the Principle of Unrestricted Critical Thinking and the Principle of Democratic Reason—not only conflict with what is rationally required from a purely epistemic point of view, but also further the spread of conspiracy theories and undermine trust in experts. As a result, we should typically defer to experts without using any of our own reasons regarding the subject matter
How Vice Can Motivate Distrust in Elites and Trust in Fake News
Authors: Priest Maura
Published: May 2021

This chapter discusses the vices of epistemic insensitivity and epistemic obstruction in special relation to contemporary political divides and contemporary habits of media consumption. It argues that both vices threaten to worsen political and social divisions between self-identified conservatives on the one hand, and those that the said self-identified conservatives themselves identify as “elites,” “liberal elites,” “experts,” “progressives,” or, “the left.” In turn, this worsening divide worsens distrust in news sources associated with “the wrong” political perspective. Partisans can become increasingly suspect of all news sources outside of their own political bubble; the entrenchment of the aforementioned vices makes persons more and more likely to deem any source outside their bubble “fake news.”
Echo Chambers, Fake News, and Social Epistemology
Authors: Lackey Jennifer
Published: May 2021

A familiar criticism of Donald Trump is that, in watching only Fox News and similar news sources, he is creating a dangerous echo chamber for himself. Echo chambers are said to be responsible for a host of today’s problems, including the degradation of democracy. This diagnosis is fundamentally incorrect, and this chapter examines the two dominant explanations of the distinctively epistemic problem with echo chambers and shows that each is wanting. Echo chambers, by themselves, are not epistemically problematic. Echo chambers are characterized in purely structural terms, but what is needed to capture what is wrong with Trump’s exposure to only Fox News is content-sensitive. It is not that Trump is relying on a single source for news, but that he is relying on one that is unreliable. Finally, the chapter calls attention to the challenge of social media bots and the role of non-ideal social epistemology.
Fake News, False Beliefs, and the Fallible Art of Knowledge Maintenance
Authors: Gelfert Axel
Published: May 2021

The term ‘fake news’, it is argued in this chapter, captures a novel kind of social-epistemic dysfunction that arises from systemic distortions of established processes of creating, disseminating, and consuming news-like content. Navigating informational environments populated by fake news requires the cultivation of epistemic routines that reduce our exposure to misleading and deceptive information, while at the same time continuing to allow us to partake in the collective growth of knowledge. Shifting the focus to epistemic routines steers a middle path between two frequently encountered dichotomous responses to the problem of fake news: viz., between emphasizing the individual’s responsibility to ‘think critically and check one’s sources’ and advocating technological tweaks (such as automated fact-checking). While epistemic agents ought to be held responsible for the epistemic routines they commit themselves to, there is also a collective need for making the predictable effects of such choices transparent to individuals, wherever technologically possible.
Romance Object Clitics
Authors: Pescarini Diego
Published: May 2021

This book focuses on the evolution of object clitic pronouns in the Romance languages. It aims to explore the empirical facets of cliticization and elaborate on the theoretical ramifications of the topic. On the empirical side, the book deals with data ranging from Latin to modern languages and less well-known dialects from all areas of Romance. Medieval vernaculars take centre stage both in the reconstruction of the evolution from Latin to Romance and in the modelling of clitic placement in the modern languages. Syntactic, phonological, and morphological aspects are examined, but the main focus is on syntactic placement, which is the hallmark of Romance clitics. On the theoretical side, the books engage with the previous literature, in particular with Generative literature. In recent decades, our understanding of Romance clitics has grown in symbiosis with the Generative theory, and the importance of most empirical findings cannot be fully appreciated without being acquainted with the terms of the ongoing debate. The book challenges the received idea that cliticization resulted from a form of syntactic deficiency. Instead, it proposes that clitics resulted from the feature endowment of discourse features, which caused freezing of certain pronominal forms first and—through reanalysis—their successive incorporation into verbal hosts. This approach entails revising analyses of well-known phenomena such as interpolation, climbing, and enclisis/proclisis alternations (the so-called Tobler-Mussafia law), and addressing orthogonal phenomena such as V2 syntax, scrambling, and stylistic fronting.
Syntactic evidence against deficiency
Authors: Pescarini Diego
Published: May 2021

The chapter revolves around the notion of deficiency. It is a widely held view that clitics do not have the same distribution as strong pronouns because the former have a deficient inner structure (Cardinaletti and Starke 1999 amond others). By the same token, languages display an intermediate class of weak pronouns, sharing properties of clitic and strong pronouns. The hypothesis of an intermediate class is particularly attractive for a diachronic analysis, as weak elements are the cornerstone of the evolution from strong pronouns to clitics. This chapter provides an in-depth discussion of the status of weak elements with a twofold intent: first, to show that weak pronouns do not form a consistent class across languages and second, to challenge the hypothesis that deficient elements are obtained when the outer structural layer of strong pronouns peels off.
Clitic climbing
Authors: Pescarini Diego
Published: May 2021

In verbal periphrases, Romance clitics either climb to the inflected verb or remain attached to the non-finite verb. The chapter argues that climbing depends on the point where auxiliaries—including restructuring predicates—are merged. Since the incorporation of clitics takes place in a clause-intermediate position (e.g. Ledgeway and Lombardi 2005), climbing does not take place when auxiliaries are first merged above the locus of incorporation. The same analysis is then extended to perfective auxiliaries in order to account for the dialects in which clitics do not climb in compound tenses and, lastly, for the dialects in which clitics never climb. The second part of the chapter focuses on the complicated system of clitic placement of Sanvalentinese, a southern Italian dialect in which optional climbing interacts with a kind of V2 requirement targeting both the I and V domain.
Clitic combinations
Authors: Pescarini Diego
Published: May 2021

One of the major sources of microvariation is the ordering of combinations formed by two or more clitics. Diachronically, cross-linguistic variation increased over time because certain Romance languages have undergone a change, reversing the order of some clitic combinations (in particular, those containing a third person accusative element or the clitic en/ne). The chapter entertains the hypothesis that variation is due to a change in the syntactic structure whereby clitics are nested within clause structure (Kayne 1994). Clitics were originally nested in a separate position, while later on they began to form a single complex head. This change, which took place at a different pace and not in all the Romance languages, caused the emergence of various subclasses of clitic combinations, which differ in syntactic and morphological respects.
Coordinate Systems and Vectors
Authors: Emam Moataz H.
Published: May 2021

This chapter introduces the various types of coordinate systems that exist in three dimensions and develops the basic concept of ‘metric’ to describe their properties. It introduces vectors in these coordinate systems and develops the notions of the ‘index language,’ dependence on the metric, and the covariance of vectors. Early familiarity with the metric tensor, index or component notation, symmetric and anti-symmetric manipulation is intended.
A Great Crusader, 1914‒1919
Authors: Wetzel Benjamin J.
Published: May 2021

World War I consumed much of Roosevelt’s attention in his final years. An advocate of American preparedness, Roosevelt used both the Old Testament and New Testament extensively to justify his wartime views. He also continued to defend the separation of church and state and endured another libel trial. Denied a chance to command a division at the front, Roosevelt sent all four of his sons to fight in his stead. The death of the youngest, Quentin, in 1918 preceded his own demise by only a few months. After Roosevelt’s death, Methodist minister Christian Reisner wrote a 400-page book attempting to demonstrate the late president’s Christianity. Historians have since debated the extent to which Roosevelt should be characterized as a Christian. The book concludes by weighing in on that debate.
Epilogue Violence as a Cultural System
Authors: Falk Oren
Published: May 2021

The Epilogue draws together theoretical discussion and case studies, restating and sharpening the general claims made about the cultural construction of violence, and outlining directions for extending the analysis. It proposes ways of thinking about both Viking Age and present-day violence using the model developed in this book. Historians have so far contributed little to the public and academic discourse on violence, and less to the theory and applications of risk. A more rigorous conceptualization of analytical categories, along the lines suggested in this book, can both nuance historical interpretation and create avenues for the discipline to participate in wider debates
Hilbert Spaces
Authors: Boules Adel N.
Published: May 2021

This chapter is a good introduction to Hilbert spaces and the elements of operator theory. The two leading sections contains staple topics such as the projection theorem, projection operators, the Riesz representation theorem, Bessel’s inequality, and the characterization of separable Hilbert spaces. Sections 7.3 and 7.4 contain a rather detailed study of self-adjoint and compact operators. Among the highlights are the Fredholm theory and the spectral theorems for compact self-adjoint and normal operators, with applications to integral equations. The section exercises contain problems that suggest alternative approaches, thus allowing the instructor to shorten the chapter while preserving good depth. The last section extends the results to compact operators on Banach spaces. The chapter contains more results than is typically found in an introductory course.