bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Nuclear Fusion Power and the Environment
Authors: Hirsch Robert L. , Rice William L. R.
Published: August 2009

The physics problems remaining to be solved to achieve practical fusion power by magnetic confinement techniques are believed to be well posed and soluble. A programme plan recently developed in the United States calls for progressively larger plasma confinement experiments to address these physics questions in line with a serious programme in fusion power engineering. Implementation of the plan is expected to lead to the first production of power from a deuterium–tritium-fuelled system in 1980. Thereafter, three progressively larger experimental electrical power reactors are planned, leading to fusion power commercialization in the later 1990s.

The environmental characteristics of fusion reactors have been estimated by analyzing conceptual reactor designs. It is projected that the only volatile radioactive material in a fusion power-plant will be the tritium fuel. Analyses indicate that tritium leakage can be held to very low levels and accordingly should not pose a significant environmental hazard.

Careful selection of the materials of construction of a fusion reactor core will minimize radioactivity induced by neutron activation. This activity will be nonvolatile, and it can be isolated from the environment by the use of existing techniques. Because this induced activity is short-lived, it does not represent a long-term storage problem.

Anticipated thermal efficiencies of fusion powerplants range from present-day levels (30–40%) using standard conversion systems to about 50% when more exotic techniques (such as liquid-metal topping cycles) are utilized.
The Relationship Between Colliery-waste Particle Sizes and Plant Growth
Authors: Down Christopher G.
Published: August 2009

Seed germination and dry-weight production in Lolium perenne were examined in relation to growth on 12-years-old colliery waste separated into seven size-fractions. The size-range was from more than 4,000 μ to less than 125 μ, and the growth period was up to 30 days. Germination percentages after 6 days generally increased with decreasing particle-size, as did dry-weight. Shoot : root ratios also showed an inverse relationship with particle size.

After 30 days there was no distinction between dryweights on different particle sizes, except that on the largest fractions it had been found impossible to keep the plants alive. Problems of water-holding capacity are discussed, and the significance of soil particle-size in revegetation work is examined, it being concluded that an admixture of small particles is important for water retention and plant growth.
Land-building and Stabilization by Mangroves
Authors: Carlton Jedfrey M.
Published: August 2009

Covering broad areas of tropical shorelines are unique plants known as mangroves, which exhibit several structural and physiological modifications to the saline environment—especially in their root systems. Prop-roots and pneumatophores, two obvious modifications, allow mangroves to play a role in coastal geomorphology, either as land-builders or as stabilizers of substrates derived from classical sedimentation processes.

Current data show that: (1) Provided with proper substrates, mangrove seedlings can be raised in the laboratory for later planting in the field, although on exposed beaches success ratios may be low. (2) Larger mangrove plants (1.0–5.0 m in height) may be transplanted with relative ease and appear to succeed with few or no mortalities resulting from the techniques used. (3) Pruning of mangroves appears to be a successful method of mangrove control, allowing their utilization for stabilization around housing developments. (4) Fossil evidence for mangroves as shoreline developers is suggested by the discovery of a fossil mangrove reef off the Miami, Florida, coast. However, submergence of near-by mangrove areas has occurred, as evidenced by sea-grass beds growing above buried peat in the bay bottom. (5) Black Mangroves may be more useful than Red Mangroves as shoreline stabilizers due to their cold-hardiness, ability to tolerate disturbed substrates, and rapid production of pneumatophores. (6) Insect and isopod damage to mangroves has been documented, and it has been suggested by several research workers that such damage may lead to increased erosion of coastlines in many areas of southern and central Florida. In addition, boring activities in Red Mangrove seedlings may result in decreased numbers of seedlings being available for new mangrove growth and colonization. (7) Mangroves have been suggested for use as stabilizers of substrates in conjunction with planned filling and sea wall construction.
The Impact ofAcanthasteron Corals and Coral Reefs in the Eastern Pacific
Authors: Glynn Peter W.
Published: August 2009

The movement of surface currents and the availability of coral prey are probably not responsible for the discontinuities in the distribution ofAcanthaster(the Crown-of-thorns Starfish or Sea-star) in American waters. Temperature and salinity conditions are critical in development, and it is possible that these parameters are effective locally, for example in the Gulf of Panamá. There is a strong possibility that continuing field work will show thatAcanthasterhas a significantly more widespread distribution in the eastern Pacific than is currently known.

AdultAcanthasterand several species of coral prey exhibited an unusually high tolerance to varying conditions of temperature and salinity. The possibility of step-wise colonization to new areas, mediated by resistant adult populations that can become established during favourable seasons, should be considered in any plans to alter the existing freshwater canal in Panamá. For introductions can be environmentally dangerous.

The highest population densities ofAcanthasterso far observed in the eastern Pacific, 1 individual/40 m2to approximately 1 individual/100 m2, are comparable to population sizes in the Indo-Pacific region that are not considered to have a serious impact on coral communities. Coral destruction byAcanthastercan be significant in certain limited areas, but is usually less than that caused by other corallivores.

An analysis of coral community structure in relation toAcanthasterdensity failed to show a significant correlation with (a) number of species, (b) number of live coral colonies, (c) species diversity (H'), or (d) species evenness (J').

Prey preference data indicate thatAcanthasterselectively destroys rare corals. Replacement of rare, predated corals by fast-growing species (Pocilloporaspp.) has been observed in the field, showing thatAcanthastercould have a negative effect on species diversity.
Dosage of Air Pollutants and Damage to Vegetation
Authors: Runeckles V. C.
Published: August 2009

Much of the published research on the effects of air pollutants on plants suffers from a lack of understanding of the relationship between the conditions employed and naturally occurring concentrations of pollutant. Frequently lacking is information as to the effective dosages of pollutants used in laboratory studies. The importance of dosage is discussed, as is its relation to concentration and flux. It is suggested that a greater interrelationship between observations from different research workers would be achieved by the simple expedient of measuring pollutant uptake by the plants under study, rather than merely describing concentrations in the surrounding air.
The Euphrates River—an International Problem of Water Resources Development
Authors: Beaumont Peter
Published: August 2009

The watershed of the River Euphrates lies within the boundaries of the present-day states of Turkey, Syria, Iraq, and Saudi Arabia. Almost 90% of the runoff from the basin is generated within the highlands of eastern Turkey as the result of snow-melt occurring during late spring and early summer. At this time, flood levels are usually reached along the whole length of the River.

The former inhabitants of the floodplain lands of Iraq utilized the waters of the River Euphrates for at least 6,000 years. By so doing, empires dependent upon irrigated agriculture flourished and then decayed, leaving behind spectacular ruins practically throughout Mesopotamia. Until the time of the Second World War, Iraq was the only country within the Euphrates basin that made large demands on the water resources of the River. Since that time, Iraq's demand has continued to increase, resulting in average water withdrawals of over 16,000 million m3/year during the 1960s. This figure represents about 45% of the average annual discharge of the Euphrates into Iraq.

Since the mid-1960s, both Syria and Turkey have planned major dam schemes to utilize the waters of the Euphrates. The Tabqa Dam in Syria, and the Keban Dam in Turkey, have already been constructed, and Turkey has planned other major hydraulic works along its section of the River. When the irrigation projects associated with these schemes are in full operation towards the end of the century, it seems that the likely demand for water will be in excess of the available flow of the River.

The country which is likely to suffer most as a result of this is Iraq, owing to its situation in the lowest part of the basin. Already, diplomatic relationships between Syria and Iraq have been severely strained as the result of disagreements about the allocation of the water resources of the River Euphrates. In future, it seems possible that such disputes will continue to occur, and perhaps also to become of increasing severity as both Turkey and Syria begin to use large proportions of the available riverflow for irrigation. The only permanent solution to the problem would seem to be the establishment of an international body to supervise the just allocation of the water resources of the Euphrates between Turkey, Syria, and Iraq. At present it seems unlikely that a lasting agreement will be reached between the three countries.
Energy and Climate
Authors: Revelle Roger R. , Shapero Donald C.
Published: August 2009

If the world depends on fossil fuels for its energy needs over the next two centuries, the U.S. National Academy of Sciences/National Research Council reportEnergy and Climateforesees the possibility of a peak atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide of between 4 and 8 times the preindustrial level as occurring in A.D. 2150 to 2200. Climatic models of the general circulation of the atmosphere predict a 2–3°C rise in average temperature of the atmosphere for each doubling of the carbon dioxide content. Thus, a mean value of about 6°C increase in average atmospheric temperature would be anticipated if the models prove to be accurate and if the growth scenario used in the report were to be realized.
Phytoplankton of an Acidic Lake, and Its Responses to Experimental Alterations of pH
Authors: Yan Norman David , Stokes Pamela
Published: August 2009

Carlyle Lake is typical of north-temperate Canadian Shield lakes both morphometrically and in its thermal and oxygen structure; however, the Lake is chemically unusual. Input of acidic melt-water in the spring of 1974 depressed the pH of the Lake to 4.5. The buffering capacity of the Lake has been reduced to such a degree that summer pH levels are about 5.0.

Despite this relatively high acidity, the biomass of the phytoplankton community is not low for an oligotrophic circumneutral lake. Although some evidence exists that phytoplankton community biomass is reduced in lakes of pH about 4.5 or below, no such reduction was observed in Carlyle Lake. However, as the numbers of phytoplankton species are reduced when lake pH levels fall below about 5.6, it would appear that community diversity is a more sensitive indicator of acidification of lakes than is community biomass.
Damage and Recovery of Tundra Vegetation
Authors: Webber Patrick J. , Ives Jack D.
Published: August 2009

This paper makes a series of broad recommendations concerning the understanding of damage and recovery of tundra vegetation. It deals primarily with arctic vegetation and with principles rather than specific recommendations or instructions for restoration. Actual procedures for restoration or revegetation, although practised, are still in their experimental stages.

Despite this lack of established methods in tundra vegetation restoration, much can be done to help offset some of the worst effects of the present surge of economic development that is occurring in certain sectors of the Arctic. First, a rational assessment of types and extent of damage that is likely to accrue from different kinds and degrees of impact should be attempted, based on existing experience and theory. This should be accompanied by similar assessments of degrees and rates of recovery.
Applying Island Biogeographic Theory to an East African Reserve
Authors: Miller Ronald I.
Published: August 2009

The isolation of nature reserves by encroaching civilization may provide significant changes in the structure and composition of protected animal communities. Recent models from applied island biogeographic theory provide a means of predicting the possible effects of isolation in the large-mammal community in the Mkomazi Game Reserve of northern Tanzania. A decrease in the number of large-mammal species inhabiting this preserve is predicted by all the models.

The dynamic interdependence of the large-mammal communities of East African reserves is vital to their survival and yet is especially vulnerable to disruption from surrounding human activities. Knowledge of the effects of increasing isolation on the complex community interactions among the component ecosystems in East African reserves, will enhance conservationists' ability to minimize extirpation pressures in this region.
Environmental Pollution of Estuaries — A Problem of Hazards
Authors: So C. L.
Published: August 2009

The problem of environmental pollution of estuaries is viewed in the wider perspective, including the role of mixing, as a process common to estuaries and other systems and regulated by spatial variations. Increasing mobilization of heavy-metals and other pollutants to the estuarine environment, imparting hazards to Man in the long run, is a cause for concern and provides the reasons and bases for environmental monitoring. Already total lessons have been learnt from catastrophic outbreaks of mercury poisoning in Japan.
The Environmental Impact of Agriculture in Ethiopia
Authors: Kuru Assefa
Published: August 2009

The basis of the physico-social pattern in Ethiopia, indicated above, may be summarized as:

(a) The main features of the country are formed by volcanic activity;

(b) There exist a lot of fragmented highlands with a great range of altitude, climate, and vegetation;

(c) The content of organic matter in the soils is very low on the eroded lands, greatly limiting their ability to retain water;

(d) There exist a wide variety of cultural patterns and numerous spoken languages;

(e) There are very severe erosion hazards and continuous deforestation activities;

(f) There is a custom of uncontrolled grazing, and livestock are not limited according to the carrying capacity of the land;

(g) There are constraints in the distribution and quality of water that is available for domestic supplies, livestock, and crops;

(h) From ancient times there has been no substantial improvement in farming tools and implements;

(i) There is little government investment in development work in general;

(j) The importance of a conservation programme for a wide range of natural resources is not felt/realized by the government;

(k) There is no emphasis on erosion control and forestry management—even by the regional development projects of the minimum and maximum package projects financed by the World Bank and other bilateral international cooperations;

(l) There are big constraints in matters of education and agricultural extension services; and

(m) The mountainous terrain and deep gorges have made communication difficult and expensive.

As a result of the above, the overall development network does not at present provide an adequate access to support a productive and continuous agriculture.
Effects of Industrial Effluents on the Population Density of Soil Microarthropods
Authors: Singh Udai Raj , Tripathi B. D.
Published: August 2009

The present communication gives the results of a quantitative study of soil microarthropods in relation to pollution induced by a chemical and fertilizer factory at Sahupuri, Varanasi, India. The effluent discharged from the factory has been reported to affect adversely the physicochemical properties (porosity, water-holding capacity, hydrogen ion concentration, total nitrogen, exchangeable sodium, and carbonate) of the soil. The samples were processed in Ladell's apparatus by modified floatation technique for faunal estimation. The population density of soil microarthropods has been found to be poor in the effluent-affected soil (28,107/m2) as against the control soil (39,217/m2) of a near-by area. The Acarina formed the most prevalent group in both the control and polluted habitats, constituting 47.8% and 53.6% of the total fauna, respectively. The abnormal physico-chemical properties of the soil have been indicated as being partly responsible for the faunal depletion.
U.N. Conference on Desertification, in Retrospect
Authors: Biswas Margaret R.
Published: August 2009

The United Nations Conference on Desertification was the first occasion on which the nations of the world turned their concerted attention to the need for a comprehensive plan to halt and reverse desertification. The global annual loss to desertification is in the order of 60,000 km2. It is Man's action that degrades the land by misuse as he seeks to wrest a living from fragile ecosystems. A change to a more arid climate could be another cause, but no firm evidence is available that the climate is so changing. The Conference concluded that both the causes of desertification and the technical solutions to combating it are known. The key to combative measures is to be found in proper land-use. If desertification is to be brought to a halt by the end of the century, considerable financial resources will, however, be necessary.

The paper includes a comprehensive summary of the unpublished statements of the various national governments and some international agencies regarding their problems, an analysis of the findings of the Conference, and a brief discussion of action taken since its conclusion.
Plant Life and Desertification
Authors: Went Frits W. , Babu V. Ramesh
Published: August 2009

There are numerous instances where, through injudicious use, Man has contributed to desertification of the agricultural environment by increasing the aridity and decreasing the ability of the soil to support vegetation. This may come through erosion, even in areas with very high rainfall (e.g. Amazonia). But in many arid regionsdedesertification has occurred under the influence of Man (e.g. Imperial Valley in California, Hungry Desert in Uzbekistan, 90-Miles Desert in Australia).

However, under certain conditions, such as those of fog-drip, an irreversible desertification can be caused by removal of the original vegetation (e.g. Central Chile).

Dew may be an important source of water for plants even in deserts, where there is a shortage cf liquid water for plant growth.
Gulls and Aircraft
Authors: Solman Victor E. F.
Published: August 2009

Birds, struck during flight by fast-moving modern aircraft or getting ingested in jet engines, cause numerous serious accidents of which some involve human deaths. Gulls of various species are the birds involved in a considerable proportion of these accidents due to bird-strikes.

Gull-strikes of aircraft in flight may be expected:

1. When there is a chronic attraction such as a concentrated worm or insect population, a high mouse population, or some other biological attractant;

2. When there is lack of care in disposal of food-wastes;

3. When drainage on an airfield or on flat-roofed buildings is not properly designed or is not functioning well; or

4. During the early autumn when large numbers of inexperienced, immature gulls are in flight.
Some Crucial Issues of Our Time
Authors: Guppy Nicholas G. L.
Published: August 2009

In the U.S.A. and other advanced countries, tribal peoples, together with other minorities, receive protection, their land-rights are respected, and reparations are being made for past violations. In the Third World there may be protective laws but, in practice, these are commonly ignored because it is profitable to do so. As a result, there is nothing to stop the present world-wide destruction of the environment in undeveloped regions— particularly of tropical forest—and the accompanying sociocide.

At present rates of destruction, pratically all existing natural tropical forests will have been cleared in 15–20 years' time, and catastrophic consequences are predicted. It is important to start using substitutes for raw materials emanating from forests—right now, while there still remain large forests and wild areas which can be saved. To aid this process it is proposed that a worldwide organization of timber producers should be formed along the lines of OPEC—to raise timber prices to true, i.e. replacement, costs—and that similar organizations should be formed for other raw materials. Such organizations could reduce environmental destruction without loss of income. Simultaneous with this, existing laws to protect tribal land-rights must be more vigorously enforced than hitherto, and new laws and institutions must be created where necessary to help slow the pace of destruction of tribal environments and societies.
World Ecological Areas Programme (WEAP): A Proposal
Authors: Goldsmith Edward
Published: August 2009

The world's remaining tropical forests are being destroyed so rapidly that, if current trends continue, by the end of this century only the most inaccessible relics will survive. This would be a major tragedy as it would mean, inter alia:

(i) Destruction of the way of life of the indigenous peoples who inhabit these areas, leading to their systematic pauperization and transformation into a ‘marginal’, largely unemployed and widely unemployable, proletariat having a miserable and precarious existence in the shanty towns surrounding already drastically overcrowded cities.
Zoogeographic Subregions of the Pacific Realm as a Background for Terrestrial Ecological Reserves: Part 1, General Introduction and Northern and Western Pacific Regions
Authors: Curry-Lindahl Kai
Published: August 2009

This paper deals essentially with ecosystems, biomes, and habitats, of the Pacific realm, that are in need of restoration and conservation programmes for saving endangered vertebrates through the establishment of ‘ecological reserves’. Besides zoogeographic factors, the matter of conservation urgency is reflected in the criteria by taking into account the rate of vertebrate extinction in historic time and the number of vertebrate species and subspecies that are endangered or threatened with extinction in each area.

In this paper and its successor (Part 2), twenty-two zoogeographic subregions have been defined in the Pacific realm, to which have been added three others—namely the Australian, North American, and South American coasts of the Pacific Ocean. Table I shows the division of these zoogeographic subregions within each faunal region. The Oceanian or ‘Central’ region is here introduced as a particular faunal region comprising Hawaii, Micronesia, Melanesia, and Polynesia. This complex of islands cannot, in the Author's opinion, be conveniently grouped with any of the continental faunal regions, although it has clear affinities with near-by continents to the west.
The Water-fern Salvinia molesta in the Sepik River, Papua New Guinea
Authors: Mitchell David S. , Petr Tomislav , Viner Anthony B.
Published: August 2009

Since 1977 the Sepik River backwaters between Pagwi and Angoram in Papua New Guinea have become increasingly covered by the exotic water-fern Salvinia molesta. By May 1979, Salvinia covered about 80 km2. Water chemical analyses for dissolved substances give no evidence that nutrients in the Sepik River and ‘lagoons’ might become limiting enough to affect the Salvinia population. The physical impact of the plant is reflected especially in the decline of the fisheries for Saltfish Tilapia (Sarotherodon mossambicus), crocodile hunting, collection of sago-palm, and in the slowing down or complete elimination of water transport. As a consequence, people in a number of villages are unable to reach markets and children cannot go to schools.

A programme of management has been formulated which will involve the United Nations, central and provincial governments, and local inhabitants. However, it should be understood that there is little chance of complete elimination of the weed from Sepik River backwaters.
Environmental Problems, Development, and Agricultural Production Systems
Authors: Clapham W. B.
Published: August 2009

Environmental problems of agriculture constitute some of the most complex and significant problems of modern times. They are found in all countries, but are most prominent—and tend to be most serious—in Third World countries located in ecologically vulnerable areas. Their roots commonly lie in the culture of the population, the farmers' behaviour, or the economy of the area.

In order to assess patterns of agricultural development in general, or to assess the implications of development projects, we must include the environmental, behavioural, and policy, dimensions of the agricultural production system into a single framework, so that we can understand both the problems as narrowly defined and the measures which must be taken in order to solve them.

One way of doing this is through a comprehensive, out qualitative, overview of the system. This provides a general framework for any analysis, and it can be so simplified that a particular problem can be treated in a meaningful and adequate fashion.
Potentials and Problems of Hill Areas in Relation to Conservation of Wildlife in India
Authors: Oza G. M.
Published: August 2009

Basically through population pressures leading to habitat encroachment and commercial slaughter, India is becoming poorer, day be day, in her still-rich heritage of wildlife. Virgin forests on the plains and in the hilly regions are dwindling. Unfortunately, education and research centres have not cared to educate the youth of the country about the importance of nature conservation.

The Author's field endeavours, extending over more than a decade, have helped to reveal that 18 of India's 27 threatened mammalian species—lion-tailed Macaque, Macaque, Nilgiri Langur, Golden Langur, Snub-nosed Langur, Wolf, Asiatic Wild Dog, Malabar Large-spotted Civet, Clouded Leopard, Indian Tiger, Leopard, Snow Leopard, Asian Elephant, Sumatran Rhinoceros, Kashmir Stag, Gaur, Wild Yak, Nilgiri Tahr, and Markhor—have their homes in hilly or montane habitats. Pradoxically, India has the dubious distinction of ranking second in the world, and first among the 15 countries of the Oriental region, in having 27 mammalian species whose world populations are to some extent threatened according to the Red Data Book (IUCN, 1972).
Pesticide Accidents in Relation to Weather Conditions
Authors: Fred Don , Kessler Edwin
Published: August 2009

Research has shown that it is inadvisable to spray crops during either near-absolute calms or very windy conditions; therefore, we studied weather maps and reports of herbicide accidents to investigate the hypothesis that the strong positive correlation between largescale pressure gradient and wind-speed can be used to facilitate prediction of favourable spraying times in Oklahoma. We gave detailed study to the conditions of 10 May 1977, the date in that year when the most herbicide accidents were reported. Although a relatively large pressure gradient existed, there was only weak wind at the KTVY meteorologically instrumented tower (150 km distant from the area of the accidents). We also searched for a strong relationship between herbicide accidents and the pressure gradient through tabulations of daily gradients and accident reports. Only a slight tendency is shown for accidents to occur on days with larger gradients. Research and significant findings for this study were hampered by a lack of specificity and detail in accident reports.
Non-radiological Environmental Implications of Nuclear Energy
Authors: Biswas Asit K.
Published: August 2009

Discussions on environmental implications of nuclear energy have so far been concentrated on radiological aspects: disposal of radioactive wastes, safety of nuclear power production, safe handling of plutonium, and problems associated with uranium mining. There are, however, several environmental issues associated with nuclear power production that are non-radiological in nature: thermal pollution and attendant effects on aquatic life, problems associated with land-use requirements, aesthetic considerations, habitat alterations, and atmospheric effects. These different non-radiological environmental implications of nuclear energy are reviewed.

The paper concludes that, while there are some environmental problems which exist at present, and a few more could emerge in the future, all these problems appear to be solvable with the present state of technological development. The extent of environmental degradation can be significantly reduced by appropriate design and planning.
Local Weather and Air Pollution Potential: The Case of Durban
Authors: Preston-Whyte Robert A. , Diab Roseanne D.
Published: August 2009

Atmospheric pollution over cities accumulates under light wind or stagnation conditions and, on occasion, may be supplemented by transport from distant sources. These conditions cannot easily be predicted by use of the average weather elements. However, material which is useful to decision-makers who are concerned with air pollution problems can be obtained by presenting the data, as in the case of Durban, South Africa, first in terms of the nature and characteristics of vertical mixing in the lower atmosphere, and secondly in terms of the horizontal transport of air. In this way the nature and characteristics of surface and non-surface inversions and mixingdepths, as well as of macro- and meso-scale atmospheric circulations, can more easily be appreciated. In addition, a measure of the air pollution potential can be obtained from daily maximum mixing-depth and win-speed values.
The World's Conservation Strategy
Authors: Talbot Lee M.
Published: August 2009

Rational use and conservation of living resources must be the active concern of all of us, rich and poor alike, if the world is to continue to develop in any reasonable degree of harmony with Nature. Accordingly it is necessary to recognize that industrial—and even some degree of demographic—development is not necessarily incompatible with environmental protection, and indeed that, in the world to come, conservation and development will have to be widely interlinked.

Cognizant of this and of the fundamental need to protect and perpetuate living, renewable resources in the face of ever-mounting and demanding human populations, and stressing the imperative of preserving a holistic approach to these problems of Man's and Nature's ‘only one Earth’, IUCN, with the support of UNEP and WWF, and the endorsement of some other bodies, launched, early in 1980, after several laborious redraftings, a ‘World Conservation Strategy’, in the manner described in the last part of this paper. It sets a policy for all to follow, taking mankind well away from the merely reactionist basis of conservation.
Suggested Actions for the Forthcoming ‘World Decade of The Biosphere’
Authors: Polunin Nicholas
Published: August 2009

A new thrust will be needed if the environment of Man and Nature throughout the world is to be preserved for posterity in anything like its present form. The required change in attitude and concomitant action should concern all peoples, involve most resources, and underlie many future developments—which last could well be in line with environmental conservation. It is believed that much benefit could accrue in this worthy direction through global exhortation of The Biosphere as mankind's planetary life-support system, which needs widespread understanding to allay increasing threats due basically to burgeoning human populations and the demands which they make on the limited resources of our planet.

The Biosphere may be defined as the Earth's peripheral envelope, together with the oceans and the atmosphere as far up as living things exist in it naturally, and thus ranges from the deepest layers of soils and ocean floors upwards to the highest levels of the stratosphere in which any form of life persists. This includes Man, with his unique intelligence and cognate capabilities that have enabled him to evolve latterly as the world's undisputed pandominant, change the surface of the Earth very considerably, and even alter the composition and content of The Biosphere quite appreciably.
Pollution Effects on Plant Distribution
Authors: Treshow Michael
Published: August 2009

Since Man's earliest dominion of the Earth, he has depended on the land and its plants for his survival, and he has often altered the forest and field to enhance his success. He has removed some species, planted others, and encouraged growth of still others, both intentionally and inadvertently, to the extent that few areas of the Earth still remain covered by large expanses of totally undisturbed plant communities.

Among the inadvertent changes that have been wrought by Man in natural systems are those resulting from the input of the pollutants of technology: sulphur dioxide, herbicides, photochemical pollutants, pesticides, radiation, and much more. The presence of each provides a selective force favouring some genotypes, discouraging others, and eliminating species that lack sufficient genetic diversity to survive. Thus the occurrence and distribution of plants is influenced, and community composition is changed—usually for the worse. Where large numbers of species are killed and the land is laid bare to erosion, the impact is highly undesirable. In other instances, tolerant genotypes existed of a sufficiency of species to allow them to reproduce and fill vacated niches. In the occasional instance where only a few plant species are damaged, the character of the change will depend on the nature of the tolerant individuals and species. A shift from forest to more tolerant grasses and forbs is common.
Environmental Implications of the Use of Fusion Power
Authors: Holdren John P.
Published: August 2009

Long-term limits to growth in energy-use will be imposed not by inability to expand supply but by the rising environmental and social costs of doing so. These costs will therefore be central issues in choosing long-term energy options. Energy from nuclear fusion, like solar energy, is not one technology but many. Some of the fusion possibilities seem likely to have very attractive environmental characteristics; others may be little better in these regards than nuclear fission.

Issues in fusion-reactor design that are crucial from the environmental standpoint include: size of tritium inventory and pathways for its release; nature and configuration of materials that are subject to neutron activation; forms and quantities of the stored energy that are internal to the reactor, and the nature of potential links between fusion technology and nuclear weaponry.
Wildlife Conservation in the Line Islands, Republic of Kiribati (formerly Gilbert Islands)
Authors: Perry Roger
Published: August 2009

Important colonies of seabirds occur on all eight islands comprising the Line group of the Republic of Kiribati, the former Gilbert Islands. The greatest density and diversity is reached on Christmas Island, the principal island of the group, with 18 regularly nesting species. Climatic factors and the extent of human activities in the past, however, have led to widely differing conditions prevailing on the different islands. Christmas (which came to prominence as a post-war atomic testing-base), Fanning, and Washington, Islands have permanent settlements; the five southern Line Islands are totally uninhabited.

Wildlife generally is threatened by introduced animals, especially cats, and additionally on inhabited islands by environmental changes and the direct impact of human disturbance. A Wildlife Conservation Unit, set up in 1977, administers five reserves on Christmas Island and is responsible for the islands of Malden, Starbuck, and Vostok, which are wildlife sanctuaries. Wildlife laws give protection to the Green Turtle and to 31 resident and regularly-occurring migratory species of birds. Naturalist-orientated tours to the Line Islands constitute a key development project which provides some optimism for the future.
The Three Systems of Man
Authors: Kassas Mohamed , Polunin Nicholas
Published: August 2009

Viewing Planet Earth from the standpoint of modern life as a whole, we recognize three main systems, namely The Biosphere, the sociosphere, and the technosphere, although some authorities prefer to consider the two lastmentioned as forming together a so-called ‘noosphere’ or sphere of human influence. Thus we have The Biosphere, constituting the sphere containing life so far up and down as any form of it exists naturally, the technosphere, constituting the Man-made system of structures set within the space of The Biosphere, and the sociosphere, which is commonly defined as the sphere of Man's influence, and is the Man-engendered system of non-structures (institutions, organizations, movements, etc.) that Man has developed in managing his Biospheral relationships and those with the other two systems.
Land-use and Threats to Parks in the Neotropics
Authors: Neumann Roderick P. , Machlis Gary E.
Published: August 2009

The ecological consequences of contemporary land-use in the neotropics have important influences on national park management in the region. Historical patterns suggest that major land-use changes have occurred regularly, and that these patterns have recently intensified. Is there a relationship between specific land-uses and specific threats to protected areas? Can this relationship be detected in a population of parks?

In a survey of managers of 183 national parks, 122 returned questionnaires from 19 countries in the neotropics. We found that a range of land-uses, from livestock grazing to quarrying, are occurring in and around the parks. The results of our statistical analysis indicate that many of these activities are associated with specific threats to park resources: for example, poaching for subsistence was statistically associated with each of the ten most-reported threats.

We offer two suggestions for improving our understanding of environmental degradation within parks. First, that research and park management be expanded to acquire a regional focus, namely that the land-transforming activities which threaten park resources can best be understood by incorporating the regional-social and political-economic contexts in the analysis. Second, that the influences of the global economic system be increasingly considered in conceptual frameworks of conservation biology.
The Future of Animal Wildlife and Its Habitat in Botswana
Authors: Mordi A. Richard
Published: August 2009

To conserve its wildlife, Botswana has set aside more than 17% of its total land area as game reserves, national parks, and wildlife management areas. Despite this generous allocation to wildlife, the fauna of the country is declining in both absolute numbers and species diversity. Lack of permanent water-sources in some game reserves, obstruction of fauna migration routes by cattle fences, and a poorly-developed tourist industry, are partly responsible for this decline.

In a developing country such as Botswana, tourism should yield sufficient funds for the maintenance of game reserves and national parks. But currently the tourist industry accounts for less than 2% of the gross national product. Unless the industry is encouraged to flourish and expand into dormant reserves such as the Gemsbok National Park and Mabuasehube Game Reserve, animals in those sanctuaries are likely to be driven by drought into South Africa.
The Volcanic Island of Surtsey, Iceland, a Quarter-century After it ‘Rose from the Sea’
Authors: Fridriksson Sturla
Published: August 2009

An account is given of the island of Surtsey, which rose out of the sea near the Westman Islands off the south coast of Iceland as the result of a submarine volcanic eruption in November 1963. In the nearly twenty-six years since it emerged, the surface of Surtsey has undergone rapid–on the geological time-scale–transformation especially by the actions of wind and water. Indeed the changes have been far more rapid and considerable than had been expected.

Despite the harsh conditions for colonization by biota, a fair amount of vascular-plant-dominated vegetation now covers an estimated 1–2% of the surface of the island, aided particularly by winds and birds bringing in disseminules. These and other features are being studied so far as possible without disturbance. Despite a general shortage of water, as rain seeps rapidly into the surface lava, sand, or tuff, a total of 25 species of vascular plants (including one fern) have been identified as having attained ecesis on the island, but not all have persisted. Five species of birds have so far colonized Surtsey, and now nest there, in addition to which there are numerous migrants coming and going, and the overall conclusion is that, despite the generally difficult environmental conditions, ‘a flourishing growth of vegetation can be expected to develop’ eventually.

These studies and their implications could be useful indicators for the possibilities of rehabilitation of land areas that have been devastated by human conflict or other abuse.
Rapid Population Growth and Environmental Degradation: Ultimate versus Proximate Factors
Authors: Shaw R. Paul
Published: August 2009

Among twenty-one representatives of as many nations comprising the World Commission on Environment and Development, there was unanimous agreement on all issues concerning the environment, except two—the causal significance of population growth, and what to do with Antarctica. The lack of consensus on population is symptomatic of widespread confusion not only in the theoretical and empirical literature, but also among advocates of population control.

This paper argues that confusion stems from insufficient attention to the nature of the causes involved. Broadly speaking, there are two kinds—ultimate and proximate. Ultimate causes include polluting technologies, affluence-related wastes, environmental consequences of warfare, land and urban mismanagement policies, and so on. In contrast, proximate causes such as rapid population growth are shown to be more situation-specific, contemporary, and of a confounding nature.
Insect Conservation and Landscape Ecology: A Case-history of Bush Crickets (Tettigoniidae) in Southern France
Authors: Samways Michael J.
Published: August 2009

Insect species etc. comprise about 80% of the specific and subspecific taxa of the animal kingdom, and their conservation is an important, integral, and contemporary, aspect of the conservation of biological diversity. The species richness of this vast group makes detailed studies of all components insurmountable relative to the urgency for diversity conservation solutions. Landscape ecology offers a way of conceptualizing the situation, and is a tool for management. This approach is explored in the present paper, using the extensive data available on decticine bush crickets in the Montpellier region of southern France. Corridors, patches, and matrices, are considered, with special reference to the bush crickets' distributions at the boundaries of these elements.

As well as movement across the boundaries and resident interpenetration of these elements by those insects the ecotones are also important ecological entities in their own right. Additionally, vertical, as well as horizontal, aspects of landscape elements are important for these small animals with small home-ranges.
Conservation-related Attitudes of Lake Fishermen in Greece
Authors: Pyrovetsi Myrto , Daoutopoulos George A.
Published: August 2009

Lakes Visthonis, Kerkini, and Mikri Prespa, in Greece – Mikri Prespa being designated also a national park – although wetlands of international importance, suffer severe conservation problems with a continuous deterioration of their resources. A major cause of this problem is unsustainable utilization of the wetlands by their main users, local fishermen. The aim of this paper is to present several demographic and fishing-activity characteristics of the fishermen, and to analyse the conflict by associating these attributes with the conservation attitudes towards elements of the wetland ecosystems, the pelicans, and other birds.
Explanatory Supplement to Ecoregions Map of the Continents
Authors: Bailey Robert G.
Published: August 2009

This explanatory note is intended to accompany the map included in this issue. The map is on a scale of 1:30,000,000 (1 cm = 300 km) and shows regional-scale ‘ecosystem’ units, or ecoregions, differentiated according to a scheme modified from J.M. Crowley (1967), and using climate and vegetation as indicators of the extent of each unit. The units are similar in concept to ‘ecobiomes’ as proposed by Polunin (1984). The map was developed following a proposal by Bailey & Hogg (1986) to supplement the Udvardy (1975) system of biogeographical provinces with a treatment of higher resolution. Three levels or categories of this hierarchy are shown. Of these the broadest, domains, and within them divisions, are based largely on the broad ecological climate zones following the Koppen system as modified by Trewartha (1968), and summarized in our Tables I and II. Climate is emphasized at the broadest levels because of its overriding effect on the composition and productivity of ecosystems etc. from region to region.
Environmental Security for the Danube Basin
Authors: Westing Arthur H.
Published: August 2009

This paper examines the level of environmental security in the Danube River drainage basin: an ecogeographical region covering 800 thousand square kilometres, supporting some 86 million inhabitants, and occupying greater or lesser portions of 12 nations—especially of the 8 riparian nations. The waters of the basin are important, if not indispensable, to the basin inhabitants for various purposes, among them: household, municipal, agricultural, industrial, waste disposal, transportation, power generation, fishing, and aesthetic.

Despite a flow at the mouth of some 6,500 cubic metres per second, the Danube basin waters do not suffice for all of these diverse and sometimes conflicting demands that are placed upon them, this paper outlines the resulting environmental problems—especially those associated with Danubian pollution, habitat disruption, and the generation of hydropower. It refers to the existing legal instruments that address environmental vandalism (especially in time of war), pollution (of both air and water), habitat disruption, and resource utilization (both non-extractive and extractive), noting their levels of acceptance and their lacunae.