bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Two Decades of GMOs
Authors: Adenle Ademola A. , De Steur Hans , Hefferon Kathleen , Wesseler Justus
Published: August 2020

Agricultural technologies have a key role to play in advancing international development, including achievement of the sustainable development goals (SDGs). Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are among a wide of range of agricultural technologies that can play a significant role in meeting SDG1 (poverty eradication), SDG2 (zero hunger), SDG13 (climate change), and other interlinked SDGs. Yet GMO opposition persists in Europe with spillover effects in Africa, Asia, South America, and Latin America, thereby limiting the adoption of the new technology in the developing world. This chapter outlines two decades of positive impacts of GMOs in terms of socioeconomic and environmental benefits and considers their potential role in addressing the challenges presented in the 2030 development agenda. The authors highlight fundamental challenges in the application of GMOs, including the overly cautious application of precautionary principle and the lack of an international GMO regulatory framework. Developing countries need to employ risk-assessment models that balance benefits, costs, and risks of GMOs, focusing on local agricultural and environmental practices, rather than following developed countries.
Farmer-Prioritized Climate-Smart Agriculture Technologies
Authors: Mwongera Caroline , Mwungu Chris M. , Lungaho Mercy , Twomlow Steve
Published: August 2020

Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) focuses on productivity, climate-change adaptation, and mitigation, and the potential for developing resilient food production systems that lead to food and income security. Lately, several frameworks and tools have been developed to prioritize context-specific CSA technologies and assess the potential impacts of selected options. This study applied a mixed-method approach, the climate-smart agriculture rapid appraisal (CSA-RA) tool, to evaluate farmers’ preferred CSA technologies and to show how they link to the sustainable development goals (SDGs). The chapter examines prioritized CSA options across diverse study sites. The authors find that the prioritized options align with the food security and livelihood needs of smallholder farmers, and relate to multiple sustainable development goals. Specifically, CSA technologies contribute to SDG1 (end poverty), SDG2 (end hunger and promote sustainable agriculture), SDG13 (combating climate change), and SDG15 (life on land). Limited awareness on the benefits of agriculture technologies and the diversity of outcomes desired by stakeholders’ present challenges and trade-offs for achieving the SDGs. The CSA-RA provides a methodological approach linking locally relevant indicators to the SDG targets.
Human Dignity
Authors: Tonry Michael
Published: August 2020

A comprehensive jurisprudence of just punishment would thus incorporate four propositions: Justice as proportionality: Offenders should never be punished more severely than can be justified by their blameworthiness in relation to the severity of punishments justly imposed on others for the same and different offenses. Justice as fairness: Processes for responding to crimes should be publicly known, implemented in good faith, and applied even-handedly. Justice as equal treatment: Defendants and offenders should be treated as equals; their circumstance and interests should be accorded equal respect and concern when decisions affecting them are made. Justice as parsimony: Offenders should never be punished more severely than can be justified by appropriate, valid, normative purposes.
The Four-Phase Model of Digital Campaign Development
Authors: Gibson Rachel K.
Published: August 2020

This chapter sets out the core argument of the book, which is that over the past two decades digital technology has moved from the margins to the mainstream of campaign operations, and in doing so has fundamentally changed how elections are conducted. This process of transformation is broken down into four main phases: experimentation; standardization and professionalization; community building and activist mobilization; and individual voter mobilization. The theoretical framework for the model and its basis in the work of early e-democracy is presented. The phases are then described in more detail, using a set of common criteria that focus on the power distribution within and between campaigns, the technology and tools used, and the primary goal and target for the campaign. The four phases are summarized in tabular form.
The View from Inside the Machine
Authors: Hiskey Jonathan T. , Moseley Mason W.
Published: August 2020

This chapter explores the proposition that intranational differences in political culture are one consequence of an uneven political regime landscape in which subnational dominant-party enclaves exist alongside multiparty systems. The chapter offers robust support for this proposition, demonstrating that individuals living in the dominant-party machines that are the focus of this study tend to be less supportive of democracy in the abstract. They also hold more ambivalent views regarding key features of democracy in practice such as limits on executive power and other institutional checks and balances. The conclusion for this chapter examines the role that exposure to corruption and vote-buying efforts plays in shaping citizens’ views toward democracy. The finding is that, indeed, the heightened exposure to such practices in dominant-party enclaves contributes substantially to the lower support for democracy expressed by those individuals living within them.
The Rise of the Modern White Nationalist Movement
Authors: Fording Richard C. , Schram Sanford F.
Published: August 2020

Chapter 3 traces the rise of the modern white nationalist movement and the process by which it was mainstreamed in American politics. The chapter describes the ideology of white nationalists and the variety of racialized political narratives utilized by movement leaders to foster white racial consciousness. These narratives became increasingly resonant among white racists due to observable increases in racial diversity, which was portrayed as a threat to white supremacy. Nonetheless, because of the relatively closed nature of the political opportunity structure, white racists had few vehicles open to them to express their frustration. From the 1980s until the election of Obama in 2008, white racists became increasingly disillusioned with contemporary politics. Most white racists sat out of politics altogether as an increasingly angry minority fueled a rapid growth in white nationalist groups that were relegated to the extremist fringe.
Courting Migrants
Authors: Burgess Katrina
Published: August 2020

This book examines state–migrant relations in four countries with a long history of migration, regime change, and democratic fragility: Turkey, the Dominican Republic, Mexico, and the Philippines. It uses these cases to develop an integrative theory of the interaction between “diaspora-making” by states and “state-making” by diasporas. Specifically, it tackles three questions: (1) Under what conditions and in what ways do states alter the boundaries of political membership to reach out to migrants and thereby “make” diasporas? (2) How do these migrants respond? (3) To what extent does their response, in turn, transform the state? Through historical case narratives and qualitative comparison, the book traces the feedback loops among migrant profiles, state strategies of diaspora-making, party transnationalization, and channels of migrant engagement in politics back home. The analysis reveals that most migrants follow the pathways established by the state and thereby act as “loyal” diasporas but with important deviations that push states to alter rules and institutions.
Migration and Homeland Politics
Authors: Burgess Katrina
Published: August 2020

Chapter 1 introduces the main research questions in this book: (1) Under what conditions and in what ways do states alter the boundaries of political membership to reach out to migrants and thereby “make” diasporas? (2) How do these migrants respond? (3) To what extent does their response, in turn, transform the state? It begins with a discussion of how global economic restructuring and political regime change have reshaped the contours of migrant-homeland engagement. It then lays out the main research questions and discusses the case selection and methodology. It also specifies the causal feedback loops driving state–migrant relations. The chapter concludes with a brief overview of the remaining chapters in the book.
Diasporas, States, and Loyalty
Authors: Burgess Katrina
Published: August 2020

Chapter 2 lays out the book’s theoretical framework. It begins by defining a diaspora as any group living outside its real or imagined homeland that has been constructed as belonging to that homeland. It argues that states often try to extend their authority beyond territorial borders by constructing migrants as diasporas and cultivating their loyalty. It discusses the menu of objectives, tools, and strategies from which states choose when deciding why and how to do so. It then examines how migrants respond, arguing that they may either reinforce or resist the state’s incorporation project and thereby alter the state themselves.
A Genealogy of Dance Modernity
Authors: Franko Mark
Published: August 2020

This chapter looks at a variety of phenomena including folkloric dance that contained old regime materials, the ballet itself, and the scholarly research and collecting devoted to the grand siècle at the turn of the century. Three distinct seventeenth centuries were under construction in the historical imagination of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century dance. Research conducted in the early 1970s shows that elements of la belle danse found their way into regional folkloric performance; the seventeenth century became a predominant subject of ballets; musicology—a nascent discipline in France—turned to the discovery and reading of texts of musical theater that were no longer performed. These three activities engendered three versions of the seventeenth century in dance that I refer to as survival, revival, and archival. Survival corresponds to the emergence of ethnography thanks to Van Gennep and later Guilcher; revival refers to the principles of ballet evidenced in the writings of Volynsky on the basis of which new work could be created; archival refers to the discovery of the past as other in the research of Henry Prunières. These led in turn to concepts of performance as artifact, myth, and document, which together constituted the dispersed field of neoclassicism as I understand it in this book. Each of these versions of the seventeenth century came with a political potential with respect to questions of national identity.
The Critical Reception of Serge Lifar (1929–1939)
Authors: Franko Mark
Published: August 2020

Chapter 2 analyzes the critical reception of Serge Lifar at the Paris Opera during the 1930s. Evidence is presented of Lifar’s poor critical reception at the start of the decade and the characteristics of his dancing are analyzed in relation to the developing ideals of neoclassical ballet. The analysis reveals a gradual drift in critical language toward a fascist conception of Lifar’s dancing body as a polarity machine. This vision of Lifar is put forward with respect to the double level of artistic activity demanded of the dance artist who, as choreographer, is the contemplative painter of compositions, but who as dancer is the sculptor whose artistic material is his own body. Lifar seemed to embody by turns both the Apollonian and Dionysian sides of Nietzsche’s influential argument on the origin of tragedy. The chapter also covers the debate over the meaning of neoclassicism in French ballet during the 1930s and the role Lifar played in this debate both as an object of discussion and an interlocutor. Critics include Russian émigrés under the influence of Akim Volynsky: André Levinson, Julia Sazonova, and André Schaïkevitch and their French compeers Roger Lannes and Maurice Brillant. Arguing for a formalist and idealist conception of balletic neoclassicism, the Russo-French school used the work of Serge Lifar as their main example. This chapter also explores in depth André Levinson’s change of heart concerning Lifar and the relation of Lifar to Vaslav Nijinsky in Levinson’s criticism.
“Bringing many souls home to Jesus Christ”
Authors: Smith Eric C.
Published: August 2020

As the pastor of the Charleston Baptist Church, Oliver Hart established a pattern of moderate revivalist ministry. His weekly routine of public and private ministry of the Word mirrored that of most ministers in the broadly Reformed tradition. Hart invested a significant portion of each week to preparing and delivering sermons, which he developed according to the classic Puritan method. Outside his own congregation, he partnered with evangelical leaders from a variety of other denominations, including the Anglican evangelist George Whitefield, to spread the revivalism of the Great Awakening. Hart gained a wide acceptance among the residents of Charleston in part because of the respectable social persona he developed, in contrast to the erratic behavior of the Separate Baptists and other radical revivalists. Most significant, Hart adopted the classic moderate evangelical approach to slavery while in Charleston, ministering earnestly to enslaved Africans even as he owned slaves himself. Hart’s respectable, moderate revivalism set the tone for the next century and a half for white Baptists in Charleston and the broader South.
The Testing of a Hundred Listeners
Authors: Tkaczyk Viktoria
Published: August 2020

In 1901, the Berlin psychologist Otto Abraham published a lengthy study on what he called “das absolute Tonbewußtsein” (absolute tone consciousness), claiming that musical ability is less a natural talent than something learnable—dependent on the imprint of certain tone systems and musical experiences. In place of simple stimulus–response tests, Abraham therefore proposed a completely new method of testing musicality, based on a comprehensive test battery and a detailed questionnaire. This chapter’s investigation of Abraham’s method highlights its underlying epistemology of hearing, with particular attention to the relationship between Abraham’s notion of musicality and his mentor Carl Stumpf’s theory of tone psychology. The chapter then traces later applications of Abraham’s study in the fields of comparative musicology and music education, focusing on testing procedures at the Berlin Phonogramm-Archiv, the Berlin Academy of Music, and, in the shape of U.S. psychologist Carl Seashore’s “measures of musical talent,” American schools and music academies.
Murray Island Versus Aberdeenshire
Authors: Klotz Sebastian
Published: August 2020

The Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits (CAETS), led by zoologist and anthropologist Alfred C. Haddon, was a key endeavor in British anthropology’s formative years. This chapter discusses its reports from 1901 and 1935, drawing on critical epistemologies of hearing to explore the expedition’s cross-cultural and cross-disciplinary framework. Before the rise of ethnomusicology proper, testing hearing became an important way of mediating translations from the laboratory to the field, from psychology to anthropology, from static stimuli to adaptive learning. Hearing tests in the Torres Straits promised easy access to a vital human capacity, but they proved inconclusive—no persuasive link could be drawn between hearing acuity and intelligence, undermining attempts to locate “savagery” and consolidate cultural difference. The CAETS researchers were unable to bridge the growing divide between reflexive anthropologies and the logic of cultures of measurement. Their hearing tests exposed a problematic relationship that still permeates the discipline today.
Absorption, Transmission, Reflection
Authors: Wittje Roland
Published: August 2020

This chapter discusses the genealogy of construction materials testing at acoustic laboratories founded in the late 1920s and 1930s, through the example of Norges Tekniske Høgskole (NTH) in Trondheim, Norway. Whereas architectural acoustics entailed mainly fieldwork, in the form of on-site research and consulting, the standardized testing of materials required idealized laboratory conditions where acoustic behavior could be isolated and reduced to the parameters of absorption, transmission, and reflection. With the rise of the acoustic laboratory, “objective” measurement systems replaced musical listening as a crucial skill for acousticians. Electroacoustic media technologies quickly spread on a global scale, yet acoustic laboratories still catered to the needs of local markets. One of these requirements was resource optimization, and the objective of standardized testing generally was less to improve the quality of construction than to optimize its cost. Traditional materials and buildings often exhibited better acoustic properties than the new constructions based on scientific principles.
Coda
Authors: Pinch Trevor
Published: August 2020

This afterword to Testing Hearing: The Making of Modern Aurality focuses on the history of the testing sciences and the politics of testing as illuminated by the book’s twelve constituent case studies. Most testing is mundane, routine, and ongoing. However, as this book shows, it can be critiqued. Asking what is at stake in testing offers the possibility of doing it in a different way. Because it inevitably involves cultural and social assumptions and politics, testing must deal with unruly humans as well as nonhumans. Testing can be unpredictable and subject to multiple interpretations. There are practices in testing technology that resist commensuration and build on a more radical politics.
The Social Origins of Nostalgia for Ottomanism
Authors: Yavuz M. Hakan
Published: August 2020

This chapter outlines six social factors that augmented a rise in Ottoman nostalgia as a countering identity and ideology against the Turkish Republic’s Westernizing reforms: the demographic makeup of Turkey as a republic of refugees who were ethnically cleansed from their ancestral homes in the Balkans and Caucasus; the Westernization project of Turkey’s founding fathers for creating a European nation-state by suppressing the legacy of the Ottoman Empire; the process of democratization (i.e., mobilization of masses to move into political domains and bringing a multiplicity of identities to redefine state identity and policies); the expansion of the public sphere with newspapers, journals, and digital media to accommodate discussions of various identities and formerly taboo subjects; the introduction of market forces aligned with Turgut Özal’s neoliberal economic policies and the rise of the new Anatolian bourgeoisie; and finally, the shift from factual history to imagined memory.
The Camera Lies
Authors: Callahan Dan
Published: August 2020

Though he was known for saying, “Actors are cattle,” Alfred Hitchcock had highly specific ideas about film acting, which he saw in terms of contrast and counterpoint. Hitchcock was a theorist of acting, which he proved in some of his lesser-known 1930s interviews, and he has not been given his due as a director of actors. He felt that the camera was duplicitous and that it could be made to lie, and so he loved his actors to look one way and to be another, or to do one thing and suggest another. The best Hitchcock actor was one, the Master said, who could “do nothing well,” to which he always added that this was actually difficult to do. This book will analyze actors in Hitchcock films, exploring what acting for Hitchcock entailed and what acting is and can be in the cinema.
Six More in Silence
Authors: Callahan Dan
Published: August 2020

Hitchcock’s remaining silent films often suffered from actors who either did nothing in a nothing fashion (the three lead players in The Ring (1927)), actors who posed and indicated like Isabel Jeans in Easy Virtue (1928), or actors who had a sort of empty charm like Betty Balfour in Champagne (1928). But in this period Hitchcock also memorably experimented with actors in smaller parts like Violet Farebrother as a touchingly sex-starved poet in Downhill (1927) and Benita Hume’s telephone operator in Easy Virtue, a girl who listens in on a marriage proposal and reacts accordingly.
Strangers on a Train, I Confess
Authors: Callahan Dan
Published: August 2020

On the first day of shooting, Hitchcock referred to Strangers on a Train (1951) as “my real first film,” and the Master drew a charismatic, shoot-the-works performance from Robert Walker, who was cast against type as the colorful psychopath Bruno Anthony. But then Hitchcock was annoyed by the extensively labored-over Method acting of Montgomery Clift in I Confess (1952), a case of an actor doing too much, albeit very expressively, underneath a surface that keeps cracking because of lack of control. He also had to use the breathy Anne Baxter when he would have preferred the Swedish actress Anita Bjork.
Liberty and Mutability
Authors: Muller Richard A.
Published: August 2020

Perkins’ understanding of human willing was also defined by the traditional Augustinian definition of the four states of human nature: before the fall, after the fall in sin, after regeneration by grace, and in final glory. This chapter takes up the issue of willing in the first two states, in which the will at first is righteous and sinless but able to sin and then, following the fall, is not able not to sin. Nonetheless, the will remains free according to its nature—initially free in righteousness, and after the fall, free to determine its own choices, albeit bound to do so sinfully. The fall does not remove the inherent freedom of the will. Choice remains a genuinely contingent act, defined by alternativity within the bounds of a sinful nature.
Comprehension
Authors: Reed Stephen K.
Published: August 2020

Comprehension requires selecting, organizing, and integrating knowledge and is measured both by the ability to recall information and to use that information in creative ways. Selection requires identifying which parts of a text are relevant for achieving the reader’s goals. Organization requires combining that information into a coherent body of knowledge. Integration requires connecting the material to knowledge stored in long-term memory. Attempts to explain the ideas (self-explanations) can provide a technique for establishing those connections. The reader must next evaluate the content to decide whether to add it to long-term memory or dismiss it as irrelevant or wrong. Understanding how people make this decision is helpful in designing instructional material to correct misconceptions and gaps in peoples’ theories.
Categorization
Authors: Reed Stephen K.
Published: August 2020

Categories reduce the complexity of the environment, are the means by which objects are identified, reduce the need for constant learning, allow for the selection of an appropriate action, and support the organization of objects and events. The most typical members of categories share attributes with the other members of the category. Prototypes are the central members. Hierarchies are composed of subordinate (desk lamp), basic (lamp), and superordinate (furniture) categories. Social categories such as “ baby boomers” classify people but may be associated with misleading stereotypes. Action categories include event boundaries that mark the transition between actions. They are organized into low-level (elbow angle) and high-level (pouring milk) actions.
Imperfect Knowledge
Authors: Reed Stephen K.
Published: August 2020

Both computers and people find it difficult to organize knowledge because it is imperfect. The challenge of ambiguous knowledge is to recognize and resolve the ambiguity. The challenge of conditional knowledge is to identify conditions that distinguish between correct and incorrect applications of knowledge. The challenge of contradictory knowledge is to discover a contradiction when it is not immediately obvious. The challenge of fragmented knowledge is to integrate related knowledge stored in long-term memory. The challenge of inert knowledge is to activate relevant knowledge when it is needed. The challenge of misclassified knowledge is to identify and reclassify it. The challenge of uncertain knowledge is to incorporate probabilities into reasoning. Progress is occurring in meeting each of these challenges.
Explainable AI
Authors: Reed Stephen K.
Published: August 2020

Deep connectionist learning has resulted in very impressive accomplishments, but it is unclear how it achieves its results. A dilemma in using the output of machine learning is that the best performing methods are the least explainable. Explainable artificial intelligence seeks to develop systems that can explain their reasoning to a human user. The application of IBM’s WatsonPaths to medicine includes a diagnostic network that infers a diagnosis from symptoms with a degree of confidence associated with each diagnosis. The Semanticscience Integrated Ontology uses categories such as objects, processes, attributes, and relations to create networks of biological knowledge. The same categories are fundamental in representing other types of knowledge such as cognition. Extending an ontology requires a consistent use of semantic terms across different domains of knowledge.
General AI
Authors: Reed Stephen K.
Published: August 2020

People use their cognitive skills to solve a wide range of problems whereas computers solve only a limited number of specific problems. A goal of artificial intelligence (AI) is to build on its previous success in specific environments to advance toward the generality of human level intelligence. People are efficient general-purpose learners who can adapt to many situations such as navigating in spatial environments and communicating by using language. To compare human and machine reasoning the AI community has proposed a standard model of the mind. Measuring progress in achieving general AI will require a wide variety of intelligence tests. Grand challenges, such as helping scientists win a Nobel prize, should stimulate development efforts.
Charisma and Routinization of the Extraordinary
Authors: Billioud Sébastien
Published: August 2020

The Yiguandao is now a large cross-national religious organization with millions of adepts worldwide. The perpetuation of the personal charisma of dead leaders discussed in chapter 3 needs to be backed up—and perhaps gradually or partially replaced—by a charisma of function that increasingly belongs to religious specialists (initiators) at the forefront of the global missionary effort. The movement is progressively structured and routinized with a much more institutionalized leadership. However, routinization and institutionalization remain for the adepts the result of spirit or divine intervention to the extent that it is even possible to mention a routinization of the extraordinary.
Yiguandao’s Promotion of Confucianism-Related Activities in Hong Kong and Mainland China
Authors: Billioud Sébastien
Published: August 2020

Chapter 6 continues to address the issue of tension, but the focus turns to today’s Hong Kong and the People’s Republic. In Hong Kong, the affirmation of a Confucian identity is useful both to attract people to Yiguandao’s places of worship (and convert some of them), and to establish links with the authorities. In the People’s Republic, Confucianism is at the core of Yiguandao’s strategy to smoothly re-establish itself and defuse tensions that remain important. Because of the current Confucian revival, the overall context is favorable and interactions are now many, especially in the educational realm, between the Yiguandao and popular Confucian groups. But even more striking is the fact that in some cases Chinese authorities go as far as to cooperate with the Yiguandao for the promotion of traditional (and especially Confucian) culture and values such as filial piety.
Structuring and Organizing the Missionary Effort
Authors: Billioud Sébastien
Published: August 2020

This chapter emphasizes the importance of two elements that are critical for the success of Yiguandao’s expansionary ambition: the training of talents able to efficiently proselytize and the sophisticated structuration of missionary strategies. Talents are trained in systematic sessions that all adepts have to follow on a weekly basis. The chapter delves into these sessions, showing how they combine solid spiritual training and the gradual development of useful proselytizing skills. This efficient management of human resources is backed by sophisticated strategies of development. The chapter introduces the multilayered environment in which a given place of worship operates and its adepts circulate. It also provides details about how missionary work is carefully and methodically devised and implemented, nevertheless leaving room for adaptation to local conditions.
A Well-Orchestrated Strategy Taking Politics and Cross-Strait Relations Into Account
Authors: Billioud Sébastien
Published: August 2020

The Yiguandao has ambitions to re-establish itself firmly in Mainland China. The process is ongoing but, so far, it has primarily taken place in an underground way. However, the ultimate target for the group is to manage to be legalized in China in the same way as it was legalized in Taiwan at the end of the martial law period. In order to put things into context, this chapter introduces both the Yiguandao’s relationship to politics and the way Chinese authorities think about religion. For them, the expansionary dynamics of the Yiguandao is closely intertwined with the Taiwanese question. This explains why a new era started in the middle of the 2000s, marked by renewed contacts between Chinese authorities and the Yiguandao’s General Association located in Taiwan. Based on a number of very concrete examples, the chapter underlines both the progress and the limits of these exchanges, showing that the Yiguandao’s ability to navigate the troubled water of cross-straits politics certainly contributes to its overall expansionary dynamics.
The Underrepresentation of Women in Political Technology
Authors: Kreiss Daniel , Adams Kirsten , Ciesielski Jenni , Fernandez Haley , Frauenfelder Kate , Lowe Brinley , Micchia Gabrielle
Published: August 2020

This chapter demonstrates how women are deeply underrepresented in the field of political technology, especially in leadership roles. Women also do not have the same entrepreneurship opportunities in the field that men have. The barriers to the equal representation of women in the field of political tech are multifaceted and systemic. Women are underrepresented on campaigns because of the time constraints and network relationships that shape the hiring process, in addition to gendered assumptions about their qualifications. Women routinely cited that the goal of electing candidates outweighed any other considerations both in hiring and when women are in the room. While the lack of work–life balance on campaigns affects both men and women, it likely affects women disproportionately more given that they are often primary caregivers and have familial obligations that men do not have. Campaign hierarchies and bureaucracies often promote men as decision-makers and leaders, resulting in women’s voices often being absent from the corridors of power.
The Problem of Inclusivity
Authors: Kreiss Daniel , Adams Kirsten , Ciesielski Jenni , Fernandez Haley , Frauenfelder Kate , Lowe Brinley , Micchia Gabrielle
Published: August 2020

This chapter outlines how men in leadership positions and male-dominated office cultures often shaped women's roles and work in campaign tech departments. Women often felt at a disadvantage when it came to taking credit for their work and found that their age, gender, and experience interacted to limit their opportunities. Women encountered differing expectations for their leadership compared with their male counterparts. The “bro cultures” on campaigns created environments that were challenging for women to navigate. Women felt excluded, both socially and professionally, from parts of campaign culture and organization in ways that limited their work roles. Women, especially leaders, were also expected to perform emotional labor on campaigns, regardless of their roles—even as they contended with “imposter syndrome” and the devaluing of their voices by men. In this context, women drew on strong mentoring and network relationships to navigate campaign dynamics and further their careers.
The Lack of Accountability on Campaigns
Authors: Kreiss Daniel , Adams Kirsten , Ciesielski Jenni , Fernandez Haley , Frauenfelder Kate , Lowe Brinley , Micchia Gabrielle
Published: August 2020

This chapter reveals that women have few ways of holding people accountable for inappropriate behavior, arbitrary exercises of power, and retaliation for reporting incidents on campaigns. In this context, women often avoid or ignore issues in the workplace. Women argued that campaign human resources departments often lack the time, staff, and resources to provide policies, structure, and aid to staff. As a result, women who find themselves on the receiving end of a toxic work environment due to a colleague’s harassment or misconduct—implicit or explicit—frequently fail to report these incidents. If they consider reporting, they fear potential repercussions and retaliation. Without accountability in the campaign workplace, women tend to avoid and ignore the issues facing them in order to keep the mission of the campaign on track, which often outweighs the desire to shake the system up and create more equity in the workplace.
How Political Tech Can Become More Equitable
Authors: Kreiss Daniel , Adams Kirsten , Ciesielski Jenni , Fernandez Haley , Frauenfelder Kate , Lowe Brinley , Micchia Gabrielle
Published: August 2020

The conclusion turns the book’s findings into a set of recommendations for how campaigns can create the more equitable political technology field of the future. The conclusion argues that candidates and their campaigns must create more deliberate hiring processes designed to achieve gender equity, inclusion, and diversity more broadly, especially in leadership. Creating real institutions to ensure accountability would result in clear consequences for misconduct. Investing in positions such as chief diversity officers would provide for more sustained efforts to recruit, retain, and develop staffers from underrepresented groups. Campaigns can create more workplace flexibility to support all their employees. Women in leadership positions can promote women’s voices in office culture. Male allies must use their already recognized voices to promote those of women and work to ensure representation through hiring and promotion. Media outlets need to be more deliberate about their coverage of campaigns.
The Separation of Powers
Authors: Tew Yvonne
Published: August 2020

This chapter explores the judiciary’s institutional role in maintaining balance among the branches of government. To contextualize the judiciary’s fraught position, it recounts how Malaysia’s dominant coalition government infamously amended the Constitution in 1988 to remove the provision vesting judicial power in the courts. The Malaysian judiciary’s response was initially anemic, with the Federal Court appearing to concede that the courts’ powers were now at the mercy of the legislature. This chapter uses as its central case study the landmark decision of the Malaysian Federal Court in the 2017 case of Semenyih Jaya v. Pentadbir Tanah Daerah Hulu Langat. For the first time in decades, the Court struck down a federal statute, declaring that constitutional judicial power is vested solely in the courts and nullifying the 1988 constitutional amendment. Semenyih Jaya represents a landmark in Malaysia’s constitutional jurisprudence. It recognized judicial power and the separation of powers as features so central to the constitutional framework that they cannot be altered by the legislature, effectively establishing a basic structure doctrine applied to the Malaysian Constitution. With this affirmation of judicial power, the Malaysian Federal Court reanimated the separation of powers as an effective principle of checks and balances.
Balancing Security and Liberty
Authors: Tew Yvonne
Published: August 2020

Emergency powers and national security laws have long been features of a powerful state in Malaysia and Singapore. In addition to extensive emergency regimes, these states have employed security laws authorizing preventive detention as well as public order statutes regulating expression and assembly. Courts have traditionally been highly passive in scrutinizing government actions taken in the name of national security or public order, refusing to assess whether the vast powers wielded by the executive were reasonable. This chapter makes the case for greater judicial scrutiny over whether government restrictions on individual liberties are justified. Proportionality analysis offers a rigorous, yet flexible, framework that courts can use to engage directly with the government’s justifications of national security and public order. And on some occasions, courts may have to employ a constitutional basic structure doctrine to strike down legislative attempts to pass statutes or constitutional amendments aimed at removing judicial review or eroding institutional safeguards. These judicial mechanisms would aid courts in the critical, yet sensitive, endeavor to balance security and liberty.
Constitutional Justice in France
Authors: Jouanjan Olivier
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines the concept of ‘constitutional justice’ (justice constitutionnelle) as it is understood within the French legal order. Afterward, the chapter examines the history of French constitutional justice from the Ancien Régime to the Fifth Republic. Here, the constitutional jurisdiction of the Fifth Republic—that is, the Constitutional—and, in a broader sense, the system of constitutional justice as it exists in the Fifth Republic—are given particular attention. But an analysis of the Constitutional Council is not enough, however. The chapter also allows for a larger picture that takes into account the interactions between constitutional jurisdiction and all the other judicial actors.
The Constitutional Court of The Republic of Latvia
Authors: Ziemele Ineta , Spale Alla , Jurcēna Laila
Published: August 2020

This chapter examines constitutional review in Latvia. When the Latvian Constitution—the Satversme—was adopted in 1922, the European model of constitutional courts existed, but the idea of establishing a constitutional court in Latvia was not discussed. The chapter traces the development of Latvian constitutional justice following the establishment of the Satversme, before providing a brief overview of both the institution of constitutional review as well as the constitutional court in Latvia. The Latvian Constitutional Court has played an important role in developing the legal order in accordance with the principles of rule of law and democracy and in educating the society in these values. Lastly, the chapter discusses the case law of the Constitutional Court as part of a wider European legal discourse.
The Influence of the United States Supreme Court on Judicial Review in Europe
Authors: Quint Peter E
Published: August 2020

This chapter outlines the influence of the United States Supreme Court, and its institution of ‘judicial review’, on certain constitutional systems of Europe. It first introduces the United States Supreme Court and the institution of ‘decentralized’ judicial review, and then discusses the fate of American judicial review in the early nineteenth century. The chapter proceeds to an examination of the influence of the American Constitution and the American Supreme Court in the early nineteenth century in Europe, before recounting how the great philosopher and political thinker, Hans Kelsen, advanced another form of judicial review—‘centralized’ judicial review. Next, an analysis of the influence of the United States Supreme Court on certain constitutional tribunals created in Europe in the post-Second World War period is made, alongside a discussion of the separate path taken by judicial review in France under the Constitution of the Fifth Republic (1958) and the influences on constitutional tribunals created in Eastern Europe after the fall of the Soviet Union. Finally, this chapter offers some reflections on the influence of the Supreme Court’s case law on decisions of European courts of the contemporary period.
Pedagogy, Political Economy, and Training
Authors: Cobb Hannah , Croucher Karina
Published: August 2020

This chapter outlines how political economy—particularly neoliberalism and marketization—has impacted on pedagogy within higher education globally, and specifically on archaeological pedagogy. This is most explicitly seen in debates on vocational training, where concerns with speed, efficiency, and market forces frame training in banking instrumentalist terms. In contrast, the chapter argues that taking an assemblage approach foregrounds the multivocality of the archaeological process and recognizes that learning assemblages are comprised of multiple material elements, which also substantially affect learning. It considers online learning and massive open online courses (MOOCs), examining how a technology which should democratize can marginalize the individuals who need it most. Ways forward are presented, drawing on examples of good practice such as Framework Archaeology, Catalhöyük, and the Ardnamurchan Transitions Project (ATP), including technology and the Archaeological Skills Passport as tools for reflection. The ‘training versus education’ dichotomy is challenged, arguing that these are components of the same learning assemblages.
Becoming Archaeologist
Authors: Cobb Hannah , Croucher Karina
Published: August 2020

Once again, the book returns to the semi-fictional narratives that structure Chapters 3 and 5. This time, our focus shifts from the semi-fictional story of Student X to a wider cast of people and things. In this chapter, we encounter Student A, Lecturers X and Y, Archaeologist X, and Heritage Professional X. The semi-fictional narratives about each of these individuals illuminates how the processes of becoming archaeologist are connected to and emerge from engagements with multiple different materials and multiple different scales. This chapter provides the basis for arguments that will then be further developed in Chapter 8. Trigger warning: Chapter 7 describes miscarriage.
Conclusion
Authors: Cobb Hannah , Croucher Karina
Published: August 2020

This chapter begins with a final semi-fictional narrative, emerging partly out of the narrative in Chapter 9, but now returning to Lecturers X and Y, explaining how their use of cake in a conference paper can be deployed to explain the approach advocated in this book. In turn, the chapter sums up the arguments made throughout the volume, providing a series of tangible recommendations and collective actions under the subheadings: pedagogy, political economy, and training; pedagogy, equality, and diversity; teaching, learning, and scale; revaluing pedagogy; and recommendations beyond archaeology. At the heart of these is one foundational recommendation: ‘We must recognize the role of human and non-human entities in the learning process and that teaching and learning emerges through assemblages of human and non-human components.’ The chapter highlights the non-normative, feminist, collective approach to writing that characterizes the volume and connects this explicitly to the process of becoming archaeologist.
Rules and Exceptions, in Law and Elsewhere
Authors: Sartor Giovanni
Published: August 2020

The structure of rule systems in different domains is addressed. A rule system is viewed as a mechanism delivering certain outputs (the system’s conclusions) given certain external inputs, and certain internal structures and processes. It is specified what it means for a rule system to consist of rules and exceptions rather than of flat rules. It is argued that there are three main exception structures: inhibitory input links, inhibitory rules, and prioritized conflicting rules. These structures can be found in many rule systems, including the law, and international law in particular. They make it so that rule systems provide defeasible outputs in response to incoming signals, namely outputs that may no longer be provided when a larger input set is given. It is argued that the current jurisprudential debate on rules and exceptions (as well as the debate on defeasibility) needs to be lifted beyond the law for clarity to be achieved on the existence, genesis, and function of systems of rules and exceptions.
Rules, Defeasibility, and the Psychology of Exceptions
Authors: Schauer Frederick
Published: August 2020

An important aspect of international law is that it typically lacks the formal, structured, and institutional enforcement and sanctioning mechanisms of domestic law. As a result, decision-makers constrained by international law are often faced with applying the rules of international law to their own action. We know from H.L.A. Hart and others that such internalization is possible, but we know from a great deal of experimental research in cognitive and social psychology that imposing second-order constraints on one’s first-order preferences is difficult and rare without a sanctioning mechanism. As a result, there exists a serious risk that treating the rules of international law as defeasible and subject to exceptions will render the constraints of international law ineffectual when actors are making the decisions about whether and when the exceptions to constraining rules apply to their own actions.
Derogation and Defeasibility in International Law
Authors: Dolcetti Andrea , Ratti Giovanni Battista
Published: August 2020

In this chapter, we discuss the way in which implicit exceptions operate in the context of international law, with special reference to peremptory norms of general international law (i.e. jus cogens). To do so, we develop a theoretical model of exceptions based upon the notion of normative conflict. This model allows us to explain the relationship between derogation and defeasibility of peremptory norms of general international law. The chapter is organized in three parts. We begin by explaining the difference between explicit and implicit exceptions in light of the way in which different types of norms may conflict (section 1). We then consider the existence of explicit and implicit exceptions in international law vis-à-vis the existence of peremptory norms of general international law, which are by definition non-derogable (section 2). Finally, we employ our theoretical model—illustrated in section 1—to analyse Article 53 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties 1969, arguing that, in relation to jus cogens, the idea of non-derogation should be understood as referring to implicit and not explicit exceptions (section 3).
Good Faith and the Exercise of Treaty-based Discretionary Powers
Authors: Linderfalk Ulf
Published: August 2020

This chapter addresses the significance of the requirement of good faith laid down in common Article 26 of the 1969 and 1986 Vienna Conventions on the Law of Treaties. Whereas colleagues have repeatedly stressed the foundational value of the concept of good faith in the law of treaties, much remains to be said about its particular legal consequences. Commenting upon the significance of good faith generally, international lawyers typically emphasize the importance of rationality and reason for the application of international law: when you hold an international right, or owe an international obligation, you are required to act in a reasonable and non-arbitrary fashion. As this chapter will rather put it, good faith stands for the idea of international law as a purposive endeavour. So interpreted, not only does good faith form, implicitly, a part of every treaty in force, but it also provides an exception to any treaty rule that confers a discretionary power, whether on a state, on an international court or tribunal, or an organ of an international organization. This chapter explores the further implications of this idea for the application of treaties generally and for the concept of international law.