bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Epigraphy, Byzantine
Authors: Toth Ida
Published: December 2012

The discipline of Byzantine epigraphy studies inscriptions, usually in Greek, that are dated between the fourth and the fifteenth centuriesCE.
Factories, Late Roman and Byzantine
Authors: Decker Michael J.
Published: December 2012

Diocletian (r. 284–305
CE
) and the emperors of the Tetrarchy (r. 293–313) created imperial arms factories, the
fabricate
(singular,
fabrica
), throughout the empire by moving skilled specialists from legionary foundries and civilian artisans into urban compounds that contained workshops, warehouses, and barracks housing hundreds of workers.
Finance, Byzantine
Authors: Sarris Peter
Published: December 2012

The economy of the Byzantine Empire from the fourth to the seventh centuriesCEwas a highly monetized one, meaning that both state finances and those of private individuals and institutions were heavily dependent on and integrated into the workings of the imperial monetary system.
Fresco, images and technique
Authors: Loverance Rowena
Published: December 2012

Fresco painting, practiced in classical and Hellenistic Greece, reached a technical peak in Roman villas in Rome and Campania.
Gregory of Nazianzus
Authors: Simelidis Christos
Published: December 2012

Gregory of Nazianzus (ca. 330–90CE) was a leading theologian of the early Christian church and served briefly as bishop of Constantinople (November 27, 380–June 381).
Gregory the Illuminator
Authors: Van Lint Theo Maarten
Published: December 2012

Gregory the Illuminator (died ca. 330
CE
); saint.
Hagia Sophia
Authors: Dark Ken
Published: December 2012

Although many churches in the Orthodox Christian world have been dedicated to Hagia Sophia (“the Wisdom of God”), the most famous was in the center of Byzantine Constantinople, immediately north of the Augusteum and south of Hagia Eirene.
Houses, housing, household formation, Byzantine
Authors: Rodley Lyn
Published: December 2012

Material remains of Byzantine houses or housing earlier than the fourteenth centuryCEare very scarce, so our understanding of domestic architecture relies much on documentary evidence and representations of buildings in art.
Iconophiles
Authors: Sels Lara , Cool Wim
Published: December 2012

Iconophiles (or iconodules) are the proponents of icon veneration in the Byzantine iconoclast controversies of 730–87 and 815–43CE.
Imperial family, women of the
Authors: Garland Lynda
Published: December 2012

Imperial women played an important part at court and in the political and religious life of the Byzantine Empire between 324 and 641.
Kosmas Indikopleustes
Authors: Kominko Maja
Published: December 2012

Kosmas Indikopleustes lived in the first half of the sixth century ce and is the author of the
Christian Topography
, a polemic against the theory that the earth and the universe are spherical.
Martina, empress
Authors: Olster David
Published: December 2012

Martina (b. ca. 595
CE
) was the niece and second wife of the emperor Herakleios, the daughter of his sister Maria.
Martyrion
Authors: Rodley Lyn
Published: December 2012

Any structure built to commemorate martyrdom (witnessing) of religious faith may be known as a “martyrion.”
Maximus the Confessor
Authors: Neil Bronwen
Published: December 2012

Maximus the Confessor (580–662CE) was perhaps the most significant theologian of the seventh century, in both eastern and western Christendom.
Missions
Authors: Riedel Meredith L. D.
Published: December 2012

Missionary efforts in Byzantium were nearly always initiated by a Christian emperor seeking to fulfill his role of carrying on the “apostolic” work of evangelism, but not necessarily Orthodox Christianity.
Muawiya
Authors: Decker Michael J.
Published: December 2012

Mu‘awiya b. Abi Sufyan was born ca. 600
CE
, son of Abi Sufyan and founder of the Umayyad Dynasty that ruled the Islamic empire from 661–750
CE
.
Navies, Byzantine
Authors: Sullivan Denis F.
Published: December 2012

Fleets played a not insignificant role in the early East Roman Empire.
Nonnos of Panopolis
Authors: Webb Ruth
Published: December 2012

Nonnos was a Greek poet from Panopolis in Egypt (modern Akhmim), author of theDionysiaca,an epic poem relating the life and triumph of Dionysos, and of a verseParaphrase of the Gospel of John,both written in dactylic hexameters using epic dialect.
Portraiture, Byzantine
Authors: Loverance Rowena
Published: December 2012

In Late Antiquity and Byzantium, portraiture became less naturalistic, and three‐dimensional portraiture ceased entirely. Issues of representation became inextricably bound up with icons, and how earthly materials can represent both human and divine.
Romanos the Melode
Authors: Peltomaa Leena Mari
Published: December 2012

Romanos the Melode (Greek,
melodos
“poet‐composer”) (died before 562) is the greatest Byzantine hymnographer; he used the early Byzantine literary genre of
kontakion
.
Sabas, Great Lavra of
Authors: Louth Andrew
Published: December 2012

The fifth century
CE
saw in Palestine a period of monastic expansion in the Judaean Desert to the south and east of Jerusalem. Our knowledge of this episode is derived largely from the
Lives of the Palestinian Saints
, written by Cyril of Skythopolis in the sixth century. Chief among these monastic saints was Sabas, who founded the Great Lavra in the Judaean Desert in 483 (?). The Great Lavra was a monastery at the core of which was a coenobitic house, rebuilt by Justinian in the sixth century, much of which survives, but many of the monks lived an eremitical (hermit) life in the caves of the Wadi Kedron, in which the monastery is situated.
Scripts, Byzantine
Authors: Gaul Niels
Published: December 2012

Greek handwriting of the Middle Ages knew two basic scripts, majuscule (bilinear; i.e., most letters fitting between two virtual, lines), and minuscule (quadrilinear; i.e., most letters featuring ascending or descending strokes). Majuscule letters were the only acceptable book script of Antiquity and Late Antiquity. From the third through the eighth centuries
CE
and under the influence of Latin, which had already developed quadrilinear features, Greek minuscule script gradually evolved from a cursive version of documentary majuscule (De Gregorio 2000). Accordingly, minuscule script was first employed in the chancery context. The basic principle of majuscule was to write, or draw, each letter individually; that of minuscule was to “string together” (
syrmaiographein
) as many letters as possible (Cortassa 2003; Luzzatto 2002–3). “Scribal economy” guided the evolution of the initial minuscule canon; certain majuscule letters that were easily mistaken – rounded E, Ο, C, and diagonal Α, Δ, Λ, all differentiated by a single hairline, resulting in numerous scribal errors – became easily differentiable in the new alphabet. However, it produced its own “false friends,” such as H–K and, to a lesser degree, Μ–Ν, so that by the tenth century certain majuscule letters were reinserted into the minuscule canon (H, K, N, Λ, etc.), presumably also to satisfy the conservative taste of well‐to‐do patrons (Oikonomides 2000). Majuscule and minuscule scripts coexisted in various context‐bound styles and on a sliding scale from formal to informal.
Simplicius
Authors: Louth Andrew
Published: December 2012

Simplicius was a sixth‐centuryceNeoplatonist, one of the seven philosophers who left Athens for Ktesiphon after the Athenian Academy was closed by Justinian in 529.
S
inai,
M
onastery of
St
.
C
atherine
Authors: Hatlie Peter
Published: December 2012

The Monastery of St. Catherine on Mount Sinai was among the most prominent and privileged institutions of its kind in Early Byzantium. Its reputation rested upon its special place in biblical geography, important works of religious art, relics, imposing architecture, an impressive manuscript collection, and significant financial and political patronage. Long before its founding, hermits gravitated to the region of Mount Sinai, both the peak associated with Moses’ reception of the Decalogue (Jabal Mūsā) and the valley below, identified with the miracle of the Burning Bush. Around 330
CE
, the empress Helena funded a shrine at the site of the Burning Bush, seen decades later by the traveler
Egeria
.
Stephanus of Byzantium
Authors: Whitby Mary
Published: December 2012

Stephanus wrote a lost geographical gazetteer calledEthnika(Peoples) in more than fifty books (book 36 began with omicron), with a methodological introduction, part of a wider codification of antiquarian knowledge under Justinian I.
Themata
Authors: Olster David
Published: December 2012

The term
thema
(perhaps derived from “muster list”) designates a Byzantine province from 650
CE
to the end of the East Roman Empire, but more specifically refers to an administrative system that developed from the seventh to the eleventh centuries. Its origins, development, and organization are extensively debated and, with limited evidence, likely to remain contentious.
Theophilos, emperor
Authors: Olster David
Published: December 2012

Theophilos (crowned 821, r. 829–842) was the second emperor of the Amorian Dynasty whose reputation was attacked by iconodule chroniclers and historians, but whom later legend remembered as a just and dashing ruler.
Theotokos (Virgin Mary)
Authors: Peltomaa Leena Mari
Published: December 2012

Theotokos (lit. “The one who gives birth to God”) is an epithet of the Virgin Mary, the use of which was challenged by Nestorius (because no created being could give birth to God) but endorsed at the Council of Ephesos in 431 (on soteriological grounds: Jesus was both God and man).
Trade, Byzantine
Authors: Decker Michael J.
Published: December 2012

In the early imperial period (fourth through seventh centuriesce), local, regional, and long‐distance trade was flourishing throughout most of the Byzantine Empire.
Villages,Byzantine
Authors: Jackson Mark P. C.
Published: December 2012

The majority of people in the Byzantine world lived in the countryside in villages. Village communities varied in size from several families to, occasionally, a few thousand people.
Warfare,
B
yzantine
Authors: Sullivan Denis F.
Published: December 2012

Through most of its existence Byzantium faced enemies with greater resources.
Xenodocheion
Authors: Miller Timothy S.
Published: December 2012

Xenodocheion
was a Greek term for new Christian philanthropic institutions that appeared during the fourth century
CE
in the Eastern Roman Empire. Although
xenodocheion
occasionally served as a synonym for
pandocheion
(commercial inn), after 300
CE
it referred exclusively to hospices offering free lodging to travelers and homeless poor (Kislinger 1984: 171–5).
Zeno, emperor
Authors: Haarer F. K.
Published: December 2012

Zeno (b. 425/30, d. April 9, 491CE), originally Tarasicodissa of Rousamblada, emerged as emperor (474–91) after a power struggle in Constantinople between the Germanic powerbase, orchestrated by Aspar, and the Isaurians who, notorious for their plundering of imperial territory up to the fifth century, thereafter operated within the sphere of imperial politics. In 466 Zeno married Ariadne, Leo I's daughter, and in 469 became consul andmagister militum per Orientem. After Aspar's murder, and when the throne passed to Zeno following the deaths of Leo I and Leo II, it seemed that the Isaurians had finally achieved the transition from despised brigands on the periphery of empire to rulers of that empire.
Zonaras, John
Authors: Jeffreys Elizabeth
Published: December 2012

John Zonaras (died after 1159CE) held high office under Alexios I Komnenos (reigned 1081–1118) but lost his position after that emperor's death. He retired as a monk to the monastery of St. Glykeria (probably on the Princes' Islands in the Sea of Marmara).
Akarnanian League
Authors: Freitag Klaus
Published: December 2012

It is not known for certain when the
ethnos
of the Akarnanians in northwestern Greece was formed. The Catalogue of Ships in the
Iliad
(2.484–759) does notmention the “Akarnanian people.”
Agis II and III of Sparta
Authors: Stewart Daniel R.
Published: December 2012

Agis II (r. ca. 427–400
bce
) and Agis III (r. 338–ca. 330) were kings of Sparta from the Eurypontid line.
Aisymnetes
Authors: Wallace Robert W.
Published: December 2012

Aisymneteai
were obscure, mainly Archaic officials or rulers seemingly associated with the demos and mediation; the etymology is unknown. Among Homer's Phaeacians nine
aisymnetai, demioi
(“from the people”), “managed [
presseskon
] everything well in contests/ gatherings” (
Od
. 8.258–60). Homer's imperfect verb indicates that they were not
ad hoc;
despite scholastic suggestions, nowhere do they arbitrate contests (contrast
brabeus;
Achilles in
Il
. 23.270–897).
Aleuadai
Authors: Sprawski Sławomir
Published: December 2012

The Aleuadai were Thessalian aristocrats of Larissa in the Archaic and Classical period. The family traced its origins to Herakles (Hercules) (Pind.Pyth. 10) and probably to Aleuas, his descendant.
Apellai
Authors: Samotta Iris
Published: December 2012

Apellai
(only in the plural form) refers to the religious Apellai festival of Apollo (“Apellon” in the Dorian dialect) held every year in the month of Apellaios in Delphi (Burkert 1975: 9–11) and probably in Lakonia (Luther 2006: 81), or to the Spartan political assembly of the people as exposed in the
Great Rhetra
of ca. 700
bce
, the constitutional document ascribed to the mythical lawgiver Lycurgus.
Archon/archontes
Authors: Taylor Martha C.
Published: December 2012

Archon (meaning, simply, “the ruling one”) was the title given to public officials in several Greek states. Archons are attested in Arcadia, Athens, Boiotia, Delos, Delphi, Thessaly (where four “tetrarchs” each ruled a “tetrad” or “fourth” of Thessaly), and elsewhere.
Areopagos
Authors: Wallace Robert W.
Published: December 2012

A rocky outcropping below Athens' Acropolis, the Areios Pagos (in early Greek, “solid hill,” later by popular etymology “hill of Ares”) included the site of a shrine to the Erinyes, underworld deities of the family curse, an early venue for homicide trials. It also became the site of a council with at least potentially important powers, removed in 462/1bce. From the later fifth century a symbol for conservatives of pre‐democratic government, during Athens' more conservative period after 350 and then in Roman times, it regained someauctoritasif few new powers.
Aristagoras of Miletos
Authors: Boffo Laura
Published: December 2012

Aristagoras (?‐ca. 496bce), son of Molpagoras, from a distinguished Milesian family, was the deputy tyrant (epitropos)of his relative Histiaios, detained in Susa, from ca. 511 to autumn 499. His aim was apparently to consolidate the role of Miletos and his own power in the eastern Mediterranean under Achaemenid rule.
Aristides (“the Just”)
Authors: Shear Julia L.
Published: December 2012

Aristides, the son of Lysimachos of the Athenian deme Alopeke, was probably born in the 520sbceand died about 467. Prominent both as a general and as a politician in the 480s and 470s, he assessed the first Tribute to be paid by the members of the Delian League.His reputation for probity was known already to Herodotus, who described him as “the best and most just man among the Athenians” (Hdt. 8.79.1). His reputation was emphasized by later sources and Plutarch'sLife of Aristidescontains a series of anecdotes attesting to his upright character.
Aspasia
Authors: Wallace Robert W.
Published: December 2012

Athens' most famous and misunderstood woman, Aspasia of Miletos was the beloved of Athens' democratic leader Perikles from ca. 450 until his death in 429.
Ateleia
Authors: Migeotte Léopold
Published: December 2012

In the Greek world,
ateleia
was tax exemption and, more generally, dispensation from any charge. It was an original institution, common in Greek city‐states, but the numerous ancient texts, mainly epigraphic, that evoke it are often terse and difficult to interpret. However, together they allow us to identify many main types.
Bardylis
Authors: Heckel Waldemar
Published: December 2012

Illyrian chieftain. He appears to have been the leader of the Illyrian army that defeated and killed Perdikkas III and a substantial number of his
hetairoi
in 360
bce
, thereby bringing Philip II of Macedon to the throne.
Battiads
Authors: Samotta Iris
Published: December 2012

The Battiads (Battiadai), eponymously named after Battos I, the founder of the royal dynasty, ruled Cyrene from ca. 630 to ca. 440bce.
Chabrias
Authors: Bianco Elisabetta
Published: December 2012

Athenian
strategos
, active in the fourth century
bce
, who stood out during the Corinthian War in the 390s and operated with the fleet against the Spartans, in particular at Aigina and in support of Evagoras of Salamis.
Chaeronea, battle of
Authors: Worthington Ian
Published: December 2012

The battle of Chaeronea (in Boiotia) was fought between Philip II of Macedon and a coalition of Greek forces, including Athenians and Thebans, in August 338
bce
.
Cleruchy
Authors: Moreno Alfonso
Published: December 2012

The cleruchy (fromkleros“plot” andechein“holding”) is best known as a method of Athenian colonial expansion, particularly in the fifth and fourth centuriesbce, whereby the state distributed plots of land conquered overseas to its citizens, and these reciprocally accepted liability to military service and taxation.
Dion of Syracuse
Authors: De Vido Stefania
Published: December 2012

The Syracusan Dion, son of Hipparinos, of aristocratic birth and brother‐in‐law of the tyrant Dionysios I, was an important statesman of the mid‐fourth centurybce.
Diplomacy, Greek
Authors: Bolmarcich Sarah
Published: December 2012

There is no word in ancient Greek that approximates the sense of the English word “diplomacy.” Nor did the Greeks have a “science” of diplomacy as we do today; there may have been a number of fourth‐century BCE treatises instructing their readers on topics like siege warfare, but there was only one such tract on diplomacy, Demetrios of Phaleron's no‐longer‐extantPresbeutikos, “On Ambassadorship.” What can be discerned from our scanty evidence, however, are the physical procedures of Greek diplomacy.
Dorian tribes
Authors: Jones Nicholas F.
Published: December 2012

“Tribes” is the conventional but misleading rendering of Greekphylai(singular,phyle), the principal units segmenting the populations and/or territories of many, perhaps originally all, city‐states. Just as in the case of the four ancestralphylaiof the Ionians, Dorians inherited a set of threephylai, with an attested historical distribution among the Peloponnesian city‐states and their colonial foundations, on the islands of the southern Aegean, and along the southwestern seaboard of Asia Minor.
Eion
Authors: Psoma Selene
Published: December 2012

Eion was founded on the left bank of the Strymon River by settlers from Paros, possibly as early as the seventh centuryBCE.
Eponymoi
Authors: Paschidis Paschalis
Published: December 2012

Absolute chronology requires numbered or otherwise individualized years; calendric systems therefore either simply name the years or number them sequentially with a specific era as a starting point.
Eteoboutadai
Authors: Lambert Stephen D.
Published: December 2012

The Eteoboutadai were a prestigious Atticgenosthat supplied the priestess of Athena Polias and the priest of Poseidon Erechtheus on the Acropolis.
Finance, Greek
Authors: Migeotte Léopold
Published: December 2012

This entry is about public and sacred finance in Greek city‐states, and not about the finances of larger groups (alliances, federations, kingdoms, empires) to which many of them belonged.
Gerousia
Authors: Nafissi Massimo
Published: December 2012

The Spartangerousiais the best‐known Greek “council of elders.” As the role of thegerontesin Homer shows, such councils stemmed from Preclassical times, but the prestige of old age fueled the creation ofgerousiaieven into the imperial period.
Haliartos
Authors: Mackil Emily
Published: December 2012

Haliartos is a small Boiotianpolison the southern shore of Lake Kopais, situated midway between its larger neighbors, Thebes and Koroneia, upon one of which it was probably dependent in the late Archaic period (Hdt. 5.79.2).
Hipparchos, son of Peisistratos
Authors: Lavelle B. M.
Published: December 2012

Nothing is known about his early life and sources are divided as to whether Hipparchos (ca. 565–514
bce
) succeeded Peisistratos in 528/7 as sole tyrant of Athens, as co‐ruler with his brother Hippias, or whether Hippias ruled alone after peisistratos.
Hippobotai
Authors: Parker Victor
Published: December 2012

Hippobotaiwas the name of the aristocrats in the Euboean town of Chalcis during the Archaic and early Classical periods (Hdt. 5.77).
Horoi
Authors: Harris Edward M.
Published: December 2012

Horoswas the ancient Greek word for boundary marker. Ahoroswas usually a stele of marble or limestone, no larger than a meter high, rectangular and roughly hewn except for the upper front face, which was dressed smooth for inscribed letters.
Hyperides
Authors: Worthington Ian
Published: December 2012

Hyperides (389/8–322) was a prominent Athenian politician and orator in the later fourth centurybce.
Ionian Revolt
Authors: Boffo Laura
Published: December 2012

A patchy but persistent revolt against Persian rule in the western provinces, which from autumn 499 to summer 493bceforced the Great King to mount vigorous efforts to regain control.
Thirty Tyrants, at Athens
Authors: Németh György
Published: December 2012

The Thirty Tyrants (404–403
BCE
) were an Oligarchy that overthrew the Athenian democracy and sent hundreds of Athenians to their deaths during its eight‐month rule (Xen.
Hell
. 2.4.21; [Arist.]
Ath. Pol
. 35.4).
Kallias, Peace of
Authors: Harris Edward M.
Published: December 2012

After the Athenian general Kimon died while on campaign in Cyprus around 449
bce
, there was no fighting between the Athenians and the forces of the Great King of Persia until 412, when the Persian satraps Tissaphernes and Pharnabazos started to support the Spartan forces in Ionia.
Kallimachos, Athenian polemarch
Authors: Krentz Peter
Published: December 2012

Kallimachos of Aphidna (before 520–490
bce
) was the Athenian
polemarchos
at the battle of marathon, where he died.
Kaulonia
Authors: Vido Stefania De
Published: December 2012

Kaulonia was a Greek city in southern Italy, on the Ionian Sea between Kroton and Lokroi (Monasterace Marina, RC). It was founded ca. 650bceby the Achaians from Kroton (Ps.‐Skymnos 318–22) and from Greek Achaia (OikistesTyphon from Aigion: Paus. 6.3. 11–12) in order to stop the northern territorial expansion of Lokroi Epizephyroi beyond the Sagra River.
Kersobleptes
Authors: Moreno Alfonso
Published: December 2012

Kersobleptes (or, more correctly, Kersebleptes), Odrysian king of Thrace (360/59–342/1bce), son of Kotys. His reign saw Thrace turned into a theater of proxy wars between Athens and Macedon over the strategic northeastern Aegean.
Kimon
Authors: Henderson Thomas R.
Published: December 2012

Kimon was a fifth‐centurybceAthenian statesman and general who elevated Athens to hegemony in the Aegean after the Persian wars. Born in Athens around 510bce, hewas the son of Miltiades, one of the heroes of the battle of Marathon (490), and Hegesipyle, daughter of the Thracian king Oloros. He married Isodike, an Alkmaionid. His sister Elpinike married Kallias, one of the wealthiest men in Athens.
Kleitos (Black Clitus)
Authors: Heckel Waldemar
Published: December 2012

Kleitos son of Dropides was surnamed “the Black,” primarily to distinguish him from the phalanx commander and, later, hipparch and admiral, Kleitos the White.
Kleomenes II of Sparta
Authors: Stewart Daniel R.
Published: December 2012

Kleomenes II (r. 370–309
bce
) was one of the longest‐serving of the Agiad kings of Sparta (Diod. Sic. 20.29), yet despite that little information survives relating to him directly.
Kleon
Authors: Worthington Ian
Published: December 2012

Kleon was an Athenian politician and general (strategos) in the Peloponnesian War. The year of his birth is unknown, but he died in battle at Amphipolis in 422.
Konon, Athenian
strategos
Authors: Asmonti Luca
Published: December 2012

Athenian general and statesman (ca. 444–ca. 390
bce
). In 414/13 and 411/10, Konon served as archon at naupaktos,athens' main base in the Gulf of corinth (Thuc. 7.31.4–5).
Krypteia
Authors: Welwei Karl‐Wilhelm
Published: December 2012

Thekrypteiarefers to the so‐calledkryptoi, “the hidden ones”: young Spartans who underwent an endurance test between passing theAgogeand being admitted to full citizenship.
Kyme, Asia Minor
Authors: Franco Carlo
Published: December 2012

Greek
polis
in Asia Minor (Namurt Limani near Aliağa), on the Eleatic Gulf. Birthplace of Hesiod's father, of the historian Ephoros, and of Homer, according to local tradition. Member of the Aiolian League, ranked as “the largest and most important of Aiolian cities” (Strabo 13.3.6, 622).
Leosthenes
Authors: Poddighe Elisabetta
Published: December 2012

Leosthenes the Athenian (d. 322bce) commanded the Greek forces during the Lamian War (323–322) against Macedonian rule. His portrait as “the hero of the Greek resistance,” based on propaganda and accounts lacking in detail, prevents a solid assessment of his career. However, some basic facts are clear.
Lokris
Authors: Rousset Denis
Published: December 2012

Lokris is the name of two regions of central Greece, separated by phokis and the Parnassos mountain range.
Parthenon
Authors: Neils Jenifer
Published: December 2012

The Parthenon, one of the three extant temples of Athena on the Acropolis in Athens, is both the most famous building in all of ancient Greek architecture and an icon of the modern country of Greece.
Sacred Band
Authors: Larson Stephanie
Published: December 2012

The Sacred Band was an elite Theban corps of warriors, comprised of one hundred and fifty pairs of lovers and maintained at state expense; it fought in the major battles of the fourth century under Theban hegemony.
Agape
Authors: Finn Thomas M.
Published: December 2012

The Greek noun
agapê
means “love.” Although the verb (
agapân
) is fairly common in classical Greek, the noun, occasionally found in inscriptions, is seldom found except in Hellenistic Jewish and early Christian literature. In the former it has a variety of meanings: romantic love (Song of Songs), piety (
Letter of Aristeas
), the love of Wisdom personified (Wis 6:17–20), fear and love of God (Philo
Unchangeableness of God
14.69), and the love of neighbor expressed in philanthropy (1 Sam 6:2 LXX). In the New Testament, agape generally means “self‐giving love”, as distinct from
philia
, “affection”, and erôs, “passionate love.” The epistles of Paul (1 Cor 13; Gal 5; Rom 12) and the Gospel and letters of John (Jn 15; 1 Jn 4; 2 Jn) propose a distinctive theology of agape: God, who is love, is embodied in Christ, who, in turn, is embodied in the community of believers, the church, especially in giving of themselves to others. In early Christian literature subsequent to the New Testament, agape reflects the variety of meanings in Hellenistic Judaism, yet self‐giving love (Latin
caritas
) underlies its use, as is evident in the paean on agape in
First Clement
(Holmes 1999: 49–50), the earliest extant document outside the New Testament (95–97
ce
), and in the letters of Ignatius of Antioch, a decade later (110), where agape embodies the unity between Christ and the churches he addresses (
Ephesians
1–4; Holmes 1999: 137–9). This usage continues to underlie the literature of the early centuries.
Arius and Arianism
Authors: Löhr Winrich
Published: December 2012

Arius was born into a Libyan family some time between 260 and 280ce. Nothing more is known about his family, but it was in Libya that his theological views were to enjoy considerable support even after they had been condemned.
Bible, Syriac translations of
Authors: Law T. M.
Published: December 2012

The standard Syriac translation of the Bible was named Peshitta (“simple, straightforward”) to set it apart from other seventh‐century translations (below) which had surrendered their Syriac style for an isomorphism based upon their Greek sources.
Caiaphas
Authors: Judd Frank F.
Published: December 2012

Caiaphas was the Jewish high priest (ca. 18–37ce) during the ministry, trial, and crucifixion of Jesus.
Canon of Scripture
Authors: Gamble Harry
Published: December 2012

Among religions of western antiquity, only Judaism and Christianity developed canons of scripture, that is, delimited bodies of literature regarded as uniquely and exclusively authoritative for their respective communities. These two scriptural canons emerged in different periods, were indebted to different causes, and produced distinctive results.
Clement of Rome
Authors: Maier Harry O.
Published: December 2012

Clement of Rome (flourished 96ce), is an otherwise unknown figure variously assigned by Christian tradition as the third or fourth Bishop of Rome (Lightfoot 1989: 203–345), though either attribution is anachronistic since there is no compelling evidence of monarchical episcopacy in Rome until the later second century (Lampe 2003: 397–408).
Cyprian
Authors: Brent Allen
Published: December 2012

Thascius Caecilius Cyprianus was born in Carthage and converted to Christianity in 245 or 246ce.
Demetrios of Alexandria
Authors: Brakke David
Published: December 2012

Demetrios, bishop of Alexandria (189–232), played a crucial role in enhancing the position of the single bishop as the leader of the church in Alexandria.
Deutero‐Pauline Epistles
Authors: Furnish Victor P.
Published: December 2012

Ephesians, Colossians, and 2 Thessalonians, three New Testament writings that bear the name of Paul.
Didascalia Apostolorum
Authors: Vaccarella Kevin M.
Published: December 2012

TheDidascalia Apostolorumis a pseudepigraphical text that claims to represent the results of the Apostolic Council described in Acts 15.
Dionysius of Rome
Authors: Gwynn David M.
Published: December 2012

Dionysius of Rome, bishop 259/60–267/8
CE
, held the Roman see during the crucial years of recovery that followed the emperor Valerian's persecution of the Christian Church. Little is known of Dionysius' life before he became bishop, although he may have been of Greek descent.
Gospel of Truth
Authors: Attridge Harold W.
Published: December 2012

Entitled after its incipit, theGospel of Truthis a product of the Valentinian Gnostic tradition found in two copies at Nag Hammadi.
Hermas/Shepherd of Hermas
Authors: Lipsett B. Diane
Published: December 2012

The Shepherd of Hermasis an ancient Christian narrative from second‐centuryceRome (with portions perhaps written earlier).
Iao
Authors: Pleŝe Zlatko
Published: December 2012

Iao is the Greek bisyllabic enunciation ofyhw, the abbreviated form of the tetragrammaton YHWH.
Judas, Gospel of
Authors: Meyer Marvin
Published: December 2012

TheGospel of Judasis a Christian gospel of gnosis that proclaims the message of an exalted Jesus who reveals the secrets of the divine realms above and this world below.
Iulius Africanus, Sextus
Authors: Adler William
Published: December 2012

The Christian historian and scholar (Sextus) Iulius Africanus (ca. 160–240ce) is perhaps best known as the father of the Christian universal chronicle.
Mandaeans
Authors: Hart Jennifer
Published: December 2012

The Mandaeans are a religious and ethnic community traditionally found in the marshlands of the Tigris and the Euphrates delta.
New Testament, Latin Translations of
Authors: Knust Jennifer Wright
Published: December 2012

For the earliest Christians in Rome, Greek was the language of choice, a situation that persisted well into the third century.
Novatian
Authors: Papandrea James L.
Published: December 2012

Novatian (ca. 200–258CE) was a Roman priest and theologian in the mid‐third century. His theology was orthodox, even by later standards; however, after a time of persecution he led a faction that opposed the bishop of Rome, earning him the title ”antipope.”
Pastoral Epistles
Authors: Donelson Lewis R.
Published: December 2012

1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus are three New Testament letters ostensibly written by Paul to Timothy and Titus, who were two of Paul's most important coworkers.
Peter the Apostle
Authors: Siker Jeffrey S.
Published: December 2012

Peter the Apostle (ca. 10‐67ce) was among the most significant followers of the first‐century Jewish prophet Jesus and a central leader in the earliest christian movement.
Peter, Acts of
Authors: Stoops Robert F.
Published: December 2012

TheActs of Peterwas composed in Greek, probably in Asia Minor during the second half of the second centuryCE. No complete manuscript survives.
Peter, Apocalypse of
Authors: Nicklas Tobias
Published: December 2012

No other Christian apocalypse besides the canonical book of Revelation has been more widespread and influential in early Christianity than theApocalypse of Peter(also known as theRevelation of Peter).
Philip, Gospel of
Authors: Marjanen Antti
Published: December 2012

TheGospel of Philipis an early Christian, more specifically Valentinian, text, preserved in a single Coptic manuscript included in the Nag Hammadi Library.
Quartodeciman Controversy
Authors: Finn Thomas M.
Published: December 2012

Quartodecimans were primarily Jewish Christians in the Roman province of Asia (western Turkey) who, observing their lunar Jewish calendar, celebrated the Christian Passover (Easter) on the 14th day (Latin,
die decima quarta
) of the Jewish month of Nisan, the day of Passover: thus the term “Quartodecimans.”
Sibylline Oracles
Authors: Collins John J.
Published: December 2012

The Sibyl was a legendary ecstatic woman, attested from the fifth century
BCE
(Heraclitus, Aristophanes).
Thomas, Gospel of
Authors: DeConick April D.
Published: December 2012

The Gospel of Thomas (GT) is an ancient Christian text whose peculiarities are fiercely debated among scholars.
Valentinus/Valentinians
Authors: Dunderberg Ismo
Published: December 2012

Valentinus (second centuryCE) was the founder of a Christian group that was called “the school of Valentinus” from early on (IrenaeusHaer.1, preface 2; 1.30.15).
Apophthegmata Patrum
Authors: Schroeder Caroline T.
Published: December 2012

TheApophthegmata Patrumconsists of collections of sayings attributed to fourth and fifth century Christian monks, primarily in Egypt. Originating as oral traditions, these “sayings of the fathers” were compiled and written down during the fifth and sixth centuries in Palestine. As the introduction to the Alphabetical Collection explains, the traditions were recorded to provide models for later monks who wished to imitate early ascetics. TheApophthegmatahas informed Christian monastic spirituality and practice from the Late Antique period to modernity, influencing figures from Benedict of Nursia to Thomas Merton.
Alluviation
Authors: Bintliff John
Published: December 2012

The erosion of the Earth's surface deposits, soil, bedrock, and human debris, through weathering (rain, ice, wind) and gravity forms slopewash (
colluvium
) or is carried into rivers, to be borne downstream until water velocity decreases sufficiently to make the rivers gradually drop their sediment “bedload” (
alluvium
).
Animals, Greece and Rome
Authors: Carlà Filippo
Published: December 2012

Animals played an important role in antiquity from a variety of perspectives.
Antidosis
Authors: Garnett Sterling
Published: December 2012

Antidosis
, literally an “exchange,” was an Athenian legal procedure by means of which a person could, in theory, relieve himself of the unwelcome financial burden of a liturgy or
eisphora
.
Clinical and Ultrasound‐Based Composite Disease Activity Indices in Rheumatoid Arthritis: Results From a Multicenter, Randomized Study
Authors: Mandl P. , Balint P. V. , Brault Y. , Backhaus M. , D'Agostino M. A. , Grassi W. , van der Heijde D. , de Miguel E. , Wakefield R. J. , Logeart I. , Dougados M.
Published: December 2012

Objective

To evaluate the metrologic properties of composite disease activity indices in rheumatoid arthritis (RA), utilizing information derived from clinical, gray‐scale (GS), and power Doppler (PD) ultrasound examinations, and to assess the classification of patients according to disease activity using such indices.

Methods

This ancillary study utilized data from a multicenter, prospective, randomized, parallel‐group study conducted in subjects with moderate RA randomized to receive etanercept and methotrexate (ETN + MTX) or usual care (various disease‐modifying antirheumatic drugs [DMARDs]). In multimodal indices, the 28 swollen joint count was either supplemented or replaced by clinically nonswollen joints in which the presence of synovitis was detected either by GS and/or PD and was calculated according to the Disease Activity Score in 28 joints (DAS28) or the Simplified Disease Activity Index (SDAI). Reliability, external validity, and discriminative capacity were calculated at baseline/screening by intraclass correlation coefficient, Pearson's correlation, and standardized response mean, respectively.

Results

Data from 62 patients (mean ± SD age 53.8 ± 13.2 years, mean ± SD disease duration 8.8 ± 7.7 years, mean ± SD disease activity 4.6 ± 0.5 [DAS28] and 20.9 ± 5.9 [SDAI]) were analyzed, with 32 receiving ETN + MTX and 30 receiving DMARDs. The metrologic properties were at least as good for GS‐ and/or PD‐based indices as for their clinical counterparts. Using GS‐ and PD‐supplemented indices, an additional 67.8% and 32.3% of patients (DAS28‐derived and SDAI‐derived indices, respectively) could be classified as having high disease activity at the screening visit.

Conclusion

Multimodal indices incorporating ultrasound and clinical data had similar metrologic properties to their clinical counterparts; certain indices allowed for a significantly larger number of patients to be classified to either high or moderate disease activity at the screening visit.
MPC‐based approximate dual controller by information matrix maximization
Authors: Rathouský Jan , Havlena Vladimír
Published: December 2012

This paper proposes a method to approximate a dual controller by a computationally feasible algorithm. Dual control that optimally solves the problem of simultaneous control and identification of a system with uncertain parameters is known to be both analytically and computationally unsolvable. This paper proposes a multiple‐step active control algorithm that gives a suboptimal but tractable solution to the original dual control problem. The algorithm is based on model predictive control (MPC) and approximates persistent system excitation in terms of the increase of the lowest eigenvalue of the parameter estimate information matrix.

The problem is formulated as a two‐phase optimization problem, where first an MPC solution is found and then the lowest eigenvalue of the information matrix is maximized in the next step within a given permitted input perturbation. Unlike similar methods, the proposed algorithm predicts the information matrix for more than one step of control, which makes it possible to uniformly excite the parameter space. The use of MPC in the first design phase instead of a cautious controller is justified by showing unfavorable properties of cautious control. The advantage of the multiple‐step prediction over single‐step prediction is shown by examples and simulations. The proposed algorithm is analyzed in terms of convergence and complexity, and stability issues are addressed. The formal proofs are included in the Appendix. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Visible Light‐Induced Selective Generation of Radicals from Organoborates by Photoredox Catalysis
Authors: Yasu Yusuke , Koike Takashi , Akita Munetaka
Published: December 2012

A new strategy for the generation of carbon‐centered radicals via oxidation of alkyl‐, allyl‐, benzyl‐ and arylborates by visible‐light‐driven single electron transfer (SET) photoredox catalysis has been established. The generated radicals smoothly react with TEMPO and electron‐deficient alkenes to afford CO and CC coupling products, respectively. In this radical initiating system, cyclic organo(triol)borates turn out to be useful radical precursors.
Combining Transition Metal Catalysis with Radical Chemistry: Dramatic Acceleration of Palladium‐Catalyzed CH Arylation with Diaryliodonium Salts
Authors: Neufeldt Sharon R. , Sanford Melanie S.
Published: December 2012

This paper describes a photoredox palladium/iridium‐catalyzed CH arylation with diaryliodonium reagents. Details of the reaction optimization, substrate scope, and mechanism are presented along with a comparison to a related method in which aryldiazonium salts are used in place of diaryliodonium reagents. The unprecedentedly mild reaction conditions (25 °C in methanol), the requirement for light and a photocatalyst, the inhibitory effect of radical scavengers, and the observed chemoselectivity trends are all consistent with a radical‐mediated mechanism for this transformation. This stands in contrast to the analogous thermal reaction with diaryliodonium reagents that is believed to proceed via an ‘ionic’ 2e− pathway and requires a much higher reaction temperature (100 °C).
National survey on the use of preoperative systemic steroids in endoscopic sinus surgery
Authors: González‐Castro Javier , Pascual Jeamarie , Busquets Jose
Published: November 2012

Background

The use of preoperative systemic steroids (PSS) in endoscopic sinus surgery (ESS) has been a topic of debate among otolaryngologists for many years now. Until recently, most of the evidence to support PSS use in ESS was largely anecdotal and based on expert opinion. Although some recent randomized and blinded trials have been published, opinions among experts in the field are highly variable. The objective of this study is to identify and report the practice patterns of experts in the field regarding the use of PSS.

Methods

A survey instrument was developed using SurveyMonkey® and sent to active members of the American Rhinologic Society (ARS). Responses to questions regarding PSS use, regimen, and benefits were recorded anonymously.

Results

A total of 173 members answered the questionnaire. Although most respondents believe that there is inadequate evidence to support their use, 88.82% of the study population does use PSS in their practice. The most common diagnosis among respondents for using PSS is chronic rhinosinusitis with polyps (CRSwNP), which is consistent with the literature available. We also found statistically significant differences between PSS use in private vs academic practice, showing a trend toward more aggressive management in academic‐affiliated physicians.

Conclusion

The current study shows that most of the respondents in our group do in fact see an advantage in the use of PSS before ESS. The data also highlights the opinion of most experts that more research with higher levels of evidence is still lacking.
Tissue plasminogen activator deficiency promotes early phase regeneration in the olfactory epithelium after bulbectomy
Authors: Makino Nobuko , Madoiwa Seiji , Ohmori Tsukasa , Katoh Kazuo , Ookawara Shigeo , Kanazawa Takeharu , Matsuo Osamu , Ichikawa Masumi , Mimuro Jun , Ichimura Keiichi , Sakata Yoichi
Published: November 2012

Background

Tissue type plasminogen activator (tPA) functions as a fibrinolytic factor in the blood and has unique roles in the nervous system. However, the role of tPA in the olfactory epithelium (OE) is still unclear. Generally, surgical ablation of the olfactory bulb (bulbectomy) triggers degeneration followed by regeneration of OE. In this experimental study, we investigated the role of tPA in OE regeneration.

Methods

Wild‐type (WT) mice and tPA‐knockout (tPA−/−) mice were subjected to bulbectomy. Reverse‐transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT‐PCR), in situ hybridization, and immunohistochemical examination was done to detect tPA expression in the olfactory bulb and OE. Cellular proliferation and apoptosis was also monitored in the OE.

Results

Before bulbectomy, tPA was found to be expressed in the olfactory bulb and OE. OE degenerated to a similar extent in both strains between 0 and 3 days after bulbectomy. However, OE was thicker and contained more cells in tPA−/− mice than in WT mice at 7 days after bulbectomy. Moreover, the number of apoptotic bodies was reduced and the number of proliferating cells was increased in the OE of tPA−/− mice compared to WT mice, after bulbectomy. Transmission electron microscopy revealed continuous degeneration of the OE for up to 7 days after bulbectomy in WT mice. In contrast, we observed some intact olfactory vesicles and almost normal supporting cells in the OE of tPA−/− mice, at 7 days after bulbectomy.

Conclusion

The current findings show that the tPA‐plasmin system plays an inhibitory role in the regulation of regeneration in the OE.
Palladium‐catalyzed synthesis of 8‐allyl or 8‐prenylcoumarins by using organotin reagents as multicoupling nucleophiles
Authors: Yin Qiang , Yan Han , Zhang Yaqin , Wang Yige , Zhang Guojin , He Yuxiang , Zhang Weihua
Published: December 2012

In this study, 8‐iodocoumarin derivatives underwent a direct Stille cross‐coupling reaction with several organotin compounds in the presence of a catalytic amount of Pd(PPh3)4 in DMF at 80 °C. The cross‐coupling reaction proceeded smoothly under mild conditions and permitted the formation of 8‐allyl or 8‐prenylcoumarin compounds in good yields. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Sclerostin antibody prevents particle‐induced implant loosening by stimulating bone formation and inhibiting bone resorption in a rat model
Authors: Liu Shuo , Virdi Amarjit S. , Sena Kotaro , Sumner Dale R.
Published: November 2012

Objective

To assess the ability of sclerostin antibody therapy to blunt the negative effects of polyethylene particles on implant fixation and peri‐implant bone structure in a rat implant fixation model.

Methods

Thirty‐six adult male rats received intramedullary titanium implants; 12 rats received vehicle injections only (control), and 24 rats received intraarticular injections of lipopolysaccharide‐doped polyethylene particles. Twelve of the rats that received particles also received sclerostin antibody treatment. The 3 groups of rats were maintained for 12 weeks in a pathogen‐free environment, at which time mechanical, micro–computed tomography, and dynamic and static histomorphometry end points were assessed.

Results

Sclerostin antibody treatment completely blocked the negative effect of the lipopolysaccharide‐doped polyethylene particles on implant fixation and peri‐implant bone volume by increasing the bone formation rate and depressing bone resorption.

Conclusion

Anabolic agents targeting the Wnt signaling pathway are a promising new alternative for the prevention of periprosthetic osteolysis and aseptic loosening.
Enhanced deoxyribozyme‐catalyzed RNA ligation in the presence of organic cosolvents
Authors: Behera Anit K. , Schlund Kelsey J. , Mason Allen J. , Alila Kennedy O. , Han Mengyu , Grout Rebecca L. , Baum Dana A.
Published: December 2012

Deoxyribozyme and aptamer selections are typically conducted in aqueous buffer solutions. Using nonaqueous cosolvents in selection experiments will help expand the activity of deoxyribozymes with non‐oligonucleotide substrates and will allow identification of new aptamers for nonprotein targets. We undertook in vitro selections utilizing a small amount of methanol in the reaction to keep the herbicides alachlor and atrazine in solution with the goal of identifying deoxyribozymes that require these herbicides for activity. The resulting deoxyribozymes successfully catalyze RNA ligation, but do not require alachlor or atrazine. Surprisingly, some of these deoxyribozymes displayed better catalytic activity in the presence of methanol over just aqueous buffer. We investigated several organic cosolvents to see if this enhancement was limited to methanol and found that other cosolvents, including ethanol, DMSO, and DMF, supported activity; in some cases, greater enhancement was observed. On the basis of these results, we tested two other previously identified RNA‐ligating deoxyribozymes to assess their tolerance of cosolvents and determined that different deoxyribozymes showed different responses to the cosolvents. Our results demonstrate that deoxyribozymes can tolerate and, in some cases, display enhanced activity in alternative solvent conditions. These findings will facilitate the development of responsive deoxyribozyme systems utilizing components with limited water solubility. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Biopolymers 99: 382–391, 2013.