bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Nondirective Attitude in Client-Centered Therapy: A Response to Kahn
Authors: Merry Tony , Brodley Barbara Temaner
Published: March 2007

This article rebuts Ed Kahn’s views of person-centered psychotherapy in his Journal of Humanistic Psychology article “A Critique of Nondirectivity in the Person-Centered Approach” published in Fall 1999. Kahn’s arguments are shown to be based on distortions and misunderstandings. The article shows that person-centered psychotherapists recognize the influence and thus “directivity” of all therapy and that nondirectivity in client-centered therapy refers to the therapist’s attitude and not technique. Kahn’s idea of a “one-person psychology” contradicts client-centered theory, and the basis for nondirectivity in Rogers’s theory is discussed. The article discusses a range of responses in client-centered work and shows the psycho-analytical premises in Kahn’s critique to be irrelevant to clientcentered nondirectivity. It discusses the humility of the therapist in relying on clients’ perceptions of their experiences and meanings as the basis for understanding. A segment from a person-centered session is presented as an illustration of nondirective process.
The Process of Mysticism: Carlos Castaneda
Authors: Stillwell William
Published: March 2007

This is an investigation into aspects of the social and psychological processes of mystical experiences. Based on illustrations from Carlos Castaneda's books, the discussion focuses on the idea that production and solution of paradoxical situations play a central role in the process of a person's mystical journey. Paradoxical situations are examined in some detail; this and other characteristics of mystical experiencing are compared briefly with similar nonmystical experiences.1
Toward a Developmental View of Adult Crisis: a Re-Examination of Crisis Theory
Authors: Greer Frank
Published: March 2007

The thesis of this article is that sudden event-related crises can produce developmental shifts as part of the normal progression of the adult life cycle. Evidence for this is available from both the crisis intervention and life-span development literatures. Observations of individuals in crisis reveals the occurrence of profound structural changes in perception and experience. However, more systematic examination of the developmental significance of such crises awaits the reworking of several traditional concepts which derive from crisis theory.
Rationale for Good Choosing
Authors: Harman Willis W.
Published: March 2007

The following is adapted from my keynote address to the A ugust 1979 annual meeting of the Institute for Transpersonal Psychology at Asilomar. If I were to choose one impact of a science of human consciousness that would do the most to transform society, it would be in the area described below—the way choice is guided, the way we choose the future. It is basically the way choices are guided which makes industrial society different from the Middle Ages and which will make transindustrial society different from the industrial society we have known.
The Transformation as Sandbox Syndrome
Authors: Marien Michael
Published: March 2007

Belief that a social transformation is happening serves to keep it from happening. Behaviors associated with the sandbox of political impotency include: pronouncement of actual or imminent success, confusion of goals and results, an acritical stance, hubris, an incapacitating dialect, pseudoholism, egalitarian blinders, and self-centeredness. Upward growth to escape the Sandbox Syndrome is a necessary ingredient of any serious social change.
Humanistic Psychology
Authors: Campbell Elizabeth
Published: March 2007

This article examines the relevance of humanistic psychology to today's global issues. Questions are raised concerning the contributions of humanistic professionals during the past two decades. Current resources and skills are reviewed, and appropriate roles and stances for humaistic professionals are suggested. An appeal is made to become more socially responsible.
The Himalayan Connection
Authors: Lane David Christopher
Published: March 2007

A major problem facing the study of unidentified flying object sighting reports is the lack of an accurate and comprehensive classification system. What are subsumed under the term "U.F.O.'s" are not merely extra-terrestial space crafts but a whole array of psychological, sociological, and even religious phenomena. In order to alleviate the "category errors" inherent in such a diverse field, I have employed the discoveries of Pandit Faqir Chand (on the nature of religious visions) and the work of Ken Wilber (in transpersonal psychology) to propose a paradigm from which U.F.O. reports will be studied under three distinct divisions: translative (re: empirical); transformative (re: mental-subtle); and transfusive (re: the fusion of empirical and mental-subtle modes of knowledge).

With such a tripartite classification system we can begin to view reports of unidentified flying objects in a non-reductionistic and more understandable light. First, we can distinguish natural occurrences from transmundane apparitions, without damaging the intrinsic quality of the experience itself. Second, though we may continue to search for authentic translative encounters from life forms outside of our own solar system, our main emphasis (in light of transformation) will be to develop a state-of-consciousness-specific understanding of U.F.O.'s. And thirdly, with transfusive experiences-where transformation and translation intersect-our investigation will no longer be hampered by the apparent "confusion" of such incidents, but will be able to examine the close link between experiential modes of knowing and empirical-sensory data.
An Empirical Analysis of Operating Values in Humanistic Education
Authors: Shapiro Stewart B.
Published: March 2007

This article reports a factor-analytic study of 15 operating instructional values derived from 40 representative writers in Humanistic Education. The three factors that emerged were a general factor, the so-called "Humanistic Paradigm," and two subsidiary group approaches, one supporting individual expression and the other an externally-oriented approach to social change. In the author's view, high interrater reliability, high (70% to 80%) degree of agreement of confluent students with the 40 experts, and significant differentiation between behaviorally-oriented counseling students and confluent students empirically validate the humanistic value orientation as a highly coherent set of operating principles.
The Issues of Equality and Control in the Client-Or Person-Centered Approach'
Authors: Brink Debora C.
Published: March 2007

This article attempts to clarify the special client-therapist equality referred to by Rogers by exploring Rogers's work with a particular client. The article then examines how and why that special equality is subverted by a rigid adherence to "reflection" conceived as a mere set of trainable skills.
Carlos Castaneda
Authors: Shelburne Walter A.
Published: March 2007

The significance of Castaneda's account of reported experiences with Don Juan Matus is explored for transpersonal psychology. It is argued that the Don Juan chronicle cannot be a literally true account. Yet, I contend that Castaneda tries to discuss seriolus issues allegorically. On the content level, the message is said to consist of several of Don Juan's teachings. I argue that the manner of presentation of the books as a whole also constitutes a kind of process message in which Castaneda is contending that the issue of whether it literally happened or not makes no fundamental difference to the truth of the account. The metaphorical value of Castaneda's work is held to be ultimately dependent on its link to literal realities and hence the process statement embodied in Castaneda's work is rejected. It is concluded that the Castaneda books yield no reliable knowledge about the nature of trans-personal experience.
Bereavement and Personal Growth
Authors: Kessler Barbara G.
Published: March 2007

This study attempts to widen our knowledge of the subjective meaning of bereavement. Depth interviews were used to address the question: "What themes are disclosed in subjective accounts of personal bereavement?" The investigator set aside psychiatric assumptions about pathological reactions to loss and used a phenomenological approach. Twelve themes were identified that indicate that bereavement can contribute to personal growth. These themes are described and examined from the growth perspective of existential psychology. The findings lend support to the existential view that crisis situations can stimulate positive shifts in life-perspective and heighten awareness of the human condition. Suggestions are made regarding clinical practice.
Mythmaking and Human Development
Authors: Feinstein David , Krippner Stanley , Granger Dennis
Published: March 2007

As the richly articulated cultural myths of the past have faded from social prominence and lost their viability in guiding individuals through predictable life crises, uniquely personal myths have assumed significance in helping individuals organize personal reality. After a brief survey of "personal mythology" as a concept within psychology, this article examines the mythic nature of thought and the historical shift in the foundations of consciousness from the myths of the collective to myths that increasingly bear the unique stamp of the individual. We will describe how the evolution of an individual's personal mythology takes the form of a dialectical pattern in which prevailing and emerging myths compete as new mythic structures evolve. This natural dialectic may be facilitated through a five-stage model we have developed and used in clinical, educational, and community settings. The model is presented as an approach that allows the individual to participate consciously in attitudinal and behavioral change. We close with a summary of eight principles that seem to govern the evolution of the individual's mythology and speculate about characteristics of the mythologies associated with higher levels of personality integration.
The Roots of Reality
Authors: Berman Morris
Published: March 2007

The Tree of Knowledge, by Humberto Maturana and Francisco Varela, is a landmark attempt to integrate biology, cognition, and epistemology into a single science, reversing the dualism of fact and value, and of observer and observed, that has haunted the West since the seventeenth century. The authors see perception as a reciprocal and interacting phenomenon, a "dance of congruity" that takes place between a living entity and its environment. This, they argue, implies a relativity of worldviews (there are no certainties), as well as the existence of a biology of cooperation going back millions of years. Recognition of a lack of absolutes, and of the nature of perception itself, they assert, make it possible for us today to change things for the better, as a deliberate and conscious act. What is overlooked in this discussion, however, are the origins and nature of conflict. By being pointedly apolitical, the authors wind up implying that one worldview is as good as the next. Cognitively speaking, the substitution of Buddhism for politics is a serious error, leaving, as it does, too many crucial questions unanswered. It is thus doubtful whether the biological argument being advanced here can stand up to serious scrutiny, and whether the dualism of modern science has indeed been overcome. Yet The Tree of Knowledge remains an important milestone in our current efforts to recognize that science is not value-free, and that fact and value are inevitably tied together. We are finally going to have to create a science that does not split the two apart, and that puts the human being back into the world as an involved participant, not as an alienated observer.
The Power within
Authors: Chapin Theodore J.
Published: March 2007

The 'Power Within" is a humanistic-transpersonal imagery technique that makes accessible to the client resources previously unavailable for personal growth, understanding, and change. This article reviews the theory, technique, and application of this technique within the context of psychotherapy. The literature review presents a wide range of theoretical explanations of the 'Power Within" experience. A detailed description of the technique provides a framework by which it could be effectively conducted within psychotherapy. Finally, three case examples are presented to demonstrate its therapeutic application.
Infallibility Is So Damn Appealing
Authors: Schneider Kirk J.
Published: March 2007

This article is a reply to Ken Wilber's (1989b), "God Is So Damn Boring' and an elaboration upon my original article, "The Deified Self: A 'Centaur' Response to Wilber and the Transpersonal Movement" (Schneider, 1987). The focus of this article is on Wilber's increasing use of pragmatism to justify his metaphysical claims, in particular, "ultimate" claims. This inclination is misguided on several grounds: (a) "'Ultimate" claims cannot be defined in terms that transcend the existential level; (b) "ultimate" functioning cannot be reconciled with concrete (fallible) functioning; (c) "ultimate" awareness cannot be validated scientifically (e.g., phenomenologically or hermeneutically), despite Wilber's efforts to show otherwise; (d) historical sages cannot be clearly differentiated from the psychologically dysfunctional; and (e) motivation still cannot be reconciled with consummate functioning.

One always pays dearly and terribly when religions... insist on having their own sovereign way, when they themselves want to be ultimate ends and not means among other means.

- Friedrich Nietzsche, 1966, p. 74
Further Thoughts on Preventing Mental Illness
Authors: Ericson Karl
Published: March 2007

My original goal in writing this article was to respond to a critique by Albert Ellis (personal communication, 1986) of "Preventing Mental Illness: Some Personal Discoveries" (Ericson, 1986). Trying to answer him led to a deeper understanding on my part of mental illness, and to new therapeutic techniques. I discuss these techniques and answer Albert Ellis's critique.
Psychology of Experiencing
Authors: Kozulin Alex
Published: March 2007

Fyodor Vasilyuk's Psychology of Experiencing presents a Russian view of the process of "living through" a psychological crisis. This view is informed by both Vygotsky's psychological and Bakhtin's philosophical traditions and illustrated by Dostoevsky's Raskolnikov. Vasilyuk's ideas constitute an important contribution to humanistic psychology and to a new era of Russian psychology.
Subpersonalities
Authors: Frick Willard B.
Published: March 2007

The theory of subpersonalities is a rapidly emerging theory of personality. In this article, the author offers a critique of the theory and urges that it be viewed and developed within the context of well-established holistic principles and theory.

Any concept of fragmentation presupposes some unity of which it is a fragmentation.

-Rollo May
Was the Death of Clinical Romanticism by Murder, Suicide, or Natural Causes? The Standardization View
Authors: Cummings Nicholas A.
Published: March 2007

Psychotherapy guidelines, which include manuals and protocols, are proliferating rapidly and are threatening to obliterate that part of therapy that is humanistic. Unfortunately, both those advocating the standardization of treatment and those lamenting the decline in psychology of clinical romanticism take the position that these are mutually exclusive and inherently antagonistic views. To the contrary, these are complementary, and both are needed in psychotherapy. The difficulty lies in when one or the other is the most appropriate intervention. Clinical romanticism needs to stop complaining and, instead, define its rightful place in the healthcare arena. This includes such mundane issues as justification for inclusion in third party (insurance) reimbursement.
Making Room for it all: Inclusive Experiencing in Psychotherapy
Authors: Goldfarb Mical
Published: March 2007

A paradox occurs in psychotherapy. People come to rid themselves of uncomfortable feelings, unwelcome thoughts, and disturbing behaviors. They want to replace painful experiences with pleasant, fulfilling ones. However, as therapy progresses, the more clients try to rid themselves of unwelcome experiences, the more they end up stuck with them. Conversely, the more they can allow themselves to experience what they resist, allowing acceptance, expression, and forgiveness to occur, the more change becomes possible. Whatever allows this process of inclusion, or making room for all aspects of experience, facilitates successful psychotherapy. This article articulates the importance of inclusion of full experiencing as an essential aspect of successful psychotherapeutic process. It further argues that the psychotherapeutic relationship creates an interactional space in which all of a client’s experience can be included. It draws on the work of experiential psychologist Eugene T. Gendlin, psychoanalytic theory, case histories, and a play.
The Refinement of Empathy
Authors: Hart Tobin
Published: March 2007

This article traces refinements in empathic knowing, highlighting the phenomenon of deep empathy. Nine different levels or facets of the activity of empathic knowing are described. Included is discussion of therapeutic resonance, deep reactivity, and alterations in self-other boundaries. In recognizing his or her own underlying epistemic process, the therapist may be better able to appreciate, cultivate and deepen his or her own unique ways of meeting and understanding the client.
Orientation of Specialists in a Continuous Process Plant
Authors: Scott W.H.
Published: March 2007

IN THE light of existing models of the role and orientation of technical specialists in industry, the results of a study of those in a continuous process plant, an oil refinery, are reported and interpreted. This confirmed their preoccupation with intrinsic job satisfactions, but showed a greater concern with influencing management action in the employing organization than with other aspects of their conditions of employment and work environment.
Internal Labour Markets and the Market For Highly Qualified Labour
Authors: Nowak Margaret J.
Published: March 2007

Traditionally the literature on manpower forecasting utilises either the man power requirements approach or the neo-classical competitive model. A third alternative, based on the internal labour market queuing model, may provide a more effective guide for policy formulation by emphasising the important role of on-the-job training and the acquisition of job-specific skills. Empirical results relating directly to the highly qualified labour market overseas are used as a basis for a recent study carried out in Western Australia to test the validity of the concept of the internal labour market. This research appears to suggest that if the alternate manpower model is valid, approaches to overcome the problems of unemployment and to more accurately forecast manpower require ments should differ from those being currently undertaken. Far more emphasis should be placed on the internal labour market and activity should focus on the specific job training function.
The 1977 Latrobe Valley SECV Maintenance Workers' Strike
Authors: Benson John William , Goff Dennis James
Published: March 2007

Although this is an attempt to partly fill the gap in case studies on strikes in Australia, our findings, we feel, are also important for the historical record. The paper is divided into three sections. The first section provides a background to the dispute and attempts to identify the major industrial issues which cul minated in the 1977 Latrobe Valley maintenance workers' strike. The second section examines the immediate causes of the dispute, whilst the final section outlines the events during the strike and attempts to locate the major areas of disputation, including procedural difficulties. Much of the information con tained in this paper stems from personal interviews (on tape) and notes and papers of both shop stewards and SECV officers.
Industrial Segregation in the Australian Labour Market
Authors: Moir Hazel , Smith Joy Selby
Published: March 2007

A distinction is drawn between occupational segregation and industrial segregation: the former has been the focus of much research but the latter has been virtually ignored. Industrial segregation is important because it is the con sequence of occupational segregation. After examining methodological approaches, this paper presents the results of an analysis of industrial segre gation in the Australian labour market utilising the modified index of segregation and the Oppenheimer measure. The data show that the female workforce is concentrated in what can be called "female" industries but that the large pro portion of both the male and the female workforce concentrated in the "well represented" group indicates that industrial segregation does not divide the male and female labour markets as clearly as does occupational segregation. The conclusion is that the differential growth of Australian industrial sectors, in association with the existence of industrial segregation would tend to indicate an increase in the availability of "female" employment but this conclusion must be modified by an acknowledgement of the fact that, even now, males are moving into traditional "female" occupations and are, moreover, finding jobs in the higher echelons.
Unionism and the Structure of Male Wages for Youth
Authors: Miller Paul , Rummery Sarah
Published: March 2007

Trade unions appear to exercise an influence on the wage determination process beyond that generally associated with award determination. Union wages are 13.12 per cent higher than non-union wages, other things being the same. The wage gains won by trade unions for their members, occupation and industry of employment, and workers' degree of job satisfaction are found to influence the decision about whether to be a member of a union. These broad features of unionism and union wage effects are not dependent on the degree of compulsion in the union membership decision.
Training, Careers and Numerical Flexibility: Equity Implications in Hospitality and Retailing
Authors: Boreham Paul , Lafferty George , Roan Amanda , Whitehouse Gillian
Published: March 2007

Emphasis on training and careers in several aspects of recent policy directions in Australia signals a concern for both the expansion and equitable delivery of career opportunities. However, the strategies designed to produce a 'clever coun try' do not apply equally well to all industries, and detailed evaluation of training and career paths at workplace level is yet to be undertaken in most industries. Our purpose in this paper is to provide an initial overview of the factors affecting training and careers at workplace level in two service industries targeted as likely to provide the greatest levels of employment growth in coming years—hospitality and retail trade. We draw on survey research into employment practices in Bris bane workplaces in these industries in order to illuminate patterns of training and factors affecting its equitable delivery. Our data emphasize variation between and within workplaces, and suggest some difficulties for the introduction and efficacy of new policy directions in these industries.
Youth Unemployment: Does the Family Matter?
Authors: Miller Paul W.
Published: March 2007

Conventional models of the incidence of unemployment in the youth labour market are augmented by variables describing the unemployment status of family mem bers. These variables are typically highly significant, and associated with unemploy ment effects greater in magnitude than those associated with personal characteristics such as educational attainment. Application of a within-family estimator reinforces the conclusion that family and regional circumstances are more important in determining unemployment outcomes than personal characteristics. This suggests that regional employment initiatives might be a more appropriate focus for policy than policies such as job training aimed simply at improving the employability of individuals.
From `True Peace' to `the Vision of the New Middle East': Rival Images of Peace in Israel
Authors: YADGAR YAACOV
Published: March 2007

This article deals with developments in rival images of peace as they appear in Israeli political journalism, vis-à-vis seven critical events that took place between 1967 and 2001. Peace has become one of the dominant symbols of the Jewish-Israeli national narrative. Investigation of its image as a value reveals two rival symbolic representations: one, `true peace', presents peace as a means to an end within a particularistic nationalist agenda, based upon ethnocentric values; the second, `humanistic peace', which is embodied in the `vision of the new Middle East', unfolds an eschatological narrative in which peace takes pride of place as the supreme value. The development of these rival representations is described as the product of a continuous reciprocal process between the symbolic images and the collective narratives on the one hand, and political events on the other. Both `true peace' and the `vision of the new Middle East' were forced to come to grips with political realities that were perceived as contradicting the symbolic system inherent in each of these representations, and in the metanarrative that gave birth to them. The article concludes with a discussion on the influence of the current violent conflict between Israelis and Palestinians on the developments of the images of peace.
Humanitarian Law of Armed Conflict: Problems of Applicability
Authors: Dürr Olivier
Published: March 2007

The Four Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 and their two additional Protocols of 1977 are treaties aiming to protect victims in time of armed conflict. To ensure they should benefit these victims, the drafters defined simple conditions of application resting on facts, and they provided for an automatic application of these treaties rather than letting their application depend on the free interpretation of the parties to an armed conflict. The level of protection provided depends on whether it is a conflict of an internal, high-intensity internal or international nature A certain margin of interpretation will subsist for the determination of an internal conflict because of the difficulties of fixing exact criteria. As the outbreak of a conflict normally takes place in a very sensitive political context, States may be inclined to deny the existence of situations leading to the applicability of these treaties and as a consequence not apply them as such. Although States may pragmatically respect and apply the content of these treaties in part or in whole, the origin of many of these violations can be found in this denial of applicability. As there is no supranational jurisdiction, respect for these fundamental rules protecting the human being must be implemented through a stronger sense of responsibility on the part of the international community.
The Security of Small Nations: Challenges and Defences
Authors: Wiberg Håkan
Published: March 2007

The 'essentially contested concept' of security is analysed, and some main kinds of ambiguity and dimensions outlined: level, kind of threat and kind of defence. Discourses on security, particularly of small nations, must avoid being trapped into dealing only with one level (national, which in practice normally means state), one kind of threat (military) and one kind of defence (again military). There is no clear relation between kind of alignment and military expenditures, but non-aligned states are overrepresented both among the very high armers and among the very low armers. Increasing gaps in military R&D make it necessary for small states to rely more on different military strategies from the great powers, putting more stress on invulnerability and on non-offensive defence. For bi- or multi national states, the relation between nations and state becomes crucial for any defence, and in particular for social and cultural defence, which presupposes the absence of major grievances that can be exploited by external powers. In welfare terms, but also in terms of national independence, economic threats are often at least as serious as military ones One remedy is diversification of export commodities and of trade partners. Collective strategies of small states suffer from the 'free rider' problem, and from the vulnerability to collective counter-strategies from centre actors. It is therefore wise of the Non-Aligned Movement not to have attempted to become a military actor. Collective economic strategies will have to take other forms than the producers' cartel, whose difficulties are almost always forbidding.
Stability and Polarity: New Paths for Inquiry
Authors: James Patrick , Brecher Michael
Published: March 2007

One of the most intractable debates in the field of world politics concerns the linkage of systemic polarity to international stability. Despite many theoretical expositions and limited testing, disagreement persists over which type of structure and distribution of power is most stable. The dialogue on polarity and stability has focused on the relative merits of bipolar and multipolar structures; in other words, which configuration of power centers is more stable, two or more than that number? Advocates of each system have their adherents and, for some time now, have agreed to disagree. Most of the debate on polarity and stability thus far has been cast in terms that do not facilitate its resolution. The objective of this paper is to reformulate the debate, in order to facilitate a more compelling empirical judgment of the competing claims. More specifically, this involves revision of the central concepts. Polarity, it will be asserted, cannot be assessed only in terms of distribution of power. The concept also should incorporate the notion of autonomous decision centers. With respect to instability, war is held to be a less comprehensive measurement than international crisis. It is recommended that renewed testing should focus on the linkage of polarity to stability as so defined.
The History of Peace: Concept and Organizations from the Late Middle Ages to the 1870s
Authors: Kende Istvan
Published: March 2007

The study deals with the changes in the concept of peace, limited to Europe and the period between the 14th and 19th centuries. It concludes that the changes in the context and character of eras basically modify the various peace concepts. In late medieval times the concept of peace was identical to the slogan of collaboration within the Christian world, to achieve `Christian peace' against attacks by the `infidels'. According to Dubois, only the Pope could head a Christian state/federation, while Dante believed that only a secular authority could make Christian peace acceptable. In the eras of the Renaissance and the Reformation peace acquired more universal features. Later concepts of peace became increasingly secular. The English bourgeois revolution regarded peace as the basis for utility, and the protector of property, while the French concept regards peace as the victory of Reason, to the benefit of humanity, in the name of justice. Kant synthetized the peace conceptions of his age. The formation of national states has gradually developed the idea of federation between nations and of international arbitrage systems. As wars started to mobilize the masses the idea of peace successively became of mass concern. In the early 19th century the first peace societies organized their first major international meetings and organizations. A new approach developed within the framework of the workers' movement, on the basis that peace can be achieved only through a basic transformation of society. Thus at the end of the period under study the `bourgeois' and `workers' peace aspirations develop along different tracks.
Toward an East—West Security Regime: The Case of Confidence- and Security-Building Measures
Authors: Rittberger Volker , Efinger Manfred , Mendler Martin
Published: March 2007

This article seeks to explore the applicability of regime analysis to the collective management of East-West security relations. Using a narrow regime definition and starting from a `microscopic approach' to East-West relations which disaggregates the assumed conflict totality into various more or less regime-conducive issues, Confidence- and Security-Building Measures (CSBMs) in and for Europe are characterized as an evolving security regime. Regulating `conflicts about means' the CSBM regime serves to stabilize the security situation in Europe in at least three ways: (1) it decreases the likelihood of a conventional surprise attack, (2) it raises the obstacles to intra-bloc intervention, and (3) it improves crisis stability. The case of the CSBM regime is then used to test several hypotheses toward explaining the formation of a security regime. It is found that issue-area related and subsystemic determinants are superior to systemic variables in accounting for the emergence of the CSBM regime. The article closes with a discussion of the impact of the CSBM regime on the security problematique in Europe. It is shown that the CSBM regime based on a set of norms and rules has already left its mark on the perceptions of military threat by contributing to the convergence of actor expectations and by generating regular interactions. Furthermore, recent proposals of NATO and WTO clearly indicate that the persistence and further evolution of the CSBM regime seems possible and may even facilitate the conventional arms control negotiations which now are rightly ranging at the top of NATO's and WTO's efforts to create a truly confidence-building security structure in Europe. Encouraged by the case of CSBMs, the authors recommend further empirical research on security issues in East-West relations which is founded upon the theoretical perspective of international regime analysis.
The Evolution of Public Sector Expenditures: Changing Political Priorities in Argentina, Chile, Paraguay and Peru
Authors: SCHEETZ THOMAS
Published: March 2007

This article examines central administration functional expenditures for four Latin American countries over the last twenty years. A detailed review of fiscal accounts was conducted in each country, with greater concern for inter-country consistency in public sector accounting techniques and functional area definitions. The study reveals large errors in military expenditure data published by international sources. Our improved and disaggregated database shows, first, that Defense expenditures are the single largest (and most volatile) functional outlay, often greater than all public sector social functions combined. Second, from 1969 through 1987 (except in Peru) the Defense function grew faster than Health or Education, with Defense generally crowding out these social expenditures. This conclusion directly contradicts the dominant position in the literature regarding Less Developed Country social expenditure crowd-out by Defense. Third, military regimes tend to spend more on Defense (and a higher average share of the nomina) than do civilian regimes. Here a growing number of counterassertions in the literature are based on faulty military expenditure reporting. Moreover, military regimes spend less on social areas than do civilian regimes. And lastly, Police shares of the nomina are inversely related to the country's level of development.
Defense Spending and Economic Growth in Subsaharan Africa: Comment on Gyimah-Brempong
Authors: Mohammed Nadir A. L.
Published: March 2007

Gyimah-Brempong (1989) examined the effect of military spending on the economic growth of Subsaharan African countries using a simultaneous-equations model. He concluded that military expenditure had a negative impact on economic growth. However, the revision of his analysis shows that his reported results are weak and do not support his policy conclusions, because the calculated value of the defense burden/growth rate multiplier is not statistically significant.
From Politics Back to the Barracks in Nigeria: A Theoretical Exploration
Authors: KIEH GEORGE KLAY , AGBESE PITA OGABA
Published: March 2007

The article probes the issue of the military's disengagement from Nigerian politics, and the prospects for a third democratic experience as of June 1993. The central thesis is that the military engagement-disengagement nexus is deeply rooted in the crisis of social justice in Nigeria. The military has intervened and disengaged from Nigerian politics in the past because of the inability of Nigeria's peripheral capitalist system to meet the needs and aspirations of the Nigerian masses. The problems which are embedded in the peripheral capitalist system have prompted the military to intervene in the political arena, but its inability to solve these problems has then forced it to withdraw. Specifically, in the context of the current disengagement process, we argue that the process is doomed to fail: the military will re-intervene in Nigeria's politics after a civilian government is elected in 1993. This is explained by the fact that during the current period of disengagement the fundamental issues of socio-economic justice have not been addressed. The problem of political instability in Nigeria remains unsolved. We conclude that to achieve political stability in Nigeria it will be necessary to solve certain problems which are rooted in Nigeria's peripheral capitalist system - poverty, malnourishment, and disparities in income and wealth among others. In short, even if the new civilian government in 1993 is run by people of integrity, the problem of political instability will not be solved until the question of social justice is addressed and resolved.
A Constructivist Interpretation of the Liberal Peace: The Ambiguous Case of the Spanish-American War
Authors: Peceny Mark
Published: March 2007

This article uses the Spanish-American War, one of the only possible cases of war between democracies, to demonstrate the power of a constructivist approach for explaining the liberal peace. A `structural idealist' argument suggests that the liberal peace must be conceived of as an `intersubjective consensus' of the leaders and citizens of liberal states. A Gramscian perspective interprets the liberal pacific union as an effort by the United States to exercise its global leadership through an ideological hegemony rather than through coercion. US perceptions that Spain was not a liberal democracy in 1898 and US efforts to legitimate its expansionism as necessary for the spread of democracy to the island of Cuba explain how two states that appeared to share liberal characteristics could nevertheless find themselves at war. In the aftermath of the war, the contrasting experiences of the USA in the Philippines and Cuba demonstrated the utility of pursuing a liberal policy for legitimating an expansionist policy at home and abroad. US efforts to impose colonial rule in the Philippines generated opposition in the United States and an insurgent movement in the Philippines. US efforts to craft a protectorate relationship with a Cuban government chosen in US-sponsored elections, however, met with widespread support in the USA and was accepted by Cuban nationalists.
Children, Armed Conflict, and Peace
Authors: Wessells Michael G.
Published: March 2007

In most analyses of armed conflict, children are invisible and are typically regarded as passive, incidental victims or inconsequential actors. In current intrastate, ethno-political conflicts, however, children play an increasing role both as soldiers and, along with other non-combatants, as targets and victims in fighting at the community level. New evidence from the recently completed UN Study Impact of Armed Conflict on Children documents that significant numbers of children are soldiers in conflicts fought in the post-Cold War era. The increasing participation in political violence of children, many of whom have little schooling, job training, or other means of meeting their basic needs, presents profound obstacles to the construction of peace. Furthermore, current patterns of community-level fighting victimize children, enabling soldiering and the continuation of cycles of armed conflict. Peace research needs to examine the scale and consequences of children's involvement in armed conflict, and it also needs to develop an understanding of the wider psychosocial impact of armed conflict on children. Using the UN Study as a point of departure, this essay reviews current knowledge about the psychological impact of political violence on children, identifying key methodological and ethical challenges that confront research in this area. Recognizing that children comprise approximately half the population of war-torn countries, this essay also develops the theme that the construction of peace requires action research aimed at constructing culturally appropriate intervention and prevention efforts that assist children and families and that contribute to broader programs of post-conflict reconstruction and development.
Some Correlates of Staff Ideology in the Prison
Authors: Kassebaum Gene G. , Ward David A. , Wilner Daniel M.
Published: March 2007

In 1962, a group of U.C.L.A. sociologists conducted a survey of staff members of the California Department of Corrections. Data were gathered on staff attitudes in relation to job and insti tutional variation. Factor analytic reduction of 28 items measur ing authoritarian orientation, preference on severity of penalties, optimism or pessimism regarding treatment outcome, and pre ferred social distance vis-à-vis parolees, resulted in measures of authoritarianism, pessimism, social distance, and recommenda tions regarding treatment programs when security is affected. Cross tabulations of the factoral measures with the respondent's job and education were consistent with the hypothesis that cus todial jobs were more traditional in outlook than treatment positions.

It was expected that differences in institutional setting would have an influence on staff views of management of inmates and probable outcome of treatment. To test this assumption, eight prisons were ranked on selected characteristics of their inmate populations according to age, criminal history, and prison be havior. Four types of prisons were delineated based on various combinations of these characteristics.

It was hypothesized that staffs from institutions housing a rela tively large proportion of inmates involved in serious prison in cidents would be more authoritarian, pessimistic and distant to ward inmates than staffs at institutions with less volatile inmates. Also, the staffs at institutions holding older inmates with histories of prior commitments and parole violations would be more tra ditional in outlook than staffs at other institutions.

Mean values of scores, combining all jobs, were averaged for each pair of prisons representing the four types of prisons. The results only partially confirm the hypothesis. All four scores showed significant differences by institution when tabulated sep arately. Pessimism is highest in prisons housing younger inmates with little prior confinement and few incidents. Readiness to withhold treatment is highest among prisons for younger (not older) men with incident rates. However, authoritarianism and social distance scores varied as predicted. Within prisons, jobs continue to differ significantly in expressed attitudes.

The finding that pessimism is characteristic of prisons with young offenders and few incidents indicates a need for further study of institutional contexts, beyond the scope of this survey.
Delinquency Theory and Recent Research
Authors: Empey Lamar T.
Published: March 2007

An examination of empirical evidence relating to current theory on delinquency raises three fundamental questions. First, studies of undetected delinquency suggest that the inverse rela tionship between social class and violation of the law may be less potent than current theory implies. Comprehensive study of delinquent behavior within as well as between classes is needed. Second, whether delinquent groups are internally cohesive, bound by ties of loyalty, permanence, and stability or whether they are held together more by external pressures is an open question. Further studies on group cohesiveness are needed because of their obvious relevance to inquiries having to do both with causation and with control. Finally, studies have not revealed the kinds of singularly-focused delinquent subcultures which have been hypothesized, raising the question as to whether delinquent subculture is oppositional in character, unique and autonomous, or part of a more amorphous and widespread tradition of deviance. Some of these questions cannot be an- Second, whether delinquent groups are internally cohesive, tion on a broad cross-section of adolescents and of determining the effects of official identification and processing on the official picture of delinquency presented.
Employees as Offenders
Authors: Robin Gerald D.
Published: March 2007

This study examines patterns of trust violation based on inspection of the confidential security records of three depart ment store companies which apprehended 1,681 dishonest em ployees between 1949 and 1964. The data are particularly interesting because of the so-called "respectable, middle class" population of offenders, a substantial proportion of whom were female salesclerks and virtually all of whom had no prior criminal record. The substantive areas of offense patterns studied included the following: how employees were discovered, prompt ness with which stores took action against suspects, collusive versus solitary nature of acts, rates of apprehension, size of theft, object of theft (merchandise and/or cash), modus operandi, and recovery characteristics. Variation in offense patterns is related to demographic data and employment information, especially to position in the company and length of service.
Differential Effects of the Social Climates of Correctional Institutions
Authors: Moos Rudolf H.
Published: March 2007

The purpose of the study was to assess the differential effects of the social climates of 16 correctional units. The study hy pothesized and showed that units which were different in social climate were also different on variables related to general resi dent reaction to the unit and on the initiatives which residents perceived themselves as taking on the unit. For example, the results indicated that units with greater emphases on spontane ity, affiliation, insight, variety, and autonomy had residents who were more likely to like the staff and to feel that they were able to test their abilities and to increase their self-confidence; and that units with greater emphases on affiliation, insight and autonomy had residents who perceived themselves as more like ly to take both submissive and autonomous initiatives toward the staff; i.e., who generally interacted more with the staff. The results substantiate the idea that different unit social climates have different predictable effects on the residents who live within them. Practical implications and directions for future research are discussed.
Cluster Analysis in a Parolee Sample
Authors: Fildes Robert , Gottfredson Don M.
Published: March 2007

This study extends earlier work concerned with the classification of individuals. The method used, called Association Analysis, has received widespread attention since its first use by Williams and Lambert.1 Ordinarily, in Association Analysis, use has been made of the statistic Chi-square (or of the Phi coefficient) to measure the associations among attributes. This report discusses the use of two different statistics (Cramér's Statistic ϕ' and the multiple correlation coefficient) for the purpose of classification according to a hierarchical subdivision process like that previously used.

Although the procedure is strictly one of classification, not necessarily for purposes of prediction, the attributes by which an individual is classified are those often found associated with parole outcomes and used in the Uniform Parole Reports.2 To explore the use of this technique in parole prediction, a pooling procedure was applied to the subgroups obtained, resulting in groups of paroled prisoners, each with significantly different parole out comes.