bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
SEX ROLE STEREOTYPING, ABILITY AND PERFORMANCE: PRIOR RESEARCH AND NEW DIRECTIONS1
Authors: SCHEIN VIRGINIA E.
Published: December 2006

Although there is a reasonable body of research pointing up the negative impact of sex role stereotypical thinking on selection decisions, limited attention has been paid to the impact of such thinking on the perceived and actual performance of women in management. Among the suggested new research avenues are the ways in which sex role stereotypical thinking impacts on organizational factors, such as through differential placement, tokenism and supervisory bias, so as to impair on‐the‐job performance. Furthermore, it is argued that the relationship between power and political behavior and effective managerial performance needs examination, with particular emphasis on the way in which sex role stereotypical thinking may limit a woman manager's opportunity to acquire or utilize work‐related power acquisition behaviors.
THE INTERACTION OF ABILITY AND MOTIVATION IN PERFORMANCE: AN EXPLORATION OF THE MEANING OF MODERATORS1
Authors: LOCKE EDWIN A. , MENTO ANTHONY J. , KATCHER BRUCE L.
Published: December 2006

It was hypothesized that one possible explanation of moderator effects is that they are due to different degrees of homogeneity with respect to a causal variable among different subgroups. This hypothesis was tested in a laboratory experiment in which performance was predicted from ability using motivation as the moderator. Ability was measured with a work sample and motivation was varied by assigning goals with different degrees of difficulty and specificity. It was found that ability predicted performance better in groups which were homogeneous with respect to motivation that in those which were motivationally heterogeneous. A moderated regression analysis showed that most of the differential validity was reducible to main effects, but significant interaction effects were found. One of them was caused by the fact that in one low motivation condition the variance in performance was reduced, thus decreasing the slope of the regression line.
PERSON‐SITUATION SELECTION: A REVIEW OF SOME ABILITY‐SITUATION INTERACTION RESEARCH
Authors: SCHNEIDER BENJAMIN
Published: December 2006

A review of literatures thought to be relevant for understanding situational contributions to ability‐performance relationships was conducted. The review suggested that only three sets of variables, incentive systems, job characteristics, and leadership style/management philosophy (“climates”) have recieved research attention from an ability/situation vantage point. It was also shown that in both experimental and survey research these three factors can moderate ability‐performance relationships. Because these same three sets of variables are also known to have main effects on average performance levels, an hypothesis is presented that when organizations establish work conditions which facilitate the display of task‐relevant individual ability, then validity for ability measures, average performance levels, and general levels of satisfaction will all be high.
IMPLICATIONS OF THE CONFERENCE: A PERSONAL VIEW1
Authors: SCHNEIDER BENJAMIN
Published: December 2006

Two major implications of the papers presented on understanding ability‐performance relationships are presented: (a) The chances of finding statistically significant algebraic interactions of ability and other variables (race, sex, situation), in field settings are poor; and, (b) an explanation for why algebraic interaction terms are not generally found to be significant is required. A discussion of the bases for implication (a) is presented and an hypothesis is presented regarding implication (b). The hypothesis makes a distinction between natural and algebraic interaction and argues that situations are defined by natural interaction leaving little interaction remaining to be accounted for by an algebraic term. The conclusion is reached that ability and work condition, in linear combination, should be used by personnel selection researchers to increase both the prediction of performance and the understanding of work behavior.
EMPIRICALLY DERIVED JOB FAMILIES AS A FOUNDATION FOR THE STUDY OF VALIDITY GENERALIZATION
Authors: TAYLOR L. R.
Published: December 2006

The purpose and background of a series of three studies dealing with validity generalization are discussed, an overview of the series is provided, and the initial study is described.

In the initial study a total of 76 insurance company jobs was analyzed by 203 raters in an effort to assess the potential usefulness of the Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) as a job analysis device to be employed in a more extensive, companywide research program. Examination of rate‐rerate and interrater reliability suggested that rate‐rerate reliability was quite good, while interrater reliability estimates were somewhat lower. Cluster analysis techniques were applied to the five Overall and 17 Component dimensions of the PAQ yielding six job families in both analyses. The job families were described in terms of the various PAQ dimensions and were judged to be organizationally meaningful. Although the job clustering results were generally acceptable, it was conjectured that job families formed on the basis of company specific dimensions might prove even more meaningful.
INTUITIVE‐THEORETICAL SCALES OF CONTENT AND CONTEXT SATISFACTION
Authors: MURPHY GREGORY C. , FRASER BARRY J.
Published: December 2006

Evidence has suggested the usefulness of viewing job satisfaction as composed of content and context aspects. Armstrong attempted to develop intuitive‐theoretical scales measuring content and context satisfaction but the scales lacked discriminant validity. The present study attempted the development of content and context scales based on Schletzer's overall job satisfaction instrument. After the criteria of internal consistency and discriminant validity were applied in refining scales, it was found that the inter‐correlation between content and context scales after correction for attenuation was 0.06 and 0.05 for two separate samples of professional workers. It was concluded that the data provided some support for the content‐context dichotomy. Application of the new scales and the general method for developing scales in industrial and organizational psychology are considered.
EMPLOYEE AFFECTIVE RESPONSES TO ORGANIZATIONAL STRESS: MODERATING EFFECTS OF JOB CHARACTERISTICS
Authors: ABDEL‐HALIM AHMED A.
Published: December 2006

This research examines (a) the relative importance of each of three role variables—role conflict, ambiguity, and overload—as sources of stress and dissatisfaction among managerial‐level personnel, and (b) the moderating effects of job enrichment characteristics on the relationships between role stressors and intrinsic job satisfaction, involvement, and anxiety. Data were collected from a sample of 89 managerial personnel of a large, heavy‐equipment manufacturing company in the Midwest. Results show that role ambiguity has the strongest relationships with role responses in the predicted directions. Further, significant interactions are obtained between each of role ambiguity and role overload, but not role conflict, and job characteristics. The two role stressors tend to be more aversive for individuals on low‐enriched rather than high‐enriched jobs. Implications of the findings for work design and the management of stress are discussed.
A LONGITUDINAL STUDY OF THE IMPACT OF CHANGES IN GOAL SETTING ON EMPLOYEE SATISFACTION1
Authors: ARVEY RICHARD D. , DEWHIRST H. DUDLEY , BROWN EDWARD M.
Published: December 2006

Two hundred and forty‐five working level scientists and engineers participated in a longitudinal study in which their managers had been trained in a Management by Objectives program. Subjects completed two questionnaries, the latter being completed 21 months after the first designed to assess perceptions of their managers' goal setting behavior along four dimensions derived using factor analytic procedures (Goal Clarity and Planning, Subordinate Freedom, Feedback and Evaluation, Participation in Goal Setting) and their reported intrinsic, extrinsic and total satisfaction. Dynamic correlations (Vroom, 1966) were computed between changes in the goal setting factors and changes in the satisfaction variables and significant positive relationships were observed. In addition, results indicated that job task (research vs. development) demonstrated a moderating influence on the goal setting‐satisfaction relationships. An unexpected finding was that there was a significant decrease in perceived managerial behavior on the Goal Clarity and Planning factor over the 21 months. However, a significant increase occurred on the Feedback and Evaluation factor. Since no control group was available for comparison, little can be said about whether these changes were a result of the MBO program. Significant differences between the development and the research subjects were also observed on two of the goal setting factors.
THE EFFECTS OF ORDER OF EXERCISE PRESENTATION ON ASSESSMENT CENTER PERFORMANCE: ONE STANDARDIZATION CONCERN1
Authors: COHEN STEPHEN L. , SANDS LARRY
Published: December 2006

Internal invalidity concerns in the administration of an Assessment Center were surfaced. Specifically, the effects of order of exercise presentation were studied. Contrary to expectations, the effects of varying exercise presentation orders on Assessment Center performance were not significant. Possible explanations for the absence of the hypothesized results were offered. Given the realistic impact of Type II errors in actual business environments, further study in naturally occurring field settings is encouraged to control for expected sources of invalidity.
DESIGNING INCENTIVE PLANS FOR UNIONIZED EMPLOYEES: A COMPARISON OF CONTINUOUS AND VARIABLE RATIO REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULES1
Authors: LATHAM GARY P. , DOSSETT DENNIS L.
Published: December 2006

The relative effectiveness of incentive plans administered on continuous and VR‐4 schedules of reinforcement was investigated with unionized employees using a within subjects design. Mountain beaver trappers working side by side were randomly assigned to one of two groups. In group A the trappers received $1.00 for every rat they trapped. At the end of four weeks, they were switched to a VR‐4 schedule in which they received $4.00 contingent upon trapping a rat and correctly guessing the color of one of four marbles prior to drawing it from a bag held by the supervisor. In group B the order of the schedules was reversed. The results were analyzed in terms of cost‐related, behavioral, and reaction criteria. The study increased employee productivity and decreased costs for the company. Inexperienced workers had higher productivity on the continuous reinforcement than on the VR‐4 schedule; experienced workers had higher productivity on the VR‐4 schedule than on the continuous schedule. Both the experienced and the inexperienced employees preferred the VR‐4 schedule over the continuous schedule.
EFFECTIVENESS OF AN ATTENDANCE CONTROL POLICY IN REDUCING CHRONIC ABSENTEEISM
Authors: BAUM JOHN F.
Published: December 2006

An attendance control policy based on the Katz and Kahn (1966) motivational pattern of legal compliance was implemented in one department of a large manufacturing organization with two comparable departments serving as controls. A pre‐post measure of absenteeism served as the criterion in a 2 × 3 factorial analysis of variance. The factors were the attendance control policy and 3 levels of absence groups (high, average, and low). It was hypothesized that a control policy based on legal compliance would lead to a meaningful reduction in absenteeism among high absence workers who were considered to be chronic absentees by the organization. The results supported the effectiveness of the attendance control policy among chronically absent workers, although the policy did not lead to improvements in attendance among regular attenders. The implications of the study are discussed in the context of organizational efforts to control chronic absenteeism.
THE EFFECT OF POSITION POWER AND PERCEIVED TASK COMPETENCE ON TRAINER EFFECTIVENESS: A PARTIAL UTILIZATION OF FIEDLER'S CONTINGENCY MODEL OF LEADERSHIP1
Authors: JUSTIS ROBERT T. , KEDIA B. L. , STEPHENS DAVID B.
Published: December 2006

This study investigates the effect of trainer position power and trainer perceived task competence on trainees' performance levels. Three classifications of position power are examined: (1) high position power; (2) moderate position power; and (3) low position power. Two conditions of perceived task competence are also investigated: (1) high competence trainer behavior and (2) low competence trainer behavior. The results indicate that trainees perform at a higher level when trained by a trainer with high position power and high task competence as compared to a trainer with low position power and low task competence. The results also show that the trainer's position power and trainer's task competence jointly affect trainee effectiveness. Based on the research results, changes in organizations' standard training programs are recommended.
ASSESSING CONTENT VALIDITY: STANDARDS SET BY THE COURT1
Authors: KLEIMAN LAWRENCE S. , FALEY ROBERT H.
Published: December 2006

Thirty‐one court cases were reviewed in order to determine the standards set by the court in their assessment of the content validity of paper‐and‐pencil tests. The findings indicate that the courts have not acted upon a uniform set of standards. In some instances, tests are judged solely on the basis of their “face validity;” in others, extensive evidence is required. The discussion centered on the failure of the courts to consistently apply professionally developed selection guidelines. The implications for practitioners and psychologists were discussed.
INTERVENING AT THE BOTTOM: ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT WITH ENLISTED PERSONNEL IN AN ARMY WORK‐SETTING1
Authors: COHEN STANLEY L. , TURNEY JOHN R.
Published: December 2006

If Organizational Development technology is expected to have an effect on soldier perceptions, attitudes, and performance, then it must be assured that OD interventions adequately penetrate to their level. This may not be likely to occur in a multi‐layered Army organization. This study examines the effects of a series of OD techniques in an Army organization where penetration was assured by dealing directly with the troops at the lowest levels. The results showed positive changes in soldier perceptions and performance following an OD program including survey feedback, participative problem‐solving, and job enrichment techniques.
TWENTY YEARS OF RESEARCH ON ROLE‐MOTIVATION THEORY OF MANAGERIAL EFFECTIVENESS
Authors: MINER JOHN B.
Published: December 2006

Research related to the various hypotheses of managerial role‐motivation theory is reviewed. In general this research supports the theory, although there are numerous areas that require further investigation. A total of 21 studies have been conducted to test the theory's validity and all have yielded significant results; 5 of these studies are predictive. Similar studies conducted outside the theoretical domain have uniformly failed to produce significant findings. Research carried out to evaluate the effectiveness of managerial role motivation training has indicated positive effects in 16 of 17 instances, and the construct validity of the primary measure used to operationalize the theory's variables, the Miner Sentence Completion Scale, has been established in relation to a number of other instruments. Relationships to other theories of motivation and leadership are considered, suggestions for future research are presented, and certain proposals for theoretical extensions are set forth.
ORGANIZATIONAL FRUSTRATION: A MODEL AND REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Authors: SPECTOR PAUL E.
Published: December 2006

A model that describes the effects of frustration on individual behavior in organizations is presented. Included is a discussion of the definitional problems with the frustration construct as well as a brief overview of laboratory research. This research is used to develop a model of organizational frustration and its behavioral effects, including increased and decreased job performance, organizational aggression (e.g., sabotage, strikes, work slowdowns, and stealing), absenteeism and turnover. Supporting evidence is supplied by the few studies which have investigated frustration in field and simulated organizational settings. Finally, frustration is shown to provide an alternative explanation to the effects of job dissatisfaction, inequity and participation in organizational change.
JOB SATISFACTION AS A COMPONENT OF HAPPINESS AMONG MALES AND FEMALES
Authors: WEAVER CHARLES N.
Published: December 2006

Using a sample made up of four independently drawn U. S. national surveys, partial correlation was conducted separately by occupational categories for white male (n= 1,161) and female (n= 491) full‐time employees to estimate the relationship between job satisfaction and global happiness when the effects of satisfaction experienced in seven other domains of life and age, education, income, and occupational prestige were removed. For most occupations and both sex groups few of the job satisfaction‐global happiness partial correlations were significant, thus extending previous evidence that job satisfaction may not be uniquely important to the overall happiness of most employees.
TRAINING PROGRAMS FOR OBSERVERS OF BEHAVIOR: A REVIEW1
Authors: SPOOL MARK D.
Published: December 2006

This review covers the past 25 years of research literature on training observers of behavior, specifically in the areas of interviewing, reducing rater bias, interpersonal perception and observation as a research tool. The focus is on training procedure (i.e., the various training designs and their components). An attempt is made to organize and systematize the research and to answer two important questions. Which approach(es) used to train observers of behavior has (have) been most successful? What are the theoretical or empirical bases for the development of those training programs?
BACKGROUND, NEEDS, JOB PERCEPTIONS, AND JOB SATISFACTION: A CAUSAL MODEL
Authors: SCHMITT NEAL , COYLE BRYAN W. , WHITE J. KENNETH , RAUSCHENBERGER JOHN
Published: December 2006

Data concerning sex, social status, need strength, job perceptions and job satisfaction were collected from 411 people who were entering the work force for the first time at the time they obtained their jobs and approximately 10 months later. Using maximum likelihood path analysis, support was obtained for the following causal sequence: Background → Need Strength → Job Perception → Job Satisfaction. As in other studies, growth need strength was related to job dimensions. However, relatedness needs also appear to play a significant role in determining perceptions of jobs and job satisfaction. Sex and social status determined to some extent the subjects' initial level of need strength and indirectly their job perceptions.
CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE REVIEW AND DEVELOPMENT INTERVIEWS: REPLICATION AND EXTENSION1
Authors: BURKE RONALD J. , WEITZEL WILLIAM , WEIR TAMARA
Published: December 2006

Eight performance review interview characteristics were related to 7 interview outcomes. Several of these individual variables had been examined in previous research. Two hundred seventy nursing personnel described their last review interview. Five of the interview characteristics were related to most of the outcomes, replicating earlier research as well as adding new findings. Implications for improving the conduct of appraisal interviews in organizations are offered.
PERSONAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL STRATEGIES FOR HANDLING JOB STRESS: A REVIEW OF RESEARCH AND OPINION
Authors: NEWMAN JOHN E. , BEEHR TERRY A.
Published: December 2006

The medical and psychological literature pertaining to personal and organizational strategies for handling Job stress is reviewed. The paucity of research in this domain is emphasized as is the lack of involvement by industrial/organizational psychologists. Many strategies for managing job stress exist but their effectiveness has not been evaluated. It is important that such strategies receive the immediate, scientific attention of I/O psychologists. Issues that must be faced before significant progress can be achieved are discussed.
INFORMATION PROCESSING MODELS OF PEER NOMINATIONS1
Authors: LEWIN ARIE Y. , LAYMAN SHELLY S.
Published: December 2006

This paper describes the development of an information processing theory of the judgmental process in which individuals engage while rating their peers. Using protocol tracing methods, decision process models were constructed of how individuals rate their peers on seven widely used sociometric questions. The protocols revealed that individuals evaluate their peers along five primary behavior categories: (1) Mutual Influencing, (2) Categorizing/Summarizing, (3) Social‐Directive, (4) Quantity of Verbal Communication, and (5) Listening. Models for each sociometric question were tested by comparing model predictions with actual group peer ratings. Using linear models only, high Spearman rank correlations (r8 range to 1.00) were obtained between predicted and actual peer rankings. Findings have implications for research in person perception and the attribution of leadership.
THE IMPACT OF JOB ANALYSIS ON EMPLOYMENT TEST VALIDATION FOR MINORITY AND NONMINORITY ACCOUNTING PERSONNEL
Authors: KESSELMAN GERALD A. , LOPEZ FELIX E.
Published: December 2006

The purposes of the present study were (a) to examine the comparative validity of a written job knowledge test constructed on the basis of a systematic job analysis with that of a commercial employment test selected in the absence of a prior job analysis for accounting positions and (b) to determine the fairness of each test for minority and nonminority job applicants. Results indicated that the job knowledge test was a valid and unbiased predictor of relevant criteria of job performance while the commercial employment test produced adverse impact and lacked validity. Implications of the results for future research studies and test validation efforts involving differential prediction are discussed.
INDIVIDUAL AND INTERPERSONAL MODERATORS OF EMPLOYEE REACTIONS TO JOB CHARACTERISTICS: A REEXAMINATION
Authors: ABDEL‐HALIM AHMED A.
Published: December 2006

This research examines the moderating effects of individual growth need strength (GNS) and interpersonal (supervisory and co‐worker) satisfactions on the relationship of job enrichment characteristics to intrinsic job satisfaction and job involvement. Data were collected from a sample of 89 managerial and professional personnel of a large manufacturing firm in the Midwest. The results tend to support previous research findings regarding the moderating effects of individual GNS but not interpersonal satisfaction factors. In fact, significant interactions between job enrichment characteristics and interpersonal factors are obtained but they are opposite those reported in previous research. Implications of the findings for job design are discussed.
COMPARISON OF EARLY RETIREES AND NON‐RETIREES
Authors: SCHMITT NEAL , COYLE BRYAN W. , RAUSCHENBERGER JOHN , WHITE J. KENNETH
Published: December 2006

A group of 250 early retirees and a similar group of 422 nonretired Civil Service employees were compared on demographic, experience and job attitude variables. Consistent with earlier published studies, demographic, health, and income variables accounted for approximately three times as much variance in the retirement status variable as did the motivational and attitudinal variables. Retirees reported that their jobs afforded less Autonomy, Skill Variety, Opportunity to Deal with Others, and less intrinsic satisfaction, but more Feedback from Others relative to nonretirees. Analysis of the demographic variables indicated retirees were more likely to be female, have less financial commitments, and have had more jobs in their career. It is suggested that the retirement decision may represent a positive attempt on the part of individuals to pursue more challenging, interesting activities, and that longitudinal research be initiated to explore in more detail the determinants of the retirement decision and subsequent retirement satisfaction.
RELATIVE CONTRIBUTIONS OF VERBAL, ARTICULATIVE, AND NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION TO EMPLOYMENT DECISIONS IN THE JOB INTERVIEW SETTING
Authors: HOLLANDSWORTH JAMES G. , KAZELSKIS RICHARD , STEVENS JOANNE , DRESSEL MARY EDITH
Published: December 2006

Recruiter ratings of 338 on‐campus interviews were used in a discriminant analysis procedure to determine the relative importance of the verbal, articulative, and nonverbal dimensions of communication during the job interview. Correlation of seven variables with the discriminant function indicated that appropriateness of content, fluency of speech, and composure were of greatest importance in contributing to a favorable employment decision. These findings were contrary to the recent literature which has emphasized the importance of nonverbal behavior. Implications for job‐interview skills training are discussed, and suggestions for a comprehensive workshop model are presented.
DETECTION OF DECEPTION IN THE EMPLOYMENT CONTEXT: A REVIEW AND CRITICAL ANALYSIS
Authors: SACKETT PAUL R. , DECKER PHILLIP J.
Published: December 2006

Empirical research on the validity of the polygraph, voice stress analysis, and paper and pencil instruments as mechanisms for the detection of deception is reviewed. It is noted that while these devices have their greatest use in the employment context, virtually all research has been done in an actual or simulated criminal investigation context. Three separate uses of devices for the detection of deception in the employment context are identified, namely, pre‐employment screening, periodic screening of current employees, and investigation into a specific theft. Differences between each of these uses and the criminal investigation context are identified, and issues limiting the generalizability of research findings from one context to another are raised. Among the issues are the effects of a low base rate of guilt on accuracy, the effects of making multiple judgments on overall accuracy, and the potential for racial or ethnic bias in judgments of guilt or innocence.
SEX DIFFERENCES IN RESPONSE TO SIMULATED EMPLOYEE DISCIPLINE CASES
Authors: LARWOOD LAURIE , RAND PATRICE , DER HOVANESSIAN AIDA
Published: December 2006

Personnel managers examined vignettes in which an employee had made a serious judgmental error. The employee was seen in a traditional male position (construction supervisor, production manager), or in a relatively more female‐identified position (public relations officer, executive secretary), and was identified as male or female. Individuals employed in male‐identified positions were viewed as more competent than those in traditional female positions. Overall, evaluations were correlated with recommended personnel actions. Punishing personnel action was least likely to be recommended, however, for males employed in traditional male positions. The results are interpreted as consistent with role theory and with certain attributional concepts. Implications are discussed for career strategy and for personnel policy.
CORRELATES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL INFLUENCE: AN ILLUSTRATION OF THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLIMATE APPROACH TO WORK ENVIRONMENT PERCEPTIONS
Authors: JAMES LAWRENCE R. , GENT MICHAEL J. , HATER JOHN J. , CORAY KEVIN E.
Published: December 2006

Correlates of subordinates' perceptions of their psychological influence on supervisors' decisions were examined for 126 subordinates in high technology jobs and 205 subordinates in low technology, production line jobs. Based on the psychological climate perspective of work environment perceptions, it was predicted that perceptions of psychological influence would be related significantly to (a) situational attributes, including supervisor behaviors, (b) individual characteristics, and (c) person by situation interactions. Results supported these assumptions and suggested that a cognitive information processing model assists in explaining environmental perceptions.
JOB SURVIVAL OF NEW EMPLOYEES1
Authors: WANOUS JOHN P. , STUMPF STEPHEN A. , BEDROSIAN HRACH
Published: December 2006

The job survival of 1,736 newly hired workers across a variety of organizations is examined. Voluntary and involuntary turnover are analyzed separately over the first 29 weeks on the job. Moderate support is found for a theory of job survival which distinguishes between the effects of job attitudes on voluntary withdrawal and job performance on involuntary withdrawal. Organization related factors such as pay and training are better predictors of job survival than are individual variables such as race, sex, age, and education.
CONVERGENCE AMONG DATA SOURCES, RESPONSE BIAS, AND RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF A STRUCTURED JOB ANALYSIS QUESTIONNAIRE
Authors: SMITH JACK E. , HAKEL MILTON D.
Published: December 2006

Research examined both the Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) and the possible analyst sources for gathering job analysis information. 25 state government jobs were examined using job incumbents, supervisors, job analysts, and a comparison group of college students. Reliability and validity (judge convergence and prediction of present pay levels) information was determined for each of the four analyst categories. Results indicate that there is little difference between analyst sources, including students, in terms of their ability to reliably analyze a job using the PAQ. Convergent validity results showed a high degree of agreement among all judge categories when summing item frequencies across all 25 jobs. The prediction of present pay levels was significant for all judge categories but was noticeably smaller than previously reported studies. This seemed to be primarily due to the restriction in salary range of the present study. An analysis of judge response bias showed that supervisors and incumbents rate all or most PAQ items higher than their analyst counterparts. These findings suggest that who furnishes responses to a job analysis inventory makes little practical difference. The exception is that the determination of pay levels and human requirements for test construction purposes should be viewed with caution when different analyst sources are utilized for different jobs.
INTERPRETING THE MEASUREMENT OF CHANGE IN ORGANIZATIONAL RESEARCH1
Authors: ARMENAKIS ACHILLES A. , ZMUD ROBERT W.
Published: December 2006

Numerous advances have been made in the last two decades in the measurement as well as in the conceptualization of change. Golembiewski, Billingsley, and Yeager (1976) conceptualized change as: (1) gamma change—subjects change their understanding of the variable being measured; (2) beta change—subjects recalibrate the measurement scale; and, (3) alpha change—change detected with a consistent measurement scale (i.e., no beta change) and for which gamma change has been ruled out. The present research examined these types of change by administering the Survey of Organizations questionnaire to a sample of military trainers at Time1 (N1, = 222) and Time2 (N2= 242) with no intervention. This design may be referred to as two premeasures of an abbreviated time series design. The results are discussed within the context of the alpha, beta, gamma change typology. After ruling out gamma change, the results revealed that alpha and beta change could be distinguished from each other and that beta change had been measured. The potential causes of the detected beta change (i.e., the rival hypotheses affecting internal validity) are analyzed. The implications of these results are discussed for the present research as well as for other empirical investigations of organizational change.
TASK‐RELEVANT CONTROL IN ORGANIZATIONS1
Authors: BUTTERFIELD D. ANTHONY , POSNER BARRY Z.
Published: December 2006

Studies of organizational power using questionnaire measures of perceived control have usually asked respondents, “How much influence do (various groups in the hierarchy) have on what goes on in your organization?” The present study measured such general control, plus control over specific task‐relevant responsibilities. Data were obtained from 526 individuals at four hierarchical levels in 20 regional offices of an insurance company. Predicted relationships between total general control and task‐relevant control and an independent measure of effectiveness were only partially supported. The general manager's control was more important than expected. However, measuring task‐relevant control could be a useful management tool, and could help future research explicate relationships between control and effectiveness.
JOB ORIENTATION OF MALES AND FEMALES: ARE SEX DIFFERENCES DECLINING?
Authors: BRENNER O. C. , TOMKIEWICZ JOSEPH
Published: December 2006

Sex differences in job orientation found by Manhardt (1972) were explored to determine if they still exist, or if a trend toward similarity as found in studies on traits and behaviors prevails. Significant sex differences were found on 8 of 25 job characteristics, compared with 11 found by Manhardt. In the original study, factor analysis indicated that males value long‐range career objectives while females prefer a comfortable working environment and pleasant interpersonal relationships. This study extracted similar factors which explained twice the variance found in the original. However, sex differences on factor preference were mixed. Further, results show that males are less homogeneous in their preference than are females, a complete reversal of results found previously. Implications for personnel managers in handling differences on job orientation of males and females are discussed.
RESEARCH IN THE “REAL WORLD”—A CONCEPTUAL MODEL1
Authors: BOEHM VIRGINIA R.
Published: December 2006

Research in Industrial/Organizational Psychology has been primarily based on a traditional model of scientific inquiry developed as an outgrowth of research in the physical sciences.

The premise of this paper is that this traditional model of research frequently does not fit the realities of applied I/O research in “real world” settings and, when pursued exclusively, operates to limit progress in the field.

An alternative research model, based on the realities of “what is,” rather than on the ideal of “what should be” is proposed, and examples of lines of inquiry where this alternative model might have utility are provided.

The traditional and alternative models are viewed as mutually supportive and jointly capable of producing advances in I/O psychology which cannot be achieved by either method in isolation.
INDIVIDUAL REACTIONS TO ORGANIZATIONAL RECRUITING: A REVIEW
Authors: RYNES SARA L. , HENEMAN HERBERT G. , SCHWAB DONALD P.
Published: December 2006

The present paper reviews the research that has examined the influence of organizational recruiting on applicants' attitudes and job choice behaviors. It was found that recruiting representatives, administrative practices, and procedures used to evaluate applicant qualifications are all potentially important influences on job seeker attitudes and behaviors. However, limitations of the existing research necessitate caution in the interpretation of findings. Of particular concern is the likely generalizability of results presented here to all job seekers. The review concludes with recommendations for the conduct of subsequent recruiting research.
LEADER BEHAVIOR AND SUBORDINATE MOTIVATION1
Authors: KLIMOSKI RICHARD J. , HAYES NOREEN J.
Published: December 2006

This study examines the impact of managerial behavior on several variables reflecting constructs felt to be important to understanding subordinate motivation. Data from a sample of 231 professionals and 15 assistant managers employed in the production department of a large information processing organization were found to support the role of supervisor behaviors in influencing effort expenditure, the perception of organizational contingencies, and most facets of job satisfaction. Supervisor behaviors were also related to job performance as well.
THE POTENTIAL MISUSE OF OVERTIME1,2
Authors: BAIRD LLOYD S. , BECCIA PHILIP J.
Published: December 2006

This research investigates the use of overtime as it relates to productivity, staff growth, and attitudes. Data were collected from employees in 42 district offices of a Federal Agency (N= 603). Findings show that offices using more overtime were less productive and were growing in staff size. Overtime was also negatively related to satisfaction with job and pay. Thus, overtime was neither productive nor motivational. Implications for a general policy of overtime use on a productivity rather than a need basis are discussed.
AN INVESTIGATION OF USER ACCEPTANCE OF PEER EVALUATIONS1
Authors: CEDERBLOM DOUGLAS , LOUNSBURY JOHN W.
Published: December 2006

Peer evaluations show promise as valid, reliable measures of performance, but users' resistance to peer evaluations may limit their use. This study investigated employees' acceptance of the practice of peer ratings, and factors related to this acceptance. Subjects were 174 faculty of a university where faculty peer evaluations had been practiced for six years. Results indicated a relatively low degree of user acceptance of the practice of peer evaluations. Six factors of peer evaluations and their users were hypothesized as relating to user acceptance. Correlational and multiple regression analyses indicated strong support for the relationship between user acceptance and two factors: perceived friendship bias and perceived feedback value. Perceived validity of peer ratings, perceived effects on morale, and satisfaction with previous peer ratings were positively but not uniquely correlated with user acceptance. There was no evidence of a relation between previous peer ratings and user acceptance. These findings were discussed in terms of implications for policy changes which might increase user acceptance of peer evaluations.
PERCEIVED JOB CHARACTERISTICS AND JOB SATISFACTION: AN EXAMINATION OF RECIPROCAL CAUSATION
Authors: JAMES LAWRENCE R. , JONES ALLAN P.
Published: December 2006

The following four assumptions were tested (a) satisfaction with job/task events and perceptions of job challenge, autonomy, and importance are direct, reciprocal causes of each other; (b) job perceptions are also caused directly by situation attributes, although perceptual distortions resulting for individual dispositions must also be considered; (c) job satisfaction is also cognitively consistent with (i.e., caused by) individual dispositions, although these individual dispositions are generally different from those associated with job perceptions; and (d) individuals reply on job perceptions, and not situational attributes, for information in formulating job satisfaction attitudes. The assumptions are tested on a sample of nonsupervisory subjects (n= 642) from divergent work environments (e.g., production‐lines and a computer software department). A nonrecursive, structural equation analysis, combined with tests of logical consistency, supported the assumptions above. The results were employed to recommend changes in current perspectives regarding perceptual/affective dichotomies and unidirectional causal models and moderator models that link job perceptions to job satisfaction.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS FOR THE SYMPOSIUM “ORGANIZATIONAL APPLICATIONS OF SELF‐APPRAISAL AND SELF‐ASSESSMENT: ANOTHER LOOK”.
Authors: LEVINE EDWARD L.
Published: December 2006

The symposium, “Organizational Applications of Self‐Appraisal and Self‐Assessment: Another Look”, is introduced with the notion that the self‐concept and self‐reports have again assumed a centrally important role in psychological research and theory. A recent paper by Bandura concerning the self‐system in reciprocal determinism is discussed as an illustration of this notion, and as a possible foundation for applied research yet to be conducted on the self‐evaluation process. Bandura's framework is amplified slightly for use in the applied context by adding the concept of self‐report. Although Bandura's ideas are not dealt with by the other panelists in this symposium, this discussion of them will hopefully spur research and thinking on process, in conjunction with outcome, issues. Finally, the concepts of self‐appraisal and self‐assessment are contrasted.
SELF‐ASSESSMENTS OF FIVE TYPES OF TYPING ABILITY1
Authors: ASH RONALD A.
Published: December 2006

The potential usefulness of self‐assessments of typing ability were examined from a personnel selection perspective. A sample of 156 “business ready”, Phoenix area high school students estimated their abilities to type each of the following types of materials in units of net words per minute: 1. straight copy 2. letters 3. revised manuscript 4. numbers 5. tables. The students then took the analogous portions of the Typing Test for Business, Self‐assessment of straight copy typing ability emerged as the best predictor of tested typing ability of all types.

Because of the substantial number of minority students in the sample (N= 69, 44.2%), differential prediction was studied. Self‐assessments of revised manuscript, numbers, and tables typing abilities were significantly higher for the majority group than for the minority group. Typing test performance was significantly higher for the majority group across straight copy, letters, revised manuscript, and tables subtests. Minority group members were generally less accurate in self‐assessment of their typing ability. Subgroup regression lines were compared by means of Potthoff's analysis, and subgroup differences in prediction of tested typing ability from self‐assessments of typing ability were found.
THE USE OF SELF‐ASSESSMENTS IN EXAMINING
Authors: PRIMOFF ERNEST S.
Published: December 2006

Self‐assessments combined with other evidences such as achievements and test scores lead to increased accuracy and fairness in examining. The use of self‐ratings to evaluate an applicant requires adjustment for degree of understanding of the element to be rated and for applicant's subjective base for rating. However, raw ratings may be used for psychometric analysis. Since minorities are usually represented in significant numbers among applicants but not in employed groups, this kind of analysis appears promising for studies designed to reduce adverse impact of tests and other measuring devices. An initial exploratory example of such analysis is described in detail.
SELF‐ASSESSMENT: A CRITICAL ANALYSIS
Authors: HENEMAN HERBERT G.
Published: December 2006

A critical analysis is provided of self‐assessment (SA) as an area of investigation. It is argued that there are numerous deficiencies in SA work pertaining to theoretical foundations, measurement, and behavioral focus. Several suggestions are made for advancing the nature and scope of SA theory and research.
THE NEW UNIFORM GUIDELINES ON EMPLOYEE SELECTION PROCEDURES IN THE CONTEXT OF UNIVERSITY PERSONNEL DECISIONS
Authors: BERNARDIN H. JOHN , BEATTY RICHARD W. , JENSEN WALTER
Published: December 2006

The newUniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Proceduresare considered in a context of university employment decisions. The use of student evaluations as valid criteria for faculty personnel decisions such as hiring, retention, tenure, promotion, or salary increases is examined. Standards of validity contained in the Guidelines are probably not being met with regard to most student rating forms currently used. Recommendations are made regarding use of student and administrators' ratings as criteria for personnel decisions. The need for studies on contaminating sources of variance in ratings is emphasized.
CHARACTERISTICS OF WOMEN IN TRADITIONAL AND NON‐TRADITIONAL MANAGERIAL ROLES
Authors: MOORE LORETTA M. , RICKEL ANNETTE U.
Published: December 2006

This study investigated characteristics which distinguish women who choose traditional as opposed to non‐traditional careers and who function at differing occupational levels. 156 nurses represented the traditional sample, and 147 women in business and industrial positions in which 20% or fewer of the job incumbents were female comprised the non‐traditional career group. The women were matched according to age and education across three occupational levels. It was determined that women as a group in non‐traditional business roles as compared to the traditionals were more achieving, emphasized production more, saw themsleves as having characteristics more like managers and men, and saw no self‐characteristics which conflicted with those ascribed to male managers. The business women considered the domestic role as less important, had fewer children, and fewer children living at home, than did the nurses. The two groups did not differ in their attitude toward the importance of their careers, their perceptions of their husband's attitudes, nor in the education level of their spouse and parents. These findings lead to the conclusion that leadership attributes and behavior of women do vary between organizational settings and across occupational levels in predictable ways.
A TEST OF THE PATH‐GOAL THEORY OF LEADERSHIP AND SOME SUGGESTED DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
Authors: SCHRIESHEIM JANET FULK , SCHRIESHEIM CHESTER A.
Published: December 2006

Several hypotheses on the moderating effect of task structure from Path‐Goal leadership theory were tested in a large public utility. No support was found for the moderating effect of task structure, despite multiple analyses and large and statistically significant differences in moderator variables: instrumental leadership obtained few significant correlations with criteria regardless of task structure, and supportive leadership was strongly related to criteria at all levels of task structure. Based on these results and theoretical considerations, suggestions are made for modification of the manner in which the theory has generally been tested, and for attention to specific testing of several assumptions upon which the theory is based.
LEADER INFLUENCE IN THE ASSESSMENT OF PERFORMANCE
Authors: KLIMOSKI RICHARD J. , FRIEDMAN BARRY A. , WELDON ELIZABETH
Published: December 2006

The role requirements of leaders in an assessment group context were manipulated in a laboratory simulation. Discussion leaders (chairholders) either did or did not have first hand contact with an individual who was being assessed. Furthermore, chairholders were either allowed a formal say in the group's decision or were not. As predicted, different configurations of role requirements had an impact on the influence wielded by the chair, as indexed by measures of group process, group decision, accuracy and group member attitudes. Both prior contact and voting rights had direct and interactive effects and served to increase chair influence. Particular role requirement combinations also produced a type of group disruption as reflected in group member ratings of the quality of the session. The results of the study are discussed in forms of implications for the standardization of procedures in assessment center programs.
SELECTION INTERVIEWING IN THE LIFE INSURANCE INDUSTRY: AN UPDATE OF RESEARCH AND PRACTICE
Authors: MAYFIELD EUGENE C. , BROWN STEVEN H. , HAMSTRA BRUCE W.
Published: December 2006

Over the past decade, the Life Insurance Marketing and Research Association has been researching and implementing the use of structured selection interviews in the agent selection process. The practical problems encountered during this period are reviewed, and studies of the most recent interview guide are presented. These studies are based on interview evaluations made by 270 managers in interview training sessions, as well as field managers’evaluations of 163 applicants in actual agent selection situations. The results indicate that it is possible for managers to agree on their evaluation ratings of an applicant, that there is a stable factorial structure for the ratings, and that the ratings are related to the selection decision although not all items carry the same weight. The implications of these results for the use of structured selection interviews and for further research are discussed.