bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Computer virusescurrent and future
Authors: Louw Eric , Duffy Neil
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we review some current research on computer viruses in companies, and attempt to synthesire these findings with a few of the major trends in computing in order to steal a glimpse into the future of computer viruses from a business perspective. Because of the general lack of data in this area, we focus much of our discussion on just three countries— the UK, the USA, and South Africa. The incidence of virus attacks on businesses Just how widespread are virus attacks on business computers? A few of the problems associated with collecting reliable information on the incidence of computer virus attacks were mentioned in Chapter 2, but some indication of the prevalence and severity of the problem is provided by the studies discussed below.
A History Of Multiple-Valued Theorem Proving
Authors: Hahnle Reiner
Published: November 2023

Historically, most proof systems for many-valued logics were based on some version of the resolution rule; consequently, these will be reviewed together in a separate section. All but one of the remaining approaches are based upon extensions of more or less known proof procedures for classical logic. For the sake of completeness we have also included two very general frameworks for theorem proving which are not limited to many-valued logics. Two of the reviewed approaches (Sections 8.1.4.3 and 8.2.4) can deal with infinitely valued logics, although in a limited way. We treat only such proof systems extensively that were intended for automated theorem proving by their authors or that are obviously suitable for that purpose. In particular, we do not mention most of the vast literature on Hilbert-style or Gentzen-style axiomatizations. See Wolf (1977), Rescher (1969), Urquhart (1986), or Gottwald (1989), and the references contained therein, for that kind of proof systems.
Locomotion, locomotor muscles, and buoyancy
Authors: Bone Q
Published: November 2023

The four kinds of pelagic tunicates are rather different in their buoyancy and locomotor capabilities, and in the methods they use for generating thrust to move forwards. Pyrosomas, salps, and doliolids swim by continuous or intermittent jet propulsion, whilst appendicularians swim by oscillating a chordate-like tail. In all except pyrosomas (where cilia produce the water flow), locomotion is the result of the contraction of striated muscle fibres. The fine structure of these fibres has been examined, and there is some evidence for cholinergic innervation. In most, the ionic basis of the muscle potentials has been studied and in doliolids and salps something is known of the way that muscular contractions are graded. In both doliolids and salps, analyses have been made of their jet propulsion.
The appendicularian house
Authors: Flood Per R , Deibel D
Published: November 2023

The ‘house’ building capacity was early considered an important feature of the appendicularians, and the name ‘Oikopleura’ was coined by Mertens (1830, p. 210) soon after their original description by Chamisso and Eysenhardt (1821). OiKoc; (Oikos) is Greek for ‘house’ and 1rX.eupa (pleura) is Greek for ‘rib’ or the side of an animal, but came early to be applied to the lining membrane of the chest wall (Skinner, 1961). Thus, Mertens’ term ‘Oikopleura’ most likely points to the respiratory function which he erroneously assigned to the houses of these animals. However, it took almost 30 years before Mertens’ (1830) observation of a house surrounding an appendicularian was verified by Allman (1859). He suggested the house to be a ‘definitely shaped secretion, destined to act as a nidamental covering for the ova’. Moss (1870) gave some structural notes on inflating houses and presented interesting chemical data on the house material of an unidentified oikopleurid species, but did not comment on its function. Fol (1872) gave the first detailed description of the external houses in all three main families of appendicularians. His drawings still represent the most detailed published accounts of those of the Fritillariidae (26 species) and Kowalewskiidae (two species). A single photograph of a Kowalewskia house (Alldredge, 1976c) and a behavioural study of Fritillaria pellucida (Bone et al., 1979) add little to this knowledge. For the Oikopleuridae (about 29 species) on the other hand, Fol’s (1872) description of the house of Oikopleura albicans (at that time named O.cophocerca) was soon supplemented by the study by Eisen (1874), probably on O.dioica. Whereas Fol (1872, p. 495) suggested that the house served some protective function against preda-tors, Eisen (1874, p. 6) was the first to vaguely suggest it served ‘till at infora naringsamnen till munoppningen’ (to introduce nutritional substances to the mouth opening). However, undoubtedly the detailed structural studies of Lohmann (1898, 1899c, 1909a, 1933, 1934), mostly on O.albicans, were needed before any precise ideas could be established on the functional significance of the house with respect to feeding ecology. The great complexity and extreme fragility of appendicularian houses has been a challenge for numerous subsequent investigators and improved understanding of the precise structure and mode of operation of the house has only slowly emerged.
Butterflies and communities
Authors: Steel Keith Porter with Caroline A , Thomas Jeremy A
Published: November 2023

This chapter examines interactions between butter¬ flies and other organisms such as other butterflies, animals, and plants, in communities. ‘Communities are groups of species that interact, or have the potential for interacting, with one another’ (Strong et al. 1984). The concept infers that individuals of one species influence the fitness of other individuals of the same or different species, either directly or in¬ directly. This could involve ‘competition’ for food or physical space but does not necessarily require that two individuals come into physical contact. Con¬sequently communities are often difficult to verify in the field, especially as they can be of any size.
Population Structure And Gene Fiow
Authors: Lank David B , Rockwell Robert F
Published: November 2023

The Snow Geese nesting at La Pérouse Bay are not an isolated biological population. Pair formation occurs away from the breeding grounds, where La Pérouse Bay geese mix with those breeding at other nesting colonies. The level of gene exchange among colonies needs to be assessed if we are to infer potential local evolutionary consequences of the selective regime operating among the birds nesting at La Pérouse Bay. We aim to assess how both selection and gene flow can act to modify the genetic structure of our population. This chapter puts our colony into perspective by examining the population structure of Snow Geese and their close relatives.
Plumage colour
Authors: Lank David B , Rockwell Robert F
Published: November 2023

Field studies of natural selection have been carried out on both polymorphic and quantitative characters. Although the latter are more common in nature, above the molecular level, population geneticists have until recently concentrated on polymorphic variation for both technical and theoretical reasons (Endler 1986). Mendel developed the fundamental models of heredity by interpreting phenotypes as genotypes, and characteristics for which population allele frequencies could be determined stimulated Fisher, Haldane, Wright and others to formulate the fundamental population genetics models of mutation rates, genetic drift, gene flow and selection. The empirical literature of ecological genetics similarly concentrated on tractable polymorphic traits (Ford 1975), including Kettlewell’s (1973) studies of industrial melanism in the Peppered Moth (Biston betularia), which remains the paradigmatic textbook example documenting natural selection and evolutionary change in the wild. Snow Geese have one highly conspicuous polymorphic trait, namely plumage colour. The frequency of the blue morph has slowly increased during our study (Fig. 3.6). We initially attributed this increase not to potentially higher local fitness of the blue morph (Cooke et al. 1985; Findlay et al. 1985), but rather to gene flow within the central breeding population of Snow Geese (Chapter 3). The slow rate of change is consistent with familial imprinting and assortative mating with respect to colour.
Distribution and habitat
Authors: Zann Richard A
Published: November 2023

To understand the distribution of the Zebra Finch we not only need to appreciate the environment of its recent evolutionary past (Chapter 1), but more importantly we need to understand its present day patterns of distribution under the present day environment, especially the plant environment. Zebra Finches have a very wide distribution. They are distributed throughout continental Australia and most of the islands that form the Lesser Sundas archipelago of eastern Indonesia (Figure 2.1).
Breeding periodicity
Authors: Zann Richard A
Published: November 2023

The Australian Zebra Finch is renowned in the literature on avian breeding periodicity for its irregular a seasonal breeding, and for its ability to respond immediately to good falls of drought-breaking rain irrespective of the season. However, across the extensive range of distribution seasonal breeding tends to prevail, although timing varies among populations according to climatic region.
The Rain Forests Of Malaysia
Authors: Aiken S Robert , Leigh Colin H
Published: November 2023

The Asian rain-forest block is centred on the Malay Archipelago, the name given to the great chain of islands linking mainland South-east Asia to Australia. In the western part of the region, where Malaysia is situated, are dipterocarp-dominated forests of unsurpassed grandeur: in no other rain forest are there loftier trees or a greater number of different species of trees growing together in discrete areas; there are no other forests anywhere in the world’, according to Whitmore (1988, p. 21), ‘which have so many genera and species of a single tree family [namely Dipterocarpaceae] growing together in the same place’; and few other forests can boast a greater wealth of both plant and animal life.
Resource Utilization And Forest Conversion: Processes And Policies
Authors: Aiken S Robert , Leigh Colin H
Published: November 2023

Physically, South-east Asia consists of two major regions: continental or mainland South-east Asia, and the structurally complex festoon of islands that comprise the Malay Archipelago or insular South-east Asia. The modern state of Malaysia straddles this basic division: Peninsular Malaysia (hereafter the Peninsula) is part of the mainland, whereas Sabah and Sarawak (East Malaysia) belong to the Archipelago. More revealing, however, is what the two parts of Malaysia share: both lie on the Sunda Shelf; both are in the floristic province of West Malesia; and both are part of a larger island world, for the Peninsula is a near-island.
Introduction
Authors: Schofield Paul N
Published: November 2023

The purpose of this introduction is to give the reader a brief overview of the fascinating field of insulin-like growth factor (IGF) biology, and to act not only as a guide to different aspects of the factors covered in this volume, but, I hope, to whet the appetite for some of the more intriguing and Jess well-characterized aspects of the IGFs explored by these different groups of contributors.
The insulin-like growth factor genes
Authors: Ward Andrew , Elliss Carolyn J
Published: November 2023

The structure and expression of the insulin-like growth factor genes (IGF-I and IGF-II) are examined in this chapter. Most of the data under discussion have accumulated since the elucidation of the amino acid sequences of these factors (Rinderknecht and Humbel 1978a,b) and the isolation of IGF-I clones from a human adult liver CDNA library (Jansen et al. 1983). Numerous CDNA and genomic clones have now been characterized, for both IGF-1 and -II, and these have been used extensively as probes for IGF gene expression in addition to providing a wealth of information on nucleotide sequences. The availability of nucleotide and amino acid sequences from a number of vertebrate species allows some analysis of possible evolutionary relationships between IGFs, as well as comparisons of the IGFs with other members of the insulin gene family.
Insulin-like growth factors as endocrine and paracrine hormones
Authors: Bang Peter , Hall Kerstin
Published: November 2023

Three decades ago, Salmon and Daughaday (1957) proposed that the growth-promoting action of growth hormone was mediated through secondary substances. The search for such factors led to the discovery of the insulin-like growth factors (IGFs). These were discovered as three different biological activities in plasma; the growth hormone-regulated, sulphation factor activity, the non-suppressible insulin-like activity, and multiplication-stimulating activity (Daughaday et al. 1972, 1987).
Symbiotic Interactions
Authors: Douglas A E
Published: November 2023

No organism exists in isolation. Symbiosis describes some of the most intimate interactions that occur between organisms; those in which some species can overcome their own physiological limitations by exploiting the capacities of others. Symbiotic Interactions is a modern synthesis of our knowledge of symbiosis, from the molecular mechanisms underlying the establishment and function of symbioses to the ecological and evolutionary impact of such associations. The book takes the novel approach that symbiosis is a vehicle by which many organisms have gained access to complex metabolic capabilities, and this is illustrated by a variety of associations, including photosynthetic algae in corals, nitrogen-fixing bacteria in plant roots and cellulose-degrading microorganisms in herbivorous mammals. The traditional view of symbioses as mutually-beneficial associations is explicitly abandoned. This book brings together the scattered literature on symbiosis, providing an integrated introduction for undergraduate courses and up-to-date review for postgraduate students.
Mature vegetative phase
Authors: Tomlinson P B
Published: November 2023

Growth limitations which largely determine the form of the palm have been discussed in Chapter 3. In recapitulation we may recall that in the absence of any secondary vascular and mechanical tissue, the crown size is fixed, reflected in the rarity of aerial branching. Vegetative branching is largely restricted to the base of the original trunk, the branches being self-supporting and independently rooted. Nevertheless, the diversity of growth forms in palms is still surprising and the range of mature stem diameters extends over about two orders of magnitude. Growth form is usually species specific, but within one genus the variation can be considerable (Plate 5).
Fruit and seed
Authors: Tomlinson P B
Published: November 2023

There is a paradox about our knowledge of the palm fruit and seed; it is the least studied part of the plant and yet is the most important economic resource. It represents the source of food and raw materials on a massive economic scale. Nevertheless, there are few studies of development, structure, and biology of palm fruits; most interest has been expressed in the physiology and biochemical composition, but even then the potential value of palm fruits as sources of raw material is little understood. Most work has been done on coconut, oil-palm, and date (e.g. van Die 1974); Jeje et al. 1978; Juliano 1926). For palms as a whole information is mainly summarized in Murray (1971, 1973), while Essig (1977a), and Essig and Young (1979) have made a comparative histological study of a group ofarecoid palms. Guérin (1949) made studies on the anatomy of fruit and seed in several palms; Bentinckia condapanna has been described by Padmanabhan and Regupathy (1981).
Comparative analysis of continuous variables
Authors: Harvey Paul H , Pagel Mark D
Published: November 2023

Many of the questions of interest to comparative biologists involve comparing the values of characters that vary continuously, rather than discretely, among a number of species. Measures of morphology, physiology, life histories, and behaviour, such as walking, flying, or swimming, produce quantitative values. Comparative studies of characters that vary continuously have progressed from relying nearly exclusively on cross-species correlational analyses that ignore the historical relationships among species, to sophisticated techniques that incorporate information about phylogenetic relationships into the comparative test. We review briefly each of the major approaches in this chapter. Those comparative methods that compute sets of statistically independent comparisons, either across contemporary taxa, or between ancestral and descendant nodes, emerge as the best techniques currently available. This conclusion is supported by the results of computer simulation studies.
Dental homologies and nomenclature in the Proboscidea
Authors: Tassy Pascal
Published: November 2023

Proboscidean molars and premolars are basically bunolophodont teeth. They diverged from the plesiomorphic tethythere condition where the bilophodont/bunolophodont pattern is outlined on molars (Domning et al. 1986; Tassy and Shoshani 1988). The main evolutionary trend is towards the augmentation of cusps due to subdivision of the main mammalian cusps and by the augmentation of loph(id)s.
Stegodontidae: evolutionary relationships
Authors: Saegusa Haruo
Published: November 2023

The family Stegodontidae is composed of the two genera, Stegolophodon and Stegodon. This family first appeared in Asia during the early Miocene and became one of the dominant faunas of Asia during the Pliocene and Pleistocene. Because of elephant-like similarities, the systematic position of the stegodontids has developed with the prevailing ideas of elephant evolution (e.g. Osborn 1942; Maglio 1973; Tobien 1976; Tassy 1982; Tassy and Shoshani 1988)
Origin and radiation of the Elephantidae
Authors: Todd Nancy E , Roth V Louise
Published: November 2023

The emergence of the family Elephantidae in the late Miocene of Africa is thought to be correlated with a major adaptive shift in the masticatory apparatus. This shift was a transition from a combined grinding and shearing molar function with some lateral jaw movement, which is characteristic of gomphotheres, to a mostly horizontal shearing dental function involving fore and aft movement of the jaw, which is present in elephantids. Major structural modifications in skull and mandibular morphology accompanied this transition, which increased the shearing efficiency of the molars, and which was the principal factor in the rapid, early radiation of this family (Maglio 1972, pp. 640, 654).
Elephas maximus: status and distribution
Authors: Sukumar Raman , Santiapillai Charles
Published: November 2023

The present-day distribution of the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) (Fig. 33.1) covers only a tiny fraction of its former extensive range. Six thousand years ago, its range extended from the Tigris-Euphrates Basin in Western Asia, eastward up to the Yangtze-Kiang, and perhaps even beyond this, in northern China. This distribution covered present-day Iraq and nearby countries, southern Iran, Pakistan, the entire Indian subcontinent south of the Himalayas, continental South-East Asia, a substantial part of China, and islands such as Sri Lanka, Sumatra, Borneo, and possibly Java.
Preliminary Inspection of Observations
Authors: Haccou Patsy , Meelis Evert
Published: November 2023

The models described in sections 1.2 and 1.3 are idealized representations of behavioural records. Before tests can be applied on whether any of these models fits the data, records should meet certain conditions. One of these conditions, namely that behavioural categories should be exclusive, has already been mentioned in Chapter 1. We return briefly to this issue in subsection 2.2.1. Until now it has also been assumed that behaviour was observed continuously throughout the observation period, but sometimes it may be impossible to do this. For instance, animals may be out of sight for certain periods. This is discussed in subsection 2.2.2. (One of the consequences is the occurrence of censors, see section 4.4.) Yet, even if there are no such gaps and behavioural categories are exclusive, the methods described in the succeeding chapters can usually not be applied directly to the raw data, since these often contain recording errors. Furthermore, rare events may sometimes cause disturbances during observation periods (for instance, someone walks into the room during an experiment, or an animal gets hiccups).
Barbets, toucans and honeyguides—the birds, their relationships and evolution
Authors: Short Lester L , Horne Jennifer F M , Gilbert Albert Earl
Published: November 2023

Barbets, toucans and honeyguides (respectively, the Capitonidae, Ramphastidae and Indicatoridae), with the woodpeckers (Picidae), comprise the order Piciformes. We have been fascinated by the diversity of these often colourful birds, especially in their disparate feeding structures and foraging modes that belie their universally accepted, close interrelationships.
Carboniferous
Authors: Fengqing Yang
Published: November 2023

Despite of the decline of trilobites, graptolites, and orthocone nautiloids, the Carboniferous Period enjoyed a great diversity of biotas, dominated by corals, brachiopods, ammonoids, and fusulinids, with many other animal groups, such as bivalves, gastropods, crinoids, non-fusulinid forams, ostracods, insects, and vertebrates. Corals, stromatoporoids, and bryozoans became the main reef-building organisms. In addition, there are also a large number of plant fossils. Hill (1973), Ross (1979), and Ross and Ross (1985) have described and summarized in detail the geographical provincialization of Early Carboniferous corals and Carboniferous forams in the world,based on the geographical distribution of the two groups. Read and Mamay (1964), Chaloner and Meyen (1973), Meyen (1982) and Rowley et al.
Mirna-like mounds (heuweltjies) of South Africa: the topographical, ecological and economic impact of burrowing animals
Authors: Lovegrove A G
Published: November 2023

Mima-like mounds (heuweltjies) are circular (c.30 m diameter), raised(< 2 m high) earth mounds, found over extensive regions of the western Cape Province, South Africa. Popular hypotheses attribute their origin to the burrowing activities of termites, Microhodotermes viator, and mole rats (Bathyergidae). These animals account for the higher nutrient status, water-holding capacity, organic content and pH and the finer soil structure of the mound soils, compared with adjacent intermound soils. These soil parameters determine the distinctive floristic composition of heuweltjie vegetation assemblages. The existence of the mounds profoundly increases local beta and gamma plant species diversity. It is emphasized that, in agricultural regions, the higher fertility of the mounds may be of significant economic importance. Minimum objectives are proposed for a multi-disciplinary scientific approach to ascertain the extent of energy flow through heuweltjies, to elucidate the important topographical, ecological and economic impact of these two burrowing animals on this ecologically sensitive region of South Africa, and to propose serious consideration of appropriate conservation status for representative mounds.
The aerodynamics of insect flight
Authors: Brodsky Andrei K
Published: November 2023

The question of how aerodynamic forces are generated has been and continues to be the most basic question in the study of insect flight. Although it was addressed by the very first investigators of insect flight, Demoll (1918) and Magnan (1934), Holst (1943) was the first to prove experimentally that the previous concept of insect flight as ‘rowing’ does not correspond to how the flapping wing actually works. In contrast to previous over-simplified and imprecise notions about air being ‘thrown off’ by the wing, the quasi-steady approach enabled aerodynamic processes to be considered as a series of stationary conditions which could be quantified using classical aerodynamic methods. An investigation of the flight of the desert locust by Weis-Fogh and Jensen (1956) obtained a good match Between theoretical data and measured values or aerodynamics forces. In spite of general acceptance of the quasi-steady approach, nobody else has managed to obtain agreement between theoretical and real forces, which implies the existence of additional aerodynamic forces. In addition, many authors have emphasized the non-stationary nature of the forces created during insect flight, and the unusual behaviour of the airflow in the insect’s wake.
Retinoid binding proteins in the developing vertebrate nervous system
Authors: Maden Malcolm , Gale Emily , Horton Claire , Smith Jim C
Published: November 2023

It has been known for more than 40 years that the development of the central nervous system (CNS) depends crucially on the correct balance of vitamin A in the maternal diet. Nutritional and teratological studies on the effects of hyper-and hypovitaminosis A have revealed devastating consequences for the embryo (Kalter and Warkany 1959). The organ system primarily affected is the nervous system and its derivative, the neural crest. It is quite likely, therefore, that the CNS requires specific levels of vitamin A, perhaps in the form of retinoic acid (RA), for its normal development. Two recent pieces of evidence support this suggestion. First, more precise teratological studies have identified specific CNS regions whose development can be suppressed by RA while the remaining parts of the CNS develop normally. In the zebrafish embryo, RA administration results in the loss of an area of CNS between the caudal mid brain and rostral hindbrain, which would normally form the cerebellum (Holder and Hill 1991). In the Xenopus embryo, increasing RA doses cause the loss of increasing amounts of CNS commencing with the forebrain (Durston et al. 1989), and a disruption of rostral hindbrain segmentation (Papalopulu et al. 1991). In the rat embryo the same area of rostral hindbrain is deleted (Morriss and Thorogood 1978), perhaps in humans too (Lammer et al. 1985 and Chapter 21) and neural crest migration is inhibited both in vitro (Thorogood et al. 1982) and in vivo (Pratt et al. 1987). The second piece of evidence is that we have recently identified endogenous RA in the CNS using high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) (Hunter et al. 1991). To overcome the problems of small amounts of tissue we used the spinal cord of the larval axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum), an animal that retains various embryonic characteristics into adult life, including the ability to produce new neurons. The level of RA in the spinal cord detected by HPLC was comparable to that found in the chick limb bud. Furthermore, we also demonstrated that RA stimulates neurite outgrowth from explants of the spinal cord with a particular threshold response.
The instability of differentiation in hepatomas
Authors: Goss S J
Published: November 2023

In 1965, Henry Harris showed that viable heterokaryons could be made between HeLa cells and normal differentiated cells as distinctive as rat lymphocytes, hen erythrocytes, and rabbit macrophages; and in these heterokaryons he detected reactivation of RNA and DNA synthesis in the previously quiescent nuclei. Cell fusion was rapidly established as a powerful tool in the investigation of differentiation, as is clear from the intense activity in this field in the immediately following years (Ringertz and Savage 1976). In work with growing hybrid cells, it is liver differentiation that has been most extensively studied. Well-differentiated hepatomas are available that maintain a wide range of liver-specific traits even when they are grown rapidly in standard tissue culture media. Their phenotype is generally stable through repeated cloning (Deschatrette and Weiss 1974), and the usefulness of the system has been increased by the development of media and conditions that select either for or against liver-specific traits (Leffert and Paul 1972; Haggerty et al. 1975; Choo and Cotton 1977).
Some insights into the replication of damaged DNA in mammalian cells
Authors: Johnson R T , Downes C S , Godfrey D B , Hatton D H , Ryan A J , Squires S
Published: November 2023

In a volume devoted to the legacy of cell fusion, this article on cellular responses to DNA damage contains only a single example of the use of the technique, though the information gained thereby has transformed our view of the mutant cell whose phenotype is described at some length below. In the wider sense cell fusion continues to play an invaluable role in the analysis of DNA repair problems, most notably in complementation analysis using heterokaryons (Giannelli et al. 1982) or permanent hybrid cells (Johnson et al. 1989). In this way the number of genes involved in a repair pathway can be identified, by separating a set of repair-defective mutant cells into different complementation groups.
Genes in control of cell proliferation and tumorigenesis in Drosophila
Authors: Mechler Bernard M
Published: November 2023

Cancer is generally considered as a failure in the normal progression of differentiation. As a result, the cancer cells escape the mechanisms controlling normal growth and proliferate. When the overgrowth of neoplastic cells reaches a critical threshold, complex syndromes arise and, ultimately, lead to the death of the organism. A genetic basis for cancer is now well established and includes the discovery of protooncogenes, whose activation or altered expression is associated with the cancerous state and tumour suppressor genes which appear to be lost or functionally inactivated.
Genetics and molecular biology of tumour formation in Xiphophorus
Authors: Altschmied Joachim , Schartl Manfred
Published: November 2023

The fact that genes cause cancer has never been appreciated accordingly. Although as early as 1914 Theodor Boveri had postulated that ‘cancer cells have lost certain features of their normal phenotype’ and that ‘this loss is the consequence of an abnormal chromosomal constitution’ (Boveri 1914), his chromosome theory of cancer could not be verified for quite some time because neither the technical tools nor the experimental systems were available. In 1928, K. H. Bauer took up some of Boveri’s ideas and postulated that cancer is due to mutations (Bauer 1928). It was the pioneering work of Henry Harris which led to the development of an experimental system that has made it possible to define and characterize the targets of carcinogenic mutations. Using somatic cell hybrids of cancer cells fused with normal cells, genes that are functionally impaired in the tumour cell and that suppress the neoplastic phenotype in the normal cell were detected (Harris et al. 1969). Such genes were then also recognized in certain hereditary forms of human cancer like retinoblastoma (Knudson 1971) and Wilm’s tumour (Koufos et al. 1985).
Cancer suppression by the retinoblastoma gene
Authors: Lee Wen-Hwa , Goodrich David , Lee Eva
Published: November 2023

A concentrated effort toward the molecular cloning of cancer suppressor genes had an important recent success: a candidate retinoblastoma (RB)gene was cloned, identified, and extensively characterized by us and others (Friend et al. 1986; Fung et al. 1987; Lee et al. 1987a). Our demonstration of the tumour suppression activity of this single gene when transferred into tumour cells containing inactivated endogenous RBgenes constituted a critical milestone for the theory of cancer suppression (Huang et al. 1988). Since several other cancers are known to be familial, are associated with chromosomal deletions, or exhibit loss of heterozygosity, an extension of this concept to other genes and to other cancers is widely anticipated (Malkin et al. 1990).The existence of inactivating mutations of RB in some natural human tumours supports the idea that RBnormally functions to prevent tumour formation in susceptible precursor cells (Dryja et al. 1986; Friend et al. 1987; Harbour et al. 1988; Lee et al. 1988; T’ Ang et al. 1988; Toguchida et al. 1988; Yokota et al. 1988; Horowitz et al. 1989, 1990; Reissmann et al. 1989; Shew et al. 1989, 1990b; Bookstein et al. 1990b; Cheng et al. 1990).
Hydrangeaceae
Authors: Gregory Mary
Published: November 2023

This family includes two tribes, Hydrangeae and Philadelpheae, which have often been considered to be distinct families, plus the anomalous genus Pottingeria, which is described separately.
Columelliaceae
Authors: Gregory Mary
Published: November 2023

The family comprises four species of Columellia Ruiz & Pav., a genus of small evergreen trees and shrubs restricted to the Andes.
Alseuosmiaceae
Authors: Gregory Mary
Published: November 2023

This small family was erected by Shaw (1965) to include three genera of shrubs from the southwest Pacific region, previously of disputed relationship although sometimes placed in Caprifoliaceae: Alseuosmia A. Cunn., Memecylanthus Gilg et Schltr. and Periomphale Baill. Van Steenis (1984) reduced Memecylanthus and Perimnphale to Wittsteinia F. Muell. and included Crispiloba Steenis (Randia disperma S. Moore), a monospecific genus from Queensland formerly in Rubiaceae. Alseuosmia comprises four to eight species from New Zealand and Wittsteinia three species, one each from New Caledonia, New Guinea, and New South Wales.
Pterostemonaceae
Authors: Wilkinson By Hazel P
Published: November 2023

Pterostemon Schauer is the only genus in a family of three species of much branched shrubs restricted to Mexico. It was thought to be related to Hydrangeaceae by Takhtajan (1987; see also Taxonomic Notes below).
Cephalotaceae
Authors: Gregory Mary
Published: November 2023

This is a monospecific family; Cephalotus follicularis Labill. is a perennial carnivorous pitcher plant with an underground rhizome and a basal rosette of leaves. It grows only in coastal marshes between Donelly River and Cheyney beach, SW Australia, where the soil is wet in winter but may dry out in summer.
Francoaceae
Authors: Gornall R J , Al-Shammary KI A
Published: November 2023

Leaf morphology. Leaves alternate, dorsiventral; margins lobed or toothed; simple and petiolate in Teti/la and often so in Francoa but in the latter the petiole having leaf-like wings of tissue developed at irregular intervals and to varying extents such that in the extreme the leaf might be described as compound (lyrate); sti ules absent.
Detection of genital human papillomavirus infections: Critical review of methods and prevalence studies in relation to cervical cancer
Authors: Walboomers Jan M M , Husman Ana-Maria De Roda , Brule Adriaan J C Van Den , Snijders Peter J F , Meijer Chris J L M
Published: November 2023

More than a century ago sexual activity was already considered as an important risk factor for the development of cancer of the uterine cervix (cervical cancer). As early as 1842 Regioni-Stern described that this type of cancer rarely exists in nuns and is frequently observed in prostitutes. Other epidemiological studies have shown that onset of sexual activity at an early age and promiscuity are important risk factors for this disease (Rotkin 1967). In addition it was noted that in monogamous women cervical cancer was more frequently detected if the male partner had penile cancer, more sexual partners, or had already been previously married to a woman who died from cervical cancer.
Effects of drugs on behaviour
Authors: Ferner R E , Norman Elizabeth , Rawlins M D
Published: November 2023

It is common experience that chemical substances can alter one’s state of mind. Many people have tried to ‘drown their sorrows’ in ethanol, which provides the most familiar example of the phenomenon. There are prescribed drugs used specifically to treat anxiety, depression, psychosis and other psychiatric (‘mental’) diseases. These drugs are intended to alter the subject’s feelings or state of mind therapeutically. Many more drugs can cause psychiatric disturbance as an adverse effect. The pleasurable feelings engendered by some drugs and chemicals can also lead to their non-medicinal use and abuse.
Effects of drugs on the victims of crime
Authors: Ferner R E , Norman Elizabeth , Rawlins M D
Published: November 2023

Poison is a particularly evocative agent of crime; ‘… incensed at the most cowardly of crimes [the private individual] regards with horror the execrable assassin and demands his punishment’ (Orfila 1814, quoted in Morrison 1930).
Bauer: The Early Years
Authors: Walter Lack H , Mabberley David J
Published: November 2023

A sharper contrast can hardly be imagined than that between the early years of John Sibthorp and those of Ferdinand Bauer, the second hero of this book. Not only did Bauer come from a different social class, but he was also less fortunate in other respects.
Hawkins: The Adventurer at Home
Authors: Walter Lack H , Mabberley David J
Published: November 2023

Hawkins had been a lucky traveller, surviving malaria, not having been intercepted by the French Navy, and not being drowned in the storm off the coast of Negroponte [Evia]. His family was well; no member of it had died during his absence of five years; a very considerable amount of money had been spent—£ 2849 from his account ·with Lee & Sons alone, but his income was still flowing steadily from shares; his prospects were favourable. Like so many gentleman travellers, he now felt his curiosity sufficiently satisfied and was inclined to settle down to a sedentary life in England. Like many fellow tourists he soon got married and purchased further estates, one of them becoming his principal residence. For the rest of his life Hawkins seems to have remained in England.
Introduction
Authors: Gauld Ian D
Published: November 2023

With more than 115,000 described species, ranging from diminutive ‘fairy-flies’ which are less than 0.2 mm in length and develop within the single egg of a leafhopper, to colossal tarantula-hawks—spiderhunting wasps with a wingspan of more than ten centimetres—the Hymenoptera is one of the largest and most diverse of all insect orders. However, the variety and composition of the group often remains unappreciated, a fact that is perhaps best reflected by their lack of a common name in either the English or Spanish languages.
The chalcidoid families
Authors: Hanson Paul E , LaSalle John
Published: November 2023

The Chalcidoidea is the second most species-rich superfamily of Hymenoptera, exceeded in size only by the Ichneumonoidea. Presently the superfamily contains about 2000 genera and 19,000 described species, but the actual number of species could be as high as 100,000 (Noyes, 1990). In terms of body size, Chalcidoidea include some of the smallest of all insects; Megaphragma, a trichogrammatid parasitoid of thrips ‘ eggs, is only 0.17 mm in length. The largest members of the superfamily are species of the pteromalid subfamily Leptofoeninae, which reach 25 mm in length, excluding the ovipositor. Unlike other microhymenoptera (Ceraphronoidea, Proctotrupoidea and Cynipoidea), many chalcidoids are bright metallic green or blue in coloration.
The Evolution of Avian Breeding Systems
Authors: Ligon J David
Published: November 2023

The Evolution of Avian Breeding Systems deals with three of the most conspicuous and fascinating aspects of the reproductive biology of birds: sexual selection, parental care, and mating systems. Ever since Darwin, birds have provided much of the stimulus for study of these interrelated topics. Researchers have been fascinated by the extent of sexual dimorphism in plumage colours among avian species, and the puzzling development of flamboyant ornamentation or complex courtship displays in male birds. This book provides empirical assessments of the main theories of mate choice by females, and also includes related topics such as the role of sexual selection in speciation. Although most avian species are socially monogamous, others exhibit polygyny, cooperative and classical polyandry, or lek-promiscuity. The effects of extra pair copulations on paternity, as well as their possible effects on the evolution of mating systems are also considered. Chapters devoted to each of the major mating system summarize current thinking about the factors maintaining them. Throughout the book, theoretical discussion is illustrated with examples, drawn from work on a wide range of avian species. This is the first book to combine the themes of sexual selection, parental care, and mating systems, and to focus exclusively on birds. It will be welcomed by researchers in animal behaviour and ornithology with an interest in mating systems, as well as by graduate and advanced undergraduate students taking courses in this area. It is illustrated throughout with original line drawings.
Phylogenetic studies of reproductive patterns
Authors: Ligon J David
Published: November 2023

The classic studies by Lorenz (1941) on ducks first demonstrated that behavioural traits of birds may conform closely to morphological ones, and that behaviour, like morphology, can reflect phylogenetic history. A recent example is seen in the study by Kennedy et al. (1996) of the relationship between social displays and phylogeny in the Order Pelecaniformes. David Winkler and Frederick Sheldon (1993) make this point in a novel way by demonstrating that nests of swallows parallel their phylogeny (Fig. 7.1). As a group, swallows show a great diversity of nest types, from burrows to cavities to nests built of mud. Winkler and Sheldon superimposed nests on a phylogeny based on DNA-hybridization and found that nest type is tightly linked to the inferred evolutionary history of swallows. Nest sites and modes of construction are a physical manifestation of complex, largely stereotyped behaviour, and in this respect they are similar to the courtship displays of many birds.
The benefits of oviparity and the evolution of parental care
Authors: Ligon J David
Published: November 2023

Why are there no viviparous birds? This question is critical to obtaining an understanding of parental care patterns and thus mating systems of birds. The benefits and costs of egg-laying have had effects on the reproductive biology of birds that cannot be overstated. The production of eggs, along with the evolution of physiological (e.g. endothermy) and behavioural (e.g. incubation) traits associated with the care of eggs and hatchlings, has set birds apart from all other animals with regard to parental care, and particularly with regard to paternal care.
Framework and theory
Authors: Little Michael A , Dyson-Hudson Rada , Leslie Paul W , Dyson-Hudson Neville
Published: November 2023

Keeping domestic animals for food is a practice of subsistence that dates back more than 10000 years in human prehistory. By 6000 years ago, there were pastoralists in northern Africa, and there is clear evidence for pastoralism in East Africa about 2000 years later (Marshall 1994; A.B. Smith 1992a). Before animal domestication, all forms of human subsistence were based on hunting land animals, fishing and collecting aquatic animals, and gathering plant foods. Animal domestication and pastoralism gave human groups greater control over their food resources than did hunting and gathering. Livestock provided a more regular supply of food that tended to dampen, but not entirely eliminate, the seasonal patterns of availability that faced the hunter and gatherer. Livestock food resources could be harvested without killing the animals through practices of milking and bleeding. At the same time, animals could be slaughtered for meat when the need arose, particularly during drought or other emergencies.
Settled Turkana
Authors: Campbell Benjamin C , Leslie Paul W , Little Michael A , Brainard Jean M , Deluca Michael A
Published: November 2023

In Africa, nomadic pastoralism is in decline. For a variety of interacting political, social, economic, and environmental reasons, nomadic populations in the savanna lands of East Africa, numerous a century ago, have become increasingly sedentarized or settled. Former nomads now live on commercial ranches, in farming communities, on irrigation schemes, and as wage employees in towns and cities. Under these conditions, the nomadic cultural patterns and lifestyle are dramatically transformed, and pastoral traditions are either lost or become subordinated to other kinds of subsistence. These transformations in subsistence and behavior contribute to changes in health and well-being which, although not fully understood, include changes in nutrition, reproduction, growth of children, disease, work and activity patterns, social integration, and psychological status of the people.
Synthesis and lessons
Authors: Leslie Paul W , Little Michael A , Dyson-Hudson Rada , Dyson-Hudson Neville
Published: November 2023

To most Westerners, and indeed to most Kenyans, the Great Rift Valley in the vicinity of Lake Turkana is inhospitable. To most Turkana, this region is a fine place to live and herd their cattle, camels, goats, sheep, and donkeys. To a group of anthropologists and ecologists more than twenty years ago, this seemed to be an excellent site to study how people following a traditional pattern of nomadic pastoralism respond, biologically and behaviorally, to an unpredictable environment. Thus, our research in Turkana grew from the desire to understand how the Ngisonyoka people have adapted to their environment, an environment that we perceived to be harsh and challenging in many respects. More specifically, our goals were to learn (1) how the Turkana adapt to and extract resources from their environment, (2) how the people’s subsistence pattern and lifestyle affect the health and other characteristics of the human population, and (3) how the people and their livestock affect the savanna ecosystem.
Damage to Buds, Shoots, and Branches
Authors: Butin Heinz
Published: November 2023

Shoots tend to be damaged most severely by frost when it occurs in spring ( ‘late frost ‘), since the tissues are soft at this time and more susceptible to thermal shock than in autumn or winter. However, frosts at the end of the growing season ( ‘early frosts ‘) can also be damaging to certain species that have a continuous flushing habit and set buds late in the summer (e.g. poplars) or not at all (e.g. eucalypts). Severe frost damage causes shoots to wilt and droop, becoming brown and desiccated after a few days. If the damage is sublethal or confined to one side of the shoot, subsequent growth may be stunted, curved, or otherwise distorted, especially in the case of conifers (Fig. 51). In most broadleaved species, the loss of the shoot tips stimulates compensatory growth either from axillary buds (e.g. oak) or from dormant buds (e.g. beech), but this new growth usually bears undersized chlorotic leaves. Conifers are less able than broadleaves to replace lost shoots; an exception to this is larch, which can refoliate entirely.
Bark Damage
Authors: Butin Heinz
Published: November 2023

Bark differs from the relatively short-lived parts of a tree, such as leaves or needles, in that it is a permanent organ which is not shed or replaced, except by a gradual process of surface sloughing and cell replacement. As a whole, therefore, the bark is as old as the stems and branches that it covers. As such, it is exposed throughout the life of the tree to potential damage from environmental extremes, parasitic attack, or wounding. If such damage occurs, the underlying wood can be exposed to attack by decay organisms, with potentially lethal consequences if the main stem is involved. This threat is countered by a range of defence and repair mechanisms which operate in both bark and sapwood and have been an essential element in the evolutionary success of trees.
Railways and sustainable development
Authors: Reid Bob
Published: November 2023

Sir Bob Reid took his first degree at the University of St. Andrew’s and joined the Shell Oil Company in 1956. He served the company for 35 years, in Brunei, Nigeria, Kenya, Thailand, Australia, and in the London headquarters. In 1985, he was appointed Chairman and Chief Executive of Shell UK, a post that he held for 5 years before agreeing, in 1990, to become Chairman of the British Railways Board. Sir Bob left British Rail in 1995 and his Linacre Lecture was one of his last major public statements as head of Britain’s railway industry. He is now Chairman of London Electricity pie and of Sears plc.