bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Diderot, Denis (1713–1784)
Authors: Laberge Yves
Published: September 2017

Denis Diderot, a central figure of the great ideological revolution known as the Enlightenment, was a French author, philosopher, critic, and encyclopedist. As a radical freethinker, he was often embroiled in controversy. He is remembered above all for his pioneering attempt to synthesize all knowledge currently available in the eighteenth century: the
Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers
(co‐edited with Jean D'Alembert). Among some 200 contributors to the
Encyclopédie
were the most important
philosophes
of the Enlightenment: Condorcet, Montesquieu, Rousseau, and Voltaire. The
Encyclopédie
was published between 1751 and 1772, but some of its 28 volumes and supplements were condemned as impious, or for propagating unorthodox ideas, by Pope Clément XIII and the French
Conseil d'état
in 1759, after which the royal privilege was withdrawn and subsequent volumes were relatively ignored by contemporaries.
Diggers
Authors: Larson Peter L.
Published: September 2017

The Diggers were one of many groups calling for reform in England in the widespread dissatisfaction and political unrest after the conclusion of the English Civil War and the execution of Charles I. Despite all of the sacrifices made fighting against the king and his aristocratic supporters, control of the country remained in the hands of those with wealth and power. In addition, the economy was in ruins, with many of the poor hungry and without employment. In this atmosphere in 1649–50 the Diggers sought to convert England into a Christian agrarian Utopia, advocating the abolition of the aristocracy and of private property through non‐violent means.
Dimitrov, Georgi (1882–1949)
Authors: Deyanova Liliana
Published: September 2017

Georgi Dimitrov was a Bulgarian activist in the international communist movement, a trade union leader, professional revolutionary, secretary general of the Comintern (Communist International), and prime minister of Bulgaria from late 1946 to his death in 1949. Dimitrov's diary, from 1933 to 1949, held secret in Bulgarian Communist Party archives until its publication in 1997, catalyzed questions on the contradictory and contested history of communism and the clash of two opposing types of memory. Some view Dimitrov as an iconic figure who unrelentingly opposed fascism and advanced the Bulgarian and Slavic working class as well as socialist internationalism. Detractors view Dimitrov as a pawn of the Soviet Union and Stalin.
Disobbedienti/Tute Bianche
Authors: Azzellini Dario
Published: September 2017

The Disobbedienti were a group in Italy who had their greatest visibility around the G8 (most industrialized nations) summit in Genoa in 2001. The movement understood itself as explicitly extra‐parliamentary and basis‐democratic. The Disobbedienti, who were strongly rooted in the counter‐globalization movement, regarded themselves as anti‐capitalist and anti‐racist, as well as a transformatory and revolutionary current. At the same time, they regarded a redefinition of many of the left's categories and forms of struggle as necessary for today's social reality.
Dominican Republic, Opposition to Neoliberal Reform, 1970s–2000s
Authors: Espejel Leticia Pacheco
Published: September 2017

Juaquin Balaguer (1906–2002) was elected president of the Dominican Republic in 1966 as a candidate for the Reformist Party (PR). Using the slogan of “Order, Peace and Progress,” his government practiced “hard hand” politics (
mano dura
), or strong repression against opposition. This government supported the business class through forming the National Commission of Development (CND) in the late 1960s, in which prominent entrepreneurs participated directly in public policy formulation. Through this clientielistic government‐business partnership Balaguer maintained loyalty and control over national politics.
Dominican Republic, Protest and Resistance to US Imperialism, 1916–1962
Authors: Martínez Maria Ximena Alvarez
Published: September 2017

The history of the Dominican Republic's protest movements in the first half of the twentieth century can be divided between those that followed the US military occupation, which lasted from 1916 to 1924, and those associated with Trujillo's dictatorship, from 1930 to 1961.
Dominican Republic, protests, 1844–1915
Authors: Espejel Leticia Pacheco
Published: September 2017

On February 28, 1844, the independence of the ancient Spanish island of Santo Domingo (now the Dominican Republic) from Haiti was proclaimed. It came about as a result of protests by three important independence movements of the nineteenth century. One was the Trinitario movement, which can be attributed to Juan Pablo Duarte and consisted mainly of liberal party supporters of European origin. The second movement was headed by the Society of the Rights of Man and the Citizen, founded by opposition groups from the west of the country, who contested the government of Jean‐Pierre Boyer. Its manifesto included a public call for rebellion, independence from Haiti, and a demand for constitutional reform. The third independence movement, led by Buenaventura Báez, emanated from a conservative group that wanted independence from Haiti, but as the protectorate of a foreign power. The Declaration of Independence also ended slavery in the Dominican Republic.
D
ominican
R
epublic, Resistance to Military and US Invasion, 1963–1965
Authors: Araya Fernando Artavia
Published: September 2017

On May 30, 1961, after 30 years of one of the cruelest dictatorships in Latin American history, Rafael Leónidas Trujillo was murdered. But even if the
caudillo
had died, his heritage,
trujillismo
, was carried on by family members and his closest friends, especially Joaquín Balaguer, whom Trujillo himself had led to the president's chair. Pressured by opposition from the National Civic Union (NCU) and the 14 of June Movement, Balaguer agreed to form a provisional government, the Council of State, led by him but with the presence of the private sector, the Catholic Church, and the two surviving assassins of Trujillo – Luis Amiama Tió and Antonio Imbert Barrera.
D
reyfus
A
ffair
Authors: Waskey Andrew J.
Published: September 2017

Captain Alfred Dreyfus was a French artillery officer who, in the 1890s, was the victim of anti‐Semitism on the part of the French general staff. The case sparked a political scandal, known as the Dreyfus Affair, that caused bitter divisions in France for decades. The affair first brought to light a putrid and malodorous underside of French society that sought to base the honor of its military forces on an explicit and notorious act of injustice. At the same time, it gave rise to one of history's most influential protest movements in defense of the principles of human rights.
D
unayevskaya,
R
aya (1910–1987)
Authors: Han Jin H.
Published: September 2017

Raya Dunayevskaya devoted her life to the philosophical study of Karl Marx and others, including G. W. F. Hegel, Rosa Luxemburg, and Mao Zedong. Commonly described as a Marxist humanist, she was one of the most consistent twentieth‐century interpreters of Marxism and her work was quite influential in numerous major protest and social movements. Her life centered on philosophy and revolution.
D
unbar,
A
ndrew (1879–1964)
Authors: van der Walt Lucien
Published: September 2017

Andrew B. Dunbar was a South African trade union leader and syndicalist in the early twentieth century. Born in Scotland in 1879, and trained as a blacksmith, Dunbar arrived in South Africa in 1906, where he worked on the Natal railways. A giant of a man, with strongly held views, Dunbar first gained prominence for his role in leading a strike by 2,500 railway workers: the strike was defeated after two weeks, and Dunbar was dismissed. Moving to Johannesburg, he worked on the tramways, was briefly involved in the South African Labor Party (SALP), joined the Johannesburg Socialist Society, and moved to a revolutionary syndicalist position along the lines of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW). In June 1910, with the help of fellow tramway worker Thomas Glynn, Dunbar managed to take control of the newly formed Industrial Workers' Union, sponsored by the Witwatersrand Trades and Labor Council, and transform it into a local IWW. The local IWW was prominent in leading two strikes on the tramways in 1911, and subsequently spread to Durban and Pretoria, but in 1912 Dunbar was ousted from his position as IWW general secretary by his rival, Archie Crawford, a state socialist, and expelled; the union collapsed the following year.
D
utch
C
aribbean, Protest and Revolution, 1815–2000
Authors: Oostindie Gert J.
Published: September 2017

From the mid‐seventeenth century, the Dutch Caribbean (which initially consisted of Suriname and the adjacent colonies of Berbice, Demerara, and Essequibo, as well as six tiny islands in the Caribbean Sea) was the site of major revolts against colonial repression and slavery. During the Napoleonic Wars, the British captured the Dutch colonies, later ceding Suriname and the Antillean Islands while retaining Berbice, Demerara, and Essequibo (contemporary Guyana). After 1815 protest was more muted, but by the late 1800s resistance grew more militant and involved anti‐colonial and anti‐imperialist revolts as well as labor riots and political demonstrations. Because of the violent reaction by the Dutch state to these manifestations, contemporary cultural opposition to Dutch “recolonization” has become the dominant form of resistance, rather than the militant pro‐independence or revolutionary movements of the late twentieth century.
D
utch
R
evolt, 1568–1648
Authors: Gretz Michael F.
Published: September 2017

The Dutch Revolt, also known in the Netherlands as the Eighty Years' War, was one of the most important moments of protest and rebellion of the early modern era. In the late sixteenth century, motivated by religion, economics, and nationalist sentiment, the Dutch began a long period of armed revolt against the domination of the Spanish Hapsburg empire. The Netherlands, a relatively small country, had emerged from the feudal era under the control of the Hapsburg empire. However, the nature of Dutch society was rapidly changing as urban areas in the Netherlands began to dominate trade in the emerging Atlantic and global economy of the early modern period. Moreover, many parts of the Netherlands, particularly in the north, had converted to Calvinism, which produced much conflict with the Catholic Hapsburg authorities.
D
utschke,
R
udi (1940–1979)
Authors: Collenberg Carrie
Published: September 2017

Rudi Dutschke was the most prominent activist of the left‐wing student movement of West Germany in the 1960s and 1970s. His ideas inspired both violent and non‐violent groups of the movement and he supported the newly developing Green Party.
Ecofeminism
Authors: Childers Shari
Published: September 2017

Ecofeminism integrates the concerns of ecology and radical feminism. Ecofeminists believe that oppression and exploitation with regard to race, class, and gender are bound up with that of the exploitation of nature, and are rooted in the same social structures and ideologies. As such, they focus on liberating nature, women, and all Others from domination and utilization by technocratic, patriarchal, capitalist frameworks and their resulting, mutually reinforcing ideologies, definitions, and practices. To this end, ecofeminists reject what they see as deeply imbedded patriarchal conceptions and seek to challenge the oppositional dualities established therein: culture/nature, male/female, reason/emotion, mind/body, and production/reproduction. Instead, ecofeminism focuses on deconstructing hierarchical dichotomies and replacing them with a functioning, complex, dynamic plurality, and on the redefining of humanity as participatory in an interconnected web of life.
Ecological Protest Movements
Authors: Rubinson Paul
Published: September 2017

Observers and activists often describe environmentalism as the world's largest social movement. Part of the movement's popularity comes from its fairly mainstream goals, as politicians and voters alike easily approve of the notion of keeping the planet sustainable for future generations. At the same time, much support for environmentalism takes the form of vague statements of principle, with little actual restriction of industrial and public destruction of the environment and its ecosystems. Typically, mainstream environmentalists in the West push for legislation protecting certain areas and species, incremental measures that seem small compared to the ecological crisis that confronts the planet.
Ecuador, Left and Popular Movements, 1940s to Present
Authors: Becker Marc
Published: September 2017

Ecuador's political left is a broad front of progressive organizations that has experienced brief moments of success, most notably the “Glorious May Revolution” of 1944 unifying workers, students, peasants, indigenous peoples, women, and junior military personnel into a broad movement. However, with internal divisions, government repression, and a failure to offset the strong military, Ecuador's left historically failed to consolidate opposition to the conservative state. The left has also succumbed to the appeal of populist movements using progressive rhetoric, but once in power defending the country's oligarchic upper class.
Ecuador, Popular and Indigenous Uprisings Under theCorrea Government
Authors: Becker Marc
Published: September 2017

When Rafael Vicente Correa Delgado assumed the presidency of Ecuador on January 15, 2007, he became the eighth president of the small South American country in ten years. He campaigned on the promise of calling a constituent assembly to write a new and more inclusive constitution. This would be Ecuador's twentieth constitution since becoming an independent republic in 1830, replacing the current constitution that was only drafted a decade earlier in 1998. Social movements repeatedly called for a new constitution in order to remake the country's social, political, and economic landscape.
Enlightenment, France, 18th Century
Authors: Burns William E.
Published: September 2017

Ideas associated with the eighteenth‐century Enlightenment – secularism and anti‐clericalism, turning a skeptical eye toward tradition and custom in favor of the application of reason and expertise to public affairs, and, to a lesser extent, democracy – have played a prominent role in the history of revolutions and popular movements both in the eighteenth century and later. This was not the intention of many of the European Enlightenment philosophers themselves, who benefited from the existing political and social system and wished to see it reformed, not overthrown.
Enriquillo and the Taíno revolt (1519–1533)
Authors: Uriona Viviana
Published: September 2017

Enriquillo was also known as Chieftain Guarocuya. His father died in a Spanish raid against a peaceful protest by indigenous people in Jaragua, Santo Domingo, ordered by Governor Nicolás de Ovando in 1503 while the Indians were celebrating a peace agreement. The orphan was raised in a monastery in Santo Domingo, where he was given the name of Enrico. One of his mentors was Bartolomé de Las Casas. Enriquillo rebelled against the Spaniards from 1519 to 1533.
Environmental Protest,
E
urope
Authors: Rubinson Paul
Published: September 2017

The first major impulses in Europe toward what would later be called environmentalism initially appeared in direct relation to the rise of empires and industrialization during the nineteenth century. The iconic billowing smokestacks of England naturally drew attention to technology's impact on nature, but pollution was not the only problem. Industrialization's appetite for natural resources resulted in widespread environmental changes, as many areas in Europe were transformed to serve agricultural purposes in order to feed a rapidly urbanizing population. Meanwhile, the colonial subjugation of landscapes in Africa, India, and Southeast Asia ensured the plundering of raw materials. The British navy's demand for wood, for example, threatened the deforestation of its territories.
Environmental Protest,
N
orway, 20th Century
Authors: Johansen Jørgen
Published: September 2017

In 1996 the Norwegian parliament decided to build two large power stations to produce electricity from natural gas. With a company ready to build and a decision made by the authorities, it seemed almost impossible to prevent it. Natural gas had for years been presented as “clean” and “friendly to nature.” In fact, to promote the project, the company behind the plans took the name Naturkraft (Power of Nature).
EPLMaoist Guerilla Movement
Authors: Zimmering Raina
Published: September 2017

The Popular Army of Liberation (EPL) was formed by a group of students in 1967 as an armed branch of the Marxist‐Leninist Communist Party of Colombia (PCC‐ML). A Maoist splinter group of the Communist Party of Colombia, it was born out of the differences between the pro‐Soviet and the pro‐China groups. Espousing a Maoist political ideology, it endorsed the concept of a prolonged popular war, with the aim of disposing of the Colombian government and erecting a socialist state.
Equiano, Olaudah (1745–1797)
Authors: Swaminathan Srividhya
Published: September 2017

The publication of
The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African
in 1789 created an instant sensation in London and contributed significantly to the movement to abolish the British slave trade. Though not the first of its kind, the narrative of Equiano's experiences of being captured and sold into slavery, along with the eloquence of the expression, provided definitive proof of the intellectual capacity of the African. Equiano embarked on an extensive book tour throughout the British Isles that both established his personal fortune and brought awareness of the movement to abolish the slave trade to the remote parts of the kingdom.
Eureka Stockade
Authors: Beggs‐Sunter Anne
Published: September 2017

Ballarat, in the British colony of Victoria, Australia, burst into life as an instant city in 1851, following the discovery of gold. Adventurous men and women from all over the world descended on Ballarat in the 1850s, feverishly attacking the sticky clay at Golden Point. The diggers followed the gold underground, along the course of the ancient rivers, buried by the volcanic eruptions of Mounts Warrenheip and Buninyong. On the flat, 30,000 diggers collected into small cooperatives of “mates” and desperately searched for their personal Eldorado.
Eurocommunism
Authors: Stampacchia Mauro
Published: September 2017

In the 1970s the communist parties of Italy, Spain, and France seemed to shift toward a looser relation with the Communist Party of the USSR and to differentiate their political strategies from the model offered by Soviet communism. They united their efforts in trying to develop a common strategy and a polarization in the international communist movement, and to balance Soviet influence and elaborate political strategies that would be more suitable to European countries. All this fell within the formula of “Eurocommunism.”
Fascism, Protest and Revolution
Authors: Rutherford Jeff
Published: September 2017

In a speech given on October 25, 1932, the Italian dictator Benito Mussolini, leader of the first fascist state in Europe, proclaimed “the present century is the century of authority, a century of the Right, a Fascist century” (Mazower 1998: 16). With some seventy years of hindsight, this assertion seems merely another example of Mussolini's bombastic rhetoric. To the dictator's contemporaries, however, such pronouncements appeared as statements of truth. Europe, wracked by the material and psychological damage of World War I and the crippling effects of the Great Depression, experienced a fundamental transformation of its political and social landscape during the interwar years. In response to both the failure of liberal democracy to manage effectively the crises of the postwar period and to the rise of communism in the form of the Soviet Union, a third political force arose: fascism.
Father Rapp (1757–1847) and Harmony
Authors: Goff Richard
Published: September 2017

Like many utopian communities in the New World, the Rappite Harmony settlements (Harmony, New Harmony, and Economy) trace their origins to eighteenth‐century European religious conflicts. Similar to the Puritans of England, German Pietism sought to reform the Lutheran Church, emphasizing personal piety and the virtue of actively living a Christian life. Father George Rapp, a journeyman weaver and radical, broke with the Lutheran Church in 1785 and established his own congregation of approximately 4,000 followers. Rapp's congregation grew rapidly in the late 1700s, his followers peaking at 10,000 in 1800. Fearful of persecution, Rapp traveled to America in 1803 to seek a location where his congregation could settle and live along his principles.
Fawkes, Guy (1570–1606) and the Gunpowder Plot
Authors: Griggs Christian A.
Published: September 2017

Guy Fawkes was a key member of a radical group of English Roman Catholics who attempted to kill King James I in what became known as the Gunpowder Plot. Though the plot failed, it led to further decline in the status of Catholics in England and fed Protestant belief that God was protecting the country.
Federation of Salvadoran Workers (
FENASTRAS
)
Authors: Brett Edward T.
Published: September 2017

The National Trade Union Federation of Salvadoran Workers (FENASTRAS), El Salvador's largest industrial trade union confederation, was founded in 1974 to bring unity to the nation's trade union movement and thereby strengthen it. It consisted of 16 trade unions with a combined membership of 25,000. It was affiliated with the International Trade Union Confederation and its main headquarters were located in San Salvador, just two blocks from the command center of the National Police.
Feuchtwanger, Lion (1884–1958)
Authors: Wallace Ian
Published: September 2017

Lion Feuchtwanger, the Jewish writer who reached a global readership in the three decades between the publication of his first bestselling novels in the 1920s and his death in exile, was deeply affected by his experience of revolution in his native Germany. Unlike writers such as Ernst Toller and Erich Mühsam, he did not take a leading role in the revolution in Bavaria following World War I, but as a citizen of Munich he observed it first hand and supported its main aims: free elections, a free press, and the removal of censorship. However, his “dramatic novel”
Thomas Wendt
(1919) reflects his anguish over the conflict he saw between revolutionary ideals and the seemingly inevitable use of brutal force. Herein are the seeds of that constant preoccupation with the tension between contemplation and action which characterize the intellectuals and writers who inhabit his subsequent literary work.
Fourier, Charles François Marie (1772–1837) and the Phalanx Utopians
Authors: Goff Richard
Published: September 2017

Following the collapse of the Owenite communities, Arthur Brisbane became the new leader of the Utopian socialist movement. Influenced by the ideas of French Utopian socialist Charles Fourier, Brisbane's “phalanxes” prompted thousands to engage in social experimentation over the 1840s and 1850s. Brisbane's secular communities sought to solve the problems of civilization through communitarian organization.
FPMR (Frente Patriotico Manuel Rodriguez)
Authors: Apablaza Ivan Torres
Published: September 2017

The Manuel Rodriguez Patriotic Front (FPMR) is a political‐military organization that operated in Chile from December 14, 1983. In its early years it worked as an armed extension of the Chilean Communist Party (CChP). It was formed against the background of military dictatorship and progressive growth of popular discontent. This contingent was formed mainly by communist militants trained militarily in Cuba.
F
ries's
R
ebellion
Authors: Newman Paul Douglas
Published: September 2017

Fries's Rebellion was a popular resistance movement, or “regulation,” by rural Pennsylvania Germans in the Lehigh Valley region in 1798–9. It followed two earlier post‐Revolutionary regulations: Shays's Rebellion of 1786 in Massachusetts, and the 1794 western Pennsylvania Whiskey Rebellion. In Fries's Rebellion the resisters sought to regulate the federal government by protesting against and petitioning for the repeal of the Alien Acts, the Sedition Act, and the Direct Tax, mostly the work of the Federalist Party. When a federal marshal arrested resisters for obstruction of process and sedition and prepared to transport them to the nation's capital for trial, the local militia mobilized to free the prisoners and secure a local trial. Within weeks, the national government sent an army into the region to quash the “insurrection” and make arrests. A year of trials followed with dozens of minor convictions, and three convictions of treason carrying the death penalty, including the rebellion's namesake, John Fries. President John Adams pardoned Fries at the eleventh hour.
Fromm, Erich (1900–1980)
Authors: Schaefer Richard
Published: September 2017

Humanist‐philosopher, psychoanalyst, and public intellectual, Erich Fromm was born in Frankfurt am Main, Germany in 1900. Author of over twenty books, Fromm's socialist humanism was influential in New Left circles in the second half of the twentieth century. Raised in a strongly religious Jewish household, Fromm was attracted to the radical politics of Judaism, but ceased practicing the faith in his mid‐twenties. After earning his PhD in sociology from the University of Heidelberg in 1922, Fromm underwent training to become a psychoanalyst at the Berlin Institute for Psychoanalysis.
Fuller, Margaret (1810–1850)
Authors: Kent Holly M.
Published: September 2017

Most famous for her pathbreaking feminist text
Woman in the Nineteenth Century
(1845), Sarah Margaret Fuller devoted much of her short life to challenging the narrow, restrictive notions about women's abilities and proper sphere and advocating greater educational, social, and professional rights and opportunities for women. Fuller was a quintessentially public figure, in an era in which women were expected to be quiet, domestic, and self‐effacing.
Grandmothers of the Plaza de Mayo
Authors: Arditti Rita
Published: September 2017

In March 1976 a military junta in Argentina established a reign of terror over the country's population. By the end of the dictatorship in 1983, thousands of people had disappeared, primarily leftists, journalists, and political activists. Argentine government sources estimate about 9,000 disappeared, while human rights organizations estimate around 30,000. People were kidnapped, tortured in clandestine detention centers, and killed. The majority of the disappeared were between the ages of 16 and 35.
Grass, Günter (b. 1927)
Authors: Maddern Stacy Warner
Published: September 2017

Born in 1927 in Danzig‐Langfuhr to Polish German parents, Günter Grass is a political activist and writer whose work tends to be emotionally charged in reference to German guilt and the atrocities of the Nazis during World War II. In 1942, Grass was drafted into the Reichsarbeitsdienst (state labor service), and in November 1944 into the Waffen‐SS. He would see combat with the 10th SS Panzer Division Frundsberg and was wounded on April 20, 1945. Shortly thereafter he was captured and sent to an American POW camp. Grass's involvement with the Waffen‐SS would remain a secret until 2006, when the author disclosed it in an interview for his memoirPeeling the Onion.
Grassroots Resistance to Corporate Globalization
Authors: Bello Walden
Published: September 2017

The World Trade Organization's first ministerial meeting, held in 1996 in Singapore, opened to an air of triumphalism, a sense among government delegates that corporate‐driven globalization was the wave of the future. Mike Moore, the second director general of the organization, toasted the newly established WTO as the “jewel in the crown of multilateralism,” and officials of the WTO, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the World Bank saw the remaining major task of global governance as the achievement of “coherence.” All that was left to do, in their view, was to coordinate the neoliberal policies of the three institutions in order to ensure the smooth technocratic management of the global economy. Those who dissented from this view of the future were definitely a minority. Ten years later, the World Bank and the IMF held their annual meeting in Singapore behind the heavy protective shield of the Singaporean government, which banned possible dissidents from entering the country on various pretexts. Seemingly triumphant a decade before, corporate‐driven globalization was in very deep crisis due to widespread resistance.
Grove Vallejo, Marmaduke (1879–1954)
Authors: Arenas Mauricio González
Published: September 2017

Marmaduke Grove Vallejo, military man, political and revolutionary Chilean, was born in Copiapó on July 6, 1878. Son of the attorney Jose Grove and Ana Vallejo Burgoa, between 1924 and 1949 he stood out as one of the principal figures of Chile's political scene.
Guadeloupe, Labor Protest
Authors: Bonilla Yarimar
Published: September 2017

Guadeloupe came under the authority of the French crown in 1674 and, with the exception of a few brief British takeovers, has remained under French control until the present day. However, despite its seeming stability as a French territory, its place in the French nation has always been ambiguous, fluctuating, and often violently contested.
Guatemala, Democratic Spring, 1944–1954
Authors: Frundt Henry J.
Published: September 2017

The Guatemalan revolution of 1944 remains a high point of democratic resistance in Central America, and perhaps the western hemisphere, in the mid‐twentieth century. The revolution offered the structural opportunity for state and nation to integrate, networks to expand, and new indigenous and oppressed identities to surface and have a voice in society. Jorge Ubico's policies generated an explosive buildup of resentment that culminated in a series of strikes in 1944 at United Fruit and elsewhere, but the revolutionary movement really expanded as students filled the streets. Soon they were joined by disgruntled small business people, military officers, and intellectuals. When the telegraph and railway workers organized a general strike, Ubico stepped down and Juan José Arévalo (1944–51) soon emerged as the national leader. While he mainly reflected youthful, middle‐class interests, Arévalo also made structural changes beneficial to workers and indigenous. He eliminated the vagrancy law and rural militias and promoted a fairer economic system. Labor unions coalesced via the National Committee of Trade Union Unity (CNUS) “for unity for the proletariat and protection of rights for all.” Workers successfully gained the 1947 Labor Code that set minimum wages, equal pay, social security, and the right to strike, despite objections from the US and the United Fruit Company with its 40,000 workers and thousands of unplanted acres. However, like earlier liberal visionaries, Arévalo also sought to include Indian communities in the national project by replacing backward and feudal models with “sensible capitalist development.” To promote this approach, his administration asked the Instituto Indigenista Nacional to implement a rural education program that would promote national culture and appropriate patriotic emblems. To stimulate greater Mayan involvement in political life, the government encouraged political parties at the municipal level. Of these, the Revolutionary Action Party especially became a network of Indiancampesinosthat challenged local ladino leaders. By 1948, half of the highland communities had elected indigenous mayors. Peasant organizations also successfully lobbied to extend labor rights to rural workers. Labor actions against United Fruit accelerated.
Guatemala, Popular Rebellion and Civil War
Authors: Frundt Henry J.
Published: September 2017

More than any Central American nation, Guatemala remains a country of indigenous as well as ladino (
mistiso
) protest and revolution, joining the ranks of Bolivia and Ecuador. In its struggle, the Mayan “nation” often contests an authoritarian or capitalist “state” and the interests it represents. As time progresses, the struggle assumes an increasingly nuanced character that integrates class and ethnicity.
Guerilla Theater
Authors: McCoy Chris
Published: September 2017

Guerilla theater is a form of political protest that presents unannounced, politically or socially motivated performances in public spaces for an unsuspecting audience. Derived from the Spanish term which loosely translates as “little warrior,” guerilla theater stems from the legacies of Russianagit‐prop, Antonin Artaud's Theater of Cruelty, and Erwin Piscator and Bertolt Brecht's Epic Theater.
Guerrilla Girls
Authors: Van Hoesen Brett M.
Published: September 2017

Founded in 1985, the Guerrilla Girls is a collective of anonymous female artists and art world professionals committed to monitoring sexism, racism, and corruption in pop culture, the arts, and the film industry. Calling themselves the “Conscience of the Art World” they are famous for their provocative posters that attempt to police the injustices of the art establishment. Additional causes over the course of their movement have included labor issues, abortion rights, gay rights, AIDS awareness, and anti‐war protests.
Guevara, Ernesto “Che” (1928–1967)
Authors: Gonzalez Mike
Published: September 2017

Two generations after his death in 1967, Ernesto “Che” Guevara retains an extraordinary symbolic significance. His face adorns t‐shirts and posters across the world in two iconic guises: the youthful and energetic figure embodied in the myriad reproductions of Alexis Korda's photograph, or the thin, sparsely bearded face which, on each reprinting, comes more and more to resemble the Renaissance portraits of Christ by Andrea Mantegna.
Guillén, Abraham (1913–1993)
Authors: Roldan‐Figueroa Rady
Published: September 2017

Born in Guadalajara, Spain, Abraham Guillén was a leading Latin American theorist of urban guerilla warfare. His work was informed by his first‐hand experience in theanarchosyndicalist popular militias that were active during the Spanish Civil War (1936–9). Ideologically, Guillén was firmly rooted in the Spanish anarchosyndicalist tradition of the National Confederation of Labor (Confederación Nacional del Trabajo, CNT) and the Federation of Spanish Anarchists (Federación Anarquista Ibérica, FAI). He spent several years in prison after the civil war until successfully escaping in 1945, first to France and then, in 1948, to Argentina.
Guinea‐Bissau, Nationalist Movement
Authors: Corfield Justin
Published: September 2017

The Portuguese first arrived in what is now Guinea‐Bissau in about 1450 and began trading in slaves, gold, ivory, and pepper. They gradually started building forts, and it became Por tuguese Guinea. The Portuguese only ventured into the interior from the 1880s; prior to that they had been happy to trade with the people along the coast. In the 1920s, however, the Portuguese government decided to keep out foreign companies and let Portuguese businesses run Guinea and the rest of the Portuguese Empire. The result was that most of the peasant population of Guinea‐Bissau who were not working on subsistence farms had to be laborers on plantations growing peanuts.
Gunawardena, Don Philip Rupasinghe (1901–1972)
Authors: Ervin Charles Wesley
Published: September 2017

Don Philip Rupasinghe Gunawardena is considered the first leader of socialism in Sri Lanka. Born in rural Boralugoda, then in colonial Ceylon, Philip Gunawardena was the son of a prominent landowner and Sinhalese patriot, Don Jacolis Rupasinghe Gunawardena. While studying at the University of Illinois‐Urbana and the University of Wisconsin‐Madison, he became a socialist through his friendship with fellow student Jayaprakash Narayan, who would later form the Congress Socialist Party in India. Gunawardena graduated from Colombia University in New York City with a doctorate in agricultural economics. Here he joined the communist‐led League Against Imperialism (LAI) in 1925.
Gutiérrez, Gustavo (b. 1928)
Authors: Thimmel Stefan
Published: September 2017

Gustavo Gutiérrez, who in 1999 joined the Catholic Church's Dominicans fraternity, is considered the “Father of liberation theology.” He was born in 1928 in Lima, Peru, and studied medicine, theology, psychology, philosophy, and theology in Lima, Leuwen, Santiago de Chile, and at the Pontifical Gregorian University in Rome. In 1967 he coined the expression “theology of liberation.” His 1971 book
Theology of Liberation
converted him into a public person and brought upon him the wrath of the conservative sectors of the Catholic Church, which accused him of developing a theory with Marxist influences.
H
aiti, Foreign‐Led Insurgency, 2004
Authors: King Alexander
Published: September 2017

In the year of the 200th anniversary of national independence, Haiti witnessed the second violent overthrow of its president, Jean‐Bertrand Aristide. Those democratic forces within the Haitian bourgeoisie which had, from the end of the 1980s to 1991, supported his rise to president now formed an alliance with the death squads of the past dictatorships, along with former military officers, with the aim of overthrowing Aristide. In this they counted upon the support of foreign powers. The resistance against the coup was weak because Lavalas, the grassroots movement that supported the president, had lost a significant amount of support.
Haiti, Saint‐Domingue Revolution, 1789–1804, Aftermath
Authors: King Alexander
Published: September 2017

The colony of Saint‐Domingue was succeeded by Haiti, the first independent state in Latin America. The declaration of independence on January 1, 1804, called out by Jean‐Jacques Dessalines – “Independence or Death” – expressed the fierce determination underlying the defense of national independence and the liberation from slavery against foreign powers, especially France. A few days later this vigorous determination was demonstrated with the murder of all French citizens still residing in the country and the deportation of all foreigners. The new state stood in continuity to the regime of Toussaint Louverture. This continuity was reflected in the elevated position and overarching power of one leading person. In the course of 1804 Jean‐Jacques Dessalines turned into Emperor Jacques I. The new constitution of May 20, 1805 provided him with all‐encompassing political, military, and judicial rights. The power of the state was completely transferred to one person.
H
aiti,
S
aint‐
D
omingue and Revolutionary
F
rance
Authors: King Alexander
Published: September 2017

The revolution that took place from 1789 to 1804 in the French colony of Saint‐Domingue mirrored the French Revolution. Its dynamics developed in the context of the mercurial revolutionary upheavals in the French metropolis; and conversely, the revolution in Saint‐Domingue was of fundamental importance for the course of the French Revolution. The events in Saint‐Domingue also influenced the struggle for independence throughout Latin America and paved the way for the worldwide liberation of the slaves.
H
amas:Origins and Development
Authors: Davidson Lawrence
Published: September 2017

Hamas was founded in 1987, soon after the outbreak of the first Intifada, or uprising, against Israeli occupation, in Palestine. Its founders were educated professionals residing in the Gaza Strip. All of them, led by the charismatic Shaykh Ahmad Yasin, were members of the Society of Muslim Brothers and dedicated to reviving Muslim values and piety within their community. They also believed that Palestine should eventually become a Muslim state.
Hampton, Fred (1948–1969)
Authors: Bush Roderick
Published: September 2017

On December 4, 1969, the Chicago police raided the apartment of Fred Hampton, chairman of the Illinois Black Panther Party (BPP), killing Hampton and Mark Clark. With the assistance of a paid FBI informant, William O'Neal, the FBI had amassed a 12‐volume, 4,000‐page file on Hampton. This ended the life of one of the most promising young leaders of the 1960s. It is crucial to understand the larger context in which this action was taken.
Hani, Chris (1942–1993)
Authors: Drew Allison
Published: September 2017

Born in Sabalele, Cofimvaba, in the former Transkei, South Africa, “Chris” Martin Tembisile Hani was the fifth of six children, three of whom died in infancy. His father was a migrant mine‐worker and building worker, and his mother was engaged in subsistence farming.
Hani, “Chris” (1942–1993)
Authors: Drew Allison
Published: September 2017

Born in Sabalele, Cofimvaba, in the former Transkei, South Africa, Martin Thembisile “Chris” Hani – a South African communist, nationalist, and popular military leader – was the fifth of six children, three of whom died in infancy. His father was a migrant mineworker and building worker, and his mother engaged in subsistence farming. As a child Hani was an eager student and an altar boy so committed to the Catholic Church that he hoped to become a priest; his father forbade this. In 1953, while Hani was at Matanzima Secondary School, Cala, the apartheid government introduced Bantu education, a system of separate and inferior education for Africans. Hani's anger at this laid the foundation for his political activism.
Harper, Frances Ellen Watkins (1825–1911)
Authors: Kent Holly M.
Published: September 2017

A tireless activist on behalf of the causes of abolition, African American civil rights, women's rights, and temperance, Frances Ellen Watkins Harper was one of the first African American writers to publish her poetry and fiction in the American literary marketplace. A prolific author, Harper was also an accomplished and popular public speaker who fearlessly spoke out against the cruelties of slavery and the vicious inequities which African Americans suffered in the United States.
Harris, Charles (1896–1939)
Authors: Visser Wessel P.
Published: September 2017

Charles Harris, a white unionist of Jewish descent, began to work in the mining industry in 1914 as a developer, including at the Randfontein Estates, Luipaardsvlei, and Robinson Deep gold mines. He was involved with the South African Mineworkers' Union (SAMWU), and served on the executive of the South African Industrial Federation alongside figures like Archie Crawford. After the 1922 Rand Revolt, he was blacklisted on the mines for four years.
Hasan al‐Banna (1906–1949) and the Muslim Brotherhood
Authors: Davidson Lawrence
Published: September 2017

Hasan al‐Banna was the founder and first leader of Egypt's Society of the Muslim Brothers. As such he stands as a model for many subsequent Islamic fundamentalist leaders. He was born in the Egyptian delta town of Mahmudiya in October 1906. As a youth, al‐Banna went to lay schools but also joined a series of religious societies, the most important of which was the Hasafiya Sufi order. His early upbringing oriented him toward an active interest in and concern for the community's welfare, which he saw in Muslim religious terms.
Hatta Shūzō (1886–1934)
Authors: Ikeda Takashi
Published: September 2017

Hatta Shūzō was a Japanese anarchist in the interwar years, known as a representative of “pure anarchism” and an opponent of anarcho‐syndicalism, the most influential anarchist theory at that time. He was born the last of seven children in Mie, Japan. In his teens he worked at a post office in Taipei, Taiwan, where he encountered Christianity. After returning to Japan, he graduated from a theological college in Kobe and started to engage in missionary work. While working as a clergyman, however, he lost his faith in Christianity and showed more and more sympathy with anarchism. In 1924 he was banished from the church and moved to Tokyo, where he worked intensively on creating the pure anarchism theory.
Havel, Václav (b. 1936)
Authors: Harwood Christopher W.
Published: September 2017

A Czech dramatist whose absurdist plays earned him international acclaim in the 1960s, Václav Havel became widely known in the 1970s and 1980s as a human rights activist and prisoner of conscience, and later as the central figure in the Velvet Revolution of 1989, which ended 40 years of communist rule in Czechoslovakia. Havel then served as the last president of Czechoslovakia and first president of the Czech Republic.
Hawaii, Resistance toUSInvasion and Occupation
Authors: Maddern Stacy Warner
Published: September 2017

On January 16, 1893, Queen Lilìuokalanì yielded to the “superior force of the United States of America,” in an effort to avoid bloodshed and in the hope that the United States would one day undo the wrong it had inflicted on the Hawaiian people. The monarchy in Hawaii had thus been toppled by an armed insurrection of a small group of men, mostly American businessmen, with the backing of US troops sent ashore from a warship located in Honolulu Harbor. In justification of this “revolution” from above, the wealthy sugar planters who led the coup cited corrupt and unsatisfactory conditions in government. Sugar was the principal commodity of the Islands, with a large portion of profits coming from the US market. With plantation ownership dominated by American and European interests, the growth of the industry contracted large numbers of laborers from China, Japan, and some European countries.
Haymarket Tragedy
Authors: Rimke Heidi M.
Published: September 2017

The Chicago Haymarket tragedy is a seminal event in the social history of anti‐capitalist movements in the United States. During the 1870s, Chicago was an active center of revolutionary organizing and radical thought. Class antagonism was especially heightened due to the bloody clashes of the 1875 Long Strike and the 1877 railroad strike. This tension increased a decade later when the Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions (the predecessor to the American Federation of Labor) called for a movement to fight for the eight‐hour workday as part of an international struggle to improve working conditions and to establish workers' rights. The basic plan was to spend two years demanding that all bosses implement a standard eight‐hour day instead of the 10‐ to 16‐hour days that were prevalent. After May 1, 1886, all workers not yet on an eight‐hour schedule were to participate in a national strike until their demand was met.
Haywood, Big Bill (1869–1828)
Authors: Maddern Stacy Warner
Published: September 2017

Born in Salt Lake City, Utah, William D. “Big Bill” Haywood was the son of a Pony Express rider and became one of the most prominent, although volatile, leaders of the American labor movement. Haywood began working in the silver mines at the tender age of nine and after witnessing the Haymarket Riots in 1886 and later the Pullman strikes in 1893, “Big Bill” would obtain a keen interest in radicalism and labor politics. After hearing a speech by Western Federation of Miners (WFM) president Ed Boyce in 1896, Haywood decided to join the union and by 1900 was a member of its executive board.
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich (1770–1831)
Authors: Kirkland Frank M.
Published: September 2017

George Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel was one of the founders of the philosophical movement known as German idealism. He is best known for his dialectical theories which inspired many later philosophers, most famously Karl Marx. Born in Stuttgart in southwestern Germany, to Georg Ludwig and Maria Magdalena Louisa Fromm Hegel, he read the works of Enlightenment authors and followed the events of the French Revolution with enthusiasm. He taught at universities in Jena, Heidelberg, and Berlin and published four books –
Phenomenology of Spirit
(1807) (also known as
Phenomenology of Mind
),
Science of Logic
(1811, 1812, 1816),
Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences
(1816), and
Elements of the Philosophy of Right
(1822).