bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Pedophilia
Authors: Cantor James M.
Published: January 2015

Pedophilia
refers to the strong, enduring sexual interest in or sexual preference for children. Pedophilia is distinct from the overt sexual abuse of children: there are pedophilic individuals who never sexually contact a child, and there exist people who have sexually contacted a child despite preferring adults as sexual partners. There is no known method of converting pedophiles into nonpedophiles. Multiple talk‐based therapies have been attempted, but without strong evidence of success. Physical castration and sex‐drive‐reducing medications (“chemical castration”) have also been applied to suppress (yet not eliminate) pedophilia. Researchers using
MRI
and other techniques have reported differences in brain structure between pedophilic and nonpedophilic individuals and have associated pedophilia with prenatal development but the causes of those differences remain unknown
Amenability to Treatment
Authors: MacDougall Emily , Salekin Randall T.
Published: January 2015

Amenability to treatment is a critical concept for psychology and psychiatry. To date, however, there have been very few specific efforts to define the term, and few studies have determined what factors predict amenability to treatment or have determined if indicators of an individual's level of amenability to treatment can be altered with intervention. This entry covers six specific issues regarding treatment amenability. First, we examine what is known about the definition of the term. Second, individual characteristics that predict amenability are explored, such as age, socioeconomic status, and mental disorders. Third, amenability to treatment is examined in terms of its legal definition. Fourth, we more specifically discuss treatment amenability of juveniles. Fifth, we cover the current assessment technology used to tap treatment amenability. Finally, we provide concluding comments and future directions for research on amenability that will help mental health professionals better understand the term in the coming years.
Scale Development
Authors: Selbo‐Bruns Alexandra , Floyd Frank J. , Haynes Stephen N.
Published: January 2015

Scale development is an iterative, multimethod, qualitative, and quantitative process of item generation, refinement, evaluation, and selection. The principles of content validation guide all stages of scale development, which include construct definition, item content generation, item development and evaluation, and psychometric testing. Following the definition of the domain and the facets of each targeted construct, item content may be generated through population and expert sampling. Items and scale elements are evaluated and refined through the use of both expert review and psychometric evidence about item performance, internal consistency, factor structure, and multiple dimensions of validity.
Recovered Memories
Authors: Meyersburg Cynthia A.
Published: January 2015

The termrecovered memorydescribes multiple phenomena, including memories that were not retrieved for extended periods of time; memories that have been retrieved, but that the individual did not remember having recalled; and false memories. It is possible not to have recalled, or to forget having recalled, a memory for an extended period of time, but to remember it subsequently when presented with a retrieval cue. Some recovered memories, both actual and false, can lead to trauma symptoms. Heated debate over the validity of recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse and satanic ritual abuse led to the so‐called “Memory Wars.” It is well established that one can use hypnosis and other suggestive techniques to lead individuals to develop false memories. Recovered memories can become important to identity. Individuals have reported a wide variety of recovered memories, such as for alien abductions and for past lives.
Unity of Science
Authors: Gold Ian
Published: January 2015

Both the psychological sciences and the neurosciences aspire to provide explanations of mental phenomena. However, the conceptual framework of psychology differs in significant ways from that of neuroscience. The question of the unity of the sciences of the mind and its pathologies is whether mental phenomena will eventually be susceptible of explanation by a single theory, or whether both psychological and neural explanation will remain incompatible and ineliminable.
Bayes' Theorem
Authors: Cicchetti Dom
Published: January 2015

This entry presents a conceptual approach to Bayesian analysis from historical, definitional, theoretical, and application perspectives. The originator of this approach is the Reverend Thomas Bayes (1702–61), a British mathematician and Presbyterian minister. This article focuses upon informal and nonmathematical and more formal and mathematical definitions of Bayes' theorem, as well as a broad range of applications of the theorem that include: the layperson's understanding of how law enforcement works; young children's understanding of the basic concepts ofHIV/AIDS; female teenagers' understanding of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs); the diagnosis of clinical depression; the purported relationship between birth order andIQ; and the reliability of blind wine tasting. Finally, state‐of‐the‐art measures of reliability are discussed, as well as the mathematical relationship between measures of the reliability and accuracy of human judgment.
Statistical Power
Authors: Kraemer Helena Chmura
Published: January 2015

The term “statistical power” is used in null hypothesis significance testing (NHST) to refer to the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis (thus providing support to the theory being tested) when the null hypothesis is false (i.e., the theory is true). Adequate power is having a large enough probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when the theory is true and of clinical and/or practical significance. Consideration of power in designing NHST studies prevents the waste of time, resources, and sometimes reputations, that accompany failed studies, those that neither support nor clearly refute the theory being tested, leaving the state of knowledge where it was before the study was done.
Randomized Clinical Trials
Authors: Hollon Steven D.
Published: January 2015

Randomized clinical trials are experiments in which patients are randomly assigned to treatments (to protect against selection bias) and other aspects of the design controlled (made comparable across the conditions). They provide the best means of determining whether a treatment works (has a causal effect) because they control for individual differences in prognosis and extraneous events unrelated to treatment. Randomized clinical trials also can (but need not) address questions of specificity (Do the effects rise above simply going into generic treatment?) and superiority (Is it better than its alternatives?). Randomized clinical trials also can address questions of moderation (For whom does the treatment work?) and mediation (How does it work?). Randomized clinical trials are not perfect (subsequent attrition can undermine initial randomization and inadequate representations of patients or procedures can undermine the generality of the results), but they are the most powerful tool available for determining whether and how a treatment works.
Bipolar I Disorder
Authors: Post Robert M.
Published: January 2015

Bipolar I disorder is a highly recurrent condition consisting of full‐blown manias that alternate with major depressions. Not only do acute episodes require treatment, but long‐term pharmacoprophylaxis with adjunctive psychoeducation and therapy are also fundamental. Treatment of acute mania typically involves both a mood stabilizer and an atypical antipsychotic; treatment of bipolar depression remains controversial, as antidepressants used traditionally for unipolar depression show little efficacy in bipolar disorder. Further, traditional antidepressants may be associated with both switches into mania and cycle acceleration. The major therapeutic goal remains the achievement and maintenance of remission, as inadequately treated illness tends to progress in frequency, severity, complexity of presentation, and ultimately treatment refractoriness. Long‐term prophylaxis often involves one or more mood stabilizers (lithium, lamotrigine, valproate, and carbamazepine), often in combination with an atypical antipsychotic and other adjunctive treatments.
M
ünsterberg,
H
ugo (1863–1916)
Authors: Bazar Jennifer L.
Published: January 2015

Hugo Münsterberg (1863–1916), a German‐American psychologist, was an influential pioneer in applied psychology. His research ranged across a number of topics, including forensic, clinical, industrial, and educational psychology. In addition to academic publications, Münsterberg was a prominent voice in the popular press, serving as a psychological expert to the public on a vast array of topics. Münsterberg's final years became increasingly overshadowed by political controversy as a result of his defense of Germany's actions in spite of the outbreak of the First World War. Although one of the best known psychologists in the United States during his career, the mounting controversy surrounding his outspoken political views contributed to an overshadowing of his professional contributions to the discipline.
Neo‐Kraepelinians
Authors: Blashfield Roger K.
Published: January 2015

The neo‐Kraepelinians were a small group of research‐oriented psychiatrists at Washington University in St. Louis, Missouri, during the 1960s and 1970s who advocated strongly a biological approach to psychopathology. This group was opposed to the nonscientific, clinical orientation to psychiatry that was represented by psychoanalytic thought. An important stimulus for change in psychiatry occurred when this group formed a partnership with Robert Spitzer (b. 1928) to create the revolutionary

DSM‐III

. The change associated with the

DSM‐III

transformed both psychiatry and the other mental health fields.
Obsessive–Compulsive Personality Disorder
Authors: Samuel Douglas B. , Griffin Sarah A.
Published: January 2015

Obsessive–compulsive personality disorder (
OCPD
) is a mental disorder characterized by rigidity, perfectionism, and a preoccupation with rules, details, and order. It has a lengthy history that traces back to the beginnings of psychology and has appeared in every edition of the

DSM

.
OCPD
occurs in approximately 2% of the adult population and is even more common within clinical samples. A distinctive aspect of
OCPD
, relative to most mental disorders, is that it has an inconsistent relationship with psychosocial functioning. Although
OCPD
can interfere significantly with social and romantic relationships, it has also been shown to relate positively with educational attainment, career success, and wealth.
Evidence‐Based Practice in Psychology
Authors: Buscemi Joanna , Spring Bonnie
Published: January 2015

Evidence‐based behavioral practice (
EBBP
) entails making decisions about how to promote positive psychosocial outcomes by integrating the best available evidence, clinical expertise, and multicultural considerations, and tailoring treatment to clients' characteristics and preferences. The overarching goal of
EBBP
is to take steps toward bridging the gap between research and practice. The transdisciplinary National Institutes of Health Office of Behavioral and Social Sciences Research Evidence‐Based Behavioral Practice Council developed a shared model of
EBBP
and corresponding competencies, which aspire to facilitate interprofessional collaborations by developing a common language and methodology, promoting more efficient, higher quality healthcare. Attitudes, knowledge, and skills required for competent evidence‐based interprofessional practice are described and an interdisciplinary five‐step
EBBP
process is presented.
Foster Care
Authors: Yampolskaya Svetlana
Published: January 2015

The focus of this entry is foster care. Foster care is a component of the child welfare system that arranges time‐limited out‐of‐home placements for children whose parents or caregivers are unable, or unfit, to provide adequate care. This entry reviews the history and goals of foster care, reasons for child removal and entering foster care, custody issues, and the types of foster care placement. Challenges in the present foster care system and the directions in its redesign are also discussed.
Reduction versus Emergence
Authors: Ellis Ralph D.
Published: January 2015

Recent developments in cognitive theory, and particularly new work on consciousness, suggest that the old dichotomy of “emergence
versus
reduction” is now an oversimplification. Instead, we now have a variety of theories that include various degrees of nonreductive physicalism, based largely on the implications of neural plasticity from brain research, and the theory of self‐organization coming from theoretical chemistry, biology, and chaos theory. These new trends allow for new ontologies of mind and consciousness that are neither “reductive” in the sense of reduction to push–pull linear causal mechanisms, nor are they necessarily “emergent” in a sense that could entail a counter‐scientific metaphysical dualism.
Professional School Movement
Authors: Stricker George , Lally Stephen J.
Published: January 2015

The first professional school in psychology was established at Adelphi University, and the firstPsyDprogram at the University of Illinois. Over the years, the professional school model has grown to the point that it now graduates about half the doctorates in clinical psychology annually. The practitioner model at these programs now vies with the scientist–practitioner model, although there are questions as to how well the scientist–practitioner has been implemented. The National Council of Schools of Professional Psychology represents these schools. Professional schools have been criticized, some would say unfairly, for having a lower quality student and causing the internship crisis, and some would say more fairly for the high student debt amassed by their graduates.
Foa,EdnaB. (b. 1937)
Authors: Coles Meredith E.
Published: January 2015

Edna B. Foa (b. 1937) has made seminal contributions to the understanding and treatment of anxiety disorders. Dr. Foa's empirical work and theoretical contributions have advanced the treatment of obsessive–compulsive disorder, postraumatic stress disorder, and, most recently, social phobia. In addition, Dr. Foa has worked tirelessly to disseminate empirically supported treatments to patients throughout the world. Finally, Dr. Foa's efforts have advanced the scientific and clinical work of the many students, interns, and postdoctoral fellows with whom she has worked.
Organic versus Functional
Authors: Lewis Benjamin R. , Kious Brent
Published: January 2015

The terms
organic
and
functional
have a complex history as they relate to the fields of mental health and the rest of medicine. This chapter examines current use of these terms (which is largely domain dependent) with an eye on the historical and philosophical contexts for the distinction. Although there is some practical utility to the distinction insofar as the designation of appropriate medical services is concerned, the implied division also poses philosophical and ethical problems: the former, because of its the inevitable connections to Cartesian dualism; and the latter, in the possible stigmatization and marginalization of what is deemed “functional.”
Sexual Offenders/Pedophilia
Authors: Calkins Cynthia , Colombino Niki
Published: January 2015

Given the disturbing nature of sexual offenses, it is understandable that sex crimes are a topic of great concern within our communities and among policymakers. There are, however, many misperceptions about sex offenders, and these misperceptions often impact the public's understanding of sex crimes and our ability to effectively manage sexual violence in the community. It is important for community members and policymakers to be aware of empirical knowledge pertaining to sex offenders—not stereotypes or myths—as this can assist in developing more effective policy and ultimately, contribute to the prevention of sexual violence in our communities.
Factitious Disorder
Authors: McDermott Barbara E.
Published: January 2015

Factitious disorder is the conscious, intentional production of either physical or psychological symptoms for the sole purpose of assuming the sick role. Factitious disorder and malingering are the only two disorders in the

DSM
‐5

that require the intentional production of symptoms; the two are distinguished on the basis of underlying incentive. Factitious disorder is difficult to study, as patients that clearly have this diagnosis rarely consent to research. Case reports indicate that the disorder is most common in young women in the health‐care profession, although the most chronic and severe form (Munchausen syndrome) occurs primarily in men. Etiology of the disorder is unknown, although many patients with this diagnosis had a serious childhood illness. Treatment can be difficult, as patients with a feigned physical disorder rarely believe they are psychologically disordered.
Mood Stabilizers
Authors: Philip Noah S.
Published: January 2015

Mood stabilizers are those medications used to treat mood symptoms associated with bipolar I disorder. This class traditionally included medications such as lithium, valproic acid, and carbamazepine, and more recently has broadened to include the class of medications known as atypical antipsychotics. All of these medications have demonstrated efficacy in controlling the mood symptoms of bipolar disorder; although they differ in their side‐effect burden and need for monitoring. These medications also have preliminary evidence supporting their use in other conditions associated with mood changes, such as borderline personality disorder and bipolar
II
disorder. This entry describes the different mood stabilizers, organized by classification, and includes pertinent clinical information regarding safety and monitoring.
Distinguishing Categories from Continua
Authors: Jonas Katherine G. , Markon Kristian E.
Published: January 2015

Psychologists are interested in knowing whether psychological constructs are categorically or continuously distributed in the population, as the two types of models have distinct implications for the etiology, diagnosis, and treatment of mental disorders. Categorical models are based on the assumption that differences between normal and abnormal psychological functioning are qualitative; that is, symptoms of psychopathology are distinct and differentiable from normative psychological phenomena. Dimensional models, on the other hand, describe differences between normal and abnormal psychological phenomena as quantitative. In continuous models, clinically significant symptoms represent the extremes of traits that are present in every individual to some extent. Methods frequently used to discriminate between categorical and continuous models of psychopathology include cluster analysis, taxometrics, and latent variable modeling. However, no method is foolproof. It is also important to consider how continuous and categorical models differ in terms of their reliability and validity. Continuous measures are generally more reliable than categorical measures.
Insomnia Treatments
Authors: Pigeon Wilfred R. , Cribbet Matthew R.
Published: January 2015

Insomnia is a highly prevalent disorder that occurs frequently in its acute form, rises to the level of clinical meaningfulness among 5% of the population, and often co‐occurs with a variety of medical and psychiatric conditions. Cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT‐I) is one nonpharmacological treatment with demonstrated empirical support for its efficacy and growing support for its effectiveness. CBT‐I is a multicomponent approach that includes three behavioral strategies (e.g., stimulus control, sleep restriction therapy, and sleep hygiene), cognitive therapy, and relaxation training and phototherapy, when indicated. This entry reviews the components of CBT‐I and other nonpharmacological treatments for insomnia.
Motivational Interviewing
Authors: Dennhardt Ashley A. , Yurasek Ali M. , Murphy James G.
Published: January 2015

Motivational interviewing (
MI
) is client‐centered counseling style that focuses on exploring and resolving ambivalence, and centers on motivational processes within the individual to facilitate change. Consistent with the transtheoretical model of behavior change,
MI
asserts that the therapy should be tailored to the person's level of readiness or motivation to change.
MI
utilizes four basic principles to address ambivalence in order to increase motivation to change: express empathy, support self‐efficacy, roll with resistance, and develop discrepancy.
MI
was first implemented in the treatment of addiction and has been most extensively evaluated as an approach to facilitate health behavior change, but it has also been used to treat a variety of other emotional disorders.
Hoarding Disorder
Authors: Mataix‐Cols David , de la Cruz Lorena Fernández
Published: January 2015

Hoarding disorder (HD) is a mental disorder newly included in the fifth edition of the
DSM
(
DSM‐5
) within a new chapter called “Obsessive‐Compulsive and Related Disorders.” Individuals meeting diagnostic criteria for HD experience persistent difficulties with discarding or parting with possessions, regardless of their actual value, due to a perceived need to save the items and distress associated with discarding them. This results in the accumulation of possessions that congest and clutter active living areas and substantially compromise their intended use, causing clinically significant distress, interfering in daily life, and sometimes posing a risk to self and others. General medical conditions and other
DSM‐5
mental disorders that are known to result in the excessive accumulation of objects must be ruled out before the diagnosis of HD can be made. HD must also be distinguished from normative collecting, a widespread and benign human activity.
Internalizing and Externalizing
Authors: Anne Zhang K. , Markon Kristian E.
Published: January 2015

Empirical evidence clearly shows that comorbidity between disorders is the rule in mental disorders, rather than the exception. The regularity and frequency of certain patterns of comorbidity suggests that comorbidity arises for substantive reasons, such as shared etiology between disorders. Two latent liability factors have been proposed to account for patterns of comorbidity between common mental disorders: internalizing and externalizing. Internalizing psychopathology encompasses phenomena such as depression, anxiety, and phobias, while externalizing psychopathology encompasses phenomena such as substance use problems and impulsive, antisocial behavior.
Psychopathy/Callous–Unemotional Traits
Authors: Kimonis Eva R. , Hall Jason , Venables Noah C.
Published: January 2015

Psychopathy is a multifaceted personality disorder marked by chronic disinhibitory tendencies and distinctive emotional/interpersonal pathology—but masked by a superficial appearance of psychological adjustment. The social impact of psychopathy is enormous, as psychopathic offenders often exhibit a persistent, severe, and early‐onset pattern of delinquent and criminal offending, and thus are highly overrepresented in the criminal justice system. This entry will review the following aspects of this intriguing and costly disorder: historical roots of the construct; predominant clinical and self‐report assessment methods; links to antisocial behavior; subtypes of psychopathy; and developmental origins of psychopathic traits.
Dispositions
Authors: Romero Felipe , Craver Carl
Published: January 2015

It is common in psychiatry and other sciences to describe an individual or a type of individual in terms of its disposition to manifest specific effects in a particular range of circumstances. According to one understanding, dispositions are statistical regularities of an individual or type of individual in specific circumstances. According to another understanding, dispositions are properties of individuals in virtue of which such regularities hold. This entry considers a number of ways of making each of these senses of disposition more precise while discussing a number of dangers lurking in careless use of the concept of a disposition.
International Classification of Diseases
(

ICD

), Mental and Behavioural Disorders Section
Authors: Evans Spencer C. , Roberts Michael C.
Published: January 2015

The International classification of diseases (ICD) is the global standard for the diagnosis, treatment, research, and statistical reporting of health conditions, including mental and behavioral disorders. This entry provides a basic description of the ICD with regard to practice and research in clinical psychology and related disciplines. A brief overview summarizes the history of the ICD and its section on mental and behavioral disorders. Next, separate sections describe the full ICD‐10 system, the Clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines, the Diagnostic criteria for research, and other related resources. Similarities and differences between the ICD and the Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM) are examined. Finally, the entry concludes with a discussion of the current usage, impending changes, and future directions for the ICD within the context of global mental health care.
Continuing Education
Authors: Babeva Kalina N. , Davison Gerald C.
Published: January 2015

Continuing education (CE) refers to formal learning activities required of licensed professionals in order to maintain their license. These activities include, but are not limited to, workshops, lectures, conferences, seminars, distance learning as well as independent learning, and cover a variety of topics reflecting the diverse scope of topics and specialty areas within the field of clinical psychology. Currently, most states and provinces require varying amounts of CE for license renewal. The main functions of CE include maintenance and development of relevant knowledge and clinical competencies in order to protect the consumers of psychological services. Both the pros and cons of existing policies and procedures are discussed.
Therapeutic/Working Alliance
Authors: Horvath Adam O.
Published: January 2015

Therapeutic/working alliance refers to the strength of the collaborative dimensions of the therapist–client relationship. Historically rooted in psychodynamic theory, more recently it has evolved into a pan‐theoretical concept. Research evidence indicates a moderate but robust positive link between alliance and therapy outcome (effect size = .27). This link can be already detected in the early phases (sessions 3–5) of treatment. The alliance, or its management, may be linked to outcome directly (as a source of therapeutic effect) and/or indirectly (as a force that binds the client to the therapeutic strategies). Recent meta‐analyses suggest that the strength of the alliance–outcome relation varies across studies; therefore it is likely that the alliance plays different roles in different contexts. Emerging research indicates that therapists are the dominant force determining the alliance quality; some therapists achieve better alliances across a variety of clients, others are consistently less successful.
Personality Disorders
Authors: Thomas Katherine M. , Hopwood Christopher J.
Published: January 2015

Personality disorders (PDs) are defined in theDSM‐5as pervasive patterns of experience and behavior that deviate markedly from the expectations of the individual's culture and are observed in a person's cognition, emotion, interpersonal functioning, and/or impulse control. Although research has established thatPDsare associated with significant impairment and distress and dysfunction that contribute to considerable societal costs, fundamental questions about the conceptualization and course ofPDsremain unresolved and there continues to be wide variability in approaches to clinical assessment and intervention. In this chapter we review the history ofPDdiagnosis in theDSM, empirical evidence regarding the etiology and course ofPDs, and major approaches to assessment and treatment.
Stimulant Medications
Authors: Childress Ann C.
Published: January 2015

Central nervous stimulants include drugs that increase wakefulness, alertness, motivation, energy, improve mood, and decrease appetite. Stimulant medications include amphetamines and methylphenidates. Both are thought to block the reuptake of dopamine and norepinephrine and increase the release of these neurotransmitters. Phentermine, benzphetamine, phendimetrazine, and diethylproprion are anorectic agents with a mechanism of action similar to amphetamine. Modafanil and armodafanil are stimulant medications that promote wakefulness, but their mechanism is unknown. Since amphetamine was first used in the 1930s, stimulant medications have been prescribed extensively. Methylphenidates and amphetamines are considered first‐line treatment for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. They also are used to treat narcolepsy, depressive disorders, and obesity. The first stimulants had a short duration of effect. Longer acting formulations dosed once daily have recently been developed. This review will focus on stimulant medications approved in the United States, differences in onset of effect, duration of action, and side‐effect profiles.
Bowlby, John (1907–90)
Authors: Steele Howard
Published: January 2015

This entry focuses on the original writings of John Bowlby (1907–90) and Mary Ainsworth (1913–99) on attachment theory, and the wealth of developmental and clinical research supporting and elaborating the theory. Similarities and differences between attachment theory and classical psychoanalytic theory are reviewed in the context of showing the central emphasis Bowlby placed upon separation, loss, and trauma events, and the meaning attributed to these events, in shaping personality and demanding attention in clinical work. Receiving much attention in this entry is the Adult Attachment Interview, which aims to surprise the unconscious and challenges the adult speaker to demonstrate a capacity for coherent and reflective speech regarding past attachment experiences and their influence on the present, together with a valuing of attachment. These capacities are linked to competent, sensitive parenting and appear to be the sine qua non of mental health in adulthood.
Psychopathology Research, Selection of Subjects in
Authors: Shankman Stewart A. , Nelson Brady D.
Published: January 2015

In psychopathology research, the selection of research subjects is a critical early step in the research design process. There are several decisions that a researcher must go through related to recruitment strategies, selection of control groups, developmental issues of the participants, and ethical responsibilities. Of course, all of these choices are dependent on the study's intended aims and design, as well as any feasibility or logistical limitations. Unfortunately, there are few definitive solutions to these decisions, leaving the researcher to weigh the advantages and disadvantages of each of these methodological choices.
Workers' Compensation and Personal Injury
Authors: Hayes Jill , Lawing Kathryn , Allison Amber L. , Rubenstein Joshua
Published: January 2015

The U.S. legal system allows for individuals to seek recovery for civil wrongdoings. Similarly, workers can receive compensation from injuries that occurred during the scope and course of duties through the employer. Both areas increasingly require psychologists or neuropsychologists to evaluate claimed psychological or cognitive injury. The use of experts in forensic psychology is becoming vital to increasing the accuracy of decision making in torts and workers compensation claims. Psychologists often employ a number of techniques to evaluate the individual's level of injury, if any exists, and determine a prognosis and recommendations. The psychologist also faces many challenges in the legal arena, including staying abreast of recent legal developments, issues related to sharing data, access to collateral sources, and differences of opinion.
Dynamic versus Cognitive Unconscious
Authors: Kihlstrom John F.
Published: January 2015

The psychodynamic concept of the unconscious is contrasted with the view of unconscious mental life taken by modern cognitive and social psychology. For Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), the dynamic unconscious contained thoughts, feelings, and desires that were denied to conscious awareness because of a psychological force, i.e., repression, arrayed against them. It was part of a larger unconscious structure whose contents were descriptively unconscious, simply because they were not in awareness at any particular time. Evidence for the cognitive unconscious, in the form of automatic processes, implicit memory, subliminal perception, and the like, does not warrant acceptance of the dynamic unconscious of psychoanalytic theory. The entry briefly describes three examples of research programs that have attempted to document the dynamic unconscious.
Sports Performance Interventions
Authors: Gardner Frank L. , Moore Zella E.
Published: January 2015

Athletes often turn to sport psychologists in an attempt to achieve and maintain optimal performance states. Two performance enhancement models are generally accepted as psychosocial options that can theoretically aid in the attainment of sport excellence. The traditional psychological skills training (PST) model proposes that active efforts to control/modify internal psychological states and external environmental conditions can lead to the ideal performance state, and techniques such as goal setting, self‐talk, imagery, pre‐competitive routines, and arousal control/regulation are utilized for this purpose. The second major performance enhancement model is based on mindfulness‐ and acceptance‐based approaches. This general model posits that instead of changing the form or frequency of internal states, through meditative and other experiential exercises, athletes can learn to maintain a task‐relevant attentional focus and perform optimally regardless of their cognitive, affective, and physiological states. Although opposite in their theoretical and applied underpinnings, and despite differing levels of empirical support, these two approaches remain at the cornerstone of sport performance enhancement services worldwide.
Duhem–Quine Thesis
Authors: Cooper Rachel , Blease Charlotte
Published: January 2015

The Duhem–Quine problem is named after Pierre Duhem (1861–1916) and Willard Van Orman Quine (1908–2000). The problem concerns a “gap” between theory and observation. Though the problem can be given various formulations, in general the issue is that a singular theoretical claim has no direct observational consequences, and thus cannot be conclusively falsified by observation.
Approaches to Diagnostic Validity
Authors: Morton Hannah E. , Keeley Jared W.
Published: January 2015

Diagnostic validity is the accurate organization, detection, and application of mental health diagnoses based on established criteria. Variations in diagnostic validity have changed over time. Early editions of the

DSM

prioritized clinical utility over validity; calls for empirical support for diagnostic descriptions fueled the publication of symptom lists for disorders in the

DSM‐III

, thereby improving diagnostic validity
.
Alternative methods of diagnostic validity include prototype matching, in which clinicians match an individual's overall presentation to a paragraph description of each disorder. Additionally, arguments regarding dimensional versus categorical organization of psychopathology are ongoing. Ultimately, the presence of diagnostic validity is crucial to ensure that both research and treatment efforts for psychiatric illness are as informed by evidence as possible.
Cognitive Therapies
Authors: Dozois David J. A. , Brinker Jay K.
Published: January 2015

This entry provides a brief overview of the conceptual, empirical, and clinical components of the cognitive therapies, collectively referred to as the cognitive behavioral therapies. Particular emphasis is placed on the more prominent cognitive restructuring therapies. Next, an overview of other specific cognitive therapies is provided, followed by a brief focus on some approaches believed to be logical extensions of the basic cognitive therapy framework. The empirical status of the cognitive therapies is then summarized. The entry concludes with a discussion of future research directions.
Exercise for Depression/Anxiety
Authors: Rethorst Chad D.
Published: January 2015

Recent research has examined the utility of exercise in the treatment of depression and anxiety disorders. This entry provides an overview of this research, starting with the epidemiological associations of physical activity with reduced prevalence of depression and anxiety and through more recent randomized controlled trials. These trials provide strong evidence for aerobic exercise and resistance training as both a stand‐alone and augmentation treatment. Despite this evidence, further research is required to optimally use exercise in the treatment of depression and anxiety disorders. This work utilizes rigorous scientific methodologies to examine areas such as the neurobiological mechanisms associated with exercise and the optimal exercise modality and dose necessary to achieve antidepressant and anxiolytic effects.
Campbell,Donald (1916–96)
Authors: Sechrest Lee , Bootzin Richard R.
Published: January 2015

Trained as a social psychologist, Donald Campbell (1916–96) became the premier research methodologist of the social sciences and a proponent of social reform through the mechanism of “experimenting societies.” He was in particular responsible for detailing and rationalizing a wide range of quasi‐experimental designs in terms of their robustness against “threats to validity,” having formulated highly useful notions of types of experimental validity. Campbell also developed the important ideas of nonreactive measurement and unobtrusive measures. Most importantly, perhaps, Campbell had great influence on many scientific fields and, ultimately, on philosophy of science by way of his innovative thinking that came to be labeledevolutionary epistemology.
Couples/Marital Therapies
Authors: Hughes Jessica A. , Khaddouma Alexander M. , Gordon Kristina Coop
Published: January 2015

This entry presents the framework for the study and practice of couples therapy, including its importance, common characteristics, and history. It covers core theoretical and applied aspects of contemporary couples therapy, including behavioral, cognitive behavioral, psychodynamic, and family systems models. This entry also addresses the treatment of specific issues within couples therapy, including sexual disorders, depression and anxiety, drug and alcohol use, intimate partner violence, borderline personality disorder, and infidelity.
Tertiary Prevention
Authors: Dodd Dorian R. , Sugarman Dawn E. , Greenfield Shelly F.
Published: January 2015

The concept of tertiary prevention comes from the traditional public health preventive services model, which classifies prevention efforts into three tiers: primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention. Tertiary prevention addresses the treatment and management of ongoing illness. In psychiatry, efforts to improve prognosis, prevent relapse, decrease disability and functional impairment, limit morbidity and mortality, and generally decrease the negative impact of mental illness are all forms of tertiary prevention. Best practices for tertiary prevention interventions in psychiatry differ based on the specific psychiatric disorder being addressed, but generally consist of behavioral interventions such as cognitive behavioral therapy or motivational interviewing, or biologically based interventions such as cognitive remediation or psychopharmacology.
Sex Therapy
Authors: McAnulty Richard D. , Milling Sandra
Published: January 2015

Sex therapy is an approach for addressing sexual dysfunctions that has evolved since it was developed by William Masters and Virginia Johnson during the “sexual revolution.” In its early form, sex therapy principles were based on the assumption that most sexual difficulties were caused by sexual ignorance and performance anxiety. Innovative practices included a problem‐focused and time‐limited approach to helping couples overcome sexual problems without placing blame on any individual. Today, sex therapy is best understood as a multidisciplinary way of understanding and treating sexual problems. Recent influential developments include the introduction of sexual pharmacology, a growing emphasis on the role of relationship and cultural factors, and an increased awareness of the complexity of the problems that clients typically present in sex therapy.
Anorexia Nervosa
Authors: Weigel Julia , Attia Evelyn
Published: January 2015

Anorexia nervosa (AN) is a serious psychiatric illness associated with psychological symptoms, physiological disturbances, and a high mortality rate.ANis characterized by persistently low body weight, an intense fear of becoming fat, and various distorted cognitions about shape and weight. Most individuals withANare female, with the illness most commonly beginning during adolescence or young adulthood. There are two subtypes ofAN: the restricting type and the binge‐eating and purging type. There is a paucity of data regarding empirically supported treatments forAN, especially for adults. Nevertheless, there is consensus that treatment forANmust include weight restoration and may be offered in the context of various treatment settings such as outpatient, residential, or inpatient programs. Although the majority of individuals withANeither improves or fully recovers from the illness, significant numbers may relapse following treatment or may even develop chronic symptoms. Early identification and intervention are important for improving course and outcome.
Transference/Countertransference
Authors: Sharpless Brian A. , Barber Jacques P.
Published: January 2015

The concepts of transference and countertransference are central to psychoanalysis and the various psychodynamic therapies. However, these terms are widely used by psychotherapists of many orientations to describe the ways in which patients and therapists both affect one another and bring their past relationship histories into the therapeutic encounter. For example, patients may experience therapists in ways not solely based on the reality of the clinical situation (i.e., transference), and therapists may have strong reactions to patients and/or view them as reminiscent of others from their own past (countertransference). After providing brief historical descriptions for these concepts in early psychoanalytic thought, the changing nature of their definitions and their utilization in clinical situations are both described. Finally, some relevant empirical findings for these important concepts are reviewed.
Anger Management Techniques
Authors: Elwood Lisa S. , Soper Jordan N. , Olatunji Bunmi O.
Published: January 2015

Anger is an emotion involving emotional, cognitive, physiological, and behavioral components. Anger leads to a variety of negative consequences, including interpersonal, physical, and mental health difficulties. Psychosocial treatments of anger can be traced to the 1970s and Raymond Novaco's adaptation of stress inoculation training to target anger symptoms. Since then, a variety of psychosocial treatments have been implemented, including skills training, relaxation‐based, multicomponent, exposure, and cognitive behavioral treatments. Several meta‐analyses examining the efficacy of anger treatments have been conducted leading to estimates of effect sizes generally in the medium to large range. However, extant research has been criticized for a dependence on self‐report measures and a lack of follow‐up assessments, active control conditions, and dismantling studies. Additional concerns, including the possibility of iatrogenic effects and poor findings in offender populations are highlighted.
Object Relations Theory
Authors: Shahar Golan
Published: January 2015

Objects relations theory is a branch of psychoanalysis that highlights the relational and interpersonal nature of the “psychodynamic unconscious.” The latter term pertains to drives, wishes, fantasies, emotions, and ideas of which people are not aware, but that shape their behavior from early childhood onward. Linked to the significant persons (“objects”) in the infant's life, mental representations of self, others, and self‐with‐others (“object relations”) are the hallmarks of personality. Object relations theory's three‐generation structure—forefathers and ‐mothers, prominent theorists and researchers, and students‐turned‐investigators—has arguably gained the school an important place within academic clinical psychology.
Empiricism versus Rationalism
Authors: Kimball Robert
Published: January 2015

The contrast between Empiricism and Rationalism originated in a classification of certain seventeenth‐ and eighteenth‐century Western European philosophers. Since that time, empiricism especially has developed in ways that blur the original distinction.
Clinical Decision Making
Authors: Webb Christopher A. , Keeley Jared W.
Published: January 2015

Clinical decision making is the process by which clinicians make judgments about their clients. These judgments relate to assessment, diagnosis, and intervention. There are many factors associated with making decisions in clinical settings, including the nature of the clinicians' training and expertise, as well as how clinicians conceptualize information. In this entry the relative merits of statistical and clinical prediction are highlighted. Awareness of common cognitive errors in the decision‐making process is important to maximize the accuracy of clinical judgments.
Pain Disorder/Somatic Symptom Disorder
Authors: Accardi Michelle , Lynn Steven Jay
Published: January 2015

Pain disorder (PD), as referenced in theDSM‐IV‐TR, “is characterized by pain that is the predominant focus in the clinical presentation and is of sufficient severity to warrant clinical attention. In addition, psychological factors are judged to play an important role in pain's onset, severity, exacerbation, or maintenance.” Some authors voiced concerns and criticisms regarding theDSM‐IVcriteria for PD; specifically, that they are too broad, diagnostically unreliable, and therefore rarely used in clinical practice or research. WithDSM‐5, PD was no longer listed as a separate diagnostic entity but was designated as a specifier (i.e., for people whose somatic symptoms predominantly involve pain) in the category of somatic symptom disorder (SSD). Although there is a paucity of well‐controlled treatment studies, extant research implicates a number of psychological, behavioral, neuropsychological, and physiological factors in the genesis of PD.
GI
Bill
Authors: Mahoney Kevin T.
Published: January 2015

The Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944, more commonly known as the GI Bill, was a law that provided benefits to returning World War II veterans. The GI Bill had a profound impact on American psychology, in particular clinical psychology. This entry examines the impact of the GI Bill on American psychology.
Time Series Analysis
Authors: Velicer Wayne F. , Palumbo Richard , Babbin Steven F.
Published: January 2015

Time series analysis (TSA) is a statistical methodology appropriate for basic and applied research in real‐world settings. Idiographic methods such as TSA focus on time‐dependent variation within single subjects or research units, which can address research questions that nomothetic, or group‐level, methods cannot. TSA can be applied to a wide variety of longitudinal designs and can be used to investigate underlying naturalistic processes, assess patterns of change over time, evaluate the effects of an intervention, and investigate the relationship of two or more variables over time. Technological advances are providing new opportunities to use TSA in clinical settings.