bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
An Analysis of the International Maritime Organization–London Convention Annual Ocean Dumping Reports
Authors: Dickenson Christine , Duedall Iver W.
Published: July 2005

Trends are analyzed for types and quantities of permitted wastes, primarily dredged material, sewage sludge, and industrial waste, to be dumped at sea by member countries to the London Convention (LC) from 1992 and 1995 through 1998. In 1972, the Inter‐Governmental Conference on the Dumping of Wastes at Sea led to the creation of the London Dumping Convention (now called the London Convention) to help regulate the dumping of wastes at sea. The act of dumping, as defined by the LC, is international disposal at sea of any material and in any form, from vessels, aircraft, platforms, or other artificial structures. The first consultative meeting of the LC contracting parties was held in 1976 by the Inter‐Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization [now called the International Maritime Organization (IMO)]. During this meeting, the procedure for the reporting of permits issued, on an annual basis, for dumping at sea by contracting parties, was determined. The IMO‐LC annual reports on permitted wastes list the number of permits issued by member countries, the types and quantities of wastes permitted for dumping at sea, and the location and designation of dump sites. Now with nearly 25 years of dumping records available, we are able to see trends in permitted dumping activity. In 1976, the first year of permitted dumping records, the combined amount of permitted wastes was nearly 150 million tons. In the last four years (1995 through 1998), where data are available, the total amount of wastes permitted to be dumped by the LC contracting parties as between 300 and 350 million tons. Currently, a majority of these wastes are being disposed of in the East Asian Seas and the North Sea and the largest quantity of waste being dumped is dredged material. Although the disposal of wastes at sea is considered to be a major issue, it is only responsible for about 10% of the total anthropogenic contaminants entering the ocean. Unfortunately, the long‐term impacts of this dumping in the ocean are still largely unknown.
Coastal Waters
Authors: Stedman Susan‐Marie
Published: July 2005

Coastal waters are usually defined as those waters in a zone whose landward boundary is the limit of tidal influence and whose seaward boundary is the edge of the continental shelf (or a depth of 200 m if there is no continental shelf). Salinity, temperature, turbidity, and other characteristics of coastal waters vary considerably in this transitional and very dynamic zone.
Floating Ice
Authors: Conti Aldo
Published: July 2005

Floating ice, or sea ice, is very important because it regulates the surface exchange of heat, moisture, and salt between the atmosphere and the oceans. It is a high latitude phenomenon and can be found only in the Arctic ocean and in the oceans around Antarctica. Although the local amount of sea ice changes with the season, at any given time sea ice covers, globally, an area larger than the North American continent.
Marine and Estuarine Microalgal Sediment Toxicity Tests
Authors: Moreno‐Garrido Ignatio , Lubián Luís M. , Blasco Julián
Published: July 2005

Current guidelines for toxicity bioassays concerned with marine or estuarine sediments do not include any probe involving elements from the microphytobenthos [microalgae living on the surface of the (temporary or not) submerged sediments], in spite of the importance of the benthic microflora on coastal trophic and geodynamical processes. Here, a revision of the importance of microphytobenthos in the benthic trophic nets as well as in the structure of the upper part of the marine coastal and estuarine sediments is performed, and the most recent efforts to develop sediment toxicity bioassays on marine microphytobenthos are reviewed and discussed. The benthic mobil pennate diatomCylindrotheca closterium(formerly known asNitzschia closterium) seems to be a good target organism in toxicity testing for marine and estuarine sediments because of its easy handling, fast growth, sensitivity, low nutritional requirements, and wide distribution in temperate coastal waters. Additionally, there exists a good literature background about this species.
Chemical Precipitation
Authors: Striebig Bradley A.
Published: July 2005

Chemical precipitation is the removal of dissolved and suspended solids from aqueous solutions through chemical means. Chemical precipitation includes the removal of dissolved solids by altering the aqueous chemistry to make the dissolved solids less soluble. It also includes removing suspended solids by increasing their size in a process referred to as chemical flocculation. Chemical precipitation processes are utilized in water and wastewater treatment due to their effectiveness for pollutant removal with relatively low capital investment. Chemical precipitation processes can also process very toxic wastewaters. The focus of chemical precipitation for municipal wastewater treatment is to remove the cell mass or suspended solids prior to and after biological treatment. Industrial process water and recycled wastewater use chemical precipitation to remove hardness and dissolved salts from water. The solubility product constant, or solubility product, is an equilibrium constant that describes the reaction by which ions dissolve and solids precipitate. Chemical precipitation by coagulation and flocculation enhances the removal of suspended solids and BOD. These processes are widely used to improve the performance of primary clarifiers, in basic physical–chemical processing of industrial wastewaters, for phosphorus removal, and for heavy metal removal.
Clathrate Hydrates
Authors: Ann Koh Carolyn , Sloan E. Dendy
Published: July 2005

Clathrate hydrates are crystalline inclusion compounds consisting of a network of polyhedral water cages (host), which enclathrate small hydrophobic molecules. An overview is given for the structural properties of the most common clathrate hydrate structures (sI, sII, and sH). Hydrate structure, occupancy, and dissociation pressures of a range of hydrate formers (guests) around 277 K are presented from calculations using a Gibbs energy minimization program (CSMGem) and/or experiment. Examples of novel clathrate hydrate structures are presented. Discussion is also given to clathrate hydrates in natural and industrial environments.
The Mirage of The H
2
Economy
Authors: Shinnar Reuel
Published: July 2005

In a recent paper, I analyzed the new “hydrogen economy” and explained why, for most uses, it makes no sense to convert fuels, electricity, or any other form of energy to hydrogen, only to use the hydrogen as a fuel for fuel cells. As H
2
is not a resource but an inefficient energy carrier, it would appear that the H
2
economy is just a mirage. If alternative energy sources are ever developed, an economy based on electricity would be cheaper (by a factor of three) and much easier to adopt than H
2
. Oddly, I had covered the same topic twenty years ago in a paper that analyzed the hydrogen economy of the 1970s. Then, the investment in H
2
research was about 10 billion wasted dollars before it was phased out. In this column, I will try to explain why the scientific establishment engages in such obviously futile behavior and why this mirage attracts so many followers.
Freezing and Supercooling of Water
Authors: Zachariassen Karl Erik
Published: July 2005

The solid form of water is known as ice, which is the physically stable form of water at temperatures below 0°C. The transition of water from the liquid to the solid state is known as freezing, and 0°C is usually referred to as the
freezing point
or
melting point
of water. However, small samples of liquid water will usually not freeze until they are cooled far below 0°C. The maintenance of the liquid state below the melting point is referred to as
supercooling
or
undercooling
, and the temperature at which spontaneous freezing takes place is referred to as the
supercooling point
.

Freezing is initiated either by the water molecules themselves or by freezing promoting agents or
ice nucleators
, which may trigger freezing at high subzero temperatures. Increasing concentrations of solutes and increasing hydrostatic pressure depress melting point as well as supercooling point, whereas increasing sample volume causes an elevation of the supercooling point.
Osmosis‐Diffusion of Solvent or Caused by Diffusion of Solutes?
Authors: Zachariassen Karl Erik
Published: July 2005

The prevailing theory describes osmosis as a diffusion of water down a water concentration gradient created by different concentrations of solutes. However, this description is at odds with several features of osmotic phenomena, and it does not explain why osmotic pressures are related to solute concentrations as described by the universal law of gases. An alternative theory, which appears to explain the observed features of osmosis, was published by George Hulett in 1903. This theory ascribes osmosis to a negative pressure created by the diffusive movement of the solute molecules. Like molecules in a gas, the solute molecules create an expansive pressure when they collide with the boundary wall. However, water cannot expand, but the expansive pressure of the solutes creates a negative solvent pressure, which sucks solvent water into the solution from the outside if the boundary wall has sufficient water permeability, i.e., is like a semipermeable membrane.

The osmotic pressure varies precisely proportionally with melting point, vapor pressure, boiling point, and osmolality, and these features are, therefore, referred to as the colligative properties of a solution.
Molecular Network Dynamics
Authors: Marrin D.L.
Published: July 2005

Liquid water forms a vast interconnected network that is just beginning to be understood for both its structure and its dynamics. The network is composed of individual molecules that chemically bond to two, three, or four of its nearest neighbors in a manner such that the bonds, or links, are switched as rapidly as a trillion times per second. Although most of liquid water is currently modeled as a disordered arrangement of molecules (known as bulk water), a fraction of the molecules are grouped together in more ordered arrangements that are known as clusters. Even models that posit a more homogeneous and extended water network predict a highly dynamic system, whereby the many and varied vibrations of chemical bonds are superimposed on the repositioning and reorientation of water molecules comprising the network. Water's network dynamics are responsible for many of its anomalous properties, as well as its ability to serve as a facilitator for biological life and a key participant in the chemistry of the universe.
Water—Nature's Magician
Authors:   Environment Canada
Published: July 2005

Water molecules are attracted to each other, creating
hydrogen bonds
. These strong bonds determine almost every physical property of water and many of its chemical properties too.

Pure water at sea level boils at 100°C and freezes at 0°C. At higher elevations (lower atmospheric pressures) water's boiling temperature decreases.

Water absorbs or releases more heat than many substances for each degree of temperature increase or decrease.

Large bodies of water, such as the oceans or the Great Lakes, have a profound influence on climate.
F
enton's Reaction and Groundwater Remediation
Authors: Jacobs James A.
Published: July 2005

Hydrogen peroxide, an
in situ
chemical oxidizer in the form of Fenton's Reaction, can rapidly treat waste waters, sludges, and contaminated soils and groundwater. The effect of the Fenton's Reaction is organic contaminant destruction, toxicity reduction, and biodegradability improvement. In addition, removal of biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), odor, and color occur. If Fenton's Reaction is allowed to be carried to completion, then all organic molecules will ultimately be broken into carbon dioxide and water. Fenton's Reaction is a nonselective oxidizer. Fenton's Reaction also called Fenton's Reagent or Fenton's Chemistry in the literature.
An Analysis of the Impact of Water on Health and Aging: Is All Water the Same?
Authors: Reminick Howard
Published: July 2005

The human body was created to be in balance or return to balance. We call this homeostasis. Our body relies on its chemical processing plant to keep a metabolic balance. The body knows when it is being depleted of essential minerals and nutrients, which creates imbalance. When this happens, the body has to draw from its reserves. But this can only be temporary, until these reserves are replenished.

Our body knows when its energy level is low. If nothing is done, if we continue to ignore the body's call for help, we let our body begin on the path of its destruction. When the body is neglected, it becomes vulnerable to attack from invaders from the outside. It also is open to attack from the inside by free radicals. Bacteria, which are essential for our survival, suddenly turn on us and destroy us.

The body reacts to regain its balance by calling on the immune system. Sometimes it is too late if the body has been in a contaminated state too long, which can result from the poor quality of water we put in our body every day.

Water has the power to transfer information from cell to cell and bring back balance from imbalance. Water is vital to maintain life and organization of our cells. Organized cells are healthy, productive cells. To create harmony and balance, whether in our bodies or in the environment, water must also be balanced.
H
ofmeister Effects
Authors: Boström M. , Kunz W. , Ninham B. W.
Published: July 2005

More than 100 years ago, Franz Hofmeister and some of his coworkers demonstrated that salts with common cation (positive ion) but differing in anion (negative ion) have different effectiveness in stabilizing protein suspensions. They can be arranged in a sequence, which seemed later to be universal. Hofmeister effects, or Hofmeister sequences, refer to the relative effectiveness of anions or cations on a wide range of phenomena in salt solutions. They have remained unexplained by theories of physical chemistry until recently. We review experiments that have demonstrated that understanding Hofmeister effects are vital for chemistry, biology, and medical applications. We finally discuss some recent theoretical attempts to understand this important phenomenon.
The Hydronium Ion
Authors: David Carl W.
Published: July 2005

Naked protons cannot exist in aqueous solution. Even when one writes

urn:x-wiley:9780471478447:media:pc291:xm1

one knows that the H
+
(aq) is a representation of a significantly more complicated moiety (or, to be more precise, set of moieties). The simplest representation of H
+
(aq) is the hydronium ion (sometimes also referred to as the oxonium ion or the hydroxonium ion), H
3
O
+
(aq), but this is just the first in a series the next few members of which are H
5
O
2
+
, H
7
O
3
+
, H
9
O
4
+
, and in summary (H
2
O)
n
H
3
O
+
, the hydrated hydronium ions (Fig. 1).
Ion Exchange Resins for Trace Metal Sequestration from Water
Authors: Saha B.
Published: July 2005

Ion exchange resins are employed in hydrometallurgy and environmental‐pollution control for the removal of soluble metallic species. However, ion exchange sorption is a complex phenomenon and it is difficult to predict quantitative sorption behaviour in multicomponent systems. This article summarises the detailed characterisation and sorption/desorption studies of thiol (SH) based chelating polymeric resins (thiomethyl resin and Duolite GT‐73), a Hypersol‐Macronet polymer (MN‐600) and a weakly acidic ion exchanger (C‐104E) for the removal of copper, cadmium, nickel and zinc ions from water. In order to predict the performance of these ion exchangers in actual industrial processes and to understand the mechanism of metal uptake by polymeric resins, it was desirable to model the ion exchange equilibria for these resins. In this work, the applicability of surface complexation theory for the sorption of heavy metals onto these sorbents (MN‐600, C‐104E) has been explored. The sorption of copper, nickel and zinc ions from aqueous solution on these sorbents has been studied in batch equilibrium experiments for binary, ternary and quaternary systems to determine the equilibrium parameters for modelling of ion exchange equilibria. From the experimentally determined equilibrium parameters, ion exchange equilibria have been calculated for a wide range of initial conditions. The experimental results for the Macronet polymer as well as the weakly acidic ion exchanger have been compared with the results obtained using the surface complexation model for the prediction of binary, ternary and quaternary ion exchange equilibria.
Isotope Exchange in Gas‐Water Reactions
Authors: Wydrzynski Tom , Hillier Warwick
Published: July 2005

Important questions for understanding the reaction by which water is oxidized to molecular O2during photosynthesis are (1) at which step in the catalytic sequence do the two substrate water molecules bind, and (2) how does the OO bond form? In the past, it has been experimentally difficult to get information on these questions, mainly because of the immense difficulty to distinguish the substrate water from the solvent water. However, we have recently developed special sampling techniques for mass spectrometric measurements that have enabled us to resolve the rate of isotopic incorporation from18O‐labeled water into the molecular O2produced by plants, algae, and cyanobacteria. The results from these measurements have definitively shown that at least one of the two substrate water molecules is bound to the catalytic site at the beginning of the four‐step reaction sequence and that the OO bond forms during the last step, just before the release of the O2product. This article summarizes the special techniques developed by our group and the implications of the results for the mechanism of photosynthetic O2production.
Removal of Organic Micropollutants and Metal Ions from Aqueous Solutions by Activated Carbons
Authors: Saha Basu
Published: July 2005

Activated carbons have been proven to be an effective adsorbent for the removal of organic compounds from water (4, 5). Research has also shown that they have a potential to remove heavy metals, especially in its modified state. For example, a number of authors have oxidized activated carbons to enhance sorption of heavy metals (6, 7, 8, 9). The oxidation processes have mainly been by use of nitric acid, ozone, and air. The three methods have always produced the same results, that of producing weakly acidic functionality on the surface of the carbon. Saha et al. (10) compared the metal sorption capacity of a conventional carbon and its oxidized form. The adsorption of herbicides and trace metal ions onto activated carbon is discussed in this chapter. In particular, we discuss the effect of modification of activated carbon on the uptake of copper and benazolin. The effect of post‐treatment of the oxidized carbons on the uptake of the target pollutants is also highlighted. The adsorbents were characterized in a bid to understand their chemical and physical properties, which gives a better understanding of the nature of the association of the target pollutants and the adsorbents.
The Effect of Carbon Surface Chemical Composition on the Mechanism of Phenol Adsorption from Aqueous Solutions
Authors: Terzyk Artur P. , Rychlicki Gerhard , Gauden Piotr A. , Kowalczyk Piotr
Published: July 2005

Experimental studies of solute adsorption from dilute solutions, especially from aqueous dilute solutions, are carried out in many laboratories, yet the theoretical foundations of this phenomenon are still insufficiently solved (1). Adsorption of phenols on carbons is an important subject especially due to ecological aspects. Therefore, an enormous number of papers has been published in this field. The most important reviews dealing with this problem were recently published by Radovic and co‐workers (2) and by Moreno ‐ Castilla (3). The authors consider the changes in the surface chemistry of carbons with changes in pH, and discuss different mechanisms of adsorption proposed in the literature.

The main regularities associated with adsorption of phenol on carbons are as follows (2):

(usually observed) a decrease in adsorption with a rise in surface acidity (as measured by Boehm titration) and with surface oxidation, problems in determining real equilibrium;

chemisorption is inhibited by the presence of oxygen surface complexes; therefore, the sites responsible for phenol chemisorption are carbon sites of the active surface area, that is, oxygen free sites located at the edges of graphene layers whereas physisorption occurs all over the surface;

irreversible adsorption is caused by oxidative coupling in the presence of molecular oxygen.
Physical Properties
Authors: McLeary Kevin S.
Published: July 2005

Water is a molecule composed of two atoms of hydrogen bonded to an atom of oxygen. It has a volume of 2.97 × 10−11μ3(29.7 Å3). As a result of the hybridization of the oxygen atom, the molecule is bent at an angle of 104.45°. Due to the nonlinear structure and to the difference in electronegativity between oxygen (3.44) and hydrogen (2.20), the molecule has a dipole moment of 1.85 Debye.

Water molecules are held together by intermolecular attractions. In water, the intermolecular attractions are hydrogen bonds. The negatively charged oxygen atom in one molecule of water is electrically attracted to the positively charged hydrogen atom of another molecule. Hydrogen bonding governs the structure of water up to the boiling point.
Radon in Water
Authors: Makinde‐Odusola Babs A.
Published: July 2005

Some groundwater contains the naturally occurring radioactive gas, radon‐222 (radon). Radon dissolved in groundwater is released into indoor air when plumbed in water is agitated indoors. Radon released from domestic water typically contributes less than 2% of total indoor radon. This article describes the health risks from radon in domestic water and the efforts within the United States to regulate radon in drinking water. The U.S. National Research Council (NRC) found that the primary health risks from radon in domestic water are lung cancer and stomach cancer, primarily to ever‐smokers. Radon concentration in air could reach levels considered unsafe for underground miners at some water treatment facilities that aerate water as part of the treatment process. Inhalation of radon gas and its progeny may result in lung cancer (inhalation risk). An estimated 11% of the health risk is from direct ingestion of radon dissolved in drinking water (ingestion risk). The NRC found that radon is a greater source of cancer risk than any other regulated chemical in drinking water. Some ecological studies contradict using the linear nonthreshold (LNT) model to assess the health risks from exposure to radon at low levels typical of indoor air. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) relied on the LNT model to assess health risks and propose standards and goal for radon in drinking water. Some water utilities could opt for treatment to comply with the radon in drinking water standard. Some other water utilities might avoid treatment by adopting a multimedia approach to radon mitigation. The multimedia approach could be more cost‐effective and achieve greater health risk reduction. Noneconomic considerations may influence that decision. Health risk reduction and cost analyses (HRRCA) suggest that most of the benefits would accrue to ever‐smokers and smaller water systems could incur most of the costs.
Carbonate Geochemistry
Authors: Steele Kenneth F.
Published: July 2005

Calcite (CaCO
3
) is one of the most common minerals at or near the surface of the earth and thus is one of the main contributors to carbonate geochemistry. Less common carbonate minerals include dolomite [MgCa (CO
3
)
2
]; aragonite, a calcite polymorph (mineral of the same composition as calcite but having a different atomic structure); azurite and malachite (copper hydroxycarbonate minerals); siderite (FeCO
3
); and rhodochrosite (MnCO
3
) which can be important spatially and economically.

Although calcite does occur in igneous and metamorphic rocks, the mineral is present dominantly in the sedimentary environment which is the focus of this article. Calcite may be precipitated to form a relatively pure monomineralic rock (limestone), be present as a cement binding sediments into indurated rock, occurs simply as a trace mineral in rocks, and composes many shells and fossils. Weathering of calcite is relatively easy and depends largely on the amount of carbonic acid present. Other carbonate minerals, except dolomite, generally are dissolved and precipitated in a manner geochemically similar to calcite.
Surface Water Pollution
Authors: Jha Ramakar , Bhatia K. K. S. , Singh Vijay P. , Ojha C. S. P.
Published: July 2005

The surface water pollution in rivers, lakes, reservoirs, coastal areas, and other surface water resources may occur mainly because of point‐source pollution and nonpoint‐source pollution. The term point‐source pollution refers to pollutants discharged from one discrete location or point, such as an industry or municipal wastewater treatment plant, to surface water resources (Fig. 1). The effluent out‐fall from factories, refineries, waste treatment plants, etc. emits fluids of varying quality directly into surface waters.

The term nonpoint‐source pollution refers to the discharge of pollutants that cannot be identified as coming from one discrete location or point. The pollution outflow from nonpoint source (NPS) pollution, or diffuse pollution, include contaminants that enter the water supply from soils/groundwater systems and from the atmosphere via rain water. Soils and groundwaters contain the residue of human agricultural practices (fertilizers, pesticides, etc.) and improperly disposed of industrial wastes.
Time‐Area and The Clark Rainfall‐Runoff Transformation
Authors: Saghafian Bahram
Published: July 2005

In 1945, Clark introduced a synthetic unit hydrograph whose variants have been widely applied in rainfall‐runoff transformation. The Clark model, designed to consider the shape of the watershed, has two components. First, the excess rainfall is translated to the outlet based on a time‐area (TA) histogram. Second, attenuation due to channel storage effects is achieved by routing the time‐area hydrograph into a concentrated linear reservoir. The TA method is linear and may be considered an extension of the well‐known rational method. Although Clark's original concept was semidistributed over space and invariant in time, some of its recent extensions are fully distributed and time variable.
Uncertainty Analysis in Watershed Modeling
Authors: Wagener Thorsten
Published: July 2005

All watershed modeling studies unavoidably contain uncertain elements. This uncertainty is propagated into the model predictions and impacts subsequent decision‐making. Main uncertainties include those stemming from a lack of understanding of the hydrologic system, the problem of identifying appropriate model structure and parameters, and uncertainties in the measured data. While many approaches exist that can be used for uncertainty analysis, little guidance is available to choose the best approach for a certain study. While available techniques are many, they can all be reduced to three fundamental steps: (1) define what constitutes a behavioral model; (2) find all the models that comply with this definition in the feasible parameter space; (3) propagate the predictions of all identified models into the output space while considering other uncertainties (e.g., in the forcing data). This three‐step structure is used to describe and cluster current approaches.
Dam Removal as River Restoration
Authors: Yang Chih Ted
Published: July 2005

A dam may be removed because of economic, safety, security, legal and financial liability, ecosystem restoration, fish passage improvement, site restoration, and recreation considerations. Sediments are trapped in reservoirs, and a detailed sediment management plan must be developed before a dam's removal. Dam removal can be an engineering method for river restoration. Because of the dynamic nature of river adjustments, compressive studies of possible responses of a river must be carried out before a dam's removal. The relationship between dam removal and sediment management alternatives should be analyzed to determine the optimum plan of action. A comprehensive monitoring program should be carried out during and after a dam's removal to determine impacts on the river system. Computer models in public domain are available to assist engineers in the determination of erosion, sediment transport, and deposition processes during and after a dam's removal.
Unrecognized Pollutants
Authors: Lee G. Fred , Jones‐Lee Anne
Published: July 2005

The U.S. water pollution control program focuses on the current 126 priority pollutants originally selected without peer review in the mid‐1970s through a litigation settlement. That notwithstanding, they remain the focal point of water quality investigations. Limited attention is given to the many thousands of potential pollutants that are in municipal and industrial liquid and solid wastes. Periodically, unregulated chemicals that are in use are discovered to be widespread pollutants, posing a significant threat to public health and the environment. One example is the pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) used in homes and in agriculture, which are being found in domestic and agricultural waste waters and solid wastes. Another is perchlorate found in highway accident flares. That chemical is being found in surface and groundwaters in concentrations that are a threat to human health. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), which are used as flame retardants on furniture and other materials, are now being found in human breast milk and in some aquatic organisms. Those chemicals pose significant environmental concerns but are not regulated with respect to water quality impacts. Many of these unrecognized pollutant chemicals are not new chemicals but rather have been in the environment for decades. A need exists to significantly change the approach used to evaluate the potential for the vast array of chemicals that are in commerce today to cause public health and environmental impacts.
Urban Stormwater Runoff Water Quality Issues
Authors: Fred Lee G. , Jones‐Lee Anne
Published: July 2005

Urban stormwater runoff contains heavy metals including copper, lead, and zinc; organics such as pesticides, PAHs, and unidentified compounds; and nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) in concentrations that are a threat to cause water quality problems in the waters receiving the runoff. In 1990, the U.S. EPA adopted an urban stormwater runoff water quality management program that requires that municipalities control pollution of receiving waters for runoff to the maximum extent practicable using best management practices (BMPs) and, through a BMP ratcheting‐down process, ultimately control violations of water quality standards in the runoff. This regulatory program has several significant problems, including the high cost (dollars/person/day) of treating urban stormwater runoff to control water quality standards violations and the general ineffectiveness of conventional BMPs for contaminant control. Further, heavy metals and some other potential pollutants in urban stormwater runoff are largely in nontoxic, unavailable forms. Urban stormwater runoff water quality managers need to conduct studies to determine the constituents in stormwater runoff that cause significant pollution of the receiving waters. Those constituents that are causing significant water quality use‐impairments can potentially be controlled through source control. Also, wet weather water quality standards need to be developed to regulate urban stormwater runoff water quality impacts.
Water Needs for Freshwater Fisheries Management
Authors: Schramm Harold L.
Published: July 2005

Fisheries management is manipulating fisheries resources, both fish and their aquatic habitats, to produce sustainable benefits for people. Suitable water quality and appropriate water quantity are essential to diverse and productive fisheries. Many aquatic habitats have been altered to various extents to achieve social and economic benefits for people. These alterations of aquatic habitats range from obvious changes, such as impoundment of streams and rivers for water supply, flood control, hydroelectric power generation, and navigation, to less apparent impacts of land use changes and other activities on watersheds. A relatively new and significant threat to fisheries resources is introduced aquatic species. The waterways that support public‐access freshwater fisheries are multiuse resources, and management priorities for these resources focus on social and economic benefits that often conflict with maximum fishery benefits. However, resource managers are becoming more sensitive to fishery needs. Fishery managers are now aware that the lakes, reservoirs, and streams they manage are parts of larger ecosystems and increasingly seek holistic management strategies.
Drainage Networks
Authors: Huang Xiangjiang , Niemann Jeffrey D.
Published: July 2005

A drainage network is the dendritic configuration of stream courses in a river basin. Drainage networks are the product of fluvial erosion and are an important part of the topography in a basin. The form of a drainage network influences the production of runoff and the collection of runoff into streamflow. This brief article first describes methods that commonly identify channel networks from digital elevation models (DEMs). This task involves removing artificial pits in the DEM, routing flow across the land surface, and identifying the topographic area that can contribute flow to each grid point. The article then summarizes several widely used statistical properties of channel networks beginning with Strahler ordering and Horton's laws. It also describes two empirical laws, Hack's law and the slope‐area law, that are related to the fractal or scaling‐invariant nature of drainage networks. Finally, the article describes some drainage network properties that are particularly important in determining the hydrologic behavior of the basin.
Subglacial
L
ake
V
ostok
Authors: Christopher Brent C. , Priscu John C.
Published: July 2005

Recent studies have revealed that several subglacial lakes exist beneath the East Antarctic Ice Sheet. The largest of these lakes, Subglacial Lake Vostok, is ∼4 km beneath the ice surface, with a surface area near 14,000 km
2
and a depth exceeding 800 m. A permanent ice sheet covered the lake at least 15 million years ago, which isolated it from the atmosphere. Because of concerns for contaminating this pristine environment, no direct samples of lake water have yet been obtained. The accreted ice retrieved from an ice core drilled at Vostok station, which represents lake water frozen to the bottom of the ice sheet, has provided the only material for microbiological and geochemical investigations. The presence of microorganisms within the accreted ice has been confirmed independently by several laboratories; however, the question remains whether a flourishing microbial ecosystem exists within Lake Vostok. Subglacial lake exploration represents one of the last unexplored frontiers on our planet, and the unusual microbial ecosystems that may exist have much to tell us about the limits of life on Earth and on icy planets and moons in the solar system.
Acidification—Chronic
Authors: Sullivan Tim
Published: July 2005

Chronic acidification is a long‐term decrease in the pH or acid‐neutralizing capacity (ANC) of surface water. ANC reflects the extent to which a lake, river, or stream can buffer, or neutralize, added strong acid. Waters that are low in pH and ANC are often susceptible to acidification in response to geologic or atmospheric sources of mineral acid anions, especially sulfate and nitrate. Here, the processes that acidify fresh waters are described, along with the watershed features most commonly associated with acidification sensitivity. Effects of acidification on aquatic life are also discussed. Sensitive waters are usually found at moderate to high elevation, in areas of mountainous topography, where minimal opportunity exists for contact between runoff water and the soils and geologic materials that might contribute base cations to solution. The contribution of base cations to runoff water is the principal mechanism for neutralization of added acid. Retention of sulfur and nitrogen in watershed soils and/or vegetation can also lessen the amount of water acidification that occurs.
Fish Consumption Advisories
Authors: Buchanan Gary A. , Stern Alan , Post Gloria
Published: July 2005

Fish consumption advisories can be defined as government health advice issued to the public concerning deleterious substances in fish and/or shellfish (e.g., crabs). These advisories typically provide advice on avoiding or limiting the consumption of certain types, sizes, or parts of fish, or on the number of fish meals to consume over a period of time in order to limit health risks. Fish consumption advisories were first issued in the United States in the mid‐1970s, and currently, more than 3,000 species‐specific, water body‐specific, and general advisories exist nationwide. This entry provides a brief summary of the history and scope of fish advisories from the recognition of harmful levels of mercury in fish at Minimata Bay, Japan to PCB advisories in the United States. Subtopics include the theory behind issuing fish advisories, risk assessment techniques, and information on sampling, analysis, and outreach methods. An example of a state advisory is provided, as well as appropriate and more detailed references (e.g., national guidance).
Fishing Waters
Authors: Tompkins Mark R.
Published: July 2005

The term
fishing waters
refers to all bodies of water where fish are legally captured by humans. Fishing waters can be defined and regulated internationally, nationally, and locally. The four primary categories of fishing that occur in fishing waters are commercial, recreational, subsistence, and indigenous. More than one category of fishing can occur in a given fishing water, and extractive fishing does not have to occur in all fishing waters.
Flood Control Structures
Authors: Pagliara Stefano , Chiavaccini Pietro
Published: July 2005

Flood control structures are necessary to diminish the effects of excess water in streams. They can be distinguished in structures that provoke a reduction of peak flows and in structures that divert floodwaters through flood bypasses. Sometimes levees can also be used to control flood events.
Flood Source Mapping in Watersheds
Authors: Saghafian Bahram
Published: July 2005

Flood control projects are designed to protect people and properties against floods' adverse effects. No unique methodology exists, however, to identify flood source areas and to evaluate their contribution to the flood characteristics at any downstream point of interest. The number of nested hydrometric stations and the amount of available flood data measured simultaneously at the stations are usually insufficient for ranking flood source areas. This constraint leads us to take advantage of hydrologic simulation models.

Lumped modeling approach in flood studies precludes spatial prioritization with respect to downstream flood response. Thus, semi‐ or fully distributed modeling approaches are appropriate for flood control studies in large watersheds. However, the main issue is how to identify and prioritize watershed flood source areas based on their contribution to the flood response at the main outlet. The proposed methodology is also useful to determine source erosion and pollution areas.
Hydraulics
Authors: Pagliara Stefano , Chiavaccini Pietro
Published: July 2005

Hydraulics is the branch of physics that studies the equilibrium (hydrostatic) and the motion (hydrodynamics) of fluids. Fluids can be divided into gases and liquids. Hydraulics treats the liquid that generally are practically incompressible and occupies definite volumes.
Hydrological Processes and Measured Pollutant Loads
Authors: Jha Ramakar , Sharma K.D. , Singh Vijay P.
Published: July 2005

It is essential for water resources planners and managers to look for water pollution generated in different variables of hydrologic cycle because of human activities. It has been found that among various hydrological variables, rainfall, runoff (including snowmelt runoff), seepage, and groundwater flow are affected, and the water quality has been degraded beyond permissible limits in many instances.
Kinematic Wave Method For Storm Drainage Design
Authors: Wong Tommy S.W.
Published: July 2005

Ever since Lighthill and Whitham showed that the main body of a natural flood wave moves as a kinematic wave, there has been continual interest in applying the kinematic wave theory to drainage design. A drainage design method based on the kinematic wave theory has several inherent advantages: physically based parameters, facility for hydrograph prediction, and feasibility of obtaining analytical solutions for certain idealized basin and channel conditions. In this article, based on the theory, a drainage design method is developed for estimating the design discharge for a series of overland planes and for a V‐shaped basin.
Calibration of Hydraulic Network Models
Authors: Lingireddy Srinivasa , Ormsbee Lindell E. , Wood Don J.
Published: July 2005

The validity of a hydraulic network model of a water distribution system depends largely on the accuracy of input data and the assumptions made in developing the model. Although much of the data can be obtained with a high degree of certainty, certain parameters exist that are either not readily available or difficult to obtain. Such parameters typically include pipe roughness factors and nodal demands and their spatial and temporal distribution. As a result of the difficulty of obtaining economic and reliable measurements of both of these parameters, final model values are normally determined through the process of model calibration. Model calibration involves adjustment of these and other uncertain network model parameters until the model results closely approximate actual observed conditions as measured from field data. This article describes a seven‐step procedure for optimal calibration of water distribution network models. Historically, one of the most difficult steps in the process has been the final adjustment of pipe roughness values and nodal demands through the process of microlevel calibration. With the advent of recent computer technology, it is now possible to achieve good model calibration with a reasonable level of success. As a result, little justification remains for failing to develop good calibrated network models before conducting network analysis.
Pumping Stations
Authors: Bankston Joseph D.
Published: July 2005

Surface water pumping stations are employed either to move water from an available surface location to where it is wanted or to remove it from a location where it is not wanted. Examples of the former include municipal or industrial water supply and irrigation, whereas municipal drainage pumps are examples of the latter.

Although differing in purpose, all have similarities of function and components. A pumping station must provide a water inlet for water to flow to the pump, a pump suitable for the water and delivery requirements, and a means of powering the pump.
Rivers
Authors: Julien Pierre Y. , Yang Chih Ted
Published: July 2005

Rivers are natural streams typically larger than a creek. The distinction may be somewhat subjective, but creeks cannot be traveled by boat and rivers can. Rivers are the result of precipitation and runoff over land surfaces, followed by surface erosion and sediment transport. As water runs off to lower elevations, the erosion of the underlying earth and soil carves channels into the landscape. These natural channels convey the floodwaters from rainfall and snowmelt and also drain the aquifers during periods of low flow. Rivers are perennial when there is flowing water all year round. Rivers that dry out during part of the year are ephemeral streams, also called arroyos. Related nouns include riverbank or riverside to describe the banks of a river, as well as riverbed to designate the stream bottom. Other adjectives related to rivers include riverine, riparian, fluvial, and fluviatile.
Rock Glacier
Authors: Brenning Alexander
Published: July 2005

Active rock glaciers are the geomorphological expression of creeping mountain permafrost. They consist of a debris–ice mixture that slowly creeps downslope, and they develop therefore a tongue‐shaped or lobate landform with a front scarp and characteristic surface structures such as furrows and ridges. The lower limit of rock glacier distribution is associated with the lower limit of mountain permafrost, which is often attributed to the −1 to −2°C isotherm of mean annual air temperature. Unlike “true” glaciers, rock glaciers do not present surface ice or exposed ice in general but contain only supersaturated ground ice, mainly interstitial and segregation ice. Rock glaciers contain between 40 and 60% of ice by volume and constitute therefore unsuspicious stores of water. The amount of water stored within rock glaciers per unit mountain area is one magnitude higher in semiarid mountain areas such as the Andes at 33°S than in the more humid Swiss Alps.
Storage and Detention Facilities
Authors: Fang Xing
Published: July 2005

A storage and detention facility (pond or basin) is a low‐lying area (natural or constructed), which is designed to hold a specific amount of runoff temporarily and used to attenuate peak flow rate. Stormwater runoff is released to downstream conveyances in a controlled manner such that downstream flooding and other adverse impacts are prevented or alleviated. Detention facilities can be surface and underground storage basins, and they can be classified as wet or dry ponds. Detention storage design need consider determination of the size of pond, site selection, design of outflow structure, construction of pond, maintenance cost, and estimates of service life. The most common outlet structures for detention ponds can be of orifice‐type, weir‐type, or a combination of the two. The pond should be located where the topography of the site allows for maximum storage at minimum construction cost. Multiple ponds may be necessary to achieve the detention requirement.
Streamflow
Authors: Fang Xing
Published: July 2005

Streamflow is an important component of the hydrologic cycle. Streamflow typically quantifies as volumetric discharge in cubic meter or feet per second. Streamflow, at a given location on a stream, is usually represented by a hydrograph. A streamflow hydrograph is a graphical representation of instantaneous discharge at a given location with respect to time. Two types of hydrographs are particularly important: the annual hydrograph and the storm hydrograph. A storm hydrograph is the response of a watershed under certain rainfall input and is affected by the watershed's physical, geological, vegetation, and climatic features. The unit hydrograph is the hydrograph that results from unit rainfall excess distributed uniformly over the drainage area at a constant rate for an effective duration. For a hydrological design, a hydrologist is required to provide peak rates of discharge, a stage height of a hydraulic structure, or a complete discharge hydrograph for a design frequency.
The Medicinal Properties of the Waters of Saratoga Springs
Authors: Millet A. Trent
Published: July 2005

Water has been clinically and anecdotally proved to possess medicinal properties for centuries. The great medical universities and doctors of Europe included “taking the waters” to improve health and to heal maladies as a matter of course. This is a brief, and by no means comprehensive, overview of the medicinal uses of water, particularly those of Saratoga Springs, New York. Accompanying charts corroborate the claims that water does indeed heal.