bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Coarsening
Authors: Weaire Denis , Hutzler Stefan
Published: November 2023

The pressure differences between the cells of a disordered foam drive the diffusion of gas through the thin films which separate them. A single soap bubble will shrink and disappear for this reason, and a similar fate awaits each bubble in a foam. While some will initially grow at the expense of others, all must eventually perish.
Equilibrium under gravity
Authors: Weaire Denis , Hutzler Stefan
Published: November 2023

As for Samaria, her king is cut off as the foam upon the ‘Water.

Hosea, 10.7 (King James version)

Most foams are observed in equilibrium under gravity1, so it is important to understand the density profile which is consistent with this condition. There is a profile of liquid fraction, such that the foam is relatively dry at the top, and wet at the bottom as in Fig. 10.1. It is established by the process of drainage, the subject of the next chapter.
Ordered foams
Authors: Weaire Denis , Hutzler Stefan
Published: November 2023

I have been involved in another affair[…] which George Darwin characterises as utterly frothy. Nov. 20, /887, letter.from Kelvin to Rayleigh.

Ordered foam is easily made in two dimensions in the form of the honeycomb structure, which we encountered in Section 8.3. It forms more or less perfectly whenever bubbles of equal or nearly equal size are used to make a two-dimensional foam. Three-dimensional monodisperse foam does not order spontaneously. Like the Bernal random packing of hard spheres, it becomes trapped in a disordered structure.

This is true at least for dry foams. Wet monodisperse foams may order more readily: certainly this is the case with monodisperse emulsions in the same limit.
Solid foams
Authors: Weaire Denis , Hutzler Stefan
Published: November 2023

The trick is to sell the customer a product which is mostly air.

Confectionery manufacturer

Solid foams are at least as important in practice as their liquid counterparts. They are extremely light, and most of their uses derive from the desired combination of low density and some other physical property, such as low thermal conductivity. Examples of solid foams are shown in Fig. 16.1.
Some natural foams
Authors: Weaire Denis , Hutzler Stefan
Published: November 2023

Cell and tissue, shell and bone, leaf and flower, are so many portions of matter, and it is in obedience to the laws of physics that their particles have been moved, moulded and conformed. […] Their problems of form are in the first instance mathematical problems, their problems of growth are essentially physical problems, and the morphologist is, ipso facto, a student of physical science.

D’Arcy Wentworth Thompson

In addition to man-made foams, there are natural ones. Biological structures are generally cellular: even the enjoyable crunch of the biting of an apple is testimony to this. It has a different quality according to the direction of the bite, because the cells are anisotropic.
Envoi
Authors: Weaire Denis , Hutzler Stefan
Published: November 2023

I can see that your head

Has been twisted and fed

By worthless foam from the mouth.

Bob Dylan

We have seen that the physics of foams has many aspects: geometry, topology, statistics, and potential subtleties of physical chemistry which are often overlooked.

The idealised approach taken in this book has made successful attacks on several problems, starting from the equilibrium dry foam. However, taking the subject as a whole, this is only one corner of the field of play, as sketched in Fig. 18.1. The difficulties of dealing with very wet foams, and/or conditions of rapid shear or structural change, are both theoretical and experimental. Easy progress can hardly be expected.
Finite Difference and Finite Volume Methods for Nonlinear Hyperbolic Systems and the Euler Equations
Authors: Feistauer M , Felcman J , Straskraba I
Published: November 2023

In modern technologies one often encounters the necessity to solve compressible flow with a complicated structure. There are several conceivable models of compressible flow. Let us mention, for example, the model of inviscid, stationary, irrotational or rotational subsonic flow using the stream function formulation, and the models of transonic flow based on the small perturbation equation or full potential equation. There exists an extensive literature about the finite difference or finite element methods for the numerical solution of these models. (For a survey of mathematical and numerical methods for these models, see (Feistauer, 1998).) In a number of problems, the potential models are not sufficiently accurate, particularly in high speed (transonic or hypersonic) flow, because of the appearance of the so-called strong shocks with large entropy and vorticity production. This leads to the necessity of using the complete system of conservation laws consisting of the continuity equation, the Euler equations of motion and the energy equation (called the Euler equations in brief), which has been widely used during the last few decades for the modelling of flows in aeronautics, the aviation industry and steam or gas turbine design. Successively, the Euler equations have begun to be applied also to low Mach number problems on the one hand and to problems with chemical reactions on the other. These models neglect, of course, viscosity, but in many situations they give good results, reliable from the point of view of comparisons with experiments.
Finite Element Solution of Compressible Flow
Authors: Feistauer M , Felcman J , Straskraba I
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 3, our attention was on the numerical solution of inviscid flow described by the Euler equations. We discussed the finite difference method applied to the problem with one space variable and the finite volume schemes for the numerical solution of multidimensional problems. The inviscid model gives physically acceptable results in some cases of internal and external aerodynamics. However, if the bodies immersed in the gas have a complicated structure or the angles of attack of flow past airfoils are large, then the inviscid model can no longer be applied. In order to obtain a correct physical solution of the flow of a real fluid, in many cases of practical interest one must use models taking the viscosity effects into account.
Soft Condensed Matter
Authors: Jones R A L
Published: November 2023

The physics of soft condensed matter is probably one of the most 'fashionable' areas in the physical sciences today. This book offers a coherent and clear introduction to the properties and behaviour of soft matter. It begins with a treatment of the general underlying principles: the relation of the structure and dynamics of solids and liquids to intermolecular forces, the thermodynamics and kinetics of phase transitions, and the principles of self-assembly. Then the specific properties of colloids, polymers, liquid crystals and self-assembling amphiphilic systems are treated within this framework. A concluding chapter illustrates how principles of soft matter physics can be used to understand properties of biological systems. The focus on the essentials and the straightforward approach make the book suitable for students with either a theoretical or an experimental bias. The level is appropriate for final year undergraduates and beginning graduate students in physics, chemistry, materials science, and chemical engineering.
Colloidal dispersions
Authors: Jones R A L
Published: November 2023

A colloidal dispersion is a heterogeneous system in which particles of solid or droplets of liquid with dimensions of order 10 µm or less are dispersed in a liquid medium. Familiar examples of such systems include industrial and household products such as paints and inks, food products such as mayonnaise and ice cream, and biological fluids such as blood and milk. Colloidal dispersions are characterised by an extremely high area of interface; for example, if 1 kg of polymer is dispersed in water in the form of spheres of 200 nm radius (this is roughly what a 5 litre tin of emulsion paint contains, in addition to pigment and some other ingredients), the total area of of interface between water and polymer is around 15 000 m2. Associated with this area of interface is a substantial amount of interfacial energy, and one has to ask the question why the polymer particles do not combine to form larger aggregates to reduce this interfacial energy.
Molecular order in soft condensed matterliquid crystallinity
Authors: Jones R A L
Published: November 2023

Most of the materials that are studied in the field of ‘hard’ condensed matter physics – metals, semiconductors, and ceramics – are crystalline; the atoms or molecules of which they are composed are arranged with near-perfect longranged order over distances that are many orders of magnitude greater than the distance between molecules. Single crystals of metals or semiconductors of macroscopic size are not uncommon, but even where these materials are described as ‘polycrystalline’ the fraction of the molecules that does not partake in the long-ranged order is very small (though, of course, this small fraction of atoms associated with grain boundaries and defects such as dislocations may have an effect on bulk properties out of proportion to their number). The situation in soft condensed matter is rather different.
Introduction
Authors: Blundell Stephen
Published: November 2023

This book is about the manifestation of magnetism in condensed matter. Solids contain magnetic moments which can act together in a cooperative way and lead to behaviour that is quite different from what would be observed if all the magnetic moments were isolated from one another. This, coupled with the diversity of types of magnetic interactions that can be found, leads to a surprisingly rich variety of magnetic properties in real systems. The plan of this book is to build up this picture rather slowly, piece by piece.
Group theory and the quark model
Authors: Cheng Ta-Pei , Li Ling-Fong
Published: November 2023

This problem illustrates the special property of the SU(2) representations, their being equivalent to their complex conjugate representations. For every 2 × 2 unitary matrix U with unit determinant, show that there exists a matrix S which connects U to its complex conjugate matrix U* through the similarity transformation
Electroweak phenomenology
Authors: Cheng Ta-Pei , Li Ling-Fong
Published: November 2023

The weak neutral-current interaction mediated by the Z boson in an atom violates the parity conservation and will generate mixing between levels with opposite parities.
Principles of Pulse Electron Paramagnetic Resonance
Authors: Schweiger Arthur , Jeschke Gunnar
Published: November 2023

This book explains the foundations of pulse EPR, a field of spectroscopy which has now come of age and has found widespread application in investigations of structure, dynamics, and function of biological systems and synthetic materials. For the first time a systematic overview of the whole field is given, including coverage of Fourier-transform EPR, relaxation measurements, electron spin echo envelope modulation (ESEEM), pulse electron- nuclear double resonance (ENDOR), pulse electron-electron double resonance (ELDOR), transient nutation, and a number of advanced techniques. Researchers approaching the field will find here the basic theory as well as a description and critical evaluation of the existing methods needed for selecting the proper experiment, conducting it, and analysing the results. The experienced researcher active in the field should find this book a useful reference and a guide to adapting EPR pulse sequences to new problems.
Manipulation of electron and nuclear spins
Authors: Schweiger Arthur , Jeschke Gunnar
Published: November 2023

Many pulse EPR experiments are performed to separate or correlate interactions in the spin Hamiltonian. In this chapter we show that this goal can be achieved by applying external perturbations to suppress certain terms of the Hamiltonian or to correlate selected sets of transitions in the spin system. The principles of manipulating spin states by m.w. and r.f. radiation are discussed in §6.1, where pulses are classified according to their transition selectivity. Descriptions are given for the different types of pulses. In §6.2 we examine the basic elements of pulse EPR sequences and consider the technical limitations of applying external perturbations. These elements are then composed to create building blocks (§6.3) which can be combined to pulse sequences in a modular fashion. We distinguish between three types of experiments; (a) polarization transfer experiments (§6.4) where the information about the spin system is contained in the polarization of the electron and nuclear spins; (b) electron coherence-transfer experiments (§6.5), where electron coherence evolves on allowed or forbidden EPR transitions and is transferred between these transitions; and (c) nuclear coherence-transfer experiments (§6.6), where nuclear coherence evolves on nuclear transitions and is transferred between them.
Fourier transform EPR
Authors: Schweiger Arthur , Jeschke Gunnar
Published: November 2023

We have seen in §§5.2.1 and 7.1 that an EPR spectrum can be obtained by FT of the FID observed after excitation of the spin system with a short m.w. pulse. In this chapter we discuss the technical requirements for such an FT EPR experiment and examine in which situations it is the method of choice (§9.1). Special emphasis is given to experiments on transient species where the high time resolution of FT EPR is of particular interest (§9.2). Based on the concept of 2D correlation spectroscopy, introduced in §5.1.5, we present 2D FT EPR experiments which are suitable for studying the detailed mechanisms of spin exchange and of slow molecular reorientation (§9.3). We also discuss echo-detected versions of such 2D experiments which can be applied to species with inhomogeneously broadened EPR spectra.
Intracellular effects of cell surface-localized initiation of blood coagulation
Authors: Pringle Serena , Prydz Hans
Published: November 2023

The role of tissue factor (TF) in blood coagulation has been known for more than a hundred years. In the early 1970s, TF was shown to be an integral membrane protein of molecular weight around 50 k Da. Cloning revealed the mature protein to consist of 263 amino acids organized into three distinct parts: a 219 amino acid extracellular region of two -pleated sheets, a hydrophobic transmembrane segment of 23 amino acids, and a short 21 amino acid cytoplasmic tail. The extracellular domain contains three possible glycosylation sites, which are not required for TF pro-coagulant function but may have a regulatory function in cell surface expression of the molecule.
First-order asymptotic theory
Authors: Severini Thomas A
Published: November 2023

In Section 3.7 several commonly used likelihood-based statistical methods were described. These methods typically require the determination of the probability distribution of some statistic; for instance, to use the likelihood ratio test, the distribution of the likelihood ratio statistic under the null hypothesis is needed. Although exact results are available in certain special cases, a general theory of likelihood-based statistical inference must rely on asymptotic approximations.In this chapter, we consider the first-order asymptotic theory of likelihood-based methods. The first-order theory uses approximations based on the central limit theorem. In Chapter 5, higher-order asymptotic theory is considered; the higher-order theory uses approximations based on either an Edge worth expansion or a saddle point approximation. In Chapter 6, the approximation of conditional distributions given an ancillary statistic is discussed.
Higher-order asymptotic theory
Authors: Severini Thomas A
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we consider the problem of constructing higher-order asymptotic approximations to the distribution of the maximum likelihood estimate, the likelihood ratio test statistic, and related quantities. Two basic methods are considered: Edge worth expansions and saddle point approximations. Edge worth expansions are discussed in Sections 5.3–5.5 and saddle point approximations are discussed in Section 5.6; approximations for the conditional distribution of likelihood-based quantities given an ancillary statistic will be considered in Chapter 6.
The signed likelihood ratio statistic
Authors: Severini Thomas A
Published: November 2023

The signed likelihood ratio statistic

Consider a statistical model parameterized by a scalar parameter θ .
Space-time diagrams and the foundations of special relativity
Authors: Ellis George F R , Williams Ruth M , Carfora Mauro
Published: November 2023

Space and time are notions familiar to everyone. We shall explore the way in which they form a single entity called space-time, firstly according to the ordinary everyday view of how events occur (i.e. according to Newtonian theory). In later sections we shall examine the space-time description of relativity theory.
Methods for estimating dispersal probabilities and related parameters using marked animals
Authors: Bennetts Robert E , Nichols James D , Lebreton Jean-Dominique , Pradel Roger , Hines James E , Kitchens Wiley M
Published: November 2023

Deriving valid inferences about the causes and consequences of dispersal from empirical studies depends largely on our ability reliably to estimate parameters associated with dispersal. Here, we present a review of the methods available for estimating dispersal and related parameters using marked individuals. We emphasize methods that place dispersal in a probabilistic framework. In this context, we define a dispersal event as a movement of a specified distance or from one predefined patch to another, the magnitude of the distance or the definition of a ‘patch’ depending on the ecological or evolutionary question(s) being addressed.
Invasion fitness and adaptive dynamics in spatial population models
Authors: Ferrière Régis , Galliard Jean-Fran9ois Le
Published: November 2023

Disentangling proximate and ultimate factors of dispersal and assessing their relative effects requires an appropriate measure of fitness. Yet there have been few theoretical attempts to define fitness coherently from demographic ‘first principles’, when space-related traits such as dispersal are adaptive. In this chapter, we present the framework of adaptive dynamics and argue that invasion fitness is a robust concept accounting for ecological processes that operate at the individual level.
The landscape context of dispersal
Authors: Wiens John A
Published: November 2023

Dispersal is usually considered in terms of movement from one location and the consequences of arriving at other locations. Movement between these locations is often viewed as a linear process, on which the characteristics of the intervening area have little effect. The area between the beginning and ending of dispersal, however, is not a featureless matrix of unsuitable habitat, but is instead a richly textured mosaic of patches of different shapes, sizes, arrangements, and qualities: a landscape.
Dispersal, individual phenotype, and phenotypic plasticity
Authors: Murren Courtney J , Julliard Romain , Schlichting Carl D , Clobert Jean
Published: November 2023

We examine the role of phenotypic plasticity (genetically controlled response to the environment) in dispersal decisions from two perspectives. Specifically, we examine the alternatives ‘to stay’ or ‘to go’ from the standpoint of the offspring and the maternal parent. For an offspring, phenotypic plasticity may play an important role in determining whether the decision is to remain philopatric or to disperse to a new location.
Population dynamic consequences of dispersal in local populations and in metapopulations
Authors: Hanski Ilkka
Published: November 2023

The two most fundamental population dynamic consequences of dispersal at the level of local populations and metapopulations are, respectively, population regulation via density-dependent emigration and large-scale persistence of classical metapopulations due to the establishment of new populations by immigrants. Dispersal has many additional significant population dynamic ramifications. In the case of small populations, emigration may substantially increase the risk of local extinction, while immigration may reduce it.
Structure of materials
Authors: Dove Martin T
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we will explore some of the principles that govern the way atoms can be packed together to form simple crystal structures. The main principles here are geometric in origin, concerned with packing atoms of different sizes or with specific bond geometries. The bond geometry will lead to the formation of simple structural units containing small groups of atoms, and the structures are then determined by the way that these small units can link together. The geometric viewpoint has some degree of simplification in it, but this can be seen as having some merit since the essence of physics is to look for simplifying principles that can get part way towards an understanding. To properly understand issues associated with structure we need to look in more detail at the nature of the interatomic bonding, which we will consider in Chapter 5.
Atomic bonding in crystals
Authors: Dove Martin T
Published: November 2023

The diversity of crystal structures is due to the factors associated with bonding. We have met four different types of crystal structures for materials containing equal numbers of two types of atoms (NaCl, CsCl, cubic and hexagonal ZnS). There is a plethora of structures for materials of the general form AB2. We have met the cubic structure of CaF2, and we have noted that SiO2 can be found in many different structures. The high-pressure phase of SiO2 has the rutile structure of TiO2, and this compound exists in other different crystal structures. Part of the rationalization for the different structure types comes from the relative sizes of the atoms. However, this only tells part of the story. It is known that under different conditions of temperature or pressure the same substance can exist in different structures, in which case relative sizes of atoms are not the overriding factor. Bonding is more complex an issue than the simple packing of spheres into the most efficient arrangements, although some aspects of atomic bonding may reduce to this. In this chapter we explore some of the issues associated with how different aspects of binding lead to the stabilities of crystal structures. We have to start from the study of equilibrium thermodynamics, since this provides a ‘broad brush’ understanding of crystal stability. The details of bonding, which we will then go on to discuss, link the macroscopic general principles to the specific interatomic interactions.
Diffraction
Authors: Dove Martin T
Published: November 2023

Having explored many of the principles of crystal structures, we now need to consider how crystal structures can be determined. Inevitably this information is obtained by the use of beams of radiation. The strict requirement is that the wavelength of the radiation will need to be smaller than typical interatomic distances if there is to be adequate resolution in the reconstructed image of the atoms in the crystal. There are several candidate beams, such as electromagnetic radiation in the X-ray spectrum, beams of electrons, or beams of neutrons. Here we meet wave–particle duality with a vengeance.
Physical Properties
Authors: Dove Martin T
Published: November 2023

We are used to thinking about the physical properties of materials in terms of scalar quantities, such as volume and energy.These will vary as the external conditions are changed. Simple examples are the coefficient of volumeexpansion,or the compressibility, We also understand that some properties can have a vector form. For example,the magnetization of a ferromagnetic material is a vector quantity. Moreover,some external stimuli have the nature as vectors and give a response that can be described as a vector.
Lattice Dynamics
Authors: Dove Martin T
Published: November 2023

Up to this point in the book we have paid no attention to the motions of atoms in solids. Without so doing we have achieved a considerable level of understanding of the properties and behaviour of solids. There are, however, a number of issues that we cannot begin to tackle without considering dynamics. These include the whole area of thermodynamics, including phase stability.For example, the stable phase of any material is that for which the free energy is a minimum.
Anharmonic interactions
Authors: Dove Martin T
Published: November 2023

The basic harmonic model theory of lattice dynamics developed in Chapters 8 and 9 has proven to be extremely powerful. It has enabled an understanding of a wide range of basic phenomena, such as the propogation of sound waves, thermodynamic properties, and interaction of radiation such as light, X-rays, and neutron beams with crystalline matter (Chapter 10). It has provided the link between the microscopic interatomic interactions introduced in Chapter 5, as represented by the force constants, and these phenomena. The harmonic model is also very useful as a predictive tool, for example facilitating the prediction of thermodynamic properties. However, there are some phenomena that cannot be explained within the limits of the harmonic approximation. These include thermal expansion, thermal conductivity, the temperature dependence of phonon frequencies, and corresponding macroscopic properties (such as dielectric and elastic constants), the observation that phonons appear to have finite lifetimes, and the existence of displacive phase transitions. It is the purpose of this chapter to look at how the basic harmonic model can be modified to account for these phenomena.
Displacive Phase Transitions
Authors: Dove Martin T
Published: November 2023

Many applications of the solid state sciences exploit the electronic or mechanical properties of solids. The important materials are metals or semiconducting materials. These materials tend to have relatively simple crystal structures, such as the cubic and hexagonal structures we met in Chapter 2 (fcc, hcp, diamond, NaCl, and ZnS structures), and interest is focused more on the behaviour of the electrons than on the behaviour of the atoms per se . On the other hand, there are many properties of materials that depend on some degree of complexity of the crystal structure, and on its anisotropy (Chapter 7), and these can be significantly enhanced if the material undergoes a phase transition at some temperature. This is particularly true for dielectric, pyroelectric, and piezoelectric properties.
Normalization of Fourier Integrals
Authors: McComb W D
Published: November 2023

This is essentially a matter of where we put factors of 2Π. Unfortunately the convention can be different in different fields.
Introduction
Authors: Nettle Daniel
Published: November 2023

A Midsummer Night’s Dream is Shakespeare’s quintessential comedy. It is a tale of several very different sets of people whose lives become bizarrely intertwined in the course of a hectic summer night. There is a gaggle of lovers in conflict, the court of a king, and a crew of ludicrous commoners, as well as a whole kingdom of spirits. Within all of these groups, the key characters’ goals are, for different reasons, frustrated. As they seek to right their problems, their situations become un wittingly and ever more strangely interlocked, until finally, in the inevitable denouement of a marriage feast, order is restored. The audience goes home happy.
From Disease to Difference and Back Again
Authors: Nettle Daniel
Published: November 2023

This book is about mental disorders. In particular, I will be concerned with those severe mental disorders that come under the label ‘psychosis’. Psychosis is the modern psychiatric term for what in earlier eras was called madness, insanity, or, implying a link to the phases of the moon, lunacy. It is that state of mind where a person’s feelings or beliefs about himself, his fellows, and the world in general are completely disrupted, making him unable to function in whatever social role husband, parent, friend, employee-he might expect to enjoy.
From Nature to Nurture and Back Again
Authors: Nettle Daniel
Published: November 2023

Emil Kraepelin, as well as defining the major psychoses, began the study of heredity in mental disorder. That there might be an inherited factor had already been suspected for some time. Following the publication of Darwin’s Origin of Species in 1859 and Descent of Man in 1871, there was wide spread interest in heredity as the nineteenth century drew to a close. It was Darwin’s cousin, Francis Galton, who had largely developed the idea that the human temperament was passed on through nature rather than nurture.
Introduction to mesoscopic physics
Authors: Imry Yoseph
Published: November 2023

Mesoscopic physics refers to the physics of structures larger than a nanometer (one billionth of a meter) but smaller than a micrometer (one millionth of a meter). This size range is the stage on which the exciting new research on submicroscopic and electronic and mechanical devices is being done. This research often crosses the boundary between physics and engineering, since engineering such tiny electronic components requires a firm grasp of quantum physics. Applications for the future may include such wonders as microscopic robot surgeons that travel through the blood stream to repair clogged arteries, submicroscopic actuators and builders, and supercomputers that fit on the head of a pin. The world of the future is being planned and built by physicists, engineers, and chemists working in the microscopic realm. This book can be used as the main text in a course on mesoscopic physics or as a supplementary text in electronic devices, semiconductor devices, and condensed matter physics courses. For this new edition, the author has substantially updated and modified the material especially of chapters 3: Dephasing, 8: Noise in mesoscopic systems, and the concluding chapter 9.
Quantum Interference Effects in Transport Properties, The Landauer Formulation and Applications
Authors: Imry Yoseph
Published: November 2023

The transport properties of mesoscopic systems display a wealth of interesting phenomena that are quite novel with respect to the usual macroscopic systems. Among these one can mention the nonadditivity of series resistances and parallel conductances, the periodic sample-specific oscillations (Gefen et al.1984a,b, Webb et al.1985a,b) in the magnetoresistance of a ring (i.e., two parallel resistors) as a function of the Aharonov-Bohm flux through its opening, and the analogous aperiodic conductance fluctuations (Blonder 1984, Umbach et al.1984, Altshuler 1985, Lee and Stone 1985, Licini et al.1985a, Stone 1985, Skocpol et al.1986), in a fine singly-connected wire. These fluctuations have interesting universal aspects. As in the previous chapters, there is an important distinction here between the effects of elastic and inelastic scattering. Also, since the system is so small, its measured resistance may depend on the existence, type, and structure of contacts made onto it. Various other effects, familiar to varying extents from waveguiding systems, may also occur. For example, an open-ended branch can greatly change the resistance of the system (Gefen et al.1984a,b); the resistance may be nonlocal in the sense that what is measured between a given pair of points may depend on things connected further away (Anderson et al.1980, Engquist and Anderson 1981). Contact and spreading resistances, which are not always negligible, may play a role (lmry 1986b, see section 2 as well).
The Quantum Hall Effect
Authors: Imry Yoseph
Published: November 2023

While the quantum Hall effect (QHE) is almost a macroscopic phenomenon (except that it occurs for 2D electrons), its physics has much in common with many aspects of mesoscopic physics. The quantized Hall current is very similar to a persistent current over large length-scales, and many other considerations are related as well. Thus, we devote this chapter to the QHE. Small-size effects on the QHE will be an interesting research direction.
Noise in Mesoscopic Systems
Authors: Imry Yoseph
Published: November 2023

We shall be concerned here with three main types of noise phenomena:

Equilibrium or Nyquist—Johnson noise across a resistor (see eqs. A.9 andA.13–17).

Various nonequilibrium or shot-noise phenomena around a steady state with a current flow. Low-frequency, typically “1/f,” noise due to slow changes of the resistance with time.
Morse theory in the 1990s
Authors: Guest Martin A
Published: November 2023

Since the publication of Milnor’s book [47] in 1963, Morse theory has been a standard topic in the education of geometers and topologists. This book established such high standards for clarity of exposition and mathematical influence that it has been reprinted several times, and it is still the most popular introductory reference for the subject.
Deformation of Metals by Spherical Indenters ‘Shallowing’ and Elastic ‘Recovery’
Authors: Tabor D
Published: November 2023

We have already noted that the permanent indentation left in a metal surface deformed by a hard spherical indenter has a larger radius of curvature than that of the indenting sphere. This effect has generally been ascribed to the release of elastic stresses in the specimen. It is at once evident that if this is indeed the case, it should be essentially reversible. That is to say, if the indenter is replaced in the ‘recovered’ indentation and the original load is applied, the surfaces should deform elastically, and on removing the load, the diameter and curvature of the ‘recovered’ indentation should remain unchanged.
The Nature of Metallic Wear [A]
Authors: Bowden F P , Tabor D
Published: November 2023

The wear of solid surfaces is a complex process which under many conditions includes both chemical attack and physical damage. Any slight change in the operating conditions may change the whole nature of the wear process. For this reason practical ‘tests’ seldom give reproducible or conclusive results and considerable caution must also be exercised in interpreting even the most carefully controlled laboratory experiments. It is also clear that any theoretical treatment of the problem of wear must make sweeping simplifications. In this chapter we shall consider the part played by the continual formation and shearing of metallic junctions in producing wear between rubbing surfaces and discuss briefly some of the factors which, in practice, complicate the wear process.
Orientation mechanisms
Authors: Berthold Peter
Published: November 2023

This chapter describes mechanisms which enable migrants to maintain certain, mostly species-or population-specific, directions during their movements, and to find specific destinations such as resting areas or breeding grounds. Research in this field has made considerable progress over the last 50 years since the discovery of the first compass (see 7.4: sun compass).
Introduction
Authors: Aharoni Amikam
Published: November 2023

It is known from experiment that every material which is put in a magnetic field, H, acquires a magnetic moment. The dipole moment per unit volume is defined as the magnetization, and will be denoted here by the vector M.
Importance and evolution of incubation in avian reproduction
Authors: D. C. Deeming
Published: November 2023

Reproduction in birds is extremely conservative with the vast majority of the 8,900 species adopting bird-egg contact incubation to maintain an appropriate environment for embryonic development. The exact conditions adopted by different species vary considerably, but factors such as initial egg mass, incubation period, eggshell conductance to gases and weight loss during incubation are all interrelated in a wide range of avian species (Rahn and Paganelli 1990; Chapter 3). Man has exploited this uniformity in avian incubation to use birds from one species, usually the domestic fowl (Gallus gal/us) to incubate the eggs of a second species (e.g. raptor eggs), and to build artificial incubators that mimic the incubation environment for up to 120 000 fowl eggs at a time.
Microbiology of natural incubation
Authors: Baggott G K , Graeme-Cook K
Published: November 2023

The interaction between the microbial flora of the environment and the avian egg has been investigated extensively for poultry species {Bruce and Drysdale 1991). Primarily, research has focussed on the spoilage of eggs during incubation and the contamination of the domestic fowl(Gallus gallus) egg when used as food, with much emphasis on the routes of infection, either transmission across the eggshell after lay or vertical transmission through the laying female. To combat microbial invasion of the egg, antimicrobial defences consist of two main components: a physical defence provided by the shell and a chemical defence primarily provided by the albumen (Board and Fuller 1974). The physical defences against microbial transmission arise from the eggshell acting as a resistance network comprised of cuticle, the pore canal and the shell membranes (Board 1980). Of these three components the cuticle is the most important in reducing the possibility of liquid water entering the pore canal, and so movement of bacteria into the egg (Sparks 1994). Eggs lacking cuticle readily absorbed liquid water (Sparks and Board 1984), and newly laid fowl eggs, where the cuticle is not complete, were less able to resist bacterial penetration of the shell (Sparks and Board 1985). However, fungal hyphae can easily penetrate this barrier if conditions are suitable for their growth, e.g. humidity (Boardet al. 1964, 1994). The chemical defences of the egg consist primarily of the alkaline pH of the albumen and the presence of ovotransferrin, which reduces the availability of iron ions (Fe3+) that micro-organisms need for their growth (Board and Fuller 1974).
Incubation in extreme environments
Authors: Carey C
Published: November 2023

Some birds can nest successfully in some of the most inhospitable environments on earth, such as cold regions, high altitudes, and deserts. These accomplishments are particularly striking because the embryos are incubated outside the body of the adult where they are more vulnerable to fluctuations of the ambient environment than are embryos protected within the body of viviparous vertebrates. Embryonic requirements for successful development (application of external heat, periodic turning, defence from predators, and exchange of appropriate levels of gases with the environment) must be met in all environments in which birds breed (Drent 1975). Adults breeding in hostile environments must meet these embryonic demands despite major challenges to meet their own needs for nutrition, thermoregulation, water and gas exchange (Schmidt-Nielson 1964; Dawson and Bartholomew 1968; Serventy 1971; Immelman 1971; Irving 1972; Remmert 1980; Marsh and Dawson 1989; Bech and Reinertsen 1989; Faraci 1991). These physiological challenges, added to the demands of reproduction, can create situations in which the needs of the adults conflict with those of their offspring.
Ecological factors affecting initiation of incubation behaviour
Authors: Hèbert P N
Published: November 2023

Contact incubation behaviour ensures that bird eggs are maintained at a temperature sufficient to promote embryonic development (Nice 1954). Although the dynamics of heat exchange vary during the incubation period (Turner 1991; Chapter 9), the thermal requirements of the clutch generally remain constant from the start of incubation through to hatching. Incubation temperatures, once attained, must be maintained within narrow limits to assure optimal embryonic development (Webb 1987). As such, the thermal requirements of the dutch may conflict(sensu Trivers 1974) with the nutritional and metabolic requirements of the parent (Nilsson 1993a).
Perspectives in avian incubation
Authors: Deeming D C
Published: November 2023

Throughout the 20th Century avian eggs and incubation has been an area of considerable research effort. Studies concentrated on domestic fowl(Gallus gallus) driven, particularly in the first 50–60 years of the century, by a need to improve hatchability of poultry eggs under artificial incubation. These studies were largely successful and modern commercial incubation is able to achieve high hatchability within some very large incubators. Interest in natural incubation has been particularly strong during the last 30–40 years, and although the domestic fowl remained the species of choice for many laboratory studies, incubation in nests was studied for a wide range of species. In particular, the physiology of the avian egg during incubation was extensively studied (see Rahn and Paganelli 1990). The contents of this book are a reflection of our broad knowledge of incubation in nests. However, the book has also revealed our lack of knowledge and understanding about many aspects of contact incubation. Each chapter has highlighted at least one area of research where further work is needed to extend our comprehension of natural incubation. Some of these (albeit a personal choice) are briefly discussed below.
Background
Authors: Whitten Tony , Damanik Sengli J , Anwar Janzanul , Hisyam Nazaruddin
Published: November 2023

About 250 million years ago, at the beginning of the Mesozoic era (table 1.1), the earth’s continents formed a single land called Pangea. During the Triassic, roughly 230 million years ago, Pangea broke into two, with Laurasia (North America, Europe and Asia) splitting off from Gondwanaland (India, Australia, Africa, South America and Antarctica). Gondwanaland began to split into its separate parts 200 million years ago during the Jurassic, and India floated towards Asia at about 10-18 cm per year (figs. 1.1 and 1.2). By the early Tertiary, about 70 million years ago, India and the plate on which it lay began to collide with and move under Asia. Its major thrust caused the uplift of the Himalayas, and one of the associated thrusts caused the uplift of the Barisan Mountains that run the length of Sumatra. The movement of the Indian Plate under Asia caused great earthquakes, and although the rate of movement is now less, almost all the earthquakes experienced in Sumatra (and Java, Burma, etc.) today are caused by those continuing movements. The main parts of Southeast Asia remained in more or less their present relative positions throughout this period although their absolute positions moved north and south of the equator.
A brief overview of the kinetic approach
Authors: Perthame Benoît
Published: November 2023

We begin with a very rapid and informal overview of the kinetic approach to conservations laws. It is intended to present quickly the examples where the same approach can be developed, and to present the main ideas behind this theory. We also try to show its applications and limitations. More complete proofs and consequences in the hyperbolic case are developed later, as well as a more gradual introduction of the tools.
Uniqueness of solutions to scalar conservation laws and consequences
Authors: Perthame Benoît
Published: November 2023

This chapter is devoted to the proof of uniqueness of the entropy solution to scalar conservation laws. The first uniqueness proof was given by S.N. Kruzkov [119,120] and uses the particular so-called Kruzkov’s entropies S  ξ (u) |u ξ −| combined with a technical argument of doubling variables. Here we give a more direct proof due to [152] which relies on the kinetic formulation. In principle it is the same result, because it also uses all the entropies (the family of Kruzkov’s entropies generate by density all the convex entropies). But the technical arguments are much simpler here because the doubling of variables is replaced by mere convolution. It turns out that we can easily prove some kind of L  2 contraction on the function χ(  ℝ u) which gives the L  1 contraction for the macroscopic quantity u.
Kinetic schemes for SCLs
Authors: Perthame Benoît
Published: November 2023

We describe in this chapter how the kinetic formulation extends to the finite volume method for solving scalar conservation laws in one space dimension. The same formalism extends to higher dimensions but notation is much heavier and, as far as the kinetic formalism is concerned, does not bring new mathematical structures.
Microstructure of Martensite
Authors: Bhattacharya Kaushik
Published: November 2023

Martensites are crystalline solids that display dazzling patterns at the microscopic scales. This microstructure gives rise to unusual macroscopic properties like the shape-memory effect. Starting with the crystalline structure, this book describes a theoretical framework for studying martensites and uses the theory to explain why these materials form microstructure. The macroscopic consequences of the microstructure are subsequently discussed. Complete with a piece of shape-memory wire and numerous examples from real materials, this book represents a successful case study in multiscale modelling, giving a clear understanding of the link between microstructure and macroscopic properties. Beautifully written, in a most clear and pedagogical manner, it holds appeal for a broad audience. On the one hand, it introduces modern modelling techniques to those trained in materials science, mechanics and physics, and shows how these techniques can be used in real-world problems. On the other hand, it introduces physical phenomena to those trained in mathematics, and demonstrates how such phenomena give rise to interesting mathematical problems.
Thin Films
Authors: Bhattacharya Kaushik
Published: November 2023

The development of suitable micro actuators is a key challenge in the area of micro- machines or microelectromechanical systems (MEMS). A successful micro actuator must develop a large work output from a smaller and smaller volume, and therefore work output per unit volume is a key figure of merit for any actuator material.
Nitrides as seen by a Theorist
Authors: Bechstedt Friedhelm
Published: November 2023

The modern solid state physics and materials science try to understand the properties of solids starting from basic notions and to predict the properties of novel materials. For instance, the combination of two or more compounds in hetero structures makes it possible to tailor electronic and optical properties via the quantum confinement effect. In the past experiments have mainly been used to determine the properties of the new solids. Theories accompanied the measurements to tell us why the solids have the properties they have. However, in the last 15 years it became possible to compute lattice constants, bulk moduli, cohesive energies, phonon spectra, and other static and elastic properties of solids starting from no other ingredients than the atomic numbers and masses of the atoms composing the materials.