bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Private Sales
Authors: Graham Cosmo , Prosser Tony
Published: November 2023

The large-scale flotations and sales of shares described in the previous chapter do not represent the whole of privatization of public enterprises in either Britain or France. It is these large sales which have been in the public eye and to which most academic attention has been paid; however, there have been a number of private sales not involving flotation but the direct sale of enterprises by the Government to private companies or consortia, or the sale by the industries themselves of their subsidiaries. Table 4.1 lists examples in Britain.
International Society
Authors: Hoffmann Stanley
Published: November 2023

I was always an admirer of the extraordinary sweep of Hedley Bull’s mind, and yet when I reviewed his work I was left with an inevitable sense of incompleteness. He accomplished so much, but there were also so many more directions in which he might have gone and in which he was beginning to go. The most striking aspect of his work is its extraordinary unity and the coherence of his approach: the unity of method and of substance, and the consistency and continuity of his concern about international society and those contemporary issues which are decisive for the survival of an international society. However, there were also significant tensions in his work: they gave it its density, and make it particularly instructive and thought-provoking.
Strategic Studies and Arms Control
Authors: Millar T B
Published: November 2023

A very high proportion of Bull’s writings bore directly or indirectly on this subject: directly, because he was passionately interested in the world of nation states, in which there is so much overt conflict almost all the time; indirectly because, interested as he was in theories about relations between states, and in order and ‘justice’ in the world system, the use of force or the threat or capacity to use it is never far from the surface. The general sits at the ambassador’s elbow. Political power, economic power, military power, are functions of one another. Nevertheless, Bull has produced a whole corpus of literature that bears directly on strategic studies, and not least an assessment of the subject itself which emerged after he had become interested in arms control and indeed had written his lucid first book2 on that topic which was so to exercise him for the rest of his life.
Introduction
Authors: Parnell Martin F
Published: November 2023

Had the West German coal industry suddenly been confronted with a dramatic reversal, or did this new arrangement represent just the latest stage in a long-standing, ongoing retrenchment? Such a question had become all the more topical and urgent within a problematic environment exacerbated by the sharply contested redundancies in the West German steel industry whose own crisis appeared to be deepening. These developments appeared to confirm the apparently irreversible demise of those two traditional industries which had been the twin pillars of the industrial revolution and which had contributed so profoundly to Germany’s industrial pre-eminence not just on the European scene but, indeed, on the world stage.
The State, War, and Industry
Authors: Parnell Martin F
Published: November 2023

To a certain extent government intervention became self-perpetuating, as one set of government measures created a situation which could only be remedied by further government actions. This is amply illustrated in t.l1e German coal industry. During the war total production fell by more than 30 per cent mainly because the most able-bodied miners were withdrawn to fight and between 70 and 80 per cent of pit supervisors, Steiger, were called up. An additional handicap arose from state control of the railway system which gave priority to the movement of troops and armaments, thus hindering the efficient distribution of such coal as was produced. Already, in 1914, production was down 29 million tons from 1913, and, by 1915, it was 44 million tons down. From April 1915 permission could be obtained to recall miners in special cases and there was increasing recruitment of foreign workers and employment of prisoners of war in the mines.
Epistemic Communities and the Dynamics of International Environmental Co-Operation
Authors: Haas Peter M
Published: November 2023

Encountering unprecedentedly large environmental disasters in the 1960s, governments engaged in a paroxysm of international regime formation. Seventy-six multilateral environmental treaties have been signed since the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (UNCHE), and environmental regimes have been growing increasingly sophisticated in their approach to managing ecosystems. How can this phenomenon be explained? International relations theorists from at least three schools of thought have sought to formulate general propositions to describe and explain the creation and transformation of regimes under a variety of international. political conditions or domains specified by each school.
Explaining Party Activism
Authors: Whiteley Paul , Seyd Patrick , Richardson Jeremy
Published: November 2023

The theoretical framework which was developed in Chapter 4 to explain why individuals joined the party can also be used to ex plain why some of these become active once they have joined. Again, the idea is that incentives of various kinds induce the party member to become more actively involved in politics. Since these incentives have a different impact on different people, this explains why some are active and some are not.
Local Campaigning and the Conservative Vote
Authors: Whiteley Paul , Seyd Patrick , Richardson Jeremy
Published: November 2023

The Conservative party has traditionally enjoyed the reputation of having the most formidable election machine of any party in British politics. Robert McKenzie’s (1964) description of local Conservative party organizations in their heyday of the l950s captures this point very well. In his description of the local party organization, McKenzie mentions the ‘block system’ and the ‘canvassercorps’, the former being a group of households in a ward or polling district, which are looked after on a regular basis by the latter, a group of active party members. He describes the activities of these volunteers as follows:
The Role of the National Civil Service 1n European Lobbying: The British Case
Authors: Spence David
Published: November 2023

This chapter examines the role of the UK’s national administration, focusing on British officials in Whitehall and Brussels. These two levels of the government machine are not merely geographical distinctions; they also demonstrate important conceptual points of relevance to the Community decision-making process itself. There are four important points to make. First, the national Official is clearly a lobbyist of European institutions and other Member States’ Officials. But the Official is also a target for the national lobby and the ‘foreign’ lobby-whether of Community countries or elsewhere. Secondly, European policy-making is far more complex and less accessible to the lobbyist than at the purely national level. Thirdly, the stakes in Brussels are often higher and the institutional game more fraught with risk.
Business Lobbying in the European Community: The Union of Industrial and Employers’ Confederations of Europe
Authors: Collie Lynn
Published: November 2023

The Union of Industrial and Employers’ Associations (UNICE) was set up in 1958 by the industrial federations of the six founder Member States of the European Community. It was an early reconition that the European Community was going to be important for business and that business therefore needed to develop a European-level association to represent its common interests. Not surprisingly, the evolution of UNICE has in many respects mirrored that of the European Community in its move from the ‘Euro Sclerosis’ of the late 1970s and early 1980s to ‘Euro-Acceleration’ in the mid-1980s. As the European dimension increased in importance, member federations became dissatisfied with UNICE.
The Paradox of Voting and the Theory of Social Evolution
Authors: Carling Alan
Published: November 2023

The paradox of voting is less paradoxical than is commonly assumed because it is more paradoxical than is usually thought: this is its paradox. Assume that members of an electorate are instrumental and rational in their orientation to the act of casting a vote. The fact that they are instrumental means that they are in it for what they can get out of the result. The fact that they are rational means, in this context, that they vote or not according to whether their benefit from the act of voting does or does not exceed the cost incurred in performing the act. But the chance of any one vote affecting the outcome of the election in the voter’s favour is so tiny (in any electorate of reasonable size) that the potential gain from the act is bound to be outweighed by the costs of the act, even if the voter stands to gain a great deal from a favourable outcome to the election and the costs of voting are very low. So rational instrumental voters will not vote.
Rationality, Revolution, and Reassurance
Authors: Wickham-Jones Mark
Published: November 2023

The orthodox rational-choice account of revolutionary behaviour is that ‘rationality requires inaction’.1 The free-rider conclusion is entailed by a series of assumptions: actors are end-orientated and selfish; the large number required for successful revolutions creates co-ordination problems; and the non-excludable benefits mean backsliding from putative agreements is probable. Revolutionary participation has thus been typified as an n-person Prisoners’ Dilemma with a dominant strategy of non-cooperation.
A Zero-Sum Conflict: Domestic, Regional, and Global Factors
Authors: Ma’oz Moshe
Published: November 2023

Broadly speaking, Syrian attitudes towards Israel became increasingly hostile after 1954 because of domestic instability, ideological and political radicalization, the growing fear of Israel military action or aggression, as well as owing to Syria’s new alliances with the USSR and Egypt. In turn, Syria’s militant attitude to Israel, and its Soviet and Egyptian orientations, coupled with Egypt’s increasing belligerency, deepened Israel’s sense of siege and fear, and contributed as well to strengthening Ben Gurion’s hardline stance, leading to serious military operations against Syria and Egypt. Consequently, while a series of armed clashes periodically erupted between Israel and Syria, their mutual antagonism was further aggravated.
The Struggle over Lebanon and the Palestinians
Authors: Ma’oz Moshe
Published: November 2023

With Jordan’s refusal to integrate into Asad’s Greater Syria strategy, his remaining potential partners were Lebanon and the Palestinians. Both these parties, being politically and militarily much weaker than Jordan, could, it seemed, be easily influenced if not dominated by Damascus and serve its regional strategic interests, notably vis-a-vis Jerusalem. For generations Damascus had considered Lebanon as the western part of Syria, arbitrarily and artificially carved off by the French Mandate; Damascus thus had never established diplomatic relations with Beirut.
The Social Regulation of Unemployment
Authors: Callie Duncan , Paugam Serge
Published: November 2023

How different was the experience of unemployment in the EU societies that have been examined in this study? And what factors appear to have played the strongest role in affecting this experience? In embarking on this investigation, we noted that there were in particular three types of factor that might affect the severity of the effects of unemployment on people’s lives. In the first place, there were the characteristics of the welfare institutions for the unemployed, which reflected distinctive mixes of welfare principles. Second, there were diverse patterns of family life and sociability, which, although possibly influenced by the nature of the welfare institutions, also related to much longer-standing cultural traditions. Finally, there were the specific economic conditions that each society was confronted with, deriving from their level of economic development and the rapidity of economic restructuring. In examining the impact of such differences, we have been concerned with three main spheres of the experience of unemployment: financial deprivation, labour market marginalization, and social integration.
Introducing Childcare: Questions and Themes
Authors: Randall Vicky
Published: November 2023

This book is about the politics of childcare in Britain in the post-war era. As such its ambit is broad-ranging, covering different forms of childcare provision, different time-periods, different decision-making levels and contexts. Even so it is informed, and to an extent inspired, by a single overriding question, concerning why it is that the state’s contribution, whether in terms of direct provision, or direct or indirect subsidy, to child daycare in this country has been so meager. Although at one level, and from a feminist perspective, this might not seem so surprising—men have dominated the political process so what do you expect?—viewed another way it is more of a puzzle: that is, when this record of public neglect is considered alongside the growing percentage of women in paid employment, the upsurge and impact of second-wave feminism, and the much more generous provision in a range of other European countries.
Mothers, Feminists, and the Demand for Childcare
Authors: Randall Vicky
Published: November 2023

The analysis so far has tended to focus on the level of national institutional decision-making. It has demonstrated the extent to which earlier assumptions and decisions about child daycare were embodied in institutional arrangements in the early post-war era which constrained both the practical and the imaginable policy options of later decades. But while there has been a degree of institutional inertia, there has also been very little effective political pressure challenging the status quo. As we have seen, what I have called the childcare lobby, which emerged in the 1970s, has all along been weak and divided. Its constituent groups have represented differing and potentially conflicting assumptions about the respective needs of children and mothers, different interests, and professions. Within their ranks explicitly feminist arguments and energies have played a relatively minor role (although the impact of second-wave feminism has contributed to a growing public acceptance of the legitimacy of working mothers’ childcare needs).
Israel
Authors: Karsh Efraim
Published: November 2023

The Cold War played a secondary, if significant, role in the making of Israel’s foreign and defence policies, and virtually no role at all in her domestic politics. Subjected to a concerted Arab attempt to destroy her at birth in 1948, and to a subsequent political, military, and economic siege which began easing only with the conclusion of the peace treaty with Egypt in 1979, Israel’s national interests have been predominantly focused on her immediate environment, namely, consolidation of her statehood and security, and the attainment of regional acceptance of her existence, expressed, if possible, in official peace treaties. From the Israeli standpoint, the Cold War was relevant only to the extent that it affected the pursuit of these goals.
Introduction
Authors: Stock Thomas , Lohs Karlheinz
Published: November 2023

The efforts at the Geneva Conference on Disarmament to achieve a convention banning chemical weapons (CW) were successfully completed in September 1992. The Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction (CWC) was opened for signature in Paris on 13 January 1993.
Characteristics of chemical warfare agents and toxic armament wastes
Authors: Lohs Karlheinz , Stock Thomas
Published: November 2023

Chemical weapons have a long history of use. In modern times they were first employed extensively in World War I, beginning with their use on the Western front by Germany at Ypres on 22 April 1915. Chemical weapons were intended to create a tactical advantage and to demoralize the enemy. The initial success of CW in World War I and subsequent developments in the chemical industry led countries such as Canada, France, Germany, Japan, the former Soviet Union, the UK, the USA and others to conduct extensive research and develop¬ment (R&D) and testing of new and potentially more effective chemical weapons and agents.
Chemical weapon production in the former Czechoslovakia
Authors: Matousek Jirí
Published: November 2023

Chemical weapons were relatively effective in World War I, and because of this the Czechoslovak Army was eager to acquire such weapons. In 1919 the Referate for Gas Service was established in the Engineering Division of the Ministry of National Defence, and the first technical manual dealing with chemical defence was prepared in 1920.
The storage of old and abandoned chemical weapons in Austria
Authors: Stolz Josef
Published: November 2023

With the signing of the Chemical Weapons Convention in Paris on 13 January 1993 a new chapter opened in the efforts to rid the world of chemical weapons. Austria was one of many original signatory states. Austria does not produce chemical weapons, but as a consequence of World War II it has a CW storage site on its territory. It is therefore particularly interested in the provisions of the Convention which address old and abandoned CW munitions as it faces the problem of the handling and eventual destruction of such munitions.
The Baltic and North Sea dumping of chemical weapons: still a threat?
Authors: Laurin Fredrik
Published: November 2023

In May 1945 when Germany surrendered and after almost six years the war in Europe ended, most of the nations involved in the war had stockpiles of hundreds of thousands of tonnes of a weapon that was never used-chemical munitions. There had been little enthusiasm for chemical weapons among the nations which participated in the war, and the primary reason for not deploying CW was probably the special nature of these weapons. In addition, wind and other weather conditions are important factors in chemical warfare, as is the ability of an opponent to strike back with the same means.
The Chemical Weapons Convention and old and abandoned chemical weapons
Authors: Stock Thomas
Published: November 2023

There is general agreement that the destruction of chemical weapons owned or possessed by a State Party to the Chemical Weapons Convention after 1 January 1946 will be a major focus of the Convention in the first 10 years after its entry into force. Destruction must be completed within 10 years. (In excep¬tional cases a 5-year extension may be granted.) In Europe only Russia, the inheritor of the former Soviet CW stockpile, faces the challenge of destroying chemical warfare agents, of which it possesses at least 40 000 tonnes.
Conclusions
Authors: Stock Thomas , Lohs Karlheinz
Published: November 2023

The issue of old chemical munitions and toxic armament wastes did not arouse much public debate until recently, but it is now a topic which is receiving increased attention. The lack of interest was in part because during the cold war any activities of a military nature were regarded as necessary because of the East-West confrontation.
Compellence: Resuscitating the Concept
Authors: Schaub Gary
Published: November 2023

The use of force and threats to use force are standard fare in the practice and study of international politics. Assumptions that anarchy best characterizes the international system have directed theoretical attention to the potential use of force by any international actor against any other. Of course, both practitioners and scholars have realized, as did the Athenians at Melos, that it is much more cost effective to achieve their goals through the threat of force as opposed to using force. Given this, one may suspect that any basic textbook on international relations would have extensive discussions on the use of threats of force in world politics.
Britain and German Unification, 1989/90
Authors: Kettenacker Lothar
Published: November 2023

The final verdict on Britain’s stance towards German unification will have to wait at least another twenty years until the release of HM official documents. However, this does not mean that until then we are reduced to making more or less intelligent guesses. For once the diplomatic process and the decisive position taken by the American Bush administration have been studied in detail by two aides of the president’s national security advisers.’ Their study will be unsurpassed for some time to come, not least because they draw on a vast array and variety of official documents, including Russian records. It is most telling that the only superpower left should also have been the first to direct our understanding of the momentous historical events of 1989/90. In addition, a great number of the German Chancellery’s documents pertaining to unification have already been published in one massive volume which constitutes an important source. It was, after all, the Chancellery, not the German Foreign Office, that was in charge of German-German affairs. One name which crops up again and again as the author of important minutes and memoranda is Horst Teltschik, Chancellor Helmut Kohl’s trusted civil servant and witness to most of his confidential talks. There is general agreement amongst historians that his diaries are the most candid and reliable source of information about the day-to-day business. He was behind all moves to accelerate the process of unification which so worried the British and German Foreign Ministries.
The American Dimension: Britain, Germany, and the Reinforcement of US Hegemony in Europe in the 1990s
Authors: Ingimundarson Valur
Published: November 2023

When Henry Luce, the publisher of Time-Life, proclaimed the dawning of the American Century in 1941, he did not only foresee the defeat of Germany and Japan in World War II but also the political and economic predominance of the United States in the post-war period. True, his characterization lost much of its glow and force in the 1970s and 1980s, when the United States witnessed the erosion of its political credibility due to the Vietnam War and its competitive advantage in many economic areas at the expense of Japan and Germany. But with the millennium approaching, it is impossible to deny that the United States has consolidated its global leadership position. Dire prognoses of US decline—some sort of ‘imperial overstretch’ —and a retreat into isolation have been silenced by a rejuvenated economy and vigorous and, at times, aggressive diplomacy. This development was by no means apparent in 1990—1. Apart from the Gulf War, the United States was a reluctant world power, and the economic recession at home spurred calls for introspection and a domestic agenda. The Bush Administration certainly played a key role in German reunification, but it did not want to become engaged in the Yugoslav crisis or to end the strategic uncertainty following the collapse of communism in Eastern Europe. The Americans were, in other words, slow to spell out their precise role in a European post-cold war setting. Towards the end of the 1990s the picture was much clearer: the United States had not only reaffirmed its status as an economic superpower but has also reinforced its political and military hegemony in Europe.
NATO or WEU? Security Policy since 1990
Authors: Kirchner Emil J
Published: November 2023

Changes in threat perceptions since 1990, and growing concerns about military and non-military aspects of security provoke questions over the extent to which NATO can or should remain the dominant security provider of the western world. It also raises the question about the extent to which the Western European Union (WEU), either alone or in conjunction with the European Union, can or should be responsible for security. Debate about these questions not only takes place in the US, Britain, France, and Germany, where divided opinions prevail within and between countries; it is also discussed in the Russian Federation where the questions of enlargement of NATO and WEU remain particularly controversial. After all, the eastern enlargement of NATO in March 1999 to include Poland, Hungary, and the Czech Republic was viewed with great dismay in Moscow. Moreover, NATO’s bombing of Serbia and Serbian positions in Kosovo which began shortly afterwards on 24 March and lasted until 10 June led to the most severe crisis in Russian-NATO relations since the end of the cold war.
Social Cleavages and Political Change
Authors: Manza Jeff , Brooks Clem
Published: November 2023

What Social Groups Support Which Political Party, And How That Support Has Changed Over Time, Are Central Questions In The Sociology Of Political Behaviour. This Study Provides The First Systematic Book-Length Reassessment And Restatement Of The Sociological Approach To American Politics In More Than 20 Years. It Challenges Widespread Arguments That The Importance Of Social Cleavages Have Declined Precipitously In Recent Years In The Face Of Post-Industrial Social And Economic Changes. The Book Reconceptualizes The Concept Of Social Cleavages And Focus On Four Major Cleavages In American Society: Class, Religion, Gender, And Race, Arguing A That A Number Of Important Changes In The Alignments Of The Groups Making Up These Four Cleavages Have Occurred. The Book Examines The Implications Of These Changes For The Democratic And Republican Parties. The Findings Of The Book Are Examined In Light Of The Central Dilemmas Facing The Two Major Parties In The Contemporary Political Environment.
Party Coalitions
Authors: Manza Jeff , Brooks Clem
Published: November 2023

Most of the debates about the state of American political parties-and the nature of party decline and renewal-have centered on questions about the organizational capacities of the parties and their ability to carry out partisan policy goals once in government. In this chapter, by contrast, we extend our analyses of social cleavages to consider how cleavages shape the two major parties electoral coalitions, and also where the votes that put parties (and their candidates) in office in the first place come from. A number of commentators have argued that the social bases of party coalitions have changed in ways that have significantly influenced their policy agendas. The growing gender gap, for example, has led to discussions of a possible ‘feminization’ of the Democratic Party. The widely used ‘Reagan Democrat’ label is based on the idea that since 1980 Republican presidential candidates are receiving a growing proportion of their votes from white, working-class voters. Others have asserted that the growing importance of educated middle-class voters has encouraged the Democrats to abandon their traditional focus on public policies aimed at the working and lower middle classes in favor of a policy agenda that addresses the interests of the educated middle class. The growing influence of the Christian Right agenda in the Republican Party is often attributed to their growing numbers at the ballot box. Virtually all commentators on race and politics have noted that the increasing importance of black votes to Democratic candidates makes Democratic politicians reluctant to abandon a strong civil rights platform.
Conclusions: The Political Culture of Russian ‘Democrats’ and Russian Politics
Authors: Lukin Alexander
Published: November 2023

Awareness of the differences between Soviet political culture and the ‘democratic’ subculture is important for understanding political developments in Russia after 1991. Despite the later arguments of some less fortunate ‘democrats’ that the ‘democratic’ movement as a whole did not come to power in Russia, an objective analysis would suggest that politicians who shared ‘democratic’ beliefs partially ruled the Russian republic from the election of the Russian parliament in spring 1991, and almost solely from early 1992 for a period of about one year. During the latter period ‘democratic’ activists and their supporters not only controlled the most important federal institutions, but also held sway in the country’s three most populous cities (Moscow, St Petersburg, and Ekaterinburg).
Political Communication between Political Elites and Mass Publics The Role of Belief Systems
Authors: Thomassen Jacques
Published: November 2023

The (implicit) assumption of many empirical studies of political representation is that ‘congruence between the preferences of citizens and the actions of policymakers constitutes a major claim and goal of liberal democracy’ (Huber and Powell 1994: 292). Empirical research offers ample evidence that from this perspective liberal democracy in most countries is far from perfect. In many instances the policy views of the members of parliament do not reflect the views of their citizens.
The Language of Politics A Study of Elite and Mass Understandings of Ideological Terminology in the United States and the Netherlands
Authors: Herrera Richard
Published: November 2023

The study of mass-elite relationships in this volume is pursued from a variety of approaches and through the use of a unique combination of survey data. While we are all interested in these linkages, this chapter takes a different look at those couplings by examining the nature of political discourse between the mass public and their representatives. Rather than focus on the positions held by mass and elite on a variety of political issues, this chapter inspects the abilities of the public and the political elite in the United States and the Netherlands to communicate with each other using a shared under standing of political language. To the extent that open and well-understood communication between mass and elite facilitates political representation, this contribution might be seen as a first step in the study of mass-elite communication patterns.
Greece: Between ‘Henosis’ and Decentralization
Authors: Loughlin John
Published: November 2023

Greece became part of the Ottoman Empire, along with the rest of the Balkan peninsula, in the fifteenth century and lived under Turkish rule for some four centuries (Legg and Roberts 1997). After the uprising that started in 1821 against Turkish occupation, they were the first of all the Balkan peoples to win partial liberation, with the London Protocol of 7 May 1832, which recognized the independence of a new Greek state, though only for part of Greece. The newly independent Greek state established a centralized government along the lines of the French Napoleonic state. Before and after Greek independence there was a division among nationalists as to whether the new state should adopt the institutions of western states (modernizers) or whether it should return to the institutions of Byzantine Greece (traditionalists). In the end, both had their wishes to some extent. Greece adopted the institutions and administration of representative democracy well before many western states did so. However, these institutions were informed by the culture and mentality of the Ottoman period and its political culture owed much to the practices of dientelism and patronage that had developed during that period. Thus, the Greek political system has been marked by the concentration of power at the centre and a less than satisfactory system of public administration. The question of modern Greece’s national identity, and whether the country is ‘western’ or ‘non-western’ has never been finally resolved and still affects the nature and practice of democracy in the country.
The Committed Observer of a Janus-Faced Century: Peter Pulzer on Liberalism, Anti Semitism, and Democracy
Authors: Tewes Henning
Published: November 2023

Valedictory lectures are rare occasions. Most academics give inaugural lectures when they take up a professorial chair, and leave quietly when the time has come. The idea of a scholar reflecting back on his or her career and life, however, is in many respects an appealing one. This is especially true if the professional career is as distinguished and the personal history as unusual as they are in the case of Peter Pulzer.
Jacobinism Redefined: Second Empire Municipalism and the Emergence of Republican Citizenship
Authors: Hazareesingh Sudhir
Published: November 2023

It is a commonplace among political and intellectual historians that the principles of modern French citizenship were fashioned by the democratic and republican state-initially by the Revolution of 1789 and later in more substantive form by the Third Republic (1875-1940). An analogous point is sometimes made through the assertion that, unlike in Britain and Germany, where the nation preceded the state, in France it was the state which pre ceded (and thus created) the nation. Modern France thus appears as the archetype of the ‘statist’ political community, in which public institutions whether Napoleonic, Bourbon, Orleanist, or republican-consistently played a defining role in articulating the principles which held together the political community.
The History of Human Rights in Germany
Authors: Southern David
Published: November 2023

The history of the twentieth century was characterized by what has been called the struggle between empirical and liberal democracy on one hand, and totalitarian messianic democracy on the other. The contrast goes back to the French Revolution, when ideology entered into politics in the form of the reconstruction of society from top to bottom on an ideal basis. One philosophy regards politics as ‘a contrivance of human wisdom to provide for human wants’ (Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790), 88) and seeks to reconcile the inherently conflicting claims of the individual and those of the community without postulating some overall conflict-free system. The other sees politics as having some absolute purpose, namely, the collective and compulsory pursuit and attainment of an ideal order in which the claims of the individual and the claims of the community converge. The one espouses diversity and is relativist; the other seeks unanimity and is absolutist. The loftiness of their aims justified the idealists in the use of coercion to achieve them, so that, in Dostoevsky’s phrase, beginning in a theory of total liberty they ended in a theory of total despotism.
Fiddlers on the Roof: Some Thoughts on a Special Relationship
Authors: Schoenbaum David
Published: November 2023

Like the terrified horses of Picasso’s Guernica, Chagall’s fiddlers on the roof are among the most familiar and evocative icons of our time. In a century equally notable for Jewish achievement and calamity, the visibility and success of Jewish violinists from Central Europe, Russia, even Odessa alone, lead almost automatically to speculation about a special relationship between Jews and the violin. In fact, the relationship is neither new nor self-evident. But the tangle of legend, nostalgia, and truth that historians have learnt to call the master narrative, has made it seductively easy to assume that it was both.
Introduction: State Capacity in East Asia
Authors: Brødsgaard Kjeld Erik , Young Susan
Published: November 2023

It is often assumed, not least by governments themselves, that the main task facing governments in East Asia is to maintain economic growth and development. But things are not really that simple. Economic development is, by definition, a process of change, and the very success of most of the East Asian countries in achieving economic growth—for, despite the financial problems of the late 1990s, the development of these countries over the last 50 years remains an impressive achievement-presents them with the more complex challenge of coping with rapid social, economic, and political changes in ways that can continue their success in this century.

A key issue in this process is the nature of the state and its relationship to society. Scholars of the state, and indeed politicians and administrators, have been asking what kinds of organization, what institutions, what patterns of interaction between state and society, can enhance a state’s capacity to cope with the challenges facing nation-states today. While many studies of state capacity in Asia focus mainly on economic activity, we believe that the sources, and uses, of state capacity are much broader than that. If the answers to questions about state capacity are to be of any use, they must be grounded on a solid understanding of the forces that shape states, and the actual processes of social interaction through which these forces take effect. The chapters in this volume use a variety of approaches to contribute to this understanding, studying states and state formation in East Asia.
International Migration in Post-Cold War International Relations
Authors: Miller Mark].
Published: November 2023

The dramatic upheavals that have roiled global politics in the late twentieth century have inspired scholarly inquiry germane to the question of prospects for cooperative management of international migration in the future. This literature is extensive, inconclusive, and rarely deals directly with international migration, thereby prolonging a puzzling tradition of neglect of the subject matter by students of international relations and world politics. Nevertheless, this literature sheds important light on phenomena and issues that will shape future cooperative management of international migration.
The Incremental Transformation of the Danish Legislative Elite: The Party System as Prime Mover
Authors: Pedersen Mogens N
Published: November 2023

A parliament was introduced into Danish politics in 1849. Before that time, royal absolutism had allowed only a limited—and controlled—’popular’ participation, and no traditions for representative bodies existed. But since that year, the Folketing has met continually, its activity only briefly interrupted during World War II. Long lines of newcomer-politicians have entered Parliament for their respective parties and have served for a short time or for an extended period. Some moved in and out of the parliamentary ‘career’, others were—or succeeded in being—more faithful servants. A few spent a lifetime in the legislature—the all-time record being fifty years of service. Many put their mark on Danish politics. Their names are still remembered, and their marble bust, a painting, or another memorial may still remind today’s citizens of their existence. Many more have, however, left very few traces apart from their name and scattered pieces of biographical information. But data exist for each and everyone, at least enough to make it possible to trace the development and slow transformation of the collective profile of the Folketing over almost 150 years.
From Political Amateur to Professional Politician and Expert Representative: Parliamentary Recruitment in Finland since 1863
Authors: Ruostetsaari Ilkka
Published: November 2023

Several studies concerning political leaders have indicated that changes in social and economic circumstances caused by industrialization have simultaneously effected the social background and characteristics of political decision-makers. Moreover, different kinds of electoral systems and gradual democratization of the franchise have been seen to cause changes in political leadership (Matthews 1954: 18, 42–3).Thus, the aim of the present study is to find out whether different kinds of changes concerning political, social, and economic development are also reflected in the composition of the Finnish parliamentary elite. We can presume that the effects of variations concerning franchise and electoral system are most strikingly seen when the whole system of representation of the people changes suddenly (Noponen 1964: 18–19). In Finland, preconditions for comparison are excellent because of a dramatic change: by a parliamentary reform in 1906, Finland moved directly from a four-chamber assembly (the Diet) representing the estates-which was the last of its kind in Europe—to themost modern unicameral Parliament in Europe elected by a universal and equal suffrage.
Approaches to invertebrate surveys: posing the questions
Authors: New T R
Published: November 2023

There are several distinct levels for focus in practical conservation and invertebrate surveys. The questions posed may differ substantially both be¬ tween and within each level, and on whether the invertebrates are direct targets for conservation or tools for broader environmental assessment in setting priorities among sites or assemblages. The precise questions addressed must be posed clearly in the planning phase of a study, and examples of these are noted below. In general, the steps needed to organize surveys encompass a sequence from formulating clear objectives to responsible dissemination of results and deposition of the data and specimens accumulated. These are summarized in Table 2.1 (Danks 1996).
Assessing use of sampling methods
Authors: New T R
Published: November 2023

The methods described, or alluded to, in the previous chapters exemplify the great variety of active or passive techniques available to extract invertebrates from natural habitats, and many of the difficulties of quantification or of relying on any single method to provide definitive information. Most groups of invertebrates can thus be collected or sampled more formally by several different methods, and a broad summary (Table 5.1) can act as an initial guide in selecting those of use for a given target group. The innumerable modifications of the methods are eloquent testimony to the difficulties involved, and to the problems of trying to make adequate comparison between different surveys or habitats even when similar methods are used throughout. The methods discussed, used with care, do not destroy the habitats in which they sample, although there are occasional exceptions.
Processing and interpreting invertebrate samples
Authors: New T R
Published: November 2023

Gaining consistent and reliable samples of invertebrates is the first stage in the process of detecting the presence of particular taxa or of interpreting the diversity and ecology of invertebrate assemblages, and many of the subsequent stages pose even greater problems, both in ensuring reliability and in the costs involved. Indeed, simply gaining the samples commonly may be among the cheaper phases of an invertebrate survey. However, some sampling exercises, such as offshore benthic sampling involving ship time over extended periods and utilizing expensive gear, tend to have much higher costs than others (Kingston and Riddle 1984). But, for any field surveys, the costs are clearly wasted unless the material is interpreted and used effectively.
Banach algebras with an involution
Authors: Dales H G
Published: November 2023

There is an additional algebraic operation on an algebra that we have not so far considered for Banach algebras; this is the operation of taking an involution, as defined in 1.10.2. Indeed, we briefly discussed *-algebras in §1.10. We shall now consider Banach and other topological algebras which have an involution.
Geometric Integration
Authors: Sanz-Serna J M
Published: November 2023

“The last decade has seen such a deluge of papers on the numerical solution of the initial value problems for ordinary differential equations that it is quite impracticable to list, far less to summarize, all the contributions.” These are the opening words of J. D. Lambert’s paper [54] in the State of the Art 1976 Conference Proceedings. In spite of such a disclaimer, the paper succeeds in presenting, in less than fifty large-print pages, a unified view of all that, at the time of its writing, was known on numerical initial-value problems (IVP) for ordinary differential equations (ODEs). Ten years later, the subject was just too big and although the State of the Art 1986 Conference [50] featured three ODE speakers (J.D. Lambert, A.R. Curtis and G. Wanner), their combined contributions are very far from surveying all the numerical ODE field.
Symmetric designs
Authors: Anderson Ian
Published: November 2023

In this chapter we look at symmetric designs, studying in particular Hadamard designs and finite projective planes. These are the ‘extreme’ symmetric designs in the sense of Theorem 3.1.2 below. For example, a (7,3,1) design is both a finite projective plane of order 2 and a Hadamard design of order 2; the lower and upper bounds of Theorem 3.1.2 coincide when n = 2. The reason for the name ‘Hadamard design’ is explained in the next section.
Structures of nucleic acid triplexes
Authors: Wang Edmond , Feigon Juli
Published: November 2023

During the past 10 years, interest in triple-stranded nucleic acids (triplexes) has been considerable. Hundreds of research papers have been published on various aspects of triple-stranded nucleic acids: these include studies ranging from stability and sequence requirements to potential biological roles and pharmaceutical uses. Although the idea of triple-stranded nucleic acids (triplexes) seems contemporary, it actually dates back to 1953 when Linus Pauling proposed a three-stranded model for standard DNA that placed the phosphate backbones in the centre of a helix and the bases facing outwards (1,2). This model was considered unlikely for electrostatic reasons, and the correct double-stranded structure was proposed by Watson and Crick (3).
Noncommutative Differential Geometry and the Structure of Space—Time
Authors: Cannes Alain
Published: November 2023

One of the original motivations of noncommutative geometry is to apply geo metric ideas and concepts to spaces which are intractable if considered from the usual set-theoretic ideas of Riemannian geometry. Among the first examples of such spaces are the leaf spaces of foliations or the duals of noncommutative discrete groups. A more recent example comes from number theory and the Riemann zeta function, and allows us to give a spectral interpretation of the critical zeros of that function. One of the difficulties of the subject is to acquire an intuitive idea of the nature of noncommutative spaces. I remember with emotion the talk given by Roger Penrose a few years ago in which he exhibited, showing the superposition of two transparencies representing Penrose tilings, the quantum nature of the space of Penrose tilings of the plane. The point is that even though the space of such tilings is uncountable, any two tilings can be superposed exactly on arbitrarily large portions, thus exhibiting fluctuations very reminiscent of quantum mechanics. The space of Penrose tilings is a prototype of a noncommutative space and it gives me great pleasure to expound the latest developments of noncommutative geometry on the occasion of his birthday.
Space from the Point of View of Loop Groups
Authors: Segal Graeme
Published: November 2023

I feel honoured to be speaking at this meeting to celebrate Roger Penrose’s birthday. I am sure that for all of us Penrose stands out among the people who have thought most deeply and most ingeniously about the nature of space and time. What I am going to talk about is related to ideas which he developed in the sixties, though I shall approach them from a rather different point of view. Early in life most of us fix on a number of lamp-posts under which ever after we look for things; for me these lamp-posts are algebraic topology and the theory of loop groups. My aim in this talk is very modest: I shall try to explain how the study of loop groups can shed some light on the possible properties of space.