bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Prestes, Luís Carlos (1898–1990) and Prestes, Olga Benário (1908–1942)
Authors: Pontes Paula Rodrigues , Pinheiro Diogo L.
Published: September 2017

Luís Carlos Prestes was a Brazilian communist and leader in the movement for democratic reform. Born in Porto Alegre, Brazil on January 3, 1898, Prestes was a central figure in the Tenentismo (lieutenants' movement) demanding greater electoral democracy in Brazil during the first half of the twentieth century. He was married to Olga Benário Prestes, a German revolutionary born Olga Gutmann Benário in Munich on February 12, 1908.
Printing Press and Protest
Authors: Maddern Stacy Warner
Published: September 2017

Well into the mid‐fifteenth century, books remained printed by hand, and were thus harder to obtain. Exposure to books was predominantly a privilege of the wealthy, that is until Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press. Gutenberg was a German metalworker, who had begun the process in the 1440s of making movable type to replace handwritten letters. At the time, Europe began to enter a new age of exploration and scientific discovery in addition to political and religious changes. Gutenberg's invention would certainly revolutionize western culture in ways that would help shape the Renaissance, spread political and ideological change, and encourage revolution. A new and important epoch would be marked by the end of scribes and the dawn of mass printing.
Puerto Rican Independence Movement, 1898‐present
Authors: Staudenmaier Michael
Published: September 2017

For more than a century the movement for independence from the United States has been a prominent feature of political life among Puerto Ricans. The uniqueness of the movement relative to other nationalist efforts lies partly in the way Puerto Rico straddles North America and Latin America: it is a Caribbean island sharing common historical and cultural roots with the former colonies that make up the vast territory of Spanish‐speaking Latin America, but those paths diverged after the Treaty of Paris in 1898 ceded control of the island from Spain to the United States. The subsequent diaspora, which eventually resulted in a situation where half of all Puerto Ricans live in the US, has only added to the complexity. As a result, the Puerto Rican independence movement has long synthesized a set of disparate elements more commonly associated with protest struggles in the United States or with revolutionary efforts in Latin America.
Pugachev's Rebellion, 1773–1775
Authors: Bosin Yury V.
Published: September 2017

Under the rule of Catherine the Great, Russia was rapidly modernizing as the Russian elite embraced western technological advances, fashions, food, and art, at great financial cost to the entire country. Landowners increased the tax burdens on their serfs to counterbalance their expensive standard of living. Peasants in turn engaged in mass protests and rebellions through escaping, rioting, and engaging in insurrections against the aristocracy. From 1762 to 1772, some 160 popular uprisings were recorded in the Russian empire, but the profligate ruling classes were not prepared for the fierce rise in peasant discontent that ignited Pugachev's Rebellion from 1773 to 1775. The peasant uprising was sparked by a rumor that Peter III, the grandson of Peter the Great, had escaped assassination in 1763 and was living in hiding among the Cossacks on the Yaik River, renamed the Ural River in the aftermath of the rebellion.
Puig Antich, Salvador (1948–1974)
Authors: Beaulieu Yannick , Guirao Garcia
Published: September 2017

Catalan anarchist Salvador Puig Antich was part of the military branch of a small revolutionary organization called the Movimento Ibérico de Liberación/Grupos autónomos de combate (Iberian Liberation Movement/Autonomous Combat Groups) (MIL/GAC). He participated in bank robberies (“expropriations”) meant to finance clandestine propaganda and support striking workers. After a series of such robberies, in September 1973 Puig Antich and comrade Xavier Garriga were ambushed by police; in the melee, Puig Antich was injured and deputy inspector Francisco Anguas Barragán was shot to death. There are still different explanations of what happened at that time; independent researchers suggest the policeman died from shots fired both by his own colleagues and by Puig Antich. Before the tribunal took place, however, the prime minister was assassinated by Basque ETA (Euzkadi Ta Askatasuna) separatists, and subsequent desire for revenge on the part of the authorities, together with a summary military trial, full of irregularities, produced two death sentences. Despite an international solidarity movement against Puig Antich's death penalty, he was executed by garrote on March 2, 1974, setting off protests and strikes in Barcelona, foreshadowing the end of the Franco dictatorship in 1975.
Qiu Jin (1875–1907)
Authors: Greene J. Megan
Published: September 2017

Qiu Jin is the best‐known woman revolutionary of the late Qing period in China. The last several decades of the Qing, from the 1870s to 1911, were a period in which China's weakness vis–à‐vis foreign powers became increasingly evident, and in response many young Chinese began looking for ways to strengthen the nation. Born in 1875 in Fujian province, Qiu Jin grew up during this tumultuous time in Zhejiang province, not far from the growing cosmopolitan city of shanghai. she was married young in an arranged marriage and had two children, but in 1904, having, like many other young Chinese, developed a strong feeling of Chinese nationalism in response to the Boxer Uprising, she abandoned her husband and children and traveled to Japan to study.
Québécois Revolutionary Nationalism
Authors: Palmer Bryan D.
Published: September 2017

Quebec, Canada's French‐speaking, largely Catholic province, had not, in the long post‐Confederation history of the country, exhibited much in the way of revolutionary ferment. It harbored radicals, of course, among them members of the Communist Party of Canada and the social democratic Cooperative Commonwealth Federation. Anarchists were as evident in Montreal as they were in other metropolitan Canadian centers, but they were by no means a major political force. The province had long been governed by fairly conventional and often quite conservative political forces; Maurice Duplessis and his Union Nationale Party in the 1930s and 1940s are indicative of the ways in which the Quebec state, aligned with the clergy, brokered an arrangement within Canadian federalism. This ceded to the Ottawa‐based centralized federal government the power to charter national economic policy, while the local Quebec state controlled the hegemonic institutions of everyday life, among them those bodies that ordered educational, legal, cultural, and religious activities. As a consequence Quebec remained, into the 1950s, a bastion of traditionalism, with church and state linked and the influence of the countryside and its parishes evident in ways that would have seemed quite antiquated elsewhere in Canada.
Quintín Lame, 1980s
Authors: Mestizo Tathiana Montaña
Published: September 2017

In 1974 in the south of Colombia, an indigenous peasant group known as Quintín Lame (CQL) emerged. This group, which received military training from the Marxist‐Leninist Communist Party (PC‐ML), was formed after the killing of regional indigenous leaders in Cauca by repressive forces of the state and large landowners. The CQL was thus constituted as a military selfdefense group. Thanks to an organization created years earlier by the indigenous leader Manuel Quintín Lame (1880–1967), the group had the support of many indigenous communities in the region of the Valle del Cauca, Huila, Tolima, and parts of the departments of Meta and Caquetá.
Randolph, A. Philip (1889–1979)
Authors: Wilson Joseph
Published: September 2017

A. Philip Randolph was the most influential African American labor leader in the twentieth century. He was the founding president of the all‐black Brotherhood of sleeping Car Porters (BsCP) industrial union, established in 1925 after years of organizing efforts.
R
anters
Authors: Morley Ian
Published: September 2017

The Ranters were a fervently religious radical utopian organization in England from the 1640s to the mid–1650s drawn together by a common revulsion for the dominant puritanical values of the country. At their peak the Ranters had several thousand commoners scattered throughout urban and rural England. Unlike other utopian movements where members collectively work toward a common objective within a rigidly organized structure, the Ranters comprised numerous people unified by a common passion of aversion to the dominant society.
Rap and Hip Hop Music as Social Protest
Authors: Kajikawa Loren Y.
Published: September 2017

From its birth in 1970s New York to the present day, rap or hip hop music has evolved from a local practice to a complex global phenomenon affecting the lives of millions. The label “rap music” alone has limited meaning since the genre encompasses a wide spectrum of expression from the explicitly political to the seemingly apathetic. Accordingly, there are multiple ways musicians, fans, and scholars conceive of rap music as social protest: as part of a culture that transformed New York's ghettos; as music that provides listeners with a resistant cultural sensibility; as popular culture capable of conveying subversive content; as a legacy of the civil rights movement; and as the cultural glue of a nascent political coalition.
Raspail, François‐Vincent (1794–1878)
Authors: Bailey Melanie A.
Published: September 2017

Although known as much for his contributions to natural science and medicine as for his revolutionary political activities, François‐Vincent Raspail determinedly sought to establish and consolidate a republican regime in France. Despite suffering poor health and reduced economic circumstances due to time spent in jail for opposing non‐republican regimes, Raspail continued to pursue the betterment of living conditions for his fellow citizens into the final years of his life.
Razin's Rebellion, 1670–1671
Authors: Bosin Yury V.
Published: September 2017

Razin's Rebellion occurred in 1670–1 along the lower Don River in southern Russia in a heterogeneous community dominated by Cossacks, but also including runaway serfs who were considered fugitives. The Cossacks did not practice agriculture but lived off tribute levied on merchants passing along the Volga. The Russian government was interested in the Cossacks as a military force to guard the southern frontier, tolerating their freedom and
de facto
independence in the Don River region and even providing economic assistance and financial allowances.
Read, Patrick Joseph (1899–1947)
Authors: Bekken Jon , White Matt
Published: September 2017

Patrick Joseph Read was active in radical and syndicalist movements in Canada, France, Ireland, spain, and the United states, serving on the executive committee of the Communist Party of Ireland and for many years as editor of the Industrial Workers of the World's (IWW)
Industrial Worker.
Born on a ship sailing from Dublin to London on February 25, 1899, Patrick Read lived with his family in London and then Liverpool until 1912, when they moved to Canada. When his parents returned to Britain in 1915, Read stayed behind. soon thereafter he joined the One Big Union of Canada, later enlisting in the Canadian army and serving on the Western Front. In 1919 he joined the IWW.
Red summer, United states, 1919
Authors: Neeno Timothy M.
Published: September 2017

In the summer and fall of 1919, mass rioting broke out in 26 Us cities, including Chicago, Illinois (July 27–August 2), Omaha, Nebraska (september 28), and Longview, Texas (July 10–18). serious rioting also occurred that year in Washington, DC; Norfolk, Virginia; Knoxville, Tennessee; and Elaine, Arkansas. James Weldon Johnson dubbed the violence, which included at least 76 lynchings and 25 race riots, “Red summer” for the blood that was shed by African Americans who were attacked throughout the country. This rioting must be seen in context of the growing tensions brought on by the “Great Migration” of southern blacks to Northern cities, the rising expectations and disappointments of the World War I years, and the birth of the more assertive “New Negro.”
Reitman, Benjamin (1879–1942)
Authors: Echeverría Darius V.
Published: September 2017

Although Benjamin Lewis Reitman often made headlines with his activism on behalf of the homeless, he probably came to the attention of more Americans because of his passionate decadelong relationship with universally known labor and women's rights activist Emma Goldman. As a practicing licensed physician, Dr. Reitman was fiercely independent‐minded with unorthodox methods, which guided his principles to do what he deemed necessary. In doing so, he sought to support the underprivileged, prostitutes, and additional societal “outcasts.” As a birth control advocate and champion of the prevention of venereal disease, Reitman was uncompromisingly concerned about the welfare of women in seemingly abject circumstances.
Riot Grrl
Authors: McKee Michael
Published: September 2017

Originating in the Pacific Northwest and Washington, DC in the early 1990s, the Riot Grrl (or Riot Grrrl) movement centered around a radical feminism and do‐it‐yourself ethic, drawing on the cultural traditions of the punk rock and independent underground while challenging the sexism and homophobia entrenched within those subcultures. Despite a swift ascendance and distortion in the mainstream media, Riot Grrl embraced a multitude of varying, and sometimes conflicting, voices via bands such as Bikini Kill, Bratmobile, Team Dresch, Heavens to Betsy, Excuse 17, and Huggybear, as well as fanzines like
Girl Germs, Jigsaw, Gunk
, and
Chainsaw
. The name Riot Grrl (or Grrrl) can be attributed to
Red Rover
zinester Jen smith, who reacted to race riots in the Mt. Pleasant neighborhood of Washington, DC in 1991 by calling for a “girl riot” in the coming summer. Her wording was eventually fused with a phrase culled from
Jigsaw
fanzine (published out of Olympia, Washington, by Tobi Vail), “angry grrls,” to name the nascent movement.
Robespierre, Maximilien de (1758–1794)
Authors: Marik Soma
Published: September 2017

Maximilien Robespierre was the most important leader of the French Revolution during its most radical phase, and therefore arguably the most important historical figure of the Revolution in its entirety. As the principal organizer of the political party that dominated the Convention and created the Jacobin Republic in 1793–4, his was the guiding hand in the Revolution's most deeply transformative events. For the most part, however, his historical reputation has not been that of a revered revolutionary hero. The conservative Thermidorians who overthrew him condemned him as a dictatorial tyrant, and successfully transmitted that image of Robespierre to later generations. One positive aspect of his reputation survived, however. Robespierre had been widely known as “the Incorruptible” and even the Thermidorians were unable to refute that characterization.
R
odríguez,
S
ilvio (
b
. 1946)
Authors: González Benjamín Anaya
Published: September 2017

The most influential songwriter of the Nueva Trova Cubana (Cuban New song), Silvio Rodríguez Domínguez was born November 26, 1946 in san Antonio de Los Baños, Cuba. The triumph of the Cuban Revolution (1959) led to improvements in arts and education, and Rodríguez, who had served in the military from 1964 to 1967, played an important role after being invited by Mario Romeu, former director of the Cuban Institute of Broadcasting, to appear in the popular TV program
Música y Estrellas
(Music and stars). As he sailed around the Atlantic and Africa in 1969, he composed 62 songs, among them “Playa Girón” and “Ojalá.”
Rosselli, Carlo (1899–1937)
Authors: Cherubini Donatella
Published: September 2017

An Italian intellectual, economist, journalist, and political leader, Carlo Rosselli was committed to the anti‐fascist struggle in Italy and in the Spanish Civil War. A leading political theorist of liberal socialism, Rosselli was killed by fascist assassins.
R
oy,
M
anabendra
N
ath (1887–1954)
Authors: Chattopadhyay Kunal
Published: September 2017

Manabendra Nath Roy was an Indian revolutionary nationalist, communist, and radical humanist, born Narendranath Bhattacharyya, on March 21, 1887. Influenced by the Anti‐Bengal Partition Movement, he joined the struggle for national liberation, entering the militant wing, and attempting to organize an armed uprising against British rule in India. He became a follower of the legendary Jatindranath Mukherjee or Bagha Jatin (“tiger” Jatin). The duo were arrested and kept imprisoned for a year during the Howrah‐Sibpur Conspiracy Case in 1910–11. They planned for an all‐India uprising and contacts abroad.
Russia, Revolution of February/March 1917
Authors: Mandel David
Published: September 2017

The February Revolution overthrew the absolute monarchy of Tsar Nicolas I. (The Julian calendar then used in Russia was 13 days behind the Gregorian calendar used in most other countries. By the Gregorian calendar, which the Soviet government later adopted on January 31, 1918, the revolution occurred in March. All dates here follow the Julian calendar.) It was followed only eight months later by another revolution that led to the overthrow of capitalism.
S
áenz,
M
anuela (1795–1856)
Authors: Fischer‐Hoffman Cory
Published: September 2017

Manuela Sáenz, an important leader in the struggle for independence in the Five Republics of Central America, was born on December 27, 1795 in Quito. She was the illegitimate child of a wealthy Spanish noble, Simón Sáenz, and a Quiteña aristocrat, Joaquina Aizpuro. She spent most of her childhood hidden on her maternal grandmother's hacienda (in Catahuango) and at the Monastery of Santa Catalina. While at the hacienda, she lived alongside Jonathán and Nathan, two enslaved girls who were her only playmates; they were also active in independence movements and accompanied Sáenz through her adulthood and until her death. At the monastery she learned to read and write in Spanish and English.
S
artre,
J
ean‐
P
aul (1905–1980)
Authors: Han Jin H.
Published: September 2017

Jean‐Paul Sartre, French philosopher of existentialism, was a proponent of the radical freedom of individual human beings. In his first novel,
Nausea (La Nausée
, 1938), he described the human experience of being troubled by the material nature of human existence. During the German occupation, his reflection on the problem of freedom and action was presented through plays including
The Flies (Les Mouches
, 1943) and
No Exit (Huis‐Clos
, 1944). In his later writings, he brought his earlier interest in history to the foreground and sought to charter the path that humanity could take to embrace freedom and seek political justice.
Schill, Ferdinand Baptista von (1776–1809)
Authors: Mustafa Sam A.
Published: September 2017

Entering the Prussian army in his adolescence, Ferdinand von Schill was a second lieutenant of dragoons during the disastrous 1806 campaign against Napoleon. He was nearly killed at the battle of Auerstädt (October 14, 1806), but escaped to form a
Freikorps
(a semi‐autonomous raiding/guerilla force) based in the Baltic port of Kolberg, where Prussian remnants held out under siege for the rest of the war. His exploits behind French lines became legendary. Promoted and decorated for his heroics during that campaign, Schill, now a major, became arguably the most celebrated cavalier in Prussia and probably northern Germany: the subject of dozens of pamphlets, folk songs, and paraphernalia.
Science and Revolution
Authors: Conner Clifford D.
Published: September 2017

Does science have anything to do with revolutions? Or do revolutions have anything to do with science? If there is a connection between the two, they probably meet up somewhere in the vicinity of the idea of human progress, which took a big hit in the twentieth century, what with the two world wars, the Holocaust, the dropping of atomic bombs on heavily populated cities, and the like. But although it is difficult to sustain a claim for moral progress, there are certain areas of human experience in which progress is undeniable.
Scottsboro Resistance
Authors: Hatmaker Amy
Published: September 2017

In 1931 a groundswell of international opposition was raised against the convictions and sentences of nine black youths, aged 13 to 20, in Scottsboro, Alabama. The case, which would involve seven trials and two Supreme Court hearings before its conclusion, was a cause that garnered support from the Communist Party, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), and the Commission on Interracial Cooperation (CIC). The Scottsboro Resistance was critical in its attempt to create global solidarity between races. Further, the actions would become a model for the civil rights movements of the 1960s.
Secchia, Pietro (1903–1973)
Authors: Pesi Emmanuel
Published: September 2017

Pietro Secchia was a prestigious leader of the Italian Communist Party (PCI) and the Italian Resistance. He was born in Biella on December 19, 1903 and joined the Socialist Party at the early age of 16, getting into contact with the Ordine Nuovo group; in 1921 he joined the newly founded PCI. He took leading roles only after Mussolini's rise to power: in 1928 he rose to the Central Committee, and in 1930 to the head of the communist underground in Italy. But in 1931 he was arrested and sentenced to 17 years' imprisonment. Released in August 1943, he went to Milan, where, with Luigi Longo (1900–80), he helped to organize the Resistance and the partisan brigades named after Garibaldi that were under communist influence; as their political commissar, Secchia played a crucial role in the Italian Resistance.
Senegal, Anti‐Neoliberal Protests
Authors: Adeniran Adebusuyi I.
Published: September 2017

Senegal and French Sudan jointly declared independence from France on June 20, 1960, together creating the Mali Federation. Senegal then gained complete independence on August 20, 1960, with Léopold (Sédar) Senghor as its first president. Amidst persistent protests (especially from workers and students) occasioned by scorching economic decline and unrelenting insistence on political reforms from the people, Senghor relinquished power in 1980 and his prime minister, Abdou Diouf, assumed the presidency on the platform of the Parti Socialiste (PS). Aside from the immediate challenges posed by the secessionist group Mouvement des Forces Démocratiques de la Casamance (MFDC) from the southern part of the country, Diouf's government had to contend with escalating public unrest engendered by student disorder and a sustained sequence of workers' strikes.
Settimana Rossa
Authors: Bertolucci Franco
Published: September 2017

Settimana Rossa (Red Week) is the name given to the anti‐militaristic insurrectional movement that broke out in Italy from June 7 to 13, 1914, demonstrating the political sentiment of the country's popular masses in the months before the start of World War I and the subsequent intervention (May 1915) of Italy into the war.
Shipboard Insurrections in the Atlantic Slave Trade
Authors: Taylor Eric Robert
Published: September 2017

Beginning with the first Portuguese expeditions down the West African coast in the 1440s and stretching more than 400 years into the midnineteenth century, the Atlantic slave trade was one of the defining events in world history. During these four centuries, tens of millions of Africans were forcibly transported by ship to toil in the homes, mines, shops, and plantations of the slaveholding aristocracy throughout the western hemisphere. This seaborne experience–the Middle Passage, as the voyage to the Americas has become known–is well documented. Its horrors are widely known. Substantially less understood, however, is the degree to which the African captives engaged in various forms of resistance during the Middle Passage and the effect that their resistance had on minimizing, limiting, and ultimately helping to end the slave trade once and for all.
S
lovakia, 1944 Uprising
Authors: Kirschbaum Stanislav J.
Published: September 2017

Organized resistance to the Slovak Republic during World War II reached its peak with military and partisan activities that began on August 29, 1944 and lasted for nearly two months. These events, known as the 1944 Uprising, brought about the end of Slovak statehood and the reintegration of Slovakia into Czechoslovakia after the war.
Social Democratic Party,
G
ermany
Authors: Cox John M.
Published: September 2017

The Social Democratic Party of Germany (Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands, SPD) was founded in 1875. Its original leaders included such prominent Marxist theoreticians and activists as Ferdinand Lassalle, Wilhelm Liebknecht, and August Bebel.
Socialist Party,UnitedStates
Authors: Buzby Amy
Published: September 2017

The Socialist Party of America (SPA) was founded in 1901 when Morris Hillquit and Job Harriman's “Kangaroo” faction within the De Leonite Socialist Labor Party joined with Eugene V. Debs, Victor Berger, and a faction of their Social Democracy of America. Social Democracy of America had originally possessed the goal of establishing a cooperative commonwealth, but this goal was controversial and led the organization to split. Against the demands of those who sought a colony, a political action wing emerged which sought to strive for socialism by engaging political organization and working within the established electoral process. The Kangaroo faction similarly split with the De Leonites because of a desire to prevent the divisive competition and isolation of dual unionism and the desire to prevent a strong centralized control of all party press. These two factions thus united out of a desire to establish a united political party that would allow for greater expression, sweeping organization, and focus on national electoral success. In 1900, before the unification of the party, the combined factions ran their first joint presidential ticket of Debs and Harriman, garnering a scant 96,951 votes.
Socialist Workers' Party of
G
ermany (Sozialistische Arbeiterpartei Deutschlands)
Authors: Nautz Jürgen
Published: September 2017

Two left‐wing parties were named the Socialist Workers' Party of Germany (Sozialistische Arbeiterpartei Deutschlands). The first–SAPD–was a nineteenth‐century precursor to the Social Democratic Party of Germany (Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands, SPD), while the second–SAP–was formed by a breakaway faction of the SPD in the 1930s.
S
ofri,
A
driano (b. 1942)
Authors: Stampacchia Mauro
Published: September 2017

Adriano Sofri was the founder of the autonomist Lotta Continua (the Struggle Continues), a radical and militant political group that mirrored and voiced the political unrest of the Italian 1970s. Years after the group dissolved, Sofri was accused of being the instigator of police officer Luigi Calabresi's 1972 assassination, and after a long and controversial trial he was found guilty. However, he is regarded as innocent by many.
Solidarność (Solidarity)
Authors: Kubik Jan
Published: September 2017

Polish Solidarity was arguably the biggest social movement in history. In 1981, at the peak of its influence, about ten million people belonged to the “Solidarity” Independent Self‐Governing Trade Union (Niezalezny Samoradny Zwiazek Zawodowy “Solidarność”), the movement's primary organizational vehicle. Many others participated in allied organizations and informal networks of sympathizers. In a country of about 33 million almost every second adult was associated with Solidarity, including many members of the ruling Communist Party (Polish United Workers' Party, PUWP). Solidarity emerged as the gravest organized popular challenge the Soviet‐dominated system of state socialism ever faced and is often seen as a key factor in the downfall of communism.
Steinem, Gloria (b. 1934)
Authors: Knight Louise W.
Published: September 2017

Gloria Steinem is among the most well‐known twentieth‐century US feminists. A writer, speaker, and grassroots organizer, she is also the cofounder of eight national organizations. In her view, patriarchy, a relatively late arrival in the history of mankind, was the model for the hierarchies of race, ethnicity, monotheism, class, and sexuality.
Students for a Democratic Society (SDS)
Authors: Tirelli Vincent
Published: September 2017

In 1960 the leaders of the reformist‐oriented Student League for Industrial Democracy (SLID) decided to change the name of the organization to Students for a Democratic Society (SDS). By the end of the decade SDS would become the largest, most influential student political group in the United States, its members organizing and protesting against poverty and racism, and notoriously resisting the war in Vietnam and US imperialism. SDS was a central force in the growth of the New Left in the US, and, like the movement of which it was a part, it was full of contradictions and turmoil.
Sudanese Protest under Anglo‐Egyptian Rule
Authors: Taha Fadwa
Published: September 2017

The Anglo‐Egyptian invasion of Sudan in 1896–8 toppled the Mahdist revolution, which had occurred in 1885. The British and the Egyptians consolidated their power through the Condominium Agreement of 1899, which created a theoretical dualism. It named the territory south of the 22nd parallel the Anglo‐Egyptian Sudan, technically restoring Egypt's control over the region. Even so, it left the British actually in control of the region until after 1924, at which point they took sole charge. Of course, the Sudanese resisted this dual imperialism.
Sukarno (1901–1970)
Authors: Waskey Andrew J.
Published: September 2017

Sukarno (Soekarno) is the only name of the first president of Indonesia. He was an active member of the struggle for independence from Dutch colonial rule.
Torres Restrepo, Camilo (1929–1966)
Authors: Brett Edward T.
Published: September 2017

Camilo Torres Restrepo was born into an upper‐class family from Bogotá, Colombia on February 3, 1929. After studying law at the Universidad Nacional in Bogotá, he entered the seminary to study for the Catholic priesthood. Following his ordination in 1954, he was sent to the Pontifical Roman Catholic University of Louvain in Belgium to do graduate work in political science and sociology. After earning a licentiate, he returned to Colombia where he co‐founded the sociology faculty with Orlando Fals Borda at the Universidad Nacional in Bogotá and served as national chaplain of the university student movement. During this time he also worked with various popular organizations devoted to social justice, especially agrarian reform.
Toussaint Louverture and the Haitian Revolution, 1796–1799
Authors: King Alexander
Published: September 2017

Political developments in revolutionary France naturally ran up against a solid front of rejection from neighboring European monarchies. This rejection became all the more uncompromising with the increasing radicalization of the revolutionary process leading up to the proclaiming of the Republic. During the trial of the deposed King Louis XVI before the National Convention, which led to his execution in January 1793, the hostilities in Europe intensified until the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars beginning in 1792. On February 1, 1793 France declared war on Britain, which had taken the leadership position among the monarchist opponents of the Revolution. Then on March 7, 1793 France declared war on Spain. France was now engaged in war on several fronts: internally against the counterrevolution, at its borders against the hostile European powers, and in the Caribbean for its colonies. In 1793 both Spain and Britain took advantage of the turmoil that had befallen the colony of Saint‐Domingue and attempted to take this potentially lucrative colony away from France.
Tuareg Uprising, Niger
Authors: Adeniran Adebusuyi I.
Published: September 2017

The Tuaregs are a traditionally pastoral, nomadic ethnic group found mainly in parts of west and north Africa. Across the ages, the Tuaregs have proved themselves as respected “masters of war.” Their contemporary decline in proficiency in militarized warfare is, however, traceable to the modernization of military artifacts, to which they do not presently have significant access. Since the sixteenth century, most of the Tuaregs have adopted Sunni Islam and identifiable aspects of the traditional beliefs of their religion(s).
Tunisia, Protests under Ottoman (Bey) Rule to 1881
Authors: Lucien Arnaud
Published: September 2017

The government of the Bey dynasty in Tunisia, in power from the seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries, originated in protest against Turkish hegemony as the regional janissary corps of the Ottoman empire sought autonomy and local administration over the province.
Urban rebellions, United States
Authors: Dubie Sven
Published: September 2017

American cities have been centers of social and political ferment since they first emerged in the seventeenth century. With greater regularity than is commonly known, they have been the site of a wide range of disturbances that have been variously referred to as riots, civil disorders, mob actions, insurrections, and uprisings. Indeed, depending on how one defines any given disturbance of the peace – be it a genuine uprising against the established authority, a mob action directed at a particular individual or group of people, or a rowdy group of sports fans venting their joy or frustration – the list could be practically limitless. However, in the twentieth century, and especially during the half‐century following the end of World War II, a particular manifestation of unrest known as an urban rebellion became one of the most common – and certainly the best known – examples of civil disorder in the history of the United States.
Vallès, Jules (1832–1885)
Authors: Nematollahy Ali
Published: September 2017

Whether as novelist, journalist, or politician, Jules Vallès' life and work were always characterized by revolt against authority and authoritarian institutions. One can even say that his revolt went as far as a total rejection of the life of his time: the family, the school system, the asylum, therevolutionitself, which can become an authority and demand unconditional sacrifice on the part of the individual. His rebellion was not theoretical and doctrinaire, but visceral, a kind of anarchism of the heart, which prompted him to keep a distance from all the revolutionary movements of the nineteenth century. Vallès' trilogy of novels,L'Enfant, Le Bachelier, andL'Insurgéare probably the best biographical sources of a writer for whom literature and life were inextricably connected and intertwined.
Velasco Alvarado, Juan Francisco (1910–1977)
Authors: Gabriel Cabrera M.
Published: September 2017

Juan Francisco Velasco Alvarado was a Peruvian military leader and politician who led the Revolutionary Government of the Armed Forces in Peru during its first phase (1968–75). He instituted economic, social, political, and cultural reforms of an anti‐oligarchic and anti‐imperialistic nature with the aim of democratizing Peruvian society and encouraging modernization. Although this process was interrupted, many of the transformations initiated by Velasco became irreversible and changed the face of the country.
Velázquez, Francisco José (1884–1954)
Authors: Sergi Vittorio
Published: September 2017

Francisco José Múgica Velázquez was born in Tingüindín, Michoacán, on September 3, 1884. He was a military leader in the Mexican Revolution on the Constitutional side against Porfirio Díaz and Victoriano Huerta. As a politician, he was oriented to socialism and to the defense of national sovereignty.
Velvet Revolution, 1989
Authors: Kirschbaum Stanislav J.
Published: September 2017

There are two names given to the events of November‐December 1989 that brought about the collapse of the communist regime of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic. “Velvet Revolution” is the name that the Czechs give these events and that is used in the West. There are many theories about the origin of the term; what is known is that it was used by a journalist after the first demonstrations and that it gained international currency thereafter. In Slovakia, on the other hand, from the very beginning these events have always been referred to as the “Gentle Revolution.”
Venezuela, Exclusionary Democracy and Resistance, 1958–1998
Authors: Wilpert Gregory , Azzellini Dario
Published: September 2017

Venezuela's democratic era can be divided into three distinct periods. The first represents its economic glory days, from the end of its last dictatorship in 1958 to the height of its oil boom years in 1978. The second period, which lasted from 1979 to 1998, was marked by decline and by popular reactions in the form of constant protests, an uprising, and two military rebellions, as well as state repression of these popular reactions. The third period is the era of the Hugo Chávez presidency, which began with his assuming office in 1999.
V
enezuela, MBR–200 and the Military Uprisings of 1992
Authors: Azzellini Dario , Wilpert Gregory
Published: September 2017

Founded in December 1982, the Revolutionary Bolivarian Army 200 (EBR–200), later renamed Revolutionary Bolivarian Movement 200 (MBR–200), was a clandestine civil‐military organization with the goal of overthrowing the government and building a more just system. Founding members Hugo Chávez Frías, Yoel Acosta Chirinos, and Jesús Urdaneta Hernández symbolically swore a Bolivarian oath under the same tree
(Samán de Güere)
, where Simón Bolívar is said to have rested. The organization worked intensively against social injustice and corruption within the political system of Venezuela. They were inspired by Simón Bolívar, Ezequiel Zamora, and Simón Rodríguez. They were also influenced by Jean‐Jacques Rousseau, especially his radical democratic ideas. MBR–200 was finally dissolved before the elections in 1998 and integrated into the Movimiento V República (MVR).
V
enezuela, Military Uprisings, 1960–1962
Authors: Azzellini Dario
Published: September 2017

The beginning of the 1960s in Venezuela was marked by general discontent with the results of the overthrow of dictator Marcos Pérez Jiménez. The bourgeois parties, entrepreneurs, Catholic Church, and high‐ranking military officials had agreed to share power and had excluded the Communist Party and the leftist and progressive forces which had played a crucial role in the struggle against Pérez Jiménez. Since 1957, the revolutionary left had begun to infiltrate the army and form the Frente Militar de Carrera, a clandestine organization.
V
enezuela, Solidarity Economy, Social Property, Co‐Management, and Workers' Control
Authors: Azzellini Dario
Published: September 2017

When Hugo Chávez assumed the presidency in 1999, Venezuela was in a serious longstanding crisis. Capital flight and deindustrialization had led to the closure of thousands of production sites since the early 1980s. The goal became to diversify the production of the largely oil‐dependent economy, begin the further processing of natural resources, and transform as much property and means of production as possible into collective forms of ownership and management. Beyond the oil revenue, the prospects looked bleak as the new government set out to build what it defined as a “humanistic and solidarity economy,” putting Venezuela on the path to a “socialism of the twenty‐first century.” Democracy was central to this agenda.
Venezuelan War of Independence
Authors: Ullrich Jan
Published: September 2017

Venezuela's War of Independence (1811–21) was one of many Latin American revolutionary uprisings between 1810 and 1825 that brought three centuries of colonial domination by the Spanish monarchy to an end. An aspiring Creole social and economic elite, tired of the political domination of the royalist aristocracy and inspired by the conflictive transformations in Europe at that time, realized the vulnerability of the Spanish monarchy and rose to play a fundamental role in developing a republican movement in Venezuela. Certainly the War of Independence profoundly changed Venezuelan society when the Congress of Cucutá founded the independent Great Columbian Republic in 1821. Whether or not the Venezuelan process of independence was also a social revolution remains the object of historical disputes and ideological conflicts today.
Vietnam, Protest and Second Indochina War, 1960–1974
Authors: Hémery Daniel
Published: September 2017

The first regional effect of the compromise of Geneva was the push to neutrality and non‐alignment encouraged by China, which feared the installation of US military bases in Indochina. This impetus quickly weakened, except in Cambodia, where the government remained neutral for a decade under Prince Sihanouk, who seized power in 1960. Sihanouk fought American influence with Chinese support, tolerating the establishment of Vietnamese communist bases at the border of South Vietnam until the pro‐American coup d'état of 1970. The US‐backed coup ended Cambodia's capacity to restrain the action of the Khmer communists.
Walker, David (1785–1830)
Authors: Tomek Beverly
Published: September 2017

David Walker is often cited as one of the first militants in the African American anti‐slavery and civil rights struggle. Born in Wilmington, NC, to a free mother and an enslaved father, and thus free himself, he gained literacy and read extensively on the topics of resistance and revolution. After growing up witnessing the horrors of slavery first hand, including an incident in which a slave was forced to whip his mother until she died, he left the South and eventually settled in Boston, where he opened a used clothing store in the 1820s. While in Boston he made friends with a number of other black activists and became an agent and contributor for the country's first African American newspaper, the New York‐based
Freedom's Journal
.
Walter, Nicolas (1934–2000)
Authors: Boal Iain A.
Published: September 2017

Nicolas Walter was a third generation anarchist and son of Grey Walter, the pioneer of cybernetics and brain science. As a working journalist, translator, broadcaster, lecturer, and editor long associated with
Freedom
and the Rationalist Press, Walter was a central figure in Britain's atheist and anarchist circles. Blanqui's motto “Ni dieu ni maître” was the lodestar that oriented Walter's prolific output of pamphlets, prefaces, reviews, translations, and essays.
Wang Ming (1904–1974)
Authors: Pantsov Alexander V.
Published: September 2017

Wang Ming, whose real name was Chen Shaoyu, was among the important early leaders of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). He was born on May 23, 1904 in the town of Jinzhai, Liuan (now Jinzhai) County, Anhui Province. In 1924 Wang graduated from Liuan Agricultural College and entered the preparatory department of Wuchang University of Commerce. In 1924 he joined the Chinese Socialist Youth League, and the following year both the Chinese Communist Party and the Guomindang (Nationalist Party). He worked in the Propaganda Department of the Hubei Provincial Guomindang Committee.
Webb, Sidney (1859–1947) and Beatrice (1858–1943)
Authors: Poole Andrea Geddes
Published: September 2017

Sidney and Beatrice Webb were social reformers, influential early members of the Fabian Society, and principal founders of both the London School of Economics and the
New Statesman
. Their writings on trade unionism, the cooperative movement, labor history, and local government had a considerable effect on contemporary political theory and practice. Theirs was, on the face of it, an unlikely partnership. Beatrice Potter Webb was the daughter of a wealthy businessman. Sidney Webb, in contrast, was the son of a London shopkeeper. Their intellectual partnership, however, was productive. They married in 1892 and for the next 50 years jointly worked toward creating a science of society.
W
ilkes,
J
ohn (1725–1797) and the “Wilkes and Liberty” Movement
Authors: Kelly Jason M.
Published: September 2017

John Wilkes, the son of a Clerkenwell distiller, played a central role in the development of English radicalism during the reign of George III. Wilkes was responsible for prompting several controversies that brought an end to the “general warrant” in England as well as a reassessment of the concepts
of habeas corpus
, due process, and freedom of the press. Wilkes's mother was a wealthy heiress of a tanner, and it is largely due to her inheritance that Wilkes received a boarding school education in Hertford. In 1744, his family sent him to the University of Leiden, but he left in 1746 without taking a degree, a common practice among the eighteenth‐century elite.
Williams, Eric (1911–1981)
Authors: Jooste Rhayn Garrick
Published: September 2017

Eric Eustace Williams was prime minister of Trinidad and Tobago from 1956 to 1981, and an anti‐imperialist historian who outlined a divergent theory of social development based on economics and the dynamics of slavery, based particularly on racial exploitation and the accumulated concentration of capital giving rise to modern capitalism.
Williams, Robert F. (1925–1996)
Authors: Edge Thomas
Published: September 2017

Robert F. Williams was an African American civil rights activist whose tactics challenged some widely held notions of the origins of Black Power and the nature of the Southern civil rights movement. He was born on February 26, 1925 in Monroe, North Carolina. His first taste of activism came during World War II, when he worked in Detroit with Local 600 of the United Automobile Workers of America, CIO. Between 1944 and 1955, Williams served stints in the Army and the Marines, attended three different colleges, and sought work outside the South to relocate his family. By 1955, Williams returned to Monroe and became president of the local chapter of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP).
W
ollstonecraft,
M
ary (1759–1797)
Authors: Finley‐Bowman Rachel
Published: September 2017

Mary Wollstonecraft was an author, educator, and journalist whose influential work
A Vindication of the Rights of Woman
(1792) became the foundation of modern rights‐based feminism. She championed equal education for women and equality in marriage. In all cases, she strove to disprove any notions of female inferiority.
Women's Movement,
A
ustralia
Authors: Lake Marilyn
Published: September 2017

In 1902, just one year after the inauguration of the Commonwealth of Australia, Australian women were the first in the world to win full political rights – the right not just to vote, but to stand for election to the national parliament. Their victory was secured after a decade's long struggle across all the Australian colonies, which involved grassroots campaigns as well as political deputations, prodigious journalism, and the gathering of vast petitions. In 1891, for example, Victorian women sent a “monster petition” with 30,000 signatures into the parliament to demonstrate that, contrary to the claims of their opponents, women did really want the vote. The Woman Movement, as it was called, desired radical reforms in the relations of men and women and the vote promised power to effect these changes through the ballot box.
Women's Movement,
F
rench
W
indward
I
slands
Authors: Bouchard Jennifer Westmoreland
Published: September 2017

In Francophone Caribbean societies, women have traditionally served as the head of household. Outside the home, however, women have had extreme difficulty establishing any sort of equality, much less authority. Women are marginalized in the workforce, and they are rarely represented in politics. Though more women have entered the workforce during the past 20 years (mostly in the fields of administration, education, health, and tourism), they tend to work longer hours and are compensated less than their male counterparts. In addition, women hold drastically fewer managerial positions than men. On the whole, Francophone Caribbean feminist movements have typically responded to these types of gender‐based injustices, as well as issues surrounding race.