bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
What Elements Belong in Group 3 of the Periodic Table?
Authors: Scerri Eric R. , Parsons William
Published: November 2020

The question of precisely which elements should be placed in group 3 of the periodic table has been debated from time to time with apparently no resolution. This question has also received a recent impetus from several science news articles following an article in Nature Magazine in which the measurement of the ionization energy of the element lawrencium was reported for the first time. We believe that this question is of considerable importance for chemists and physicists as well as students of these subjects. It is our experience that students are typically puzzled by the fact that published periodic tables show variation in the way that group 3 is displayed. Instructors typically cannot answer questions that students may have on this matter. The aim of this chapter is to make a clear-cut recommendation regarding the membership of group 3, which we believe should consist of the elements scandium, yttrium, lutetium, and lawrencium. Although the arguments in favor of replacing lanthanum and actinium by lutetium and lawrencium are rather persuasive there is a popular and mistaken belief that IUPAC supports the traditional periodic table with lanthanum and actinium in group 3. This view has been disputed by Jeffrey Leigh in an interesting article in which he made it clear that IUPAC has not traditionally taken a view as to the correctness of any version of the periodic table and that there is no such thing as an officially approved IUPAC periodic table. We will briefly review the previous arguments that have been provided in favor of moving lutetium and lawrencium into group 3 of the periodic table in place of lanthanum and actinium. We will then reiterate what we take to be a categorical argument in favor of this placement and will discuss any remaining issues. When added to other arguments made over more than 50 years it becomes clear that the time may have arrived for IUPAC to make a ruling on this question.
The Ethical Chemist
Authors: Kovac Jeffrey
Published: November 2020

This book is an introduction to professional ethics in chemistry. After a brief overview of ethical theory, it provides a detailed discussion of professional ethic for chemists based on the view that the specific codes of conduct derive from a moral ideal. The moral ideal presented here has three parts. The first refers to the practice of science, the second to relationships within the scientific community and the third to the relationship between science and society, particularly the uses of science. The question of why a scientist should obey the professional code is discussed in terms of the virtue of reverence, after which the ethical issues unique to chemistry are identified. A method for approaching ethical problems is presented. Finally, there is a large collection of specific ethical problems, or cases, each followed by a commentary where the issues raised by that case are discussed.
Assertiveness level 1
Authors: Bennett Peggy D.
Published: November 2020

We are almost completely non- assertive when we operate in level 1. We say yes when we want to say no. We com­pliment someone simply because she expected it. We acted as if his joke was funny, even though we wanted to tell him how crude it was. Of the Five Levels of Assertiveness, level 1 behaviors are the most deceptive. Functioning at this level hides us. We sacrifice our own peace in order to keep peace with others. We apologize for actions that warrant no apology. We agree publicly and fume privately. We can become so accustomed to repressing our own opinions that it may take some effort to regain our voice. Subjugation and sublimation can become the unhealthy hab­its of level 1. Inauthentic and incongruous messages and behav­iors can result. • “Oh sure, I’m happy to do that for you” (resenting the request, but pretending otherwise). • “I’m so very sorry that I didn’t submit the report on time” (using untrue or inauthentic messages to save face). • “You are so artistic. Your room is beautiful, and mine is so plain” (complimenting to invite a reciprocal compliment). • “If you’ll sit down and get quiet, maybe we can end class a few minutes early” (using a weak, non- authoritative plea to bargain for behavioral compliance from students). A problem of level 1 behavior is that we go overboard to hide our feelings. And we do so to make other people believe we are not bothered by what they have said or done. We become a cha­meleon to fit in, for others’ comfort. Our facial expression is often smiling with soft eyes, and we may use a highly inflected voice. In level 1, we are approval- seekers, willing to sublimate our own sense of authority in order to maintain peace. We appear sweet, kind, and gentle, but under the surface lie repressive discord and disharmony. To be sure, there are times when we knowingly choose to respond in level 1.
Profanity
Authors: Bennett Peggy D.
Published: November 2020

Prior to the 1970s, expressions such as “darn,” “dang,” “son of a gun,” “hell’s bells,” and “shoot” were considered by some to be profane, uncouth in “polite company” and certainly not acceptable in schools. Instances aplenty have found teachers and students subject to repercussions from their intended or unintended utterances of profanity at school. Many of us teachers choose to delete pro­fane words and gestures from our daily lives, because we know that those profanities can too easily slip out during the times we are in school. Minor incidents like bumping a shin, breaking a piece of equipment, or being startled by an alarm can cause us to let a profanity slip out in front of students. Why risk it? Values and standards for behavior in schools warrant our reaching higher than our colloquial norms and coarse or vulgar language. Our comportment as educators deserves a review of our use of profanity. Parents have the right to expect professional behaviors from their children’s educators. Co- workers have a right to expect it from their colleagues. When teachers use an appropriate range of vocabulary instead of profanity, students have models from which to learn. We can take a few moments to consider the pres­ence of profanity in our in- and out- of- school lives. And some of us may find that our language needs an upgrade.
Cooperation in the classroom
Authors: Bennett Peggy D.
Published: November 2020

When we aim to teach students how to cooperate and assist others, we shift students’ focus to self- satisfaction and collaborative support. To fully appreciate this shift, it can be helpful to consider some differences between competition and cooperation. Alfie Kohn tells us that structural competitions are contests that require one’s failure for another’s success. Intentional com­petition occurs when we purposely set up mini- competitions to see who will win. These competitions may focus on attire, attrac­tiveness, being first on the bus, having the nicest home, and so on. When structural competition coats our habits of mind, we can unknowingly develop tendencies toward intentional compe­tition: we constantly judge who is better or worse. Our sense of accomplishment is often only momentary. Learning the skills of cooperation could be an antidote to the drawbacks of competition for our students, but such goals need not be systematized. Simple, consistent acknowledgments of cooperation can inform and facilitate throughout classroom activities. • “I’m interested in hearing your observations, not your evalua­tions of classmates’ efforts.” • “Check with your partner about his or her idea before you tell me what you think.” • “Our reward for meeting all those challenges is the feeling within us. Can you feel it?” • “In this lesson, you need to consider yourselves thinkers, not winners.”
Converting stress to pressure
Authors: Bennett Peggy D.
Published: November 2020

“I am totally stressed.” “This is so stressful.” How often do we say these words? What if, each time we announce that we are stressed, we are injecting ourselves with a toxic brew of chemicals? Stress is a high- profile affliction in this society and is often identified as the cause of various maladies we may contract. Many of us identify what we are feeling as stress simply because that is the easiest and most in- vogue terminology for our condi­tion. The term “stress” has been used to describe bad moods, fatigue, excitement, anxiety, and tensions. But do all those feel­ings equate with stress? Actually, no. Real stress is threat. Threat creates a primal response in which our body produces the necessary chemicals to enable us to fight or flee. “Threat is what some power, usually a person or group, can do and may very well do to harm us”. If we make a distinction between stress and pressure, perhaps the destructive impacts of stress will become clearer. “Threat is not the same as pressure— one may rush to catch a train or plane with worry and fear about missing it, but without threat”. The popularization of the term “stress” has taken a toll on us. Labeling our feelings as stressful can actually make them feel worse. Stress is unhealthy because it eats away at our armor of self- protection and self- determination. Pressure, on the other hand, can give us momentum to act. Unlike stress, “pressure can be a constructive, propelling force in our reactions to life situations”. “I’m feeling the pressure to get my reading done.” “The pres­sure to learn this new program is taking a lot more energy than I thought it would.” “I’m under a lot of pressure to make a deci­sion.” Pressure can be a contributor to resiliency. Try switching your language use from “stress” to “pressure” and see if that makes a difference in minimizing your image of worry or sense of threat.
Introverts and extroverts
Authors: Bennett Peggy D.
Published: November 2020

Slotting anyone into a one- word category to describe and define that person can feel appalling. Yet it is done. In schools and elsewhere, we categorize in order to inform, to assess, to improve. The labels “introvert” and “extrovert” have long been used to describe personalities, even though many additional frameworks exist. Considering the two personality categories of “introvert” and “extrovert” in schools can help us better understand our own reactions to their differences. The characteristics may sound familiar to us. We may stereotypically use the labels to identify ourselves and others. Even though these dichotomous personal­ity behaviors can be situational and can alter with age, thinking about them can help us understand our reactions to them. Some teachers are confident extroverts who sweep into a room and immediately receive or command attention. Some of us like to be near extroverts to soak up their energy and humor, their attention and charm. Extroverts have been described as “people magnets” who draw everyone to them, even though not all extrovert demeanors are pleasant. Although it may be tempting, we should not assume that those with quiet personalities wish they could be more like the exuberant ones. Extroverts may get their social sustenance from others. But some of us shy away from the dramatic energy and the big presence extroverts may exude. The personality can feel like too much energy. It can feel exhausting. A confident introvert may quietly step into a room and neither need nor desire a fanfare of attention. Introverts appear comfort­able being quiet, being observers, being still. We may like to be near introverts to feel a sense of calm, a comfortable stillness. Yet some of us are discomforted by such subdued participation and interaction. Some may distrust or shy away from introverts’ silence, because we may not be able to interpret their mood or gauge their opinions. Because introverts may appear to be withdrawn, they can be misjudged as distant, disinterested, uncaring. Their energy may feel restrained and restraining. It can feel exhausting. Recent literature on extroverts and introverts may explain a widening gulf between the two in American society.
The Chemistry of Wine
Authors: Dalton David R.
Published: November 2020

Poets extol the burst of aroma when the bottle is opened, the wine poured, the flavor on the palate as it combines with the olfactory expression detected and the resulting glow realized. But what is the chemistry behind it? What are the compounds involved and how do they work their wonder? What do we know? Distinct and measurable differences in terroir, coupled with the plasticity of the grape berry genome and the metabolic products, as well as the work of the vintner, are critical to the production of the symphony of flavors found in the final bottled product. Analytical chemistry can inform us about the chemical differences and similarities in the grape berry constituents with which we start and what is happening to those and other constituents as the grape matures. The details of the grape and its treatment produce substantive detectable differences in each wine. While there are clear generalities - all wine is mostly water, ethanol is usually between 10% - 20% of the volume, etc - it is the details, shown to us by Analytical Chemistry and structural analysis accompanying it, that clearly allow one wine to be distinguished from another.
Grapevine from Seed
Authors: Dalton David R.
Published: November 2020

It is widely claimed that growing the vines that will produce good wine grapes starting from seed is difficult. In part, as noted above, this is apparently due to the presence of different alleles expressed differently as a function of environmental factors. As a consequence, most wine is produced from grapes arising from a graft of a vine that already produces desirable product. However, it is possible to plant seeds to generate vines— although the product is not always what is expected! The fact that parent varieties (the flower of one parent and pollen of another) will generally produce a variety different from either parent is generally sought to be avoided in com¬mercial enterprise. However, since grape flowers (as will be discussed in Chapter 12) are often found as tight clusters, hermaphroditic reproduction either naturally or by intervention can be effective. Adventures in crossing, such as with the Vitis vinifera varieties Cabernet franc and Sauvignon blanc can be profitable. They are reported to have led to the formation of Cabernet Sauvignon. The grape seed needs to germinate. Germination is evidenced by the forming of the plant within the seed and the opening of the seed coat to produce a seedling (Figure 2.1). The plant embryo responds, as dictated by the genome, to the warmth of the soil and the availability of water, and continues to grow from the first cell division until the plant sprouts. It is not uncommon for seeds of many species to have set a genetically dictated timer. The setting of the timer may, for example, require that the ground be frozen and subsequently thawed (a process called vernalization). Once moistened, by a thaw or rain, the dry seed takes up water that passes through channels in cell walls and membranes (the inside of the cell being drier than the outside) that apparently open in response to the “timer” and in response to soil constituents. Ions found in the soil are washed in with the water. The water and nutrients in the soil are now available to put the enzymes and their cofactors, previously lying fallow in the seed, to work.
Yeasts
Authors: Dalton David R.
Published: November 2020

The yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, is a fungus, one of the group of eukaryotes (organisms with membrane- enclosed organelles and nuclei in their cells) that lie on that branch of the tree of life that, as shown in Figure 18.1, includes plants and animals. Many years of debate preceded their notation as a separate branch on the tree while advocates forcing them into either plant or animal families battled. Thus, although the cell walls of yeast are strikingly similar to plants (save that yeasts utilize N-acetylglucosamine and related nitrogenous carbohydrate polymers [chitin-like] in place of polyphenols [lignin] for cross linking), it is clear that chloroplasts, common to plants, are missing. Similarly, while their organization and food disposition is similar to animals, the very presence of a cell wall, rather than a simple membrane, forces their exclusion from the family of animals. Of course, all life utilizes the same set of purine and pyrimidine bases bonded to a ribose or deoxyribose carbohydrate and amino acids. So while classifications are necessary, they may also be specious. A generic eukaryotic cell and a plant cell (seen before in Figure 7.1) are shown in Figure 18.2.
Hundreds of yeasts and strains of those yeasts are available for use in the wine industry for fermenting the must obtained on crushing the grapes. Some of the yeasts are referred to as “wild” and are brought in with the grapes from the vineyard. Others, originally “wild,” have been isolated and maintained because it is held that their use adds value to the vintage. Indeed, it is here that a great deal of experience is required. Generally, the vintner has a good idea of the amount of sugar (measured as glucose) in the grapes harvested. However, different strains of yeast (some 1500 yeast species, including S. cerevisiae are a subgroup of 700,000 or so fungi), while probably processing glucose in the same way, will also process other sugars too and, in that vein, there are other issues to be faced.
The Second Age of Computer Science
Authors: Dasgupta Subrata
Published: November 2020

By the end of the 1960s, a new discipline named computer science had come into being. A new scientific paradigm--the 'computational paradigm'--was in place, suggesting that computer science had reached a certain level of maturity. Yet as a science it was still precociously young. New forces, some technological, some socio-economic, some cognitive impinged upon it, the outcome of which was that new kinds of computational problems arose over the next two decades. Indeed, by the beginning of the 1990's the structure of the computational paradigm looked markedly different in many important respects from how it was at the end of the 1960s. Author Subrata Dasgupta named the two decades from 1970 to 1990 as the second age of computer science to distinguish it from the preceding genesis of the science and the age of the Internet/World Wide Web that followed. This book describes the evolution of computer science in this second age in the form of seven overlapping, intermingling, parallel histories that unfold concurrently in the course of the two decades. Certain themes characteristic of this second age thread through this narrative: the desire for a genuine science of computing; the realization that computing is as much a human experience as it is a technological one; the search for a unified theory of intelligence spanning machines and mind; the desire to liberate the computational mind from the shackles of sequentiality; and, most ambitiously, a quest to subvert the very core of the computational paradigm itself. We see how the computer scientists of the second age address these desires and challenges, in what manner they succeed or fail and how, along the way, the shape of computational paradigm was altered. And to complete this history, the author asks and seeks to answer the question of how computer science shows evidence of progress over the course of its second age.
Mapping and Monitoring Bullying and Violence
Authors: Astor Ron , Benbenishty Rami
Published: November 2020

Mapping and Monitoring Bullying and Violence is a guidebook for district and school education leaders and professionals to reduce incidents of violence and bullying and enhance students' well-being. Written in a step-by-step format, the text is designed to assist in collecting and making better use of data on non-academic issues in schools, such as reports of victimization, weapon and drug possession, theft of personal property, suicide ideation, and other areas. The authors advocate an ongoing monitoring approach that involves collecting information from multiple audiences about what is taking place in and around schools. One part of this process is mapping, which gives school leaders, students, and staff members a visual record of areas of the campus considered safe, alongside those that students view to be places where they might encounter bullying, harm, or trouble. Other common parts of such systems are surveys among students, educators, and parents. The authors include practical examples of how to design such a system, gather current information, analyze and display the data, share it with different audiences, and use it to find solutions. Ultimately, this timely guidebook is a must-have for social workers, psychologists, counselors, nurses, and others working to improve safety in schools.
How Minerals Work
Authors: Maltman Alex
Published: November 2020

We might expect the ground of vineyards to consist of bewildering permutations of elements, but because its composition is dominated by just eight of them and there are chemical restrictions on how they can combine, the number of common minerals is not huge. Even so, their names are not particularly well known, even those of the very minerals that make the ground we live on and the soils that vines grow in. Mineral names that might spring to mind are more likely to be those used in jewelry or that are commercially mined. Such gemstones and ore minerals are not widespread, but geological processes have concentrated them in certain parts of the Earth, and if we can locate these accumulations, it may be worthwhile to extract them for profit. The rocks and soils that mainly concern us here are composed of silicate minerals, and Chapter 3 is devoted to these workhorses. They are sometimes called the “rock-forming minerals,” though there is an outstanding exception to this term: calcium carbonate, which makes the calcareous rocks. So in this chapter’s survey of the kinds of nonsilicate minerals we may come across in vineyards, we will pay particular attention to the carbonates. But first, let’s examine some fundamental concepts concerning the nature of minerals. As we saw in Chapter 1, minerals are made of ions bonded together through giving or sharing electrons. But to achieve this linkage, the ions cannot combine in some higgledy-piggledy fashion; rather, they have to organize themselves in a particular, symmetrical physical arrangement. It’s a bit like the sight of soldiers on formal parade. We call the three-dimensional framework of ions a lattice, and it’s this regular pattern that makes the material crystalline; it is a crystal. In other words, the pieces of mineral in a vineyard are crystalline. We may think of crystals as having the attractive, light- catching facets seen in gem shops and museums. Although this is a manifestation of the crystalline structure of the constituent ions, it is not what defines them as crystals. Consequently, minerals lying in a vineyard may be dull, shapeless chunks, but they are still crystals.
Epilogue
Authors: Maltman Alex
Published: November 2020

We have seen in previous chapters how grapevines interact with rocks and soils, and in Chapter 10 I discussed the role of geology in terroir. But a question remains, one that is probably uppermost in the mind of many a wine lover: to what extent does geology affect the taste of the wine in your glass? I argued in Chapter 9 that the perception of a mineral taste in wine can’t have a literal meaning, but what about other tastes ascribed to geology? We might reasonably expect that the geological influences on vine growth have at least some role in wine flavor, but what? Many populist wine writings imply that the answers to such questions are clear-cut, but unfortunately they aren’t. Claims are routinely made in wine descriptions that sound fine but that don’t easily tally with scientific understanding. In other words, there’s some divergence between popular beliefs and scientific understanding of the geology—wine flavor connection. Part of the explanation may be that many of the populist assertions seem to be based on custom and on anecdote—narratives passed on enthusiastically but unquestioningly between wine fans. Two situations are common. First, a description of a wine casually mentions the kind of geology where it originated, implying a significance but without any justification or indication of how it might come about. I give illustrations of this in the following section. Second, some character of a wine is ascribed to particular rocks and soils but without providing any rationale. For example, a Riesling from Kamptal’s Gaisberg vineyard (Austria) is said to have “complexity because of the slaty para-gneiss, amphibolite, and mica” soils. But there’s no indication of how these two very specific rock types together with this particular mineral bring this complexity about.
Discoverers of the Periodic System
Authors: Scerri Eric
Published: November 2020

The periodic system was not discovered by Dmitri Mendeleev alone, as is commonly thought, or even just by Mendeleev and Julius Lothar Meyer. It was discovered by as many as five or six individuals at about the same time, in the decade of the 1860s, following the rationalization of atomic weights at the Karlsruhe conference. It became apparent by the middle of the nineteenth century that something needed to be done to resolve the widespread confusion over equivalent and atomic weights. Amedeo Avogadro had already proposed a solution to Gay-Lussac’s law that preserved John Dalton’s indivisible elemental particles. Recall that Gay-Lussac had observed that volumes of gases entering into chemical combination and their gaseous products are in a ratio of small integers. Dalton had refused to accept this viewpoint because it implied that atoms appeared to divide in some instances, such as the combination of hydrogen and oxygen to create steam. Avogadro had suggested that such “atoms” must be diatomic; that is, in their most elemental form they must be double. Thus, the oxygen atom was not dividing; rather, it was an oxygen molecule, which consisted of two oxygen atoms, that was coming apart. Unfortunately, the terms in which Avogadro expressed his views were rather obscure and failed to make much impression on the chemists of the day. Two exceptions were the French physicist and chemist André Ampère and the Alsatian chemist Charles Gerhardt, both of whom adopted the view that elemental gases were composed of diatomic molecules. One consequence of the general refusal to recognize the existence of diatomic molecules as the ultimate “atoms” of gaseous elements was that, as mentioned in chapter 2, the confusion between equivalent weights and atomic weights continued to reign. Although the relative weights of oxygen to hydrogen in water are approximately 8 to 1, the relative weight of the oxygen atom to the hydrogen atom takes on values of 8 or 16 depending on what one considers the correct formula for water to be.
The Nucleus and the Periodic Table: Radioactivity, Atomic Number, and Isotopy
Authors: Scerri Eric
Published: November 2020

Theories of the atom were reintroduced into science by John Dalton and were taken up and debated by chemists in the nineteenth century. As noted in preceding chapters, atomic weights and equivalent weights were determined and began to influence attempts to classify the elements. Many physicists were at first reluctant to accept the notion of atoms, with the tragic exception of Ludwig Boltzmann, who came under such harsh criticism for his support of atomism that he eventually took his own life. But around the turn of the twentieth century, the tide began to turn, and physicists not only adopted the atom but transformed the whole of science by performing numerous experiments aimed at probing its structure. Their work had a profound influence on chemistry and, more specifically for our interests here, the explanation and presentation of the periodic table. Beginning with J.J. Thomson’s discovery of the electron in 1897, developments came quickly. In 1911, Ernest Rutherford proposed the nuclear structure of the atom, and by 1920 he had named the proton and the neutron. All of this work was made possible by the discovery of X-rays in 1895, which allowed physicists to probe the atom, and by the discovery of radioactivity in 1896. The phenomenon of radioactivity destroyed the ancient concept of the immutability of the atom once and for all and demonstrated that one element could be transformed into another, thus in a sense achieving the goal that the alchemists had sought in vain. The discovery of radioactivity led to the eventual realization that the atom, which took its name from the idea that it was indivisible, could in fact be subdivided into more basic particles: the proton, neutron, and electron. Rutherford was the first to try to “split the atom,” something he achieved by using one of the newly discovered products of radioactive decay, the alpha particle.
More Chemistry
Authors: Scerri Eric
Published: November 2020

The trends within rows and columns of the periodic table are quite well known and are not repeated here. Instead, I concentrate on a number of other chemical trends, some of which challenge the form of reductionism that attempts to provide explanations based on electronic configurations alone. In the case of one particular trend described here, the knight’s move, the chemical behavior defies any theoretical understanding whatsoever, at least at the present time. As is well known to students of inorganic chemistry, a small number of elements display what is termed diagonal behavior where, in apparent violation of group trends, two elements from adjacent groups show greater similarity than is observed between these elements and the members of their own respective groups. Of these three classic examples of diagonal behavior, let us concentrate on the first one to the left in the periodic table, that between lithium and magnesium. The similarities between these two elements are as follows:1. Whereas the alkali metals form peroxides and superoxides, lithium behaves like a typical alkaline earth in forming only a normal oxide with formula Li2O. 2.Unlike the other alkali metals, lithium forms a nitride, Li3N, as do the alkaline earths. 3.Although the salts of most alkali metals are soluble, the carbonate, sulfate, and fluorides of lithium are insoluble, as in the case of the alkaline earth elements. 4.Lithium and magnesium both form organometallic compounds that act as useful reagents in organic chemistry. Lithium typically forms such compounds as Li(CH3)3, while magnesium forms such compounds as CH3MgBr, a typical Grignard reagent that is used in nucleophilic addition reactions. Organolithium and organomagnesium compounds are very strong bases that react with water to form alkanes. 5.Lithium salts display considerable covalent character, unlike their alkali metal homologues but in common with many alkaline earth salts. 6.Whereas the carbonates of the alkali metals do not decompose on heating, that of lithium behaves like the carbonates of the alkaline earths in forming the oxide and carbon dioxide gas. 7.Lithium is a considerably harder metal than other alkali metals and similar in hardness to the alkaline earths.
Introduction to Patrick Declerck
Authors: Kaika Maria , Declerck Patrick
Published: November 2020

A philosopher, ethnologist, and psychoanalyst practising in Paris, Patrick Declerck is also a sharp critic of social attitudes in the Western world towards poverty in general and towards homelessness in particular. Declerck possesses a curious distinction among his fellow intellectuals in France: his is the only citation index to rise as the temperature falls. This is because, as Declerck observes in his lecture, the French government mobilizes its action plan for the homeless only once the temperature has dropped below 2 degrees centrigrade. Declerck attacks this plan for establishing what he calls a ‘thermal limit to the social contract’. This limit means that the predicament of those who are down and out in the streets of Paris appears unacceptable to the rest of society only when the temperature is low. At any other time, Parisian society and the French political establishment accept the suffering of the homeless as a ‘necessary’ evil. This acceptance, Declerck argues with passionate conviction, is part of the inner sadism with which mainstream Western societies treat poor and homeless people. Declerck bases his convictions upon rigorous research and continuous practical experience. He worked with homeless people in Paris for fifteen years, went down and out with the homeless for periods over a number of years, and—most important of all—helped found, in 1986, the first counselling and medical treatment service for the homeless in France. His book Les Naufragés (The Shipwrecked) (2001) combines these various experiences in a rigorous study of the homeless of Paris. The work, which has had a considerable impact in France but has unfortunately not yet been translated into English, is a testimony of Declerck’s experiences of living with the homeless, a narrative of their lives, and an account of the conversations he had with them. It is an effort to put homeless people and their plight ‘on the map’. It goes beyond a rigorous ethnographic description of the homeless of Paris to offer an explanation of how these people come to exist in our cities and why they remain in this position for so many years.
Conclusion
Authors: Nasaw David
Published: November 2020

The past century and a half has been a period of unparalleled expansion and reform in American public schooling. In the two decades following the 1837 accession of Horace Mann to the secretaryship of the Massachusetts Board of Education, the foundation was laid for a state-mandated, state-coordinated, tax-supported system of common schools, open to the children of every community. At the turn of the century the high schools were transformed by the entrance of the “children of the plain people.” In 1890 less than 4 percent of the nation’s fourteen-to-seventeen-year olds attended public high schools; thirty years later, the percentage approached 30 percent. In the interim, the high schools could proudly be proclaimed the new “people’s colleges.” In the post-World War II decades it was higher education that was expanded and reformed. The promise of a college education was offered first to the returning veterans and then to the majority of high school graduates. Where in 1940 under 15 percent of the eighteen-to-twenty-one-year-old population attended college, thirty years later the proportion approached 50 percent. In each period of reform, schooling systems were transformed from “elite” to “mass.” But was this “massification” a “democratization”? Did the expansion of access indicate a corresponding increase in opportunity? Let us look first at the common school crusade. This period of reform, unlike later ones, did not result in a significant increase in the proportion of children in school. There was an increase in public school enrollment, but this increase reflected more a shift of students from private and parochial schools than an influx of newly enrolled students. Those who had been excluded from schooling before the common school reform movement were not affected by its triumph. The poor and immigrant children of the factory towns and cities could not have attended school without child labor legislation and family income subsidies, neither of which were forthcoming. Girls, always expendable as far as formal schooling was concerned, remained no less so in the common schools. For blacks the period was one of diminishing opportunity.
Asbestos and Other Fibrous Materials
Authors: Skinner H. Catherine W. , Ross Malcolm , Frondel Clifford
Published: November 2020

This comprehensive sourcebook describes the chemical, physical, and mineralogical aspects of fibrous inorganic materials, both synthetic and naturally occurring. A general description of the fibrous state, the range of compounds that can adopt this form, and an overview of the characteristics unique to such materials form the backbone of the book . The authors also assess the application and use of asbestos and other fibrous materials in industry and evaluate their potential as health hazards. The information gathered here will be highly useful to medical investigators and legal professionals involved in environmental health.
Medical School Enrollments and Admissions Policies
Authors: Rothstein William G.
Published: November 2020

After shortages of physicians developed in the 1950s and 1960s, federal and state governments undertook programs to increase the number of medical students. Government funding led to the creation of many new medical schools and to substantial enrollment increases in existing schools. Medical schools admitted larger numbers of women, minority, and low-income students. The impact of medical schools on the career choices of students has been limited. Federal funding for medical research immediately after World War II was designed to avoid politically controversial issues like federal aid for medical education and health care. The 1947 Steelman report on medical research noted that it did not examine “equally important” problems, such as financial assistance for medical education, equal access to health care, continuing medical education for physicians, or “the mass application of science to the prevention of many communicable diseases.” The same restraints prevailed with regard to early federal aid for the construction of medical school research facilities. Some medical school research facilities were built with the help of federal funds during and after World War II, but the first federal legislation specifically designed to fund construction of medical school research facilities was the Health Research Facilities Act of 1956. It provided matching grants equal to 50 percent of the cost of research facilities and equipment, and benefited practically all medical schools. In 1960, medical schools received $13.8 million to construct research facilities. This may be compared to $106.4 million for research grants and $41.5 million for research training grants in the same year. Federal grants for research and research training were often used for other activities. As early as 1951, the Surgeon General's Committee on Medical School Grants and Finances reported that “Public Health Service grants have undoubtedly improved some aspects of undergraduate instruction in every medical school,” with most of the improvements resulting from training rather than research grants. By the early 1970s, according to Freymann, of $1.3 billion given to medical schools for research, “about $800 million was 'redeployed' into institutional and departmental support. . . . The distinction between research and education became as fluid as the imagination of the individual grantees wished it to be.”
Theoretical Geochemistry
Authors: Tossell John A. , Vaughan David J.
Published: November 2020

This work is based on the observation that further major advances in geochemistry, particularly in understanding the rules that govern the ways in which elements come together to form minerals and rocks, will require the application of the theories of quantum mechanics. The book therefore outlines this theoretical background and discusses the models used to describe bonding in geochemical systems. It is the first book to describe and critically review the application of quantum mechanical theories to minerals and geochemical systems. The book consolidates valuable findings from chemistry and materials science as well as mineralogy and geochemistry, and the presentation has relevance to professionals in a wide range of disciplines. Experimental techniques are surveyed, but the emphasis is on applying theoretical tools to various groups of minerals: the oxides, silicates, carbonates, borates, and sulfides. Other topics dealt with in depth include structure, stereochemistry, bond strengths and stabilities of minerals, various physical properties, and the overall geochemical distribution of the elements.
Theoretical Methods
Authors: Tossell John A. , Vaughan David J.
Published: November 2020

In this chapter, the most important quantum-mechanical methods that can be applied to geological materials are described briefly. The approach used follows that of modern quantum-chemistry textbooks rather than being a historical account of the development of quantum theory and the derivation of the Schrödinger equation from the classical wave equation. The latter approach may serve as a better introduction to the field for those readers with a more limited theoretical background and has recently been well presented in a chapter by McMillan and Hess (1988), which such readers are advised to study initially. Computational aspects of quantum chemistry are also well treated by Hinchliffe (1988). In the section that follows this introduction, the fundamentals of the quantum mechanics of molecules are presented first; that is, the “localized” side of Fig. 1.1 is examined, basing the discussion on that of Levine (1983), a standard quantum-chemistry text. Details of the calculation of molecular wave functions using the standard Hartree-Fock methods are then discussed, drawing upon Schaefer (1972), Szabo and Ostlund (1989), and Hehre et al. (1986), particularly in the discussion of the agreement between calculated versus experimental properties as a function of the size of the expansion basis set. Improvements on the Hartree-Fock wave function using configuration-interaction (CI) or many-body perturbation theory (MBPT), evaluation of properties from Hartree-Fock wave functions, and approximate Hartree-Fock methods are then discussed. The focus then shifts to the “delocalized” side of Fig. 1.1, first discussing Hartree-Fock band-structure studies, that is, calculations in which the full translational symmetry of a solid is exploited rather than the point-group symmetry of a molecule. A good general reference for such studies is Ashcroft and Mermin (1976). Density-functional theory is then discussed, based on a review by von Barth (1986), and including both the multiple-scattering self-consistent-field Xα method (MS-SCF-Xα) and more accurate basis-function-density-functional approaches. We then describe the success of these methods in calculations on molecules and molecular clusters. Advances in density-functional band theory are then considered, with a presentation based on Srivastava and Weaire (1987). A discussion of the purely theoretical modified electron-gas ionic models is followed by discussion of empirical simulation, and we conclude by mentioning a recent approach incorporating density-functional theory and molecular dynamics (Car and Parrinello, 1985).
Application of Bonding Models to Sulfide Minerals
Authors: Tossell John A. , Vaughan David J.
Published: November 2020

The sulfide minerals are a group of materials dominated by binary and ternary compounds of sulfur with iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, and lead. Other members of this group of naturally occurring crystalline materials incorporate a variety of cations (e.g., Mn2+, MO4 + , Ag+, Hg2+, Cr3 + , Sn4+, Pt4+) and several other anions (Se2-, Te2-, As2 - , Sb2-). The sulfides are not only the most important group of ore minerals, constituting the raw materials for most of the world’s supplies of nonferrous metals, but also are substances that exhibit a fascinating diversity in structural chemistry and in electrical, magnetic, and other physical properties (Ribbe, 1974; Vaughan and Craig, 1978). The sulfide minerals range in properties from materials that are diamagnetic insulators, forming virtually colorless crystals when pure (e.g., ZnS), to diamagnetic semiconductors (e.g., PbS), to semiconductors or metallic conductors exhibiting various forms of ordered magnetism (e.g., CuFeS2, Fe7S8, CoS2), and to metals exhibiting weak temperature-independent Pauli paramagnetism (e.g., Ni3S4, Co9S8). The diversity of sulfide properties indicates that the valence electrons in these materials can range from extensively delocalized as in metals, to localized on the atoms as in insulators. This has presented problems for those attempting to develop bonding models and has also led to certain misconceptions regarding the kinds of models that may be appropriate. Earlier attempts to develop qualitative bonding models for sulfide minerals have been reviewed by Vaughan and Craig (1978) and include applications of valence-bond theory (Pauling, 1970) and ligand-field theory (Nickel, 1968, 1970), zone theory (Freuh, 1954), and qualitative molecular- orbital/band models (Burns and Vaughan, 1970; Vaughan et al., 1971; Prewitt and Rajamani, 1974). At about the same time, band-structure calculations on some of the binary sulfides of importance in materials science were being performed by physicists, and certain of the data of mineralogical interest have been reviewed by Marfunin (1979). The mid- 1970s saw the first successful attempts to perform MO calculations on metal-sulfide mineral systems, and a substantial number of systems have since been studied (many having been reviewed by Vaughan and Tossell, 1983).
Reactivity of dioxygen and its activation for selective dioxygenation, mono-oxygenation, dehydrogenation, and auto-oxidation of organic substrates and metals (corrosion)
Authors: Sawyer Donald T. , Williams R. J. P.
Published: November 2020

Ground-state dioxygen has two unpaired electrons (·O2·), which makes it a biradical with a triplet electronic state (see Table 3-1). Its radical character is limited because the H-OO· bond is weak [-ΔGBF/ 51 kcal (Chapter 3)], and the triplet state precludes direct reaction with singlet-state substrate molecules with saturated σ bonding. Perhaps the most important (but nonproductive) reaction chemistry for 3O2 is its reversible binding by the metalloproteins: hemoglobin, myoglobin, hemerythrin, and hemocyanin. Nature developed such systems to obviate the limited solubility of O2 in water (~1 mM at 1 atm O2), which restricts the energy flux from oxidative metabolism in aerobic organisms.
Essence of Creativity
Authors: Kim Steven
Published: November 2020

Challenging problems both attract and repel us. They frustrate us, accelerate our pulses, cause ulcers, and perhaps even curtail our lifespans. On the other hand, the knotty problems of life offer us food for thought, sustaining our creativity, and adding emotional spice to the human experience. We encounter difficult tasks day in and day out. The solutions to these problems must be sought with resourcefulness and creativity, for until now we have had little insight into the nature of these tasks, and even less into methods for resolving them. This unique book explores the nature of challenging problems in all walks of life, and describes the creative techniques for addressing them. It is particularly relevant for problems that admit no obvious solution, whether they concern scientific knowledge, technology, the arts, or social situations. By understanding the dynamics of problem solving in general, the author argues, we can better organize the pursuit of specific projects. The initial phase involves crystallizing our objectives and developing a coherent plan. The next step is to evaluate the results and determine whether the work should be concluded, begun anew, or given up altogether. With this general strategy, even seemingly overwhelming problems can be approached systematically and efficiently. The author goes beyond the normal distinction between routine and innovative activities, defining the role of creativity in novel decision-making. In addition, he distills the existing literature on creativity, innovation, and project management to present a concise set of strategies and practices that can be applied in a myriad of settings ranging from university laboratories to corporate planning centers. For the sake of concreteness, a number of examples from research and development environments demonstrate the book's basic principles in action, showing how even the most difficult problems can yield to knowledgeable ingenuity. Written in a clear, readable style, Essence of Creativity will appeal to a broad spectrum of readers: engineers, business managers, computer scientists, executives, cognitive psychologists, and educators in many fields, as well as general readers seeking effective ways to handle difficult problems.