bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Battles of the Giants—Thomas Hancock
Authors: Loadman John
Published: November 2023

The second giant in the story of rubber vulcanisation is Thomas Hancock, who was as unlike Goodyear as one could imagine. He lived in the same house most of his adult life, he never married but looked after his extended family of nine adopted nieces and nephews, he concentrated on one project at a time, made that work, hopefully made money from it, and researched new ideas in his very limited spare time. He also believed in patents, as we shall see (with one notable exception), and took out a total of fourteen relating to rubber and gutta-percha between 1820 and 1847. One thing he did share with Goodyear was the same fascination, although not obsession, with that sometimes sticky, sometimes brittle, and sometimes even useful material, rubber.
Competition!
Authors: Loadman John
Published: November 2023

Although this book tells the story of natural rubber, it would be unrealistic to say nothing of the birth and rise of some of the synthetic materials which have properties broadly similar to those of the natural material, i.e. materials which are ‘elastomeric’. Indeed, these synthetic elastomers are essential to the world in which we live today.
The Heavy Mob
Authors: Loadman John
Published: November 2023

However much natural and synthetic rubber the world is able to produce it would be useless without the machinery to make something from it. Britain was lucky in that the industrial revolution had begun some years before Hancock started his experiments, but, in terms of the size and mass of the equipment required to process rubber, it was still in its infancy. In part, this was due to a lack of available and useable power.
The Rot sets in
Authors: Loadman John
Published: November 2023

The discovery of vulcanisation in the middle of the nineteenth century was believed to be rubber’s Holy Grail and, whilst in part this was true, it gave rise to other problems which had to be resolved. Now that vulcanised rubber products could be manufactured, it was more obvious than ever that there still remained forces at work which rendered them useless after a relatively short period of time. Hancock, in his classic book on rubber techno logy, published in 1857, repeated the observation which he had first made in about 1826: ‘The injurious effects of the sun’s rays upon thin films of rubber we discovered and provided against before much damage accrued.’ He had obviously realised at a very early stage in his ‘rubber career’ that sunlight induced degradation of rubber, but in spite of his assertion it was certainly not ‘pro vided against’. What Hancock did not realise was that light catalysed degradation was oxidation and it was left to Spiller, in 1865, to show that degraded rubber had, in fact, been oxidised. The song in Fig. 13.2 found in a magazine from the 1860s, but without any suggestion as to how old it might be, certainly indicates that there was complete awareness in the trade of the problems with proofed cloth.
Death and Destruction
Authors: Loadman John
Published: November 2023

Whatever is done to extend the life of a vulcanised rubber article, it will eventually fail to give satisfactory service or meet minimum legal requirements and will have to be disposed of. In today’s world there is an explicit presumption in favour of ‘recycling’, although historically ‘dumping’ would be a better word. In 1996 the American artist, Meg Belichick, was so distressed at the state of the Gowanus Canal, which she saw every day as she travelled between her home and studio in Brooklyn, that she handcrafted one hundred books with lead covers and letterpress printed rubber pages interspersed between historical photographs to chart its history from a pristine state to a badly polluted waterway. The lead and rubber were symbolic of the pollutants. This is not the only time that rubber, waste, and art have joined three-in-a-bed. In the mid-nineteenth century the journalist and author, Nathan D. Urner, produced the ‘weepie’ shown in Fig. 14.1. Many countries, but by no means all, have now legislated against the dumping seen by Meg Belichick, whilst in those countries the ‘little ash girl’ no longer exists.
Timeline
Authors: Loadman John
Published: November 2023

Any chronology must be both subjective and selective. This can be no more true than in the case of ‘rubber’, which is now known to have been in use for over 3500 years. Those who have used it have been primitive natives, lost civilisations, and those developing the most sophisticated instruments and equipment of today. Just two areas of application illustrate this breadth of applicability. The same material that is used to make delicate medical devices such as surgeons’ gloves and condoms is also used in the treads of supersonic aircraft tyres.
Machines that Learn
Authors: Morgan Michael
Published: November 2023

The problem of learning arose early in the history of switching circuits. Many switching problems are just too difficult to solve by working out the wiring diagram in advance. An example is automatic car number plate recognition, where the input is a TV image of the number plate, and the desired output is a string of letters and numbers. The problem is that some number plates have black numbers, others have white, and all of them vary in brightness depending on the weather and time of day. We would be wasting our time trying to find a letter such as ‘B’ by looking for a particular value of lightness – say a mid-grey – in the number plate.
Frames of Reference
Authors: Morgan Michael
Published: November 2023

By the 1870s the long task of finding out which parts of the brain do what was well under way. In 1861 Paul Broca, in France, had discovered a language centre in the left frontal lobe of one of his patients – ‘Tan’, so called because this was the only word he could utter after his brain injury. In 1870, the year of the Franco-Prussian war and the Paris Commune, Fritsch and Hitzig showed that a weak electric current applied to a small part of the frontal cortex of a dog produced movement of the limbs on the opposite side of the body. They had discovered the motor cortex, damage to which in man produces paralysis of voluntary movement.
The Secretion Theory of Consciousness
Authors: Morgan Michael
Published: November 2023

‘When Cabanis said that thought was a function of the brain, in the same sense as bile secretion is a function of the liver, he blundered philosophically,’ wrote Thomas Henry Huxley to the Reverend E. McGlure in 1891. Huxley was referring to the French philosopher and physiologist Pierre Jean George Cabanis (1757–1808). Spotting the nature of Cabanis’s alleged blunder is not rocket science. Bile is produced by a particular kind of cell in the body. We can trace the biochemical pathways that make bile-producing cells different from other cells.
Introduction and basic concepts
Authors: Matoušek Jirří , Nešetřil Jaroslav
Published: November 2023

In this introductory chapter, we first give a sample of the problems and questions to be treated in the book. Then we explain some basic notions and techniques, mostly fundamental and simple ones common to most branches of mathematics. We assume that the reader is already familiar with many of them or has at least heard of them. Thus, we will mostly review the notions, give precise formal definitions, and point out various ways of capturing the meaning of these concepts by diagrams and pictures. A reader preferring a more detailed and thorough introduction to these concepts may refer to the book by Stewart and Tall [9], for instance.
The number of spanning trees
Authors: Matoušek Jirří , Nešetřil Jaroslav
Published: November 2023

For a given graph G, let T (G) denote the number of all spanning trees of G. For example, we have T (K  3) = 3 (so we really count all possible spanning trees, not just nonisomorphic ones). In this chapter, we present several proofs of the following result:
Generating functions
Authors: Matoušek Jirří , Nešetřil Jaroslav
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we are going to present a useful calculation technique. The basic idea, quite a surprising one, is to consider an infinitesequence of real numbers and associate a certain continuous function with it, the so-called generating function of the sequence. Problems about sequences can then be solved by calculations with functions.
The evolution of separate sexes: a focus on the ecological context
Authors: Ashman Tia-Lynn
Published: November 2023

Sexual-system evolution has a long rich history of theoretical study, which has guided empirical explorations and the recent expansion of ideas concerning the role of ecological context in gender separation. ın this chapter, ı first provide a brief overview of theoretical understanding of a prominent sexual-system transition, namely, the gynodioecy pathway for the evolution of dioecy from hermaphroditism. ı then review empirical support for several predictions based on theory and use these as a springboard to both highlight the strengths of existing theory and show how its limitations have helped reveal the importance of ecological context for the evolution of dioecy.
Floral biology of hybrid zones
Authors: Campbell Diane R , Aldridge George
Published: November 2023

Hybridization between closely related species is relatively common in angiosperms and can create a natural hybrid zone. We review recent experimental studies of floral biology in pairs of hybridizing species, emphasizing comparisons of the floral morphology and nectar rewards of hybrid plants with that of their progenitors, and quantifying the influence of these floral traits on pollinator behaviour and prezygotic and post-zygotic reproductive isolation. Floral traits of hybrids can be intermediate or transgressive. Floral differences between species, which in one case are attributable to particular chromosomal regions, can have differing impacts on interspecific flights by pollinators. A simulation model of mating in a hybrid zone between ıpomopsis aggregata and ıpomopsis tenuituba shows that behavioural responses by hummingbird and hawk-moth pollinators affect pre-zygotic ethological isolation more strongly than mechanical isolation.
Prelude
Authors: Chiswell Ian , Hodges Wilfrid
Published: November 2023

The notation ‘A B’ is shorthand for ‘If A then B’, or ‘A implies B’, or sometimes ‘the implication from A to B’, as best suits the context. Do not confuse it with the notation “From Chapter 3 onwards, the symbol” is not shorthand; it is an expression of our formal languages. The safest way of reading it is probably just ‘arrow’ (though in Chapters 2 and 3 we will discuss its translation into English). The notation ‘N’ can be read as ‘the set of natural numbers’ or as ‘the natural number structure’, whichever makes better sense in context. (See Example 5.5.1 for the natural number structure.
Propositional Logic
Authors: Chiswell Ian , Hodges Wilfrid
Published: November 2023

Likewise the natural deduction ‘proof’ of (φ (ψ φ)) is strictly not a proof of a statement; it is a pattern of infinitely many proofs of different statements. Such patterns are called formal proofs. So we are studying patterns that infinitely many diﬀerent statements could have. These patterns are the real subject matter of mathematical logic. To study them closer, we work with formal languages which are designed to express the patterns that are important for arguments.
Quantifier-Free Logic
Authors: Chiswell Ian , Hodges Wilfrid
Published: November 2023

Though the arguments are simple, they are beyond the capacities of Chapters 2 and 3. In the present chapter we will formalise (a), and Chapter 7 will take care of (b). Our formalisation will use a language LR, the ‘Language of Relations’. Like LP, it allows diﬀerent choices of signature. The languages LR(σ), for any sig- nature σ, are known as first-order languages. (The name contrasts them with second-order languages; see (7.43).) The proof rules and semantics of first-order languages are known as first-order logic or as predicate logic.
Between Motivation And Control: Psychological Accounts Of Voluntary Action
Authors: Prinz Wolfgang
Published: November 2023

Psychologists are experimentalists. They run experiments—mostly inspired by theoretical considerations. They ask theoretical questions and use experimental methods to answer them. In psychological experiments participants are exposed to well-controlled experimental environments. Experimental environments and experimental tasks need to be decontextualized—in the sense that one tries to exclude or neutralize all kinds of uncontrollable factors. In one sense, environments like this put severe constraints on the participant’s room for manoeuvrings, since they require her to perform certain pre-specified responses to certain pre-specified stimuli. Hence, there seems to be no room for voluntary action. Still, even in a highly constrained situation like this, voluntary action comes into play at the time when the participant listens to the instruction and tries to prepare herself for performing the task accordingly (assuming she is co-operative and does not wish to thwart the experiment altogether).
Voluntary action from the perspective of Social-personality psychology
Authors: Bayer U C , Ferguson M J , Gollwitzer P M
Published: November 2023

Social-personality psychologists have traditionally devoted little attention to the theoretical and empirical analysis of the issue of voluntary action. We see two different reasons for this: According to the behaviourist perspective (e.g. Tolman, 1925), purposeful or goaldirected behaviour was solely used as a descriptive category to refer to behaviour that was performed in a certain way (e.g. with great persistence). Motivational theories prevalent in traditional social and personality psychology (e.g. Murray, 1938) conceptualized humans as being mechanically driven by basic needs and instincts, thus preventing an analysis of human action in terms of volition.
Culture And Human Development In A Theory Of Action Beliefs
Authors: Nuckolls Charles w.
Published: November 2023

The position advanced in this chapter is that the concept and perception of voluntary action develops through systematic violations of intuitive cognitive assumptions. It bears a resemblance, therefore, to concepts that Pascal Boyer calls ‘religious’. Superhuman agencies—the essential characteristic, according to Boyer, of all religious systems—possess features that are salient and memorable chiefly by virtue of their power to violate natural ontologies (Boyer, 1994, 2001; see also Lawson & McCauley, 1990). In other words, we grow up expecting certain things to happen, such as ‘things fall when dropped’, and these developmentally prescribed intuitions become our ‘ontologies’. We fashion our gods by imagining how these expectations can be violated, for example, ‘gods float, hover, fly, and otherwise act unconstrained by gravity’. One of these so-called natural ontologies, to extend the Boyer hypothesis, is agency.
Science and craft in waterfowl management in North America
Authors: Boyd Hugh
Published: November 2023

Waterfowl management is a species of political ecology, rather than of ecology itself. The distinction determines the kinds of information and argument that are relevant, and the kinds of verification or falsification that can be used to distinguish better information, judgements, and decisions from less good ones and how the crucial issue of forecasting should be approached.
Conserving threatened birds: an overview of the species and the threats
Authors: Rands M R W
Published: November 2023

This paper presents a short summary of bird species currently believed to be threatened globally. I describe how threatened bird species are currently identified and present an overview of major threats to such species. The following account is intended as an introduction to the scale of the problems facing bird conservationists and to draw to the attention of populati
Concluding remarks
Authors: Newton Ian
Published: November 2023

Perhaps the main contribution of research to bird population management is to identify the factors that limit population sizes. Without knowledge of the limiting factors, the management of any bird population is bound to be hit and miss. It is important to distinguish between the external (environmental) factors that influence populations and the internal (demographic) features that these factors affect. External factors include resources (notably food supplies) and natural enemies (predators, parasites). Internal (demographic) features include the rates of births and deaths, immigration, and emigration—the net effects of which mediate the influence of external factors to determine population trend.
Current theory of host-parasite interactions
Authors: Toft Catherine A
Published: November 2023

As Peter Price emphasizes in his foreword, ecologists and evolutionary biologists virtually ignored parasites until recently, even as a source of mortality for host species of primary interest. Ecologists have now, finally, turned their attention to parasites. As if in compensation, much of the recent, seminal work on parasite-host interactions in ecology and evolutionary biology has given hosts an ancillary role, focusing instead mainly on the parasites (e.g. Anderson and May 1978, 1979; May and Anderson 1978, 1979; Price 1980; Marshall 1981). The chapters in this book focus on the interaction between parasites and hosts but emphasize the host species–the book itself is delimited to a certain host taxon (i.e. birds).
A Global Plant Species Information System (GPSIS): ‘blue skies design’ or tomorrow’s workplan?
Authors: Bisby Frank A
Published: November 2023

The idea of planning a global diversity information system (GPSIS) was minuted at the first TDWG meeting in 1985. It was dubbed ‘the blue skies design’ and thought of as an abstract issue not practical in the near term. Our progress five to eight years on, both in technology and know-how, is such that a global system clearly is a real possibility. If there are difficulties in creating one now they arise from professional uncertainties-exactly how would the knowledge be best agreed and organized-and scientific policy issues-how will members of the community, both individual and institutional, co-operate in the venture.
US interagency botanical data applications, needs, and the Plants database
Authors: Peterson J Scott
Published: November 2023

The broad array of federal agencies within the United States of America require botanical data of various kinds. These data are used for tasks as varied as land management, plant materials development, germplasm resource management, wetland boundary determination, plant inspection services, and plant species management. Of principal importance are nomenclatural data regarding taxa of North America and the world floras. Additional attributes of importance include distributional, taxonomic, ecological, and growth-form data. At the present time, nine agencies are cooperating with the Soil Conservation Service, US Department of Agriculture to develop the Plant List of Attributes, Nomenclature, Taxonomy, and Symbols (PLANTS), which functions as a conduit for data from the botanical community, part of the INFOSHARE initiative to provide easy access to USDA data. Interagency survey With the information age well implemented and a personal computer on each desk, the many US Federal agencies require standardized botanical data. This permits the unhindered exchange of information, and in this time of tight budgets, reduces the duplication of effort. Activities of various US agencies that require botanical data include the following.
NAPRALERT: problems and achievements in the field of natural products
Authors: Gyllenhaal Charlotte , Quinn Mary Lou , Soejarto, Djaja D , Farnsworth Norman R
Published: November 2023

NAPRALERT (Natural Products ALERT) is a specialized database which contains information derived from the literature on medicinal folklore, biological activity, and the chemistry of organisms of potential or actual pharmaceutical interest: plants make up about 75 per cent of the organisms included. The database is relational in design and is managed under the INGRES database management system. Taxonomic information on the organisms covered is stored in a fairly detailed manner. All names are checked against standard taxonomic references before being entered in the database, in an attempt to resolve, as far as possible, the problems inherent in taking names from the natural products literature. In the instance of synonymy all names involved are edited into a single accepted name; the synonyms are stored in an auxiliary table. Users of the database are mostly in the areas of medicinal plant research or drug development, in the herbal medicine industry or in the flavours and fragrance industry. Several standard search requests are used, the most popular being the ‘three-part profile’ which includes all available ethnobotanical, biological activity, and chemistry information on one organism. The system is now on-line but still offers the off-line service. Scientists in developing countries are provided NAPRALERT services free of charge through an arrangement with WHO (World Health Organization).
Prolegomena on a Species Information System for the Flora of the Rocky Mountains
Authors: Morain Stanley A
Published: November 2023

The Flora of North America (FNA) project is working toward the adoption of digital database technology to help collect, codify, store, retrieve, and analyse floristic data for the continent. As part of this effort, the flora of the Rocky Mountains is being revised, to review its origin and development and include a preliminary statement about its adjustments to environmental change. The Global Environment Monitoring System (GEMS) of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has already created a small-scale environmental database for North America, but it is clear that larger-scale refinements of these coverages must be captured to model regional and local impacts of change. Some of these coverages may already be available at larger scale; some others may eventually be available because they fit future agency needs; and still other coverages need to be identified for the specific applications of FNA. This chapter presents a status review of Geographical Information System (GIS) requirements for modelling environmentally induced changes in the Rocky Mountain flora. It will also review the content and compatibility of a few existing databases, and highlight enabling technologies that could expedite field taxonomy and ecology. The aim of the presentation is to lay the foundations for a GIS that will link global change research with the equally critical objectives of a species information system for the Rocky Mountains and North America.
The need for information on genetic resources
Authors: Chauvet Michel
Published: November 2023

The efficiency of a genetic resources conservation network lies in the availability of materials and data. Increasingly, interest is being shown in wild relatives for disease resistance and qualitative characters. This gives new opportunities for crop specialists and botanists to work together. So what are the needs of genetic resources specialists with respect to botanical data? First, they need up-to-date taxonomic and nomenclatural revisions at the genus or the tribe level. Second, they need the results of broad ecogeographical surveys to assist in preparing collecting missions. You may think that only a limited set of plants is involved. But if the gene pool of a given crop may extend to an entire family then it looks different. If we add not only agricultural plants but fruits, vegetables, medicinal and ornamental plants, forest trees, and new biotechnology sources we see quickly that the whole plant kingdom is the resource.
Centralized, distributed, and replicated databases: the pros and cons
Authors: Freeston M W
Published: November 2023

This Chapter addresses the problem of designing a global plant species information system, taking into account political as well as technical considerations. The need to reconcile the apparently totally conflicting requirements of a globally accessible taxonomic database, yet protected national resource management, leads to the conclusion that the best hope for success lies in a confederated collection of database management systems. The objective In this chapter we consider the advantages and disadvantages of various system configurations for a global plant species information system, i.e. a globally accessible information system, containing global plant species information. From a purely taxonomic point of view, this means constructing a consistent and comprehensive global taxonomy. There may be relatively minor specialist arguments about the details of this, and concerns about implementation and administration, but the general conception is clear to all. However, the title of the project suggests a much wider objective: that the system should also contain information not strictly necessary for taxonomic purposes, but which has other intrinsic interest and value for example, the associated medicinal value of plants, or the sites of endangered species. The problem is that there is, in principle at least, no boundary to this extended conception of the information system.
Management models for a global plant species information system
Authors: Russell G F
Published: November 2023

While considerable attention has been paid to scientific and technical issues related to the development of a global plant species information system, two concerns which have received less attention, but which are, nonetheless, critical to the success of a large and complex science project are management structures and funding strategies. Four management models are proposed as possibilities: (1) United Nations model, (2) international unions model, (3) multi-institutional consortium model, and (4) commercial model. The salient features of each model are discussed briefly relative to concerns expressed by participants at the GPSIS Delphi Symposium. These concerns included addressing specific national science agendas, providing scientific credibility and product acceptance, strengthening the bond between taxonomic centres and their respective national science boards, and providing sufficient funding levels.
The GPSIS Action Group: a call to action
Authors: Gyllenhaal C , Russell G F , Peterson J S , Morin N R , Bisby F A
Published: November 2023

The Symposium on Designs for a Global Plant Species Information System (GPSIS) has discerned an urgent agenda for the taxonomic community: to construct a list of the world’s flora. Such a list will provide a central taxonomic backbone for use both by consumers and relevant information systems as a means of clear and accurate communication of information about plant taxa. The GPSIS Action Group invites all sectors of the plant taxonomic community to assist this most important undertaking. Introduction The Symposium on Designs for a Global Plant Species Information System, after considering the needs of users and consumers of plant taxonomic data, viewing models of information systems used in other disciplines, and debating the relationships among existing plant information systems, has discerned an urgent agenda for the taxonomic community.
Ethylene receptors
Authors: Hall M A , Berry A W , Cowan D S , Evans J S , Harpham N V J , Moshkov I , Novikova G , Raskin I , Smith A R , Turner R J , Xiuqing Zhang
Published: November 2023

Binding sites for ethylene (EBS) having the appropriate affinities for the gas and its analogues, were first discovered independently by groups at Aberystwyth (Bengochea et al. l980a,b) and Raleigh (Sisler 1979). At that time only sites with low rate constants of association and dissociation were investigated since the technology did not permit assessment of sites with high rate constants. However, later developments in methodology (Sisler 1979; Sanders et al. 1989) did allow measurement of such sites. There is now a considerable body of information regarding EBS both from the standpoint of the properties of the protein molecule(s), and their likely role as receptors. This article will attempt to summarize these studies and to outline recent work on the likely functionality of EBPs.
Biochemical regulation of DNA replication
Authors: Bryant John A
Published: November 2023

Within a higher plant, cell division is confined to specific regions, the meristems. Both the location and activity of these meristems are important in morphogenesis and in maintaining the ‘unlimited’ growth patterns exhibited by higher plants. The patterns of distribution of dividing cells imply that cell division is regulated temporally, spatially, and developmentally. Further evidence for developmental regulation is seen in situations in which a particular phase of development, such as floral morphogenesis, is associated with changes in the rate and pattern of cell division (Bernier 1971; Francis and Lyndon 1979; Jacqmard and Houssa 1988). The physiological mechanisms that mediate this regulation at the whole-plant level are not clearly understood, but there is much circumstantial evidence to implicate plant hormones (Bayliss 1985; Francis 1988). This evidence includes the effects of exogenously applied hormones on cell division, the need to provide hormones (particularly cytokinins and/or auxins) to maintain division in cultured cells or tissues, and the very clearly demonstrated role of auxin and cytokinin in the induction of division by Agrobacterium (Draper et al. 1988).
rolB: A bacterial gene capable of controlling auxin response and morphogenesis in plants cells
Authors: Costantino P , Capone I , Cardarelli M , Paolis A De , Trovato M
Published: November 2023

Following infection with the soil bacterium Agrobacterium rhizogenes, most dicotyledonous plants develop the so-called hairy root syndrome (Elliot 1951). The adventitious hairy roots can be cultured in vitro where they grow in a characteristically highly branched and plagiotropic fashion (David et al. 1984) and, in common with the crown gall tumours, produce unusual amino acid derivatives called opines (Petit and Tempé 1985).
Calcium measurement and dynamics during signal transduction in living plant cells
Authors: Trewavas Anthony J , Read Nick D , Knight Marc R
Published: November 2023

Of all the discoveries in plant cell biology over the past two decades, uncovering the role of Ca2+ has probably been the most dramatic. Twenty years ago Ca2+ was assigned, along with other minerals, to the role of nutrient, a simplistic view which has altogether proved inappropriate. Calcium was thought of as primarily a structural component of the cell wall and therefore about as interesting as bone. Today we know that Ca2+ stands at the heart of life itself. Many of the spatial and dynamic characters of cell polarity, directed secretion, cell-cycle progression, cell development, and the sensing of light, gravity, or touch ultimately depend upon the unusual properties that Ca2+ possesses in cells. The old quotation from Loewi—‘Ja calcium, das ist alles’ (calcium is everything)—is reasonably accurate. Calcium is the most dynamic of signalling molecules and living systems have fashioned an exquisite hierarchy of signalling capabilities around it.
History And General Environmental Impact
Authors: Roberts L E J , Liss P S , Saunders P A H
Published: November 2023

Modern society takes few things so much for granted as the instant availability of almost limitless energy at the flick of a switch. All that is needed is a few strands of copper wire and, of course, a meter. Electricity enables us to enjoy a standard of living beyond the wildest dreams of our forefathers. We can have light and warmth wherever and whenever we need it, machinery can release us from domestic drudgery and the use of electricity is central to work and leisure. Some other forms of energy are more convenient for some purposes but none combines at the point of use high efficiency, immediate availability, absolute cleanliness, no storage requirements, silence, and absence of waste products.
Generation From Fossil Fuels
Authors: Roberts L E J , Liss P S , Saunders P A H
Published: November 2023

The fossil fuels, coal, oil, and gas, now provide about 60% of the world’s electricity and are likely to remain important fuels for electricity generation for many decades (hydro power provides about 23% and nuclear power about 17%). The relative contributions of these fuels have changed dramatically since the early days, when almost all electricity was generated from coal. In 1965, for example, 44% of world electricity (excluding the communist countries) was generated from coal, 12.5% from oil, and 10% from gas. The corresponding figures for 1985 were 37%, 11%, and 10.5%. The total quantity of fossil fuels burned each year for the generation of electricity (again excluding the communist countries) increased from 1105 million tonnes of coal (or coal equivalent) in 1965 to 2975 million tonnes in 1985.
Generation From Nuclear Fission
Authors: Roberts L E J , Liss P S , Saunders P A H
Published: November 2023

The fundamental process on which nuclear power depends—the fission of uranium—is the cause both of its environmental advantages and of its chief disadvantage (fusion is discussed in Chapter 4). The fission process involves the release of very large amounts of energy. The energy released when one atom of carbon (coal) combines with one molecule of oxygen is 7 x 10-19 J. The energy released from the fission of one uranium nucleus is 3.2x10-11 J, about fifty million times greater. In terms of weight of fuel, the total fissioning of one ton of uranium would therefore be equivalent to the burning of 2.7 million tons of coal. Because so little uranium can produce so much energy, the transport and storage of fuel presents few problems. Less land is needed than for fossil-fired stations because there is no need for a coal store or oil tanks, power stations do not have to be sited near to the source of fuel or by railway lines or ports, and the quantity of waste to be disposed of is very small compared, in particular, with that produced by coal-fired stations. However, the fission process also results in the production of radioactive materials and very considerable resources have to be devoted to the protection of workers and members of the public from the radiation that these materials emit.
Prospects For The Future
Authors: Roberts L E J , Liss P S , Saunders P A H
Published: November 2023

The large scale and high capital cost of all electricity generating systems results in considerable inertia; it is unlikely that there will be any sudden or dramatic change in the environmental impact per unit of generation, and the total global impact will depend for some time on the level of demand and the proportion of power stations that burn fossil fuels. Large improvements in the overall efficiency of electrical generating stations are a distant prospect. It is probable that overall demand will continue to increase given a rising world population, particularly in countries anxious to improve both their standard of living and the level of industrialization. Increasing capacity will be offset to some extent by further improvements in the control of emissions, especially from coal-fired stations. In the short to medium term, economic pressures and a buoyant gas supply may lead to the introduction of comparatively small generating stations burning gas which can be sited close to centres of population more easily than the very large coal-burning or nuclear plants.
Pictures and words in engineering, physics, and chemistry
Authors: Davies Duncan , Bathurst Diana , Bathurst Robin
Published: November 2023

Scientists and engineers have ulways been enthusiustic and capable users of sketches, drawings. and coloured pictures over a wide range of sophistication. Their media have varied from the backs of old envelopes, drawing-office paper. and the cathode-ray screen, to liquid crystal displays, the finest-grnined photographic film, and holography good enough to substitute for reality in public exhibitions of works of art such as sculpture. Their publications, teaching. and discussions almost always employ diagrams and photographs (Figs. 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4). Accordingly, it is helpful to ask how they have reacted to the new. enhanced. pictorial capabilities. The answer is ‘patchily’. Some have welcomed greater skill with open arms. Others have testily enquired what was so wonderful about something that they have always done.
Pictures and words in everyday life and study
Authors: Davies Duncan , Bathurst Diana , Bathurst Robin
Published: November 2023

We have reviewed the slow fall and the recent rapid rise in the importance of pictures throughout the last three hundred centuries, in education, science, engineering, and medicine. Now we need to turn once more to the man and woman in the street and the supcmiarkct and enquire where all of this has left them. He or she may. of course. be the modern counterpart of Molikre‘s Bourgeois Gentilhomme’, who was astonished to be told that he had been speaking in prose for the whole of his life. Our ordinary citizens have only recently become habitual and sophisticated picturegoers and film critics, and may have only a dim recognition of the depth of their involvement with pictures.
The way ahead: the future of pictures
Authors: Davies Duncan , Bathurst Diana , Bathurst Robin
Published: November 2023

It is now necessary to consider what is likely to happen in the future. what is particularly desirable, what the obstacles are, and what should be done deliberately in the interests of priorities and major opportunities. Broadly, there are three possible approaches. The first is to concentrate on the technical factors, and to guess what incremental developments there may be in existing capabilities, and what new lines, products. and techniques muy be invented. This approach may be inclined to throw emphasis on what will be feasible and may neglect, or pay insufficient attention to. social preference or the acceptance or rejection of innovations on the basis of their perceived utility.
Telecommunications
Authors: Gibson Roy
Published: November 2023

Nowadays people often do not know whether their telephone call or television picture owes anything to satellite technology or not. Provided the service is satisfactory in quality and price, the user is entitled to be indifferent about the means. The situation is, however, by no means static. The possibilities for using communications satellites, ‘satcoms’ as they are called, are increasing with development of the technologies, but also the telecommunication, information, and broadcasting communities have become more aware of the extent to which satellites can help them to provide new or better and cheaper services. At the same time, conventional telecommunications technologies have made major advances-in the development of fiber optic cables, for example-and service providers are obliged to look very carefully into the economics of new systems. The specific idea of using a satellite to relay radio signals around the Earth dates back to 1945, when Arthur C. Clarke described it in an article published in the British Journal Wireless World. The article accurately described the energy needed to put a satellite into an orbit approximately 36 000 km above the equator, at which distance it would move round at the same angular rate as the Earth and so appear to an observer to be in a fixed position. This has come to be known as the geostationary orbit (see Chapter 1).
The gas industry: survivor and innovator
Authors: Rooke Denis
Published: November 2023

Sir Denis Rooke, CBE, FRS, FEng. has devoted his working life to the British gas industry. A determined champion and influential spokesman for it, he has also gained a reputation as an expert in gas matters worldwide. He joined the South Eastern Gas Board in 1949 as a Mechanical Engineer and was subsequently seconded to the North Thames Gas Board to work, both in the UK and in the USA, in the field which was to trigger the industry’s subsequent technological revolution, liquefied natural gas. In 1959 he was a member of the technical team on board the Methane Pioneer, which brought the first cargo of liquefied natural gas to Britain. Appointed Development Engineer to the Gas Council in 1%0, he played a seminal role in the transition to an integrated natural gas industry, including the development of a national high-pressure gas grid to exploit the new North Sea resources and the development of the industry’s own exploration and production arm. He became the full time Member for Production and Supply of the Gas Council in 1%6, Deputy Chairman in 1972, and Chairman of what then became the British Gas Corporation in 1976. Holding the Chairmanship until 1989, Sir Denis guided the industry through its successful privatization and became the first Chairman of British Gas pie.
Vector Analysis on Surface
Authors: Tai Chen-To
Published: November 2023

Vector analysis on a surface has previously been treated by Weatherburn [20]. His works are summarized by Van Bladel [1]. Most books on vector analysis do not cover this subject. The approach taken by Weatherburn is to define a two-dimensional surface operator similar to the del operator in space. Some key differential functions analogous to gradient, divergence, and curl are then introduced.
Special Constructions
Authors: Gieras Jacek F
Published: November 2023

Unconventional flat and tubular LIMs, motors with one linear part (primary or secondary) and a rotary part, helical motion motors, linear induction brakes, and LIMs with conductive liquid or powder secondaries are called special construction LIMs. These include: arc motors, shaded-pole LIMs, multi-rotor motors, rotary linear motors, motors with a hollow secondary, Guimbal’s motors, motors with an L- or T-shaped secondary, LIMs with a secondary suspended electrodynamically, induction pumps, etc.
Operational Aspects
Authors: Gieras Jacek F
Published: November 2023

“The electric circuits of an a.c. machine with m1 primary phase windings and m2 secondary phase windings are described by the following matrix equation:

where R is the square diagonal matrix of the resistances of order m1+m2,L is the square diagonal matrix of the inductances of order m1+ m2, v(t) is the column matrix of phase voltages with m1+ m2 rows, and i(t) is the column matrix of phase currents with m1+ m2 rows. The secondary is divided into m2 discrete circuits with uniform current density distribution, similar to that of a solid moving member in electromechanical converters with discrete motion.
Stepping Motors and Their Microprocessor Controls
Authors: Kenjo Takashi , Sugawara Akira
Published: November 2023

Stepping motors find applications wherever repeated stop-start or incremental controlled motions are encountered. Their basic design and construction makes them very suitable for digital (microprocessor) control. Consequently they are to be found in computer hardware (disk drives, printers, etc.), clocks, numerically controlled machine tools, and domestic appliances. The authors take a practical approach to the subject using many informative diagrams to explain the motor's working principles, construction details, electronic controls, applications, and methods of manufacture.
Outline of modern stepping motors
Authors: Kenjo Takashi , Sugawara Akira
Published: November 2023

In the last chapter we followed the historical development of stepping motors in connection with numerical control technology. In this chapter, general views of the various types of stepping motors now used will be taken, and their structures and fundamental principles will be discussed without using mathematics. Technical terms which are used in association with stepping motors will be defined and their meanings studied.
Theory of electromagnetics and structure of stepping motors
Authors: Kenjo Takashi , Sugawara Akira
Published: November 2023

In Chapter 2 a qualitative approach was employed for explaining how torque is produced in a stepping motor; it was an explanation in terms of the tension in lines of magnetic force. In this chapter the mechanism of torque production will be analysed quantitatively using an electro dynamic approach. This is followed by discussions on tooth-structure problems in stepping motors.
Fundamental theory of the dynamic characteristics of stepping motors
Authors: Kenjo Takashi , Sugawara Akira
Published: November 2023

The dynamic characterstics, like the static characteristics, are important and must be taken into account in putting a stepping motor in a system. A number of theories of the dynamic performance of stepping motor & have been reported by many authors. Among them, the theory developed by Lawrenson and Hughes, University of Leeds, is selected to present here, since their theory is systematic and covers most essential aspects of the dynamic behaviour of modern stepping motors.
Torque characteristics and pulse intervals-measurement and use in system design
Authors: Kenjo Takashi , Sugawara Akira
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, methods of measuring the torque characteristic curves of a stepping motor will first be given, then follows a discussion on the relation between the torque curves, dynamic equation, and acceleration. Lastly, several theories for determining pulse intervals for acceleration and deceleration are developed for use in system design. The test motor is kept stationary by supplying rated current in a specified excitation scheme, say, one-phase or two-phase excitation. One of the three or four phases shall be arbitrarily chosen to be supplied the current in the case of one-phase-on scheme. The rotor position at no load is defined as the ‘equilibrium’ or ‘rest position’. We are now going to measure the relationship between the torque applied to the shaft and displacement from the equilibrium position. As illustrated in Fig. 6.1 external torques are provided by means of a pulley, a string, and a weight.
Closed-loop control of stepping motors
Authors: Kenjo Takashi , Sugawara Akira
Published: November 2023

In the drive systems explained in Chapter 5 the step-command pulses were given from an external source, and it was expected that the stepping motor is able to follow every pulse. This type of operation is referred to as the open-loop drive. The open-loop drive is attractive and widely accepted in applications of speed and position controls. However, the performance of a stepping motor is limited under the open-loop drive. For instance a stepping motor driven in the open-loop mode may fail to follow a pulse command when the frequency of the pulse train is too high or the inertial load is too heavy. Moreover the motor motion tends to be oscillatory in open-loop drives.
Permanent-Magnet DC Linear Motors
Authors: Basak Amitava
Published: November 2023

No standard work of reference, dealing with dc linear motor in all its aspects has ever been published. However, a considerable amount of literature in the form of published papers dealing with this subject, and also an amount of hitherto unpublished work, particularly of an industrial or applied nature, has been accumulated during the last 25 years. An attempt has been made to collate all this information and present it in a comprehensive and orderly manner in this unique volume. This book has been designed to be useful to two main categories of readers, namely, electrical and mechanical engineers in the user industries, and post-graduates and students embracing mechanical and electrical engineers.
Lie theory
Authors: Rossmann Wulf
Published: November 2023

We shall discuss this group in some detail, subdividing the discussion into lemmas.
Manifolds, homogeneous spaces, Lie groups
Authors: Rossmann Wulf
Published: November 2023

In a vector space one has coordinate systems any two of which are related by a linear transformation (and this property could be used to define the notion ‘vector space’). Somewhat analogously, an analytic manifold is a point-set together with coordinate systems any two of which are related by an analytic transformation; but the coordinate systems are not required to be defined on the whole point-set.