bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Analysis of Leakage Magnetic Field and Reducing Method in Bi-Directional Wireless Charging System of Electric Vehicle
Authors: Son Seokhyeon , Han Seunghyun , Jun Changhan , Shin Dongil , Woo Semin , Park Myungjoon , Park Junho , Shin Juhyun , Kwon Daehyun
Published: April 2024

This paper analyzes the leakage magnetic field generated by the Bi-Directional wireless charging system of Electric Vehicle(EV) and confirms the effect of the shielding coil in the Bi-Directional wireless charging system. In particular, in EV using the Inductive Power Transfer(IPT) method, the effective shielding coil position is proposed by analyzing the contribution of the leakage magnetic field of the Ground Assembly(GA) coil and the Vehicle Assembly(VA) coil according to the power transfer direction. Simulations were conducted using the WPT3/Z2 model of the standard SAE J2954, and it was confirmed that the GA coil contributed more to the leakage magnetic field due to the relatively large size compared to the VA coil regardless of power transfer direction. The same tendency was confirmed not only in alignment condition but also in misalignment condition, and it was also confirmed that the same tendency appeared in the situation where a larger current flows in the VA coil by inversely transferring power. As a result, it was concluded that the shielding coil should be located near the GA coil, which contributes greatly to the leakage magnetic field, and the simulation confirmed the effect of reducing the leakage magnetic field by about 66%.
Integrated Road Information Perception Framework for Road Type Recognition and Adaptive Evenness Assessment
Authors: Wei Kai , Yu Liangyao , xu Feng
Published: April 2024

With the rapid advancement in intelligent vehicle technologies, comprehensive environmental perception has become crucial for achieving higher levels of autonomous driving. Among various perception tasks, monitoring road types and evenness is particularly significant. Different road categories imply varied surface adhesion coefficients, and the evenness of the road reflects distinct physical properties of the road surface. This paper introduces a two-stage road perception framework. Initially, the framework undergoes pre-training on a large annotated drivable area dataset, acquiring a set of pre-trained parameters with robust generalization capabilities, thereby endowing the model with the ability to locate road areas in complex regions. Subsequently, guided by a mask attention mechanism, the model undergoes fine-tuning on a smaller dataset annotated with road type regions using a weighted joint loss function, effectively addressing issues of class imbalance and limited labeled samples. Moreover, a hole-filling algorithm is employed to rectify missed detection areas in road perception. For monitoring road evenness, a simplified vehicular kinematics model is used, coupled with state information such as vehicle turning angle and speed, to predict the vehicle’s forward anticipatory trajectory. Within the overlapping region of this trajectory and the drivable area, pure road samples are adaptively extracted for assessing the evenness of the road. Experimental results demonstrate that our method can accurately perceive road information in advance, thereby laying a foundation for enhancing the driving safety and comfort of intelligent vehicles in complex environments, as well as for adaptive control.
A Structured Approach to the Development of a Logical Architecture for the Automotive Industry
Authors: Bhatia Garima , Wirthlin Joseph , Wu Qingmei
Published: April 2024

The automotive industry is currently experiencing a massive transformation, one like it has not quite seen in the past. With the advent of highly software-driven, always on, connected vehicles, the automotive industry is experiencing itself at a crossroads. While the traditional component-driven design approach to vehicle development worked in the favor of the industry for decades due to vehicles being mostly mechanical in nature, the industry now finds itself struggling to develop well-integrated vehicle solutions with the large dependency on software systems. The fast-paced nature of the software world makes it imperative to approach the development of automobiles from a Systems Engineering perspective. A function-based approach to the development of vehicle architectures can ensure cohesive systems development and a well-integrated vehicle. Such an approach can help in analyzing vehicle development from a capability-based perspective as opposed to the component-driven approach traditionally seen in legacy organizations. This paper discusses a systematic approach adopted by the authors to develop a vehicle logical architecture stemming from the key functions expected to be delivered by the vehicle. The paper discusses the detailed approach, starting from the ideation phase to its current state. The study highlighted how the current way of thinking within legacy organizations can hamper innovation, the necessity for reusable logical architectures, and the cultural barriers to the implementation of such an approach.
Bridging the Design Gap: Next-Level Automation in Automotive Design with the IncQuery AUTOSAR-UML Bridge
Authors: Kulcsár Géza , Ráth István , Grill Balázs , Horváth Ákos
Published: April 2024

The IncQuery AUTOSAR-UML Bridge is an innovative solution for Assisted Documentation Creation and Automated Handover, aiming at driving a paradigm shift in integrated digital engineering in the automotive domain. The AUTOSAR-UML Bridge is addressing a well-known gap in the engineering ecosystem of automotive design, where the co-design of AUTOSAR models and other model-based artifacts is often hampered by tedious workflows involving manual syncing of model contents between AUTOSAR and UML/SysML tools. The Bridge is aiming at streamlining the workflow by generating high-quality UML models from AUTOSAR projects, with built-in ISO26262 and ASPICE compliance. Automotive software architects and systems engineers spend a lot of time with creating ISO26262-compliant documentation, by creating UML models from AUTOSAR architecture designs, or establishing traceability between requirements captured in SysML and design artefacts that exist in both modeling languages. However, as a project progresses and the work of engineers diverges, keeping AUTOSAR and UML/SysML in synch can be a tedious, slow, and error-prone task – especially when you are already grappling with tight timelines and limited resources. The AUTOSAR-UML Bridge mitigates these workflow issues, by providing assistance for Automotive Software Architects to expedite documentation creation by generating UML models from AUTOSAR for architecture design. Moreover, it assists Automotive Software Engineers with transitioning to detailed design by adding UML-based internal behavior and interface descriptions to AUTOSAR projects. The IncQuery AUTOSAR-UML Bridge's seamless integration with Sparx Systems Enterprise Architect helps to streamline the overall design process. Furthermore, it can also work with LieberLieber’s LemonTree, to enable agile iterations where collaborating architects and engineers can easily merge changes from AUTOSAR into the corresponding UML model, without having to redo or delete anything.
Energy-Efficient and Context-Aware Computing in Software-Defined Vehicles for Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS)
Authors: Kothari Aadi , Talty Timothy , Huxtable Scott , Zeng Haibo
Published: April 2024

The rise of Software-Defined Vehicles (SDV) has rapidly advanced the development of Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS), Autonomous Vehicle (AV), and Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) technology. While AVs need power to compute data from perception to controls, BEVs need the efficiency to optimize their electric driving range and stand out compared to traditional Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) vehicles. AVs possess certain shortcomings in the current world, but SAE Level 2+ (L2+) Automated Vehicles are the focus of all major Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs). The most common form of an SDV today is the amalgamation of AV and BEV technology on the same platform which is prominently available in most OEM’s lineups. As the compute and sensing architectures for L2+ automated vehicles lean towards a computationally expensive centralized design, it may hamper the most important purchasing factor of a BEV, the electric driving range.

This research asserts that the development of dynamic sensing and context-aware algorithms will allow a BEV to retain energy efficiency and the ADAS to maintain performance. Moreover, a decentralized computing architecture design will allow the system to utilize System-on-Module (SoM) boards that can process Artificial Intelligence (AI) algorithms at the edge. This will enable refined hardware acceleration using Edge-AI. The research will propose the use of a novel Software-in-the-Loop (SiL) simulation environment for a 2023 Cadillac LYRIQ provided by the EcoCAR EV Challenge competition. Future work will involve an in-depth evaluation and discussion of the simulation data. We will conclude that optimizing sensing and computation in an SDV platform will allow Automated and Electric Vehicles to prosper concurrently without impeding their technological progress.
Deformation Analysis on In-Plane Loading of Prismatic Cell
Authors: Sun Zhiwei , Ying Pengfei , Qu Yunlong , Xia Yong , Zhou Qing
Published: April 2024

The collision accidents of electric vehicles are gradually increasing, and the response of battery cell under mechanical abuse conditions has attracted more and more attention. In the real collision, the mechanical load on battery generally has the following characteristics, including multiple loading directions, dynamic impact and blunt intrusion. Therefore, it is necessary to study the mechanical response and deformation of battery under complex loading, especially in-plane dynamic loading condition. According to the actual accident, we designed the constrained blunt compression test of the battery in different speeds and directions. For out-of-plane loading, the structural stiffness of battery increases obviously and the fracture is advanced compared with the corresponding quasi-static tests. For in-plane constrained loading, the force response can be approximately divided into two linear segments, in which the structural stiffness increases abruptly after the inflection point. Besides, the response inflection point is advanced under the in-plane dynamic loading condition. A detailed finite element (FE) model was established for further analysis, including separator, current collector, anode coating and cathode coating. The jellyroll of in-plane loading will undergo two stages: bending deformation and compaction. The analysis of the simulation shows that the elements below the indenter will enter the compaction state in advance under high-speed loading, which leads to the inflection point in advance. The intrusion speed could affect the bending deformation, only forming shear kinks at the ends of jellyroll. This makes the deformation under dynamic loading different from quasi-static loading. Consequently, our findings can provide a reference for the safety design of the actual collision of the battery package and module.
Development of Mo-Free Ultra-High Strength 1.6-GPa Bolt with Delayed Fracture Resistance for Multi-Link Type Engine
Authors: Sekine Daiki , Oyanagi Mitsushi , Hamada Takahiro , Furukawa Takayoshi , Matsumoto Yosuke , Kanoe Shinji
Published: April 2024

Mo-free 1.6-GPa bolt was developed for a Variable Compression Turbo (VC-Turbo) engine, which is environment friendly and improves fuel efficiency and output. Mo contributes to the improvement of delayed fracture resistance; therefore, the main objective is to achieve both high strength and delayed fracture resistance. Therefore, Si is added to the developed steel to achieve high strength and delayed fracture resistance. The delayed fracture tests were performed employing the Hc/He method. Hc is the limit of the diffusible hydrogen content without causing a delayed fracture under tightening, and He is the diffusible hydrogen content entering under a hydrogen-charging condition equivalent to the actual environment. The delayed fracture resistance is compared between the developed steel and the SCM440 utilized for 1.2-GPa class bolt as a representative of the current high-strength bolts. Owing to delayed fracture test, Hc/He of developed steel is 49.1 (Hc:3.39 ppm, He:0.069 ppm), and that of SCM440 is 4.14 (Hc:1.16 ppm, He:0.028 ppm). In the microstructure of the developed steel, cementite is dispersed by the addition of Si, and the film-like carbides that precipitated at the grain boundaries, causing delayed fracture, are suppressed. Therefore, Hc of the developed steel is higher than that of SCM440. Moreover, adding Si reduces the hydrogen diffusion rate; hence, the He of the developed steel is less than that of 1.2-GPa class bolt. Thus, we developed a novel 1.6-GPa tensile strength bolt that achieved higher hydrogen embrittlement resistance than the current high-strength bolt.
Design of a Double Wishbone Baja SAE Suspension System
Authors: Altmann Craig , Williams Keanu
Published: April 2024

The Baja SAE Completion is an extreme off roading event that requires an effective suspension design to survive the many obstacles that make up the racecourses. Without an effective suspension the many participating teams will experience poor performance or even failure within their suspension. This research focuses on the development and optimization of a double wishbone suspension in both the front and rear. Additionally, the design and optimization of a sway bar attached to the rear suspension will be gone through. Both the front and rear suspension will be optimized through three simulations heave, roll, and steering through the use of Optimum Kinematics. The process for placing the coilovers to ensure they will move perpendicular to control arms throughout their travel and ensuring the coilovers length in fully compression and extension are not exceeded will be developed through the use of SolidWorks and Optimum Kinematics. An effective mounting location for the axles checking that the max plunge of 1 in. and bend angle of 45° is not exceeded will also be developed through the use of SolidWorks. A detailed description for determining the ride and roll characteristics of the suspension will also be worked through to determine the desired numerical characteristics for a rear sway bar. In addition, the process for determining a wall thickness of 0.12 in. and an outer diameter of 0.75 in. for the sway bar will be discussed. Followed by the discussions that need to be made to the roll bar The roll bar also features the ability to change to three different roll gradients through simple adjustments in the linkage system.
Development of the New V6 Twin-Turbocharged Engine for Flagship SUV
Authors: TAKAHASHI Sho , KOJIMA Shuji , HAKAMADA Yuya , YOSHIDA Takahiro , KATSUMA Seiji
Published: April 2024

As part of Nissan’s strategy of electrification and the shift to smart technologies, our powertrain department has two main pillars: zero emissions and ICE Evolution. As a core unit of ICE Evolution, we have developed a brand new 3.5L V6 Twin turbocharged gasoline engine for Nissan’s next generation full-size flagship SUV to deliver luxury and toughness at the highest level.

This brand-new engine will be applied to vehicles in all corners of the world and must have strong performance in every corner. More specifically, it has to meet the latest emissions and fuel efficiency regulations, have strong power performance beyond expectation, and provide reliable drivability on rough roads and deserts.

To achieve these requirements, the new engine is incorporating many cutting-edge technologies. Stoichiometric combustion range has been expanded by Nissan’s latest high-speed combustion technology, which is enhanced by a higher pressure 35MPa injection system, an increased cooling efficiency combustion chamber, and an advanced exhaust temperature management system. Mirror bore coating, textured valve lifters, and optimized piston ring shaping technology all contribute to reduce friction. Lastly, lubrication performance on rough roads has been improved with a scavenging oil pump.

The combination of these technologies results in superior power performance, class-leading fuel efficiency, compliance with LEV4/Tier4 emissions regulations, and amazing off-road capabilities that surpass competitors. They are essential technologies for balancing engine efficiency and environmental considerations, creating a powertrain worthy of a flagship luxury SUV.

This paper describes details of this new engine and highlights the applied technologies and development procedures which have contributed to the highly balanced performance of this new engine.
Adaptive Cycle Engines vs. Electric Motors: A Comparison on Standard Drive Schedules
Authors: Ruiz Francisco
Published: April 2024

Adaptive Cycle Engines, where compression and expansion events do not follow a fixed sequence but rather take place depending on demand, are competitive against electric motors because of their higher power density, lower carbon footprint with current energy sources, and predicted ability to use any kind of renewable fuel. The advantage of Adaptive Cycle Engines is greater whenever the powerplant has at least two distinct operating modes: one for high output, and one for high energy economy. This paper compares the well-to-wheels CO2 emissions and pre-tax costs when operating powerplants based on Adaptive Cycle Engines and on electric motors under several scenarios: passenger car, on-road heavy-duty vehicle, and light aircraft.
Simulation Study of Cathode Spot Formation on Spark Plug Electrodes Leading to Electrode Erosion
Authors: Li Delong , Tambasco Corey , Hall Matthew , Matthews Ron
Published: April 2024

A multi-dimensional cathode spot generation model is proposed to study the interaction between the plasma arc and cathode surface of a spark plug during the ignition process. The model is focused on the instationary (high current) arc phase immediately following breakdown, and includes detailed physics for the phenomena during spot formation such as ion collision, thermal-field emission, and metal vaporization, to simulate the surface heat source, current density and surface pressure. The spot formation for a platinum cathode is simulated using the VOF (volume of fluid) model within FLUENT, where the local metal is melted and deformed by pressure differences on the surface. A random walk model has been integrated to consider the movement of the arc center, resulting in the formation of different types of spots. The simulation results show: it takes approximately 100 ns for the arc to discharge the electric charge of the spark plug side capacitance and form the spot in the instationary arc phase; the ion collisions are the dominant heating source for the spot generation, and thermal-field emission of electrons is the dominant process for current density and surface cooling rather than conduction to the metal cathode. The moving radius in the random walk model determines the different spot types and the surface profiles. The effects of different working conditions (pressure and temperature) are presented from simulation results while keeping breakdown voltage the same, and pressure has a very strong influence on spot formation. A preliminary estimation for the erosion rate due to oxidation is provided in the paper and its importance in different phases during ignition is discussed.
Combustion and HC&PN Emission Characteristics at First Cycle Starting of Gasoline Engine under Lean Burn Based on Active Pre-Chamber
Authors: Miao Xinke , Liu Renhe , Zhang Zhiheng , Deng Jun , Li Liguang , Hong Wei
Published: April 2024

As a novel ignition technology, pre-chamber ignition can enhance ignition energy, promote flame propagation, and augment turbulence. However, this technology undoubtedly faces challenges, particularly in the context of emission regulations. Of this study, the transient characteristics of combustion and emissions in a hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) gasoline engine with active pre-chamber ignition (PCI) under the first combustion cycle of quick start are focused. The results demonstrate that the PCI engine is available on the first cycle for lean combustion, such as lambda 1.6 to 2.0, and exhibit particle number (PN) below 7×107 N/mL at the first cycle. These particles are predominantly composed of nucleation mode (NM, <50 nm) particles, with minimal accumulation mode (AM, >50 nm) particles. It was observed that under a quick start engine speed of 800r/min, reducing the injection pulse width of pre-chamber and port fuel injection (PFI), advancing the injection timing of pre-chamber, delaying the injection timing of PFI, and delaying the ignition timing, all above lead to a decrease in PN. The lowest PN in the test was 4.6×107 N/mL and the lowest HC concentrations were 308×10-6. A strong correlation exists between AM concentration and indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP) as well as cumulative heat release. Conversely, hydrocarbon (HC) concentrations exhibit an opposing trend to AM concentration.
Simulation Investigation of Turbulent Jet Ignition (TJI) Combustion in a Dedicated Hybrid Engine under Stoichiometric Condition
Authors: Liu Shang , Lin Zhelong , Qi Yunliang , Lu Guoxiang , Wang Bo , Liu Yang , Wang Zhi
Published: April 2024

Turbulent jet ignition (TJI) combustion using pre-chamber ignition can accelerate the combustion speed in the cylinder and has garnered growing interest in recent years. However, it is complicated for the optimization of the pre-chamber structure and combustion system. This study investigated the effects of the pre-chamber structure and the intake ports on the combustion characteristics of a gasoline engine through CFD simulation. Spark ignition (SI) combustion simulation was also conducted for comparison. The results showed that the design of the pre-chamber that causes the jet flame colliding with walls severely worsen the combustion, increasing the knocking intendency, and decrease the thermal efficiency. Compared with SI combustion mode, the TJI combustion mode has the higher heat transfer loss and lower unburned loss. The well-optimized pre-chamber can accelerate the flame propagation with knock suppression. Strong-tumble flow distorts the jet flame propagation, which is not conducive to the development of combustion process. The TJI combustion mode combined with the new designed tumble-swirl intake port can increase the ITE by 0.7 % compared to SI combustion mode under condition of n = 3000 r/min and IMEP ≈ 1.0 MPa.
Combustion Chamber Development for Flat Firedeck Heavy-Duty Natural Gas Engines
Authors: Hoag Kevin , Wray Christopher , Callahan Timothy J. , Lu Qilong , Gilbert Ian , Abidin Zainal
Published: April 2024

The widely accepted best practice for spark-ignition combustion is the four-valve pent-roof chamber using a central sparkplug and incorporating tumble flow during the intake event. The bulk tumble flow readily breaks up during the compression stroke to fine-scale turbulent kinetic energy desired for rapid, robust combustion. The natural gas engines used in medium- and heavy-truck applications would benefit from a similar, high-tumble pent-roof combustion chamber. However, these engines are invariably derived from their higher-volume diesel counterparts, and the production volumes are insufficient to justify the amount of modification required to incorporate a pent-roof system. The objective of this multi-dimensional computational study was to develop a combustion chamber addressing the objectives of a pent-roof chamber while maintaining the flat firedeck and vertical valve orientation of the diesel engine. A new combustion chamber was designed based on a commercial 11-liter natural gas engine using stoichiometric combustion, exhaust gas recirculation, and a fixed, early intake valve closing Miller Cycle. Intake port, piston crown, and sparkplug placement modifications were evaluated to provide a combination of tumble and cross-tumble, while reducing but not eliminating the swirl of the base engine. Valve and seat dimensions and orientation of the base engine were maintained, allowing the modifications to be implemented with only a cylinder head casting and piston crown change. For comparative analysis a pent-roof system applied to the same engine was also evaluated. The new design accomplished the objectives of increased burn rate and improved auto-ignition margin. The delay of auto-ignition onset allowed a compression ratio increase from the baseline 13:1 to either 14 or 14.5:1 depending on full-load timing retard decisions. A full-load thermal efficiency improvement of 0.7 to 0.8 points and part-load improvements of 1.5 to 2 points are projected. Performance matched or exceeded that achieved with the pent-roof chamber.
Combustion Characteristics of Aluminum Oxide Nanoparticles-Diesel Blends in a Constant Volume Chamber
Authors: Ji Huangchang , Lee Timothy , Zhao Zhiyu , Chen Shengwei
Published: April 2024

This study investigates the effects on combustion characteristics of aluminum oxide (Al2O3) nanoparticles as additives for diesel in a constant volume chamber. Depending on the amount of aluminum oxide nanoparticles added, the test fuels are labeled as DA25, DA50, and DA100, which represent 25, 50, and 100 mg of aluminum oxide nanoparticles into 1 L of pure diesel, respectively. The ambient temperature for this experiment ranged from 800 to 1200 K to cover conventional and low-temperature combustion regimes. The oxygen concentration ranged from 21% to 13% to simulate different levels of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR). Based on in-cylinder pressure traces and results of apparent heat release rates, there was an improvement in combustion characteristics with the addition of aluminum oxide nanoparticles. The best combustion characteristics improvement was obtained under 800K/13% oxygen concentration case, where peak combustion pressure and heat release rate increased by 1.84% and 5.42% respectively for the DA25 blend. For all the tested fuels, the ignition delay increased with the reduction of ambient temperature and increase of oxygen concentration. At 800K/13% oxygen concentration case, combustion duration and ignition delay decreased by 6.06% and 10.58% respectively for the DA25 blend. Results also showed that the addition of aluminum oxide nanoparticles shortened the ignition delay of tested blends, especially at a low ambient oxygen concentration of 13%. Flame images were captured by a high-speed camera and results showed that, by adding aluminum oxide nanoparticles, the flame structures were similar to that of pure diesel. Spatially integrated natural luminosity was also captured as the indicator of soot emissions, and the results showed the effect on soot emissions with the addition of aluminum oxide nanoparticles into diesel.
Impact of Deposit Control Additives on Particulate Emissions and Fuel Consumption in Pre-used Vehicles with Gasoline Direct Injection Engines
Authors: Mitchell Benji , Krueger-Venus Jens , Chahal Jasprit , Buttery Ian , Williams Rod , Cracknell Roger , Pery Luke , Aradi Allen
Published: April 2024

Injector nozzle deposits can have a profound effect on particulate emissions from vehicles fitted with Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI) engines. Several recent publications acknowledge the benefits of using Deposit Control Additives (DCA) to maintain or restore injector cleanliness and in turn minimise particulates, but others claim that high levels of DCA could have detrimental effects due to the direct contribution of DCA to particulates, that outweigh the benefits of injector cleanliness.

Much of the aforementioned work was conducted in laboratory scenarios with model fuels. In this investigation a fleet of 7 used GDI vehicles were taken from the field to determine the net impact of DCAs on particulates in real-world scenarios. The vehicles tested comprised a range of vehicles from different manufacturers that were certified to Euro 5 and Euro 6 emissions standards. In a first phase, the vehicles were fuelled on EN228 compliant gasoline treated with a high dose of DCA and were driven on a chassis dynamometer over 4750km and in two cases over 5800km with periodic WLTC emissions measurements to determine the potential for particulate emissions and fuel consumption and CO2 reduction attributable to injector clean-up.

In a second phase, a series of WLTC tests were conducted while the fuel was alternated between the high-DCA fuel and the same fuel excluding the DCA to determine the instantaneous effect of the DCA on particulate emissions.

A fleet-average reduction in particulate emissions, fuel consumption and tailpipe CO2 emissions were observed with the continuous use of high-DCA fuel whereas no statistically significant differences were observed from the tests alternating between the high-DCA and unadditivated fuels. Therefore, the injector cleanliness benefits of operating these real-world vehicles on high-DCA fuel far exceeded any detriments due to the instantaneous impact of the DCA.
Oxygenated Fuels as Reductants for Lean NOx Trap Regeneration
Authors: Sandhu Navjot Singh , Yu Xiao , Ting David , Zheng Ming
Published: April 2024

The push for environmental protection and sustainability has led to strict emission regulations for automotive manufacturers as evident in EURO VII and 2026 EPA requirements. The challenge lies in maintaining fuel efficiency and simultaneously reducing the carbon footprint while meeting future emission regulations. Alcohol (primarily methanol, ethanol, and butanol) and ether (dimethyl ether) fuels, owing to their comparable energy density to existing fuels, the comparative ease of handling, renewable production, and suitable emission characteristics may present an attractive drop-in replacement, fully or in part as an additive, to the gasoline/diesel fuels, without extensive modifications to the engine geometry. Additionally, lean and diluted combustion are well-researched pathways for efficiency improvement and reduction of engine-out emissions of modern engines. Modern internal combustion engines typically employ various in-cylinder emission reduction techniques along with a multi-stage exhaust after-treatment system to comply with emission standards. Lean NOx trap (LNT) is one such aftertreatment system that can reduce the tailpipe NOx under lean conditions at a cost of fuel efficiency penalty due to regeneration. This penalty can be partially mitigated by using in-cylinder NOx reduction methodologies. In the present study, the impact of oxygenated fuels (ethanol and dimethyl Ether) on the regeneration of LNT catalyst under various lean burn exhaust conditions is investigated. The regeneration characteristics of the oxygenated fuels are compared to those of conventional gasoline fuels. Relevant engine-out exhaust conditions from SI and CI engines, including flow, temperature, and exhaust species, operating at different dilution conditions were replicated on a heated aftertreatment flow bench. A comprehensive analysis of species before and after the catalyst sections was performed using Fourier-transformed infrared (FTIR) and mass spectrometers to study and quantify the conversion and formation of species, including ammonia, methane, and hydrogen, under different catalyst conditions. The conversion selectivity of different species is also investigated. The results show that gasoline, ethanol and DME can act as effective reductants for LNT regeneration. LNT catalyst achieves the maximum storage efficiency at 350°C regardless of the reductant used. The NOx conversion efficiency of LNT increases unidirectionally with temperature.
A Linear Quadratic Integral Approach to the Profiling of Engine Speed for Synchronization
Authors: Rostiti Cristian , Patel Nadirsh , Basutkar Ameya , Banuso Abdulquadri
Published: April 2024

During driving conditions, when it is needed to transition from Electric Vehicle (EV) to Hybrid Vehicle operation, synchronization of the engine with the shaft and transmission is essential to enable clutch engagement and, subsequently, providing engine power to the wheels. Challenges arise when the engine must generate power to move itself and cannot rely on electric motors for precision. Cost-effective hybrid vehicle propulsion architectures which utilize small 12V belt-starter generators (BSGs) to initiate engine activation are inherently affected. In these situations, a speed profile that balance rapid response and control effort while considering system limitations to mitigate undesirable overshoots and delays, is required. This paper presents a Linear Quadratic Integral (LQI) approach to formulate a speed reference profile that ensures optimal engine behavior. The proposed strategy is seamlessly integrated as an open-loop feedforward controller into a powertrain torque control supervisor. System constraints are evaluated downstream the LQI where the electric authority is considered, and the target is achieved by jointly actuate electric machine and the engine. A low-level engine control is tasked to command the actuators to meet such profile. Through the utilization of case studies, including scenarios involving engine activation during EV mode, the paper highlights the effectiveness of the proposed strategy.
A numerical Methodology for Induction Motor Control: Lookup Tables Generation and Steady-State Performance Analysis
Authors: Grano Elia , Lazek Tomas , Carello Massimiliana
Published: April 2024

This paper presents a numerical methodology to generate lookup tables that provide d- and q-axis stator current references for the control of electric motors. The main novelty with respect to other literature references is the introduction of the iron power losses in the equivalent-circuit electric motor model implemented in the optimization routine. The lookup tables generation algorithm discretizes the motor operating domain and, given proper constraints on maximum stator current and magnetic flux, solves a numerical optimization problem for each possible operating point to determine the combination of d- and q- axis stator currents that minimizes the imposed objective function while generating the desired torque. To demonstrate the versatility of the proposed approach, two different variants of this numerical interpretation of the motor control problem are proposed: Maximum Torque Per Ampere and Minimum Electromagnetic Power Loss. A practical example of calculation of the lookup tables for the control of an induction machine is presented and the results of a steady-state performance analysis are shown.
Cool System, Lasting Power - an Outstanding E-Powertrain Meets MX Dirt Track
Authors: Arnold Thomas , Krause Matthias , Böhme Jan , Leesch Mirko , Palazzolo David , Gentgen Holger
Published: April 2024

The powertrain electrification is currently not only taking place in public road mobility vehicles, but is also making its way to the racetrack, where it’s driving innovation for developments that will later be used in series production vehicles. The current development focus for electric vehicles is the balance between driving power, range and weight, which is given even greater weighting in racing. To redefine the current limits, IAV developed a complete e-powertrain for a racing MX motorcycle and integrated it into a real drivable demonstrator bike. The unique selling point is the innovative direct phase-change cooling (PCC) of the three-phase e-motor and its power electronics, which enables significantly increased continuous power (Pe = 40 kW from 7,000 rpm to 9,000 rpm) without thermal power reduction. The drive unit is powered by a replaceable Lithium-Ion round cell battery (Ubat,max = 370V) with an energy storage capacity of Ebat = 5 kWh. The battery system is completely integrated into series chassis and equipped with immersion cooling including cell temperature monitoring.

The power transmission to the wheel realized by a single speed transmission and hydraulically actuated multi-plate wet clutch. The driving range under racing conditions (driving time) on a dirt track circuit is min. tTrack = 35 min. By means of an exchange battery pack a quick change of the battery is realized and so more than one race stint at racing weekend could be managed. The total weight of the motorcycle is located at the 450cc four-stroke class (mbike ~113 kg), whereby the handling is implemented with a state-of-the-art chassis and suspension analogous to the classic fuel MX motorcycle. In addition, the drivability by means of adjustments to the e-motor characteristics (power and power output), recuperation, etc. is largely freely adaptable.

Within this paper, the design, construction & integration, and thermal management of the new drivetrain for an MX motorcycle will be presented in detail.
Development of New 2.0-Liter Plug-in Hybrid System for the Toyota Prius
Authors: Tomita Makoto , Shibata Ryosuke , Mizuno Yota , Maeda Hideki , Murasato Kenji , Shimura Amane , Takayama Toshiaki , Nakado Takashi , Tomita Yoshiki
Published: April 2024

Reducing vehicle CO2 emissions is an important measure to help address global warming. To reduce CO2 emissions on a global basis, Toyota Motor Corporation is taking a multi-pathway approach that involves the introduction of the optimal powertrains according to the circumstances of each region, including hybrid electric (HEVs) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), as well as battery electric vehicles (BEVs). This report describes the development of a new PHEV system for the Toyota Prius. This system features a traction battery pack structure, transaxle, and power control unit (PCU) with boost converter, which were newly developed based on the 2.0-liter HEV system. As a result, the battery capacity was increased by 1.5 times compared to the previous model with almost the same battery pack size. Transmission efficiency was also improved, extending the distance that the Prius can be driven as an EV by 70%. System power was increased by 1.8 times in almost the same size as the previous unit by adopting a double-boost system and increasing the motor output. The same packaging as the HEV system was realized by integrating the DC-DC converter, which is mounted under the rear seat in the RAV4 PHEV, into the PCU in the engine compartment and combining the power supply into the charger. In addition, changing the location of the battery pack from the luggage compartment to under the rear seats helped to realize a low-floor sedan type PHEV with an attractive design. These developments enabled the development of a PHEV with excellent environmental performance and power. The new PHEV achieves an EV range of 45 miles (combined label value) and power of 164 kW.
Fuel Cell Hybrid Electric Vehicle: An Integrated Approach for Sub-Optimal Controller in Real-Time Application
Authors: Bartolucci Lorenzo , Cennamo Edoardo , Cordiner Stefano , Donnini Marco , Grattarola Federico , Mulone Vincenzo
Published: April 2024

Hydrogen technologies are among the main candidates to reduce carbon emissions in the automotive transport sector. Among the innovative solutions, Electric Vehicles (EVs) featuring hybrid powertrains, combining battery packs and hydrogen Fuel Cell (FC) stacks, are gaining prominence in our pursuit of sustainability objectives.

Nonetheless, realizing the full potential of these hybrid vehicles hinges on the implementation of efficient Energy Management Strategies (EMS). In this study, we present an integrated EMS approach to achieve extended driving ranges and reduced energy consumption. This is achieved primarily by operating the FC within its high-efficiency range, while ensuring that the battery packs operate in a charge-sustaining mode. The EMS is crafted through an adaptive algorithm that takes into account various driving conditions to establish the most suitable sub-optimal control strategy.

An integrated offline algorithm is developed: starting from an extensive sample of driving cycles, it is able to generate a set of sub-optimal fuzzy controllers, to be directly implemented onboard. These controllers are thoughtfully designed to replicate the optimal choices obtained through Dynamic Programming applied to the most representative driving cycles, as identified by the K-Means clustering algorithm.

Subsequently, a Driving Pattern Recognition (DPR) technique has been implemented on the vehicle model. This technique empowers real-time detection of the current driving conditions and facilitates seamless adaptive switching between the appropriate controllers.

Analysis has been performed for a microcar application, including an FC stack validated by experimental tests. The results have been evaluated for hydrogen fully discharge random missions and ambient temperature of 25 ° C, covering about 100km, with an increase of up to 9% compared to a range extender strategy. The improved performance (about 7% greater driving range) with respect to the range extender strategy has also been conserved for a more demanding driving cycle where additional security features have been added to the developed EMS to preserve the SOC to drop below 68%. Furthermore, the effectiveness of the proposed strategy is demonstrated by the increase in the mean efficiency of the fuel cell stack compared to the range extender strategy, approximately 10%.
Uniformity Identification and Sensitivity Analysis of Water Content of Each PEM Fuel Cell Based on New Online High Frequency Resistance Measurement Technique
Authors: Hong Po , Ming Pingwen , Zhang Cunman
Published: April 2024

Water content estimation is a key problem for studying the PEM fuel cell. When several hundred fuel cells are connected in serial and their active surface area is enlarged for sufficient power, the difference between cells becomes significant with respect to voltage and water content. The voltage of each cell is measurable by the cell voltage monitor (CVM) while it is difficult to estimate water content of the individual. Resistance of the polymer electrolyte membrane is monotonically related to its water content, so that the new online high frequency resistance (HFR) measurement technique is investigated to identify the uniformity of water content between cells and analyze its sensitivity to operating conditions in this paper. Firstly, the accuracy of the proposed technique is experimentally validated to be comparable to that of a commercialized electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) measurement equipment. Secondly, the HFR of each cell of a 164-cell and 270 cm2 stack is acquired by means of the re-designed CVM and it contributes to the uniformity identification of their water content. Thirdly, the sensitivity analysis of the HFR to operating conditions implies the importance of air excess ratio and chamber pressure in adjusting water content, and the dynamic experiment shows the difference of time constant between removal and accumulation of water in the fuel cell, namely the hysteresis phenomenon. The online HFR measurement technique for each cell of a large stack proposed in this study can be implemented to more situations like experimental research in laboratory, application in transportation area and even extension to battery research.
Development of Time-Temperature Analysis Algorithm for Estimation of Lithium-Ion Battery Useful Life
Authors: Arora Dipan , El-Sharkawy Alaa , Panchal Satyam
Published: April 2024

Due to the recent progress in electrification, lithium-ion batteries have been widely used for electric and hybrid vehicles. Lithium-ion batteries exhibit high energy density and high-power density which are critical for vehicle development with high driving range enhanced performance. However, high battery temperature can negatively impact the battery life, performance, and energy delivery. In this paper, we developed and applied an analytical algorithm to estimate battery life-based vehicle level testing. A set of vehicle level tests were selected to represent customer duty cycles. Thermal degradation models are applied to estimate battery capacity loss during driving and park conditions. Due to the sensitivity of Lithium-Ion batteries to heat, the effect of high ambient temperatures throughout the year is considered as well. The analysis provides an estimate of the capacity loss due to calendar and cyclic effects throughout the battery life. Based on this analysis, appropriate thermal management can be implemented to mitigate the impact of high temperature on battery life.
Modeling of Vent Gas Composition during Battery Thermal Runaway
Authors: Hariharan Deivanayagam , Gundlapally Santhosh
Published: April 2024

The growing global adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) emphasizes the pressing need for a comprehensive understanding of thermal runaway in lithium-ion batteries. Prevention of the onset of thermal runaway and its subsequent propagation throughout the entire battery pack is one of the pressing challenges of lithium-ion batteries. In addition to generating excess heat, thermal runaway of batteries also releases hazardous flammable gases, posing risks of external combustion and fires. Most existing thermal runaway models in literature primarily focus on predicting heat release or the total amount of vent gas. In this study, we present a model capable of predicting both heat release and the transient composition of emitted gases, including CO, H2, CO2, and hydrocarbons, during thermal runaway events. We calibrated the model using experimental data obtained from an 18650 cell from the literature, ensuring the accuracy of reaction parameters. We employ this developed model to investigate how different state-of-charge (SOC) levels (25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%) impact thermal runaway events and subsequent gas composition. Our analysis of three major input parameters: pre-exponent multiplier, activation energy, and specific heat release, across the SOC levels, revealed similar reaction rates for SOC levels between 50% and 100%, except for the anode, with significant difference for 25% SOC parameters, resulting in lower cell temperatures during thermal runaway.
Analytical Model for Evaluating Unbalanced Electromagnetic Forces in Switched Reluctance Hub Motors under Air-Gap Eccentricity
Authors: Deng Zhaoxue , Ma Tianji
Published: April 2024

Owing to its remarkable simplicity, high torque density, and expansive speed range, the switched reluctance motor (SRM) garners significant attention in the automotive industry, particularly in propelling electric vehicles. Nevertheless, the most prominent challenge faced by SRMs in their role as hub motors for electric vehicles is the unbalanced radial electromagnetic forces resulting from air gap eccentricity, which will induce motor vibration and noise, even seriously jeopardizing the driving safety of electric vehicles. Building upon the foundation of a nonlinear model for the SRM, this paper presents an analytical approach to assess the unbalanced radial forces arising from both radial and tilt air gap eccentricities. Furthermore, a test platform is constructed to validate the effectiveness of the proposed method, and comparative analyses of experiments, finite element simulations, and numerical analytical results are provided. These investigations have provided valuable information and references for future research on the unbalanced radial forces of electric motors under dynamic eccentricity and established the groundwork for enhancing the switched reluctance motor's overall performance, stability, and safety within the hub motor system.
Optimization of Structural Rigidity of the Door Module Mounting part
Authors: Cho Kyeongkuk , Choi JEWON
Published: April 2024

The recent surge in platforms like YouTube has facilitated greater access to information for consumers, and vehicles are no exception, so consumers are increasingly demanding of the quality of their vehicles. By the way, the door is composed of glass, moldings, and other parts that consumers can touch directly, and because it is a moving part, many quality issues arise. In particular, the door panel is assembled from all of the above-mentioned parts and thereby necessitates a robust structure. Therefore, this study focuses on the structural stiffness of the door inner panel module mounting area because the door module is closely to the glass raising and lowering, which is intrinsically linked to various quality issues.