bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Does Acute Exercise Switch Off Switch Costs? A Study With Younger and Older Athletes
Authors: Pesce Caterina , Audiffren Michel
Published: August 2016

This study investigated the effects of acute exercise on 53 young (16–24 years) and 47 older (65–74 years) adults’ switch-task performance. Participants practiced sports requiring either low or high cognitive demands. Both at rest and during aerobic exercise, the participants performed two reaction time tasks that differed in the amount of executive control involved in switching between global and local target features of visual compound stimuli. Switch costs were computed as reaction time differences between switch and nonswitch trials. In the low demanding task, switch costs were sensitive only to age, whereas in the high demanding task, they were sensitive to acute exercise, age, and sport-related cognitive expertise. The results suggest that acute exercise enhances cognitive flexibility and facilitates complex switch-task performance. Both young age and habitual practice of cognitively challenging sports are associated with smaller switch costs, but neither age nor cognitive expertise seem to moderate the relationship between acute exercise and switch-task performance.
Physical Activity and Cognitive Function in Multiple Sclerosis
Authors: Motl Robert W. , Gappmaier Eduard , Nelson Kathryn , Benedict Ralph H.B.
Published: August 2016

Cognitive impairment is prevalent, disabling, and poorly managed in persons with multiple sclerosis (MS). This cross-sectional study examined the associations among physical activity, cognitive processing speed, and learning and memory in 33 persons with MS who underwent neuropsychological assessments and wore a physical activity monitor for 7 days. Cognitive impairment was greatest in cognitive processing speed. Physical activity was significantly correlated with cognitive processing speed (pr = .35), but not learning and memory (pr = .20), after controlling for sex, age, and education. Researchers should examine exercise training and physical activity effects on cognitive performance, particularly processing speed, in MS.
Testing a Model of Physical Activity Among Mothers and Fathers of Young Children: Integrating Self-Determined Motivation, Planning, and the Theory of Planned Behavior
Authors: Hamilton Kyra , Cox Stephen , White Katherine M.
Published: August 2016

Parents are at risk for inactivity; however, research into understanding parental physical activity (PA) is scarce. We integrated self-determined motivation, planning, and the theory of planned behavior (TPB) to better understand parental PA. Parents (252 mothers, 206 fathers) completed a main questionnaire assessing measures underpinning these constructs and a 1-week follow-up of PA behavior to examine whether self-determined motivation indirectly influenced intention via the TPB variables (i.e., attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control) and intention indirectly influenced behavior via planning. We found self-determined motivation on intention was fully mediated by the TPB variables and intention on behavior was partially mediated by the planning variables. In addition, slight differences in the model’s paths between the sexes were revealed. The results illustrate the range of important determinants of parental PA and provide support for the integrated model in explaining PA decision making as well as the importance of examining sex differences.
The Effects of Individual and Team Competitions on Performance, Emotions, and Effort
Authors: Cooke Andrew , Kavussanu Maria , McIntyre David , Ring Christopher
Published: August 2016

It is well documented that competition can affect performance and emotion in sport. However, our understanding of the comparative effects of individual and team competitions on performance and emotion is limited. We also know little about emotion-based mechanisms underlying the effects of different types of competition on performance. To address these issues, 64 participants completed a handgrip endurance task during time-trial, one-on-one, two-on-two, and four-on-four competitions while self-report and possible corroborative physiological measures of enjoyment, anxiety, and effort were assessed. Results indicated that performance, enjoyment, anxiety, and effort increased from individual to team competitions. The observed increases in performance were mediated by increased enjoyment and effort. Our findings illustrate differential effects of individual and team competitions on performance and emotion. Moreover, they indicate that both enjoyment-based and anxiety-based mechanisms can explain changes in performance among different types of individual and team competition.
When Do Chronic Differences in Self-Regulation Count?: Regulatory Focus Effects in Easy and Difficult Soccer Tasks
Authors: Vogel Tobias , Genschow Oliver
Published: August 2016

Research on regulatory focus theory (Higgins, 1997) suggests that performance increases if instructions fit with sportspersons’ dispositions. Sportspersons who chronically focus on wins (i.e., promotion-oriented individuals) perform best if instructions frame the objective as a promotion goal (e.g., “Try to hit!”). By contrast, sportspersons who chronically focus on losses (i.e., prevention-oriented individuals) perform best if instructions frame the objective as a prevention goal (e.g., “Try not to miss!”). Recent theorizing also suggests that regulatory focus interacts with task difficulty. In an experiment, we assessed soccer performance as a function of chronic focus, instructional focus, and task difficulty. Results support that task difficulty moderates the effects of fit on performance; fitting instructions to match the sportsperson’s chronic regulatory focus improved performance in the easy rather than the difficult task. Findings are discussed regarding the role of regulatory fit in altering subjective pressure during sports performance.
Primary and Secondary Exercise Dependence in a Community-Based Sample of Road Race Runners
Authors: Cook Brian , Karr Trisha M. , Zunker Christie , Mitchell James E. , Thompson Ron , Sherman Roberta , Crosby Ross D. , Cao Li , Erickson Ann , Wonderlich Stephen A.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of our study was to examine exercise dependence (EXD) in a large community-based sample of runners. The secondary purpose of this study was to examine differences in EXD symptoms between primary and secondary EXD. Our sample included 2660 runners recruited from a local road race (M age = 38.78 years, SD = 10.80; 66.39% women; 91.62% Caucasian) who completed all study measures online within 3 weeks of the race. In this study, EXD prevalence was lower than most previously reported rates (gamma = .248, p < .001) and individuals in the at-risk for EXD category participated in longer distance races, F(8,1) = 14.13, p = .01, partial eta squared = .05. Group differences were found for gender, F(1,1921) 8.08, p = .01, partial eta squared = .004, and primary or secondary group status, F(1,1921) 159.53, p = .01, partial eta squared = .077. Implications of primary and secondary EXD differences and future research are discussed.
Not All Risks Are Equal: The Risk Taking Inventory for High-Risk Sports
Authors: Woodman Tim , Barlow Matt , Bandura Comille , Hill Miles , Kupciw Dominika , MacGregor Alexandra
Published: August 2016

Although high-risk sport participants are typically considered a homogenous risk-taking population, attitudes to risk within the high-risk domain can vary considerably. As no validated measure allows researchers to assess risk taking within this domain, we validated the Risk Taking Inventory (RTI) for high-risk sport across four studies. The RTI comprises seven items across two factors: deliberate risk taking and precautionary behaviors. In Study 1 (n = 341), the inventory was refined and tested via a confirmatory factor analysis used in an exploratory fashion. The subsequent three studies confirmed the RTI’s good model–data fit via three further separate confirmatory factor analyses. In Study 2 (n = 518) and in Study 3 (n = 290), concurrent validity was also confirmed via associations with other related traits (sensation seeking, behavioral activation, behavioral inhibition, impulsivity, self-esteem, extraversion, and conscientiousness). In Study 4 (n = 365), predictive validity was confirmed via associations with mean accidents and mean close calls in the high-risk domain. Finally, in Study 4, the self-report version of the inventory was significantly associated with an informant version of the inventory. The measure will allow researchers and practitioners to investigate risk taking as a variable that is conceptually distinct from participation in a high-risk sport.
The Motivational Effects of Social Contagion on Exercise Participation in Young Female Adults
Authors: Scarapicchia Tanya M.F. , Sabiston Catherine M. , Andersen Ross E. , Bengoechea Enrique Garcia
Published: August 2016

Young inactive healthy-weight females (n = 42) were randomly assigned to exercise at a self-selected pace on a treadmill beside a confederate who was providing either intrinsic or externally regulated verbal primes. Heart rate (HR), rating of perceived exertion (RPE), percentage of time spent in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), and exercise continuance were recorded. Participants completed a self-report questionnaire assessing mood pre- and postexercise session and postexercise motivational outcomes. The intrinsic motivation group reported higher RPE values after 8 min of exercise, had higher recorded HR measures at all 5 recorded time points, exercised at a higher %HR max, spent more time in MVPA, and were more likely to continue to exercise than participants in the externally regulated motivation group. A time effect was noted for vigor. Based on these findings, exercise motivation can be “contagious” through verbal primes, suggesting that exercising with or around intrinsically motivated individuals may have beneficial outcomes.
Measurement and Management of the Sportscape
Authors: Wakefield Kirk L. , Blodgett Jeffrey G. , Sloan Hugh J.
Published: August 2016

The physical environment of the stadium may have a significant effect on the extent to which spectators will desire to stay and return to the stadium. Specific aspects of the stadium experience may lead directly to spectators' pleasure with the place, while other factors may contribute to negative feelings that may decrease pleasure. This study provides sports facility managers with a reliable survey instrument to determine how spectators perceive their facility. Recommendations are provided to guide stadium owners and managers in the effective management of the facility to maximize spectator satisfaction.
Governance of Intercollegiate Athletics: Perceptions of Faculty Members
Authors: Kuga Donna J.
Published: August 2016

This study examined faculty perceptions of (a) the impact of intercollegiate athletics on institutional goals and educational experiences, (b) the role and influence of faculty regarding athletics, and (c) the factors influencing their willingness (or unwillingness) to participate in the governance of intercollegiate athletics. The study also investigated differences in faculty reactions among subgroups defined by gender, faculty status, and previous athletic participation. A sample of 240 faculty from a Big Ten Conference university responded to a mailed questionnaire. Factor analyses yielded 2 factors in impact of intercollegiate athletics, 2 factors in role and influence, 3 factors in reasons for faculty involvement, and 6 factors in reasons for lack of faculty involvement. MANOVA results indicated that those who had participated in athletics perceived greater Educational Contribution of athletics and less Value Conflicts between athletics and academics than those who had not participated in athletics.
An Assessment of the Perception of Management and Leadership Skills by Intercollegiate Athletics Conference Commissioners
Authors: Quarterman Jerome
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this investigation was to assess the perceptions of intercollegiate athletics conference commissioners regarding skills associated with management and leadership. A descriptive survey design was used to collect the data. The study showed that commissioners (N = 75) of NCAA Division I, II, and III conferences rated skills associated with management higher than those associated with leadership (f[l,69] = 5.109, p = .0001). Based on a 5-point Likert scale, the survey concluded: (a) Overall mean rates for management (M = 3.61, SD = .680) were higher than for leadership (M = 3.28, SD = .636), and (b) mean rates for both management and leadership were above average (M = 3.00). Serendipitously, the skills of management and leadership were discovered to be associated with brain hemisphere and whole brain thinking. The investigation's findings may serve as a guide for further research on management and leadership of intercollegiate athletic administrators.
Managing Cultural Diversity in Sport Organizations: A Theoretical Perspective
Authors: Doherty Alison J. , Chelladurai Packianathan
Published: August 2016

The article focuses on the management and impact of cultural diversity in sport organizations. It is proposed that the potentially constructive or destructive impact of cultural diversity is a function of the management of that diversity, which is ultimately a reflection of organizational culture, or “how things are done around here.” Organizational culture is described along a continuum of valuing similarity and diversity in the organization. It is argued that the benefits of cultural diversity (e.g., creativity, challenge, constructive conflict) will be realized when an organizational culture of diversity underlies the management of that diversity. These benefits are heightened when the situation dictates a high degree of task interdependence and complexity. Implications for increasing cultural diversity and developing an organizational culture that values that diversity, as a social responsibility and a contributing force to organizational performance, are discussed.
Tie Economic Significance of Sport in Flanders
Authors: Taks Marijke , Késenne Stefan
Published: August 2016

This study measures the share of the sports sector in the regional economy of Flanders by means of expenditure related to active sports participation and spectator sport. In contrast with the more common cost-benefit approach, the perspective of this study is rather macroeconomic. A representative sample of 512 households was interviewed by means of a standardized questionnaire. Data on government expenditure were gathered from an analysis of budgets and bills. Private investments and the balance of trade statistics were estimated. All these expenditures, $4.3 billion U.S., constitute the Gross Regional Sport Product for Flanders. During the past 15 years, household expenditure in sport has increased, while government expenditure has stagnated. However, government intervention remains necessary for setting up the legal context, financing the construction and maintenance of a rich variety of sports facilities, and for lowering the price threshold for low-income families. This study has shown the importance of the sports sector for the Flemish economy, mainly through household expenditure.
Strategic Choices in a Turbulent Environment: A Case Study of Starter Corporation
Authors: Sack Allen L. , Nadim Abbas
Published: August 2016

The Starter Corporation, the industry leader in the sports licensed apparel business in the 1980s and 1990s, declared bankruptcy in 1999. This case study examines Starter’s rise and fall, focusing on the interaction between management decisions made over the years and the profound changes that were taking place in the sports licensing industry. It was found that Starter’s dependence on professional leagues for licensing agreements, a flood of new entrants into the licensing industry (especially large footwear manufacturers), the threat of substitute products, dependence on overseas and other suppliers, and players’ strikes and lockouts created a volatile business environment in which Starter had to compete. The major question raised in this case concerns the relative importance of environmental factors and strategic choices by management in Starter’s demise. Michael Porter’s (1980) “five forces model” of industry competition provided a theoretical starting point for this study.
In Search of Relived Social Experience: Group-Based Nostalgia Sport Tourism
Authors: Fairley Sheranne
Published: August 2016

Why do some fans travel to follow professional sport teams? In order to answer that question, participant observation and ethnographic interviews were used to examine the motives and behaviors of a group that undertakes a 5-day bus trip to watch its team play in a distant city. Nostalgia was identified as a key element of the experience. In particular, nostalgic recollections of past trips were found to be a vital basis for repeated travel by the group and for socializing new members. Five themes having to do with nostalgia were identified: nostalgia as motive, norms and rituals as objects of nostalgia, best experience as object of nostalgia, nostalgia as a basis for trip suggestions, and nostalgia through socialization. It is suggested that group-based nostalgia can play a more significant role in fan travel behavior than has heretofore been recognized and that nostalgic appeals can foster repeat purchase.
Beyond Economic Impact: An Alternative Rationale for the Public Subsidy of Major League Sports Facilities
Authors: Crompton John
Published: August 2016

Government contributions to the funding of major league facilities ipso facto recognize that some portion of the benefits accruing from such facilities accrue to the public in general, rather than being captured exclusively by the franchise owner. The challenge for facility advocates is to demonstrate the return on investment to the taxpayer. This has been elusive. The canard that substantial returns accrue from the direct economic impact of visitors to games has been discredited. A taxonomy of four alternate sources of spillover benefits that are most frequently cited is proposed: increased community visibility; enhanced community image; stimulation of other development; and psychic income. Justifications using to the first three of these alternates are conceptualized as focusing on external audiences, with the intent of encouraging their investment of resources in the community. In some contexts, some economic benefits may accrue from these sources, but in most cases they cannot be demonstrated to be sufficient to justify the taxpayers’ investment. It is argued that psychic income, which focuses internally on the benefits received by existing residents in the community, is likely to be key to justifying public subsidy of major league facilities. It is suggested that the contingency valuation method is an appropriate approach for measuring the psychic income provided by a professional sport franchise.
Recovering (From) Janet Jackson’s Breast: Ethics and the Nexus of Media, Sports, and Management
Authors: Wenner Lawrence A.
Published: August 2016

This case study examines the context of and reaction to the uncovering of singer Janet Jackson’s breast during the broadcast of the 2004 Super Bowl halftime show. Using a select thick reading of the event and its coverage, the analysis focuses on: a) the construction of the event by its organizational stakeholders, b) the reconstruction of understandings about how the fiasco came to be and what really happened and should have happened, and c) the deconstruction of the event by critics and those in the political environment who had reason to consider the incident and the response to it in a broader social context. Strategies for change and the prospects for “ethical health” in the sport marketplace are considered, with special attention given to promotional communication and crisis management.
Selling (Out) the Sporting Woman: Advertising Images in Four Athletic Magazines
Authors: Lynn Susan , Hardin Marie , Walsdorf Kristie
Published: August 2016

This study examines the presentation of women in advertising photographs published in four women’s sports and fitness magazines in order to ascertain the presence of sexual difference and differentiate between advertising messages in the magazines. Researchers found strong support for sexual difference in advertisements contained in fitness-oriented magazines, and, at the other end of the spectrum, rejection of sexual difference in magazines that emphasized competitive sport. The advertising images generally provided mixed messages in regard to sexual difference. The authors suggest that the continued use of sexual difference in sport advertising images is a function of commodity feminism, which serves the capitalist hegemony. The authors discuss the need for visual representations that are truly feminist.
Relationships among Spectator Gender, Motives, Points of Attachment, and Sport Preference
Authors: Robinson Matthew J. , Trail Galen T.
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationships among gender, type of sport, motives, and points of attachment to a team for spectators of selected intercollegiate sports. The significant MANOVA results indicated that gender explained 2% of the variance in motives and 3% of the variance in points of attachment; type of sport explained 4% and 7% of the variance in motives and points of attachment, respectively. A canonical correlation analysis suggested three significant and meaningful variates, which together showed a shared variance between motives and points of attachment in excess of 70%. This suggests that collegiate marketers and managers might want to design their marketing communications to emphasize the relationships among motives and points of attachment rather than trying to segment their fan and spectator base by gender or by type of sport.
When Is the Honeymoon Over? Major League Baseball Attendance 1970-2000
Authors: Zygmont Zenon X. , Leadley John C.
Published: August 2016

This study tests for the presence of a honeymoon effect in Major League Baseball by using a set of panel data for the period 1970 to 2000. It expands on the existing attendance demand literature by incorporating a theoretical model of attendance and price, imposing a more flexible form for the honeymoon effect, and distinguishing multipurpose stadiums from vintage and current baseball-only parks. The honeymoon effect for attendance and ticket price is substantial, and it continues with only a modest decline over the first eight to ten years. We conclude that a new baseball-only park that replaces an older multipurpose stadium will generate an additional $228 million in ticket revenue over 15 years. Although this is less than the cost of constructing a new facility, additional revenue sources might be sufficient to eliminate the need for public subsidies.
Extensions and Further Examination of the Job Embeddedness Construct
Authors: Cunningham George B. , Fink Janet S. , Sagas Michael
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this study was to further examine the utility of Mitchell, Holtom, Lee, Sablynski, and Erez’s (2001) job embeddedness construct. The authors tested a revised version of their original multi-item scale, as well as a new global-item measure. Data were gathered from two independent samples (intercollegiate softball coaches, n = 214, and athletic department employees, n = 189). Results from both studies provide the strongest support for the global-item measure. The convergent, discriminant, and predictive validity of the measure was established. Results demonstrate the efficacy of the job embeddedness construct in explaining why people choose to stay in their organizations.
The Representation of Women in University Athletic Programs
Authors: Inglis Susan E.
Published: August 2016

The status and representation of women in university sport continues to be an area of concern and responsibility for the athletic administrator. This paper presents a description of the major philosophical and organizational changes that have occurred with the governance of women’s intercollegiate sport. Data from American and Canadian studies describing the involvement patterns of women in university sport are presented, and areas for reform that will increase the status and representation of women in university sport are put forward. Three areas for reform presented include (a) securing commitment to change, (b) improving professional preparations in career planning for women at high school and university levels who aspire to careers in athletics, as well as professional development for women currently involved in athletic administration, and (c) gaining support from academic areas in the identification of effective, positive change for women in university sport.
The Canadian Hockey Association Merger and the Emergence of the Amateur Sport Enterprise
Authors: Stevens Julie
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this article is to understand the nature of large-scale organizational change within amateur sport through the analysis of a merger between two hockey organizations. This study expands upon the research on Canadian national sport organizations established by Kikulis, Slack, and Hinings (1992) by identifying a new archetype—the Amateur Sport Enterprise. In particular, the study presents a case analysis of the 1994 merger between the Canadian Amateur Hockey Association and Hockey Canada to form the Canadian Hockey Association . The results of the qualitative case study revealed that, contrary to previous notions of archetype coherence, aspects of competing archetypes might coexist within an organizational form or, more specifically, within particular elements of an organizational form. The characteristics of the Amateur Sport Enterprise archetype are discussed and implications for future sport management research are addressed.
Development of a Scale to Measure Team Brand Associations in Professional Sport
Authors: Ross Stephen D. , James Jeffrey D. , Vargas Patrick
Published: August 2016

The Team Brand Association Scale (TBAS), which is intended to measure professional sport team brand associations, was developed through the use of a free-thought listing technique in combination with a confirmatory factor analysis procedure. Information was provided by individuals regarding their favorite sports team, and 11 dimensions underlying professional sport team brand associations were identified: nonplayer personnel, team success, team history, stadium community, team play characteristics, brand mark, commitment, organizational attributes, concessions, social interaction, and rivalry. Review of the TBAS psychometric properties indicated that eight dimensions had acceptable reliabilities (Cronbach’s alpha scores ranging from .76-.90), as well as content validity (verified by a 3-member expert panel review), discriminant validity (based on correlations among latent constructs and their standard errors), concurrent validity (significant correlations with an external measure), and construct validity.
The Impact of Free Agency on Competitive Balance in North American Professional Team Sports Leagues
Authors: Maxcy Joel , Mondello Michael
Published: August 2016

Free agency was reintroduced to professional team sport leagues in the 1970s. Sport enthusiasts expressed concern that competitive balance would diminish as star players congregated to large market cities. However, the economic invariance principle rejects this notion, indicating that balance should remain unchanged. This article empirically examines the effects of changes in free agent rules on competitive balance over time in the National Basketball Association (NBA), National Football League (NFL), and National Hockey League (NHL). Regression analysis using within-season and between-season measures of competitive balance as dependent variables provides mixed results. The NFL and NHL provide evidence that an aspect of competitive balance has improved, but results from the NBA indicate that balance has worsened since the introduction of free agency. We conclude that the ambiguous results suggest that the effects are not independent, but instead depend on the interaction of free agent rights with other labor market and league rules.
The Demand for Sport: Sport Consumption and Participation Models
Authors: Lera-López Fernando , Rapún-Gárate Manuel
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this article is to analyze the sociodemographic and economic determinants underlying sport participation and consumer expenditure on sport. The methodological approach is based on ordered probit models. Empirical results from data obtained by means of a questionnaire survey in Spain indicate the need for different sport management strategies in each of these areas. On the one hand, the results confirm the positive influence of variables such as gender and age, and the negative influence of some professional status categories. Neither low levels of education nor personal income are barriers to the practice of sport. Hence, time availability is a major barrier to expand the base of participants or increase the intensity of participation. On the other hand, consumer expenditure on sport is determined by gender, education, income levels, and some occupational groups.
Intercollegiate Athletic Success and Donations at NCAA Division I Institutions
Authors: Humphreys Brad R. , Mondello Michael
Published: August 2016

The authors tested the hypothesis that donations to universities vary with athletic success using a comprehensive panel data set drawn from the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS) over the period of 1976–1996. Estimation of a linear reduced-form model of the determination of donations to colleges and universities indicates that postseason football bowl-game and NCAA Division I men’s basketball-tournament appearances were associated with significant increases in restricted giving and no increases in unrestricted giving to public institutions the following year, whereas only postseason basketball appearances were associated with increases in restricted giving to private institutions.
Sports Teams and Their Communities: Examining the Influence of External Group Identities on Team Identity
Authors: Heere Bob , James Jeffrey D.
Published: August 2016

Group identity theory suggests that fans of sports teams see themselves as members of an organization, not just consumers of a product. To foster greater loyalty toward a sports team, managers should concentrate on strengthening fans’ team identity. One way to accomplish this goal is to recognize that a team identity is more than an association with a collection of athletes and coaches or an association with other fans. A team identity can also be symbolic of other types of group identities. Two main types of external group identities are demographic categories and membership organizations. Identifying the external group identities that a sports team is believed to represent and then aligning more closely with key external group identities provides managers with an opportunity to strengthen fans’ team identity and, consequently, their loyalty to a team.
Social Identity and Brand Equity Formation: A Comparative Study of Collegiate Sports Fans
Authors: Boyle Brett A. , Magnusson Peter
Published: August 2016

The authors empirically tested Underwood, Bond, and Baer’s (2001) social identity–brand equity (SIBE) model in the context of fans of a university men’s basketball team. Their model proposes that service marketplace characteristics (venue, team history, rituals, and social groups) enhance one’s social identity to a team. This heightened social identity, in turn, is seen to build brand equity of the team brand. Using the SIBE model as a conceptual framework, a comparative study was conducted across 3 distinct fan groups of the team: current students, alumni, and the general public. Results provide strong support for the effect of social identity on brand equity; regardless of the type of fan, a heightened social identity to the team enhanced the perceived equity of the athletic program (i.e., brand) overall. How social identity was formed, however, differed by fan group. For example, team history showed a significant relationship to social identity for alumni and the general public. Students were most influenced by their sense of the basketball program being part of the local community as a whole. These finding are valuable in knowing how to craft marketing communications for various fan constituencies, as well as understanding how identification to 1 team might be leveraged across all sports in a collegiate athletic program.
No One Can Whistle a Symphony: Working Together for Sport Management’s Future
Authors: Mahony Daniel F.
Published: August 2016

Although sport management is now well established in higher education and is an increasingly popular major for students, there are a number of critical issues that face the discipline. The purpose of this lecture is to identify some of these critical issues and what can be done to address each of them. The primary issue for sport management is a lack of qualified faculty to (a) teach the increasing number of students enrolling in sport management programs and (b) conduct the research necessary to build a distinct body of knowledge. In addition, sport management faculty also need to work together to make a better case for the contributions of their programs to their respective universities to avoid being a very low priority in their home units. The lecture focuses on the need for sport management faculty to work together to address each of these issues.
Development of the Motivation Scale for Sport Online Consumption
Authors: Seo Won Jae , Green B. Christine
Published: August 2016

The Internet has become a significant tool for sport marketing. Professional sport teams’ Web sites are now an important component of their marketing mix; yet, little is know about users’ consumption motives for Web sites, particularly sport teams’ Web sites. The purpose of this study was to develop a valid, reliable instrument to measure motivation for sport online consumption. The Motivation Scale for Sport Online Consumption (MSSOC) was developed in three phases. A literature review identified 102 potential motives in Phase 1. A second, qualitative phase refined and classified the potential item pool, resulting in 67 items. Exploratory factor analysis (N = 175) was used to generate a 10-factor, 40-item scale. The revised instrument was used in a second study (N = 371). Structural equation modeling was used to confirm the factor structure of the instrument and to reduce each subscale to 3 items. The final scale consisted of 10 dimensions of motivation: fanship, interpersonal communication, technical knowledge, fan expression, entertainment, economic, pass time, information, escape, and support. Subscale internal consistency ranged from .77 to .90. All 10 dimensions were positively correlated with Web commitment (.20 < r2 < .63), providing evidence of convergent validity. Potential uses of the scale are discussed.
Toward a Grounded Theory of Student-Athlete Suffering and Dealing with Academic Corruption
Authors: Kihl Lisa A. , Richardson Tim , Campisi Charles
Published: August 2016

The purpose of this grounded theory study was to explain how student-athletes are affected by an instance of academic corruption. Using a grounded theory approach (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Strauss & Corbin, 1998), multiple sources of data were collected and analyzed using the constant comparison method leading to theory generation. Findings revealed that student-athletes suffer three main consequences (negative treatment, sanctions, and a sense of loss) that lead to various harmful outcomes (e.g., distrust, embarrassment, dysfunctional relationships, stakeholder separation, anger, stress, and conflict). However, the consequences also created a positive outcome displayed through a dual consciousness of corruption (resiliency and empowerment). The results are compared with existing theoretical concepts and previous research associated with the outcomes of corruption. This theory adds to our knowledge of the nature of suffering experienced by student-athletes as a result of corruption and provides direction for future research and practice.
Major League Baseball Managers: Do They Matter?
Authors: Smart Dennis , Winfree Jason , Wolfe Richard
Published: August 2016

Smart and Wolfe (2003) assessed the concurrent contribution of leadership and human resources to Major League Baseball (MLB) team performance. They found that player resources (defense/pitching and offence/batting) explained 67% of the variance in winning percentage, whereas leadership explained very little (slightly more than 1%) of the variance. In discussing the minimal contribution of leadership to their results, the authors suggested that future studies expand their operationalization of leadership. That is what is done in this study. Finding that the expanded operationalization has limited effect in explaining the contribution of leadership, we take an alternative tack in attempting to understand leadership in MLB. In addition, we estimate a production frontier (based on offensive and defensive resources), determine the efficiency of MLB managers relative to that frontier, and investigate the extent to which manager efficiency can be explained by manager characteristics. Finally, manager characteristics are related to manager compensation.
Special Sport Events—Part I
Authors: Dwyer Larry , Fredline Liz
Published: August 2016

Cities, regions, and countries are making increasing use of special sport events in their economic and social development mix. Governments and event organizers often justify special sport events on the grounds that such events can build social capital, attract visitors, foster trade, enhance the host destination’s brand, and serve as catalysts for the development of new infrastructure. As a result of the proliferation of special sport events, there is an increasing need to determine the means via which events do (and do not) contribute to their stated social and economic development objectives. Consequently, it is vital to understand the unique challenges of managing and marketing special sport events.
Special Sport Events—Part II
Authors: Dwyer Larry , Fredline Liz
Published: August 2016

As noted in Part I of Special Sport Events which appeared in Volume 22, Issue 4 of the Journal of Sport Management, sport events are increasingly contributing to the economic and social development of cities, regions, and countries. The justification to host large-scale sport events is often done on the role these events play in building social capital, attracting tourists, foster trade relations, enhance the host destination’s brand, and serve as catalysts for the development and improvements of infrastructures. It is imperative to understand the unique challenges of managing and marketing special sport events. We believe that Part I of the special issue on special sport events and this collection of articles (Part II) address many of the challenges related to these sport events. In the following pages, we outline the articles featured in the second issue devoted to the topic of special sport events.
Urban Regimes and the Sporting Events Agenda: A Cross-National Comparison of Civic Development Strategies
Authors: Misener Laura , Mason Daniel S.
Published: August 2016

This article examines the coalitions undergirding comprehensive sport-centered growth agendas in three cities actively pursuing sporting event development strategies: Edmonton, Canada; Manchester, United Kingdom; and Melbourne, Australia. Using DiGaetano and Klemanski’s (1999) study of modes of urban governance as a starting point, we review each city’s urban political economy, urban governing agenda, and urban governing alliances. We then discuss whether coalitions in each of the cities can be identified as regimes, by examining the conditions required for the presence of regimes developed by Dowding (2001). Results suggest the presence of regimes in each city, which can be best described using Stoker and Mossberger’s (1994) symbolic regime, developed in their typology of regimes for cross-national research. However, the cities differ slightly, with Edmonton exhibiting the characteristics of a progressive version of a symbolic regime, whereas Manchester and Melbourne more closely resemble urban revitalization regimes.
A Method to March Madness? Institutional Logics and the 2006 National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I Men’s Basketball Tournament
Authors: Southall Richard M. , Nagel Mark S. , Amis John M. , Southall Crystal
Published: August 2016

As the United States’ largest intercollegiate athletic event, the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I men’s basketball tournament consistently generates high television ratings and attracts higher levels of advertising spending than the Super Bowl or the World Series. Given the limited analysis of the organizational conditions that frame these broadcasts’ production, this study examines the impact of influential actors on the representation process. Using a mixed-method approach, this paper investigates production conditions and processes involved in producing a sample (n = 31) of NCAA Division I men’s basketball tournament broadcasts, examines the extent to which these broadcasts are consistent with the NCAA’s educational mission, and considers the dominant institutional logic that underpins their reproduction. In so doing, this analysis provides a critical examination of the 2006 NCAA Division I men’s basketball tournament broadcasts, and how such broadcasts constitute, and are constituted by, choices in television production structures and practices.
The Impact of Emerging Technology in Sport Broadcasting on the Preconditions for Interorganizational Relationship (IOR) Formation in Professional Football
Authors: Turner Paul , Shilbury David
Published: August 2016

Environmental factors such as emerging technology, globalization, economic reform and social change are creating a background in which sporting organizations must seek to quickly adapt to manage their ongoing activities and operations. Focusing on emerging technology in the area of sport broadcasting, this research examined six preconditions for interorganizational relationship (IOR) formation from the perspective of professional football clubs in Australia. Based upon theories derived from the IOR literature, these six preconditions for IOR formation were considered to determine if emerging broadcasting technologies impact on IOR formation between Australian Football League (AFL) and National Rugby League (NRL) clubs and broadcasters. Semistructured in-depth interviews with senior managers of 11 AFL, and 10 NRL clubs were undertaken and data analyzed, coded and emergent themes identified. Results indicate that professional club managers display most of these attributes that precipitate the preconditions for IOR formation, but although these preconditions exist, there is little willingness by the clubs to formulate IORs with sport broadcasters.
Customer Satisfaction With Game and Service Experiences: Antecedents and Consequences
Authors: Yoshida Masayuki , James Jeffrey D.
Published: August 2016

Sport marketing researchers have generally studied two types of satisfaction at sporting events: game satisfaction and service satisfaction. One gap in the literature is studying the two types together. A model of the relationships between service quality, core product quality, game and service satisfaction, and behavioral intentions is proposed and tested. Data were collected from spectators at a professional baseball game in Japan (n = 283) and at two college football games in the United States (n = 343). The results in both Japan and the United States indicate that game atmosphere was a strong predictor of game satisfaction whereas stadium employees and facility access were the major antecedents of service satisfaction. Game satisfaction had a significant impact on behavioral intentions across the two settings, although the service satisfaction-behavioral intentions relationship was significant only in Japan. The research findings, managerial implications, limitations, and directions for future research are discussed.
The Measurement of Sport Fan Exploratory Curiosity
Authors: Park Seong Hee , Mahony Daniel F. , Greenwell T. Christopher
Published: August 2016

Curiosity has been regarded as a key intrinsic motivational drive for facilitating human exploratory behaviors in many domains, such as psychology, education, and sport. However, no attempt has been made to measure curiosity in a sport context. The purpose of this study was to develop an effective and efficient sport fan exploratory curiosity scale (SFECS). A total of 657 participants were recruited and completed surveys. Various statistical analyses were used to examine the reliability and validity of the scale. The analyses resulted in a reliable and valid scale with three factors (Excitement, New Sport Events, Sport Facility) and a total of 10-items. The SFECS was useful in predicting various sport fan behaviors. Future research should be done in an effort to further refine the scale and to examine the role of curiosity in various practical areas in a sport context.
Conative Loyalty of Latino and Non-Latino Professional Baseball Fans
Authors: Harrolle Michelle , Trail Galen , Rodriguez Ariel , Jordan Jeremy
Published: August 2016

The sport marketing field has neglected to study the Latino population despite escalating amounts of consumer research within the marketing literature focusing on this market segment. Therefore, the purpose of our study was to examine the potential predictors of conative loyalty (i.e., purchase intentions) of the Latino fan by testing the Model of Sport Spectator Conative Loyalty (Model B) on a Latino sample. In addition, we wanted to compare the relationships within the model between Latinos and Non-Latinos to study the potential differences between the two market segments. The participants were Latino (n = 127) and Non-Latino (n = 186) attendees of a professional Major League Baseball game in the Southeastern United States. Even though the model results were very similar for both groups, differences do exist between Latinos and Non-Latinos in terms of specific sport consumer behavior relationships (e.g., BIRGing and CORFing on Conative Loyalty).
Perceptions of Gender in Athletic Administration: Utilizing Role Congruity to Examine (Potential) Prejudice Against Women
Authors: Burton Laura J. , Grappendorf Heidi , Henderson Angela
Published: August 2016

Based on the tenets of role congruity theory, the current study examined the unequal representation of men and women in athletic administration positions. A total of 158 female and 118 male (n = 276) athletic administrators evaluated a male or female candidate for an athletic director, compliance director, or life skills director position within athletics. Participants indicated no significant differences in masculine ratings of male or female candidates and significant differences in feminine ratings for female candidates in the life skills position. Male and female candidates were perceived as similar in potential and likely success in all positions. Finally, the female candidate was evaluated as significantly less likely to be offered the athletic director position when compared with the male candidate.