bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Soviet Foreign Trade Channels
Authors: Alkhimov Vladimir S.
Published: March 2007

Trade and contacts among nations can help pre vent war. A characteristic of the present Soviet trade is its high rate of development—today she holds the sixth place in world trade volume. Another feature is the change in the commodity composition of the exports and imports of the country. The number of states carrying on trade with the Soviet Union has increased from forty between World War I and II to seventy at the present. Trade with socialist countries is planned ahead by several years. Trade with the West has increased and in 1958 amounted to 2,250 million dollars. Among other coun tries, trade relations have been established with France, the Federal Republic of Germany, Austria, Italy, Finland, Sweden, Norway, Iceland, and Greece. The Soviet Union has shifted from a debtor to a creditor country after World War II. Dur ing the past ten years Soviet-American trade has been reduced to almost nothing; in spite of this Russia is developing its industry, agriculture, and trade yearly. Since both the Soviet Union and the United States have expressed a desire to trade, it is hoped that "sooner or later the Soviet-American trade will be normalized." Future development of Soviet trade will de pend on the development of its industry. The development of the Union's economy and trade is not meant to be a threat to other countries. It is hoped that difficulties preventing trade between the Soviet Union and the United States will soon be overcome.—Ed.
The Soviet-American Antagonism: How Will It End?
Authors: Fischer Louis
Published: March 2007

In view of the retaliatory power of both Russia and the United States a third world war is most unlikely. In every instance in recent years when armed conflict could have erupted one side or the other has avoided the fatal step. The inevitable result is cold war, and a realistic look at the situation must include the fact that ideology is only "a smoke screen or a fig leaf to hide a naked struggle for power su premacy." When the Russian position is seen as "nineteenth century colonialism in a red dress," the reasons for the Berlin crisis become apparent. The Soviets cannot continue to tol erate the example of free Berlin in their midst nor can they allow the stream of escapees from the Eastern zone to drain their skilled manpower and poke such visible holes in their propaganda. In dealing with Moscow in the future, Wash ington must realize the limitations on both our power and theirs. We cannot remake the world in our image, and we run the risk of offending the powerful force of nationalism when we attempt to do so, but neither can Russia and China turn it to Marxism. We must realize that we are unable to do harm by refusing trade to Russia or recognition to China. Disengagement—both political and military—is the only course for the future, but it can come only after we have proved to Khrushchev that we are not going to allow him to disengage the West from West Berlin.—Ed.
Beyond the Cold War
Authors: Fleming D.F.
Published: March 2007

Before the United States can extricate itself from the untenable position in world affairs which it is cur rently maintaining, it must learn that it cannot prevent a third world war by means which would have avoided the sec ond. The Soviet Union is not a duplicate of Hitler's power- hungry fascist state, determined to obtain world domination at all costs. The Russians and Chinese would much prefer to devote their energies to their internal affairs; our policy of con taining and encircling the Communists has generated the very military power which we fear. We must learn, since we can not make a fortress of the Western world, to withdraw grace fully from our outposts. We must accept the changes taking place in the world and stop trying to force history into our own pattern. With the end of the garrison state must come a con version of that tremendous part of our economy currently spent on armaments to such useful purposes as education and slum clearance. Increased negotiation will lead to an increase of mutual trust, which in turn will lead to the international co- operation and trade which are such an inevitable outgrowth of modern technology. Under capable leadership the United States can do much to make the world a unit for the benefit of mankind, instead of, as it now is, a unit for holocaustic war.—Ed .
Humanists and Generalists
Authors: Wriston Henry M.
Published: March 2007

"Planning" and "security" have become twin watchwords in the mid-twentieth century. Despite the tension, and occasional contradiction, between these two terms, their popularity shows no signs of diminution. Yet, when applied to humanists and generalists, both concepts have only limited validity. Their significance is even less apparent when we speak of leaders and leadership in these fields. We have no yardstick to measure the utility of humanists and generalists in society. Therefore, no method exists for estimating a quota appropriate to their numbers. In both fields, voluntarism is essential; compulsion is futile; control impairs or destroys values; and even guidance has limited scope. As planning is so difficult as to be of doubtful utility, security is also of dubious significance, particularly when applied to leadership. There are no quantitative measures of achievement; no time and motion studies have any relevance whatever. Even gen erally accepted qualitative measures do not exist. Every statesman, however eminent, has had his opponents and detrac tors. Every artist has had his critics, often savage ones. Every scholar's work is revised by his successors, if not by his con temporaries. Leadership in these areas is the product of per sonal qualities of many sorts; it is almost correct to say no two are alike. Leadership arises from circumstances, often not only beyond the potential Ieader's control, but even beyond his power to influence. Humanists and generalists must remain unplanned, and unpredictable, elements in our society.
Occupational Statistics: A Tool for Determining Manpower Needs
Authors: Clague Ewan
Published: March 2007

The lack of accurate, current, and detailed occu pational data seriously handicaps our analysis of manpower supply and requirements. In spite of limitations of the data, labor force and occupational composition projections have been developed. The major changes expected in the labor force between 1958 and 1970 are: a sharp rise in the youngest age groups, 14 to 24; a much smaller increase in the number of male workers 2 5 to 44; and substantial growth in the numbers 45 and over. A shortage of male workers in the important age groups from 25 to 44 years is expected. These groups normally supply the trained workers required to replace losses resulting from deaths and retirements and to fill expanding needs created by advancing technology. Occupational projections for the 1960's indicate a rapid growth of the so-called white-collar occupations and a slower growth in the blue-collar occupations accompanied by a continuing rise in the skill level for crafts- men. Among the white-collar workers, the employment of scientists, engineers, and technicians is expected to increase twice as fast as the labor force as a whole. The need for more and better education and training for increasing numbers in our labor force will create new and difficult problems in the decades ahead.
Molding Public Opinion on Select Manpower
Authors: Childs Harwood L.
Published: March 2007

Molding public opinion on any subject involves several steps. First, it is essential to define clearly the objec tives of the campaign. Second, the public or publics to be influenced should be clearly identified. Third, careful surveys of the attitudes and opinions of the relevant publics regarding the campaign objectives and programs should be made. Fourth, the survey data should be carefully analyzed to find out why people hold the views they do regarding the program or lack information regarding it. This is probably the most important and most difficult step. Once the previous analysis has been made the next step is to create an organization for the express purpose of carrying out the campaign. Special attention must be given to both the strategies of argument and persuasion. Publicity really presents no great problem, once the previous steps have been taken. To solve the problem effectively a number of specific suggestions are given. It is inherent in the democratic process that those who believe in an idea or program should exercise their constitutional right to try and win support for it. This propaganda effort, how ever, should use to the full, methods and techniques which really help citizens to decide rationally. Emphasis should be placed on education, information, and enlightenment.
Dimensions for Progress
Authors: Derthick Lawrence G.
Published: March 2007

Over the past half century there has been a rapid growth of professions and occupations which require college training. The future need for college trained persons must be filled from a group of young people which is smaller in pro portion to the total population than at any time in recent his tory. To be short on quantity in this group from which our leaders will emerge makes it more important than ever to make the most of the quantity available. Society looks to organized education for whole new fields of specialized training as well as refinements and extension of existing programs. Much greater emphasis will have to be placed upon learning as a lifelong process. To do the educational job America needs will call for substantial reorganization and expansion of school plant and facilities and bold and imaginative efforts to make tools of instruction more effective. The dimensions of opportunity which lie before us in the field of educational research are practically boundless but research in education to date has been meager. It is obviously going to take great sums of money and all of our ingenuity and effort as a nation to make the necessary progress to fill the trained manpower needs in every capacity.
The Need for Balanced Federal Budgets
Authors: Stans Maurice H.
Published: March 2007

It should be the policy of the federal govern ment to aim always for a balanced budget or financial stability will be upset. To balance the budget, action should be taken to reduce or end some federal programs which we have been acquiring in the past thirty years. The compensatory theory of federal spending has not been successful until now and offers little hope for the future unless there is control in the growth of federal spending. We should not initiate programs as tem porary expedients during times of recession since they create great problems in future years. Although we must accept deficits when the country is in a national emergency, we should later create equivalent surpluses to offset deficits caused by the emergency. It is, therefore, necessary to pay as we go if we want to reduce the national debt and taxes. It is also neces sary to plan for budgetary surpluses in good years if we do not want to extend inflation in the future.—Ed.
Taxation and Inflation
Authors: Groves Harold M.
Published: March 2007

It is adequacy of taxation in the quantitative sense and in relation to public expenditure that is the most important aspect of taxation for inflation control. A well- developed public economy financed by a progressive tax sys tem supplies a powerful automatic check on fluctuations in the private economy. A less progressive tax system would have some advantage in its reduced impingement on savings and in centives, but the advantage would not be large nor important enough to offset considerations of equity which must be weighed in the balance. As to state and local taxes, the federal gov ernment could do more to protect the states from interterri torial competition—income tax credit—and it could provide a more flexible support for state public works than tax-exempt securities. Several tax gadgets for inflation control are re viewed but none appear to be politically or otherwise promising at present. Nevertheless it must be recognized that oligo polistic practices in industry are a major factor in the present inflation problem. Fiscal policy, including its tax element, is important for counterinflationary purposes, but it encounters powerful vested interests, and it should not be our sole reliance in a stabilization program.
A Federal Tax Program to Promote Economic Stability and Growth
Authors: Kimmel Lewis H.
Published: March 2007

Federal tax policy is no longer based on the as sumption that an annually balanced budget is essential. In creasing taxes to maintain budgetary balance during a recession or depression would be construed as a perverse approach to fiscal policy. The built-in stabilizing features of the tax struc ture are regarded favorably by economists, members of Con gress, and government officials. Federal tax policy can be helpful in preventing or controlling inflation. Not all inflation ary situations can be controlled by increases in taxes; marked rises in taxes in themselves have dislocating effects. Sharp changes in federal expenditures have been more important as an inflation-making factor than postwar deficits. The bases for the personal and corporate income taxes should be strength ened. Inclusion of sources of income now excluded and the elimination of various forms of favored treatment would permit appreciable reductions in tax rates.
The Need for a Department of Science
Authors: Humphrey Hubert H.
Published: March 2007

The Senate Committee on Government Opera tions, in which Senator Humphrey has taken an active role, has concerned itself with the need for a science department in the government. A Department of Science and Technology they have found would be a very necessary and essential ad junct to our governmental system. Its main purpose would be the co-ordination and centralization of the now dispersed fed eral scientific activities. The new Department would promote the clear-cut responsibility and authority in government science needed for the enhancement of our national security. Yet the reorganization of the existing science units contained in various departments and agencies of the government, has met strenuous opposition from sources in the Administration. In addition to the proposed bill providing for the creation of the Department of Science and Technology, the Senate Committee has initiated another bill now before Congress which provides for a Com mission to study the various problems connected with the crea tion of such a science department.—Ed.
Science, Government, and Society
Authors: Whitney Vincent Heath
Published: March 2007

Historically men have sought knowledge in a variety of ways both for its own sake and in order to increase their control over the environment. Science has increasingly made its impact on society through technical applications of scientific findings. Science has thus helped to alter social struc ture. At the same time increases in population, in social dif ferentiation, and heterogeneity have made necessary large-scale organization. The effect has been felt in the structure of science and the role and status of the scientist; for example, the individual scholar has been replaced to a considerable ex tent by the scientific organization man. Government encour agement of some areas of scientific research has expanded enormously in the United States, inevitably within a bureau cratic framework. In the process the scientist has come to be valued not for his scholarship but for his ability to provide solutions to specific problems and thus to increase national power. Bureaucracy has a price, but it is an organizational form which is understandably and functionally necessary and to which science must adapt.
The Government's Growing Recognition of Social Science
Authors: Alpert Harry
Published: March 2007

Important new developments have strengthened the standing of the social sciences in the federal government. Historical analysis emphasizes the recency of the government's recognition of the national contributions of social science re search. Significant progress has been made despite critical fluctuations. Five factors contributing to the more favored governmental position of social science research are (1) chang ing congressional attitudes; (2) acceptance of the social sci ences at the White House level; (3) inclusion of the social sciences as part of broad definitions of scientific disciplines; (4) the general post-Sputnik interest in American education; and (5) the concern with redressing imbalances in American higher education. Research support for the social sciences is growing but a critical shortage remains in funds for fellowships and assistantships. The social sciences approach the next decade in a climate of acceptance and encouragement.
Special Problems of Military Research and Development
Authors: Shapley Willis H.
Published: March 2007

Many of the problems of military research and development are not special, either because they are common to other comparable research and development programs or because they are common to other parts of the military pro grams. The military programs are concerned with research, but the main emphasis is on development and on the entire chain of activities necessary to improve the capabilities of the operational forces. The magnitude and complexity of the pro grams are tremendous; these factors, particularly the complex nature and interrelations of their objectives, are at the root of most of the problems of military research and development. The basic organizational problem is to find a way to centralize responsibility for the crucial decisions involving selections among alternative military capabilities and technical ap proaches, while at the same time decentralizing detailed man agement to allow a maximum of freedom and flexibility in the actual conduct of research and development work. The prob lems of military research and development culminate in the budget process. Making the proper allocation to military re search and development within the over-all limitations and dis tributing this amount to individual research and development projects are the most difficult problems of our time.
Practice and Procedure
Authors: Clark Charles E.
Published: March 2007

In contrast to the hundred-year struggle for pro cedural reform in England the American movement for im proved law administration has been professionally inspired and directed. Pleading, comprising the steps preparatory to the trial itself, by custom and precedent is an important preliminary stage of litigation where formalism has become rooted and re form is necessary. The first great reform of common law pleading was by the Field Code of 1848 in New York, which was copied in a majority of the states. Meanwhile federal practice lagged because of the statutory requirement of con formity to state practice. But with the adoption by the Su preme Court of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, as drafted by its Advisory Committee, the federal practice became the outstanding system in the country and a model for reform in a constantly increasing number of states. It has also stimulated the movement for rule-making authority in the courts and for an integrated court system efficiently operated. While much remains to be done, the intelligent steps already taken toward improved law administration show that current criticism of the courts is overdrawn and the title of this symposium, "Lagging Justice," not apt.
Court Administration: Housekeeping for the Judiciary
Authors: Tolman Leland L.
Published: March 2007

There is a growing popular and professional in terest in court administration which has resulted in the estab lishment in some twenty-five American judicial systems of governmental agencies or officers concerned with the mechanics of running the courts. This is a hopeful sign, because though it will not be a panacea for congestion or delay in the courts, it will greatly help the courts to make their proceedings, facili ties, personnel, and financing more efficient, and better enable them to meet the demands of the complex and voluminous litigation of modern society. The administrative machinery considered best for adoption in most states and which has been the pattern in those jurisdictions that have been most effective in this field is the Model Act of 1948, proposed by the Com missioners of Uniform State Laws. It is basically similar to the New Jersey law adopted as part of its constitutional reform of 1947, and provides for a centralized administrative control of all state courts and judges by the chief justice under su preme court rules of administration and with assistance from an administrative director and his staff acting under the direc tion of the chief justice.
Arbitrators, Auditors, Referees, Pro-Tem Judges
Authors: Alessandroni Walter E.
Published: March 2007

Congested judicial dockets have created the need for utilization of substitutes for judges. Legislative enactments which provide for appeal to a court satisfy the Constitutional guarantee of trial by jury. Various procedures are currently in use. The English system employs masters to prepare cases for trial; in Pennsylvania masters take testimony and make recommendations in divorce cases; in federal court bankruptcy matters and in state court Workmen's Compensation matters referees hear testimony and make awards. The decision of all of these judicial substitutes are subject to court review. The Massachusetts Auditor system utilizes with notable success law yers to preside over cases in place of a judge. And in Pennsyl vania Compulsory Arbitration or trial by lawyer panel has made dramatic progress in cutting judicial backlogs. More extensive use of these techniques seems to hold one of the keys to the problem of the congested court calendar.
The Problem of Congestion and Delay in the Federal Courts
Authors: Chandler Henry P.
Published: March 2007

In order to co-ordinate the work of the federal courts there was created in 1922 the Judicial Conference of the United States. In 1939 a law provided for a director of an administrative office to serve as executive assistant to the Con ference and for judicial councils of the circuits consisting of the judges of the courts of appeals to exercise local supervision. The district judges have been given the assistance of law clerks; pre-trial conferences to reduce and simplify the issues before trial and incidentally to conduce to settlements have been promoted; and the judicial output of the individual judges has increased. But serious congestion and delay remain in some courts. For firmer administration the Judicial Confer ence should be authorized to prescribe administrative practices instead of merely to make suggestions; the chairmen of the judicial councils should have administrative assistants; and chief judges of courts should be appointed instead of succeed ing by length of service. The paramount need is for more judges to cope with the present volume of litigation. The Congress is under a clear duty to provide for them.
Delay in State Appellate Courts of Last Resort
Authors: Dethmers John R.
Published: March 2007

Delays in appeals occur first in filing them, sec ond in preparing and submitting them for decision, third in the courts' consideration and disposition of them. The first may be met by court rule requiring filing within specified num ber of days after decision in trial court. Delays in submission, due to procrastination of lawyers, decrease upon adoption of a rule providing for dismissal of appeals, automatically or on a court's own motion, when not submitted promptly. Some delays in hearing appeals are due, as are delays in deciding them, to the courts' inability or failure to keep up with work- loads. Suggested means of increasing productiveness of judges include change in methods of judicial selection and improved compensation and facilities to attract the ablest lawyers to the bench. Among proposals for meeting today's increased case-loads are elimination of requirement that highest courts write opinions in every case decided, enlarging court member ship, divisional sittings of the courts, placing restrictions on right of appeal, furnishing courts with legally trained clerks or commissioners, or establishment of intermediate courts of appeal. Advantages and disadvantages are found in each. The object of proposals is not only to expedite appellate opera tion but to improve the quality of the product.
Social Development in the United Kingdom African Territories
Authors: Chinn Wilfred H.
Published: March 2007

Social development in British African territories has consciously been undertaken by governments only since the end of World War II. Initially it took the form of remedial methods to deal with social problems accentuated by the war. The work of government social welfare departments and volun tary agencies assisted by international aid could not, however, be confined to the provision of remedial services. The under lying social ills had to be attacked as well. Social welfare workers were among the pioneers in community-development work in several territories in Africa; their work originally begun in the towns now reaches more and more into the outlying areas. This is particularly true in the case of Ghana, Uganda, and Tanganyika. In most African territories, social welfare and community development are administered through a single Ministry of Social Development so that remedial and construc tive measures are correlated.
New Resources for Rehabilitation and Health
Authors: Rusk Howard A. , Wilson Donald V.
Published: March 2007

During the past few years many new resources have been created to improve the health and welfare of all the people of the world. These new resources include international governmental organizations such as the World Health Organi zation, United Nations, International Labour Organisation, and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF). Interna tional voluntary organizations, multilateral and bilateral, are setting new standards. Increased educational opportunities and the development of professional associations are other impor tant new resources. The realization by most of the people of the world that better health, rehabilitation, and welfare services are possible and the demand for such services are also to be regarded as new resources. Most important is the changing attitudes of individuals and communities toward physical handicaps and illness. These new attitudes are the primary new resource for future work in the health and welfare field.
Foundations of International Aid
Authors: Hoey Jane M.
Published: March 2007

The newly developing countries desire not only political independence but also economic progress for their people—a progress which they can see, and are now aware of, in the rest of the world. The role of the developed countries is to extend aid to the needy. Moral foundations underlie the donor's contributions, but they are more than that, they are the means for acquiring support for international aid in the donor's country. The United States must assume the leader ship among' the free nations in granting aid; she must accept this role because of her economic achievements and technologi cal advantages. Donators of such aid should take cognizance of the complementary character and interrelatedness of economic and social development. For economic development, however much it is sought, is not an end in itself, rather the aim is the well-being and happiness of the individual. Such a goal neces sitates economic aid accompanied by social aid. Social welfare can also be a vehicle to achieve peace, inasmuch as people-to- people relationships generate brotherly love—the only lasting foundation for peace.—Ed.
Are American Foreign Service Officers Adequate?
Authors: Hoskins Harold B.
Published: March 2007

The Foreign Service Institute was organized in 1946 to train Foreign Service officers so that they will be able to carry out foreign policy more effectively. One of the recog nized deficiencies in the Foreign Service, the insufficient knowl edge of foreign languages, has received much attention at the Institute. Because of the accelerated language program, the language competency of the officers has increased very consid erably. In addition, the testing for language ability is now formalized and all persons who come through the Institute are given an examination. Officers receive training at various times in their career. The structure of the Institute's train ing program is in the form of a pyramid: Training is given at the base to all officers entering the Service; at the mid-point to about one third of the mid-career officers; and at the top to a few senior officers. The success of the training program and the future of the Institute depend largely on the support of the various agencies of the government, the President, the Congress, and the general public. Great strides have indeed been made in the training wing of the State Department. Con tinued efforts by the Institute as well as greater external sup port will increase the professional capacity needed to carry out our foreign policy.—Ed.
Export of Capital?
Authors: Schwenger Robert B.
Published: March 2007

The financing by the United States of agricul tural expansion seems, at first sight, to present a policy dilemma, namely that a government with large agricultural surpluses on its hands is being asked to provide capital to increase foreign production of the very commodities in surplus supply. In the practice, the dilemma breaks down because of failure of the assumption that the expansion of agriculture in the underdeveloped countries has been hampered by the lack of physical capital from abroad. In fact, the principal limiting factors have been of a local institutional and social character. Against these obstacles, the advance of the agricultural pro duction needed for development has been actively promoted by the flow of United States capital to these countries.
Transfer of Basic Skills of Food Production
Authors: Kellogg Charles E.
Published: March 2007

Potentialities for more food in the underdevel oped countries with better soil and water use range from small to exceedingly large depending, in the first instance, on the kind of soil and what is known about it. The achievement of the potentialities is a very complex and difficult problem. For success in most places, several practices, such as those for water control, fertilization, kind and varieties of crops grown, and plant protection, must be changed at the same time if any of them are to give significant economic returns. Basic handicaps are a very low social status of cultivators in many countries and the lack of specific information requiring sound recommen dations. Rarely can programs or practices be transferred from advanced countries of temperate regions to underdeveloped countries of the tropics or subtropics. Only basic principles and the skills to learn can be transferred. Those transferring skills from the advanced to the underdeveloped countries must be able (1) to analyze the problems and to invent effective practices and programs while in the area, (2) to work hard under less than ideal conditions, and (3) to be courteous at all levels of work from the cultivator to the highest officials of sovereign governments.
Potential Contribution of Agriculture to Economic Growth in Less-developed Countries
Authors: Johnson Sherman E.
Published: March 2007

Substantial betterment of conditions in the less- developed countries is dependent upon both private and public action to achieve rapid increases in output. Improved tech nology is the key to higher output, but successful adoption requires additional capital and the learning of new technical and management skills. Agriculture can become a leader in economic growth by providing labor-intensive employment for rapid increases in food production. Larger food supplies also will lessen the inflationary pressures resulting from the con struction phase of a development program. With the help of technical advisers, combinations of improved technology can be adopted that will greatly increase production per acre with a small investment of capital in relation to the resulting output. The combinations usually include chemical fertilizer, improved seed, pesticides, and better soil and water management. Help also will be needed in obtaining the necessary production sup plies, in arranging credit at reasonable rates, in developing storage and marketing facilities, and perhaps even in providing for changes in the tenure system. All of these aids may need to be combined into one program in order to shift rapidly from a primitive agriculture to the beginnings of modern farming.
Wheat
Authors: Kristjanson R.L.
Published: March 2007

Internal American agricultural policies as they affect wheat have been determined far too independently of the requirements of sound foreign economic policy. Public Law 480, which was passed to dispose of surpluses, particularly wheat surpluses, has not only tended to disrupt normal com mercial trade but has also, mainly because of its temporary nature, failed to be as beneficial to underdeveloped countries as it could have been. To establish a sound wheat program, it is necessary to define the quantities of wheat needed by the underdeveloped countries. Since the amount of wheat required annually for other uses of wheat is known, the determination of the underdeveloped countries' needs would establish the mag nitude of adequate internal supply control measures. Maxi mum use of surplus wheat to foster sound economic develop ment programs can be encouraged by changing existing legisla tion to allow for the collection of more adequate information concerning the quantities of surplus wheat needed in the years ahead, longer-term surplus-utilization agreements, closer co ordination between aid in the form of surplus wheat and other financial aid, and the limitation of surplus utilization to coun tries in genuine need. Only when these changes are made will the wheat program in the United States fit the requirements of sound foreign economic policy.
The Executive and Farm Policy
Authors: Davis Joseph S.
Published: March 2007

The national interest requires a reversal of the costly drift of farm policy in the area involving price supports, production controls, and surplus stocks and disposals. There is a dangerous trend toward continuing rise in surplus stocks, of wheat and corn especially, in spite of heavy exports under sub sidy and special programs. Disagreements between the Execu tive and the Congress have prevented or seriously delayed desirable legislative changes, and fear of the farm vote has hampered more far-reaching proposals. In arriving at deci sions on farm policy the Executive operates under handicaps arising from tradition, politics, and intrenched ideas, practices, and vested interests. Needful changes therefore require wide support based on clearer and broader public understanding. There is urgent need for fresh penetrating reappraisals—from the viewpoint of the nation as a whole—of the real farm situa tion in perspective, of the farm programs and their impacts, and of goals appropriate to changed agricultural conditions. Materials for such reappraisals are abundant, but the task calls for vigorous new efforts within and outside the government. A specially constituted interagency committee might perform this service, but this could advantageously be paralleled by a nongovernmental undertaking reinforced by individual efforts.
Farm Policy, Foreign Policy, and Farm Opinion
Authors: Soth Lauren K.
Published: March 2007

The United States has excess farm production and technical agricultural resources which could be used profit ably in overseas development programs. The export of these farm resources would benefit American agriculture and would cost American consumers very little. To accomplish such a shift would take (1) more government intervention in the farm economy and (2) more United States involvement in interna tional programs. How would the American farm "public" re spond to proposals for such changes in policy? The largest and most powerful organization, the Farm Bureau, would resist these changes in farm and foreign policies, and although other groups—especially the Farmers Union—would favor action, the combined weight of farm organizations would be opposed. Some recent changes in farm opinion, however, may point to modification of farm organization attitudes in the future.
Featherbedding: An Assertion of Property Rights
Authors: Gomberg William
Published: March 2007

Featherbedding is the term used by management to describe what it considers an unearned increment for work not done or uselessly performed. The worker has never denied that management is entitled to a day's work that taxes the limit of the worker's psychological and physiological energies short of ill health. Discussions of featherbedding, therefore, have been couched in the language of health and safety. A close analysis of the collective bargaining process, however, reveals a fundamental conflict between management and the worker over what the worker unconsciously regards as a prop erty right, namely, his job. The notion of a job as a property right has not yet been received as part of American mores. Analysis of the legislative and judicial treatments of feather bedding discloses the futility of such efforts. At the present time, severance payments are gaining currency for the jobs that are abolished. Such payments are regarded as consola tion money by the unions; they tend to be regarded by em ployers as blackmail to persuade the worker to relinquish what was not his in the first place. One proposed solution to the problem is the establishment of voluntary arbitration tribunals to define a concept in labor-management relations parallel to the concept of eminent domain in private real estate. Such tribunals would recognize the worker's property right to his job and would define the degree to which the worker could capitalize the loss of his earning opportunity. Social efficiency would thereby be freed of the burden of obsolete performances insisted upon by the worker who must protect his earning capacity.
Nationalism in Latin America
Authors: Silvert K.H.
Published: March 2007

Latin-American nationalism is following a new path because of the speed of change now made possible by mass communications, new technologies, and contemporary ideologies. The Latin-American republics are relatively poor in nationalistic symbols and are at very different levels of na tional consciousness. Nationalistic ideologies, however, both extremist and gradualist, are found everywhere, though their social impact varies widely. The use of standard economic and demographic statistics affords us a hint of the extent of the presence of the conditions correlative to the growth of nation- states, but such other knowledge as can come to us from his torical, case, and attitude analyses is necessary before we can predict adequately. In any event, certain Latin-American countries—especially Argentina, Uruguay, Chile, and Costa Rica—appear sufficiently advanced socially and economically to be stable nation-states. That they have not yet reached such consolidation must be attributed partially to cultural fac tors. A level of intermediate loyalty to fellow citizen and to state is impeded by undiscriminating universalistic ideas and by an unwillingness to accept the nation as a social artifact rather than as a manifestation of evil or as a mystical good in itself.
The Giant Awakes: Brazil
Authors: Lynn Smith T.
Published: March 2007

Brazil stands at the threshold of what may be a new epoch in her history. A high tide of nationalism char acterized the November 1960 presidential elections, and in quietude prevails in many quarters in Brazil and the United States with respect to the national and international policies of the new president who took office in Brazil early in 1961. Many momentous social changes underlie the social ferment and demand for change currently prevailing throughout the Brazilian half of the South American continent. First, popu lation is increasing at the rate of 2.5 per cent per annum, and the rate itself is rising. Each year there are about 1,700,000 more Brazilians on December 31 than there were on January 1. Second, this population is concentrating in cities and towns to an unprecedented degree, due largely to the migration of people from the rural districts. All the cities literally are bursting at their seams. Third, the problems of living in inadequately supplied urban centers weigh heavily on large segments of the Brazilian population. Fourth, for many reasons, the aspira tions of Brazil's people are rising more rapidly than their levels of achievement, thus the gap between the standard of living and the level or plane of living is increasing. This means that the area of frustration is broadening. Fifth, shortages exist in Brazil of almost everything needed in a modern, urban, and industrialized society.
The United States Foreign Aid Program: An Appraisal
Authors: Reuss Henry S.
Published: March 2007

The United States has maintained a foreign aid program since World War II, but the objectives of aid have been mixed. When President Truman announced the technical assistance program in 1949, many hoped that we had embarked on a continuing commitment to assist poorer coun tries toward economic development. Actually, aid in recent years has been largely military aid, and even economic assist ance has been concentrated in a few countries of strategic value to us. Aside from this overemphasis on military aid, our main problem has been the failure to recognize that haphazard, project-by-project economic grants or loans, administered by many agencies, do not much help poor countries. Economic development requires capital, technical skills, and entrepre neurship in combination. It will not take place without educa tion and social reforms creating incentives for progress among the majority in any country. The new program proposed by President Kennedy could go far to correct present deficiencies. It would commit the United States to long-term development assistance, administered by a new aid agency, in accordance with plans to be worked out by recipient countries. The role of the United States will continue to be difficult. We must learn to tie together money, projects, and people in effective ways and to supervise all programs closely. Yet we will have to avoid giving offense to countries which ask for aid, and we must persuade them to invite increasing participation by United States businesses in all types of enterprise. We should continue to try to strengthen the economic foundations of the free world, but we must not try to buy friendship, and we must be sympathetic toward true neutralism in politics.
The United States and the United Nations
Authors: Wilcox Francis O.
Published: March 2007

The United Nations is in a period of peril. Soviet disruptions threaten to destroy its effectiveness. The West and its friends are not united in their support of it or in their advocacy of policies. Many newly admitted members have yet to demonstrate international political responsibility. The fiscal basis upon which the organization operates is not sound. The United States potentially can help strengthen the United Nations and, at the same time, strengthen her position in it. More seasoned representatives, an enhanced representa tion fund, more adequate housing facilities, and a surer wel come for delegates from newly emerged countries, regardless of race, are basic improvements the United States should stress. The United States can lead in creating a greater spirit of unity and teamwork among the free nations. A China solu tion should be sought while the United States can still act with some grace on that issue. More economic aid might be chan neled to the United Nations, where representatives of the underdeveloped countries can discuss their problems with other representatives as equals. Where principle and alliance con flict, the United States should forewarn her colonialist allies that she will not arouse Asian-African animosity where to do so would also be to violate American principles. Pressures could be exerted in the Middle East to bring a solution to the problem of Palestine refugees. And a general effort, in the General Assembly, with the International Law Commission, through the Secretariat, and elsewhere, should be made to bring closer the rule of law in the world.—Ed.
Organizing Medical Research Programs to Meet the Health Needs of Americans
Authors: Jones Boisfeuillet
Published: March 2007

Medical research produces the knowledge upon which the preservation of personal and community health is based. The remarkable achievements of medical science in the prevention and treatment of disease are a direct result of medical research, best illustrated by the twenty-year increase in life expectancy at birth in the United States since 1900. Research has made possible the control of infectious diseases and diseases of birth and early childhood. More people are now reaching age sixty, but relatively little progress has been made in extending life expectancy for those who do. Current major health problems for attack through research include a variety of chronic diseases, especially cancer, heart disease, and mental illness. Needless suffering and annual costs of $35 billion from disease and disability justify the nation's full develop ment of its medical research potential. This will require uni versities, schools in the health professions, and other research institutions to train greater numbers of talented medical investigators and provide increased opportunities under favor able conditions for their work. These conditions include encouragement of excellence, stable careers, adequate facilities, operating support, arrangements for interdisciplinary collabo ration, and freedom of the qualified scientist to follow where his research leads. Techniques for this program are known. Annual support from all sources, about $890 million in 1961, will need to reach perhaps $3 billion by 1970.
Meeting the Health Needs of the Aged
Authors: Brewster Agnes W.
Published: March 2007

Because the aged have higher than average medical needs, their medical care expenditures equaled at least 16 per cent of the nation's medical bill in 1960, although only 9 per cent of the population is sixty-five and over. Public funds already account for a fourth of this medical bill. Be cause they have less voluntary health insurance than the wage earning segment, the aged, with lower-than-average incomes, have to rely on their own resources and help from relatives and philanthropy. This situation has led to general recognition that more public money is required if adequate medical care for the elderly is to be provided in future as medical costs continue to rise faster than the income of the aged. Proposals for meeting these health needs include: (1) Reliance on the spread of voluntary health insurance and OAA medical care and MAA; (2) Development of federal-state subsidy to volun tary insurance for all or part of premium costs for low-income aged; (3) Levying an additional social security tax to provide health benefits for OASDI beneficiaries with costs paid by presently employed workers and employers. The solution will be a political compromise influenced by the significance attached to these arguments.