bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Cuff leak tests: analysis of diagnostic accuracy in observational cohorts of patients with acute respiratory failure
Authors: Guerra Diana , Mulkey Zachary , Nugent Kenneth
Published: January 2012

Cuff leak tests provide clinicians with information about upper airway narrowing and may help predict weaning success. However, most clinical trials reporting this measurement are small, and the utility of this test remains uncertain. We identified all clinical studies using cuff leak tests in the PubMed, Google Scholar, EMBASE, and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials databases using multiple search terms, including cuff leak test, laryngeal edema, extubation, and stridor, and abstracted quantitative information on cuff leaks and outcomes (stridor and reintubation). We reviewed six studies which included 958 patients with acute respiratory failure in intensive care units. Eighty-two patients (8.5%) had postextubation stridor. The weighted mean cuff leak was 119 (±51) mls in the patients with stridor and 313 (±24) mls in patients without stridor (P<0.01). Sixty-six patients required reintubation. The presence of stridor had a sensitivity of 0.60 (95% CI 0.48-0.72), a specificity of 0.96 (95% CI 0.94-0.97), and a positive likelihood ratio of 13.4 (95% CI 6.9-25.7) for predicting reintubation. No single clinical parameter consistently predicted stridor. Patients with postextubation stridor have smaller cuff leak volumes than patients who do not have stridor and are more likely to require reintubation. Cuff leak measurements can improve decision making with extubation protocols.
Prediction of Non-Sentinel Lymph Node Status in Breast Cancer Patients with Sentinel Lymph Node Metastases: Evaluation of the Tenon Score
Authors: Andersson Y , Frisell J , de Boniface J , Bergkvist L
Published: January 2012

Introduction

Current guidelines recommend completion axillary lymph node dissection (cALND) in case of a sentinel lymph node (SLN) metastasis larger than 0.2 mm. However, in 50%-65% of these patients, the non-SLNs contain no further metastases and cALND provides no benefit. Several nomograms and scoring systems have been suggested to predict the risk of metastases in non-SLNs. We have evaluated the Tenon score.

Patients and Methods

In a retrospective review of the Swedish Sentinel Node Multicentre Cohort Study, risk factors for additional metastases were analysed in 869 SLN-positive patients who underwent cALND, using uni- and multivariate logistic regression models. A receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve was drawn on the basis of the sensitivity and specificity of the Tenon score, and the area under the curve (AUC) was calculated.

Results

Non-SLN metastases were identified in 270/869 (31.1%) patients. Tumour size and grade, SLN status and ratio between number of positive SLNs and total number of SLNs were significantly associated with non-SLN status in multivariate analyses. The area under the curve for the Tenon score was 0.65 (95% CI 0.61–0.69). In 102 patients with a primary tumour <2 cm, Elston grade 1–2 and SLN metastases ≤2 mm, the risk of non SLN metastasis was less than 10%.

Conclusion

The Tenon score performed inadequately in our material and we could, based on tumour and SLN characteristics, only define a very small group of patients in which negative non-sentinel nodes could be predicted.
Rule-based and Lightly Supervised Methods to Predict Emotions in Suicide Notes
Authors: Pedersen Ted
Published: January 2012

This paper describes the Duluth systems that participated in the Sentiment Analysis track of the i2b2/VA/Cincinnati Children's 2011 Challenge. The top Duluth system was a rule-based approach derived through manual corpus analysis and the use of measures of association to identify significant ngrams. This performed in the median range of systems, attaining an F-measure of 0.45. The second system was automatically derived from the most frequent bigrams unique to one or two emotions. It achieved an F-measure of 0.36. The third system was the union of the first two, and reached an F-measure of 0.44.
Sentiment Analysis of Suicide Notes: A Shared Task
Authors: Pestian John P. , Matykiewicz Pawel , Linn-Gust Michelle , South Brett , Uzuner Ozlem , Wiebe Jan , Cohen K. Bretonnel , Hurdle John , Brew Christopher
Published: January 2012

This paper reports on a shared task involving the assignment of emotions to suicide notes. Two features distinguished this task from previous shared tasks in the biomedical domain. One is that it resulted in the corpus of fully anonymized clinical text and annotated suicide notes. This resource is permanently available and will (we hope) facilitate future research. The other key feature of the task is that it required categorization with respect to a large set of labels. The number of participants was larger than in any previous biomedical challenge task. We describe the data production process and the evaluation measures, and give a preliminary analysis of the results. Many systems performed at levels approaching the inter-coder agreement, suggesting that human-like performance on this task is within the reach of currently available technologies.
CADICA: Continuous Automated Dissolved Inorganic Carbon Analyzer with application to aquatic carbon cycle science
Authors: Bass Adrian M. , Bird Michael I. , Morrison Marshall J. , Gordon Jeremy
Published: January 2012

Dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) represents a significant component of both the terrestrial and oceanic carbon cycles. An instrument for the continuous and automated analysis of dissolved inorganic carbon in the field is described. The analyzer is designed to allow collection of high‐resolution (sub hourly) DIC data over prolonged field deployments without the need for labor‐intensive maintenance and monitoring. The instrument sequentially acidifies an aliquot of water in gas permeable tubing through which CO2 diffuses into a gas tight chamber and is quantified by an infrared gas analyzer. The instrument is accurate to ± 0.04 mM with a detection limit of 0.01 mM. Comparisons with conventional head space equilibration techniques using mass spectrometry yielded a good correlation differing by 0.016 ± 0.014 mM. Deployment in a tropical estuary and freshwater rainforest catchment revealed the dynamic nature of inorganic carbon cycling in these aquatic systems. DIC concentration was found to track the mixing of fresh and salt water well in the tropical estuary (as indicated by conductivity measurements), and comprised a significant component of dissolved carbon export from the estuary catchment. DIC totalled 24 ± 6% of the total carbon export from the rainforest catchment and varied between 0.04 and 0.13 mM over a 4‐d period. The dynamic nature of DIC in the two environments illustrates the pressing need for the continuous and high‐resolution data our instrument provides.
Direct measurement of ozone production rates in Houston in 2009 and comparison with two estimation methods
Authors: Cazorla M. , Brune W. H. , Ren X. , Lefer B.
Published: January 2012

Abstract. Net ozone production rates, P(O3), were measured directly using the Penn State Measurement of Ozone Production Sensor (MOPS) during the Study of Houston Atmospheric Radical Precursors (SHARP, 2009). Measured P(O3) peaked in the late morning, with values between 15 ppbv h−1 and 100 ppbv h−1, although values of 40–80 ppbv h−1 were typical for higher ozone days. These measurements were compared against ozone production rates calculated using measurements of hydroperoxyl (HO2), hydroxyl (OH), and nitric oxide (NO) radicals, called "calculated P(O3)". The same comparison was done using modeled radicals obtained from a box model with the RACM2 mechanism, called "modeled P(O3)". Measured and calculated P(O3) had similar peak values but the calculated P(O3) tended to peak earlier in the morning when NO values were higher. Measured and modeled P(O3) had a similar dependence on NO, but the modeled P(O3) was only half the measured P(O3). The modeled P(O3) is less than the calculated P(O3) because the modeled HO2 is less than the measured HO2. While statistical analyses are not conclusive regarding the comparison between MOPS measurements and the two estimation methods, the calculated P(O3) with measured HO2 produces peak values similar to the measured P(O3) when ozone is high. Although the MOPS is new and more testing is required to verify its observations, the measurements in the SHARP field campaign show the potential of this new technique for contributing to the understanding of ozone-producing chemistry and to the monitoring of ozone's response to future air quality regulatory actions.
Development of a climate record of tropospheric and stratospheric ozone from satellite remote sensing: evidence of an early recovery of global stratospheric ozone
Authors: Ziemke J. R. , Chandra S.
Published: January 2012

Abstract. Ozone data beginning October 2004 from the Aura Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI) and Aura Microwave Limb Sounder (MLS) are used to evaluate the accuracy of the Cloud Slicing technique in effort to develop long data records of tropospheric and stratospheric ozone and for studying their long-term changes. Using this technique, we have produced a 32-yr (1979–2010) long record of tropospheric and stratospheric ozone from the combined Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) and OMI. The analyses of these time series suggest that the quasi-biennial oscillation (QBO) is the dominant source of inter-annual variability of stratospheric ozone and is clearest in the Southern Hemisphere during the Aura time record with related inter-annual changes of 30–40 Dobson Units. Tropospheric ozone also indicates a QBO signal in the tropics with peak-to-peak changes varying from 2 to 7 DU. The stratospheric ozone record indicates a steady increase since the mid-1990's with current ozone levels comparable to the mid-1980's. This is earlier than predicted by many of the current climate models which suggest recovery to the mid-1980's levels by year 2020 or later.
Activity and diversity of methane-oxidizing bacteria in glacier forefields on siliceous and calcareous bedrock
Authors: Nauer P. A. , Dam B. , Liesack W. , Zeyer J. , Schroth M. H.
Published: January 2012

Abstract. The global methane (CH4) cycle is largely driven by methanogenic archaea and methane-oxidizing bacteria (MOB), but little is known about their activity and diversity in pioneer ecosystems. We conducted a field survey in forefields of 13 receding Swiss glaciers on both siliceous and calcareous bedrock to investigate and quantify CH4 turnover based on soil-gas CH4 concentration profiles, and to characterize MOB communities using pmoA sequencing and T-RFLP. Methane turnover was fundamentally different in the two bedrock categories. Of the 36 CH4 concentration profiles from siliceous locations, 11 showed atmospheric CH4 consumption at concentrations of ∼1–2 μl l−1 with soil-atmosphere CH4 fluxes of −0.14 to −1.1 mg m−2 d−1. Another 11 profiles showed no apparent activity, while the remaining 14 exhibited slightly increased CH4 concentrations of ∼2–10 μl l−1, most likely due to microsite methanogenesis. In contrast, all profiles from calcareous sites suggested a substantial, yet unknown CH4 source below our sampling zone, with soil-gas CH4 concentrations reaching up to 1400 μl l−1. Remarkably, most soils oxidized ∼90% of the deep-soil CH4, resulting in soil-atmosphere fluxes of 0.12 to 31 mg m−2 d−1. MOB showed limited diversity in both siliceous and calcareous forefields: all identified pmoA sequences formed only 5 OTUs and, with one exception, could be assigned to either Methylocystis or the as-yet-uncultivated Upland Soil Cluster γ (USCγ). The latter dominated T-RFLP patterns of all siliceous and most calcareous samples, while Methylocystis dominated in 4 calcareous samples. As Type I MOB are widespread in cold climate habitats with elevated CH4 concentrations, USCγ might be the corresponding Type I MOBs in habitats exposed to near-atmospheric CH4 concentrations.
Ranges of moisture-source temperatures estimated from Antarctic ice core stable isotope records over the glacial-interglacial cycles
Authors: Uemura R. , Masson-Delmotte V. , Jouzel J. , Landais A. , Motoyama H. , Stenni B.
Published: January 2012

Abstract. A single isotope ratio (δD or δ18O) of water is widely used as an air-temperature proxy in Antarctic ice cores. These isotope ratios, however, do not solely depend on air-temperature but also on the extent of distillation of heavy isotopes out of atmospheric water vapor from an oceanic moisture source to a precipitation site. The temperature changes at the oceanic moisture source (ΔTsource) and at the precipitation site (ΔTsite) can be retrieved by using deuterium-excess (d) data. A new d record from Dome Fuji, Antarctica is produced spanning the past 360 000 yr and compared with records from Vostok and EPICA Dome C ice cores. To retrieve ΔTsource and ΔTsite information, different linear regression equations have been proposed using theoretical isotope distillation models. A major source of uncertainty lies in the coefficient of regression, βsite which is related to the sensitivity of d to ΔTsite. We show that different ranges of temperature and selections of isotopic model outputs may increase the value of βsite by a factor of two. To explore the impacts of this coefficient on the reconstructed temperatures, we apply for the first time the exact same methodology to the isotope records from the three Antarctica ice cores. We show that uncertainties in the βsite coefficient strongly affect (i) the glacial-interglacial magnitude of ΔTsource; (ii) the imprint of obliquity in ΔTsource and in the site-source temperature gradient. By contrast, we highlight the robustness of ΔTsite reconstruction using water isotopes records.
Planetary fertility during the past 400 ka based on the triple isotope composition of O2 in trapped gases from the Vostok ice core
Authors: Blunier T. , Bender M. L. , Barnett B. , von Fisher J. C.
Published: January 2012

Abstract. The productivity of the biosphere leaves its imprint on the isotopic composition of atmospheric oxygen. Ultimately atmospheric oxygen, through photosynthesis, originates from seawater. Fractionations during the passage from seawater to atmospheric O2 and during respiration are mass dependent, affecting δ17O about half as much as δ18O. An "anomalous" (also termed mass independent) fractionation process changes δ17O about 1.7 times as much as δ18O during isotope exchange between O2 and CO2 in the stratosphere. The relative rates of biological O2 production and stratospheric processing determine the relationship between δ17O and δ18O of O2 in the atmosphere. Variations of this relationship thus allow us to estimate changes in the rate of mass dependent O2 production by photosynthesis vs. the rate of mass independent O2-CO2 exchange in the stratosphere. However, the analysis of the 17O anomaly is complicated because each hydrological and biological process influencing δ17O and δ18O fractionates 17O and 18O in slightly different proportions. In this study we present oxygen data covering the last 400 kyr from the Vostok ice core. We reconstruct oxygen productivities from the triple isotope composition of atmospheric oxygen with a box model. Our steady state model for the oxygen cycle takes into account fractionation during photosynthesis and respiration of the land and ocean biosphere as well as fractionation when oxygen passes through the stratosphere. We consider changes of fractionation factors linked to climate variations taking into account the span of estimates of the main factors affecting our calculations. We find that ocean oxygen productivity was likely elevated relative to modern during glacials. However, this increase probably did not fully compensate for a reduction in land ocean productivity resulting in a slight reduction in total oxygen production during glacials.
A standard test case suite for two-dimensional linear transport on the sphere
Authors: Lauritzen P. H. , Skamarock W. C. , Prather M. J. , Taylor M. A.
Published: January 2012

Abstract. It is the purpose of this paper to propose a standard test case suite for two-dimensional transport schemes on the sphere intended to be used for model development and facilitating scheme intercomparison. The test cases are designed to assess important aspects of accuracy in geophysical fluid dynamics such as numerical order of convergence, "minimal" resolution, the ability of the transport scheme to preserve filaments, transport "rough" distributions, and to preserve pre-existing functional relations between species/tracers under challenging flow conditions. The experiments are designed to be easy to set up. They are specified in terms of two analytical wind fields (one non-divergent and one divergent) and four analytical initial conditions (varying from smooth to discontinuous). Both conventional error norms as well as novel mixing and filament preservation diagnostics are used that are easy to implement. The experiments pose different challenges for the range of transport approaches from Lagrangian to Eulerian. The mixing and filament preservation diagnostics do not require an analytical/reference solution which is in contrast to standard error norms where a "true" solution is needed. Results using the CSLAM (Conservative Semi-Lagrangian Multi-tracer) scheme on the cubed-sphere are presented for reference and illustrative purposes.
Operational SAR-based sea ice drift monitoring over the Baltic Sea
Authors: Karvonen J.
Published: January 2012

Abstract. An algorithm for computing ice drift from pairs of synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images covering a common area has been developed at FMI. The algorithm has been developed based on the C-band SAR data over the Baltic Sea. It is based on phase correlation in two scales (coarse and fine) with some additional constraints. The algorithm has been running operationally in the Baltic Sea from the beginning of 2011, using Radarsat-1 ScanSAR wide mode and Envisat ASAR wide swath mode data. The resulting ice drift fields are publicly available as part of the MyOcean EC project. The SAR based ice drift vectors have been compared to the drift vectors from drifter buoys in the Baltic Sea during the first operational season and also these validation results are shown in this paper. Also some navigationally useful sea ice quantities, which can be derived from ice drift vector fields, are presented.
Overview of the Classical Histone Deacetylase Enzymes and Histone Deacetylase Inhibitors
Authors: Ververis Katherine , Karagiannis Tom C.
Published: January 2012

The important role of histone deacetylase enzymes in regulating gene expression, cellular proliferation, and survival has made them attractive targets for the development of histone deacetylase inhibitors as anticancer drugs. Suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid (Vorinostat, Zolinza), a structural analogue of the prototypical Trichostatin A, was approved by the US Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of advanced cutaneous T-cell lymphoma in 2006. This was followed by approval of the cyclic peptide, depsipeptide (Romidepsin, Istodax) for the same disease in 2009. Currently numerous histone deacetylase inhibitors are undergoing preclinical and clinical trials for the treatment of hematological and solid malignancies. Most of these studies are focused on combinations of histone deacetylase inhibitors with other therapeutic modalities, particularly conventional chemotherapeutics and radiotherapy. The aim of this paper is to provide an overview of the classical histone deacetylase enzymes and histone deacetylase inhibitors with an emphasis on potential combination therapies.
Aggressive Angiomyxoma
Authors: Sutton Brian J. , Laudadio Jennifer
Published: January 2012

Aggressive angiomyxoma is a rare mesenchymal tumor that most commonly arises in the vulvovaginal region, perineum, and pelvis of women. The term aggressive emphasizes the often infiltrative nature of the tumor and its frequent association with local recurrence. Patients often present with nonspecific symptoms which are frequently misdiagnosed with more common entities, such as a Bartholin cyst, lipoma, or hernia. Histologic examination reveals a hypocellular and highly vascular tumor with a myxoid stroma containing cytologically bland stellate or spindled cells. The tumor cells are characteristically positive for estrogen and progesterone receptors, suggesting a hormonal role in the development of the tumor. Chromosomal translocation of the 12q13-15 band involving the HMGA2 gene has been described. Surgical excision is the treatment of choice, although treatment with gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonists is an emerging therapy. Metastases are exceedingly rare, and overall, the prognosis is good.
Malignant Struma Ovarii: A Blinded Study of 86 Cases Assessing Which Histologic Features Correlate With Aggressive Clinical Behavior
Authors: Shaco-Levy Ruthy , Peng Ruth Y. , Snyder Matthew J. , Osmond Gregory W. , Veras Emanuella , Bean Sarah M. , Bentley Rex C. , Robboy Stanley J.
Published: January 2012

Context.—Struma ovarii exhibiting malignant histology are uncommon, and an aggressive clinical course in the form of initial extraovarian spread or recurrence is even more exceptional for these tumors.

Objective.—To determine whether specific histologic features have predictive value in distinguishing clinically benign from clinically malignant struma ovarii.

Design.—Blinded analysis of 19 histologic characteristics of thyroid tumors was performed in 60 clinically benign and 26 clinically malignant struma ovarii cases, with long-term follow-up.

Results.—Except for lack of fibrosis and macrofollicular pattern, which were more common in biologically malignant tumors (P  =  .04 and P  =  .008, respectively), and trabecular pattern, which was associated with a benign clinical course (P  =  .03), none of the other histologic features was found to be correlated with clinical behavior. The presence of the following features was similar in the biologically benign and malignant tumors: papillae, pseudo-papillae, psammoma bodies, nuclear grooves, nuclear overlap, “orphan Annie” nuclei, nuclear pseudo-inclusions, prominent nucleoli, hypercellularity, colloid scalloping, eosinophilic cytoplasm, mitoses, vascular invasion, cytologic atypia, nuclear pleomorphism, and cell size and type. Trabecular pattern and absence of fibrosis were uncommon, and there was considerable overlap of macrofollicular pattern ratio between benign and malignant cases. Thus, their practical usefulness is uncertain.

Conclusions.—The clinical outcome of struma ovarii cannot be predicted based on the microscopic diagnosis of the thyroid tissue or on specific histologic features. The lack of correlation between morphology and outcome in proliferative and histologically malignant struma ovarii is striking, making the behavior of these tumors particularly unpredictable.
Evaluation of Napsin A, Cytokeratin 5/6, p63, and Thyroid Transcription Factor 1 in Adenocarcinoma Versus Squamous Cell Carcinoma of the Lung
Authors: Whithaus Kenneth , Fukuoka Junya , Prihoda Thomas J. , Jagirdar Jaishree
Published: January 2012

Context.—The distinction of lung adenocarcinoma from other types of primary lung malignancies is important clinically. Accurate morphologic classification is often hindered because 70% of lung cancers are diagnosed on limited fine-needle aspiration or transbronchial biopsy specimens. Although thyroid transcription factor 1 (TTF-1) has historically been the most specific marker for lung adenocarcinoma, a relatively new marker, napsin A, has recently been shown to be more sensitive and specific than TTF-1.

Objective.—To find the most cost-effective panel to reliably distinguish lung adenocarcinoma from squamous cell carcinoma.

Design.—A total of 291 lung cancers were evaluated morphologically (197 adenocarcinomas [75%]; 66 squamous cell carcinomas [25%]; 28 cases could not be classified into either and were dropped). Immunohistochemistry for napsin A, Cytokeratin 5/6, p63, and TTF-1 was performed on a formalin-fixed tissue microarray obtained from Toyama, Japan. Cases were scored as positive or negative against a negative control.

Results.—Napsin A had 83% sensitivity and 98% specificity and TTF-1 had 60% sensitivity and 98% specificity for adenocarcinoma. Cytokeratin 5/6 had 53% sensitivity and 96% specificity and p63 had 95% sensitivity and 86% specificity for squamous cell carcinoma. A panel of napsin A and p63 has a specificity of 94% and a sensitivity of 96% for distinguishing adenocarcinoma from squamous cell carcinoma.

Conclusions.—The source of the antibody is important in avoiding false-negative results. The most cost-effective tissue-preserving panel for small biopsy specimens in the differential diagnosis of lung adenocarcinoma versus squamous cell carcinoma is a combination of p63 and napsin A.
Napsin A, a New Marker for Lung Adenocarcinoma, Is Complementary and More Sensitive and Specific Than Thyroid Transcription Factor 1 in the Differential Diagnosis of Primary Pulmonary Carcinoma: Evaluation of 1674 Cases by Tissue Microarray
Authors: Turner Bradley M. , Cagle Philip T. , Sainz Irma M. , Fukuoka Junya , Shen Steven S. , Jagirdar Jaishree
Published: January 2012

Context.—Differentiation of non–small cell carcinoma into histologic types is important because of new, successful therapies that target lung adenocarcinoma (ACA). TTF-1 is a favored marker for lung ACA but has limited sensitivity and specificity. Napsin A (Nap-A) is a functional aspartic proteinase that may be an alternative marker for primary lung ACA.

Objectives.—To compare Nap-A versus TTF-1 in the typing of primary lung carcinoma and the differentiation of primary lung ACA from carcinomas of other sites.

Design.—Immunohistochemistry for Nap-A and TTF-1 was performed on tissue microarrays of 1674 cases of carcinoma: 303 primary lung ACAs (18.1%), 200 primary squamous cell lung carcinomas (11.9%), 52 primary small cell carcinomas of the lung (3.1%), and carcinomas of the kidney (n  =  320; 19.1%), thyroid (n  =  96; 5.7%), biliary (n  =  89; 5.3%), bladder (n  =  47; 2.8%), breast (n  =  93; 5.6%), colon (n  =  95; 5.7%), liver (n  =  96; 5.7%), ovaries (n  =  45; 2.7%), pancreas (n  =  48; 2.9%), prostate (n  =  49; 2.9%), stomach (n  =  93; 5.6%), and uterus (n  =  48; 2.9%). Cases were evaluated against a negative control as negative, weak positive, and strong positive.

Results.—Nap-A was more sensitive than TTF-1 for primary lung ACA (87% versus 64%; P < .001). Nap-A was more specific than TTF-1 for primary lung ACA versus all tumors, excluding kidney, independent of tumor type (P < .001).

Conclusions.—Nap-A is superior to TTF-1 in distinguishing primary lung ACA from other carcinomas (except kidney), particularly primary lung small cell carcinoma, and primary thyroid carcinoma. A combination of Nap-A and TTF-1 is useful in the distinction of primary lung ACA (Nap-A+, TTF-1+) from primary lung squamous cell carcinoma (Nap-A−, TTF-1−) and primary lung small cell carcinoma (Nap-A−, TTF-1+).
Activities for Students: Error Tolerance Formulas Related to Classical Algebra and Geometry
Authors: Hall Randy F.
Published: January 2012

When the diameter of a basketball must be within a certain tolerance, what are the implications for the surface area and volume of the basketball?
Germanium, Tin, and Copper
Authors: Stewart James H. , Macintosh David , Allen Joseph , McCarthy John
Published: January 2012

Germanium, tin, and copper have each played a major role in the development of civilization although at distinctly different periods of history . A German chemist Clemens A. Winkler first isolated Germanium in 1886 from the mineral argyrodite, a mixed sulfide of silver and germanium, and named it after his home country Germany. Today germanium is used in the computer industry (as resistors on computer chips), in fiber optics, solar applications, metallurgy, and chemotherapy.

In contrast, the archaeological record shows that tin and copper were components of man‐made objects found in Iraq that date back to 9000 BC. The Bronze Age began approximately 3500bcwith the discovery that easily smelted soft copper could be made harder and stronger by alloying with tin. Tin and copper remain important for the manufacture of numerous commercially valuable products including electrical conductors, piping, and antimicrobial agents.

Germanium is a semiconducting metal from Group IVA of the periodic table and it forms a series of hydrides, which correspond chemically to the methane series of hydrocarbons and to silanes (silicon series of hydrides). Selected physical and chemical properties of germanium and some of its more common compounds are provided. There are numerous organogermanium compounds. Interest in the organogermanium compounds has centered on their antimicrobial activity and the fact that their mammalian toxicity is considerably lower than the corresponding derivatives of tin or lead. In recent years various germanium compounds, for example, carboxyethyl germanium sesquioxide (Ge‐132) and lactate–citrate–germanate, have been sold as nutritional supplements, thereby creating a new exposure pathway for germanium and increasing exposure above levels predicted from industrial uses.

Tin is a solid, rather an unreactive metal in Group IVA of the periodic table and has the largest number of stable isotopes of any element. Tin also has a large number of unstable isotopes with half‐lives ranging from 2.2 min to 105years. The physical and chemical properties of tin and some of its compounds are provided. Data are shown for elemental tin, organotin compounds, and some inorganic tin compounds.

Copper is located in Group IB of the periodic table and was one of the first metals used by humans. The electrical conductivity and malleability of copper are important commercial properties of the metal. The physical and chemical properties of copper and its related compounds are provided. The adverse health effects associated with copper production may be due to the large amounts of sulfur oxides generated during smelting or because of the impurities, such as arsenic and antimony. Exposure to copper can occur from environmental sources such as food, water from copper pipes, and soil ingestion near copper smelting operations.
Alkaline Materials: Sodium, Potassium, Cesium, Rubidium, Francium, and Lithium
Authors: Jefferson Robert
Published: January 2012

Alkaline materials cause irritation and corrosion of body tissues and the most commonly encountered alkaline salts are of potassium and sodium. The hydroxides of potassium and sodium being the most hazardous. The eyes are particularly susceptible to alkaline materials leading to significant tissue damage. Exposures in the workplace should be minimized using appropriate risk assessment protocols and occupational hygiene hierarchy of control measures. It is essential that employees at risk have focused safety training. Lithium compounds (carbonate and citrate) have been used widely for a number of years for the treatment of mania and bipolar disorders. The main industrial use of lithium is in lithium stearatum form, as a lubricant grease thickener in automotive applications. The toxicity of cesium is mainly due to its radioactive isotopes. Sodium metasilicate is markedly corrosive and penetrating and initial clinical manifestations of acute ingestion can include dysphagia, drooling, pain and hematemesis. Trisodium phosphate is used as a cleaning agent, food additive, stain remover and degreaser. Sodium peroxide is used as an oxidizing agent and is used as an oxygen source by reacting with carbon dioxide to produce oxygen and sodium carbonate; it is thus particularly useful in scuba gear, submarines, etc. The hazard of sodium hydroxide for the environment is caused by the hydroxyl ion. The chapter discusses properties, uses, toxic effects and standards, regulations, or guidelines of exposure of various alkaline materials.
Intramolecular Homolytic Substitutions in Synthesis
Authors: Kyne Sara H. , Schiesser Carl H.
Published: January 2012

Intramolecular homolytic substitution chemistry offers the synthetic practitioner efficient and convenient methods for the preparation of higher heterocycles that complement existing ionic processes, especially for the preparation of ring systems containing sulfur and selenium, as well as silicon. This article details fundamental principles and important kinetic data for intramolecular homolytic substitution chemistry involving main group heteroatoms and provides examples and illustrative procedures for the application of this chemistry to the preparation of interesting molecules, some of which are of biological significance.
Long‐term outcome of early neuropsychiatric events due to active disease in systemic lupus erythematosus
Authors: Wang Michelle , Gladman Dafna D. , Ibañez Dominique , Urowitz Murray B.
Published: January 2012

Objective

Neuropsychiatric (NP) manifestations attributable to active disease affect up to 30% of individuals with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). The short‐term impact of NP events includes increased organ damage, fatigue, and mortality, and lower health‐related quality of life. We investigated the impact of NP events attributable to active SLE at presentation on long‐term disease activity, organ damage, and health‐related quality of life.

Methods

Seventy‐two NP cases and 144 matched controls from the University of Toronto Lupus Cohort, enrolled between 1970 and 2005, were included in the study. NP cases had at least 1 NP event attributable to active SLE at the first clinic visit. Controls did not have NP events at the first clinic visit and were matched to cases on age, sex, disease duration, and decade. Paired case–control analyses were performed on measures of disease activity (Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Disease Activity Index 2000), disease damage (Systemic Lupus International Collaborating Clinics/American College of Rheumatology Damage Index), and health‐related quality of life (Short Form 36) at 1 year, 3 years, and 5 years after the first clinic visit.

Results

NP cases showed greater disease activity than controls at the first clinic visit (P < 0.0001) and greater cumulative organ damage at 1‐year followup (P = 0.01). No statistically significant differences were found on 3‐year or 5‐year outcomes. Mean scores showed a decreasing trend of disease activity, increasing organ damage, and persistently low quality of life for both cases and controls.

Conclusion

This study shows that early NP events due to active SLE are not major contributors to long‐term disease activity, accumulation of damage, or health‐related quality of life. The long‐term prognosis and patterns of disease in SLE patients with early NP events are similar to those of SLE patients without these events.
Brief fear of movement scale for osteoarthritis
Authors: Shelby Rebecca A. , Somers Tamara J. , Keefe Francis J. , DeVellis Brenda M. , Patterson Carol , Renner Jordan B. , Jordan Joanne M.
Published: January 2012

Objective

Fear of movement has important clinical implications for individuals with osteoarthritis (OA). This study aimed to establish a brief fear of movement scale for use in OA. Items from the Tampa Scale for Kinesiophobia (TSK) were examined.

Methods

The English version of the TSK was examined in a community‐based sample (n = 1,136) of individuals with OA of the hip or knee. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were used to determine the number and content of the dimensions of fear of movement. Factorial invariance was tested across subgroups of sex, race, education, and OA severity. Convergent validity with measures of pain, physical functioning, and psychological functioning was examined.

Results

Factor analyses identified a single‐factor 6‐item scale that measures activity avoidance due to pain‐related fear of movement (confirmatory factor analysis indices of model fit: root mean square error of approximation = 0.04, standardized root mean square residual = 0.01, comparative fit index = 0.99, and Tucker‐Lewis Index = 0.99). The 6‐item scale demonstrated factorial invariance across sex, race, levels of education, and OA severity, suggesting that this scale performs consistently across diverse groups of individuals with OA. Convergent validity with measures of pain (β = 0.30–0.41), physical functioning (β = 0.44–0.48), and psychological functioning (β = 0.36–0.37) was also demonstrated.

Conclusion

The Brief Fear of Movement Scale identified in this study provides a promising and valid approach for assessing fear of movement in individuals with OA. This brief scale demonstrated several important strengths, including a small number of items, sound psychometric properties, and consistent performance across diverse groups of individuals with OA.
Sequence‐Independent Synthesis of π‐conjugated Arylenevinylene Oligomers using Bifunctional Thiophene Monomers
Authors: Shivananda Kammasandra Nanjunda , Cohen Irit , Borzin Elena , Gerchikov Yulia , Firstenberg Michal , Solomeshch Olga , Tessler Nir , Eichen Yoav
Published: January 2012

Sequence‐independent or “click” chemistry is applied for the preparation of a series of novel and structurally similar π‐conjugated oligomers. The new oligomers are prepared using Wittig–Horner chemistry from bifunctional building blocks that can be interconnected to one another at any desired sequence. The bifunctional building blocks consist of aromatic skeletons with acetal protected aldehyde groups on one side and a phosphonic acid diethyl ester group para to the aldehyde functionality. The first step in the arylenevinylene formation is a Wittig–Horner coupling of a functionalized aldehyde with the methyl phosphonate ester ylide of a bifunctional monomer. A stepwise protection–deprotection process is applied for the preparation of structurally similar π‐conjugated oligo‐phenylene vinylenes. New di‐, tri‐, penta‐, and hepta‐phenylenevinylenes are prepared and characterized. Selected penta‐arylenevinylenes are incorporated as the semiconductor channel in organic field‐effect transistors.
Conductivity of SU‐8 Thin Films through Atomic Force Microscopy Nano‐Patterning
Authors: Martin‐Olmos Cristina , Villanueva L. Guillermo , van der Wal Peter D. , Llobera Andreu , de Rooij Nico F. , Brugger Jürgen , Perez‐Murano Francesc
Published: January 2012

Processing flexibility and good mechanical properties are the two major reasons for SU‐8 extensive applicability in the micro‐fabrication of devices. In order to expand its usability down to the nanoscale, conductivity of ultra‐thin SU‐8 layers as well as its patterning by AFM are explored. By performing local electrical measurements outstanding insulating properties and a dielectric strength 100 times larger than that of SiO2 are shown. It is also demonstrated that the resist can be nano‐patterned using AFM, obtaining minimum dimensions below 40nm and that it can be combined with parallel lithographic methods like UV‐lithography. The concurrence of excellent insulating properties and nanometer‐scale patternability enables a valuable new approach for the fabrication of nanodevices. As a proof of principle, nano‐electrode arrays for electrochemical measurements which show radial diffusion and no overlap between different diffusion layers are fabricated. This indicates the potential of the developed technique for the nanofabrication of devices.
Sampling strategies in a linguistic isolate: Results from mtDNA analysis
Authors: Calò Carla Maria , Corrias Laura , Vona Giuseppe , Bachis Valeria , Robledo Renato
Published: January 2012

Objectives:

Sampling strategies are crucial issues in population genetics and anthropological studies. The sampling choice is related to the research question and the type of markers used. In this research, we compared two different sampling strategies in the Sardinian linguistic isolate of Carloforte (Italy).

Methods:

A first sampling (N = 49) was carried out through grandparents criterion: individuals selected for the study were born and resident in Carloforte, and unrelated for at least three generations. A second sampling (N = 50) was based on founders surnames (FS): selected participants were proved to be descendants of the village founders, and to have no ancestors in common, at least up to the grandparental generation.

Results:

The group selected through FS showed a greater gene diversity, which was confirmed by both network and haplogroup analysis. Among the shared haplogroups, we find clear differences in their frequencies. Sampling through grandparents criterion showed essentially the same haplogroups found in Sardinia, and with similar frequencies. Interesting results came from genetic tree. The FS sampling clustered with Northern African populations and it is located very far from Italian and Sardinian populations, whereas the grandparents criterion sampling clustered with Italian populations and it is located close to the other Sardinian populations.

Conclusions:

Results showed that different sampling strategies can lead to contrasting results. As sampling through grandparents criterion is influenced by recent gene flow, we hypothesize that the difference observed with the two sampling strategies is due to the merging of Carloforte with Sardinian populations. Am. J. Hum. Biol., 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Evolutionary disequilibrium and activity period in primates: A bayesian phylogenetic approach
Authors: Griffin Randi H. , Matthews Luke J. , Nunn Charles L.
Published: January 2012

Activity period plays a central role in studies of primate origins and adaptations, yet fundamental questions remain concerning the evolutionary history of primate activity period. Lemurs are of particular interest because they display marked variation in activity period, with some species exhibiting completely nocturnal or diurnal lifestyles, and others distributing activity throughout the 24‐h cycle (i.e., cathemerality). Some lines of evidence suggest that cathemerality in lemurs is a recent and transient evolutionary state (i.e., the evolutionary disequilibrium hypothesis), while other studies indicate that cathemerality is a stable evolutionary strategy with a more ancient history. Debate also surrounds activity period in early primate evolution, with some recent studies casting doubt on the traditional hypothesis that basal primates were nocturnal. Here, we used Bayesian phylogenetic methods to reconstruct activity period at key points in primate evolution. Counter to the evolutionary disequilibrium hypothesis, the most recent common ancestor of Eulemur was reconstructed as cathemeral at ∼9–13 million years ago, indicating that cathemerality in lemurs is a stable evolutionary strategy. We found strong evidence favoring a nocturnal ancestor for all primates, strepsirrhines and lemurs, which adds to previous findings based on parsimony by providing quantitative support for these reconstructions. Reconstructions for the haplorrhine ancestor were more equivocal, but diurnality was favored for simian primates. We discuss the implications of our models for the evolutionary disequilibrium hypothesis, and we identify avenues for future research that would provide new insights into the evolution of cathemerality in lemurs. Am J Phys Anthropol 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
The population genetics of quechuas, the largest native south american group: Autosomal sequences, SNPs, and microsatellites evidence high level of diversity
Authors: Scliar Marilia O. , Soares‐Souza Giordano B. , Chevitarese Juliana , Lemos Livia , Magalhães Wagner C.S. , Fagundes Nelson J. , Bonatto Sandro L. , Yeager Meredith , Chanock Stephen J. , Tarazona‐Santos Eduardo
Published: January 2012

Elucidating the pattern of genetic diversity for non‐European populations is necessary to make the benefits of human genetics research available to individuals from these groups. In the era of large human genomic initiatives, Native American populations have been neglected, in particular, the Quechua, the largest South Amerindian group settled along the Andes. We characterized the genetic diversity of a Quechua population in a global setting, using autosomal noncoding sequences (nine unlinked loci for a total of 16 kb), 351 unlinked SNPs and 678 microsatellites and tested predictions of the model of the evolution of Native Americans proposed by (Tarazona‐Santos et al.: Am J Hum Genet 68 (2001) 1485–1496). European admixture is <5% and African ancestry is barely detectable in the studied population. The largest genetic distances were between African versus Quechua or Melanesian populations, which is concordant with the African origin of modern humans and the fact that South America was the last part of the world to be peopled. The diversity in the Quechua population is comparable with that of Eurasian populations, and the allele frequency spectrum based on resequencing data does not reflect a reduction in the proportion of rare alleles. Thus, the Quechua population is a large reservoir of common and rare genetic variants of South Amerindians. These results are consistent with and complement our evolutionary model of South Amerindians (Tarazona‐Santos et al.: Am J Hum Genet 68 (2001) 1485–1496), proposed based on Y‐chromosome data, which predicts high genomic diversity due to the high level of gene flow between Andean populations and their long‐term effective population size. Am J Phys Anthropol 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Brief communication: Radiographic study of metatarsal one basal epiphyseal fusion: A note of caution on age determination
Authors: Weiss Elizabeth , DeSilva Jeremy , Zipfel Bernhard
Published: January 2012

This study examines radiographs of first metatarsals of 131 individuals from age 17–88 years to determine whether internal basal epiphyseal lines may be visible past the age of metatarsal fusion, which usually occurs between 14 and 16 years of age (Scheuer and Black: The juvenile skeleton. San Diego: Elsevier Academic Press,2004). In 29% (38 out of 131) of the radiographed first metatarsals (MT1s) the basal epiphyseal scar is visible, including in one individual who was 80 years old. Statistically, there was no relationship between the loss of the epiphyseal scar and age. Thus, the presence of the epiphyseal scar does not necessarily indicate subadult age. These data suggest that OH 8's radiographically visible basal epiphyseal line has no bearing on whether it is a subadult or not. Am J Phys Anthropol 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Estimation of surface properties of grafted layers formed on low‐ and high‐density polyethylene plates by photografting of methacrylic acid and acrylic acid at different monomer concentrations and temperatures
Authors: Yamada Kazunori , Yamagami Sho , Naohara Yuki
Published: January 2012

An investigation was carried out on estimation of hydrophilicity, wettability and water‐absorptivity, and surface analysis by X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy of the low‐ and high‐density polyethylene (LDPE and HDPE) plates photografted with methacrylic acid (MAA) and acrylic acid (AA) at different monomer concentrations or temperatures. Wettability of the MAA‐grafted LDPE and HDPE plates increased with grafted amounts, and became constant when the substrate surfaces were fully covered with the grafted polymer chains. On the other hand, for the AA‐grafted LDPE and HDPE plates, wettability had the maximum value, and then gradually decreased against the grafted amount probably due to aggregation of grafted PAA chains, although the surfaces were covered with grafted PAA chains at lower grafted amounts compared with grafted PMAA chains. Water‐absorptivity sharply increased at lower grafted amounts due to formation of shorter grafted polymer chains for photografting at lower monomer concentrations or due to restriction of the location of grafting to the outer surface region for photografting at lower temperatures. Therefore, for photograftings of AA or onto the HDPE plates, the substrate surfaces were covered with grafted polymer chains and the grafted layers formed possessed higher water‐absorptivity at lower grafted amounts. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2012