bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Informal Payments for Health Care: Definitions, Distinctions, and Dilemmas
Authors: Gaal Peter , Belli Paolo Carlo , McKee Martin , Szócska Miklós
Published: April 2006

There is increasing interest in the issue of informal payments for health care in low- and middle-income countries. Emerging evidence suggests that the phenomenon is both diverse, including many variants from cash payments to in-kind contributions and from gift giving to informal charging, and widespread, reported from countries in at least three continents. However, cross-national research is hampered by the lack of consensus among researchers on the definition of informal payments, and the definitions that have been proposed are unable to incorporate all forms of the phenomenon that have been described so far. This article aims to overcome this limitation by proposing a new definition based on the concept of entitlement for services. First, the various forms of informal payment observed in practice are reviewed briefly. Then, some of the proposed definitions are discussed, pointing out that none of the distinctive characteristics implied by these definitions, including illegality, informality, and corruption, is adequate to capture all varieties of the phenomenon. Next, an alternative definition is formulated, which identifies the distinctive feature common to all forms of informal payments as something that is contributed in addition to the terms of entitlement. Then, the boundaries implied by this definition are explored and, finally, the implications for research and policy making are discussed with reference to the lessons developed countries can learn from the experiences of transitional countries.
Modeling Eligibility Under National Systems of Compensation for Treatment Injury
Authors: Davis Peter , Lay-Yee Roy , Briant Robin , Scott Alastair
Published: April 2006

How can different schemes of compensation for treatment injury be evaluated? This article offers an empirical approach to assessment based on the simulation of alternative models of eligibility using real-world data. It draws on information about adverse events generated from a representative survey of public hospital admissions in New Zealand and classifies these under a range of eligibility criteria for different possible compensation systems. These are then evaluated according to a number of policy design considerations, using variables available from the New Zealand study.
Hormones in the Treatment of Depression
Authors: Soares Claudio N , Phillips Shauna Dae
Published: April 2006

Several treatment strategies have been proposed for the management of depression in women. The occurrence of depression among females is often associated with periods of intense hormonal fluctuations, as observed in cases of premenstrual dysphoria, perinatal depression and with the development of depressive symptoms during the perimenopause. Various hormones including estrogen, progesterone, testosterone, dehydroepiandrosterone and thyroid hormones may exert modulatory effects on neurotransmitter pathways in the CNS. It has been postulated that abrupt changes in these hormones may negatively affect mood; conversely, hormonal interventions could potentially improve such symptoms. This article reviews the current literature on the impact of hormonal treatments for mood symptoms in women and preventative strategies for depression in women during the reproductive lifecycle.
Origins of the Statutory Export Monopolies of British West Africa
Authors: Bauer P. T.
Published: April 2006

In 1947 and 1949 statutory monopolies were established over the export of all major agricultural products from British West Africa. This device was justified chiefly on the ground that it would serve to stabilize the incomes of the peasant producers. This justification is not supported either by economic analysis or by history. The statutory monopolies seem rather to have emerged from a confluence of events and opinions in the preceding decade: the widespread belief that middlemen are socially unproductive, the search by the members of a trade association for some way to restrict competition and safeguard their profits, the formation of export control boards as a wartime measure and the resultant creation of influential administrative positions, the predilection of the administrators for tidiness, the recent emphasis on compulsory saving as an instrument for development of backward areas and the opinion that socialization of peasant saving would contribute to that development.
What Is Business History?
Authors: Cole Arthur H.
Published: April 2006

As one grows old, he becomes increasingly annoyed at confusion of almost any variety; and that which continues to surround the concept of “business history” chances to impinge frequently enough upon my attention to impel me to try to reduce the disparities in concepts still existent among individuals interested in the field. Diversity of concepts was evident even among men interested enough in the area to come – in some cases, goodly distances – to attend a two-day meeting at the Harvard Business School on the teaching of the subject.
Banking Enterprises in Utah, 1847–1880
Authors: Arrington Leonard J.
Published: April 2006

The development of banking in Utah advanced by stages, each of which marked an increase in the degree of specialization practiced by institutions performing banking functions. After the first settlement of the territory in 1847, banking functions were assumed principally by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormon). With the inauguration of mining activity in the Mountain States in the early 1860's, formalized banking institutions were established in Salt Lake City. These miners' and merchants' banks predominated until the early 1880's when commercial banks were established in most of the settlement centers of the territory.
Sixteenth-Century Writings on Bookkeeping: Acquired by the Kress Library of Business and Economics
Authors: Reeves Dorothea D.
Published: April 2006

Two recent acquisitions of the Kress Library, a part of Baker Library of the Harvard Business School, will be of particular interest to business historians. The Kress Library, rich in the history of economic institutions and business life, as well as in material on the progress of economic thought, has a strong and varied collection on bookkeeping, to which it has recently added two rare volumes.
People or Circumstance?
Authors: Klompmaker H.
Published: April 2006

A distinguished Dutch scholar and one of the Review's International Correspondents considers approaches to business history in general and with specific reference to the Netherlands.
Management Decentralization: An Historical Analysis
Authors: Chandler Alfred D.
Published: April 2006

This article deals with development of basic management structures of large American corporations. In general, the problem has been one of growing operational complexity; the solution commonly adopted has been operational decentralization. This solution, however, has raised difficult questions of control, and various administrative answers have been evolved. These have fallen into recognizable patterns, for an examination of case histories graphically illustrates the close connection between the nature of a company's business and its administrative structure. Those firms whose activities cross established industry lines have tended toward product decentralization. Companies producing a relatively restricted line have decentralized on a functional or a geographic basis. Market-oriented firms have tended to decentralize on a geographic basis. Among the fifty companies studied, however, other variations are discernible. Historical analysis of the decentralization trend also suggests the importance of management personalities in governing the timing of structural changes and indicates clearly the reasons why some companies have yet to find decentralization a meaningful answer for their prevailing administrative problems.
The Importance of Fashions in Taste to Business History: An Introductory Essay
Authors: Robinson Dwight E.
Published: April 2006

Viewing the evolution of business through the unique perspective of the student of fashion behavior, this essay recasts many traditional generalizations and seeks a meeting ground for fashion study and business history.
The Japanese Spirit of Enterprise, 1867–1970
Authors: Hirschmeier Johannes
Published: April 2006

Tradtional Japanese disdain for business was overcome by making industrialization synonymous with the esteemed value of public service in the face of foreign economic competition. The alien corporate form of organization was made palatable by characterizing it as a family group which attracted traditional loyalties. Professor Hirschmeier attributes Japan's rapid industrialization at the turn of the century and her remarkable recovery after World War II to such pragmatic social compromises and uses them to identify and explain a uniquely Japanese “spirit of enterprise.”
Entrepreneurship and Western Development: The Case of Micajah T. Williams
Authors: Scheiber Harry N.
Published: April 2006

As an important business figure in the development of the West, Micajah Williams' career well illustrates the interlocking character of public and private economic interests during the early nineteenth century. This article suggests comparable functions of entrepreneurs such as Williams in public-works agencies and profit-oriented firms, and argues that the state canal enterprises served to recruit and train a significant number of western business leaders.
Experiment in Bureaucratic Centralization: Employee Blacklisting on the Burlington Railroad, 1877-1892
Authors: Black Paul V.
Published: April 2006

As a personnel policy that would assure the country's rapidly expanding railroad system the best grade of employees, centralization of discharge data within a company and interchange of such data between companies struck some executives as a useful practice. Others disagreed and, as Professor Black shows, their wisdom prevailed. The problem centered upon reliability of such key operating employees as brakemen and conductors, and responded better to institution of controls that would minimize the two most important misfeasances: drinking on the job and petty embezzlement.
Origins of United States Direct Investment in France
Authors: Kindleberger Charles P.
Published: April 2006

Most analyses of American direct investment abroad focus on the post-World War II era, and on manufacturing. Professor Kindleberger examines United States direct investment in a range of undertakings in France — finance, insurance, trade, marketing, services, and manufacturing — and concentrates on pre-1950 developments.
Mutual Savings Bank Depositors in New York
Authors: Olmstead Alan L.
Published: April 2006

Contrary to their traditional image as institutions operated exclusively for “frugal workers,” mutual savings banks in New York were also a haven for the savings of many middle and upper class persons, whose accounts comprised a substantial proportion of the banks' funds. Thus these intermediaries presumably improved the efficiency of the savings and investment process, allowing middle class people to allocate their resources between fixed and liquid assets better than would otherwise have been possible.
Great Expectations: The Search for Order in Bituminous Coal, 1890–1917
Authors: Graebner William
Published: April 2006

Arguing that the American bituminous coal industry suffered from “excessive competition,” this study traces the industry's repeated failures to control output or prices, whether by various kinds of trade associations, mergers, or by attempts to secure government sanctions for cooperation. Although an over-zealous Department of Justice must bear some responsibility for the industry's “sick” condition, Professor Graebner concludes, the fundamental problem lay in the basic economic conditions in the industry.
The Truman Administration and the Enlistment of the Aviation Industry in Postwar Defense
Authors: Mrozek Donald J.
Published: April 2006

At the end of World War II, by far the most significant pressure for integrating the aviation industry into national defense planning came neither from the major aircraft firms nor from the military. Instead, the Truman administration played the leading role in forging an important link in what later came to be called the “military-industrial complex.” Smaller businessmen and local politicians proved constant and eager supporters of that policy.
Thomas Alva Edison's “Treatise on National Economic Policy and Business”
Authors: Rubin Israel
Published: April 2006

Thomas Edison's achievements as an inventor-entrepreneur tend to overshadow the fact that his knowledge and interests extended well beyond the applied sciences. In 1891, a crucial and busy year of his life, Edison took time to set forth his views on one of the most important issues of the day, government regulation of business. Edison's notebook remained almost untouched for nearly one hundred years until Professor Rubin began a careful examination of its contents. His editing and annotation of the manuscript reveal the considerable depth of Edison's intellect and his capacity to probe economic issues in the same thorough manner with which he approached research problems in the laboratory.
Radio Broadcasters and the Challenge of Television: A New Orleans Case
Authors: Pusateri C. Joseph
Published: April 2006

This is a classic case history in entrepreneurship — the successful introduction of innovation — in which a conservative, contented chief executive of a richly successful AM broadcasting station, a manager whose real talents and interests lay entirely outside the field of “show business,” is pitted against another executive whose knowledge of electronic entertainment was profound. If any name can be given to the one trait that the former did not have and that the latter had in abundance and which, as Dean Pusateri shows, led on to victory, it was an enlightened enthusiasm of the kind that is not readily expressed in logical terms nor subjected to cost-benefit analysis. For WWL-TV, enthusiasm won, and the rest is history.
Rulers of the Ruhr: Leadership and Authority in German Big Business Before 1914
Authors: Spencer Elaine Glovka
Published: April 2006

The rise of heavy industry and its managerial elite in the German Empire and in the United States provides stimuhting parallels and contrasts. Professor Spencer discusses the social constraints under which a professional management class developed in the German coal, iron, and steel industry during the generation before World War I. Ranking distinctly below the landed aristocracy and the governmental bureaucracy (both of which they would gladly have emulated), and preoccupied with the maintenance of order in the midst of rapid economic and social change, German managers used their power and influence to sustain and manipulate existing systems of authority, and came to play no broader role in the development of their commonwealth than did their American counterparts.
Real Estate Development and Urban Form: Roadblocks in the Path to Residential Exclusivity
Authors: Stach Patricia Burgess
Published: April 2006

Many real estate developers in the United States consciously attempted to shape residential neighborhoods, but their success in determining the spatial and social structure of communities was mixed. This article describes the methods available to land developers and realtors and examines the application of these tools to a section of Columbus, Ohio. It demonstrates that the intentions of deed restrictions and other private means of land use control were often undermined by construction delays, general economic conditions, and outmoded requirements, as well as by the timing of annexation and the subsequent application of public zoning ordinances.
From Exit to Voice in Shopfloor Governance: The Case of Company Unions
Authors: Fairris David
Published: April 2006

The company union movement in the United States during the 1920s cannot be understood entirely in terms of employers' efforts either to block independent unionization or to foster greater worker loyalty through the paternalistic provisions of “welfare capitalism.” Company unions were institutional mechanisms by which workers voiced their concerns about shopfloor conditions to employers instead of exiting the firm. Evidence suggests that company unions led to both enhanced shopfloor productivity and safety, and were thus mutually beneficial for labor and management. Interestingly, however, the process by which they emerged was filled with conflict, historical contingency, and unintended consequences. Company unions were neither an inevitable nor even an intentional replacement for voluntary quits as a mechanism for addressing workers' shopfloor discontent.
“You are the Company:” The Demands of Employment in the Emerging Corporate Culture, Los Angeles, 1900–1930
Authors: Davis Clark
Published: April 2006

In recent years, business historians have expressed increasing interest in the development and evolution of corporate cultures. This study carries forward this body of scholarship by exploring a fundamental point of tension in the construction of corporate cultures—the meaning and demands of salaried employment. In a period in which the workings of corporations were uncertain and rapidly evolving, leaders sought to define the meaning and duties of corporate employment in varied but always expansive terms. Corporations wanted employees to act like limited partners, or stakeholders. Whatever the specific tasks of their jobs, the ideal employee was expected to be salesperson, ambassador to the community, and political activist on die firm's behalf. This article probes the ways in which leaders of emerging corporations in Los Angeles struggled to persuade salaried employees to act with such a sense of ownership in the firm.
Antitrust and Business Activity: The First Quarter Century
Authors: Bittlingmayer George
Published: April 2006

The modern corporation arose out of the trusts, mergers and holding companies of the late 19th century, an evolution that generated volatile political reactions. Though economists and business historians have analyzed the rise of the corporate form, they have neglected a second, related problem: Did attacks on the modern corporation depress business activity, as critics of Theodore Roosevelt and Howard Taft claimed? This paper has three aims. First, it covers the relevant analytical issues, including the effects of policy uncertainty on business investment. Second, it reviews the history of shifting governmental policy in the light of its possible economic effects. Finally, it examines die statistical link between antitrust enforcement and business activity for the years 1891–1914. Antitrust case filings against large firms coincided with business downturns, while filings against small firms did not. These findings provide supporting evidence though not decisive proof for the charge that trust-busting hurt business activity.
Financing the Micro-Scale Enterprise: Rural Craft Producers in Scotland, 1840–1914
Authors: Young Craig
Published: April 2006

The micro-scale businesses of independent craft producers have received little attention from historians. This article examines the links between the financing and use of capital by these businesses, and the ambiguous social position of the petit bourgeois business owners. A quantitative examination of the relative importance of the various sources of finance for these firms is assessed in the context of the generally accepted picture of financing for British industry, revealing differences in the pattern of funding for micro-scale enterprises. The ambiguous social relationships between the micro-scale business owners and the larger bourgeoisie, and with the working class, are partly explained by the underlying economic relationships. In particular the supply of trade credit by larger firms, and the use of credit and infrequent wage payments in their relationships with the working class, are identified as important elements.
Was Troeltsch Right?
Authors: Richards George W.
Published: April 2006

Troeltsch is reported to have said, during the centenary celebration of the publication of Schleiermacher's chief works, that “Schleiermacher's program remains the great program of all scientific theology and only needs working out, not the substitution of new methods.” My purpose is to discuss, not the theology or the sociology of Troeltsch as the subject of this paper may imply, nor the theology of Schleiermacher, but Troeltsch's pronouncement on Schleiermacher's program and method of all scientific theology.
Pacifism and the State in Colonial Pennsylvania
Authors: Hershberger Guy Franklin
Published: April 2006

There are many varieties of pacifism in the world today. And the history of the peace movement shows that most of them, if not all, have had a long existence. Each type of pacifism is usually based on some corresponding variety of theology, religion, ethics, or political or social philosophy.
Origen and the Regulae Fidei
Authors: Outler Albert C.
Published: April 2006

It is certainly no compliment nowadays to call a man a “speculative theologian.” It was even less so in the early centuries of the Christian era. For “speculative theology” is that kind of religious thought which is relatively indifferent to the realm of history and human events and which proposes postulates and principles which are regarded as a priori, having no necessary connection with history. This viewpoint, reflected in Marcion and the Gnostics, was one of the primary issues which led to their condemnation by the early church. Yet it is by no means an exceptional view which regards Origen primarily as a “speculative theologian,” as one who scorned the simple faith of the Christians around him, and who mingled theology and philosophy together in such fashion that the truth and simplicity of the primitive Gospel were distorted and obscured. The redress of such an exaggeration would involve us deeply in the pivotal question of the relation, in Origen's thought, between theology and philosophy. Despite prolonged debate, this problem can hardly be regarded as settled. Nor does this paper propose to attempt such a settlement. Rather it will confine itself to a much less ambitious but nevertheless prior question: how do the doctrinal norms in Origen's thought compare or contrast with what we know of similar basic beliefs in the Christian thought of his own and immediately preceding periods? An answer to this ought to afford preliminary data for the determination of the broader issue noted above and might, in itself, throw some light on the sense, if any, in which Origen may justly be called a “speculative theologian.”
Bohemian Protestants and the Calvinist Churches
Authors: Odložilík Otakar
Published: April 2006

The name of John Hus is the symbol of the Czech Reformation. Through him the reform movement in Bohemia and Moravia was linked both with the activities of John Wyclif and with the coming of Martin Luther. The close connection between Wyclif and Hus is sufficiently known. In the polemics against an English adversary of Wyclif, John Stokes, Hus stated that he was greatly attracted by Wyclif's endeavor to bring all men back to God's law, and especially the clergy, so that they would renounce all ostentation and secular power in the world to live the Christlike life like the apostles. Martin Luther knew some Latin writings of John Hus, especially his treatise De Ecclesia, and approved of his views. In his disputation with Dr. Eck in 1519, he defended Wyclif and Hus against the attacks of his opponent, to the great satisfaction of some Czech students who were present in Leipzig and spread throughout Bohemia the news of his zeal. There is a miniature in a Czech manuscript of 1572, where one can see Wyclif striking fire, Hus lighting a candle from the spark, and Luther waving a flaming torch; it shows that the Czech Hussites were well aware of the affinity between the doctrines of Wyclif and Hus and of the influence of Hus on the first German reformer.
Some Protestant Attitudes on the Labor Question in 1886
Authors: Griffiths Carl Warren
Published: April 2006

An important development in 1886 was the interest which the religious forces of the country showed in the problem of capital and labor. It was an interest that was not confined to a few socially minded religious leaders. The religious press, the pulpit and church gatherings showed a deep concern in the relations of workingmen with their employers. It was a natural concern because it was a year of labor unrest that was symbolized in the public mind by the phenomenal growth of the Knights of Labor and by numerous strikes and boycotts.
Theodorus Jacobus Frelinghuysen the Father of American Pietism
Authors: Schrag F. J.
Published: April 2006

So distinctive is revivalism of American religion that for “almost two hundred years it is revivalism more than any other phenomenon that has supplied the land-marks in our religious history …. It would not be difficult and by no means unsatisfactory to write the history of American Protestantism from the standpoint of its periodic awakenings.”
The Patriarchate of Alexandria: A Study in National Christianity
Authors: Hardy E. R.
Published: April 2006

The history of the patriarchates in the conciliar period of church history offers interesting parallels to that of the kingdoms and republics which had occupied the same territory in Hellenistic days. Like the Seleucid Empire, Antioch began with a leading position, which it gradually lost by secessions and internal divisions. The Patriarchate of Jerusalem revolted from Antioch in the fifth century A.D. as the Jews had under the Maccabees seven centuries before, although for less serious reasons. As the Hellenistic rulers of Asia Minor and Greece gradually lost out to Macedon and Rome, so the ecclesiastical jurisdictions of the same area were ultimately absorbed in the Patriarchates of Rome and Constantinople. But the closest parallel of all is in Egypt. As the Ptolemies built their power on a closely knit and almost impregnable kingdom, from which they ventured forth to take their part in the high politics of the Hellenistic world, so the patriarchs of Alexandria, backed by the united support of the Egyptian Church, took a leading part in the affairs of the great church for two centuries. After generations of splendor, the ecclesiastical, like the civil dynasty, was subject to internal divisions and harassed by external interference, and ended its career in war and catastrophe. The major aspects of this story are a familiar topic in church history, but it may repay another survey from the special point of view of the relation of church and state in Egypt.
The Maugerville Church and the American Revolution
Authors: Barker H. W.
Published: April 2006

On the east bank of the St. John River, sixty miles above the city of St. John and eighteen miles below Fredericton, is an attractive white church building of the New England type. Its graceful spire cannot fail to catch the eye and call forth expressions of admiration as travelers pass by motor or river steamer. This houses the oldest Protestant church organization in what is now the Province of New Brunswick, though this building is not the original one. It was a “society” of the Congregational order, now an integral part of The United Church of Canada, and known as Sheffield.
Laud and the Church of England
Authors: Adair E. R.
Published: April 2006

There are few more enigmatic figures in the history of the Church of England than Archbishop Laud. During his lifetime he was assailed by his opponents with almost every crime that their bitterness could suggest, while his friends spoke of him in terms of somewhat measured praise. Dead, to those who disagreed with him he still seemed the “Pope of Canterbury,” only a little less than Antichrist himself, while his followers, hailing him as a martyr to his faith, soon forgot all his qualities but those that seemed to typify the Church of England, by him restored to its proper glories.
The Organization of the Church of Africa on the Eve of the Vandal Invasion
Authors: Beaver R. Pierce
Published: April 2006

In Saint Augustine's time two theories concerning the origin of the church of Africa were current in Africa and Italy: either the Carthaginian church had been founded by missionaries from the church of Rome or the Gospel had been brought from various eastern lands. Carthage was undoubtedly the center from which Christianity spread throughout the whole of North Africa. As the number of converts increased and the churches multiplied, the same problems of organization arose and were solved as in other parts of the Empire, and ecclesiastical administration followed the lines of demarcation used by the civil power. Under Diocletian a reorganization of the imperial administrative scheme had taken place, and the Diocese of Africa, extending from Cyrenaica on the East to the Malva and Mount Atlas on the West, was comprised of the provinces of Tripolitana, Byzacenum, Proconsular Africa, Numidia, Mauretania Sitifiensis, and Mauretania Caesariensis. The district to the West, Mauretania Tingitana, was attached to the Diocese of Spain. By the end of the fourth century the church had created six provinces following the same lines, with the exception that Tingitana, although not a part of Africa politically formed a part of the ecclesiastical province of Mauretania Caesariensis. The last province to be created was Mauretania Sitifiensis, which was granted a primate by the Council of Hippo in 393.
A Sketch of the Theological Development of Harvard University, 1636–1805
Authors: Lyttle Charles
Published: April 2006

By the witness of history, the indebtedness of higher learning to religious fervor is very great. This aspect of education deserves at least as much attention as the retardation and perversion of learning by religious bigotry. The latter is, as we all know, most frequently and loudly stressed today. Again, we hear little of the fact that periods when learning has been gradually secularized have been periods when scholarship grew lax and knowledge halted; until a new impulse of religious conviction re-vivified both the souls and the minds of scholars, with the restilt that academies and universities pulsed with fresh enthusiasm and notable advancement in learning took place. But of many instances of this phenomenon the mention of Abailard and the University of Paris, Wyclif and Oxford, Luther and Wittenberg, Cartwright and Emmanuel, Wolff and Halle, Fichte and Berlin, must suffice. Yet none is more illustrative of our conclusions than Harvard, the creation of the Congregational Puritanism of William Ames.
The Scottish Counter-Reformation Before 1560
Authors: Reid W. Stanford
Published: April 2006

When one speaks of the Counter-Reformation in Scotland, we usually think of it as something which appeared after 1560. To do that, however, is to regard the Scottish Counter-Reformation as principally post-Reformation, and also as inspired entirely by the Council of Trent. Such an interpretation fails to take into account the very determined efforts made by the Scottish church itself to stay the spread of heretical doctrines before 1560. It fails to realize that while aided considerably by the Tridentine decisions, the Scottish Counter-Reformation was largely a native movement which had its own views of the proper methods of dealing with the growing canker in the body ecclesiastic. Thus in order to have a due appreciation of the background of the Scottish Reformation and all that it entailed, it is necessary that we should have some understanding of the forces opposing Protestant reform in Scotland before 1560. Such a background this article will endeavour to give.
The Earliest Protestant Missionary Venture in Latin America
Authors: Baez-Camargo G.
Published: April 2006

A good many Protestants—mostly buccaneers, sailors and traders—entered Latin America under the Spanish and Portuguese domination. In most cases, they were promptly detected, captured and tried by the Inquisition. Under the ordeal, a majority recanted, mainly in order to avoid punishment, but some, who remained loyal to the end, were burnt at the stake.
Early Medieval Missionary Activity: A Comparative Study of Eastern and Western Methods
Authors: Sullivan Richard E.
Published: April 2006

One of the more fascinating problems connected with the history of the early Middle Ages is the persistence of similarities and the emergence of differences in the ideas and institutions of the eastern and western remnants of the Roman Empire. Equally intriguing is the related problem of the origins and the nature of the differences which characterize the Slavic and Germanic groups that fell under the influence of the Greeks and the Latins during the early Middle Ages. This paper will attempt to throw some light, on these problems by examining the field of missionary history. It will try to compare the methods employed by the eastern and western missionaries to convert the Slavic and Germanic groups living on the borders of Christendom in the period from about A.D. 600 to 900. Such a comparison might be revealing. It will permit one to see wherein the Greeks and the Latins acted alike or differently as each attacked the same problem. It will also allow one to detect some of the formative forces implanted in the Slavic and Germanic worlds as each underwent the fundamental experience of adopting a new religion.
Reform Ideology in the Dialogi of Anselm of Havelberg
Authors: Barmann Lawrence F.
Published: April 2006

In his recent scholarly study Professor Gerhart Ladner has delineated the Christian idea of reform is it was expressed and acted upon in the Patristic Age. As a study of the mediaeval period readily indicates, the idea of reform, written of in diverse ways and manifested in a multitude of movements, was also of major significance for the earlier and high middle ages. The efforts of these pages will be directed toward an analysis and exposition of reform ideology in the thought of one very interesting and versatile man of the twelfth century—Anselm of Havelberg.
The Social Gospel and the Trust-Busters
Authors: Roberts Robert R.
Published: April 2006

By 1878 the United States stood on the verge of a period of immense consolidation and concentration of business wealth. Already the process was underway by means of pools and marketing agreements, and the powerful “trusts” were in the immediate future. By the turn of the century the characteristic feature of American business was the giant corporation, built on holding companies and interlocking directorates. The existence of such great wealth and power in the hands of a relatively few men posed a question for the interpreters of Christian ethics, and the answers ranged all the way from an idealistic communism to the benefits of stewardship.
The Philosophy of the Church Fathers
Authors: Williams George Huntston
Published: April 2006

Harry Austryn Wolfson declared in an earlier volume that it was the purpose of Philo “not to teach true philosophy to students of Scripture, but to show the truth of Scripture to students of philosophy.” Wolfson, in his comprehensive series of which the present study is an integral part, likewise seeks to show, if not the truth, at least the comprehensiveness, of “scriptural philosophy” to contemporary students of philosophy.
The Beginning of the Reformation in Estonia
Authors: Laantee Karl
Published: April 2006

The history of the Estonian nation begins about 2000 B.C. when they settled down in the land which is now known as Estonia. Roman historians called all the peoples of the Baltic area collectively by the name of “Aesti”; later that name came to apply to the Estonians alone. Tacitus thought that the “Aesti” spoke a language “similar to that of the Britons”, whereas in fact the Estonians, Finns and Livs spoke a so-called Finno-Ugri language, utterly distinct from the languages of Slavs, Germanic groups, Latvians and Lithuanians.
Christology and Church-State Relations in the Fourth Century
Authors: Williams George Huntston
Published: April 2006

“Let, whatsoever I will, be that esteemed a canon.” So retorted the Arianizing Emperor Constantius at the stormy council of Milan in 355 after he had become sole ruler of the Empire and was able to give full expression to his Arian sympathies. Whether Athanasius has accurately recorded his language is not certain; that he has captured the intention of Constantius in a vivid phrase is indisputable. It takes its place alongside James I's summary disposition of the Hampton Court Puritans, “No bishop, no king,” to be set over against another series of resounding affirmations of a contrary significance: Ambrose of Milan's “the emperor is in the Church,” and Andrew Melville's retort to the same James, “Sir, thair istwaKings andtwaKingdoms in Scotland.”
Studies in the Radical Reformation (1517–1618): A Bibliographical Survey of Research Since 1939
Authors: Williams George Huntson
Published: April 2006

Anabaptism was a religious movement of the little people of village and town, affecting in the end almost the whole area of the Germanic dialects from the Tyrol to Flanders, from Alsace to Prussia. Anabaptism, for all its, or perhaps precisely because of its, dissociation from principality and privilege, was more exclusively a Germanic movement than even Lutheranism; for the latter could at least go beyond the Germanic dialects to express itself in a Scandinavian or Slavic tongue; and, of course, Anabaptism was far less international than the Reformed movement. The linguistic containment of Anabaptism is all the more remarkable for the reason that inprincipleAnabaptism was much more world-minded and mission-minded—because of the seriousness with which it took the great commission— than any variety of the Magisterial Reformation. Yet when it moved beyond the deeply sinused speech frontier to the East, for example, it did so in ethnically and linguistically closed colonies in Moravia, Poland, and elsewhere. Documents from the pens of Anabaptists in French, a Scandinavian tongue, Polish, Czech, or Italian, surviving from the Reformation Era, could be held between two fingers; while the surviving Anabaptist writings in the international language of the Humanists and the Reformers are even fewer. (In contrast, a good deal of the surviving literarycorpusof the Spiritualists like Schwenckfeld and especially of the Evangelical Rationalists is in Latin, as well as in the Romance and Slavic tongues and Hungarian.) The little people of Anabaptism were not without recruits and even leadership from former priests and monks with their Latin and an occasional patrician with his Humanist training, but thelingua francaof Anabaptism was German, although progressive modification in idiom was necessary as the radical evangelical gospel was proclaimed by preacher or epistle from North to South.
From Coercion to Persuasion: Another Look at the Rise of Religious Liberty and the Emergence of Denominationalism
Authors: Mead Sidney E.
Published: April 2006

So far as religious affairs are concerned, the colonial period of our history begins with the planting of the first permanent English colony in 1607, guided by the intention to perpetuate in the new land the religious patterns to which the mother country had grown accustomed. Chief of these for our purposes was uniformity enforced by the civil power. The period culminates just 180 years later with the complete rejection of this central intention in the provisions for national religious freedom in the Constitution (1787) and First Amendment (1791).
Paris Masters of the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries and Ideas of Intellectual Freedom
Authors: McLaughlin Mary M.
Published: April 2006

To introduce the theme of this essay, there are few statements more fitting than the caustic judgment of Albertus Magnus on those whom he considered the enemies of freedom in his day. Reproaching the petty obscurantism of the opponents of Aristotle's philosophy, he described these men, whose sole aim in reading books was to find something to condemn, as stagnant themselves in intellectual inertia, and seeking always to paralyze others into their own state. It was men like these, he said, who killed Socrates, and whose plots forced Aristotle to leave Athens with the words, “I shall not give the Athenians a second chance of sinning against philosophy.” In the world of learning, according to Albertus, such bitter, bilious men are like the liver in the body; “they try to inject their own bitterness into everyone else, and to prevent others from pursuing truth in the sweetness of society.”
Clio in the Wilderness: History and Biography in Puritan New England
Authors: Murdock Kenneth B.
Published: April 2006

In the spring of 1697 the Reverend John Higginson of Salem finished writing a laudatory “Attestation” for Cotton Mather's Magnalia Christi Americana. Higginson was enghty-one. He had lived in New England for nearly seventy years, and sixty of them had been devoted to the ministry. He had, he worte, “seen all that the Lord hath done for his people” in the Puritan colonies and rejoiced that a younger colleague had recorded it in a volume of history and biography, because he was sure that the book was, in substance, purpose, and scope “according to truth” and would be of “maninfold advantage and usefulness”. In elaboration of this he listed in his “Attestation” some ways in which he thought the Magnalia would serve “great and good ends”.
Another Look at Frelinghuysen and His “Awakening”
Authors: Harmelink Herman
Published: April 2006

The extremely favourable assessment by historians of the life and career of Theodorus Jacobus Frelinghuysen (1691-c. 1748) as a forerunner of the Great Awakening is a puzzling one to those familiar with the Ecclesiastical Records of the State of New York. Three works are mostly frequently quoted in making this favourable assessment: Theodorus Jacobus Frelinghuysen by Peter H. B. Frelinghuysen (1938); The Great Awakening in the Middle Colonies, by C. H. Maxson (1920); and Eight Memorial Sermons and Historical Notes, by Abraham Messier (1873). Peter Frelinghuysen quotes Maxson and Messier extensively. Maxson quotes Messier extensively.
The Emperor Julian and his School Law
Authors: Hardy B. Carmon
Published: April 2006

Few historical figures have earned a remembrance of so fixed and angular features as the fourth century Roman Emperor, Flavius Claudius Julianus. Yet, it is doubtful that except for one event in his short reign of less than two years, he would have aroused more than a fraction of the commentary since devoted to his rule. Having announced his defection from Christianity upon succeeding to the throne of Constantius, it was probably expected that religious terrors, like those of the third century, would immediately be loosed upon the followers of Jesus. Not until some seven months had passed, however, did anything like the expected blow descend. And this, oddly, was a nonsanguine policy intended to do no more than purge the public schools of their Christian faculties.
Another Look at Fundamentalism: A Response to Ernest R. Sandeen
Authors: Moore LeRoy
Published: April 2006

Ernest R. Sandeen's article on fundamentalism in the March 1967, issue ofChurch Historyis a work of primary importance in the reinterpretation of a significant aspect of American religious history. Professor Sandeen corrects many of the misunderstandings contained in the hitherto “standard” treatments of Cole and Furniss. And he otherwise goes quite beyond earlier studies to provide fresh insights into the nature of fundamentalism as an especiallyreligiousphenomenon.
A Chapter in The History of The Ecumenical Quest: Schelling and Schleiermacher
Authors: Penzel Klaus
Published: April 2006

It must appear somewhat strange that the ecumenical ideas which were developed by German Protestantism in the first half of the nineteenth century have never, to the best of my knowledge, been treated systematically and exhaustively, especially in view of the fact that these decades were unusually fruitful in producing various serious contributions to the discussion of the question of the unity and disunity of the Church.1The brief remarks, for instance, in RouseNeill (eds.),A History of the Ecumenical Movement, 1517–1948, are quite inadequate.2I have set myself the task in this paper merely to call attention to two of these nineteenth century German contributions to the ecumenical discussion, namely Schelling's and Schleiermacher's.
Justification and Eschatology in Luther's Thought
Authors: Forell George Wolfgang
Published: April 2006

The juxtaposition of “justification” and “eschatology” in Luther's thought seems at first strikingly inappropriate. Justification is undoubtedly the central concern in Luther's theological effort. It was to Luther “the master and prince, the lord, the ruler and the judge over all kinds of doctrines; it preserves and governs all church doctrine and raises up our conscience before God. Without this article the world is utter death and darkness. No error is so insignificant, so clumsy, so outworn as not to be supremely pleasing to human reason and to seduce us if we are without the knowledge and the contemplation of this article.” Earlier he had written, “This article is the head and the cornerstone, which alone begets, nourishes, builds, serves and defends the church of God.
Two Uses of Apocrypha in Old English Homilies
Authors: Gatch Milton McCormick
Published: April 2006

It has long been recognized that the homilies preserved in Old English from the early Middle Ages are almost entirely derived from Latin writings. It has also been known that, in selecting sources for adaptation, the Anglo-Saxon writers did not subject Latin materials to rigorous tests of orthodoxy and canonicity. Several important studies have been devoted to analysis of the relation of homilies which derive from apocryphal literature to their sources. They show that a relatively restricted number of apocryphal documents exercised an important influence on the popular religious literature of the late Old English period.
The Sect to Denomination Process in America: The Freewill Baptist Experience
Authors: Bordin Ruth B.
Published: April 2006

Shortly after the turn of the century Ernst Troeltsch joined Max Weber in examining the history of religious organizations from the point of view of the newly evolving discipline of sociology. Of the contributions Troeltsch made in his monumental study, The Social Teaching of the Christian Churches, the one which has proved most stimulating when applied to American church history was his differentiation of sect-type from church-type religious organization. In 1929, H. Richard Niebuhr in his Social Sources of Denoniinationalisrn elaborated Troeltsch's ideas, especially as they related to American developments, suggesting that in the American environment the denomination occupied a midway position between church and sect. While Troeltsch hints at the tendency of the sect to acquire churchly characteristics in time, Niebuhr spells out the steps in the process of transformation from sect to denomination which he sees as following inevitably, arguing that each generation's sects must become denominations in the next generation. These in turn leave behind a new group of disinherited whose needs are unmet and from which spring the next sect movement.
Tradition, Exegesis, and the Christological Controversies
Authors: Wilken Robert L.
Published: April 2006

In 430, Cyril, bishop of Alexandria, wrote in his treatise Adversus Nestorium that we must put away idle questioning and “receive with faith the simple and undefiled tradition.” Which tradition did he have in mind? About the same time, Nestorius, bishop of Constantinople, defended a priest who denied the appellation theotokos to the Virgin Mary. Nestorius claimed the term was not in accord with the tradition. Which tradition did he have in mind?