bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
M v Home Office [1994] 1 AC 377, House of Lords (also known as Re M)
Authors: Webb Thomas E.
Published: September 2022

Essential Cases: Public Law provides a bridge between course textbooks and key case judgments. This case document summarizes the facts and decision in M v Home Office [1994] 1 AC 377, House of Lords (also known as Re M). The case considered whether the courts had the power to issue injunctions against government departments and the ministers attached to them, and whether the rule of law required that those departments and ministers could be held in contempt of court for breach of court orders. The document also includes supporting commentary and questions from author Thomas Webb.
Padfield v Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food [1968] AC 997, House of Lords
Authors: Webb Thomas E.
Published: September 2022

Essential Cases: Public Law provides a bridge between course textbooks and key case judgments. This case document summarizes the facts and decision in Padfield v
Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food [1968] AC 997, House of Lords. This case is concerned with the scope and limits of ministerial discretion, and how, in the case of statutory powers, the courts determine this with reference to the intentions of Parliament and the objectives of the Act in question. The document also includes supporting commentary and questions from author Thomas Webb.
Parochial Church Council of the Parish of Aston Cantlow, Wilmcote with Billesley v Wallbank [2003] UKHL 37, House of Lords
Authors: Webb Thomas E.
Published: September 2022

Essential Cases: Public Law provides a bridge between course textbooks and key case judgments. This case document summarizes the facts and decision in Parochial Church Council of the Parish of Aston Cantlow, Wilmcote with Billesley v Wallbank [2003] UKHL 37, House of Lords. The underlying substantive issue in this case was the question of whether the Wallbanks were liable to pay for the repair of their local parish church. However, this case note focuses on the definition of public authorities under s. 6 of the Human Rights Act 1998 (HRA). Public authorities are required to act in accordance with the HRA, and the Wallbanks contended that the Parochial Church Council was a public authority within the meaning of s. 6. The document also includes supporting commentary and questions from author Thomas Webb.
Porter v Magill [2001] UKHL 67, House of Lords
Authors: Webb Thomas E.
Published: September 2022

Essential Cases: Public Law provides a bridge between course textbooks and key case judgments. This case document summarizes the facts and decision in Porter v Magill [2001] UKHL 67, House of Lords. This case note considers the introduction of a revised test for bias in public law decision-making. The document also includes supporting commentary and questions from author Thomas Webb.
R (on the application of Al-Skeini) v Secretary of State for Defence [2007] UKHL 26, House of Lords
Authors: Webb Thomas E.
Published: September 2022

Essential Cases: Public Law provides a bridge between course textbooks and key case judgments. This case document summarizes the facts and decision in R (on the application of Al-Skeini) v Secretary of State for Defence [2007] UKHL 26, House of Lords. This case concerned the extra-territorial effect of the Human Rights Act 1998 (HRA)—that is, the effect of the HRA beyond the physical jurisdiction of the United Kingdom. The underlying substantive issue concerned six test cases where Iraqi civilians had died following interactions with British forces occupying the Iraqi city of Basra and the surrounding area. The document also includes supporting commentary and questions from author Thomas Webb.
R (on the application of FDA) v Prime Minister [2021] EWHC 3279 (Admin), Queen’s Bench Divisional Court
Authors: Webb Thomas E.
Published: September 2022

Essential Cases: Public Law provides a bridge between course textbooks and key case judgments. This case document summarizes the facts and decision in R (on the application of FDA) v Prime Minister [2021] EWHC 3279 (Admin), Queen’s Bench Divisional Court. This case concerned the justiciability of provisions in the Ministerial Code relating to bullying, harassment, and discrimination, and the decision of the Prime Minister in relation to an alleged breach of that Code by the Home Secretary. The document also includes supporting commentary and questions from the author, Thomas Webb.
Ridge v Baldwin [1964] AC 40, House of Lords
Authors: Webb Thomas E.
Published: September 2022

Essential Cases: Public Law provides a bridge between course textbooks and key case judgments. This case document summarizes the facts and decision in Ridge v Baldwin [1964] AC 40, House of Lords. This case considered whether the process by which a Chief Constable was sacked amounted to procedural unfairness and breached the rules of natural justice. The document also includes supporting commentary and questions from author Thomas Webb.
4. Informed Consent
Authors: Jackson Emily
Published: September 2022

This chapter examines ‘informed consent’, and the question of how much information must be provided to patients before they consent to medical treatment. It first considers the ethical justifications for informing patients and then examines the legal framework that protects patients’ interests in information disclosure. The chapter also explores some alternatives to the law of tort, and the guidance produced by the medical profession.
9. Genetic Information
Authors: Jackson Emily
Published: September 2022

This chapter examines the regulation of access to genetic information. It first discusses third parties’ interests in genetic test results, and the extent to which genetic privacy is protected by the law. It considers whether genetic discrimination should be treated in the same way as other types of discrimination and discusses developments in the field of genetics, including direct-to-consumer genetic testing and pharmacogenetics.
5. Member State liability in damages
Authors: Berry Elspeth , Bogusz Barbara , Homewood Matthew , Strecker Sophie
Published: September 2022

Titles in the Complete series combine extracts from a very wide range of primary materials with clear explanatory text to provide readers with a complete introductory resource. This chapter considers the circumstances in which Member State liability will arise. The discussions cover in depth the establishment of the principle of State liability; the Francovich test governing the imposition of State liability; the development of the principle of State liability; the Factortame test governing the imposition of State liability; the relationship between State liability and direct effect/indirect effect; and the relationship between State liability and EU liability under Article 340 TFEU.
1. The history and nature of international law
Authors: Hernández Gleider
Published: September 2022

This introductory chapter provides an overview of the history and nature of international law. Rather than regulating the behaviour of individuals in their relations with one another, international law is usually portrayed as a legal framework to govern the relations between ‘States’, the organized political entities which are the primary subjects of international law. ‘Public international law’ is to be distinguished from ‘private international law’, which describes the principles that determine the applicability of a certain law or set of laws to situations involving individuals with a foreign or transboundary element. Indeed, private international law regulates the conflicts between rules of different domestic legal orders, while public international law concerns relations between States. Today, public international law has exceeded its foundations as the law of inter-State relations and operates as an integral part of the daily lives of individuals.
3. Hierarchy of norms in international law
Authors: Hernández Gleider
Published: September 2022

This chapter examines the hierarchy of norms and sources in international law. Establishing a hierarchy of norms and sources allows for a community to elevate certain fundamental principles over ordinary norms, and to establish order and clarity in the relations between norms, authoritative institutions, and legal subjects. In the last half-century, a special class of general rules endowed with peremptory legal force has emerged. Known interchangeably as ‘peremptory norms’ or ‘norms of jus cogens’, these are regarded as possessing a higher status than ordinary rules of international law, and would prevail over the latter in cases of conflict. As such, whether an ordinary rule exists in treaty or customary law, or is a general principle, it is null and void if in conflict with a rule of jus cogens. The chapter also studies a related category known as rights or, more commonly, obligations erga omnes (‘owed to all’).
8. Jurisdiction
Authors: Hernández Gleider
Published: September 2022

This chapter studies jurisdiction. The term ‘jurisdiction’ is generally understood by international lawyers as describing the extent, and limits, of the legal competence of a State, entity, or regulatory authority, to make, apply, and enforce legal rules with respect to persons, property, and other matters. Jurisdiction is the necessary corollary to State sovereignty under modern international law, for it represents the exercise of authority of that State in relation to conduct, or to consequences of events, that it deems itself competent to regulate. The quintessential areas of regulation that would be regarded as falling within the domestic jurisdiction of a State include the setting of conditions for the grant of nationality and the conditions under which aliens (non-nationals) may enter a State’s territory. The chapter then distinguishes the types of jurisdiction: prescriptive jurisdiction, enforcement jurisdiction, and adjudicative jurisdiction.
16. International human rights and refugee law
Authors: Hernández Gleider
Published: September 2022

This chapter addresses international human rights and refugee law. In 1948, the General Assembly adopted the famed Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR). Many of its provisions have influenced the adoption of major multilateral treaties, or have come to reflect customary international law, at times through influencing the drafting of State constitutions. The UDHR has also been referred to by international courts to give weight to, or to interpret, obligations contained in other treaties. Two overarching covenants were also adopted separately in 1966: the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR). In parallel with the emergence of human rights protection at the international level, several regional frameworks exist. The chapter then looks at the European, American, and African human rights conventions and accompanying institutions.
17. International criminal law
Authors: Hernández Gleider
Published: September 2022

This chapter describes international criminal law. International criminal law represented a fundamental shift for international law. Historically, international law regarded accountability and responsibility almost purely through the lens of the State and contained neither substantive rules nor the requisite institutions to prosecute an individual. Today, there exist several institutions, most prominently the International Criminal Court (ICC), which have given shape both to the substance of the crimes themselves and to the method for their effective prosecution. Through international criminal law, the criminal responsibility and liability of individuals, even if acting in groups, are now addressed internationally. There is a category of indisputable ‘core crimes’ under customary international law: genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and aggression. These are helpfully defined in an ICC document called the ‘Elements of Crimes’, which is intended to guide the Court in the interpretation and application of these crimes.
3. Enforceability: consideration, promissory estoppel, formalities
Authors: Chen-Wishart Mindy
Published: September 2022

Agreement is necessary but not sufficient to trigger legal recognition and thus enforcement. An informal agreement must comprise an exchange in which each party treats her performance (or promise of performance) as the price of the other’s performance (or promise of performance). Absent consideration, English law permits some enforcement, in qualifying circumstances, of promises that induce the promisee’s reliance via the doctrine of promissory estoppel. It also enforces formal promises or agreements. This chapter discusses: (1) the requirements of consideration, promissory estoppel, and formalities; (2) the justification for each test of enforceability; (3) whether the rules and scope of each doctrine are satisfactory, and, if not, how each should each be developed.
5. Misrepresentation and non-disclosure
Authors: Chen-Wishart Mindy
Published: September 2022

In general, contract parties need not disclose important matters about the transaction to each other. But, those who make false statements to induce the other party’s consent to the contract may find themselves liable for damages for misrepresentation and their contracts set aside. This chapter examines: (1) what must be proved in an action for misrepresentation; (2) what, if any, duty is imposed for non-disclosure; (3) when a contract can be set aside (rescinded) for misrepresentation; (4) the different types of money awards that can be made for misrepresentation; (5) the extent to which the parties can exclude or limit liability for making a misrepresentation; (6) the recourse that consumers have against misleading and aggressive practices; and (7) the justifications underlying the remedies for misrepresentation.
5. The Doctrine of Judicial Precedent
Authors: Holland James , Webb Julian
Published: September 2022

This chapter examines the use of case law to solve legal problems. In the study and practice of law we seek to analyse legal principles; and the ‘principles’ in English law are derived from pure case law or from case law dealing with statutes. The discussions cover the idea of binding precedent (stare decisis); establishing the principle in a case; the mechanics of stare decisis; whether there are any other exceptions to the application of stare decisis to the Court of Appeal that have emerged since 1944; whether every case has to be heard by the Court of Appeal before it can proceed to the Supreme Court; precedent in the higher courts; other courts; and the impact of human rights legislation.
10. Retained EU Law and Legal Method
Authors: Holland James , Webb Julian
Published: September 2022

Since 1973, the English legal system has been radically affected by what is now called ‘EU law’. Following the Brexit referendum the UK has now left the EU but there remains a legacy of nearly fifty years of EU-related legislation and case law to contend with. The solution has been to keep a large amount of that EU-derived law, termed ‘Retained Law’, as if it had been created by our Parliament and courts in the first place. The mechanism for dealing with how that has been achieved, and the implication for the future, is discussed here.
2. Express trusts: basic principles
Authors: Penner J E
Published: September 2022

Titles in the Core Text series take the reader straight to the heart of the subject, providing focused, concise, and reliable guides for students at all levels. This chapter deals with basic principles relating to the express trust. First, express trusts are distinguished from trusts arising by operation of law. Next, express trusts are considered from the perspective of three stakeholders—the settlor, trustee, and beneficiary. Finally, the significance of the express trust is explored with respect to three concerns: the fusion of law and equity; the law of succession; security interests and the context of insolvency.
11. Bare trusts subject to contractual obligations and agent’s instructions
Authors: Penner J E
Published: September 2022

Titles in the Core Text series take the reader straight to the heart of the subject, providing focused, concise, and reliable guides for students at all levels. This chapter discusses a type of bare trust known as a nomineeship. Under a bare trust, a trustee holds property for a beneficiary on no specific trust terms; the trustee’s only obligation is to transfer the property to the beneficiary or to a third party as the beneficiary directs. Nomineeships typically combine the bare trust with a contract or relationship of agency. The first kind of nomineeship discussed is the solicitor-agent trust, followed by the Quistclose trust, and finally, unincorporated association trusts.
18. The law governing charities
Authors: Penner J E
Published: September 2022

Titles in the Core Text series take the reader straight to the heart of the subject, providing focused, concise, and reliable guides for students at all levels. This chapter focuses on charitable trusts. Charitable trusts are not subject to the beneficiary principle. These are valid purpose trusts that are enforced, not by beneficiaries, but by the Attorney-General or the Charity Commission. Charities are generally exempt from most taxes. The conditions for charitable status; the charitable character of public purpose trusts; trusts for the relief of poverty; trusts for the advancement of education; trusts for the advancement of religion; trusts for other purposes beneficial to the community; the law concerning the public benefit requirement; and the application of the cy-près doctrine to save charitable trusts from failure are discussed.
1. Tort: law and system
Authors: Brennan Carol
Published: September 2022

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. Questions, diagrams, and exercises help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress. In civil law, tort provides remedy for a party who has suffered the breach of a protected interest. Tort law protects a wide range of interests. Currently, negligence is the greatest source of litigation with respect to tort. Torts of trespass to the person protect physical safety while trespass to property governs the ownership of property. The tort of defamation provides remedies for threats to one’s reputation. Another tort-related area deals with the protection of privacy from media intrusion. This chapter discusses the range of activity to which tort law applies and the types of harm for which it provides compensation. It also considers the main interests protected by the law of tort, how the law of tort differs from other branches of the law, and the role of policy and the human rights dimension in the law of tort.
2. Negligence: duty of care
Authors: Brennan Carol
Published: September 2022

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. Questions, diagrams, and exercises help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress. Negligence is a tort in its own right and involves an unintentional wrong as opposed to trespass which involves an intentional wrong. It has three main elements: duty of care (whether the defendant owes the claimant a duty of care), breach (whether the defendant has breached that duty), and damage (whether that breach has caused damage of a legally recognized kind to the claimant). Duty of care is determined by proximity, foreseeability, and policy and is most likely to be established in cases of positive acts which cause physical injury or property damage. This chapter provides an overview of the history of negligence and discusses the function of duty of care in negligence. It also considers the way duty of care has been defined and developed and applies the principles of duty of care in the areas of omissions and liability of public bodies.
4. Negligence: causation
Authors: Brennan Carol
Published: September 2022

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. Questions, diagrams, and exercises help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress. In addition to duty of care and breach of that duty, the third essential element to bring a successful action in negligence is causation of damage. In other words, the claimant must prove on the balance of probabilities that the breach caused his damage. The defendant cannot be made liable for the harm suffered by the claimant if he is not responsible, or partly responsible, for such harm—even if he has been negligent. The question of causation can be divided into two issues: causation in fact and causation in law (also known as remoteness). The primary means of establishing factual causation is the ‘but for’ test. Reasonable foreseeability of damage of the relevant type (Wagon Mound) is required to establish that the claimant’s injury is not too remote. The chain of causation may be broken by unreasonable or unforeseeable acts or events (novus actus interveniens).
5. Negligence: duty of care problem areas
Authors: Brennan Carol
Published: September 2022

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. Questions, diagrams, and exercises help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress. The tort of negligence originated as a remedy for property damage and physical injury. However, recovery of compensation for psychiatric injury and pure economic loss, in cases where they were not caused by physical injury or property damage, has proved difficult. Duty of care for psychiatric injury is contingent upon whether the claimant is a primary or secondary victim. This chapter discusses the policy reasons for limiting duty of care for psychiatric injury, the mechanisms by which the law limits duty of care for psychiatric injury, the meaning of ‘pure economic loss’, and the development of the Hedley Byrne & Co Ltd v Heller & Partners Ltd (1964) principle of liability for negligent statements. The chapter also examines the ‘thin skull’ rule, which applies to psychiatric injury in the same way as to physical injury.
8. Employers’ liability and non-delegable duties
Authors: Brennan Carol
Published: September 2022

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. Questions, diagrams, and exercises help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress. Employment contracts implicitly require an employer to take all reasonable care to ensure the health and safety of his or her employees. An employee who suffers an injury due to the tort of another employee may make the employer vicariously liable. In addition, the employer has a personal non-delegable duty of care to ensure that his employees are safe in the workplace. This chapter looks at the various sources of employers’ liability for workplace accidents and discusses the distinction between vicarious liability and personal liability. It also examines the non-delegable nature of the employer’s duty and considers developments in employer’s liability for occupational stress.
9. Vicarious liability
Authors: Brennan Carol
Published: September 2022

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. Questions, diagrams, and exercises help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress. In general, liability is based on the personal fault of the wrongdoer himself. A person is liable only for his own acts, and a defendant will usually be free of any liability unless he has negligently or intentionally caused the harm or damage to the claimant. However, a person who has no fault or personal blame may also be held liable for the damage caused by the tort of another. This is known as vicarious liability, which is most common in the workplace and imposes liability without the need to prove that the defendant is at fault.
11. Trespass to the person and to land
Authors: Brennan Carol
Published: September 2022

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. Questions, diagrams, and exercises help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress. Trespass, one of the oldest torts, takes three forms that are all actionable per se: trespass to the person, trespass to land, and trespass to goods. In each case, a claimant is not required to prove damage to bring an action in trespass. Many modern cases of trespass to the person are taken against the police or other public officials, mainly to vindicate the claimant’s rights rather than to obtain an award of damages in compensation. This chapter focuses on trespass to the person and trespass to land, the former of which involves an intentional infliction of harm without a direct interference.
17. Remedies and limitation
Authors: Brennan Carol
Published: September 2022

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. Questions, diagrams, and exercises help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress. The remedies for torts begin with financial compensation for both pecuniary and non-pecuniary losses, but also include injunctions. Compensation can be claimed by the injured party and also their survivors and dependants following death. Tort compensation is normally paid as a lump sum and will be liable to various deductions. This chapter also discusses how limitation of actions will be a factor which can influence the injured parties’ ability to bring an action in tort.
1. Introduction to criminal law
Authors: Monaghan Nicola
Published: September 2022

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. Questions, diagrams, and exercises help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress. This chapter begins by addressing the question: What is a crime? It then discusses the difference between criminal law, the law of tort, and contract law; the function of criminal law; sources of criminal law; the classification of offences; the criminal justice process; the hierarchy of the criminal courts; the burden and standard of proof; and the elements of an offence.
7. Non-fatal offences against the person
Authors: Monaghan Nicola
Published: September 2022

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. Questions, diagrams, and exercises help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress. This chapter first discusses the five main non-fatal offences against the person: assault (also referred to as ‘common assault’), battery, assault occasioning actual bodily harm, maliciously wounding or inflicting grievous bodily harm, and wounding or causing GBH with intent. It also examines the defence of consent, and the two poisoning offences which are indictable only: maliciously administering poison or a noxious thing so as to endanger life or inflict GBH under s.23 of the Offences Against the Person Act 1861; and maliciously administering poison or a noxious thing with intent to injure, aggrieve, or annoy, contrary to s.24 of the same Act.
10. Other offences against property
Authors: Monaghan Nicola
Published: September 2022

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. Questions, diagrams, and exercises help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress. This chapter explores other offences against property such as robbery, burglary, aggravated burglary, blackmail, handling stolen goods, and criminal damage. The first four of these offences are found in the Theft Act 1968 and criminal damage is found in the Criminal Damage Act 1971. While these offences primarily seek to protect property or economic interests, some also provide protection to the well-being of the individual.
16. Accessorial liability
Authors: Monaghan Nicola
Published: September 2022

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. Questions, diagrams, and exercises help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress. This chapter explores the law relating to accessorial liability or parties to crime. It discusses liability for aiding, abetting, counselling, or procuring the commission of an offence under the Accessories and Abettors Act 1861, the scope of accessorial liability after the decision in R v Jogee [2016] UKSC 8, the effect of withdrawing participation, liability for participation after the offence, protection of the victim, and recommended reforms to the law.
17. Study skills
Authors: Monaghan Nicola
Published: September 2022

Without assuming prior legal knowledge, books in the Directions series introduce and guide readers through key points of law and legal debate. Questions, diagrams, and exercises help readers to engage fully with each subject and check their understanding as they progress. This chapter offers some guidance as to how to study effectively and how to approach assessments and exams. It discusses how to manage your time effectively and how to get the most out of criminal law lectures and seminars/workshops. It covers how to deal with multiple choice questions and provides advice on writing assignments (answering problem questions and essay questions is considered separately). It also provides advice on how to prepare for and approach exams.
1. An Introduction To Criminal Law
Authors: Herring Jonathan
Published: September 2022

This chapter begins by addressing the question: what is a crime? Most modern definitions fall into two categories, the moral and the procedural. Moral definitions are based on the claim that there is or should be an intrinsic quality shared by all acts criminalized by the state. Procedural definitions argue that crimes are such because criminal law recognizes public wrongs as violations of rights or duties owed to the whole community. The chapter covers the role of criminal law; the statistics of criminal behaviour; the ‘principles’ of criminal law; proposals for a Criminal Code; conduct that should be criminalized; culpability; the victim in criminal law; the criminal process; criminal law and the Human Rights Act 1998; critical criminal law; feminist legal thought; punishment; and sentencing.
9. Fraud
Authors: Herring Jonathan
Published: September 2022

This chapter begins with a discussion of the law on fraud, covering fraud by false representation; fraud by failing to disclose information; fraud by abuse of position; fraud and possession offences; obtaining services dishonestly; conspiracy to defraud; and making off without payment. The offence of fraud can be committed where the defendant dishonestly makes a false representation intending to make a gain for themselves or a loss to another. The defendant is only guilty if they know that the statement is, or might be, untrue or misleading. Fraud is also committed where the defendant dishonestly fails to disclose information which they are under a duty to disclose, intending to make a gain for themselves or cause a loss to another. A third way of committing fraud is where the defendant misuses a position of trust in a dishonest way to make a gain or cause a loss. The second part of the chapter focuses on the theory of fraud, covering the extent and nature of fraud, and the Fraud Act 2006.
12. Defences
Authors: Herring Jonathan
Published: September 2022

This chapter begins with a discussion of the law on defences. Even though the prosecution may have proved the mens rea and actus reus of the offence, a defendant may still be able to escape conviction if they can successfully raise a defence. The chapter covers private defence and the prevention of crime; necessity; chastisement; consent; duress; coercion; entrapment; superior orders; automatism; insanity; diminished responsibility; loss of control; intoxication; and mistake. The second part of the chapter focuses on the theory of defences, covering the definition of defences; justifications and excuses; character, choice, and capacity; determinism; the rejection of an overarching theory; insanity; private defence; duress; necessity; and issues that fall between the gaps of the defences.
4. Proof of facts without evidence
Authors: Keane Adrian , McKeown Paul
Published: September 2022

Facts in issue and relevant facts are treated as established by the courts only insofar as they are proved by evidence. This chapter discusses three exceptions to this general rule: (i) some facts may be presumed in a party’s favour in the absence of proof or complete proof, including marriage, legitimacy, death, the regular and proper performance of public or official acts, sanity, and negligence; (ii) a fact will be treated as established where the court takes judicial notice of it either (a) without enquiry, in the case of facts that are beyond serious dispute, notorious or of common knowledge or (b) after enquiry (usually political facts, customs, professional practices, and historical and geographical facts); and (iii) a fact ceases to be in issue when a party has formally admitted it.
5. Documentary and real evidence
Authors: Keane Adrian , McKeown Paul
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses the law on documentary evidence and real evidence. It addresses the following key issues: Where a party to litigation wishes to adduce in evidence a statement contained in a document, (a) should it be open to proof by production of a copy of the document and, if so, (b) in what circumstances and subject to what safeguards? Where a party to litigation wishes to admit a document in evidence, (a) should he be required to establish that it was written, signed, or attested by the person by whom it purports to be written, signed, or attested and, if so, (b) how should these matters be established? When should material objects and other types of real evidence be admissible in evidence and why do they need to be accompanied by oral testimony? When, and subject to what safeguards, should a court inspect a place or object out of court?
8. Cross-examination and re-examination
Authors: Keane Adrian , McKeown Paul
Published: September 2022

This chapter first discusses cross-examination, the questioning of a witness immediately after his examination-in-chief by the legal representative of the opponent of the party calling him, or by the opposing party in person, and by the legal representative of any other party to the proceedings or by any other party in person. The object of cross-examination is to elicit evidence which supports the cross-examining party’s version of the facts in issue and to cast doubt upon the witness’s evidence-in-chief. It then turns to re-examination. A witness who has been cross-examined may be re-examined by the party who called him. The object of re-examination is to repair damage that has been done by cross-examination.
12. Hearsay in criminal cases
Authors: Keane Adrian , McKeown Paul
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses the meaning of hearsay in criminal proceedings and the categories of hearsay admissible by statute in such proceedings. It considers the relationship between the hearsay provisions of the Criminal Justice Act 2003 (the 2003 Act) and Art 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights as it relates to hearsay; the definition of hearsay, and its admissibility under the 2003 Act, including admissibility under an inclusionary discretion (s 114(1)(d)); and safeguards including provisions relating to the capability and credibility of absent witnesses, the power to stop a case and the discretion to exclude. Also considered in this chapter are: expert reports; written statements under s 9 of the Criminal Justice Act 1967; and depositions of children and young persons under s 43 of the Children and Young Persons Act 1933.
13. Hearsay admissible by statute in civil proceedings
Authors: Keane Adrian , McKeown Paul
Published: September 2022

Under the common law rule against hearsay, any assertion, other than one made by a person while giving oral evidence in the proceedings, was inadmissible if tendered as evidence of the facts asserted. The Civil Evidence Act 1968 constituted a major assault upon the common law rule in civil proceedings by making provisions for the admissibility of both oral and written hearsay subject to certain conditions. In June 1988 the Civil Justice Review recommended an inquiry by a law reform agency into the usefulness of the hearsay rule in civil proceedings and the machinery for rendering it admissible. The subsequent recommendations of the Law Commission were put into effect by the Civil Evidence Act 1995. This chapter discusses the admissibility of hearsay under the Civil Evidence Act 1995; safeguards; proof of statements contained in documents; evidence formerly admissible at common law; and Ogden tables.
14. Hearsay admissible at common law
Authors: Keane Adrian , McKeown Paul
Published: September 2022

This chapter considers the following categories of hearsay: statements in public documents, works of reference, evidence of birth, age, and death, evidence of reputation, statements forming part of the res gestae, and statements which are admissions made by an agent of a defendant. All of these categories were established at common law as exceptions to the rule against hearsay, and all of them have been preserved by statute. The categories relating to age and res gestae have been preserved in criminal but not civil proceedings. All of the other categories have been preserved in both criminal and civil proceedings.
15. Confessions
Authors: Keane Adrian , McKeown Paul
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses the admissibility of confessions under the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 (the 1984 Act). It considers how, under s 76(2) of the 1984 Act, confessions may be excluded as a matter of law where obtained by oppression or in consequence of something said or done which was likely to render any such confession unreliable. It also considers the discretion to exclude confessions under s 78(1) of the 1984 Act; the effect of breaches of the Codes of Practice issued under the 1984 Act; the voir dire; statements made in the presence of the accused; and facts discovered in consequence of inadmissible confessions.
18. Evidence of character: evidence of the good character of the accused
Authors: Keane Adrian , McKeown Paul
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses the circumstances in which, in criminal proceedings, evidence of the good character of the accused may be adduced because of its relevance either to a fact in issue or to his credibility. It addresses the following issues: Why should an accused be allowed to call evidence of his previous good character? What is meant by ‘good character?’ Linked to this, where an accused has previous convictions, in what circumstances might it be acceptable for a judge to tell a jury that they should consider the accused as a person of good character? Where an accused has no previous convictions, in what circumstances might it be acceptable for a judge to refuse to tell a jury that they should treat the accused as a person of good character? Other issues discussed include the admissibility of evidence of the good character of prosecution witnesses.
20. Experts and opinion evidence
Authors: Keane Adrian , McKeown Paul
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses the law on experts and opinion evidence. As a general rule, opinion evidence is inadmissible: a witness may only speak of facts that he personally perceived, not of inferences drawn from those facts. However, there are two exceptions to this general rule: (i) an appropriately qualified expert may state his opinion on a matter calling for the expertise that he possesses; and (ii) a non-expert witness may state his opinion on a matter not calling for any particular expertise as a way of conveying the facts that he personally perceived. Experts may also give evidence of fact based on their expertise. The chapter covers the duties of experts and the rules which apply where parties propose to call expert evidence.
21. Public policy
Authors: Keane Adrian , McKeown Paul
Published: September 2022

The public interest in efficient and fair trials may be seen as underlying the rules of disclosure in civil litigation, whereby a litigant is obliged to make pre-trial disclosure of the documents on which he relies and the documents that adversely affect his own case or adversely affect, or support, another party’s case, even though such documents may not be admissible evidence at the trial. There is also a public interest in enabling material to be withheld where its production would harm the nation or the public service. Where these two kinds of public interest clash and the latter prevails over the former, relevant and otherwise admissible evidence is excluded at trial. Such material is said to be withheld by reason of ‘public interest immunity’. This chapter discusses the development of the modern law on public interest immunity; the scope of exclusion on grounds of public policy; and related procedural issues in civil and criminal cases.
6. Defences of incapacity and mental conditions
Authors: Loveless Janet , Allen Mischa , Derry Caroline
Published: September 2022

This chapter examines the use of incapacity and mental condition defences for criminal offences in England and Wales. It discusses the general principles of the excusatory defence of insanity and of automatism as distinct from diminished responsibility and explores the notion that insanity is out of date and unrelated to contemporary classifications of mental illness. It considers whether insanity can be pleaded for all crimes and explains that intoxication will rarely reduce criminal liability. It explains and clarifies the Majewski rule and how it works. It also considers intoxicated mistake. The chapter evaluates arguments for and against the age of criminal responsibility and analyses court decisions in relevant cases.
9. Sexual offences
Authors: Loveless Janet , Allen Mischa , Derry Caroline
Published: September 2022

This chapter examines key types of sexual offence in England and Wales contained in the Sexual Offences Act 2003. These include rape, assault by penetration, sexual assault, and causing sexual activity without consent. The chapter discusses the key elements of these offences, analyses the social context of rape, and investigates the reasons behind the low conviction rates for rape cases. It explains the principles of the actus reus and mens rea elements of sexual offences, considers marital rape, and also provides examples of several relevant cases and analyses the bases of court decisions in each of them.
10. Property offences 1: theft, robbery, burglary, and handling
Authors: Loveless Janet , Allen Mischa , Derry Caroline
Published: September 2022

This chapter examines property offences in England and Wales, focusing on theft, burglary, robbery, and handling. The chapter outlines the general principles of these offences and discusses their actus reus and mens rea elements. It looks at the key provisions of the Theft Act 1968 including the s1 definition of theft in the Act and analyses the bases of court decisions in several examples of relevant cases. It discusses property and appropriation. It also discusses recent changes to the definition of dishonesty and how juries are now asked to assess dishonesty after the civil case of Ivey v Genting Casinos (UK) Ltd (Crockfords).
3. Offer and Acceptance
Authors: McKendrick Ewan
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses the rules of offer and acceptance that have been laid down by the courts over the years. It states that the rules claim to be of general application and that they purport to give effect to the intention of the parties, albeit their intention objectively ascertained. The chapter also establishes that the rules in practice are often inter-linked. For example, the question whether or not an offer has been accepted may depend in a particular case on whether or not the offer was revoked before it was accepted; a court deciding such a case must decide when both the acceptance and the revocation took effect. The chapter examines the difference between an offer and an invitation to negotiate (or an invitation to treat), particularly in its application to contracts concluded in shops, tenders and contracts concluded at an auction, the battle of the forms, the time at which acceptance takes place when a contract is concluded by post, and acceptance in the case of unilateral contracts.
8. The Terms of the Contract
Authors: McKendrick Ewan
Published: September 2022

A contract is composed of terms, the number of which depends upon the importance of the transaction. The terms of the contract are of great significance to the parties because they define their rights and liabilities. This chapter examines two preliminary issues, the first of which relates to the identification of the terms of the contract. How do the courts decide what is and what is not a term of the contract? The second issue concerns the entitlement of the parties to lead evidence of terms not to be found in their written contract. Where the parties take the time, trouble, and expense of reducing their agreement to writing, are they still entitled to adduce evidence of terms other than those found in the written document, or is the written document the sole source of the terms of their contract?
10. Implied Terms
Authors: McKendrick Ewan
Published: September 2022

This chapter discusses implied terms. Terms may be implied into contracts from three principal sources: statute, custom, and the courts. Parliament has, on a number of occasions, implied terms into contracts. The precise reason for the implication of the term depends upon the particular statute. It may be to give effect to the presumed intention of the parties; it may be to reduce uncertainty by enacting a default rule out of which the parties can contract if they do not like the term that Parliament has seen fit to imply; or it may be to protect one party to the transaction from the superior bargaining power of the other. Terms can also be implied into contracts by custom where the custom is certain, reasonable, and notorious. Customs and usages are an important source of obligations in commercial contracts. Terms implied by the courts can be divided into two groups, namely terms implied in fact and terms implied in law. A term is implied in fact when it is implied into the contract in order to give effect to what is deemed by the court to be the unexpressed intention of the parties and is implied because it is necessary to make the contract work. Terms implied in law ‘are those terms that are consistently implied into all contracts of a particular type because of the nature of the contract, rather than the supposed intentions of the parties’.