bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Public Health System
Authors: Burris Scott , Berman Micah L. , Penn Matthew , Holiday Tara Ramanathan
Published: October 2022

This chapter explores the public health system, including the organizations, activities, and people who promote public health in the United States. It describes the agencies at the federal, state, tribal, local, and territorial levels that have been granted legal authority to act on behalf of public health, including the functions of each agency in promoting public health. The chapter examines the role of the healthcare system within public health and concludes with a short discussion of the evolving effort to improve the public health system through accreditation, governance, and evaluation.
State and Local Public Health Authority
Authors: Burris Scott , Berman Micah L. , Penn Matthew , Holiday Tara Ramanathan
Published: October 2022

This chapter explores the authority of state and local governments to regulate public health at their respective levels. First, the chapter explains the states’ broad “police powers” and the related Jacobson v. Massachusetts Supreme Court decision. It then details local public health powers and how those interact with state powers. The chapter contrasts two rules that set the scope of local public health authority in different states: Dillon’s Rule and home rule. The chapter also discusses the doctrine of state preemption, which varies in its specifics from state to state, and it concludes by explaining how state legislatures can create administrative agencies and delegate authority to them.
Constitutional Limitations
Authors: Burris Scott , Berman Micah L. , Penn Matthew , Holiday Tara Ramanathan
Published: October 2022

This chapter introduces the Fourteenth Amendment’s Equal Protection Clause by discussing its history, judicial interpretations, and application to public health issues. It reviews the fundamental equal protection doctrine—similarly situated persons must not receive disparate treatment. It also describes the definitions and usage of suspect and quasi-suspect classes and the levels of scrutiny courts may apply to while reviewing equal protection claims. Using cases such as Craig v. Boren and City of New York v. New St. Mark’s Baths to illustrate, the chapter also examines the application of the equal protection clause to public health issues. The chapter highlights factors that have historically led to equal protection violations by public health officials.
How to Write a Law
Authors: Burris Scott , Berman Micah L. , Penn Matthew , Holiday Tara Ramanathan
Published: October 2022

This chapter defines the process of drafting a law, beginning with understanding the goal of the law; then moving through the steps of incorporating the existing science and law; capturing the goal, the rules of conduct, and the intervention in organized language and structure, which differs depending on whether the law is a regulation or a statute; and soliciting expert and stakeholder feedback. The chapter also covers technical drafting issues, such as legal definitions, cross-references, use of consistent terminology, and the use and placement of modifiers.
Models of Regulation
Authors: Burris Scott , Berman Micah L. , Penn Matthew , Holiday Tara Ramanathan
Published: October 2022

This chapter defines regulation and identifies its three generic elements: a standard of behavior, means of monitoring whether the standard is being practiced, and means of incentivizing those who have not adopted the behavior to do so. The chapter introduces the various actors within and outside government who may practice the elements of regulation and reviews the theory of responsive regulation and enforcement. The chapter ends with an exploration of the challenges to effective regulation.
Enforcement
Authors: Burris Scott , Berman Micah L. , Penn Matthew , Holiday Tara Ramanathan
Published: October 2022

Chapter 19 explores the issue of enforcement and explains its importance to the success of public health laws. The chapter reviews the scope of activities that comprise a comprehensive enforcement system, including the design and drafting of the law, appropriations and budgeting, community outreach and education, and licensing and compliance assistance. It also identifies the variety of enforcement approaches, including investigations and inspections and sanctions for violations, and provides examples of enforcement in action. It also discusses the applicability of the Fourth Amendment to agency investigations and inspections and the use of injunctions to enforcement the requirements in public health laws.
Mediating Realities
Authors: Lawrence Regina G.
Published: October 2022

This chapter begins with an account of the life of Nathaniel Levi Gaines, who was shot and killed by New York City police officer Paolo Colecchia on July 4, 1996. It goes on to highlight the death of William Retana who died after spending two-and-a-half weeks in a coma that resulted from skull injuries sustained during a confrontation with Los Angeles police in November 1985. The chapter then considers the report on the death of Louis Segura in the Los Angeles Times on May 13, 1990, which detailed how Los Angeles police officers had killed a reputed gang member. The chapter explains how these three cases illustrate the difficulties we have deciphering news events and narratives from the news about public problems. The chapter also mentions incidents of the use of force by the police, which are subject to a range of interpretations in the news.
Making a Problem of Brutality
Authors: Lawrence Regina G.
Published: October 2022

This chapter considers the idea that crime is a problem that preoccupies the news and the public. It discusses the media’s interest in “crime waves,” which can be the result of official efforts to create, sustain, or exploit public concern about crime. The privileged access to the media offers police and other officials abundant opportunities to shape public images of themselves, their work, and the nature of the crime problem. The chapter illustrates how police use of physical force is a particularly controversial issue in American crime-fighting. Whether police use of force is presented as police brutality and whether brutality is understood as a problem depend greatly upon which voices and views the media emphasize.
Setting the Agenda
Authors: Lawrence Regina G.
Published: October 2022

This chapter demonstrates how most use-of-force incidents reported in the news are successfully contained by official communication strategies. It talks about official claims, which provide reporters with a news narrative, and media professionalism, enshrined in the beat system, which encourages journalists to rely on those narratives. The chapter also looks at a cultural discourse of crime control that discourages coverage that police would call negative. The chapter shows how official news management sometimes breaks down and the public meaning of some use-of-force incidents spins out of official control. It examines the dynamics of various incidents that become major news events and provide opportunities for critical nonofficials to talk about policing problems.
Struggling for Definition
Authors: Lawrence Regina G.
Published: October 2022

This chapter argues that the news about police use of force is generally contained by a combination of routine police communication strategies, the routines and culture of mainstream journalism, and a larger political culture preoccupied with fighting crime. It outlines factors that create practical and ideological constraints on what is said in the news. An important key to understanding which events become big news lies in the narrative possibilities provided by the contextual cues available to journalists. The chapter examines the news coverage of high-profile use-of-force incidents in New York, which in the early 1990s were considered the most controversial and intensely covered local incidents. The deaths of Federico Pereira in February 1991, Jose Garcia in July 1992, and Ernest Sayon in April 1994 in police custody provide an opportunity to see how the same news organization may construct public problems differently as contexts and story cues shift.
Executive
Authors: Steinglass Steven H. , Scarselli Gino J.
Published: October 2022

Article III establishes the executive branch, which consists of a governor and key executive offices. The executive branch has undergone significant changes since its creation in 1802, particularly in the powers exercised by the governor. After their experience with the autocratic rule of Northwest Territorial Governor Arthur St. Clair, the Jeffersonians, who dominated the 1802 Constitutional Convention, created an executive branch that had little influence over state government. Under the 1802 Constitution, the governor had the power only to issue pardons, to appoint the adjutant general of the state militia, and to fill certain vacancies in executive offices when the General Assembly was in recess. Although the governor served as commander-in-chief of the state militia, the governor could not veto acts of the legislature. The 1851 Constitution expanded the governor’s powers to make appointments and fill vacancies in executive offices, but the governor did not get the veto power until the voters approved an amendment in 1903. In 1976, the voters approved a major reorganization of this article proposed by the General Assembly and based on the recommendations of the Ohio Constitutional Revision Commission.
Elective Franchise
Authors: Steinglass Steven H. , Scarselli Gino J.
Published: October 2022

Article V deals with the elective franchise, and it contains provisions on voting rights, ballot and election requirements, and term limits. Many amendments to this article were adopted to conform to the liberalization of the franchise brought about by amendments to the U.S. Constitution and U.S. Supreme Court decisions. A 1977 amendment to this section, proposed by initiative petition against a contentious and partisan backdrop, embedded a voter registration requirement in the state constitution for the first time. The 1851 Constitution denied the franchise to idiots and insane persons.
Apportionment
Authors: Steinglass Steven H. , Scarselli Gino J.
Published: October 2022

Article XI governs the apportionment of seats in the Ohio General Assembly, one of the most important and controversial issues in Ohio constitutional and political history. Under the 1802 Constitution, the General Assembly had total control over the apportionment of seats in the Ohio House and Senate, and the number of seats and their apportionment largely depended upon the party in power. And gerrymandering was a common practice. The 1851 Ohio Constitution sought to address this issue by transferring responsibility for apportionment to a board consisting of the governor, the state auditor, and the secretary of state. The resulting apportionments was still characterized by districts drawn along county lines, and in 1903 the voters approved the Hanna Amendment, which provided that each county shall have at least one representative regardless of population. In 1967, the voters completely reorganized this article in response to decisions by the U.S. Supreme Court that established the “one person, one vote” principle. In 2012, the Ohio Supreme Court rejected a challenge to the 2011 apportionment plan and held that Article XI does not require political neutrality, politically competitive districts, or representational fairness. But in 2015 the voters approved an amendment to a bipartisan commission-based process with strong antigerrymandering provisions.
Self-Quarantine
Authors: Mercutio Elektra
Published: October 2022

In this chapter, the author explores the existential implications of the widespread stay-at-home directives that were enacted during the COVID-19 pandemic. COVID-19 presented an unprecedented opportunity for civilians under mandatory self-quarantine orders to practice existential self-care. Billions of humans encountered, many for the first time, a shattering existential reality: that microorganisms, undetectable to the naked eye, exert tremendous influence on individuals’ well-being and health. In the first section of this chapter, “Mortality and Ecocide,” the author explores the existential ramifications of how self-quarantine dramatically eliminated work hours for members of the labor force who were viewed as nonessential. The second section, “Symbolism and Deepening of Existential Encounter,” delves into personal mythology in relation to humans’ fear of death and need for power.
Eco-Anxiety as a Global Affect
Authors: Achtitah Jaouad , Mentak Said
Published: October 2022

This chapter studies eco-anxiety not only as a personally self-contained feeling but also as a collective and global affect in relation to environmental disasters that seem ubiquitous. This chapter adopts affect theory, which sheds light on emotions in connection to inner processes as well as external environmental conditions. The chapter then concentrates on the interplay between the affect of eco-anxiety, experienced individually and globally, and the environmental catastrophes, including fatal pandemics such as the coronavirus. In this regard, a couple of problematic issues impose themselves. How do environmental disasters and pandemics cause personal and global eco-anxiety? And, on the other hand, how do they restore the natural balance? Then, how does eco-anxiety become a collective affect and ultimately determine collective decisions, actions, and reactions? Do individuals around the globe experience the same or different degrees of eco-anxiety? And why? How do persons try to cope with or ease the feeling of eco-anxiety? And what are some of the strategies used to control that negative affect?
Introduction
Authors: Covo Manuel
Published: October 2022

Entrepôt of Revolutions centers imperial trade as a driving force in the revolutionary Atlantic, arguing that commercial factors preceded and conditioned political change. At the crux of these transformations was the “entrepôt,” the “Pearl of the Caribbean,” whose economy grew dramatically as a direct consequence of the American Revolution and the French-American alliance. The book chronicles the rapidly changing relationships that emerged as the United States developed a trade regime independent of Great Britain, and it sheds light on the three-way struggle among France, the early American Republic, and Saint-Domingue/Haiti to assert, define, and maintain “commercial” sovereignty.
The Greatest Revolution in Commerce and Politics, 1776–1784
Authors: Covo Manuel
Published: October 2022

The chapter underscores the significance of Saint-Domingue in the French-American alliance of 1778. The French nation, under the pressure of the United States, needed a regenerated empire, more fully centered on its core, Saint-Domingue. Saint-Domingue should be regarded as the true center of the alliance, an alliance that promised to achieve both French imperial supremacy and the expansion of the United States. The chapter argues that Louis XVI entered the war for colonial and economic reasons that involved a global rethinking of the French Empire. The creation of an independent state in the Americas, allied to France, sparked a heated transatlantic debate on free trade, colonial relations, and diplomacy.
Epilogue
Authors: Covo Manuel
Published: October 2022

The epilogue describes the final episode in a series of economic and political experiments that concluded in French counterrevolution, the end of the special relationship between France and the United States, and the war of Haitian independence. The French Revolution was not only a significant event in the history of political sovereignty but also engaged with a broader debate over commercial sovereignty in a world of empires and nascent nation-states. A consensus existed among the French revolutionary elite that if France wanted to be a sovereign nation, it could not and should not turn its back on global trade. However, disputes and revolts erupted over whether a colonial economy should be predicated on racial slavery. The “liberty of commerce” could not easily be defined, the compatibility of departmentalized colonies with equality was debatable, and republicanism had unleashed apprehension. The status of merchants and their role in the polity as commercial experts also remained uncertain. Neither free trade, nor protectionism won. What the French state should become was not only up for debate, but in fact would trigger a bloody fight.
Beyond the Wire
Authors: Martinez Machain Carla , Allen Michael A. , Flynn Michael E. , Stravers Andrew
Published: October 2022

The book studies how U.S. military deployments abroad serve as a tool of public diplomacy that can both support and undermine the international liberal order established by the United States. It develops and systematically tests a theory of public opinion toward the United States, its people, and its global non-invasion military deployments. Positive interactions with servicemembers, including routine daily interactions and the economic flows from a deployment, serve as a form of public diplomacy, improving perceptions of military deployments and the United States as a whole. However, negative events and experiences stemming from deployments, like crime, pollution, and controversial mission types can produce negative reactions among local populations. The book explores these subjects, including chapters devoted to understanding how different forms of contact, reported experiences with crimes involving US service members, and belonging to minority communities, all affect views of the US military presence in a state. We The book also looks at how these factors shape reported involvement in protests against the US, and broader trends in anti-US protest events around the world. The book argues that curtailing servicemember engagement in the community is a policy that can backfire on the US military's long-term objectives, as removing day-to-day positive social interactions with US personnel diminishes one of the main sources of goodwill toward US deployments. It proposes that US policy should focus not on isolating deployed forces from local populations but on regulating interactions in a way that maximizes the potential for beneficial social connections and minimizes harm to host populations.
Service Members as the Microfoundations of Power
Authors: Allen Michael A. , Flynn Michael E. , Machain Carla Martinez , Stravers Andrew
Published: October 2022

This chapter presents the argument that consensual, non-invasion military deployments are one of the microfoundations of the post-WWII, US-led liberal international order, as well as the United States' position in the global hierarchy. It begins by discussing the difference in opposition movements in Japan and Germany as a starting place to think about the differences in how host-state civilians perceive the United States presence. The chapter introduces the concept of the "Domain of Competitive Consent" where basing powers need to win over populations to continue to have access to strategic military locations. It summarizes the history of US military deployments and bases since the 1950s. The chapter summarizes the qualitative and quantitative academic literature on the positive and negative effects of US military deployments abroad. The chapter also summarizes the rest of the book’s chapters.
The Domain of Consent
Authors: Allen Michael A. , Flynn Michael E. , Machain Carla Martinez , Stravers Andrew
Published: October 2022

This chapter presents the argument that the populations of countries that host US military deployments form the microfoundations of the United StatesUS-led global hierarchy. Traditional theories of international relations and foreign policy envision decision-making as an elite process. Historically, this is a realistic view, but the combination of global political democratization and the democratization of media has allowed citizens to influence their government in profound ways. Because the effects of basing and military deployments can lead citizens to have both positive and negative perceptions of the US military presence, they may, in turn, lobby their government in favor of or opposition to basing. Our theory relies on theories of criminology, sociology, economics, political science, and international relations to build the foundations for how public opinion matters for long-term security arrangements. The flow of consequences from perceptions to policy gives rise to a domain that’s referred to as the “Domain of Consent.”
Deployments and Contact
Authors: Allen Michael A. , Flynn Michael E. , Machain Carla Martinez , Stravers Andrew
Published: October 2022

This chapter shows how personal and network contact with, as well as economic benefits from, US service members deployed abroad can lead to both more positive and more negative evaluations of the US military, as well as other US actors. It examines a survey distributed to approximately 42,000 respondents across 14 countries (Australia, Belgium, Germany, Italy, Japan, Kuwait, the Netherlands, the Philippines, Poland, Portugal, South Korea, Spain, Turkey, and the United Kingdom). It finds that contact, both by individuals and people within an individual’s network, is enough to push people to have “informed” views of the US military. Those contacts make it less likely for people to say they do not have views about the presence and more likely to express any view as a result. These findings advance the argument about how interpersonal experiences with US military members are one of the most important fronts in the Domain of Competitive Consent.
The Domain of Competitive Consent
Authors: Allen Michael A. , Flynn Michael E. , Machain Carla Martinez , Stravers Andrew
Published: October 2022

This last chapter surveys the present state of basing and what this research says about how US decisions shape those trends. The status quo of basing and deployment policy establishes distinct directions in American foreign policy and international relations. This chapter forecasts potential scenarios of great power competition (between the United States, China, and Russia) that are likely to play out over the coming three decades. These scenarios affect the longevity of US deployments overseas, but all three scenarios show how the Domain of Competitive Consent matters through the next thirty years. The chapter also builds on this research to discuss the different global political developments that may shape basing and attitudes towards deployments in the future. Given these scenarios, it presents various policy recommendations stemming from this work.
National Identity and Partisan Polarization
Authors: Uslaner Eric M.
Published: October 2022

National Identity and Partisan Polarization examines how national identity has become a central issue in political and social life across the world. Questions of identity—who should be counted as a “true member” of a society and who deserves assistance from the government—have displaced other social and economic issues across nations in many countries. This study considers the role of identity theoretically and in the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Austria, Germany, Sweden, Hungary, Poland, Israel, and Taiwan. Identity varies over time and over countries. Some such as Sweden have a more “inclusive” sense of identity—one does not need to be born in the country or have ancestry to be considered a “true Swede.” Other countries, such as Austria, France, Hungary, Poland, Israel, and Taiwan, have a more “exclusive” notion of identity—where one was born and a common heritage (race, religion, ethnicity) are seen as essential for seeing others as “true” members of society. “Outsiders” are viewed negatively, often as threatening a national culture and not deserving of government assistance. In the United States, the United Kingdom, and France, the major political parties take opposing positions on identity. In the United States and the United Kingdom, issues of identity have become highly correlated (polarized) with social and economic issues. In the former Communist countries of Hungary and Poland, the dominant parties have taken nationalist positions on identity but favor generous welfare policies for people of their own background. In Israel and Taiwan, social and economic issues have become less important than nationalism.
Foundations: The Question of Identity
Authors: Uslaner Eric M.
Published: October 2022

National identity forms the basis of who is a “true” member of society, who is accepted as a legitimate resident and who should be supported by government programs if necessary. These decisions are based upon the values of members of society. They depend more on a country’s composition and history than upon its districts. There is little support for the argument that the nature of legislative elections or the structure of government matters. If they did, single-member districts would be the most polarized political systems while parliamentary elections would be more divisive. There is also no support for the claim that divided control might force compromise between parties. A structural account would expect that a nation such as Sweden would be the most polarized while the United States and the United Kingdom would be the least divided. This chapter sets the stage for the analysis of 10 countries with different legacies and distinct institutions as well as how to measure identity. The countries are the United States, Great Britain, France, Austria, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Israel, and Taiwan.
The United States
Authors: Uslaner Eric M.
Published: October 2022

The United States has a history of either welcoming immigrants or rejecting them. At many periods the country welcomed immigrants, but at other times it has not. It always has struggled with the treatment of minorities, from African American enslavement to native Americans placed on reservations to Asian Americans put into camps to intolerance of Hispanics and to rejection of gays, lesbians, Muslims, Jews, and people who do not work with their hands. This trend has been prominent in American politics throughout its history but has become more prominent as American parties have polarized. White evangelicals now dominate the Republican party and have attempted to institute regulations on access to the ballot. Such actions are aimed at the minorities who support Democrats. The Christian right sees many minorities as unworthy of government assistance.
The Case of France
Authors: Uslaner Eric M.
Published: October 2022

France is a country that has resisted nationalist politics for most of its history as a democratic nation. The conflict has been one of an elite versus the working classes. As immigration has increased, especially from Muslim countries, the electorate has become more focused on cultural issues, and the traditional political parties have given way to ones based upon one’s ethnic heritage. The traditional Gaullist party of the right, the Rally pour La Republique, has been replaced by a party once universally rejected, the Front National. Both the FN and the more moderate centrist coalition of Prime Minister Emmanuel Macron have shifted to the right on issues of immigration, demanding that Muslim immigrants accept the national doctrine of laicité, or the banning of religious symbols from public life.
Germany and Austria
Authors: Uslaner Eric M.
Published: October 2022

Germany and Austria are both countries that have long emphasized heritage based upon bloodlines. In World War II they were both ruled by the Nazi party (Adolph Hitler was born in Austria). After the war, Germany felt that it was necessary to repent for its sins and became a more open society. It began to welcome refugees from Muslim countries and Jews from the Soviet Union. Its parties did divide between the left and the right, but both were mostly centrist. There is a small nationalist movement, the Alternatif für Deutschland (AfD) that gets support from areas where the Nazis received most of their votes. It does not challenge either major party, even as it has pushed the major conservative party slightly to the right on immigration. In Austria the nationalist movement is strong, even entering the government. The government in Austria has become the most nationalist of any democracy in Europe, emphasizing the German past that Germany itself has abandoned.
Sweden
Authors: Uslaner Eric M.
Published: October 2022

Sweden has long been one of the most equal countries in the world. At the turn of the 20th century, it adopted programs of universal benefits for all people in the country, whether born in the country or not. These programs included wages, health care, and education. The tolerant Swedes have long accepted immigrants and refugees from countries with different backgrounds. Sweden has more immigrants per capita than anywhere else in the West. Yet there is a movement, the Swedish Democrats, that has gained support by proposing to limit immigration and to restrict benefits to people of Swedish descent. It has not fared as well as many other nationalist parties in the West. Yet it has pushed the major parties to restrict both immigration and benefits more than in the past.
Deservingness
Authors: Uslaner Eric M.
Published: October 2022

Deservingness refers to which people living in a society are worthy of its benefits, specifically health care, education, unemployment, and standards of well-being. Is the society “inclusive” or “exclusive” in its approach to minorities, refugees, and immigrants? Inclusive societies embrace all of their residents Examples today are Sweden and Germany. In the United States, the United Kingdom, and France, the population and political coalitions are polarized over who is entitled to benefits. There is more consensus in Sweden and Germany for an inclusive approach and in the remaining countries for an exclusive sense of belongingness: Benefits are often denied to minorities and people of different ethnic, racial, and, religious groups–as well as gays and lesbians. To qualify for benefits in inclusive society, one must only “feel” him/herself to be willing to accept the country’s basic way of life. To receive benefits from a nation with an “exclusive” sense of identity, one should share the blood line, the religion, and the history of the majority population.
The Sources of Nationalism
Authors: Uslaner Eric M.
Published: October 2022

This chapter examines some aggregate relationships from surveys with small samples based upon data availability. Its conclusions are thus suggestive and even speculative, but they do confirm the basic argument made earlier. Specifically, their acceptance of minorities and refugees as “true” members of society depends more upon values than upon institutions. Electoral systems do not shape preferences over identity. Preferences for identity may change over time without institutional reform (the United States is a notable example). The belief that more diverse societies are more likely to have exclusive identities is not supportive. The most diverse society in the analysis, the United States, is marked by a conflict between those who prefer a more inclusive identity and people who want to restrict immigration. One of the most homogenous countries, Sweden, has a population that welcomes refugees and immigrants. Yet, other countries with little diversity (Austria, Hungary, Poland, and Taiwan) have more exclusivist identities.
Opportunities, Not Threats
Authors: Arce Moisés , Hendricks, Michael S. , Polizzi Marc S.
Published: October 2022

This chapter studies one of the most protracted and violent conflicts over mining in Peru: the Tía María open-pit copper mine project of the Southern Copper Corporation. The conflict can be traced to 2009 when Southern presented its first environmental impact assessment report. It emphasizes the role of organizations connected to the local agriculture, such as irrigator boards and producers’ associations. These organizations shared information related to the threats induced by mining and empowered individuals to challenge industry and government actors interested in expanding extractive activities. They also helped to redefine material threats to land and water with nonmaterial threats related to the community’s agricultural identity. Despite strong local opposition, Southern and various government actors remain interested in bringing the project to light.
The Pilgrimage for Life
Authors: Arce Moisés , Hendricks, Michael S. , Polizzi Marc S.
Published: October 2022

This chapter traces the conflict over B2Gold’s proposed open-pit gold mine in Rancho Grande, Nicaragua. Similar to other protracted conflicts, host communities, industry, and government actors were in a race against each other to define (or redefine) the threats and opportunities presented by mining. While farmers in Rancho Grande opposed the project, Catholic Church leaders became the main face of the anti-mining campaign. Church leaders emphasized a trade-off between short-term benefits and long-term costs of mining through radio shows and led peaceful marches against the proposed project. When these leaders spoke of the Church teachings related to the protection of the environment, they tapped into the religious identity of community members. As such, they helped to bridge material threats over land and water with nonmaterial concerns related to the community’s religious identity.
We Will Not Move
Authors: Arce Moisés , Hendricks, Michael S. , Polizzi Marc S.
Published: October 2022

This chapter examines the campaign against Ibutho Coal’s proposed open-pit coal mine near the community of Fuleni in northern South Africa. The project is also close to the Hluhluwe-iMfolozi nature reserve, which is home to endangered species, such as the southern white rhino. The reserve is also an important tourist destination and a cultural heritage of the Zulu nation because King Shaka lived and hunted there as a youngster. The proposed mine triggered a response at two levels: one local and focused on community livelihoods, and the other transnational and centered on wilderness conservationism. Local organizations promoted community exchanges to share information about the environmental harms of coal mining. They also sought to bundle material threats over land and water with nonmaterial threats related to the local Zulu identity and culture. Community members in Fuleni faced several obstacles that made preventive mobilization difficult, but they embraced other strategies to stall mining with the support of transnational wildlife advocacy networks.
Survey Results
Authors: Arce Moisés , Hendricks, Michael S. , Polizzi Marc S.
Published: October 2022

Using original public opinion surveys, this chapter highlights similarities as well as differences in the reasons for support and opposition to the proposed mining projects in Tía María (Peru), Rancho Grande (Nicaragua), and Fuleni (South Africa). This chapter presents our quantitative analysis on the determinants of support for mining. We explain the operationalization of our variables, modeling technique, and substantive findings. Our surveys reveal a representative picture of community views about mining that are politically layered based on contextual factors, which can remain unknown because supporters of mining are less vocal than opponents. While controlling for competing explanations and other socio-demographic variables, our empirical results confirm the hypothesized effect of social engagement on support for mining.
Conclusion
Authors: Arce Moisés , Hendricks, Michael S. , Polizzi Marc S.
Published: October 2022

This chapter summarizes our findings and contributions to the literature on resource conflicts. We examined three cases characterized by protracted conflicts over mining in Peru, Nicaragua, and South Africa with the goal of revealing the attitudes of individuals prior to the extraction of minerals. This chapter contextualizes the importance of social engagement by considering different approaches to exploring participatory venues at the local level and by comparing conflicts at later stages in the commodity chain. It revisits the sources of support for mining, which—unlike opposition views, being more vocal and visible—remain largely under the radar. The concluding chapter also addresses the broader implications of our findings for the onset of conflicts, the salience of preventive strategies, firm–community relations, as well as participatory mechanisms related to decisions over mining.
Ethics and the Quality of Life in Communities
Authors: Congleton Roger D.
Published: October 2022

Chapter 2 provides a theory of the founding of stable, viable, reasonably attractive communities using elementary game theory. It argues that the transition begins in circumstances analogous to Hobbes’s natural state, and transitions to one resembling that assumed by Locke through innovations in norms that ameliorate the Hobbesian dilemma. Among the norms developed and internalized are rules of conduct that reduce conflict, commons problems, public goods problems, and externality problems. Only the archetypes of such social dilemmas are illustrated, although there are thousands of specific instances of each. Ethical dispositions play roles in all the most likely solutions.
Ethics, Exchange, and Production
Authors: Congleton Roger D.
Published: October 2022

After the most critical social dilemmas of life in communities have been ameliorated, commerce may emerge. Whether it does or not varies with the manner in which the first dilemmas are solved and the extent to which a community’s ethos tends to ameliorate social dilemmas associated with voluntary exchange and team production. These dilemmas are neglected by economic textbooks, because ethical dispositions that solved the problems examined in this and the previous chapter are commonplace in the markets those texts describe—and had long existed. Without those solutions, the extent of trading networks, specialization and team production would have been very limited—if they existed at all.
Ethics and Economic Progress
Authors: Congleton Roger D.
Published: October 2022

Neoclassical theories of growth emphasize the accumulation of physical and human capital and the processes of technological advance. Capital accumulation increases the rate at which well-known goods and services can be produced using well-known methods of production. Fruitful innovations cause new goods to be produced and old ones to be produced through new more efficient methods This chapter demonstrates that both rates of capital accumulation and innovation are influenced by a community’s ethos. Indeed, it argues that the notion of economic process is itself at root an ethical concept. Changes in ethical dispositions can thus change a community’s “natural” rate of growth.
Ethics, Customary Law, and Law Enforcement
Authors: Congleton Roger D.
Published: October 2022

As ethical dispositions emerge and become commonplace, various rules concerning treatment of other persons, animals, and things become routinized. Such routines, in turn, provide the foundation for customary law. Dilemmas associated with privately encouraging behavior in accord with customary laws may induce a community to create an organization that further encourages (enforces) a abiding by a community’s customary laws. However, it turns out that such organizations have dilemmas of their own that must be solved for law-enforcing organizations to be productive rather than extractive. Ethical dispositions are the most plausible solution to those dilemmas.
Debt, Death, and Destruction in Ancient Rome
Authors: Eberle Lisa
Published: October 2022

This chapter provides an anthropologically informed analysis of the Roman laws of usury and bankruptcy and the elite attitudes toward debt that demonstrably shaped these laws in the middle and late Republic. When Rome joined the Axial Age, Roman elites coped with the increasing use of money and markets in Roman society like many other elites had done before them: by emphasizing relations of reciprocity. Roman elites, however, were particularly fond of unequal reciprocal relations—of patronage, that is—which placed them at the top of a social hierarchy in which they had the most gifts to give. Their investment in this hierarchy led them to cast all of their interactions as part of such relations. This tendency was not only mocked in Roman comedies; it also explains why they came to understand monetary loans as part of such relations. The ethics of reciprocity, which thus came to inform their thinking about such loans, can, the author contends, help to unravel the unique association of debt, death, and destruction to which both elite writings and the legal system during the Republic testify. The chapter concludes by examining a seeming break in this association: cessio bonorum and its introduction in the late first century bce, through which the inability to repay a loan ceased to be inextricably linked to (social) death in ancient Rome.
The Poetics and Politics of Exchange in Roman Agronomy
Authors: Morley Neville
Published: October 2022

There is no reason to imagine that the market reflected natural human instincts and desires in Roman Italy any more than, as Graeber argued, it did anywhere else. Market values had to become thinkable and conceived as first an acceptable and then an integral part of society. It is strange, therefore, that his account omits Rome almost entirely. This chapter starts to remedy that omission by exploring the process of naturalization of economistic modes of thinking in the late Roman Republic through a case study of key passages in Varro’s agronomical work Rerum Rusticarum. This complex text both reflected the new economic structures and opportunities that emerged as the spoils of imperial violence flowed into Rome and, through a range of rhetorical and literary moves, actively sought to shape elite discourse by identifying virtue and honor with the rational pursuit of profit.
Zoroastrian Materialism
Authors: Payne Richard
Published: October 2022

The present chapter revisits the question of the relationship between the Zoroastrian religion and imperialism within the framework of David Graeber’s “Axial Age of spirituality . . . built on a bedrock of materialism.” It argues for the utility of Graeber’s periodization—comparable in its outlines to proposals for a Eurasian age of empires—in an extended form, 800 bce–800 ce, as a complement to more conventional chronological parameters of analysis. It does so on the basis of an account of Zoroastrian religious institutions and ideology that takes its materialist claims seriously and explores the ways in which the materialist practices and principles of the so-called Good Religion animated and sustained Iranian imperialism in late antiquity, an example of the inextricability of the so-called spiritual religions of the Axial Age from the “military–coinage–slavery complex” equally characteristic of the period. Without seeking to elevate Graeber’s framework to pre-eminence, the chapter demonstrates how productively his questions can be posed to the evidence and circumstances of late antiquity in particular.
Debt’s Fourth Millennium Seen from Below
Authors: Papaconstantinou Arietta
Published: October 2022

This chapter revisits one of Debt’s most central oppositions, that between Graeber’s idiosyncratic “Axial Age” and his “Middle Ages,” by insisting on the period of transition between the two but also by confronting cases from both sides of the perceived divide. It does this by applying a microhistorical lens to village communities of the eastern Mediterranean, in order to observe how debt was handled in practice and what that can say about the broader model. On the basis of Egyptian and Palestinian documentary papyri, a source that captures everyday activity as well as administrative relations with the state, the chapter shows that the binary model proposed in Debt needs to be nuanced by adding a third actor, the middling elites who were usually the direct beneficiaries of local credit economies. It also demonstrates that the opposition between the “Axial” and “Middle” Ages was much less stark than claimed in Debt, especially for small communities, where the continuity of internal hierarchies trumped the macrohistorical changes.
The Fundamental Problem
Authors: Pindyck Robert S.
Published: October 2022

This chapter explains the fundamentals of climate change, and the implications for temperature change. The chapter explains how CO2 emissions and atmospheric concentration are measured, how they affect temperature, and how higher temperatures can affect sea levels and weather patterns. The chapter then considers an optimistic scenario for global CO2 emissions: emissions start dropping in 2020 and fall to zero by the end of the century. Many have argued that a temperature increase greater than 2°C could be catastrophic. The chapter shows how even my optimistic scenario would likely cause a temperature increase greater than 2°C.
Climate Policy and Climate Change: What Can We Expect?
Authors: Pindyck Robert S.
Published: October 2022

Chapter 2 used some very simple models to examine the likelihood of preventing the increase in the global mean temperature from exceeding 2°C by the end of the century. That chapter showed that even with a very optimistic scenario for emission reductions, it is unlikely that we will prevent a temperature increase of that magnitude. This chapter explores what might or might not happen in more detail. The chapter starts with CO2 emissions and asks what kinds of scenarios might we view as realistic, whether or not they are optimistic. The chapter includes the impact of methane emissions, which have been growing. These calculations provide even stronger evidence that it is unlikely we can prevent a temperature increase greater than 2°C.
What to Do: Reducing Net Emissions
Authors: Pindyck Robert S.
Published: October 2022

Chapter 5 explained how it is unlikely—not impossible, but unlikely—that we will reduce global CO2 emissions enough to prevent a temperature increase greater than 2°C. So, what should we do? The answer is to try to reduce net CO2 emissions as much and as quickly as possible. This chapter explains why a carbon tax is the most efficient (i.e., least costly) way to do this, but it can also be done using direct regulations and subsidies for “green” industries. Given that climate change is a global problem, it is critical to reach an international agreement by which all countries reduce emissions, and the chapter discusses how this can be done. The chapter also discusses the role of nuclear power as a way of “decarbonizing” electricity production. Finally, the chapter discusses two different ways to remove CO2 from the atmosphere: planting trees, and carbon removal and sequestration.
Conducting and Analyzing Qualitative Interviews
Authors: Brinkmann Svend
Published: October 2022

Chapter 3 focuses on the interview phase itself. Different styles and forms of interviewing are discussed in this chapter as they are each appropriate for different purposes. Key distinctions are introduced between receptive and assertive interviewer styles, which are somewhat aligned with experience-focused and discourse-oriented approaches, respectively, and between doxastic and epistemic forms of interviewing. Doxastic interviewers seek to capture the experiences and opinions (the doxa) of the interviewees, whereas epistemic interviewers can be more confronting, with the ambition of developing epistemic knowledge in the interview situation itself (e.g., with inspiration from Socratic conversations). The chapter also presents different ways of analyzing interviews. It closes with a reflection on the ethics of interviewing and addresses some of the ethical dangers that are not often thought of in the context of qualitative interviewing.