bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
What Happened to English?
Authors: Mcwhorter John h.
Published: November 2023

Since linguistic investigations as early as Paul (1880), it has been well known that simplification and complexification have complementary roles in the evolution of grammars. I argue in this chapter that in the emergence of Modern English, simplification dominated complexification to a greater extent than in any other Germanic language. Specifically, I claim that at a certain point in English’s history, simplification dominated in a fashion suggesting a socio historical factor hindering the full trans mission of the grammar across generations.
Strange Bedfellows Recovering the Origins of Black English
Authors: Mcwhorter John h.
Published: November 2023

It always strikes me how difficult it is to answer a question I am often asked by students, professors, the media, and members of the general public: Where did Black English come from? The responsible scholar acquainted with the issues can only answer this question after a game swallow and a pause for gathering one’s thoughts, because the origins of Black English have been hotly contested for thirty years now.
The Paleobiology of the Pavlovian People
Authors: Trinkaus Erik , Svoboda Jiří A
Published: November 2023

This is primary descriptive volume on the most important paleontological site for research into the emergence of humans, the development of a modern pattern of hunting and gathering societies in the Middle Upper Paleolithic Era. Erik Trinkhaus is among the most distinguished paleoanthropologists and a member of the National Academy. Svoboda is the project leader on the Pavlovian site.
Employees and Corporate Governance
Authors: O’Sullivan Mary
Published: November 2023

Corporate governance is concerned with the institutions that influence how control over resource allocation is exercised in business corporations: who exercises control, what allocation decisions they make, and who benefits from these decisions. What do we mean when we speak of employee representation in corporate governance? In this chapter, I view employees as having a role in corporate governance when they have some voice in decision-making processes that affect how resources within the corporate enterprise are allocated. Moreover, I am concerned only with situations in which employees’ influence over corporate activity is institutionalized, whether through formal requirements, informal norms, or both, so that employees’ role in governance is not at the discretion of any other group in the economy (such as shareholders).
The Wealth of English
Authors: Denning Keith , Kessler Brett , Leben William R
Published: November 2023

In the number of speakers who learn it as a first or second language, and in its range of uses and adaptability to general and specific tasks, English is the world’s most important language today. It is the mother tongue of several hundred million people. Its rich verbal art, great works in science and scholarship, and major role in international commerce and culture have made English the most frequently taught second language in the world.
Polysemy and Semantic Change
Authors: Denning Keith , Kessler Brett , Leben William R
Published: November 2023

So far we have been mostly concerned with changes in the form of morphemes. In this chapter we turn to shifts in their meanings. If our goal is to understand a word’s meaning by recognizing its components, then mastering polysemy— variation in meaning—is just as important as mastering allomorph, variation in form.
Markets for Agents: Fund Management
Authors: Ross Stephen A
Published: November 2023

During the period from the 1970s through the 1990s, the financial markets of the United States and of the world became institutionalized. By some estimates, over this period of time, the ownership of assets has reversed from one in which individuals held approximately 75% of the assets and institutions held 25% to one in which institutional ownership is now approximately 75%. While this has occasioned much discussion in the popular press, it is probably fair to say that the response in the academic community has been one of indifference.
and Realized Returns
Authors: Rubinstein Mark , Jackwerth Jens
Published: November 2023

Standard equilibrium models in financial economics are, in their essential nature, ways of determining state-contingent prices: the price today of a dollar to be received at only a specific date in the future and given a specific description of the state of the economy at that time. If there are no riskless arbitrage opportunities, each of these prices is positive. The sum of the state-contingent prices for dollars received at a single date over all possible states is the current price of a dollar received for sure at that date. This is one divided by the current riskless return for that date. Therefore, multiplying the state-contingent prices by this return converts them into a probability measure over the states, which financial economists call riskneutral probabilities (figure 6.1). This chapter is largely about ways of recovering these probabilities from the current riskless return, the currently observed prices of traded assets, and the current prices of traded derivtives on those assets.
A Theory Of International Agreements
Authors: Goldsmith Jack L , Posner Eric A
Published: November 2023

The conventional international lawyers’ wisdom about treaties is uncomplicated. When a state enters an agreement that evinces an intent to be governed by international law, it puts itself under an international law obligation to comply with the agreement. The legalization of the agreement, on this view, creates a special obligation beyond that which is created by a mere nonlegal agreement. This special obligation is usually captured by the pacta sunt servanda doctrine: “Every treaty in force is binding upon the parties to it and must be performed by them in good faith” (Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, Art. 26).
Human Rights
Authors: Goldsmith Jack L , Posner Eric A
Published: November 2023

International human rights law regulates the way states treat individuals under their control. The modern multilateral human rights regime consists primarily of treaties regulating genocide (1951), racial discrimination (1969), civil and political rights (1976), economic, social, and cultural rights (1976), discrimination against women (1981), torture (1987), and the rights of children (1990). (There are also various regional human rights treaties.) Each party to these treaties promises other signatories to protect the human rights of individuals under its control. The treaties also create various monitoring mechanisms that aim to promote compliance. As Table 4.1 shows, the vast majority of states have ratified most of these important human rights treaties.
International Trade
Authors: Goldsmith Jack L , Posner Eric A
Published: November 2023

This chapter analyzes prominent treaty regimes governing international trade. We begin with the bilateral treaty regime that arose in the nineteenth century. We explain how this regime’s distinctive features are best explained by our theory of international law and how its failures inﬂuenced the design of the great twentieth-century multilateral treaty regime, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade/World Trade Organization. GATT/WTO poses a challenge to our account of international law, for, according to conventional wisdom, it provides the basis for multilateral trade cooperation. As we shall see, however, the elements of GATT/WTO that have ﬂourished generally solve coordination problems, not multilateral prisoner’s dilemmas. The international trade rules that were designed to solve multilateral prisoner’s dilemmas have failed. GATT/WTO might be best described as an effort to use bilateral means to solve a multilateral problem; its limitations can be traced to this mismatch between means and ends.
As an American popular constitutionalism, circa 2004
Authors: Kramer Larry D
Published: November 2023

The present Court’s activism is best understood as the latest instance of a recurring pattern in American politics. For more than two centuries, every reaffirmation of popular constitutionalism has predictably been followed by efforts to restore or enlarge judicial authority. In each instance, a supposedly tamed Court slowly extended its reach, usually starting with small steps, then quickening the pace as its confidence grew in response to public acceptance or indifference. In each instance, the Justices eventually went too far, seeking to control matters at the heart of contemporary politics and precipitating a confrontation with the political branches that called upon Americans to decide yet again whether judges should have so much say over their lives.
Equity Market: The Capital Asset Pricing Model
Authors: Ho Thomas S Y , Lee Sang Bin
Published: November 2023

At the heart of financial theory is the study of the time value of money in relation to the risk premium. If we lived in a world without risk, much of finance would be reduced to the bookkeeping of cash flows, paying taxes, distributing profits, covering expenses, and reporting returns. In other words, the study of finance would be better described as accounting. However, we do live in a world where risk changes the time value of money. Individuals grapple with the risks of capital investments and ventures with one fundamental preference in mind: the value of$1.00 should be more today than it will be tomorrow; a $1.00 certain payment should worth more than a $1.00 uncertain payment. But exactly how much more is the question that fuels financial research.
Bond Markets: The Bond Model
Authors: Ho Thomas S Y , Lee Sang Bin
Published: November 2023

Financial sectors are directly affected by the interest rate. As described by the dis counted cash flow model in chapter 1, the present-value concept depends on the market interest rate level. Bond markets, stock markets, futures and forward markets, and commodity markets are all affected by the interest rate level. Interest rates are also important to the real sector of the economy. They affect the levels at which people consume or invest. If we all prefer to save more for the future and consume less today, interest rates will fall. Interest rates are also related to the economy’s productivity. If the economy is productive and has a high rate of return for providing goods and services that we can consume in the future, we will be more likely to invest, sacrificing today’s consumption for tomorrow’s enjoyment. Thus the interest rate would rise, reflecting the productivity of the economy.
Interest Rate Derivatives: Interest Rate Models
Authors: Ho Thomas S Y , Lee Sang Bin
Published: November 2023

There are many examples of interest rate derivatives that are actively traded in over-the counter markets and in organized exchanges. Caps, floors, Treasury bond options, Treasury bond futures options, Eurodollar futures options, and swaptions are just some examples of this important class of derivatives in financial markets. They are classified as “interest rate derivatives” because their stochastic movements are directly related to the interest rate movements in a way that is analogous to the stock option price that moves in step with the underlying stock price.
Exotic Options: Bellman’s Optimization, the Filtration Model, and the n-Factor Model
Authors: Ho Thomas S Y , Lee Sang Bin
Published: November 2023

In previous chapters we have covered vanilla options regarding two main risk sources: stock price and interest rates. Specifically, we have considered European call and put options. These options, while simple in their terms and conditions, capture the salient features of an option. And the sources of risks that we have described enable us to understand a broad range of risk sources and how they affect option values and characteristics. The previous chapters have provided the principles behind the option pricing and the framework to analyze options we need to make the transition from theory to practical applications.
Financial Institutions” Liabilities: Required Option Adjusted Spread
Authors: Ho Thomas S Y , Lee Sang Bin
Published: November 2023

Financial institutions are issuers of a broad range of financial contracts. Banks” savings, such as time deposits and savings accounts, are examples of financial contracts. Property and casualty insurers” financial products may include auto insurance and workers” compensation insurance. Life insurer’s policies, such as term insurance and whole life insurance, are also examples of financial contracts. Corporations are obligated to pay benefits to retired employees. They are often called the “liabilities.” These are only some examples of financial contracts that financial institutions sell to customers to raise funds. They sell these financial contracts and invest the proceeds, deriving profits from the spread (returns of the investments net of the funding costs). These contracts are different from the corporate debt of financial institutions because they are not capital market securities; they have no active markets and no transaction prices except at issuance. They are similar to private placements, an arrangement made between a seller and a buyer. Their designs are often specific to their issuers, and they are also subject to different regulations on financial disclosure and management. Of course, these liabilities also have their own risk drivers. For example, the deposit accounts have withdrawal risks; property and casualty insurance carries general insurance risks; life products have mortality risks. These specific risk sources are also important in defining the characteristics of these liabilities.
Early Development Economics 2: Historical Perspectives
Authors: Meier Gerald M
Published: November 2023

Insofar as the development process is a matter of the long run, and LDCs are latecomers to development, it was natural to look to history for lessons of development. Examination of the growth experience of a variety of countries first concentrated on trends in population and national out-put. It also incorporates an examination of analytics. The demographic transition was identified as a prominent feature during the transformation of a society from a traditional to a modernized society. Societies pass from a phase of low population growth in which both birth and death rates are high, through a phase of rapid population growth in which modernization causes decreases in mortality, and then, after a lag, to a mature phase in which both birth and death rates are low and population growth is again moderate (Notestein 1953). The construct of the demographic transition raised questions about the causal relation between industrialization and the decline in mortality and fertility. The causes and timing were subject to various interpretations—with different policy implications for population control.
An Unfinished Biography
Authors: Meier Gerald M
Published: November 2023

Fifty years on, the subject of economic development is very different from the pioneering time when Arthur Lewis walked down that road in Bangkok and threw away the neoclassical assumption of a fixed supply of labor. Two generations of economists have been responsible for the subsequent evolution of the subject in various dimensions. Other assumptions of the neoclassical competitive equilibrium model have been dropped, especially the imperfect information paradigm.
Introduction
Authors: Devins Neal , Fisher Louis
Published: November 2023

The origins of this book date back to 1987. At that time, the view that Supreme Court interpretations controlled the Constitution’s application was not subject to serious challenge. For example, when reporting that six out of ten Americans thought the Supreme Court was the ultimate constitutional arbiter, newspapers simply noted that these six were “correct.”
Race
Authors: Devins Neal , Fisher Louis
Published: November 2023

We are accustomed to looking to the Supreme Court to resolve issues of racial discrimination, but the Court’s record in this area over the past two centuries has been modest. More often than not, elected officials have shaped the national discourse over race relations. The Court’s voice has been an important one, but it has been far from dominant. In many instances, the Court takes its cues from social and political forces. And when the Court and elected officials disagree with one another, lawmakers have been willing to countermand the Court by enacting legislation at odds with its decisions.
Adverse Events: A Basis for Litigation
Authors: Charles Sara C , Frisch Paul R
Published: November 2023

Physicians usually become defendants through their involvement, sometimes centrally, sometimes peripherally, in an adverse event. An adverse event is defined in the 1999 Institute of Medicine (IOM) report To Err Is Human as “an injury resulting from medical intervention . . . not due to the underlying condition of the pa- tient.” Such an event can throw physicians into what one describes as “the most stressful experience of my entire life.” Even if the untoward event never explodes into a malpractice claim, its impact is often so serious that it trips off powerful feelings in the patient as well as in all of the health professionals involved in the incident.
Meeting the Lawyers
Authors: Charles Sara C , Frisch Paul R
Published: November 2023

The attorney who defends the physician’s case is a critical player in determining the outcome of the litigation. His or her professional competence may well de- cide its success. An attorney who is an expert in litigation in general and the defense of physicians in particular and, most important, who has tried cases factually similar to the assigned case all the way to verdict is best prepared to defend a physician.
Case Over: What’s Next?
Authors: Charles Sara C , Frisch Paul R
Published: November 2023

At the end of this long journey, we have mixed feelings that resist easy or quick sorting. Finding closure remains beyond our grasp. Our lives are not the same for we are now intensely aware of the risks as well as the satisfactions of our profession. How did things get to this point?
Contemplating Torture An Introduction
Authors: Levinson Sanford
Published: November 2023

Why should one take valuable time and expend equally valuable intellectual and emotional energy thinking about torture? Not only is the subject grim, but it is also the case, as almost all of the following essays point out, that torture is unequivocally and absolutely forbidden by the law of civilized nations (including the United States). Remarkable proof of sorts of this universal condemnation is provided by a rather unlikely source, an Argentinian torturer who said, even as he defended his participation in Argentina’s “Dirty War,” that “[t]he day we stop condemning torture— although we tortured—the day we become insensitive to mothers who lose their guerilla sons—although they are guerillas—is the day we stop being human beings.” Such abhorrence of torture is at the heart of the defense the United States and its supporters offered most strongly of Iraq and the deposing of Saddam Hussein—especially following the failure to find any weapons of mass destruction or otherwise substantiate any plausible threat posed by Iraq to American national security. Even opponents of the Iraq war (like myself) are reluctant to say that it would have been “better” had Saddam Hussein in effect been left free to continue torturing his enemies, a likely result of a failure to resort to war.
Torture
Authors: Shue Henry
Published: November 2023

Whatever one might have to say about torture, there appear to be moral reasons for not saying it. Obviously I am not persuaded by these reasons, but they deserve some mention. Mostly, they add up to a sort of Pandora’s box objection: if practically everyone is opposed to all torture, why bring it up, start people thinking about it, and risk weakening the inhibitions against what is clearly a terrible business? Torture is indeed contrary to every relevant international law, including the laws of war. No other practice except slavery is so universally and unanimously condemned in law and human convention. Yet, unlike slavery, which is still most definitely practiced but affects relatively few people, torture is widespread and growing. According to Amnesty International, scores of governments are now using some torture—including governments which are widely viewed as fairly civilized—and a number of governments are heavily dependent upon torture for their very survival.
The Legal History of Torture
Authors: Langbein John H
Published: November 2023

Efforts to accommodate the use of torture within the Western legal tradition have a long history. For half a millennium the law courts of continental Europe tortured suspected persons to obtain evidence. They acted openly and according to law. Investigation under torture was a routine part of criminal procedure in late medieval and early modern times. The jurists and judges who elaborated and administered this system were aware of the dangers of coerced evidence, and accordingly, they framed rules of safeguard meant to make tortured confessions reliable. Across the centuries it became clear that the safeguards were far from safe. In the end, the European states conceded that the long experiment with torture was a failure, and across the eighteenth century they banned the use of torture from their legal systems.
Five Errors in the Reasoning of Alan Dershowitz
Authors: Scarry* Elaine
Published: November 2023

At the center of Alan Dershowitz’s recent account of torture is the argument that a hypothetical case can be imagined in which saving a city from a nuclear, chemical, or biological bomb might depend on torturing the terrorist who placed it there or knew where it was hidden. His chapter “Should the Ticking Bomb Terrorist Be Tortured?” is the centerpiece of his book Why Terrorism Works, and his essay herein is again structured around the dramatic instance of the ticking bomb, which occurs at the beginning, middle, and end of his argument. He believes that in such a situation it would be permissible to torture if one first obtained a judicial or executive warrant; the prohibition against torture, dissolved by means of the warrant, would continue in place for any act of torture that had not been warranted. The first error in Alan Dershowitz’s argument is that he wrongly addresses us as a population whose members are morally impaired.
Questions of Method and Adequacy
Authors: Seuren Pieter A M
Published: November 2023

This chapter takes a closer look at the general methodological question of the rationality of the choice one makes for or against a particular theory. A method of simple falsification is, though indispensable in principle, not enough. A wider range of criteria must be applied, not all of them formally definable: there is room for overall wisdom of judgment. Section 4.1 discusses the question of confirmation or disconfirmation of a “paradigm,” taken in the Kuhnian sense of an overall theoretical framework or architecture, as opposed to the (dis)confirmation of a smaller bit of theory, better called “hypothesis” or “analysis.” Chomsky has never answered that question in any satisfactory way, concentrating instead on the question of how not to falsify or have to reject his paradigm or his analyses.
What Is Functional about the MP?
Authors: Seuren Pieter A M
Published: November 2023

Since the primary goal of the MP is to show that the central notions developed in Chomskyan grammar over the years are determined by and thus derivable from boundary conditions on meaning and pronunciation, minimalism must be taken to be a form of functionalism, if the latter is seen as an attempt at reducing the properties of human language as much as possible to the demands imposed by the functions it is meant to serve in its natural habitat.
Cautionary Tales
Authors: Rosen Jeffrey
Published: November 2023

John Marshall, America’s greatest chief justice, took office in 1801 at the most vulnerable moment in the Supreme Court’s history. Jeffersonian Republicans were determined to attack the independence of the largely Federalist bench by making judges entirely subservient to popular will; high Federalists, by contrast, viewed the judiciary as a monarchical protection against mob rule. Marshall’s genius as chief justice was to find a middle ground between the populist and aristocratic positions, establishing judicial independence by avoiding judicial unilateralism. In case after case, he reinforced the paradoxical lesson that courts can best serve democracy by enforcing only those limitations on governmental power that national majorities have already approved.
How Business Was Conducted on the Chinese Silk Road During the Tang Dynasty, 618-907
Authors: Hansen Valerie
Published: November 2023

In 1966, the first year of the Cultural Revolution, Chinese archeologists discovered a group of affidavits in a tomb in the Astana graveyard, some ten miles east of Turfan. Offering a needle-sharp close-up of the Silk Road trade, these documents highlight the legal system officials of the Tang dynasty (618-907) devised to handle commercial disputes between their subjects and peoples from other lands with equally complex legal systems. These innovations facilitated the commercial exchanges of the Silk Road and indeed may have contributed to the surge in trade in the seventh and eighth centuries, when the Tang state poured resources into Central Asia to support its officials and armies posted there. At the time Turfan was probably the largest oasis on the Silk Road with a population of forty thousand; today it lies in the Xinjiang Autonomous Region of northwest China.
Transatlantic Paper and the Emergence of the American Capital Market
Authors: Downing Ned w.
Published: November 2023

Founding Fathers Robert Morris, Benjamin Franklin, Francis Hopkinson, Alexander Hamil ton, and other early American patriots designed and used a variety of paper financial instruments to fund the Revolutionary War (1775-83) and then, six years, later to refinance the resulting debt. This chapter dis cusses most of those financial instruments that were used internationally. Almost all of the rest of the financial instruments used in the Revolution circulated primarily in the states where they were issued. The use of transatlantic paper reveals the emergence of the United States first as an international loan seeker, and soon thereafter as an overextended and nearly bankrupt borrower. Only later did the country become the issuer of prime investment-grade securities that were in demand by financiers and investors throughout the world.
Mind, Brain, And Schizophrenia
Authors: Williamson Peter
Published: November 2023

Over the last two decades, molecular genetics and brain imaging have guided efforts to find the causes of schizophrenia. It is becoming increasingly clear that many genes are involved in schizophrenia and that they interact with other factors in very complex ways, which have not yet been elucidated. Neuroimaging techniques have allowed scientists and physicians to examine brain structure, function, and chemistry in living patients with schizophrenia but results so far have been disappointing. No two patients seem to share exactly the same combination of clinical symptoms or physical findings. Yet all have the syndrome recognized as schizophrenia. The author of this accessible, well-written book argues that it is time to set aside the search for a single cause of schizophrenia and focus on the disease’s final common pathway. He highlights clues from a wide range of research, including neurotransmitter, psychophysiological, and brain imaging studies. He then describes possibilities for the final common pathway at an understandable level in the context of what is already known about schizophrenia. While there are no preferred models of schizophrenia, a pattern is emerging which implicates those structures in the brain known to be important in integrating perception, cognition, and affect. A better understanding of these processes will be critical for developing mor effective treatments. This book will help advance that effort. It will be of great value to psychiatrists, psychologists, neurologists, neuroimagers, and basic scientists working in the field of shizophrenia research, and to their students and trainees. It will also be of interest to cliniciansand scientists concerned with other neuropsychiatric disorders, and to the families of those diagnosed with schizophrenia.
Hereditary Spherocytosis
Authors: Ideguchi Hiroshi
Published: November 2023

A 25-year-old Japanese man was admitted to the hospital because of fever, sore throat, and general malaise. He had been febrile for several days and had noticed that the color of his urine was unusually dark. On admission, his temperature was 37.8°C. The physician noted anemic conjunctiva (delicate membrane lining the eyelids and covering the eyeballs), injected pharyngeal mucosa (mucous membrane), cervical lymphadenopathy (swelling of the lymph nodes), and mild splenomegaly (enlargement of the spleen).
Glucose 6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase Deficiency and Oxidative Hemolysis
Authors: Burton Catherine , Kaczmarski Richard
Published: November 2023

A 50-year-old female presented passing black urine after having been unwell for 3 days with fever and headache. There was no previous history of blood disorders, anemia, or similar symptoms. Past medical history included a diagnosis of multiple sclerosis. Treatment included steroids and high-dose vitamins and minerals. These had been given on five separate occasions over the preceding 2 weeks and included 200 mg vitamin B1,25 mg B2,250 mg B5,100 mg B6, 15 mg B12, 50 g C, 2.5 mg folic acid, 15 mg zinc, 11 mg magnesium, 10 μg molybdenum, 100 μg selenium, and 50 μg chromium. In her social history, she was of Arabic descent from East Africa, currently living in Kuwait. Her nephew was reported to suffer from favism (an acute hemolytic condition occurring after ingestion of a certain species of bean [Vicia faba] in individuals with glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase [G6PD] deficiency). There was no recent history of travel or malaria exposure.
Tangier Disease: A Disorder in the Reverse Cholesterol Transport Pathway
Authors: Lai Lien B , Gopichandran Vijayaprasad , Gopalan Venkat
Published: November 2023

T. L. was a 5-year-old patient who underwent a tonsillectomy in 1960. His enlarged tonsils were yellowish-gray, with many septa running through multiple abnormally lobulated regions. On pathological examination, many foam cells (macrophages with lipid deposits) were found in and among the lymph follicles. This histiocytic appearance of the foam cells led to a tentative diagnosis of either Hand-Schüller-Christian (a multifocal eosinophilic granuloma) or Niemann-Pick (a lysosomal lipid storage) disease. Thinking that the tonsillar honeycomblike appearance was unusual for either of these diseases, the attending physician, Dr.Thomas Edmonds, referred T. L. for further analyses to the NIH and thereby initiated a series of investigations that led to the discovery of Tangier disease by Dr. Donald S. Fredrickson and colleagues in 1961.
Obesity: A Growing Problem
Authors: Rosenthal Miriam D , Pasquinelli Lawrence M
Published: November 2023

T.F. is a 14-year-old girl who came into the office for a well-care examination accompanied by her mother. She had a history of asthma and used albuterol (a bronchodilator) as needed. She was concerned that her weight was too high, and that she was often teased at school by other children. Both T.F. and her mother have been reading about weight loss and exercise; they were ready to make a change to decrease T.F.’s weight.
Protein-Energy Malnutrition
Authors: Gopichandran Vijayaprasad , Lai Lien B , Gopalan Venkat
Published: November 2023

A 22-month-old male child was seen in a pediatric clinic in the United States (Carvalho et al., 2001). He had been suffering from intermittent skin eczema since 2 weeks of age. After weaning at 13 months of age, he was given cow’s milk, and several episodes of vomiting were observed soon after. Since his parents suspected milk intolerance and were apprehensive about the cow’s milk causing a possible worsening of the eczema, he was immediately switched to a lactose-free diet that was primarily a rice milk beverage.This rice drink was extremely low in protein but (somewhat) adequate in caloric content. Although well educated, the parents mistakenly assumed that the beverage, because of its fortified contents and high cost,was a superior food product for their child even though the container stated that the rice milk beverage was not meant for use as an infant formula. Despite normal growth during infancy, poor weight gain was obvious during the second year, when the child was on a daily intake of 1.5 L of the rice drink, which is equivalent to 3 g protein and 790 calories/day (norm for ages 1–3, 16 g protein and 1300 calories/day). In the weeks before admission, he was irritable, was less active, and displayed an increase in skin lesions.
Abetalipoproteinemia
Authors: Rava Paul , Hussain M Mahmood
Published: November 2023

A 28-year-old man who immigrated to the United States a few years ago saw his primary care physician for mild recurrent abdominal discomfort and diarrhea. Past medical history was benign except for what the patient referred to as “occasional abdominal distress.” Further discussion revealed this to include diarrhea, flatus, and abdominal pains. He described the stool during these episodes to be greasy, pale, and foul smelling. Family history was unremarkable. Both of his parents, as well as three siblings, had no history of abdominal symptoms. The patient had been diagnosed with celiac disease and treated with a gluten-free diet at a previous visit. Even though he was compliant with dietary instructions, symptoms continued for the next year. The patient noted that he had experienced these symptoms periodically throughout his life, but that they had worsened since his arrival in the United States. He had not traveled since his immigration and had no pets or recent animal exposures, and there was no association between his abdominal discomfort and specific foods. He denied past or present use of drugs or alcohol and took no medications. Concerned that celiac disease may have been a misdiagnosis, a physical examination, blood tests, and a diagnostic procedure were performed.
Coming To Terms
Authors: Jack Andrew
Published: November 2023

On 21 December Every Year, Yevgeniya lvanova respectfully raises a glass of vodka to her persecutor on his birthday. She toasts the Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin, whose portrait still hangs on her wall even though his bloody regime condemned her to more than a decade in the country’s horrific Gulag labour camp system. In 1943, at the age of fourteen, Ivanova was arrested by the secret police in her native Leningrad, her only ‘crime’ that her uncle supposedly collaborated with the Germans. She passed through a series of prisons and work camps before arriving in the Kolyma river basin in Russia’s extreme north-east district of Magadan in 1949. Though freed in 1956, she long remained under police observation, and was only formally rehabilitated in 1993. For the past forty years, she has lived near Susuman, a township of crumbling concrete buildings constructed on pillars above the ground to withstand the extreme conditions. ‘I don’t consider myself an enemy of the people, but my conscience is not clean,’ she said, puffing on a papirosa, a Soviet-era cigarette made with coarse tobacco. ‘We studied Stalin’s words in school, sang ‘Thank you, Comrade Stalin” - and rightly so. I was raised in that tradition.
A Bridge Too Far
Authors: Jack Andrew
Published: November 2023

As Millions Of People Reached for their remote controls on 11 September 2001, Vladimir Putin reached for his telephone. Russians, like others around the world, watched in horror and amazement as almost every television channel broadcast pictures of New York’s col­ lapsing Twin Towers. They were quick to offer their condolences, and many carried bouquets and messages of support to the US embassy in Moscow in the days that followed. But few understood how quickly and dramatically their president would react. Putin was the first foreign leader to reach George W. Bush, sheltered in Air Force One, his specially equipped plane, in the hours after the attacks. Relations between the two former Cold War enemies had sharply improved over the previous decade, but one relic of the old power struggle which could now be put to new use was the emergency ‘hot line’ directly linking the leaders of Russia and the USA. It had been designed to prevent ‘mutually assured destruction’ between the nuclear superpowers as the result of a communications error. While ordinary phone connections to Washington broke down in the wake of the attacks, the special connection became a tool for Putin in his willingness to reach out actively to the USA, linking him rapidly to Condoleezza Rice, Bush’s National Security Advisor.
Neural Crest, Great Arteries, and Outflow Septation
Authors: Kirby Margaret Loewy
Published: November 2023

The neural crest is a population of multipotential cells that delaminate from the dorsal neural tube and migrate widely throughout the body. Based on the cells’ axial level of origin from the neural tube, the neural crest is divided into cranial and trunk regions. Both cranial and trunk neural crest cells give rise to the peripheral nervous system and melanocytes. However, only cranial neural crest has the potential to give rise to “ECTOMESENCHYMAL” CELLS. Ectomesenchymal cells take part in development of a wide variety of structures in the head, neck, and heart. Because of the importance of neural crest-derived ectomesenchyme in heart development, a subregion of the cranial neural crest has been called “cardiac neural crest.” Cardiac neural crest cells also support development and final patterning of the great arteries of the thorax. Neural crest cells are essential for modulating signaling in the caudal pharynx, which is important for normal development of the arterial pole of the heart (see Chapter 6). A subpopulation of cardiac neural crest cells migrates from the caudal pharynx into the cardiac outflow tract to form the aorticopulmonary septum, which divides the common arterial blood flow into pulmonary and systemic streams in animals with lungs. In addition to these roles of ectomesenchymal cells derived from neural crest, neural derivatives provide the innervation of the heart. Cardiac innervation is covered in Chapter 13.
Innervation of the Developing Heart
Authors: Kirby Margaret Loewy
Published: November 2023

The heart has both AFFERENT (sensory) and EFFERENT (motor) innervation (Fig. 13.1). The motor innervation is part of the autonomic nervous system, which provides efferent information to all of the viscera. Because of the integration of signals that is now recognized in the AUTONOMIC GANGLIA, there has been a tendency to include the afferent nerves as part of the autonomic nervous system; however, this discussion maintains the classical separation, and the sensory innervation is considered as separate from the autonomic motor innervation.
Seneca Falls
Authors: McMillen Sally G
Published: November 2023

Standing before a crowd packed into Wesleyan Chapel in Seneca Falls, New York, thirty-two-year-old Elizabeth Cady Stanton proclaimed: ‘‘We hold these truths to be self-evident: That all men and women are created equal.’’ The intent of her statement was clear—to give new meaning to Jefferson’s of tenquoted phrase from the Declaration of Independence. For the first time in an organized public setting, women found their voices and directed their attention to the injustices that for centuries had defined and circumscribed their lives. Here, a group of women was insisting that they were men’s equal. This was a momentous assertion, a momentous event. The July 1848 Seneca Falls Convention and its Declaration of Rights and Sentiments formally initiated the struggle for women’s equality and justice.
The Discovery of X Chromosome Inactivation
Authors: Migeon Barbara R
Published: November 2023

In 1961 Mary Lyon, a geneticist working on the genetic hazards of radiation at the Medical Research Council (MRC) Radiobiology Unit in Harwell, England (figure 4-1), proposed a truly innovative hypothesis to explain some unexpected results in her analysis of mutations affecting the coat color of female mice. In a one-page letter published in the journal Nature, she suggested that only one of the two X chromosomes of females functioned in each cell, and the other became inactive early in embryogenesis [37]. Although her paper came as a tremendous surprise to the scientific community, her hypothesis did not arise de novo. The time was ripe for such a proposal, as there had been several seminal observations made by other geneticists and cell biologists that should have led one to think of this possibility. In fact, Liane Russell, an American mouse geneticist, also suggested that only one X was active in a paper published in Science at about the same time [38]. Based on her own observations of mice with abnormal sex chromosomes, Russell had come to the same conclusion as Lyon. However, Russell’s concept was largely buried in her nine-page paper reporting the functions and aberrant behavior of sex chromosomes. Ernest Beutler, a colleague of Ohno, made a similar proposal to explain his observations of heterozygotes for G6PD deficiency consistent with mixtures of normal and G6PD-deficient red cells [39]. Clearly, it was Lyon’s elegant and unambiguous statement of her hypothesis that made it so memorable and compelling.
Linguistic Devices in Conversational Style
Authors: Tannen Deborah
Published: November 2023

After Thanksgiving was over, I had the impression that David’s friend Chad had been rather quiet. In addition, I was surprised that there had not been greater rapport between us, since our interests seemed to overlap in a number of ways. Chad, too, in recalling his feelings before the dinner, said that, based on what David had told him about the people he would meet that day, he had been particularly interested in meeting me. This surprised me even more, since I had seen no evidence of such interest. Listening to our conversations on tape confirmed my impression that we never really clicked.
Competition policy and efficient vice
Authors: Braithwaite John
Published: November 2023

Laws that attack monopoly have a long history, and even existed in the Roman empire (Braithwaite and Drahos, 2000: 185) but the story of a modern competition policy, executed with vigour, begins in the 1880s in North America when Canada and at least ten American states passed antitrust laws. Very little of the rest of the world was affected by this until quite late in the 20th century. Most of the competition authorities in the world have been created since 1990. There were barely 20 in the 1980s; today there are more than 90.1 More importantly, the vigour with which competition has been enforced and monopoly attacked has grown decisively in all the developed economies. Part of this has been professional deregulation at the behest of a globalising competition policy for the professions underwritten by the World Trade Organisation’s General Agreement on Trade in Services. These global and national policy shifts have effected important change. Cartels still exist, monopolies still dominate markets, but mostly price competition is more vigorous than in previous centuries. The result is that management cannot afford to be complacent. If managers are not aggressive at creating a demand for what they sell, more aggressive managers in competing firms put them out of business. This requires progressively more efficient production of the goods people want.
International arbitrage
Authors: Braithwaite John
Published: November 2023

Structural discontinuities, like those created by different tax treatments for the same transaction in different nations, open up arbitrage opportunities. Corporations can double dip, taking one position on the meaning of a transaction for US tax purposes, and another in a second country in a way that creates tax benefits under both sets of rules. When national systems collide, as they inevitably do with global businesses, sometimes the chips will fall to produce double benefits and, sometimes, double costs for the transnational entity. There can be no integrity or coherence in this. Indeed incoherence worsens because sophisticated tax planners seek to skew the clash of systems to maximise double benefits and eliminate double costs. Occasionally tax planners can go one better than double-dips at a tax advantage for the same transaction (say depreciation, leasing double-dips) in two different countries and secure a triple-dip (tax relief in three countries for the same expenditure, for example cross-border leasing where a deduction for lease of say aircraft is claimed in three different countries).
Meta risk management using natural systems
Authors: Braithwaite John
Published: November 2023

Tax systems can be designed to take advantage of natural systems within companies and industries in order to manage the risk of non-compliance. Chapter 5 explained the shift in ATO thinking from risk management to meta risk management - the risk management of taxpayers’ risk management systems. The move is from the ATO having a risk management system to regulate taxpayer risks to taxpayers having risk management systems and the ATO managing those. The Registered Software Project and the Transfer Pricing Record Review and Improvement Project were documented as examples. Meta risk management involves a shift from “inside-out” to “outside-in” design. Tax administrations have historically been inside-out designers: they design the tax system to suit their administrative purposes, and then tell taxpayers to use it. It would be outside-in design if a tax authority asked taxpayers what systems they use and what tax systems would be administratively convenient for them, and then shaped the tax system to go with the grain of user systems (Figure 13). Consequently, meta risk management requires a principle-driven as opposed to a rule-based approach to tax law. This is because highly prescriptive rules are too inflexible to allow for governance by the risk management systems that come naturally to business.
Reforming enforcement strategy
Authors: Braithwaite John
Published: November 2023

The worst thing a regulatory agency can do is slide into a politics of persuasion as an overreaction to critiques of heavy-handedness, then revert to a politics of punishment when non-compliance gets out of hand as a result, and then see-saw back and forth, as each leader fails to strategically integrate punishment and persuasion. This is very much the enforcement history of the IRS. The culture of the IRS in the early 1990s was adversarial, punitive, about getting notches on guns and meeting quotas (Yancey, 2004). Congressional hearings in the late 1990s vilified this approach and legislated to change it. When businessman Charles 0 Rossotti was brought in to run the IRS in 1997, his analysis of enforcement action was that because it brought in only 2 per cent of the revenue, it was not centrally important. What mattered was improved customer service to consolidate the 98 per cent of the revenue that came in voluntarily (Johnston, 2003: 163). Today Rossotti concedes that this analysis was myopic; enforcement during his watch became too weak and this weakness became the major threat to the voluntary compliance bringing in most of the revenue.
Why Humans Cooperate
Authors: Henrich Natalie , Henrich Joseph
Published: November 2023

Cooperation among humans is one of the keys to our great evolutionary success. Natalie and Joseph Henrich examine this phenomena with a unique fusion of theoretical work on the evolution of cooperation, ethnographic descriptions of social behavior, and a range of other experimental results. Their experimental and ethnographic data come from a small, insular group of middle-class Iraqi Christians called Chaldeans, living in metro Detroit, whom the Henrichs use as an example to show how kinship relations, ethnicity, and culturally transmitted traditions provide the key to explaining the evolution of cooperation over multiple generations.