bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Colliders
Authors: Wilson E. J. N.
Published: January 2010

The first colliders were built at Stanford and at Novosibirsk. Electrons circulated in two rings colliding where they touched. Single ring colliders circulated electrons and positrons in opposite directions—a configuration later used for protons and antiprotons in CERN's SPS and at Fermilab's Tevatron. The historical pattern seems first to collide protons in high-energy machines followed by cleaner lower energy studies with lepton rings. The Intersecting Storage Rings at CERN, for protons, were followed by the Large Electron-Positron machine at CERN. The concept of luminosity is introduced. The factors that govern it are beam size at collision, beam intensity, and the beam-beam tune shift. The superconducting Large Hadron Collider reverts to a two-ring proton configuration and uses superconducting magnets to reach seven TeV per beam. Lepton colliders for the next step will have to be linear machines. Future colliders include opposing lepton linacs and, perhaps later, circulating muon rings.
Testing an interatomic force model
Authors: Finnis Mike
Published: January 2010

This chapter gives some practical advice on how to test the quality and transferability of an interatomic force model. The calculation of crystal structure, lattice parameters, and elastic constants is described, including a new and detailed derivation of the structural energy difference theorem and its meaning. The Cauchy relationship between elastic constants is discussed, since it is a measure of how non-central the forces are. An introduction to lattice dynamics in the harmonic approximation follows, including a description of how to calculate force constants. Finally, there is a discussion of the calculation of point defect formation energies, especially the vacancy formation energy.
Tight Binding
Authors: Finnis Mike
Published: January 2010

This chapter derives tight-binding models from the Hohenberg–Kohn–Sham density functional theory of total energy. The approach taken is to expose the successive approximations that can be invoked, starting with the neglect of three-centre integrals, and ending with the second moment approximation to the density of states, each leading to a slightly simpler tight-binding model. A rich variety of models can be derived on the way with applications to transition metals, semiconductors or even insulators. Attention is given to the role of self-consistency. The first comprehensive and self-contained description of bond-order potentials is given.
1 Introduction
Authors: Hempelmann Rolf
Published: January 2010

This chapter introduces the basic idea of quasielastic neutron scattering as a probe for diffusion processes in condensed matter. Neutron scattering and solid state diffusion have in common that they both can be separated into two problems: the single event (scattering on a single nucleus or single diffusive jump, respectively) and the cooperative combination (in space and time) of those events in solids. The history of neutron scattering is outlined with the development of neutron sources and neutron scattering instruments. All large scale neutron scattering facilities, based on research reactors or on neutron spallation sources, are nowadays operated as user facilities with the consequence that neutron scattering is not ‘big science’ like high energy particle physics, but the practise of neutron scattering is characterized by a large variety of small groups working on many different scientific problems. A brief summary of the remainder of the book covers the fundamentals of quasielastic neutron scattering and its application to different material systems.
2 The neutron
Authors: Hempelmann Rolf
Published: January 2010

The first part of the chapter introduces the relevant physical properties of the neutron and their relationship with kinetic properties. It explains neutron detection via the ionizing products of appropriate nuclear reactions. The second part deals with neutron sources. It explains the principle of research reactors (nuclear splitting) and the safety features (active, passive, inherent), and outlines the relationship between thermal flux, luminosity, and neutron current density. The low incident energy neutrons needed for QENS originate from so-called cold sources, mostly liquid deuterium. Alternatives to the research reactors are the neutron spallation sources, where high energy protons hit on nuclei of heavy elements and induce the ‘evaporation’ of neutrons. Pulsed spallation sources and continuous spallation sources are in operation nowadays, with certain advantages and disadvantages. From the cold source neutrons are led to the neutron scattering instruments in so-called neutron guides, where the principle of total reflection of the neutrons on the guide walls is utilized. Here, the use of super mirrors (multi-layer gradient coatings) has increased the available incident neutron intensity considerably.
5 Incoherent quasielastic neutron scattering
Authors: Hempelmann Rolf
Published: January 2010

In the case of spatially limited jump diffusion, the incoherent scattering function consists of an elastic and a quasielastic part, and the fraction of elastic intensity is called the incoherent structure factor, EISF. This chapter evaluates different scenarios and the corresponding EISFs. Long range translational diffusion gives rise to quasielastic scattering consisting of a single Lorentzian with a linewidth proportional to Q2. The Chudley–Elliott model for lattice gases describes translational jump diffusion in Bravais lattices. QENS from translational jump diffusion on lattices with all sites equivalent consists of a set of Lorentzians. Even more complex is QENS from diffusion over energetically different sites. The system of rate equation is expressed in terms of a jump matrix, but this matrix is not hermitean. The resulting eigenvalues are the linewidths of the Lorentzians, whereas from the eigenvectors the intensity of the Lorentzians can be calculated. This full power of QENS can only be realized on the basis of direction-dependent measurements on single-crystalline samples. A completely different approach is the so-called two-state model which applies for disordered systems and which is also derived in full detail.
8 Hydrogen in metals
Authors: Hempelmann Rolf
Published: January 2010

This chapter focuses on special classes of materials. For QENS studies metal/hydrogen systems are particularly suited due to the huge incoherent scattering cross section of H, low concentrated systems and thus single particle behaviour can be studied, the mobility is large and thus well-pronounced line broadening are obtained, and if H is replaced by D, additionally coherent QENS can be performed. Long range diffusion studies are presented for intermetallic hydrides which allow statements about the rate limiting step in the hydrogen absorption kinetics. For NbDx, an extensive study of the collective diffusion is presented; the separation of coherent and incoherent scattering is done both by software (skillful data evaluation) and by hardware (polarization analysis). Then the diffusion mechanisms in metal/hydrogen systems of increasing complexity are discussed, where QENS exhibits its full power because of single-crystalline samples: H in fcc metals, H in bcc metals, hexagonal closed packed α-phase hydrides, β-V2H as an example of an ordered metal hydride, and LaNi5Hα as an example of an intermetallic hydride. Another scientific problem is the nature of the single diffusion step: hydrogen tunnelling in Nb doped with O, N, C, and in α-ScHx. Tunnelling is even more pronounced for the positive muon, an exotic isotope of the proton; muon diffusion studies in Al and Cu are presented for comparison. Finally, examples of hydrogen diffusion in disordered systems (crystalline metals with trapping impurities or even amorphous metals) are discussed.
12 Solid ionic conductors
Authors: Hempelmann Rolf
Published: January 2010

This chapter presents incoherent QENS studies performed on Li+, Na+, H-, and Cl- ions. Purely coherent QENS concerns F- and O2- conductors, whereas for Ag+ a mixture of coherent and incoherent QENS prohibits quantitative data evaluation. On the other hand, AgI is one of the best solid ionic conductors, and QENS studies are performed and combined with impedance spectroscopy at high frequencies. For this system, the well-known jump relaxation model is derived. Na+ motion in β-Al2O3 is investigated by QENS in detail. Much effort has been spent on Li+ diffusion motivated by applications of Li in batteries. For anionic conductors, the system best investigated by means of QENS is Cl- diffusion in SrCl2.
Quantum Dot Lasers
Authors: Ustinov Victor M. , Zhukov Alexey E. , Egorov Anton Yu. , Maleev Nikolai A.
Published: January 2010

This book is devoted to the physics and technology of diode lasers based on self-organized quantum dots (QD). It addresses the fundamental and technology aspects of QD edge-emitting and vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers, reviewing their current status and future prospects. The theoretically predicted advantages of an ideal QD array for laser applications are discussed and the basic principles of QD formation using self-organization phenomena are reviewed. Structural and optical properties of self-organized QDs are considered with a number of examples in different material systems. The book includes recent achievements in controlling the QD properties such as the effect of vertical stacking, changing the matrix bandgap and the surface density of QDs. The book is also focused on the use of self-organized quantum dots in laser structures, fabrication and characterization of edge- and surface-emitting diode lasers, their properties and optimization. Special attention is paid to the relationship between structural and electronic properties of QDs and laser characteristics. The threshold and power characteristics of the state-of-the-art QD lasers are also demonstrated. Issues related to the long-wavelength (1.3-um) lasers on a GaAs substrate are also addressed and recent results on InGaAsN-based diode lasers presented for the purpose of comparison.
Intensities of plane waves in the transmission geometry
Authors: AUTHIER ANDRÉ
Published: January 2010

This chapter is concerned with the transmission, or Laue, geometry, and an incident plane wave. Two cases are considered, Laue–Laue and Laue–Bragg. After describing the boundary conditions at the exit surface, the reflectivity is calculated for absorbing crystals and the properties of the properties of the rocking curves are discussed. Finally, the integrated intensity is determined.
10 Spherical-wave dynamical theory: I. Kato’s theory
Authors: AUTHIER ANDRÉ
Published: January 2010

This chapter is the first of two dealing with the dynamical diffraction of incident spherical waves. It makes use of Kato's theory, which is based on a Fourier expansion of the spherical wave. The transmission and reflection geometries are handled separately. Two methods of integration are given — direct integration and integration by the stationary phase method. The amplitude and intensity distributions of the reflected and refracted waves on the exit surface are calculated. It is shown that equal-intensity fringes are formed within the Borrmann triangle (Pendellösung fringes) that can be interpreted as due to interferences between the waves associated with the two branches of the dispersion surface. The integrated intensity is calculated and the influence of the polarization of the incident wave discussed. The last section describes the diffraction of ultra-short pulses of plane-wave X-rays such as those emitted by a free-electron laser and which can be handled by considering their Fourier expansion in frequency space.
The Allan variance and the rms time error
Authors: Matthys Robert James
Published: January 2010

The traditional plot of a clock's time error versus time is far superior to the Allan variance for showing a pendulum clock's time performance. The Allan variance is admittedly a universal and statistically more accurate measure of a clock or oscillator's random frequency and time variations (that is, variance), because it is averaged over multiples of each time interval. However, it is a whole curve on a graph instead of being just a single memorable number, and its value is drastically reduced by the short time span it is able to cover. The variance, however, can be used to generate an oscillator's ‘root mean square (rms) time error versus time’ curve, a curve that is much easier to understand. But the rms time error's equally short time span also drastically limits its value to the clockmaker.
Transient temperature effects in a pendulum
Authors: Matthys Robert James
Published: January 2010

This chapter describes some transient temperature measurements made on a pendulum with a quartz pendulum rod. Time offset error occurs because different parts of the pendulum change temperature at different rates. Before and after a temperature change, the pendulum is the right length (hopefully) and runs at the right rate. But during the temperature change, the pendulum is the wrong length, due to its different parts changing temperature at different rates, and it runs at the wrong rate during the temperature change interval. Experiments were carried out to measure the pendulum temperatures using small thermistors. The pyrex sleeve provides about one-third of the temperature compensation, while two thin-walled pyrex tubes located on opposite sides of the quartz pendulum rod provide the other two-third. The temperature data provide an interesting look into the thermodynamics of a pendulum. The suspension spring assembly changes temperature relatively slowly, whereas the bob, with its large thermal mass, changes temperature the slowest of any part of the pendulum.
The heat treatment of invar
Authors: Matthys Robert James
Published: January 2010

Even though invar is the most common material used for the pendulum rod in a good clock, it is still a poor material for the purpose because of its relatively poor dimensional stability over time compared with other materials such as quartz or platinum. Invar is usually considered for its low thermal expansion coefficient (tempco) rather than its dimensional stability. Quartz, however, is an ideal material for a pendulum rod, if you can get around the glass breakage problem. There are three types of invar available: regular invar, regular invar free machining, and super invar. Each has a different tempco and is dependent on heat treatment and any coldworking or machining that the part has received. What never gets mentioned and is not widely known is how big the changes from heat treating and machining really are.
Time error due to air pressure variations
Authors: Matthys Robert James
Published: January 2010

The rate of a pendulum clock is affected by air pressure. As the air pressure increases, the clock slows down, and vice versa. The basic cause is that the pendulum floats in a sea of air, and when the density of the air changes, the effective weight of the pendulum changes by a small but significant amount. A pendulum's sensitivity to air pressure depends on bob shape and density, and is in the range of 0.2-0.4 second per day per inch of mercury. A pendulum clock is normally set to run true over some length of time, meaning a nominally zero time error is obtained at the average air pressure during that time period. This chapter shows that a clock's time error varies considerably with location. In addition, the predominant effect of air pressure is long-term time error, not short term, as any effects of one year or more in duration are considered long term.
Photoelectronics for pendulums
Authors: Matthys Robert James
Published: January 2010

Photoelectronics make good sensors for pendulum clocks, because they add no power losses to the pendulum. A swinging pendulum interrupts a light beam, and a light detector provides an electrical signal to compare to a time standard or to incrementally drive the second hand on a clock face. Most photoelectronic circuitry is aimed at very simple applications, such as counting slow-moving cans or boxes on a production line, or detecting the passage of a slow-moving pendulum. For the pendulum application, where the light source and light detector are about a half-inch or so apart, the most suitable light source is an infrared light emitting diode. There are four basic things that can be done to improve the dimensional and time resolutions of a pendulum: narrow the light beam down to just a slit width, use a voltage comparator on the light detector's output signal, better stray light reduction, and use a faster light detector.
Check your clock against WWV
Authors: Matthys Robert James
Published: January 2010

In the United States, WWV is the obvious time standard to check a clock against. WWV's claimed time accuracy as transmitted in Boulder, Colorado is 10 microseconds short term, and 1 second in 3,000 years long term. The received short-term accuracy is reduced to 0.001 second due to variations in the time signal's transit time. An exception is the better received short-term accuracy of 100 microseconds in WWV's 60-kHz ground wave signal, which can be improved even further to 10 microseconds by using proper averaging techniques. A shortwave radio receiver is needed to pick up the WWV signal. This chapter describes an electronic method of accurately comparing a clock's time against WWV's time.
Introduction
Authors: Brilliantov Nikolai V. , Pöschel Thorsten
Published: January 2010

This introductory chapter discusses basic concepts of the kinetic theory of granular gases and mentions some of the exciting phenomena in gas dynamics. Topics covered include kinetic theory for dissipative particles, atomic level of material deformation, continuum description of particles, pairwise collision of particles, many-particle systems, and hydrodynamics.
Diffusion and Self-Diffusion
Authors: Brilliantov Nikolai V. , Pöschel Thorsten
Published: January 2010

This chapter discusses the basic concepts of diffusion and self-diffusion. It derives relations between the mean square displacement of a diffusing particle, the diffusion coefficient, and the velocity-time correlation function. These relations are generalized to the case of non-equilibrium granular gases.
Chapman-Enskog Approach for Non-Uniform Granular Gases
Authors: Brilliantov Nikolai V. , Pöschel Thorsten
Published: January 2010

For slightly non-uniform gases with small gradients of the hydrodynamic fields, the velocity distribution can be written as a perturbation expansion f = f(0) + f(1) + f(2) +..., where f(k) depends on the kth order of the gradients. This chapter derives a set of entangled equations for f(k). The Chapman–Enskog schemes provides a technique for solving these equations and calculating the transport coefficients.
Introduction To Hamiltonian Mechanics
Authors: Johns Oliver
Published: January 2010

The power of Lagrangian mechanics has caused generations of students to wonder why it is necessary or even desirable, to recast mechanics in Hamiltonian form. The answer is that the Hamiltonian formulation is a much better base from which to build more advanced methods. The Hamilton equations have an elegant symmetry that the Lagrange equations lack. Another answer, not directly related to classical mechanics, is that the Hamiltonian function is used to write the Schroedinger equation of quantum mechanics. The differences between the Lagrange and Hamilton equations result mainly from the different variable sets in which they act. This chapter deals with phase space, Hamilton equations, example of the Hamilton equations, non-potential and constraint forces, reduced Hamiltonian, Poisson brackets, Schroedinger equation, and Ehrenfest theorem.
Hamilton’s Principle
Authors: Johns Oliver
Published: January 2010

The general calculus of variations discussed in the previous chapter may be used to derive variational principles in mechanics. Two different, but closely related, variational principles are presented here: Hamilton’s principle and the phase space Hamilton’s principle. Variational principles play a crucial role in quantum theory, general relativity, and theoretical physics in general. The path in configuration space that is a solution to the Lagrange equations is often referred to as the classical path. This is the path of natural motion of a mechanical system as it responds to the forces included in the potential part of the Lagrangian. This chapter discusses Hamilton’s principle expressed in Lagrangian equations, Hamilton’s principle with constraints, and phase space and Hamilton’s principle.
Rotational Dynamics
Authors: Johns Oliver
Published: January 2010

The successful description of the motion of a rigid body is one of the triumphs of Newtonian mechanics. Having learned in the previous chapter how to specify the position and orientation of a rigid body, this chapter deals with its natural motion under impressed external forces and torques. The dynamical theorems of collective motion are extended using rotation operators. Some basic facts about rigid-body motion are discussed, along with the inertia operator and the spin, inertia dyadic, kinetic energy of a rigid body, meaning of the inertia operator, principal axes, time evolution of the spin, torque-free motion of a symmetric body, Euler angles of the torque-free motion, body with one point fixed, time evolution with one point fixed, work-energy theorems, rotation with a fixed axis, symmetric top with one point fixed, initially clamped symmetric top, approximate treatment of the symmetric top, inertial forces, calculations of the Coriolis force, and the magnetic-Coriolis analogy.
Hamilton’s Principle and Noether’s Theorem
Authors: Johns Oliver
Published: January 2010

This chapter presents extended forms of Hamilton’s principle and the phase space Hamilton’s principle based on the extended Lagrangian and Hamiltonian methods developed earlier. It also discusses Noether’s theorem, a method for using symmetries of the extended Lagrangian to identify quantities that are conserved during the motion of the system. Noether’s theorem is a powerful technique for discovering conserved quantities in complex Lagrangian systems. The basics of the method are analysed in the simple context of Lagrangian systems with a finite number of degrees of freedom.
Canonical Transformations
Authors: Johns Oliver
Published: January 2010

This chapter considers a broader class of transformations known as canonical transformations, which transform the whole of the extended phase space in a more general way. Each new canonical coordinate or momentum is allowed to be a function of all of the previous phase-space coordinates, including the previous canonical momenta. Thus the new position and time variables may depend, through their dependence on the momenta, on the old velocities as well as the old positions. The Lagrange equations will not in general be form invariant under such transformations. Canonical transformations are the most general phase-space transformations that preserve the extended Hamilton equations. There are several equivalent definitions of canonical transformations, three of which are the Poisson bracket condition, the direct condition, and the Lagrange bracket condition. The definition of canonical transformation includes the Lorentz transformation of special relativity. Also discussed are symplectic coordinates, form invariance of Poisson brackets, and form invariance of the Hamilton equations.
Molecular vibrations and molecular force fields
Authors: GAVEZZOTTI ANGELO
Published: January 2010

In a classical mechanics approach, the description of motion requires a dynamic trace of the displacement of an object in time, a trajectory that collects the variation in time of some coordinates q. But which coordinates? For molecules, a first choice could be cartesian coordinates for each nucleus in a laboratory reference frame. In general, molecular motion is a combination of translation, rotation, and vibration. If one is interested only in vibration, the translational and rotational components of motion must be deconvoluted out, and that requires a change in coordinates. In order to have pure vibrations, a set of coordinates that vary in time in such a way that there is no net angular velocity around the three inertial axes is required. This chapter discusses molecular vibrations and molecular force fields, along with vibrational modes and force constants, molecular mechanics, and evolution of molecular force fields.
Molecular structure and macroscopic properties: Calorimetry and thermodynamics
Authors: GAVEZZOTTI ANGELO
Published: January 2010

Spectroscopic and diffraction experiments can give a detailed picture of molecular objects. The dimensions of a water molecule are known with extreme reliability and accuracy. In real life, however, one is never confronted with a single water molecule, but rather with bodies composed of a very large number of molecules. Chemical systems do not tend to equilibrium by minimising their internal energy. Another driving force is provided by spontaneous randomisation of the position of molecules in space and of the distribution of energies among available energy levels. This fundamental fact is embodied in the macroscopic property called entropy. Temperature, pressure, internal energy, and entropy are the basic functions of chemical thermodynamics. This chapter discusses calorimetry and thermodynamic measurements of the molecular structure and properties of macroscopic systems, partition function and calculation of molecular energies, measurement of heat capacity and entropy, calculation of entropy for chemical systems, free energy and chemical equilibrium, and thermodynamic measurements of melting enthalpies and sublimation enthalpies.
Philosophy of Private Law
Authors: Lucy William
Published: January 2010

On what basis does tort law hold us responsible to those who suffer as a result of our carelessness? Why, when we breach our contracts, should we make good the losses of those with whom we contracted? In what sense are our torts and our breaches of contract ‘wrongs’? These two branches of private law have for centuries provided philosophers and jurists with grounds for puzzlement. This book provides an outline of, and intervention in, contemporary jurisprudential debates about the nature and foundation of liability in private law. After outlining the realm of the philosophy of private law, the book divides into two. Part I examines the various components of liability responsibility in private law, including the notions of basic responsibility, conduct, causation, and wrongfulness. Part II considers arguments purporting to show that private law does and should embody a conception of either distributive or corrective justice or some combination of the two. Throughout the book a number of distinctions — between conceptual and normative argument, between jurisprudential ‘theory’ and private law ‘practice’, between legal obligation and moral obligation — are analyzed.
2. Unity and Fragmentation of the Medieval Law of Contract
Authors: IBBETSON D. J.
Published: January 2010

This chapter shows that with the emergence of the action of covenant as a specifically and exclusively contractual remedy, set the stage for the Common law of obligations to align itself with Roman law. If events had been allowed to run their course, trespass would have become the equivalent of the Romans' delictal ability and covenant the equivalent of their contract, leaving entitlement-based action of debt-retinue to cover the proprietary ground of Romans' vindication. That this did not occur resulted from a tiny procedural tightening in the rules of proof applicable to the action of covenant but not to trespass or debt, as a result of which it became less attractive to plaintiffs.
3. Trespass, Trespass on the Case, and the Medieval Law of Tort
Authors: IBBETSON D. J.
Published: January 2010

This chapter begins with a discussion of how the action of trespass as an ordinary feature of the jurisdiction of the royal courts gives some shape to the emergent law of tort. It then shows how, by the beginning of the 14th century, the action of trespass became established around a core of (minimally) forcible wrongdoing. This is followed by a discussion of the origins of the trespass on the case.
12. The Rise of the Will Theory
Authors: IBBETSON D. J.
Published: January 2010

This chapter focuses on the Will Theory. The Will Theory had a measure of intellectual coherence that the Common law wholly lacked, though this coherence had been to some extent bought at the expense of practical common sense. But its greatest demerit was that it was imposed on the Common law from the outside rather generated from within.
(Re) Introducing International Institutional Law
Authors: ALVAREZ JOSÉ E.
Published: January 2010

This chapter reintroduces international institutional law to the reader. It also discusses a survey of charter provisions in relation to the influence of international organization to law-making proceedings. This survey includes charters or constitutions that aspire to global membership and draws certain general conclusions from this textual review. The ‘external’ ripples of ‘internal’ law are explained, including the following: the Assembly's purse-string power, legal personality and its consequences, the alleged treaty basis for charter powers, the limits of enumerated powers, and the distinction between external and internal rule-making. The chapter also revisits the development of international law through the political organs of the United Nations by discussing statehood and participation, participation by non-state actors, and human rights and the shrinking concept of domestic jurisdiction.
International Organizations as Treaty-makers
Authors: ALVAREZ JOSÉ E.
Published: January 2010

This chapter discusses the role of international organizations as treaty-makers. The broadest grant of delegated treaty-making power is arguably contained in the Constitution of the International Labour Organization. Treaties are no longer limited to states as parties, but now include international organizations as parties. The chapter also details initiating treaty negotiations. The wide diversity of processes for initiating treaty negotiations among international organizations makes generalization difficult. Organizational patterns for treaty-making are mentioned, such as UN treaty-making conferences, treaty-making by experts, ‘managerial’ forms of treaty-making, and treaty-making with ‘strings attached.’ Plenipotentiary treaty-making conferences convened by the United Nations may occur only after an exhaustive canvassing of views, decades-long study by an expert body, and agreement on a draft text by other intermediary entities.
Conclusion: The Promise and Perils of International Organizations
Authors: ALVAREZ JOSÉ E.
Published: January 2010

This chapter discusses the promise and perils of international organizations and their relationship with the traditional sources of law, the changing content of international law, the changing law-makers, and the changing conceptions of compliance. It also presents new challenges to the legitimacy of international law, including vertical and horizontal challenges, and the challenge of ideology and power. International organizations have helped to transform the substantive content of international law and helped generate a ‘participant revolution’ in the making of international law. The international organizations are now making international law outside the constraints suggested by the traditional doctrine of sources — that international organs need not find explicit delegations of power, are not confined to differentiated or closely circumscribed spheres of legal action, and are not limited to making ‘internal’ institutional housekeeping rules.
Networks and the Issues of ‘Excess’, the ‘Gift’, ‘Non-exchange’, and ‘Trust’
Authors: Thompson Grahame F.
Published: January 2010

This chapter looks at the concepts of excess, gift, non-exchange, and trust that could provide the raw materials for the construction of an analytical logic that is peculiar to networks. These three categories are juxtaposed and combined to explore their analytical properties, and the results are applied to a preliminary case where network structures are said to operate, namely, information and communications technology (ICT) dot-com type relationships and their accounting practices. Of the three categories, ‘the gift’ and ‘trust’ are the most widely discussed in the context of networks for their role in socio-economic coordination and governance. This chapter also considers the argument that networks can, in part, be productively reconceptualised in the context of what has been termed a ‘general economy of excess’.
Political Networks and the Politics of Network Governance
Authors: Thompson Grahame F.
Published: January 2010

This chapter investigates the political manifestations of networks, particularly as they pertain to the governance of organisational and economic matters. The idea of ‘policy networks’ is examined and how they operate. Specifically, the chapter explores how the internal structure of decision-making is organised, much of which has a resonance outside of policy networks proper to address how networks more widely might operate. The chapter also lays out the principles and trends associated with the issue of how to place networks in a wider context of other socio-organisational mechanisms of management and regulation. Finally, the chapter opens up on the issues of power in political networks, something that pervades these forms of organisational entity just as it does hierarchies and markets. Networks of political power and authority are discussed, along with policy networks and the formation of public policy, multi-level governance, network forms of governance and game theory, and social capital.
Old Turks and Young Fogeys: Bentham and Brasenose
Authors: Lacey Nicola
Published: January 2010

This chapter focuses on H. L. A. Hart's decision to devote himself to the further analysis and editing of the works of Bentham. Hart's decision to take early retirement from the Oxford Chair in 1968 was born of a loss of intellectual confidence and the feeling that he had no further original contribution to make, but this turning point was far from marking the end of his intellectual work. There were a number of psychological factors at play in both Herbert's decision to concentrate on the editing and interpretation of another scholar's work, and his specific choice of Bentham. In the first place, this new role allowed him to sidestep the increasing pressure to speak in his own voice in answer to the rapidly multiplying commentators on his own work. At the same time, the proximity between Bentham's and Herbert's views meant that commentaries on Bentham afforded Herbert the opportunity of oblique revision and refinement of his own ideas. Secondly, his genuine, if exaggerated, feelings of diffidence and discomfort about his own success were assuaged by the devotion of his energies to a scholar whom he felt to be both a more original thinker and to have been inadequately recognized. Thirdly, he felt at some level a personal affinity with and affection for the eccentric and deeply obsessive Bentham. Hart also became Principal of Brasenose College in 1973.
The Nightmare and the Noble Dream
Authors: Lacey Nicola
Published: January 2010

This chapter focuses on H. L. A. Hart's views about Ronald Dworkin. In ‘The Nightmare and the Noble Dream’ lecture, published in the Georgia Law Review in 1977, Hart sketched a bold map of the American 20th-century jurisprudential scene. American legal theory was, he argued, focussed on adjudication because it was organized around the need to justify the power of judges to strike down democratically validated legislation on constitutional grounds. American legal theorists have reacted to this distinctive constitutional situation, he suggested, in one of two ways: the ‘nightmare’ of total indeterminacy and unconstrained judicial discretion and the ‘noble dream’ of complete legal determinacy. The ‘nightmare’, represented by the Realist jurisprudence of the early part of the 20th century indulges in scepticism about whether judges are bound by law at all in either complex constitutional cases or more generally. By contrast, the American ‘noble dream’ is particularistic and holistic: it finds reasons constraining judges' discretion within the resources of particular legal systems, and it sees law as consisting in more than merely rules, asserting that even when appearances are to the contrary, judges are in fact finding and declaring rather than making law.
Land Transport in Roman Egypt
Authors: Adams Colin
Published: January 2010

Transport has been seen as one of the greatest failures of ancient technology. Land transport especially, due to its cost, restricted growth in the Roman economy. This book challenges these views, using the evidence of papyri from Roman Egypt, and argues that land transport, even in a country so dominated by a river which provided a natural highway, was an essential part of a system of transport that allowed for vigorous trading activity, but provided the Roman state with valuable resources which, through careful management, it could use for its own transport requirements: supplying the Roman army, transporting tax profits, and transporting bulk commodities such a stone for imperial building projects. It explores the economics of animal ownership, the role of transport in the agricultural and commercial economies of Egypt, state bureaucracy and the organization of transport. It examines the complex relationship between the state and private individuals and seeks to show that transport by land formed a vital part of everyday economic activity in Egypt. It contributes to our understanding of the economy of a Roman province and argues for a positive view of the role of transport in the ancient economy.
Transport Animals and Wagons
Authors: Adams Colin
Published: January 2010

This chapter discusses the evidence for pack animals and their uses in Roman Egypt, and considers the role of wheeled transport. It establishes patterns of use dictated by function and ability, and how use was affected by topography. It discusses the introduction of camels into Egypt and the spread of their use (limited in the Ptolemaic period, but much expanded in the Roman); the ubiquitous donkey; and the more limited role of mules, horses and oxen. In the highly irrigated Nile Valley and Fayum, pack animals excelled over wagons as the transport method of choice, wagons largely being limited to certain agricultural tasks and specialized forms of transport, such as the transport of stone.
Animal Use and Maintenance
Authors: Adams Colin
Published: January 2010

This chapter expands on animal use, based on papyrological and iconographic evidence. The relative importance of different animals is assessed, and the role of camels as both pack animals and draft animals is considered, where in an arid climate they supersede the ox. The chapter goes on to assess the issue of animal harnessing, and argues that contrary to the traditional view, harnessing systems were effective in enabling considerable loads to be hauled. Animal load-bearing capacity is then considered, for the papyri offer up considerable and quantifiable evidence for loads and capacity, and it is clear that the size of loads was influenced by a range of factors, not least topography and distance travelled. Finally, the economics of animal maintenance is considered, and it is shown that owning animals and maintaining them was expensive.
State Control of Animal Ownership
Authors: Adams Colin
Published: January 2010

This chapter considers how the Roman state monitored animal ownership in order to facilitate the use or requisition of animals for its own transport needs – the bureaucratic machinery necessary for an imperial power to impose its demands. Animals represented a valuable resource, and it is no surprise that the state developed strategies to record ownership. This happened through declarations of animal ownership, state registers of property, and a census of animals. Information gathered was kept in registry offices. The information generated allowed the state to requisition animals and also to place additional taxes on their owners.
Animal Requisition
Authors: Adams Colin
Published: January 2010

After establishing the bureaucratic devices necessary to implement requisition, this chapter focuses on the processes of animal requisition. First it sets out Ptolemaic precedents for requisition, and in particular, the development of the Ptolemaic postal service, which anticipated the later Roman cursus publicus. It then considers Roman systems of requisition and especially the all too common abuse of authority by soldiers and state officials. It also considers evidence for the transport of persons on official business, the carriage of documents, and the provision of transport for official visits by emperors and prefects, before finally turning to the supply of animals to the army.
State Grain Transport
Authors: Adams Colin
Published: January 2010

This chapter is the first of four case studies focussing on particular transport operations. Egypt was the granary of Rome, and each year supplied the major part of the city's requirements. A complicated and highly bureaucratic system for its supply and transport, some of it based on Ptolemaic precedents, ensured that harvested tax grain reached threshing floors, was stored in granaries, and was transported by land or canal to river ports from where its onward trans-shipment to Alexandria could be achieved. Each stage of this system is analysed, as is the organization of animals and drivers. This was largely carried out through the allocation of transport liturgies, or compulsory public service. Individuals and villages were responsible for supplying animals, and the system operated over nome boundaries.
Introduction: From Legal Realism to Naturalized Jurisprudence
Authors: LEITER BRIAN
Published: January 2010

This introductory chapter begins with a discussion of how Realism was held in contempt, if noticed at all, by philosophers, even those with a substantial interest in law. It then considers developments in legal philosophy over the last fifty years, and describes how the essays in this volume reflect one philosopher's and legal scholar's attempt to make sense of what seems to be so compelling about American Legal Realism and, in the process, figure out where that jurisprudence fits into a naturalistic philosophy. An overview of the subsequent chapters is presented.
Why Quine is not a Postmodernist
Authors: LEITER BRIAN
Published: January 2010

Dennis Patterson's wide-ranging book Law and Truth has the great virtue of locating questions of legal theory within their broader (and rightful) philosophical context: that is, as special instances of more general problems in metaphysics and the philosophy of language. It also sets out a position in jurisprudence that has some undeniable attractions. This chapter focuses on Patterson's identification of the great American philosopher Willard van Orman Quine as a pivotal figure in the transition from ‘modernity’ to ‘postmodernity’. It argues that this characterization involves an important misunderstanding of Quine's thought. Both the ‘postmodernism’ of its most famous advocates (e.g., Derrida, Lyotard) and Patterson's ‘sanitized’ postmodernism have only a superficial affinity with the philosophy of Quine.
Beyond the Hart/Dworkin Debate: the Methodology Problem in Jurisprudence
Authors: LEITER BRIAN
Published: January 2010

This chapter begins with a review of the Hart/Dworkin and Hart/Raz debates. It then turns to questions of methodology in jurisprudence. It argues for five propositions: first, that Dworkin's constructive interpretivism presents no pertinent challenge to legal positivism, since it is thoroughly question-begging; second, that the pertinent methodological challenge to positivism comes from Finnis, and that Dworkin himself needs Finnis-style argument to motivate interpretivism; third, that positivists can respond to and (with some qualifications) defeat this methodological challenge; fourth, that positivists can also (with some qualifications) rebut Perry's more recent version of Finnis-style arguments; and fifth, that Dickson's attempt to stake out a position (what she calls ‘indirectly evaluative legal theory’) intermediate between the methodological positivism or descriptivism of Hart and Finnis's position is a failure. Finally, the chapter turns to a larger debate about methodology that has come to the fore in epistemology, philosophy of mind, and ethics. It identifies some possible weaknesses of the descriptivist rebuttal to Finnis and argues for a different way of framing the methodology problem in jurisprudence.
Remedies in International Human Rights Law
Authors: Shelton Dinah
Published: January 2010

This book provides a comprehensive treatment of remedies for human rights violations and reviews the jurisprudence of international tribunals on these violations. It provides a theoretical framework and a practical guide on human rights law. This edition incorporates a new chapter on historical injustices. All the cases of the Inter-American and European Courts of Human Rights are included, as well as decisions of the African and Inter-American Commissions on Human Rights, UN bodies, the European Court of Justice, international administrative tribunals, and national courts applying human rights law.
Remedies in National Law
Authors: SHELTON DINAH
Published: January 2010

Remedies for international human rights violations serve purposes similar to those of remedies in national law. It is thus appropriate and probably inevitable that international tribunals draw upon national law, as well as international law, to develop remedies. In turn, as national tribunals hear and decide more cases alleging violations of international human rights norms, they look to international law, including the object and purpose of human rights agreements and the jurisprudence of international tribunals. The result is a complex interplay and mutual influence of national and international law, both public and private. This chapter provides an overview of national remedies against the state for wrongs done by it or its agents, providing examples from different regions and different legal traditions. The main objective of the chapter is to identify the general principles of the law of remedies on which international and national judges draw in deciding human rights cases.
The Development of International Human Rights Law
Authors: SHELTON DINAH
Published: January 2010

The obligation to provide effective remedies is an essential component of international human rights law. A state that fails to protect fully individuals against human rights violations or that denies remedial rights commits an independent, further breach of law. International instruments do not clarify, however, what are considered to be ‘effective’ remedies. Nor do they indicate what remedies should be made available through international procedures in the event a state fails to afford the necessary redress. It is thus necessary to look at the theory and practice of international courts to determine what constitutes an effective remedy.
Compensation
Authors: SHELTON DINAH
Published: January 2010

Both corrective justice (focusing on fairness to the victim) and the economic model (focusing on incentives to the wrongdoer) call for damages that equal the full value of the injury to the victim. The primary function of corrective justice is to rectify the harm done a victim of wrongdoing. Corrective justice generally aims at restitution or compensation for loss, assuming that when victims are made whole, wrongdoers are sanctioned and deterred from engaging in future misconduct. Damages are incapable of restoring or replacing the rights that have been violated and, as a substitute remedy, are sometimes inadequate to redress fully the harm. Damage awards, however, supply the means for whatever part of the former life and projects remain possible and may allow for new ones. For this reason, ‘compensation is inevitably a second-best response that comes into play when full rectification is impossible’.