bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Southern Crime and Justice
Authors: Eichenberg M. George
Published: January 2014

The focus of this entry is the historical evolution of criminal justice practices in the American South, much of it predicated by its legacy of slavery. Amongst the important developments that made the South's criminal justice system distinct from that of the rest of America were the creation of slave patrols, the slow development of the correctional system, and a punitive punishment regime that has consistently led the nation in terms of the number of executions.
Victim Profiles
Authors: Schreck Christopher J. , Posick Chad
Published: January 2014

Victim profiles refer to either the distinctive demographic characteristics of crime victims (e.g., age, race, and sex) or individual traits (e.g., self‐control and genetic factors) that correspond to having a greater probability of victimization. Victim profiles assume that victimization is not a random event. In fact, the data show that many factors are linked with victimization risk.
Evaluation Research
Authors: Shannon Lisa M. , Schaefer Julie
Published: January 2014

Evaluation is a type of research which examines various components of social problems and programs and draws from a variety of research methodologies, often utilizing both quantitative and qualitative strategies to provide numeric and in‐depth information. This entry provides an overview of the most common evaluation methodologies: needs assessment, process evaluation, outcome evaluation, and cost/benefit evaluation. Each methodology will be overviewed to highlight the purpose and give a description of the critical elements. An example which highlights terminology specific to each evaluation methodology will be utilized. Additionally, strengths and limitations of each type of evaluation methodology will be discussed. Furthermore, an overview of relevant ethical principles important for evaluation research will be provided.
Strain Theory
Authors: McCoy Tana , Pugh Mandi
Published: January 2014

Strain theories include a number of explanations of criminal behavior characterized by the idea that crime occurs when an individual attempts to alleviate strain or frustration. While the specific causes of strain vary among theories, most attribute strain to societies that promote goals for their members without the appropriate opportunities to achieve them.
Irwin, John
Authors: Petrosian Lilit
Published: January 2014

John Irwin is best known for his work as a convict criminologist. Irwin's passions for exposing the problems faced by offenders who struggle to reenter society after jail or prison terms reveal his compassion and humanitarianism. Irwin devoted much of his career to describing the problems offenders face and the tragedy of high incarceration rates in the United States. Irwin described his life as a journey involving witnessing and gathering observations in the process of experiencing criminology.
Careers in Criminal Justice, Private Sector
Authors: Bing Robert L. , Collins Veronica
Published: January 2014

This essay provides information about careers in criminal justice within the private sector. The growth of the private sector is discussed. Career opportunities in the private sector are discussed in the following categories: law enforcement, courts, corrections, and non‐traditional fields. Despite the phenomenal growth in the private sector, a call to caution is offered, with recommendation about the need for evidence‐based practices.
Penal Colonies
Authors: Worley Robert M. , Worley Vidisha B.
Published: January 2014

Throughout the history of corrections, criminal justice officials throughout the world have utilized penal colonies as a form of punishment. While a variety of different nations have experimented with penal colonies, the British, French, and Russian governments are known to have been quite aggressive in transporting prisoners to remote areas. Interestingly, penal colonies are still present today. The detention camp at Guantanamo Bay is a modern‐day penal colony where officials have incarcerated individuals who are suspected of engaging in terrorism against the United States.
Arraignment
Authors: Kubena Jiletta L. , Lillemon Kanon Bernard
Published: January 2014

Arraignment is an important Constitutional right guaranteed by the Sixth Amendment. Arraignments are generally brief hearings whereby criminal defendants are informed of the criminal charges against them, and occur at both the federal and state level. Due to arraignment being one of the simplest processes, in terms of procedural rights, few cases with arraignment violations have reached the Supreme Court. This is especially true when comparing arraignment with the large number of cases generated by other rights given in the Sixth Amendment. However, arraignments can vary considerably depending on differing states' applications of arraignment procedures.
Boot Camps for Juveniles
Authors: Penly Hall Gina
Published: January 2014

Correctional boot camps are a controversial alternative sanction for adjudicated juveniles that emphasize a militaristic style of operation. Program characteristics vary with the political atmosphere of the jurisdiction in which the boot camps are running, but most focus on rehabilitating offenders within a punitive environment. Goals are similar across the board, with most programs aiming to reduce recidivism and reconviction while controlling costs associated with juvenile detention. Empirical research indicates little or no benefit of juvenile boot camps with regard to these and other goals.
Digital Piracy
Authors: Ingram Jason R.
Published: January 2014

Digital piracy refers to the illegal act of duplicating, copying, or sharing a digital work without the permission of the copyright holder. As such, digital piracy is treated as a form of intellectual property theft because the act violates copyright laws. Copyright laws provide protections to the authors of original intellectual works, such as literary, dramatic, musical, artistic, and other works and allow the author permission to reproduce and distribute their work. While certain exceptions to copyright protections exist, acts of digital piracy are generally in violation of the reproduction and distribution components of the law. For example, violators who make physical copies or download digital files from the internet without permission would be in violation of the reproduction component while violators who might sell physical copies of pirated works or upload digital files to share on the internet without permission would be in violation of the distribution component.
Residential Treatment Centers
Authors: Larkin Heather , Dean Erica
Published: January 2014

Youth crime continues to be a major public health concern throughout the United States. Residential treatment centers (RTCs) offer a comprehensive approach to address complex needs, accepting referrals of youth involved in the juvenile justice system. Research demonstrates the association between adverse childhood experiences (ACE) and risk behaviors that play a role in juvenile justice involvement. Responding to multi‐problems among youth with backgrounds characterized by adversity, RTCs typically combine various mental health and other interventions, including school, within the context of a therapeutic milieu. Restorative integral support (RIS) usefully articulates a whole‐person approach that brings interventions together while taking earlier adversity into account. Service outcomes action research (SOAR), an interdepartmental partnership between a university and two RTCs, helps to build knowledge of how services are effectively combined to serve high‐risk youth experiencing multiple problems. It is important to understand the effectiveness of RTCs for multi‐problem youth with backgrounds of adversity. In addition to saving further costs associated with ACEs, restoring healthy developmental processes benefits everyone by helping individuals become productive members of society.
Policewomen and Matrons
Authors: Rabe‐Hemp Cara
Published: January 2014

The exact role of women in policing has fluctuated significantly in the past hundred years. Early on, women were employed in the male‐dominated occupation of policing as prison matrons, entrusted with the task of guarding juveniles and women inmates. During wartime, policewomen would continue to fulfill stereotypically feminine jobs primarily focused on protection of young girls and the suppression of social evils, including dance halls, liquor sales, and gambling. It was not until women began encroaching on typical male police duties that the debate on the skills and abilities of female officers began. This debate peaked in 1972, with the Civil Rights Act, which unlocked the door to patrol for female officers. In the almost 40 years that have followed, women have made considerable gains in acquiring high ranks and roles within police organizations, despite facing considerable obstacles in integration.
Child Savers
Authors: DeTardo‐Bora Kimberly A.
Published: January 2014

The 1890s to the 1920s Progressive Era of the United States represented a time in which the child savers flourished. These white, college educated members of the middle and upper class, created informal charities and grassroots organizations that led to the creation of a juvenile court as well as reform in compulsory education, child labor, juvenile institutions, and juvenile probation. While reform was sweeping the country, a lot of attention was being given to the movement that took place in Chicago. Many notable women such as Jane Addams, Lucy Flower, Julia Lathrop, and Lousie de Koven Bowen, and men such as Charles Loring Brace and Benjamin Barr Lindsey, immersed themselves into humanitarian and philanthropic efforts to serve dependent, neglected, and delinquent youth. Some claim that they applied their bourgeoisie specific norms to reform the system in an altruistic and benevolent way, while others have argued that the movement was just an attempt to secure the interests of the middle and upper class, and to impose greater state‐supported social control.
Mental Illness and Crime
Authors: Franklin Kathryn B.
Published: January 2014

Crime and mental illness are inherently linked. Mental illness commonly presents with deficiencies in reasoning, perception, and functioning, facets that have the propensity to cause maladaptive behavior patterns that lead to criminal, delinquent, or abnormal behavior. The disorders that commonly arise in studies, discussions, and analyses of crime, deviance, and delinquency tend to fall under the broad categories of disorders first diagnosed in infancy, childhood, or adolescence; substance‐related disorders; schizophrenic and other psychotic disorders; mood disorders; sexual and gender identity disorders; and personality disorders.
Longitudinal Research
Authors: Lamphere Renee , Holler Timothy J.
Published: January 2014

Longitudinal research refers to the collection of data over an extended period of time. Some of the most notable longitudinal research designs include the US Census and Monitoring the Future studies. While longitudinal research designs are often more expensive and time‐consuming than cross‐sectional designs, the results often provide rich information that cannot be obtained through alternate designs.
Digital Forgery
Authors: Cheddad Abbas
Published: January 2014

With the advancements in computer‐related technologies more data are created in digital form, allowing easy control over the handling, collection, storage, and dissemination of such data. Unfortunately, this progress, in spite of its technical advantages, may have brought with it a great deal of risks, especially the ones related to the security of digital documents. Forgery has become a worry for a range of organizations such as governments, universities, hospitals, and banks, paving the way to the creation of new crime fighters known as digital detectives who are part of the scientific investigation taskforce. Needless to say, issues that surround both individuals' privacy and security have gained significant concern in recent years among both legislative and scientific research communities. In today's technological world, confronting criminals is no longer a matter of security forces on the ground. Often, criminals are able to achieve more in the digital world—the internet. Thus, it is of paramount importance for non‐technically oriented readers to expand their horizons in order to understand some aspects of this cybercrime. To this end, digital image manipulation and detection are highlighted in their broad sense without delving into deep technical details, though further reading resources are furnished.
National Institute of Justice
Authors: Hendrix Nicole
Published: January 2014

The National Institute of Justice (NIJ) is the research, development, and evaluation agency of the United States Department of Justice. The Office of Justice Programs, a branch of the Department of Justice, is comprised of the NIJ, along with the Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS), Bureau of Justice Assistance (BJA), Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP), Office for Victims of Crime (OVC), and other program offices.
Aftercare and Reentry
Authors: Dum Christopher P. , Fader Jamie J.
Published: January 2014

One of the key phases of the juvenile justice process is reentry. When released from reform schools, juveniles are expected to successfully reintegrate into their families and communities and develop from adolescents into adults. This process is mediated by juvenile aftercare, which provides postrelease services in the community such as employment assistance, educational programs, vocational skills, and counseling, as well as supervision, usually in the form of probation.
United Nations Crime Conventions
Authors: Bar‐ness Gabriel
Published: January 2014

United Nations Crime Conventions are a set of international legal instruments conventions and protocols broadly covering the topics of transnational organized crime and corruption, drugs, and terrorism, ratified between 1961 and 2003. Though criminalization requirements and the enhancement of training and mutual legal aid are common in nearly all conventions, each convention varies in both scope and substance, conventions regarding terrorism being largely limited to certain events and phenomena, and conventions against organized crime and corruption encompassing broader circumstances and functions.
Human Smuggling
Authors: Siegel Dina , Zaitch Damin
Published: January 2014

Human smuggling is based on a consensus between smuggler, smuggled, and his/her family (which usually guarantees or effectuates payment). However, unauthorized immigrants are violating immigration laws and human smugglers are profiting from enabling illegal immigration. Both human smuggling and its criminalization can in fact be regarded as a product of restrictive migration and asylum policies. Stringent border controls and internal controls are the traditional ways to identify and detain illegal migrants and catch the smugglers.
Probation and Probationers
Authors: Palomares Ernestina
Published: January 2014

Probation refers to the conditional freedom, granted by judges to offenders, as long as offenders meet certain conditions. Probation officers monitor the behavior of probationers, making sure they comply with conditions of probation. Conditions of probation usually consist of three types, namely standard conditions, punitive conditions, and treatment conditions. Probation is often described as a sanction, sentence, process, and contract.
Peer Groups and Delinquency
Authors: Kashea Pegram
Published: January 2014

Research indicates that there is a strong relationship between peer groups and delinquency. To explain this relationship, researchers have used several theories, such as Sutherland's differential association theory, Akers' social learning theory, Gottfredson and Hirschi's theory of self‐control, and Agnew's general strain theory. To better understand how peers cause delinquency, researchers have examined the makeup of delinquent peer groups, the types of activities that peer groups engage in, and how members within these groups interact with one another as well as with other individuals in society.
Elder Abuse
Authors: Smith Christi M.
Published: January 2014

Despite its emergence in the social policy and civil justice arenas more than a quarter of a century ago, there is no federally established definition for elder abuse and no single entity that collects and analyzes elder abuse data. Advances in health and wellness have resulted in an aging population that has more than tripled since 1900. The year 2011 marks the first year that the “baby boomers” will turn 65 years old. The “oldest old,” age 85 and older, is currently the fastest‐growing segment of the population. While it is impossible to accurately assess the number of elder abuse cases, prevalence studies indicate that more than 2 million elderly persons are victims of abuse or neglect each year. The abuse can be physical, sexual, emotional, or financial; it can occur in a variety of environments; and it can be at the hands of a loved one or a stranger. Even a single episode of neglect, mistreatment or abuse can have devastating and fatal consequences for a frail individual. Much further examination and continued investigation into the risk factors and markers of elder abuse are imperative to successfully combat and reduce harmful behaviors targeted toward the aging population.
Women in Prison
Authors: Harris Judith A.
Published: January 2014

Incarceration of females is rising at a significant rate, thus it is important to provide an accurate overview of how women live and work in prison systems. Historically, quality‐of‐life experiences of incarcerated females are often far worse than popular culture leads us to believe. Further, it impacts the lives of female offenders differently than it does those of male offenders. In the 1800s prisons were places of punishment where females convicted of crimes and violations of other moral standards were isolated from society. It was also during this period that prison officials implemented strategies to re‐socialize confined females prior to their release into society. Thus, the incarceration of females has a long history characterized by both punishment and treatment.
Islamic Law Justice Systems
Authors: Malekian Farhad
Published: January 2014

The hybrid character of Islamic criminal justice contains similar purposes arising from the principles of legality, proportionality, and humanity. It consists of categories of crimes protecting the principle of the inviolability of the rights of individuals. Its purpose is to provide immunity, rehabilitation, prohibition, and prosecution. The principles of fault or intention (dolus) and negligence (culpa) constitute a basis for the recognition of individual criminal responsibility. Simultaneously, it has developed the rights of accused, victims, and witnesses from the inquisitorial into the accusatorial methods and gives a significant weight to the quality of evidence. In criminal investigations, procedures, judgments, and punishments, the judges of a court must have a basic knowledge of justice. During trial, a sufficient reason may cause mitigation or exclusion of punishment, such as self‐defense. The modern interpretation of Islamic criminal justice condemns harsh punishments and calls for fair penalties based on the rules of law.
Beccaria, Cesare
Authors: Gartner Jen
Published: January 2014

Cesare Beccaria (1738–1794) was an Italian economist, criminologist, political writer, and penal reformer who is considered to be the father of modern criminology. Beccaria's best‐known work,
On Crimes and Punishments
(
Dei delitti e delle pene
), was highly influential in the reform of European laws and in the formation of the US Constitution, the US Bill of Rights, and the US criminal justice system.
Left Realism Theory
Authors: Myers Randolph R.
Published: January 2014

Although left realists acknowledge that crime is in part socially constructed, they assert that much of what we as a society label as crime is indeed associated with human misery. For a left realist, therefore, “street” crime isrealenough, especially for the socially disempowered populations who are disproportionately victims of street crime. Much left realist scholarship theorizes about how certain capitalist economic arrangements lead to serious violence and punitive cultural attitudes. Given that economic inequality is at the root of muchrealcrime, left realists focus their policy suggestions on lessening the gap between the rich and poor and eliminating other social injustices.
Exclusionary Rule
Authors: Warnick Julie A.
Published: January 2014

A judicially created rule to protect an individual's US constitutional Fourth Amendment rights, the exclusionary rule excludes evidence in criminal trials that has been obtained as a result of unreasonable searches and seizures by federal and state law enforcement. Any evidence, regardless of the severity of the crime, will be excluded if the courts determine the evidence obtained was a direct result of a law enforcement violation. The rule extends to evidence known as fruits of the poisonous tree—that is, any evidence that is secondary to or derivative of the unlawfully obtained evidence. Since its origin, the courts have carved out exceptions to the rule including good faith, inevitable discovery, purged taint, and independent source. The use of the exclusionary rule remains controversial.
Akers, Ronald
Authors: Dooley Brendan D.
Published: January 2014

Ronald L. Akers (1939–) is most recognized for his contribution to the development of one of criminology's dominant theoretical traditions, differential association/social learning. Merging elements of operant conditioning, drawn from Skinnerian psychology, with Edwin Sutherland's enduring propositions revitalized interest in this theory in the mid 1960s. The seven tenets crafted in his seminal article with Burgess were coined as differential association‐reinforcement theory. This innovation lent itself to more direct tests than the original formulation and as a consequence has generated a wealth of research attention.
Social Learning and Social Structure
, his more recent work, extends this intellectual tradition yet further through incorporating structural variables drawn from an array of other perspectives, including social disorganization and anomie, into the approach. In recognition of these scholastic contributions he has been recognized as President of the American Society of Criminology (1978–9) and earned the organization's Edwin H. Sutherland Award in 1988.
Self‐Report Surveys
Authors: Kubena Jiletta
Published: January 2014

Self‐report surveys are one of the main tools used to collect data in criminology and criminal justice research. Developed out of the need to supplement arrest and victimization data, self‐report research measures crimes not reported to the police or that result in an arrest. It is one of the most frequently used methods to explore the extent of criminality and the etiology of offending.
Electronic Monitoring
Authors: Mathey Christopher L‐P
Published: January 2014

Electronic monitoring (EM) originated in the 1960s as a means to modify behaviors. Re‐introduced in the 1980s to reduce prison overcrowding, these programs rely on three technologies; continuous signaling, programmed contact, and global‐positioning satellite systems (GPS). Today, EM is used in offender‐rehabilitation programs sponsored by many probation and parole agencies. One of its most controversial uses is with sex offenders. Despite numerous evaluations of its effectiveness in rehabilitating offenders, the results are unclear. The future use of EM will most likely be based on its costs, effectiveness, and its acceptance as a means of humane rehabilitation.
Defense Counsel
Authors: Bellone Eric T.
Published: January 2014

Defense counsel (a criminal defense lawyer) represents a defendant accused of a crime. Criminal defendants have a constitutional right to legal representation under the Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution. Defense counsel guides and advises the defendant through the multiple stages of the criminal justice process starting with arrest through to the trial and possible appeal. Defense counsel explains to the client what is happening at every stage in the justice process and ensures the defendant knows and understands their rights. Other duties of defense counsel include: investigating the crime, interviewing the accused, contacting the prosecutor (including plea bargain negotiations), and interviewing witnesses and police.
Arrest
Authors: Nolasco Claire Angelique R. I.
Published: January 2014

The authority of law enforcement officers to make arrests is restricted by the US Constitution's Fourth Amendment guarantee against unreasonable searches and seizures. The US Constitution expressly requires that arrest warrants be issued only when probable cause exists as determined by a magistrate. Arrests, however, can be made with or without warrant. The US Supreme Court has clarified through case law the permissible conditions under which warrantless arrests can be made. Jurisprudence has also clarified the nature and extent of permissible searches incident to lawful arrests, with or without warrant.
Capital Punishment and Wrongful Convictions
Authors: Carrera Rachel L.
Published: January 2014

Convicted offenders determined to be innocent, typically through DNA testing, are often described as wrongfully convicted, thus they are exonerated of criminal charges. However, wrongful convictions in which convicted felons are later revealed to be innocent are not the same as cases of “factual innocence” and “legal innocence.” For example, factual innocence is evident when defendants are accomplices to crimes yet do not directly commit crimes. Legal innocence refers to criminal cases where defendants' criminal actions are determined to be legally justified. For example, defendants are often found to be legally innocent in cases where defendants acted in self defense or were intellectually disabled.
Reliability
Authors: Floss Martin
Published: January 2014

The term “reliability” refers to a concept that describes the consistency of any approach, technique, or instrument used to measure something. When a measurement instrument or approach is dependable, trustworthy, and consistent, the measure is said to be reliable. The reliability of a measure can be examined through internal and external checks.
Parental Rights, Termination of
Authors: Vesneski William
Published: January 2014

The termination of parental rights is a legal procedure used to free children who are victims of abuse or neglect for adoption. The procedure involves longstanding legal doctrines as well as parents' constitutionally protected rights to their children. One of the key federal statutes governing termination is the Adoption and Safe Families Act, passed by Congress in 1997. Termination is an emotionally charged and complex issue requiring continued attention and research.
Criminology, History of
Authors: Netterville Anna E.
Published: January 2014

This entry traces the history and evolution of criminological thought. Topics range from an examination of the classical/neoclassical school of criminology to that of critical as well as feminist criminology.
Drug Crimes
Authors: Circo Giovanni
Published: January 2014

The drugs–crime connection has long been a studied topic in the realm of criminal justice. However, the nature of the connection is not altogether clear, and presents researchers with a “chicken and the egg” type question. Does drug abuse stem from those engaging in a criminal lifestyle, or do drug abusers commit crimes because of their drug habits? In order to study the connection between drugs and crime, it is necessary to draw a distinction between the different forms of drug crime. Today, three major distinctions are typically recognized. Use‐related crime refers to crimes committed under the influence of drugs, due to their pharmacological, or chemical, effects. Economically motivated crime refers to crimes that are committed, primarily by addicts, to fuel their drug habits. Finally, systemic crime involves crime related to the illicit drugs trade, due to the prohibition on their sale and distribution.
Law Enforcement Assistance Administration
Authors: Foster J. Price , Hughes Christopher
Published: January 2014

The Law Enforcement Administration was established in the mid‐1960s and was replaced by other federal funding programs for improving criminal justice in the late 1970s. It incorporated several important and long‐lasting programs such as the Law Enforcement Education Program (LEEP) as well as other major initiatives and developmental activities. Finally, it includes retrospective evaluations by persons involved with the planning, development, and management of the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration some 30 years after the program was replaced with other legislation.
Rape and Sexual Assault
Authors: Novisky Meghan A.
Published: January 2014

The definition of rape in the United States has changed significantly over time. The modern conceptualization of rape is more inclusive, as intimate partners, men, and those without physical injuries are all now acknowledged as victims. Research has shown that rape is still a significant social problem, yet remains one of our most underreported crimes. Due to challenges with underreporting and measurement, accurate estimates of rape prevalence must incorporate multiple data sources. Through research, it has become clear that the “average” rape victim tends to be female, young, associated with the offender in some capacity, and without serious physical injuries.
International Legal Status of Children
Authors: Malekian Farhad , Nordlöf Kerstin
Published: January 2014

National, regional, and international criminal legislation and procedures for quite a long time struggled with the recognition of the legal status of children, but the position has slowly changed in recent decades. The aim has been to support persons aged under 18, whether perpetrators, victims, witnesses, or applicants under criminal justice proceedings. Thus, when children have committed crimes, the procedure of arrest, detention, or imprisonment has to be in conformity with the provisions of international law, and they should promptly receive legal assistance. Capital punishment has been abolished, and corporal penalties have broadly been reduced. The tendency today is that juveniles should be sentenced to measures such as care, supervision orders, community service orders, correctional, educational, and vocational training programs. Consequently, many rules of criminal justice have been formulated for the purpose of protection of children's rights, which are considered an integral part of internationaljus cogens.
Genocide
Authors: French Laurence Armand
Published: January 2014

Genocide, a term first coined to depict the horrors of the Holocaust during World War II, has again surfaced as the ultimate crime against society. It is the most serious charge leveled against aggressors being tried before the United Nations' ad hoc “International Criminal Tribunals” being held in The Hague for atrocities committed during the Third Balkan War (1991–2002) and the war in Rwanda during the 1990s. It is important to discern between “individual” versus “collective” indictments of genocide, since the latter tends to imply that an entire group (society) is complicit in the act which is rarely the case. This is relevant to the healing and reconciliation process needed to bring the various warring factions together again in peacetime. The International Criminal Tribunal for Yugoslavia (ICT‐Y) dismissed a charge of genocide leveled against Serbia by Bosnia‐Herzegovina while individuals continue to be charged for this serious crime before the ICTs for both the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda.
Serial Murder
Authors: Wayne Charlton Richard , Barkhuizen Jaco
Published: January 2014

The description of serial killers is subdivided into the definition, classification, and characteristics of the serial murder. All of these divisions state recent findings of various authors regarding the phenomenon of serial homicide. Furthermore, after discussing the various researchers' views, the entry draws upon a conclusion regarding the categories. It should be noted that the phrases
serial killing, serial murder
, and
serial homicide
are used interchangeably throughout this entry.
Police and Civil Liability
Authors: Naito Mai E. , Vaughn Michael S.
Published: January 2014

Individual police officers, police departments, and municipal government officials may be held civilly liable for wrongdoing committed under the color of law. Civil liability gives individuals a remedy for violations of their federally guaranteed rights by local and state government officials under Title 42 US Code Section 1983.
Education and Training in Law
Authors: Kane Erin E.
Published: January 2014

American legal education has experienced two predominant phases since its beginnings in the nineteenth century, and in the twenty‐first century it is entering into a third phase. In the first phase of legal education, there was no formal instruction and future lawyers could undertake self‐study, serve as an assistant in a government or judicial office, or clerk as an apprentice to an established lawyer. In the second phase, legal education moved into the research universities with a focus on theory and philosophy. As legal education moves into the third phrase, more law schools are blending theory, practice, and technology in response to the legal profession's demand for graduates who have both analytical and practical lawyering skills.
Environmental Design
Authors: Pritchard David J.
Published: January 2014

Environmental design is a multidisciplinary theoretical concept that primarily revolves around the idea that the manner in which an environment is built, adapted, and lived in can have an affect on criminal or other undesirable activity in the area. This entry discusses the development and application of environmental design concepts, such as crime prevention through environmental design, defensible space, situational crime prevention, rational choice perspective, broken windows theory, Compstat, and various community policing initiatives.
Capital Punishment and Costs
Authors: McConnell John A.
Published: January 2014

Capital punishment refers to a sentence of death imposed on a person by courts as punishment for an offense. At some time capital punishment was used as a criminal sanction by all countries; however, most countries have since abolished the use of capital punishment. Even so, four of the most populous countries in the world continue to execute people, i.e. the People's Republic of China, India, the United States, and Indonesia. It is noted that, while India and Indonesia have capital punishment statutes, people in these countries are seldom sentenced to death or executed. In 2008 at least 2,390 people were executed in 25 countries worldwide, with China, Iran, Saudi Arabia, the United States, Pakistan, and Iraq being responsible for 95% of the executions.
Art Crime
Authors: Alderman Kimberly
Published: January 2014

Art crime is a multibillion‐dollar industry. The Federal Bureau of Investigation cites art crime as the third‐highest‐grossing annual criminal trade worldwide, generating an estimated US$6 billion in annual criminal profit. The high value of art, as well as the ease with which it is transferred across borders, has allowed art crime to flourish. It is alleged to fuel organized criminal activities including money laundering, extortion, the drug and arms trades, terrorism and insurgency, and even slavery. Just as there are a myriad of types of art, there are also a myriad of types of art crime, including theft, wartime looting, archaeological looting, smuggling, forgery, and fraud.
Conspiracy
Authors: David Ohlin Jens
Published: January 2014

Conspiracy as a substantive offense is an actual crime for which a defendant could be convicted. It is often described as an inchoate offense because a defendant can be convicted of conspiracy even if the underlying criminal offence, such as murder, is never completed; the substantive offence of conspiracy is already completed once the agreement is formed. The application of conspiracy in different countries varies widely.
Age
Authors: Mones Maureen G. , Clegg Virginia G.
Published: January 2014

Age has a curvilinear relationship with crime and is the strongest predictor of criminal behavior. The likelihood of a person partaking in crime starts low, peaks from ages 16 to 24 years, and then declines. A number of theories are aimed towards explaining why criminal activity peaks during those ages. There are also numerous explanations as to the age of onset, when one starts acting criminal, and the age of offset, or the age that one stops partaking in crime.
Collective Efficacy
Authors: Hakan Can Salih
Published: January 2014

A neighborhood's collective efficacy has been shown to be a better predictor than poverty or residential instability of whether a person is likely to be victimized in the neighborhood. Mutual social trust and altruism among neighbors, and their willingness to intervene when they see children misbehaving may explain why some neighborhoods are less crime prone than others.
Statutory Rape
Authors: Lukash Anastasiya
Published: January 2014

Statutory rape is an offense that takes place when an individual (regardless of age) has consensual sexual relations with an individual not old enough to legally consent to the behavior. Statutory rape is a strict liability offence. Statutory rape legislation varies from state to state. Statutory rape can be categorized either as a type of sexual crime or as child abuse.
Media
Authors: Clegg Virginia G. , Mones Maureen G.
Published: January 2014

Media is becoming even more popular and readily available every day. Not only is it a source of entertainment and information, but it is also a way to learn social norms, such as how to act in situations, whether legal or illegal. Media can be divided into different subgroups, including movies, television, books, music, and newspapers, for example. All of these outlets can make an impression on individuals who are participating. Media can be problematic if it is creating panic in the audience, teaching the audience various forms of violence, or glorifying drug use. All of these examples can be seen within the media subgroups, and individuals should be aware of what they may be learning from various forms of entertainment or news sources.
American Society of Criminology
Authors: Crank Beverly R.
Published: January 2014

The American Society of Criminology (ASC) is an international organization comprised of students, scholars, and practitioners in the fields of criminology and criminal justice. The organization provides for a multidisciplinary setting while focusing on the study of the causes, correlates, and consequences of crime, the treatment and measurement of crime and delinquency, and crime prevention. The ASC provides an outlet for researchers, educators, and practitioners worldwide to exchange and disseminate knowledge. Members of the organization receive the journals
Criminology
and
Criminology and Public Policy
, as well as the newsletter,
The Criminologist
.
Civil Remedies for Crime Victims
Authors: Nestlerode Jana
Published: January 2014

Each year, millions of citizens become victims of crime. Recourse for these citizens may be had through the criminal justice system. But an additional recourse is the civil court system. Victims may seek redress for harms by instituting a civil action against those responsible for their injuries (physical, emotional, etc.) and/or property damage.
Gambling
Authors: Blackwell Kenneth , Kopacki Christopher G.
Published: January 2014

Gambling is the act of wagering something of value while attempting to predict the outcome of an unknown event in hopes of winning money or another object of value in addition to the original investment. The United States is deeply rooted in its gaming heritage. Today most states have some sort of legal gambling. However, illegal gambling and problem gamblers are considered detrimental to society. It is believed that many societal problems are linked to gambling, especially crime. However, research suggests that gambling itself is most likely not the cause of many crimes.
Violence Against Women Act
Authors: Gibbs Jennifer C.
Published: January 2014

The Violence Against Women Act (VAWA) was and continues to be an important piece of  legislation, establishing several measures to combat violence against women. The original VAWA, signed into law in 1994, was part of the Clinton administration's update of the 1968 Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act, and the legislation primarily targeted domestic violence (defined as a crime committed by a current or former spouse, someone with whom the victim has a child in common, or an intimate partner with whom the victim cohabits), stalking, rape, and similar crimes where women are more often victimized than are men. It was a landmark piece of  legislation, given the issue of violence against women and victim‐blaming attitudes prevalent throughout history. The problem of violence against women is discussed, along with details of  VAWA and continuing hurdles with the legislation.
New York City Police Department
Authors: Sousa William H.
Published: January 2014

The New York City Police Department (NYPD) is the largest and one of the oldest municipal police agencies in the United States. The NYPD has made important contributions to American policing throughout its history. Today it is known for its order maintenance policing strategy, its Compstat managerial process, and its counter‐terrorism efforts.
Jury Trial
Authors: Bellas Christopher M.
Published: January 2014

The Sixth Amendment to the US Constitution guarantees the right to a jury trial that is conducted by way of fundamental fairness to the accused. Juries are an important part of the justice system, whether the case is a federal or state criminal proceeding or a private civil suit. The history of the jury system dates back to British common law and with minor revisions was adopted early in American jurisprudence. Jurors selected for service are supposed to be a representative sample of the community ensuring that the accused is tried by a jury of his or her peers. Multiple steps are in place to make sure jurors are both unbiased and diverse. Still, lack of participation and financial obstacles have raised concerns about the fairness of the system. Research on jury selection and jury decision‐making is one avenue that legal practitioners can utilize in jury reform efforts.
Child Victims
Authors: Brewster Mary P. , McLaughlin Alyssa
Published: January 2014

In 2009 there were an estimated 1,318,398 violent crimes and 9,320,971 property crimes reported to the police (US Department of Justice). Many of the victims of these crimes were under the age of 18. Minors often suffer from all of the same types of offenses as do adults—property and violent street crime. In addition to the victimization of youth in traditional street crimes, some offenses are specific to youth victims due to their status as minors. Children may be victims of child physical abuse, sexual abuse, and neglect, solicitation, child sex trafficking, bullying and school violence, and abduction.
Victim Precipitation
Authors: Smith Molly , Bouffard Leana A.
Published: January 2014

Most of the traditional criminological research views a criminal event as a set of variables centered on the offender's role in the commission of a crime. Victim precipitation, however, refers to the victim's role in his or her own victimization. The phrase was coined by Marvin Wolfgang. Most definitions of the concept of victim precipitation have two primary components: that the victim was the first to act in the temporal sequence of the criminal event; and that the victim encouraged the commission of the crime. Victim precipitation is an evident component in several different types of crime, most notably homicide, assault, rape, and robbery.
Learning Communities
Authors: Coston Charisse T. M. , Blowers Anita N.
Published: January 2014

A recent trend in higher education has been the creation of learning communities. These programs are designed to create a learning environment that encourages students to make both academic and social connections to provide a richer learning experience. Colleges and universities often create learning communities as a mechanism for increasing student retention and academic engagement while also enhancing “deeper” learning. While these goals focus on the student, learning communities can also be an effective strategy for meeting other institutional goals. While there is considerable agreement that learning communities can be an effective forum for enhancing the quality of undergraduate education, the success of these programs requires considerable planning and dedication by campus administration, faculty, and staff.
Conflict Theories of Crime
Authors: Black Pamela
Published: January 2014

The conflict perspective argues that the function of the state is not to mediate between the inevitable conflicting interest groups, but to represent the interests and reflect the values of the group or groups that have sufficient power to control the state. Conflict criminology encompasses two aspects of criminology: it seeks to explain the behavior of the law, and it examines crime as a byproduct of group and culture conflict. The usefulness of conflict models of criminality and the law is limited by the fact that society is not just a system of conflicting and competing interest groups. Conflict theory has, however, been used to explore organized and white‐collar crime, arrest and sentencing patterns, and crime patterns of various minority groups.
Due Process and Juvenile Justice
Authors: Sanborn Joseph B.
Published: January 2014

When juvenile court was introduced in 1899, due process for the youths processed there was not among its concerns. For more than six decades juvenile court operated more like a clinic than a court of law. In the late 1960s and early 1970s the United States Supreme Court extended to juvenile defendants a few constitutional rights that the Court believed constituted “fundamental fairness.” Today, youths prosecuted in juvenile court certainly have more due process rights than were granted in that forum in the first half of the twentieth century, but they do not have the due process protections guaranteed to adult offenders.
Presentence Investigation Report
Authors: Kyle Cook Amy
Published: January 2014

The origins of presentence reports can be traced to 1841 with the work of John Augustus, the first probation officer. Presentence reports evolved over the years from reports ordered by the court to promote individualized sentencing recommendations to, in more recent years, recommendations based on determinate sentencing guidelines. Presentence reports are also used in a variety of other contexts, including supervision plans and prison placement decisions. Discussed are the effects of actuarial risk assessments and the dynamics of the courtroom workgroup and the “going rate” on criminal sanctions.
Costs of Crime Victimization
Authors: Brewster Mary P.
Published: January 2014

In 2010, US citizens over the age of 12 were victims of “18.7 million violent and property crimes victimizations” (Truman 2011). Many researchers have studied the impact of crime on its victims. The effects of victimization may be physical, financial, psychological, social, behavioral, educational, or occupational/professional. Comprehensive studies of monetary crime victimization costs have been conducted in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, and Barbados. Miller, Cohen, and Wiersema 1996 calculated the monetary value of the tangible and intangible costs of crime victimization in the US and estimated an overall annual cost of $450 billion.