bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
F10 pandalid shrimp: Sex determination; DNA and dopamine as indicators of domestication; and outcrossing for wild pigment pattern
Authors: Marliave Jeffrey B. , Gergits William F. , Aota Sumi
Published: June 2005

Domestication becomes significant in captive propagation of high‐fecundity animals which sustain significant mortality rates. The domestication process typical of higher vertebrates has been observed in the coonstripe shrimp, Pandalus danae, which were reared through 10 generations for study of protandric hermaphroditism. The research protocol of repeated handling, for determining sex and carapace length, rendered escape responses maladaptive. Domesticated, F10 shrimp showed significantly greater band‐sharing in genomic DNA than wild shrimp, and the domesticated shrimp had only 5.5% of the dopamine levels in haemolymph found in wild shrimp. For both parameters, outcrossed shrimp (wild X domestic) had intermediate values. The outcrossed shrimp looked entirely wild, yet had behavioral and metabolic attributes of domestic shrimp. For such nonendangered species, domestication may be as desirable as it is unavoidable. It appears necessary, however, to perform outcrossing in order to maintain the wild form. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Annual variations in plasma retinol and alpha‐tocopherol levels in gentoo and rockhopper penguins
Authors: Monroe Allen
Published: June 2005

Blood samples were taken throughout the year from captive gentoo Pygoscelis papua (n = 5) and rockhopper Eudyptes crestatus (n = 10) penguins to measure seasonal variations in retinol and alpha‐tocopherol levels. Retinol levels ranged from .58 μg/ml to 1.09 μg/ml and alpha‐tocopherol levels from 30.8 μg/ml to 50.7 μg/ml for the gentoo penguins. The rockhopper penguins' retinol levels ranged from .63 μg/ml to 1.14 μg/ml and alpha‐tocopherol from 22.3 μg/ml to 40.8 μg/ml. Changes in body mass were used as an indicator of the start and duration of feather moult. Food consumption was recorded daily for the year, and the vitamin A and E intake was calculated. Blood vitamin levels of penguins on a supplemented diet were similar to those in the wild. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
The use of gentamicin sulfate therapy in a captive blacktip reef shark (Carcharhinus melanopterus) with intestinal biting syndrome
Authors: Crow Gerald L. , Brock James A.
Published: June 2005

This note reports on the use of gentamicin sulfate as a supportive measure for a juvenile blacktip reef shark (Carcharhinus melanopterus), which presented with an abrupt onset of anorexia, and laceration and prolapse of the scroll valve intestine (putative intestinal biting syndrome). Gentamicin sulfate was administered as an intramuscular injection (3.3 mg/kg body weight) every fifth day for seven treatments. The shark resumed feeding by 48 hours from the first injection, and was fully recovered by day 36. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Scent marking and social relationships in pine martens (Martes martes)
Authors: de Monte Michèle , Roeder Jean‐Jacques
Published: June 2005

Scent marking was studied in pine martens (Martes martes) in female‐female and male‐female pairs. Results show that agonistically dominant individuals generally had higher scent marking frequencies. However, environmental familiarity can modify the social relationship, whatever the previous social experiences, and, consequently, marking activity. Despite important intra‐and interindividual variations, the subjects appeared to react to physical and social modifications by an increased marking rate. One factor affecting marking activity in both novel and established pairs was the activity level of the conspecific partner. the data support the hypothesis that pine martens react in the same way to physical and social modifications, but with different response levels. The discussion focuses on possible functions of scent marking. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Effect of new founders on retention of gene diversity in captive populations: A formalization of the nucleus population concept
Authors: Willis Kevin , Wiese Robert J.
Published: June 2005

A nucleus population is a small captive population genetically supported by periodic importation of wild caught animals. Periodic importation will allow nucleus populations to maintain the same amount of gene diversity as larger captive populations that do not import wild caught animals. The function of nucleus populations as envisioned by the IUCN/SSC Captive Breeding Specialist Group (CBSG) is to make additional captive space available for endangered taxa not currently maintained in captivity. In this article, mathematical models are developed to assess the effectiveness of the nucleus population concept in reducing the population sizes necessary to maintain appreciable amounts of gene diversity in captive populations. It is shown that the Nucleus I population concept, as defined and promoted by the CBSG, requires an importation rate 10–20 times greater than they have indicated. Whereas nucleus populations are not appropriate for maintenance of significant amounts of gene diversity in long‐term breeding programs, small populations can be valuable for research, education, and reintroduction projects with short‐term goals. Decisions have to be made on which of the many endangered taxa will be maintained and for what purposes, if captive breeding is to be an effective component of species conservation. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Fecal pellet measurements of manipur brow‐antlered deer with respect to sex and age classes
Authors: Khan Imran , Goyal S. P.
Published: June 2005

Measurements were made of fecal pellets for captive brow‐antlered deer (Cervus eldi eldi) from different age and sex classes. Pellet measurements increased linearly with increases in age, except for length and width measurements in males. Differences in dimensions were statistically significant between sexes and among some age classes. This procedure may be useful in differentiating between the sexes, and to some extent between ages, of wild‐living individuals. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Daily activity of captive giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) at the wolong reserve
Authors: Mainka Susan A. , Zhang Hemin
Published: June 2005

Daytime activity patterns of captive giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) (n = 21) were observed for 2 week periods during October 1991 and January, April, and July 1992. A daytime bimodal activity pattern was seen with increased activity coinciding with feeding times at 1000 and 1600 h. The animals spent an average of 40 ± 10% of their time sleeping, 21 ± 10% resting, 25 ± 11% eating, 13 ± 9% walking, and 1 ± 3% interacting with other giant pandas. Adult females were less active than males or juveniles. During July, giant pandas were less active during the daytime than during other seasons of the year. There was no difference in activity patterns between pregnant and non‐pregnant females. Two infants had similar activity patterns to the adults by the time they were 6 months old.

Comparison with wild giant pandas (n = 5) at the Wolong Nature Reserve revealed similar bimodal activity cycles, although the time of peak activity differed and foraging/feeding time was greater for wild pandas than for captive animals. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Space use and proximity of captive chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) mother/offspring pairs
Authors: Goff Christopher , Howell Susan Menkhus , Fritz Jo , Nankivell Becky
Published: June 2005

This pilot study considers space use and behavior patterns for nine chimpanzee mother‐offspring pairs. Observations were conducted using instantaneous scan sampling, four times daily, five days a week, for four weeks. Mother‐offspring use of vertical space and horizontal space and mother‐offspring proximity were observed and analyzed using a Chi Square test. Results suggest mother‐offspring pairs use levels above the enclosure floor, spending a majority of time in areas near horizontal bench substrates placed 1.2–2.5 m above the floor. Findings provide information that will assist managers in providing appropriate housing for chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) mothers and their offspring. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Relatedness estimation of captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximas) by DNA fingerprinting
Authors: Bischof Laura L. , Duffield Deborah A.
Published: June 2005

DNA from eighteen Asian elephants of known relatedness from three North American zoos was fingerprinted with the hypervariable probe M13. Paternity of a calf of known pedigree was verified. Paternity assignment of a calf having two proposed sires was suggested, but could not be conclusively determined due to a unique fragment in the calf and the unavailability of one potential sire for testing. It was concluded that DNA fingerprinting with M13 could provide a reasonable first estimator of relatedness for first degree relatives (mean S = 0.63±.11) and for unrelated animals (mean S = 0.26±.11), but would be unreliable for the discrimination of intermediate degrees of relatedness. DNA fingerprinting can be efficiently used for paternity determination only when all potential sires can be tested. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Urinary steroid evaluations to monitor ovarian function in exotic ungulates: X. Pregnancy diagnosis in Perissodactyla
Authors: Ramsay Edward C. , Moran Francisco , Roser Janet F. , Lasley Bill L.
Published: June 2005

Enzymeimmunoassays (EIAs) for estrone conjugates (EC), pregnanediol‐3‐glucuronide (PDG), and C‐19 and C‐21 progesterone metabolites (C‐19/C‐21) were used to analyze urine samples from four nondomestic equid species, four tapir species, and two rhinoceros species in an attempt to identify if these assays could be used for diagnosing and monitoring pregnancy. The same urine samples were also analyzed for the presence of equine chorionic gonadotropin (eCG) activity, using a field dipstick test and a radioimmunoassay (RIA). The EC EIA was validated for three equid species and the Malayan tapir. Neither the PDG nor the C‐19/C‐21 EIAs were validated in any species evaluated. In equid species, the EC EIA demonstrated a specificity (the percentage of nonpregnant samples identified correctly) of 100% and a sensitivity (the percentage of pregnant samples identified correctly) of ≥ 88%. With the exception of the Grevy's zebra, the C‐19/C‐21 EIA showed a similar accuracy in identifying pregnant and nonpregnant equids. The PDG EIA was not sufficiently accurate to merit its use in equids or tapirs for pregnancy diagnosis. From the data collected, it appears analysis of a single urine by both the EC EIA and the C‐19/C‐21 EIA would be the best method of pregnancy detection during the last 2 trimesters of gestation, in equid species. In tapirs, the C‐19/C‐21 EIA was slightly more accurate for pregnancy diagnosis than the EC EIA. The C‐19/C‐21 EIA had a specificity of 93%, but a sensitivity of only 73% in tapir species. None of the EIAs evaluated demonstrated a sufficient specificity or sensitivity to be useful, as presently performed, for pregnancy diagnosis from a single sample in the black rhinoceros. The eCG dipstick used in this study did not prove a sufficiently reliable test for routine pregnancy in nondomestic equids. The eCG RIA results in the Przewalski's horses and the Hartman's mountain zebra were positive early in gestation, and indicate that gonadotropin analysis may be useful for pregnancy detection in these species. Only very low amounts of eCG activity was measured by the eCG RIA in the tapir and rhinoceros urine samples. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Leuprolide acetate can reversibly prevent egg laying in cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus)
Authors: Millam J. R. , Finney H. L.
Published: June 2005

Leuprolide acetate acts as a superactive gonadotropin‐releasing hormone (GnRH) agonist in mammals. Its administration to humans in a depot formulation (Lupron Depot 3.75 mg; TAP Pharmaceuticals, Deerfield, IL) consisting of microspheres suspended in a diluent of carboxymethylcellulose and other elements leads to an initial increase in serum gonadotropin levels followed by a prolonged suppression of ∼ 1 month's duration. To test whether it might act in cockatiels to prevent egg laying, we administered Lupron Depot to groups of pairs (at least 6 pairs/group) stimulated to reproduce by provision of nest boxes and exposure to sexually stimulatory daylengths (15:9 L:D). A single intramuscular injection of Lupron Depot, calculated to achieve a daily release rate of 0 (control; diluent only), 17, 52, or 156 μg/kg/day of leuprolide acetate, was administered on day 0, when birds received nest boxes and after daylength had been stepwise increased. Egg production began on day 12 in the 0 and 17 μg dose groups, and on day 31 in the groups receiving the higher doses. Number of eggs per clutch, candled fertility, and percent hatchability were not significantly different among the groups. In a separate experiment in which leuprolide was administered prior to photostimulation and nest box presentation, nest‐inspection behavior was not prevented. We conclude that a single injection of Lupron Depot is effective in reversibly preventing egg laying in cockatiels. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Dyadic interactions of infant lowland gorillas in an outdoor exhibit compared to an indoor holding area
Authors: Hoff Michael P. , Forthman Debra L. , Maple Terry L.
Published: June 2005

The behavior of two lowland gorilla mother‐infant pairs living in a social group at Zoo Atlanta was compared in an indoor holding area vs. an outdoor exhibit. Focal animal data were collected for each pair during 30‐min observation sessions over 24 days, alternating between indoors and outdoors. A variety of individual and social behaviors differed in the two conditions, particularly infant behaviors and infant‐controlled behaviors. Mothers and infants spent more time closer together inside than outside, and infants left mothers more and mothers approached infants more outside than inside. Additional differences included more object examination and solitary play by the infants, and more feeding by the mothers, outside. Mothers autogroomed more and infants engaged in more self‐manipulation inside. Additionally, there were significantly more aggressive display behaviors directed toward the mother‐infant pairs inside than outside, and the adults engaged in coprophagy inside but not outside. A variety of other behaviors measured did not change between the two environments. There was a clear effect on behavior of the different housing conditions in which the gorillas were kept. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Artificial incubation and hand‐rearing of 'Alala (Corvus hawaiiensis) eggs removed from the wild
Authors: Kuehler C. , Kuhn M. , McLlraith B. , Campbell G.
Published: June 2005

The wild 'Alala (Corvus hawaiiensis) population has been declining for many years, and only a few pairs of birds are currently reproductively active on the island of Hawaii. A recovery program was initiated in 1993 which included removing eggs from wild nesting birds for artificial rearing and reintroduction. This paper describes the artificial incubation and hand‐rearing techniques. Eleven eggs were removed from three nesting pairs; eight were fertile, and seven hatched and were hand‐reared (fertility, 72.7%; hatchability, 87.5%; survivability, 100%). Eggs were incubated in a forced‐air incubator at 99.5°F (dry bulb), 80.0–86.0°F (wet bulb), and hatched under still‐air conditions at 99.0°F (dry bulb) and 88.0–90°F (wet bulb). Hatched chicks were hand‐fed a diet of fruit, insects, and mouse pups. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Factors influencing stereotyped behavior of primates in a zoo
Authors: Marriner L. M. , Drickamer L. C.
Published: June 2005

Stereotyped behavior is the uniform repetition of a motor pattern that occurs at a higher frequency than considered typical for a species when observed in a natural environment. Stereotypies may be considered atypical behavior and usually indicate that an animal's psychological welfare is at a suboptimal level. Instantaneous scans at 30‐sec intervals during 20‐min observation periods were conducted on eight primate species at the St. Louis Zoo to determine frequency of occurrence of stereotyped behavior. Results indicated that many biotic and abiotic factors were related to the frequency of stereotyped behavior by captive primates, although rearing method was more important than present environmental conditions. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Tonic immobility in 12 elasmobranchs: Use as an aid in captive husbandry
Authors: Henningsen Alan D.
Published: June 2005

Tonic immobility (TI), also known as animal hypnosis, has been observed in a wide variety of taxa and reported in all vertebrate classes with the exception of Agnatha. To date, TI has been reported in six species of elasmobranchs. Preliminary results are presented here for five species of galeomorph sharks, one species of squalomorph shark, and six species of batoids. Tonic immobility was induced in the leopard shark. Triakis semifasciata; the whitetip reef shark, Triaenodon obesus; the blacktip reef shark, Carcharhinus melanopterus; the Caribbean reef shark, Carcharhinus perezi; the swellshark, Cephaloscyllium ventriosum; the California round ray, Urolophus halleri; the shovelnose guitarfish, Rhinobatos productus; the clearnose skate. Raja eglanteria; the cownose ray, Rhinoptera bonasus; and the southern stingray, Dasyatis americana. The broadnose sevengill shark, Notorynchus cepedianus and the yellow stingray, Urolophus jamaicensis failed to exhibit the tonic immobility response, but only one individual of each species was tested. The average induction time ranged from 16.7 sec in the shovelnose guitarfish to 45.7 sec in the clearnose skate. Average duration times ranged from 34.3 sec in the clearnose skate to 274.0 sec in the Caribbean reef shark. Depending upon the species involved, TI has been used as an aid in a few husbandry and medical procedures in captive elasmobranches at the National Aquarium in Baltimore. These procedures have included gross examination, measuring lengths, tube feeding, and drawing blood via caudal venipuncture. Using tonic immobility during these procedures is beneficial as once induced, the subject's struggling is minimal and usually requires little restraint. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Dominance hierarchies in male lizards: Implications for zoo management programs
Authors: Alberts Allison C.
Published: June 2005

Depending on spatial requirements and the distribution of key resources in the environment, social behavior among lizards varies from defense of exclusive territories to the establishment of dominance hierarchies. In captivity or under conditions where dispersal is not possible, dominance hierarchies often emerge in species that are otherwise territorial. This review explores some of the morphological, behavioral, and hormonal determinants of social status in male lizards and how these may lead to differential reproductive function in dominant and subordinate individuals. Emphasis is placed on the importance of population density, local resource dispersion, and the composition and stability of social groups in promoting hierarchical behavior. Results of these studies have ramifications for several aspects of zoo management, including exhibit design, choice of animals to be housed together, provision of resources in space and time, and orientation of enclosures within captive breeding facilities. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Using training to moderate chimpanzee aggression during feeding
Authors: Bloomsmith M. A. , Laule G. E. , Alford P. L. , Thurston R. H.
Published: June 2005

The effects of human and nonhuman primate interactions on the well‐being of captive nonhuman primates have been studied less rigorously than other forms of environmental improvement. Human intervention might be used to moderate severe aggression of socially housed animals at feeding times, one of the most common behavioral management problems. In this study, positive reinforcement training techniques were applied to reduce a dominant male chimpanzee's aggression and chasing during meals. Verbal commands and food reinforcers were used to train him to sit and remain seated while other group members received and ate their share of produce. Observational data were collected recording all instances of agonism in the group during periods when meals were fed and during times when no meals were offered, both before and after the training was accomplished. Multivariate analysis of variance for repeated measures results indicated that the training program successfully reduced the group's incidence of displaying, submission, and aggression during feeding periods. This effect was specific to the times meals were fed; there was no generalized reduction in the group's agonism after the training. This study exemplifies the use of positive reinforcement techniques to modify chimpanzee social dynamics during a problematic situation and of observational data to evaluate quantitatively the behavioral effects of the training. Training can be employed to help solve behavioral management problems among socially housed animals, and it can help improve the psychological well‐being of captive chimpanzees. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Veterinary care of Asian timber elephants in India: Historical accounts and current observations
Authors: Krishnamurthy V. , Wemmer Chris
Published: June 2005

We discuss herein some of the historical factors that have influenced present day veterinary treatment and husbandry of Asian elephants used for timber extraction by Indian state forest departments. The British incorporated both indigenous and European practices into the veterinary management of timber elephants, and invested considerable time and energy to improve care and humane standards. The paper examines selected aspects of preventive and clinical treatment based on records from the Madras Presidency and present day Tamilnadu state. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Training zoo professionals for studbook and species survival plan programs
Authors: Read Bruce
Published: June 2005

In 1989 a proposal to establish a Zoo Curator's Training Academy was distributed to more than 30 zoo professionals attending the annual conference of the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums (AAZPA). Receiving a positive response, we tabulated the results and re‐evaluated the proposal. A task force was created in August 1990 to further define the target audience and to develop a curriculum and budget. The proposal was submitted to the AAZPA Board of Directors at the annual conference in September 1990, and the Board agreed to fund creation of an AAZPA Conservation Academy. The Academy's first course, Studbook I, was presented in February 1991 and taught methods for collecting and entering data into a specially tailored computer program. The course was well received by the students and their institutions. A second course, SSP Coordinator Training, was piloted in 1992 and achieved similar results by teaching standardized methods, including the use of a publishing format for the AAZPA's SSP programs. In 1993 the Institute of Museum Services (IMS) approved funding for development of a third course, the Science of Zoo and Aquarium Animal Management. This course, introduced in February 1994, fulfills the second of the Association's mandates for the Academy—to address animal husbandry by integrating scientific methods with animal management techniques and thereby establish standards for data bases and management plans. All Academy courses have been designed to be “hands‐on” participatory experiences and, combined with lectures, effectively train students to “do the job.” © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Remote monitoring of parental incubation conditions in the greater sandhill crane
Authors: Gee George F. , Hatfield Jeff S. , Howey Paul W.
Published: June 2005

To monitor incubation conditions in nests of greater sandhill cranes, a radiotrans‐mitting egg was built using six temperature sensors, a position sensor, and a light sensor. Sensor readings were received, along with time of observations, and stored in a computer. The egg was used to monitor incubation in nests of six pairs of cranes during 1987 and 1988. Ambient temperature was also measured. Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used to relate highest egg temperature, core egg temperature, and lowest egg temperature to ambient temperature, time since the egg was last turned, and time since the beginning of incubation. Ambient temperature had the greatest effect on egg temperature (P < 0.0001), followed by the time since the beginning of incubation and time since the egg was last turned. Pair effect, the class variable in the ANCOVA, was also very significant (P < 0.0001). A nine‐term Fourier series was used to estimate the average core egg temperature versus time of day and was found to fit the data well (r2 = 0.94). The Fourier series will be used to run a mechanical incubator to simulate natural incubation conditions for cranes. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Growth of morelet's crocodile (crocodylus moreletii) during the first three years of life
Authors: Pérez‐Higareda Gonzalo , Rangel‐Rangel Antonio , Chiszar David , Smith Hobart M.
Published: June 2005

Growth of Crocodylus moreletii, an endangered species, was observed under protected conditions in the native range, from hatching through the third year of life. The goal of this project was to provide baseline growth data for eventual comparison with data from specimens reared in thermally controlled zoo facilities. Length increase averaged 1.6 cm/mo in our study. Under farming conditions in Mexico, however, C. moreletii increased in length by 2.4–3.0 cm/mo. Hence, we suspect that specimens raised under zoo conditions will exceed our values and approach the latter ones, as is the case for American alligators raised in controlled conditions. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Propagation of endangered birds in US institutions: How much space is there?
Authors: Sheppard Christine
Published: June 2005

Captive breeding is often touted as a way to preserve species disappearing in the wild. Zoos and related institutions have limited space for animals, however, and use of what space exists may be restricted by conflicting demands of entertainment, education, and propagation. Curators of US bird collections sponsored an analysis of space available for long‐term captive management. Seventy‐three collections responded to a survey, providing data on 3,174 exhibits and holding areas under their control. The most optimistic analysis indicates room for fewer than 141 long‐term management programs. To use space resources optimally for conservation, there is a strong need to develop priorities within management groups. New models and strategies for using captive propagation as a short‐term tool to bolster wild populations should be created. Immediate attention should be paid to the most effective and efficient ways of improving husbandry and management techniques for birds. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Effects of chronic melengestrol acetate contraceptive treatment on perineal tumescence, body weight, and sociosexual behavior of hamadryas baboons (Papio hamadryas)
Authors: Portugal Mariette M. , Asa Cheryl S.
Published: June 2005

Melengestrol acetate (MGA) subcutaneous implants were used in seven adult female Hamadryas baboons to study the effects of chronic progestin administration on perineal swelling, behavior, and weight gain. At the dose level used (≥8 mg/kg body weight), cycles of perineal tumescence ceased and swellings subsided. Social dynamics were not significantly altered during treatment, and only minor changes in agonistic interactions were noted following implant removal. Body weight increased by 17.3–47.6% during treatment despite decreased time spent foraging. This paradox may be explained by 1) foraging time not necessarily corresponding to total intake and 2) the nonsignificant trend toward lower levels of activity during treatment. Treatment with MGA can be recommended based on its ability to suppress ovarian cyclicity without causing social disruption. However, because this and other progestins stimulate weight gain, their use is contraindicated in overweight or obese animals. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Conditioning of nyala (Tragelaphus angasi) to blood sampling in a crate with positive reinforcement
Authors: Grandin Temple , Rooney Matthew B. , Phillips Megan , Cambre Richard C. , Irlbeck Nancy A. , Graffam Wendy
Published: June 2005

Habituation and positive reinforcement procedures were successfully used for low stress blood sampling of nyala (Tragelaphus angasi) at the Denver Zoological Gardens. Four adult females and three offspring were conditioned with a food reward voluntarily to enter a plywood crate for bimonthly blood sampling from the rear leg. Habituated and conditioned, nonsedated nyala could also be given intramuscular injections and be palpated on the udder and abdomen. Highly palatable sliced yams and carrots were used to train the seven animals to enter the crate and allow a handler to confine each animal in it by closing a remotely controlled, vertical slide gate. The next step was slow, careful desensitization and habituation of each animal to having its legs and body touched by a person who reached through a small hole in the side of the crate. The animal was given yam treats during this procedure. The solid sides on the crate helped keep the animal calm. Conditioning and habituation were done slowly and carefully over a period of 3 months to avoid frightening the animals or causing a dangerous escape attempt. All animals remained calm during both conditioning and blood sampling procedures. Investing the time and effort to train nyala to crate handling resulted in improved animal welfare and blood samples that were not confounded by stress. The nyala were trained for a vitamin E supplementation study. In captivity, nyala often suffer from myopathy due to vitamin E deficiency. Vitamin E levels will change when an animal is stressed. Training the animals to cooperate during blood sampling eliminated handling stress. This made it possible to accurately measure vitamin E levels, which will aid nutritionists in determining supplementation levels. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Factors affecting pair compatibility in captive kangaroo rats, Dipodomys heermanni
Authors: Thompson Katerina V. , Roberts Miles , Rall William F.
Published: June 2005

Captive propagation is a critical component of the Morro Bay Kangaroo Rat Recovery Plan, but past attempts to breed this and other kangaroo rat species have had mixed success. In three experiments using a closely related surrogate species, the Lompoc kangaroo rat, we evaluated the effects of familiarity and long‐term housing experience on the behavior of captive males and females during dyadic encounters in an attempt to devise husbandry methods most conducive to reproduction. Females exhibited less aggression with and were more likely to allow physical contact with familiar males, provided the males had had previous social experience, such as that provided by living in close sensory contact with female conspecifics. Socialized males (those housed adjacent to females, separated from them by a wire mesh screen) were cautious, rather than persistent, when interacting with unfamiliar or anestrous females. Males housed in isolation from conspecifics were persistent whether or not they were familiar to the female. Pairs with very long periods of familiarity exhibited more nonaggressive contact than newly acquainted pairs. Results suggest that housing structures allowing longterm sensory contact between potential mates may improve breeding success in kangaroo rats and other solitary, aggressive species. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.

This article is a US Government work and, as such, is in the public domain in the United States of America.
Selected aspects of female white‐faced saki (Pithecia pithecia) reproductive biology in captivity
Authors: Savage A. , Lasley B. L. , Vecchio A. J. , Miller A. E. , Shideler S. E.
Published: June 2005

Little is known regarding the reproductive biology of the white‐faced saki. Although sakis have been in zoos since the mid‐1970s, little attention has been paid to the reproductive biology of this threatened species. This study describes the results of a 3‐year study of the reproduction of the white‐faced saki in captivity. Using noninvasive methods to determine levels of estrone conjugates (E1C) and pregnanediol‐3‐glucuronide (PdG) in daily urine samples, we have characterized the female reproductive cycle of this species. Nonconceptive ovarian cycles were 16.95 ± 1.57 (SD) days, gestational length was 146.1 ± 5.2 (SD) days, and the length of lactationally induced infertility varied among females but averaged 163 ± 40.6 (SD) days. Attempts to accelerate puberty by pairing a young female with an adult male was without effect. Puberty occurred at 32 months of age in one female. This study provides information that enhances our understanding of the reproductive biology of this species. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Benefits of the zoological park to the teaching of comparative vertebrate anatomy
Authors: Doolittle Richard L. , Grand Theodore I.
Published: June 2005

Zoological parks offer varied benefits and opportunities to comparative vertebrate anatomy (CVA) as it is taught at the college/university level. First, exotic species enrich and clarify the major principles of anatomy—form and function, adaptive behavior, and evolutionary process—in ways that traditional laboratory species (dogfish, frog, cat) cannot achieve. Second, students aged 18–22 are sophisticated enough to integrate gross anatomy with the functions of behavior, behavior with exhibit design, design with animal management, and management with the politics of conservation. Third, direct contacts between students and zoo person‐nel (keepers, clinical and research staff) suggest career options beyond the pre‐med/prevet orientations of most biology concentrators. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Parentage verification of a mountain zebra (Equus zebra hartmannae) using polymorphic microsatellite markers
Authors: Breen Matthew , Irvin Zlata , Downs Peter , Gill Ian , Bircher Peter , Hart Niki , Bell Kevin
Published: June 2005

The Hartmann's mountain zebra (Equus zebra hartmannae) has been classified by the IUCN as a vulnerable species. Approximately 300 individuals, maintained in zoos throughout Europe and the United States of America, are being managed as part of a captive breeding program. An International Studbook is maintained for the Hartmann's mountain zebra at Marwell Zoological Park, UK. Despite the use of a variety of means to identify each individual in a captive herd, confusion sometimes occurs, resulting in the misidentification of an animal. Here we report the first application of DNA typing, using polymorphic microsatellite loci, to resolve a misidentification involving two female Hartmann's mountain zebra. This case demonstrates the way in which genetic tests derived from a related domesticated species may be used as an effective tool for captive management. Further, this case highlights the need to be able to conclusively identify captive individuals and to maintain accurate pedigree information for successful captive management. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Urinary cortisol analysis for monitoring adrenal activity in elephants
Authors: Brown Janine L. , Wemmer Christen M. , Lehnhardt John
Published: June 2005

Cortisol was measured in dichloromethane‐extracted elephant urine using an 125I solid‐phase radioimmunoassay (RIA). The cortisol RIA was validated by demonstrating 1) parallelism between dilutions of pooled urinary extracts and the standard curve, 2) significant recovery of exogenous cortisol added to elephant urine, and 3) a relationship between changes in peripheral and urinary cortisol after an adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH) challenge. One African (Loxodonta africana) and one Asian (Elephas maximus) elephant were given three injections of ACTH (1.25 mg) at 2 h intervals. Serum cortisol increased four‐ to eightfold within 30 min after the first injection and peaked (nine‐ to twelvefold increase) after the second injection. Serum concentrations began to decline 2–3 h after the last injection but were still approximately fourfold higher than baseline at the end of the collection period (hour 8). In the urine, cortisol concentrations were increased in the first sample postinjection (1.5–4 h) and peaked twenty‐ to fortyfold by ∼6 h. Urinary cortisol remained elevated at 8 h, but returned to baseline the following morning. Analysis of high performance liquid chromatography fractions of extracted urine revealed that immunoactivity was associated with free cortisol (∼90% of total immunoactivity) and a more polar, unidentified metabolite. A method for preserving urine was developed to allow storing unfrozen samples. One pool of urine from each of one African and two Asian elephants was divided into aliquots, placed in tubes containing absolute ethanol (10%), sodium azide (0.1%) or distilled water (control), and frozen after 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, and 24 weeks of storage at ∼25°C. In unpreserved samples, cortisol concentrations were reduced 46% by 2 weeks and 95% by 24 weeks. In contrast, ethanol‐ and sodium azide‐preserved samples retained 100 and 95% of cortisol immunoactivity through 8 weeks and 93 and 85% of activity through 12 weeks, respectively. We infer from these data that changes in urinary cortisol excretion in the elephant reflect fluctuations in adrenal activity and may be a useful indicator of stress. Additionally, urine samples can be collected and stored unfrozen for at least 2 months before any appreciable loss in cortisol immunoactivity occurs, a finding potentially useful to field application of this technique. © 1995 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.

This article is a US Government work and, as such, is in the public domain in the United States of America

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Size and shape of ULF waves in the terrestrial foreshock
Authors: Archer M. , Horbury T. S. , Lucek E. A. , Mazelle C. , Balogh A. , Dandouras I.
Published: June 2005

Using simultaneous four spacecraft data, estimates of the size and shape of ULF waves in the terrestrial foreshock are presented. Estimates of the size of the waves in different directions are obtained by calculating the spatial autocorrelation function of the magnetic field in the wave frame using cross‐correlations of magnetic field measurements between the four Cluster spacecraft. The correlation length along the wave vector, its wavelength, is typically 1–3 RE, consistent with previous estimates. The correlation length perpendicular to the wave vector, however, is typically 3–8 times the wavelength, between 8 and 18 RE. The shape of the waves can be approximated as an oblate spheroid, symmetric around the wave vector. However, the wave front tends to be significantly more planar than a spheroid, implying planarity of the waves over several RE and hence a coherent periodic variation of the magnetic field at the bow shock on these scales. There is some evidence that at least during one extended interval of ULF waves, their finite perpendicular extent results in an additional quasi‐periodic enhancement and modulation of the waves, with a period of several minutes, at the spacecraft.
Three‐dimensional ionospheric tomography using observation data of GPS ground receivers and ionosonde by neural network
Authors: Ma X. F. , Maruyama T. , Ma G. , Takeda T.
Published: June 2005

In this paper we present a new method based on a Residual Minimization Training Neural Network (RMTNN) to reconstruct the three‐dimensional electron density distribution of the local ionosphere with high spatial resolution (about 50 km × 50 km in east/west and 30 km in altitude) using GPS and ionosonde observation data. In this method we reconstruct an approximate three‐dimensional electron density distribution as a computer tomographic image by making use of the excellent capability of a multilayer neural network to approximate an arbitrary function. For this application the network training is carried out by minimizing the squared residuals of an integral equation. We combine several additional techniques with the new method, i.e., input space discretization, use of ionosonde observation data to improve the vertical resolution, automatic estimation of the biases of the satellite and the ground receivers by using the parameter estimation method, and estimation of plasmasphere contributions to the total electron content on the basis of an assumption of diffusive equilibrium with constant scale height. Numerical experiments for the actual positions of the GPS satellites and the ground receivers are used to validate the reliability of the method. We also applied the method to the analysis of real observation data and compared the results with ionosonde observations which were not used for the network training.
The 30 MHz imaging radar observations of auroral irregularities during the JOULE campaign
Authors: Bahcivan H. , Hysell D. L. , Larsen M. F. , Pfaff R. F.
Published: June 2005

Coherent backscatter from the auroral electrojet was observed by a 30 MHz imaging radar in Anchorage during the Joint Observations of Upper Latitude Electrodynamics (JOULE) campaign conducted from the Poker Flat Research Range in the spring of 2003. The observations were made at the same time that ionospheric electric fields and plasma number densities were measured in situ by instruments on sounding rockets. Neutral wind profiles were also measured during the campaign from triangulation of chemiluminescent trails from rocket releases. Aperture synthesis radar imaging techniques permit the sorting of the coherent backscatter into small azimuth and range bins and the determination of the scattering altitude. Individual Doppler spectra could thereby be unambiguously associated with in situ electric field measurements in the same small volume. We find that the Doppler shifts of the auroral echoes correspond to the ion acoustic speed times the cosine of the flow angle, where the former is predicted according to an empirical wave heating law. Type I echoes are only observed for very small flow angles regardless of the convection speed.
Cytoskeletal rearrangements and cell extensions induced by the US3 kinase of an alphaherpesvirus are associated with enhanced spread
Authors: Favoreel Herman W. , Van Minnebruggen Geert , Adriaensen Dirk , Nauwynck Hans J.
Published: June 2005

The US3 protein is a viral kinase that is conserved among the
Alphaherpesvirinae
. Here, we show that US3 of the swine alphaherpesvirus pseudorabies virus causes dramatic alterations in the cytoskeleton, resulting in the formation of long actin- and microtubule-containing cell projections in infected and transfected cells. Analysis with a GFP-labeled virus showed that multiple virus particles move inside the projections toward the tip. GFP-labeled virus could also be found in the cytoplasm of neighboring cells that were in contact with the projections. In addition, projection formation could be inhibited by using the actin-stabilizing drug jasplakinolide and could be induced by using the Rho kinase inhibitor Y27632. Analyzing the effect of these drugs on intercellular virus spread indicated that the observed US3-induced alterations in the host cytoskeleton are associated with enhanced intercellular virus spread, thereby suggesting a previously undescribed aspect of alphaherpesvirus spread.
Melanin photoprotection in the human retinal pigment epithelium and its correlation with light-induced cell apoptosis
Authors: Seagle Brandon-Luke L. , Rezai Kourous A. , Kobori Yasuhiro , Gasyna Elzbieta M. , Rezaei Kasra A. , Norris James R.
Published: June 2005

Time-resolved electron paramagnetic resonance (TREPR) spectroscopy was used to study melanin free radicals in human retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cells and tyrosine-derived synthetic melanin. TREPR signal traces from RPE cells revealin vivolight-induced melanin free radical photochemistry in more detail than previously known. Electron spin polarization reflecting a non-Boltzmann population within the energy levels of the spin system is observed in RPE cells as the result of the triplet state photoproduction and subsequent disappearance of free radicals in the melanin polymer. In a set of RPE cells cultured from individual sources, differences in optical absorption, continuous wave EPR spectra, and TREPR signals were correlated with apoptosis assays performed by flow cytometry. Continuous wave EPR spectra of RPE cells and TREPR of acidified synthetic melanin suggest that increased melanin aggregation provides an increase in photoprotection in the RPE cells that are relatively less susceptible to blue light-induced apoptosis.
Reverse transcription-associated dephosphorylation of hepadnavirus nucleocapsids
Authors: Perlman David H. , Berg Eric A. , O'Connor Peter B. , Costello Catherine E. , Hu Jianming
Published: June 2005

Hepatitis B viruses are pararetroviruses that contain a partially dsDNA genome and replicate this DNA through an RNA intermediate (the pregenomic RNA, pgRNA) by reverse transcription. Viral assembly begins with the packaging of the pgRNA into nucleocapsids (NCs), with subsequent reverse transcription within NCs converting the pgRNA into the characteristic dsDNA genome. Only NCs containing this dsDNA (the so-called “mature” NCs) are enveloped by the viral envelope proteins and secreted as virions; “immature” NCs, i.e., those containing pgRNA or immature reverse transcription intermediates, are excluded from virion formation. This phenomenon is thought to be caused by the emergence of an intrinsic maturation signal only on the mature NCs. To define the maturation signal, we have devised a method to separate mature from immature duck hepatitis B virus NCs and have compared them to NCs derived from secreted virions. Detailed mass spectrometric analyses revealed that the core protein from immature NCs was phosphorylated on at least six sites, whereas the core protein from mature NCs and that from secreted virions was entirely dephosphorylated. These results, together with the known requirement of core phosphorylation for pgRNA packaging and DNA synthesis, suggest that the NC undergoes a dynamic change in phosphorylation state to fulfill its multiple roles at different stages of viral replication. Although phosphorylation of the NCs is required for efficient RNA packaging and DNA synthesis by the immature NCs, dephosphorylation of the mature NCs may trigger envelopment and secretion.
Effect of dietary protein level and thyroxine on vitamin A depletion from liver in chicks
Authors: Nir I. , Ascarelli I.
Published: June 2005

1. The effect of dietary protein level and supplementation with thyroxine and thiouracil on depletion of liver stores of vitamin A, on the percentage of liver vitamin A in the alcohol form and on the plasma level of vitamin A and protein has been studied in chicks. In an experiment with cockerels the relation was investigated between the vitamin A level of plasma and the electrophoretic pattern of its proteins.

2. Liver vitamin A depletion was considerably reduced by lowering the dietary protein level.

3. Protein malnutrition lowered the percentage of vitamin A found in the liver in the alcohol form.

4. Depletion of vitamin A from the liver was related to the percentage of vitamin A in the alcohol form.

5. Thyroxine increased both vitamin A depletion from the liver and the percentage of vitamin A in the alcohol form, whereas thiouracil had the opposite effect.

6. Plasma vitamin A, and plasma protein contents were significantly lowered in cockerels receiving a 5% protein diet. The drop in plasma protein level was essentially caused by a reduction of the albumin fraction. No significant change in the levels of globulins was observed even after a 4-week period of protein malnutrition.

7. When the dietary protein level was restored to normal both the albumin and vitamin A levels in plasma increased.