bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Barsebäck 'Panic': A Radio Programme as a Negative Summary Event
Authors: Rosengren Karl Erik , Arvidson Peter , Sturesson Dahn
Published: March 2007

According to reports in the mass media, a fictitious radio broadcast about a future disaster at a nuclear power station at Barsebäck in southern Sweden caused widespread panic flight reactions among the population in the area. A telephone survey of a representative sample (n = 1,089) in combination with unstructured interviews with police and other authorities indicates that no panic flight at all did occur. The results are used to question a popular stereotype about panic behaviour in real or imagined disaster situations, manifesting itself, for instance, in Cantril's classic study The Invasion from Mars (1940), and in later interpretations of that study. In the concluding section the Barsebäck incident is regarded in the light of general sociological theory (van Gennep, Merton, Boorstin). The function common to rites of passage and pseudoevents - to turn a slow process or a structure into a socially manageable event - is analyzed and epitomized in the concept of summary event. The fictitious radio programme under study may be re garded as an unsuccessful negative summary event. The increasing need for institutionalized, socially accepted negative summary events is finally under lined.
Vertical Class Mobility in England, France, and Sweden
Authors: Hauser Robert M.
Published: March 2007

This paper presents new findings about English, French, and Swedish mobility tables from the early 1970s that were previously analyzed by Enkson, Gold thorpe & Portocarero and by Hope. The former analysis focused on nonvertical aspects of mobility, while the latter gave priority to vertical mobility. The reanalysis shows that the vertical dimension of mobility is stronger and more autonomous than one would conclude from earlier analyses. At the same time, it is necessary to introduce several parameters for class inheritance in order to fit the data, and these parameters account for more of the association between class origins and destinations than does the vertical aspect of class mobility Educational attainment accounts for part of the vertical aspect of mobility, but income and occupational prestige do not help to explain it. The new models provide direct evidence of a gradient in immobility across the three nations The present findings suggest complementarities between vertical and nonvertical models of class mobility.
Confidence in Institutions: Findings from the Norwegian Values Study
Authors: Listhaug Ola
Published: March 2007

This article reports on an analyses of factors related to confidence in institutions The data are from the 1982 Norwegian Values Study It turns out that the unidimensionality of confidence is strong, but there is some tendency that confidence in social order comes out as a separate dimension in a factor analysis. Using two dependent variables in the analysis, one measuring overall confidence in institutions and one focusing on the confidence in the institutions of social order, these are then correlated with various independent variables The most consistent finding is that the personal satis factions of an individual contribute to confidence in institutions. Basic political attitudes and values have some impact, especially on the social order com ponent. A weak effect of age can also be discerned. Younger people have less confidence in institutions than the older age groups.
A Feminist Perspective on the New Ideology of 'Community Care' for the Elderly
Authors: Wœrness Kari
Published: March 2007

A variety of meanings is attached to the concept 'community care' and, as an ideology, it may function as a legitimation for very different social policies. In this article the different functions of this ideology in old age policy are discussed, and it is argued that elucidation of the conditions and con sequences of the different measures to strengthen community care is impor tant both for social policy and as a feminist question It is further argued that important assumptions in old age policy in the last decades in Scandinavia are based on myths rather than realities as to the elderly's situation, and on an outdated understanding of women's roles in society.
After the Working-class Movement? An Essay on What's 'New' and What's 'Social' in the New Social Movements
Authors: Olofsson Gunnar
Published: March 2007

In the earlv 1980s many social theorists claimed that the 'New Social Move ments' (NSMs) were the authentic social movements of our time This claim is discussed in relation to two traditions in the analysis of social movements. The 'American' tradition focuses on the single-issue movement of a protest and mobilizing character The 'European' tradition focuses on the relation between major societal changes and processes of class formation, the labour movement being the classic case.

In the article the women's movement is discussed as a major cultural revolutionary movement, the different campaigns dealing with the new urban forms of socialized reproduction, housing, planning, etc , as movements for the defence of the 'real consumption', the green and environmentalist movements taking up the conflicting relation nature-society

Is the relation between the NSMs and the new and growing social strata of students and employees within the welfare state, which make up their audience and activist core, to be understood as a parallel to the part played by the 'old' social movements in the making of the working class, the farmer class, etc? It is argued that there is no 'necessary' relationship between the societal changes and the NSMs, as there was between industrialization and the labour movement.

The societal relations and changes around which the NSMs organize themselves - gender contradictions, socialization of reproduction, con tradictions in the forms of modern urban living, nature society - do not single out a new social force as their 'natural' counterpart. They are both more encompassing in their reach and more non-partisan in character. The most likely centre for a possible coalescence of a multitude of NSMs into a major social movement, if not in the class formative sense, is the societally basic relationship, nature-society

The themes and issues raised by the NSMs can in the political process become articulated with existing political and social forces. The capacity of these forces and institutions to absorb the issues raised by the NSMs deter mine the possibility for the NSMs to emerge as a new major social force.
Sociological Approaches to the Professions
Authors: Brante Thomas
Published: March 2007

Studies of the professions clearly illustrate the intricate interplay between general conceptions of society and history, sociological theory, definitions of social categories, empirical research and political values — or, more bnefly, between theory, 'facts' and politics In this article the interplay is illustrated by the two dominant theory-constructions on professions in sociology. The first is the functionalist or 'naive' tradition, the second the neoweberian or 'cynical' alternative. It is argued that both traditions are permeated by several shortcomings. In particular, they have universalistic claims, but are in fact outcomes of professionals' own self-images during specific and limited social and historical circumstances. Sociologies of pro fessions turn out to be ideologies of professionals. In a concluding section the preconditions for a more realistic approach to the professions are outlined.
Flexibility, Segmentation and Use of Labour in Finnish Retail Trade
Authors: Natti Jouko
Published: March 2007

The purpose of the study is to analyse the effects of management strategies on the segmentation of five department store labour markets in Finland. (1) The competitive strategies of firms are expected to have different con sequences for the use of labour (2) Within firms, the differentiated use of labour is examined in relation to the use of different flexibility strategies In department stores the most important strategy for obtaining (numerical) flexibility has been the fast growth of part-time work.
Who Cares?
Authors: Kaul Hjørdis
Published: March 2007

This article compares leave of absence for child care in the five Nordic countries. Despite differences in the length of the time periods and in economic compensations, similarities in the legislations' structures point towards a fundamental patriarchal mentality. When applied to the gender-structured working world, parents use the legal rights in a way that preserves the unequal sharing of economic and practical parenting The study shows the importance of taking into account women's working conditions when trying to explain both their attachment to work and the sharing of care responsibilities between parents.
Stratification and Segregation
Authors: Birkelund Gunn Elisabeth
Published: March 2007

In addition to social class, occupational sex segregation is a structural source of inequality in the labour market This article is an attempt to examine the extent of occupational sex segregation within the Norwegian class structure The results give clear evidence of the impact that gender has on the structuring of occupations, and demonstrate empirically the extent of occupational sex segregation which exists within class boundaries as defined by a (neo) Weberian class scheme Some locations within the class structure are heterogeneous in terms of market and work situations due to segregation. It seems, therefore, that gender, occupational sex segregation and social class fractionalize each other's impact, resulting in a more complex form of stratification
Social Problems in Estonian Mass Media 1975-1991
Authors: Lagerspetz Mikko
Published: March 2007

The lack of legitimacy of the Soviet rule in Estonia was manifested among other things by a deep disagreement between rulers and the ruled over the central problems of society. As the political situation changed from 1985 on, also the problems were defined in new ways, and partially by new actors. From 1988 on, censorship and state monopoly of the mass media were gradually abolished. A content analysis was made on so-called problem articles in the leading Estoman daily Rahva Haal. The years 1975 to 1991 were divided into four periods, characterized by different political situations. The periods were compared with each other; 394 statements of a social problem were coded according to the problem, to the presented reasons and suggested solutions, and to the source of the statement. The so-called Singing Revolution penod 1988 to 1990 differs dramatically from both the earlier and the later periods Many new problems were addressed then, among them the problems of environment, political institutions, and nationality The causes and solutions were often sought from the political and structural level, which was something totally new. The most usual source of statements became the specialists. From 1990 to 1991, the focus is on the problems of economy and political institutions
Industry Diversity Effects on Job Mobility
Authors: Greve Henrich R.
Published: March 2007

The effect of industry variables on individual job mobility has been proposed as a promising new arena for research (Hannan 1988; Carroll, Haveman & Swaminathan 1992). This paper examines how the size diversity of organizations affects the rate of job moves within and out of industries. Using data on the career histones of a sample of Norwegian men from 1950 to 1971, this effect is modeled along with organizational and individual determinants of job mobility. The analyses show that organizational diversity promotes mobility within industries and dampens mobility out of industries, suggesting that the study of diversity offers new insights on job mobility processes and related outcomes.
Child Sexual Abuse - a Study of Controversy and Construction
Authors: Hallberg Margareta , Rigné E.M.
Published: March 2007

In this article we focus on the construction of and controversy surrounding child sexual abuse as a social problem in the Swedish context. Using concepts and approaches from the field of science studies, we investigate how the problem has been introduced to the public and by whom We identify what we call a knowledge-based controversy. The frequency of child sexual abuse, the methods of diagnosing it, and the role of the investigator are highly disputed It would appear that clinical child psychologists are especially engaged in this problem construction as well as in controversy with other professionals. Different strategies are chosen in order to increase professional legitimacy, and exclude others' claims to expertise on the subject. Our conclusion is that at present there is no indication that psychologists have reached a more comprehensive experience and/or unified knowledge of child sexual abuse than any competing professional group dealing with the issue
The Precariously Housed and the Risk of Homelessness: A Longitudinal Study of Evictions in Sweden in the 1980s
Authors: Stenberg Sten-Åke , Kåreholt Ingemar , Carroll Eero
Published: March 2007

This study is intended as a contribution to the ongoing US and European debate on housing inequality and homelessness. We do this by focusing on the problems faced by the 'precariously housed', or people repeatedly threatened with eviction, in the advanced welfare state of Sweden. Our empirical analysis is based on a sample of individuals repeatedly threatened with eviction in Sweden in the period 1982-86. Using proportional hazard regressions, we show that the increase in risk for a new eviction threat for these individuals can best be explained by a combination of unfavorable social circumstances and difficult personal problems, both of which need to be addressed by housing policy.
Review Essay : Structure and Culture: Finnish Sociology, 1990-94
Authors: Alapuro Risto
Published: March 2007

The main traditions in Finnish sociology, the study of social structures and the study of cultural dynamics from a structural perspective, assume a solid position in today's Finnish sociology. Because of the strength of the tradition, even departures from it are marked by it. In their farewell to the Marxist conceptions, parallel to the master trend, a number of students have addressed themselves to reflections on cohesive forces in late modernity, characterized by the decline of the traditional classes and class actors. 'Cultural studies' make it possible to focus on culture without rejecting the structure; they have provided a bridge from structure to culture. Finally, in social constructionism the structure-culture frame seems irrelevant, but a continuity may still exist at a more fundamental level.
Employment Status and Women's Health - Exploring the Dynamics
Authors: Elstad Jon Ivar
Published: March 2007

Employed women report fewer health problems than non-employed women. The social causation explanation argues that these inequalities arise because employment statuses differ as to their consequences for health, while the health-related mobility explanation claims that differences emerge because of selective mobility. The present study focuses on the dynamic relationships between health and employment statuses. Panel data from Norwegian surveys 1980-91 are analysed. Differences in health are already present when young women enter employment statuses. This pattern is reproduced through numerous employment status transitions and changes in health. Log-linear analyses indicate that health-related mobility is more important than social causation, although both models are relevant. Further analyses indicate that health-related mobility primarily occurs in terms of health problems that cause reductions in paid employment.
From Science to Politics: The Menace of Global Environmental Change
Authors: Wilenius Markku
Published: March 2007

Major changes taking place in the global environment are at the centre of a growing research interest today. They are increasingly attracting attention in national and international environmental politics, as well as in current sociological debates. This article examines some of the dimensions involved in these activities. It also looks at the results of a recent study in which the perceptions of Finnish environmental experts were analysed concerning global environmental threats and social resources that are available for devising competent strategies for action. Special attention in the study was given to climate change, which was regarded by the respondents as the most serious global environmental threat today.
Working-class Boys at the Margins: Ethnic Prejudice, Cultural Capital, and Gender
Authors: Pedersen Willy
Published: March 2007

In a population sample of 465 Norwegian adolescents (mean age 19.3 years), the relationship between ethnic prejudice and social class of origin, cultural capital, own education/work, and gender was investigated. The findings revealed that a unidimensional perspective on social class does not hold: least prejudice was found among adolescents from parts of the intermediate strata. High prejudice scores were found among the traditional elite, but top scores came from working-class adolescents. When indicators of parental cultural capital and parental party-political preferences were also introduced, more powerful factors in the family milieu were identified. It was of particular interest that while fathers' socio-economic position was most important, mothers' cultural capital had the greatest impact. Adolescents from areas with many immigrants, with whom they did not interact, had particularly high prejudice scores. Adolescents in theoretical education had scores denoting less prejudice than those who were part of the manual labour force, while there were no differences between those in vocational training and those who were working or were unemployed. Finally, gender was seen to have one of the largest effects: when controlling for all other factors, girls were much more tolerant than boys. The findings are discussed in relation to theories about new class differences, relative deprivation, cultural capital, youth cultures and the gender gap.
Earnings in Elite Groups: The Impact of Social Class Origin
Authors: Hansen Marianne Nordli
Published: March 2007

The question addressed here is whether, and to what extent, social class origin has an impact on earnings among people with similar educational credentials and similar occupational positions. It is argued that earnings advantages of those originating in the upper or upper-middle classes are likely to be found primarily among those who choose education and occupations in the sector of their origin, and in occupations in which the criteria for measuring work performance are unclear. These assumptions are tested out on data on a selection of upper-level educational and occupational groups from the Norwegian censuses of 1980 and 1990. The analyses document that those who have experienced social mobility tend to get the lowest earnings, but the pattern of earnings inequality varies with educational and occupational group. Those originating in the cultural sector gain the greatest earnings advantages there, whereas the highest earnings among managers and business executives are found among those who originate in the business environment.
Young People and Flexibility of the Labour Market: The Willingness of Unemployed Finnish Young People towards Flexible Employment
Authors: Nyyssölä Kari
Published: March 2007

The aim of the study was to find out in what ways young people are willing to be flexible about their work conditions in order to get a job. Attitudes towards flexibility were studied using cluster analysis and data from a survey of young unemployed Finns. The results revealed three significant components of labour market flexibility: contractual flexibility, mobility and unofficial employment. Contractual flexibility meant that a young person agreed on his/her work conditions directly with the employer. Mobility characterized willingness to change residence or even country in order to get a job. Unofficial employment implied the possibility to be employed in the unofficial sector. The pay in this case would be more than the unemployment benefit but less than minimum wages. Half of the respondents took a positive stand to all three components of flexibility. There was also, however, a minority with a negative attitude. These were usually older persons with long work experience. Greater flexibility would compel them to give up many acquired benefits. The conclusion of the study was that those young people who had no benefits to lose were most flexible. Those who had acquired good benefits had strong negative attitudes towards flexibility.
Male Primary Caregivers in Australia: The Process of Becoming and Being
Authors: Grbich Carol F.
Published: March 2007

Over the past twenty years, researchers and other surveyors of the general population have noted changes in the stated ideals and to some extent the behaviours of couples regarding parenting and workforce management. The movement of women into the workforce, notions of equal opportunity, ideals of egalitarianism, a redefinition of masculinity and a greater emphasis on the responsibilities of fathers, all have the potential to shift traditional levels of responsibility on both the home and work fronts. One aspect of a seven-year qualitative study of 25 Australian families, where the men had taken on the primary parenting position, was an exploration of the following questions: what influences do historical cultural values have in this situation? and what capacity do these men have to negotiate for the occupation of what has traditionally been a female position?
Changes in Gender Inequality in Six Eastern European Countries
Authors: van der Lippe Tanja , Fodor Éva
Published: March 2007

This article addresses the question whether or not gender inequality on the labour market increased after the collapse of the communist parties in eastern Europe. Are women the losers in the process of transformation? Several researchers claim that women are the victims; they link this claim to the needs of capitalist production, gender ideologies or the lack of social movements to defend women's interests. We argue that a more thorough analysis is necessary to draw the conclusion that women are the losers. We use data from the survey 'Social Stratification in Eastern Europe after 1989' which was conducted in Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Russia and Slovakia in 1993. Our conclusion is that women in general do not seem to have suffered major setbacks in their economic positions compared to those of men in the first five years after the demise of state socialism. They did not withdraw in large numbers to become full-time housewives, as predicted by various researchers. The restructuring of the economy was instrumental in preventing a large increase in gender differences. Before 1988, women were over-represented in the service sector and men in industry. Due to the growth of the service sector, women's experience and current positions are useful in maintaining their employment patterns. However, men have improved their positions more in areas related to the emerging market economy. Between countries, we did not find many differences in changes in gender inequality between 1988 and 1993, but there are differences which existed already in 1988 and before.
Customer Orientation and Sales Situations: Variations in Interactive Service Work
Authors: Abiala Kristina
Published: March 2007

This article contributes to the discussion of effects of 'emotional labour', or work where the management of feeling to create a publicly observable display is a crucial part. Some authors stress detrimental effects like emotive dissonance and alienation. Others observe the joy and satisfaction people feel in this kind of work. Emotional labour is here presented as a form of acting, which is related to individual and organizational factors, and studied within a Swedish context. To investigate the different forms of service occupations in the private sector and the effect that this kind of work has on people, a qualitative interview study, an organizational study and a survey were conducted. The results reveal both positive and negative effects of emotional labour across different occupations. A typology with four types of service occupations is suggested: (1) 'Work First'; (2) 'Personalized Services'; (3) 'Routine Selling'; and (4) 'Persuasive Selling'.
Exploring the Notion of Experience in Feminist Thought
Authors: Mulinari Diana , Sandell Kerstin
Published: March 2007

Why is the notion of experience so relevant for feminist theory? How has the concept been used and by whom? What are the theoretical and political implications of postmodern theory for a re-thinking of the concept? In these pages we will explore the uses and abuses of the concept of experience in contemporary feminist thought through the works of influential feminist intellectuals. This article has two aims. The first is to create a theoretical space for reflection and re-appraisal of the concept of experience inspired by Dorothy Smith's contribution to feminist sociology. The second is to shift these debates from the periphery to the centre of sociology by taking into account the centrality of the concept for the discipline.
What Others Are Doing
Authors: Caldwell Oliver J.
Published: March 2007

The exchange of persons is, in fact, an educa tional process whereby the resources of education are used to promote certain national and international objectives. This use of education for political purposes has a long history, but it has been greatly intensified in the last generation. Different nations approach the problem in various ways. The British system has been a major factor in creating the new nations which are springing up in the British Commonwealth. The Soviet Union has used education as an effective means of cre ating a favorable political climate in the non-Communist world and is now developing new techniques for influencing the new nations of Africa and Asia. The United States should study what others are doing and evaluate present American programs in planning for a future in which education will be come an ever more important instrument of policy.
Social Invention in the Age of Controls
Authors: De Grazia Alfred
Published: March 2007

The two-century-old concept of social invention can help behavioral science see its tasks more clearly in the Age of Control. All invention is fundamentally social, for it involves a human purpose, function, and communication system. Social invention is new applied social science. It is most needed, and most likely to flourish, in the fields of communication science and the reform of political institutions. Communism, tradi tionalism, and authoritarianism are enemies of behavioral science, but, more than that, of creativity, the generative factor in invention.
Encyclopedias and Education
Authors: Couch W.T.
Published: March 2007

The Editor of the American Oxford Encyclopedia shows how encyclopedias can be used as instruments of education. He dwells upon the importance of choosing the right system of basic concepts for devel oping the contents, and warns of false distinctions between facts and theories.
Chinese Peasant War for Taiping Dreams (1850-64)
Authors: Chung Tan
Published: March 2007

This is the second in the series of four review articles which Dr. Tan Chung is writiug for us. In our last issue we published the first essay on the Opium War. Two other essays on the Reform Movement (1898) and the Boxer Uprising (1899-1900) are to follow. In this essay, Dr. Tan discusses some important and controversial issues about the study of the Taiping Movement, keeping in view both the Communist Chinese perspective and Western scholarly views. Through out the essay, he freely compares the Chinese and English language corpuses of Taiping histo riography for the benefit of our readers who are interested in the history of the Taiping Move ment. — EDITOR.
Foreign Policy Opinion as a Function of International Position
Authors: Hveem Helge
Published: March 2007

The main thesis of this paper is that the world images and foreign policy attitudes of the leading foreign policy and opinion-making strata of a given national actor are a function of the position which that actor enjoys in the international system. This thesis is based on a structural-sociological approach to the functioning of the international system and the ways in which the images and attitudes of elites and other social strata are formed. It proposes a way of classifying national actors according to their position in the international structure along a center-periphery dimension. It emphasizes the importance of symmetry vs. asymmetry in the relationship between actors and the role of penetration and external dominance of national polities. The paper also discusses the potential influence of various factors in the formation of images and attitudes and shows how factors other than the external, 'systemic' one may play a role under certain conditions. It ends up with a discussion of where Norway fits into the model and makes certain propositions concerning images and attitudes held by Norwegian foreign policy elites, being 'centrist' and in certain respects of an 'over-centrist' type.
The Triangular System
Authors: Holbraad Carsten
Published: March 2007

The triangle of the United States, the Soviet Union, and China, though likely to represent only a stage in a transition from the duel of the original two super powers to a complex system of five or more powers, may be the dominant relationship of the seventies. Relations among the three powers will probably be a mixture of conflict and cooperation, though the mixture may not be the same on each side of the triangle. Stabilizing forces are at work in a great-power triad, but there are also sources of instability. A coalition of two powers against the third seems a distinct possibility.
East-West Economic Cooperation —
Authors: Hakovirta Harto , Patokallio Pasi
Published: March 2007

Recent developments in East-West relations have in some connections given impetus to discussions on the role of small and neutral countries in furthering cooperative processes, for instance, through providing examples. The authors examine the Finnish position and performance in this context, with special emphasis on economic coopera tion. Through a comparative analysis it is found that Finland is exceptional in many respects, and that, in the light of the criteria adopted, she qualifies with reservations as a model. In empirical terms this means that Finland has been exceptionally active in trading with the socialist countries, in initiating new forms of economic cooperation, and in overall responsiveness. The possible implications of the Finnish model for East-West cooperation in the future are also taken up for discussion.
Foreigners as Domestic Citizens: Multinational Corporations and the Nation State
Authors: Heum Per A.
Published: March 2007

Heum, P.A. Foreigners as Domestic Citizens: Multinational Corporations and the Nation State. Coopera tion and Conflict, XIV , 1979, 35-47.

The article poses two questions: First, the extent to which the multinational corporations may exert influence on policies executed by any nation state. Secondly, how the multinationals may generate problems for nation state regulations as they are able to do transactions across national borders but still keep them within the corporation. The first question is approached by presenting a framework for dependence analysis, and illustrated with data from the Norwegian Power Study. The second question is just briefly discussed by mentioning that the activities of multinationals may complicate, undermine and generate unintended effects of state actions. The article concludes that there is no reason to treat foreign and domestic multinationals separately; that the question of multinationals is relevant to any nation state; and that the problems they engender can only be solved through international coordination of national policies. The challenge, as the author sees it, is to formulate this strategy so that the effects of local actions may be secured.
Aid and Foreign Investments: The Swedish Case
Authors: Beckman Bjorn
Published: March 2007

Beckman, B. Aid and Foreign Investments: The Swedish Case. Cooperation and Conflict, XIV, 1979, 133-148.

This article, which is a summary of a larger study, examines Swedish aid policy and its relation to Swedish private investments in Third World countries. Post-1976 governments have significantly shifted policy in favour of integrating private investments into official aid policy. Main attention is paid to two policy issues: investment guarantees and a fund to promote investments. The article also surveys the participation of private enterprise in SIDA's indus trial cooperation programme. It examines stands taken by Swedish governments, parliamen tary opposition, trade unions and the organisations of industry.
Soviet Views on Strategic Nuclear Weapons: Orthodoxy and Modernism
Authors: Beukel Erik
Published: March 2007

Beukel, E. Soviet Views on Strategic Nuclear Weapons: Orthodoxy and Modernism. Cooperation and Conflict, XIV, 1979, 223-237.

A controversial question in deterrence theories is Soviet perception of strategic nuclear weapons. Various research communities and political groups state very divergent theories and opinions, which are substantiated by quotations from Soviet public writings. In the present paper views given in the Soviet press are analyzed. It is shown that these professed views are rather divergent and follow an orthodoxy-modernism dichotomy. Since there is no public debate among the advocates of the different views, Soviet writings have to be regarded with caution. Certain writings may support very different conclusions about the Soviet perception of strategic nuclear weapons.
The Stranded USSR Submarine in Sweden and the Question of a Nordic Nuclear-Free Zone
Authors: Leitenberg Milton
Published: March 2007

Leitenberg, M. The Stranded USSR Submarine in Sweden and the Question of a Nordic Nuclear-Free Zone. Cooperation and Conflict, XVII, 1982, 17-28.

The stranding of a Soviet submarine on the south Swedish coast and within the security perimeter of one of Sweden's major naval bases at Karlskrona had a major impact on the public and political debate on the question of a Nordic Nuclear-Free Zone (NFZ). The suggestion for a Nordic NFZ has been a recurrent one for over twenty years. The proposals exist in various forms, but all of them contain two major impediments to their being considered realistic: the exclusion of the Baltic, and the problem of Soviet nuclear weapons on the Kola Peninsula, in the USSR's Northern Fleet, and other USSR nuclear weapons capable of being used against targets in the Nordic region. The submarine stranding directly engaged these questions when Sweden announced that it believed the USSR submarine contained one or more torpedoes armed with a nuclear warhead. This focused attention on the kinds and numbers of nuclear weapons carried by Soviet ships in the Baltic and in the Northern Fleet: torpedoes, submarine launched ballistic missiles, and cruise missiles launched by submarines and surface vessels. The numbers of these in the two fleets are quite substantial. The stranding also meant that the USSR had brought a nuclear weapon within the territory of a non-nuclear weapon state, though the stranding itself can be assumed to have been inadvertent.
Norwegian Petroleum Policy: Factors of Importance when Deciding the Extraction Rate
Authors: Gjerde Gunnar
Published: March 2007

Gjerde, G. Norwegian Petroleum Policy: Factors of Importance when Deciding the Extraction Rate. Cooperation and Conflict, XVII, 1982, 95-103.

Petroleum revenues have to a great extent been channelled into the Norwegian economy in the late 1970's. The recent fall in oil prices shows how exposed the Government is with respect to the disappearance of petroleum revenue. A strategy for the long-term production and use of petroleum revenue is required. To disconnect the use of petroleum revenues from the level of production of petroleum is important, so providing a strategy for risk-hedging, allowing the Government to use part of petroleum revenues to build up future-oriented export industries. Export of capital to offset decline in revenue is another risk-reducing measure as is internationalization of Norwegian industry. Problems in initiating such a policy are touched upon.
From Unanimity to Voting and Consensus: Trends and Phenomena in Joint Decision-Making by Governments
Authors: Törnudd Klaus
Published: March 2007

Törnudd, K. From Unanimity to Voting and Consensus: Trends and Phenomena in Joint Decision-Making by Governments. Cooperation and Conflict, XVII, 1982, 163-177.

The purpose of this article is to make certain preliminary observations regarding methods of making joint decisions by governments. It is possible to perceive a continuum extending from voting between different alternative proposals in conference assemblies with a minimum of negotiation, over various situations of voting or almost unanimous decisions with provisions for opting out, to consensus decisions requiring great efforts of negotiation at least until a 'smallest common denominator' is achieved. The consensus method has gained more prominence in recent years, reflecting a need to give procedural strength to the holders of real power resources who otherwise could be overwhelmed by the power of the vote. The comprehensive approach to decision-making associated with the use of the consensus method has profound effects on the whole conduct of work at multilateral conferences as well as on the substantive outcome — a matter requiring further analysis and study.
Danish Security Policy
Authors: Heurlin Bertel
Published: March 2007

Denmark is a small and extremely vulnerable state. It is situated at the intersection of the bipolar global system and the multipolar West European subsystem. Danish security policy has been formulated along the following three principal lines: (1) Cooperation, i.e. practical cooperative relations between states (furthering mutual understanding, confidence, and peace); (2) detente and negotiation; and (3) defense, i.e. the cooperation between the national Danish defense and the Western defense. This article discusses the effects on Denmark of general international trends in the 1970s and 1980s. Three forms of security policy are dealt with: (1) the official declaratory policy; (2) the military policy and the military apparatus; and (3) planning and analyzing activities. Although Danish security policy is characterized by continuity, certain recent changes are identified. Another basic feature of Danish security policy is the remarkably stable political consensus ever since the approval of the Atlantic Treaty in 1949. Recent years, however, have witnessed increased politicization of security matters.
Measuring Military Expenditures: Purposes, Methods, Sources
Authors: Wiberg Håkan
Published: March 2007

Wiberg, H. Measuring Military Expenditures: Purposes, Methods, Sources. Coop eration and Conflict, XVIII, 1983, 161-177.

The study of military power, balance, capability, etc. is a field in which many central concepts and also the conduct of empirical research might appear similar to those in natural science. A closer look at the empirical bases of this research, however, reveals a number of pitfalls. This article surveys the most important data sources for military expenditures and armaments. Definitions, sources of bias and methodology are dis cussed in the light of these sources; significant variation is found between publications. The importance of this variation seems to be greater for developing countries than for industrialized countries; it is especially crucial for the study of OPEC and socialist countries. It is more significant for the study of the most recent years than previous periods. Besides these factors, the choice of sources should depend on the qualities one wishes to stress: the sources also vary in regard to accuracy, completeness and the political controversiality of issues.
The Reagan Administration, the Soviet Union and Nuclear Arms: Hopes and Fears
Authors: Beukel Erik
Published: March 2007

The Reagan Administration has met with widely differing hopes and fears with regard to its nuclear policy. Many people in the Western world, especially in the United States, have hoped for a radical shift in what has been perceived as unilateral American restraint in the 70's. Others have feared that the Adminstration's hawkish rhetoric has foreshadowed a dangerous escalating arms race between the superpowers. The Adminstration's nuclear weapons policy is considered in terms of its 'essentialist' view of the Soviet Union as an adversary, and the substance of this view is elaborated. Its consequences are assessed and the probabilistic character of any assessment is stressed. Possible consequences are evaluated by focusing on the tenability of an American 'Grand Strategy', the 'convergence' between American and Soviet nuclear doctrines; the restraints on such a policy resulting from domestic American politics and the long-term consequences for the Atlantic Alliance are suggested. The close relationship between domestic American politics and American nuclear policy is stressed. It is emphasized that any deterministic assertions as to an automatic action-reaction phenomenon between the doctrines of the superpowers has to be considered with scepticism.
Transnational Corporations and Third World Industrialisation
Authors: Kiljunen Kimmo
Published: March 2007

This article addresses the question of how Transnational Corporations (TNCs) affect the process of industrialisation in the Third World. An empirical analysis of corporate concentration, manufacturing investments, factors facilitating global industrial restruc turing, and the emergence of Export Processing Zones in Third World countries is offered. The evidence suggests that the short term effects of TNC investments on foreign exchange earnings are positive, but the long term effects rather negative. The employment effects of TNCs are found to be marginal, while jobs are typically unskilled and monotonous. Linkages within corporations' own international production networks are usually preferred to links with host economies. The bargaining position of TNCs vis-à-vis Third World governments is favourable: companies are mobile and there is an abundance of alternative production sites.
Security Dilemmas in Scandinavia. Evaporated Nuclear Options and Indigenous Conventional Capabilities
Authors: Nyberg René
Published: March 2007

'Nordic stability' constitutes a political dissuasion against increased superpower involvement. So long as nuclear weapons have not been used, a conventional area denial capability provides Sweden the ability to withstand nuclear blackmail. A mix of deterrence and assurances vis-à-vis the Soviet Union characterizes Danish and Norwegian security policies. The evaporation of Norwegian and Danish nuclear options has resulted in a complex defence posture of 'maybe-no-first-use' of tactical nuclear weapons with the goal of raising the nuclear threshold. This has enhanced Finnish security by diminishing the possibility that nuclear weapons would be deployed in areas adjacent to the Soviet north-west. The basic challenge of Finnish security policy is to avoid a conflict of interests with her superpower neighbour. It is vital for Finland that Moscow's 'Swedish assumption' does not change.
The Bear and the Mouse That Roared: Soviet Reactions to Public Swedish Criticism — Czechoslovakia and Vietnam
Authors: Jönsson Christer , Petersson BO
Published: March 2007

Public criticism of the superpowers came to be a prominent feature of Sweden's 'active neutrality' by the late 1960s. This article analyzes the Soviet reactions to Swedish criticism (a) of the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968, and (b) of the US intervention in Vietnam, 1967-75. Soviet responses to Sweden's explicit and harsh condemnation of the invasion of Czechoslovakia were delayed and muted due to the ongoing Swedish election campaign. Yet the 1968 experience appears to have had an indirect impact on the Soviet view of Swedish criticism of US warfare in Vietnam. After 1968 Soviet commentaries on Sweden's Vietnam posture were restrained and ambiguous. A number of conceivable explanations are discussed. First, there were components of the Swedish criticism which were likely to arouse suspicions among Soviet leaders, based on their traditional view of Sweden. Second, the domestic politics behind Sweden's external behavior on the Vietnam issue apparently caused concern in Moscow. And finally, Soviet attitudes to the Vietnam War itself were ambiguous. In conclusion, similarities and differences between Soviet and US reactions to Sweden's public criticism of the superpowers are noted.
Alien Submarines in Swedish Waters: The Method of Counting as a Political Instrument
Authors: Salicath Carl P.
Published: March 2007

Salicath, Carl P. Alien Submarines in Swedish Waters: The Method of Counting as a Political Instrument. Cooperation and Conflict, XXII, 1987, 49-55.

Swedish waters have been violated by alien submarines since the beginning of the seventies. After the U-137 incident in 1981, the number of submarine observations rose remarkably. Since 1983, however, the official registration of alien submarines discovered in Swedish waters has become increasingly obscure. The author argues that this registration and the general occurrence of alien submarines has been played down by the Swedish government. It is further argued that this has been done with the aim of providing Sweden with a political instrument in its relations towards the Soviet Union, in order to reduce the submarine incursions themselves, or what can be interpreted as Soviet political pressure on Sweden, in which the submarine incursions are merely a symptom.
The Paramount Importance of Cultural Sources: American Foreign Policy and Comparative Foreign Policy Research Reconsidered
Authors: Knudsen Baard B.
Published: March 2007

The author notes that there are two "worlds" of foreign policy analysis: the quantitative world of comparative foreign policy and the qualitative world of largely non-cumulative and single-case foreign policy studies. A major division concerns the inclusion of "intangibles", of which the "cultural factors" behind a nation's foreign policy may be considered at the core. The article points to the need for theoretically focused comprehensive studies with few cases as a way of bridging these two "worlds", and as a fruitful approach to theory-construction. With American foreign policy as one case, the author demonstrates how cultural sources should be considered a major source component of foreign policy. He then reviews how cultural/societal sources, broadly speaking, have been treated in the comparative foreign policy field and notes that while the "foreign policy events" school largely ignores cultural sources, the theorizing of James N. Rosenau, over a twenty-year period, has come to recognize such sources as fundamental. This, the article notes, seems to be linked to the definition of the dependent variable: foreign policy defined as "behavior" or discrete acts versus "orientation" (cf. K. J. Holsti). Rosenau's "adaptation model" as reformulated by Nicolaj Petersen is subsequently used to demonstrate how cultural/societal sources are of paramount importance when analyzing foreign policy defined as "orientation". The author concludes by proposing a three-level hierarchical definition of foreign policy as (1) foreign policy orientation, (2) sectorial foreign policies/programs of action, and (3) foreign policy behavior. A model is set up which hypothesizes a strong causal relationship between cultural/societal forces and foreign policy orientation and between situational/contextual factors and foreign policy behavior respectively. This fits in with a probabilistic relationship between policy as a "standard used in the making of decisions" and foreign policy behavior as discrete acts, and provides a perspective which helps explain issues related to consistency.