bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
ALCOHOL DEHYDROGENASE-NEGATIVE MUTANTS IN DROSOPHILA: DEFECTS AT THE STRUCTURAL LOCUS?
Authors: Schwartz Marcia , Sofer William
Published: April 2021

Sixteen Adh-negative mutants (induced by ethyl methanesulfonate) were examined for the presence of inactive alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) protein. Four techniques were utilized in an effort to detect this protein: hybrid enzyme formation, intra-cistronic complementation, sodium dodecyl sulfate electrophoresis and antibody precipitation. Eleven of the sixteen negative strains showed evidence of inactive ADH protein and are presumably mutations in the structural element. These results are discussed in light of some recent models of gene organization in higher organisms.
NEW MAP LOCATION OF ilvO IN ESCHERICHIA COLI
Authors: Cohen Bruce M , Jones Elizabeth W
Published: April 2021

Mutations in ilvO, the operator site for operon A of the ilv region of E. coli K-12, are reported to cause a cis dominant derepression of the operon A gene products and to map between ilvC and ilvA. Studies reported here demonstrate that the F25 episome which does not carry the region between ilvC and ilvAbut only ilvE, ilvD and a part of ilvA, can transfer ilvO genetic material. Also, genes of operon A on the F25 episome respond normally to a derepression signal. It is proposed that ilvO is on the F25 episome. Five-point crosses demonstrate that mutations in ilvOmap nearer to ilvE than to ilvA. Considering this and other evidence, it is proposed that the gene order in the ilv region is CADEO, not COADE, with transcription and translation in operon A being from ilvE to ilvA not ilvA to ilvE. It is confirmed that mutations in ilvO cause a cis dominant derepression of the operon A gene products but it is also noted that mutations in ilvO lead to the appearance of an AHAS activity more resistant to inhibition by valine than that of the present O+ strain.
MATING-TYPE MUTATIONS IN SCHIZOSACCHAROMYCES POMBE: ISOLATION OF MUTANTS AND ANALYSIS OF STRAINS WITH AN h
- or h
+ PHENOTYPE
Authors: Meade James H , Gutz Herbert
Published: April 2021

Mutants defective in various steps of the sexual cycle have been isolated from homothallic strains of Schizosaccharomyces pombe by Bresch, Müller and Egel (1968). These mutants include heterothallic h  + and h  - strains. We have isolated additional h  + and h  -mutants from homothallic strains. Those mutants which are due to mutations in the mating-type region were analyzed in detail. Our results show that the mating-type gene mat2 not only has a function in copulation and meiosis, but that it also regulates the formation of the map1 gene product (map1 is a mating-type auxiliary gene). Some of the h  - mutants have lost only one of the three functions while others are defective in at least two, and perhaps all three, functions. Further, we show that the mat1  - allele of h90 strains can mutate to mat1  + but that mutations in mat2 appear to affect the mutational behavior of mat1. Finally, we describe a new inactive mating-type allele, mat2*, which is different from mat2  0 in that it can mutate to mat2  +.
GENETIC ANALYSIS OF SUSCEPTIBILITY TO ISONIAZID-INDUCED SEIZURES IN MICE
Authors: Taylor Benjamin A
Published: April 2021

Four sets of recombinant inbred lines of mice have been used to analyze genetic differences in acute toxicity of the drug, isonicotinic acid hydrazide. Standard inbred strains, their F1 hybrids and recombinant inbred strains were all challenged with a single dose of the drug. The percent mortality of the different groups was analyzed to estimate heritability and the number of genes affecting resistance. The data indicated that resistance factors were dominant, heritability was moderate (.25-.37), and more than one gene was involved in each of four different sets of recombinant inbred lines. Possible approaches for identifying and mapping individual genes affecting resistance are discussed.
MUTATIONS AFFECTING CELL DIVISION IN TETRAHYMENA PYRIFORMIS. I. SELECTION AND GENETIC ANALYSIS
Authors: Frankel Joseph , Jenkins Leslie M , Doerder F Paul , Nelsen E Marlo
Published: April 2021

Fourteen nitrosoguanidine-induced mutations that bring about temperature-sensitive morphological abnormalities resulting from a specific effect on cell division have been isolated as heterozygous phenotypic assortants in Tetrahymena pyriformis syngen 1. Genetic analysis revealed all to be single-gene recessives. Detailed analysis of the kinetics of assortment for one of the mutated alleles revealed a rate (0.0104 pure lines per fission) consistent with that previously observed at other loci in this organism. The mutations fall into six complementation groups (mo1, mo2, mo3, mo6, mo8, and mo12). Homozygotes of mo2 are unconditionally expressed, while all alleles of mo1, mo6, mo8, and mo12 are heat sensitive for division arrest. At the mo3 locus two alleles are heat sensitive, one is primarily cold sensitive, while two are sensitive to both heat and cold. Two out of three combinations of different mo3alleles show conventional Mendelian segregation of conditions of expression. Different alleles of mo1, mo3, mo8, and mo12 also manifest differences in penetrance at the restrictive temperature. Despite these differences involving expression, the abnormal phenotypes themselves are locus-specific and distinctive; in the one case (mo1a and mo1b) in which two alleles manifest somewhat different phenotypes, the F1 between them is intermediate. One additional recessive mutation (fat1) brings about a nonconditional lengthening of the cell cycle, with some arrest of cell division at the restrictive temperature. These findings demonstrate that selection of heterozygotes undergoing phenotypic assortment can be an effective method for obtaining substantial numbers of a desired class of temperature-sensitive mutations in T. pyriformis.
POLYMORPHISM IN A CYCLIC PARTHENOGENETIC SPECIES: SIMOCEPHALUS SERRULATUS
Authors: Smith M Yao , Fraser Alex
Published: April 2021

A survey of sixteen isozyme loci using electrophoretic techniques was conducted for three isolated natural populations and one laboratory population of the cyclic parthenogenetic species, Simocephalus serrulatus. The proportion of polymorphic loci (33%-60%) and the average number of heterozygous loci per individual (6%-23%) in the three natural populations were found to be comparable to those found in most sexually reproducing organisms. Detailed analyses were made for one of these populations using five polymorphic loci. The results indicated that (1) seasonal changes in genotypic frequencies took place, (2) apomictic parthenogenesis does not lead to genetic homogeneity, and (3) marked gametic disequilibrium at these five loci was present in the population, indicating that selection acted on coadapted groups of genes.
SOME GENETIC CONSEQUENCES OF CHANGES IN THE LEVEL OF recA GENE FUNCTION IN ESCHERICHIA COLI K-12
Authors: Lloyd Robert G , Low Brooks
Published: April 2021

Genetic recombination was studied in E. coli mutants that carry lesions in the recA gene but retain some capacity for generating recombinant progeny. We observed that recombination was detectable only at a very low level during the incubation of leaky RecA- merozygotes in broth. However, recombination appeared to occur at much higher frequencies when recombinant progeny were assayed by selection on minimal agar. Analysis of the recombinants obtained with Hfr donors revealed a deficiency of multiple exchanges per unit length of DNA in leaky RecA- strains. In many of these crosses recombinants that inherited donor alleles close to the transfer origin were much reduced in frequency, except when the recipient was also RecB-.
A SEX-SPECIFIC, TEMPERATURE-SENSITIVE MATERNAL EFFECT OF THE DAUGHTERLESS MUTATION OF DROSOPHILA MELANOGASTER
Authors: Cline Thomas W
Published: April 2021

Every aspect of the phenotype of the daughterless (2-41.5) maternal effect mutation was found to be strongly temperature sensitive. Above 22°, da/da mothers produced no daughters; however female progeny did survive the da maternal effect if the last 60 hours of oogenesis and the first three hours of embryonic development took place at 18°. The females which survived under these conditions displayed morphological abnormalities in a variety of adult cuticular structures, characteristic of cell death during development. In contrast, their male siblings were morphologically normal. Upon prolonged exposure to 29°, da/da females became sterile but continued to lay eggs. Some sexually mosaic progeny from da/da mothers survived even at 25°, but the distribution and development of the female tissue in these mosaics were abnormal. It is suggested that there are multiple functions of the da  + gene during oogenesis, one of which may be required specifically for the subsequent survival of female cells throughout the embryo. In addition to and distinct from its effect during oogenesis, the da mutation acted in both sexes of progeny as a recessive temperature-sensitive lethal mutation with a TSP during the first half of embryonic development.
GENETICS OF CORTISONE-INDUCED CLEFT PALATE IN THE MOUSE—EMBRYONIC AND MATERNAL EFFECTS
Authors: Biddle F G , Fraser F C
Published: April 2021

Differences between mouse strains in frequency of embryonic, cortisone-induced cleft palate were examined. Probit analysis demonstrated a family of linear and parallel dose-response curves for different inbred and hybrid embryos. Since the differences between genotypes were not in the slopes of the response curves but rather in their location, it is proposed that the median effective dose (ED50) of cortisone required to induce cleft palate (or the tolerance) provides a more appropriate definition of the response trait and its difference than a frequency statement. The tolerance of C57BL/6J is dominant to that of A/J. A maternal effect of A/J relative to C57BL/6J dams caused a two-fold reduction in the embryonic tolerance of cortisone. Cortisone-induced cleft palate and mortality were separate response traits.—In these and previous studies on cortisone- and other glucocorticoid-induced cleft palate in the mouse, the nature of the cleft-palate-response curve appeared to be the same for all glucocorticoids, and within-strain differences in tolerance could be used as measures of potency or bioassays for a particular effect of the glucocorticoids.
A GENETIC FINE STRUCTURE ANALYSIS OF THE SUPPRESSOR 3 LOCUS IN SACCHAROMYCES
Authors: Rothstein Rodney J
Published: April 2021

A meiotic fine structure map of a yeast tyrosine-inserting ochre suppressor, SUP3-o, was constructed. This was accomplished by examining ten intragenic suppressor-inactive revertants for their relationship to each other and to the original SUP3-o mutation. The second-site revertants map on both sides of the SUP3-o mutation. The meiotic map length based on the summation of short intervals is 45+/105 asci.
LINKAGE OF GENETIC DETERMINANTS FOR MOUSE β-GALACTOSIDASE ELECTROPHORESIS AND ACTIVITY
Authors: Breen Gail A M , Lusis Aldons J , Paigen Kenneth
Published: April 2021

An electrophoretic polymorphism for β-galactosidase has been identified among common inbred strains of mice. It is inherited as a single Mendelian factor with two alleles showing codominant expression. This structural gene, Bge, is closely linked (0/163 recombinants) with the Bgs site on chromosome 9 which regulates systemic levels of β-galactosidase. The distribution of electrophoretic and activity phenotypes among inbred strains is not concordant, indicating that they result from separate mutations. Three aspects of β-galactosidase realization, its structure, systemic regulation and developmental program, are now known to be organized in close proximity on chromosome 9. Considered in conjunction with evidence from other mammalian systems, this suggests that the mammalian genome, like Drosophila, is organized into large functional units in which relevant regulatory and developmental information is closely associated with individual structural genes.
COMPLEMENTATION TEST BETWEEN ALKALINE PHOSPHATASE REGULATORY MUTATIONS phoB AND phoRc IN ESCHERICHIA COLI
Authors: Pratt Charles , Torriani Annamaria
Published: April 2021

A phoRc and a phoB mutation belong to the same complementation group suggesting that there is a single positive control gene for alkaline phosphatase synthesis.
CORTISONE-INDUCED CLEFT PALATE IN THE MOUSE. A SEARCH FOR THE GENETIC CONTROL OF THE EMBRYONIC RESPONSE TRAIT
Authors: Biddle F G , Fraser F C
Published: April 2021

The cause of the difference in the mean tolerance (ED50) to cortisone-induced cleft palate between the embryos of the A/J and C57BL/6J strains appears to be due to a small number of genes. A single major gene effect and a polygenic model, in the sense of many equal and additive genes, have been ruled out. The embryonic tolerance of C57BL/6J is greater than and dominant to that of A/J; two or three loci, possibly with independent effects, appear to explain the variability. A component of the variation in embryonic response may be associated with or linked to the major histocompatibility locus (H-2). No evidence was found to support the hypothesis of X-chromosome linked susceptibility to cortisone-induced cleft palate.
THE EFFECT OF A SELECTED LOCUS ON LINKED NEUTRAL LOCI
Authors: Thomson Glenys
Published: April 2021

The effects produced on linked neutral loci as a selected locus evolves towards its equilibrium value are considered. Significant effects on the neutral loci arise if the recombination fraction between the neutral and selected loci is smaller than the order of magnitude of the selective differences at the selected locus. The effect on gene frequencies at the neutral loci, that is, the hitchhiking effect, is determined, as well as the linkage disequilibrium generated by this hitchhiking effect. One of the more important findings is that significant disequilibrium can be generated between two neutral loci by the evolution of a linked selected locus. Consideration is given to the problem of determining how the effect of selection operating in natural populations can be detected, the question of the establishment of inversions in populations, and also to the nonequilibrium properties of populations.
EFFECTS OF THE MITOTIC CELL-CYCLE MUTATION cdc4 ON YEAST MEIOSIS
Authors: Simchen G , Hirschberg J
Published: April 2021

The mitotic cell-cycle mutation cdc4 has been reported to block the initiation of nuclear DNA replication and the separation of spindle plaques after their replication. Meiosis in cdc4/cdc4 diploids is normal at the permissive temperature (25°) and is arrested at the first division (one-nucleus stage) at the restrictive temperature (34° or 36°). Arrested cells at 34° show a high degree of commitment to recombination (at least 50% of the controls) but no haploidization, while cells arrested at 36° are not committed to recombination. Meiotic cells arrested at 34° show a delayed and reduced synthesis of DNA (at most 40% of the control), at least half of which is probably mitochondrial. It is suggested that recombination commitment does not depend on the completion of nuclear premeiotic DNA replication in sporulation medium.—Transfer of cdc4/cdc4 cells to the restrictive temperature at the onset of sporulation produces a uniform phenotype of arrest at a 1-nucleus morphology. On the other hand, shifts of the meiotic cells to the restrictive temperature at later times produce two additional phenotypes of arrest, thus suggesting that the function of cdc4 is required at several points in meiosis (at least at three different times).
OCHRE SUPPRESSION IN SALMONELLA TYPHIMURIUM
Authors: Michalka J , Margolin P
Published: April 2021

A bacterial strain was constructed which permitted positive selection for ochre suppressor mutations as well as for the loss of suppressor function. A derivative bearing an ochre suppressor mutation was selected following mutagenesis with N-methyl-N-nitroso-N'-nitroguanidine. The suppressor-bearing strain was treated with nitrous acid to eliminate suppressor function by mutation, and a strain lacking suppressor activity was selected. The selected strain which had lost suppressor function was then subjected to mutagenesis to induce a second suppressor mutation. The alternating sequence (induction of an ochre suppressor mutation → induction of a mutation eliminating ochre suppressor activity) was repeated 29 and one-half times in a single strain. Some of the suppressor mutations were tentatively mapped at four locations on the chromosome. The first suppressor mutation selected maps at about minute 30 on the chromosome. The second suppressor selected maps at approximately minute 60, while the third suppressor maps nearby, possibly as far as minute 72. Among the subsequently selected suppressor mutations, all eleven which were mapped were cotransducible with the gal and nic loci near minute 36 on the chromosome and may represent more than one suppressor gene. Deletions were selected which inactivate two of the ochre suppressor alleles mapping near the gal-nic region, suggesting that one or more such genes are dispensable. Some evidence also suggests that the occurrence of either deletion mutations or transduction-mediated recombination events in the gal-nic region can cause instability of nearby suppressor alleles.
BEHAVIOR OF SOMATIC CELLS HOMOZYGOUS FOR ZYGOTIC LETHALS IN DROSOPHILA MELANOGASTER
Authors: Ripoll Pedro
Published: April 2021

The behavior in genetic mosaics of 86 EMS-induced sex-linked lethals has been studied. Seventy-five percent of them are autonomous in gynandromorphs. Forty-three lethals nonviable in sex mosaics have been analyzed in X-ray-induced spots in the abdominal tergites and the imaginal wing derivatives. Of the lethals, 90.7% are homozygous viable in mosaic spots, and only 9.3% have been classified as epidermal cell lethal. Thus, the fraction of the Drosophila genome essential for cell viability has been estimated to be about 420 genes. The phenotypes at the cellular level of some cell-viable mutations altering cell parameters (mitotic orientation, differentiation, etc.) are described.
EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT IN HOUSE FLY EGGS FERTILIZED WITH GENETICALLY DEFICIENT SPERM
Authors: LaChance Leo E , Richard Robert D , Johnson Odell A , Belich Charmaine
Published: April 2021

In house flies, Musca domestica L., eggs fertilized with sperm that have chromosome deficiencies and duplications do not hatch, but develop to a stage where a fully differentiated, prehatch larva is formed. Fifteen different chromosome translocations involving most of the 10 arms of the 5 autosomes were studied by crossing male translocation heterozygotes to normal females. Egg hatch was reduced to 36–66% depending on the translocation used. Eggs that did not hatch after 24 hours were fixed, stained, and examined for stage of development. Several translocations involving the right arm of chromosome 4 indicate that the region closest to the centromere contains genes that affect the process of syngamy or early cleavage divisions, but do not reduce the ability of the sperm to compete for egg fertilization. Approximately 70% of the autosomal genes can be absent from sperm (not simultaneously but in different crosses) without inhibiting embryonic development.
LINKAGE DISEQUILIBRIUM IN NATURAL POPULATIONS OF DROSOPHILA MELANOGASTER. SEASONAL VARIATION
Authors: Langley Charles H , Ito Kazuko , Voelker Robert A
Published: April 2021

Linkage disequilibrium among ten polymorphic allozyme loci and polymorphic inversions on chromosomes 2 and 3 in a natural population of Drosophila melanogaster was examined early and late in the annual season. Similar to previous studies, little linkage disequilibrium was observed among allozymes. The two significant cases that were observed in the first sample behaved in a contradictory way. One declined much more rapidly than expected due simply to recombination; the other declined slowly as expected. There was little change in allozyme or inversion frequencies during the season.
THE DETECTION OF SYMPATRIC SIBLING SPECIES USING GENETIC CORRELATION ANALYSIS. I. TWO LOCI, TWO GAMODEMES
Authors: Makela M E , Richardson R H
Published: April 2021

Four models are presented describing zygotic frequencies at two loci for one or two sympatric but genetically differentiated populations or "gamodemes." Linkage disequilibrium within gamodemes is allowed in two of the models. Maximum likelihood criteria are used to fit the models to the observed numbers of zygotes in a sample. A fitting-testing sequence for choosing a best model is described and the power of the test is analyzed. The statistical characteristics of the genetic parameter estimates were examined by simulation studies. In general, estimates were reliable when allele frequency differences between gamodemes were greater than 0.30 at both loci. This method may be used to study the population structure of samples with fewer heterozygotes than expected for Hardy-Weinberg populations, including the detection and genetic description of sibling species having overlapping ranges.—An example is given for Drosophila longicornis and D. propachuca, two sibling species within the mulleri complex of the repleta group which have been studied in detail using more conventional techniques. The reanalysis using the approach derived in this paper confirmed the reproductive isolation of these two species, and hinted at the possibility of further subdivision within D. propachuca.
The Scharfetter–Gummel scheme for aggregation–diffusion equations
Authors: Schlichting André , Seis Christian
Published: April 2021

In this paper we propose a finite-volume scheme for aggregation–diffusion equations based on a Scharfetter–Gummel approximation of the quadratic, nonlocal flux term. This scheme is analyzed concerning well posedness and convergence towards solutions to the continuous problem. Also, it is proven that the numerical scheme has several structure-preserving features. More specifically, it is shown that the discrete solutions satisfy a free-energy dissipation relation analogous to the continuous model. Consequently, the numerical solutions converge in the large time limit to stationary solutions, for which we provide a thermodynamic characterization. Numerical experiments complement the study.
Post-COVID Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in the Deployed Environment
Authors: Ghoddusi Faraz , Garcia David , Harroun Teresa
Published: April 2021

Cases of multisystem inflammatory syndrome after current or previous SARS-CoV-2 infection have been extensively documented in children. Although there has been recent recognition of a similar adult post-COVID entity known as multisystem inflammatory syndrome in adults (MIS-A), these cases have rarely been reported. This report describes the case of a soldier in the deployed setting with a benign initial clinical presentation who rapidly developed life-threatening MIS-A.
Bayesian Markov models improve the prediction of binding motifs beyond first order
Authors: Ge Wanwan , Meier Markus , Roth Christian , Söding Johannes
Published: April 2021

Transcription factors (TFs) regulate gene expression by binding to specific DNA motifs. Accurate models for predicting binding affinities are crucial for quantitatively understanding of transcriptional regulation. Motifs are commonly described by position weight matrices, which assume that each position contributes independently to the binding energy. Models that can learn dependencies between positions, for instance, induced by DNA structure preferences, have yielded markedly improved predictions for most TFs on in vivo data. However, they are more prone to overfit the data and to learn patterns merely correlated with rather than directly involved in TF binding. We present an improved, faster version of our Bayesian Markov model software, BaMMmotif2. We tested it with state-of-the-art motif discovery tools on a large collection of ChIP-seq and HT-SELEX datasets. BaMMmotif2 models of fifth-order achieved a median false-discovery-rate-averaged recall 13.6% and 12.2% higher than the next best tool on 427 ChIP-seq datasets and 164 HT-SELEX datasets, respectively, while being 8 to 1000 times faster. BaMMmotif2 models showed no signs of overtraining in cross-cell line and cross-platform tests, with similar improvements on the next-best tool. These results demonstrate that dependencies beyond first order clearly improve binding models for most TFs.
Networking mechanisms
Authors: Elfring Tom , Klyver Kim , van Burg Elco
Published: April 2021

Entrepreneurs benefit from their social network positions. In this chapter, we question how entrepreneurs get those benefits. We distinguish two broad perspectives on the way networks are conceptualized—namely, the entrepreneur’s business network perspective and the social network perspective. The business network perspective, with strong links to the strategy field, focuses on the potential beneficial effects of formal relationships with suppliers, customers, trade associations, and other professional connections. The content of the ties represent value and influence performance. In contrast, the social network perspective has its roots in sociology. Its central idea is that position within a social structure influences entrepreneurs’ attitudes and behaviors and thus affects their performance. These two perspectives jointly point at underlying mechanisms that explain how particular network dimensions in fact turn into social capital with positive and/or negative impacts on performance and how entrepreneurs can actively shape their networks and resulting benefits. Our mechanism-based approach aligns and synthesizes these two perspectives and benefits from their complementarity.
Introduction
Authors: Heinz Annelise
Published: April 2021

The Introduction provides an orientation to the book and its key questions: What did it mean to become “modern” in the early twentieth century? How did American ethnicities take shape in the years leading up to and after World War II? How did middle-class women experience and shape their changing roles in society, before the social revolutions of the late twentieth century? How are these things related? The Introduction also covers an overview of mahjong’s trajectory in the United States. It examines background related to the history of leisure, gender, and consumerism in addition to introducing key sources and methodologies. The introduction sets up the book to tell the story of mahjong’s role in the creation of identifiably ethnic communities, women’s access to respectable leisure, and how Americans used ideas of China to understand themselves.
Cosmopolitan Roots in Shanghai
Authors: Heinz Annelise
Published: April 2021

Mahjong had been spreading throughout China’s urban centers for four decades before the rest of the world began playing it. A new elite class of Chinese intermediaries eventually helped introduce mahjong to American businessmen and travelers, for whom it soon served similar purposes of community, entertainment, and posturing as it did for Chinese players. While expatriate male social circles were more visible, the growing numbers of both American women and Western-educated Chinese women helped create new patterns and places of interaction. The seeds of the gender shift from predominately male to female mahjong players originated in the expat world. Mahjong’s path through American social circles highlights the dynamics of leisure and domestic labor that underwrote the patterns of foreign life in semi-colonial China.
The Americanization of Mahjong
Authors: Heinz Annelise
Published: April 2021

During the years of depression, war, and postwar expansion, mahjong evolved in the United States and abroad, creating discrete national, regional, and community forms. In the 1940s, the wives of Air Force officers created their own version, which continued to spread across postwar bases. The most influential community adaptation by far was driven by the National Mah Jongg League. Over the ensuing decades, eventually hundreds of thousands of players, mostly but not exclusively Jewish American women, played their “National” version of the international Chinese game. The changes to the game that the League initiated were enabled by their proximity to the small factories making the tiles. The locus of mahjong manufacturing for the American market moved from China to plastic fabricating shops in New York City. As factories developed in concert with distinctive regional and community-based forms of the game, American mahjong grew into a domestic industry.
Epilogue
Authors: Heinz Annelise
Published: April 2021

From the twentieth century into the twenty-first, mahjong’s cultural meaning continued to evolve and diversify along with the social, demographic, and technological changes that marked each era. Today mahjong is once again rising in popularity. The game’s adaptability continues to undergird its evolving social meanings, from ongoing ethnic and gendered resonances to a new digital world and increasing diversification. A mahjong revival is being fueled by collectors interested in the game’s aesthetics and materiality, nostalgic baby boomers recalling their mothers’ forms of play and community, and younger generations looking for ethnic roots and undeterred by gendered stigmas, as an American gaze increasingly fixates on a China seen as, once again, both alluring and ominous.
Health Inequality
Authors: Schemmel Christian
Published: April 2021

This chapter argues that relational egalitarianism has distinctive, and plausible, implications not only for the goods directly produced by social cooperation, but also for health. First, it yields a clear ordering of the injustice of different kinds of health inequalities: inequalities caused by inegalitarian relations which are independently unjust are more unjust than those caused by other social processes, which in turn are more unjust (unless justified according to the model developed in the preceding chapter) than those not so caused. The resulting requirements fit well with important strands in public health research on the social determinants of health. Second, it also justifies the universal provision of healthcare, and relational egalitarians need not, and should not, be committed to prioritizing patients with socially caused health deficiencies at the point of delivery of treatment. There are other, better ways to justly prioritize the fight against such health inequalities.
Nathan Cohen, the Man without a Country
Authors: Young Elliott
Published: April 2021

Nathan Cohen, a Russian-Brazilian Jew, was declared insane and deported from the United States in 1914. After being twice refused landing in Brazil and Argentina, Cohen remained trapped on a ship in New York’s harbor with no country willing to accept him. Cohen’s well-publicized story reflected Americans’ fear of immigrants and immigrants’ difficulty navigating increasingly restrictive immigration policies. This episode also reveals how psychiatric evaluations were used at the beginning of the twentieth century to identify, detain, and deport supposedly “unfit” and “mentally defective” immigrants. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the mental hospital was by far the carceral institution most likely to hold both immigrants and citizens, and the rate of mental hospital incarceration then is equivalent to the rate in the more recent era of mass incarceration in jails and prisons.
Conclusion
Authors: Young Elliott
Published: April 2021

Although the Supreme Court limited detention for non-citizens in the first decade of the twenty-first century (Zadvydas [2000] and Martinez [2005]), its most recent decisions indicate that under certain circumstances non-citizens can be held indefinitely behind bars with no possibility of even a bond hearing. In practice, non-citizens deemed excludable from the United States are like the forever prisoners of Guantanamo, exposed to massive state power with few constitutional protections. Khalid Qassim is one of the forty Guantanamo detainees held for more than eighteen years to date with no charges and no trial. Although Guantanamo prisoners are not voluntary immigrants, they share with immigrants a lack of protection by the US Constitution and a vulnerability to indefinite detention. Immigrant detention today is part of a carceral landscape in the United States that includes more than 2 million citizens behind bars.
Conclusion
Authors: Smith Christian , Adamczyk Amy
Published: April 2021

The conclusion draws together the various findings and arguments in this book into a final assessment. It emphasizes the complex, contingent, and multileveled forces that shape American parents’ task today of passing on religion to their children. Emphasis is placed on parenting as a “project” involving difficult responsibilities. The conclusion summarizes the main practices that appear most successfully to transmit religion from parents to children.
La bohème in context
Authors: Wilson Alexandra
Published: April 2021

This chapter provides a brief overview of the genesis of La bohème, discussing Puccini’s relationship with his librettists and publisher, and where the work sat in his career. It considers the place of the opera within the nineteenth-century Italian operatic tradition (including its relationship to the verismo movement), as well as the extent to which Puccini was influenced by foreign composers. It identifies the opera’s key stylistic hallmarks and explains the relationship between music, characterisation, and dramatic pacing. The chapter then examines how Puccini treats the opera’s core dramatic themes of love, friendship, death, and nostalgia, as well as considering his representation of male and female characters.
The National Question
Authors: Shadle Douglas W.
Published: April 2021

Although European composers had turned to folksongs for inspiration while writing instrumental pieces in the first half of the nineteenth century, their counterparts in the United States were much slower to adopt the practice. Given the country’s ethnically and racially diverse population, musicians did not reach a consensus about what folk music would be most appropriate to project an American national musical identity in the first place. By the early 1890s, however, the leading critic Henry Krehbiel had begun to argue that Antonín Dvořák would help US composers develop a folk-based style during his tenure as director of the National Conservatory.
The Fiery Debate
Authors: Shadle Douglas W.
Published: April 2021

About eight months after Antonín Dvořák became director of Jeannette Thurber’s National Conservatory of Music in New York, he weighed in publicly on the question of American musical identity and argued that African American vernacular music (or “negro melodies”) should become the foundation of a national classical style. The New York Herald, which first printed his remarks, stoked a months-long debate that exposed deep-seated anti-Black racism throughout the country’s classical music industry as many musicians rejected the Bohemian’s suggestions outright. Dvořák remained supportive of African American music and musicians but did not fully understand the political implications of his positions.
In
Authors: Nakai You
Published: April 2021

David Tudor has long been known as an influential yet enigmatic character who lived in many anecdotes and spoke only in riddles on the few occasions he did so. The beginning of this research was an accidental encounter with Tudor’s materials at the Getty Research Center, which revealed the possibility of actually examining what he left behind. I gradually began to realize that the endeavor might be best seen as a complex puzzle that Tudor had composed for posterity to solve. In order to cope with the many obstacles on the way, both technical as well as conceptual, I developed a circular method of approaching Tudor’s materials from the way Tudor approached his materials, a sort of reverse musicology which accumulates its tools and theories from the very object of research. Along the way there were some influences from critical organology or microhistory, but the most important discipline in solving Tudor’s puzzle was keeping the focus on the level of specificity without quickly resorting to generalizations.
Island Eye Island Ear
Authors: Nakai You
Published: April 2021

For more than ten years since 1974, Tudor collaborated with Fujiko Nakaya and Jackie Monnier on a grand-scale project to convert an entire island into a musical instrument. His plan was to play back recordings of sounds recorded at various locations on an island via parabolic antenna loudspeakers installed throughout the same island, which created sound beams modulated by wind that visitors would hear only when they crossed paths with them. Although Tudor spoke of the aim of Island Eye Island Ear as an attempt to examine the maximum scale of feedback, neither electronic nor acoustic feedback appears in the plan. This puzzle can only be solved by accounting for the experience of the visitors who walk around the island-instrument hearing one sound and reflecting on another heard before, something Tudor was exploring in other works from the same period such as Rainforest. The fact that the island project was met by criticisms of environmental destruction and remained unfinished points to the idiosyncratic nature of Tudor’s conception of “nature” derived from the teachings of Rudolf Steiner, and hints at the possible limit of his conceptual and physical enhancement of what musical instruments can be.
Out
Authors: Nakai You
Published: April 2021

Tudor’s final work was a series of visual art made in collaboration with Sophia Ogielska. Using his old diagram of Untitled as material, Tudor aimed to make a tablature-like map detailing the actual way he performed the 1972 no-input piece. Ogielska remembers a silent concert Tudor performed using the diagram printed on transparencies and projected in human scale onto the wall of his room. At the end, they ran out of time, and Tudor had already lost his eyesight when the Maps were finally completed. However, Tudor’s insistence on specific colors on the transparencies that would cast colorful shadows, a concern that appears to have been rooted in his synesthesia, resulted in the use of special paint that, as a byproduct, enabled the blinded Tudor to touch the surface of the small-scale prototypes that Ogielska had made with his fingertips and sense the work through auxiliary channels. This fact triggers a reflection, for this entire study, which began through an accidental encounter with Tudor’s materials, has similarly been a product of countless by-products which were neither intended nor entirely fortuitous, but rather influenced from afar through many seeds planted in advance.
Ecological Factors in the Emergence of Pathogens in Commercially Important Crustaceans
Authors: Shields Jeffrey D. , Huchin-Mian Juan Pablo
Published: April 2021

Several pathogens have caused significant disease issues in crustacean aquaculture and fisheries. The agents range from viruses, bacteria, fungi, protists, and even other crustaceans. They have caused direct and indirect losses to several commercial species. Many are highly specialized and require significant training to identify properly. The main causal factors involved in the emergence, transmission, and spread of disease agents in commercially important crustaceans are reviewed. The focus is on the ecological factors that lead to outbreaks, particularly the interplay between environmental, pathogen, and host factors as well as anthropogenic stressors and how these lead to or modulate outbreaks of pathogens. Examples include factors associated with outbreaks in shrimp, crayfish, and crab aquaculture as well as those in lobster and crab fisheries. The prevention and management of disease are examined in both aquaculture and fisheries settings. Although disease outbreaks are often considered unmanageable, a few mitigation strategies have been developed between aquaculture and fisheries, and some have been implemented to limit the impact of diseases on commercially important host populations, particularly in the aquaculture setting.
Value and Values
Authors: Phelps Charles E. , Madhavan Guru
Published: April 2021

Many decisions are done intuitively. Sometimes, this works well, and sometimes they lead us astray. Tools of systems engineering recognize human biases and ask about what we do best—specify what is most important to us under the circumstances. This chapter presents a brief introduction into this world (multi-criteria decision analysis) using an example comparing three fictitious wines to show how different preferences lead to different rankings of wine quality, even when using the same “objective” data. This is as it should be—tastes differ, and good decision support systems take this into account. At this point, we focus on decisions made by one person. Later chapters focus on combining a diversity of individual preferences into a group choice.
Choosing How to Choose
Authors: Phelps Charles E. , Madhavan Guru
Published: April 2021

“Majority rule” seems like the fairest and best voting process imaginable, yet it simply doesn’t work in many cases. Dozens of different voting rules have been proposed to assemble the preferences of individuals into a collective group decision. Some use rank-order ballots. Some use rating scales (like “stars” for Uber drivers or amazon.com purchases). Some use letter grades like those assigned by teachers to students. This chapter reviews over a dozen different voting methods, showing how and why they can lead to different choices even with the same set of voter preferences using a simple example where 19 people (e.g., at a conference together somewhere) vote to decide where to have dinner—an American, a Brazilian, a Chinese, or an Indian restaurant. The powerful conclusion emerges that it is the voting method, not the voters’ preferences, that determines the choice.
Superpowers, God, Omniscience, and Afterlife
Authors: Wellman Henry M.
Published: April 2021

Theory of mind not only begins and develops robustly in early childhood, but also continues beyond that into older childhood and adulthood. A good window on these later developments is children’s emerging understandings of possible extraordinary mental abilities: children’s understanding of, and wrestling with, concepts like God, superheroes, Hell, and omniscience. Superheroes provide a next step beyond preschool as children’s theory of mind moves beyond thinking about the ordinary to wrestle with the extraordinary. Interest in God often begins with partial understanding and also first springs from children’s interest in strength and power. From these beginnings, children reach for the concepts of God, omniscience, the afterlife, and the soul. This journey tells an anthropomorphism story: Children begin by understanding the limited and fallible minds of ordinary people. From this base they move toward an ever-expanding grasp of extraordinary minds.
Theory of Mind at Work
Authors: Wellman Henry M.
Published: April 2021

This chapter looks at theory of mind at work. Theory of mind is at work in ways big and small, in ways hidden and obvious. It is a foundation for people’s human way of looking at the world, so whether false or true, whether directed at themselves or at others, it colors their thinking, their institutions, and their basic beliefs. Societally, it shapes legal and moral codes, written and pictorial conventions, and screen media. Individually, it shapes people’s feelings, their gift giving, their teaching and learning, or their failures to learn. It is at work in adults and in children and in the way people can bring together their adult and childhood selves. Ultimately, it is a foundational piece of who we were, who we are, who we will become, and how those knit together.
Beatles Fandom
Authors: Leonard Candy
Published: April 2021

A confluence of demographic, technological, political, and other cultural factors in the 1960s resulted in the Beatles becoming an epochal phenomenon. Never in human history had millions of people around the world received and reacted to the same communication at the same time over a period of years. The nonstop deluge of compelling sounds, words, images, and ideas the band put forth made it a unique source of emotional, intellectual, aesthetic, and spiritual nurturance, distinct and apart from parents and other traditional sources of socialization. Using a synthesis of sociocultural and phenomenological analyses, this chapter shows how and why Beatles fandom endures as a kind of secular religion, serving the same functions in fans’ lives that religion serves in the lives of believers.
A Hard Day’s Write
Authors: Duffett Mark
Published: April 2021

Fan fiction is, ordinarily, nonprofessional writing—premised thematically on media texts, celebrities, or artistic creations. Some fanfic uses public figures as the basis for characters and is called real person fiction (RPF). Bandfic is a subgenre of RPF involving rock musicians. Slash fiction is a subset of fanfic involving same-sex intimacy between central characters. Real person slash (RPS) is a fanfic subgenre that hybridizes RPF with slash and can involve pairs of musicians. One typical Beatles fanfic story on Archive of Our Own, is listed as male-to-male romance between John Lennon and Paul McCartney and tagged with angst, love confessions, rejection, unrequited love, and period-typical homophobia. In academia, discussions about such fanfic have covered copyright, fan labor or play, fan literacy and reading practice, community-created archives, world building, identity politics, or subversion and censorship. This chapter considers a less-discussed question: how does RPF about the Beatles relate to celebrity fandom?
Periphrôn Pênelopeia
Authors: Shapiro H. A.
Published: April 2021

A fine marble torso of a seated woman was found in the ruins of the palace at Persepolis that was burned down by Alexander the Great’s army in 331 bce. The statue, now in Teheran, has aroused considerable interest as a unique example of a work of High Classical Greek art that ended up at the Persian court. From comparison with fifth-century terracotta reliefs and vases, as well as Roman copies that must go back to a second, nearly identical, and now lost statue, the woman holding her head in a melancholy pose can be identified as Homer’s Penelope. A recent study by Hölscher has proposed an intriguing scenario, in which one of the two statues would have accompanied Kallias, as a diplomatic gift, when he went to negotiate a peace treaty with the Great King in 449, while the other stood on the Athenian Akropolis as Perikles’s monument to that peace. In both instances, the figure of Penelope would have symbolized the longing for peace of women, whether Greek or Persian, who waited fearfully for their husbands and sons to come home. This interpretation raises the question of the reception of Penelope in fifth-century Athens: What was she most remembered for? Was it mainly as the wife longing for her husband away at war? Did Athenian society, as Hölscher claims, increasingly see the burden of war as falling on women as the fifth century wore on? The chapter explores these questions through a combination of literary and iconographical evidence.
Introduction
Authors: Ó Dochartaigh Niall
Published: April 2021

The introduction sets out the central aims of the book: to offer a fresh analysis of the factors that sustained violent conflict and prevented a peace settlement in Northern Ireland for so long and to elaborate the distinctive features of negotiations conducted in secret. It describes the approach taken in the book and argues that violence and negotiation must be analysed together as part of a single process of conflict transformation. It sets out the value of existing work on civil wars, contentious politics, and wartime political orders in analysing negotiation in the case of Northern Ireland. The Northern Ireland conflict provides a revelatory case of back-channel negotiation. It is one of the few conflicts for which there is extensive, reliable primary documentation of clandestine engagement through an intermediary, and this chapter introduces the unique sources on which the book draws. These include private papers, government archives, and interviews with Irish republicans, British and Irish civil servants, the key intermediary, and others.