bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Thawing the frozen-in approximation: implications for self-gravity in deeply plunging tidal disruption events
Authors: Steinberg Elad , Coughlin Eric R , Stone Nicholas C , Metzger Brian D
Published: April 2019

The tidal destruction of a star by a massive black hole, known as a tidal disruption event (TDE), is commonly modelled using the ‘frozen-in’ approximation. Under this approximation, the star maintains exact hydrostatic balance prior to entering the tidal sphere (radius rt), after which point its internal pressure and self-gravity become instantaneously negligible and the debris undergoes ballistic free fall. We present a suite of hydrodynamical simulations of TDEs with high penetration factors β ≡ rt/rp = 5−7, where rp is the pericentre of the stellar centre of mass, calculated using a Voronoi-based moving-mesh technique. We show that basic assumptions of the frozen-in model, such as the neglect of self-gravity inside rt, are violated. Indeed, roughly equal fractions of the final energy spread accumulate exiting and entering the tidal sphere, though the frozen-in prediction is correct at the order-of-magnitude level. We also show that an $\mathcal {O}(1)$ fraction of the debris mass remains transversely confined by self-gravity even for large β which has implications for the radio emission from the unbound debris and, potentially, for the circularization efficiency of the bound streams.
Fecal Microbiome, Metabolites, and Stem Cell Transplant Outcomes: A Single-Center Pilot Study
Authors: Galloway-Peña Jessica R , Peterson Christine B , Malik Farida , Sahasrabhojane Pranoti V , Shah Dimpy P , Brumlow Chelcy E , Carlin Lily G , Chemaly Roy F , Im Jin Seon , Rondon Gabriela , Felix Edd , Veillon Lucas , Lorenzi Philip L , Alousi Amin M , Jenq Robert R , Kontoyiannis Dimitrios P , Shpall Elizabeth J , Shelburne Samuel A , Okhuysen Pablo C
Published: April 2019

Background

Accumulating evidence suggests that the intestinal microbiome may dramatically affect the outcomes of hematopoietic stem cell transplant (HSCT) recipients. Providing 16S ribosomal RNA based microbiome characterization in a clinically actionable time frame is currently problematic. Thus, determination of microbial metabolites as surrogates for microbiome composition could offer practical biomarkers.

Methods

Longitudinal fecal specimens (n = 451) were collected from 44 patients before HSCT through 100 days after transplantation, as well as 1-time samples from healthy volunteers (n = 18) as controls. Microbiota composition was determined using 16S ribosomal RNA V4 sequencing. Fecal indole and butyrate levels were determined using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry.

Results

Among HSCT recipients, both fecal indole and butyrate levels correlated with the Shannon diversity index at baseline (P = .02 and P = .002, respectively) and directly after transplantation (P = .006 and P < .001, respectively). Samples with high butyrate levels were enriched for Clostridiales, whereas samples containing high indole were also enriched for Bacteroidales. A lower Shannon diversity index at the time of engraftment was associated with increased incidence of acute intestinal graft-vs-host disease (iGVHD) (P = .02) and transplant-related deaths (P = .03). Although fecal metabolites were not associated with acute iGVHD or overall survival, patients contracting bloodstream infections within 30 days after transplantation had significantly lower levels of fecal butyrate (P = .03).

Conclusions

Longitudinal analysis of fecal microbiome and metabolites after HSCT identified butyrate and indole as potential surrogate markers for microbial diversity and specific taxa. Further studies are needed to ascertain whether fecal metabolites can be used as biomarkers of acute iGVHD or bacteremia after HSCT.
General Relativity
Authors: Carlip Steven
Published: April 2019

This work is a short textbook on general relativity and gravitation, aimed at readers with a broad range of interests in physics, from cosmology to gravitational radiation to high energy physics to condensed matter theory. It is an introductory text, but it has also been written as a jumping-off point for readers who plan to study more specialized topics. As a textbook, it is designed to be usable in a one-quarter course (about 25 hours of instruction), and should be suitable for both graduate students and advanced undergraduates. The pedagogical approach is “physics first”: readers move very quickly to the calculation of observational predictions, and only return to the mathematical foundations after the physics is established. The book is mathematically correct—even nonspecialists need to know some differential geometry to be able to read papers—but informal. In addition to the “standard” topics covered by most introductory textbooks, it contains short introductions to more advanced topics: for instance, why field equations are second order, how to treat gravitational energy, what is required for a Hamiltonian formulation of general relativity. A concluding chapter discusses directions for further study, from mathematical relativity to experimental tests to quantum gravity.
Canadian Cinema and Its Borders
Authors: Martínez-Zalce Graciela
Published: April 2019

This chapter focuses on filmic visions of the border between the United States and Canada and on what happens along it. It situates the corpus as part of the border genre, which characterizes itself mainly by the construction of stereotypes (us and them) and by a series of topics such as violence, crime, trafficking of forbidden substances, guns, and human beings. To provide a general panorama of the Canadian border films, this chapter analyzes them from these perspectives: borders that are crossed, borders that are lived, and symbolic borders.
Quebec Cinema as Global Cinema
Authors: Marshall William
Published: April 2019

This chapter examines the transformations that have affected Quebec cinema since 2000: greater success at the domestic box office, increased international recognition by audiences and through awards, and the more visible presence of Quebec filmmakers in Hollywood and international production. Nuancing this narrative of success, the chapter traces continued local/national and global tensions in Quebec cinema and argues that recent changes can be understood in terms of their intensification. Certain Quebec film narratives are seen to draw on these evolutions and possible generational shifts in attitudes toward both the sovereignty project and the English language, which invites reshapings of cinematic stories about the relationship between self/world for white francophone Quebec audiences. The chapter argues for remappings by critics and scholars of cinematic spaces through a re-energized notion of “francophone cinema”—a “cinéma-monde” attentive to decentered analyses of borders and language. This affords fruitful lateral connections between worlds within Quebec cinema.
Stand Tall
Authors: Burke Andrew
Published: April 2019

The desire to escape is a theme common to films from Winnipeg. However, as Guy Maddin’s My Winnipeg (2006), a surreal docufantasia about the city and its history shows, leaving the city behind can be a difficult thing to do. This chapter surveys the history of Winnipeg fiction and documentary film in order to understand how cinema produces and projects a civic imaginary defined by the physical and psychological grip the city has on its inhabitants. It examines the centrality of the Winnipeg Film Group to the city’s cinematic profile and considers the ways in which its productions have both captured and contributed to how Winnipeg thinks about itself. The chapter concludes with an examination of how Indigenous filmmakers, as a consequence of their claims to the very land that Winnipeg occupies, have a fundamentally different relationship to the city to produce films less about escape than endurance.
From Expanded to Intimate Cinemas in Canadian Experimental Film/Video
Authors: Gagnon Monika Kin
Published: April 2019

This chapter establishes two markers for fifty years of experimental media arts in Canada: Joyce Wieland’s 1967 Bill’s Hat, an expanded cinema event, and Midi Onodera’s To Poll or Not to Poll (2016), the latest in her ongoing series of year-long, Web-based films created for mobile devices, which she has called intimate cinema. This chapter complicates boundaries between histories of contemporary art, film, and video in Canada, and selectively animates the lively people, contexts, events, genres, and networks that have sustained the cultural ecosystems of experimental media arts in Canada. With specific examples drawn from thousands of mediaworks, events, festivals, and symposia, this chapter demonstrates that these ecosystems have been largely self-propelled by artists and mediamakers acting as creative, technical, administrative, pedagogical, and critical advocates since at least the 1960s to ensure the creation of dynamic artworks in dialogue with multiple communities both local and international.
Popular Quebec Cinema and the Appeal of Folk Homogeneity
Authors: Loiselle André
Published: April 2019

Quebec’s popular cinema has always enjoyed commercial success, presenting a homogeneous image of Québécois culture that strikes a chord with domestic audiences. This success partly results from Quebec cinema’s ability to capitalize on a narrowly defined national ethos: linguistic distinctiveness, whiteness, and a love–hate relationship with Catholicism. The top-grossing films produced in the province over the past several decades suggest that, behind the veneer of multicultural urbanism and globalized modernity, there remains a stubborn attraction for the homogeneity of folk culture. None of the top-grossing films produced in Quebec over the past seventy years focus on the diverse experiences of Indigenous people or emigrants—the symbolic center of the narrative is always firmly bound to a traditional French-Canadian frame of reference. This chapter examines folk homogeneity throughout the corpus of top-grossing Quebec films from the first wave of French-Canadian features in the 1940s and 1950s to the most recent blockbusters.
The Musicality of Canadian Cinema
Authors: Baker Michael Brendan
Published: April 2019

This chapter offers a narrative account of music in Canadian cinema that highlights the contributions of its pioneers. Case studies spanning the critically acclaimed, the curious, and the marginalized allow for an effort to flesh out the place of music, particularly popular music, in this national cinema. While the esthetics and dollars-and-cents of music in film may be similar in Canada as elsewhere, the expectations of filmmakers and audiences are perhaps uniquely Canadian as a result of industrial and institutional forces. Animation, the avant-garde, and documentary are particularly vibrant spaces for the innovative use of music and differentiate the history of music in Canadian cinema from other more commercially oriented contexts.
The Gaming Turn
Authors: Lessard Bruno
Published: April 2019

This chapter examines the defining characteristics of the gaming turn in Canadian learning institutions. It retraces the steps of the rise of game studies in Canada by paying particular attention to the forms of interaction between digital games and film departments in Canadian universities. It discusses leading game research labs and programs of study, pioneering figures, and research orientations. The chapter argues that the most appropriate way of approaching the gaming turn is to treat it as an assemblage of interrelated institutional, pedagogical, artistic, scholarly, and economic discourses. The conclusion offers some thoughts on the future of the film studies department in light of the gaming turn and the potential role of digital animation as a common foundation for film and game studies in the twenty-first century.
Introduction
Authors: Marchessault Janine , Straw Will
Published: April 2019

This introduction situates the current volume in relation to Canadian film studies as both a discipline and field. It notes the multiple diversities of which Canadian film studies is expected to provide an account. The most important of these are those having to do with social identities, and this volume is attentive to the key interventions in Canadian film studies coming from feminism, queer studies, Indigenous studies, and other fields. Diversity characterizes, as well, the forms of Canadian cinema. The expansion of media platforms and technologies of recording has moved Canadian film studies ever closer to a “screen studies” in which the photochemical bases of cinema become less important. The proliferation of spaces of exhibition, from traditional public cinemas through art galleries and public screens, has significantly altered our sense of the social locations of cinema.
On the Road
Authors: Chahine Joumane
Published: April 2019

This chapter explores the trajectories of Canadian filmmakers through the discourses, events, and infrastructures of cinema outside of their national borders. As Canadian cinema travels the world, it is promoted and interpreted in a variety of ways: as a product seeking foreign markets, as an ambassadorial cultural form representing Canada, and as a distinctive authorial voice often nurtured by the international circuit of film festivals and the networks these have helped create. The chapter focuses on Canadian cinema’s particular susceptibility to the international scene and the latter’s key role both in the fostering of Canadian auteurs and in the eclipsing, at times, of their very Canadianness.
(Re)Claiming Cultural Identity
Authors: Buchan Suzanne
Published: April 2019

In the 1970s, the Animation Department of the National Film Board (NFB) of Canada produced Eskimo Legends, a series of animated short films based on Inuit legends and handicrafts. Concurrently, the NFB’s Wolf Koenig initiated an animation workshop in Cape Dorset that resulted in seventeen films by Inuit youths. The social and political contexts of Indigenous handicraft and art are essential for understanding the origins of the animated materials used in these films. Key historical, political, and cultural events and debates establish a context for exploring a set of linkages between economic and sociopolitical institutions that drove the development of Indigenous crafts and cooperatives. Considered alongside NFB documentaries and CBC news broadcasts from the 1960s and 1970s, this chapter demonstrates the relation between these developments and NFB animation studio filmmaking. The focus on Inuit animators’ films compiled in Animation from Cape Dorset recontextualizes, contemporizes and reclaims their culture’s arts, storytelling, and identity.
The Polarities and Hybridities of Arctic Cinemas
Authors: MacKenzie Scott , Westerståhl Stenport Anna
Published: April 2019

This chapter foregrounds alternative approaches to Canadian Arctic Cinemas, identifying and examining practices and aesthetics that emphasize the hybridized, situated, and local. The chapter highlights some of the most distinctive aspects of Canadian Arctic filmmaking traditions: the innovative use of technological forms, multiple and varied distribution practices, a continual return to processes of historical re-enactment, variegated documentary film practices, and the rise of Arctic Indigenous filmmaking. In alignment with many contemporary Canadian film historiographies, the chapter emphasizes the central importance of narrowcast, multimedia, documentary, video arts, and expanded cinema to the nation’s work, which is quite distinct from many aspects of American and European cinematic traditions and practices. The Arctic cinematic/moving image traditions and practices considered include participatory and documentary filmmaking, Inuit television, Indigenous filmmaking collectives such as Isuma and Arnait, le cinéma vécu, the re-release of archival works as acts of repatriation, multiscreen and expanded cinemas, and IMAX.
The Ecological Rationality of Situations
Authors: Todd Peter M. , Gigerenzer Gerd
Published: April 2019

The study of situations involves asking how people behave in particular environmental settings, often in terms of their individual personality differences. The ecological rationality research program explains people’s behavior in terms of the specific decision-making tools they select and use from their mind’s adaptive toolbox when faced with specific types of environment structure. These two approaches can be integrated to provide a more precise mapping from features of situation structure to decision heuristics used and behavioral outcomes. This chapter presents three examples illustrating research on ecological rationality and its foundations, along with initial directions for incorporating it into an integrated situation theory.
What Neuroscience Can Tell Us about Social Situations
Authors: Michalska Kalina , Gardiner Gwendolyn , Hughes Brent L.
Published: April 2019

The goal of this chapter is to highlight how neuroimaging techniques can complement behavioral approaches for understanding situations. The chapter describes three situational contexts relevant to applying these techniques to study situational contexts. First, it considers the neuroimaging environment itself as situational context and delineates unique features of this environment that can impact subjective experience. Second, it reviews methodological trends for eliciting situational experiences in a neuroimaging environment, particularly in the domain of interpersonal interactions. Third, it discusses recent neuroimaging evidence suggesting that diverse social situations share common underlying neural responses. The chapter highlights how manipulating an individual’s construal of a situation can provide additional insights into the neurobiology of positive and negative situations. Together, neuroimaging approaches can provide one organizing principle for the vast constellation of situations. The hope is to encourage researchers to apply these approaches to gain novel and complementary insights into situational experience.
Europe and LGBT Rights
Authors: Ayoub Phillip , Paternotte David
Published: April 2019

Europe matters to contemporary LGBTQ politics. This chapter maps out various political articulations connecting Europe and LGBT rights today, arguing that Europe has played a central role in much of the LGBTQ movement’s history but that this relationship is complex and multifaceted depending on the vast space of what “Europe” means to many different actors. In other words, Europe has been imagined and unimagined as LGBTQ-friendly by various actors and for various purposes. In making this argument the chapter presents “Europe” from four different angles, exploring the association between the continent and “LGBT rights” in each: Europe as an institutional entity, Europe as an activist project, Europe as exclusionary, and Europe as a threat. It takes a position on how the relationship is defined in each section, highlighting both the opportunity and risk that entails for LGBT rights and people on the continent. In doing so, the chapter highlights the ways European states and institutions have gradually endorsed some activist goals, embedding LGBT rights into the version of Europe understood as an institutional entity. Problematically, however, it shows that this project also generates different forms of exclusion. Moreover, while many actors articulate an idea of Europe as associated with LGBT rights, these actors also compete to define the nature and the content of this association. Europe as an idea is thus multifaceted in its relation to LGBTQ politics, depending on the angle from which it is viewed.
What Makes LGBT Sexualities Political?
Authors: Rahman Momin
Published: April 2019

This chapter explains the sociological basis to identity categories of sexuality and their hierarchical organization that leads to oppression. It begins with some assumptions of “progress” that underpin contemporary LGBT politics, identifying that this idea of progress is based on assumptions that ignore the ways in which sexualities reflect the gender organization in specific societies and ignore the differences between the Western societies where LGBT rights have been institutionalized and other cultures. It describes the sociological analyses of heteronormativity, which entails both hierarchical gender and sexual organization and results in the oppression of non-conforming genders and sexualities. The chapter goes on to discuss how this structure emerged in the specific sociohistorical context of Western colonialist capitalism and thus how the politics of LGBT liberation are also grounded in this social context. It concludes by arguing that LGBT politics need to take account of these sociological insights to avoid an unreflective adoption of Western identity categories and equality claims and to better understand that any LGBT politics is a profoundly radical challenge to the institutionalization of patriarchal heteronormativity in any culture.
Making LGBT Rights into Human Rights
Authors: Langlois Anthony J.
Published: April 2019

This chapter commences by examining the status LGBT rights have achieved within the United Nations (UN) human rights system and reviews some key aspects of their trajectory. It considers how best to interpret the varying roles LGBT rights can play in the international system, given their new status, with a critical reading of Hillary Clinton’s famous and much lauded “gay rights are human rights” speech to the UN General Assembly in 2011. It then moves on to what LGBT rights as human rights might mean in those parts of the world where this status receives little if any formal institutional recognition, using the case of the Southeast Asian region, where a new human rights regime has been established but where non-normative sexuality and gender have been willfully excluded from its remit. The chapter considers what the politics of human rights mean for sexuality and gender-diverse people in this region with reference to two senses in which human rights claims are political: (1) activists and advocates push against the status quo to have sexuality and gender issues included in the human rights discussion and (2) resistance to this inclusion is often played out by a politicization of sexuality and gender that obscures other pressing issues. This chapter demonstrates both the profound and important advances that have been made for LGBT individuals and communities and the ways in which these successes generate political dynamics of their own, which must be carefully navigated in order to sustain the emancipatory potential of the movement.
Visibility in Global Queer Politics
Authors: Edenborg Emil
Published: April 2019

This chapter discusses the notion of visibility and its place in the politics of queer oppression and queer liberation. In theory as well as activism, visibility is often considered necessary for the advancement of LGBT rights. However, some researchers challenge the reliance on visibility in queer politics, arguing that visibility may be related to control, normalization, increased violence, and backlashes; may contain biases with regard to race, class, and gender; and may rest on Eurocentric assumptions. Queer visibility has varied meanings and effects both in different national contexts and in international political arenas, ranging from instrumentalization of pro- or anti-LGBT discourses to the invocation of hypervisibilized “queer folk devils.” Moreover, discourses of queer invisibility may legitimize certain forms of politics. An approach to visibility is proposed that focuses on regimes of visibility, their multiple and differentiated effects, and the possibilities of resistance, highlighting the relation between queer visibility and community formation.
Functionalist and Constructionist Perspectives on Emotion Dysregulation
Authors: Beauchaine Theodore P. , Haines Nathaniel
Published: April 2019

Two theoretical perspectives—functionalism and constructionism—predominate modern research on emotion. This introductory chapter describes these perspectives and offers points of convergence and divergence. It pays special attention to common misconceptions about functionalism and to strengths and limitations of each perspective. Functionalism, which draws in part from phylogenetic accounts of emotion and motivation, is limited by difficulties drawing inferences about human emotion from animal research, even though animal research is conducted using very precise methods of high spatial and temporal resolution. In contrast, constructionism is limited by difficulties falsifying its core propositions given reliance on research using functional magnetic resonance imaging, which has poor temporal resolution. These limitations notwithstanding, both functionalism and constructionism have much to offer current interpretations of and future research on emotion dysregulation. Thus, pitting the perspectives against one other is counterproductive.
Children in Fragile Families
Authors: McLanahan Sara , Jaeger Kate , Catena Kristin
Published: April 2019

Families formed by unmarried parents increased dramatically in the United States during the latter half of the 20th century. To learn more about these families, a team of researchers at Princeton University and Columbia University designed and implemented a large birth cohort study—The Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study. This chapter highlights several findings from the study. First, most unmarried parents have “high hopes” for a future together at the time of their child’s birth; but their resources are low and most relationships do not last. Second, unmarried mothers experience high levels of partnership instability and family complexity, both of which are associated with lower-quality parenting and poorer child well-being. Finally, welfare state, child support and criminal justice policies play a large role in the lives of fragile families.
Standards-based Reform and Accountability Law and Policy
Authors: Superfine Benjamin Michael , De Voto Craig , Shyjka Andria
Published: April 2019

Standards-based reform and accountability (SBRA) laws and policies are among the most pervasive and durable types of education reforms currently implemented in the United States. These laws and policies specify what students should know and be able to do, and, as such, serve as an “anchor” for other educational policies, including those governing curricula, professional development, and testing. Moreover, these laws and policies hold students, teachers, or schools accountable for their performance, generally by connecting the results of tests aligned with standards to consequences. On one hand, SBRA laws and policies entail several benefits. By explicitly specifying what students should know and be able to do, these laws can align educational reform efforts not only in small areas like a school or district, but across levels of governance. On the other hand, SBRA laws and policies have resulted in a wide range of problems, such as putting demands on school systems that they did not have the capacities to meet, and resulting in inequitable treatment of high-poverty and minority students and schools. As a result, SBRA laws and policies have failed to consistently promote deep change throughout school systems and down to classroom level. This chapter examines the historical and current legal landscape of SBRA laws and policies, in addition to major insights from educational research, about how these laws and policies have fared, and offers recommendations for legal and policy change moving forward.
Closing Achievement Gaps through Socioeconomic Integration
Authors: Black Derek W.
Published: April 2019

Social science demonstrates that racial and socioeconomic segregation undermine the quality of education students receive in a number of different ways. Yet, in the absence of intentional racial segregation, federal law provides no obvious remedy. In fact, federal law may even limit the options schools can voluntarily pursue in addressing the problem. State constitutional law provides a solution. State constitutions guarantee students access to adequate and equal educational opportunities. If socioeconomic segregation is a causal factor in depriving students of those guaranteed opportunities, state courts can afford students a remedy. Plaintiffs need not show intentional racial or socioeconomic segregation. Two state supreme courts have already explicitly recognized as much, and analogous claims are pending in other states. This chapter argues that one key to expanding these claims is changing how courts and educators think about student assignment policies. Students—just like money, teachers, and facilities—are a key resource that school districts distribute. When districts segregate middle-income and low-income students, they are, consciously or otherwise, making decisions about the quality of the learning environment that will exist in individual schools. Those decisions, too often, create unequal access to adequate educational opportunities.
Contesting New Markets for Bodily Knowledge
Authors: Almeling Rene
Published: April 2019

Using the case of direct-to-consumer genetic testing, this chapter examines how experts contested the emergence of this new market for bodily knowledge in the United States at the beginning of the twenty-first century. Drawing on theoretical innovations in economic sociology and medical sociology, the author analyzes how scientists, clinicians, and genetic counselors made the argument that genetic information should be provided within the context of a clinical relationship and not a commercial relationship. A systematic examination of editorials in scientific and medical journals, statements by medical professional organizations, and interviews with genetic counselors reveals that experts draw a bright line between medical genetic testing and commercial genetic testing by emphasizing the complexity of the information and the different motivations of clinical versus corporate purveyors. The conclusion offers suggestions for how to study markets for bodily knowledge, and it discusses how experts’ claims may affect people’s ability to access and control their own bodily information.
Dorsal Horn Pain Mechanisms
Authors: Zeilhofer Hanns Ulrich , Ganley Robert
Published: April 2019

The spinal dorsal horn and its equivalent structure in the brainstem constitute the first sites of synaptic integration in the pain pathway. A huge body of literature exists on alterations in spinal nociceptive signal processing that contribute to the generation of exaggerated pain states and hence to what is generally known as “central sensitization.” Such mechanisms include changes in synaptic efficacy or neuronal excitability, which can be evoked by intense nociceptive stimulation or by inflammatory or neuropathic insults. Some of these changes cause alterations in the functional organization of dorsal horn sensory circuits, leading to abnormal pathological pain sensations. This article reviews the present state of this knowledge. It does not cover the contributions of astrocytes and microglia in detail as their functions are the subject of a separate chapter.
The Politics of Energy Security
Authors: Jewell Jessica , Brutschin Elina
Published: April 2019

Energy security has long been a main driver of energy policies, but its meaning has been contested by policy makers and scholars. The concept incorporates both material and intersubjective aspects, finding different expressions in different contexts and attracting the interest of diverse social actors and academic communities. This chapter identifies, compares, and contrasts five major approaches for analyzing energy security rooted in different scholarly traditions. It argues that in order to facilitate a dialogue among these approaches as well as policy comparison and learning, it is useful to conceptualize energy security as “low vulnerability of vital energy systems.” This definition opens avenues for productive research, unpacking the interplay between material and intersubjective aspects of “vulnerability” and “vitality” of energy systems. Future research should investigate the role of material factors alongside power, values, and trust in defining energy security; explain the gap between energy securitization and action; and explore the interaction between energy security and other energy policy goals.
International Regulatory Cooperation and Trade Agreements
Authors: Hoekman Bernard
Published: April 2019

The gradual reduction of traditional barriers to trade such as tariffs and quotas implies that the agenda for international cooperation on trade has changed. The focus of international firms increasingly is on the trade and transaction costs effects of differences in national regulatory standards and regulatory regimes. Such differences are also a matter of concern to consumers, who worry about the health consequences and safety of products produced as part of global supply chains. This chapter discusses the challenge of managing the interface between the market access objectives of trade agreements—that is, the reduction of trade frictions—while not undercutting national regulatory objectives and preferences. It develops a typology of approaches that can be used to reduce the negative trade spillovers created by regulatory differences across countries and discusses how trade agreements can help do so, drawing on the experience of efforts by the EU and other OECD nations to negotiate deeper integration agreements.
Transnational Business Governance through Private Standards
Authors: Humphrey John
Published: April 2019

Increasing fragmentation in the global economy has been accompanied by a rise in the use of private standards. Technical standards created by companies and standards-writing organizations facilitate coordination and enable elaborate divisions of labor of the sort evident in the electronics industry. Standards are also used for control. Private standards schemes specify rules of behavior and develop mechanisms to monitor and enforce them. Schemes address issues such as product safety, environmental and social impacts, and sustainability. They are developed and adopted by many different actors and actor coalitions, including businesses, NGOs, and governments. They respond to the regulatory challenges created by global fragmentation, but also use the opportunities offered by interdependencies within global value chains to enable cross-border control over how products are produced and their social and environmental impacts. The multiplicity of actors and interests involved in standards development leads to the proliferation of standards and competition between them.
The Landscape of Political Violence
Authors: Kalyvas Stathis N.
Published: April 2019

The chapter surveys the extremely varied and fragmented landscape of research on political violence and proposes a way to unify the study of its various manifestations in a way that is tractable, consistent, and analytically fruitful. Drawing on research that has focused on distinct types of political violence, it identifies eleven basic types. Classification is based on two key dimensions: whether the perpetrator of violence is a state or a non-state actor and whether the target of violence is a state or a non-state entity. The chapter briefly discusses key research findings associated with each type of political violence and explores how they are linked with each other by pointing to four connecting logics: hierarchy, instrumentality, escalation, and substitution. It concludes by drawing the implications.
Historical Approaches to Terrorism
Authors: Lutz Brenda J.
Published: April 2019

While many have considered terrorism to be a uniquely modern phenomenon, a review of terrorism over time indicates it has deep historical roots. Historical cases include violence in the late Roman Republic, the Zealots in Roman Judea, anti-colonial attacks against the British, Dutch, and Spanish in Asia, the prelude to the American Revolution, the Reign of Terror in France, and eventually the more modern manifestations and uses by nationalist or ethnic groups, extremists drawn from most religious traditions, leftist dissidents including the anarchist, and right-wing extremists including the Fascists and Nazis after World War I as well as the Ku Klux Klan in the United States. While terrorism has been present for centuries, there have been significant changes. Police and security forces have increased in quantity and quality, but terrorists have gained access to more lethal techniques and weapons.
Nationalism and Terrorism
Authors: English Richard
Published: April 2019

There is little that is straightforward about the relationship between nationalism and terrorism: each of these phenomena is deeply complex in itself, and the relationship between them is multiply so. This chapter addresses questions central to this significant relationship between two world-historical forces. First, to what extent do the politics of nationalism and its associated conflicts generate non-state (and also state) terrorist violence? Second, does the nationalist legitimation of high-functioning states produce order and stability which make terrorism less likely? Third, does terrorist violence act as a means of destabilizing existing nationalist orders, whether or not it helps to usher in new ones? Fourth, does the analysis and study of terrorism vary according to rival nationalist contexts and politics?
Ideology and Terrorism
Authors: Brahimi Alia
Published: April 2019

This chapter explores two of the key ideas underpinning modern jihadist ideology: the notion of jihad as an individual duty and the claim of self-defense. It goes on to look at the major shifts brought about by the ideology of the Islamic State of Iraq and al-Sham (ISIS): a striking eschatological component and a focus on dealing with “bad Muslims.” It concludes by suggesting that challenging terrorist ideology is a necessary step in combatting terrorism, but it is by no means sufficient. While ISIS looks like an ideologically driven phenomenon par excellence, its rise is inextricably linked to widespread insecurity in Iraq and Syria. Although ideology offers crucial insight into the moral universe of the terrorist, it is not always the “key driver” of terrorism, as some scholars have maintained.
Terrorism, Civil War, and Insurgency
Authors: Stanton Jessica A.
Published: April 2019

Much of the terrorism occurring worldwide is domestic terrorism carried out by rebel groups fighting in civil wars. However, many are reluctant to categorize domestic insurgencies as terrorist groups or to identify the tactics used by domestic insurgencies as terrorist tactics. Through a survey of the literature addressing the relationship between terrorism and civil war, I contend that research on the dynamics of violence in civil war would benefit from a more standardized definition of the concept of terrorism as well as greater consensus on how the concept of terrorism ought to be used in relation to the concept of civilian targeting. The lack of conceptual clarity in distinguishing between terrorism and civilian targeting makes it difficult to compare research findings, and thus to make progress as a field in our understanding of the causes of violence and its consequences. Despite the challenges associated with making comparisons across studies, this chapter attempts to do precisely this, drawing on research on terrorism as well as research on civilian targeting to develop insights on the causes and consequences of terrorist violence employed in the context of civil war.
Terrorist Technological Innovation
Authors: Perkoski Evan
Published: April 2019

Terrorist innovation poses a significant challenge to armed forces and civilian populations around the globe. New methods of attack challenge state defenses and increase the odds of successful, high-casualty operations. This chapter presents an overview of the causes and consequences of terrorist innovation. It begins by examining some of the most well-known innovations that have shaped terrorists’ operational patterns, and it considers ways to distinguish between major tactical innovations (e.g. suicide bombings) and minor tactical innovations (e.g. the continual refinement of improvised explosive devices). Then, the benefits and drivers of innovation are reviewed, as well the group and country-level factors that make innovation likely. This includes organizational structures, access to resources, peer competition, and safety from governmental repression. Finally, the chapter concludes by discussing some of the challenges that prevent the identification of potential innovators as well as suggestions for future research.
Suicide Terrorism
Authors: Singh Rashmi
Published: April 2019

Since the phenomenon of modern suicide terrorism first emerged in Lebanon in the early 1980s it has increased exponentially in both number and geographical range. However, despite this spike and the concomitant surge in its study, there is still no real clear consensus on key issues. As a result, explanations remain imprecise and unevenly developed and datasets continue to remain incomplete and/or incompatible. This chapter outlines some key controversies that plague the study of suicide terrorism including the debates surrounding the use of terminology as well as key definitional issues. Having outlined these main controversies, this chapter then sheds light on what is perhaps the central puzzle for scholars studying this phenomenon, i.e. the rationality underpinning a suicide attack
Women and Terrorism
Authors: Gentry Caron E.
Published: April 2019

This chapter attempts to refute the surprise and shock that arises as a response to women’s involvement in political violence. It does so by first revisiting the longstanding literature on women’s engagement in political violence, looking at both the provocative and the thoughtful conclusions that have been drawn about women’s violence. It then moves onto to consider where and how women have been involved in political violence historically, including as ideologues and actors in pre-revolutionary Russian political violence, leaders in the 1960s Marxist-Leninist groups in the West, activists in the Palestinian intifadas, and suicide bombers in multiple locations. The chapter emphasizes that terrorism studies scholars cannot continue to bifurcate women’s involvement as emotional and relational and men’s involvement as political. Instead, we need to continue to see all individual’s involvement in terrorist activity as complicated.
Torture and the War on Terrorism
Authors: Conrad Courtenay R.
Published: April 2019

This chapter reviews scholarly theory and empirical results concerning the relationship between terrorism and government torture. It argues that terrorism and torture are forms of dissent and repression, respectively. Recognizing terrorism and torture as subsets of broader conceptualizations common in the literature on political violence provides insights into the conditions under which governments respond to opposition activity with violence (and vice versa) in the context of terrorism. Following a discussion of the literature on political violence, a summary is presented of the behavioral incentives—and disincentives—that government authorities face regarding the use of torture as a counterterrorism strategy. I also review literature about the mediating influence of domestic political institutions on the relationship between terrorism and torture, arguing that democracy does not always constrain—and sometimes incentivizes—government torture.
Terrorism and Counterterrorism
Authors: Bird Juliette
Published: April 2019

Terrorists force us to change long-established lifestyles. The reactions of civil society, nations, regional organizations and the UN constitute a broad-ranging counterterrorism effort. Relations between civil groups and governments can be tricky for both sides but are essential; nations must provide public reassurance, avoid alienating society or reinforcing stereotypes, and tackle both terrorist attacks and their underlying causes. Small groups of nations or regional organizations struggle to avoid duplication and ensure coordination. Practical results can be hard to assess. The UN, burdened by multitudinous bodies and relationships, finds implementation uphill work. Promisingly, the bottom-up (civil society) approach is now meeting the global top-down (UN) drive. The future should bring not only incremental improvements but new thinking to meet long-term challenges including trusted data-sharing, metrics for projects, matching needs and offers of support and, importantly, societal awareness of the deeper issues surrounding terrorism.
Constructing the Field of Terrorism
Authors: Crenshaw Martha
Published: April 2019

This chapter reviews the evolution of Martha Crenshaw’s interests in and approaches to researching terrorism, a trajectory that begins in the 1960s and extends to the present. The story is necessarily partial and incomplete as well as personal. Her first research project concentrated on the use of terrorism by the FLN during the Algerian War, and her current research deals with patterns of cooperation and competition among militant groups and with the relationship between jihadist-oriented transnational terrorism and civil war. Along the way she has analyzed the causes of terrorism as well as its endings, individual motivations for terrorism, group strategies, organizational dynamics, political contexts for terrorism, state responses, and the consequences of counterterrorist policies. Terrorism remains a challenging topic for research as well as a persistent policy problem for decision-makers. We still struggle to explain both the “why” and the “how” of terrorism.
Institutionalizing the Field of Terrorism Studies
Authors: Schmid Alex P.
Published: April 2019

The author of this chapter has been in the field of terrorism studies for forty years and, as co-editor of Terrorism and Political Violence and later editor-in-chief of Perspectives on Terrorism—two of the three leading journals in the field—has observed, and stimulated, the growth of research since the 1970s. He describes his efforts to arrive at a consensus definition of terrorism both in the context of the United Nations and in the academic world, his contribution towards the development of a typology of terrorism, as well as a communication theory of terrorism. He reflects, inter alia, on the relationship between the academic and the intelligence communities, and the contribution of some of the chief protagonists in the field to the maturing of terrorism studies.
The Long Twentieth Century
Authors: Bew John , Meleagrou-Hitchens Alexander , Frampton Martyn
Published: April 2019

This chapter considers the evolution of terrorist violence across the twentieth century, from the nationalist and anarchist groups that emerged at the end of the nineteenth century through to the September 2001 Al Qaeda terrorist attacks in America. It does not attempt to establish a definition for terrorism—a Sisyphean undertaking. But it does identify commonalities between different terrorist groups over the century and a process of historical learning. It argues that it is possible to draw something of a terrorist “family tree,” which links groups with otherwise very different ideologies and motivations, and which appeared in markedly different settings. The chapter acknowledges the strategic rationale that has been at the core of most terrorist campaigns, but also suggests that a recurrent feature of terrorist violence has been the symbiosis between instrumentalism and fanaticism. The qualitative nature of terrorist violence marks it out as more than the expression of rational political goals. Equally, though, it is impossible to ignore the fact that terrorism has been about power: principally, the struggle for it, waged against those who have it, by those who do not.