bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Determination of Ni by ICP-MS: Correction of Calcium Oxide and Hydroxide Interferences Using Principal Components Analysis
Authors: Vaughan Margaret-Anne , Templeton Douglas M.
Published: July 2005

Determination of Ni by ICP-MS is hampered by the overlap of Ca oxides and hydroxides with each of the major isotopes of Ni. This is problematic in biological fluids with high Ca:Ni ratios, such as urine, and is worsened by other interferents such as NaK that arise from a urine matrix. These problems have been overcome by using principal components analysis to separate Ni information. This approach allows determination of Ni in Ca solutions and urine. In addition the method can be used to separate Ni information from two distinct sources (for example, naturally abundant and isotopically enriched Ni) in the presence of Ca. Limits of detection of approximately 1 ng/mL for naturally abundant Ni and for a 62Ni enriched source were determined in a matrix of 40% urine.
A Multi-Mode Spectrometer for Atomic Emission Spectrometry
Authors: Wingerd Mark A. , Dessy Raymond E.
Published: July 2005

A unique spectrometer system, the Multi-Mode Spectrometer (MMS), has been developed. The MMS integrates a scanning Michelson interferometer, a flat-field grating, and a linear photodiode array detector into a single spectrometer system. With these components, the MMS is capable of applying dispersive, interferometric, or combined dispersive/interferometric techniques for enhanced spectrometric flexibility. The effects of source fluctuation and redistributed photon noise can be reduced. In addition, the MMS has unique capabilities in data compression, application of internal standards, and noise spectrum analysis.
Physicochemical Interactions of the Isomers of Aminobenzoic Acid with Sodium Acetate in Solid-Matrix Room-Temperature Luminescence Spectroscopy
Authors: Ramasamy S. M. , Hurtubise R. J.
Published: July 2005

The room-temperature fluorescence and room-temperature phosphorescence quantum yields of the isomers of aminobenzoic acid adsorbed on sodium acetate were obtained. These data were correlated with solution fluorescence data and diffuse reflectance infrared spectral data from the three isomers. The results yielded insights into the bonding interactions of the aminobenzoic acid isomers with sodium acetate. In particular, the specific structural and bonding characteristics of the isomers with sodium acetate were very important in determining whether a high room-temperature phosphorescence quantum yield would be obtained from a given isomer.
The Utilization of a Holographic Bragg Diffraction Filter for Rayleigh Line Rejection in Raman Spectroscopy
Authors: Carrabba Michael M. , Spencer Kevin M. , Rich Chris , Rauh David
Published: July 2005

Raman spectra have been observed to within less than 200 cm−1 of the Rayleigh line through the use of a holographic Bragg diffraction (HBD) filter. The HBD filter has a very high optical density (5.8 OD) while maintaining a relatively high and flat transmission in the region >200 cm−1. Utilization of an HBD filter allowed the observation of Raman spectra with a compact 0.125-mm spectrograph. Spectra of solid, liquid, and surface-enhanced Raman (SER) samples have been demonstrated with the HBD Raman system.
Alternatives to Cross-Validatory Estimation of the Number of Factors in Multivariate Calibration
Authors: Lorber Avraham , Kowalski Bruce R.
Published: July 2005

Overcoming the collinearity problem in regression by data compression techniques [i.e., principal component regression (PCR) and partial least-squares (PLS)] requires estimation of the number of factors (principal component) to use for the model. The most common approach is to use cross-validation for this purpose. Unfortunately, cross-validation is time consuming to carry out. Accordingly, we have searched for time-saving methods to estimate the number of factors. Two approaches were considered. The first uses the estimated standard error of the model and the second is an approximation to a cross-validation leave-one-out method. Both alternatives have been tested on spectroscopic data. It has been found that, when the number of wavelengths is limited, both methods give results similar to those obtained by full cross-validation both for PCR and PLS. However, when the number of wavelengths is large, the tested methods are reliable only for PCR and not for PLS.
FT-IR Analyses of the Thermal and Oxidative Decomposition Products of Antimony Sulfides
Authors: Pitzer Edward W.
Published: July 2005

A Nicolet Model 740 FT-IR spectrophotometer was used to analyze samples of the tri-, tetra-, and pentasulfides of antimony. These analyses were done in support of thermogravimetric analyses. The samples were scanned in the far-infrared (650 to 50 cm−1) and the mid-infrared (5800 to 400 cm−1) regions of the spectrum. The samples were prepared as pellets pressed in polyethylene powder to accommodate the far-infrared scanning. The analyses revealed that under thermal, nonoxidative conditions the tetra- and pentasulfides of antimony were converted to the trisulfide, while the trisulfide itself was unchanged. Analyses of the oxidatively stressed samples showed that all the antimony sulfides were converted to the cubic form of the trioxide of antimony at intermediate temperatures and to the tetraoxide of antimony at higher temperatures.
N=N Vibrational Frequencies and Fragmentation Patterns of Substituted 1-Aryl-3,3-Dialkyl-Triazenes: Comparison with other High-Nitrogen Compounds
Authors: Zimmermann F. , Lippert Th. , Beyer Ch. , Stebani J. , Nuyken O. , Wokaun A.
Published: July 2005

The influence of substitution pattern and electronic structure on the N=N stretching frequencies of compounds containing three to six linearly connected nitrogen atoms has been investigated by FT-IR and Raman spectroscopy. For a series of 1-phenyl-3,3-dialkyl-triazenes, Phe-N1=N2-N3 R2, shifts in the two valence vibrations of the triazeno group are studied with respect to the type and position of substituents at the aromatic ring, and for various alkyl substituents at N3. The N1=N2 stretching frequency is lowered by electron-withdrawing substituents at the aromatic ring; this effect is most pronounced for para-positioned substituents. A decrease in the N1=N2 bond order, and of the associated valence vibration, is also observed upon introduction of heavier N3-alkyl substituents, due to an inductive effect. Changes in vibrational frequencies are correlated with characteristic fragmentation patterns in the mass spectra of these compounds, where two degradation routes subsequent to ionization at the nitrogen atoms N1 and N2 have been observed. For the investigated pentazadiene derivatives, a weaker dependence of the N=N vibrational frequencies on the substituents is found. Mass spectra are interpreted in terms of two typical fragmentation pathways, involving a McLafferty rearrangement.
Molecular Motion Analysis of 5CB in PDLCs Using Solid-State 13C NMR Relaxation Spectroscopy
Authors: Buchert Karen L. , Koenig Jack L. , Wang Shi-Qing , West John L.
Published: July 2005

In samples of polymer-dispersed liquid crystals (PDLCs), submicron droplets of liquid crystal reside within a polymer matrix. By the use of the cross polarization technique for solid-state 13C NMR spectroscopy, the NMR spectrum of the liquid crystal can be obtained without interference from the polymer spectrum, even though the two materials have some similar chemical structures. Both 13C T1 and 13C T1 ρ relaxation experiments were performed on a PDLC system of 5CB in epoxy as a function of 5CB domain size. The 13C T1 relaxation constants and the localized motions they measure showed no significant change over the liquid crystal domain size studied. However, the 13C T1 ρ relaxation constants and the segmental motions of molecules they measure revealed a significant change over the liquid crystal domain size studied. Therefore, the 13C T1 ρ values can be used to determine the change in mobility of the molecular segments of the SCB molecules resulting from increased interaction between the liquid crystal and the polymer matrix and to further understand the importance of the molecular motions of the liquid crystal in the switching phenomenon for PDLC materials.
Use of Water as an Internal Standard in the Direct Monitoring of Emulsion Polymerization by Fiber-Optic Raman Spectroscopy
Authors: Wang Chao , Vickers Thomas J. , Mann Charles K.
Published: July 2005

Direct analysis of the organic phase of an emulsion polymerization is described. Quantification uses the bending mode peak of water, which makes up the bulk of the reaction medium, as an internal standard. Although demonstrated with methyl methacrylate, the process is generally applicable to emulsion polymerizations. It does not require the introduction of an extraneous internal standard component into the reaction mixture.
Raman Microscopy of Polymer Blends
Authors: Garton Andrew , Batchelder David N. , Cheng Chunwei
Published: July 2005

The potential of Raman microscopy for the examination of phase structure and composition of polymer blends is described. Provided that highly efficient collection optics are used, together with a CCD camera detector, the common problems of specimen heating and fluorescence can be reduced by the use of a relatively low-power (25mW) HeNe laser. For thin (<5 μm) film specimens, submicron morphological features can be resolved and phase compositions determined. For thicker specimens, the sampling depth controls the spatial resolution, but micron-scale morphological features can be imaged. When the microscope is operated in the spectroscopic mode, the use of an intermediate slit permits essentially confocal operation and can reduce the sampling diameter to about one micron. In cases where the image is inadequate, such as for thick or highly scattering specimens, phase sizes may be estimated by collecting several spectra at random on the specimen surface and determining the apparent scatter in blend composition. When the phases are large in comparison to the sampling volume, the composition data will be highly scattered. When the phases are small, then all measured compositions should be close to the average. The technique is illustrated with the use of a rubber-toughened epoxy resin, a polyethylene-polypropylene blend, and a polyester (PET/PBT) blend.
The Immunoquantification of Caveolin-1 and eNOS in Human and Rabbit Diseased Blood Vessels
Authors: Zulli Anthony , Buxton Brian F. , Black M. Jane , Ming Ziqiu , Cameron Alex , Hare David L.
Published: July 2005

In this study, caveolin-1 (cav-1), an inhibitor of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), was semi-quantified in diseased human and rabbit blood vessels. New Zealand White rabbits were fed, for 12 weeks, a high methionine diet (to induce intimal hyperplasia), 0.5% cholesterol diet, a normal diet, or the combination of both experimental diets. Excess segments of human internal mammary arteries (IMA) and radial arteries (RA) were obtained from patients undergoing coronary artery bypass surgery. eNOS and cav-1 were localized throughout both human and rabbit vessels. In rabbit arteries, eNOS was significantly increased in the endothelium overlying intimal thickening and atherosclerotic plaques compared with the adjacent endothelium overlying normal media. Interestingly, the endothelial cav-1:eNOS ratio increased 5-fold only in endothelium overlying plaques but decreased in endothelium overlying vessels with neo-intimal thickening. In human tissue, there was no difference between RA and IMA eNOS immunoreactivity in endothelium, intima, or media; however, RA endothelial, intimal, and medial cav-1 immunoreactivity increased 4-fold ( p,<0.02), 8-fold ( p<0.001), and 4-fold ( p<0.004), respectively, compared with IMA. Furthermore, the cav-1:eNOS immunostaining ratio in the media correlated with intimal thickening (r2 = 0.5). Our results suggest a close relationship between increased cav-1 and diseased blood vessels.
In situ Transmission Electron Microscopy Studies of Electric-field-induced Phenomena in Ferroelectrics
Authors: Tan Xiaoli , He Hui , Shang Jian-Ku
Published: July 2005

High electric fields were delivered to specimens during imaging in the transmission electron microscopy (TEM) chamber to reveal details of electric field-induced phenomena in ferroelectric oxides. These include the polarization switching in nanometer-sized ferroelectric domains and the grain boundary cavitation in a commercial lead zirconate titanate (PZT) polycrystalline ceramic, the domain wall fracture in a Pb(Mg1/3Nb2/3)O3–PbTiO3 single crystal, and the transformation of incommensurate modulations in Pb0.99Nb0.02[(Zr1−xSnx)1−yTiy]0.98O3 (PZST100x/100y/2) polycrystalline ceramics. In the PZT ceramic, a cavitation process was uncovered for the electric field-induced intergranular fracture. In the ferroelectric single crystal, a preexisting crack was observed to deflect and to follow a 90° domain wall, indicating the presence of severe incompatible piezoelectric strains at thedomain wall. In the antiferroelectric PZST ceramics, the electric field-induced antiferroelectric-to-ferroelectric phase transformation was accompanied with the disappearance of incommensurate modulations.
In situ Transmission Electron Microscopy Tensile Tests of a Peak- to Overaged γ′-strengthened Nickel Base Alloy
Authors: Baither Dietmar , Mohles Volker , Nembach Eckhard
Published: July 2005

The commercial nickel base alloy NIMONIC PE16 is strengthened by nano-scale spherical coherent precipitates of the intermetallic γ′-phase Ni3(Al,Ti). A bulk polycrystalline specimen of NIMONIC PE16 was aged such that it was in the transition range from the peak- to the overaged state. This transition limits the duration of technically useful aging treatments of structural particle strengthened materials. Thin foils prepared from this specimen were stretched inside a transmission electron microscope, and the dislocation processes were observed under full load. Two dislocations with identical Burgers vectors of the type 1/2〈110〉 form a pair and glide together. The leading 1/2〈110〉 dislocation bypasses the γ′-precipitates and the trailing one shears them. These dislocation processes are also discussed with reference to the results of computer simulations.
In situ Transmission Electron Microscopy Study of the growth of Ni Nanoparticles on Amorphous Carbon and of the Graphitization of the Support in the Presence of Hydrogen
Authors: Anton R.
Published: July 2005

In a specially equipped transmission electron microscope (TEM), Ni particles were vapor deposited onto thin films of amorphous carbon (a-C), and subsequent reactions with the carbon support were observed at elevated temperatures. Particles deposited at temperatures around 370 °C developed a graphite shell at above 600 °C and subsequently spread and graphitized the substrate. This activity was enhanced by hydrogen. The speed of graphitization significantly increased during spreading of the metal, which is attributed to the concomitant increase of the length of the reaction front, as well as to a purifying effect of hydrogen. It is concluded that the driving force for spreading of the Ni is the interdiffusion and catalytic conversion of carbonto graphite at the reaction front. Particles deposited at 500 °C remained inactive at670 °C. This is probably due to the formation of a rather stable carbidic or graphitic interlayer during deposition.
Enhanced Nucleation and Decreased Growth Rates of Cu2O in Cu0.5Au0.5 (001) Thin Films During in situ Oxidation
Authors: Wang Liang , Yang Judith C.
Published: July 2005

The initial oxidation behaviors of Cu–50 at.% Au (001) single-crystal thin film were studied by in situ ultra-high-vacuum transmission electron microscopy to model nano-oxidation of alloys with one oxidizing component and one inert component. The oxidation behaviors such as incubation time, oxide nucleation rate, oxide growth kinetics as well as nucleation activation energy were greatly changed by the addition of nonoxidizing Au. The reasons for these changes, such as Au segregation to the top surface, a decrease in Cu activity, and reduced lattice mismatch due to the addition of Au, were discussed, and a qualitative analysis of nucleation energetics was given.
In situ Transmission Electron Microscopy Investigation of Radiation Effects
Authors: Birtcher R.C. , Kirk M.A. , Furuya K. , Lumpkin G.R. , Ruault M-O.
Published: July 2005

In situ observation is of great value in the study of radiation damage utilizing electron or ion irradiation. We summarize the facilities and give examples of work found around the world. In situ observations of irradiation behavior have fallen into two broad classes. One class consists of long-term irradiation, with observations of microstructural evolution as a function of the radiation dose in which the advantage of in situ observation has been the maintenance of specimen position, orientation, and temperature. A second class has involved the recording of individual damage events in situations in which subsequent evolution would render the correct interpretation of ex situ observations impossible. In this review, examples of the first class of observation include ion-beam amorphization, damage accumulation, plastic flow, implant precipitation, precipitate evolution under irradiation, and damage recovery by thermal annealing. Examples of the second class of observation include single isolated ion impacts that produce defects in the form of dislocation loops, amorphous zones, or surface craters, and single ion impact-sputtering events. Experiments in both classes of observations attempt to reveal the kinetics underlying damage production, accumulation, and evolution.
Culture-Induced Abnormalities in Tautog
Authors: Schwartz Jesse , Marshall Kristin , Moran Brandy , Kaufman Les
Published: July 2005

We compared external and internal morphometrics of tautog Tautoga onitis reared by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Sea Grant Marine Finfish Hatchery with wild fish collected in Woods Hole, Massachusetts. Twenty-five length-standardized external morphometrics differed statistically between cultured (N = 5; standard length [SL] 93–152 mm) and wild caught (N = 5; 108–170 mm SL) fish based on a size-corrected discriminant analysis (canonical correlate 1 > 0.99, P < 0.001). Forty length-standardized morphometrics of pharyngeal morphology and feeding musculature differed statistically in discriminant comparisons (canonical correlate 1 > 0.99, P < 0.001 for both tests) between wild (N = 9; 117–442 mm SL) and cultured fish (N = 10; 125–275 mm SL). The lower pharyngeal jaws of cultured individuals were similar to those of wild fish in their surface area and tooth density but were distorted and exhibited irregular tooth placement. Cultured tautogs also exhibited a foreshortening of the head superficially, similar to a “pugheaded” condition as compared with wild fish. The source, nature, and impacts of these aberrations should be investigated carefully before culture and release of tautogs is pursued. Alternative culture methods may be needed to reduce or eliminate possible culture-related abnormalities that may compromise survival or ecological performance in the wild.
Display thin‐film coatings produced by ion‐beam processing
Authors: Shiripov V. , Khokhlov A. , Maryshev S. , Levchuk M. , Khissamov A. , Krivetski K.
Published: July 2005

Abstract— Thin films are one of the most important components in present‐day displays. In this paper, new developments in the field of thin‐film coating technology and techniques for display applications will be discussed. These are based on the use of powerful ion‐beam flows. Scanning linear sputtering systems have made it feasible to achieve uniform coating over large areas in a wide spectrum of coats. Examples of multilayer coatings to be used in the display‐based equipment obtained through the use of ion‐beam technology will be presented.
The construction and performance of a multiviewer 3‐D television display
Authors: Surman Phil , Sexton Ian , Bates Richard , Yow Kam Chaun , Lee Wing Kai
Published: July 2005

Abstract— The De Montfort University (DMU) autostereoscopic 3‐D display, intended for television applications, is described. It provides freedom of viewer movement over a typical “living room” sized area, with no restrictions on viewer's head positions. The display is capable of supplying 3‐D images to multiple viewers who do not need to wear special glasses. It operates by producing regions (exit pupils) in the viewing field where either a left or a right image is perceived. The positions of the exit pupils are steered to the viewers' eyes by the use of head tracking. Design issues that became apparent during the construction of a first prototype, and the findings from tests on it, are described. In addition, the current status of a more advanced prototype is reported.
Translucent LCDs
Authors: Guselnikov N. , Lazarev P. , Paukshto M. , Yeh P.
Published: July 2005

Abstract— Current LCD designs have about 5–7% transmittance in the white state without the use of DBEF3M (double brightness enhancing film) and up to 10–14% with DBEF film. We presented a design which can further increase the brightness by up to 60%. The basics for this design are new Optiva materials which have a high birefringence about 0.3–0.4 and low absorption losses in the visible spectrum. This material can be used to produce multilayer interference reflective polarizer and polarization interference color filters. Initial prototypes of these interference elements will be discussed in the paper.
Human-toxicological effect and damage factors of carcinogenic and noncarcinogenic chemicals for life cycle impact assessment
Authors: Huijbregts Mark A.J. , Rombouts Linda J.A. , Ragas Ad M.J. , van de Meent Dik
Published: July 2005

Chemical fate, effect, and damage should be accounted for in the analysis of human health impacts by toxic chemicals in life-cycle assessment (LCA). The goal of this article is to present a new method to derive human damage and effect factors of toxic pollutants, starting from a lognormal dose–response function. Human damage factors are expressed as disability-adjusted life years (DALYs). Human effect factors contain a disease-specific and a substance-specific component. The disease-specific component depends on the probability of disease occurrence and the distribution of sensitivities in the human population. The substance-specific component, equal to the inverse of the ED50, represents the toxic potency of a substance. The new method has been applied to calculate combined human damage and effect factors for 1, 192 substances. The total range of 7 to 9 orders of magnitude between the substances is dominated by the range in toxic potencies. For the combined factors, the typical uncertainty, represented by the square root of the ratio of the 97.5th and 2.5th percentile, is a factor of 25 for carcinogenic effects and a factor of 125 for noncarcinogenic effects. The interspecies conversion factor, the (non)cancer effect conversion factor, and the average noncancer damage factor dominate the overall uncertainty.
Improving risk assessments for manufactured gas plant soils by measuring PAH availability
Authors: Stroo Hans F. , Nakles David V. , Kreitinger Joseph P. , Loehr Raymond C. , Hawthorne Steven B. , Luthy Richard G. , Holman Hoi-Ying , LaPierre Adrienne
Published: July 2005

Remediation of soils at oil-gas manufactured gas plant (MGP) sites is driven primarily by the human health risks posed by the carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), particularly benzo[a]pyrene (BaP), that are associated with lampblack residues. Although PAHs on lampblack are tightly sorbed, risk assessments do not account for this reduced availability. A multi-investigator study of 7 oil-gas MGP site soil samples demonstrated that the dermal and ingestion absorption factors are far lower than current default assumptions used in risk assessments. Using these sample-specific absorption factors in standard risk assessment equations increased risk-based cleanup levels by a factor of 72 on average (with a range from 23 to 142 times the default level). The rapidly released fraction of the BaP in each sample, as measured by supercritical fluid extraction, was closely correlated (r2 = 0.96) to these calculated cleanup levels. The weight of evidence developed during this research indicates that the risks posed by PAHs on lampblack are far less than assumed when using default absorption factors and that a tiered evaluation protocol employing chemical analyses, chemical release data, and in vitro bioassays can be used to establish more realistic site-specific criteria.
A case study of the Australian plague locust commission and environmental due diligence: Why mere legislative compliance is no longer sufficient for environmentally responsible locust control in Australia
Authors: Story Paul G. , Walker Paul W. , McRae Heath , Hamilton John G.
Published: July 2005

The Australian Plague Locust Commission (APLC) manages locust populations across 2 million square kilometers of eastern Australia using the aerial application of chemical and biological control agents to protect agricultural production. This occurs via a preventative control strategy involving ultralow-volume spray equipment to distribute small droplets of control agent over a target area. The economic costs of, and potential gains stemming from, locust control are well documented. The application of insecticides, however, to fragile arid and semiarid ecosystems is a task that brings with it both real and perceived environmental issues. The APLC is proactive in addressing these issues through a combination of targeted environmental operational research, an ISO-14001-aligned Environmental Management System (EMS), and links with environmental regulatory and research institutions. Increasing due diligence components within Australian environmental legislation dictate that mere legislative compliance is no longer sufficient for industries to ensure that they meet their environmental obligations. The development of external research links and the formulation of an EMS for locust control have enabled the APLC to identify environmental issues and trends, quantify objective environmental targets and strategies, and facilitate continuous improvement in its environmental performance, while maintaining stakeholder support. This article outlines the environmental issues faced by the APLC, the research programs in place to address these issues, and the procedures in place to incorporate research findings into the organization's operational structure.
Oils from Microorganisms
Authors: Wynn James P. , Ratledge Colin
Published: July 2005

All microorganisms, bacteria, yeasts, fungi, and algae produce a wide variety of lipids. Some species, the oleaginous ones, produce large amounts, sometimes up to 70% of the cell mass, of triacylglycerol oils, which, depending on the organism, are similar in fatty acyl constituents to most of the conventional plant seed oils. These are known as single‐cell oils (SCO). They may, if the economics are right, be considered as alternative sources to these commodities. However, because of the high cost of fermentation technology to cultivate microorganisms on a large scale, only the very highest valued microbial oils can be considered economically viable. This chapter gives a brief background to microbial technology and gives examples of how SCOs have been produced as sources of gamma‐linolenic acid, being alternatives to evening primrose and borage oils, and for the production of cocoa butter equivalent oils for possible use in chocolate confectionery. Current commercial productions of arachidonic acid (20:4,n‐4) using the filamentous fungus,Mortierella alpina, and of docosahexaenoic acid (22:6,n‐3) by the marine dinoflagellate,Crypthecodinium cohnii, and by the chytrid,Schizochytriumspp. are described in which oils are produced that are then incorporated into infant baby formulas and are taken for the prevention of coronary heart disease in adults. The prospect of using microorganisms to produce other polyunsaturated fatty acids, such as eicosapentaenoic acid, for possible medical applications, concludes this chapter.
Corn Oil
Authors: Moreau Robert A.
Published: July 2005

Corn oil is a popular vegetable oil in the United States and in many other countries. Because of its pleasant nutty flavor, its good stability, and its popularity for making margarines, corn oil has long been considered a premium vegetable oil. Among all of the vegetable oils, corn oil ranks tenth in terms of annual production, and it represents about 2% of the vegetable oil produced worldwide. The chemical composition of corn oil is distinguished by its high levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids (an average value of 60–75% linoleic acid), and among the commodity vegetable oils corn oil has the highest levels of unsaponifiables (>2%), the highest levels of phytosterols (>1%), and the highest levels of γ‐tocopherol (about 0.10%).
Sunflower Oil
Authors: Grompone Maria A.
Published: July 2005

World production of sunflower oil is fourth in importance among vegetable oils, amounting to 9 million metric tons, 8% of the total vegetable oil production. The kernel represents 70% of seed weight, containing around 55% of oil.

Sunflower oil of different oleic content may be classified as (1) regular (14–39%), (2) mid‐oleic (43–72%), and (3) high‐oleic (75–91%). With a good oxidative stability, regular sunflower oil finds many applications in the food market mainly as salad oil and cooking oil. Industrial applications of sunflower oil include its use as frying oil, as well as in the manufacture of mayonnaise and oil‐based dressings. Hydrogenated sunflower oil may be used in the manufacture of shortenings and margarines. High‐oleic sunflower oil is the most appropriate type for use in industrial frying, in view of its low content in polyunsaturated fatty acids. Mid‐oleic sunflower oil is of higher frying quality than other nonhydrogenated oils (soybean, canola, corn, and cottonseed).

Nonedible industrial uses of regular sunflower oil include the production of biodiesel, lubricants, vegetable oil‐based printing inks, and so on. Meal, hulls, and sodium soapstock are obtained as byproducts of the extraction and refining processes. Other minor byproducts may also be obtained: lecithin, waxes, tocopherols, and so on.
Glycerine
Authors: Schroeder Keith
Published: July 2005

Glycerine is a coproduct of fat splitting (hydrolysis), soap making, and trans‐esterification of fats and oils. The history of glycerine and it's economics as an industrial chemical provides an introduction and the basic chemistry. Two distinct types of glycerol are processed, soap lye crudes, which contain significant levels of sodium chloride, and sweetwater crudes, which have little to no sodium chloride contamination present. Processing glycerol into high‐purity refined grades requires pretreatment steps followed by evaporation to concentrate the glycerol solution into crude glycerine. The removal of sodium chloride requires specialized equipment. Refining crude glycerine into finished USP‐grade glycerine requires distillation equipment, which operates under a high vacuum. The final step of the process is carbon adsorption. Storage of finished and unprocessed glycerine requires special considerations. The effect of processing on glycerine odor and color is critical to final product quality. Processing plants require special considerations in terms of layout, materials of construction, instruments and controls, and piping. Overall considerations in glycerine processing include physical properties; quality and testing, including grades and test methods; losses; and waste management. A discussion of glycerine uses and future considerations provides reference for the glycerine industry.
Olive Oil
Authors: Firestone David
Published: July 2005

Olive oil, an important component in the diet of Mediterranean people, is obtained by mechanical extraction from the fruit ofOlea europaeaL tree, which belongs to the Olive family. It comprises 400 species and thrives in temperate and tropical climates. Olives appeared in Israel about 45,000 years ago and olive farming and the olive oil industry appear to have been well established throughout the region bordering the Mediterranean in the middle and late Bronze age. Olive growing prospered until the fifth century AD when the Roman Empire was invaded from the north. In 1709, a new age of olive farming began when new orchards were planted in Europe to replace those destroyed by a deep cold spell. Olive farming reached a peak in the first half of the nineteenth century.

Most of the world's olive trees grow in the Mediterranean Basin. Ripe olives contain a number of components, including water, oil, sugars, proteins, organic acids, and cellulose. Harvesting of the olives is discussed. Care must be taken not to damage the fruit. Damage could affect the taste of the oil and would not be acceptable for virgin oil and would have to be refined. Three systems are used for mechanical extraction of oil from the olive fruit: pressure processing; centrifugation; and adhesion and filtering. Refining of olive oil is carried out by alkali refining or physical refining. Pomace oil refining is also detailed.

Olive oil components and the analysis of these components are given. World production and consumption data are given.
Sesame Oil
Authors: Hwang Lucy Sun
Published: July 2005

Sesame seed has higher oil content (around 50%) than most of the known oilseeds although its production is far less than the major oilseeds such as soybean or rapeseed due to labor‐intensive harvesting of the seeds. Sesame oil is generally regarded as a high‐priced and high‐quality oil. It is one of the most stable edible oil despite its high degree of unsaturation. The presence of lignan type of natural antioxidants accounts for both the superior stability of sesame oil and the beneficial physiological effects of sesame.
Soaps
Authors: Burke Michael R.
Published: July 2005

Soap is one of the oldest known manufactured chemical substances and was first produced thousands of years ago through the reaction of animal fats with the ashes from plants. Early soaps were used primarily for the cleansing of clothing, not for personal hygiene, because of cultural as well as practical reasons. For instance, these animal fat soaps possessed almost unbearable odors and probably contained excessive amounts of unreacted caustics. Today soaps are produced using a variety of processes, including kettle boiling, continuous saponification, and hydrolysis/neutralization, as well as different fats and oils feedstocks, yielding finished materials that possess specifically desired properties for application as personal cleansing products.

Soap is one example of a broader class of materials known as surface‐active agents, or surfactants. Surfactant molecules contain both a hydrophilic or water‐liking portion and a separate hydrophobic or water‐repelling portion. The hydrophilic portion of a soap molecule is the carboxylate head group and the hydrophobic portion is the aliphatic chain. This class of materials is simultaneously soluble in both aqueous and organic phases or preferential aggregate at air–water interfaces. It is this special chemical structure that leads to the ability of surfactants to clean dirt and oil from surfaces and produce lather.

Although soaps have many physical properties in common with the broader class of surfactants, they also have several distinguishing factors. First, soaps are most often derived directly from natural sources of fats and oils. Fats and oils are triglycerides, i.e., molecules comprising a glycerol backbone and three ester‐linked fatty oils. Other synthetic surfactants may use fats and oils or petrochemicals as initial building blocks, but generally they require additional chemical manipulations such as sulfonation, esterification, sulfation, and amidation.

Second, soaps form insoluble complexes, commonly referred to as curd, in the presence of calcium and magnesium ions in solution. Calcium and magnesium ions are the principal metal ions found in water and their level is commonly referred to as the hardness of the water; hard water has high levels of both of these ions, soft water has very low levels. This curd reduces the effectiveness of soap as a surfactant and gives rise to other undesirable properties during use, e.g., precipitation on surfaces. Many synthetic surfactants are considerably less susceptible to water hardness. This water hardness insensitivity has led to the replacement of soap by synthetic surfactants in a variety of applications, such as dish and laundry detergents and shampoos. Although soap is still the predominant material used in personal cleansing products, e.g., facial, body, and hand cleansing, soap‐based personal cleansing products are being rapidly replaced by products that contain increasing amounts of synthetic surfactants to meet changing consumer needs, such as rinsing and lather in hard water and improved mildness to the skin.
Antioxidants: Regulatory Status
Authors: Shahidi Fereidoon , Zhong Ying
Published: July 2005

Oxidation of unsaturated lipids is a major cause of food quality deterioration by giving rise to the development of off‐flavor compounds and loss of nutritional value of food products. Although it has been known for a long time that lipid oxidation can be induced by catalytic systems such as light, temperature, enzymes, metals, and metalloproteins; the mechanism of oxidation reactions remained uncertain until the 1940s when free radicals and reactive oxygen species were found to be involved in oxidation processes by the pioneering work of Farmer et al. Furthermore, antioxidants were found to protect lipids against oxidation either by quenching free radicals or scavenging oxygen, among others. Antioxidants are substances that, when present in foods at low concentrations compared with that of an oxidizable substrate, markedly delay or prevent the oxidation of the substrate. Antioxidants that fit in this definition include free radical scavengers, inactivators of peroxides, and other reactive oxygen species (ROS), chelators of metals, and quenchers of secondary lipid oxidation products that produce rancid odors. Antioxidants have also been used in the health‐related area because of their ability to protect the body against damage caused by ROS as well as reactive nitrogen species (RNS) and those of reactive chlorine species (RCS).
Margarines and Spreads
Authors: Chrysan Michael M.
Published: July 2005

This chapter discusses margarine as well as vegetable oil margarine and butter substitutes containing less than 80% fat. These products are referred to as table spreads. The table spread category has undergone great changes in recent years and continues to change rapidly. The market for table spreads, which was originally driven by cost, has now been impacted mainly by health concerns. Claims relative to the cholesterol content, polyunsaturated fats, saturated fats, total fat, and trans‐fat content have become important issues.

Historical production of spreads and their relationship to butter are discussed. Legal requirements for the composition and labeling of margarine and table spreads are given. Such information is necessary for formulating products to meet specific demands. Labeling is regulated and set forth in the Code of Federal Regulations. Labels concerning health and nutrient content are detailed. Product characteristics of importance are spreadability, oil separation, and melting. The various oils sources in vegetable oil margarines and spreads are discussed in terms of their properties, blending, and specifications.

There is a wide range of formulations used in the margarine industry. However, there are five basic processing operations: emulsification, cooling, working, resting, and packaging. Attention is given to the factors impacting on the deterioration and shelf life of the products.
Coconut Oil
Authors: Canapi Elias C. , Agustin Yvonne T. V. , Moro Evangekube A. , Pedrosa Economico , Bendaño María Luz J.
Published: July 2005

In the tropics, the coconut palm is one of the most useful trees. As a perennial provider of food, beverage, shelter, animal feed, and feedstock for the oloechemical industries, the palm is reverently described as the Tree of Life, Tree of Heaven, and other metaphors by people of coconut‐producing countries. Coconut palms grow with a minimum of attention, but for commercial farms the trees must be tended and maintained in order to improve productivity.

This article gives information on the agronomy of coconut palms, propagation, and the varieties of coconut. The various parts of the fruit are the kernel, coconut water, testa (the brown layer between the kernel and the shell), shell, and husk. Copra is the dried kernel of coconuts. The conversion of kernel to copra is an essential step if the oil is to be drawn by the conventional mechanical extraction method. The dry process is the traditional method of extracting the oil. Feedstock in the wet process is the fresh kernel. Refining of crude fats and oils involves a series of steps for removal of impurities to make the product suitable for human consumption.

Coconut oil belongs to a unique group of vegetable oils called lauric oils. More than 90% of the fatty acids in coconut oil are saturated. Physical and chemical properties are detailed. Coconut products are used in edible products, medical and infant formulations, and nonfood products, such as soap. The fatty acids from coconut oil are used as a feedstock in the oleochemical industries. Storage of the product and some economic information are also discussed.
Oils from Herbs, Spices, and Fruit Seeds
Authors: Yu Liangli (Lucy) , Parry John W. , Zhou Kequan
Published: July 2005

This chapter provides a review of selected edible fruit, spice, and herb seed oils for their fatty acid composition and other physicochemical properties. The seed oils are grouped according to their predominant or distinguishing fatty acids. These groups mainly include oils rich in α‐linolenic (18:3n‐3), γ‐linolenic (18:3n‐6), linoleic (18:2n‐6), or oleic (18:ln‐9) acids. A total of 36 seed oils are included.
Modification of Fats and Oils via Chemical and Enzymatic Methods
Authors: Senanayake S. P. J. Namal , Shahidi Fereidoon
Published: July 2005

Hydrogenation, interesterification, fractionation, and blending are distinct processes that can be applied to modify the physical or chemical properties of fats and oils in order to improve their usefulness. These processes can be used alone or in combination with each other. By combining hydrogenation, fractionation, and interesterification with the simple blending of native and modified oils, it is possible to engineer a wide variety of fats and oils with characteristics suited to specific applications. Hydrogenation is used to convert liquid oils into products having different consistencies, melting points, and textures. On the other hand, interesterification produces changes in physical properties by rearrangement or redistribution of fatty acids within and among the TAGs of oils. Fractionation provides a means of producing fats and oils with sharply defined melting characteristics.
Dietary Fat Substitutes
Authors: Senanayake S. P. J. Namal , Shahidi Fereidoon
Published: July 2005

Fat substitues are becoming an important part of the American diet. Many Americans are looking for ways to enjoy their favorite foods while maintaining a low‐calorie diet. Food scientists are developing new food additives that will mimic the function of fats in foods while keeping the calorie contents of foods low. Dietary fat substitutes are food constituents able to replace, completely or partially, dietary fat in such a manner that certain physical and organoleptic properties of the food product involved are left unaltered as far as possible. There are two principal approaches to the replacement of dietary fat. The farst involves hydratable carbohydrates and proteins with the mouthfeel of fats. The second includes nonabsorbable synthetic substances with the physical properties and technical function of fat within foods.
Recovery of Oils and Fats from Oilseeds and Fatty Materials
Authors: Williams Maurice A.
Published: July 2005

A summary of many methods for removing fats and oils from a variety of oilseeds and fatty materials, starting with some early methods and arriving at modern state‐of‐the‐art methods. The summary covers preparation, including cracking, flaking, cooking and drying, and extrusion preparation. Hydraulic crushing is covered and screw pressing, both prepressing and fullpressing. Many early and modern screw presses of different manufacture are described. Batch rendering systems for animal fats are described as well as the more efficient continuous systems for dry rendering and systems for slurry rendering using multiple effect evaporators. Digestive rendering is also discussed. Solvent extraction is described, starting with theories behind solvent extraction, various solvents used, early equipment, and state‐of‐the‐art modern extractors. Also discussed are solvent recovery from miscella, marc, and the air and water effluents from the extraction system. The chapter ends with methods for obtaining oil from olives and from palm fruit.
Marine Mammal Oils
Authors: Shahidi Fereidoon , Zhong Ying
Published: July 2005

Marine oils are obtained from the flesh of fatty fish, liver of lean white fish, and blubber of marine mammals. Although lipids from marine fish have been used as food and medicine, traditional uses of blubber lipids of marine mammals were mostly industrially oriented, except for Innus and Eskimos. Marine mammal oils were lubricants or “train” oils as well as fuel and used for lighting. However, recent research findings on the importance of long‐chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC PUFA) in human health have opened new channels for their value‐added use in food and pharmaceutical industries. During the last three decades, it has been established that Greenland Eskimos living on their traditional diet have a lower incidence of coronary heart disease than do Danes living on a western‐style diet. It has been recognized that polyunsaturated fatty acids could be useful in controlling serum triacylglycerols, but the fatty acids provided by the food industry were often of the ω6 family.
Palm Oil
Authors: Basiron Yusof
Published: July 2005

The rapid expansion in world production of palm oil over the last three decades has attracted the attention of the oils and fats industry. Many are interested to know how palm oil has been able to compete successfully to gain an increasing share of the international oils and fats markets. The increasing importance of palm oil has naturally led to a steady buildup of scientific, techinical, and trade data and information.

This chapter will provide the reader with an understanding of the role of the palm oil industry in the international oils and fats market, the technology involved in extracting and processing of the oil, and the various quality parameters useful in understanding the applications of palm oil products. Some of the common applications of palm oil in food and nonfood end products are described.