bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
On the Origins of Human Rights in War
Authors: Kolb Robert
Published: February 2022

This chapter discusses the thesis found in some newer publications according to which the two branches of international humanitarian law and international human rights law were not as neatly separated between 1949 and 1968 as is often claimed. Its point is that while in effect no complete separation prevailed, the pendulum should not swing too much in the other direction. It would be an anachronistic ideological statement, projected back to the past, to say that both branches were in close relations since the times after World War II. Separation prevailed, but bridges were progressively built, blossoming since the end of the 1960s, especially in the wake of Israeli occupation of Palestinian territories.
Climate Litigation as Global Law
Authors: Spijkers Otto
Published: February 2022

This chapter provides an analysis of the actual and potential contribution of climate litigation to the further development of global law. It identifies certain general trends that can be deduced from the already existing examples of climate litigation that may shape the evolution of global law applicable to the global community’s efforts to jointly combat climate change. Included in the scope of the analysis of this chapter are issues as diverse as the relationship between the courts and the lawmakers, as well as the role of scientific evidence in judicial reasoning. This chapter also addresses the role of the courts in interpreting the human right to a healthy environment and its application in the context of climate change. Finally, an analysis is provided of the legal representation of the rights and interests of climate migrants and climate refugees, of people living abroad, of future generations, and of nature itself.
Introductory Note
Authors: Treves Tullio
Published: February 2022

In 2019, the Tribunal handed out a judgment on the merits in the Norstar case (Panama v. Italy). The decision adopted by a majority and opposed by seven judges, concerns inter alia the notion of freedom of navigation and its implications for bunkering on the high seas and developments on state responsibility concerning the causal link and the determination of quantum of damages. The Tribunal also handed out two provisional measures orders in disputes engaged by Ukraine against the Russian Federation, and by Switzerland against Nigeria, both under Article 290, paragraph 5, of UNCLOS. Both orders contain relevant developments on the law of provisional measures.
Introductory Note
Authors: Knoops Geert-Jan Alexander , Pedroso Sara
Published: February 2022

The International Criminal Court (ICC) has experienced a burgeoning of activity in 2019, including new beginnings, such as the start of pre-trial proceedings against co-accused, Messrs. Alfred Yekatom and Ngaïssona, the commencement of trial in the case against Mr. Al Hassan, and the Pre-trial Chamber’s authorisation that an investigation be launched for the alleged crimes committed against the Rohingya in the Situation in Bangladesh/Myanmar. Two landmark acquittals were pronounced in early 2019 in the case against both Mr. Laurent Gbagbo and Mr. Charles Blé Goudé, culminating from no case to answer proceedings launched by the defence the previous year, and litigation went underway in the context of Mr. Jean-Pierre Bemba’s compensation claim following his acquittal by the Appeals Chamber, raising novel issues relating to the interpretation of Article 85 of the Rome Statute. The Court stirred controversy in unanimously rejecting the Prosecutor’s request to proceed with an investigation into alleged crimes against humanity and war crimes committed on the territory of Afghanistan, extending among others to the conduct of US troops, in the context of renewed pressures from the United States imposing sanctions against ICC staff. Further controversy arose from the Appeals Chamber’s confirmation of the Pre-Trial Chamber’s order in the Comoros case, whereby the Prosecutor was yet again ordered to review its decision to not investigate the situation. Additionally, judges’ independence and impartiality were at the heart of debates in the cases of Mr. Al Hassan and Mr. Ntaganda, whereby the respective defence teams launched recusal requests on the basis of certain judges’ concurrent professional activities and statements.
IV.2 Legal Maxims: Summaries and Extracts from Selected Case Law
Authors: Ziccardi Capaldo Giuliana
Published: February 2022

IV.2.1Situation in Darfur

IV.2.1.1The Prosecutor v. Omar Hassan Ahmad Al-Bashir, Case No. ICC-02/05-01/09 OA2, Appeals Chamber, Judgment, 6 May 2019

IV.2.2Situation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo

IV.2.2.1The Prosecutor v. Bosco Ntaganda, Case No. ICC-01/04-02/06, Trial Chamber VI, Judgment, 7 November 2019...
VIII.2 Legal Maxims: Summaries and Extracts From Selected Case Law
Authors: Ziccardi Capaldo Giuliana
Published: February 2022

VIII.2.1Caso Álvarez Ramos vs. Venezuela, Excepción Preliminar, Fondo, Reparaciones y Costas, Sentencia de 30 de Agosto de 2019, Serie C No. 380

VIII.2.2Caso Perrone y Preckel vs. Argentina, Excepciones Preliminares, Fondo, Reparaciones y Costas, Sentencia de 8 de Octubre de 2019, Serie C No. 384...
Aesthetic Life and Why It Matters
Authors: Lopes Dominic , Nanay Bence , Riggle Nick
Published: February 2022

Following an introduction that sketches an inclusive conception of the domain of the aesthetic, that sets out the task of the book to explain how aesthetic engagement can contribute to well-being or living meaningfully, and that uses a variant on Nozick’s Experience Machine thought experiment to question whether the task can be performed by identifying the aesthetic value with hedonic value, three proposals are offered. Aesthetic engagement is a site for achievement. It cultivates individuality within a context of community. It satisfies a hunger for exploring benign value differences. A closing dialogue among the three authors makes explicit the implications of their proposals for our understanding of disagreement, subjectivism, ethnocentrism, fads and fashions, and the ideological function of aesthetic life.
Getting into It
Authors: Lopes Dominic McIver
Published: February 2022

The network theory of aesthetic value predicts that aesthetic value practices are plural. Values in plural practices differ yet are equally valid, incommensurable, noncompeting, and often to some degree mutually comprehensible. As a result, aesthetic value practices accommodate outsiders’ respect as well as insiders’ engagement. They are therefore well suited to meet a human need to come to terms with differences in value that do not threaten conflict. They invite benign exploration of value diversity; they invite ventures in aesthetic life. Although inegalitarian social forces undercut some of the promise of ventures in aesthetic life, we have tools to resist these forces.
Theosophy in Bengal
Authors: Strube Julian
Published: February 2022

Chapter 2 details the entrance of Theosophy into the Indian intellectual landscape. Core ideas of Theosophists and Bengali reformers were shaped by a shared global background, which structured this exchange. This background was marked by social reformism and the notion of “Aryan” in relation to the search for the origin of religion. Focusing on diverse engagements between Theosophy and members of the Ārya and Brāhma Samaj, the chapter provides examples of disagreement and skepticism but also of the widespread opinion that Theosophists differed from other Westerners because of their self-proclaimed willingness to learn from Indians about “Aryan wisdom.”
Conclusion
Authors: Strube Julian
Published: February 2022

The conclusion revisits central aspects and discusses them from a theoretical and methodological angle. It surveys the global connections that have shaped the exchanges explored in this study, demonstrating the benefits of eliding both historical contexts that have previously been viewed in isolation and scholarly approaches to them. While it has become evident that the scrutinized understandings of Tantra were not the outcome of unilateral “Western” appropriation but were decisively shaped by Indian agency, the conclusion cautions against common pitfalls of the perspective of global entanglement. It also highlights avenues for future research, including subaltern actors and Hindu-Muslim relationships. While the language of “esotericism” was omnipresent in orientalist scholarship since the eighteenth century and is still in use today, the identification of Tantra with esotericism was not simply an orientalist projection but the outcome of complex developments that have been analyzed through the lens of translingual practice and its consistent contextualization.
Utilization and distribution of beavers
Authors: Rosell Frank , Campbell-Palmer Róisín
Published: February 2022

This chapter introduces the long history of beaver and human interaction, discussing the folklore of First Nation peoples to whom the beaver was a sacred link to the Earth’s creation and the Catholic Church’s classification of them as fish; fur wars over their luxuriant pelts in North America; and the cultural beliefs of the use of their castoreum as a medicinal product, including curing all kinds of fever, relief of toothache, prevention of insomnia, and treatment of stomach disorders. This chapter identifies the historic and current distribution range of both beaver species, each of which, after avoiding near extinction in historic times, in this more modern era been widely reintroduced. Numerous beaver restoration projects have focused on the rebooting of their critical role as ecosystem engineers. Eurasian beavers have recently been restored to more than 20 countries in Europe, with minimum estimates of 1.5 million individuals globally. In North America, populations returned from a low of several hundred thousand at the beginning of the nineteenth century to now approximately 6 million beavers.
Beaver morphology and physiology
Authors: Rosell Frank , Campbell-Palmer Róisín
Published: February 2022

This chapter describes the beaver’s biology and physiology, including many unique specialized adaptations to enable them to cope with their semi-aquatic lifestyle, such as diving and digesting bark. The chapter begins with a general description of the beaver body form and structure, including differences between the species. They possess a range of unique features and specialized organs that enable them to survive a semi-aquatic lifestyle, including thick waterproof fur, a cloaca, and various thermoregulation adaptations. Locomotion varies, on land, the beaver is a large, plodding animal that rarely waddles far from the water’s edge. In water they move quickly and dive efficiently and, while potentially not the most agile of swimming animals, spend large amounts of time in the water foraging and maintaining their territory. The beaver tail is quite unique, its form and function are discussed. The beaver’s digestive system is described, including specialized features, e.g. an enlarged caecum ‘fermentation chamber’ designed to accommodate large amounts of complex cellulose such as bark, which is aided by microorganisms in the beaver’s stomach that help in breaking down these substances. The physiology of scent production is also described as chemical communication is significant in these two species. This chapter highlights key features which enable beavers to spend long periods in water and underground especially in prolonged winters.
Activity patterns and life history
Authors: Rosell Frank , Campbell-Palmer Róisín
Published: February 2022

This chapter discusses a range of biological and behavioural traits associated with beaver life history. First the chapter examines their typical daily activity patterns, including time budgets, sex and age-class differences, and activity during winter. Beavers are crepuscular and nocturnal. The time budgets for adult males and females do not differ much for most activities. Beavers adapt to wintertime conditions by becoming less active and live off their pre-prepared food cache and accumulated body fat. It describes a typical beaver family that typically consists of the adult breeding pair with their offspring from the current breeding season and the previous year’s litter. They are living mostly a socially monogamous life, and usually mate for life. The key stages of a beaver’s life cycle are all described, i.e. mate choice and pair bonding, sexual maturity and mating, time of birth and litter sizes, factors affecting reproduction, kit development and life inside beaver lodges, dispersal, mate change, length of pair bonds, and loss of family members and longevity.
Animal management and population monitoring
Authors: Rosell Frank , Campbell-Palmer Róisín
Published: February 2022

Beavers tend not to be a commonly held captive species and there is little published material relating to their captive care. Beavers are kept in captivity for a variety of reasons, including entertainment, fur farming, habitat management, and conservation breeding. This chapter discusses captive care requirements, diet, best husbandry practices, and common captive behaviours and issues, with suggestions on how to improve captive welfare. This will range from health issues in captivity and common behavioural concerns to capture, handling, tagging, and sex determination, enclosure design, and animal management. Beavers may suffer from a perception that they have less behavioural requirements beyond their physical environment, potentially encouraged by their lack of visibility and rodent classification. However, as social mammals with complex chemical communication systems and as such an ability to modify their environments, studies of wild counterparts suggest their captive welfare requirements may actually be more sophisticated. Population monitoring can be achieved through various methods, including tagging individuals and using field signs to determine population distribution and size estimates. Many of these techniques have been developed or refined in the captive setting. The application and issues using various methods are discussed.
Prologue
Authors: Hill C. E.
Published: February 2022

And as for the dead being raised, have you not read in the book of Moses, in the story about the bush, how God said to him, ‘I am the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob’?

(Mark 12:26 NRSV)...
A Chapter Vocabulary Emerges
Authors: Hill C. E.
Published: February 2022

Chapter 2 chronicles how a vocabulary of textual division and reference emerges, up to the time of the great biblical parchments of the fourth century. It finishes by introducing the first systems of numbered divisions of Scripture produced by the Christian scribal tradition: the Eusebian canon tables for the Gospels, which incorporated the Ammonian Sections; the Kephalaia, or Old Greek Divisions, also designed for the Gospels; the chapter divisions of the Euthalian Apparatus of Acts and the NT Epistles; and finally, the Capitulatio Vaticana. All of these systems illustrate how rapidly the visual presentation of the pages of Scripture changed in the first three centuries of the church’s existence.
The Capitulatio Vaticana and Its Predecessors in the New Testament
Authors: Hill C. E.
Published: February 2022

Chapter 7 continues the search for antecedents of the CapVat divisions, now in NT sources. In a little-known list of chapters found in ten medieval manuscripts, confirmation is found for the existence of the First Chapters, at least for Acts, in Caesarea by at least about the end of the third century, associated with the work of Pamphilus. While the only replication of a NT book with the CapVat divisions remains the eighth-century Codex Zacynthius, legitimate precursors of the CapVat divisions may now be identified in the unnumbered ekthetic breaks in P75 (John especially), and, as far as they go, in the divisions of P64+67 in Matthew. Most likely, other early Gospel papyri preserve more variant forms. For Paul, an unexpected correlation with the CapVat divisions turns up in some of Tertullian’s exegetical comments on 1 Corinthians 7 in his ad Uxorem (c.207), where he is relying upon a Greek copy.
Introduction
Authors: Amaral Patrícia , Cantero Manuel Delicado
Published: February 2022

This chapter presents the aims and rationale for the book. It first provides a general overview of the existing literature on the three types of complex constructions examined in the book and shows that previous studies on Portuguese and Spanish have either focused just on one construction and one language, or on one aspect of their analysis (syntactic or semantic). Then it presents three theoretical issues raised by the development of the complex constructions analyzed: the relation between recategorization and change, the role of compositionality in diachrony, and mechanisms of change. Following this, information is provided about the corpora used and the conventions adopted to represent the date of the texts. The chapter concludes with a summary of each chapter.
Clausal adjunction
Authors: Amaral Patrícia , Cantero Manuel Delicado
Published: February 2022

This chapter analyzes the properties of the clause-taking nouns hecho and feito/facto in Spanish and Portuguese. After reviewing the semantic literature on events and facts, we present the divergent development of the Latin noun FACTU(M) in these languages from the 13th to the 21st centuries, both in isolation and in the context of clausal adjunction. We show how the different outcomes in Spanish and Portuguese reveal patterns of semantic change that have been overlooked in the literature on nouns. It is shown that historically the nouns hecho and facto first displayed an eventive meaning and then acquired a factlike meaning as well as an additional value of “subject matter, topic.” We bring a historical perspective to semantic typologies of abstract entities in discourse and to the literature on factivity.
Language communities of the Northern Ryukyus
Authors: Heinrich Patrick
Published: February 2022

The Ryukyu Islands are a culturally diverse region with a distinctive identity comprising numerous languages and dialects. Northern Ryukyuan languages are a branch of the wider group of Ryukyuan languages（Ryūkyū shogo) that are indigenous to Japan. The identification of languages within the dialect continuum is complex. The language vitality of the Kunigami language and the Okinawan language is higher than of the Amami language. However, all languages remain in decline ten years after their recognition as ‘endangered languages’ by UNESCO. Language education is a concern. Grassroots activities have sprung up and public attitudes are favourable towards the maintenance and revitalization of Northern Ryukyuan languages. Nevertheless, a laissez-faire attitude prevails on the side of local government. More engagement is needed to prevent Northern Ryukyuan languages becoming obsolete by 2050. Language and educational policies must closely reflect the desire for maintenance in the Northern Ryukyuan Archipelago.
Japanese Sign Language
Authors: Oka Norie
Published: February 2022

Japanese Sign Language (JSL or Nihon Shuwa) is an indigenous language of deaf people in Japan. It has regional dialects, generational and stylistic varieties. The lexico-grammatical structure of JSL shares similarities—and some mutual intelligibility—with the sign languages of Taiwan and Korea. JSL developed when deaf people started to form communities following the establishment of deaf schools in Japan in the 1880s. However, the use of sign language was not approved in deaf schools until the 1980s. In 2016, 31,000 persons out of 341,000 persons with hearing disabilities in Japan used signed language for daily communication. There are numerous non-deaf users of JSL as a first language, such as children of deaf adults (CODA). With the increase in the number of people undergoing cochlear implantation, the number of students in deaf schools is decreasing along with the number of native JSL signers.
Ainu
Authors: Shiraishi Hidetoshi
Published: February 2022

Ainu is an indigenous, urban/rural language with numerous dialects, located mostly on Japan’s northern island of Hokkaido. There is no clear diachronic grouping of Ainu with other languages. Ainu is traditionally an oral culture: literacy in Ainu by Ainu began in the nineteenth century through Anglican mission schools. Awareness of Ainu is increasing in Japanese society with the naming of commercial facilities and as a motif in pop subculture. Ainu language ceremonies and commemorative rituals are held regularly and Ainu is studied and taught in several higher education institutions in Japan. Despite political innovation, discrimination against the Ainu is deeply rooted. Governmental recognition of Ainu culture as ‘Important Intangible Folk Property’ and other official measures coincided with a vibrant and ongoing cultural revival movement.
Portuguese
Authors: Gibo Lucila Etsuko
Published: February 2022

Portuguese is the sixth most spoken language in the world and Japan has the third largest Brazilian diaspora. Brazilians constitute the fifth largest minority community. In regions with a high concentration of Brazilians, such as Shizuoka and Aichi prefectures, the Portuguese language is commonly used as a first language. Portuguese is found in the linguistic landscape of public signs. Linguistic contact between Portuguese and Japanese has given rise to a mixed linguistic variety called dekasseguês. Many Brazilian children experience difficulty in learning Portuguese, an issue of heritage language maintenance. Parental choice whether or not to transmit Portuguese in the home as well as the quality of teaching in schools are determining factors in the transmission of Portuguese within the community. Portuguese is taught at several universities, and Brazilian and Portuguese culture—music, festivals, etc.—features prominently in Japan.
Burmese
Authors: Otsuka Kosei
Published: February 2022

Political oppression and the pro-democracy movement in Myanmar led to an increase in the number of refugees and other immigrants from Myanmar arriving in Japan at the end of the twentieth century. These immigrants from Myanmar have subsequently established several communities, including downtown Tokyo’s ‘Little Yangon’, with a diverse mixture of languages, ethnic groups, and religions. Most of them understand Burmese as a common language, and their social networks have been strengthened by various Burmese media and events in Japan. With the increase in the number of immigrants, refugees, and technical interns from Myanmar, it is necessary to gain a picture of the position of the Burmese language and its sociolinguistic environment in Japan. However, this has attracted little attention from academics thus far. Therefore, this chapter provides a general overview of the development and context of the lives of Burmese-speaking immigrants to Japan from Myanmar as well as their common linguistic usage patterns.
English
Authors: Cookson Simon
Published: February 2022

English is a pre-eminent international language. There are an estimated 320–380 million native speakers, and between 420 million and one billion speakers of English as a second language. Since the arrival of a Royal Navy warship in 1808, English has had a profound effect on Japanese language and society. Key periods in this history include the Meiji Restoration, World War Two, and the post-war US occupation. Tensions continue to exist between those viewing English as a vital tool for national development and international trade, and those seeing it as a threat to Japanese culture and identity. Prominent English-speaking communities in Japan include American military forces, foreign residents and tourists, returnees, and employees at companies that use English as a workplace language. In terms of its functional role, social prestige, and penetration into the country’s language life, the status of English in Japan may be accurately characterized as a ‘semi-official language’.
French
Authors: Tuchais Simon
Published: February 2022

The situation of French in present-day Japan derives from its current status as an international language, and a history starting in the 19th century, when French became an important language of modernization of Japan. In the 20th century, French rapidly assumed the status of a language of refinement and culture, associated with literature, intellectual thought, fashion, film, and gastronomy. This image is reflected in numerous loanwords from French in Japanese. This history led to French being one of the main foreign languages other than English taught in Japan since the Meiji era at all levels of education. French is actively studied in institutions of higher education, and is present through the network of French governmental cultural institutions in the major cities.
Introduction
Authors: Miller Kristie , Norton James
Published: February 2022

This chapter introduces the phenomenon of metaphysical explanation, and then distinguishes two different aims one might have in developing a theory of metaphysical explanation. First, one might be interested in developing a theory of a decidedly philosophical notion, one developed by philosophers to do particular philosophical work, or second, one might be interested in developing a theory of the notion as it appears in ordinary contexts used by non-philosophers. This chapter homes in on our target: everyday metaphysical explanation. This is the concept, or notion, that people employ in ordinary contexts in which they ask for a certain kind of explanation, and which they are then able to employ in contexts beyond the ordinary.
Tracking Subjective Understanding
Authors: Miller Kristie , Norton James
Published: February 2022

This chapter focusses on showing that we can reliably detect whether a subject subjectively understands one fact in terms of another. Thus, it takes up the question of whether the fact that one fact plays psychological role P relative to another fact at a context of explanation is epistemically tractable. First, the chapter considers how we reliably detect states of subjective understanding in ourselves. It considers several limitations to self-knowledge, and argues that these do not undermine our capacity to detect states of subjective understanding in ourselves. Then it considers how we reliably detect states of subjective understanding in others. We argue that assuming that solipsism is not true and that we are generally able to detect the mental states of others, detecting states of subjective understanding in others presents no special challenge.
Evaluating the Three Accounts Part I
Authors: Miller Kristie , Norton James
Published: February 2022

This chapter evaluates the three accounts of everyday metaphysical explanation—each account of the R-relation(s) from 5, that is: the symmetric dependence-based (SD) account, the necessitation-based (N) account, and the non-causal correlation-based (NCC) account, paired with the account of psychological role P from chapter 6—against the desideratum of providing correct truth-conditions. The chapter asks first whether these accounts accommodate the particular ways in which our judgements are subjective, context-sensitive, and agent-relative, and finds that they do. It then shows that the symmetrical dependence-based account and the non-causal correlation-based accounts satisfy this desideratum while the necessitation-based account does not, owing to a paucity of necessitation relations.
Evaluating the Three Accounts Part II
Authors: Miller Kristie , Norton James
Published: February 2022

This chapter concludes the book by evaluating the three accounts of everyday metaphysical explanation—each account of the R-relation(s) from chapter 5, paired with the account of psychological role P from chapter 6—against the remaining desiderata. The chapter argues that chapters 7 and 8 showed that all three accounts are epistemically tractable. It argues that all three accounts can explain people’s collective practices. Further, it argues that because the non-causal correlation-based account can meet these desiderata without positing any ontology, there is no motivation to posit symmetrical dependence relations. Thus the preferred account is the non-causal correlation-based account.
Institutions of skill formation in Turkey
Authors: Sancak Merve
Published: February 2022

This chapter examines the national institutions in Turkey that influence the Turkish auto parts suppliers’ skilling strategies. It builds on the discussions in the literature on comparative capitalisms and particularly the comparative political economy of skill formation. The chapter provides a description of institutions in Turkey, which define the training practices available to firms and that shape the supply of, demand for, and mobility of workers with different skills. The chapter explains the complementarity between these institutions and the role of state involvement in them. The chapter shows that there are four main institutions that have become the macro-level complementarities of the skill system in Turkey: the vocational education and training system, labour regulations and wage institutions, firms’ location and public transportation facilities, and the compulsory military service for men. Furthermore, the chapter argues that the high state involvement in Turkey is a key factor shaping these four macro-level institutions.
The skilling practices of Turkish firms and their outcomes for workers and firms
Authors: Sancak Merve
Published: February 2022

This chapter presents a micro-level analysis on Turkish firms’ skilling strategies. It discusses how the governance structures in auto parts-automotive value chains and institutional arrangements in Turkey affect Turkish suppliers’ strategies to find workers with the skills they need. It evaluates the outcomes of the skilling strategies for firms and workers, and this helps to make inferences about the Turkish skill system’s implications for the high- or low-road development prospects of the country. The chapter shows that the skill system in Turkey, in which the state’s involvement is high, leads to skilling practices in auto parts-automotive industry firms that are linked with the public vocational education and training system. Because of this, the skill system generates general and specific skills and higher accessibility to workers and firms, which can facilitate more inclusive and continuous development.
Concluding remarks
Authors: Sancak Merve
Published: February 2022

This chapter summarises the main arguments of the book and its contribution to the theoretical debates in different fields of study that it draws from. The main arguments in the chapter, and the book in general, relate to the discussion on the convergence versus divergence of firm behaviour due to the governance structures in global value chains versus the national institutional environment surrounding firms, the role of state involvement for national institutions and their complementarities, the idea of complementarity and capitalist systems in countries that are outside of the ideal types, and the implications of skill systems with different levels and types of state involvement for high-road development. The chapter finishes by presenting three new avenues of research to which the book may lead.
OV orders and the middlefield
Authors: Wolfe Sam
Published: February 2022

This chapter offers an analysis of one of the most salient typological differences between Latin and historical stages of French on the one hand and Modern French and its varieties on the other, namely the presence or absence of OV orders where verbal complements undergo movement to the low left periphery at the edge of the extended verb phrase. It is argued a change takes place early in the history of Latinity where unmarked rollup movement of all objects is reanalysed as syntactically or pragmatically marked movement of a subclass of objects to the vP-periphery; with increasing restrictions on the class of objects which can undergo such movement, this scrambling operation persists into Old and Middle French. In Standard Modern French varieties the class of complements which can undergo movement out of the vP is highly restricted, which is linked in the analysis to changes affecting the CP-periphery where movement operations have also declined markedly since the Renaissance.
Learning About Money Cooperatives
Authors: Román Belinda , Adam Samiré , Saravia Ana Paula
Published: February 2022

Women in Lima, Peru, are involved in informal banking systems, known as rotating savings and credit associations (ROSCAs). In Peru, these systems are called Tandas or Juntas, and they are the traditional money systems, rooted in cooperative principles, that enable women to overcome obstacles in their local environment. In this chapter, the authors draw on J. K. Gibson-Graham’s ideas of community economies to understand surveys from the field and interviews with Junta participants in Lima, as well as to cite local scholarship to fill in the cultural gaps. The finding reveals that Juntas are a deliberately informal cooperative system based on reciprocal relations and trust between the members. And that members do not require any collateral to belong to a Juntas. Further analysis of the data shows that the personal relationships created and maintained in Juntas to finance women-owned small businesses are extremely important, especially at the start-up stage of a business, and this loyalty is remembered by Juntas members. These Juntas are also increasingly transnational and move with the Peruvian diaspora to other parts of the world, where they have merged with similar practices as immigrant communities meet and intermingle. This backdrop of globalization, coupled with emerging technologies, adds a new dimension to research into the general idea of informal credit and savings associations.
Conclusion
Authors: Hossein Caroline Shenaz , Kinyanjui Mary Njeri
Published: February 2022

Most people in the Global South have had only non-capitalist experiences of solidarity and reciprocity. The message is that they are among the originators of community economies, exceling in humanizing the economy even when risky to do so. It is around the issue of politics that contextualizing theory is crucial to explaining community economies. Having the lived experience of community economies helps to make credible the claims for why we should acknowledge such other economic systems. This legacy of economic cooperation is preserved by the people of the Global South, who are often wrongly viewed as being on the receiving end of aid and incapable of their own emancipation. These cases show the lived experience and knowledge making cooperators are doing the world over. Global South people are remaking the economy long before any capitalist-versus-communist binaries took hold–using their own indigenous systems. There is a need for scholarship concerned about inequities and remaking economies to draw on empirical work first, and then to ensure the theories are reflective on the community (not imposing Western ideas for Global Majority people). Rotating savings and credit associations (ROSCAs) and other cooperatives show that informality can advance people’s livelihoods, and they are effective forms of business. The antidote to a marketplace that pressures people to conform to individualized capitalist projects is the collective, the ROSCA, and other cooperative systems. The cases on ROSCAs in this book are far from perfect, but they are witness to the worldliness of cooperatives of people in the Global South who are focused, in a conscious and politicized manner, on equity, social purpose, and preservation.
Great Powers and Environmental Responsibilities: A Conceptual Framework
Authors: Buzan Barry , Falkner Robert
Published: February 2022

This chapter develops a theoretical and conceptual framework for the study of great powers and great power responsibility in the international politics of climate change. It introduces the two main approaches—material and social—with which International Relations scholars have defined great powers and reviews some of the ambiguities in the great power concept. It explores the ongoing transformations in the international system that have changed our understanding of the role that great powers play and how great power capabilities can be mapped onto special rights and responsibilities in global international society. In a second step, the chapter then explores the role that great powers play in global environmental politics. It sets out a comprehensive understanding of environmental power that covers both its negative and positive uses and discusses what countries count as environmental great powers. The final section explores the question of great power responsibility and whether and how special responsibilities apply to great powers in the environmental field.
Great Power Responsibility for Climate Security in the United Nations Security Council
Authors: Scott Shirley
Published: February 2022

A system of great power management of climate change, and the full securitization of climate change, will have occurred if and when the UN Security Council identifies climate change as a threat to international peace and security and responds with its Chapter VII emergency powers. This has not yet happened, despite increasing formal and informal responses on the part the council, for several reasons. The council was not set up with environmental issues in mind and the P5 are not united on the desirability of the council assuming such a responsibility. Accepting a great power responsibility for climate security may come at their own economic cost, while many developing countries are wary of the council misusing an environmental mandate and some scholars have sought to disprove a climate change-conflict nexus. Acceptance of a great power responsibility for climate security in the UN Security Council has increased in tandem with some modest convergence of views regarding the boundaries around any potential response and could potentially increase suddenly as a result of the perceived inadequacy of the Paris Agreement, major climate-related crises, or approaching tipping points.
World on Fire: Coal Politics and Great Power Responsibility
Authors: VanDeveer Stacy D. , Boersma Tim
Published: February 2022

Even among fossil fuel resources—with its extraction, transport, and consumption—coal stands out for its profound impact on global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Many countries, firms, and communities remain extremely coal dependent and resistant to changing that. This chapter focuses on inconsistencies between great powers’ ambitious rhetoric and stated goals about reducing GHG emissions to stem the worst impacts of climate change, and their actual practices, policies, and emissions reduction accomplishments. We examine three cases in some detail—the US, China, and the EU—where various governance actors often deliver mixed messages and insufficient achievements, when compared to their aforementioned rhetoric. Results from the cases differ, in that the EU largely accepts its global responsibilities vis-à-vis coal and climate change, while achieving only modest actions in service to those responsibilities. China and the US present more nuanced and more contested rhetorical acceptance of global responsibilities, and even more modest policy and emissions reduction accomplishments. We note some evidence that responsibilities may be made more acceptable and achievable as the costs of associated actions decline. Furthermore, in the US and EU cases, domestic politics may be pushing great powers towards more responsible action in ways that English School theorizing does not foresee.
Grammatical roles
Authors: Dixon R. M. W.
Published: February 2022

This chapter discusses the core components of a clause that are obligatory, which includes subject, predicate, and object if the clause is transitive. It shows how core components may be added a peripheral noun phrase (pNP), which is in most cases optional. The role of the preposition is to indicate the semantic role of its NP; for instance, whether it refers to an instrument, a purpose, an ability, a location, or any of many other possibilities. The chapter outlines two kinds of pNP that deal with prepositions in their basic spatial or temporal meanings: inner pNP and outer pNP. An inner pNP provides spatial modification of a verb or the meaning of the preposition that correlates with the meaning of the verb, while an outer pNP provides spatial or temporal modification of a complete sentence.
Enclosure
Authors: Dixon R. M. W.
Published: February 2022

This chapter recounts how the preposition in dropped out of use during Old English (OE) times, its meaning being added to that of on. It discusses the resultant ambiguity of on that was resolved in Middle English when innan ‘inside’ reduced its form to just in /in/ and enlarged its meaning to ‘in’, as on contracted its meaning to just ‘on’. This effectively restored the original OE contrast between in and on and had adverbial function that could be followed by preposition to, the sequence developing into the complex preposition into /‘intə = /. The chapter includes the OE adverbs ūt and ūte that had similar meanings ‘out, outside’, and merged to give modern out /aut/. From the earliest times it could be followed by preposition of and there thus developed the complex preposition out-of /‘autəv = /.
Periphrasis and inflexion
Authors: Ledgeway Adam , Vincent Nigel
Published: February 2022

Evidence from the Romance languages has played a central role in linguistic debates regarding the relation between structure and change. One of the issues that has attracted most attention has been the connection between periphrasis and inflexion: Latin had rich systems of verbal and nominal inflexion that interacted in various ways with existing periphrastic patterns and structures that incorporated the ingredients of incipient Romance periphrases. These structures are of interest not only to those whose principal focus lies in exploring and explaining the development of the Romance languages, but also to those whose concern is with the broader theoretical implications for our understanding of language structure, variation, and change. This chapter sets out the issues, both theoretical—what models are most appropriate to describe and explain the Romance data?—and empirical—what sources of data are available and what issues arise in exploiting them? We begin with the criteria that serve to distinguish analytic patterns in general before going on to examine the specific properties of periphrastic constructions. From there we consider the interface between periphrasis and inflexion and the different ways they are modelled in current theoretical work. From synchrony, we move to diachrony and the role of grammaticalization in the genesis of new periphrases and inflexions, and interaction on the one hand between internally and externally motivated change and on the other between reconstructed and attested patterns. The chapter concludes with some general reflections on the relation between synchrony and diachrony.
The relation between inflexional and analytic marking of obliques in Romanian
Authors: Dindelegan Gabriela Pană , Bărbulescu Oana Uță
Published: February 2022

This chapter investigates the marking of oblique nominals (Recipients and Possessors) in Romanian and the competition between inflexional and prepositional marking. We start with a seemingly simple question: are there any contexts in which one pattern or the other is favoured? To answer this question, we consider the development of the marking of oblique functions from the oldest texts through to modern Daco-Romanian and its regional varieties. In so doing, we focus on the contexts in which the analytic markers were attested in old Romanian (and some where they are still present to this day) and the phenomenon of double marking. The cyclic repetition of grammaticalization processes is also addressed. Other topics investigated include the multifunctionality of certain markers (and their ambiguity), and the direction of the development in the marking of oblique functions in spoken Daco-Romanian and dialectal varieties.
Thematic and lexico-aspectual constraints on V–S agreement
Authors: Bentley Delia , Cennamo Michela
Published: February 2022

This chapter reports the findings of a survey of V–S agreement in thetic broad focus in Emilian-Romagnol, a group of northern Italo-Romance dialects. The survey was devised to test the claim that verb–subject agreement, unlike subject–verb agreement, is sensitive to discourse and thematic properties of the controller. While a great deal of variation was found in the dialects investigated, a general tendency towards the lack of number V–S agreement emerged from the findings. Qualitative analysis suggested that V–S agreement correlated with the definiteness of S and the lexical class of V. Furthermore, quantitative analysis uncovered the statistical significance of two predictors: whether S was a pronoun and its thematic status, the latter being defined as the position of the argument in the lexico-aspectual structure of the verb. Assuming that verb agreement is a subject diagnostic in the dialects under investigation, our results support the distinction between aboutness and thematic subjecthood, suggesting that thetic broad focus may lack a thematic subject.
SIGALIONIDAE KINBERG, 1856
Authors: Rouse Greg W. , Pleijel Fredrik , Ekin Tilic
Published: February 2022

Sigalionidae was first erected by Kinberg (1856) (note that the name was incorrectly referred to Malmgren (1867) by Fauchald and Rouse (1997)).
MICROPHTHALMIDAE HARTMANN-SCHRöDER, 1971
Authors: Rouse Greg W. , Pleijel Fredrik , Ekin Tilic
Published: February 2022

Microphthalmidae is a small group within Phyllodocida. Herein, we follow the delineation of the group by Salazar-Vallejo (2019a) and include Hesionides as well as Struwela. Both Microphthalmus and Hesionides are interstitial animals.
LACYDONIA MARION, 1874
Authors: Rouse Greg W. , Pleijel Fredrik , Ekin Tilic
Published: February 2022

Lacydonia is a small and morphologically very homogenous group in Phyllodocida about which we know very little. The adults have a relatively small number of segments, and the reported length is up to 8 mm; the body shape in dorsal view is cylindrical with tapering anterior and posterior ends (Pl. 5c).
LOPADORRHYNCHIDAE CLAPARèDE, 1868
Authors: Rouse Greg W. , Pleijel Fredrik , Ekin Tilic
Published: February 2022

Lopadorrhynchidae is a small group of holopelagic annelids. A common misspelling of the name is Lopadorhynchidae with a single ‘r’ (Read and Fauchald, 2021).
PARALACYDONIA FAUVEL, 1913
Authors: Rouse Greg W. , Pleijel Fredrik , Ekin Tilic
Published: February 2022

Paralacydonia is a small and morphologically homogenous group of Phyllodocida. As may be guessed from the name they were thought by Fauvel to be close to Lacydonia, yet their position within Phyllodocida still remains unresolved today.
EUNICIDAE BERTHOLD, 1827
Authors: Rouse Greg W. , Pleijel Fredrik , Ekin Tilic
Published: February 2022

Eunicidae is a well-known group of annelids, mainly for being one of the few groups that are regularly eaten by humans. Their exposed complex and intimidating jaws can often be observed in some giant Eunicidae waiting for their prey in Indonesia. This has resulted in the common name ‘sand striker worms’ for these majestic, avid predators.
HARTMANIELLA IMAJIMA, 1977
Authors: Rouse Greg W. , Pleijel Fredrik , Ekin Tilic
Published: February 2022

Hartmaniellidae is monotypic for Hartmaniella with the former being superfluous, we here just use the latter. Hartmaniella is known from a few records between depths of 45 and 210 m.
SPINTHER JOHNSTON, 1845
Authors: Rouse Greg W. , Pleijel Fredrik , Ekin Tilic
Published: February 2022

Spinther is a small group of easily recognized annelids, all living as ectoparasites or commensals on sponges. The name means spark/sparkling in Greek and most-likely refers to the shimmering appearance of the worm.
NERILLIDAE LEVINSEN, 1883
Authors: Rouse Greg W. , Pleijel Fredrik , Ekin Tilic
Published: February 2022

Despite its minute size, the first member of Nerillidae (Nerilla antennata) was described in 1848 by Schmidt. In his original description he admits initially mistaking Nerilla for the juvenile of a known worm and becoming aware of his discovery only after finding mature specimens.