bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Parlements and Provincial Estates
Authors: Swann Julian
Published: February 2013

After the King and his councils, the French parlements and provincial estates stood out as two of the most prestigious political, legal, and administrative institutions in the kingdom. By the eighteenth century, there were no fewer than thirteen parlements, proudly dominating the social, cultural, and even economic lives of cities such as Aixen-Provence, Besancon, Rennes, and Toulouse. It was, however, the Parlement of Paris that was generally recognized as the senior court, with a jurisdiction covering approximately one-third of France, including provinces such as Auvergne, Champagne, and Poitou as well as the major cities of Orleans and Lyon. The Paris Parlement and its many ardent apologists frequently claimed that it “was as old as the monarchy” and a direct descendant of the Frankish assemblies that had once met on the Champs de Mars. It was an argument that placed the Parlement above the Estates-General as the French national representative body, but it was, in reality, little more than antiquarian wishful thinking and the Parlement was of more recent vintage, having been founded during the fourteenth century. The various provincial parlements had been established later, often when formerly independent provinces had been absorbed into France.
Bourgeoisie
Authors: Maza Sarah
Published: February 2013

The concept of a group called “the bourgeoisie” is unusual in being both central to early modern and modern European history, and at the same time highly controversial. In old regime France, people frequently used the words “bourgeois” or “bourgeoisie” but what they meant by them was very different from the meaning historians later assigned to those terms. In the nineteenth century the idea of a “bourgeoisie” became closely associated with Marxian historical narratives of capitalist ascendancy. Does it still make sense to speak of a “bourgeoisie”? This article attempts to lay out and clarify the terms of the problem by posing a series of questions about this aspect of the social history of Ancien Régime France, with a brief look across the Channel for comparison. It considers first the problem of definition: what was and is meant by “the bourgeoisie” in the context of early modern French history? Second, what is the link between eighteenth-century economic change and the existence and nature of such a group, and can we still connect the origins of the French Revolution to the “rise” of a bourgeoisie? And finally, can the history of perceptions and representations of a bourgeoisie or middle class help us to understand why the concept has been so problematic in the longer run of French history?
Poverty
Authors: Forrest Alan
Published: February 2013

Poverty was an endemic condition across Europe from the later middle ages until the end of the eighteenth century. It was the most intractable of the social problems which beset Europeans and offered a constant rebuke to monarchs and church leaders alike, proving almost as difficult to define as it was impossible to cure. This was an age before social science or social medicine, when there were still no agreed definitions of what constituted poverty, no clear sense of who was and was not poor; and there was little understanding of basic levels of subsistence in terms of protein or diet. Nor were there serious attempts before the eighteenth century to count the poor, or to assess the extent and pervasiveness of poverty. This is partly a question of social and religious attitudes. Poor relief was seen as a matter for the church and for clerical charity. The assumption that poverty was a problem for governments to legislate on still lay in the future, while the almost obsessive concern with statistics which characterizes modern government began only during the French revolutionary and Napoleonic period.
Demography
Authors: Goldstone Jack A.
Published: February 2013

This article focuses on demographic trends during the Ancien Régime. During the Ancien Régime, the upper limits of population size appear to have remained unchanged for many centuries. Thus the peak population within the modern borders of France at the beginning of the fourteenth century, before the Black Death, was probably between eighteen and twenty million people. Some historians of France have suggested that, while population had its ups and downs, the same basic economic and demographic limits persisted across the Ancien Régime —an histoire immobile. It is certainly true that the same basic conditions of peasant landholding, family formation, mortality-determined population growth, and a society whose output was limited by the basic inputs of land and human and animal labour persisted across, indeed defined, the demography of the Ancien Régime. Yet to the people who lived through this period, conditions were far from constant; indeed they usually seemed to be rapidly changing.
Agriculture
Authors: Jones Peter M.
Published: February 2013

The agricultural history of the Ancien Régime is inseparable from the socio-economic history of France between 1660 and 1789 if only for the reason that husbandry remained the principal wealth-generating activity and by far the largest sector of the economy. Even after 1789 this situation would not alter radically. Notwithstanding the collapse of Bourbon absolutism, the broad thrust of change in the countryside proceeded without major interruption. The agrarian history of western Europe in the early modern period provides scant evidence of climactic moments, and researchers are in general agreement that its rhythms can only be discerned over a time span of many decades. In France specifically there were no agricultural breakthroughs in the eighteenth century—whether in land-use, tenurial practice, agronomic technique, or institutional reform.
The Established Church
Authors: Aston Nigel
Published: February 2013

Ancien Régime Europe had an ineradicably Christian character that was publicly embodied and expressed in its established churches. It was and remained a divided continent confessionally after the Peace of Westphalia (1648) with the churches of the Reformation established (sometimes precariously) in Scandinavia, Britain, Switzerland, much of Germany, and parts of eastern Europe; Roman Catholicism predominated elsewhere except within Russia and inside the Ottoman Empire where various forms of Orthodoxy were the primary form of Christian expression. Irrespective of confessional variations, every European state c .1700 exhibited and upheld an established church, at once a fundamental component and final sanction of its institutional life. The concept of establishment found different legal expression from state to state, from a kingdom the size of France to the tiny principalities of Protestant Germany and the Swiss cantons, and it was not necessarily the confession of the majority population, as the instances of early modern Ireland and Bohemia indicate.
The Napoleonic Regimes
Authors: Broers Michael
Published: February 2013

The Napoleonic regimes, the Consulate of 1799–1804, and then the First French Empire from 1804 to 1815, have always proved baffling. Napoleon was anything but a convenient stereotype, and it stands to reason that his political creation soon comes apart in the hands of those who think in neat categories. This is not to say that close scrutiny cannot shed light on them, or even produce a reasonable definition of “Napoleonism” It is to say, however, that the path is not straight. Nevertheless, the fundamental role played by the Consulate and Empire in shaping modern Europe makes it all the more desirable to attempt to define them, if possible. True to this convoluted spirit of enquiry, any examination of the nature of Napoleonic rule, whether in the context of defining the Ancien Régime or not, must be undertaken with a cardinal caveat always in mind: The choice of the plural—Napoleonic regimes—is not pedantic. Napoleonic rule was ever evolving during its short life—hence its slippery nature.
Comparative Law before the Code Napoléon
Authors: Donahue Charles
Published: February 2013

Modern comparative lawyers tend to date the foundation of their discipline to the nineteenth century and to the promulgation of the great European codes. This article claims that one could make an argument that comparative law is to be found in the ancient world, that despite the multiplicity of legal sources it is not often found in the early or high middle ages, that there are hints of it in the commentators of the later middle ages, that in a very real sense it can be found in the ideas of the French legal thinkers of the sixteenth century, and that one can trace a relatively clean line from the sixteenth century to whatever nineteenth-century authors one chooses to focus on as the founders of the discipline that produced the First International Congress of Comparative Law in 1900.
Development of Comparative Law in France
Authors: Fauvarque-Cosson Bénédicte
Published: February 2013

France has a long and solid tradition of comparative law. This article traces the discipline's development in France, describing its strengths and weaknesses. As universal a science as it is, comparative law has distinctive features in each country. While there is currently no such thing as French or Italian comparative law in the sense that there is French or Italian contracts law, there is an identifiable French style in comparative law that is closely related to the development of French legal thought in general. The never-ending question of the purpose of comparative law emerges as one of the fundamental jurisprudential debates of the twentieth century. The first section of this article details the historical rise of comparative law in France. The second section chronicles its decline. The third section predicts its renaissance, provided the French give the study of comparative law the regard it is due.
Comparative Law and Legal Culture
Authors: Cotterrell Roger
Published: February 2013

The idea of legal culture has had an important place in major recent debates about the nature and aims of comparative law. The idea of legal culture entails that law should be treated as embedded in a broader culture of some kind. This culture may, but need not necessarily, be seen as wider than the lawyer's or lawmaker's professional realm of law. Often, however, conceptions of legal culture encompass much more than this professional juristic realm. They refer to a more general consciousness or experience of law that is widely shared by those who inhabit a particular legal environment, for example a particular region, nation, or group of nations. Culture appears fundamental — a kind of lens through which all aspects of law must be perceived, or a gateway of understanding through which every comparatist must pass so as to have any genuine access to the meaning of foreign law.
Comparative Law and Legal History
Authors: Gordley James
Published: February 2013

Legal historians have sometimes studied the law of one place and time while disregarding that of others. Comparative lawyers have sometimes compared the law of different jurisdictions while ignoring the historical reasons they are alike or unlike. The consequences have been unfortunate. Historians have often explained rules which are ubiquitous by the circumstances peculiar to one time and place. Comparative lawyers have often explained the similarities and differences among laws with a blind eye to how they arose. To understand how these problems came about, this article examines the origins of legal history and comparative law. It then describes, more concretely, why these disciplines need each other. Legal rules acquire their structure over time. Thus even if a comparative law scholar were only interested in the structure of modern rules, he would need the help of history.
Comparative Law and Economic Analysis of Law
Authors: Reimann Mathias
Published: February 2013

This article outlines the characteristics of the economic analysis of law only as far as is necessary for an understanding of the links between economic analysis and comparative law. Due to the fundamental differences between the two disciplines, they complement each other and it is possible to connect them in various ways. The article discusses how one field can operate as an ancillary discipline to the other; this is what, in recent years, has been termed ‘Comparative Law and Economics’. However, it is also possible to link the two disciplines in a different fashion, that is, by making one the subject-matter of the other. So far, little has been published on this subject.
Sources of Law and Legal Method in Comparative Law
Authors: Vogenauer Stefan
Published: February 2013

Sources of law serve to separate the province of law from the realm of non-law. Only propositions that are derived from a valid source of law are genuinely legal propositions. This article outlines the role of sources of law and legal method in the study of comparative law. The second section explains why these topics have been central to comparative legal scholarship from its very beginnings. The third section attempts to clarify their ambit for the purposes of comparative study, and identifies the pitfalls lurking for the comparative lawyer who wants to determine another system's sources of law and the methodological approach prevailing there. The fourth section gives an overview of the most important comparative studies specifically dedicated to these matters. The fifth section maps out some areas which merit further research.
Comparative Succession Law
Authors: De Waal Marius J.
Published: February 2013

It cannot be denied that the law of succession often projects a static image. One possible explanation for this is the fact that certain areas of the law of succession are indeed somewhat technical. However, this article examines comparative research, private international law, examples of trust and the transfer of estate to argue that there are changes that have been detected and explained principally through comparative scholarship in the field of the law of succession. The first is the significance of common social and economic changes and their impact on aspects of the law of succession. The article stresses the intimate relationship between the law of succession and family law. The identification and analysis of these changes have also been the stimulus for a new ‘mission’ for comparative researchers in the field of the law of succession — the quest for greater harmonization, especially in the European context.
Comparative Company Law
Authors: Hopt Klaus J.
Published: February 2013

Comparative company law is at once very old and very modern. It is very old because ever since companies and company laws first existed, trade has not stopped at the frontiers of countries and states. The persons concerned, practitioners as well as rule-makers, had to look beyond their own city, country, rules, and laws. But comparative company law is also very modern. Most comparative work has focused on the main areas of private law, such as contract and torts, rather than company law. This article focuses on law and related rulemaking. It tries at least to touch upon the company law of five legal families in an eclectic way. It examines traditional and modern contracts in company law and comparative law, the harmonization of company law in the European Union, capital market law, and perspectives for future research.
The nature of music and its evolution
Authors: Cross Ian
Published: February 2013

This article outlines aspects of ‘classical’ evolutionary theory before delineating some of the factors that have led to the fall and rise in the fortunes of evolutionary theory as applied to music. It gives an outline of current conceptions of the relationship between music and evolutionary theory, and concludes by exploring some of the implications for music psychology of evolutionary views of music.
The perception of pitch
Authors: Stainsby Thomas , Cross Ian
Published: February 2013

This article discusses pitch perception, beginning with a brief introduction to the function of the auditory system. It considers what limitations there are on our ability to extract frequency information from the sounds reaching our ears, and provides an orientation for some of the mechanisms described in the later sections. The article then reviews relevant psychoacoustic research – how do we construct a sense of pitch from the physical acoustic input? This leads to a consideration of higher auditory-processing functions that include the mechanisms used to interpret the complicated mixture of sounds around us and the relationships between pitch as it applies to music and how it is manifested in speech and language.
Tonal Cognition
Authors: Bigand Emmanuel , Poulin-Charronnat Bénédicte
Published: February 2013

This article focuses on the combinatory nature of Western music. What type of organization in the tonal pitch structure allows the production of so many different styles, and so many different pieces inside each style? In order to address this issue, the article starts start by considering the theoretical distinction between ‘tonal’ and ‘event hierarchies’. It then summarizes the main features of tonal hierarchies and examines how these hierarchies may be parsimoniously represented. The influence of tonal hierarchies on music perception is then reviewed. The article concludes by considering how tonal hierarchies contribute, along with other musical parameters, to the definition of an event hierarchy specific to a given piece.
Memory for music
Authors: Snyder Bob
Published: February 2013

This article focuses on musical memory: on how adult listeners form mental representations of music, and on how those representations affect music listening. It is divided into three sections, which will outline general concepts of memory, address research and theory about musical expectations, and consider listeners' ability to remember various aspects of music. The study of memory in music listening is relatively recent, although the scientific study of human memory dates back to the end of the nineteenth century. The ways in which mind and brain are used in the perception and comprehension of music appear to be much in line with the way they are used in processing in other domains, although there are theories proposing that music is partly modularized in cognition and brain organization.
The relationship between musical structure and perceived expression
Authors: Gabrielsson Alf
Published: February 2013

This article discusses the relationship between musical structure and perceived expression. Musical structure is an umbrella term for a host of factors, such as tempo, loudness, pitch, intervals, mode, melody, rhythm, harmony, and various formal aspects (e.g. repetition, variation, transposition). The discussion focuses on perceived expression rather than expression somehow inherent in the music. The listener may apprehend music as ‘pure’ music (absolutism) or as expression of emotions, characters, events, or whatever, and may very well alternate, consciously or unconsciously, between different approaches during the course of a piece. The focus will be on referential meaning.
Musical preferences
Authors: Lamont Alexandra , Greasley Alinka
Published: February 2013

This article explores our current understanding of why we like and choose to listen to the music that we do. It begins by defining terms and considering methods, moving on to discuss the biological influences of arousal and other personality traits on music preference, questions of style discrimination, and finally the cultural influences of experience upon preference. The article evaluates existing models of music preference and considers further directions and challenges in the field.
Making a mark The psychology of composition
Authors: Impett Jonathan
Published: February 2013

This article discusses the psychology of composition. Composition is a reflexive, iterative process of inscription. The work, once named as such and externalizable to some degree, passes circularly between inner and outer states. It passes through internal and external representations – mostly partial or compressed, some projected in mental rather than physical space, not all necessarily conscious or observable – and phenomenological experience, real or imagined. At each state-change the work is re-mediated by the composer, whose decision-making process is conditioned by the full complexity of human experience. This entire activity informs the simultaneous development of the composer's understanding of the particular work in its autonomy, of their own creativity, and of music more broadly. While the urge to compose – to invent, structure, and define sound and musical behaviour – may be to some degree innate, modes of conceiving, representing, and realizing are the product of a situated process. Even if some or all of that activity is so well assimilated personally or culturally that it remains hidden from experimental view, it remains a behaviour in respect of an emerging object.
Music and consumer behaviour
Authors: North Adrian C. , Hargreaves David J.
Published: February 2013

This article begins with a brief overview of two particular effects of music that have received a considerable amount of attention: the effect of music on the speed with which customers behave, and the impact of music on time perception. It then illustrates the many other commercially relevant processes that can be influenced by music. Music can have a wide range of positive commercial benefits. It can influence the places that customers go to, customers' ability to achieve a desired level of arousal, the atmosphere of commercial premises, the amount which customers are prepared to spend, the amount they actually spend, the products they buy, their memory for advertising, and the amount of time they wait on hold. Since music can have many different effects it is important to prioritize those that correspond best with the business's marketing goals. Following from this, there can be no single ‘right’ type of music that is a universal commercial panacea, and the real issue is how to select music which addresses the most important marketing goals and does not hamper others.
History and research
Authors: Thaut Michael
Published: February 2013

This article provides an introductory synopsis of the history of research developments and research themes in music psychology from its inception in the nineteenth century until the early twenty-first century. Psychology of music as a new and independent scientific discipline started its development in the middle of the nineteenth century. It was a component part of the arrival of psychology as a new discipline studying human behaviour through observation, measurement, and testing using scientific methods. In the last 25 years of the twentieth century, music psychology underwent its most fundamental change with the advent of brain imaging as an entirely new technology of studying the humanin vivo, involved in complex cognitive operations.
The continuing prospects for a Chinese psychology
Authors: Blowers Geoffrey H.
Published: February 2013

Chinese psychology can be taken to mean a discipline —Eurocentric in origin —practiced in its many forms within regions of a geographical spa —China —and also as something by and for a specified culture with its own distinct philosophical traditions. While the Chinese have traditionally linked the subject matter of psychology with the longstanding teachings of Confucius, Mencius, Laozi, and their followers, the modern discipline that emerged out of Euro-America only began to make an impact in the first two decades of the twentieth century. This article reveals, like other sciences from nineteenth-century Europe, the emerging modern psychological discipline was unrecognizable to the Chinese, who had to discover, adopt, and adapt it along with other strange new things from the West. Initially China regarded psychology as a foreign discipline for a variety of reasons. This article elaborates on the discipline of Chinese psychology and its various contexts.
The thinking styles of Chinese people
Authors: Ji Li-Jun , Lee Albert , Guo Tieyuan
Published: February 2013

This article discusses the many important differences in the thinking styles between Chinese and European North Americans (Americans and Canadians of European descent), as Chinese thought processes have always been difficult to comprehend. That is why Westerners have expressed serious curiosity about and appreciation of the philosophical endeavours of the Chinese and the cognitive strategies they use for everyday functioning. The term ‘thinking styles’ represents the ontological frameworks that people use intuitively to make sense of their social world. It describes how Chinese favor a more holistic framework in processing information, whereas European North Americans rely on a more analytical framework that emphasizes the use of formal logic and one-to-one relationships. It further elaborates the concept of zhong yong, or the doctrine of the mean, a concept central to understanding Chinese thinking, which encapsulates the virtues of pursuing the middle ground.
From indigenous to cross-cultural personality: the case of the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory
Authors: Cheung Fanny M. , Zhang Jianxin , Cheung Shu Fai
Published: February 2013

This article elaborates on the development of various personality assessment tools from its initial stage in China. During the initial period after the resumption of scientific psychological research in China, the influence of Western theories and measures of personality was strong. With few local instruments available, most psychologists depended on the importation of well-developed Western personality tests. In the 1970s, major instruments such as the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) and the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) were translated and used in Hong Kong and Taiwan. With the opening of mainland China to Western psychology after 1978, objective psychological assessment represented the acme of science. This article reveals that in the attempt to provide culturally relevant personality assessment tools, Chinese psychologists began to develop indigenous measures to study Chinese personality and its latent structure in the 1980s. It also elaborates on the evolvement of The Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory (CPAI).
Psychology and aging in the land of the panda
Authors: Fung Helene H. , Cheng Sheung-Tak
Published: February 2013

Psychology and aging is a relatively large field of academic study. It describes and examines developmental changes in the second half of life in areas ranging from physiology, cognition, and emotion to personality and social relationships. This article presents a discussion on how aging in Chinese societies may be different from that in the West, viz. North American and Western European societies. It also reviews the literature on psychology and aging in Chinese societies, mostly Hong Kong, but also Macau, Taiwan, and mainland China. It provides empirical findings on age differences in self and other perceptions, interpersonal relationships, and cognition, as well as culture-specific constructs such as filial piety and renqing (relationship orientation). Besides providing background information on population aging in Asia, and China in particular, it also highlights the specific opportunities and challenges that population aging presents to Chinese societies, relative to their Western counterparts.
The spirituality of the Chinese people: a critical review
Authors: Shek Daniel T. L.
Published: February 2013

This article gives a descriptive as well as a critical picture of studies examining the spirituality of Chinese people. It systematically examines several issues in discussing various aspects of spirituality. It describes methods of assessing spirituality in Chinese people and outlines profiles about spirituality and their related socio-demographic correlates. Furthermore, it discusses the conceptual, methodological, and practical limitations of the existing studies pertinent to spirituality of Chinese people. Besides, this article assesses the meaning of life and the purpose in the lives of Chinese people using two main approaches. The first approach is to assess meaning of life by items or questions included in questionnaires. The second approach is to use psychological scales to assess the construct of meaning of life or purpose in life. The most commonly used measure is the Chinese version of the Purpose in Life Questionnaire, which assesses levels of purpose in life.
Clinical neuropsychology in China
Authors: Chan Agnes S. , Leung Winnie W. , Cheung Mei-Chun
Published: February 2013

Neuropsychology was first brought into China by young Chinese scholar-researchers trained in North America, who returned to their homeland in the mid-1990s. This group of young, Western-trained neuropsychologists, is still the main driving force in the development of the field today, and it has been very active in advancing clinical research and practice in China. This article outlines the history of clinical neuropsychology in China and reviews its latest developments, with specific reference to the three major Chinese populations of Hong Kong, Taiwan, and mainland China. It traces the introduction of neuropsychology from the United States into China, and reviews its current developments, focusing on the areas of clinical training, certification, assessment, and instrumentation, highlighting some interesting research findings on Chinese patient populations. This review is based not only on the international literature, but also on research published locally in mainland China, Taiwan, and Hong Kong.
Community psychology in Chinese societies
Authors: Chan Charles C.
Published: February 2013

The essentiality of seeing people within a particular social context and their respective temporal contexts of livelihood is the core of community psychology. Community psychology takes an ecological perspective. As such, it does not stop at the immediate family, circle of friends, or work collegues, but includes the intermediate level and macro-level contexts. Hence, community psychology is demonstrably different from the rest of psychology both in conceptualization and methodology. Communities are social systems that serve to meet human needs; therefore, community psychology can be defined as understanding the needs of people and the resources available to meet those needs. This article initially introduces community psychology and its central values and principles in general and then explains the aspects of community psychology in Chinese societies. However, it states that the lack of proper literature on the history of development in community psychology of China is a hurdle in its study.
Chinese cooperation and competition
Authors: Leung Hildie , Au Wing-Tung
Published: February 2013

The complexities of culture and its effects on cooperation and competition are revealed through more recent discoveries, which confront previous stereotypical perceptions of the Chinese. This article explains that many of these findings help enrich the understanding of whether and how Chinese cooperate or compete relative to Westerners. It provides findings on how various intra-individual and inter-individual variables underlie cultural differences in cooperative and competitive behaviours. This article first looks at intra-individual variables, such as beliefs and values, risk preferences, regulatory focus, and conflict-management styles, and explains how these variables impact on competition and cooperation in different cultural contexts. It then explores the inter-individual variables related to cooperative conflicts, conversational style, power, fairness, interactional justice, and trust, and assesses how these factors affect the two concepts from one nation to another. It also discusses multiple views on competition.
Interpersonal relationships in rapidly changing Chinese societies
Authors: Chan Darius K.-S. , Ng Theresa T.-T. , Hui Chin-Ming
Published: February 2013

Since 1970, mainland China has been undergoing social and economic reforms that have brought about astonishing economic success. This article reveals that these social and economic changes have led to many changes in Chinese interpersonal relationships, and family structures and processes. They are not limited to mainland China but can also be seen in other Chinese habitats, such as Hong Kong, Singapore, and Taiwan. The article focuses on Chinese relationship research conducted in the last decade and examines how the rapid social and economic changes in Chinese societies have exerted an impact on the various types of interpersonal relationship. Furthermore, it looks at how traditional Chinese values continue to shape interpersonal relationships amidst the increasing influence of modernization and globalization. In terms of interpersonal relationships, it focuses on four broad domains, namely friendship, romantic relationships, marital relationships, and family relationships, providing a review of the relevant studies in each domain.
Chinese political psychology: political participation in Chinese societies
Authors: Ng Isabel
Published: February 2013

Forms of political participation, such as electoral voting, political lobbying, and civil disobedience, have generated a large body of research in democratic societies. These behaviours, however, may not represent political participation in societies with other forms of political systems, such as the Chinese, where people may express political opinions through various forms of participation or non-participation that are different from those in a democracy. This article explores the published literature on Chinese people's political participation in relation to three questions: How do Chinese participate in politics? Why do Chinese participate in politics? What does participation in politics do to an individual? Devoting most attention to the mainland China, followed by Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Singapore, this article highlights the longitudinal research that examines people's change in attitudes over time. Furthermore it examines some studies concerning political participation in Singapore.
Chinese social identity and inter-group relations: the influence of benevolent authority
Authors: Liu James H. , Li Mei-Chih , Yue Xiao-Dong
Published: February 2013

The articulation of a contemporary perspective on Chinese social identity and inter-group relations requires integration of three basic strands of knowledge: interdependent and independent selves from cross-cultural psychology; social identity and self-categorization from inter-group psychology; and historical analysis, weaving these strands of influence into the context of Chinese culture and its evolving indigenous psychology. This article reveals that with the onslaught of Western imperialism over the last two centuries, traditional Chinese civilization collapsed and traditional Chinese virtues came to be understood as flaws by leading Chinese intellectuals and their political rulers. Using a representational and historically contingent approach to social identity and inter-group relations, this article argues that the ethical and relational origins of traditional Chinese social identity enable culturally unique predictions about how Chinese people manage cultural diversity and international relations today.
Moving the scientific study of Chinese psychology into our twenty-first century: some ways forward
Authors: Bond Michael Harris
Published: February 2013

This article examines aspects of survival and prosperous of Chinese psychology in the context of the twenty-first century. It explains various strategies to be adapted for the discipline to prosper in the twenty first century. There are several issues that need to be addressed in studying the Chinese psychology scientifically. One of the main things among them is the distinctiveness of Chinese people. However, those who study this field should be aware of how it is distinctive and should be able to prove it empirically. The researchers should be aware that such distinctiveness exists. They should know what it consists of, and what influence it has on the performance of societies. This article also takes on the indigenous contributions to psychological science in the Chine context.
The Adaptive Approach to Grammar
Authors: Givón Tom
Published: February 2013

Language is one of the defining characteristics of homo sapiens. It is deployed in a wide range of adaptive contexts: social interaction, cultural transmission, education, literature, theatre, music, humour and play, love and war. Of this rich array of useful applications, two core adaptive functions make all the rest possible: (i) mental representation; and (ii) the communication of information. This chapter discusses the following: human language as a combinatorial system; three major developmental trends that have jointly fashioned the way languages are now: evolution, ontogenesis, and diachrony; typological diversity and language universals; innateness and language acquisition; language and the brain; the evolution of grammar; and theoretical perspective and grammatical description.
The Natural Semantic Metalanguage Approach
Authors: Goddard Cliff
Published: February 2013

The Natural Semantic Metalanguage (NSM) is a decompositional system of meaning representation based on empirically established universal semantic primes, i.e., simple indefinable meanings that appear to be present as word meanings in all languages. The NSM approach has developed a fairly sophisticated suite of theoretical constructs, which are explained and illustrated in this chapter. These constructs include semantic primes, allolexy, syntactic frames and valency options of primes, semantic templates, semantic molecules, semantic prototypes for grammatical constructs, grammatical polysemy, ethnosyntax, and cultural scripts.
Systemic systematic functional grammar and the study of Meaning
Authors: Caffarel Alice
Published: February 2013

Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) is a theory of language that is strongly oriented to the description of how language makes meaning in context. This chapter aims to illustrate the power of SFL and, in particular, Systemic Functional (SF) Grammar, as a tool for exploring meaning in any language, and begins by locating SFL within the wider linguistic community. It then outlines some of the main dimensions and characteristics of SLF and SF grammar in relation to French, discussing what counts as evidence in SFL, such as the criteria and ‘reactances’ used for the interpretation of specific categories. The chapter illustrates the grammar and ‘cryptogrammar’ at work as a meaning-making resource.
Introduction
Authors: Jackson Mark
Published: February 2013

This article gives a critical account of shifting approaches to prominent theoretical, conceptual, and methodological issues within the history of medicine in recent decades. It offers a synthetic account of the state of the art, an opportunity to take stock of where the history of medicine has been and where it now resides. It attempts to establish, and promote discussion about some of the major challenges facing future historians of medicine in terms of the questions, sources, and methods that should direct and animate the evolution of the discipline. This article hopes to provide both seasoned and aspiring scholars with a substantial empirical and theoretical platform for future research and with a constructive basis for more informed discussion of the intellectual place and ideological purpose of medical history.
Medicine and Health in the Graeco-Roman World
Authors: Eijk Philip van der
Published: February 2013

This article focuses on a number of developments that have made the place of Graeco-Roman medicine in surveys of the history of medicine. A further development discussed is that medical history now also prominently includes the topic of health, both physical and mental health and related topics such as lifestyle, quality of life, well-being, fitness, and ‘flourishing’. It identifies a number of different mental states or conditions on a scale from an optimum to a pessimum, and thus presents a good example of the scalar, gradualist view of health characteristic of Greek medicine. This article shows philosophy competing with medicine for the role of authoritative guide to health, mental as well as physical, and diagnostic as well as therapeutic. The study of Graeco-Roman medicine has profited significantly from connections and comparisons with the study of the history of medicine, science, and culture from other time frames and other parts of the world.
Early Modern Medicine
Authors: Rütten Thomas
Published: February 2013

This article focuses on Western medicine, which, in the form of learned medicine, represents one of the three higher faculties on the basis of a certain canon of Greek and Arabic texts. It presents that from a methodological perspective, women's studies, gender studies, and gender behavioural studies have contrasted the cruder forms of biologizing and ontologizing the feminine with differentiated societal models of constructing sexuality. This approach has led to a radical revision of early modern medical historiography. The history of early modern medicine is further complicated by an imposing diversity of methodological approaches and by growing caution about unsubstantiated generalizations. The past century of exploration into early modern medicine has dictated the various methodological approaches that have held their ground in the research landscape up to the present day.
Global and Local Histories of Medicine: Interpretative Challenges and Future Possibilities
Authors: Bhattacharya Sanjoy
Published: February 2013

This article attempts to develop a more inclusive set of conceptual frameworks for global histories of health and medicine. It is based on the assessment of a very well known global story: the programme to eradicate smallpox. It is a case study worthy of analysis because its histories have been particularly prone to narrow notions of globality. An effort is made in this article to study a variety of voices and to examine how a diversity of people carried out intricate negotiations with different political and social constituencies and helped to expunge variola. The approach here, which is also recommended as a mode of research, is to go behind the scenes to study views expressed in private, and then assess how the resulting convictions, discussions, and debates impacted on the unfolding of policy.
Chinese Medicine
Authors: Lo Vivienne , Stanley-Baker Michael
Published: February 2013

This article leans towards practice-orientated accounts. The historical enterprise dignifies itself with the idea that it is possible to share something of the sensory and perceptive style of the originators of early Chinese healing practices to deepen our appreciation of their textual legacies. Indeed the ethnic and cultural boundaries of China itself are contested. This article discusses some observations about how the sensory modalities of Chinese medical thought speak powerfully to a modern global audience who frequently feel their own individual experience of health and sickness devalued in the processes of modern standardized medicine. With these methodological tools at our disposal, the door also opens into a rich inter regional cultural and material history, and a narrative not only concerned with internal ‘Chinese’ genealogical developments but also ready to tackle the transitions, transformations, and transmissions that happen to medical knowledge as it is exchanged between different peoples across physical domains as well as down through generations of healers.
Science and Medicine in the United States of America
Authors: Ramsden Edmund
Published: February 2013

This article begins with great optimism expressed by Tocqueville for America's future as the embodiment of the democratic state. It discusses the opportunity to express the liberal political ideals, arguing that its success was based on a community of common sensibility. An understanding of society and politics endowed the historian with the power to help remake health care. This article explores and compares the ways in which medicine is developed and applied in a number of different social, cultural, and physical contexts. It shows rapid growth, from a period in which European ideas, methods, and structures were adapted to the American context, to one in which the United States is at the forefront of large-scale initiatives in public health, disease control, and innovation in the biomedical sciences. Finally, it mentions the contradiction, most notably between profound faith in the technical capacities of medical science and equally profound dissatisfaction with the provision of health care.
History of Medicine in Sub-Saharan Africa
Authors: Schumaker Lyn
Published: February 2013

This article aims to bring together two historiographical strands, one originating in the discipline of the history of medicine, and the other originating in African history. It begins with African medicine and its historical development and discusses colonial medicine, which is the subject of much recent scholarship. Africa's experience of colonial medicine has challenged the traditional view of colonial hegemony. It shows that valuable insights have come through study of the variable acceptance of colonial medicine in Africa and it has strengthened the racial cleavages of colonial societies. It discusses the historiography of medicine in Africa, pointing out its gaps and failures as well as its accomplishments. It directs attention to the underlying conditions of the production of research — funding priorities and publication targets that maintain the dominance of the history of Western medicine as a subject, while marginalizing the medical traditions of Africa and the developing world.
Medicine and Colonialism in South Asia since 1500
Authors: Harrison Mark
Published: February 2013

This article attempts to sketch some of the main themes in historical scholarship, focusing particularly on those issues that have generated the most controversy. It maps the contours of existing scholarship and identified some of the main themes and issues that have animated it. It discusses the historiography of medicine in India that is dominated by the study of epidemics and enables us to draw reliable conclusions about attitudes to state medicine and outbreaks of epidemic disease. It gives an account of medical practice and health care in rural areas, the only real exception being studies of missionary medicine. It also points to important lacunae that remain to be filled. This article may serve to indicate the vast opportunities that await any scholar willing to take up the challenge.
Health and Sexuality
Authors: Davis Gayle
Published: February 2013

The concept of sexuality is being deployed as a prism through which a rich range of social, cultural, and political issues can be explored. This article considers the ways in which female and male sexualities have been constructed and problematized in modern Western history. The medical role is stressed, bearing in mind the ambivalent historical relationship that has existed between physicians, sexual science, and society. With reference to the ‘double standard’, this article shows how female sexuality has been particularly prone to pathologization and psychiatrization when believed to drift from the marital or reproductive ideal. Social and political concerns surrounding sexually transmitted diseases are discussed as they are seen to both reflect and reinforce society's most fundamental assumptions and fears surrounding sexuality and disease. The questions that this article seeks to answer are arguably of increasing relevance to modern Western society.