bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Preschool Children's Acquisition, Maintenance, and Generalization
Authors: Goetz Elizabeth M. , Etzel Barbara C.
Published: March 2007

This study examined the three reading procedures of sight, syllable blending, and phonics blending to determine which was the most efficient one to teach words for acquisition, maintenance, and various types of generalization. Six typical preschool children who did not recall and recognize the training words were selected as subjects. An individual analysis design was used in which all the subjects were taught all words, counterbalanced across the three reading procedures. All reading procedures were tailored to allow for the same number of training responses while using the identical modeling, imitation, and reinforcement technique. Results showed the sight procedure took the fewest training sessions to acquisition with the smallest number of errors, in comparison with syllable and phonics. But all words, regardless of the type of training, were maintained equally well. Considering the generalization measures, however, each procedure had unique advantages. Therefore, it is speculated how the three procedures might be combined for the beginning reader.
Teaching Generalized Table Bussing
Authors: Horner Robert H. , Eberhard Janet M. , Sheehan Martin R.
Published: March 2007

This study examines the effects of using positive and negative training examples within a "general case"teaching format to train students with moderate and severe mental retardation to bus tables in cafeteria settings. The primary dependent variable was performance across a set of 15 nontrained tables in two nontrained cafeteria settings. The 15 nontrained tables were selected to sample the range of different stimulus and response demands for table bussing in cafeteria settings. Social validation of the effect was also assessed under maximally normal work conditions. The independent variable was the use of general case instruction with "negative" training examples (i.e., examples in which the learner is not to perform the target response). Results indicate a functional relationship between correct responding with the nontrained tables and general case instruction. The importance of selecting both positive and negative training examples when teaching generalized skills is discussed.
Low-Cost Procedures to Conserve a Public Sport Environment
Authors: Yu Dickie , Martin Garry L.
Published: March 2007

This study examined the effects of an educational sign prompt and a weekly lottery on golfer's repairing of ballmarks on the greens of an 18-hole public golf course. The educational sign prompt contained: (1) an explanation and photographs of ballmarks, (2) three recommended steps to repair ballmarks, and (3) a request for help to repair ballmarks. During the weekly lottery, golfers could receive a raffle ticket to win a free round of golf from a weekly draw if they were spotted repairing a ballmark by golf course staff. Both the educational sign prompt and the weekly lottery seemed to be equally effective in decreasing unrepaired ballmarks on greens and both were favorably received by golfers. Since completion of the study, the educational sign prompt was adopted by the golf course.
Quantitative Analysis of Treatment of Aggression, Self-Injury, and Property Destruction
Authors: Lundervold Duane , Bourland Gordon
Published: March 2007

This article describes the results of a quantitative analysis of research on the treatment of aggression, self-injury, and property destruction with persons who are developmentally disabled. Fifteen evaluative criteria, including use of functional analysis of behavior, assessment of generalization, maintenance, and change in collateral behaviors, were used in examining 62 experiments. Results indicate significant limitations in methodological rigor and use of "state-of-the-art" behavioral procedures. Conclusions regarding effective treatment are generally consistent with earlier reviews. Discussion focuses on the need for improvements in the design and evaluation of interventions, further research on reinforcement-based interventions, effects of punishment, and treatment of aggression displayed by adults.
Behavioral Family Treatment for Patients with Bipolar Affective Disorder
Authors: Miklowitz David J. , Goldstein Michael J.
Published: March 2007

Techniques of behavioral family management (BFM), which have been found to be highly effective in delaying relapse for schizophrenic patients when used as adjuncts to medication maintenance, are also applicable in the outpatient treatment of recently hospitalized bipolar, manic patients. The authors describe their adaptation of the educational, communication skills training, and problem-solving skills training modules of BFM to families containing a bipolar member. The observations that families of bipolar patients are often high functioning, and that these families seem to enjoy interchanges that are highly affective and spontaneous, led to certain modifications in the original BFM approach. The authors found it necessary to be (a) more flexible and less didactic, (b) more oriented toward dealing with affect and resistance to change, and (c) more focused on the patient's and family members' feelings about labeling, stigmatization, and medication usage. Research issues relevant to testing the efficacy of this approach are also discussed.
A "Bug-in-the-Eye" Can Be Better Than a "Bug-in-the-Ear"
Authors: Klitzke Michael John , Lombardo Thomas W.
Published: March 2007

The only existing method of therapy supervision that provides on-line feedback to trainees is the "bug-in-the-ear," an auditory communication system. Although this system has several advantages over supervision strategies that use retrospective accounts, audio-and videotapes, and direct observation of sessions, it is disruptive to the trainee and must be limited to strategically timed three-or four-word communications. We describe and discuss advantages of the "bug-in-the-eye," an alternative to the bug-in-the-ear, which provides visual on-line feedback for therapist skill training.
A Model for the Treatment of Encopresis
Authors: Boon Franklin F. L. , Singh Nirbhay N.
Published: March 2007

Encopresis is a relatively common childhood disorder that continues to be poorly understood. An integrated assessment and treatment model for this disorder is presented. Data generated from a comprehensive assessment enables the diagnosis and identification of subtypes of encopresis based on objective, identifiable criteria. The rationale and methods for treating each subtype of encopresis then is presented. In addition, the importance of assessing and treating psychiatric comorbidity in children with encopresis is highlighted.
A Demonstration of Generalization of Performance Across Settings, Materials, and Motor Responses for Students with Profound Mental Retardation
Authors: Berg Wendy K. , Wacker David P. , Ebbers Barbara , Wiggins Barbara , Fowler Mary , Wilkes Patricia
Published: March 2007

A treatment package, consisting of multiple exemplar training and community-based instruction, was evaluated for its effectiveness in teaching four students with profound mental retardation and multiple disabilities to participate in two sets of community-living tasks. All training took place in community settings, and each student demonstrated improved performance on at least one task set. In addition, all students demonstrated improved performance on a series of tasks selected to assess generalization of performance across settings, materials, and/or motoric responses required to complete the target task. Maintenance of performance over a 4-to 5-month period was assessed and achieved for two of the students. The results of this investigation are discussed in terms of the implications for programming for students with profound mental retardation.
Validation of the Use of a Nonparametric Smoother for the Examination of Data from a Single-Subject Design
Authors: Janosky Janine E. , Al-Shboul Qasim M. , Pellitieri Thomas R.
Published: March 2007

The statistical analysis of data from a single-subject design remains somewhat an issue of debate. The frequently employed procedure for examining data from a single-subject design involves visually inspecting the graphed outcome variable over the observation time. Potential difficulties of this procedure have been shown. The application of traditional statistical tests has also been questioned. The nonparametric smoother has been presented as a possibly appropriate and useful technique for the examination of data from a single-subject research paradigm. This article attempts to validate the use of a nonparametric smoother for the examination of data from a single-subject design. A recommendation is given regarding the use of this technique.
The Influence of the Pace of Teacher Attention on Preschool Children's Engagement
Authors: Zanolli Kathleen , Daggett Julie , Pestine Heidi
Published: March 2007

Children in group-care settings often require reinforcement in the form of teacher attention in order to stay engaged in learning tasks. Three children enrolled in a half-day integrated preschool who were having difficulty staying engaged with group or independent learning activities participated in the study. The effects on engagement time of equal amounts of teacher attention, given at a rapid pace or at a slow pace, were compared. Rapid attention produced higher engagement time than slow attention or no attention for all dtree children. The results suggest that rapid-paced teacher attention may be effective in helping young children stay engaged in activities. The results are discussed in terms of basic research on behavioral momentum, which describes the effects of reinforcement rate on task persistence.
Scripted Sequences of Teacher Interaction
Authors: Martens Brian K. , Hiralall Andrea S.
Published: March 2007

Sequences of managerial statements delivered by a teacher during supervised playtime were identified, and a scripting procedure was used to modify these sequences while retaining the overall structure of teacher-student interactions. Five preschool-age children participated in the study. Following an initial assessment phase, the alternative sequence of scripted interactions was implemented first by an experimenter using an ABAB reversal design and then by the classroom teacher. The scripted interaction sequence was effective in increasing levels of appropriate play behavior in all five children, and these levels were maintained when control of the procedure was transferred to the teacher. Moreover, the teacher quickly leamed to implement the procedure, did so with a high degree of integrity, and judged it to be moderately acceptable. The value of scripted interactions as an effective yet flexible management strategy that can be used in teacher training is discussed.
Decreasing Disruptive Behavior by Adolescent Boys in Residential Care by Increasing Their Positive to Negative Interactional Ratios
Authors: Friman Patrick C. , Jones Mark , Smith Gail , Daly Daniel L. , Larzelere Robert
Published: March 2007

An intervention for disruptive boys in residential care involving increases in positive to negative interactional ratios is described. The target of the intervention was daily problem behavior. Results from a pooled time series analysis of the data revealed a significant decrease in behavior problems (one problem per boy per day) during the intervention for the boys as a group. Results from comparisons of mean behavior problems during baseline and intervention revealed decreases for five of the six boys. Results from a multiple baseline across boys revealed experimental control for three of the six. The results are discussed in terms of response contingent reinforcement and systemic behavior analyses. The benefits of combined group and single subject data analyses are also discussed.
The Role of Symptom Induction in the Treatment of Panic and Anxiety
Authors: Rudd M David , Joiner Thomas
Published: March 2007

Although the importance of affectively charged material in the treatment of panic and anxiety has been emphasized and implicitly viewed as essential for effective therapeutic change, a general framework for organizing, understanding, implementing, and evaluating symptom induction techniques has yet to be offered. This article offers a framework for organizing symptom induction techniques, categorizing treatment targets, and, accordingly, assessing therapeutic change in the treatment of panic and anxiety. Symptom induction techniques are examined in three exposure domains: physiological, cognitive, and situational/circumstantial; treatment targets fall into five categories: (a) poor symptom tolerance and r:!sultant hypersensitivity and hypervigilance, (b) avoidance of internal and external triggers, (z) the emergence of specific catastrophic thoughts and related misinterpretations, (d) diminished adaptive coping skills, and (e) a reduction in general self-efficacy. Additionally, a distinction is proposed between conditional and unconditional properties of symptom induction, with an emphasis on the potential deleterious role conditional properties play during the course of t-eatment.
A Cueing Procedure to Control Impulsivity in Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Authors: Posavac Heidi D. , Sheridan Susan M. , Posavac Steven S.
Published: March 2007

This study tested the efficacy of a cueing procedure for improving the impulse regulation of four boys with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) during social skills training. Impulse regulationwas defined as raising hands before speaking. Effects on collateral behaviors i.e., talking out of turn) were also assessed. A reversal design was used. Behavioral data collected by independent observers suggested that all subjects demonstrated positive changes in impulse regulation (i.e., an increase in the frequency with which subjects raised their hand before speaking). Likewise, the treatment effects appeared to have produced positive effects on a behavior not directly targeted for intervention (i.e., talk outs). In general, behavioral changes were considered to be socially valid and the treatment agents viewed the cueing procedure very positively.
Self-Awareness of Judgment Policies of Rapport
Authors: Grahe Jon E. , Bernieri Frank J.
Published: March 2007

Social perceivers are believed to report their perceptions in terms of subjective cues (e.g., warmth, agreeableness, etc.) more than objective cues (e.g., gestures, head nods, etc.). The authors examined perceivers’ awareness of and control over both types of cues when making social judgments. Consistent with past theorizing, Study 1 demonstrated that perceiver judgments were influenced by both types of cues but perceivers were more aware of their subjective cue use. Studies 2 and 3 confirmed this and suggested that perceiver judgment policies changed more when receiving objective cue instructions. Surprisingly, judgment policies (i.e., cue use) did not always improve as a result of these changes. Thus, manipulated changes in judgment policy did not necessarily lead to increased accuracy.
Creative and Wise People: Similarities, Differences, and How They Develop
Authors: Helson Ravenna , Srivastava Sanjay
Published: March 2007

The authors compared personality correlates of creative achievement and wise performance in middle-age women of a longitudinal study. In Q-sort descriptions, originality and ambition were particularly salient in creative individuals, whereas meaning-making and benevolence were salient in wise individuals. Inventory measures of openness, unconventionality, ambition, and autonomy at age 21 predicted creative achievement, and measures of openness and tolerance predicted wisdom. Creative achievers increased over time in social integration and wise women in status-awareness. A behavioral commitment (creative activity soon after college or psychotherapeutic or spiritual careers) added significantly to age-21 openness and complexity to predict the criteria of creative achievement and wisdom.
A Social Identity Analysis of Leadership Endorsement: The Effects of Leader Ingroup Prototypicality and Distributive Intergroup Fairness
Authors: Platow Michael J. , van Knippenberg Daan
Published: March 2007

This study (N = 216) measured the strength of endorsements for ingroup leaders who varied in both their relative ingroup prototypicality and distributive intergroup fairness. Leadership endorsement overall was positively related to group members’ levels of social identification and negatively related to their levels of reported self-interest. Among low identifiers, however, leaders’ distributive behavior reliably predicted endorsements, with stronger endorsements provided for distributively fair than unfair leaders. Among high identifiers, in contrast, both leaders’ distributive behavior and relative ingroup prototypicality were important. Leaders high in ingroup prototypicality received strong endorsements from high identifiers regardless of the leaders’ ingroup-favoring, outgroup-favoring, or fair intergroup behavior. Leaders low in ingroup prototypicality and who were relatively similar to the outgroup received strong endorsements from high identifiers only when the leaders made ingroup-favoring distributions. These data are interpreted within a social identity theory framework.
Depression as a Moderator of Relationships between Positive Daily Events and Day-to-Day Psychological Adjustment
Authors: Nezlek John B. , Gable Shelly L.
Published: March 2007

For 21 days, 123 participants provided measures of their daily depressogenic adjustment, including Beck’s cognitive triad, causal uncertainty, control over the environment, self-esteem, and anxiety, and they described the positive and negative events that occurred. Daily adjustment negatively covaried with the number of negative events occurring each day and, except as measured by anxiety, positively covaried with positive events. The covariance between negative events and adjustment was stronger than the covariance between positive events and adjustment. Participants also provided measures of depressive symptoms. For the self-esteem and cognitive triad measures, adjustment covaried more strongly with negative and positive events for the depressed than they did for the nondepressed.
Self-Reported Processing Bias and Naturally Occurring Mood: Mediators between Personality and Stress Appraisals
Authors: Hemenover Scott H.
Published: March 2007

Although past research has shown that neuroticism and extraversion predict stress appraisals, how these traits affect appraisals is not known. In the present study, mood and two processing biases were predicted to mediate between personality and appraisals. Participants (N = 236) completed measures of personality, mood, appraisals for five hypothetical stressors, and whether they relied (when making appraisals) on the positive or negative features of those events. Three months later, participants also made appraisals of a recent stressful event. As predicted, the negative and positive processing biases mediated between neuroticism, extraversion, and appraisals of the hypothetical events and mediated between neuroticism and appraisals of the real-life stressor. Indirect effects also were found from positive mood to appraisals. Because appraisals affect stress responses, these findings have wide implications for adaptational outcomes.
The Effects of Sex and Temporal Context on Feelings of Romantic Desire: An Experimental Evaluation of Sexual Strategies Theory
Authors: Schmitt David P. , Couden Andrea , Baker Mark
Published: March 2007

According to evolutionary theories of human mating, people should feel the most romantic desire toward potential mates who possess reproductively adaptive attributes. Across five person-perception experiments involving staged interviews, we found that men’s and women’s feelings of romantic desire can be manipulated by varying adaptive attributes in a target person. For example, during some interviews, participants were exposed to an experimental confederate exhibiting cues to easy sexual access. Because men’s short-term sexual strategy is based on obtaining high numbers of partners, it was predicted that exposure to a target person suggesting easy sexual access would especially intensify men’s short-term romantic desires. The authors found evidence that targets who exhibited cues to easy sexual access were rated the most desirable by men in the context of short-term mating. Discussion focused on limitations of the current studies and on the importance of invoking methodological pluralism when testing evolutionary theories of romantic desire.
Mindset and Relationship Illusions: The Moderating Effects of Domain Specificity and Relationship Commitment
Authors: Gagné Faby M. , Lydon John E.
Published: March 2007

Two studies integrated and advanced mindset and relationship illusions research. In Study 1, mindset influenced perceived partner superiority and goal domain moderated this effect. When focusing on a nonrelationship goal, an implemental mindset increased idealistic partner perceptions. When focusing on a relationship goal, a deliberative mindset increased idealistic partner perceptions. In Study 2, effects for mindset about relationship goals were moderated by relationship commitment. High-commitment participants defended against the threat of a deliberative mindset by increasing their positive views of their partner. Low-commitment participants did not defend against deliberation about a relationship goal. No such differences were found for relationship implementals; both high- and low-commitment individuals increased their glowing partner views when in an implemental mindset.
It’s Different when I Do it: Feature Matching in Self-Other Comparisons
Authors: Hodges Sara D. , Bruininks Patricia , Ivy Linda
Published: March 2007

Two studies explored the application of feature-matching and cancellation models to self-other comparisons. College participants completed a questionnaire about their religious behaviors and saw another questionnaire supposedly completed by another student. Participants in Study 1 (N = 114) who were explicitly provided direction of comparison instructions showed a direction of comparison effect, rating the person whose questionnaire they saw last as more religious. Participants in Study 2 (N = 103), who were not given explicit direction of comparison instructions, did not. Most important, in both studies, the extent to which self and other overlapped on shared features affected self- and other judgments asymmetrically. Participants appeared to cancel out behaviors shared by the self and other when rating the other person (i.e., they gave lower ratings when there was more overlap) but not when rating themselves.
Are Descriptions of the Self more Complex than Descriptions of Others?
Authors: Locke Kenneth D.
Published: March 2007

Five studies compared the complexity of explicit semantic knowledge of self and others. In Study 1, students rated targets on unipolar and bipolar trait scales. In Study 2, they used trait checklists to describe targets in various roles. Study 3 replicated Study 2 except participants generated a unique set of roles for each target. In Studies 4 and 5, judges coded the complexity of openended descriptions of each target. Self-other differences in complexity were found in both directions and depended on such factors as the valence of the descriptors and the closeness of the target. For example, compared to self-descriptions, descriptions of disliked others contained fewer roles and more negative traits, whereas descriptions of liked others (although generally similar to the self) contained fewer negative traits and more roles. Overall, the results contradict the common belief that people think more complexly about the self than others.
Sandbagging in Competition: Responding to the Pressure of Being the Favorite
Authors: Gibson Bryan , Sachau Daniel , Doll Bruce , Shumate Roberta
Published: March 2007

Previous research suggests that high sandbaggers are more likely to sandbag when performance pressure is high. The current research proposed that (a) being favored in competition increases performance pressure and (b) high sandbaggers will be more likely to sandbag when favored in competition. Experiment 1 demonstrated that favored competitors are perceived as being under more pressure and that high sandbaggers believe that this pressure is related to choking. Experiments 2 and 3 showed that when favored in competition, high sandbaggers are more likely to sandbag. Results suggest that being favored in competition leads to additional performance pressure and that high sandbaggers respond to this pressure by sandbagging. Data also further demonstrate the distinction between sandbagging and self-handicapping.
Fatalism, Social Support, and Mental Health in Four Former Soviet Cultures
Authors: Goodwin Robin , Allen Peter , Nizharadze George , Emelyanova Tatiana , Dedkova Nina , Saenko Yuri , Bugrova Irena
Published: March 2007

Research on social support has identified differences in levels of support between cultures but has provided only a limited explanation of the role of values or beliefs in accounting for such variations. In this article, the authors examine the relationship between fatalism and perceived support among 2,672 respondents in four former Soviet states (Russia, Georgia, Ukraine, and Belorussia), with participants drawn from groups of manual workers, managers, civil servants, students, and the retired in these four countries. The authors also examine the consequences of such social support for mental health across these nations. Findings indicate a small but significant moderator effect for fatalism on the relationship between social support and mental health. These results are discussed in the context of the continuing economic and social challenges facing the citizens of these nations.
Information Salience and Order Effects in Impression Formation
Authors: Hamilton David L. , Fallot Roger D. , Hautaluoma Jack
Published: March 2007

Information salience refers to the implicational relationship between the content of the stimulus attributes describing a person and the judgment of the person that is being made. The influence of this content factor on order effects in impression formation was examined. Subjects rated their liking or respect for stimulus persons, descriptions of whom were varied in terms of both evaluative sequence and the content dimensions represented by the attributes. Results supported predictions based on the information salience concept.
The Future of an Illusion: American Social Psychology
Authors: Smith Robert J.
Published: March 2007

American social psychology is regarded by some to be suffering a crisis of confidence. The crisis can be assessed by examining the implicit assumptions which dominate American social psychology, and the illusions which stem therefrom. One such assumption is that a science of the person can be formulated, an unlikely premise when cross-cultural research is taken into account. A second assumption is that empirical social science is a value-free endeavor which proceeds cumulatively toward truth. A corollary is that training American social psychologists has become increasingly specialized, is linguistically isolated, and is victimized by incestuous relations within the power structure.
Measuring Sex-Role Attitudes: The Problem of the Well-Meaning Liberal Male
Authors: Bowman Philip C. , Auerbach Stephen M.
Published: March 2007

Sixteen "well-meaning" and 16 "sincere" liberal males identified on the basis of their Attitudes Toward Women Scale and Bentler Questionnaire protocols, differed significantly in their sex-role self-perceptions, with well-meaning males describing themselves as more feminine. Well-meaning males also had significantly higher Crowne-Marlowe scores, suggesting greater susceptibility to social desirability pressures. Groups did not differ in responses to sexist and nonsexist propaganda, or to the bogus pipeline procedure. Results are discussed in terms of the "identity" and "social desirability" hypotheses forwarded by other researchers. Several methodological problems found in previous research as well as in the present study are identified as the source of much confusion and contradictory evidence regarding the measurement of sex-role attitudes.
Reducing Air Conditioning Waste by Signalling it is Cool Outside
Authors: Becker Lawrence J. , Seligman Clive
Published: March 2007

This experiment looked at the effects on residential energy consumption of providing homeowners with (1) a signalling device that indicated a conservation opportunity and (2) information feedback about their rate of energy use. The signalling device operated when the outside temperature was below 680F and the air conditioner was on. Homeowners were told that the signalling device indicated when they could cool their house effectively by opening the windows and turning off their air conditioner. Forty households were randomly assigned to one of four conditions: signalling device only, feedback only, both, neither. The results showed a significant 15.7% decrease in energy use for those households with the signalling devices. Neither the feedback nor interaction effect was significant. The advantages and disadvantages of having people in the control cycle were discussed.
Perceptual Withdrawal from an Invasion of Personal Space: A Methodological Note
Authors: Terry Roger , Lower Michelle
Published: March 2007

Subjects experiencing intrusion of personal space indicated which stimulus figures from homogeneous arrays first attracted their attention. The distance of the selected figure from the intruder was shown to be sensitive to degree of invasion.
Destruction and Complexity
Authors: Greenberger David B. , Allen Vernon L.
Published: March 2007

It is hypothesized that the enjoyment derived from destructive acts is due to the same stimulus characteristics that determine the enjoyment obtained from aesthetic experiences-that is, factors such as complexity, unexpectedness, or novelty manifested in the destruction of the object. A film was constructed that showed a series of panes of glass being broken. Five stimuli representing a wide range of subjectively scaled complexity were used in the experiment. Subjects observed all the panes of glass being broken, and rated preference for breaking each one. Subjects believed that they would be allowed to break a pane of glass of the type rated highest. As predicted, results showed a linear relation between commitment to break an object and subjective complexity.
On the Conceptual Disconfirmation of Theories
Authors: Greenwald Anthony G. , Ronis David L.
Published: March 2007

The first author's concepts of operational and conceptual disconfirmability are revised on the basis of recent critiques appearing in this journal. Operational and conceptual disconfirmation can be conceived as alternative resolutions of the disconfirmation dilemma, which is the problem faced by a researcher when a theoretical prediction is empirically disconfirmed. Operational disconfirmation corresponds to the conclusion that the prediction failed because of invalid procedures, while conceptual disconfirmation corresponds to the conclusion that the theoretical analysis underlying the prediction was faulty. Social psychology may indeed differ from other disciplines in being more prone to the operational disconfirmation conclusion.
If Laboratory Research doesn't Square with you, then Qube it
Authors: Wolf Sharon , Latane Bibb
Published: March 2007

Qube, a new form of interactive cable TV, was used to test hypotheses about social influence derived from social impact theory (Latané, 1973, 1981). Results showed that audience responses were affected as predicted by the number of persons advocating a position. However, predicted effects for the immediacy of the influence sources (close-ups versus distant shots) were not found. The potential and limitation of interactive television as a medium for fundamental research are discussed.
Teacher Attributions of Student Performance
Authors: Burger Jerry M. , Cooper Harris M. , Good Thomas L.
Published: March 2007

Teacher attributions for elementary school students' successful and unsuccessful performances in real classrooms were assessed during three different times of the school year. Results suggest that practicing teachers' explanations of their own students' performances follow patterns consistent with earlier research on attribution processes.
Some Alternatives to Traditional Social Psychology of Groups
Authors: Smith Kenwyn K. , White Gregory L.
Published: March 2007

Previous critiques of social psychological theory and research on group processes have not had much discernible impact. Several alternative theoretical traditions from outside social psychology are offered for the enrichment of the social psychological study of groups. Problems with laboratory groups and contrasting approaches to Janis's groupthink phenomena are discussed from each of four alternative traditions as examples of the value of broadening our theoretical approaches to group life.
Perceptions of Communication Ability
Authors: Sypher Beverly Davenport , Sypher Howard E.
Published: March 2007

Several researchers have suggested that individual success in organizations can be attributed at least in part to interpersonal and communicative effectiveness. This study examined the relationship between several measures of interpersonal effectiveness and job level in the headquarters of a large international insurance corporation. Participants completed Snyder's (1974) self-monitoring instrument and reported on their own communication abilities. Results showed that self-monitoring was related to perceived persuasive ability and to perceived communication effectiveness. However, when the self-monitoring instrument was decomposed into the subscales suggested by Briggs, Cheek, and Buss (1980), the other-directedness subscale was virtually unrelated to any other study variable. Job level in the organization was positively related to self-monitoring and to perceived communication effectiveness.
Reactions to Failure after Taking a Placebo
Authors: Frey Dieter , Fries Alfred , Osnabrügge Gabriele
Published: March 2007

Two studies are reported in which subjects were given an intelligence test. One week later subjects received fictitious feedback either moderately or extremely discrepant from their self-estimation. Before receiving test results, subjects took a placebo pill labeled arousing or relaxing. Both studies found that under the arousal condition subjects showed fewer signs for dissonance reduction than under the relaxing condition. The studies also show that dissonance reduction increased, the more negative the discrepant information was. The studies demonstrate that "misattribution of dissonance"-effects can be produced in a paradigm different than forced compliance situations.
The "Opener"
Authors: Purvis James A. , Dabbs James M. , Hopper Charles H.
Published: March 2007

Same-sex pairs of high or low "openers, "persons more or less adept at encozvraging others to talk, engaged in 10-minute conversations. Conversations were videotaped, and the moment-by-moment patterning of speech and gaze was examined by computer. Interest and attentiveness expressed in the subjects' faces were also judged. The high openers used a set of behaviors that may serve to reinforce their partners' participation. An attentive facial expression and the appearance of comfort and enjoyment are part of their visual display during conversation. Brief utterances of simultaneous speech were also emitted by higher opener males while their partners were speaking.
The Midas Touch
Authors: Crusco April H. , Wetzel Christopher G.
Published: March 2007

The present study examined the effects of two types of touch in a controlled but natural setting, a restaurant. Waitresses briefly touched customers either on the hand or the shoulder as they were returning change. Customers' reactions were assessed by a restaurant survey and a novel behavioral measure, the tip expressed as a percentage of the bill. The tipping rate for the two types of touch did not differ from each other and did not differ according to the customer's gender. Both tipping rates were significantly larger than a control, no-touch condition. There were no touch effects on ratings of the waitress, the restaurant's atmosphere, or the dining experience. It was concluded that touch effects can occur without awareness, and that males will not react more negatively to touch than females when the touch is unobtrusive or free of status and dependency connotations.
Recognition of Own and Others' Utterances in a Natural Conversation
Authors: Wagner Wolfgang
Published: March 2007

48 subjects discussed a criminal case in groups of 8. After two weeks, 31 were tested on recognition accuracy of utterances from the discussion. Recognition items were either the subjects' own statements, or statements from other participants in their group, or new. As expected, it was found that self-generated utterances were recognized as occurring more often during the conversation than other-generated utterances. A second factor varied focus of reference at recognition time: An item was attributed either to the subject himself or herself, or to some other unspecified person in the group. Primed self-reference at recognition time was expected to enhance recognition performance. This prediction was confirmed. Additionally, response confidence for self-referent items proved to be a more valid indicator of their correctness than confidence for other-referent items. The findings are discussed in terms of memory search. Focusing on the self as a highly structured search space enables the individual to recognize utterances-irrespective of their real source-more accurately than focusing on the memory representation of the group process as a whole.
Gender Differences in Loneliness
Authors: Borys Shelley , Perlman Daniel
Published: March 2007

Earlier studies on gender differences in loneliness appear to have produced contradictory results. However, when 39 existing data sets were classified according to whether they used the UCLA scale (N = 28) or a self-labeling measure (N = II) of loneliness, the results revealed a clear pattern. Statistically significant sex differences are not usually found with the UCLA scale, but, when they are found, males typically have higher loneliness scores. In terms of self-labeling, women more frequently than men admit being lonely. Sex role factors may help explain these seemingly contradictory results. Of the various possible explanations of the gender differences in self-labeled loneliness, most assume that social influence processes play a crucial role. To test this viewpoint, an experiment was conducted. Subjects (N = 117) were presented with a case history of a lonely person, which varied only the target person's sex. The subjects were more rejecting of a lonely male than of a lonely female. These results support the view that women are more apt to acknowledge their loneliness than men because the negative consequences of admitting loneliness are less for women.
Accent and Social Class Effects on Status and Solidarity Evaluations
Authors: Stewart Mark A. , Ryan Ellen Bouchard , Giles Howard
Published: March 2007

Male speakers of either standard British or standard American English were presented to 60 American undergraduates as either lower-class or middle-class individuals. Speakers were rated on social status, solidarity, and speech. Moreover, respondents made causal attributions for the speakers' hypothetical successes and failures. British speakers were upgraded on status as were middle-class persons whereas main effects in the opposite direction emerged on the solidarity dimension. Causal attributions in status-stressing and solidarity-stressing situations were generally consistent with the other evaluations, with larger effects for class than for accent. Predicted interactions between accent and social class did not occur.
Desire for Control and Gambling Behavior among Problem Gamblers
Authors: Burger Jerry M. , Smith Norris G.
Published: March 2007

The relationship between individual differences in the general desire to control events and gambling behavior was examined. Desire for control scores for members of a Gamblers Anonymous group were found to be significantly related to how frequently the gamblers had bet upon games and events containing a slight perception of controllability. Consistent with earlier research linking gambling behavior with the illusion of control phenomenon, no such relationship was found when using desire for control scores to predict how frequently the subjects had bet upon games without this hint of controllability. Desire for control scores also tended to be related to how much money the gamblers had lost during their worst year of gambling. However, contrary to prediction, the gamblers were found to have significantly lower desire for control scores on the average than a matched comparison group. It is suggested that individual differences in desire for control influence gambling behavior but are not a cause of problem gambling.
Detection of Noncontingency in a Free-Operant Situation
Authors: Benassi Victor A. , Knoth Russell L. , Mahler Heike I. M.
Published: March 2007

Two experiments are presented that demonstrate college students' success at detecting response-noncontingent outcomes. Both experiments used free-operant procedures. In Experiment 1, subjects were randomly assigned to either response-contingent or response-noncontingent outcome conditions that produced the same frequency and temporal distribution of outcomes. The procedures differed only in terms of whether responses produced outcomes. Behavioral and verbal judgment data indicated that subjects in the response-noncontingent outcome condition detected the noncontingency. Experiment 2 investigated the outcome frequency variable. Prior experiments have shown that, under certain conditions, higher frequencies of response-noncontingent outcomes produce higher degrees of perceived control over those outcomes; other experiments have failed to find a similar outcome frequency effect. We gave two groups of subjects different frequencies of response-noncontingent outcomes. Results showed that response rates, but not judgments of control, were reliably influenced by this manipulation. We relate these findings to previous free-operant and trial-by-trial studies of noncontingency detection.
Cognitive Differentiation, Automaticity, and Interruptions of Automatized Behaviors
Authors: Jolly Eric J. , Reardon Richard
Published: March 2007

The construct of field dependence-independence was explored with respect to individual efficacy in forming automatized sequences. Thirty-six female subjects developed and used such sequences. They experienced either severe, mild, or no interruption of the sequences at various points during 60 trials (such that each trial was a repetition of the sequence). Attention deployment to task-relevant and task-relevant material during these interruptions was assessed using recognition confidence measures. Results indicated that the distinction between task-relevant and task-relevant items was important to both field-dependent and field-independent subjects: Field-dependent subjects incorporated more task-relevant material as an attentional focus and monitored both kinds of material more closely when the sequence was not interrupted. The opposite was true for field independent subjects, who were also faster in forming the sequence.
The Social Context of Social Comparison
Authors: Earle Walter B.
Published: March 2007

Research on social comparison has largely ignored the social context in which opinion evaluation may occur. In the present study, subject groups were initially exposed to descriptions of a target issue that emphasized the importance of either informational considerations (facts) or value judgments. Evaluation of the issue and formulation of an issue opinion were defined as either an individual or a group goal. After announcing their own position on the issue, subjects indicated their preference for including in the group a deviant member whose issue position differed from the others' The results revealed that subjects in the group goal condition were more rejecting of the deviant than those in the individual goal condition. This difference was due largely to subjects who perceived the issue in informational terms. The implications of these findings for opinion evaluation as a collective enterprise were discussed.
Supervisor Sex and Subordinate Influence Strategies
Authors: Offermann Lynn R. , Kearney Celeste T.
Published: March 2007

This study explored the beliefs of men and women about what influence strategies they would consider using in a work-related disagreement with their supervisor as a function of their own sex and the sex of their supervisor. Subjects rated the likelihood of their taking each of 40 actions in order to get their own way. As expected, women considered using personal/dependent and negotiation strategies more than men; men considered using coercion/offering rewards for cooperation more than women. In addition, persons considering interaction with a female supervisor reported less likelihood of using reasoning and negotiation strategies and a greater likelihood of withdrawing from conflict than persons with a male supervisor.
Envy and Jealousy
Authors: Smith Richard H. , Kim Sung Hee , Parrott W. Gerrod
Published: March 2007

Although traditional scholarly views suggest that envy and jealousy produce distinct affective experiences, empirical work is contradictory. The present study treated this problem from both semantic and experiential perspectives. First, subjects described situations in which they had felt strong envy and strong jealousy. These descriptions were coded for whether they conformed to traditional definitions of the two emotions. The results demonstrated that although the words envy and jealousy have overlapping meanings, the source of this overlap is the broad meaning of the word jealousy. Whereas the word jealousy may denote either jealousy (romantic jealousy, most commonly) or envy, the word envy will tend to be used in one sense alone, as a social-comparison-based emotion. In the second part of the study, subjects indicated for a series of affective states whether each was more characteristic of strong envy or strong jealousy. The results suggested that each emotion is associated with a differing profile of feelings. Reasons for the discrepancy between these results and previous empirical work are discussed.
Analysis, Synthesis, and the Treasuring of the Old
Authors: Aronson Elliot
Published: March 2007

The author favors a laissez-faire, "circus tent" approach to theory building and testing. Accordingly; he believes that analysis and synthesis are each of great importance in the development of theory -and would not suggest that scholars focus on one or the other. Unfortunately; there are serious problems in the research process in social psychology that hinder synthesis. These include a slavish fascination with "fashion, " which results in a tendency to neglect solid research and interesting theories simply because they are more than 10 years old. Unless this tendency is corrected, advances will continue to be disjointed. Reasons for this state of affairs are discussed.