bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Transnational Criminology
Authors: Mackenzie Simon
Published: May 2021

Trafficking is a form of transnational crime that involves the illicit movement of goods and people around the world. Such global criminal markets take a variety of forms, and this book reviews six of them: trafficking in drugs, humans, wildlife, diamonds, arms, and antiquities. While there is a healthy literature on many of these types of trafficking, there is relatively little written that systematically compares and contrasts them. In doing that, this book allows us to lift the viewpoint above the details of each individual type of trafficking, to think theoretically about what they have in common. The book therefore serves two purposes. First, it is a primer and review of the main points of what we currently know about how each trafficking market works: who the traffickers are, what routines and structures are involved, what harm is caused, and the main types of regulation and control that attempt to constrain trafficking. Second, the text sets out a social theory of transnational markets, constituted and illustrated throughout by the empirical data reviewed. That theory ties the criminal practices of traffickers into the wider social promotion of a business-like mindset. This allows individuals and groups to compartmentalise the emotional and moral implications of illegal entrepreneurial profit generation, so that harmful action is seen as ‘just business’. As such, trafficking is rationalised by participants as comparable to the perceived amoral economic calculations of conventional business.
Introduction: Trafficking as Transnational Crime
Authors: Mackenzie Simon
Published: May 2021

What is transnational crime, and what is trafficking? This chapter reviews prior literature on the main issues informing these questions, including informal economy, criminal markets, organised crime, ‘the underworld’, and the theory of the spectrum of enterprise. It is the latter that serves as a touchstone concept, linking illicit enterprise to legal business and bringing the theoretical tools of white-collar crime thinkers into the same analytical pool as those of organised crime theorists. Doing so, we come to see that the idea of business enterprise in its contemporary context can drive criminal market activities as well as legal markets. We review aspects of relevant social theory including ideas of globalisation, indifference, the banality of evil, and psychological writing on ‘compartmentalisation’, to develop a distinctively criminological approach to understanding the social drivers and facilitators of trafficking.
Drug Trafficking
Authors: Mackenzie Simon
Published: May 2021

This chapter addresses drug trafficking in four sections: the nature and extent of the harm; the structure of drug trafficking (considered in terms of source, transit and market); regulation and control; and finally a discussion about drug trafficking as illicit business. Major drug types and supply routes are reviewed, to illustrate the scale of the problem regionally and globally. The usual routines of drug trafficking are discussed, including production, wholesale, kingpins and mules, and street-level dealing. The well-known challenges of interdiction are noted, amounting to the observed failure of the ‘war on drugs’. Finally, we look at empirical evidence that drug trafficking is considered by its protagonists in terms of business enterprise, and the ways this distances them from the harm it causes.
Women and the ACT, 1933–59
Authors: Galt Frances C.
Published: May 2021

This chapter examines the relationship between women and the Association of Cine-Technicians (ACT) in the first three decades of the union’s history, between 1933 and 1959, to argue that a profoundly gendered union structure was institutionalised during the ACT’s establishment and formative years. Firstly, this chapter examines the process of unionisation within the British film industry to demonstrate that men’s interests were prioritised and women’s interests were excluded by this process. Secondly, this chapter reflects upon the consolidation of the ACT’s power in the film industry and its gendered union structure during the Second World War. It argues that the ACT introduced agreements and adopted organisational practices which safeguarded men’s jobs in response to the influx of women workers into the film industry during the war. Thirdly, it examines debates around which technicians should be represented among ACT’s membership in the post-war period, including the union’s response to the growth of the commercial television industry in the 1950s. This chapter also surveys women’s activity in the ACT between 1933 and 1959 to consider the evidence for a feminist consciousness among women activists in the decades between Britain’s first and second-wave feminist movements.
‘Regrettably Up-to-Date’, 1975–81
Authors: Galt Frances C.
Published: May 2021

This chapter investigates Gillian Skirrow’s assertion that the Patterns report remained ‘regrettably up-to-date’ by 1981, six years after its publication (1981: 94). It argues that the relationship between women and the ACTT was characterised by inertia between 1975 and 1981. This chapter identifies the reasons for slow progress around the implementation of the recommendations of the Patterns report and considers its impact on women’s activity. Firstly, it argues that the ACTT’s gendered union structure operated to inhibit the implementation of the report’s recommendations, demonstrated by limited engagement with the report among rank-and-file members and the reluctance of male union officials to negotiate around its recommendations. Secondly, this chapter argues that the Committee on Equality was detached from the formal union structure, limiting its power to influence policy and restricting women’s activity. This chapter then traces women’s growing frustration with the ACTT’s inactivity from 1980 onwards, culminating in the demand for a women’s conference. In doing so, it illustrates the influence of external feminist campaigns in the late 1970s. Finally, this chapter outlines the demands of the ACTT’s first Women’s Conference in 1981, which called for the formalisation of women’s representation within the union structure.
Remarkable Political Gains? The 1980s
Authors: Galt Frances C.
Published: May 2021

This chapter analyses the methods of formalisation introduced by the ACTT during the 1980s: the appointment of a full-time Equality Officer in the ACTT’s Head Office; the establishment of a network of local Equality Representatives; the introduction of an annual women’s conference; and the increased visibility of women’s activity in union publications. This chapter establishes a narrative of continuity and change in the relationship between women and the ACTT in its exploration of structural gains achieved within the union and stasis in the pattern of women’s employment in the film and television industries. Firstly, this chapter contextualises the formalisation of women’s representation in the ACTT in relation to Margaret Thatcher’s anti-union legislation and the deregulation of the film and television industries. Secondly, this chapter considers each method of formalisation to argue that these new structures established a network of women activists which coordinated women’s activity, facilitated the formulation of policy, and advanced women’s demands at all levels of the union’s structure. Thirdly, this chapter argues that women’s demands continued to encounter hostility and apathy from the ACTT’s male officials and rank-and-file membership, which inhibited the translation of women’s political gains in the union into material gains in the workforce.
Conclusion
Authors: Galt Frances C.
Published: May 2021

The final chapter draws together the key conclusions advanced within this book in relation to its three central themes: the operation of the gendered union structure, women’s union activism, and the relationship between class and gender in the labour movement. Firstly, it argues that a gendered union structure was institutionalised from the union’s establishment and maintained through a belief system that women’s issues were not trade union issues. Secondly, it argues that separate self-organisation was essential to women’s activity within the gendered union structure as it provided an essential space and voice for women to discuss their gender-specific concerns, develop consciousness and skills and formulate policy. It further emphasises the importance of external feminist allies to women’s union activity. Thirdly, it argues that class differences between middle-class women in film and television production and working-class women in the laboratories informed the direction of women’s activity at its height during the 1970s and 1980s. This chapter then surveys the central arguments advanced in each chapter to illustrate these core conclusions. It concludes with a consideration of the practical implications of this research for campaigns against gender discrimination within the British labour movement and the film and television industries.
Responsibility
Authors: Dowding Keith
Published: May 2021

Gun crime in the USA is wildly out of line with other nations. Obesity has taken off as a growing problem around the world in the past forty years. Homelessness is increasing, whilst the average age of home owners is rising. Governments tell their citizens that they ought to eat healthy food, tell the young to get good jobs to buy houses, and blame the bad guys for gun crime. In all cases, the problem lies with government regulation and government policy. This chapter looks at how governments blame citizens for failures which are caused by government. They have been encouraged by political philosophers who concentrate upon individual moral responsibility, freedom and autonomy, whilst ignoring the fact that governments no longer seem to want to legislate for the welfare of their citizens. This chapter sets up the argument of the book. Individuals are responsible for the choices they can reasonably make given the menu of opportunities available to them. That menu is the responsibility of government – and the menu is poor fare.
Gun Crime
Authors: Dowding Keith
Published: May 2021

Gun crime in the USA is wildly out of line with all other nations (that are not failed states). This chapter examines the different regulations governing the sale and ownership of guns around the world, arguing it is lax regulation that creates the US situation. It looks at specific regulation in a number of countries, and shows how regulations governing gun ownership and sales affect the rate of murders, mass murders, suicide and accidents. It also examines the effects of changing the regulations in different US states. As a case study, it takes Australia, where new regulations were brought in following the Port Arthur massacre. It argues that if one wants the right to bear arms, and believes this right means the very light regulations we see in the USA, then the government and the people must accept that the high incidence of mass murder, homicide, other gun crime, and suicide seen in the USA is a consequence of that right. They must acknowledge responsibility for those deaths.
Homelessness
Authors: Dowding Keith
Published: May 2021

This chapter discusses the nature of homelessness from rough sleeping to lack of secure accommodation. It examines changing government policy over the past fifty years. Governments have got out of the business of building and renting low-cost houses, ended rent control, and pursued fiscal policies encouraging not only home ownership and second homes, but a new rentier class. Tax incentives encourage buying to let or even leaving property empty for investment purposes. This pushes up house prices, creating a generation who have little prospect of ever owning their own home. It has also created insecure and transient housing for the poor and a tranche of rough sleepers with no roof over their heads. The chapter investigates this process in the USA, UK and Australia, contrasting with a case study of how Finland has successfully dealt with its homelessness problem.
Introduction: Public Criminology Meets Public Theology
Authors: Millie Andrew
Published: May 2021

Criminologists have seldom considered learning from theology, yet theologians have written on themes of criminological concern, including regarding issues of criminal justice. In this introductory chapter crossover between the two subjects is highlighted as an opportunity to critique retributive punishment and present new thinking on the place of hope, mercy and restoration in secular criminal justice settings. The focus is on learning from Christian theology although it is acknowledged that there may be much to learn from other faith traditions as well. The focus for this chapter is the space between public criminology and public theology. The rest of the volume is then introduced.
Criminal Justice and the Ethics of Jesus
Authors: Bottoms Anthony
Published: May 2021

This chapter identifies three important elements within the ethical teaching and practice of Jesus: his attitude to law; his call to repentance; and his open pastoral acceptance of sinners. In each case, the potential relevance of this teaching to criminal justice in a modern liberal-democratic state is considered. Naturally, Jesus’ teaching and practice were strongly religious in orientation, but the chapter argues that, suitably adapted to remove its specifically faith-based dimensions, the ethics of Jesus has an enduring relevance for the criminal justice policies and practice of contemporary secular states.
Three Intersections in Criminology and Public Theology
Authors: Burnside Jonathan
Published: May 2021

This chapter explores how public theology challenges criminal justice orthodoxies by asking, provocatively, whether Christianity has been hijacked by imprisonment. The question is systematically explored with reference to three, interrelated, strands: (1) the moral question of ‘seriousness of offence’ which undergirds the sanction of imprisonment; (2) the development of ‘Relational Justice’ as a reform dynamic for criminal justice and prison reform; and (3) the role of faith-based units in prisons. These three strands show the different ways in which juxtaposing prisons and public theology challenges criminal justice orthodoxies; critiques retributive punishment and provides the hope of restoration. They also provide worked examples of the methodologies that are required to successfully link up law with applied social sciences and theology.
Mercy Triumphs over Judgement: Intrusive or Enabling Mercy?
Authors: Bourne Richard
Published: May 2021

This chapter engages in a philosophical and theological critique of thinkers who construe justice and mercy as contradictory norms. It develops a theological account of restorative justice in which mercy is understood as the ‘operative condition’ enabling the pursuit of justice beyond mere retribution. It elaborates this through an account of the moral anthropology inherent in Christian accounts of penance which understand moral agency as a time-bound pursuit of character-formation. Justice is pursued not in meting out a measure of proportionate hard-treatment, but in the merciful gift of the ‘penitential time’ which may enable reform of character and action. It ends with a tentative account of sanctification, desire and desistence and suggests these aspects of theological anthropology might inform a critique of the criminogenic machine of consumerism.
Loving the Neighbourhood, Loving Enemies: Towards a Theology for (and from) Policing1
Authors: McFadyen Alistair
Published: May 2021

Policing has been curiously absent from direct, sustained and explicit consideration in the long-established and significant theological literature on criminal justice. This chapter begins by interrogating that absence as a first move towards constructing a theology of and for policing that reflects the author’s own experience as a serving British police officer. That is supplemented by the more or less focal engagement with policing in other theological literatures (political theologies, Black Lives Matter movement, international peacebuilding and just war, Christian pacifism and non-violence). Twin nodes of a theology of and for policing are identified: love of neighbourhood and of enemies as vehicles for a social order oriented towards human flourishing. Policing practices are considered as tools that might foster such a social order in a theological engagement with policing that is at once critical and, realist, in which policing has transformative and reparative potential.
Persecuting the Prophets: Inequality, Insanity and Incarceration
Authors: Skotnicki Andrew
Published: May 2021

It is a truism that crime is a reality constructed by those interests powerful enough to create the definitions of acceptable and unacceptable behaviour. This chapter reminds us that mental illness is constructed in the same way and by those same interests. It should serve as no surprise, then, that those diagnosed as mentally ill are far more likely to go to jail or prison than to be consigned to a clinic, hospital, or asylum. In this chapter the causes for criminalizing abnormal behaviour are located not in the organic or medical realm but in the realm of social injustice and the persecution of the prophetic. Thus, prison has become in many respects the new sacred space for those with a piercing, and hence unwelcome, social vision.
The Community of Justice
Authors: Wienhues Anna , Wienhues Anna
Published: May 2021

This chapter analyses the question of how one can move from claims about moral considerability to claims about justice. Moral considerability is a necessary, but not sufficient, criterion for being a holder of entitlements of justice. Taking it as a premise that all living beings are morally considerable, the chapter proposes that a grounded justification for interspecies justice in terms of just biological conservation requires an additional four-step argumentative process as a method for including all wild living nonhuman beings in the community of justice. It claims that humans and wild nonhuman living beings constitute a community of justice which can be called a community of fate. Because moral considerability alone is not able to ground the more specific claim that duties of justice are owed to a certain entity, the theoretical move towards grounding a community of justice is a crucial feature of accounts of ecological justice.
Biodiversity Loss: An Injustice?
Authors: Wienhues Anna
Published: May 2021

This chapter investigates whether biodiversity loss is an injustice. Even though there is a fairly widely shared belief by conservation biologists and environmental ethicists that species extinctions are morally wrong, this intuition has usually not been framed in terms of justice. The chapter then looks at biodiversity loss from the harm avoidance perspective, exploring whether the harm of human-caused species extinctions can be considered an injustice (if it constitutes a harm at all) and not merely something that is morally lamentable or even morally neutral. It argues that rather than constituting an injustice in itself, biodiversity loss should be understood as an indicator for past injustices. Thus, it is the outcome of injustice rather than injustice itself which explains how the current extinction crisis embodies an injustice.
The Age of Increased Precarious Employment: Origins and Implications
Authors: Lewchuk Wayne
Published: May 2021

This chapter explores why employment rules and norms took the form they did, the prevalence of precarious employment in the labour market today, and the social implications of the era of Increased Precarious Employment. The employment norms associated with the era of Increased Precarious Employment represent one component of a broader shift to a neoliberal form of social organization. The chapter begins by reviewing the factors that led to the transition from the Standard Employment Relationship and the forces that shaped the employment relationship in the era of Increased Precarious Employment. It then examines debates over how to measure the prevalence of the precarious workforce, before considering the impact of precarious employment on households, families, and communities. The chapter looks at the findings of the Poverty and Employment Precarity in Southern Ontario research group.
Privatization, Hybridization and Resistance in Contemporary Care Work
Authors: Armstrong Pat , Baines Donna
Published: May 2021

This chapter identifies seven forms of overlapping and interwoven privatization. In the current era of austerity, privatization has been able to extend its reach through these integrated processes and, in some cases, operate almost by stealth as an overarching ideological force that legitimizes private-market relations in places where it once would have been thought to be contrary to a public sector ethic of entitlement and equity. This is a growing dynamic across many public and non-profit/voluntary services and organizations. The chapter discusses the seven forms of privatization in the provision of long-term residential or nursing home care for older people in Ontario, Canada and in the UK. Private ownership is commonly thought to be the only or main form of privatization, but austerity analyses can be more incisive and specific, with a greater awareness of the complexity and multiplexity of the forms of privatization operating within formerly public and non-profit spaces. The chapter then looks at resistance in the sphere of care for older people, some of which has been successful.
What We Talk About When We Talk About Austerity: Social Policy, Public Management and Politics of Eldercare Funding in Canada and China
Authors: Strauss Kendra , Xu Feng
Published: May 2021

This chapter uses austerity as a lens for understanding diverse processes and argues that the market plays an ambivalent role in austerity discourse at the sub-national level in China and Canada, at the level of policy development and restructuring of the eldercare sector in Vancouver and Shanghai. It starts with a short discussion of the concept of social infrastructure. The chapter then examines social policy and public management in British Columbia and China. It reviews the history of austerity as a discourse, and its relationship to distinct but related discourses of balanced budgets, fiscal prudence, and cost containment in Canada, and balanced growth in China. Exploring how fiscal austerity leads to a variety of paths for outsourcing costs and devolving responsibility to non-government actors, the chapter highlights implicit and explicit processes of privatization, resulting in 'varieties of financialization' with distinct differences and similarities, as well as increasing connections between these 'aspiring global cities'.
The Rise of Managerialism in the US: Whither Worker Control?
Authors: Abramovitz Mimi , Zelnick Jennifer
Published: May 2021

This chapter investigates the impact of managerialism on the work of non-profit human-service workers in New York City, drawing on survey data to paint a portrait of a sector that has been deeply restructured to emulate private-market relations and processes. It uses the Social Structure of Accumulation (SSA) theory to explain the rise of neoliberal austerity and identify five neoliberal strategies designed to dismantle the US welfare state. The chapter also focuses on the impact of privatization, a key neoliberal strategy; shows how privatization has transformed the organization of work in public and non-profit human-service agencies; and details the experience of nearly 3,000 front-line, mostly female, human-service workers in New York City. It argues that austerity and managerialism generate the perfect storm in which austerity cuts resources and managerialism promotes 'doing more with less' through performance and outcome metrics and close management control of the labour-process. Closely analysing practices for resistance, the chapter concludes that in lower-managerial workplaces, workers had fewer problems with autonomy, a greater say in decision making, less work stress, and more sustainable employment, suggesting that democratic control of the workplace is an alternative route to quality, worker engagement, and successful outcomes.
Control (Part II): Effective Freedom and Collective Autonomy
Authors: Swann Thomas
Published: May 2021

Chapter Five builds focuses on the tactical autonomy the different parts of an anarchist cybernetic organisation have and the strategic constraints on that autonomy. Drawing on how autonomy is understood in cybernetics and in anarchism and related radical political theories, the chapter defines two linked forms of autonomy: Functional Autonomy (central to cybernetics) and Collective Autonomy (vital to anarchist politics). The chapter argues that a balance between individualism and centralisation is crucial to explaining how organisation can both be effective and meet the political demands of anarchism. Linking this discussion to the Viable System Model and to the distinction between strategy and tactics, the chapter explores Consensus Decision Making as a key democratic practice that helps achieve the Functional Autonomy and the Collective Autonomy that anarchist cybernetics helps shed light on.
Communication (Part I): Information and Noise in the Age of Social Media
Authors: Swann Thomas
Published: May 2021

Chapter Six focuses on communication practices and social media, examining how the concept of noise features in how cybernetics understands communication and information. The chapter considers how certain communication practice are more prone to problems concerning noise, linking this discussion to the experiences of the Spanish 15M protests where activists highlighted different forms of noise in communication practices. The chapter points towards ‘pink noise’ as a form of noise in networks that is conducive to self-organisation. As well as making an argument for a reappraisal of how we think about noise in relation to social and digital media, the chapter suggests that the concept of ‘pink noise’ can be a constructive contribution to how activists organise around online platforms. Rather that aiming to eliminate noise from communication, the introduction of the notion of ‘pink noise’ shows how that a more nuanced position can be developed that is conducive to the self-organisation at the heart of anarchist cybernetics.
Organising Radical Left Populism
Authors: Swann Thomas
Published: May 2021

Chapter Eight provides both an overview of the promise of anarchist cybernetics in relation to radical left social movement organising and a projection of how the principles of anarchist cybernetics may be utilised in understanding the kinds of organisation forms that have come to the fore since the 2011 uprisings. The chapter examines the so-called ‘electoral turn’ and developments in social democratic political parties such as the Labour Party in the UK, Syriza in Greece, Podemos in Spain and ongoing contestations in the Democratic Party in the US. Doing so, the chapter looks at, on the one hand, where horizontal forms of organising operate within these kinds of structures and, on the other, the limits on the power of horizontal, grassroots organising that come from its engagement with these typically structurally hierarchical organisations. The chapter makes the case for anarchist cybernetics as a way of articulating the limits of party forms of organisation and, more practically, in designing organisational and communication structures within such organisations to aid democracy and participation.
Friendships, Connections and Relationships
Authors: Chase Elaine , Allsopp Jennifer
Published: May 2021

This chapter shows how unaccompanied migrant and refugee young people are individuals driven by feelings and impulses as much as they are rational actors. Young people took extraordinary risks to protect their friends, and these actions shaped their trajectories. Sometimes the question of where young people ended up staying in Europe was the result of the friendships they forged there, both with co-nationals and in other cases with members of the host community, such as civil society volunteers who made them feel welcome. The chapter also documents how, as they sought to construct their own lives, young people also sought to reach beyond their subjective aspirations to help one another, build and sustain relationships, and live within communities of care. In this context, the collective aspect of capabilities is important. The ways in which young people work together to support one another was never more apparent than in the research team itself. The entire research project would have been impossible without the ties of trust and friendship forged, renegotiated, and strengthened within the team over time, and which have been sustained beyond the life of the project.
Transnational Family and Connections
Authors: Chase Elaine , Allsopp Jennifer
Published: May 2021

This chapter demonstrates that while young people strive to establish an anchor in Europe as a place where they feel safe and can imagine and construct futures for themselves, they simultaneously derive a sense of subjective wellbeing from their transnational ties and personhood. Given the geopolitical framework that kept them apart from loved ones elsewhere, the transnational elements to these relationships were central to their daily lives. There has been a burgeoning interest in practices of transnationalism, and the empirical work in the study reveals the complexities and dynamics of such ties and interactions for young people transitioning to adulthood in a context of migration. At least four domains of transnationalism were revealed in the research. These include transnational family connections, transnational friendships, virtual connections, and transnational futures and aspirations.
Austerity, Women and the Role of the State
Authors: Dabrowski Vicki
Published: May 2021

Using interviews with women from diverse backgrounds, the author of this book makes an invaluable contribution to the debates around the gendered politics of austerity in the UK. Exploring the symbiotic relationship between the state's legitimization of austerity and women's everyday experiences, the book reveals how unjust policies are produced, how alternatives are silenced and highlights the different ways in which women are used or blamed. By understanding austerity as more than simply an economic project, the book fills important gaps in existing knowledge on state, gender and class relations in the context of UK austerity. Delivering a timely account of the misconceptions of policies, discourses and representations around austerity in the UK, the book illustrates the complex ways through which austerity is experienced by women in their everyday lives.
Introduction
Authors: Dabrowski Vicki
Published: May 2021

This introductory chapter explores the role of the state in shaping women's different experiences. It presents a gendered analysis of the nuanced workings of the state during current and previous times of crisis. The monograph studies how the state and austerity's historical legacies return and work upon present-day gendered experiences, reproducing and legitimizing economic, symbolic and institutional violence. It offers an illustration of how forms of social identification are made within a context of crisis. The chapter explains that by documenting women's differing attempts to deal with the constraints of UK austerity, the book shows how women respond to their existing or changing circumstances, and unpacks the often complex negotiation that goes on between the individual and the social. Ultimately, it explores how women try to adapt to unfolding events — pay freezes, periods of unemployment, cuts to welfare — but, at the same time, also attempt to maintain what they know and what they value.
Navigating Through Austerity
Authors: Dabrowski Vicki
Published: May 2021

This chapter reveals how women respond to and navigate through the effects of austerity measures. It highlights the commonalities in women's navigation strategies, but also where and how these approaches diverge, with particular attention paid towards the strategies employed by single mothers. Here, divergent accounts of varieties of austerity as lived come into view, from women changing their shopping habits in fairly minor ways, to the use of foodbanks and informal loans. Ultimately, this chapter discusses five sections of this book, each of which explore the different ways and the extent to which these women are navigating through austerity. It is through such a nuanced analysis that we can further understand both the commonalities and divergences in women's experiences.
The Daily Toil: Interactional Demands and Difficulties
Authors: Jones Emma , Graffin Neil , Samra Rajvinder , Lucassen Mathijs
Published: May 2021

This chapter explores the interactional demands placed on legal professionals. These include meeting the demands of clients, dealing with vulnerable clients and balancing the needs of clients with the ethical and professional obligations and requirements placed on legal professionals. It also explores the nature of many legal professional’s relationship with their colleagues, which can range from providing a supportive network to potentially creating a toxic working environment. In particular, it considers the way in which the structure of the legal profession results in those who succeed as lawyers being promoted to become managers, despite the potentially very different skillsets involved. This can lead to significant issues with mental health and wellbeing for both the team members involved and the manager themselves.
(Head)phoning It In
Authors: Miller Jacob C.
Published: May 2021

This chapter considers the impact of technology on society in recent years. A new environment of information, social media and digital interfaces has inaugurated new political connections that have transformed the landscape. Rather than ruminate over the ways that Trump uses Twitter and other technologies to communicate in sometimes bizarre and dangerous ways, this chapter discusses how the spectacle itself has gone digital and how this has produced a kind of hyper-techno-consumer. There is an uneasy resemblance between the narcissism that this technology is capable of producing and the personality of Trump himself.
Property, Power and Politics
Authors: Robé Jean-Philippe
Published: May 2021

The book applies legal concepts to economic analysis. It explains that modern economies require the existence of a specific legal system to operate. The analysis builds on the prior work of institutional economists such as Douglas North. It brings it forward by integrating what was missing: the legal component. Taking its distance from the economic analysis of law, it provides a legal analysis of economics. It is superior in this regard because real life economic actors must abide by legal rules. Their economic activity is dependent on the existence of rules making it possible, something present economic analyses neglect completely. Without States and the services they provide (protection services, a legal system, property rights, justice, roads, contract enforcement, and so on), economic activity cannot flourish. The book concentrates on the particular importance of property rights. They always played a key role in economic development. They now play a key role in the operation of a global economy because of the surge of multinationals built on the right of property concentrated via corporations. The role of corporate law in the reconfiguration of the power system from a State System to a World Power System is explained. The book is of interest for all social scientists interested in the operation of our present world economy in an era of globalization. It provides new insight on how to address global issues, in particular global climate change, which is a direct consequence of the spreading of a world economy over a divided State System.
The Meaning of Property
Authors: Robé Jean-Philippe
Published: May 2021

Property rights are presented in a constitutional perspective. Property rights are constitutional rights. They grant prerogative which are protected both by the State and against the State. Contrary to what most economists think, possession plays a secondary role in the notion of property. Property is a right of decision and rule-making as a matter of principle towards the object of property. Laws affecting the use of property are only limited derogations to this principle. This view is congruent with the theory of ownership developed by Oliver Hart and applies in both Civil and Common Law legal systems. Understanding property in this fashion is a key to the understanding of the operation of the existing Power System.
The Modern Constitutional Mode of Government
Authors: Robé Jean-Philippe
Published: May 2021

The notions of State and of the « Organs of the State » are explained in some details to distinguish their prerogatives from private prerogatives. Private property, in this respect, grants autonomy from the « Organs of the State ». It is part of the constitutional prerogatives protecting private persons against excessive public governmental encroachments. It is part of a constitutional order which combines both democracy and distrust for democracy, by limiting the prerogatives of the Organs of the State. The approach developed proposes a unitary view of the Constitution as providing for both public and private prerogatives, the first ones being exercised by Organs of the State and the second ones by legal persons which are not Organs of the State. Public and private prerogatives operate via fundamentally different rules, private property rights entitling their holders to exercise their prerogatives in a despotic manner, i.e. they can do what they want with what they have without the need to take anybody’s advice or authorization - which is the definition of despotism.
Coping with Firms
Authors: Robé Jean-Philippe
Published: May 2021

The Chapter addresses the need to cope with firms as participants in the World Power System. « Agency theory » has led to biased firm governance. The bias extends to accounting rules which do not provide a full picture of the impact of a firm’s operations and actually prevents firms from adapting their ways to the requirements of today’s predicament. Addressing world issues such as climate change requires the making of decisions to change our ways of producing, travelling and consuming. In an open economy, the competition among large business firms derivatively leads to a race to the bottom among States to offer firms accommodating legal environments. This limits the States’ ability to internalize negative externalities and to redistribute income. Given the inherent defects of our divided State System, it is at the firm level that governmental rules must be developed so that firms consider the consequences of their activities to a larger extend than they do today. Economic decisions within organizations are made on the basis of the accounting of their operations. To change the decisions they make, we need to amend the ways organizations account for their operations.
Epilogue
Authors: Robé Jean-Philippe
Published: May 2021

Abstract and Keywords to be supplied.
The Return of Discourses of Civilization and Barbarism
Authors: Linklater Andrew
Published: May 2021

This chapter discusses the revival of discourses of civilization and barbarism in the recent period, specifically in connection with the 'war on 'terror' and the torture debate. It emphasizes continuities between colonial and contemporary perspectives. Drawing on process sociology, it argues that the idea of civilization has been a central part of struggles to shape the way in which people orientate themselves to the social world. Participants in such struggles use the idea of civilization to justify using force against savage enemies but also to constrain violence in those relations. The chapter argues that the torture debate illustrates Elias’s observations about the peculiar entanglements of civilized peoples. It is essential to consider those entanglements and the discourse of civilization that was used in the 'war on terror' in long-term perspective – as aspects of the process of civilization which Elias set out to explain.
Civilization, Diplomacy and the Enlargement of International Society
Authors: Linklater Andrew
Published: May 2021

This chapter explains how civilized standards were globalized as a result of the mimetic behaviour of non-European regimes. Top- down civilizing offensives in China, Japan, Siam, Russia and the Ottoman empire/Turkish Republic are examined to explore dominant patterns of change in the global order. Modernizing regimes set out to reform state structures in the light of European conceptions of civilization. They altered traditional diplomatic mores in order to comply with European conventions. Some engaged in mimetic colonialism to demonstrate their civilized credentials and to press claims to be admitted into international society as equal sovereign powers. The overall pattern of change illustrates Elias’s thesis about how established groups seek to persuade outsiders to internalise feelings of inferiority and to modify behaviour accordingly. As Elias recognised, European notions of civilization spread outward to non-European elites but new social arrangements appeared in the process. The chapter discusses the development of novel combinations of nation and civilization that laid the foundation for challenges to the European global order which accelerated from the middle of the twentieth century.
Standards of Civilization in the Post-European Global Order
Authors: Linklater Andrew
Published: May 2021

This chapter discusses the fate of the classical standard of civilization and its reconfiguration in the post-European global order. Particular attention is paid to the cultural revolt against the West which illustrated the Eliasian theme that outsiders invariably attempt to free themselves from traditional political and cultural shackles as power relations become less unequal. But analysts have argued that new standards of civilization re-emerged in the form of the universal human rights culture, democracy promotion and state rebuilding, and global market civilization. This chapter locates those developments in the long civilizing process. It provides a process-sociological interpretation of civilizing dynamics in the recent period. Western measures to promote civilization are resisted by powers such as China which associate the strategies with attempts to create a neo-colonial global order A central question is whether world order has reached a transitional point in which the once dominant civilization is losing power and influence and the prospects for a global civilization are receding.
Civilizing Processes at the Level of Humanity as a Whole
Authors: Linklater Andrew
Published: May 2021

This chapter discusses Elias’s investigation of civilizing processes that have affected humanity as a whole and analyses his criteria for assessing the relative power of civilizing and decivilizing trends. Four criteria are considered – whether controls on violence are increasing or in decline; whether there are significant changes in the rely power of internal and external constraints on conduct; whether emotional identification between peoples is widening or contracting; and whether support for international planning to protect the vulnerable from the problems stemming from global interconnections is on the rise or is weakening. Those yardsticks inform the discussion of Huntington’s idea of a clash of civilizations and English School descriptions of the civilizing potential of international society. The chapter ends with reflections on the importance of shared symbols for a global civilizing process. It considers the complex relations between national-populist movements, images of future global ecological civilizing processes and the political challenges of the Covid-19 health and economic crisis.
Non-steady-state photo-EMF in a
PbNi1/3Nb2/3O3 crystal at
λ=660 nm
Authors: Bryushinin M. A. , Zalesskii V. G. , Polushina A. D. , Kulikov V. V. , Petrov A. A. , Lushnikov S. G. , Sokolov I. A.
Published: May 2021

Experiments on non-steady-state photoelectromotive force (photo-EMF) excitation are implemented with a

P
b
N
i

1

/

3

N
b

2

/

3

O

3

crystal at wavelength

λ
=
660

n
m

. We study the paraelectric phase of the crystal, which belongs to a very peculiar class of materials—relaxor ferroelectrics. The dependencies of the signal amplitude on the frequency of phase modulation, light intensity, and spatial frequency are measured, and photoelectric parameters such as photoconductivity, diffusion, and Debye screening lengths are estimated from them. The signal characteristics demonstrate nonlinear dependencies on light intensity, which is explained by the laser heating of the medium. An unusual difference in the behavior of the photoconductivity response and non-steady-state photo-EMF is revealed.
Merit functions and measurement schemes for single parameter depolarization models
Authors: Li Lisa , Kupinski Meredith
Published: May 2021

Mueller polarized bi-directional scattering distribution functions (pBSDFs) are 4 × 4 matrix-valued functions which depend on acquisition geometry. A widely used backscattering pBSDF model proposed by Priest and Meier [Opt. Eng. 41, 988 (2002)10.1117/1.1467360] is a weighted sum between a Fresnel matrix and an ideal depolarizer. This work’s main contribution is relating the relative weight between an ideal depolarizer and Fresnel matrix to a single depolarization parameter. Rather than a 16-dimensional matrix norm, this parameter can form a one-dimensional merit function. Then, instead of a full Mueller matrix measurement, a scheme for pBSDF fitting to only two polarimetric measurements is introduced. Depolarization can be mathematically expressed as the incoherent addition of coherent states [J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 30, 691 (2013)10.1364/JOSAA.30.000691]. This work shows that, for a Mueller matrix to be in the span of a Fresnel matrix and an ideal depolarizer, the weights in the incoherent addition are triply degenerate. This triple degeneracy is observed in five different colored opaque plastics treated with nine different surface textures and measured at varying acquisition geometries and wavebands.
Cascaded stimulated Brillouin scattering erbium-doped fiber laser generating orbital angular momentum beams at tunable wavelengths
Authors: Wang Jinghao , Zhang Jialang , Wang Anting , Jiang Xinhua , Yao Junna , Zhan Qiwen
Published: May 2021

We experimentally demonstrate a method to obtain central wavelength tunable orbital angular momentum beams with switchable topological charges (+1 or -1) in a stimulated Brillouin scattering erbium-doped fiber laser. Multiwavelength operation is achieved through cascaded stimulated Brillouin scattering in a single-mode fiber with a length of 6 km initiated by an external Brillouin pump. High-efficiency mode conversion between the fundamental mode and the orbital angular momentum modes is realized through a broadband two-mode long-period fiber grating. High-purity orbital angular momentum beams with up to 10 stable wavelength channels with a tuning range of 35 nm are achieved, which is the highest number of operating wavelengths and tuning range in an all-fiber laser for orbital angular momentum beam emission to the best of our knowledge. Both the operational central wavelength and number of operating wavelengths can be tuned by adjusting the primary pump power and the center wavelength of the tunable bandpass filter in conjunction with changing the Brillouin pump wavelength.
Modelling and characterisation of continuous wave resonantly pumped diamond Raman lasers
Authors: Li Muye , Kitzler Ondrej , Mildren Richard P. , Spence David J.
Published: May 2021

We present experimental results and modeling of continuous wave resonantly pumped Raman lasers. The first Stokes diamond Raman ring laser generated 0.6 W at 960 nm with an efficiency of 18%; the second Stokes laser generated 1.5 W at 1485 nm at 9% efficiency. The analytical model, extended to arbitrary Stokes orders, shows the importance of modelling imperfect mode matching and guides the optimization of input and output coupler reflectivity to predict practical watt-level Raman converters of few-watt pump lasers.