bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
A Multivariate Analysis of Factors in Attitudinal Levels of Wyoming Adults Toward Music
Authors: Noble Robert F.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of the study was to determine the degree of relationships among five variables in the previous musical and personal experiences of adults in Wyoming with eleven hierarchical levels of their attitudes concerning music. Multivariate analyses, including canonical correlation, stepwise multiple regression, and a full Pearson correlation matrix, were used to test these relationships in the sample. The research established a strong relationship between hierarchical levels of occupation and attitudinal levels, some evidences of relationship of background learning experience in music to criteria, but minimal relationship of age, sex, and community size to these attitudes.
The Effect of Multiple Discrimination Training on Pitch-Matching Behaviors of Uncertain Singers
Authors: Porter Susan Yank
Published: June 2006

This study investigated the effect of multiple discrimination training on vocal pitch-matching and instrumental pitch-matching behaviors, and on the aural music achievement test scores of uncertain singers. Eighty fourth- and fifth-grade students served as the subjects. Multiple discrimination training is a paradigm for concept teaching, during which care is taken to insure that the responses to a concept are controlled by the essential characteristics of the concept rather than by the irrelevant characteristics. The specific multiple discrimination training given to two of the four treatment groups consisted of presenting concept instances in the form of five pitches used as criteria in the pretest while varying the irrelevant characteristics of duration, timbre, and intensity. The procedure for shaping remained constant for all four treatment groups. Each student was reinforced for successive approximations to the correct pitch. Results of this study show that multiple discrimination training, added to successive approximation techniques, is appropriate as a standard part of training for uncertain singers.
The Relationships Among Instrumental Sight-Reading Ability and Seven Selected Predictor Variables
Authors: Elliott Charles A.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationships among instrumental sight-reading ability and seven selected variables: (1) Technical Proficiency, (2) Rhythm Reading Ability, (3) Sight Singing Ability, (4) Cumulative Grade Point Average, (5) Cumulative Music Theory Grade Point Average, (6) Cumulative Performance Jury Grade Point Average, and (7) Major Instrument Grade Point Average. Thirty-two wind instrumentalists, selected at random from undergraduate music theory classes at the University of South Carolina, served as subjects. During the spring semester of 1980, the subjects took tests designed to measure their abilities in sight-reading, technical proficiency, sight singing, and rhythm reading. Data were collected from each student' s permanent record regarding each of the other variables. The following conclusions were drawn: (1) A strong positive relationship exists between wind instrumentalists' general sight-reading ability and the ability to sight-read rhythm patterns. (2) Rhythm-reading ability is the single best predictor of wind instrumentalists' sight-reading scores. (3) Rhythm-reading ability and performance jury scores combine to make the best predictors of wind instrumentalists' sight-reading performance scores.
The Evolution of Music Education Philosophy from Utilitarian to Aesthetic
Authors: Mark Michael L.
Published: June 2006

Throughout Western history, various philosophies of music education have been articulated by intellectual, political, and religious leaders. A common factor in the various philosophies is the relationship between music education and society. Since the middle of the 20th century, writers on music education philosophy have been mostly music educators, rather than societal leaders. They have, for the most part, abandoned the many historical justifications of the profession in favor of aesthetic philosophy. The utilitarian values of music education that have formed its historical philosophical basis have been rejected during the last 30 years because they have little to do with music. Music is now taught for the sake of music, and the link that has historically connected aesthetics with societal needs has been broken.
Music Aptitude Profile Scores in a Noninstitutionalized, Elderly Population
Authors: Gibbons Alicia Clair
Published: June 2006

This study attempted to determine if persons in a noninstitutionalized, elderly population vary significantly in musical discrimination abilities as indicated by scores on the Musical Aptitude Profile (Gordon, 1965) . Subjects in three age groups differed significantly in Tonal Imagery scores. For that portion of the MAP, the oldest age group scored lowest, the youngest age group scored next lowest, and the middle age group scored highest. There was little difference in the Tonal Imagery mean scores of the youngest and the middle age groups. Subjects in the three age groups did not differ significantly in their Rhythm Imagery, Musical Sensitivity, or composite scores on the MAP. The results indicate that elderly persons have some musical ability, as measured by the MAP, and that it does not necessarily decrease with age after 65 years.
Two Instructional Approaches to the Development of Aural and Instrumental Performance Skills
Authors: Kendall Michael J.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to determine whether beginning instrumental students taught with a modeling (aural and kinesthetic) mode of instruction would develop better aural musicianship and instrumental performance skills than would beginning instrumental students taught with a comprehensive (aural, kinesthetic, and visual) mode of instruction. The author randomly assigned students from four intact instrumental classes ( N = 76) to either a modeling or a comprehensive treatment. The instructional activities for these treatments consisted of a sequence of imitation, discrimination, and association activities. The primary difference between the groups was that the comprehensive treatment included music reading activities but the modeling treatment did not. Test score analyses indicated that differences between the groups were not significant on the ear-to-hand coordination test and the performance test but were significant, favoring the comprehensive treatment, on the verbal association test and the sight-reading test. The data indicated that the introduction of music reading activities did not impede the development of students' aural and instrumental performance skills.
Effects of Different Practice Conditions on Advanced Instrumentalists' Performance Accuracy
Authors: Rosenthal Roseanne K. , Wilson Mary , Evans Madeline , Greenwalt Larry
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to examine the relative effects of five practice conditions on instrumentalists' performance of a musical composition. The authors assigned 60 college music students to one of five practice conditions and asked them to perform the composition after a brief practice session. Practice conditions were modeling, singing, silent analysis, free practice, and control. The authors evaluated each subject's performance in terms of correct notes, rhythms, phrasing or dynamics, articulation, and tempo. The authors found significant differences among the practice techniques in subjects' performance of correct rhythms, phrasing or dynamics, and tempo and nonsignificant differences among subjects' performances of correct notes and articulation. Further analysis demonstrated that modeling and practice were most effective in facilitating mastery of the selection. Singing and silent analysis were, in general, no more effective than sight-reading, with the exception of subjects in the silent analysis group, who were more accurate in their performance of the rhythms of the selection.
The Sex-Stereotyping of Musical Instruments
Authors: Abeles Harold F. , Porter Susan Yank
Published: June 2006

This series of studies was undertaken to examine musical instrument gender associations. Study 1, which investigated adult musical instrument preferences for children, indicated significant differences (<.05) in instrument selections due to the sex of the child. Study 2 employed a paired-comparison strategy to place eight instruments under investigation on a masculine-feminine continuum. Study 3 investigated children's (K-5) instrumental preferences. Results showed a significant sex by grade interaction. Study 4 examined three procedures for presenting the instruments to preschool children. The results showed a significant sex by method of presentation interaction.
The Cognitive Flexibility Claim in the Bilingual and Music Education Research Traditions
Authors: Bain Bruce
Published: June 2006

This report briefly surveys two research traditions, bilingual child development and music education, largely unknown to each other but arriving at similar conclusions concerning the cognitive consequences of their respective programs. A study of performance on the rod-and-frame, Uznadze illusion, Piagetian conservation, and Peabody picture-vocabulary tests by kindergarten children in a bilingual immersion program, a music program, and a control group (neither bilingual nor music) was conducted. The bilingual children performed significantly better on the tests that demanded verbal facility. The music children performed significantly better on the tests that demanded awareness of inner self. Results suggest that the two types of experiences result in a more flexible means of cognition within different cognitive domains.
Modulated Beat Discrimination Among Musicians and Nonmusicians
Authors: Madsen Clifford K.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of the study was to test auditory discrimination of modulated tempi. Two hundred musicians and nonmusicians participated. Stimuli consisted of selected tempi that were varied to increase, decrease, or remain constant. Tempi were presented in two sets of 25 trials each and were varied at the rate of 10 mm per minute. Subjects were asked to indicate if each trial seemed faster, slower, or remained the same. Subjects were also asked to estimate the final metronomic markings or beats per minute of each trial. Results of the study indicate that (1) all subjects better discriminate slower tempi compared to faster tempi; (2) all subjects estimate tempi to be slower than the actual speed of the tempi; and (3) musicians are more accurate in tempi assessments compared to nonmusicians.
Grade/Age Levels and The Reinforcement Value of the Collative Properties of Music
Authors: Eisenstein Susan Rachel
Published: June 2006

The objective of this investigation was to determine whether complex or redundant music conditions as found in form, dynamics, rhythm, and multiple combination of elements have different reinforcement values at developmentally crucial grade and age levels. Sixty-four subjects from second, third, fifth, and sixth grade classrooms participated in the study. Two measurements were obtained for each subject: (1) the number of seconds spent attending to complexity and redundancy as found in each of the four music components; and (2) choice frequencies between complexity and redundancy in each of the music components. Both measurements employed the same music stimuli-appropriately manipulated tone row music. The results indicated that second and third graders listened to more of the complex and redundant music conditions than fifth and sixth graders. No differences were apparent either in complexity and redundancy conditions or between any grades in choice.
Comparisons of Beginning Versus Experienced Elementary Music Educators in the Use of Teaching Time
Authors: Wagner Michael J. , Strul Eileen P.
Published: June 2006

This study quantified and compared the amount of time three groups of nine teachers spent during elementary music classes pursuing various music classroom activities. Experienced teachers, teaching interns, and undergraduate teaching methodology students were each observed twice during fifteen minute segments of two elementary music classes in nine elementary schools. The amount of time spent in each of fourteen classroom activities, and the number and kind of reinforcements given were quantified. Interobserver reliability averaged .91. An attitude assessment was administered to all children following each class. Results indicate that experienced teachers spend significantly less time giving directions than do either of the other teacher groups. No other significant differences were found. Although there were no significant differences in student attitudes among teacher groups, the attitude assessments indicate that students are happy to be in music class, happy to participate, and spend time out of school pursuing music-related activities.
Portrait of a Nineteenth-Century School Music Program
Authors: Riley Martha Chrisman
Published: June 2006

This article describes the development of Louisville public school music from its establishment in 1844 to its suspension in 1879. Rationales for music's introduction, debates over teaching methods, and choices of music curricula are examined within the context of Louisville society. Primary sources are used, including minutes and annual reports of the Louisville school board and accounts of mid-nineteenth-century historians. Although Louisville's early school music program had unique aspects, its development for the most part paralleled that of school music programs in other American cities. School board arguments in favor of music instruction focused on music's intellectual, physical, moral, and social benefits to students. Both “rote” and “note” teaching methods were used with success. Music curricula included books and series containing folk songs, songs by the authors of the books, and adaptations of songs by European composers. The music was simple in rhythm, melody, harmony, and form, and song texts were polite and sentimental.
A Time Analysis of the Compositional Processes Used by Children Ages 7 to 11
Authors: Kratus John
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to examine the amount of time that children of different ages, sexes, and proficiency levels spent on various compositional processes while creating a melody. The author gave 60 children (ages 7, 9, and 11) 10 minutes to compose a song on an electronic keyboard and asked each child to play his or her song and repeat it. Analysis of the 10-minute compositional periods indicated the amount of exploration, development, repetition, and silence subjects used while composing. No significant differences were found in performance between the sexes. Subjects who demonstrated proficiency in replicating their songs differed significantly in the use of repetition and exploration from those subjects who did not. Results suggest that (a) improvisation is a more appropriate creative activity than composition for 7-year-olds; (b) repetition is a necessary process in composing replicable songs; and (c) 9- and 11-year-olds are capable of using exploration, development, and repetition in a manner consistent with reports of adult composers' compositional processes.
The Effects of Musical Discrimination Training in Beginning Instrumental Music Classes
Authors: Delzell Judith K.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to determine whether beginning instrumental music students who receive musical discrimination training that incorporates models/discriminator foils and modeling/imitation demonstrate higher levels of musical discrimination skill or instrumental music performance achievement than do students who do not receive this training. The author randomly assigned 43 fifth-grade beginning instrumental music students to experimental and control groups for 18 weeks. The experimental group underwent a tape-recorded discrimination training program that included (a) identification of aural music phenomena through use of models and discriminator foils (a variant of the model, differing in a single musical element), (b) discrimination exercises, and (c) student imitation of models. The findings of this study suggest that beginning instrumental music students can develop musical discrimination skills with systematic training procedures that incorporate models and discriminator foils as well as modeling and imitation.
Movement as a Musical Response Among Preschool Children
Authors: Metz Elayne
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to investigate preschool children's movement responses to music in a free-choice participation setting. The study's framework was built on theories derived from qualitative data. The investigator observed 2-, 3-, and 4-year-olds in a researcher-designed music center where videotapes of sessions were used to analyze data through the constant comparative method. Three theoretical core categories emerged from data analysis: conditions, interactions, and outcomes. The properties of the first core category, which involves preexisting behavioral qualities that influence movement responses, are dispositions, developmental stage, and mode of representation. The properties of the second core category are modeling, describing, and suggesting, which are the overt behaviors of children and teacher that influence movement responses. The properties related to the third core category are music-related movement responses and nonmusic-related movement responses. The primary result of the study was the generation of a substantive theory of children's movement responses to music. The author also derived implications of the seven propositions for early childhood education and movement responses to music.
The Theoretical Relationship between Item Difficulty and The “In Doubt” Response in Music Tests
Authors: Levendusky Neil A.
Published: June 2006

The Musical Aptitude Profile (MAP) and the Iowa Tests of Music Literacy (ITML) were administered to 90 fourth-grade students to investigate the theoretical validity of the relationship between use of the “in doubt” response and item difficulty. The purpose of the study was to question Gordon's (the author of the test battery) theory that the use of the “in doubt” response increases as item difficulty increases. Statistically significant correlations between use of the “in doubt” response and item difficulty were found for all total tests of both batteries, the ITML Tonal subtest, Reading Recognition, and the MAP Tonal subtest, Harmony. No significant correlation coefficients were found for any of the Rhythm subtests. When the mean use of the “in doubt” response for items of extreme difficulty-very easy and very difficult—were compared, all mean differences were statistically significant except for the MAP Rhythm subtest, Meter, and the ITML Tonal subtest, Aural Perception.
Using a Vertical-Keyboard Instrument with the Uncertain Singer
Authors: Jones Merilyn
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to investigate the use of a vertically-arranged keyboard instrument by the uncertain singer as a means of improving his or her vocal performance, and to compare this improvement with that of (1) students who received the same remedial instruction, but modified to include the use of a horizontal-keyboard instrument, and (2) students who were taught in the conventional manner recommended by music educators for improvement of singing skills. A test instrument developed for the study included aural and vocal tasks to be performed by the subject. The test was used in a pretest-posttest design. Results indicated that the vertical-keyboard procedure produced more effective performance results than did the horizontal-keyboard or the conventional procedure. Vocal problems related to concept of pitch direction, lack of attention, and low speaking voice were most efficiently handled in the vertical-keyboard group.
Strategies for Using Popular Music to Teach Form to Intermediate Instrumentalists
Authors: Grashel John W.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to develop and evaluate three instructional strategies using popular music and selected band literature to teach concepts of music form to intermediate instrumentalists. The strategies included in-class instruction, programmed instruction, and a combination of these techniques. All strategies were constructed with identical objectives, sequence, time frame, and music examples. A criterion test was designed to measure knowledge of formal concepts. This test was employed as a pretest/posttest instrument with the seventh and eighth grade instrumentalists who represented four middle school bands, and who served as subjects in the final stage of the study. Statistical analysis confirmed that all strategies could be used successfully to teach formal concepts, that subjects could apply these concepts to unfamiliar band literature, and that grade level of the subjects had no significant effect on concept understanding.
An Investigation of Reinforcements, Time Use, and Student Attentiveness in Piano Lessons
Authors: Kostka Marilyn J.
Published: June 2006

This investigation was a survey of natural rates and ratios of reinforcements, time use, student attentiveness, and interruptions of student performance in 96 private piano lessons. Forty-eight teachers and two students per teacher voluntarily participated with student age ranging from preschool to older adult. Intervallic observation procedures were used with an observation form adapted for this investigation; pilot-testing of the form resulted in interobserver reliability of .85. Results indicated that student age was a significant factor in observed differences among twelve selected variables. Elementary students (preschool through grade 6) received highest rates and ratios of approvals, secondary students (grades 7 through 12) spent more lesson time in student performance, and adults (high school graduates to adults of retirement age) were most on-task during lessons. All students were on-task for at least 85% of the lesson time. The survey found that lesson time was largely divided between student performance and teacher instruction.
Discrimination of Modulated Music Tempo by String Students
Authors: Wang Cecilia Chu , Salzberg Rita S.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of musical training and age on the ability of string students to discriminate tempo change, and the effect of musical style, speed of a musical composition, and the direction of tempo change on the ability to detect tempo change. Subjects were 116 string students, age 7 through 18 years. Musical stimuli were chosen from familiar string literature. Each excerpt was generated by using synthesized tones and was recorded at a normal tempo, slower than normal tempo, and faster than normal tempo. Three presentations were made at each speed: tempo increase, tempo decrease, and no tempo change. The subjects' task was to identify the direction of the tempo change or no-change. Statistical analyses revealed a significant curvilinear relationship between score and years of musical training, and between score and age. Additional regression analyses indicated that speed, direction of change, and musical style each contributed significantly to tempo perception over and above musical training and individual differences. These findings confirm that tempo perception is a complex phenomenon and that several parameters of tempo discrimination have yet to be identified.
A Comparative Study of Color Association with Music at Various Age Levels
Authors: Cutietta Robert A. , Haggerty Kelly J.
Published: June 2006

Twelve hundred fifty-six subjects, ranging in age from 3 to 78 years, were asked to listen to three music excerpts and indicate the color they associated with each. The purpose of this procedure was to provide data that might shed light on the origin and development of the association of color with music. Results strongly support the existence of musical color associations in that the subjects' responses were extremely consistent across generations and music examples after approximately age 9. However, an understanding of the origin of musical color associations still seems elusive. The researchers suggest that the association of color with music may not be the result of experiential conditioning or early chromesthetic experiences as has been theorized. Instead, color associations may be a kind of sensory processing of music that appears to be widespread and consistent across a broad age spectrum.
An Ascending Music Stimulus Program and Hyperactive Children
Authors: Windwer Catherine M.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between an ascending music stimulus program and hyperactive children. Thirteen males, ages five to eight years, in public school assessed as hyperactive by their teachers using the Conners's Teaching Rating Scale, were rated on activity prior to, during, and after the test period, using the Motor Activity Rating Scale (MARS). It was hypothesized that they would become less active during, rather than before or after, the ascending music stimulus. Analysis of variance revealed a statistically significant increase in activity during the music program, thus rejecting the hypothesis.
Lateralization of Components of Melodic Stimuli: Musicians versus Nonmusicians
Authors: Baumgarte Roger , Franklin Elda
Published: June 2006

Using dichotic listening methodology, 25 musicians and 25 nonmusicians were compared on four cerebral lateralization tasks: melodies, tonal patterns, rhythm patterns, and verbal stimuli. Musicians demonstrated superior performance on the music tasks with regard to overall scores, degree of improvement during a second administration of the tasks, and number of test trials for which both left and right ear items were correctly identified. No group differences were found for verbal stimuli. The only lateralization difference observed was in rhythm pattern recognition, for which musicians revealed a right hemisphere superiority as contrasted to a left hemisphere dominance for nonmusicians. Results are interpreted in terms of superior cognitive strategies of musicians as a function of musical training.
The Role of the Federal Government in Support of the Arts and Music Education
Authors: Barresi Anthony L.
Published: June 2006

This report focuses upon the historic role of the federal government in support of the arts and music education by placing instances of federal assistance into periods identified by the common motivational factor of “necessity.” To better understand the factors influencing present-day funding procedures and the likelihood of continued subsidies, government support policies were grouped into periods of “practical necessity,” during the nation's formative years; “economic necessity,” when the financial crisis of the Great Depression caused the government to provide work opportunities for unemployed artists and educators; and “cultural necessity,” during the 1960s and 1970s when aid was provided to meet the expressed needs of artists, educators, and arts consumers. Through the introduction of special programs, innovative funding activities, and creative projects, government support encouraged artists and educators, in recent years, to cooperate in the development of arts education efforts.
Course Entry Affect and Its Relationship to Course Grade in Music Education and Music Therapy Classes
Authors: Asmus Edward P.
Published: June 2006

The relationship of affective entry characteristics to final course grade and the effects on these of professional or preprofessional courses, student grade point average, and the students' major were studied. Analyses of 563 data sets of students enrolled in 35 music education and music therapy courses suggest that final course grade has little relationship to students' initial course-affective perceptions. Overall, professional courses and students simultaneously pursuing both music education and music therapy degrees produced higher affect scores and the greatest amount of perceived career relevance in the courses. The music education majors indicated less positive affect and career relevance toward their courses than other majors. In all majors, students desired lecture-presentation formats less in professional courses.
Computer-Baesed Recognition of Perceptual Patterns and Learning Styles in Rhythmic Dictation Exercises
Authors: Hofstetter Fred T.
Published: June 2006

During the 1978-79 academic year, sixteen freshman music majors participated in an experiment in which their response data were saved as they worked through 24 units of rhythmic dictation exercises in the University of Delaware's GUIDO® system. Analysis of the student data base showed perceptual patterns and learning styles common to exercises in both simple and compound meters. First, it was found that basic undotted, nonduplet, nontriplet notes are confused exclusively with themselves and never with dotted notes, duplets, or triplets. The same exclusive confusion pattern is seen for dotted notes, duplets, and triplets, except that they are also confused with their unmodified basic counterparts. By varying the time signatures used in the experiment, it was found that significantly more exercises are correctly answered in simple meter when a four is on the bottom, and the same pattern was found when an eight is on the bottom in compound meter. Randomly varying the pitch of the monotone stimulus between c and c2 had no effect on student achievement. As the level of difficulty increased in the 24 units, so did the average student response time and the number of times students asked for the stimulus to be replayed. The average speed at which students played the stimulus also decreased. Students who used high average dictation speeds tended to request fewer repetitions of the stimulus, as did students who used the metronome. However, neither speed of dictation, use of the metronome, nor number of repetitions had a high correlation with student achievement.
Dimensionality in High School Student Participants' Perceptions of the Meaning of Choral Singing Experience
Authors: Hylton John B.
Published: June 2006

The purpose of the present study was to investigate high school participants' views of the meaning of high school choral singing experience. For the purposes of this study, meaning is defined as a psychological construct with cognitive and affective aspects, manifested overtly through behavior, reflecting an individual's evaluation and valuation of an experience. A further purpose was to determine the efficacy of a multidimensional conceptualization of the meaning construct. A Likert-type scale was developed and administered to 673 high school choral students in 14 ensembles. Principal components factor analysis with oblique rotation yielded six interpretable factors in the meaning of high school choral singing experience. These dimensions were labeled achievement, spiritualistic, musical-artistic, communicative, psychological, and integrative. The results of the present study appear to confirm the validity of a multidimensional conceptualization of the meaning construct.
Music Abilities and Experiences as Predictors of Error-Detection Skill
Authors: Brand Manny , Burnsed Vernon
Published: June 2006

This study examined the predictive validity of previous music abilities and experiences of skill in music error detection among undergraduate instrumental music education majors. The predictor variables included number of instruments played; ensemble experience; ability in music theory, sightsinging and ear training, and years of precollege private instrumental instruction. Results indicated no statistically significant relationship between each of the predictor variables and skill in music error detection. This suggests that the ability to detect music errors may exist independently of other music abilities. The benefits accrued through participation in one kind of music activity may not contribute to other areas of music development.
Effects of Style, Tempo, and Performing Medium on Children' s Music Preference
Authors: LeBlanc Albert
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to measure the effects of style, tempo, and performing medium on fifth-rade students' expressed music listening preference. A listening test was administered to 107 students in four classes in central Michigan. Test reliability was evaluated in terms of common factor concentration and stability across time, and behavior observation was used to help interpret results. A preference hierarchy emerged in which the popular styles were most favored and correlation analysis indicated that style was most strongly related to preference. A three-way repeated measures analysis of variance disclosed a significant three-way interaction. An examination of charted cell means indicated a strong effect for style, which was notice ably suppressed by performance in the instrumental medium. Across pooled styles there was a slight preference for faster tempos and the instrumental medium.
Interrelationships Among Music Aptitude, IQ, and Auditory Conservation
Authors: Norton Doris
Published: June 2006

The main purpose of the study was to examine the relationships among music aptitude, IQ, and auditory conservation. The study was a modified replication of an earlier study done by the author (1979). The sample was comprised of 41 children with a mean age of 6.6 years, in San Antonio, Texas. Four tests were used in the study: Primary Measures of Music Audiation (Gordon, 1979), Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—Revised (Wechsler, 1974), and two criterion measures: Auditory Conservation Test and Visual Conservation Test. An alpha level of .05 was used to determine significance. Data revealed that auditory conservation is not significantly related to visual conservation (r = − .0347) and that auditory conservation is significantly related to music aptitude, to IQ, and the interaction of music aptitude and IQ. Multiple regression analyses, which included the variables of music aptitude, IQ, music aptitude-IQ interaction, and the predicted variable of auditory conservation, produced a significant F value of 4.47555 ( p < .009) without data transformation, and 8.6644 ( p < .001) when the dependent variable is transformed to − 1/Y3.
Thomas Harrison'S Patented Numeral Notation System
Authors: Elward Thomas J.
Published: June 2006

Evening classes in music instruction appeared in many eighteenth-century American towns. These singing schools proliferated as a result of the concern of New England clergy about the deteriorating quality of their congregations' singing. Enterprising music masters often used, and sometimes wrote, music textbooks, each of which claimed to be more effective than its rivals in the method of music reading mastery. Most tunebook authors followed instructional trends, the most common being the representation of various degrees of the scale by geometric shapes; hence the name “shape-notes.” Thomas Harrison of Springfield, Ohio, originated his own notation system based on numerals for which he received a patent. Although the impact of Harrison-derived numeral tunebooks on music instruction was limited and regional, his efforts represent the typical, entrepreneurial, pioneering American character.
Hemispheric and Directional Asymmetry of Pitch Discrimination
Authors: Murray Kate Rushford
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this article is to report the results of a study that indicate that the ability of the brain's hemispheres to discriminate small changes in pitch is differentially affected by the direction of the change. The two studies discussed used two independent samples. In the first experiment subjects are described as musically sophisticated and in the second experiment subjects are described as musically naive. The task, which was identical in both studies, required subjects to (1) determine if they perceived a change in frequency and if so, (2) to indicate in which ear the change occurred and the direction of the change. In both studies the right ear heard more correct scores when the frequency changes were ascending whereas the left ear heard more correct scores when the frequency changes were descending. In the first experiment this interaction was significant at the .003 level and in the second experiment, although the trend was the same, an acceptable level of significance was not achieved ( p = 12).
A Comparison of Scalar and Root Harmonic Aural Perception Techniques
Authors: Alvarez Manuel
Published: June 2006

Seventy-two seventh- and eighth-grade general music students were taught to identify primary harmonic functions by using either a scalar or root harmonic aural perception technique. Students who were taught the scalar technique attended to the seventh and eighth scale degrees, whereas students who were taught the root technique attended to the root movement of the bass line. An aural identification test battery was used to measure the effectiveness of the two techniques. Although there was no statistically significant difference between the scalar and root techniques on the root position subtest the scalar technique yielded statistically significant higher mean scores on the root/inversion subtest. Thus, the scalar technique appears to be a more effective procedure in teaching general music students to identify primary harmonic functions.
Evaluation of three types of Instructional Strategy for Learner Acquisition of Intervals
Authors: Canelos James J. , Murphy Barbara A. , Blombach Ann K. , Heck William C.
Published: June 2006

The current study examined the question of what type of instructional strategy most effectively facilitates the learning of music intervals for beginning music majors. The three types of instructional strategy were programmed instruction in the form of a linear programmed text, mastery learning using computer-assisted instruction (CAI), and self-practice using a textbook-study approach. This study also explored the variable of information retention over time. The delayed-retention test was given 48 hours after the test of immediate retention. Results on the dependent measure of retention indicated that mastery leaming-CAl was a significantly better instructional strategy for learning music intervals than programmed instruction or self-practice. The results indicated a significantly higher performance score for mastery leaming-CAl and programmed instruction over self-practice. The self-practice condition was left at a disadvantage in this regard because the learner had to decide what was relevant and what must be learned from what should be ignored. The attitude measure result indicated that learners prefer instructional information to be well organized.
Teaching Effectiveness in Elementary Classroom Music: Relationships Among Competency Measures, Pupil Product Measures, and Certain Attribute Variables
Authors: Taebel Donald K. , Coker Joan G.
Published: June 2006

Relationships among selected attribute variables, pupil achievement and attitude gains, and certain teaching competency measures were studied in 29 elementary music classes over a school year during which pre- and posttests in achievement and attitude were administered. Systematic observation of classroom interactions was made, and five competencies were found to correlate with achievement gains at magnitudes ranging from .20 to .32. Only one competency correlated with attitude gains within the above range. No significant correlations were obtained between the measures of achievement and attitude and attribute variables, such as socio-economic status, grade level, class time, and outside music lessons. A correlation of .35 between achievement gains and attitude gains was obtained.
An Assessment of Anxiety in Instrumental and Vocal Performances
Authors: Hamann Donald L.
Published: June 2006

This study investigated the effect of anxiety in musical performance and assessed the quality of subjects' performances under enhanced and reduced anxious situations. Ninety subjects, 15 in each of five instrumental areas and one vocal area, performed one composition of their choice in an enhanced and a reduced anxiety condition. All performances were recorded. Three adjudicators evaluated recorded performances for musical quality. The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory and the State-Trait Personality Inventory were administered to determine state and trait anxiety, curiosity, and anger under both performance conditions. A questionnaire was administered to collect additional data. From analyses of the data, it was found that performance condition with subjects' years of formal training was significantly related in its effect on judged performance quality (p < .05); subjects with high trait anxiety and curiosity exhibited significant increases in state anxiety and curiosity (p < .05); and subjects performing in enhanced anxiety situations exhibited significant increases in state anxiety and anger (p < .05).
The Effect of Appropriate and Inappropriate In-Class Song Performance Models on Performance Preference of Third- and Fourth-Grade Students
Authors: Baker Dawn S.
Published: June 2006

This study investigated (1) the effect of in-class song performance models, of sex, and of song type on performance preference; (2) the effect of the in-class performance models on students' indications of “ correct” performance, and on tempo and dynamics of students' individual performances; and (3) correlations between verbal and behavioral indications of performance preference, and between students' indications of “ correct” performance and their verbal preference ratings. Third- and fourth-grade students were concurrently involved in separate experiments and were assigned to one of two in-class performance model treatment groups: (1) Class A, which sang lullabies and capstan chanties appropriately; or (2) Class I, which sang the same songs inappropriately. Performance preference and students' ideas of “ correct” performance were affected by appropriate and inappropriate in-class performance models. The study also indicates a slight difference between the preferences of boys and girls and an over-all preference for fast/loud music over slow/soft music. Correlations between verbal and behavorial preference indications were low but positive, as was the relationship between “ correct” and “ like” indications.
Divergent Production Abilities as Constructs of Musical Creativity
Authors: Gorder Wayne Douglas
Published: June 2006

The investigation concerned the construction of a test of musical creativity that would assess the hypothesized divergent production abilities of music fluency, flexibility, originality, elaboration, and quality in school instrumental music students. The developed test, Measures of Musical Divergent Production (MMDP), was based on models of Guilford and Torrance. Tests were scored for the number of improvised phrases produced, shifts of musical content, varied use of musical content, rarely used content, and music appeal. Evidence for content validity was provided by expert opinion. The multiple correlation of the five ability scores with teacher ratings of musical creativity was .57. Factors of fluency, flexibility, originality, and quality were demonstrated. Only quality scores were not distinct from measures of general intelligence. Reliability coefficients were moderately high. MMDP scores showed no pattern of correlation with selected music aptitude and achievement test scores and were not dependent on age, music training, or experience.
Responses of Kindergarten Children to Musical Stimuli and Terminology
Authors: Van Zee Norma
Published: June 2006

The primary purpose of this study was to obtain information on the aural discriminations and verbal responses of kindergarten children to selected musical stimuli and on their ability to demonstrate, through performance on a simple keyboard instrument, understanding of terms commonly employed in teacher manuals to describe various properties of musical sounds. Two individualized tests were developed and administered to 80 children (40 boys and 40 girls) from four Midwestern public schools representing contrasting socioeconomic areas. From the data obtained, it was concluded that: (1) kindergarten children can demonstrate their understanding of duration of tones and rhythm patterns better than they can describe them verbally, (2) sex and socioeconomic background were significant variables on test achievement, and (3) musical terminology must be learned by most children through meaningful experiences with it.
Preference and Interest as Functions of Distributional Redundancy in Rhythmic Sequences
Authors: McMullen Patrick T. , Arnold Marvin J.
Published: June 2006

This study was generated from a previous analytical study, the results of which provided evidence to suggest that redundancy in rhythmic sequences is a variable between musical styles if not between compositions. The purpose of the present study was to determine if the same factor (i.e., distributional redundancy) would have an influence on preference and interest responses for rhythmic sequences. Subjects were presented with pairs of rhythmic sequences in which all factors except level of distributional redundancy had been randomized or held constant. Subjects were asked to choose the sequence most preferred (Experiment I) or most interesting (Experiment II). The results of the study suggest: (1) the beginning of a curve showing preference to be an inverted U-shaped function of the amount of distributional redundancy in rhythmic sequences; and (2) that interest responses appear to be an increasing monotonic function of distributional redundancy in rhythmic sequences.
Descriptors and Preferences for Eastern and Western Musics by Japanese and American Nonmusic Majors
Authors: Darrow Alice-Ann , Haack Paul , Kuribayashi Fumio
Published: June 2006

The purpose of this study was to investigate (1) consistency of terminology used by Japanese and American college students to describe musics of the two cultures; (2) subjects' preferences concerning musics of the two cultures; and (3) relationships between musical experience and preferences. The authors tested 487 nonmusic majors in the United States and Japan using taped materials. The stimuli consisted of 30-second representative excerpts of various Western and Eastern music styles. Subjects were asked to describe the character of each excerpt by selecting one of nine adjectival descriptors and to indicate their preference for the excerpt on a 7-point Likert-type scale. Subjects were in greater agreement on the choice of descriptors for Western than for Eastern music, although one group did not exhibit greater consistency than the other in describing music of its own culture. The greatest between-group differences in preference means were for Eastern examples. Responses indicated an overall preference for Western music by both groups, but Japanese subjects were more receptive to Eastern styles than were American subjects. Western examples were generally “liked” by subjects with supplemental musical experience as well as those with limited musical experience. Formal Eastern styles were generally “disliked” by both experience groups. Subjects with greater musical experience, however, generally employed a wider range of music preference responses.