bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Causes and Consequences of Nonaggression in the Woolly Spider Monkey, or Muriqui (Brachyteles arachnoides)
Authors: Strier Karen B
Published: November 2023

Aggression and overt competition are commonly observed in multi-male, multi­ female primate societies. In general, females compete over access to preferred food resources while males compete for access to sexually receptive females (Wrangham 1979a). Intragroup feeding competition between females usually involves mild forms of agonistic behavior, such as displacements (Smuts 1987); in extreme cases, it may lead to the fission-fusion social systems characteristic of chimpanzees (Wrangham 1979b) and spider monkeys (McFarland 1986). In these species, females avoid high costs associated with intragroup feeding competition at small fruit patches by dispersing into small or independent foraging units. Agonistic interactions between females occur infrequently because females avoid each other. Competition between males, by contrast to females, is more frequent and more likely to escalate into full-fledged fights because of the greater, more direct importance of females to male reproductive success (Smuts 1987). This is especially true among the well-studied Old World semiterrestrial monkeys where males are also unrelated to one another (Strier 1990, submitted). Rates of agonistic interactions in savanna baboons, for example, may be as high as 0.24/hour when sexually receptive females are present (Hausfater 1975).
The Rise, Maintenance, and Destruction of Peaceable Polity: A Preliminary Essay in Political Ecology
Authors: Dentan Robert Knox
Published: November 2023

Natural selection designs different kinds of animals and plants so that they avoid competition. A fit animal is not one that fights well, but one that avoids fighting all together [sic] (Colinvaux 1978:144). The colonial relationship which I had tried to define chained the colonizer and the colonized into an implacable dependence, molded their respective characters and dictated their conduct (Memmi 1965:ix).
The Progressive, the Immigrant, and the School
Authors: Fass Paula S
Published: November 2023

While still imperfect, our understanding of the emergence of the common school in the nineteenth century has become increasingly clear. Through the vigorous endeavors of a generation of gifted and energetic historians who have examined the successful common school campaigns, the early organization of the schools, as well as the intense conflicts that success often masked, we can now speak with confidence and considerable grace, as Carl Kaestle recently has, about the critical ways in which schooling in the nineteenth century was entwined with the developing capitalist economy, the ethos of republicanism, and the values of an ebullient Protestant middle class. As Kaestle has demonstrated, schooling for early nineteenth century Americans was intended to be a broadly socializing experience. The hoped for outcomes included high-minded character, a religiously de rived morality, and industriousness oriented to social progress-virtues understood to be essential to effective republican citizenship. “The chief end is to make GOOD CITIZENS,” an Illinois superintendent maintained at mid-century. “Not to make precocious scholars ... not to impart the secret of acquiring wealth . . . not to qualify directly for professional success ... but simply to make good citizens.” Toward this end, reformers labored to make at least a limited exposure to publicly supported schools the common possession of most Americans. Even the exceptions-blacks, Asians, Indians, whose relation to the republic was highly problematic emphasized the inclusive goals of the ideology for those who were potential constituents of the civic society and contributed to its polity.
New Day Coming: The Federal Government and Black Education in the I930s and ‘40s
Authors: Fass Paula S
Published: November 2023

Race had often been an issue in school discussions in the early twentieth century, but largely as this word was attached to immigrants. The special concerns of blacks had rarely been thrown into the pot of problems that schools were asked to solve. That, as much as anything else, suggests the degree to which black Americans were social outsiders. Although educators had begun to question the equal educability of some immigrants in the 1920s, the incorporation of the second generation by the schools, both academically and socially, had always been a central school objective, and the problem of the second generation underwrote the reconstruction of secondary education in the twentieth century. Blacks had not figured in these changes.
Why Move Blood?
Authors: Vogel Steven
Published: November 2023

One way to appreciate the necessity of some functional arrangement is to consider the consequences of its absence. Without being explicit about it, we use that kind of reasoning all the time. Will the car give grief if the brakes aren’t relined? Would life have been better if we hadn’t adopted three kittens? What if I had bought Eclectic Electric at or Fly by night Airlines at 75? Playing really elaborate “what if’ games with one’s personal circumstances might not improve your mental health, but playing them with human history must be at least a subliminal activity of every historian. At the very least, they provide practice in the use of the subjunctive mood.
Control
Authors: Vogel Steven
Published: November 2023

By this point, it’s ct:rtainly superfluous to dwell on the versatility of a well-evolved circulatory system. Upright or recumbent, even when sub merged in water or weightless in a spacecraft, you get an adequate flow of blood to maintain your various organs. Be daring and jump out of bed sometime, and you’ll feel only a momentary dizziness from any lag in the readjustment of flow to your head. Exercise vigorously, and a whole panoply of circulatory compensations occur-not only in heart rate and hence cardiac output, but also in the relative distribution of blood flow. Active muscles get more blood, inactive ones less, and the organs such as kidneys, liver, digestive gear, and so forth still less. These compensations, by the way, underly the likelihood of getting’ stomach cramps from heavy activity after a big meal. Mere anticipation of troubfo-the late night ring of phone that triggers the parental gut spasm-is enough to call forth all sorts of circulatory readjustments.
The Uses of Regret
Authors: Landman Janet
Published: November 2023

In 1985 I set about buying a car. I wanted to make a decision I wouldn’t regret. Knowing something about decision theory, I asked myself what I valued most in a car (my “subjective utilities,” in the jargon of economic decision theory) and the likelihood of get­ ting what I wanted (the “subjective expected probabilities”). The two most important qualities to me were cost and reliability. As for cost, I decided to buy a used car, to avoid paying the high interest of a loan on a new car. My vivid images of a car that spent more time in my mechanic’s garage than mine, or of me stranded with a broken-down car and helped out by an ax murderer (the subjective probabilities don’t always jibe with the objective ones), told me to buy a car less than three years old. I knew about the illogic of failing to make use of statistical information, so I went right to Consumer Reports to look up the repair information on 1982 and 1983 cars. It didn’t take me long to identify a couple of makes for which the expected probabilities of reliability were very high. So when an ad for a two-year-old Toyota Corolla appeared in the pa­ per, I immediately went over to see it. Everything seemed in order during the test drive, and it was Sunday, when my mechanic wasn’t available, and of course the owner had another buyer very keen on this car, so I bought it.
Many Actors in Search of a Policy: U.S. Discussions About the Bolsheviks, 1917-1919
Authors: McFadden David W
Published: November 2023

The United States’ approach toward the new Bolshevik government of Soviet Russia was fraught with contradictions. On one hand, Woodrow Wilson believed, as he told William Wiseman, Colonel House, and other personal advisors and confidants, not only that the Russian people should be left alone to work out their own salvation, but even that they should be forced to get themselves together and work it out. Only after democracy had been given a chance in Russia, and the differences “worked out,” could the United States “do business” with Russia. A major problem of this approach plagued Wilson throughout his final term in the White House: what do you do with the Bolsheviks while you are waiting, and hoping, and helping, the Russian people return to their senses and “return” democracy to their country?
Paris III: Hoover-Nansen—The Politics of Food Relief
Authors: McFadden David W
Published: November 2023

The Hoover-Nansen proposal for food relief and a Bolshevik ceasefire is usually put in the context of the demise of the Bullitt mission.1 In reality, Colonel House began “maturing” these plans almost from the moment of his first meeting with Bullitt on his return from Moscow.2 The concept of food relief in exchange for an end to hostilities was first formulated by House and Gordon Auchincloss in the summer of 1918 as a possible way to avoid Allied intervention and stop a developing civil war.
“The Fatal Weakness”: May 1950–April 1954
Authors: Schulzinger Robert D
Published: November 2023

In july 1951 Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs Livingston T. Merchant reflected gloomily that “our side cannot win in Indochina given the fatal weakness of the native regimes, the incurability of the French attitudes and the . . . continuation of an aggressive Communist China on its northern frontier.” Merchant held an influential though secondary position in the government hierarchy, but it was remarkable how similar his views were to those of the people who directed American policy toward Indochina, France, and the Cold War in Asia. Equally noteworthy was the gap, growing into a chasm, between this privately expressed skepticism about the prospects for victory in the war and the publicly stated optimistic support for France. U.S. officials backed France’s war effort because French youth were dying in Indochina at a time when young Americans faced the ultimate sacrifice in Korea.

Many of the earlier differences of opinion over U.S. policy toward Southeast Asia—between Asia firsters and Europe firsters, between people on the scene and those in Washington—diminished after the outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950. From then until the battle of Dienbienphu in the spring of 1954, high U.S. government officials agreed on the importance of Indochina, although they differed over the best way to oppose the Vietminh.
Richard Nixon’s War: 1969-1973
Authors: Schulzinger Robert D
Published: November 2023

By 1969 the war had devastated the land and demoralized the people of Vietnam both north and south of the seventeenth parallel. It had also exhausted the patience of most Americans. The government of South Vietnam remained unpopular, but it was more stable than it had been before the election of President Nguyen Van Thieu and Vice President Nguyen Cao Ky in September 1967. Ordinary South Vietnamese continued to resent the avoidance of conscription by privileged young men. Village life in Vietnam had been turned upside down, as the fighting in the countryside drove over four million peasants from their traditional homes into the bloated cities. Many of these newcomers depended for their livelihoods on the jobs or handouts provided by hundreds of thousands of Americans in Vietnam, whose presence confronted ordinary Vietnamese with a heart-wrenching dilemma. As long as massive numbers of Americans remained in Vietnam, the war would continue. But their departure would leave hundreds of thousands of Vietnamese destitute.

Above the seventeenth parallel, the government retained the tight control over North Vietnamese society it had exercised since 1954. But Ho Chi Minh, the charismatic leader whose nationalist achievements had helped bind Northerners together, was not the man he had been after the Vietminh’s victory over France.
Anxiety in Eden
Authors: Tanner John S
Published: November 2023

Tanner uses Kierkegaard's thought, in particular his theory of anxiety, to enrich a bold new reading of Milton's Paradise Lost. He argues that for Milton and Kierkegaard, the path to sin and to salvation lies through anxiety, and that both writers include anxiety within the compass of paradise. The first half of the book explores anxiety in Eden before the Fall, original sin, the aetiology of evil, and prelapsarian knowledge. The second half examines anxiety after the Fall, offering original insights into such issues as the demonic personality, remorse, despair, and faith.
Anxious Knowledge
Authors: Tanner John S
Published: November 2023

Strictly speaking, according to Kierkegaard, Adam and Eve do not choose evil but leap into it (CA, 49).This essential distinction between a choice and a leap corresponds to the nature of their knowledge. A choice is based on knowledge, a leap on ignorance. As with the snake, the contrast between the Fall as choice and as leap points to decidedly divergent orientations dividing Paradise Lost and The Concept of Anxiety. Milton stresses Adam and Eve’s comprehensive knowledge of evil before the Fall, in order to make the Fall the result of responsible choice; Kierkegaard emphasizes their existential ignorance of evil, in order to portray the Fall as a leap into the unknown. Yet, once again, within this fundamental difference persist numerous similarities as both works probe the intersection between knowing and being posited by Genesis and by Judeo-Christian culture generally. This chapter explores Kierke-gaard’s and Milton’s views of how innocence and guilt affect one’s knowledge of evil.
Temptation by Anxiety
Authors: Tanner John S
Published: November 2023

Much more than carnal appetite tempts Milton’s Eve and Adam to taste the prohibited fruit. In addition to being an attractive, savory-smelling food (9.730-43), the fruit also constitutes a “pledge” (3.95), “sign” (4.428), “memorial” (CP, 6.352) “of their [Adam and Eve’s] obedience.” The interdicted tree serves as “freedom’s necessary other” (CA, 39n), conspicuously defining the limit or boundary in Paradise against which innocent creatures can assert their freedom from God, as well as, of course, prove their free fealty to God.
Demonic Despair
Authors: Tanner John S
Published: November 2023

No sooner is Satan “hurl’d headlong flaming” to hell than he escapes from the “Stygian flood” and thence from hell itself. By this act, Milton’s Satan appears successfully to evade his punishment. Yet no matter how far Satan may distance himself from hell geographically, he can never elude damnation spiritually: for though Milton’s hell is a place, it is even more essentially a condition of the demonic self. As the narrator shrewdly remarks upon Satan’s arrival on earth: “for within him Hell / He brings, and round about him, nor from Hell / One step no more than from himself can fly/ By change of place” (4.20-23). In like fashion, we learn out of Satan’s own mouth, “Which way, I fly is Hell, myself am Hell” (4.75). Hell is Satanic selfhood; its boundaries and contours are defined by the self Satan fashions for himself. Hence, there are few lurid scenes of corporal torture in Milton’s inferno, as compared to Dante’s, for damnation in Paradise Lost is primarily an inward condition. This internalization of hell forms a crucial plank in the poem’s theodicy. By fixing hell in Satan’s psyche, Milton defines Satan’s punishment as not, principally, something God does to the Devil but rather something Satan does to himself, thereby softening the notion of a vindictive God. Milton thus partially displaces crudely physical and punitive conceptions of hell with the hell of despair. He depicts despair, in turn, as the inexorable consequence of the demonic mode of existence.
‘‘Clea.n1ng Up” Morallity: The Politics of Sex and Age
Authors: Maclean Nancy
Published: November 2023

As a site of debauchery, the Imperial Palace of the Klan rivaled some of the motion picture sets its representatives so habitually rebuked. The national chaplain of the Klan, Caleb Ridley, a wellknown Atlanta minister and Prohibitionist, was arrested in 1923 for driving while intoxicated. Imperial Wizard Simmons, according to numerous people in a position to know, drank heavily, relished pornography, and regularly patronized prostitutes. His assistants E. Y. Clarke and Mary Elizabeth Tyler, the masterminds of the Klan’s growth after 1920, were once arrested together, inebriated and in the flesh, during a tryst in a hotel. The list could go on. The unsavory conduct of the highest leadership helped cause its overthrow and replacement in 1922-and cost their movement much of its following over the decade.1 The hypocrisy of the order’s national officials is more than ironic, however. It underscores, in a circuitous way, their Machiavellian appreciation of the appeal of morality campaigns for the people they hoped to attract. And, indeed, rarely did local chapters suffer such scandals. To rank-andfile members, the Klan’s professed commitment to purity meant a great deal.
The Approaching Apocalypse: The Politics of Race
Authors: Maclean Nancy
Published: November 2023

The year 1921 was a pivotal one in Georgia. The trough of the postwar depression, it was the year the Klan enjoyed its most spectacular gains. Not coincidentally, it also saw an unprecedented cleavage among the forces committed to white supremacy. In late April of that year, outgoing governor Hugh Manson Dorsey issued a public statement on the plight of black Georgians. The fruit of much prodding from African-American activists and white liberals, Dorsey’s booklet detailed 135 instances of documented violence against the state’s black residents in the years 1919 to 1921 alone, including cases of forced flight, peonage, individual acts of cruelty, and lynching. The statement appeared in an already charged climate. The month before, pushed by the Commission on Interracial Cooperation (CIC), Dorsey had publicly refuted inflammatory lies told by Klan lecturers.
Conclusion
Authors: Maclean Nancy
Published: November 2023

The Second Klan in Wider Perspective. This story should convince us of one thing: that there are not two Germanys, a good one and a bad one, but only one. . . . Wicked Germany is merely good Germany gone astray, good Germany in misfortune, in guilt, and ruin. For that reason it is quite impossible for one born there simply to renounce the wicked, guilty Germany and to declare, “I am the good, the noble, the just Germany in the white robe; I leave it to you to exterminate the wicked one.” The Klan never did become strong enough to attempt in Ohio what it had in Georgia. Within a decade of its founding, the Knights of the Ku Klux Klan was on the wane. Nationally, the Klan’s power crested in the years 1924 and 1925. With state and local variations, it began to flag thereafter. By 1926, observers around the country were reporting smaller numbers and dwindling influence.2 Following a brief revival when Catholic New Yorker Al Smith ran for President, the decline became terminal in 1928. A later, short-lived resuscitation in the mid-’thirties proved insufficient to keep creditors at bay. With initiation and dues receipts dwindling, Klan officers sold the Imperial Palace in 1936. Eight years later, the order quietly dissolved, unable to pay the taxes it had evaded over the years.
Iriformation and Authority in Samuel Sewall:S Boston, 1676-1729
Authors: Brown Richard D
Published: November 2023

When the newly married Samuel Sewall moved into his in-laws’ Boston home in 1676 he was entering a small but densely settled port town of some 1000 households, a community of about 6000 people.1 To Sewall, who had been born in England, raised in Newbury, Massachusetts, and educated at Harvard College, Boston was a cosmopolitan commercial center. No matter if the hogs that scavenged in the streets and the cows that grazed the common gave the town a farmyard flavor; Boston was the political and economic capital of the Massachusetts-Bay Colony, seat of the governor, legislature, and courts, as well as the principal entrepot of New England commerce. Boston’s shipping, which spanned the Atlantic and the Caribbean, together with its political role, made it the most highly developed information center in New England. According to Cotton Mather, Boston was the “Capital of North America.”2
Lawyers, Public Office, and Communication Patterns in Provincial Massachusetts: The Early Careers of Robert Treat Paine and John Adams, 1749-1774
Authors: Brown Richard D
Published: November 2023

When the Continental Congress met at Philadelphia in 1774, nearly half its members were lawyers. Thirteen years later, the majority of delegates to the Constitutional Convention were lawyers. Thereafter, as the new government took shape, lawyers figured prominently in all its branches. Massachusetts, which had sent the lawyers Robert Treat Paine and John Adams to the first Continental Congress, increasingly turned to the law profession for representatives, so much so that during the first fifty years of the new government (1789-1839) nearly two thirds of Massachusetts’ congressional delegates were lawyers.1 In the early republic men trained in law were evidently highly regarded as public officials, not only as judges but especially as representatives. From a 20th-century perspective it may seem obvious that this should have been so. Nothing could be more rational than to put experts in charge of creating legislation, and no policy could be more prudent than to place specialists trained to understand those statutes in charge of their administration and enforcement. Yet such judgments presume a great deal, not only about lawyers but about their reputation for probity and faithfulness in pursuing the public interest. From the perspective of provincial Massachusetts the idea that lawyers should be entrusted with a preeminent role in public affairs was doubtful. This outcome resulted from the parts certain lawyers played within Massachusetts’ particular configuration of information networks-local and provincial, and networks within and between social ranks.
Communications and Comm,erce: !reformation Diffusion in .Northern Ports from the 1760s to the 1790s
Authors: Brown Richard D
Published: November 2023

For centuries observers have agreed that access to information in port towns was faster and more complete than in the countryside. As was evident in Samuel Sewall’s Boston, the commercial and political activity centered in ports created both the demand for developed information systems as well as the means: the frequent movement of people and goods. Indeed, as studies of information diffusion in the United States during the pre-electronic era have shown, urban centers, especially ports, dominated long-distance communications.1 Though gentlemen like William Byrd, Robert Carter, and Thomas Jefferson created islands of urbanity in rural Virginia, and though clergymen and lawyers developed techniques for staying informed in rural New England, port superiority over the countryside for the information associated with high culture, politics, and economic affairs has always been taken for granted, and justly so.
Daughters, Wives, Mothers: Domestic Roles and the Mastery of Affective !reformation, 1765-1865
Authors: Brown Richard D
Published: November 2023

On Saturday, June 18, 1774, tutor Philip Fithian was startled by an episode at the Chesapeake mansion of his employer, Robert Carter.‘Squire Lee call’d in, & brought a late London News-Paper in which we are informed that another Act of Parliament has pass’d taking from the People of Boston all power of trying any Soldier, or Person ... for commiting any Crime; & obliging all such offenders to be sent home for legal Tryal. He informed uslikewise that last Saturday in Richmond (our neighbour County) the people drest & burnt with great marks of Detestation the infamous Lord North-Mrs. Carter, after the ‘Squire left us quite astonished me in the Course of the evening with her perfect acquaintance with the American Constitution.
Choosing One Fare: Northern Men in the 1840s
Authors: Brown Richard D
Published: November 2023

By the time of William Bentley’s death at the end of 1819, the information systems that Americans employed had passed several critical milestones and what may be called the information revolution was well underway. Whereas printing centers had been confined to a handful of port and capital towns at Bentley’s birth in 1759, now they were scattered throughout the settled landscape and even the frontier. Numbers of newspapers had multiplied, from 17 to 518, and partly to facilitate the distribution of those newspapers and the exchange of information between them the new republic had created an extensive postal system that already reached into some 4500 counties and townships by 1820, and 13,500 by 1840. By this time improvements in transportation had speeded the movement of information dramatically, so that news which had required weeks to pass from one end of the nation to another in 1790, now moved in days.1 Secular oratory, often possessing political content, had been unknown in Bentley’s childhood, but now it had become routine, especially at Independence Day celebrations.
Dynamic Associations of Tick-borne Diseases Affecting Domestic Animal Health
Authors: Norval R Andrew I , Perry Brian D
Published: November 2023

This chapter on the dynamic associations of tick-borne diseases affecting domestic animal health focuses on two African diseases, theileriosis, caused by Theileria parva, and heartwater (cowdriosis), caused by Cowdria ruminantium. The regulation of vector distribution and the relationship between vector distribution, the occurrence and abundance of wildlife hosts, and the distribution and epidemiology of the diseases are examined. The impact on the epidemiology of theileriosis, of the seasonal occurrence of the vectors, and the effects on the epidemiology of heart water of an aggregation-attachment pheromone produced by the vectors are discussed.
Union Commitment
Authors: Barling Julian , Fullagar Clive , Kelloway E Kevin
Published: November 2023

Just why individuals would choose to be loyal to a labor union is a question that has captured the attention of unionists, management, social theorists, and academics, often for very different reasons. Union stewards and officials express an interest in members’ commitment to the union because their ability to bargain collectively with management from a position of strength depends heavily on the loyalty of their membership. Thus, a knowledge of union commitment is of some practical benefit. As Gordon et al. (1980) note:

Since the ability of union locals to attain their goals is generally based on the members’ loyalty, belief in the objectives of organized labor, and willingness to perform service voluntarily, commitment is part of the very fabric of unions (p. 480).
Effects of Unions on Organizational Behavior
Authors: Barling Julian , Fullagar Clive , Kelloway E Kevin
Published: November 2023

With the resurgence of research interest in industrial relations (Brett & Hammer, 1982; Lewin & Feuille, 1982) has come numerous calls for organizational psychologists to become involved in the study of unions (e.g., Barling, 1988; Fullagar, 1984; Gordon & Burt, 1981; Gordon & Nurick, 1984; Rosen & Stagner, 1981). As the rest of this book will attest, such involvement has largely consisted of applying the theory and constructs of organizational psychology to features of the industrial relations system. The preceding chapters emphasize one side of the psychological contract between the union and its members, namely how the union can benefit from the behaviors and attitudes of its members. In this chapter we document the other side of the contract, namely, what the consequences of union membership are for the individual member.

Once individuals have joined unions and been socialized into their member­ ship roles, the union must focus on creating work conditions and collective bargaining outcomes that will facilitate greater commitment to, and participation in, union activities.
An Overview of Population and Health
Authors: Young T Kue
Published: November 2023

A major task of epidemiology is the measurement of health in a population. There are, however, many definitions of health. Nearest to a universally accepted definition is the much-quoted World Health Organization (WHO) definition, which first appeared in the preamble to its charter in 1948. This definition emphasizes that health is not just the absence of disease, but something much broader: a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being. While grand in rhetoric, this definition is difficult to “operationalize” in health research or health care delivery. Nevertheless, it serves to emphasize the “positive”‘ aspects of health, away from the traditional preoccupation with death, disease, and disability.
Brewsters
Authors: Bennett Judith M
Published: November 2023

Early in February each year, magistrates in many English towns come together in what are informally known as “brewster sessions.” In these meetings, they supervise the trade in alcoholic beverages-not only ales and beers, but also wines, spirits, and other intoxicating liquors. They renew licenses for selling such drink, permit transfers of licenses between holders, grant new licenses, and even bestow occasional permissions for special occasions. In most jurisdictions, for example in the brewster sessions of Lewes, magistrates customarily hear a report from the licensing inspector. Within living memory, large numbers of licensees would come to hear this report and responses to it, ending the day with a celebratory dinner in a local public house.1Except for brewster sessions, the word brewster has virtually disappeared from contemporary English. With brewster has disappeared a history that this book seeks to recover, a history of women in brewing. Brewster once had a clear and unequivocal meaning: a female brewer. In the fourteenth century, when women did most of the brewing in most places, their presence was signified in the various languages of the time: braciatrices and pandoxatrices in Latin texts, braceresses in Anglo-Norman, and brewsters in the English that was being used with more and more frequency.
No Desperate Hero: Manhood and Freedom in a Union Soldier’s Experience
Authors: Blight David W
Published: November 2023

With the First World War as his model, Paul Fussell wrote that “every war is ironic because every war is worse than expected.” As national calamity and as individual experience, certainly this was the case with the American Civil War. That slavery could be abolished only by such wholesale slaughter, and that national unity could be preserved only through such fratricidal conflict provide some of the most tragic ironies of American history. On a grand scale, such ironies are easily summarized, but as Fussell observes, all “great” wars consist of thousands of “smaller constituent” stories, which are themselves full of “ironic actions.” One of those stories is recorded in the more than two hundred Civil War letters of Charles Harvey Brewster of Northampton, Massachusetts. As Bell Wiley first observed in the 1940s and 1950s, the letters of Civil War soldiers are an extraordinary source for the social history of nineteenth-century America. Brewster’s single cache of letters illuminates a remarkable range of attitudes and experience of an ordinary American man caught up not only in the sweeping events of the war but also in the values of his age and the challenge of his own self-development.
Women and Guerrilla Warfare
Authors: Fellman Michael
Published: November 2023

Through its special quality of erasing many of the crucial distinctions between soldiers and civilians, guerrilla warfare during the Civil War blurred gender boundaries and gender decorum in often horrifying ways. In Missouri, which saw the most intense guerrilla fighting of the war, where pro-Confederate guerrillas roamed far behind Union lines, and where Union guerrilla hunters behaved just as abysmally as their enemies, women from both camps often became both victims and participants in the heart of the conflict. Amid the pillage, burning, and slaughter, such warfare also spawned a gender risis. In both attitudes and actions, women and men frequently violated peacetime moral boundaries, which they had to revise drastically in order to survive; men and women alike also clung desperately to shreds of their prewar values—based on the sanctity of Christian forbearance, honor, and private property—in order to prevent themselves from collapsing, in their most intimate relationships and in their self-conceptions, from acceptable humanity into amoral monstrosity.
Alfarabi, Avicenna, and Averroes, on Intellect
Authors: Davidson Herbert A
Published: November 2023

The distinction between the potential intellect and the active intellect was first drawn by Aristotle. Medieval Islamic, Jewish, Christian philosophers, and European philosophers in the sixteenth century considered it a possible key to deciphering the nature of man and the universe. In this book, Herbert Davidson examines the treatment of intellect in Alfarabi (d. 950), Avicenna (980–1037) and Averroes (1126–1198), with particular attention to the way in which they addressed the tangle of issues that grew up around the active intellect.
Hantaan (Korean Hemorrhagic Fever) and Related Rodent Zoonoses
Authors: Leduc James W , Childs J E , Glass, G E , Watson A J
Published: November 2023

Human disease due to hantaviral infections first came to the attention of western medicine during the Korean Conflict, when a mysterious “ new” disease, Korean hemorrhagic fever, was seen among the United Nations forces. Over 2,000 U.S. troops were infected, and many deaths occurred (Earle, 1954). In spite of intense investigations by some of the most prominent medical scientists of the era, the causative agent could not be identified, and it wasn’ t until 1976, just over a decade ago, that the etiologic agent was finally discovered.
Filoviruses
Authors: Peters C J , Johnson E D , Jahrling P B , Ksiazek T G , Rollin P E , White J , Hall W , Trotter, R , Jaax N
Published: November 2023

The viral family known as the Filoviridae is unique among animal virus families: we understand virtually nothing about the natural history and maintenance strategies of any member of the family, yet Marburg and Ebola viruses are highly pathogenic for man and are capable of epidemic transmission (Table 15.1). Surely they are a fitting subject for a book on emerging viruses. Filoviruses first came to medical attention in 1967 when a lethal epidemic of viral hemorrhagic fever occurring in Marburg, Federal Republic of Germany (FRG); Frankfurt, FRG; and Belgrade, Yugosla via (Serbia), was traced to a shipment of vervet or African green monkeys imported from Uganda (Martini and Siegert, 1971; Siegert, 1972). The causative agent was cultivated from the blood of sick humans and, as customary for arboviruses and other zoonotic vi ruses, was named Marburg virus after the site where the viral samples were obtained. The bizarre morphology of the virion, as well as its virulence and potential for human to human transmission, caught the imagination of virologists. Although there was some superficial similarity to rhabdoviruses (particularly plant rhabdoviruses), most scientists remained unconvinced that Marburg virus was just another rhabdovirus. Eventually, Marburg virus became the first member of the filovirus family (Kiley et al., 1982).
Global Change and Epidemiology: Nasty Synergies
Authors: Lovejoy Thomas E
Published: November 2023

In the first 3 months of 1989, seven U.S. senators, in two groups, spent the night out in the Amazon jungle swinging in hammocks. One of the group, a certain distinguished senator from Pennsylvania slept very well indeed, judging from the noises he emitted during the night. The next morning, he explained to some of his compan ions, who did not sleep so well as a result, that he was not snoring but was communicating with the howler monkeys. Were he writing this chapter I am sure he would assert that he hadl been studying yellow fever in the sylvan cycle.
Gender Dilemmas in Sexual Harassment Policies and Procedures
Authors: Riger Stephanie
Published: November 2023

Sexual Harassment—unwanted sexually oriented behavior in a work context—is the most recent form of victimization of women, following rape and wife abuse, to be redefined from a personal to a social problem. A sizable proportion of women surveyed in a wide variety of work settings report being subject to unwanted sexual attention, sexual comments or jokes, or offensive touching as well as attempts to coerce compliance with or punish rejection of sexual advances. In 1980, the U.S. Merit Systems Protection Board conducted the first comprehensive national survey of sexual harassment among federal employees; about four out of ten of the 10,648 women surveyed reported having been the target of sexual harassment during the previous twenty-four months. Updates of this survey found that the frequency of harassment in 1988 and 1994 was almost identical to that reported earlier: 42 percent of women surveyed in 1988 and 44 percent of women in 1994 reported that they had experienced some form of unwanted and uninvited sexual attention compared to 42 percent in 1980.
Low-Paying Jobs for Women
Authors: Riger Stephanie
Published: November 2023

Women’s Studies Entered The courtroom in the 1986 case of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission v. Sears, Roebuck and Company. The Economic Opportunity Commission (EEOC) accused Sears of sex discrimination by channeling female workers into salaried sales jobs that paid less and were less prestigious than those that included a commission as part of compensation. Sears did not dispute the lack of women in commission sales jobs but denied that the disparity was due to discriminatory practices. Sears argued that the kinds of jobs that included commissions involved traditionally male products, such as automotive supplies, plumbing, and furnaces, and often required evening or weekend work schedules. According to Sears, women lacked interest in these kinds of jobs. To the consternation of many, scholars of women’s history testified on both sides of the case, using historical information to interpret the statistical disparities in Sears’s workforce in sharply contrasting ways.
Introduction: The Significance Of The Jazz Controversy For Twenties America
Authors: Ogren Kathy J
Published: November 2023

American class and ethnic tensions had already been unleashed by wartime jingoism, which culminated in the Palmer Raids and Red Scare of 1917—20. America’s civil liberties record was permanently scarred when nonconformists were harassed, and in some cases deported, on the bases of ethnic background or political conviction. American leftists and radicals found their organizations on the defensive following the political repression at home, despite the fact that 900,000 Americans voted for Socialist party candidate Eugene Debs in 1920. Similarly, American labor began the decade with a wave of strike activity-including the Seattle General Strike in support of the Russian evolution in 1918—but by the end of the 1920s, labor union membership fell from about 5 million in 1921 to less than 3.5 million in 1929. Returning veterans joined the ranks of the unemployed as demobilization slowed down the economy immediately following the war. American race relations exploded in a series of urban riots stretching from East St. Louis in July 1917 through Charleston, S.C., Longview, Texas, Washington, D.C., and Chicago, in the “Red Summer” of 1919. In all cases, racial violence was fueled by the competition for jobs between returning war veterans and black workers who had replaced them during the war.
Death of Sher Afgan and Marriage to Jahangir
Authors: Findly Ellison Banks
Published: November 2023

Jahangir came to the throne in 1605. The struggle that put him there, however, had brought the empire deep divisions, repressed hostilities, and large numbers of Hindu and Muslim partisans dead. As Akbar had grown more enfeebled and weak, and as all of his sons had shown signs of severe dissipation from wine and opium, concern had arisen as to who would inherit the Mughal throne. Two of Akbar’s sons, Murad (d. 1599)+ and Daniyal (d. 1604), were dead or dying of alcohol abuse and his eldest son, Salim, was showing signs of a similar affliction. Afraid that a power vacuum would result, efforts had begun sometime in 1603 among certain factions of the nobility to consolidate support for the accession of Salim’s own eldest son, Khusrau, in the event of the emperor’s death. Although Salim himself would have been the likely heir, in his impatience to rule (he was thirty-six when he eventually became emperor) he had alienated most of the nobles at court and, through unpredictable displays of violent temper, religious intolerance, and general inebriated frenzy, had undermined any popular appeal he might have had.
“The World Conqueror”
Authors: Findly Ellison Banks
Published: November 2023

The ease with which Nur Jahan took control was as much a function of the personality of Jahangir as it was of her own clear sight and charisma. The man she married as her second husband, and with whom she spent more than a third of her adult life as consort, was an odd mix of traits often much at war. It has become commonplace to say that Jahangir had contradictory elements within his personality, that he was as Terry noted above both barbarously cruel and exceedingly fair and gentle, weak and yet amiable, and as given to scrupulous, severe, and exact behavior as he was to caprice and whim. Modern scholars, too, generally characterize Jahangir as a man of contrasts saying, for example, that he was a “strange mix of savagry and kindness,” a not altogether harmonious blend of whimsical temperamentalness and sympathy, or of intolerance and understanding. While the view that Jahangir was a man plagued by inconsistency is fair—great cruelty and random punishment did alternate with a love of justice and odd affections—these inconsistencies masked another, greater vision. The world peculiar to Jahangir grew, apparently, from a perspective that was clear and satisfying and that seemed, internally at least, to be as reasonable and coherent as any of those held otherwise.
Arts and Architecture of Nur Jahan
Authors: Findly Ellison Banks
Published: November 2023

Up to now, our perception of Nur Jahan has been filtered through the eyes of others. With her artistic achievements, however, we are able in a manner unlike any other to touch her personality unrefined by secondary receivers. In the architecture she designed and patronized and in the gardens she laid out, for example, we are as near as we will ever be to her own voice and vision. Many noblewomen of Nur Jahan’s era had both the time and money to invest in the arts, as well as the technical advice and personal authority with which to plan and carry out their own projects. Of these women, those of the Jahangiri generation were certainly among the most prolific, and of these, it was Nur Jahan who made the contributions best known to history.
In the Gardens of Eternal Spring
Authors: Findly Ellison Banks
Published: November 2023

The most alluring and influential of all the arts of Nur Jahan, however, was the most ephemeral, that of gardening. Villiers Stuart has ranked Nur Jahan along with Babur as the best and most prolific of all those who inspired and designed Mughal gardens and even goes so far as to call Nur Jahan herself “the greatest garden lover of them all.”
The Rebellion of Mahabat Khan
Authors: Findly Ellison Banks
Published: November 2023

As Jahangir’s reign came to a close, one last upheaval broke out in the calm before the confusion of the succession days. Mahabat Khan, an old and trusted friend of Jahangir’s, pushed beyond restraint by the courtly infighting around him, rebelled against the emperor and held out in a “reign of a hundred days.” The rebellion of Mahabat Khan is significant not only because the story is a contained and vibrant one about an old allegiance gone awry, but because one of the principal actors was Nur Jahan. For most of her public life, Nur Jahan had maneuvered events from behind the walls of seclusion, giving directives and shaping opinion from the palaces reserved only for women. In this rebellion, however, the last of the principal events of her husband’s reign, Nur Jahan was herself a real and active participant, providing not only the motive and impetus behind major narrative turns but the visual performance so central to the story as well.
Death of Jahangir and Retirement to Lahore
Authors: Findly Ellison Banks
Published: November 2023

Nur Jahan’s heroic role in the rebellion of Mahabat Khan was short-lived. Having come out of seclusion for the climactic episode of her political life and having maneuvered her husband out from the hands of his abductor, she had proven herself capable of an exquisitely executed victory. She had not become victorious, however, by fighting in battle but by the means she had always used best: strategy measured out from behind the palace walls. Her skills at duplicity, her easy use of charm at all levels of government, and most of all her tenacious powers of endurance had proved their mettle. But with the close of the rebellion of Mahabat Khan, Nur Jahan’s role as manager of political events came to an end. She would now be forced, most reluctantly, to pass the brokering of power over to her brother, Asaf Khan, and, more particularly, to his protégé the future king, Shah Jahan.
Follow-up of Disease Occurrence
Authors: Norell Staffan E
Published: November 2023

Information on disease occurrence is obtained by follow-up during a certain period of time (in studies based on incidence), or by examining each subject at one point in time (in studies based on prevalence). As a first step, the disease or diseases (outcomes) of interest are defined. In clinical medicine, disease entities are more or less clearly separated by clinical and laboratory findings, as well as the patient’s history, with a view toward treatment and prognosis.
General Exercises
Authors: Norell Staffan E
Published: November 2023

In many countries, a substantial proportion of all women use estrogens to alleviate menopausal symptoms. A study of postmenopausal women in Framingham showed excess risks of cardiovascular diesease ( CVD) following estrogen use. But other, previous studies showed no such effect.

The Framingham Study, beginning in 1948, enrolled a probability sample of residents of Framingham, Massachusetts. All study subjects were examined with regard to cardiovascular disease and potential risk indicators for such disease, and were invited to return for routine reex amination every 2 years.
Asthma
Authors: Nolan Terry
Published: November 2023

Asthma is the most common chronic disorder in children. Despite its frequency, however, there is a long history of research and debate, not only about its causes but also, at an even more basic level, about what asthma is. One epidemiologist wrote that despite the enormous amount of information that has been amassed, “it is still impossible to construct a coherent synthesis of the epidemiology of asthma” (Gregg, 1986). The basic reason for such a pessimistic outlook is the difficulty in defining asthma with precision. In a sense, it is one of the most elusive classifications in the history of modern medicine. Its definition has changed over time, influenced by beliefs about its etiology and underlying pathophysiology.