bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Planning Engineering Geophysical Surveys
Authors: Darracott B. W. , McCann D. M.
Published: April 2008

The recently published British Standard Code of Practice for Site Investigation, BS 5930, makes reference to the use of geophysical methods, and gives some guidance for selection of techniques. However, the use of geophysical methods in the UK has not been as widespread as their potential permits, and it is believed that this is due in large part to either inadequate planning and/or incorrect choice of technique, leading to disappointing results. In this paper we set out a logical sequence of steps for the execution of a geophysical survey, and highlight the principal factors (penetration, resolution, signal-to-noise ratio, and contrast in physical properties) which influence the choice of technique. Adequate attention to these factors before a survey is started almost invariably will significantly improve the value of the results.
Remote Sensing Techniques in Civil Engineering Surveys
Authors: Amos E. M. , Blakeway D. , Warren C. D.
Published: April 2008

This paper outlines selected remote sensing techniques and their application to civil engineering surveys.

In BS 5930, emphasis has been placed on the interpretation of black and white aerial photography to provide information. However, other techniques such as true colour and false colour infrared photography, thermal infrared, radar and landsat satellite imagery may be useful in appropriate applications.
Pressuremeter Testing of Normally Consolidated Clays—The Effects of Varying Test Technique
Authors: Anderson W. F. , Pyrah I. C. , Haji-Ali F.
Published: April 2008

Although BS 5930:1981 describes both Menard and self-boring pressuremeter tests, little guidance is given on test methods. A number of techniques, both stress controlled and strain controlled, have been used and it has been shown that for clays the test technique has a significant influence on the derived strength and modulus parameters.

When a pressuremeter test is carried out in a clay, it is assumed that shearing occurs under undrained conditions. However, in addition to immediate shear strain, some creep and local consolidation will occur in the soil around the expanding borehole. These two phenomena are time-dependent and variations in test technique will affect the test data and hence the derived strength and modulus values.

To obtain a better understanding of these effects, pressuremeter tests have been studied both experimentally and numerically. Experimentally, pressuremeter tests have been simulated by expanding cylindrical cavities in samples of three clays prepared with known stress history and the results compared with numerical predictions where the effects of immediate shear, creep and consolidation can be separated. The experimental results compare well with the numerical predictions.

This has given a new insight into the behaviour of clay soils during pressuremeter tests. The results indicate that any simple standardization of pressuremeter test technique should be approached with caution.
Stress Path Tests on 100 mm Diameter Samples
Authors: Atkinson J. H. , Clinton D. B.
Published: April 2008

The use of stress path tests is discussed in relation to geotechnical design, and a description is given of the triaxial test stress path apparatus developed at The City University.

Test results are presented from a series of triaxial tests following stress paths commonly encountered in engineering design problems. These are compared with the results of conventional triaxial tests.

The stress-strain behaviour and pore pressure response of soil are shown to be very much dependent on the stress path followed, and the advantages of using stress-controlled loading in triaxial tests is demonstrated.
Groundwater Control in Complex Ground Conditions
Authors: Atkinson M. S. , Thornton G. D.
Published: April 2008

Two fifteen metre diameter ten metre deep underground tanks were constructed immediately alongside each other by sinking bolted segmental caissons and casting the secondary lining
in situ
. Preliminary site investigation indicated difficult ground conditions with a high risk of base failure for excavation in the dry. Wet construction of the base slab would avoid base instability but not the problem of hydrostatic uplift of the partially completed structures.

Further investigation revealed a complex sequence of interbedded sands, silts and clays of alluvial and glacial origins. The granular horizons comprised a small number of thicker continuous bands, one occurring immediately below the proposed formation levels for the tank floor slabs, and several thinner irregular bands grading laterally into silts and clays.

Piezometers in the more critical granular horizons indicated artesian and sub-artesian groundwater levels. Temporarily disconnecting at ground level the piezometer showing artesian conditions and measuring the resulting water flow indicated a granular body of restricted size or limited recharge. The absence of any effect on other piezometers offered confirmation of isolated granular bodies.

Despite obvious difficulties in predicting the effectiveness of a groundwater lowering installation the significant advantages of constructing in the dry over wet construction mitigated in favour of dewatering. Sixteen deep pumped wells were installed around the circumference of the tanks to form a figure of eight pattern for the wells. To reduce the risk of a base failure due to artesian groundwater in any lobes of granular material encroaching within the plan excavation but not intersected by the pumped wells, four internal relief wells per tank were installed.

Successful construction was achieved, although a minor interruption to the pumping clearly demonstrated the prudence of the internal relief well installation.

The paper comments on some aspects of BS 5930 in relation to the construction described.
Guidance on Pressuremeter, Flat Dilatometer and Cone Penetration Testing
Authors: Finn P. S. , Nisbet R. M. , Hawkins P. G.
Published: April 2008

BS 5930 provides little guidance on the specification, practice and interpretation of pressuremeter, flat dilatometer and cone penetration tests. This paper describes certain key elements in the successful use of such tests which are frequently overlooked in practice. The different types of pressuremeter available in the United Kingdom are reviewed and the importance of care in the installation of pressuremeters of all types is highlighted. The principles of operation of the flat dilatometer are presented and comments made on the interpretation and application of results. Cone penetrometer testing and the types of equipment available are also discussed. The necessity for frequent and thorough calibration of all testing devices is emphasised and requirements for data presentation and reporting of these in situ tests are indicated.
A Comparison between the Core Orienter and the Borehole Impression Device
Authors: Gamon T. I.
Published: April 2008

The core orienter and the borehole impression device have both been used for the orientation of discontinuities in boreholes during the site investigation for a large site formation project in weathered granitic rock in Hong Kong.

The borehole impression device was found to have a number of advantages over the core orienter as it gave a more detailed picture of the discontinuity characteristics, it provided a permanent record, and was more cost effective. Core orientation techniques are recommended in areas where there is insufficient exposure of bedrock at the surface to carry out surface outcrop logging.
BS 5930: The Role of Geomorphological and Geological Techniques in a Preliminary Site Investigation
Authors: Griffiths J. S. , Marsh A. H.
Published: April 2008

The recommendations for the design of a site investigation presented in BS 5930 were not found to be suitable for an investigation recently undertaken for the proposed A35 Axminster Bypass. Due to the many alternative alignments initially under consideration an investigation of all routes, involving boreholes, was not regarded as cost-effective and a programme of trial pitting and geotechnical mapping was instigated. This approach provided sufficient information for outline designs to be prepared enabling relative cost comparisons to be made between the various options and a preferred alignment to be suggested. It is proposed that amendments be made to BS 5930 to encompass the design and execution of this type of first stage site investigation and in particular to provide guidelines on the use of geotechnical mapping as a standard technique of investigation.
Point Load Tests: Correlation Factors and Contractual Use. An Example from the Corallian at Weymouth
Authors: Hawkins A. B. , Olver J. A. G.
Published: April 2008

BS 5930 (1981) provides no help for engineers wishing to take advantage of the quick, cheap rock strength assessment provided by the point load test introduced in 1972.

The paper discusses the correlation factors obtained as a result of testing the same material from the Corallian strata at Weymouth by point load and uniaxial compression.

The considerable advantage obtained using the point load strength as a quick test in contractual situations is described.
Timing and Correct Chemical Testing of Soils/Weak Rocks
Authors: Hawkins A. B. , Pinches G. M.
Published: April 2008

Experiments to explain the rise in the floor of a hospital built on calcareous black pyritic shales have substantiated the reported chemical changes which bring about the formation of selenite (gypsum) along bedding planes. The experiments have also indicated that the sulphate content of a weak rock is not constant and depends on the weathering state.

If the long-term importance of sulphates is to be determined there is strong evidence that it is the maximum potential S0
3
or total sulphur that should be assessed as this would be more beneficial than simply acquiring the S0
3
% as is currently done in most site investigations.

Although BS5930 recommends that sulphate and pH testing is carried out as soon as possible after the sample has been taken, it does not give any cautionary note to indicate that the soil chemistry is likely to change with exposure. Experiments are described to show the effect of this change with time.
Principles for Description and Classification of Weathered Rock for Engineering Purposes
Authors: Martin R. P. , Hencher S. R.
Published: April 2008

There is a clear need for separate descriptive schemes for the degree of weathering at a small scale (material grades) and at a large scale (mass zones). Such weathering classifications should be established according to clear principles using well defined terminology. The schemes recommended in BS 5930 for this purpose are considered inadequate due to confusing terminology, loosely defined material grades and unjustified mass zonal boundaries. In this paper, published schemes both at the material grade scale and the mass zonal scale are reviewed and proposals made for standardised terminology. Examples of three schemes for classifying materials, and which meet many of the criteria advocated here, are presented. An idealised zonal scheme for heterogeneous weathered rocks is presented and the engineering significance of each proposed zone boundary is discussed.
The Use of Oblique Aerial Photography to Investigate the Extent and Sequence of Landslipping at Stag Hill, Guildford, Surrey
Authors: Matthews M. C. , Clayton C. R. I.
Published: April 2008

The University of Surrey is situated on the northern slopes of Stag Hill, below Guildford Cathedral, which occupies the summit. During the investigation for the design of the University, it became apparent that the site was underlain by a large landslip, 500 m wide from east to west and extending 160 m from rear scarp to toe. Considerable effort was made to establish its geometry and extent (Skempton & Petley (1967), and Morgenstern & Tchalenko (1967)).

In recent years it was realised that because the construction of the Cathedral extended over a long period of time, the likelihood of Stag Hill being covered by oblique aerial photography would be high. Some forty oblique aerial photographs, spanning the period 1949 to 1982, were collected and analysed together with vertical aerial photographs and topographic maps.

Although the landslip is visible on vertical aerial photographs, individual elements are not easily identified. Using oblique photography, in particular that in which recognition of subdued topography has been enhanced by low sun angles, up to six phases of landslipping were identified.

This paper uses this example to demonstrate the usefulness of aerial photography in site investigation and in particular the value of oblique photography, a topic which receives little attention in BS 5930:1981 considering how cost effective this tool can be.
The Effective Application of Electrical Conductivity Techniques in Site Investigations for Civil Engineers
Authors: Penn S.
Published: April 2008

The application of electrical conductivity techniques to site investigation has proved to be a rapid, cost effective method for the location and mapping of shallow mine workings in different rock types; faults, clay pockets and the variation in overburden thickness. Non-contacting terrain conductivity meters have a rapid response and are direct reading; therefore large areas can be investigated quickly, and in contrast to some other geophysical techniques conductivity surveys may be undertaken on small sites.

On sites where there is a contrast in electrical conductivity between the ‘disturbed’ and ‘undisturbed’ ground this technique provides high quality information which can be used, to financial advantage, in the design of target drilling or pitting programmes. The combination of conductivity surveys and target drilling has facilitated the completion of full site investigations within limited budgets.
A Question of Priority—Product Before Procurement
Authors: Rys L. J. , Wood I. R.
Published: April 2008

The paper presents the results of recent research into the influence of different methods of procurement and of specifying the work on the quality of site investigation in the UK, as perceived by its consumers.

The results of the research revealed widespread dissatis- faction with site investigation work where rigid and inappropriate instigation procedures were used by the consumer. Despite calls for reform there remains an urgent need for consumer guidance concerning the adoption of methods of procurement relevant to the special nature of site investigation and for greater flexibility in the specification of the work.
Investigation of the Properties of Recent Nile Delta Deposits, Port Said, Egypt
Authors: Smith N. A. , Welch D. E. , Tunbridge L. W.
Published: April 2008

In 1978 Golder Associates carried out a major geotechnical investigation over an area of 1200 ha surrounding Port Said, Egypt. The investigation was primarily directed to the design of a land reclamation scheme and future development of the area. The soils investigated were deep deltaic deposits of the River Nile, laid down within the past 10000 years.

The methods of investigation used, both for drilling and sampling, differed from those commonly used in the UK. The results of the work demonstrate the quality of results which can be achieved by wash boring methods, and stress the need for a suitable level of geotechnical engineering input whatever the method of investigation. The investigation techniques included the establishment of an on-site laboratory capable of handling a large volume of testing during the course of the site work. The reductions in both delay and transport between sampling and testing are considered to have been instrumental in obtaining much more reliable data on the soil properties.

Some data are presented as examples of the quality of results. The stratum of most interest and importance was a thick layer of highly plastic clay, which prior to this investigation had been considered to be soft and possibly underconsolidated. The clay was demonstrated to be firm to stiff and overconsolidated, and the overconsolidation was shown to have been at least partially the result of secondary compression effects and, additionally, fluctuations in sea level since deposition.
Planning and Design of Site Investigations
Authors: Head J. M.
Published: April 2008

Guidance on planning and design of site investigations is not explicitly included in the Code of Practice for Site Investigations (1981). Insufficient emphasis is given to developing a strategy and a programme of activities which is relevant to the proposed development and ground conditions.

A more formal approach to the organisation of these preliminary stages is presented and an outline given for a planned programme of administration.

Guidelines are given on how to develop an appropriate strategy including categorisation of investigation, preliminary design assessment and detailing site work. The need for records and refinement is highlighted.
Desk Studies, Air Photograph Interpretation and Reconnaissance for Site Investigation
Authors: West G.
Published: April 2008

Desk studies, air photograph interpretation and reconnaissance are the main elements in Stage I of an engineering site investigation, and unless they are done properly the whole site investigation may be inadequate. The paper comments on how these subjects are dealt with by BS 5930:1981, and notes the contributions made by the contributors to the Conference. Finally some recommendations are made for when BS 5930:1981 is revised.
A Comparison of Methods of Testing at a Site in London Clay
Authors: Epps R. J.
Published: April 2008

The results of a site investigation carried out in 1982 at a site in London Clay are summarised. A number of screw plate and pressuremeter tests have since been carried out, and the screw plate test and the methods of analysis adopted are described. The objectives of the 1982 investigation are reviewed and it is shown from comparison of the two sets of results that whilst these were achieved by methods recommended in BS 5930, the same answers could also have been provided by a site investigation designed around the screw plate test apparatus.
Correlation of Cone Penetration Tests and Undrained Shear Strength in Alluvial Soils in the Humberside Area
Authors: Erwig H.
Published: April 2008

An intensive site investigation consisting of electric cone
penetration tests, vane tests, Delft sampling and thin wall
sampling holes has been carried out in soft alluvial soils in
the Humberside area. This programme facilitated a
correlation to be made between static cone end resistance
with the undrained shear strengths obtained from the vane
testing and laboratory test results. A discussion is presented
on the various cone correlation factors (Nk) obtained and
these results are compared to the cone factors established by
others in similar soil conditions elsewhere.
Planning for engineering geologists
Authors: Worth D. H.
Published: April 2008

Commencing with a brief historical outline of past planning of towns this paper considers in outline the land use planning process as decision making in the use of land. It considers the legal basis for planning in England and Wales (parallel legislation exists in Scotland) and discusses the functions of planning authorities in plan making, control of development and research and intelligence. It comments on the qualifications and education of planners with particular reference to recent changes of particular relevance to communication of technical (particularly engineering geology) information to planners. It indicates the political nature of planning decision making by elected representation.
Economic design of ground investigations for planning
Authors: Cripps J. C. , Attewell P. B. , Woodman J. P.
Published: April 2008

Abtract

Planning the development of an urban area is a complex operation in which many disparate objectives and constraints must be reconciled. An attempt is usually made to achieve particular aims at minimum cost. If geological and geotechnical factors are considered in isolation, then a particular structure will cost least to build in locations offering the most favourable ground conditions. Unfortunately, seldom is suitable geological and geotechnical information available at this early stage of development.

The paper outlines a mechanism whereby reduction in the uncertainty about the ground conditions, achieved by carrying out site investigations work, may be related, through the application of simple probability theory, to a consequent expected loss caused by construction or maintenance. Thus in planning decisions a financial optimum can be identified in which the cost implications of ground investigations, construction and maintenance can be taken into account.
Data acquisition
Authors: Meigh A. C.O.B.E.
Published: April 2008

Data acquisition at the planning stage of a project involves the identification of hazards, namely, major hazards, tractable hazards and materials hazards. Hazards can have a significant effect on the cost of a project, especially if discovered during construction. Data acquisition should include sub-surface investigations at the planning stage to minimize the risk of expensive surprises.
The Frindsbury area, Rochester: a review of historical data and their implication on subsidence in an urban area
Authors: Charman J. H. , Cooper C. G.
Published: April 2008

A sudden subsidence under a footpath which led to the tragic death of a pedestrian was followed by a series of further subsidences over a period of several years, all incidents apparently located within an area no more than approximately 1 km square. The area is one of high density housing of the terraced style which was largely developed in the period 1900-1940. Further housing estates have been added in the period since the 1950s.

Increasing public concern over the incidents led to the commissioning of a preliminary study by the Rochester-upon-Medway City Council to collate and assess relevant archival information to determine whether the subsidence occurrences in the area could be related to some common cause. The study included reference to local museums, libraries and societies, visits to the British Library Map Department, a review of the geological literature and a collation of the industrial history of the area. Several potential causes of subsidence were discovered; these included the existence of old water wells and dene holes and, more significantly, extensive excavations associated with brick production at the turn of the century. In addition, a canal had been tunnelled under the area in 1823, subsequently partly infilled and converted to railway use.

The probable cause of the incidents at Frindsbury has been attributed to the existence of chalk mines associated with the brickfields and further investigation is now taking place to locate these.

Clues to all of the features discussed above were available as open file information in public records. This paper describes how the information was acquired and assimilated and emphasizes the importance of the role of desk study in the initial stages of any development project.
Application of lithic and structural geological data to the assessment of ground stability above shallow abandoned coal mines
Authors: Hart P. A.
Published: April 2008

Borehole log data gathered during a subsidence investigation in 1978–79 are used to derive a classification scheme for Coal Measure rocks. The results of height of void migration above workings are compared to those arising from use of Piggott & Eynon’s (1977) geometrical collapse zone method and Bienawski’s (1980) Rock Mass Rating scheme. It is concluded that the analysis helps to assess areas of greatest instability, which thus aids land-use planning and also the planning of ground investigations, ground stabilization, and re-development.
Land evaluation and site assessment: mapping for planning purposes
Authors: Dearman W. R.
Published: April 2008

Maps and plans represent essential tools of the trade for planners and applied earth scientists alike, and thematic maps produced by geologists should be able to be understood by planners. Geology, geotechnics, geomorphology, hydrogeology and related sciences can provide essential data on some of the constraints to development and resources for development. Recognition of these permits safer, more cost- effective planning and development, and allows rational decisions to be taken as far as the exploitation of resources is concerned. Consequently the Department of Environment had been commissioning research to investigate the best means of collecting, collating, interpreting and presenting, in sets of maps and reports, geological results of direct applicability to land-use planning. For example, some years ago initial studies in thematic mapping were undertaken by the British Geological Survey and more recently a number of private consultants have carried out such work. Unfortunately, the results of some of these surveys have not, as yet, been published.
Environmental geology mapping: An international review
Authors: Doornkamp J. C. , Brunsden D. , Cooke R. U. , Jones D. K. C. , Griffiths J. S.
Published: April 2008

Interest in environmental geological maps (EGMs) has increased in Britain since the publication in 1982 of the IGS Report 82/15
Environmental Geology of the Glenrothes District, Fife Region
. Over the past decade or so similar interests have been developing elsewhere, particularly in the USA and in Europe. This review examines the style and purpose of EGMs in both the USA and Europe, and recognises distinct, yet different, characteristics in each. The review provides a reference against which British experience, when it is published, can be assessed.

The US work, though very variable in style and scale of mapping, is consistently concerned to provide earth- science information to planners, engineers and politicians concerned with development, urban growth and redevelopment. The weakest of these studies provide raw geological data, the best make an effort to translate these data into terms that can be understood by the potential user.

The European approach to EGMs has been different in that it tends to appear under the title ‘engineering geological maps’, and in some cases, such as under the ZERMOS scheme in France, has a direct relevance to the concept of
Le Code de L’Urbanisme et de l’habitation
(article R 128.18, 1970). In fact variations in style and purpose exist across Europe, with varying degrees of influence upon regulations or legislation in terms of planning and development.
The use or abuse of thematic mining information maps
Authors: McMillan A. A. , Browne M. A. E.
Published: April 2008

Thematic and environmental geology mapping has been applied in recent years by the British Geological Survey (BGS) in cities, towns, urban fringes, rural areas and major estuaries. Experience in Scotland indicates that the separate portrayal of particular aspects of the drift and solid geology, former underground mining, and geotechnical properties are of greatest benefit to planners and civil engineers concerned with land use and ground stability. The maps prepared for this purpose may have an additional application in the field of resource assessment. BGS always emphasises that these maps are interpretations of the data available at the date of compilation, that they are only to be used for preliminary studies, and that they are not intended as a substitute for on-site investigation.

This paper illustrates some of the pitfalls of a too literal use of thematic mining information maps and indicates ways in which these have evolved to assist the user. Early thematic maps depicted areas of undermining assumed to be (a) within 30 m of surface and (b) at depths greater than 30 m below surface. Known and suspected mining were not differentiated. Modifications were introduced for the Glasgow district, such that only areas of mining shown on mine plans were depicted: no areas of suspected mining were shown. Separate maps were prepared to show areas of total known mining; current mining; known mining within 30 m of rockhead together with locations of shafts and boreholes encountering shallow workings; and mining for minerals other than coal and ironstone. Recent work in Coatbridge and Fife has resulted in further modifications, including the presentation of separate shaft atlases. Attempts have been made to construct seam atlases although these are not available as part of the portfolios. In Fife, known and inferred shallow mining are differentiated, and shown on the same map.

Each modification has reflected an attempt to clarify the presentation of known and inferred mining. The maps have, however, been prepared in response to the requirements of different customers, and while it is generally agreed that it is valuable to portray the extent of mining known from mine plans, opinions differ on the desirability and usefulness of showing inferred areas. The latter classification is considered to be beneficial by national and regional planners and also by city engineers. However, there is concern about the release of such maps on open file to the general user who is not fully informed of the background and nature of mining maps. Areas outlined as ‘undermined’ should not automatically be subjected to planning blight, and a recognition is required that engineering problems in urban areas only occur if property was not planned, designed and constructed with reference to the state of undermining.
Subsidence hazard prediction for limestone terrains, as applied to the English Cretaceous Chalk
Authors: Edmonds C. N. , Green C. P. , Higginbottom I. E.
Published: April 2008

Soluble carbonate rocks often pose a subsidence hazard to engineering and building works, due to the presence of either metastable natural solution features or artificial cavities. There is also an inherent danger to the public and lives have been lost because of unexpected ground collapses. Although site investigation techniques are becoming increasingly elaborate, the detection of hazardous ground conditions associated with limestones is frequently difficult and unreliable. Remedial measures to solve subsidence problems following foundation failure are expensive. It would be advantageous if areas liable to subsidence could be identified in a cost-effective manner in advance of planning and ground investigation. Hazard mapping could then be used by planners when checking the geotechnical suitability of a proposed development or by engineering geologists/geotechnical engineers to design the type of ground investigation best suited to the nature and scale of the potential hazard.

Recent research focussed on the English Chalk outcrop has led to the development of two new models to predict the subsidence hazard for both natural solution features and artificial cavities. The predictive models can be used to map the hazard at any given chalkland locality, as a cost-effective precursor to ground investigation. The models, although created for the Chalk outcrop, have important implications for all types of limestone terrain.

The basis of the predictive modelling procedure is an analysis of the spatial distribution of nearly 1600 natural solution features, and more than 850 artificial cavity locations, identified from a wide varietyy of sources, including a special appeal organized by CIRIA. A range of geological, hydrogeological and geomorphological factors are evaluated to identify significant relationships with subsidence. These factors are ranked, numerically weighted and incorporated into two quantitative subsidence hazard model formulae. The models can be applied to perform hazard mapping.
Landslide hazard assessment techniques for planning purposes: a review
Authors: Hearn G. J. , Fulton A.
Published: April 2008

Recently, there has been a growing interest, both in the UK and abroad, in the use of land evaluation and hazard assessment techniques for planning purposes. Both engineering geologists and planners have become increasingly aware of the benefits to be gained from these techniques of rapid and cost-effective terrain and hazard assessment. However, the application of these techniques and the interpretation of the information they provide need clarification in order to be of direct use to planners.

This paper will summarize the techniques, presently available, of land evaluation and hazard assessment and focus attention on defining the engineering geological and planning criteria that control the success with which these techniques can be used effectively. Land evaluation techniques will be considered briefly in view of the large volume of literature already available on this subject. The paper will concentrate on hazard assessment techniques whose potential has been under-utilized in the UK, particularly for planning purposes.

Particular emphasis will be placed on mass movement hazards.Techniques available for evaluating these hazards include, satellite imagery, air photograph interpretation, hazard and susceptibility mapping, surface geological and geomorphological mapping, sub-surface geotechnical investigation and monitoring. These will be discussed in respect of the scale of the investigation or planning objectives and the assumptions, data requirements and interpretative capability of each technique.
Planning for development in metalliferous mining areas in South West England
Authors: Roche D. P.
Published: April 2008

Planning for development in mining areas should include full consideration of the possibility of hazards associated with abandoned mineworkings. An adequate amount of study and investigation should enable use of land to be optimized by avoiding the high risk zones, and assist in realistic land evaluation and estimation of development costs. This paper describes a typical mining study and investigation for a site scheduled for development, and the planning implications commonly encountered. The approach is illustrated by a series of thematic map diagrams conveying factual information and interpretation, and based on experience in the metalliferous mining region of SW England. It demonstrates the potential for successful application of this type of approach to planning in areas in which abandoned mineworkings can pose a major hazard to development.
Risk assessment in dolomitic terrain: a case history
Authors: Venter I. S. , Gregory B. J.
Published: April 2008

The dewatering of dolomitic groundwater compartments in the Far West Rand in the Transvaal Province of South Africa has, in the past, resulted in ground movements in the form of subsidences and sinkholes. These have caused damage to various structures and in some instances loss of life. Dewatering of these compartments has taken place as a result of economic and safety considerations for the continued operation and development of deep-level gold mines in these areas. The dewatering of another groundwater compartment is currently underway. Consequently, a risk assessment, primarily to evaluate the potential for sinkhole development, was prepared for the main highways crossing the compartment.

Risk assessment in dolomitic terrain is a much debated subject, the main reason being the subjectivity of the various approaches. It is generally accepted, however, that a number of factors affect subsurface stability, for example, the position of the watertable, the presence of weak, dolomitic residuum, bedrock characteristics and the ponding of surface-water. A combination of methods was utilized to produce a final assessment. These included a multivariate classification system and comparison with published data collated by the Geological Survey of South Africa. The methods and results of the risk assessment are discussed together with possible alternative solutions for maintaining the traffic routes and for ensuring the safety of road users.
The mapping and assessment of aggregate resources in the south Midlands and Welsh Borderland
Authors: Ambrose K. , Cannell B. , Moorlock B. S. P.
Published: April 2008

It is becoming increasingly important to delimit resources of aggregates, especially near densely populated industrial areas, where the demand is greatest. Knowledge of these resources is needed by both planners and the aggregates industry. The British Geological Survey (BGS) has recently carried out detailed surveys in the south Midlands and Welsh Borderland, under contracts from the Department of the Environment. The areas are covered by the Warwick, Redditch, Tewkesbury, Worcester and Hereford 1:50 000 geological maps, most of which had not previously been geologically surveyed in detail. The most important element in the surveys, therefore, was the 1:10 000 geological mapping, involving studies of the superficial deposits and solid rocks. There are extensive spreads of sand and gravel in all these districts, deposited by glacial, fluvioglacial, periglacial or fluvial activity.

In addition to the mapping, boreholes were drilled in some areas to supplement the data already available. The Industrial Minerals Assessment Unit (IMAU) of the BGS also carried out a shallow drilling programme as part of a resource assessment in the Redditch-Rugby area.

Between Redditch and Solihull, various drilling, geophysical and remote-sensing techniques were used by IMAU to evaluate their use in assessing sand and gravel resources. The most effective method proved to be shallow resistivity measurements, using an Offset Wenner system, backed up by cable percussion drilling. The same resistivity technique proved to be especially useful, in the Worcester, Hereford and Henley-in-Arden areas, for locating sand and gravel beneath alluvial silts.

Gravel deposits near Worcester were investigated using an EM31 conductivity meter. The local geology, comprising river terrace gravels overlying mudstone bedrock, is ideally suited to this method. Thickness variation in the gravel deposits could be obtained quickly by grid traverses, covering the area at a rate of about 1 square kilometre per day.
Engineering geological considerations of the transitional authorization procedures for opencast coal mining in the United Kingdom
Authors: Bate K. J. , Hake S. S.
Published: April 2008

This paper briefly describes the historical planning situation with regard to opencast coal mines in
this country since the Defence General Regulations, 1939. More detailed clarification and discussion is devoted
to the transitional arrangements for the authorization of opencast coal mining currently in operation since their
formal adoption in March 1984.

The over-riding requirement for the comprehensive scrutiny of applications with particular reference to the
need for full engineering geological and geotechnical appraisals within the current planning framework for
opencast coal operations is defined and discussed. The general methodology and constructional activities
associated with the operation of opencast coal sites are described, together with the impact on the surrounding
environment and the advantages connected with opencasting operations. Furthermore, the respective roles of
both the Mineral Planning Authorites and British Coal (previously the National Coal Board) are discussed.
Additionally, the general public’s opportunities to respond to opencasting issues, and the use of the public
inquiry system in the context of opencast coal mining and the planning procedure are briefly discussed.

Finally, conclusions are presented against the background of the current transitional authorization
procedures for opencast coal sites. These conclusions deal with the requirement to establish, without delay, a
new and effective legislative procedure and the need for a change in approach to site selection and design from
the point of view of environmental impact. An urgent review of opencasting issues within the planning
framework is recommended in order to establish coherent, flexible and acceptable guidelines against which sites
can be designed, controlled and adjudged. Such a review would necessarily incorporate detailed environmental,
engineering geological and geotechnical appraisals to assess the compatibility of proposed coal sites with the
surrounding areas.
The influence of subsidence due to present day coal mining on surface development
Authors: Bell F. G.
Published: April 2008

Urban development and redevelopment in areas of present day coal mining faces a potential problem due to associated subsidence. Obviously the main aim of a developer is to produce a successful development with economy of design and minimization of any subsequent subsidence damage so that structures fulfil their function throughout their design life.

Subsidence associated with modern methods of total extraction can be regarded as more or less contemporaneous with the mining activity. This, together with the fact that subsidence normally is predictable within about ±10 per cent, allows development to occur either after subsidence or by taking protective measures. The latter may involve special design in mine layout or of the structures to be built.
Guidelines for designing and inspecting excavated quarry slopes
Authors: Walton G. , Brook D.
Published: April 2008

A Department of the Environment sponsored review of the stability and hydrogeology of deep quarries has shown that current geotechnical practice in the extractive industry ranges from good to non-existent. A similar state of understanding of geotechnical matters existed amongst Mineral Planning Authorities
(MPAs). Some statutory bodies were much concerned with the variability of information supplied to them by
MPAs with which they had to assess the short and long term security of their structures and services. The use of
standoffs and clearances around the quarries is unreliable since each quarry has unique ground conditions.
Consequently, guidelines have been prepared for the investigation of slope stability at quarry boundaries and to
cover the inspection and assessment of existing quarry slopes.

These guidelines seek to identify the steps that should be followed when designing and examining slopes.The information to be collected is noted, together with the presentation of the findings and the specifications of slope
designs. An inspection report form which could be used in conjunction with statutory daily inspections, is
presented. The authors hope that the guidelines will be used, and will form the basis for good practice within the
extractive industry, and that MPAs will seek stability reports, prepared according to the guidelines, when there is
justifiable concern about the long term security of neighbouring land.
The sunken lanes of Southern England: Engineering geological considerations
Authors: Barton M.E.
Published: April 2008

This paper examines the geological, geotechnical and environmental planning problems of the
sunken lanes, or hollow ways, of Southern England. Sunken lanes are generally ascribed to the downcutting
action of wheeled traffic on the formerly un-made road, augmenting and accelerating the natural processes of
weathering and erosion. The road may be at least several metres below general ground level with a cutting slope
in the natural strata and which may be wholly, or partly, vegetated.

Sunken lanes must have evolved before road surfacing but the banks are still subject to degradation and
although the rate is extremely slow, failure by spalling, debris-sliding or debris-flow may occur. From a site
investigation point of view they are difficult to investigate geologically because of a variable extent of weathered
mantle and because trial pitting is usually impractical. The materials of the bank can range from loose sand of
the weathered mantle, weakly locked or locked sands and harder, cemented rock bands or masses. In most cases,
stability cannot be quantified by traditional soil or rock mechanics methods.

Where failure of the bank occurs, the Highway Authority may have the problem of assessing stability from
engineering geological considerations. The question posed in such cases, is whether the failure represents an
isolated occurrence or will it mean an accelerating rate of degradation with further, more frequent and/or larger
failures. Since sunken lanes are usually narrow and winding, the fallen material becomes a traffic hazard and a
decision may be made that engineering measures are required. These could include re-grading, retaining walls,
revetting, gabions or protection by nylon or steel mesh.

Sunken lanes are an attractive feature of the landscape, providing scenic variety, a window on the solid
geology and a reminder of the past. It would be a loss were all potentially unstable cuttings 'engineered' to
provide a safe but purely artificial road bank. This is a problem for environmental planners: to what extent can
some hazard be accepted in the interests of conserving a very characteristic feature in the landscape?
The importance of pedological soil survey in land use planning, resource assessment and site investigation
Authors: Lee E. M. , Griffiths J. S.
Published: April 2008

The ever increasing pressure for infra-structural development in the UK heightens the conflict between the different land use demands placed on an area. This is reflected in the need for planning authorities to assess the relative suitability of potential land uses. Such assessments are important in guiding urban development away from good quality agricultural land. It is manifest that such planning decisions should be made on the basis of a comprehensive review of all relevant factors, and in particular, this includes the pedological soil conditions with their controlling influence on the ability of the land to support different land uses.

Past pedological studies have tended to concentrate on the evaluation of land suitability for agricultural uses. However, such studies are also of value when assessing the suitability of other potential uses including, forestry, recreational uses, natural resources or general infrastructure development.

In site investigations for infrastructure or resource development pedological studies have a role to play both at the feasibility and detailed investigation stages. During a feasibility study, particularly when used in conjunction with a programme of geotechnical mapping, a pedological approach to the examination of point samples can be an important aid in the determination of the areal extent of engineering soil units. In detailed investigations pedological assessments during pitting operations can determine such items as the depth of topsoil to be removed and stored during stripping, if a profile has developed through in-situ weathering of bedrock or a derived superifical cover and will assist in the identification of poor drainage areas

In this paper examples are presented of soil surveys used to assess the suitability of areas for recreational use, urban development and forestry. Also, by comparing the approaches to soil description contained within BS 5930, Code of Practice for Site Investigations (British Standards Institution 1981), and the Soil Survey Field Handbook (Hodgson 1974), some recommendations are made for adopting pedological description techniques in geotechnical site investigations.
Hazardous and radioactive waste management: a case of dual standards?
Authors: Chapman N. A. , Williams G. M.
Published: April 2008

The recent activity by the UK Nuclear industry to investigate the safety of sites in shallow ground for the disposal of low level radioactive wastes has not surprisingly prompted comparison with landfill facilities in which toxic wastes are being deposited. The conclusion is that the level of site investigation, operation and long term performance assessment proposed for the radwaste sites is many orders of magnitude greater than that required by the regulatory authorities for landfills where the operators responsibility for the safety of the site virtually disappears once the last load of waste is tipped and the disposal licence lapses. Furthermore, the research budget for radwaste exceeds that for landfill disposal by a similar amount even though the risk from radwaste can be shown to be many times less than that from toxic wastes. Since the same government department is in charge of radwaste and landfill disposal, it seems that dual standards are operating, and that either the radwaste managers are being singled out for unfair scrutiny, or that insufficient attention is being directed at the real threat to the environment from 'antediluvian and ramshackle' landfill practices.