bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Baboon sleeping site preferences and relationships to primate grouping patterns
Authors: Hamilton William J.
Published: June 2005

Baboons choose sleeping sites in the following descending order of preference: (1) steep cliff faces and caves, (2) taller emerging trees in continuous forests, (3) the canopy of contiguous forest without emerging trees, and (4) open woodland trees. Choice of sleeping sites in an order appearing to agree with degree of inaccessibility to most predators suggests the hypothesis that predation avoidance is the major basis for use and choice of particular sleeping sites. If this preference order for kinds of sleeping sites is applicable to other large primates, it suggests that spacing of adequate sleeping sites relative to the distribution and density of food resources is one factor contributing to group size and possibly other features of primate social structure. The relatively even distribution of numerous adequate sleeping sites in tropical forests may be one factor permitting evolution of small social units. By contrast, sparse distribution of sleeping sites relative to resource field may permit the development of large social groups.
Variations in fecundity with age and environment in olive baboons (Papio anubis)
Authors: Strum Shirley C. , Western Jonah D.
Published: June 2005

Ten years of reproductive data on a troop of savanna baboons (Papio anubis) demonstrated that females had an age‐specific fecundity pattern similar to that of other mammals. Average yearly fecundity has also varied over the period of study and can be explained by variations in food abundance with interspecific competition from ungulate competitors, rather than by female age structure or density‐dependent factors. The implications of age‐specific fecundity for primate ecology, behavior, reproduction, and life‐history strategies are discussed. The need to consider primate ecology within a broader community framework which includes human activity is also considered.
Identification of cynomolgus T lymphocytes by acid alpha‐naphthyl acetate esterase staining and spontaneous erythrocyte rosette formation
Authors: Tatsumi Masashi , Morita Chiharu , Fujiwara Tooru , Hayami Masanori
Published: June 2005

Cell surface markers and cytochemical characteristics of cynomolgus lymphocytes were studied. The proportion of lymphocytes with spot‐like distribution of acid alpha‐naphthyl acetate esterase (ANAE) activity was similar to that of lymphocytes which form spontaneous rosette with sheep erythrocytes (E rosette) in individual monkeys. Fractionation by E rosette formation or passage through nylon wool column selectively enriched ANAE‐spot‐positive (ANAE+) lymphocytes and resulted in twofold increase in blastogenic response when stimulated with phytohemagglutinin (PHA) or concanavalin A (Con A). In contrast, treatment of lymphocytes with rabbit anticynomolgus thymocyte serum (ATS) plus complement resulted not only in the depletion of both E rosette forming and ANAE+ lymphocytes, but also in the reduction of lymphocyte blastogenic response to PHA or Con A. In cryostat sections of lymphoid tissues. ANAE+ lymphocytes were found to reside in T dependent areas such as paracortical areas and periarterial lymphatic sheaths but not in T independent areas. ANAE activity was absent, however, in cortical thymocytes and lymphoblasts transformed by phytomitogens, suggesting that immature T lymphocytes are ANAE negative. These findings indicate that the histochemical demonstration of ANAE activity and E rosette formation serve useful markers for T lymphocytes in cynomolgus monkeys as in human.
Behavior and plasma cortisol following brief peer separation in juvenile squirrel monkeys
Authors: Hennessy Michael B. , Mendoza Sally P. , Kaplan Joel N.
Published: June 2005

The effects of 30‐min separation from peers on behavior and plasma cortisol levels were studied in juvenile, mother‐reared, female squirrel monkeys, housed in triads. Juveniles vocalized much more frequently when isolated in a novel room than they did when either undisturbed, handled only, placed with both peers in a novel room, or separated from one peer and housed with the other in the home cage. When separated from one peer in the home cage, the monkeys engaged in putative scent‐marking behaviors more frequently than when undisturbed. Exposure to the novel room resulted in increased vocalizing, and decreased locomotor activity and scent marking, regardless of whether the subject was isolated or with peers. Plasma cortisol levels were elevated following all manipulations and no effects could be attributed specifically to separation or exposure to novelty. These results demonstrate that brief separation from peers can evoke a behavioral reaction in juvenile squirrel monkeys that resembles the behavioral “protest” response of maternally‐separated infants, and that the response of juveniles, like that of infants, varies greatly with the separation procedure employed.
Clinical hematology of the common marmoset Callithrix jacchus
Authors: Hawkey C. M. , Hart M. G. , Jones D. M.
Published: June 2005

Hematological studies have been carried out on a group of 96 common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) on which full clinical histories were available. The group included both healthy and sick animals. Reference values for red‐cell, white‐cell, and platelet counts; hemoglobin levels; packed cell volumes; red‐ and white‐cell absolute values; reticulocyte counts; and fibrinogen levels were calculated from results obtained in 43 clinically normal individuals. These reference values have been used to identify hematological abnormalities in sick animals so that relationships between the blood picture and the clinical findings could be defined. Leucopenia, raised platelet counts, and high fibrinogen levels were found in animals with bacterial infections and carried poor prognosis. Heinz bodies occurred in a significant number of the group as a whole, and were associated with a variety of hematological and clinical abnormalities. These findings illustrate the diagnostic and prognostic value of clinical hematology in C. jacchus.
Growth and developmental body composition of the cebus monkey (Cebus albifrons)
Authors: Ausman Lynne M. , Powell Elizabeth M. , Mercado Donna L. , Samonds Kenneth W. , el Lozy Mohamed , Gallina Daniel L.
Published: June 2005

The carcasses of 37 Cebus albifrons, Colombia (19 male, 17 female, 1 unknown) with ages ranging from premature stillborn to 8 yr, were analyzed for body composition. The absolute content of water, protein, fat, and ash were determined by standard techniques and were analyzed as functions of carcass weight and age. The weight of the carcass was directly proportional to the whole body weight over the entire range of weights studied. All parameters but fat were linearly related to carcass weight; the relationships of protein and water to age were best described by exponential equations, whereas that of ash to age was linear. Variability in the fat content of the carcass precluded the fitting of predictive equations on the basis of either weight or age. Analysis of the relative (percent) composition of both the whole and fat‐free carcass provided exponential equations to describe the pattern of development of protein, water, and their ratio. Using these mathematical models, it was calculated that chemical maturity, with regard to water and protein, probably occurred by 8 wk of age. Percent ash composition of whole carcass and fat‐free carcass was described by linear equations.

Longitudinal growth data from 89 male and 76 female C. albifrons, born and reared in the departmental breeding colony, were obtained over 12 yr. An exponential equation relating body weight to age (R2 = 0.999) described the patern of growth for the first 2 yr of life; thereafter, the pattern was more varied as the animals approached and reached sexual maturity.
Mental retardation and neurological deficits in a twin orangutan
Authors: Savage Anne , Snowdon Charles T.
Published: June 2005

The second born of a pair of twin orangutans displayed marked behavioral disabilities. To evaluate these disabilities, a series of cognitive, learning, and neurological tests were administered to both twins. The disabled twin showed marked retardation in delayed response and oddity problems and an inability to use tools. The neurological evaluation demonstrated a variety of deficits consistent with damage to the pyramidal motor system. Karyotyping of the twin showed no evidence of chromosomal abnormality. The neurological and behavioral disorders suggested an etiology of perinatal hypoxia. A simple battery of cognitive and neurological tasks is suggested that could be used in evaluating behavioral disabilities in other primates.
Grooming behavior in the titi monkey (Callicebus torquatus)
Authors: Kinzey Warren G. , Wright Patricia C.
Published: June 2005

Observations on a family group of four free‐ranging Callicebus torquatus are reported for 235 hours on 18 complete days. Grooming sessions usually contained more than one grooming bout, and the longest grooming sessions occured on the sleeping bough, prior to dusk. On 12 days continuous observations were made on all grooming activity on the sleeping bough. The total time spent grooming, and the number and length of grooming bouts were recorded. Results suggest that grooming in C. torquatus is both a form of parental investment especially by the monogamous male, and a means of sustaining the male‐female pair bond.
Successful treatment of an esophageal stricture in a chimpanzee
Authors: Harper J. S. , Johnston M. R. , Sly D. L. , London W. T.
Published: June 2005

An esophageal stricture was noted in a 10‐yr‐old chimpanzee who presented with dysphagia, vomiting, and weight loss. After radiographic, esophagoscopic, and histopathologic evaluation of the stricture, antegrade bougienage was performed. The animal began eating solid food again without regurgitating after the third dilation and since that time has been asymptomatic. Additional dilations were performed at 3 and 6 months post‐stricture.
Sexual dimorphisms in the overall proportions of primates
Authors: Oxnard Charles E.
Published: June 2005

Morphometric analysis of Professor A.H. Schultz's data on the overall proportions of primates reveals differences between the sexes. Univariate examinations of these data confirm the existence of the spectrum of sexual dimorphism already well known. This spectrum relates mainly to differences in the proportions of the trunk. It has a differential expression with largest differences between the sexes in species such as orangutans and boboons, and smallest in species such as spider monkeys and douroucoulis.

Multivariate statistical study of these same data reveal, however, further unsuspected sexual dimorphisms. Although differences between the sexes are only small when measures of the relative lengths of bodily parts are examined, they are big when bodily breadths are studied. Investigation of breadths alone reveals that the primates display two major patterns of sexual dimorphisms and seven unique sexual dimorphisms among the 18 genera examined.

Such findings mean that sexual dimorphism of bodily structure is not a single phenomenon with differential expression, a concept widely noted in the literature and most recently associated with social organization. There are several different sexual dimorphisms and this suggests that their causation is likely to be multifactorial with multiple complex interactions among the factors. Some of the sexual dimorphisms must have evolved in parallel a number of times, and, given that chimpanzees, gorillas, and humans each display a different sexual dimorphism, at least some of the evolutionary changes in different sexual dimorphisms must be very recent. The findings even imply the possibility of further unique patterns of sexual dimorphism in some fossils. By further extension, the findings may have some implications for our understanding of nonstructural dimorphisms in humans.
Red‐bellied tamarins (Saguinus labiatus): Hematologic reference values and hemopathologic responses
Authors: Hawkey C. M. , Knight J. A. , Taffs L. F. , Appleton H. , Hart M. G. , Jones D. M.
Published: June 2005

Hematologic reference values have been established for captive adult red‐bellied tamarins (Saguinus labiatus) by carrying out full blood counts and fibrinogen estimations on 25 clinically normal animals. The only significant sex difference detected was in the reticulocyte count which was higher in females than in males. The reference values were used to identify abnormal changes in the blood of nine clinical cases. Hypochromic anemia, neutrophilia, and raised fibrinogen levels were found in animals with self‐inflicted injuries, dermatitis, and ileocecal intussusception. Target cells and jaundiced plasma were noted in a case of yersiniosis. Two animals in which generalized muscle wasting was the main abnormal clinical sign were severely anemic, and in one of these cases a significant number of Heinz bodies was present. The findings in these two animals were compared with those in common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) with possible wasting marmoset syndrome.
Perinatal hypothermia and maternal temperature declines during labor in pigtailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina)
Authors: Ruppenthal Gerald C. , Goodlin Beth L. , Sackett Gene P.
Published: June 2005

Body temperature, respiration, and heart rate were recorded for 90 perinatal pigtailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina) within the first hour after birth. Hypothermia and corresponding depressed respiration and heart rate were evident in all animals. Regression analysis revealed that time‐since‐birth accounted for most of the observed variance in all measures. Temperatures of three pregnant females were monitored during labor and delivery. Declines in maternal temperature during labor suggested that depressed maternal temperature influenced the observed hypothermia in newborns. Increases in ambient (cage) temperatures during labor indicated that the females were emitting heat while declining in temperature.
Constitutive heterochromatin polymorphism in Lagothrix lagothricha cana, Cebus apella, and Cebus capucinus
Authors: Garcia M. , Miró R. , Estop A. , Ponsà M. , Egozcue J.
Published: June 2005

We describe the C‐bands in the karyotypes of Lagothrix lagothricha cana, Cebus apella and Cebus capucinus. The C‐banding patterns show both a high degree of polymorphism as well as the presence of terminal and interstitial C‐bands. Varying amounts of heterochromatin result in dimorphism of some chromosome pairs. The high incidence of chromosome rearrangements found in the Cebidae may be due to the presence of terminal and interstitial C‐bands.
Maintenance of high‐density lipoprotein blood levels prior to spontaneous abortion in pig‐tailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina)
Authors: Schiller Harvey S. , Sackett Gene P. , Frederickson W. Timm , Risler Linda J.
Published: June 2005

Blood was drawn throughout the first half of the pregnancies of 24 pig‐tailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina) to evaluate longitudinal high‐density lipoprotein (HDL) changes. In all 15 normal pregnancies, HDL decreased at least 50%; the mean value for the group fell from 0.45 gm/liter to 0.17 gm/liter. HDL began to fall after about four weeks of pregnancy. However, no comparable HDL change occurred in nine pregnancies that terminated in spontaneous abortions. This lack of an HDL decrease was unexpected. Subsequent studies showed that the predominant decrease was in the HDL2 subfraction. The data indicate that the normal physiologic metabolism or utilization of HDL is aberrant early in pregnancies ending in spontaneous abortions and may be due to a dysfunctional fetal‐placental unit.
Parturition in Macaca nemestrina
Authors: Goodlin Beth L. , Sackett Gene P.
Published: June 2005

Measures were taken on 187 pregnancies of 104 pig‐tailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina) to document the normative course of parturition and to identify factors correlated with high risk for poor pregnancy outcomes. Analyses involved weekly physical examinations and diurnal sleep‐wake‐fulness patterns during trimester three; behavior during labor and delivery; and newborn sex, Apgar ratings, birthweight, and reflexes. Onset of labor was estimated at three–four hours before delivery, the time when circadian activity level first deviated from its predelivery pattern. Active labor averaged 92 minutes, and was characterized by increased uterine contractions and manipulation of the vaginal area. The modal delivery time was 2200 hr through 2400 hr. Most infants emerged from the vulva in a cranial‐anterior‐anterior presentation, with only a brief pause between head expulsion and complete emergence. Females with histories of poor pregnancy outcomes were more likely to deliver after midnight and showed less labor‐unique behavior than females with good outcome histories. Infants of high‐risk females that were delivered after midnight had lower Apgar scores and more bruising than infants of low‐risk females delevered before of after midnight, suggesting that high‐risk females may have more difficult deliveries. Overall, the results show that simple direct observations of parturition can yield important quantitative normative information that is correlated with reproductive risk factors.
Ontogenic development of dyadic social relationships: Assessing individual roles
Authors: Deputte B. L.
Published: June 2005

Socialization processes lead to creation and differentiation of social relationships. It is often difficult to qualify them, especially due to ontogenic changes of social behavior. In this paper, an attempt is made to assess the role of each partner in a dyad by defining the quality of their overall relationship. A Social Investment Index (SII) was devised to describe these roles throughout ontogeny. SII is expressed as (G% — R%)/2, where G% and R% represent the difference between the sum of cohesive behaviors and that of disruptive behaviors divided by the overall sum of these behaviors given (G%) or received (R%) by one individual in a dyad. Results from a longitudinal study of the development of social behavior in one infant mangabey (Cercocebus albigena albigena) are used as an example. The developmental changes of the SII are presented in three dyads in a single‐male group: mother‐infant; “aunt”‐infant; and juvenile male‐infant.
Comparability of methods used in the sampling of primate behavior
Authors: Rhine Ramon J. , Ender Philip B.
Published: June 2005

Two measures of a behavior are defined as comparable if one is predictable from the other. The comparability of one‐zero, instantaneous, actual‐frequency, and actual‐duration sampling was investigated using a Monte Carlo simulation to extend the range of sampling intervals beyond those ordinarily found in the literature. Several combinations of bout time, rate of response, and observation interval were simulated. Comparability between one‐zero or instantaneous scores and actual frequency or actual duration was higher for higher behavior rates, decreased with longer observation intervals, and was usually higher for longer bout times. Curves of β2s from multiple regression analyses revealed a fundamental difference in the source of one‐zero and instanteous predictability. Both actual frequency and actual duration contributed substantially to one‐zero predictability, indicating high comparability between one‐zero scores and a weighted combination of actual frequency and actual duration. Once the contribution of actual duration to instantaneous scores was accounted for, actual frequency contributed virtually nothing additional. Long‐standing meanings of validity, reliability, and comparability were applied to the findings, resulting in the conclusion that all of the sampling methods are useful, depending upon the researcher's approach, resources, and problem.
The effect of peer separation in young chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)
Authors: Bard Kim A. , Nadler Ronald D.
Published: June 2005

Ten chimpanzees (Pan troglogytes), aged 18–24 months, housed without mothers as two dyads and two triads, were subjected to social separation. Two issues were addressed: the effects of peer separation in chimpanzees; and differential responses by subjects living in dyads compared with those living in triads. Chimpanzees that were alone during separation reacted with high levels of “protest” alternating with “despair” throughout the separation period. The continued presence of one cagemate, during separation from a third, was a strong mitigating factor. Even when the primary attachment was formed with the absent cagemate, the remaining chimpanzees clung to each other and the levels of protest and despair, when present, were low. Upon reunion, neither “detachment” nor heightened levels of clinging were conspicuous, but there was increased social interaction. The data on separation of chimpanzees are intermediate between those of humans and monkeys separated from mothers or peers. The increased social interactions during reunion, including looking, are comparable to the visual vigilance reported for humans.
Brief report: Body water estimates in normally grown baboon neonates
Authors: Brans Yves W. , Kuehl Thomas J. , Hayashi Robert H. , Shannon Donna L. , Reyes Patty
Published: June 2005

Water contents of various body water compartments were estimated within nine hours of birth in 11 preterm and eight term baboon (Papio cynocephalus neonates. Estimated water contents of all body compartments (in ml) increased linearly with birthweight (r = 0.52 to 0.90, P ≦ 0.007) and with gestational age (r = 0.46–0.94, P ≤ 0.05). When body water estimates were expressed in proportion to bodyweight (in ml/kg), preterm neonates had significantly larger mean antipyrine space and intracellular water than their term peers. Mean corrected bromide space, interstitial water, plasma volume, blood volume, and red cell volume were similar in preterm and term neonates. Although there are minor differences in body water contents and distribution between baboon and human neonates, baboon data are sufficiently similar to human data to justify using the baboon fetus and neonate as a model for investigations of human development.
Radioimmunoassay of somatomedin‐C in the baboon (Papio cynocephalus): A comparison of multiple techniques of measurement
Authors: Copeland K. C. , Johnson D. M. , Underwood L. E. , Van Wyk J. J.
Published: June 2005

This study was undertaken to assess the nature of somatomedin‐C (SM‐C) in baboon (Papio cynocephalus) blood and to compare various methods for estimating SM‐C concentrations. Parallel dose‐response curves were obtained with normal baboon serum, normal human serum, and purified SM‐C. Recovery of purified SM‐C added to baboon serum over a wide dosage range (n = 17) was 111 ± 12%, with slightly better recovery at higher potencies. Chromatography of normal baboon serum on Sephadex G‐200 at neutral pH produced a profile similar to that observed in the human, as did samples chromatographed on Sephadex G‐50 in acid. Although the SM‐C content in acid chromatographed plasma was approximately 2.5 times higher than in native unprocessed plasma, there was excellent correlation between the values (r = 0.9143, p < 0.0001). The SM‐C in baboon plasma which had been preincubated with glycine HCl was approximately twice that of unprocessed plasma, but the correlation between the two methods was excellent (r = 0.9593, p < 0.0001). The correlation between values obtained after simple acid‐ethanol extraction and those observed in unextracted plasma were also significant (r = 0.7689, p < 0.0001). Following a series of four injections of human growth hormone (hGH) to a normal baboon, plasma SM‐C rose approximately sevenfold above the initial concentration and returned to basal levels five days after the final injection. These studies show that although the radioimmunoassay (RIA) for SM‐C in unprocessed baboon plasma does not measure all of the SM‐C present, it provides a reliable index of the total SM‐C concentration and reflects GH status in the baboon.
Mirror‐image responses in pygmy marmosets (Cebuella pygmaea)
Authors: Eglash Anne R. , Snowdon Charles T.
Published: June 2005

Only a few nonhuman species (chimpanzees and orangutans) have displayed mirror‐image recognition of themselves by grooming at a spot that can only be seen with the mirror. Pygmy marmosets have never been observed to self‐groom, but they do behave toward mirrors in a manner suggestive of the early stages of mirror‐image recognition. They displayed a rapid extinction of social threat responses to their own image and of novelty responses to mirrors, but continued to show mirror‐specific responses such as following their own image, playing peek‐a‐boo, and looking at their image throughout a 28‐day period of mirror exposure. The pygmy marmosets used a mirror to locate otherwise unseen conspecifics from other groups and directed threat responses toward the real location of these animals rather than to their mirror‐image. Pygmy marmosets displayed the precursor behaviors to mirror‐image recognition.
Food choice from endemic North Carolina tree species by captive prosimians (Lemur fulvus)
Authors: Glander Kenneth E. , Rabin Dori P.
Published: June 2005

Seven captive‐born lemurs (Lemur fulvus) at the Duke University Primate Center were presented with leaves of different maturity from five species of North Carolina trees. The animals demonstrated three distinct behaviors toward the novel plant material. They sniffed, tasted, and/or ingested it. New leaves were sniffed, but little tasting and ingestion was observed. Intermediate pine needles were sniffed and ingested but little tasted. Mature leaves were sniffed equally, but the mature leaves of tulip trees and honeysuckle were tasted significantly more than pine, sweetgum, and red maple. Pine, sweetgum, and red maple were ingested significantly more than tulip trees and honeysuckle. Male lemurs ate significantly more mature pine needles and new sweetgum leaves than did the females. Chemical analysis of these plant materials indicated that the new and mature leaves of tulip tree and honeysuckle contained alkaloids. Captive‐born lemurs apparently use their sense of smell and taste in choosing what to eat and seem just as capable as free‐ranging animals in finding food when faced with the chemical defenses that protect trees from insect predation.
Brief report: Circadian variation in insulin response in African green monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops)
Authors: Meis Paul J. , Rose James C. , Sperling Mark A.
Published: June 2005

Among a group of African green monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops), plasma insulin concentrations were greater following either intravenous (IV) glucose infusion or oral feeding at 0800 compared with IV glucose or oral feeding at 1700. Glucose clearance rates after IV infusion were similar at the two test times. Insulin/glucose ratios were greater following either IV glucose infusion or oral feeding at 0800 compared with 1700. These circadian variations in plasma insulin response are similar to reports of human studies and suggest this nonhuman primate species may be an appropriate animal model for chronobiological metabolic studies.
Attacks on neonates by a male mangabey (Cercocebus atys)
Authors: Busse Curt D. , Gordon Thomas P.
Published: June 2005

Aggressive behavior by an adult male toward selected infants and their mothers was observed during a long‐term study of reproduction in a captive social group of sooty mangabeys (Cercocebus atys). The highest‐ranking adult male in this group was observed to attack and bite three neonates out of a total of 13 infants born in 1982. All three attacks were directed attacks in which infants were grabbed from their mothers and bitten in the head. The first infant was fatally injured; the other two probably would have sustained fatal wounds had the male's canines not been blunted beforehand and had observers not intervened. The attacks were preceded by a pattern in which the male persistently stalked or chased the mother‐infant pairs, a behavior first observed in the hours immediately following parturition. Unlike attacks in wild baboon groups following male immigration, these attacks on infants occurred in a stable social group in which the male attacker had been a lifelong resident. This male, however, had gained alpha rank only 3 months before attacking the first infant. These attacks, in the context of other evidence of aggression and wounding, are discussed relative to current models of infanticide in primates.
Infant carrying by adult male mangabeys (Cercocebus atys)
Authors: Busse Curt D. , Gordon Thomas P.
Published: June 2005

Sixty‐five interactions where an adult male carried an infant in the proximity of a second male were observed during a 19‐mo period in a captive sooty mangabey (Cercocebus atys) social group. The behavior was distributed nonrandomly in both the adult male and infant classes. In all but three of the interactions, the recently deposed alpha male carried an infant in the presence of the newly ascendant dominant male. In the first phase of the study, infants that were carried included the entire unweaned infant cohort (n = 5) born before the rank reversal. The rate of carrying in this class declined as a function of increasing infant age and time since the rank reversal. Infant carrying was not observed in the context of fighting, which was rare, and intermale aggression never preceded the behavior. However, in 40% of the cases, carrying occurred after an infant had been threatened by the dominant male. These results suggest that infant carrying served to protect the infant from aggression rather than to exploit the infant as an agonistic buffer. The data did not unequivocally support the postulate that carrying may be a form of paternal care since paternity could not be assessed. The similar structural and contextual patterns of infant carrying in this species suggest a common origin for triadic male‐infant interactions in mangabeys and baboons.
The effect of social environment on estrogen excretion, scent marking, and sociosexual behavior in tamarins (Saguinus oedipus)
Authors: French Jeffrey A. , Abbott David H. , Snowdon Charles T.
Published: June 2005

The influence of various social environments on estrogen excretion, scent marking, and the expression of sociosexual behavior was examined in cotton‐top tamarins (Sanguinus o. oedipus). Behavioral observations and urine collections were conducted on five females while first housed in their natal family group or in the presence of another cycling adult female and then while housed with an unrelated adult male in a separate cage. Behavioral observations only were conducted on males in natal family groups and while housed with an unrelated adult female. Levels of urinary estrone and estradiol for females were measured by specific radioimmunoassays. Females housed in family groups or in the presence of an adult cycling female showed low and noncyclic patterns of estrogen excretion. Removal from these environments resulted in a rapid increase in urinary estrone and estradiol and three of five females demonstrated cyclic patterns of estrone excretion. Rates of anogenital marking in females were elevated after the social change, and sexual interactions, virtually absent in the original environments, were observed in all five females. In males, similar manipulations of the social environment affected the expression of sexual behavior, but not scent marking. The social environment, therefore has a profound impact on fertility and sociosexual behavior in cotton‐top tamarin groups, with implications for callitrichid social structure and behavior.
Social influences on estrogen excretion and ovarian cyclicity in saddle back tamarins (Saguinus fuscicollis)
Authors: Epple Gisela , Katz Yair
Published: June 2005

The effects of different social living conditions on estrogen excretion and on the ovarian cycle of saddle back tamarins were investigated. Urinary estrogens were monitored as indices of ovarian cyclicity in groups of adult females living under the following experimental conditions: (1) five parous females, each living with an adult castrated male (in one of the females plasma estradiol and progesterone were also measured); (2) five adult daughters living with their families. Each daughter was then removed from her family and paired with a vasectomized male. After pairing, scent marks collected from the family were introduced daily to one of the daughters and her mate. Scent exposure was then discontinued and hormone excretion measured for several weeks. The remaining four daughters were not exposed to family scent. The females living with castrated males showed urinary estrogen cycles of an average length of 17.5 ± 1.0 days. The plasma estrogen cycle was of the same length. The females studied under condition 2 showed low, noncycling estrogen levels while living in their families. They responded to pairing with an increase in the level of urinary estrogens, and four out of five showed regular estrogen cyclicity. The fifth female exposed to family scent marks after pairing also showed an increase in urinary estrogens. However, as long as scent transfer was maintained, no cycle was observed. Estrogen excretion increased again, and cyclicity commenced when scent transfer was discontinued. It is concluded that ovarian estrogen production is suppressed and cyclicity does not occur as long as daughters live in their families. Release from suppression and perhaps stimulation by the male cause a rapid increase in estrogen levels and the onset of cyclicity. Chemical stimuli produced by the family, perhaps particularly by the mother, may be involved in reproductive suppression.
Male endocrine responses to females: Effects of social cues in cynomolgus macaques
Authors: Glick Barbara Beckerman
Published: June 2005

This study tested the hypothesis that the hormonal responses of male macaques to sexually receptive females are mediated by specific socioenvironmental cues. Twelve, socially living male Macaca fascicularis were exposed to two‐ovariectomized, estrogen‐primed females under pair test, peer group, and peer group without dominant male conditions. Preexposure to postexposure changes in serum cortisol levels and testosterone levels were examined in relation to male dominance rank, age, and conditions of access to stimulus females. The males displayed significantly lower cortisol increases and greater testosterone increases with females under peer group than pair test conditions. Dominant males displayed greater testosterone increases than subordinate males under peer group conditions. The testosterone levels of subordinate males were greatly enhanced by removing the dominant male from each group. Adult males displayed greater cortisol responsivity to changes in conditions of access to females than did subadult males. Subadult males displayed greater testosterone responsivity to removal of the dominant male from the group than did adult males. It is concluded that specific social cues can greatly influence the endocrine responses of males to receptive females, and further, that there may be optimal socioenvironmental parameters for eliciting testosterone increases in male primates.
Evidence for insectivory in two primate species (Callicebus torquatus lugens and Lagothrix lagothricha lagothricha) from northwestern Amazonia
Authors: Milton Katharine , Nessimian Jorge L.
Published: June 2005

Insects were recovered and identified from stomach contents of two Callicebus torquatus lugens and one Lagothrix lagothricha lagothricha collected in a remote area of northwestern Amazonia. Both C. torquatus lugens showed little insect matter in stomach contents. Conversely, a minimum of 133 individual insects were recovered from stomach contents of the L. lagothricha lagothricha. These included various larger, rapid forms (Cicadellidae) unlikely to have been inadvertently consumed while the animal was eating fruit.
Effects of sibling‐rearing experience on future reproductive success in two species of callitrichidae
Authors: Tardif Suzette D. , Richter Conrad B. , Carson Robert L.
Published: June 2005

The survival rate for offspring of mothers who either had or did not have previous experience rearing younger siblings was compared in two callitrichid species, Callithrix jacchus and Saguinus oedipus. Offspring of mothers with sibling‐rearing experience had a higher survival percentage than offspring of inexperienced mothers in both species. While 50–60% of offspring of inexperienced C. jacchus mothers survived, no offspring of inexperienced S. oedipus mothers survived. The results suggest that sibling‐rearing experience is necessary for adequate maternal behavior in S. oedipus, but not necessary to the development of maternal behavior in C. jacchus. Effects of previous sibling‐rearing experience of S. oedipus fathers on offspring survival were also examined. Whether the father had rearing experience was not related to the survival of their offspring.
Ontogeny of mirror behavior in two species of great apes
Authors: Robert S.
Published: June 2005

Mirror image reactions of two infant apes, a female chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) and a male orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus), born at the Zoo de Vincennes and the Jardin des Plantes of Paris, France, respectively, were studied and compared with those of children. Self‐recognition was also tested following 46.5 hours of mirror exposure by application of red marks on parts of the body invisible to the animal without the aid of the mirror. Results indicated that the behavior of the two young apes followed a developmental trend similar to that of human babies. At the end of the study, the female chimpanzee (11 months of age) expressed social behavior, searched for the image behind the mirror, and showed interest in imaged movement. The orangutan (2 years and 5 months old) had begun to test movement synchronism and to display self‐directed behaviors. The tests of self‐recognition yielded negative results in both animals.
A visual exploration apparatus for infant monkeys
Authors: Levin Edward D. , Boehm Kirk M. , Hagquist William W. , Bowman Robert E.
Published: June 2005

An apparatus was constructed to study visual exploration in infant rhesus macaques. It consisted of an enclosed two‐chamber box with a peephole at each end. The floor was made of stainless steel bars, and the walls and top were made of Plexiglas covered with Masonite. The peepholes were recessed in alcoves. An infrared photobeam crossed the alcoves in front of each peephole so that whenever the monkey looked out its head broke the photobeam. Slides of complex scenes were projected on back‐lit frosted plexiglas screens. The monkey's position in the box was monitored by its resistance across the floor bars. Whenever the monkey went from one side of the box to the other, a new slide was projected on the side just entered. The session progressed until either 40 slides had been displayed on each side or 30 minutes had elapsed. The primary behavioral measures taken were session length, number of slides displayed, time spent looking, number of looks, and time spent looking at the first slide on each side. Serveral other performance measures were derived from these basic measures: time looked/slide, number of looks/slide, and average length of look (time looked/number of looks). The monkeys readily performed in this apparatus, looking out through the peepholes for an average of about 14% of each session with attentional episodes of just under 3 seconds. This apparatus has proven useful for automatically measuring visual exploration behavior in infant monkeys and can be readily adapted for use in many types of studies.
Measurement of body segment mass, center of gravity, and determination of moments of inertia by double pendulum in Lemur fulvus
Authors: Wells James P. , DeMenthon Daniel F.
Published: June 2005

The collection of data on physical parameters of body segments is a preliminary critical step in studying the biomechanics of locomotion. Little data on nonhuman body segment parameters has been published. The lack of standardization of techniques for data collection and presentation has made the comparative use of these data difficult and at times impossible. This study offers an approach for collecting data on center of gravity and moments of inertia for standardized body segments. The double swing pendulum approach is proposed as a solution for difficulties previously encountered in calculating moments of inertia for body segments. A format for prompting a computer to perform these calculations is offered, and the resulting segment mass data for Lemur fulvus is presented.
Female social dominance and basal metabolism in a malagasy primate, Propithecus verreauxi
Authors: Richard Alison F. , Nicoll M. E.
Published: June 2005

Tight energetic constraints on reproductively active females are hypothesized to be an important determinant of the phenomenon of female dominance in Propithecus verreauxi, a primate endemic to Madagascar. Five wild sifakas were captured in the Beza Mahafaly Special Reserve in southern Madagascar, and resting metabolic rates (RMR) were measured. Levels were low, as predicted, with the exception of a possibly pregnant female.; Although the data were not conclusive, they were consistent with the hypothesis.
Reproduction in the crowned lemur (Lemur coronatus) in captivity
Authors: Kappeler Peter M.
Published: June 2005

Four pairs of captive crowned lemurs (Lemur coronatus) were studied during their annual breeding season in order to obtain baseline data on their reproductive biology for comparison with other Lemur species and to enhance their captive breeding success. Vaginal smears, testicular measurements, and records of the Duke University Primate Center provided the presented data. During a single breeding season, females cycled an average of three times, with an average cycle length of 34 days. Cycles were detected between November and March. Vaginal estrus and copulations were limited to one day per cycle. After 125 days of gestation females gave birth to one or two young. Both sexes attained sexual maturity at an age of about 20 months. Mean male testis size peaked in late December; at the same time, three of the females experienced their first estrus. Based on all available data, there was a significant positive correlation between cycle length and gestation length in the genus Lemur.
Effects of age, rearing, and separation stress on immunoglobulin levels in rhesus monkeys
Authors: Scanlan James M. , Coe Christopher L. , Latts Adam , Suomi Stephen J.
Published: June 2005

The study reported here examined the effect of different rearing conditions and psychological stress on immunoglobulin levels in rhesus monkey infants. In the first experiment, 24 rhesus neonates were placed in one of the three following rearing conditions: Separated from their mothers and reared in the laboratory nursery; kept with their biological mothers; or removed at birth from their biological mothers and cross‐fostered to adoptive rhesus mothers. Plasma samples were obtained from the nursery‐reared infants immediately after birth and at weekly intervals for the next 30 days. Samples were also obtained from mother‐reared and foster‐reared infants on days 15 and 29. All samples were tested for IgG and IgM levels. The results indicated that neither rearing nor diet affected Ig levels. IgG levels were highest at birth and decreased progressively for the first 30 days, suggesting that placental transfer of maternal IgG is the critical determinant of IgG levels in primate infants as in humans. IgM changes were also similar to those in human infants: Low levels at birth, a significant increase from birth to day 15, and a moderate decline from day 15 to day 30. When IgG levels and IgM levels were correlated across the first month, many significant correlations were found which were consistent with human data relating both infant IgG and IgM levels to infant maturation. In the second experiment, 11 of the previously tested nursery infants were subjected to four consecutive social separations from peer groups at 6 months of age. Plasma samples were obtained before and after the first and fourth weeks of separation and tested for IgG and IgM levels. Small but significant decreases in both immunoglobulins were detected after 4 days of separation, particularly on the fourth week.
High‐resolution chromosome banding studies in Cebus apella, Cebus albifrons, and Lagothrix lagothricha: Comparison with the human karyotype
Authors: Clemente I. C. , Garcia M. , Ponsà M. , Egozcue J.
Published: June 2005

Karyotypes of three species of South American primates (Cebus apella, Cebus albifrons, and Lagothrix lagothricha) were studied using high‐resolution banding techniques, and were compared to the human karyotype. The number of homologies was very high for the three species. Some of the breakpoints implicated in chromosome rearrangements corresponded with human fragile sites. The fragile sites in human chromosomes often correspond with the localization of latent centromeres in the platyrrhines or with large heterochromatic regions that may have been lost or newly added during evolution.
Red howler monkey birth data I: Seasonal variation
Authors: Crockett Carolyn M. , Rudran Rasanayagam
Published: June 2005

A large set of birth data from a population of red howler monkeys (Alouatta seniculus) in two habitats found a consistent birth “dip,” with births occurring less frequently in early wet season (May–July) than during the remaining months. In one of two habitats, births were negatively correlated with rainfall, and viable conceptions were positively correlated with rainfall. The observed degree of within‐troop birth synchrony appeared to reflect populational synchrony with environmental factors. Correlations between births and the phenology of plant foods were not striking, but there was weak support for the hypothesis that births are timed to maximize the availability of weaning foods. Reduced births in early wet season also minimize the number of Infants who would experience the transition to independent locomotion and feeding during the peak of the dry season when probable low moisture content of foods and high daytime temperatures might be disadvantageous. However, there was no relationship between season of birth and infant mortality.
Red howler monkey birth data II: Interannual, habitat, and sex comparisons
Authors: Crockett Carolyn M. , Rudran Rasanayagam
Published: June 2005

Data presented in this paper are derived from the births and subsequent histories of red howler infants born in two habitats. Overall the sex ratio of infants at birth was about 1:1. Infant survivorship (at 1 yr) was about 80%, and 44% of infant mortality was attributed to infanticide by males. Survivorship curves indicated a dramatic sex difference, with far fewer females than males known to be alive at age 7 yr. However, this sex difference may be inflated because emigrant males are more easily identified than emigrant females, and females may be dispersing beyond the boundaries of the study area at a higher rate. Annual birthrate varied somewhat from year to year and was positively related to rainfall. Annual birthrate tended to be higher in the habitat with lower density and higher growth rate. Consistent with the trends, in annual birthrate, variation in interbirth interval length (TBR after births of surviving infants was related primarily to habitat differences and annual variation in rainfall. Season of birth and maternal age class had no effect on IBI. Infant sex had mostly nonsignificant effects on IBI. A small sample indicated that IBI's were significantly longer after the births of females who eventually became natal breeders than after the births of females who eventually emigrated. This difference might reflect differential parental (maternal) investment of some sort.