bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Sexual dimorphism in relation to big‐game hunting and economy in modern human populations
Authors: Collier Stephen
Published: February 2006

Postcranial skeletal data from two recent Eskimo populations are used to test David Frayer's model of sexual dimorphism reduction in Europe between the Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic. Frayer argued that a change from big‐game hunting and adoption of new technology in the Mesolithic reduced selection for large body size in males and led to a reduction in skeletal sexual dimorphism. Though aspects of Frayer's work have been criticized in the literature, the association of big‐game hunting and high sexual dimorphism is untested. This study employs univariate and multivariate analysis to test that association by examining sexual dimorphism of cranial and postcranial bones of two recent Alaskan Eskimo populations, one being big‐game (whale and other large marine mammal) hunting people, and the second being salmon fishing, riverine people. While big‐game hunting influences skeletal robusticity, it cannot be said to lead to greater sexual dimorphism generally. The two populations had different relative sexual dimorphism levels for different parts of the body. Notably, the big‐game hunting (whaling) Eskimos had the lower multivariate dimorphism in the humerus, which could be expected to be the structure under greatest exertion by such hunting in males. While the exertions of the whale hunting economic activities led to high skeletal robusticity, as predicted by Frayer's model, this was true of the females as well as the males, resulting in low sexual dimorphism in some features. Females are half the sexual dimorphism equation, and they cannot be seen as constants in any model of economic behavior. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Brief communication: Possible third molar impactions in the hominid fossil record
Authors: Gibson Kathleen R. , Calcagno James M.
Published: February 2006

Impacted third molars affect 15%–20% of modern Americans and Western Europeans. In contrast, third molar impactions have not been reported in the early hominid fossil record. It is uncertain whether the lack of reports reflects an absence of impactions or a failure to recognize them. This communication is intended to raise awareness of the possibility of impactions by describing the appearance of impacted teeth and by noting two possible instances of impaction in early hominids. Specifically, the mandibular third molars of the Sterkfontein specimen, STS52b (Australopithecus africanus), and the left maxillary third molar of the Lake Turkana specimen, KNM‐WT17400 (Australopithecus boisei), are positioned in a manner which suggests that they would not have erupted normally. Both specimens also exhibit strong crowding of the anterior dentition, providing further support for the view that these individuals lacked sufficient space for normal eruption of the third molars. Other published reports of dental crowding in the hominid fossil record are noted, and it is suggested that more attention be paid to dental impaction and dental crowding in hominid evolution. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Response of bone and enamel formation to nutritional supplementation and morbidity among malnourished Guatemalan children
Authors: May Richard L. , Goodman Alan H. , Meindl Richard S.
Published: February 2006

The effects of changes in nutritional and health status upon bone and enamel development are examined in a sample of 63 rural Guatemalan children (24 females, 39 males). The number of ossified hand‐wrist centers at 3 years and the number of linear enamel hypoplasias (LEH) in ∼0–3 year zones of developing teeth were used to monitor the response of bone mineralization and enamel matrix formation to illness and nutritional supplementation. Numbers of ossified centers and LEH were compared across sex, supplementation, and morbidity groups.

Enamel matrix secretion responded positively to increased supplementation. Children who received less than 34.25 kcal/day in supplement had more LEH than those who received more supplement. No differences in ossification status were found between supplementation groups. These data suggest that enamel formation may be more sensitive to changes in nutritional status than is bone mineralization. Disruptions of bone and enamel formation were both associated with frequent illness. Children who were ill more than 3.6% of the time had more LEH and fewer ossified hand‐wrist centers than children who were less frequently ill. Conclusions regarding relative environmental sensitivity must take into account the specific aspects of dental and skeletal development examined. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Meningeal arterial patterns in great apes: Implications for hominid vascular evolution
Authors: Falk Dean
Published: February 2006

Arterial meningeal patterns were observed for 100 hemispheres from great ape endocasts (Pan paniscus, Pan troglodytes, Gorilla gorilla, and Pongo pygmaeus). Eight patterns emerged based on the relative contributions to the walls and dura mater of the middle part of the braincase of meningeal arteries that stem from two sources. These arteries enter the braincase through either the orbit (delivering blood from the internal carotid artery) or through the base of the middle cranial fossa (via the middle meningeal artery whose blood comes from the external carotid artery). The three genera of apes manifest different frequencies of the eight, patterns, with orangutans highly dependent on orbital meningeal arteries at one extreme, and chimpanzees showing the greatest reliance on the middle meningeal artery at the other.

As was the case in an earlier study of rhesus monkeys, there is a trend across the two genera of African apes for increased mean cranial capacity to be associated with increased reliance on the internal carotid artery for supplying the middle portion of the braincase. However, unlike the case for macaques, this trend does not reach statistical significance in African apes. Because it is rare for humans to manifest significant arterial contributions from the orbit to the middle cranial fossa, the comparative data on monkeys, apes, and humans suggest that, during the course of vascular evolution in Homo, the middle meningeal artery eventually took over supply of the entire middle cranial fossa. This hypothesis should be tested in the hominid fossil record.

Earlier work on meningeal arterial patterns in apes has traditionally relied on Adachi's system that was determined from humans and focuses on the origin of the middle branch of the middle meningeal artery. As a result, the extensive orbital contributions to the middle portion of the braincase that characterize apes were not recognized and the eight patterns described in this paper were often erroneously assigned to the three patterns that adequately describe only humans. Adachi's system should therefore be abandoned for nonhuman primates and early hominids. A correct understanding of meningeal arterial evolution cannot be achieved until the orbital contributions to the meningeal arteries are recognized and incorporated into an evolutionary study that spans from apes to fossil hominids to living people. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Hominid enamel thickness: I. The Krapina Neandertals
Authors: Molnar Stephen , Hildebolt Charles , Molnar Iva M. , Radovcic Jakov , Gravier Michael
Published: February 2006

Dental x‐rays were taken of isolated and in situ adult molar teeth of the Krapina Neandertal (n = 63) and of recent and contemporary molars (n = 423). The radiographs were digitized at high resolution (1,024 × 1,520 × 8 bits) with a 35 mm solid state scanner. Ratios of enamel cap area to the underlying dentinal‐pulpal area were determined and comparisons were made between average ratios for the Neandertal and contemporary molars. Neandertal molars had significantly smaller ratios than did contemporary teeth (P < 0.05). It is suggested that the smaller ratios represent relatively thinner enamel for Neandertals and that the thin enamel may have been caused by a metabolic depression that resulted in reduced enamel quantity (hypoplasia). Alternately, the observed differences may be related to expanded pulps seen in various stages of taurodontism. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Hypertrophy of the acetabulo‐cristal buttress in Homo sapiens
Authors: Rader William T. , Peters Charles R.
Published: February 2006

In the early 1970s, excavation at the King site, a contact period Mississippian village in northwest Georgia, yielded the skeletal remains of a robust male (King 65) possessing marked hypertrophy of the acetabulo‐cristal buttress. The buttress is morphologically similar to that of Plio‐Pleistocene Homo but it is accompanied by an anatomically modern degree of thickening of the gluteal table of the ilium. Although the degree of cortical thickness of the gluteal table of the ilium is apparently species‐specific, hypertrophy of the acetabulo‐cristal buttress is developmental and may be expressed in all species of Homo. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Enamel thickness of human maxillary molars reconsidered
Authors: Macho Gabriele A. , Berner Margit E.
Published: February 2006

Forty‐four modern human maxillary molars (M1 = 21, M2 = 12, and M3= 11) were sectioned through the mesial cusps in a plane perpendicular to the cervical margin of the crown. Eight measurements of enamel thickness as well as bucco‐lingual (BL) and mesio‐distal (MD) diameters were recorded for each tooth in order to investigate differences in these dimensions between tooth categories. Uni‐ and multi‐variate analyses revealed first maxillary molars to have generally thinner enamel than second or third upper molars, especially with regard to the occlusal basin. Furthermore, the decrease of MD diameters from anterior to posterior is greater than that of BL diameters. Principal Component Analysis using enamel thickness measurements resulted in complete separation of first molars, while second and third maxillary molars showed a certain amount of overlap. This finding casts doubt on using an overall measure of “molar enamel thickness” derived from mixed samples of molars for taxonomic purposes. There appears to be a relationship between bite force and enamel thickness such that posterior molars, where masticatory forces are stronger, have thicker enamel than anterior teeth. It is suggested that the gradient of enamel thickness between (and within) teeth in extant and extinct species may thus provide further information about relative wear resistance as well as the biomechanical constraints of the orofacial skeleton. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Canine size and shape in male anthropoid primates
Authors: Plavcan J. Michael
Published: February 2006

While studies of canine dimorphism in primates are common, only a few have examined canine tooth size independently within each sex. Recently, Greenfield and Washburn (Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 84:17–34, 1991) proposed that there are two types of male canines which reflect different allometric scaling patterns of canine crown height against canine occlusal dimensions. They also suggest that proportional canine shape, measured as canine crown height (or projection) relative to the occlusal dimensions, provides an estimate of the canine's function as a weapon, though they provide no test of this hypothesis. This analysis critically examines the claim that there are two types of male canines among anthropoids. It then tests the hypothesis that relative male canine size (measured against body weight) and proportional canine shape are related to estimates of intermale competition, diet, and substrate (used as a surrogate measure of predation pressure). While there is strong taxonomic variation in canine size and shape among male anthropoids, no evidence is found for two discrete canine types. Rather, within families and subfamilies, canine dimensions scale isometrically against body weight and against each other, with a continuum of canine shapes among different taxa. While variation in male canine size is associated with intermale competition and substrate, even when taxonomic variation is controlled, variation in proportional canine shape is not. Neither canine size nor shape are generally associated with variation in diet. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Enamel microstructure and molar wear in the greater galago, Otolemur crassicaudatus (mammalia, primates)
Authors: Maas Mary C.
Published: February 2006

This study describes the molar enamel microstructure of the greater galago, based on SEM study of four individuals. Galago molar enamel consists primarily of radially oriented Pattern 1 prisms. However, the most superficial enamel is characterized by regions of poorly developed prisms or nonprismatic enamel, and Pattern 3 prisms can be found at depths intermediate and deep to the enamel surface. Orientations of prism long axes relative to wear surfaces differ among functionally distinct regions (cuspal facets, Phase I/II facets, and crushing basins). Consequently, orientations of enamel crystallites relative to these surfaces also differ. Because crystallites are the structural unit involved in enamel abrasion, these differences in orientation may have important effects on molar wear patterns. Crystallite orientations differ most between cuspal facets and Phase I/II facet surfaces. Cuspal facets are characterized by near surface‐parallel interprismatic and surface‐oblique prismatic crystallites. Previous experimental studies suggest that this arrangement is most resistant to wear when surface‐normal (compressive) loads predominate. In contrast, prismatic and interprismatic crystallites intercept Phase I/II facet surfaces obliquely, an arrangement expected to resist abrasion when surface‐parallel (shearing) loads predominate. Superficial enamel is preserved at most basin surfaces, indicating that these regions are subject to comparatively little abrasive wear.

These results support the hypothesis that galago occlusal enamel is organized so as to resist abrasion of different functional regions, a property that may prove important in maintaining functional efficiency. However, this largely reflects constraints of occlusal topography on a microstructure typical of many mammals and thus does not appear to represent a structural innovation. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Treponematosis in regional and chronological perspective from central Gulf Coast Florida
Authors: Hutchinson Dale L.
Published: February 2006

Examination of five central Gulf Coast Florida archaeological skeletal series (n = 547) from the late prehistoric and early historic periods reveals the presence of pathological lesions characteristic of treponemal infection. These skeletal remains of native American populations represent a crucial time regarding hypotheses about the exchange of syphilis between the Old and New World or the mutation of one treponemal infection into another. Comparison of the lesions with those observed in modern studies of treponemal infection does not support an interpretation of veneral syphilis. The data from this study and from other archaeological skeletal series indicate the presence of a treponemal disease prior to European contact. The skeletal elements from Florida do not suggest that the disease changed dramatically following contact with Europeans. It is possible that cases of nonspecific postcranial pathology can be explained by the presence of this disease in the Florida populations. This study indicates that a treponemal disease was endemic throughout the region by at least A. D. 1000. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Paleoserology of the Christian population at Sayala (Lower Nubia): An evaluation of the reliability of the results
Authors: Paoli Giorgio , Tarli Silvana M. Borgognini , Klír Premysl , Strouhal Eugen , Tofanelli Sergio , Del Santo Valli Maria T. , Pavelcová Bela
Published: February 2006

A paleoserological study of human remains from the Christian cemeteries of Sayala (Lower Nubia, 6th–11th centuries A. D.) was carried out by applying two techniques (absorption‐elution and haemagglutination‐inhibition), on two types of substratum (bones and hair), in separate laboratories (Pisa and Prague). The aim of research was to evaluate the degree of repeatability of the results and the reliability of the final paleoserological diagnoses. The results indicated different degrees of repeatability depending on the differential sensitivity of the two techniques and on the nature of the substratum. The frequencies of concordant and discordant final diagnoses within and between the two laboratories and by the two methods were significantly different from those expected under the conditions of random distribution, indicating a consistency in results from different laboratories and methods. The reliability of the resulting gene and phenotype distributions is also supported by their consistency both with the theoretical Hardy‐Weinberg equilibrium and with the present distribution of the ABO gene frequencies in Egyptian, Sudanese, and Nubian populations. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Growth of nomadic and settled Turkana infants of northwest Kenya
Authors: Little Michael A. , Gray Sandra J. , Leslie Paul W.
Published: February 2006

Turkana tribespeople reside in a semi‐arid savanna ecosystem in northwest Kenya. For over a decade, Ngisonyoka Turkana nomads have been studied within a multidisciplinary framework that embraces ecology, anthropology, and human population biology. Original research objectives of the South Turkana Ecosystem Project were to study nomads longitudinally and within the context of the dry savanna ecosystem. These objectives have been expanded to incorporate settled Turkana who were nomads in the recent past, but who, for a variety of reasons, have taken up a life of sedentary cultivation.

The research described here focused on comparisons of growth patterns of nomadic and settled infants from birth to 24 months of age. Infants were measured (recumbent length, weight, head circumference, arm and calf circumference, and selected skinfolds) in 1989 and 1990. Settled infants were slightly longer, but nomadic infants were heavier and fatter. Head circumferences were the same. Some variation was observed by season and year of measurement (from comparative surveys). Both groups showed pronounced weight faltering after 6 months of age when compared with U. S. NCHS reference values. Head circumference faltering was moderate and recumbent length faltering was only slight after 12 months of age. Comparisons of Turkana infant growth in the two populations can contribute indirectly to a better understanding of infant nutritional status, probable morbidity, and other factors, some of which may be linked to female reproduction. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Torso morphology and locomotion in Proconsul nyanzae
Authors: Ward Carol V.
Published: February 2006

A new partial skeleton of Proconsul nyanzae from Mfangano Island, Kenya (KNM‐MW 13142) includes five lumbar vertebrae, a partial sacrum, and nearly complete hipbone. Until recently, little was known of the axial and pelvic skeletons of Proconsul, or any early Miocene hominoid. Because torso morphology directly reflects locomotor behavior, these elements provide important new information about posture and locomotion of P. nyanzae. Two basic patterns of locomotor behavior and corresponding torso morphology exist among extant anthropoids. Monkeys have long, flexible spines with powerful epaxial muscles and mediolaterally narrow thoraces. This morphology represents a response to the mechanical requirements of habitual pronograde quadrupedalism. In contrast, hominoids, particularly great apes, have shorter, stiffer spines and broader torsos than do monkeys. The hominoid pattern reflects an emphasis on forelimb abduction‐adduction, and on stability and control of the lower back during forelimb‐dominated arboreal locomotion. KNM‐MW 13142 had craniocaudally elongate vertebral bodies, and probably six lumbar vertebrae, reflecting a long, flexible vertebral column. The narrow, laterally facing iliac blades of KNM‐MW 13142 imply the presence of a mediolaterally narrow, dorsoventrally deep thorax. Its wide iliac tuberosities, ventrally located lumbar transverse processes, and distinct accessory processes suggest that Proconsul nyanzae also had strap‐like epaxial muscles similar to those characterizing most monkeys. Axial and pelvic morphology of KNM‐MW 13142 indicate that P. nyanzae had not undergone an ape‐like rearrangement of its torso to adapt to forelimb‐dominated arboreality. Instead, P. nyanzae probably retained a more primitive pattern of pronograde quadrupedalism. This morphology indicates that the extant hominoid pattern of torso anatomy arose subsequent to the establishment of the hominid clade. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Facial anatomy of Victoriapithecus and its relevance to the ancestral cranial morphology of old world monkeys and apes
Authors: Benefit Brenda R. , McCrossin Monte L.
Published: February 2006

Recently discovered Craniofacial fossils of the middle Miocene cercopithecoid Victoriapithecus are described. The frontal, zygomatic, maxilla, and premaxilla anatomy differ from the previously proposed colobine‐like ancestral cercopithecoid morphotype in several significant respects. This morphotype was based on the assumption that features held in common by subordinate hominoid and cercopithecoid morphotypes (Colobinae and Hylobatidae) are primitive for Old World monkeys. Cranial similarities between Victoriapithecus, which represents the sister‐group of both colobine and cercopithecone monkeys, and the shorter‐snouted Cercopithecinae (Macaca and Cercopithecus) indicate that the last common ancestor of Old World monkeys possessed the following features: a narrow interorbital septum, moderately long snout, moderately long and anteriorly tapering premaxilla, large procumbent upper central incisors set anterior to and with longer roots than lateral incisors, moderately tall face below the orbits, teardrop‐shaped nasal aperture of low height and moderate width, and probably long and narrow nasal bones. The Victoriapithecus cranium is also characterized by features not present in modern cercopithecids. These include a deep malar region of the zygomatic and the presence of a frontal trigon due to the occurrence of temporal lines that merge with supraorbital costae close to the midline of each orbit and converge anterior to bregma. These features are interpreted as primitive retentions from the basal catarrhine condition as indicated by the occurrence of these features among primitive catarrhines (Aegyptopithecus) and Miocene hominoids (Afropithecus). © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Fish‐eaters and farmers: Dental pathology in the Arabian Gulf
Authors: Littleton Judith , Frohlich Bruno
Published: February 2006

Twelve skeletal samples, previously published, from the Arabian Gulf have been used to trace differences in diet and subsistence patterns through an analysis of dental pathology. The skeletons date from 3,000 BC to AD 1,500 and cover a variety of geographical locations: off‐shore islands, Eastern Arabia, and Oman. The dental conditions analyzed are attrition, caries, calculus, abscessing, and antemortem tooth loss (AMTL). Results indicate four basic patterns of dental disease which, while not mutually exclusive, correspond to four basic subsistence patterns. Marine dependency, represented by the Ras el‐Hamra population, is indicated by severe attrition, low caries rates, wear‐caused abscessing, and a lack of AMTL. The second group of dental diseases—moderate attrition and calculus, low rates of caries, wearcaused abscessing, and low‐moderate rates of AMTL—affects populations subsisting on a mixture of pastoralism or fishing and agriculture (Failaka, Umm an‐Nar, Bronze Age Maysar, Bronze Age Shimal, and Iron Age Galilah). Mixed farming populations (Iron Age Maysar and Islamic Bahrain) experienced low‐moderate attrition, high rates of caries and calculus, abscessing due to caries, and severe AMTL. The final group of dental diseases affects populations practicing intensive gardening (Bronze and Iron Age Bahrain, and Sites 3 and 5, Ras al‐Khaimah). These groups experienced slight attrition, high rates of caries, low rates of calculus deposition, and severe AMTL. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Ancient DNA from a pre‐Columbian Amerindian population
Authors: Stone Anne C. , Stoneking Mark
Published: February 2006

Ancient DNA was obtained from skeletal remains from the Norris Farms #36 cemetery, a pre‐Columbian archeological site in central Illinois that dates to A. D. 1300. Four mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) markers were analyzed that delineate the four primary mtDNA lineages found in contemporary Amerindian populations. mtDNA types were determined for 50 individuals; 49 belonged to one of these four lineages. One lineage occurred only in males, suggesting an immigration of maternally related males into this community. There was no significant spatial patterning of mtDNA lineages within the cemetery. This survey of ancient DNA variation in a preColumbian population supports the view that the initial colonization of the New World comprised just four primary mtDNA lineages. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Sexual dimorphism of the human corpus callosum from three independent samples: Relative size of the corpus callosum
Authors: Holloway Ralph L. , Anderson Paul J. , Defendini Richard , Harper Clive
Published: February 2006

Three independent autopsy samples of brains without apparent neuropathology were studied to ascertain whether there was sexual dimorphism in the human corpus callosum (CC). Using planimetric measurements on midsagittal brain sections, several morphometric features of the CC were studied: total callosal area, maximum dorsoventral splenial width, the posterior one fifth of the total area of the CC (mostly splenium), and brain weight. Ratio data correcting for brain size were also studied. In all samples, absolute brain size was larger in males, and significantly so. Measurements of splenial dorsoventral width were higher in females than males, but not significantly, except in the Australian sample. Total callosal area was absolutely higher in the Australian female sample than in males, and almost equal in the two American samples, without statistically significant differences. The posterior one‐fifth area (splenium) was larger for females in each of the samples. The variables which were corrected for brain size were usually significantly larger in females, although this pattern varied in each sample. The statistical pattern of sexual dimorphism for the human CC differs from that found in most other neural structures, such as the amygdaloid nucleus, cerebellum, hippocampus, and thalamus. The absolute sizes of these structures are always significantly larger in males. When corrected for brain size, the relative sizes are not significantly larger. The CC is the only structure to show a larger set of relative measures in females. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Latitudinal and insular variation of skull size in crab‐eating macaques (Primates, Cercopithecidae: Macaca fascicularis)
Authors: Fooden Jack , Albrecht Gene H.
Published: February 2006

Macaca fascicularis is broadly distributed in Southeast Asia across 30° of latitude and 35° of longitude (Indochinese Peninsula, Isthmus of Kra, Malay Peninsula, Greater and Lesser Sunda Islands, Philippine Islands, and numerous small, neighboring islands). The range is divisible into 1) a core area comprised of mainland Southeast Asia, Borneo, Sumatra, and Java (large land masses interconnected during the last glacial maximum, 18,000 B. P.); 2) shallow‐water fringing islands, which are smaller islands connected to the core area during the last glacial maximum; and 3) deep‐water fringing islands, which are peripheral islands not connected to the core area during the last glacial maximum. Skull length was used to study effects of latitude and insularity on patterns of size variation. The data are from 802 adult M. fascicularis specimens from 140 core‐area localities, 63 shallow‐water islands, and 29 deep‐water islands. Sex‐specific polynomial regressions of skull length on latitude were used to describe skull length variation in the core area. These regressions served as standards for evaluating variation among samples from shallow‐water and deep‐water islands. The core area exhibits Bergmannian latitudinal size clines through most of the species range. Thus, skull length decreases from about 8°S (Java) to the equator (Sumatra and Borneo), then increases as far north as about 13°N (Isthmus of Kra). Farther north, to the northernmost Indochinese localities at about 17°N, skull length in M. fascicularis decreases with increasing latitude, contrary to Bergmann's rule. Latitudinal size variation in shallow‐water fringing islands generally parallels that in the core area. However, skull length tends to be smaller than in the core area at similar latitudes. Deep‐water fringing islands are markedly more variable, with relatively small specimens in the Lesser Sunda Islands and relatively large specimens in the Nicobar Islands. These analyses illustrate how a primate species may vary in response to latitudinal temperature variation and to isolation. © 1993 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Cladistic analysis of molecular and morphological data
Authors: Mishler Brent D.
Published: February 2006

Considerable progress has been made recently in phylogenetic reconstruction in a number of groups of organisms. This progress coincides with two major advances in systematics: new sources have been found for potentially informative characters (i. e., molecular data) and (more importantly) new approaches have been developed for extracting historical information from oldornew characters (i. e., Hennigian phylogenetic systematics or cladistics). The basic assumptions of cladistics (the existence and splitting of lineages marked by discrete, heritable, and independent characters, transformation of which occurs at a rate slower than divergence of lineages) are discussed and defended. Molecular characters are potentially greater in quantity than (and usually independent of) more traditional morphological characters, yet their great simplicity (i. e., fewer potential character states; problems with determining homology), and difficulty of sufficient sampling (particularly from fossils) can lead to special difficulties. Expectations of the phylogenetic behavior of different types of data are investigated from a theoretical standpoint, based primarily on variation in the central parameter λ (branch length in terms of expected number of character changes per segment of a tree), which also leads to possibilities for character and character state weighting. Also considered are prospects for representing diverse yet clearly monophyletic clades in larger‐scale cladistic analyses, e. g., the exemplar method vs. “compartmentalization” (a new approach involving substituting an inferred “archetype” for a large clade accepted as monophyletic based on previous analyses). It is concluded that parsimony is to be preferred for synthetic, “total evidence” analyses because it appears to be a robust method, is applicable to all types of data, and has an explicit and interpretable evolutionary basis. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Patterns of predation by chimpanzees on red colobus monkeys in gombe national park, 1982–1991
Authors: Stanford C. B. , Wallis J. , Matama H. , Goodall J.
Published: February 2006

Predatory patterns in wild chimpanzees are important evidence in the continuing debate about the role of hunting in the behavior of early hominids. Data are presented on the predator–prey ecology of red colobus monkeys (Colobus badius tephrosceles) and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) in Gombe National Park, Tanzania, from 1982 through 1991. During this period chimpanzees were observed to kill 429 mammalian prey items, 350 of which were red colobus. Hunts were undertaken by chimpanzees in 71.5% of encounters with red colobus, and in 52.2% of all hunts at least one colobus was caught. Hunting occurred in all months, but its frequency peaked in the late dry season months of August and September, and was lowest in the rainy months of April and May. There was greater seasonality of hunting from 1982 to 1991 than previously reported for Gombe. Hunting success varied between 40% in the rainy season and 65% in the dry season. Sixty multiple kills of colobus were reported in which from two to seven colobus were killed. Approximately 75% of all colobus caught were immatures; juveniles were the most preyed upon age class.

Adult and adolescent male chimpanzees made 89.3% of all kills; the 10.7% of kills made by adult females was an increase over the 4% figure for female kills reported in the preceding decade. Hunting showed a strong “binge” tendency, with the explanation for binges likely related to social rather than ecological factors. These results are discussed in light of earlier hunting data for Gombe chimpanzees, and compared with data from other chimpanzee field studies. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Bioarcheological and biocultural evidence for the New England vampire folk belief
Authors: Sledzik Paul S. , Bellantoni Nicholas
Published: February 2006

Folk beliefs associated with death and disease can impact on the bioarcheological record. Unusual postmortem actions by humans and distinctive paleopathological evidence may be clues to these beliefs. This report presents bioarcheological and paleopathological evidence in support of a 19th century New England folk belief in vampires with a particular reference to a colonial period burial. The New England folk belief in vampires revolves around the ability of a deceased tuberculosis victim to return from the dead as a vampire and cause the “wasting away” of the surviving relatives. To stop the actions of the vampire, the body of the consumptive was exhumed and disrupted in various ways. Twelve historic accounts of this activity indicate that the belief was not uncommon in 19th century New England. This creative interpretation of contagion is consistent with the etiology of tuberculosis.

Three pieces of evidence are important in this case. The skeleton of a 50‐ to 55‐year‐old male from a mid‐19th century Connecticut cemetery exhibiting pulmonary tuberculosis rib lesions are discussed. In addition, certain bones in the skeleton were rearranged after decomposition was complete. A historic vampire account from the same time period and geographical location place the belief within the parameters of the cemetery. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Patterns of dental development in Homo, Australopithecus, Pan, and Gorilla
Authors: Smith B. Holly
Published: February 2006

Smith ([1986] Nature 323:327–330) distinguished patterns of development of teeth of juvenile fossil hominids as being “more like humans” or “more like apes” based on statistical similarity to group standards. Here, this central tendency discrimination (CTD) is tested for its ability to recognize ape and human patterns of dental development in 789 subadult hominoids. Tooth development of a modern human sample (665 black southern Africans) was scored entirely by an outside investigator; pongid and fossil hominid samples (59 Pan, 50 Gorilla, and 14 fossil hominids) were scored by the author. The claim of Lampl et al. ([1993] Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 90:113–127) that Smith's 1986 method succeeds in only 8% of human cases was not sustained. Figures for overall success of classification (87% humans, 68% apes) mask important effects of teeth sampled and age class. For humans, the power of CTD varied between 53% and 92% depending on the number and kind of teeth available—‐nearly that of a coin toss when data described only two nearby teeth, but quite successful with more teeth or distant teeth. For apes, only age class affected accuracy: “Infant” apes (M1 development ⩽ root cleft complete, unemerged) were usually classed as humans, probably because the present developmental standard for great apes is in substantial error under 3 years of age. “Juvenile” apes (M1 ⩾ root 1/4), however, were correctly discriminated in 87% of cases. Overall, CTD can be considered reliable (accuracy of 92% for humans and 88% for apes) when data contrast development of distant dental fields and subjects are juveniles (not infants). Restricting analysis of fossils to specimens satisfying these criteria, patterns of dental development of gracile australopithecines and Homo habilis remain classified with African apes. Those of Homo erectus and Neanderthals are classified with humans, suggesting that patterns of growth evolved substantially in the Hominidae. To standardize future research, the computer program that operationalizes CTD is now available. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Enamel thickness and the helicoidal occlusal plane
Authors: Macho Gabriele A. , Berner Margit E.
Published: February 2006

In the present study 38 unworn maxillary molars (M1 = 16, M2= 12, M3 = 10) of modern humans from a Slavic necropolis were sectioned through the mesial cusps in a plane perpendicular to the cervical margin of the crown. Five slightly worn M1s and one slightly worn M3 were also used thus increasing the total sample to 44, but measurements made on the worn areas were coded as missing values. Seven measurements of enamel thickness as well as the heights of the protocone and the paracone dentine horns were recorded in order to analyze whether changes in these dimensions in anteroposterior direction can be related to the helicoidal occlusal plane. Uni‐ and multivariate analyses revealed that the distribution of enamel thickness within and between maxillary molars corresponds to a helicoidal occlusal wear pattern. Enamel thickness along the occlusal basin increases from anterior to posterior, which may lead to rapid development of a reverse curve of Monson in first molars when compared to posterior teeth. However, although these overall differences together with the serial, especially delayed eruption pattern of human molars, contribute to the marked expression of the helicoidal occlusal plane in Homo, differences in enamel patterning between molars indicate that a helicoidal plane is a structural feature of the orofacial skeleton. In contrast to first upper molars, second and third molars show absolutely and relatively thicker enamel under the Phase I wear facet of the paracone, i. e., the lingual slope of the paracone, than under the Phase II facet of the protocone, i. e., the buccal slope of that cusp. These proportional differences are most pronounced in M3, as evidenced by uni‐ and multivariate statistics. It thus appears that the pattern of enamel thickness distribution from M1 to M3 follows a trend towards providing additional tooth material in areas that are under greater functional demands, that is, corresponding to a lingual slope of wear anteriorly and to a flat or even buccal one posteriorly. In addition, the heights of the dentine horns in anteroposterior direction change in a way that lends support to the hypothesis that the axial inclination of teeth could be one of the most important factors for the development of the helicoidal occlusal plane. Finally, the changes in morphology and enamel thickness distribution from first to third upper molars found in this study suggest that molars could be “specialized” in their function, i. e., from performing proportionally more shearing anteriorly to increased crushing and grinding activities posteriorly. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Incisor microwear of Sumatran anthropoid primates
Authors: Ungar Peter S.
Published: February 2006

Several studies have suggested that incisor microwear reflects diet and feeding adaptations of anthropoids. However, such studies have been largely qualitative, and interpretations have relied on anecdotal references to diet and tooth use reported in the socioecology literature. The current study relates incisor microwear in four anthropoid primates to specific ingestive behaviors and food types. Central incisor casts of wild‐shot museum specimens of Hylobates lar, Macaca fascicularis, Pongo pygmaeus, and Presbytis thomasi were examined by scanning electron microscopy, and analyzed using a semiautomated image analysis procedure. Microwear patterns were used to generate predictions regarding diet and anterior tooth use. These predictions were evaluated using data collected during a 1 year study of feeding behavior of these same taxa in the wild (Ungar, 1992, 1994a, b). Results suggest that (1) enamel prism relief is associated with the effectiveness of etching reagents in foods, (2) dental calculus buildup results from a lack of incisor use and perhaps the ingestion of sugar‐rich foods, (3) striation density varies with degree of anterior tooth use in the ingestion of abrasive food items, (4) striation breadth is proposed to relate to the ratio of exogenous grit to phytoliths consumed; and (5) preferred striation orientation indicates the direction that food items are pulled across the incisors during ingestion. It is concluded that incisor microwear studies can contribute to the understanding of diets and feeding behaviors of extinct primates. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Seed‐breaking forces exerted by orang‐utans with their teeth in captivity and a new technique for estimating forces produced in the Wild
Authors: Lucas Peter W. , Peters Charles R. , Arrandale Stewart R.
Published: February 2006

Orang‐utans (Pongo pygmaeus) at the Singapore Zoological Gardens were presented with two thick‐shelled edible seeds, Mezzettia parviflora (Annonaceae) and Macadamia ternifolia (Proteaceae) in order to estimate their maximum bite forces. The orang‐utans could break the Macadamia seeds in one bite, while those of Mezzettia required repeated attempts. Examination of shell fragments showed that many had scratches and some had clear, but small (ca. 1–2 mm diameter), impressions on them. Building upon this information, semi‐imitative tests were performed on the seeds in a universal testing machine by loading them in compression with either flat plates or metal casts of orang‐utan cheek teeth. The maximum forces required to break the seeds were similar with both the flat plates and the metal teeth; the average for the Macadamia seeds being about 2,000 N (which forms a minimum estimate for the maximum bite forces in orang‐utans) and for the Mezzettia seeds, 6,000 N. The work done with the metal teeth was much greater than with the plates. A mechanical analysis showed that this extra work went into producing permanent impressions (“bite marks”) in the shell with the tooth cusps. These impressions were larger than those found on the shells of seeds bitten by the orang‐utans. Nevertheless, it is shown theoretically that the size of these indentations can give an estimate of the bite forces used. The maximum force developed in the machine tests with the metal teeth was correlated with the force calculated from analysis of the bite marks. The method is suitable for use in field studies where the marks left on remnants of hard foods eaten by primates may be used to estimate, very roughly, the forces used to produce them. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Effect of prenatal testosterone administration on palmar dermatoglyphic intercore ridge counts of rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta)
Authors: Jamison Cheryl Sorenson , Jamison Paul L. , Meier Robert J.
Published: February 2006

Dermatoglyphic ridge counts of the prints of 59 rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) whose mothers had been treated with injections of testosterone during their pregnancies were studied to determine the effect of the day the hormone began to be administered, the amount of hormone administered, and the number of days of hormone administration upon the dermatoglyphic variation of the offspring. Of the three hormone variables, only the day of beginning administration (STARTDAY) was significantly associated with dermatoglyphic variation, and its positive significance was demonstrated with the ridge counts of Area I on both the left and right hand, Area II of the left hand, and the total ridge counts of both hands. These results are discussed within the context of the timing of the dermatoglyphic window, and the differences in the findings between the monkey and earlier human studies are addressed. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Immunologic aspects of human colostrum and milk—A misinterpretation
Authors: Hoshower Lisa M.
Published: February 2006

Interpretations of the demographic impact of Western diseases are frequently clouded by a failure to appreciate the complex nature of immune responses. It is commonly assumed that epidemic diseases are generally characterized by both transplacental and lacteal transmission of maternal antibodies. This is not, however, the case for viral diseases, such as measles, smallpox, and influenza–‐all of which reached epidemic proportions during the post‐Columbian era. In this paper I review the nature of the immune response for viral diseases, with emphasis upon measles, a disease that contributed heavily to the demise of native peoples. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.
Jaw muscle function and wishboning of the mandible during mastication in macaques and baboons
Authors: Hylander William L. , Johnson Kirk R.
Published: February 2006

An analysis of in vivo bone strain indicates that the mandibular symphysis of macaques experiences lateral transverse bending or “wishboning” during the power stroke of mastication, and this loading regime results in relatively intense concentrations of stress along the lingual aspect of the symphysis (Hylander 1984, 1985). It has been hypothesized that peak wishboning of the macaque mandible, which probably occurs at the very end of the power stroke, that is, after the initial occurrence of maximum intercuspation, is associated with the late peak activity of the balancing‐side deep masseter muscle coupled with the rapid decline in the activity of the balancing‐side medial pterygoid and superficial masseter muscles (Hylander et al., 1987).

The main purpose of this study is to do a detailed analysis of the electromyographic (EMG) activity of the deep and superficial masseter and medial pterygoid muscles so as to provide a better understanding of the external forces associated with wishboning. This was done by recording and analyzing EMG activity from the superficial masseter, deep masseter, and medial pterygoid muscles in macaques and baboons. EMG activity was recorded from bipolar fine‐wire electrodes, and the data were quantified and analyzed using digital techniques.

The EMG data clearly support our original observation that the balancing‐side posterior deep masseter exhibits peak EMG activity relatively late in the power stroke at a time when activity is rapidly decreasing in the balancing‐side medial pterygoid and superficial masseter muscles. Moreover, peak activity of the balancing‐side deep masseter occurs at a time when the activity of the working‐side deep and superficial masseter and medial pterygoid muscles are also decreasing. Thus, these data are consistent with the hypothesis that wishboning of the mandible is influenced significantly by the late occurrence of force from the balancing‐side deep masseter. The EMG data also indicate that residual force from the relaxing superficial masseter may contribute significantly to wishboning. Finally, patterns of wishboning are not fully accounted for by our EMG analysis of the deep and superficial masseter and medial pterygoid muscles. This is probably because the lateral ptergyoids, which can either counter increased wishboning or actually cause reverse wishboning, were not included in our EMG analysis.

The EMG data demonstrate that jaw‐closing muscle recruitment patterns for macaques and baboons differ from those of humans. Nevertheless, in spite of these differences, it appears, based on previously published EMG data, that the human symphysis may also experience wishboning. Finally, the data suggest that unloading patterns of jaw muscles during mastication are influenced by occlusal contacts, which in turn are influenced by the mechanical and geometrical properties of foods. © 1994 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.