bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Defining China's Rural Population
Authors: Martin Michael F.
Published: February 2009

It is standard practice, both within and outside China, to divide its population between rural and urban. However, this distinction is more complex than at first appears. China's State Statistical Bureau uses three distinct concepts when defining China's rural population. These have been translated into “rural,” “agricultural” and “countryside” definitions. A further complication is that the people included in each of these definitions has changed over time. As a result, data for China's rural population is ambiguous unless the user can determine which of the three definitions is being used and from which period.
Strange Bedfellows: The Communist Party and Shanghai's Elite in the National Salvation Movement
Authors: Stranahan Patricia
Published: February 2009

During the National Salvation Movement of the mid-1930s, the Shanghai Party forged its most workable alliance not with members of the proletariat but with progressives from the city's middle and upper classes. Making use of multi-class patriotism, Party leaders established a co-operative relationship with members of the elite that became a crucial part of Chinese Communist Party (CCP) resistance work against Japan. In many cases, the relationship continued into the post-war years and contributed significantly to the CCP's easy takeover of the city in May 1949.
The Campaign for Agricultural Development in the Great Leap Forward: A Study of Policy-Making and Implementation in Liaoning
Authors: Chan Alfred L.
Published: February 2009

As is well known, the Great Leap Forward (GLF) of 1958–59 was the most intense mobilizational phase in the history of the People's Republic of China and the most concentrated expression of the Utopian Maoist developmental model. Yet the adoption of an alternative development strategy to the Stalinist model by decentralization did not bring about material abundance; it led directly to an economic depression from which the country did not recover until 1965. Therefore, the “leap” is worthy of more scholarly attention than it has received. Of particular interest is the role played by the provinces in the policy-making process, the bureaucratic behaviour of the provincial authorities, the way policies were implemented, and the environmental constraints and how they affected policy-making.
Comment: Mao, the Comintern and the Second United Front
Authors: Garver John W.
Published: February 2009

Sheng and I are in essential agreement that between mid-1935 and late 1936 repeated interventions by the Comintern induced changes in CCP policy which brought it successively closer to a united front with Chiang Kai-shek. We disagree about whether there were significant discrepancies between CCP and Comintern line on this issue at specific points. I argue there were. Sheng argues there were not. The Comintern did not itself adopt a true policy of a united front with Chiang until late 1936, Sheng implies. The Comintern's policy of a united front with Chiang evolved slowly, and as it inched towards this goal it communicated the ideas to Mao who adopted them fully and promptly. “Mao was amenable to Stalin's advice,” Sheng says; he was “sensitive and responsive” to Comintern directives. Any discrepancies between Comintern and CCP lines were differences emphasis, not of substance, according to Sheng. I, on the other hand, argue that Mao's policy was consistently more anti-Chiang than the Comintern's.
Response: Mao and Stalin: Adversaries or Comrades?
Authors: Sheng Michael M.
Published: February 2009

In my view, the fundamental disagreement between Garver and me i, the estimation of the nature of the CCP-Moscow relationship, personalized in the relations between Mao and Stalin. Garver believe, that Stalin regarded Mao as a “dissident communist” who frustrated Stalin's intention to sacrifice the CCP's revolutionary interest; in order to meet the need for Soviet security. In the decade after 1935, Garver continues to argue in his comment, Mao “repeatedly deviate[d] from Comintern line and ultimately emancipate[d] the CCP from Moscow's control.” Therefore, Stalin had good reason to distrust Mao. If the CCP-Moscow radio communication had not been disrupted, Stalin could have prevented Mao from launching a successful coup at the Zunyi Conference, Garver says in his China Quarterly article. After finding some evidence of Stalin's willingness to supply the CCP with weapons, Garver states that “our estimates of Mao's willingness to antagonize Stalin must be adjusted.” To Garver, the Mao-Stalin relations were utilitarian in nature, just like those between Stalin and Chiang Kai-shek – they were all each other's “fishes.” Given the discrepancy between the Soviet security need and the CCP's revolutionary interests, Garver's depiction of the relationship between Mao and Stalin leaves the impression that they were adversaries, rather than comrades.
Human Rights in Chinese Foreign Policy
Authors: Nathan Andrew J.
Published: February 2009

Influence in world affairs is not limited to military and economic power. A government can use ideas and values to build support at home and to recruit sympathizers among publics and policy-makers abroad. The struggle over beliefs and values may be as complex as the struggle over other forms of power. The history of the human rights issue in Chinese foreign policy exemplifies such a process.
Survey Research in the Study of Contemporary China: Learning from Local Samples
Authors: Manion Melanie
Published: February 2009

A widely publicized 1983 Chinese survey found 43 per cent of all “specialized households” in a Shanxi county were households of cadres or former cadres. In what sense, if any, is this finding significant? More, generally, what can be concluded about Chinese society, politics and the economy based on findings from survey research conducted there? This article sets out what can (and what cannot) be inferred from the unrepresentative samples of the Chinese population that are the basis for most survey research conducted in mainland China.
Target Zhou Enlai: The “Kashmir Princess’ Incident of 1955
Authors: Tsang Steve
Published: February 2009

On 11 April 1955 an Air India Constellation passenger airliner, the “Kashmir Princess,” flight 300 from Hong Kong to Djakarta, was sabotaged. It was chartered by the People's Republic of China (PRC) to take its delegation headed by Premier Zhou Enlai to attend the Bandung Conference in Indonesia. On the way to Djakarta with a Chinese delegation aboard there was an explosion, which caused the aircraft to crash into the sea. All eleven passengers were killed and only three members of the crew survived; Zhou was not amongst the victims.
Chinese Women and Sport: Success, Sexuality and Suspicion
Authors: Riordan James , Jinxia Dong
Published: February 2009

The performance of top Chinese women athletes in the 1990s has been unprecedented in the history of sport. Not only have they made remarkable progress from virtual obscurity to world champions and record breakers, they have far surpassed the performance of their male compatriots in international sport. This unique phenomenon extends from middle and long–distance running to swimming and diving, from weightlifting and chess to volleyball and basketball, from shooting and archery to wrestling and rowing, from badminton and gymnastics to softball and soccer – and table tennis dating back to the early 1970s.
China After Deng: Ten Scenarios in Search of Reality
Authors: Baum Richard
Published: February 2009

With Deng Xiaoping preparing to “meet Marx,” speculation over the future shape and stability of the Chinese polity has mounted steadily. In the wake of the 1989 Tiananmen crisis some observers predicted the early demise of China's Communist regime, triggered by a dramatic breakthrough on the part of resurgent democratic forces.1 When the regime failed to collapse as expected, attention was drawn to the apparent absence of such putative prerequisites of “civil society” as semi–autonomous social forces, civic associations and a well–defined “public sphere.” China, it seemed, wasn't quite ready for democracy after all.
The PLA′s Evolving Warfighting Doctrine, Strategy and Tactics, 1985–1995: A Chinese Perspecti
Authors: Li Nan
Published: February 2009

Defence doctrine is an important indicator of armed forces′ intentions and capabilities. Since the policy of defence modernization was introduced in China in 1973, the war-fighting doctrine and strategic principles of the People′s Liberation Army (PLA) have undergone two major changes. The first change came in the late 1970s. The Maoist doctrine of the “people′s war,” which had been prevalent in the late 1960s and 1970s, was replaced by a new doctrine of the “people′s war under modern conditions.”
Training Tomorrow′s PLA: A Mixed Bag of Tricks
Authors: Blasko Dennis J. , Klapakis Philip T. , Corbett John F.
Published: February 2009

Since the summer of 1995, Chinese military training opposite Taiwan has received unusual prominence in both the Chinese and foreign media. The senior leadership in Beijing was able to flex its military muscle because of a training programme begun years ago. This limited use of force has sent unmistakable political signals to Taiwan and the world. But, should the Chinese leadership decide to employ the People′s Liberation Army (PLA) in pursuit of its political objectives, is it well trained enough to conduct successful modern military operations?
Guarding China's Domestic Front Line: The People's Armed Police and China's Stability
Authors: Cheung Tai Ming
Published: February 2009

A single spark can light a prairie fire, Mao Zedong once proclaimed, and China today is as dry as a tinder-box. Rapid economic and social change is undermining the country′s stability. The authorities are struggling to cope with soaring crime, mass rural migration, rising urban unemployment, simmering ethnic discontent and numerous other problems. At the same time, the Communist Party′s legitimacy and organization is crumbling and the ruling elite waits nervously for ailing paramount leader Deng Xiaoping′s death.
The Ubiquitous Role of the Mishu in Chinese Politics
Authors: Li Wei , Pye Lucian W.
Published: February 2009

Important and busy people in all societies rely upon aides, assistants, staff associates, factotums, lackeys and personal servants, and it is no different in China. What is distinctive is the diffuse and all-purpose character of the Chinese mishu, literally “secret book” but usually translated as “secretary.” A mishu, however, is actually someone with both far broader and more personally intimate responsibilities and powers than this term suggests. Any Chinese shouzhang (leader or head) of significance will have numerous mishus, personal and/or organizational, in his service. In China's political arena there are around one million people who claim the title of mishu, and who, in shielding, guiding and doing the bidding of their masters, give a distinctive character to the political process. Mishus operate with considerable authority not just at the pinnacles of power, as aides do in most countries, but from top to bottom of both the Party and state hierarchies. Therefore, to understand how political relationships operate, how communications flow and how authority is asserted in the ranks of Chinese officialdom it is necessary to appreciate the ubiquitous role of the mishu.
The Search for Modernity: Chinese Intellectual Discourse and Society, 1978–88-the Case of Li Zehou
Authors: Min Lin
Published: February 2009

The decade from 1978 to 1988 was a period of great social transformation in China. The pragmatic economic policies and comparatively relaxed political approach resulted in a less rigid and dogmatic atmosphere, providing a more liberal setting for cultural and intellectual activities. Chinese intellectuals directly participated in defining and developing the new social intersubjectivity and ideological discourse. In comparison with the first 30 years of the People's Republic, the role and functions of intellectuals between 1978 and 1988 became increasingly complex within a rapidly changing social context. The period also marks the development of a new pattern in the relationship between Chinese intellectuals and the state, which was no longer based on the total submission of the former to the latter.
China's Arms Merchants: Profits in Command
Authors: Hyer Eric
Published: February 2009

Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, Beijing has engaged in foreign arms transfers. Transfers during the early period went almost unnoticed because they were on a very small scale, were almost invariably gratis, and had little or no impact on the world's arms trade. This low profile changed during the 1980s as China became one of the world's major arms dealers. Beijing estimates that income from arms exports is about US$1.34 billion annually, but other sources estimate that it is over US$2 billion. This dramatic increase attracted attention in October 1987 when Chinese Silkworm missiles fired from Iran badly damaged oil tankers in the Persian Gulf, including American-reflagged Kuwaiti tankers. Only then did the international community recognize that China had become a major arms supplier to the Third World.
Masculinities and Minorities: Alienation in “Strange Tales from Strange Lands”
Authors: Louie Kam
Published: February 2009

This article uses the 14 stories from “Strange Tales from Strange Lands” (Yixiang yiwen) by Zheng Wanlong to discuss the problematic relationship between depictions of primitivism and the search for essential Chineseness within what has become known as “root-seeking literature” (xungen wenxue). It shows that the dichotomous relationship between primitivism and Han civilization presented by Zheng reflects an alienated notion of essential Chineseness and human existence. Since Mao's death, Chinese intellectuals have expressed concern about the emergence of a “faith crisis” and described younger people as the “lost generation.” The article reveals that one stream of root-seeking literature, in its attempts to mitigate this crisis, has instead reflected and indeed perpetuated it.
The Fourteenth Party Congress: A Programme for Authoritarian Rule
Authors: Saich Tony
Published: February 2009

The 14th Party Congress heralded a victory for Deng Xiaoping's programme of rapid economic transformation accompanied by tight political control. His name and policies were lauded in Jiang Zemin's “Work Report” to the Congress and the theory of “socialism with Chinese characteristics” became the cornerstone of the revised Party Constitution. The overhaul of leading personnel has provided a clear Politburo majority in favour of the increasing marketization of China's economy. Thus, the Party has created perhaps one last chance to position itself at the forefront of reform rather than appearing as an antique body engaged in increasingly irrelevant ideological polemics.x Whether it will be able to ride this newly re-released tiger of economic reform will depend on its capacity to deal with the social and political consequences of its strategy, many of which will be unpredictable. In essence, the easy part of reform was completed in the 1980s and the difficult stage will now begin. Citizens will be hit as rents and pricesrise, and the state will have to offer employment or welfare to those who lose their jobs if enterprises are forced to become genuinely efficient. It will take a trustworthy, competent and imaginative leadership to sell this programme to the Chinese people, a task made even harder by the credibility gap that has widened enormously in recent years. The mandate for change is there, but whether it will be exploited effectively remains to be seen. Past experience suggests that despite the commitment to bold changes, the Party will slow down the pace of reform once it senses potential unrest.
Macroeconomic Issues in China in the 1990s
Authors: Yeh K. C.
Published: February 2009

In 1981 the Chinese leadership set the goal of quadrupling China's 1980 per capita GNP by the year 2000 in order to raise the people's standard of living to a “relatively comfortable level.” But apart from sustained growth, the Chinese planners are also very much concerned with economic efficiency and price stability. The new development strategy to attain these goals is economic reform and opening to the outside world Over a decade has now elapsed since these goals were set. This article addresses the issues of how far the Chinese economy has advanced toward those objectives, the major challenges that lie ahead and China's economic prospects in the 1990s.
China's Industrial Performance Since 1978
Authors: Field Robert Michael
Published: February 2009

In the late 1970s, Chinese industry was on the verge of collapse. Its high but erratic rate of growth since 1949 had been achieved by using ever-increasing amounts of labour and capital. Not only was industry operating inefficiently, but the output mix was inappropriate and inventories had accumulated to very high levels. However, the true state of affairs had been obscured by the political turmoil of the Cultural Revolution (1966–76) and the virtual disbanding of the State Statistical Bureau (SSB).
Foreign Investment and Economic Change in China
Authors: Kueh Y. Y.
Published: February 2009

Foreign direct investment (FDI) in China is the most dramatic manifestation of China's open-door policy. Together with continuous import and export expansion, FDI has increasingly exposed the Chinese economy to the western world during the past decade. There are, however, several differences between FDI and foreign trade in terms of their implications for the domestic economy. The most obvious is that FDI directly helps to relieve domestic capital supply bottlenecks and to promote employment and economic growth. By contrast, increased capital formation through imports of machinery and equipment must be financed by extra export earnings.
Chinese Foreign Trade
Authors: Lardy Nicholas R.
Published: February 2009

China's opening to the outside world was perhaps the most visible of its reforms of the 1980s. China's international trade volume grew dramatically, it attracted tens of billions of dollars of foreign direct investment and it became an active borrower in international financial markets. In contrast to the pre-reform era, foreign trade grew more rapidly than the domestic economy and in some regions of the country it appeared that it had become a powerful engine of growth, accelerating not only the speed of domestic development but the pace of structural and technical transformation as well.
The Legacy of the British Administration of Hong Kong: A View from Hong Kong
Authors: Chan Ming K.
Published: February 2009

As the one and a half centuries of British colonial rule draw to a close on 30 June 1997, it is timely to review the true legacy of British administration in Hong Kong. It would be naive to resort to any simplistic blanket judgment or to issue any sweeping endorsement or condemnation on the mixed record of the British administration. It would also be dangerous to look only at the attainments in the final days of the British regime and use them to reconstruct, or even to substitute for, the full span of British rule. Even given a charitable view of this sunset era of the British regime as its finest hour in Hong Kong, a more informed and balanced assessment of its past deeds must be appreciated in the fuller context of the actual inputs and outputs of British officialdom in shaping developments in the territory and the life of Hong Kong people during the entire course of British rule.
Learning How to Open the Door: A Reassessment of China's “Opening” Strategy
Authors: Reardon Lawrence C.
Published: February 2009

Social scientists always have been fascinated by cyclic theories, which not only parsimoniously describe and explain the underlying dynamics of world events, but, for the more adventurous, offer the possibility of prediction. This fascination has been especially true in the China field, where Chinese scholars and practitioners have used cyclic theories to explain Chinese politics since the Early Han. Among contemporary Western academics, sociologists have used “compliance” cycles to characterize the relationship between Chinese elites and the peasantry. Western economists have focused on variations of Chinese business cycles, such as the demand for consumption goods or harvest failures, to analyse China's economic growth. Political scientists have looked at the impact of various business, reform and factional cycles on Chinese political development.
Feeding Fujian: Grain Production and Trade, 1986–1996
Authors: Lyons Thomas P.
Published: February 2009

Recent years have seen a flurry of debate about China's ability to feed itself. In his article “Who will feed China?” and his book of the same title, Lester Brown predicted that China would need grain imports of 200 million tonnes by the year 2030 – an amount that would severely tax the world grain market. Scholars and journalists, both in China and abroad, have weighed in with contradictory analyses and predictions.
Exploring the Complexities of Contemporary Taiwan
Authors: Shambaugh David
Published: February 2009

Taiwan entered the international spotlight in 1996. No longer seen as just an economic powerhouse and diplomatic dilemma, the Republic of China on Taiwan (ROCOT) caught international attention in two new dimensions: politics and security. In March the ROCOT's first ever direct presidential election took place against the backdrop of unprecedented military coercion from the People's Republic of China (PRC). The world watched nervously as Taiwan's presidential candidates campaigned while Chinese missiles landed near the island's two major ports and air and naval forces of the People's Liberation Army (PLA) held live-fire exercises in the Taiwan Strait.
The Enduring Influence of the Republic of China on Taiwan Today
Authors: Clough Ralph N.
Published: February 2009

Taiwan's society today has been shaped primarily by four streams of influence: the traditional China stream, the Japanese stream, the Republic of China stream, and the cosmopolitan stream. The traditional China stream gave the people of Taiwan their language and their basic culture and customs. After 1895 the Japanese stream flowed into Taiwan for 50 years, causing many significant modifications to its society and cutting the people of Taiwan off from the critical changes that occurred in Chinese mainland society during that period. In 1945 the Republic of China (ROC) took over Taiwan, bringing from the mainland its ideology, its educational system; its constitutional structure, its political and social institutions, and a governing elite, most of whom spoke a different dialect of Chinese from the people of Taiwan. The purpose of this article is to identify the principal elements of this ROC stream of influence. The cosmopolitan stream, representing primarily the influence of the West, flowed into all the other streams, to some extent influencing traditional China before the fall of the Qing dynasty, but much more powerfully influencing the ROC on the mainland and Japan. Since 1945 the cosmopolitan stream, at first largely American, has also poured into Taiwan, gaining momentum and diversity with each passing year.
A New Chinese Civilization: The Evolution of the Republic of China on Taiwan
Authors: H. Myers Ramon
Published: February 2009

In 1994 one commentator described Taiwan's people as having “been nurtured and cultivated to acquire the characteristics of an ocean. Their former conservative character, like that of traditional China's, has been remoulded into another only concerned with goals and caring nothing about principles.”1 Another commentator has depicted the island's “break toward an independent existence of its own – neither Chinese, Japanese, or American but thriving on the synergism generated by all three – [is] partly due to its location, its strong economy, its strong defences, and its status as a world trader.”2 Unlike the Chinese people of mainland China, then, Taiwan's people have closely interacted with other peoples and civilizations.
Building Democracy in Taiwan
Authors: Tien Hung Mao , Chu Yun-han
Published: February 2009

This article examines the process of democratization from the December 1992 Legislative Yuan election, a watershed event in the course of Taiwan's regime transition, to the March 1996 presidential election, which put a conclusive end to the process of democratic transition. The political significance of the 1992 election as a historic conjuncture is multi-faceted. First, it was a necessary first step for a full transition to democracy, that is, a founding election.
Charting Taiwan's Technological Future: The Impact of Globalization and Regionalization
Authors: Simon Denis Fred
Published: February 2009

There is now general agreement among observers of international economic and technology affairs that the world has entered a period characterized by the interplay of two potent and possibly dialectical forces - globalization and regionalization. Globalization, which is clearly manifested in the changing nature of competition in industries ranging from textiles to telecommunications, is being driven by a combination of diverse forces, including the communication and transportation revolutions, the growing trends towards liberalization, privatization and deregulation, and the rapid diffusion of technologies around the world. Multinational companies (MNCs) have become the principal purveyors of globalization as they seek out new markets and search the world for access to critical R D, production and distribution assets irrespective of where they may be found. Regionalization, on the other hand, has primarily been driven by macro-political forces, with governments as the initiating agents, as in die case of the formation of the European Union and the North American Free Trade Association. Where regionalization is driven by explicit and overt government actions and policies it can more often than not be seen as an anathema to globalization; politicallyinduced regionalization in these cases is driven, in large part, by concerns about loss of national competitiveness and a decline in economic welfare.
Taiwan's Environment Today
Authors: Edmonds Richard Louis
Published: February 2009

The story of the post-1950 Taiwan economic miracle has been told many times. Quite a few authors have also dealt with aspects of the environmental degradation which has accompanied this growth. In general the literature places the blame on Taiwan society as a whole. It is critical of the government's slow evolution of regard for environmental protection, industry's lack of effort to assume its responsibilities and a lack of individual citizen concern prior to the 1980s. It is true that Taiwan's economy has grown rapidly since the 1960s. Unfortunately, this growth was linked to a low environmental consciousness and the lack of political will to regulate land use and pollution abatement. It was rooted in plastics, petrochemicals, leather goods, pesticides and other high polluting industries. These industries were attracted to Taiwan in part because of the environmental consciousness growing in the island's major markets, the United States and Japan. Sectors of the government favoured heavy industry as it would help with any efforts for a counter-attack against the Communists on the mainland. Social awareness of environmental issues and discontent with government and corporate management only began to grow in the 1980s and the government has yet to come to grips fully with the problem of environmental degradation. The purpose of this article is to describe the current state of Taiwan's environment, to trace the development of environmental movements on the island and to assess government's capability to salvage the situation.
The Organization of Environmental Protection in China
Authors: Jahiel Abigail R.
Published: February 2009

In March 1998, the Ninth National People's Congress swept in a radical reform of government administration. When the dust had settled, the number of government ministry-level bodies had been reduced from 40 to 29, and 50 per cent of government employees had been slated for elimination from governmental payrolls within three years. Amidst this massive effort to cut central government administration, the environmental protection administration emerged as a bureaucratic exception: after years of lobbying, it was finally upgraded to ministerial status. With this unexpected promotion during a time of strict administrative austerity, the new Jiang Zemin-Zhu Rongji administration issued a clear signal that environmental problems were a serious central government concern in need of increased attention.
Environmental Regulation in the People's Republic of China: The Face of Domestic Law
Authors: Palmer Michael
Published: February 2009

In the post-Mao era, one highly significant dimension of China's official programme of reform and integration into the international economy has been a commitment to legal construction. This commitment has included a sustained effort to fashion a basic corpus of environmental protection law alongside supportive institutions, administrative norms and policies, in order to create a “basic legal system of environmental protection”(huanjing baohu de jiben falii zhidu).'In the eyes of the authorities in the People's Republic of China, such efforts reflect a degree of environmental concern that is unusually strong for a developing society.2 China's achievements, we are often told, must be placed in the context of the considerable difficulties the PRC faces in terms of the pressing need to raise living standards, a serious problem of over-population, a shortage of natural resources, an outdated industrial infrastructure and poor industrial management.3 Of course, viewed comparatively, the PRC's embrace of environmental protection law was somewhat belated,4 only properly commencing after its participation in the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held in Stockholm. The subsequent expansion of environmental legislation and enforcement has been some-what erratic. Nevertheless, there appears to be a continuing intent to fashion a substantial body of environmental law, and concern with the construction and revision of this was further enhanced by China's participation in the 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development, held in Rio de Janeiro. Following this, Premier Li Peng “made a commitment to conscientiously implement resolutions adopted at the Conference”5 and, given the PRC's very substantial size and population, a positive embrace of internationally acceptable standards of environmental welfare is highly significant for future global environmental protection. This article examines the principal features and significance of the PRC's domestic environmental protection law, and considers briefly the implications of the Chinese approach to environmental law for understanding the development of law more generally in post-Mao China.
China: Environmental Protection, Domestic Policy Trends, Patterns of Participation in Regimes and Compliance with International Norms
Authors: Ross Lester
Published: February 2009

Environmental protection in the international context constitutes a type of soft or functional regime directed at the control of behaviour by states which generally does not present an overt threat to their neighbours. Rather, the principal danger is one of everyday social or economic activity presenting risks within the state in which it originates, to that state's neighbours and, possibly, the global commons. Thus, it is typically the activity's externalities rather than any intent to cause harm or encroach on neighbours' territory which is the cause of concern. Control is complicated by sovereignty issues, which become paramount when externalities cross a country's boundaries and affect the originator's neighbours and/or the wider international community. Although there have been cases of countries obtaining judicial relief for environmental harms that originated in another country, such issues are overwhelmingly non-justiciable. It is more likely that any international regimes that are established will provide no avenue for judicial relief.
China's Energy and Resource Uses: Continuity and Change
Authors: Smil Vaclav
Published: February 2009

Recent writings on China's achievements during the last quarter of the 20th century stress, almost without exception, the enormity of change. But, for both universal and particular reasons, this survey of the country's energy resources and uses will stress continuity as much as change. Taking the inertia of complex energy systems as the key universal given, the most important particular explanation lies in peculiarities of China's resource endowment.
Business Opportunities for Foreign Firms Related to China's Environment
Authors: Tremayne Bruce , de Waal Penny
Published: February 2009

The world's environmental technology and service industry, although comparatively young, is already important in global terms. In 1992 the value of the world market was estimated at US$210 billion, which was comparable to the global aerospace and pharmaceutical industries. By the year 2000 the market is expected to have grown to around US$335 billion and to have reached a value of US$640 billion by 2010.
Distributional Consequences of Reforming Local Public Finance in China
Authors: Park Albert , Rozelle Scott , Wong Christine , Ren Changqing
Published: February 2009

Central-local budgetary arrangements have undergone numerous changes since the 1960s as the Chinese government in its quest for modernization has sought to balance the needs of central control and local autonomy. During the reform period, the falling tax share of GNP and a commitment to greater decentralization of the planning system led to major changes in the public finance system that have devolved expenditure responsibilities and financial authority to local governments. Fiscal decentralization has been credited with hardening budget constraints for local publicly controlled enterprises and government agencies. New budgetary relations have instilled fiscal discipline, allowing local governments to disburse more expenditures only if they generated more revenues. These reforms have helped unleash the entrepreneurial spirit of local bureaucrats, fuelling the rapid growth of rural industry.
Reproduction of Danwei Institutional Features in the Context of China's Market Economy: The Case of Haidian District's High-Tech Sector
Authors: Francis Corinna-Barbara
Published: February 2009

The literature on the political and economic transition from Communism, developed largely in the context of Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union, has been dominated by the idea that horizontal forms of social and political association displace the vertically structured, segmented forms of social control and organization which are characteristic of traditional Communist systems. Social forces, by linking together in broadly based, horizontally structured associations such as industry-wide labour unions and associations of private entrepreneurs, are able to break out of the vertical structures of control and strengthen their collective bargaining position vis-a-vis the state. New associations of entrepreneurs, workers, religious organizations and eventually political parties emerge and coalesce and further strengthen the power of civil society against the state. Economic liberalization is seen as a particular catalyst to this process. Market reforms weaken the state's centralized control and enable social forces to mobilize autonomously.
Middle County Radicalism: The May Fourth Movement in Hangzhou
Authors: Yeh Wen-hsin
Published: February 2009

The May Fourth Movement of 1919 occupies a special position in scholars’ consideration of modern China as a result of the convergence of two sets of historical constructions. In China, according to official textbooks explaining the rise of the People's Republic that were first promulgated by the new socialist state in the 1950s, 1919 was identified as the very moment of origin when cultural iconoclasm was joined to a political activism of the anti-imperialist and anti-feudal struggle: the watershed affecting the flow of all subsequent revolutionary history. In the West, as presented in Chow Tse-tsung's highly influential 1964 volume, May Fourth was singled out as the time of patriotic awakening reached as a result of intellectual exposure to such Western liberal values as science, democracy, liberty and individualism. The May Fourth Movement has since been characterized variously as a response to Western liberal influence; as a product of education abroad in Japan, Europe or America; as an awakening to the call of international Bolshevism; and as an evaluative rejection of traditional Confucianism as the primary source of authority. Whether liberal or revolutionary, these intellectual developments were then seen as the inspiration for a unified national political movement that spread outward from Beijing and Shanghai into the provinces.
New Bosses in the Workers' State: The Growth of Non-State Sector Employment in China
Authors: Sabin Lora
Published: February 2009

Although the state is still a major economic actor in China's cities, it is widely recognized that the rapid expansion of entities outside the state sphere has already fundamentally altered not just the urban economic landscape but also the forces driving the country's labour markets. The extent and consequences of this expansion are in need of much greater scrutiny, however. A number of analysts have made use of available information to clarify employment growth and changes in employment structure since the early years of the People's Republic and the early period of reform. Recent scholarship has also enhanced understanding of the design, implementation and impact of formal labour reforms, such as the labour contract system, and the nature of worker-management relations in a partially reformed environment. But because of the scarcity of data on the non-state economy, this research has tended to focus on the state-owned industrial sector.
Deconstructing the Construction of the Party-State: Gulin County in the Shaan-Gan-Ning Border Region
Authors: Esherick Joseph W.
Published: February 2009

It used to be a truism that 20th-century China witnessed one of the great peasant revolutions of world history. The Chinese Communist Party built a popular base in the countryside, and eventually a massive army of peasant soldiers surrounded the cities and drove the urban-based Kuomintang from the Mainland. In the comparative literature, the Chinese revolution was classified as a peasant revolution, and a number of important studies sought to explain the social origins of that phenomenon.
Emerging Securities Markets in China: Capitalism with Chinese Characteristics
Authors: Karmel Solomon M.
Published: February 2009

The nascent stock and bond markets in the People's Republic of China have received considerable attention from the international media, yet the emergence of these markets is poorly understood. China's new “limited stock companies” increasingly answer to a variety of public and private lenders and spenders, who partially own and largely manage the means of production. The government sometimes decides which companies and managers will be rewarded with the benefits of incorporation, and it grabs a lion's share of the newly issued securities. But the result is a slow, government-led move towards a more capitalist form of management and ownership. This kind of jointly funded project – companies that merge public and private ownership, management and responsibility – may become the defining characteristic of China's emerging “capitalism with Chinese characteristics.”
Chemistry of hydrothermal plumes above submarine volcanoes of the Mariana Arc
Authors: Resing Joseph A. , Baker Edward T. , Lupton John E. , Walker Sharon L. , Butterfield David A. , Massoth Gary J. , Nakamura Ko‐ichi
Published: February 2009

Fifty submarine volcanoes of the Mariana Arc, covering 1200 km from 13.5°N to 23.2°N, were surveyed for hydrothermal activity. Of these 50 volcanoes, eight showed limited evidence of hydrothermal activity, while another 10 volcanoes displayed intense, chemically rich, hydrothermal plumes that allow detailed chemical characterization and insight into the hydrothermal activity forming the fluids that generate the plumes. The most active volcanoes exhibit a wide range of CO2 to pH relationships, from the venting of acid‐rich fluids, to CO2‐rich fluids, to fluids rich in alkalinity and CO2. These pH‐CO2‐alkalinity relationships are partially responsible for the wide range of Fe:Mn (3 to 32) observed at the different volcanoes. This chemical heterogeneity is further manifest in a wide range of CO2:3He (3 × 109 to 55 × 109), indicating that for all but one, >80% of the CO2 venting from these volcanoes has a slab source. The helium, by contrast, has an upper mantle isotopic signature. The range of chemical conditions suggests that these volcanoes occupy various states of eruptive evolution ranging from ongoing magmatic activity to highly evolved hydrothermal systems.
A decade of dust: Asian dust and springtime aerosol load in the U.S. Pacific Northwest
Authors: Fischer E. V. , Hsu N. C. , Jaffe D. A. , Jeong M.‐J. , Gong S. L.
Published: February 2009

We integrate SeaWiFS aerosol optical thickness (AOT) over the Taklamakan and Gobi Deserts with U.S. aerosol observations to study surface aerosol variability in the Northwest U.S. in relation to Asian dust emissions. The results indicate that ∼50% of the interannual variability in springtime average PM2.5 and PM10 can be explained by changes in Asian dust emissions. On a seasonal timescale, variations in dust emissions appear to be more important in determining the total material crossing the Pacific than the variations in meteorology represented by the PNA or the LRT3 indices. We are able to explain ∼80% of the interannual variability using three variables: AOT, a transport index, and regional precipitation. This suggests that a strong source, favorable transport and sufficient residence time are needed for Asian dust to have a maximum seasonal impact in the Northwest. The results contextualize case studies and demonstrate the utility of the Deep Blue algorithm.
Downward influence of stratospheric final warming events in an idealized model
Authors: Sun Lantao , Robinson Walter A.
Published: February 2009

The stratospheric final warming is the final transition of the zonal winds from wintertime westerlies to summertime easterlies as solar heating of the high latitude stratosphere increases. Here the stratospheric influence on the tropospheric circulation during the stratospheric final warming events is investigated through ensemble model integrations of a simple dynamical core general circulation model. When the radiative equilibrium temperature in the stratosphere alone is gradually changed from a winter to a summer profile, the model generates realistic final warmings. As in the observations, the simulated final warmings occur at different “dates” in different realizations. Following previously published analyses of observed final warmings, we form a climatological springtime transition and compute composite anomalies centered on the final warmings. Simulations for both non‐topographic and topographic cases show that starting five days before the final warming, the stratospheric zonal wind rapidly decelerates, in association with a strong upward Eliassen‐Palm (EP) flux anomaly and EP flux convergence. Precursor events of wave driven zonal‐wind deceleration occur, but at different times in simulations with and without topography. The composite zonal wind anomalies for final warmings with and without topography are compared with each other and with observations. In both cases, a statistically significant zonal wind anomaly extends downward to the surface, similarly to what is observed in the Northern Hemisphere (NH). These tropospheric zonal wind anomalies are stronger in the simulations with topography. Tropospheric geopotential height anomalies across the final warming also resemble NH observations.
Effective transport dynamics in porous media with heterogeneous retardation properties
Authors: Dentz Marco , Castro Adolfo
Published: February 2009

We study a transport model that is characterized by a spatially distributed retardation coefficient. The latter accounts for linear instantaneous mass transfer between a mobile and immobile phases as well as instantaneous equilibrium adsorption. Using a Lagrangian framework we upscale the local scale transport problem to an observation scale that is much larger than the variation scale of spatial heterogeneity. The derived effective Lagrangian transport equation describes the effective particle motion as a random walk in space‐time, or in other words, a continuous time random walk, which is characterized by a joint transition length and time distribution. The transition time distribution is obtained by an exact map from the spatial distribution of retardation coefficients. The effective model compares well with numerical simulations of the small scale transport problem. For broad disorder distributions transport is highly non‐Fickian and an (constant) effective retardation coefficient may not exist at practically relevant time and length scales.
Direct evidence of solar wind deceleration in the foreshock of the Earth
Authors: Cao J. B. , Fu H. S. , Zhang T. L. , Reme H. , Dandouras I. , Lucek E.
Published: February 2009

Although the solar wind deceleration in the terrestrial foreshock was noticed three decades ago, previous studies show some conflicting results. This paper presents direct evidence of solar wind deceleration in the foreshock of the Earth by using the data of two Cluster satellites. On 2 February 2003, the two satellites (C1 and C3) of Cluster missions are inside and outside the foreshock, respectively, approximately along the solar wind flow line, which can effectively exclude the uncertainty caused by the spatial and temporal changes of solar wind itself. Comparison of the plasma data recorded by two satellites shows that the solar wind velocity decreases in the foreshock and the largest deceleration reaches 22 km/s. The velocity distribution of ions in the phase space indicates that the solar wind ions undergo pitch angle scattering in the foreshock. The solar wind deceleration is associated with diffuse ions and ULF wave activities. The diffuse ion density reached 0.25 cm−3, about 7% of the solar wind density. The interaction of ULF waves with solar wind also deflects the solar wind away from the bow shock in both the ecliptic and the meridian planes. Meanwhile, the solar wind deceleration is accompanied by thermalization during which the solar wind temperature can reach 240 eV.
Storm time signatures of the ionospheric zonal ion drift at middle latitudes
Authors: Heelis R. A. , Mohapatra S.
Published: February 2009

Using a quantitative identification of convection and particle boundaries at high latitudes, the relative extent of auroral convection and auroral precipitation is examined during superstorm events. During superstorms the convection reversal boundary normally located near 75° magnetic latitude moves to magnetic latitudes near 60°. The edge of the diffuse auroral precipitation that normally terminates near 60° magnetic latitude moves to magnetic latitudes near 40°. This limited study shows that during the main phase of the superstorm ion drifts driven by the magnetosphere penetrate to latitudes as low as the dip equator on the dusk side but extend only a few degrees equatorward of the auroral zone on the dawn side. Evidence for ion drifts driven by a disturbance dynamo may be found during the storm recovery phase when the interplanetary magnetic field is less strongly southward or turns northward, but the previously established flows below the auroral region remain.