bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Características das pessoas com Acidente Vascular Encefálico atendidas em um centro de referência estadual Characteristics of Encephalic Vascular Accident patients treated at a state reference center
Authors: Grumann Andrea Regina Schuch , Martini Alessandra Cadete , Forner Stefânia , Schroeller Soraia Dornelles , Horongozo Bianca Dana , Baroni Giovan Carlos
Published: April 2017

Acidente Vascular Encefálico (AVE) é uma disfunção cerebral que causa lesões permanentes e irreversíveis. Objetivo: Avaliar as idades, os sexos e a data do primeiro atendimento das pessoas com AVE atendidas no centro de reabilitação do Estado de Santa Catarina. Métodos: É um estudo quantitativo, descritivo e transversal, sendo a coleta de dados realizada com base documental nos prontuários. O presente estudo foi avaliado pelo Comitê de Ética em Pesquisa com Seres Humanos (CEPSH), Reitoria de Pesquisa e Extensão da Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina de número 1024. Resultados: O AVE afeta 25,11% de mulheres entre 71-80 anos e 34,09% de homens entre 61-70 anos. Observou-se que a sequela mais comum é a hemiplegia e que muitos somente procuravam tratamento após muitos anos de sequelas. Conclusão: Os dados encontrados mostram a importância da terapia física para que os pacientes reaprendam tarefas diárias e auxilia na reintegração social.
Percepções de puérperas sobre o cuidado de enfermagem no alojamento conjunto Perceptions of puerperas on nursing care in joint accommodation
Authors: Da Silva Santiago Strefling Ivanete , Brignol Borba Cristiane , Correa Soares Marilu Correa Soares , Carbonell Demori Carolina Carbonell Demori , Gomes Jardim Vaz Cármen Helena , Pinto dos Santos Cristiano
Published: April 2017

RESUMO Objetivo: Conhecer a percepção das puérperas sobre o atendimento dos profissionais de enfermagem no alojamento conjunto. Métodos: Estudo qualitativo exploratório-descritivo, realizado em um hospital de médio porte no interior do Rio Grande do Sul com 15 mulheres no puerpério imediato. O projeto foi aprovado pelo Comitê de Ética em Pesquisa da Universidade da Região da Campanha, sob o número do CAAE 62/2013. Utilizou-se a letra “P” para identificar as puérperas, seguidos pelo número sequencial das entrevistas. Os dados foram coletados por meio de entrevista semiestruturada aplicadas às puérperas nos meses de outubro a novembro de 2013. Para tratamento dos dados utilizou-se a análise de conteúdo. Resultado: Os depoimentos deram origem a duas categorias: cuidados prestados pela Enfermagem no alojamento conjunto e orientações a cerca do auto-cuidado e cuidados com o recém-nascido. Conclusão: A percepção das puérperas quanto ao atendimento da equipe de Enfermagem foi positiva, porém as ações educativas mostraram-se frágeis.
Abordagem do contexto de vida da criança na consulta de enfermagem Approach of the child’s life context in the nursing appointment
Authors: Moreira Mayrene Dias de Sousa , Gaíva Maria Aparecida Munhoz
Published: April 2017

Objetivo: Analisar as ações desenvolvidas pelos enfermeiros durante a consulta relacionadas ao contexto de vida e ambiente familiar da criança na perspectiva de promover sua saúde.  Método: Estudo descritivo qualitativo, realizado em quatro unidades de saúde da família de Cuiabá, MT, entre janeiro e fevereiro de 2012, com quatro enfermeiros que executavam a consulta à criança de forma programática. Os dados foram coletados por meio da observação participante de 21 consultas de enfermagem. Os dados foram analisados pela análise de conteúdo do tipo temática. Resultados: Emergiram duas categorias temáticas que revelaram que os enfermeiros consideraram pontualmente alguns elementos do contexto de vida e ambiente familiar da criança durante as consultas. Conclusão: A compreensão e o respeito aos modos de vida da mãe e da criança, e a não dissociação do contexto social e cultural no qual estes estão inseridos são atitudes que permitem o atendimento da criança de forma humanizada e individualizada.
Reabilitação psicossocial segundo a perspectiva de consumidores de drogas Psychosocial rehabilitation according to drug consumers’ perspective
Authors: Sena Edite Lago da Silva , Soares Carine de Jesus , Ribeiro Bárbara Santos , Santos Patrícia Honório Silva , Carmo Érica Assunção , Carvalho Patrícia Anjos de Lima
Published: April 2017

RESUMO: Objetivo: Desvelar a percepção de usuários de um Centro de Atenção Psicossocial Álcool e outras Drogas sobre a reabilitação psicossocial.Métodos: Trata-se de um estudo fenomenológico, fundamentado na abordagem de Maurice Merleau-Ponty, desenvolvido com nove usuários de um Caps ad de um município do interior da Bahia. As descrições vivenciais foram produzidas por meio da técnica de Grupo Focal, no próprio Caps ad e posteriormente, para compreensão, submetidos à técnica Analítica da Ambiguidade.O estudo foi aprovado pelo Comitê de Ética em Pesquisa, sob o protocolo nº 111/2011. Resultados: Evidenciou-se que os consumidores de drogas reconhecem a reabilitação psicossocial como estratégia relevante para o processo de reinserção social. Conclusão:Essa estratégia deve ser valorizada pelos profissionais de saúde com vista à valorização das potencialidades do consumidor de drogas. Objective: To reveal the perception of users of a Psychosocial Care Center for Alcohol and other Drugs on psychosocial rehabilitation. Method: This is a phenomenological study, based on Maurice Merleau-Ponty’s approach, developed with nine members of an Caps ad of a municipality of Bahia. The experiential descriptions were produced by the Focus Group technique in the Caps ad and later, to understanding, submitted to the technique of Analytical Ambiguity. The study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee, under protocol number 111/2011. Results: It was evident that drug users recognize the psychosocial rehabilitation as a relevant strategy for the process of social reintegration. Conclusion: This strategy should be valued by health professionals for recovery and drug consumer potential.
Cisplatin‐resistant cancer cells are sensitive to Aurora kinase A inhibition by alisertib
Authors: Wang Lihong , Arras Janet , Katsha Ahmed , Hamdan Saif , Belkhiri Abbes , Ecsedy Jeffrey , El‐Rifai Wael
Published: April 2017

De novo and acquired resistance to platinum therapy such as cisplatin (CDDP) is a clinical challenge in gastric cancer treatment. Aberrant expression and activation of aurora kinase A (AURKA) and eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E (eIF4E) are detected in several cancer types. Herein, we investigated the role of AURKA in CDDP resistance in gastric cancer. Western blot analysis demonstrated overexpression of AURKA and phosphorylation of eIF4E in acquired and de novo CDDP‐resistant gastric cancer models. Inhibition of AURKA with MLN8237 (alisertib) alone or in combination with CDDP significantly suppressed viability of CDDP‐resistant cancer cells (P < 0.01). Additionally, inhibition or knockdown of AURKA decreased protein expression of p‐eIF4E (S209), HDM2, and c‐MYC in CDDP‐resistant cell models. This was associated with a significant decrease in cap‐dependent translation levels (P < 0.01). In vivo tumor xenografts data corroborated these results and confirmed that inhibition of AURKA was sufficient to overcome CDDP resistance in gastric cancer. Our data demonstrate that AURKA promotes acquired and de novo resistance to CDDP through regulation of p‐eIF4E (S209), c‐MYC, HDM2, and cap‐dependent translation. Targeting AURKA could be an effective therapeutic approach to overcome CDDP resistance in refractory gastric cancer and possibly other cancer types.
CpG
Islands and
DNA
Methylation
Authors: Antequera Francisco
Published: April 2017

Methylated CpG dinucleotides at position 5 of cytosine are associated with transcriptional repression and an inactive chromatin conformation in mammals. CpG islands (CGI) are regions of approximately 1 kb, which colocalise with the origins of DNA replication and with the promoters of about 70% of all genes. CGIs represent approximately 1% of the genome, and the large majority of them remain nonmethylated despite their high density of CpG dinucleotides. Genomic methylation patterns are established in early embryos and are maintained during development through the interplay of demethylation mechanisms and the de novo and maintenance activities of DNA methyltransferases. The methylation signal is interpreted by proteins capable of binding methylated CpGs and of recruiting histone epigenetic modificators, transcriptional corepressors and chromatin remodellers. DNA methylation is essential for mammalian development, and abnormal methylation patterns have been found in a great variety of human tumour cells.

Key Concepts

Approximately 80% of CpG dinucleotides are methylated in the 5′ position of cytosine in the mammalian genome.

The information contained in methtylated CpGs is interpreted by proteins that specifically bind to them.

CpG islands represent 1% of the genome and have a high density of nonmethylated CpGs.

The great majority of CpG islands colocalise with transcription initiation sites and the origins of DNA replication.

CpG islands are differentially methylated in imprinted genes and in the inactive X chromosomes.

DNA methyltransferases reset the methylation patterns in early embryos and maintain their stability during development.
Lung Cancer: Genetics
Authors: Watza Donovan , Cote Michele L , Schwartz Ann G
Published: April 2017

There exists sufficient evidence supporting a genetic component to lung cancer development. However, the genes involved and the exact mechanisms underlying individual susceptibility to lung cancer development are still unclear. In addition, lung tumours demonstrate a multitude of genetic alterations, of which several are known to drive lung malignancy growth and invasion. These driver alterations are currently being exploited in the development of targeted treatments, improving lung cancer therapy. Similarly, the study of the genetics of lung cancer is an ongoing field of investigation, and technological advancements are providing a better understanding of the genetic nature of the disease. Advancements are expected to improve both our understanding of lung cancer and the management of the disease in the clinical setting.

Key Concepts

Lung cancer is the number one cause of cancer‐related mortality.

Tobacco smoke exposure is linked to 85–90% of all lung cancers, although only 15% of all smokers will develop lung cancer in their life.

A family history of lung cancer is a strong indicator of an individual's risk of developing lung cancer, suggesting that genetics plays a role in susceptibility.

Family‐based linkage analyses have established a region on chromosome 6q23‐25 as containing a major lung cancer susceptibility locus in familial lung cancer.

Variation in the carcinogen metabolism and DNA repair pathways have been implicated as modulators of an individual's susceptibility to lung cancer, given a sufficient carcinogen exposure.

Genome‐wide association studies have discovered multiple loci associated with the risk of lung cancer in several distinct populations.

Genome and exome sequencing are useful tools to understand malignancy‐driven genetic variation within lung tumours.

Commonly occurring somatic mutations are the focus of ongoing clinical investigation to improve lung cancer therapies.
Apolipoprotein Gene Structure and Function
Authors: Martín‐Campos Jesús M , Chang Benny , Blanco‐Vaca Francisco , Chan Lawrence , Julve Josep
Published: April 2017

Plasma lipoproteins are lipid–protein complexes that circulate in blood. The protein components in these complexes are called apolipoproteins. The genes for the ‘soluble’ apolipoproteins, that is apoA1, A2, A4, A5, C1, C2, C3 and apoE, are structurally and evolutionarily related; they display similar structures that include four exons and three introns in specific locations (except A4, which contains only two introns, missing intron 1 in the 5′‐untranslated region). The proteins contain internal repeats of well‐defined amphipathic lipid‐binding motifs. ApoB‐100 is an ‘insoluble’ apolipoprotein in low‐density lipoprotein. ApoB mRNA editing in the small intestine generates a premature stop codon; translation of the edited mRNA produces apoB‐48, a protein ∼48% the size of apoB‐100 that is required for the biogenesis of chylomicrons. Apo(a) is a large glycoprotein which is covalently linked to apoB‐100 by a disulfide bond. Such apo B‐100‐apo(a) complex is a distinguishing feature of lipoprotein(a) (Lp(a)). In addition to the classic apolipoproteins, a host of other proteins have been found in lipoproteins. These proteins are often better known for their nonlipoprotein‐related functions, and their genes are structurally unrelated to those of the classic apolipoproteins. Many of the gene products discussed in this article play important roles in disease pathogenesis, diagnosis, prognostication and therapy.

Key Concepts

Apolipoproteins are the main protein components of lipoproteins.

Apolipoproteins display other specialised functions in addition to their role as lipid carriers.

A few apolipoproteins have been found to be predictors of neurodegenerative diseases or as potential prognostic markers of several types of cancers.

Some apolipoproteins are modulators of both innate and adaptive immune responses.

The ApoA1/C3/A4 gene cluster plays multiple pathophysiologic roles in lipoprotein metabolism and maintenance of plasma lipid levels and, as such, may influence the risk of cardiovascular disease development.

ApoB‐100, the major apolipoprotein in LDL and VLDL, and apoB‐48, an essential apolipoprotein in chylomicron biogenesis, have structural elements that are very different from those of the soluble apolipoproteins. Studies on the biogenesis of apoB‐48 led to the discovery of eukaryotic RNA editing.

Plasma levels of Lp(a) are a major independent risk indicator of premature coronary artery disease and stroke.
Polar Auxin Transport
Authors: Jozef Lacek , Katarzyna Retzer , Christian Luschnig , Eva Zažímalová
Published: April 2017

Auxins, a group of plant signalling compounds, ensure proper growth and development of the plant in relation to both external and internal stimuli. Within a plant, auxin is distributed asymmetrically, thus creating local auxin maxima and minima. Such asymmetric auxin distribution underlies many developmental and stress adaptation processes and facilitates their spatial and temporal coordination. The appropriate local auxin level is achieved by regulation of biosynthesis, metabolism and through active, cell‐to‐cell transport relying on auxin carriers that are embedded in the plasma membrane. Owing to the physical–chemical properties of the auxin molecule, the asymmetric (polar) localisation of auxin efflux carriers, analogous in neighbouring cells, determines the direction of intercellular auxin flow (polar auxin transport). With respect to the important function of polar auxin transport for plant development, the polar auxin transport machinery is subject to a tight control at multiple regulatory levels.

Key Concepts

Auxin flow through polar auxin transport pathways relies on concerted action of passive diffusion and auxin transporters.

Complex machinery consisting of both auxin carriers and regulatory networks modulates polar auxin transport.

Polar auxin transport machinery, together with auxin biosynthesis and its further metabolism, contributes to establishment and control of auxin homeostasis and therefore to the availability of auxin for signalling pathways.

Detailed quantitative data are needed for further understanding of polar auxin transport regulation.

Mathematical modelling based on detailed quantitative data represents a promising tool to understand contribution of individual processes to resulting polar auxin flow.
The Evolution of Cooperative Breeding in Vertebrates
Authors: Komdeur Jan , Richardson David S , Hammers Martijn , Eikenaar Cas , Brouwer Lyanne , Kingma Sjouke A
Published: April 2017

Cooperative breeding – in which some sexually mature individuals forgo independent breeding, join a group as subordinate and help to raise the offspring of others – occurs in at least 3% (mammals) and 9% (birds) of vertebrates. Because helping others is costly, this behaviour contradicts the concept of ‘selfish’ natural selection. The intriguing evolutionary paradox of such seemingly altruistic behaviour has, therefore, been the focus of much study aiming to unravelling the evolutionary drivers underlying cooperative breeding. The benefits of group living, costs of dispersal and constraints of limited available independent breeding positions may persuade individuals to delay independent breeding and remain as subordinates within a group. However, it is the range of subsequent benefits (indirect benefits – such as improving reproduction and survival of related individuals or direct benefits – such as gaining breeding experience, benefits of future cooperation with raised recruits or gaining a share in reproduction) that favour the evolution of helping.

Key Concepts

The evolution of cooperative breeding is best understood by considering the benefits for helpers obtained from delayed dispersal and from helping, and the benefits helpers impose on breeders.

Subordinate individuals are expected to stay when there are constraints on independent breeding and/or when they obtain benefits in their resident territory.

Subordinates individuals can help related individuals and gain indirect (kin selected) fitness benefits, but in many species, helpers can also be unrelated; direct benefits of helping (like parentage, being allowed to stay) may thus be more important than commonly assumed.

Breeders can benefit from helpers, either because these improve their reproductive success or because breeders can reduce their own investment in the offspring.

The surplus of reproductive capable individuals and the effects of helpers on survival and reproduction can have important implications for population dynamics in cooperatively breeding species.
Beneficial Uses of Genetically Modified Crops
Authors: Ford Kathryn L , Bailey Andy M , Foster Gary D
Published: April 2017

Genetically modified (GM) crops have now been under commercial production for over 20 years. They are grown on around 180 million hectares of land in 28 countries worldwide, and cultivation is dominated by four crops: maize, soya bean, cotton and canola. First‐generation herbicide‐tolerant and insect‐resistant GM crops have many quantifiable beneficial uses, including increasing crop yields and reducing pesticide use, to maximise outputs on currently available agriculture land while conferring a range of economic, environmental and human health benefits. Over the next few years, the increasing commercialisation of second‐generation GM crops with improved quality traits should produce similar benefits and contribute to the sustainable intensification of agriculture that is required to ensure global food security for future generations.

Key Concepts

Genetically modified crops have been cultivated commercially for over 20 years.

Over 90% of GM crops grown are herbicide‐tolerant (HT) and insect‐resistant (IR) maize, soya bean, cotton and canola.

GM crops produce yield gains of 22% on average, most indirectly via reduced losses with use of GM HT and IR crops.

Pesticide use reduces by around 37% when GM crops are cultivated, saving around 583.5 million kilograms of pesticides during the period 1996–2014.

Cultivation of GM crops provides profit increases of around 68% – equivalent to almost $18 billion every year.

Commercialisation of HT and IR traits in other principal crops and the addition of quality traits should further increase yields and profits in the next decade.
Tip Growth
Authors: Gilroy Simon , Swanson Sarah J
Published: April 2017

Pollen tubes and root hairs grow by a highly focused deposition of new wall and membrane materials at their growing apex. Comparison of the machinery that localises such growth between these cell types has revealed common components, providing important insight into how plant cells control cell expansion. Such elements include the small GTPases (e.g. ROPs and RABs), gradients and intricate spatial patterning in the fluxes of ions (e.g. Ca
2+
and H
+
) and partitioning of membrane lipids (such as the phosphoinositides). These regulators are coupled to focused action of the secretory machinery (e.g. the exocyst) and cytoskeletal dynamics, with integral roles emerging for actin, tubulin and their associated motor proteins. These components form an integrated regulatory network that imposes robust spatial localisation of the growth machinery and so supports the production of an elongating tube‐like growth form where cell expansion is limited to the very apex, that is, tip growth.

Key Concepts

Tip growth represents the focused expansion of plant cells, such as root hairs and pollen tubes, localised to the apex of an elongating, tube‐like growth form.

Expansion is limited to where the tip cell wall yields to internal turgor pressure.

Maintained growth requires the focused delivery of cell wall and membrane materials to the growing apex, while strengthening the sides of the tube to resist further expansion.

A network of cellular regulators combine to focus the activity of the growth machinery to the growing tip.

Localised action of components such as small GTPases, gradients of ions, the cytoskeleton and maintenance of specialised regions of membrane composition interact to provide the spatial information that limits the activity of the secretory machinery to the very tip of the cell.
TNF
and Ubiquitination
Authors: Kupka Sebastian , Walczak Henning
Published: April 2017

Tumour necrosis factor (TNF) is a potent inflammatory cytokine. TNF is required to fight off infections but is also a crucial player in several pathological conditions including inflammatory bowel disease, psoriasis, rheumatoid arthritis and cancer. TNF‐induced inflammation can be the result of TNF‐induced gene activation but also cell death. TNF can activate gene induction via both of its receptors, TNF receptor 1 and 2 (TNFR1 and TNFR2), but induction of cell death occurs exclusively via TNFR1. Consequently, the TNFR1‐signalling complex (TNFR1‐SC) needs to be regulated which is also achieved by posttranslational modifications. Various components of the signalling complex are phosphorylated and/or ubiquitinated. Ubiquitination is the conjugation of the 7.6‐kDa protein ubiquitin to another protein and has emerged as a crucial posttranslational modification in many signalling pathways. Ubiquitination ensures correct complex formation and disassembly. An intriguing network of ubiquitin ligases, deubiquitinases and ubiquitin‐binding proteins forms a central part of TNFR1 signalling.

Key Concepts

TNF, via its receptor TNFR1, can trigger gene activation or cell death.

TNF‐induced gene activation and also cell death can drive inflammatory diseases.

Ubiquitin chains can be assembled by linking the C‐terminal glycine of ubiquitin to one of the seven lysine (K) residues or methionine 1 (M1) of another ubiquitin.

Ubiquitin ligases regulate the signalling complex assembly by attaching ubiquitin chains, composed of different linkage types, to individual complex components.

Specific ubiquitin‐binding proteins recognise different ubiquitin linkage types, thus enabling their recruitment to the signalling complex and to act as adaptors.

Deubiquitinases can specifically remove certain linkage types in order to regulate the spatiotemporal assembly/disassembly of the signalling complex.

Failure to regulate the ubiquitin system in TNFR1 signalling can be causative for excessive inflammation, pathological cell death and autoimmunity.
Gene Therapy for Inherited Skin Disorders
Authors: Lwin Su M , McGrath John A
Published: April 2017

Inherited skin disorders are caused by pathogenic mutations in over 500 genes. These mutations result in a spectrum of cutaneous and systemic abnormalities that generate considerable morbidity, and occasionally mortality. To date, however, there are no effective treatments. Nevertheless, the easy accessibility of skin, together with advances in molecular genetics and biotechnology, has paved the way for gene therapy development and testing. Gene therapy aims to reverse the pathology and phenotype of a particular disease through supplementation of the defective gene with a single normal full‐length copy or correction of the underlying mutant gene via genome editing or RNA (ribonucleic acid)‐based methods.

Key Concepts

Inherited skin disorders (also known as genodermatoses) encompass a group of genetic skin diseases in which single‐ or multiple‐gene defects account for a wide spectrum of clinical phenotypes with significant physical and psychosocial impact.

Epidermolysis bullosa (EB) is a diverse group of autosomal dominant and recessive blistering skin diseases that affects ∼500 000 people worldwide. In EB, relatively minor trauma to the skin causes blistering which can be complicated by delayed healing and scarring. There is a desperate clinical need for effective therapies, including gene therapy.

Gene therapy involves manipulation of cellular DNA or RNA to provide therapeutic benefit using various strategies. These include gene modification through gene addition or replacement, and gene correction through RNA‐based technologies or genome editing tools. Single‐gene disorders are therefore good candidates for gene therapy.

The choice of gene therapy strategy in genodermatoses depends on the mode of inheritance and the nature of the pathogenic mutations of a particular disorder.

Given that most autosomal recessive skin disorders result in loss of function, deficiency or absence of the wild‐type protein, restoring protein function through the addition of a wild‐type copy of the mutant gene, or correction of the mutant gene, is an appropriate therapeutic goal.

In contrast, heterozygous mutations in dominant skin disorders typically result in dominant‐negative interference of the mutant/wild‐type proteins. Thus, therapeutic benefits are best sought by knockdown/silencing of the mutant allele while preserving the functional wild‐type allele, through applying gene correction techniques using small interfering RNA (siRNA) or gene editing endonucleases.
Non‐Invasive Techniques: Vocalizations
Authors: Piel Alex K.
Published: April 2017

Non‐invasive research into primate vocal communication has shed light on a number of biological questions, from animal emotions to the origins of human language. Historically, however, this work has relied on focal follows of known individuals, which often prevents researchers from contextualizing sounds in a socioecological framework of spatially distributed callers and receivers. Recently, primatologists have begun to incorporate passive acoustic monitoring (PAM) into their studies, allowing for investigation of primate behavior across large spatiotemporal scales and providing data on cryptic or elusive species. Current applications are revealing cohesive movement patterns in wild, partially habituated chimpanzees in Tanzania, and wildlife activity in response to hunting pressure in Cameroon. Whilst focal follows remain the default method for the study of primate vocal communication, PAM offers researchers and conservationists an increasingly affordable, non‐invasive, and powerful tool to better understand the social role of primate sounds and the threats facing the soundscapes within which we study them.
K
akamega
F
orest
Authors: Cords Marina
Published: April 2017

The Kakamega Forest is a small equatorial rainforest in western Kenya whose flora and fauna include central African and Afromontane taxa. The forest is a mosaic of habitat types, dominated by near‐natural secondary growth. It supports a high density of primates. Those studied in detail include blue, red‐tail, and DeBrazza guenons, as well as guerezas. The forest retains natural primate predators, but also faces considerable anthropogenic degradation. Forest management aimed at biodiversity conservation involves multiple stakeholders.
Genetic Distance
Authors: Lawler Richard R.
Published: April 2017

Genetic distance is a quantifiable measure of differences between individuals, subpopulations, populations, or species using genetic data. Genetic distance measures are used to determine relatedness among biological groups. Several measures of genetic distance have been developed that account for particular biological, temporal, or statistical circumstances. Genetic distance plays a key role in determining divergence dates among species and can be combined with measures of phenotypic, linguistic, and geographic distances in order to make biological inferences.
Copulation Call
Authors: Pfefferle Dana
Published: April 2017

Primate copulation calls are distinctive vocalizations given during or after copulation. They have mostly been reported in anthropoid primates living in multi‐male, multi‐female groups, in which female sexual activity, in contrast to many other mammals, extends beyond the fertile phase. In order to study the function of copulation calls, it is important to consider the species' social organization, the timing of the call within the copulation, and to differentiate between species where males perform single versus multiple mounts. To date, numerous nonexclusive hypotheses have been put forward, ranging from calls being a by‐product of other mating‐related behaviors to synchronizing the mating partners' orgasms. Among the hypotheses suggesting an adaptive function, the most prominent involve notification of other group members about the caller's quality (e.g., his or her fertility or rank).
Prosimian vs Strepsirrhine vs Haplorrhine
Authors: Groves Colin
Published: April 2017

The difference between the previously widespread Prosimii/Anthropoidea classification of primates and the Strepsirrhini/Haplorrhini classification usually used nowadays lies with the position of the tarsiers. It seems fairly clear that tarsiers share numerous derived conditions with anthropoids, so the Strepsirrhini/Haplorrhini scheme reflects phylogeny, and the concept of Prosimii (vernacular “prosimians”) has no more than an old‐fashioned, subjective “grade” significance. The history of the terminology, and of evolving taxonomic philosophies, has some bearing on the usage of these names and how they should be spelled.
Hominins
Authors: Bilsborough Alan
Published: April 2017

Possible basal hominins are known from ca. 6 million years ago (Ma), and definite hominins (
Australopithecus
) from 4 Ma, reflecting a later Pliocene radiation combining arboreal and terrestrial behaviors in partly wooded habitats. “Robust” hominins (
Paranthropus
) and early
Homo
generally derive from more open basal Pleistocene (less than 2.6 Ma) contexts, as do most early stone tools. Early
Homo
variability makes species delineation difficult, but after ca. 1.8 Ma, early
H. erectus
/
H. ergaster
is known from widely separated sites in Asia as well as Africa, pointing to enhanced adaptability, with artifacts indicating cognitive advance. Fluctuating climates impacted on Middle Pleistocene
H. heidelbergensis
populations, leading to the evolution of cold‐ and warm‐adapted forms (
H. neanderthalensis
and
H. sapiens
) in Eurasia and Africa, and other, more enigmatic, possible taxa.
Homo sapiens
' present ubiquity reflects population growth and range expansion probably promoted by social and technical innovations first evident in Africa more than 0.3 Ma.
Vocal Recording
Authors: Kitchen Dawn M.
Published: April 2017

The preservation of vocalizations for acoustic analysis and playback has provided biologists, psychologists, and anthropologists with important insights into communication. Although primate vocal recordings date back to the 1890s and were used by Carpenter in the 1930s, widespread interest in the method was delayed until the 1960s and corresponded with technological advances in equipment portability and visual representations of sound (spectrograms). Modern primatologists increasingly incorporate vocalizations into research, given the wide availability of inexpensive equipment and bioacoustic software. Beyond simply documenting repertoires, contemporary projects cover topics from ontogeny, phylogeny, propagation, and production mechanisms, to honest signaling, group coordination, heterospecific eavesdropping, and geographic variation. The appropriateness of primate model systems for understanding human language evolution remains controversial, but results have challenged traditional notions about the simplicity of primate communication systems. Although easily incorporated into field studies, recordists should seek out published resources to ensure quality of study design, recording techniques, and acoustic analyses.
Fission–Fusion
Authors: Aureli Filippo
Published: April 2017

“Fission–fusion” was introduced to describe the social system of species that change group size by means of the fission and fusion of subgroups according to their activities and the availability and distribution of resources. The term “fission–fusion dynamics” was proposed to refer to the extent of variation in spatial cohesion and individual membership in a (sub)group over time. Any animal social system can be characterized by its degree of fission–fusion dynamics, varying from highly cohesive with fixed membership to highly fluid with flexible membership. Fission–fusion dynamics have important implications because they influence the opportunities for group members to interact with one another. Phylogenetic comparative studies can examine the socioecological factors affecting the degree of fission–fusion dynamics, as well as whether different degrees of fission–fusion dynamics create specific challenges and opportunities for social interactions and distinct selective pressures for specific underlying communicative signals, cognitive abilities, and collective decision mechanisms.
Cortisol and Other Glucocorticoids
Authors: van Belle Sarie
Published: April 2017

Cortisol is the main glucocorticoid in primates and forms an integral part of the stress response. The stress response is activated, and consequently cortisol levels are elevated, whenever an individual experiences a homeostatic imbalance, inflicted by either a physical or a psychological stressor. The primary role of cortisol is to increase and mobilize energy ready for immediate use in order to restore the balance. Endocrine studies in primates have mainly investigated variation of glucocorticoid levels in relation to environmental stressors (such as inclement weather, fluctuations in food availability, parasite infections, and predation risk), social stressors (such as an individual's social status and access to coping mechanisms), and the energetic demands of female reproduction and male mate guarding. Additionally, monitoring glucocorticoid levels has been considered a valuable tool in primate conservation as it enables the assessment of animals' adaptability to anthropogenic disturbance and evaluation of the success of conservation management practices.
Captive Care Legislation and Regulations
Authors: Turner Patricia V.
Published: April 2017

Around the world, protection and care of captive primates is largely covered by general anticruelty and animal welfare legislation and policies. Some multilateral agreements exist to protect wild animal populations, such as the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES), but participation is often on a voluntary basis and enforcement is challenging. The World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) has introduced recommended standards for transportation, quarantine, housing, and handling of captive primates, particularly in research settings, and these will be important for establishing a minimum standard of care globally. This entry reviews general and specific legislation and guidelines for captive primate oversight.
W
ashburn,
S
herwood
Authors: Morbeck Mary Ellen
Published: April 2017

Sherwood Larned Washburn (1911–2000) envisioned primatology as an eclectic area of scientific interest, positioned in anthropology and social sciences, and centered on evolved form–functional relationships linking nonhuman primate biology, behavior, and the environment. Sherry Washburn greatly influenced American primatology by incorporating primate studies into the new physical anthropology, advocating for knowledge of nonhuman primates to understand human evolution and solve problems of modern human society, sparking excitement about observing wild‐living primates, and inspiring graduate students, who became successful teachers and researchers sharing his ideas with many generations of students.
MedicinalPlantUse
Authors: Pebsworth Paula A. , Huffman Michael A.
Published: April 2017

Primates use medicinal plants and other nonnutritive substances to maintain and/or regain health homeostasis. Four different strategies have been identified: (1) passive prevention, (2) therapeutic self‐medication, (3) body anointment, and (4) living space fumigation. These strategies, either directly or indirectly, promote health and/or improve reproductive fitness.
Baubellum (
Os Clitoridis
)
Authors: Carosi Monica , Scalici Massimiliano , Linn Gary S.
Published: April 2017

The baubellum (
os clitoridis
, clitoral bone), the female counterpart of the male baculum, is a structure found in the clitoris of some mammal species belonging to the Chiroptera, Carnivora, Rodentia, and Primate Orders. Within the primates, the baubellum has been reported for Strepsirrhini (except
Daubentonia
) and, among Haplorhini, in most Hominoidea (except
Gorilla
and
Homo
), one Cercopithecoidea species (
Macaca fascicularis
), and one New World species (
Cebus capucinus
). Available data are scanty, rendering reports of its absence questionable, though some authors suggest that a baubellum might occur in all species where a baculum is found. Although female masculinization of external genitalia has been described (e.g., a penis‐like clitoris, presence of a scrotum‐like structure), no hypotheses on the function of the baubellum have been formulated so far. Future research might investigate the synapomorphic nature for the baubellum, possibly in relation to prenatal androgen effects. The relationship between hormonal and nonandrogenic genetic factors causing virilization should also be explored.
Amboseli
Authors: Markham A. Catherine
Published: April 2017

The Amboseli basin is a semiarid short‐grass savannah straddling the Kenya–Tanzania border at the northern base of Mount Kilimanjaro. The region supports a diverse array of wildlife, including three primate species: savannah baboons, vervet monkeys, and galagos. Amboseli National Park, situated within the broader Amboseli ecosystem, and its surrounding areas have been the focus of a number of landmark primatological studies.
F
leagle,
J
ohn
G
Authors: Gilbert Christopher C.
Published: April 2017

John Fleagle (1948–) has been a leading primatologist, paleoprimatologist, and functional anatomist for the past four decades. A 1988 MacArthur Fellowship Awardee, his research has spanned all major subfields in evolutionary anthropology, including primate behavior, primate evolution, and human evolution, with major contributions in each area. Drawing on his broad expertise in extant and fossil primate behavior and anatomy, Fleagle authored the highly influential textbook
Primate Adaptation and Evolution
, now in its 3rd edition and widely regarded as the top textbook in primate evolution for graduate and undergraduate physical anthropology courses. He has also edited or co‐edited over 15 books/volumes, authored or co‐authored over 150 journal articles and book chapters, and served as editor of the journal
Evolutionary Anthropology
since its founding in 1991. Fleagle continues to be an active researcher, with projects on the evolutionary anatomy, biology, and ecology of primates.
Hands
Authors: Rolian Campbell
Published: April 2017

Primate hands are multipurpose tools that play a central role in many daily activities. For example, primate hands function as powerful grasping tools that allow individuals to move freely and securely in terrestrial and, especially, arboreal environments. Primate hands are also precision tools, essential for acquiring and processing food items, for grooming, and for manufacturing and using other tools such as twigs and stones. Primate hands can perform such varied tasks in part because they have a generalized, primitive anatomy. Whereas other mammals have evolved hands that are highly specialized for single tasks, such as locomotion (e.g., horses, whales), primates retain many anatomical features of the hand of the earliest land vertebrates that allow their hands to be used in a variety of tasks.
Strier,KarenB.
Authors: Snowdon Charles T.
Published: April 2017

Karen Strier is the leading primatologist in the Neotropics. She has made major contributions to socioecological theory, to conservation, and to education. Her long‐term research on muriquis has led to many novel results and insights and challenged traditional theories. She has spear‐headed conservation efforts that have led to significant protection and increases in population size. She has authored the most widely used textbook on primate behavioral ecology and devoted considerable effort to training future generations of primate researchers in Brazil.
Personality
Authors: Capitanio John P.
Published: April 2017

Personality refers to differences between individuals in their usual patterns of behavioral and psychological interaction with the world. Personality research with nonhuman primates has focused on a number of topics: characterizing species differences in, and the evolution of, personality; understanding the development of personality, and brain mechanisms involved; demonstrating the genetic contributions to personality; documenting health correlates of personality; and using personality information in applied settings.
Imitation
Authors: Whiten Andrew
Published: April 2017

Imitation is a process in which one individual copies the actions of others. It is widely perceived as the most cognitively elaborate form of social learning, allowing faster and more efficient acquisition of adaptive behavior than through personal learning experiences. With sufficient fidelity of copying it plays a key role in the transmission of cultural traditions within and across generations, most clearly in humans. It can also promote social bonding. The existence and nature of imitation and culture in nonhuman primates can therefore provide important information on the evolutionary origins of such phenomena in our own species, but has been the subject of much controversy in recent decades. Evidence for primates both exhibiting and failing to display imitation has accumulated through a diversity of advances in both observational and experimental methodologies. In recent times, these have provided evidence for a fascinating range of imitative and related social learning phenomena across the Primate Order.
Ethnophoresy
Authors: Dore Kerry M.
Published: April 2017

Ethnophoresy is the dispersal of animals to other regions through introduction or translocation by humans. This entry catalogs 32 translocated nonhuman primate populations. These populations fall into four categories: populations that originated hundreds of years ago or more via early humans, traders, or colonists; semi‐free‐ranging populations introduced for biomedical or behavioral research; escapees from research facilities, zoos, or attractions; and recent introductions that have occurred since the early 1990s.
Gibbon (Hylobatidae)
Authors: Bartlett Thad Q. , Light Lydia E. O.
Published: April 2017

Gibbons are small‐bodied apes that live high in the canopy of evergreen forests in Southeast Asia. They are highly territorial and usually live in two‐adult social groups, though other grouping patterns have been observed. Gibbon diets are highly frugivorous, with figs representing an especially important resource, although young leaves, flowers, and insects are also consumed. Gibbons are known for their complex vocal duets that are thought to strengthen the pair‐bond and defend the territory against neighboring groups. Almost all gibbon species are endangered and some of the world's most critically endangered primates are found in this family.
Forest Regeneration (Role of Primates in)
Authors: Heymann Eckhard W.
Published: April 2017

Primates are a major group of seed dispersers and thus have the potential to contribute to forest regeneration. However, evidence is hard to obtain, as there is a large time gap between seed dispersal and the establishment of reproductive adult plants, and removal experiments are ethically unacceptable. Reduced seedling density and seedling species diversity of primate‐dispersed plant species in overhunted areas compared with protected areas provide the strongest evidence for the role of primates in forest regeneration. Together with the widely documented seed dispersal by the majority of primates and evidence for transport of seeds from primary or intact forest to secondary and regenerating forests, this suggests a strong role of primates in natural forest regeneration.
Quadrupedalism
Authors: Shapiro Liza J. , Young Jesse W.
Published: April 2017

Most primates include quadrupedalism in their locomotor repertoire. Though quadrupedalism is not as mechanically demanding as other locomotor behaviors—such as brachiation or vertical clinging and leaping—researchers have nonetheless identified morphological and biomechanical specializations associated with quadrupedal locomotion among primates. Features that vary among arboreal and terrestrial primates include morphological aspects of the limbs and tail, as well as hand and foot postures. Quadrupedal locomotion can be categorized into various types of symmetrical (walk, trot, pace, amble) or asymmetrical (bound, half‐bound, crutch‐walk, gallop, canter) gaits. In addition to their unusual preference for diagonal sequence, diagonal couplets (DSDC) walking gaits, primate quadrupeds use a set of distinctive kinematic and kinetic features during both symmetrical and asymmetrical gaits that are biomechanically advantageous in an arboreal environment, and which likely evolved as a response to an interaction among substrate diameter, orientation, and/or compliance.
Primate Genomics
Authors: Ting Nelson
Published: April 2017

Since the completion of the Human Genome Project, numerous nonhuman primate genomes have been sequenced and assembled. As a result, we are beginning to understand how primate genome content, structure, and function differ across species, and how these genomic differences relate to morphological, physiological, and behavioral differences among taxa from across the Order Primates. Genomic data have also been used to more accurately infer population history and patterns of genetic diversity within primate species. Primate genomics is therefore an important tool for the study of primate ecology, evolution, and behavior, as well as a valuable resource in biomedical research where some primates are used as models for human disease. The power and potential of primate genomics is rapidly increasing as technologies improve and the cost of genomic data acquisition and analysis drops, and therefore holds great promise for the field of primatology as a whole.
Camera Traps
Authors: LaFleur Marni , Pebsworth Paula A.
Published: April 2017

Camera traps, or remotely triggered cameras, are a valuable tool for primatologists, as they can provide a plethora of insights into primate ecology, without the necessity of having researchers continuously present for observation. Camera traps can provide surprising or new information about a species and can also be used to inform conservation policy when species are threatened with extinction. Camera traps may be particularly useful to primatologists studying rare or elusive species, in instances when habituation is extremely difficult or likely to harm the focal species, and when terrain is extremely difficult for humans to navigate. Primate‐specific methodological considerations and transparency are important in study design and for comparative purposes, respectively. In sum, camera traps are important tools in both epistemological and conservation research involving primates.