bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
“Perception” versus “Learning”: The effect of different instructions upon the central tendency shift
Authors: TEIGEN KARL HALVOR
Published: May 2008

Abstract.— Earlier studies of context effects in stimulus generalization, especially in the adaption‐level tradition, have failed to take into account the subjective difference between a learning experiment and an experiment in perception. In the present study, 68 student subjects were trained to discriminate a 30 cm vertical line from shorter and longer lines, and were subsequently tested for generalization with asymmetrical test series (centering around 34 cm). Half of the subjects were told that they were participating in a perception experiment, the other half that they were participating in a learning experiment. Subjects in the latter condition were considerably more influenced by context and gave a greater number of equivalence responses than did the subjects in the perception condition. Amount of training and discriminability of training stimuli did also influence the central tendency shift, but to a lesser extent.
Intuitive extrapolation of a growth function
Authors: SVENSON OLA
Published: May 2008

Abstract.— Subjects were instructed to extrapolate curvilinear functions with time (trial) as the dependent variable. Two power functions were used in the experiment and they were each presented either numerically or graphically as plots. During each trial (representing one year) the subjects were asked to predict the year when a certain value of the dependent variable or event would be reached, plus a 90% confidence interval around this prediction. The results showed that the more curvilinear of the two functions was the more difficult to use for predictions of a future event but that there were no significant differences between predictions involving numerical and graphical presentations. Initially, the subjects gave too wide confidence intervals around their predictions, but as they received more information the estimated confidence intervals became too narrow in relation to their performance.
An information processing analysis of mental multiplication
Authors: HOLLNAGEL ERIK
Published: May 2008

The specific model of central or conscious processing system (CPS) is presented. It consists of two part: (1) a number of information carrying registers, and (2) a functional unit controlling the processes performed on the contents of the registers. The capacity limit is explained as a combination of storage capacity and processing capacity. The capacity limit was estimated by an experiment using mental multiplication performed according to a particular algorithm. The results suggested that the capacity was around eight to nine registers when the algorithm was strictly followed; this limit could, however, be exceeded because some problems automatically were coded and remembered by rules rather then by rehearsal. The results further suggested that information processing, i.e. the multiplication, had to take place on a time‐sharing basis in competition with rehearsal, thus suggesting the existence of higher‐order control system.
Assessing probabilities of compound events in a judicial context
Authors: GOLDSMITH ROBERT W.
Published: May 2008

Subjects presented with fictitious criminal case material were found to overestimate the probabilities of compound as compared with component events. An analogy to bayesian cascaded inference behaviour was discussed. Results of functional measurement and correlational procedures suggested a three‐strategy model of compound probability estimation, applicable where there are two component events. According to the model, subjects base their choice of an information processing strategy on the larger and smaller component probability assessments and on a criterion value for each.
Effects of colour on perceived depth: Review of experiments and evalutaion of theories
Authors: SUNDET JON MARTIN
Published: May 2008

A selective and evaluative review of experiments and theories dealing with the effect of colour on perceived depth is presented. It has long been known that equidistant objects that differ in colour may appear as if they are located at different distances. The present paper emphasizes the theoretical importance of distinguishing between monocular and binocular effects. There is at present no completely satisfactory explanation of the monocular effect but chromatic aberration seems to be a critical factor. The binocular effect (colour stereoscopy) is most probably due to disparity between differently coloured images on the retinae. The stereoscopic theories of Einthoven (1885) and Vos (1960, 1963, 1966) are discussed; available evidence favours the latter.
Embedded Figures Test compared with clinical tests of abstraction and memory in intellectual impairment
Authors: REHERMANN OLE , BRUN BIRGITTE
Published: May 2008

Results on a batter of memory and concept formation tests were compared with performance on the Embedded Figures Test (EFT) and the Visual Gestalts Test for 50 psychiatric patients with intellectual impairment (35 males and 15 females, aged 25–69 years). The EFT only correlated with the concept formation tests and the Visual Gestalts Test. Furthermore, an interrelationship between the EFT results and the degree of intellectual impairment was found. Also, the patients' performance on the EFT was significantly impairment was found. Also, the patients' performance on the EFT was significantly poorer than that of normal individuals. Thus it was concluded that the EFT should be considered as a visuo‐spatial test of abstraction, sensitive to intellectual impairment.
On binocular vision:Motion perception and pattern‐reversal cortical responses to gratings of fixed spatial frequency
Authors: FRANZÉN OVE
Published: May 2008

Cortical responses evoked by a vertical moving sinusoidal grating of fixed spatial frequency and variable contrast were recorded from the occiput. The potentials which resulted from binocular stimulation was on the average the linear vector sum of the responses obtained with monocular inspection of the pattern. A reanalysis of measurements of motion track enlargement (MTE) following monocular and binocular motion stimulation (Johansson, 1960) showed that the MTE for binocular vision could be accurately predicted by the same model. The outcome of the two studies may be closely related since pattern‐reversal visually evoked potentials may be partly produced by movement and direction‐sensitive mechanisms within the brain.
Psychological tests specific to individual carbon disulfide exposure
Authors: TOLONEN MATTI , HÄNNINEN HELENA
Published: May 2008

Psychological tests including 26 variables were administered to 206 male viscose rayon workers with long‐term exposure to carbon disulfide and 152 nonexposed men. The purpose of the analysis was to examine the reciprocal validity of the various variables as indicators of carbon disulfide effect on mental functions. All the subjects were classified either as normal or deviant in regard to the results. Twenty‐five % of all results was classified as abnormal for every variable. Five variables, i.e., Bourdon‐Wiersma speed, Santa Ana right, form level of the straight lines in the Mira test, and the Rorschach test variables for detecting emotionality and originality were significantly (p<0.05) more frequent among the exposed subjects. A combination of an abnormal finding for all five variables, or all variables except Santa Ana right occurred for 6% of the exposed group but not at all among the nonexposed. These combinations are suggested as specific for the psychological effects of carbon disulfide.
Instrumental orientation to work; Theoretical and methodological problems
Authors: MADSEN BENEDICTE
Published: May 2008

Research claiming to demonstrate a predominance of instrumental orientation to work among today's industrial workers is discussed on the basis of unemployment research and the author's experience with unemployed people and workers active in labour unions. Concentrating on Bertil Gardell's Swedish studies, the reliability, validity, and interpretation of a specific operationalization of instrumental‐expressive orientation to work is examined. The auther argues the need for distinction between self‐defensive and class‐defensive adjustment, between defensive and offensive adjustment, and between adjustment and understanding, and she offers alternative interpretations of research results concerning instrumentality. It is suggested that the shortcomings of this research is related to the insufficient acknowledgement of the opposing class interests between those who buy and those who sell the labour power, and to the negligence of collective aspects of individual reactions.
The measurement of mood
Authors: SJÖBERG LENNART , SVENSSON ERLAND , PERSSON LARS‐OLOF
Published: May 2008

Due to unfortunate choices of response scale and psychometric model earlier analyses of mood adjective check lists have given a confused and complex picture of the area. When an adequate response scale was applied and a simplex rather than a common factor analysis model was utilized it was found, in two empirical studies, that mood was possible to describe with a few bipolar factors. A theory is suggested where mood is seen as basically two‐dimensional: one dimension being activity and the other pleasantness. More or less specific definitions of the content of experience with reference to the situation may then be used to define further dimensions, such as social orientation.
Limitations of Skinner's concept of an ‘operant’: A theoretical note
Authors: REIN JAN G. , SVARTDAL FRODE
Published: May 2008

It is argued that even if an operant can be defined formally as the “interrelationships among SD, R, and Srein”, specific operants require delimitations of emitted behaviour and stimuli in terms of specific sets of contingencies of reinforcement. It is argued that the class membership of operant responses can be determined neither by reference to SD, response topography, SR, nor the supposed interrelationships among these, the contingencies of reinforcement. Functional analysis seems to require knowledge rejected by radical behaviourists. It is argued that operant behaviouristic analyses of human behaviour presuppose a common‐sense understanding of actions, which–until explicated and shown to be reducible to a technichal behavioural language–must be taken as the point of departure in these analyses.
Capitalization on chance: The case of Guilford's Memory Abilities
Authors: UNDHEIM JOHAN OLAV
Published: May 2008

Reanalysis of a memory study originally interpreted to support J. P. Guilford's Structure‐of‐Intellect (SI) model fails to give support for the SI distinctions: (1) When capitalization on chance was limited by selecting a subsample of variables for analysis, only 3 out of 9 hypothesized factors were identified, (2) the root‐one number‐of‐factor criterion indicate that the SI model leads to a rather dramatic over‐factoring even when the factors are theoretically over‐determined, and (3) although the fit to the model is somewhat better than is expected on the basis of a completely random model, more reasonable semi‐random null‐hypotheses cannot be rejected in favor of the SI model.
Formal thinking about correlation
Authors: GREEN STEVE , JURD MARGARET , SEGGIE IAN
Published: May 2008

Twenty‐five adults were administered two tasks involving the data of 12,2X2 matrices. In the first, subjects were invited to make decisions on the basis of data which was presented as involving causal, one‐way relationships. Four groups of subjects were distinguished in the level of their operational thinking. In task 2 the subjects were invited to make judgements on identical data, but presented as involving two‐way noncausal relationships. Results showed changes in the level of thought: subjects employing concrete operations in task 1 regressed to lower levels of thought; subjects employing transitional formal thought in task 1 advanced to fully formal thought in task 2. It was concluded that the first task imposed a ceiling effect on the thought levels of the latter subjects. Results showed that the level of thought employed was a function of the frequency of the data in the cells of the matrices and that the emergence of illogical thought was related to task difficulty.
Content and distance similarity models: a correction to Sjöberg
Authors: GREGSON ROBERT A. M.
Published: May 2008

Corrections are made to a statement by Sjöberg (1977) concerning the compatibility of results obtained by him and by Gregson (1976).
Recall of concrete and abstract sentences in bilinguals
Authors: MÄGISTE EDITH
Published: May 2008

Sixty‐one subjects with differing degrees of bilingualism were placed in two groups according to reaction time measures and self‐ratings: one group dominant in German with Swedish as the weaker language, and one group balanced in skills. The subjects performed a recall task on 60 concrete and abstract sentences under normal conditions and during exposure to background noise. The results provide evidence that recall of sentences is a clear index of language dominance and that recall of abstract sentences provides the most revealing measure of dominance and balance. Comparisons of the two groups showed that the dominant group recalled significantly more in their dominant language than did the balanced group in that language. The most frequent error was the substitution of synonyms. It occurred most frequently in the balanced group. Some of the factors which contribute to the group differences were discussed and the results were interpreted in terms of current theories of recall.
Uncertainty and preference for ‘ambiguous’ figures, ‘impossible’ figures and the drawings of M. C. Escher1
Authors: NICKI RICHARD M. , FORESTELL PAUL , SHORT PENELOPE
Published: May 2008

With regard to two kinds of dependent response measures, number of one s exposures and verbal ratings of interestingness and pleasingness, preference was greater for unaltered ‘ambiguous’ figures, drawings of M. C. Escher and ‘impossible’ figures, characterized by greater complexity and uncertainty, than for altered versions of these stimuli. Furthermore, preference increased over the three types of unaltered slides while remaining fairly constant across altered ones. Lastly, number of exposures and ratings of interestingness diminished for unaltered pictures when preceded by their altered versions. The findings were interpreted using Berlyne's notions regarding aesthetic preference, uncertainty, and response conflict.
The effects of partial information in amnesic and normal subjects
Authors: MORTENSEN ERIK LYKKE
Published: May 2008

Two studies of the effects of partial information (initial‐letter cueing) on amnesic and normal performance are reported. In Experiment I the beneficial effects of partial information on the performance of patients treated with ECT were confirmed. In Experiment II normal subjects were tested after different retention intervals with yes‐no recognition and initial‐letter cueing. With the yes‐no recognition data corrected for guessing, an interaction between method of testing and retention interval was obtained. It is argued that the beneficial effects of partial information are not conclusive evidence of retrieval deficits in amnesia.
Predictability as a task demand in single‐trial free recall
Authors: RONNBERG JERKER
Published: May 2008

In a series of five single‐trial free recall experiments it was demonstrated how manipulations of predictability in a list learning task caused reliable effects on the recency portions of the nominal serial position curve. Predictability was defined as knowledge of when the next item in the list should appear (interval predictability) and knowledge of when the list should end and thus when recall could start (signal predictability). Predictability was manipulated by varying the inter‐item intervals within a list according to different “encoding functions”, e.g. a successive increase (Condition I) or decrease (Condition D) of the inter‐item intervals. Predictability was also manipulated by means of post‐list recall signals. The data obtained show, that depending on how the interval and the signal predictabilities were manipulated, either Condition I or Condition D lists could be made more beneficial to the recall of recency items than lists with constant inter‐item intervals (Condition C). Previous encoding, storage and retrieval models were found not to give satisfactory accounts of the obtained recency effects. Neither could any traditional rehearsal model explain the data. Instead it is proposed that the predictability of stimuli in a list learning task explains how changes in recall of recency items come about. It was also hypothesized that the temporal demands, afforded to the subjects by the different encoding functions, explained the obtained output order variations.
Semantic activation due to synonym, antonym, and rhyme production
Authors: NIEMI PEKKA , VAURAS MARJA , von WRIGHT JOHAN
Published: May 2008

Semantic activation due to priming, and the time course of its dissipation, were examined. Following a word presentation, the subject performed one of three tasks: synonym, antonym, or rhyme production. The first presentation of a word together with the task was the primer. The second presentation of the same word occurred after 0 to 4 intervening words. Effects of priming were looked for in the speed of the first response to the second presentation of the word. A production facilitation occurred when synonym production was primed by antonym production to the same word, the primed word immediately following the primer. Facilitation decreased with increasing number of interpolated tasks. No effect was found when antonym production was primed by synonym production to the same word. The results are discussed in terms of spreading‐activation due to active use of the associative link between the concept and its antonyms.
Effects of information‐presentation mode and task complexity on the learning of probabilistic inference tasks
Authors: HAGAFORS ROGER , BREHMER BERNDT
Published: May 2008

Learning of two‐cue probabilistic inference tasks was studied in a 2 level of information‐presentation mode (visual access to an ordered array of cue values vs. no such access) by 2 levels of task complexity (linear vs. nonlinear cue‐criterion relations). The results replicated earlier findings in that performance was better in the linear tasks than in the nonlinear ones, and also showed that visual access to an ordered array of cue values facilitated performance, viz. there were no interactions. The results were interpreted as evidence that at least part of the suboptimal performance in ordinary experiments of this kind is due to cognitive strain introduced by the lack of control of the sequence of instances of cue‐criterion pairs.
Attempts to predict intelligent behavior: II. A study of problem solving
Authors: RAAHEIM KJELL , KAUFMANN GEIR , BENGTSSON GØRAN
Published: May 2008

In Experiment I a group of pupils from a secondary school was given a test of general intelligence, a test of the ability to categorize objects in a flexible way, and five different problem‐solving tasks. Subjects who were successful on the problems had higher scores on the intelligence test than the rest. The Categorizing Test was not, however, a good indicator of success. In Experiment II a comparison was made between scores on different parts of the so‐called Family Test. With high school pupils and university students as subjects, correlation coefficients in the neighborhood of 0.40 were found between scores when suggesting possible classifications of objects, and scores when choosing a classification to fit different sets of objects. The triangular form of the scatterplots was taken as an indication that an ability to present different interpretations of one's experience is a necessary, but not sufficient condition for success in problem‐solving tasks.
Personality and experience in an encounter‐group
Authors: TORGERSEN SVENN
Published: May 2008

In a study of seventeen subjects who had participated in an encounter‐group, the subjective experience seemed to be related to personality traits. The more obsessive students felt that they had experienced a positive effect from the group, but at the same time they felt that the group was disgusting. The more oral individuals felt that the group had created emotional strain. The more hysterical persons tended to be unaffected by the group experience.
Processing of information about location during locomotion: Effects of a concurrent task and locomotion patterns
Authors: BÖÖK ANDERS , GÄRLING TOMMY
Published: May 2008

How maintenance of orientation during locomotion in unfamiliar environments is accomplished was investigated by having subjects walk behind a moving light line (1.12 m/sec) in a dark room and, from a stopping point, numerically estimate direction and distance to the starting point. Two linear distances (5.0–8.4 m) and the angle of direction change (45, 90, and 135 deg) were orthogonally varied as 12 locomotion patterns. Eight high‐school students were assigned to each of three conditions, two in which the starting point was invisible, one in which it was visible. In one of the former conditions the subjects counted backwards rapidly during walking. Lower accuracy and longer latency times were found in the counting condition whilst the other two conditions differed only slightly. The results suggested that accurate maintenance of orientation is achieved by recurrent encoding, coordination and decoding of information about direction change and locomotion distance, processes which demand central processing capacity and therefore are interfered with by a concurrent task.
Effects of information presentation mode and learning paradigm on the learning of probabilistic inference tasks under different levels of memory strain
Authors: HAGAFORS ROGER , BREHMER BERNDT
Published: May 2008

The effects of information presentation mode (i.e. visual access vs. not access to an ordered array of cue combinations) and learning paradigm (i.e. selection vs. reception of cue‐combinations) on learning of two‐cue probabilistic inference tasks were studied in two 2 × 2 factorial experiments representing two levels of memory strain. The results showed that information presentation mode affected performance regardless of amount of memory strain, while learning paradigm affected performance only under conditions of high memory strain.
Note on the factor structure of the Bern Sex‐Role Inventory
Authors: CARLSSON MARIANNE
Published: May 2008

The scores of BSRI, a questionnaire measuring psychological androgyny, i.e. the extent to which a person possess traits that are traditionally considered feminine and traits that are traditionally considered masculine, were subjected to a factor analysis. The BSRI was administered to 100 women and 100 men, between 20 and 60 years of age. The analysis gave two factors for women, interpreted as a Femininity factor and a Masculinity factor, and three factors for men, interpreted as a Femininity factor and two Masculinity factors. A shorter version of the BSRI is also suggested. These results support the notion that femininity and masculinity are best considered two independent dimensions.
The mind considered as a system of meaning structures: Elementary meaning structures
Authors: LUNDH LARS‐GUNNAR
Published: May 2008

The phenomena of stimulus equivalence and motor equivalence are used in this paper to lay a foundation for a theory of meaning structures. A meaning structure is defined as a structure of classes of equivalent stimuli and classes of equifinal responses. Each such class is said to have both extension and intension. Perception, intention and expectation are identified as different aspects of the activation of such meaning structures. Whereas meaning structures exist in the form of long‐term dispositions (in long‐term memory), the activation of meaning structures results in the formation of short‐term dispositions (in short‐term memory)—ever changing meaning constellations. The concept of meaning structures is compared with other theoretical concepts like “contingencies of reinforcement”, “means‐end readiness”, “schemata”, “nodes in long‐term memory”, “afford‐ances” and “cathexis”. Finally, some implications for the psychological description and understanding of behavior are discussed.
Smoking among Norwegian schoolchildren 1975–1980: I. Extent of smoking in the age group 12–15 years, 1975
Authors: AARØ LEIF EDVARD , HAUKNES ARNE , BERGLUND ELSE‐LILL
Published: May 2008

213600 pupils from grades 6–9 (age 12–15) in the primary school in Norway filled in a questionnaire about smoking habits (1975). The headmaster of each individual of the 2824 schools participating in the study filled in reports giving the local frequencies of daily smokers, occasional smokers and nonsmokers for each grade and for boys and girls separately. The school‐reports also contained questions about demographical properties of the school. A sample of 6968 questionnaires from the pupils (those who were born on the sixth irrespective of month) were also submitted for statistical analysis. Compared with previous studies, the percentage of smokers among girls proved to have increased considerably. The tendency found in many western industrialized countries, that smoking is increasing among girls more than among boys, or that boys are reducing smoking to a greater extent than are girls, was confirmed also for Norway. In all 19 counties there was a higher percentage of daily smokers among girls than among boys. Higher percentages of occasional smokers or pupils who had tried smoking were found in small schools and scattered settlements. Norway may be divided into geographical areas according to the differences in the smoking habits of girls and boys. In the counties in the south and to the west, girls have not surpassed boys to the same extent as in the rest of the country. From previous political‐cultural research it is known that the south and west is characterized by temperance and prohibition movements, higher frequencies of religious attendance, as well as a distintiveness in voting behaviour.
Conflict of experience: A categorization model for studying verbal interaction
Authors: HARTMANN TERJE
Published: May 2008

In order to describe communication between people, some new concepts are introduced. These are derived from a model using ‘conflict of experience’ as its main theoretical reference. Such conflict presumably occurs when different interpretations of “the same” reality confronts each other. How such a conflict is handled is seen as depending upon factors in the situation, and on motive states of the person. A dialogue from Ibsen's play “John Gabriel Borkman” is analyzed in terms of the model in order to demonstrate its possible fruitfulness for describing and understanding verbal interaction. Psychotherapeutic concepts are discussed in relation to the theoretical points of veiw presented.
The operant as a class of responses
Authors: LEE VICKI L.
Published: May 2008

This paper considers some recent objections to the concept of the operant. These objections were, first, that “action” is more fundamental than “operant” and, second, that the term ‘operant’ depends for its application on the knowledge of behavior implicit in common language. The present paper outlines the concept of the operant as a class of responses. In doing so, it considers the distinctions between responses and response classes (operants) and between descriptive operants and functional operants. These distinctions suggest that “action” is not more fundamental than “operant” and that although descriptive operants originate in common knowledge, functional operants never do. The paper concludes that the concept of the operant is basic to behavior theory, and must be retained.
On Intelligence III: Examining developmental implications of Cattail's broad ability theory and of an alternative neo‐Spearman model
Authors: UNDHEIM JOHAN OLAV
Published: May 2008

Developmental implications of Cattell's theory of Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence and of an alternative neo‐Spearman hierarchical model of broad ability factors are considered. A comprehensive re‐evaluation of available longitudinal data originally interpreted to support Cattell's theory indicates that the support for Cattell's hypotheses of Gf‐Gc relationships is highly questionable. Previously published data on broad abilities (see e.g. Undheim, 1976; 1978; 1981a) as well as the present results are seen to be more easily consistent with the implications of the neo‐Spearman hierarchical model formerly developed (Undheim, 1981b).
On Intelligence IV: Toward a restoration of general intelligence
Authors: UNDHEIM JOHAN OLAV
Published: May 2008

The present paper points to the limitations of a focusing on narrow primary factors of intelligence and argues for broad‐factor structuring of ability data. Recent studies of such broad attributes would suggest a “rapprochement” between Spearman's general intelligence model and Cattell's theory of Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence. Discussing the neo‐Spearman organization of abilities thus proposed, the paper argues, however, that the conceptualization of intelligence suggested by this structural model is more akin to Thomson's “sampling” model than to the “power” model of both Spearman and Cattell. The possible role of these interpretations of ability data in future research on intelligent behavior is discussed.
Autism and receptive dysphasia: Evaluation of comparative studies
Authors: TETZCHNER STEPHEN VON , MARTINSEN HARALD
Published: May 2008

Ten different studies comparing children with autism and receptive dysphasia are reviewed. Most of the studies aimed to characterize autism as a language disorder. The representativity of the samples are discussed according to heterogeneity of the autistic and dysphatic populations, and sex and social class distributions. Group differences and similarities are listed and discussed according to sample selection and matching procedures, age and sex distribution, social class membership, and the defining criteria of the two illnesses. It is concluded that the studies do not fullfill their aim, and that the project of comparing dysphatic and autistic children seems unfruitful. Group differences which seem unconnected with methodological difficulties, selection procedure, or group defining criteria, were found in parental background, use of gestures, articulation, and reading.
Memory for the spatial layout of the everyday physical environment: Differential rates of acquisition of different types of information
Authors: GÄRLING TOMMY , BÖÖK ANDERS , ERGEZEN NAHIDE
Published: May 2008

The hypothesis that the relative locations of the landmarks in a town is not accurately remembered before the paths between them have been learned was refuted in the present study showing that the reverse may in fact be true. In two of the three experiments carried out, undergraduates were found to give accurate estimates of the relative directions to different landmarks in an average‐sized Swedish town (Umeå with about 80 000 residents), even if the subjects had been living there no more than two to four months. However, for some reason which could not be disentangled relative distance estimates turned out to be less accurate. In the third experiment, undergraduates who had lived for two months in the town by contrast hardly remembered which places among designated ones they would pass by the most direct path, whereas those who had been one year longer in the town were much better although not perfect. Finally, no sex differences were observed and there were no important differences depending on whether memory was tested for the central area of the town or for the whole town including the outskirts.
The Defense Mechanism Test predicts inadequate performance under stress
Authors: VÆRNES RAGNAR J.
Published: May 2008

Perceptual defense reactions as tested by the Defense Mechanism Test (DMT) correlated to specific performance criteria in parachutists and divers. In the parachute study (N=34), 8 trainees were identified on the Reaction Formation variable of the DMT, and 6 were among the Ss (N=8) who failed the performance test (χ2=15.14, phi =0.67, p<0.001). In the diver study (N=45), performance was impaired by the nitrogen narcosis produced by the high partial pressure of nitrogen. Memory was significant reduced both when recall and learning were done under narcosis (t(44)=4.08, p<0.01, and t(44)=4.90, p<0.01). The reduction on reasoning capacity proved insignificant, but using the median reduction as cut score, the Reaction Formation variable correlated significantly with the reduction (χ2=6.51, phi =0.39, p<0.02). Memory and learning effect/reasoning tests did not correlate to any of the DMT variables using the median as a cut score. Using the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Test (TMAS) as a moderator variable, a significant correlation between reduction on the reasoning test and the combined score high anxiety/high defense was obtained (χ2=15.23, phi = 0.83, p<0.001).
Endocrine reactions and cognitive performance at 60 metres hyperbaric pressure
Authors: VÆRNES RAGNAR J. , DARRAGH AUSTIN
Published: May 2008

Endocrine reactions and cognitive performance were examined in a dive to 60 metres hyperbaric pressure (N= 29). There was a significant increase for prolactine and growth hormone, and a significant decrease for epinephrine and testosterone. Memory was significantly reduced at 60 metres. The factor pattern of the endocrine postdive measures showed a cortisol, a catecholamine, and a testosterone factor similar to previous stress‐studies at 1 atmosphere. Confirming previous studies there was a correlation between perceptual defense reactions as tested by the Defense Mechanism (DMT) and cortisol. DMT also correlated with performance on a reasoning test when learning was controlled. Furthermore, for the postdive samples there was a correlation between cortisol and performance on the arithmetic test, while prolactine correlated to memory reduction. These results indicate that the endocrine reactions and the reduction in cognitive performance is due to an effect of the emotional reaction to the dive situation in addition to direct effects of the nitrogen narcosis.
The mind considered as a system of meaning structures II. Concepts and representations
Authors: LUNDH LARS‐GUNNAR
Published: May 2008

The theory of the mind considered as a system of meaning structures, which was sketched in an earlier paper (Lundh, 1981), is developed further in this paper. Whereas the earlier paper remained at a prelinguistic, sensorimotor level of functioning, the present paper extends the theory to conceptual thinking. Three main distinctions are drawn: between 1) mental representations and symbols, 2) sensorimotor intelligence and conceptual intelligence, and 3) habitual inferences and cognitive operations. Sensorimotor development consists in the development of mental representations, which the child, however, does not yet have any conscious access to. It is argued that sensorimotor structures are transformed into conceptual and propositional structures to the extent that the child becomes able not only to act, but also to think in terms of these structures—the latter is equated with the development of a kind of conscious access to already existent mental representations.
Similarity and preference judgments of musical stimuli
Authors: CUPCHIK GERALD C. , RICKERT MARTIN , MENDELSON JULIE
Published: May 2008

Two experiments were performed comparing similarity (technical‐structural) and preference personal‐affective) judgments of jazz improvizations (Experiment 1) and of classical, pop‐rock, and jazz music (Experiment 2). A multidimensional scaling paradigm (INDSCAL) was used for pairwise comparisons of the 12 musical pieces in each experiment. Each 2 minute piece was subdivided into 10 second segments in order to reduce fatigue or boredom and provide better sampling across comparison trials. In general, similarity dimensions reflected greater agreement among the subjects that did preference dimensions and were hierarchically ordered. The dominant dimensions for both similarity and preference judgments of jazz improvizations were: Tempo, Dominant Instrument (Horns‐guitar), and Articulation. The dominant dimensions for similarity judgments involving all three genres were: Classical‐Contemporary, Jazz‐Rock, and Tempo. The dominant dimensions for preference judments were: Rock‐Classical, Jazz‐Classical, and Tempo. In general, the preference judgments of musically sophisticated subjects were less constrained by salient dimensions.
Revising explications of common sense through dialogue: Thirty‐six psychological theorems
Authors: SMEDSLUND JAN
Published: May 2008

An explication of common sense is an attempt to formulate a part of the ordinarily unformulated system of implications shared by all members of a given culture, familiar with a given context. Thirty‐six alleged common sense formulations relating to Bandura's theory of self‐efficacy were used. Students were asked 1) to give a prediction involving each theorem, 2) to judge whether or not an alternative prediction is conceivable, 3) to judge whether or not an explanation based on the theorem is acceptable, and 4) to judge whether or not an explanation based on the negation of the theorem is acceptable. The average consensus on these four types of judgments was respectively 93%, 80%, 92%, and 96%. A group of respondents were interviewed about the shortcomings of the formulations. The theorems were revised to incorporate these criticisms and, hence, are expected to yield higher consensus.
Organization of the amygdala with special reference to various pathological syndromes
Authors: BEN‐ARI Y. , TREMBLAY E.
Published: May 2008

Our understanding of the functional organization of the amygdaloid complex has considerably increased in the last 10 years. Thus the abundance of previously unsuspected neocortical and thalamic afferents to the amygdala as well as the direct projections from the central amygdala to pontine structures involved in the coordination of autonomic and motor functions, present a challenge to the previous view that the function of the complex is largely related to that better known of the hypothalamus. In this context the possible significance of the abundant opoid systems in the central amygdala will be discussed with special reference to the morphine withdrawal syndrome. The role of the amygdala in the manifestation of limbic motor signs during seizures will be reevaluated in this context.
Socio‐sexual behaviours in rats after neonatal and adult β‐endorphin treatment
Authors: MEYERSON B. J.
Published: May 2008

This study is concerned with the influence of neuropeptides, in particular β‐endorphin (β‐END), on behaviour. Neuropeptides participate in the chemical transmission of the central nervous communication processes. The effects of β‐END on socio‐sexual behaviours were examined in laboratory rats. The methodological approach was based on a multivariate analysis. β‐END was found to change the socio‐sexual behaviour profile in a way indicating that the subject may have difficulties in interpreting incoming information. The effects of neonatal administration of β‐END on the adult performance of sexual behaviour are also described. Early exposure to β‐END altered the response to β‐END in the adult individual. A working hypothesis is proposed that the behaviour in the adult may to a certain extent be conditioned during sensitive periods of pre‐adult development by environmental stimuli releasing endogenous neurohormones.
Functional recovery following brain damage: conceptual frameworks and biological mechanisms
Authors: GAGE F. H. , DUNNETT S. B. , BJÖRKLUND A. , STENEVI U.
Published: May 2008

Mammals are well known to manifest recovery over time of many functional impairments induced by brain lesions. A brief reveiw is provided of the different conceptual frameworks within which functional recovery has been examined in the literature, and of different neurobiological mechanisms that have been proposed to account for the phenomenon. We observe that these two levels of analysis have frequently been only loosely related. Finally, a newly identified biological mechanism—compensatory collateral sprouting—is described which appears to be closely related to functional recovery in animals with hippocampal lesions, and this is proposed as a powerful new model within which to investigate further the relationship between the phenomenon of functional recovery and its underlying mechanisms.
Challenge‐control interaction as reflected in sympathetic‐adrenal and pituitary‐adrenal activity: comparison between the sexes
Authors: FRANKENHAEUSER M.
Published: May 2008

The relative sensitivity of the sympathetic‐adrenal and pituitary‐adrenal systems to different psychosocial demands is considered on the basis of experimental data. It is concluded that positive and negative aspects of psychological arousal (“effort” and “distress”) are differentially associated with the activity of each of the two systems, effort being related primarily to catecholamine secretion, distress primarily to cortisol secretion. Data are presented to illustrate the role of personal control as a major modulating factor. Controllability tends to reduce the negative aspects and enhance the positive aspects of arousal, thereby changing the balance between sympathetic‐adrenal and pituitary‐adrenal activity. The neuroendocrine pattern is the same for males and females, but there is a consistent sex difference in that females are less prone than males to respond to achievement demands by increased catecholamine secretion. The relative influence of biological and social factors on this sex difference in reactivity is discussed.
A framework for reproductive memory tasks
Authors: RÖNNBERG JERKER
Published: May 2008

The present papers present a framework for reproductive memory tasks. It is proposed that the notion of predictability of presentation is of prime importance to performance in reproductive tasks and that this notion may be decomposed into three critical dimensions, viz. the item expectancy, the type‐of‐recall and recall expectancy dimensions. The first dimension refers to the manipulation of inter‐item intervals; the second to backward, forward or free recall and the third to when recall is prompted. Moreover, a study was conducted, wherein these three dimension were combined. The main results demonstrated superior performance for prerecency items (the first four items) with fast inter‐item intervals in the beginning of list presentation and also reliable effects for recency items (the last four items). Precueing and postcueing (recall expectancy) interacted with the item expectancy dimension and also with the type of recall expectancy dimension in systematic ways. The data obtained could not be accouted for a traditional encoding, storage, retrieval or rehearsal terms, whereas the predictability notion seemed more viable. Finally, implications for a general interactionistic theory were also discussed, where the interplay between cognitive skills and predictability characteristics of the task constitute the basic factors.
Studies in subjective probability IV: probabilities, confidence, and luck
Authors: TEIGEN KARL HALVOR
Published: May 2008

Probably because of formal advantages, probabilities are often regarded as more basic than other dimensions of attitudes towards uncertain events (beliefs, confidences, doubts, statements of hope and fear, good and bad luck etc.). In a series of experiments, some of these concepts were empirically compared by asking students to give their views on a variety of uncertain events, ranging from future examinations to lotteries. Confidence turned out to be closely related to perceived chance, but very imperfectly to the subjective probability of the event in question, except when all outcomes are judged equally due to chance. Judgments of good and bad luck were still more independent of the probabilities involved, even in a chance situation, It is concluded that subjective probability plays a secondary role in assessments of confidence as well as of luck, and is poorly suited as a common measure of the varieties of subjective uncertainty. A final experiment suggests the subjective and statistical conceptions of uncertainty to have partially opposing connotations. “An uncertain future” seems to be subjectively interpreted as an open future, restricted possibilities of prediction.
Smoking among Norwegian schoolchildren 1975–1980
Authors: Aarφ Leif Edvard , Bruland Egil , Hauknes Arne , Lφchsen Per Morten
Published: May 2008

A comprehensive research project on smoking among Norwegian schoolchildren was started in 1975. Results from two nation‐wide questionnaire surveys and from two field experiments were presented. The first field experiment (1978) demonstrated that different approaches to smoking and health education had different effects on the pupils' reported tobacco consumption. In three of four experimental groups, the reported short‐term reduction of cigarettes smoked was statistically significant. If the pupils were actively involved, and when their parents were involved, the reported reduction of cigarettes smoked was 21 % compared to only 6% in a group with passive pupils and no involvement of the parents. In a second field experiment (1979‐80), a long‐term reduction was shown. During the first six months there was a marked decrease in the prevalence of smokers. Compared with a control group, the effect still remained after one year. In the period 1975–1980, a new trend in smoking among young people in Norway was recorded. Irrespective of grade and sex, the proportion of young people smoking daily decreased. The decrease was somewhat stronger for girls than for boys.
Conditioning of a discriminative drug stimulus: Overshadowing and blocking like procedures
Authors: JÄRBE T. U. C. , SVENSSON R. , LAAKSONEN T.
Published: May 2008

Interactions between a drug discriminative stimulus (D, 17.5 mg/kg of pentobarbital vs. N, saline) and exteroceptive stimulus conditions (light vs. dark) were examined in a T‐maze, shock‐escape task using conditioning procedures pertaining to the phenomena of “overshadowing” and “blocking”. From an operational point of view, in the “overshadowing” procedure the stimulus compound is introduced from the outset of the training, whereas in the “blocking” procedure the stimuli components are introduced sequentially. When the compound discriminations were established, dose‐generalization tests with various doses of pentobarbital (range 5.6–17.5 mg/kg) as well as saline (1 ml/kg) were carried out under both elements (light and dark) of the exteroceptive stimulus dimension. Prior training with drug (D vs. N) neutralized the potential influence of the exteroceptive dimension (light vs. dark); conversely training with the exteroceptive stimuli prior to the drug training accentuated the control over behavior by the visual stimuli. Dose‐generalization results intermediate to those described above were observed in the group trained to discriminate the stimulus compound (D plus light vs. N plus dark) from the outset of training. It may therefore be concluded that exteroceptive stimuli can compete with interoceptive drug stimuli for associative strength in the procedure used. Thus, the formal similarities between drug discriminative stimuli and more conventionally studied exteroceptive, sensory signals are furthered by the data.
Personality and developmental psychology
Authors: RUTH JAN‐ERIK , JØRGENSEN PER SCHULTZ
Published: May 2008

Research on personality and developmental psychology in Scandinavia in the seventies is presented according to what are considered important and significant research interests. Such interests are defined primarily from the viewpoint of general trends in society, e.g. research on infancy and preschool children and research on old age. Other interests are defined from an almost purely theoretical viewpoint. This applies to research from an interactional perspective. Future research in this branch of psychology seems to place priority on a methodological approach based upon external validity and the use of multidimensional models. As to the theoretical frame of reference, future research points to conceptualizations of the influence of society on structure, process and development of personality.