bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
BURMAH AGATE—CHRONOLOGY AND CONTAINMENT OPERATIONS
Authors: Kana Timothy W. , Thompson Edmond P. , Pavia Robert
Published: January 2013

On November 1, 1979, a collision of the Liberian registered tanker Burmah Agate and the Liberian freighter, Mimosa, produced the largest oil spill in U.S. waters for the year. The Burmah Agate, carrying almost 400,000 barrels of Nigerian crude (API No. 29.1) and a blend (API No. 39.3), settled on the bottom in 13.5 meters of water approximately 7 kilometers southeast of Galveston Entrance (lat. 29°17.8′ N, long. 94°37.3′ W). The collision ruptured two starboard midship tanks resulting in explosions and fire that left 33 dead. Listing slightly to starboard with part of the deck awash, the Burmah Agate continued to burn out of control for over 2 months. Responsibility for firefighting and onshore cleanup was assumed by the ship owners. However, the U.S. Coast Guard took an active role in the containment and recovery of spilled oil at the wreck site, and protection of oil-sensitive environments onshore. Booms, skimmers, and skimming barriers were deployed around the ship and recovery of spilled oil began by November 9, 1979. Early recovery efforts were hampered by weather and burning slicks which destroyed booms deployed too close to the ship. However, during the succeeding month, over 6,700 barrels of oil and water emulsion were recovered from the water. Booms and skimmers were deployed in Galveston Entrance, San Luis Pass, and smaller passes to the west to minimize the potential threat of spilled oil to sensitive coastal environments. The fire burned itself out by January 8, 1980, after 250,000 barrels had either been consumed by fire or released into the environment. Over 150,000 bbl were eventually salvaged from the forward tanks before the ship was refloated and towed to Brownsville, Texas, for scrap.
SURVEILLANCE, TRACKING, AND MODEL CORRELATION OF THE SPILL FROM THE TANKER BURMAH AGATE
Authors: Kelly Frank J. , Hann Roy W. , Young Harry N.
Published: January 2013

The trajectory of the oil spilled from the tanker Burmah Agate passed through the extensively instrumented area of the U.S. Department of Energy Strategic Petroleum Reserve Brine Disposal Site off Freeport, Texas. Because of the potential impact of the spill on the 3-year baseline study, a major effort was made to monitor the slick movement, obtain samples, and collect and process oceanographic and meteorological data. Daily reconnaissance flights were made by the authors to obtain VOR position fixes of oil patches and document them with 35mm and color video cameras. The orientation, centroid position, and velocity of the initial impulse of oil from the collision, which was tracked as far as San Jose Island, Texas, have been computed for the first 9 days. These results, as well as daily summaries are presented.

Continuous measurements of near-surface currents at locations 6.5 and 11.5 nautical miles off Freeport, Texas and wind velocity at the 6.5-nautical mile location were also recorded, which provide a unique opportunity to correlate the oil movement with the traditional first-order approximation for oil transport. Good agreement between actual and predicted movements is found for the longshore component of motion, whereas the cross-shelf movement is not well predicted. The presence of a weak frontal zone in the coastal waters is suggested as a possible complicating factor.
SIMPLIFIED MODELS TO PREDICT THE BREAKUP OF OIL ON ROUGH SEAS
Authors: Aravamudan K. S. , Raj P. K. , Marsh G.
Published: January 2013

This study attempts to integrate existing theoretical models and experimental information on the behavior of oil spills in the ocean into a unified, sequential calculation procedure to predict the breakup of oil on rough seas. Major consideration has been given to developing the least sophisticated calculation procedures that maintain a reasonable description of the totality of the physical process.

The principal phenomena included in the prediction of the spill behavior are as follows: combined spreading and evaporation; slick-sea interaction and formation of oil droplets; dispersion of droplets in the water column; and, finally, the formation and dispersion of slicklets caused by turbulence in the ocean. A multicomponent spreading-evaporation model was developed to predict the area, average density, and mass loss because of evaporation from the slick as a function of time for various environmental conditions. On the basis of the well-known Pierson-Moskowitz spectrum for a fully developed sea, models were developed to predict the size of oil droplets and their distribution in the water column. A horizontal diffusion model was developed on the basis of several experimental observations to determine the dispersion of slicklets and predict the total contaminated ocean surface area as a function of time.

The integrated model is computerized and has been exercised for four different types of oils, namely, light crude, heavy crude, fuel oil No. 2, and fuel oil No. 6.
SPREADING, DISPERSION, AND EVAPORATION OF OIL SLICKS IN THE ARABIAN GULF
Authors: Belen M. S. , Lehr W. J. , Cekirge H. M.
Published: January 2013

This study examines the spreading, dispersion, and evaporation of oil spills subject to the environmental conditions of the Arabian Gulf. Standard approaches to oil slick transformations are modified and enhanced to better model spills in the Gulf. The results obtained, which are presented in tabular form, should provide important information in assessing the fate of any spill in the region.
THE BIOS PROJECT—FRONTIER OIL SPILL COUNTERMEASURES RESEARCH
Authors: Blackall Peter J. , Sergy Gary A.
Published: January 2013

After 18 months of planning, the Baffin Island Oil Spill (BIOS) Project was formally initiated in March 1980. This project marks a major new initiative in oil spill countermeasures development for Canada's northern frontiers. The primary objectives of this internationally funded project are (1) to determine if the use of chemical dispersants in the Arctic nearshore will reduce or increase the environmental effects of spilled oil, (2) to assess the fate of oil, and (3) to compare the relative effectiveness of other shoreline protection and cleanup techniques.

This paper outlines the background and scope of the 4-year project and provides an overview of the first field season's results. Highlighted are the preliminary oil discharges, which took place in August 1980, and which marked the start of studies on the long-term fate of oil on Arctic beaches. In addition, the results of the baseline physical, chemical, and biological studies are presented. The physical program included detailed oceanographic, meteorological, and geomorphological studies. The chemical program determined the background hydrocarbon concentrations in the sediments, the water column, and the tissue of selected macrobenthic species; and also the environmental chemistry of the study area. The biological program characterized the macrobenthic flora and fauna and the micro-organisms that are potentially capable of biodegrading the oil. The physical, chemical, and toxicological properties of the oil were measured in laboratories and in the field. The ramifications of these results on the design of the oil spills scheduled for 1981 are discussed.
A VIEW OF THE LABORATORY TESTING AND ASSESSMENT OF OIL SPILL DISPERSANT EFFICIENCY
Authors: Meeks D.G.
Published: January 2013

This paper outlines the role of a dispersant in an oil spill plan and sets out criteria by which the product should be judged in terms of its dispersing efficiency and biodegradation.

It reviews the mixing needed in a laboratory test relative to conditions associated with dispersant use at sea. An ideal set of requirements for a laboratory test and ways of assessment are discussed, stressing the importance of confirmation of these results by sea testing. After reviewing currently used tests, the test favoured by BP is described.

Ideas are expressed for future efficiency-rating improvements.
ANTICIPATED OIL DISPERSION RATES IN PACK ICE
Authors: Reimer E. M.
Published: January 2013

As petroleum exploration and transportation systems move into increasingly difficult operating environments such as the Labrador Sea, there is a need for more sophisticated oil spill countermeasures and for new cleanup technology. The design of counter measure systems compatible with pack ice conditions cannot be undertaken without some preliminary investigation of oil interactions with ice and, perhaps more crucially, without an estimate of oil dispersion processes in moving pack ice.

The characterization of dispersion processes is complicated by seasonal and geographic variations in the physical and dynamic nature of the Labrador ice pack. Nevertheless, on the basis of field observations over the past two winters, it has been possible to generate order-of-magnitude estimates of the probable dispersion and mixing processes. These processes are low compared with open water dispersion processes.
KURDISTAN—AN UNUSUAL SPILL SUCCESSFULLY HANDLED
Authors: Duerden F. Colin , Swiss James J.
Published: January 2013

On March 15, 1979, the 30,000 dwt British tanker Kurdistan split in two in the ice-infested waters of Canada's Cabot Strait. Approximately 7,000 tons of bunker C spilled from the ruptured tanks, but the rest remained in the floating bow and stern sections. A threefold problem faced those agencies responsible for addressing the incident: the bow section containing 7,000 tons of oil, the stern with 16,000 tons, and the escaped oil itself. Two teams of government personnel addressed the problems of the bow and stern sections. Eventually, in a precedent-setting action, the stern was towed through stormy seas and ice and offloaded at Port Hawkesbury, Nova Scotia, and the bow was sunk by naval gunfire in a predesignated area off the Scotian Shelf. Twelve days after the accident, oil started coming ashore and eventually contaminated over 700 miles of shoreline, requiring cleanup efforts lasting over 6 months. The response was difficult for a number of reasons: the oil was often trapped in ice and could not be recovered; it floated below the surface, making it almost impossible to locate even with sophisticated remote-sensing techniques; it emerged unexpectedly, oiling and reoiling shorelines for several months; and environmental and socioeconomic concerns became increasingly significant. Finally, over a million bags of oily debris were collected, requiring the development of an environmentally acceptable disposal method. All of these problems made the Kurdistan spill difficult and unique from both a response and cleanup point of view.
COAST GUARD ENVIRONMENTAL MISSION FULFILLED BY NAVY SALVAGE, FRENCH FRIGATE SHOALS
Authors: Burns Bobby , Campbell A. G. , Adams Charles J.
Published: January 2013

Quick response to the stranding of a large freighter on French Frigate Shoals, Hawaii, by U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) and Navy salvage forces prevented a major oil spill with probably significant environmental damage and saved a valuable ship and cargo. The authority, funding, and contacts that allowed the use of navy salvage forces on a timely basis were key elements in the USCG On-Scene Coordinator and the Region IX (Oceana) Response Team actions. The incident particulars, including authority, funding, assets deployed, logistics problems, salvage efforts, planning, methodology, and operational problems are discussed.

It was determined that efforts to mitigate possible oil spill damage, such as deployment of booms, would be impractical and probably totally ineffective in the shoal and sand spits subject to open-ocean weather conditions. Lightering of fuel and cargo was judged to be dangerous and difficult. Salvage of the intact ship was found to be the most practical means to prevent significant environmental damage. Jettisoning of 2,100 tons of nontoxic fine white clay cargo was necessary for the salvage. Logistic limitations and evaluation of tide and currents to minimize environmental impact were major concerns that limited amounts and times of discharge. The post-incident survey indicates minimal environmental damage.

The incident points to the need for the creation of an “area to be avoided” within a 50-mile radius as is currently proposed by the United States to the Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO) Maritime Safety Committee for the Northwest Hawaiian Islands.
ASSESSMENT OF AERIAL APPLICATION OF OIL SPILL DISPERSANTS
Authors: Smedley J. Bruce
Published: January 2013

The use of aircraft in the application of oil spill dispersants was shown to be a viable technique in 1979 when aerial spraying was used for the Mexican Pemex Ixtoc 1 oil spill and, more recently, at the Suffield, Alberta, aerially applied dispersant field trials (September 1980).

The purpose of this paper is to present the results of a review of existing technical information about three specific component parts of the aerial spraying technique. The review identified parameters that affect the efficiency of aerial spraying that are useful in assessing practical operations.

The analysis and report pertaining to the Suffield field trials (due January 1981) is currently being undertaken by the author and others and will be commented on in general terms only as the results pertain to this work.
OIL SPILL COUNTERMEASURES IN LANDFAST SEA ICE
Authors: Allen Alan A. , Nelson William G.
Published: January 2013

The behavior of crude oil and diesel oil in solid landfast sea ice has been examined under a variety of conditions by scientists in both the United States and the Canadian Arctic. Controlled oil releases under laboratory and actual field conditions have shown that oil spills in the landfast ice zone will tend to remain highly immobilized and achieve relatively thick concentrations. Such spills will encounter natural conditions that encourage accumulation of the oil at or near the ice surface, limit the areal extent of the oil, and help preserve certain physical and chemical characteristics that facilitate its control. A summary of these phenomena for oil in landfast sea ice reveals several important operational considerations for the development of specific Arctic countermeasure techniques. Such techniques for the containment and removal of oil in the landfast ice zone are presented, emphasizing the use of natural materials and conditions for their implementation.
SPILL IMPACTS AND SHORELINE CLEANUP OPERATIONS ON ARCTIC AND SUB-ARCTIC COASTS
Authors: Owens Edward H. , Robilliard Gordon A.
Published: January 2013

Spill response operations in ice-infested or Arctic environments must take into account environmental factors or constraints that are not applicable in more temperate climates. In particular, the potential impact of oil on biological habitats or communities must be evaluated carefully in terms of species distributions and population abundance at the time of a spill. The potential natural recovery from spilled oil is reduced because of the modifying effects of ice on mechanical (wave) processes at the shoreline. Stranded oil is likely to persist longer because of reduced thermal and mechanical energy levels and would, therefore, have a longer potential adverse effect on biological communities. Environmental conditions may constrain operational response in areas of ice-infested waters or of low temperatures. These climatic conditions have not favored human activities so that many Arctic regions are remote and response resources are greatly limited. The development of spill response decisions in Arctic regions must focus on (1) the necessity for cleanup versus natural recovery, (2) assigning priorities for the protection and/or cleanup of specific sections of coast, and (3) consideration of logistic or other operational constraints resulting from climatic conditions.
THE USE OF DISPERSANTS ON VISCOUS FUEL OILS AND WATER IN CRUDE OIL EMULSIONS
Authors: Lee M. , Martinelli F. , Lynch B. , Morris P. R.
Published: January 2013

The various factors affecting the performance of oil spill dispersants have been studied in the laboratory using a simple test to emulsify the oil in the water. The observations have been confirmed by spraying oil onto the sea followed by overspraying with dispersant.

It was found that viscosity of the oil or mousse was the main limitation that influenced the droplet size distribution. Energy of agitation had a minor effect but there was no evidence that the “self-mix” dispersants required less energy for adequate dispersion.
MAPPING THE DISTRIBUTION OF PROTECTED AND VALUABLE, OIL-SENSITIVE COASTAL FISH AND WILDLIFE
Authors: Getter Charles D. , Getter Charles D. , Thebeau Larry C. , Ballou Thomas , Maiero David J.
Published: January 2013

An approach has been developed to produce a map series that displays known, pertinent information concerning the distribution, seasonality, and habits of protected and valuable coastal fish and wildlife that are sensitive to oil spill impacts. This involves a compilation of all literature on the protected and oil-sensitive fish and wildlife for a region. Distribution and abundance data are then evaluated for each species, and all point localities, aggregations, and home ranges are shown on maps. These data include marine mammal haul-out and pupping areas, terrestrial mammal feeding areas, marine bird rookeries, salmon and herring streams and intertidal spawning sites, marine turtle nesting beaches, and intertidal shellfish beds. Aerial surveys are then made of the sites located during the literature search to verify the mapped literature data, as well as to add new wildlife localities. Information on the species, their distribution and ecological type, their habits, and seasonality is color coded on the maps. This approach has been applied to coastal areas in Shelikof Strait (Alaska), Puget Sound (Washington), southeastern Florida, and Massachusetts, and is underway for South Carolina and Norton Sound (Alaska).
POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS IN OYSTERS (CRASSOSTREA VIRGINICA) FROM GEORGIA COASTAL WATERS, ANALYZED BY HIGH-PRESSURE LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY
Authors: Lee Richard F. , Lehsau Dorothy , Madden Michael , Marsh William
Published: January 2013

A number of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) were detected in oysters from sites in coastal Georgia with analysis by reverse-phase liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. Compounds were identified by collection of peaks and comparison of excitation and emission fluorescence spectra with authentic standards. Major PAH in the oysters from the ports of Savannah and Brunswick included methylfluorene, anthracene, 2,3-benzofluorene, methylpyrene, 2,3-benzanthracene, benzo(b) fluoranthene, benzo(k)fluoranthene, and benzo(a)pyrene. Concentrations of most PAH were low in oysters from Skidaway River, which is part of the intracoastal waterway, and Kings Bay submarine base. The concentration of benzo(a)pyrene, a well known carcinogen, was 0.5 micrograms per kilogram in Brunswick and Savannah but was not detected (less than 0.01 micrograms per kilogram) in Skidaway River and Kings Bay.
GEOMORPHOLOGICAL ALTERATION OF A HEAVILY OILED SALTMARSH (ILE GRANDE, FRANCE) AS A RESULT OF MASSIVE CLEANUP
Authors: Vandermeulen J. H. , Long B. F. N. , D'Ozouville L.
Published: January 2013

During massive cleanup of a heavily oiled saltmarsh, much of the surface sediment was removed to a depth of about 50 centimeters (cm), exposing in places the underlying granitic basement. This has resulted in a marked increase in the marsh cross-sectional area, in its tidal prism, and in the current velocities through the marsh. As a result, the marsh is undergoing increased erosion and invasion of sand from offshore stocks. Observations of sand transport 1 year after the cleanup, as well as the formation of megaripple and sheet-flow characteristics 2 years after the cleanup, indicate an increase in current velocities from a pre-spill average of 0.5 meters per second (m/s) to 1 m/s, and exceeding 1.7 m/s in the main channel of the marsh.

A 2-year study of geomorphological changes in the marsh has shown that the normal pre-spill colonization rate of the marsh (28 to 90 cm/yr) has changed to a net erosion (6.5 to 17 m/yr). Increased current velocities have resulted in erosion of the exposed marsh surfaces and undercutting of the secondary and tertiary marsh tidal channels.

Residual oil, left behind from the cleanup, is being trapped under sandbars. Pockets of such oil-permeated sand deposits represent potential long-term storage reservoirs available for later release.

Marsh recovery to pre-spill state depends critically on the reduction of its tidal prism and of the current flow through the marsh. Based on the depositional rates for this marsh and others, this is expected to be a very slow process, unless perhaps it is enhanced by replanting saltmarsh vegetation in denuded areas.
TEN YEARS OF SALTMARSH MONITORING—THE CASE HISTORY OF A SOUTHAMPTON WATER SALTMARSH AND A CHANGING REFINERY EFFLUENT DISCHARGE
Authors: Dicks Brian , Iball Kingsley
Published: January 2013

One of the largest refinery and petrochemical plants in the U.K. has been discharging its effluents into the creek system of a Spartina anglica-dominated saltmarsh in Southampton Water since 1953. This resulted in extensive damage to the marsh system up to 1971. At that time, a program of effluent quality improvement commenced that has resulted first in recolonisation of small areas of damaged marsh followed by extensive recovery. Changes in the marsh vegetation have been studied first by transect surveys in 1969 and 1970 (to assess damage) and subsequently by twice-yearly vegetation mapping resurveys from 1972 to the present. This paper summarises the data from the 10 years of survey. The recovery/recolonisation has continued progressively to the present day, with improvements in effluent quality clearly related to saltmarsh recovery. However, although several annual and perennial marine species have been successful colonisers, the original dominant Spartina anglica has recolonised only poorly.

In addition to vegetation mapping, several series of Spartina transplantation experiments have been carried out to precisely define areas of continued effluent impact. These have formed a nucleus for Spartina recolonisation in some parts of the marsh and may well speed up the return of this species in these areas.

Using these relatively simple techniques it has been possible to identify differences in toxicity between different outfalls. This has been taken into account in site effluent management policy.

Research programmes have recently been extended to include recolonisation of the marsh by intertidal animals and detailed analysis of hydrocarbon contents of sediments over the marsh. Preliminary results from these programmes are described. These additional techniques improve monitoring sensitivity and provide valuable information for interpreting long-term effects of retention of hydrocarbons in sediments. They are designed to monitor continued effluent improvements being undertaken by the refinery.
RESPONSE TO THE ESSO BAYWAY OIL SPILL
Authors: Meyers Robert J.
Published: January 2013

The 50,000 dwt tanker Esso Bayway punctured a hole in its bottom on January 28, 1979, spilling 6,500 barrels (bbl) of Light Arabian crude oil into the Neches River near Port Arthur, Texas. Oil impacted 3 miles (mi) of the river, adjacent bayous, and an environmentally sensitive salt marsh.

This paper describes the response to the spill by the Exxon Company, U.S.A., Marine Department. Several contractors using a variety of cleanup methods for collection and recovery of the oil were used during the 30-day operation. The preplanned implementation of an emergency response by an Exxon team of managers, supervisors, scientists, public affairs advisors, claims agents, accountants, and communications experts to coordinate the cleanup operation is discussed. In addition to the Exxon response team, scientists from academia were retained to provide guidance in the assessment of any potential environmental impacts. The United States Coast Guard (USCG), the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), acting as the Scientific Support Coordinator, and state agencies also participated in the cleanup operation.

Cleanup was completed in 4 weeks at a cost of $1.5 million with minimum private claims, insignificant environmental damage, and positive media coverage and public reaction. This paper describes the efforts that obtained these results.
IMPACTS OF A SPILL OF NO. 6 FUEL OIL ON LAKE WINONA
Authors: Fremling Calvin R.
Published: January 2013

A spill of about 7,400 gallons of No. 6 fuel oil into Lake Winona provided an unusual opportunity to observe the behavior of a residual fuel oil in a confined freshwater environment. Oil-laden condensate from Winona State University's heating plant entered Lake Winona via a storm sewer during the winter and, because of ice cover, went undetected until April 15, 1979. Because its density was almost the same as water, the oil caused unusual problems. Surface fractions were readily removed by standard measures, but cleanup was thwarted by heavier fractions which rose continually from the lake bottom and drifted throughout the lake. Scuba divers located a pool of heavy oil in a deep area near the storm sewer outlet and most of it was pumped into an on-shore reservoir. Globules of oil continued to rise from the lake bottom during the ensuing summer season, severely curtailing recreational use of the lake. The spill resulted in the deaths of waterfowl and it apparently stressed spawning sunfish sufficiently to trigger a kill by Flexibacter columnaris bacteria. The oil produced no taste problems in fish flesh. The cost of cleanup was almost $104,000, and a civil penalty of $3,500 was levied against the State of Minnesota. The entire episode was documented photographically.
THE ATLANTIC EMPRESS SINKING—A LARGE SPILL WITHOUT ENVIRONMENTAL DISASTER
Authors: Horn Stuart A. , Neal Captain Phillip
Published: January 2013

At 1900 hours on July 19, 1979, the 288,000-deadweight-ton (dwt) Atlantic Empress and the 207,000-dwt Aegean Captain collided in the Caribbean Sea. In the fiery aftermath of the accident, 27 crewmen lost their lives. There was a strong possibility that a total of 3.5 million barrels of crude oil would be spilled; this would have been the largest spill to that time. Nearby islands with their tourist beaches and coral reefs were threatened. And yet, even though the Atlantic Empress eventually sank after burning for 14 days, no oil came ashore and no indications of any environmental damage were observed.

This paper provides a chronicle of the events of the days following the collision, including (1) activation of the Clean Caribbean Cooperative equipment stockpile, (2) airlifting 13 planeloads of ftrefighting foam, oil transfer gear, dispersants and pollution control equipment, (3) assembling an expert response team with an operation based on Trinidad, (4) providing four single-engine aircraft dispersant-spraying capability, and (5) mounting a major firefighting effort on board the burning ship.

The Atlantic Empress was the largest ship ever to sink. However, through a coordinated response effort and considerable assistance from natural forces, no harmful pollution resulted.
IMPACT AND PERSISTENCE OF IXTOC I OIL ON THE SOUTH TEXAS COAST
Authors: Gundlach Erich R. , Finkelstein Kenneth J. , Sadd James L.
Published: January 2013

The blowout of Ixtoc I on June 3, 1979, released at least 476,000 tons of oil into the Gulf of Mexico until the well was capped on March 24, 1980. The predicted northward drift of the oil caused the U.S. government to sponsor a pre-spill coastline mapping project (called the Environmental Sensitivity Index), which was used in developing the response strategy of the U.S. Coast Guard Strike Team and accurately predicted the reaction and persistence of Ixtoc I oil along Gulf Coast beaches when major impacts occurred during August and September 1979. In total, approximately 3,900 tons of Ixtoc I oil washed onto exposed beaches of fine-grained sand and mixed sand and shell in south Texas. Little oil passed into the productive back-barrier lagoons. A tropical storm on September 13, 1979, removed more than 90 percent of the beached oil. By spring 1980, oil remained only as scattered tar mats (8 percent oil, 180 tons total) at the toe of the beach. The quantity of tar balls on the beach could not be differentiated from chronic accumulations.
FEDERAL/STATE COOPERATION IN OIL POLLUTION CONTROL*
Authors: Holt William F. , Rubel Fred N.
Published: January 2013

The maturation of the National Oil Pollution Control Program has been accompanied by an increasingly active involvement and greater leadership on the part of some states. The extent of the role that states ought to play in this effort is not firmly established.

This paper discusses current efforts to promote coordination and cooperation between federal and state units and highlights a mechanism for improving this interaction in such areas as contingency plan development, pollution response, and pollution prevention.
A COST EFFECTIVENESS APPROACH TO OIL SPILL RESPONSE
Authors: Schulze R. H.
Published: January 2013

Although large sums of money are spent on responding to oil spills, it is often difficult to assess the effectiveness of the spill response effort. This paper summarizes a portion of an analysis performed for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) that evaluates the response effort in terms of the change of spill impact and the cost of producing this change. Using this method of analysis, this paper shows that in a typical inland spill situation the minimum acceptable level of response may be the most cost effective and that an intensive effort to recover the last traces of oil may have an adverse impact on the environment. This method of analysis has the potential for showing the level of response effort that can be used most effectively in typical spill situations and identifying procedures that are likely to have a low level of effectiveness or may even have an adverse effect on the environment.
TOXICITY OF BALLAST-WATER TREATMENT EFFLUENT TO MARINE ORGANISMS AT PORT VALDEZ, ALASKA*
Authors: Rice Stanley D. , Korn Sid , Brodersen Christine C. , Lindsay Stephen A. , Andrews Scott A.
Published: January 2013

Approximately 12 million gallons of oily ballast water is taken ashore and treated daily at the Alyeska treatment plant, where tankers take on crude oil at the terminus of the Trans Alaska pipeline near Valdez, Alaska. Most oil is removed, but some light aromatic hydrocarbons (1 to 16 parts per million) remain in the large volume of discharged effluent. Between May and July, the concentration of aromatic hydrocarbons in the treated effluent (measured by gas chromatography) generally declined as the seasonal temperatures increased. We measured the toxicity of the effluent on site at Valdez. For the larvae of crustaceans and of fish the median lethal concentration LC50 was between 10 and 2p percent of treated effluent in 96-hour static tests. For salmon fry and shrimp in repeated acute flow-through assays, the (LC50) was quite consistent, between 20 and 40 percent of treated effluent. Because the concentration of aromatic hydrocarbons was much lower in the later tests but the toxicity of the effluent was not lower, toxicants other than aromatic hydrocarbons must contribute significantly to the toxicity of the effluent from the ballast-water treatment plant.
TAILORED OILSPILL CONTINGENCY PLANNING FOR OFFSHORE BLOWOUTS—A TALE OF LESSONS-LEARNED
Authors: Poley Johannes Ph.
Published: January 2013

This paper reviews the lessons learned over the last few years from experience in oil spill contingency planning, in regulatory as well as technological developments. Against the background of an advanced joint government-industry planning of tailored combat scenarios well in advance of an accident, the realistic requirements for regionalisation, organisation, and the extent of effort to be spent, are outlined.

Recent technical developments that directly influence the priorities, possibilities, and implementation of pollution-combat scenarios are discussed: boom/skimmer effectiveness, dispersant application, the “leave-it-alone” option, and new disposal developments. Special mention is made of SLIKFORCAST, a new tool for quantification of ? and ? contingency planning, and its use is illustrated with some examples.
COMPREHENSIVE SPILL MANAGEMENT AT AN OIL FIRED ELECTRIC POWER PLANT ON THE COLUMBIA RIVER*
Authors: Hansen Warren G. , McCormick Peter K.
Published: January 2013

A comprehensive oil spill control project at an oil-fired electric power plant resulted in preparation of a spill prevention, control, and countermeasures (SPCC) plan for the facility and an operations manual for fuel transfer at the fuel dock on the Columbia River. Hydrologic studies led to the design of a spill containment system for the dock. Engineering techniques were established for evaluating the design's effectiveness in this estuarine location.
NAVIGATIONAL SAFETY APPROACHING OFFSHORE DEEPWATER PORTS*
Authors: Gardenier John S.
Published: January 2013

Research on offshore deepwater ports was specifically directed and funded by Congress. Among the many resulting studies, two concerned the hazards of navigation associated with very large crude carriers (VLCCs) bringing imported oil into the Gulf of Mexico to these new offshore ports. A hazard and risk analysis study was done first. It is a good example of using several different methods in the same study to uncover hazards. Route analysis, field investigations, reviews of casualty data, and “systems safety” methods all helped with the final result. Tropical storms were defined as a major hazard; floating debris was identified as a possible hazard of uncertain severity for supertankers. The major problem that seemed subject to control and improvement is the problem of human factors affecting accident potential. To pursue the human factors issues, a simulator study was conducted using 12 pairs of masters and mates, 4 of whom had received bridge team training. Various realistic, moderately severe approach problems were simulated. Different navigation displays using off-ship and on-ship equipment were evaluated. It appears, based on the draft final report, that the existing navigational system can support safe approaches. Nonetheless, it is apparent that mariners have a tendency to discard some of the redundant safety capability available to them. Such practice should be discouraged. In addition, it is best to recognize that tendency when evaluating how much redundancy is worthwhile. A few improvements to the deepwater port approach navigation system should be considered.
AN OIL SLICK IGNITER FOR REMOTE AREAS
Authors: Meikle K. M.
Published: January 2013

Two air-droppable igniters have been developed to ignite oil on the surface of melt pools on Arctic ice floes and in other remote, difficult-of-access locations. Performance has been satisfactorily demonstrated by prototype tests under both laboratory and field conditions. A substantial amount of spilled oil that would be prohibitively unsafe or expensive to remove by any other means can now be burned off to reduce adverse effects on the environment.
OIL SPILL RATES IN FOUR U.S. COASTAL REGIONS*
Authors: Froehlich Mary Ann , Bellantoni John F.
Published: January 2013

The incidence of oil spills of more than 10,000 gallons in the years 1974 through 1977 was compared for four regions in the United States that carry heavy oil traffic: Greater New York-New Jersey, Delaware Bay, the Louisiana coast, and the northern Texas coast. The purpose was to determine whether there was any significant difference in oil spill rates among the four regions.

The spill data from the study were drawn from the Pollution Incident Reporting System (PIRS), the records of the National Response Center (NRC), and the Commercial Vessel Casualty File. Oil movement data were obtained from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Waterborne Commerce of the United States.

A comparison of PIRS and NRC data indicated that neither data source was complete. From the amount of agreement between the two sources and some statistical assumptions, it was estimated that the PIRS data covered about 75 percent of all spills and about 88 percent of all vessel-related spills.

The spill rates calculated for the four regions showed no significant differences. However, a significantly higher spill rate was noted for the Hudson River subdivision of the New York-New Jersey region. An examination of the spill reports showed that most of the spills were associated with poor weather conditions, that is, ice or fog.
THE INTERNATIONAL OIL POLLUTION COMPENSATION FUND—FUNCTIONS AND OPERATIONS
Authors: Ganten Reinhard H.
Published: January 2013

The International Oil Pollution Compensation Fund, which was established in October 1979, pays compensation to victims of oil pollution incidents if the shipowner's liability is not sufficient to cover the whole damage. Payments by the Fund are based on the 1969 Civil Liability Convention and the 1971 Fund Convention, adopted at diplomatic conferences convened by the Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO). The Fund is financed by contributions from the oil companies in Contracting States based on their receipts of crude and heavy fuel oil after sea-shipment. Claim settlement takes place in close cooperation with shipowners' insurers (P&I Clubs). This paper deals with the IMCO scheme only.
BIOMASS EXPORTATION FROM OFFSHORE PRODUCTION PLATFORMS IN EAST TEXAS
Authors: Fotheringham Nick
Published: January 2013

Studies of the structure and development of the fouling community on active offshore production platforms in the Buccaneer Field, Texas, indicated that energy accumulated within this community was exported to components of the adjacent marine ecosystem along three major pathways. The most apparent pathway was through grazing fish. Gut content analyses of 191 fish representing 27 species indicated that the spadefish (Chaetodipterus faber), sheepshead (Archosargus probatocephalus), crested blenny (Hypleurochilus geminatus), cocoa damselfish (Pomacentrus variabilis), and cubbyu (Equetus acuminatus) feed extensively on fouling organisms. A second pathway linked the fouling community to the benthic fauna living beneath the platforms, which was apparently enriched by consumption of barnacles and other invertebrates dislodged from the platform legs by wave and current stresses, abrasion by boats, and foraging fish. Several fouling species, which did not occur on the structures themselves, were found on dislodged barnacle shells and gastropod shells occupied by hermit crabs. Thus, accumulation of biomass beneath the structures is apparently increased by the presence of these shells. The third pathway linked the fouling community to planktivorous fish and invertebrates through the release of planktonic larvae by fouling organisms. A significant difference (p < 0.05) was found in the proportion of these larvae in the total plankton between stations within Buccaneer Field and those at a control site 8 kilometers east of the field.
OIL-DEGRADING POTENTIAL OF SURFICIAL SEDIMENTS NEAR OIL-PRODUCING PLATFORMS
Authors: Brown L. R. , Jeanes K. L. , Greenleaf W. F. , Frank Geoff
Published: January 2013

All surficial sediment samples were obtained either from areas near oil production platforms or from control areas some distance from these platforms during three separate cruises. All samples contained organisms capable of degrading crude oil in laboratory microcosm studies. Under conditions designed to test oil-degrading potential in situ, rate of degradation was not appreciably influenced by temperature fluctuations within a range of 15 to 27°C, or oil concentration, nor was it increased by added phosphorus or nitrogen. The maximum oil-degrading potential of the sediments was calculated to be 56 micrograms hydrocarbon carbon converted to carbon dioxide per milliliter of sediment per day. Oxygen diffusion into the sediments appeared to be the rate-limiting factor. Enrichment cultures prepared from platform sediments were more active than enrichment cultures prepared from control sediments. Studies with mixed and pure cultures revealed substrate preference for straight-chain hydrocarbons over the branched-chain compounds and aromatics. Some high molecular weight straight-chain aliphatics (about C30) and large amounts of branched-chain (C24 or C25) aliphatics were produced by some pure cultures isolated from sediment samples.
EFFECT OF CRUDE OIL ON MICROBIAL PROCESSES IN MARINE SEDIMENTS
Authors: Childers G. W. , Landers R. W. , Aranha H. G. , Ardahl A. H. , Randolph M. S. , Brown L. R.
Published: January 2013

Studies were carried out to detect and quantitate 12 microbial processes occurring in sediments in the north central Gulf of Mexico, and to determine the impact of low-level concentrations of oil on these processes. Under the simulated in situ conditions employed, photosynthesis, nitrification, dentrification, nitrogen fixation, sulfate reduction, and phosphate uptake were minimal, while sulfur oxidation and catabolic carbonaceous processes (heterotrophic activity, lipolysis, proteolysis cellulolysis, and chitinolysis) were present with varying degrees of activity. Little difference in metabolic activity was detected between oil-production platform sites and corresponding control sites, among different sediment types, or among three sampling seasons, and the presence of oil at up to 200 microliter per milliliter sediment had no significant impact on reaction rates. Pure culture studies confirmed that low-level concentrations of crude oil had essentially no effect on these processes.
THE VENEZUELAN NATIONAL OIL SPILL CONTINGENCY PLAN
Authors: Achong Ian , Bennett John , Hatfield Chris , Boston Noel
Published: January 2013

A national contingency plan has been developed to contend with oil spills which may originate from offshore operations and tanker traffic in the waters off Venezuela from the Gulf of Venezuela to the Orinoco Delta.

The plan was prepared for the Venezuelan oil industry which is made up of Petroleos de Venezuela, a holding company of the nationalized Venezuelan oil industry, and its affiliated companies, Lagoven S.A., Maraven S.A., Corpoven S.A., and Meneven S.A.

The plan is based on an assessment of existing human and environmental material resources, the establishment of the operational capabilities of these resources, an overview of existing environmental data, and field programs which identified areas of special concern and filled environmental data gaps. Ideas and information were exchanged frequently between the contractors and representatives of the affiliated companies of Petroleos de Venezuela during the formulation of the plan.

In the process of developing the national plan, an interim plan was prepared. The resulting final plan consists of a set of manuals with precise and detailed procedures to follow in case of a spill, an auxiliary set of manuals containing technical information to support the detailed instructions, and instructions on the implementation of the plan and training of personnel. An essential part is the production of 60 sensitivity charts describing the Venezuelan coast.

The Venezuelan oil industry is in the privileged position of not only having a master national oil spill contingency plan but also having available the experience to carry out the plan due to everyday experience accumulated in cleanup operations on Lake Maracaibo.

The Venezuelan National Oil Spill Contingency Plan is expected to serve as a model for future Caribbean plans.
OIL SPILL CONTINGENCY PLANNING AND SCIENTIFIC SUPPORT COORDINATION IN BERMUDA: A SUCCESSFUL MODEL
Authors: Sleeter Thomas D. , Knap Anthony H. , Hughes I. Walwyn
Published: January 2013

A complete oil spill contingency plan has been developed together with environmental sensitivity maps, a damage risk assessment, and a scientific support coordination plan. The contingency plan details the notification and mobilization of key personnel and equipment during the initial phases of a marine pollution incident. It sets out a pre-planned course of action and, depending on the magnitude of the incident, calls for the orderly involvement of communication networks and various governmental agencies including marine police, marine ports, fisheries, the police, fire department and the regiment, all of which are coordinated by the on-scene coordinator and his command team.

Environmental sensitivity maps have been developed to streamline decision making by the command team by identifying priority areas that require maximum effort for protection, cleanup, and conservation. The system ranks 15 coastal environments on a sensitivity scale of 1 to 10 with respect to the expected persistence of hazardous material spills (such as oil) along the coastline. The index is based on the geomorphology of the area, coastal processes, and the amount of physical energy to which the coastline is subjected. The maps also identify pertinent political and socioeconomic resources and areas of ecological significance. Water depths, current velocities, and distances across inlets are indicated for deployment of containment booms.

In addition, under a Scientific Support Response Plan all scientific activity during the pollution incident is coordinated and documented. The plan sets up the orderly flow of scientific information to the command team and coordinates an organized sampling protocol including documentation and proper “chain of custody” of environmental samples. This system, coupled with an analytical detection unit, has resulted in convictions for more than 22 minor oil pollution incidents in Bermuda.
REVIEW OF UNITED KINGDOM OIL SPILL RESPONSE TECHNIQUES AND EQUIPMENT
Authors: Cormack Douglas
Published: January 2013

As a result of recent studies in the United Kingdom and elsewhere on the factors affecting oil spilled at sea, it has been possible to redefine the problems presented for oil spill response given the general nature of response techniques and their likely future development. This topic has benefited in the past two years from discussions in the Bonn Agreement Working Group on Technical Scientific and Operational Aspects of Oil Pollution. The influence of this problem definition on the choice of response equipment in the United Kingdom is discussed. The chosen equipment is described in relation to success in meeting identified requirements and likelihood of success in real operations. The status of the various approaches exemplified by individual equipment choices is presented and future developments anticipated.
A $1 MILLION SPILL DRILL AND TWO TONS OF ORANGES
Authors: Kaufmann Stephan , Brancato Sal G. , Maitland Frank , Martin Richard
Published: January 2013

A three-day, $1 million major spill drill was conducted by a small oil spill cooperative. How it was done and its results are reported here. The New Haven Harbor Petroleum Cooperative has industry personnel working with U.S. Coast Guard and environmental agencies of several states to train a smooth-working team for spill response. This formula of training and cooperation has worked to reduce spill incidence and size, as well as forging a respectful working relationship among all interested parties.