bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Distant Causes and Nearsighted Feelings
Authors: Schubert Stefan , Caviola Lucius
Published: May 2024

Chapter 3, “Distant Causes and Nearsighted Feelings,” shows that altruistic feelings are nearsighted: People prioritize beneficiaries who are close to them over beneficiaries who are distant from them in terms of space (e.g., people in distant countries), time (i.e., future people), and biology (i.e., animals). But it is often more effective to help distant beneficiaries. The three causes most often seen as highly effective in effective altruist circles relate to these three dimensions of distance—global poverty (which is distant to most potential supporters), the long-term future, and animal welfare. And yet, they are all relatively neglected. A key reason is that altruistic feelings evolved not to help such distant strangers but to help one’s kin and facilitate cooperation among small clans or tribes.
Misconceptions About Effectiveness
Authors: Schubert Stefan , Caviola Lucius
Published: May 2024

Chapter 5, “Misconceptions About Effectiveness,” shows that many people don’t know what it means to be effective in altruistic contexts, making their help less effective. A common misconception is that charity effectiveness is the same as low overhead costs (costs not directly associated with the charity’s programs). That’s not right since charities often need to invest (e.g., in research or infrastructure) to have an impact. Instead, one needs to look at measures of impact on the world, like the number of well-being-adjusted life years a charity or an intervention produces. Such metrics can be used to compare the effectiveness of altruistic interventions commonly thought to be incomparable. One can also use sophisticated metrics to estimate uncertain impact, a type of impact that often is underrated.
Finding the Enthusiasts
Authors: Schubert Stefan , Caviola Lucius
Published: May 2024

Chapter 7, “Finding the Enthusiasts,” shows that some people are much more inclined to agree with the basic tenets of effective altruism than others. Research about individual differences reveals that there are two psychological factors that determine agreement with the moral outlook of effective altruism. The first is expansive altruism, meaning a willingness to sacrifice resources for others, including distant others. The second is effectiveness-focus, meaning a willingness to choose the most effective ways of helping others, even if that entails tough prioritization decisions. These two factors are psychologically distinct and only modestly correlated with each other. Only a small number of people find both expansive altruism and effectiveness-focus intuitively appealing, which may in part explain why there aren’t more effective altruists.
Effective Altruism for Mortals
Authors: Schubert Stefan , Caviola Lucius
Published: May 2024

Chapter 9, “Effective Altruism for Mortals,” discusses how to apply effective altruism in practice. People looking to do so must avoid a common fallacy: neglect of psychology. At first glance, it may seem effective to work constantly; but since that is unsustainable, it would likely reduce people’s impact in the long run. Similarly, at first glance, it may seem that breaking common-sense norms for the greater good would maximize impact—but again, a more sophisticated analysis reveals that that would be harmful. The norms and principles of a psychologically informed effective altruism are discussed. There is also a discussion of the most popular effective altruist causes and strategies. The book ends with a survey of the most promising avenues of future research on the psychology of effective altruism.
The Apprentice Composer
Authors: Carter Tim
Published: May 2024

This chapter discusses Monteverdi’s studies with Marc’Antonio Ingegneri in Cremona. Then it explores his early publications, beginning with a collection of three-voice motets that he published when he was fifteen, through his Second Book of five-voice madrigals (1592). The chapter describes how, despite the early success of his “discepolo,” Ingegneri kept Monteverdi on a tight rein in a strict curriculum of training in basic music theory and contrapuntal exercises. Monteverdi’s compositional models (Cipriano de Rore, Luca Marenzio, Philippe de Monte, Giaches de Wert) are demonstrated with examples compared with his own works, and a closer look is taken at his competitors (Benedetto Pallavicino, Flaminio Tresti). The chapter concludes with Monteverdi’s move to Mantua.
The Madrigal “Book”
Authors: Carter Tim
Published: May 2024

This chapter explores the practices of printing and publishing music in early modern Italy, and Monteverdi’s success in the madrigalian marketplace. Formats, typesetting, and production issues are discussed (including the problems of second and subsequent editions. So, too, is the question of whether a book of madrigals published in separate voice parts counts as a “book.” Monteverdi’s Seventh Book of madrigals (1619) is treated as a case study, and also as a form of marriage counseling for Duke Ferdinando Gonzaga and his new bride, Caterina de’ Medici. More generally, what does printed music tell us, and what does it leave out?
Playing with Time
Authors: Carter Tim
Published: May 2024

Music demands performance, and performance takes place in time. This chapter discusses how Monteverdi also regulates time within his madrigals, speeding things up, slowing them down, or postponing the arrival of something that must, in the end, arrive. His late madrigals become increasingly preoccupied with freezing time in a musical present that is also a lyric one, whether by expanding the text or by going beyond it. Monteverdi’s advancing age clearly plays a part, but so do changing political environments in the context of the Thirty Year’s War. His last “moral” madrigals take a serious turn, posing a question valid still today: What purpose can music serve in a civil society?
The Problem with Problem-Solving
Authors: Fagan E.J.
Published: May 2024

This chapter argues that information producers can fight political battles by hijacking the problem-solving instincts of elected officials. This dynamic is a problem for ideologues in political parties. Experts will often recommend solutions that clash with their policy goals. Agenda setting often forces political parties to attend to the same problems and consult with experts on how to solve them. This dynamic is a problem for ideologues in political parties, as experts will often recommend solutions that clash with their policy goals. Instead, they try to sidestep their allies in government and neutral experts by creating their own systems of expertise to recommend conservative or progressive solutions to the problems of the day.
Democracy and the Information Wars
Authors: Fagan E.J.
Published: May 2024

This chapter summarizes the book’s conclusions, discusses its implications, and explores a possible future for partisan think tanks. By disrupting the link between demand from citizens that elected officials address problems and policymaking, partisan think tanks have made American democracy less representative. Americans want their government to solve the most important problems on the agenda but increasingly find that their policymakers are unable to come to an agreement over effective solutions even when they try to. Problems continue to get worse, creating a system wherein policymaking moves from crisis to crisis. Because many are unhappy with this system, partisan think tanks face an uncertain future.
Death, Dominance, and State-Building
Authors: Petersen Roger D.
Published: May 2024

This introductory chapter first provides a brief overview of the contours of the Iraq conflicts. It proceeds to outline the work’s basic concepts and analytical framework. This framework strives to address variation across time and space for two outcomes: violence and state-building. Three fundamental concepts—roles, mechanisms, and strategies—are introduced. After covering the book’s four sections and empirical case studies, the chapter presents a preview of findings and arguments. Many of these findings and arguments rely on new insights on the organization of violence in Iraq, especially militias, as well as emotions related to perception of ethnic-sectarian status hierarchy. The chapter concludes with comments emphasizing the work’s goal of letting actors’ voices speak.
The Analytical Framework II
Authors: Petersen Roger D.
Published: May 2024

This chapter explores the concept of “mechanism”—fine-grained causal forces explaining changes in individual behavior. Through a review of social science works in psychology, anthropology, and economics, along with historical case studies, the chapter identifies a relatively short list of mechanisms most relevant to insurgency. Both counterinsurgents and insurgents possess theories, if implicit, on how to trigger some of these mechanisms to affect the behavior of both armed and unarmed actors during the reconstruction of a state during violent conflict. To best understand who wins the strategic contest between state and anti-state actors, it is necessary to break down how actors intend to trigger key mechanisms to move individuals into desired roles. The book’s framework allows a detailed analysis of the logic, or lack of logic, of the various strategies used by competing actors. Through its identification and concentration on mechanisms and processes, the framework can help provide an understanding of why these strategies accomplished or failed to attain their intended results, as well as how the interaction of competing strategies produced unforeseen outcomes.
Mansour, 2003–2007
Authors: Petersen Roger D.
Published: May 2024

This chapter explains the lack of mobilization in a middle-class Sunni neighborhood. The lack of movement resulted from both characteristics of Baghdad’s middle-class Sunnis and failures in US counterinsurgency strategy. The chapter illustrates both of these causes by juxtaposing the narratives of Sunni residents of the Mansour neighborhood with the narrative of a US Army Captain and company captain operating in the Mansour Security District. The chapter also makes comparisons of Mansour to Ghazaliyah, explaining variation among Sunni neighborhoods.
The Failure to Establish Local Security
Authors: Petersen Roger D.
Published: May 2024

This chapter covers the failure of the United States to establish professional local police forces. It also covers the capture of the Iraq Ministry of the Interior (MOI). Using interviews with a former Iraqi head of the MOI, the chapter describes the creation and evolution of the “Wolf Brigades,” a special and secretive unit. The chapter proceeds to describe how the Badr Organization captured the Ministry of the Interior and used their control of the Wolf Brigades for political and sectarian purposes. The spikes in violence in Baghdad occurred mainly due to the mobilization of Shia militias in an environment of near anarchy, but there was also no brake applied by local security forces.
The Decline of Dominance Politics?
Authors: Petersen Roger D.
Published: May 2024

This chapter examines the state of the Shia-Sunni cleavage in Iraq, arguing that clear Shia political dominance has ushered in new possibilities for progress in Iraq. Recent Iraqi history has worked to reduce the power of the emotional mechanisms connected to dominance concerns, even if Iraq’s political system continues to operate along sectarian lines in terms of parties and patronage. The chapter also makes comparisons of Iraq and Lebanon. Does Lebanon provide a view of Iraq’s future as a perpetually weak state?
Bloody Tuesday
Authors: Giggie John M.
Published: May 2024

This book recounts one of the last great untold stories of the civil rights movement. At 10:15 a.m. on Tuesday, June 9, 1964, in Tuscaloosa, Alabama, police attacked more than six hundred Black men, women, and children hiding inside First African Baptist Church, the center of the movement in West Alabama. They had been marching against segregation since Reverend King launched the Tuscaloosa campaign three months earlier, and they now faced over seventy law enforcement officers, as well as hundreds more deputized white citizens and Klansmen. Over the next hour, police smashed the one-hundred-year-old church’s stained-glass windows with water shot from a high-pressure hose, and fired rounds of tear gas inside. As demonstrators streamed from the church, they were beat with nightsticks, cattle prods, and axe handles. The police arrested nearly one hundred people, and sent over thirty to the hospital. Many more sought aid at a local barbershop. Survivors dubbed the day “Bloody Tuesday.” For them and the thousands of Black residents living in Tuscaloosa, it was the most important moment of their lives. It was also among the most violent days in the nation’s struggle for civil rights. Bloody Tuesday is recounted through the eyes of locals: the charismatic Black preacher trained by Reverend . King; an aging police chief; the Imperial Wizard of the Ku Klux Klan; and Black women. They tell of a Southern city unwilling to shed its history of racial control until forced to do so by their armed self-defense groups, a bus boycott, and the federal government. They call attention to a forgotten campaign that took place between Reverend King’s Birmingham crusade in 1963 and the Selma-to-Montgomery march for voting rights in 1965.
“We Want Freedom Now”
Authors: Giggie John M.
Published: May 2024

Chapter Five offers a detailed narrative overview of the events of Bloody Tuesday. It follows the decision of Black activists to march from First African Baptist Church to the new Tuscaloosa County Courthouse to protest local policies of segregation. Next, the chapter covers the retaliatory attack on them and the church by law enforcement officers. Police and sheriff’s deputies, backed by the Ku Klux Klan and deputized white citizens, beat and arrested many of the marchers and shot water from a fire hose, and then tear-gas cannisters, into the church. The police arrested ninety-eight people, and over thirty were sent to the hospital with injuries. Hundreds sought care at the nearby sympathetic barbershop rather than potentially face substandard care at the local hospital.
“Sit Where Anybody Wants To”
Authors: Giggie John M.
Published: May 2024

Chapter Eight recounts how, over the course of five months, Black protestors boycotted Druid City Transit, given that several Black bus passengers had been shot at, intimidated, or assaulted by white drivers and passengers. In addition to these alarming occurrences, Black passengers were still regularly forced to sit at the back of the bus, or use the side door to the bus—despite the recent passage of integrationist and civil rights laws and policies. The boycotters demanded an end to violence against and harassment of Black passengers, as well as hiring of Black bus drivers. The bus company adamantly refused and was eventually forced out of the city. At the same time, the Ku Klux Klan’s power over local politics was steadily declining, thanks in part to the role of the FBI and Justice Department in the fight against segregation, and the ongoing presence of the Defenders, the armed Black self-defense group. Though Reverend Rogers did not realize it at the time, breaking DCT was TCAC’s most impressive victory. It would never again successfully mount such a wide-ranging campaign, nor land such a swift and conclusive blow against segregation.
“The Voices of Dissent Must Be Heard”
Authors: Giggie John M.
Published: May 2024

Chapter Nine examines the legacy of Bloody Tuesday and the long fight for civil rights after 1964. Several optimistic developments—Black students enrolling at Alabama universities, the return of the NAACP to Montgomery, and Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr. winning the Nobel Peace Prize—gave the Black population of Tuscaloosa hope. But these gains were met by a backlash in the form of a rise in organizations celebrating the Confederacy and romanticizing the era of slavery. Black efforts to integrate city schools were also met with fierce white resistance, as whites withdrew their children and sent them to Tuscaloosa County Schools with strong histories of Klan activity and supported the growth of a new segregation academy, Tuscaloosa Academy. White leaders refused to integrate the Tuscaloosa City Commission and Tuscaloosa County Board of Revenue until forced by the courts to do so. Nationally, the murder of Reverend King, debates between civil rights leaders over nonviolence as the best tactic for social change and the legitimacy of white leadership within the organization, and the growth of the Black Panther Party made it difficult to identify common goals and tactics among civil rights organizations. The death of Reverend Rogers under suspicious circumstances only exacerbated the uncertainty about the next chapter in the struggle.
Global Sweatshops
Authors: Müller Mirjam
Published: May 2024

Why are sweatshops so resistant to emancipatory transformation? How should we think about the relationship between class, gender, and race on the factory floor of sweatshops? What insights can be drawn from this for understanding the systematic relation between capitalism, gender oppression, and racial oppression? Does sweatshop labour raise distinct normative concerns compared to other forms of wage labour? This book answers these questions by developing a feminist critique of working conditions in the global textile industry that draws on work in feminist, Marxist, post-/decolonial, and critical race theory. It shows how sweatshop labour is embedded in historically specific structures of global capitalism that raise unique normative concerns. It provides a normative and practical account that highlights spaces of resistance as well as the responsibility of actors implicated in sweatshop labour relations to work towards structural change.
Introduction
Authors: Müller Mirjam
Published: May 2024

The book starts with a description of the first factory strike in the United States, in 1824. This protest, led by female garment workers, stands as a link with the ongoing protests of sweatshop workers today. The protests of garment workers from the early days of industrialization to their globalized form today make salient a specific critique that entails several different but related demands. Workers reject low wages, working conditions that severely affect their health and wellbeing, abusive supervisory tactics that control their every move, and, perhaps more fundamentally, the precarious situation that leads them to accept these jobs in the first place. This book aims to develop a theoretical foundation of this critique from an intersectional feminist perspective.
Bias, Misinformation, and the Democratic System
Authors: Benson Jonathan
Published: May 2024

Chapter 4 responds to claims that citizens are hopelessly biased political reasoners and that democracies will be plagued by misinformation. The first half of the chapter considers how knowledge claims can be evaluated in a democratic system and argues that prominent approaches to deliberative democracy face problems in this respect. While these views prioritize impersonal deliberation about truth, it is argued much political knowledge can only be assessed by considering the trustworthiness of its source. The second half of the chapter then asks whether citizens can make effective trust judgements. It argues that the evidence for political bias and misinformation is less definitive than democratic sceptics claim and that such problems can be further reduced through group deliberation. This then allows for a division of labour within a democratic system, where the errors produced in the open public sphere can be corrected by more formal and structured cites of deliberation.
Diversity and Political Problem-Solving
Authors: Benson Jonathan
Published: May 2024

Chapter 6 discusses popular epistemic defences of democratic deliberation which focus on its cognitive diversity. Most prominently, Hélène Landemore has argued that such diversity is central to the emergence of collective intelligence, and that inclusive forms of deliberation are therefore superior to the deliberations of even a more able elite. This chapter argues that Landemore’s approach—which is based on the diversity trumps ability theorem—underestimates the complexity of political problems and therefore struggles to apply to political deliberation. It then develops an alternative account—based on a relationship between cognitive diversity and diminishing returns to cognitive type—which draws on Landemore’s insights but better explains the epistemic benefits of cognitive diversity to political problem-solving. While this alternative suggests such diversity has value even under complexity, it also suggests that this value is on its own insufficient to defend the epistemic superiority of democratic deliberation.
Introduction
Authors: Mackaman Frank H. , Theriault Sean M.
Published: May 2024

The media coverage of Trump would leave the consumer with the perspective that everything changed under a Trump presidency; including the Senate. This volume takes a more measured approach in examining the extent to which Trump changed the U.S. Senate. Each of the authors evaluate to what extent he disrupted the Senate. They do not agree on any one answer. In some respects, he simply accepted the baton that he had been given by Obama and ran with it. This volume highlights the importance of history and the rules in understanding the behavior of senators and how Trump could disrupt their lives, the institution in which they serve, and the outputs of their collective efforts. Once Trump left the White House, the senators did not revert back to their pre-Trump behaviors. He changed the way politics was played. Furthermore, even from Mar-a-Lago, he continues to disrupt their lives and their institution.
The Filibuster and the Trump Senate
Authors: Crespino Joseph
Published: May 2024

The use of the filibuster to delay or obstruct the legislative process in the US Senate reached historic proportions during the Trump administration, marking the continuation of a trend dating to the 1970s. To understand how drastically the US Senate has changed in recent decades, this chapter revisits a notorious period in Senate history, Strom Thurmond’s filibuster of the 1957 Civil Rights bill, which remains the longest one-person speech in Senate history. A comparison of Thurmond’s filibuster to tactics and strategies today show that it is not only changes in Senate rules and norms, but also broader changes in American politics and media, that afford individual Senators powers to obstruct and delay in ways that would have been unimaginable to senators from Thurmond’s era. If Senators of that era had had the tools at their disposal that Senators today have, it is hard to imagine how the landmark civil rights legislation of the mid-twentieth century would have ever come to pass.
The Surprisingly Effective Lawmaking of Minority-Party Democrats in the Senate during the Trump Era
Authors: Volden Craig , Wiseman Alan E.
Published: May 2024

Whereas past Senate control by Republicans seriously undermined lawmaking effectiveness by Democrats, this partisan advantage was notably diminished in the Senate during the Trump era. Indeed, for the first time in at least half a century, minority-party lawmakers introduced more bills than did the majority and achieved nearly comparable lawmaking success. While Republicans sought policy successes through judicial appointments and executive orders, Democrats focused on congressional lawmaking in attempts to address the pandemic and to counter threats they felt were arising from the Trump administration. Surprisingly, many of these efforts found success during the Trump years.
Leadership in the Modern Senate
Authors: Wallner James
Published: May 2024

This chapter examines Senate dysfunction during the Trump presidency through the lens of the institution’s party leaders. It suggests that how the majority and minority leaders managed the Senate from 2009 to 2020 explains why the institution was mired in gridlock before, during, and immediately after Trump’s presidency better than Trump-centric explanations. This development is striking because rank-and-file senators initially empowered party leaders to make the Senate work. Almost all decisions are presently made off the Senate floor in bipartisan negotiations between the two leaders or held under their auspices. The result has been a significant diminution in the participation of senators in the legislative process and—paradoxically—a dramatic drop in the Senate’s legislative productivity. While recent scholarship has documented the centralization of power inside the Senate under its two leaders, scholars have not yet considered the consequences of that trend for the institution’s legislative productivity more generally.
Social Institutions and the Politics of Moral Education
Authors: Zhao Jingyi Jenny
Published: May 2024

This chapter discusses the implications of shame-related ideas for social solidarity and for the integration of the individual into society. It further seeks to explain the relative lack of concern for women in Aristotle’s and Xunzi’s discussion. In both bodies of texts, we find the individual implicated in the values of society; where individuals cannot be relied on to practise good actions and cultivate their own moral rectitude, social institutions (li 禮and fa 法 in Xunzi and nomos in the first instance in Aristotle) are introduced. By showing the multi-faceted ways in which Aristotle and Xunzi project the individual’s role within society, this chapter calls into question certain cultural stereotypes, such as the ‘shame culture’ versus ‘guilt culture’ dichotomy, as well as the commonly accepted ‘individualism’ of the ancient Greeks and the ‘collectivism’ of the Chinese.
Customary International Law
Authors: Fortin Katharine
Published: May 2024

This chapter demonstrates that custom has played a fundamental role in the making and shaping of international humanitarian law ever since the branch of law came into existence. It focuses on the relationship between treaty norms and customary norms today, in terms of the norms themselves and the methodology used to ascertain or interpret them. It reviews customary international humanitarian law’s influence on the manner in which customary international law is understood and ends by reflecting on the way in which customary international humanitarian law in this area might develop, considering some of the methodological challenges, puzzles, and dilemmas that it has faced over recent years.
The Development of International Humanitarian Law by the International Committee of the Red Cross
Authors: Sivakumaran Sandesh
Published: May 2024

This chapter considers the role of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) in the development of international humanitarian law. It explores the ICRC’s role in the creation and interpretation of conventional international humanitarian law, the identification of customary international humanitarian law, and the clarification of the law through publication of guidance and other documents. Running through the ICRC’s efforts in each of these areas is how it works alongside other actors, such as States, national Red Cross and Red Crescent societies, and experts; the importance of reactions to the ICRC’s work by these actors; and how the ICRC’s work not infrequently serves as a catalyst for States to develop and publish their own views on various questions of IHL.
Applying the Law of Armed Conflict in Domestic Courts: The Fusion of Domestic and International Law and the Question of IHL Expertise
Authors: Shereshevsky Yahli
Published: May 2024

The chapter addresses two issues that have been largely left outside the conversation about the interaction between domestic courts and international humanitarian law (IHL): the fusion of domestic and international law, and the role of (or lack of) expertise vis-à-vis the application of IHL by domestic courts. It identifies three types of domestic court decisions that fuse international and domestic law. The first is the application of international law as part of domestic law. The second is the direct application of domestic law doctrines to questions of international law. The third is when the legality under international law is dependent on an adequate regulation under domestic law. As to expertise, the chapter provides a thorough examination of domestic courts’ IHL expertise, and examines three techniques that they use to mitigate their insufficient expertise. Finally, it addresses the implications of the discussion on domestic courts role in the development of IHL.
The Novelty of Chief Executive Elections
Authors: Foley Edward B.
Published: May 2024

New York’s 1792 gubernatorial election triggered the most serious ballot-counting dispute of the Founding Era. John Jay, the nation’s first chief justice, was the Federalist candidate for governor (showing the relative importance of the two offices at the time). Alexander Hamilton was, essentially, Jay’s campaign manager. The Federalists considered themselves cheated by how the state’s canvassing committee handled disputed ballots from Cooperstown. The committee was stacked with members of the party opposed to the Federalists, and the committee resolved the dispute along partisan lines. James Kent, a Federalist who would become one of the nation’s leading jurists, lamented that the committee was not “equally biased” between the two parties. Civil war almost erupted in the state, but Hamilton persuaded Jay to concede and run again in the next election. Massachusetts also had a fraught disputed gubernatorial election in 1806, with future Supreme Court justice Joseph Story playing a pivotal role.
Conclusion
Authors: Foley Edward B.
Published: May 2024

Prior to 2020, one could assess the trajectory of America’s experience with disputed elections in a positive light. While numerous nineteenth-century episodes involved outbreaks of violence or serious threats of military confrontations and the courts were largely powerless to insist on electoral fairness, vote-counting disputes in the twentieth century were free of violence and courts increasingly asserted the power to adjudicate these disputes according to the basic requirement of electoral equality for all voters. When the Supreme Court decided Bush v. Gore, as controversial as that decision was, it suggested that the twenty-first century could continue the trajectory of increasing acceptance for the judiciary’s role in settling these disputes. Then, Donald Trump shattered that positive trajectory, and in the aftermath of 2020 and heading into 2024, it is uncertain whether America remains capable of deciding the outcome of a presidential election peacefully and pursuant to the rule of law.
Fundamental Properties of the Ckm Matrix
Authors: Branco Gustavo Castelo , Lavoura Luís , Silva João Paulo
Published: May 2024

The CKM matrix V is complex, but some of the phases in it do not have physical meaning. Indeed, one has the freedom to rephase the quark fields,row and an arbitrary column of V to be real non-negative; this is true for any number of families. Physically meaningful quantities must be invariant under a rephasing of the fields; only functions of V which are rephasing-invariant may be measurable. The simplest invariants are the moduli of the matrix elements.
Weak-Basis Invariants and Cp Violation
Authors: Branco Gustavo Castelo , Lavoura Luís , Silva João Paulo
Published: May 2024

In the previous two chapters we have taken the usual path to CP violation in the SM. We have bi-diagonalized the quark mass matrices and noticed the appearance of a mixing matrix V in the charged-current interaction. We saw that, for three or more fermion generations, some of the phases in V cannot be removed by rephasing the quark fields; in general, some rephasing-invariant combinations of CKM matrix elements are not real. We have considered the CP transformations of the physical quark fields and have concluded that all rephasing-invariant combinations of CKM matrix elements must be real in order for CP symmetry to hold.
Mixing in the Bq0−Bq0¯ Systems
Authors: Branco Gustavo Castelo , Lavoura Luís , Silva João Paulo
Published: May 2024

The combinations Ac and At of CKM-matrix elements now are and therefore much progress on the experimental side is still needed before we are able to vindicate theory. Inverting the argument, there is ample room for the discovery of new physics by observation of a branching ratio larger than the SM prediction. In the standard model CP. The argument leading to this conclusion still holds in many extensions of the SM (Grossman and Nir 1997). are the antiparticle of each other. This is a necessary condition for the final state to be an eigenstate of CP.
Introduction and Definitions
Authors: Lundmark Thomas
Published: May 2024

This chapter primarily provides succinct definitions of what the author of this book means when he employs various important terms (some would say ‘concepts’). A very important, frequently appearing, word is ‘argument’. As that term is used in this book, arguments are merely justifications—that is, articulated reasons—for decisions reached by judges and lawyers who are interpreting rules. This chapter also sketches the matrix of four categories of argument or justification that are extolled in this book. Readers are afforded two short illustrations of the usage of these arguments, one involving an interpreter who is not legally sophisticated (Simon) and the other involving a judge with years of experience (Solomon). Finally, the chapter makes clear that, while the author chronicles criticisms levelled at these arguments, he deliberately avoids making any claims as to the superiority of any particular argument over another. That being said, he will argue, in the final chapter of the book, for candour and transparency in judicial construction of statutes and of ‘pure’ common law, that is, law-making in the absence of statutes.
Rules from Statutes and Cases
Authors: Lundmark Thomas
Published: May 2024

This chapter reviews the literature on the methodology of using rules from cases and exposes a lack of a comprehensive methodology for the use of ratios from statutory glosses and from pure common law (Richterrecht). It employs the Savigny canons of textual, historical, and purposive interpretation to justify different solutions to a simple factual scenario, showing that the approach is identical when employing a statutory and a judge-made rule. The chapter quotes a number of rules from German law to illustrate the indistinguishability between ratios and statutory rules. Statutory analogies are explained and illustrated with an example. Analogical arguments are those which identify a rule of decision that cannot be applied to the fact pattern before the court in a textual, historical, or purposive manner. Finally, the chapter discusses case-law analogies and the importance of facts in judicial decisions. The term ‘analogy’ is commonly used in legal writing to mean any comparison whatsoever, such as the Normsuche process of comparing the facts before the court to various rules in order to select the most appropriate rule, whether it be statutory or case-based. The facts of a precedential case may also be relevant to the ascertainment of the ratio. According to Lewis A. Kornhauser, one can expand or contract the ratio of a case depending on whether one chooses to use the result of the judicial decision (i.e. the fact-based holding), the rule as announced in the decision itself, or some broader principle under which the decision can be subsumed.
Historical Argument
Authors: Lundmark Thomas
Published: May 2024

This chapter describes, critiques, and illustrates the use of historical arguments used to justify the result that has been reached in a legal dispute. Historical arguments are those arguments that invoke the historical setting or insinuate that the drafter of the rule would agree with the result. Courts sometimes cite the legislative record or travaux préparatoires, to reinforce the strength of the results they had selected. And a handful of judges and academics profess that only those arguments are legitimate that seek to divine the ‘original intent’ of the drafters, but this stricture does not stretch to the original intent of the drafters of case decisions or even the drafters of statutes. The chapter discusses three cases in which judges employed historical arguments to reach results that were arguably at odds with the texts of the statutes being interpreted but which were argued to be in consonance with the will of the legislative bodies that drafted the statutes. Then two cases are examined in which courts in California and Germany employ similar historical arguments when interpreting judicial glosses that had been pronounced by supreme courts when construing their respective constitutions. The opinions in both cases suggest that the judges in the precedential cases would agree with their results. Finally, two cases concerning pure common law are analysed, where the judges in England and California suggested that the judges in the precedential cases from their jurisdictions would agree with the results that they reached.
A Plea for Transparency and Candour
Authors: Lundmark Thomas
Published: May 2024

This chapter comprises a short summary of the examples of judicial reasoning in the preceding chapters but with the addition of comments and criticisms by the author. In particular, the author decries a pervasive judicial practice of obscuring the value-laden nature of the judges’ calling, which, in turn, diminishes the persuasiveness and efficacy of judicial precedents. This is a critical short-coming because, in every case decision presented in the book, the judges could have decided differently but did not do so. In summary, the judges who decided these and other cases were not forced by the rule, whether statutory or case-based, to decide the cases in the way they did. Yet, they all employed seemingly mechanical reasoning that conceals their real considerations and motivations. Rather than purporting to divine the intrinsic purpose of the statute, whether that be found in the text, history, or purpose of a statutory or case-based rule, judges should acknowledge and embrace their role as cooperative legislators. They should articulate what they believe to be the opposing interests and policies and then candidly spell out, for a legal and wider audience, why they personally think that the statute or case-based rule should effectively be amended in the way that the judges have chosen. This book is an argument for judicial transparency, which requires that judges reveal their thoughts and motivations—their ultimate reasons. This is necessary to enhance the persuasiveness and efficacy of judicial precedents, to foster democratic legitimacy, and to permit political accountability.
Introduction
Authors: Hamans Camiel , Hock Hans Henrich
Published: May 2024

Since the nineteenth century, findings of historical linguistics have been used for shedding light on the past and, in this connection, also in national identity building. This has created tensions between pre-scientific, romantic narratives and the mainstream academic views on linguistic prehistory. As in general studies of history, linguistic pasts tend to be interpreted to prove that one’s own group is closest to the linguistic ancestor or indigenous to their area. Somewhat surprisingly, not only laypeople but even academic “maverick” linguists sometimes propagate pseudolinguistic views seemingly tailored to support popular ideas about a glorious national past. This chapter analyzes three such cases and the reasons behind the misuse of data, methods, and terminology.
Ideology and recent attacks on historical-comparative methodology
Authors: Hock Hans Henrich
Published: May 2024

Recent years have witnessed several attempts to question comparative-historical linguistics, its methods, and its findings. These attempts, in turn, are being snapped up by adherents of ideological movements who have an interest in discrediting historical linguistics. I focus on two recent attempts of this sort. One is Berlant 2008, who questions the neogrammarian doctrine of regular sound change. The second is Marcantonio (e.g. 2010), who attacks the entire methodology of historical-comparative linguistics. The claims of both writers are embraced by “indigenist” groups whose goal it is to argue that the “Aryans” (i.e. speakers of Indo-Aryan languages) did not come from the outside but are indigenous to India, and that this gives Hindus special rights. I demonstrate that neither of these attacks on historical linguistics stands up under close scrutiny. This finding, in turn, deprives the indigenist agenda of one of its “scholarly” foundations.
Indo-European linguistic paleontology and ideology
Authors: Hock Hans Henrich
Published: May 2024

The interaction between historical linguistics and ideology can be twofold. On one hand, historical linguistic findings may be seized upon—or rejected—by ideologically motivated movements; on the other, they may themselves be influenced by (overt or covert) biases or ideological motivations. This chapter examines issues in Indo-European linguistic paleontology that have implications for both types of reactions and concludes that historical linguists must exercise caution, lest they unwittingly support ideologically motivated agendas or get carried away by their own agendas. The chapter shows that early attempts to locate the Indo-European homeland in Europe are based on selective interpretation of linguistic paleontological evidence. A more likely interpretation of linguistic paleontological and archaeological evidence, based on the domestication of horses and the use of two-wheeled horse-drawn battle chariots, supports a spread from an area in or near the Eurasian Steppes, around the fourth millennium bc. This interpretation is questioned from two sides. Indian nationalists reject it because it conflicts with their view that the “Aryans” were indigenous in India. Publications by Atkinson and Gray (e.g. 2006ab,) argue that the homeland was Anatolia, around 6000 bc, and reject the reconstruction of PIE words for ‘horse’ and ‘wheel/chariot.’ The chapter examines these and other proposals and demonstrates that a Steppe origin of Indo-European in the fourth millenium bc best accounts for the available evidence.
Historical linguistics and the Macedonia name issue
Authors: Joseph Brian D.
Published: May 2024

The use of the toponym Macedonia by Greeks in Greece and by Slavs in the Republic of North Macedonia has been at the heart of a bitter international dispute between the two nations for nearly three decades. This issue has been the subject of much political wrangling and social concern on both sides, but it also has a historical linguistic dimension to it, pertaining to the evaluation of how the use of the toponym is supported or not by the relationship between the ancient Macedonian language and Ancient Greek. An examination of this linguistic side to the dispute reveals that well-known and well-supported principles of historical linguistics have often been ignored in assessments of the position of the languages relative to one another, with practitioners in some instances being motivated seemingly more by political ideology than by good science.
The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages
Authors: Hamans Camiel
Published: May 2024

This chapter describes the fight for linguistic minority rights in Europe. The essentialist conception of language and nation, which has become common since German Romanticism and which has been an important driver of nineteenth-century nationalism in Europe, appears to be one of the most important factors in downplaying non-national languages. Also the influence of the French Revolutionary ideas about equal rights on the promotion of the national language diminished the prestige of non-national languages. Consequently, the emphasis on the national language led to resistance among speakers of minority languages in several parts of Europe. The European Charter for Regional and Minority Languages is an attempt to overcome the language conflicts and to give rights to speakers of non-national languages. In the second part of this contribution the Charter and its working is discussed. Examples of language discussions are presented from the Netherlands, France, Hungary (especially the position of Roma speakers), and Georgia.
Seeing and Not-Seeing
Authors: Antognazza Maria Rosa
Published: May 2024

Chapter 2 shows how this ancient epistemological consensus bridges medieval and early modern philosophy, both rationalist and empiricist. For Thomas Aquinas, ‘what is known is seen, and what is believed is not seen’. Sense-perception is a cognitive mode characterized by the presence of the object of cognition to the cognizer which is directly moved by this presence. The senses afford a discursive cognition, restricted to particulars and achieved without concepts, which Aquinas calls aestimativa in non-rational beings and cogitativa in rational beings. Some other cognitive modes build on this ‘clear sight’: understanding (intelligere), knowing (scire), and knowledge (scientia). By contrast, belief is a cognitive mode which requires conceptual thought but from which ‘clear sight’ is lacking (2.1.1). Unlike the Platonic doxa, this position does not disparage belief. All these cognitive modes qualify as ‘thinking with assent’ (2.1.2). Descartes also conceives knowledge as an immediate mental apprehension involving the irreducible presence of the object of cognition to the cognizer (2.2.1), which is fully expressed as ‘evidence’ (from the Latin ex-videre) (2.2.2–3). Locke also frames the distinction between knowledge and belief as the difference between directly perceiving and not directly perceiving (in his case, the connection between ideas: 2.3.1). Leibniz adds an analysis of degrees of knowledge (2.3.2). In our knowledge, we normally grasp only some aspects of fully determinate objects of cognition. We are unable to distinctly enumerate all the predicates which can be attributed with truth to the object of cognition. But although we do not know everything about the object, what we do know is perfectly known.
The Gap between Mind and World
Authors: Antognazza Maria Rosa
Published: May 2024

Chapter 3 discusses the gap between mind and world which characterizes ancient and early modern Scepticism, particularly the moderate variety which allows the holding of beliefs as long as they make no claim to certainty (3.1.1). Ancient Sceptics of this kind typically accept the Platonic distinction between reality and appearance but, unlike Plato, hold that we have access only to appearances. This is the fundamental dividing line in epistemology: between those who affirm and those who deny a primitive cognitive contact between cognoscens and cognitum. The next sceptical move is the conflation of two things which ought to remain distinct: infallibility and certainty. The fact that cognitive contact between mind and world is subject to error does not imply that there is no such contact (3.1.2). Hume also sharply distinguishes belief from knowledge but follows the ancient Sceptics in concluding that, due to the fallibility of our reason, we achieve only a probability, which has ‘the same nature’ as belief (3.2.1). Reid rejects the sceptical consequences of conceiving ideas as intermediaries between mind and world (3.2.2), but is more open to Scepticism than he might have preferred (3.2.3). Once cognition has been reduced, de facto, to belief and probability, it may seem that the only way to avoid Scepticism is to redefine knowledge as a special kind of belief. This is precisely what (J)TB+ theories of knowledge have tried and (now according to many) failed to do. This recurrent failure is rooted in their being, ultimately, the offspring of Scepticism.