bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Animal Rights Movement
Authors: Carrié Fabien , Traïni Christophe
Published: September 2022

In the English‐speaking world, the expression “animal rights movement” is used to designate activist organizations that, since the late 1970s, have denounced the exploitation of animals. By then, however, the history of social movements for the protection of animals was already more than 150 years old. Indeed, since the start of the nineteenth century, activists appalled at the human treatment of animals have mobilized against the brutality of our customary behavior. The initial concern was with the treatment of cattle, and it is only through a gradual sociological process that animal protection extended to pets and then, much later still, to wild species and to their natural environment. This long history of mobilization for the protection of animals is inevitably linked to the evolution, not merely of socially acceptable emotions, but also of the threshold of tolerance of uncontrolled violence. Methodologically, historical analysis has proven essential to reconstruct the genesis of the variety of emotional gratifications thanks to which animal advocacy can still today mobilize activists of widely varying sociological profiles.
Student Movements
Authors: Rootes Christopher
Published: September 2022

Student movements are a distinctively modern phenomenon, emerging in societies that have a critical mass of students. While social conditions provide the base for student movements, political conditions are critical. They have usually emerged to challenge regimes that lack legitimacy or moral authority, in authoritarian states as well as in mature liberal democratic states. The critical conditions for the development of student movements are a moralistic grievance, an absence of effective opposition within the polity, and a lack of powerful allies. Students, relatively unconstrained by the obligations of adult life, may be the least inhibited opponents of morally compromised regimes, but alone they are seldom able to achieve their objectives. To succeed, student movements need to attract allies from reformists within governing elites or other sections of society. Student movements are common in modernizing societies under authoritarian regimes, but their development in fully democratic states is exceptional.
Transnational Social Movements
Authors: Smith Jackie
Published: September 2022

Modern social movements, generally thought of as political, emerged in tandem with modern nation‐states, as groups of people organized to alternately resist new claims being made by national authorities (such as taxes or military conscription) or to advance their own claims that states provide a variety of public goods and services (such as education, healthcare, and various forms of financial assistance). Ongoing competition between authorities and citizen challengers generated new structures – including parliaments, bills of rights, and bureaucratic checks and balances – to routinize public participation in national politics and to otherwise enhance the accountability of political leaders to citizenry. Today, as states increasingly turn to international political arenas to manage their economies and ecologies and other aspects of social life, social movements are becoming increasingly transnational in their structure and focus.
Crowds (Gatherings) and Collective Behavior (Action)
Authors: Snow David A. , Owens Peter B.
Published: September 2022

Crowds or temporary gatherings as forms of collective behavior are a ubiquitous feature of everyday life. This entry elaborates answers to five overlapping questions that are key to understanding crowds or collective action gatherings: (i) How do they differ from the gatherings typically associated with everyday behavior, such as audiences and queues? (ii) What are the distinctive features of crowds or temporary gatherings as forms of collective behavior or action? (iii) What are the conditions underlying their emergence? (iv) What accounts for the coordination of behavior in crowds or temporary gatherings? (v) What are the correlates and/or predictors of individual participation?
Media Framing and Social Movements
Authors: Vliegenthart Rens
Published: September 2022

In their study of media content, mass communication scholars commonly rely on Entman's or similar definitions of framing, that put emphasis on the selection of certain aspects of reality, to bring forward certain interpretation of an issue in terms of problem definitions, potential solutions, and moral evaluations. Much of the study of media framing of political issues centers around three questions: (i) how is the issue framed? (ii) how can we explain variation in framing – both over time and cross‐sectionally? and (iii) what are the effects of media framing on public opinion and policymaking? These questions are also of clear relevance to the study of social movements.
Politics of Grief and Grieving “Mothers” Movements
Authors: Flam Helena
Published: September 2022

Recently social movement research has opened to the idea that emotions are important to collective action. Social movements challenge emotions, such as loyalty, gratitude, or love, that cement society, and reinforce the established institutions and relations of domination. They also redirect (empathy, anger, loyalty), weaken (fear, in‐group animosities), convert (shame into anger), or intensify (anger with the opponent, in‐group solidarity) the emotions of their members to sustain the momentum, help win over accidental onlookers, and deal with movement opponents. An entire spectrum of emotions in various constellations plays a role in social movement mobilization, internal dynamics, and demise. Of these solidarity, shame, anger, pride, and fear receive most attention.
Red Army Faction/Baader–Meinhof Group (Germany)
Authors: Jander Martin
Published: September 2022

The Red Army Faction (RAF) was a terrorist group that was active in the Federal Republic of Germany from 1970 until its dissolution in 1998. Following Walter Laqueur's distinction between guerillas and terrorism, it is best characterized as a terrorist organization.
Religion and Social Movements
Authors: Burns Gene , Kniss Fred
Published: September 2022

This entry summarizes some of the central foci in the literature on religion's role in social movements. These include the study of social movements that found new religions; social movements within existing religious organizations (here organizations are broadly defined to include organized religious traditions); and the state context of religious movements, focusing especially on religion–state relationships. (The more common term is “church–state” relationships, but “religion–state” avoids using a specifically Christian term for a concept that applies to multiple religious traditions.) The entry concludes with a discussion of some of the theoretical questions that emerge from an overview of these different issues.
Transnational Fatherhood Movement (South Korea)
Authors: Kim Allen J.
Published: September 2022

The South Korean transnational fatherhood movement, popularly known as “Father School” addresses men's role and identity as contemporary fathers. In 1995, Duranno Christian Publishing established Father School in Seoul, South Korea, in response to the growing national epidemic of abusive, ineffective, and absentee fathers. Worldwide, new social expectations for fathering are thought to encourage a better balance between work and family roles and a focus on emotional involvement. Having celebrated their twenty‐fifth anniversary in 2020, news outlets internationally have recognized the organization's effort in emphasizing the important role men play in children's lives in more than 75 countries worldwide. Leaders advocate to primarily non‐Western and ethnic minority men that they uphold their paternal identity and role as “family builders” and stress the importance of developing stronger ties with family members through improved communication, emotional involvement, responsibility, and placing families first. From their evangelical optic “a healthy family begins with the father” is considered the foundation for a healthy society. Toward this end men participate in “gender boot camps” to reconstitute their masculinity apart from the patriarchy, immorality, and a focus on breadwinning.
Syndicalism
Authors: MacPherson Robert
Published: September 2022

Syndicalism encompasses both a method of labor movement organization and a revolutionary political philosophy growing out of the anarchist tradition. It has also been known as “anarcho‐syndicalism” and “revolutionary syndicalism,” with broad definitions including the American and British movements known as “industrial unionism.” Syndicalist practice combines revolutionary anti‐capitalism, a commitment to workers' control through democratic unions, and a rejection of both the state and political parties. From the mid‐1890s until well into the 1920s a wave of syndicalist mobilization swept across the world, with mass organizations forming in the industrialized core of Europe and the US as well as throughout the colonial world. Some regions, notably Spain, but also many colonial areas, saw large syndicalist organizations active past this period. Recent research into syndicalism has shown it to be an early transnational social movement, nurtured by a network of migrant radicals and forming a more theoretically coherent structure than much traditional labor historiography had supposed.
Transgender Movement
Authors: Stone Amy L.
Published: September 2022

The transgender movement in the US has been growing since its start in the late 1960s, focusing on issues such as violence, legal recognition, employment discrimination, media coverage, and poverty. “Transgenderist” was a term first used by transvestite pioneer Virginia Prince in 1978 to describe individuals who, like her, lived as a different gender without hormones or surgery. Since the late 1980s, “transgender” has come into common use as an umbrella term that includes individuals who identify as a gender other than the one they were assigned at birth or who otherwise vary from culturally conventional gender roles.
Anti‐
ACTA
Mobilizations
Authors: Rone Julia
Published: September 2022

The mobilization against the Anti‐Counterfeiting Trade Agreement (ACTA) was a transnational movement that led to the first ever rejection of a trade deal by the European Parliament after the expansion of its powers with the Lisbon treaty. Already in June 2011, the Mexican Senate rejected ACTA and later that same year mass mobilization erupted in the US against the Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA) and the Protect IP Act (PIPA). The US movements, largely supported by Silicon Valley tech giants, led to a dramatic rise in the public salience of intellectual property legislation, which had been previously considered an obscure technical issue. Thus, by early 2012, European activists were strongly attuned to the problems with ACTA and drew attention to the nondemocratic and secretive way the agreement was negotiated, the undue influence of business lobbies, as well as to the threats it posed to privacy, free speech, and access to medicines, among others. Kader Arif, the European Parliament Rapporteur on ACTA, famously resigned claiming that the negotiations had been a “masquerade.” The anti‐ACTA campaign, taking off first in the notoriously “patient” Central and Eastern Europe, provided an emblematic example of a truly trans‐European mobilization. Crucially, it was a campaign in defense of internet freedom – the internet was perceived by campaigners not only as a tool for democracy but also as a democratic cause in itself.
Anti‐gun Violence Movement
Authors: Steidley Trent
Published: September 2022

The debate over gun regulations in the United States is often summarized as supporters of gun rights versus supporters of gun regulations. Historically, the banner organization for gun rights has been the National Rifle Association (NRA), which has existed since 1871, but there has been no comparable organization or movement for gun regulations. While more fractured in its organizational efforts than the gun rights movement, the anti‐gun violence movement has had moments of policy success that have had lasting implications for gun policy and gun rights in the United States and may be poised for new successes.
Anti‐populist Protests (East Central Europe)
Authors: Císař Ondřej
Published: September 2022

In many East European countries, publicly manifested liberal values seemingly lost their ground in postcommunist politics. As argued elsewhere, this liberal influence probably ended first in Russia, during the major economic crisis at the end of the 1990s. The political context began to transform in other East European countries too, bringing to power what has come to be called populists. The concentration of power, in Hungary even in the form of a new constitution, control over the judicial system, and limiting the watchdog function of the media and civil society, form the common denominator of their program in Central Eastern Europe, and this often provokes protest reactions. While in Poland and Hungary they focused on cultural issues, such as abortions and the fate of liberal education, forming the self‐proclaimed conservative revolutions having taken place in the two countries, in Czechia and Slovakia they were concerned mostly with corruption and the conflicts of interest of the political elite. In general, anti‐governmental protest issues in East Central European countries mirrored the policies and perceived missteps of the populists in power.
Anti‐vaccine Movement (United States)
Authors: Snow David A. , Bernatzky Colin
Published: September 2022

The anti‐vaccine movement is arguably one of the more concerning social movements to have surfaced during the first two decades of the current century. Opposition to vaccination is particularly worrisome for its actual and potential impacts to public health, including increased frequency and severity of outbreaks, heightened virus positivity and death rates, and threats to herd immunity. While public reaction against vaccination regimens is hardly a new phenomenon, rarely if ever has such resistance congealed into the type of potent and widespread movement seen today. This resistance has been most pronounced in countries where vaccines are most readily available, particularly for COVID‐19, as in the European Union countries, Russia, and the United States, which is the primary focus of this entry. Moreover, the rise in vaccine skepticism, particularly in the US, is representative of a deepening fault line in the twenty‐first century marked by political polarization, competing social realities, and an erosion of institutional trust.
Relational Arenas of Social Movement Activism
Authors: Demetriou Chares , Alimi Eitan , Bosi Lorenzo
Published: September 2022

This entry is about an imagery with which to approach the study of social movements and of contentious politics more broadly. Imageries are preliminary conceptual schemes through which one sees the empirical world. For social science research, they are pivotal because they affect how research problems are formulated and addressed. To be certain, different imageries for the study of social movements are available. The present imagery builds on established trends in the literature and most notably those trends following McAdam, Tarrow, and Tilly's
Dynamics of Contention
. Accordingly, the notion of relational arenas of social movement activism which is at the center of this imagery resonates with other notions developed in the literature. Most particularly, it resonates with the notion of arenas as developed within James Jasper's strategic interaction approach, that is, arenas as bundles of rules and resources shaping contending players, their strategies, and the outcomes of dynamic interactions. It resonates, too, with the notion of strategic action fields as developed by Fligstein and McAdam, referring to sites of competition and conflict, and with the notion of orders of interaction as developed by scholars influenced by symbolic interactionism, referring to webs of interactive determination. What is more, it offers some parallels with less relational or interactive notions, such as social movement scene, social movement framework, and social movement industry. As part of an imagery, however, the notion of relational arenas of social movement activism lacks theoretical elaboration and thereby remains open to different directions of refinement. What the imagery puts forward about this notion are two overarching commitments: that these arenas are realms of social interaction and, more centrally, relations; and that they are to be considered comprehensively.
Autonomism and Social Movements (Latin America)
Authors: de Souza Marcelo Lopes
Published: September 2022

The term “autonomy” (
autonomía
(Spanish),
autonomia
(Portuguese)) has been intensely present in the discourse of the Latin American social struggles of the last three decades. However, the sociopolitical landscape around “autonomism” is very heterogeneous. Although “autonomy” has become a central notion for several social movements in Latin America (and elsewhere, particularly in Europe), the meanings attributed to it are still disparate.
Black Lives Matter
Authors: Cannady Emmanuel
Published: September 2022

Black Lives Matter is a twenty‐first‐century global, Afrocentric political movement that targets state‐sanctioned interpersonal and structural violence against black people. It started in 2013 after the acquittal of George Zimmerman for killing unarmed 17‐year‐old black teenager Trayvon Martin and gained prominence in 2014 after the police killings of Michael Brown in Ferguson, Missouri, and Eric Garner in Staten Island, New York. Black Lives Matter solidified its position as a global movement after the summer 2020 protests against the police killings of Breonna Taylor and George Floyd and the vigilante killing of Ahmaud Arbery. What began mainly as a protest movement eventually incorporated over 200 grassroots community organizations and dozens of official and unofficial chapters worldwide. Three queer, black women (Patrisse Cullors, Opal Tometi, and Alicia Garza) founded the movement and committed to a decentralized leadership structure that focuses on collective action at the community level. Though it is the latest in a long history of Black Liberation movements, BLM differs from prior movements in many ways, including the widespread use of technology and social media and centering critical, queer, intersectional praxis. In addition to dismantling white supremacy, Black Lives Matter works toward radical collective healing from historical, intergenerational, and systemic trauma resulting from state and vigilante violence.
Cognition, Emotion, and Organized Racism
Authors: Taylor Marshall A.
Published: September 2022

Cognition and emotion are foundational for many of the mechanisms proposed behind racist movement recruitment and mobilization. Cognition and emotion are, of course, incredibly general terms that capture a range of psychological and social‐psychological phenomena.
Cognition
refers to the set of mental processes behind knowledge acquisition, storage, and usage; and
emotion
refers to the range of sudden, short‐term neurobiological reactions to environmental stimuli as well as to more durable affective dispositions that one might call “moods” or “feelings.”
Collective Action (Cuba)
Authors: Martín Amalia Pérez
Published: September 2022

Movement scholars define collective action as the activities people in social movements do together to promote or resist social change. There are multiple types and levels of collective action, ranging from acts of everyday resistance, grassroots movements, and protests to high coordination and broad geographical and temporal scope in protest waves, revolutionary and transnational movements. This entry examines those instances of collective action throughout Cuban history, particularly after the 1959 government takeover. It argues that restrictions on democratic institutions and political freedoms, while limiting the existence of autonomous social movements, have not entirely suppressed civil society and collective action in Cuba.
Data Activism
Authors: Milan Stefania
Published: September 2022

Over the last decade, the exponential growth in computing power has exposed the importance of information as a driving force in society. A broad display of digital technology enables automated data collection about various aspects of social life – from smartphones to self‐tracking devices, from social media platforms to digital identity systems, from bank cards to facial recognition cameras distributed across the “smart city.” Artificial intelligence (AI) technology helps to make sense of this ever‐increasing amount of information. Predictably, digital innovation and the so‐called “big data” have altered the dynamics of the state and industry, but have also changed the repertoires of social movements. Data activism represents an emerging form of collective action that invites citizens to take a critical approach toward massive data collection. By “data” here we mean information that is typically but not exclusively digitized to varying degrees, including for example “open data” made available by public bodies or records generated by self‐made sensors tracking air pollutants. The growing category of “data activists” includes, among others, human rights defenders seeking to protect dissidents from government surveillance, environmental activists keeping an independent record of forest depletion, nongovernmental organizations meticulously recording cases of police violence against racialized subjects or domestic abuse, and “civic hackers” appropriating government data for advocacy purposes. Data activism gives voice to the so‐called “contentious politics of data,” that is to say the bottom‐up initiatives which seek to tamper with and/or hijack dominant processes of datafication, interrogating existing power relations or re‐appropriating data practices and infrastructure for purposes distinct from the intended. It centers the role of
data as mediators
of collective action. Data can either be integrated in a movement's action repertoire, or mobilized as objects of struggle in their own right. In both cases, data activists provide alternative ways of interpreting data, which results in novel grassroots epistemologies designed to make sense of an increasingly “datafied” society.
Democratization and Social Movements (Mexico)
Authors: Inclán María
Published: September 2022

The Mexican democratic transition has been characterized as a protracted one, with no clear foundational elections, but a prolonged liberalizing period of reforms that have gradually regulated electoral competition and opened up opportunities for political opposition and contentious dissent. This entry describes the relationship between contentious and electoral politics in the country in the last 50 years. It analyzes the indirect effects of social unrest on electoral reforms, as well as the consequences of elections on deepening democratizing social mobilization in Mexico.
Diaspora Mobilization
Authors: Quinsaat Sharon M.
Published: September 2022

Between 31 October and 1 November 2020, thousands of Armenian Americans gathered in Hollywood Boulevard in Los Angeles to call attention to and draw support for Armenia in its conflict with Azerbaijan over the disputed border region of Nagorno‐Karabakh. Southern California is home to the largest Armenian population in the United States, with a neighborhood in East Hollywood which was designated Little Armenia in 2000. The protesters waved the Armenian flag and carried signs that said “End the Cycle of Genocide,” “Artsakh Is Armenia,” and “Defend Armenia.” In the same city, during the annual celebration of the founding of the People's Republic of China, Uyghurs joined Hong Kongers in a demonstration in front of the Chinese consulate in Koreatown. With yellow umbrellas that have become the symbol of Hong Kong resistance, they played “Do You Hear the People Sing” from the musicalLes Miserables. Uyghur and Hong Kong communities overseas have united in campaigns, such as the boycott of the movieMulan, and constructed a collective identity based on defiance toward Beijing. And in December of the same year, the Romanian diaspora played a central role in the election of the right‐wing political party Alianța pentru Unirea Românilor (Alliance for the Unity of Romanians (AUR)) to the legislature. AUR's message of unifying all Romanians “wherever they are” resonated with emigrants, who felt disenfranchised in their countries of settlement and demanded protection from the homeland state and representation in its affairs. The demonstrations of Armenians, Hong Kongers, and Uyghurs in California, as well as the participation of Romanians abroad in the elections, are all instances of diaspora mobilization.
Doxing
Authors: Bernatzky Colin , Gray Dylan
Published: September 2022

Doxing (also spelled doxxing) refers to the practice of publicly releasing private information about an individual or organization onto the internet without their consent. Information revealed in this way may include personally identifiable data, such as phone numbers, addresses, or Social Security numbers, as well as the contents of private messages, emails, memos, or other documents whose publication is typically intended to negatively impact the affected party in some way. Doxing may be used to achieve a variety of different outcomes, whether to shame, harass, intimidate, threaten, or expose and draw attention to criminal activity or morally or ethically problematic behavior. While not inherently political in nature, the act of doxing has increasingly become an overt form of political activism, and its usage often reflects fault lines, tensions, and contested issues pertaining to race, gender, power, protest, and inequality.
Esperanto
Authors: Alcalde Javier
Published: September 2022

In 1887 in Warsaw a Jewish ophthalmologist published the grammar of a new international language. In a period in which dozens of similar projects were presented, his pseudonym, Dr. Esperanto (“one who hopes”), would eventually become the name of the language. Far from being a marginal topic, it would play a relevant role in crucial discussions on science, spirituality and religion, nationalism and collective identities, the so‐called Jewish question, and the possibilities of peace in international relations.
Gas Protests (Mexico)
Authors: Cadena‐Roa Jorge
Published: September 2022

Beginning on 1 January 2017, the Peña Nieto Administration (PRI, 2012–2018) withdrew existing subsidies on the price of fuel; from then on, the prices would be pegged to the international market. At that time, Mexico was exporting less and less crude oil and importing more and more gasoline. The different types of fuel were sold at the subsidized price, resulting in huge losses for PEMEX, the state‐owned company that, since oil was nationalized in 1938, had held a monopoly on the industry and on retail gasoline sales. The elimination of the subsidies caused a jump in fuel prices of between 14 percent and 20 percent, depending on the octane level and the area where it was sold. The sudden price hike was given the name “
gasolinazo
,” or brutal price hike, in Spanish.
Hate Movements
Authors: Hawdon James , Costello Matthew
Published: September 2022

Hate movements are social movements focused on the hatred of some trait, characteristic, belief, or behavior. More specifically, hate movements express the hatred of something about some collective. Although they can be from the political left, they are more likely to be right‐wing or rightist. Hate movements tend to be known more for what they oppose than what they promote. Recognized groups such as the Ku Klux Klan, skinheads, and neo‐Nazis are examples of organized hate movements; however, hate movements can be decentralized and void of formal structure or identifiable leaders. These less structured hate movements involve loosely affiliated or even unaffiliated individuals who adhere to the movement's core ideology that professes attitudes that devalue others because of their religion, race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, sexual identity, national origin, political orientation; or some other characteristic that defines a group.
Independentism (Catalonia)
Authors: Portos Martín
Published: September 2022

With only about 8000 inhabitants, Arenys de Munt, the small stronghold of secessionist forces near Barcelona, celebrated the first – symbolic, nonbinding – municipal referendum on Catalan independence in 2009 as an act of protest against the Constitutional Court that ruled out the possibility of holding a referendum on self‐determination. Promoters could hardly imagine that a few years later, on 10 October 2017, the then president of Catalonia, Carles Puigdemont, would step in front of the Catalan Parliament to declare unilateral independence – even if Puigdemont immediately put the declaration on hold and it was never put into effect. While Catalonia's immediate bid for independence failed – secessions are indeed rare phenomena – polarization over the territorial framework and the struggle for self‐determination in Catalonia continued.
Islamic State (ISIS)
Authors: Mohamedou Mohammad‐Mahmoud Ould
Published: September 2022

The Islamic State (al‐Dawla al‐Islamiyya) is a transnational nonstate radical Sunni neo‐Salafist Islamist armed group primarily active in the period 2013–2017 in Iraq, in Syria, and internationally. The group, which came to be known formally as the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria/the Levant (ISIS or ISIL, al‐Dawla al‐Islamiyya fi'l‐Iraq wa'l‐Shaam) in 2013–2014, was an offshoot of the transnational radical Islamist organization, al‐Qaeda.
Labor Protests (China)
Authors: Franceschini Ivan
Published: September 2022

Since its foundation in 1921, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) has insisted on its privileged relationship with Chinese workers. Although over the past century China has gone through momentous sociopolitical changes, this claim remains so central to party legitimacy that to this day the party's constitution still opens with the categorical statement that the CCP is “the vanguard of the Chinese working class, the Chinese people, and the Chinese nation.” While such an assertion is dismissed by most people as empty propaganda, this rhetorical identification between ruling party and workers has had very practical implications for labor politics in China, especially after the foundation of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1949 and, even more, after the nationalization of Chinese industry in 1956. As they came to be governed by a party‐state that claimed to speak for them and represent their interests, Chinese workers suddenly found themselves deprived of their own voice and agency. This, however, did not mean that contradictions in the workplace came to an end, nor did this signal an end to labor unrest in China.
Left‐Wing Populist Movements
Authors: Aslanidis Paris
Published: September 2022

Populism is a type of anti‐establishment discourse enunciated in the name of “the People” and utilized by various social actors such as politicians, journalists, academics, artists, and ordinary citizens. In the field of social movement studies, the phenomenon is best understood and analyzed as a collective action frame. Populist framing proceeds from feelings of injustice and indignation and offers a certain problematization and assigned meaning to a situation. In its diagnostic component, it attributes injustice to a corrupt system of power that only serves the interests of a minority of elite stakeholders. In its prognostic component, it suggests a repertoire and an action plan in order to enforce checks on oligarchic intrusion and to ultimately restore a just balance between popular aspirations and governance. In its motivational component, populist framing issues an urgent call for mass mobilization as a political and moral duty of the People – from whom the state is supposed to derive its authority – but whose sovereignty has been robbed by a self‐perpetuating and unresponsive elite.
Movement Parties
Authors: della Porta Donatella
Published: September 2022

While parties are important for movements and vice versa, research on the relations between the two is still limited. Reciprocal distance has increased as research on parties moved away from concerns with the relations between parties and society, focusing on parties within institutions, and social movement studies mainly framed them as a social phenomenon, located outside of the political institutions. However, the boundaries between parties and movements are often blurred as the two often interact, with often long‐lasting cooperation and overlapping membership. Focusing on one among the many possible interactions between the two, recently research has addressed movement parties, with particular attention to their emergence and growth in different continents in reaction to the political instability triggered by the financial crisis and ensuing austerity policies.
Power Devaluation Theory
Authors: McVeigh Rory
Published: September 2022

Power devaluation theory offers a framework for analyzing the emergence and growth of conservative social movements. McVeigh initially developed the theory to explain the rise of the Ku Klux Klan during the early 1920s and has more recently applied it in a study of Donald Trump's rise to the presidency in 2016. Although the theory focuses on macro‐level changes in society, scholars have applied it in experimental studies as well.
Practice Movements
Authors: Eckert Julia
Published: September 2022

Practice movements are forms of unorganized collective action that have always been and are central sites of politics. Their goals are expressed in practices rather than in words, and their often “pre‐ideological” practices directly and pragmatically aim at transforming or redistributing access to goods, whether material or symbolic. They are transgression rather than resistance in that they transgress restrictions inherent in the material organization of space, property relations, status orders, and normative regulations, be they laws, morals, or customs. Practice movements are above all about access and participation; they thus have an ambiguous relation to the transformation of the status quo. Their politics are transformative in as much as they challenge forms of exclusion and inequality. They can produce temporary or lasting changes in the material grounds or in the regulation of the everyday life of those who pursue them, and potentially of the normativity and the organization of the wider social order.
Processual Perspectives
Authors: Bosi Lorenzo , Malthaner Stefan
Published: September 2022

Collective action is an inherently dynamic phenomenon. Processual perspectives seek to reconstruct the dynamics and intertwined trajectories of episodes of collective action or of activists' lives, how they unfold in interactions shaped by strategy, conjuncture, and contingency, and as situated in their particular historic context, in social time and space. Processual perspectives, then, stand in contrast to static or a‐temporal variable‐based approaches, which presume fixed entities, unambiguous meanings, the absence of sequence effects, and independence of context.
Refugee Solidarity Movement Between Humanitarian Support and Political Protest
Authors: Carlsen Hjalmar Bang , Toubøl Jonas
Published: September 2022

In response to the influx of millions of refugees during the summer and fall of 2015, refugee solidarity movements mobilized across Europe, offering relief aid to the refugees as well as protesting what were perceived as unjust policies and practices by states. While nonpoliticized solidarity and compassion for the refugees was a central driver of the mobilization, the issue was entangled with the highly contested political issues of deservingness of refugees, integration, and immigration politics, thus adding a contentious element.
Student Protests (United Kingdom)
Authors: Cini Lorenzo
Published: September 2022

The UK has historically exhibited a moderate tradition of student activism over the course of the twentieth century, especially when compared with those occurrences in continental Europe. Historically, student protests have been infrequent and politically marginal, only able to address demands at the local level, mainly on issues related to individual colleges and universities. Even in the years of the global wave of student mobilizations of the 1960s, British students showed a low disruptive potential for collective action and expressed very moderate political demands and goals. At first sight, the high level of antagonism exhibited by the student mobilization of 2010 may, thus, appear to be surprising, marking an explicit discontinuity with the moderate protest culture of British students, unable until that moment to challenge the long‐term process of higher education marketization.
Gay and Lesbian Movement (Taiwan)
Authors: Liu Hwa‐Jen
Published: September 2022

The first collective and sustained activism to protect sexual minorities in Taiwan arose in the early 1990s in response to two contradictory currents. The first current was set by an authoritarian‐styled regulatory system amid the AIDS epidemic. During the deliberations of the AIDS Prevention and Control Act in 1987 and after its passage in 1990, the Department of Health and the medical profession openly attacked what it characterized as “abnormal” sexual behaviors, urged the exclusion of sexual minorities from free treatment, enforced compulsory blood tests on gay men, deported those infected with AIDS if they were foreigners, and sentenced those who infected others to seven years in prison. Thus, through the use of measures to prevent the spread of AIDS, the public health authorities stigmatized and debased gay men, as well as other sexual minorities, treating them as collateral damage.
Hong Kong Umbrella Movement (2014)
Authors: Lee Ching Kwan
Published: September 2022

The Umbrella movement, a massive 79‐day occupation protest that happened in Hong Kong in the fall of 2014, was widely regarded as a turning point in the city's political history. At its height, some 20 percent of the population participated in one form or another. The immediate trigger was Beijing's “August 31 decision” to stall democratic political reforms and to impose selective screening of candidates for the Chief Executive election scheduled for 2017. When disgruntled university students moved the last day of a five‐day (22–26 September) class boycott from university campuses to near the government headquarters in downtown Hong Kong, they were joined by increasing numbers of high school students and civil society activists, as well as leaders and supporters of an intellectuals‐led campaign called “Occupy Central with Love and Peace.” When the police began arresting student leaders, including Joshua Wong, who charged into Civic Square adjacent to the main government building, tens of thousands of citizens began a spontaneous occupation of the major roads nearby and a smaller area to the east in Causeway Bay. Wielding the humble umbrella (hence the name of the movement) as the only means of defense, and undaunted by 87 canisters of tear gas fired by the police, citizen occupation soon spread to Mongkok, a working‐class commercial district in Kowloon across the harbor.
Unconventional Mobilization (Asia and the Middle East)
Authors: Fu Diana , Berman Chantal
Published: September 2022

In liberal democracies, protest marches, petition, strikes, and other social movement repertoires have become part of institutionalized politics. Challengers may face tear gas and rubber bullets, but they are – at least legally – allowed to organize civil dissent and congregate in public spaces. However, such “daily” routines, from student activism to transnational movements like #BlackLivesMatter and #MeToo that spill from the digital sphere onto the streets, are not permitted in many places in the world. Public protests may be muffled, co‐opted, or outright repressed. This entry draws upon recent literature, primarily from cases in Asia and the Middle East, to illustrate ways in which people have creatively overcome barriers to activism in high‐risk settings.
Women's Movements (Italy)
Authors: Bonu Giada
Published: September 2022

The women's movement in Italy has historically been characterized by radical claims, grassroots and molecular organization, a politics grounded in the personal as political, and the capacity to impact the sociopolitical and cultural landscape.
Youth Activism (Latin America)
Authors: Coe Anna‐Britt
Published: September 2022

Youth activism in Latin America refers to young adults' political practices and meanings situated within the particular historical and social conditions of this region. Even though examples of youth activism date back to the 1600s, young adults' political practices and meanings have only recently begun to be seen in their own right. This is because youth political subjectivities have long been constrained by long‐standing social hierarchies, including those based on age, as well as by the tentative relationship between state and society.
African Anti‐Mining Movements
Authors: Engels Bettina
Published: September 2022

Since the 2000s the expansion of the mining sector has triggered protests throughout the world over the loss of land, inadequate compensation, and the lack of participation in the process of awarding concessions, (forced) resettlement, the health and ecological effects of mining, demands for employment, and the distribution of the profits, taxes, and duties. Land users and local communities complain that customary land use is not recognized, and compensation is only paid for buildings and land for which formal titles exist. A wide range of social movements, from grassroots initiatives to transnational NGOs, engage in various forms of collective action related to large‐scale mining.
March on Washington (1963)
Authors: McAdam Doug
Published: September 2022

On 28 August 1963, roughly a quarter of a million people participated in the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom. The march was the brainchild of A. Philip Randolph, the dean of American civil rights leaders, but ultimately involved the active participation of a broad coalition of civil rights, labor, and other civic organizations. The involvement of so many groups, with different ideological orientations, introduced backstage tensions into the march, but the event itself is remembered for its unity, sustained moral tone, and, of course, for Martin Luther King Jr.'s canonical “I Have a Dream” speech. The march can be credited with pressuring President Kennedy to support a much stronger civil rights bill than he had intended and, more generally, for adding the “march on Washington” to the repertoire of contention available to American social movements.
#FeesMustFall Student Movement (South Africa)
Authors: Ndlovu Hlengiwe
Published: September 2022

The #FeesMustFall campaign started at the University of the Witwatersrand (Wits) on 14 October 2015, after the university management announced 10.5 percent fees increase for the 2016 academic year. After three days, more than 16 public universities across the country had joined the protest and campuses were shutdown. The protest took off nationally on already fertile ground. The #RhodesMustFall movement at the University of Cape Town (UCT) had started campaigning for decolonization in March 2015. Most importantly, historically black universities like Tshwane University of Technology (TUT) and Fort Hare University, among others, had been fighting financial exclusions for many years. However, the #FeesMustFall campaign came to be associated with historically white institutions like Wits and UCT that attracted white media, public, and international attention.
Montgomery Bus Boycott
Authors: McAdam Doug
Published: September 2022

On 1 December 1955 Rosa Parks was arrested for violating the city's ordinance regulating racial seating on city buses. Parks's arrest was hardly the first of its kind under Montgomery's ordinance. So why did Rosa Parks's actions set in motion the community response it did, when other such incidents had failed to do so? No doubt part of the answer has to do with Parks's deep ties to both the city's civil rights and middle‐class black church communities, the two institutional arenas that would form the nucleus of the subsequent boycott. After briefly describing the origins, development, conclusion, and enduring legacies of the campaign, the entry closes by using Montgomery to illustrate four central concepts in social movement theory.
Socioterritorial Movements
Authors: Fernandes Bernardo Mançano
Published: September 2022

The concept of the socioterritorial movement is a geographical contribution to studies of movements that have territory as a condition of existence. Examples of socioterritorial movements are indigenous, peasant, homeless, and neighborhood movements. Defining the differences in space and territory is essential to better understand the actions of these two types of movements. The space is mediated by social relations, where all manifestations take place. Sociospatial movements manifest themselves through mediations and produce their spaces. However, when appropriate, space is transformed into a territory, that is, the territory is the space under control. Therefore, socioterritorial movements appropriate the territories they produce. We analyze two geographical approaches to movement studies and present the theoretical production of the inseparability approach in the conceptual construction of socioterritorial movements. We also present an analytical matrix of social, sociospatial, and socioterritorial movements for a better understanding of differences with other approaches of sociological tradition. Through examples of the forest, countryside, and city movements we discuss territorial disputes in the context of conflict as multidimensionality of the permanent state of types of territorial conflicts like land, water, housing, education, health, finance, public policies, etc. The concept of socioterritorial movement allows an in‐depth study of territorial disputes with the interpretation that deterritorialization threatens peoples, social groups, identities, cultures, livelihoods, etc., which only reproduce in their territories.
Digital Methods for Social Movement Research
Authors: Carlsen Hjalmar Bang , Toubøl Jonas
Published: September 2022

Digital methods have the potential to strengthen social movement studies because digital trace data have the affordances necessary to record aspects of social life related to several problems of particular prominence in social movement research, namely: (i) group formation, (ii) unexpected and consequential events, (iii) mobilization cycles, (iv) persistence of activism, and (v) within‐movement interaction and negotiation. Yet, suitable data for studying these phenomena have been rare. The reason is the informal nature of most social movements, making movement populations hard to delimit and reach, as well as the difficulty of predicting mobilization so that data can be collected before, during, and after a protest event making movements' populations hard to predict: in sum, the problem of ephemeral populations. Furthermore, because many movements do not keep systematically organized records of meeting minutes and the like, the level of micro‐negotiations and internal cultures are difficult to measure. In these regards, digital trace data and methods offer promising new empirical tools.