bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Assessing the Joint Probability of Fluvial and Tidal Floods in the River Roding
Authors: ACREMAN M. C.
Published: July 2007

Water levels in the lower reaches of most rivers are controlled by the interaction of fluvial flows and tides. Assessment of the risk of over‐bank inundation therefore requires an estimation of the probability of experiencing combinations of river floods and high tides and calculation of the water levels resulting from their interaction. This may be achieved by numerical integration of the marginal probability distributions of river floods and sea‐levels, but this is complex mathematically and requires explicit knowledge of the correlation structure. In this paper a solution is developed for risk assessment in the lower River Roding, by reconstructing the historical water levels from river flow and tidal records using a hydraulic model. The resulting water‐level series is then analysed statistically to estimate the probability that certain critical levels will be exceeded. The model allows for operation of the River Roding's flood‐protection barrier and for the effects of a general rise in sea level.
Drainage from Highways and Other Paved Areas: Methods of Collection, Disposal and Treatment
Authors: STARTIN J. , LANSDOWN R. V.
Published: July 2007

Drainage of surface water from paved areas has been a fundamental part of urban planning and highway design for more than 100 years, and many aspects have changed little during this time. However, there have been recent developments in awareness of the need to treat potential pollution from paved surface runoff, as well as the need for flow attenuation and for water quality monitoring. A product of this increased awareness has been the conversion of vegetative treatment systems, traditionally designed to treat domestic and industrial wastewaters, to the treatment of paved surface runoff. The use of vegetative treatment systems for this purpose is as yet relatively untested. This paper therefore provides a brief review of the engineering methods for the collection, transport and treatment of paved surface runoff. It then goes on to describe the different types of vegetative treatment systems which are available, their value and role, and appropriate situations for their use. Finally, consideration is given to the need to monitor the efficiency of these systems in order to establish their effectiveness, and a description is given of monitoring methods which may be appropriate.
Control of Hydrogen Sulphide by Air Injection into Rising Mains
Authors: TAKENAKA K.
Published: July 2007

During the long‐distance pressure transportation of sewage, the interior of a rising main tends to become anaerobic, thereby producing a large amount of hydrogen sulphide at manholes and terminals. High concentrations of hydrogen sulphide have become a serious environmental and maintenance problem.

In order to prevent the production of hydrogen sulphide in rising mains, the City of Kobe (in Japan) introduced a system to inject air directly into the main.

This paper describes the results of studies on the effect of air injection on hydrogen sulphide inhibition and the relationship between water quality and the amount of air injected.
Sewage Treatment for Small Communities: the Severn Trent Approach
Authors: UPTON J. E. , GREEN M. B. , FINDLAY G. E.
Published: July 2007

When faced with the requirement to refurbish or upgrade a large number of small sewage‐treatment works, Severn Trent Water standardized process selection on rotating biological contactors and, where higher standards of effluent were demanded, constructed reed beds. These systems are described and costs are presented and discussed.

Performance data from rotary biological contactors and reed‐bed sites are used to illustrate the additional security provided by the reed beds. Results from a survey of a reed bed treating a storm‐sewage overflow are shown for a storm event.
Pilot‐Plant Study of a New Wastewater Treatment System
Authors: SAMPA H. , TANAKA T.
Published: July 2007

Because of severe space limitations for the reconstruction of its sewage‐treatment system, the city of Nagoya has evaluated a space‐saving wastewater treatment system comprising a solid‐liquid separator (SLS) and biological aerated filter (BAF). The SLS is filled with plastic media forming a 2 m thick layer, and influent suspended solids are removed through the media packed zone. The BAF plant has a 2 m thick layer packed with porous ceramic media and air is diffused from the bottom of the tank.

The paper outlines the new treatment system and the ongoing study of the demonstration plant since 1992. It discusses the respective SS and BOD removal rates and concludes by showing that the new system can reduce retention period and plant area compared with the conventional activated‐sludge process.
Risk Assessment for Environmental Management: Approaches and Applications
Authors: POLLARD S. J , HARROP D. O , CROWCROFT P. , MALLETT S. H , JEFFRIES S. R , YOUNG P. J
Published: July 2007

Effective risk‐management measures concerning the health, legislative and financial implications of environmental risk rely fundamentally on a robust risk assessment. Risk‐assessment strategies exist at various levels of sophistication, and their application should be staged and matched to (a) the magnitude and significance of risks under study, (b) the sensitivities of receptors, (c) the quality of data available, and (d) the means by which risks are to be communicated. Three risk‐assessment approaches are examined and their role is reviewed with respect to the completion of multimedia environmental management projects.
Radon in Private Water Supplies: The Unknown Risk
Authors: Clapham D. , Horan N. J.
Published: July 2007

Radon gas, which is the main contributor to human radiation exposure, is easily dissolved in, and dissipated from, water. Problems with radon occur because, in addition to being ingested, it (a) becomes attached to particles which lodge in the lungs and (b) emits alpha radiation. Concentration has been found to increase inversely with the size of a water supply. Although of little problem in mains’water, private water supplies in the UK have been found to contain more than ten times the recommended US levels. Despite this, very little monitoring is carried out for radon in private supplies. Local authorities, situated in areas where the geological conditions are such that high levels of radon would be expected, should carry out a suitable sampling and monitoring programme of their private water supplies.
The Environmental Impact of a Chemical Spill from a Timber‐Treatment Works on a Lowland River System
Authors: Dowson P. , Chem C. , Biol C. , Scrimshaw M. D. , Nasir J. M. , Bubb J. N. , Lester J. N.
Published: July 2007

A major timber‐preservative spillage, resulting from a fire at a timber yard, released substantial quantities of tributyltin and lindane (g hexachlorocyclohexane) into the River Bourne ‐ a tributary of the River Thames. This paper describes the chemical and biological effects resulting from the incident. Water‐column concentrations in the River Bourne South ranged from below detection limits to 5200 μg/l and 3700 μg/l for tributyltin and lindane respectively, with contamination extending 80 km into the Thames estuary. The high concentration of pollutants caused extensive fish mortality and virtually eradicated the invertebrate population in the immediate vicinity of the spill. Although sediment monitoring revealed initially high surficial sediment concentrations of tributyltin (3300 ng/g) and lindane (490 ng/g), loadings declined over a period of time, but it is perceived that contaminated sediments may pose a longer‐term threat to benthic communities, particularly in the proximity of the spill site.
The Hydraulic Analysis of Side‐Channel Spillways as Reservoir Outlets
Authors: Etheridge M. J.
Published: July 2007

This paper presents a simple computer‐based methodology for analyzing the hydraulics of side‐channel spillways, and concentrates on the performance of the spillway when the overflow weir is subject to heavy submergence ‐ as may be the case when passing extreme floods as stipulated by the Reservoirs Act 1975. Published data, which define the relationship between the degree of submergence of a weir and the reduction in the weir's coefficient of discharge, is used to match the water profile in the receiving channel with that of the induced distribution of flow over the weir. Results are compared with those obtained from scale physical models.
The Hydraulic Characteristics of Ovoid Sewers
Authors: Marriott M. J.
Published: July 2007

Egg‐shaped or ovoid cross‐sections are common in old brick‐built sewerage systems. A recent development has been the availability of precast concrete ovoid pipes with flexible joints. The hydraulic analysis of flow in ovoid sections is described, following some historical background. Examples are included which illustrate and quantify the advantages of ovoid sections over circular pipes for a combined sewer under low flow conditions. A design chart is presented which (a) facilitates the performance of certain design calculations, and (b) enables a direct solution for initial sizing calculations where a wide range of flows is being considered.
The Balance between Public Water Supply and Environmental Needs
Authors: Smith E. J.
Published: July 2007

The Anglian region is one of the driest areas in the UK, with often potentially conflicting demands for limited water resources. Experiences over the last thirty years are described in relation to the development of a policy to satisfy the needs of both public water supply and the environment. Examples of the relationship between water resource development and water‐dependent environments are described together with the role of demand management. Concerns are raised as to the future expectations of water supply customers, the long‐term effect of demand management and the expectations of the regulators and environmentalists.
Modelling Drainage Performance in an Indian Catchment
Authors: Heywood G. M. , Kolsky P. J. , Butler D.
Published: July 2007

Surface‐water flooding occurs frequently in low‐income urban settlements of developing countries, with impacts on public health and the local economy. In many locations, drainage systems are neither appropriate nor sustainable. A computer model of a small surface‐water drainage catchment has been developed within a slum improvement programme in Indore, India. The model was calibrated and verified against flow‐survey data, and was used to study the effects on performance of maintenance (as reflected in solids build‐up in pipes) and site grading. The results confirm the critical importance of maintenance in drainage performance and the need for construction engineers to consider drainage carefully before changing site‐grading plans. The results also suggest some general trends in drainage performance during floods.
Future Issues in Environmental Protection: a European Perspective
Authors: Bramley M.
Published: July 2007

The report on ‘Europe's Environment’, published in 1995 by the European Environment Agency, presents clear information on (a) the state of the environment, (b) pressures stressing it, and (c) the human activities behind these issues. It sets the style for improved presentation of environmental management issues through the use of environmental indicators. This will help the UK environmental manager to target policy and/or management response, and to view their issues ‐ whether at local, regional or national level ‐ within a wider European and thereby global context. Key environmental problems for Europe are transport, land degradation, diffuse pollution of water, loss of natural habitats, waste production, and a range of local pressures ‐ such as poor air quality ‐ caused by conurbations. Future environmental management must be capable of integrated multi‐media application, and should be applied at the most appropriate level, drawing on a range of approaches from ‘top down’regulation through to a ‘bottom up’commitment by individuals.
Thermophilic and Mesophilic (Two‐Stage) Anaerobic Digestion
Authors: Dichtl N.
Published: July 2007

The objectives of sludge stabilization include (a) the degradation of organic matter, (b) a reduction of solid matter, (c) a decrease in the number of pathogenic organisms, (d) an improvement of dewaterability, and (e) the production of biogas.

The anaerobic digestion of organic substances normally proceeds in four stages, and the various microorganisms which are involved in microbial metabolism have different ambient conditions for their optimum mode of operation. This can be achieved, for example, by splitting the process technique into two stages.

In order to achieve disinfection, a primary thermophilic stage with 1–3 days’retention is followed by anaerobic degradation under mesophilic conditions having a retention period of 10–15 days.

The combined retention period of about 15 days for this two‐stage combined sludge stabilization process is compared with the results of single‐stage mesophilic digestion with a retention period of 20 to 30 days.
Transport and the Environment: Effects of Organic Pollutants on Water Quality
Authors: Ellis J. B. , Revitt D. M. , Llewellyn N.
Published: July 2007

The eighteenth report of the Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution made no reference to any potential environmental impacts resulting from runoff pollution associated with transport activities. This paper identifies the magnitude and extent of pollution associated with discharges from various transport sources and identifies solids, metals, hydrocarbons, herbicides and de‐icing agents as the principal contaminants of environmental concern. The impacts of these pollutants on the receiving water are reviewed. They are primarily associated with highways which have a high traffic density, and herbicides are considered to be the only potential and widespread hazard to groundwaters. Highway and airport runoff are shown to have both acute and chronic effects on biotic diversity and organism mortality rates, although these effects appear to be largely confined to reaches immediately downstream from the discharge outfalls.
Groundwater Resources: Balancing Perspectives on Key Issues Affecting Supply and Demand
Authors: Foster S. S. D. , Grey D. R. C.
Published: July 2007

Sustainable groundwater management requires (a) maximizing the use of aquifer storage to reduce water‐supply costs while limiting environmental impacts, and (b) maximizing groundwater protection to reduce water‐supply treatment needs while not unduly restricting land‐use activities. These key issues are evaluated from the experience of a recent and comprehensive national strategic study, involving detailed consultation with many stakeholders with an interest in groundwater resources. Such balances are not easy to achieve because groundwater systems are complex to analyse and slow to respond to change, resulting in considerable uncertainty in assessment and prediction without in‐depth research and high‐resolution monitoring. Current institutional and regulatory arrangements for the water sector in England and Wales do not appear to be achieving the best possible use of aquifer storage and optimal investment in groundwater protection.
Environmental Strategies for Sustainable Development: A New Town in Mallorca
Authors: Carroll B. , Turpin T.
Published: July 2007

There can be a particularly fragile balance between water supply and demand in small island communities (such as Mallorca) which have developed a reliance on tourism. Over‐abstraction has caused an increase in salinity of groundwater resources and has exacerbated a general shortage of fresh water. The island also has important ecological reserves, but such habitats and species are threatened by the development of tourism and intensive agriculture.

The paper describes the environmental strategies for water, ecology, agriculture and landscape devised for a proposed new town. These strategies were the basis for integration of other elements, including renewable energy, waste and transport – all designed with sustainable principles. The strategies were incorporated into the winning masterplan for an international competition which was organized by the Govern Balear.
Strategies to Combine the Functions of Ecology and Navigation in the Scheldt Estuary
Authors: Smit H. , Kop R. , Westmacott S.
Published: July 2007

During recent years, water management in The Netherlands has been broadening its scope by: (a) including aspects of economics, sociology and physical planning, and (b) introducing interactive policy making; this paper illustrates these developments using the Westerschelde estuary as an example. The Westerschelde strategy aims at optimizing the multi‐national use of this estuary. The main functions are navigation and ecology, and the paper shows how these functions can be combined. An interactive management model, the ‘COSMO‐Westerschelde’is described, which assists decision makers in comparing strategies for estuarine management under different scenarios.
Meeting Standards for Lead in Drinking Water
Authors: Hayes C. R. , Bates A. J. , Goodman A. H. , Vinson J. P. , Sadler T. P.
Published: July 2007

During the last twenty years, the UK has made steady progress in the understanding of the ‘lead in drinking water’issue and towards compliance with a lead standard which is more stringent than elsewhere in Europe.

Evaluating the needs for corrective action has not been straightforward because of the difficulties in characterizing the pick‐up of lead from lead pipes throughout whole water supply zones. Survey methods have developed over the past twenty years as the behaviour of lead pipes has become better understood, but some ambiguities may still need to be addressed.

Information from Bristol Water suggests that compliance with a new lead standard of 10 μg/1 may be feasible by corrective water treatment in some zones, based on the already accepted practice of dosing with phosphoric acid, depending on how this more stringent standard is implemented. This view is also held by Anglian Water, based on their extensive experience with phosphoric acid dosing (without any significant problems) since the mid‐1980s. Therefore total lead pipe replacement, at substantially higher cost, can likely be avoided in many zones.
Biofilm Development on 304 and 316 Stainless Steels in a Potable Water System
Authors: Percival S. L. , Beech I. B. , Edyvean R. G. J. , Knapp J. S. , Wales D. S.
Published: July 2007

Instances of rapid failure of copper‐pipe plumbing in potable‐water systems installed in large municipal buildings have led to a review of the use of alternative materials including stainless steel. This paper reports the findings of an in‐situ study which investigated biofilm development on types 304 and 316 stainless‐steel piping in a filtered and unfiltered, hot and cold‐water supply system installed in a large public building in the west of Scotland. This building had experienced severe corrosion problems with copper pipework.
Surge Suppression: Care at all Stages
Authors: Devine J. G. , Creasey J. D.
Published: July 2007

A large twin sewage pumping main had experienced excessive surge pressures during commissioning, and staff of the Water Research Centre were retained by the contractor (responsible for constructing the pumping station) to determine the cause.

This paper describes how the problem arose, even though a surge analysis had been carried out. The approach which was adopted for the re‐analysis is described, together with the results. Alternative surgesuppression measures were investigated and sized. The importance of air valves in this situation is discussed and an explanation is given on the reasons why the original analysis led to inadequate surge suppression and unacceptable pressures.
Tidal Exchanges Between Orplands Managed Retreat Site and the Blackwater Estuary, Essex
Authors: Emmerson R. H. C. , Manatunge J. M. A. , Macleod C. L. , Lester J. N.
Published: July 2007

‘Managed retreat’ is a salt‐marsh restoration technique which is under experimental implementation in the UK. The technique involves the engineered tidal inundation of coastal land in front of re‐aligned flood defences. Salt marshes developed by this method are intended to act as hydraulic buffers in front of coastal defences and to provide zones of environmental enhancement. Two managed retreat trials were instigated in 1995 on the Blackwater Estuary, Essex, UK. In June 1995, two months after breaching the seawalls, the initial environmental impact and geochemical development of the Orplands managed retreat site were investigated by surveys of tidal exchanges. Tidal stage curves and quantities of exchange were determined by four hydrological surveys at the extremes of a neap‐spring tidal cycle, and the chemistry of exchanges was investigated by water sampling during these surveys.
The Optimization of an Epifluorescence Microscopy Technique for the Direct Counting of Clumped Bacteria
Authors: McMath S. M. , Delanove A. , Holt D. M. , Chamberlain A. H. L. , Lloyd B. J.
Published: July 2007

The enumeration of heterotrophic bacteria is an important measure of water quality in mains’distribution systems. Conventional methods of enumerating bacteria by plate counts do not distinguish between single bacteria and clumps of cells; however, various methods have been reported which use epifluorescence microscopy to give a direct count of bacteria. There appears to be no standard method for the preparation of samples, with the choice of fluorochrome and staining technique varying considerably – even between workers using similar environmental samples. A number of the reported methods were tested, and a technique was developed which enabled a consistent total count of bacterial cells (occurring both singularly and in clumps) to be obtained.
An Assessment of the Cost of Recycling Household Waste in Britain and Ireland
Authors: Dennison G. J. , Dodd V. A.
Published: July 2007

A marginal cost model is developed based on published data relating to both bring‐ and collect‐based household waste‐recycling schemes. Both systems are judged to be capable of ensuring compliance for paper and glass with the EU packaging and packaging waste Directive's 15% recycling target. Only collect systems can ensure such compliance for metal and plastic packaging.
River Control Structures: Welmore Lake Sluice Reconstruction
Authors: Heald G. , Nunn R.
Published: July 2007

The Ouse Washes form a vital component of the flood defences of the Cambridgeshire fens, providing flood storage and conveyance when the normal channels are at full capacity. The flood defence and environmental value of the Ouse Washes depends upon the maintenance of an open grassland which is regularly flooded in winter, but dry enough in summer. A strategic study of the system was completed in 1995, which recommended that (a) summer flooding should be better controlled and (b) the structures contained within the Washes were improved.

This paper considers some of the economic and environmental problems which were encountered during the development of the strategy and examines operational aspects of the design.
Performance of the Burwarton Estate Waste Stabilization Ponds
Authors: Mara D. D. , Cogman C. A. , Simkins P. , Schembri M. C. A.
Published: July 2007

The Burwarton Estate waste stabilization ponds, near Bridgnorth, Shropshire, serve a population of 150. There are three ponds in series: a facultative pond, and two equal maturation ponds, followed by two parallel and alternately used constructed wetland ditches. This paper describes the design of the ponds and reports upon their performance during the first two years of operation.
A Regionally Applicable Model for Estimating Flow Velocity at Ungauged River Sites in the UK
Authors: Round C. E. , Young A. R. , Fox K.
Published: July 2007

Measurements of flow velocity are often required for a broad range of issues surrounding water‐resource management, and a velocity‐estimation method is therefore desirable where extensive field data are unavailable. This paper presents the development of a model for estimating flow velocity using readily available catchment characteristics, and flow and channel geometry data. The velocity equations were calibrated using UK data, so that their application at any river site in the UK is attainable. The calibrated equation uses the mean flow and the dimensionless magnitude of the flow on the day in question to estimate the mean reach velocity for flows at any river site in the UK.
Balancing the Aims of Geological Conservation with Coastal‐Defence Requirements
Authors: McCue J.
Published: July 2007

There are many examples, both nationally and internationally, where coastal‐defence structures have impeded the natural erosion of cliffs and have thereby reduced the geological importance of a particular site. These problems have arisen where piecemeal defence schemes have been adopted as remedial measures to protect property or infrastructure from erosion. The recent onset of ‘shore‐line management plans’ in the UK have attempted to redress this issue by reducing ‘myopic’ planning and, instead, seeking to promote more strategic thinking towards the impact of carrying out such work on the natural environment.

This paper has been written to make coastal engineers aware of the importance of this topic within the ‘shoreline management plan’.
Environmental Mediation
Authors: Tromans S.
Published: July 2007

Environmental protection is a subject which arouses deep feelings and inherently involves the reconciliation or balancing of competing principles and priorities. The disputes which it engenders can be complex, bitter and protracted, and they are the types of issue which could significantly benefit from the application of mediation techniques. In the UK, little progress seems to have been made in applying such techniques to the full range of environmental problems, in contrast to other areas.

Mediation is growing in popularity and use in the context of family disputes, problems between neighbours, and commercial problems. With some exceptions, however, it has not been widely applied to environmental disputes, which appears to be an area where the full potential of mediation remains to be realized.
Arsenic Removal from Water Supplies in Northern Chile Using Ferric Chloride Coagulation
Authors: Karcher S. , Cáceres L. , Jekel M. , Contreras R.
Published: July 2007

Many raw waters in the arid North of Chile contain high concentrations of arsenic (0.1–1.0 mg/l) and, during the 1970s, drinking‐water treatment using coagulation was introduced in an attempt to comply with the Chilean standard of 0.05 mg/l. The new World Health Organization recommendation of 0.01 mg/1 for drinking water has led to efforts to enhance arsenic removal.

This paper describes pilot‐plant experiments which were carried out to optimize removal by varying the ferric chloride coagulant dose (3–9 mg/1 Fe) and pH value (pH 5.5–8.0) in a raw water which contained an average arsenic concentration of 0.44 mg/l. At pH 5.5, arsenic adsorption was best; however, a pH of 6.5 was considered to be the most suitable for treatment when considering floc elimination. An empirical formula to predict residual arsenic under different operational conditions was obtained and this was confirmed by data collected at a full‐scale water‐treatment plant.
Constructed Wetlands: A Strategy for Sustainable Wastewater Treatment at Small Treatment Works
Authors: Griffin P. , Upton J.
Published: July 2007

The use of sub‐surface flow constructed wetlands planted with Phragmites australis (the common reed) for the treatment of sewage is now widespread in the UK. The strategy for the use of reed‐beds by a major UK water utility is reviewed in terms of whether the process (a) is appropriate within the rural environment, (b) offers satisfactory performance, and (c) meets criteria for sustainability. Its use for secondary, tertiary and storm‐water treatment is considered. Odour generation has been a concern for secondary treatment reed‐beds and has been measured and modelled to identify the required minimum distance to properties to eliminate any possibility of odour nuisance.
A ‘Standard Industrial Classification’Coded Strategic Planning Model of Industrial and Commercial Water Demand for UK Regions
Authors: Mitchell G. , McDonald A. T. , Wattage P. , Williamson P.
Published: July 2007

Knowledge of future demand is essential for promoting sustainability in water resources, informing decisions over the allocation of water between people and the environment. Improved econometric models of non‐household water demand are presented, which have been developed for the Yorkshire Water region, providing annual demand forecasts to the year 2010 disaggregated with reference to the Standard Industrial Classification. Increases of 0.44–1.0% per annum are forecast, mainly driven by service sector demand. Water companies and regulators cannot influence economic activity, but have the ability to manage demand using price controls. Waste minimisation also offers the potential to offset forecast increases, if widely adopted. Current application of price controls act to increase demand, counter to the goal of environmental sustainability; therefore it is concluded that, within the UK water industry, competition should be focused on levels of service and environmental‐impact measures, rather than on price.
Discharge Measurement Using Portable Dilution Gauging Flowmeters
Authors: Butterworth J. A. , Hewitt E. J. , McCartney M. P.
Published: July 2007

This paper suggests that the relative salt (sodium chloride) dilution method should be more widely used for the routine measurement of stream discharge, and has been written to increase awareness of the technique among flow‐gauging practitioners. Recent improvements in instrumentation have increased accuracy and simplified practical application, making the method better suited (in many circumstances) than the more widely used alternatives. The paper (a) reports on a field study to evaluate the performance of a portable dilution‐gauging flowmeter, and (b) considers the environmental issues which are associated with the method. The review reveals that the use of salt (in the quantities typically required) is unlikely to have any significant ecological impact, and argues that environmental concerns are founded upon little scientific basis.
Entropy and Water Management
Authors: Thomas D. N. , Fawcett N. , Judd S. J.
Published: July 2007

Water management can be set within a conceptual framework which emphasises the importance of maximising the usefulness of water as it moves through a catchment area. The framework is based upon a consideration of the thermodynamic property of entropy, i.e. a measure of a system's increasing inability to do work. It is concluded that a consideration of water utility as a determinant is more appropriate than the conventional volume‐paradigm applied to water resourcing.
The Impact of Measurement Uncertainty on the Water Balance
Authors: Sattary J. , Boam D. , Judeh W. A. , Warren S.
Published: July 2007

The ‘water‐balance calculation’is a valuable method of assessing the integrity of many components of a company's distribution system and is used in (a) evaluating the overall performance of the system and (b) assessing, for example, leakage within distribution zones or district metered areas. However, the quality of data which are derived from balance calculations reflects the quality of the input data, and each input source (whether metered or estimated) is subject to uncertainty.

This paper explores the impact of input uncertainty on the water‐balance calculation, and uses Anglian Water's annual balance as an example. The principal contributors to overall uncertainty are identified, and these show that the overall uncertainty depends upon only a few of the many inputs. Identifying these critical inputs has enabled Anglian Water staff to target the areas of their auditing chains that will yield greatest benefit to the reporting process.
ENVIRONMENTAL FLOW SETTING IN ENGLAND AND WALES: STRATEGIES FOR MANAGING ABSTRACTION IN CATCHMENTS
Authors: Dunbar M. J. , Acreman M. , Kirk S.
Published: July 2007

This paper describes the evolution of methods to set environmental flows in England and Wales. Problems and challenges are reviewed in the context of recent legislative developments, and examples are given of different conceptual approaches. Scenario‐based approaches have evolved as a pragmatic means to resolve competing uses of water; in contrast, approaches based on ecological objectives aim to meet more consistent goals. Where rivers or associated wetlands have been designated under national or European conservation legislation, broad ecological objectives are already under discussion. Furthermore, the European Water Framework Directive now requires good ecological status, or its equivalent, to be reached in all waters. Recently, the Environment Agency has developed a new process for managing abstractions in England and Wales; this includes a common methodology for the setting of environmental flows using objective methods.
Chemoimmunotherapy of Chronic Hepatitis B Virus Infection in the Woodchuck Model Overcomes Immunologic Tolerance and Restores T-Cell Responses to Pre-S and S Regions of the Viral Envelope Protein
Authors: Menne Stephan , Tennant Bud C. , Gerin John L. , Cote Paul J.
Published: July 2007

Treatment of chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection could combine potent antiviral drugs and therapeutic vaccines to overcome immunological tolerance and induce the recovery phenotype to protect against disease progression. Conventional vaccination of woodchucks chronically infected with the woodchuck hepatitis virus (WHV) elicited differential T-cell response profiles depending on whether or not carriers were treated with the potent antiviral drug clevudine (CLV), which significantly reduces viral and antigen loads. The differential T-cell responses defined both CLV-dependent and CLV-independent epitopes of the pre-S and S regions of the WHV envelope protein. Only combined treatment involving CLV and conventional vaccine therapeutically restored the T-cell response profile of chronic WHV carrier woodchucks to that seen in prophylactic vaccination and in recovery from acute WHV infection. The results have implications for mechanisms of immunological tolerance operating in chronic HBV infection and suggest that such combined chemoimmunotherapy may be useful for treatment of humans with chronic HBV infection.
Establishment of Influenza A Virus (H6N1) in Minor Poultry Species in Southern China
Authors: Cheung C. L. , Vijaykrishna D. , Smith G. J. D. , Fan X. H. , Zhang J. X. , Bahl J. , Duan L. , Huang K. , Tai H. , Wang J. , Poon L. L. M. , Peiris J. S. M. , Chen H. , Guan Y.
Published: July 2007

An H6N1 virus, A/teal/Hong Kong/W312/97 (W312), was isolated during the “bird flu” incident in Hong Kong in 1997. Genetic analysis suggested that this virus might be the progenitor of the A/Hong Kong/156/97 (HK/97) H5N1 virus, as seven of eight gene segments of those viruses had a common source. Continuing surveillance in Hong Kong showed that a W312-like virus was prevalent in quail and pheasants in 1999; however, the further development of H6N1 viruses has not been investigated since 2001. Here we report influenza virus surveillance data collected in southern China from 2000 to 2005 that show that H6N1 viruses have become established and endemic in minor poultry species and replicate mainly in the respiratory tract. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that all H6N1 isolates had W312-like hemagglutinin and neuraminidase genes. However, reassortment of internal genes between different subtype virus lineages, including H5N1, H9N2, and other avian viruses, generated multiple novel H6N1 genotypes in different types of poultry. These novel H6N1/N2 viruses are double, triple, or even quadruple reassortants. Reassortment between a W312-like H6N1 virus and an A/quail/Hong Kong/G1/97 (HK/97)-like H9N2 virus simultaneously generated novel H6N2 subtype viruses that were persistent in poultry. Molecular analyses suggest that W312-like viruses may not be the precursors of HK/97 virus but reassortants from an HK/97-like virus and another unidentified H6 subtype virus. These results provide further evidence of the pivotal role of the live poultry market system of southern China in generating increased genetic diversity in influenza viruses in this region.
Molecular Determinants of Antiviral Potency of Paramyxovirus Entry Inhibitors
Authors: Porotto M. , Carta P. , Deng Y. , Kellogg G. E. , Whitt M. , Lu M. , Mungall B. A. , Moscona A.
Published: July 2007

Hendra virus (HeV) and Nipah virus (NiV) constitute the
Henipavirus
genus of paramyxoviruses, both fatal in humans and with the potential for subversion as agents of bioterrorism. Binding of the HeV/NiV attachment protein (G) to its receptor triggers a series of conformational changes in the fusion protein (F), ultimately leading to formation of a postfusion six-helix bundle (6HB) structure and fusion of the viral and cellular membranes. The ectodomain of paramyxovirus F proteins contains two conserved heptad repeat regions, the first (the N-terminal heptad repeat [HRN]) adjacent to the fusion peptide and the second (the C-terminal heptad repeat [HRC]) immediately preceding the transmembrane domain. Peptides derived from the HRN and HRC regions of F are proposed to inhibit fusion by preventing activated F molecules from forming the 6HB structure that is required for fusion. We previously reported that a human parainfluenza virus 3 (HPIV3) F peptide effectively inhibits infection mediated by the HeV glycoproteins in pseudotyped-HeV entry assays more effectively than the comparable HeV-derived peptide, and we now show that this peptide inhibits live-HeV and -NiV infection. HPIV3 F peptides were also effective in inhibiting HeV pseudotype virus entry in a new assay that mimics multicycle replication. This anti-HeV/NiV efficacy can be correlated with the greater potential of the HPIV3 C peptide to interact with the HeV F N peptide coiled-coil trimer, as evaluated by thermal unfolding experiments. Furthermore, replacement of a buried glutamic acid (glutamic acid 459) in the C peptide with valine enhances antiviral potency and stabilizes the 6HB conformation. Our results strongly suggest that conserved interhelical packing interactions in the F protein fusion core are important determinants of C peptide inhibitory activity and offer a strategy for the development of more-potent analogs of F peptide inhibitors.
MAGNETOSTATIC MODES IN NANOMETER-SIZED FERROMAGNETIC AND ANTIFERROMAGNETIC TUBES
Authors: DAS T. K. , COTTAM M. G.
Published: July 2007

A theory is presented for the magnetostatic modes in ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic nanotubes, which have a large length-to-radius aspect ratio and an external magnetic field parallel to the cylindrical axis. The surface and bulk magnetic excitations (or magnetostatic spin waves) are studied for cases where the dipole–dipole interactions are dominant in the spin dynamics. This situation can be realized at sufficiently small wavevectors by inelastic light scattering or magnetic resonance techniques. A macroscopic continuum theory is developed, using the magnetostatic form of Maxwell's equations and the electromagnetic boundary conditions, and the characteristic equations (or dispersion relations) are deduced for the magnetostatic modes. Numerical calculations are presented for ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic nanostructures, taking Ni 80 Fe 20 and MnF 2, respectively. The spatial variations of the mode amplitudes are also investigated.
Evaluation of Tropospheric and Ionospheric Effects on the Geographic Localization of Data Collection Platforms
Authors: Celestino C. C. , Sousa C. T. , Yamaguti W. , Kuga H. K.
Published: July 2007

The Brazilian National Institute for Space Research (INPE) is operating the Brazilian Environmental Data Collection System that currently amounts to a user community of around 100 organizations and more than 700 data collection platforms installed in Brazil. This system uses the SCD-1, SCD-2, and CBERS-2 low Earth orbit satellites to accomplish the data collection services. The main system applications are hydrology, meteorology, oceanography, water quality, and others. One of the functionalities offered by this system is the geographic localization of the data collection platforms by using Doppler shifts and a batch estimator based on least-squares technique. There is a growing demand to improve the quality of the geographical location of data collection platforms for animal tracking. This work presents an evaluation of the ionospheric and tropospheric effects on the Brazilian Environmental Data Collection System transmitter geographic location. Some models of the ionosphere and troposphere are presented to simulate their impacts and to evaluate performance of the platform location algorithm. The results of the Doppler shift measurements, using the SCD-2 satellite and the data collection platform (DCP) located in Cuiabá town, are presented and discussed.
The role of vegetation in microhabitat selection of syntopic lizards, Phrynocephalus persicus, Eremias pleskei, and Eremias strauchi from Armenia
Authors: Tadevosyan Tigran
Published: July 2007

Composition and density of vegetation are important habitat quality indicators for reptiles. The goal of this note was to determine dominant plant species, optimal size and density in habitats of syntopic lizards in the Goravan Sands Sanctuary. The role of vegetation variables was considered in relation to differences in thermoregulation of syntopic Phrynocephalus persicus, Eremias pleskei, and Eremias strauchi. Microhabitats of P. persicus differed from that of E. pleskei and of E. strauchi by a relatively frequent encounter of the plant Achillea tenuifolia, which is considered as potential habitat quality indicator. Phrynocephalus persicus generally used microhabitats with sparser vegetation. It is supposed that the excessive growth of shading vegetation can have a more negative impact on P. persicus than on E. pleskei.
Advances in methodologies of sexing and marking less dimorphic gekkonid lizards: the study case of the Moorish gecko, Tarentola mauritanica
Authors: Atzori Antonio , Berti Federica , Cencetti Tommaso , Fornasiero Sara , Tamburini Matteo , Zuffi Marco
Published: July 2007

Novelties in systems of sexing and marking less dimorphic species of gekkonid
lizards are described and first results are presented on the Moorish gecko,
Tarentola mauritanica, used as target and model species. Inspection of
cloacal opening and tail basis to detect hemipenes has been done with a
small probe and with laser light. Behavioural response to tail basis touch
was typical of adult males. Permanent marking has been performed along with
the removal of some subdigital scales. Sexing was suitable and feasible on
all individuals larger than 45 mm snout to vent length.
Fiscal Policy in Europe
Authors: Barrell Ray J , Gottschalk Sylvia
Published: July 2007

In the past twelve months the government budget situation in Germany has improved markedly, and the budget deficit has moved from 3.2 per cent of GDP in 2005 to 1.7 per cent in 2006, with further improvements in prospect. Over the same period in France, the budget deficit moved marginally from 3 per cent of GDP in 2005 to 2.5 per cent of GDP in 2006. The prospects for further improvement appear limited as the new government plans to cut taxes to stimulate the economy. Projections for budget deficits are very uncertain, as they are the difference between two large numbers (receipts and spending) that are difficult to predict accurately. Figures 1 and 2 plot the errors around our budget projections for France and Germany based on stochastic simulations on NiGEM. The 95 per cent confidence limit for our forecast one year ahead is around 1 per cent of GDP around our central forecast, and uncertainty increases into the future. As we can see from figures 3 and 4, our forecast errors for France and Germany have been well within the 95 per cent bands in the past three years, except for our one year ahead forecast for Germany for 2006. The budget improved by 1.5 per cent of GDP more than we had anticipated, and this appears to have been due to unexpectedly high tax receipts, rather than to changed policy.
Presenting symptoms and signs in children referred for palliative care in Malawi
Authors: Lavy Vicky
Published: July 2007

A study of 95 children referred for palliative care was carried out at Queen Elizabeth Central Hospital in southern Malawi, to determine the prevalence of different symptoms and signs. Seventy-seven percent of the children had HIV, 17% had cancer and 6% had a variety of other diagnoses. The commonest symptoms spontaneously presented by patients and carers were pain (27%) cough (22%) and diarrhoea (18%). Pain was significantly more common among children with cancer than those with HIV/AIDS. Cough, diarrhoea and mouth sores were significantly more common in those with HIV/AIDS. Many symptoms were not volunteered initially, but were revealed on direct questioning. This uncovered that 84% had a history of weight loss, 56% had fever and 51% had mouth sores. The commonest physical signs were wasting (76%), lymphadenopathy (40%) and oral candida (40%). Forty-seven percent of children with HIV had either lost their mother or had a mother who was sick. The wide range of physical symptoms and frequency of sickness or death in the children's mothers demonstrates the need for palliative care to be holistic, addressing the manifold physical, emotional and social problems associated with chronic and terminal illness. Palliative Medicine 2007; 21 : 333—339.
Palliative care in stroke: a critical review of the literature
Authors: Stevens T. , Payne SA , Burton C. , Addington-Hall J. , Jones A.
Published: July 2007

The aim of this literature review was to identify the palliative care needs of stroke patients. Stroke results in high levels of mortality and morbidity, yet very little is known about the nature and extent of palliative care services that are available to this patient group, and the ways in which such services could be delivered. A critical review of the international literature found only seven papers that attempted to identify the palliative care needs of patients diagnosed with stroke. The results of the review showed that the preferences of stroke patients and their families in relation to palliative care services are largely unknown. The review also indicated the paucity of data in regard to the distinction between provision of palliative care services for patients who die in the acute phase of stroke and for those patients who die later. Establishing reliable assessments of need are central to designing and implementing effective interventions and further research is required in this area. Further data on how the input of palliative care experts and expertise could be of benefit to patients, and the most effective ways these inputs could be targeted and delivered is required. Palliative Medicine 2007; 21: 323—331