bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Kazuo Okochi, 1976. A Short History of Japanese Translations of the Wealth of Nations
Authors: Sakamoto Tatsuya
Published: November 2023

Dr Hyoe Ohuchi, having completed his painstakingly complete version of WN for the former Iwanami Bunko [Iwanami Library] edition, wrote in deep-felt realization, “Smith should be mortal, but he is someone who dies hard/’ Although I have no idea about whether WN “should be mortal” the fact that its marvellous novelty is still kept alive for all the shortcomings and logical inconsistencies does suggest that Smith is something who dies hard. Naturally the novelty of WN can be observed in different meanings and with changing emphases through different historical periods. Nevertheless WN is not merely a classic work written by Adam Smith, the founder of political economy. Through two hundred years of history since its publication, WN has been constantly provocative and has never failed to direct readers’ attention to the fundamental mechanism underlying the superficial forms of economic life. Its attraction is so powerful that it seems as if it was born out of an immortal spirit.
Sons of the Female Spirit, Men of Steel
Authors: Clark Jeffrey
Published: November 2023

Wiru tell stories of cannibalistic ogres who have vegetation growing out of their man-like bodies, and of how a human being was created out of another hybrid beast, half-man, half-reptile. This creature possessed no anus and could not defecate until it was pushed into a pit filled with sharpened stakes, one of which punctured its backside, creating an anus, the ability to excrete, and a man at the same time.
The Second Generation of Learners’ Dictionaries
Authors: Cowie A P
Published: November 2023

The twenty-year period between the publication ofISED /ALD 1(1942) andALD 2(1963) was one in which A. S. Hornby achieved a unique status and authority in learner lexicography—a position that was to remain unchallenged for a further fifteen years. Harold Palmer’s involvement in dictionary-making had virtually ceased with the compilation of GEW—though hisEnglish-French Phraseological Dictionary(1943−4) showed that his interest in idioms and collocations was far from extinct after 1938—while Michael West—though subsequently involved in a number of dictionary schemes, including the radical recasting of NMED—never attempted to compile an advanced-level, general-purpose dictionary that could rivalALD.
Conclusions
Authors: huang Yan
Published: November 2023

In this book, I have provided an extensive overview of the major contemporary issues surrounding anaphora and given a critical survey of the many and diverse contemporary approaches to the study of anaphora. I have also developed a revised neo-Gricean pragmatic theory of anaphora. The survey and analysis are based on a rich collection of data drawn from around 550 of the world’s languages, which represent a variety of areal, genetic, and typological characteristics. The main contributions of this book, I think, are the following: first, the richness and complexity of anaphoric systems in the world’s languages are demonstrated; secondly, inadequacies of all current syntactic, semantic, and discourse approaches to the study of anaphora are pointed out; and thirdly, a revised neo-Gricean pragmatic theory of anaphora is constructed.
Prosice: A Spoken English Database for Prosody Research
Authors: Huckvale Mark , Fang Alex Chengyu
Published: November 2023

Prosody-the study of the intonation, stress, and rhythm of speech-is now assuming a greater importance in phonetics, phonology, and speech technology than ever before. Once regarded as subservient to studies of segmental structure, it is now being seen as providing the ‘framework’ which holds different levels of phonetic description together. The recent past has seen novel views of the phonology of intonation (e.g. Pierrehumbert, 1980), a new interest in prosodic phrase structure and prominence (e.g. Liberman and Prince, 1977) and the rise of autosegmental or non-linear accounts of phonetic description which integrate metrical structure with phonetic substance (e.g. Clements and Keyser, 1983). The role of prosody is also changing in speech synthesis and recognition. In speech synthesis, the success of concatenative systems-whereby recorded segments of speech are glued together to make novel utterances-has meant that the key issues have changed from segmental to supra-segmental quality (Klatt, 1987). In speech recognition the increasing emphasis on dialogue systems has meant more research is taking place into the automatic determination of prosodic structure for the purposes of utterance disambiguation (e.g. Wightman and Ostendorf, 1995).
Irish
Authors: Müller Nicole
Published: November 2023

The different VN clause types containing an overt P1 to be found in medieval Irish texts, and the structural similarities they bear to their Welsh counterparts, have been briefly introduced in Chapter 1 (Section 1.3.1, example (11) ). The most common types in a narrative context are vN+PPp1 and vN+GENp1 (see (ia) and (1b) ), the latter being, as in Welsh, restricted to use with intransitive VNs. More rarely encountered in narrative texts are P2+dovN+P1 and PHdovN( +P2) (see (1c) and (1d) ); these two structures are, however, very prominent in annalistic material (see Section 3.2.2).
Introduction and Background
Authors: Moon Rosamund
Published: November 2023

This is a text-based account of English fixed expressions and idioms. It sets out to describe the characteristics, behaviour, and usage of fixed expressions and idioms as observed in text, in particular in corpus text. My central contention is that such items can only be properly described and understood if they are considered together with the contexts in which they occur: I take it for granted that this should involve corpus evidence. I will report on the frequencies, forms, and functions of fixed expressions and idioms, drawing data from a database of several thousand such items, which I investigated by means of an 18 million-word corpus of contemporary English, the Oxford Hector Pilot Corpus. Discussions will be augmented as appropriate from other text sources, in particular The Bank of English. I will then explore use and function further, in order to ascertain the discoursal behaviour and roles of fixed expressions and idioms: this discussion will also centre on data from corpora and other texts.
Ambiguity, Polysemy, and Metaphor
Authors: Moon Rosamund
Published: November 2023

This chapter considers three aspects of the semantics of FEIs: ambiguity (and homonymy), polysemy, and metaphoricality. These are surface characteristics, in contrast with non-compositionality, which is one of the key properties of FEIs: see Section r.2.3, and, in relation to lexicalization, Section 2.3. I will not be looking at the specific meanings of FEIs, which are very much matters of the individual items. Much of the following discussion will concern metaphors, rather than FEIs in general.
Call in context I: a historical perspective
Authors: Levy Michael
Published: November 2023

Histories of computers and education, and CALL in particular have already been documented elsewhere. This historical review is more selective. It aims to pick out beginnings and significant developments in CALL by focusing on selected CALL projects representative of three time periods, the 1960s and 1970s, the 1980s, and the 1990s. The review aims to highlight the developments and the thinking of each period by introducing suitably representative CALL projects decade by decade. The historical perspective aims to identify some of the less variant qualities of CALL, and particular emphasis is placed on insights or developments made some years ago that still have contemporary relevance. In his recent article on the PLATO project, for instance, Hart describes the legacy of PLATO IV, the most recent incarnation of this ground-breaking educational computing project (1995).
Conceptualization I: the CALL literature
Authors: Levy Michael
Published: November 2023

What goes through a CALL author’s mind when contemplating the creation of new CALL materials and learning environments? Is the starting-point, a conception of how learners might benefit through communicating internationally, as with the International Email Tandem Network? Is the initial focus the creation of a resource that can be accessed and used from remote locations, as with the Oral Language Archive or is the point of departure a desire to meet specific learner needs outside and beyond normal class contact time? The points of departure vary enormously as does the path to implementation. Some advocate starting with a particular theoretical position, while others begin with curriculum specifications, or a recognized language-learning problem that appears amenable to a computer solution.
Conceptualization II: the CALL Survey
Authors: Levy Michael
Published: November 2023

Using the literature alone as a source of information for a description of CALL is, of itself, rather limited. In particular, information relating to the indicators is often fragmented. The indicators, it will be remembered, are the elements that are held to inform the key issues for understanding CALL’s conceptual frameworks. While for some CALL projects, descriptions in the literature and other documentary sources are detailed and comprehensive, in others the descriptions are only partial, and information on one or more of the indicators is incomplete or missing. To complement the findings from the literature, therefore, a detailed CALL Survey was undertaken. The CALL Survey is able to provide a catalogue of responses to specific questions that relate directly to the indicators that underpin conceptual frameworks.
Emerging themes and patterns of development
Authors: Levy Michael
Published: November 2023

When CALL is viewed as a whole, as a body of work, the diversity is remarkable. With no agreed agenda for research and development, with a sensitivity to local conditions, and with the flexibility of the computer, materials developers have conceptualized CALL in many ways, and they have drawn their theoretical base and practical orientation from many sources. As a result the points of departure are numerous. Moreover, the ways in which CALL authors conceptualize CALL are often complex and multifaceted. The initial conceptualization may undergo significant transformation as theoretical ambitions are reconciled with practical realities. Hard ware and software characteristics, for example, variously shape and form how the initial concept is transformed into a fully implemented CALL program.
A tutor-tool framework
Authors: Levy Michael
Published: November 2023

The tutor-tool framework is offered here as a mechanism for addressing a number of concerns in CALL, the most far-reaching being the belief that all CALL is of the tutorial type, characterized by one-to-one interactions where the computer evaluates the student input and then presents the new material accordingly. In my view, this assumption has obscured some very important issues, notably in the areas of methodology, learner training, integration and the curriculum, the roles of the teacher and the learner, and evaluation. My thesis is that an understanding of the tutor and tool roles of the computer can help to clarify these issues, whilst at the same time usefully highlighting aspects of CALL that are too often overlooked.
Reference within a discourse model
Authors: Cornish Francis
Published: November 2023

Chapters 2 and 4, in particular, have demonstrated the need for a conceptual representation of the context-determined sense and, where there is one, referent of a given indexical expression within a mental discourse model. Not only does the indexical expression-where it is not ‘bound’, a type of expression which is outside the purview of this book-not link up with some co-occurring textually explicit ‘antecedent’ expression, but such an expression may well not exist in the indexical’s textual environment at all. Whether or not this is the case, the indexical, in conjunction with the entire indexical segment, accesses a discourse representation bearing a focus level which conforms to its referential-semantic type. Such a discourse representation is not identical to the one introduced into the discourse by the explicit textual antecedent, where there is one: by the time it is re-accessed via an appropriate indexical, the intervening predication(s) which will have applied to that antecedent expression, where it is a nominal, will have modified that representation in certain specific ways. And the indexical segment as a whole will inevitably contribute a further specification to that representation once it has been integrated into its discourse context.
Aspectual Arguments: The Internal Roles
Authors: Ramchand Gillian Catriona
Published: November 2023

The results of the previous chapter seem to indicate that a certain class of objects (the strong structural case-marked ones in de Hoop’s (1992) sense) are true individuated arguments of the verb, while others (the weak structural case-marked ones) are merely predicate modifiers. Intuitively, what this seems to be saying is that some objects are ‘real’ objects, while others are merely ‘pseudo’-objects. But what can this mean from the point of view of verb-argument composition, given that both sorts of object must be able to discharge an argument position? What I would like to argue in this chapter is that ‘real’ or ‘strong’ objects have a relationship with the temporal trace of the verbal event that ‘weak’ or ‘pseudo’-objects do not.
Aspect And The Verbal Noun
Authors: Ramchand Gillian Catriona
Published: November 2023

In the last chapter, I argued for a semantic formalisation of the particular role types and verb types that we find in natural language, and in SGaelic in particular. In this chapter I look more closely at the relationship between this system of role types and the syntactic structures of SGaelic. In particular I will examine the role of the aspectual particles and the verbal noun in constructing predication.
Prototype Theory as a Scientific Paradigm
Authors: Geeraerts Dirk
Published: November 2023

IN an attempt to highlight the importance of background assumptions in scientific research, Thomas Kuhn (1962) introduced the notion of ‘paradigm’ into the philosophy of science: a paradigm is a set of assumptions, representational mechanisms, values, symbolic formats, and typical problems with exemplary solutions that together determine the research programme in a specific scientific field. In this chapter, I shall consider the questio11_ to what extent the application of prototype theory to diachronic semantics can be considered a paradigm in the Kuhnian sense. The analysis will proceed in two steps. First, it needs to be established that prototype theory does indeed constitute a set of assumptions that influences (if not determines) how the historical linguist sees things, and even what he is prepared to consider a linguistic fact. Second, the exact nature of this paradigm will have to be specified by comparing it with other conceptions of lexical semantics. This second step naturally leads to an investigation of the hermeneutic character of lexical semantics.
Language Choice
Authors: deuchar Margaret , Quay Suzanne
Published: November 2023

During the process oflanguage acquisition, children have to learn to use language appropriately. As their linguistic repertoire expands to the point where it con tains more than one variety or style (for monolinguals) and more than one lan guage (for bilinguals), the child needs to learn under what circumstances to choose one variety or language rather than another. The purpose of this chapter is to investigate how early a developing bilingual can choose between her two languages according to the demands of the context, and what appear to be the factors deter mining choice. Sociolinguistic studies of variation in adult speech (of which Labov 1972 is a classic example) have concentrated on the effect of the situation on an indi vidual’s choice between language varieties, and on how characteristics of the individual (for example, gender, social class) can affect their speech. However, Fishman (1965) had introduced participants (including hearer as well as situ ation) and topic as well as situation, and in more recent sociolinguistic research more attention is again paid to the effect of the interlocutor on an individual’s choice of variety. This attention is reflected, for example, in the work of Bell (1984), through his concept of’audience design’, which means that ‘speakers accommod ate primarily to their addressee’ (Bell 1984: 145). Investigation of the effect of the addressee or interlocutor on speech had in fact been a focus of accommodation theory in social psychology since the 1970s (see e.g. Giles et al. 1977; Giles and Smith 1979; and more recently Giles et al. 1991).
Centering in Italian
Authors: Eugenio Barbara Di
Published: November 2023

This chapter explores the correlation between centering and different forms of pronominal reference in Italian. in particular zeros and overt pronouns in subject position. In previous work (Di Eugenio 1990), I pro posed that such alternation could be explained in terms of centering transitions. In this chapter, I verify those hypotheses by means of a small corpus of naturally occurring data. In the process, I extend my previous analysis in several ways. for example by taking possessives into account: I also provide a more detailed analysis of CONTINUE: more specifically, I show that pronouns are used in a markedly different way in CONTINUES preceded by another CONTINUE or by a SHIFT, and in CONTINUES preceded by a RETAIN.
Centering, Global Focus, and Right-Dislocation
Authors: Grosz Barbara J , Ziv Yael
Published: November 2023

Centering has been proposed to fill the role of modeling the local level of attentional state within Grosz and Sidner’s ( 1986) model of discourse structure. In this chapter, we demonstrate that centering can also aid in explaining a particular syntactic structure, right dislocation. To do so, we propose a modification to the attentional state model that coordinates the global level of attentional state with centering. The chapter includes an analysis of right dislocation constructions in English and Hebrew.
Introduction
Authors: Johannessen Janne Bondi
Published: November 2023

In this book, a theory of coordination will be suggested in which the two most important components are the structure of the conjunction phrase (CoP) and the way the conjuncts are attached to the conjunction phrase by a generalized transformation (..coordinate-alpha”). Two kinds of coordination not previously discussed to any great extent in the literature win be presented-they strongly support the analysis put forward here. Most theories of coordination can handle the archetypical case where two categories of the same syntactic and semantic kind are coordinated. It is not in such simple cases, however, that we can evaluate different theories. Less straightforward types of coordination include, for example, non-constituentcoordination, gapping, and coordination of unlike syntactic categories. It is with respect to these and other such phenomena that theories differ.
The Conjunction Phrase
Authors: Johannessen Janne Bondi
Published: November 2023

In this chapter, we shall see how the UC and EBC data presented in Chapter 2 can be accounted for if we assume a theory of coordination which provides an internal structure for the conjunction phrase, following directly from X-bar theory. We shall see an outline of the CoP phrase and the important role of spec-head agreement. An account will be given of the correlation between CoP word order and word order in a language generally (Section 4.2). Unbalanced coordination is discussed with respect to coordination of different categories (Section 4.3), and ordinary and extraordinary balanced coordination are discussed-with the suggestion that ordinary balanced coordination is in fact the most complex type (Section 4.4).
Coordinate-Alpha
Authors: Johannessen Janne Bondi
Published: November 2023

Having seen the structural representation of conjunction phrases in Chapter 4, we are ready to consider how the conjuncts become attached to the CoP. It will be shown how a generalized transformation, coordinate alpha, takes two fu)]y projected CP structures and attaches them to the two positions in the CoP. Any two categories can in principle be coordinated, but the result-after possible deletion-must not violate the most general principles of X-bar structure (Section 5.2). Since the input components to coordinate-alpha are full CPs, we need a way that can reduce these components to smaller conjuncts such as DPs or Ps. A deletion approach is suggested, and other approaches in the literature are discussed (Section 5.3). Finally, evidence is presented in support of the idea that the coordinate-alpha components must be full CPs rather than smaller conjuncts. Some theories that do not share this assumption are also discussed (Section 5.4). A summary is given in 5.5.
Conclusion
Authors: Johannessen Janne Bondi
Published: November 2023

Both phenomena are more common in the languages of the world than has possibly been previously acknowledged: I have found 32 languages (from closely related to unrelated) in which UC occurs regularly. The direction of the unbalancedness correlates with the general direction of head-complement: out of 12 OV languages, 11 have the deviant UC conjunct in the first position; out of 14 VO languages, all have the deviant UC conjunct in the second position. Six languages have a word order which is mixed or unclear, and cannot be made subject to these generalizations.
Performance and Ethnohistory
Authors: Tsitsipis Lukas D
Published: November 2023

As already stated in the Introduction, the broader processes responsible for language shift and their structural outcomes do not give a complete picture of speakers’ competence and the ways in which their use of Arvanítika and Greek enters into their daily interactions. Structures of subordination and linguistic structures are articulated through practice at the local level (Hill 1990). Following Hill we must suspend our structuralist point of view and examine the actual use of bilingual resources by speakers in their discursive practice. The performance frame proves to be a rewarding analytic tool in the context of the present discussion.
Concluding Remarks on Ideology and Shift: Language Ideology as a Discursive and Reconstructible Phenomenon
Authors: Tsitsipis Lukas D
Published: November 2023

abstract

Since a major running theme of this book is linguistic praxis with a focus on ideological discourse my concluding remarks in this chapter should be taken as referring also to the basic points of the whole essay. Linguistic anthropologists employing Conversation Analysis and other approaches of microanalytic nature have concentrated on the links between cultural conditions, norms, and processes on the one hand, and the local management of culture as shows up in conversation on the other (Moerman 1988). In a similar spirit, scholars interested in ideology and the political economy of language suggest that we should view ways of speaking as parts of local responses to macrohistorical processes (Gal 1989b: 357). And regardless of how successful the workings of hegemony are — which depends on the specific relations of local communities with superordinate structures—ideology is a central property of discourse and social order. Particularly in Gramsci’s scheme (1971), as against orthodox Marxist readings, ideology figures prominently as a powerful factor in history. Even though the Gramscian theoretical point takes the relation between institutional structures—mainly the coercive and forceful apparatuses-and ideologies as remaining within the context of reciprocal action and dialectic, it inverts the relative priority of these superstructural domains, giving ideology a central role in the historical process contrary to authoritative Marxism (Bobbio 1988: 153-4).
The Metaphorical Use of Modal Verbs
Authors: Keller Rudi
Published: November 2023

Image systematicity increases the interpretability of the metaphorical technique. However, there also exist systematic relations which are not motivated by the speaker’s attempt to make things easier for the addressee, for the purpose of ensuring his, the speaker’s, communicative success. Similar problems often lead to similar solutions. Let us consider a simple example. The feeling that chili peppers create on the tongue is called hot in English, scharf in German, and in Spanish, picante (the present participle of picar ‘prick’). Chili is hot and burns, ist scharf und brennt, es picante y pica. Though these three languages use different images, there is one thing they all have in common. All use the concept of physical wounds: burns, cuts and pricks. (Interestingly, German-in contrast to English and Spanish-combines two different sorts of conceptual images: “sharp” things “burn” the tongue, rather than “cutting” it (schneiden).) With burning, cutting and pricking, the external phenomena suitable to be used as associative impulses for the metaphorical denotation of the internal taste sensation in question are, I think, pretty much exhausted.
Eighteenth-Century English: The ‘Cinderella’ of English Historical Linguistics?
Authors: Beal Joan C
Published: November 2023

The scholarly neglect of the Later Modern English (LNE) period has led Charles Jones (1989: 279) to describe the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries as ‘the Cinderellas of English historical linguistic study”. A glance at the available textbooks for undergraduate courses alone would appear to confirm Jones’s judgement: Görlach (1988: 211) refers to the study of Early Modern English variation as ‘the Cinderella of English historical linguistics’ and notes ‘the neglect of the Early Modern English period’, but his own (1991) textbook, along with other useful works such as Ronberg (1992), have done much to remedy the situation. Where LNE is concerned, no such general textbook exists: Partridge (1969) pays much more attention to the Tudor than to the Augustan English of his title and, whilst Richard Bailey (1996) has provided a long-needed guide to the English of the nineteenth century, there is, at the time of writing, still not a single textbook suitable for an undergraduate course on eighteenth-century English.
Conclusion
Authors: Beal Joan C
Published: November 2023

We saw in Chapter 2 that if the eighteenth century is one of ‘the Cinderellas of English historical linguistic study’ (Charles Jones 1989: 279), then phonology is the Cinderella of eighteenth-century studies, and Spence is the Cinderella of eighteenth-century phonology. I hope that the detailed study in Chapter 5 of information from Spence’s Grand Repository and other eighteenth-century pronouncing dictionaries has been enough to show that such scholarly neglect is unjustified and, in particular, that Dobson’s dismissive remark about eighteenth-century orthoepists (quoted in §3.2.2) is misconceived. C. Jones (1993: 96) suggests that one explanation for ‘this state of affairs is ‘the still resonant perception of the period as normative and prescriptive, negative characteristics which have somehow come to imply at worst a lack of reliability in the accounts of contemporary observers’. yet we have seen that even the arch-prescriptivist Walker deserves far more credit than he is given by the likes of Sheldon for the acuteness of his observations. Even where Walker condemns a proscribed pronunciation such as ‘h-dropping’, his remarks provide valuable information concerning the sociolinguistic situation in late-eighteenth-century Britam. Instead of ignoring these pronouncing dictionaries because they offend our late-twentieth-century sense of political correctness, we should, like Crowley (1991), pay attention to them, not least for the window they provide onto the socio-political significance of linguistic issues in the eighteenth century.
Corpus-Based Analysis of Evaluative Lexis
Authors: Channell Joanna
Published: November 2023

This chapter presents examples of words and phrases (such as fat, par for the course, and right-on) which have connotations of positive or negative evaluation. Channell uses concordance lines from the Bank of English corpus to show how these connotations come about. Concordance lines bring together many instances of a given word from many sources, allowing us to observe the typical contexts of that word, in particular, the other words that it most usually occurs with. Channell demonstrates the importance of this collocational information and uses it to provide evidence for connotations that the reader may not have been aware of previously.
Introduction
Authors: Zampolli A
Published: November 2023

This book was planned as a follow-up to the fifth Pisa International Summer School on Computational Lexicology and Lexicography, organized in 1988 by the group of researchers working in Pisa in the field of computational linguistics (henceforth CL), in the University and in the Institute of Computational Linguistics of the National Research Council (CNR). The 1988 Summer School was sponsored by the European Science Foundation (ESF), a European Association of fifty-nine member research councils and academies in twenty-one countries.
The Lexicographical Workstation and the Scholarly Dictionary
Authors: Weiner Edmund
Published: November 2023

In a simpler age, definitions of different kinds of dictionary were not needed. The Victorians who founded what became the Oxford English Dictionary did not set out to compile a scholarly dictionary in contradistinction to a desk, or a concise, or a collegiate dictionary. They merely planned a much more complete record of the English vocabulary than those that then existed, so that English literature of any age might be read and understood by all. But English scholarship grew up, and lexicography grew with it, inevitably parting company with the man and woman in the street. The kind of technical knowledge required to use the OED and its relatives ceased to be the kind of knowledge required and pursued by the average person, even as the size of the dictionary pushed its price beyond what they could afford.
A
Authors: Beaton K B
Published: November 2023

The first meaning of accept is ‘to take or receive sth. when offered’. The obj. can be something tangible, a gift, money, etc., a job, a scholarship, a position, help, an invitation, or something intangible like hospitality. Accept and RECENE are interchangeable in some contexts. Applications will be accepted/received until 31 October. The equivalent is entgegennehmen, a partial syn. of annehmen. Entgegennehmen needs an obj. In one use it occurs with ns. such as eine Postsendung or ein Brief which in everyday language are found with annehmen. In such a context the only difference is that entgegennehmen is more formal. It is sometimes met with in official, legal, and commercial language.
D
Authors: Beaton K B
Published: November 2023

Damage means ‘to harm or spoil sth. so that it does not work properly or is not in as good a condition as it originally was’. The car was damaged in the accident .The main equivalent beschadigen is applied only to things in normal use. Only in bureaucratic language does die Kriegsbeschiidigten refer to people who suffered injuries or whose health was impaired by the war; the disabled whose working capacity was diminished by more than half used to be called schwerbeschiidigt, but this has been replaced by schwerbehindert.
L
Authors: Beaton K B
Published: November 2023

lack, be absent or missing vs. Lack varies in meaning between ‘have too lit¬ tle of or be deficient in’ and ‘be without or not to have at all’. In He is lacking in courage and They lacked the experience necessary for this work, it would normally be understood as implying a deficiency, whereas in Gennan lacks a continuous tense and The soil lacked the necessary nutrients, it suggests complete absence.
M
Authors: Beaton K B
Published: November 2023

make, get, have vs. Some senses of cause and let vs. Most of this article deals with the equivalents of some closely related E. constructions containing these words. (i) Make + obj. + infin. without to. The sudden noise made me jump. They made me repeat the story. For the equivalents cf. 1. Can you make the fire bum? Cf. 5. John made us laugh. Cf. 8. iii. (ii) Get+ obj. + infin. with to. I got Tom to give me the number. Cf. 3. I can’t get the wheel to move. Cf. 5. (iii) Get+ obj. + past part. I must get my hair cut/my shoes mended. Cf. 2. (iv) Have+ obj.+ past part. I’ve had the car seen to. I’ll have the text translated. Cf. 2. (v) Have+ obj.+ infin. without to. I’ll have the plumber replace the pipe. Cf. 3.
P
Authors: Beaton K B
Published: November 2023

In reference to something which is not a part of the body, such as The wound was painful or It was painful to admit I was wrong, painful has two equivalents schmerzhaft and schmerzlich. The general distinction is that schmerzhaft refers to bodily pain and schmerzlich to mental pain, grief, sadness, anxiety, regret, etc. Thus eine schmerzhafte Wunde, ein schmerzhafter Sonnenbrand, and eine schmerzliche Erinnerung. Sie erlitten einen schmerzlichen Verlust. If followed, this distinction will always produce correct G. However, schmerzhaft is sometimes used for mental pain.
Q
Authors: Beaton K B
Published: November 2023

Quality means ‘the degree of goodness or worth’. We check the quality of the products. A further meaning ‘a high degree of goodness, i.e. excellence’ can be expressed by adding high, but quality can have this sense without high being stated. Merchandise of quality. The equivalent, die Qualitat, tends to be neutral, and the different degrees are expressed by adjs. such as die hohe, ausgezeichnete, or minderwertige Qualitiit eines Produktes. It sometimes suggests excellence. Qualitiitserzeugnisse means ‘products of high quality’.
R
Authors: Beaton K B
Published: November 2023

Raise means ‘to move from a low[er] to a high[er] level’. It is used for parts of the body, I raise my handfhead/eyes, and things, S.o. raises a glass/a barrier/a lidfhis hat/a sunken ship/the curtain. Lift means ‘to move to a higher level or position’, usually with the hands and arms, and often from the ground or floor. The crane lifts ten tons. He lifted the child out of a cot. I lifted the bag on to the lorry. Pick up means ‘to lift from the floor or ground’ something that either has its normal position there or has fallen. She picked up the bucket/the coin. Lift expresses the ability or inability to take something up. I can/can’t lift it. It’s very heavy-can you lift it? .
T
Authors: Beaton K B
Published: November 2023

take v. Take has a wide range of meaning. The OED lists i-vi as the main senses: The oldest is ‘to get hold of or capture’. They took two prisoners. The anny has taken the town. It is applied fig. also to diseases and feelings. She was taken ill. He bought a vase that had taken his fancy. (ii) In its principal sense take denotes the action by which people take something into their hands, He took the money and left, but it has developed uses in which this meaning is hardly apparent, They took the house for six months. A train, bus, road, or course can be the obj. I’ll take a taxi. (iii) It also means ‘to use, use up, or consume’ mostly time, but also material, energy, and space.
W
Authors: Beaton K B
Published: November 2023

Warten denotes a state of waiting. It is used without a prep., Ich habe drei Stunden gewartet, and with auf = ‘for’. Ich warte auf den Bus. Ich warte vor dem Kino auf dich. The in. following auf can denote something of a non-concrete nature.With an obj. abwarten means ‘to wait until sth. happens or arrives’. Ich warte auf eine Antwort auf meinen Brief indicates general waiting and is translated as I am waiting for . . . In Ich warte die Antwort auf meinen Brief ab, bevor ich weitere Schritte untemehme, the second action is made dependent on the first, so that it means I’ll wait for the answer to arrive, before ... or I won’t take further action till the answer arrives. Ich warte auf eine giinstige Gelegenheit, I’m waiting for an opportunity to arise. Ich warte eine giinstige Gelegenheit ab, um es ihm zu erziihlen is very similar but suggests the person will not say anything until a favourable opportunity arises or will wait until one does present itself. Some pedestrian traffic lights carry the notice:
The Loss of Case Marking
Authors: Allen Cynthia L
Published: November 2023

The loss of case-marking distinctions in English has generally been seen as responsible for profound changes in the language. In particular, the changes in grammatical relations which we will look at in the following chapters are frequently assumed to have resulted directly from the syncretism of the cases. Let us briefly review here the changes which are thought to have affected the experiencer verbs and the passives of verbs which governed a dative object in OE. One change which is frequently regarded as important in the loss of the ‘impersonal’ constructions is the syncretism between nominative and dative nominal case. The idea here is that in OE the distinctive dative case marking of pam cyninge in a phrase like pam cyninge ofhreowep made it quite clear that of hreowan was an ‘impersonal’ verb, but once dative case marking had disappeared from the nominal paradigm, it was impossible for language-learners to be certain whether the king was to be analysed as an (indirect) object, as earlier, or as a subject.
Areal and Lexical Diffusion of Sound Change: Evidence from Dravidian
Authors: Krishnamurti Bhadriraju , Emeneau Murray B
Published: November 2023

Telugu, Gondi, Konda, Kui, Kuvi, Pengo, and Manda. With the help of a computer analysis of relevant etymologies, it has been shown that apical displacement affected less than a dozen items at a common stage of the above subgroup. The rules gradually spread to the rest of the lexicon over the following two millennia, and the change is still in progress in some languages of this subgroup.
Theory, Description, and What Keeps Linguistics from Becoming a Science
Authors: Bailey Charles-James N
Published: November 2023

I This writing has a twofold purpose: one is to bring together in summary form ideas that have been presented at various times in diverse writings, not without slight changes arising out of the natural growth of ideas. The second purpose, which is the goal that the first serves as means to end, is to address certain fundamental issues underlying disagreements among today’s linguists over how to proceed in the investigation of human language. I hope to be able to show that some positions are inconsistent with their own goals, and that the position advocated here is at least free of this charge. I may be entirely wrong in what I assert here, but it would still be worthwhile making the assertions if that should prove conducive to a discussion of the fundamental issues I plan to expound. So-called ‘formal explanations’ in generative linguistics aside, the number of explanations to be found in ‘minilectal’ approaches to linguistic analysis-those like structuralism and transformationalism, which posit idiolects as the only proper object of linguistic analysis-is embarrassingly close to nil. If explanations are wanting, it follows that an explanatory-predictive theory must also be wanting. As for predicting, transformationalists can make predictions about still unknown data within the same minilect; but predicting future systems or developments of a given system would carry them outside their defined object of analysis-the idiolect.
What Grammarians Haven’t Been Doing Right or Unriddling Analytical Paradoxes
Authors: Bailey Charles-James N
Published: November 2023

The quite opposed forces of 1a. We shall return (resolve)and lb. Shall we return? (a mild suggestion)are suggestive of much more startling reversals in marked categories and environments to be presented later. An inquiring and systematic mind will look for an explanation of this and other reversals—e.g. why unmarked tag questions reverse the negativity of the inflected verb in the pre-tag. Until W. Mayerthaler’s (1980; 1981; etc.) ground-breaking theory predicting reversals in marked categories and environments, it was not realized that reversals are general and systematic. A marked category in an unmarked environment is unmarked in a marked environment; and vice versa. Double reversals (yielding what look like unreversed phenomena) occur not only in overmarked categories and environments but also when a marked environment and a category which (in it) is marked come together in a form.
Epilogue on Historical Linguistics
Authors: Bailey Charles-James N
Published: November 2023

I Much that has been learned about the development and analysis of languages in the past two decades or so has been ignored by traditional historical-comparative linguistics, much to the detriment of the discipline. Besides the self-evident philistinism of this, and besides the undefended and indefensible use in comparative analysis of minilectal, or synchronic-idiolectal (anticom-parative), models—often subsequently to their having been discarded even in synchronic-idiolectal analysis-there is also the exclusive use, by more than a few, of purely surficial phenomena to establish language relationships. By surficial phenomena, I mean phonemes (all are idiolectal), word order with or with out case-marker(ing)s, and the like. Of course, no one would wish to underrate the significance of Greenberg’s word-order implicationalities. (Indeed, they are what make postpositions natural in OV-clauses-namely English WR-clauses like one who I spoke to and not one of which did she ever account for.) But genetic relationships are proved by unborrowable deep similarities.
On the Mathematics of Language
Authors: Harris Zellig
Published: November 2023

As was noted in 1.2, there are reasons to expect language to have a mathematical structure. One is that if new words entering language are to fit into the existing system of word combinations, the existing words have to be characterized by their combining-relation to each other rather than by any individual properties: the new word may have a kind of meaning or of phonemic composition different from the existing words, but it will have to fit into one or another of the kinds of word combination which make sentences. Another reason is that in the absence of an external metalanguage (2.1), the elements of language can only be identified by their departures from equiprobability, which is the kind of property that can be studied mathematically (differently from meaning or phonemic composition). A third reason is that the speakers of a language, who have limited (though generalizable) public experiences of recognizing speech entities and their combination, can understand an unbounded number of sentences (more than are ever actually said), since there is no structurally relevant specifiable upper bound to the length of a sentence: hence there must be some constructive or recursive characterization of sentences.
Sub languages
Authors: Harris Zellig
Published: November 2023

Certain proper subsets of the sentences of a language may be closed under some or all of the operations defined for the language. That is, carrying out a grammatical operation on a sentence of that subset yields another sentence of the same subset. Such subsets constitute a sublanguage of the language, because they satisfy the grammar without involving any sentence that is outside the subset. It will be seen that the structures of these sublanguages have important new properties of their own, and also throw further light on the structure of language as a whole.
Semantic Opposition: Systemic versus Non-Systemic
Authors: Mettinger Arthur
Published: November 2023

Among the pairs of opposites established on the basis of syntagmatic contrast in 2.3 we find, among others, the following cases: (1) He’d been madly in love with Veronica but it wouldn’t have done. Veronica would have swallowed him body and soul. (TH,25) (2) I wish she would explain it to me, he thought wrily, gazing into another mirror, I’m damned if I can make head or tail ofit. (CP,170) (3) Do you think the old saying is true—about you’re born to be hanged or born to be drowned? (HP,87)(4) It was indeed, he thought, a perfect marriage of Nature and Civilization, this view, where one might take in at a glance the consummation of man’s technological skill and the finest splendours of the natural world. (CP, 56) (5) Unable to decide on the relative accuracy of the oral and rectal methods of taking her temperature, Barbara had decided to employ both. (TBMIFD,10) (6) Caroline dissented. She said that if the man was a hair-dresser, he would have wavy hair, not straight. All hair-dressers did. (MRA., 19) (7) She drew out from her handbag the letter she had received that morning from Lady Tamplin. Katherine was no fool. She understood the nuancesof that letter as well as anybody and the reason of Lady Tamplin’s show of affection towards a long-forgotten cousin was not lost upon her. It was for profit and not for pleasure that Lady Tamplin was so anxious for the company of her dear cousin.
Oppositeness of Meaning: Basic Assumptions
Authors: Mettinger Arthur
Published: November 2023

In this chapter pairs of systemic opposites, i.e. those that constitute semantic micro-fields, share the same archisememe, and differ along one semantic dimension, will be looked at in greater detail.1 I do not, however, wish to establish a typology of systemic opposites; the main objective of the remainder of this study is to describe and explain the semantic relations obtaining between the members of a pair of systemic opposites in terms of semantic dimensions and semantic features, or rather, feature-relations. In doing this, I have found it advisable to confine myself to the study of cases of complementarity (male—femafe, existence—inexistence, affirm—negate),antonymy (heavy—light, beautiful—ugly, curiosity—incuriosity, love—hate),and gradable complementarity (certain—uncertain, content—discontent, innocent—guilty, sound—silence),not only because the majority of opposites found in the Roget’s Thesauruscorpus belong to these groups/ but also because these types of opposites can be regarded as prototypical instances of systemic semantic opposition. Apart from this, antonymy, complementarity, and gradable complementarity share one common criterion, viz. gradability, which can, as will be shown presently, serve as the point of departure for the investigation of the semantic properties characterizing pairs of antonyms, complementaries, and gradable complementaries. I will therefore concentrate on this group of “central oppositeness of meaning”; the discussion of basic assumptions concerning central oppositeness of meaning in this chapter depends on, and is supplemented by, the analyses given in Chapter 5.
Approaches to Language Typology: A Conspectus
Authors: Shibatani Masa Yoshi , Bynon Theodora
Published: November 2023

The schools of language typology represented in this volume are all current and active. What unites them is a common goal and a shared scholarly tradition. They have all developed theoretical frameworks within which to account for the particular aspect of cross-linguistic variation they have selected to study, and they all have their roots in a shared European tradition of scholarship.
Language Contact and the Bislama Lexicon
Authors: Crowley Terry
Published: November 2023

The vocabulary of modern Bislama is currently growing rapidly, largely with English as a source for borrowings. Thus, words and expressions like teroris ‘terrorist’, rebol ‘rebel’, speseli ‘especially’, and long bihaf blong ‘on behalf of are now commonly heard on the radio and in formal meetings. Considerable semantic expansion is also taking place, with existing words coming to refer to new concepts, especially in colloquial registers of the language. For instance, the word kale until five or six years ago meant ‘to wedge, chock up’, but it now also refers to the practice of having a beer after a few shells of kava to heighten the effect. Existing words are also combined according to productive patterns in the language to refer to new concepts. For instance, the following words and expressions are now frequently heard over the radio: roket-bom ‘missile’ and bigfala toktok insaed long nius ‘news headlines’.