bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Variation in Classifier Languages
Authors: Jiang Li Julie
Published: November 2020

Chapter 5 develops a uniform account of bare nominal arguments (i.e., bare numeral classifier phrases, bare classifier phrases, bare nouns) in classifier languages. It achieves that by extending the scope of discussion to more classifier languages. It starts with three points on which Mandarin and Nuosu Yi differ and which make this comparison interesting from the perspective of building a theory of cross-linguistic variation. Their differences are: (i) whether or not they have the function category D in their grammar, (ii) whether or not they freely allow numeral-less classifier phrases to appear in argument positions, as a result of applying covert argument formation operations unrestrictedly, and (iii) whether or not they allow one-deletion from the [one Cl N] phrase in the PF. Three parameters based on these differences account for the variation.
Conclusion
Authors: Jiang Li Julie
Published: November 2020

Chapter 7 summarizes the major claims of this work and offers avenues for future research. The five claims are (i) bare numeral containing phrases have identical D-less structures in classifier and number marking languages; (ii) for classifier languages, it is not necessary to assume a functional category D to account for nominal arguments; (iii) the Universal DP Hypothesis is inadequate to account for cross-linguistic variation and makes different predications about classifier languages than those in this book; (iv) article determiners in classifier languages are expected; and (v) language variation is due primarily to four factors (outlined in the book).
It’s a Thin Line between Love and Hate
Authors: Brogaard Berit
Published: November 2020

We expect a lot from strangers, for instance, that the valet guy doesn’t steal our wheels, that the babysitter doesn’t abduct our children, and that the barista at Starbucks doesn’t poison our white chocolate mocha. But romantic relationships, friendships, parent-child relationships, and other varieties of intimate relationships introduce a whole new dimension to what we expect and demand of each other. It’s against the backdrop of our intimate relationships that we sign prenups, make custody agreements, write wills, and open joint bank accounts. But most of our interactions in intimate settings are shaped not by contractual agreements but by our preferences, core values, and prior expectations about how other people should behave. No wonder people embark on relationships with clashing concepts of what count as oversights, slights, betrayals, and unforgivable sins. Our differing expectations, preferences, and core values create ample opportunities for misunderstandings to arise and wreak havoc. It is not surprising, then, that antagonistic emotions, such as disrespect, resentment, hate, and contempt, are commonplace in intimate settings. But, as we will see, they are not equally toxic. Our intimate relationships can survive the torments of hate and resentment, but they crumple under the weight of disrespect and contempt.
Urdu Lithography as a Muslim Technology
Authors: Robb Megan Eaton
Published: November 2020

Scholarship on the lithographic press has focused primarily on books—in particular, on the print traditions emanating from large cities like Lucknow. While printers used lithography to make books look more like manuscripts, Urdu newspaper publishers used lithography to make newspapers look like the mass-produced correspondence that had previously bound together ashrāf social networks. Madīnah not only was an example of commercial publishing but also deserves consideration as a manifestation of piety. Journalism was a farẓ or duty understood in religious terms by the proprietor and editors of Madīnah. The example of Madīnah suggests that we must consider this potential dimension of other Urdu newspapers as well.
Afterword
Authors: Embree Ainslie T.
Published: November 2020

A short summary conclusion that also brings the issue of border disputes up to the recent present.
Conclusion
Authors: Jha Himanshu
Published: November 2020

This chapter draws upon the evidence presented in the book and provides four broad conceptual points. First, it argues that the institutional change is a result of an incremental, slow-moving process of ‘ideas’ emerging endogenously from within the state resulting in a ‘tipping point’. Second, it points towards the role of ideas within the state. Third, it shows the complementarity of the State and society and stresses on the significance of an epistemic network. Fourth, the influence of global norms is acknowledged but needs to be seen in conjunction with the endogenous socio-political processes at the domestic level. These arguments tie the chapters together conceptually and provide a roadmap for future research on the subject.
The Onset of the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict, 1917–47
Authors: Slater Jerome
Published: November 2020

This chapter describes the onset of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict in the 1917–47 period. It argues that the word “tragedy” is typically overused in descriptions of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, for it implies a false symmetry between the Zionist and Palestinian narratives, when in fact, the Palestinian narrative is much closer to the historical truth. However, it is more persuasive to describe the origins of the conflict as a genuine tragedy: two national movements, two peoples, both having legitimate but irreconcilable claims over the Land of Palestine. Among the topics examined are the onset of the conflict; Zionist “transfer” policies; the development of Palestinian resistance and the subsequent expulsion of the Palestinians; and the ongoing impact of the “Iron Wall” concept in Zionist and Israeli policies.
Lost Opportunities for Peace, 1949–56
Authors: Slater Jerome
Published: November 2020

One of the most enduring but erroneous Israeli myths that has also been accepted by the outside world is the view that until recently most of the Arab states as well as the Palestinians refused to recognize the existence of Israel, rejected all compromise, and sought its destruction. By contrast, it is said, Israel has always been ready and willing to negotiate peace settlements; remember Abba Eban’s famous epigram, “The Arabs never miss an opportunity to miss an opportunity.” In fact, the historical record demonstrates that Israel has been primarily responsible for the many lost opportunities for peace from 1947 through the present. At one time or another, all the important Arab states and the most important Palestinian leaders have been ready to agree to compromise settlements of all the central issues: the legitimate territory and boundaries of Israel, a Palestinian state, the status of Jerusalem, and the refugee issue.
Health
Authors: Shandler Jeffrey
Published: November 2020

This chapter examines how Yiddish has been repeatedly pathologized, both by people outside the Jewish community and by some Jews. The earliest efforts to study the language, undertaken by Christian humanists, viewed it as a deviant form of German and as emblematic of Jews’ social and moral unhealthiness. This perspective was shared by some Jews, who numbered among the most ardent opponents of Yiddish as advocates of the Haskalah, Hebraism, or Zionism. The derision of Yiddish as disabled also inspired Yiddishists’ efforts to standardize and legitimize the language in keeping with the normative model of mainstream European languages.
Literacy
Authors: Shandler Jeffrey
Published: November 2020

This chapter examines the role of print publications in Yiddish, beginning in the sixteenth century. Print stabilized Yiddish and also endowed it with an elasticity that was unprecedented in diaspora Jewish vernaculars, enabling it to traverse all of northern Europe. As a largely market-driven phenomenon, Yiddish eventually became an international language read by millions. Its print culture ran the gamut of Jewish ideologies and extended across the spectrum of high and low culture. The place of Yiddish in the shifting constellation of languages engaged by Ashkenazim is reflected in translations into and out of Yiddish, as well as in multilingual texts.
Political Affiliation
Authors: Shandler Jeffrey
Published: November 2020

This chapter examines the role that Yiddish played, beginning in the late nineteenth century, in many Jews’ participation in progressive politics, including trade unionism, socialism, anarchism, labor Zionism, and communism. The Yiddishism engendered by various political movements became, for some Jews, an ideological end in itself. Their commitment to maintaining and transforming the language has served as a definitional practice of Jewish solidarity. In the post–World War II era, Yiddish has been implicated in new political uses by Hasidim, by new generations of progressive Jews, and by non-Jews in Europe engaged in coming to terms with the destruction of European Jewry.
Solidarity as a Relational Ideal
Authors: Olson Kristi A.
Published: November 2020

Chapter 4 argues that impersonal envy-free labor-income bundles can be derived from a relational ideal. The chapter begins by introducing Elizabeth Anderson’s and Samuel Scheffler’s distinction between relational and distributive egalitarianism. The chapter then proposes the following mutual justifiability requirement: when someone claims that her bundle should be sweetened at someone else’s expense, she must be able to give a reason that an individual standing in the shoes of a free and equal individual who regards everyone else as free and equal could not reasonably reject. Call this the solidarity solution. The chapter concludes by showing that the solidarity solution requires impersonal envy-free labor-income bundles.
Dworkin’s Hypothetical Underemployment Insurance
Authors: Olson Kristi A.
Published: November 2020

Chapter 5 explains and then rejects Ronald Dworkin’s hypothetical underemployment insurance scheme and the family of views—commonly dubbed luck egalitarianism—it inspired. This chapter argues that Dworkin and his followers were motivated in large part by the idea that it is not unfair for those who work harder to receive more pay. Yet as the chapter shows, Dworkin’s insurance scheme cannot accommodate this intuition, and a similar problem infects the views of Dworkin’s followers. In order to accommodate the intuition, their accounts must be supplemented, and once so supplemented, choice no longer plays a justificatory role. Thus, luck egalitarians must choose: either choice justifies income inequalities but the hard-work intuition cannot be accommodated, or else the hard-work intuition can be accommodated but choice does not justify income inequalities.
Sino-American Competition in Southeast Asia
Authors: Shambaugh David
Published: November 2020

This chapter provides an overview of the competition between the United States and People’s Republic of China, particularly in one geo-strategically important part of the world: Southeast Asia. Both scholarly analyses and public opinion polls indicate that the Sino-American competition in the region is intensifying. This book examines the competition broadly, their respective capabilities more narrowly, and assesses the relative balance of power between the two. However, some cautionary caveats are in order at the outset. First, the US-China competition is not merely dyadic, as if no other actors matter. Quite to the contrary, the superpower competition is ameliorated and adjudicated by the ten member states of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Indeed, ASEAN states have a long history of protecting their independence and warding off interference and great power competition. The second caveat flows from the first. Thus far, the US-China competition is not (yet) a Cold War–style one. With these two caveats, the chapter presents several principal findings. It also considers the importance of Southeast Asia.
Sino-American Competition in Southeast Asia
Authors: Shambaugh David
Published: November 2020

This chapter explains that the global competition between the United States and China is increasingly centered in Southeast Asia, and the region will be considerably impacted by the US-China rivalry—much more than most ASEAN states recognize or care to admit. The Sino-American rivalry in Southeast Asia is thus going to be an epic challenge for regional governments (and ASEAN itself) to maneuver effectively between the two major powers, maintain their independence of action, and protect their national sovereignty. The chapter then looks at the spectrum of ASEAN states’ relations with the United States and China. It also studies how both major powers bring certain comparative advantages and disadvantages to their interactions with different Southeast Asian countries. While the Sino-American competition in Southeast Asia is increasingly and comprehensively competitive, it remains fluid and can develop differently in the future. The chapter concludes by assessing the future of the region’s ties with the major powers, considering four distinct possibilities.
Race-Gender Policy Leadership
Authors: Reingold Beth
Published: November 2020

Chapter 4 presents a different conception of group-interested representational activity: race-gender policy leadership, or sponsoring legislation that addresses issues of race and gender, the interests of women and racial/ethnic minorities, or the interests of intersectionally disadvantaged subgroups of women and minorities, such as poor women of color. Employing this more intersectionally capacious definition of substantive representation offers additional insight into the distinctive policy leadership of women of color. Further analysis of bill sponsorship patterns in 15 state houses across two decades reveals that women of color are more likely than any other race-gender group of legislators to engage in two forms of race-gender policy leadership. Latinas are most likely to sponsor “one of each”—at least one women’s interest bill and one minority interest bill. Black women are most likely to sponsor “welfare/poverty” bills that address the interests of low-income individuals and communities subject to multiple, intersecting disadvantages.
Introduction
Authors: Baragwanath Nicholas
Published: November 2020

The chapter gives an overview of the main discoveries of the research and a summary of the book containing brief discussions of solfeggio manuscripts, apprenticeships, eighteenth-century solmization, plainchant and score-reading, vocalization and embellishment, melodic structure and form, and the importance of practice rather than theory. The procedure of re-creating the lessons contained in the old manuscripts, and the insights into the pedagogical system they embodied, are discussed. The pre-industrial method of learning to make music—to improvise or compose—is compared to the classroom model adopted by later institutions and still in use today. It relied on informal music learning practices that developed creative skills through listening and copying. The chapter concludes by suggesting potential applications of the historical method to contemporary music pedagogy, performance, composition, and musicianship.
The Virtues of Vulnerability
Authors: Rushing Sara
Published: November 2020

There are many locations, relationships, and experiences through which we learn what it means to be a citizen. Contemporary healthcare—or “the clinic”—is one of those sites. Being drawn into the complex “medical-legal-policy-insurance nexus” as a patient entails all sorts of learning, including, it is argued here, political learning. When we are subjected as a patient, frequently through a discourse of “choice and control,” or “patient autonomy,” what do we learn? What happens when the promise of a certain kind of autonomy is accompanied by demands for a certain kind of humility? What do we learn about agency and self-determination, as well as trust, self-knowledge, dependence, and resistance under such conditions of acute vulnerability? This book explores these questions on a journey through medicalized encounters with giving birth, navigating death and dying, and seeking treatment for life-altering mental illness (here post-traumatic stress disorder among veterans). While the body has always posed a problem for Western thought, and has been treated as an obstacle to freedom and independence and something our rational capacity must master and control, this book aims to counter that intellectual-historical and political tendency by asking how we might reimagine the political potential of embodiment, or make space for considering “the virtues of vulnerability.” In particular, the book offers a novel conception of democratic citizen-subjectivity, grounded in an ethical disposition of humility-informed-relational-autonomy.
Beyond Monks and Mushrooms
Authors: Rushing Sara
Published: November 2020

This chapter lays the intellectual-historical groundwork for thinking about the “virtues of vulnerability,” by mapping the concept of humility inherited in Western thought from Christianity, and the concept of autonomy inherited from liberalism. After detailing what these inherited concepts are, it argues that they are problematic from the perspective of embodied agency and citizenship-subjectivity, and develops alternative versions that bolster, not undermine, democratic practice. Confucian political theory provides a nontheological but deeply relational conception of humility, including concrete practices for cultivating a distinctly political ethic that is not about lowliness, self-denial, or subordination to authority. Feminist philosophy’s concept of “relational autonomy” provides an account of autonomy as an ongoing process that requires supportive social conditions and networks of relations, not mere non-interference. Bringing these traditions together, this chapter develops the conceptual framework and political vocabulary of the project, and begins to flesh out an important new concept of humility-informed-relational-autonomy.
The right to the city during gentrification
Authors: Harrison Klisala
Published: November 2020

As important and sometimes troubling as the previously described music projects can be, they are threatened with complete obliteration during gentrification in such socioeconomically depressed urban neighborhoods as the Downtown Eastside. Gentrification transforms a socioeconomically depressed urban area for middle- and upper-class use. As urban poor are displaced, this threatens their right to the city, which refers to their abilities to exercise the human rights involved in living in their chosen city area. At the same time, funding becomes more available for capability building through the arts and for professional arts. Resultantly, popular music theater has flourished during the gentrification of the Downtown Eastside. What has been the role of urban poor, and particularly participants in jams and music therapy, in the music theater productions? Which human rights regarding the right to the city have those performances supported for urban poor?
Freedom, Slavery, and the Passions
Authors: James Susan
Published: November 2020

In his Ethics, Spinoza uses a republican conception of political liberty as a model for a broader theory of philosophical freedom. According to the republican view, we only live freely when we are not subject to the arbitrary power of other agents. But if we consider our metaphysical position as individuals surrounded by things more powerful than ourselves, it seems that freedom is beyond our reach. We cannot but be subject to the arbitrary power of external things. Spinoza responds to this problem by arguing that, when we reason, we are not acted on by external things and are thus not subject to their arbitrary power. Extending the republican view beyond politics allows him to conclude that philosophizing liberates us.
Freedom and Nature
Authors: James Susan
Published: November 2020

Spinoza offers a way to contest the view that we can only deal with environmental risks by giving up a significant degree of freedom. Unlike other defenders of the republican conception of liberty, he argues that we can be made unfree by non-human things such as viruses or weather-patterns. Insofar as we are subject to their arbitrary power, we are already in a condition of servitude. If we adopt this Spinozist diagnosis of our condition, the problem we confront is not so much whether we are willing to give up existing freedoms as whether we can find the means to overcome a lack of freedom that is arguably more destructive than we generally recognize.
Entropy, information and energy
Authors: Tiwari Sandip
Published: November 2020

Chapter 2 brings forth the links between entropy and energy through their intimate link to information. Probabilities—as a statistical tool when there are unknowns—connect to information as well as to the various forms of entropy. Entropy is a variable introduced to characterize circumstances involving unknowns. Boltzmann entropy, von Neumann entropy, Shannon entropy and others can be viewed through this common viewpoint. This chapter broadens this discussion to include Fisher entropy—a measure that stresses locality—and the principle of minimum negentropy (or maximum entropy) to show how a variety of physical descriptions represented by equations such as the Schrödinger equation, diffusion equations, Maxwell-Boltzmann distributions, et cetera, can be seen through a probabilistic information-centric perspective.
Semiconductor surfaces
Authors: Tiwari Sandip
Published: November 2020

This chapter discusses the electronic, phononic and atomic behavior at surfaces. Symmetry breaking at the surface causes the emergence of new properties as the state description changes. Starting with an introduction of the semi-classical view, a bulk-based view of workfunction and electron affinity and cautions related to them, toy models are employed to explore the evolution of states at the surface. For electrons, propagating Bloch states persist to the surface but there are also states that are confined. Properties of these confined states and surface states are explored. The implications of stress and of surface reconstruction are discussed to elucidate the atomic rearranging that arises in semiconductors of interest when symmetries change. The state evolution approach is then extended to probe surface phonons. Again, bulk modes persist up to the surface, but there can also be surface-confined modes as well as surface-propagating modes.
Transport and evolution of classical and quantum ensembles
Authors: Tiwari Sandip
Published: November 2020

This chapter explores the evolution of an ensemble of electrons under stimulus, classically and quantum-mechanically. The classical Liouville description is derived, and then reformed to the quantum Liouville equation. The differences between the classical and the quantum-mechanical description are discussed, emphasizing the uncertainty-induced fuzziness in the quantum description. The Fokker-Planck equation is introduced to describe the evolution of ensembles and fluctuations in it that comprise the noise. The Liouville description makes it possible to write the Boltzmann transport equation with scattering. Limits of validity of the relaxation time approximation are discussed for the various scattering possibilities. From this description, conservation equations are derived, and drift and diffusion discussed as an approximation. Brownian motion arising in fast-and-slow events and response are related to the drift and diffusion and to the Langevin and Fokker-Planck equations as probabilistic evolution. This leads to a discussion of Markov processes and the Kolmogorov equation.
Scattering-constrained dynamics
Authors: Tiwari Sandip
Published: November 2020

This chapter discusses the statics and dynamics of particle ensemble evolution under multiple stimuli—electrical, magnetic and thermal, particularly (thermoelectromagnetic interaction)—by developing the evolution of the distribution function in a generalized form from its thermal equilibrium form. In the presence of electrical and magnetic fields, this shows the Hall effect, magnetoresistance, et cetera. Add thermal gradients, and one can elaborate additional consequences that can be calculated in terms of momentum relaxation times and the nature of impulse interaction, since momentum and energies carried by the ensemble are accounted for. So, parameters such as thermal conductivity due to the carriers can be determined, thermoelectric, thermomagnetic and thermoelectromagnetic interactions can be quantified and the Ettinghausen effect, the Nernst effect, the Righi-Leduc effect, the Ettinghausen-Nernst effect, the Seebeck effect, the Peltier effect and the Thompson coefficient understood. The dynamics also makes it possible to determine the frequency dependence of the phenomena.
Onsager relationships
Authors: Tiwari Sandip
Published: November 2020

This chapter discusses Onsager relationships. These relationships result from the linear response at the macroscale off-equilibrium from the reversibility of the microscale and represent an example of cause and chance at work. Flux-flow formalism—flux densities tied to thermodynamic forces—is developed to build the generalized linear relationships for heat, electric, chemical composition and free energy. The relationships are then applied to examples from previous chapters—thermoelectric and others—to show how results of interest can be derived more easily through exploiting Onsager relationships’ linearity and reciprocity relationships. The chapter discusses Onsager relationships with respect to Ohm’s law, Fourier’s law, Fick’s law, Darcy’s law, Gibbs free energy, thermoelectric effects and fluctuation-dissipation.
Eggs, nests, and chicks
Authors: Scott Graham
Published: November 2020

This chapter considers the egg from its conception, through laying and incubation, to hatching; and chicks. It begins with the genetic determination of sex in birds, the resultant secondary sexual characteristics, and associated reproductive behaviours. The chapter then considers the structure and function of the egg. The evolution of clutch size and the trade-offs related to food availability and predator risk that birds make when optimizing clutch size are discussed. Egg shell colouration, camouflage, and mimicry are explored as are the impacts of urban living and of anthropogenic pollution upon egg shell thickness and strength. Nest building and the function of nests are described and incubation behaviours are discussed. Embryonic development is considered as are hatching and post-hatching behaviours.
Setting the Scene
Authors: McNamara John M. , Leimar Olof
Published: November 2020

The chapter starts with an introduction to game theory in biology, describing its overall aims. The basic concept of frequency dependence is then presented, together with a number of illustrative biological examples. Next, the modelling approach is outlined, emphasizing that the theory aims to predict phenomena by seeking stable evolutionary endpoints. The scope and challenges of the field are described in the setting of the history of ideas that have been important for the theory, summarizing past successes as well as long-standing questions that are likely to require further development of the theory. The chapter ends with an overview of the main issues dealt with in the book, including the challenges that are taken up. These include taking into account the co-evolution of traits, exploring the consequences of variation, and the modelling social interactions as games over time. In particular for the latter, models that include behavioural mechanisms are likely to be essential for the success of game theory in biology.
Stability Concepts: Beyond Nash Equilibria
Authors: McNamara John M. , Leimar Olof
Published: November 2020

The concept of an Evolutionarily Stable Strategy (ESS), which is a stronger stability condition than that of a Nash equilibrium, is introduced. A simple evolutionary dynamic, adaptive dynamics, is also introduced. This leads to the concept of convergence stability under adaptive dynamics. It is shown that these two stability criteria are independent for general games: a strategy can be an ESS but not be reachable under adaptive dynamics and a strategy may be an attractor under adaptive dynamics but a fitness minimum and so not an ESS. The latter situation leads to the possibility of evolutionary branching, a phenomenon in which the population splits into a mixture of two or more distinct morphs. Replicator dynamics provide another evolutionary dynamic, although it is argued that it is of limited relevance to biology. In some games, individuals interact with relatives. The effects of kin assortment, and the direct fitness and gene-centred approaches to games between kin are described and illustrated.
Learning in Large Worlds
Authors: McNamara John M. , Leimar Olof
Published: November 2020

The chapter introduces reinforcement learning in game-theory models. A distinction is made between small-worlds models with Bayesian updating and large-worlds models that implement specific behavioural mechanisms. The actor–critic learning approach is introduced and illustrated with simple examples of learning in a coordination game and in the Hawk–Dove game. Simple versions of a game of investments with joint benefits and a social dominance game are presented, and these games are further developed in Chapter 8. The idea that parameters of the learning process, such as learning rates, can evolve is put forward. For the game examples it is shown that with slow learning over many rounds the outcome can approximate an ESS of a one-shot game, but for higher rates of learning and fewer rounds this need not be the case. The chapter ends with an overview of learning approaches in game theory, including the originally proposed relative-payoff-sum learning rule for games in biology.
Interaction, Negotiation, and Learning
Authors: McNamara John M. , Leimar Olof
Published: November 2020

Many social interactions are extended over time, with sequences of decisions by the participating individuals. An interaction can include negotiation between partners as well as learning about each other’s characteristics and qualities. The classical game-theoretical concepts of normal- and extensive-form games and perfect and Stackelberg equilibria are described. A model of the negotiation by parents over investments into their joint offspring is presented and discussed, emphasizing the difference between the game with and without time structure. A version of this model where individuals do not negotiate their investments but instead learn about their respective capacities to invest is presented. For this model a cognitive bias can evolve, such that individuals behave as if they overestimate their true cost of investing. The evolution of social dominance behaviour and social hierarchies is then studied, using actor–critic learning with observations of relative fighting ability and individual recognition. A strong effect of social group size on social dominance is one of the results from the analysis. Pairwise contests are then modelled, both using actor–critic learning and as a sequential assessment game, which is shown to correspond to a neural random walk. The chapter ends with a broad discussion of the successes and challenges of games with time structure. Reasons to incorporate behavioural mechanisms into game theory models, using a large-worlds perspective, are presented.
Structured Populations and Games over Generations
Authors: McNamara John M. , Leimar Olof
Published: November 2020

The actions and state of an individual in one generation can affect the state of offspring in the next generation, and hence the ability of these offspring to leave offspring themselves. This chapter deals with games in this multigenerational setting. Projection matrices are used to keep track of the state and number of descendants in successive years and generations. Invasion fitness is then defined in terms of the leading eigenvalue of the projection matrix. Simple examples illustrate these concepts and show how to apply them. Reproductive value is a function that measures how the ability to leave descendants in future generations depends on the current state. The Nash equilibrium condition is reformulated in terms of reproductive value maximization. This new criterion is used to justify the fitness proxy used in the analysis of sex allocation earlier in the book. The analysis is extended to the case where offspring may inherit aspects of their mother’s quality, with a focus on the question of whether high-quality mothers should produce sons or daughters. As a second application of reproductive value maximization, the co-evolution of female preference for a particular male trait and the trait itself is analysed, with the evolution of tail length in the widowbird as an illustrative application. Mean lifetime reproductive success is used as a fitness proxy in much of the book. Its use is finally justified in this chapter, where the fitness proxy is used to analyse the evolutionarily stable age of first reproduction in a population.
Future Perspectives
Authors: McNamara John M. , Leimar Olof
Published: November 2020

Important areas for future developments of game theory in biology are put forward. These include several issues that are dealt with in the book, such as trait co-evolution, the consequences of variation, time structure, and the embedding of games into an ecological context and into the lives of individuals. New areas are also suggested, with Tinbergen’s four questions about the study of animal behaviour serving as a starting point. Game theory could be combined with phylogenetic analysis by examining how Evolutionarily Stable Strategies (ESSs) might change over evolutionary time, including major shifts between different ESSs, which might correspond to different species over evolutionary time. Concerning behavioural mechanisms in large worlds, the question of which mechanism parameters that are tuned by evolution is addressed, with a brief summary of the current knowledge about comparative cognition. The possible importance of limited flexibility in mechanisms is illustrated by outlining a model of a trust game. Finally, the potential for game theory to contribute to the study of cognitive development is discussed, using mutualism between cleaner fish and their client fish as an illustration.
Restricted and reversed aspectual contrasts
Authors: Carnie Andrew , Schreiner Sylvia L. R.
Published: November 2020

In this chapter, Scottish Gaelic data are presented as evidence for the necessity of two modifications to Cowper’s (1998 and forward) feature geometry for tense and aspectual contrasts. Both modifications involve dependencies on the PRECEDENCE feature, which in Cowper’s geometry of English is responsible for the past tense marker -ed and the past participle morpheme -en/-ed. The first modification is a RESTRICTED feature. This feature is used to encode the temporal restriction between event and reference times in the near perfect and near prospective aspects found in Scottish Gaelic. The second modification is a REVERSED feature, which reverses the temporal ordering of two times. This feature is argued to mark unrestricted and restricted prospective aspects. It is claimed that certain future-like meanings in Scottish Gaelic do not involve a modal feature like IRREALIS but rather the proposed REVERSED feature.
Monetary Policy
Authors: Tsoukis Christopher
Published: November 2020

This chapter discusses monetary policy. It is informally divided in two parts: The former discusses the rationale for and the main features of the current institutional ‘architecture’ related to monetary policy. A formal analysis of time inconsistency of optimal discretionary policy and the concomitant inflationary bias is followed by analyses of commitment and reputation. Subsequently, the Chapter looks at possible resolutions of the difficulties associated with discretionary policy, including independent Central Banks and inflation targeting. It also discusses the new features and proposals that emerged post-2007–9. A ‘policy in practice’ section looks at Taylor rules. In the latter part, we review the recent analyses on financial structure and the ‘credit channel(s)’ of monetary policy transmission. The chapter concludes with a review of Quantitative Easing, macroprudential regulation, and the current thinking on monetary policy as part of a wider package of optimal stabilization policy.
The Theory of Growth
Authors: Tsoukis Christopher
Published: November 2020

This chapter reviews the theory of growth. As motivation, it first discusses a range of related facts, including structural change and facts on the ‘new economy. It then launches into the Solow Growth Model (SMG) and related issues. The question of convergence, growth/development accounting, and the world income distribution are discussed next. The later part of the chapter discusses Endogenous Growth Theory(ies) (EGT). After offering an intuitive discussion of the limitations of SMG that EGT aims to rectify, the chapter reviews the AK model, including the processes that underpin it and its properties, and human capital, including its two-sector formulation. Newer EGT models are then reviewed, including models based on expanding product variety and those based on improving quality and product replacement (‘creative destruction’). The chapter concludes with evidence, the policy implications of EGT, and directions of current research.
Animal and Celestial Motion: the Role of an External Springboard
Authors: Coope Ursula
Published: November 2020

This contribution comments on Aristotle’s De Motu Animalium 2–3 (MA 2–3). In these chapters Aristotle first claims that animal self-motion requires something eternal to the animal that is unmoved. He then poses the question whether, if something moves the whole heavens, there must be something that is unmoved and external. It is perplexing that Aristotle brings up this question in the discussion of animal self-movement. The contribution suggests that the realization that there must be an unmoved mover in the case of heavenly motion motivates the search for something to play that role in the case of animal self-motion.
Strategic Priorities in the Digital Era
Authors: Schildt Henri
Published: November 2020

This chapter examines how digitalization influences companies’ pursuit of competitive advantage. The chapter makes the case that the creation and use of data has led companies across diverse industries to embrace three broad strategic priorities, using data for: (1) constant optimizing, (2) experimenting to diversify to new products and services, and (3) building interactive digital relationships with customers, suppliers, and partners. While these priorities are not unique to data-savvy corporations, they benefit directly from real-time data and smart automation. As digitalization often erodes firms’ ability to exploit unique resources or capabilities for sustained profits over time, they pursue greater agility and innovativeness. To accomplish this, companies invest in digital infrastructures that enable them to identify and react to environmental changes more rapidly.
Integrating Theories of Working Memory
Authors: Logie Robert H. , Belletier Clément , Doherty Jason M.
Published: November 2020

Multiple theories of working memory are described in the chapters of this book and often these theories are viewed as being mutually incompatible, yet each is associated with a supporting body of empirical evidence. This chapter argues that many of these differences reflect different research questions, different levels of explanation, and differences in how participants perform their assigned tasks in different laboratories, rather than fundamental theoretical adversity. It describes a version of a multiple component working memory in which a range of specialized cognitive functions (or mental tools) act in concert, giving the impression, at a different level of explanation, of a unified cognitive system. The chapter argues that more rapid and more substantial scientific progress on the understanding of the concept of working memory would be achieved through identifying the levels of explanation explored within each theoretical framework, and attempting to integrate theoretical frameworks rather than perpetuating debate with no clear resolution in sight.
Connecting Constituents and Elected Representatives
Authors: Hendriks Carolyn M. , Ercan Selen A. , Boswell John
Published: November 2020

Chapter 3 focuses on the problematic representative disconnect experienced in contemporary democracy, where linkages between elected representatives and their constituents are weak. The chapter presents an empirical case of how a group of residents, Voices4Indi, have sucessfully strengthened their representative–constituent relationship in the Australian federal electorate of Indi. Drawing on interviews with key members of Voices4Indi, the chapter unpacks how everyday citizens sought to repair the representative process by facilitating listening between citizens, and empowering voters to elect a representative committed to connecting and being responsive. The chapter shows in rich detail the diverse ways that both citizens and their elected representatives can creatively mend disconnections in the representative–constituent relationship. The chapter concludes by considering how the Indi experience advances our understanding of connectivity in deliberative systems.
Hellenism, standardization, and info-lust
Authors: Van Rooy Raf
Published: November 2020

Chapter 6 frames the emergence of the language / dialect distinction in its sixteenth-century context. The rediscovery of the Ancient Greek dialects constituted, the chapter argues, a major pivoting point, as well as the standardization projects that were gathering steam and the information explosion enhanced by the commercialization of the printing press. Standardization was especially urgent in Protestant areas, where a uniform language was needed to convey the Word of God to all classes of society, while in Catholic Europe Latin remained the sole language of religion. Linguistic diversity became countable, as boundaries became more fixed. Paradoxically, humanists did not realize that they were introducing a new conceptual pair, assuming, instead, that this had been a Greek achievement. Yet they were, in fact, reading the language / dialect distinction into the ancient source texts. As a result, the new contrast was a product of subconscious appropriation and adaptation.
Aristotle’s legacy
Authors: Van Rooy Raf
Published: November 2020

Chapter 8 treats two interpretations of the language / dialect distinction which early modern scholars considered useful diagnostic criteria. Firstly, in the seventeenth century, an interpretation of the conceptual pair emerged according to which related dialects showed only accidental differences, whereas distinct languages varied substantially. This analysis was grounded in two traditional categories of Aristotelian ontology and implied a binary opposition; numerous scholars realized, however, that linguistic distance comes in degrees or layers. Secondly, the criterion of mutual intelligibility, often bracketed together with the Aristotelian criterion, had its origin in the Renaissance. The eccentric humanist Johannes Goropius Becanus played a key role in its emergence and specified it further as immediate mutual intelligibility. This criterion, too, was conceptualized in predominantly binary terms. Contradictorily, numerous scholars complained about the lack of mutual intelligibility among speakers of related dialects, pointing out the wider communicative reach of a language.
The conceptual pair and language history
Authors: Van Rooy Raf
Published: November 2020

Most early modern interpretations of the language / dialect distinction were synchronic, but one conception was diachronic, in that language was considered to generate different dialects. Chapter 10 argues that even though this language-historical conception had earlier precursors, it was only due to the influence of Joseph Justus Scaliger’s work that it became popular. Already in the early seventeenth century, this conception was framed by Abraham Mylius within a cyclical process of language change. The language-historical interpretation of the conceptual pair, otherwise primarily understood in synchronic terms, soon prompted criticism, voiced most fiercely by Johann Heinrich Hottinger. Chapter 10 also briefly comments on the emergent idea that dialects preserved archaic features, which was in apparent contradiction with the diachronic conception of the distinction. Finally, this chapter illustrates how the conceptual pair came to be used as a handy discursive strategy for historical classifications of language, especially in cases where evidence was lacking.
Compulsory Portion in Poland
Authors: Zoll Fryderyk
Published: November 2020

In Poland, mandatory family protection is achieved by means of the compulsory portion. The chapter begins with a brief history of Polish succession law from the perspective of protection against disinheritance. Compulsory portion is also discussed from a constitutional perspective. Next, the regulation of compulsory portion, as well as of comparable instruments, are described. Among the topics discussed are: entitlement to compulsory portion; renunciation of claims; and disinheritance (‘deprivation’). Methods of calculating compulsory portion are presented, including the different situation in respect of different parts of the estate. Finally, liability for payment of compulsory portion is analysed, with particular attention being given to legatees per vindicationem and to the recipients of lifetime gifts from the deceased.
Family Protection in the United States of America
Authors: Scalise Ronald J
Published: November 2020

In the United States, mandatory family protection is often subordinated to freedom of testation. Although spousal protection provisions exist, the content of these laws often differs dramatically from state to state. By contrast, children and other descendants of the deceased have little or no protection against disinheritance except in Louisiana. Related legal doctrines, such as the law of undue influence do, however, often serve some protective role against the unreasonable omission of descendants from a testator’s will. Even in Louisiana, which still maintains a doctrine of forced heirship, the content of the protection has changed from a law providing for family solidarity to one imposing n alimentary obligation upon the deceased in favour of limited classes of descendants.
Facing South
Authors: Hoffmann Florian
Published: November 2020

The idea and the reality of the Global South represent different types of epistemological challenges to the disciplinary identity of comparative (constitutional) law. Taking the Global South seriously in and for comparative constitutional law must mean transcending its use as either a mere marker of supressed difference or a critical wedge against the hegemony of Western/modern constitutional concepts. The Global South must, instead, be unlocked as the real locus—not in a geographical but in a cognitive sense—of constitutional modernity the world over. Such an agenda of epistemic meridianization requires a number of methodological moves, the most important of which is the de-Weberianization of the fundamental terms and normative ideals of comparative constitutional law. De-Weberianization through a Southern lens is not limited to an ideology critique of Western modernity, but is a project to provide a more realist vision of that modernity and, thereby, a deeper understanding of ‘how the world works’ across North and South. A fundamental openness to alterity, hybridity, and contingency as the structural determinants of ‘law in practice’ is what is at the basis of the South and what enables the re-cognition of the modern world in its likeness.