bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Statistical Treatment of Laboratory Data for ASTM D 1384-70 Using Soft Solder
Authors: Mitchell WA
Published: March 2009

For many years, use of 30:70 solder (30 percent tin, 70 percent lead) was common in diesel truck radiators. The 30:70 alloy was relatively brittle, however, and became prone to stress cracking, a result of vibrational stresses built up in the radiators. This led to failure of soldered joints, causing leaks and eventual failure of the engine. At engine manufacturers' requests, solder producers worked to develop a better solder alloy. Eventually a soft solder alloy was produced which could better withstand engine vibrations. This soft solder, sometimes called silver solder, has the following approximate composition: 97 percent lead, 1.5 to 2.5 percent tin, and 0.5 percent silver.

Dearborn Chemical (U.S.) has had a long-term treatment development program for closed cooling systems, resulting in an inhibitor which has given excellent performance in the field. This inhibitor also performs well when screened by ASTM Corrosion Test for Engine Coolants in Glassware (D 1384-70). Shortly after engine manufacturers began to use the new soft solder alloy, reports of severe solder corrosion came in from the field. Laboratory tests were then done using soft solder. Initial data developed by ASTM D 1384 showed that tests using soft solder specimens gave only slightly higher solder corrosion rates than tests using 30:70 solder in inhibited standard corrosive water. Further testing, however, did not reproduce data similar to the first set of data obtained using soft solder.

Because reproducibility of screening test results using soft solder was poor, a study was undertaken to examine variability of soft solder corrosion results.

Tests performed were based on ASTM D 1384. Data developed lead to two basic conclusions. First, corrosion rates for soft solder tend to be higher than those for 30:70 solder and corrosion rates of soft solder deviate much more from a mean value (for a given inhibitor dosage) than for 30:70 solder. This holds for water coolants and water-ethylene glycol coolants, both inhibited or uninhibited. Second, the water-ethylene glycol coolant is much more aggressive to both solder alloys than is standard corrosive water. This is the case for inhibited and uninhibited solutions.
Evaluation of a Novel Engine Coolant Based on Ethanediol Developed to Replace AL-3 (NATO S735) as the Automotive Antifreeze Used by the British Army
Authors: Beale EW , Bedford B , Sims MJ
Published: March 2009

The paper describes the evaluation of a composition based on ethanediol, containing 4.5 percent weight per volume sodium sebacate and 0.3 percent weight per volume benzotriazole, as an antifreeze suitable for use in the cooling system of internal combustion engines containing both ferrous and nonferrous components.
Bridging the Hardware-Software Gap in Instrument Control
Authors: Betsch RJ , Johnson GG
Published: March 2009

In order to remain competitive in their fields, scientists have been increasingly required to utilize computer controlled instrumentation. Unfortunately, the automated systems that the scientist is confronted with are often awkward to use and sometimes lacking in capabilities necessary for correct operation of an experiment. This paper addresses the problems of equipment automation and the concept of system design. A procedure is developed demonstrating a design process to produce automated laboratory equipment without the occurence of gaps in the overall hardware/software design. Throughout the paper various automation techniques are discussed showing both their relative advantages and their potential problems.
A Generalized Laboratory Automation Scheme for a Group of Different Analytical Instruments
Authors: Stern SE , Johnson GG
Published: March 2009

The Materials Research Laboratory of The Pennsylvania State University is a general purpose central analytical facility, which has most of the currently available instruments found in industrial laboratories. For the past four years a determined effort has been made by the scientists to introduce the computer for instrument control, data collection, and analysis. The two reasons which primarily motivated these changes were: (1) increased use—since the computer could collect data and control instruments at off hours, thus increasing the total instrument use time per week, and (2) increased analytical capability—since the instruments can spend the time on important data rather than background. Also, once the data are stored in a digital format, it is possible to use a selection of independent routines to analyze the data.

The central computer facility consists of a dual processor PDP-11/20 with a full assortment of input/output (I/O) peripherals. The system is being run under Digital Equipment Corp. (DEC) operating system RT-11 with the users (scientists) programming in BASIC or FORTRAN. Several important desicions have been made by the manager of this facility and include the following: (a) all equipment is optically isolated from each other; (b) computer science and electrical engineering graduate students are responsible for the interface software and hardware; (c) the scientists, alone, are responsible for the application software; (d) all DEC equipment is maintained through a service contract; and (e) a link with an International Business Machine's (IBM) 370/3033 is available for large computational problems.

A discussion of these topics and the actual use with the following five instruments will constitute the body of the paper: (1) scanning electron microscope, (2) ellipsometer, (3) ion scattering/electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis, spectrometer, (4) dielectric measurement facility, (5) soft X-ray spectrometer, and (6) laser raman spectrometer.
Effect of Thickness on the Thermal Properties of Thick Specimens of Low-Density Thermal Insulation
Authors: Shirtliffe CJ
Published: March 2009

A three-layer model comprising two surface layers and a core is developed to explain the effect of specimen thickness on the thermal properties of thick insulation. The model explains the effect of boundary emittance and specimen density on the measurements. A relationship between the apparent thermal resistivity and the increase in resistance per unit thickness is derived. Equations are given for the densities at which the maximum thermal resistance of the core of the specimen and whole specimen occurs and for the variation of thermal conductivities of the core and the specimen with the ratio of density to density at which the minimum conductivity occurs. The densities at which the extremes occur are almost independent of specimen thickness. A V-shape and not the customary nonsymmetrical U-shape is suggested for the variation of thermal conductivity. Equations for use in curve fitting that introduce curvature at the apex and shift the position of the minimum are suggested.
Implementation of a New Quality-Control Instrument for Thermal Measurements of a Low-Density Building Insulation
Authors: McCaa DJ
Published: March 2009

During the past year a new instrument has become commercially available which is designed to be used for thermal measurements of low-density insulation materials. Since we were closely involved in the development of this instrument, it is not surprising that, at this time, we are also its first major user.

Drawing on the data now available, we discuss the program used to evaluate, calibrate, and operate these new instruments. In particular we discuss the testing done on varying thicknesses of insulation as well as the correlation of our internal test program with on-going external test programs.

Finally, we discuss the possible impact that the availability of this new equipment may have on future test programs of the American Society for Testing and Materials and other concerned associations and agencies.
Thermal Insulation for a Novel Flexible District Heating Pipe System
Authors: Eilhardt B , Stoeckl G , Ziemek G
Published: March 2009

The utilization of industrial waste heat and cogeneration heat requires efficient systems for the distribution of hot water or other heating media. In Europe the “Fernheizkabel” (FHK) has been applied for this purpose since 1967. It is basically a flexible preinsulated pipe which consists, from inside out, of a welded and corrugated copper or stainless steel tube containing the heat-carrying medium, a thermal insulation, a welded and corrugated outer steel tube, and finally an extruded corrosion protection. The FHK line comes with an inner tube diameter from 25 to 150 mm (1 to 6 in.) and is shipped in lengths of 230 to 550 m (750 to 1800 ft) on cable reels. The efficiency of a district heating system depends mainly on the thermal losses of the distribution lines which are determined by the thickness of the insulation and its thermal conductivity.

The thermal insulation between the inner and outer tube is the subject of this paper. For this application the insulation material is required (1) to keep the heat transfer between the inner and outer tube as low as possible, (2) to support the inner tube mechanically, (3) to absorb movements and pressures resulting from temperature changes and temperature differences, and (4) to permit bending of the pipe assembly. The insulation must provide a good mechanical bond between the inner and the outer tube.

Two different materials were found to be suitable: polyurethane (PUR) and polyisocyanurante (PIR). For these materials in the foamed state, one additional condition arises: the foaming process must be compatible and coordinated with the application of the outer welded and corrugated steel envelope. The two foam materials were tested thoroughly. Performance at different temperatures makes possible extrapolation of expected service life. As a result of these investigations the PUR is used as standard insulation in the FHK line, for nominal operating temperatures of up to 130°C (266°F). The more expensive PIR insulation is recommended for applications with nominal operating temperatures of up to 180°C (356°F).

FHK installations with PUR insulation have been in operation in Europe for several years. It is safe to expect a service life of about 30 years for the PUR-insulated FHK pipes. A test installation with a PIR foam-insulated pipe was set up in the United States and yielded good results.
Optimum Economic Thickness of Pipe Insulation Accounting for Variable Heat-Transfer Parameters
Authors: Simmons LD , Beckman JW
Published: March 2009

During recent years guides have been published to allow industries to choose pipe insulation that accounts optimally for rapid expected rises in fuel costs relative to insulation costs. The analysis in these guides is based on three simplifying assumptions: thermal conductivity of the insulation is assumed constant, the surface resistance is assumed constant, and thermal radiation is neglected (or included in the constant surface resistance). These assumptions can have the effect of introducing error in the insulation thickness chosen, possibly leading to choosing too little insulation.

A study was conducted to rederive the optimization equations accounting for variable heat-transfer parameters and to apply them to selected examples to determine the consequences of the simplifying assumptions. The major conclusions from the study were: 1. The errors introduced by assuming convection and radiation surface loss parameters constant are negligible. 2. The errors introduced by assuming constant insulation conductivity could be made negligible if the conductivity values were made to more closely represent correct values for the temperature range of the particular installation being analyzed.
Elastic Properties and Fracture Behavior of Graphite/Polyimide Composites at Extreme Temperatures
Authors: Garber DP , Morris DH , Everett RA
Published: March 2009

The influence of elevated and cryogenic temperatures on the elastic moduli and fracture strengths of several Celion 6000/PMR-15 laminates was measured. Tests were run at −157, 24 (room temperature), and 316°C (−250, 75, and 600°F). Both unnotched and notched laminates were tested. Several failure criteria, developed to predict the uniaxial fracture strength of epoxy laminates, were used to predict the fracture strength of polyimide laminates.

Lamina elastic moduli were measured at each temperature by testing unnotched [0]s, [90]s, and [±45]2s laminates. The measured values were used with classical laminate theory to predict the elastic constants in [0/45/90/−45]s, [0/45/90/−45]2s, [45/0/−45/0]s, and [45/90/−45/90]s laminates. With few exceptions, the predictions agreed with the moduli measured experimentally. As for the ultimate tensile strength, although the 8-ply and 16-ply quasi-isotropic laminates were about equally strong at elevated temperature, their respective strengths diverged at the lower temperatures. The 8-ply laminates lost strength as the temperature decreased, whereas the 16-ply laminates became stronger.

The notched laminates had layups of [±45]2s, [0/45/90/−45]s, and [45/0/−45/0]s. The measured moduli, the ultimate strengths, and the point stress or average stress criterion of Nuismer and Whitney were combined to calculate the characteristic lengths associated with each criterion. Characteristic lengths were compared to determine the effect of temperature.
Filament Wound Composite Thermal Isolator Structures for Cryogenic Dewars and Instruments
Authors: Morris EE
Published: March 2009

Studies showing high tensile strength, low thermal conductivity, and adequate fatigue strength capabilities in conjunction with low resin outgassing properties of S-901 fiber glass with SCI REZ 080 and 081 epoxy resins has resulted in use of filament wound tension straps, struts, and conical shells as thermal isolators in several high-performance cryogenic applications. These thermal isolator structures and their use in the following cryogenic systems are discussed in this paper: hydrogen and oxygen dewars for space shuttle, helium tank for the infra-red astronomy satellite, spacecraft refrigerators, and infrared telescope. Mechanical and thermo-physical properties of the composite laminates are presented.
Nondestructive Characterization of Chopped Glass Fiber Reinforced Composite Materials
Authors: Duke JC
Published: March 2009

Quality control methods are insufficient for assuring defect-free composite materials, which are manufactured at the time of part fabrication. Nondestructive evaluation (NDE) techniques appear, potentially, to offer a means of identifying such defects. The techniques of ultrasonic C-scanning, X-ray radiography, vibrother-mography, and acoustic emission monitoring are considered here. The materials of interest are E-glass and S-2 glass reinforced sheet molding compound. Results from ultrasonic C-scans clearly indicate areas of imperfections. Results of the vibrother-mography and acoustic emission monitoring, however, suggest the need for additional work in these areas, while those of X-ray radiography are inconclusive.
Statistical Fracture Initiation in Randomly Oriented Chopped-Mat Fiber Composites Subjected to Biaxial Thermomechanical Loading
Authors: Wang SS , Yu TP
Published: March 2009

Owing to the inherently heterogeneous microstructure of constituent elements and the random orientation of fiber mats, initiation of local fracture in chopped-mat fiber composite materials is statistical in nature. An analytical approach is presented in this paper for studying the fracture initiation. The study is formulated on the basis of the statistical failure theory and fundamental concept of mechanics of fracture for brittle fiber composites. The heterogeneity of chopped fiber mats with random orientations and the effect of biaxial thermomechanical stress are incorporated into the Weibull strength theory. A computer simulation procedure with the aid of a numerical stress analysis is introduced. Estimation of the location of fracture initiation in a statistical sense is conducted for the disk-type chopped-mat fiber composite. Selected results are presented to illustrate the fundamental nature of the statistical fracture initiation behavior in this class of composite material.
Elastic and Strength Properties of Continuous/Chopped Glass Fiber Hybrid Sheet Molding Compounds
Authors: Sridharan NS
Published: March 2009

Hybrid sheet molding compounds containing both continuous and chopped glass fiber reinforcements have been modeled as laminates of continuous and chopped fiber plies. It is shown that the elastic moduli and the tensile strengths of a series of hybrid compositions with different ratios of continuous to chopped random glass fiber can be calculated from the same constituent plies. Hybrid molding compounds ranging from 100 percent chopped random glass to 90 percent continuous glass fiber at the same total glass content were tested for elastic moduli and ultimate tensile strengths in the axial and transverse directions. Good agreement is obtained with the laminate model calculations. Similar models for other hybrid molding compounds such as XMC materials are developed and the model predictions are compared with data in the literature.
A New Machine for Studying Surface Damage Due to Wear and Fretting
Authors: Kusner D , Poon C , Hoeppner DW
Published: March 2009

A test machine was designed and constructed for investigating the effects on wear rate of various parameters such as contact load, relative slip amplitude, and frequency. The test machine consisted of a rigid load frame and a flexible platform onto which specimen coupons were mounted. Vertical wear pads were held stationary in holders that allowed contact between the surfaces of the wear pad and the specimen coupon. Normal contact pressures between the wear pads and the specimen were obtained by using spring-loaded cap screws. The specimen platform was designed to move horizontally at high frequency (100 to 200 Hz) with the amplitude of motion under control. The new test machine allows up to eight specimens to be tested at a time and is extremely useful for statistical investigation of wear behavior in which a large number of specimens is expected to be tested. Tests were performed to study the wear behavior of plain magnesium and magnesium with different coatings against steel. Wear rate curves were presented which were used to compare the performance of the different coatings against wear.

This paper discusses the operation and typical results of this unit.
Fretting Fatigue of Ti-6Al-4V Alloy
Authors: Lutynski C , Simansky G , McEvily AJ
Published: March 2009

A study of the fretting fatigue process in sheet specimens of Ti-6Al-4V alloy has been carried out. In the fretting experiments two fretting pads, also of Ti-6Al-4V, were clamped to the fatigue specimen by a calibrated proving ring. In the experiments the fretting pressure and the fatigue stress amplitude were varied. Specimens in the as-received condition as well as shot-peened specimens were tested to study the effect of surface condition on resistance to fretting. An approximate analysis of the shear transfer process was developed, and predictions are compared with the measured size of the fretting scars. The fatigue results of this investigation are discussed in terms of test variables as well as the predictions of the approximate theoretical treatment.
Corrosion Protection of Solar-Collector Heat Exchangers and Geothermal Systems by Electrodeposited Organic Films
Authors: Schnaper GH , Koch VR , Brummer SB
Published: March 2009

Solar-collector heat exchangers normally experience temperatures up to 150°C (300°F), and stagnation temperatures may reach 200°C (400°F). Geothermal systems, in turn, often operate at temperatures near 250°C (480°F). Despite the presence of inhibitors, these high temperatures increase the corrosion rate of the metal to intolerable levels, thus reducing the lifetime of the system. We have found that by electrochemically depositing thin polymeric films on typical solar-collector and geothermal system materials (copper, iron, and aluminum), the corrosion rates can be substantially reduced. In particular, a 4-(p-hydroxyphenyl)-2-butanone polyphenylene oxide film subsequently treated with 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine on a mild steel substrate afforded minimal corrosion currents.
Fatigue Crack Growth in Cruciform-Welded Joints under Nonstationary Narrow-Band Random Loading
Authors: Pook LP
Published: March 2009

Fatigue tests were carried out in air at zero mean load on unstress-relieved cruciform-welded steel joints. The load history used consisted of four different levels of stationary narrow-band random loading arranged in rising and falling sequence, with an overall block length of 100 000 cycles. The fracture surfaces had program markings corresponding to the load blocks. Analysis of these showed that for medium crack depths residual stresses and the level of the maximum load have little effect on fatigue crack growth rate, which can be predicted fairly accurately from constant-amplitude data using linear summation. Crack growth rates for shallow (<1.5 mm) cracks are strongly influenced by tensile residual stresses, and events within this region dominate the overall life. Analysis of two specimens tested in seawater with cathodic protection showed that crack growth was significantly slower than in air.
A Single Wythe Concrete Masonry Unit with Good Resistance to Wind-Driven Rain
Authors: Huizer A , Ward MA
Published: March 2009

A single wythe concrete masonry unit has been developed that can provide resistance to water penetration normally associated with cavity wall construction. An earlier paper described the development of the prototype with a single arch web. This paper reviews the performance of a newer unit that incorporates a second arch web. The rain penetration characteristics of the second unit are comparable to the prototype, but the cull rate in manufacturing is greatly reduced. Potential applications are discussed. Results of lateral load tests on a full-scale wall are presented.
Quality Assurance and Quality of Construction
Authors: LaHue SP
Published: March 2009

Modern quality assurance (QA) systems, including statistically based specifications, are being reviewed and adopted by many states throughout the nation. The U.S. Federal Highway Administration's (FHWA) initial involvement in quality assurance systems started 15 years ago, in 1963. At that time, the Office of Research and Development's efforts were directed toward arousing the highway industry's interest in quality assurance and developing guidelines in this area.

Currently, there are 21 states using quality-assurance-type specifications as their normal specifications for asphaltic concrete construction. In addition, there are seven states that are developing or using QA-type specifications for asphaltic concrete on selected trial projects.

Part of the reasoning for the shift toward the adoption of modern quality assurance systems by state highway and transportation agencies can be attributed to their efforts to apply sound management techniques to the highway industry. The adoption and application of sound management techniques has become essential in this age of increasing costs and reduced revenues and will lead to a better-performing highway system.
Low-Cycle Fatigue Damage Accumulation of Aluminum Alloys
Authors: Bathias C , Gabra M , Aliaga D
Published: March 2009

Tests of fatigue crack initiation are carried out on two different aluminum alloys by using low-cycle fatigue (LCF) data to predict initiation at notch tips with a radius between 0.1 and 10 mm. A comparison of the LCF properties of these alloys in terms of stress strain and cyclic plastic energy is made. Damage accumulation laws in the range of plastic strain and elastic stress are studied. Variable-amplitude loading represented by programmed blocks characterizing the standard TWIST flight loading are investigated. Fatigue crack initiation at notches is determined; initiation is detected by the electric potential method. It is found that the energy approach is an accurate method of determining a realistic cyclic mechanical behavior of aluminum alloys. Constant-amplitude loading of low ΔK (stress intensity factor range) that causes no crack initiation decreases the number of cycles to crack initiation, when the loading program is composed of a higher ΔK and this low ΔK to form block loading.
Damage Accumulation and Fracture Life in High-Temperature Low-Cycle Fatigue
Authors: Radhakrishnan VM
Published: March 2009

An analysis of the interaction of creep and fatigue is made based on the energy expended for the nucleation of damage at the advancing crack front. A rate equation is assumed for the damage nucleation, and the activation energy is taken as a function of the total mechanical energy at the crack tip. The analysis yields a relation in terms of J-integral which is applicable to both crack propagation and final failure. Raw data from various sources have been analyzed for different types of loading and compared with the theoretical prediction. The total energy in tension, which includes the tension-going strain rate, appears to be a good parameter for the prediction of fracture life in creep-fatigue interaction.
Low-Cycle Fatigue Damage Mechanisms in Body-Centered-Cubic Materials
Authors: Magnin T , Driver JH
Published: March 2009

The mechanisms of low-cycle fatigue damage of two high-purity ferritic alloys, Fe-3Si and Fe-26Cr-1Mo, have been investigated at room temperature using both polycrystal and single crystal specimens. The cyclic stress-strain behavior and the fatigue crack initiation mechanisms are shown to be sensitive to the applied strain rate and the crystal orientation. In the case of single crystals, high strain rates (≳ 10−3 s−1) give rise to large cyclic stress asymmetries and crystal shape changes. In bicrystals and polycrystals the cyclically induced grain distortions lead to intergranular crack initiation. Low cyclic strain rates favor the formation of persistent slip bands and hence transgranular crack initiation and reduced fatigue lives. These results are interpreted as a consequence of the asymmetry of dislocation motion in the body-centered-cubic (bcc) lattice.

Other unusual features of the cyclic deformation of bcc alloys, such as the softening and hardening behavior at low amplitudes and deformation banding, are described and discussed.
Low-Cycle Fatigue Behavior of Welded Joints in High-Strength Steels
Authors: Lieurade H-P , Maillard-Salin C
Published: March 2009

Low-cycle fatigue tests are carried out on different types of welded joints in structural steels. The low-cycle fatigue strength of welded joints depends on the weld geometry and the weld toe quality. The influence of these parameters and the role of the microstructure on low-cycle fatigue are discussed. For cruciform joints, the weld toe ground increases the low-cycle fatigue strength. The butt joints present a higher fatigue strength, and this fatigue strength increases when the weld reinforcement decreases. Submerged arc welded butt joints (presenting small reinforcement) have the same low-cycle fatigue strength as as-rolled base metal. The test results are expressed as a function of different fatigue notch factors.
Fatigue Crack Initiation of Cr-Mo-V Steel in High-Temperature Environment
Authors: Wada K , Iino Y , Suzuki M
Published: March 2009

The fatigue crack initiation behavior of chromium-molybdenumvanadium steel in high-temperature air and steam was studied in respect with the cyclic frequency and oxygen concentration in the surrounding atmosphere. Fatigue tests were conducted at 565°C in air and steam at frequencies of 10, 1, and 0.1 cpm. The number of cycles to crack initiation was determined by the potential drop technique. It was found that the fatigue life to crack initiation is significantly reduced by decreasing frequency. At a low cycling frequency, the oxygen concentration determines the reduction of cycles to crack initiation. In the case of crack initiation related to inclusions, the reduction of number of cycles to crack initiation is remarkable.
Beneficiation of Natural Aggregates by Polymer Impregnation
Authors: Webster RP , Fontana JJ
Published: March 2009

The use of polymer impregnation as a means of upgrading the physical and mechanical properties of natural aggregates was evaluated in a series of tests performed using four aggregates of varying quality. The strength of concrete cast with polymer impregnated coarse aggregate was also tested. Two monomer systems were used in the investigation, a methyl methacrylate-based system and a styrene-based system.

In general, significant improvements in the physical and mechanical properties of each of the four aggregates resulted from polymer impregnation. The strength of concrete cast with impregnated aggregates varied, being increased in some cases and decreased in others.
Wind Resistance of Loose-Laid and Spot-Attached Single-Ply Roofing Membranes
Authors: Goodwillie JM
Published: March 2009

Wind tunnel and current simulated uplift tests can be used to evaluate mechanically spot-attached single-ply membrane roofing systems if existing criteria for failure are modified. Tests indicate that these systems can be designed for use under very high wind conditions. Current simulated uplift tests cannot be used for evaluation of loosely laid single-ply membrane roofing systems. Wind tunnel tests are inconclusive regarding loosely laid systems in high wind areas but do indicate that increasing ballast weight or use of concrete pavers does not provide a large advantage. Use of bound gravel as ballast in loosely laid systems does provide resistance to significantly higher wind velocities.
Methods of Evaluating Single-Ply Roofing Membranes
Authors: Laaly HO
Published: March 2009

In the last 20 years several new types of roofing material have been introduced to the construction industry, including various inorganic and organic materials and their combination, generally prefabricated. This paper deals only with single-ply membranes made from such materials as flexible polyvinyl chloride (PVC), elastomers, that is, polyisobutylene (PIB), ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM), hypalon (CSPE), and other rubber and rubber-like materials and reinforced modified bitumens.

As there is need for criteria to facilitate appropriate selection and for specifications to ensure proper application, several test methods have been evaluated that assess physical, mechanical, and weathering properties of single-ply membranes. Some have been incorporated in the Standards of the Canadian General Standards Board (CGSB).

Some of the more important tests include those for lap-joint performance, dimensional stability, water absorption, stress-strain properties, low-temperature flexibility, static and dynamic puncturing, load-twist, and the so called wheelbarrow test.
Aluminum Alloy Performance in Industrial Air-Cooled Applications
Authors: Wheeler KR , Johnson AB , May RP
Published: March 2009

Air-cooled equipment has an impressive record of performance in industrial cooling applications, particularly in rural-dry environments. At temperatures below the dew point, however, combinations of moisture and contaminants (particularly chlorides and some sulfur compounds) promote severe corrosion on aluminum. Washing the cooling surfaces with some commercial detergents provides a corrosive environment, particularly on areas where drainage collects. Coal dust deposits have caused corrosion of aluminum fins. Marine-humid-industrial locations have caused severe corrosion problems on aluminum air-cooled equipment, particularly when the coolers are at ambient temperatures for extended periods. The results of the domestic survey and available specimens have directed this study principally to aluminum. However, the foreign survey, which is summarized here, provided some insights into the behavior of galvanized steel cooling towers.
Measurement of the Time-of-Wetness by Moisture Sensors and Their Calibration
Authors: Sereda PJ , Croll SG , Slade HF
Published: March 2009

A 1-year program involving several laboratories located in different climatic zones has afforded an opportunity to evaluate the response of miniature moisture sensors (developed at the National Research Council of Canada) to surface moisture on panels exposed to the atmosphere. It has shown that when these moisture sensors are placed on the surface of metal or plastic panels they respond to moisture conditions at the surface or more precisely, at the sensor surface, and that such moisture conditions result from interaction of the total environment with the material as well as with the ambient relative humidity conditions.
Evaluation of the Effects of Microclimate Differences on Corrosion
Authors: Haynie FH
Published: March 2009

Analytical and statistical analyses of data obtained from a contracted exposure study performed by Rockwell International in St. Louis, Mo. reveal that many microclimate differences can account for observed differences in corrosion behavior within a geographic region. Data from Mansfeld's Atmospheric Corrosion Monitors (ACM's) were evaluated with data from the Regional Air Monitoring System (RAMS). Relative humidity, temperature, wind speed, and levels of total sulfur gases such as sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen were found to be statistically significant variables. Problems of covariance were avoided by partitioning the large data set into subsets.

Relative humidity was found to be the most important but least accurate variable. Because it is seldom measured at exposure sites, an equation was developed to relate site-to-site relative humidity differences to temperature differences. With average relative humidity and another empirical equation, time-of-wetness can be estimated. The results are in good agreement with time-of-wetness from the ACM's.
Prediction at Long Terms of the Atmospheric Corrosion of Structural Steels from Short-Term Experimental Data
Authors: Bragard AA , Bonnarens HE
Published: March 2009

Two experimental laws expressing the relationship between the weight losses and the time of exposure allow a fair assessment of the corrosion evolution of steels in numerous sites. The simultaneous existence of these two laws implies intercorrelation between the coefficients of the empirical equations.

The effects of the climatic and pollution factors on these coefficients are discussed.

It is suggested to represent the corrosiveness of a test site toward a steel grade by the one-year weight loss and the further evolution of corrosion as a function of this weight loss and the relative humidity of the site.
Accelerated Atmospheric-Corrosion Testing
Authors: Khobaib M , Chang FC , Keppler EE , Lynch CT
Published: March 2009

No accurate methods are known for accelerated testing of corrosion which yield reliable results for predicting the service life of aircraft components and materials which degrade or fail due to environmental attack. In an effort to provide the basis for development of realistic accelerated corrosion tests, research is being conducted in controlled atmospheres on the localized environmental enhancement of crack-growth rates of aerospace alloys. Corrosion-fatigue and rising-load experiments have been conducted using accelerating pollutants such as sulfur dioxide (SO2) and ambient air to 100 percent relative humidity air in a specially designed atmospheric chamber. Initial results indicate that realistic environmental enhancement of crackgrowth rates can be employed to develop accelerated tests which can be related to actual in-service degradation. For materials with high stress-corrosion susceptibility, the threshold for crack growth (KIscc) was estimated to be 45 to 46 MPa √m for 4340 steel at a 1440-MPa yield strength level, as compared to 49 to 52 MPa √m as determined by means of rising-load test and 44 to 46 MPa √m by fracture analysis in 1000-ppm SO2 at 80 percent relative humidity. Thus, a rapid and reproducible method for KIscc determination appears feasible.
Synthesis of Miscellaneous Invertebrate Toxicity Tests
Authors: Benfield EF , Buikema AL
Published: March 2009

The increasing problem of toxic materials reaching aquatic ecosystems has stimulated interest in the development of standardized bioassay procedures for the purpose of protecting aquatic life. For a variety of reasons, fish have been the most frequently preferred organism for bioassay. However, the insistence of various agencies on using the most sensitive locally important species in a particular aquatic ecosystem opens the door for examining a variety of microinvertebrates and macroinvertebrates as potential standard bioassay animals. Many invertebrates are extremely sensitive to a broad spectrum of organic and inorganic toxicants, and most of the species tested exhibit graded responses to increasing or decreasing concentrations of specific toxicants. Commercial availability and the ease of culturing and maintenance frequently make invertebrates attractive alternatives to fish as bioassay animals. The species richness of invertebrate communities and cosmopolitan distribution of many species are additional factors that are attractive for potential bioassay animals. Finally, the life history characteristics and behavioral attributes of many invertebrates make them attractive for both acute and chronic bioassays.
Using Fire Tests for Quantitative Risk Analysis
Authors: Ling WCT , Williamson RB
Published: March 2009

Fires can be considered a causal chain-of-events in which the growth and spread of fire may cause damage and injury if it is rapid enough to overcome the barriers placed in its way. Fire tests for fire resistance of the barriers can be used in a quantitative risk assessment. The fire growth and spread is modeled in a state transition model (STM). The fire barriers are presented as part of the fire protection model (FPM), which is based on a portion of the National Fire Prevention Association (NFPA) decision tree. An emergency equivalent network is introduced to couple the fire growth model (FGM) and the FPM so that the spread of fire beyond the room of origin can be computed. An example is presented in which a specific building floor plan is analyzed to obtain the shortest expected time for fire to spread between two points. To obtain the probability and time for each link in the network, data from the results of fire tests were used. These results were found to be lacking, and new standards giving better data are advocated.
Influence of Residual Installation Forces on the Stress Transfer and Settlement Underworking Loads of Jacked and Bored Piles in Cohesive Soils
Authors: Cooke RW
Published: March 2009

This paper discusses some of the causes of residual installation forces in piles and the effects of the forces on the subsequent behavior of piles under structural or test loading. In the cases of jacked and driven preformed piles, residual forces arise as a result of the different rates of mobilization of bearing forces at the base and frictional forces on the shaft. The magnitudes of these residual forces can be large, and for this reason they may have a dominant effect on the mechanism of load transfer to the supporting soil at working loads. Residual forces are likely to be much smaller in the case of bored, cast in-situ concrete piles.

Some loading tests of jacked tubular-steel piles and bored cast-in-situ, concrete piles are described. All the piles were instrumented so that the distribution of load transfer could be examined, and all were in London clay. Results are presented to show that, as a result of the existence of residual forces, the proportions of shaft and base resistance mobilized at working loads are different for the two types of pile. Some evidence is presented to show that the settlements at working loads may also be influenced by residual forces.
Behavior of Steel Piles During Installation and Service
Authors: Dismuke TD
Published: March 2009

Field conditions to which steel piles are exposed during installation and service, along with strain measurements made during driving, are presented. The mechanical properties of the steel in the pile butt after driving were determined to see if impact of the ram affected the steel. A review of existing data on the strength of mild steels subjected to high strain rates showed that, in the range of strain rates imposed by impact drivers, the steel yield strength varies from 1.4 to 1.7 times the specification yield strength. The relationship between the specified steel strength and that of a fullsize specimen was reviewed. It is concluded that (a) the driving stress may vary from 1.4 times the yield strength to the ultimate strength of the steel, (b) creep phenomena do not affect mild steels at ground temperatures, and (c) the strength of rolled specimens may be determined using specification strength.
Horizontal Subgrade Reaction Estimated from Lateral Loading Tests on Timber Piles
Authors: Robinson KE
Published: March 2009

Lateral loading tests on timber piles in a variety of soil conditions are reported. Measured horizontal deflections and slopes of the piles are compared with predicted movements based on elastic theories and published values of horizontal subgrade reaction. It was found that the actual deflections and slopes of the piles were consistently less than the computed values, particularly for cohesionless soils. Based on the test results presented in this paper, suggested relationships between horizontal subgrade reaction and soil consistency are given.

The horizontal subgrade reaction is a function of the magnitude and position of load application (it decreases with increasing soil stress). For cohesionless soils, increases in soil density caused by driving displacement piles apparently increase the horizontal subgrade reaction.
General Discussion—Comments on Working Loads for Pile Foundations
Authors: Swiger WF
Published: March 2009

During the past several years, there has been a significant increase in working loads for piling. Even higher loads are now being proposed. The rationale for proposing these high working loads and accompanying high stresses is that the allowable stress in a pile should be determined by its structural characteristics. These allowable stresses are determined by applying a factor of safety to either ultimate or yield stresses, assuming the pile to act as a short column. These then would establish maximum pile loadings, which would be modified as considered proper by the design|ing engineer if soil conditions were such that total pile loads would exceed resistance of the supporting soils or as dictated by driving stresses.
What Is Fatigue Damage?
Authors: Fong JT
Published: March 2009

A conceptual definition of fatigue damage is proposed to assist in the selection of measurement techniques and parameters for correlating damage with fatigue life. To illustrate the concept, a critical review of some typical damage parameters for composite materials is given. A survey of some new techniques for damage monitoring, including the small angle neutron scattering (SANS) method, is presented and discussed. Pitfalls in damage modeling are illustrated with examples drawn from the literature. A summary of an ASTM E9.01 panel study on fatigue damage and research opportunities in the 1980's is presented.
Uptake, Biotransformation, Disposition, and Elimination of 2-Methylnaphthalene and Naphthalene in Several Fish Species
Authors: Melancon MJ , Lech JJ
Published: March 2009

The uptake, disposition, biotransformation, and elimination of 14C-2-methylnaphthalene and 14C-naphthalene have been studied in several species of fish. The half-lives of elimination of 14C from several tissues, following the exposure of rainbow trout fingerlings to both compounds for 8 h, were less than 24 h. After exposure of the trout to 14C-naphthalene for four weeks, the half-life of elimination was hundreds of hours. After exposure to 14C-2-methylnaphthalene for four weeks, the elimination of 14C was biphasic; the rapid phase of elimination had a half-life of less than 24 h while the half-life of the slow phase was hundreds of hours. Examination of the muscle 14C by thin-layer chromatography (TLC) suggested that differential elimination of the parent compound and its metabolites may be involved in these differences. The elimination of 14C from fingerling carp after four weeks of exposure to 14C-2-methylnaphthalene, was also biphasic.

Bile 14C from rainbow trout, carp, and sheepshead which had been exposed to 14C-2-methylnaphthalene was present mainly as metabolites. Most of the metabolites appeared to be conjugated when examined by TLC.

Greater bile 14C to water 14C ratios resulted from exposure of the fish to 14C-2-methylnaphthalene than from exposure to 14C-naphthalene and were probably related to the greater uptake of 14C-2-methylnaphthalene. This ratio was also affected by the water level of the chemical, the exposure duration, and the species of the fish.

The disposition and biotransformation of 14C-naphthalene, 14C-2-methylnaphthalene, and 14C-1,2,4-trichlorobenzene in rainbow trout were affected by pretreatment of the trout with an inducer of microsomal enzymes, β-naphthoflavone. Biliary 14C levels were much higher in the induced trout, and the tissues contained a greater proportion of 14C as metabolites in the induced trout than in the controls.
Excretion of the Lampricide Bayer 73 by Rainbow Trout
Authors: Allen JL , Dawson VK , Hunn JB
Published: March 2009

Urinary excretion of the 2-aminoethanol salt of 2′, 5-dichloro-4′-nitrosalicylanilide (Bayer 73) in rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) was measured after exposure of the trout to Bayer 73 and also after intraperitoneal (ip) injection of the lampricide. Fish exposed to 0.05 mg/litre of Bayer 73 for 12 h quickly began to excrete residues in the urine. The largest amount of Bayer 73 was excreted during the 12-h exposure, but the trout continued to excrete Bayer 73 beyond 60 h after exposure. After rainbow trout were given ip injections of 200 µg of Bayer 73 in corn oil, they excreted up to 25 percent of the injected dose in the urine, and 20 percent was recovered in the bile at the end of the study. In both groups of fish most of the renal excretion of Bayer 73 was as the glucuronide conjugate. The exposure of rainbow trout to Bayer 73 at the doses studied had no effect on the urine output or on the renal excretion of sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), and chloride (Cl-).
Use of Burrows for Evaluating Rodenticide Efficacy in Urban Areas
Authors: Jackson WB
Published: March 2009

Conditions in urban environments often preclude the use of traditional research methods for determining rodent numbers and thus impede the efficacy determinations on rodenticides in research or management programs. However, in these situations the numbers of active rat burrows before and after bait placement provide a relative population measure. This procedure, used in field trials with Vacor (DLP787) acute rodenticide in selected blocks in Cleveland and Chicago, permitted an estimate to be made of a reduction of Norway rat activity in excess of 85 percent, following the treatment.