bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Juvenile Aspects of Stalking
Authors: Scott Charles L. , Ash Peter
Published: November 2020

Stalking that elicits fear in the target is relatively rare below age 16. Case reports reveal that some children and adolescents exhibit stalking behavior, and research on college populations suggests that stalking behavior in late adolescence is not uncommon. Stalking is a theme seen in movies and children’s literature. The definition of stalking is used to distinguish stalking from developmentally normal following behavior commonly seen as a component of adolescent courtship, admiration, or crushes. This chapter reviews the literature on juvenile stalkers, including the frequency and patterns of juvenile stalking and the characteristics of juvenile stalkers. The chapter also provides suggestions for assessment, interventions, and legal responses in the management of the juvenile stalker. Some stalking-like behaviors are common in immature courtship behaviors of children and adolescents, but stalking characterized by repeated unwanted intrusion and communications that elicit fear in the target is relatively rare. In recent years, a number of published case reports suggest that some children and young adolescents exhibit stalking behavior, and research on college populations suggests that stalking behavior in late adolescence is not so uncommon. To help illustrate how pathological stalking overlaps with themes in normal development, this chapter begins with a survey of stalking in movies and children’s literature. The chapter then uses the definition of stalking to distinguish stalking from developmentally normal following behavior commonly seen as a component of adolescent courtship, admiration, or crushes. Literature on juvenile stalkers is then reviewed to provide a picture of how commonly stalking occurs, as well as the characteristics of juvenile stalkers. The chapter then considers certain other behaviors that resemble stalking and examines theories about how stalking behavior develops. Finally, the chapter discusses the important topic of managing the juvenile stalker, including assessment, interventions, and legal responses. Children and adolescents may be exposed to stalking behaviors and themes through television, books, and movies. The influence of media representations of crime and violence is an important avenue of exploration in general clinical work with children and adolescents.
Reaction Mechanisms of Inorganic and Organometallic Systems
Authors: Jordan Robert B.
Published: November 2020

This third edition retains the general level and scope of earlier editions, but has been substantially updated with over 900 new references covering the literature through 2005, and 140 more pages of text than the previous edition. In addition to the general updating of materials, there is new or greatly expanded coverage of topics such as Curtin-Hammett conditions, pressure effects, metal hydrides and asymmetric hydrogenation catalysts, the inverted electron-transfer region, intervalence electron transfer, photochemistry of metal carbonyls, methyl transferase and nitric oxide synthase. The new chapter on heterogeneous systems introduces the basic background to this industrially important area. The emphasis is on inorganic examples of gas/liquid and gas/liquid/solid systems and methods of determining heterogeneity.
The Tectonic Framework of South America
Authors: Orme Antony R.
Published: November 2020

Tectonism is the science of Earth movements and the rocks and structures involved therein. These movements build the structural framework that supports the stage on which surface processes, plants, animals and, most recently, people pursue their various roles under an atmospheric canopy. An appreciation of this tectonic framework is thus a desirable starting point for understanding the physical geography of South America, from its roots in the distant past through the many and varied changes that have shaped the landscapes visible today. Tectonic science recognizes that Earth’s lithosphere comprises rocks of varying density that mobilize as relatively rigid plates, some continental in origin, some oceanic, and some, like the South American plate, amalgams of both continental and oceanic rocks. These plates shift in response to deep-seated forces, such as convection in the upper mantle, and crustal forces involving push and pull mechanics between plates. Crustal motions, augmented by magmatism, erosion, and deposition, in turn generate complex three-dimensional patterns. Although plate architecture has changed over geologic time, Earth’s lithosphere is presently organized into seven major plates, including the South American plate, and numerous smaller plates and slivers. The crustal mobility implicit in plate tectonics often focuses more attention on plate margins than on plate interiors. In this respect, it is usual to distinguish between passive margins, where plates are rifting and diverging, and active margins, where plates are either converging or shearing laterally alongside one another. At passive or divergent margins, such as the present eastern margin of the South American plate, severe crustal deformation is rare but crustal flexuring (epeirogeny), faulting, and volcanism occur as plates shift away from spreading centers, such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, where new crust is forming. Despite this lack of severe postrift deformation, however, passive margins commonly involve the separation of highly deformed rocks and structures that were involved in the earlier assembly of continental plates, as shown by similar structural legacies in the facing continental margins of eastern South America and western Africa. At active convergent margins, mountain building (orogeny) commonly results from subduction of oceanic plates, collision of continental plates, or accretion of displaced terranes.
Arid and Semi-Arid Ecosystems
Authors: Rundel P.W. , Villagra P.E.
Published: November 2020

Arid and semi-arid ecosystems in South America are best illustrated by two desert regions, the Peruvian and Atacama Deserts of the Pacific coast and the Monte Desert of central Argentina. The caatinga of northeast Brazil is often described as semi-arid, but mostly receives 500–750 mm of annual rainfall and is better regarded as dry savanna. Small areas of Venezuela and Colombia near the Caribbean coast, and nearby offshore islands, support desert-like vegetation with arborescent cacti, Prosopis, and Capparis, but generally receive up to 500 mm annual rainfall. Substrate conditions, as much or more than climate, determine the desert-like structure and composition of these communities, and thus they are not discussed further here. Extensive areas of Patagonian steppe also have semi-arid conditions, as discussed in chapter 14. The Peruvian and Atacama Deserts form a continuous belt along the west coast of South America, extending 3,500 km from near the northern border of Perú (5°S) to north-central Chile near La Serena (29°55’S), where the Mediterranean- type climate regime becomes dominant. The eastward extent of the Peruvian and Atacama Deserts is strongly truncated where either the coastal ranges or Andean Cordillera rise steeply from the Pacific coast and, as a biogeographic unit, the desert zone may extend from 20 to 100 km or more inland. A calculation of the area covered by these deserts depends in part on how this eastern margin is defined. Thus the Peruvian Desert covers between 80,000 and 144,000 km2, while the Atacama Desert of Chile extends over about 128,000 km2 if the barren lower slopes of the Andes are included. Actual vegetated landscapes are far smaller and for the lomas of Perú change dramatically between years depending on rainfall. Only about 12,000 km2 of the Atacama contain perennial plant communities, largely in the southern portion known as the Norte Chico but also including a narrow coastal belt of lomas extending northward almost to Antofagasta and the Prosopis woodlands of the Pampa del Tamarugal. The vegetated areas of the coastal lomas of Perú and Chile together probably do not exceed 4,000 km2 as a maximum following El Niño rains.
Handbook of Fourier Analysis & Its Applications
Authors: Marks II Robert J
Published: November 2020

Fourier analysis has many scientific applications - in physics, number theory, combinatorics, signal processing, probability theory, statistics, option pricing, cryptography, acoustics, oceanography, optics and diffraction, geometry, and other areas. In signal processing and related fields, Fourier analysis is typically thought of as decomposing a signal into its component frequencies and their amplitudes. This practical, applications-based professional handbook comprehensively covers the theory and applications of Fourier Analysis, spanning topics from engineering mathematics, signal processing and related multidimensional transform theory, and quantum physics to elementary deterministic finance and even the foundations of western music theory. As a definitive text on Fourier Analysis, Handbook of Fourier Analysis and Its Applications is meant to replace several less comprehensive volumes on the subject, such as Processing of Multifimensional Signals by Alexandre Smirnov, Modern Sampling Theory by John J. Benedetto and Paulo J.S.G. Ferreira, Vector Space Projections by Henry Stark and Yongyi Yang and Fourier Analysis and Imaging by Ronald N. Bracewell. In addition to being primarily used as a professional handbook, it includes sample problems and their solutions at the end of each section and thus serves as a textbook for advanced undergraduate students and beginning graduate students in courses such as: Multidimensional Signals and Systems, Signal Analysis, Introduction to Shannon Sampling and Interpolation Theory, Random Variables and Stochastic Processes, and Signals and Linear Systems.
Applications
Authors: Marks II Robert J
Published: November 2020

Fourier discovered the Fourier series as a solution to a boundary value problem [33, 303, 512, 620] related to the heat wave equation. Fourier’s work on heat is still in print [455]. In this section, we derive the wave equation for the vibrating string and show how the Fourier series is used in its solution. The solution, in turn, gives rise to the physics of harmonics used as the foundation of music harmony. We contrast the natural harmony of the overtones to that available from the tempered scale of western music. The tempered scale is able to accurately approximate the beauty of natural harmony using a uniformly calibrated frequency scale. The wave equation is manifest in analysis of physical phenomena that display wave like properties. This includes electromagnetic waves, heat waves, and acoustic waves. We consider the case of the simple vibrating string. A string under horizontal tension T is subjected to a small vertical displacement, y = y(x, t), that is a function of time, t, and location, x. As illustrated in Figure 13.1, attention is focused on an incremental piece of the string from x to x +Dx. Under the small displacement assumption, there is no movement of the string horizontally (i.e., in the x direction), and the horizontal forces must sum to zero. T = T1 cos(θ1) = T2 cos(θ2). Let the linear mass density (i.e., mass per unit length) of the string be ρ. The mass of the incremental piece of string is then ρ. The total vertical force acting on the string is T2 cos(θ2) − T1 cos(θ1).
Identity-Based Motivation
Authors: Oyserman Daphna
Published: November 2020

People experience themselves across time—recalling who they were and imagining who they will become. This consciousness of the self over time (Tulving, 1985; Wheeler, Stuss, & Tulving, 1997) and the ability to mentally “time travel” is a general human capacity (Epstude & Peetz, 2012) that develops by about age five (Atance, 2008; Atance & Jackson, 2009; Atance & Meltzoff, 2005; Russell, Alexis, & Clayton, 2010). For this reason, the future self can play a role in current choices from an early age. Indeed, when asked, people report imagining their future selves; they can describe both positive and negative possible identities their future selves might have (Dalley & Buunk, 2011; Norman & Aron, 2003). People say they care about whether they are making progress toward attaining their positive and avoiding their negative future identities (Vignoles, Manzi, Regalia, Jemmolo, & Scabini, 2008). They even report that their future selves are truer versions of themselves than their present selves, which are limited by the demands of everyday life (Wakslak, Nussbaum, Liberman, & Trope, 2008). Given all that, it might seem unnecessary to test whether people’s current actions are influenced by their future identities. Surely it has to be the case that future identities matter. Yet uncovering the circumstances in which the future self and other aspects of identity matter for behavior has turned out to be difficult. It is not always apparent that identities matter in spite of people’s feelings that they must. Figuring out the underlying process is critical to reducing the gap between aspirations and attainments and is the focus of this book. Does the future self really make such a difference in behavior? In the next sections, I provide a perspective and research evidence to answer the question. While often used interchangeably, the terms self, self-esteem, and identity are based on different concepts (Oyserman, Elmore, & Smith, 2012). Self-esteem is the positive or negative regard one has for oneself. Identities are descriptors (e.g., homeowner, middle-aged), personal traits (e.g., shy, outgoing), and social roles (e.g., mother, daughter) and the content that goes with these traits, descriptors, and roles (e.g., proud, worried).
Other Uses: Psychosis, Pregnancy, and Status Epilepticus
Authors: Fink MD Max
Published: November 2020

Although ECT was developed as a treatment for schizophrenia, its ease of use, its safety, and the lack of effective treatments for many psychiatric conditions encouraged experimentation with this therapy to treat other disorders. These explorations define a cluster of conditions— acute and chronic psychosis, psychiatric disorders in pregnancy and the postpartum period, and intractable seizure disorders—in which ECT has a clinical role. Strongly held beliefs (delusions), abnormal sensory experiences (hallucinations, illusions) that are not based upon reality, and beliefs that others are paying special attention or plotting harm to the subject (paranoid thoughts) impair social functioning and disrupt family life. Thought disorders are the central peculiarity of schizophrenia but are also frequently found in patients with depression, mania, toxic states, and brain disorders. Regardless of the cause or the associated signs and symptoms, treatment can reduce the psychosis. This benefit is often given small notice, however, because ECT is widely regarded as an antidepressant, not an antipsychotic, treatment. The relief of psychosis afforded by ECT varies with the underlying condition. Disorders in thought in patients with depression or mania are readily relieved. Indeed, the more severe form of psychotic depression is relieved more rapidly than nonpsychotic depression. When ECT is used to treat patients with malignant catatonia and delirium, the psychosis is relieved at the same time as the toxic state. When psychosis dominates the clinical condition without other features, schizophrenia is the usual diagnosis. For acute schizophrenia dominated by the positive symptoms of paranoia, catatonia, or excitement, ECT is quite helpful. It is not helpful for the chronic varieties dominated by passivity and withdrawal, the negative signs of the illness. The clinical approach to the diagnosis of a psychotic condition is to exclude other causes for psychosis first and reserve the label “schizophrenia” for the residue of “not otherwise diagnosed” psychotic conditions. While we are able to ameliorate the psychoses in mood disorders and toxic states, palliation and symptom reduction are the best that we can offer other psychotic patients. Electroconvulsive therapy and insulin coma therapy were the main treatments for psychosis at the time when Thorazine and other new antipsychotic drugs were introduced in the 1950s.
Promise and Peril in the Provinces
Authors: De Blij Harm
Published: November 2020

If locals in rural frontiers are in the thrall of powerful globals based in a network of world cities, they are not without power themselves. In the global core as well as the periphery, countrysides are the sources and scenes of resistance to decisions and actions taken in capitals and corporate boardrooms. French farmers seeing their privileges endangered by economic reforms demonstrate, and occasionally riot, in the streets of Paris. Often their banners proclaim their causes, but sometimes they show the name of a French region or even the flag of a département, reminding the authorities that they are dealing with an entity that has emotional resonance as well as economic interests. Chinese villagers organize to protest grievances ranging from the summary expropriation of land for factory building by industrialists empowered by the Beijing government, to oppressive rule by bosses whose loyalties are to the Communist Party rather than to the locals they are supposed to serve. They decry a new two-China policy—not involving Beijing and Taipei, but dividing their country into eastern “haves” and western “have-nots.” South Africans in rural KwaZulu-Natal stage rallies in support of their embattled deputy president facing charges in urban courtrooms including rape and corruption, certain that his trials constitute a political assault on the Zulu nation he represents and shouting not only for justice but also for secession. Ours may be an era of globalization and worldly flattening, but we also witness the resurgence of another of humanity’s ancient predispositions: the territorial imperative. The very Internet-enabled dissemination of information driving the breakdown of barriers among globals also spreads ideas about power and autonomy among locals that arouse the kinds of nationalisms and ethnic aspirations economic globalization is supposed to mitigate. On a planet fractured into nearly 200 countries, the European Union (EU) has taken a lead by enmeshing 27 of them in a multinational entity designed to integrate economies and coordinate laws, but the European paradox is that a widespread revival of chauvinism seeks to reverse this unifying, globalizing process. In several areas of Europe, there are provinces, regions, and other entities that press for more self-determination as opposed to international integration.
Save the World on Your Own Time
Authors: Fish Stanley
Published: November 2020

What should be the role of our institutions of higher education? To promote good moral character? To bring an end to racism, sexism, economic oppression, and other social ills? To foster diversity and democracy and produce responsible citizens? In Save the World On Your Own Time, Stanley Fish argues that, however laudable these goals might be, there is but one proper role for the academe in society: to advance bodies of knowledge and to equip students for doing the same. When teachers offer themselves as moralists, political activists, or agents of social change rather than as credentialed experts in a particular subject and the methods used to analyze it, they abdicate their true purpose. And yet professors now routinely bring their political views into the classroom and seek to influence the political views of their students. Those who do this will often invoke academic freedom, but Fish suggests that academic freedom, correctly understood, is the freedom to do the academic job, not the freedom to do any job that the professor so chooses. Fish insists that a professor's only obligation is "to present the material in the syllabus and introduce students to state-of-the-art methods of analysis. Not to practice politics, but to study it; not to proselytize for or against religious doctrines, but to describe them; not to affirm or condemn Intelligent Design, but to explain what it is and analyze its appeal." Given that hot-button issues such as Holocaust denial, free speech, and the Israeli-Palestinian conflict are regularly debated in classrooms across the nation, Save the World On Your Own Time is certain to spark fresh debate--and to incense both liberals and conservatives alike--about the true purpose of higher education in America.
Visual Field Defects in Chorioretinal Disorders
Authors: Adelman Ron A. , Pahk Patricia
Published: November 2020

Pathologic processes involving the retina or choroid can present with a wide variety of visual field defects. Usually visual field defects of retinal diseases directly correlate with the fundus findings. Visual field changes are often the result of damage to the retina or scarring but, in conjunction with other clinical findings, they may help narrow the differential diagnosis. Most of the macular lesions result in visual field defects that do not respect the vertical or horizontal midline. Occasionally inflammatory disorders result in visual field defects that do not directly correlate with the retinal findings. For example, patients with multiple evanescent white dot syndrome (MEWDS) may have an enlarged blind spot. Macular disorders can cause central or paracentral scotomas depending on the location of the lesion. Causes of macular pathology include drusen, atrophy from dry age-related macular degeneration (AMD), retinal hemorrhage, choroidal neovascular membrane, macular edema, macular hole, macular scar, pathologic myopia, and macular dystrophies of the retina or choroid. Central serous chorioretinopathy (CSCR) can show a relative defect that is anatomically correlated with the area of subretinal or sub RPE (retinal pigment epithelium) fluid accumulation. Residual pigmentary changes in inactive CSCR can also cause a relative depression in the corresponding visual field. Pathologic myopia can present with a variety of visual field defects depending on the retinal findings, such as posterior staphyloma or choroidal neovascular membrane. AMD may show nonspecific changes in the central or paracentral visual field that correlate with the structural damage to the retina and choroid. Geographic atrophy in dry AMD can cause a dense scotoma correlated with the pattern of the atrophy. Choroidal neovascular membranes can cause a depression in the correlating visual field due to edema or hemorrhage. Disciform scars in endstage AMD can also cause a dense scotoma. Macular holes may cause a small central scotoma. Pattern dystrophies are a family of disorders with a common pathology at the level of the RPE. Butterfly dystrophy, an autosomal dominant disorder, and Sjögren reticular dystrophy, an autosomal recessive disorder, are two examples of pattern dystrophies.
Much Ado about (Practically) Nothing
Authors: Fisher David
Published: November 2020

There are eight columns in the Periodic Table. The eighth column is comprised of the rare gases, so-called because they are the rarest elements on earth. They are also called the inert or noble gases because, like nobility, they do no work. They are colorless, odorless, invisible gases which do not react with anything, and were thought to be unimportant until the early 1960s. Starting in that era, David Fisher has spent roughly fifty years doing research on these gases, publishing nearly a hundred papers in the scientific journals, applying them to problems in geophysics and cosmochemistry, and learning how other scientists have utilized them to change our ideas about the universe, the sun, and our own planet. Much Ado about (Practically) Nothing will cover this spectrum of ideas, interspersed with the author's own work which will serve to introduce each gas and the important work others have done with them. The rare gases have participated in a wide range of scientific advances-even revolutions-but no book has ever recorded the entire story. Fisher will range from the intricacies of the atomic nucleus and the tiniest of elementary particles, the neutrino, to the energy source of the stars; from the age of the earth to its future energies; from life on Mars to cancer here on earth. A whole panoply that has never before been told as an entity.
Anthropocene
Authors: Keats Jonathon
Published: November 2020

In geological time, the human life span is almost immeasurably brief. The seventeenth-century archbishop James Ussher famously calculated from biblical events that Earth was formed in 4004 BCE; scientists now estimate that the planet is 4.6 billion years old, and that the six millennia since the apocryphal Creation have probably contributed less than 10 millimeters of sediment to the geological record. Geological eras are unfathomable by ordinarily temporal measurements, such as the daily spin of the planet or its annual orbit, leading some scientists to adopt the galactic year—the 250 million terrestrial years it takes our solar system to rotate around the center of the galaxy—as a standard time unit. On that scale, Homo sapiens has been around for less than a week. Yet as the technology to study the planet has improved, so too has the technology to alter it. Earth increasingly disproportionately bears our imprint, as if geological time were being accelerated to the beat of our biological clock, with the consequence that the planet seems increasingly mortal, its legacy and ours entangled. In geological terms we are in the Holocene epoch—a designation formulated from Greek roots meaning “wholly recent,” officially adopted at the 1885 International Geological Congress—and have been in the Holocene for the past ten thousand years. The question, given all that we’ve done to the planet, is whether the label remains valid, or whether we’ve now buried the stratum of our Neolithic ancestors beneath our own rubbish. The atmospheric chemist Paul Crutzen was the first to effectively challenge the conventional geological thinking. In a 2003 interview with New Scientist he recollected the circumstances: “This happened at a meeting three years ago. Someone said something about the Holocene, the geological era covering the period since the end of the last ice age. I suddenly thought this was wrong. In the past 200 years, humans have become a major geological force on the planet. So I said, no, we are not in the Holocene any more: we are in the Anthropocene. I just made up the word on the spur of the moment.
Climate Ethics
Authors: Gardiner Stephen M. , Caney Simon , Jamieson Dale , Shue Henry
Published: November 2020

This collection gathers a set of seminal papers from the emerging area of ethics and climate change. Topics covered include human rights, international justice, intergenerational ethics, individual responsibility, climate economics, and the ethics of geoengineering. Climate Ethics is intended to serve as a source book for general reference, and for university courses that include a focus on the human dimensions of climate change. It should be of broad interest to all those concerned with global justice, environmental science and policy, and the future of humanity.
Naukratis
Authors: Moller Astrid
Published: November 2020

Archaic Naukratis was a busy trading place in the Western Delta of the Nile, renowned for its sanctuaries and courtesans, granting the Greeks access to Egyptian grain and luxury items. Now, more than one hundred years after the discovery and excavation of Naukratis, the author offers the first full-length analysis of the archaeology and archaic history of this important site. Although Naukratis always features in modern accounts of ancient Greek colonization, it was not a place where the Greeks could freely establish their own political and social organization--it was under the strict control of the Egyptian pharaoh and his officials. To understand the special status of Naukratis, the author takes the port of trade model, surveying the political, social, and economic background of both Late Period Egypt and archaic Greece. A major section of the book comprises an archaeological re-evaluation of the topography of archaic Naukratis and its material finds. The sanctuaries, archaic pottery styles, terracottas, faiences, statuettes, and other small finds are examined in the light of recent scholarship, and an in-depth study of the literary evidence is brought to bear on the archaeological material. This book comprises a significant contribution to our understanding of Graeco-Egyptian relations during the seventh and sixth centuries BC and also demonstrates that Polanyian economic theory can play an invaluable rôle in the ongoing debate about the concepts best employed to analyse the ancient Greek economy.
Contemporary Agriculture and Rural Land Use
Authors: Duram Leslie Aileen , Clark Archer J.
Published: November 2020

The Contemporary Agriculture and Rural Land Use (CARLU) Specialty Group was organized in 1985 (Napton 1989) to provide a forum for researchers who identify, describe, and explain the geographical patterns of agricultural activity and rural land use. Indeed, rural and agricultural geographers study many aspects of rural land use, including rural settlement, rural environmental management, the globalization of primary industries (i.e. agriculture, forestry, and mining), and also utilize spatial technologies for rural systems analysis. The various dimensions, consequences and policy implications of long-term sustainability of rural landscapes in industrialized, capitalist countries and particularly in North America, have been matters of special attention (Pierce 1994; Troughton 1995; Ilbery 1998). The early Jeffersonian ideal of a nation populated predominately by rural freeholders remains a popular and persistent theme in American culture. The country craft motifs of cows, chickens, and apples adorn many urban kitchens. Nearly all children know Laura Ingalls Wilder’s popular stories about a Farmer Boy (Wilder 1933) or a Little House on the Prairie (Wilder 1935). But the agrarian conditions Wilder describes in these stories near the start of the twentieth century bear little resemblance to the conditions faced by farmers in rural areas at the start of the twenty-first century due to social and agricultural change (Bell 1989; Baltensperger 1991; Roberts 1996; Lang et al. 1997; Lawrence 1997). Likewise, the quaint scenes of chickens and pigs printed on paper towels do not hint at current environmental and social concerns with large-scale livestock production in the US (Furuseth 1997; Hart and Mayda 1997). In many ways these historically imbedded ideals clash with the current reality of rural areas. Rural and agricultural researchers provide insight into how rural North America evolved to look like it does today. Their research helps describe the cultural, economic, environmental, political, and social forces that influenced and continue to influence rural places. This research often suggests what alternatives are available for rural areas in the future. Following the introduction, this chapter is organized according to four main research themes: rural regions, agricultural location theory, rural land-use change, and agricultural sustainability.
Lecture on the Automatic Computing Engine (1947)
Authors: Turing Alan
Published: November 2020

On 8 December 1943 the world’s first large-scale special-purpose electronic digital computer—‘Colossus’, as it became known—went into operation at the Government Code and Cypher School (see ‘Computable Numbers: A Guide’, ‘Enigma’, and the introduction to Chapter 4). Colossus was built by Thomas H. Flowers and his team of engineers at the Post Office Research Station in Doll is Hill, London. Until relatively recently, few had any idea that electronic digital computation was used successfully during the Second World War, since those who built and worked with Colossus were prohibited by the Official Secrets Act from sharing their knowledge. Colossus contained approximately the same number of electronic valves (vacuum tubes) as von Neumann’s IAS computer, built at the Princeton Institute of Advanced Study and dedicated in 1952. The IAS computer was forerunner of the IBM 701, the company’s first mass-produced stored-programme electronic computer (1953). The first Colossus had 1,600 electronic valves and Colossus II, installed in mid-1944, 2,400, while the IAS computer had 2,600. Colossus lacked two important features of modern computers. First, it had no internally stored programmes (see ‘Computable Numbers: A Guide’). To set up Colossus for a new task, the operators had to alter the machine’s physical wiring, using plugs and switches. Second, Colossus was not a general-purpose machine, being designed for a specific cryptanalytic task (involving only logical operations and counting). Nevertheless, Flowers had established decisively and for the first time that large-scale electronic computing machinery was practicable. The implication of Flowers’s racks of electronic equipment would have been obvious to Turing. Once Turing had seen Colossus it was, Flowers said, just a matter of Turing’s waiting to see what opportunity might arise to put the idea of his universal computing machine into practice. Precisely such an opportunity fell into Turing’s lap in 1945, when John Womersley invited him to join the Mathematics Division of the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) at Teddington in London, in order to design and develop an electronic stored-programme digital computer—a concrete form of the universal Turing machine of 1936.
Quantum information theory
Authors: Barnett Stephen
Published: November 2020

The astute reader might have formed the impression that quantum in formation science is a rather qualitative discipline because we have not, as yet, explained how to quantify quantum information. There are three good reasons for leaving this important question until the final chapter. Firstly, quantum information theory is technically demanding and to treat it at an earlier stage might have suggested that our subject was more complicated than it is. Secondly, there is the fact that many of the ideas in the field, such as teleportation and quantum circuits, are unfamiliar and it was important to present these as simply as possible. Finally, and most importantly, the theory of quantum information is not yet fully developed. It has not yet reached, in particular, the level of completeness of its classical counterpart. For this reason we can answer only some of the many questions we would like a quantum theory of information to address. Having said this, we can say that however, there are beautiful and useful mathematical results and it seems certain that these will continue to form an important part of the theory as it develops. We noted in the introduction to Chapter 1 that ‘quantum mechanics is a probabilistic theory and so it was inevitable that a quantum information theory would be developed’. A presentation of at least the beginnings of a quantitative theory is the objective of this final chapter. The entropy or information derived from a given probability distribution is, as we have seen, a convenient measure of the uncertainty associated with the distribution. If many of the probabilities are large, so that many of the possible events are comparably likely, then the entropy will be large. If one probability is close to unity, however, then the entropy will be small. It is convenient to introduce entropy in quantum mechanics as a measure of the uncertainty, or lack of knowledge, of the form of the state vector. If we know that our system is in a particular pure state then the associated uncertainty or entropy should be zero. For mixed states, however, it will take a non-zero value.
The sand dune environment
Authors: Maun M. Anwar
Published: November 2020

The micro-environmental conditions of different soil habitats are influenced by prevailing vegetation, aspect, soil texture, soil colour and other variables that influence the incoming and outgoing solar energy. The variability is especially pronounced in sand dunes because of shifting substrate, burial by sand, bare areas among plants, porous nature of sand and little or no organic matter, especially during the early stages of dune development. Even within a dune system there is disparity in radiative heating of different habitats that is manifested as variation in micro-environmental factors such as relative humidity, temperature, light, moisture content and wind turbulence. The major factor affecting these changes is the establishment of vegetation that stabilizes the surface, adds humus, develops shade, aids in the development of soil structure and reduces the severity of drought on the soil surface. The system changes from an open desert-like sandy substrate on the beach to a mature, well-developed soil system with luxuriant plant communities. The principal topics discussed in this chapter include accounts of micro-environmental factors of coastal sand dunes that influence the growth and reproduction of colonizing species. The water content of the substratum in sandy soils is one of the most important limiting factors in plant growth. Sandy soils have high porosity and after a rain most of the water is drained away from the habitat because of the large interstitial spaces between soil particles and the low capacity of sand to retain water. Evaporation in open dune systems also removes substantial quantities of water. Lichter (1998) showed that evaporation was greater on non-forested dune ridges than on forested areas and the rate of soil drying was influenced by soil depth and dune location. After 3 days of a heavy rainfall there was a drastic decrease in the percentage of moisture (67–80%) at 0–5 cm levels in open habitats compared to only 30–36% in the forested dune ridges. The same measurements at 10–15 cm depths showed much lower reduction in the percentage of moisture. In the swale (slack) even though the evaporative demand was the same, there was actually an increase in moisture because of seepage from the dune ridges.
The Future of the Professions
Authors: Susskind Richard , Susskind Daniel
Published: November 2020

This book predicts the decline of today's professions and describes the people and systems that will replace them. In an Internet society, according to Richard Susskind and Daniel Susskind, we will neither need nor want doctors, teachers, accountants, architects, the clergy, consultants, lawyers, and many others, to work as they did in the 20th century. The Future of the Professions explains how 'increasingly capable systems' -- from telepresence to artificial intelligence -- will bring fundamental change in the way that the 'practical expertise' of specialists is made available in society. The authors challenge the 'grand bargain' -- the arrangement that grants various monopolies to today's professionals. They argue that our current professions are antiquated, opaque and no longer affordable, and that the expertise of their best is enjoyed only by a few. In their place, they propose six new models for producing and distributing expertise in society. The book raises important practical and moral questions. In an era when machines can out-perform human beings at most tasks, what are the prospects for employment, who should own and control online expertise, and what tasks should be reserved exclusively for people? Based on the authors' in-depth research of more than ten professions, and illustrated by numerous examples from each, this is the first book to assess and question the relevance of the professions in the 21st century.
How does a caries lesion develop?
Authors: Kidd Edwina , Fejerskov Ole
Published: November 2020

The oral cavity is an open sink. The mucous membranes and teeth are constantly covered with a salivary film whose proteins adhere to all surfaces in the mouth. Saliva is not just a fluid flushing through the oral cavity, but a highly complex proteinaceous liquid that contains millions of microorganisms (bacteria). Depending on their different surface properties (different species have different surface proteins comprising their cell wall, which coat the surface of each cell) they stick to the salivary proteins at the surfaces of mucous membranes and teeth. These oral microorganisms comprise the endogenous flora of the mouth. They are living in symbiosis with the cells of the human body and comprise what is today called the metagenome. There are more bacteria covering all body surfaces in each individual than there are eukaryotic cells in the whole body. Eukaryotes store their DNA in a membrane ‘sac’ called the nucleus. Plants, fungi, and animals are eukaryotes, whereas bacteria are prokaryotes with no distinct nuclear compartment in which to store their DNA. Prokaryotes live in a variety of ecological niches. An occlusal fissure is an example of such a niche and so is an approximal space between neighbouring teeth, the gingival crevice, and periodontal pockets. Bacteria are astonishingly varied in their biochemical capabilities—in fact, more so than eukaryotic cells and each ecological niche may have a particular environment (different pH, inflammatory exudate, etc.), which will influence the microbial function and composition. Until recently, traditional bacteriological methods were used to isolate and culture microorganisms in the laboratory, but it was realized that only a few could be cultivated! DNA sequencing techniques (genomics) of populations of microorganisms from a variety of natural habitats (including the oral cavity) showed that most species have not been found by these traditional culturing techniques. According to some estimates, about 99% of prokaryotic species remain to be characterized. For this reason alone, it does not make sense to think that a particular ‘caries microorganism’ exists. There are also implications for the many attempts to find salivary microbial and biochemical biomarkers that might be used clinically to assess caries risk.
Caries control in populations
Authors: Kidd Edwina , Fejerskov Ole
Published: November 2020

Up to this point, the scientific basis for caries control and practical details for delivery of caries control to the individual have been given. We now change tack and consider caries control in populations. In order to follow the health profiles in populations there is an important tool called epidemiology. This literally means ‘the study of what is upon people’. It is derived from Greek where ‘epi’ means upon or among and ‘demos’ is people (population). In other words, epidemiology is the study of the distribution (how often) various diseases occur and why they appear in well-defined populations. It deals with groups of people, not individuals. Data thus obtained are used in public health for developing and monitoring strategies for health care in populations. Moreover, it can tell how diseases are influenced by hereditary factors, by physical and social environments, and human behaviour. All this helps health authorities to develop appropriate preventive interventions and make these as cost-effective as possible. In this chapter, having introduced the concepts of epidemiology, examples of caries control in two populations and its assessment using epidemiological measurements is given. However, the use of epidemiology has already been described in Chapter 4, where Dean’s observations on the relationship between fluoride in water supplies, the resulting dental fluorosis, and the concomitant caries reduction are described (see Chapter 4). In a recording system of any disease it is important to have clear criteria for diagnosis. The following are important: ◆ How valid are the criteria of measurement? Do they record what they are intended to measure? ◆ How reliable are the criteria? Reliability is also covered by the terms reproducibility, and consistency. These terms imply that the same or different examiners can use the criteria in the same way on different occasions and obtain the same result. ◆ The criteria should be clear, simple, and objective. In other words robust. This is particularly important if manifestations of a disease are to be grouped in different categories of severity, as with dental caries.
A University Education
Authors: Willetts David
Published: November 2020

Universities have a crucial role in the modern world. In England, entrance to universities is by nation-wide competition which means English universities have an exceptional influence on schools--a striking theme of the book. This important book first investigates the university as an institution and then tracks the individual on their journey to and through university. In A University Education, David Willetts presents a compelling case for the ongoing importance of the university, both as one of the great institutions of modern society and as a transformational experience for the individual. The book also makes illuminating comparisons with higher education in other countries, especially the US and Germany. Drawing on his experience as UK Minister for Universities and Science from 2010 to 2014, the author offers a powerful account of the value of higher education and the case for more expansion. He covers controversial issues in which he was involved from access for disadvantaged students to the introduction of L9,000 fees. The final section addresses some of the big questions for the future, such as the the relationship between universities and business, especially in promoting innovation.. He argues that the two great contemporary trends of globalisation and technological innovation will both change the university significantly. This is an authoritative account of English universities setting them for the first time in their new legal and regulatory framework.
Oxford Assess and Progress: Situational Judgement Test
Authors: Metcalfe David , Dev Harveer
Published: November 2020

Returning for a third edition, Oxford Assess and Progress: Situational Judgement Test (SJT) is THE definitive guide for students preparing to sit the Situational Judgement Test for entry into the UK Foundation Programme. This authoritative book, mapped to the Foundation Programme curriculum and GMC guidance, includes over 285 practice questions to help you maximize your SJT score. Fully revised and updated, this third edition provides over 285 questions and high-quality feedback that has been developed to clarify the ranking of every answer option, not just the correct one. All scenarios are based on real experiences informed by practising doctors and medical students who have sat the SJT to ensure that the questions closely mirror the content of the real exam. Two mock tests allow candidates to prepare for exam day and practice their timings - one of the biggest challenges in the exam. Written by consultants, this authoritative guide demystifies the SJT, allowing you to achieve the best possible score and take control of the first stage of your medical career.