bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Impact of coercive tactics on the decision‐making of adolescents with intellectual disabilities
Authors: Khemka I. , Hickson L. , Casella M. , Accetturi N. , Rooney M. E.
Published: January 2009

Background  High rates of victimisation have raised concerns about the ability of adolescents with intellectual disabilities (ID) to avoid and escape from harmful situations and to make decisions in their own best interest. The present study was designed to assess the impact of specific coercive tactics on the decision‐making of adolescents with ID.

Method  Forty‐eight adolescents with ID participated in the study. They were asked to respond to a series of brief vignettes depicting equal numbers of situations involving coercion with a lure, coercion with a threat, and no specific coercive tactic. Performance was assessed in terms of independent, prevention‐focused decisions, reporting decisions and responses to fact and inference comprehension questions.

Results  Overall, participants suggested independent, prevention‐focused decisions only about half the time. They were more likely to suggest independent, prevention‐focused decisions in situations with no specific coercive tactic or coercion with a lure than in situations involving a threat. However, reporting decisions were more likely in situations involving coercion with a threat than in the other two conditions and both fact and inference comprehension were best in situations involving coercion with a threat.

Conclusions  Results indicated that adolescents with ID are not well‐prepared to handle situations on their own that involve coercion, especially coercion with a threat. Because comprehension did not appear to be a key source of the decision‐making difficulty in this study, further research is needed to examine all aspects of the decision‐making process as a basis for the design of effective interventions.
Preclinical students' views on knowing cancer diagnosis: a data‐based class exercise
Authors: RIPPERE VICKY
Published: January 2009

One way of tackling the problems of demonstrating the relevance of psychology to medical practice as well as to medically‐inexperienced preclinical students is to elicit their views on topical issues and present them with a comparison of their own data and any available in the medical literature. In a survey of preclinical students' views on being told their diagnosis and prognosis in the hypothetical case of cancer, high agreement in the proportions wanting to be or not to be told was found between the responses of students and a sample of cancer patients reported by Kelly & Friesen (1950). The exercise served to demonstrate that the ‘to tell or not to tell’ debate is one in which students can also be involved.
Migration of Baroda medical graduates, 1949—72
Authors: BHATT R. V. , SONI J. M. , PATEL N. F. , DOCTOR P. S.
Published: January 2009

1. The migration of doctors from Medical College, Baroda, is studied in detail.

2. From 1949 to 1972, 584 doctors migrated to other countries and only twenty‐nine doctors have returned so far. The incidence of migration is to the extent of 39.75%.

3. Among those who migrated 77.7% have gone to U.S.A. and 11.7% have gone to the U.K.

4. Ninety‐four women graduates out of 241 passed prior to 1971 are abroad.

5. The majority migrate for better and more com‐ fortable living conditions. A small number migrate for better research facilities and encouragement. Those who are denied the opportunity of a post‐ graduate training also migrate.

6. Migration of doctors, though universal, is dis‐ turbingly high in India and a major cause of concern to the government and the educationist.
Introgression from modern hybrid varieties into landrace populations of maize (Zea mays ssp. mays L.) in central Italy
Authors: BITOCCHI E. , NANNI L. , ROSSI M. , RAU D. , BELLUCCI E. , GIARDINI A. , BUONAMICI A. , VENDRAMIN G. G. , PAPA R.
Published: January 2009

Landraces are domesticated local plant varieties that did not experience a deliberate and intensive selection during a formal breeding programme. In Europe, maize landraces are still cultivated, particularly in marginal areas where traditional farming is often practiced. Here, we have studied the evolution of flint maize landraces from central Italy over 50 years of on‐farm cultivation, when dent hybrid varieties were introduced and their use was widespread. We have compared an ‘old’ collection, obtained during the 1950s, before the introduction of hybrids, and a recent collection of maize landraces. For comparison, a sample of maize landraces from north Italy, and of improved germplasm, including hybrids and inbred lines were also used. A total of 296 genotypes were analysed using 21 microsatellites. Our results show that the maize landraces collected in the last 5–10 years have evolved directly from the flint landrace gene pool cultivated in central Italy before the introduction of modern hybrids. The population structure, diversity and linkage disequilibrium analyses indicate a significant amount of introgression from hybrid varieties into the recent landrace populations. No evidence of genetic erosion of the maize landraces was seen, suggesting that in situ conservation of landraces is an efficient strategy for preserving genetic diversity. Finally, the level of introgression detected was very variable among recent landraces, with most of them showing a low level of introgression; this suggests that coexistence between different types of agriculture is possible, with the adoption of correct practices that are aimed at avoiding introgression from undesired genetic sources.
Reproductive strategies under multiparasitism in natural populations of the parasitoid wasp Nasonia (Hymenoptera)
Authors: GRILLENBERGER B. K. , VAN DE ZANDE L. , BIJLSMA R. , GADAU J. , BEUKEBOOM L. W.
Published: January 2009

Parasitoid Nasonia wasps adjust their progeny sex ratio to the presence of conspecifics to optimize their fitness. Another trait under female control is the induction of offspring diapause. We analysed progeny sex ratios and the proportion of diapausing offspring of individual Nasonia females in host patches parasitized by two species, Nasonia vitripennis and Nasonia giraulti, in North American field populations using microsatellite fingerprinting. Both Nasonia species produced similar sex ratios on hosts that were co‐parasitized by their own species as by the other species, indicating that females do not distinguish between con‐ and heterospecific clutches. The sex ratios of the diapause and adult fractions of mixed broods from single females were not correlated. We found further indications that N. vitripennis females take the emergence time of the offspring into account in their sex allocation. The reproductive strategies of Nasonia under multiparasitism are largely adaptive, but also partially constrained by information.
Uncorrelated evolution between vocal and plumage coloration traits in the trogons: a comparative study
Authors: ORNELAS J. F. , GONZÁLEZ C. , ESPINOSA DE LOS MONTEROS A.
Published: January 2009

The costs of bird song incurred in a diversity of ways may result in trade‐offs in the production and maintenance of elaborate plumage ornaments. In this paper, we examine evolutionary trade‐offs between acoustic and visual signalling in trogon birds (Trogonidae). Using multiple regressions with phylogenetically independent contrasts, we found that interspecific variation in male plumage coloration was not significantly predicted by song traits (reduced by PCA) or altitude. Although plumage coloration is expected to decrease with increases in song elaboration, both groups of variables were not related. Given that song and plumage coloration traits are likely targets of sexual selection, we also examined their relationships with sexual plumage dimorphism. We found that male carotenoid‐derived coloration was positively related to sexual plumage dimorphism, suggesting that sexual selection on male carotenoid‐derived coloration may be stronger than on melanin‐ or structurally based coloration, or than on acoustic traits. Comparative studies on other bird families accounting for the effects of phylogeny as well as environmental covariates are required to test the generality of our findings in trogons.
Degreening of the unicellular alga Euglena gracilis: thylakoid composition, room temperature fluorescence spectra and chloroplast morphology
Authors: Ferroni L. , Baldisserotto C. , Pantaleoni L. , Fasulo M. P. , Fagioli P. , Pancaldi S.
Published: January 2009

Thylakoid dismantling is one of the most relevant processes occurring when chloroplasts are converted to non‐photosynthetically active plastids. The process is well characterised in senescing leaves, but other systems could present different features. In this study, thylakoid dismantling has been analysed in dividing cells of the unicellular alga, Euglena gracilis, cultured in darkness. Changes in photosynthetic pigments and in the abundance of LHC and PSII core proteins (D2 and CP43) showed that: (i) during the 0–24 h interval, the decline in LHCII was faster than that in the PSII core; (ii) during the 24–48 h interval, PSII and LHCII were strongly degraded to nearly the same extent; (iii) in the 48–72 h interval, the PSII core proteins declined markedly, while LHCII was maintained. These changes were accompanied by variations in room temperature fluorescence emission spectra recorded from single living cells with a microspectrofluorimeter (excitation, 436 nm; range 620–780 nm). Emission in the 700–715 nm range was proposed to derive from LHCI‐II assemblages; changes in emission at 678 nm relative to PSII matched PSII core degradation phases. Overall, the results suggest that, in degreening E. gracilis, thylakoid dismantling is somewhat different from that associated with senescence, because of the early loss of LHCII. Moreover, it is proposed that, in this alga, disruption of the correct LHCI‐II stoichiometry alters the energy transfer to photosystems and destabilises membrane appression leading to the thylakoid destacking observed using transmission electron microscopy.
Scent‐Marking of Giant Otter in the Southern Pantanal, Brazil
Authors: Leuchtenberger Caroline , Mourão Guilherme
Published: January 2009

Giant otters live in social groups, consisting of a mating pair and one or two litters. Groups are territorial and mark their territories often with scent‐marks. Our objectives were to evaluate the frequencies of marking and over‐marking according to the social status of the individuals and to define the different postures used during the marking. We observed four groups, totaling 25 individuals (five alpha males, four alpha females, seven adult females, one adult male and eight juveniles) with group size ranging between four and 13 individuals. The study was conducted between July 2006 and July 2007 in the Vermelho River and in a stretch of the Miranda River, in the Southern Pantanal. We observed the groups for a total of 2006 min and recorded 95 events of marking totaling 84.9 min. Time spent marking varied between groups and ranged from 4.3 to 44.7 min. The alpha males marked more frequently (62% of marking events, 55 min) than the alpha females (17% of marking events, 13.6 min). Of the 59 events of scent‐marking by the alpha males, 32 over‐marked the marks of other individuals from the group. Of the 16 events of scent‐marking of the alpha females, five over‐marked that of other females from the same group. When scent‐marking, alpha males used the ‘stepping’ posture most frequently (63%), then ‘fore‐paw rubbing’ (24%), ‘latrine use’ (7%), and ‘body rubbing’ (6%). Alpha females used the ‘stepping’ posture most frequently (65%), then ‘latrine use’ (19%) and ‘fore‐paw rubbing’ (12%), with only one event of ‘body rubbing’ observed during marking. Subordinate females used the ‘stepping’ posture (76%) and ‘latrine use’ (24%) during marking. Scent‐marking can play many roles in mammals and for giant otters, and the main roles appear to be communication of social and sexual status and territorial defense.
Increase in presynaptic territory of C‐terminals on lumbar motoneurons of G93A SOD1 mice during disease progression
Authors: Pullen A. H. , Athanasiou D.
Published: January 2009

Compensatory synaptic plasticity is reported in muscle and the central nervous system of motor neuron disease patients, and transgenic SOD1 mice, but direct ultrastructural evidence for spinal motoneurons is lacking. Prompted by our observation in spinal cords from autopsied patients suggesting selective enlargement of the ultrastructurally distinctive C‐type terminal synapsing with spinal motoneurons, we examined the ultrastructural synaptology of lumbar motoneurons during disease progression in age‐ and sex‐matched wild‐type mice, transgenic G93A SOD1 mice, and mice overexpressing normal human SOD1 (WtSOD1). Prescribed criteria classified presynaptic terminals of motoneurons into five ultrastructural classes (S, F, T, M, and C). Computerized morphometry on electronmicrographs was used to measure their appositional lengths, coverage of the motoneuron membrane, and sizes of postsynaptic structures. No terminal degeneration occurred in wild‐type or WtSOD1 mice. In transgenic mice, degeneration of motoneurons and S‐terminals and F‐terminals commenced presymptomatically (10 weeks), and continued into the symptomatic stage (18 weeks). However, C‐terminals were preserved. Morphometry confirmed significant reductions in frequency and membrane coverage for S‐terminals and F‐terminals between 10 and 18 weeks, but a maintained frequency of C‐terminals coupled with increased appositional length and coverage of the motoneuron membrane. Increased C‐terminal size was matched by growth of its characterizing postsynaptic cistern and Nissl body. The results reveal selective preservation and increased presynaptic territory of the C‐type terminal. As C‐terminals derive from cholinergic intrasegmental propriospinal interneurons and may modulate motoneuron excitability, their increased presynaptic territory on surviving motoneurons of transgenic SOD1 mice may represent a means of maintaining excitability, compensating for the loss of overall presynaptic input.
A direct main olfactory bulb projection to the ‘vomeronasal’ amygdala in female mice selectively responds to volatile pheromones from males
Authors: Kang Ningdong , Baum Michael J. , Cherry James A.
Published: January 2009

The main olfactory system, like the accessory olfactory system, responds to pheromones involved in social communication. Whereas pheromones detected by the accessory system are transmitted to the hypothalamus via the medial (‘vomeronasal’) amygdala, the pathway by which pheromones are detected and transmitted by the main system is not well understood. We examined in female mice whether a direct projection from mitral/tufted (M/T) cells in the main olfactory bulb (MOB) to the medial amygdala exists, and whether medial amygdala‐projecting M/T cells are activated by volatile urinary odors from conspecifics or a predator (cat). Simultaneous anterograde tracing usingPhaseolus vulgarisleucoagglutinin and Fluoro‐Ruby placed in the MOB and accessory olfactory bulb (AOB), respectively, revealed that axons of MOB M/T cells projected to superficial laminae of layer Ia in anterior and posterodorsal subdivisions of the medial amygdala, whereas projection neurons from the AOB sent axons to non‐overlapping, deeper layer Ia laminae of the same subdivisions. Placement of the retrograde tracer cholera toxin B into the medial amygdala labeled M/T cells that were concentrated in the ventral MOB. Urinary volatiles from male mice, but not from female conspecifics or cat, induced Fos in medial amygdala‐projecting MOB M/T cells of female subjects, suggesting that information about male odors is transmitted directly from the MOB to the ‘vomeronasal’ amygdala. The presence of a direct MOB‐to‐medial amygdala pathway in mice and other mammals could enable volatile, opposite‐sex pheromones to gain privileged access to diencephalic structures that control mate recognition and reproduction.
Editorial
Authors: Ulman Joseph N.
Published: January 2009

Judge of the Supreme Bench, Baltimore City
the Homicide Bill
Authors: Williams J. E. Hall
Published: January 2009

This article examines the Homicide Bill, 1956, in the light of the debates in the Commons. The Bill was passed unchanged through all its stages in the Commons and the Lords, and received the Royal Assent on 21st March, 1957.—Ed.
VIOLENCE
Authors: Banks Charlotte
Published: January 2009

“The first principle in the management of the guilty seems to me to be to treat them as men and women; which they were before they were guilty, and will be when they are no longer so; and which they are in the midst of it all. Their humanity is the principal thing about them; their guilt is a temporary state. The insane are first men, and secondarily diseased men; and in a due consideration of this order of things lies the main secret of the successful treatment of such. The drunkard is first a man and secondarily a man with a peculiar weakness. The convict is, in like manner, first a man, and then a sinner…; but when the keeper watches a hundred men herded together in virtue of the one common characteristic of their being criminals, the guilt becomes the prominent circumstance and there is an end of the brotherly faith in each, to which each must mainly owe his cure. This, in our human weakness, is the great evil attendant upon the good of collecting together sufferers under any particular physical or moral evil. Visitors are shy of the blind, the deaf and dumb, and insane, when they see them all together, while they would feel little or nothing of this shyness, if they met each sufferer in the bosom of his own family. In the one case, the infirmity, defying sympathy, is the prominent circumstance; in the other, not.” Harriet Martineau.
FOUR HUNDRED BURGLARY SUSPECTS
Authors: Davies Clive
Published: January 2009

In 1967/8, the author interviewed 418 men charged with breaking and entering offences, in the course of a study of pre‐trial detention. (The principal finding of the study was that 85% of the men remanded in custody had Manhattan Bail Scheme scores suggesting that they qualified for release on bail, and that the detained men fared worse in court and in their private lives than those released on bail). The following is a shortened version of Chapter 3 of Imprisonment without Sentence, to be published by Tavistock Publications Ltd.
Why the Prison Population has Grown Larger and Younger
Authors: Baldock John C.
Published: January 2009

It is almost universally agreed that the prison population in this country has grown too large, continues to grow and ought to be reduced. This article attempts an analysis of the manner in which this growth has taken place over the last 25 years. It is argued that many explanations have placed too much emphasis on sentencing policies and particularly the impact of long sentences. Consequently, too much of the hope for an improvement currently rests on reformed sentencing policies and shorter sentences. There is evidence that the courts, rather than tending to hand down proportionately more long sentences, have in fact behaved in a remarkably consistent way over time.
The Probation Officer at Court: From Friend to Acquaintance
Authors: McWilliams William
Published: January 2009

It is widely believed that probation officers have less influence, status and visibility in the criminal courts than hitherto, and that in some instances their relationship with the bench has declined to near‐estrangement. These changes are analysed in an historical and theoretical context; and against the touchstone of a virtually unchanging bench, the bureaucratisation of the justices' clerk and the professionalisation, bureaucratisation and increased executive accountability of the probation service are explored for explanation of the decline. Elements of a tentative solution to the problem involving organisational change and a reconceptualisation of the relationship between the bench and the probation service are offered for discussion.
An Analysis of Police Occurrence Book Entries: An Element in a Psychology of Policing
Authors: Taylor M.
Published: January 2009

An analysis of the occurrence book entries from a police station in urban Belfast, and from a rural area of Northern Ireland are presented. Both areas are subject to high levels of civil unrest. A considerable service element is identified in the range of entries from both urban and rural areas. Analysis of the sources of entries revealed a high level of public involvement in reporting incidents, etc. The data are discussed in terms of the development of a descriptive analysis of policing.
Northern Irish Children's Conceptions of Violent Crime
Authors: Mcwhirter Liz
Published: January 2009

The study examines the subjective interpretations of violence by nine and twelve year old children living in strife‐torn and peaceful areas in Northern Ireland. The study focuses on the range of acts and events included in essays entitled “Violence”, as part of an attempt to measure social awareness of potentially distressing topics. A specific examination is made of the effects of religious denomination and relative exposure to conflict on the frequency of citations of acts of violence and violent crime. Evidence is brought forward to show that conceptions of violence in Northern Ireland children embrace more than just the violence in Northern Ireland, and include misdemeanours, destruction, and crime generally. The actual levels and types of violence which vary by geographical area is reflected in the writings of different religious groups in these areas. The majority of children explicitly or implicitly condemn violence.
The Police, the Public and the Prevention of Crime
Authors: Heal Kevin
Published: January 2009

It has long been recognised that crime prevention is an integral part of police work and one which requires public support. Nevertheless, in recent years the police have tended to emphasise a deterrent approach to crime control, a development which has pushed crime prevention into a backwater. If crime prevention is to develop, and there are sound reasons why it should, it must be crime specific in its approach and draw on the resources of the whole community. There are obstacles to be overcome; principally that for many the cost of living with crime is seen to be less than the cost of preventing it.
Intermittent Custody: A Response to the Green Paper
Authors: Hudson Barbara
Published: January 2009

Abstract: The Green Paper Intermittent Custody, published in June 1984, demonstrates the Home Office's interest in the idea of part‐time prison, and signals its intention to introduce some variant of it on at least an experimental basis. This article comments on the Green Paper, and discusses the likely effects of intermittent custody in England and Wales in the light of its use elsewhere, and of experience here with the introduction of other penal innovations, such as suspended sentences and detention centres here. The principles involved in the Home Office's proposals are also related to themes of the ‘return to justice’ penal reform agenda, and finally to broader issues of the relationship of the prison to the community, and the shifting balance between the provision of welfare and the imposition of social control. It is argued that the introduction of intermittent custody in England and Wales would be particularly unwelcome coming at the same time as the current prison building programme.
Class Bias in Prosecutions
Authors: Sanders Andrew
Published: January 2009

Abstract: The police prosecute most detected offences, and caution very few. Agencies which enforce safety, pollution, fraud, and tax laws prosecute very rarely; other enforcement methods are used which are comparable with police cautions. Consequently, working class crime is prosecuted frequently while middle class crime is not. This article compares prosecution practices in the police and the Factory Inspectorate by drawing on recent E.S.R.C.‐financed research on police prosecutions. It concludes by evaluating various justifications and explanations for those differences. Class bias is not deliberate. Rather, it is a product of considerations that are inevitably influential in a capitalist society.
A Juvenile Justice Pre‐Court Tribunal at Work
Authors: Pratt John , Grimshaw Roger
Published: January 2009

Abstract: This paper has as its focus a largely neglected, but growing area of juvenile justice: the structure and practice of a pre‐court tribunal. Although the ostensible purpose of the body that is the subject of this analysis is to exercise a discretion as to whether or not families should be taken to court because of a child's non‐attendance at school, we argue here that its underlying purpose can be interpreted as upholding and ensuring commitment to a normative view of the world which may bear little relation to the world as it really is for those appearing before the tribunal. The process by which this task is achieved is documented and is followed by a discussion of the issues that this raises for the administration of justice in this area.
Nobbling the Fraudsters: Crime Prevention Through Administrative Change
Authors: Smith Lorna J.F. , Burrows John
Published: January 2009

Abstract: In the recent resurgence of interest in crime prevention, most research has concentrated on the feasibility of reducing criminal opportunities by enhanced surveillance and physical target‐hardening. By contrast, the potential to effect prevention by ‘management of the environment’ has remained comparatively neglected. This article attempts to redress the balance of interest by focussing on initiatives where those in managerial positions have taken steps to reduce crimes committed by breaching administrative procedures and regulations for which they are responsible. It reports on two case studies ‐ one focussing on frauds committed in a public hospital, the other on abuses of car import regulations ‐ which show how prevention has been achieved through careful scrutiny of existing administrative procedures and their subsequent adaptation. It is noteworthy that these achievements were obtained without incurring exorbitant costs or expending undue effort. The case studies further demonstrate the difficulties likely to be experienced by the police if responsibility for crime prevention is placed solely at their door. They also point to the role the police can have as catalysts when other agencies come to assume crime prevention responsibilities.
The Influence of Sentencing Principles on Magistrates' Sentencing Practices
Authors: Henham Ralph
Published: January 2009

Abstract: The sentencing principles of the Court of Appeal (Criminal Division) are supposed to provide guidance for sentencers at all levels yet their relevance for magistrates' courts has often been doubted. This article provides evidence which suggests a significant level of misunderstanding of sentencing principles by magistrates. Various proposals for reform are assessed in the light of these findings and some alternatives suggested.
Alcohol Related Offenders and a Voluntary Organisation in a Scottish Community
Authors: COLLINS STEWART A. , TATE DAVID H.
Published: January 2009

Abstract: Examination is made of a range of alcohol related problems and alcohol related offences in the United Kingdom, including Scotland. Traditionally only a limited number of sentences are available to the courts. The contribution of diversion schemes is considered briefly and, in particular, the use of a deferment scheme in Dumbarton, Scotland. Offenders considered suitable are referred by the court to the Dumbarton Area Council on Alcohol for assessment. Those accepted for help receive individual and group counselling from voluntary counsellors. The progress of these offenders is examined at the end of the six or twelve months deferment period and again after a two year follow up.
HIV/AIDS in Prisons
Authors: THOMAS PHILIP A.
Published: January 2009

Defining a problem is in itself problematic. Appropriate responses to the perceived problem involve the recognition of its nature and scope. ‘Official’ Home Office data and ministerial statements indicate that drug abuse and unprotected anal intercourse are not considered to be major problems in the prisons of England and Wales. ‘Unofficial’ information regarding these high risk activities leads to a contrary conclusion. Lack of adequate ‘official’ information suppresses the required recognition of and response to HIVIAIDS and thereby places prisoners at greater risk of infection.
Imprisonment, Fines and Diverting Offenders from Custody: Implications of Sentencing Discretion for Penal Policy
Authors: SABOL WILLIAM J.
Published: January 2009

By analysing long‐run trends in the courts' use of custodial sanctions, this paper compares the reasons for the limited success in diverting adult offenders from imprisonment by increasing the use of fines during the late 1950s and 1960s, and the subsequent replacement of fines by imprisonment as the range of alternatives to custody expanded. These changes are explained by the role of information and previous sentencing practices in reducing uncertainly in the sentencing environment, Additionally, it is argued that statutory limitations are insufficient to compel sentencers to change practices. The effects of the Criminal Justice Act 1982, with implications for the Criminal Justice Act 1988, on the sentencing of young adults are given as an illustration of this point.
Monitoring Expenditure on the Criminal Justice System: The Search for Control
Authors: FOWLES A.J.
Published: January 2009

Abstract: The ethos of value for money and the efficiency audit has slowly started to invade the criminal justice system in England and Wales. The work of the Audit Commission, the National Audit Office and the Public Accounts Committee since 1979 is surveyed. Analysis is presented of the types of issue investigated and the nature of the findings. The implications of auditors' judgments for the criminal justice system are discussed.
Still no Justice in Jails1
Authors: LAWRENCE PENNY
Published: January 2009

Abstract: Recent changes in the Prison Rules do not warrant complacency about the enduring need to establish an independent tribunal for prison disciplinary hearings. Prisoners seeking judicial review of disciplinary decisions face evidential and procedural difficulties. The authorities, in the prison setting, can too easily avoid the possibility of litigation by using informal disciplinary measures. Implementation of the Carlisle Committee's proposals to integrate release mechanisms would meet the criticism that remission and parole can interact to the detriment of the inmate. However, such reforms, even if combined with modification of the substantive rules, are merely cosmetic unless the Prior Committee's cruicial proposals are fully taken up.
Calling on the Experts: The Financial Management Initiative (FMI), Private Sector Management Consultants and the Probation Service
Authors: HUMPHREY CHRISTOPHER
Published: January 2009

Abstract: This paper examines the Home Office's attempts to apply the Financial Management Initiative to the probation service in England and Wales, with particular emphasis being given to the use of private sector management consultants in the development of a Financial Management Information System (FMIS) for the Service. The details of the FMI's application are set out and the processes whereby the aims of the initiative were attenuated and deflected are identified. In consequence, the case adds support to the literature questioning the application of such initiatives in the public sector by illustrating how even the ‘experts’ cannot provide simple solutions for the complex problems facing public sector managers.
Out of Jail: The Reduction in the Use of Penal Custody for Male Juveniles 1981‐88
Authors: ALLEN ROB
Published: January 2009

Abstract: An examination of the factors associated with the halving in the number of custodial sentences made on male juveniles since 1981. The paper discusses the reduction in the general population and the numbers being sentenced, the role of new legislation and changes in sentencing practice brought about by disillusionment with custody, systemic intervention by welfare agencies and the injection of resources into community based alternatives to custody by the DHSS IT Initiative.
The Comparative Costs of Community Service and Custody in Scotland
Authors: KNAPP MARTIN , ROBERTSON EILEEN , McIVOR GILL
Published: January 2009

Abstract: This paper examines the costs of community service orders, and compares them with the costs of alternative custodial sentences. Twelve Scottish community service schemes are studied. Costs are disaggregated to component activities (assessment, matching, placement supervision and breaches), and average costs per offender calculated and compared. It is found that, while cheaper than custody, community service is not as cheap as recent central government figures suggest. On average, community service costs the same as about six weeks of custody. The implications for cost of changes to the organisation, funding and utilisation of community service orders are discussed.
Criminal Justice Expenditure: A Global Perspective
Authors: SPENCER JON
Published: January 2009

Abstract: The United Nations Third Survey of Crime and Criminal Justice (United Nations 1987) contains data on global criminal justice expenditure. The data show that between 1982 and 1986 there was a trend of increased expenditure on criminal justice. At the same time crime rates increased. This paper examines criminal justice expenditure in different parts of the system, in an attempt to discover whether there are patterns to global criminal justice expenditure. The author concludes that criminal justice expenditure is more concerned with political and ideological objectives than with feasible criminal justice outcomes.
Institutional Resistance Against Prisoners' Rights
Authors: FEEST JOHANNES
Published: January 2009

Abstract: Empirical research shows that many prisoners in Germany take their governors to court. But only very few of these prisoners succeed in getting what they want. While such court interventions help to clarify important points of law, they are not very helpful for prisoners in their day‐to‐day conflicts with the prison administration. Here, some sort of ombudsperson is still high on demand.
The Depth of Imprisonment and Prisonization: Levels of Security and Prisoners' Anticipation of Future Violence
Authors: STEVENS DENNIS J.
Published: January 2009

Abstract: It was hypothesised that prison inmates assimilate into a normative prison culture comprised of violence producing admissions of future crime. Thus, 462 inmates in three dqferent custody level prisons and a control group of 126 university students were surveyed. Results show that non‐violent offenders in high custody facilities admit that they might commit violent crime, once released. However, violent offenders in a work release centre claim that violent crime is not an option for them. A conclusion arising from these findings is that organisational membership impacts attitudes; also high custody prisons are sources of violence leading to higher violent crime rates. Further research needs to be done on the relationship between custodial regime and future inmate crime.
Correctional Administrators' Accounts of Their Work Worlds
Authors: Stojkovic Stan
Published: January 2009

Abstract: Correctional administrator's portrayals of the problematic character of prison administration are analysed as rhetoric designed to justify their behaviours in light of practical realities. The study is based on the daily activities of correctional administrators within a maximum‐security prison. All administrative staff within the prison were interviewed for the study. The analysis considers how prison administrators portrayed their work worlds, and more importantly, examines the decoupling of administrative staff on key issues faced by them. The paper concludes with a discussion of how rhetorical analysis is useful to a more complete understanding of prison administration.
Longitudinal Aspects of Reconviction: Secure and Open Intervention with Juvenile Offenders in Northern Ireland
Authors: Curran Damian , Kilpatrick Rosemary , Young Valerie , Wilson David
Published: January 2009

Abstract: This study examines baseline and comparative serious offending among a large sample of 592 male juvenile offenders sentenced to secure and open forms of residential custody in Northern Ireland training schools. Analysis of baseline offending reveals no significant difference in prior seriousness of offending between juvenile offenders placed in secure custody compared to open residential custody. Trend analyses of subsequent reconviction show that the additional level of reconviction associated with secure custody is of the magnitude of 7% to 15% at one and three yearfollow‐up periods. Other findings show that shorter lengths of stay in custody are associated with lower levels of subsequent reconviction; that for both forms of custody lower rates of reconviction are associated with juveniles who commit crimes of violence or sexual offences and higher rates of reconviction are associated with those juveniles who commit motoring offences or theft; longitudinally, as adults, there is a high level of persistent offending among these former juvenile offenders with an increasing proportion (20%) engaging in violent crime.
Juvenile‐Adult Differences in Criminal Justice: Evidence from the United Nations Crime Survey
Authors: PEASE KEN , TSELONI ANDROMACHI
Published: January 2009

Abstract: This analysis is concerned with juvenile/adult ratios of males and females at different stages of the criminal justice system, that is, apprehension, prosecution, conviction and imprisonment for the year 1975 and suspicion, prosecution, conviction, admission to prison and prison population in 1980 and 1986. Data from the Second and Third United Nations Crime Surveys, which covered about 90 countries, are employed. To counteract national age and gender population differences, in addition to raw ones, weighted ratios are examined. The study addresses three questions: (i) Is there any national distinctiveness in filtering out juveniles at different stages of the criminal justice system? (ii) Does a worldwide tendency exist in filtering out juveniles? and (iii) Is the gender of juveniles an influencing factor of the general practice for filtering out and, if so, at which particular stages of the system? A non‐parametric statistical method, the sign test, is used to check upon the validity of the results.
Parents of Young People in Trouble
Authors: DRAKEFORD MARK
Published: January 2009

Abstract: The parents of young people in trouble have long been blamed for the anti‐social conduct of their children. For courts in England and Wales the 1991 Act introduces new specific powers to punish such parents. This paper provides evidence from a small‐scale exploratory study, that while in theory such powers are widely regarded as unhelpful, in practice they might be more fully used than anticipated. The knowledge and understanding of both sentencers and parents are set out and their contrasting views explored. A conclusion is developed which suggests that rather than promoting parental responsibility the 1991 measures are more likely to undermine and embitter those upon whom they are imposed.
Lost in the Myths of Crime: The Use of Penal Custody for Male Juveniles, 1969 to 1993
Authors: GODFREY DAVID
Published: January 2009

Abstract: This paper considers published material on the use of penal custody for male offenders aged 14 to 16 years in the period from implementation of the 1969 Children and Young Persons Act until the Home Secretary's 1993 announcement of a new provision of secure training orders. It is shown that the decline of residential care in the 1970s contributed to a dramatic increase in the use of penal custody, despite growing criticism of both the level of incarceration and the institutional regimes provided. The ‘tough’ approach of the incoming government in 1979 is shown to have led to a trend away from the use of detention centres, and subsequently to a more general decarceration, both of which were entirely contrary to expectations. The conclusion is offered that a ‘liberal’ policy may be possible only when governments are confident in their own strength and have no need to demonstrate their ‘toughness’.
Am Tropf Russlands? Ein Konzept zur empirischen Messung von Energieversorgungssicherheit
Authors: Frondel Manuel , Schmidt Christoph M.
Published: January 2009

Along with the oil price, concerns about the security of energy supply have soared once again in recent years. Yet, more than 30 years after the OPEC oil embargo in 1973, energy security still remains a diffuse concept. This article conceives a statistical indicator that aims at characterizing the long-term energy supply risk of nations that are heavily dependent on energy imports. Our indicator condenses the bulk of empirical information on the imports of fossil fuels originating from a multitude of export countries as well as data on the indigenous contribution to the domestic energy supply, thereby providing us with a single parameter. Applying the proposed concept to empirical energy data on Germany (1980-2004), we find that the energy supply risk has increased substantially since the 1970s. This outcome is mainly due to the drastic raise of oil and gas imports from Russia.
The future of psychotherapy for mentally ill children and adolescents
Authors: March John S.
Published: January 2009

Objective:  Given striking advances in translational developmental neuroscience and its convergence with developmental psychopathology and developmental epidemiology, it is now clear that mental illnesses are best thought of as neurodevelopmental disorders. This simple fact has enormous implications for the nature and organization of psychotherapy for mentally ill children, adolescents and adults.

Method:  This article reviews the ‘trajectory’ of psychosocial interventions in pediatric psychiatry, and makes some general predictions about where this field is heading over the next several decades.

Results:  Driven largely by scientific advances in molecular, cellular and systems neuroscience, psychotherapy in the future will focus less on personal narratives and more on the developing brain. In place of disorders as intervention targets, modularized psychosocial treatment components derived from current cognitive‐behavior therapies will target corresponding central nervous system (CNS) information processes and their functional behavioral consequences. Either preventive or rehabilitative, the goal of psychotherapy will be to promote development along typical developmental trajectories. In place of guilds, psychotherapy will be organized professionally much as physical therapy is organized today. As with other forms of increasingly personalized health care, internet‐based delivery of psychotherapy will become commonplace.

Conclusion:  Informed by the new field of translational developmental neuroscience, psychotherapy in the future will take aim at the developing brain in a service delivery model that closely resembles the place and role of psychosocial interventions in the rest of medicine. Getting there will be, as they say, interesting.
JCPP – The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry: a history from the inside
Authors: Berger Michael , Hersov Lionel
Published: January 2009

As the JCPP marks its 50th year of publication, this paper revisits the founding philosophy and traces the journey from the first issue through to the present. The history of the JCPP reflects the many changes that have come about in the fields of developmental psychology and child and adolescent psychiatry and the changes introduced both to meet the needs and shape the practices of clinicians and researchers. It documents the achievements of the Journal and the contributions made by many in enabling its success. As the JCPP moves forward it will enjoy the benefits of the major technological and other advances being made in research, in the evolving and expanding knowledge base, and in the modes of publication, as well as needing to manage the associated challenges that will inevitably impact on its future.
Age, physical fitness, and attention: P3a and P3b
Authors: Pontifex Matthew B. , Hillman Charles H. , Polich John
Published: January 2009

The influence of age and fitness on the neuroelectric correlates of attentional orienting and processing during stimulus discrimination were investigated. Younger and older adult participants completed a maximal aerobic exercise test and were separated into higher‐ and lower‐fit groups according to their cardiorespiratory fitness. Task performance and event‐related potential measures were obtained during two‐ and three‐stimulus oddball tasks. Results indicated that fitness may ameliorate or protect against cognitive aging for simple stimulus discriminations. Increases in task difficulty indicated that fitness may not be sufficient to overcome age‐related deficits in stimulus discrimination. Further, fitness did not influence attentional orienting. The findings suggest that fitness‐related changes in cognitive function may originate from other attentional mechanisms. Theoretical implications are discussed.
Professor of Sociology at Sophia University.
Authors: Meguro Yoriko
Published: January 2009

Abstract  Is the family in industrial Japan the same modern conjugal family created by the Industrial Revolution and the modern welfare state of the west? Is it also shifting toward a post‐modern family? This paper attempts to analyze the nature of family changes in Japan by using the “individualization model.” The Japanese family experienced the first wave of change in the first two decades after the world war II from the prewar patriarchal stem family to the modern conjugal family. It is undergoing the second wave of change since the mid 1980s which is characterized as the process of individualization or diversification of the modern family. Though we observe phenomenal changes in contemporary Japan, the family system based on distinct gender roles will not lose its ground unless the industry‐oriented family policy and family‐based welfare policy become more individual‐based.
Cultural Change and Gender Identity Trends in the 1970s and 1980s
Authors: Ito Kimio
Published: January 2009

Abstract  As in most capitalist countries, the advent of the “consumer society” has brought about radical cultural change in Japanese society. In this paper I aim to illustrate the undercurrents of this change, focusing on the transformation of social consciousness and gender identity as it is reflected in the popular and youth cultures. In order to show these changes, I have sellected several bestsellers from youth fictions (sekhun‐shousetsu) as my main object of study and have presented several diagrams to illustrate the apparent relationship between this type of fictions and the so‐called “aprgs‐guerre” generation, the “gang of sun,” the “baby‐boomers,” the “moratorium generation,” the “mutant generation.” While analyzing the historical trend of youth fiction for the last 45 years and refering to the other types of popular culture (films, popular songs, comics etc.), I shall attempt to throw light upon the substance of these changes and predict what directions the Japanese culture is likely to take in the future.