bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
Science and Scientific Inquiry in Aristotle: A Platonic Provenance
Authors: Bolton Robert
Published: February 2014

Aristotle's word for science is epistêmê, which has at least a dual use in the Greek of his day and is standardly used, in one way, as a count noun, to mean “a science.” Thus, in this usage, one can say that geometry, or phusikê (natural science), or metaphysics is (an) epistêmê, a science. Here the term epistêmê designates a special sort of systematic body of truth or fact that may or may not have yet been discovered, or fully discovered. In Plato's Protagoras (352cff.), Socrates uses the term epistêmê for knowledge of the particular right moral action to perform on some specific occasion and he is followed in this use of the term by Aristotle in Nicomachean Ethics VII.2 (1145b21ff.). Aristotle claims that scientific principles are reached by induction (epagogê).
Aristotle's Categorial Scheme
Authors: Studtmann Paul
Published: February 2014

Aristotle's categorial scheme had an unparalleled effect not only on his own philosophical system, but also on the systems of many of the greatest philosophers in the Western tradition. The set of doctrines in the Categories, known as categorialism, play, for instance, a central role in Aristotle's discussion of change in the Physics, in the science of being qua being in the Metaphysics, and in the rejection of Platonic ethics in the Nicomachean Ethics. Plainly, the enterprise of categorialism inaugurated by Aristotle runs deep in the philosophical psyche. Even so, despite its wide-reaching influence—and, indeed owing to that influence—any attempt to describe categorialism faces a significant difficulty: experts disagree on many of its most important and fundamental aspects. This article argues that Aristotle's categorial scheme, as is the case with many works in the history of philosophy, is best illuminated by opposing beams of interpretive light. It examines how Aristotle arrived at his list of categories and considers the connection between Aristotle's categories and his hylomorphism.
Aristotle's Logic
Authors: Crivelli Paolo
Published: February 2014

Aristotle created logic and developed it to a level of great sophistication. There was nothing there before; and it took more than two millennia for something better to come around. The astonishment experienced by readers of the Prior Analytics, the most important of Aristotle's works that present the discipline, is comparable to that of an explorer discovering a cathedral in a desert. This article explains and evaluates some of Aristotle's views about propositions and syllogisms. The most important omission is the difficult subject of syllogisms involving modalities. Aristotle distinguishes two relations of opposition that can obtain between propositions with the same subject- and predicate-expressions: contrariety and contradiction. In every canonical syllogism, one term is common to the two premises: it is called “middle term,” or simply “middle.” The remaining two terms of the premises are the only ones occurring in the conclusion: they are called “extreme terms,” or simply “extremes.”
Teleological Causation
Authors: Charles David
Published: February 2014

Aristotle introduces the fourth cause, the teleological cause, in Physics II 3, based on the idea of something's being for the sake of a goal: the good to be achieved. The goal causes an activity to occur or an instrument to exist. They happen or exist because of some good that results from them. While Aristotle discerns teleological causation in a wide range of cases, these passages contain his key thought. Some things happen or exist because of some further good they help to produce. Aristotle's use of the teleological cause constitutes one of the most distinctive aspects of his philosophy. Hypothetical necessity is appropriate in characterizing teleological causation. In the Physics, Aristotle compares craft and nature as teleological causes. Many philosophers reject his account of rational agents as acting on the basis of their sensitivity to what is in fact good for them. Many more will not accept Aristotle's account of teleological causation as applied to natures and organisms.
EnergeiaandDunamis
Authors: Makin Stephen
Published: February 2014

Modalities enter into practically every area of contemporary philosophy. Great progress has been made in understanding the variety of differences between what is possible, what is actual, and what is necessary. But things were not always so clear. We owe a great debt in this area, as in so many others, to Aristotle, who had a lot to say on the topic, part of which comprises his discussion and use of the actuality/potentiality distinction. One important task in understanding his discussion of actuality and potentiality is locating the distinction within the wider area of modality in general. One very general area in which modalities are significant is the assessment of arguments. Aristotle provides us with the basics of a modal logic, and in Metaphysics V 12, treats the family of modal notions expressed by the Greek noun dunamis and its cognates. This article explores his account of energeia and dunamis, matter and substance, capacities, natures, and dispositions.
Aristotle's Theology
Authors: Menn Stephen
Published: February 2014

When Aristotle speaks of theologikê, he means not the study of a single God, but the study of gods and divine things in general. He never uses the phrase “the unmoved mover” to pick out just one being (or even to pick out the many movers of the heavenly spheres), and that phrase would not express the essence of the beings it applies to. To see what sort of religious interest there might be in such a being, and how the words “god” and “divine” enter into Aristotle's philosophy, it is best to start with what he says about gods and divine things in moral and political contexts. Guided by his criticisms of Plato on the soul's self-motion, Aristotle sets out, in Physics VIII, to give a revised version of Plato's cosmotheological argument in Laws X. This article focuses on Aristotle's theology and his views about gods, the soul, the cosmos, heavens and heavenly bodies, and the first principle or first cause.
Aristotle's Philosophy of Mathematics
Authors: Bostock David
Published: February 2014

Much of Aristotle's thought developed in reaction to Plato's views, and this is certainly true of his philosophy of mathematics. To judge from his dialogue, the Meno, the first thing that struck Plato as an interesting and important feature of mathematics was its epistemology: in this subject we can apparently just “draw knowledge out of ourselves.” Aristotle certainly thinks that Plato was wrong to “separate” the objects of mathematics from the familiar objects that we experience in this world. His main arguments on this point are in Chapter 2 of Book XIII of the Metaphysics. There are three distinct lines of argument: The first concerns the objects of geometry (that is, points, lines, planes, and solids); the second deals with the Platonist principles which are applied to arithmetic and geometry; the third is about substance as living things, especially animals, and perhaps man in particular. In addition to the above, this article also examines Aristotle's treatment of infinity.
Aristocratic Economies
Authors: Drell Joanna
Published: February 2014

This essay examines the economic activities and "work" of aristocratic women, c.1000–c.1400. Despite the limitations posed by law, custom, and social expectation, women played a central role in preserving and transferring family wealth through marriage, gifts, and inheritance. They were equally crucial in matters of household and estate management. Both older and recent scholarship explores the complexity of the woman's experience within the European family. Her role was neither rigidly static nor in perpetual flux. The diversity of a woman's economic responsibilities and her influence in the family reveal the inherent flexibility of the medieval family, once considered staunchly patriarchal. While some have argued that the patrilineal descent group was narrowing in this period, medieval families devised strategies to preserve the integrity of their holdings and to provide for a range of kin, regardless of gender.
The Gender of the Religious: Wo/Men and the Invention of Monasticism
Authors: Diem Albrecht
Published: February 2014

This article analyzes the different textual techniques that, by marginalizing female religious life, have created the common perception that female monasticism was a mere variant of a dominant male monastic model. As a counter to that common perception, I examine what female and male monasticism shared in the early middle ages, and I ask to what extent we can regard medieval monastic life as a sequence of unisex experiments, that is, experiments of communal religious life that were not predominantly determined by the gender of practitioners. I then show that many central aspects of medieval monasticism were more rooted in concepts derived from female religious life than from male traditions, especially male traditions derived from desert eremeticism. Figuratively spoken, the first “medieval monk” may have been a nun.
Caring for Gendered Bodies
Authors: Green Monica
Published: February 2014

Given the comparatively slow pace of human evolution, the body, as a biological entity, may be taken more or less as a historical constant during the past 1500 years. But every interaction with that body was mediated by culture, and thus gender analysis is a driving force in the expanding field of the history of health. This essay looks at how changing expectations of gender and knowledge shaped medical and surgical interventions in three circumstances: pregnancy; childbirth emergencies; and the care of intersexed persons. The field of the history of health is still rapidly expanding, and the perspectives of gender analysis are a major part of what is driving that expansion forward.
Conflicts Over Gender in Civic Courts
Authors: Lansing Carol
Published: February 2014

Civic court records are a rare source for medieval social experience and attitudes, including low-status people who do not appear in most records. Because the requirements for proof in Roman law included fama, reputation, and status, witnesses in court discussed and at times differed over which aspects of a person’s behavior determined their honesty and respectability. This could become an implicit debate over gender expectations. Can a concubine be considered an honest woman? The article explores a 1295 case in which a wealthy politician was charged with the rape of a woman who lived as a concubine. The case hinged on the complex medieval legal understandings of rape. It is also a vivid example of a power struggle waged in and out of the court, involving both bribery and judicial torture. Ultimately, it reveals how class and gender expectations for men and women influenced the court process.
Cultures of Devotion
Authors: Ashley Kathleen
Published: February 2014

Cultures of devotion in multiple forms were central to medieval lives, and because of their significance they became sites for defining and negotiating gender identities and issues. The essay first examines whether participation in communal rituals and popular devotion was open to women as well as to men. A second issue was the availability of membership for women in the religious orders, and a third was the relationship between male religious authorities and the women who sought a life of holiness, whether in or out of traditional communities. Other topics involve the gendered role of visual images and material objects in stimulating mystical experiences, and the role of devotional texts explicitly addressed to women. Finally, the essay takes up the destabilizing of gender identities in the language of medieval spirituality. In all cases, new paradigms and scholarship of the last forty years have challenged previous assertions about religious culture.
Devoted Holiness in the Lay World
Authors: Mulder-Bakker Anneke
Published: February 2014

The growing cities of late medieval northern Europe offered religiously gifted laypeople contexts in which to devote themselves fully to religion without having to leave the world or to take vows. Countless women, and a few men, lived as lay recluses and anchorites, secluded in the midst of cities; others pursued holiness in the private households of beguines, adherents of the Modern Devotion, or ascetic widows. These holy women and men were the innovative pioneers of a new lay spirituality. By studying about twenty spiritual biographies written by or about holy laywomen, this essay seeks to determine their involvement in religious culture and in the shared spirituality of the holy women (mulieres religiosae) and the faithful at large. It focuses on ascetic, devotional households; personal networks and confraternities; women's intellectual work; and the claiming, by some women, of religious authority.
Genders and Material Culture
Authors: French Katherine L.
Published: February 2014

The quickening economy of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries offered medieval people new goods, new markets, and new ways of expressing identity and respectability. The objects that men and women owned and used offer scholars an alternative view of their everyday life less encumbered by the rhetorical devices and clerical biases of so many literary works. However expanding material culture challenged existing values and changed behavior in ways we are only beginning to discern. These material possessions, whether they are clothing, cooking ware, or the rooms of a house, help us see women's agency, and the ways in which women and men negotiated space, personal interaction, and gender.
Gender in the Transition to Merchant Capitalism
Authors: Howell Martha
Published: February 2014

This essay argues that the slow transition from the commercial economy of the later Middle Ages to early modern merchant capitalism produced significant changes in gender roles and gender meanings for women and men from the middle and upper ranks of cities where commerce had found its most secure home. The changes in gender were filtered, however, through a public/private divide that had taken shape in such cities during the centuries closing the Middle Ages, making this a story not just about economy and gender, but also about sociopolitical space. As prosperous men and women in commercial cities of the era came to be newly positioned along the axis dividing the public from the private, both acquired a new class identity presaging much that would characterize bourgeois Europe.
The Bride of Christ, the “Male Woman,” and the Female Reader in Late Antiquity
Authors: Cooper Kate
Published: February 2014

Christian literature in late antiquity offered contrasting models of female sanctity, emphasizing alternately the gender ambiguity of the young woman dressed as a man, and the nuptial imagery of the bride of Christ. Three texts, the second-century Acts of Paul and Thecla, the fourth-century Letter 22 to Eustochium by Saint Jerome, and the fifth- or sixth-century Passion of Eugenia, illustrate contrasting ways of thinking about how Christian literature could allow a young woman to reinvent herself.
Jewish Traditions About Women and Gender Roles: From Rabbinic Teachings to Medieval Practice
Authors: Baskin Judith
Published: February 2014

Medieval Jewish attitudes about women's capacities, appropriate activities, and legal relationships with men emerged from the androcentric literature of the rabbinic movement (first seven centuries CE). While differences in customs developed in Spain (Sepharad), Western and Central Europe (Ashkenaz), and the Muslim Middle East and North Africa, rabbinic legislation ensured similar gender expectations and female exclusion from central roles in public worship and study and communal leadership in each milieu. Marriage contracts provided women with financial support following divorce or a husband's death. Prohibited from initiating divorce, some women found legal ways to leave untenable marriages. Economically successful women supported their households and sometimes used their wealth to enhance their communal roles and religious status. Many authors followed rabbinic precedent in defining women as sources of sexual temptation and ritual pollution. Mystics elevated marital sexuality as a model of divine communion, but demonization of the menstruant effectively excluded women from mystical circles.
Medicine and Natural Philosophy: Naturalistic Traditions
Authors: Park Katharine
Published: February 2014

This chapter sketches the evolution of writing on sex difference in Latin, Arabic, and Hebrew scholarship between the sixth and the late fifteenth centuries, focusing on natural philosophy and, especially, medical theory. It stresses the strong continuities in this textual tradition, which was based on the works of a small group of Greek authorities, of whom the most influential were Aristotle and Galen. At the same time, it describes differences in content and emphasis that resulted from the social orders, institutions, and faiths—Christianity, Islam, and Judaism—that shaped the viewpoints of the authors that contributed to it. The resulting narrative challenges accounts that reduce the variety and complexity of this story by invoking simplistic and misleading doctrines such as the “one-sex” body.
Slavery
Authors: McKee Sally
Published: February 2014

The potential for sexual service played a key role in the changing demand for slaves in medieval Europe. From the early Middle Ages on, the demand for male slaves declined while the market for female slaves rose. Although male and female slaves were vulnerable to sexual exploitation, only enslaved women's sexual service was tacitly sanctioned in the parts of Christian Europe where slavery was practiced. Their suitability for sexual service factored into their prices, in contrast to free domestic servants, whose wages were not influenced by their physical appearance. As a consequence of the common practice of slaves' sexual service in the cities where slavery was still practiced, the presence of children of slaves and masters in households gave rise to social pressures that diminished the demand for slaves within European households at the same time that slavery in European colonies was on the rise.
The Byzantine Body
Authors: Ringrose Kathryn
Published: February 2014

The Byzantines perceived the body as malleable, able to be changed to suit the needs of society. They also believed that the appearance of the outer body reflected the quality of the inner person's soul. As a result, bodily appearance became an important marker for gender, class, and moral worth. Within the religious community, sexuality represented the ungoverned worldliness of the body and abstention the purity of the soul. The Byzantines bridged the gap between the worldly and the ascetic by creating a new kind of man, the eunuch. The eunuch lived and worked outside the realities of family and clan and was believed to have special connections to the spiritual world. Because the Byzantines were so conscious of outward appearances, they regularly commented on the appearance and actions of eunuchs, ascribing to them the best and worst kinds of natures and, in turn, reflecting attitudes about their own bodies.
Women and Reform in the Central Middle Ages
Authors: Griffiths Fiona J.
Published: February 2014

This essay considers women's involvement in the various reform movements of the central Middle Ages: papal reform, monastic revival, and the general movement for spiritual renewal that inspired laywomen and laymen to adopt a religious life within the world. Recent scholarship has constructed reform as having either opposed women (associating all women with threats to priestly chastity and unleashing a powerful clerical misogyny) or largely ignored them (concerning itself primarily with masculinity). Drawing important insights from both approaches, this article combines considerations of women's experience within reform with men's perceptions of women and sexuality. Women were not absent from reform, nor were they necessarily opposed by it; rather, they were omnipresent as reformers themselves, as supporters of reform, as its opponents, and as its objects. They were also omnipresent in the rhetoric of reform, which adopted the language of sexuality and pollution to express reforming goals and define perceived opponents.
Audio-Visual Space in an Era of Technological Convergence
Authors: Stilwell Robynn J.
Published: February 2014

This article appears in the Oxford Handbook of New Audiovisual Aesthetics edited by John Richardson, Claudia Gorbman, and Carol Vernallis. While the commercial and sociological aspects of technological convergence have been discussed among scholars, producers, and consumers, this chapter explores the aesthetics of convergence and how the technological/historical/aesthetic conventions of distinctly different media can be used as “meta” gestures. Two multimedia products focusing on the same complex topic-climate change-are used to illustrate how audiovisual space is configured differently in “theatrical” and “cinematic” modes and how those spaces can create a higher level rhythm and texture. The film documentary An Inconvenient Truth alternates rhetorical theatrical and affective cinematic spaces. The three-part television series Climate Wars is markedly more complex and contrapuntal, “theatricalizing” the audience-screen relationship of cinema and deploying a dense, layered visual texture. The soundscape and visual field organize information from relatively straightforward, reinforcing “harmony"; to a counterpoint commenting on earlier documentaries; to streams of information that can overwhelm comprehension, creating affective “bursts” akin to musical stings.
Beyond Music
Authors: Cook Nicholas
Published: February 2014

This article appears in the Oxford Handbook of New Audiovisual Aesthetics edited by John Richardson, Claudia Gorbman, and Carol Vernallis. “Multimedia” is not simply a genre category but also a mentality. Aesthetic thinking has been conditioned by text-based approaches according to which meaning is inherent. By contrast, multimedia practice and theory are predicated on dynamic interaction of media and generation of emergent meaning in real time. Digital and Internet technologies have enabled significant extension of multimedia practices, transforming principles of montage and extreme intertextuality into a core cultural practice. The chapter illustrates this through a case study of the remix trio Eclectic Method, whose work ranges from Web-based multimedia to live performance and from subversion of copyright to innovative forms of marketing for multinational corporations. The chapter also considers the collision between such practices and intellectual property law, which identifies creativity with individual authorship. The media business has been based on the exploitation of intellectual property, but aesthetic and technological developments suggest that it is becoming a service industry.
Introduction
Authors: Richardson John , Gorbman Claudia
Published: February 2014

This article appears in the Oxford Handbook of New Audiovisual Aesthetics edited by John Richardson, Claudia Gorbman, and Carol Vernallis. This introduction frames the book by providing an overview of its authors' work and theorizing new audiovisual aesthetics.1 The first section reviews the current state of research on audiovisuality; it considers how the audiovisual landscape has changed and how new research might respond to these changes. The section attends closely to boundaries, as some of the most fundamental changes are occurring between or at the margins of conventional forms and categories. Immersion, participation, and sensory enrichment are among the core issues discussed in this section. The second section illuminates these observations via two case studies, on audiovisuality in the London 2012 Olympic Games and on the Chinese independent film The World. The final section describes fifteen key areas in which research on the audiovisual is currently being pursued.
Leaving Something to the Imagination
Authors: Hara Mariko , DeNora Tia
Published: February 2014

This article appears in the Oxford Handbook of New Audiovisual Aesthetics edited by John Richardson, Claudia Gorbman, and Carol Vernallis. This chapter suggests that an examination of “seeing through music” highlights the cross-sensory or synaesthetic dimension of perception and identification in naturally occurring settings. Using data from interviews with elderly Japanese people who recall their first encounters with the West and Western classical music, it then considers how musically led visualization may be part of how individuals imagine and then orient to phenomena that they may only encounter in the future. This process of virtual seeing highlights music’s role as a “prosthetic technology”—in this case, a tool for visual enhancement, which in turn may provide resources for future action, goals, and aspirations, for “seeing” and acting in and acting upon future events. Finally, to the extent that music enables one to envision the future, the chapter suggests how musical “visualization” can enable new learning.
Soundscapes of Istanbul in Turkish Film Soundtracks
Authors: Kytö Meri
Published: February 2014

This article appears in the Oxford Handbook of New Audiovisual Aesthetics edited by John Richardson, Claudia Gorbman, and Carol Vernallis. This chapter examines the changing relationships of sounds, places, and their cultural meanings in Turkish films located in Istanbul. Starting with a brief review of the historical context of Turkish film sound and sonic representations of Istanbul, the chapter then analyzes two recent films set in middle-class apartment homes, 11’e 10 kala and Uzak, which represent the auteur vein of new Turkish cinema. Both feature subtle and delicate sound design and evidence a form of heightened realism that contrasts with traditional approaches, shifting the focus of Istanbul’s soundscapes from public to private. Although the locations and characters of both these films are remarkably similar, their soundtracks differ in rendering the experience of urbanity and strategies of acoustic privacy by the transcoding of soundmarks and the use of transphonia in scenes.
Contextualizing Game Audio Aesthetics
Authors: Bridgett Rob
Published: February 2014

This article appears in the Oxford Handbook of New Audiovisual Aesthetics edited by John Richardson, Claudia Gorbman, and Carol Vernallis. This chapter is a reflective discourse on the aesthetics and production processes of sound in video games, not only from a technological perspective, but also from the viewpoint that video games are part of an ongoing cultural continuum that deeply involves cinema, music, and other media. The chapter takes the form of a meditative discussion on the practice, process, and craft of designing and directing interactive sound for a game, providing insight into some of the collaborative work that is involved in creating the overall effect of a finished soundtrack for a modern video game. The article makes specific reference to the role and thought processes of the audio director on the video game Scarface: The World is Yours (2006).
Sensory Aspects of Contemporary Cinema
Authors: Chion Michel
Published: February 2014

This article appears in the Oxford Handbook of New Audiovisual Aesthetics edited by John Richardson, Claudia Gorbman, and Carol Vernallis. Film in the digital era is increasingly developing as a sensory experience. Sounds and images together yield sensations that can approximate senses other than sight and hearing. Cinema can thus render (as distinct from reproduce) the coolness of the wet spray experienced by a fountain, for example, or speed, force, materiality, hollowness, heaviness, and so forth. At the same time, the nature of recording and filming takes sounds and images out of their real multisensory context and creates sensory isolates. Those who study film, games, and other audiovisual media should not to ignore their trans-sensory aspects.
The Emancipation of Music Video
Authors: Hearsum Paula , Inglis Ian
Published: February 2014

This article appears in the Oxford Handbook of New Audiovisual Aesthetics edited by John Richardson, Claudia Gorbman, and Carol Vernallis. Although YouTube is rightly acknowledged as one of the pivotal forms of social networking to have emerged in the last decade, relatively little attention has been paid to its specific impact on the form and content of music video. From its tentative beginnings in the 1970s, music video quickly established itself as one of the principal—and most powerful—components of the popular music industry. This chapter examines the ways in which the creative opportunities provided by YouTube’s overt democratization of modes of video production, presentation, and consumption have had economic, aesthetic, and political repercussions on popular music practices and have fundamentally shifted traditional understandings of supply and demand.
The End of Diegesis As We Know It?
Authors: Kassabian Anahid
Published: February 2014

This article appears in the Oxford Handbook of New Audiovisual Aesthetics edited by John Richardson, Claudia Gorbman, and Carol Vernallis. The distinction between diegetic and nondiegetic music and its critiques have become something of an industry in film music studies lately. There are articles, sections of journal issues, conference sessions, and other activities organized on the topic. As I argued in Hearing Film (2001), I have never found the terminology particularly useful, though as many have suggested, we can’t throw out all sense of the distinction that the vocabulary tries to describe. The problem, however, amps up exponentially when video games and Web sites are added to the mix. The use of music in “new media” challenges most of film music studies’ assumptions and presumptions, and these new practices demand new approaches and vocabulary. This chapter focuses on the challenges posed to film music studies models by digital media practices.
The Mutating Musical and the Sound of Music
Authors: Flinn Caryl
Published: February 2014

This article appears in the Oxford Handbook of New Audiovisual Aesthetics edited by John Richardson, Claudia Gorbman, and Carol Vernallis. Musicals have always enjoyed a rich cross-media history, and changing technologies help maintain that tradition. Today television and digital cultures offer compelling new generic formats. No longer large stage and screen productions, musicals now appear through smaller, decentralized forms and platforms, providing the premise of television series, reality shows, and music videos, or appearing as small performances on YouTube. This chapter follows the afterlife of the iconic film musical The Sound of Music (dir. Robert Wise, 1965) to explore how these new articulations—fragmented and less loyal to the original than previous revivals or reruns—create the potential for diverse and local audiences that the original musical never addressed. These “mutating musicals” can give rise to different, smaller-scale “utopias” and fantasies, affective by-products that reveal a genre whose parameters have grown looser and more capacious at the end of the twentieth century.
Sensitivity of Pythium irregulare, P. sylvaticum, and P. ultimum from Forest Nurseries to Mefenoxam and Fosetyl-Al, and Control of Pythium Damping-off
Authors: Weiland Jerry E. , Santamaria Luisa , Grünwald Niklaus J.
Published: February 2014

Mefenoxam and fosetyl-Al are common fungicides used to supplement disease control of Pythium damping-off and root rot in forest nurseries of the western United States. However, it is unknown whether fungicide-resistant Pythium isolates are present or whether new fungicide and biological treatments might also provide supplemental disease control. Isolates of Pythium irregulare, P. sylvaticum, and P. ultimum from three forest nurseries were evaluated for in vitro sensitivity to mefenoxam and fosetyl-Al. A greenhouse study was also conducted to assess efficacy of fungicide and biological treatments in Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) seedlings inoculated with Pythium dissotocum, P. irregulare, and P. ‘vipa’. P. irregulare was approximately three times less sensitive to mefenoxam (0.20 μg/ml) than P. sylvaticum (0.06 μg/ml) and P. ultimum (0.06 μg/ml), and two resistant isolates of P. ultimum were identified (≥311 μg/ml). All three Pythium spp. were similarly sensitive to fosetyl-Al (1,256 to 1,508 μg/ml) and no resistant isolates were found. In the disease control efficacy trial, both fosetyl-Al and phosphorous acid consistently provided good protection against damping-off caused by P. dissotocum, P. irregulare, and P. ‘vipa’. Other treatments, including mefenoxam, also provided good or intermediate protection but efficacy depended upon which Pythium sp. was used. Growers should consider rotating mefenoxam use with other fungicide chemistries or biological treatments to prevent further development and spread of mefenoxam-resistant isolates.
First Report of Puccinia triticina (Leaf Rust) Race FBPT on Wheat in South Africa
Authors: Terefe T. , Visser B. , Herselman L. , Selinga T. , Pretorius Z. A.
Published: February 2014

Eleven isolates of Puccinia triticina Erikss. collected from bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in the Western Cape during the 2010 annual rust survey were pathotyped to a race not previously recorded in South Africa. Replicated race analysis on seedlings of 16 Thatcher (Tc) near-isogenic differential lines at two rust laboratories confirmed avirulence (infection types [ITs] 0; to 2+) for lines with Lr1, Lr2a, Lr9, Lr11, Lr16, Lr24, and Lr26 and virulence (ITs 3 to 4) for lines with Lr2c, Lr3, Lr3ka, Lr10, Lr14a, Lr17, Lr18, Lr30, and LrB. Thatcher lines with LrB, Lr10, Lr14a, and Lr18 were added as the fourth set to the 12 original differential lines (1,2). This profile codes to race FBPT according to the North American system, and, based on these differentials, resembles a P. triticina isolate from Gwebi, Zimbabwe, in 2012 (Z. A. Pretorius, unpublished data). When additional single gene lines were tested with FBPT (race 3SA147 according to the ARC-Small Grain Institute rust notation procedure), lines with Lr2b, Lr15, Lr19, Lr20, Lr21, Lr25, Lr27+31, Lr28, Lr29, Lr32, Lr36, Lr38, Lr45, Lr47, Lr50, Lr51, and Lr52 were effective, whereas lines with Lr3bg, Lr23, Lr28, and Lr33 were ineffective. In adult plant tests in a greenhouse, Thatcher lines containing Lr12 (IT ;1c), Lr13 (IT ;1c), Lr22a (IT 1), Lr35 (IT ;1+), and Lr37 (IT ;1) were resistant, whereas Thatcher (Lr22b) was susceptible. Of 146 South African cultivars and lines infected as seedlings with 3SA147 (FBPT), 83% were resistant (IT ≤ 2) and 5% showed within-line variation. Entries showing compatible ITs with 3SA147 (FBPT) were also susceptible to either or both of 3SA133 (PDRS) and 3SA146 (MCDS). In addition, the new race was genotyped using 16 simple sequence repeat (SSR) primer-combinations (3). Three single pustule isolates of 3SA147 (FBPT) were identical and showed 82% and 76% similarity with the recently described races 3SA146 (MCDS) and 3SA145 (CCPS), respectively (4). Minimum spanning network analysis confirmed this close genetic relationship among the three races. However, since their virulence phenotypes differ, it is proposed that 3SA147 (FBPT) is not a stepwise mutation from either 3SA145 (CCPS) or 3SA146 (MCDS), but rather a foreign introduction into South Africa. As most current breeding lines and wheat cultivars are resistant, it is unlikely that race FBPT will threaten wheat production in South Africa, but its detection underlines the fact that new P. triticina variants have been occurring at regular intervals in the region.

References: (1) J. A. Kolmer et al. Austr. J. Agric. Res. 58:631, 2007. (2) D. L. Long and J. A. Kolmer. Plant Dis. 79:525, 1989. (3) L. J. Szabo and J. A. Kolmer. Mol. Ecol. Notes 7:708, 2007. (4) T. Terefe et al. Plant Dis. 95:611, 2011.
Association of ‘Candidatus Liberibacter solanacearum’ with a Vegetative Disorder of Celery in Spain and Development of a Real-Time PCR Method for Its Detection
Authors: Teresani Gabriela R. , Bertolini Edson , Alfaro-Fernández Ana , Martínez Carmen , Tanaka Francisco André Ossamu , Kitajima Elliot W. , Roselló Montserrat , Sanjuán Susana , Ferrándiz Juan Carlos , López María M. , Cambra Mariano , Font María Isabel
Published: February 2014

A new symptomatology was observed in celery (Apium graveolens) in Villena, Spain in 2008. Symptomatology included an abnormal amount of shoots per plant and curled stems. These vegetative disorders were associated with ‘Candidatus Liberibacter solanacearum’ and not with phytoplasmas. Samples from plant sap were immobilized on membranes based on the spot procedure and tested using a newly developed real-time polymerase chain reaction assay to detect ‘Ca. L. solanacearum’. Then, a test kit was developed and validated by intralaboratory assays with an accuracy of 100%. Bacterial-like cells with typical morphology of ‘Ca. Liberibacter’ were observed using electron microscopy in celery plant tissues. A fifth haplotype of ‘Ca. L. solanacearum’, named E, was identified in celery and in carrot after analyzing partial sequences of 16S and 50S ribosomal RNA genes. From our results, celery (family Apiaceae) can be listed as a new natural host of this emerging bacterium.
Verticillium dahliae Race 2-Specific PCR Reveals a High Frequency of Race 2 Strains in Commercial Spinach Seed Lots and Delineates Race Structure
Authors: Short Dylan P. G. , Gurung Suraj , Maruthachalam Karunakaran , Atallah Zahi K. , Subbarao Krishna V.
Published: February 2014

Two pathogenic races of Verticillium dahliae have been described on lettuce and tomato. Host resistance to race 1 is governed by plant immune receptors that recognize the race 1-specific fungal effector Ave1. Only partial resistance to race 2 exists in lettuce. Although polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays are available to identify race 1, no complementary test exists to positively identify race 2, except for lengthy pathogenicity assays on host differentials. Using the genome sequences of two isolates of V. dahliae, one each from races 1 and 2, we identified potential markers and PCR primers to distinguish the two races. Several primer pairs based on polymorphisms between the races were designed and tested on reference isolates of known race. One primer pair, VdR2F-VdR2R, consistently yielded a 256-bp amplicon in all race 2 isolates exclusively. We screened DNA from 677 V. dahliae isolates, including 340 from spinach seedlots, with the above primer pair and a previously published race 1-specific primer pair. DNA from isolates that did not amplify with race 1-specific PCRs amplified with the race 2-specific primers. To validate this, two differential lines of lettuce were inoculated with 53 arbitrarily selected isolates from spinach seed and their pathogenicity and virulence were assessed in a greenhouse. The reactions of the differential cultivars strongly supported the PCR data. V. dahliae race structure was investigated in crops in coastal California and elsewhere using primers specific to the two races. All artichoke isolates from California were race 1, whereas nearly all tomato isolates were race 2. Isolates from lettuce, pepper, and strawberry from California as well as isolates from spinach seed from two of four countries comprised both races, whereas only race 2 was observed in cotton, mint, olive, and potato. This highlights the importance of identifying resistance against race 2 in different hosts. The technique developed in this study will benefit studies in ecology, population biology, disease surveillance, and epidemiology at local and global scales, and resistance breeding against race 2 in lettuce and other crops.
Priming-Mediated Systemic Resistance in Cucumber Induced by Pseudomonas azotoformans GC-B19 and Paenibacillus elgii MM-B22 Against Colletotrichum orbiculare
Authors: Sang Mee Kyung , Kim Eui Nam , Han Gyung Deok , Kwack Min Sun , Jeun Yong Chull , Kim Ki Deok
Published: February 2014

Induced systemic resistance (ISR) can be activated by biotic agents, including root-associated beneficial bacteria to inhibit pathogen infection. We investigated priming-mediated ISR in cucumber induced by Pseudomonas azotoformans GC-B19 and Paenibacillus elgii MM-B22 against Colletotrichum orbiculare (causal fungus of anthracnose). In addition, we examined whether this ISR expression was bacterial density-dependent by assessing peroxidase activity in the presence and absence of the pathogen. As a result, root treatment with the ISR-eliciting strains GC-B19 and MM-B22 or the chemical inducer DL-β-amino-n-butyric acid (positive control) significantly inhibited fungal infection process (conidial germination and appressorium formation) and disease severity compared with the non-ISR-eliciting strain, Pseudomonas aeruginosa PK-B09 (negative control), and MgSO4 solution (untreated control). These treatments effectively induced rapid elicitation of hypersensitive reaction-like cell death with H2O2 generations, and accumulation of defense-related enzymes (β-1,3-glucanase, chitinase, and peroxidase) in cucumber leaves in the “primed” state against C. orbiculare. In addition, ISR expression was dependent on the bacterial cell density in the rhizosphere. This ISR expression was derived from the presence of sustained bacterial populations ranging from 104 to 106 cells/g of potting mix over a period of time after introduction of bacteria (106 to 1010 cells/g of potting mix) into the rhizosphere. Taken together, these results suggest that priming-mediated ISR against C. orbiculare in cucumber can be induced in a bacterial density-dependent manner by Pseudomonas azotoformans GC-B19 and Paenibacillus elgii MM-B22.
Biomechanical Effects of Human Lumbar Discography
Authors: Lipscomb Kristen E. , Sarigul-Klijn Nesrin , Klineberg Eric , Mohan Vivek
Published: February 2014

Study Design:

An experimental and computational finite element analysis of human lumbar spine discography and its resulting effects on disk biomechanics.

Objective:

To characterize the changes in stress and displacement of the human lumbar spine disks after puncture due to discography.

Summary of Background Data:

Discography of the intervertebral disk (IVD) may be used to diagnose pathology of the disk and determine whether it may be a source for chronic back pain. It has recently been suggested that discography may lead to IVD degeneration, and has been a cause of controversy among spine care physicians.

Materials and Methods:

Both in vivo experiment using cadaveric specimens and a finite element model of the same L3–L5 lumbar spine was developed using computed tomography scans. Discography was simulated in the model as an area in the disk affected by needle puncture. The material properties in the nucleus pulposus were adjusted to match experimental data both before and after puncture.

Results:

Puncture of the IVD leads to increased deformation and increased stresses in the annulus fibrosis region of the disk. Pressure in the nucleus pulposus was found to decrease after puncture. Experimental and computational results correlated well.

Conclusions:

Puncturing the IVD changes disk biomechanics and hence may lead to progressive spine degenerations in particular in the punctured disks.
Anxiety Associated with Asthma Exacerbations and Overuse of Medication: The Role of Cultural Competency
Authors: Horikawa Yousuke T. , Udaka Tina Y. , Crow Janet K. , Takayama John I. , Stein Martin T.
Published: February 2014

CASE: Toshi, a 14-year-old Japanese boy, had uncontrolled asthma after relocating from Japan with his family 1 year ago. In Japan, he was diagnosed with moderate, persistent asthma, which was controlled with salmeterol and albuterol on an as needed basis. Since moving to the United States, Toshi complained of frequent dyspnea.

Initially, he was seen by a Japanese physician who prescribed 200 mg of fluticasone 3 times a day and albuterol nebulization as needed. When Toshi came to the Pediatric Primary Care Clinic, he reported using his nebulizer up to 25 times daily. A physical examination revealed a thin, anxious, jittery, hypertensive, and tachycardic adolescent with hyperreflexia and dysmetria. Toshi complained of difficulty breathing, in the absence of wheezing or respiratory distress; peak flow recordings in the office were normal. Furthermore, he had a history of “panic attacks,” being a “worrier,” and stopped attending school, playing sports, and socializing over the past 6 months due to his “breathing difficulties.”

Citalopram was prescribed for anxiety, but the family's apprehension about mental health disorders led to resistance to treatment recommendations. With motivational interviewing and negotiation, Toshi and his family agreed to a trial of citalopram. Three months later, he no longer took fluticasone or albuterol. The tachycardia, hypertension, and neurological symptoms improved. As he gained weight and improved his strength, he attended classes and participated in sports.

A few months later, with improvement of his health, Toshi and his parents decided to discontinue citalopram. He then developed behaviors consistent with generalized anxiety and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Currently, his symptoms associated with anxiety have worsened, but he and his family are resistant to medication or initiating cognitive behavioral therapy due to their cultural beliefs regarding mental health disorders.
Applications of next-generation sequencing to unravelling the evolutionary history of algae
Authors: Kim Kyeong Mi , Park Jun-Hyung , Bhattacharya Debashish , Yoon Hwan Su
Published: February 2014

First-generation Sanger DNA sequencing revolutionized science over the past three decades and the current next-generation sequencing (NGS) technology has opened the doors to the next phase in the sequencing revolution. Using NGS, scientists are able to sequence entire genomes and to generate extensive transcriptome data from diverse photosynthetic eukaryotes in a timely and cost-effective manner. Genome data in particular shed light on the complicated evolutionary history of algae that form the basis of the food chain in many environments. In the Eukaryotic Tree of Life, the fact that photosynthetic lineages are positioned in four supergroups has important evolutionary consequences. We now know that the story of eukaryotic photosynthesis unfolds with a primary endosymbiosis between an ancestral heterotrophic protist and a captured cyanobacterium that gave rise to the glaucophytes, red algae and Viridiplantae (green algae and land plants). These primary plastids were then transferred to other eukaryotic groups through secondary endosymbiosis. A red alga was captured by the ancestor(s) of the stramenopiles, alveolates (dinoflagellates, apicomplexa, chromeridae), cryptophytes and haptophytes, whereas green algae were captured independently by the common ancestors of the euglenophytes and chlorarachniophytes. A separate case of primary endosymbiosis is found in the filose amoeba Paulinella chromatophora, which has at least nine heterotrophic sister species. Paulinella genome data provide detailed insights into the early stages of plastid establishment. Therefore, genome data produced by NGS have provided many novel insights into the taxonomy, phylogeny and evolutionary history of photosynthetic eukaryotes.