bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Notion of Heresy in Greek Literature in the Second and Third Centuries
Authors: Le Boulluec Alain
Published: August 2022

This book was born of an interest in debates about ‘gnosis’. The subject was inspired by certain analogies between the construction of heresy and the representation of madness described by Michel Foucault in Histoire de la folie à l’âge classique (Madness and Civilization). In different periods one can discern the decision to separate normal from abnormal, the suppression of the voice of the other, the constitution of rationality by means of exclusion. An examination of the ancient sources, on the other hand, confirmed the reversal in the pioneering work of Walter Bauer (1934). Contrary to the thesis canonized by Eusebius of Caesarea, at the beginning there was no doctrinal unanimity in a simple and pure church, but rather a manifest pluralism. Yet Bauer’s book ironically perpetuated the ‘orthodox’ essentialist view that the categories ‘heresy’ and ‘orthodoxy’ represent fixed entities. This investigation aims to demonstrate how the concept of heresy emerges in Justin Martyr, at a time when the very means to diminish conflicts were themselves diverse. This invention creates a concept capable of dominating every current suspected of endangering ecclesial harmony. This polemical tool transforms the tradition of Greek historiography of philosophical schools, by combining it with the apocalyptic theme of diabolical conspiracy. This model is refined by Irenaeus, then modified by Clement of Alexandria and Origen, who are closer to the philosophers. They do not reject everything that comes from ‘heretics’, even as they give pride of place to Greek philosophy. The analysis of the rhetorical processes of refutation also bears on the rules of biblical interpretation put in place to govern exegesis.
Introduction
Authors: Boulluec Alain Le
Published: August 2022

Two facts, pointing in complementary directions, have profoundly affected the progress of contemporary research in heresiology. One is the discovery in Upper Egypt of the Nag Hammadi library of gnostic writings. The other is the renewal of the problematization defined by Walter Bauer’s book, Rechtgläubigkeit und Ketzerei im ältesten Christentum, which appeared in 1934. Confining ourselves to the study of ‘heresiological representations’, we identify heresy as a contingent construct and we are in a better place to appreciate the historical circumstances of the appearance of this concept and its entirely relative status. Heresiological representations are tightly connected to the rules of exclusion which are the inevitable corollary of norms of belonging. They constitute an important part of the justification of ideological order which tends to reinforce the institutional functioning of processes of eviction and control of the compliance of Church members.
The Conflict of Interpretations
Authors: Boulluec Alain Le
Published: August 2022

Scripture and its interpretation played a key role in the discourse about factions in the second century. Before Justin, Clement of Rome, the Epistle of Barnabas, and Ignatius of Antioch engage in agonistic scriptural interpretation, but Justin marks a new departure in anti-heretical deployment of scriptural interpretation. In answer to Justin’s arguments, Ptolemy’s Letter to Flora offers a sophisticated attempt to provide a hermeneutical rationale for a differentiated approach to scripture. Tatian and Theophilus of Antioch may also participate in anti-heretical exegetical debates, although the evidence is not always entirely clear. Irenaeus for his part is the first to insist with equal emphasis upon the polemical representation of heretical exegesis and the norms designed to fight methodically against opposing interpretations. The formal definition which he gives to the dispute serves as a model to his successors, by emphasizing the authority of a New Testament in progress.
Clement of Alexandria’s ‘Liberalism’ and Its Limits
Authors: Boulluec Alain Le
Published: August 2022

Clement’s predilection for Greek philosophy plays an important role in his heresiology. He draws an analogy between heretical groups and Greek philosophical sects (αἱρέσεις). This comparison enables Clement to condemn heresies for their imperfection and presumption. At the same time, Clement defends rhetorical dialectic as a servant of truth and employs its tools to identify and refute heretical errors, whilst accusing heretics of being sophists and poor philosophers. Clement’s passion for philosophy also engenders his ‘liberalism’, tempering his critique with a recognition of the presence of truth even in heretical teaching. This liberalism, however, has its limits, and heresy’s categorization is simplified into the two great tendencies of licentiousness and asceticism, and united in a common classification as excessive, blasphemous, and foreign. Further, in highlighting heresy’s otherness, Clement inadvertently reveals its original family relation to Christianity.
Origenian Reflections
Authors: Boulluec Alain Le
Published: August 2022

Origen is a witness to the power of the heresiological tradition that he inherits; at the same time, his intellectual vigour and originality shine through in places. The thesis of heresy’s necessity becomes a statement of its usefulness, just as what is distant highlights what is near, or what is dark reveals light. Heresy both belongs within Christianity and is simultaneously other than and excluded from it, and heresiology must oscillate between the twin poles of this paradox. In his context, Origen finds little use for the heresiological traditions regarding a succession of error stemming from Simon or philosophical schools, but instead develops a doctrinal classification of error. Heresy is incorporated within the definition of Christianity and thus obliterated as nothing more than an error to avoid. Yet there are glimpses of Origen’s perception of the dangerous potency of the label of ‘heresy’, in which he expresses a cautious hope for moderation.
Mastering the Revels
Authors: Dutton Richard
Published: August 2022

Mastering the Revels traces the measures taken by the governments of Elizabeth I, James I, and Charles I to regulate the new phenomenon of fixed playhouses and resident playing companies in London, and to censor their plays. It focuses on the Masters of the Revels, whose primary function was to seek out theatrical entertainment for the court but whose role expanded to include oversight of the players and their playhouses. The book proceeds chronologically, tracking each of the Masters in the period—Edmund Tilney (served 1579–1610), Sir George Buc (1610–1622), Sir John Astley (1622–1623) and Sir Henry Herbert (1623–1642). Tilney was the first to receive a Special Commission, giving him wide-ranging powers over the players. When Buc first became involved is examined here in detail, as is the parallel history of the Children of the Queen’s Revels who, between 1604 and 1608, staged some of the most scandalous plays of the era. Astley succeeded Buc, but soon sold the office to Herbert, who then served to the closing of the theatres. Manuscripts of plays censored by Tilney, Buc, and Herbert have survived and are examined in detail to assess their concerns. Large parts of Herbert’s office-book have also survived, giving detailed insights into his professional life, including interactions with both the court and the players. It reveals the difficulties he faced negotiating recurrent popular pressure for war against Spain, resistance to Archbishop Laud’s reforms of the church, and Henrietta Maria’s problematic presence as a Catholic queen to Charles I.
Transition and Transgression
Authors: Dutton Richard
Published: August 2022

James I takes all the leading companies under royal patronage. Tilney remains in post (overseeing the King’s, Prince’s and Queen’s Men, and Paul’s Boys), but the Children of the Queen’s Revels are given Samuel Daniel as their own licenser. That company stages the most scandalous run of plays of the whole period; Daniel sells out after a year. Speculation has suggested that Sir George Buc, who holds the reversion to succeed Tilney, may now have become involved in his licensing activities. This chapter argues that he eventually succeeded Daniel with the Queen’s Revels, but was not otherwise involved. He did, however, pick up the new role of licensing plays for the press. All these changes have been associated with a supposed relaxation in the censorship, but the chapter argues that any differences arise from the stability of the new regime and the promise of peaceful successions in the future.
Conclusions
Authors: Dutton Richard
Published: August 2022

The Conclusions briefly review the major themes of the book, advancing the Epigraph (from Massinger’s lost The King and the Subject) as paradigmatic of the censorship enforced by the Masters of the Revels. It reflects on the use in plays of ‘licensed fools’, comparing them with Archie Armstrong, an actual such fool at the courts of James I and Charles I who was permitted a similar freedom to express what might normally be suppressed. Plays that might be thought subversive or irreverent were performed at court and apparently enjoyed by the royals who saw them. A Spanish ambassador suggested that his royal master was so incomparably superior to those of ‘low condition’ who normally wrote and performed stage plays that he was incapable of taking offence from them; this did not, however, prevent the ambassador from registering offence on his king’s behalf. Many of the best-recorded examples of plays being subjected to censorship either were or might be diplomatically sensitive. The English Civil War brought to an end the unique role of Masters of the Revels in the reigns of Elizabeth, James I and Charles I, superintending the ‘licensed fools’ who so ingeniously exploited the freedom allowed by their royal masters.
Conceptions of Logical Consequence
Authors: Griffiths Owen , Paseau A.C.
Published: August 2022

Debates about logical consequence are typically motivated by the desire to capture ‘the intuitive concept of logical consequence’. The authors of One True Logic believe that there is a mistake here from the start. There is no single, well-behaved target for our precise definitions of logical consequence but rather a historical tangle of intuitions such as formality, necessity, and normativity. The chapter explores this history, and these features in particular, in order to get a clearer view of the target. A number of notable figures in the history of logic are considered: Philo, Bolzano, Quine, and especially Tarski, who receives extensive discussion.
Beyond the Finitary
Authors: Griffiths Owen , Paseau A.C.
Published: August 2022

This chapter offers bottom-up arguments for the L∞G∞S Hypothesis. It begins by tackling Quine’s influential concurrence argument that first-order logic’s privileged status comes from its axiomatizability before revealing the flaws in this argument. More positively, it argues for the L∞G∞S Hypothesis by considering the status of various generalized quantifiers. By considering arguments that witness the incompactness of consequence in natural language, the chapter proposes that the quantifier ‘there are infinitely many’ must be recognized as logical. This pushes us beyond first-order logic. How far beyond? By considering generalizations of the argument, and the goals of the applied logician, it is argued that this line of reasoning takes us to the L∞G∞S Hypothesis.
Towards the One True Logic
Authors: Griffiths Owen , Paseau A.C.
Published: August 2022

It has been shown so far that the top-down and bottom-up arguments converge on the L∞G∞S Hypothesis. It follows that the one true logic’s sort is maximally infinitary. In this chapter, a number of loose ends are tidied up. First, the issue of the one true logic’s type is considered. Second, the dependence of our account on a theory of models is discussed. Third, the mathematical consequences of the L∞G∞S Hypothesis are debated.
Self-Consciousness and Self-Division in Moral Psychology
Authors: Moran Richard
Published: August 2022

In moral psychology, the human capacity for self-consciousness is often seen as central to critical reflection and with that, to the difference between being simply moved to act and acting on reasons. In many representations of this capacity, however, self-consciousness is described as a form of self-division or self-multiplication. On Christine Korsgaard’s view, self-consciousness is the capacity to “distance oneself” from the part of oneself one is self-conscious of, and it is this space opened up that makes it possible to act on reasons affirmed by the agent as such. This paper raises some questions about the conception of self-consciousness as form of separation or self-division that is shared by both Korsgaard and some of her critics, and argues that we can abandon this picture while still retaining what is important in the first-person perspective of the practical agent.
What Makes Weak-Willed Action Weak?
Authors: Schapiro Tamar
Published: August 2022

Most accounts of weak-willed action characterize it as an error in deliberation. The agent acts on the weaker rather than the stronger reason, or the partial rather than the all-things-considered ought, or something along those lines. That might capture the idea that weak-willed action is bad or wrong—perhaps even bad or wrong, by the agent’s own lights. But in what sense is weak-willed action weak? Weakness and strength are notions that we define in relation to some sort of force or pressure. The weak-willed agent is one who gives in to this pressure. But what, in principle, could pressure a free will? This paper argues that the only thing that can pressure a free will is the burden of freedom itself. To act in a weak-willed way is to flee the burden of one’s freedom. Weakness of will is not a mistake within deliberation, but rather a flight from it.
Integrity, Truth, and Value
Authors: Svavarsdóttir Sigrún
Published: August 2022

This paper argues that the virtue of integrity requires a cluster of mental dispositions that warrants the praise of being open-minded, thoughtful, and honest when figuring out what to believe and to what to commit (“the thoughtfulness condition on integrity”). Integrity is not only a matter of standing by one’s convictions and commitments in word and deed but also a matter of regulating these convictions and commitments in an open-minded, thoughtful, and honest manner. Insofar as there is a requirement that links integrity to truth and value, it is satisfied by meeting the thoughtfulness condition. The concern for truth and value distinctive of a person of integrity is an orientation toward truth and value that comes with dispositions to regulate one’s convictions and commitments in a thoughtful, open-minded, and honest manner. Alas, there is no guarantee that mental attitudes thus regulated succeed in fastening on truths and values.
Korsgaard on Responsibility
Authors: Scanlon T. M.
Published: August 2022

This paper is an examination of Christine Korsgaard’s view that responsibility should be understood in terms of something we do—holding a person responsible—rather than as an independent fact about a person. As background and contrast, the paper sets out and defends the view that questions about the conditions of moral responsibility are moral questions about the kind of facts about a person that can in principle have certain moral consequences, such as making moral reactive attitudes toward the person appropriate. It examines the idea, familiar from Strawson’s work, that the reasons for these reactive attitudes are grounded in our interpersonal relationships, and draws on this idea in interpreting Korsgaard’s view.
Linearity — an informal introduction
Authors: Lukas Andre
Published: August 2022

The basic reasons for the importance of linearity in mathematics and science are explained in elementary terms. The idea of linearity is introduced for simple two-component vectors and key features of linear algebra, including the relation between linear maps and matrices and linear systems of equations are explained in this simple setting.
Fields
Authors: Lukas Andre
Published: August 2022

The algebraic structure of fields is introduced and simple conlusions are draws from the field axioms. The notion of an ordering on fields is defined. Examples of fields, including finite fields, the rational and real numbers, and the complex numbers are discussed. Some basic features of polynomials are also covered.
Elementary vector space properties
Authors: Lukas Andre
Published: August 2022

Linear combinations, the span and linear independence of vectors and the concepts of basis and dimension are covered. Well-definedness of the dimension follows from the exchange lemma. Bases and dimensions of various vector spaces are determined.
Vector subspaces
Authors: Lukas Andre
Published: August 2022

The intersection and direct sum of vector subspaces is defined and a related dimension formula is shown. Quotient vector spaces are also constructed and a formula for their dimension is derived.
The dot product
Authors: Lukas Andre
Published: August 2022

The dot product on real coordinate vectors is introduced and it is shown that it is a bi-linear, symmetric and positive operation. It is used to introduce the Euklidean length and the Cauchy-Schwarz and triangle inequalities are proved. The notions of orthogonality and of an angle between two vector is defined. Basic index notation and the Kronecker delta symbol is introduced.
Introduction to linear maps
Authors: Lukas Andre
Published: August 2022

Basis properties of linear maps are studied, including existence and uniqueness, addition, scalar multiplication and composition and the inverse map. We introduce the vector space of homomorphisms and the general linear group. Coordinate maps and differential operators are introduced as examples of linear maps.
Basics of eigenvalues
Authors: Lukas Andre
Published: August 2022

The notion of eigenvalues and eigenvectors of linear maps is defined, as well as the degeneracy of eigenvalues. It is shown how eigenvalues can be computed from the characteristic polynomial of a linear map. The minimal polynomial of a linear map is introduced and the theorem of Cayley-Hamilton is proved.
EARTHRISE
Authors: Williams Mark , Zalasiewicz Jan
Published: August 2022

This chapter focuses on changing human understanding of life on Earth. It traverses the exploration of the Moon, the extinction of Neanderthals, and the hegemony achieved by Homo sapiens. Through observations ranging from Stone Age cave art to the Colosseum’s blood-drenched spectacles, the chapter discusses how human relations to animals seem to have evolved, with increasingly pervasive exploitation of animals and plants for food, power, and pleasure. The chapter then charts how scientific ideas of life of life have developed in biology and geology, from the early ideas of Aristotle and Lucretius, through Buffon and Humboldt, to the development of modern ideas of the biosphere through Vladimir Vernadsky and James Lovelock. Life is recognized as the key ingredient of the complex, self-regulating planet we call Earth.
THE BITE IN YOUR HAMBURGER
Authors: Williams Mark , Zalasiewicz Jan
Published: August 2022

This chapter explores the livestock living on Earth through the phenomenon of fast-food chains and hamburgers across the world. Cattle, sheep, pigs, goats, and other domesticated animals now far outweigh the Earth’s wild animals, while the many billions of chicken consumed by humans are by far the Earth’s most numerous bird. This unprecedented distortion of the Earth’s food web extends to the oceans, as overfishing has decimated fish populations, and aquaculture—with its own ecological costs—spreads rapidly across the world. The chapter ends by exploring means of relieving this intense ecological pressure, with potential solutions, ranging from eating less meat, to technological solutions for growing more food.
HOW DID WE GET HERE?
Authors: Martinho-Truswell Antone
Published: August 2022

This chapter discusses how Swedish biologist Carl Linnaeus’s system of taxonomy allowed the relationships between species that Charles Darwin discovered to be structured and described, and it is still used today, constantly modified and argued over as scientists gather better data about genetics, morphology, and history to reclassify and better describe organisms. Linnaeus’s initial reliance on how animals looked and behaved has given way to molecular taxonomy, which allows us to directly compare the DNA of living species to determine which ones are more closely related. The modern tree of the animal kingdom records the history of how animals grew from the first multicellular organisms into all the groups we know today. Biologists call this kind of tree a phylogeny, and it provides a visual representation of the relatedness of organisms. The chapter then looks at convergent evolution. Humans, and all primates, became more like birds with regard to our sleeping patterns and our senses through convergent evolution.
A LONG AND HAPPY LIFE
Authors: Martinho-Truswell Antone
Published: August 2022

This chapter examines how humans and birds both have long lifespans. For mammals, size tends to roughly correlate with longevity, and humans stick out as the major exception in this otherwise clean trend. Birds, like humans, break the pattern that links size with longevity. This is because humans and birds have a killer adaptation which allowed humans to survive and thrive longer than other animals. For the birds, flight is the reason—the fundamental and defining feature that extends their lives. It is also the reason that, for birds, the very largest species are not, in fact, the longest lived. Ostriches cannot fly, and so do not get that extra boost of longevity, and are beaten by the flying swans and cockatoos. If flight is the birds’ secret weapon for longevity, ours are our brains. What our big brains and our intelligence share with flight is that they empower us to be flexible.
BIRD BRAINS
Authors: Martinho-Truswell Antone
Published: August 2022

This chapter evaluates birds’ brains and intelligence. To make up for their smaller size, birds’ brains are efficient, cramming into very small spaces computing power more in line with much larger brain volumes. This spatial efficiency of birds’ brains is only the beginning of their bragging rights, and birds themselves are one of the stronger arguments against using straight brain size to measure intelligence. Intelligence is an incredible adaptation and it is a critical part of why humans are so successful and live so long. The chapter then considers how longevity and intelligence interact, another feature that humans share with many birds. Birds do not reach quite the heights of intelligence that humans do, but research suggests that just about every bird species has quite a formidable brain, capable of abstract reasoning. The most intelligent birds, like crows, show a remarkable similarity to our own primate relatives in their abilities.
LEARNING TO SING
Authors: Martinho-Truswell Antone
Published: August 2022

This chapter studies observational learning, or social learning, in both humans and birds. There is a type of learning from each other so rare and so impressive that it is one of the very few traits that some scientists still argue is completely unique to humans. This is the human ability to which only the birds even come close: language. There are three groups of birds that have been shown to be vocal learners: the parrots, the hummingbirds, and the songbirds—the passerines. The songbirds first emerged in Australia, and this is still where one can hear the oldest and most complex of their ‘languages’, that of the lyrebirds. Nevertheless, birdsong is not language. Nothing in the animal kingdom comes close to the nuance and complexity, the layered multi-dimensionality, the flexibility, or the scalability of human language. What we do share with many birds, however, is a system of communication that is learnt, and that relies on a shared understanding of sounds and a combination of sounds that are transmitted from parent to offspring through behaviour, not genetics.
Peasants and landscapes
Authors: Dyer Christopher
Published: August 2022

The west midland region is defined here as the counties of Gloucestershire, Warwickshire, and Worcestershire, three modern shires with origins before 1066. In this chapter, the region is characterized, with its rivers and hills, counties and dioceses, communications, and the landscape mapped in its various divisions of champion, woodland, wold, and forest. The key question is—who formed the landscape? After considering the role of lords, who for example created impressive settings for their residences, peasants are seen as important agents in clearing new land, participating in the planning of fields and settlements, and by abandoning their holdings, weakening villages in the period of population decline after 1350.
Family and household
Authors: Dyer Christopher
Published: August 2022

This chapter looks at households, which typically consisted of parents and children, amounting often to between four and six members, but variants could include siblings or members of the older generation, or unrelated individuals, most often servants. The inhabitants, or at least the head of the household, decided on the design of houses, which provided a varying degree of comfort. The character of family life depended on the norms and expectations of the church and the adult male heads of households. Expectations of discipline and hierarchy were designed to provide enough labour from household members, and to secure an orderly succession of property.
Peasants and their crops
Authors: Dyer Christopher
Published: August 2022

Peasants managed the land according to traditional ‘field systems’ which were subject to rules and in theory were difficult to change. In practice they overcame these obstacles to innovation, and fields were constantly being remodelled, with additions of new land, more intensive cropping, piecemeal enclosure, enclosure by agreement, and partial conversion to grazing. Crops varied across the region according to growing conditions and demand, leading to marked regional differences and changes over time. Horticulture and gathering made a significant contribution. Techniques were similarly variable and subject to improvement. The common interest, and that of individuals, were in constant tension, and every change met with some controversy and resistance, but often for good reason. The most important sustained change involved the shifting balance between arable and pasture.
Peasant farming
Authors: Dyer Christopher
Published: August 2022

Animals were kept for their utility for riding, carrying, and traction, for the contribution that they made to household diet, but also as an important source of cash. Wool, dairy produce, meat, surplus animals, skins, horns, tallow, wax, and honey were all sold, and animals were leased or hired out. Animals were managed by peasant family members, with specific roles for women, but also keeping them was delegated to common herds. Animal welfare in general posed many problems, including the provision of housing. Feeding livestock included contentious management of common grazing, and driving flocks and herds to distant pastures. Many methods were used to market animals and their products, involving complex networks of middlemen.
Peasants and towns
Authors: Dyer Christopher
Published: August 2022

Peasants played a large part in making towns. Towns were founded by lords who granted privileges and sometimes devised a street plan, but local people sometimes were first to settle at well-connected centres and begin to trade. The urban population consisted mainly of migrants from the country. Peasants kept urban markets supplied with their surplus produce, while peasant demand for manufacturers gave employment to urban artisans. Money and credit flowed back and forth between town and country. Continued peasant engagement with the market helped to keep towns afloat when reduced populations and trade slumps threatened their prosperity after 1400. Towns and villages were clearly different, but urban and rural cultures had some similarities. This chapter will examine peasant involvement in towns and assess the consequences of the interaction between town and country.
The Circumstances of Constitutional Pluralism
Authors: Mac Amhlaigh Cormac S.
Published: August 2022

This chapter introduces the types of issues which pose challenges for our contemporary constitutional theories which form the subject-matter of the book. It introduces the idea of the circumstances of constitutional pluralism as the features of the world which necessitate pluralist constitutional theories which it identifies as the fact of a plurality of applicable norms and institutional authority claims over the same set of individuals as well as disagreement surrounding the concept of constitutionalism and whether, and the extent to which, it can be successfully ‘exported’ to the transnational level. It introduces the division of the book into two parts reflecting the particular puzzles that the circumstances of constitutional pluralism raise for ideas of plurality and pluralism, understood in terms of legality and legitimacy, respectively. The chapter also provides a short overview of the other chapters of the book.
The Possibility of Constitutional Plurality
Authors: Mac Amhlaigh Cormac S.
Published: August 2022

This first chapter to examine the circumstances of constitutional pluralism from the viewpoint of constitutional plurality looks at an objection to using the tools of legal theory to theorize this plurality. Legal theoretical accounts of legal systems have been critiqued for being incapable of accounting for law which is not the law of the state. The chapter examines the extent of this ‘plurality problem’ by breaking the charge down into three claims made against legal theory: a strong, an intermediate, and a weak claim. Analysing the problem along these lines, the chapter concludes that legal theory’s plurality problem is not particularly profound and that much of the resources of legal theory can be exploited to theorize constitutional plurality, a potential which is explored in the next chapter in respect of international law.
What’s Right with (Transnational) Constitutionalism?
Authors: Mac Amhlaigh Cormac S.
Published: August 2022

This chapter addresses the various critiques of constitutionalism and transnational constitutionalism as normative theories of legitimate authority considered in the previous two chapters. It outlines a general approach for a normative theory of (transnational) constitutionalism based on an ‘interpretive’ understanding of political value as developed in the work of Ronald Dworkin. On this approach, the concept of constitutionalism is best understood as an interpretive concept whereby disagreement about the concept of constitutionalism is understood in terms of rival interpretations of its political value as seen in its best light. This, in turn, leads to a holistic approach to political value drawing upon Dworkin’s related thesis of the unity of value. This general approach, the chapter concludes, provides a promising way of addressing the various critiques of (transnational) constitutionalism considered in the previous chapters and provides a solid foundation for a normative theory of transnational constitutional pluralism to address the legitimacy questions raised by the circumstances of constitutional pluralism.
The use ofnayra‘eye’ in Muylaq’ Aymara
Authors: Coler Matt , Kaal Bertie , Banegas-Flores Edwin
Published: August 2022

The chapter provides an analysis of the body-part word nayra ‘eye’ in a variant of Aymara spoken in the Peruvian village of Muylaque, known as Muylaq’ Aymara. The word nayra has a broad semantic range and provides a rich basis from which to consider the analogical and metaphoric interplay between time and its interdependency with space, in view of the evidential nature of spatial cognition and cultural variation in the way languages reflect how peoples ‘see’ their worlds. Original material used in this analysis facilitates reflection on narrativity and cultural aspects of worldview construction in Aymara. Using a theoretical perspective, the focus is on the epistemic qualities of timespace, or chronotope, as expressed in Muylaq’ Aymara in relation to the fundamental cognitive role of the eye in making sense. The analogical epistemic ground of the expressed world and its reference world allow temporal and spatial references to be regarded as representative of cognitive mediation between absolute realis, social realis, and imaginary realis. The problem is that time is neither a discrete category, nor is it always expressed verbally, but it is presumed as common knowledge. Nevertheless, time can be constructed lexically, linguistically, and metaphorically. We demonstrate that the notion of ‘chronotope’ fits the linguistic Aymara way of expressing present experience and past knowledge as a window on the here and now, while acknowledging the lack of evidential ground in future projections. Hence, knowledge is vision and is provided by the body part nayra (eye).
Body parts in Toba
Authors: Cúneo Paola , Messineo Cristina
Published: August 2022

This chapter examines different lexicalization patterns of body-part terms and their relation to the linguistic description of emotions in the Guaycuruan language Toba/Qom of the Gran Chaco. One interesting aspect is the semantic shift from the domain of the human body to the emotional domain. Both external (visible) and internal (not visible) body parts in Toba/Qom are used in expressions referring to attributes, states, and human behavior related to emotions and cognition. These expressions show regular patterns of lexicalization. Apart from analyzing the specific constructions in which the body-part nouns participate, this chapter also explores how this links to Toba/Qom people’s concept of person.
Tariana body parts in North Arawak perspective
Authors: Aikhenvald Alexandra Y.
Published: August 2022

In many languages, terms denoting parts of a human body have special grammatical properties. In Tariana, a North Arawak language from north-west Amazonia (Brazil), external and internal body parts are obligatorily, inalienably, possessed. They are used in double-object constructions, where the body part and its owner are both marked as objects. Terms for internal and external body parts can occur with classifiers in derivational function. Bodily fluids and detachable parts (such as ‘hair’) are treated as optionally possessed and do not participate in double-object constructions; they do not occur with classifiers. Of all the terms for internal body parts, only -kale ‘heart’ can refer to the locus of emotions and feelings, and the essence of a human being (notably in shamanic incantations); in this sense it has a number of special features. Unlike other body-part terms, including ‘heart’ as a physical part of human body, it cannot take classifiers; nor does it occur in double-object constructions. It occurs in double-subject constructions: ‘I am sad’ translates in Tariana as ‘My heart I-shrink’, where both ‘my heart’ and ‘I’ have subject properties. Differences in the grammatical behavior of the term ‘heart’ in its two distinct meanings reflect the ways in which the entity is conceptualized. Grammatical properties of internal and external body parts are then compared with their cognates in the closely related North Arawak languages Baniwa of Içana-Kurripako and Piapoco, within the context of the Arawak language family.
The grammar of body parts in Apurinã
Authors: Facundes Sidi , Freitas Marília , Lima-Padovani Bruna Fernanda
Published: August 2022

This chapter presents an analysis of body-part terms in Apurinã (Arawak), examining their morphosyntax and semantics. This language shares the same nonpossessive marker of other Arawak languages, preserves a possession-marking pattern that is likely to reconstruct to earlier stages in the family, with a clear alienable–inalienable distinction, where, in the second, body-part terms play a prominent role, with marking patterns distinct from those of kinship terms. Besides its contribution to improving knowledge of Apurinã and Arawak, the results presented here provide important data on the role of frequency in defining (in)alienability, on how constructions where meronyms recur possessed may grammaticalize into compounds with classificatory functions, and on how the class of body-part terms extends to other concepts.
Body-part nouns, prefixation, incorporation, and compounding in Panoan and Takanan
Authors: Zariquiey Roberto , Valenzuela Pilar M.
Published: August 2022

A fundamental open question in South American classificatory linguistics is whether the abundant lexical and grammatical affinities exhibited by the Pano and Takana languages from Western Amazonia are due to genetic inheritance or prolonged language contact. Although the proposal of a Pano-Takana stock has traditionally been accepted in the literature, it has since been disputed. In this chapter we show that several body-part nouns in proto-Pano and proto-Takana are not only very similar but exhibit regular sound correspondences. Furthermore, we claim that the similarities between body-part expressions in Pano and in Takana go beyond the mere lexicon. Although it is true that only Pano languages exhibit body-part prefixation, Takana languages feature body-part noun incorporation and compounding. We argue that Pano body-part prefixation can in fact be interpreted as a historical development from source constructions like body-part noun incorporation and compounding, as they are synchronically found in Takana. The lexical and gramatical correspondences found among body-part constructions in Pano and Takana languages provide new evidence in favor of the Pano-Takana hypothesis.
Trends
Authors: Potter Lois
Published: August 2022

Chapter 7 recognizes that the closure of theatres in 2020–21, the longest since the seventeenth century, encouraged some trends that had already become apparent in the theatre: the demand for more and better roles for women and actors from ethnic minorities, as well as for the representation in Shakespeare’s plays of non-binary sexual relationships. Identity politics calls in question the concept of acting as imitation or impersonation, sometimes arguing that certain characters should be played only by those who belong to the same category (neurodiverse, disabled, racial); the opposite has also been argued, particularly in the case of race. Many Shakespeare productions given on zoom during lockdown were even more inclusive in their casting than live theatre had been. That so many actors want to play Shakespeare is, the book concludes, the main reason why he is so widely performed.
The Scope and Aims of This Book
Authors: Tugby Matthew
Published: August 2022

This chapter introduces the notion of natural modality and sets out the aims of the book. After introducing the core metaphysical concepts used throughout the book, three main approaches to natural modality are distinguished, which are called the ‘mosaic’, ‘law-driven’, and ‘property-driven’ theories. After offering preliminary reasons for taking a property-driven approach, the chapter sets out the main features of the new property-driven theory that is to be developed in the book, called ‘Modal Platonism’. According to Modal Platonism, properties are universals which exist even if they are not instantiated. These universals ground the various modal relations in which they stand and are the metaphysical source of laws and behavioural dispositions.
The Platonic Theory of Dispositional Directedness
Authors: Tugby Matthew
Published: August 2022

This chapter motivates a Platonic theory of modality by arguing that it offers the most plausible account of dispositional directedness. According to those who take dispositions metaphysically seriously, dispositions have a built-in orientation toward their manifestations, as illustrated when we say that solubility is the disposition for dissolving, or that elasticity is the disposition for stretching. Many realists have found the relation of dispositional directedness to be mysterious, however, not least because a disposition can exist even if the associated manifestation is never instantiated. It is argued that the Platonic theory provides the best solution to this puzzle. On the Platonic picture, a manifestation universal can exist even if it is never instantiated, and thus Platonism can straightforwardly explain what it is that unmanifested dispositions are directed towards.
Objections and Replies
Authors: Tugby Matthew
Published: August 2022

This chapter addresses twelve potential objections to the core Modal Platonist theory developed in previous chapters. In doing so, the discussion further clarifies various aspects of Modal Platonism and shows how one can defend the theory. The objections, which are raised as if in a discussion with an imaginary interlocutor, cover issues relating to realism, reduction, the multiple realization of dispositions, the epistemology of properties and dispositions, Humeanism, grounding and explanation, meta-grounding, causal overdetermination, dispositional directedness, the Eleatic reality principle, and naturalism. The chapter shows that there are good replies at the Modal Platonist’s disposal, and identifies areas that would benefit from further investigation.
Instantiation and Repeatability
Authors: Tugby Matthew
Published: August 2022

This chapter addresses the so-called one over many problem, which challenges us to explain the phenomena of property instantiation and property repeatability. On the property-driven approach, the issues of property repeatability and natural modality are intimately connected, because the law-like patterns of dispositional behaviour in the world will depend on property repeatability. It is argued that Platonism is able to provide a good explanation for one over many facts. In developing this idea, it is argued that Platonic property instantiations are essentially dependent on the universals which are their (non-spatial) constituents. In contrast, the rival Aristotelian view of universals does not offer a satisfactory explanation for one over many phenomena, because such universals ontologically depend upon the very instantiation facts that they are supposed to explain.
Probabilistic Laws
Authors: Tugby Matthew
Published: August 2022

Natural modality theorists have a tendency to focus on cases involving deterministic dispositions and laws, but if some interpretations of physics are to be believed, some laws are probabilistic. This chapter argues that Modal Platonism is well placed to provide a satisfactory account of probabilistic laws and dispositions (propensities). The discussion begins by focusing on D. M. Armstrong’s theory of probabilistic laws. Although some aspects of Armstrong’s view are attractive, it is shown that Armstrong’s Aristotelian conception of universals creates serious difficulties. In particular, Armstrong’s theory struggles to accommodate so-called single-case probabilistic failures, which occur when a single-case chancy disposition fails to manifest what it is capable of. In contrast, these are problems which the property-driven Modal Platonist framework avoids.
Summary
Authors: Tugby Matthew
Published: August 2022

This chapter provides a brief summary of the main arguments and conclusions of earlier chapters, including: the introduction to the core metaphysical concepts used and the property-driven theory of Modal Platonism developed in the book; an overview of how Platonism can explain what it is that unmanifested dispositions are directed towards; arguments against the dominant ‘dispositionalist’ property-driven approaches; responses to potential objections to the book’s core theory; an overview of how Modal Platonism is well placed to provide a satisfactory account of probabilistic and functional laws; and the placement of Platonic theory of natural modality within the broader project of explaining all modal facts in terms of second-order relationships between Platonic properties.
Secrets of the Classical Electron
Authors: Jena Debdeep
Published: August 2022

This chapter discusses the following questions: • Why do metals conduct electricity and heat so well? • Why are metals shiny? • Why is the ratio of thermal and electrical conductivities a constant for most metals?
Damned Lies and Statistics
Authors: Jena Debdeep
Published: August 2022

This chapter discusses the following questions: • Why is it necessary to update the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution of particle energies? • How does quantum mechanics combined with thermodynamics lead to the Fermi-Dirac and the Bose-Einstein distributions? • What are the properties of the Fermi-Dirac and Bose-Einstein statistics that differ significantly from the classical Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics, and under what conditions are they the same? • When and how should we apply the quantum statistics in semiconductor materials and devices?
Red or Blue Pill: Befriending the Matrix
Authors: Jena Debdeep
Published: August 2022

This chapter discusses the following questions: • How does the expansion principle connect linear algebraic equations to matrices? • What is the connection between matrices and quantum mechanical eigenstates, eigenvalues, superpositions, and operators? • What are some special properties of matrices and how do we evaluate them in practice?
Perturbations to the Electron’s Freedom
Authors: Jena Debdeep
Published: August 2022

This chapter develops a matrix approach to perturbation theory to explain how to • Use simplifications of non-degenerate energy eigenvalue systems to develop non-matrix based, algebraic results of perturbation theory. • Become comfortable with the analytical Rayleigh-Schrodinger and Brillouin-Wigner non-degenerate perturbation theory results, and learn when to apply them. • Appreciate that the matrix version of perturbation theory is always applicable, both for degenerate and non-degenerate problems by applying it to examples in preparation of its use in semiconductors.
Electrons in a Crystal Get Their Bands, Gaps, and Masses
Authors: Jena Debdeep
Published: August 2022

This chapter discusses the following questions: • How are the free electron eigenfunctions and energy eigenvalues modified in a periodic potential of a crystal? • Which free electron states are most violently modified, and which states are left almost unaltered by the periodic potential? • How does the periodic potential change the continuum of allowed energies by introducing bands of allowed energies separated by energy gaps? • How do the electron energy states near the edges of allowed bands acquire an effective mass, and what are the concepts of electrons and holes?
k · p Bandstructure
Authors: Jena Debdeep
Published: August 2022

This chapter discusses the following questions: • How to view the electron momentum as a perturbation and map the bandstructure problem to the perturbation theory result of quantum mechanics, • Directly apply the results of perturbation theory to obtain the k · p bandstructure E(k) for semiconductors, • How symmetry of states and momentum matrix elements between the valence and conduction bands determine the curvature and effective mass of the bands, and reveal important relations between bandgaps and effective masses, and • How spin-orbit interaction is included in the semiconductor bandstructure.
1, 2, 3 …∞: Pseudopotentials and Exact Bandstructure
Authors: Jena Debdeep
Published: August 2022

This chapter discusses the following questions: • The exact solutions of the bandstructure of crystalline solids. • Pseudopotentials: what they are, why they work, and why they are so powerful. • Example calculations of full bandstructures of a few semiconductors (e.g. Silicon, GaAs, GaN) on a laptop. • Pseudopotentials as the precursor to density functional theory techniques for electronic bandstructure and beyond.