bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025 huggingface dataset:
The Drosophila Melanogaster Genome
Authors: Celniker Susan E. , Rubin Gerald M.
Published: September 2003

Drosophila's importance as a model organism made it an obvious choice to be among the first genomes sequenced, and the Release 1 sequence of the euchromatic portion of the genome was published in March 2000. This accomplishment demonstrated that a whole genome shotgun (WGS) strategy could produce a reliable metazoan genome sequence. Despite the attention to sequencing methods, the nucleotide sequence is just the starting point for genome-wide analyses; at a minimum, the genome sequence must be interpreted using expressed sequence tag (EST) and complementary DNA (cDNA) evidence and computational tools to identify genes and predict the structures of their RNA and protein products. The functions of these products and the manner in which their expression and activities are controlled must then be assessed—a much more challenging task with no clear endpoint that requires a wide variety of experimental and computational methods. We first review the current state of the Drosophila melanogaster genome sequence and its structural annotation and then briefly summarize some promising approaches that are being taken to achieve an initial functional annotation.
Molecular Pathogenesis of Pancreatic Cancer
Authors: Hansel Donna E. , Kern Scott E. , Hruban Ralph H.
Published: September 2003

Pancreatic cancer is an almost universally fatal disease, with a five-year survival rate of 5%. Research into both sporadic and inherited forms of pancreatic cancer has yielded tremendous advances in the understanding of this disease at the molecular level. Elucidating genetic alterations in pancreatic cancer has identified various abnormalities ranging from gross chromosomal abnormalities to point mutations, many of which influence the development and progression of pancreatic cancer. Identifying precursor lesions within pancreatic ducts has led to the formulation of a progression model of pancreatic cancer and subsequent identification of early- and late-stage changes leading to invasive cancer. Ultimately, understanding the genetic events underlying the development of pancreatic cancer may serve as a useful adjunct in the screening and treatment of patients suffering from, or at risk for, pancreatic cancer.
Human Nonsyndromic Sensorineural Deafness
Authors: Friedman Thomas B. , Griffith Andrew J.
Published: September 2003

Given the unique biological requirements of sound transduction and the selective advantage conferred upon a species capable of sensitive sound detection, it is not surprising that up to 1% of the approximately 30,000 or more human genes are necessary for hearing. There are hundreds of monogenic disorders for which hearing loss is one manifestation of a syndrome or the only disorder and therefore is nonsyndromic. Herein we review the supporting evidence for identifying over 30 genes for dominantly and recessively inherited, nonsyndromic, sensorineural deafness. The state of knowledge concerning their biological roles is discussed in the context of the controversies within an evolving understanding of the intricate molecular machinery of the inner ear.
Forensics and Mitochondrial DNA: Applications, Debates, and Foundations
Authors: Budowle Bruce , Allard Marc W. , Wilson Mark R. , Chakraborty Ranajit
Published: September 2003

Debate on the validity and reliability of scientific methods often arises in the courtroom. When the government (i.e., the prosecution) is the proponent of evidence, the defense is obliged to challenge its admissibility. Regardless, those who seek to use DNA typing methodologies to analyze forensic biological evidence have a responsibility to understand the technology and its applications so a proper foundation(s) for its use can be laid. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), an extranuclear genome, has certain features that make it desirable for forensics, namely, high copy number, lack of recombination, and matrilineal inheritance. mtDNA typing has become routine in forensic biology and is used to analyze old bones, teeth, hair shafts, and other biological samples where nuclear DNA content is low. To evaluate results obtained by sequencing the two hypervariable regions of the control region of the human mtDNA genome, one must consider the genetically related issues of nomenclature, reference population databases, heteroplasmy, paternal leakage, recombination, and, of course, interpretation of results. We describe the approaches, the impact some issues may have on interpretation of mtDNA analyses, and some issues raised in the courtroom.
Race, Ancestry, and Genes: Implications for Defining Disease Risk
Authors: Kittles Rick A. , Weiss Kenneth M.
Published: September 2003

Geneticists are interested in finding genes associated with disease. Because of widespread health disparities, race is a variable that is often said to be relevant in this context. The idea is that members of a preconceived “race” share common ancestry that may include genetic risk factors. Human variation has been shaped by the long-term processes of population history, and population samples that reflect that history carry statistical information about shared genetic variation or “ancestry.” But race is an elusive concept and a term difficult even to define rigorously. Unfortunately, these problems are neither new nor related to recent genetic knowledge. Race is also one of the most politically charged subjects in American life because its associated sociocultural component has notoriously led to categorical treatment that has been misleading and politically misused. There are ways in which the concept of race (whether or not the term is used) can be a legitimate tool in the search for disease-associated genes. But in that context race reflects deeply confounded cultural as well as biological factors, and a careful distinction must be made between race as a statistical risk factor and causal genetic variables.
Creationism and Intelligent Design
Authors: Pennock Robert T.
Published: September 2003

Creationism, the rejection of evolution in favor of supernatural design, comes in many varieties besides the common young-earth Genesis version. Creationist attacks on science education have been evolving in the last few years through the alliance of different varieties. Instead of calls to teach “creation science,” one now finds lobbying for “intelligent design” (ID). Guided by the Discovery Institute's “Wedge strategy,” the ID movement aims to overturn evolution and what it sees as a pernicious materialist worldview and to renew a theistic foundation to Western culture, in which human beings are recognized as being created in the image of God. Common ID arguments involving scientific naturalism, “irreducible complexity,” “complex specified information,” and “icons of evolution,” have been thoroughly examined and refuted. Nevertheless, from Kansas to Ohio to the U.S. Congress, ID continues lobbying to teach the controversy, and scientists need to be ready to defend good evolution education.
Enzyme Therapy for Lysosomal Storage Disease: Principles, Practice, and Prospects
Authors: Grabowski Gregory A. , Hopkin Robert J.
Published: September 2003

Over the past three decades, enzyme therapy for lysosomal storage diseases has moved from an academic pursuit to direct delivery of effective clinical care for affected patients and families. This success is based on understanding the complexities of lysosomal biogenesis, lysosomal hydrolase sorting and hydrolytic requirements, and the target sites of pathology of these diseases. This article reviews these concepts and their application to the treatment of affected patients with Gaucher disease, Fabry disease, and mucopolysaccharidosis I. The principles, progress, and practice in these diseases provide prototypes for expansion of enzyme therapy to a growing set of these diseases.
Peroxisome Biogenesis Disorders
Authors: Weller Sabine , Gould Stephen J. , Valle David
Published: September 2003

The peroxisome biogenesis disorders (PBDs) comprise 12 autosomal recessive complementation groups (CGs). The multisystem clinical phenotype varies widely in severity and results from disturbances in both development and metabolic homeostasis. Progress over the last several years has lead to identification of the genes responsible for all of these disorders and to a much improved understanding of the biogenesis and function of the peroxisome. Increasing availability of mouse models for these disorders offers hope for a better understanding of their pathophysiology and for development of therapies that might especially benefit patients at the milder end of the clinical phenotype.
The Genetics of Narcolepsy
Authors: Chabas Dorothée , Taheri Shahrad , Renier Corinne , Mignot Emmanuel
Published: September 2003

▪ Abstract  Human narcolepsy is a genetically complex disorder. Family studies indicate a 20–40 times increased risk of narcolepsy in first-degree relatives and twin studies suggest that nongenetic factors also play a role. The tight association between narcolepsy-cataplexy and the HLA allele DQB1*0602 suggests that narcolepsy has an autoimmune etiology. In recent years, extensive genetic studies in animals, using positional cloning in dogs and gene knockouts in mice, have identified abnormalities in hypothalamic hypocretin (orexin) neurotransmission as key to narcolepsy pathophysiology. Though most patients with narcolepsy-cataplexy are hypocretin deficient, mutations or polymorphisms in hypocretin-related genes are extremely rare. It is anticipated that susceptibility genes that are independent of HLA and impinge on the hypocretin neurotransmitter system are isolated in human narcolepsy.
The Inherited Basis of Diabetes Mellitus: Implications for the Genetic Analysis of Complex Traits
Authors: Florez Jose C. , Hirschhorn Joel , Altshuler David
Published: September 2003

Diabetes encompasses a heterogeneous group of diseases, each with a substantial genetic component. We review the division of diabetes into different subtypes based on clinical phenotype, the fruitful pursuit of genes underlying monogenic forms of the disease, the successes and drawbacks of whole-genome linkage scans in type 1 and type 2 diabetes, and the recent identification of several diabetes genes by large association studies. We use the lessons learned from this extensive body of evidence to illustrate general implications for the genetic analysis of complex traits.
Nonsyndromic Seizure Disorders: Epilepsy and the Use of the Internet to Advance Research
Authors: Leppert Mark F. , Singh Nanda A.
Published: September 2003

The progress in understanding the genetics of nonsyndromic epilepsy is the direct result of dramatic advances made by the Human Genome Project. The development of thousands of precisely mapped genetic markers and the nearly complete sequencing of the entire human genome in 2001 allowed genetic researchers in epilepsy to identify many loci and genes as causal in inherited idiopathic epilepsy. This substantial increase in information has required the development of accurate and online bioinformatic databases. Only the Internet can enable such large amounts of precise DNA sequence information to be transferred to researchers. Along with the construction of these databases has been the development of efficient search algorithms for specific DNA sequences and genetic information. This article summarizes the effect that this burst of new genomic information has had on research aimed at discovering the underlying genetic factors for nonsyndromic epilepsy. Many of the web sites important to epilepsy gene discovery are listed and discussed in this article, including sites with extensive information on genetic markers, genetic analysis, gene sequence, gene expression, gene mutations, and DNA sequence variation. Continued acquisition of information on naturally occurring DNA sequence variants will greatly help research directed towards understanding the genetic susceptibility of the common, nonsyndromic epilepsies and will lead to the promise of personalized medicine.
GIBBERELLA FROM A (VENACEAE) TO Z (EAE)
Authors: Desjardins Anne E.
Published: September 2003

▪ Abstract  Gibberella species are destructive plant pathogens, although many are more familiar under their Fusarium anamorph names. The recent synthesis of phylogenetic, biological, and morphological species approaches has revitalized taxonomy of a genus that was first described almost 200 years ago. Twelve sexual species of Gibberella of agricultural importance were selected for this review to represent phylogenetic, biological, and chemical diversity of the genus. Even closely related Gibberella species can differ in reproductive mode, geographic and host distribution, plant pathogenesis, and production of toxins and other biologically active metabolites. Gibberella species have proven amenable to meiotic and molecular genetic analysis; A complete genome sequence of G. zeae should soon be available. Combining gene disruption strategies with new genomics technologies for expression profiling should help plant pathologists to understand the pathological and evolutionary significance of biological and chemical diversity in Gibberella and to identify novel strategies for disease control.
LUTEOVIRUS-APHID INTERACTIONS
Authors: Gray Stewart , Gildow Frederick E.
Published: September 2003

▪ Abstract  Members of the Luteoviridae are transmitted by aphids in a circulative, nonpropagative manner that requires the virus to be acquired through gut tissue into the aphid hemocoel and then exit through salivary tissues. This process is aphid species-specific and involves specific recognition of the virus by unidentified components on the membranes of gut and salivary tissues. Transport through the tissues is an endocytosis/exocytosis process. Both structural proteins of the virus are involved in the transmission process, with multiple protein domains regulating the movement and survival of the virus in the aphid and plant. Here we review what is known about the genetic, cellular, and molecular mechanisms regulating these complex and specific virus-aphid interactions.
THE ECOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF BIOFILM FORMATION BY PLANT-ASSOCIATED BACTERIA
Authors: Morris Cindy E. , Monier Jean-Michel
Published: September 2003

▪ Abstract  Bacteria associated with plants have been observed frequently to form assemblages referred to as aggregates, microcolonies, symplasmata, or biofilms on leaves and on root surfaces and within intercellular spaces of plant tissues. In a wide range of habitats, biofilms are purported to be microniches of conditions markedly different from those of the ambient environment and drive microbial cells to effect functions not possible alone or outside of biofilms. This review constructs a portrait of how biofilms associated with leaves, roots and within intercellular spaces influence the ecology of the bacteria they harbor and the relationship of bacteria with plants. We also consider how biofilms may enhance airborne dissemination, ubiquity and diversification of plant-associated bacteria and may influence strategies for biological control of plant disease and for assuring food safety.

Trapped by a nexus, coordinates uncertain

Ever expanding or contracting

Cannibalistic and scavenging sorties

Excavations through signs of past alliances

Consensus signals sound revelry

Then time warped by viscosity

Genomes showing codependence

A virtual microbial beach party

With no curfew and no time-out

A few estranged cells seeking exit options,

Looking for another menagerie.

David Sands, Montana State University, Bozeman, February 2003
ADVANCES IN MOLECULAR-BASED DIAGNOSTICS IN MEETING CROP BIOSECURITY AND PHYTOSANITARY ISSUES
Authors: Schaad Norman W. , Frederick Reid. D. , Shaw Joe , Schneider William L. , Hickson Robert , Petrillo Michael D. , Luster Douglas G.
Published: September 2003

▪ Abstract  Awareness of crop biosecurity and phytosanitation has been heightened since 9/11 and the unresolved anthrax releases in October 2001. Crops are highly vulnerable to accidental or deliberate introductions of crop pathogens from outside U.S. borders. Strategic thinking about protection against deliberate or accidental release of a plant pathogen is an urgent priority. Rapid detection will be the key to success. This review summarizes recent progress in the development of rapid real-time PCR protocols and evaluates their effectiveness in a proposed nationwide network of diagnostic laboratories that will facilitate rapid diagnostics and improved communication.
DEVELOPMENT OF ALTERNATIVE STRATEGIES FOR MANAGEMENT OF SOILBORNE PATHOGENS CURRENTLY CONTROLLED WITH METHYL BROMIDE
Authors: Martin Frank N.
Published: September 2003

▪ Abstract  The current standard treatment for management of soilborne pests in some high-value crop production systems is preplant fumigation with mixtures of methyl bromide and chloropicrin. With the impending phase-out of methyl bromide, the agricultural industries that rely on soil fumigation face the need for development of alternative pest management strategies. To maintain farm productivity, immediate term research has focused on evaluation of alternative fumigants, modification of current crop production practices to accommodate their use, and improvement of application technologies to reduce the environmental effects of fumigant applications. Longer-term research goals have focused on developing a more integrated approach for pest management that incorporates the use of cultural practices to reduce pathogen pressure, host resistance to disease, and biological approaches for stimulating plant growth and control of root diseases.
PATTERNS OF PESTICIDE USE IN CALIFORNIA AND THE IMPLICATIONS FOR STRATEGIES FOR REDUCTION OF PESTICIDES
Authors: Epstein Lynn , Bassein Susan
Published: September 2003

▪ Abstract  We used the California Pesticide Use Reports to study use of fungicides, bactericides, fumigants, and selected insecticides, primarily for vegetable, fruit, and nut production in California from 1993 to 2000. There were no obvious trends in decreased use of most compounds used to treat plant disease. However, growers have rapidly adopted recently introduced “conventional” compounds. There is very limited use of microbial biocontrol agents to control plant disease and no indication of an increase. We used case studies to explore the potential of different strategies to reduce pesticide use or risk. There have been reductions in use of organophosphate insecticides, largely by substitution with pyrethroids. Theoretically, replacement of “calendar spray” pesticide programs with “environmentally driven” programs could reduce pesticide use in years with lower disease pressure, but this assumes that the majority of growers currently use a “calendar spray” program and that growers who use less than recommended by an environmentally driven program would not increase their use.
ECOLOGY AND EPIDEMIOLOGY OF BENYVIRUSES AND PLASMODIOPHORID VECTORS
Authors: Rush Charles M.
Published: September 2003

▪ Abstract  Beet necrotic yellow vein virus (BNYVV) and Beet soilborne mosaic virus (BSBMV) are members of the genus Benyvirus, and Burdock mottle virus (BdMV) is a tentative member. BNYVV and BSBMV are vectored by the plasmodiophorid Polymyxa betae, which has a worldwide distribution. Polymyxa betae is morphologically indistinguishable from P. graminis, but recent molecular studies support separation of the two species. The geographic distribution of BNYVV is also worldwide, but BSBMV has been identified only in the United States. In Europe and Japan, several genotypic strains of BNYVV have been identified, and those with a fifth RNA appear to be more aggressive. No thorough survey of genotypic variability of BNYVV or BSBMV has been conducted in the United States. However, both viruses are widespread and frequently found in the same field, infecting the same beet plant. The implications of this close proximity, with regard to disease incidence and severity, and for recombination, are uncertain. Recent technological advances that permit improved detection and quantification of these viruses and their vector offer tremendous research opportunities.
PARASITICNEMATODEINTERACTIONS WITHMAMMALS ANDPLANTS
Authors: Jasmer Douglas P. , Goverse Aska , Smant Geert
Published: September 2003

▪ Abstract  Parasitic nematodes that infect humans, animals, and plants cause serious diseases that are deleterious to human health and agricultural productivity. Chemical and biological control methods have reduced the impact of these parasites. However, surviving environmental stages lead to persistent reinfection of host species. In addition, development of resistance to nematicides and anthelmintics by these parasites and reduced availability of some nematicides, for environmental protection, pose significant obstacles for current and future prospects of effective parasite control. Due to marked differences in host species, research on animal and plant parasitic nematodes often proceeds independently. Despite the differences between animals and plants, basic cellular properties are shared among these host organisms. Some common properties may be important for mechanisms [homologous or convergent (homoplastic)] by which nematodes successfully infect these diverse hosts or by which animal and plant hosts resist infections by these pathogens. Here we compare host/parasite interactions between plant parasitic nematodes (PPN) and animal parasitic nematodes, with an emphasis on mammalian hosts (MPN). Similarities and differences are considered in the context of progress on molecular dissection of these interactions. A comprehensive coverage is not possible in the space allotted. Instead, an illustrative approach is used to establish examples that, it is hoped, exemplify the value of the comparative approach.
ESTABLISHMENT OF BIOTROPHY BY PARASITIC FUNGI AND REPROGRAMMING OF HOST CELLS FOR DISEASE RESISTANCE
Authors: Schulze-Lefert Paul , Panstruga Ralph
Published: September 2003

▪ Abstract  Parasitic biotrophs such as mildews and rusts evolved specific mechanisms that keep host cells alive during infection. These fungi appear to absorb nutrients mainly by proton-symport–driven transporter proteins that reside in specialized feeding structures. Accumulating evidence suggests that biotrophic fungi both suppress induction of plant defense responses in physical proximity to infection sites and induce specific host genes for the establishment of biotrophy. The peculiarities of biotrophic pathogenesis likely reflect diverse types of plant disease-resistance responses. The cloning of race-specific resistance genes to powdery mildew infection and of genes required for their function provides first insights into molecular mechanisms enabling the host to recognize mildew effector components and suggests candidate mechanisms of resistance signaling. Resistance to powdery mildew fungi that result from mutations in host genes promises to shed light on mechanisms that are required for the establishment of disease susceptibility.
MOLECULAR BASIS OF PTO-MEDIATED RESISTANCE TO BACTERIAL SPECK DISEASE IN TOMATO
Authors: Pedley Kerry F. , Martin Gregory B.
Published: September 2003

▪ Abstract  The Pto gene in tomato confers gene-for-gene resistance to Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato, the causative agent of bacterial speck disease. Pto was first introgressed from a wild species of tomato into cultivated tomato varieties over 60 years ago and is now widely used to control speck disease. Cloning of the Pto gene revealed that it encodes a cytoplasmically localized serine-threonine protein kinase. The molecular basis of gene-for-gene recognition in this pathosystem is the direct physical interaction of the Pto kinase with either of two Pseudomonas effector proteins, AvrPto and AvrPtoB. Upon recognition of AvrPto or AvrPtoB, the Pto kinase acts in concert with Prf, a leucine-rich repeat-containing protein, to activate multiple signal transduction pathways. There has been much progress in understanding the evolutionary origin of the Pto gene, structural details about how the Pto kinase interacts with AvrPto and AvrPtoB, signaling steps downstream of Pto, and defense responses activated by the Pto pathway. Future work on this model system will focus on how the interaction of the Pto kinase with bacterial effector proteins activates signal transduction, defining the specific role of signaling components, and ultimately, determining which host defense responses are most responsible for inhibiting growth of the pathogen and suppressing symptoms of bacterial speck disease.
THEPOTENTIAL OFOPTICALCANOPYMEASUREMENT FORTARGETEDCONTROL OFFIELDCROPDISEASES
Authors: West Jonathan S. , Bravo Cedric , Oberti Roberto , Lemaire Dimitri , Moshou Dimitrios , McCartney H. Alastair
Published: September 2003

▪ Abstract  There is increasing pressure to reduce the use of pesticides in modern crop production to decrease the environmental impact of current practice and to lower production costs. It is therefore imperative that sprays are only applied when and where needed. Since diseases in fields are frequently patchy, sprays may be applied unnecessarily to disease-free areas. Disease control could be more efficient if disease patches within fields could be identified and spray applied only to the infected areas. Recent developments in optical sensor technology have the potential to enable direct detection of foliar disease under field conditions. This review assesses recent developments in the use of optical methods for detecting foliar disease, evaluates the likely benefits of spatially selective disease control in field crops, and discusses practicalities and limitations of using optical disease detection systems for crop protection in precision pest management.
THETHREAT OFPLANTPATHOGENS ASWEAPONSAGAINSTU.S. CROPS
Authors: Madden L.V. , Wheelis M.
Published: September 2003

▪ Abstract  The U.S. National Research Council (NRC) concluded in 2002 that U.S. agriculture is vulnerable to attack and that the country has inadequate plans for dealing with agricultural bioterrorism. This article addresses the vulnerability of U.S. crops to attack from biological weapons by reviewing the costs and impact of plant diseases on crops, pointing out the difficulty in preventing deliberate introduction of pathogens and discovering new disease outbreaks quickly, and discussing why a plant pathogen might be chosen as a biological weapon. To put the threat into context, a brief historical review of anti-crop biological weapons programs is given. The argument is made that the country can become much better prepared to counter bioterrorism by developing a list of likely anti-crop threat agents, or categories of agents, that is based on a formal risk analysis; making structural changes to the plant protection system, such as expanding diagnostic laboratories, networking the laboratories in a national system, and educating first responders; and by increasing our understanding of the molecular biology and epidemiology of threat agents, which could lead to improved disease control, faster and more sensitive diagnostic methods, and predictions of disease invasion, persistence, and spread following pathogen introduction.
Covert Political Conflict in Organizations: Challenges from Below
Authors: Morrill Calvin , Zald Mayer N. , Rao Hayagreeva
Published: September 2003

▪ Abstract  This review considers a class of political activity that has largely been ignored by researchers extending social movement theory into organizations: covert political conflict. Although much of the literature we discuss focuses on contemporary corporations where the bulk of research on covert conflict has occurred, we also explore studies of covert conflict in a range of historical and organizational contexts that fall outside the contemporary work world. As we define it, covert political conflict encompasses four interrelated elements: contestation of institutionalized power and authority, perceptions of collective injury, social occlusion, and officially forbidden forms of dissent. Beyond these elements, covert conflict varies in its material and symbolic forms, collective dimensions, social visibility, and outcomes. We also examine explanatory approaches for covert conflict at the micro, organizational, field, and macro levels of analysis. Finally, we suggest a number of areas for future research on covert conflict that include developing theoretical frameworks across multiple levels of analysis, stronger linkages between organization theory and the study of covert conflict, strategies for measuring outcomes (including the emergence of overt political voice and organizational change), and new methods for empirical inquiry.
Transitions from Prison to Community: Understanding Individual Pathways
Authors: Visher Christy A. , Travis Jeremy
Published: September 2003

▪ Abstract  In 2002, over 600,000 individuals left state and federal prisons, four times as many as were released in 1975. However, according to a national study, within 3 years, almost 7 in 10 will have been rearrested and half will be back in prison, either for a new crime or for violating conditions of their release. Clearly, an individual's transition from prison back into a home and into a community is difficult, and avoiding crime can be the least of his or her problems. Understanding these pathways and the reasons for and the dimensions of an individual's success or failure is the focus of recent scholarly attention to the problem of “prisoner reentry,” the process of leaving prison and returning to free society. However, most of the existing research on prisoners' lives after release focuses solely on recidivism and ignores the reality that recidivism is directly affected by postprison reintegration and adjustment, which, in turn, depends on four sets of factors: personal and situational characteristics, including the individual's social environment of peers, family, community, and state-level policies. Moreover, individual transitions from prison to community are, we suggest, best understood in a longitudinal framework, taking into account an individual's circumstances before incarceration, experiences during incarceration, and the period after release—both the immediate experience and long-term situational circumstances. This review summarizes what we know about the four specified dimensions and how they affect an individual's transition from prison to community. The review concludes with a call to the research community for interdisciplinary, multilevel, longitudinal studies of the processes of reintegration for former prisoners. Such research may illuminate many dimensions of social life, including the effects of recent social policies.
Welfare-State Regress in Western Europe: Politics, Institutions, Globalization, and Europeanization
Authors: Korpi Walter
Published: September 2003

▪ Abstract  The “new-politics” perspective derives welfare state retrenchment from postindustrial changes generating budget deficits and government attempts to benefit cuts, attempts largely resisted by powerful new groups of welfare-state clients. Comparative studies based on social expenditures show little or no role of class-based parties in the retrenchment process. In the power-resources perspective, focusing on the role of distributive conflicts between major interest groups, the post-war European welfare state included full employment in the “Keynesian welfare state,” based on a social contract markedly differing from the one in the United States. The return of mass unemployment in Europe constitutes a major welfare state regress and generates government budget deficits. Analyses based on social citizenship rights indicate major retrenchment in some countries, with political parties and welfare state institutions playing significant roles. The return of mass unemployment and cuts in social rights appear as a reworking of the European postwar social contract.
The Dynamics of Racial Residential Segregation
Authors: Charles Camille Zubrinsky
Published: September 2003

▪ Abstract  The publication of American Apartheid ( Massey & Denton 1993 ) was influential in shifting public discourse back toward racial residential segregation as fundamental to persisting racial inequality. At the end of the twentieth century, the majority of blacks remained severely segregated from whites in major metropolitan areas. Due to the persistence of high-volume immigration, Hispanic and Asian segregation from whites has increased, although it is still best characterized as moderate. This review examines trends in the residential segregation of blacks, Hispanics, and Asians and recent research focused on understanding the causes of persisting segregation. This discussion is organized around two broad theoretical perspectives—spatial assimilation and place stratification. After detailing the consequences of segregation for affected groups, I identify gaps in our understanding and goals for future research.
Racial Measurement in the American Census: Past Practices and Implications for the Future
Authors: Snipp C. Matthew
Published: September 2003

▪ Abstract  In 1977, the federal Office of Management and Budget (OMB) established an official classification standard for the measurement of race in the American population. In so doing, the OMB authorities created what amounted to a racial cosmology that spread throughout American society, affecting public perceptions about the racial hierarchy of American society. In 1997, the OMB issued a revised version of this classification in which small changes may profoundly affect the way policymakers and the American public think about race. At the very least, these revisions present significant challenges to social scientists who study race and ethnicity. This review begins with a brief historical overview of racial data collected by the federal government. It subsequently examines the circumstances leading up to the 1997 revisions of OMB Directive No. 15 and discusses how these revisions may affect social scientific research on the subject of race and ethnicity.
The African American “Great Migration” and Beyond
Authors: Tolnay Stewart E.
Published: September 2003

▪ Abstract  During the twentieth century, African Americans participated in one of the most significant demographic events in U.S. history. Their “Great Migration” from the South to the North contributed to profound social, economic, demographic, and cultural changes in northern cities. After the Great Migration, blacks continued to move in search of opportunity as some returned to the South, while others moved to suburbs or better neighborhoods within the North. My review focuses on the Great Migration by discussing research that has examined its causes, the characteristics of the participants, the adaptation of migrants to northern society, and their impact on northern cities. I also briefly review research on return migration to the South and residential mobility by African Americans. Finally, I identify key issues and discuss possible data sources for future research.
The Potential Relevances of Biology to Social Inquiry
Authors: Freese Jeremy , Li Jui-Chung Allen , Wade Lisa D.
Published: September 2003

▪ Abstract  Sociologists often react with hostility to explanations that evoke biology, and some critics of the discipline contend that this “biophobia” undermines the credibility of sociology and makes it seem increasingly irrelevant in larger public debates. The negative reactions are many times diffuse and undiscerning of the different endeavors lumped together whenever one speaks broadly of biological (or “biosocial”) explanations. We seek to introduce greater awareness of these distinctions with a review organized in terms of some of the distinct ways that the biological can be asserted to be relevant to the conduct of social inquiry. The review has three sections. First, we discuss assertions of the relevance of the human evolutionary past for understanding the character of human nature, for which evolutionary psychology currently receives the most attention. Second, we consider the work of behavioral genetics and the assertion of the relevance of genetic differences between persons for understanding differences in behaviors and outcomes. Third, we consider assertions of the relevance of particular proximate bioindicators for understanding how the biological and social interact, focusing particularly on studies of testosterone and the prospects of developments in neuroscientific measurement. We do not believe that developments in these fields will force sociologists to acquire considerable biological expertise to pursue questions central to the discipline, but we do advocate further efforts from biologically minded sociologists to articulate understandings of the relationship between sociology and biology that will continue to push us past the commonplace view that biological and sociological explanations are inevitably opposed.
The Intersection of Gender and Race in the Labor Market
Authors: Browne Irene , Misra Joya
Published: September 2003

▪ Abstract  This review investigates scholarship on the intersection of race and gender, with a particular focus on the U.S. labor market. We ask the following questions: What assumptions underlie intersectional perspectives in sociology? Is there any evidence to demonstrate that race and gender intersect in the labor market? We begin by discussing the core assumptions within Black and multiracial feminist theories, which represent the most fully articulated treatments of “intersectionality.” We then broaden our theoretical overview by identifying fundamental differences in the way that sociologists conceptualize intersectionality. We look for evidence of intersectionality in three central domains of research on labor market inequality: (a) wage inequality, (b) discrimination and stereotyping, and (c) immigration and domestic labor. We find that race and gender do intersect in the labor market under certain conditions. Finally, we consider how an intersectional approach enriches labor market research and theorizing about economic inequality.
Racial and Ethnic Stratification in Educational Achievement and Attainment
Authors: Kao Grace , Thompson Jennifer S.
Published: September 2003

▪ Abstract  Understanding racial, ethnic, and immigrant variation in educational achievement and attainment is more important than ever as the U.S. population becomes increasingly diverse. The Census Bureau estimates that in 2000, 34% of all youth aged 15–19 were from minority groups; it estimates that by 2025, this will increase to 46% ( U.S. Census Bureau 2000 ). In addition, approximately one in five school-age children reside in an immigrant family ( Zhou 1997 , Suarez-Orozco & Suarez-Orozco 2001 ). We provide an overview of recent empirical research on racial, ethnic, and immigrant differences in educational achievement and attainment, and we examine some current theories that attempt to explain these differences. We explore group differences in grades, test scores, course taking, and tracking, especially throughout secondary schooling, and then discuss variation in high school completion, transitions to college, and college completion. We also summarize key theoretical explanations used to explain persistent differences net of variation in socioeconomic status, which focus on family and cultural beliefs that stem from minority group and class experiences. Overall, there are many signs of optimism. Racial and ethnic gaps in educational achievement and attainment have narrowed over the past three decades by every measure available to social scientists. Educational aspirations are universally high for all racial and ethnic groups as most adolescents expect to go to college. However, substantial gaps remain, especially between less advantaged groups such as African Americans, Hispanics, and Native Americans and more advantaged groups such as whites and Asian Americans. The racial and ethnic hierarchy in educational achievement is apparent across varying measures of the academic experience.
Cognitive Skills and Noncognitive Traits and Behaviors in Stratification Processes
Authors: Farkas George
Published: September 2003

▪ Abstract  I review studies of the roles played by cognitive skills and noncognitive traits and behaviors in stratification processes. Bowles & Gintis (1976) were among the first to argue that noncognitive traits and behaviors are more important than cognitive skills in determining schooling and employment outcomes. Now, 25 years later, these authors ( Bowles & Gintis 2002 ) claim that the ensuing literature vindicates their position. There is much evidence for this claim, although it remains unresolved. I locate their discussion within the larger literature that has appeared during this time period. This literature provides an emerging interdisciplinary paradigm for the study of socioeconomic attainment, including differentials by social class, race, and ethnic background.
Skills Mismatch in the Labor Market
Authors: Handel Michael J.
Published: September 2003

▪ Abstract  Researchers across a wide range of fields, policy makers, and large segments of the public believe that the work-related skills of the labor force do not match the requirements of jobs and that this explains a large part of the growth of wage inequality in the United States in the past 20 years. Opinions are divided on whether the trend is driven by workforce developments, such as an absolute decline or declining growth of human capital due to changes in educational attainment or test scores, or employer-side changes, such as accelerating growth of job skill requirements due to the spread of computers and employee involvement techniques. Some believe the problem has grown worse over time. However, the evidence is often more ambiguous and fragmentary than recognized, and the argument overlooks the roles of institutional changes and management's policies toward labor in workers' changing fortunes. Evidence suggests that the growth in educational attainment has decelerated, cognitive skill levels have remained stable, and job skill requirements have gradually increased, but a large portion of employer dissatisfaction relates to effort levels and work attitudes of young people that may represent transitory, life-cycle effects. There is little information on whether job demands are actually exceeding workers' capacities. The absence of a standardized, up-to-date method of collecting information on the actual skill content of jobs is a significant obstacle to answering this question with confidence.
Day Labor Work
Authors: Valenzuela Abel
Published: September 2003

▪ Abstract  Day labor, the practice of searching for work in open-air, informal markets such as street corners or in formal temp agencies, has become an increasingly visible and important means of securing employment for a broad segment of immigrant, primarily male, displaced workers. Our understanding of day labor has been limited by regionally focused or city-based case studies, poorly constructed methodological approaches, inconsistent definitions, and little comparative research. This review discusses the emerging research on day labor, paying particular attention to the practice of day labor, including the market's origins, its contemporary development, and its hiring and wage practices. The review also provides a synopsis of informal, open-air and formal temp agency day labor practices, their spatial and organizational configurations, and an outline of the legal issues and public policies that structure, to a large degree, worker and employer relations in this industry. The review emphasizes the multidisciplinary nature of contributions to the topic, including research by sociologists, anthropologists, and urban studies. Areas for future research are suggested.
Relationships in Adolescence
Authors: Giordano Peggy C.
Published: September 2003

▪ Abstract  In this chapter I review recent research on the nature, meaning, and impact of extrafamilial relationships during adolescence. I use findings of quantitative and qualitative studies to develop the idea that close friendships, wider networks of peers, and romantic relationships have distinct meanings and significance for the developing adolescent. Sociologists' work inevitably focuses attention on the ways in which the adolescent's social addresses and locations (gender, race, social class) influence many aspects of these early relationships. The review also highlights some limitations of the dominant perspective on adolescent relationships, attachment theory, and provides suggestions for future research (particularly in the area of romantic relationships, where the literature is growing but still relatively undeveloped).
The Economic Sociology of Conventions: Habit, Custom, Practice, and Routine in Market Order
Authors: Biggart Nicole Woolsey , Beamish Thomas D.
Published: September 2003

▪ Abstract  Economic sociology and economics have tried to explain the organization and stability of market capitalism mostly by arguing for the effects of social structure on the patterning of relations, or for the role of the price system in balancing the demands of individual economic actors. In North America, the primary alternative to structural and individualist theories of market order has been network theory, a meso-level attempt to bridge over- and undersocialized views of actors. In Europe, the primary attempt to develop more realistic economics has centered on the role of conventions in shaping economic activity. We describe theories of market order, show how convention theory and related approaches represent a novel alternative, and suggest how convention theory can supplement network theory and institutional approaches to understanding market order.
The Sociology of the Self
Authors: Callero Peter L.
Published: September 2003

▪ Abstract  An emerging sociological approach to the self reflects new emphases on power, reflexivity, and social constructionism. The significance of power in shaping the self is central to a new scholarship associated with Foucault. This body of work offers an important corrective to traditional sociological orientations associated with Mead and symbolic interactionism. The principle of reflexivity is at the core of the Meadian tradition and provides a pragmatic foundation for understanding agency and political action missing from much of the new scholarship. The principle of social construction is common to both new and traditional sociological approaches to the self and guides most recent empirical analyses. Promising avenues of research are evident in work that explores the sociological context of self-construction, the social resources employed in the construction process, and the growing importance of nonhuman objects in self-construction. The limitation of scholarship that overemphasizes the psychological products of self-construction is also examined.
The Changing Picture of Max Weber's Sociology
Authors: Swedberg Richard
Published: September 2003

▪ Abstract  Over the years the secondary literature on Max Weber's sociology has grown enormously, and it is time to raise the following question: Is the picture of his sociology the same today as it was yesterday? In this review I argue that the traditional picture of Weber's sociology has begun to change and that one important factor in this change has to do with the perception of the role that the theme of the economy plays in Weber's life and work. Special attention has recently been paid to Weber's relationship to economics, his economic sociology, and the fact that Weber came from a background of wealthy merchants that he strongly identified with. Several new topics in Weber's sociology are explored that are related to the changing picture of his work. Special attention is also paid to interpretations of Weber that draw on rational choice sociology and an interest-based type of analysis.